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 Ce deeument eat fiim^ au taux de r<duetlen Indiqu4 ei'dataev 
 
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Th« copy film«d h«r« hu b««n r«produc»d thanka 
 to th« 9«n«ro»ity of: 
 
 National Library of Canada 
 
 L'«x«mpl«ir« film* fut roproduit graco k t« 
 ginirositA do: 
 
 Bibliothequo nationals du Canada 
 
 Th« imago* appoaring horo aro iho »»o.t qual.tv 
 poMiblo coniidoring iho condition ard logibility 
 of tho original copy and in kaoping ¥¥ith tho 
 filming contract •pacification*. 
 
 One.nal copia* in prmtad papar covar. ar. fllmad 
 t>.o.nning with th. front covar and •"<<";a o" 
 th. last paga v..th a pr.ni.d or .llu.traiad impraa- 
 s.on. or tha back covar wh.n ■PP'«»P"*»" *"' .. 
 othar original copia. ara filmad bag.nning on tha 
 first paga vi^ith a printad or illu.tratad impraa- 
 
 or illwatratad impr»a»ion. 
 
 Tha last racordad frama on aach microficha 
 shall contain tha symool — - «'"••'""■ ^S?.?," 
 TINUEO'l. or tha symbol V Imaaning ENO I. 
 whichavor applias. 
 
 Mapa. Plata*, charts, ate. may ba ♦••"»•<'•« 
 SiSrint raduction ratio. fha»a too larga to ba 
 antiroly includad in ona a.posura ara filmad 
 ;.g.nn!ng in tha uppar l.ft hand c-'H-'J-;' « 
 right and top to bottom, a. many •^•; " 
 raquirad. Tha following diagrams illustrata tha 
 
 mathod: 
 
 Las imaga* suivantas ont ota raproduitat avac la 
 plus grand soin. compt* tonu da la condition at 
 da la nattat* da Taaamplaira filma. at mn 
 conforiftito avac loa conditions du eontrat da 
 filmaga. 
 
 Las aaamplaira* originaux dont la couvanura an 
 papiar a*t imprimaa »ont filmas an commancant 
 par la pramiar plat at an tarminant soit par la 
 darniAra paga qui compona una amprainta 
 d'imprassion ou d'illustration. soit par la sacond 
 plat, salon la cas. Toua las autras axamplairas 
 originaux sont film** an commancant par la 
 pramiAra paga qui comporta una amprainta 
 d'impraasion ou d'illustration at an tarntinant par 
 la darnidro pago qui comporta una talla 
 •mproioM. 
 
 Un doa symbola* suivants apparaitra sur la 
 darnidra imaga do chaqua '"'C'<»«'f.';« *•'»" '• 
 cas: la symbola -^ signifia "A SUIVRE . la 
 symbolo ▼ aignifio "FIN". 
 
 Las carta*, planchas. tablaaua. ate. pauvant atra 
 film** d do* uua do rdduction diffarants. 
 Lorsquo Id documont oat trop grand pour atra 
 raprodutt an un soul elich*. il act filma « partir 
 da I'angla aupdriaur gaucha. da gaucha a aroita. 
 •t da haut an baa. an pranant la nomora 
 d'imagaa noca**aira. La* diagrammaa suivants 
 Ulustront la mdthoda. 
 
ETHM0L06ICAL 
 MAP or MODERN EUROPE 
 PSKAHYAX PEOPLES 
 
 BASVUCS I I 
 
 AKVAJr PEORLKS 
 
 CELT* Pgij 
 
 ruMCH LZjjwmiARos dj 
 
 WHITUaHsr f" [ ITALIANS f 
 HAETIAN - - , 
 rouMA H80W>LAC)lS - - p=J 
 
 ALBANIANS - 
 
 GERMANIC BRANCH 
 CCRU/VMS- - 
 
 SCANDINAVIAN3- 
 AN6LOSAX0NS ' 
 
 SLAVIC BRANCH 
 [GREAT HUSSIANS 
 I \LITTLC RUSSIANS 
 WHITE iruSSlANS 
 rOLES 
 ^CZeCK5,SL0VAKSANC Wt>4DS 
 fbULGANIANS 
 3 (SERVIANS Ere. 
 ^SL0VINC» 
 
HISTORY 
 FOR READY REFERENCE 
 
 FROM THE BEST 
 mSTORlANS. BIOGRAPHERS, AND SPECIAUSTS 
 
 TinaB OWN WOBDS IN A COMPLETE 
 
 SYSTEM OF HISTORY 
 
 FOB ALL USES, EXTENDING TO ALL C0UNTEIE8 AND SUBJECTS 
 
 AND BEPBESENTINO FOB BOTH BEADI^S AND STUDENTS THE BE^^ ^ 
 
 NEWEB LITEEATUBE OF HISTOBY IN THE 
 
 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 
 
 BT 
 
 J. N. LARNED 
 
 WITH KUMEB0U8 HISTORICAL MAPS FROM ORIGINAL STUDIES AND DRAWINGS BT 
 
 ALAN C. REILEY 
 SBVISBD AND ENLARGED EDITION 
 v-llN VOLUMES 
 
 VOLUME I— A TO ELECTORS 
 
 SPBINOPIELD, MASS. 
 
 THE C. A. NICHOLS CO, PUBLISHERS 
 
D^ 
 
 L3-f 
 
 n .^ 
 
 ^di 
 
 1 
 
 CsmuKT, 1893, 
 BY J. X. LARXEIi. 
 
 Copnuonr. lOfil, 
 Br J. K. LARKED. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE . MASSACHUSETTS 
 L' . S ■ A 
 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 
 
 ^ S^nr^.;t":rXtt^Zr::^'::ZI'^^^^^^^^ HberaHt^o. author, ana 
 
 know proper to make t^e.ci^o^lX^: Z^Zttc T^""' T"^ In thia work. I think 
 hou«,. to Whom I am in debt for such 'kind peZsi':: TheyTaf ml^""" "' P"'"^'"* 
 
 e.- Be,aut, Prof. Alher- S. Boll«; Juhu ti. Bou^l .„t fT?. Hen^ Bi»,,r"' vVT **' ''• ^^- "'"J*'"!"^ Sir Wal- 
 1.. D. , Daulel G. Brlnton, M. D. : ITot. William S Browne ProTV^^^ i" •'■ ^- ' ""■ •'"°«» F™""" Bright, 
 l-rot J. B. Bury; Mr. Luci,;n Carr; Uea HtuliKcZ^^Z, Mr ? > "." '^'J'*' *''• '""'• •'«'"" B^™. MP-. 
 Coffln, Hon. Thomas -M.Cooley; Prof. He7r??oppie . Ref s, oeorl^f W *" '^'^"''» •^••'""'>» 
 
 Mrs. Cox (for -Three Decades of Federal Legislation" by the late 73 s^' f' •"*"■' «™- J''™'- 1>''1»<'" C".x; 
 Kt Bev Mandell Crelghton. Bishop of Petefb,,?, u°h- UoTjlIIc^T'''J *• V."'' ''■■"'• T"<"^» F.Cra,,., 
 K.,l>ert K. Douglas; J. A. Doyle, M. A., Mr. Siuiue Adan., Ihakp 1 m '•.*^"''^' '^'''^"'" ''"""i '■""■ 
 Charles Gavan Duffy; Mr. Claries Henry Eden r.MHenrX,herh^.^i pi I" ^- '^'■'""-1'"''^ Hon. Sir 
 
 L..yallFarragut; The Ven. Fruderlc Wl^am Farr r Se^cofof wlf-^^^'' ' ^"'" '^""' *:'"""• '""• »' Mr. 
 J.bn Fiske; Mr. W„l E. Foster; William Ward^Fowtl " ProT^^,"" P'"' 
 
 thonyFroude; Mr. James Gairdner ; Arthur GilmaMMT Mr p'.rk. Jf.^ I, freeman; Pro?. James Au- 
 t..ry of the Campaigns of the Army „J Va. und^Gen Pm. - M^ht i»,!^""' V""' ^'^ ''• '""•'"'" "" •"' " Hl»- 
 Barn,g.GouW ; Mr. UIyss*s S. Grant, Jr. (for the ' Conai Tien , .rs ', , th.'^'l'- ?.*""^' "' ''"'•"""> ^ «"• **"'""» 
 Gr.^,. (for her own writings and for those of the Tt^j^u r I.pI, '"'^ w'-,,?"''''*' "rs. J.,hn Richard 
 Arllnir Griffiths; Frederic Harrison. M. A. , Prof iihert B.istlf H ^^ « f.V, i ^^""""' «'-"»ell, M. B. ; ^U]. 
 worth HlKglnson ; Prof. B. A. Hlnsdile; M sf M„Karet I h'kii^^^^ ^r,l •'"■■."""""" "™""' • ^ol. Thomas Weni 
 Kev. Robert F. Norton ; Prof. James K Uosnfer o 1 r e,^ m H , r""','?? "' "'« ""'^ "'• «''"'-ee Hooper) i 
 H..nter; Prof. Edn.und .lames; Mr. Kossl,erj;h u..^" ^r John F,?, J, r^ t:""'."'"'*^ Sir William WUsou 
 KItehin, Dean of Winchester; Col Thos W Knox Mr' t« . ,'" '''''''• ^'"^ ^"'^^^ ""• '-^W Wiiliair 
 
 U.. D.. D. c. I..; Mrs. Marg;,r;t Levi (f^r .lie "Hls't.^-f t^i'^c" """• '^""""' '"■"'•'""■ ^■'"'•■"" *^ «. Lecky, 
 (l..,.lton T. Lewis; The Very Rev Henry Oe«rJeI?p,?>i,i ^^.''T"' ''' ""' ""« l>r. Leone Levi); Prof 
 l..".,e; Prof. Kictard L.^ge Rev. W J Tome \,rs M. ' s L.'n^rf'-rT "iT^ '^^""'' """■ "-'O Cabot 
 til,- late Gen. A. L. Long); Mrs. Helen Loss m i , r i.'l ,2 . ". "^"^ "'" ^"^ "' '^^""''^ «'>''>•" K. Lee," by 
 
 M. -v.; Charles P. Luc;.s:b. a ; Jus M McCarthy m r,,'"!-", , ,!", '''''%"''""' J- l-''i»«)i Charles Lo«e. 
 
 Prof, .fobn P. Sfahaffy; Capt. Alfred T. Mahan' I sv c'',, "' I ^V*,*""' """• •="""" M'-l'""son ; 
 F. R. S. : Prof. David Masson ; The Very Rev ( hkri;, Me-iv "e n. ^ «•"»"""» • Sir Clements R. Marklan,. 
 J. G. Cotton Min.hln; William K. .Morm, Mi-RHofo mMi. x, ^"■;,»^'-"/ •'""n Henry Middle,,,,,: Mr 
 H.iir; M,. Harold MnrUock; Rev. Arthm- Ho»ari Noll.' MUs K *v •'^•' '""•■'""" ^- ^'I""- J^-i SirWilli.n, 
 C. Palfrey (for "History of New England" "r he L J h„'''^orh»™*'p',V'-- T'SJ'""""' ''•^' »"■ J-"»' 
 t.l«;,r,l James Payne, M. A. ; Charles Henry Pear,,,,, m T ?ir , Pa«rey)i Francis Parkmt,u, LL. D.; 
 
 (fur the "History Of Tennessee," by the bte Jane" " "' V" ' , ""'" ^-'''^'' ^"'""'' *'"• ^'"^ "^^ J-"-""' 
 Mr. Staule. .«.Po.„. ; willia,^, F. Pol LL DM \^ t ^^'H^'J- ^"'"^ ' '*'=^"'»'"' '^ P"<"*- Pl^- « ■ 
 
 Kidpath; H.. .Ills H. Roberts; H^rT .eLre'l^ s «. ^-J^" ;,«■■• J""" W. Probyn, Prof. John Clark 
 
 Joslah Royce; ilev. Philip Sehaff; James sSer,, ^i' r "^ •^'l:'""" """*" "'• "' «'"'«■ M- A.; Prof. 
 
 J. U. Seeley; Prof. Nathm.iel iSouthg^e Siller Mr ^lw»r .m ^'":', '*'^'"'" ^ Mr. Eben Greenough Scott; Sir 
 sonal Memoirs- of the late Gen. Sheridan ".Mr' P T She^a, for",f "M ' ?'• "• ^^ St^'-'an (for the " Per. 
 Sa,unel S.niles, LL. D. ; Prof. GoldWn Smith Prof jLesX,e, SoiL^ J Tf" , "' "'* '*'" "'"''• »"""»"" ^ 
 M. A.; Prof. H.Morse Stephens; Mr. Simon Stern^ Ctar ef^s ,lf/ir n \m^ "^'"^ *">''"'"'• 
 
 StiiW.s, Bishop of Oxford; Prof William Cr«i,.„!'« ;. C;'"^"' Sir John Strachey; Rt. Rev William 
 
 Th;.yer; Prof. Robert H Thurs J 'wr To WhtfT iTmaH? / ^^T'"' ''''"""•'^ ^"- ^^■""»»> K""'-^ 
 
 ai.d; Mr. B..yard Tuckerman; Samuel Ews^urner Ph n' » ',".^"7 "' ^""'' "• '^^ ''•■ ««"• «• "' Trobri. 
 
 .ustin wmsor. LL. a, BevVd^rl^ek^cr'SlSL^rS' .^i^v^rZu^^^^ ^^!:'c^^T^^-^"^^^^ 
 
 A.^'^.lT4k?JZi7/c;^;Xpm?„\^^^i'.t-,^^^^ 
 
 f^rran* Co.; W. Helnema^n; ISd^r /s iug^tlt Jnt^^^^^^^^ H. Grevel * Co.Torf^'h,' 
 
 M.iemillan*Co.; Methuen Jt Co.; John Murrav johw- v IT" * *^°' Sampson L„w, .Marston Jt r„ 
 
 milp*8on;TheKellgi„u.TractlS;lVTmMg^*SonsT^^^^ ''"■•. f"-"-''' T'"''"" * Ca,°Oe, r^e 
 
 l-roraotlon of Christian Knowledge ; EdwMd Stanford sn-ve;. t h ^ ' ^"""'' *^'"" * ^o. ; Society fur the 
 
 Cmra^rn^a;:,* ^- ^^^-^ - -^^^^'^^'^o:^^2P:-^^^^ -f 
 
JWnfewpk: Xaon. WUUun Blaekweod * Boa*; W. A R. Cbamban; SkvliI OoafUi; Tbotnat NtlioB * (eu; W. 
 P. Rtnuno: Rmj A MUcbdl: Tha Boottiib Baformatloa Bodetj. 
 
 /MiiKU^Md; Mean. L.H.BT«rU A Co.; J. B. Upplncott Oompuj; OldadiikOo.; Farter ACoMM. 
 Sortoit: Hfmn-fUaA Lwutot; Houchton, Miffllii * Co.; UtUe, Brown ft Ca: D.UthropOcopuri Vobwtt 
 
 DHtUa: ttan-JuMsDuajpftOo.; Hoil«M,FlntoftCo.:J. J. Liriar. 
 
 Chicago ; MaMr*. OUaf'UiB ft Oo. ; A. C. Mcaurg ft Co. 
 
 CTncinnoH ; Mtara. Bobeit Clwka ft Oo. ; Jonn Brothcn FubUiUnc Co. 
 
 Hart/ord, Conn. ; MeHn. O. D. Cu» ft Co. ; 8. 8. Scrutoo ft Oo. 
 
 Albany: Mms*. Joel Mnnwll't 8oai. 
 
 Camliridgt. tng.: The Unlienitjr Frees. 
 
 Saraich, Conn.: Tbe Heorj Bill PttbUehlBt Oo. 
 
 Ox/ord ; The Clarendoa Preee. 
 
 Providnet, K. I.: Meeera. J. A. ft R. A. ReM. 
 
 A lilt of bx)ka <^<ioted from will be given in the final Tolume. 
 
 I am greatly indebted to the remarkable kindnes* of a number of eminent hI«torical gcholan, 
 who have critically examined the proof aheeU of important article! and improved them by their 
 suggestion* My debt to Kls* Ellen M. Chandler, for aaristance given me in many way*, it 
 more than I can describe. 
 
 In my publishing arrangements I have been most fortunate, and I owe the good fortune very 
 largely to a number of friends, among whom it is just that I should aame Mr. Henry A. Richmond, 
 Mr. George E. Matthews, and Mr. John O. Mllbum. ' There i» no feature of these arrangement* lo 
 satisfactory to me as that which places the publication of my book in the hand* of the Company of 
 wuich Mr Charles A. Nichols, of Springfield, Massachusetts, is the head. 
 
 I think nyself fortunate, too, in the association of my work with that of Mr. Alan 0. Relley, 
 from whose original studies and drawing* the greater part of the historical map* In these volume* 
 have been produced. 
 
 J. N. Labhbd. 
 
LIST OF MAPS AND PLANS. 
 
 Ethnocnphle map of Modem Enrope, o_ 
 
 Mip of American Dtacoveiy and Settlement "seeding the title page. 
 
 Man of Athena, and Harboti of Athena To follow page 53 
 
 Plan of Athenian home ^° P"8e 158 
 
 Four deTelopment mape of Austria On page 169 
 
 Ethnographic map of Auatria-Hungary To follow page 808 
 
 Four derelopment map. of Aria Minor indiheBalkinPe^uk. t„Vi.^°'***^ 
 
 '1^^ "' ^.•""" ''^' ^^^tt^, th; p«em "" ''"' "*' 
 
 Map of Bur^dyuiider Charles' the Bold ;> ■. „^° P'«* *" 
 
 D.TeIopmentmap.howi„gthedah„ionofChri.^t,. i l ; ; L^Sr^'f:!:* 
 
 "•^^^'^^^ OUTLINES, IN COLORS 
 
 Athenian and Oieek Uitorj w%,w«a. 
 
 Auitrlan falttoij, To follow page lo; 
 
 To follow page 305 
 
HISTOEY FOR EEADT EEFEEENCE. 
 
 A, C. Aat* Chrittnin; used sometimes 
 instead of the more familiar abbreviation, B. C 
 —Before Christ. 
 
 A. D. Anno Domini ; The Tear of Our Lord. 
 SeeEsA, Chbistian. 
 
 A. E. I. O. U.— "The famous device of Aus- 
 tria, A. E. L 0. U., was flrat used by Frederic 
 IIL [1440-1493], who adopted it on hU plate, 
 books, and buildings. These Initials stand for 
 'Austriae Est Impenre Orbl Unlverso'; or, in 
 German, 'Alles Erdreich Ist Osterreich Unter- 
 tlian': » bold assumption for a man who was not 
 Me In an inch of Ills dominions."— H. Hallam. 
 Th4 MidMt Aget, «. 9, p. 80, foot-note, 
 
 A. H. Anno Hejira. 8ce Eba, Haboks- 
 TAH. 
 
 A. M. "Anno Mnndl;" the Tear of the 
 World, or the year from the beginning of the 
 wcwld, according to the formerly accepted chro- 
 nologieal reckoning of ArchbUhop Usher and 
 others. 
 
 A. U. C., OR U. C. "Ab nrbe condlta," 
 
 from the founding of the city; or "Anno urbis 
 
 ComliUB," the year from the founding of the 
 
 cut; the Year of Home. 8ceRoiCE:B. C. 753. 
 
 AACHEN. See Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 
 ABiC. Oracle of. See Oraclei of tri 
 
 OUEKB. 
 
 ABBAS I. fc^ed TTie Crwit), Shall of Per- 
 •iai A. D. 1583-1827.... Abbas II.. A D 
 
 ABBASSIDES, The rise, decline and fall of 
 the. 8ce Mahombtak CoKoresT, 4c, : A. D 
 715-750; 788; and 815-945; also Bagdad: A. X). 
 1258. 
 
 ABBBT.-ABBOT.-ABBESS. See Mow- 
 Amur. 
 
 ABD-BL-KADBR. The War of tli« 
 
 French in Algiers with. See BARnABT Statm: 
 A. D. 1830-1 ir46. 
 
 ABDICATIONS. Alexander, Prince of 
 Bulgaria. 8eo BiLOAniA: A. 1). 1878-1888. 
 
 Amadeo of Spain. See Wpais; A, D 
 
 188^1873 Charles IV. and Ferdinand VII. 
 
 of Spain. See Spaiw: A. D. 18.)7-1803 
 Charles V. EmpAror. See Oeiimany; A D. 
 1852-1581, and Netiikrlanus: A. D. ISS.! 
 T^V'*fo.'5*.'""« •' France. See FnA.Nci": 
 A. I). 18t.V1880 . . .Charlee Albert. King of 
 Sardinia. See iTttr; A. D. lti4H-1840 
 
 1883-1848... ^rhriatiniTQueen of Sweden: 
 S?i ^Si?"'"*!'*^ States (SwKnBN): A. U. 
 
 i"fr'S?T Dloeletlan. Emperor. ^ Row. 
 
 A. I). 284-805 . Perdinand, Kperof of W 
 trie. See Avutria . A. D. f«48-lsf49 
 Louis Bonapirte, King of Holland. »«i 
 
 ^KTMK.(I.A.M..; A. 1>. IW.8-l(.l.. . . . LoUiS 
 Ml. ft. ^''•' *»*"',"; A. 1). ISU-IIWS 
 
 Milan, King of Serria. Mcc Hfrvja \ l> 
 lUSXISW. Napoleon I. ,««, FKAHtKi 
 A- U- 1814 (MAiitu-ArBiL) and 181S (Junk- 
 
 Auon»T) Pedro L, Emperor of Brasil 
 
 and King of Portugal. See Portccal 
 A. a 182^1889, and Brazil: A. D. 1825-1883; 
 ....PtolemTl of Egypt. See MACKDONrA. 
 &c.: B. 0. 297-880..... Victor Emmanuel I 
 
 Se.- iTAtT: A. p. 1830-1821 William L, 
 
 King of Holland. See Nbthbrlasds : A. D. 
 
 183 ^-1SH4. 
 
 ,a^^.?ii'-*^'^' Torkiah Snitan. A. D. 
 
 ABOUL-HAMID, TurWah Snitan, A. D 
 "74-1789 Abdnl-Hamid 11., 1878"' 
 
 1 
 
 jgABDUL-MEDJID, Turkish Sultin, A. D. 
 ABELARD, PETBR. See Educatioji, 
 
 la^iIJi'^^??^??.?!.'"'* 8eeSPAiN:A.D. 
 1288-1373, and 1478-1403. 
 
 A. D. 1809 (Jasuakt-Junk). 
 AMlR?r**°^°i?'S CAMPAIGN IN 
 
 Dr-)8 SeeCAKADA (Nkw FuAscE): A. 
 
 ABERaiBBM MINISTRY, The. See 
 
 ^'!?^S?;„^i'-J^l-18«8, and i855. 
 
 ABIP0NES,The. See Amricak Aaowoi. 
 KKs: Pampas TninKa .=^iu«» 
 
 ABJURATION OP HENRY IV. Bee 
 
 Frahcb: A. D. 1591-1608. 
 
 ABNAKIS, The. See AinBicAir AnoBiof 
 »BS: Aloonkw Familt. 
 
 nicM^ai'""'*' <>'(«743). See Hcssia: A. D. 
 
 oABO^'I'ONISM IN AMERICA, The 
 
 18§?;:SdM^?"' """"""^^ ^- '««»- 
 
 ca5°a2o"rS!^^''"''=*''- «*-^««- 
 
 .i.^^K'''?' ^Sa^ "■"'• »' (or Battle of 
 ths Nile). See Fbakcb: A. D. 1708 (JIat- 
 AcGii8T).....Land.battle of (itm). 8-e 
 
 .1,. M?!.^*?^"' Vii '^'•'»» »'• Tl"" part of 
 the high plateau ^Quebec on which the mom. 
 
 ?™ • ^'n.'f7,°/ ^°''« *•!, 'i""' September 13. 
 M.rtln ^^F.'f V ""^ *° "'i'"? "^"n Abraham 
 had owned a piece of land hero In the early times 
 
 WM>, e. 2, p 289.--For an a.rountof f.io battle 
 which gave distinction to th,- Plains of Aliraliamu 
 see Canada (Xbw Fbakcb): A. D. 1739, (JrSi 
 — Sbptembeb). ". wi.-«» 
 
 Un^'S?h'''^"*'®¥ \^ WBLAND-Inlre. 
 
 tand "the owners of about one-haU the land do 
 not live on or near their esUtcs, while fheowneis 
 of about one fourth do not live in the country 
 . . . Almnteeism l« an old evil, and in vcrr 
 early times nveived attention from the govern- 
 ment. . . . Some of the di»advanu«-s to fm 
 community arising frem the absence o" "jm nsore 
 wcaltii}- i.i,a luleliigent classes are appan-nt to 
 every one Unless the landlord Is uttSrly i,?! 
 sny-stricken or Tsfjr uoeatmprlsiag, •tbeili Is 
 
ABSENTEEISM IN IRELAND. 
 
 AnVSSIXIA. 
 
 • grrat deal more going on ' when he I3 in (lie 
 country. ... I am convinced tliut absenteeism 
 is a gtvat disadvantage to tlie country iiud tlic 
 people. ... It is too mucli to attribute to it nil 
 the evils that have been set down to its cluirpe. 
 It is, liowever, an important consid?nition tlmt 
 the people ri'gard it as a grievance: and tliinU 
 the twenty-live or thirty niiilion.'* of dollars paid 
 every year to these landlonis, who are ranly or 
 never in Inland, is a tax grievous to 1h' borne." 
 — 1). H. King, The Irhh QiieHti;ii, pp. 5-11. 
 
 ABSOROKOS, OR CROWS, The. Sec 
 Amf.uhax AnoKKiiNKs: Siocan FA>rTi.T. 
 
 ABU-BEKR, Caliph, \. D. C;!3-<!34. 
 
 ABU KLEA, Battle of (1885). SccEqtit: 
 A. I). t»<H-l-lHH5. 
 
 ABUL ABBAS, Caliph, A. D. ToO-TM. 
 
 ABUNA OF ABYSSINIA.— "Since the 
 daysof Krumenlins l« bo intro<luced Christianity 
 into Abyssinia in the 4tli century] every ortho- 
 dox Primate of Abyssinia has Ixen eoursecrated 
 by the Coptic Patriarch of the clmnli of Alex- 
 andria, and has l)ome the title of Abuna " — or 
 Abuna Salama, "Father of Peace." — H. M. 
 Ilozier, The llritiiJi Krpulition to Af>ymnia, 
 p.*. 
 
 ABURY, OR AVEBURY.— STONE- 
 HENCE.— CARNAC.—" The numenms cir- 
 cles of stone or of eiirlh in nritain and Ireland, 
 varying in diameter from 30 or 40 feel up to 
 1,200. are to 1h' viewed as temples standing in 
 the closi'st possible relation to tlie burial places 
 of the (lead. The most imposing group of n - 
 mains of this liinil in this country [Kngland] is 
 tha". of Avebnry [.\burv], near l>ivize», in 
 Wiltshire, refcrnil by ISir .loiin Lubls>elv to a 
 late stagi' in the N"olithic or to tlie iHglnning of 
 the bronzi' pi rioil. It consists of a largo circle 
 of unworkrcl upright stones l.?00 feet in diame- 
 ter, surrounded by n fosse, which in turn is also 
 surrounddl by aiiimpartof earih. Insi<h'an' tin' 
 renntins of two concentric circles of stone, and 
 from I lie two eiitranies in the mnipurt proii edcd 
 long iivi'iiues llankeil liy stones, one leading to 
 Ik'ckhampton, and the otiier to West Keiiiielt, 
 where it formerly ended in another iloi'bleelrele. 
 Hetweeii tliem rises Sllbuiy lllll, llii' largest 
 artllicial mound in (ireat Itritain, nolesstluin 1110 
 feit in heiijht. This group of remains was at 
 one lime se((md to none, 'but unfortiiiialely for 
 us |sa\» Sir .lohii l.ubliiHk] the pretty little 
 vlllii:e of .Vvebury [.\bury], like mini' I" aniiful 
 para»ili', lias grown up at the expense and in the 
 midst of the aneiiiit lemplr, and out •'( I'M ^rri at 
 stones, not almve Iwenly are still .laiplitii.'. In 
 spite I. f this ll is slill u, \v iImsm-.I aincn.- ihi' 
 llnest ruins in Kurope. 'I'he f.inuHis irio|ili' of 
 StiiiiclK iige on Salisiiury I'lain Is piuliablv of a 
 later dati' llian Avehury! sliue imt only are h.imi' 
 of till' stones usici In Its eonstrin lien wurkc d, Iml 
 the surroiindini! liurrows an' mure elalmralf (han 
 tlio.si' In the III iL'hlMiurliomi of the latti r. It i.in 
 sisle I of a ciiJe lINI fei t in diaiintir. of l:iri,'e 
 iljiri^lit lilis'ks of sarsrn stone, \'i fnt 7 Inchis 
 hlgli, iK'aring Imposts dovrlailid into laeli othiT, 
 so lis to form a eontinnous aniiitravc. Niije 
 flit within Ibis was a 1 irele uf small fi reign 
 s''ines . . . and within this li\e >.rial trilillii'iis 
 I'f sirsiM stone, fcirming a hi>rse sins'; tliin a 
 horve shoe of fureicn stones, eijjlil fiil IiIl'Ii. and 
 ill lie- 1 iiitre a slali of mieaeeoiis sandsliaie ealli d 
 
 till ui;,ir si..i,,. \T ,i ,i^;,,ij,, ,,f i;»< r.. 1 
 
 from I lie outer line a i>inHll rump, with n ditrh 
 
 outside, formed the outer circle, 3l,» feet in 
 diameter, which cuts a low barrow and iiieliides 
 another, and therefore is evidently of later dale 
 tlian someof the barrows of the distrlit." — \V. li. 
 Dawkins, Kuril). Van in liriUiiii, eh. ID. — '■ Sione- 
 lienge . . . may, I think, be regarded as a inonii- 
 ment of the llronzc Age. tliougli apparently it 
 was not all erected at one time, the inner circle of 
 small, unwroiiglit, blue stones being probably 
 older than the rest ; as reganls Abury, since the 
 stones are all in their natural condition, while 
 those of Stonehengc arc roughly hewn, it seems 
 reasonable to conclude that Abury is the older 
 of the two, and belongs cither to the close of the 
 Stone Age, or to the commencement of that of 
 Bronze. Both Abury and Stonehenge were, I 
 believe, used as temples. Slany of the stonn 
 circles, however, have been proved to be burial 
 places. In fact, a complete burial place may be 
 descrilied as s dolmen, covered by a tumulus, 
 iind surrounded by a stone circle. Often, how- 
 ever, we have only the tumulus, sometimes only 
 the dolmen, and sometimes again only the stone 
 circle. The celebrated monument of Carnae, iu 
 Brittany, consists of eleven rows of unhewn 
 stones, which differ greatly lioth in size and 
 height, the largest Iieing Hi feet atmve ground, 
 while some are quite small. It appears that the 
 avenues originally e.vtended for si'veral milis, but 
 at present they are very imperfeit, the Ktonesliav- 
 ing been cleared away in places for agrieultural 
 improvements. At present, Ihenfore, there an' 
 several detached portions, wliieh, liowi ver. have 
 the same general direilion, and appear to have 
 btrn connected together. . . . .Most ol the great 
 tumuli ill Brittany pnibably belong to the Slone 
 Age, and 1 am thenfon' disposed to nirard Car- 
 nae as having Ixi'n en'cted during I lie same 
 perioil. "— Sir .1. i.ubliock, I'nhittuiie JimiK, 
 eh. r>. 
 
 ABYDOS.— .\n ancient city on the Asiatie 
 sidcof llie Hellespont, mentioned iu the ilhid ui 
 one of the towns that were in allianie with the 
 Trojans. Oriirinally Tlinii Ian. as is supposid, it 
 bieame a colony of Miletus, and passed nt 
 dilTin'nt times under IVrsian, Athenian, l.aee- 
 divmonian and Macedonian rule, lis site was at 
 tlicnarmwest |ioliit i.f the Hellespont - tin' mI'Iic 
 of the ancient roinaiitie story of Ibni and 
 I.eander — marly opposite to Ih'itiiwnof Si-sliis. 
 It was ill the near neiglibi>rhiKnl of Abyih s that 
 .Xerxes built his bridi.'i' of Inials; at .Mivilos, 
 Aieibiailes and the .\tlitiiians won an iiiiportant 
 vliiorv over the IMopoiinesians. Sn' (iuKKiK: 
 B. C 4x0. and 411-407. 
 
 ABYOOS, Tablet of.— One of the most vnlu- 
 abli' riennis of Kgyptian history, fi'iiiid i:i the 
 ruins i.f .Miydos and now pnsi:rM'l In the 
 British Musemn. It ^rivn a list of kiiiL's wlioii 
 Baiiist's II SI lected fr >ni aiiioiiL; his anresicrs to 
 pay liiiniage to. The lal ' t was iiiiieh iimtil.ileil 
 nhin foiiitil, but nniithireopy mure pi rt'i 1 1 lii- 
 bei'ii lllll irlhi'ij liy .M Marii ite, wlili li siipplh 
 nearly all the Maims laekliii; in the lir^i — V 
 Leiioriiiaiil, .WiiHiiiil •/ Anriiiil Jlml. fj' the Kii-t, 
 r. I, H. :l. 
 
 ABYSSINIA : Embraced in ancient Ethio- 
 pia. Sic Ivniiorn. 
 
 Fourth Century. — Converiion to Christi- 
 anity. —" WhateMr may have Ihi n the itleet 
 proifiiied ill his native loiinlry by the i.invir- 
 
 ■•i'MI I'f t^iiiell Cdiiiidi e's jliitslini. Iimfiii-ii ill 
 
 the Acta of the A|ioi,tle« (ch. VIII J, it would 
 
ABYSSINIA, FOUUrn CEXTURY. 
 
 nppear to Iiavc been trnnsitory ; and the Ethio- 
 piau or Abyssinian churcli owes its origin to an 
 rxpcfiition made early in tiie fourth century by 
 
 ABYSSINIA, 15TII-19Trf CENTURIES. 
 
 Mcroplus a philosopher of Tyre.' foVlhe pur- 
 pose of scientillc inquiry. On Lis voyage homc- 
 wurds, he and his companions were attu-kcd at 
 :i |)lacc where they had landed in search of 
 water, and all were massacred except two 
 youths, ^desius and Frumentius, the relatives 
 Nii.l pupils of Jleropius. These were carried to 
 llic kiiiL' of the country, who advanced ^dcsius 
 to be his ciip-beorer, and Frumentius to be his 
 scrntary and tn-asurer. On the death of the 
 lang, who left a boy as his heir, tlic two 
 strjiii,V'rs, at the request of the widowed queen 
 acted as regents of the kingdom until the prince 
 came of age. ^desius then returned to Tvrc 
 where he became a presbyter. Frumentius! 
 who, wi h the help of such Christian traders as 
 visi ,.,1 tiie country, had already introduced the 
 ( lirlslian doctrine and worship into Abyssinia 
 repair,! to Alexandria, related his storv to 
 Atlmnasius, and . . . Athanasius . . con- 
 seenitiHl him to the bishoprick of Axum ftbc 
 < apital of the Abyssinain kingdom]. The church 
 llius founded continues to this day subject to the 
 s.;e (.f Alexandria. "-J. C. Hobertson, iJut. n/tlie 
 
 6th to i6th Centuriei.-W«rt in Ar»bi«.- 
 hnZ^fil ^i'^.^"' M^hon-""".- Isolation 
 .77 .1* ""ft'*" world.-" The fate of the 
 ( hrisllan ehureli among the Itomerites in Arabia 
 J.lix aff„nie.i an opportunity for the Abvssi,,- 
 uins. under the reigns of the Emp.rors Ju.sliu 
 and Justinian, to show their zeal in U'half of tlie 
 cans., of the Christians. The prince of that 
 Arabian populaijon, Dunaan, or Dsunovas, was 
 1 Z( .ilims adherent of Judaism ; and, under pre- 
 f'lV ', r''''B'"f •'"•■ oppressions which his 
 MInw tK-lie»;rs wen; obli'ge.1 to suffer in the 
 I mnan empir.., be eausetf the Christian nier 
 rhams who came from that quarter and vislK-d 
 .Ualiia for the pur|>osi8 of trade, or pas.sed 
 lhr.M,g|, , „, eountry to Abyssinia, to be mur 
 >l' ncl. Llesbaan, tlie Christian king of Abys- 
 sinia, made this a cause for declaring war on the 
 Aral.iaii prinr... lu, co„,„ur,d Usunova, de- 
 prn^, d him of ||,e governm. nt, and set up a 
 ,:'':""?• '7, ""• "I""" "f Abraham, as kini in 
 
 bH M, a.l iJut a, the death of the latt. r, which 
 » pp. lad soon after Dsimovai again made him- 
 MI iniisler (.r the throne: mid it was a natural 
 
 |nns..|m„,e of «h„t he had siilT. nd. that he 
 "» l.cainea Dercer aii.l more eriiel pcrwculoi 
 ban i... was before. . . . I'lH.n this! Klesblum 
 
 i.iiirl.i.tl ome more, under the nlirnof the 
 
 ; rm,er„r Jusllnian, who stimulated him t . lie 
 
 o Arabia helix, and was again vhi^.rious 
 ls..Movas lost bis life i„ ,|„. „.„; the j(^. 
 
 -• .e. dent empire of the H,m„ riles, and ,.\,uu. 
 i'ri«ia'ns'''\*'v''T''"' f"*-">'f"l'l'' to llie 
 
 Jr"-'"..{"''ir" "*' """■■■'''• -"-'""I Vn,.,f 
 ." r. I" ""' J'"'' ■'■''■•-. "« "early as can !«• 
 
 wrih «"■'/"'.':' '!"■ ''"'■" >^'"" ''>•"»• '^'1 ■ 
 
 wnlen., the I'ersians, whose poH Vr wem, to 
 
 mplre. sent n gnat for<r aitaliist lhi. .Al.v.si,,. 
 i.t.71. possissrd ib.inmhesome niowof .\nibia 
 
 M'lirMl the principal |K.rt. on either side of It. 
 
 .„! i".Tr"'" ''9"^ 'o"* "Jcsc conquerors re- 
 tained their acquisition; but, in all probability 
 Uieir ascendancy gave way to the rising great- 
 ness of the Sfahomctan 'power; whieii s on 
 afterwards overwhelmed nil the nations eon 
 tlguous to Amb a. spread to the remotest parts 
 or tlie Last, and even penetmted the African 
 deserts from Egypt to llie Congo. .Meanwhile 
 H^.f'r.'"' 5''««'' '■'''''■> '"■» '"mdn.,1 miles .f 
 t\i?. .'i. .1° , */''"'?• "'S'"''"'"* uncon,,iien,l and 
 tnie to the Christian faith; presenting a i.ior 
 tifying and ga ling object to the more zealotis 
 folowersof the Prophet. On this .i,e,„„„. 
 implacable and incessant wars ravaged her terri' 
 tones. . . . Mielosthercommeree.sawlKTconsc- 
 quenccanuihilated, hercapital thnatene.l. and the 
 richest of her provinces laid waste. There 
 
 18 reason to apprehend that she must shortly 
 ivc gunk under the pressure of n peatid in- 
 .asions, hod not the Portuguese annved I in the 
 luth century] at a seasonable m.mient lo aid 
 her endenyoiirs against the Moslem chiefs '—M 
 Kussell, ,y,W,r and Ahjmiwt, eh. 3.— •'When 
 >.ubia which intervenes between Egypt and 
 Abyssinia, ,,as,.d to be a Christian .mmlrv 
 owing to tlie destnietlon of its eliiir. n by the 
 Mahometans, the Abyssinian cluinh was cMit off 
 from comnmnKalhm witli th,. n st of Christen- 
 ilom. . .They [ihe Abyssinian^] nniain nn 
 alm.«t unique specimen of a seihibarbarous 
 Hirisian iK'ople. Their worship is sirauirely 
 m i.\ed with J.wish ci.sloms. '-11 K To/^r Tli 
 i/'iirrhnnilt/ie J:,iKt,n, hm/iirf ,/i f, • ■• " 
 
 Fifteenth-Nineteenth Centurie».-Europe«n 
 r.n-'S'' I !* 'ntereourae— Intruaion of the 
 GUlM -Intettine con«icti.-"AlH)ut the niid- 
 
 Uct with W estern Europe. An Abyssinian eoii- 
 \ent was cn(h>we<l at Itome, and l.-itm wen- 
 sent from the Abyssinian cmvent at'j,Tus,,|,.,n 
 o the couiiei .,1' Florence. These adli.n.l to 
 
 Chureh of Home maile an impress upon Ethiopia 
 . . . I'rinee Henry of Portugal . . . ne.Mo,„.m.,i 
 up eommiinualion willi Eunme, II,. h„„,.,i ,„ 
 ojx.n up a route from the West to the East coast 
 of Afrin» [see PoKTf.i.u.: A. 1). 141.Vl)(tOI 
 by which be East Indies ndgbt iH.rea.lnd wltl 1 
 out toiK hing JIahometan territory, nnririir his 
 elfnrn to diseuv.T su< h a pas.sage to lu.iiu, and 
 o .hstn.y the nvenues derived I.y III,. .\|,„,rH 
 from the spie,. tmile. he .^nt an" ambassa,|„r 
 nam..,! Covillan to 111,. C„urt of .Sh>,a (■,)\ill.iii 
 W...S not sumn-,| I,, return by Al,.x,.ii,|, r. |'|„. 
 nil .Neg,K.s l„r Negus, or Xugash - tl„. ijii,. „f 
 the .\b\s.inian s,,v,.nignl. lb; niarri.-.l nuMy 
 an,lar.,|um.,l rich p,.ssi.««ionsiiitlie,ouiitrv H,'. 
 k,jl np,„ri. spoil, ,n.,. » III, Portugal, Mn,|un:.,l 
 1 rin.e ll.nry I,) dlligenlly eonliuu,. hi ., iTorts to 
 il ,s,.,iy,.r the .Suithern pu,ssage to lb,. Ka«t In 
 I Wtl„. Porlugu.se , ir..,.i,.,| tl,,, ,.ir,.„i, .,f _^,y 
 
 1 he 1 urkshli,,rily afi, rwanUexiemh.i ih, Ir con- 
 qins si„war,ls ln,lia,wl„ re th,y w, n.baul',,d by 
 b,. Porlu^-u, s.., but th, V ,.stal.li.l„.| a n,,-, ,„„|i 
 oil n ^yia, ,m 1!,,. African .„asi, h'r, m here 
 th,y h,impiT(,l aii,l thnateiaii |,> ijcsiroy ih,. 
 lra,l,. of Abyssinia," ami wsui, h, alii,,,,,-,. « in, 
 tin. .^Iiihometan trllns of th,' i,ia,l hna,|,.,l il,.. 
 ■onnlrv. ■•Tli.y «ere defeate,! by ll„. .N,.pM.s 
 
 ,V ,••• ^ -'"ie !;iiirthc Tiiri.1,1, I..»i,or 
 
 /eyla wa» sl,.rn,e,l ai„l bumcil bv a P,>rtucue»c 
 llct. • Consblirable intima<y ,if fri. i„llv"r(la- 
 tions was mainiaimd for mmie time l.,i«;en the 
 
ABY8SINU, 15TH-19Tn CENTURIES. 
 
 ▲BVSSINU, 18S4-1889. 
 
 I ■ 
 
 , ! 
 
 t" I 
 
 Abygsintaiu and the Portuguese, wiio Rssisted in 
 defendioff them ugainst the Turks. " In the 
 middle of the 16th century ... a mignition of 
 Oailos came from tlie 8>'uthand swept up to and 
 over tlie confines of Abyssinia. Men of ligliter 
 compiezioD and fnirer sliin than most Africans, 
 tliey were Pagan in religion and savages in cus- 
 toms. Kotwitlistanding frequent efforts to di*- 
 lixlgc them, they have Brmly established them- 
 selves. A large colony lins planted itaelf on *he 
 banks of the \ ;■. . r Takkazic, the Jidda and the 
 Baahilo. Slutu their establishment here they 
 have for the most part embraced the creed of 
 Maliomet. The province of Shoa is but an out- 
 lier of Christian Al)ysf)inia, separated completely 
 from co-religionist districts by these Galia 
 bands. About the same time the Turks took a 
 firm hold of Massowah and of the lowland by 
 the coast, which had hitherto been ruled by the 
 Abyssinian Bahar Nagash. Islamism and heath- 
 enism surrounded Al)yBslnia, where the lamp of 
 Christianity faintly glimmen'd amidst dark 
 ■upentition in the deep neesses of rugged val- 
 leys." In ISSSaJesuit mi»ai(>n arrived iu the 
 country and establislied itself at Fremona. ' ' For 
 nearly a century Fremona existed, and iu super- 
 iors were the trusted advisors of the £thi< gdan 
 throne. . . . But the same fate which fell upon 
 the company of Jesus in more civilize<l lands, 
 pursued it in the wilds of Africa. The Jesuit 
 missionaries were universally popular with the 
 Negoos, but the prejudice of the people rufusi'd 
 to recognise the ln'nelits which flowed from Fre- 
 mona. Persecutioi befell the fathers, and two 
 of them won the crown of martyrdom. The 
 Negoos, Fiicllldas, "sent for a Coptic Abuna 
 [ecclesiastical primate] from Alexandria, and con- 
 cluded a treaty with the Turkish governors of 
 Massowah and Souakin to prevent the passage of 
 Europeans into his dominions. Some Capuchin 
 preachers, who atti-mpted to evade this tn'aty 
 and enter Abyssinia, met with cruel deaths. 
 Facillda* thus completed the work of the Turks 
 and the Galliis, and shut Abyssinia out from 
 European inlluence and civilization. . . . After 
 the expulsion of the Jesuits, Al)yBslnla "as torn 
 by Internal feuds and constantly haraswd by the 
 encroachments of and wars with the (liillas. 
 Anarchy and confu«ion ruled supn me. Towns 
 and villages were burnt down, lu ! the Inhalil- 
 tants sold Into slavery. . . . Towanla llic mi Idle 
 of the 18th century the Oallas upniHr fo have 
 incn-aied eonsiden'bly in rxiwer. In llie Intes- 
 tine quarrels of .\liys.slnla Ihilr iilllancc was 
 courted liy each sldr, and In their country politi- 
 cal refugiTS oluained a si'din- asylimi." r)uring 
 the early years of the present ci'-nturv, the cam- I 
 palgns In Kgypt attmcted Knt'lish iIitiiiilo:i to 
 the Ifcii Sea. "In l-^oj l,„nl Valciitia, the 
 Viceroy of India, mii- Ids SeiU'tary, Mr. .''alt, 
 Into Aliyssinia:" l>ut .Mr Halt was uiii;hle to 
 penetrate iK'yond Tlgnt. In IHIO he uiiinipfe<i 
 a Second mission and again failiil. It hh» not 
 until 1H48 that Kmtllsli nttcinpls to ojk n ijiiiln. 
 Imatic and etuninenlal nlatiouH Willi .\liy><inia 
 bcntme suetiiuirul. .Mr I'lowden wat h| |H>ini<'d 
 cunsuhr agent, and negotiated a tnaty of (oia 
 mcroe with lias All. the riditig Galla'cl.lef "— 
 It ^1 Hozier, TAt' JliitM l^jntlitii'U !■• .14v»- 
 (I 'I Intnxl. 
 
 A. O. lB$4-l8Bp.— Advent of King Theodora 
 — Hit EBglith c'aptiTCt and the Expedition 
 which r«ltM«d tiitm,— "( iiiiiimI riowilen lia>l 
 
 been residing six yeaiB at Massowah when h* 
 heard that the Prince to whom he had been ac- 
 credited, Ras AH, had been defeated and de- 
 throned by an adventurer, whose name, a few 
 vears before, had been unknown outside the 
 boundaries of bis native province. This was 
 Llj K&sa, better known by bis adopted name of 
 Theodore. He was bom of an old family, la 
 the mountainoiu region of Kwara, where the 
 land begins to slope downwards towards the 
 Blue Nile, and educated in a convent, where he 
 learned to read, and acquired a considerable knowl- 
 edge of the Scriptures. ESsa's convent life wa« 
 suddenly put an end to, when one of those ma- 
 rauding Oalla bands, whose ravages are the 
 curse of Abyssinia, attacked and plundered the 
 monaateiT. From that time he himself took to 
 the life of a freelMoter. . . . Adventurers flocked 
 to his standard : his power continually increased ; 
 and in 1834 he defeated Ras All in a pitched bat- 
 tle, and made himself master of central Abys- 
 sinia." In 1855 he overthrew the ruler of Tlgrfi. 
 " He now resolved to assume a title commen- 
 surate with the wide extent of his dondnion. In 
 the church of Derezgye he bad himself crowned 
 by the Abuna as King of the Kings of Ethiopia, 
 taking the name of Theodore, liecanse an ancient 
 tradition declared that a great monarch would 
 some day arise in Abyssinia." Mr. Plowdennow 
 visl'.d the new monarch, was impressed with 
 adiiiimtion of his tJilents and character, and be- 
 came his counsellor and friend. But in 1860 the 
 English consul lost his life, wldle on a joumev, 
 Bncl Theodore, emiilttered by several mfs- 
 fortunes, iiegan to give rein to a S4i»agc temper. 
 "The British Government, on hearing of the 
 death of Plowden, Immediately renlaceil him at 
 Massowah .■.• the appointment of Captain Cam- 
 enm." The new Consul was well retx'ived, and 
 was entrusted by the Abyasinian King with a 
 letter addressiil to theQueen of England, solicit- 
 ing her friendship. The letter, duly despatched 
 to Its destination, was nigcoii hokd In the Foreign 
 Offlce at London, and uo reply to It was ever 
 made. Insulted and enraginl by tills treatment, 
 and by other evidenies of the IndlfTerence of the 
 British OoveruiiH nt to Ids overtims. King Theo- 
 dore, In January, 1H(J4, seizeil and imprisoned 
 Consul Cameron with all his suite. About 
 the same time he was still further olTendeil by 
 eirtain passages In a hook on Aby9.sinla that had 
 ixtn publUhiil by a missionary imnud ."^tern. 
 Stern and a fellow misslonarv, Uosenthal with 
 the hitter's wife, were lodged in prison, and sub- 
 jected to flogging and torture. The Hrst step 
 taken by the Hritish Government, when news of 
 Consul Cameron's Iniprisunment reached Eng- 
 land, was to si'iid out a n-giilar mission to Abys- 
 sinia, liearliig n letter signed bv the (^iieen, de- 
 manillug the n'h'ase of tlie Captives. The mission 
 heiuliHl by a Syrian name<l Raiwain, made Its way 
 to the King's presence In January. lH6fi. Theo- 
 dore seemed to Im- placated by the ijiieen's epistle 
 and prointstil freetlom to his prisoners. But soon 
 his moody mlmt lieeame tlllni with suspicions as 
 to the genuineness of liaMwm's cmlentlals from 
 the (jiietn. ami as M the designs and int^'ntions of 
 all the foH'Igners who were In his power. He was 
 drinking heavily at the time, and the result of 
 his "drunken cogitations was a determination to 
 detain tlie Mii»..ioi!— g| gnv rate until bv their 
 nieiins he shoul.t have obtained asupply of skilled 
 artisans ami machlnrry from England." Mr. 
 
ABYSSINIA. 186t-188». 
 
 Baaam and his compaolons were accortHncIy 
 put Into confinement, us Captain Cameron ImU 
 iK'pn. But tliiy were allowed to send a mes- 
 sender to England, niakini; their situation known 
 and conveying flic demand of King Tlii'oilore 
 that a man be sent to him "wlio can make cim- 
 nims and muskets." The demand wag actuallv 
 complied with. Six skilled artisans and a civil 
 engiiieiT were sent out, together with a quantity 
 of machinery and other pn-scnts, in the hoiie that 
 they woulil procure the release of the unfortunate 
 captives at Jiagdala. Almost a year was wasud 
 in these fjtile proceedings, and it was not until 
 September, 1867, that nr expediticmconsistinffof 
 *.mt British ami 8.000 native tniops. under An- 
 eral Sir I{.>bert Xapier, was sent from India to 
 bring the insensate barbarian to terms. It landed 
 ro,'^","!'''''^ .•?*>'• ""''• "wrcoming enormous 
 difficulties with n^gard to wau-r, food-supplies 
 and tnmsportation, was ready, about the middle 
 of January 1888, to start urnm its march to the 
 rortres.s of Magdala, where Theodore's prisoner.^ 
 were confined. The distance was 400 niiles, and 
 sever .1 high ranges of mountains had to be passed 
 to reach the interior table-land. The invadina 
 army met »-lth no resistance until it reached the 
 X""*:,*' "f ""^ ,Be8hilo, when it was attacked 
 f April 10) on the plain of Aroge or Aroiri bv 
 the whole force which Theodore was able to 
 muster, numU-ring a few thousonds, only, of 
 poory armiKl men. The battle was simply a 
 rapid s aughtering of fh.' barbaric assailants, and 
 when hey fled, leaving 700 orSOO.leu.l and l,.VIO 
 wounded on the field, the Abvsslnlan King had 
 no power of resistanc,. h.ft. Ife „ffered at on.e 
 t.i make pi,,re. surrendering nil the captives in 
 his hands: b„t .Sir IJolnrt Xapirr reniiired an 
 nnc.,...liii,,„al submission, with a view todispluc- 
 ng him from the thnair. In ercordancc with 
 tlie wish and expectation which he had found to 
 be general iu the country. Th.cMlore refiis,.d 
 lus,_ terms, and when (April U) Magdala was 
 b.,rnh:.r.>i.,l and stormed by the British tr.«ps_ 
 s iirl.t resistance iH'lng inadc-heshot himself at 
 the m.iniint of tlieii ntraiiee to the plate The 
 soverrigmy he had successf.lly cncentrate.l In 
 hiiuM.lf for a time was again d!vlde<). Betne.Mi 
 A[.riland.Iuue the English army wa« entirely 
 wlth.1 lawn. and " Abyssinia wasiealed up agu n 
 f';)!" '""'T'"""'' with the ouur world."-?!,, 
 *// » I!l>„tr„l.,l IH,t. of Eng.. r. 0. eh. 28.-" The 
 task of permanently uniting Abyssinia, in which 
 I, hn J,*" '• J'"'y''<',<''l'"'ll.v Impracticable to 
 
 \^^h iaam"! «''T<"*'«'".v. By his fall (lOih 
 March 1881)) In the unhappy war against the 
 DtrvlshesorMoslemzialntsof the Soudan, the 
 
 foved".?,'/''''*""'-''"'/,''",""'' "' S'"'". *'•» "" 
 i? „ l/u''P"'* '''."'''7- I"*"' csiaMishment 
 of the Italiani on the fled .Sa litti rai 
 
 promises a now era for Abyssinia. "-T. Naldeke' 
 M,fr/if»fr,m Rittfrn m.f rh 9 ' 
 
 Ai.so IN H. A. Stern, 7'V r„,7,„. Mim.nary. 
 —U. M. StaiUey, Coonuumtt „ml Ma-jdaU, /jt. 2. 
 
 ACH^Al^ CITIEa. 
 
 and adorned with temples and sriitucs, a gentla 
 
 w!,""/ pi'-7^ '"•■'""ff'l '^"-"- "• Le'^es. a4 
 (f"'„"f ^'''^P"!/. 0th £-.,W..-The masters of 
 the great schools of philosopy at Athens ■'choso 
 
 h?,li, i "■ ,"'!''''' ■''"•' <l'-<^U8s'on8 the public 
 buildings which were.alkcl gymnasia, of which 
 Here were several in different ipiartiTS of the city 
 
 tlie State, which had biiilt tliem chiefly for 
 bodily exercises and athletic fiats. . . . Before 
 long several of the schools drew themselves 
 I apart in special buildings, and even t<x.k their 
 «,^\/T'"" /"""■?■ ^'"^'' "^ "« L^feumand 
 m,?i„ .I '""^■^'■'"" ".'«»>■"'"'" ' i" which they 
 made themselves at home. Gradually we fin 1 
 
 f '? Jr'.''''*4 2' ^""^ """"iai rirovisions. whirli 
 helped to dehne and to perpetuate the different 
 sects Plato had a little garden, close by he 
 sacred Eleiisinlan Way, in'the shady groves of 
 he Academy. . . irfstotle, as we'inow In 
 later life had taught in the Lveeiim. in the ri. h 
 grounds near the Illsans."— \V. W. Capes (hi 
 ttrnty Life in, Ancient Ath'n; pp. 3I-ai — For 
 a description of the Academy, Lyceum, etc see 
 OvMSAsiA, OBKicK.-'>n the suppression of the 
 Academy, see Atbkss. A. T>. 529. 
 
 ACADEMY, The French. — Foundeil l 
 Can inal Kichelieu. in mr,, for the reflninr 
 the language and the literary taste of Frai; 
 Its forty members are styled "the Immortals 
 Election toasi'at among them is a high object 
 of ambition among French writers. 
 ACADIA. See \ov\ Scorn 
 
 *?*?.l^?'^' ^''•- »"'' 'he aritith Go»em- 
 ment.— Their expulsion. See N'ova Scotia • 
 
 ACADEMY. The Athenian.-" The Ara- 
 
 Atrn;''r.''' h*r'''" ';■ ""• '«'<«''»^>'rl.o.<l . f 
 AMI. IIS, was the fuvmirlie r<>""r! nf I't-ttn h, i 
 
 rhLsgar.lenw«« planted with Jofty plane trees. 
 
 ACAWOIOS. The. S.e Ami;i,ican Abobi. 
 "'i'iJi.P*""''' *^° TRKtn KiNDHri). 
 ACCAD.-ACCADIANS. See Ba btloma. 
 
 PkiMITIV;,; andSEMlTNS 
 
 1 ACCOLADE.-" The concluding sign of 
 
 kniu'hthoo.! was a aliirht blow given by the lord 
 
 P irt of the body, the neck, whereon It was 
 ^ rurk. .,Iany writers have Imagined timt 
 
 the ii.eolade was the T.st blo,v whldi tho so], 
 dirrmi^.l.trei-eivewith imnunlly; but this ia- 
 -rnretation is not correct, {or th'e squire was as 
 Jea mis of his honour as the kniiilit The on -In 
 of the accolade it Is lmp,.ssli,le to trace but it 
 - 13 clearly consldend sy mlK.lical of the rellgioui 
 and moraf duties of knlglith,K,l, and w ., i ' 
 only een.m. y used when knl-hts were made In 
 places (the ffeld of battle, for lnsf^ncer«here 
 time and ■■ re.imstnnces <li,! not allow of ii.uny 
 c.T,monles"-C. Mills, ;/i-,r ,/ «:,7„>„.V», r f 
 
 ACHiEAN CITIES, League of the.-Tld, 
 
 vlii.h Isnot to beconrom,de,l?viti. „„, " \,.| . ,!; 
 I.ea,:ue of I'elopmmes.is. wa.. an eariy L, ...';'.o 
 .. the flreek ».-IthM.Knts in .southern" Ita'vot 
 
 tZ,t' J, -'"'If i^. MelalMis or MetapoiK,.:," 
 ; r, . r 'I " "^*''* '•"•''■''""I'k Hnd I.a,.,. 
 *-r(,toii (a.d.mia, Tem,»a. T. rina and Pvx,is 
 . . . The language of I'olyliius regarding t!io 
 Acha-an symmucliy in the IVl ,p„nm»,.s may io 
 .;•;!- 11. 1 also to these Itai:.m .Vchaans: •noi o„'y 
 
 l;;, 'i?'"'"' ■',' '"'<■'"' ""'i lri'ndlvr..minu;l ,n. 
 but they neulo use of the ,:■■„.. law,. «„d iho 
 same wilghis. measure's an 1 lo,:.,. «, well as of 
 
m' 
 
 H 
 
 ACIIJJAN CITIES. 
 
 the same magistrates, coiiiidllors and judges.'" 
 — T. Jlomiiisiti, Jlint. of Home, Ik. 1, eh. 10. 
 
 ACH^AN LEAGUE. SicOheeck: B. C. 
 280-146. 
 
 ACHiEMENIDS, The.— The family or dy- 
 nastic name (ia its Greek form) of the "kinc3 of 
 the I'ersian Empire founiie<l by Cvrus, deriveil 
 fniir. an aiiecstor, Acha-nienes, who "was probably 
 1 1 liicf iif the Persian trilie of the Pasargada;. 
 "hi the iuscription of Behistim, King Darius 
 s:i_vs: 'From old tiinn ve were kings; eiglit of 
 my family have been Kings, I am the ninth; 
 from very ancient times we have been kings." 
 He enumerates his anc«!Stors: 'My father was 
 Vistafpa, the father of A'ista^pa was Arsama; 
 the father of Arsama was Ariyaramna, the father 
 of Ariyaramna was Khai8pis,'thc father of Khais- 
 pis was Hakhamanis; hence we are called Hak- 
 hamanisiya(AcIiiemenids).' Inthesewords Darius 
 gives the tree uf bis own family up to Khaispis; 
 this was the younger branch of the Acha;- 
 meuids. Tcispes, the son of Achaemenes, had 
 t>vo sons; the elder was Cambyses (Kambujiya) 
 the younger Ariamnes; tlie iM>n of Cambvses was 
 Cvrus (Kurus), the son of Cyrus was Cambyses 
 It Hence Darius could indeed maintain that 
 eight princes of his family had preceded him; 
 but it was not correct to maintain that they had 
 been kings before him and that he was the ninth 
 king." — M. Duuclicr, lU»t. of Antiquilu. t. 5. 
 bk. 8, eh. 3. 
 
 At™) IN O. Hawllnson, Fumili/ of the Aeh/r- 
 maiitUi. iipp. I,) hk. 7 of Ilcrodot'ua.— Stx, also, 
 Pkksiv. AN(ri;NT. 
 
 ACHAIA.— •Cnisslng the river Tjirlssufi, and 
 purMiing tlie northern coast of Peloponnesus 
 south of the Coriniliiaii Gulf, the traveller would 
 pass into Acliaia — a name whicli designated tlic 
 narrow strip of level land, and the projecting 
 spurs ami diclivities In'tween that gulf and the 
 northernmost mountains of the peninsula. . . . 
 Achaean cities — twelve in numlier a' Ic'ust, if not 
 more — divided this limg strip of land amongst 
 them, from the mouth of the Larissus and the 
 northwestern Ciipc Amxus on one side, to the 
 western boundary of the .sikyon territory on tlie 
 other. According to the ai'counts of the ancient 
 legends and the b<lief of IIer.Klotus, this terri- 
 tory had been once (Hcupied by Ionian inhabit- 
 ants, whom the Aclmcans haa cxik'HihI." O. 
 
 Orote, Jlinl. of Oi;,w, ],t. 2, e.'i. 4 (r. 2). After 
 
 the Komnn conquest and the suppression of the 
 A-'iaian League, llie name Aehuia was given to 
 :' " lioman province then organizetl, which 
 embraced ill Greece south of Macedonia and 
 Epirus.— See Giii;f.ce: B. C. 280140.— "In the 
 llonirrlc pi>ems, where . . . the 'Hellenes' 
 only appear in one district of Southern Thessaly, 
 the name Ai leeaiis is employed by preference 
 as a general appelati..n for the whofe race. But 
 the Acha'iins we may term, without hesitatlim, 
 a Pclusgian people. In so far, thai is, as we use 
 this name merely as the opposite of tlio term 
 ■HeMenes,' wliiih pn'Viiilcd nt a \:\l'T V le, 
 although It Is true that the Hellenes tliems es 
 .were nothing more than a l):irlicular bninch of 
 the Pelasgian stock. . . . [The name of the] 
 Acha'aiis, after it had dropped its earlier and 
 more universal application, wus preserved as the 
 speiial name of a population dwelling In the 
 norlh of the Pcloponne.se and the south of 
 Tiu.^saiy.' — ij. 1\ S Iiuiiiann, Anti'j. of (}rrcer'. 
 ^ht Utitte, lnt.~"tUe ancient! regarded them 
 
 6 
 
 ACURIDA. 
 
 [•■.•) Achetansl as a brsnch oi the .£olians, with 
 w.iom they afterwards reunited into one national 
 body, i. e. , not as an originally distinct nationality 
 or independent branch of the Greek people. 
 Accordingly, wc hear neither of an Achaean kn- 
 guage nor of Aeheean art. A manifest and deci.led 
 Influence of tlie maritime Greeks, wherever the 
 Acha-ans appear, is common to the latter with 
 the ^Eolians. Achieans are everywhere settled 
 on the coast, and are always reganled as par- 
 ticularly near relat'ons of the loniitns. . . . The 
 Acl^ans appear scattered about 1- localities on 
 the coast of the .lEgean so remote from one 
 another, that it is impossible to consider all bear- 
 ing this name as fragments of a people originally 
 united in one stnial community; nor do they 
 in fact anywhere appeal, properly speaking, 
 as a popular btnly, as the main stock of tl:i 
 population, but rather as eminent fa.-nilies, from 
 which spring heroes ; henco the use of the expres- 
 sion ' Sons of the Acha'ans ' to Indicate ncble de- 
 scent."— E. Curtius, JIM. of Oreeet, bk. 1, eh. 8 
 Also iw M. Dunckcr, Hut. of Greece, bk. 1, eh 
 2, and bk. 2, eh. 2.— See, also, Achau, and 
 Greece: Tue Migrations. 
 
 A. D, 1305-1387. — Medixval Principality. 
 —Among the conquests of the French and 
 I.ombard Crusaders in Gretce, after the taking of 
 Conatantinopio, was that of a major part of the 
 Peloponnesus- then beginning to be called the 
 Morea— by William de Champlitte, a French 
 knight, assisted by Geffrey dc Villehardouin, 
 the younger- nephew and namesake of the 
 Marshal of Chaini)agne, wlio was clironicler of 
 the conquest of theEmplreof the East. William 
 de Cliamplitto was invested with this Principality 
 of Achaia, or of the Morea, as it is variously 
 styled. Geffrey Vlllehanlouin represented him 
 in the povenimcnt, as his "bnilly," for a time 
 and linally succwded In supplanting him. Half 
 a century hiter the Greck.s, who had recovered 
 Constantinople, reduced the territory of the 
 Principality of Achaia to about half the penin- 
 sula, and a destructive war was wagi'd between 
 the tv7o nces. 8ub.sequently the Wncipality 
 became a lief of the crown of Naples and Sicily, 
 and underwent many changes of possession 
 until the title was In confusion and dispute 
 between the houses of Anjou, Aragon and 
 Savoy. Before it was engulfed finally in the 
 Empire of tlie Turks, it was iuined by their 
 piracies and ravages.— G. Finlav, Iliat. of Greece 
 from itt Conquctt by the C'nimilt'r; eh. 8. 
 
 ♦- — - 
 
 ACHMET I., Turkish Sultan, A. D. IflOJ- 
 1017. . . .Achmet II., IBl'l-lOUj. . . .Achmet III.. 
 170:1-1 7.'!0. 
 
 ACHRADINA. — A part of the ancient citv 
 of Byracu. :■, H'eilj , known as the " outer city,'' 
 iKcupying the ,ieiiinsula north of Ortygia, the 
 island, which was tlic " inner city." 
 
 ACHRIDA, Kingdom of.— After the death of 
 John ZImisces who had reunited Bulgaria to the 
 Byzantine Empire, the Bulgarians were roused 
 to a struggle for the recovery of their independ. 
 eiice, under the lead of four brothers of a noble 
 family, all of whom aoon ;^rishcd save one, 
 named Samuel. Samuel proved to be so vigor- 
 ous and able a soldier and had so much success 
 that he assumeil pri'sently the title of king. Ills 
 p.uthority was establlshefl over the greater part 
 of Bulgaria, and extended Into tlacedimla^ 
 Eptnis and Illyrla. Ue eaUbllahed his capital 
 
ACHRIDA. 
 
 nt Acbiida (modem Ochrida, In Albania), wlilcli 
 gave it3 name to his kingdom. Tlie suppression 
 of this new Bulgarian monarchy occupied the 
 Byzantine Emperor, Basil II., in wars from flSl 
 until 1018, when Its last strop;;liolds, including 
 the <ity of Achrida, were surrendered to him.— 
 O. Finlay, llitt. of the Byzantine Empire from 
 710 to 10.-,7, bk. 2, ch. a, teit. 2. 
 
 ACKERMAN', Convention of (1836). See 
 TiiiKs: A. D. lPl"8-lb29. 
 
 AroLAHUS, The. See Me.xico, A.vciext: 
 Till. I (iLTEC EjirrRE. 
 
 ACOLYTH, The. See Va anoian or Wab- 
 
 CJO OlWllD. 
 
 > ^?'*A?^' °»"'« "»'• A. D. 633.-Aftcr the 
 
 death of Mahomet, his successor, Aljii Belir had 
 to deal with several serious revolt':, the most 
 llircatening of which was raised by one Mosei- 
 l^ma whohad pretended, even in the lifetime of 
 t.ic l*rophet, to p. rival mission of religion Tlie 
 decisive battle (■ ween the followers of Jlosci- 
 laina and those ot .Mahomet was fought nt Acril).i 
 near Yemama. The pretender was slain and few 
 of his army escaped.— Sir W. Muir, AnnaU of 
 t;ie J:.rrlu Caliphate, ch. 7 
 
 ACRABATTENE, Battle of.-A sanguinary 
 (leleat of the Idiimeans or Edomites In- the Jews 
 under Judas JIaccabsus, B. C. 104.— Josephus 
 Antiri. ofthfJeict, Ik. 13, ch. 8. 
 
 ACRAGAS. See AomoENTrM. 
 
 ACRE (St. Jean d'Acre, or Ptoleir^is): A. 
 p. ii04.-Conquest, Pillage and Massacre by 
 V"-,*^r!f,?'',"»,'"'" Genoese, bee Ciusades: 
 
 A. p. Ii87.-Taken from the Christians by 
 »?,'"• i"^''J'Kt'*»i'iM: A. I). lHU-n87 
 r„^:f kJ '8''J.'9'--:'^''« K'"' siege and recon- 
 1"K*-111|i"'*' '*'^'-' '^''"•"i^AI'ES: A. 1>. 
 
 A. D. I256-I257.-Quarrels ani battles be- 
 
 •T:m?k:'a. ^i'n^x,:^^ ^"'"•'"- «- 
 
 m^JLi °" "j>'--T»ie Final triumph of the 
 Moslems. See Jeius.xi.em: A. I). IJUl 
 
 ACT OF SETTLEMENT. 
 
 ci-'^l n'Jl'"''-"'*.*""'"'' to Importance by 
 Shei* Daher-"Acre, or St. Jean d'.VcrJ 
 celeljmted under this name in the history of 
 the ( rusades and in antl<,uity Ivnown by the 
 name of Ptolemais, had, by ttle middle of e 
 
 whenhheiklMher. the Arab rebel, 'restored ili 
 commerce and navifratlon. Inis al.le prince 
 whoso sway comprehended the wliDle of iinel nt 
 Oalilee, was succeeded by the Inf.inu.us tvninf 
 )jez7ar.p«,ha, whoforthi,.d Acre, and adorned 
 
 „.J^- D- '7W.-Uniuec*itful Siege by Bona- 
 -Atot-nn '"' '■ '^ '*■ '""'-'''"' '^""-^ 
 
 M^i;.™:.4'l?,'''l,''°~2''5» •""' Capture by 
 WeVt2;'nVob^".^-\'1-'l;^^^^^^^^^^ 
 
 S.fK^/'*"'"^'' PROMONTORY. 
 ACROPOLIS OF ATHENS The _■• A 
 
 road which, by running zigzag up the slop., w,„ 
 reatlmd practuubiv r..r . harlots, led from the 
 
 platform of which stood tlie IV.pylai; erected 
 
 by the architect Mnesicles in flre years durine 
 the administration of Pericles. . . . Oncutcrin'- 
 through the gates of the Propylxa a sec:,o of 
 unparaHcd grandeur and beauty buret up, 1 tit 
 eye. >io trace of human dwellings anywhere 
 appeared, but on all sides temples of more rrlcss 
 elevation, of Pentclic marble, beautiful in dc^i"'! 
 and exquisitely delicate in execution, sparhh I 
 like piles of alabaster in the sun. On the Kft 
 stood the Erectheion, or fane of Athena Polia=- 
 to the right, that matchless edifice known as the 
 llecatompedon of old, but to later ages as the 
 Parthenon, Other buildings, all holy to tlie eve 
 or an Atlienian, lay grouped around these master 
 structures, .1.1, in the open spaces between, in 
 whatever di, , tion thj spectator might )%ok, ap- 
 peared ,tatuc3, some remarkable fortl-.'irdimen- 
 sious, others for their beautv. and all for the 
 Kgemlary sanctity which surrounded them No 
 city of the ancier* or modern world ;ver rivalled 
 Athens in the ritnes of art. Our best filled mu- 
 seums, though teeming with her spc ils, are poor 
 collectious of fragments coniparet with tluit 
 assemblage of g,.ds and heroes whicl peopled the 
 Acropolis, the genuine Olympos the arts "— 
 J. A. t>t. John, The IMUna,. bk. \, ch 4- 
 •>cthing in ancient Greece or Italy coul.l bo 
 compare.1 with the Acropolis of Alliens, in its 
 combin-itionof l.cauty and grandeur, surrounded 
 as It was by temples and theatres among its 
 rocks, and encircled bv a city abounding with 
 nioniiments, some of which rivalled those of the 
 Acropolis. Its platform formed o;io great 
 Sjini'tuary, partitioned only bv the ' .-uudaries of 
 tlie . . satrcd portions. \Vc cannot, tlicrc- 
 fore, admit |i;c suggestion of Chandler, that in 
 addition t . tlie temples and other momimenn on 
 tlie sum.nit, fliere were houses divided into rcu- 
 l.-ir str. cts. This would not have been cousonSnt 
 eitlier \suu •.lie customs or the goo<l taste <l the 
 Athenians. Vs hen the people of Attica crowde,' 
 into Alliens at the 1' finning of the Pclopi nnc- 
 slan war, and religion, prejudices gave v.ay ia 
 every piws.ble case, to the necessities of the occa- 
 sion even then the Acropolis renvincd uuin- 
 hahited . The western end of the Acrojiolis, 
 which furnished the only access to the summit of 
 tMe lull, was one hundred and sixtv eight fei t ia 
 lireaillh ■ ^pcning so narrow thilt it aiii)earej 
 practu'abletothe artlsU of PeriMes to fill up the 
 space with a single building wl.ich fchoiild i.rve 
 the purpase of a gateway to tie citadel, as well 
 as of a suitable entran.e to tiiat glorii.us dis- 
 |.lav (if nrcliiiecture and sculpture whiih was 
 wit iin the Imlosurc. This work [the Propv- 
 a'a], the greatest production of civil artlii- 
 teeliire in Athens, which rivillcl the Parthcnoa 
 in felieity of execution, surpassed it in bald- 
 ness and originality of design. ... It n->v be 
 dellne,! as a wall pierced rtith flvo doors,' be- 
 fore w loch on both sides were Doric li.xastylc 
 IZ T \ ~^\- '"^'J^"'"'. Topography, fAt!,cr.,, 
 met. N.— Sec, also, Attica 
 
 ACT OF ABJURATION, The. See Xi.rn 
 EHLVxiis: A. U. 1577-1,W1 
 
 ACT OF MEDIATION, The. See Swit 
 zehland: a. I). 1803-1848. 
 
v^ 
 
 I i: 
 
 ACT RESCISSORY. 
 
 ACT RESCISSORY. See Scotland. A. 
 D. 1060-1686. 
 
 ACTIUM : B. C. 434.— Naval Battle of the 
 Creeks. — A defeat inuicted upon thu Coriuthiuos 
 by the Corcyrians, in the contest over Epidnmnus 
 whicli was the prelude to the Peloponncsian 
 War.— E. Curtius, Jlitt. of Greece, bk. 4. eh. I. 
 
 B. C. 31.— The Victory of Octa.vius. See 
 Rome: B. C. 81. 
 
 ACTS OF SUPREMACY. See Suphe- 
 MACY, Acts op; and tsoLA^•D: A. D. 1527- 
 1531 ; and 1659. 
 
 ACTS OF UNIFORMITY. Sec Ekolasd: 
 A. D. 1559 and 1663-'665. 
 
 ACULCO, Battle of (1810). See Mexico: 
 A. D. 1810-1819. 
 
 ACZ, Battle of (1840). See Acstria, A. D. 
 1848-1849. 
 
 ADALOALDUS, Kinf of the Lombards, 
 A. D. 616-626. 
 
 ADAMS, John, In the American Revolu- 
 tion. See Unite,, States of Am.: K. D. 1774 
 (Mat — June); 1774(8eptembek); 1775 (.Mat — 
 AcocsT); 1776 (Januaet -June), 1778 (.Iclt). 
 
 In diplomatic aervicc. See United States 
 
 OF Am.: a. D. 1782 (April); 17»2(SEi>TKMitKK— 
 
 KuvEMDEit) Presidential administration. 
 
 Sec United States of Am.: A. U. 17«8-1«01. 
 Death. See the same : A. D. 1N28. 
 
 ADAMS, John Quiocy. — The Treaty 
 of Ghent. See United States of Am. : A. D. 
 
 1814 (Decemher) As President. Sec same : 
 
 A. D. 1H24-1829 Defending right of Peti- 
 tion. See same : 1842. 
 
 ADAMS, Samuel, in and after the American 
 Revolution. See United States ok Am. : 
 A.I). 1772-1773; 1774(Septkmiiee); 177.>(Mat); 
 1787-1 7ti9. 
 
 ADDA, Battle of the (A. D. 490). See 
 Rome: A. I). 4«8-n20. 
 
 AD DECIMUS, Battie of (A. D. 533). See 
 Vaspats: a. 1>. .W;t-034. 
 
 ADEL. — ADALING. — ATHEL. — "The 
 honi'-s!;:! of tlic origiuttl Bottler, bis house, 
 farni-liiiil(tini,'S and enclosure, ' llie toft and i ruft,' 
 T'itli tlie share of arable and appurtenant conunon 
 rights, bore among the northern nalioii.s [early 
 Teutonic] the name of Odal, or Edliel ; the primi- 
 tive motlier village was an Athclby, or Athcl- 
 ham; tlio owner was an Atlielbqndo: the s.ima 
 word Adel or Athel signilled also nobility of 
 ilescint, and an Adallng was a nobleman."— W. 
 Mubbs Vfitttt. Ili't. iij Kny., eh. 8, Jkif. 24.— See, 
 also, .Vi,<>i>, and Kthi;!.. 
 
 ADELAIDE, The founding ard naming ol. 
 See AiMKAi.lA : A. I). 1MKI-1H4<I. 
 
 ADELANTADOS.— An early title given to 
 tlie gdveiiiors In Spanish Amerieu. 
 
 ADELBERT COLLEGE. See EnucA- 
 TMs, Mi'DKKn: Hi'EoiiMB : a. D. 1WH-1X91. 
 
 ADEN.— A port on the southern loast of 
 Arabia, talten by Great Britain from tlie ."^ultan 
 of Aden in IWlit. Adjaeeiit territory, with 
 I'eriin and otiier neighliorimr islands, lias been 
 ae()uin-d since. afTonlIng a naval and ciudlng 
 station Important to the domination of the lied 
 Se:. and the Siii'Z Canal. 
 
 ADIABENE. — .\name whlclienme to be np 
 plied aneieritly to the tmct of eountiy east uf the 
 middle Tigris, emhraeing what wa.H originally 
 Ihi- I'li'ih-r terrlioFj of As-yriti. t'.fjf'lier «liii 
 Arbelitis, Under the Parthian nioriarihy it 
 turmcd a tributary kingdom, much disputed 
 
 ADCLLAMTES. 
 
 between Parthia and Armenia. It was seized 
 several times by the Romans, but never perma- 
 nently held. — Q. liawlinson. Sixth Ortat OrttntcU 
 Monarchy, p. 140. 
 
 ADIRONDACKS, The. Bee AMimcui 
 Aborigines: Adironoaces. 
 
 ADIS, Battle of (B. C. 356). SeePuiiia 
 War, Tue Fihbt. 
 
 ADITES, The.— "The Cushltes, the first In- 
 habitants of Arabia, are known in the national 
 traditions by the name of Adites, from their 
 progenitor, who is called Ad, the grandson of 
 Ilam." — F. Lenormant, Manual of Ancient Uiit., 
 bk. 7, eh. 2.- .See Akauia. 
 
 ADJUTATORS. See England : A. D, 10,7 
 
 (ApUII. — .Vt.'liUST). 
 
 ADLIYAH, The. Sec Islam, 
 
 ADMIRALTY ISLES. See Meiankbia. 
 
 ADOLPH (of Nassau), King of Germaay, 
 A. D. 1291-1298. 
 
 «noLPHUS FREDERICK, King of 
 Sweden, A. D. 1751-1771. 
 
 ADOPTIONISM. — A doctrine, condenmed 
 as heretical in the eighth century, which taught 
 that "Christ, as to his human nature, was not 
 truly the Son of Ood, but only His sen by adop- 
 tion. " The dogma is also known as the Kelician 
 heresy, from a Spanish bishop, Felix, who was 
 prominent among its supporters, Charlemacne 
 took active measures to su ppress the heresy .—J. I. 
 Mombert, Uitt. of Charlea the Great, bk. 2, cA. 18. 
 
 ADRIA, Proposed Kingdom of, See Italt: 
 A. D. 1348-1889, 
 
 ADRIAN VI., Pope, A. D. 1522^-1.523. 
 
 ADRIANOPLE.— HADRIANOPLE.— A 
 city in Thrace founded by the Emperor Hadrian 
 and designated by his name. It was the scene 
 of Constantine's victory over Liciuius in A.. D. 
 828 (see Home: A. U. 805-323). ami of the de- 
 feat and death of Vaieiis in battle with the 
 Ooths (see GoTns (VlsiooTHs) : A. L). 37b), In 
 13U1 it became for some years tlie capital of the 
 Turks in Europe (see TtRKs: A, D. l;i()0-18«9). 
 It was occupied bv the Kussiuns in 1829, and 
 again In 1878 (see Turks: A. D, 182U-1829, and 
 A. D, 1877-1878), und gave Its name to the 
 Treaty negotiated in 1829 between Kussia and 
 the Porte (see OUEECE: A, V 1821-1829), 
 
 ADRIATIC, The Wedding of the. See 
 Venice: A 1). 1177, and 14m Cknturv. 
 
 ADRUMETUM. See Cartu.\ue, Tub Do- 
 minion OF, 
 
 ADUATUCI, The. See Bei.o.e, 
 
 ADULLAM, Cave of.— When David had 
 been cast out by the I'hill.stines, among whom he 
 sought refuge from the enmity of Saul, "his 
 flrst retreat was the Cave of Adullani. probably 
 the large cavern not far from Bethlehem, now 
 called Khureitiin, From its vieinitv to Bethle- 
 hem, he was joined there by his wlide family, 
 now feeling themselves insecure from Saul's 
 fury. . . . Besides tliesc were outlaws from 
 every part, including doubtless some of the 
 original (.'annanites — of whom the name of (me 
 at le:ist has been preserved, Ahiiiielich the 
 Ilittite In the vast columnar haiNauil birched 
 chamlH'rs of this sublcrnuiean pahix'. nil who 
 had any grudge against the exist 1114.' ystem 
 
 fathen'd rouml the hero of the con, 111 ie."— 
 U'Mn Stuidev, iMCl't on tli* IJiiit. •! ' Jtvitk 
 
 ADULL AMITES, The. See E.nol.v xd: A. 
 D. 1805-1808, 
 
ADWALTON MOOR. 
 
 ADWALTON MOOR, Battle of (A. D. 
 
 «643)— This wu a battle fought near Bradford 
 June 89, 1643, in the great Euglish Civil War" 
 The Parliamentary forces, under Lord Fairfax 
 were routed by the Royalists, under Newcastle' 
 — C. K. Markham, Life of the Great Lord Fair- 
 jux, eh. 11. 
 
 iGAKIOS (,««dd»).— The supposed de- 
 scendants of the demi-god ^akus, whose grand- 
 son was Ach'lles. (See Myrmidons.) Miltiades 
 tlio hero of marathon, and Pyrrhus, the warrior 
 Kinsf of Epirus, were amouL' those claiming to 
 belling to ;he royal race of -Eakids. 
 iEOHILING. See Etbel. 
 VOILES, Roman. See Rosre : B. C. 494-492 
 iEDUI.-ARVERNI.-ALLOBROGES.- 
 The two most powerful nations in Gallia were 
 the ^dui [or Hsedul] and the Arverui. The .iEdul 
 occupied that part which lies between the upper 
 Talluy of the Loire and the Saone, which river was 
 part of the boundary between them and the 
 Sequani. The Loire separaU'd the ^dui from 
 the Bitunges, whose chief town was Avaricum 
 on the site of Bourges. At this time [B. C 1811 
 the ArvemI, the rivals of the .Edui, were seek- 
 ing tlie supremacy in Gallia. The Arvemi occu- 
 pied the mounUinous country of Auvergne in 
 tlie centre of France and the fertile valley of the 
 1, aver (Allier) nearly as far as the j unction of the 
 Allior and the Loire. . . . They were on friendly 
 /TT>> theAllobroges, a powerful nation east 
 of the lUione, who occupied the country between 
 the Kh.me and the Isara (Isfre). . . . fn order to 
 break the for idable combination of the Arvemi 
 and the Allobroges, the Koiiuins made use of the 
 A.(lui, who were the enemies both of the AIIo- 
 brog.s an<l the Arverni. . . . A treaty was made 
 eithcT at this time or somewhat earlier between 
 the .-tilui and the Roman .s.-nate, who conferred 
 on tlici. new Gallic friends the honourable title of 
 brothers and kinsmen. Tiiis fraternizing was a 
 piece of political cant which the liomans prac- 
 ticed when it was useful. "-0. Long, Deeliw of 
 tht Ko'nan JiepMtc. ». 1, eh. 21.— See, also 
 
 ^G^ See Edessa (M.^cbdo.vu). 
 
 <*• C- IViv ^ P^""^ ^^*«' T"t- First. 
 nJT • I.f~"- P" -Egean, or White 
 
 ^ \- i^ distinguished fr<m the Euxine." 
 71^' *• *jeeman, Hittorieal Geog. of Europt, r. 
 413, and footnote. t^' i- 
 
 iEGIALEA.-iEGIALEANS.-The orig- 
 inal name of the northern coast of Peloponnesus, 
 and its inhabitants. See Greece: The Mioba- 
 
 ^GIKOREIS. 8eePiivL.«. 
 
 onlc gulf, between Attica and Argolls First 
 colonized by Ach«ans it wa.s afterwa^s icu- 
 pu.Hl by Dorians (seeOnEECK: The Mioratioks) 
 and was unfriendly to Athens. During the 
 sixth centurv B. C. It rose to great power and 
 c«Tnin..rcial Importance, and became for a time 
 
 ^ri.^'^'f'T^""'?.' "="'" »f 0'^<^k art. At the 
 period of the Persian war, .Eclua was "tin 
 Srst maritime power In 'Grec^ce " But he 
 AgineUns were at tliat timn engaged in war 
 with Athena, as the allies of Thebes, and rather 
 than f,;n.go their enmitv. they nir..rcd submission 
 «.n.:.V ',"■»""''""»<■ fie Athenians thereupon 
 appealjHl to Sparta „ the hea,l of Greece.'^ to 
 Interfere, and the ^glnetans were compeUed to 
 
 «. 4, 
 
 JSOUANl 
 
 rive hostages to Athens for their fidelity to the 
 Hellenic cause. (See Grmck: B. C. 498-491 ) 
 They purged themselves to a great extent of 
 their intended treason by the extraordinary valor 
 with which they fought at Salamls. But the 
 sudden preeminence to which Athens rose cast 
 a b ighting shadow upon ^glna, and in 429 B. 
 it lost its independence, the Athenians takini 
 possession of their discomfited rival.— C Thirl, 
 wall, HiH. of Greece e. 1, eA. 14 
 .Also ui G. Grote, Hi»t. of Greece, pt. 3 
 ""•88. — See, also, Athens: B. C. 4S9-480' 
 _ 9- .458-456.— Alliance with Corinth In 
 war with Athens and Me»ra.— Defeat and 
 »nb|ugation. See Greece: B. C. 4.W-158 
 
 B. C. 431.— Expulsion of the iEginetana 
 from their island by the Athenians?- Their 
 !rS^"A?'"' •* Thyrea. See Greece: B. C. 
 
 Ti?'«^\'"'"~°**°'»!'"»° ^7 ">« Romani.— 
 
 The first appearance of the llomans in Greece 
 when they entered the country as the allies of 
 the Atolians, was signalized bv the barbarous 
 destruction of .Egina. The ci'ty having been 
 taken, B. C. 810, ite entire population was reduced 
 to slavery by the Romans and the land and 
 buildings of the city were sold to Attalus, king 
 of Perg»mus.— E. A. Freeman, Uiet. cf Pedk-roL 
 
 9 
 
 ^?ItF,7,^''JALENT. See Talent. 
 
 iEGITIUM, Battie of (B. C. 436) — i. re- 
 verse experienced bv the Athenian General 
 Demosthenes, in his Invasion of ^tolia, durinir 
 the Peloponnesian War.— Thucydidcs, /lislor^ 
 ok. 8, leet. 97. ' 
 
 ^OSPOTAMI (Aigoipotamoi), Battle ot 
 See Obeece: B. C. 405. 
 •ALFRED. .See Alfred. 
 .«LIA CAPITOLINA.-The new name 
 
 i 'd 130-134"^ ^^ ""''' '"■ ^™ "'''"■*• 
 
 JULIAN AND FUFIAN LAWS. The.- 
 
 Thc^hanand Fuflan laws (loses yElia and 
 t ufla) the age of which unfortunatelv we can- 
 not accurately determine . . . enacted that a 
 popular assembly [at Rome] might be dissolved 
 or, in other words, the acoept.-mce of any pro^ 
 posed law prevented, if a ma.Kistrate aunounced 
 to the president of the -"ssemblv that It was hU 
 lutcntfon to choose the same time for wuteliing 
 the heavens. Such an announcement (obnuntl- 
 atio) was held .0 be a sufficient cause for i.iter- 
 rupting an assembly. "—W. lline, J/M. of llomt 
 UK. 6, eh. 10, 
 
 r.f f*'H5AN WAY. The.-".M. .Emillu. 
 Lepldus, Consul for the year 180 B. C con- 
 
 structwl the great road which bore his' name. 
 The JImilian W ay led from Arimiuuin throuirh 
 the new colony of Bononia to Placontia, beinit a 
 continuation of the Flamlnian Wav, or great 
 north road, made by C. Flamiiiius la 220 B C 
 from Rome to Arimlnum. At tlie same epeich! 
 !• laminius the son, being the colloagin! of Leoi! 
 dus, made a branch road from Bououla acroiis 
 the Appenines to Arretlum,"- 11. G LIddell 
 Uist. ^- a,,.:': bk. 6. eh. il. "uaeu, 
 
 •Sn.'H «5"J; Roman Emperor, A. D. 233. 
 
 iEOLIANS, The.-" The collective stoik of 
 |.rwk natoimhtics fails, according 1,, the view of 
 those ancient writers who labimri I ino^t to 
 obtain an exact knowledge of ethnographic 
 relationships, kto three main divisions, .Eoliani 
 
^OLIANS. 
 
 iETOLIAN LEAGUE. 
 
 Dorians and lonlans. ... All the other inhabit- 
 ants of Greece [nut Dorians and lonians] and of 
 the islands included in it, are compri6ed under 
 the common name of vEoIians — a name unknown 
 as .vet to Uonier, and wliicli was incontestubly 
 applied to a great divcrsitj' of peoples, aninri^ 
 nliicii it is certain that no such homogeneity of 
 race is to hv assumed as existed among the loni- 
 ans and Dorians. Among tlie two former races, 
 though even these were scarcely in any quarter 
 completely unmixed, there was incontestably 
 to be found a single original stock, to wliich 
 others had merely been attached, and as it were 
 engrafted, whereas, among the peoples assigned 
 to the /Eolians. no such original stock is recog- 
 nizable, but on tlic contrary, as great a differ- 
 ence is found between the several members 
 of this race as between Dorians and lonians, 
 and of the so-called .Eolians, some stood nearer 
 to the former, others to the latter. ... A 
 thorough and careful investigation might well 
 lead to the conclusion that the Greek people 
 was divided not into three, but into two main 
 races, one of which we may call Ionian, the other 
 Dorian, while of the so-called ..Eolians some, 
 and probably the greater number, belonged to 
 the former, the rest to the latter. " — O. F. Schii- 
 man, Antiq. of Ctrctcc : The State, pt. 1, c/t. 2. — 
 In Greek myth., ..Eolus, the fancied progenitor 
 of the ^Eolians, appears as one of the three sons 
 of Ilcllen. ".Eolus is represented as having 
 ri^igned in Thessaly: his seven sons were Kre- 
 theus, Sisyphus, Athamas, Salmoneus, Ucion, 
 Magnes anil Pericres : his five daughters, Canacc, 
 Alcyone, Peisidike, Calyce and Permedc. The 
 fables of this race seem to be distinguished by a 
 constant introduction of the God Poseidon, as 
 well as by i 'i itnusual prevalence of haughty and 
 presuuipt'unus attributes among the yEolid 
 heroes, leading them to affront the gods by pre- 
 tences of equality, and sometimes even by defl 
 ancc." — G. Grote, Ilitt. of Orcece, pt. 1, eh. 0. 
 — See, also, Tiiessaly, Doriass AJfD Io^'IA^s, 
 and Asi.\ JIinor: Tiie Greek Colonies. 
 
 .£QUIANS,The. SeeOsCASS; alsoLATiUM; 
 and Home ; B. C. 458. 
 
 .£RARIANS.— Roman citizens who had no 
 political rights. See Censobb, Uoman, 
 
 ^RARIUM, The. SceFiscus. 
 
 .£SOPUS INDIANS. Sec Amekic a^: Abo- 
 RioixEs: .\i.ii«NQriAN Family. 
 
 iESTII, or .«STYI, The.—" At this point 
 [beyond the Suiones] the Suevic Sea [the Baltic], 
 on its eastern shore, washes the tribes of tlio 
 .£stii, whose rites and fashions and styles of 
 dress are tliosc of the Suevi, while their language 
 ia more lilco the British. They worship the 
 mother of the gods and wear as a religious sym- 
 bol the device of a wild boar. . . . They often 
 use clubs, iron weapons but seldom. They are 
 more patic nt In cultivating corn and other pro- 
 duce than might be expected from the genenil 
 indolence of the Germans. But they also searcli 
 the deep and are the only people who gather 
 ambiT, uliicli they call glesum. '—"The ^Eslli 
 occupied that part of ftiissia which is to the 
 nortli east of tlie Vistula. . . . The name still 
 survives in the form Estonia." — Tacitus, Ocr- 
 mauii, triiia. by Church and lirodrihb, irith 
 no^.— See, also, Prussiam Lanqijaof., The 
 
 0L1>. 
 
 £SYMNET£, An.— Among the Greeks, 
 an expedient "which seems to have been tried 
 
 not unfrequently in early times, for preserving 
 or restoring tranquility, was to invest an indi- 
 vidual witii absoVitc power, under a peculiar 
 title, which soou became obsolete: that of 
 a's^mnctae. At Cuma, Indeed, and in other cities, 
 this was the title of an ordinary magistracy, prob- 
 ably of that which succeeded the hereditary mon- 
 archy; but when applied to an exf ordinary 
 olTice, it was equivalent to tlie title of protector 
 or dictator."- C. Thirlwall, Jlut. of Oreeee, eh. 
 10. 
 
 iCTHEL.— .CTHELING. See Ethel, and 
 Adcl. 
 
 iETHELBERT, iETHELFRITH, ETC. 
 See ETiUiLiiicRT, etc. 
 
 iCTOLIA.— iCTOLIANS.- "^tolia, the 
 country of Dionied, though famous in the early 
 times, fell back during the migratory period 
 almost into a savage condition, probablv through 
 the influx into it of an Illyrian population which 
 became only partially Hellenized. The nation 
 WHS divided Into numerous tribes, among which 
 ti. most iinportant were the Apodoti, the Ophl- 
 oneis, the Eurytanes and the Agnrana. There 
 were scarcely any cities, village life l>eing pre- 
 ferred universally. ... It was not till the wars 
 which arose among Alexander's successors that 
 the .(Etolians formed a real political union, and 
 became an important power in Greece."— O, 
 Rawlinson, Manual of Ancient Hint., bk. 3. — See 
 also, Akarn-amanb, and Greece: The Mioba- 
 
 TI0N3. 
 
 iCTOLIAN LEAGUE, The.— "The Acha- 
 ian and the ..Etolian Leagues, had their constitu- 
 tions been written down in the shape of a formal 
 document, would have presented but few vari- 
 eties of importance. The same general form of 
 government prevailed in both ; each w as federal, 
 each was deniocr.itic; each had its popular as- 
 sembly, its smaller Senate, its general with large 
 powers at the head of all. The differences be- 
 tv.cen the two arc meri'ly those dilleronces of 
 detail which will alwavs arise between any two 
 political sy.stems of wliich neither is slavidily 
 copied from the othei. ... If therefore federal 
 states or democratic stotes, or aristocratic states, 
 were necessarily weak or strong, peaceful or 
 aggressive, honest or dishonest, we should sec 
 Aeliaia and ..Etolia both exhibiting the same 
 moral characteristics. But history tells another 
 tale. The political conduct of the Achaian 
 Ix'ague, with some mistakes and some faults, is, 
 on the whole, highly houourable. The political 
 conduct of the ..Etolian League is, throughout 
 the century in which we know it best |last half 
 of third and first li.alf of s<}Cond century B. C.j 
 almost always simply infamous. . . . The coun- 
 sels of the /Etolian League were thrmigliout di- 
 rected to mere plunder, or, at most, to selfish 
 political aggrandisement. "— E. A. Freeman, Jlitt. 
 of /lJ»rai Gort., eh. 6. — The plundering aggres- 
 sions of the ..Etolians involved them in continual 
 war with their Gre'ck kindred and neighbours, 
 and they did not sirniple to seek fon'ign aid. It 
 was through their ajrcney that the Homiins were 
 first brought into Greece, and it was by their 
 instruimnt4ility that Antiochus fought his battle 
 with Home on the sneredest of all lldleRic Koil. 
 In the end, B. C. lHi», the League was strijiped 
 by the Romans of even its nominal inile|)en(lencc 
 and sank into a eonleniptllile servitude. — E. A. 
 Freeman, The nimr, ch. 7-0. 
 
 Also in C. Thiriwall, Jlut. of Greece, ch. 03-60. 
 
 10 
 
AFOIUNISTAN. B. C. 880. 
 
 l^^FP^^F^J^^'- °- C- 330.-Coaqne.t 
 
 8..a-323; and I.ndia: B. C. 327-313 
 
 B. C. 301-346.— In the Syrian Empire. Sep 
 MjLEUciD^; and Macedonia, &c.: 310-Soi atid 
 
 A. D. 99>-tl83.-Tlie Ghaznevide Empire. 
 ifr-Par^' 000-1183; and I.ndia: Z D. 
 
 Ki^n°' yth Centurjr.-Conquests of Jinghis- 
 s™ T °o.i^*^'3'"'-*='""""* "' Timour. 
 
 Sc.fi.°D.ArT'i^''c-^f.??5""' '''''"'''' ^''"'• 
 
 • nu Pii.''^'."'l*i-;'^''« Empire of the Door- 
 
 ?i?i!: ^SfS** *'>''•""— Hi5 Conquests in 
 
 India. See India. A. i>, ITIT-ITCI. 
 
 Mf's^ *803-i838 -Shah Soojah and Dost 
 
 Mahomed.-6ngli,hintcrf2rence.-'vSl,al"?" 
 
 ^x I, Qh'?"'' •" e™"''""" of the illustrious 
 
 ,, I ? .■ ■."'? y^i'."' •""' ''"■'' full of trouble 
 h^vorJ^"^'^^ ncLa,llH.,n a wanderer on 
 I e ^ergc of starvation, a pedlar, and a l.a„. 
 1 . who raised n.o,„.j. by plun.l.T nR earav s 
 IH courage was lightly reputed, and \t was 
 , Tu T'"""* "f cireuiastaiice tl,at he 
 
 mid in 180« he was a f.ijriavc and an e\ile 
 Kuujeet Singh, the Sikh ruler of t Ic 'uiii- ilV 
 
 'Tlw'.^ '"•" "' ""? '""""» IvoI,-i-n,«r? ! ie ; 
 fa now he most nreeious of the crown jo v, 1» of 
 England, and pluudered ami l:„pnsine,l the' 
 f.illen man. Sliah Soejah at len'nh escai 1 
 from Lahore. After further nii^fortune^'h 
 ut length reached the British frontier sta ion ,f 
 
 ^ , .tl?' ',"?'* f '"■'P'"'y- After the .lowiif "1 of 
 ^ ah hoojah, Afghanistan for manv years w, a 
 prey to anarchy. At length iu isL'O D<rst Jh 
 
 < al.ul, and this masterful man thenceforwar I 
 held sway until his death In 1H03, unimerrut,t 
 e<lly save during the three years of tl e IJri k h' 
 kin",'o'\h"".- ^' M'»'"'>ne</wasneitlie kUh n ^ 
 Uu to the legitimatedynastv whi<;l, hc.'.isplaec 
 lli.s father Poyndah Khau was au al I^Jl S^^^^ 
 ".Id gallant soldier, lie left twen"v.onc ^n" of 
 whom Kutteh Khan was the eldest? and IVost 
 Mahomed oiieof the vwiingest. . . . ThrouX ' 
 his long reign Dost .\lah.m.e<l was a s rong ana 
 
 •iis.'.iiute. Ills eilucat on was de'ertivs nn.i i.„ 
 h.Hl lK.en addicte.! to wine. \CoXd o^t I'e 
 tlu-oiie the reforiimtion of our llenrv V was .mf 
 more thorough than was that of DoTt Malomed 
 
 «u al^"^™"^ scrupulously abstemious, ass du" 
 
 T^priV" '""§''■■ "■""''™t, but courteous. 
 
 ■ . . ihere was a fine ruggei: honi>sii- In ut, 
 
 '^^ZLna±\'^"^} "'■ KSine cld;l^rv:\ ' 
 
 lad hi. ^^.^ ^ "■*'' "S*"^ f"'' «'« English 
 »mt 1 IS loyally to us was broken onlv \,v iL 
 
 AFGHANISTAN, 1803-1888. 
 
 11 
 
 \Zr^},' '" L*^'"."''' '^•M continually intrigu. 
 g for his restoratio: His schemes were long 
 »'I.emtive.„„ditwa.,„ot until im that ce* 
 .|m arran-ements were entered into between 
 hun and the Jiahamja Hunjeet S iigh To an 
 application on .s;,aU-'.s.K,j.,|/g part for count'" 
 uaiiee and pecuniary aid, the Anf:Io-Indian Gov- 
 vSt'?"". )'-h ".','"^""1 l..-.n assistance 
 i'v InvT, ;'™'';"*""' ^i'l' the poli.y of neutral- 
 bMt w t;.o Government Imd iinpo..<.d on itself- 
 s imh'rnr'^ contributed linai'eially t.iward 
 ptnsion in advance. KLvteen thousand runecs 
 formed a scant war fund with whi.h o attempt 
 he recovery of a throne, but the f^hal star teloa 
 his errand in February, IKi). After a success" 
 fulcontest with the A.neers,,f.Seinde'hem relied 
 m Candahar. an.l besieged that fortress, ('.mda- 
 har was in cvtrcmity when I),.st .Mahomed 
 lurrying from Cabul. relieved it, am oining 
 forces with Its defenders he defeated and rou ef 
 H.ahS,K,jah, who fled preeipitatelv, I. avintr be 
 hind him his artillery an,l camp cj, ipa^e ^) r- 
 mg he post's absence in the so ,tl., ^iu, J Jt 
 bi.ighs troops crossed the Attoc^k, oeeu .'d^the 
 Afghan province of Peshawur. and drove ho 
 Afghans into the Ivhyber Pas.s. Xo sul,se,,uent 
 
 Jt^'filkU^r' ''»''{l«'r''' ""' availed ,of."pe 
 he bikhs from Peshawur, and susiueious of 
 
 fu aggression ho took into c.insi leratioi, the 
 
 wi h'-Pei - r'"\ '"f ^''"r^^^y « ™">'ter alii., iieo 
 ^^lt 1 1 e sia. As lor Shah Soojah, he liid i rent 
 back to I, s refuge at L«„lianal . Lord .V ,el 1 ,^d 
 Mieceeded Lord William IJentinck as Governor 
 p."'''™'"; I"'li' in March, 18;!li. In re-^l" to 
 Dost Jlahomeds letter of eonu'ratulaii,m his 
 ordship wrote: 'You arc awarc^ tha ,' no? 
 
 ferewth heallairsof other in.lepend.nt ^Stat• 
 v?,Me '"Vl" V'k'' ^-""^ AueuLnd was ««,.•„ 
 uflf- i"*-' ^■"' ^'-'i-'fe'l'tfrom Lnu-land tlie feel 
 
 .ig of disquietude in regard to the desi -ns of 
 I'ersia and Hussia which the conimuuieat „ 's of 
 our envoy in Persia had fostered in tl e ilonio 
 Governnu.nt, but it would app,.ar that he was 
 ^diolly umlecided what line of action to pursue 
 •bway«l,' saysDurand, • by the va:r,e m.rt 
 hensions of a remote danger cnterta ned ' by 
 others rather than himself he desp:itehed to 
 Afu'hanist,an Captain Curnes on a noi nallv 
 eo:nmereial mission, which, hi f.at wis one o^ 
 p,.litical discovery, Imt without .le.'h.r.e hi'^^ruJ 
 tions. Burnes, an able but rash and ambi ious 
 man reached Cabul in SeptemlKT, lT'7 two 
 months before the Pe^ian a'rmy began ti,;- M^ge 
 ?. I. •,-,•. ^''« I'""*' ">ade no e(,neealm<^t 
 
 to liiirues of his approaches to P.rsia ,1 1 us 
 
 hu;i.r?fo?r.i^."""H' e<«^oi;iec,s, and bc^g 
 11 ingry for assistance from any source to meet 
 the encroachmeuts of the Sikl.s, he pr fS 
 hmself ready to abandon his nel-otiat .,1 s\tith 
 the western powers if he we.e given re In M 
 expect counten.fuee and a.ssislanee u tlu- hfmU 
 
 of the Anglo-Indian Government The si „ 
 
 ent'lv cL""!-"? '"r'"""" to the Dos w .s , el 
 tntly complicated by the arrival at Cabul of t 
 Uussian olflcer claimim: to be an envoy ,„,|,^ 
 Czar, wh.«e.cre. entials. however, wer-. re." n i.l 
 
 Mm. lei ".T-. T:^ "''"• " """ cireuru..,, ,;.; 1 a, 
 I 1. least w,dght, was on his return lo Hussa it! 
 D^{ ,";'PudiHled by Count Nes.seli,« e The 
 Dost took small account of this e.iiissarir, con! 
 
■ ^^ 
 
 i 1! 
 
 AFGHANISTAN, 1803-1888. 
 
 tlnulng to auura Burnea that he carcU for no 
 connection except with tbe English, and Burncg 
 professed to his Oovemmeat his fullest con 
 tidence in the sincerity of those dcclamttoos. 
 But the tone of Lord Auckland's reply, addreised 
 to the Dost, was so dictatorial and supercilious 
 as to indicate the writer's intention that it should 
 give offence. It had that effect, and Bumcs' 
 mission at once became hopeless. . . . The Hus- 
 sinn envoy, who was profuse in his promises of 
 everything which the Dost was most anxious to 
 obtam, was received into favour and treated with 
 distinction, and on his rr.,um journey he clfected 
 a treaty with the O daliar chiefs wliich was 
 presently ratified by e liussian minister at the 
 Persian Court. Bumes, fallen into discredit nt 
 Cabul. quitted that place iu August 1838. lie 
 liad ni)t been discreet, but it was not his indis- 
 cretion that brought aboi t the failure of his 
 mission. A nefarious transaction, which Kaye 
 denounces with tlie jmssion of a just indignation, 
 connects itself with Bumes' negotiations '• Hli 
 the Dost ; Ids ofticial correspondence was ui.jcru- 
 nulously mutilated and garbled in the published 
 Blue Book with deliberate purpose to deceive 
 the British public. Bumes had failed because, 
 since lie had quitte<l India for Cabul, Lord 
 Auckland's policy hail gradually altered. Lord 
 Auckland had landed in India in the character 
 oi a .nan of peace. That, so la>, as April 1S37, 
 he !ia ! no design of obstructing the existing 
 situation in Afghanistan is proved by his writ- 
 ten stateuunt of that date, that 'tlie British 
 Governrient had resolved decidedly to discourage 
 the prosecution by the ex-king Sliah Soojah-ool- 
 Jloolk, so long as" he may nniain under our pro- 
 tection, of further schemes of hostility against 
 the chiefs now in power in Cabid and Candaliar.' 
 ■y.'t, in tlie following June, heconcluded a treaty 
 which sent Shall Soojah to Cabul, escorU-d by 
 Briti!<li liayoc'ts. Of this inconsistency no ex- 
 planation prefi'iits itself. It was a far cry from 
 our frontier !jn the Sutlei to Herat in the con- 
 fines of Cei'trai Asia — a distance of more than 
 1,200 mile , over some of tlie most arduous 
 marching ground in the known world. . . . 
 Lord William Bentinck, I.onl Auckland's prede- 
 cessor, denounced the project as iiii act of in- 
 credible folly. Marquis Wellcsli regardeil 
 'this wild expedition into a dista. region of 
 rocks and disirts. of sands and ice and snow," ns 
 an Oct of infatuation. Tlie Duke of Wellington 
 pronimiK. .1 witli prophetic sagacity, that tlie 
 consequeM 1 iif iince cn>s.Mng the Indus to sctile 
 a govemiii. nt in Afghanistan would be a peren- 
 nial march into that country." — A. Forbes, T/ic 
 Afghan U'lim, ch. 1. 
 
 Also in: J. I'. Ferrier, Ilift. of tht Afljtiant, 
 eh. 10-20.— Mohan ImX, Life of Amir Dott Mo- 
 hammed Khou, T. 1. 
 
 A. D. 1838-1843. — English invasion, knd 
 reitoration of Soojah Dowlah.— The revolt at 
 Cabul. — Horrors of tbe British retreat. — 
 Destruction of the entire army, save one man, 
 only.— Sale's defence of Jellalabad.— "To ap- 
 proach Afghanistan it was necessary to secure 
 the friendship of the Sikhs, who were, -indeed, 
 r !idy enough to join against their old enemies; 
 nnd a threefnhl treaty wag contracted between 
 liunjeet Singh, tlie English, and Shah Stxnah 
 f.->r the rrstnnitiiin of the hanisluHl hnuso. The 
 expedition — which according to the original 
 intention was to have been carried out chiefly 
 
 AFGHANISTAN. 1838-1843. 
 
 of Shah 
 
 In the pay 
 the SlUu— rapldlv grew into 
 
 by mcani of troops 
 Soojah and 
 
 an English invasion of Afglianrstan. A 
 conslderible force was gathered on the Sikb 
 frontier from Bengal; a second army, under 
 General Keane, was to come up from Kurrachee 
 through Sindh. Both of these armies, and the 
 troops of Shah Soojah, were to enter the high- 
 lands of Afghanistan by the Bolan Pass. As 
 the Sildis would not willingly allow the free 
 passage of our troops through their country, an 
 additional burden was laid upon the armies, — 
 the independent Ameers of Sindh had to be 
 coerced. At length, with mucli trouble from 
 the difficulties of the country and the loss of the 
 commissariat animals, the forces were all col- 
 lected under the command of Keane beyond the 
 passes. Tlie want of food permiti..>d of no delay ; 
 the army pushed on to Candahar. Shah Soojah 
 was declared Monarch of the southern Princi- 
 pality. Thence the troops moved rapidiv on- 
 wards towards the more important and ditlicult 
 conquest of Cabul. Ghuznee, a fortress of 
 great strength, lay in the wav. In their hasty 
 movements the English had left their battering 
 train behind, but the gates of the fortress were 
 blown in witli gunpowder, and by a brilliant 
 feat of arms the iortress was stormed. Nor did 
 the English army encounter any important 
 resistance subsequently. Dost Mohamed found 
 his followers deserting him, and withdrew north- 
 wanls into the mountains of the Ilindcx) Koosh. 
 With all the splendour that could be collected. 
 Shall Soojah was brought back to his throne in 
 the Bnla Ilissar, the fortress Palace of Cabul. 
 . . . For the moment the policy sesnied thor- 
 oughly successful. The English Ministry could 
 feel that a fresh check had been placed upon its 
 liussian rival, and no one dreamt of the terrible 
 retribution that was in store for the unjust vio 
 lencc done to the feelings of a people. . . . 
 Dost Moliamcd thought it prudent to surrender 
 himself to the English envoy. Sir William Mac- 
 nagliten, and ,0 withdraw with his family to the 
 English pnivinces of Hiudostan [Novemlier, 
 1840J. lie was there well received and treated 
 with liberality; t r, as both the Governor 
 General and his chief adviser Macnaghten felt, he 
 had not in fact in any way offended us, but had 
 fallen a victim to our policy. It -.vas in tlie full 
 belief that their policy in India had liecn crowned 
 with permanent success that the Whig Ministers 
 withdrew from office, leaving their successors 
 to encounter the terrible results to which it led. 
 For w hilc the English officials were blindly con- 
 gratulating themselves upon the happy comple- 
 tion of tiieir enterprise, to an observant eye 
 signs of aiipniaching difficulty were on all sides 
 visible. . . . The removal of" the strong rule of 
 the Barrukzyes opened a door for undefined 
 hopes to many of th-3 other families and tribes. 
 Tlie whole country was full of intrigues and of 
 diplomatic bargaining, carried on by the Eni- 
 lish political agents with the various chiefs 
 ami leaders. But they soon found that the 
 hopes excitc<l by these negotiations were illu- 
 sory. The allowances for which they had bar- 
 gained were reduced, for tlie English envoy 
 U'gan to be disquieted at the vast expenses of 
 tlie Government. They did not find that they 
 dirived any advantaces from the establishment 
 of the new' puppet King, Soojah Dowlah; and 
 every Mahomedau, even tbe very king himself, 
 
 12 
 
 If 
 
AFGHANISTAN, 1888-1849L 
 
 (bit dlimced at the predotnHsnce of the Eng- 
 U«h Inddeli. But u no actual iniurrection 
 broke out, Macoaghtcn, • man ot ■anguioe 
 temperament and anxioua to believe TPhat he 
 wUhed, In iplte of unmlatakable war Ingg ai to 
 the real feeUng of the people, clung with 
 •Imott angry Tebemcnce to the persuasion that all 
 was going weh, -ad that tLe new King had a real 
 hold upon the people's affection. Ho completely- 
 bad he deceived himself on this point, that he 
 had decided to send back a portion of the Eng- 
 lish army, under General Sale, Into HlndosUn 
 He even Intended to accompany it himself to 
 enjoy the peaceful post of Governor of Bombay 
 with which his successful policy had been 
 rewarded. His pluce was to bo taken by Sir 
 Alexander Burnes, whose view of the troubled 
 condition of the country underlying the com- 
 parative calm of the surface was much truer 
 than that of Macnaghten, but who, perhaps 
 from that very fact, was far less popular among 
 the chiefs. The army which was to remain at 
 Candahar was under the command of General 
 Nott, an able and decided if somewhat Irascible 
 inan But Oeneml Elphinstone, the commander 
 of the troops at Cabul, was of quite a different 
 stamp. He was much respecte<l and liked for 
 bis honoun-ble character and social qualities 
 but was advanced in years, a contirined invalid! 
 "1. r.?"y wanting in tlio vigour and decision 
 which his critical position was likclv to reciuire 
 The fools paradise with which the Enclisli 
 Envoy had surrounded himself was rudelv 
 destroyed. He had persuaded himself that the 
 fr(i:cntly recurring disturbances, and especially 
 t le las jrrection of the GbfL/cs between Cabul 
 and Jcllalabad, :rere mere local outbreaks. But 
 ;i '"k. ^ ^V"- .--^P'racy was on foot in which 
 the -Hefs of nearly every important tribe In the 
 COL' 7 were implicated. On the evening of 
 the . , of November [1841] a meeting of the 
 chie. was held, and h was decided that an 
 Immeumte attack should be made on the house 
 of Sir Alexander Burnes. The following morn- 
 ing an angry crowd of assailants stormed the 
 houses of bir Alexander Burnes and Captain 
 Johnson, munlcnng the Inmates, and rifline tho 
 treasure-chests belonging to Soojah Do^lh's 
 
 r'^L ^1? ""'• >"''"'*. "^"y '"" '° '■"d iosur- 
 I u ?i^ A-- «'''<l'"i'* Is nearly Irresistible that 
 Li , .K ""•^? """^ raj.; lity of action on the 
 part of the iniiitary would have at once crushed 
 n;?m«"'^'*''''■ ^"\ although the attack on 
 Burnes s hou.se was known, no troops were sent 
 to his assistance. Indeed, that unbroken coursa 
 or folly and nusmanagement which marked tlie 
 conduct of our military affairs througnout this 
 "'f ', ^«d aIroa,lv begun. Instead of Occupying 
 
 would hf/^'^' ^1'» "'*^'- '^''^'^ 'he annf 
 would have been in comparative securitv 
 Elphinstone hm ti1n,-n,i »,i.' . - =<->.ui uj , 
 
 AFGHANISTAN, 188»-18a 
 
 Elphinstone had placed his tr™ 3 In^c'aS' IZ^^^'f .? """« unresisting prey to tS 
 mentsfartooex.cilsivetobrproZlvdeW^'' n^nf '.,°i i"„^ r""'^'"^": CpP^t^nt com 
 
 •«»,,,*»/ - I--1-V1 atia iMnjjM in cantor. 
 
 mcnts far tw exirnsivc to be properly defended 
 .urrounded by an entrenchilient of the S 
 tosigmflcant chamcter. commanded on Imo 
 
 Snfltne« .^f If '"•'"' ^'?'!'"*- To complete the 
 «fnnH„f '^"-" P"'"'^". the commissariat 
 
 ITn^l IT"" "'", "tort'd witliiu the canton- 
 ^Z\,T,^T '''"T'' '° «" ''°'»tcd fort at 
 ^Iu^J'^^'a""- *■" •''"'"tained and futile 
 Msault was made upon tlie town on the ."M of 
 
 Bri«T^ *"!' ''■"■" "'at time onwarfs the 
 S^ awSlSKt'l!; ^'"; '"^'""P'«'h"«lble supine' 
 neis awaiting their fate in their defenceless 
 
 13 
 
 podUon. The commlmriat fort soon feU iota 
 the hands of the enemy and rendered their situ- 
 atlon still more deplorable. Borne Sashes of 
 bravery now and then lighted up the sombw! 
 jcene of helpless misfortune, and served to show 
 that destruction might even yet have been 
 
 ^I'^^'k^^ ",""',« S™""*- • • • But the ^ 
 mander had already begun to despair, and before 
 many days had passed he was thinking of mak- 
 ing terms with the enemy. Macnaghtcn had no 
 course open to him under such circumstances 
 but to adopt the suggestion of the general, and 
 atteinpt as well as he could by bribes, caiolerv 
 and Intrigue, to divide the chiefs and secure » 
 ^n''„J'n"'\^''l""' f-^J'^h. Akbar Khan, the 
 son of Dost Mohamed, though not present at the 
 beginning of the Insurrection, had arrived from 
 tne northern mountains, and at onco a.sserted a 
 fv'^i??!"*'" Influence in the ii.^urgent councils. 
 V, Ith h;m and with the other Insurgent chi fa 
 Maciiashten entered Into an arrrangemcnt or 
 wh c!i ho promised to withdraw tiie EngluL 
 entirely from the country If a safe passage wci» 
 secured for the army through the passes. 
 While ostensibly treating with the PirrukzVe 
 ti 1 ■ he .'"'■•'gued on all sides with the rival 
 ^f ?1 1 1,1° il"'''* ^f?""S was taken advantage 
 of by Akbar Khaa He sent messengers to Mac- 
 naglitcn proposing that the English should make 
 a separate treaty with himself and support him 
 vl'..li 'heir troops in an assault upon some of his 
 mals. The proposition was a mere trap, and 
 L., r""?^ fell Into it. Ordering troops to be 
 got readv, he burned to a meeting with Akbar 
 Mm.!!.?/, f^""" arrangement. There he found 
 himself in the presence of the brot:.er and rela- 
 tives of the very men against whom he was 
 plotting, and was seized and murdered bv 
 Akbar 8 own hand [December 231. Still thi 
 General thought of nothing but surrend r The 
 negotiations were entrusted to Jlalor Pottineer 
 iT^Lk'^^^"' "■! '='''<''' gradually rose, an.Tat 
 length with much confusion the wretched armr 
 marched out of the cantonmenU [Januair i. 
 l^IL"""^''^^^^"^ nearly all the cannon and 
 superfluous military stores. An Afghan escort 
 to secure the safety of the troops on their peS- 
 ous journey had been promised, but the prunise 
 
 l^nT^^T^^^" '"'"»"' °"he retreat fo™ 
 one of the darkest paasages in English military 
 historv. In bitter cold and snow, which took 
 111" ?1l:°' *'•<' wretched Sepoys, without 
 proper clothing or shelter, and hampered by » 
 disorderly mass of thousands of camp-followers 
 the army entered the terrible defiles which lie 
 Khr ? ^r,"",' ""dJellalabad. Whether Akba? 
 khan could had he wish, ,1 it, have reatrained 
 lis fanatical followers is un-rtaiu. As a iact 
 the retiring crowd-It can scarcely be called an 
 army— was a mere unresisting prey to the 
 assail ta r,t tl.o .........t.i "r-r y . ""' 
 
 n,.,„i„».i ■■■"""■-.-i.ucfra. i^onsiant com- 
 
 munication was kept up with Akbar; on the 
 third day all thb ladles and children With the 
 
 S'.H.'Ji^''^ ""'^K ^""^ P''«=«'^ '" his hands, and 
 flna ly even the two generals gave themselves up 
 
 ^.,^ .f .f '• '■'^"''f L" 'he hope that the rem- 
 ? p p < L"?/ "''ght be aliowe.1 to escape."- 
 
 Then the march of 'he armv, without a Gen- 
 eral, went on Hgain. Soon it 'became the story 
 ThnJ^''™'.!!"''""' »n,«nny; before very long 
 lengthen a tale of mere horrors. The strajr 
 
AFGHANISTAN, 1838-1848. 
 
 AFGHANISTAN, 1842-1869. 
 
 sling remnant of an army entered the Jugdulluk 
 Puss — a dark, steep, narrow, ascending path 
 between cra;;j. The miserable toilers found 
 that the fanatical, implacable tribes had barri- 
 caded the pass. All was over. The army of 
 Cabul was tinally extinguished in that barri- 
 caded pass. It was a trap; the British were 
 taken in it. A few mere fugitives escaped from 
 the seine of actual slaughter, and were on the 
 road to Ji'llalabad, where Sale and his little 
 army wi-re holding their own. When ihey were 
 within sixteen miles of Jcllalabad the number 
 was reduced to six. Of these six five were 
 killed by straggling marauders on the way. 
 One man alone reached Jellalabad to tell the 
 tale. Literally one man, Dr. lirydon, came to 
 Jella!al>a>l [.lanuary 13] out of a moving host 
 whicn had nundiered in all some 16,000 when it 
 set out ou its march. The curious eye will 
 search through history or fiction in vain for 
 any pl.ture more thrilling with the suggestions 
 of an a«f 111 catastrophe than that of this solitary 
 survivi,,-, faint and reeling on his Jailed horse, 
 as he appeared under the walls of Jellalabad, to 
 bear the tidings of our Thermopylae of pain and 
 shame. This is the crisis of tlio story. AVith 
 this at li.'tst the worst of the pain and ahamo 
 were deslinid to end. The rest is all, so far 
 as we are concerned, reaction and recovery. 
 Our siiccisii'S are conmion enough; we may tell 
 their t:ilc' liritlly in tliis instance. The garrison at 
 J llilaliiid ha. I reieivi'd licfore Pr. Itrydon's ar- 
 rivid 101 iiilini itinii tliat they were to go out and 
 march lo«,ird India in accordance with the terms 
 '.if llielri aty cx.i rtiil from KlphiustoticatC'abwI. 
 Tliey VI rv prop-riy di-clined to lie bound by a 
 inMtv wiiiili, as (ienir.'d Hale rightly conjee- 
 lurid, h.'id I'lcn 'foriid from our envoy and 
 'nililiry I'liniiriii li r with tlie knives at tin ir 
 iliri'.'it'i.' (JinerLl i-iiilc'sdc'crmination was clear 
 and !-imp!e. ' i pr ipose to lioltl this place on 
 the part lit (lovernmint until I receive its order 
 to the cnntmry.' Tiiis resolve of Sale's was 
 really the tuniinir point of the history. Halo 
 held Jellalal'id; Nott was at Candahar. Akbar 
 Khan lusiriied .Jellula'ud. Nature seemed to 
 ha\o diilan d herself eniplialically on lils side, 
 for a piiciesslon iif eiirlhu'iike shocks sliatlered 
 the wills of the r'ace, and priHlucil more 
 lerrllile destruiiicMi .han die most forM.ldalle 
 guns of iiicHiim wiirfaro ciMild have dune, lint 
 the r irri-ou In 11 mit fiarlcssly ; they restored 
 the jiaraiiets, recstalilishid cMry battery, re- 
 trcn'hid the whule of the g:ites alid built tip all 
 the lireachi's. 'i'hry risi^lid cmtv attempt of 
 Akiiar Klnn to ailvame upMii their works, and 
 at IiiD.'lli, wh.n it bee ime (I riain Hint (ieneral 
 I'oljni k w;is fiinliiir tin' lihvlier I'uss to come 
 to Ihiir rrlirf. till V ih tiTiiiinid to attack Akbar 
 Khan's joniv; tiny imiird Imldiv out of their 
 forts, f.ir. .-d n b-iMle on the Afiihan eliiif, an.l 
 coni|i|ili>ly dif<rii..| him. JM..re I'Mllock, hav- 
 ing f'dl.iiillv fii.ii'ht his wav thrinigh the 
 Kli>l"r I'a'.s lind n acliid .IilhiUbacl (April 1«] 
 the iKli-aaui ring army hiid ben entirely ilef^atrd 
 ami ilispi r-i I. , , Miinwliilc lln- uiifort mate 
 Shall ^.lOJ■lll, whom wc had rcstcired with sn 
 mm h pump uf niin.ninniiniit In the throne of 
 his nMislurs, was ihad. lie was nsias-iinitid 
 in ('a!"d. ^" "i iiftcr the -h'tiariMr!' of 'hv Itrii'r'.h 
 . . . M!hl 111- bcHly, stripped of ilsrnyal roliesaiid 
 Its miiiiy Jewels', was tlung Into u dlldi" — I, 
 llcCnrtliy. //o>r /i.i.roirn Tinifn, r 1, cA 11 
 
 14 
 
 Also in J. W. Kayo, Iliit. of the War in 
 AfiiluiHittan. — G. R. Gleig, Salei Brigade in 
 Afghanittan, — Lady Sale, Journal tf the Vital- 
 ten in Afghanistan. — Mohaa Lai, Life of Doit 
 Mohammed, eh. 15-18 (c. 2). 
 
 A. D. 1843-1869.— The British return to 
 Cabul. — Restoration of Dost Mahomed.— It 
 was not till 8e'pteinl)er that General Polliwk 
 "could obtain permission from the Governor-Gen- 
 eral, Lord EllenlKirough, to advance against 
 Calml, though both he and Xott were buniing to 
 ilo so. When Polliwk ilid advance, he found the 
 enemy posted at .lugdidbick, the scene of the 
 nia.s.sacre. 'Here, 'saysone writer, ' the skeletons 
 lav so thick that they had to be cleared away to 
 allow the guns to iiasa. The savage grandeur of 
 the scene rendered it a fitting place nir the deed 
 of bliNxl which had Ix'cn enacted under its horrid 
 Bh.ade, never yet pierced in b. rme places by sun- 
 li^lit. The roail was strewn for two miles with 
 moulderitig skeletons like a charnel house.' Now 
 the enemy found they had to deal with other 
 men, under other leaders, for, putting their 
 whole energy into the work, the Britisli troops 
 sealed the heights and steep ascents, and defeated 
 the enemy in their stronglmlds on all sides. 
 After one more severe fight with Akbar Khan, 
 and all the force he could collect, the enemy 
 were beaten, and driven from their mountains, 
 and the force marched quietly into Cabul. 
 Nott. on Ills side, started from I'und.ahar on the 
 7lh of Aiiu'ii>t, and, after ligliting several small 
 battles with the enemy, he captured Ohuznl, 
 where Palmer and his garrisnr. had Ixen ile- 
 slroycd. From Ohiiznl (''ncral Nott brought 
 away, by comiiiand of Loni KIlenlKirongh, the 
 gales of Honinanlli f-ald to have Ihtu tuken 
 from the Hindu temple of Sonuiunth by Mah- 
 nniiid of (Whiznl, the first .Mohammeihin In- 
 \ailerof India, in 10241, which formed the sub- 
 jut of the celebrateii 'Proclamation of the 
 (i.ites.' as it was called. This proclamation. 
 Issued by Lord Ellenboroiigh, brought upon him 
 endless ridicule, and it was indeed at first cun- 
 eidi'red to Ik! a satire of his enemies, in Imitnilon 
 of N'apoleon's address from the Pjrandds; the 
 Duke of Welllnjxtiin called It 'The Bonir of 
 Triumph.' . . . 'i'his pniclanmtlon, put {nrlh 
 wilh so much nourishing of trumpets and ado. 
 was really an Insult to those whom It professed 
 to praise. It was an insult to the Mohan, uedaiis 
 under our rule, fur Ihiir power '.vps gone. It was 
 also an insiill lo the Hindi»>s. for thdr temple of 
 Soninanlh was In nilns. Tin se celebrateii gales, 
 wliic hare U'lii veil to Ik' imitations of the original 
 gull s, lire now lyliiii negleiled and worm eiilen. 
 In the liai k pari oif a sm:;ll iiinsciiin at .Vura, 
 Hut to riinrii, (leiical .Non having captured 
 (ihiirnl and difealei Siillan .Ian. iiiished on lo 
 Cabul, will n' he iirrlMil on the I Till of Seplein 
 tier, and met PolloiU. 'I'lie Liiglish prisoners 
 (iinoiic-t whom were Itrlt'adier Hhellon and 
 L.ily Side), who had been 1 iplurisl at the lime 
 of the riiissacre. wen' broiii.'lit, or found their 
 own wi\, lo ()i neral Pollis k's camp, (iimrid 
 I'.lphin-ioni' had dud d'lrini.' his eapliiily It 
 was not now eoin^i'lensl nenssarylo lake any 
 fiiriliir steps; the liaraar In Cabul was ile 
 stroved, and on the I'.'th of OilolKr I'oIIihU and 
 
 V,.'! .,:r!ii:i -h.-lr f,-ei =i>i:;!:lv:;riU, v,:\ !:i :-:;n 
 
 llnir nwirih into India by the KhylHT route. 
 The Al»;lians in eiipilvlly were wnt back, and 
 the ttoveriior 'Jeiieral r«e|vwl the tnwpa at 
 
AFGHANISTAN, 1842-1869. 
 
 f"2^':^°°'- '?;i''" «"''«'• U'o Afghan war of 
 ISA'*-!.. . . Ihe war being over, wc witli- 
 drcw our forces Into India, leaving the son of 
 Htiah boojah, lathi Jung, wlio Iiad escaped from 
 tabul wlicn his father was murdered, an king of 
 l.ho country, a position that ho was unable to 
 maiiil,iln long, being very sliortly afterward i 
 as.sa^snlat.■;l. In 1842 I)(»t Jlahomed, the ruler 
 w horn we had deposed, and wlin Iiad b<'en living 
 at our expense In India, returnid to Cabul and 
 resumed his former position as king of the coun- 
 try, still bearing Ill-will towards us, which he 
 1 liov.ed on several occasions, notably durine the 
 
 to light fur the bikhs, and he Iiima If mar(hed 
 an army lliroiigh the Klivber to Peshawtir to 
 lisist our enemies. lloweVer, the occupation of 
 tae Punjab forced upon J>ost Mahomed the 
 necessity of k' ng on frlct.lly terms with his 
 powerful ne ghbour; ho thertforo conclude,! a. 
 friendly treaty with us in 18.-,4, hoping thereby 
 hat our ixiwer would tw used to prbvcBt the In- 
 trigu,,, of Persia arjainst his kingdom. This 
 hope was shortly after renlizc.1, for In 1850 we 
 declared war against Persia, an cv.'nt which wis 
 greatly to tho a.lvantagc of Dost Mahomed, as 
 'rJ^r^'i'" T, • ''•""°, ''""o«'l'">cms upon his 
 territ. ry Thu war lasted but a short ti:ne f„r 
 c;:irly in 18,7 an agreement was si -ne,l between 
 l-ngland and Persia, by which the latter re- 
 nouuced all claims oyer Herat an.l Af^-lmnlstan. 
 Hemt, however, still n'malned in<iei,endent of 
 Aghanistan until 1803, when l),-st' Mahomed 
 at aeke, and took the town, thus uniting the 
 wh.'lo Ijlngdom, Including Candahar nn<l Afghan 
 Turkestan, und.r his rule. Tlii,^ was almost I c 
 last act of tho Ameer's life, for a few davs after 
 
 that .Sl.ero All, one of his wras, should sucecd 
 hira as Anieer of Afghanistan. The new Ameer 
 
 l^U, i^^^T tV"-'" '." "'« 'i'-vcnor-tlencral of 
 Imlii U,r,\ I,|,nn, In a friendly tone, a.sklng 
 
 r'l' *"9r''«'"" "'i^'I't l>o acknowledge/ 
 ih.',' ' I ■■ ~ "l ^"*''.7"- '" 11"' commencement of 
 tho l.iiieral policy of 'masterly Inaetlvitv' 
 
 c.inr nt but be deeply n^-rett. d, as Nhero All « •» 
 nd v":.7"l V";'" 'V" ""'•'"■' '"™™' "T" 
 for the thnme. ,t would have UVn time en m.d 
 to aeknowledce that rival as s,«,n as he was 
 cally ruler of the cmintry. Wl,,.,, »l, momlil 
 loiter a cold a<kn„wl,.dg,.„',ent of the letter w« 
 
 I'l- St tlut th.. Ameer mad.' for 0,000 muskets 
 
 m ar.Is him wn, not tlut of a frj. „,|; p.,r,i,,, 
 a ly MS. when later on. two of his brol lers re- 
 w.ll d against him, ca, I, .,f ll.eni was t..ld I v 
 tho ...vernment that he would !«• acknowi,., .-e.l 
 und r V:""."' "'" «-"',""0-wl.l,h he bmud, 
 unihr hs t,oW(r. However, aft. r viri, us 
 rliange. In /ortune. In IMffl. si.er,. All fif •• 
 lefea ,,l I, s tv o brothers Afz„„I „,, | v^ ,' 
 
 Waiu' r": A^"-:'" """• AlKlnrrahm,m."-p; 
 r. i>alker, .\Ji;h<iniiit,ti>, vii 4.">-.'',| 
 Also IN 3. \S\ Kay... J!i,t. .f th. Vr.riii 
 
 thttR ,,'8«9-«Mi.-The lecond war with 
 II ! ^"K"»'' •"'1 «• cau»et.~-Tlie T.erlod Vf 
 il.turb,ace in Af(iha„lsta„, during the' Itruggl' | 
 
 AFGHANISTAN, 1869-188L 
 
 of Shcre All with his brothers, coincided with 
 Th„^r'"^"'^^"^^"'^ Lawrence in Indi^ 
 Ihc polcy of Lord Lawrence, •'sometimci 
 Elighl.nglv spoken of as masterly in^tivkv 
 
 ic quarrels of the Afghans . . . andin attJni.T 
 mg to cultivate the friendship of tlio ?Vmeer i^y 
 ^ifts of money and arms, while carefully nvoij. 
 
 ng topics of oiTence Lord La«rtmc„waa 
 
 himself unable to meet the Ameer, hut his .>^c 
 cessor Lord Mayo, had an interview with h^ a 
 atLmballuh In 1809 u>rd MavoaJhcrcS 
 
 ■nt M,","'"^' °V''' irF'l^^'^^-'r- IIo"refu.se 1 to 
 nUT nto any close alliance, he refused to pledge 
 h m.self to 8up,,ort any dynasty. But in he 
 "';",'"'"'• '',« .P-l^^^-J "'at he would not 
 T'esi leM '* "•'">,"^'?" of "i.V K'm-Hsh oniccrs as 
 uesidei its in Afghanistan. The nturn expected 
 by Lngland for this uttitmlo of frien.lly non-in- 
 terference was that every other forei.m state 
 and especially IJussia, slfould be or iUhlen ti 
 m..x cither directly or Indirectly with the alTair^ 
 of the country in which our Interests were so 
 
 beTl hV"'" r'- -K- -.H".' "•"iff'-'^-t view was 
 held by another school of Imlian politicians and 
 wassunp„rte,l by men of such einlnenee ai Sir 
 Bartlc I rere and Sir Il.nry Hawlinson, Their 
 Mi'w was known ns the Sin.lh Policy as con- 
 rasted>»1tli that of tho Punjab. It aowa^d 
 to them desirable that Englisl, agents Sl^ 
 
 not at ( abu Itself, to keep the Imlian Govern- 
 
 AfghanLstan. and to maintain Knglish Inllu.neo 
 n the country. In isn. upon tho accession o? 
 to ( ons,.rvative Ministry. Sir Bartle Fr, to pri 
 duce<l a memorandum In which tills policv w.as 
 
 aMy maintained A Viceroy whos^ -view' 
 
 were more In accordance with tlicwo of the 
 Oovemment, and who was likely to be am re 
 readv ins rument in [its] handsf was f.a.ml in 
 LmLytton. who went to Imlia Intrustcl with 
 the duty of giving effect to the new policy 1 „ 
 ^>as Instructed ... to continue pivinents of 
 money, to rec.gnlso the perman^n^o o ,ho 
 existing dynasty, and to give a pled -e of 
 materia support In case of unprovoke.l fiiVeien 
 JS'T 'iT • n" !" '"-''' "" "'" '"■'■'•I'tance of an 
 Lngllsh Hesldent at e,rtain,<l,»,.s In Afghani itan 
 In exch.ange for these a.fvantag.s T 'm 
 
 Lawrence aud thr.e who thought with him In 
 Lng and prnphoied fn.„, the lirst the disas "„« 
 
 lie Atghaiis. . . . The siigirestOn of ( mpH 
 .ytt.m that an Knglish fnnu{-,|ssion should go 
 
 ,' ,i,'I"',„ ,"^"'' '"""'" "f<;-»"">™ Interest 
 lo iiie t«o (■uvernmc Ills, was calculate 1 
 to excite feelings already snmewhat unfrien.lly 
 to Lngland Me lsi„.re AllJ reject.^ tho 
 ni«on, and forniulatid his grievances. 
 l.or,l Lvtton waned for a time the despateli 'of 
 
 1. iidsslo,,, and consented to a meeting between 
 the Minister of tho Ameer and Sir Lewis P, ||y 
 at Pes|,„«„r . . The Knglish (•..mmissloner 
 was nstrueled to .leelare tiiat the one l„!li "„ 
 
 o an r,,"^ ';■" "^ "'" ' ".■^"•^' ""■" ""• »'!"'l-ior 
 \frl in' ■'; "IIV*"!""" «-l"'l'' Ilie limit, o, 
 .\igii.iiiWan. The alino't pite 
 
 15 
 
 the part of ihn-iv,.;;;.v,7ti''/;:'!";r:"r""; 
 
 llii< demand pn.ved unavailing, and the "suii'd", 
 hvith of the Ameer's envoy f„rm,.,| » g„^i 
 eve ISO for lm.aklng olT the nrg,.llatlnn. f"rd 
 L)lton treati-.! theA.nccras Incorrijlble, gaT* 
 
t;' 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 » 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 
 t 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ; ; 
 
 
 
 AFGHANISTAN. 188».1881. 
 
 him to understand that the English would pro- 
 ceed to secure their {rentier without further refer- 
 ence to him, Bnd withdrew his native agent 
 from Ciibul. While the relations between the 
 two countries were In this uncomfortable con- 
 dition, information reached India that a Russian 
 mission bad been received at Cabul. It was just 
 at this time that the action of the Home Gkircm- 
 mcnt seemed to be tending tnpidlj towards a 
 war with Russia. ... As the despatch of a 
 mission from Russia was contrary to the 
 encagements of that country, and its reception 
 undir existing circumstances wore an unfriendly 
 aspect. Lord Lyttoa saw his way with some 
 plausible justification to demand the reception 
 at Cabul of an English embassy. He notified 
 his intention to the Ameer, but without waiting 
 for an answer aclccted Sir NcTille Chamberlain 
 as his envoy, and sent him forward with an 
 escort of more than 1,000 men, too large, as It 
 was observed, for peace, too small for war. As 
 a matter of course the missinnwus not admitted. 
 . . . An outcry was raised lH)th in England and In 
 Inilia. . . . Troops were hastily collected upon 
 tlio Indian frontier; and a curious light was 
 thrown on what had been done by the assertion 
 of the Premier at the Guiiilhnll banquet that 
 the object In view was the formation of a ' scien- 
 tiflc frontier;' In other words, turowlng n ile all 
 former pretences, he declared that the policy 
 of England was to make use of the opportunity 
 otTcred for direct territorial agcrcsslon. ... As 
 had been foreseen by all parties from the flr»t, 
 the English armies were entirely succesnful in 
 their first advance rXovenibor, \f*'t*]. ... By 
 the close of DecemiMT Jcllaiuliiid was In the 
 hands of Urown<', tlic Slmtarganlan Pass had 
 been sumioiintid by Ri.lii ris, and in January 
 Stewart estalilishcd I'llmsi If in Caudaliar. AVlien 
 the reslstanic of his ar!ny provi'il inilTectual, 
 Slierc All had talicn to tlii-lit, only to ilic. Ills 
 rrfnictory son Yalioob Klian was drawn from 
 his prison and assumed the reins of govi nimcnt 
 as regent. . . . Yakoob readily granted the 
 EngUsli demands, consenting to place his foriign 
 relations under British control, and to acropt 
 British agencies. With conslderaMv more 
 reluctance, h" allowed wliat was requlnil for the 
 rcctiUcatlon of the frontier to pass Into En,!;llsli 
 bands. Ho received In exi hangc a promise of 
 support bv the British Oovommeni, ami an 
 annual sulisldyof £60,000. On tlie loiicliislon 
 of the treaty trie troops In the Jellalatwul Valley 
 withdrew within the new (ronticr, and Yakixili 
 Klian was left to establish his authority as best 
 he could at (^ahul, whither In July ( avagnaii 
 with an escort of twenty-six troopers and eljhty 
 Infantry iMlook liimsilf. Then was enactell 
 again the 8o<l story wliich pri'lu(le<i the first 
 Afghan war. All the parts and scenes In the 
 drama repeatid themselvi'S with curious 
 uniformity — the Englisli Resident with his 
 little garrison trtistlrg MInilly to his capacity 
 for Inllurniing tlio Afghan mind, the puppet 
 king, without the powir to u\aVr himself 
 rt's|M'rled, Irrilateil bv the constant pn-unie I't 
 the Resilient, the chleN mutually illstnislful ami 
 atone In nothing save tluir hitredof English 
 Intirference, the people seithlai; ^^llh anirir 
 2^,(|»i.( t!ie Itifl'.l'.'l f'.>re!^!!i'r. 'i wild otithr^'iik 
 which the Ameer, even l.ad he wishi d it, coiiM 
 not control, an attack upon the Residency and 
 Um complete destruction [^pt., ItiTSJ after » 
 
 AFGHANISTAN. 186>-188t 
 
 gallant but futile resistance of the Resident and 
 his entire escort. Fortunately the extreme 
 disaster of the previous war was avoided. The 
 English troops which were withdrawn from the 
 country were still within reach. . . . About the 
 i34th of September, three weeks after the out- 
 break, the Cabul field force under General 
 Roberts was able to move. On the Sth of Octo- 
 ber it forced its way into the Logar Valley at 
 Charaisiab, and on the 12th General Roberta 
 was able to make his formal entry into the city 
 of CabuL . . . The Ameer was deposed, martial 
 law was established, the disarmament of the peo- 
 ple required under pain of death, and the 
 country scoured to bring In for punishment 
 tliose chiefly implicated in the late outbreak. 
 While thus engaged in carrying out his work of 
 retribution, the wave of " Insurrection closed 
 behind the English general, communication 
 through the Kuram Valley was cut off, and he 
 was left to pass the winter with an army of 
 some 8,000 men connected with India onlv by 
 the Kybur Pass. ... A new and formidable 
 personage . . . now mode h's appearance on 
 the scene. This was Abdura ap ., the nephew 
 and rival of the late Sliere All, who upon the 
 defeat of his pretensions bad sought refuge in 
 Turkestan, ami was supposed to be supported 
 by the friendsliip of iuissia. The expected 
 attack di<l not take ).iace, constant reinforce- 
 ments had raised the Cahid army to 20,000, and 
 rendered it too strong to l>c assalleil. ... It 
 was thought desirable to break up Afghanistan 
 Into a nortliern and southern province. . . . The 
 policy thus declared was carrie<l out. A cer 
 tain Shere All, a cousin of the late Ameer of 
 the same name, was appointed Wall or Gover- 
 nor of Candahar. In the north signs were 
 \ isible that the only possible successor to the 
 throneof Cabul would lie Al»lurahman. . . , The 
 Bengal army under General Stewart waa to 
 mareft northwards, and. suppn'ssing on the way 
 tlie Ohuznee Insurgents, was to j<iln the Cabul 
 army in a sort of triumphant n'tum to Peshawur. 
 The f Pit part of the jirogramnie was carrie<l out. 
 . . . The second part of the plan was fated to 
 be Interrupted by a serious disaster whieli 
 rendiTed It for a while uncertain whether the 
 withdrawal of the tnKips from Afghanistan was 
 possible. . . . Ayixib had always expressed his 
 disapproval of Ins brother's friendship for the 
 English, and had constantly refused to accept 
 their overtures. Though little was known 
 about him, rumours were afloat tliat he intended 
 to advance upon Ohuznee, and join the Insur- 
 gents there. At length about the midille of 
 June ri!*W)l his armv starteil . . . But before 
 the end of June Faran had been reached and it 
 seemed plain thnt Candahar would be assaulted. 
 . . . Qenend Burrows foiuid it necessary to fall 
 bark to a ridge some fortvflve miles from 
 Ciindshar called Kush-yNnkliud. There U a 
 pass called .Maiwand to the north of the high- 
 rond to Candahar. by whiih un army avoidlug 
 llie position on the ridire nilglit advance upim 
 the city. On the 'JTlli of July the Afglin.i 
 triMips were seen moving In tlie din-ction of tills 
 pass. In his att4-nipt to stop tliem with his 
 small fi>re, niimlM-ring about 2..VHI men. Gen 
 er:'.! Biirrowa was disa-ifro'.isly dt?t:ate-.!. With 
 ilitnciilty ai.d with the loss of seven guns, almul 
 half the English tni<i|>s returned t.11 Candahar. 
 General I'rim.'oM, who was In cuninwiid. bad do 
 
 10 
 
■4 
 
 "1 
 f 
 
 AFGHANISTAN, 1869-1881. 
 
 choice but to gtrengthcn the place, submit to an 
 Invcstmeat, and wait till he should be rescued 
 
 • .'.uj , "^Pf "' <^*''"' '^e'e 00 the point of 
 withdrawing when the news of the disaster 
 reached them " General Roberts at once pushed 
 forwari to the beleaguered city, and disperse.! 
 
 AFRICA, 1816-1818. 
 
 I''?! K™.y °L '■''.« ^""eef- Candnhar waa then 
 held by the British until the fall of IWl whi-n 
 they with, rew, Abdurahman having apparently 
 estublished himself in po«er. and the Zmtry 
 being .„ a quiettnl state. -J. F. Bright, Z/io/ 
 £'iS; itnod 4, pp. 634-S44. ■' 
 
 Ancient. See Eotpt ; Ethiopia : Libyans • 
 Cii""A';«J.Cv^RBNAiCA; Nljiidians. * 
 
 A."!?' "l','^" ^"'- «^'« «-«»*«»SrATKs: 
 
 KWt?'* fl "°'>»'«t«n<l Moalem Statet in the 
 
 North. See Mahometan Conquest Ac ■ A n 
 840-646 ; 647-709 ; and 90H-1171 • al^ Bakbarv 
 STAT.S ; EOVPT : A. D. 1200-15lV, XCT^ 
 
 Th«inh«bitinjr race*. -The Indigenous race, 
 of Africa are ™n8i,lered to be four in numbe" 
 namely : the Negr,ies proper, who occupy a cen- 
 
 ; •n>'?"'''«"r"''''"t' f""" ">« Atlantic- to the 
 l.}?.vpiiiia Sudan, ami who conmrise an enormous 
 number of diverse tribes ; the ffulahs (« itl whom 
 
 «v..^ ilr'n^.^'^T'''*'''"' »«"l«-''l mainly be- 
 t«.en Ukc Chad and the Niger; the Bimtus. 
 who occupy the whole south, except ' s exTrem- 
 ity; and the Hottentots, who are in t;..vt "treme 
 sou liern ri'ffl.m. Some anthropologists include 
 Th, 'k'»« " ""(T't 'heBosjcsmansSr nurmen 
 1 ill h.atlrs and Uwhuanas arc llantu tribes Tim 
 north and northeast are occupied bv Semitic and 
 Hamitic races, the latter Including Ahvssinians 
 .ml Ml as. -A. H. Keane, Th, '\fH,l7Zl, 
 
 A. D. I4IS-IS84.— A chronological record 
 .lL."„';°'i5f E,p oration. Mi.Sonar, Set- 
 tlement, Colomxation and Occupation 
 
 If I5"~i"""''','r' "' ^■'•'"''» '^y '''« Hortueuese 
 .i„!1..*','* •","«"""' exnloratloiia ^lown 
 
 '.,,.."• '" ^'.''*".'"'*J ""■''■■■ "'« direction of 
 I nnce Henry, called the Navigator. 
 
 t (It.— First African slaves brought into Eu- 
 rup.' by one of the ships of J'rincc ifenry 
 
 tH'Mmd the Guinea Const, and to the Onid Coast 
 wlKTe the first settlement was establishe.! 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 -—-■-- -...^...vuv y,am I'^uiuiisneil. 
 
 , (^ ,?Tir ^K^^n '' "' ""' ""'""' "' <•"■ Zaire 
 r I uiigo by the Portugutw explorer. Dingo Can 
 
 M8S-«S9«.-EstablUhment of Itonian Catholic 
 mis»',,!is on the western eoiist 
 <i '<f*- -l'n''""»<''>''i< rounding of th. i.o of 
 OimkI llupe l)y Bttrtholomew Kiar. 
 
 Vii' ■ v" ^"'"'""V ""•^'-'""trucse explofr. 
 t ape of Ooo,! |r„p,. to India. 
 (1, ',51S;.«508.-i',.rtuguese wttlemeuts and fortl- 
 
 tngue?;,~ "^' "' ^''"'«»"'«''»'- l>y the Por- 
 
 .,'.?,^Vi'?*^-~"! *■''""'"" "f Kngllsh vovsge. 
 
 to the Oiilnriiiind lf(ild(oii»is "."•»>'• 
 
 1560. --Kren,!, trailing |„ the Senegal and 
 
 II.'? L*'".'''''^' "'"'"''"'""» '■"VBge of Sir John 
 Maw kin« to the (Ininra Coast " "■founj 
 
 Liff?/!:""^',".'",'''"*-','" •■" ''""I lo Loando, Por- 
 lugihsi' ei.piral on ilii. Hcut e..B«t 
 
 i5»»(.iliouti-P,„„„|lng of the French Doit 
 Nt Louis, at the mouth of the Seoejal '^ ' 
 
 17 
 
 by'SM-^pcning of trade on the western coast 
 
 l6l8-l62l.-ExpIoration of the River Oani- 
 
 land ^^ ^''*''" <-""'"l""'y "f Kng. 
 
 .„ 'f**.-7^j '■','i?"P''''' f""nd«l by the French 
 m the island of Madagascar. 
 
 Hoil?'"~^""^'' *^'"''-'""''" a' tbe Cape of GockI 
 
 '*M-«7i»4— Exploration of the Rive. Siueiral 
 for the lloyai Senegal Company. ^ 
 
 „ i7a3--Exp!oraiion of the Gambia for the 
 English Royal African Company 
 
 JZ5S'~«"'''"''"' ^'i"'"" "" ""^ <3n><l Coast, 
 a f737.— Moravian Mission planted hi George 
 Schmidt among the Hottentots "t-orgt. 
 
 ti„?Sf"wi'^"''""'"""','";s'°!'J"» "f ""^ domina- 
 tion in Madagascar of the Hovas 
 
 I76i-i7«a---l)utch expedition from Cape 
 Colony l).y<in<l the Orange l{iver. "^ 
 
 1768-1773.— Journey of James Bruce to the 
 fountains ofthe Blue Slle In Ahvs.,lnia 
 
 '774;-F|mniling of a French colony la Mada- 
 ga.siar by Count Benvowsky. 
 
 tJ'ii'r,''!5;~'''TJ'i'''**- ^ Vaillant am.)iig 
 theHotteiit-itsand Kaflri. *" 
 
 f,r ff'Tf """""?,. °' "'^ English settlement 
 for freni slaves at Sierra I.eone 
 
 in'J"i~5"T"'""" "' ""^ African Ass,)clation 
 in England, for systematic expl,.raiion 
 
 by't'lfe'iljmh^'""' ^■"'""^ """-*" ^""" "'^' "'""' 
 «795-i797.-The first exploring lournev of 
 Mungo ifark, in the service of the AtrS \" 
 8(«iallon, fr..m the Gambia -"ruan .\, 
 
 .v,'l9*;r ",'""'"," ?' '*•'• •'ol'n Van.lerk.mp to 
 th. kaHrs for the r.on.lon Missi.marv So-l.tV 
 
 ^IP, "\""7"^ ''"-' l'o>-ti'>;'i'"* Dr. 'La. 
 cena from the Lower Zambesi to the kingdom 
 of ( azimlie. on Lake Moero. 
 
 il,n^i!^'i*°*T.""'"™""" "' f'T" Colony to 
 the Dutrh and its recon.i.,cst by the EnpliM. 
 
 I80a-I8ll.--Joiirney of the Pomb.ims (w 
 gr.K>-<ta<-r.«H the lontinent from Angola t.. T.te 
 
 xfi f^'7''",""'''"« "' "■« t-'hureh of 1. .jUu,1 
 Mis.»lon In SiiTHi Liime. 
 
 th,!??*"Tf*"'""'"'. ''»£!:'"•'•"' "' M""fo •'"'•k from 
 [etiirn,"i ' *''''• ''""^ *''''''' '''' ""'" 
 
 j,_J[j^5--TraveN of Dr. LIchtcnsteIn in Be.l.u- 
 
 i8io.-MI«lnns In Great Namarualand and 
 Danmrnlan,! K.gun by the London MI«lon»ry 
 
 «B>i— Exploration of the Oranire lliver and 
 the Limpopo l,y Campbell, the ml«ionarv 
 
 Mi.;au.ni,T,of ||„. African A»«,«lafio,i. „,, ,|„. 
 H,.';;. ''7.'"-''' •^"'''*' ^■" ''<rlHr«, .-.hendv. and 
 Suakin; th.'nce through Jidda to .Me.ra.in the 
 charaei.r ..f a Mussulman. 
 
 ..I.fitl.''^"'''*'*' »'"' '"'H''-'" nitemp-i to 
 explore th.) lower course of the Niger. 
 
t. 
 
 AFRICA, 181& 
 
 1818.— Mission In Hadsnscar undertaken by 
 the London Missionary Society. 
 
 1818.— Beginning, on tlie Orange River, of 
 the missionary labors of Robert Moffat in South 
 Africa. , , 
 
 1818.— Exploration of the sources of tlie 
 Gambia hj Gaspard Mollien, from Fort St. I«ui3, 
 at tlic nioutli of the Senegal. 
 
 1818-1820.— Exploration of Fczzan to iu 
 southern limit, from Tripoli, ly Captiiin Lyon. 
 
 1830.— First Wesleyan Mission founded in 
 Eafirlaad. 
 
 x830.— Treaty abolishing the slave-trade Ir 
 Madagascar 
 
 1831.— Mission orkin Raffraria undcrtakci 
 by the Glasgow M.isionary Society. 
 
 1833.— FDUiidinK of the rt-publio of J.iberia. 
 See Slavkuv, Neiiho: A. I). 1S16-1W7. 
 
 1833.— OlOcial journey of Lieutenant Lalng 
 from Sierra Leone in the "Timannee, Kooranko 
 and Soolinia " countries. 
 
 1833-1835.— Expedition of Captain (,'lupper- 
 ton. Dr. Oudney.and Colonel Denham,frora Trlp- 
 oll to Lake Tchad and beyond. 
 
 1835-1836.— Expedition of Major Lalng, In 
 the service of the British Oovorument, from 
 Tripoli, through the desert, to Timl)uctoo, 
 which he reached, and where he remaiutd for a 
 month. Two days after leaving the city he was 
 murdi'ted. 
 
 1825-1837. — Expedition of Captain Clapper- 
 ton from the Bight of Benin to Sokoto. 
 
 1837. — Moravian Mission settled in the Tam- 
 bookie territory, South Africa. 
 
 1837.— . Journey of Linant de Bellefonds, for 
 the African Associatiou, up the White Nile to 
 13' 6' nortli latitude. 
 
 l837-i8a8. — Journey of Caillfi from a point 
 on the west coast, between Sierra Leone and the 
 Gambia, to Jemic and Tlmbuctoo; tlicnci' to Fez 
 ■mi Tu'-.gier. 
 
 1838.— Undertakings of the Basle Ml»- inary 
 Bociilv on the Gold Coast. 
 
 1830-1831.— Exploration of the N' to the 
 lea hy Hidutrd and John Lender lug the 
 
 question as to its mouth. 
 
 1830-1846.— French conquest and subjugation 
 of Alders, 
 
 1831.— Portuguese mission of Major Montciro 
 and faptiiin Gamitto to the court of Muau 
 CazrinlH'. 
 
 1831.— Ahuorption of the African Assoclalion 
 by the Rnyiil ( ieograplilcal Stwlety of Loudon. 
 
 1833-1834.— First commercial exploration of 
 the lower Niner, from its mouth, by Mucgregor 
 Laird, with two steamers. 
 
 1833.— Mission In lliisiitoland estaMiHlied by 
 the ICvancillriil Missionary Soi'Icty ol riiiis. 
 
 1834.— Ueginning of missionary lalmrs under 
 
 the Anierlcan Board of Missions In South Africa. 
 
 1834.— Mission founded at Cape I'alinus od 
 
 the «(sterii const, by the American Board for 
 
 ForclL'n Missions. 
 
 1834,— The Great Tre't of the Dutch Boers 
 tmm I iipc Colony and their founding of tlie re- 
 •■ulilir of Niilal. 
 
 .135. — MisKliin amonij the Zulus established 
 by tlir AincrUiin Hoard of Foreign MUkIoiis. 
 
 1835-1849.- i'ersecution if Christians In 
 MailiiL'asrnr. 
 
 1836-1837. — Kxploralioni of Captain Sir 
 Jnm>-s K. Altxander In the countries of the Great 
 NunaquM, the Uushmeo and tiM UlU Uaniarai. 
 
 AFRICA. ISSl. 
 
 1839 -1841. — Egyptian expeditions sent by 
 Mehemet All up the White Nile to latitude 
 6° 35' N. ; accompanied and narrated in part by 
 Ferdinand Wcrne. 
 
 1839-1843.— Missionary residence of Dr. Krapf 
 in the kingdom of Shoa, in the Ethiopian high- 
 lands. 
 
 1840. — Arrival of Dr. Livingstone In South 
 Africa as a missionary. 
 
 1841. — Expedition of Captains Trotter and 
 Allen, sent by the British Government to treat 
 with tribes on tlie Niger for the opening of com- 
 merce and the suppression of the slave trade. 
 
 1843. — Travels of Dr. Charles Johnston In 
 Southern Abvssinia. 
 
 1843.- Galloon Mission, on the western coast 
 near the equator, founded by the American 
 Board of Foreign Missions. 
 
 184a.— The Rhenish Mission establlshe<l by 
 German missionaries at Bethanien in Nama- 
 qualand. 
 
 1843. — Wesleyan and Norwegian Slissiona 
 opened In Natal. 
 
 1843-1863. — French occupation of territory 
 on the Galloon and the Ogowe. 
 
 1843. — British annexation of Natal, and ml- 
 
 f ration of tlie Boers to found the Orange 
 ree State. 
 
 1843. — Exploration of the Senegal and the 
 Falenie by Uuanl-Bes.siniirts and ItnSenel. 
 
 1843-1845.- Travels and reshlc .'e of Mr. 
 Parkyns in Abyssinia. 
 
 1843-1848. — Hunting journeys of Gordon 
 Cumming in South Africa. 
 
 1844.— Mission founded by Dr. Krapf at Mom- 
 bassa. on the Zanzibar const. 
 
 1845. — Duncan's journi'V for the Royal Geo- 
 graphical Society from Wliydah, via Aboine, to 
 Adofuclla. 
 
 1845.— Mission to the Camcnions pslnlilished 
 by the Baptist Missionary .Siciety of Eiuihind. 
 
 1846. — Unsuccessful attempt of Rallenel to 
 cross Africa from Senegal to the Nile, through 
 the Sudan. 
 
 1846. — Mission of Samuel Crowther (after- 
 wanls Bishop of the Niger), a native and a 
 lllwriited slave, to the Yoruba country. 
 
 1846.— Mission on Old Calabar River luunded 
 by the Unitiil Presbyterian Church in Jamaica. 
 
 1847-1849. — Interior explorations of the Qrr- 
 nian missionaries Dr. Krapf and Mr. Rebmani.. 
 from Monilmivsa on the Zanzibar coast. 
 
 1848.— Founding of the Transvaal Repubih. 
 by tlie BtH'rs. 
 
 1849.— Missionary journey of David Living- 
 st<ine norlliwnril fniin the country of the Bechu- 
 anas. and his ilisrovcry of Lake N'gnml. 
 
 1849-1851.— Journey of Ladlsliius. Magyar from 
 Beugucia to I lie kiuisiloms of BIhe and Moluwa 
 on the interior table land, and across the upper 
 end of the Zir.lMsl valley. 
 
 1850.— Sale of Danish forts at Qiietta, Adda, 
 and FIngo, on t'lc western coast, to Great 
 Britain. 
 
 1850-1851.— Travels of Andersson and Gallon 
 fri>m Wulllsh Bay to Ovam|Hiland and Lake 
 Nguinl. • 
 
 1850-1855.— Travels of Dr. Barth from Trip<ill 
 to Lake Tchad. Sokoto and the Upper Niger to 
 TImliuctoo, where he was detained for uloe 
 I months. 
 
 1851.- Discovery o( the Zambesi by Dr. 
 I Livingstone. 
 
 18 
 
AFRICA. 1853-1863. 
 
 1853-1863.— HuDtine and tradiog journeyi of 
 Mr. Chapman io South Africa, between Natal 
 and Waldsh Bay and to Lake NgamI and the 
 Zambesi. * 
 
 '853.— Founding of the Diocese of Natal by 
 the English Church and appointment of Dr. 
 Colenso to be its bishop. 
 
 1853-1856.— Journey of Dr. LlTlngstone from 
 Linyunti, the Makololo capital, up the Zambesi 
 and across to the western coast, at St. Paul de 
 Loando, thence returning entirely across the 
 continent, down the Zambesi to Quillmane at its 
 month, discovering the Victoria Falls on his 
 way. 
 
 1853-1858.- Ivory-seeking expeditions of John 
 PcthiTlck, up tlie Bahr-el-Ghazel. 
 
 1853-1859.— liomsn Catholic mission estab- 
 lisheil at Uoiiilnkoro, on the Upper Nile. 
 
 1854.— Ex, "oration of the Somali country — 
 the "eastern .lon of Africa"— by Captains 
 Burton and Speke. 
 
 1855— Beginning of attempU by the French 
 governor of Senegal, General Faldherbe, to 
 curry the Hag of France Into the Western 
 Suditn. 
 
 1856-1859.— Journeys of Du Challlu in the 
 western equatorial regions, on the Gaboon and 
 the Ogobai. 
 
 1857-1858.— Expedition of Captains Burton 
 and Speke, from Zanzibar, throuj,'li Czaramo, 
 UsaKara, Ugogo, and Unvamwezi. to Ujljl, on 
 Lake Tanganyika- making the lii i European 
 discovery of the lak< ^turning t.. Kaz«, and 
 tlKiice continued by oj ke alone, during Bur- 
 I'lii's illness, to the di^overy of Lake Victoria 
 Nyanza. 
 
 1858. — Journey of Andersson from Walflsh 
 B.I.V to the Okavango River. 
 
 1858.— English mission station founded at 
 \ iii.iria on the Camcroons coast. 
 
 1858-1863.— Expedition of Dr. Livingstone, 
 m tliu service of the British Governmcr.l,, explor- 
 luK tlic Shire and the liovuma, and discoverins 
 
 on. I ..»..1.v_J»~ I_l._ X' •■ ■ 
 
 and exploring Uke Nvassa- said, however, to 
 havi! iM'en known previously to the Port iguese. 
 
 1860-1^ ji.— Journey of Baron von Decken 
 from f'ombassa on the Zanzibar coast, to Kili- 
 manjaro mountain 
 
 1860-186J.— lietum of Speke, with Captain 
 Grant, from Zanzibar to Lake Vi ria Nyanza, 
 visiting Karagwe, and Uganda, an . reaching the 
 outlet of the Nile; thence through Unyoro to 
 Gondokoro, and homeward by the Nile. 
 
 1861 — Establishment of the Universities Mis- 
 sion by Bishop Mackenzie on the Upper Shirfi. 
 
 1861-1S6S.— English acquisitUm of the town 
 and kingdom of Lagos on the Bight of Benin by 
 cession from the native ruler 
 
 i86|.i86».— Sir Samuel Baker's exploration 
 of tlie Abvasinian tributaries of the Nile. 
 
 1861-iMa.— Journey of Captain Burton from 
 Lajtoi, on the western coast, to Aljcoloita, the 
 capital of the Akui, in Yoruba, and U> the Cum- 
 ariNins Mountains. 
 
 i86i-i86a.— Journey of Mr. Balnea from Wal- 
 flsli Hay to I.«ke NgamI and Virtoria Kiilln. 
 
 I86j.— Resumption of the Christian Mission in 
 Mil liigascar, long suppresscHl. 
 
 i86>-i867.— Travels of Dr. Rohlfsin Momcco, 
 Alyiriji and Tunis, ami eiplnrinij jmtrr,<y frmn 
 the Oulf of the Syrtes to the Gulf of Guinea 
 
 i>63<— TraTeb of Win wood Iteade un the 
 WMteroeoML 
 
 AFRICA, 1873-1878. 
 
 1863.— Incorporation of a large part of Kaf 
 fraria with Cape Colony. 
 
 1863.— Second visit of Du Chaillu to the west- 
 em equatorial region and journey to Asfaango- 
 land. 
 
 1863-1864.- OfBcia] mission of Captain Bur- 
 ton to the King of Dahomey. 
 
 «863-i864.— Exploration cf the Bahr-el-Ohazel 
 from Khartoum by the wealthy Dutch heiress. 
 Miss Tinne, and her party. 
 
 1863-1865.- Expedition by Sir Samuel Baker 
 and his wife up the White Nile from Khartoum, 
 resulting in the discovery of Lake Albert Ny- 
 anza, as one of its sources. 
 
 1864.— Mission of Lieutenant Mage and Dr 
 Qulnthi, sent by General Faldherbe from Sene- 
 ga! to the king of Segou, in the Sudan. 
 
 1866.— Founding of a Norwegian mission in 
 Madagascar. 
 
 1866-1873.— Last journey of Dr. Livingstone, 
 from the Kovuma River, on the eastern coast, to 
 
 Lake Nyassa ; ' lence to Lake Tanganyika, Lake 
 Moero, Lake IS., ^weolo, and the Lualaba River, 
 which he suspit t^d of flowing into tlie Albert 
 Nyanza. and being the ultimate fountain head 
 of the Nile. In November, 1871, Livingstone 
 was found at Ujljl, on Lake Tanganyika, by 
 Henry M. Stanley, leader of an expedition sent 
 in search of him. Declining to quit the country 
 with Stanlev, and pursuing his exploration of the 
 Lualaba, Livingstone died May 1, 1873, ou Lake 
 Bangweolo. 
 
 1867.- Mission founded In Madagascar by the 
 Society of Friends. 
 
 1867-1868.— British expedition to AbyssinI* 
 for the rescue of captives; overthrow and death 
 of King Theodore. 
 
 1868.— British annexation of Basutoland In 
 South Africa. 
 
 1869.— Christianity established as the state 
 religion in Madagascar. 
 
 i860.— Fatal expedition of Miss TinnS from 
 Tripoli Into the desert, where she was murdered 
 by her own escort 
 
 1869-1871.— Explorations of Dr. Schwelnfurth 
 between the Bahr el Ghazcl and the Upper 
 Coniio, discovering the Wello River. 
 
 1860-1873.— Expedition of Dr. Nttchtlgnl from 
 Tripoli through Kuka, Tiliesti. Burku, Wadal 
 Dsrfur, and Kordofan, to the Nile. 
 
 1870-1873.— Offleial expedition of Sir San-.uel 
 Baiter, in the service of the Kliedive of Egypt, 
 Isniall Paslia, to annex Gondokoro, then named 
 Isniiilia, and to suppress the slave-trade in the 
 Egyptian Sudan, or Equatorla. 
 
 1871,— Transfer of the rights of Holland 
 the Gold C;o«st to Great Britain. 
 
 1871.— Annexation of Griciualnnd West 
 Cape Colony. 
 
 i87i.— Scientific tour of Sir Joseph D. Hooker 
 and .Mr. Ball In MoriKco and the Great Atlas, 
 
 1871.— .Missionary Journey of Mr. CHarlei 
 N'lw in the .Masai country and ascent of .Mount 
 Kilinianjaro 
 
 1871-1880.— rinntlng journevs of Mr. Selous 
 In Soutli .Vfiica. la-vond the Zainliesi. 
 
 J'7»-I875.— Travels of tlie naturalist. Rein 
 hold Hiirliliolz. on liie Guinea coast 
 I _ «87J.i879.— Travels of Dr. Iloliib htwifn 
 ; ill-' Suulh .\fricsn diainoa.i C> id. 1 lid Uiu Zuiii- 
 , bisi 
 
 ; 1873.1875.- Expedition of Captain V L 
 I Cameron, from Zanzibar to Lake Tanganyika, 
 
 lit 
 
n i I 
 
 I 
 
 I'i 
 
 AFRICA. 1878-1875. 
 
 and cxplorntlon of the Lake; thence to Nyan- 
 JWe on the Lualaba, and thence across the con- 
 &rthro,igh Ulunda. lo the Porf.gnese set- 
 Uemeut at Benguela. on the Atlantic coast 
 
 r873-i875.-^ravelsof the naturalist Frank 
 Oa.:I.^rom cane Colony to the Victoria FaUs 
 
 187V1876.— Kxplorationg of OttsfeWt, fai- 
 kenste^in «nd PechuelLocsche, under the aus- 
 pkes of the German African Association. from the 
 Wniro coast, north of the Congo. 
 
 i874.-British expedition against the Ashan- 
 twV .Sstroviug their principal town Coomassie. 
 * .874.-M'sSiou of £olonelChaill6-Longfrom 
 General Gordon, at Gondokoro, »? tll« ^''f/ "^ 
 ITtese kinir of Uganda, discovering Uke Ibra- 
 hmrnhis*eturn,\nd completing the work of 
 Bneke and B..ker, in the continuous tracing of 
 5i:rc^u.^eof the Nile from the Vlctona N^^an.a. 
 i87A-i875.— Expt'di""" o' Colonel t.- J-"""* 
 I«ng to Lake Vhtoria Nyanxa and the Makraka 
 l,*am Ninn. country, in the Egypti«n "jprvu-e^ 
 
 1874-1876 -First ailniinistnition of General 
 Gonlll., cHussioned by the Khedive as Gov- 
 
 "T874^l76.-Occupation and exploration of 
 Darfur ani KorJnfan by the Egyptians, under 
 .I'routaudt 
 
 CoioneU Pni>iy. Mason, Trout and <-ol8t»": 
 
 l874-i877.-Expt.dition of Henry M Stiinley 
 mi"out bv the proprietors of the ^ew -lofk 
 Herald an.rihe L-Indon Daily Telegraph, whch 
 crossed the continent from Zanzibar to the 
 n omt^ of the Congo Uivtr; making a prolonged 
 Juv in the empire of Ug.in.ia and acquiring 
 much knowledge of It; circumuavigat ng Ukes 
 Victoria and Tanganyika, and exploring the 
 ton m?.t^rious great ^Congo Hiver throP^hout 
 
 "'l87«-J877.-Exploratlon. of Pr. Junker in 
 Upp?r Nubia and In the basin of the Buhrel- 
 
 ° isVs.-Expeditir.n of Dr. Pogprc, for the Ger- 
 man ^African .\ssoci,ition, from the west coast. 
 Mutli of the Conu'o, in the Congo basin, pene- 
 
 I«ver!' capital of the >fuaU Yanvo, who rules a 
 kinprdom as large as Oirmany. ni-i„„™ 
 
 "§75, -Expediti.m of Colonel ChaiUe Long 
 Into tile country of the Makraka MamNiams. 
 
 I87S. -Founding by 8<'ottisli »ubscril)er» of 
 the mfsslon staliou c.dled Llvi»K;"''f • ^'^, 
 Maclear, on tlie soutlum shores of Uke >>"»»«. 
 headquarters of the mission removed in ISSl to 
 Bandawe, on the same lake. 
 
 l87S.-Mis8!on f...,iuled at Blantvrt-, in the 
 higiilauds above th. Shire, by the LsUblished 
 Church of Scotland , _, , 
 
 i87*-l87«.-t<<'izure of Berbcra and the region 
 of tilt? Juki lllver. on the Somali Cou»t, by 
 Colonel Chaille-Lour, for the Khedive of Kgypt, 
 and tlieir spe.Jy evacuation, on the remonstrance 
 
 "'1^876 -Conference at Brussels and forma- 
 tion of the Inlematlonai African Assot-iatlon, 
 under the presi.eucy of the king o ti.e Bel- 
 gians, for the .xploratiou aud cTviliiallon of 
 
 ^'1876.- Voyage of Komolo Oessl around Lake 
 
 ^'l^B-ft^- MM^.n In I'canda e,.,l.ll.he<l by th. 
 Cbur'eh" Missionary Society of England. 
 
 l876-l87B.— Siienllflc cxnioratlons of Ur. 
 Hchwelnfurth in the Arabhui Uwert between the 
 MIe and the l(*.'d Sua. 
 
 APBJCA, 1880-1881. 
 
 i»»6-x«8o.— Explorattone and Ftendiannexa- 
 tlo^V SvorgnanSe Braxxa between the Ogowi 
 
 ■"■^Sw.-Tr-LWlng.tone InUnd Ml»lon foj 
 ChriJtkn work in the Congo valley, ^toblUhed 
 bv "lie East London Institute for Home and 
 
 *^,ll?!.87t- Second admlnUtratlon of ^n.r.1 
 Go"'on.« Governor-General of the Sudan. 
 Darfur and the Equatorial Provincei. 
 
 1877-1879.— War of the British In South 
 Afriawitiithe Zulu^ and practical aubjugatlon 
 
 °^%^°879°-J''"™<^y "' ^"^l P,'°^K!'i"" 
 
 the continent from Benguela via the Z?™bes 
 
 1877-1880.— Explorations of the Portugueee 
 officer^, Capello and Ivens, In western and cen- 
 tral Africa, from Benguela to the territory of 
 Yacca. for the survey of the river Cuanjo in 
 i J relktlons to the hydrographtc baalni of the 
 Congo and the Zambesi. i,^^„ 
 
 187I.- Founding tn Glasgow of the African 
 Lakes Company, or "The Livingstone Central 
 Africa Company." for trade on Lakes NyMsa 
 and Tanganyika; by which company the Ste- 
 venson Boa.1" Was aubseouently built between 
 the two lakes above named. . 
 
 1878"--Walrtsh Bay and fifteen miles around 
 It (on tha western coast. In Namaqualand) de- 
 
 "X'!!!jour'^:?rPaul Solelllet from Saint 
 
 "-TsJ^lMr-Royal Geographical Society'. 
 East Central African eipecVltlon, under JoMph 
 T^mson, to the Central African lakes Tangan- 
 yika, Nyassa and U'opold from Zanxibar. 
 
 1870.- Establishment, by tl.c Belgian Inter- 
 nati.mal Society, of a .tatioc at Karema, on the 
 eastern shore of Lake Tanganyika. 
 
 1 shore 01 Liaae 1 BUB""; •""• , r.»_»,. 
 
 1870- Formation of tlie Internationa! Congo 
 AssoJfatlon and the engagement of Mr. Stanley 
 
 '"Isy^- Missionary expedition, to the Upper 
 Congo region by i.e Livingstone Inland MUslon 
 and the Baptist Missionary Society. .... 
 
 i879.-Joumey of Mr. Stewart, of the Ll» ng^ 
 stonia Mission, on Uke Nya«a. from that la6« 
 to Ijike Tanganyika. mi„., 
 
 1870.- DiscoVerv of the wurce. of the Niger 
 In the hills alH.ut 200 miles east of Freetown, the 
 capital of Sierra I^one. by the French explorer.. 
 Zwelfel and Moustier. 
 
 1879-1880.- Journey of Dr, 0«»" fo- 
 under U>e auspice, of the German African Socletr 
 fmm Morocco U> Timbuctoo, and thence to the 
 ATlantlc c.«st In Senegambia. The fact that the 
 Sahara Is generally alwve the "fa-'e'el. and can- 
 not therefore be flooded, was determined by Dr. 
 
 ^i879-l88i.-Expedltlon of Dr. Buchner from 
 LoanSk tfTKawendo and the kingdom of the 
 Muata Yanvo, where .ix ""»'t''. were .pentin 
 vain efforu to procure permlMlon to proceea 
 further Into Uie interior Am.rlcan 
 
 1880. -Mission esublished by the American 
 Board of Foreign Mission. In "the region of 
 BIhl and the" Sanx.,' or Quanxa, wuth of the 
 
 I ^7£te-i8li.-War of the British with the Boer. 
 
 i "S^i^JiMt-Omclal ml«lon of the German 
 explorer. Gerhard IloUM.. accmpMUd by Dr. 
 I Hlecker, to Abyulnla. 
 
 20 
 
 
AFRICA., 1880-1884. 
 
 AFRICA, 1884-1891. 
 
 I08o-t884.— Campal^s In Upper Senegal, 
 exttniling French supreniiicy to the Nlgur. 
 
 1880-1884. — German Eas. African Expedition 
 ) explore, in tlie Congo busin, the region lx.'tweeD 
 mv Lualuba and the Luapula. 
 
 1880-1886.— Exploiationa of Dr. Junker in 
 the country of the Niam-Niam, and hia journey 
 from the Equatorial Province, through Unyoro 
 and Uganda, to Zanzibar. 
 
 i88»-i889. — Joumer of Captain Casati, as cor- 
 respondent of the Italian gcograpliical review, 
 " L' Exploratore," from Sualdn. on tlie Red Sea, 
 into the district of the Mombuttu. west of Lalie 
 Albert, and the country of the Niam-Niiim ; in 
 which travels he was arresteii by the revolt uf 
 the Miihdi and forced to remain with Emin Pasha 
 until rescued with the latter by Stanley, in isau. 
 
 l88t. — French protectorate over Tuiiis. 
 
 1881. — Portuguese cxpe<iitiou of Captain An- 
 drad I from Senna on the Zambesi River to the 
 old gold jiiucs of Slanica. 
 
 iSdi. — Journey of F. L. and W. D. James 
 from Suakin. on the Rol Sea. through the Rase 
 country, in the Egyptian Sudan. 
 
 1881. — Founiling of a mis.sion on (he Congo, 
 at Stanley Pool, by the Baptist Missionary So- 
 ciety of England. 
 
 1881-1884.— E.tpodition of Dr. Pogge and 
 Lieutenant Wissmann to Nyangwc on tin; Lua- 
 laba, from which point Lieutenant Wissniann 
 ti-irsucil the journey to Zanzibar crossing the 
 .'iintiiient. 
 
 1*81-1885.— Revnlt of the Mahdi in tlie Su- 
 ti;in ; Hie mission of tlcnenil Uonlon ; tlic unsuc- 
 ccssi il expedition from England to rescue him; 
 th.' full of the city and his death. 
 
 I33i-i?87.— French pnitectorate established 
 oil 111.' UpiHT Nigt'r and Up|Mr Senegal. 
 
 l88a. — Itidian incupatiou of Abyssinian terri- 
 tory oil tlie Hay of .Vssab. 
 
 1882-1883.— Girman scicntlHc expedition. 
 iinler Dr. Hi^lim and Herr Reichanl, to Lakes 
 T.iin;:invika and Mcxto. 
 
 1 8(!2- 1 883.— Journey of Mr. II. II. Johnston 
 on till' Colli;!). 
 
 1883.— 'ierman acquisition of territory on An- 
 pru Peipiefia Hay. in Great Xanmiiualaiid. 
 
 1883. — Exploration of Masailand by Dr. 
 Fisclier. under the auspices of the Hamburg 
 Ueiii;rapliieal Soi'it-ty. 
 
 1883.— Kxplunitiona of Lieutenant Giraud in 
 East Central Africa, descending for some dis- 
 t.iiiii' the Liiapiila. 
 
 1883. — Seientirte Investigation of the basins of 
 Ijikes Xyassa and Tanganyika, bv Mr. Henry 
 Dniinmond, for the African Uikes Company. 
 
 1883.— Journey of M. Revoil in llie South 
 Somali country to tin- Upper Jub. 
 
 1883-1884.— Explorations of Mr Joseph Thom- 
 v'ln from Momliiissa. through Masailand. to tlie 
 I iirtheiist corner of the Victoria Nyaiiza. uiidi r 
 tlie auspices of the Royal (leogniphieal Sinietv. 
 
 I883-I88S.— War of the French with the ll'iv 
 T;.* of Madagascar, ri'-mlling In the establish- 
 liictil of a French pnitectonite over tlie island. 
 
 1883-1885, — Exploratiim of Lieutenant Giraud 
 in till- lake ri'giou. 
 
 1883-1886.— .Vustrian expeiliilon. under Dr. 
 Ilohib, from Cape Colony, thniiiuh ilio Ui«r 
 s'atei, Rechiianalanil and MatiilH-hland to the 
 
 1834. — .Annexation bv Germany of the whole 
 vriitern coast (except \ValAsh liiiy) between the 
 
 j 
 
 21 
 
 Portuguese poasessiona and those of the British 
 In South Africa. 
 
 1884.— German occupation of territory on the 
 Kameruns River, under treaties with the nati\e 
 chiefs. English treaties securing contiguous 
 territory to and including the delta of the Niger. 
 
 1884. — German protectorate over Togolaud 
 on the Gold Coast declared. 
 
 1884.— Expedition of Vr. Peters. rcprcs< nling 
 the Society of German Colonization, to the 
 coast region of Zanzibar, and his negotiation of 
 treaties with ten native chiefs, ceding the sover- 
 eignty of their dominions. 
 
 1884.— Crown colony ot British Bechuanalaud 
 acciuired from the South African Republic. 
 
 1884.— Portuguese Government expedition, 
 under Major Carvalho, from Loant'.a to the Cen- 
 tnU African potentate colled the Muiita Yaiivo. 
 
 1884.— Exj iomtion of the Bcnue uud the 
 Adamawa, by Herr Flegel. 
 
 1884 .—Scientific exp«lition of Mr. 11. IL 
 Johnston to Kilimanjaro Mountain. 
 
 1884.— Discovery of the M'bHngi or Ubangi 
 River (afterwards identified with the AVelii). by 
 Caiitjiin Ilansens and Lieutenant Van Gtle. 
 
 1884. — Exploration of Reiehard in the south- 
 eastern part of the Congo Str.te. 
 
 A. D. 1884-1891.— Partition of the interior 
 between European Powers. — " The partition 
 of Africa may be said to date from tlie Berlin 
 Conference of 18t<4-(»5 ^see Com o Fhke Statf.). 
 Prior to that Conference the ((uosiicn of inland 
 liouiidaries was scarcely coiisidend. . . . The 
 founding of the Congo Independent State was 
 probably the most Important result of Ihe Ci n- 
 feri'nce. . . . Two months after Ilie Conference 
 had concluded its labours. Great Britain and Ger- 
 many hod a sirioiLs dispute in regard to their re- 
 spective spheres of influence on the Gulf of 
 Guinea. . . . The eoinproniise . . . iirriMii at 
 placed the Mission Station of Viitnria witiiin the 
 German sphere of intliience," Tlie fiontiir be- 
 tween the two spheres of influence on tlie Itiulit 
 of Biafra was subsequer.tly defined by a line 
 drawn, in 1HH6, from the coast to Yola. on liie 
 Benue. The Royal Niger Company, constituted 
 by a royal charter, "was given iidministnitivc 
 powers over territories covere<l by its treaties. 
 The regions thereby iiIuckI undir British pro- 
 tection . . . apart from the Oil Rivers I )istriit. 
 which Is directly administered bv the Crown, 
 emi race the coastal lands betwei n t-at'o* anil the 
 northern frinitler of Ciiinarons, the Lower Niger 
 (including territories of Sokolo. Gandu and 
 Rorgo), and the Benue from Yola to it.s (in- 
 tluence." By a protixol signed Decenilier 24. 
 IHH.'i. Germany and France "defined their re- 
 spective splierca of influence nnii mtiun on the 
 Biglit of Biafra. and also on tlie Slave I oast 111. d 
 In Senecanibia." This " fixed tlie inland exten- 
 sion of the (terman spliereof iiilbu ne<'(CaniHn>i:si 
 
 Ht l.'i° E. longitude, Greenwieh \1 present 
 
 it allows the Fn'tieh Congo territories to expand 
 iiloiig the western bank of till- Mliaiigi . , pro- 
 vided no other tributary of the M'bangi Conuo is 
 found to the west, in wliiili case, nceonlinir to 
 the Berlin Treaty of iwt^.'i, the conventional 
 basin of the Congo would gain an exiinsion ' 
 (In the 12th of .May, IWd. Fiance and Portugal 
 siirned a convention bv wliieh Fnuiee "seiuiel 
 
 !)j.. .-x.-lMsiv.. r<-.]itr-.! M Imtli »-Jir,k<: e.f tl-,e I'-.i^:;- 
 
 iniinza (in Senei;ambial. and the P.>rtiii'iiese 
 frontier in the south was advanced approximuti iy 
 
AFMCA, 1884-1891. 
 
 ht 
 
 il 
 
 to the southern limit of the basin of the Citfini. 
 On tlie Congo, Portugal retained tlie Massabi .lis- 
 triot to which France had laid claim, but botli 
 banltaof the Loango were Uft to trance In 
 1884 tlircc ripresi'Dtatives of the J'«-'<;«y „'"' 
 German Colonization — Dr. Peters, Dr. JQIilki, 
 and Count Pftil - quietly concluded treaties with 
 the chiefs of I'seguha, tisanii, Nguru, and Lsa- 
 eara bv wldeli tliose territories were conveyed 
 to the"Societv in question. "Dr. Peters . . . 
 arme.1 with his treaties, ittur..cd to Berlin in 
 February, \m. On tlie 27th February the day 
 following the signature of tae General Act of the 
 Berlin Conference, an Imperial ts.hutzbnef, or 
 Cliarter of Protection, secured to the hociety tor 
 Gtrman Colonization the territories . . . ac- 
 quired for tliem through Dr. Peters treaties: in 
 otlier words, a German Protectorate was i)ro- 
 clai .led Wlien it became known tliat Germany 
 hiu' .--izcd upon the Zanzibar mainland, tlic in- 
 dignation in eolmiial circles knew no bounds. 
 Prior to 1884, tiie continental lands facing 
 Zanzibar were almost exclusively under Rritis i 
 inlUienec. The principal traders were Bntisli 
 subjects, and the Sultans Government was a, - 
 ministered under tlie advice of the British Kesi- 
 dent The entire region between tlie C oast and | 
 ;iie Lakes was regardeilas lieing under tlie nonu- 
 nal suzerainty of the Sultan. . . . t'tili. Great 
 B'itain had no territorial chums on tlie dominions 
 of the Sultan." Tlic Sultan formally protested 
 and Gn^at Britain championed his cause ; but to no 
 effect In tlie end tlie Sultan of Zanzibar yielded 
 tlie German Protietomteoverthefourinlandprov- 
 Incs and over Vitu, and the ^ritisli and German 
 Governments arraiigeil questions between them, 
 provisionallv. by the Anglo-Oennan ( onvention 
 of 1886 wliieh was afterwards super«>ded by 
 the mori detiiiite Cimventionof July 1800. whieli 
 will be spoken of below. In April 188., tlie 
 rielits of tlie Smietv for German Colonization 
 were transferred to tlie German Last Africa As- 
 sociation, whh Dr. Peters at Its liead The Brit- 
 ish East Africa Company t.^ok over concessions 
 tli.it liad iKen grunted by tile Sultan of Zanzibar 
 to Sir William Miukiiinon. and received a royal 
 cliarter in SeptemlKT, 1888. In Smtliwest Af- 
 rii-i "an enterprising Bremen imreliant. llerr 
 I U'lVritz anil suIm quently the German Consul- 
 (, .11. nil, l>r. Naelitiiral, eoncludeil a sines of po- 
 litirul and commir.ial treaties witli native cbiifs, 
 wliereby a claim was instituted over Angra 
 P.ipiefta, and ov.r vast districts in tlie Interior 
 lietwccu tlie (Iraugc Uiver ami Cape Fno. . . . 
 It w lis useless for the Cape eol. mists to protest. 
 On tlie 13th October 18*1 Germany formally 
 nolili.-d to the Powers her I'nitectorate over 
 Si.Mlli. West Africa. . . . On ^rd August ISC, the 
 GiTiiian Colonial Company fur NiuthWest At- 
 Ilea was founded, and . . . ncelvid the liii- 
 l«-rlMl sanction for its ineorporalion. But in 
 Aujiist 1880 a new A.s.sociai ion was fnrmed-- 
 the German West- Africa Company — and the aii- 
 ministration of its territories wiis placid under an 
 Imperial Coiiinilssiomr. . . . T'.- intrusion of 
 Germany into South-\V est Afrha >:c till as a (heels 
 upon no hss than a spur to, the extension of 
 British influence nortliwards to the /ainbe/l. 
 .\no!lier obstacle to thi« extension arose frmn the 
 Boer lusurrectlo'i." The Traii'vnal, villi in- 
 creawd indepenaencc liad adopted the title of 
 South African Hepublic. "Zulu-land, haviiii; lost 
 Its independence, was partitioned: a third of Its 
 
 AFBICA. 1884-1891. 
 
 territories, over which a republic bjid been pro- 
 claimed, was absorbed (^^'"•'er 188TJ by the 
 Transvaal: the remainder was added (14th May 
 1887) to the British possessions. Amatonga-lami 
 was n 1888 also taken under Britisl. protection. 
 By a convention with the Soutli African Bepab- 
 lie, Britain acquired in 1884 the Crown colony 
 of Bechuana-land; and in the early part of 18«j 
 a Brilisli Protectorate was proclaimeil over ">« 
 remaining portion of Bechuana-land. f u"""; 
 more "a British Protectorate was it^tituted 
 (18851 over the country boimded by the iiambezt 
 In the' north, the British possessions in the south, 
 ■ the Portuguese province of Sofala in the east, 
 and the 20tli degn^of east longitude in lie wes^ 
 It was at this juncture that Mr. Cecil Kliodes 
 came forward, and, having obtained "'ri"'" J-""; 
 cesshms from Loliengula, founded the BritisU 
 
 South Africa Company On the 29th Oc- 
 
 S 1889, tlic British South Africa Company 
 was granted a royal charter. It was declared m 
 this charter that ■the principal flel. of the optra.- 
 tionsof liie British South African Companv shil 
 be She region of South Africa lying inimediatel) 
 to the nortli of British Beehuaiialand, and to 
 the north and west of the South African Uepub- 
 llc and to the west of the Portuguese dciniin 
 loiis •" No northcru limit was given, and the 
 other boundaries were vaguely detlned. Hie 
 position of Swazi-laml was dehnite^y ^Jt ^J! 
 1890 by an arrangement Ix'twcen Great Bntam 
 and the Soutli African Uenuulic wliich provides 
 for the continued independence of Swaziland an. 1 
 a joint control over the white settlers A Briiisli 
 Protectorate was proclaimed over Nyassa-huvl 
 and the Shire Iliglilands in 1889-00. To ret.ini 
 now to the prweedings of other Po^C" 'n Af f," ; i 
 "Itiilv took formal possession, in July 188., <)t 
 the bay and territory of Assab. The Ita laii 
 coast-line on tlie Bed Sea was extended fnim Kas 
 Kasar (18' 2' N. Lat.) to the southern Ixiundary 
 of lUheita, towards < .iK.k. During 1880, sliort ly 
 after the death of King Joiiannes, Keren and 
 Asmara were occupied by Italian trmips .Mi iie_ 
 lik of Slioa, who succeeded to the throne «i 
 Abvs,sinia after subjugating ail the Abyssinian 
 provinces, except Tigre, .llspatehed an embassy 
 o King Humbert, the nsult of wlueli was that 
 the new Negus acknowledged (29tli September. 
 1S80) the Protectorate of Italy over Abyssinia, 
 and its sovereignty over tlie territories of Mas- 
 sawa Keren and Asmara." By tlie Protocols 
 Tf 24111 Marcli and l.-.th Ap.ll. l-'Ol. Ili'l.v "'» 
 (ireat BritJiin detine their respective Spheres ,.t 
 Intluence in Kast Africa. " But since then Italy 
 has practiially withdrawn from her position 
 She has absolutely no hold over Abyssinia . . _ 
 Italy has also succeeded in establishing hersell 
 on the Soimil Coast." By treaties eoncludeil m 
 1880 ••iheeoaslaiiamlsbet-veenCapeWarsheikh 
 
 (ahoi'it 2^^ iilt' N. lit.), and Cape Bedwiii (- 
 I,, n; 1,1, )_ a, listance of 4r>() miles — were plan. 1 
 under Italian prntection. Italy Bubs..quently r\ 
 tended (I81H)) 'ler Pmlectorate over the Soiuul 
 
 (•oast to the Jul. river The Brllish IT.. 
 
 ' leeli.rate on the Somal Coast facing Aden ly.w 
 cMcnils fniin the Italian fr.mtier at lias llafmi 
 toItasJllmle(i;lM.VK. long.). . . . The act iv 
 ilyof I'ninie in lier Senegainbian province . . 
 iluiiiitf Ihe l,i.st limi.irril years . '■■f '■;'•'';,' 
 resulted iu a considerable expansion of her ttrn 
 t.iry . The French have established a claiin 
 
 over tiie eonntry intervening between our Gold 
 
 «»<> 
 
AFRICA, 1884-1891. 
 
 AFRICA, 188S. 
 
 roast Colony and Liberia. A more precise de- 
 limitation of the frontier between Sierra I,eoDe 
 and Liberia resulted from tiie treaties signeci at 
 .Monrovia on the Utli of November, 1887. In 188« 
 I'ortugal withdrew ail riglits over Dehome. . . . 
 Itecently, a French sphere of influence has been 
 instituted over the whole of tlie Suharan regions 
 lietween Algeria and Senegambia. . . . Declara- 
 lions were exchanged (.'5th August 1890) between 
 I France and Great Britain] with the following 
 results; France became a consenting party to the 
 Anglo-German Convention of 1st July 1800. (3.) 
 Great Britain recognised a French sphere of in- 
 lluencc over Madagascar. . . . And (3) Great Brit- 
 .'liu recognised the sphere of influence of France to 
 tlic-iouthof her Mediterranean possessions, up to 
 a line from Say on the Niger to Harrua on Lake 
 Tsiil, drawn in such a manner as to comprise in 
 the sphere of action of the British Niger Com- 
 pany all that fairly lielongs to the Icingdom of 
 Sokuto." The Anglo-German Convention of 
 .luly. 1890, already referred to, established by its 
 main provisions the following deflnitiuns of ter- 
 ritory: "The Anglo-German frontier in East 
 Africa, which, by the Convention of 18S6, ended 
 at a point on the eastern shore of the Victoria 
 Nyaiiza was continued on the same latitude across 
 the lake to the confines of the Congo Independent 
 State; but, on the western side of the lake, this 
 frontier was, if necessary, to lie ilelli'cted to the 
 so\itli, in orderto include Mount M'fumbiro within 
 I lie Hrilish sphere. . . . Treaties in that district 
 were made on behalf of the BritiNli Kast Afriea 
 Company bv Mr. Stanley, on his return (May 
 18X«) from the relief of "Kiiiin Pasha. . . . (2.) 
 'I'lie southern boundary of the German sphere of 
 iiilliiencc in East Afriea was recognised as that 
 origiiiallv drawn to a point on the eastern shore 
 • if Like Nyassa, whence it was continued by the 
 I a>tiTn, northern, and western shores of the lake 
 111 the northern bank of the nicutli of the Uivor 
 Siiiigwe. From this point the AngloOerman 
 Iroiitier was continued to Lake Tanganika, in 
 UK li a manner as to leave the Stevenson Hoad 
 wiihiii the British sphere. (3.) The Northern 
 Irutilier of British Last Afriea was ilellned by 
 tile .Iiib Uiverandthe eonterminois boundary of 
 the Italian sphere of inlluence in Galla-land and 
 .\liyssinia up to the coulines of Egypt; in the 
 «i~t, liy the Conco State and the Congo-Nile 
 watershed. (4.) Germany withdrew, in favor of 
 liiiluin. her Protectorate over Vitu and her claims 
 til all territories on the mainland to the north of 
 the Hiver Tana, as also over tl": islamls of Pati« 
 anil .Manila. (5.) In South-West Afriea. the 
 .\iij;lo-German frontier, originally fixed up to i'i 
 south hititude. was eontirmed: but from this 
 p'liiit the boundary-line was drawn in sueli a man- 
 in r eastward and northward as to give Germany 
 frie access to the ZamlKzi by the c'liobe Hiver 
 |it ) 'I'he Anglo-Gi'rman froiitier betwein Ti'l'o 
 ami (iold (nast Colony was fixed, anil that lie 
 iiveiii the Camarons and the Briti.sh Niger Ti r- 
 ritories was provLsionally adjusteil, (7.) The 
 Free Iraile zone, defineil by the Art of Ihrlin 
 (1^8.")) was recognised as applicable to the present 
 arniiigement between Britain and Germany. (8 ) 
 A British Protectorate was recognised over the 
 iloniinions of the Sultan of Zanzibar within the 
 British coastal zone and over the islands of Zan- 
 jihar and Prmba nritain, h -•'"c-.cr, itmicriiKiU 
 to use her influence to secure (what have since 
 been acquired) corregpouding advantages for 
 
 Germany within the German coastal rone and 
 over the island of Mafia. Finally (9), the island 
 of Heligoland, in the North Sea, was ceded by 
 Britain to Germany." By a treaty cont^luded in 
 June, 1891, lietween Great Britain and Port;igal, 
 " Great Britain acquired a broad central sphere 
 of influence for the expansion of her possessions 
 in South Africa northward to and lieyond the 
 Zambezi, along a path which provides for the un- 
 interrupted passage of British goods and British 
 enterprise, up to the confines of the Congo In- 
 dependent State and German Ea.st Africa. . . . 
 Portugal, on the East Coast secured the Lower 
 Zambezi from Zumbo, and the Lower Shire from 
 the Huo Confluence, the entire Hinterland of 
 Mosambique up to Lake Nyassa and the Hinter- 
 land of Sofala to the confines of the South African 
 Itepublic and the Matabclc kingdom. On the 
 West Coast, Portugal received the entire Hinter- 
 land iH'hind her provinces in Lower Guinea, up 
 to the confines of the Congo Independent State, 
 and the upper course of the Zambezi. . . . On 
 May ■J.'ith 1891 a Convention was signed at Lis- 
 bon, whicli has put an end to the dispute between 
 Portugal and the Congo Independent State as to 
 the possession of Lunda. Houghly speaking, the 
 country was equally divided Ix-tween the itispu- 
 tants. . . . Lord Salisbury, in his negotiations 
 with Germany and Portugal, very wisely upheld 
 the principle of free-trade which was laid down 
 by the Act of Berlin, ISS.'i, in regard to the free 
 transit of goods through territories in whidi tuo 
 or more powers are indirectly interestiil," 
 '"Thus, by the Anglo-German compact, the con- 
 tracting powers reserved for their respective 
 siibjccLs a ' right of way,' so to speak, along 
 the main channels or routes of coniniunicatiiui. 
 Through tlie applii^ation of the same principle 
 in the recent Anglo-Portuguese t'ouvcntiun. 
 I'lirtiigal obtjiins not only a 'right of wav' 
 across the British Zaniliesi zone, but also tiie 
 privili nccif constructing railways and telegniphs. 
 >he thereby secures free and uninterrupted cmi- 
 iiectii/ii between her pos.sessions on the East 
 ( cia>t am', those on the West Coast. A similar 
 ci luissiin is made to Britain in the Znuibisi 
 I iiMii. within the Portuguese sphere. Finally, 
 till /anibisi itself has been declareil free to the 
 HaL's (if all nations. Britain has stipulated for 
 the right of preemption in the event of Por- 
 liigal wishing to dispose of territories .si uih of 
 the Zambesi." — A. S. White, j'/tt Ui ii I,] ii,i lit 
 'J .\fiini. nnmil ill., rcr., 1892. — See, also, Sot'TU 
 Akiik A, and Uganda. 
 
 A. D. i884-if95. — Chronology of European 
 Exploration. Missionary Settlement, Coloni- 
 zation and Occupation. 
 
 1684-1885.— The B< rliii Conference of Powers, 
 111 III to ihtermiiie the limitsof territory cuiiculed 
 til the International Congo Asso<'iation, to estab- 
 lish fn iiloni of trade within that territory, and 
 til furinulate rules 'or regulating in future the 
 acquisition of African territory. 
 
 1884-1885.— Journey of Mr. Walter M. Kerr 
 from Cape Colony, across the Zambesi, to Lake 
 Nyassa. and down the Shire Kivcr to the con.-t. 
 
 1884-1885. — Travels of Sir. F. L. James and 
 party in the Somali country. 
 
 1884-1887.— Exploration by Dr. Sthinz of the 
 IM wlv uc(|Uired German tirritories in Afriea. 
 
 lE^s— Tninsfcr of the rt-lits of the H:-.r!rty 
 of tiirnian CoUmization to the German East 
 .Vliicu Company, and cxteusioQ of imperial 
 
 23 
 
li 
 
 I 
 
 APIUCA, 1885. 
 
 protection to the territories clsimed by the Com- 
 pany. German acquisition of AVltu, north of 
 Zauzibar. 
 
 1885. — Affreement between Germany nmJ 
 Fnince, dcfliiiiig their respective spheres of in- 
 fliiincc on the Bight of Blafra, on the sliivo 
 coast and in Scncgambla. 
 
 1885.— Transformation of the Congo Associa- 
 tion into the Independent State of the Congo, 
 Willi King Leopold of Belgium as its sover- 
 eign. 
 
 1885.— British Protectorate "Xtcnded to the 
 Zamlnsi, over the country west of the Portu^ 
 gui'Sf province of Sofala, to the JOtfi degree of 
 east longiliiile. 
 
 1885.— British Protectorate extended over the 
 reniiiiudir of Bechuanaland. 
 
 1885.— Italian occupation of Massowa, on the 
 Red Sea. 
 
 1885.— Mission of Mr. Joseph Thomson, for 
 the National African Company, up the Niuer. to 
 Sokoto and Oando, securing treaties with the 
 sultans under which the company acijulred para- 
 mount rigiits. _ 
 
 1885-1888. — .Mission of M. Borclll to the 
 kingdom of Shoa (Southern Ethiopia) nnd south 
 
 of it. , „, 
 
 1885-1889.— When, after the fall of Khar- 
 tmini and the death of General Gorilon, in 18S5, 
 the Sudan was abandoned to the Malidi and the 
 fanatical Moliammcdi is of the interinr, Dr. Ed- 
 Wiird Schnitzcr, better known as Eniiu Pasha, 
 wlio ha<l been in command, under Gordon, of the 
 province of the Equator, extending up to Lake 
 Albert, was cut olT for six years from conimuni- 
 ration with the civilizeil world. In WST an ex- 
 pedition to rescue him and his coininaiid was 
 sent out under Henry M. Stanley. It entered 
 the continent from the west, made its way up 
 tlie Congo and the Aruwimi to Yambuya ; thence 
 through the unexplored region to Luke Albert 
 Nyunza and into communication witli Emm 
 Pasha; then returning to Yambuya for tin- rear- 
 guard wliich had been left there; again travers- 
 ing the savage land to Lake Albert, and passing 
 from there, with Emin and his companions, by 
 way of Lake Albert Edward N. sn/.n Chen 
 ascertained to be the ultimate reservoir of the 
 Nile system) around the southern extn'niity of 
 the Viitoria Nyanza, to Zanzibar, which was 
 reached at the end of 1889. 
 
 l886.— Settlement lictween Great Britain ami 
 Germany of the coast territory to be left under 
 the sovereignty of the Sultan of Zanzibar, and 
 of the "sphercsof influence" to be appropriated 
 respectively by themselves, between tlie lakes 
 and the eastern coast, north of the Portuguese 
 posiicssions. 
 
 1886.— .\grceinent between Fnnre nivl Portu- 
 gal delluiiig limits of territory in Senegiiiiiliia and 
 ut the mouth of the Congo. 
 
 1886.— Tniusformathm of the National African 
 Conipany into the British Koyal Niger ("in paiiy, 
 witli a tharter giving iK)wers of administration 
 over a large domain on the Hiver Niger. 
 
 1886.— Mission station foundeil by Mr. Arnot 
 at Bunkeya, in the southeastern part of tlie 
 Congo State. 
 
 1886-1887.— Journey of Lieutenant Wis^mann 
 aeross the continent, from Lulualiurg, u stiitioii 
 i)f liie Congo A.^soc!fttion, in the ilHiiiinin:i nf 
 Mimia Yanvo, to Nyangwe, on the Liialaba, 
 uu<l thence to Zanzibar. 
 
 AFRICA, 1889-1890. 
 
 l88«.l889.— ExpeditionK of Dr. Zintgraff in 
 the Cameroon* Intenor and to the Beuue, for the 
 bringing of the country under German inlluenre. 
 1887.— Annexation of Zululand, partly to the 
 Transvaal, or South African Republic, and the 
 remainder to the British possessions. 
 
 1887.— French gunboats launched on the tp- 
 per Niger, making a reconnolssanco nearly to 
 Timbuctoo. 
 
 1887.— Indentity of the Well6 River with the 
 Mbangl or Ubangl established by Captain Van 
 Qi\e and Lieutenant Lienart 
 
 i887.— First ascent of Kilimanjaro by Dr. 
 Ilans Sleyer. _ , „. 
 
 1887-1889.— Exploration by Captain Binger 
 of the region between the great bend of the 
 Niger and the countries of the Gold Co tst. 
 
 1887-1800.— Expedition of Count Tcleki 
 through JIasailand, having for lU moit impor- 
 tant result the discovery of the Basso-Narok or 
 Black Lake, to which the discoverer gave t^o 
 name of Lake Rudolf, and Lake Stefr.nie. 
 
 1888.— Chartering of the Imperial British 
 East Africa Company, under concessions granted 
 by the sultan of Zanzibar and by native chiefs, 
 with powers of administration over a n",'ion de- 
 fined ultimately as extending from the river 
 Umba northward to the river Jub, and inland to 
 and across Lake Victoria near its middle to the 
 eastern boundary of the Congo Free State. 
 
 1888.— British 8uprem->cv over Matabeleland 
 .secured by treaty with its King Lobengula. 
 
 1888. — British Protectorate extended over 
 AmatoBgaland. _ .^ „ 
 
 1888.— Ascent of Mt. Kilimanjaro by Mr. 
 Fillers and Dr. Abbott; also by Dr. Hans 
 Meyer. , , , 
 
 1888.— Travels of Joseph Thomson in the At- 
 las and southern Morocco. 
 
 1889.— Royal charter granted to the British 
 South Africa Company, witli rights and powers 
 in the region called ilamliesia north of British 
 BeehuBiialand and the South African Itepiiblic, 
 and between the Portuguese territory on the east 
 and the German territory on the west. 
 
 1889.— Will of King Leopold, making Bel- 
 gium heir to the sovereign rights of the Congo 
 Free State. , , . 
 
 1889.— Protectorate of Italy over Abyssinia 
 acknowledged by the Negus. 
 
 1889.— Portuguese Roman Catholic Mission 
 established on the south shore of Lake Nyassa. 
 Portuguese exploration under Serpa Pinto in the 
 Lake Nvassa region, with designs of occupancy 
 frustrated by the British. 
 
 1889.— Jotimev of M. Crampel from the 
 Ogowe to the Likuala tributary of the Congo, 
 and return directly westward to the coast. 
 
 1889.— Dr. Wolf's exploration of the southcnst 
 Niger basin, where he met his death. 
 
 1889.— Major Macdonald's exploration of the 
 Benue, sometimes called the Tehadda (a branch 
 of the Niger), and of its tributary the Keblii. 
 
 1889.— .lourney of Mr, H. H. Johnston north 
 nf Laki^ Nvassa and to Lake Leopold. 
 
 1889.— Journey of Mr. Sharpe through the 
 country lying between the Shire and Loangwa 
 Rivers. , „ 
 
 1889.— Mr. Pigott's journey to the Upper 
 Tiina, ill the service of the Iinp-irial British East 
 Afrit:;! Ciitiitmuv. 
 
 1889-1890.— British Protectorate lieclarcd over 
 Nyussidand and the Shire Higiilauds. 
 
 24 
 
 t 'I 
 
AFRICA, 1889-1890. 
 
 AFRICA, 1891-1893. 
 
 explomtlons ia Mada- 
 and MX. Mahtre and 
 
 i889-i890.— Italian Protectorate established 
 over territory on the eastern (oceanic) Somali 
 coast, from tL ^ Oulf of Aden to tiie Jiib River. 
 
 1889-1890. — Imperial Britisti East Africa Com- 
 pany'n expedition, under Jackson and OlkIkc, for 
 tlie exploring of a new road to tlie Victoria Ny- 
 anzaLnd Uganda. 
 
 i889-i89<>. — Captain Lugard's exploration of 
 the river babaklii for the Imperial British East 
 Africa Company. 
 
 1889-1800.— Journey of Lieutenant Morgcn 
 from the Cameroons, on the western coast to the 
 Bcnue. 
 
 1889-1890.— French 
 gsscar by Dr. Catat 
 Foucart. 
 
 1890. — Anglo -German Convention, di 
 lioundnries of t,ic territories and " spheres .)i iu- 
 6 lencc " respectively claimed by the two powers ; 
 Q'rmany withdrawing from Vitu, and from all 
 th? rAstcm mainland coast north of the river 
 Tana, and conceding a British Protectorate over 
 Zanzibar, in exchange fur the island of Hcligo- 
 tund in the North Sea. 
 
 1890. — French "sphere of influence" extcml- 
 Ing over the Sahara and the Sudan, from Alperiu 
 to Lake Tchad and to Say on tlic Niger, recog- 
 nizeii by Oreat Britain. 
 
 189a— Exploration of ' , river Sanglia, an 
 important northern tribub / of Hij Congo, by 
 M. Cliolet. 
 
 1890. — Exploring Journey of M. Ilodistor, 
 spent of the Upper Congo Company, up tlit 
 ijonmmi river and across country to the Lua- 
 liiba, at Nvangwe. 
 
 1890.— .Tourney of Mr. Garrett in the Interior 
 of Sierra Leone to the upper waters of tlio 
 Nljrtr. 
 
 1890.— Journey of I)r. Fleck from the west- 
 ern CdHst across the Kalibnri to Lake Ngauii. 
 
 1890-1891.— Italian possessions in tlie lied Sea 
 united in the colony of Eritrea. 
 
 1890-1891. — Mission of Captain Lugard to 
 Uganda and signature of a treaty bv its king 
 iioknowU'ilging the supremacy of the British 
 East Africa Company. 
 
 l890--'59i.- -Exploration by M. Paul Crampel 
 of the ceutra. region between the French ter 
 ritiiries on tlie Congo and Lake Tchad, ending 
 in the murder of 51. Crampel and several of 
 his companions. 
 
 1890-1891. — .loumer of Mr. Sharpe from 
 Mandala. in tlie Shire Highlands, to Garonganze, 
 the empire founded by an African adventurer, 
 M^hidi. In tlie Katanga copper country, be- 
 tween Lake Moero and the Luapula river on 
 the east, and tlic Lualaba on the west. 
 
 1890-1891.— Journey of Lieutenant Mizon 
 from the Niger to the Congo. 
 
 1890-1891.— Journey of Captain Becker from 
 Yaniliuva, on the Aruwimi, nortliuorthwest to 
 the W.lle. 
 
 1890-1892.— Italian explorations in the So- 
 mali countries by SIgnor Kobeeclii, Lieutenant 
 Biuiili di V'esme, Prince Ruspoli, an i Captalus 
 Boltego and Grixoni. 
 
 1890-1893.— Expedition of Dr. F uhlmann, 
 with Eniiii Pasha, from Bagamoyo, via the 
 Victoria Nyanza and the Albert Edward, to the 
 plateau west of ♦he Albert Nranza. From tills 
 point Dr Sluhimann n'turnci!, while Emln pur- 
 sued his way, intending it is said, to reach Klb- 
 onge, on the right bank of the Congo, south 
 
 of Stanley Falls. He wa* murdered at Kinena, 
 150 miles northeast of KlboDge, by the order 
 of an Arab chief. 
 
 1891.— Extension of the British Protectorate 
 of Lagos over the neighboring districts of Addo, 
 Igliessa, and Ilaro, which form the western 
 boundary of Yoruba. 
 
 1891.- Treaty between Great Britain and 
 Portugal defining their possessions; conceding to 
 the former an interior extension of her South 
 African dominion up to the bouthern boundary 
 of the Congo Free State, and securing to the 
 latter defined territories on the Lower Zambesi, 
 the Lower Shire, and the Nyassa, as well as the 
 large block of her possessions on the western 
 coast 
 
 1891. — Convention between Portugal and the 
 Congo Free State for the division of the dis- 
 puted district of Lunda. 
 
 1891. — Convention of the Congo Free State 
 with the Katanga Company, an international 
 syndicate, giving the Company preferential 
 rights over reputed mines in Katanga and Uriia, 
 with a third of the public domain, provided it 
 established an elTectlve occupation within three 
 years. 
 
 1891. — French annexation of the Gold Coast 
 between Lil":ria and the Grand Bassam, 
 
 1891.— Opening of tlie Koyal Trans-African 
 Railway, in West Africa, from Loanda to Am- 
 baca, 140 miles. 
 
 1801. — Survey of a railway route from the 
 eastern coast to Victoria Lake by the Imperial 
 British East Africa Company. 
 
 1891.— Exploration of the Jub River, in the 
 Somali country, by Commander Duiidns. 
 
 1891. — Exploration by Captain Duudas. from 
 the eastern coast, up the river Tana to Mount 
 Kcnio. 
 
 1891. — Mr. Bent'8 exploration of the ruined 
 cities of Mashonaland. 
 
 1891. — Journey of M. Maistrc from the Congo 
 to tlie Shari. 
 
 1891. — Journeys of Captain Qallwey in the 
 Benin country. West Africa. 
 
 1891. — Mission established by the Berlin Mis- 
 sionary Society in the Konde country, at the 
 northern end of Lake Nyassa. 
 
 1891-1893. — Incorporation of the African 
 Lakes Company with the British South Africa 
 Company. Organization of the administration 
 of Northern Zamliesia and Nyassaland. 
 
 1891-1893,— Expedition of the Katanga 
 Company, under Captain Stairs, from Bagamoyo 
 to I^ke Tanganyika, thence through the coun- 
 try at the head of the most southern affluents 
 of the Congo, the Lualaba and the Luapula. 
 
 1801-1892.- Belgian expeditions under Cap- 
 tain Bla and others to explore the southeastern 
 portion of the Congo Basin, on behalf of the 
 Katanga Company, resulting in the determina- 
 tion of the fact that the Lukuga River is an 
 outlet of Lake Tanganyika. 
 
 1891-1893. — Journey of Dr. James Johnston 
 across the continent, from Benguela to tlie 
 mouth of the Zambesi, through Bihe, Gangiiela, 
 Barotse, the Kallhari Desert, Mashonaland, 
 Manica, Gorongoza, Nyassa, and the Shire High- 
 lands. 
 
 1891-1893.- Expedition of Mr. Joseph Thorn- 
 =--.n, for ihf British South Africa Company, fn.m 
 Kllimane or Qulllimane on the eastern coast tu 
 Lake Bangweolo, 
 
 
I ! 
 
 AFRICA. 1881-1889. 
 
 1891-1892.— Journey of Captain Montdl frcm 
 the NigiT to Ijikf Tiliad aod to Tripoli. 
 
 1801-1802.— Kxploration liy Lieutenant Clial- 
 tin of the river Lulu, anil the country betwi en 
 the Aruwimi and the Mellc Makua Rivera, in the 
 Coniro State. _ „ „ 
 
 1801-1893.— Joumcv of Pr. Oacar Baumnnn 
 from Tanpt, on the eastern coast: passiiie to the 
 south of Kilimanjaro, discovering two lakes l>e 
 tween that mountain and the Victoria ^yan7.8. 
 
 1801-1804.— Kxpeiiition under the command ol 
 Captain Van Kerckhoven and M. dc la Kethulle 
 de Kvhove, fitted out by the Coneo Fne btaU', 
 for tiie subjURation of the Arabs, the suppression 
 of the slave trade, and the exploration of the 
 country, throughout the region of the Welle or 
 Ubanel Telle and to the Nile. up., 
 
 i802.-Pecision of the Imperial British East 
 Africa Company to withdraw from tganda. 
 
 189a.— Practical conquest of Dahomey by e 
 
 ^^Soai-Joumev of M. Mer- in the Snlmri. i 
 the sTnith of Wargla. ri'sultlnj, in a report favor- 
 able to the construction of a railway to tap tne 
 Ccntnd Sudan. . _, 
 
 l8ga— French expedition under Captain Ulu- 
 eer to explon' the south.Tn Sudan, and to act con- 
 tointlv with British officials in determining the 
 boundary between French and English poss<s- 
 
 ^"'I'^j Journey of Mr. Pharpe from ihe Shlrfi 
 
 River 10 Lake Moero and the T pper Luiipula. 
 
 1892-1893.— Construction of a line of tele- 
 graph by the British South African Company, 
 from Cape Colonv. through Mashonaland, to 
 Fort Salisbury, with projected extension across 
 the Zambesi and by the side of Lakes Nyassa 
 and Tanganyika to Uijanda.— and ultimately 
 down the valley of the Mle. 
 
 1802-1893.- French scientific mission, under 
 M Dficle, from Cape Town to the sources of the 
 
 1892-1893.— Italian explorations, under Cap- 
 tain &5ttego and Prince Ruspoli, In tiie upper 
 basin of tiie River Jub. 
 
 lg93._Brus8els Anilslavery Conference, rati- 
 fied in its aetlim by tlie Powers. 
 
 ,853._Ollldal mission of Sir Gerald Porter to 
 Uganda, sent by the British Government to re- 
 
 Bort as to the expediency of tlic withdrawal of 
 •ritish authority from tliat countiy. 
 
 l853._Scientiflc expedition of Mr. Scott-El- 
 liot to Uganda. . „ „ 
 
 ,853._Scientlflr expedition of Dr. Gregory, of 
 the British Museum, from Mombassa, on tlie east- 
 ern coast, througli Masailand to Mount Kcnia. 
 
 j893._Joiiruey of Mr Biut to Aksii'- ' * bvs- 
 siniii, the ancient capital and sacrei' 
 Ethiopians. 
 
 1893-1894. — fiernein srientiflc 
 Mouni Kilinian.i^ini, urder Drs.Lent and 
 
 1893-1894. — Expedition of Mr. Astor v... 
 »nd Lieutenant von IlOlinel from Witu, on i. 
 eastern coast, to the Jonibini Range and among 
 the Rendilc. 
 
 1893-189* —Explorations of Baron von Uech- 
 tritz and I)i. Pnss,irge on the Benue. 
 
 1893-1894.— Journey of Baron von Scheie 
 from tlie eastern coast to Lake Nyassa, and 
 thenec by a direct route to Kihsa. 
 
 1893-1894. — Journey of Count von GOtzen 
 across the continent, from Dares-Salaam, on the 
 Mstera coast, to the Loner Congo. 
 
 AGELA. 
 
 1894.— Treaty between Great Britain and the 
 Congo Free State, securing to the former a strip 
 of land on the west side of the Nile between 
 the Albert Nyanza and 10° north latitude, and to 
 the latter the large Bahr-el-Ghazel region, west 
 ward. This convention gave oflense to France, 
 and that country Immediately exacted from the 
 Congo Free State a treaty stipulating that the 
 latter shall not occupy or exercise political influ- 
 ence In a region which covers most of the terri- 
 tory assigned to it by the treaty with Great 
 Britain. . , , .^ 
 
 1894.— Franco-German Treaty.determlnlng the 
 boundary line of tlie Camcroons, or Kamerun. 
 
 ,894.— Treaty concluded by Captain Liigard, 
 November 10, at Nikki, in Borgii, confirming 
 the rights claimed by tlic lloyal Niger Company 
 over Borgu, and placing that country under 
 British protection. 
 
 1894.— Agreement between the British South 
 Africa Company and the Government of Great 
 Britain, signed November 24, 1894. transferring 
 to the direct administration of the Company the 
 Protectorate of Nyassaland, thereby extending 
 Its domain to the south end of Lake Tangan- 
 
 1894.— Renewed war of France with thj 
 Hovasof Madagascar. 
 
 1894.— Expedition of Dr. Donaldson Smith 
 from the Somali coast, stoiijied and turned baek 
 1 by the Abvssinians, in December. 
 
 1894.— t'oiupleted cono.uest of Dahomey by 
 the French; capture of the deposeil king. Janu- 
 ary 2.) and his deportation to exili' in Martin- 
 iiiue. Dec'ree of tlie French Government. June 
 2'2 directing the administrative organization of 
 the "colonv of Dahonu'V and Dependencies." 
 
 1894.— (iccupation of Timbuctoo by a French 
 force. 
 
 1894.— Journey of Count von OiUzen across 
 the continent, from the eastern coast, through 
 Ruanda and the Great Forest to and along the 
 Lowa. an eastern trilmtary of the Congo. 
 
 1894.— Exploration of ihe Upper Congo and 
 the LukuL'a l)v .Mr. R. Dorsey Mohun, American 
 A"ent on Ihe Congo, and Dr. Hinde, 
 
 1894.— "<eientilic expedition of Mr. .oryndon 
 from the Cape to the Zambesi and Lake Tan- 
 ganyika. ,. , ., , 
 1894-1895.— War of the Italians in their 
 colony of Eritrea with botli the Aliyssinians and 
 tlie .Niahdists. Italian oeenpation of Kassala. 
 
 1895.— Franco-British a^'reement. signed Jan- 
 uary 21. I'^y.'i. respecting the "Hinteriand" of 
 Siena I.' (Mie, which secures to France the Upper 
 Niser liusin. _ , . ■ 
 
 i895.— Cimvention between Belgium and 
 France signed Felirunry .'), recngnizipga right of 
 irePmption on the part of the latter, with re 
 ■rd to tiie Congo State, in case Belgium slioiilii 
 'ny time renounce the sovereignty which 
 Leopold desires to transfer to iu 
 
 AGADE. See Baiivi.om.v: The EariT 
 
 (ClIAI,I)K.\N) MoNARrllT. 
 
 AGAS. See Srr.i.iMF. Pokte. 
 AGATHOCLES, The tyranny of. Sec 
 SviiAdsF.: B. C. 317-SH9. 
 AGE OF STONE. — AGE OF BRONZE, 
 
 ic. Sir Stonk AiiK. 
 
 AGELA.-AGELATAS.— The youths and 
 young men of ancient Crete were publicly 
 
 26 
 
AOELA. 
 
 AGRI DECUMATES. 
 
 trained and dtaciplloed In divisioni or rompanies, 
 each of which was railed an Agcia, and its 
 leader or director the Agelatas.— O. BchOmann, 
 Antiq. of Oreeee : The State, pt. 3, eh. 2. 
 
 ACEMA, The.— The royal escort of Alex- 
 ander the Qreat. 
 
 AGEN, Oriffin ot See Nitiobhioes. 
 
 AGENDICOM OR AGEDINCUM. See 
 Bekoweh. 
 
 ACER PUBLICUS.— " Rome was always 
 making fresh acquisitions of territory in her 
 early history. . . . Large tracts of country be- 
 came Roman land, the property of the Roman 
 state, or public domain (ager publicus), as the 
 Roniiins called it. The condition of this land, 
 the use to which it was applied, and the dis- 
 putes which it caused between the two orders at 
 {{ome, are among the most curious and perplex- 
 ing questions in Roman history. . , . That part 
 of newly-acquired territory which was neither 
 sold nor given remained public property, and it 
 was occupied, according to the Roman term, by 
 private persons, in whose hands it was a Pos- 
 seaslo. Hyginus and Siculus Fh.ccus represent 
 this occupation m being made without any 
 order. Every Roman took what he could, and 
 more than he could use profitably. . . . We 
 should he more inclined to believe that this 
 public land was occupied under some regula- 
 tions, in order to prevent disputes; but if such 
 regulations existed we know nothing about 
 them. There was no survey made of the public 
 land which was from time to time acquired, but 
 llicrj were certainly general boundaries fixed for 
 llie purpose of dcterndning wliat had become 
 public property. The lands which w^cre sold 
 and given were of necessity surveyed and fixed 
 by boundaries. . . . There is no direct evidence 
 that any payments to the state were originally 
 made by the Possessors. It is certain, however, 
 that at some early time such piiyments were 
 made, or, at least, were due to tlio state." — G. 
 Lon?, Decline of the Roman Ilepublie, eh. 11. 
 
 AGGER. See C.^stra. 
 
 AGGRAVIADOS, The. See Spain: A. D. 
 1814-1827. 
 
 AGHA MOHAMMED KHAN, Shah of 
 Pe.-sia, A. 1>. lT»."i-17'.»7. 
 
 AGHLABITE DYNASTY. Sec >Lvu..me- 
 TA.N ( o.NtjiEST AND Kmpire : A. I>. 715-7.M. 
 
 AGHRIM, OR AUGHRIM, Battle of (A. 
 D. i6gi). t<eolHEi.ANi>: A. 1). ICHO-lCOl. 
 
 AGILULPHUS, King of the Lombards. 
 A. 1). ."iOO-flie, 
 
 AGINCOURT, Battle of (1415). See 
 FiiAMK; A. D. Ul."!. 
 
 AGINNUM.— Modern Agen. See Nitio- 
 BniiiLs. 
 
 AGNADEL, Battle of (1509). Sec Venice: 
 » I). l.jOH-l.lOH. 
 
 ^.ONATI.-AGNATIC, See Oens. Romas. 
 
 AGNIERS, The. See Ameiucan Abobiui- 
 NE8: Aoniers 
 
 AGOGE, The.— The public discipline en- 
 forced in ancient Sjmrta; the ordinances attri- 
 buted to Lycurgus, for the training of the young 
 and for the regulating of the lives of citizens. — 
 O. SchOmann,~.4n(iy. of Greece : The State, pt. 3, 
 ek. I. 
 
 AGORA, The. — The market-place of an ancient 
 Greek flly vas. also, llie centre of its puliiical 
 life. " Like the gymnasium, and even earlier 
 than this, it grew into architectural splendour 
 
 with the l>>creasing culture of the Greeks. la 
 maritime cities it generally lay near the sea ; in 
 inland places at the foot of the hill which carried 
 !he old feudal castle. Being the oldest part of 
 the city, it naturally became the focus not only 
 of commercial, but also of religious and political 
 life. Here even in Homer's time the citizen* 
 assembled in consultation, for which purpose it 
 was supplied with seats; here were the oldest 
 sanctuaries; hero wn.-i celebrated the first fes- 
 tive games; here cen'.-"d the roads on which the 
 intercommunication, both religious and commer- 
 cial, with neighbouring cities and states was car- 
 ried on; from here started the processions which 
 continually passed between holy places of kin- 
 dred origin, though locally separated. Although 
 originally all public transactions were carried on 
 in these market-places, special local arrange- 
 ments for contracting public business soon 
 became necessary In large cities. At Athens, for 
 instance, the gently rising ground of the Philo- 
 pappos hill, called Pnyx, touching the Agora, 
 was used for political consultations, while most 
 likely, about the time of the Pisistratides, the 
 market of Kerameikos, the oldest seat of Attic 
 industry (lying between tt-e foot of the Akropo- 
 lis, the Areopagos anr" 'le hill of Theseus), 
 became the agora pro '.. e., the centre of 
 
 Athenian commerce. . The description by 
 Vitruvius of an agora evidently refers to the 
 splendid structures of post-Alexandrine times. 
 According to him it was quadrangular in size 
 [? shape] and surrounded by wide double colon- 
 ades. The numerous columns carried architraves 
 of common stone or of marble, and on the roofs of 
 the porticoes were galleries for walking purposes. 
 This, of course, does not apply to all market- 
 places, even of later date ; but, upon the whole, 
 the remaining specimens agree with the descrip- 
 tion of Vitruvius."- E. Guhl and W. Koner, 
 Life of the Oreekt and liomant, tr. by Iluefftr, pt. 
 1, »eet. 26. — In the Homeric time, the general 
 assembly of freemen was called the Agora. — O. 
 Grote, IIi»t. of Greece, pt. 1, eh. 20. 
 
 AGR.£I, The. 8<?e Akahnwnians. 
 
 AGRARIAN LAWS, Roman.—" Great mis- 
 takes formerly prevailed on the nature of the 
 Roman laws familiarly termed Agrarian. It 
 w.is supposed that by these laws all land was 
 declared common property, mid thai at certain 
 intervals of time the state resumed possession 
 and made a fresh distribution to all citizens, 
 rich and poor. It is needless to make any 
 remarks on the nature and cc isequences of such 
 a law ; suireicnt it will be to say, what is now 
 known to u 1, that at Rome such laws never 
 existed, never were thought of. The lands 
 whieli were to be distributed by Agrarian laws 
 were not private property, but the property of 
 the state. They were, originally, those public 
 lands which had been the domain of the kings, 
 and which were increased whenever any city 
 or people was conquered by the Romans ; because 
 it was an Italian practice to confiscate the lands 
 of the conquered, in whole or in part." -II. G. 
 Liddell, Hilt, of Rome. bk. 2, ch. 8.— See Ro.mk- 
 B. 0. 376, and 3. C. 133-121. 
 
 AGRI DECUMATES, The.—" Betwe. i the 
 Rhine and the Upper Danube there intervtt.es a 
 triangular tract of land, the apex of which 
 ttHiclies the confines of Swii/.erlanii at Bas.. 
 liiiis separating, as with an enormous wedge, 
 the provinces of Gaul and Vindclicia, and pre- 
 
AGKI DECUMATE8. 
 
 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE. 
 
 tenting at its base no natural line of ilefcnce 
 from one river to tlie oilier. Tliia tmrt was, 
 however, occtipicd, for the most part, hy forests, 
 and if it lirolie t!'c line of theUoniaa defeiires, it 
 mi^lit at least lie con:,lJcreii impenotmlile to an 
 enemy. Almniiimeil by tiie warlilic and preda- 
 tory tribes of tiermanv, it was seized liy wander- 
 Init imnilKnuits froniCJaul, many of lliem Uaman 
 adventurers, lieforc wlioin tlic original inliablt- 
 ants, the Jtareomanni, or men of the f rentier, 
 seem to have retreated custwanl beyond the 
 Ilercynian forest. Tlio intruders claimed or 
 solieiled Ronmn protection, and ofTereil in return 
 a triliule fri>m the pnxluee of the soil, whence 
 tlie district itself came to be known by the title 
 of tlie .\L'ri Dccuniates, or Titlicd I-and. It was 
 not, however, otlicially connected witli any 
 province of the Empire, nor was any attempt 
 made to provide for its permanent security, till 
 a period much later than tliat on whicli we are 
 now engaged [the period of Augustua]." — C. 
 Merivale, Jliiit. of the Rman*, rh. 38.— "AVur- 
 tembiirg, Baden and Ilolienzollern coincide 
 with the Agri llecuniatesof tlie Uoman writers." 
 — R O. Latliam, Elhtuihou "f Euro}>c, eh. 8.— 
 See, also. Al.KMAS.M, and SiEVi. 
 
 AGRICOLA'S CAMPAIGNS IN BRI- 
 TAIN. Sec HiitTALN: A. I). 78-84. 
 
 AGRIGENTUM.— Acragas. or Agrigentum. 
 one of the youngest of tlic lireclt colonies in 
 Sicily, founded about B. C. 582 by tlic older col- 
 cnv of Oela, Ix'cniiie one of tlie largest and most 
 splcjiilid cities of tlie are, in the liflh century 
 B ('., as is testilled bv Its ruins to this day. 
 It was the scene of tlie notoric -anny of 
 
 I'lialaiis, as well as that of '\'h igcn- 
 
 tuui was destroyed In- the Carl' B. C. 
 
 4ll.'i, and rebuilt liy Tiiiioleun, b'. .vered 
 
 its former Inipoflanee and gran .1 Cur- 
 
 tins, llift. of (Iriiee, Ik. 4, eh. .. .•ee. also, 
 rilAT.viiis, Bk.\7.kn Bri.I, of.— Agrigenti.m was 
 destioyed bv the Carthagenians in 40(i B. ('. 
 See Sicii.Y :' B. C. 4il9-4o.).— Hebnilt by Tinin- 
 Icon, it was the scene of u gn.it deb at of tlio 
 Cartliag) nians by the Itanaus, In UW B. C. S e 
 Pl'.VK W.vn. TiiK Kiu«T. 
 
 AGRIPPINA AND HER SON NERO. 
 See lioMi;. A. II 47 .VI. wv\ -M <U 
 
 AHMEO KHEL, Battle of (i88o\ f^ee 
 Ari.iisxisTVN: A. 11 I><fl;i-1HM1. 
 AIGINA. See.i;,;iN\, 
 AIGOSPOTAMOI, Battle of. Sc fiiiiixi:; 
 B C 40-> 
 
 AIGUILLON, Siege of.— .\ notalile si' f e in 
 the "Iluhdnd V.iirs' War," .V. I> UIH An 
 English irarrisi-n under the faiiioiis kiiiL'lit. M' 
 Walter ManiiT, held the gr.'at foilre-.s ,if Aiguil 
 hin, near the conlbn'nee nf the (»;ironne anti the 
 Lot, against a fiirmiilalile Kn la li army. — J. 
 F-rolssart. ClirKtiirl,; r. I. Ik 1, '•/i. I'.'O. 
 AIX, Origin of. SecSvivKs. 
 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE: The Capital of 
 Cha.lemagiie. — The favnrite nsidmee ainl I'tie 
 of the two capitals iif ( harliinagne wus the i itv 
 which the (!i rmaiis call .\arlii n and the I'ninli 
 have named Alxla-rhapeUe " lie ravished the 
 nuns of the ancient worM to restore the monu- 
 mental arts. A new Home arose in the depllis 
 of the forrsta of AuBtrasia — palaces, gates, 
 bridges, baths, galleries, thi'aln-s. churches.— for 
 Uie ereciion t>r Hiikh Uw tmthAUH lUid liii»rbh s >•! 
 Italy were laid imder tribute, and workmen lum 
 •WBcd trom all part* u( Eunipe. It wai ihcm 
 
 that an extensive library was gathered, there 
 that tlio school of the palace was made perma- 
 nent, there that foreign envoys were pompouslv 
 welcomed, there that the monarch perfecteil ha 
 plans for the intrcHluction of Roman letters and 
 tiie improvement of music." — P. Gmifi-'n, Uitt. 
 of Friincf : Aurimt diinl. bk. 4, cA. 17. 
 
 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE. Treaty of (A. D. 
 803). Sec Vkmce: a. 1). 697-810. 
 
 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, Treaty of (A. .O. 
 1668). Bee Netherlands (Uglland): A. I). 
 1008. 
 
 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, The Congreaa and 
 Treaty which ended the War of the Austrian 
 Succeision (1^48).— The War of tlie Austrian 
 Succession, which ragid in Europe, and on the 
 ocean, and in India and America, from 1710 to 
 1718 (see AfSTKn; A. D. 1718-1738, 1740- 
 1741, and after), was brought to an end in the 
 latter year by a Conirrcss of all the belligerents 
 which met at Ai.Kla-Cliatielle, in April, and 
 which concluded its labors on the 18th of Octo- 
 ber following. " The inlluencc of England and 
 Holland . . . forceil the peace upon Austria and 
 Sardinia, thougli both were bitterly aggrievcil by 
 Its conditions. Frame agreed to restore every 
 conquest she hail maile during tlio war, to oban- 
 don the c;iusc of the Stuarts, and expel the Pre- 
 tender from her soil ; to dinioliah. in accordance 
 with earlier treaties, the fortiflcationsof Hunkirk 
 on the side of the sea, while retaining tlio.s(? oa 
 the side of the land, and to retire from tlic eon- 
 quest witliciut uc luirihg any fresh territory or 
 any )ieciiiiiary cunipensitinii. England in like 
 manner restored the few cuiiiiuests she had made, 
 and sulanltted to the somewhat hiiinilialing con- 
 dition of sending hostages to Paris us a security 
 fur the restoration of t.ii<eBret(m. . . . The dis- 
 puted boundary lietween Canada and Nova 
 Scutia, which had lacn a siiurce of constant difll- 
 culty with prance, was left altogether undi lined. 
 The .\ssiento treaty f<r traile with th(^ Spanish 
 col. mica was conlifnied for the four years it bad 
 s'ill to run; but no red compensation was 
 I I't.iined for a war expenditure wliich la said 1 1 
 Iiave c.\cicded sixty fiair inillioiis, and which 
 hid raised the funded and unfunded debt to 
 inorc than seventy-i ight n.illiona. Of the other 
 Powers, llolhiiid. IJenoa. and the little state of 
 .Modena retained tin ir territory aalMfore the war, 
 iinil lieiioa remained mistress of the Duchy of 
 riii:ile, whiih had Isen cled to the king of 
 Sardinia by the Treaty of Worms, and wlili h It 
 had been a main oliject of bis later policy to 
 secure. Austria olituincd a niognilion of the 
 election of the Emperor, a crieral guarantee of 
 tlie Pragmatic .Samtion. smI the restoration of 
 everything she had lo^t In llic Xetlicflauds, but 
 she gained no ailditlonal li rrltory. She was 
 compelled to conlirm the cession of Bllesia and 
 (ilatz to Prussia, to abandon her Italian con- 
 i|iiests, and evi n to cide a eonsi.lerable part of 
 her former Italian dominions. To the bitter 
 indiuniilion of Maria Theresa, the DiicliUs of 
 I'arnia. Plaeentia and Dua^iiUa pass».il to Don 
 i'liillp of Spain, to revert, howe\er, to their 
 f..rnicr possessors if Don Philip mounted tl.o 
 
 Spnnlsh throne, or died will tniale Issue. The 
 
 King (if Sa^lillla also obtained from Austria the 
 territorial cessions enumi rated In the Tri«ly 
 .f W.rii.i is.i iri!.-.: .\ D. \'i~X wiiri thft 
 Imporlant enceptionsof I'lsii-ntla, wlilch pasanl 
 I to Dun Phil!;, and of Piuale, wbicii nmalMd 
 
AIXLA-CHAPELLE 
 
 ALABAMA 
 
 with the Genoese. For the lost of thcie he 
 otitatoed do cumpensatiuD. Fredcrirk [the Great, 
 of Prussia] ol)tainril a general cuaraulee for the 
 
 {lossi'ssion of his nuwly acqutren territory, aud a 
 oiig list of old treaties was furiiially coufirmed. 
 Thus small were the changts effected in Europe 
 by BO much bloodshed and treachery, by nearly 
 nine years of wasteful and desolating war. Tlio 
 dcsi)rn of the dismemberment of Austria hiid 
 failed, but no vexed questions had bten get at 
 rest. . . . Of all the ambitious projects that had 
 been conceived during the war. that of Frederick 
 alone was sulistantially realized." — W. E. II. 
 liCcUy', Ilitt. iifEng. 18<A Century, ch. 8.— "Thus 
 ended the War of the Austrian succession. In 
 Its origin and its motives one of the most wicked 
 of all the many conflicts wliich ambition and 
 perfidy have provoked in Europe, it excites a 
 peculiarly mournful interest by the gross in- 
 equality in the rewards and penalties which for- 
 tune assigned to tiie leading aclors. Prussia, 
 Spain and Sardinia were all endowed out of the 
 estates of the house of llapsburg. But the 
 electoral house of IJavaria, tlie most sincere and 
 the most deserving of all the claimants to tliat 
 vast inheritance, not only reiiived no increase of 
 territory, but even nearly lost its own patrl- 
 moni.tl possessions. . . . The most trying jirob- 
 1cm is still that offered by the misfortunes of the 
 Queen of Hungary [Maria Tlicnsa]. . . . Tlie 
 verdict of history, as expressed by the public 
 opinion, and by the vast majority of writers, in 
 everv country except Prussia, upholds the 
 justfce of the queen's cause and condemns the 
 coalillon that was formed against her." — II. 
 Tuttle, nut. ofPnima, l"4.V17.")n. rh. 3. 
 
 Also in W. Ilussell, Ilitt. of Mitlrrn Kurojif. 
 It. 2, l(tltr SO.— \V. I'oxe, Iliit. of the Ihunt. of 
 Au$lna, eh. 108 (r. 3V— See, also, New Eno- 
 land: a. D. 1745-1TI'< 
 
 AIZNADIN, BMtle of (A. D. 634). Sec 
 
 Maiiiimi'.tan t'osiji est : A. 1). 6:tL'-fla». 
 
 AKARNANIAN LEAGUE, The.— "Uf tlic 
 Akurnanian Leugm'. formed by one of the hast 
 important, but ut the same time one of tlie most 
 estimable peoples In Greece . . . our knowl- 
 edge Is only fruginintary. The 1m iindariis I'f 
 Akarnuidu Huetualed, but we always find the 
 people snoken of as • politii al whole. . . . 
 Thui'vdiiles speaks, by Implleatii'n nt hast, of 
 the Akarnaniun League as an institution of old 
 staniling in his time. The Akarnanians hud, in 
 earlv times, (sTupied the hill of (Hpui as a place 
 for judicial pr.wiediiigs eommrm to the whole 
 na*; n. Thus ilie HU|irenie court of the Akar- 
 nanian I'ninn held its sittings, not in a town, but 
 In a mountain fortress Hut In Thurydlilcs' 
 own time Stratos had attained Its position as the 
 griatcst city of Akarnania, and probably the 
 federal assemlilies were already hehl there. . . . 
 Of the constitution of the League we know but 
 little. Ambassadors were sint by the federal 
 Ixsly, and prolmbly. ]nst as in' the Aihaian 
 I^'atue. it wo\ild brive b«'en held to l>e a bn'ach 
 of the frdeml lie if any single city had entered 
 on diplomatic Inlenourse with other powers As 
 in Al hala, too. then' stooil al the liend of the 
 I^'ague a Genernl with high aiilbo'lly. . . , 
 The existence of eolli-s lifurltitf tbi* nanie* of tha 
 whole Akarnanlan nallon shows that then- was 
 unity enough to ailnill of a federal ei.limge, 
 though coins of particular cities also (Hciir."— 
 
 E. A. Freeman, But. of Federal Gout., eh. •-, 
 trt. \. 
 AKARNANIANS ( AumaaiM*).-The 
 
 Akarnanians formed "a link of transition" 
 between tlie ancient Greeks aud their barbarous 
 or non-Hellenic neighbours in the Epirus aud 
 beyond. " Tliev occupied 'b erritory between 
 the river AcheloQs, the Ionian sea and the 
 Ambrakiau gulf: they were Greeks and 
 ailniitted as such to contend at the Panllellenic 
 games, yet thejr were alao closely connected 
 with the Amuhilocht and Agra:!, who were not 
 Greeks. In :"!iners, sentiments and intelli- 
 gence, f' • w.. ; )i;-.;." Hellenic and half-Epiidtic. 
 — liki ' ' .Kloliaiis !iiul >' e Ozolian Lokrians. 
 Even .Mvn tt) the time 1 rhncydides, these 
 nation wer .vjbdi\ iiied ' o numerous petty 
 coiinu lii" .. lived in unf .titieii villages, were 
 freque '' .' .1 Mie habit of 1 undering each other, 
 and ne , -i li; <•■' tiiin selves to be unarmeii. 
 . . . Notwithstamiuis !< s statu of disunion and 
 Insecurilv, however, the Akarnanians main- 
 tained a loose political league among themselves. 
 . , . The Akarnanians appear to have pmduced 
 many prophets. They traced up their mythical 
 ancestrv, us well as that of their neighbours the 
 Amphilochians, to the nio.st renowned prophetic 
 familv among the Gret ian heroes, — Amphiaraiis, 
 with his sons Alkmu'on and Ampiloehus: Akar- 
 nan, the eponymous hero of the nation, and 
 otiier eponymous heroes of the separate towns, 
 w ere suppost-d to be the sons of Alliinu'on. They 
 are spokeu of, together with the -Etolians, as 
 mere rude shepherds, by the lyric piH't Alkiiian. 
 and so they seem to liave Continued with lit'le 
 alleration until the beginning of the Pelopon- 
 nesian war, when we hear of them, for the first 
 tline, as allies of Atliens and as bitter enemici 
 of tlio Corinthian colonies on their coast. The 
 co;.laet of thost- cohmies, however, and the large 
 spread of Akurnanian accessible ci>ast, could not 
 fail to priKluce some effect in soeiall/.ini; and Im- 
 pmving the people. And it is prolialile that tliis 
 effect would have Iwen more smsibly fell, had 
 not the Akarnanians been kept back by the 
 fatal neigbbuurhiMHlof the .Etollans, with whom 
 they were in perpetual feud, — a people the most 
 unprini ipled and unimprovable of all who Imre 
 the Hellenic name, and whose habitual fnilhless- 
 ness stiHsl in marked contrast wiili the rectitude 
 and steadfastness of the Akarnanian character." 
 — (!, Grote, Jlitl. ofUrffV. ;i(. 1>. eh. U, 
 
 AKBAR (called The Create Moghul 
 Emperor or Padiichah of India, A. I). IbM- 
 lOo.'i 
 
 AKHALZIKH, Sieg:e and capture of (iSaS). 
 
 SeeTl llks; A. I >. l^Jl! ISJK 
 
 AKKAD.-AKKADIANS. S.-e IUiiyi.oria. 
 
 PnlMlllvl'; also, SkMITKS. 
 
 AKKARON. bee Piiilistinm. 
 AKROKERAUNIAN PROMONTOkY. 
 
 See KollKVIl\. 
 
 ALABAMA : The Aboriginal Inhabitant!. 
 See Amkhican Auoiiioinks: ArALACUKa; 
 
 Ml SKIKMIKK FaMII.V: t'llKHOKKFS. 
 
 A. D. 1539-1543.— Traveried by Hernaudo 
 de Soto. See ri.iuiiiu; A D, IV,'"* VAl 
 A. D. ttaq. Embraced in the Carolina 
 
 frant to Sir Robert Heath, Sii- AMKnuA: 
 II. liiao 
 A. O. 1M3.— Embraced In the Carolina 
 
 Srant to Monk, Shaftesbury, and otheri. ^e« 
 OHTII ( Alioi.l.w: A 1). lIHii^Itt;). 
 
 2J) 
 
ALABAMA. 
 
 ALABAMA CLAIMS. 
 
 P 
 
 A. D. 1702-1711.— French occupation and 
 first lettlcmeat.— The founding of Mobile. 
 lS<rI,.>risiAX\; A. 1>. l(i9S-171\;. 
 
 A. D. 1732.— Mostly embraced in the new 
 province of Georgia. SivC'iE<iH(Ma: A. 1'. 17;!-- 
 173'J. 
 
 A. D. 1763.— Cession and delivery to Great 
 Britain.— Partly embraced in West Florida. 
 Si' Sim :n Yi-.aus' Wau; iiiiil Fiiiuiiia: \. I>. 
 Klilt; iin.l NiHiTiiWKsT Tkhkitohv: A. 1>. 17t!!. 
 
 A. D. 1779-1781.— Reconquest of West 
 Florida by the Spaniards. So Fi .iuida: .V. 1>. 
 177!I-17H1. 
 
 A. D. 1783.— Mostly covered by the English 
 cession to the United States. Sc IMted 
 States OK Am. : .\. 1>. 178;! (Si i-tkmhkh). 
 
 A. D. 1783-1787.— Partly in dispute with 
 Spain. Scr Ki.okida: A. 1). 17f;)-17«7. 
 
 A. D. 1798-1804.— All but the West Florida 
 District embraced in Mississippi Territory. 
 SioMiswissiiTi: A. I). 179H-1K(I». 
 
 A. D. 1803.— Portion acquired by the Louis- 
 iana purchase. Sci'LdllsIANA: A. r>. 171M-1WW. 
 
 A. D. 1813.— Possession of Mobile and 
 West Florida taken from the Spaniards. Set- 
 Fu>iiiii\: A. 1). 1H10-Isi;f. 
 
 A. D. 1813-1814.— The Creek War. So 
 I'.MTKU Statkh or Am.: A. I). lS13-lvSU 
 (.Vnii ST— Afuii.V 
 
 A. D. 1817-1819.— Organized as a Territory. 
 —Constituted a State, and admitted to the 
 Union.—" Ity iiti m t nf ('luicnss iImIciI Mim li 1, 
 1X17, Sli.ssissi'|i]ii'i"iTntiirv wa.srliviilcd. Aix'ilicr 
 art. iHMriiiK llu' ilatc MiiiVli it, IliiriiiftiT, nrpui- 
 izcil till' wcsti 111 Ifi'aslini) purlinii into 11 Tini 
 tiirv. til !»' kiic'«ii Its Aliiliuiiui, uiul with ilic 
 bDi'indiirii'S lis tliiV imw exist. . . . lly 11:1 nrt 
 «p|iinvnl .Man li 'J,' 1><1!), ciinpnss aiitlKiriziil tin' 
 Inliahittiiils <if till' TirriKiry of Alahaiiiii to form 
 a stall' I'liiisliluliiiii. 'mill that said TiTTilnry, 
 wlii'ii fiirincil Into 11 Stair, shall W uilmitlnl Into 
 llic I'liioii upon till' siiiiii,' fiKitiii'.' us llir oriiriiial 
 Btnlrs.' . . . Till" joint rcsolulion of €oii:;n>.s 
 ailinitthiK Alaliaiim into the rnioii was approvi il 
 by I'n'siili'iit Monns', DiTiniUr 11, isll*."— \V. 
 B'ri'wir, Alii!"!'!!!!, cA. .^. 
 
 A. D. i86x (January).— Seer on from the 
 Union. S <• I'NiTKii St.vtks ok .\ >i. : A. D. INUl 
 (Jamaiiv— Vkuihahvi. 
 
 A. D. i86a.— General Mitchell's Expedition. 
 8<'c Tnitki) Statks OK Am. : A. 1». INOa (AlMiii. 
 — May: Ai.aham^). 
 
 A. D. 1864 ( August 1.— The Battle of Mobile 
 Bay.— Capture ofConfederste forts and flert. 
 8pi' iNITKIiSiATESoKAM. : A. I). ls()l(.\i i.rsT; 
 
 Al.AIUMA). 
 
 A. D. 1865 (March— April. .-The Fall of 
 If obile.— Wilson's Raid,— End of the Rebel- 
 lion, tti'i' Initkh Htaiks ok Am.: A. 1). IXOrt 
 (Ai'llll.— Mavi 
 
 A. D. 1865-1868. — Reconstruction. Sv 
 Unitkii Stvtes ok Am.: A. D. IS05 (May— 
 Jui-Y), to 1»«.'*-1M70. 
 
 ALABAMA CLAIMS. The: A. D. i86i- 
 It6a. — In their Origin,— The Earlier Con- 
 (idcrate cruisers.— Precursors of the Ala- 
 bama.— The riiniinlHsioiiiii^ of privati'crs, himI 
 of iiiori' otilriully coiniiiiimUHl rriiist'rs. In llii' 
 Amcricnn ilvil war. by the gmirniiK'nt of ihr 
 BiMiftii'iu CouFitifim >, *ii*i» i«mili I'rtiiy ill tin 
 pM^ri'M of tli» inovi'im'iil of nlnll|on. piir 
 •tuuit to a priM'liiiimlioii intiird liy J> tTirwiu 
 
 Davis on the 17th of April. tSfit, "Ikfim'thc 
 ilosi' of July, IMlll, more than 20 of those ilejire 
 ilalors were" .illoat. anil hail eaptiireil iiiillioiiu 
 of property lielongini; to Anieriianeilizens. 'The 
 most fornii<liil>le ami notorious of tlie se;i-(.'()ing 
 slii|isof this clianuter, were the Nashville, (up- 
 lain U. 11. I'eKrim, a Virginian, who liuil nliuii- 
 iloueil Ills tlaj;. uiiil the Sumter [a regularly 
 eommissiimeil war ves.s<l]. Captain Haph.ul 
 Semines, The former was a fiiilewlieel steamer, 
 eurrieil a rri'w of elKlitv ineii, anil was armed 
 with two long 12pouniler rilleil caiinon. Her 
 eareer was short, but quite siii le.ssful. She was 
 liimlly ilesiniycil bv the Monlank, Captain Wor- 
 den, "in the Ugeeeliee Uiver, The e:iner of the 
 Sumter, wliieli had Ihiii a New Orleans and 
 Havana paekel sti':iiiier naiiieil Muri|iiis de IIu- 
 liana, was also short, lint ininh inoixMietive and 
 destruelive. She li:iil a eiew of sivtyllvc men 
 and Iwenly-flve iii:iriiii's, and w:is heavily aniiiil. 
 She Mn lli'e liloi kade at the inoiiih of the Mi.sais- 
 sippl Uiver on theaiMh of .Iiine, ami was pur- 
 sued some di.stanec liy the Hnsiklyn. She rau 
 amoii); the West India islands and on the .Sp:iiiish 
 Slain, and soon made prizes of many vessi'la 
 lieirinj; the .\meriean Haft. She was every- 
 when- rieeived in Hriti.sh Colonial ports with 
 preat f;ivor, and wiis allonled every faeilily for 
 her piratieal openitiims. She lieeame llie terror 
 of tlie Ameriian mereliunt wrviir, and every- 
 wlieri' eluded National vessels of war sint nut 
 III pursuit of her. At Uiitsth she eroswd the 
 iH-eaii, and at llieelose of IWUl was eoiiipilled to 
 si'i'k shelter miller Itritish gunsatCJiliraltar. wlieri' 
 she w:is w;ili lied liy the Tiise:iroia. F.aily in 
 the year tSdJ she w:is sol'l, and thus ended her 
 piniiieal eareer. Fneouraj,'i'il by the pniitieal 
 frii ml.shiji of the Hiilidi eviiiiid" for llii^e cor- 
 sairs, Hiiil the Biilistautial aid liny Were n 1 living 
 from llrilish siilijiets in various ways. e«pi 1 ially 
 tade riiiini rs. 
 
 onspiratoi^ de- 
 ' fTiiiids s.ime 
 
 tliMuvh Idmkaih' riiiini rs, the 
 termiiieil to piisure from tlio 
 powerful pir.ilieal eraft, and ni:idi arraiiL'inn uts 
 for the pureliase and eonsirm li'iii of vessil.for 
 that piir|Mise. Mr. Ijiird. a .'•1 laiildi'r at Liver- 
 pisil iiiid memlK'r of the ltiiu>n I'arliaiiieii!. was 
 the larpst eonlraelor in the Imsiness. ami, in de- 
 flaiiee of every obstacle, succieded in gelling 
 pirate ships to'sea. The first of these ships that 
 went to wa was the Uretii. osteimibly built for a 
 houw in Palermo. Sicily, Mr. Adams, the 
 Amirieau minister In I,<)iiilon, was so well satis- 
 tied from information n'celTeil that she was de- 
 signed for the t'onfederntes, that he called tlie 
 attention of the Itrilishgovenunent to the matter 
 Ml early as the IHth of Kehruary. 1n(12. Hut 
 nothing" elTeetive was done, anil she wiw com 
 pleteil and allowisl to depart from British waters. 
 She went tlrsl to Niuwau, and ou the 4ih of S'p- 
 temlier siidileiily ap|M'areil off Molille harlwr, 
 llyiiii; the tlritisii Hag and pennants. The liliK'k- 
 adiiig si|iimlrou there was iu charge of Com- 
 nuinderlii-orge II. Pr<'lile, whohad lieenspiTially 
 Inslrneted not to give ottense to fori'ign Dalious 
 xvliile ( nfoning the bhskade. lie believed the 
 Onto to Ih> a British vessel, and while delilsTat- 
 iiig a few minutes as t«i what he should do, she 
 imssiHl out of range of his gius, and enlensi the 
 Lirlsir with a rich fn'ight. For his M-eniing 
 reiiiissni'M Commander I'nhle was suiiiiiiarlly 
 
 lii-lllinneli frulll lliu M>rtl'" WUtloiil B 1,1 lir- 
 
 ing — an act which siihM'<|uent rTrnIs Mriiu'd 
 to show was cruel Injiistkt', lutein Di-ienibtC 
 
 SO 
 
 i .iij 
 
ALABAMA CLAIMS. 
 
 ALABAMA CLAIMS. 
 
 the Oreto cscapcfl from Jlobilc, fully armed for 
 fi plrntlciil rniise, uidcr the coininuii<l •>! John 
 Newliiml Mafl";!. . . . The name of lln' Onion as 
 rhaiiired to tli;it of Floriihi." — B. J. Lossiii);, 
 J-tilrl lUiok of the Cii-il Will; r. 2, ch. 21. —The 
 fate of the Florida is rclaleil below— A. I). 1882- 
 l'<6">. — U. Semines, Mmu/irt of Sen irt Afloat, 
 
 ch. i)-:n. 
 
 Also TN J. Davis, liiw ami Full of the Con- 
 fulfrttte (roll rnmf lit. ch. ;j<>-;U (r. 2). 
 
 A. D. 1862-1864. — The Alabama, her career 
 and her fate. — "The A!abaniit [\\u: Mcmid 
 cruisiT built in Knpland for the C oiifedemtes) 
 ... is thus deserilx (1 liy Semmes, h( r eom- 
 mander; " '10 was of alK)Ut 9<M) tons liiirden, 
 2:10 fcit in .rijyth, !i2 feet in breadth, 2(1 feet in 
 d(|>lli, and drew, when provisioned nnil roaUd 
 fir cruiM', 13 fiet of water. She was barken- 
 line ii;.'Ked, with lonjf lower musts, whieh 
 enableil hir to earry larfro fon^ and oft sails, as 
 jibs and try-siiils. . . . ller engine was of 3(iO 
 hnr.«e power, and she had attached an agiparutus 
 for ro^den^ing from the va]M)r of sia-water all 
 the fresh w.iter that her crew might require. 
 . .. Ilerarnianienttonsi.itedof eight guns.'. . . 
 The Alabama was built and, from the outset, 
 »ns 'inleniled for a Confederate vessel of war.' 
 The eontract for her eonstruetion was 'signed 
 by ("apt.iin Ilullock on the one part and Mes-srs. 
 Laird on the other'. . . On the l.")lli of May 
 fll ■■ 'J ! hew.is launched under the name of the 
 ilK). 'ill r odleers were in Lngland nwuitiug her 
 foinplilion, and were paid their salaries 
 ■ monthly, aliout the first of the month, at Fraser, 
 Trenliolm A Co.'s cilfiee in l.iverpiKil.' The pur- 
 pose for which this vessel was Ixing eonstruetiKl 
 was notorious in Liverpool. Before sln! was 
 hun< lied she became an object of suspicion with 
 i:ie Consul of the I'niteil htales at that port, and 
 the was the subject of constant com>sponclenec 
 nn his part with his (toverinnent and with Mr. 
 Adams. . . Early In thi' history of tliis cniiscr 
 the point was taken by the liritish authorities — 
 a point maintained throughout the struggle — 
 that they would originate nothing themselves 
 fur the maintenance and performance of their 
 International duties, and that they would listen 
 to no representations from the ottlcials of the 
 United (states which did not furnish technical 
 CTld<ucc f' r a criminal prosecution under the 
 Funigu Lnlistmcnt Act. ... At last Mr. I)u<l- 
 ley Ithe Cimsul of the Vnllt'd States at L1v<t- 
 pool I succei'ded In finding the desired proof. On 
 the 21st day of July, he laiil it la the form of 
 aflldaiits lAfore the Collector at MveriKxil In 
 compliance with the lutlmatlons which .Mr. 
 Adams hiul received frrim Earl Itussell. These 
 affidavits were on tlie same day iransmiltpil by 
 the Coll' .'tor to the Ikiardof Customs at London, 
 with a re(|ueBt for liistruelions by telegraph, as 
 the ship apiieared tu be ready for' sea and might 
 leave any hour. . , . It . . . appears that not- 
 withstanding this official Information from the 
 Colledor. the pa|>ers were nut considered by the 
 law advisers until the 2Htli, and that the cose 
 appeared to Ihein to be so clear that they gave 
 their advice upon It that evening. Under these 
 cireuiustaucei, the delay of fight days after the 
 Slst in the order for the ilrtentloo of the vessel 
 was. in the opinion of tlie Unlte<l Htnli'S, grots 
 ceg!U-urrf-f> oti the jart vf !frf Majrtiy'a Guvrre- 
 ment On the SSth the HwreUry of the Com- 
 mission of the Cuitonu recalvetl • telegram from 
 
 Livcrpwd saying that ' the vessel 290 came out 
 of (Ux'k Inst night, and left the |M)rt this morn 
 inc." . . . After leaving the dock she 'pro- 
 ceeded slowly down the Mersey.' Both the 
 Ijiinls were on board and also "BuIIiK^k. . . . 
 The 290 slowly steamed on to Mwlfni Hay, on 
 the coast of Anglesey, where she renialned 'all 
 that night, all the next day, and the next iiiKlit.' 
 No elTort w lis made to seize her. . . . When the 
 Alabama left Moelfra Hay her crew nuinbi nd 
 about IK) men. She ran part way down the Iri-.li 
 Clianncl, then round the north coast of Ireland, 
 only stopping near tlie Giant's Causeway. She 
 then made for Terccira, one of the Azores, 
 which she reached on the lOtb of August. On 
 18th of August, while she was at Terceira, a 
 sail was observeil making for the am borage. It 
 proved to be the 'Agrippinu of Lonilon, Cap- 
 tain Met^ueen, having on iKiunl six guns, with 
 ammunition, coals, stores. Ac, for the Alubamu.' 
 Preparations were immeiliately made to transfer 
 this important cargo. On theaftimoon of the 
 20th, while employed discharging the bark, the 
 screw-steamer Bahama, Captain Tessier (the 
 same that had taken the annament to the Florida, 
 whose insurgent ownership and character were 
 well known in Liverpool), arrived, 'having on 
 board Commander Raphael beinmes and olncen 
 of the Confederate States steamer Sumter.' 
 There were also taken from this steamer two 38- 
 pounders and some stores, whieh (Miiipied al.' 
 the remainder of that day and a part of the next 
 The 22d and 23<1 of August were taken up in 
 transferring coal from the Agrippina to the 
 Alabama. It was not until Sunduy (the 24th) 
 that the Insurgents' Hag was hoisteil. HulliKk 
 and thu.se who were not going in the 290 went 
 back to the Bahama, and the Alabama, now first 
 kuown under that name, went olf with '2flolll- 
 ccrsand H.'imen.'" — The Cwf oftht I'hitrd Sl.,te* 
 ttfore the Tribunal of Arbitration tit Otttern (42rf 
 Omij.. H Sta., Senate i>. //..<•.. AV-. ai, pp. 
 14{J-ri).— The Alabama "arrived at I'orto 
 I'raya on the 19tb August. Shortly thereafter 
 Capt. Ituphael Semmes assumed commund. 
 Hoisting the Confederate flag, she crui.sed and 
 cai>' everal vessels ill the vl<'inity of Flons. 
 
 C. the westwaiil, and making several 
 
 "a- approached viihln 2(X)inlles of 
 
 Ne lence going soutliwanl, arrlveil, on 
 
 the) ember, at I'ort Royal, .Martiiiii|iie. 
 
 On ti.u night ofthelOtli she es"rapi'd from the 
 bi'Tliour and the Federal steamer Sun Jacinto, 
 and on the 20th November was at Blani|uilla. 
 On the 7th Decemlier she ciipl'iii'd the steamer 
 Ariel In the passage between Cuba and St. 
 Domingo. On January llth. IHtM. she sunk the 
 Kederii! giinlwat Hatte'nis oIT (ialveston, and on 
 the Slitli arrived at Jamaica. Cruising to the 
 eastward, and making many captures, she 
 arrived on the 10th April, 11 1 Fernando de 
 Noi-onha, and on the llth .Muv at Biilila, wherv, 
 on the lUth, she was Joineil Vy ihi' Confitlerata 
 steam r (ieorgia. Cruising near the line, tlirnce 
 southKud lowanis the Cape of noi«| Hope, 
 numerous capture* were made On the '20tb 
 July she anchored in Saldanha Bay, Kouib 
 Africa, and near there on the •tth August, was 
 Joined by the Confederate bark Tuscaloosa, Com 
 mander Low. In BepteinlHr, IN418, she was at 
 ^i. J^iinon'a Bay, aiiu in ih;t::ln-r wx'* in the 
 Straits of Sunda, ami up to January SO, 18M, 
 cruised In tJio Bay of Bengal an<l tIcIuUjt, tUV 
 
 J 
 
 31 
 
jiMi 
 
 ALABAMA. CLAIMS. 
 
 log Singapore, and making a number of very 
 valuable captun^s, including the Ilishlandcr, 
 Sonora, etc. Fr»m tUis point she cniisod on her 
 homcwiird tmek via Caiie of G'«iJ Hope, cap- 
 turing the bark Tycoon and ship Uoi'kingliam. 
 and arrived nt Cherbourg, Fn»ncc, in Juue, 1B04, 
 where -he repaired. A Federal steamer, the 
 Kiiin.';rge, was lying off tlie harbour. Capt. 
 Scnines might eiisily have cvmled this enemy; 
 the business of his ves.sel was tliat of a privateer; 
 an'l her value to the Confederacy wa.s out of all 
 comparison with a single vessel of the enemy. 
 . . . Uut Capt. Semmcs had been twitted with 
 the name of 'pinite;' and he was easily per- 
 suadeil to attempt an fclat for the Southern 
 Confcderaov by a naval fight within sight of the 
 French con'st, Vliich contest, it wns cilculated, 
 would prove the Alal>ama a lugitimiito war vcs- 
 •cl, and give such an exliibitioii of Confederate 
 Ijelllgerency as possibly to revive the question 
 of ' recognition in i'liris and London. These 
 were the Bicret motives of the gratuitous fight 
 with which Capt. Semmes obliged the enemy 
 off the port of Cherbourg. The Alabama car- 
 ried one 7-inch Blakily rifled gun, one 8-Inch 
 amooth-lM're pivot gun, and f.i.\ Sipoumlirs, 
 amoothbore. in broadside; the Kears;ir;;e carried 
 four broadside Si-pounders, two Ulnch and one 
 88 pound ritte. The two veascls were thus 
 about opml in match and armament; and their 
 tonnage wai about the same." — K. A. I'ollar.l, 
 Thf. Lout C.iim; p. 549.— Captain Winslow, com- 
 manding the I'nited States Steamer Kearsirf^e, 
 in a report to tlie Seiretary of the Navv 
 written on the afternoon of the day of his battle 
 with the Alabniii.i, June 19, 1«64, saiil: "I have 
 the honor to inbrm the department that the dnv 
 iubseipicnt to tlie arrival of the Kearsarge oil 
 this pnri, on the 24th [I4th] Instant, I received 
 • note from Caplalu Semmes, begging that the 
 Keursiiri;e wmiM not depart, as he inleucled to 
 fight h( r, and would delay her but a day or 
 two. Adoriling to this notice, the \lal)ania 
 left the i>ort nf I lierbourg this met : t atwut 
 half pa.st iiin.' ocl k k. At twenty nntiutis past 
 ten A. M.. we iliseovered her stiirlng towards 
 ui. Kenritig tin- (pieKlhrn of iurlsilluion might 
 •rise, we steatmd to sia until adUiatieeof si.x 
 or seven mills M IS attained fotu the Cherbourg 
 break-«iitcT. win a we rounded lo and com- 
 menied si.aniing fur the Alabama. As we 
 •ppnmcli' d b. r, within about l.'Jtl yanls, she 
 •penid lir.', \M' niching t'vo or tliicc br'ad- 
 »f<li-H liefure a slmt was n'tiirnril. 'riui action 
 continucil, the n spirtivo Btcaniirs making a cir- 
 cle loiind aiul round at a distance of abiMit 9 
 yards from each other. At the evplratlon of an 
 Lour the Ahibama struck, going down In abotit 
 twenty miiiiiti H afterward, carrying many per. 
 inns with liir." In a njiort two days later, 
 Catitain Win-low gave tlie following particulars: 
 "Toward the < lose of the acti.in bitwecn the 
 Alabama an I IliU vessel, all av.iilitje sail was 
 made on tlic former for the purpose of .ii;aln reach- 
 ing Chirli.'UiL'. When the olijeet w,,s ajipariiit, 
 the Ki ar>ari'e was steered aero».s t'le liow of the 
 AlHbania for a raking Hre; Imt 1 1 fore nai hliig 
 this point ilie Alabama ktnnU. rticerlala 
 whether ( iiptain Semmes was not u big some 
 
 rus'-. tile i\e.ilr.<o Lli' WrtW hloj.lMii. ii W iS S^-cn, 
 
 iJiortly afterward, that the Alaliama "as lowir- 
 Ing htr lii>ats. an. I an ollb er I'liii' nl di -si Ic in 
 one of tliciii to say that liny had » irrenderod, 
 
 ALABAMA CLAQU 
 
 and were fast sinking, and begging tliat kMl^ 
 would be despatehi'd immediately for saving 
 life. The two boats not disableil were at once 
 lowered, and as ii was apparent the Alaliama 
 was si-ttling, tliis olfleer was permitU'd to leave 
 in his boat to aIT,)rd assistance. An English 
 y.acht, tlie Deerli lund, had approached near the 
 Kcarsarpo at t lis time, when I hailed and 
 begged tl",- commander to run down to the 
 Alabama, as she was fast sinking, and we had 
 but two boats, and assist in picking up tiio men. 
 He answered afBrmativcly, and steamed toward 
 the Alabama, but the latter sank almost 
 immediately. Tlie Deerhound, however, sent 
 her boats and was actively engaged, aided ' y 
 several others wlilch had come from sin,re. 
 Thesi! boats were busy in bringing tlie woumlcd 
 and others to the Kearsarge; whom we were 
 trying to make as comfortai>lc as possible, when 
 it was reported to me that the Deerhound was 
 moving olT. I could not believe (hat the com- 
 mander of that vessel could be guilty of so dis- 
 graceful an at't as taking our priscmers off, and 
 therefore t<xik no means to prevent it, but con- 
 tinued to keep our boats at work rescuing the 
 men in the water. I am sorry to sav that I was 
 nii-staken. The Dierhoiind made olT with 
 Captain Semmes anil others, and also the very 
 olllcer who had come on board to siirrender."— 
 In a still later report Captain V'i"sl"w gave the 
 following facts: "The lire of the Ahibama, 
 although it is stated she discharged 3Ttl or more 
 shell and shot, was not of serious ilain:ise to the 
 Kearsarge. Some i:) or 14 of these hail t:iken 
 effect in and abont the hull, and 10 or 17 alwrnt 
 the masts and ri;,'!,'lng. The e;isiialtlcs were 
 small, only three persons having been wounded. 
 . , . The tire uf the Kearsarge, although only 
 173 proiectlles had Ix en discharged, according 
 to t'l iirlsonera' accounts, was lerrillc. One 
 shot Bione had killed and wounihd 18 men, and 
 di.sablcd a gun. Another had entered the coal- 
 bunkers, exploding, and completely blixkiug up 
 the engine room; and Capt;ilu Scmniis states 
 that shot and bIicII had taken efTeet in the sidei 
 of his vessel, tearing large holes by explosion, 
 and his men were everywiiere knocked down."— 
 IkMlinn tttwnl, r. 9, ;>;). a21-22.V 
 
 Ai.KO IN J. It. Soley, The IVK-kmU and tht 
 ■iiiirrt (Tfitt J\'<'i-y III l/ii- Ciril ll'nr, r. I), ch. 7. 
 —,1. a. S ilev, J Mel. Kell and J. .M. Hrowne, 
 T/ie I'y/iili'niti! CniiiuTi lUiittUt and Lrmlerr, 
 T. 3). -U. Semmes, .V, nwim of S rrict Ajloat, 
 e\. iD-IJ— ,1. 1) IlnllH-k. .SirriJ Sirrict of t}l» 
 I'onfi'liTiili' ,<t,it,ii in h'lirojif, r. 1, cA. 5. 
 
 A. D. 1862-1865.— Other Confederate crui*- 
 en.— "A B<-ori' of othiT Confederate . nilsjT* 
 riameii the was, to prey upon I'nltcd Slate* 
 commerce, but none of them beeame unite so 
 famous as till' Siiinti rand the Alabama. 1 liey In- 
 cluded tlie Slicnaniloah. wlili h made :W ea| it iires, 
 tlie Florl la. whii li mail.- 'M, the Taliah:is.see, 
 wlileli inaili 27. the T;ii onv, whieh male l."i, and 
 the Ceorgia, wliiih niade'lO. Tile Florid:, waa 
 ci;itnrid In the hailior of Balila, llr:i/il, in 
 OiiiilKr. INill, by a I'liiied Stales man of war 
 |tlie \Vbi liusitt. I'l .mun.liT Collins], in violation 
 of tlie niMitr.llly of thi' port. For this tlio 
 rnited States (lovenmiiiit apologized to llmill 
 a;id r.nirnii the r t.iri::-n > f the Ki-iri-ia in the 
 li:irl)or when' she w:is e;ip;iirid. lint In Hamp- 
 ton Uoads she met with an iici Idciit and xaiik. If 
 was generally bilie veil that the ; ppamit iicci- 
 
ALABAMA CLAIHa 
 
 dent was contrived with the connivance, If not 
 by direct order, of the QovemmenL Stost of 
 these cruisers were built in Britir'i shipyards."— 
 R Johnson, SImrt Ilitt. of tlie ]i tr of Seeemon 
 eh. 24.— Tno last of the destroyers of Amcriran 
 commerce, the Shenandoah, was a British mrrcliant 
 ship- the 8ca King- built for the Bombay 
 trade, but purchased by the Confederate agent, 
 Captahi Bullock, armed with six guns, and com- 
 missioned (October, 1865) under her new name. 
 In June, 1865, tiie Shenandoah, after a voyage 
 to Australia, in the course of which she destroycil 
 a dozen merchant ships, made her appearance in 
 the Northern Sea, near Behrine Strait, where 
 she fell in with the New Bedford whaling fleet. 
 "In the course of one week, from the 21st to 
 the 28th, twenty-flve whalers were captured, of 
 which four were ransomed, a-d the remaining 
 21 were burned. T loss on these 21 whalers 
 was estimated at up isof $3,000,000, and con- 
 sidering that it occurred . . . two months after 
 the Confederacy had virtually passed out of ex- 
 istence, it may be characterized as the most use- 
 less act of hostility that occurred during the 
 whole war." The captain of the Shenundoali 
 destroyed IS veaseli even after he had news of 
 ;!ip fall of Richmond. In August he surrendered 
 his vessel to the British government, wliieh 
 delivered her to the United States.— J. K. Soley, 
 The C'liiftihrate Cniiiier» (Bntlkii uml lyi'lerii. 
 r 4) Fur st«tlstic8 of the totjil lossc.i iiitlieted 
 liv Ilie eliven Confcileratc cruisers for which 
 (Jreiit Britain was held responsible, see L'vited 
 Statfs of Am. : 1865 (Mav). 
 
 A. D. 1862-1860.— Definition of the indemnity 
 claims of the United States against Great 
 Britain.— First stages of the Negotiation. 
 — The rejected Johnson-Clarendon Treaty. 
 —"A review of the history of ilio negotiutions 
 between the two Oovemments prior to the turre- 
 spondenee lietwwn Sir Edward Thomson and Mr 
 Fish, will show . . . what was Intended by these 
 wonis, -gencrically known as the Alaliiinia 
 ( laims, use<i on each side In that cnrrespoii.lenee 
 The correfinondencc between the two Oovernients 
 was opened by .Mr. Adams on the 20th of Xovein- 
 ber,18fl'J (less thanfoiirmorthsiiftertlicoseapi'of 
 the Alabama), in a note to Earl Itiussell, written 
 under instrurtlons from the Oovernnien' of tlie 
 Lnltcd States. In this note Mr. Adams suli- 
 mitted evidence of the acts of <:.e Alabauii and 
 stated; 'I have the honor to Inform Your I.cird- 
 ship of the directions which I have rioeived 
 from my (Jovernment to solicit rtilress fi.r the 
 national and private In'uries thus «ii8laine<I ' 
 I^in. Uiissdl met ihis notice on the l»th of 
 i)eceTiber, 1862, by a denial of any liability for 
 any injuries g' wing out of the acts of the Ala- 
 hama. ... As new losses from time to time 
 were sufle.ed bv Indlvl.luals during the war 
 Uiey were brought to the notice of Her Malestyi 
 UovermiH nt and were l.xlged with the n.itidmil 
 and in.livuliml claims already pn-fernnl- but 
 arguineiilalive discussion on the is.iue« involved 
 was by ei.tmiion coiis.iit deferred. . . . The 
 fact that the first claim prefero'd grew out of 
 the a<'is of il,e Alabama explains how it was 
 tliat all the claims growing out of the acts 
 <>t all Uie vessds ,ume to Ui •gemrlcallv 
 
 .^pril. isfl,,, iim „.|,r l,^,|n^, virtimllv over, .Mr 
 AUanis n'newed the discussion. He transmitted 
 to Uti HusitU an offlciitl report ihowiug the 
 
 it 
 
 33 
 
 ALABAMA CLAUB. 
 
 number and tonnage of American vessels trans- 
 ferred to the_ British flag during the war. He 
 said: 'The United States commerce is rapidly 
 vanishing from Uie face of the ocean, and that of 
 Ureat Britain is multiplying in nearly the same 
 rat o. •This process is going on by reason of the 
 action of British subjects la cooperation with 
 emissaries of the insurgents, who have supplied 
 from the ports of Her Slajesty's Kingdom all the 
 materials, such as vessels, armament, supplies, 
 and men, inJispensable to the effective prosecu- 
 tion of thif result on the ocean.' . . . He stated 
 that ho 'vas under the painful necessity of 
 announctag that his Government cannot avoid 
 entailing upon the Government of Great Britain 
 the responsibility for this damage.' Lord Rus- 
 sell . . . said in reply, "I can never admit that 
 the duties of Great Britain toward the United 
 htatcs are to be measured by the losses which 
 the trade and commerce of the United States 
 have BiisUlncd. . . . Referring to the offer of 
 arliltratlon, made on the 26th day of October 1863 
 U)rd Russell, In the same note, said-' 'Her 
 Majesty's Government must decline cither to 
 make reparation and compensation for the cap- 
 tures made by the Alabama, or to refer tue 
 question to any foreign State.' This terminated 
 llio Urst stage of the negotiations b»'tween the 
 two Ooveinmeni.s. . . . In the' summer of 1868 » 
 change of JImi.stry took i)Ia(e In England, and 
 Lord Maidey became Secntarv i.f State for For- 
 eign Airairs In the place ot' I,„rd Clarendon, 
 lie took iin early opportunity to give an Intinia- 
 lon to the House of Commons that, should the 
 rejected claims be revived, the new Cabinet was 
 not i)repared 1.. say what answer nilvlit be given 
 them; ill other wonIs, that, should an oppor- 
 tunity lie otfered, Lord RusseMs refusal might 
 possibly l)c ncousldered. Mr. Sewanl met these 
 overtures by Instructing .llr Adams, on the a7th 
 of August, 1866, 'to call Lord Sianlev's attention 
 in a respectful but earnest iiiaiiHer,'' to 'a sum- 
 iiisry yf claims of ritizeiis of the United States, 
 for damages which were .snllcred by them 
 during the iH.Tiod of tlie eUil war ' nml 
 to say tlLit the Governiii.iit of the Unili'd 
 States, while it thus insi-,is up,,., these ii.ir- 
 ticular clainn, Is neither desiroiLs nor willing 
 to assume an attinnle unkind and unc<m- 
 culatory towani Great Britain. . . . Lord Stan- 
 ley met thij overture bv a < onimunieatlon to Sir 
 irederiek iiriKe, in whieii he denieil the lliibllity 
 of Great liriiain, and a'^sented to a nferincc 
 ' provide! that a lltting ArLiiratorcan Ix; found' 
 ami that an agiveiiieiit can he come to as to the 
 lioinls to whieli the arliiiralinn (-hall apply ' 
 As the first result of the-e negotiations, a ccin- 
 ventlon known as the Slauley Johnson convemion 
 was signid at Lon.lou on the inth of Novemlicr 
 1»«8. It proved to be uuai (eptable to the Gov' 
 erument of the I'nite.l Slates, Negotiations 
 wen' at oiiee resumed, and nsuUed ou Hi,. 14th 
 of .lanuary, INim. ju the Treaty known as the 
 Johnson fl.iniidou couveiilioa [having been'' 
 ne!.',.tlate,| hy Mr, Revenlv Johnson, who had 
 Hi;eeee,leil Mr, .Vdaliis as Unilid Males Minister 
 to Great liriiain] This latter c.nveiith.ii pm- 
 
 VI li'd for the or-anlzatlon of a ml.xed i iiUj.m 
 
 Willi junsdielioii ever 'all elilmsc.n the part ..f 
 <ili/.eus of liie I'niie.i Mates upon the Govern- 
 ment of H.r Britannic Majesty. Iiieludliig the 
 so lulled Alaliaina claims, and all claims on the 
 part of subjects of IJer Urit.uiiilc Majesty upon 
 
ALABAMA CLADI8. 
 
 the Government of the United States which may 
 have txi'n pix'stiitfrt to either governini'nt for 
 its interposition witli tlie other since tli<! 2«lh 
 July, 1*)3, ami wliieh yet remain unsettled.'" 
 Tlie Jolinson I'lariiidon treaty, wlien submitted 
 to the Semite, wiis rejected by tliat body, in 
 April, "because, although it made provision for 
 the part of the Alabama claims which consisted 
 of clixims for individual losses, the provision for 
 the more extensive national losses was not satis- 
 factory to the SvmiU:"— Tlie Argument of the 
 United Statet lUHrtred tti the Tribunul of Arbt- 
 tration at Genera, June 15, 1873, Ditinon 13, 
 tect. 3. 
 
 A. D. 1869-1871. — Renewed Negotiationt. 
 — Appointment and meeting of the Joint 
 High Commission.— The action of the Senate 
 In rejictiii); the Johnson-Clarendon treaty was 
 taken in April, 1S69, a few weeks after Presi- 
 dent Grant entered upon his office. At this time 
 •' the condition of Euroiie was such as to induce the 
 British Ministers to take into consideration the 
 forei^jn relations of Great Britain; and, as Lord 
 Granville, the Hrltish Minister of Foreign Affairs, 
 has himself stated in the House of Lords, they 
 saw cause to look with solicitude on the uneasy 
 relat'ons of the British Government with the 
 United Slates, and the Inconvenience tliereof in 
 case of possible complications in Europe. Thus 
 impelleii, the Oovernment dispatched to Wash- 
 in-tou a gentleman who enjoyed the conlidcnce 
 of both Cabinets, Sir John Hose, to nsccnain 
 whether overtures for reopening negotiations 
 wouhl lie received bv the Pn-sident in splnt and 
 terms acceptable to (iriat Britain. ... Sir John 
 Rose found the United States disposed to meet 
 with perfect com -;p'>m!encc of good-will the ad- 
 vances of the British Goveniment. Accordingly, 
 ontbe'Mlh of January, ISTl. the Britisli Onv- 
 emment, through Sir Edwanl Thornton, finally 
 proposed to the American Government the ,ip- 
 pointment of a jnint llich Commission to hold its 
 sessions at Wiishinirton, an I there devise means 
 to settle the various pending iiuestions between 
 the two Governments affecting ilie British pos- 
 wssions In North America. To this overture Mr 
 Fish replied that the Presl<lent would with 
 pleasure appoint, as invited. Commissioners on 
 the part of the UniO'd States, provided the 
 deliberations of the Commissioners should lie 
 extended to other dilTennces.— that is to say, 
 to ln.lu(le the dillerenees growing out of incidents 
 of the la'e Civil War. . . . The Briiish Gov- 
 ernment proinptlv iiccepted tlMs prnposid for 
 enlarging the sphere of the negotiation." The 
 joint High Comni' "\m was speedily constituted. 
 OS proposed, by npiinintmc nt of the two goveni- 
 mcnts, and the pn>mptitMile of proceeding was 
 such tliat the Hriti^li commissioners landed at 
 New York intwiiilvsevendaysnftcr Sir Edward 
 Thorntons suggesli'nti of January Sflth was made. 
 They filled without waiting for their coinmls 
 slons, which Were ferwarded to them by special 
 messenger. The Hiu'h Commission was made 
 up as follows; "On the part of the I nited 
 States were live persons — Hamilton Fish, Hubert 
 C Schenck. Samui ! Nel«on, Elxne/.er ICnkwonil 
 Hoar, antl Geonre 11. Williams,— eminently fit 
 reprewnliitlves of the diplomacy, the U-neli, the 
 bar. and the leiiislalure ..f the Uniii i Ht.itcs: on 
 tho part of Great llribdn, Eari De (irey and 
 RlpoD, President of the Quoen's Couneil; Bir 
 Bt«flord Northcote, ExMlDlsterand actual Mem- 
 
 ALABAMA CLAIMS. 
 
 ber of the House cf Commons; Sir Edward 
 Thornton, the universally respected British Mln- 
 isUT at Washington, Sir John [A.] Macdon^d, 
 tlie able and eloquent Premier of the Canadian 
 Dominion ; and. In revival of the good old time, 
 when learning was equal to any other title of 
 pubPc honor, -he UniveiBities in the person of 
 Professor Montague Bernard. ... In the face 
 of manv difficulties, the Commissioners, on the 
 8th of May, 1871, completed a treaty [known aa 
 the Treaty of Washington], which received the 
 prompt approval of their respective Govern- 
 ments."— C. Cushlng. The Treaty of Wathing- 
 ton, pp. 18-30, and 11-18. 
 
 Also is A. Lang, Life, Uttert. and Dtane$ 
 of Sir Stafford Northeote, Firet Earl of IddesUtgh, 
 eh 13 (e. 2).— A. Badeau, Grant in Pe>iff,, fh. 25. 
 A. D. 1871.— The Treaty of Waahington.— 
 The treaty signed at Washington on tlie 8th day 
 of May, 1871, and the ratifications of which 
 were exchanged at London on the 17th day of the 
 following June, set forth its principal agreement 
 In the first two articles as follows: "Whereas 
 differences have arisen between the Government 
 of the United States and the Government of Her 
 Brittanlc Majesty, and still exht, growing out of 
 the acts committed by the several vessels which 
 have given rise to the claims gencrically known 
 us the 'Alabama Claims;' and whereas Her 
 BriUinnIc Majesty has authorized Her High Com- 
 missioners and Plenipotentiaries to express in a 
 frieiidlv spirit, the regret felt by Her .Majesty's 
 Government for the escape, uniler whatever cir- 
 cumstances, of the Alabama and other vessils 
 from British ports, and for the depredations com- 
 mitted by tlioso vessels: Now, in order to 
 remove and niljust all complaints and claims on 
 the p;irt of the United States and to pnivlde for 
 the siicedy settlement of such claims which are 
 not admitted by Her Britannic .Majesty's Gov- 
 emment, the high contracting parties agree that 
 all the s;iid claims, growing out of acta com- 
 mitted by the aforesaid vessels, and gencrically 
 known as the ' Alabama Claims,' shall lie referred 
 to a tribunal of arbitration to lie composetl of 
 five .Vrbltrators, to be appointed in the following 
 manner, that Is to say: One shall be named by 
 the President of tho United States; one shall be 
 named by 'ler Brit.annic Majesty; His Majesty 
 the King of Italy shall !><■ requested to name one; 
 the I'n'sident of the S«is« Confederation sh.'\ll 
 be requested to name one; and His Majesty the 
 Emperor of Brazil shall be requcsteil to name 
 one. . . . The Arbitrators shall meet at Geneva, 
 in Switzerland, at the earilest convenient d.ay 
 after lliev shall liave been named, and shall pro- 
 ceed inipartiallv and caretullv to examine and 
 decide all questions that shall Ik' laid Ixfore them 
 on the part of the Governments of the United 
 States and Her Britannic Majesty resiwctlvely. 
 All cnieM ions considered by the tribunal, incbid- 
 In,' tlie ilnal award, shall be dechliil by a majority 
 of all tie' Arbitrators. Each of the high cm- 
 trading parties shall also name one per«on to 
 attend the trilmnal as lu Agent to n|,rewnt It 
 generall. \u all matters connected with the arlil 
 tratirHi. ■' Articles 3, 4 and 8 of the tnaty spei ity 
 the nimle In which each party shall Kubiiiil its 
 case. .Vrtlcle6 declares that, "In dielding the 
 m:itlef-i -'ib'nittr'l !-■' thp Arbltralorm. •>» y shal! 
 lie governed by the following three ndes, which 
 ore agreeil upon by the high contracting parties 
 as niles to be taken as applicable to the case, and 
 
 84 
 
 J^^u. 
 
ALABAMA CIAIMB. 
 
 Al-ABAMA CLAim 
 
 by 8uch principles of inteinational law not incnn- 
 ■istent therewith as the Arbitrators shall deter- 
 mine to have been applicable to the case: A 
 ocutral Government is bound — First, to use due 
 dilifi:ence to prevent the flttine out, arming, or 
 equipping, Tvithin its jurisdiction, "f any vessel 
 which it has reasonable ground to believe is 
 intended to cruise or to carry on war against 
 a Power with which It is at peace ; and also to 
 use like dill^nce to prevent the departure from 
 its jurisdiction of any vessel intended to cruise 
 or carry or war as above, such vessel having 
 been specia ly adapted. In whole or in part, 
 within such jurisdiction, to warlil<e use. Sec- 
 ondly, not to permit or suffer either belligerent to 
 make use of its ports or waters as the base of 
 naval operations against the other, or for the 
 purpose of the renewal or augmentation of mili- 
 tary supplies or arms, or the recruitment of men. 
 Thirdly to exercise due diligence in its own 
 ports and waters, and, as to all persons within 
 Its jurisdiction, to prevent any violation of the 
 foregoing obligations and duties. Ilcr Britannic 
 Majesty has commanded her High Commis- 
 sioners and Plenipotentiarins to declare that Her 
 Majesty's Government cannot assent to the fore- 
 going rules as a statei ■. nt of principles of inter- 
 national law which were in force at the time 
 when the claims mentioned in Article 1 arose, 
 hut that Her Majesty's Government, in order to 
 evince its desire of strengthening the friendly 
 relations iK'tween the two countries and of 
 making satisfactory provision for the future, 
 sgnrs that In deciding the questions between 
 the two countries arising out of tliose claims, the 
 Arliitrators should assume that Her Majesty's 
 Government had undertaken to act upon the 
 principles set forth in tiiese rules. And the 
 high contracting parties agree to olwcrvc these 
 rules as between themselves in future, and to 
 bring them to the knowl«lgc of other maritime 
 powers, and to invite them to ncceile to then.. " 
 Articles 7 to 17, inclusive, relate to the i)r<x;ediire 
 of the tribunal of arbitration, ami proviile for 
 the determination of claims, by a<isessors and 
 commissioners, in case tlie Arbitrators should 
 find any liability on the part of Great Britain 
 and should not award a sum in gross to be paid 
 in wttlement thereof. Articles 18 to 35 relate to 
 the Fisheries. By Article 18 it is agreed that in 
 addition to the liberty secure<l to American fish- 
 ermen by the convention of 1818, "of taking, 
 curing and drying flsh on certain coasts of the 
 British North American colonies therein defined, 
 the inhabitants of the United HUitea shall have, 
 in (iimmon with the subjects of Her Tiritannic 
 Majesty, the liberty for [a period of Wn years, 
 and two years further after notice given by 
 either party if Its wish to terminate the arraugi-- 
 mei..] ... to take flab of every kind, except 
 shell fish, on the sea-coasts and shores, and in 
 the bays, harbours and creeks, of the proviuces 
 of Quebec, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, 
 and the colony of Prince Edward's Ishud, and 
 (if the several islands thereunto adjacent, with- 
 out being restricted to any distance frr.m the 
 slidH', with permission to land upon the said 
 coasts and shores and islands, and also upon the 
 Magdalen Islands, for the purpose of drying 
 their nets and curing their fish; providei! that 
 m tu cicing, they do not Interfen wltli the rights 
 of private property, or with British fishermen, 
 ui Utc peaceable ui« of soy part of the uld 
 
 8- 
 
 coasts In their occupancy for the same purpota. 
 It is understood that the above-me^ tioned liberty 
 applies solely to the sea-fishery, and that the 
 salmon and shad fisheries, and all other flsherie* 
 in rivers and the mouths of rivers, are hereby 
 reserved exclusively for British fishermen.''' 
 Article 19 secures to British subjects the corre- 
 sponding rights of fishing, &c., on the eastern 
 sea-coasts and shores of the United States north 
 of the 89th parallel of north latitude. Article 20 
 reserves from these stipulations the places thst 
 were reserved from the common right of fishiug 
 under the first article of the treaty of June 5, 
 1854. Article 21 provides for the reciprocal 
 admission of fish and flsh oU into each country 
 from the other, free of duty (excepting flsh of 
 the inland lakes and flsh preserved in oil). 
 Article 22 provides that, "Inasmuch as it is 
 asserted by the Go. -nment of Her Britannic 
 Ma' ity that the pi vilegea accorded to the 
 citizens of the United States under Article 
 XVIII of this treaty are of greater value than 
 those accorded by ' rticles XIX and XXI of this 
 treaty to the subjecU of Her Britannic Majesty, 
 and this assertion is not admitted by the Gov- 
 ernment of the United States, it is further 
 agreed that Commissioners siisll be appointed 
 to determine . . . the amount of any rompensa- 
 tlon which in their opinion, ought to be paid by 
 tlie Government of the United States to the Gov- 
 ernment of Her Britannic Majesty." Article 2a 
 provides for the appointment of such Commis- 
 sioners, one by the President of the United 
 States, one by Her Bdtannic Majesty, and the 
 third by the IVsident and Her Majesty con- 
 jointly; or, failing of agreement within three 
 months, tlie third Commissioner to be named by 
 the Austrian MinisU'r at London. The Commis- 
 sionera to meet nt Halifax, and their pmcedure 
 to be as prescribtnl and regulated by Articles 24 
 and 25. Articles 2fl to 81 define certain recipro- 
 cal privileges accorded by each government to 
 the subjects of the other, including the naviga- 
 tion of the St. Lawrence, Yukon, Porcupine and 
 Stiklne Rivers, Lake Michigan, and the Welland 
 St. Lawrence and St. Clair Flats canals ; and the 
 transportation of goods in bond through the 
 territory of one country Into the other witliout 
 payment of duties. Article 82 extends the pro- 
 visions of Articles 18 to 25 of the treaty to New. 
 foundland if all parties concerned enact tha 
 necessary laws, but not otherwise, .\rticle 33 
 limiu the duration of Articles 18 to 25 and Arti- 
 cle 80, to ten years from the date of their going 
 into effect, and "further until the expiration of 
 two years after eitlier of the two high contract- 
 ing parties shall him- given notice to the other 
 of its wish to termina:« the same." The remain- 
 ing articles of the treaty provide for submitting 
 to the arbitration of the Emperor of Germany 
 the Northwestern water-boundary question (in 
 tlie channel between Vancouver's Island and the 
 continent)— to complete the settlement of North- 
 wcsU'rn Iwundaty disputes.— ?>(«(<«< and Con- 
 ttntivnt bftitnn the C. 8. and other I\>ieen («.'. of 
 1889), pp. 47»-»98. '' 
 
 Axjo ra C, Cushing, TA* TYeatg of Wathing- 
 ton, am. 
 
 A. D. 1871-1879.— Tht TribawU of Arbi- 
 tration at Geneva, and Itt Award.—" The sp- 
 pointmeut of Arbitraton took place in due 
 course, and with the readv goodwill of the thres 
 neutral govemmenta. Tlw Ubited Butes ap- 
 
ALABAMA CLAIM8. 
 
 Bilnted Mr. Charlea FntDcis Adams; Great 
 rlt»in appointed Sir Alexander Cockbum ; tUe 
 King of Italy named Count Frederic Sclopls; 
 tlie President of the Swiss Confederation, Mr. 
 Jacob Stsmpfii; and the Emperor of Brazil, the 
 Baron d'ltaiubl Jlr. J. C. Buncroft Davis was 
 appointed Agent of the United States, and Lonl 
 Tentcrden of Great Britain. Tlie Tribunal was 
 organized for the reception of the case of each 
 party, and held its first conference [at Geneva, 
 Switzerland] on the 15th of December, 1871," 
 Count Sclopls being chosen to preside. "The 
 printed Case of the United States, with accom- 
 panying documents, was filed by Mr. Bancroft 
 Davis, and the printed Case of Great Britain, 
 with documents, by Lord Tccterden. The 
 Tribunal made regulation for the filing of the 
 respective Counter-Cnses on or before the 15th 
 day of April next ensuing, as requireu '^y the 
 Treaty ; and for the convening of a special meet- 
 ing of the Tribunal, if occasion should require; 
 and then, at a second meeting, on the next day, 
 they adjourned until the 15th of June next ensu- 
 ing, subject to a prior call by the Secretary, If 
 there should be occasion." The sessions of the 
 Tribunal were resumed on the 15th of June, 
 1873, according to the adjournment, and were 
 continued until the 14th of Septemlwr following, 
 when the decision and award were announced, 
 and were signed by all the Arbitrators except 
 the British renrcseQt.itivc, Sir Alexander Cock- 
 burn, who dissented. It was found by the 
 Tribunal that the British Government had 
 '■ fvileil to use due diligence in the performance 
 of its neutral obligations" with respect to the 
 cruisers Alal)ama and Floriila, and the several 
 tenders of those vessels: ami al.*> with respect 
 to the Shenandoah after her departure from Mel- 
 bourne, Feb. IS, 186."), but not l«f.ire that date. 
 AVIth respect to the Georgia, the .Sumter, the 
 Nashville, tiicTallali.isseeand tlie Clilekamauga, 
 it w:\s the liiidiiiir of the Tribunal that Great 
 Britain had not failed to perform the duties of a 
 neutral power. So far a» relates to the vessels 
 calleil the Sallle, the Jefferson Davis, the .Musir, 
 the Boston, and the V. II. Joy, it was the deri- 
 sion cf the Triliunal tliat they ought to be 
 exclul.d from consideration for want of evi- 
 deuee. "So far as ri'lates to the particulars of 
 the indemnity rlai.ncd by the United States, the 
 costs of pursuit of Confederate <Tuisers " are 
 declarid to l)e "not. in the judirment of the 
 Triijimal. propcrlv dlstlnjulHliaMe from the gen- 
 eral cxpetisi's of the war carried on by the 
 United States." and "there is no ground for 
 awanlirir to tlie United Slates any stun by way 
 of inili oinity under tills heail " A. similar deci- 
 sion put asiile the wliole oonsiiieration of claims 
 for " prospeetlve eiiruiiigs." Finally, the award 
 was .1 iidenil in tlie folUnviiig" laneuape: 
 " Whereas, in orlir to arrive at an e<|UitabIo 
 compensation for tin il.images whidi have been 
 sustaiiK il, it is necessary to set ii-i'lo all double 
 claims for the same lo'^ves, and all claims for 
 'gro:>8 f rei u'lits ' S" far as they exeeeil ' net f rri^rlils ;' 
 and wlicrias it is just ami rcasoiialile l'< i.llnw 
 Interest at a reasonalili' rati", utnl whereas, m tie- 
 Conlallee with llie «liirit lUl'l leltir of the Tre;;' y 
 of \Vas|iiii,;|.Mi, It U iinferaliU' to :i,',„pt tliB 
 form nf adjuilieation of a SMm in ltoss. rather 
 than to refer tlie stibjict of iMinpensation for 
 furtliiT discussion and deliberation to a Board of 
 Assessors, h provided by Article X of the uld 
 
 36 
 
 ALAKa 
 
 Treaty: The Tribunal, making use of the au- 
 thority conferred upon It by Article VII of the 
 said Treaty, by a majority of four voices to one, 
 aw to the United States the sum of fifteen 
 mi five bundretl thousand Dollars In gold 
 
 as .lienmity to be paid by Great Britain to 
 
 tl :ed States for the satisfaction of all the 
 
 referred to the consideration of the Tri- 
 conformably to the provisions contained 
 icie VII of the aforesaid Treaty." It 
 1 be stated that the so-called "indirect 
 ,9 " of the United Statea, for consequential' 
 s and damages, growing out of the eucour- 
 a^i ment of the Southern Rebellion, the prolong- 
 ation of the war, &c., were dropped from con- 
 sideration at the outset of the session of the Tri- 
 bunal, in June, the Arbitrators agreeing then in 
 a statement of opinion to the effect that " these 
 claims do not constitute, upon the principles of 
 international law applicable to such cases, good 
 foundation for an awani of compensation or 
 computation of damages between nations. " This 
 declaration was accepted by the United States as 
 decisive of the question, and the hearing pro- 
 ceeded accordingly.— C. Cashing, The Treaty •/ 
 W(i*hington. 
 
 Also in F. Wharton, Digett of the Interna- 
 tional Lavt of the U. 8., eh. 31 (t>. 8). 
 
 ALACAB, or TOLOSO, Battle of (laia). 
 See Ai.mohadf.8, and Spain: A. D. 1146-1532. 
 
 ALADSHA, Battles of (1877). See Turks: 
 A. D. 1877-1878. 
 
 ALAMANCE, Battle of (1771). SeeNoRTa 
 Carolina: A. D. 1766-1771. 
 
 ALAMANNI. See Alemanni. 
 
 ALAMO, The massacre of the (1836). See 
 Texas: A. D. 1824-1836. 
 
 ALAMOOT, or ALAMOUT, The castle 
 of.— The stronghold of the "Old Man of the 
 Mountain," or Sheikh of the terrible order of the 
 Assassins. In northern Persia. Its name signifies 
 "the Eagle's nest," or " the Vulture's nest. See 
 
 ASSASPIXS. 
 
 ALANS, OR ALANI, The.— "The Alanl 
 
 are first mentioned by Dlonyslus the geographer 
 (B. V. 3t>-10) who Joins them with tlie Dad and 
 the Tauri, and again places them between the 
 latter and the Agathyrsl. A similar position (In 
 tlie south of Kussia in Europe, the modem 
 Ukraine) Is assigned to them by Pliny and 
 Joseplius. Seneca placesthemfurtherwcstupon 
 the Ister. IHolemy has two bodies of Alani, one 
 in the position above descrilied, the oti • in 
 Soythla witliln the Imaus, north and partly east 
 of the Caspian. It must have been from these 
 last, the Rurccssors, and, according to some, the 
 descendants of the anelent Massaget;r, that the 
 Alani came who attacked Paconis and Tiridates 
 jin MiHlia and Anuniia. A. D. 75]. . . . The 
 result seems to have been that the Invaders, after 
 ravaging and harrying Media and Armenia at 
 tlioir pleasure, carried oil a vast n'.mber of 
 prisoners and an enormous iKioty Into their own 
 country." — O. Itawlinson, *'ufA fireitt Oriental 
 M-minhy. eh. 17.— F,. II. Bunbury, Hint. </ 
 Aufiriit lleiio., eh. 6, note If. — " The first of this 
 [the Tartar] raee known to the Romans wen' 
 the .\laiii In the fourth century they pitched 
 ft^i.tp tents In the country between tlie V'-*W!i 'Uid 
 the Tttiiais, at an equal distance from the Black 
 Sea and the Caspian." — J. C. L. Slsmoudt, fail 
 of the Roman Empire, ch. 8. 
 
 
 
ALA3X3. 
 
 A. D. 376.— Conqnest by the Haas. See 
 GoTBg (V18IOOTHB): A. D. 376. 
 
 A. D. 406^409.— Final lovaston of Gaul. 
 Bee Oaul: A. D. 400-409. 
 
 A. D. 409-4I4.— Settlement in Spain. See 
 Spain: A. D. 4o5-414. 
 
 A. D. 429.— With the Vandali in Africa. 
 Sec Vandai^: A. D. 429-439. 
 
 A. D. 4Si.-At the Battle of Chalons. See 
 Hukb: a. D. 451. 
 
 » 
 
 ALARCOS, P ttle of (A. D. 1195). See 
 
 Almouaueii. 
 
 ALARIC'S RAVAGES IN GREECE 
 AND CONQUEST OF ROME. Sec Goths: 
 A. D. 395; 400-403. and Home: A. D. 408-410 
 
 ALARODIANS. — IBERIANS. — COL- 
 CHIANS.— "The ' larodians of Herodotus, 
 joined with the Sa;,v.;re8 . . . are almost cer- 
 tainly the inhabitauu of Armenia, whose Semitic 
 name was Crania, or Ararat. ' Ai-iud,' indeed, 
 is a mere variant form of 'Arari'd,' the 1 and r 
 being undistinguishable in the old Persian, and 
 'Ararud' serves determlnately to connect the 
 Ararat of Scripture with the L^rarda, or Urartha 
 of the Inscriptions. . . . The name of Ararat is 
 consUintly used in Scripture, but always to de- 
 note a country mtliur tlinn a particular moun- 
 tain. . . , The connexion ... of Vrarda with 
 the Babylonian tribe of Akkad is proved by the 
 application in the Inscriptions of tlie ethnic title 
 of Burbur (?) to the Armenian king ... ; but 
 there Is nothing to prove whether the Burbur or 
 Akkiid of Bubvlonia descended in a very remote 
 age from the .nountalus to colonize the plains 
 or whether the Urardians were refugees of a later 
 period driven northward by the growing power 
 of the SemlU's. The former supposition, how- 
 ever, is most In conformity with .Scrlnture 
 and Incidentally with the tenor of the iuscrir>'- 
 tionii."— H. C. Kawlinson, IltDt. of ll.rixMuii 
 bk. 7, app. 8.— "The broad and rich valley of 
 the Kur, which corresponds closely with the 
 modern Russian province of Georgia, was 
 rancicnily] In the possession of a people called by 
 Herodotus Saspeires or Sapi-ircs, whom we may 
 Identify with the Iberians of later writers Ad- 
 loining upon them towards the south, probably 
 in tlie counlrv ab<iut Erivan, and so in tlie 
 neighbourhood of Ararat, were the Alarodians 
 whose name must be connected with that of the 
 groat mountain. On the other side of the 
 ^api'inan country, In the tracts now known as 
 MiuLTelia and luieritia. regions of u wonderful 
 l«auty ami fertility, were the Coli hian-. — de- 
 pin.l.nt.s, but not exactly subjects, of I'lrsls "— 
 tJ. lUwIiuson, >•(■« Oreat Muiuire/iuM.- Pertia 
 eh. 1, ' 
 
 tt^}'^!'^^- ^ ^- «8«7.— Purchase by the 
 
 United States.— As early as 1859 there wore uu- 
 oranalcoinnmuicalions between tli.> Husslan and 
 American govornmonts, on the subject of the 
 siile of Wiuikw by the former to the latter Uus- 
 slawas more than willing to part with a piece of 
 tomtory which she found (lllflcullv In defondlug 
 In war; and the InteresU connected with the 
 flshories and the fur-tnide in the nonhwest 
 wore disposed to promote the transfer. In 
 -Ma.Tb. 1807, <leflnite negotiations on the subject 
 ■-rvr--- ■■;-,::ii! by tile Ru».>lttu minister at Wash- 
 ington, u„,| on the 2,1(1 of that month he recelve.l 
 from .So, rotary .Sowsrd an olTer. subject to the 
 I resident s approval, of 17,200.000. on condition 
 
 37 
 
 ALBA. 
 
 that the cession be " free and unencumbeiett bj 
 any reservations, privileges, franchises, grants 
 or possessions by any associated companies' 
 wiiether corporate or incorporate, Russian or 
 any other." "Two days later an answer was 
 returned, sUtmg that the minister believed him- 
 self authoi1ze<l to accept these terms. On the 
 ^atu final instructions were received by cable 
 from St. Petereburg. On the same day a note 
 was addressed by the minister to the aecretaryof 
 state, informing him that the tsar consentc(f to 
 the cession of Russian America for the stipu- 
 lated sum of $7,200,000 in gold. At four 
 o clock the next morning the treaty was slgnc<l by 
 the two parties without further phrase or negotl- 
 
 T Vv,^" *'"y '••* ""^^'y "*» ratified, and on 
 June 20, 1867, the usual proclamation was issued 
 by the president of the United States." On the 
 18th of Octolier, 1867, the formal transfer of the 
 territory was made, at Sitka, General Rousseau 
 taking possession in the name of the Govern- 
 ment ->f the r lited States.— H. H. Bancroft. 
 Ht*t. 0, Vie Pan fie State*, v. 28, cA. 28 
 
 Also i.v W. H, Dall, AUuka and its Ruoureet, 
 pt. 2, eh. 2.— For some account of the aboriginal 
 Inhabitants, see Amf.hican ABOBtoiKEs: E»- 
 KiM.\iMji Family and .\tiiapa8can Family 
 
 ALATOONA, Battle of. See Usitki) .States 
 OP Am.: a. D. 1864 (SEPTKMBLn — October • 
 Gkokoia). 
 
 ALBA. — Alban Mount. — '■ Cantons 
 having their ren<lezvous in some stronghold, and 
 Including a cert.iin number of clanships, form 
 the primitive political unities with which Italian 
 history b-.gins. At what period, and to what 
 extent, such cantons were formed in Latium 
 cannot be determined with precision; nor is It a 
 matter of special historical interest. The 
 Isolated Alban range, that natural stronghold 
 of Latium, which offered to settlere the most 
 wholesome air, the fre.hest springs, and tlie 
 most secure position, would doubtless be first 
 occupied by the new comers. Here accord- 
 ingly, along the narrow plateau almve Palaz- 
 zuola, between the Alban lake (Lago di CastoUo) 
 and the Alban mount (Monte Cavo) extended 
 the town of Alba, which was universally 
 reginied as the primitive seat of the Latin 
 »ti«k, and the iiiother-clty of Home, as well as 
 of all the othor Old Latin communities. Here 
 too, on the slopes lay the very ancient Latin 
 canum-ccutres of Lauuvium, Aricia. and Tus- 
 culum. . . ,\1| these cantons were In primitive 
 times po! ally overeign, and each of them 
 was govon.L.I by its prince with the co-opera- 
 tlim of the council of elders and the assembly of 
 warriors. Nevertheless the feeling of fellow- 
 ship based on community of descent uud o' 
 language not only pervaded the whole of them" 
 but maulfesioii iiscll In an Important religious 
 and political Institution — the jwrpetual Kague 
 of the collective Latin cantons. The pnsiileiicy 
 belonged origiuallv, iiminiiiig to the universal 
 Italian as well as Hellontc usage, to that canton 
 within whose bounds lay the meeting-place of 
 AH '''**"^: '" "''» <''>«• ft was the canton of 
 Ai la. . . . The communities entitled to partici- 
 pate In the league were in the beginning thirty. 
 . . . The rcnib'zvous of this union was, likr the 
 PambiPotIa ami the PaiiionIa among the slinilar 
 confederacies of the Greeks, the • Ijitin festival' 
 (feriiE Latina) at which, on the Mount of Alba, 
 upon a day annually ap|iointed by the chief 
 
ALBA. 
 
 msgtstrete foi the purpose, an ox was offered in 
 ncrifice by the assembled Latin stocic to the 
 'Latin gud' (Jupiter Latiaris)." — T. Mommsen, 
 Hitt. of Jim.!, bk. 1, cA. 8. 
 
 Also in Sir W. Oell, Thpog. of Home, r. 1. 
 
 ALBA DE TORMES, Buttle of. See 
 Sfain: a. D. 1809 (AuousT — Novembek). 
 
 ALBAIS, The. See American Aborioi- 
 kkb: Pampab Tribes. 
 
 ALBAN, Kingrdom of. See Albion; also, 
 Scotland: 8Tn-9TH CKHTrKiEs 
 
 ALBANI, The. See Brit Tribes of 
 
 ALBANIANS: Ancient. Sec EriRua and 
 Illtrianb. 
 
 MedicTat. — ''From the settlement of tlie 
 Servian Sclavonians within the tx>und9 of the 
 empire [during the reign of Hcrarlius, Urst half 
 of the seventh century], we may . , . venture to 
 date the earliest encroachments of the Illyrian or 
 Albanian race on the Hellenic population. The 
 Albanians or Amauts, who are now called by 
 themselves Skiptars, are supposed to be remains 
 of the great Thracian race which, under various 
 names, and more particularly as Paionians, 
 Epirotsand Macedonians, take an important part 
 in early Grecian history. Nodistinct traceof the 
 period at which they began to lie co-proprietors 
 of Greece with the Hellenic race ran be found 
 in history. ... It seems very difficult to trace 
 back the history of the Greek nation without 
 suspecting that the germs of their modem con- 
 dition, like those of their ncighl)<)urs, are to be 
 Bouglit in the singular events which occurred in 
 the reign of Heraclius. " — 0. Finlay, Greece Under 
 the Homaiii. eh. 4, fret. 6. 
 
 A. D. 1443-1467.— Scanderbe^i War with 
 the Turks. — "John Castriot, Lord of Emal- 
 tliia (the modem district of Moghlcne) [in 
 Epinis or Albania] hail submitted, like the 
 other pcttj' despots of tliose regions, to Amurath 
 early in Ins ri'ign, and had placed his four sons 
 in tlie .Sultan's hands a.^ hostages for his iidelity. 
 Three of them died young. The f.iurth, whose 
 name was George, pleased the Sultan by his 
 beauty, strength and intelllgcneo. Amurath 
 caused him to ne brought up in the Mahometan 
 creed; and, when he was only eightccu, con- 
 ferred on hira the government of one of the 
 Sanjaks of the empire. The young Albanian 
 proved his courage and skill in many exploits 
 under Amurath's eye, and received from him the 
 name of Isknnderlieg, the lord Alexander. 
 When John Castriot died. Amunth took pos- 
 session of his principalltie!' .' 1 kept the son con- 
 stantly employed in distant wars. Seanderbeg 
 broode<l over this injury ; ami when the Turkish 
 armies were routed by Huiiyades in the cam- 
 paign of 1443, ScanderV'g (ktermined to escape 
 from their side and a8.sume forcible pos,session of 
 his patrimony. He Bu<ldenly entered the tent 
 of the Sultjiu's chief secretary, and forced that 
 functionary, with the poniard at his throat, to 
 write and si'al a formal order to the Turkish 
 commander of the strong city of Croia, in 
 Albania, to deliver that phiie and the adjacent 
 territory to S<Mnderbeg. as the Sulljin's viceroy. 
 He then stablMil the secretary and hastened to 
 Croia, where his strategem gained him Instant 
 sdmittnnop ami siibmlssi.>n. He now pul>!lc!y 
 ahjure<l the Mahometan faith, and declared his 
 intention of defending the creed of his fore- 
 Uthen, uh'. nutoriiig the independence of his 
 
 88 
 
 ALBERONl 
 
 native land. The Christian population flocked 
 readily to his banner and the 'Turks were maa- 
 sacreu without mercy. For nearly twenty-five 
 years Seanderbeg contended against all the 
 power of the Ottomans, though directed by the 
 skill of Amurath and his successor Mahomet, 
 the conqueror of Constantinople." — Sir E. S. 
 Creasy, IlUt. of the Ottoman Turla, eh. 4. — 
 "Seanderbeg died a fugitive at Lissus on the 
 Venetian territory [A. D. 1467]. His sepulchre 
 was si>"n violated by the Turkish conquerors; 
 but th(. janizaries, who wor3 his bones enchased 
 in a bracelet, aeclared by this superstitious 
 amulet tteir involuntary reverence for hia 
 valour . . . His infant son was saved from the 
 national shipwreck; the Castriots were invested 
 with a Neapolitan dukedom, and their blood 
 continues to tlow in the noblest families of the 
 realm."— E. Gibbon, Seetint and PiM of ths 
 Soman Empire, cA. 67. 
 
 Also in A. Lamartine, Hiit. of Turkey, bk. 11, 
 Kct. 11-28. 
 
 A. D. i6o4-i696.— Conqnests by the Vena- 
 tiant. See Turks: A. O. 1684-1686. 
 
 ALBANY, N. Y.: A. O. 1633.- The firet 
 Settlement. — In 1614, the year after the first 
 Dutch traders had established their operitions on 
 Manhattan Island, they built a trading house, 
 which tlicy called Fort Nassau, on Castle Island, 
 in tile Hudson Uiver, a little lielow the site of 
 the present city of Albany. "Three years later 
 this sm. '1 fort was carried away by a Uood and 
 the island abandoned. In 1623 a more impoitant 
 fortification, named Fort Orange, was erected on 
 the site afterwards covered by the business part 
 of Albany. That year, " about eighteen families 
 settled themselves ut Fort Orange, under Adriaen 
 Jons, who 'staid with them all winter,' after 
 Ecmi: Ms ship home to Holland in charge of bis 
 son "oou as the colonists had built thcm- 
 
 ^.ve' .no huts of bark' around the fort, the 
 Jlahikunders or Itivcr Indians [Mohegans], the 
 )Iohawks, the Uneidas, the Onondagas, the 
 Cayugas, and the Scnecas, with the Mahawawa 
 or Ottjvwawa Indians, 'camcand made covenants 
 of friendship . . . and desired that they ir'ght 
 come and have a constant free trade with them, 
 which was coiicludeil upon.'" — J. K. Brodhead, 
 Hilt, of the Slate of ^V. I'., v. 1, pp. 05 and 151. 
 
 A. D. 1630.— Embraced in the land-purchase 
 of Patroon Van Rensselaer. Seo Xew York : 
 A. I). 1«;.'1-104«. 
 
 A. D. 1664.— Occupied and named by the 
 English, ^^e« New Yoiik: A. I). Itifi4. 
 
 A. D. 1673. — Anin occupied by the Dutch. 
 See Nkw Yokk: K. I). 1673. 
 
 A. D. 1754.— The Colonial Congress and its 
 plans of Union. See United States of Am. - 
 A. a 1754. , 
 
 ALBANY AND SCHENECTADY RAIL- 
 ROAD OPENING. S<e 8TE.iM Locomotion 
 ON Land. 
 
 ALBANY REGENCY, The. See New 
 Y'ouk; A. I), IHiS. 
 
 ALBEMARLE, The Ram, and her de- 
 struction. Seo United States of Am. : A. U. 
 1864 (April-— May: North Carolina), and 
 (<><Toi!i:i;: N. Caiujlisa). 
 
 ALBERONI, Cardinal, The Spanish Min- 
 istry of. See Spain: A. D. 1713-1 72S; and 
 Italy: A. U. 1T15-178S. 
 
 m 
 
ALBERT. 
 
 ALBERT, King ofSweden, A. D. 186.1-1888. 
 
 . . . Albert, Elector of Brandenburg, A. D. 
 147a-14MU.... Albert I., Duke of Austria and 
 
 Kingof Germany, A. D. 12US-1SUN Albert 
 
 II., uuke of Austria, Kingr of Hungary and 
 Bohemia, A. D. 14S7-t 44U ; King of Germanr, 
 A D. 14tJ8-1440. 
 
 ALBERTA, The District of. See Koktu- 
 
 WE8T TKKKITOKIE8 OF CANADA. 
 
 ALBERTINE LINE OF SAXONY. Sec 
 
 Saxony: A. 1). 1180-1553. 
 
 ALBICI, The.— A Gallic tribe which occu- 
 pied the hills 11 live Musgilia (Marseilles) and 
 who are dtscriU'd as a savage people even in 
 the time of Cresar, when they helped the Masil- 
 iots to defend their city against hiiu. — G. Long, 
 Jkeliiu of the Bmnan Renublie, t. 5, ch 4 
 
 ALBIGENSES, OR ALBIGEOIS, The. 
 —"Nothing is more curious in Christian history 
 than the vitality of the Manlchean opinions. 
 That wild, half poetic, half rationalistic theory 
 of Christianity, . . . appears almost suddenly 
 in the 12th century. In living, almost irresist- 
 ible power, first in its intermediate settlement 
 Ui Bulgaria, and on the borders of the Greek 
 Emphre, then in Italy, In France, iu Ger- 
 many, in the remoter West, at the foot of the 
 Pyrenees. . . . The chief seat of these opinions 
 was the south of France. Innocent III., on his 
 accession, found not only these daring insur- 
 gents seatte.ed in the cities of Itiilv, even, as it 
 were, at his own gates (among iii.s first acta 
 was to sulKlue the Paterines of Viterlio), he 
 found a whole province, a realm, in some re- 
 spects the richest and noblest of his spiritual do- 
 main, absoIuU!ly dissevered from his limpire, 
 in almost universal revolt from Latin Christian- 
 ity. ... In no [other] European country had 
 the clergy so entirely, or it should scem"so de- 
 servedly, forfeiaKl iu authority. In none had 
 the Church more absolutely ceased to perform 
 its prui)er functions."— U. II. Milman, Jlitt. if 
 Latin ChriHtinnity, bk. 9, eh. 8.— "By mere 
 chance, tlie s*'<ts scattered In South France 
 received the conunon name of Albigenscs, from 
 one of the districts where the agcuts of the 
 church wlio came to combat them found them 
 mostly to abound,— the district arouud tlie 
 town of Alba, or Alby; and by tliis conmion 
 name they were well known from the ci nnieuce- 
 ment of the thirteenth ceuturv. Cmler this 
 geuenil denomination parties of different tenets 
 were conijireheiidcd together, but the Catharists 
 seem to liave constituted a predominant element 
 among tiie iieopio thus designated. "—A. N'ean- 
 der, Oen. Hist, of the Chrittian lift, and Ch 
 SthptT., din. 2, fcrt. 4, pt. 8.— "Of the sectaries 
 who shared the errors of Onosticism and Mani- 
 chiEism and opposed the Catholic Church and 
 her hierarchy, the Albigenscs were the most 
 thorough and radical. Their errors were. In- 
 deed, partly Gnostic and partly Mauiducan, 
 hut the latter was the more prominent and 
 fully developed. They recciv.-d their name 
 from a district of Langucdoc, inliabitcd by the 
 AlbigeoH and surrounding the town of Albi 
 They arc called Cathari and PatarinI in the acts 
 of the Couniil of Tours (A. D. 1163), and in 
 those of the third Lateran, Publiciaui (i. c., Pauli- 
 ciani). Like the Cathari. thev also htld th.-it thti 
 evil spirit cn-ated all visible things."— J. Alzog 
 Manual of Vnit. Ch. Hitt., period 3, f;>-c7. % 
 pt- I, ch. 8, tct. 888.— " The imputations of 
 
 89 
 
 ALBIOENSEa 
 
 irrellglon, heresy, and shameless debauchery, 
 which have been cast with so niiicli bittterneai 
 on the Albigenscs by their pi rsecutors, and 
 which have been so zealously liciiied by tlieir 
 apologists, are probably not ifl founded, if the 
 word Albigenses be employed as synonymous 
 with the words Provcuvaux or Lunguedocians ; 
 for thev were apparently a race among whom 
 the 'lallowed charities of domestic life, and the 
 reverence due to divine ordinances and the hom- 
 age due to divine truth, were often impaired, 
 and not seldom extinguished, by ribald jests, by 
 infidel scofflogs, and by heart-hardening impuri- 
 t!' Like other volur''iaries, the Provenvaux 
 ( their remaining liteiuturc attests) were ac- 
 c;istomcd to find matter for merriment in vices 
 which yvould have moved wise men to tears. 
 But if by the word Albigenses be meant the 
 Vaiidois, or those followers (or associates) of 
 1 eter Waldo who revived the doctrines against 
 which the Church of Pome directed her censures, 
 then the accusation of dissoluteness of manners 
 mav be safely rejected as altogether calumnious, 
 and the charge of heresy may be considered, If 
 not as entirely unfounoed, yet as a cruel and 
 injurious exaggeration. "— Sir .r. Stephen, ZecU. 
 on the Ilist. of France, teet. 7 
 
 Also im L. MariottI, Prd DoMm and Mm 
 Tiint*. — See, also, Pauliriant, and Cn hariatt. 
 
 A. D. 1200.— The First Cru ade.— Pope 
 "Innocent III, in organizing the rsecution of 
 the Cathariiis [or Catharists], the Palarins, and 
 the Pauvrcs de Lyons, exercised a spirit, and 
 displayed a genius similar to those which had 
 already elevated him to almost universal domin- 
 ion; which had enabled him to dictate at once to 
 Italy and to Germany; to control the kings of 
 Fmncc, of Spain, and of England; to overthrow 
 the Greek Empire, and to substitute in its stead 
 a Latin dynast^v at Constantinople. In tlie zeal 
 of the Cistercian Order, and of their Abbot 
 Amaud Amalric; in the titrv and unwearied 
 preaching of the first Inquisitor, the Spanish 
 Missionary, Dcmiinic; in the remorseless activity 
 of Foulquct, Bishop of Toulou.se; and above all, 
 in the strong and unpitving arm of Simon do 
 -Montfort, Earl of Leicester, Innocent found ready 
 instruments for his purpose. Thus aided, he ex- 
 communicated Raymond of Toiilouso [.V. D. 
 1207], as Chief of the Heretics, ai.d be proiniscd 
 remission of sins, and all the iirivileges which 
 had hitherto been exclusively conferred on ad- 
 venturers iu Palestine, to llie champions who 
 should enroll themselves as ( rusiulcrs iu the far 
 more easy enterprise of a Holy War ai;:iinst the 
 .\lbi;,aiises. In the first invasum of his territories 
 [A. I). 1209], liaymond \I. gave way before the 
 terrors excited by the 800.000 fanatics who pre- 
 cipitated themselves on Liaigucdoc ; and loudly 
 declaring his personal freedom from heresv, he 
 surrendered his chief castles, underwent a humili- 
 ating penance, and took the cross against his own 
 subjects. The brave resisUmce of his nephew 
 Itaymond Iloger, Viscount of Bcziircs. deserved 
 but did not obtaia success. When the crusaders 
 surrounded his capital, which was occupied by a 
 mixed population of the two Heligions. a ques- 
 tion was r ■ how, in the approaching sack, the 
 Calhollcss... . i be distinB-'iislied from the Hcrc- 
 tirs, ' Kill then: all," v.as the fcrori,.u4 n pty of 
 Amalric; 'the Lord will easilj know His own." 
 In compliance with this advice, not one human 
 being within the walls was permitted to survive: 
 
ALBIOENSSa 
 
 ALBI0EX8E& 
 
 and the tale of »lau.i:liter hiu been yariously 
 ettimatc'd, by those wlio have iKrhapi exagger- 
 ated tlio nuiiilK'rs, at (KI,0O(), but even in tlio rx- 
 tCDUatius duspalcli, wliidi llio Abbot liimsilf 
 adilreased to tlii' I'opc, at not fiwtr tlmn 15,000. 
 liayinoiid Houir was not iucludiil in tiiis fi-uifiil 
 massacre, and he repulsed two altaclts upon Car- 
 cassonne, iKifiire u Inaclierons breacli of failh 
 placed liiin at tlic disiwsul of do Moutfort, by 
 whom lie was poisoned after n short imprison- 
 ment. Tlie re[ii(ival of tliat young and gallant 
 Prince was indeed niu^t injportunt to the ulterior 
 project of his captor, who aimed at pcrmi.nent 
 establishment iu tlie South. The family of de 
 Montfort bad ranked among the nobles of France 
 for more than two centuries; and It is traced by 
 some writers through an illegitimate channel 
 even to the throne: but the possessions of iSimiia 
 liimsjlf were scanty; necessity had compelled 
 him to sell the County of EvVcux to Philippe 
 Auguste; and tlie English Earldom of Leicester 
 which lie inlii'riled maternally, and the I^ordshlp 
 of a Castle alinut ten leagues distant from Paris, 
 formed tlie whole of his revenues." — E. Smcdley, 
 Uitt. of France, rh, 4. 
 
 Also in J. C. L. de Sismondi, Hi'al. of the 
 Crumilci lUjHt the Alii'/ensiii, eh. 1.— II. II. Mil- 
 man, Ifiat. of iMtin Christianitij, bk. 9, eh. 8.— 
 J. Alzog, yfiii. of I'niterml Church Hist., perimt 
 2, epoch i.pt. 1, eh. 3. — Sec, also, I.nqdisition : 
 A. D. laOS-lMJ. 
 
 A. D. I3I0-I3I3.— The Second Crusade.— 
 " The tomiuest of the Viscounty of Beziers bad 
 rather inllatncd than satiated the cupidity of De 
 Jlontfort and the fanaticism of Amalric Peirale 
 of the Pope] and of tlie monks of Citeaux. 
 Raymond, (. ouut of Toulouse, still possesscil the 
 fairest part of Langueiloc. and was still sus- 
 pected or accused oif aflordiug shelter, if nut 
 counteuanie, to his heretical subjects. . . . The 
 unhappy Hayinond was . . . again excommur.i- 
 catcd from tiie Cliristiaii Church, and his domin- 
 ions olferid as a reward to the champiun^ who 
 should execute her sentence against biiii. To 
 earn that reward Do Jlontfort, at the head of a 
 new host of Crusaders, attracted by the promise 
 of earthly sjioils and of heavenly blessedness, 
 once more marched through tUo devoted laud 
 [A. D. I'JIO], and with him advanced Amaliic. 
 At each successive conijuest, slaughter, rapine, 
 and woes sueli as may not be desoribecl tracked 
 and polluted their steps. Heretic s or those f iis- 
 pected of here^v, wherever they were found, 
 were compelled by the lc,::ate to ascend vast pil.s 
 of burning fagots! . . . At length the Cru.saders 
 reached and l.aiilsii'ge to the city of Toulouse. . . . 
 Throwini: liiui.sc'lf into tlie place, Riymoud . . . 
 lucceedeil in repuUing De .Montfort and Amal- 
 ric. It was, however, but a temporary rcs|iitc, 
 and the iirelmle to a fearful destruction. From 
 beyond tiie I'yicmes, at the head of l,0(io 
 knights, Pedro of Arragon had marched to tlio 
 rescue of Itiyimmd, his kinsman, and of the 
 counts of Foi.i[ and of Comminges, , nd of the 
 Viscount of liuarn. Ids vassals; and their united 
 forces came iiilo eominiiniealion with each oiIict 
 at Muret, a little town whieli Is about three 
 leagues distant from Toulouse. There, also, im 
 the I2th of .September [A. D. lHH], at the head 
 of the cham|)ions of the Cro.s.s, and attended by 
 tcvcn bishopa, Hjii.,.rtr,.(l fJSmoii tie Monirurl in 
 full military array. The battle which followed 
 wiu lierce, bliorl and decisive. . . , Don Pedro 
 
 40 
 
 was numbered with the slain. HU army, de 
 prived of his command, broke and dispcned, 
 and the whole of the infantry of Kaymond and 
 bis allies were either put to the sword, or swept 
 away by the current ot the Oaronnc. Toulouse 
 immediately surrendered, and the whole of the 
 doininious of Raymond submitted to the cou- 
 guerors. At a council luhsequemly held at 
 Jbmlix'llier, comiMwed of five archbishops and 
 twenty-eiglit bishops, De Montfort was unani- 
 mously acknowledged as prince of the fief and 
 city of Toulou.se, and of the other counties con- 
 quered by the Crusaders under his command." — 
 Sir J. Stephen, iMt'i on t/u Jlitl. of France. 
 U,(. 7. 
 
 Also in J. C. L. do Sismondi, nUt. of Cnuadt* 
 ofj'nt the Albiijenaes, eh. 2. 
 
 A. D. 1317-1229.— The Renewed Crusade*. 
 — Dissolution of the County of Toulouae. — 
 Pacification of Languedoc.—" The cruel spirit 
 of DeJIonlfort would not allow him to rest 
 quiet In bis new Empire. Violence and perse- 
 cution marked his rule ; ho Bought to destroy the 
 Provencal population by the S'Vord or the stake, 
 nor could he bring himself to tolerate the lilicr- 
 ties of tiic citizens of Toulouse, In 1217 the 
 Toulousans again revolted, and war once more 
 broke out betwi.vt Count Raymond and Simon 
 de Montfort, Tiic latter formed the siege of the 
 capital, and was engaged in repelling a sally, 
 when a stone from one of the walls struck him 
 anil put an end to his existence. . . . Amaury 
 de Montfort, son of Simo.> offered to cede to the 
 king all his rights In I-angucdoc, which ho was 
 unable to defend against the old house of Tou- 
 louse. Philip [Augustus] hesitated to accept 
 the important cession, and left the rival houses 
 to the continuance of a stni.gglc carrieid feebly on 
 by eiilier side." King Philip died In 1223 and 
 was succeeded by a son, Louis VIII., who had 
 none of his father's reluctance to join In the 
 grasping ixi'seeution of the unfortunate people 
 of the south. Amaury de Montfort hail been 
 fairly driven out of old Simon de Jlontfort's con- 
 quests, and be now sold them to King Louis for 
 the oi'iee of constable of France. "A new cru- 
 sade was preached against the Alblgenses; and 
 Louis marehed towards Languedoc at tlie head 
 of a formidable army in the spring of tlie year 
 \2X. The town of Avignon had proferred to 
 the crus;i(lers the facilities of crossing tlie Rhone 
 UMcler i.er walls, but refused entry within them 
 to such a host. Louis having arrived at Avig- 
 non, insisted on passing through the town: the 
 Avignonais shut their gates, and defied the mon- 
 arch, who iusianlly formed tiie siege. One of 
 the rich municipalities of the south was almost a 
 niati h for the king of France. He was kept three 
 months under its walls; his armv a prey to fam- 
 ine, to distii.se and to tlio assaultsof a brave garri- 
 son. The crusjiders lost 20. 000 men. The people 
 of Avignon at length submitted, but on no di». 
 boriourablo terms. This was the onlv resistance 
 that Louis exiM'iienccd in Langueiloi-, ... AD 
 submitted. Louis retired from his facile con- 
 quest; he hims<lf, and the c.'defs of his armj 
 stricken by u:i eiiidemy which liad prcxailed In 
 the conquere.! regions. The meriarcii's feeble 
 frame could not resist it; he expii, ! at .Montpen- 
 sier. in Aiivergne, in November, 1228." Louis 
 \III. was succieded by his young Mm, Ixiuis 
 IX. (Saint Louis), then a boy, under the regency 
 of his energetic and capable mother, Dlauchc ot 
 
 4 
 
 'I 
 
 I 
 
ALBIOENSES. 
 
 CastUe. "Thetcrmlnationof the war with the 
 Albigenses, auJ the pacification, or It might be 
 tailed the acouisitlon, of Langucdoc, was tiic 
 chief act of Queen Blanche '» regency. Louis 
 ylll. had overrun the country without realstonce 
 In his last campaign; still, at his departure Ray- 
 inoud VI. again appeared, collected soldiers and 
 continueil to strucgle against the royal lleuten- 
 ant. For upward of two years he maintained 
 himself; the attention of Blanche being occupied 
 by the league of the barons against her The 
 successes of Raymond VII., accompanied bv 
 cruclUes, awakened the vindictive zeal of the 
 pope. Langueiloc was thrcniened with another 
 crusade; Raymond was willing to treat, and 
 make considerable cessions, in order to avoid 
 such extremities. In April. 1329, a treaty was 
 signed: in It the rigliU of De Montfort were 
 passed over. About two-thirds of the domains 
 of the count of Toulouse were ceded to the king 
 of France; tlic remainder was to fall after 
 Raymond's death, to his daughter Jeanne who 
 by the same treaty was to marry one of the 'royal 
 princes: heirs failing them. It was to invert to 
 the crown [which It did In 1271]. On these 
 terms, with tlie Immiliating addition of a public 
 penance, Itiiymoud VII. one more was allowed 
 pettciabic pos,session of Toulouse, and of the 
 part of his domains reserved to him. Alplionsc, 
 brotlier of Louis IX., married Jeanne of Tou- 
 louse soon afkr, and took the title of count of 
 ioiiiers; that province being died to him In 
 apanagj. H.ibcrt, aiiotlier brotlier, was made 
 count of Arlois at the Kiiiie time. Louis himself 
 Biam(dMarj:arct,tlioel(lestduughterofliavmoud 
 Bereugcr count of I'roveiice."-E. E. Crowe, 
 UM.of Fr,v,.-e, v. 1, eh. 2-3.- -"The stnigde 
 ended in a vast increa.se of the power of the French 
 crown, at the e.xiKiise alilie of the house of Tou- 
 .Hise and of the house of Aragon. The domin- 
 ions of tlie count of Toulouse were divided A 
 number of ticfs, Beziers, Xarboniie, Nimcs Albi 
 and some other districts were at once anne.x,,! to 
 the crown. The capital itself and its coiintv 
 p:issi'dtotlic croHu fifty years later. . . The 
 name of Toulouse, cscept as the name of the 
 cily itself, now pas.se(l away, and the new ac- 
 quisitions oi mice eiime in the end to be known 
 hy lie n,inie o the tongue whicli was common 
 to them with V(iuitaine and Imperial BurKuiidv 
 [Provence). Under the name of Languediw 
 they became one of the greatest and most valu- 
 able provinces of tlie Fnndi kingdom "— E A 
 Jreeman, Hist. (hug. of Kurojv,ch. 9 ' ' 
 
 The brutality and destructiveneM of the 
 Crusades.-- The Cliurch of the Albigen«.8 
 had been drowned in blood. These s,.,fpS 
 
 Pno .',' T "'". '",'■';' ".""y '■■""' "'e soil of 
 France. The rest of the Lanciied.K'ian people 
 had Ucn overwhelmed with calamity, slaughter 
 and devastation. Tlie estimates tmnsmittlHl to 
 OS of the numlHTs of the invaders and of the 
 Biaiii are sucli as almost surpass belief. We can 
 neither vcnfy nor correct them; but we ccr- 
 tanly know that, during a long succession of 
 jears, Unguedoc had been invaded bv armies 
 more numerous than had ever before Wn 
 
 tics, liosis ,ven. con,fv,3f.,^ of men inflamed bv 
 bigotry and unrestrained by discipline; that thcv 
 
 uiey provided for all their wanU by the swonJ, 
 
 41 
 
 ALCANTARA. 
 
 llvjnff at the expense of the country, and lelzlns 
 at their pleasure Ijoili the harvesU of the pea» 
 ants and tlie merchandise of the cltirena. Sore 
 than three-fourths of the lauded proprietors had 
 been despoiled of their flefs an^ Castles In 
 hundredj of villages, every Inhabitant had been 
 
 v!^i"1,, ■ i • '''°™ "'" *^^ °f Rome by Uie 
 Vandals, the European worid had never mobmed 
 over a national disaster so wide In iU extent or 
 so fearful In 1^ character. "-Sir J. Stephen. 
 iMt: on tht Hut. of France, farf. 7. 
 
 ALBION.— "The most ancient name known 
 I? r VaV^'-" 8lven to this Island [Britain] la 
 
 tliat of Albion There Is, however, another 
 
 allusion to Britain which seem, to cany us much 
 further back, though It haa usually been lU 
 understood. It occurs In the story of the labours 
 of Hercules, w-ho, after securing the cows of 
 I. »i •i.'^T* ''''"° ^P"'" «° Liguria, where be 
 t M "^ ^^ "^° e'"""- *'><'™ he kilU before 
 ^^?^ .'"'* vT'^y '? ^^y- Now, according to 
 PomiK>nlu8 Mela, the names of the giante were 
 ^^o'H «"'\.B"gyon, wldch one may, without 
 much hesitation, restore to the forms of Albion 
 and llx'rion representing, undoubtedly, Britain 
 and Ireland, the position of which in the wa 
 is most appropriately symbolized by the gtorv 
 making tlien sons of Septuno or the sea god 
 
 ;„V ""■ ' , V'^ !'"'« .°f P"°y. Alblon, as the 
 nam ., , island, had fallen out of use with 
 J^' rs; but not so with the Greeks or 
 
 wi, ,,.. ts themselves, at any rate those of 
 the .c brand; ; for they are probably right 
 
 WL oppose that we have but the samewSrd 
 i'n,„l°.l"w""f' ^'•"•''' Ga.IicAlba, genitive 
 .1 ??'iu* •''?,«'!""' of Alban or Scotland beyond 
 KS,, Albion would be a form of the name 
 according to tlie Brytlioulc pronunciation of it. 
 . . . "would thus appear that the name Albion 
 Is one that has relreaKd to a comer of the Island 
 
 nK *y?',''"''^„"^ "''■'■'' '' once applied."— j' 
 Rhys. Cellic Britain, ch. 6. 
 
 Also i.n E. Guest, Orifjinet Celtieae, ch. \ — 
 
 Bee ScoTi.AM>: 8tii-9tu cknturies. 
 
 Elbe The.— The ancient name of the river 
 
 g^^LBOIN, King of the Lombards. A. D. 
 
 nOR*^'^N?^— A^9",^2:iL.-CORREGI. 
 
 P.T 77. ...'','"' "''■"''*« " f""" tl'e Arabic 
 ai i.iUl the juili,'e or governor. . . . Alcalde 
 mayor signifies a judge, learned In the law, who 
 exercises [m Spain] ordinary jurisdiction, civil 
 and cnminal, in a t. «n or district." In the 
 bpanlsh colonies the Alcalde mayor was the chief 
 Judge. "Irving (Columbus, II. 831i writes er- 
 roneously alguazil mayor, evidently confoumiing 
 the two offlci's. ... An alguadl mayor, was i 
 chief constable or high sheriff." "Corregldor 
 a magistrate having civil and criminal jurisdic' 
 tion in the first instance ( 'nisi prius ') and gub- 
 ematorial Inspection in the political and eco- 
 nomical govermmut in all the towns of the district 
 T'?i"^'" '""'• "— H. 11. Bancroft, Hut. oftht 
 
 ,J^^^^^' ^»"'' »f- See Spain: A. D. 
 1809 (Febkiiaky — .IiNR) 
 
 ALCANTARA, Battle of the (1580). Sob 
 PoKTUOAi,: A. 1>. ISTK-l.WO 
 
 ALCANTARA, Knighta of. — "Towards 
 the close of Alfonso's reiTrn [Alfonso VIII. of 
 LastUe and Ix!on, who called himself 'the Em- 
 
ALCANTARA. 
 
 ALEMANXI, A D. 259. 
 
 peror,' A. D. U36-11S7], may be aaalgned the 
 origlii of the military order of Alcantara. Two 
 cavaliers of Salamanca, don Buero sud don 
 Oomez, left tliat city with the design of choos- 
 ing and fortifying some strong natural frontier, 
 whenre thoy could not only arrest the rnntinual 
 incurHions of the Moors, but maico hostil. irrup- 
 tions themselves into the territories of tlie misbe- 
 lievers. Proceeding along the banks of the 
 Coales, they fell in with a hermit, Amando by 
 name, who encouraged tliein in tlicir patriotic 
 design and recommended the neighbouring her- 
 mitage ot St. Julian as an excellent site for a 
 fortress. Having examined and approved the 
 situation, they applied to the bisliop of Sato- 
 manca for permisHioa to occupy the place: that 
 permisiiion was readily granted: with liis assist- 
 ance, and that of the hermit Amando, the two 
 cavaliers erected a castle around tlie hermitage. 
 They were now Joined by other nobles and by 
 more adventurers, all eager to acquire fame and 
 wealth in this life, irlory in the next Hence the 
 foundation of an unler which, under the name, 
 llrst, of St Julian, and siiliseqiiently of Alcan- 
 tara, rendered good service alike to king and 
 church."— 8. A. Dunham, Jlitt. of Spain and 
 I\>rtug(U, bk. 8, tKt. 8. eh. 1. dit. 9. 
 
 ALCAZAR,OR " THE THREE KINGS," 
 Battle of (1578 or 1579). See iUuocco: Th« 
 .Vbab ConquKST akd Since. 
 
 ALCIBIADES, The career ot See 
 Okkbcb: B. C. 431-418, iin<i 411-407; and 
 AtaBNH: B. C. 41S, and 413-111. 
 
 ALCLYDE.— lihydderch, a Cumbrian prince 
 iif the sixth century who was the victor In a 
 civil coudict, " fixed his headquarters on n rock 
 iu the Clyde, called in the Welsli .VIclud [pro- 
 vioukly a lluman town known as Theodosia], 
 whence it was known U) the English for a time 
 as Alclyde; but the (Joidels called it Dunbret- 
 tan, or the fortrejta of the Brvtiioiis, which hai 
 prevailed in the slightly modliied fomi of Dura- 
 barton. . . . Alclyde wan more than once de- 
 stroyed bv the Northineu."— J. Rhya, CMie 
 Britain, en. 4. — See, also, Ci'mbhia. 
 
 ALCM/SONIDS, The curse and baaitli- 
 mtot of the. See Atiienh: B t' 613-393. 
 
 ALCOLEA, Battle of (1868). See Spaih: 
 A. D. 1866-11478. 
 
 ALOIE, Battle of. N'e UNmo States or 
 Am.: A. D. IHOa (Jcnk-Jllt: Pkhhitl- 
 ranu). 
 
 ALDINE PRESS, The, See PBtuTiico 
 
 AXV TUR PUESI: A. D. t461»-131.'). 
 
 ALBMANNIA: The MediaTal Dnchr. 
 SeeUBHMANT: A. D. 843-9fiJ 
 
 ALEMANNI, OR ALAMANNI: A. O. 
 •IS-— Orlgia and Brat appearance.— " Under 
 Antoninus, the Son of Sevi run, n new and more 
 severe war oiieo more (.V. D. ai;!i broke out In 
 Raetia. This alto wiw wateil agiiinut the ChattI ; 
 
 but by their side a m'i I |H>i>ple Is named, 
 
 which we here meet for llio tint time — the 
 AlamannL Wheeiec llx y fiiiue. we known not. 
 According to a Ibmuii wViliiii; a little later, they 
 were a contlux of mixed ili imnls; the sppclia- 
 Uon also tm-im to point to u ii%gw of communi- 
 ties, as well as ||,e furi th;it, iificrwanls, the 
 diffcn-nt trllns compnliendid under this name 
 stand forth — mure tlian Ik the easit among the 
 other great (li'rmanic ixtiph'S — in their (eiiarate 
 character, aud ihe Jiithiingi, the l^'ntlenaes, and 
 otiier A tom a nnki peoples not srldom act Intle- 
 
 pcndently. But that It is not the Qermons (A 
 tills region who here emerge, allied under the 
 nc w name and strtngtiicned by the alliance, is 
 sliuwn as well by the naming of the Alainannl 
 alrng side of the ChiittI, an by the mention of 
 the unwonted skilfulnesa of the Aluniannl In 
 equestrian combat. On the contrary, it waa 
 certainly. In the main, hordes coming on from 
 the East that lent new strength to the almost 
 extinguished Oemian resistance on the Rhine; it 
 is not improbable that the |H>werfiil Semnones, 
 in earlier times dwelling on the miiidle Elbe, of 
 whom there is no further mention after the end 
 of the second century, funiislied a strong con- 
 tingent to the Ahimauni."— T. .Mommscn, Uiit. 
 of Homt, bk. 8, eA. 4.— " The standard quotation 
 respecting the derivation of the name from 
 ' al '^' all ' and m-n— ' man ', so that the word 
 (somewhat exceptionably) denotes ' men of all 
 sorts,' is from Agathlas, who quotes Asinluf 
 Quadratus. . . . Notwithstunaing this, I think 
 it la an open question, whether the name may 
 not have been applied by the truer and mora 
 unequivocal Germans of Buabia and Fnmconia, 
 to certain less definitely Uenimnlc allies from 
 Wurtcmberg and Baden, — part.s of the Decu- 
 mates Agri — parts which may have supplied a 
 Gallic, a Gallo-Roman, or even a Slavonic ele- 
 ment to the confederacy ; in which case, a name 
 so German as to have given tlie present French 
 an<l Italian name for (ierinany, mav, originally, 
 have applied to a pci|)ulatii)U other than Ger- 
 manic. I know the apparently paradoxical ele- 
 ments In this view; I)ut I also know that, in the 
 way of etymology, it is (pilte as safe to trans- 
 late ' all ■ by • alii ' as by ' oinnes": and I cannot 
 htlp_ thUiking that the • al- ' in Ale-manni Is the 
 ' al- ' in 'alir-arto '(a foreigner or man of another 
 sort), 'cli-benzo' (an alieul. and 'allhind ' (cap- 
 tivity in foreign land).— (.rimm. 11. 62m — Rcch- 
 Sidterth, p. 839. And still more satistitni am I 
 that the 'al-' in Al einmnd is the 'al-'inAl- 
 satia—' cl-sass ■—• olisal z ■—' foreign settlement.' 
 In other words, the pnllx In (luestion is more 
 probably the 'al-'in 'els.'', than the 'al-'ln 
 'all.' Little, however, of importance turns 
 on this. The locality of tlie .Vli'iuuiud was the 
 parts about the Uiiie.t lioni.ums, a boundary 
 which. In the time of Alcxunder So\eru8, 
 Nlebuhr thinks they first bmke through. Hence 
 they were the Marrhmen of the fMiitier, who- 
 ever thorn Marchmeu wenv Other sueli Marrh- 
 men were tlie Suevi; unless, indeed, we con- 
 sider the two names ns svni'iiyiniiiis. Zi'iissail- 
 mils that, bctwirn the ^iie\ 1 nf Hiiabia, and the 
 Alemannl, no tangible dillennee can lie found." 
 
 — R. O. Latlian, Tht (Itrminia of j'aeitut; 
 Epilfgomtna, tft. 11. 
 
 Al«> in T. Smith, Anniiiiu; pt. 8, eh. l._ 
 See. also, SiEVi, and lUx AiiixN-". 
 A. D. «S9-— loTasion of Caul and Italj, 
 
 — The Alemannl, '•hovirlir.f mi the fnmliers 
 of the Empire . . . Imreasiil tiie genenU dis- 
 or.:er that ensued after the death of Doclus. 
 They Inlllcted severe wounds on the rich 
 pMvlnei-s of Oaul; they veri' the llrst who 
 removed the veil tliiit covered the feeble majesty 
 of Italy. A niimenius h.Hlv of the Aliinonui 
 nenetrat4il aeroos the Oiuiulio and through the 
 Ulr ■' - • '- ' 
 
 42 
 
 111! Ilan Alps Into tlio plains of Ixmiburly 
 viinr«j a* far aa Itavrne.a s.-.i! diapUn^;! V;f 
 toriotis lianners of I 
 of Rome [A. U. 839], 
 
 t and ttw Uaofer 
 
 siglit ~ 
 
ALEMANm, A. D. 2S9. 
 
 rekindled In the senate some sparks of their 
 ancient virtue. Both tlie Kmperors were en- 
 gaged in far distunt wiini — Valerian in the 
 East and Galienua on the Itiiine. " The senators 
 however, succeeded in coufrnntin/; the audacious 
 invaders with a force which cliccked their ad- 
 vance, and thcv "retired into Germany laden 
 with spoil. "—E. Gibbon, Ikcliaeand t'(Uleft/i« 
 Brnnan t-Jmpire, cA. 10. 
 
 A. p. 370.— Invasion of Italy.— Ita'y was 
 Invaded by tjie Alcmanui, for the second time 
 in the reign of Aurclinn, A. D. 270. They rav'- 
 agcd the provinces from the Danube to the Po 
 and were retreating, laden with spoils, when the 
 vigorous Emperor intercepted them, on the 
 banks of the former river. Half the host was 
 permitted to cross the Danube; the other half 
 was surprised and surrounded. But these last, 
 unable to regain their own country, broke 
 through the Roman lines at their rear and sped 
 into Italy again, spreading havoc as they went 
 It was only after three great battles,— one near 
 PIscentia, in which the Itomans were almost 
 beaten, another on the Metaurus (where Ilas- 
 drubal was defeated), and a third near Pavia — 
 that the Germanic Invaders were destroyed — 
 E. Gibbon, Dedint and fhU of tht Amtait Em- 
 ptrf, eh. U. 
 
 oii^.°A.^*-&il.'**''"'- "^ J""^ «- 
 A. D. 365-^67.- Invasion of GauL-Tho 
 Alenmnul invaded Oiiu! iiiJMIS, committing wide- 
 spread ravages and carrying awav into Sie for- 
 MU of Germany great siwil and liiauy captives. 
 The next winter they cro««e<l the Hhine, again, 
 in still greater numbers, def.tiled the Roman 
 forces and capturcil the standattls of the Ileru- 
 lian and Batavian auxiliaries. But Valentinlan 
 was now Emix.ror, and he adopU-U energetic 
 measures. II.s lieutenant Jovinus overcame the 
 Inviiders in a great battle fought near Chalons 
 and drove them bark to their own side of the 
 river K.undary. Two years later, the Emperor 
 himself passed the RliUio and Inflicted a inemo' 
 niblc chastisement on the Alemannl. At the 
 same lime hu strengtheni'd the frontier deft-nces 
 and, by dipKmiatic arU, fonient«l quarrels Iw- 
 tween the Alemaunl and th.lr nolghboni, the 
 Burgundlans, which weakened U>lh. —E Gib- 
 ^"is '"^ '''" "■'' '** ^'"*"' *»/»«. 
 
 ^n^.l°; ^•~^''*^ ^f Gratian.-On learn- 
 ing llmt the young EmiHMr Griitian was prc- 
 parlng to Inid the mllilary force of (}«iil and the 
 West to the help of his uncle and colleague 
 Valens, aga nst the Goths, the Alemanul swarmed 
 acn>|« the Rhine Into Gaul. Oratim Inslanlly 
 re<all«i il,« \,.g\oa» that were marching to I'au- 
 ooniaand ene,.untcr.-d the Genniiri iiiTSdera In a 
 gnjat iKitile fought near Argenlnrla (mo<lern 
 t olmar) In tlie ni..nth of .May, A. I) 878 The 
 Alemanni were routed will, su< h slaughter that no 
 more than S.OtH) out of 40,0.K| to 7l),O0(l, areWw 
 to have esrapnl. Gralian afl. rwnr-U crossed the 
 lihlne and humhlwl hi^ troul)!, some nelghbon 
 
 ftiU .7 Mfl /J..imi» h.minrr. ch. 20 
 A- D-496-S04— Overthrow by tht Franks. 
 
 u.ey ,oi,owr,i"p;,:^;,;^;; .;:,^^;i;\V^i';i 
 
 until the .lean. ,.f ,l,eir rriJ king Tl» 
 AleiaMiiii, oxteiMliog theinwlrrs from tbeir origl- 
 
 48 
 
 ALEMANNI, A. D. 547. 
 
 nal scats on the right bank of the Rhine, betweea 
 the Mam and the Danube, had pushed forward 
 Into G.rnianica Prima, where they came into 
 collision with the Fraukish subjects of King 
 8igebi-rt of Cologne. Clovis flew u. the assist- 
 inceof his kinsman and deleated the Al.mannl 
 m a grea battle In the uelghbourho<Kl of Zal- 
 pichludle.1 commonly, the battle of TolbUcl. 
 Ho then established a Cflnsiderable uumlier of his 
 franks m the territory of tiie AUmanni, the 
 traces of whoso resiik'nce are foun.l in the immet 
 of Fmnconia and Frankfort."- W. C. Perry, 
 The tyaukt eh. 2.-" Clovis liad Inen intending 
 to cross the Rhine, but the hosts of the AlaiMnnl 
 came upjm him, as It seems, unexpectedly and 
 forced a battle on the left bank of the river He 
 seeme-l to he overmatched, and the horror of an 
 Impending defeat overshadowed the FrankUh 
 i'll*^'. .. <?• ° i*'' despair, he bethought him- 
 
 f '.?h ^"1"^ P^'^f"' °' ">« ortho,lox or 
 
 said: Oh Jesus Christ, whom Clotilda decbret 
 to be Uie Son of the living God, who art said to 
 
 trust In Thee, I humbly beseech Thy succour! I 
 have called on my gods and they are far from 
 my help If Thou wilt deliver me fnm, mine 
 euemies, I will believe in Thee, and Iw bupUsed 
 In Thy name.' At this moment, a sudden ctanle 
 was seen in the fortunes of the Franks. TB« 
 
 1 .■ '' j"^ "?'"«• «=conll»« to one account wu 
 slain: and the nation seems to have accpU-d 
 Clovis as iu over-lord." The following Christ- 
 mas day tlovis was baptised at Reims and 8,000 
 of hU warriors followe<f the royal example. " In 
 the early years of the new ctntury, probablv 
 about 503 or 504, Clovis was again at w^ wl4 
 his old enemies, Uic Alainai.nl. . . Clovta 
 movc<l his army Into their Urrit.>ries and won • 
 victory inucli more decisive, though less famou. 
 Uian that of 486. This time the aZry k^^ 
 
 M.i ^*^ "It"'^''" ?'<"»««" dwellings by the 
 Ma n and the Neckar. from all the valley of the 
 
 ?.«. ^.H"''"••a^"'? f"^''"' Al»>»«"nl were 
 f( «•(.. o flee. Tlieir place was Uken by Frank- 
 
 . .1 w?Ji'°'".*'""'i •" ^''" '"strict Wived 
 In tlie Mhldle Ages the name of the Duchy of 
 Francia or, at a rather laur date, that of ih. 
 t rcle of FranconU. The Alaniannl, with their 
 wives and children, a broken and dispirited host. 
 mov«l southward to the shons of the Lakeof 
 
 Rhtt-lia. Hero tliev were on what was hehl lo 
 
 Thcxlortc, as ruler of li„|y, „ „„,.e««or to tb. 
 Emi»ror» of the WV.t, was .tr,.f hnl forth to 
 protect t^«.m. . . . Eastern Swltierland West- 
 S™ Ty'l. «""tl«-m Hadenand WQnemlUrSd 
 Southwcsiem Bavarta prolwhly form.,1 thl?new 
 Alanmnnls, which will figure in later hl.torv sa 
 
 T ii"7'l.'r Alamanni*, or (he Circle of «wibla. 
 — T. n.Hlgkln, lUilgand ll,-r Innulen. bk. 4 M 9 
 «*';"';.'•'','■ "'"'"In- "i't- "f Fniuft: AneirM 
 4flO-,VIII; and Fhakks: A. I). 4HI-311 
 
 A, D 5a>-7»9 -Struggles Anisist th» 
 F««k Dominion, 8.^ 0««a«v7^. u 4«l! 
 
 oA,°- 547.— f JwU MUtction t* th« FmnkA 
 Bse BaVAHU: A. D. UT. '■""ma- 
 
li 
 
 ALEPPO. 
 
 ALEPPO : A. D. 638-969.— Taken by the 
 Arab followers of Mahomet iii 638, this city wai 
 recovered by the Byzantines iu 869. See Btza>- 
 TINE Empire: A. U. 963-1025. 
 
 A. D. ia6o.— Destruction by the MonKoli. 
 — The Mongols, tmder Khulagu, or Houlavou, 
 brother of Mangu Khan, hiivlng overrun Meso- 
 potamia and extinguished the Caliphate at Bag- 
 dad, crossed the Euphrates in the spring of law 
 and advanced to Aleppo. The city was talcen 
 after a siege of seven days and given up for five 
 days to pillage and slaughter. "Syhen the 
 carnage ceased, the streets were cuml)ered with 
 corpses. ... It is said that 100,000 women and 
 children were sold as slaves. The walls of 
 Aleppo were razed, its mosques destroyed, and 
 its gardens ravagetl." Damascus submitted and 
 was spared. Khulagu was meditating, it is said, 
 the conquest of Jerusalem, when news of the 
 death of the Great Klian called him to the East 
 — U. U. Uoworth, ITut. of (A« MonooU, pp. 80)^ 
 811. '^'^ 
 
 A, D. 1401.— Sack and Maaaacre by Timonr. 
 See TiMOVR. 
 
 ALESIA, Sicce of, bj Catar. See Qaul: 
 B. C. 6S-51. 
 
 ALESSANDRIA: The creation of the city 
 (ti68). See Itai.v: A, D. 1174-1188. 
 
 ALEUTS, The. See American Aborioi- 
 XEi: Eskimo. 
 
 ALEXANDER the Great, B. C. 334-3a3. 
 — Coaauetti and Empire. See Macedonia, Ic., 
 B. C. 8.34-331), nnd after. . . .Alexander, Kins of 
 Poland, A. U. I.ioi-ISOT. . . .Alexander, Prince 
 of Bulgaria.— Abductionand Abdication. See 
 BriAJAuiA: A I). 18*8-1886... Alexander I., 
 Cxar of Russia, A. D. 1801-1833. . . .Alezan> 
 der I., King of Scotland, A, D. 1107-1184. . . . 
 
 Alexander II., Pope, A. D. 1061-1073 
 
 Alexander 11., C»ar of Russia, A. D. 185&- 
 1881 ...Alexander I!., Kinr of Scotland. 
 A. I). 1214-1U4!) . . .Alexanderlll., Pope, A. D. 
 1159-1 181 .. . .Alexander III., Csar of^Russia. 
 A. I). 1881-. . . .Alexander III., Klnr of Scot- 
 land, A. I>. 1349-1386. . . . Alexander HT., Pope. 
 A. I). 12.%4-1261 . . .Alexander V., Pope A. D. 
 1409-UIO (eleitiil by the Cuiincil of Pisa) 
 Alexander VI., Pope, A. D. 1493 1503. . . .Alex- 
 ander VII., Pope, A. D. 16.55-1007... Alex- 
 ander VIII., Pope, A. D. 1689-1 fiOl... Alex- 
 ander Severus, Roman Emperor, A. II. 33;.'-335. 
 ALEXANDRIA: B. C. 33a. -The Found- 
 in( of the City— "When AU \ ui.lcr Uiirlifd 
 the Egypiliiii military statinu ut the little 
 town or village of lUiakotIs, hii saw with 
 the quick eye of a great coniniaiidi r how 
 to turn thiit petty settlement iiilo n great 
 citv, and to make Its rmidstntd. out of which 
 ships could 1m' blown by a change of wind, 
 into a double harbour nHituy enou^th to 
 shelter the ihitIch of the world. All that was 
 0ee<li'il was to Join the inland liy a mole to the 
 continent. The site was admlmlily secure and 
 rnnvenli'nt. a narrow strip of laml between the 
 Metllterraiiiiin anil the grent M imi Ijikc Mare- 
 Otis. Thii wliole iiorthef f»ce<l the two 
 
 harbours, which were bouii t and west by 
 
 the mole, anl Uyond by the _, n«rrf)w rooky 
 Island of I'hsroH, stretching parallel with the 
 coast. On Ihr south was the inlsnd [lort of Uke 
 Mareotis The litiirth of the rity wsj iQur,. t!ia» 
 Uiree miles, the hreaillh muri' than thrpeiiunrten 
 
 of a mile; the mole was above three-quarters of 
 
 44 
 
 ALEXANDRIA, B. C. 28S-S46. 
 
 a mile long and six htudred feet broad; its 
 breadth is now doubled, owing to the silting up 
 of tl;e sand. Modem Alexandria until lately 
 only occupied the mole, and was a great town in 
 a comer of the space which Alexander, with 
 large provision for the future, measured out. 
 The form of the new city was raled by that of 
 the site, but the fancy of Alexander designed it 
 in the slupe of a Macedonian cloak or chlamys, 
 such as a national hero wears on tlie coins of the 
 kings of Hacedon, his ancestors. The situation 
 Is excellent for commerce. Alexandria, with the 
 best Egyptian harbour on the Mediterranean, 
 and the inland port connected with the Nile 
 streams and canals, whs the natural emporium 
 of the Indian trade. Port Said is superior now, 
 iKcause of its grand artiUcial port aud the 
 advantage for steamships of an unbroken sea- 
 route."— R. 8. Poole, Citia nf Bgyi>t, eh. 18.— 
 See, also, Macedonia, &c. : B. C. 834-830; and 
 Egypt: B. C. 882. 
 
 Reign of Ptolemy Philadelpbns, B. C. aSa- 
 a46.— Creatncas and splendor of the City. — 
 Its Commerce.— Its Libraries.— Its Museum. 
 — Its Schools.— Ptolemy Philadelpbus, sou 
 of Ptolemy Soter, succeeiled to the throne of 
 Egypt in 283 B. C. when his father retin-d from 
 it In Ilia favor, and reigned until 846 B. C. 
 "Alexandria, founded by the great conqueror, 
 increased and beautified by Ptolemy Soter, was 
 now far the greatest city of Alexander's Empire. 
 It was the first of those new foundatl<ins which 
 are a marked feature in Helleniaui; there were 
 many others of gri'st size and impurtauce — 
 above all, Antloch, then Selcucia on the Tigris, 
 tlien Nicomedia, Nicti'a, Apamea, which Usted; 
 besides such as Lysimacheia, Antiguueia, ami 
 others, which early disappeared. . . . Alexan- 
 drU was the model for all the rest. The inter- 
 section of two great principal thorouehfares, 
 adorned with colonnades for the frxit wavs, formed 
 the <'eutre point, the omphalos of the city. The 
 other streets were at right angh'S with these 
 thonmghfares, so that the whiHe place was quite 
 regular. Counting its old part, liiiakotis, \rtilch 
 was Rtill the habitation of native Egyptians, 
 Alexandria had five quarters, one at least 'devoted 
 to Jews who had originally settled tli<Te in great 
 numben. The mlxiil pop'ilation there of Mace- 
 donians, Oreeks, Jews, aud Egyptians gave a 
 p<'culiariy coiiii>lex ami variable character to the 
 lK)pulation. Ut us nut forget the v»st number 
 of strangers from all parts of the world whom 
 trade and politics brought there. It was the 
 great mart where the weallliofEunipe anil of Asia 
 changed hands. Alexamler hud niieneil the sea- 
 way by exploring lliecoaslHof .Meuia anil PersU. 
 Caravans from the head of the Pemiun (iiilf, aud 
 slilps on the HikI Sea, brought all the woiiilere of 
 Ceylon and China, as well as of Portlier India, to 
 Alexan.lrla. There. t.Ki, the wealth of Spain and 
 Oatil, lite produce of Italy and Mait'dnnla, the 
 amber of the Baltic and the salt fish of Pontus. 
 the silver of Spain and the copper of Cyprus, the 
 timber of Maceilnnia and ("nte, the pottery and 
 oil of (Insert. — a IliiMiHund imports frnm all the 
 Meiliterranean — came to lie exclmngiil for the 
 splci's of Arabia, the Bph'iidid liinU and endmil 
 il' >i.nof India and Ceylon, the giiiil a'd ivory of 
 ■ tica, IlieanU'liip."*, the Bins, the leopards, the 
 ■-■ptiap.tsr.f fr.ip!.H!, ||iiir<i IJrntx Ihr rn.irmous 
 wealth of the Ugiilir, for In aildlllon to the mar- 
 is fertility aud great (Hipulation — it is said 
 
ALBXASDRIA, B. 0. aS^SM. 
 
 to have been »eTeii mlllloiu— of Egypt, they 
 made all the proflts of this enormous cuTying 
 trade. We gain a good idea of what tie splen- 
 dours of the capital were by the very full account 
 preserved to us b v Athensua of the great feast 
 which Inaugurated the reign of PhlTadelphus. 
 ... All Uils seems Idle pomp, and the doing of 
 an Idle sybarite. Pbiladelphus was anything but 
 that ... It was he who opened up the i&yp- 
 tian trade with Italy, and made PuteoU the gr^t 
 port for ships from Alexandria, which It remahied 
 for centuries. It was he who explored Etiaopia 
 and the southern pans of Africa, and brought 
 back not only the curious fauna to his zoologteal 
 
 fardens, but the first knowledge of the Troglo- 
 ytes for men of science. The cultivation of 
 science and of letters too was so remarkably one 
 of his nursuitt that the progrsaa of the Alexan- 
 dria of his day forms an epoch In the world's 
 hUtory and we must soparate hU University and 
 Its professors from this summary, and devote to 
 them a separate secUon. ... The history of the 
 organization of the University and lu staff Is 
 covered with almost Impenetrable mist For the 
 Museum and Library were in the strictest sense 
 what we should now call an University, and one 
 too of the Oxford type, where learned men were 
 Invited to Uke Fellowships, and spend their 
 learned leisure close to observatories In science, 
 and a great library of books. Like the medieval 
 universities, this endowment of research naturally 
 turned Into an engine for teaching, as all who 
 desired knowledge flocked to such a centre, and 
 persuided the Fellow to bcconc a Tutor. The 
 model came from Athens. There the schools 
 beginflliig with the Academy of Plnto. hatl a 
 fixed propcrtv — a home with iu surmuudiug 
 gsrden, and in order to make this fnumlatlon 
 sure, it was made a shrine where thj Muses were 
 worshlppc<l, and where the bead of the school, or 
 a priest sppolnted, performed sUted sacrifices. 
 Thin thin, being held In trust by the successon 
 of the donor, who bequeathed It to them, woa 
 property which it would have Uen sacrilegious 
 to Invaijc, and so the title Museum annc for a 
 school of learning. Demetrius the Phslcrean, tlie 
 rriond and protector of Thcopbrasius, brought 
 this idea wllh him to Alexandria, when his name- 
 sake drove him Into exile [see GnKECl- B C 
 2'^^'li^ "'' " "■• '>" ''oubt hU advice to the 
 first Ptolemy which originated the great foun- 
 lUllon, though Philadrfnhus. who again exiled 
 Demetrius, gcu ilie credit of it. Tlie pupil of 
 Aristotle moreover impressed on the king the 
 nocewlty of storing up In one central repository 
 all that the world knew or could pniduco In 
 order to sscertain the Uws of things from a pri>. 
 p<-r anslytis of detail. Hence was founded not 
 only the great library, which in those davs had a 
 thousand times the value a great lll)rarv lias now 
 but also observatories, loologlcal gardens, col' 
 lections of exotic plants, and of other new and 
 strange things brought by exploring expeditions 
 from tlie furthest regions of Arsl.la nnd Africa, 
 ihls lllirary and muwum proved Imieed a home 
 for the Muses, and aN it It a most brilliant group 
 of students In literature and scienre was formcif 
 I he sucrrssive lilirariiins were Zenodxtun the 
 Krsmmarian or critic; Calllmarhus, to whose 
 pnemi we shall prevntly return' Era!:Kthfr.ri 
 the Mtrnncimer, who originated" the'pn.ceM by 
 whieh the »Ue of the esrtS Is determined today : 
 AppoUoBlui Um Rhodlaa, dUdpIs aad «BM>y o^ 
 
 45 
 
 ALBXAin)IUA. a 0. S83-34S. 
 
 Oalllmachaa ; Aristophanes of By xantium, founder 
 of a school of philological criticism ; and Aristar- 
 chus of Samoa, reputed to have been the greatest 
 CTltlc of ancient times. The study of the text of 
 Homer was the chief labour of Zienodotiis, Aris- 
 tophanes, and Aristarchus, and it was Arisur- 
 chus who mainly fixed the form In which tlie 
 Iliad and Odvssey remain to this day. . . . The 
 vast collections of the library and museum 
 actually determtoed the whole character of the 
 literature f Alexandria. One word sums It all 
 up — eruUiUon, whether In pUlosophy, in criti- 
 cism, in science, even In poetry. Strange to say 
 they neglected not only oratory, for which there 
 was no scope, but history, and this we miiv attri- 
 bute to the fact that history before Alexander had 
 DO charms for Hellenbm. Mythlc<U lore, on the 
 other hand, strange uses and curious words, were 
 *>fP»"ioenU of research dear to them. In science 
 they did great things, so did they in geography. 
 • ■ But were they original in nothing? Did 
 they add nothing of their own to the splendid 
 record of Greek llteratureT In the next gener- 
 ation came the art of criticism, which Aristar- 
 chus developed Into a real science, and of that 
 we may speak In its place; but even In thit 
 
 SineretloD we may claim for them the credit of 
 ree original, or nearly original, devclopmenu 
 , literature — the pastoral Idyll, as we have it 
 to Theocritus; the elegy, as we have It in the 
 Roman Imltaton of Philetas and Callimachus; 
 and the romance, or love story, the parent of our 
 modem noveU. All these had earfv prototypes 
 In the folk songs of Sicily, In the fove songs of 
 Mimnermus and of Antlmachus, in the ules of 
 Ml etus, but still the revival was fairly to be 
 called original. Of these the pastoral idyll was 
 far the most remarkable, and laid hold upon the 
 world for ever."— J, P. Mahaffy, The Story of 
 AUiandevK Empire, eh. 1»-14.—" There were two 
 Libraries of Alexandria under the Ptolemies, the 
 larger one In tlie quarter called the Bruehlum 
 and the smaller one, named 'the daii.^hter,' In 
 the Herspcum, which was situated in the quarter 
 «IIed Rhacotis. The former was totally 
 destroyed In the conflagration of the Bruehlum 
 during Oaar's Alexandrian Wor [sec btlnw- 
 B. C. 4«-47]: but the latter, which was of treat 
 !["Hf a""™''"'''' ""Injured (see Matter, Jhtloirt 
 at lEeoU d'AUrandrie, tol 1, p. 18aif7.,287 
 •se,) It Is not stated br any ancient writer 
 where the collection of Pergamus [see Pkrga- 
 IflM] was placed, which Antony gave to Cleo- 
 patra (Plutorcb, Anton., c, 68); but It Is most 
 probable that It was deposited in the Bruehlum 
 as tlut quarter of the city was now without a 
 llbmry. and the queen was anxious to repair tbe 
 ravages occasioned by tbe civil war. If this 
 supposition Is correct, two Alexandrian libraries 
 continued to exist after the time of Osar, and 
 this i» rendered still more probslilo bv tlio fact 
 that during the first three ceuluries v( the Chris- 
 tian era the Bruehlum was still the literary 
 quarier of Alexandria. But a great i Imnge took 
 place In the time of Aurellan. TliU Enipcit)r In 
 supnresiiing the revolt of Firmus in Kirvpt. A 
 D. 478 [aeii Ih'Iow: A. D. 873J h •al.l i.. have 
 dewroynl the Bruehlum; aud tlioueli tlila male 
 ment Is hardly to lie taken llterallv, the Uiuiliium 
 PH»rr-i f^•r:-! tills iiioc to boiBd'i!,ii,i niii.iuii.B 
 walls of Alexandria, and was reganlnl onh- n» a 
 suburb of the city. Whether the gr.at Iflirary 
 in Um Bruchluin with tba musaum and It* otlMr 
 
ALEXANDRIA, B. C. 283-346. 
 
 nterary cstebllghmente, perished at this time, we 
 do not know ; but the Serapeum for the next 
 century takes its place as the literary quarter of 
 Alexandria, and becomes the chief library 
 in the city. Hence later writers erroneously 
 speak of the Serapeum as if it had been from the 
 be^nning the great Alexandrian library. . . . 
 Gibboa seems to think that the whole of the 
 Bcrapcum was destroyed [A. D. 389, l)y order of 
 the Emperor Theodosius— see below]; but this 
 was not the case. It would appear that it was 
 only the sanctuary of the god that was 
 levelled with the ground, and that the library, 
 the halls and other buildings in the ci)nsccrate<l 
 ground remainetl standing [ong afterwards. "—E. 
 Gibbon, Dtfliw and Fntlcf the Woman Empire, 
 «*. 88. y'nta by Dr. William S»i««A.— Concern- 
 ing the reputed Unal destruction of the Library 
 aj the Moslems, see below: A. D. 641-646 
 
 Also i.n : (). Uelepicrre. /littorieal DijIteuUiei, 
 tA. 8.-8. Sharpe, Uiat. nf hJiypt, eh. 7, 8 and 12. 
 —See, also, Nkoplato.nic«. 'and LniKARtKS. 
 
 B. C. 48^7— C«t«r and Cleomitr«.-Th* 
 Riunc aKsinst the Romuu.— The Siere.— 
 DeetrucUon of the great Libranr.— Roman 
 ▼letoty.— From the battle field of Pharsaliu (see 
 Rome : B. C. 48) Pompeius fled to Alexandria 
 in Egypt, and was treacherously murdered as ho 
 stepped on shore. Ceesar arrived a few days 
 afterwards, in close pursuit, and shed tears, it is 
 said, on being shown his rival's mangled head. 
 He had brought scarcely more than 3,000 of his 
 soldiers with him, and he found Egypt in a tur- 
 bulent state of civil war. The throne was in 
 dispute between children of the late king 
 PtoleraiEus Aulctcs. Ck-cpatra, the elder daugh- 
 ter, and FtoleniKua, a son, were at war with 
 one another, and Arsinol^, a younger daughter, 
 waa ready to put forwanl claims (see Eoypr: 
 B. C. 8<M8). Notwiihstandlng 'le insignifi- 
 cance of his force, Ca-aar did not ^l•^ tatc to as- 
 sume to occupy Alexandria and to u ! idlcatc the 
 dispute. But the fascinations C Cleopatra 
 (then twenty yeara of age) soon made him her 
 partisan, and her scarcely disgulaed lover. This 
 aggravated the IrriUtion which was caused in 
 Alcxandrhi by the presence of Casar's troops 
 
 ??".' ,'i''?'" '*'''°? "' ">« <^'ty "»» pMvoked. 
 Ho fortified himself in the great palace, which 
 he had taken possession of, and which com- 
 manded the causeway to the island, Pliaros 
 thenliy commanding the port Destroying a 
 larsc iiart of the city In that nelghborhcKxl, he 
 made Ills piwition exnt'dinxly stronp. At the 
 same time he seized ami burmd the royal fleet 
 and thus caused a conflagration in which the 
 greater of the two priceless libraries of Alex- 
 andria — the library of th" Museum — was, much 
 of it, consumed. [Sec above: B. C. 283-240 1 
 By such measures Cwsar withstood, for 
 several montl'j, a siege conducted on the purl of 
 the Aloxaudrians with great determination and 
 animosity. It wus not until March, B. C. 47 
 tjiat ho was relieved from his dangerous situa- 
 tioo, by the arrival of a faithful ally, in the per. 
 soil of -Mithridales, of Pcrgamus, who Iwl an 
 army Into Egypt, reduced Pehuium, and crossed 
 the Nile nt the bewl of the Delta. I'lole- 
 iniMn ailvauced with his troops to meet this 
 ■ew invader and was followed and ovoruken bv 
 " •- '• battle • 
 
 Esypliaii arMiy was ulitriy routed and Ptole- 
 ■Mua perished in Um MUa Cleopatra was then 
 
 M 
 
 ALEXANDRIA. A. D. 378, 
 
 married, after the Egyptian fashion, to • 
 younger brother, and established on the throne, 
 while ArainoC was sent a prisoner to Rome. — 
 A. Uirtius, The Alexaiulriaa War. 
 
 A. D. 100-312.— The EarlT Chriitiaa 
 Church. — Its Influence. See Cbristianitt : 
 A. D. 100-812. 
 
 A. D. li<.— Oeitmction of the Jew*. 8e« 
 Jews: A. D. 116. 
 
 .,/A- "•„ a«S. — Maeaacre by Caracalliu— 
 tanu'alla was the common enemy of mankind. 
 He left the capital (and he never returned to it) 
 about a vear after the murder of Geta [A. D 
 813). The rest of his reign [four years] was 
 spent In the several provinces of the Empire, 
 particularly those of the East, and every prov- 
 iiK^e was, by turns, the scene of his rapine aud 
 cruelty. ... In the midst of peace, and upon 
 the slightest provocation, ho issued his commands 
 at Alexandria. Egypt [A. D. 215], for a general 
 massacre. From a secure post in the temple of 
 Serapls, he viewed and directed the slaughter of 
 many thousand citizens, as well as strangers, 
 without distinguishing either the number or the 
 crime of the sutTen-ni.^'— E. Gibbon, Declint and 
 Fall of the Roinun Empire, ch. 6 
 
 A. D. 360-373.— Tumulta of the Third Cen- 
 tufT- — "The people of Alexandria, a various 
 mixture of nations, united the vanity and incon- 
 stancy of the Greeks with the sufieretitlon and 
 obstinacy of the Egyptians. The most trifling 
 occasion, a transient scarcity of flesh or lentils, 
 the neglect of an accustomed saluuitlon, a mis- 
 tske of precedency In the public bulbs, or even 
 a riligious dispute, were at any time sufflcient 
 to kimlle a se<lltion among that vast multitude 
 wlioeo resentments were furious and implacable 
 Aflir the captivity of Valerian [the Roman Em- 
 penir, made prisoner by Sapor, king of Persia 
 A. D, 290] anil the in.solcnce of hU son bad re- 
 hixiil the authority of the laws, the Alexandrians 
 abandoned themselves to the ungovemed rage of 
 their passions, and their unhappy country was 
 the theatre of a civil war, which continued (with 
 a few short and suspicious truces) above twelve 
 yc.irs. All Intercourse was cut off between the 
 several ouaru-ra of the afflicted city, every street 
 was polluted with blood, every building of 
 strength converted into a citadel; nor did the 
 tumult subside till a considerable part of AIcx- 
 amlria was Irretrievably ruined. The spacious 
 and maguiflcent district of Bruchion, with Its 
 pahucs and museum, the residence of the kings 
 and pliilofwphera of Egypt. IsdescrilHd, above a 
 century afterwards, as already rodureil to tU 
 prcmiit state of dreary solitude."- E. Gibbon, 
 J)t,\iiui and Fall o/ihe liman Empire, eh III 
 
 A. p, 373.— Deitruction of the Bruchium by 
 Aurehan. — After subduing Palmvra and lu 
 yuc( 11 Zenobia, A. D. 278, the Eniperor Aure- 
 Inn was called Info Eftypt to put .1 \a a re 
 bel Ion there, hc.uled by one I^nniis, a friend 
 still ally of the Palinyrene queeu. KIrnius had 
 great wealth, dirivedfrom trade, and from the 
 pilKrmanufai lure of Egypt, which was mostlv 
 In Ins hands, lie was defeated and put t.. ili-nh 
 "To Aurellans war against FIrmus, or to that 
 of Prubusa little iH-forc In Egypt, may be re 
 ftrred the distructlon of Uruihium, a gnut 
 ■liiarter.if Al.xandrla, whlih «cc .nling to Am 
 niianus M«rwl!jni|.. ^^g r!:!!:i;l i;:::!cr A'lreilaD 
 acd remained deserted ever after. "—J. B. L. Cre- 
 Uitl. <ffth4 Human Emptrort, Ue. 37, 
 
 II 
 
ALEXAKDRIA, A. D. 298. 
 
 ^,P-,»9«- -p'jy ^7 DJocletlM—A reneral 
 revolt of tlie African provinces of the Homan 
 tmpire occurred A. U. 2»«. The barbarous 
 tribf» of Ethiopia and the desert were brought 
 into alliance with the provincials of Envnt 
 Cyrenaica, Carthage and Mauritania, ana the 
 flame of war was universal. Both the emperors 
 
 "^."',^H'?*^i^'*'*"'"' ""* Maximlan, were 
 ca led to the African field. " Diocletian, on his 
 s de, onenea the campaign in Egypt by the 
 siege of Alexandria, cut off the aqueducU which 
 conveveii the waters of the Nile Into every quar- 
 ter of that immense city, and, rendering his 
 camp Impregnable to the sallies of the besieired 
 multitude, he pushed his reiterated attacks with 
 caution and vieor. After a siege of eight 
 months, Alexandria, wasted by the swoid and 
 by fire, implored the clemency of the conqueror 
 but it experienced the full extent of his severity' 
 Many thousands of the citizens perished in a pro- 
 miscuous slaughter, and there were few obnox- 
 ious persoins In Egypt who escaped a sentence 
 either of death or at least of exile. The fate of 
 Busiris and of Coptos was still more melancholy 
 than that of Alexandria; those proud cities 
 were utterly destroyed. "-E. Gibbon, JOerfini 
 and taUvftht Homan Empire, eh. la 
 A. D. 365. -Great Earthquake. See Earth- 
 
 (jr.\ltK IN THB liOHA.N WoKLD: A D 865 
 
 ^.P' 389.— Deatruction of the Se'rapeiim. 
 — AfUT the edicts of Theodtwlus had severely 
 priihiNiied the sacrifices of Uie pagans, tin y were 
 Still tolerated in the city and temple of Hr'ipis 
 ... I he archepiscopul throue of AIe»»plrla 
 W!is filled by Thcophilus, the perpetual enemy 
 of VvMv and virtue; a bold, bad man, whose 
 hamls were altimately polluted with gold and 
 with I1I0.HI. Uis pious indignation was excited 
 by the honours of Sirupis. ... The votaries of 
 fcerui.is, whose strength and numbers were much 
 mfcnor to those of their antaitonisU, rose in 
 arms [A. D. 38UJ at the iiistigiition of the philo- 
 sopher Olympius, who exhorted them to die in 
 the defence of the altars of the gods These 
 pagan fanatics fortified thcniselvfs in the temple 
 or rather fortress, of Weropis; ri'pelled tlie be'- 
 tugew by daring sallies an<l a resolute defence; 
 aim by the inhuman cruelties which they exer- 
 useil on their Christian prisoners, obtained the 
 !ust consolation of despair. The efforu of the 
 pruc cut magistrate were usefully excned for the 
 ( nalilishtuent of a truce till the answer of Thto- 
 |.osius f!i<).il<l determine tlie fate of Kerapis " 
 li.e jud.-nunt c.f the emperor condemned the 
 j-riat temple to destruction and it was reduced 
 loa heap of ruins "The valuable library of 
 Alexsniiria was pillaged or destroyed ; and near 
 Im!!';'^ Tf " ""•■'•.'"'r''". "'« 8pp..un.i,ce of the 
 rmpli shelves excited the regret and indignation 
 of every spectator wlu«e mind was not totally 
 darken.^ by rthgious nrejudice."-E. Oibb<in 
 VWi,«, ,,W /J,« ,/ </M kom„n Empin M. 88 - 
 (.iblx.n » statement as to the dcsitruction of the 
 great library in the aempeum is calle.1 in que,- 
 ii'D by hi* learned uuuotalor, Dr. Omith bee 
 II hove: B. (.', Wi-na 
 
 hi.*M^h.'"^Vi?"T»'« patriarch Cyril and 
 nis Mobi — Ills voice [ilnit of tynl, Putri- 
 
 «I'penM.il the pauinns of the iniililtnit.- ^tu c 
 
 tuiintlc paraboittni. familiari/,.1 In their dally 
 ottic With scene, of death, aiM the pnefecU of 
 
 ALEXANDRIA, A. D. 641-4M 
 
 Egypt were awed or provoked by tb<! temooal 
 power of these Christian pontics. Ard3 in 
 the prosecution of heresy, Cyril auspiciously 
 2^™1. * "'^nhy oppressing the Novatlans, 
 the most innocent and harmless of the sectaries 
 ;k-"t to'c™'i''ii, and even the privileges of 
 S'.'i^*"' '"''" '"^ rau:..plied to the num^,rof 
 
 J;^ D.T*"i "^""l*' ^Y ^^ '«'■'> 0' f^e Cesam 
 and Ptolem es and a long prescripUon of 700 
 years -'-oe the foundation of Alexandria. With- 
 out anv legal sentence, without any royal man- 
 date t£e patriareh, at the dawn of diy, led a 
 seditious multitude to the attack of tlie syna- 
 ^JiTt, U°'»""«:'l ■"«» unprepared, the Jews were 
 incapable of resistance: their houses of prayer 
 were levelled with the ground, and the eplVcoW 
 
 plunder of their toods, expelled from the city 
 the remnant of the misbelieving nation. Pef- 
 haps he might plead the Insolence of their 
 prosperity, and their deadly Utred of the Chris- 
 tians, whose blood they had recently shed in a 
 malicious or accidental tumult. Slich crimes 
 wou d have deserved the animadvcislons of the 
 magistrate: but in this promiscuous outraee the 
 J°^"' "^""^ confounded with the guilty "— 
 E. Gibbon V^rlinemut Fatt of the R^n Em- 
 
 rtv. .■ *^~" "^'°.™ '""8 ^^ "dherents of the 
 archbishop were guilty of a more atrocious and 
 unprovoke<l crime, of the guilt of which a deei) 
 !1^'J^2!1 ;"•«=''«*, "» .Cyril. All Alexandria 
 respected, honoured, took pride in the celebrated 
 Hypatla. 81ie was a woman of extraordinary 
 learning; In her was centred the lingering knowl- 
 edge of that Alexandrian Platonism cultivated 
 by Plotinua aud his school. Her beauty was 
 equal to her leaminit: her modesty commended 
 bot.1. . . Ilypatia lived In great fntimacy with 
 the pnefect Unates; the only charge whispered 
 
 b^fl'll r .T" "'?i *^l encouraged him tn his 
 hosti ity to the patriareh. . . . Some of Cyrils 
 ferocious partisans seire<l this woman, draeeed 
 her from her rlinriot, and with the most revolt 
 tog indecency tore her clothes off and then rent 
 her limb from limb.'-H. H. Milman, /A.f. „t 
 Latin GhriMtianily. hk. 8, ek. 8 " 
 
 Also IN C. Klngsley. nypaiia. 
 
 A. D. «t6.-Tak«j 6r ChosroM. See 
 
 Eoyrr: A. D, 610-828, 
 
 Th^nSli**':*.''*-7 ■''''• "»•'•'» Conqu«it.- 
 
 The precise date of eventa In the Moslem con 
 
 n,"!;*'"."' *''?>'P'- ''.*' Am™, lieutenant of ilie 
 lallph Omar, is uncertain. Sir Win. Mulr fl.xes 
 
 'a nT..'"'^;/"'''V''' Alexandria to Amr.i hi 
 A. I>. (HI. After that It was reoccupied by tli» 
 Jfyzantines either once o- twice, on occasions of 
 neglect by the Aralis. as they pursued their eoi,- 
 ciuesta elsewhere. The probaliility seems to be 
 that this occurred only on««, In MB. It seems 
 also probable, as remarked by Sir W. Mulr, that 
 the two sieges on the taking and retaking of the 
 city — 641 and 646- have been much confii8e<l In 
 the ranty acci.unu which have come down to us 
 Onihe firat occasion Alexandria would appear to 
 have been generously treated; while, on the 
 st^-ond It s.iffere<l pfllage and Ita fortifications 
 were destroy..!. IIow fsr there is truth In the 
 commonly acc.ptnl story of the deliberate bum- 
 
 lii« of tlin great A lexamlrian Library— or so mu<h 
 • f It as iiatl f:«Tjpcd drstniclioii «t ti,,. i,«,„i, 
 of Homan generals and Olirisllan patriarchs— is 
 a question still in dispute. Gibbon .llscredlted 
 the story, ami BIr Wlllism Muir, the Utett of 
 
i • 
 
 V4 
 
 r?l 
 
 ALEXANDRIA, A. D. 641-646. 
 
 ■tndenti In Mahometan blstoiy, declines even the 
 mention of it In his narrative of the conquest of 
 Egypt. But othor historians of repute maintain 
 the probable accuracy of the tale told by Abul- 
 pharagus— that Caliph Omar onlered the de- 
 struction of the Library, on the ground that, 
 if the books in it agreed with the Koran they 
 were useless, if they disagreed with U they wew 
 Permdous.— 8eeMABo;4BTA»Coit«niMT: A. D. 
 
 iith-isth Centuries.— Trade. See TRAoa. 
 
 A. D. 1798.— Captured ojr the French imder 
 Bonaparte. See Fbadce: A. D. 1788 (Mat— 
 
 ACOtJST). 
 
 A. D. i8oi-i8oa. — Battle of French and 
 EiiKlish.— Restoration to the Tnrka. See 
 TtLAXcm: A. D. 1801-1802. 
 _ A. p. 1807.— Surrendered to the Enrliah.— 
 The brief occupation and humiliatinc capitif 
 lation. See TuBBs: A. D. 1806-1807. 
 a \P' >>40.— Bombardment br the BnKliah. 
 See TiTBKs: A. D. 1881-1840 
 
 A. D. i88a.— Bombardment by the Bncllsh 
 ■•**L— Massacre of Europeans.— Deatmaioa. 
 SeeEoTW: A. D. 1876-1882, and 1888-1888. 
 
 ALEXANDRIA, LA., The Bnminr oC 
 Bee UKfTED States op Ah. : A. D. 1864 (Mabch 
 —Mat: LodisianaX 
 
 ALEXANDRIA, VA., A. D. i86t (May).- 
 Occnpation hj Union troops.— Murder of Col- 
 onel Ellsworth. See Csitkd States or Ax. : 
 A. D. 1861 fMAT: ViBoraiA). 
 ALEXANDRIAN TALENT. SeeTAiEsr. 
 »i-|5l?.'J^f"J*' Russia, A. D. 1645-1676. 
 ALEXIUS I. (Comacnus), Emperor la the 
 »*•» (Bysantine, or Creek), A. D. 1081-1118. 
 ....Alexins n. (Comncnus), Emperor la 
 J^Jo^"!/^'^*"*'"*' "' C"*''). A. D. 1181- 
 ."^ B^*5" '"• (Ancelus), Emperor 
 ia the Bast (Byxantiae, or cfreek), A D. 119»- 
 1208 Alexius IV. (An«lus), Emperor In 
 !S)?.^**l.<^T*"*'n«> O' Greek), A. 1). 1803- 
 1204 Alexius V, (Ducas), Emperor ia 
 "'5?S!i»^li?^'i?*' •' Greek), A. iJ. 1204. 
 
 ALFONSO I., Kiaarof Aragonand Navarre. 
 A. D. 110*-1184. . . .Aftonso 1." Kingof Castili 
 ^J?- "I'h"'*! •"•' '"• »' Leon, A. D. 1065^ 
 110».... Alfonso I., Kmr of Leon and the 
 Asturiat, or Oriedo, A. U. 739-757. . . .Alfonso 
 l-.i^iag ot PoTtMnl, A. D. IIIS-IIM.... 
 Alfonso I., King of Sicily, A. D. 1416-U58 . . . 
 
 Alfnnan If VIhm «./ A -. a rv •■«« ..«. 
 
 ALLOBROOES. 
 
 MO VI., Kiae of Portugal, A. D. 
 7. . . .Alfoaso VII., KinjF of Leoa, A. 
 1186. . . .Alfonso VIII., Ring of Leoa, 
 
 Alfonso II., King of Aragoni .\ D. 1163-119ft 
 " — orcastile, A. D. 1186- 
 
 . .Alfonso 11., King t _ ^ 
 
 1157.... Alfonso II., ICing of Leon and"tha 
 
 A*'»ri,V' " 9'1»,"*"»' ^ ^ 7l»l-84«. . . .Alfonso 
 II., KioK of Naples, A. D. U94-14l>5.... 
 tV,?"*** }}:• •^'"/f."' Portugal, A. D. 1811- 
 Ifii. . . Alfonso ni.. King of Aragea. A D 
 
 n** nV'!?.V,.V^"'r,V "'•. King of^JSilJ A 
 ^■}}i9-\iH... Aitoaio III., King of Leon 
 and the Asturias, or Oriedo, A. U. t<66-U10 
 Alfonso III., King of Portugal, A. I). 184+1 
 
 Alfonso III., Kinjr of Portugal, A. U. 184i 
 187U.... Alfonso l^.. King ofAragoa, A D 
 1887-1338 ...Alfonsi IV.."King oTUon anj 
 r Aeturias, or Oriedo, AD. 9aj-(«0 
 ronso IV.. King of Portugal, A. D. 1323- 
 I. . .Alfonso vr, King of Aragoa aad I. of 
 '■&,\.^- ^ l.*'»-><1»: I.of iXoies. A. I» 
 
 the Asturias, or Oriedo, 
 Alfonso IV., Kin " 
 
 133:.. - 
 Sicily. .. _ 
 
 1443- 1458... Alfonso 
 Asturias 
 
 Kitifi 01 Leon and 
 
 Alfeato v., King of Portugal, A. D. 1438-1481 
 
 48 
 
 ...AlfiMM) VI., Kias 
 
 1856-1667....-- -• 
 
 D. 1109-1186. ... 
 
 A. D. 1186-1167. . . . AUoni o IX., King of Leon! 
 
 A. D. 1188-1280. . . .Alfonso X., King of Leoa 
 
 and Castile, A. D. 1253-1284 ...AlFonso XL, 
 
 Kiag of Leoa and Castile, A. D. 1812-1850. . . . 
 
 AUonao XIL, King of Spain, A. D. 1874- 
 
 looa. 
 
 ALFORD, Battle of (A. D. 1645). See 
 ScoTumo: A. D. 1644-1645. 
 
 ALFRED, caUed the Great, Kiag of 
 Weaees, A. D. 871-901. ^^ 
 
 ALFURUS. SeeC'KLsnES. 
 ALGIERS AND ALCERIA.-The term 
 Algiers literally signifles "tlie island," and was 
 derived from the original construction of its 
 harbor, one side of which was separated from 
 the land. For history, see BABBAiiT States. 
 
 ALCIHED, The.— The term by which a 
 war is proclaimed among the Mahometans to be 
 • Holy War. 
 
 ALCONXINS, OR ALGONQUINS, The. 
 Bee AiDEBiCAiiABOKioiirEs: Aloohedj Familt. 
 
 ALGUAZIL. See Alcalde. 
 ,^ALlMMA,Thetaklagot SceSPAW: A.D. 
 
 ALHAMBRA, The boUdiag of the. See 
 Spaih: a. D. isa8-1278. ' •• ow 
 
 ALI, CaUph, A. D. 655 001. 
 
 B.'C 890-M7 *' *''" ^°" ^' ^^^ ^' """"^ 
 ALIBAMUS, OR ALlBAMONS, The. 
 
 See AXEBICAK AbORIOIXES : McgKHOOEB 
 
 FAMar. 
 
 ALIEN AND SEDITION LAWS, The. 
 See United States of Am: A. 1). 1798 
 
 A.^D:Km"5^"" " ^"^^'- ^ """^^• 
 
 A^a'i^^lSio^"" "' <"^*'- ^ ^--= 
 
 ALJUBAROTA, Battle of (1385). See 
 Portcoal: a. D. 188313«o, and Spaxn: A. D 
 1368-14791 rAji,.A.u. 
 
 ALKMAAR, Siege (1573). See Nether- 
 la.ndb: A. D. 1.573-l,)7t. 
 
 ALKMAR, Battle of. Sec Fra.\ce: A D 
 1799 (Septemuer— OcTonEui. 
 
 "ALL THE TALENTS," Ministry of. 
 See Exoi.and: A. 1). 180I-1H(M|, nnd IdWJ-lSli 
 
 ALLATOONA, Battle of. Sue L'.vnto 
 StaTESOfAm. a. D 1'<tH(Sppf.-nrt •Ooorirf I 
 
 ALLBCHANS, The. See Amewcak Ajw 
 
 RKitNKs: ALLE<i|fA.>-<< 
 
 ALLEGHENY COLLEGE. See Edica 
 tius Moi>krn: .Vmki.i,a; A. 1). 1789-1884, 
 
 ALLEMAGNE.-Tlio Frin.li name f,ir 
 (f<rmany, deriviHl from the conf.dfmt|.)u of the 
 Alemannl, SceALEXUNNi: A. D. 818 
 
 ALLEN, Ethan, is-f Vehmost, A. D. 1719- 
 Im4; ttud L.mteu States of Am.: A. 1) 177-, 
 (May). 
 
 -A'iy?""^"*'?""* "'""■ Second battle 
 o^N6riUngen,-i645.) tke Ueumanv: A. U 
 
 r,fJi'-^'*J"°»' '•*•*> •"'' "« Plymouth 
 1>. 1623-1629. and after. 
 
 ALLIANCE, The Farmers'. See CviTtl' 
 States ok Am. : A. D. 1877-1891 
 
 ALLOSROGES, Conqueit ef the.-Tli. 
 
 Ailohr 
 
 ^■« (»<•« ..Um-i ; hU) Omlk) havl 
 
 shc'tere,! the chiefs of the Salye^ when the tat 
 
 Uiit 
 
ALLOBROOia 
 
 Itoman jrmyof 80,000 iS^ which tidnSSd 
 
 iEmllUnua. On the 8th ofAururt B ?- fa^ 
 the (Hultah horfe enoouSte^*X' S^j'^ii 
 
 I^Th 'iV^^JT' "» Junction of tSeUe« 
 and the Rhone, and were routed with tach enor! 
 mouf lUaghter that 180,000 are ^d^to W 
 
 f^-ofthLAII^r'^'^ K™" battiritUed tS 
 Sm.^...^^''"'*^ ''''° «urrendered to Rome 
 without further MTuggle; but the Areerai wSS 
 SSl^^SS^ The final oonoueet of SI™S 
 
 lAf^}^.'^*^ 8e.Rn«„.:A.D. 
 
 «^h^^^^°^^ AJi° PIZARROS. Th« 
 ' ALMANZA S*..^"/ A- » "33 1348 
 
 pL«'^e1fu;s.d^n*'s^^Sdrlr£vK 
 
 Jury by a movement of g^.mcwbit slmUar n«,r~ 
 n,e agitaUng cau«. of the revolutloS waS 1 « 
 Briou. teacher named Mahomet H AW«nJh" 
 
 '■giving himself out for tho person whnmW^r^ 
 Mahometan, expect under ilMmc As be^T I 
 
 Ai l" f™?'™- The new dynasty were c?m^ 
 Almoha,l,.» from Al MchdI. aid by his ann, int 
 
 .•^"'coZ:\ro?'rKfif^^^^^^^^ 
 «!?r.«n7m£""V?^^^^^ 
 "S ?""" '■> AS;'';:Ld°t'",r4e^r iL' 
 
 ff^in»i«i .K ■"<«■'»"'. Jlahomit, lost In IBil 
 
 ALOD. 
 
 become lord of most pari or^^^™ ArJS!* 
 wa. requested, orcauseaKlf to te^uiS^ 
 
 over into Spain, like another T.tjiT'^r'^*®'' 
 
 .i;„;# « l'"^ then converted the greater noS 
 
 iiuu vu escape waa the kingdom of Zarnnvi^ 
 
 -teS'SU"'-'^* "T •"e^SaraceMira 
 
 slaw«««Vhm- • A ~''^^" cities of Andalu- 
 
 lA. D 114,] before one whose oriirin wi. mhv 
 
 is the lim-dltary estate deriv«l fmm Uj uJ*^ 
 occupation; for which »l,nni„ "" Primitive 
 
 uttomnt to^^^™h;'f. «'■''■''.'« »ere h,.pcl...,,lo 
 
 »n<f a««i-;;^Su I: *^ A- f"^ 
 
 40 
 
 ment; or an estate created hv ln».T Sl^ °'" 
 of public land. arthTlfm T«TJ,,SKJT°i'' 
 
 tcr can produce the charter or be .khvwhi^i: 
 It is rrcated. and Is caM -d ^.x^^ , ,. ''^'^'S5 
 primitive allotment. gn.duaira'\hHr' h£' 
 .«„?fL'i™ "'■■•. *". ""■ primitive ni«ie. of 
 
ALOD. 
 
 jotintfd for Is fclcland, or public land "— W. 
 Btubbs, Crut. Hist, of Bng., M. 8, teet. 24. and 
 fX 5, *-rt. 36.— "Alodial lands are commonlr 
 opposed to beneficiary or feudal; tlic former bo- 
 log strictly proprietary, while the latter depended 
 upon a superior. In this sense the word is of 
 continual recurrence in ancient histories, laws 
 and Instruments. It someUmes, however, bears 
 tbe sense of InhcrlUwce. . . . Hence, In the 
 charters of the eleventh century, heredltanr fiefs 
 are frequently tcrmcti alodla. "— H. Hallam, Mid- 
 V€ Aga, eh. 2, pt. 1, note. 
 
 Also w J. it Kemble, The Scuont in Sngktnd, 
 »*. 1. ^ 11.— See, also, FoLCLAHD. 
 
 ALP ARSLAN, Seljoak Turkish Saltan. 
 A D. 10«3-107a »mtmu, 
 
 ALPHpNSO. 8eeAL»o»»o. 
 
 ALSACE.-ALSATIA: Th« Name, flee 
 AUMAH.M: A. I). 218. 
 
 A. D. 843.87o.-IncIuded In the KioEdom of 
 Lorraine. See Lorraine: A. D. 84»-S(0. 
 
 loth Century.— Joined to the Empire. Bee 
 LORR.UNE: A. D. 911-980. 
 
 loth Century.— Origin of the Houm «r 
 H»P»hnrg;. See Acstru: A. D. ia4«-128a. 
 
 A. D. isac— Revolt of the PuMaata. See 
 Obxiiaht: a. D. 1324-1525. 
 -i^i.P* «*"-«6aa— 'n»a«lona by llansfeld 
 IMl^lS^?*'^"*'' ""'* ^ OSKMANT : A D. 
 
 A. D. 1636-1639.— InTaiion and conquest by 
 Diika Bomhard of Weimar.-Richeliiu'a ap- 
 proprtation of the conouett for France. See 
 OaiuCANT: A. D. 1634-1639. 
 
 A. D. 164A— Cesaioa to Frrnce in the 
 •"••e* «' weetphaUa. Sec OERMA^T: ^V. D. 
 164o. 
 
 .^. A. 9. 1659.- Renunciation of the claims of 
 ';« Kincof Spain. See France: A. I>. 1659- 
 I60I. 
 
 A. D. 1674-1678.— Ravaged in the Cam- 
 paigns of Turenne and Conde. Sec Nether- 
 fcXKDe(H0HASD): A. D. 1874-1678. 
 
 A. D. 1679-1681.— Complete Absorbtion in 
 France^— Assumption of entire Sorereignty by 
 Lo«ds XIV.— Encroachments of tbe Chamber 
 of Reanaexation.— Seisure of Strasburg.— 
 OTerthrow of its indepeudence as an Imperial 
 City. See France: A. D. 1679-1681. 
 -A. "■ «744-InTasion by the Austrians. 
 See Austria: A. D. 1743-1744. 
 
 A. D. i87i.-Ceded to the German Empire 
 -^M T**' ^^XAKca: A D. 1871 (Jajjcarv 
 
 1871-1879.— Organisation of gOTemment as 
 A. o'w^l-W^ Province. See Oermasit: 
 
 N r 
 
 ALTA CALIFORNIA.-Upp«r California. 
 SeeCAMFORitiA: A. D. 1543-178^ 
 
 ALTENHEIM. Battle of (A. D. 1675). 
 hee NBTHaatAKM (Uollaxd): A. D. 1674- 
 1078. 
 
 ALTENHOVEM. Battle of (1793). See 
 *^Vf ^^iAlP- iJ?* <^""''-*«v-April . 
 
 ALTHING, The. bee Thi.no; ai.o. Nor- 
 KAKs.-NoBTHinH<: A. D, 86O-11.0; and Scan. 
 °^»^Yg*'' States (Denmabk-Iceiuxd): A. V. 
 
 ALTi^AI^*li■ **£i««cp»«^«„ 
 
 witllM BBAIfDEHBlTaoi A D. 
 
 60 
 
 AMALFL 
 
 ALTONA: A. D. 1713.- Burned by tha 
 Swedes. See ScAllDiitAViAM States (Swedeh) 
 A. D. 1707-1718. 
 
 A'aT8T*^'°'^*""''<'3aS). 8eelTAi.T 
 
 ALVA IN THE NETHERLANDS. See 
 
 Mbtherlanbs: A. D. 1566-1568 to 1573-1574 
 
 A JJ^SF,?'^?^."' ^«**°> A- ^ l'*71-187a 
 AHAHUACA, The. beo American Abor- 
 lOiNEs: Ardbsians. 
 
 AMALA80NTHA, Qnsen of the Ostro- 
 goths. See Rome: A. D. 535-553. 
 
 AMALEKITES, The.— "The Amalekites 
 were usual! v regarded as a branch of tbe 
 Edomltes or • Bed-skins'. Amalelt, like Kenaj:, 
 tbe fiither of the Kenlzzltea or ' Huntere ' was 
 tiie grandson of Esau (Oen. 86: 12, 16). Ho thvt 
 belonged to the group of nations,— F^omitea. 
 Ammonites, and Moabites,- who stood in a 
 relation of close kinship to Israel But they had 
 precwled the Israelites in dispossessing the older 
 Inhabitants of the land, and establishing them- 
 selves in their place. The Edomltes had partly 
 destroyed, partly amalgamated the Horites oY 
 Mount Seir (Deut J: 12); the Moabltes had done 
 the same to the Emlm, 'a people great and many. 
 mdUll as the Anaklm'(beut 2: 10), while the 
 Ammonites had extirpated and succeeded to the 
 Kephaira or 'Pints,' who in that oart of the 
 wuntry were teimed Zamzummim (Ucut 2- 20- 
 Oen. 14: 6). Edom however stood in a closer 
 relation to Israel than iu two more northerly 
 neighbours. . . . Separate from the Edomltes or 
 Amalekites were tbe Kenites or wanderinc 
 smiths. They formed an Important Guild 15 
 an age when tbe art of metallurgy was confined 
 to a few. In the Ume of Saul :ve hear of them 
 as camping among the Amalekites (I. 8am. IS • 6 ) 
 . . . The Kenites. . . did not constitute a race 
 
 n flf" Va^I^J^PJ *^™' »» »n°*'- » <^^' 
 But they had originally come, like the Israelites 
 or the Edomltes, from those barren reirions of 
 Nortiiem Arabia which were peopled by the 
 McntI of the Egyptian inscriplfona. Racially 
 therefore, we may regard them aa allied to the 
 descenilanU of Abraham. While tlie Kenites 
 and Amalekites were thus Semitic in their or' -Hn. 
 the Ilivites or 'VilUgers' are spcciuliy 
 
 Also in II. Ewald, Ilitt. of Imet, M. 1 met. 
 4. — !?ee, also, Arabia. 
 
 AMALFI.— " It was the sInguUr fate of this 
 city to have filled up the interval between two 
 periods of civilization, in neither of which she 
 was destined to be dUtingulshed. Scarcely 
 known before the end of the sixth century 
 Amalfl ran a brilltant career, as a free and trail- 
 ing republic [see ItoME: A. D. 654 8001, which 
 was checked by the arms of a conqueror in the 
 middle of the twelfth. . . . There must be I 
 suspect, some exaggeration about the commcree 
 aud opulence of Amalfl, In the only age when 
 she possessed any at all."_H. liallum, Tht 
 .Vi,m Agt$, eh. 9. pt. 1, «,rt uoto.— "Amalfl 
 and AtranI lie close together In two 
 ravines, the mountains almost arehing over them 
 and the sea washing their very Bouse- walla! 
 A li' "J"".' *"7 ^ Imagine the time when 
 Amaia and Atrenl were one town, with docks 
 and aracials and harbourage for their asscwlated 
 neets, and when these UtUe communities were 
 asoood la tmportoios to no naval power of 
 
AKALFL 
 
 Chrtottan Europe Tlie Byzantloe Empire lort 
 Its hold on Italy during the eighth a;ntury; and 
 after this time the history of Calabria is mainlv 
 concerned with the republica of Naples and 
 Amalfl, their conflict with the Lombard dukes 
 of Benevento, their opposition to the Saracens. 
 • .1 their final Btibjugation by the Norman 
 couquerors of Sicily. Between Uie year 830 
 . . ; 5''*? ^'°^^^ ^"«'' 'tself from the con- 
 trol of Naples and the yoke of Benevento. and 
 the year 1181, wh<-n Roger of Huuteville incor- 
 porated the republic In Lis kingdom ct the Two 
 bicilies, this city was the foremost naval and 
 eonimercial port of Italy. The burghers of 
 Amalfl elected their own doge; founded the 
 Hospital of Jerusalem, whence sprang the 
 knightly order of 8. John; gave their namo 
 to the richest quarter in Palermo; and owned 
 trading establlshmenU or factories In all the chief 
 cities of the Levant Their gold coinage of 
 tan formed the standard of currency before the 
 Florentines had »tamp^ the lily and s" John upon 
 "■* T."?^ ^°'*°- Their shipping regiiatfona 
 
 Their scholars. In the darkest depths of the dark 
 ages, prized and conned • famous copy of the 
 Pandecu of Justinian, and their seamen deserved 
 the fame of having first used, if they did not 
 actually invent thecompasa . . . The republic 
 had pwn and flourished on the decay of the 
 ureel Empire. When the hard-handed race of 
 Hauteville absorbed the heritage of Greeks and 
 Lombards and Saracens in 8outh"rn Italy fsee 
 Italy (Southern): A. D. 10001090] these 
 adventurers succeeded in annexing Amalfl But 
 It was not their Interest to extinguish the state. 
 rh.Jlir'"™7:K*'''y '?"«J f«"-'«sist«nceupon 
 i?„„f.K ''V°'' 'he armies of the little commra- 
 ttp l^Ui „»''i,^''*1 *^ meanwhile arisen in 
 the iNorth of Italy, who were jealous of rivrlrr 
 
 SJ^y!'^°n°*"' ?"•' '■'»•''' ««= Neapolitaii 
 res^ted King Roger In 1135. they called^lsato 
 their aid. anS sent her fleet to aestroy Amall 
 The ships of Amalfl were on guard with Romr"; 
 Tr^ 'uX^ of Naples. \be armed d^lfen! 
 w hile the home of the republic lay defcnccleMon 
 
 nto the harbour sacked the city and carri^S 
 the famous Pandecu of Justing as .^h^ 
 Two years later they returned, to complete the 
 frl,i°'.'^r':L"""'<"i Amalfl never r^coverel 
 I^r "il'-J?!".'..""^ 'he humiliation."- J. T 
 
 AMAZONS RIVFR. 
 
 , --<-■•" """ t"^ uiiiuuiaiion, -mJ a. 
 
 AMALINGS, OR AMALS.-fhe rovi 
 race of the ancient Ostrogoths, as the Balttf ot 
 .Kttrro:.The°'gX'"^«'*'^ hothcUimln'g'i: 
 
 A1«AT0NGALAND, or Ton»»l»nd.-On 
 
 unu'^nH';?'?' "' ^- *''•'*• north ?fZulilan^ 
 iM?'i'ij?.P™'«="o° •'nee 1888. ^ 
 
 AMA InS/i ^^r^*? '^™»*"» 
 A ^ J .V***-" The Amazons, daugbten of 
 Ari-s and Harmonia, are both earlPcreXi^ 
 aT,?°' "/"^""lon". of the anSen™ pr*. 
 women "SCS?"*"""- ''"dy "« Wc?atigable 
 Tn^^! 'k**'*'""* »P"* ''o™ men. permftting 
 Tl nfl"" temporary intercourse foVthe Z! 
 P^,°' renovating their numbers, and burilnj 
 out their right brrsrt with a view of enaUuf 
 
 the poet, 
 
 » general tyoe stimuUUng ti'the fanc7 of 
 wt, ud • UMme emiaeotly popular with 
 
 61 
 
 f 'f.?*?^- y^'" ""» •' "' »" repugnant to the 
 
 Wlitvl fi .K™' """! "" °^" standard of credl- 
 fi;5.1?'°'^ P««»"cept such poetical narra- 
 A^,^^'^^^^^-^ """*'"« communities of 
 Amaions as hav ng actually existed in anterior 
 timt Accordingly we find these warlike fenalM 
 constantly reappearing in the ancient polms^lnd 
 universally accepted as past realltiS^ In X 
 
 ^W-thJr f""" "■'^'=V" illustrate emphato 
 ally the most numerous host In which he era 
 found himself included, he tells us -Lt It »« 
 a«embledin Phrygia,! VebLk!ou\l'S^ 
 garius, for the purpose of insisting the f^^ 
 be Amazon^ When Bellerophon U to l»^. 
 ployed on a deadly and peril- -s undert^gT; 
 h»T7''° "^"r^iy «''"' to procure htac^S 
 he is despatched against the Amazons. T The 
 
 Thf^'"' ^"T- "•"* "•* Amazons on the rive? 
 Thermddon in their expedition along the somh- 
 m~iT' "' ""^ ^""'"e- To thi same snot 
 Herakles po<^ to attack them, in the pcrformSra 
 
 theus, lor the purpose of procWing the xM^ot 
 toat thLv r'n" ""''-' HIPPolyte; £id we*^ toUl 
 i!^!, V^!5 1"'*.°'" >"■' «<»vered from thelosscs 
 sustained in Uiis severe aggression whenThSiS 
 also assaulted a^d defeated them, aurrin^off 
 «ielr queen AnUopfl. This injury t^ri^eni^ 
 by invading Attica ... and ^netrate^ ef!n 
 Into Athens itself: where the final bauL- W° 
 fought and at one time doubtful, by which^ 
 •eus crushed them, was fought-ln the veir 
 n^f^i/ ""^ ^I'y- Attic antiquaries confldeluT 
 pointed out the exact nosition of the two con^ 
 S*.^'*'- • • • -"^.Potionof theante-C 
 I^ ?L*P''^ appeare to have been more deenh? 
 worked into the mitional mind of GreecolhaJ 
 this invasion and defeat of the Amaz^ . 
 ™r proper territory was asserted to be the toW^ 
 and plain of Themlskyra, near the Grecian cololj- 
 A..rS^"*S°° *K "^" ThermOdon [nmhem^ 
 R^.^W'.? '*«'°". «»"^ «*ter their^name by 
 Boman historians and geograDhera. liS.™^ 
 
 •utho,, placed them ifLfTyf or-EUiiopiS??! 
 G. Orote. mn. of Gnece.pt. i. <* n """P* — 
 
 £*.? .*"*-:rT''e mouth of the great riverS 
 South America was discovered in IsSo by PiS* 
 ion. or Pin9on (see Ajuhica: A. D. UW^ism 
 Tft?.,""^^ it -Santa Maria de to mSduiS^' 
 (Satat Mary of the Fresh-Water Sea). "This 
 was the firet name given to the river, except that 
 older and better one of the India^ • iSrani?' 
 Uie Sea; afterwaMs It was Marafiona^dSts 
 t'^i^^' ',?■" *''* '«■"«'<• "arriora ttat were 
 supposed to live near Its banks. . . . After Pin! 
 9on'. time, there were othera who saw the fi«h 
 water sea. but no one wu hardy enotS^ 
 venture into it. The honor of iwikl dSlve^ 
 was reserved for Francisco de OwltonTSd 2 
 explored it, not from the east. bTftom tS 
 west, in one of the most daring voyage.^ ™ 
 
 dedgn that led him to it After . . Piurra 
 had conquered Peru, he sent bis brother Goi 
 
 f whJ^'.il' "P'"** "I" «"•' '"rest east of Qu^ 
 
 where there were cinnamon tiw*- Thelsw- 
 
 Jition started tote in 1588. and It was two vi^ 
 
 to uulto. In the coune <9 the> waoderinn f hw 
 had .truck the river Coco; b.iwiKS?w/ 
 
li 
 
 i i 
 
 
 AXAZOVSRIVKR 
 
 h tber foOowvd down the eun«nt, • part of 
 them in tne t w m I , • pan on thore. After a 
 iriiUa they met lome Indiana, who toM them of 
 a rfcdi ooontrr t«n dan' Joomej berond— a 
 oouBtTT of gold, and with plenty of prorlaiooi. 
 Gouaio plaoediOieUana in command of the brig- 
 antlne, and oraeied him, with SO loldlen, to go 
 on to thia gold-land, and letum with a load of 
 proTlitona. OieUana arrived at the month of 
 the Coco in three daya, but found no provlilons; 
 'and he considered that if he should return with 
 this news to Pixano, he would not reach him In 
 • year, on account of the strong current, and 
 that if he remained where he was, he wovjd be 
 of no use to the on^ or to the other. Not know- 
 ing how long Ooazalo Plzarro would take to 
 reach the place, without consulting any one be 
 set sail and prosecuted his Toyage onward, 
 intending to ignore Gonzalo, to reach Spain, and 
 obtain that government for himselt' Down the 
 Napo and the Amazons, for seven months, these 
 Spaniards floated to the Atlantic. Atuinesthey 
 suffered terribly from hunger: "There was 
 nothing to est but the sUns which formed their 
 girdles, and the leather of their shoes, boiled 
 with a few herbs.' When they did get food 
 they were often obliged to flgbt hard for It; and 
 agdn they were attacked by thousands of naked 
 Indians, who came in canoes against the Spanish 
 ▼easeL At some Indian villages, however, they 
 were kindly received and well fed, so they could 
 rest while building a new and stronger vessel. 
 . . . OntbeZetbof August, 1541, Orellanaandhls 
 men sailed out to the blue water ' without either 
 pilot, compass, or anything useful for naviga- 
 tion; nor did thev know what direction they 
 should take.' Following the coast, they passed 
 inside of the island of Trinidad, and so at length 
 reached Cubasua in September. From the k&g 
 of Spain Orellana received a grant of the land 
 he had discovered; but he diea while returning 
 to it, and his company was dispersed. It was 
 not a very reliable account of the river that was 
 given by Orellana and his chronicler, Padre Car- 
 bajal. 80 Herrera tells their story of the warrior 
 females, and very properly adds: 'Every reader 
 may believe as much as he likes.'"— H. H. 
 Smith, BnuU, the AmaioTU, and the Coatt, ck. 1. 
 —In ch. 18 of this same work "The Amazon 
 Myth " is discussed at length, with the reports 
 and opinions of numerous trarellers, both early 
 and recent, concerning it — Mr. Soutbey had so 
 much respect for the memory of Orellana that 
 he made an effort to restore that bold but unprin- 
 cipled discoverer's name to the great river. " He 
 discarded Moranon, as having too much resem- 
 blance to Maranbam, and Amazon, as being 
 founded upon Action and at the same time incon- 
 venient. Accordingly, in his map, and in all his 
 references to the great river he denominates it 
 Orellana. Thia decision of the poet-laureate of 
 Great Britain lias not proved authoritative in 
 Brazil. O Amazonaa is the uni versal appellation 
 of the great river among those who float upon its 
 waters ami who live upon Its banks. . . . Pari, 
 the ahoriKin.il name of this river, was more 
 appropriate th.an any other. It signifies 'the 
 father of waters." . . . The ori«hi of the name 
 and mystery concerning the female warriors, I 
 think, has been solved within the last few years 
 hy tlifi intrepid Mr. Wallsro, . . . Mr. W Jlao;, ■ 
 I think, shows conclusively that Friar Oaspar I 
 [CarlMkJal] and his companions saw Indian male 
 
 AUCNDXEin'S. 
 
 warriors who were attired in habUimenti mdi m 
 Kuropeans would attribnte to women. ... I 
 am stnmgly of the opinion that the stoiy of the 
 Amazons hsa arisen from these feminbie-looking 
 warriors encountered by the early voyagers. "— 
 3. C. Fletcher and D. P. Kidder, Bnma md M« 
 Bnmliani, eh. 37. 
 
 Also ik A. R Wsllaoe^ Thmb m M« Ama- 
 KnandBie Ntgn, <h. 17.— R Soathey, BUt. qt 
 
 AMAZULUS. OR ZULUS.— Tha Znla 
 War. See Soqth Avaica: Thb >- OBiontai. 
 InBABrrARTs; and the same: A. D. ttf77-1879. 
 AMBACTI.— "The Celtlo aristocracy [of 
 Oaul] . . . developed the system of retdners, 
 that 18, the privilege of the nobility to surround 
 themselves with a number of hired mounted ser- 
 vantt— the ambacti aathey were called— and 
 thereby to form a state within ft state; and, 
 resting on the support of these troops of their 
 own, thev defied the legal antboritiea and the 
 common levy and practically broke up the com- 
 monwealth. . . . "rhis remarkable word [am- 
 bacti] must have been In use as early aa the 
 sixth century of Bome among the Ctilte in the 
 valley of the Po. ... It is not merely Celtic, 
 however, but abo Oerman, the root of our 
 'Amt,' aa indeed the retainer-system itself is 
 common to the Celts and the Germans. It would 
 be of great historical importance to ascertain 
 whether the word — and therefore the thing — 
 came to the Celta from the Germans or to the 
 Germans from the Celts. If, aa is usually sup- 
 posed, the ward Is originally German and pri- 
 marily signified the servant standbg in battle 
 'against the back' ('and'— agahist, <bak'— 
 back) of his master, this is not wholly irrecon- 
 cilable with the slngukrly early occurrence of 
 the word among the Celta. . . . Itis . . . prob- 
 able that the Celts, In Italy aa fai Gaul, em- 
 ployed Germana chiefly aa those hired servanta- 
 at-arma. The ' Swiss guard ' would therefore in 
 tlut case be some thousands of years older than 
 people suppose."— T. Mommsen. .fiM. tf Borne, 
 Ut. 6, eh. 7, and foot-note. 
 
 AMBARRI, The.— A smaU Mbe in Gaul 
 which occupied anciently a district between the 
 Saone, the Rhone and the Ain. — Napoleon III., 
 Hitt. of Caear, bk. 8, eh. i, noU. 
 ANfBIANI. The. See Bkuul 
 AMBITUS.— Bribery at elections was termed 
 ambitus among the Romans, snd many unavail- 
 ing laws were enacted to check it— W. Ramsay, 
 Manual of Soman Antiq., eh. 9. 
 
 AMBIVARETI, The.— A tribe in ancient 
 Gaul which occupied the left bank of the Meuse. 
 to the south of the marsh of PeeL— Napolecn 
 III., BiM. of C<nnr, bk. 8. eh. 3, noU. 
 
 AMBOISE, Conspiracy or Tnmnlt oL Bee 
 Fkancr: A. D. 1559-l.Ml. 
 
 AMBOISE, Edict oL SeeFitaiioa: A. D. 
 1560-1568. 
 AMBO /NA. See Molcccas, and Malay 
 
 ARCniPELAOO. 
 
 AMBOYNA, Massacre oC 8eeI»DiA:A 
 
 D. 1600-1703. 
 
 AMBRACIA (Ambrakia). SeeKoRKiRA. 
 
 AMBRONES, The. See Cimbri 
 .AMBROSIAN CHURCH.-AMBRO- 
 SIAN '•HANT. See Mii.ak: A. D. 874-«97. 
 and M , EAhr.Y Cuuihtian. 
 
 AMt..KAL, OR ESTREMOS, Battle of 
 (>o63). tk'c PouTuaAl. : A. D. 1687-1868. 
 
 62 
 
. . I 
 
 f the 
 Mag 
 
 Ama- 
 M.<tf 
 
 Znla 
 
 WAI, 
 
 1870. 
 
 [of 
 
 Den, 
 
 rand 
 
 tier- 
 -and 
 •nd, 
 their 
 I the 
 com- 
 [am- 
 I the 
 1 the 
 iltic, 
 our 
 If it 
 ould 
 rtaln 
 
 «r 
 
 the 
 ■up- 
 pri- 
 ittle 
 S'— 
 
 BOD- 
 
 e of 
 rob- 
 em- 
 nta- 
 via 
 iiaa 
 tme, 
 
 kul 
 the 
 
 ned 
 'aU- 
 »7. 
 
 lent 
 ise. 
 ecn 
 
 8e« 
 
 O. 
 
 LAY 
 
 A. 
 
 to- 
 
 87. 
 I of 
 
il 
 
AMERICA. 
 
 fn km uf . 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 IHi"""*- Soc below:A. D. 1S00-15U 
 ... IT . S"S — " ^'<'«'y "CiXtered throughout 
 the United Statcn, from oca to sea, artiflciaj 
 moumi* an diacovtred, which may be enumer- 
 ated by the thouunds or hundred* of thousands. 
 "if',75''y ^""y '" «'" : "ome are so small that 
 a half-dozen laborers with shovels mieht con- 
 struct one of them in a day, while others cover 
 acres and are scores of feet in height These 
 mounds were observed by the earliest explorers 
 and pioneers of tlie country. They lid not 
 attract amt attention, however, imiil the 
 science of arriwology demanded their inveatiira. 
 tion. Then they were assumed to furnish evi- 
 dence of a race of people older than the Indian 
 Wbes Pseud-archffiologisu descanted on the 
 Mound-builders tliat once inhabited the land 
 and they told of swarming populations who had 
 n-achi-d a high condition of culture erecting 
 templiB, practicing arts in the metals, and using 
 hieroglyphs. So the Mound-builders formed the 
 theme of tswy an essay on the wonders of 
 ancient civuization. The research of the i.iuit 
 ten or fifteen years has put this subject in a 
 proper light. First, the annals of the Coliiii.- 
 bi&n epoch have been carefully studied, and it 
 U ,ound that some of the mounds have been con- 
 strricted in historical time, while early explorers 
 and settlers found many actually used bv 
 tribes of North American Indiana; so wc know 
 that many of them were builders of mounds 
 Again, hundreds and thousauds of these mounds 
 have bi-en carefully examined, and the works of 
 art found thercm have been collected aiid assem- 
 bled In museums. At the same time, the works 
 Of art of the Indian tribes, as thcv were pro- 
 duced before modification byEuminan culture 
 have been assembled in the same -..usuems, and ■ 
 the two classes of coUections have been carefully 
 compared. All this has been d me with the 
 greatest painstaking, and the Muundbuilder's 
 SJtii and the Indians arU are found to be sub- 
 stunt ally identical. No fragment of evidence 
 remilEs to support the figment of theorv that 
 there was an ancient race of Mound-buildetB 
 superior In culture to the North American 
 
 i.^^- i ■ • J*^ *""« °f "•«■« '""""■'■' were 
 Dullt and used m modern times is i, v.-d in 
 anoherway They often coutain artici, , ,„.-ini. 
 fcslly made by white men, such »s glass l«-,-ids 
 and copper ornaments. ... So it chances that 
 tu day unskilled archsEologisU are collecting 
 luiny beautiful tl.ings in copper, stone, anS 
 shell w nch were ..de by whit^ men and traded 
 to the Indians. ow, some . .f these things are 
 n.und n the m<, ...,l»; and bird pip.-,, el.^t 
 
 Kunes, iud machine-made wampum are col- 
 lecte<l m quantUK's and sold at high prices to 
 wealthy amateurs , . The study of these 
 mounds historically and arehajologically. proves 
 that ti„ V w,.re usid for a variety of punmses 
 Some w, re for sepulture, and suih ..re the .nosi 
 commo,, and widely scattered. Others were 
 u«- .^ts ;minoial hUls on which to build eom- 
 nmnal l.ous.-s . . . «ome of the very larce 
 mounds «;ere sites „i ge communal hous.-, in 
 rl^i retire tnbes .i „ , I. There U still a third 
 Class . constnieud as pla<'e8 for nublir 
 
 thZ^' ■ M^"' '"."P'"'" "'« niound' and 
 their xm. would cip«,d ttis article into a book. 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 It to enough to i«y that the Mound -builders wer« 
 the Indian tribes iiscovered by white men It 
 may well be that some of the mound* were 
 erected by tribes extinct when Columbus first 
 saw these shores, but they were kindred in cul- 
 ture to the peoples that still exUted. In the 
 southwestern portion of the United States, con- 
 ditions of aridity prevail. Forests are few and 
 
 fivi"."°!l°'''f?'8reat heights The tribes 
 
 lived in the plains and valleys below, while the 
 high ands were their hunting grounds. The 
 and lands below were often nakedof vegetation • 
 and the ledgra and cliffs that stand athwart the 
 lands, and the canyon waUs that inclose --e 
 streams, were every where quarries of loose roclt. 
 lying In blocks ready to the builder's hand 
 Hence these people learned to build their 
 dwellings of Stone; and they had large com- 
 munal houses, even larger than the structures of 
 wood made by the tribes of the east and north. 
 jWany of these stone pueblos are still occupied 
 but the ruins are scattered wide over a region of 
 ajuntry embracing a little of Californ& and 
 ^"fi"' ""ch of Utah, most of Colorado, the 
 whole of New Mexico and Arizona, and far 
 southward toward the Isthmus. ... No ruin 
 has been discovered where e idcnccs of a hicher 
 culture are found than exists in modem timra at 
 ^ufii, Oraibi, or Laguna. Tte earliest may have 
 been built thousands of years a-o, but they were 
 built by the ancestors of cxisiuig tribes au.l 
 heir congeners A ( ;, nful stu. ■■ .f these ruins, 
 made during the last twenty m ; s, abundar 
 
 53 
 
 lemonstrates that the pueblo culture begun » \ 
 rude structures of stone and brush, and grad 
 aiy developed, until at tlie time of the explors 
 'i^ . i^.A*^"."".'^ ^y "'*' Spaniards, beginning 
 y^^T,}^- "J***! ^"^'"^ "« highest phase 
 /uM [in New Mexico] has been built since, and 
 13 among the largest and best villages ever 
 i_MabIished within the territory of the United 
 htates without the aid of ideas derived from 
 civilized men." With regard to the ruins of 
 d wellings found sheltered in the craters of extinct 
 volcanoes, or on the shelves of cliffs, or other- 
 wise inntrived, the conclusion to which all recent 
 areha.ilogical study tends is the same. "All 
 tJje stone pueblo ruUis, all the clay ruins, all th 
 cliff dwellings, all the crater villages, all tL 
 cavate chambers, and all t! ■ tufa-block houses 
 are fully accounted for without resort to hypothet- 
 ual peoples inhabiting the country anterior to 
 the Indian tribes. . . . Pre-Columbian culture 
 was indigenous; it began at the lowest sta-e of 
 savagery and developed to the : nhest, and was 
 in niany places p,i ng into harh.irism when the 
 good qu^n sol.i ,ir jew- -Major J. W. 
 IJiwell, PrehuConr Man :., .imeriea; in The 
 For-um," January, iSW.— "The writer bii.. ves 
 • . . that the majority of American anha'ol - 
 gists now sees no suttlcient reason for «upp<«iii» 
 that any mysterious superior race has ever iivc<' 
 m any portion of our continent. Th. v Bud t- 
 aroli.iological evid, ace provn.,; that a: the Un 
 of II.. discov ry .,ny tribe hud rearheti a stat 
 of culture ttat can properly be called ■ illjT 
 Uon. Even if wos.-.^r.t tbrtr.\aggtr:- --v. 
 meninof the Spanish ionquerors, the ■ cUI 
 
 pent ^d advanced people*, fouml ,en we?- 
 only « im-bariiiirians. in the stage o: trsifa ti-^,- 
 from the stone lo the bronze age, po^ -sstii* no 
 
 ||. 
 
AMERICA. 
 
 written Unciis^, or what caa 
 
 JhrmP imn trt. 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 •tyled sn nTphabct, and not vet hav^ even 
 
 be 
 
 
 mmed the use of beiuts of ^irien'"— H W 
 Haynca, PrtJiitoric Airhavlngy^ y. Am. (v. 1. 
 «». 6. of yarratia and Cnlical mtt. of Am ") 
 — •• It may be premlaed ... that the Spanish 
 adTenturera who thronged to the New World 
 after Ito dlacover? found the aame raoe of Red 
 Indiana In the vfat India Islaada, in CentS 
 and South Amcricn. In Ploridaand In Mexico. 
 In tlHir mode of life and meana of aubaiateoce 
 in their weiijwns, arU. uiaxea and customa, In 
 their instltutiom, ami in their mental and phyai. 
 cal chiiracteristics, they were the aame oeopto In 
 different atapes of advancement . . . "nierewaa 
 neither a political a.H.iely. nor a aUtc. nor any 
 dvlliiation In America wlien it waa diacoTcred- 
 and cxcliidinR the Eskimoa, but one nee of 
 Indiana, tlie Itei Kace."— L H. Morgan, UoutM 
 tnd Ilmuelife „f the Ameriean Aboriginu : (Con- 
 tniutvinttuj,. A BXhnologf, ». 8.), M. 10.— "We 
 lia»e In tlii« country the conclusive evidence of 
 the existence of man before the time of the 
 jt^aclira, and from the primiUve condiUona of 
 that time, lie bus lived here and developed 
 through singes which correspond In many par- 
 Ucuiara to the Muim-rlc age of Greece."— PW 
 I^itnam, Bept. I'MlxKlf Jtumum of Arehaoiom', 
 
 I BOO. 
 
 ALao IK L. Carr. Tht MoumU tf Iht Mi-imppi 
 r«««.— C. Thomas, Burial JfountU of iL 
 Ai>rM«r» 8«ti„m„f tht U. 8.: Annual B$pt. of 
 
 vi^n'*"'rir,*^^ ""''»*• J883-«4.-MarquU de 
 
 Madaiilac, Prtlnttoric Amtriea J. FIslie Th* 
 
 Dueorerji of Anitrin,, th. l— Hee, also. MKTiro; 
 «B(': and Aukhiiam Ab»iiiui.<<es: Ai.lbuhv.vs 
 Chkiuikkki, iin'l MwAa ' 
 
 I *'*■' '"t Centuriea.- Suppoaed DiacoTar- 
 l«a by the Northmen.— Tlio fad Unit the Nnrth- 
 men Icm-iv of the existence of the Wesu-ru Coii- 
 tineiit prior to tlie iigc of Cohinibun. waa promi- 
 nently brought lieforo tlie people of IhU countrv 
 in llie year I*)7, when the Uov,il S«;i,.tv of 
 Korthem Anilouurles at ropenliii>n pul.llihcl 
 their worli on the Antl.iultlea of Noil), America 
 under tlie c<llU)rittl suiwrvlslon of the great Ice- 
 Undic scholar. l>r)feMor Hufa. But we are not 
 to suppose that the llrat general account of these 
 voyages was then ({Iven. for it has alwiiys Uen 
 known i i„t tlie hUuiry of ccrtNlii early voyages 
 to America l.y ili,. Noril,„ien were preaervwi In i 
 the llhmries of IVnniarIc and Ireland Vh 
 
 owing to the f«t that the Iirliitnlic language] 
 though simple In eonsiru.tion nn<l easy of «e.|Vi|. 
 aitlon, KH1 n longn,. i„,t umlentool liy wholir* 
 the »iiblwt lias uulil OTint veiirs In-en suffer.^ tii 
 ne lu the limkgriiuiKl, and p.-rmllle.|. thnmifli 
 • want of interest. Ui share In a nieasim. the 
 tmument meted out to vague awl uiUTrtain tv- 
 P^>n» ... I now nmalns to give the r<-a<ler 
 •oine geneml aee.,uijt of tlie oontents o» the niir- 
 f»IJve« n hic'h r. lute n.orc or less to Uie discovery 
 oftliewe»iern.-o,iihient . . . Tlic first rxlmeU 
 f^ven «r,. very brief They are ukrn fmin the 
 LaniLjimnw U<«.k • ami rel«i« to tlw reiiort in 
 piieml elr<ul,iit„n. whUi lii.lleate<l one Ounni- 
 Uirn ,1, ,|,r ,ll.«„verer of Orttnlaml. an event 
 Wlilrh ha4 iK-eii |tii„| »t the year N7n The 
 
 Jw. .""'T"'''''. "•'••«•« t" "■• r«lis.>oVen of 
 OrrenlaiKl l.y the outlaw, Eric the lied In (Hit 
 Who Km re |humhI tlin.. years In exiki a'lKl »f.e'' 
 tJ»l.''' L'." '":' ''' '•^'•"•' Abcmt tlie year iw*, 
 ti brought out to Oreenlanil , ooo,id«,4 floiun> 
 
 64 
 
 of settlers, who fixed their abode at Btsttahlid 
 In Ericsflord. Then follow two Teniona of 
 the voyage of Blame Heriulfaon, who. In th* 
 same year, KM, when sailing for Greenland, waa 
 driven away during a storm, and saw a new 
 tand at the southward, which he did not visit 
 J«ext Is given tliree accounts of the voyage of 
 Le f, son of Eric the Red, who in the year lOOO 
 ttlled from Brattahlid to find the Und which 
 Blame saw. Two of these sccounU _re hardly 
 more than notices of the voyage, but the thiid b 
 of considerable length, and deUila the aucceMM 
 of Lei f, who found and explored this new land 
 where he spent the winter, returning to Oreen^ 
 land the following spring [having named differ- 
 ent regions which he visited HelluUnd, Marit- 
 laud and \ Inland, th« latter name IndlcaUve of 
 the finding of grapeal After this follows the 
 voyage of Thorvald Ericson, brother of Leif 
 who sailed to Vinland from GreenUnd, which 
 waa the point of departure In all theae voyagei. 
 This expedition waa begun in 1008, and It cost 
 li in bU life, as an arrow from one of the natlvea 
 piermi hU side, causing death. Thorstein, hU 
 brotlier went to seek Vinland, with the inten- 
 tion of bringing home his bodv, but failed In the 
 attempt. The moat distinguished explorer waa 
 T liortinn Karlsefne, the Hopeful, an IceUnder 
 wh(«e geiicalogv runa back In the old Northern 
 annals, thmugh Danish, Swcdtah, and even 
 8i-otoh and Irish ancestors, some of whom wen 
 of royul blexxl. In the year 1008 be went to 
 On-enliind, where be met Oudricl. widow of 
 I liorstein, whom he married. Accompanied by 
 
 M^"5' ?; '". "■■?"' •"'•" *» "«> undertaking, he 
 sailed to \ Inland in Uie spring of 1007 with 
 throe vessels and 160 men, where he remained 
 three years. Here his son Snorre waa bora. Be 
 nfterw mis became the founder of a great famllr 
 In Ireh.iid, which gave the island s«verBl of lU 
 first hiMhops. Tliorflnn finally loft Vinland be- 
 cause he found It difflcult to auaUin himaelf 
 against the attacka of the natlvea. The next to 
 uiMleruike a voyage was a wicked woman named 
 
 J inland in 101 1, where she lived for • time with 
 
 I her two ships. In the same placea wcupled by 
 
 I I-elf and Tliorilnn. Bifore ahe n-tunicd, aiie 
 
 ! rau«e.l the crew of one ship to be cruelly mur- 
 
 I denni. ai.Hl«ilng In the butchery with her own 
 
 ; hunds. After lliia we have what are called the 
 
 I Minor NarrHtlves, whl( hare not essential. "—B 
 
 I t. !)<•<. «la, I'irCulvmbanltun-tieryifAm, Qtit. 
 
 [ tml li,li-il—\\y those who aerept fully the 
 
 cluiins made for the Northmen, as .llwoveivre of 
 
 III" Am. ri.aii rontlnent lu the voyages Ixlleved 
 
 to w a.ilh.ntl<>»lly narrat^il In tli. w sagas, the 
 
 ll.lluhui.l of lx.|f Is OHiiinonlv hlentillVHl with 
 
 >ewf.,iiii,|li,i„|. Markland with \ova Hi-otia and 
 
 Vlnhind whh various parts of X,w England 
 
 M.'hT t-I" ""V •■•r"' •'■"•■ •>>•■«»•"• kel Inland; 
 
 ..." " J '"••)'»!:''■ »"'«»"l'« «»y. .Narmgan- 
 
 *' '!:'*• *'^1""' ""f* "•■». l-'ng M«n.l Mound, 
 
 an.l .>ew lork ftiy are among the l<M-alltiaB 
 
 Biip|i.>.u'd to h.. rtM-ogntcKl In the N»r». nam- 
 
 ,*Tx- '",.',''"''"■•' ''y •"""' '""■'•« "f the presence 
 of the \ Iklug eiplurera. IV.f GuhUv Miorm. 
 the III.WI rf.-.nt of Uie Scandinavian InveMlga! 
 tor. of this s.ll.l.H-t, fliuls the ||..|lul«li,| of S, 
 pMig«s_ In Ul.rn.lor or Northern N.wfoui..|land 
 
 Nova M...lia and Cajie Breton lsl,n.l -G. Hi<wm. 
 «i«/i«./l*« Vintland fsr^ss -"Theonl/dS 
 
AHERIOA. 
 
 CWwuMmi 
 
 wrfit which hM been thrown upon the ttory of the 
 VlnlMd voyage, iu the eye. either of icholar. or 
 of Uie gener.! public huorlKD from theeagercre- 
 dulity with which tngenioiu antiquarianTh^e 
 BOW and then tried to prove more than faeU will 
 warrant . . . Arehsloglcal remain, of the North- 
 men abound in Greenland, aU the vay from Im- 
 S^lnek to "^ Cape Farewell; the eiUtenoi 
 erf one .uch relic on the North American con- 
 Onent ha. never yet been proved. Not a ainirle 
 ve.tlg. of the /orthmenl pre«nce hVr^ /« 1^^ 
 worthy of credence, ha. ever been found 
 The most oinvinclni proof that the North'misn 
 never founded a coTouy in America, louth of 
 Davl. Strait, U furnished by the total abMnra of 
 
 ?il'"**ii**'i''w'"*, °'''*' domcUc anlmab from 
 the »ll of North America untU they were 
 brought hither by the SpanlslT R*Mh iSd 
 EugBih Kttleri"_J. FiiUci, tL xS^w*^ 
 
 knew the^ experienced," write. ProtJu/tln 
 VfinMOT. ''and what the Mgu teU i. the? 
 anderwent^muit have Ju.raie dUTerence rfl 
 twjen a crUp narrative of penonal adventure 
 •nd Uie oft-repeated and embeUUhed itoryof" 
 fliwlde narrator, tince the ttadlUon. df the 
 Norie voynie. were not put in the ahaoe of 
 reocmU tifl .'lout two ceutu^rie. h«J eto Wand 
 
 S!n^„- !? S*'"" V'"""'^'^P'°' •uchTSconl 
 thM one n-de nearly two hundred year, later 
 Sr.:,- Vi* WenJiug of hiitoi7 •«) myth 
 pmmpt. Ilom to aay that 'wme of tb* aarai 
 wwe doubtlew orislnally haMd on facta, but the 
 toUlng «i,,- reu-lling Uve changed them iSS 
 pure inytht- The un.ympathetfcrtranOTr ■»» 
 thU i. Btori... tlu.1 th.>'triotlc 8aInd£,vuS 
 are ovpr-anilou. to male appear a. m- dn« 
 chronld,* . Thewd^fhto'rprobihllRliln 
 Ijvorof a Northman de^^nt upbn the cSut of 
 the AiiHric-an iiwinland at lofne point or at 
 S!.?JJl' ""fne^'w^to the »uth o/oi^iland- 
 but the evl<leiioe *■ hardly that which attSiaito 
 weU «,uibll.h..l hiMorioi rfcordTT. . ^ro U 
 notaringle item of all the evidence thuaid- 
 •ancfd from Ume to time which can b^iSd to 
 "m^ct by arch«olopical tr«^ thV^^tSof 
 the Nortlim..ti on the .oil of North Amerin 
 «ulh of IMvl.' StralU." Of SSct liJ^SS 
 
 i^MKRICA, 1484-14M. 
 
 WeUh bv the Aml«. by the Bawue. J^' th^ 
 cu« ,1 1 y I rof W ln«.r in Uie Mme connection. 
 
 th* Xirthntn.—K. ) 
 A I. 
 
 A. D. I484-I49« 
 
 u., and " 
 
 Wel«e, 
 
 Dimuttrimitf Am., 
 
 or 
 
 beta 
 
 If..*"-'^? "' )■*• execution of the project He 
 was not In advance of hia age, enterta^ m 
 
 i^lL}^ predecessor, or To(Kanelll, Ua^ 
 SSI^^'n?"' "r? •'«»?• fl«t to ftSceive tt^ 
 POMlblllty of reaching the eart by niUng wo? 
 
 r^ii.!!'^'"? •*"*^»-. Th« Northmen In^^ 
 ^y*S* ^ entertained no idea, of a iSw 
 2°:" "r of an A.U to the We.t To kn^iT 
 
 SfLwii"'r"*'''*' f^Jf^Phy. Columbu. added 
 the .kill of a practTcaf mtyijator, and thaboi 
 win to overcome obstacles. He nUed wa? 
 ««ched Aria a. he believed. i^dTr^ed^ 
 toeoriea correct There aeem tobetwo^^ 
 dded pointa In that matter, neither of whIchSS 
 Portu™"""*^- ''"".didU.exnerienSinS; 
 fuST^ ."i^lifl' "•• P«™«> of «.me Sm 
 auuor, or a hint from one of the few man 
 •CQUainted with old timdiUon^ flm Vig^HS 
 Sf™|S»»»^ project t . . . 8eiond,to^5fSe? 
 !f,^l?ii '■'• r"y»«« »o the north [mLle in 1477 
 
 BrirtoLlnwhch voyage he i. believed to bive 
 J^^J^}^^ influence hi. plan t There b m 
 fn^Sf • •"" • ••i"".* Pro'-bllity, that hrheard 
 ta that voyage of the existence of Und in oS 
 r4T7 ii:.-?""' '•'' /*•" .to the north wa. In 
 hi. ni^ .^ ''"7 .'"•'■ "" «•»* formation of 
 ^.& Sli^l^ "■' Information gained at the time 
 
 ASfflr* . ~"-. "• Bancroft m*t. of tht 
 f!r^ «<Km », 1. tummaiyapp. taek.1 —"Of 
 
 W. fcJsi^^ Co umbus, had mott weight wItE 
 AJIi^ rT ',•" Ccmopraphla ' of ^Cardinal 
 tS^.4 .^o'"™''"* "«», •I»o confirmed In .Js 
 Tiew..,f the existence of a western paHan |a 
 the Ix^ ',a by Paulo Tn«^»nelll, the 9ta«ttaJ 
 phUowpiicr. to whom much credit I. due frr tte 
 
 ■raat the notice., howevt; / weatem landa wmi 
 not .uch ..to have much welghr^'JSS 
 
 which Columbua had (n contending with Xenb 
 f;^Dh.« and men of «:l,no. 1i.^S.^"5 
 Whom be My. he never wa. able to coSvlnoTaaT 
 one. After a new world had been diKovanZ 
 S.«'f^2!Jr^ lndi«tlons w«rtSe2ft3to 
 
 o^ M- I.?''"!!?'"" *• ."•« fi> worked out U« 
 owxi Idee hinwrif ... He flnt applied Wmsdf 
 
 Siii.'fn^l'"'''""''";."^ O*-"""- '^ would Uv. 
 
 EjTif.^U'!;'';'.""''""' to what he had to ■ly. 
 ^rfi^'T* '"'"' *.'"«'" to entidpat. him^ 
 SSi h!.°^i""™"l *'"" 'netructlon. foundS 
 npoo hi. plan. . . . (o unibu., diuustad at iS 
 tre.lmenthel«,l rrceWed froii thf ftSumtir 
 
 .u ..f tiM. I-.V wrt ;; u7ThrZi,ril'.i». 
 
 55 
 
 «««'» "Si" ^'P"'"' "frivtng at Pake In the veer 
 itvL rJ*^ '['"J! "' ••»• 'onf "ult of Columbia 
 
 dtaoourapmi-nt and departure, with intent lo 
 «° to I^raniv; „f hi, V^cmll by commTiSl e( 
 
 WDo re<|ulrp<l "Ui he ma<le an admiral at oom 
 •oh. apMnW vlre„,y of the ooJiSiT^ 
 
 praAteof tber«p«iiUoo;" of kiaMMwd nritii? 
 
AlBRICA. 14S4-148S. 
 
 Ua neoad dcpwtais for Fnnce, and wcond re- 
 call by iMbella, who flully put her heut iato 
 the enterpriie and penusded her more akeptical 
 coniort to hmd to it — the story of thoae MTen 
 yean of the itruggle of Columbui to obtaia 
 mean! for hi* Toyage ia familiar to all raaden. 
 "The agreement between Cultimbus and their 
 Catholic highneaaei waa signed at Santa Fi on 
 the 17th of April, 1493; and Columbiu went to 
 Palo* to make preparation for iiis voyage, bear- 
 rag with him an order tliat the two veMcIs which 
 that city fumi^iheil aiiDuaily to the crown for 
 three months sliould be placc<l at his disposal. 
 . . . The Ilnzons, rich men and siliilful marinera 
 of Paloa, joined in the uodertal(ing, subscribing 
 an eifhth of the expenses; and thus, by these 
 united exertions, tliree vessels were manned with 
 90 mariners, and provisioned for a year. At 
 length all the preparations were complete, and 
 on a Friday (not inauspicious in Ibis case), the 
 Bd of August, 1493, after they bad all confessed 
 and received the sacrament, they set sail from 
 the bar of Suites, making for the Canary 
 Islands."— Sir A. Helps, Tht tIpanM Oongutst 
 in Amfriea, bk. i, eh. 1. 
 
 Also m J. Winsor, Ckrittapher Chlumbu*, tk. 
 6-9. and 20. 
 
 A. O. 1493.— The First Voyare of Colna- 
 bna.— OiacoTery o the Bahamaa, Cuba and 
 Hajti. — The three vessels ol Colrmbus were 
 called the Santa Maria, the FinU and the 
 Nifia. "All had forecastles and liigh poopa, 
 but the 'Santa Maria' was the only on* that 
 waadecked amidships, and nhe was called a 'uao' 
 or ship. The other two were caravelaa, a 
 class of small veasels built for •|>eed. 'The 
 'Santa Maria,' as I gather from scattered notices 
 In the letters of Columbus, was of 120 to 180 
 tons, like a mcxlern coasting schooner, and she 
 carried 70 men, much crowded. Her sails were 
 a foresail and a foretop-sail, a sprit-wil, a nialn- 
 ■ail with two bonnets, and maintop sail, a mixiea, 
 and a boat's sail were occasionally hoisted on 
 Um poop. The 'Pinta' and 'NIBa' only had 
 square sails on the foremost and lataen Mils on 
 the main and mixzea The former waa 80 tons, 
 the latter 40 tona, with crews of 90 men each. 
 On Pridar, the 8d of August, the three Uttle 
 TesseU left the haven of Palos, and thia memor- 
 able voyage was cummen<'cd. . . . The expedi- 
 tion pnx-reded to the Canary Islands, whera the 
 rig of the ' PinU ' waa altered. Her lateen satla 
 were not adaptoi for running hefuru the wind, 
 and she was tliervfoie fitte<l with s(|iura aallai 
 like the ' Sanu Maria. " iti'pairs were completed 
 the vessels were filled up with wood and water 
 at Uomera. ami the «i(M-<lltl(m took iu Snal de- 
 parture fnim the island of Oiimera, one of tha 
 ('ansrii's, on SepiemtHT «ili. I4»a. . . . Colum- 
 bus had chosen his mute tiiimt happily, and with 
 that fortunate prevision whlih often waits upon 
 geniua Fn>m Uomera, liy a rourae a little 
 south of west, he would run down the trades 
 to the Bahama Islands. Kn.m tlm parallel of 
 about ;W N. nearly to ili,. r<|uator there la 
 a /iioe of |M'rnetual wimla — nnmely. tha 
 north eiMt trade winds — alway- moving in the 
 same dlreetlon, as sUadily as tlie . urrent 01 a 
 river, exivpt where they are turnwl asMa by 
 local rsiues, sn that the •Ii';m of Columbus weN 
 st*adily carried tn thi'ir ilnaiiiititioa hr a 
 law of nature which. In duo time, revealed 
 Itself to tut ohiw ohierver of her svcreta. TJie 
 
 AMERICA, 1492. 
 
 C6 
 
 conataoeT of the wind waa one cause of alam 
 among the crewi, for they began to murmur 
 that the provlsons would all be exhausted if they 
 had to beat against tliesc unceasing winds on 
 the return voyage. The next event which excited 
 alarm among the pilots was the discovery that 
 the compasses bad more than a point of easterly 
 variation. . . . This was observed on the 17ca 
 of September, and about 300 miles westward of 
 the meridian of the Azores, wlieu the ships had 
 been eleven days at sea. Soon af terwanls tlie voy- 
 agers fotmd themselves surrounded by masses of 
 seaweed, in what is called the Sargasso Sea, and 
 this again aroused their fears. They thought 
 that the ships would get entangled in tlie beda 
 of weed and become immovabre, and that the 
 beds marked the limit of navigation. The cause 
 of this accumulation is well known now. 
 If biu of cork are put iuto a basin of water, 
 and a circuUr motion given to it, all the corks 
 will be found crowding U)gether towards the 
 centre of the pool where there is the leiwt motion. 
 The Atlantic Ocean is lust such a ba!<ln, tlie 
 Oulf Stream la the whirl, and the Sargo-sso Sea 
 is in th. centre. There Columbus found it and 
 there it has remained to tiiis day, moving up 
 and down and changing its positiim according to 
 seasons, storms and winds, but never altering its 
 mean position. ... As day after day ->a8sed, 
 and there waa no sign of lami, the crews ticcame 
 ttirbulcnt and mutinous. Columbus encouraged 
 them with hopes of reward, while he uM them 
 pisinly that he had conic to discover India, and 
 tl "it, with the help of Ood, he would persevera 
 until he found it. At length, on the Uth of Oc- 
 tober, towards ten at night, Columbus waa on 
 the poop and law a liglit. ... At two next 
 morning, land waa disiinctir seen. . . . The 
 island, called bv the natives (juanaliunl, and by 
 ColumbuaSan Salvailor, has now been ii-uertalned 
 tn he Watltng Island, one of the Uahamaa, 
 14 miles long by 6 broad, with a brackish lake 
 In the centre, in 94° 10' 80" north Utitude. . . . 
 The difference of Utitude between Oomera and 
 Watling Island la 383 miles. Course, W. (PH.; 
 distance 3,114 miles; average disunce made 
 rwd daily. 8S'; voyage 8S days. . . . After dia- 
 covering tiveral smaller blauds the fleet came 
 in sight of Cuba on the 97th Ocu.bir, and ex- 
 
 £lon-d part of the northern coojiI. Columbus 
 illeved it to be Cipan™, the inland placisl on 
 the chart of Toicanelll. between Eurojie and 
 Asia . . . Crnaaini the channel between Culm and 
 St. Domingo [or Havii], they amliored In the 
 harbour of St Nicholas .Mole on I).-<-,intier 4th 
 The natives came with prewnU and the coun- 
 try was enchanUng. Columbus.. nsniKl the 
 Inland 'KxpaBoU' [or llis(Niniola]. Hut with all 
 thin peaceful beauty an>iind him lie was on the eve 
 of dlsosUT" The Hanui Maria was drifted by 
 a strong current U|>onuiiar)i| hank and hop aisily 
 wrecked. "It was now iicri'Mury to ' e a 
 iniall colony on the i»lanil . . .\ fort was 
 built and namnl 'La -N'uvi.iail,' iW men remain- 
 ing bthind supplied with «i..r.-. n„,\ provision. " 
 aiMl •« KrWav, Jan 4. Ul^i, ( c.|,i,„|,us began 
 hU homawanl voyaue Wi-Hilieririg a lionger- 
 ous gale, which lasud seviml days Ills littia 
 vessels reached the A/.on.s Keh. 17.«n.| ,rrive.l 
 at Palos March I-l. Icarinn tlieir marvellous 
 Jf"— " " Maftiham. 7"V 'i.i rar^.rj, .-.-. 3 — 
 The same, IMtfiUuml-n,. rh 3 — Tliesutemrnt 
 abova thM tto Ukad u( Iho Uabamas on which 
 
AMERICA. 14n. 
 
 AvolOrmt 
 
 AUEBICA, 1483-1406. 
 
 Columbiu first landed, and which be called San 
 Hal vador, ■ ■ lias now been awertaincd to be Watii Dr 
 Island ■ seems hanlly jurtitted. The question be- 
 tween Wat ling faland, San Salvaiior or Cat Island 
 
 Uamana n«> A *» waa^I'b #1— _ «r t .\ r. ! 
 
 Banuwa, or Attwood a Ca/, Alariguana, the Grand 
 Turk, and other* is atifl in disputo. Profes- 
 sor JusUn Winaor says "the weight of modem 
 testimony seems to favor Watllng'a Island" 
 but at the same time be thinlu it •' probable that 
 men will never quite agree which of the Baha- 
 mas it was upon which these startled and exul- 
 tant Europeans first stepped. "—J. Winsor Chrif 
 toplxr OAuinbuM, ch. 9.— The some, yarratioe and 
 Cnliait Uiit. of Am., r. 8, eh. 1, nott B — 
 Professor Jolm Fiskc, says: "All that can be 
 positively asserted of Guriiiuhuui ia that it was 
 uoe -he Bahamas ; there has boen endless discus- 
 sii 1 as to which one, and the question ia not eisy 
 to settle. Perhaps the theory of Captain Oustavua 
 Fox, of the United States Navy, is on the whole 
 best supported. Captain Fox maintains that 
 the true Guanahanl was the little IsUnd now 
 
 Known asSnmauaor Attwood't Cay." J Fiske 
 
 Tht Dueotery of Anuriea, A. 6 (e. \) ' ' 
 
 Also in f , « Cuatland OtodUie Suntti. Bevt 
 18H0, ami. 18. *. '"!»•. 
 
 u/^iA »493--P«P«l gimnt of th« New 
 World to Spain.— " tipuiii was at this time 
 c-uinected with the Po|w about a most nioincn- 
 tcus iimiter. The Gi'n.»«., Cristoforo C.ilomho 
 arrivwi at the Spanish court in March. 14:);l 
 Kiih the astounding news of the discovery of 
 a Ufw continent. , . . Finlinantl and Isabella 
 tjought it wise to secure a lille to all thatmliiht 
 ensue from their new dis<overy. The Pope, aa 
 \ liar of Christ, was held to hii\ e authority to 
 ill'ilK.H- of luiiils Inhubltcd by the heathen- and 
 Iv paiml Bulls tlio distoveries of Portugal 
 alonK llie African coast had been securwl. The 
 I ortuL'iiesc showed tl;fns of urplns claims to the 
 ^ew W orlil, a» bilng already conveyed to them 
 by the papal grants previously issued to tlieir 
 favour To remove all otuso of dUpute, the 
 Bpaulsh monarchs at once had recourse to Alex- 
 
 moQi ) h *''° i""*^ '*" """' O" May * ""Ml » 
 114JJI to determine thertupectlverighUdf Himln 
 and I'ortuml. In the first, the Pope g.unu- 1 to 
 the Spanish monarchs and their heirs all laiuls 
 (Ilsrovcnd or hereafur to be discovered In the 
 western ixean. In the sei-ond, he defined his 
 jrnint to m.an all lands that nilrhtljo dlacovrred 
 west an.l south of an Imuj-lnary line, drawn from 
 the North u> llie South Pule, at tli- dIsUnce of a 
 humlred leagm-s w.-ntwanl of tlu- Aiores and 
 Ti ''" \' ?' '»'*'"'•■ In the light of our pres- 
 ent knowledge we are aniaz.d at thU simple 
 means of di-<|i, ,„lni{ of a va»t eAlinl of tho earth's 
 siirfac, I u,I.T II... po|H.s stop, ndoua patent, 
 
 Jtpaln wasable to claim ev.ry part of the AnierUun 
 I ontliirnt rx, ,.|,t tl„. ||i,„j|f„n coast.— il. Oldi- 
 
 n.»a, 4*. 5, e*. S (c 3). 
 
 /Jtv .1irr.|»,fcr M ,1„/.. /ft^_ J|/„„ 1892,.^/' 
 rXitr. Vit Ihiymrf, „f .i„unnt.r\. tit. 11 _J 
 
 "•^1 v/ ■ '• <'—'*<'«'. "l*'. IhIow: \. D. un 
 r»T K '<«t«49«.-Tlie Second Voyac* of 
 
 C4f!h!«=s,_3ii&;uB.ti0B Of ili*i|««i„la.- 
 
 Jr. . Tn""' "' <■">'">'••"• on hiirs.M.nd 
 t^^ <'f 'll'y.v.ry prewntwl a brilliant cm- 
 *n>at 10 ^ glomay amIiarkalloB at Paka. ttai 
 
 67 
 
 the 28th of September [1493], at the daw of day 
 tlie bay of Cadiz was whitened by his fleet! 
 JnH '?„."';" ""™ '"je" *^'P» °f '''"^T burden 
 whole fleet was under way." ArriviKl at the 
 Canaries on the Ist of October. Columbus 
 purchased there calves, gouu, sheep, hogs, and 
 
 Hlspaniola; also "seeds of oranges, lemons. 
 UTgamoU. melon*, and various orchard fruitj 
 which were thus first intro«iuced Into the IsUnd* 
 of the west from the Hespcrides or Fortunate 
 
 nth""*! rl."'L"'i^^''";''^- I' «"* not untU thi 
 13th of October that the fleet left the Canaries 
 and it arrived among the Islands since called the 
 fe^a'^ii'.? O' Caribbees, on the evening of 
 Nov. 3 Sailing through thU archipelago, dis- 
 oiveringUie larger Island of Porto &ico on the 
 W Columbu. reached the eastern extremity 
 of llispanioU or Ilayti on the 22(1 of November 
 and arrived on the 27th at La Xavldad, wheri 
 he had left s garrison Un months bi-fore. He 
 found nothing but ruin, silence and the mark* 
 of death, and Iearne<I, after much inquiry, that 
 h s unfortunate men, losing all dlwlpllne after 
 his (leparture, had provok,-,! the natives by rapa- 
 city and llccutiousnes* until the latter r.«e against 
 them and destrnved them Ahaii.loning the 
 •ceno of this disaster, Columbus found an 
 excellent harlK)r ten leagues cast of .Monte 
 Crist and Ihvre ho began the foun.ih.g of a 
 city which he named IsalKlla. " IsalH.llu at the 
 present day Isoulte oveign.wn with forests, in 
 the mlilst of wfilch are still to bo 8<...n, partly 
 standiug, the pillars of the chunh. m„„e n'nmlns 
 of the kings storehouses, and part ..f tl.e resi- 
 w?'.? "/, <-»''""'''"., «" »"iilt o'f hewn stone." 
 While the fouuihii ions of the new city were 
 b< ing laid, Columbus sent back part of his ships 
 to .Spain, and undertook an exploration of the 
 Inuriorof the Island — the mountains of Cibao 
 — where abundance of gold was promised. Home 
 gold washings were found— far to-j scanty to 
 satisfy the expecUtlon* of the Spanlanls; and ■■ 
 r."f ^S'l' •*J'>°«"»«>n nwlo their app.»raice 
 •t Isabella, discontent was rife and mutfny afoot 
 before the year had ended. In April 14»4. 
 Columbus Bci sail with three caravels to revisit the 
 
 I?!^V /V ?; '""»«""■', "'""'I"! exploration 
 tluinhchadatte ed on tlio first discovery "Ho 
 c ap|)o«e.l It to be . continent, and the extn'mc end 
 of Asia, anil if so, by following lu shores in the 
 propiwHl direction ho must eventually arrive 
 at Catluiy and those other rii h and eoiiimercUl 
 though semi-barbarous countries, .lescribe.! by 
 Mum ivlllo and .Man-o Polo." Il,..,„ru of gold 
 111 hirn «.utll^yan from Cuba untlllie discovered 
 the Ixland whi> h hn oallwl Santiago, but which 
 i"\* . ''I }* ?""*■' """"■• J»">«'<ii. signifying the 
 I Jjihd of .Springs. I>l».ipi«.lnled In t lie «,.anTi for 
 gold, he «.«.n ntumeil fMni Jamaica to Culia 
 and salltd along lu southern cinisI to very near 
 the Western ex in-mlty. canllrmlng hlinmlf and 
 bis followeni in the Ullef ihat tliev skirl".! (lie 
 show-s of .\sla and might follow theiii to tl., IW 
 B»a, If tlulr ships and sions were equal to so 
 long a vovage. "Two or thn-e davs' furtlier 
 sail would have carried Columbus roiiiid tl e 
 cxlreiiiity of Piilu,: w,h.M h..,,=. .lUp..,,! ,jj, 
 llluHon. and n'ight have ^iven ai. eiitin ly ililTer 
 enl eounw to his subsequent ill-.-overiia In his 
 prewnt conviction he lived n. I .ll,,!; hell, i ing 
 to fala last hour tbM Cuba wiu the extremity of 
 
AUXRICA. 14M-liM. 
 
 Cbtor* 
 
 AHEBICA. 140T. 
 
 the Aabtie ooDtincnt" Returnlrff cMtmrd, he 
 TUted Jamaica again and purpo*^ tome further 
 exnioration of the Caribbee lalanda, wlien his 
 toili and anxieties overcame him. " He fell into 
 a deep lethargy, resembling death Itself. His 
 crew, aUrmcd at this profound torpor, feired 
 that death waa really at hand. They abandoned, 
 therefore, all further prosecution of the vcagfl; 
 and spreading their sails to the east w;i.d (o 
 praTaicnt in those seas, bore Columbus S iclc, in 
 • state of complete inseogibflfty, to the harbor 
 of Isabella,"— Sept. 4. HccoverinR cumdjus- 
 neas, the admirul wm rejoiced to tind bin 
 brother Banholomaw, from wliora hu ha.l lieon 
 separated for years, and who had becu tent out 
 to him from Hpain, in command of three sliipn. 
 Otherwise there was little to give pleasure to 
 Columbus when ho returned to laabelU. His 
 followers w^re again disorganized, again at war 
 with the natives, whom they plundered and 
 Ucentiouslr abused, and a mischief-making 
 prieat had gone back to Spain, along with 
 oertain Intriguing officers, to make complaints 
 and set enmities astir at the court. InvolTed in 
 war, Columbus prosecuted It relentlessly, 
 reduced the island to submission and the 
 natives to servitude and misery by heavy 
 exactions. In March UIM he returned to Spain, 
 to defend himself agshist the machinations of 
 his enemies, transferring the government of 
 
 Hispaniolik to his brother Bartholomew. W 
 
 Irving, lift and rot/ag- ^ Cblumlmt, M. »4 
 (•• 1-S). 
 
 Also a n. H. Bancroft, Bitt. of tht Jhidjh 
 Slatf. e. 1, eh. 3. -J. Whisor/ CAru(Mii(«r 
 CWumAiM, eh. ia-14. 
 
 A. D. I494-— TheTrtatfof Terdcaillaa.— 
 Amended Partition ofthc New World b«tw*en 
 Spidn and PortOKal.—" When speaking or writ- 
 ing of the ronijuest of America, it Is generally 
 believed that the onlv title upon wlilrh were 
 haaed the conquests nf Spain and Portugal was 
 the famous Pa|>al Bull of partition of the Ocean, 
 of 1498. Few nuHirm auUiora take Into consid- 
 eration Uiat this Bull wss amended, upon tlie pe- 
 tition of the King of Portugal, by the [Treaty of 
 Tordesillas], signed by botli powers in 14B4, 
 augmenting the imrtioD assigned to tlie Portu- 
 guese in the iiartitlan ade between them of the 
 Continent of America. The arc of meridian Died 
 by this treaty as a dividing line, which gave rise, 
 owing to the ignorance of the age, to so msny 
 diplomatic congp-sses and hiterminsble rontlxv 
 Tenies, may now he traced by any student of 
 elementary msthemHtlca This line . . . mas 
 along the mrriilUn nf 47= 89' 56" west of On-.n- 
 wlcli. . . . The name Brasil, or ' tlerm del Bra. 
 ««,• at that time {the middle of the 18th century] 
 referred only to the part of the continent pro. 
 duclng thr lye wood so-callwl. Nearly two 
 cent uricB Int. r the Portuguese advanceil towaAl 
 the South, anil the name Hrazll then rnvered tlie 
 new ixmiesslons tliey were aciiulring."— L. L. 
 Domlngiiv*, hlrid tu '• Th* dnmtuHoflht Kmr 
 Plait ■ aiiMuyl ,Sr. I\h». Sa. Nl). 
 
 A. D. 1497. - Discovery of tht North Araeri- 
 e»B Contiaeat by John Cakot.— "Tlie achieve- 
 meut nf Columbus, revealing the wonderful truth 
 of which tlie germ may have etisted In tlie 
 iliisiriiiation of every thnuehtful mstriser, wtm 
 (In KnglttiHl] the mlnilntlon which belon)^ to 
 genius lliat *i-i inni more dlvtne than human i 
 and ' there was ^resi talk of It in all the court of 
 
 68 
 
 Henij Vn.' A feelhig of diaappoliitiiient i» 
 malned, that a series of dlsaatera had defeated 
 the wish of the illustrious Qenoese to make hia 
 voyage of essay under the flag of Knghind. It 
 waa, therefore, not difficult for John Cabot, a 
 denizen of Venice, residhig at Bristol, to Interest 
 that politic king in phuis for discovery. Oo the 
 Sth of Mareh, filM, he obtained under the great 
 seal a commission empowering himself and hia 
 three sons, or either of them, their helra, or their 
 deputies, to sail Into the eastern, western, or 
 northern sea with a fleet of five ships, at their 
 own expense, in search of islands, provinces, or 
 regions hitherto unseen by Christian people; to 
 affix the bannere of EngUnd on city, IsUnd, or 
 continent; and, as vassals of the English crown, 
 to poesess and occupy the territoriea that might 
 be found. It waa further stipuUted In this ' moat 
 ancient American State paper of EngUnd. ' that 
 the patentees should be otrictlr boud, on overy 
 return, to land at the port of Bristol, and to pay 
 to the kbig ooe-flfth part of their gains; while 
 the excliuTve right of frequenting ^11 the coun- 
 tries that might be found was reserved to them 
 »"<1 to their assigns, without limit of time. 
 I nUer tWs patent, which, at the fl st direction of 
 Baiglish enterprise toward America, embodied the 
 worat features of monopoly and commerelal 
 reatriction, John Cabot, Uking with him his son 
 Sebastian, embarked in quest of new islands and 
 a passage to Asia by the nnrth-west. Aft.r sail- 
 ing prosnerously, as he reported, for 700 leujues. 
 <Mi the «4th day of June fU97] In the morning, 
 almost fourteen months before Columbus 00 bis 
 third voyage can- in sight of the main, and 
 more than two y n before Amerigo Vespucci 
 sailed west of the Canaries, he dlscoverecl the 
 western continent, probably in the latitude of 
 about S«o degrees, among the dismal cliffs of 
 Labrador. Ho mn along the coast for many 
 leagues, it is said even for 300, and landed on 
 what he considered to bi- the territory of the 
 Orand Cham. But he encountered no human 
 being, although there were marks thst the region 
 waa lnhabite<I. He planted on the hnd a large 
 cnas with the flag of England, and, from affec- 
 tion for the republic of Venice, he added the ban- 
 ner of 8t Mark, which bad never been borne ao 
 far before. On his homeward voyage ho saw on 
 hia right hand two islands, which for want of 
 provialona he could nut stop to explore. After 
 an absence of three months the great discoverer 
 re-entered Bristol harlmr, where due honora 
 awaltwt him. The king gave him money, and 
 •neouraged iilm to coutlnue Ills can-er. The peo- 
 ple called him the great ailmirel; be dressed In 
 silk; and the English, and even Venetians who 
 chanced to lie at Bristol, ran after him with such 
 leal that he could enlist for a new voyage as 
 many as he nieased. ... On the third day of 
 the month of February next after his return, 
 •John KahiiUi. Venetian,' arronllngly obtainf« 
 a power to take up ships for another voyage, at 
 t.he rates flxiil fur those emplnved In the service 
 of the king, and once more to set sail with as 
 many companions on would go with lilm of their 
 own will. With this llixnsa every Xnuv of John 
 Cabot dlsappewra. He may have illid before 
 the summer, but no one knows rertalnly Um' 
 tlroe iir !!» ph'" --f hl:i fnt!. and it has r.r.t cvfin 
 been aarerulne<l lu h liai country this fln<ler of a 
 continent flrst saw the light. "-O Bancmft. 
 aw. iiflht V. A^Am. (Author's Ust Iteviaion), 
 
AlfSRICA. 1407. 
 
 pt. I, A. 1. -. Id hla eritlial woric on the dliinr. 
 «y of Amerk», pobUihed in 1888. Mr. Hennr 
 
 H»rri«e»t»te8Uioonclu«lon»MtoHieC«botvo7 
 ami, aod on the queation whether the Americui 
 d&coTeri* were made by John Cabot or hia md 
 Sebaatlan^ aa foUowa: "l.-The dlaooTery of 
 the continent of North America and thelfim 
 landing oo lu eaat ooaat were acoompllahed ^ 
 brSeSutian Cabot, but by hi. fathSr John, in 
 U97, under the auipicea of King Henry " 
 8. -The arst landfall waa not *Cape hreton 
 
 AMKBICA, ltt7-MS8. 
 
 , -^u"**? ""^ auapicea of King Henry VII 
 I -The arst landfall waa not 'cSre breton 
 Wand^ a. I. Mated in the pUniapheii made b? 
 
 f'^"' S?'^' '"J'**- •"" «•«•>»" ten degreea 
 further north^n the coaat of'Ubrador: W^ 
 waa then ranged by John Cabot, probably aa far 
 - Cape Chudley. 8 -This flit wm t^th? 
 acknowledged bj aU pilot, and ooamografSere 
 throughout the Jrst half of the l«th Sntury 
 ?u^ r'^^Z^^. "' [' originated with Bcbi,: 
 w.^^'^'k?'™'" wbaterer may hare been 
 afterwards his contrary statements In that re. 
 
 '?f^'^ *• T^*"' ""l^f »' 1«W. also »com. 
 plished under the British flag waa llkewiH 
 carried out by John Cabot penm^y. Theland. 
 fall on that occasion must be placed south of the 
 first : and the exploration embracwl the north- 
 east coast of the present United Sutes. aa far m 
 Florida. 5. -In the yicinity of the FloriduJ 
 cast coast, John Cabot, or one of his lleutenanUL 
 
 uSi i'*^K^5°'°.^ ^P"** "«"»•. fn 1«8 or 
 iS! .n^~». *5«"«'> continued in ISOl, 1808, 
 
 li^' „"1 »"",'"^'- •" "•"* "^'P* to Newfound! 
 land c ilefly for the purpose offlsheriea. •— H 
 
 »""».*; .r ^""^ "-^"^^ ^'»^. p'- »; 
 
 "^3. «*. 1. Cnneal Assy (C. Deane) — R filddW 
 Jf.^.r «/ *i^„ (^^ ctTX-^'l^ 
 
 A. p. I407i49«.-Th« tnt Venn of 
 ^Ti'"". VeapuciBfc - Ml.underm25l«n 
 
 i? .^"°*'" nj»l»*tor.-HI. t«plor»tlou 
 of 4,ooo milea of cootinental co—i.--o'r 
 fc!™'I',""",™"""I"«[ Araerirus Vcspucius 
 from l«carl.v part of Sie year 1486 uutfl aft« 
 his return from the Portuiucse to the BpaulS 
 scrTice In the latter part ofVMt, resU priSlX 
 upon hi, two famous letters; tl.i one ^"^^ 
 to his old patron Lorcnro .11 Pier r™2c«S?^ 
 
 wr7 'I' u'v" V ^r"'" ">« MagnmSnOMd 
 writirn In March or April, 1803, riving an ac- 
 
 to his old sch«>l.fplfow Piero Soderinl TSm 
 Oonfalonlersof Florence) and dated from Lliboo 
 Septembers 1804, giving a brief account of 
 rZ'J.7?'^*."''?'' ^' hnS mml. un,Krio,°. 
 Xt T^^'letti™ "'*'J2.°' """"omcr oJ 
 ul . ,' "•"'•""*". . . becamcspeo<lllvponu. 
 
 e«[>ef iHliy In France, (Icniiany, and Italv 
 
 The Iruer to Bo,lerinl gives an amount of four 
 
 f^m rl'i.^"*?"*?'^ ^^' «"' expedition sailed 
 i^ 1488. after having explored a coast so loiia 
 
 win psrts <,f Am.rica am vWfejJ ^jrsia 1*,!; 
 «i'; ?";'■""', It dls.orere,l noSog t «t^« 
 »pal«. though It by »o «««, pMaSVlS u 
 
 J!?'!?.,'''^'* "^ "t*^ baen wrongly aMertad. 
 
 tin^,."! ^P^ J' •»■»• to attrS^i'^rSS?. 
 tlon. but in an unfortunate way, for a slight but 
 
 the most taporUntoTthe UUnTSrslona, c.^ 
 .{.« ifL'j""'* ^ •* P'»ctlcally MentMed wjS 
 the second Toyage. made two yW. Uter 5w« 
 confudon eventually led to moat i5S^,i>uI 
 ^hdth'S"hi:r.'l"/<«' name of A^JSt^ 
 Zm^l '^'**° '•? ^' ""> PX^nt century to 
 (u?^ln wh^r"""* '°y'?- »' Vespuclu. WM 
 that In whldi be accompaiaed Alonso de OJada 
 
 ^ '^ *'"JL» ^'***- '™"' May 80, mW to 
 nfT'..J^' ?"y,"P»ore<i the northern^ 
 of South America from soma potat on whatwe 
 wotdd now can the north coasTof fiitU, m 7» 
 Mthe Pearl Co«it visited by Columbus in tl" 
 
 i!!fm?, 1.°' M»racalho. Here the squadron 
 seems to have become divided. Oieda goTng ow 
 to Illspanlola In Septeml«r, wille VesSuduI 
 wmatoed cruUing tlfl February. . . U taS-r 
 tainly much to be regrette.1 that'ln the narntSTve 
 
 to me„,?n„'^Er""°°' Vespuchmdld nothaJpeS 
 to mention the name of the chief cominaijer 
 U.'.". .T'l'.'' • ,• • he was writing not for us 
 but for his friemJ, an.l he told SodeHnI onlv-wlai 
 he thought would Interest him. . gf JJo 
 
 ^1 m™,^''*'" *^^ ^'■"'''"' "'lehhispayid 
 the most Important part In history U Uie litln 
 
 i^^tfe.^l^-^i-e3 
 ^^K^utf^K^i^^d 
 
 Petrdrtj;.ran e«x'c^ve^7";^"t:^.';.; 
 
 ^nVve„f *""•' ^"'™ »'''^" the^amous w" 
 raine version was ultimately derived If 
 
 llrin'^Jn""?'""'."''' primitive text with tit. 
 Latin of he I^rrjlne version of 1807, we observe 
 that. In the latter, one uroper name - the iSdllS 
 ""• °' •, P'«c«J-'»lte/b/An>ericu. on his flm 
 ^ririfh" '".^•"t''V'"^ In Uie original It I, 
 TM. L '»!.""' f""" " »"" become -Parias ■ 
 Jn he r,„«"nf".'.° '?"*."'"* °' '"Judicious edlt% 
 ™„™ K ',"'" I^"" tran.l«lor, although, of 
 ?°."J!t' , ""y •* • '^^ "' •^"'li'is proof remllug 
 
 69 
 
 of L«r^l„. ?-i'''' t'"^' f!'"""* ""« ■"oonUlns 
 or lx>rralne ■ ould make noth iig of It. If he had 
 
 Slfff.-.l!!' '* '«:i"»'"'«l *it1. the langu.^ of 
 the Huastccas. who dwelt at Uiat time aloT the 
 
 southern nciahbours the Aztecs- he would 
 w-^ .^?''.'' "'*i ?""?" °' P'""» '" 'hat region 
 
 3r!J^ .' '"■y"'"' o"' worthy tran.lst..rs ken, 
 we cannot much bUme him If he felt tUt sue 
 
 region on he western shore, of the AtlantU ui.l 
 f"?f:'''^'^'"- »■»"-. As the Uisl-M.,. f^n 
 «nH ml ''*"..'? "if "J*^' '• ""f* "■»" t"" thou 
 IJ.n.?» .K- *'''• ""'* '""""'"'ion shlfte.1 the 
 1^?!.^..^'.'' ""' ';"y»»* beyond nil recgnitlon, 
 
 !!i ^* the whole subject In n outer .lark! 
 
 MS. where there has been much gronning and 
 
 ?«^'^'^ "' '^-'^ ^'T'^" <=>"tou«rir,um«1.n« 
 came In lo confirm this error On hi* fir?! v-t- 
 
 rf,^: "'^'"^ M""' -"iving at l.ari«b. Vespu- 
 •I. V-."." '.""tl" '*•*" '•""t '»'f the water, 
 iiouMS, like baiTMka,' supported on huge tiw- 
 
I ill 
 
 AHBRICA, 1487-1498. 
 
 AmtrleuM 
 Vmpmeitu. 
 
 AMKHICA, 1407-1498. 
 
 i 
 
 ir H 
 
 trunks and communicating with each other by 
 bridges that could be drawn up In case of danger 
 This may well h.ive been a village of communal 
 houses of the Chontals on the const of Tabasco- 
 but such villages were afterwards HCen on the 
 Uulf of Maracaibo, and one of them was called 
 Venezuela, or 'Little Venice.' a name since 
 M)read over a territory nearly twirc as large as 
 France. 80 the ampliibious town descriU-d by 
 V espiieius wnsincontjn ntly move<l to Maracaibo 
 as if there could Iw only one such place, as if 
 that style of defensive building had not l>ern 
 common enough In many ages and In many partt 
 of the earth, from ancient Switzerland to modem 
 blam. . . . Thus in spite of the latitudes and 
 longitu.lcs distinctly staUKl by Vespuclus in his 
 letter, did Lariab and the little wooden Venice 
 get shifteil from the Gulf of Mexico to the 
 northern coast of South America. . . . We are 
 told that he falnely pretended to have visited 
 Paria and .Manicaibo in 1497, in order U) claim 
 priority over Ciilumbus In the discovery of ' the 
 continent.' What continent? When Vespuciu* 
 wrote that letter to Soderini, neither he nor any- 
 boily else suspected that what we now call Amer- 
 ica had iH-en discovered. The only continent of 
 which tliere coidd l)e any <|ucstion, so far as sup- 
 planting Columbus was concerned, wiis Asia. 
 But in I.V14 Columbus was generallT supposi-d to 
 have disi-oveml the continent of Asia, bv his new 
 route, in Ud'i. ... It was M. Vamha'gen who 
 first turu«i iiiiiuiry on this subject in the right 
 direction. . . . Having taken a correct start by 
 simply following the words of Vespuclus him- 
 self, from II primitive text, without reference to 
 any pn.-cnceiviHl theories or traditions, M. Varn- 
 hagcn find.-t" that Ameritus In his first voyage 
 made lamt on the northern const of Honduras; 
 "Ihut he sailed around Yucatan, and found his 
 aquatic village of communal houses, his little 
 wooden \ iniee, on the shore of Tabasco Thence 
 after a fight with the natives in which a few 
 tawnv prisoners were captured and carried on 
 x«nl the caravels. Vespuclus seems to have 
 i.ken a straight course to the lluasleca country 
 by lampico, without touchl-.g at points in the 
 region siil.ject or tribuUry to the Aztec cufrd 
 erncy. This Tampico country was what Vespu- 
 clus underit,io<l to be called Uriah. He ng'dn 
 givn the latitude definitely and correctly as ZS" 
 >., and he mentions a few interesting cireum 
 stances, lie saw the natives roasting a dresd- 
 fully ugly animal," of which he gives what 
 seems to be "an excellent de^-ription of the 
 Iguana, the flesh of which is to this day an im- 
 p'lrtnnt article of foo<l in tropical America. 
 After leaving thU country of Lariab the ships 
 K>pt still to the northwest for a short distance, 
 and then followed the windings of tlic c.«st 
 lor (<,o 1( iigucs. . . . After traversing the «7(i 
 kagiu-, of creaked (xul. the thlps found Hum 
 S(f ves 111 the finest harbour Id the worl.l ' [which 
 M. \ar.dmgen suppoaed, at first, to have Ikhh 
 in ( iHsajH-ake Bay. but afterwards reaclii'd (vm 
 elusions iKjinting to the neighbourhood of Cape 
 
 , luu"*'.?'- "" "'« •■''ori'lsc'W'tJ It was In June, 
 im. thirteen months since they had started from 
 ,f\ :, • ;. J .!'y 'P*""' seven anil-thirty days in 
 tills unrivalled harbotir. preparing for the liomc 
 V. ynge. and found Uie naUrcs very hospitable 
 
 ew ri d men court«l t|,, M of the whlt.-^ ! oJ." K^ I^!^ 
 snirers. in iin aiiju-k »l.lrh ii..,. ».i.i...i ,. I ••'. ^ . /^i™5! 
 
 ilrsng 
 
 n attack which they wished u 
 
 Ited certain islands lomo distance out to sea. 
 The Spaniards agreed to the expedition, and 
 sailed late in August, taking seven of the friendly 
 Indians for gufdes. "After a weeks voyage 
 they fell In with the islands, some peopled, otliera 
 uninhabited, evidently the Bermudas. 600 miles 
 from Cape Hatteras as the crow flics. The 
 Spaniards landed on an Island callc<l Iti, and had 
 a brisk fight," resulting In the capture of more 
 than 200 prisoners. Seven of these were given 
 to the Indian guides, who paddled home with 
 them. "'We also [wrote Vespuclus] set sail 
 for Spain, with 2'« prisoners, slaves ; and arrived 
 In the port of Cadiz on the ISth day of October. 
 149S, where we were well received and sold our 
 slaves. •. . . The obscurity hi which this voy- 
 age has so long been enveloped Is due cliiefly to 
 tlic fact that ft was not followed up till many 
 vears had elapsed, and the reason for this neglect 
 Impre8.ses upon ua forcibly the Impossibility of 
 understanding the history of the Discovery of 
 America unless we bear In mind all the attend- 
 ant circumstances. One might at flrst suppose 
 that a voyage which revealed some 4,000 mUes of 
 the coast of North America would have attracted 
 much attention In Spain and have become alto- 
 gether too famous to be soon forgotten. Such 
 ■n ^argument, however, loses sight of the fact 
 that these early voyagera were not trving to 'dis- 
 cover America.' There was nothing to astonish 
 them in the existence of 4,000 miles of coast line 
 on this side of the Atlantic. To their minds It 
 was simply the coast of Asia, about which they 
 knew nothing except from Marco Polo, and the 
 nat'iral effect of such a voyage as this would be 
 slaipiv to throw discredit upon that traveller." 
 — .1. Fiske. The Diteutery of Aiwriea, eh. T (V 2) 
 The arguments against this view are set fortli 
 by .Mr. Clements It. Markham. in a paper read 
 before the Royal Geographical Societv, In 181)2 
 as follows: "Vespucci was at Seville or San 
 Luear, .is a provision merchant, from the mid- 
 dle of April, 1497, to the end of Mav. U9M as Is 
 shown by the offlcisl records, examined by Mufioi 
 of expenses incurred in fitting out the ships for 
 western expeilitlons. Moreover, no expedition 
 for (llseover>- was despatched by order of King 
 Ferdinand Iti 1487; and there Is no allusioD to 
 any such exiwlitlon in any contemp<irarv reconl 
 The internal evidence against the truth of the 
 story is even stronger. Vespucci says that he 
 sailed W. 8 W. for nearly 1000 league* from 
 Grniid ( annnr This would have uken him to 
 the Gulf of Paria, which Is rather more than 900 
 li«gues W 9. W. from Grand Canary. . . No 
 actual navigator would have made siich a blun- 
 der He evidently quoted the dead reckoning 
 from Ole<la s voyage, and Invented the Utitude 
 at random . Rli statement that he went 
 , ^) \"'}^l leagues (!!,6I» miles) from a poal- 
 tlon In latitude 83» N. is still more pivpoateiWs 
 Such a course and distance would hare token 
 him righl across the continent to somewhere in 
 British Columbia. The chief incidents In the 
 Tovage are those of the OJe<la vovage In 1489 
 There is the village built on piles calW Little 
 Venice There was the encounter with na 
 
 tlvcs. in which one Spaniard was killed and '« 
 were wounded. These numbers are convincing 
 evidence — c. R .Markham. rMumbui (Hepai 
 
 maka upon a fierce roc* of caimibala, who Inhab | M. 
 
 6U 
 
 - iingi, Sij,!., \sa3 1 
 
 ALS.J i!«: J, WlBsor. CkritltpHtr OUumhu. 
 ' 19. 
 
AMERICA. ,«a JU, C^ ^RjcA. 14«^,M8. 
 
 A. D. X498. -Second Voyan of John 
 Cabot, ■ometimei ascribed tohU .on s" 
 
 ?!!Ll"LTr."^5' J""" »"" ""ta ««»»«. John 
 
 Csbot petitioned Henry VII. for new letteii 
 
 ^ Ti'l*? '"' ""^ !"■' dlKoTer^. The Kioc 
 granted bis request on the 3rd of February. 14W^ 
 There is no itroiind whiit«v»r t^, >i i'-Jz:' 
 
 P 
 
 S-i.„~T. „ ■"H""' "nine am or February. 149C 
 There is no gro.nd whaterer for the aiirtton 
 frequently repeau.l that John CabotTd not 
 command this second expedition, or that It was 
 undertaken after hi. death. On tbe^ntr^ 
 Pasqualigo and Soneino mention him by n^e 
 exclusivefy as the partr to whom Henry Vli 
 Intended to entrust the fleet. Besides, this time 
 John Cabot is the only grantee, and the new °t: 
 ten patent omit altogether the names of SebasUan 
 and of his brothera. Moreover. John ex^ned 
 in person to Soneino his plans for the Wond 
 voyage; and July as, 141)4. PuebU Mrf AvS. 
 
 rtT.'^v""?'"'.!^"' the'SpanlA ^re^J^ 
 that the vessels had actuaUy sailed out 'Zm 
 otm ginoves comj Colon.' which dacriptlro 
 
 ^.Tn ,"•" ^PP'' 'Y*"'"'y '» Sebastiarbut to 
 John Cabot as we know from corroborative cvi 
 
 nf ^i^'Ti"^* n"?^- "f "^ f"*'' '• "»t the name 
 of .Sebastian Cabot appnirs in connection wUh 
 those voyugcs, for the first time, in Peter Mar 
 tyr-s account, printcl twenty years after tte 
 even , and tak-n from SobaJtiiTs own li^ 
 which . I, not a recommendation In zZ'- 
 land, his name reveals itself aa regards the dil 
 .ovcry of the New World at a stilflater wriod 
 In John Stow', Chronicle, published In'^l'wS' 
 And although both that historian a^ H.kluvt 
 ■luotc a, their authority for tlw rtatement a 
 IT^^m"^ f"''7 °' '*"^" PablanVchronicle 
 
 ThT„,.Lii.. ' '' * *''^'" fn«<^rpol8tiou. . . 
 The expedition wa^ composed orflve vesi.- u' 
 
 ^X^7.&^]^^i.urn.:fBrii"e^' 
 
 ,?th. '"'L^?' '^''^' """ new^lS^liJea rSS 
 '■.''•. "Mition, which was obliged to lel^ 
 
 «v ;s\';Li:^""^' °'"'°' '"• '"Wwing'to" 
 ^^vX7Xw7„rttnV:e:?rv""V 
 
 " """ thT.'v'lJr-.-A'-! '-^o™.t?^ 
 
 ^k'^.i.'^'".'''L?»?^ conmendng at the south 
 taSL?',^'"V'«'*^ de*«:ublS-ta^ 
 %D?2f ES^-nH™*^**"'." 'J"' north wiS 
 fZHr ™ *'''8'?n<l : — Cauo de ynglatena.' Iln. 
 
 relatively the SVlT^^S^^X'^ 
 
 a.s'«'nl?^;i'^, ■co.nl^'i^^ffisrJ 
 
 p*5of8 account, as reported by Peter M^lr 
 
 A. fci^?*^ "" ""•'^^-orthK™ dte: 
 
 gpc frLr-^-:;;i:^« 
 
 H Hamss.., Ih^rertf ^- Ameria,. pt. 1, it « 
 
 •• r„^ii^"'".'"''".» r*'^*"^ Spain In Ju" hm 
 g.ve"h rlrl '->*"« •^'cc've.l hlrklnd^: 
 futflta vX..^""",,""* P~"n'««« him olh« 
 ddnv, took n "^"'"^J""*^'"' ^<iM out and 
 3?lnfM^ p."' ^^' npart* of the returning 
 
 «arco lolo, and the newfound world was 
 
 ,7fl?J'"* 5" "^ N*-" World ui 
 atlantP; ,1? "'"'P'''*. therefore. ilY the 
 Btiantic discoveries mwie bv C^hitt !>.««[. 
 rear t.Vm n... „.i.rj.. "'>•'*». Wloie 
 
 uiw L. .J ■ '?""■» "PeaiUons of 14BT and 
 
 Jiriiian nag, and romnria^ >i._r .« !r' 
 
 Irnnsatlantrc d 
 
 ritremitr of tlu^ m!^ In .?' ■*•**••« to the 
 
 tho„yhrt^.:;v^~^^^^^^^^^ 
 
 peopli 
 
 01 
 
 riv~.'\Ii7i. '■ "J'''^'' •■" "»•«"<> either from lu 
 ^ree peaks, ot from the Hoir TrtnltT.^.ir 
 
 f^^'l^e'^SrUri^.^iL^'lJrioL'i'hV.'S: 
 
 tlfl^^^.«H f**^ ""i^ esubllshed a'for 
 DominS^'iii u'"?'^*d "»• town of 8anto 
 M^-I^iii".' ^""t Bwtholomew had ruM 
 StS !^"^ ^"^°« **» Admimls atwcnce I, t 
 hi tt?ij"°* ?'•"•»« • nroH. which wi« h^, «| 
 
 w«ut 10 noomU* thm. tad be even succMded 
 
amuuca, i4te-Mi». 
 
 £at< Vogatu 
 c/OOtimbtm. 
 
 AMERICA, 1499-lSOO. 
 
 .'i 
 
 to •ttaehlng Roldan wumlr to hb IntentU. 
 O^umbua' stmence from BpiOii, however, left hb 
 cood nsme without iponaon; and to latiafy 
 detncton, a new commiaaioner waa lent OTer 
 with enlarged power*, even with authority to 
 •upenede Columbua in general command, if 
 Beoeaary. Thia emliaary was Frandaco de Bo- 
 badilla, who arrived at Santo Domingo with two 
 wavela on the 88d of August, iSJO, finding 
 •piego in command, hia brother, the AdmliBl 
 weing absent An Issue was at once mad*. 
 Jnego refused to accede to the commissioner's 
 (orders till Columbus returned to judge the case 
 Ihimself; so BobadiUa assumed charge of the 
 wown property violently, took possession of the 
 Admiral s house, sod when Columbus returned, 
 he with his brother was arrested and put In irons. 
 In this condition the prisoners were placed on 
 shipboard, and sailed for Spain, The capUln of 
 the sliip offered to remove the manacles: but 
 Columbus would not permit It. being determined 
 to land in Spahi bound as he was ; and so he did. 
 The effect of his degradation was to his advant- 
 age; soverelKns and people were sboiked at the 
 sight; and Fenlinund and Isabella hastened to 
 make amends by receiving Urn with njnewed 
 favor. It was soon apparent that everything 
 reasonable would be granted him by the mon- 
 archs, and that he could have all he might wish 
 short of receiving a new lease of power in the 
 islands, which the Bovorolgns wore determined 
 to SI* iiaoitieil at least In-forc Columbus should 
 agniu ii88uine government of them. The Admiral 
 had not forgotten his vow to wrest the Holy 
 Sepulchre from the Infidel; but the monarchs 
 dill not accede to his wish to underuke It. DIs- 
 appointeil in this, he propoaeil a new voyage; 
 and getting the royal countenance for this 
 schtiiic. he was supplliil with four vessels of 
 from tlttv to seventy tons each. ... He sailed 
 from Cadiz. May 9, l.vra, accompanied by his 
 brother Bartholumiw and hi* son Fernando 
 The vessels reaclieii San Dnmingo June 20 
 BobadillB. whuiH! rule of a year ami a half had 
 been an unlmppy one. had given place to Nicho- 
 las lie Uvanilo; and the fleet which brought the 
 new governor — with Maldonado, Las Caaas and 
 o Hf 1,T7 ""* '*y '" "'* '»■'■*>"' waiting to receive 
 Bobadilla for the return voyii)fp. Columbus had 
 been Instructi'd to avoid llispaniola; but now 
 that one of his vessels leiikiil. and he nceiicd to 
 make repairs, he sent a Umt ashore, asking per. 
 pilssion to enter the harbor. Hu was refuseil 
 though a Sturm was impc-mlini?. He shcltercii 
 his ve«jt-l, as best he could, ami rode out the 
 
 *".*• „"''* ''*^*' *'■'•■'' ''*<' ■"> '""""l Bobadilla 
 and Roldon. with their 111 gotten gains, was 
 wrecked, and these enemies of folumbus were 
 drowned. The Admiral found a small harbor 
 where he could make his repairs; and then, July 
 U, sailnl westwanl to flnil, as he supposed 
 the richer portions of Imlls. . . . A landing was 
 made on the ciim.t of Honduras, August 14 
 Three (Ihts Liter the explorers landed again 
 nrteen leai^ues fiirtliiT east, and t^xik possession 
 of tiM) country for S|ittin, Still i-ast tiiey went 
 and, in gratitu.i.' for aarav after a long storm 
 thi'y named a ca|ie which tliey roumlid. Oracios 
 » Uiu«--a name still prescrveil at the point 
 whi-re the coast of Honduras liegins to trend 
 s"Hihwsril. Columbus was now ivlug ill on 
 his lied, placeil on deck, and was half the tims 
 lu tvvery. UUII the vessels coasted south" 
 
 •long and beyond the shores of CoeU Rica; then 
 turned with the bend of the coast to the north- 
 east, until they reached Porto Bello, as we call 
 It, where they found houses and orchards, aiid 
 passed on "to the farthest spot of Bastidas' 
 exploring, who had. In 1301, saUed weetwaid 
 along the northern coast of South America." 
 There turning back, Columbus attempted to 
 found a oolonv at Veragua, on the Costa Rica 
 coast, where slgni of gold were tempting. But 
 toe gold proved scanty, the natives hostile, and. 
 the Admiral, withdrawing hia colony, sailed 
 away. " He abandoned one worm-eaten caravel 
 at Porto BeUo, and, reaching Jamaica, beached 
 two other*. A year of disappointment, grief, 
 and want followed. Columbus clung to his 
 wrecked vessels. His crew alternately mutinied 
 at his side, and roved about the island 
 Ovando, at HispanloU, heard of his stnits, but 
 only tardily and scantily relieved him. The dis- 
 contented were finally humbled; and some ships 
 despatohed by the Admirals agent in Santo 
 Domingo, at test reached him and brought him 
 and his companions to that place, whero Ovando 
 received him with ostenutious kindnea, lodging 
 hhn in his house till Columbus departed for 
 Spain, Sept 18, 1604." Arriving in Spain in 
 November, disheartened, broken with disease 
 neglected, it was not until the following May 
 tliat he had strength enough to go to the court at 
 Segovia, and then only to be coldly received by 
 King Ferdinand — Isabella being di-ad. " While 
 still hope was deferred, the intlrmiliea of ago and 
 a life of hardships brought Columbus to his end ■ 
 and on Ascension Day. the 20th of May, l.we, he 
 ilieil, with his son Diego and a few devoted 
 friends by his bedside."-^. Winsor, A'amUite 
 and Orilieal Hut. of Am., t.i, eh. 1 
 
 Also ijt: II. H. Bancroft ttitt. of the I^Meilk 
 Stalet, t. 1, eh. 8 and 4.— W. Irving, XtA and 
 Voyage* of (Mumbut, bk. 10-18 (». 8) 
 
 p. laMh-iOM.— The Voyagea and Di*. 
 tea of OJcda and Pinion.— The Second 
 
 62 
 
 cereric* _, 
 
 Voyan of Amerifo Vespucci.— One of tlie 
 most daring and resolute of the adventurer* who 
 accompanied Columbus on his second voyairc 
 (in 1408) was Alonso de Ojeiia. Ojeda quarrel Iwi 
 with the Admiral and returned to Spain in 14»8 
 Soon afterwards, "he was provldcil by the 
 Bishop Fonseca, Columbus' enemy, with a 
 fragment of the map which the Admiral had 
 sent to Penlinand and Isabella, showing the dis- 
 coveries which he had maile in his lost voyaire 
 With this assistance Ojeila set sail for Soutii 
 America, accompanied by the pilot. Juan de la 
 Costt. who hiul accompanied Columbus in his 
 first great voyage in 1492. and of whom Coluni 
 bus coinplalne«I Uiat. 'bilug a clever man, hi- 
 went aljout saying that he knew more than he 
 illil, onil also by Amerigo V.-spiiccl. They set 
 snll on the 20lh of May. 1489. with four veiweN 
 and after a passage of 27 ikvs c»niu in sight of 
 the continent, 200 leagues east of the Oronnco 
 At the unci of Jiini . they lamleil on the •';! .res of 
 Surinam, in six ilejtni-s of north latlvude. nnii 
 Iiroreeiiinij west saw the mouths of the Rsseiiuilxi 
 nnil Ommieo. Passing the Uoca del I)ra«.. of 
 Trinliiail. they coasted wi-stwani till they reachi'.l 
 the Capo de la Vela in Granaiia. It was in thii 
 voyage that waa dlsmvprn) iji* Gulf to whicU 
 Ojeda gave the name of Veneiuila, or Little 
 Venice, on account of the cabins Imllt on piles 
 over the < »(er, a uudit of life which brought to 
 
 #' 
 
AMERICA, 1499 -ISOa 
 
 hta mind luc wattr-city of the Adriatic. From 
 tbp Amcriraa coast OJcda went to the Caribbce 
 blands, and on the 6th of September WciS 
 ^aguimo in Hiapanlola. whbre he raSSi » 
 revolt against the authority of ColumbuT^^llU 
 
 Ci. however were fru.trated by Roldan and 
 bar. the delesatea of Columbua, and fcS t« 
 conipclle.1 to withdraw from the Ulind. OnTlw 
 Bth of February, 1500. ho returned, caVrylnK 
 with him to Cwliz an extraordinary iumbt-r o? 
 •Iave8, from which he realUed an enonnous aum 
 fhJ"^"*^- *'• ""' .•^S'""'"? of December. 1490^ 
 Toyage. another companion of Columbus, in hta 
 flrit voyage. Vicente Yafiez Pinion, saHed from 
 P»lo. w«i the first to ctos. the line on h" 
 American ride of the Atlantic, and on the aoth 
 of Januarv, 1500, diacoveied cipe 8t. Augusttoe ' 
 to whjch fie gave the mune of fiTbo SinTMaria 
 deU Consolacion, whence returning northVard 
 bt followe<l the wentcrlv trending 5)a8t.Tnd w 
 d^eriHl U.e mouth of the AmfzoTwhich he 
 named Paricunu Within a month after hUdc 
 parture from Palo., he waa followed fro„, al 
 -me port and on the same route by Die™ , c 
 ^•S;. ?," ""* "*? ^"' todlacover. at the nmuth 
 wm!5. ","""*"■ ':y P'f«n» of a closcl vlw 
 wWch only opj ne.1 when it ra.che.1 the bc.utmi 
 of thewa er, thut, at a depth of eight fSZ 
 
 wl? h"'/.''". '"" ''"'^•'' f-thonn were M? 
 water but all alwve w.u. fresh. Upc alsomalle 
 the obs,.rvall..n that l^yond Cape St^uTusTlne 
 wind, he d.mhl,d. as \v,.l| „s finz „ the c«.ift 
 
 Ci^X'r.alM'rr'' ''^' """ '•*'^" "f 
 
 teafj^-Ui^^JiaKl^rnSL;!^.!^ 
 
 dUc..v,.n. ,, ,o the s<,.,tl.. Two veii^.ls. Zl«b v 
 D the spring uf Km. were «.nt ., t uu t 
 0«M>»r f,>rt<r.„l. X„ j„u„,.l or cl,.- t "f „ 
 vm, Ko .s now ,„ cxisretu-e. hence little is known 
 "f Its obj«t or resulLs. Still in.ire dim iLa 
 prevous vnyag,. astTilHHl by Conldro to J, a^ 
 VazC-rienal. fullurofOas^ar. . tZ-. *"^ 
 
 lie talK.i a cliart.,. struck the c.«i8t of N.w found- 
 
 Of rnptKitu. 
 
 AMEMCA. 1500-1514. 
 
 t,ame<I there ha<i the greatest influence on the 
 
 plorationof aeBruai.li cout for the k£ 
 
 c.me curiou^y co^X'Sid.- K^l^mTrei'^f 
 I ortugal intrusted to I'edro Alvarez dTcuhiS 
 
 ip tr 'rk of 'oir '" «"«""'^^ ^ f-'now 
 
 ujj lue worK or Uama and establish a Pnn.i 
 
 met X frem iT''' ^T'^Jl'"* "t^ut i^ 
 mi a, saiiea rrom Lisbon March » 1500 AVt»» 
 
 passing the Cape Venie Islands. MaVdi 2^ for 
 
 some reason not clcariy known whe*hcr driven 
 
 by stormy weather or ^king to avJd the c^lms 
 
 "'.;^t'*Cal,r;i','\'" ""<" :'-»me on the Guinea 
 coast, labrul t<K)k a sonio-vliat more wp«ti.ri^ 
 course than he realizcl. and on A^Jil ^o^af^r^ 
 weary progrc^uverging less than W mile; %;? 
 :^.'r, "-^d- '.'«-"' of Brazil S'ot 
 
 ( «< iz 111 Stpt.nilH.r, I,VCJ. Tliix U.'i . ,K '"J'"' 
 
 I •? . ^„.i,""n"/'" '«^'^«"' "'".after. •-. 
 .lm1..> ".■"r" '-"» ^•!»»»»» »'lthorilv fMriiyl 
 
 '^'''—i^r'foir^irjsi^^z'tj'tt 
 
 61 
 
 far U^yoml the limit readied bv Uno 
 Approaching it in su.^h » way I'abnil /dt s.ire 
 liiat Ills coast must fall to the east "f the n« m\ 
 T^:^'^{ Accordingly „„ .May day, at ' or," 
 S«guro in latitude 16° a/ S he took f,!J.^ . 
 p.«sesslon of the country for Pom.ga7 and^ 
 
 LiSn witb^ir '" ""* "' "is r,;i"£ik 'o 
 i^isiKin with the news. On M.iu •» <■ i i 
 
 weighed anchor and sto«| hr the ^ape of &C 
 
 V.Tfv • • ^'»''™'™""Hhelandl*ha. IfouTd 
 
 Cmz iut'when'r;!"'^'' ""■*"."?^ bec«ni..S 
 v^^ruz, out When Lenios arrivwi in Lisbon with 
 
 the new, he liad with him some gorg'^us inr,7 
 
 o'f"'i^l^' "h J "'.','""'f ""^ ••"'"^•^' ..antes ^old 1 ; 
 of the Bmzilian c.«ist we find • Land of I'um 
 Jiuets' and 'Land of the IIolv C^«^• The |an 1 
 lay obviously so far U. the cist thr.Spa „ c, « 
 ...t deny that at last thrre was somei In f i 
 I'urtugal out in the -o, „ sia ' M i I bCnsf 
 was fdt at Lisbon. K,„^^ Emai ud bt^i?,'; 
 
 wre acwptcl. for what reason we X , mt k n 
 
 Oj^-ila, probably in the autumn of iVm \..,.V^, 
 cu. pass.., fronuhe «.rv,e. of Sj^'i.,' ii:;^ iViT o'f 
 
 ? ;:rif£!n wKe::-^r'ir£?:;i 
 
 dear who wa.s.l.ief captal,,. Iml Y. VarnI • ', , 1 -w 
 ound n.«*«.s ^.rl,el evin. ^U,,{\i ^^^^^J^ 
 
 11,; KfT -^'"""'■'- "'« "■^» '"'It wa.s iiia,!,. m 
 he African coast at Cniie V,r.le ihc llrs «•,. b 
 
 '"June. . After«7,l!.yH,l. i;evi|,:,^,',.,rtl i-r 
 
 nraiil lu latitude about 5' S.. on the evening 
 
AMERICA, 180&-1S14. 
 
 tTamii 
 
 ttamina of 
 
 AMERICA, ISOO-ISIA 
 
 ■ I 
 1 
 
 •1 
 
 of the 16th of August, the feiUral-day of San 
 Roque, whom name wu accordingly given to 
 the cape before which they dropped anchor. 
 From thli point they slowly followed the coait to 
 the southward, stopping now and then to exam- 
 toe the country. . . . It was not until All SainU 
 day, the first of November, that they reached 
 the bay in latitude 18° 8,, which is still known 
 by the name which they gave It, Bahiade Todos 
 Santos. On New Year's day, 1508, they arrived 
 at the noble bay where 54 years later the cLlef 
 city of Brazil was founded. They would seem 
 to have mistaken it for the mouth of auotlier 
 huge river, like some that had already been seen 
 In this strange world ; for they called it Rio de 
 Janeiro (River of January). Thence by February 
 15 they had passed Cape Santa Maria, when they 
 left the coast and took a southeasterly course out 
 Into tlic ocean. Americus gives no satisfactory 
 reason for this change of direction. . . . Kt- 
 hapslic may have looked into the mouth of the 
 river La Plata, which is a bay more than a liuu- 
 dred miles wide; and the sudden westward 
 trend of the shore may have led him to suppose 
 that lie had reached the end of tlie continent. 
 At any rate, he was now in longitude more tliaii 
 twenty degrees west of the meridian of Cape 
 San Roque, and tlierefore unquestionably out of 
 Portuguese waUTS. Cleariy there was no use in 
 going on and discovering lands wliich could 
 belong onlv to Spain. This may account. I 
 think, for the cliange of direction." Tlie voyage 
 southuiistwardly was pursued until the little 
 fleet hud ri'aclied the icy and rocky coast of the 
 Island of South Georgia, in latitude M" S. It 
 was then decided to turn homeward. "Ves- 
 pucius . . . headed straight N. N. E. throuah 
 the huge ocean, for Sierra Leone, and the dis- 
 tance of more tlian 4,000 miles was made— witli 
 wonderful accuracy, though Yespucius says 
 notliing about that — In 83 days. . . . Thence, 
 after some further delay, to Lisbon, where they 
 arrived on the 7th of September, 1503. Among 
 uU tlie voyages made during that eventful 
 period tliere was none that as a feat of navi- 
 gation surpasseil this third of Vespucius, and 
 there was none, except the first of Columbus, 
 that outranked it in historical importance. For 
 it was not only a voyage Into the remotest 
 stretches of the Sea of Darkness, but it was 
 preeminently an incursion into the antipodal 
 world of llic Southirn hemispiierp. ... A 
 coast of continental extent, bcglculnir so near 
 the meridian of the Cttfie Vcnie islimiis ami run 
 nlng Bouthwesteriv to latitude 3.1' S. nnd per- 
 haps lieyond, diil not fit into anvlKKlys scheme 
 of things. ... It was land unknown to the 
 ancients, and Yespucius was right in savinjr that 
 be had lieh<hl there things by the thousand 
 wlilrli Pliny hitd never mentioned. It was not 
 Btrange that he should cull it a • New Worid ' 
 and in meeting wlih this phrase, on this first 
 occasion In whieh it appears in unv document 
 with reference to any part of what we now rail 
 Amcrien. tlie readir must lie careful not to clothe 
 it with the meanini; which it wears in our mxl 
 em eyes In using the expression ' New Worid ' 
 Vespucius was not thinking of the Florida coast 
 which he had visited on a former voyage, nor of 
 the 'island* of [nOii ' .i!.;,-,-.vtir-,l b)- Ct.lunibi;-. 
 nor even of the Peart (oust wliicli he had fol 
 IowihI after the Admiral in exploring. Tlie 
 txprecsioQ occurs in his letter to Lorenzo 
 
 64 
 
 de' Medici, written from Lisbon In Much or April, 
 1503, relating solely to this thlnl voyage. The let- 
 ter begins as follows : ' I have formerly written 
 to you at sufficient length about my return from 
 those new countries which In the ships and at the 
 expense and command of the most gracious King 
 of Portugal we have sought and found. It M 
 
 {jroper to call them a new world.' Observe that It 
 soulr the new countries visited on thU third voy- 
 age, the countries from Cape San Roque south- 
 wanl. that Yespucius thinks it proper to call anew 
 world, and here Is fcls reason for so calling them : 
 ' Since among our ancestors there waa no know- 
 leitge of them, and to all who hear of the affair It 
 Is most novel. For it transcends the Ideas of the 
 ancients, since most of them gay that bevond the 
 equator to the south there Is no continent,'liut only 
 the st-a which they call the Atlnnttc, and if any of 
 them asserted the existence of a continent theie, 
 tliey found many reasons for refusing to consider 
 It a habitable country. But this last vovage of 
 mine has proved that this opinion of theirs 
 was erroneous and In every way contrarv 
 to the facta.' . . . This expression ' Noviis 
 Mumliis [New World], thus occurring In a 
 
 £rivate letter, had a remarkable career. Early 
 1 June, 1908, about the time when Americus 
 was starting on his fourth voyage, Lorenzo 
 died. By the beginning of 1504, a Latin 
 venloD of the letter [translated by Giovanni 
 Oiocondo] waa printed and published, with the 
 title 'Mundus Notus.' . . . The little four- 
 leaved tract, 'Mundus Novus,' turned out to 
 be the great literary success of tlie day. M. 
 Harisse Tias described at least eleven Latin edi- 
 tions probably published in the course of 1504 
 and by 1506 uot less than eight editions of Ger- 
 man versions liad been Issued. Intense curiosity 
 was amused by this announcement of the exis- 
 tence of a populous land beyond the equator and 
 unknown (could such a thing be possible) to the 
 ancients,"— who did know something, at least, 
 alKiut tlie eastern parts of the Ashitic continent 
 which Columbus was supposed to liavc reached. 
 The "Novus Mundus," so named, began soon to 
 be ri'presentwl on maps and glolies, generally as 
 n greut island or quasi-continent Ijing on and 
 Ik'Iow tho equator. "Europe, Asia and Africa 
 were tiio three parts of the eartli Ipreviously 
 known], and so this opposite region, hitherto 
 unknown, but mentioned by Mela and Indicated 
 by l*tolemy, was the Fourth Part. We can now 
 iH'gin to understand the Intense and wildly 
 absorbing InUrest with which pi'ople read the 
 brief story of tho third voyage of Yespucius 
 and we can si'C that in the nature of that interest 
 there was nothing calcuUtcd to bring it into com- 
 parison witli tho work of Columbus. The two 
 navigators were not regarded as rivals in doing 
 the same thing, but as men who had done two 
 very different things ; and to give credit to one was 
 by no means equivalent to withholding credit 
 from the other." In 1807, Martin Waldsee- 
 mOller. professor of geography at Saint-Die, 
 published a small treatise entllleil "Coamo- 
 gruphie Introductlo," with that second of the two 
 known hiiers of Yespucius — the one addressed 
 to Soderiiii. of which an account Is given above 
 (A D. 14»7-149e)— appended to it. "In this 
 rare book occurs the firnt suggestion of the name 
 America. Afier having treated of the division 
 of the earth's inliabitcd surface into three parts 
 —Europe, Asia, and Africa — WoldieemaUtr 
 
 ' 'I 
 
AUBIOA, lS0O-m4 
 
 •»y». Wbenfore I do not lee what U ri«htlv 
 t. e, the land of Americua, after Its dl&LVverer 
 
 EZ^"!'n5°n »'"«**»" mind, aince both 
 Europe and AiU hare got their name* froia 
 
 for which, aa M Hariaae remlnda 5a, the weatem 
 bemiaphere might have come to be known m 
 Atlantia. or Heaperidea. or SanU Cruz or New 
 IndUj. or perhap. ColumbU In atout 1 
 
 opment of the naming of America had been 
 completed That aUg. oonaiated of five diatlTct 
 u'^\J- ■*;™ri<:"» cSled the regions virited bv 
 Wm beyond the equator 'a new\orId ' b^u^ 
 they were unknown to the ancients; 3. Oiocondo 
 maae this striking phrase ' Mundui NovuT^Tn o 
 a title for hia tranaiaUon of the letter a 
 
 era mapa aa an equivalent for Terra Sancta 
 Crucis, or what we call Brazil; 4. the sugeJ, 
 UonwM made that Mundu. Novus wm the 
 Fourth Part of the earth, an.l might prop"v b^ 
 named America after iu discoverer; S. tKm^ 
 America thua got pUced upon several maps fthc 
 first, so far aa known, being a map ascribed to 
 Leonardo da Vinci and pu'llisllS'^aZut'^ii'' 
 and the wcond a globe made in 1515 by Johann 
 
 wha^t we^f TrS^'f^H" "" 'i'J"'v«l«nt f,^ 
 wuat we call Brazil, and sometimes came to 
 stand alone aa an equivalent for what we caU 
 South Ameriai, but still signified only a part of 
 he dry land beyond thi Atlantic^to which 
 Columbus bad led the way. . . This wider 
 meanins of South Ameriw] became alT he 
 
 was usurped by the name Brazil. Three cen 
 
 T,Z V"^,4« "™« «' Columbus l^e 7cm1 
 dye-wood called brazil-wood was an article of 
 
 Spain It was one of the valuable thinm 
 brought from the East, and when the F^rtS 
 
 K.lt'*.^ ?■"? dye-^ood "bundant ^n 
 those Impical forests that L8<1 seemed so beauti 
 
 f»«t^.V'''"'''""v*''« °"™« Brazil soon became 
 
 fL ;~ . . "• '" ""*• "nd bv slow <i.i.recs 
 the gK^t fact was learned, tlit nil the li^^U 
 found beyond the Atlantic by Coluinbus «,^ ? 
 hU sucec^rs, formed part of one conti^enta 
 
 !».„,„, "*" ^'"'•^- ""c name which had 
 
 become synonymous with New Worid was tl^en 
 naturally extended to the whole. The "volu 
 ™ary proces. of the miming of the wdirn 
 hemUphereaa. whole was thus made d, Tec 
 Amerio^ i^'i *';"ir^'- "'"' «P""'' 'he rlarne 
 
 «A 7(r •>) *"•"• ■"" ^'*<xterf of Amtnat, 
 ^ I^«*»OD»DL4jp,; A. D. 1501-1578 
 
 60 
 
 AMXItlCA, iso»-mi. 
 
 tA ^.,»5?»»— T1>« S«eoBd Verart of Oltda. 
 
 wM^h ^""* 7°y»5« °' AlonzoT^jSaTftSS 
 which he returned to Spain in June 1500 ™ 
 
 fn'3 en^'^H !""^'°« """"* ~PuiS'on 2?i Zu 
 and enterprising er.f -rer. By way of reward 
 
 wh! likewise the government of Coquibaco^ 
 
 S^n?i;!.#"M*''^- H«*"»uUiorizedtofltouU 
 number of ships ac hia own expense and to Dmsl 
 ecuf dtaooverie. on the coast^f^T^ICT 
 
 0^?P.rf.^ and thence proceeded to the 
 «v to t^'.,^"" *'''ct'°<»"tT he found hia 
 T^J2 J-oqufbacoa. Not liking this noor 
 country he sailed on to the Sv XLSdS 
 where he determined to found Wa^ „,tlfment 
 
 du,^tlr"'pi''T?"- '**»»'°«» to bfo ™ort 
 duration. Provisions very soon became acarr*; 
 and one of his partners, who hadteTn t^Tti 
 
 »t iif V„, H? "*'i". "" ""' "»• ^hole colony 
 ■et sail for Hispaniola, taking the governor with 
 "•em In chains All that OJeda SinS bv^ 
 
 " T'liws''uiT'"'.,""" "? "* '*4^c^e off ^^0^ 
 hi™ "*'»•"»• the costs of Wh ch. however left 
 
 f™mi:irhL°„"'»?,'K '««8;," Amerigo sai Jagato 
 irom LUbon, with six sliips. The obiect of thI. 
 
 vX^f "!^ .'° dl«»verrcertain isdlkd 
 
 cw i^l I''^'' "f '"PP"*^ '^ "« w<»?of Call! 
 cut and to be as famous a mart in the commerce 
 
 Th.vl.^2'''!? '^r^'^ "' ^'"11'= "■« In Euro^ 
 S^,^' ."T ^"P^ '^'^ ^'^"'». "nd then X; 
 
 slJJk W ""?S°'^r P*"'««'^,ln 'tonding for 
 oerra iveoa. The Commander's ship was lost 
 and Vespucci, with one vessel onlv V^li«i m,- 
 ooa.t of the New World, finding "I' J^''wh 'h 
 Is thought to have been Bahi* iJere "thev 
 wait.^ abo, ,. two months fn Vain exm^tation o'? 
 
 oat all hope of this tliev coasted on for 280 
 
 1^ II , ^^ ^ of the meridian of LU- 
 
 bon^ Here they remained five months .,mn 
 good term. wi,h the natives, with whZ hZ, 
 of the party penetrau.,| forty leagues into thS 
 
 iney leit <!4 men who had been saved from th« 
 
 SST.'^.Y" ""'P "^"7 f»^« '"em '"gun",! 
 oealdea other arms, and nravliiinn. fn» .i. 
 
 ™°°'^i th^n loadeJ with b£^ ( wSSdl „i id 
 
 homeward and returaed in saflty ' T^ 
 
 honour, therefore, of having form«l ' the flra? 
 
 vZ^' 'IT """"■•y l» dueTAmeri"o 
 veapucci. It does not app<ar that anv furthpr 
 attention was as this tim; paid to i "' uZ 
 the cargo of brazil which V?apucci had' brought 
 home tempted private adventurers, who were 
 ontent with peaceful gains, to tra.!,^ thither fo" 
 
 well known, tlmt in conaequeniu the coast anrf 
 •he whole o.imtry .^btaisrf^thc nMm« .!mh™,?i 
 ""'"'"••tanding^he holter ap^ultlon fS^u 
 
AJCERICii, lS0»-19n. 
 
 Dmrin. 
 
 ▲UERICA. 1B0»-1811. 
 
 '!! 
 
 
 tiMBtat at D«ri*n. — " For sevenl yeut •fter 
 hU ruinowi, though auccnsful lawsuit, we low 
 •11 'ntcM of Alouzu (le OJeds, exi-epting that we 
 •re told he nude auothrr Toyige to INKiuibacoa 
 [Yenezuela], In 1508. No record nmaiuii of thii 
 expedition, which aeenu to have Iwcn equally 
 unproflUble with the prece<llne, for we find 
 him, in 1508, in the Uland of HiM|>uniola ai poor 
 In pune, though as proud In spirit, as ever. . . . 
 About this time the cupidity of King Ferdinand 
 was greatly exciteu by tlie accounts by Colum- 
 bus of the gold mines of Venigua, In which tlie 
 admiral fancied he had discovered the Aurea 
 Chenonesus of the ancients, whence King Solo- 
 mon procured the gold used In building tiie tem- 
 ple of Jerusalem. Subsequent voyagers hail 
 corroborated the opinion of Ccluml)us as to the 
 general riches of the coast of Terra Firma; King 
 Ferdinand resolved, therefore, to found regular 
 colonies along that coast, and to place the whole 
 under some capable commander. " Ojeda wa» 
 recommended for this post, but found a competi- 
 tor in one of the gentlimea of the Spanish court, 
 Diego de Nicuesa. "King Fenliuaud avoided 
 the dilemma by favoring both ; not indeed by 
 fumiahtng them with sliTps and inuoey, but by 
 
 f [ranting patenu and dignities, which cost noth- 
 ng, and might bring rich returns. He divided 
 that part of „ho continent which lies along the 
 Isthmua of Darien into two pMvinccs, the 
 boundary line running through the Gulf of 
 Uraba. Tlie rastcrn part, extending to Cape de 
 la Vela, wascallcd Xew Andalusia, and the gov- 
 ernment of it Kivtn to <_)jcda. The oilier to the 
 west [called Castilln del ( )ro], including Veragua, 
 and reaching to Cape Omeios i Dios, was as- 
 signed to Nicuesa. The island of Jamaica was 
 given to the two governors in ronimor as a place 
 whence to draw supplies of provision.^." Slender 
 means for the ('(|uipinent of OJeda's expedition 
 were supplied by the veteran pilot, Juan de la 
 Cosa, who accnnipaiiled him as his lieutenant. 
 Nicuesa was more amply providnl. The rival 
 armamenu nrrivod at San Domingo about the 
 same time (in 15(>9), and much quarreling be- 
 tween the two eommuuders ensued. Oieda 
 found a notary in San Domingo, Martin Fer- 
 nandez de Enciso, who hud money which he con- 
 ientel to invest in the enterprise, and who prom- 
 ised to follow him with an addiiionai s!iip-load of 
 recruits and suppliea Under this arrangement 
 OJ<tla made ri'ndy to sail in advance of hts com- 
 petitor, enilmrliiug Nov. 10. 1509. Among those 
 who Sidled «itU him was Ft;!nri«co I'izarro, the 
 future coni|Uen>r of I'eru. Ojeda, l>v liis energy, 
 gained lime enough lo iieaiiy ruin hii expedition 
 before Nicuesa naelied llie scene; for, having 
 hkndedat Cariha).'<na, he made wariipon llie na- 
 tives, pursunl Hum rccklesslv into tlie interior rvf 
 the country, with TO men, nn'il was overwlnlmcd 
 by tiie de.-perate sivages, es<:i|iiiig wMi only one 
 compaiHon from their poisoned arrows. Ills 
 faithful frienii. I lie pilot, Juan de la Cosa, was 
 among the slain. uiKlUjeiUhiniseif, hiding in the 
 forest, was iii.irly (i( ad of hiaigeriuid exixisurc 
 when foiiiid and nxiieil liy a searclilng party 
 from his shijis. At this Jul cture llie lieet of Nl- 
 tucsa made its iipp<>nr;inrc. Jealousies were for- 
 
 gotten In a on union rage agninst tlie natives and 
 le IwoexiHillliona mr- joineil in an atlaelc on 
 Uie Indian viilai;es whicij span-d notlilii^. Niru- 
 Ma then prixeiiltil to Verafua, while Ojeda 
 louiidcd a town, which he caUed tian bebaatiun. 
 
 66 
 
 I at the east end of the Qulf of Uraba. Incessantly 
 harassed by tlie uauvea, terrified bv the cITecta of 
 the iH)i8<m which llieae used in tbe'ir warfare, and 
 threatened with starvation by the rapidexhaustloo 
 of its supplies, liie settlement lost courage and 
 hope. Enciso and his promised ship were waited 
 for In vain. At length there came a vessel which 
 certain piratical adventurers at Hlsponlola bad 
 stolen, and which brought some welcome pny 
 visions, eagerly bought at an exorbiuut price. 
 Okda, half recovered from a poisoned wound, 
 which he had treated heroically with i^Hl-hot 
 plaU's of iron, engaged the pbvtes to convey him 
 to Uispaniola, for the procuring of aunpliea. 
 The voyage was a disastrous one, resulting in 
 shipwreck on the coast of Cuba and a month of 
 desperate wandering in the morasses of the island. 
 Ojeda survived all these perila and aulTcringa, 
 made his way to Jamaica, and from Jamaica to 
 San Domingo, found that his partner Enciso had 
 sailed for the colony long before, with abundant 
 ■upnlies, but could learn nothing more. Nor 
 could he obtain for himself any means of ivtum- 
 ing to San Sebastian, or of dispatching relief to 
 the place. Sick, penniless and disheartened, be 
 went Into a convent and died. Meantime the 
 despairing colonists at San Sebastian waited until 
 death haa made them fewenough to be all takec 
 on board of the two little brigautines which wei» 
 left to them; tlien tiiey sailed away, Pizarro in 
 command. One o? tlie bfigantiiies soon went 
 down in a squul!; the other made its way to the 
 harlxir of Carth.i>:en», where It found th- tardy 
 Enciso. searching for his colony. Enciso, under 
 his commission, now took command, and insisted 
 U|Kin going to Sun Sebastian. Th^ru the old ex- 
 periences were soon renewed, and even Encisc 
 was ready to abandon tlie deadly place. The 
 latter had brouj;ht with him a needy cavalier, 
 Vasco Xuilez do Balboa — so nce<ly that he 
 smuggled himself on board Enciso's ship in a 
 cask to esi'ape his creditors. Vosco Nuflez, who 
 bad coasted this region with Bastidas, in 1500, 
 now advi.s) il a roi.ioval of tha colonv to Darien, 
 on the opposiie roost of llie Qulf of "fralia. Ills 
 advice, which w.i>i followed, proved good, and 
 the hopes of the settle™ were raised; butKnciso'a 
 modes of povernnient proved Irkaomn to them. 
 Then RillKia called attention to tlie fart that, 
 when liiev enissed the Uuif of Uraba, they passed 
 out of the territory covered by the patent to 
 Ojeda, uiiclcT wliirh Enciso was commis,sioned, 
 and into tli.it gmnted to Nicuesa. On this sug- 
 gestion Eiii Iso was promptly deposed and two 
 alcaldes were eiecteif, Dallxia being one. While 
 events in one corner of Nicuesa's domain were 
 thus esUililisliing a colony for that ambitious gov- 
 tmor. he himself, at the other extremity of it 
 was faring liaiily. Ho had sullered hardslilps, 
 separation fruiii most of his command and lung 
 aliaiiiloriui. Ill on a desolate roast; luul rejoined 
 his follow, li alter great sufferini;, only to su!Icr 
 yet more ill th. ir coiii[ianv. until <i ss tlian om- 
 Iiiiiidre.1 liiniiiiieil of tlie"700 who Siiilid with 
 him a few iiionilis licforc. The seltlijiient at 
 Veniirua li.iil Inen deserteil, and another, uanu'd 
 Nonilire di- Dios undertaken, Willi no linpfovc- 
 mint of ciri iiinslanc-es. In this situation he was 
 rejoireil, at last, by the arrival of on-; of his lieii- 
 leimii's. I{..!ri^-,ii!e Co!men.trr», who ramn with 
 snpiilics. Colmenareahiouglit tidings, inonwer, 
 nf the prosperous cohmy at Darien, which he had 
 discovered un his way, with an tuvitalion to 
 
# 
 
 AMBMCA, 1500-1511. ^^T^ "' 
 
 (f icum to come and awiine the goTernment of It. 
 He accepted the Inviutlon with deliijlif but 
 slMl the community at Darlcn had n pent«d of 
 n before he reached them, and tlicv refused 
 to receive him when he arrived. Permitied finally 
 to land, he waa leUed bjr a treaihiroua party 
 among the ooloniau— to whom Balboa la aaid 
 to have oppoaed all the reaistaore in bin power— 
 waa put on board of ao old and crazy l.rliraulinc 
 w th aeventeen of bia frienda, and comnelled to 
 
 !?it "l*^,"l!'?' "* *°"''* "" "ra'Kl't to Hpaln. 
 
 The fniU bark let aail on the first of Slarch 
 151 1 and steered acroaa the Caribbean .Va for the 
 island of Illapanlola, but waa never neen or heard 
 of more.-— W. Irvlng,Z(^«on<< IVya^a ofColum- 
 Inu and hu Companion; t.i. 
 
 Alk) im H. jl. Bancroft, nut. of th« FiKifle 
 Slalet. c 1, <A. A. •' 
 
 *•.?• '5"-— Th« Spmlah conqneat and oe- 
 cupatioa of CoIm. See Cuiia : A. U 1511 
 
 A. D. ISI3.— The Vqjage of Ponce de Leon 
 fn queit of tb« Foaataia of Youth, and hia 
 DiacoTerr of Florida.- " Whatever may have 
 been the Southcmmoat point reached by Cahot 
 in coaating America on hia return, it la certain 
 that he did not land In Florida, and that the 
 lonour of first eiploringthat country Is due to 
 Juan Ponce de Leon. This cavalier, u ho waa 
 governor of Piicrto Rico, Induced by tl... vaeuc 
 traditions circulated by the natlvea of tlw West 
 Indies, that there was a country In the north 
 pows-^liig a fouDUiin whose w.iieni restored tlic 
 
 f *^ fL ^'S""'-. ""i?'" " *" "''J'" "f ''■« ambition 
 to be the first to discover this marvellous reeion 
 
 iJ V" *'«^v''« ««»'gned the governorehii., 
 t ^'..?o" ""h three caravels on the 8d vt 
 March 1512. Steering N. i N., he came upon a 
 country covered with flowers and vrrdiire • and 
 M the day of his discovery han,, „ed to be 
 Palm Sunday, cabled by the 8p»ni„r is -Pasqua 
 Florida, be gave it the name of Flori ; ^ from this 
 circumstance. He landed on the 2d of April and 
 took nossesslon of the country in the name of 
 Iht kW of Castile. The warlike peonlo of the 
 coast of Cautio (a name given bv tue IrKlUns to 
 all the country lying between lupc ,„veral 
 and the soul hem point of Florida) •>.,„. how- 
 ever, comrie led him to retreat, an^i he pursued 
 his explorati.'n of the coast as far a> ti)' 8' north 
 alitude, and on the Hth of Mav dou. ' 1 CaM 
 itT','"^l J"'" rifling hi' course 1 r'uer^ 
 lili^'i,? """^"Peo' finding the i.dand of i„miDi. 
 
 Xiirii 1 ?*".7'1 '5> ""' *^'"' °' Youth, and 
 descnUMl by the Indians as opposlto to Florida, 
 he diHcovercd the Bahamas, and some other 
 islands, nrcvloualy unknown. Bad wearhorcom- 
 
 repair dmnagea, he desnaiched one of his cara- 
 
 andof the pilot Anton de Alaminoa, to gain In- 
 forinallon respecting the desireil land. wT.ich he 
 bad as yet been totillv unable to .lis^over lie 
 retura,Kl to Puerto nfco on the 21,t of Septcm 
 
 wi h nnlT frT. "'^"r'V^'' OrtuWa arrived al.s.. 
 with news of Bimicl. He reported that ho had 
 hrlll"'^ ,'.'"' '''i^d. -which he descriK 
 large, well wooded, and watered by numerous 
 
 CnTi'r "1?'.^ ^ '""<;!? '" dIscWring"- 
 
 l-^'^l'^heara'nt^te.n-ifst?! llfc'^ 
 vantages which Ponce do L^n promts^' wL •/ 
 froai tUs Torage turned i , -he profit of 
 
 AMEIUCA, 1518-1517. 
 
 FlofWa which waa conferred upon him, wat 
 purely .oiiomry;b,ii, the route uV' by him in 
 ?^^ "•'.'">'" P-rtoUico, show, tliadv 
 tagecr making the h. meward vovag^ ., Spain oy 
 the Baha!i,» Channel."— W. B. Ily, ij^ l 
 
 AtaoiN «;. R FHlrba-k,, W of ^ loJida cA t 
 
 Pacific by Vasco Nu ... de Baibo* -PednZ 
 riM Da,da on the I.thmu..-Wi?r.,ncferd? 
 
 vasco ^ufle^ .U: Balboa seems to have earilr 
 held the lend ,„ affair, at Darien. thoughTI 
 without much . i'Ppsitlon; for facUon and turb^ 
 
 ence were rife. fencUo wa» permit, 'to ^ 
 hU grievance:* and compUiints to Spain, but Bat 
 boos colleague Zamudio. went vi^ hl«i, and 
 n??^*"" ''°n'?^* .^"^'«ed«^ to Hfapanlok li^ 
 nJ ^"m ,'"*''-^''"'''*i'd with goUI. W Z quert 
 of gold had sucr. -ded at hist. The I>ari^ i3 
 venturer, had f. .nd conside^ble qu '^tl?, ta 
 the possession of the sun,>undin!r ,.,.', and 
 
 had the pruden.o to e...a1,llah'fn*r„!!y reiTltoSJ 
 with one of the most .mportan^ f Uie ieteh! 
 b...ring caciques, whose coi^ly daugh-.^, he ^. 
 ded -according to the eaay cu»t. n. of S. 
 country-and whowially he licame ;., waw with 
 
 ^Z 1 7 P'"."der. 1... h»rv, sted more; gold 
 
 than any Ufore him ha<l ! • • ' ■ * ■ 
 
 ing of the New World I- 
 
 obtair •: s. ->yd little tor , 
 
 urea i • r. i to them ;. c 
 
 near m()i...,iiins and tow :- ; 
 
 ellan youth, son of a fri....i:r .ici,,, 
 
 arlyexciled Iheirimaginal \ by the i 
 
 he told of another great sea, nut f.ir t„ -i,, „,«,, 
 on the southward-strctcliing shore, of \vhich 
 
 we.^.h'^T'.'n';;" T'"'"'^'"' "-ry Kind of 
 r,l; . ".1 .^ "'"'"• •'O'ev.r, that Ihcy would 
 
 nee,l a thousand men to fight their war to tLu 
 ,1, . . """^"» eavc such credence to the storv 
 the kirfor'.r','" Spain to*,li<.lt forces Zl 
 the king for an adeiiuate cxne<iirion across the 
 raountarns. They sailed In October, 1518 but 
 did not arrive i- Spain until th following May 
 The^ found Bai:H.a In much disl.. ,rat thfcouru 
 tnciso and the friends of the unfortunate N-. 
 i'i? ^ ;;?"*'^.'y r''"'^' him by their complain^ 
 J^tH.^.*""? ""' •*"*^^ "'">'"»' Proceeding, 
 against him to Ivc-ommeneed. M. .n.ime Mi5e 
 nkling of thes.. ...utilities had r™. h.nl BslbS! 
 « T.!^ ^'■™'.7''' ''y •^'^'-"el which bore tohto; 
 at the same time, a commission as capUin-itcn- 
 tral from the authoritieain Hispanlol^'^ lie ISw 
 ^irn"'t'l^"'"J ll.e discoverer of the oc«w 
 ^.K 1^ '" ^■"'."'5 ''^.''■«'» de-cribed, and ofSe 
 ^^?,i ';.''' ^k".^?"*"*, 'v'*''"^ J''» ^''emies could 
 interfer.. w th him. "Accordingly, early In Sei^ 
 tembcr 1513, he set out on hisyiownil expS^ 
 diUon f..r finding 'the other sea," ac,orapii& 
 
 uiiudkinccthoraniwrk. 
 --.n. But what tljey 
 I .ir<d with the tri>aa- 
 li'Ming ' .vend -j*- 
 tLesoutI: One i . 
 vartJ 1 
 "■ which 
 
 ..._ .„.. .>r,Ms lurnca i , -ne profit of geoe ■■ 
 phy. the tfUeof -Adehuitado of Btaiini L^ 
 
 67 
 
 IV^^Z''»^\^"°^' "■"* ^-rdogs, whIcEwere 
 of more avail than men, and by Indian alavJ 
 tocarry Uie bnrdens. llcwent bysea o thete^ 
 ri w^.l" ? ^ ' ■ ''Vf-'?l«w, King Cireta, by whom 
 he wa. well ix. . ived, and accompanied by whoS 
 I (liana he moved on Into Pnnriw's teirfiorv' 
 .i iieling the fear, of thi. cadaue, he paaaed Via 
 r 'l"='„:::i^°"; ."«"'"«■ Thenextchl?f1SS,?a^ 
 U ,d named Ouarequa. attempted reslstar-cv 
 but waa routed, with a gtcat Jauglver of <}^ 
 
AHERICA. 151S-1517. 
 
 finding tf 
 
 AXxiucA, isn-isia 
 
 ii*' 
 
 it 
 
 If 
 
 peonia, and BtlbM piuhed on. "On tha 35th 
 of cepteraber, ISIS, be came near to the top of a 
 mouotaln from whence the South 8«a wai visi- 
 ble. The distance from Poncha's chief town to 
 thia pobit waa forty leaipiea, reckoned then lis 
 days' journey ; but Vaaco Nufie* and his men 
 took twanty-llTe daya to accomplish it, aa they 
 suifeted much from the roughneas of the waya 
 and from the want of proTislons. A little befora 
 Vsaco NuHes reached the height, Quaiequa'a In- 
 diana Informed him of hla near approach to the 
 iea. It waa a sight ia beholding which, for the 
 fliat time, any man would wish to be alone. 
 Vaaco Nufiea bade hia men sit down while he 
 ascended, and then. In solitude, looked down 
 upon the vast Paclflc — the flrat man of the Old 
 World, so far aa we know, who bad done aa 
 Falling OP his knees, he gare thanks to God for 
 the favour shown to him la hb being permitted 
 to dtsooTcr the Sea of the South. Then with hia 
 hand be beckoned to hla men to come up When 
 they had come, both ha and they knelt down and 
 
 Soured forth their thanka to God. He then ad- 
 resaed them. , . . Haring . . . addnaaed his 
 men. Vaaco XuBe* proceeded to Uke formal 
 possession, on behalf of the kioga of Caatlle, of 
 the sea and of all that waa in it ; and in order to 
 "...I-e memorials of the event, he cut down trees, 
 fomed cmatea, and heaped up stones. He slso 
 iuacr.hed the nsmes of the mooarchs of Cas'ila 
 upon jtnt trees In the vicinity." Afterwarda, 
 when he hail descended the western slope and 
 found the shore, " he entered tlio sea up to hla 
 thigha, having his aword on. and with hla ahlekl 
 In Ua hand; then he called the by-staoders to 
 witness how he tourhed with his person anil took 
 poasesslon of this sea for the kiui^s of Castile, and 
 derlaml that he would defend the possession of 
 It snlnst sll rDincra. AfU-r this, Vasco NuRra 
 made friemls la the usual mannrr, first ronq\irr- 
 ing and then nei^iitlatlng with " tiie several chiefs 
 or csciiiues whiMe territories came in his way. 
 He explored the Oulf of San .Mlnuol, finding 
 r.'^ch wealth of ixarls in the reirion, ami re- 
 turned to Darien hy a route whiih cmased the 
 Isthmus considerably fnrther t<> tha north, reach- 
 ing bis r.p|<>ny on the auth of Jsnuary, I.IU, hav- 
 Ing lieen ntwnt nearly five monlhs. " Ills men 
 St Ihirien reo'lviii h'm with ekullallon, and he 
 Imt no lime In sending his mws, 'surh nlgnul 
 snd new news,* ... to the Kliix of Hpain, ac- 
 rompanylng It with rirh presriii*. Ills letter, 
 whlih irave a ili miled account of his Joiircey, 
 I nd wtilrh, for its length, waa rDnipaniJ by 
 i"rt«'r >i«rtyr to the cp|el)rateil Ictirr that came 
 to the wimie from Tlberiua, rnntaimil in every 
 pare thanks to Uixl tint he hwi est aped fmm 
 •uih (fn-at ih>n<{i'ni and Ulmun. Hoth the letliT 
 avl the pre-^'DH were iutriislr<l to a man namnl 
 ArlK>lanrhe. whnih'|iartr<l from Uarten about the 
 beittnntnif of .\Unli, 1/114. . , . Vhw-o Nuflis's 
 mrwiiifir, .Vrlxilstirhe, reaihf.l the rourt of 
 t*|isln loi liiie for hU mantrr's IntiTi-sts." The 
 hitiT h(ul Hirimly tnen su|>rr<M-i|iMl in the Oov- 
 rrniir>hl|i. :iii<l :ii< •ncri'saor wm <>n the way to 
 take 'il* «iith..riiv fn)in him. The new gover- 
 n.ir WM ..!..• I'. IniriM De Avlla, or IMvlls, ss 
 tbiimnii- U * .tint linen writtiii;— nn enHirUsand 
 msllKnaiit nlil man. under wh<m<> rule on the 
 lalhuiiis thii ileiitninlve i iierifv i.f M|isii)sh con- 
 quest nw u> lu ■■■•'om'st ami in .,1 hi»rtl<<Hi ami 
 hrslnlew develi.pment, ('oii.i.l, uoiuly esixwi 
 *a ha waa to the Jealousy ami Ualre«! of iVdni 
 
 riaa, Vaaco NuBei waa probably doomed to ruin. 
 In son.i form, from the first At one time, in 
 1516, th»re seemed to be a promlae for him of 
 allUuce vrith hia all-powerful enemy, by a mar- 
 riage witl one of the govemor'a daughters, and 
 he received the command of an expedition which 
 again croaaed the iathmua, carrying ahipa,aod 
 began the exploration of the Pacific. But cir- 
 cumatancea aoon aroae which gave Ptdrariaa ar 
 opportunity to accuae the explorer of treaaonablc 
 designs and to accompliah hla arrest — Franclaco 
 Pizarro being tha officer fitly charged with the 
 execution of the govemor'a wanant Brought 
 In chalna to AcU, Vasoo NuBei waa aummarilr 
 tried, found guUty and led forth to awift death, 
 hying hU head npoo the block (A. D. ISin 
 "Thua periahed Vaaco Nufiei de Balboa. In tha 
 forty-arcood year of hla age, the man who, since 
 the time of Columboa, hadahownthe moatstatea- 
 manlike and warriorlika powers fai that part of 
 the world, but whoae career only too much re- 
 sembles that of OJeda, Nicueaa, and the other un- 
 fortunate commanders who devaatated thoae 
 beautiful regiona of tha earth."— Bit A. Helpa, 
 SpanM Ommiat in Am., bk. 6 («. 1\— " It 1 
 have applied strong terma of denunciation to 
 Pedrariaa Utfvih.it la beruuse be unquestionably 
 deaervea It He ia by far the worst man who 
 came offlrlally.to the New World during lu 
 «»rl V government In this all authoritlea agree 
 Ami all ar.ee tim , Vasro Nuflex was not dewrv 
 ins of d<..th. ••—!.'. 11. llsmroft llitl. t^ tht t\>n- 
 fie iHii.t; t. 1, cA. 8-18 (/«)<-*.</!, o, 4.W). 
 
 A so IW AV. Irving. Zi/« and Vo^ge* «< Cul- 
 umlmi and Ui Cwmjnninn: ». 8. 
 
 . ^ ?• iS.'>~P'**2'*'y "^ "-• >•••*• by 
 
 lu*B da SoUa. See Paiiadiat: A. D- 131 T- 
 l.>57. 
 
 A. D. isi7->SiS.-Th« Spviiuds find 
 Meslco.— " An hlUalEO of Cuhtt. nsineil H< r 
 nanilez de Cord' va, sulled with three vessels on 
 sn PYpi'ilitlnn to one of the neiKhlMmrlnii 
 nahninit IiilnniU, In quest of Iniliiin slaves (Kili, 
 8, 1.117). He eiicoiintered a suiivsulon of heaw 
 gales which drove him far out of his course, anil 
 at the enii of ihn-e weeks he foumi hlm«.'lr ou s 
 strange and unknown cosst. On Ismllng sn<J 
 Bsking tlie nsnieof the cimntrv, he was aiinweri'i; 
 by the nsllvis • Tirtclan,* nicaii'-ig 'I do d"i 
 unihmtami juti,' but which the Hpaohriis, nils- 
 Interpri'linu Into the name of the pi.iii', eaully 
 corrupu i Into Yucatan. Some writers give s 
 dilTerent elynii>lofy. . . . B«nial IHai saya the 
 wiinl came from tin- vegetable 'yiica' snd "tale," 
 the nanio for a hill.a k In wntih It ia planinl 
 . . . M. WsliliM k finds a much more plouniht. 
 diriviitlon In the IiulUn word 'Ouvoiickstun 
 MUtin to what they say.*, . . Conlova ha.l 
 Ismlid on the north etistern end of the peninsula 
 at ( ;i|w Cnt.K he. lie wns ai.loiii.hc(l at the size 
 ami ii..ll(l nmti rials of the lHillillni.'scon<trii< ti.| 
 of Hone nnil lime, so dlfTircnt from the fniil 
 ti niinints of n'l .|s and rushes which fomie<l the 
 hiiliil«ll..ns I.f llie isln.nhn. He «»« utiuik 
 III-", nl!h the hlL'her cultlMitlon of the soil. hiiI 
 with the ilrllcnte tciliire of the n.lttm (rnrininl. 
 ami (.'"M oriiiimcnls of the natives. Kv.rvlhliii.' 
 IniliiHlitl nclvlll/ailon far tiiiHTlor loanvihlti' 
 he h.sil l»fori. kIhi.-iw^ In the New WoH.l ||i 
 
 "»■ It vlilinceof s illlTen-nt raw, iii..riov,r 
 
 ill the warlike spirit iif the ;>ei>ple. . . . Wh.r. 
 cvir they landed they were met with the ni.-i 
 deadly husllllty. Ciinlova btuiavlf, in OM of hU 
 
AMERICA. 1S1T-M1& 
 
 •drmidMi with the IndtaM, no«lv«i more than 
 » doxM wouDdi, end nae only of his part? 
 rtcprd unhurt At length, when hi> h«5 
 c«ut«l the peniniuU u f.rii tCLT .r he 
 returned to Cub^ which he reachodTtUT in 
 
 S!? .''^.«" """^ "'i*" T"""y- «•"'• """ more. 
 the««imen. of curiouely wrou,rht ^Id, cnl 
 
 ESIi^ S' thit -ahMMvery. aod he prepared 
 wtth all despatch to aTalf hlm«clf of It lie 
 
 S'"foJ ?^„°"'. * !!."'• *>"'«'"« »' ' "' 
 
 WMeto for the newly diicovercd Undii. and 
 DUced it under the command of hU nophcw 
 Juan de Grilalva. • m«, on wh<« prK" 
 prudence, and attachment to hlmwlf ho knew 
 "><»"" "t The acet left the p..rtof8t Jaw 
 ^'Sa**- "'^ h "'8. . . . (Grijulva Z2 
 pu-rf orer to the continent and c.««u^ the 
 pen^nnula. touching at the aame pl«,x-, as his 
 E^'i^L.^';!,'^'"''.'" *" •'"'<k. Hke 
 «Si.Wlr t^,tl^"^ "' • •"'«•'" «^lvlll«itlon. 
 especially In the archltectursi as he »cll niij;ht 
 be, since this was the legion of tho«> ejtiZnII. 
 nsry remains which have become rvc-uily the 
 •ubjtt of so much speculation. He was atto™ 
 
 erUcnlly objecu of worship, whirl. Ii« m.i « i,| 
 If.nT""/.','''^'* Hemin-fe,! by th«« , irn.m- 
 .t.nce,of bi» own country, he ^ve the ih i In- 
 
 proprlatcl toa much wi.lw ext.-nt of t.rritnrV 
 ^VhPr,■v..r Gr^Jalva land.tl, be exiMri.n..a tL 
 Mme.„.frl,n.i1y reception as ConLva. i ,o,,..h 
 he .ulT,.r.,l h.« U,|„g better pr..p«„,l , J' „» Jl 
 
 • frirmlly conf, nice and tmflic with one of tbi 
 cblrfs, on tho U,o de Tal««x,, and"'. 1 the 
 i«ti«fa,tlon of nwlvlng. for a few *T,mJ^ 
 fy- .mi trinkets, a ri. lAn^surS of Im* , "^ 
 ornsmont. ai.,1 vem-i^ of fl„ J„t f»,;,a, c 
 f"r.„. „M workm«.i,hir Orijalv. nowVl b| ? 
 
 pli»h..l the chief oJl,rt of bis ml&Xi ■ iTu 
 
 U.ii., u. V.ta«iiiM, with the trensun »..|ulre.i 
 
 ;« II..- pr..vlme of |'am„-o. n-tuminK to « ,.l« " 
 
 l... .n.! of »l«,ui .Ix nionlbs fn.in l.i part.m. 
 
 ■>.. n-«hinK the Uian.1. I>„ W8« m.rpriN.l to 
 l<«nj that another ami more f..nnl.ial,l.. „m.a. 
 m.'nt had l«.|, (1,^1 out l« follow ,.,, |.i, "«„ i 
 .|i«rov..rie., ami u. And «nl..r., ,t the «..,„. tl„,.. 
 fr...n the g.,vemor. omrbci In no very c..irl.,>.„ 
 IsntruaiTP. to repair at once to At. Jaim II,. «•-» ! 
 
 rmlv„| l,y thai |K.,«H^r t menTv with .nlo- 
 
 ■..•« t...t with re|.r,«l«H,, for h.vlni „..«|., , ,| 
 
 SSa*? AMERICA. lilt-lSM. 
 
 «• Ulr an op||ort.inlt>- of ,.i»l,|i^,„„ » r„|„„v ,„ 
 1 ..• ...,i.,.rT 1... b«<i vlsite.l."_W, II I'TvJot 
 
 Ai... iN_ ( St 4 K«i;«.urt; HiH nf nfutan 
 'I }. •,,'- "'"'"I '"« ''"■" »«<ill". J//m..,r, I,' 
 
 M«l?o ''i'''<l'*— ■'■''? S.?«"'*'» Conquest of 
 
 J Pv'S'?-'5»4.-Tht Voran of Magellan 
 •nd Sebastfan del Cano. YSV New ^ "rM 
 PssMd and th. Earth circumnawiatTd. fh, 
 
 Uagr,,, at Ba<laJo..-P..n., .^|.„" |a„ ,* 
 
 M.^«ll.«. ,va. a .||MHr.,.,„| Hortuffu.* ge. 
 ^. ..«.. «... h.,1 «.rr„i hi. i-o„„iry f,., rtv„ yf^A 
 ». ti-.. Indies under Albuquerque, and unUen^ 
 
 (JO 
 
 w«n the secreU of the Eastern trade, fn mi* 
 
 Sffcen'f JJ"" v''7 2-8»Ph™-' "d"-«,t™n*„',L': 
 CTl friend, Huy Faleri... another unre,,uited For- 
 
 ^ n^t^f f"* "«e H«*.- two frienrp^ 
 posed not only to pitjve that the Moluccas wen: 
 within the Spanish lines of demarkatl<mbut to 
 u^'hv fh'^i' thither diffen.ntT:mi,i? 
 uTt^r^, '/"H^'^V- Their schemes we" 
 i? w to, adopted Md carried out The Stnilta 
 of Msgellan were d.«»vered, tho b>t»d ftoutn 
 Sea was cn«ed. the Ud^ie, and ihe PhS 
 Iplne. wew inspe. ted, the Jloluccwwere d^ 
 
 inThS"-.."'" ^»PS °' <5""^ Hopew^"oW 
 on the homeward voyage, auo the irlol» wm 
 circumnavigated, all In^l^s, than thn* veS^ 
 
 only oiw of hl» five ships rBtum.-.l f .in.Ur sihu- 
 tian del Canoj to tell trie marveloui itoiT The 
 magnitude of" the enterpri* wa. e,uA ^y 
 
 iSd rise to th^fHrJ" ■r"""' "• 5™* *'"'"«^'«' 
 "W sue In the minds of mm, sm the mind, of 
 
 men begM soon to gnup and utilise the nwulu 
 
 trade and commerce, ami f.,r the bcneflt of wig 
 niphy, astronomy, maii.ematic, an.i the o«h?r 
 Bcfonces. This wooUerf .i 1 story is It not u" I In 
 
 snd he Splrcrlc.. a. well m at bonfe. now se'C 
 the ineviuble conflict spproa.hinp w.tb thor 
 
 Z "?i'.S;rVr "" ""^'"■"'"•''?n.«inuin'lng 
 tii< ir right*. Thoy oiKuly aMcrti-.! them, and 
 pn,nouncwl this tru-ie with the M..luco» by'he 
 bpauidi an encr.«^hment on their prio?dtt 
 erl.., ,n,l poMe».lon. .. well a. a vi..Y«tion ..The 
 Papal (oinnact of im. an.i pr.p,ir,W tben.«.Ir„ 
 e,..rgetlo,ly for d.-f..,.* si,| irtfcnj."' ','„ ,, ,' 
 Tl .rM"*"' i "!'■ ^""'i''f-'» " op- nly d.."ar." 
 tVh «"■'.'"'"• "'r' ""■"«! "'oWmtChriMlan. 
 . the Molu. .-a, aiKl by fri,.n.lly int.rrourie iSih 
 <e king, of tho*^^ i«|„„,|,. r,,,,.;..,, ,,„.,„ toCbri, 
 Ian suLKtlon au.l l,^.„ght b«, k Liter, am' 
 lr.l... e to t>«.r. Il.,..t. th™- klnJ,, "t"^ 
 {«•.. p le came ui;.|..r the prot«tion nfvhj". y 
 ll.-(,li., ,(,u, ,h,. Spanlar.!. clali„„| thaT the 
 M..lu<ra.. w,.rj. within the SpaniKl. half. ,„,' wIm^ 
 
 ii;g hot. King John of Porf,i.fal Imb^,,! char" 
 V t,. .I,.|;.y .ii«pat.l.ln^ hi. ,.,•» fl, ,a until the 
 
 l^un rt. I,. .„.,...|,t,.,|, „„| ,h.. „hl|., w..r, „M 
 T.a*.. t.volhn,tlan..rime». wh„'„wn.,l u the 
 .■wly ,|U....v..rp.i an.r to l.r di.«<overr.| partsof 
 tl... who, w„rl,l lH.».,,, ,h,,,. hv ,|..,|'^f" ; 
 .^11..- lo,..v a-n-l I:, „„.,.t I,-, CoagreM at 
 Badajoj, 1,- ,h,.,r r..|.t>„„,ailv,.,, „, ,11.,^" ml 
 
 Ir |.airl„.,.„y an.i i., ,|..,i„„ „,„| „„fc.. „„ 
 
 ill..; .1 ■"". 7'""^" '•■;"' I"'"''- »«r.rlng to 
 al.hl.' h) II ,• ,|,.,|,| f ihc c-..i.Br..,*, .\,.,.oni. 
 
 ...i« l.tll,. l.,r.|,.r |.,w„ foura,..|.w ,.tv ,v|Ij 
 
 T1...V ,..„,|,ri*M ,1... ,|r,l J,.,|,.,... lawv-r,, [..ailM- 
 
 ..all. .a iH .„iro„o„„.r. ,„ g,^,h„,, „,,v|,». 
 
 t..r, .,,,1 p.loHof th,. la.„l. aii.„n« wh.«. ,.«,,,, 
 
 ()..m.«. I>i...t.. HMx'r .. .1, Tl... , ,.h,..! . ...T 
 
 Slartyr, OvlH,.. au,i Uonura, a.«' v "ry ariuilni. 
 
AUXRICA. 181M8M. 
 
 
 ▲nsRiCA, isn-iasi. 
 
 n 
 
 but no rci^ular Joint (l«:l»ion cmiM be nMchrd 
 the Piirtiiv-urN. dirllning to nulwcrlbp to the ver- 
 dict (if llic tJimnlanU, Inssmiicli lu it denrivcl 
 them of Die Mc.luiian. »o e» li party piibllali.<l 
 und priKlalmeil ^u^ own derision after the Con 
 ?r™l'r^'f ".P '" "'"f""'"" «n the l»«td«yof 
 May 1(J24 It w«». however, tacitly undersUxMl 
 that the Moluccas fill tu Spain, while Brar.ll to 
 th« Mteiit of two hundred leaKiiea from Cane 
 M. Augustine, fell to the Portiiguew, . 
 However. nm<h poiKl resulted fnmi this first 
 gj-ograiihlrHl Congress. The extent and hreailth 
 of the PiiclHc were !ippr«lat«l, and the InlJ'ience 
 ol the I ongn aa was soon after seen In the greatly 
 Improved maps, globei, and charta."— 11 Hte- 
 Vens, //mi, and Qtog. Kmc. 1453-1890.— " For 
 thri-e monius and twenty <lays lie [Magellan] 
 •nlled on the Pnciflc and never saw lnhablie.1 
 laud. He was cninpelled by fandne to atrip olT 
 tlie pieces of skin and leatlier wherewith hU 
 rigging was here and there bound, to aouk them 
 Id the sea ami then soften lliem with warm 
 water, so as lo make a wretchisl food ; to eat tlie 
 •weepings of the ship ami other loathsome mat- 
 ter; to drink water Kone putrid by keeping; and 
 yet he resolutely held on bis coutk. though his 
 men were dying daily. ... In the whole his- 
 tory of human uiidi rukingt there is nothing that 
 excewis. if Indeed there is anything that equals, 
 this vov.igc of Mag.llan-s. That of Columbus 
 dwindles away In comparison. It Is a display of 
 superhuman ourage, superhuman persever- 
 ance -J. W. Oraper. IhM. of tht r»UtUft,i.,l 
 Vmtnpment of Eur,>i>e. eh. 19.- "The voyage [of 
 Mage' an] ... was doubtless the grvatesl feat 
 of narlgatioii that has ever lieen performed and 
 nothing can be imagined that would lurpass 
 It excet>t a Journey to s<mie other planet. It has 
 uot the unique historic position of tlic first V(vv. 
 
 i ■ 
 
 age of Coliiinlius, whiili brought together two 
 streams of human life that had \mn dUJolneil 
 since the Ohu ial I'cri.Kl. But a) an achieve- 
 ment in ocean navigation that voyage of Colum 
 bua sinks Inuj inslgniUcana- by the aide of It 
 ami when the earth was • sect'.nd time encom- 
 r>«pl by the greatest English a:illor of lii^ aire 
 the advance lu km.wledge, aa well as the diir.r' 
 ent route chosen, bad much reduced the diffl- 
 cuItT of the performance. Whan we consider 
 the frailness of the ships, tlie Immeasurable rx 
 tent of the unknown, the mutinies that wfrf 
 prevented or quelled, ami the hardships thil 
 were emiurcd. we can have no besitntlon 1 1 
 speaking of Magellan as the prince of navlga 
 fra ~ '*' ^•*"*'* "f-^'otnca. ek. 7 
 
 Also vt I^^| Stanley of Alderlcy, Tht Firtt 
 iiffOfmund »V ir.-r/J (llikluft Huf., 1874) — 
 R Kvrr, ('Mfrli„i, r I'-yir^s. e. 10 
 
 ..^r'".i'5'»"A'*5 -''"''• VojagM of CAra, 
 aad r ' Ion. -D.aco»ery of the moiitli of the 
 MIM. laippi.-Exploralion of the Carolina 
 
 C*Mt.-ln ni'J, f>,.r,.iMu da Oarav, governor 
 of Jail ska, who had Uen ime of theiiimpanlnns 
 of (jilMiibus on Ids s,.,-„„d voyage, havliiff 
 beard of the rl< hnesj ard beauty of Viiiitan 
 at bis own charge m lit out tour shins ». li 
 equipped, ami with g,w.| pl|„i,, under the com. 
 maud of Alvarei Alonso d« Ilne-la. His pr.> 
 
 . J?'^^'** ' .**" '" """■'> '"' •""" "'mit. w, ,t 
 of Horida. which was not yet certainly known 
 10 form a part of the continent The iiralt 
 kaviaf baeo toufht for lo vain, his iblps turned 
 
 70 
 
 toward the west, attentively examining the 
 poru, rivera, InliablUnU, an<l everytliliig else 
 that seenieil worthy of rvniark ; and especially 
 noticing the »ast volume of water brought down 
 by one very large stream. At last they came 
 irpon the track of Cortes near Vera Cru7 
 The carefully drawn map of the piloU showed 
 distinctly the Mississippi, which, In this earliest 
 autlientic trace of lu outlet. Inars the name of 
 the Esplritu Santo. . . . But Oaniv thought not 
 of the MIsalsalppi and lu valley: he i-oveted 
 access to the wealth of Mexico; and, In 1828 
 lost fortune and life Inglorlously In a dispute 
 with Cort<-s for the government of the country 
 on the river Panuo. A vovage for slavn 
 brought the Spaniards In 1590 still farther to the 
 north. A cimipany of seven, of whom the moat 
 distinguished waa Liica* Vasquex de Ayllon 
 fitted out two slave ahlpa from St. Doinluiro in 
 quest of Inlmrers for their plantations and mines. 
 From the Bahama lalamls they passed to ;hc coast 
 of South Carolina, which was calle<i Chicora 
 Tlie Combabee river received the name of 
 Jordan; the name of St. Helena, whow day is 
 the 18th of August, waa given to a cape, hut 
 now belongs to the sound." Luring a large 
 number of the conlidlng native* on lioard their 
 •hips the adventurers treacherously set sail with 
 them; but one of the Teasels founder.'.l at sea 
 and moat of the captives on the other sickened 
 and died. Vasquex de Ayllon was rewardcrd for 
 his treacherouB exploit by being autliorizid and 
 appointed to make the coni)uest of Chicora. 
 '• For this bolder enterprise the undertakei 
 wasted his fortune In preparations; in l.VM his 
 largest ship was stramld In the river Jordan 
 many of his men were kill.Kl by the natives; and 
 he himself escaped only to suffer fn.m the con- 
 aciousnesa of having done nothing worthy of 
 homir. ^ et U may be that ships, sailing under 
 his authority, mailc the diH< very ol the Chesa- 
 pcakc and name.1 It the bnv of St. Mary and 
 pirhapseven entere.1 the linyof IVIaware, which 
 ill SpanUh geography, was calleil St. Christo^ 
 pher s '—(J. Bancrtift. llitl. «f thi V. ,<? n( 1 
 eA. 2, ' ' 
 
 Also iM 11. II. Bancroft. //,,/ „/ tu /Vi|i- 
 Stutrt. t. 4. e*. 11, ,iml t. S, M. 0-7 —W O 
 Slniiiis. Iliit.nf S Cinilimi, hk \ eK V 
 
 A. D. ya3.15a4.-The Voyani of Vorra- 
 N«wil!?* »,°*«f*»»'i»t«of Prance ia tho 
 Piew world. — It Is consutnily a<lmiite<l in our 
 history thai our kings paid no all.iit|„n to Amcr 
 -a Ufore the year 1523. Then Fran, is 1 , wi.h 
 Ing to exiite the emulaUon of his subjecu in 
 regani to navigation and commeri-e. as he ha<t 
 alijaily so successfully in regahi to the silencis 
 and Rne arts. onlere<l John Verm.iiil, who was in 
 his service, to go and explore the NVw Ijinh 
 which began to lie much talked of in Fnimi' 
 ■ . ><raianlwasacconlinitlvs.nt, lnl.V.U, wish 
 four ships lo discover Ni.rth Anwri.a; but our 
 hWoriaos have not spoken of his first ex|Hdltinn 
 and we sliouhi he In Ignorance of it now h*! 
 not lUmiisio pp'serviil in his great coll, , iloii » 
 letter of \ .rai-ni hims..:f. a.ldrrsse<l lo Kraml-. 1 
 and dited iH-ppe, July 8. l.'.J4. In it U sup 
 p.«es the kio| already inforim-d of the succU 
 and drtuils of the voyage, •<> that he coni.nu 
 himself with Stating that he sailcl fr.mi IHeppe 
 n fouryes«-la, which lie lia<l saf, ly b^..ll(l,t ba<k 
 o that port In January, 1,'iUl, he s.iihd with 
 two thi|is, th« UaupliliM and Uiv Normande, to 
 
 
AMBRICA. im-int «««y^ ^HB^cA. lM4-,Ma 
 
 milie»gtln«ttlie8pMU.(U Towards the ckiw 
 of llioiaineyfaror carlyin tlio next, be .gnio 
 mteu out the D«uph ne. on which. emb.rfli.g 
 w.tUSOmenuidpmvl»ion«f„r,iKht month!., hi 
 flr»t i.ilcd to the hiiml of Ma<relra."-Fa her 
 
 W««). M. l._ "Oo the :7thof Jauuarv, mj he 
 
 [Vcrraiano] parted from the''i»laa"dCT!r',S •„ 
 r-elknownflttle group of iilsnds near Jtadei'ia 
 an<t Mlled at tM wmtwani, ruonlnit In 85 davi 
 BOO iMiriiM with . Il.k. .1.1 ^. ' *> '. *« "•^» 
 
 -«,. ^.,vu «• ura» wvsvwani, ruonlnff in So dav 
 
 trade 
 
 --- — e-.™, „..^ • iiKui, wHi pieaaaui ei 
 breere along the northern border of the „„,, 
 winds In «lK)ut 80« N. III., smck waa t^Z- 
 quently nearly like that of Cohnnbui on bU tzi 
 vojaje On the 14th of February he met 'with 
 " T^1\ • ""Tfow* " "ny'ihlp erer en. 
 counlere.1.' But be weathered X ai& punu^ 
 lilt royage 10 the west, 'with • little d?"utl^ 
 
 end 400 leagues, he descried a new country whirh 
 a. he auppoaed. had never before b<4n teta 
 either by modem or ancient narliratora. Th« 
 rouniry wa. rery low. From thS\to»e d«! 
 cnwi.m It I, erfdent that Verraiuw came" 
 sight of the east coast of the United Btatn!llv».t 
 the lothof M,,reb. 1584. He puS wJ'Srf^a" 
 
 Me amt Ml led southwari, for about fttflcaeucs 
 he ..j,,e, |.K,klng f,^ a harbor and flndlnT* "0*; 
 llf then turned northward. " I Infer that Vern. 
 i:.no ..•,w ll„te of the coast of Zth Car^Htai 
 and nothing of that of Georgia, and that lnX« 
 rvcl..ii, 1.0 ran, at most, be called the discoverer 
 -nly of the c™«t of North Carolina l7I 
 
 r..»mle.l ( ape ll„teraa, and at a dUunce of about 
 
 hor,.,l nnd spent several davs. . . . This Was 
 Ik- s<c,..„1 prl.„lpal landing-place of Vernuano 
 f«err.-k.,n ,V) league, fro,',, Cape n,a?" It 
 «..,.1.| fall s.,inewl,ere upon theea.tco««t of I i|. 
 '«_a"-. In latl.u.le Ssl N., where, by s-.me 
 "'Ihnr., it U thought to have Nrn But If Tn 
 
 ' "J hen., a., he dl,l In olh.rca«.,, fr„,„ hi. l„,t 
 
 • K i,.r biSKCond lauding wimewhero south of 
 he eutrauce to rheMp«-,k? Bay, and nTar "en 
 
 •r^.n<e to Albemarle *,und. ' And th's Utu; 
 
 ^UHT. with 11,0 'sail of too league,- wl Ich W 
 ..■ U.O uy» he rnyle from his s^ond to his thW 
 
 I iii. ing.pl,,,^.. In Npw York Bay Il.V.m!^ 
 
 .t. hi, tLird Undlngsutlon an' excellent £:^'i' 
 
 "e Hn';?,"""' '." f»i'""- "<:" p"'u*t.Hi f;;S^ 
 
 io tn,n, ami from wh <h ha aacendcd 
 
 .'« r'v'T In his boat Into the InUTlor. llTfS 
 he ^ ..ores very thickly settled, a„d as b. t»Z{ 
 Z,o" '?,'?«<•• '""her. ha dl«^.vemla tJS 
 
 « i7h ".'',"■• ™°" "»■> «> ""•*• ca,i.e to m 
 
 fri 'div'""''''"T',';,."'Hrr''.- *"" -"■iJ^ »"v 
 
 npn.ii). . This dew rlption contains sevrnil 
 I'L ■ "; v'"''C.'' r*" " '"'' '"'"' rlear tl«t the 
 l„;^'>\vJ^'f "" "•o'cen.of theJ'SJcur 
 f. " .'i^"»«"n"»«"ehoragehavln«h»»n ., 
 Ora.;P.cnd Bay. the riv.rwhleR he eZ*r,.d being 
 
 ■• L'i.c*:?ndt' RKw ; .r^'w &i' 
 
 nllk t . J ^^Wilfanwii Ray and Newiwri 
 mouth. "l«ooMtUi<,»oyai«WMptt«n«|„f,r 
 
 n 
 
 fat 11 '", >*"^"' I'leppe «-arlv In Ju^ 
 
 >UdeiJ.n.'^'"t "P"ring expedition. froS 
 Sl. *"? "."'' ''«'!<. had aceonilnSy lasti>d but 
 flveandauttif „,onthii."_J.o. k5iI /jSticiAi 
 
 (A«rr„h« a„dCnti^ Uirt. «[ AmZTi^ U 
 
 e-/'::",^!'! -TTT^Vv^- ^- ^•• 
 
 ^Ifl, I .£^ '""''» ir" «»quered and 
 P«-IIkJ. the Oovemor Pedrarias de AviU 
 founded and «^tle.l the dtle. of ftTnatna and of 
 Nsta, an,! the town of Nombre de EHoa At ,Wa 
 ""■. «''"„f^»l'<«l'' Frandsco Ptiarrolon of the 
 
 Tru'il 10^°^';; T"'!"- ' •"■'(pf "e d y of 
 iruxlllo, was living in the city of Panam.' 
 
 IK»«.Mlnghls hou«, hfai farm and his iSStaZ' 
 
 "de!Mt!,tP'''^'P^.P*°P'*°''hel.nd»^^^^^ 
 Mf h^ ^.r'*"*' *"• ''■!'"« '"'•'ogul.hid him. 
 Krvl^olhi^M''?!? ""i «»""■>«. "nd In the 
 
 ^'« bu( full oVT'i .^'"« »♦ ■*« ""1 •» « 
 
 pow but full of Eeal to cont nue his labours 
 ?.^ t fe^:*:!™ "»"" """"llwlngulsbed i^rvw" 
 
 P«lrirl«'S^ •■«*"• *"' ?""»'" Pfoni-lor. from 
 
 r-etirarlas to dlneover that coast of »h» Hn..ti. 
 
 Sea .o tho ea^twar,!. He s^» Ur« pa^^o^ 
 
 '''•'!"""« «"•«;;«! ship which he^uK,and 
 
 on iK^essary supplle, for the voyage, and he Kt 
 
 out from the city of Panama on tfc I'oTday^f 
 
 heinonthof November, In the year 1924 'n. 
 
 i«d 113 8panlar,l. |„ his company.Xs d^ somJ 
 
 Im liar. jervanM lie commenced aVoraw^n 
 
 which they suffered many hardship.. tl?e ^S 
 
 UIng wl,,u;r and unpropitio,,. ■ ' Prnn, thl^ 
 
 m.n ,|i,.d of hung,, ,„^ ^, ,„,/." ,,,' 
 
 cour*. of Which he found no cou„ rv that 
 
 ur",'«i'^a'ft"'i:'f ^ "' 1.1. a.nbitiou. Pl!,7m! ^! 
 luriie.! after Home months to "the land of 
 Panama landing at an Imllan village „e", ,."' 
 
 'Ti"' .'!"''•• ™""^' Ch-x-hama " hen" he 
 
 ^a"wmhva*;i' """","• .'"' """ '""' «H-">m?un 
 r .?!.?.''' •*""" "' •'"• '"*•"; ami all that 
 had befallen waa re,H,r„.d to IVIraria, wlflle 
 the Captain remained l«.hlml to fef""h him*. If 
 
 KnamaTi"'"?"" . '*'"-" "■<■ '"'P «rt i'^Ut 
 fanama It was found that a few •)•.'. , .tLl 
 
 the Captain Olego de AI,,.a/,7hiVL. wTn 
 
 •enrrh of the (nptain Piiam,. hi. coiJ^p«, on 
 
 with snofber shin ,ml 70 „H-n." AlnZro ,lj 
 
 hi. party followed the crnst untfl Vhex f„^- To 
 
 a great river, whi.l, they calle.! »knjZ^]Thw 
 
 orHiMi;;?" "' 'Kr^.f B"<-»ventur;" .', v:; 
 
 h,H,i 1'k:,' • ^^'''.v tl'ere fou,Ml ,ign. of gohl 
 lie ( :m.^„'"1,"" '"""" "' "•« l-apealn Ilirro.' 
 uie la|>ialn Alin«K-ro rcturnet to Chucha,na 
 where he found hi. .H.mrnde. They agrml thai 
 
 entirpnuo, and defray the ein,'iiM's whi. k 
 ..-,o.,n,..l to .nore .l.«,i lo.two cXelUn,* A^ 
 Panama ,„u.b obstruction wa. ,Z^,i bv 
 Pe.lrana, ami .Hhers, who ..hi ||„, ,h"^ v«« 
 •^lould not Ik. p,r.l.te,l l„, „n.\ that I, , .M7le.f J 
 w, uld not be w-rved by it The r\,"»,n\\ml 
 ro^wl.h the authority give,! hh,,T"';\!,'JJ: 
 rad., WM very «H,iMant In p«»eeutlng the ,Zi 
 
I 
 
 I 
 
 I 1 
 
 AJORIOA, 1SM-1S88. 
 
 CbrMtrlK tU 
 W. Lawraim. 
 
 AMERICA, 1SS4-1S8S. 
 
 he had oommenoad, mad . . . Pednrlai wu 
 forced to allow him to engage men. He wt out 
 from Puiuna with UO men: and went to the 
 place where Plcarro waited with another BO of 
 the Ont no who sailed with him, and of the 70 
 who accompanied Almagru when be went in 
 March. The other 180 were dead. The two 
 captains. In their two ships, sailed with 160 men, 
 and coasted along the laml. When they thought 
 they saw signs of habltatlnns, they went on 
 abore In three canoes they had with them, rowed 
 by «0 men, and so they sought for provisions. 
 They conUnued to sail In thU way for three 
 years, suffering great hardships from hunger 
 and cold. The greater part of the crews dledof 
 hunger. Insomuch that there were not 80 turrlv- 
 Ing. and during all thu«- thrre years they dls- 
 corered no good land. All was swamp and In- 
 undated country, without inbubltanta. The 
 good country they discovered was as far as the 
 river Sao Juan, where the Captain Plzarro re- 
 mained with the few swrvivont, nomliug a cap- 
 tain with the smaller ship to illRniviT nemo good 
 land further along the coast, lie seut the other 
 ship, with the Captiiln Diego de Almagro to 
 Panama to get more men." At the end of 70 
 days, the exploring ship came back with goml 
 reportii. and wltli specimens of gold, silver and 
 cloths, found In a country fiirlhir south. "As 
 soon iM the Captain Almairri) arrived from 
 Panama with a ship laden wiih men and horses, 
 the two ships, with their comnmnders and all 
 their people, set out from the river Siiu .luan, to 
 go to that newly. discuveml land. But the 
 navigation was dfHlcuit ; they were detained so 
 long that the provisions wen' exhiiuste<l, and tlic 
 people were obllgtd U) go on shore in search of 
 supplies. The ships renrhed tlie bay of 8aa 
 MaU'o, and some villa^.,.s to which the .Spanlahis 
 gave tlie name of .•<unlia«<>. Next tUey came U) 
 the villages of Tacamez [.\tlU'unle^ on iIh- coast 
 of mo<leni Ecuador], ou the wu coast further 
 on. These villages were seen l.y the Christians 
 to be large and we 11 neoplci: iiu.1 when 80 
 Hpanlanis had advanced ii leuitui' licyond the 
 vilUgps of Tacamci. niori' tlmu !il,(HK» Indian 
 warriors encounlemi them ; hut sMini; that the 
 Christians inU'nditl no v\i\. and iliil not wish to 
 take their gcKids, but nillier to treat lliein ix-acx-- 
 fully, with much love, tlie liidiuns ihitistetl from 
 war. Ill this lan<l there weri' aliiindum Hiipplies 
 and the people le.1 well (irrlere.1 liver, the vll'. 
 Ittges having th<'ir streets niiil miuares. One 
 village hs>l more than 3,mtll limis<.>s. und others 
 were smaller It scemni to the captains and to 
 the other Hpunianis that nothinif ( ould be done 
 in that land hy ri-aaon of tlie smailneas of their 
 numbers, which n-ndere<l iheni iinuble to cope 
 with the ludlans. !*o thev agreeii to load the 
 ships with the supplies to lie found in Ilio 
 villages, and to return to an islaml called Oallo 
 where tliey would be safe until the ships arrive<i 
 at I'lmanm with the news of wli.it hail lieeu dlv 
 covered, and to apply to llie lioverrior for more 
 men. In onkr that tiie Caiuain* niiirlit Ik; able t-) 
 continue their undertiililiiK, aml'ioniiuer the 
 land, laptain Almaijro went in the ships 
 Many iiersons had written |., the (^vcruor 
 entreating him to onler tlie i rews to return to 
 1 anama. saving that it was iiii|H>asil>le to endure 
 more iianlshlps tlmu thev liad siilTered during 
 the la>l three years The Ooveinor onlered thai 
 all tluise who wUhed to gu to Panama might do 
 
 so, while those who desired to continue the dis- 
 coveries were at liberty to remain. Sixteen men 
 stayed with Plzarro, and all the rest went back 
 in the ships to Panama. Tlie Captain Pizsrro 
 was on that isUnd fur Ave months, when one of 
 the ships returnetl, in which ho continued the 
 discoveriet for a hundred leagues further down 
 the coast They found many villages and great 
 riches: and they brought away more specimens 
 of gold, silver, and cloths than had Iieen found 
 before, which were presented by the natives. 
 The Captain returned because the time granted 
 bv the governor had expired, and the Ust day 
 of the period had been reached when he entered 
 the port of Panama. The two Captains were so 
 ruined that they could no longer prosecute their 
 undertaking . . . The Captain Francisco llzarro 
 was only able to born)w a little more than 1,00() 
 castellanos among his friends, with which sum 
 he went to Castile, and gave an account to his 
 -Majesty of the great and signal services he bad 
 ixrformed."— f; de Xeres (Sec. of Piiarro), Ar 
 count of tht PniTinet of Cuzeo; tr. and rd. by V 
 It. MarkhamUlitkbiyt Sof., 1872). 
 
 .\iJO IN: W. II. Prescott, llut. o/lht Conquut 
 of nrn, bk. 2, ek. 2-4 (r. I). 
 
 A. D. iw.— The Voyage of Gomex. See 
 C ANAiiA (New Franck): Thk Names 
 
 A. D. 15*6-1531. — Voyage of Sebutian 
 Cabot and at'emnted colonisation of La Plata. 
 See Paraquat: .\ P. l.ll.VI.ViT 
 
 A. D. lsa«-i54J.-The Florida Expeditions 
 of Narvsasand Hernando de Soto,— Oiscovary 
 of the Mississippi. Sec Fiahuua: A. D. 13SH- 
 
 = ^- °o '53«-i5»— P"»»«io's Cea^Mtt of 
 Peru. See Peri jl 1>. l.jSi-l.Wi m»i I.Vll- 
 l.VKI. 
 
 A. O.IS33— SpMiah Conquest of the King- 
 dom ofQaito. See El 1 AIMiit. 
 
 A. D. 1534-1535-- Exploration of the St. 
 ^->wrencc to llontreal by Jacques Cartier.— 
 
 72 
 
 '•^', IS',,'*'" ^■™" ""•''■ I""' *"V'»»>'™ "f Verra 
 zano], PhllinC'habot. Admiral of France. Inducerl 
 the kiii,t [Francis 1] to resume the project of 
 founding a Fninli colony in the .New Wortd 
 whence the SiutDlanls dailv drew such great 
 wealth: and lie presented to him a Captain of St 
 .>lalo. hy iLiiiie Jaci|iies Cartier, whose merit lie 
 knew, and whom that prime accriited. Cartir r 
 having recvlveil his instriictious. left St. Malo the 
 Al of April, 1584, with two ships of au tons and 
 l'« men. lie steered west. Inclining slightly 
 north, and had such fair winds that, on the lOtli 
 of .May. he made Cape IKinavinta. in Ni'wfoun.i 
 land, at 46^ north. Cariler found the laad ther.- 
 still covered wiUi snow, aud the shore fringe,l 
 with ice, so that he could not or ilareil not stop 
 He ran down six degnvs ».mlh iioutheaat. aud 
 entcreii a port to which he gave Ihn name of St 
 Catharine Theme he mm. .1 l.a. k iionli 
 .Vfter making almost ilie tin nit of .Newfound 
 land, though without lieing a hie 10 satisfy him 
 K'lf that it was an inland, li. i.».k :\ souther! v 
 course, croasfil the gulf, apiimaclied the oait. 
 ucnt. and eulen-d u virv diip liay, whefr hi- 
 «MltenHl greatly fruni hi-at. wliew* he iitll. I 
 i! Chaleurs Bay He was rliarmeil with Ih 
 U-uiity of the countrv, and well plritstHl with t.. 
 Indians that he met snd with whom he e» 
 iliangcil some goods f^r furs On leavli,. 
 
 this liay, Cartier visit. I 1 good pit- .f the ...... . 
 
 around the guif, au 1 iwk poascssiou of the cou- 
 
AXBRICA. 1884-1S8S. 
 
 Omodo. 
 
 AMERICA. ItMl-1608. 
 
 try in the same of the matt Cbrlftian ktnc u 
 VermMnl J»d done In aJI the pUcei wbeii'he 
 Jaoded. He let Mil again on the ISth of Augtut 
 to return to IVance, and reached 8t Malo laTeir 
 on the 5th of Beptember. ... On the report 
 whlcli he made of hi« roTage, the court con- 
 cluded that it would be uaefulto Prance to have 
 a «eltlement in that part of America; but no one 
 
 fS"'."'.'*^^'" r""" ^ •"«»" ">an the Vice- 
 Admiral Charles de Mony. Sieur dt la Haillerave 
 ThU noble obtained a new commiaaion for Car', 
 tier, more ample than the flrw, and gave him 
 three ships well equipped. This fleet waa ready 
 about the middle of Hay, and Cartler eni- 
 
 barke<I on Wednesday the l»th." rils' three 
 vesse 8 were separated by violent storms, but 
 found one another, near the close of July In the 
 gulf which was thel' appointed place of rendes- 
 vous. "On the 1st of August bad weather drove 
 him to uke refuge In the port of SL Nicholas, at 
 till' mouth of the river on the north. Here Car- 
 tier planted a cross, with the arms of France and 
 remained until the 7th. This |)ort is almost the 
 only »ixit in Canada that has kept the name 
 given by Cartler. ... On the lOth the throe 
 vessels re-entered the gulf, and In honor of the 
 sjiint whose feast is celcbmted on that dav Car- 
 tier gave the gulf the name of St. Uwi«^: or 
 rather he gave it to a bay lying between Antl- 
 eostl Island ami the north shore, wlience it ex- 
 tended to the whole gulf of which this bay Is 
 i«rt; and because the river, before that called 
 lUvcr of Cnnada, empties into the same gulf it 
 iusenslMy acquired the name of St. Lawrence, 
 which li still (»Kn. . . . The three vessels 
 uscimUil the river, and on the 1st of Septeiiiber 
 tl«T enteri.1 the river Haguenav. Cartiefmerely 
 rerouMoiiered the mouth of this river and 
 hastenwl t.i jeek a port where his vessels might 
 rr^ZT'l''^ , Eight leagues above Islo a..x 
 (. oudres he found another much larger and hand- 
 »omer slaud. Hll cvered with tnit and vines. 
 He cal.-d „ Bacchus Island, but the name h» 
 fc"-;",'.'"^ *".'?'• ''"''<•»>» The author of 
 
 name nf t artier, prelen.ls that only here the 
 cmntry begins to lie calUtl Canada. But he is 
 «iirelv mistaken; f-H- It is c<rf»ln that from the 
 .mliest time, t «• Indians gave this name to ti ^ 
 »h,.|e country along the riv.r „u lK,lhsid.^, from 
 l» mouth o the Saguenay. From Bai^hus 
 UlMud. Cartler unn-ceded to a little river which 
 
 i.i.T, i,„- !;•>■>"■■"■ iu» nine nver which 
 
 i.n .;Rr.> "*•.*'"' '■™'*"' f"""'!'* north: he 
 c«ll..,l It R vtfre dt ste Cttilx. t»., «u«. he enterwl 
 
 o*;,", Ti. *H f i'^ '"'""^'^fF'-^t of the Exalw 
 nlM Itivttre de Jacques Cnriier. The day after 
 h amvHl he re(elve.l a vi.it fn.m an Indian 
 dilef .,«m„| I),.nn««,m,, whom the author of he 
 ria ,„n of Um v„y«^.r styles Lord of J.niida 
 a kr treated wi,|, ,|,i, ol.jef l.v means nfTvo 
 n.ll»ii»«li,m. he had taken to France U.e year 
 
 nf'n.,. r; *'"' •"""* » '""•^^ Fn^ncl, Ae" 
 lnf<.nm,| iLnnacna that the strangers wlsliwl 
 II *■".' i' '" '"Bn "lilrh seemc.l K. trouble him 
 
 . u .iKiM non known „ii, er llic name of Island <.f 
 
 »molli I.. ,,.„„, ,„ yf^„^ wiihout scelnii It 
 
 > i^ii'"' I «• I'Topi,. „f l|,„ i„.u,,s wore of a dif- 
 
 imT """1 '?"" '''• •'"' "'« he wished in 
 I"""' «el"*nly by iJw a,lvanta«« which he 
 
 78 
 
 rlfc- £^"SL».^^°?*1*°» "'^h "no ''««• to 
 IMS Bt nen«, and tbenco in two boats. Car- 
 tt«ri.«hedHocheUg»OcLa. "Theship^of 
 the town WM round, and three rows of paliUdcs 
 Inclosed in it about SO tunnel shaped cab^^h 
 over 80 paces h»g u>d 14 or l.-Hvide. It m» 
 entered bv a single gate, above which, as well 
 
 ^^^ T 'rHJ^*'^; "" • kl-'l of gallei^ 
 reached by Udders, and well provided with 
 E^ "Jr^'i and pebbles for the defence of tlie 
 &,^" 1 '"'"'''"SS'* o' the town spoke tlie 
 wrJ^^i^"'"***,; I*^L r*^''"^ ihc'^Prench 
 .1*^ . ■,• •.; Cartier visited the mountain at 
 thefoot of which the town lay, and gave it the 
 
 the whole Island TMontreal]. From it he dis- 
 -hi!.ni.''*^'ui"*'" "' country, the sight of 
 »T5 «^"*V^ Wm. . He left'llochelaga on 
 
 Bainte Croix. Wintering at thU place, where 
 hU crews suffered tcrribry from tJ.c cold and 
 from •curvy, he retume<l to France the following 
 •Pring. Some authors . . . pretend that Car 
 tier, tllsgusted with Canada, dhi^ua<le<l the king 
 hto master, from further thoughu of It; anil 
 
 R„??i.'i i" ■*"™ '" '""'*' **•■> "' ""at opinion. 
 But this does not agrw! with what Cartler hlm- 
 !7i.lEf'.K° ^ inemolrs. . . . Cartler in vain 
 extollwl the country which he ha.1 discovered. 
 ^S^, '«"""»• ■'"I tlie wretche<l condition to 
 which hU men ha<l Ijeen reduced by cold au<l 
 •curvy, persuaded most that It would never be 
 
 n?f„^ ^\t" nowhere saw any app,»rancc of 
 mines; and then, even more than now, a strange 
 tond wh ch produced neltlier gold nor silver was 
 reckonol as nothing. "—Father Cliarlevolx. Hut. 
 qTAeu /Vrinrt ((raw. ig J. u. Slu,i), bk 1 
 o lif"-"-. •*■ ^""^ OtiurtU Coll. of Voyant n» 
 Vaniian, e. 1, M. 3. 
 
 nO» HHDtTINO, Ac. : A I>. X^iOS^ 
 
 A. D. iSM-»5SO.-8wuilsh Conqussts in 
 ee Cim-E: A. D. 14.10-1:^4 
 
 Chila. See". _ 
 
 A. p. I53«-I53« _.,. 
 
 wsw Craiuda. Sec Colomuian St ai>,» : 
 
 |8.— Spanish Conquests of 
 
 is8«-n3i "^'* ^'°'^'""*-'' iSTATKi, A n. 
 
 V«.£' '}1i"i^3.~J«cqnss Cartlsr's last 
 »u!?Sl";*^'*'*^ atUmptsat Frsnch Colo- 
 aisatfra In C*n«la.--J^,n Fnuivols ,le la 
 Hmiuc. loBl of RolK-rvsl, a gentleman of Pir-snly 
 was the most earnest a:. I energetic of tl»*e wl.o 
 ileslre«l to colonlic t lu Unds dlscovert^l by 
 Jacmies Cartler. , Tlie title and authority 
 or llcutcnantgeiienil was ronfeneil iipfm liliii; 
 hl» nile to extend over Canada. H.Kliehiira. 
 rtagiieniiy. Newfoundland. Belle I.le. Cirimn 
 Labrwlor. L« Omn.l Baye, an.l Biir«nl«„!,. w|,|, 
 
 This patent was dated the 15th of Jnmwrv 
 IMO. Jijciiucs Cartler was named meond In 
 
 8Ai of May, l.Vll having provision., I hi, fleet 
 for two renm. He rtiiialned on the ti; Uw. 
 rince umii the following Jnm, s,rkiii^. v.ihily 
 for he fal.l«l wealth of tie land of Sa.ru, i,,,/ 
 nn.Itiig the Indiana strongly In. Iln, d |„ » 
 IrenrlHrous h,«illltv, and ■sullnln.f sivere 
 hunlshlps during the winter KiiUnlv ,li,. 
 couragcd ami disgusted, lie aband,jue,l hl« uu,ler 
 
AMERICA. lMl-1601 
 
 nmHiuaiiil 
 
 AMERICA. 15<3-1S<7. 
 
 I* 
 
 -i 
 
 taking early In the rammrr of 1542, and mfl«l 
 for home. In the road of 8t. John*, Newfound- 
 laod. Cartier met his tardy chief, KoberTal Just 
 coming to join him ; but no peraiuulon could 
 'oducc the disappointed explorer to turn bacli. 
 "To avoid the chance of nn open rupture with 
 Rohcrval. the lieutenant silently weighed anchor 
 during the night, and made all nil for France. 
 This inglorious withdrawal from the enterpriie 
 paralyied HolnrTals power, and deferred the 
 permanent settlement of Canada for genentions 
 then unborn. Jacques Cartier died soon after 
 Ua return to Europe." Roberral proceeded to 
 Canada, built a fort at Ste Croix, four leagues 
 west of Orleans, sent l.uclt two of his thi«e ships 
 to France, and rcmnincd through the winter 
 with his colony, having a troubled time. There 
 IS no certain account of the ending of the enter- 
 prise, but it ended In failure. R)r half a cen- 
 tury aftorwards there was little attempt made 
 DV the French to colonize any part of New 
 France, though the French fisheries on the New- 
 foundland Bank and in the Gulf of 8t Lawrence 
 were BUwIlly gMwjni In activity and Import- 
 ance. • • W hen. af Ur fifty viars of civil strife, the 
 strong and wise sway of Hcnrv IV. restored 
 rest to troubled France, the spirit of discoveiT 
 again arose. The Marquis de 1« Roche, a Breton 
 gcntlemn.i, olrtained from the king, in 1S00 a 
 patent gnintlne the same |x>wers that Roberval 
 had powwssnl. • But U Roche's underuking 
 proved more disastrous than RolKrval's had been. 
 Yet, tJiere Imd been enough of successful fur- 
 trading ii|i( uod to stimulate enterprise, despite 
 these misfortunes. "IVivateadventurers.unpro- 
 tectc<l by siiy special privilege, licgau to barter 
 for the riih peltries of tlie Canadian, hunters. 
 A wealthy nicrtluint of St. Malo, named Punt- 
 gravc. was tliv iMildcst and most successful of 
 these tniilirs; lie made a<'vcml voyages to Ta- 
 doussnc, at the mouth of the Saguenav, bringing 
 back earh time a ricli cargo of rare and valuable 
 furs." In IflOO, Pontgruve effectetl a partner- 
 ship with rair CImuvin, a naval captnin who 
 obuineii u iiniint from the king giving him a 
 mouo|Mily of the trmle; but Chauvlndlcl in l«« 
 without Having «.ii reeded In establisliing even a 
 trailing |imt at Indomwic De Challe, or De 
 Chastes. goMrnor of Dleii|M>. succeeiled to the 
 privili lies of I'liauvin. and fc.unded a compunr 
 of meriliMiiu at Rouen (IBO:!) to undertake tlic 
 devil.ipiiHiit of the rrsoum-s of Canada It was 
 uiidir Ihi aUHpici's of this company that Samuel 
 Chami.lHiii, lire f(.und.r of New "France, came 
 upon tilt «rnc.—E Warburton, T/i4 Conmal „f 
 tiiiuuVi. r. 1, (f, iZ ' •' 
 
 AlJMi IN F. Pnrkman. nnnerni nf Fninet in 
 theX.r Wmt,): fhnmiiliiin. rH I-« 
 
 A. D. i<6»-M67.-Th» Slav* trading Vot- 
 ■gaaof John Hawkini.-Btginniags o? Enc- 
 lish Enterprise in the New World.— ■ The 
 liistory of i;nKll»li Aniiri.a begins will, the 
 three slave trailing vovauis of John Hawkins 
 ma.|r In llic viari IMj, rm. and I,VI7 Noih'- 
 Iriit tlint Knglitlimrn had ilotie in ronmrllon 
 with .ViiH riiH. pri'Viousiv to those vovagc's had 
 any r.'siilt worth nconllng. England lin<| 
 known llir N, w World iiiMrty si-vcntv years for 
 .John ( al».t nachcd it shorilv afur it's Illmovry 
 l.y C.lninliu,; and, as tin' tidings of the .lis 
 covery s|irearl inimy English advenlurera hsd 
 erosseil tin .\ilaulli to the American o«ist Hut 
 H ymn passwi. and the cxcltenMot of noTclly 
 
 74 
 
 subsided, the English voyages to America had 
 become fewer and fewer, and at length ceased 
 altogether. It is easy to account for this. 
 There was no opening for conquest or plunder, 
 for the Tudon were at peace with the Spanish 
 sovereigns: and there could be no territorial 
 occupation, for the Papal tlUe of Spain and 
 Portugal to the whole of the new continent 
 could not be ditputed by Catholic England. 
 No trade worth having existed with the natives: 
 and Spain and Portugal kept the trade with 
 their own settlera in their own hands. ... As 
 the planutlons in America grew and multiplied, 
 the demand for negroes rapidly Increased. The 
 Spanlarda had no African settlements, but the 
 Portuguese had many. and. with the aid of 
 Prench and English adventuren. they procured 
 from these settlements slaves enough to supply 
 both themselves and the Spanhirds. But the 
 Brazilian plantations grew so fast, about the 
 mkldle of the century, that they absorbed the 
 entire supply, and the Spanish colonists knew 
 not where to look for negroes. This penury of 
 aUves in the Spanish Indies became known to 
 the English anil French captains who frequente<l 
 the OuTnea coast ; and John Hawkins, who had 
 been engaged from boyhood In tlie trade with 
 Spain and the Canaries, resolved In 1469 to take 
 a cargo of negro slaves to Hispanlola. The 
 little sqoivdron with which he executed this 
 project was the first English squadron which 
 navigated the West Indian seas. This voyage 
 opened those sens to the English. England hud 
 not yet broken with Spain, and the law excluding 
 English vessels from trading with the Spanisli 
 colonists was not strictly enforced. The trade 
 was profitable, and Hawkins found no difficulty 
 In disposing of his cargo to great advantage. A 
 meagre note . . . from the pen of llakluyt con- 
 tains all that is known of ilie first American 
 voyage of Hawkina In its deUlls it must have 
 closely resembled the second voyage. In the 
 flrat voyage, however, Hawkins had no occasion 
 to carry Ids wares further tlun thn^e ports on 
 the northern side of Hisnaniola. These ports 
 far away fn.m San Domingo, the capital, win 
 already well known to the French smugglers. Hv 
 dill not venture Into the CariMiean Hea; au.l 
 having loailed bis ships with their return cargo 
 he made the best of his wav back. In l.i» 
 second voyage .he entereil the CaribNan 
 Sea. still keeping, however, at a safe diatsuo 
 from San Domingo, and soM his slaves on thf 
 mainland. This voyage was on a much larffi r 
 scale. Having sol.i his slavw lu the conii 
 
 nental |>ort8 ISouth American), and loaded hi- 
 vessi'ls with hides and other gixxis bought with 
 the pr»liice. Hawkins determrned to strike out s 
 new path and sail home with tlie Oulfstream 
 which Mould carry him nnrthwa^ls {MSt tho 
 shores of Florida. Sparke's narrative . 
 lirovrs that at every point In these ex|H'dltloDsthi' 
 Englishman was following In the track of Hi.- 
 Frenrh. He hail Fri'nch pilots and seamen . i 
 Ismril, and there Is little doulit that one at li-.i-t 
 oflhiM hail already been with ijiudonnitn r. 
 Florida The French seamen guided hlin i < 
 Uiidonniere s settlement, where liU arrival « ;- 
 most oppi.rtune Thiy then pointed him <<., 
 way liy tlie coast of North Auierka. then im 
 versally know In the mass as New France :.. 
 Newfoundland and IheniT, with the prevsJi 
 ing westerly winds, to Europs. This was tli« 
 
 Mi. 
 
 Ism^i I 
 
AMZRICA, 1S6S-1S67. 
 
 pioneer Toytge made by EoKlUhmcD klonc 
 couU afterwards fumou* in liistnry throiigb 
 EngUah colonization. . . . The extremely inter- 
 esting namUTe . . . given . . . from tLc pen 
 r.f John !$parke, one of lUwkina' gentlemen 
 companions . . . cootainii the first information 
 concerning America and its natives which was 
 publisbctl in England bv an En^'lisli eye-wit- 
 ness." Hawkins pUnned a third voyage In 
 1588, but the remonstrances of the Spaulsli king 
 caused him to be stopped by the English court. 
 He sent out his slilps, however, iin<l they came 
 home in due time ricldy freight«'d, — from what 
 source is not known. "In niiother year's time 
 the aspect of things had changed.'' England 
 wits venturing into war with Spnin. "and Ilaw- 
 liins was now able to execuU; his pUns without 
 restraint. He founditl a iH-rmanent fortified 
 factory on the Guinea coast, where negroes 
 might Iw collecU'd all the year round Thcnco 
 he sailed for the West Indies a thinl time 
 \ouug Fiancia Orakc sailed with him in com- 
 mand of the 'Judith,' a small vessel of fifty 
 loiw. " The voyage ha<l a pnispepous l)eglnnlng 
 and a disustniua ending. After dismning ol 
 imwt of their slaves, thev were driven by storms 
 In take nfuge in the Mexican iM)rt of Vera 
 I'ruz, and there tluy win' attui IikI by a I-ipauUli 
 tieit. JJrake in tlie "Judith " ami ftawkins in 
 anirther Mnall veswl escaped. Hm the latter 
 was o\ercrowde<l with men and olilijriHl to put 
 half of tli.m ashore on the Mexican coast. The 
 majority of those left on txinril, us well as a 
 iiiajurity of Urake's crew, diinl on the voyage 
 lionie. and it was a niiseiMble nniuant that 
 lauded m Lnglund, in Januarv, IMU _K J 
 I'ayue, I'.jf'ijw. „/ t/u EUmbeihan .Stamm to 
 Am., ell. 1. 
 
 Aljui IN: The llnirlnm Vugaiitt; td. by C. K. 
 Mi,i/,„i„ (llnilu^l .%«■.. X,. 57|.— U. Siutliev 
 hrrtvfOi. /InIM AitmimU. r !! 
 
 A. D. i57»-i58o.-The Piratical Advcaturei 
 of Drake and his Encompaasing of the World. 
 —■ tram 11 Drake, tlic lirst nf tin English Buc- 
 caneers, was one iif tin- twelve i liil.lnn of Ed- 
 ward Dmke .,f TavistcK-k, in Divoushire a 
 Btaunch Pnilestant, who had tliil Ids nat'ive 
 plaiv tn avoiil ixrset utioli, and had llieu iHnina- 
 a slilps chaplain. Dndi.-, lili,. ( „l,inibus lia<l 
 Isvii a Manian liy pMfesoiou fniiii Uiyliixsl . awl 
 , lii«l mriiii as a yming man. hi TOmnianil 
 "t the Juiliih, umler Ilawknis. . . . Haw- 
 kins hail ninliiied himsi'ir lt> simigirling Krake 
 advaudd Inmi this |,> pin., y ri,i.< pracliee 
 wii.^ aiilluirij'.ed by law in lla- middle ages fur 
 til. purp.«- of reeoveriuif dilits or lUmuges 
 fr..m ili.-siilij..ilsof aiHiihir naliiiii. The Eng- 
 li>li. ispmalli tlww i.f til,. H,»i .,iiit;try were 
 IlHnio>t lormidahle pinil.s in il„. K„rl,i HUd ■ 
 
 Ihf wlh.lr iiaiiiai was liy this ti r.nw ,1 against ' 
 
 .•<!»iin. in <iiiis.-.ni,.|i, .■ ■if til,' ruilili s, «ur wagiil ' 
 ..iPiin.t l'r,.t,,ia,ii..,n, in t|„. .N. i|,..rlamls bv 
 llulipll Unik,- liail aiTiiunts ..f liii ,>wn t<) 
 -•III,- «iili the >p;.iii«rtl,. Tli..iit'l, Elitalwih 
 
 '""' hilar,,! t,.r ili,- n-,,,lt. I Stairs a„,| 
 
 piirsu,-,! ,, sliifim^r |,„ii,.y. ii, r i„„.r,.iM, »,„| 
 th.ir. u.r,' lilinii.al, au.l i| «.„ wi,i, „ view 
 ■■f (Ultlllk. „ir t|H„. Mippli.., „f ,,,1,1 „,„, ,i,,.,,, 
 fnim .Vni,n.a whi.h ,iml.l,-.| |'|,i|,|, ,„ i,rii,, 
 I"' rii.iai,. niiil pa> ».,i,li,.r.. in piirsiiu „f |,u 
 |s>n,i „| aitifressi,,!! ilmi ||„. f.u,,,,,,, vovaif,- 
 «». auiL,.rt*,s| |,v Ei,«ll.h sUfM,.,!, Drak,. 
 Hail recently made more than one succeaaful 
 
 Votmgu. 
 
 AMERICA, lOTS-lSM. 
 
 vovage of plunder to the American coast." In 
 July. 1573. he surprised the SpanUh town of 
 
 75 
 
 I. -"t ,' ;;? ••"Fr'»e" "le opanwn town of 
 Aombre de Dios. which was the shipping port 
 on the northern side of the Isthmtis for the 
 treasures of Peru. His men made their way 
 nto the royal treasure-house, where they laid 
 hands on a heap of bar-silver. 70 feet long. 10 
 wide and 10 high; but Drake himself had re- 
 ceived a wound which comiH.lled the pirate's to 
 retreat with no very large part of thr splendid 
 booty. In the winter of 1573, with the help of 
 the runaway slaves on the Isthmus, known M 
 Umarroncs, he crowed the Isthmus, looked on 
 t ic raciflc ocean, approached within sight of 
 the city of Panama, and waylaid a transportation 
 party conveying gold to N,>mlire de Di,« but 
 was disappolnte.! of hU prey by the exciUil' con- 
 duet of some of his men. When be saw, on thia 
 (KHaision. the great ocean beyon.l the Isthmus. 
 Urake then and there resolved to be the 
 pioneer of hngUnd hi the I»acific: and on this 
 resolution lie solemnly besought the blessing of 
 C.<«l. Nearly four years ela|>se.l Uf„re it was 
 executed: for it was not until XovenilK'r, 1577 
 that Drake embarked on hU famous voyage In 
 the course of which he propo«e,| t„ pl,iii,l,.r Peru 
 Uself -The Peruvian p<irts w.re unfortitied. 
 Ihe SpanhinU knew them to be In nature abso- 
 lutely si-cureil from attack <m the north; and 
 lliey never dreamed that the English pirates 
 wouhl Iw daring enough to [Mtss III,- t,rril>lc 
 straiu of Magellan au<l attaik llii-m from the 
 south. Suth wag the |dau ,if Dnk, ; ami it was 
 executed with complete sikusk " 1 1,- »^x\v<.\ 
 fnim Plymouth, Dec. la, l.'iT7, with a H,-,t of 
 four vessels, and a pinnace, hut l,.M on.. „f i|,i. 
 shins after ho had entere,l th.. Pa, ili, . in a storm 
 which drove him souihwanl, ami wlii, h made 
 dm the discoverer of Cape II„rn. Another of 
 his ships. sepaniU-,1 from the s.iua,lri.ii, n tum«l 
 home, and a Uiinl. while attempting to ,io the 
 Kline, was lost In the river Plate Drake in hij 
 own vessel, the (J.dden Hind. prm-...-,l,^|' i„ tl,u 
 I leriiviauamsu, where lie rrui.s.duniil he liad 
 I Uikeii and plunderi.d a sc..re of .Spanish ships 
 • l.a,li-n with a rich liooly of Peruvian lr.;isun) 
 he il.H.m,il it unsafe to riturn by th,. way tiiat he 
 canK% He thi-reforo res<dve.l t.. strike aenwa the 
 1 acilic, an.1 for thU purpose m»,le ilie latilmlo 
 in which this voyage was usually |»rfoniit.d bv 
 the Siwulsli govemnient v.smIs whl.h 8:tll.4l 
 annually fn.m Aeapulco t,. the Pl,ilippiu«t 
 Drake thus reached the cuist „f faliforuhi 
 »h.re the Indkiis, delightwl b.y„ii,i measure by 
 (iresenta of clothing and trinket.,. iiivit„| him to 
 remain and rule our th.ni Drake |,sik ixw. 
 si-ssi.m of the country in the tiaiiie of the Uuwn 
 and retittwl his v..«l m preparation for the 
 unknown i)erihi of the Pa. ill.' Th.' plmv where 
 he liUMliil must have bo-n eilh.r the gnat Iwy 
 iif »an Francisco (ptT contra., s... Caiifihima- 
 •.., 1 ''*<*-"**"l "f "'e small Ikiv of Ikslega' 
 which lies a f.w i.-aguea further north Tlio 
 irnat nt.amau ha<i alreiuiv i-,m4|,,| liy.. .legnu 
 more to th,. m.rihward U-foie tlii.linif a .-iiital.l., 
 harbimr He Islieved himsilf m tn. the tinii 
 KumiH-an who ha,l eoasicl ll„ «,. ►hor.s but it 
 IS now well kmiwn llwt tipanish , viphireni liad 
 precile,! him. Iln,k.-s , in iii„„».|gali„n uf 
 th. Kh«b.. was thus no ilelilsniie I.m of «.«inan- 
 slilp. Imt tlie umnnMry result of . miinwianres 
 the v,.yage omit- in mon. tUan .«>. ^ay a ervnX, 
 efwih hi smfHiiL uautiuil huu.rv" Drake 
 
43 
 
 :l, 
 
 AKERIOA, 187>-1S80. 
 
 letched Plymouth on hii return Bept 26 1S80 
 
 ~^.i, ^X"'- ^"IKV 'ftSt mmtbtiLn Siamet^ 
 pp. l4l-l4o. 
 
 . ^J^'i *" Fletcher. The World Bneompamd 
 iuHr F. Orakt (IlaUuft Sot.. 1884). -J. B^rnw. 
 Me of Dralu.—K Soutbey, Utee of Brititk 
 Aamtniu, ». 8. 
 A. D. 1580 —The flnal fonnding; of th« City 
 
 V n^Ji. .m*- ** Abowitis b Rep dbuc : 
 A. D. 1580-1777. 
 
 u^- °;.f5'3-~T?« EKoedltlon of Sir Hnn- 
 phrey Gilbert.— FormafpoMCMion taken of 
 Newfoandland.-In 1578, Sir Humphrey Gilbert. 
 »n Fnirlisli gentlemmn, of DeTonihire, whoee 
 T^ungir half brother wu the more famoui Sir 
 Walter lUIeIgh, obtained from Queen Elizabeth 
 ■ charter empowering bim, for the next ilx 
 years, to diirorer "tuch remote heathen and 
 barbarous lands, not actually poiieaied by any 
 Christian prince or people," as be might to 
 •brewd or fortunate enough to And. and to oc- 
 cupy the same as their proprietor. Oilbert'i lint 
 expedition wo* attempted the next year, with 
 Sir n niter Raleigh asKxdated in It; but misfor- 
 tunes droTe back the adventurers to port, and 
 Branlsh intrigue preTented their sailing again. 
 "In June. 15*. Gilbert sailed from CawsSiiyBay 
 with a»e vessels, with the general Intentkm of 
 dlsc».»erlng and colonizing the northern parU of 
 Amerii». It was the lint colonizing expwIIUon 
 Which left the shores of Great Britain; and the 
 narrative of the expedition by Hayes, who com- 
 mandcil one of Gilbert's vessels, forms the flnt 
 
 fSS^S&it. 
 
 AMERICA. 18M-18N. 
 
 R?l!* '"..i"'® '•'•'o'T "t English colonizaUon. 
 Olibcrt did no more than go thruugh the empty 
 form of taking possession of the Island of New- 
 foumiland, to which the English name formerly 
 applleil to the coutinent in general wu 
 
 now rcstrici..!. . . . Gilbert dallied here too 
 long. W hen he set sail to cross the Gulf of 8t 
 Lawrence and Uka possession of Cape Breton 
 and Nova Scotia tue senson was too far advanced • 
 one of ills largest shijis went down with all on 
 N>Hrd, itidudrng the Hungarian scholar Par- 
 nieni;i8, who had romo out as the historian of 
 the exiicdillon; the stores were exiiaustetl and 
 the crews dispirited; and Gilbert rc.s»lve,l on 
 sslling home, intending to return and |ir.Mecnte 
 bU dl9<ov»rics the next sprins. On the home 
 Toysjte the little vessel In which he was salliiiir 
 foundered ; and the pioneer of English cnl.uiiza- 
 tion f<mnd a watery grave. . . . OilNrt was a 
 man of counge, pfety. and learnln); He was, 
 however, an IndliTerent seaman, ami (luite In- 
 competriit for the task of colonl/iiii..n f. which 
 he hail set his hand. The miRfortuij<"i i.f bis ex- 
 peiiltiim induced Amsdas and Bariuw, who fol- 
 lowwl In his steps, to almndon the n.irtliward 
 voyage and sail to tlie shores intemleil bi U iw- 
 cupied by the easier but more circuitous Mute of 
 the Canaries and the West Indies "— K j 
 Pavne. I»jf.«{vs y rA« BUiahethan S.tmfu'np 
 173-174 — "On Monday, the Uth of t<ept«ml>i-r 
 In the afternoon, the frigate {the •Siiuirrel '] vtti, 
 Dear caat aws.", oppressed by wsvct, vet at that 
 time rec..ver«\!;and giilng forth aigns of Joy 
 the gimral, sitting atjaft with a Tkn.Ii In hu 
 hand, crie.l out to us in the • Hind • (so oft as we 
 did approach within hearing). ■ We arc as near 
 to heaven l>v sea a« l.y land.' Ksiteratlng the same 
 speech, well beseeming a soldier resolute in 
 Jesus Christ, as I no testify he was On the 
 tame .Monday olght. about twelve iu-\,»-k or not 
 
 Ions after, the frigate being ahead of i:s In th« 
 'Golden Hind,' suddenly her llghu were out, 
 whereof ai It were in a moment we lost the 
 sight, and withal our watch cried the Genera! was 
 cast awar, which was too true; for In that 
 moment the frigate was devoured and swalloweil 
 up by the sea. Yet still we looked out all tliat 
 night and ever after, until we arrived upon tiie 
 coast of England. ... In great torment of 
 weather and peril of drowning it pleased God to 
 ■end safe home the • Golden Hlml.'^ which arrived 
 In Falmouth on the 2ad of September, bebig 
 Sunday."— E. Hayes. .1 Jkport of the Vomffebg 
 Sir Bumphnt Oiliert (reprinted is Pimm/$ 
 Vofaf*). 
 
 Also m E. Edwards, l^e of Raleigh, t. 1. eh. 
 o-— R- Hakluyt. J^neipat Sanoationt: ed. hg 
 K. OoUimid. ». 13. i^ . V 
 
 A. D. 1584-1586.— Raleif^'a Firat Coloni*- 
 iw attampta suid failnrca. — " The task in 
 which Gilbert had failed was to be undertaken 
 by one better qualified to carry it out. If any 
 Englishman in tiiat age seemed to be marked out 
 as the founder of a colonial empire. It was 
 Raleigh. Like Gilbert, be had studied books; 
 like Drake he coulj rule men. . . . The asaoda- 
 tion;i of bli youth, and the training of hia early 
 Bunhood, fitted him to sympathize with the aims 
 of hta half-brother Gilbert, and there la Uttle 
 reason to doubt that Raleigh iiad a share In hia 
 undertaking and his fndure. In 1 584 he obtained a 
 patent precisely similar to Gilbert h. His first step 
 •bowed the thoughtful and weli-nlanned systeni 
 on which he began his task. Two ships were 
 
 ••11 
 
 — . ..„ ... ^».. u,« M«M, A WU Hiina were 
 
 sent out, not with any idea of settlement, but to 
 examine and report upon the country. "Tieir 
 commandere wer« Arthur Barlow and Philip 
 Amidos. To tlie former we owe the extant 
 record of the voyage: the name of the latter 
 would suggest that he waa a foreigner. W hether 
 by chance or design, they took a ino'e southeriy 
 course than any of their pmlecessors. On the 
 %1 of July the preseiK* of shallow wai^r. and a 
 smell of sweet flowen. warned them that Und 
 
 7^,?T'- '^^^, I'"""'"* ••»» gfven was amply 
 fulfilled upon thilr apprcjach. The slflit befoi^ 
 them was far illll.rent fn>m that which lia<l met 
 the eyes of llore and GlllK-rt. Instead of the 
 nli-ak co«»t of Newfoundland. Barlow an^l 
 Anililas loolted upon a scene wlilch might rwall 
 tliesoftness of the Mediterranean. . . . Coaslinn 
 along for about !»• niil.-«, the voyajfen reached 
 an tolet and with siune diffleully e'ntered. They 
 tlien sidcmnly ixjok iHawexsion of tiie land in th'. 
 Queens name, and then dellven-d It over t.. 
 Rakigh ant.nllnit to his pat<>nt. They soou dia 
 covered that the l.ind ujion whi.h tliey b«,l 
 l-urhed was an l»l>uid about 20 mil.s long ami 
 n.t Bliovewj liriKiil, named, as tli.y aflerwartU 
 li-anit. Itoauoki-. H. you,i, separating tliem from 
 the mamland, lay an enclomtl s<a, studded with 
 more than a hmi.lrwl fertile and wsll-woode^l 
 , The liidiaB. ,.r,.v„| friewlly, and were 
 
 .1 , ;(>ed by lUrloH . i^-inj ■■ m.Mt ,rentle, lov- 
 litK Kud failliful, \..in .,f all giiile sihI '.reason 
 and such as live afi. r .e manner of the golden 
 age "The r.,H.ri «hi.h the vovagen to.* 
 Lome spoke as f.vourahly of tlw Un<) Itself as . f 
 lu InliahlUnts . Win, them iho, bioughl 
 •-wo of tlie savages, name<l WaiirlHse and Man. 
 teo. A proUl.le tra<lltl..n tella us Uiat Uii qu.'. 
 hei|self name.i tlie country Virginia, an<l th»l 
 lUleighs knighthood was the reward and sc- 
 
 lii ■■' 'K 
 
AMERICA. 1S84-1S86. 
 
 knowled/nctnt cf his lucceii. On the ftrenrth 
 vf thii report Raleiirh at once m«de prr-parmtioni 
 for » «f ttlement. A flwt of sev^n »hlp« wm pm- 
 Tlded for the conveyuncc of 108 settlers. The 
 fleet wu under the r««mmand of Sir Ricbk.ij 
 Grenville. who w«s to establlkh the setUemenl 
 UHl Ie«Te ft under 'he chjirge of Ralph Lane 
 ■ • • ^''..''S •"" °' *P'" I '585] the emigrants 
 •et sail. For mnie reason not well explained 
 the fleet made a circuit to the West Indies and 
 loitertd for five weeks at the island of 6l John's 
 and St Hispaniola, reaohing Virginia In the last 
 days of June, Qiiaml.s I* iwecn the two com- 
 mander!, Qrennlle and Ijuie, ha 1 alr-vdr begun 
 and bolb seemc<l equUIjr ready to provoke the 
 cnmltj of the natives. In August, after explor- 
 ing son.e sixty miles of the const, OrenTiite re- 
 turned to Knglend, proniiaing to coine back the 
 next spring with new col.misu snd stcrea. The 
 •eitlfinenl thu-i left to the care of Lane, was 
 esUblUhed "at the north-cast comer of the UUiid 
 of R(«uoke, whence the lelilers could command 
 the strait. There, even now, choked by vines 
 and underwoorl, and here and there broken by 
 the crumtdiiig remains of an earthen bastion 
 mav t)e tntced the outlines of the ditch which 
 enclos*-.: the camp, some fortv yard* .uuare the 
 home of the Hr-t English sjttlers la the X-w 
 H orM. Of the doings of the settlers du.lig the 
 wmter nothing Is recorded, but by the ccxt 
 spring their piospecu looked glooms. The In- 
 dians were no longer friends. . . . the settlers 
 unable to make Ashing weirs, and without sceii 
 corn were entirely dew-ndent on the Indians for 
 their dailv f,H.|. tndor these circumstances 
 one woulil have suppostni that Unc would have 
 iK-«t emnlnyed himself In guarding the s.ttle- 
 ment and improving its ct)n<rition. He, however 
 thought otherwise, and aoplied himself to thi 
 task of exploring the nefghbouring tcrrftorv." 
 Buta«„ie combination of hostile fndiar tritx-s 
 ?]m.r"/'*""'"'',*'^':'»' "'* ^"g^'-h. andthrir 
 
 PirilMlll t?) tM'f-utnai f «vi>» .1.. « ■_. -1 a 
 
 i[^t£Sff AMERICA, ia87-18W. 
 
 ^to uie to EngUnd. an<l gradually in other 
 
 turopcan countries. The authorities are not en- 
 
 tlre V ,gr*ed ur«m thi, ,„,i„t. Joaselyn s«vs; 
 
 Tobacro Hnit br..u^'i,t i.it.. KngUnd by Sir Jjhn 
 
 Waiter Uwlcigh mnnv years after.' Amin he 
 seys: • >ow (say »j,me i TmIwcco was first brought 
 
 n.K ^"^'.If^ ^"^ *ir- " ''P'' I^w-- »"« "' Virginia. 
 Others will have Tol,..,,otot.e first brought Into 
 England from Peni. by Sir Francis Ijrake-. 
 vH ,1\. V»'n'''"n ««» Its Introduction into 
 
 W?!?l?h K^. "?'"■? '"',T "^ "•« men brought 
 b«:k w th bim in th.- si.ip* of Drake. He savf 
 And thete men whi.l. were brought back »w 
 the first that I kn.w ,,f. which bn>ug!,t Into 
 England tliat Indwn plant which they call To- 
 bacco and Mcotta, an.l u« It against crudltlei 
 being uiight It by the Indians, ■"ceruinly from 
 lJ^i>l^'°! ' k'TI'"' '" '* '° f"^"' request, and to 
 
 Wt Inthecolonv with It.lph Lane in 1585 was 
 Mr. Thomas Hanoi, a man of a strongly mathe- 
 matical and Miemitlc turn, whose ser^-fces In thU 
 connection were greatly valiie.1. He remained 
 
 f„ 1^ 't"/'" ^'■'"■' "'"' *'■'" '««'' «o England 
 In 15M. He wrote out a full account of hfs ob- 
 servations In the Xew World."— I N Tarbox 
 
 Also n» T. Hariot, line/ and tnt R-part (Be. 
 pnntsrf in adovenam^ Prt ,tf» fbe. PuNi^.on).— 
 F. L. Hawks. HiM. of X. Carolina, t. 1 {f,.ntain- 
 !£f ^1" orLay'iA^nnl. llanof, Report. 
 *«.— Original DiKsed. by E. E. Hale (Artha- 
 
 fi uati.m N. ,me from day t«day mott; Imin'rill.^l 
 At the H-gmning of June. l,Vt6, Une fl.ught a 
 
 K, Id battle wjth the savages and routed tt-m 
 butno»i,-„of Gri.nvilIeapiM.,rf.l and the pras-' 
 pert lo.,ked h..p..|esa. Just at this junctur,. a 
 j:n.at tngli.h fleet, sailing homewanls frort a 
 
 •iratiral exi)e..iii.m to the Spanisli Main, under 
 Uie famous CBoiain Pnike, 'came to anchor at 
 iZlliu""?*-?.- '^' »•".••'"»•' the .iishearfac.l 
 r«t „ . r "'''.'»'« voire they p..tltioncd to he 
 taken to KniilniKl, and Drake receiv,^ the whole 
 ||any on l.«,rd his ship.. " The help of w iVl. 
 the oKminl, h*i despair,,! was In i*.li y e ^ 
 at hand. Sn,r,-elr had Drake's fleet lef'the c.«« 
 
 Lif ,n ' 'i' ■^""'•'•^ ^ ';«!»'». and after search- 
 A . Ml .1 t„r .U-ht later (ir,r,v|lle himself .rriv.,1 
 .-.Minuj ,. . , , _ .f',,,,. «.,^m f,„ ,he settlenK and 
 
 « I I'^l . " '' •" ^'"••'"l. ""y c,rri«l with 
 r »l,iih they piv«er,i,-,f t„ tjaklgh as the 
 l>!«.t.r..f ,he ■ ,|o.,y, and I y Uim It w„ bi^ught 
 
 Moma Amerifana. r. 4). 
 
 A. D. 1587-1590. — The Lost Colonr of 
 RoMoka -fintf of the Virginia Undertak- 
 taa of sir Walter Raleigh.-'- It.lei^h. undil 
 mayed by losses, deiermiii.-.l.to plant si agricul- 
 tural state: to send emiitrants with .heir wives 
 and families, who slioull make their homes in 
 
 ??lV ^ "''''• »'"'• "'«» lif" "nd property 
 might be secur-d, in January. 1,W7. he granted 'a 
 charter for the s«ttleii.. nt, and a municipal 
 gijvernment for the city of •Raleigh.' J.lhn 
 White was ap|><.lnt..<l its governor; and to him 
 Willi eleven aisi.tants. the a<iniinistratlon of the 
 ctilony was intrusted. Traii.p..rt ships were 
 prepared at the exr>ense of the proprietary : 
 •Queen EliMlx-lb. the g.Mn.other of Virginia- 
 declined contributing •I,, it, etiuealion.' Em- 
 harking ir April, in July ihev arrived on tha 
 c«ast o? North (anilina: they were sav«l from 
 the dangers of (hik- Fear: and, passing Cape 
 Halteras they haste,„.,l f. the Isle of Rwnoke 
 to »e|irch for the h.u..lful of men whom Oren^ 
 vllle had left there an a K^rris.'.n. Thev found 
 
 .Lj 'i!"'"'* ''■'*'■'"•"' '""• overgrown with 
 weeds; human Ik'Ui... lay M-altered on the field 
 Where wlW di-er were niKoiiig T'le f rt was 
 ^rulna. No vesti^'e of nurviving life apptared. 
 "The Imtruciions ..f HaleiKli hail designated the 
 plate for the new sinhmenl on the bay of 
 Chesapeake But Fernando, the naval offlcer 
 eager to renew a prortt.ihle iralll, In the West 
 Indies, wfuseil his iMi.«t«me in exploring the 
 c>«t. and While wa,, ,.,iM|H.||e,l to remain on 
 R.«noke. . . h »», ih,,e that In J. , ihe 
 found»tl<Mii of (lie city ..f l{«high were laid ' 
 But the colooy was d.»,>ir.| 1.. ,ii.«ister from the 
 beginning, being qui, kh involved In warfare 
 with the surn.i.pdlnit n.ilve, ■With the r»- 
 tuming ship While euilmtkixl for Ei gland un- 
 
AMERICA, lS87-iaM. 
 
 Stm 
 
 i ; ' ^U 
 
 dtr th* •xeuM of interceding for n-«nforc«inenU 
 and (uppUet. Yet, on the l8th of Auguit, nine 
 d«7i prerioiu to hia departure, bU daughter 
 Eleanor Dare, t' a wife of one of the aasisUnts 
 gave l)irth to a female child, the first offaprinir 
 2 *'"8"*t parenU on the auil of the Cult*.! 
 ,}f\, T"" i?'"" *" onmei from the place 
 or lU birth. The colony, now conipo«>d of 89 
 men, 17 women, and two chlldn-n, whose namca 
 ■nail pre?, rved, might rruaoiiiii ly hojw for the 
 JP"*"y ™'''" of the Kovemor, ^i he Irft with 
 tbem hia daughter and bis grandchild, Virirlnia 
 Dare. The farther history of this pUntation 
 h inrolred In gloomy uuix-ruinty. The inhabit- 
 anu of 'the city of Raleigh,' the emigranu from 
 £ngland and the firat-lwrn of America, awaited 
 death In the land of tbeir adoption. For, when 
 White reached Enghind, he fouml its attentiou 
 absorbed by the threaU of an invasion from 
 '•^i?- ; ; u !)^*' R«'<'Ik»», «boM) patriotism did 
 not diminish his generosity, round means, in April 
 1588, U- despatch White with supplies in two ves- 
 leU. But the company, dciiiring a gainful roy. 
 age rather than a safe one, ran In chase of prizes, 
 tUl one of them fell in with men of war from 
 Rochelle. and, after a bUxxly fight, was boarded 
 and rifled. Both ships were compelled to return 
 to England. The dcky was fatal; the English 
 kingdom and the Protestant reformation were in 
 danger; nor could the poor colonials of Roanoke 
 be again remembered till after the discomfiture of 
 the Invincible Armada. Even then Sir Walter 
 Raleigh, who had already incurred a fruitless 
 expense of £40,000, found bis impaired fortuno 
 InsutHcient for further atleuipls at colonizing 
 Virginia. He therefore used the privilew of his 
 patent to endow a eompiiny of merchants and ad- 
 renturera with large concessions. Among the 
 men who thus obtained an assiirnnicnt of the pro- 
 prietarv's righu in Virginia is found the name of 
 Ricburd Hakhiyt; It connecU the tint efforU of 
 England in North Carolina with the final coloniza- 
 tion of Virginia. The colonists at Roanoke had 
 emigrated with a clmrter; tlie Instrument of 
 Uarch, 1588, was not an assignment of Raleigh's 
 patent, but the extension of a grant, already held 
 under iu lanction bv Increasing the number to 
 whom the righu of that (barter belonged More 
 than another vear elapwd lieforc White could 
 return to search for his ailony and bis daughter; 
 and then the isUnd of Itonnoke was a desert' 
 Ad inscription on the luirit ,il a tree pointed to 
 CroaUn; but the season of tlie )eiir and the dan 
 
 AMERICA. 180»-1«0B. 
 
 Axraob ( tw. BiM. Au'n /1i/»t», ». ^, p/. 4).^ 
 "This last expedition [of Wliile, aean bing for 
 bis lost colony] was not despatdieil by Kalelgb 
 but by bis suu^saoni in the American patent' 
 Andoii- hbitory is now to take leave of thai 
 llluslri.us nan, with who«»> «lii.ines and enter- 
 prises it ceases to have any fiirtbe.- ( iiexlon. 
 The ardour of his mini! was n.it exIiMuMiij, Imt 
 diverted by a multiplii iiy of m >v ami not' less 
 arduous undertakings. . . . Ihsjnms. at the 
 same time, that a project wbi< h he bad carried 
 so far should not lie entirely alxindoned, and 
 hoping th«t the spirit of coninierre w<iuld pre- 
 serve an IntefcotinH! with Virt-inia that might 
 terminate iu a colonial cstalilisbnient. bo cim 
 »» nted to assign his p.i'ent to Sir Tboni.-i8 Suilth 
 ami a company of iuercbants In Ix)n.^^u, wbo 
 undertfwk to esublisb and mainUiu •.\ trall.r 
 between England anl Virginia. ... It ap- 
 l)ean><l very so<m that Raleigh \\v\ tr. -ferred 
 his patent to bands very dilTennt from i.is own 
 . . . batisfied with a rultry iralllc carried oii 
 by a few small vessi'ls, tlicv iiui.ie no attempt 'o 
 Uke |Visscs.>;ion of the country: an I nt llip iwri.nl 
 of Elizahrtli's death, jot i .sini;lf Kn^jlisbnitu 
 waSBettle<l In Ameriia."-J. <Jr:ibauir, Ihrt ,t 
 Ihe RiM andPrograt ,/lh C S. 0/ X Am. t,a 
 1688, M. 1. 
 
 AUiOiN W. Stith, Ifht. of \a., W-. t — P L 
 Hawks, J/iil. of .V. C. , r. 1 . A'.* 7-8 
 
 A. D. i<03-i6o5.-The Voyages of Gosnold, 
 Prini;, and We7mouth.-The First English- 
 men 111 New England.— ItartboloiiMw Uosnol.l 
 was a Westof-Eii^'lami niariirer »lio 1, „l servtM 
 ill the exiwlltlous of Sir Walter ffcibigh to the 
 Mrginhi coast, liider bis coinmanil, In tbe 
 spring of 1002, " with tbe consint of Kir Walter 
 Ualeigh, and at the cost, among others, of Henry 
 Wriothcalcy, Biirl of Souibaiiipton, tin- aci-om- 
 plislied patron of Sliakespiare, a sniull vess. i 
 called the Concord, was e.iuipiHtl forexplonilioii 
 in "the north part of Virginia.' with a view 1 . 
 the esUiblisbment of a colony. At this time in 
 tbe last vear of the Tudor dvnasty, and niuetkn 
 ye.irs after the fatal tcriiilnation of Oill>ert'.< 
 
 ,>nt„pnpiaA (li.iPA ,. ».. L- > . , .. 
 
 gers from storms were plea.b-tras an excuxe'for 
 an iminedlate return. The eonjeeturc has been 
 hazarded that the deserted colony, neglected by 
 their own countrymen, w.re bospit^ibly adopted 
 ^to the tribe [the I'roatans) of llatteras Indians. 
 Haleigh limg cherislied t;,. bo|ic of iliseovering 
 some vesUges of their existence, and sent at his 
 own charge, and, it la saiil, at five »..verai timca, 
 to search for bis liege men. Ilul Imagination 
 received no help in its attempts to trace the fate 
 of the colony of Itmnoke ■— C llancroft, IIU 0/ 
 
 f**/ ■''■;{''• '■.'''' ■"' "■ '•-■■■''■e Croauns of 
 today claim ilc»ient from tin lost colony 
 Their habits, disposition and mental cbaracteri.<' 
 tics show traces liotli of sjivug.' and civilized 
 aDcesiora. Tbeir language is tlie English of 300 
 years ago, and their nuiiies are In many cases 
 (he same as those iH.rne liy the original cojonlsU 
 Ao other theory of tbeir origin lias lieen ad 
 tBnced."-8, B. Weeks, TU Lot Colony of 
 
 78 
 
 * . — — " " ,»,,,,§ ,,j uiiiien .■! 
 
 enterprise, there was no European Inhabitnnt of 
 North America, except tbiw „f S|miiiNli birth iu 
 Florida, and some twentv or ihirty FVncb the 
 miserable relics of two frustinieif attempts to 
 Bi'ttle what they callinl Xew Kraiiei-. (iosnoM 
 sailed from Falinoutb with a coni|paiiy of ibirtv- 
 two pereons, of whom eight Men- wainen aiid 
 twentv were to la^'nmie plnnnrs. Taking' ^i 
 straight Course aercLxs llie Atlanli. , instead of tin 
 iiiilirect course by the C;,tiiifi. , and the W. -' 
 Indies which had Ix-en liilii n.. piirsunl r. 
 voyages to Virginia, at the eii.i of stvin we. !» 
 hi' saw land In Masaaebusilts Itnv. pn.liablv u.ar 
 what is now Salem llarisir II. re a Isiai euim- 
 oIT, of Basijiie biiibi, iiuiiiie.1 dv . i,;ht natlv,-. 
 of whom two or three wen- .lr. si.. I in Enron, ut! 
 clothes. Indicating the preseiu.- .,f .arlier f.n, ifi 
 voyagers iu these waters. N.m h.' sI.kkI to lu 
 s.i«ihwaril. and blseri'w took irr.' it iin.inliii, » , f 
 cisifish by a head land, call., I t.v bimforil,.i 
 reasim rape C.mI. tbe name «i,i,h it ntai.is 
 U.sinold, Rrerelon, ami thn^.. oili.m. went ,.a 
 shore, the lirst Englishmen .vh.. .re kii..»n t,i 
 have set f<«.t uimii the soil of Masvu huseiis 
 . . . Soumling ilia way (■aiiti...|-lv along, tirvt 
 In a southerly, and then in a ■*■ i.'riy .lin. li..; 
 ail.! probaMy passing to ib«. s.m.;Ii of Nautu. k. 1 
 (Kanold next lauded on a small Ishtud, u. » 
 
AMERICA. laot-iaoL 
 
 c«Ued No Mao't Land. To thia h» nra tha 
 lum. „f Martli.-, Vinryard. •ioc« tnuu^rmj to 
 the lar^'T Uliuid furtliar nortli. . . . Soulh of 
 BuiarJ . Bav, and aeparatad on the aouth by 
 the \ inev»nl Sound from Martlia'a Vlncyanl i« 
 
 the Elixabetb lalanda. The »utliwe»ternmost 
 
 of Cutivhunk, waa denominated by Goan<,Id 
 EUubetL I, and. Here Oo«,oia foumi a 
 
 pond two mile* in circumference, teparated fr..m 
 the lea on one aide bv a beach thirty yardi wide 
 •ndencloaing -a rockv blet, containing near nn 
 acre of ground, fuU of wood and rubbiSi • Thii 
 blet waa flied upon for > aettlement In three 
 week., while a part of the company were absent 
 oo a 1 Hiding eiDeditioo to tlie mainland, the rrst 
 
 bum a bousi lich they fortlrfed with palisad, s. 
 and tJi».,bed ^»ith .rfge. Proceeding to make 
 an lav. „u,ry „f their provWona. they (?.und that 
 after supplying the reaael, which waa to take 
 
 be a .ufflclency for onlr af» "weeka for the 
 twenty men who would remain. A dUpule 
 
 left^hlnd woufd receire a ihare In the pfoc.-r.li 
 >.f the cargo of cedar, aaanfraa. fur«. a£d otb, r 
 commodmes which bad been collected A amall 
 ^iJ'i"^ °"' in^_queat of ahell-flsh, wa, 
 attacked by »me Indiana With men havine 
 ^J^J' " '» "k'ly. lltUe .tomach for .u?I 
 cheerle« work, theie cireumatancea eaillv led to 
 the decision to abandon for the preslnt the 
 
 m nth the a.lvemurer. sailcl for Enxlaud. an/ 
 aftcr« voyageof flTe week., arrived at Exn outh 
 ... The expedition of Ooanold waa pregnant 
 
 ;«ri2''"*r°**^ ^""iK *^^ developmen 
 waa dow The accounU of the hitherto unknown 
 countrv wh.ch were circulated by hi. compTn? 
 
 The mv ,..ar (April. 1808), Martin Pring or 
 
 Bristol, With two smalt TeMels. Peking cargoe. 
 of «ssafr,,, which had acquired a high v^uf^n 
 account .,f ,upoo«^ medicinal WrtStV PrinS 
 ^^, l-""". ^'"'"« "> Martha's Vin.vanl* 
 jecun.. h,. de,ir,.d cargoea. and gave .vli 
 
 twH!"' : !'':,'■":'''">•• Two jtarafater ^^!X 
 1805), I...rd Niuiliainnton and Lord \Var,|,„,r 
 sent a v.sv, I con.manjed by George W.y .,,, u h 
 U> r«-o.,n,.itr« t he uime c.W with an \ ye to 
 
 Kennel.-, .r the I'enobiicot river some WorW 
 m l« and k.d.T;.pp„l five nativea '■ Eicepi for 
 ;.••,?': '"'«"'"■■ "dJItiun to the knowl"fgeof 
 U..lo.;al p..„.r,.,,l,v, the x-oyaye was fruitless ■ 
 -J 1. l'ulfr.y, //i««. „/ X ff„f r 1 M " 
 
 I1S4.) — J Ml kiin. On iltt \;«Kuie of dm W.^ 
 
 AD. i6o3-i<5o«. -The FJrat French Settle 
 ment.tn Acadia .See Caxa.k i\gw I ,uV, i^ 
 
 A. D. 1607 -The founding of the Eneliah 
 
 ^i MiiMMA: A I) li^H!-UJ"7, auil nlt.r «»l 
 Maink a i) ItKt7-lti<IN .""inn.r. ,i.„i 
 
 HMr.°H'5**'"*°'-;rJ''« ^"*^ Voyage, of 
 Henry Hudaon.-- The flrat rernnie,! ?,„ ..JL 
 
 for the Muscovy o, Ku*rf« Company [of Eugi j 
 
 AMERICA, iaO0. 
 
 M«' la^'^h.'^.'L'r"" 0'»'"«'»1 the tm of 
 Jiay, i(W7, with the intention of sailinir simiirht 
 
 flntllng a pa«Mjfe In the latter vioinltvh,„„X: 
 Lore attempted the entranc- of Davis Strfli^hS 
 the north of Greenland. This design i«.£j 
 frustrated ami he apparently renew" 1,^ J?* 
 ^„°jP' " • '""er latitude anrf nearer Grt^nlaSd 
 
 "ifJ,"^' .• '"<''*'• ^•■K"' "f latitude than Mr 
 
 79 
 
 return on;.h. jith Septemterof'- hTy'^ 
 
 [l*!.] On the aad of April, 1808 Vn^ 
 
 H.nlson commenced his »cond reci.rded vovaZ 
 for the Muscovy or Russia Company with* tie 
 K? f" "' fl""""?*?^?* to the tist ndkS 
 bv the north cast.'. . . On the 3<l of June 1«« 
 Ifud*>u had reached the most northern j^inVof 
 
 b;.^w«;:-R"',^ ?° "" "•'» '»» '■» i«titude^°24' 
 
 between Ppitzbergen and XovaZembIa" P.il' 
 fug to p«« to Ihe n..rh ea,t™nd Xoia 
 M It^.H''*i'*'",7^*?^''K'«'"1 '» Augusts 
 
 i*-*!? Wl^rand^.lA'fJl;,* '''^•- ''-«) 
 
 A"^- Dtxc?';^Tr'?a&or/w°o'v;;^7 
 
 tions daunted the enterpriv, of HudL"'^^ 
 ployer. fthe Muscovy Company. In E^gu/d? 
 they could not daunt the cimra'ie of the t?e.t 
 "?«*?'?''• *''<>*'>» de'tined to hl^me the^ 
 of Smith and of Champlaln. He long™! o temct 
 once more the dangers of the northera «m .T 
 
 ,^?*r',''!'l*^ "° '"!"*• ''* "ff'"^. i" the""vice of 
 the putcT. East India Company, toeiplore the fc ' 
 wastes in search of the covete,! paisage The 
 rh77^i'''j^""'5 '"Virginia stimulatoa d.v re 
 
 Jectcd; but, by the Induence of B.ln,«",r 
 Xloucheron, the directors for Am.t.rdai re 
 *)lvid on equipping a .m.ill t«.«.| „f ,ii!H.o Lv 
 
 ?,?; •• H.5?w""'?^"^-^''^' '«•'» «'»■ <re«.'n{' 
 Ir „, !~ !^ '■• ." ""•■ °'"n«'"f •'»■ little sl>ip 
 Is more commonly tninslatinll. r.,t.iiiian.l.,l bv 
 Hudson, and manne.1 by a n.fxr.i cr.w of En/ 
 lishinen and H..!l«nd<.rs. hi, s<m In-ing of the 
 numl«r. set uil far the northw.-s,,.™ p.«age 
 Mawes of ire lin,.e,le,l the navigation l,,™f^Is 
 NovaZembla; H,„ls„„. ,,,0 had evamiLTthe 
 maps of John .Smith of Virginia, turne,! To he 
 west and passing beyond Greenland and New 
 fuu„. land, and running down ,|,e r.«st of 
 ;h. I "■ .•■ ■■"^'•o^'' Pr<>l>ttl>ly, In the ttioutli of 
 the IVn.,* ot. Then, following thr track of 
 
 ( ■«!. and Iwiieving l,lm.,.|f I-, tir,i (f|«-„v,.rer 
 CSV.. „ ,|,e naijie ..f .N.-w ||,.||„n,l iT.n,- aft,": 
 «sni, it wa« < laime.1 Hs the n,.rth east. r„ >h" nC 
 r?n. r^l'h •"•'"'"lands Frr-m the san.l, of 
 I ape Cod he steered a «.Mii|„.rlv rourw till he 
 
 gbla. where Hudson rememhere,! thathls coun- 
 trymen were plwited. Then turning again W 
 
AMERICA, 1600. 
 
 Cafitoi'n 
 
 AMERICA, 1614-1615. 
 
 • i 
 
 the north, he dlscoveroJ the Delaware Bay, ex- 
 amined lu currents and Its soumliiigs, and, with- 
 out iroinB on sliorc, took note of the aspect of 
 the country. On the 3il day of September, 
 almost at the time when Champlain was invad- 
 ing New York from the north, less than five 
 months after the truce with Spain, which gave 
 the Netherlands a diplomatic existence as a 
 sUte, the 'Crescent' anchored within Sandy 
 Hook, and fr^m the neighboring shores, that 
 were crowned with 'goodly onkcs, attracted 
 frequent visiu fmm the natives. After a week s 
 deky, Hudson sailed through the Narrows, and 
 at the mouth of the river anchored In a harbor 
 which was pronounced to bo very good for all 
 winds. . . . Ttn davs were employed in explor- 
 ing the river; the first of Europeans, Iludsiin 
 went sounding his way above the Highlands, 
 till at last the 'Crescent' had sailed some miles 
 beyond the citv of Hudson, and a boat luul ad- 
 vanced a little beyond Albany. Frequent inter- 
 course was held with the astonished natives [and 
 two battles fought with them]. . . . "a»l"6 
 completed his discovcrv, Hudson descended the 
 stream to which time has given his nime, and on 
 the 4tli day of October, about the season of tlie 
 return of Jolin Smith to England, he set saU for 
 Europe. ... A liapny return voyage brought 
 tba 'Crescent' Into Dartmouth. Hudsim for- 
 warded U> his Dutch employers a bnlliant ac- 
 count of hisdIscovcrli'S; but he never revisited 
 the lands which he eulogized; and the Dutch 
 EastlndU Company refused to search further for 
 the north- western passage."— O. Bancroft, //<«• 
 of the r. S., eh. 15 (orpl. 2, cA. Vi of •• Author t 
 Liut Rtciti'in"). , .^ , „ 
 
 Also in H. R. CLEVEUtJiD. L\fe of Uenry 
 Budtun (Lib. of Am. m«g., r. 10), eA. S-4. -R. 
 Juet, Joumil of Iludmnt Voyatt {X J. Il'tt. 
 Soe C'U., ,Sir»j,<f ,*nV*, t. 1).— J. >. N. >atcs 
 ami J. W. Moulton, IIM. of the State of A. 1., 
 pt. 1. 
 
 A. D. 1610-1614.— Th« Dutch occupation 
 of New Netherland, and Block', coa.tinjf 
 txploration. See New \okk: A. D. 1010- 
 
 A.' D. i6i4-i6is.-The VoyaMS of Capt. 
 John Smith to North Virginia.— The Naming 
 of tha country New England.--' Iroin tlie 
 lime of Capt. Smilh'a departure from \ IrKlnla 
 [s.fl ViRoiMv: A. I). IWiT-ieiOl, till the year 
 1511 there Is a chasm In his biography. . . . 
 In 16U pn>lmlilv by his nilvire and at Ills su-j- 
 gcstion, an exp.HlUion w.« fltud out I'J »;"j'« 
 Lmdun nurchants. In the expense of wlilrh he 
 al«> sharr-l, for the purposes of traile ami dis- 
 covery in Niw England, or, as It was thenculUd, 
 North Vir-lniii. ... In March, ICU, ho set sal 
 fMin I.ondon with two ships, one rommandid 
 by hlnwlf. and the other by Captain TlM.m.w 
 Hunt TImv arrlvrd, April »Mh, at the island 
 of Manlit ;.'iii'. "n the coast of Maine, where they 
 built SI *' n iHiats. The purpoaes for which tlii'jr 
 were s. iit «c if to rapture whales and to scarth 
 for mims of ^old or Clipper, whiih were sold to 
 be lliere .iiid, if ihi'se failed, to nmke up a carco 
 of fl«h and (urs. (If mini's, they found no Imli- 
 cations and they f..und whale-llshlng a 'costly 
 
 jmlHslou,' for, althounh they saw many, and 
 chased lliiin loo. thiv sui-ceeiled In Uking none. 
 They Ihiis lost Ihe lust part of the flsliing seas«m; 
 bul,afur Kisii-K 1.1. th.ir 8'?;\="'"'^ Pj''^' "^^j 
 diligently empUiyeil the montlis of July ami 
 
 August in taking and curing codfish, an humble, 
 but more certain prey. While the «:rew were 
 thus employed. Captain Smith, with eight men 
 in a small' boat, surveyed and examined the 
 whole coast, from Penobscot to Cape Cod, tral- 
 ficking with the Indians for furs, and twice 
 flshlmg with them, and taking such observa- 
 tions of the prominent points as enabled him to 
 construct a map of the country. He then sallM 
 for England, where he arrived In August, 
 within six months after his departure. He left 
 Captain Hunt behind him, with orders todlspoee 
 of his cargo of fish In Spain. L-nfortunstcly, 
 Hunt was a sortlld and unprincipled mtscreant, 
 who resolved to make his countrymen tslious to 
 the Indians, and thus prevent the establishment 
 of a permanent colony, which would diminish 
 tlie large gains he and a few others derived by 
 monopolizing a lucrative traffic. For this pur- 
 pose, having decoyed 24 of the natives on board 
 his ship, he carried them off and aold them as 
 slaves In the port of Malign. . . . Captain 
 Smith, upon his return, presented his niap ol 
 il.c country between Penobsiot and Cape Cod to 
 IMiiicc Charles (afterwards diaries 1), with a 
 n-Qiiest that he would substitute others. Instead 
 of the 'barbarous names' which had been given 
 to particular places. Smith himself gave to the 
 country the name of New England aa he 
 expressly states, and not Prince Cliarles. aa is 
 commonly supposed. ... The first port into 
 
 commonly suiiiirj^cu •■- — -- «^ . r-» 
 
 which Captain Smith put on his return to Eng 
 land was Plymouth. There he related _ his 
 adventures to some of his friends, 'who, he 
 says ' as I supposed, were interested In the dead 
 pa'tc'nt of this unreganlcd country. TJhe Fl^- 
 
 ginia, by Haltering hopes and large promlaea, 
 Fnduieil him to engage his services »» them. 
 AiTordlngly In March, 1615, he sailed from 
 
 Aivoniingiy in j»i»«w», .«.%», ■— - . 
 
 Plviuouth, with two vessels under his command, 
 iHvii ing 16 settlers, besides their crew A storm 
 illsmiisud Smith's ship and drove her back to 
 Plviuouth. "His consort, commanded by 
 Tliomas Derratr, meanwhile proceettcd on her 
 vov^ice, and returned with a profitable cargo In 
 Am -'ist; but the object, which was to cifect a 
 pirmunenl Hilllemenl, was frustrated. CapUiln 
 .«»miih'» v.ssel was pMl«My found to be so 
 miuh shaiund aa to ren.li r It inexpedient to 
 npuir hi-r; for we find that he si-t sail a second 
 time fn>m Plymouth, on the 21th of June, in a 
 small bark of 60 tons, manned by 80 men, am 
 cirrving with him the same 16 sittlers he hail 
 tiUi"ii 1" foriv Rut an evil distlny seemed to 
 hung ovi r this enterprise, and to make the voy 
 S'e a sufiesslon of disastin and dlsjippolnl 
 n«nts." It ended In Smltirs capture bv a pirat 
 lial Kreiiih lliit and his deteiilion for some 
 months, until ho made a daring fsiapo in a smal 
 lK>at " While he hail U'en dcUdned on board 
 the Kn-nili pirate, In order, aa he says, ' to kii'p 
 mv mrplexiil tlioughU from tiw much misllti 
 tl.".u of mv mlsi'nible I'slate,' he einployeil him 
 silf In writing a narrative of his two voyages t.. 
 New England, and an aceoimt of tlie muntry 
 This was publlsliiHl In a quarto form In Jiini 
 min . . Caplrtin Smith's work on New England 
 was the first to msimmend «•'«•<''"'"' 7 " ", 
 plii-e of s.ttlenM-nt."-tl. ». Hlllanl, life of 
 r^pt. J'lhn Smith {fh. \*-lS). . . _^ „ 
 
 \i «. ;w CajiL John Smith, paenplion if A 
 K113 
 
 8U 
 
AHXRIOA, 1619. 
 
 7\9 Bue e a n aa n , 
 
 AHEBICA, 108»-17Oa 
 
 A. D. 1619.— latradactioa of acKre tUTery 
 iato Vifgiaia. See VnujiNiA: A. D. 1619. 
 
 A. D. 163a— The PlantioK of the Pilgrim 
 Calooy at PlnDonth, and the Chartering of 
 the Conacil for New EncUad. See Hassa- 
 cncBBTTS (PlTMOCTH CoiiONT): A. D. 1630; and 
 NewEnolabd: A. D. 1630-1628. 
 
 A. D. 16M.— Formatioa of the Goremment 
 of Rio de La Plata. See ABaEimirB Re- 
 public: A. D. 1580-1777. 
 
 A. D. 1631.— Coaflictiag ctaimi of England 
 and France on the North-eastern coast. — 
 Naming and granting of NoTa Scotia. See 
 NkwEnolakd: a. D. 1621-1681. 
 
 A. D. 1639.— The Carolina grant to Sir 
 Robert Heath.— "Sir Robert Heath, attomcv- 
 
 f;enrral to Charles I., obtained a grant of the 
 iinilj between the 88th [S6th t] degree of north 
 latitude to the river St. Matheo. His ch^trter 
 bcara date of October S, 1629. . . . The tenure 
 is declared to be as ample as any bishop of 
 Duiiism [Palsiine], in the kingdom of Ecgland, 
 ever held and enjored, or ought or could of right 
 have held and enjoyed. Sir Robert, his heirs 
 and assigns, are constituted the true and absolute 
 lunls and proprietors, and the country is ercct«d 
 into a province by the name of CaiMlina [or 
 Osiolanal. and the islands are to be called the 
 Camllna islands. Sir Robert conveyed his right 
 some time after to the earl of Arundel. This 
 nobleman, it is said, planted several parts of his 
 acquisition, but his attempt to colonize was 
 cb(Tkr<t by the war with Scotland, and after- 
 wards the civil war. Ijord Maltravers. who soon 
 sftiT, on his father's death, became earl of 
 Arundel and Sussex . . . made no attempt to 
 avail himself of the grant ... Sir Robert 
 Heath's grant of Und, to the southward of 
 Virginia, perhaps the most extensive posscMiion 
 ever owned by an individual, remained for a 
 lon^ time almost absolutely waste and uniulti- 
 vnied. This vast extent of territory occupied all 
 the ciiuotry between the 80th and 36th degnx'S 
 (if northern latitude, which embraces the pres- 
 ent Hiati's of North and South Carolina, Oeorgiu, 
 [.Vlabama], Tennessee, Mississippi, and, with 
 viry little exceptions, the whole state of 
 lAiuiniiina, aud the territory of East and West 
 F'lriiln, a cnnalderable part of the state of 
 Mi.>i.»iiuri, the Mexican provinces of Texas, 
 Chiuhahi., <fec. The grantee had Uken posses- 
 sion of the country, soon after he had obuineil 
 his title, which he afterwards had conveyed to 
 till' larl of Artindel. Henry lord Maltravers sp- 
 lo'nn to have obtained some aid from the pMv- 
 inee of Virginia in 1689, at the desire of Clutrles 
 I , fur the settlement of Carolana, and the coun- 
 try had since become the property of a Dr Cox ; 
 yit, at ihis time, there were two poinU only in 
 whirh Incipient English scttlemenU couKI be 
 dimirned ; the one on the northern shore of 
 All«>niarle Hound and the streams that flow into 
 It 1 he |i<)|iulation of It was very thin, and the 
 gn-ntist portion of It was on the north-east liank 
 iif CliowM river. Tlie settlers bad come from 
 llmt part of Virginia now known as tlie County 
 "f .Nanwmond. . . . They bad been joined by a 
 niimtn'r of Quakers and other sectaries, whom 
 till' ^|lirlt of intokrance had driven from New 
 tuRlanil, and some eralgranu from Rermudas. 
 . . The other settlement of the English was at 
 the niiiiiihof Cape Fear river: . . . thoae who 
 luuipuKti it bad come ttaitiier from New Koglaod 
 « 
 
 in 1659. Their attention was conflDed to rearing 
 cattle. It cannot now be ascertained whether 
 the assignees of Carolana ever surrendered the 
 charter under which it was held, nor whether it 
 was considered as having become vacated or 
 obsolete by non-uaer, or by any other means." — 
 F. X Martin, ffitt. ef N. OanUna, e. 1, eh. S 
 and!. 
 
 A. D. 16*9.— Tha Rojal Chw^'tt to the Gor- 
 emor and Compaajr of MaaMbcbuetta Bay. 
 See Massachusetts: A. D. 1628-1629, The 
 Dorchester Compant. 
 
 A. D. 1639-1631.— Th« Dntch occnpation of 
 the Delaware. See Delaware: A. D. 1699- 
 1631. 
 
 A. D. 1630-1633.— Enrlisb Conqneit and 
 brief occnpation of New Prance. See Canada 
 (New France): A. D. 1628-1632. 
 
 A. D. 1633.— The Charter to Lord Balti- 
 more and the founding of Maryland. See 
 Martuikd: A. D. 1682, and A. D. 1638-1637. 
 
 A. D. 1638.— The piaatiag of a Swedish 
 Colony on the Delaware. See Delaware: 
 A. D. 1638-1640 
 
 A. D. i639-i7aa— The BnccaaMra aad their 
 piratical warfare with Spain. — "The 17th 
 century gave birth to a class of rovers wholly 
 distinct from any of their predecessors in the 
 annala of the world, differing as widely in their 
 plans, organization and exploits as in the princi- 
 ples that govctned iheir actions. . . . After the 
 native inba)u':tnU of Haiti had been extermi- 
 nated, and tilt Spaniards had sailed farther west, 
 a few adventurous men from Normandy settled 
 on the shores of the island, for the purpose of 
 hunting tlie wild bulls and hogs which roamed 
 at will through the forests The smsll island of 
 Tortugas was their market . thither they repaired 
 with their salted and smoked meat, their hides, 
 Ac, and disposed of them in exchange for pow- 
 der, lead, and other necessaries. The places 
 where these semi-wild hunters prepared the 
 slaughtered carcases were called 'boucans,' and 
 tlicy themselves Iterame known as Buccaneera. 
 Probably the world has never before or since wit- 
 nessed such an extraordinary associaticm as tlieiis. 
 Unburdenetl by women-folk or children, these 
 men lived in couples, reciprocally rendering each 
 other services, and having entire commuiuty of 
 property — a condition termed by them matelot- 
 age, from the word ' matelot,' by which they 
 aadresaed one another. ... A man on joining 
 the fraternity completely merged his identity. 
 Each member received a nickname, and no at- 
 tempt was ever made to inquire Into his antece- 
 dents When one of their number marrie<l, he 
 ceased to bu » buccaneer, having forfeited his 
 membership by so civilized a proceeding. He 
 might continue to dwell en the coast, and to 
 hunt cattle, hut he was no longer a 'mstelot' — 
 as a Benedick he ha<l degenvr»t4-d to a ' colonist.' 
 . . . Uncouth anil lawleaa tliough the bucr«- 
 neers were, the sinister signlflcatlon now attach- 
 ing to their name woiihl never have iK'en nirriled 
 had It not been for the unreasoning jealousy of 
 the Spaniards. The hunters were actually a 
 source of protit to tlut nation, yet fnmi an in- 
 sane antipathy to Btrai,i;era the dominant race 
 resolved on exterminating the settlers. Attacked 
 whilst dispersed In pursuance of their avocations, 
 the latter fell easy victims; many of them were 
 wantimly maivirrMJ, othert drseeed Into •lavery, 
 . . , Breathing hatred and vengeance, 'to* 
 
 81 
 
t 
 
 
 ii 
 
 1 i 
 
 1 . M 
 
 !■ li'l 
 
 AMERICA, MW-1700. 
 
 brethren of the coast' uolted their scattered 
 force*, aod a war of horrible reprisals com- 
 menced. Fresh troops arrived from Spain, whilst 
 the ranks of the buccaneers were filled by adven- 
 turers of all nations, allured by love of plunder, 
 and fired with indignation at the cruelties of the 
 aggressors. . . . The Spanlunls, utterly failing 
 to oust their opponents, hit upon a new ex- 
 pedient, so short-sighted that it reflects but little 
 credit on their sUtesmanship. This waa the 
 extermination of the homed cattle, by which the 
 buccaneer* derived their means of subsistence ; a 
 general slaughter took place, and the breed waa 
 almost extirpated. . . . The puffed up arrogance 
 of the Spaniard was curbed by no prudential 
 consideration; calling upon every saint io his 
 calendar, and raining curses on the heretical 
 buccaneers, he deprived them of their legitimate 
 occupation, and created wilfully a set of desper- 
 ate enemiea, who harassed the coloninl trade of 
 an empire already betraying signs of feebleness 
 with the pertinacity of wolves, and who only 
 desisted when her commerce had been reduced 
 to insignificance. . . . Devoured by an undying 
 hatred of their assaihuits, the buccaneers de- 
 veloped Into a new association — the freebooters. " 
 — C. H. Eden. Tlu Witt India, eh. 8.— "The 
 monarchs both of England and France, but 
 especially the former, connived at and even en 
 couraged the freebooters [a name which tlid 
 
 {ironuuciation of French sailors transformed 
 nto 'flibustiera,' while that corruption became 
 Anglicized in iu turn and produced the word 
 filibusters], whose services could be obtained in 
 time of war, and whose actions could be dis- 
 avowed In time of peace. Thus buccaneer, 
 filibuster, and sea-rover, were for the most part 
 at leisure to hunt wild cuttle, and to pillage and 
 massacre the Spanlartls wherever they found an 
 opportunity. When not on some marauding ex- 
 pedition, they followed the chase. " The piratical 
 bucriir.eers were first organized under a leailer 
 in l«:t9, the islet of Tortuita beiug their favorite 
 rendezvous. " 8o rapid was the growth of their 
 settlemcnU that in 184t we find govemore ap- 
 polnli-d, and at San Christobal a governor-general 
 named De Polncy, in charire of the French 
 flilbiiaten In the Indies. During that year 
 Tortuga was garrisoned by French troops, and 
 the English were driven out, both front that tslt't 
 and from Santo Domingo, securing harboroee 
 elsewhere in the islands. Nevertheless conain 
 of iMilh nations often made .-Simmon cause. . . . 
 In [1«54J Torlutfu waa aftiiln recaptured by the 
 SpanianU, but in IMO foil once m.ire Into the 
 haniUof the French; and in their conquest of 
 Janinica In 1655 the British troops were reen- 
 forred by a large party of buncaneera." The 
 first of the more famous buccaneers, and ap- 
 pA'tntly the most ferocious among them all, waa 
 f. Frenchman railed Franv'iis L'Olonnols, who 
 harried the coast of Central .\m«>rica between 
 isau-tnofi with six ships ami 7U*) men. At the 
 lame time another buccaneer name<i Mansvelt, 
 waa rising in fame, and with him, as second In 
 command, a \Vi luliman, Henry Morgan, who be- 
 came the moot niil"rimi»"f all In 1868, Morgan 
 attacked and caplurtxl Uie stnmg town of Porto- 
 bello, oo the Isthmus, cununltting Indescribable 
 at^'<ltiea. In 107 1 he onMsett the Isthmus, 
 defi'titnl the Spaniards in battle and gained 
 Heiwlon of tha great an.l wealthy clt^^ of 
 >ama— iUo largest and richest In the i.^tw 
 
 possi 
 rasa 
 
 AMERICA. 1718. 
 
 World, containing at the time 80,000 Inhabitanta 
 The city was pillaged, fired and toUlly destroyed. 
 The exploits of this ruffian and the stolen riches 
 which be carried home to England soon after- 
 ward gained the honors of knighthood for him, 
 from the worthy hands of Charles IL In 1680, 
 the buccaneen under one Coxon again crossed 
 the Isthmus, seized Panama, which had been 
 considerably rebuilt, and captured there a 
 Spanish fleet of four riiips, In which they 
 launched themselves upon the Pacific. From 
 that time their plundering operations were chiefly 
 directed against the Pacific cnaat. Towards the 
 close of the 17th century, the war between Eng- 
 land and France, and the Bourbon alliance of 
 Spain with France, brought about the discour- 
 agement, the decline and finally the extinction 
 of the buccaneer organization. — H. H. Bancroft, 
 Hint, oftht PaciJUs Stattt: Central Am., e. 3, ch. 
 86-80. 
 
 Also n» W. Thombury, The Butearutn.—k. 
 O. Exquemelin, HM. of th$ Bueeaneeri.—J 
 Bumey, Jlitt. of the Buceantert nf Am. — See, 
 also, Jamaica: A. D. 1665-1796. 
 
 A. D. 1655.— Submission of the Swedes on 
 the Delaware to the Dutch. See Dclawakk: 
 A. D. 1640-1656. 
 
 A. D. 1663.— The grant of the Carolinas to 
 Monk, Clarendon, Shaftesbury, and others. 
 See North Carolin*: A. D. 1668-1670. 
 
 A. n. 1664.— EoKlish conquest of New 
 Nether'and. See New York: A. D. 1664. 
 
 A. D. 1673.— The Dutch reconquett of New 
 Nethetland. See Nbw Tokz: A. D. 167& 
 
 A. 'O. i673-i68a.— Discoreiy and explora- 
 tion of the Mississippi, by Marquette and 
 La Salle.— Louisiana named and possessed 
 by the French. See Canada (New Framck): 
 A. D. 1684-1678. and iefi»-1687. 
 
 A. D. 1674.— Final surrender of New Nethp 
 erland to the EnjrUsh. Bee Nbthiiilamiis 
 (Holland): A. D. 1674. 
 
 A. D. 168;.— The proprictaiy Krant to Wil- 
 liam Pcnn. See Pkrnstlvakia: A. D. IIHI. 
 
 A. D. i689-i6o7.— The first Inter-Colon it 
 War: Kiu WiUiam's War (The war of the 
 Leane ofTAnnburc). See Canada (New 
 Fhanck): a. d: 1686-1600: 1693-16in: also, 
 NBwr<)l^DLAND: A. D. 1694-1697. 
 
 A. D. 1690.— The first Colonial Concress. 
 Sec United States or Am. : A. D. 1690; also, 
 Canada (New France): A. D. 1689-16»<t. 
 
 A. D. 1698-1712.— The French colonitatica 
 of Louisiana.— Broad claims of France to the 
 whole Valley of the Mississippi. See Loi isi 
 ana: A. D. I69(J-1712. 
 
 A. D. 1700-1735.— The Spread of French 
 occujtation in the Mississippi VaUey and on 
 the Lakea. Se« Canada (New Feanck): A. D. 
 170«)-I7n5, 
 
 A. D. 17'' \— Union af the two Jeraevs as a 
 royal province. See New Jerset : A. U. 16)<t«- 
 1788. 
 
 A. D. 170t.1713.-The Second InterAlo- 
 lonlal War : Queen Anne'a War (The War of 
 the Spanish Succesalen).— Final acouisition of 
 Nova Scotia by the BngUsh. See New Kn 
 LAND: A. U. 170S-1710; CakaDA (New Fkancek 
 A. I). 1711-1718. 
 
 A. D. 17]}.— Division of territory between 
 England and France by the Traaty of Utrecht. 
 See Canada (New FaaiiOK) : A. D. 1711- 
 1718. 
 
 ill 
 
AMERICA, 1729. 
 
 A, D. 1799.— Bad of tb* proprietarr mw- 
 emment in Nortli CaroUiw. See North 
 Carolina: A. D. 1688-1729. 
 
 A. D. 1733.— The colonization of Ceornn 
 by General Oglctiirope. See Okoroia: A. D. 
 178^1789. 
 
 *•„?• «744-«74«:-The Third Inter-Coion- 
 uU War: King; George'* War (The W«r of 
 the Auitnan Succeieion). See Nb w Ekouuid • 
 A n 1744; 1745; and 1745-1748 
 
 ^ °; «74»-«7<o.— Unsettled bonndair dia- 
 putet of England and France— The fourth and 
 i*V. "Vlf-ewonial war, called the French and 
 Indian War (The Seren Years War of Europe). 
 -Engliah Coaqueat of Canada. See Cawada 
 (New Frakcb): A. D. 1750-1758; 1760; Nova 
 ScoTU: A. D. 1749-1756; 1755; Ohio(Vau*t)- 
 A. D. 1748-1V6': 1764; 1756; Cape Br»ton 
 IiiLA.vD: A. D. 17SS-1760. 
 . ^ ?• '749-— Introdnction of nesro alaTcry 
 into Gcorpa. See Oborou: A. D. 1735-1749. 
 - *•..*?• i75'*"',7S3-— Diaaeniiona amonr the 
 Engksb Coloniee on the eve of the mat 
 French War. See Umiteo States of Am.: 
 
 A. D 1754.— Tha Colonial Congress at 
 Albany.— Franklin's Plan of Union. See 
 L N;rti) States of Am. : A. D. 1754. 
 
 A. D. 1763.— The Peace of Paris.— Canada. 
 Cape Breton, Newfoundland, and Louisiana 
 east of the Misaissippi (except New Orleans) 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIGINEa 
 
 ceded by France to Great Britain.— West of 
 the Miasissmpi and New Oreans to Spain.— 
 Florida by SJMun to Great Britain. See ' JBVMi 
 X BARS War. 
 
 ^•, °^'763-«764.-Pontiac's War. See Pen- 
 
 »h^R?;iI'.l*?•"i7*^ "~°4'!7'°S dlacontent of 
 !?• E'«||»n Colonies.— The question of taxa- 
 tion.— The Stamp Act and its repeal. See 
 Ukitbd States of Am.: A D. 1760-1775.101766. 
 „•*• P\ '7o*-i7*9-— Spaniah occupation of 
 New Orieana and Weatem LonisianiTandthe 
 n5?.'*aXm'*' «-^'^««--A.D.176(^ 
 
 ,. ^ O- i;f7s-i78»._iadependence of tbeEne> 
 lish colonies achieved. See United States or 
 
 » • ^ ^- i"' (Apru.) to 1783 (September). 
 
 A. p. 1776.— Erection of the Spanish Vice- 
 reyalty of Buenos Ayres. See AROENTras 
 Repubuo' a. D. 1580-1777 
 
 A. D. i8io.i8i6.—ReTolt, independence and 
 Confederation of the Arfentini ProTinees. 
 Bee Aroi stinb Republic; A. D. 1806-1820 
 
 A.D. 1818.— ChUean independence achieved. 
 See Chile: A. D. 1810-1818. 
 kA.'*: »•»•:'«"•— Indepeodence Acquired 
 by Mexico and the Central American Statea. 
 See .Mexico: A. D. 1830-1826, and Central 
 America: A. D. 1821-1871. 
 
 A. D. 1824.- PsruTian independence woo at 
 Ayacttcbo. See Pkbc: A. D. 1820-1836. 
 
 Linruistic Clasti«eation.- In the Seventh 
 Annual Report of ibf Bun-nu of Ethnolocv ffor 
 mr.m. publi,h,..l l„ imx .Major J. W.?oVea 
 !.• DircTtorof the Bureau, has ^iven aclagsiflca- 
 tiun of lie languages of the \orth Americnn abo- 
 rigini-s msed upon the most n-cent Investigations. 
 The following Is a list of famllii's of speech orlln- 
 guistic stocks which ar.. (Icflued and namc.1- 
 
 ihJ^'?'f"'J''*"°i'"'''* ''"™ •'"' publication of 
 thi, list as bring but part of the Caddoan stockl. 
 
 - A gonqulm - Atliapascan. - Attacapan.- 
 B«.tlmkan.-Cad(loan.-rhlinakusn.-C-hlmari- 
 ^sn -t hlmmesyan.-rhin™,kan.-Chitiinachan. 
 -(.humashan.— Coahulltcran— Cowlmn.-Cos- 
 ^m«in.-hgklmauan.-Esselcnlan.-Tro.iuol8n.- 
 Kal»n<*,l,n-karankav.„n.-Keresnn.-'Kiowan. 
 
 - Kituanahan. -- Kolusclmn. - Kulanniwii. - 
 
 Ausan -Lutuamlan.-Mariposan- M,.,,u..lum- 
 naa-Mu.khogean.-N«l,l„san.-PHlait.nil,an 
 - 1 iman.-PuJunan.-Ouoniti.an.- Salinan,- 
 MWmn.-S»,t*an.-8h5i«ntlan.-81i,,slumean. 
 -W<.U8n.-8kltUgetan.-l altllman.-Tnlloan _ 
 Timumianan.-TonlkaD.-Tonkawun.-rrhoan 
 -W «inatpuan.-WakMh8n.-W8»lK).in -Welt 
 '^r, -y"""«k»n- - Vokonan - Yunan 11 
 ' '"'l"» — ^ uman. — Zufilan. "— These families 
 are severally defined In the sum , "ry „7 n 
 formation given below, and the Sons to 
 .t!"e 1" r'""V*'"'"« »"/ hi'torical Impor 
 «i»e, but many other groupings and aiaocU- 
 
 "ns, «n.l many tribal names'^ not sclenU^lly 
 ^irff; T "^'l-^xhlblted here, for the 
 ZtlitL^.'L^:" » /'Snlflowce In history 
 "mture ^~^ "' frequent allusion in 
 
 Ahipoast, Bee below ; PAKPAi Tauuts. 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 83 
 
 .,^i.°V',*' *' Abenaques, or Taranteens.— 
 
 Tlie Abnakis were L-alleti Taranteens by the 
 Engli^, and Owenuguugas by the Now Yorkers. 
 v" ■ u ? ""if* ■""''' """ ' '"8« portion of the 
 ijortti American Indiana were called Abnakis. 
 if not by themselves, at least by others. ThU 
 word Abnski U found spelt Abenaques, Abenaki 
 Wapanachkl, and Wab> oakies by different writ- 
 en. of varioua naUons, each adopting the manner 
 of spelling according to the rules of pronunci- 
 ation of their reSMctive native languages. . . . 
 The word geoenUly received Is spelled thus 
 AbnakI but It should be ' Wtobftnaghl,' from 
 the Indian word 'wanbanban,' designating the 
 peop.e of the Aurora Borealis, or In general, of 
 the place where the sky commences to appear 
 white at the breaking of the day. . . . ft has 
 been difficult for different writers to determine 
 the number of nations or tribes comprehended 
 under this word AbnakI It being a genersi 
 word, by itself designates the people of tbc east 
 or northeast. . . . Wo dnd that the word AbnakI 
 was applied in genersi. more or leas, to all the 
 Indians of the East, by persons who were not 
 much acquainted with the atioriglnes of the 
 country. On the contrary, the eariy writers and 
 others well acquainted with the natives of Now 
 Jrancu and Acadia, and the Indians themselves 
 by Abnakis always pointed out a particular 
 nation existing north west and south of the Ken- 
 neber river, and they never designated any 
 oth.t people of the Atlantic shore, from Cap* 
 Hatteras to Newfoundland. . The Ahnakia 
 had five great villages, two amongst the French 
 ctilonies, which must be the village of St. 
 J.^ph or finery, ao<! that -f «!. PmnHj do 
 Sttlus, both In Canada, three on thu head waten, 
 
AHEBICAK ABORIGINEa 
 
 br •long three riven, between Acadia and New 
 ^glua. These laree rivers are the Kennebec, 
 the AndroMoggin, and the Saco. . . . The nv 
 tion of the Abnalds bear evident marla of hav- 
 ing been an original people in their name, man- 
 nen, and language. They show a liind of ctvil- 
 ^tion which must be the effect of antiquity, 
 and of a past flourisliing age."— E. Vetromile, 
 ThtAbnaJklndianiiifaineUut. Boe. CM., ». «).— 
 Bee, also, below: ALoonitciAN FAMn.T.— For 
 some account of the wars of the Abnakls, with 
 the Kew England colonies, see Canada (New 
 Frahck); a. D. 1680-1690, and 16»3-16»7i 
 New Eholaht; A. D. 1678 (Jclt— SbptO; 
 1703-1710, 1711-1713; and Nova Scotia: A. D. 
 1713-1730. 
 
 Absarokas, Upsarokaa, or Crowa. See 
 below : Sioi-,\s F.tMiLV. 
 
 Acawoios. See below: Caribs akd thkib 
 
 AcolbuM. See IIkzioo, A. u. 1825-1503. 
 
 Adais.*— These lodiuii!) were a 'tribe who, ac 
 cording tn Dr. Sibley lived about the year 1800 
 near tlic old Spanish fort or mission of Adaize, 
 ' about 40 miles from Natchitoches, below the 
 Yattassees, on a lalte called Lac Macdon, which 
 communicates with the division of Red Kiver 
 tlint passes by Bavou Pierre ' [Lewis and Clarke]. 
 A vocabulary of about 250 words is all that re- 
 mains to us of their ianKuage, which according 
 to the collector, Dr. Sibley, ' differs from all 
 others, ami is so difficult to spealc or understand 
 that no nation can spealt ten words of it. ... A 
 recent comparison of this vocabulary by Mr. 
 Oatschet, with several Caddoan dialects, has led 
 to the discovery that a considerable percentage 
 of the Adai words havn a more or less remote 
 affinity with Caddoan, and he regards it as a 
 Cmliliian dialect."— J. W. Powell. Setenth An. 
 ReiM-t, Bureau of Ethnology, PP- 45-46.— See 
 preceding page. 
 
 Adirondf ■••.—"This ii a term bestowed by 
 the iroquij.j, in derision, on the tribes who 
 appear, at an early day, to have dcscendc' tho 
 Ltawas river, and occupied the left baniu of 
 the St. Lawrence, above the present site of 
 Qucliec. about the close of the 15th century. It 
 Is said to signify niea who eat trees, in allusion 
 to their using the Imrk of certain trees for food, 
 when reduced to straits. In their war excursions. 
 The French, who entered the St. Lawrence from 
 the o'lilf. culled the same people Algonquins— 
 a generic appellation, which has been long 
 empldvcd and come into universal use, among 
 historians and philologists. According to early 
 accounts, the Adirondaciis had preceded the 
 Iriiquiiis in arts and attainments."— H. R. 
 SclKMilcrafl. y-'lrt on the Iruqwit, eh. 5. — Sec, 
 also. iK'low; IliutjL'OIS CONFKUEllACT: THEIR 
 CoNql EKTS. Ac. 
 
 jEsopus Indians. See below: AlAOMnfiAN 
 Family. 
 
 Agniers.— ..miing several names which tiic 
 Mi'liaivUs IMC IkIcw; iKotjfoih) Imro in cariy 
 culimi;il liistiiry was tliat of tlio Agniers.— F. 
 Hirldnan, fhe Con^iirafj/ qf I\>iitint, ». 1. p 0, 
 fiMit-noff. 
 
 Albaiaa. iM>e lirlow : Pampas TRtt;Ba 
 
 Aleuts. ><>' Ih'I<i\v. Ehkimaia.n Family. 
 
 Algonquiam Algonkini Family.—" AImiuI the 
 p«'riiHi l.*i(iii-l(MK). ilicisc ri'laUKi lril>es wlmm wo 
 now !tu!!w 1(V !!!•■ nsnie "f AlK<>nkin« wen- iit tlie 
 height of their proeiK'rity. They occupl 
 
 AHERICAN ABOBIGINEa 
 
 Atlantlccoast from the SavaiiwUi river on the •oulli 
 to Oie strait of Belle Isle on tbe north. . . . The 
 dialecte of all these were related, and evMently at 
 some distant day bad been derived from the same 
 primitive tongue. Whkh of them bad preserveil 
 the ancient forms moat closely, It may be prema 
 ture to decide podtively, but tbe tendency of 
 modem studies baa been to assign that place tu 
 the Cree — the nortbemmoM of aU. We cannot 
 erect a genealogiral tree of these dialects. . . . 
 We may, howev , group them in such a manner 
 as roughly to indicate their lelatUMobip. This 
 I do'— in the following Hst: "Cree.— Old 
 Algonkln.— Montagnato. — Chlpeway. Ottawa. 
 Potuwattomie, Miami, Peoria, Pea, Piankiahaw. 
 Easkaskia, Menominee, Sac, Fox, Kikanoo — 
 Slieshatapoosh, Secoffee, MIcmac, Mellsceet, 
 Etchemin, Abnakl— Mohegan, Massachusetts. 
 Siiavtoee, Mlnsl, Unaml, Unatechtigo [tbe last 
 three named forming, together, the nation of the 
 Lenape or Dekiwaresi, Nanticoke, Powhatan, 
 Pampticoke. — Bhickfoot, Oroa Ventre, Shey- 
 enne. ... All tlie Algonkln nations who dwelt 
 north of tiie Potomac, on the east shore of 
 Chesapeake Bay, and in the basins of the Dela- 
 ware and Hudson rivers, claimed near kinship 
 and an identical origfai, and were at times unite<l 
 into a loose, defensive confederacy. By the 
 western and southern tribes they were col- 
 lectively known as Wapanachkik— • those of the 
 eastern region' — which In the form AI>tuU(l is 
 now confined to the remnant of a tribe in Maine, 
 . . . The members of the confederacy were the 
 Mohegans (Mahicanni) of the Hudson, who occu 
 pied the valley of that river to the falls above 
 the site of Albany, the various New Jersey 
 tribes, the Dclawares proper on the Delaware 
 river and its branches, including the Minbi or 
 Honseys, among the mountains, the Nanticokes. 
 between Chesapeake Bay and the Atlantic, and 
 the small tribe called Canal, Kanawbas or 
 Oanawese, whose towns were on tributaries of 
 the Potomac and Patuxent. . . . LInguistkiaUy, 
 the Mohegans were more closely allied to the 
 tribes of New England than to these of the 
 Delaware Valley. Evidently, most of the tribes 
 of MassachusetU and Connecticut were compara- 
 tively recent oflshoow of the parent stem on the 
 Hudson, supposing tbe course of migration had 
 been eastward. . . . The Nartlcokes occupied 
 the territory between Chesapeake Bay and the 
 ocean, except its southern extiemit/, which ap- 
 
 Pears to have been under the control of the 
 towhatun tribe of Virginia."— D. O. Brinton, 
 The Lenape and their Lfgend*. eh. 1-2.—" Mohe- 
 gan", Munsees, Manliattins, MetOac>r and ollur 
 afllhated tribes and Imnds of Algonquin linca»ri . 
 inliabited the l)ank8 of the Hudsor an<l ilie 
 islands, bay ttnds«'aboardof New York.ineimlinu 
 Long Island, during the early periods of the ii.h' 
 of the Irixiuois Confederacy. . . . The Moheuaiis 
 nnaily retired over tlic Ilighlands east oi' llii in 
 into the valley of the Ilousatonic. Tlie Muii.-<i4 
 and Nantii.'kcsretlriHl to llic Delaware river mA 
 reunited with their kindred, the LenaiK'es, or 
 modern Deiuwares. Tlic Manlutttons, mJ 
 numerous otlicr bands ami subtril>cs, rndtiJ 
 away under the influence of liquor ami dti^l in 
 their tracks."— H K. Sclioolcraft, Xotetou lU 
 Iroquit: eh. 8 — •' On the basis of a differ. «e 
 in dialect, that portion ol the AlRimqiiin IikIiuiw 
 which dwelt in New England haslRin clniiwilm 
 two divisions, one cousistiKb of Ihum who is 
 
 • Sci' N tr, A|i|i«nillx E, vol. I, 
 
 84 
 
AMERICAN ^BORIOmEa 
 
 habited what is now the State of Maine, nearly 
 up to its western border, the other conglsting of 
 tlic rest of the native popuhtiun. The Jfelne 
 Indians may liave been some 15,000 in number, 
 or somewhat less than a third of the native popu- 
 lation of New England. That portion of them 
 who dwelt furthest towards the east were known 
 by the name of Etetchemins. The Abenaquis, 
 including the Tarratines, hunted on both sides of 
 the Penobscot, and westward as far as the Saco 
 if not quite to the Piscataqua. Tlie tribeafound 
 in the rest of New England were designated by 
 a greater variety of names. The home of the 
 Penacook or Pawtucket Indians was in the 
 southeast comer of what is now New Hampshire 
 and the contiguous region of Massachusetts. 
 Next dwelt the Alassachusetts tribe, along the 
 bay of that name. Then were found suceessi vel i- 
 the Pokanoketa, or Wampanoags, in the south- 
 easterly region of MassachusetU, and by Buz- 
 zard's and Nanagansett Bays: the Narragansetta, 
 with a tribuUry race called Nyantics in what is 
 now the western part of the Statu of lUiode 
 Island; the Pequiits, between the NarragansctU 
 and Uie river formerlv called the Pequol Kivcr, 
 now the Thames ; and tlie Mohegans, »r ending 
 themselves beyond the River Connec.icut. In 
 the central region of Massachusetts were the 
 Nipmucks, or N'ipncts; and along Cape Cod were 
 the Niiusef who appeared to have owed some 
 fealty to tlie Pokunokets. The New Enirland 
 Indians exhibit^-d an inferior typo of hui.ianity. 
 . . . Though fleet and agile when excited to 
 some nccasiomil effort, they were found to be in- 
 capable of continuous labor. Heavy and 
 phlegmatic, they scarcely wept or smiled "— 
 J. G. Palfrey, Comjiendiout Ui$t. of N. Enq., 
 bic. 1, eh. i (p. 1).— "The valley of the 
 ' Cahohatatea,' or Mauritius River [i. e., the 
 Hudson Kivcr, as now named] at the timi» ilu<l- 
 »on first ascended ita waters, was inhabited 
 chleHy, by two aboriginal races of Alirnnquiii 
 lineage, afterwards known among the Euglish 
 colonists by the generic names of Mohegans 
 and Mincces. The Dutcu generally called 
 the Mohegans, Mahicans; and the Mincces 
 Sanhlkans. These two tribes were sulKjivided 
 into numerous minor bands, each of wlilcli 
 had a distinctive name. The tril)es on the 
 east side of the river were generally .Mohe- 
 gans; those on the west side, Mincees. They 
 were hcre<litar^ enemies. . . . Long Island, or 
 • Si'wanhackv, was occupied by th3savai;e tribe 
 "f Metowacks, which wassubdividcd intovurioug 
 (Inns. . , . Stalen Island, on the opposite side 
 "f the bay, was inhabited by the Monatons 
 Inliinil, to the west, llv-d the R; -Itans and the 
 llackmsacks; while the regions in the vicinity of 
 the well-known ' Hisnlands,' south of Sandy 
 ll.)<)k were inhabited by a band or sub trilK! 
 called the Nevesiucks or Navlsinks. . , . To the 
 N>iitli and west, covering the c«!ntro of New 
 Jcrwy. were the Aquamachukesand the (Stanke- 
 kaiis; while the valley of the IK'laware, north- 
 ward from the Schuylkill, was inhabited bv 
 larioii, tribes of the Lenapc race. . . . The 
 .■^1 in.| of the .Miinhattans " was occupied ov the 
 iribc which received that name (see Manhattan). 
 On the shores of the river, above, dwelt the 
 r..ppan», the Weckquaeige"ks, the Sint Sings, I 
 whose thief village was rameii Ossln-Sing, ,t ' 
 the Place of Stones,' " the Pachami, (he Waorin- I 
 »tka, the Vi appiagerg, auU the Warouawaukongs 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIOINSa 
 
 "Further north, and occupying the pmejt 
 counticsof Lister and Greene, wettj the Minqua 
 clans of MInnesincks, Nanticokes, Mincces, and 
 Uelawares. These clans had pressed onward 
 from the upper valley of the Delaware. . . . They 
 were generally known among the Dutch as the 
 ^sopus Indians."— J. K. Brodhcad, Uut. of 
 t/ui (state of X r., ». 1, eh. 8— "The area for- 
 merly occupied by the Algonquian family was 
 more extensive than that of any other linguistic 
 stock in North America, their territory reaching 
 fiom Labrador to the Rocky Mountains, and from 
 Churchill River of Hudson Bay as far south at 
 least as Pamlico Sound of North Carolina. In 
 the eastern part of this territory was an area 
 occupied by Iroquoian tribes, surrounded on 
 almost all sides- ty their Algonquian neighbors. 
 O. the south che Algonquian tribes were bor- 
 dered by those of Iroquoian and Siouan (Cata .. oa) 
 stock, on the southwest and west by the Musk- 
 hogi^an and Siouan tribes, and on the northwest 
 oy the Kitunahan and the great Athapascan 
 fan- Mies, while along the coast of Labrador and 
 the eastern shore or Hudson Bay they came in 
 contact with the Eskimo, who were gradually 
 retreating before them to the nortli. In New- 
 foundland they encountered the Bcothukan 
 family, consisting of but a single tribe. A portiou 
 of the Shawnee at some early period had sep- 
 arated from the main body of the tribe in central 
 Tennessee and pushed their wav down to the 
 Savannah River in South Carolina; where, known 
 OS Savannahs, they carried on destructive wars 
 with the surrounding tribes until about the be- 
 ginning of the Idth century they were finally 
 dri en out and join. ,i the Deliware in the north. 
 Soon aftcrwanis tlie r?stof tae tribe was expelled 
 by the Cherokee and Chicasa, who thencefor- 
 ward claimed all the country stretching north to 
 the Ohio River. The Cheyenne and Arapaho 
 two allie<i tribes of this stock, had become Sep- 
 araiei'. from their kindred ou the north and had 
 fo- i 'heir way through hostile tribes across the 
 M. « u.. to the Black Hills country of South 
 -.iKota. and more recently into Wyoming and 
 Colorado, thus fomiing the advance guard of 
 the Algonquian stock in that direction, having 
 the Siouan trilies behind them and those of the 
 Shoshonean family in front. [The following are 
 the] principal tribes: • -.nakl, Algonquin, Ara- 
 im ho. Chcvenne. Conr , Cree, Delaware. Fox, 
 Illinois, Kickapx), JIahican, Massachuset, Me- 
 nominee, .Miami, Micniac, Stohegan, Montagnais 
 Montauk, Munsee, Xanticokc, Narraganset 
 ^auset, Xipmuc, Ojibwa. Otuwa, Pamlicc. Pen- 
 nacook, Pequot, Piankisliaw, I'oltawotomi. Pow- 
 hatai!. Sac. Sliawn.'c, Siksika, V'ampanoag, 
 " appi-ger. The present number of '.no Algon- 
 quian stuck isab<iut ».\«00, of whom o'mut 60,000 
 are in Canada and th • remainder in the United 
 StaU'S."— .1. W. i'uwell, SKiilh Annual Ikpori, 
 Bureau of Ethnot'uiy, pj} 47-4S. 
 
 Also i.n J. W. be Forest. Hut. of Iht huUant 
 of lonnecliftU.—S.. Oallaliu, t>ynoimH of tht 
 Indian Trifna ( Aifhitobigia Ainerieana, t. 2) 
 tHlro.. Krt. 2. —A G. Dnike, Aboriginal liaetn of 
 A. Am., hk. ;>-:(. —Sec. also, ijclow: Delawauks; 
 HoKIKANs; SrtAWAVKSE: SlsqiEa.tNNAS; UJIii- 
 "As; iLLlNois. — I..r liie Indian wars of Xcw 
 Eagland. see New E.voi.ANUr A. U. 1837 (Tin 
 Pehiot Hak): a. D 1074-1675 to 1676-1678 
 (M.VO PllILIP'g Witt!_.S,H-, also, PoKTUe'8 
 
 War. 
 
 85 
 
AMEmCAK ABORIQINE& 
 
 . ' Jl 
 
 
 Alibamai, or AlabamM. 
 nooKAN Family. 
 Alleghant, or . 
 
 "Till! oldest tribe I 
 there U a distinct t- 
 The term is perpetu... 
 
 Bee below: MC8K- 
 
 'egewi, or TalHcewi.— 
 ■' United States, oi which 
 n, were the Aliegliaos. 
 . . I u the principal cliain of 
 
 muuntiiins traversing tlie country. This tribe, at 
 ■in nntiquc period, Iind the seat of their power 
 In tlic Oliio Valley !ind its confluent streams, 
 whicli Were the sites of their numerous towns 
 and villages. They appear originally to have 
 borne the name of Alii, or Alleg, and hence the 
 names of Tulligcwt ami Allegewi. (Trans. Am. 
 Pill. 8oc., vol. 1.) By adding to the radical of 
 this word the particle ' liany ' or ' ghany,' meaning 
 river, they described the principal scene of their 
 residence — namely, the Alleghany, or Iliver of 
 the Alieghans, now called Ohio. The word 
 Ohio Is of Iroquois origin, and of a far later 
 period; having been bestowed by them after 
 their conquest of the country. In alliance with 
 the Lenanees, or ancient Delawares. (Phi. 
 Trans.) The term was applied to the entire 
 river, from Its confluence with the Mississippi, 
 to its origlb in the broad spurs of the Alle- 
 ghanies, in Xew York and Pennsvlvanla. . . . 
 There are evidences of antique labors In the 
 alluvial plains and valleys of the Scioto, Mhiml, 
 and Muskingum, the \Vsba8h,Kaska8kia.Cahok!n, 
 and Illinois, denoting that the ancient Alleghans, 
 and their allies and confederates, cultivated the 
 soil, and were semi-agriculturists. These evi- 
 dences have been traced, at late periods, to the 
 fertile table-lands ot Indiana and Michigan. 
 The tribes lived In fixed towns, cultivating 
 extensive fields of the zea-maize; and also, as 
 denoted by recent discoveries, ... of some 
 species of beans, vines, and esculents. Tliey 
 were, in truth, the mound builders." — H It 
 Sclioolcnift, Iiif'irmdti'iii retfecling the Indian 
 Tribft, pt. 5, p. 133.— This conclusion, to wliich 
 Mr.Mchoolcniit had arrived, that the ancient 
 Alleghans or Tallcgwi were the mound bui' ilers 
 of the Ohio Valley is being sustained by later 
 investigators, and seems to have become an 
 accepted opinion amimg those of liighcst 
 authority. Tlie Alleghans, moreover, arc being 
 Identified with the Clierokees of later times. In 
 whom their nice, once supposed to be extinct, 
 has app'rently survived; while the fact, long 
 suspected, that the Cherokee language is of tlie 
 Iroquois family is lieing proved by the latest 
 studies. According to Indian tradition, tlie 
 Alleghans were driven from their ancient seiits. 
 long ago, by a combination against them of the 
 Lenape (Delawares) and the Mengwc (Iroquois). 
 The route of tlieir migrations is Mug trared by 
 the cliaracter of the mounds which they built, 
 and of the remains gatliereil from the mounds. 
 "The general movement [of retreat U-fore the 
 IriH|Uois and Leniipi] . . . must have iH'en 
 txuithwiinl, . . . and tlie exit of tlie Ohio mound- 
 builders was, In nil prolmbiiity, up the Kananah 
 Vttiley on the suiiie line that the Clierokees 
 appear to liuve followed In reaeliing their 
 historical locality. ... If the hypothesis here 
 advanced be correct, It is apparent that tlie 
 Clierokees enteri'il the immediate valley of the 
 tlississippi from the nonliwest, striking it In the 
 region of Iowa. "— C. Thomas. The PniNtin of tht 
 Ohio Mounds (Bureau of Ethtwiogu, 1889) 
 
 Aljio fx Thr sami'. B'lrinl ,Vw>irf» of the 
 UttrtUn SictivM <(f t*4 U. a (f\fUi An. Oept. 
 
 AMERICAN AOORIQINEa. 
 
 of the Bureau qf Sthnology, 1883-84).— J. Hecke- 
 welder, Actt. of Vie Indian tfationt, eh. 1. — 
 See, lielow : Cberokebs, and iRoquols CoiirKD- 
 EHAcv ; also America, PREaisTORic. 
 
 Amahuacma. See below : Amdesiams. 
 
 Andutes. See below: SusqvEnANNAS. 
 
 AndeiiUK.— " The term Andeslans or An- 
 tesians, is used with geographical rather than 
 ethnological limits, and embraces a numlicr of 
 tribes. First of these are the Cofan In Eqiiador, 
 east of Clilmborazo. They fought valiantly 
 against the Spaniards, and In times past killed 
 many of tlie missionaries sent among them. 
 Now they are greatly reduced and have become 
 more gentle. The Huamaboya arc their near 
 neighbors. Tlic Jivnra, west of the river Pa«- 
 taca. are a warlike tribe, who, possibly throiigli 
 a mixture of Spanish blood, have a European 
 cast of countenance and a beard. The half 
 Christian Napo or Qui jo and their peaceful neigh- 
 bors, the Zaporo, live on the Rio Napo. The 
 Yamco, living on the lower Chamblva and cross- 
 ing the Marailon, wandering as far as Saryacu, 
 have a clearer complexion. The Pacamora and 
 the Yuguarzongo live on the Manfion, where It 
 leaves its northerly course and bends toward the 
 cast. The Cochlquima live on tlie lower Yavari ; 
 the Mayoruna, or Barbudo, on the middle Ucayall 
 beside the Campo and Cochlbo, tlie most terrible 
 of South American Indians; they dwell In the 
 woods between the Tapiche and the MaroBon. 
 and like the Jivaro have a beard. The Pano, who 
 formerly dwelt in the territory of LaUguna, but 
 who now live In villages on the upper Ucayall. 
 are Christians. . . . Their language is the prin- 
 cipal one on the river, and It is shared by seven 
 otlier tribes called collectively by the mission 
 aries Manioto or Mayno. . . . Within the woo<U 
 on tiic right bank live the Amahuaca and Shu 
 cava. On the north they Join the Remo, a pow 
 crful tribe who are distinguished from all the 
 others by tlie custom of tattooing. Ouisiile this 
 P,ino linguistic group stand the Campa, Campo, 
 or Antis on the east slope of the Peruvian Cor- 
 dillera at the source of the Rio BenI and Its tribu- 
 taries. The Clinntaquiros, or Piru. now occupy 
 almost entirely the bank of the Ucayall below the 
 Piu'hilia. The Mojos or Moxos llv e in the Bk>liviaL 
 province of Moxos with the small tribes of the 
 Baure. Itonama, Pacaguaro. A number of 
 smaller tribes belonging to the Antesian f^ 
 need not be enumerated. The late Pn, • - 
 JaiiK-8 Orton described the Indian tribes • 
 territory between Quito and the river A-r 
 Thc Xapo approach the type of the Qi 
 . . . Among all the Indians of the ProvTn 
 Orleme, the tribe of Jivani is one of the h 
 These people are divided Into a great numlx 
 sub-tribes. All of these siM'nk the clear musicid 
 Jivaro language. They arc musciihir, aetivi- 
 men. . . . Tlie Morona are cannibuls in the full 
 sens; of the word. . . . The Campo, still verv 
 little known, is perhaps the liirgcst Indian tribe 
 in Eastern Peru, and, acconllng to some i!< 
 related to the Incn race, or at least witli iluir 
 auccessiors They are said to lie cannibiiN. 
 tliough James Ort<m does not think thl.s possible 
 . . . The nearest neighbors of the CaniiK) are llie 
 Ciiout:ikin>. or Cliontaiiiilro, or Chonquiro, calUii 
 also I'iru who, acconllng to Paul Mareoy, are 
 said (o lie of tlie same origin with tlic Campo. 
 
 J 
 
 86 
 
 but the language is wholly tlHTefeat 
 
 the Pano people are liie wikl Coaibo; they are 
 
 A 
 
 iiii.'iis 
 
iJIERICAK ABORIOINEa 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 the most interesting, but are patstng Int ' vtinc- 
 lion." — The Statidard Xatural iStt s 
 
 Kingtley, td.), e 6, pp. 237-231. 
 
 Apaclie Grouj).*-Under the general name of 
 the Apaches "I include all the savage tribes 
 mamiug through New Mexico, the north-western 
 iK>rtinn of Texas, a small part of northern 
 Mexico, and Aiizona. , . , Uwing to their rov- 
 ing proclivities and ince!<.,ant raids they are led 
 first in one direction and then in another. In 
 general terms they may be said to range about 
 as follows: The Comanchea, Jrtans, or Nauni, 
 consisting of three tribes, the Comanches proper] 
 the Yamparaclu, and Tenawas, inhabiting 
 northern Texas, eastern Chihuahua, Nuevo Leon, 
 Coabuila, Uurango, and portions of south- 
 western New Mexico, hv Isnguage allied to the 
 Shoshone family; the Apaches, who call them- 
 selves Shis Inday, or 'men of the woods," 
 and whose tribal divisions are the Cbiricaeuis, 
 Coyoteros, Faraones, Oilefioe, Lipanes, flan- 
 eros, Hescaleros, MimbreRos, Natages, Pelones, 
 Pinalefios, Tejuas, Tontoa, and Vaqucros, 
 roaming over New Mexico, Arizona, North- 
 western Texas, Cliiliuahua and Sonora, and 
 who are allied by language to the great 
 Tinneh family; the Navaios, or Tenual, 'men,' 
 as they designate themselves, having linguistic 
 affinities with the Apache nation, with which 
 they are sometimps classed, living in and around 
 the Sierra dc los Mimbres; the Slaves, occupy, 
 ing both banks of the Colorado in Mojave Valley ; 
 the Hualapais, near the head-waters of Bill 
 Williams Fork ; the Yumas, on the east bank of 
 the Colorado, near its junction with the Rio 
 Olla; the Cosninos, who, like the Hualapais. are 
 sometimes included in the Apache nation, rang- 
 ing tlirough the Mogollon Mounuina; and the 
 Yampais, between Bill Williams Fork and the 
 Kio Ilasaayampa. . . . The Apache country is 
 probnblv the most desert of all. ... In both 
 mountam and desert the fierce, rapacious Apache, 
 inured from childhixxl to hunger and thirst, and 
 heat and cold, finds safe retreat. . . The 
 Pueblos . . . are nothing but t/artially reclaimed 
 Apaches or Comanches." — H. H. Bancroft, 
 -\<j<«'m Rncc of the Paeifie ^taUt, v. t, eh. 5~ 
 Dr. Brinton prefers the name Yuma for the 
 whole of the Apache Group, confining the name 
 Apache (that being the Yuma wold for "fight- 
 ing men ") to the one tribe so called. " It has 
 ulso iK'cn called the Katchan or Cuchan stock. " 
 ■^I). O Brinton, The Amrrican liiw, p. 109.— 
 ■See, also, IkIow: Athapascan Family. 
 
 Apalacbei.—" Among the aboriginal tribes of 
 the United States perhaps mme is more enig- 
 matical than the Apalachos. They arc mentioned 
 us an Important nation by many of the early 
 French and Spanish travellers and historians 
 their name Is preservetl by a bay and river on 
 the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, and by the 
 great eastern coast range of mountains, and has 
 been applied by ethnologists to a family of cog- 
 nate nations that found their hunting grounds 
 from the Mississippi to the Atlantic and from the 
 t)hio river to the Florida Keys, ypt, strange to 
 wy, their own race and place have been but 
 »:u(s(«c(l at " The derivation of the name of the 
 Apiilaches "has been a questio vcxata' among 
 liiclisnologists." We must "consider It an in- 
 iliratiiin of ancient connections with the southern 
 -""'L'if "';,'""• 'n i***" a pure Caiib wonl 
 Apihch* in the Tamanaca dialect of the 
 
 *8m Mote, Apptodix E, vol. I. 
 
 hi 
 
 Ouaranay stem on the Orinoco signifies 'man,' 
 and the earliest application of the n-me in the 
 northern continent was as the titlj of the chief 
 of a country, 'I'hommc par excellence,' and 
 hence, like very many other Indian tribes 
 (Apaches, Lenni Lenape, Illinois), his subjecto 
 assumed by eminence the proud appellation of 
 'The Men.' ... We have .. . found that 
 though no general migration took place from the 
 continent southwanl, nor from the islands north- 
 ward, yet there was a considerable intercourse 
 in both direc;ions; that not only the natives of 
 the greater and lesser Antilles and Yucatan, but 
 also numbers of the Guaranay stem of the 
 southern continent, the Caribs proper, crossed 
 the Straits of Florida and founded colonies on 
 the shores of the Gulf of Mexico; that their 
 customs and language became to a certain extent 
 grafted upon those of the early possessors of the 
 soil; and to this foreign language the name 
 Apalache belongs. As previously stated, it waa 
 used as a generic title, applied to a confederation 
 of many nations at one time under the domina- 
 tion of one chief, whose power prolnbly ex- 
 tended from the Alleghany mountains on the 
 north to the shore of the Gulf; that it included 
 tribes speakinL' a tongue cloaely akin to the 
 Choktah is evident from the fragments we have 
 remaining. . . . The location of the tribe in 
 after yean is very uncertain Dumont placed 
 them In the northern part of what is now Ala- 
 bama and Georgia, near the mountains that b^r 
 their name. That a portion of them did live in 
 this vicinity is corroborated by the historians of 
 South Carolina, who say that Colonel Moore, in 
 1703, found them 'between the head-watera of 
 the Savannah and Altamaha. ' . . . According to 
 all the Spanish authorities, on the other hand, 
 they dwelt in the region of country between the 
 buwannee and Appalachicola rivere — yet must 
 not be confounded with the Apalachicolos. . . 
 They certainly had a large and prosperous town 
 in this vicinity, said to contain 1,000 warriors. 
 ... I am Inclined to believe that these were 
 different branches of the same confederacy. . . 
 In the beginning of the 18th century they 
 suffered much from f vastations of the Eng- 
 lish, French and Cr . ... About the time 
 Spain regained possess ■x of the soil, they 
 migrated to the West an jettled on the Bayou 
 Rapide of Red River, here they had a village 
 numbering about 50 souls."— D. G. Brinton, 
 Nottt on the Floridian Penineuh, eh. 2.— See, 
 also, below : Mcskrooean Family. 
 
 Apclouaai. See Texas: Toe Aboriginai, ih- 
 habitants. 
 Araicu. See below: Gcck on Coco Gkoup. 
 Arapahoet. See above : Aloonquias Famblt. 
 Araucanians. Si c Chile. 
 Arawaks, or Arauacat. See below ; CAKiaa 
 
 AND THEIR KiNDKEU. 
 
 Arecunas. See below: Caribs and triib 
 Kindred 
 
 Arikarai. See below. Pawnee (Cadi>.ian) 
 Family. 
 
 Arkansas. See Mow : Siocan Family. 
 
 Aaainiboins. See below: Siof.\s Family. 
 
 Athapascan Famihr.— Chippewyani.— fin- 
 nah. — Sarcees*— " This name f.\thapascans 
 i-r Athabascans] has been applied to a class of 
 tribes who are situated north of the great 
 Churchill rtvir. and uorlli of the source of the 
 fork of the Saskatcbawine. extending wettwani 
 
AMERICAN ABORIGINEa 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIOINEa 
 
 i: 
 
 tni within about ISO miles of tiie Fkciflo OoMO. 
 . . . The name ii derived, arbitrarily, from 
 Lake Athabasca, which is now more generally 
 called the Lake of the Hills. Surrounding 
 this lake extends the tribe of the Chippewyans, 
 • people so-called by the Kcnistenos and Chip- 
 pewas, because they' were found to be clothed, 
 In some primary encounter, in the scanty garb 
 of the fisher's skin. . . . We ace informed by 
 Mackenzie that the territory occupied by the 
 Chippi'wyans extends between the parallels 
 «f 6U^ and 65° north and longitudes from 
 100° to 110° west" — H. R. Schoolcraft, In- 
 ftrmation Bttptcting tKt Indian Triba, pt. 5, 
 p. 172.— "The Tinneh may be divided into four 
 great families of nations . namely, the Chippe- 
 wyans, or Alliabascas, living between Hudson 
 Bay and the Rocky Mountains; the TacuUies, or 
 Carriers, of New Caledonia or North-western 
 British America; the Kutchins, occupying both 
 banks of the Upper Yukon and its tributaries, 
 from near its mouth to the Mackenzie River, and 
 the Keiul, inhabitingthe interior from the lower 
 Yukon to Copper River." — H. H. Bancroft, 
 The Amative Saeet of the POeifie Statet, A. 3.— 
 " The Indian tribes of Alaska and the adjacent 
 region may be divided Into two groups . . . : 1. 
 Tinneh — ChippewyaLS of authors. . . , Fathi r 
 Fetitot discusses the terms Athabaskans, Chip- 
 pewayans, Montagnais, and Tinneh as applied 
 to this group of Indians. . , . This great family 
 includes a large number of American tribes ex- 
 tending from near the mouth of the Mackenzie 
 south to the borders of Mexico. The Apaches 
 and Na"<jos lielong to it, and the family seems 
 to Intel !>^ct the continent of North America in a 
 northerly and southerly direc m, principally 
 along the Hanks of the Rocky Mountains. 
 The designation [Tinneh] proposed by Messrs. 
 Ross and Gibbs has been accepted by most 
 modem ethnologists. ... 3. T'iinkets," which 
 family includes thu Yakutats and other groups. 
 — W.'n. Doll, Tribe* of the Extreme A'orthaett 
 {Omtritnitiont to N. Am. Ethnology, v. 1). — 
 "Wherever found, the members of this group 
 present a certain family resemblance. In ap- 
 pearance they are tall and tstrong, the forehead 
 low with prominent superciliary ridges, the eyes 
 slightlv oblique, the nose prominent but wide 
 toward the base, the mouth large, the bands and 
 feet small. Their strength ami endurance are 
 often phenomenal, but in the North, at least, 
 their longevity is slight, few living beyond fifty. 
 Intellectually they rank bclnw most of tlicir 
 neighbors, and nowhere do they appear as fos- 
 terera of the germs of civilizutidn. Where, as 
 among the Navajos, we find tliiiii having some 
 repute for the mechanical arts, it turns out that 
 this is owing to having captured and adopted the 
 memben of more gif ted tribes. . . , Agriculture 
 was not practised either in the north or south, 
 the onlv exception being the Nuvajos, and with 
 them the inspiration came from other stocks. 
 . . . The most cultured of their bands were the 
 Navajos, whose name is said to signify 'largo 
 cornfields,' from their extensive agriculture. 
 When the Spaniards first met them In 1541 they 
 were tillers of the soil, erected large granaries for 
 their crops, irrigated their fields by artificial 
 water courses or acequias, and lived In substan- 
 tial dwellings, partly underground ; but they bad 
 not then learned the art of weaving the cele- 
 brated 'Itavajo blankeu,' that being a later 
 
 acqnlaltkm of their a.nlsana.'—D. O. Brinton 
 The Ameriean Baee, pp. 09- 73, — Bee, aboT« 
 Apachi Oboup, and Blackfeet. 
 
 Attinaa (Caddoea).* Sec below: Blacxfbbt. 
 
 Attacapan Pamilj — " I>erivation: From a 
 Choctaw word meaning ' man eater.' Little is 
 known of the tribe, the laLguage of which forms 
 the lusis of the present family. The sole know- 
 ledge posaeaaed by Oallatin was derived from a 
 vocabulary and some scanty information fur- 
 nished by Dr. John Sibley, who collected his ma- 
 terial In the vcrr 1805. Oallatm states that the 
 tribe was reauccd to 50 men. . . . Mr. Oatscbet 
 collected some 3,000 wonis and a considerable 
 body of text Ills vocabulary diffen consider- 
 ably from the one fumislied by Dr. Sibley and 
 published by Gallatin . . . ITie above material 
 seems to show tlmt the Attanipa language is dis- 
 tinct from ill others, except possibly the Chiti- 
 macban." — J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Bipart, 
 Bureau of Ethnolom, p 57. 
 
 Aymaras. See Fbbu. 
 
 Astcca. See belcw: Matas; also Mbxico: 
 A. D. 183S-1603 ; and Aztec and Mata Pictcbb 
 Wbitiso. 
 
 Bakairi. See below: CABraa, 
 
 Balehitaa. See l>elow: Pampas Tribb8. 
 
 Ban n a cka . See below : SHoenoNBANFAini.T. 
 
 Barbndo. See above: Amdesians. 
 
 Bar^ See below Oitk or Coco Gbodp. 
 
 Banre. See above: Anoebians. 
 
 Beothnkan Family.— The Beothuk were a 
 tribe, now extinct, which is believed to have 
 occupied the whole of Newfoundland at the time 
 of its discovery. What is known of the language 
 of the Beothuk Indicates no relationship to anv 
 other American tongue — J. W. Powell, Setenih 
 Annual Bept. of the Bureau of Ethnology, p. 67. 
 
 Bilozia. See below : Sioi'an Family. 
 
 Blackfeet, or Siksikas.—' The tribe that wan- 
 C 'red the furthest fn>m tbe primitive home of the 
 stock [the Algonquian] were the Blackfeet, or 
 Sisika, which word bAS this signification. It is 
 derived from their earlier habitat In the valley of 
 the Red river of the north, where the soil was 
 dark and blackened their moccasins. Thoir 
 bands include the Blood or Kenai and the Piegau 
 Indians. Half a century apo they were at the 
 head of a confederacy wLich embraced these ami 
 also the Sarceo (Tinnc) and the Atsina (CadiUi* 
 nations, and numbered about 30.000 souls. They 
 have an interestim- mythology and on unusiiaj 
 knowledge of the ■ tellat ions "— D. G. Brin- 
 ton, The Amerieai. ,taei. p. 79 — See above: 
 ALOONquiAN Family; and, below: Flatueadh. 
 
 Blood, or Kenai Indians. See above: Buuk- 
 feet. 
 
 Botocudoa. See below: Tupi — Oumiasi.— 
 
 TUPUYAS. 
 
 Brule'. 8<T l)olow; SiorAX Family. 
 
 Caddoan Family. Sec below. I'awmee (Cah 
 doan) Family; see, also, Tex.vs: Tiie Anohiu- 
 inal Iniiabitahts. 
 
 Cakchiquela. See below: Quicmcs, and 
 Mayas. 
 
 Caluaa. See below: TcMfQu.-.sA.N Family. 
 
 Cambaa, or Campo, cr Campa. See iib,<vu: 
 Andesians; also, Bolivia: Aboktoinal In- 
 habit arts. 
 
 CaHaret. See Ecdaoob. 
 
 Canaa. See Peru. 
 
 Canichanaa. See Bolivia: ABcnianiy^L lit- 
 
 BABITAHTS 
 
 *Sct Note, Appendix E, vol. I, 
 
 £8 
 
AMERICAN ABORIGINES 
 
 AHERICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 CaaiencM. See below: Iroquois CoKno- 
 
 ■BACT. 
 
 CarUy. See below: Guck or Coco Grocp. 
 
 CarilM and their Kindred. — "The warlike 
 and unyielding character of thewi people, lo 
 different from that of. the pniiUanimoug natlona 
 around them, and the wide acope of their enter- 
 prise! and ^^ andcrincs, like those of the nomad 
 tribe* of the Old World, entitle them to dis- 
 tinguished attention. . . . The traditional ac- 
 .counta of their origin, though of course extremely 
 
 i vague, are yet capable of being verifled to a 
 great degree by geographical fact^ and open one 
 of the rich veins of curious inquiry and specula- 
 tion which abound in the New World. They 
 are wid (o have migrated from the remote valleys 
 cmbosomr-'i in the Apalachian mountains. The 
 earliest u mntc we oave of them represent them 
 with wea,)ons >n their bands, continually en- 
 gaged in warn, winning their way and shift- 
 ing their abode, until, in the course of time, they 
 found themselves at the extremity of Florida. 
 Hete, aljandonlng the northern continent, they 
 passed over to uie Lucayos [Bahamas], end 
 thence gradually, in the process of years, from 
 island to island of that vast verdant chain, which 
 linlcs, as it were, the end of Florida to the coast 
 of Paria, on the southern continent The archi- 
 pelago extending from Porto Hico to Tobago 
 was their stronghold, and the island of Guada- 
 loupe in a manner their citadel. Hence they 
 made their expeditions, and spread the terror of 
 their name through all the surrounding countries. 
 Swarms of them landed upon the southern con- 
 tinent, and overran some parts of terra flrma. 
 Traces of them have been discovered far in the 
 interior of that vast country through which flows 
 ithe OrooBoko. The Dutch found colonies of 
 them on the banks of the Ikouteka, which emp- 
 ties into the Surinam; along the Esquibi, the 
 Haroni, and other rivers of Ouayana; and in the 
 country watered by the windings of the Cay- 
 enne "— W Irving, Life and Voyage* of Ootum- 
 but, bk t, e/f. 8(5 1).— "To this account [sub- 
 stantially as given above] of the origin of the 
 Insular Charaibes, the generality of historians 
 have given their assent; but there are doubts 
 attcndmg it that ar^ not easilv solved. If they 
 migrated from Florida, the imperfect state and 
 natural course of their navagation induce a be- 
 lief that traces of them would have been found 
 on those islands which arc near to the Florida 
 shore; yet the natives of the Baliamas, when dis- 
 covered by Columbus, were evidently a simiUr 
 people to those of Higpaniolo. Besides, it is 
 suMcientiy known that there existed anciently 
 many numerous and powerful tribes of Charaibes 
 on the southern peninsula, extending from the 
 river Oronoko to Esaequebe, and throughout the 
 whole province of Surinam, even to Brazil, some 
 of which still maintain their independency. . , . 
 I incline therefore to the opinion of Martyr, and 
 conclude that the islanders were rather a colony 
 from the Charaibes of South America, than from 
 any nation of the North. Rochcfort admits that 
 their own traditions referred constantly to Gui- 
 ana."— B Edwards, Jlitt. ofBrit. OaUmietin the 
 W.IiuHtt.bk. 1, eh. 2.— "The Carabisce, Cara- 
 oeeal, Charaibes, Caribs, or GoUbls, originally 
 occ ^led [In Ouianal the principal riverj, but as 
 th" Jutch encroached upon their possessions 
 they r.nired Inlftnci, and arp now dally dwind- 
 ling away Aceordtng to Mr BiUhoute, they 
 
 89 
 
 could formerly muster nearly 1,000 lighting men, 
 but are now [1885] scarcely able to raise a tenth 
 part of that number. . . . The smaller islands 
 of the Caribbean Sea were formerly thickly 
 populated by this tribe, but now not a trace of 
 them remalna"— H. G. Dalton, Iliet. of Britith 
 Ouiarta, e. 1, eh. 1. — E. F. im Thiiru, Among 
 ths Jndiant of Guiana, eh. 6. — "Recent re- 
 searches have shown that the original home of 
 the stock was south of the Amazon, and prob- 
 ably in the highlands at the head of the Tapajoi 
 river. A tribe, the Bakairi, is still residsnt 
 there, whose language is a purs and archaic 
 form of the Carib tongue."— D. G. Brinton, So- 
 eee ami IVopkt, p. 888. ' Related to the Cariha 
 sund a long list of small tribes ... all inhabit- 
 ants of the great primeval forest In and near 
 Guiara. They may have characteristic differen- 
 ces, but none worthy of mention are known. In 
 bodily appearance, according to ah accounts 
 these relatives of the Caribs are beautiful In 
 Georgetown the Arauacas [or Arawaks] are cele- 
 brated for their beauty. They are slender and 
 graceful, and their features handsome and regu- 
 lar, the face havine a Grecian profile, aD," the 
 skin being of a reddish cast. A little farther in- 
 land we find the Macusbi [or MacusisJ, with a 
 lighter complexion and a Roman nose. These 
 two types are repeated In other tribes, except in 
 the Tarumi, who a.-e decidedly ugly. In mental 
 characteristics great similarity prevails. "— TA* 
 Standard Natural Hittory (J. 8. Kingtley, ed.),p. 
 837. — " The Arawaks occupied on the continent 
 the area of the modem Guiana, between the 
 Corentyn and the .?omeroon rivers, and at one 
 time all the West Indian Islands. From some of 
 them they were eariy driven by the Caribs, and 
 withia 40 years of the date of Columbus' first 
 voyage the Spanish had exterminated nearly all 
 on the Islands. Their course of migration had 
 been from the Interior of Brazil northward ; their 
 distant relations are still to be found between the 
 headwaters of the Paraguay and Schingu rivers." 
 — D. G. Brinton, Saeee and Peopla, p. 268-269.— 
 "The Kipohn (Acawoios, Waikas, &c.) claim 
 kindred with the Caribs. . . . The Acawolos, 
 though resolute and determined, are less hasty 
 and impetuous than the Caribs. . . According 
 to their tradition, one of their hordes removed 
 [to the Upper Demerera] . . . from the Masa- 
 runi. The Parawianas, who originally dwelt on 
 the Demerera, having been exterminated by the 
 continual Incursions of the Caribs, the Waika- 
 Acawoios occupied their vacant territory. . . . 
 The Macusis ... are supposed by some "to have 
 formerly inhabited the banks of the Orinoco. 
 . . . As they are industrious ..ndunwarlike, thev 
 have been the prey of every savage tribe arounil 
 them. The Wapisiana? are supposed to have 
 driven them northwanl and taken possession of 
 their country. The Brazilians, as well as the 
 Cari.is, Acaivoios, &c., have long beeti in the 
 habit tt enslaving them. . . . The Arecunas 
 have oeen accustomed to descend from the 
 higher lands and atUck the Macusis. . . . This 
 tribe is said to have formerly dw;lt on the banks 
 of the Uaupes or Ucayari. a tributary of the Hio 
 Negro . The Waraus appear to have been 
 the most ancient inhabitants of the land Very 
 little, however, can be gleaned from them re- 
 specting their early history. . . . TbjTivitivoi 
 mentioned by R Icigh, were prcbab./ a branch 
 of the Waraua, whom he calls Quarawetea,"— 
 
 «# 
 
AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIQINEa 
 
 
 \f. (I. Brett, Indian TrOet of Ouiana, pt. 2, eh. 
 13. 
 
 Caripuna. S«! below: OrrK or Coco Oiiorp. 
 
 Cat Nation, or Eriei. S«e below: Hurons, 
 &c., ami lHo<ji-oi8 Cokteoeract: Tbrih Con- 
 qi:est». iSc. 
 
 Catawbat, or Kataba. See below: Siocak 
 Family; also, Timi'iil-asaii. 
 
 Cayusai. See below: iRoqcoiB CoiirEDEE- 
 act. 
 
 Chancat. See Perc. 
 
 Chapas, or Chapaaeca. dee below: Zapo- 
 
 TEC«, KTC. 
 
 Cherokeet.— "The Cherokee tribe hu long 
 been a puzzling factor to studenti of ethnolosy 
 and North American languages. Whether tobe 
 considered an abnormal olbhoot from one of the 
 well-known Indian Btocks or families of North 
 America, or the remnant of some undetermined 
 or almost extinct family which has merged into 
 another, appear to be questions yet unsettled. " 
 — C. Thomas, Bttrial ifoundi <^ IA» Northern See- 
 tiont of the U. 8. {f\/th Annual Sept. of the 
 Bnreau of Bthnotogy, 1883-4).— FacU which 
 tend to identify the Clierokees with the ancient 
 "mound-builders" of the Ohio Valley— the Al- 
 leghans or Talligewl of Indian traaition — are 
 set forth by Prof. Thomas In a later paper, on 
 the Problem of th' Ohio Mounds, publisiied by 
 the Bureau of Etbnologi' in 1889 [see above: 
 AlleqiunsI and in a Ifttle book published in 
 1890, entitled "The Cherokees in Pre-Columbian 
 Times." "The Cherokee nation has probably 
 occupied a more prominent place In the affain 
 and history of what is now the United States of 
 America, since the date of the early European 
 settlement!), than any other tribe, nation, or con- 
 federacy of Indians, unless it be possible to ex- 
 cept the powerful and warlike league of the 
 Iroquois or Six Nations of New York. It is al- 
 most certain tliat they were visited at a very 
 early period [1510] following the discovery of the 
 American continent by that daring and enthusi- 
 astic Spaniard, Fernando de Soto. , . . At the 
 time of the English settlement of the Carolinas 
 the Cherokees occupied a diversified and well- 
 watered region of country of large extent upon 
 the waters of the Catawba, Broul, Saluda, Keo- 
 wee, Tugalco, Savannah, and Coosa rivers on 
 the east and south, and several tributaries o'. the 
 Tennessee ou the north and west. ... In sub- 
 sequent years, through frequent and long con- 
 tinued cuntlicts with the ever advancing white 
 settlements, and the successive treaties whereby 
 the Cheroliccs gradually yielded portions of the?r 
 domain, the location and names of their towns 
 were coDtiuually changing until the llnal removal 
 of the nation [r836-1839] west of the Mississippi. 
 . . . This removal turned the Cherokees back in 
 the calendar of progress and civilization at least 
 a quarter of a century. The hardships and ex- 
 posures of the journey, coupled with the fevers 
 and malaria of a radically different climate, cost 
 the lives of perhaps 10 per cent, of their total 
 populalior T'"! animosities and turbulence 
 born of i:i<> ' of 1835 not only occasioned 
 
 the loM of . ll\es, but rendered property in- 
 
 secure, and in consequence diminished the zeal 
 and industry of tlic entire community in its ac- 
 cumuluiion A brief period of comparative 
 quiet, however, was again characterized by an 
 advance towanl a higher civilization. Five 
 years after tlieir removal wa find from the re- 
 
 port of their agent that they are again on the 
 increase in population. . . . With the exception 
 of occasional drawbacks — the n^sult of civil 
 feuds — the proeresfc of the nation In education, 
 industry and civilization continued until the 
 outbreak of the rebellioiv At this period, from 
 the l>est attainaole information, the Cherokees 
 nu.nbered 21,000 souls. The events of the war 
 brought to them more of desolation and ruin 
 than 'perhr.ps to any other community. Raided 
 and sacked altematel;*. not only by the Confed- 
 erates and t'nion forces, but by the vindictiv* 
 ferocity and hate of their own factional divis- 
 ions, their country became a blackened and deso- 
 kkte waste. . . . The war over, and the \ ork of 
 reconstruction commenced, found them number- 
 ing 14,000 impoverished, heart-broken, aud 
 revengeful people. . . . To-day their country is 
 more prosperous than ever. They number 
 22,000, a greater population thaii they have had 
 at any previous period, except perhaps Just 
 prior to the date of the treaty of 1880, when 
 those east added to those west of the Mississippi 
 are stated to have aggregated nearly 28,000 peo- 
 ple. To-day they have 8,800 scholars attend- 
 ing 75 schools, established and supported by 
 themselves at an annual expense to the nation of 
 nearly *100,000. To-day, 18,000 of their people 
 can read and 18,000 can speak the Eng- 
 lish language. To-day, 5,000 brick, frame and 
 log-houses are occupied by them, and they have 
 64 churches with a membership of several thou- 
 sand. They cultivate 100,000 acres of land and 
 have an additional 180,000 fenced. . . . They 
 have a constitutional form of government predl 
 cated upon that of the United States. As a rule 
 their laws are wise and beneficent and arc en- 
 forced with strictness and iustice. . . . The 
 present Cherokee population is of a composite 
 character. Remnants of other nations or trilies 
 [Delawares, Shawnees, Creeks, Natchez] have 
 from time to time been absorbed and admitted to 
 full participation in the bemflts of Cherokee citi- 
 zenship." — C. C. Boyce, The Cherokee Nation iff 
 Indian* (Fifth Annual Kept, of 'he Bureau if 
 Ethnology, 1883-84).— This eUborate paper by 
 Mr. Boyce is a narrative in detail of the official 
 relations of the Cherokees with the colonial and 
 federal governments, from their first treaty with 
 South Carolina, in 1721, down to the treaty of 
 April 27, 1868 — " As eariy as 1798 Barton com- 
 
 fiared the Cheroki language with that of the 
 roquois and stated his belief that there was a 
 connection between tliom. . . . Mr. Pale was 
 the first to give formal expression to his belief in 
 the atflnity of the Cheroki to Iroquois. Recently 
 extensive Cheroki vocabularies nave come into 
 possession of the Bureau of Ethnology, and a 
 careful comparison of them with ample Iroquois 
 material has been made by Mr Hewitt 'ihe re- 
 sult is convincing proof of the relationship of 
 the two langu-ges.^ — J. W. Powell, Seunth An- 
 nual Sept. of the Bureau of Sthnotogg, p. 77.* 
 
 Also ik S. O. Drake, The Aboriginal Bout of 
 N. Am., bk. 4, eh. 13-16 — See, above : Alle 
 ubans. — See, also, for an accoimt of the Che 
 rokee War of 1759-1*61, Soctk Carolina: A. D 
 1759-1761; and for "Lord iiinmores War," 
 Ohio iVai LET). A D 1774. 
 
 Cheyennes, or Sheyennct. See above- At- 
 ooNqiiAN Familt 
 
 Chibchaa.— The moat northerly group of the 
 tribes of tb« Andes "are the CundinamsKa of 
 
 •8«* Note, Appendix E, vol. t. 
 
 90 
 
AMERICAN ABOKIQIHEa 
 
 AMERICAN ABOMGINES. 
 
 the table lands of Bogota. At the time of the 
 conquest the watershed of the Magdalena was 
 occupied by the Chlbcha, or, as they were called 
 T the S'Ntniards, Muyscas. At that time the 
 vhlbcha were the most powerful of all the 
 autochthonous tribes, hod a long historr behind 
 them, were well advanced toward civilization, 
 to which numerous antiquities txiar witness. 
 The Chibcha of to-day no longer ^Kik the well- 
 developed and musical htnguat: uf their fore- 
 fathers. It became extinct about 1780, and It 
 can now only be inferred from existing dialects 
 of it; these are the languages of the Turiero, a 
 tribe dwelling north of Bogota, and of the Itoco 
 Indians who live in the neighborhood of the 
 celebrated Emerald mines of Muzo." — Tht Stan- 
 dard Natural HMory (J. 8. Kingtky, ed.) e. 6, p. 
 215.— "As potters acd goldsmiths they [the 
 Chibchalranlied among the finest on the conti- 
 nent"— D. O. Brlnton, Jiaea and Ptaplu, p 172. 
 —See, also, CouMfBiAK States: A. D i36- 
 1781. 
 
 Chicaaaa. See below :Hc8kbooea». ult; 
 also, LodisiAHA: A. D. 1719-1750. 
 Chichimecs. See Mexico: A. D. l).^:.-160a. 
 Cbimakuan Family. — "The Chimakum are 
 said to have been formerly one of the largest and 
 most powerful tribes of Puget Sound. Their 
 warlilie habits early tended to diminish their num- 
 bers, and when visited by Uibbs in 1854 they 
 counte' only about 70 individuals. This sniiili 
 remnti i ' cupied some 15 small lodges on Port 
 Townsi.TiBay."— J. W. Powell, SextUh Annual 
 Report, Bureau of Ethndogy, p. 62. 
 
 Chimarikao Family.— "According to Powers, 
 this family was represented, so far as linown, by 
 two tribes In California, one the Chi-m&l-a-kwe, 
 lirtng on New Kiver, a branch of the Trinity, 
 the other the Cliimariko, residing upon the Trin- 
 ity Itself from Burnt Ranch up to the muuth of 
 North Fork, California. The two tribes are said 
 to have been as numerous formerly as tlie Uupa, 
 by whom they were overcome and nearly exter- 
 minated. Upon the arrival of the Americans 
 only 25 of the Chimalakwe were left."— J. W. 
 Powell, Seventh Annual Seport, Bureau of Eth- 
 notugy. p. 63. 
 Chioantecs. See below: Z.vpotkcs, etc. 
 Chinookan Family.—" The banks of the Col- 
 um )iH, from the Oi -.nd Dalles . •■' mouth, belong 
 to the two branches of the Tsiuai, [or Chinook] 
 nation, which meet in the neighborhood of the 
 Kowlitz River, and of which an almost nominal 
 remnant is left. . . . Tlie position of 'hi Tsinrk 
 previous to their depopulation w.a, ijs at >,ui'e 
 appears, most important, occupying bo. i. . id";i of 
 the great artery of Oregon for a dista.. ■ f 200 
 miles, they possessed t' -^ncip!*! then :.i.'irt 
 between tlie interior %.< i e ofean, boii'.lless 
 resources of provisions c juskinds, and iacil- 
 
 itics for trade almost unequalled on tht Paci- 
 fic."— G. Oilibs, Tribe* of Wett Waahington and 
 y. W. OreqimiCmtrib. to .V. A. EthruAogy, v. 1), 
 p. 164.— See, also, below; Platbeads. 
 
 Chippewas. See Ixlow: Ujihwas; and 
 alwvc: ALiioNijt'iAN Family. 
 
 Chippewyans, See below : Atrapascam 
 Family. 
 
 Choctaws. See below; Mi-skhooeak Pahilt. 
 
 Chontals and Popolocas.—" According to 
 the ccn»ua r)f 1880 there were 31. (MK) Indians in 
 Mexico Iwlonxlug to IU« iamilia Cbontal. No 
 •uch family ezista. The word cbonulll ' in the 
 
 NahuatI language means simply 'stranger,' ano 
 was applied by the Nahuas to any people other 
 than their own. According to the .Mexican 
 statistics, the Chontals are found in the states of 
 Mexico, Puebia, Oaxaca, Guerrero, Tabasco, 
 Guatemala and Nicarasua. A siniiliar terra is 
 'popoloca,' which in NahuatI means a coarse 
 fellow, one speaking badly, that is, broken 
 NahuatI. The P' poiocas have also been • rected 
 Into an ethnic c :ity by some ethnog' iphers, 
 with as little lustice us the Chontaliis. They 
 are stated to have lived in the provincea of 
 Puebia, Oaxaca, Vera Cruz, Mechoacan and 
 Guatemala."— D. G. Brinton, Tht American 
 Saee. pp. 14i 1-158. 
 Cbontaqntro*. See above: Andesians. 
 Chumasnaii Family. — "Derivation: From 
 Chumash, the name of the danta Rosa Islanders. 
 The several dialects of this family have long 
 been known under the group or family name, 
 'Santa Barbara,' which seems first to have been 
 used in a comprehensive sense by Lat^iam in 
 1856. who Included under it three languages, viz. : 
 Santa Barbara, Santa Inez, > n ' uj Liuis Obispo. 
 The term has no special r -jce as a family 
 
 designation, except from ^- lut the Santa 
 Barbara Mission, arounc •' o one of the dia- 
 lects of the family was sj. .s perhaps more 
 widely known than any o. ..tie others. "— J. W. 
 Powell, Seventh AnnucU Bepoit, Bureau of Bth- 
 nology. p. 67. 
 ClifMweller*. SecAxEKicA: Prehistoric. 
 Coahuiltecjui Family.— " Derivation: From 
 the name of the Mexican State Coahuila. This 
 family appears to have inclu Jed numerous tribes 
 in southwestern Texas and in Mexico. ... A 
 few Indians still survive who speak one of the 
 dialecto of thii family, and in 1886 Mr. Oatschet 
 collected vocabularies of two tribes, the Come- 
 crudo and Cotoname, who live on the Rio Grande, 
 at Las Prietas, State of Tamaulipas."- J. W. 
 Powell, SetetUh Annual JSept., Bureau tf Eth- 
 nology, p. 68. 
 
 Coujiro, or Giuijira "An exceptional posi- 
 tion is taken, in many respects, by the Coajiro, 
 or Guajira, who live on the peninsula of the 
 same name on the northwestern boundary of 
 Venezuela. Bounded on all sides by so-called 
 ivilized peoples, this Indian xribe is known to 
 ■ ve .aiutained its independcpce, and acquired 
 Well-deserved reputation for cruelty, a tribe 
 ich, in many respects, can be classed with the 
 . iclies and Comanches of New Mexico, the 
 Araucanians of Chili, and the Quaycara and 
 Guarani on the Parana. The Coajiro are nostly 
 large, with chestnut-brown comp.ezion and 
 black, sleek hair. While all the other coast 
 tribes have adopted the Spanish language, the 
 Coajiro have preserved their own speech. "They 
 are the especial foes of the other peoples. No 
 one is given entrance into their land, and they 
 live with their neighbors, the Venezuelans, in 
 constant hostilities. They have fine horses^ 
 which they know how to ride excellently. . . . 
 They have numerous herds of cattle. . . . "They 
 follow agriculture a little."— TAc Standard A'at- 
 ural Hitlory (J. S. KingiUy, ed.), t. 8, p. 843. 
 Cochibo. See above; Andesians. 
 Cochiquima. See above; Andesians. 
 Coco Group. See below; Guck oh Coco 
 Gbocp. 
 Coconoons. See below : Mariposam Famili 
 Co£ui. See abore: AHDBaiANa 
 
 91 
 
AMERICAK ABOKIOINES. 
 
 AMKRICAN ABORIGdEa 
 
 
 CoUm. See Pmv. 
 
 Comuiehes. See below: Shosbohkak Fak- 
 n.T, and KioWAK Familt; and above: Apachb 
 Groui. 
 
 Conestogu. See below: ScxjincHAiniAS. 
 
 Conibo. See above; ANDESiAiiit. 
 
 ConoT*. See above: ALOONqiiiAN Family. 
 
 Copenan Familj.— ' ' The territory of the Copfl- 
 ban familv Is bounded on the north by Mount 
 SbasU and the territory of the Saateon and Lutu- 
 amian familici, on the east by thi> *:.rritory of 
 the PalaihnihsD, Yanan, and F^u' ^unan families, 
 ami on the south by the bays of San Pablo and 
 Suisun and tlie lower waters of the Sacramento." 
 — J. W. Powell. Seeenth Annual Bept, Burma ef 
 Ethitotngy. p. 69. 
 
 Coatanoan Family. — "Derivation: From the 
 Spanish costano, ' coast-men. ' Under this group 
 name Latham included five tribes . . . which 
 were under the supcrrision of the Blission Dolores. 
 . . . The terriu.ry of the Costanoan family ex- 
 tends from the Golden Gate to a point near the 
 southern end of Monterey Bay. . . . The surviv- 
 ing Indians of the once populous tribes of this 
 family are now scattered over several counties 
 and probably do not number, all told, over 80 
 indivjduaU. as was ascertained by Mr. Henshaw 
 in 1H88. Must of these arc to be found near the 
 towns of 8anta Cruz and Monterey."— J. W. 
 Powell, Setxnih Annual Sept., Bureau of Eth- 
 not'xjy. p. 71 . 
 
 v'.reek CoBfcderacy,— Crack War*. See 
 below: McsKHOoEAif Familt: also United 
 States op Am. : A. D. 1818-1814 (AcoutT— 
 April): and Florida: A. D. 181S-1818. 
 
 Creea. t^ee above: Aloonqi'Iam Family. 
 
 Croatana. See America: A. D. lS87-tBiW. 
 
 Crowa (Upsarokaa, or Abaarokaa). See 
 below : Siocan Family. 
 
 Cuatoa. See below : Pampas Tribes. 
 
 Cunimare. Bee below: GccK ou Coco 
 Group. 
 
 Cuyriri or Kiriri. Bee below : GucK or Coco 
 Ghoi p 
 
 Dakotaa, or Dacotaht, or Dahcolaa. See 
 beluw : HiotiAN Family and Pawnee (Caddoan) 
 Family. 
 
 Oaiawaraa, or Lciuipt.— "The pn)p<'r name 
 of thu Delaware Indians waa and is l>eii&pi (ft as 
 In futliiT, 6 as a in mate). . . . The licnape 
 wcn^ divliled into three sub-tribes: — 1. Tlie 
 MinnI, Monseys. Montheya, Muhmi's, or Mini- 
 sinks. 2. The Unami or Woname.vs. 3. The 
 UiiiiliU'litlgn. No explanation of tlicse desiKna- 
 tioiLS will Ih' found in Hvckcwelder nr tlin older 
 writiTH. From Inwatlgatlons amoiiK living D<'la- 
 warts. carrictl out ot my retjuost by Mr. llorutlo 
 Hale. It in evident that they art- wlmlly gt-o- 
 gnipliii 111, and refer to the location of these sub- 
 trilH'9 (in the Delaware river. . . The MInsI 
 lived ill the m<»iiituin<ius region at the bead 
 w»ur>< of the Di'laware, above the Forks or 
 Junelioii iif llie U'hIgli river . . . The I'namis' 
 terril'iry on tlie right iMiik of the Delaware river 
 extimli'il fniiii the I^ehlnh Valley aoiithwanl. It 
 was with lliini and their snuthern nelghlxirs. the 
 UnaUrlitigiM. that Penn dealt for the land ei'dinl 
 to him ill the Indian iIimhI «f 1883. The MInsis 
 did not taki' imrt in the transaction, anil it was 
 not until 1 7.17 that the t'oh)nial authorities treated 
 dimtlv with >be latter (or the ceaaton of their 
 h-rrltiirv The Unalacbtlirp or Turkey totem had 
 lis iirliM Ipnl seat on the aflliMDtsof the Delaware 
 
 near where Wilmington now standi. "--D. Q. 
 Brinton, The Zenape and Their Legmdr, eh. 8. 
 — "At the. . . time when William Penn landed 
 in Pennaylvanta, the Delawarea hod been subjju- 
 gated and mode women by the Five Mationa. It 
 18 well known that, acccrdlng to that Indian mode 
 ot expreaaion, the Delawsres wero henceforth 
 prohibited from ip\king war, and placed under 
 the sovereignty oi the conquerors, who did not 
 even allow sales of land, in the actual possewion 
 of the Delawans, to be valid without their appit>- 
 batioa Willlum Penn, bis descendants, and the 
 State of Pennsylvania, accordingly, always pur- 
 chased the right of possesnion from the Delawarea, 
 and that of Sovereignty from the Five Nationa. 
 . . . The use of arms, though from vety differ- 
 ent causes, waa equally prohibited to the Dela- 
 ware! and to thn Quakers. Thus the coloniza- 
 tion of Pennsylvania and of West New Jersey by 
 the British, commenced under the most favorable 
 auspices. Peace and tho utmost harmony pre- 
 valleii for more than sixty years between the 
 whites and the Indians; for these were for the 
 first time treated, not only justly, but kindly, by 
 the colonists. But, however gradually and 
 peaceably their lands might have been purchased, 
 the Dela wares found themsi'lves at last in the same 
 situation as all the other Indians, without lands 
 of their own, and therefore without means of 
 subsistence. They were compelled to seek 
 refuge on the waters of the Susquehanna, us 
 tenants at will, on lands belonging to their hated 
 conquerors, the Five Nations. Even there and 
 on the Juniata they were encroached upon. . . . 
 Under those circumstances, many of the Dela- 
 warea determined to remove weat of the Allo- 
 gliany Mountains, and, almut the year 1740-JH), 
 obtained from their ancient allies and uncles, the 
 Wyandots, the grant of a derelict tract of land 
 lying principally on the Muskingum. The great 
 body of the nation wii* ->ill attached to Pennayl- 
 vanta. But the grouuiis of complaint Increased. 
 The Delawares were encouraged by the westeni 
 tribes, and by the French, to shake off the yoke 
 of the Six Nations, and tojoin In the war against 
 their allies, the British. Tlie frontier settlemenU 
 of Pennsylvania were accordingly attacked both 
 bv the Delawares and the Shawnoes. And, 
 although peace was made with them at Easton In 
 In 1798, and the conquest of ('anada put an end 
 to the general war, both the Shawnoea and Dela- 
 wares nmoveil altogether In 17S8 beyond the 
 Alleghany Mowiilaiim. . . . The yean 17eiV-1703 
 are tlic true period nf the power and Important)' 
 of tho Delawares. Uuitetl with the hlliawnoes. 
 who were settliHl on the SeioUi. thev sustuiiiiil 
 during the Seven Veiirs' Wurthcdetllniiig power 
 of France, and arn'iited for some years the pro 
 gress of the Hrltish anil American arm*. 
 Although a iMirtlon of the nation atlli<-retl to tlie 
 Amerleaiis during the War of Inih'penileiii'e, the 
 main iKxIy, togitlier with all the weHtem uatinnii 
 niatlc common euiiiie with the Itritish. Ai I, 
 after the short triite whh h followed the treaty of 
 1783, they were a^niii at the heail of the westeni 
 confederacy in llirir last struggle for Indrpeu 
 dence. Placed by their geogrHpliltal situation in 
 the front nf liiit'lti'. they were, during thoiu 
 three wars, the aggresaiini. antl. to the last 
 moment, the imwl at live and fomildalilc enemies 
 of Amerini. Tlii' ileeisivo victory of Uenerni 
 Wayne (17M). dlawilvetl the confederacy ; and the 
 Delawarea were the greatest suffenin hj the 
 
 02 
 
AMERICAN ABORIOraSS. 
 
 treaty of Greenville of 1795." After thb, the 
 greater part of the Delawaiet were settled on 
 White River, Indiana, "till the year 1810, when 
 tbey anallr ceded their claim to the United 
 States. Those residing there were then reduced 
 to about 800 souls. A number . . , had pre- 
 Tiously removed to Canada ; and it la dilflcult to 
 ascertain the situation or numbers of the residue 
 at this time [1836]. Those who have lately 
 removed west of the Miaslasippl are, In an esti- 
 mate of the War Department, computed at 400 
 souls. Former emigrations to that quarter had 
 however taken place, and several small dispersed 
 bands are, it is believed, united with the Senecas 
 and some other tribes."— A. Gallatin, Sgnopiu of 
 ttu Indian Tribet {Aithaologia Ameritana, t. 8), 
 inlrod., lect. 2.— See, above: ALooHi)tiiAn Fam- 
 ily; below: Shawanese, and Pawnkb (Cad- 
 DOAS) Fahilt.— Also, PoNTiAc's War; United 
 STATBrt OF Am. : A. D. 1765-1768; and Moravum 
 Bkethren; and, for an nccount of "Lord Dun- 
 morr's War," see Onio (Valley): A. D. 1774. 
 
 Eriet. See below: Huro.vs, Ac., and Iro- 
 qcoia C'oNrKDERAcv : Their CoMttCEsrs, Jtc. 
 
 Etkimauan Family.—" gave a slight Inter- 
 mixture of European settlers, the Eskimo are 
 the unlyinlukbitanuof the shores of Arctic Amer- 
 ica, and of lK>th sides of Davis Strait and Baf- 
 fin Bay, iucludioK Greenland, as well as a tract 
 of abuut 4UU miles on the Bvliring Strait coast 
 of Asia. Southward they extend as far as about 
 5tP N. L. on the eastern side, 60* on the west- 
 ern slilc of Aim'ricu, and from Sy to 00° on 
 the slKirt'S of Hudson Bay. Only on the west 
 ihc EMklmi) near their frontier are interrupted 
 on two small spou of the coast' by the Indians, 
 named Kenmtyuns and UgalenMS, who have 
 there adviintx'U to the sea-shore for the sake of 
 flshinif. These coiuiU of Arctic America, of 
 course, also conipriae alt the surrounding isUnds. 
 Of these, the Aleutian Islands form an excep- 
 tional group ; the InhabitanU of Ihcso on the one 
 hand distinitly dilTeriuB from the coast people 
 here mentlriued, while on the other they show a 
 cIosiT relationship to the Eskimo than any other 
 nation. The Aleutians, therefore, may be con- 
 sidered as only an abnormal branch of the 
 Eskimo nation. ... As reganls their northern 
 limits, the Eskimo people, or at least remains of 
 their habitailous, have been found Dearly as far 
 north as any Arctic explorers have hitherto 
 advanced; anil very possibly bands of them may 
 live still fartlier U) the north, as yet quito 
 uiikHown to us. ... On comparing the Eskimo 
 with the neighbouring nations, their physical 
 e.iiTiplcxl.m certainly seems to point at an 
 Asiatic origin; but, as far as we know, the 
 litest liivesiigations have also shown a tnin- 
 Mtional link to exist lietween the Eskimo and 
 t.ie oiher American nations, which would suf- 
 'Jiienliy IikIIi ato the i>os8lblllty of • common 
 origin from the same continent As to their 
 iiMie of life, the Esklhi.. decidedly resemble 
 I i« r Amerlcjw iiclghlwurs. . . . WIthregardto 
 I icir Luitfuage, the Eskimo also appear akin to 
 tlie American nations In regard to Us dcride<lly 
 Cllysyntlietie structure, ifore, however, on tlie 
 otiier hand, we meet with some very remarkable 
 timilanilis Mween the Eskimo Idiom and the 
 language of SIlnTia. bcl.mirlnif tn th« Altaic or 
 !• M.Mi,i, group. . . Aecoidlng to the Sagas of 
 he lolandeh., they were already met wfth on 
 Uie rant niast of Grwnland alioul the year 1000, 
 • Sff .Nuif , Apiwndls r. v«I. I, 93 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 and almost at the same time on the east coast of 
 the American csntinent. . . . Between the yean 
 1000 and 1300 they do not seem to have occupied 
 the land south of 65° N. L. on the west coast of 
 Greenland, where the Scaadinavian colonies 
 were then situated. But the colonists seem 
 to have been aware of their existence la 
 higher latitudes, and to have lived In fear of on 
 attack by them, since, in the year 1866, on 
 expedition was .wnt out for the purpose of 
 exploring tlie abodes of the Skisllngs, as they 
 were colled bv the colonlsU. . . . About the 
 year 1480, the last accounts were received from 
 the colonies, and the way to Greenland WM 
 entirely forgotten in the mother country. . . 
 The features of the natives in the Southern port 
 of Greenland indicate a mixed descent from the 
 Scandinavians and Eskimo, the former, how- 
 ever, not having left the slightest sign of any 
 influence on the nationality or culture of the 
 present natives. In the year 1589, Greenland woa 
 discovered anew by John Davis, and found 
 inhabited exclusively by Eskimo."— H Rink, 
 Tola and Traditions of tht Okimo, introd. and 
 «*. 6.— The same, The SiUmo tribm.—" In 1868, 
 I proposed for the AleuU and people of Innult 
 stock collectively the term Ororians, a* Indicative 
 of their coastwise distribution, and as supplying 
 the need of a general term to designate a very 
 well-defined race. . . . The Orarions are divided 
 into two well-marked groups, namely the 
 InnuiU. comprising all the so-called Eskimo and 
 Taskis, and the AleuU."— W. H. Dall, TWiMof 
 tke Extrtmt A'urthmtt (Oontrib. to N. A. BA- 
 nolon, t. 1), pt. 1. 
 
 Eaaelenian Family.— " The present family 
 was included by Utham In the heterogcneoui 
 group called by him Salinas. ... The term 
 SoUnon [is now] rcstrictvil to the San Antonki 
 and San Miguel languages, leaving the present 
 family . . [to be] called Esselenian, from the 
 name of the single trilie Essclen, of which it is 
 composed. . . The tribe or tribes composing 
 this family occupied a narrow strip of the Cali- 
 fornia coast from Monterey Bay south to the 
 vicinity of the Santa Luela MounUin. a distaiice 
 of about 50 miles. "—J. W. Powell. SnenIK An- 
 nual Btpt., Iliirniu of Ethm>l)tgy, pp. 75-76. 
 Btchcmins. Sec above; Aloonquian Fahilt 
 Buroct, or Yuroks. See below : Modocs, 4c. 
 Fire Nations. St-e lielow: lRoqi;ois Cow- 
 
 nCOERACY. 
 
 Flatheodt (Salishan Family).^" The name 
 Flathead whs commoiily given to the Choctaws 
 though, saVB l)u I'ral/., he saw no reason why 
 they should l>c so distinguished, when the prac- 
 tice of (bttcning the heml was so general And 
 lotheenumerotiou iiist cited [DocumenUry Hist. 
 "L?!;-" '-P '^^1 tlie next paragraph ... Is: 
 'The riatheads, I'herakis. Chlcachas. and Totlris 
 ore iDcluded umltr the name of Flathoads by the 
 IroquoU."— M, K. Force, Hirnt Rirtg Aotioes <rf 
 tht Indiant of mi,>. p. 83.— "Tho Salish . . 
 are distinctively known as Flathesds. though 
 the custom of deforiiiiiig the cranium Is nut 
 conflnedtothem. '— I). O. Brinton, Th* Amm- 
 tan Haet. p. 107. - •■ In . . . early times the 
 bunten and trappers mild not discover why 
 the Blackfect and Flatheads [of MonUiuil re- 
 crlrt-!) Ihrfr p^p-H'ttve dniisnaiinns, for liM 
 feet of the former are no more inclined to sable 
 than any other part of the body, while the beodt 
 of the latter possess their fair proportlan of 
 
AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 AMERICAN AB0UI0INE8. 
 
 * 
 
 .»:<: 
 
 rotunditT. Indeed it ii only below the falls snd 
 npida that real Flatbeadi appear, and at the 
 mouth of the Columbia that they flourish most 
 supematurally. The tribes who practice the 
 custom of flatteoiug the bead, and who lived at 
 the mouth of the Columbia, differed little from 
 each other in laws, manners or customs, and were 
 composed of the Catlilumahs, Killmucks, Clat- 
 sops, Chinoolis and Cliilts. The abominable 
 custom of flattening tbvir lieads prevails among 
 them all."— P. Ronan, Jliit. Skttehoftht Flat- 
 head Indian Nation, p. 17. — In Major Powell's 
 linguistic classification, the "Salislian Family" 
 (Flathead) is given a distinct place.— J. W. 
 Powell, Smnth Annuai Sept. of the Bureau (if 
 Btknoiogy, p. 103. 
 
 Fos Indiana. See above: Aloon^itiax 
 Family, and below, 8acb, <&c.— For an account 
 of the massacre of Fox ludiuns at Detroit Id 1713, 
 see Canada (New Fhance): A. D. 1711-1718. 
 —For an account of the Black Hawk War, see 
 nilnoto: A. D. 1833. 
 
 Fntfians. See below: PATAooMiAxa 
 
 Gauiarapo* or Cuuchica. See below: Pam- 
 pas Tribes. 
 
 GCa Tribes. Bee below: Tupl—Odabaxl— 
 
 TCPCTAS. 
 
 Cros Ventres (Minnetarec ; Hidatas).* See 
 below: HiOATaA; aku, above: ALOONquiAM 
 Familt. 
 
 Gnaicams. See below : Paxtas Tribes. 
 
 Guiyira. See above : Coajiro. 
 
 Guanas. See below: Pampas Tribes. 
 
 Guarani. See b<!low : TiFi. 
 
 Guaranas. See U'Idw : Pampas TRiBua 
 
 Guck or Coco Group.— An pxtonsive linguistic 
 group of tribes in Bruzil, on and north of the Ama- 
 zon, extending as for iis the Orinoco, has been 
 called the Ouck, or Coco Rroup. "There is no 
 common name for the trruup, that here used 
 meaning a father's bn)ther, » very important per- 
 sonage in thviiu tribeii. The Ouck group em- 
 braces a large number of trilioii. . . . We need 
 enumerate but few. Tim Cuyriri or Klrirl (also 
 known as Sabaja, PimenieinM, etc.), number 
 about 8,000. Some of tliiin iirv half civilised, 
 some arc wild, and, witliout re.strulut, wander 
 about, especially in the mountHins in the Prov- 
 ince of Pemambuco. The Aruieu live on the 
 lower Amaion and the Tocanliiis. Next come 
 the Manaos, who have a pms|H-et of maintaining 
 themselves longer tlian most trtlxs. With them 
 Is connected the legetHi of tlie golden lord who 
 washed the gold dust from liU limbs in a lake 
 fsce El Doraixi]. . . . The liriim. Bart, and 
 Cariay live on the Itio Negni, tlm Cunimarion 
 the Juriia. the Maraiilia <in the Jutny. Whether 
 the ClmmictK-o on the right Imnk of the Paraguay, 
 belong to the Ouck is uueertaiu. Among the 
 tribes which, though very niueh mixed, are still 
 to be enumerated with the Ouck, arc the Tecuna 
 and tlie Piisni. In language the Te<-unas show 
 many similarities to the {it»; they live on the 
 western buidem of Hreill, and exti ii<l In Equador 
 to the Pasta^a. Among tlietn Kcur peculiar 
 masques which strongly recall 'liuae found on 
 Um northwest coast of North Aiiieric«. ... In 
 Ibe same district belong the rauiN-, who are no- 
 ticeable from the fai-t that they live In bamcks, 
 Indeed the only tribe In Houlli America In which 
 this custom appear). Tli. > .iir.mwuiitic bouses 
 of the Uaupe ate call, d ' malliMa.'tlwy are build- 
 ings of about 130 feet lung. 7.^ feet wide, and M 
 
 high. In which live a band of about 100 persona 
 In 13 families, each of the latter, however, in its 
 own room. . . . Finally, complex trilws of the 
 most different nationality are compreliended 
 under names which indicate only a common way 
 of life, but are also incorrectly used us ethno- 
 
 Sapblciuunea. These are Ciinpiiuu, Mimi, and 
 Iranha, all of whom live in the ueiglilH)rhood 
 of the Madeira River. Of tlie Caripii.ia or 
 JaQn-Av6 (both terms signify ' wnterinen '>. who 
 are mixed with Quichua bUxMl. it is related that 
 they not only ate human fleeib, but even cured it 
 for preservation. . . . Formerly the Mora . . . 
 w>'re greatly feared; this once powerful and 
 
 Sopulous tnbe, however, nas almost entirely 
 estroyed at the end of the lust century by the 
 Mundruco; the remnant is scattered. . . . The 
 Mura are the gypsi;.-s among the Indians on the 
 Amazon; and by all the other trilws they are 
 regarded with a certain degree of contempt as 
 puiahs. . . . Much to be feared, even among the 
 Indians, are also the Miranha (i. e. , rovers, vaga- 
 bonds), a still populous tribe on the right bimk 
 of theJapura, who seem to know nothing but 
 war, robbery, muHer, and man-hunting."— 
 The Standard Natuntl Uiitury (J. 8. Kiu(nley, 
 ed.).e.«,m^ 846-348. 
 
 Also im F. Keller, The Amnion and Madeira 
 Biter; eh. Sand 6.— H. W. Rates, A IfaturaUet 
 on the Bittr Amaeone, eh. 7-13. 
 
 Gnnchics. See below : Pampas Tribes. 
 
 HacUnsncks. See above : ALuuNqcun 
 
 FAMU.T. 
 
 Hsidat. See below: Seittaoktak Family. 
 Hidstsa, or Minnetarec, or Grosrentrcs?— 
 
 "The Hidatsa, Minnetaree, or Urosventre In- 
 dhtns, are one of the thn'e tril>es wliicb at pres- 
 ent inhabit the |M'rmanent vllluge nt Fort Ber- 
 thold, Dakota Territory, and hunt on the waters 
 of the Upper Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers, 
 in Northwestern Dakota uud Eastern .>Iontana. 
 The history of this tribe is . . . intimately con- 
 ui I ted with that of the p>litieally allied trilies of 
 the Aricarees and Manduns. " 'The name, Oros- 
 ventres, was given to the |<eonle of this tribe 
 " by the early French and CunHilian adventun-rs. 
 The same name was applied also to n tribe, 
 totally distinct from these In iangimce snd 
 origin, which lives some liiiiulD'ds of miles west 
 of Fort Bcrthold ; and the two nations are now 
 distinguished from one unothir its tinwventres of 
 the Missouri mid Orosventns of tlie Prairie. . , . 
 Edwanl L'mfreville. who tnuliil onthe.Saxkatebe 
 wan River from liM to 1Tn7. . . . ninarks: 
 . . . "They [tlie Caimdian Kreiieh) cull them 
 Qrusventres, or Big Ihllies: ami Kilhout uny 
 reason, as they are us conn ly iiiid as well made 
 as any tribe whatever.'. . . In the w<irk» of 
 many travellers they are called iMIniietarces, s 
 name which is smfled in various wavs. . . . 
 This, although a llidalsa won!, is the name sp- 
 
 Blied to them, not liy tluniMlves, liiil liy the 
 landans; it signities ' lo cross the water.' 
 or 'thiy crussvu the water. '. . Ilidntisii wsn 
 the I !ie of the vllluge on Knife Kivir 
 farthi from the Missouri, llie viilsge of 
 thmie horn Lewis and Clarke lonsidend the 
 Minneurees pro|M'r. " It is the naim- " now geu> 
 erally used uy Uits (leople to deslgiiaie tkem- 
 selves." — W. Matthews, KlhiuigrafJiii niul Vh\t- 
 oiogy of the Ilidatiu ir.ui.i:s, y.i. I i {V. A 
 OxuLg. and Oeug. f^'imit. A'. I . //>iyi'rn, .Vii. 
 Pub., A'a. 7).— See also, iielow: Slut an K.\mut. 
 
 •■m Msts, ApptBdia E, vol, •. 
 
 M 
 
AMERICAN ABORIOmEa 
 
 Hitchitia. See below: Hcskbooean Famlt. 
 Horikuu.— North of the Mohcgans, who oc- 
 cupied the eut bank of the Hudson River 
 opijoslte Albany, and covcrinjt the preaeot coun- 
 ties of Columbia and Rensselaer, dwelt the Al- 
 gooldn tribe of Horikans, "whose hunting 
 grounds appear to have extended from the 
 waters of the Connecticut, across the Qroen 
 Slountains, to the borders of that beautiful lake 
 [named Lake George by the too loyal Sir Wil- 
 liam Johnson] wliTch might now well bear 
 their sonorous name." — J. R Brodhead Hitt 
 of thf State of N. Y., p. n. 
 Huamaboya. See above: AHDKauRB. 
 Huancaa. See Pebd. 
 Huattect. See below: Matab. 
 Huecot, or Wacot. See below: Pawuxb 
 iCaddoan) Familt. 
 
 Humas, or Onnaa. See below: McaxBo- 
 OEAN Familt. 
 Hupaa.* See below: Modocs, Ac 
 
 Hurona, or Wyandota.— Neutral Nation 
 
 Eriea.— "The peninsula between the Lake* 
 Huron. Erie, and OnUrio was occupied by two 
 distmct peoples, speaking dialecU of the Iro- 
 quois tongue. The Hurona or WyandoU. includ- 
 ing the tribe called by the French the Diononda- 
 dlcs, or Tobacco Nation, dwelt among the 
 forests which bordered the eastern shores of the 
 fresh water sea to which they have left their 
 name; while the Neutral Nation, so called from 
 their ueutrality in the war between the llurons 
 Biui the Five Nations, inhal)ited the n<irthem 
 si ores of Lake Erie, and even extended their 
 e> stern Hank across the strait of Niagara. The 
 |'4>ul»lion of the llurons has been variously 
 stated lit from lO.tXX) to 80,000 souls, but proba- 
 bly did not exceed the former estimate. The 
 Irancwsns and the JcsuiU were early among 
 tbein, iind from their descriptions it is apparent 
 that m legends, and superstitions, nuinners and 
 haliiu, religious observances and social customs 
 they vera closely asaimlUted to their brethren 
 of tlieHve Nations. . . . Like the Five Nations, 
 the H yandoU wore in some measure an agricul- 
 lunil iMople; they bartered the surplus products 
 of their maize fields to surrounding tribes 
 usually receiving fish in exchange; and this 
 tralllc wiis so considerable that tlio Jesuits styled 
 tlieir country the Orunary of the Algonciuins. 
 Their |.n»neritv was rudely broken by the bos- 
 lilies „f the Jlvo Nations: for though the con- 
 tlieting parties were not ill mnt<he<l in point of 
 imiulKT*, yet the united counsels and fcnxiious 
 energies of the confederacy swept all before 
 K m. In the vcar 184B. in the .ieptli of winter, 
 tlielr wiirrion Invaded the country of the Wvan- 
 '. n'tiH','"^"'. «hflr largest villages, and Involved 
 ..I Kiihln m indiscriminate slaughter. The sur- 
 vivcr. iliHl lu panic tern)r, ami the whole nation 
 "ii!* hn.ken aii.i disi«,rscd. Home found refuge 
 «iimn« the French ..f Canada, where, at tl7e 
 vilhjie „f I^,r,.tic, ne„rQuelwc, their descendants 
 Hill nniain; othera were incorporated with their 
 
 'M ond Lake Huperior, and sought an asylum 
 "iMong he waste, which b.,r,lc.,«t on the uorth- 
 *»lerii land, of the Dahaitah. Driven back l)y 
 m-H. Hirre blsonhunter^ they next establtshwl 
 lli.uiHelves about the outlet of Uk" «u!>eri'-r 
 *" -l'...es.iid Islands In the northern parts of 
 
 fc»teu.led to Detroit, where they formed a per- 
 • Ikt Mulf, Apiwndla E, vol. I. gg 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 manent settlement, and where, by their superior 
 valor, capacity and address, they soon acquired 
 an ascendancy over the surrounding Algonquin* 
 The ruin of the Neutral Nation followed close 
 on that of the Wyandots, to whom, according to 
 Jesuit authority, they bore an exact rescmbiunco 
 In character and manners. The Senecas soon 
 found means to pick a quarrel with them: thev 
 were assailed by aU the strength of the Insatlabfe 
 confederacy, and within a few years their 
 destruction as a nation was complete."— F 
 Parkman, Th4 Contpiraeu of Pimtiac, ch. 1.— The 
 ?'S?' i^ •ff'it* in Aorlh Amerien, ch. 1 _ 
 The first in this locality [namely, the western 
 extremity of the State of New York, on and 
 around the site of the city of Buffalo], of whom 
 history makes mention, were*ie Attiouandar- 
 onk, or Neutral Nation, called Kah-kwas by 
 the Scnecaa. They had their council-fires along 
 . the Niagara, but principally on iu western side! 
 melr hunting grounds extended from the Gen- 
 esee nearly to the eastern shores of Lake Huron 
 embracing a wide and important territory. 
 They are first mentioned by Champlain during 
 hta winter visit to the Hurons'n 1615 . . but 
 he was unable to visit their territory. . . The 
 peace which this peculiar people had so long 
 maintained with the Iroquois was destined to be 
 broken. Some jealousies and collisions occurred 
 In 1W7, which culminated in open war In 1650 
 One of the villagcsof the Neutral Nation, nearest 
 the Senecas and not far from the site of our city 
 IButralo], was captured in the autumn of the 
 latter year, and another the ensuing spring. So 
 well-dlreetcd and energetic were the blows of 
 the Iroquois, that the total destruction of the 
 Neutral Nation was speedily accomplished. . 
 The survivors were adopted by their conquerors. 
 ... A long periiMl intervened Iwtwcen the 
 destruction of the Neutral Nation aud the per- 
 manent occupation of their country by the Sen- 
 ecas, -- which latter event occurred after the 
 expulsion of the Seneca* from the Genesee 
 V alley, by the expedition under General Sulii- 
 7»"; In 1'7», during the Revolutionary War 
 They never, as a nation, resumed tliulr ancient 
 seata along the Genesee, but sought and fouml a 
 new homo on the secluded banks and among tha 
 basswood forests of the IMsyo-wJ, or Buffalo 
 treek, whence they bad driven the Neutral 
 Nation 130 yearn before. ... It h.-M been as- 
 sumed by many writers that the Kali kwas and 
 tries were Identical. This is not so. The latter 
 acconling to tlie nost reliable authorities, lived 
 south of the we»tem extremity of Like Eria 
 Vi".'. ^}S7 "J!:'"' '''■'"f'yt'J by the IrtHiuois in 
 iwa. The kah kwas were exterminatiMl by 
 them as early as 18S1. On Coronelii's map. 
 pul.llslied in 1(W8. one of tho villages of tha 
 latu-r, ca leil ' Kahouagoga, a destroyed nation,' 
 is hicated at or near tho site of Buffalo."— O. 11. 
 Marshall, Tht .\i,i0jnt frontier, pp. 6-<J, and 
 foatn,:tf.— - Wntwanl of the Neutrals, along 
 the Southeastern shores of Uke Erie, and stretch- 
 ing as far vsM as tho Oeiicseo river, lav tha 
 country of tho Erics, or, as Uiey were de'uomi- 
 naUHl by the Jesuits, 'U Nation Chat.' or Cat 
 Nation, who were also a member of the Ilim.n- 
 IrjMjuois family. The name of the iHautlful 
 lake OR Trfc»» m-iTgia our city [Buifai.i] w«* 
 cradhMl is their most enduring monumcul m 
 lAku Huron is that of the generic stock. They 
 want caUed lite Cat Nation oithar becauaa thai 
 
,1 
 
 ASfERICAN ABORIOrNCS. 
 
 -lotereiting but miicbtevous animal, the raccoon, 
 which the holy fathers erroneously classed in 
 the feline gens, was the totem of their leading 
 clan, or sept, or in consequence of the abundance 
 of that mammal within their territory. " — W. C. 
 Bryant, Intending Archofological Studia in and 
 about Buffalo, p. 12.— Mr. Schoolcraft cither 
 identifies or confuses the Eries and the Neutral 
 Nntion.— H. R. Schoolcraft, Sketch of the HM. 
 of the Aneient Brif (Information Seipeeting tht 
 Indian Tribet, pt. 4. p. 197). 
 
 Also in J. O. Shea, Inquiria Rapeeting the 
 lott Neutral Nation (»ame, pt. 4, p. 204).— D. 
 Wilson, The Huron-Iroguoii of Canada (rrani. 
 Royal Soe. of Canada, 1884).— P. D. Clarke, 
 Origin and Traditional IIi»t. of the VTyandottei. 
 — W. Ketchum, ift»r. of Buffalo, t. 1, th. 1-2.— 
 N. B. Craig, The Olden Time, v. 1, p. 225.— See 
 below: iRoquois Confedekact ; also, Canada 
 (New Frasck): A. D. 160*-1611; 16U-1618; 
 1634-1652; 1640-1700.— Sec, also, Postiac's 
 Wah, and for an account of "Lord Dunmorc'a 
 War," see Ohio (Vallet): A. D. 1774. 
 
 Illiooitaiid Miami*.-" Passing the countrv 
 of the Lcnape and the Shawanocs, and descend- 
 Ing the Ohio, the tniTellcr would bare found its 
 vdley chiefly occupied by two nations, the 
 Hiamis or iSrightwees, on the Wabash and tta 
 branches, and the Illinois, who dwelt in the 
 neighborhood of the river to which they have 
 given their name, while portions of them ex- 
 tendi'd beyond the Mississippi. Though never 
 subjugated, as were the Lcnape, both the 
 Miamis and the Illinois were reduced to the lost 
 extremity by the repeated attaclta of the Five 
 Natiors; and the Illinois, in particular, suffered 
 so much by these and other wars, that the popu- 
 lation of ten or twelve thousand, a.scribc'd to 
 them by the early French writers, had dwindled, 
 during the first quarter of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury, to a few small villages. "—P. I'arkman, 
 Conapiraey of Pontine, eh. 1, — See, also, above: 
 ALOoNqiUM Familt; and below: Sacs, Ac; 
 also Canada (New France): A. D. 166»-ie87. 
 
 Incma, or Yncaa. See Peru. 
 
 Innuita. Sco above: Eskim.\la!(. 
 
 lowaa. See below : Siocan Fak ilt, and Paw- 
 MEE (Cadddan) Family. 
 
 Iroquoia Confedcrecr. — !ro<|uoian FamilT. 
 — " Attheo-jtsctof the 16th Century, wlicn the 
 five tribes or nations of the Iroquois coiil 'Icracy 
 first became known to European explorers, they 
 were fuumi occupying the valleys and uplani's 
 (if nortliom New York, in that plrtun'sciue and 
 fruitful region which stri'tilii'S wi-stwanl from 
 the hi'ad-witters of the Hu<lwin to the Ucncsce. 
 The Moluiwks, or Canii-ngns — hs they sliould 
 pMpiTly 1k> called — poa sc n e il the Mohawk Uiver, 
 ami covcnii l<nke (Scorge and Lake Champlain 
 with tlii'ir tidtilliu of large canoes, managed with 
 tlie liolilncss anil skill «lilch, heriHlliary in their 
 desctnilants. make them still thelH'St Ixiatmen of 
 the North American rivers. West of the Canien- 
 
 ttastlieOiH-iiiaalH'IdtheBnallrivprand lake which 
 )<.>ar their name. . . . West of tlie Oneiilas, the 
 tm|H'rious Unondagas, the central and, in some rc- 
 siiccls, tlie ruling nation of the League, [Kissesseil 
 the two lakes of Onondaga and SkniHutclcs, to- 
 gether with the common outlet of this inland lake 
 gyijli/rn. the Oswego HIver tii lis lasiu* (nlii Lake 
 Oniarlo Still pn>ceedlng westwnni, the lines of 
 trail anil river led to the long and wlmling stn-tch 
 of Lakv Cayu(«, about wUch w«n: tlu*t«icd tits 
 
 96 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 towns of the people who gave their name to the 
 lake ; and beyond them, over the wide expansi' 
 of hills and dales surrounding Lakes Seneca and 
 Canandaigua, were scattered tlie populous vil 
 lagcsof the Benccas, more correctly calietl Sonon- 
 towanos, or Mountaineers. Such were the names 
 and abodes of the allied nations, members of the 
 far-famed Kanonsionni, or League of Uniteil 
 Households, who were destined to become for a 
 time the most notable and powerful community 
 among the native tribes of North America. Tlie 
 region which has been described was not, however, 
 the original seat of those nations. They belonged 
 to that linguistic family which is known to ethnol- 
 ogists as Uie Huron-Iroquois stock. Tliis stock 
 comprised the Hurona or Wyandots, the Atti- 
 wandaronks or Neutral Nation, the Iroquois, the 
 Eries, the Andastcs or Conestogas, the Tuscaroras 
 and some smaller bands. The tribes of this family 
 occupied a long irregular area of inland terri- 
 tory, stretching from Canada to North Carolina. 
 The northern nations were all clustered about 
 the great hikes ; the southern bands held the fer- 
 tile valleys bordering the head-waters of the 
 rivers which flowed from the Allegheny moun- 
 tains. The lan^ iages of all these tribes showed 
 a close affinity. . . . The evidence of language, 
 so far aa it has yet been examined, seems to show 
 that the Huron clans were the older members of 
 the group; and the clear and positive traditions 
 of all the surviving tribes, Hurons, Iroquois, and 
 Tuscarora, point to the lower St. Lawrence as 
 the earliest known abode of their stock. Here 
 the first explorer, Cartier, found Indians of this 
 stock at Ilochelaga aud Stadacon£, now the sites 
 of Montreal and Quebec. ... As their numt)ers 
 increased, dissensions arose. The hive swarmed, 
 and band after band moved off to the west aud 
 south. As they spread they encountered ixHipla 
 of other stocka, with whom they had fn>quiDt 
 wars. Their most constant and most dreailed 
 CQcmies were the tribes of the Aigonkin family, 
 a fierce and rcsUess people, of northern origin, 
 who everywhere surrounded them. At one 
 period, however. It the concurrent traditions of 
 both Iroquois and Algonkina can be believed, 
 these contending races 'or a time stayed thtir 
 strife, and united their 'irces in an alliance 
 against a commou and formidable loe. This foe 
 was the nation, or perhaps the confederniv. i^f 
 the Alllgewi or Talligewi, the semiclvilizii 
 ■ Mound-builders' of the Ohio Valley, who Imvo 
 left their name to the Allegheny river and nimiii- 
 tains, and whoso vast eariliworks are hiIII. iifiir 
 half-a-century of study, the jH-rplexily of an l:a^- 
 ologUts. A dcs|)er»te warfare ensued, whiih 
 lasted almut a hundred years, and endinl in the 
 complete overthrow ami destruction, or f pul- 
 sion, of tlie Aliigewl. The survlvon of tlu- ( on- 
 quen'd p«'ople tied southwanl. . . . Tin time 
 which has elapsed since the overthrow of the 
 Alligewi is variously estimatiKl. The nios> |>nib- 
 able conjecture places it at n pvrioii ulonit s 
 thousand years before the present day. It v a* 
 apparently soon after their expulsion that t,i« 
 trinea of the Huron-Iroquois and the Algimkl.i 
 stix-ks RoatlcTfd tliemst'lves over the wide n krinn 
 south of the Great Lakes, thus left op^n t" ilnir 
 ot'cupancy." — H. Hale. Introd. to Imv"">' '""* 
 of H>lr' — AftT th« i-riinin( of Ihs Kiiniiniins 
 Into the New World, llic Frvncb were Uie riM to 
 6t' iiivolviHl In hoalilltiea with the lnii|Uiil« und 
 their early wan with .ibem produced a hatred 
 
AUERICAir ABORiaiNES. 
 
 which could never be extinguished. Hence the 
 English were able to win the alliance r<f the Five 
 Nations, when they struggled with France for 
 the mastery of the North AmeHeaji continent, 
 and they owed their victory to that alliance, prob- 
 ably, more than to any other single cause. Eng- 
 land still retained the faithful friendship and 
 alliance of the Iroquois when she came to a 
 struggle with her own colonies, and all the tribes 
 except the Oneidas were In arms against the 
 Ami'ricaos in the Revolutionary War. "With 
 the restoration of peace, the political transactions 
 of the League were substantlallv closed. This 
 was, in effect, the termination of their political 
 existence. The Jurisdiction of the United States 
 was cxtendetl over their -"nient territories, and 
 from that time forth tL / became dependent 
 nations. During the proffresa of the Revolution, 
 the Mohawks abandoned their country and re- 
 moved to Canada, finally establishing themselves 
 partly upon Orand River, In the Niagara penin- 
 sula, and partly near Kingston, i.here they now 
 reside upin two reservations secured to them by 
 the British government . . . The policy of ihe 
 State of Ne-.v York [toward the Iroquois nations] 
 was ever j ust and humane. Although their coun- 
 try, with the exception of that of the Oncidaa, 
 might have bei" considered aa forfeited by the 
 event of the lU. .'olution, yet the government 
 lever tnforced the rights of conque»t, iMit ex- 
 Unguished the 1 .liun title to the coi; ■.- by 
 purchase, and tn aly stipulations. A i, .n of 
 the Oneida nation [who had sold their . ...» to 
 the State, from time to time, excepting one small 
 i¥serv;ation] emigrated to a reservation on the 
 river Thames In Canada, where about 400 of them 
 now [IS51] reside. Anot^ier and a larger band 
 rcmovfd to Green Bay, in Wisconsin, where they 
 •till make their homes to the number of 700. 
 But a ». tall part of the nation have n'malned 
 around the seat of their ancient council-flro 
 near Oj.cida Castle, In the county of Oneida." 
 The Onoiiiiagas " still retain their beautiful and 
 serladcd valley of Onondaga, with suflicient ter- 
 ritory for Ihclr comfortable maintenance. About 
 150 Onondagas now reside with the Seneras- 
 another party are established on Grand River, In 
 Canada, and a few have removed to the west. 
 ... In the brief spare of twelve years after the 
 first house of the white man was erected in Cay- 
 UK» county (178t») the whole nation [of Uie Cay- 
 ugMl WAS uprooted ami gone. In 1793, they 
 ccileil, by Irenty. all their lauds to the htate, with 
 the exrrptlon o( one rewrvation, which they fin- 
 ally ahandonoi aU.ut the year 1800. A p.)rtIou 
 or them n moved f« Green Bay, another U) Grand 
 Klvtr, Bi.(l still another, and a much larger band 
 •I'ttlf r.t Sandusky, In Ohio, from whence they 
 • r^ ■emoviti by government, a few years nince 
 into 'ho Indinn territory, west of the Missisxippl. 
 Aboil 1208till rj'slde aninngthe Svnecas, 'n west- 
 ern New \ ork. ... The Tuscarorss, after re- 
 moving from the Oneida terrlti rv. flnallv located 
 Dtar ilie Niagara river, in tl' vicinity of Ia-wIs- 
 
 ' '^i * "?^' ^"''^ "' ''"'"' ^y "'" Hcnecaa. 
 Li.. , V "'"'•''"■ "' "'e Senecas are now shut up 
 witliiii thrtf Hmall n'servatlous. the Tonnwanda 
 till- (attaraugus and the Allegany, whiili. united, 
 woiii, u,H cover the area of one of the kiiaer 
 c.„,„,to. of the Sf,.<-"_t... U MofRn,.. Th, 
 U.„,nt nf ih, Iniqum*, ft*. 1, M. l._ "The In- 
 
 f.WO, and occupy .aadi to th« nUmiitcd extent 
 1 
 
 97 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 of 87,«77 acres. With few exceptions, theas 
 people are the direct descendanto of the native 
 Indians, who once possessed and controlled the 
 soil of the entire State." —ij«)(. of Special Uom 
 tolntuttgatt the Indian Problem of the gtate of 
 y. Y., im— In 17J5 the Five Nations of 
 Uie Iroquois Confederacy became Six Nations 
 by Oe admission of the Tuscaroras, from N 
 Carolina. — See bel',w : Iroqiois Tbibes of 
 THE SotJTH.— On the relationship between the 
 Iroquois and the Cherokees, see above : Cuero- 
 
 KBES. 
 
 Iroquois Cot fcder»cy. _ The Legend o( 
 Hiawatha, the Founder. Sec Inoocoia Co\- 
 
 rSDERACT. 
 
 IrMuois Confederacj.— Their Name.—" The 
 origin and proper meaning of the word Iroquois 
 are doubtful. All that can be said with cer- 
 tainty la that the explanation given by Charlevoix 
 cannot possibly be correct. The name of 
 Iroquois, he savs. Is purely French, and has 
 beer formed from the term hiro,' 'I have 
 spoken,' a word by which these Indians close all 
 Uieir speeches, and 'kou4,' which, when long 
 drawn out, la a cry of sorrow, and when brieSy 
 uttered Is an exclamation of joy. . . . But . 
 Champlain had learned the name from his 
 Indian allies before he or any other Fienchman 
 so far as is known, had ever seen an Iroquois! 
 It is probable th»'. the origin of the word is to 
 bcsoueht in the Huron language; yet, as this 
 is similar to the Irofjuuis tongue, an attempt 
 may be made to find a solution in the latter 
 According toBruyas, the wo " ' garokwa ' meant 
 a pipe, and also a piece of touacco, — and, in ita 
 verbal form, to -,i..uKe. This word is found 
 wmewhat disguised by asr'rates, in the Book of 
 Rite"i, — denighroghkvvaycn.— • let us two smoke 
 together.'. . . In the iiid.;terminat« form the 
 verb becomes 'ierokwa.' which is certainly very 
 near to Iroouols. It might be rendered • they who 
 smoke,' or 'they who use tobacco,' or, briefiy 
 'the Tobacco People." This name, tlie Tobacco 
 Nation (' Nation du Petun ') was given by the 
 French, and probably also by the Ai -^nkins, to 
 one of the Ilurtm tribes, the Tionontates, noted 
 for the excellent tobacco which they raised and 
 sold. The Iroquois were equally well kno<vn 
 for their cultivation of this plant, of which t' y 
 had a choice variety."— U. Hale. Iro>juoi<i Boo> 
 of RtUt. <t pp. note A. 
 
 Iroquois Confederacy. — Their conquests 
 and wide dominion. — "The projiit of a 
 League [among the 'Five Nations' of the Iro- 
 quois] originnU>'l with the Oiioudagas, among 
 whom it nils flrs^ suggesu-d. as a nicans to 
 enable them more cffcrtuall} to resist tlie pres- 
 sure of contiguous nations. The epo<h of Its 
 fcslabhshnunt cannot now be decisively nsccr- 
 taintnl; although the clrcumstames allcmling Its 
 forniatlcm are still r-ewrved bv tradili.ii with 
 great minutepess. These trniiltious nil refer to 
 iho I jrthem shore of the Onondaga lake, as the 
 plact where the Iroquois chit* . «iiili|.,| |a 
 general congress, to agm upo- criiis and 
 
 priiiclnlesof the compact. . . . he forma- 
 
 tion of the League, the Iroquois rapidly la 
 
 rx>wer and influence. . . . With me first con- 
 »<lousniii» I rising power, they turned their 
 von^ viiirUiiwl rt'iieuiiiiem upoii llie Aitiron- 
 daiks, who had oppresscil them in tlieir lufancy 
 as a nation, and had expelhtl tlicm from tliefr 
 country. In the Orst struggte for tlie ascendancy. 
 
AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 ■■11 
 
 '. . . At the t Tt of French discovery (153S), the 
 latter nation [>*>€ AdirondacliB] appear to have 
 beien dispossesseu of their original country, and 
 driven down the St. Lawrence as far as Quebec. 
 ... A ntTv era commenceti with the Iroquois 
 upon the establishment of the Dutch trading- 
 post at Orange, now Albany, In 1615. . . . 
 Friendly relations were establislied between the 
 Iroquois and the Dutch, which continued with- 
 out interruption until the latter surrendered 
 'their possessions upon the Hudson to the Eng- 
 lish in 16M. During this period a trade sprang 
 up 1). tween them in furs, which the Iroqvols ex- 
 chan iwl for Euroiie^n fabrics, bu', Tiore es- 
 pecially for fire-arms, in the use of which they 
 w^ afterwards destined to become so expert. 
 The English, in turn, cultivated the same rela- 
 tions of friendship. . . . With the possession of 
 flre-urms commenced not only the mpid eleva- 
 tion, but absolute supremacy O- the Iroquois 
 over other Indian nat'ons. In If iO, they ex- 
 pelled the Neuter Nation from the Niagara pen- 
 Innulit and established a ^wrmanent settlement at 
 the moutli of '.hat liver. They nearly extermin- 
 ated, in 1653, the Erics, who occupied the south 
 Bide of Lake Erie, and from thence east to the 
 Genesee, and thus possessed themselves of the 
 whole area of western New York, and the north- 
 ern part of Ohio. About the year 1670, after 
 thev had finally completed the dtspereion and 
 subjugation of the Adirondncks and Hurons, 
 they acquired possession of the whr ' country 
 between lakes Huron, Erie and Ontario, and of 
 the nortli bank of the St. Lawrence, to the 
 mouth of the Ottawa river, near Montreal. . . . 
 Thev also made constant inroads upon the New 
 England Indians. ... In 16«0, the Senecas with 
 60O warriors invaded the country of the Illinois, 
 upon the borders of the Mississippi, while La 
 Bolle w.is among the latter. ... At various 
 times, bolh bcfiire and after this period, the Iro- 
 quois turned their warfare against the Cherokces 
 uprn the Tenuessee, snd the Catawbas in South 
 Canilina. . . . For about a century, from the 
 year 1000 to the year 1700, the Iro<;uois were In- 
 volved in an almost uninterrupted warfare. At 
 the close of this period, they had subdued and held 
 In nominal subjection all the principal Indian na- 
 tions occupying the territories which arc now 
 embraced in the states of New York, Delaware, 
 Maryland, New Jersey, Pennsylvauia, the north- 
 em and wistirn Darts of Virginia, Ohio, Ken- 
 tuckv. Norlliem Tennessee, Illinois, Indiana, 
 Micliigan, a purtion of the New England States, 
 and the principal part of Upper Canaila. Over 
 these liuliims, tlie haughty and imperious Iro- 
 quois excrcistil a constant supervision. If any of 
 them iKiame invulv-l in domestic difflculties, a 
 delegalinu of dilefs went among them and re- 
 storiHl tnin(|iilllily, prescribing at the same time 
 tieir fn'uri' ii'iiiluct."— L. H. Morgan, Ltagutof 
 the In»iii"i'. M 1, ch. 1.—" Their [the Irofjuois's] 
 war-partii s mamed over lialf America, and their 
 name wus a t. rror from the Atlantic to the Mis- 
 ■Issippi ; but when we ask the numerical strength 
 of the dri'aded confederacy, when we discover 
 that, in the days of their greatest triumphs, 
 their united catitons could not have mustered 
 4. out) warrior.-., we stand amazed at the folly and 
 dissension wiildi left so vast a region the prey 
 of a liandful of bold marauders. Of the cities 
 and villages now so thickly scattered over the 
 kMt domain of the Iroquoit, a single one might 
 
 * Sec Notr, Appendix E, vol. I. 
 
 boaat a more numerous population than all Uie 
 five united tribes."— F.Plirkman, Ths Oompir- 
 (m -f Pantiae, eh. 1. 
 
 Iroquois Confederacy: A. O. 1608-1700. 
 —Their wart with the French. See Canada 
 (New Pbakcb): A. D. 1608-1611; 16H-1616; 
 1634-165i»; 1340-1700; 1696. 
 
 Iroquois Confederacy: A. D. t64S-i^9.— 
 Thnr destruction of the Htirons and the 
 Je- ait Missions. See Canada (New France): 
 A. D. 1684-1652: also, above, Huroks. 
 
 Iroquois Confederacy: A. O. 168^1744.— 
 Surrenders and cbnreyancr, j to the EnKluh. 
 See New Yoni A. D. 1684, and 1726; Vir- 
 ginia: A O. 1744; Ohio (Vaijj;t): A. D. 1748- 
 1754; United States op Am. : A. D. 17fl' 1768. 
 
 Iroquois Confederacy: A. D. I778-I779-— 
 Their part in the War of the American Revo- 
 lution. SeeUNITEDSTATESOr AlfERICA: A. D. 
 
 1778 (June— November) and (Jult); and 1779 
 (ArocsT— September). 
 
 Iroquois Tribes of the South.*- "The 
 southern Iroquois tribes ocr-'riied Chowan River 
 and its tributary streams, i bey were bounded 
 on the east by the most southerly Lenape tribes, 
 who were In possession of the low country along 
 the sea shores, and those of Albemarle and 
 l^miico Sounds. Towards the south and the 
 west they extended beyond the river Neuse. 
 They appear to have been known in Virginia, iu 
 early times, under the name of Monacans, as fnr 
 north as James Kiver. . . . Lawson, in his 
 accouut of the North Carolina Indians, enumer- 
 ates the Chowans, the Meherrins, and the Not- 
 toways, as having together 95 warriors in the year 
 1708. But t!ie Melierrins or Tuteloes and the 
 Nottow"._,s inhabited respectively the two rivers 
 of tliat name, and were principally seated In 
 Virginia. We have but Indistinct notices of the 
 Tuteloes. . . . Ii appears by Beverly that the 
 Nottoways had preserved their Inaependence 
 and their numbers later than the Powhatans, and 
 that, at the end of the 17th century, they had 
 still 130 warriors. They do not appear to have 
 mignited from their original seats in a body. In 
 the year 1820, they are said to have been reduced 
 to 27 souls, and were still in possession of 7.000 
 acres In Southampton county, Virginia, which 
 had been at an early date reserved for them. 
 . . . The Tuscaroras were by far the must 
 Dowcrful nation in North Carolina, and occuiiicd 
 , . the residue of the territory In that colony, 
 which has been described as Inhabited tiy 
 Irocjuois tribes. Their principal seats in 1708 
 were on the Neuse and the Taw or Tar rivers, 
 • nd according to Lawson they had 1,200 warriors 
 in fifteen towns." In 1711 the Tuscnroms 
 attacked tlie English colonisU, massacring 130 
 In a single day, and a fierce war ensued. "In 
 the autumn of 1712, all the iuhabitanU south and 
 southwest of Chowan River were obliged to live 
 in forts; and the Tuscaroras expected assi^I,l:»■e 
 from the Five Nations. This could not Inive 
 l)ecn given without Involving the confetUniiy In 
 a war with Gn-at Britain: and the Tusjiironu 
 were left to their own resources. A torxv, nin- 
 sisting chiefly of southern Indians undir the 
 command of Colonel Moore, was again si lit liy 
 the government of South Carolina to a».sist tiie 
 uiirlliiru Cul<)iile». He besieged and took 3 f-rt 
 of the Tuscaroras. ... Of 800 prisomrs WW 
 wen- given up to the Southern Indians, wlio 
 carried them to South Carolioa to sell them u 
 
 98 
 
AMERICAN ABORIomsa 
 
 AHSRICAN ABORiamES. 
 
 dsTM. The Eutern Tuscaroru, whose principal 
 town was on the Taw, twenty miles above 
 Washington, immediately made peaf;e, and a 
 portion was settled a few years after north of 
 tbe Roanolce, near Windsor, where they con- 
 tinued till the year 1808. But the great body of 
 tlie nation removed in 1714-lS to th« ri-e 
 Nations, was received as the 8ixth, and has since 
 shared their fate." — A. Oaliatin, Sgnapnt oftht 
 Indian Tribti (Arehaologia Ammatna, «. 3), 
 introd., leet. 3. 
 
 Also in J. W. Mooie, JStt. «< iK Carolina, 
 e. 1, eh. 8. — See, also, above: iBoquou CoN- 
 
 FKOERACT. 
 
 Itocos. Seeebove: CmacBASw 
 
 Itonamos, or Itonomot. Bee above: Akdb- 
 
 tUNS; also BoLtVIA: AbOBIQIKAL iMBABITAllTa. 
 
 livara, or Jivaro. See above: ANDssujia 
 
 Kah-kwas, Sec above: Hcroks, /■■;. 
 
 KaUpooiaa Familr. — " Under t'lis family 
 name Scouier places two tril>es, the Kalapoola'., 
 Inhabiting ' the fertile WilUmat plr.ins ' and the 
 Tamkallie, who live 'more in the interior, 
 towards the so^.cesof the Willamit River.' . . . 
 The tribes of the Kalapooian fanily inhabited 
 the valley of Willamette River, Oregon, above 
 the falls. ''—J. W. Powell, SetientA Annual Bept., 
 Bureau of Etknologjf, p. 81. 
 
 Kanawhas, or Ganawete. See above: 
 
 AUKIM<irLAN Familt. 
 Kansas, or Kaws. Sec below : Siocan. 
 Kapohn. See above: Cakibs and treib 
 
 KlNDKEO. 
 
 Karankawan FamilT.— "The Karankawa for- 
 merly dwelt upon the Texan coast, according to 
 ISiblcv, upon an island or peninsula in the Bay of 
 St. Bcninrd (Matagonia Bay). . . 7n 1884 Mr. 
 Gtttschet fr.uud a Tonkawe at Poi i OritUn, Texas, 
 who claimi'd to liave formerly lived among the 
 Kuraukii-.,a. From him a vocabulury of twenty- 
 five t< .-ms was obtained, which was all of the 
 language he remembered. The vocabulary . . . 
 8U(T »« •• In. rcnrenvnts all of the language that is 
 e.xtant. „udgi-,' by this vocabulary the language 
 •eema to be distlrn't not only from the Attiikapa 
 b".t from all ot;. »."— J. W. Powell, HexntX 
 Annii'il lit,tort, Bu an of Bthiuilogy, p. 82. 
 
 Karoks, or Cahroca. See below: Modocs. 
 
 Kaskaskias. Sec above: Aluunuuun Fam- 
 
 «LV. 
 
 Kaus, or Kwokwooi. See below: Kcsan 
 F.\Mi'.y 
 Kan., or Kansas. Sec lielow : Siouan. 
 Kenai, or Blood Indians.* Sccabove: Black- 
 
 rKET. 
 
 Keresan Family.— "Th! . . . pueblos of 
 Kiresau sUKk . . . uro situited in New Mcxiit) 
 ou tbe u|i|M'r lUo Orande, on ecveriil of its smiill 
 wes'irn alliuenU, and on the Jemez and San 
 ime. which also are trih.ilaries of the Hio 
 OMiide.'— J. W. Powell, tSerrnlh Annual Bept 
 Uur„vt of Ethnology, p. 83. —See PcBBLO. 
 
 Kikapoot. See aliove: Al.«oNyi:iAN Famii.t 
 and IhIuw : Sai-s, Ac. , and Pawnee (Caddoas) 
 
 i >MII.T 
 
 Kiowan Family.— "Dcrirall<m: From the 
 hi"WH word K6i, plural Kii-igu, meaning 
 'K«yow«man.' The Comakche term kiyowl 
 iiiijiiM 'rat.' The author who first formally 
 svpsntp.) this f.iiiiily appears to have bci'a 
 liirmr. . . . Turner, upon the strength of a 
 v,«:ilnilary furnlsh.il by Lieut Whipple, dla- 
 » iiiH from tbe opinion expressed by IMke and 
 
 • Sy Xote, Apiwndix K, v.il. 5. 99 
 
 othen to the effect that the language b of tha 
 same stock as tbe Comanche, and, while admitting 
 that its relationship to Comanche is greater than 
 to any other family, thuUu that the likeness is 
 m':iely the result of long intercommunication. 
 His opinion that it is entirely distinct from any 
 other language has been indorsed bv Busch- 
 mann and other authorities. The family is rep- 
 resented by the Kiowa tribe. So intimately 
 assochited with the Comanches have the Kiowa 
 been since known to history that it is not easy to 
 determine their pristine home. . . . Pope defl- 
 nitely locates the Kiowa in the valley of the 
 Upper Arkansas, and of its tributary, the Purga- 
 tory (Laa Animaa) River. This is i. substenSal 
 accord with the statements of other writers of 
 about the same period. Schermerhom (1818) 
 places the Kiowa on the heads of the Arkansas 
 .nd Platte. Esviier still they appear upon the 
 headwaters of the Platte."— X W. Powell, 
 Seventh A .nual Beport, Bureau of Ethnology, p. 
 
 KIrirl, Cayriil See above: Ouck ob 
 Coco Okuiip. 
 
 KitDnahan Punily.— 'This family waj based 
 upon a tribe variously termed Kitunaha, Kutenay, 
 Cootenal, or Flatbow, living on the Kootenay 
 River, a branch of the ColumbU in Oregon."— 
 J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Sept., Bureau ot 
 Ethnology, p. 85. 
 KUmathi. See below: Modocs. 
 Kolnachon Family.- "Derivation: From the 
 Aleut word koiosb, or more roperly, kaluga, 
 meaning 'dish,' the allusion dng to the dish- 
 shaped lip ornaments. This family was based 
 hy Oaliatin upon the Koluschcn tribe (the 
 TshinkiUni of Marchand), 'who inhabit the 
 islands and the [Pacific] coast from the 60th to 
 the 55th degree of north latitude.'" -J. W. 
 Powell, Seventh Annual Bept., Bureau of Eth- 
 wrlugy, p. 88. 
 
 Knlanapan Family.— "The main territory 
 of the Kulanapan family is bounded on the 
 
 ost by the Pacific Ocean, on the east bv the 
 1 ukian and Copehan territories, on the north by 
 tlio watershed of the Russian River, and on the 
 south by a line drawn from Bodega Head to the 
 southwest comer of the Yukian terrlU)ry, near 
 •Santji Rosa, Sononw Count v, California. "--J. W. 
 Powell, l^reiUh Arnual Bept., Bureau of Eth- 
 nology, p. 88. 
 
 Kuaan Family.*-' The ' Kaus or Kwokwoos ' 
 tribe is merely mentioi "d by Hale as living on a 
 river of the siime name etwcen the Uiuquu and 
 the Clamet."— J. W. Pi well. HeteiUh Annual 
 Jiept.. Bureau of Ethn^iyy, p. 89. 
 
 Kwokwoos. See above: Kusa.. Family. 
 
 Lenape. See above: Diilawaueb. 
 
 Machicuis, See below: Pampas Thibes. 
 
 Mscuabi, See above: Cakibs aud theib 
 
 KiNDBED. 
 
 Mansos. See above; Gees ob Coco C Roin*. 
 Maodans, or Mandanes. See belov. : Siouam 
 Fauilv. 
 
 Manhattans. See above: Aloohqpian Fam- 
 ily, ami, piso, Manhattan Isl.and. 
 Manioto, or Mayno, See above : Andesians, 
 Mapochins. See Chile: A. D. 1480-1724. 
 MaranluL See above: Ouck ob Coco 
 
 (iKol i'. 
 
 Maricopsa. See N-low : PrKBLos. 
 Maripoaan Family.— " Derivation: A Spanish 
 word meaning ' butterfly,' applied to a county in 
 
AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIOINSa 
 
 ,';i 
 
 California and subsequently taken for the family 
 name. Iiatham mentions the remnants of three 
 distinct bands of the C'oconoon, each with its 
 own language, in the north of Mariposa County. 
 These are classed together under the above 
 name. More recently the tribes speaking 
 languages allied to the CoconQn have been 
 trcnted of under the family name Yokut. As, 
 however, the stock was estublishfd by Latham on 
 a sound basis, his name is here restored. " — J. W. 
 Powell, AlcMiUA Annual Sept., Bureau of Eth- 
 tuloSH, p. 90. 
 
 Matcoutina, or Matcontena, See below: 
 Sacs, &c. 
 
 Maaaachosetts. See above: ALooRqinAn 
 Familt. 
 
 Matagnayaa. See Bolivia: Abobioo'al ih- 
 
 HADITANTg. 
 
 Mayaa. — "In his second voyage, Columbus 
 heard vague rumors of a mainland westward 
 from Jamaica and Cuba, at a distance of ten days' 
 Journey in a canoe. . . . During his fourth voy- 
 age (1803-4), when be waa exploring the Oulf 
 southwest from Cuba, he picked up a canoe 
 laden with cotton clothing variously dyed. The 
 natives in it gave him to understand that they 
 were merchants, and came from a land called 
 Maia. This is the first mention in history of the 
 territory now called Yucatan, and of the race of 
 the Mayas; for although a province of similar 
 name was found in the western extremity of the 
 island o( Cuba, the similarity was accidental, as 
 the evidence is conclusive that no colony of the 
 Meyas was found on the Antillts. . . . Maya 
 was the patriai name of the nativen of Yucatan. 
 It WHS the proper name of the northern portion 
 of the peninsula. No single province bore it st 
 the date of the Conquest, and prol)ably it had 
 been bunded down as a generic term from the 
 period, about a century before, when this whole 
 district was united under one government. . . . 
 Whatever the primitive meaning and first appli- 
 cation of the name Maya, it is now used to signify 
 specitlcally the aborigmes of Yucatr.n. In a more 
 extended sense, in the expression 'the Mara 
 family,' it is underst>xKl to embrace all tribes, 
 wherever found, who speak related dialects pre- 
 sumably derive<l from the same ancient stock as 
 the Maya proper. . . . The total numlier of 
 Indians of pure blood speaking the Maya proper 
 may be estinutted as nearly or quitc2U<),U0U, most 
 of them in the political limits of the department 
 of Yucatan; to these should be added nearly 
 100,1100 of mixed blood, or of European descent, 
 who use the tongue in daily life. For it forms 
 one of the rare examples of American languages 
 
 fiossessing vitality enough not only to muiutuin 
 ts ground, but actually to force itself on Euro- 
 pean settlers and supplant their native speech. 
 . . . The Mayas did not claim to be autoch- 
 thones. Their legends referred to their arrival 
 by tlie sea from the East, in remote times, under 
 the leadership of Itzumna, their hero-god, and 
 also to a less numerous immigration from the 
 West, which was connected with the history of 
 another henigtHl, Kukul (.'in. The first of these 
 appears to he wholly mythical. . . . The second 
 tradition deserves mure atfntlon from the his- 
 torian. ... It cannot he denied that the Mayas, 
 the Kiehes [or Quiiiien] Hud the Cukrhlqueis, in 
 their most venerable traditions, claimed to hbve 
 migrated from the north or west from some part 
 •f the present country of Meska 'TiMe tia- 
 
 dittons receive additional Importance from the 
 presence on the shores of the Mexican Gulf, oa 
 the waters of the river Panuco, north of Vera 
 Cruz, of a prominent branch of the Maya family, 
 the Uuasteca. The idea suggests itself that 
 these were the rear-guard of a great migration of 
 the Maya family from the north toward the 
 south. Support is given to this by their dUlect, 
 which ' most closely akin to that of the Tzendala 
 of Tabasco, the nearest Maya race to the south of 
 them, and also by very ancient traditions of the 
 Aztecs. It is noteworthy that these two partially 
 civilized races, tt Mayas and the Aztecs, 
 though differing radically in language, had 
 legends which claimed a community of origin in 
 some indefinitely remote past We find these on 
 the Maya side narrated in the sacred book of the 
 Kiehes, the Popol Vub, In the Cakchiquel 
 'Records of Tecpan Atillan,' and in various 
 pure Maya sources. . . . The annals of the Aztecs 
 contain frequent allusions to the Huastecs." — D. 
 G. BrintoD, T?u Maya ChronieUt, introd.— 
 "Closely enveloped in the dense forests of Chia- 
 pas, Oautemaht, Yucatan, and Honduras, the 
 ruins of several ancient cities have been discov- 
 ered, which are far superior in extent and mag- 
 nificence to any seen In Aztec territory, and of 
 which a detailed description may be found in the 
 fourth volume of this work. Most of these cities 
 were abandoned and more or less unknown at the 
 time of the [Spanish] Conquest. They bear 
 hieroglyphic inscriptions apparently Identical in 
 character; in other respects they resemble eaeh 
 other more than they resemble the Aztec ruins — 
 or even other and apparently later works in 
 Guatemala and Honduras. All these remains 
 bear evident marks of great antiquity. ... I 
 deem the groiuids suflldent . . . for accepting 
 this Central American civilization of the past nsa 
 fact, referring it not to an extinct ancient nice, 
 but to the direct ancestora of the peoples still 
 occupying tho country with the Spaniards. »iij 
 applying to it the name Slaya as that of the hui- 
 gtrige which has claims as strong as any to l>e 
 ccnsldcred the mother tongue of tlie linguistic 
 family mentioned. . . . There are no data liy 
 which to fix the period of the original Maya 
 empire, or its downfall or breaking up into riviil 
 factions by civil and foreign ware. 'The cities (i( 
 Yucatan, as is tleiirl/ shown by Mr. Stephens, 
 were, many of them! occupied by the desceiui- 
 ants of the builders down to the con(|uest, uiid 
 contain some remuantsof woodwork still in gmai 
 pn>servtttion, although some of the structuns 
 appear to be built on the ruins of otiiers nf a 
 soinewhut different type. Palenque and t'o|'nn, 
 on the contrary, have no traces of wchmI or otlii-r 
 |H>rishable material, and were uninhabited ami 
 nmbably unknown in the 16th centurv. Tlie 
 loss of the key to what must have Wn iin 
 advanced system of hieroglyphics, while tlie 
 spoken Innguu^e survivtKl, is also an indicati'>u 
 of ^«'at ttnti<iuity, cimlirined by the fact that the 
 (Juich^ structuas of Guatemala dilfeted maltri 
 ally from those of the more ancient epociL It is 
 not likely that the Maya empire In its integrity 
 continued later than the 3(1 or 4th century, 
 although Its cities may have been inliabite<l iiiui h 
 laK'r. and I should llx the eixK-h of Its hinli.st 
 power at a date ureeeding rather liuin foliou iiii; 
 the Christian era. — H. H. Bancroft, A'nftiw Wiivi 
 of the I'iieiHe State4, t. 2, cA. 2; «. 4, cA 8-6/ a 
 5, eh. U-18. 
 
 100 
 
AMERICAN ABORIOntEa 
 
 Alm a Msrquli de KadsllUc, Prehittorie 
 Anuriea, eh. 6-7.— J. L. Stephens, Inddenlt of 
 Tratdin Tueatan; aud Tratd in Central America, 
 <te.—B. M. Nonnao, RanMei in Tueatan.— 
 D. Charnsy, Aneitnt Cititt </ the Ifew World.— 
 See, also, Mexico: Ancuutt, and Aztec axd 
 IIata Pictube-Writino. 
 
 Majoruna, or Barbndo. See aboTe: Andb- 
 
 ■UNR. 
 
 Menomineet. See above: ALOoxquuK Fax- 
 ILT, and Sacs, &c. 
 
 Hetbacs. See above: ALoonqciAK Family. 
 
 ' Miamis,orTwightweea. See above: Alqox- 
 
 qcuN Family, iLLmois, and Sacs, &c. 
 
 Micmaci. See above: A loonquian Family. 
 
 Minp^ocs.— " The name c' Mingo, or Itlengwe, 
 
 by which the Iroquoia weri linown to the Dcla- 
 
 rtre* and the other louthe. n Algonlcins, is said 
 
 to be a contraction of the l- -pe word 'Ma- 
 
 hongwi,' meaning the 'People >. the Springs.' 
 
 The Iroquoia poeseued the head- <ter8 of the 
 
 riven which flowed through the cou try of the 
 
 Delawares."— H. Hale, The Iroquou Book of 
 
 Bitet, app., note A. 
 
 Minneconjou. See below: Siouam Family. 
 
 Minaetarect.* See above: Uidatsa; and 
 
 below: SiocAX Family. 
 
 Miaquaa. See below: ScBcjcEBASirAg; and 
 above: ALnoxquiAX Family. 
 
 Minsis, Manseea, or Miniainkt See above : 
 Delawares, and ALOoni^nAN '.'"amiiy. 
 
 Hiranba. See above: Gick on Cov-o Group. 
 , Missourif. See below: Siouan Family. 
 I Mixes. See below: Zapotecs, etc. 
 Mixtecs. See below : Zapotecs, etc. 
 Mocovis. Sec below: Pampas TRinES. 
 Hodocs (Klamatha) and their California 
 and Oregon neighbora.S-" The principal tribes 
 occupying this region [of Northern California 
 from liogue Ilivcr on the north to the Eel Kivcr. 
 south] nrc the Klamaths, who live on the licaii 
 waters of the river and on the shores of the lake 
 oftlmt name; the Modocs. on Lower Klamalh 
 Lake ami along Lost I,'ver; the Shastas, to the 
 (outh-wost of the Ijikes; the Pitt River Indi.ins- 
 the Eurocs, on the Klamath River between 
 WeiUpek and the coast; the Cahrocs, on the 
 Klamath River from a short distance above the 
 junction of the Trinity to the Klamath Moun- 
 tains; the Hoopahs rr)r llupas, a tribe of the 
 Athanascnn Familv] in Uoopah Valley on the 
 Tnnity near its junction with the Klamath- 
 mimprous trilws on the coast from Eel River and 
 llmiil)()ldt Bay north, Euch as the VVeovots 
 Wallics, Tolewahs, etc., and the Rogue ftivcr 
 Indian_ . on and alwut the river of that name. 
 The >orilicm Califomians are in every way 
 superior to the central and southern tribes "— 
 li. H. Bancroft, T/if Natire Jiaea of the Fiinfie 
 «a<M, r. 1. M. 4.— "On the Kkmath there live 
 three distmct tril)c», called the Yvirok, K^-rok. 
 anil Mo^lok, which names are said to mean 
 MDfiiively, -down the river," 'up the rivir" 
 aud 'hcMl of the river.' ... The Karok ai^ 
 prolmhly the finest tribe in California. 
 HiKipa Valley, on the Ix)uer Trinitv, Is the 
 home of .the Ilii-pS], Next after the' Ka-rok 
 they are the finest race in nil that region, and 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIOINEa 
 
 thev are the French in the extended dUTusion of 
 their language." The'Modoks, "on the whoto 
 ... are rather a cloddish, indolent, ordinarilr 
 good-natured race, but treacherous at bottom. 
 Bulle-. when angered, notorious for keeping 
 Punic faith. But their bravery nobody can 
 Impeach or deny; their heroic and long defense 
 of their stronghold against the appliancea of 
 modem civilized warfare, including that arm so 
 awful to savages— the artillery — was almost 
 the only feature that lent respectability to their 
 wretched tragedy of the Lava Beds [1873]."— 8 
 Powers, Tribee of California (Contributiont f 
 N. A. Ethnology, e. 8), eh. 1, 7, and 27.— "The 
 home of the Klamath tribe of southwestern 
 Oregon lies upon the eastern slope of the south- 
 em extremitv of the Cascade Range, and very 
 nearly coincides with what we may call the 
 head watere of the Klamath River, the main 
 course of which lies in Morthem California. 
 • '..■ "^^ '"*'° **■' °' "'^ Jlodoc peonle was the 
 J»"ey of Lost River, the shores of Tule and of 
 Little Klamafi Lake. .*. . The two main bodiea 
 forming the Klamath people are (1) the Klamath 
 Lake Indians; (2) the Modoc Indians. The 
 Klamath Lake Indiana number more than twice 
 as many as the Modoc Indiana. They speak the 
 northern dialect and form th« northern chief- 
 taincy. . . . The Klamath people possess no 
 historic traditions going further back in time 
 than a century, for the simple reason that tliere 
 was a strict law prohibiting the mention of the 
 person or acts of a deceased individual by using 
 his name. . . . Our present knowledge docs not 
 allow us to connect the Khtmath language 
 genealogically with any of the other language* 
 compared, but . . . it stands aa a linguistic 
 family for Itself."— .\. 8. Oatschet, The Klamath 
 Indiane (Contributiont to N. A. Ethnolngy, v. 8, 
 pt. 1).— In Major Powell's linguistic classifica- 
 tion, the Klamath and Modoc dialects are em- 
 braced in a family called the Lutuamian Family 
 derived from a Pit River word signifying 
 "lake;" the Yuroks In a family called the 
 Weltspekan; and the Pit River Indian dialectl 
 
 ftm nrnvi linnnllir ant. ar\af* tn » Alctt^^t. t II.- 
 
 theVev.„ex<T themin th< r .t»terr.?r.;.Hil V ""'*' 'T '"olu-nne from Scli.x>Icraft. the 
 
 1 v. — "- —- - ■• *»..v» Aiiuinu uinii:\:u 
 
 are provuionallv set apart in a distinct family 
 named the Pa.alhnihan Family.— J. \f. Powell, 
 Setenih Annual Heport, Bureau of Ethnoloau no 
 89 and n. "^ "^n-yf- 
 
 Mohares (MojaTes). See above: Apacbob 
 Qhocp. 
 Mohawks. See above: Iroquois Coh- 
 
 FEDEIUCY. 
 
 Mohegans, or Mahicans. See above: Al- 
 ooN(juiAN Family; and below: Stockbiiidoe I.n- 
 dlvnb; also, New £.\aLAND: A. U. Itl37. 
 
 Montagnais. See nlwvc : ALooMiiiAS Fam- 
 ily; and Atilapabcan Family. 
 
 Montauks. See above: Alookquiam Family. 
 
 Moquelumnaa FamUy.-" Derivation: From 
 the river and hill of the same name in Calaveras 
 County, California. ... It was not until 18.58 
 that the distinctness of the linguistic family was 
 fully set forth by Latham. '^ ,,ier the h.ad of 
 Moquelumne, this author gathers several vi«abu- 
 laries representing different languages an.l dia- 
 lecU of the same stock. These are the TuhituI 
 of Hale, the Tuolumne from SclKwIcnift the 
 
 . - . , - — ...... — --.^.-inii. nii-i It 
 
 l...Mii(!iilar imiuence, or perhaps brute force, 
 w ile.i lliov exeniso over the vicinal trihta. 
 I hey are ilie Romans of Northcm Callfomi.i in 
 Bielr valor and their wide-ri'aching dominions ; 
 • .Sic Noll', .Vpiwiidix i;_ y„|. j_ 2Q J 
 
 yem vocabulary, theChocuyem and Youliiousme 
 patemostera, and the Olaraeutke of Kostro- 
 mitonov in BUers Beitrtlge. . . . The Moque- 
 lumnan family occupies the territory bounded 
 
1 
 
 ! 
 
 iwif 
 
 
 sii 
 
 'IM' 
 
 ;l 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIOnnEa 
 
 •D the north hy the Coaumne River, on the eoath 
 by the Fresno River, on the east hr the Siem 
 Nevada, and on the west br the San Joaquin 
 Kiver, with the exception of a atrip on the east 
 banli occupied by the Cholovone. A part o( 
 this h r ily occiipfcs also a territory bounded on 
 the south by San Francisco Bay. "—J. W. Powell, 
 Smnth Annual Sept., Bureau of Ethnology, PP- 
 •3-93. 
 
 Moquit. See below: Pueblos. 
 I Moron*. See above: Ai^uesians. 
 ' Moxos, or Mojoi. See above: Ahdbhaxb; 
 also. Bolivia: Aboriginal Inhabitaiits. 
 
 Mundrucu. See below: TcPL 
 
 Munsees. See above: DELA.rAREi^, and Al,- 
 ooNQi'iAN Family; also Maniiattas Island. 
 
 Mura. See above: GucK or Coco Group. 
 
 Muskhogean, or Matkoki FamilT.— "Among 
 the various nationalities of the Gulf territories 
 the Maskoki family of tribes occupied a central 
 and commanding position. Not only the large 
 extent of territory held by them, but also their 
 numbers, their prowess In war, and a certain 
 degree of mental culture and self-esteem made 
 of the Masliokl one of the most important groups 
 In Indian history. From their ethnologic con- 
 dition of later times, we infer that these tribes 
 have extended for many centuries back in time 
 from the Atlantic to the Mississippi and beyond 
 that river, and from the ApaUchian ridge to the 
 Gulf of Mexico. With short Intermissions they 
 kept up warfare with all the circumjacent Indian 
 communities, and also among each other. . . . 
 The irresolute and egotistic policy of these tribes 
 often caused serious difficulties to the govern- 
 ment of the English and French colonics, and 
 lome of them constantly wavered In their adhe- 
 ■Ion between the French and the English cause. 
 The American government overcame tlieir oppo- 
 sition easily whenever a conflict presented itself 
 (the S«'minoIe War forms an exception), because, 
 like all the Indians, they never knew how to 
 unite against a common foe. The two main 
 branches of the stock, the Creek and the Cha'hta 
 [or Choctaw] Indians, were constantly at war, 
 and the remembrance of their deadly conflicts 
 has now i ..ssed to their descendants in the foira 
 of folk lore. . . . Tho only characteristic by 
 which a subdivision of the family can be at- 
 tempted, is that of hinguage. Following their 
 ancient topograpliic location from ea.it to west, 
 we obtain the following synopsis: First branch, 
 or Maskoki proper: The Creek, Maskokalgl or 
 Maskoki proper, settled on Coosa, Tallapoosa, 
 ITpper and Middle Chatahuchl rivers. From 
 these brnnclii'd oti by si'gnientation the Creek 
 portion of the Seniinoles, of the Y&massI and of 
 the little YaMacraw community. Second, or 
 Apalachian b-ancli: This southeastern division, 
 whioh may be called also ' a parte potior! ' the 
 nitcliitl connfition, anciently comprised tho 
 trilws on the Lower Clmfiihuelil river, anil, east 
 from there, the extinct Apalachi, tho MikasukI, 
 anil tliu llitchlli portion of the Seniinoles, Yd- 
 massi and Yaninemws. Third, or Alibamu 
 bmnch. compriw'd tho Alibamu villages on tho 
 liver of that name ; to them belonged the Koas- 
 iiti and Witumka nn Coosa river, its northern 
 atflueiit Fourth, Westi'm or Cha'hta [Choctaw] 
 braucii: From tlie main people, liie Clia'hlu, 
 lettleil l\ the middle portions of the State of Mis- 
 sissippi, the Cliicasa, Pascagoula. Bilnxi, Hums, 
 lad other trilws onee became separated through 
 •Srv Note, Appeuiiix E, vul. S, 10 
 
 AXKRIOAN ABORIOINE& 
 
 •egmentatlon. The strongest evidence for s com- 
 munity of origin of the Maskoki tribes is fur- 
 nished by the fact that their dialects belong to 
 one linguistic family. . . . Hask6ki, Maskogi, 
 Istl Maak6kl, designates a single person of the 
 Greek tribe, sad forms, as a collective plural, 
 Maskokilgl, the Creek community, the Creek 
 people, the Creek Indians. English authors write 
 this name Muscogee, Muskhogee, and its plural 
 Muscogulgeo. 'nie first syllable, as pronounced 
 by the Creek Indians, contains a clear short a. 
 . , . The accent is usually laid on the mid- 
 dle sylUble: Mask6kl, Ma8k6gL None of the 
 tribes are able to explain the name from their 
 own language. . . . Why did tho English colo- 
 nists caU them Creek Indians T Because, when 
 the EngUsb traders entered the Maskoki counti; 
 from Charleston or Savannah, they bad to cross 
 a number of streams or creeks, especially between 
 the Chatahuchl and Savannah rivers. Gallatin 
 thought it probable that the Inhabitants of the 
 country adjacent to Savannah river were called 
 Creeks from an early time. ... In the southern 
 part of the Cha'hta territory several tribes, repre- 
 sented to be of Cha'hta lineage, appear as dis- 
 tinct from the main body, «n<f are always men- 
 tioned separately. The !irench colonists. In 
 whose annals they figure extensively, call them 
 Mobilians, Tohomes, Pascogoulas, B'iloxls, Mou- 
 goulach.-», Bayogoulas and Humas (Oumas). 
 They have all disappeared in our epoch, with the 
 exception of the Biloxi {Major Powell, In the 
 Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnol- 
 ogy, pliwes the Biloxi in the Siouan Family),*of 
 wiiom scattered remnants li%'e in the forests of 
 Louisiana, south of the Ked River." — A. 8. Gats- 
 chet, .4 Migration lyegendofthe Cretklndianf, 1. 1, 
 pt. 1. — " 'The Uchees and the Natclies, who are 
 both incorporated in tlic [Muskliogee or Creek] 
 confederacy, speak two distinct languages alt* 
 gether different from the Sluskhogee. "rhe Nat- 
 clies, a residue of the well-known nation of that 
 name, came from the banks of the Mississippi, and 
 joined the Creeks less than one hundred years ago. 
 The original scats of the Uchees were east of the 
 Coosa and probably of the Chatahooehee ; and 
 thev consi<ler themselves as the most ancier*, in- 
 habitants of the country. They may have been 
 the same nation which Is called Apalaclies in the 
 accounts of Do Soto's expedition. . . . The four 
 great Southern nations, according to the estimate j 
 of the War Department . . . consist now [t8:(8] 
 of 67,000 souls, viz.: The Cherokees. 1.5,000; the 
 Choctaws (18,500), the Chicasas (5,600). 24.0(K)j 
 the Muskhogees, Seminoles, and Hitehittees, 
 28,000; the Uchees, Allbamons, Co08a<la8, and 
 Natclies, 8,000. The territory west of the Mis- 
 sissippi, given or offere<l to them by the United 
 States in exchange for their land.t east of that 
 river, contains 40,000,000 acres, exclusively of 
 what may be allotted to the C'liioasas." — A. Gal- 
 latin, Stfnoprii of th« Indinn Trihte (Arehniliiyia 
 Amrrimrui, t. 2), nert. 8. — S«'e below: S MINOI Ei 
 Musquito, or Mosquito Indians. — ' That po^ 
 tlon of llomiuras known as the Musquito Coast 
 derived its name, not from the abunilume of 
 those troublesome insects, but fnim h native 
 trilie who at the discovery occupieil tlie shore 
 near Blewfleld Lagoon. They are an iiiti llicint 
 people, sliorl tu etaliire, uiiiibUhIIv (I„rk in <-' i'r, 
 with finely cut features, and small straiglit noses 
 — not at all negrot<l, except where there has 
 been an admixture of blood. They uumlier 
 o 
 
AMERICAN ABORIomEa 
 
 ibont 6,000, manr of whom hare been p^rQj 
 civilized by the efforts of missionaries, who hj>7: 
 reduced the language to writing and published 
 In it a numlierof works. TlieTunglasareone 
 of the sub-tril < of the Musquitos."— D. Q. 
 Brinton, ITu .-. riean Haee, p. 163.— See, also, 
 Nicaraoua: A. D., 1850. 
 
 NahiuM. See Mexico, ADcneirr: Tmc Hata 
 AND Nadca Peoples. 
 
 Nanticoke*. See above : Aloonqcias Fax- 
 
 ILT. 
 
 Napo. See above: Asdesiaxs. 
 Narragansetts. See above: Alookqitiah 
 Family; also KaoDK Island: A. D. 1636; and 
 New England: A D. 1637; 1674-1875; 1675: 
 and 1076-1678. 
 
 Natchesan FamilT.— When the French first 
 entered the lower Mfssissippi valley, they found 
 the Natchez [Na'btchi] occupying; a region 
 of country that now surrounds the city 
 which bears their name. "By the persever- 
 ing curiosity of Gallatin, it is established 
 that the Natchez were distinguished from 
 the tribes around tliem less by their customs 
 and the degree 1 1 their civilization than by their 
 language, which, as far as comparisons have 
 been instituted, has no etymologlci.1 affinity with 
 any other whatever. Here again the imagina- 
 tion too readily invents tlieories; and the tradi- 
 tion has been widely received th.it the rtfminion 
 of the Natchez once extended even to the 
 Wabash. Historr knows them only as a feeble 
 and inconsiderable nation, who in the 18th 
 century attached themselves to the confederacy 
 of the Creeks. "— G. Bancroft, nM. qf tht IT. 8. 
 
 (Authnr't Uitt rtc), «. 2, p. 97 "Chateaubriand, 
 
 in his charming romances, and some of the early 
 French ivritcrs, who often drew upon their fancy 
 for their facts, have thrown an interest around 
 the Natchez, as a scmi-civil'zed and noble race, 
 that has passed into history. We find no traces 
 of civilization in their architecture, or In their 
 social life and customs. Their religion was 
 brutal and bloodv, indicting an Aztic origin. 
 They were perfidious and cruel, and If they were 
 stall s\ipcrior to the neighboring tribes It was 
 probably due to the district they occupied— the 
 most beautiful, healthy and productive In the 
 valley of the Jllssisslppt- and the influence of 
 its attractions in substituting permanent for 
 temporary occupation The residence of the 
 grand chief was merely s sjiacious cabin, of one 
 apartment, with a mat of basket work for his 
 bed and a log for his pillow. . . . Their govern- 
 ment w.as an absolute despotism. The supreme 
 chief was miistcr of their labor, their property, 
 and their lives. ... The Natchez consisted ex- 
 clusively of two classes — the Blood Royal and 
 its connexions, and the common people, the 
 MIch-i-mioki-quIpe, or Stiukaris. The two 
 classes understood each other, but spoke a dif- 
 ferent diulecL Their customs of war, their 
 treat nicnt of prisoners, their ceremonies of 
 marriap', their fea.sts and fasU, their sorceries 
 and witchcraft, differed very little from other 
 savages. Father Charlevoix, who visited Nat- 
 chez in 1721, saw no evidences of civilization. 
 Their villa>;e» consisted of a few cabins, or rather 
 ovccs, without windows and roofed with mat- 
 K"a- "^"C liiiiiw uf the Suu was larger, 
 piaKtpre<i with mud, Knd a narrow bench for a 
 icat Biiil l«,l. No other furniture In the mansion 
 If tins grand dignitary, who has been described 
 
 •S« .N'l.t,. A 
 
 'I'viiilix K, v„l. i. 
 
 103 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIGINEa 
 
 by imaginative writer* m the peer of Mont» 
 lumal"— J. F. H. Claiborne, Mi„uKppi, 1. 1, eK 
 4.— In 1729, the Natchez, maddened by Insolent 
 oppressions, planned and executed a general 
 massacre of the French within their territory. 
 As a consequence, the tribe was virtually ex- 
 terminated within the following two years. — 0. 
 Gayarre, Louitiana, iU Colonial Hitt. and 
 Bomana, 2d mriet, Uet. 8 and 5.— •• The Na'btchi, 
 according to Gallatin, a residue of the wel]-i 
 known nation of that name, came fiom the! 
 banks of the Mississippi, and joined the CreS 
 less than one hundred years ago. The seashora' 
 from Mobile to the Mississippi was then in- 
 habited by several small tribes, of which the 
 Nalitchi was the principal Before 1730 the 
 tribe Uved in the vicinity of Natchez, Miss., 
 along St Catherine Creek. After their disper- 
 sion by the French in 1730 most of the remainder 
 Joined the Chicasa and afterwards the Upper 
 Creek. They are now in Creek and Cherokee 
 Nations, Indian Territory. The linguistic rela- 
 tions of the language spoken by the Taensa tribe 
 have long been in doubt, and it is possible they 
 will ever remain so."— J. W. Powell, iktenth 
 Annual Sept., Bureau of Ethnoh^y, p. 96 —See 
 Locislaxa: A D. 171»-1750.— Sec, also, above: 
 MnSKROOEAN Fawlt. 
 
 NatcUtocbea.* See Texas: The Abobioinai, 
 Ihhabitants. 
 
 Nansett. See above: Aloonqctiait Family. 
 
 Narajot. See above: Atuap.isc.vn Familt, 
 and APAcnE Orocp. 
 
 Neutral Nation. See above: Htnioss, &c.i 
 and iKoquois Confederacy : Tiieir Con- 
 
 <)CE8T8, &c. , 
 
 Nes Perces, orSahaptins.— "The Sahaptins 
 or Nez Perces [the Shahaptian Family in Major 
 Powell's classitlcatlon], with theiralliliated tribes, 
 occupied the middle and upper valley of tlM 
 Columbia and its affluents, and also the passos of 
 the ii -mtains. They were in contiguity with 
 the Sho!!honcs and the Algonkin Blackfeet, thus 
 hold'ng an important position, intermediate be- 
 tween the eastern and the Pacific tribes. Hav- 
 ing the commercial instinct of the latter, they 
 made good use of it"— D. G. Brinton, Tht 
 Ameriean Baee.p. 107. 
 
 Also is J. W. Powell, Setenth Annual Bept, 
 of the Bureau of Ethnotog)/, p. lot). 
 
 Niniquiquilat. See below : Pampas Tkibes. 
 
 Nipmncs, or Nipnets. Sec above: Aloon- 
 qciAN Family; also. New Enolaxd: A. D. 1674- 
 1675; 1675; and 1676-1678 (Ki.no PniLiP's Wak). 
 
 Nootkas. See below: Wakasu.vn Family. 
 
 Nottoways. See above: Ii{o<)cou 'TiuBEa 
 
 OF THE SOUTB. 
 
 Nyantics. See above: ALooxqciAif Familt. 
 
 O^alas. bee below: Siouan Family. 
 
 Ojtbwaa, or Cbippewas.— "The Ojibways, 
 with their kindred, the Pottawattamies, and 
 their friends the Ottawas,— tlie latter of whom 
 were fugitives from the eastward, whence they 
 
 liad fled from the wrath of the Iroquois, were 
 
 bonded into a sort of confederacy. They were 
 closely allied in blood, language, Lumncrsand 
 character. The Ojibways, by far the most 
 numerous of the three, occupied the basin ot 
 Lake Superior, and extensive a<ljacent rcirioos. 
 In their boundaries, the career of Iroquoia 
 conquest found at length a check. The fugitive 
 Wyandots sought refuge in the Ojibway hunt- 
 ing grounds; and tradition relates that, at the 
 
AUERICAK ABORtantsa 
 
 AXBRICAK ABORIQINBa 
 
 I ,t- ,« 
 
 mtlet of Lake Superior, an Iroquott ws^p«tr 
 onco encouotered ■ diaoitrout rrpulie. In their 
 mode of life, they were far more rude than the 
 Iroquoii, or even the louthera Algonquin 
 tribes." — F. pRfkman, Contpiraq/ <^ J^mtiae, 
 A. 1. — "The name of the tribe appeara to be 
 recent It Is not met with In the oKicr wrltem 
 The French, who were the earliest to meet them. 
 In their tribal seat at the falls or Sault de 8ta 
 Marie, named them Suulteur, from this circum- 
 Itance. M'Kenzie uses the term ' Jibway,' as the 
 equivalent of this term, in bis voyages. They 
 •re referred to, with little difference in the 
 orthographr, in General 'Vaabington's report. In 
 1754, of hfs trip to Le Bccuf, on Lake Erie; 
 but are first recognized, among our treaty-tribes, 
 In the general treaty of Oreenville, of 1794, In 
 which, with the Ottawas they ceded the island 
 of MIchilimackinac, and certain dependencies, 
 conceded by them at former periods to the 
 IVeoch. . . . The Chippewas are conceded, bv 
 writers on American philidoKy ... to speak 
 one of the purest forms of the Algonquin." — 
 H. R. Schoolcraft, Information ritpteting tht 
 Hi*t., Condition and Protfteti cf tht Indian 
 Tribet, pt. 6,p. 142. 
 
 Also at O. Copway, 27t< Cgibwaf Sation. — 
 J. O. Kohl, Kitchi-gami. — See, also, Pontlic's 
 Wxn; ami above: ALOoaqciAN Family. 
 
 Omahas. See below: Siouas Familt, and 
 Pawnee (Caddoax) Fahilt. 
 
 Oneidaa. Bee above: iBoqcon Cosfxdbb- 
 
 ACT. 
 
 Onondaga*. See above: Inoquois Cokro- 
 bbact. 
 
 . Orejones. See below; Pampas Tiubes. 
 ' Osages. See below: Siocam Familt, and 
 Pawnee (Caodoan) Familt. 
 
 OtoesiorOttoes. Seo bi-low: Siocas Familt, 
 •nd Pawnee (Caddoan) Familt. 
 
 Otomis. — "According to Aztec tradition, the 
 Otomis were the earliest owners of the soil of 
 Central Mexico. Tbcir language was at the 
 conquest one of the most widely distributed of 
 any in this portion of the continent Its central 
 rc-gions were the States of Queretaro and Guan- 
 ajuata . . . The Otomis are below the average 
 ■taturi<. of dark color, the skull markedly dolicho- 
 cephai: , the nose short and flattene<l, the eyes 
 slightly oblique."— D. Q. Brinton, Tht Amtri- 
 tan Rut, p. 185. 
 
 Ottawas. See above: ALOonquiAK Fajolt, 
 and Ojibwas. — See, also, Pontiac's Wab. 
 
 Pacaguara. See above: Andesiaks. 
 
 Pacamora. See above: Andebians. 
 
 Pamlicoes. See above : ALooNqciAN Familt. 
 
 Pampas Tribea. —"The chief tribe of the 
 Pampas Indians was entitled Ouerandis by the 
 Spaniards, although they callea themselves Pe- 
 huclches [or Puclts — that is, the Eastern]. Vari- 
 ous segments of these, under different names, 
 occupied the immense tract of ground, between 
 the nver Parana and the republic of Chili. The 
 Querandia . . . were the great opponents to 
 settlement of the Spaniards in Buenos Ayres. 
 . . . The Ancas or Aracauoos Indians [see 
 Chile] resideti on the west of the Pampas'near 
 Chili, and from time to time assisted the Q.icran- 
 dis in transporting stolen cattle across the Cor- 
 diiieruM. Tlit' mmtheru part uf the PauipuS was 
 occupied by the Batchitas, Uhilches. Telmel- 
 ches. and others, all of whom were liranehes of 
 the original Quelches horde. The Guaroni In- 
 
 '104 
 
 dlaos were the most famous of the South Ameri- 
 can race*. . . . Of tlieQuayanas horde there were 
 several tribes — independent of each other, and 
 speaking different tdioms, although having the 
 same title of race. Their territory extended 
 from the river Guaral, one of the amuents into 
 the Uruguay, for many league* northwards, 
 and stretched over to the Parana opposite t^'s 
 city of Corpus ChristL They were some of thi 
 most vigorous opponentii of the Spanish invader& 
 . . . The Nalicurgua i^Uians, who lived up to 
 near 21° S. lat were reputed to dwell in caves, 
 to be very limited in number, and to go entirely 
 naked. The Gausarapos, orUuuchiesdweltintM 
 marshy districts near where the river Gausarapi^ 
 or Guuchie, has its source. This stream enten 
 from the east into the Paraguay at 19° le* 80" a 
 lat . . . The Cuato* lived inside of a lake to 
 the west of the river Paraguay, and constituted 
 a very small tribe. . . . The Orejones dwelt on 
 the eastern brows of the mountains of Santa 
 Lucia or San Fernando — close to the western 
 side of Paraguay river. . . . Another tribe, the 
 Niniquiquilaa, had likewise the names of Potie- 
 ros, Simanos, Barcenos, and Lathanos. Thev 
 occupied a forest which began at about \V B. 
 lat, some leagues backward (rom the river Para- 
 guay, and separated the Gran Chaco from the 
 province of Los Chiquitos in Peni. . . . The 
 Guanas Indians were divided into eight separate 
 segments, for each of which there was a particu. 
 lar and different name. They lived between 20° 
 and 23° of S. lat in the Gran Chaco to the west of 
 Paraguay, and they were not known to the Span- 
 lards till the latter crossed the last-named rivet 
 in 1673. . . . The Albaias and Puvagiias Indians 
 ... in former times, were the chief tribes of the 
 Paraguay territory. . . . The Allwias were 
 styled ^iM'hicjis and Enimgas by . her authors. 
 At the time of the Sn^oiards' arrival here, the 
 Albaias occupied thu mn Chaco siile of the 
 river Para" \ey from 20° to 22° 8. lat Here 
 they entc' 'nto a treaty offensive and defen- 
 sive with ^^ Payaguas. . . . Tlie joined forces 
 of Albaias a Payiiguas had managed to extend 
 their territory m 167d down to 24° T 8. on the 
 eastern side of Paraguay river. . . . The Al- 
 baias were a very U\\\ and muscular race of 
 people. . . . The Payagua Indians, before and 
 up to, as well as after, the periixi of the con- 
 quest, were sailors, and domineered over the 
 river Paraguay. . . .The Guaicurus live<l on the 
 Chaco side of Paraguay river and subsisted en- 
 tirely by hunting. From the 1 .rl>arous custom 
 whJch tneir women had of iadiic ing abortion to 
 avoid the pain or trouble of child-oeuriug, they 
 became exterminated soon after the conquest. 
 . . . The Tobas, who have also the titles of 
 Natec<Et and Yncanaboite, were among the beat 
 fighter* of the Indians. They occupj the Gi-un 
 Chaco, chiefly on the banks of the river Virmejo, 
 and between that and the Pilcomayo. Ol these 
 there are some rec lins in the present dnv. . . . 
 The Mocovis are likewise stilt to be founti in tl-.e 
 Chaco. . . . The Abipoiies, who were also styltil 
 Ecusgina and Quiabenabaite, liveii in the Cbiucu, 
 so low down as 29° south. This was the tri' -> 
 with whom the Jesuits incorporated, when thiy 
 erected the city of ban Geronimo, in the Gnm 
 Chaco, and nearly oppuoile Goya, iu 174ti." — T. 
 J. Hutchin»on, The Parana, eA »-7.— "The AM 
 pones inhabit [In the 18th century] the provides 
 Clisco, the centre of all Paraguay! they have no 
 
AMERICAN ABORIOINSa 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIOINEa 
 
 filed abodes, nor mj boundarie*, except what 
 fear of their nelghboun baa establiahed. Tbejr 
 toam extemlvely in every dirrction, wheneT>!r 
 the opportunity of attadt'"^ their enemies, or 
 the necessity of avoiding thtm rei-^ers a Journey 
 advisable. The northern shore of the Rio Orande 
 or Bermejo, which the Indians call Iflati, was 
 their native land in th? hist century [the 17th]. 
 Thence they removed, to avoid the war carried 
 on against Chaco by the Spaniards . . . and, 
 migrating towards the south, toolc possession of 
 a valley formerly held by the Calchaquis. . . . 
 From what region their ancestors came there is 
 no room for conjecture. " — M. Dobrlzhoffer, Aect. 
 of the Abiponrt, t. 2, ch. 1. — "The Abipones are 
 In general above the middle stature, and of a 
 robust constitution. In summer they go quite 
 naked; but in winter cover themselves with 
 skir.5. . . . They paint themselves all over with 
 different colours."— Father Charlevoix, Hitt. of 
 Paraguay, bk. 7 (r. 1). 
 
 Also a The SUncard Natural Butorg (J. S. 
 Kingly, ed.), r. «,pp. 296-2C3.— 8e<; also, below: 
 
 Tl'PI.— GCARAJtl 
 
 Pampticoket. See above: Ai/joitquuN 
 Family. 
 Pano. See above: Andesiani. 
 Papacot. See below: Ptman Fault, and 
 
 PtJEBLOS. 
 
 Parawianai. See above: Cabibs asd TBKm 
 
 KiSDRKD. 
 
 Pascogoulaa. See above: Mcskbooeak 
 Family. 
 
 Pass<. See above: OccK OR Coco Qrocp. 
 
 Patagoniant and Fueffians. — " The Patago- 
 nians call themselves Chonek or Tzoueca, or 
 liiaken (men, people), and by their Pampean 
 neighlxirs are referred to as Tehuel-Che, southern- 
 ers. Tlicy do not, however, belong to the Au- 
 canian stock, nor do they resemble the I'ampeans 
 physically. They are celebrated for their staturr, 
 many of them reaching from six to six feet four 
 Inches In height, and built 'n proportioa In 
 color they are a rediiUIi brown, and UL j aquiline 
 noses and giKid foreheads. They care little for a 
 sedentary life, and roam the coast as far north as 
 the Rio N'egro. ... On the inhoepiuble shores 
 of Tierra del Fuego there dwell thr-5 nations of 
 diverse stock, but on almut the same plan . of 
 culture. One of those is the Yahgans, or Yapoos, 
 on the Beagle Canal ; the seconcT is the Onaa o' 
 Aonik, to the north and east of these; and tl 
 third the Aliculufs. to the north and west . . 
 The opinion has been advanceil by Dr Oeniker 
 of Paris, that the Fuegians represent the oldest 
 tvpe or variety of the American race. He be- 
 lieves that at one time this type occupied the 
 whole of South America south of the Amazon, 
 and that the Tapuyasof Brazil and the Fuegians 
 are its surviving members. This interesting 
 theory demands sHIi further eviaence before it 
 can be accepted. "- O. O. Brinton, The Ameriean 
 HMe, pp. 327-832. 
 
 Pawnee Family (named "Caddoan" by 
 Major Powell).— '•Th'( Pawnee Family, though 
 6<mie of its branches have long been known, 
 is perhaps in history and language one of the 
 least umlcrstood of the important tribes of the 
 «est. !n Isiith rpsprcts it seema to eonitltulu 
 a distinct group. During recent years its 
 extreme northern and southern branches have 
 fvlnce»l a tendency to blend with surrounding 
 Itocks; but the central branch, constituting the 
 
 Pawnee proper, maintains still in ita advanced 
 decadence a bold line of demarcation between 
 itself and all adjacent trilies. The members of 
 the famllv are: The Pawnees the Arikaras, the 
 Caddos, the Uuecos or Wacos, the Kecchies, tbe 
 Tawaconies, and tbe Pawnee PIcW or Wichltaa. 
 The laat five may be designated as the Southern 
 or Red River branches. At the date of tlie Louis- 
 iana purchase the Caddos were living about 40 
 miles northwest of where Shreveport now standi. 
 Five years earlier their residence was upon Clear 
 Lake, in what is now Caddo Parish. This spot 
 they claimed was the place of their nativity, and 
 their residence from time immemorial. . . . They 
 have a tradition that they ar the parent stock, 
 from which all the southern br, '^es nave sprung, 
 and to some extent this claioi has been recog- 
 nized. . . . The five [southern] Innds are now 
 all gathered upon a reserve secured for them in 
 the Indian Territory by the Oovenunent. . . . 
 In many respects, their method of building 
 lodges, their equestrianism, and certain social 
 ana tribal usages, they quite closely resemble the 
 Pawnees. Their connection, however, with the 
 Pawnee family, not till recently if ever mentioned, 
 is mainly a matter of vague conjecture. . . . The 
 name Pawnee is most probably derived from ' p&- 
 rlk-I,' a horn; and seems to have been once used 
 by the Pawnees themselves to designate their 
 peculiar scalp-lock. . From the fact that this waa 
 the moet noticeable feature in their costume, the 
 name came naturally to be tbe denominative term 
 of the tribe. The word in this use once prolmbly 
 embraced the Wichitas (I. e.. Pawnee Pictf) and 
 the Arikaras. . . . The true Pawnee territory 
 till as late as 1838 may be described as extending 
 from the Niobrara south to the Arkan.sas. They 
 frequently hunted considerably U'vond the Ax- 
 kansas; tradition says as far as the Canadian. 
 ... On the east they claimed to the Missouri, 
 though in eastern Nebraska, by a sort of tacit 
 permit, the Otoes, Poncas, and Omahas along 
 that stream occupied lands extending as far west 
 as tbe Elkhom. In Kansas, also, east of the Big 
 Blue, they had ceased to exercise any direct con- 
 trol, as several remnants of tribes, the Wyandots, 
 Delawares, Kickapoos, and lowas, had been set- 
 tled there and were living under the guardian- 
 ship of the United States. ... On the west their 
 grounds were marked by no natural boundary, 
 but may perhaps be described by a line drawn 
 from the mouth of Snake liiver on the Niobram 
 southwest to the North Platte, thence south to 
 the Arkansas. . . . It is not to be supposed, how- 
 ever, that they held altogether undisturbed pos- 
 session of this territory. On the north they wei« 
 incessantly harassed by various bands of tiie Da- 
 kotas, while upon the south the Osages, Coman- 
 ches, Cheyenncs, Arapuhoes and Kiowas (the last 
 three originally northern tribes) were equally re- 
 lentless in their hostility. ... In 1833 the Paw- 
 nees surrendered to the United States their claim 
 upon all the above descrilxid territorr Iving south 
 of the Platte. In 1838 all their reniaitiing terri- 
 tory was ceded, except a reserve 30 miles long 
 and 15 wide upon the Loup Fork of the Platte, 
 It* esstaru limit beginning at Beaver Creek. In 
 1874 they sold this tract and removed to a reserve 
 srrured for thcra by the (iuveruuieut in the In- 
 dian Territory, between the Arkansas and Cimar- 
 ron at their junction."— J. B. Uunbar, Th4 
 I'avnee Indiane {Mag. of Am. Uitt., April, 188% 
 
 105 
 
pffl 
 
 i M 
 
 ^ 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIOINE& 
 
 Atao IN O. B. GrinncII, Paunee Hero Stone*. 
 — D. O. Brinton, The American Race, pp. 95-97. 
 — .1. W. Powell, SereiM An. liept. of the Bureau 
 of EthnoUigy, p. 59. — Sec, iilso, above: ADAiHmul 
 
 BLArKFEET. 
 
 Payaguas. See nbovo: Pampas Thibeb. 
 
 Penuelchei, or Puelti. See aboru : Pampas 
 Triiiks. 
 
 Penacooks, or Pawtucket Indians. See 
 above: Aloonijiian Family. 
 
 Peoriaa. BtM'alMivi': Aloonqcian FAMtLT. 
 
 Pequots. See above: Aloonquian Family; 
 and below: Suawanksk; also. New Enouaku: 
 A. D. J637. 
 
 Piankishawt. See above : ALoo!n)Cl an Faji- 
 ILT, and Hai'h. >!cr. 
 
 Piegana. Heo above : Blackfeet. 
 
 Piman Family. — " Only a small portion of the 
 territory oceupii'd by tliis family is incliuled 
 witliin the Vuited States, the greater portion 
 being in Mexico, where it extends to the Uulf of 
 California. The familv is represented in the 
 United States by three tribes, Pima alta, 
 Bobaipuri, and Piipapi. The former have lived 
 for at least two centuries with the Mariropa on 
 the tiila KirerabiMit lOU miles from the mouth. 
 The Sobaipuri occupied the Santa Cruz and San 
 Pedro Kivers, triliularies of the Gila, but are no 
 longer known. The Papago territory is much 
 more exten.sive and extends to the south icross 
 the bonh'r." — J. W. Powell, Serenth Annual 
 Kept., Bureau of la/ino^jgy, pp. 98-99. — See 
 below: Pi EHI.08. 
 
 Pimenteiras. See above: Qcca OB Coco 
 Ohoi r. 
 
 Piru. Seentiove: AM>KSfAS«. 
 
 Pit River Indian >. See above : Moixx» (Ela- 
 
 ^ATIIS), Ac. 
 
 Piutes. See lulow : Siio«HO!(F.AS Family. 
 
 Pokanokets, or W mpanoa^s. See alnive : 
 ALoo.Mii IAN Family; also. New E.N<ii.ANi): 
 A. I>. 1874-1673; 1075; 1870-1678 (Kuiu PuiLir » 
 Wah). 
 
 Pcnkaa, or Puncat. Bee below: Sioian 
 Family: and above: l'AWNEE(CAI)IH>A.N)FA.MtLY. 
 
 Popolocas. .SvalKive: Ciiontals. 
 
 Pottawatomiet. See aliove: Aluoniji'IaM 
 Family, (Ijihha^ and Mais, 4c. 
 
 Powhatan Confederacy. — "At llie time of 
 the tlr^t hellli'iiiint by the Euro|H'anH, it has 
 been eHtiniatrd that there were nut more than 
 3U,(MN) IniiiaiiK within the limits of the Sute of 
 Virginia. Within a ciriiiit of 60 miles from 
 Jamestown. Ciiiilaln Snii.'i says then; were 
 about JS.tttMl wiida, and of tliese scarce L.^tK) were 
 warriors. The whole territory U'tween the 
 moiintaitiM and the wa was tHciipled by more 
 than 4" lrilif<, :W of wlioni were uuilcil In a con- 
 fi-ilerHcy iiiMhr I'lmhalan, whiwu domliiionn, 
 hereditary an I :u ijiilnd by conquest, compriMct 
 Ui« whol" iiiiin i> iH'twii'ii the rivers James and 
 Potoniai and > Meiiiled into tlie interior as far as 
 the fall:< of (he principal rivers. t'Hnipbell, in 
 bis History "( Mr^'iriia, slates the number of 
 Powlwlans Mi'ijicls til have lieen 8,000. Povi . 
 halan was a riiiiarkalile man ; a sort of savage 
 NHpoleoii, who, liy the fun i' of his character and 
 the miperiiiriiy oi bin taleiiis, had raided hiniMlf 
 from llic rank of a ihIIv eliieftnin lo something 
 of liniM'Hal dik'iiity and pnwir. He had twn 
 nUi,., .,f It!.. .:< . oiK •<<Ur,i i'i.ahitUii, v-UiiA- 
 nlehiiioiid now Mands. and the other at Wrrowo. 
 eontuvo, on thu uurtli side of York iUver, wilhlu 
 
 ]()0 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 the present county of Gloucester. . . , Besides 
 the largo confederacy of which Powhatan was 
 the chief, there were two others, with which 
 that was often at war. One of these, called the 
 Mannahoacs, consisted of eight tril)cs, ami occu- 
 pied the country between the liappahannoc 
 and York rivers; the other, consisting of five 
 tribes, was called the Monacaus, and was settled 
 iH'tween York and James rivers above the Falls. 
 There were also, in addition to these, many scat- 
 tering and independent tribes." — Q. S. Ilillard, 
 Life of Citpt. John Smith {Library of Am. Biog.), 
 eh. 4. — "The English invested savage life with 
 all the dignity of European courts. Powhatan 
 was styled 'King,' or 'Emperor,' bis principal 
 warriors were lords of the kingdom, his wives 
 were queens, his daughter was a ' princess,' 
 and bis cabins were his various seats of resi- 
 dence. ... In bis younger days Powhatan fasd 
 been a great warrior. Ilcreilitarily, he was the 
 chief or werowance of eight tribes; through con- 
 questhisdomlnionshadlKcnextend.-i'. . . , The 
 name of his nation and the Indian appellation of 
 the James Itiver was Powhatan. He himself 
 possessed several names." — E. Egglestou and 
 L. E. Seelye, I'ueahmta*, eh. 8. 
 
 Also in Capt John Smith, Deteription of Tir- 
 finia, and General Ilintorie of Va. {Arher'i 
 reprint of Woria, pp. Wi and MO). — See, also, 
 above: AxooN«jfi.\!( Family-. 
 
 Puans. See U'low : Siot.'AN Family. 
 
 Pueblos. — "The nonuomadic semi-civilized 
 town and agricultural peoples of New Mexico 
 and Arizona ... I call the Pueblos, or Towns- 
 pc'ople, from pueblo, town, population, people, 
 a name given by the Spanianis lo sui h inhabi- 
 tants of this region as were found, when first 
 discovered, permanently liK'ateil in comparatively 
 well-built towns. Strictly siM'aking. the term 
 Pueblos applies only to the' villagers s«-ttled along 
 the banks of the liio Urande del Norte and its 
 tributaries between latitudes W K' and W 
 30', und although the name is einplovcd as a 
 general appellation for this division, it will be 
 used, for tlie most part, otdv in its narrower and 
 popular Nense. In this iliviKJoii, besiiles the 
 before im nlloueil Pueblos pM|sr, are embraced 
 the Moquis, or villagers of eastern .Vrizoua, and 
 the mm iKunadic agnculturtdnal ions of the lower 
 (iiU river,— the Pimas, .Mari<-oim8, Papsgus, 
 and cognate tril)es. The conntry of the "Towiis. 
 people, If we may credit I.ieuieimiit Simi>s<in, 
 Is one of ' almost universal barrenness.' yet inter- 
 BjHrsi'd with fertile s|>ols; thai of the agrii ultural 
 nations, though dry, is more generally pro- 
 ductive. The fame of this so called civilizatinn 
 reached •Mexico at an early ilay . . . iiiixaggir 
 aled rumors of great cltiis to the north, whii li 
 prom I ted the expeditions of .Mario de .M/a in 
 I.ViW. of Coronailo in l.%40. and of 1;»|h jo lo !■>« 
 |1.'>h;>j. These adventurers vWteil llie north >ii 
 quest of the fabuh>us kingdoms of Oulvlrn, 
 'Tontontj'ac, Manita and others, in whii li griul 
 riches wen: said lo exist. The iianii' of cjtdvint 
 was aftcrwanis applied In tliriii to one or mi ro 
 of the pueblo cities. The imini' (ilsila. from 
 Cilsilo. Mexican hull. 'Ih>s l>i»oii. ' orwikt ox cf 
 New Mexico, wher- the Spanianis tirst encoun- 
 tenil bullalo, was given to seven of the lowni 
 which Were aflerwanis known as the ,s<!»in 
 
 t ilies ..f (iU.ia. itill lli.».l ot Ihe kiiiailln kii.<»u 
 
 at the pr M'ht day were mentioned in the n port* 
 u( Um ear(jr •xpeilitions by their pn sent uauiea 
 
 P. 
 
 H % 
 
AilERICAK ABORIGINES. 
 
 AMEMCAV ^BOMGINEa 
 
 . . . The towns of the Pueblos are eascntially 
 unique, and arc the dominant feature of these 
 aboriginala Some of them are situated in 
 valleys, others on mesas; sometimes they arc 
 planted on elevations almost inaccessible, reached 
 onlv by artificial grades, or by steps cut in the 
 solfd rock. Some of the towns are of an elli[>ti- 
 cal shape, while others are square, a town being 
 frequently but a block of buildings. Thus a 
 Pueblo consists of one or more squares, each 
 enclosed by thrt'C or four buildings of from 800 to 
 400 feet in length, and about 150 feet in width 
 at the base, and from two to seven stories of 
 from eight to nine feet each In height. , . . The 
 stories are built in a scries of gradations or re- 
 treating surfaces, decreasing in size as they rise, 
 thus forming a succession of terraces. In lome 
 of the towns these terraces are on both sides of 
 the building ; in others they face only towards 
 the outside ; while again in others they are on 
 the inside. These terraces are about six feet 
 wide, and extend around the three or four sides 
 of the wiuarc, forming a walk for the occupants 
 of the story resting upon It, and a roof for the 
 story liencath; so with the storiea above. As 
 there is no iimer communication with one another, 
 the only means of mounting to them is by ladders 
 which stand at convenient distances along the 
 scvenU rows of terraces, and they may be drawn 
 up at pleasure, thus cutting off all unwelcome 
 Intrusinn. The outside walls of one or more of 
 tlie lower stories are entirely solid, having no 
 openinirs of any kind, with the c-vcention of, in 
 some tiiwns, a few l<H)pholes. ... To enter the 
 nMtmson the ground HiHir fMm the outside, one 
 must mount the loilder to the first balcony or 
 tcrnKc, then descend through a trap door in the 
 tlocir liv another Imider on the inside. . . . The 
 sevcnif stories of these huge structure* are 
 dividt'd iiuo multltuilinous compartments of 
 greater or less si/.i', which are apportioned to the 
 scvirsd fumilk'S of the tribe " — H. H. BancMft, 
 X'ltirf tiiifetof the J'anJIe f^<itet, r. 1, eh. 5 — 
 "Tliire can be no doubt that Cibola Is to t)e 
 IcHiki'l for in New Mexico. . . . We cannot . . . 
 ri'fiisc ti) adopt the views of Oenerat Simpson 
 and '<! Mr W. \V. II. Davis, and to look at the 
 puebhiof Ziifilas occupying. If not the actuni 
 site, lit leant one of tile "sites within the tribal 
 area of the Sivrn ("Itles of I'lbola. Xor can wc 
 refuse to id.ntify Tuxjiyan with the Moqui dis- 
 trict, .mil Aeiico with Aeoma."— .V. F. Ban- 
 deller, Hint. Inlnnt. to Stiidia umitngth4 Stdentnry 
 Jiuli,ii,i of \. .tfcTiVw {l^ipfrt of the Airhavlog. 
 Init. '/Am.: Am. Srie*. r. I). 
 
 Alwi in ,I. H. Himpson, Th)i Itarrh nf Cony- 
 luulii —\^ II, .Morgan, Ihutet and Ilaiue-life nf 
 l^t Am. A^riffines ((hntributioni in A'. ,.l«i 
 mw-t'-m. T. 4), M. 6— F. 11. Cu.ihing, My 
 Ailniilnrctin Xufli(<'rtiliirg. t. 8-4). — The same, 
 fourl'i Annwl liriit. nfth* Hurrau of lilhn,'{.>qy 
 (I»W'.'-n:|i.;V..478-IW).-F, W. Hlackmar, «;m',iVA 
 Ihttitnlifiia nf Ihr SiHlhifett. eh. 10 — See. also. 
 Amkhica, Prriiintohic. and above: PiM.\!< 
 F.\jiii.v and Krrksan Family. 
 
 Pujunan Family. — ■ The following trilws 
 Win' |iliiied ill thi' group by Ijitlmm: Pujuni, 
 Si.iimiie. Tsaiimk of Hole, and the Cusliim of 
 H< hcMili mft. The name adopted for the funiily 
 i* the 11. Lino of n tfilw given ov Hale. This v.:U 
 "111' "f llie two races into which, upon the Infor- 
 matliin of Captain Sutter as derived by Mr 
 Dana, all the Sacramento tribei wets believed to 
 
 Pawnee (Caodoah) 
 CniLE: A. D. 1490- 
 
 PiocAX Family. 
 Pampas Tribes. 
 
 See 
 
 be divided. ' These races resembled one another 
 in every respect but language. ' . . . The tribes 
 of this family have Ix-en carefully studied by 
 Powers, to whom we are indebted for most all 
 we know of their distributiou. They occupied 
 the eastern bonk of the Sacramento in California, 
 beginning some 80 or 100 miles from Its mouth, 
 and extended northwani to within a short dis- 
 tance of Pit River."—,!. W. Powell, Serenth 
 Annual Sept., Bureau of Ethml'tgy, pp. 99-100. 
 
 Puncai, or Ponka*. See below: Siovan 
 Family; and above: 
 Family. 
 
 Puninuuidaii*. See 
 1724. 
 
 Quapawt. See below 
 
 Quelchet. Sec above 
 
 Querandis, or Pehuelchei, or Puelta. 
 above: Pampas Tribes. 
 
 Quiches.— Cakchiquels.— " Of the ancient 
 races of America, those which approached the 
 nearest to a civilized condition spoke related dia- 
 lects of a tongue, which from its principal mem- 
 bers has been called the Maya-Quiche lingidstio 
 stock. Even to-day, It is estimated that half a 
 million persons use these dialects. They are 
 scattered over Yucatan, Guatemala, and the adja- 
 cent territory, and one branch formerly occupied 
 the hot lowlands on the Gulf of Mexico, north 
 of Vera Cruz. The so-called ' metnipi'litan 'dia- 
 lects are those spoken relatively near the city of 
 Guatemala, anil include the" (akcliiiiuel, the 
 tjiilclie, the PokonchI and the Tzutuhill. They 
 arL- quite closely allied, and are miitiiully intelli- 
 gilile, resembling each otliiT alxiiit as much as did 
 in ancient Greece the Attic, Ionic and Doric dia- 
 lects. . . . The clvillztttloii of these people waa 
 such that they uscil viirious mnemonic signs, 
 approaching our alphalwt, to riinrd and recill 
 their mytliology and hL^tnry. Fragments, more 
 or less complete, of these traditions have been 
 preserved. The most notalile of them is the 
 national legend of the Quiihes of Guatemala, the 
 so-called I'opol Vuh. It was written at an un- 
 known date In the Quiche dialect, by a native 
 who was familiar with the ancient n'conls."— D. 
 O. Brinton, Uta j/t of an Amerininiat, p. 104. 
 
 Also in The some, .lri/i<i/» <)^M« Cai-eMmelt. 
 — H. 11. Bancroft, Xntire HaWt of the l\ieijie 
 State*, eh. 11. — See, also, above; MAYAa 
 
 Qulchnu. Sec I'KRr. 
 
 Quijo, Sec above ; Andesiass. 
 
 Quonttcan Family.— " The tribes occupy both 
 batiks of the lower Klamath from a raiige of 
 hills a little above Happy Camp to the jutirtlon 
 of the Trinity, and the Salmon Ulver from its 
 mouth to its sources. On the north. Quoratean 
 triliea extcndeil to the .\tliapaM'an territflry near 
 theOn-gonllne." — ,1. W, Powell. .SrivnM Annual 
 Rtpt, liiirrau of Kthni)l<xj<i, p. 101, 
 
 Rapid Indiant.~A luiine applied by varioua 
 writers til the ArapalnM'.'i, and ullier triln-s. 
 
 Raritant. See alnive; AinnxqiiAX Family. 
 
 Remo. See alHive: Amiksiws, 
 
 Rogue River lodiaoa.* See alxive: Modocs, 
 
 ETC. 
 
 Rucanai. See Perc, 
 
 Sabaja. Si-o above ; GfCK or Coto Groit. 
 
 Saci (Saukii, Foset, etc.— 'The Sauks or 
 
 H.-.i!kii» iWhitr. CUy'., anil Y'^%-=.~.T OntBgsm'r?. 
 Bocnilwl by the Europeans and .Vleoiikins, but 
 whose true name is Miuquakkiiik (Kid Clay), are 
 In fact but one natlun. The French miHtunarie* 
 
 •8«« Note, AcimnJia E, vul. t. 
 
 107 
 

 ' i 
 
 . tit 
 
 
 
 
 
 •l 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIQINEa 
 
 on coming flnt in contact with them, in the year 
 1863, at once found that they apolce the same lan- 
 guage, and that It differeu from the Algonkin, 
 though belonging to the same stock ; and also that 
 this language was common to the Kickapoos, 
 and to those Indians thev called Maskootens. This 
 lost nation, if it ever bad an existence as a dis- 
 tinct trll)e, has entirely disappeareil. But we arc 
 informed by Charlevoix, and Mr. Schoolcraft cor- 
 roborates the fact, that the word ' Hasrcmlenck ' 
 means a country without wikkIs, a prairie. The 
 name Maacontens was therefore used to designate 
 ■prairie Indians.' And it appears that they con- 
 sisted principally of Sauks and Kickapoos, with 
 an occasional mixture of Potowotamies and 
 Miamis, who probably came there to hunt the 
 BuiTalo. The country' assigned to those Slascon- 
 tcns lay south of the Fox River of Lake Michi- 
 
 San and west of Illinois River. . . . When first 
 iscovered, the Sauksand Foxes had their si ii» 
 toward the southeru extremity of Green Bay, on 
 Fox River, and generally farther east than the 
 country which they lately occijplcd. ... By the 
 treaty of 1804, the Sauks and Foxes ceded to the 
 United States all their lands east of . . . the 
 Mississippi. . . . The Kickapoo* by various 
 treaties, 1S09 to 1819, hiive also cedi'd all their 
 lands to the United t tc -. They claimed all the 
 country U'tween the Illinois River and the 
 Wubash, north of the pamllel of latitude passing 
 b^' tlie mouth of the Illinois and south of the 
 Kankakee Riv. . . . . The territory claimed by 
 the .^Ilaiiii» ni. > Pianlvisliaws may be generally 
 stated us lia\ inglxin Iwuniledeastwattlly by the 
 Maunwu River of Ijike Erie, and to have In- 
 clude<l all the country drained by the Wabash. 
 The Pianklsliaws occupied the country twrder- 
 ing on the Ohio."— A. Uallatin, Sf/nopni of tKe 
 Jrutiiin Trihet {Ai:-h,r.il,iyi,i Aiiuriaitui, r. 2), 
 ititrml, ttef. 2.— Tlie Mo-icontins, or Mascoutlns, 
 "w'Idiim ttp|H>ar alone, but almost always in 
 contiictiiin » itli their kindretl, the Uttagamies or 
 Foxi » and the Kick.ipoos, and like them bear a 
 cUanicter fur tnaclury and dect'lt. The thn-c 
 trllxs may have in earlier days formed the Fire- 
 Natiiiii [iif the early Kn'Ueli writers], but, as 
 Giillatln oliwrves in the Archn'oloiia Americana, 
 it is very doulitful wlutliir the ItUscoutins were 
 ever a (llslinet tribe. If this lie so, and there is 
 no ri'asiin to reject It, the disappearance of the 
 name nill nut lie strange," — J. G. Shea, liri^ 
 U<i>iirfhf% li'iijirf linn thr Miitf'tuliru (.SrhaUeritfVt 
 Iiif"rm.ilioH /{ftikrlii.y ImUnn Trihtt, }it. 4, p. 
 24."ii.— iSie alMive. Al.diivijii an Family.— For an 
 aci"iint of the Uluck Hawk War tux Illinois, 
 
 A. u i«a-,' 
 
 Sahaptmt. 8<t above: Xf.z Percics. 
 
 Salinan Family —This iianic is given by 
 Mal..r I'liwill til till' SiiM Antonio and San Miguel 
 dUliilK >4|iiikcn by twd trilK's on the Sniiiiiui 
 Rivir, .M.iiit.r.y C.Mmty. Califoniia. — J. W. 
 I'liwill, Snnth .'.ni,',.il 'lUi'irt. Ihin.tu vf Klh- 
 ««/.»/», V I"' — ^>|' I^-II.KNIAN Faiiii.v. 
 
 Saliihan Family. Sealmve: Flatiieads, 
 
 Sanhikans, or Minceet. tSee above: Aixum- 
 
 «JfHN FvMII.V. 
 
 Sans Arcs. S<h1h1(iw: Sioian Familt. 
 Santeei.* Si'e iH'liuv Mm am Family, 
 Sarcee iTinnehi.* SiealKn.-: BLACKtcer 
 Sastcan Famdy.— The single tribe upon the 
 
 L.....I, r ...i.j,.i. II..I.. i.-.-^.-i 1.1. .- - - 
 
 liKiiiid by him t.i ilie Miutliweslof tile l.utuanil 
 or Klamath tribts. . The former ttrrlUiry of 
 
 • Uit Nott, ApiwiiJiA K, v.,1. ft. log 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIOIXES. 
 
 the Sasteaa family Is the region drained by the 
 Klamath River and ita tributaries from the 
 western base of the Cascade range to the point 
 where the KUmath flows througii the ridge of 
 hills east of Happy Camp, which forms the 
 boundary between the Sastean and the Quoratean 
 families. In addition Ui this region of the Kht- 
 math, the Shasta extended over the Siskiyou 
 range northward as far as Ashland, Oregon.""— 
 J. W. Powell, Settnth Annual Jiepl., Bureau of 
 Ethndon, p. 106. 
 
 SaTmaiuUis. See above : AixjONqut an Familt. 
 
 Seminolet. — "The t»'rm 'senunole,' or 'IsU 
 Siman61e,' signifies 'separatish' or 'runaway,' 
 and as a tribal name points to the Indians who 
 left the Creek, especially the Lower Creek settle- 
 menU, for Florida, to live, hunt, anil fish there 
 in independence. The term does not mean ' wild,' 
 'savage,' as frequently stated ; if applied now in 
 this sense to animals, it is because of its original 
 meaning, ' what has become a runaway. ' . . . 
 The Seminoles of modem times arc a people 
 compounded of the following elements : separa- 
 tisU from the Lower Creek and Ilitcbiti towns; 
 remnants of_^ tribes partly civilized by the 
 Spaniards; Yamasst Indians, and some negroes. 
 . . . The Seminoles were always regarded as a 
 sort of outcaiu by the Creek tribes from which 
 they bad aecedea, and no doubt there were 
 reasons for this. . . . These Indians showed, like 
 the Creeks, hostile intentiuus towaMs the tliirteen 
 states during and after the Reyolullon, and cr 
 jointly with the Upper Crei'ks on Tall.ii-- .,1 
 river concluded a treaty of friemlship with the 
 Spanianis at Pensni la in May, 1784. Although 
 under Spanish contml, the Seminoles entereil into 
 hiwtilities with the Americans in 1703 and 1813. 
 In the latter year Payne miko [' King Payne' j 
 was killeil in a liattle at Alarhua, and his brother, 
 the influential Bowlegs, died sikiii after 'These 
 unruly triliea surpriseii and maannered American 
 settlers on the Satilla river. Georgia, in 1817, and 
 another conflict tx'gan. which terminated in tli« 
 destruction of the Mika.suki and Suwanec river 
 towns of the Seminoles by General Jackmin. in 
 Atiril, 1818. [See Flouiua: A. D. 1816-1818.) 
 After the ceasiim of Florida, and itslnrtiriHiretiim 
 Intothe American Unliin(l810). the Seminiiies gave 
 up all their l4'rrilory by tlie In'aty of Fort Mimltrle, 
 Sept. 18th, 18'i3, ri'celvinglne.xVhangegiHiiUaiiii 
 annuities. When tlic guvemmeut conrliiileil to 
 m<n-e these Indians west of the Mississippi river, 
 a tn'aty of a conditional charactir was con 
 eluded with them at Poyne's landing, in 1832 
 The larger portion were ri'iniiveil. but the more 
 stulilmm part dlssenletl. and thus gave origin to 
 one of the gravest confiiits wlilih ever isiurrrl 
 iH'tween Indians and whites. The Semituile \> 
 iH-gan with the niassaen' of Major Datlen ri>r. 
 mand near Wahoo swamp, IVcTmlier 2«lh. \xXt, 
 and ciintinueil with unabated fury for five .Man. 
 entailing an immense expenditure of mone'v uinl 
 lives, l,S,« Fl,i>Kll)A A. I», 1HI«V-I84!r) A 
 numliei of Creek warriors jiiln«l the hoatlh' 
 8emlii"li-< In 18;w. A census iif the Heniimln 
 taken in IMSi gave a population of 8.8W9. with 
 MtHI negroids lieloiiKliig to them The population 
 of tlw Seminoles In IIm- Indian Territory ainotinli H 
 U) 8,667 ill 1881. . . . TlH-n- are some Siniinoli- 
 now in Mexico, who went there with their negM 
 slivrs. ■ .\. S. Qathiul, .i ifii/rMi,.,, L:/,.„i ./ 
 IhtCrtrkJndiant.r. I. pi 1. s«<, a — " Ever ulnie 
 the am wttlemeut of Utesv ludlaui In Florida 
 
 i 
 
AMERICAN ABORIOntj!^. 
 
 they h»ve been engaged ta % itrife with the 
 whites. ... In the unaoimous judgment of 
 unprejudiced writers, the whites have ever been 
 in the wrong."— D. O. Brinton, Ab«e» on the 
 Floridian Penintula, p. 148.— "There were in 
 Florida, October 1, 1880, of tl>e Indians com- 
 monly known as Heminole, 208. They consti- 
 tuted 37 families, living In 23 camps, which were 
 gathered into five widely separated groups or 
 settlements. . . . This people our Ouvemment 
 has never been able to conciliate or to conquer. 
 . . . The Beminole have always lived within our 
 borders as aliens. It is only of late Tears, and 
 through natural necessities, that anj- friendly 
 intercourse of white man and Indian has lieen 
 secured. . . . The Indians have appropriated for 
 their service some of the products of European 
 civilization, such as weapons, implements, 
 domestic utensils, fabrics for clothing, &c. 
 Mentally, excepting a few religious ideas which 
 they received long ago fn)m the teaching of 
 Spanish missionaries, anil, in tho southern settle- 
 ments, excepting some few Spanish words, the 
 deminole have accepted and Appropriated prac- 
 tically nothing from tho whito man."--C. Mac- 
 Cauley, Tht SeminoU Indian* of Florida {Fifth 
 An. Rept. of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1883-84), 
 introd. and cK. 4. 
 
 Also ra J. T. Sprague, The Floriila War — 
 8. O. Drake, The Aiortffin-rl RaeaofX Am.. Ik. 
 4. eh. 6-21. — See, also, above: Muskboobas 
 Familt. 
 
 SenecMj their oame. — "IIow this name 
 ori>[inutrd Is a 'vcxata qusstio' among Indo- 
 antiijuarians and etymologists. The least plausi- 
 ble supposition is, that the name has any 
 refen-nce to the moralist Hencca. Some have 
 supposed it to be a corruption o' the Dutch term 
 for Vermillion, cincbar, or cinnabar, under the 
 assumption that the Henecas, being the most 
 warliltc of the Five Nations, used tliat pigment 
 more than the others, and thus gave origin to 
 the name. This hypothesis is supported Dy no 
 authority. . . . The name 'Scnnecas' first 
 appiiirs on a Dutch map of 1616, and again on 
 Jeiin (Ic Laet's map of 1633. ... It is claimed 
 by some that tho word may be derived from 
 'Sinnckox,' tho Algonquin name of a tribe of 
 Indians spoken of in Wassenaer's Histoty of 
 Europe, on the authority of Peter Barenti, who 
 lrad«i with them aljout tho year 1626. . 
 Without assuming to solve the mystery the 
 writer contents himself with giving some ' u. 
 which may possibly aid others in arriving • 
 ti'WMe coneluslnn. [Here follows a discussion 
 of the various forms of name by which tho 
 Henecas designated themselves and were known 
 t" the Hunins, fnmi whrm tho JesulU first 
 lieardof them.) Hy d^ol)pin^• the neuter pre- 
 liJt O, the national title became 'Nnn-do-wah- 
 Kiuih. ' or • The grvat hill people, ' as now used by 
 tlie Heneoas. ... If the name 8en«a can legitl 
 nmtely Ih- derive,! fn)m tlic Henera w,.nl • Nan ilo- 
 wuhgaah' . . . It ran only be done hv prefixing 
 '.Son.' as Has tho cuKtom of the Jesuits, «n<i 
 iln.pplng all unnecessary letters. It would then 
 I'lrr.i the word 'Ron non-iio-waga.' the first two 
 snd Isst syllables „f which. If the French soun.ls 
 of the letters ar»; given, arc almost identical In 
 I'riinunclation with Henera Tl'" 'h'"' d'lBcu'tv 
 i"|«ever, wonkl he In the disposal of the two 
 i"i;*rll.ious »yllabhMi. They may hare been 
 uroppcd ha the procesa of coutractiun so common 
 
 109 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 In the compoaltloD of Indian words— a result 
 which would be quite likely to occur to a Seneca 
 name, in its transmission through two other 
 languages, the Mohawk and the Dutch. The 
 foregoing queries and suggestions are thrown 
 out for what they are worth, in the absence of 
 any^ more reliable theory."— O. H. JIarshall, 
 HutoriealWntinge.p.m.-%tea.hove. Iroquou 
 ConrsDKRACY, andHuRONs, Ac. —See, also PoN- 
 TiAc'8 War, and for an account of Sullivan's ex- 
 pedition against the Senecas, see United States 
 o' Am. : A. D. 1779 (AfousT — Septembbh). 
 Slucaya. See above: An desians. 
 ShahaptiM Family. Sec above: Niz 
 PEBc£a 
 Shaataa. See above : Sabtkan Faxilt 
 Shawantae, Shawneci, or Shawanoea. — 
 Adjacent to the Lenape [or Dclawares — see 
 above], and associated with them in some of the 
 most notable passages of their history, dwelt the 
 Shawanoea, the Chaouanons of the French, a 
 trfbo of bold, roving, and adventurous spirit. 
 Their eccentric wanderings, their sudden appear- 
 ance! and disappearances, perplex the antiquary, 
 and defy research; but from various scattered 
 notices, we may gather that at an early period 
 they occupied the valley of the Ohio; that be- 
 coming embroiled with the Five Nations, they 
 shared tho defeat of the Andastes, and about the 
 year 1672 fled to escape destruction. Some found 
 an asvlum in the country of the Ix-napc, where 
 they lived ttnanta at will of the Five Nations; 
 otuers soujjht refuge in the Carollnas and 
 norida, where, true to their native Inatincta 
 they soon came to blows with the oTvners of the 
 soil. Again, turning northwards, they formed 
 new settlements in tho valley of the Ohio, where 
 they were now suffered to dwell in peace, and 
 where, at a later period, they were joined by 
 such of their brethren as bad found refuge 
 among the Lenape."— F. Parkman, The cJn-^ 
 epiraey of I^ntiaf. ch. l._"The Sluiwnees were 
 not found originally in Ohio, but mlgnitoil there 
 after 17S0. They were called Chaouanons by 
 the French snd Shawanoes by the English. The 
 English name Shawano changed to Shawanee 
 and recently to Shawnee. Chaouanou an<i 
 Shawano are obviously attempts to reiireseut the 
 same sound by tho orthography of the t«u re- 
 spective languages. . . . Much imlustry haa 
 been used by rei-rnt wriUTs, e«|)ecially bv Dr 
 Brinton, to trace this nomadic tribe to its original 
 home; but I think without sucicM. . . We 
 first find the Shawano in actual history about the 
 year 1660, anil living almig the runilwrlanil river 
 or the tiimlwrland and Tennessee. Among the 
 coniecluri'sastothelrcarlierhliitorv. the grc«n»t 
 probability lies for tho present wi'th the earliest 
 account — tho account given by Perrot. and ap- 
 parenllv obulneil by him from the Slmwanoes 
 thenutel.^s, alxiut tho year 1«H0 — that they 
 formeriy lived by the lower lakes, aiul were 
 driven thence by tho Five Nations "— M p 
 Force, S>nu Kitrlv \oliff* ofthf Iiuli'ifin pf Ohio 
 —"Their [the Shawnee's] dialect U nmre akin 
 to the Mohegan than to the Deluwar,'. and 
 when, In 16BJ, they first apjieanil in the area 
 of tho Eastern Algonkin I'onfeilerarv they 
 came as the friends and relatives of the" former 
 Tl>:y w<m ^(vi,!r,i Istr, f:„ir hxauU "- - 1*1, ,u» 
 proneriy Plkoweu, Mequachake, Kiscapokoke' 
 ChUicolhe. "Of these, that which setthil in 
 Fenaaylvaoia was the Plkoweu, who occupied 
 
 

 if 
 
 , i' m 
 
 ii 
 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIOINES. 
 
 •nd gave their name to the Pequa Taller In Lan- 
 caster county. According to ancient Mohcgan 
 tradition, the New England Pequods were mem- 
 bers of this band. " — D. O. Brinton, Tht Lenape 
 and their LegeruU, eh. 2. — The same, The 8ha\t- 
 neet and their Migralionii (Uitt. Stag., t. 10, 
 1886), — "The Shawanese, whose villages were on 
 the western bank [of the Susquehanna] came 
 Into the valley [of Wyominc] from their former 
 localities, at the 'forks of the Delaware' (the 
 junctinn of the Delaware and Lehigh, at Eostun), 
 to which point they hnd been induced at some 
 remote periotl to emigrate from their earlier 
 home, near the mouth of the river Waliasb, in 
 the 'Ohio region,' upon the Invitation of the 
 Delawares. 'This was Indhm diplomacy, for the 
 Delawarcs were desirous (not being upon the 
 most friendly terms with the Hlngos, or Six 
 Nations) to accumulate a force against those 
 powerful neighbors. But, as might be expected, 
 they did not long live in peace with their new 
 alllf. . . . The Shawanese [about 1*55, or soon 
 after] were driven out of the valley by their 
 more powerful neighbors, the Delawares, and 
 the condict which resulted in their leaving it 
 grew out of, or was precipitated by, a very 
 trifling incident. While the warriors of the 
 Delawares were engaged upon the mountains in a 
 hunting expedition, a number of S(iuan's or female 
 Indians from ilaughwauwame were gather- 
 ing wild fruits along the margin of tlie river 
 below the town, where they found a number of 
 Shawanese sq' ws and tlii'ir children, who hud 
 crosiieil the river in their canoi-s upon the same 
 busini'Sii. A child belonging to the Shawaiiise 
 having taken a large grasshopper, a quarrel arose 
 among the children fur the possession of it, in 
 which tlirir mothers soon took part. . . . 'The 
 quarrel became general. . . . Upon the return 
 of the warriors Ixjtli tribes prepared for batHe. 
 . . . The Shawanese . . . were not able to sus- 
 tain the conflict, and, after tlie loss of atM)Ut half 
 their tril)e, the rcmainiler were forced to flw lo 
 their own side of the river, shortly after whiih 
 Ihev ahiindiiued their town and removitl to the 
 Ohfo." This war betwwn the Delawares und 
 Bliawanese ha-s been calletl the flrasshopper War. 
 — L. H. Miner, The Yalltn of Wyimiiig. p. 82.— 
 See. also, above, Ai"'mqciA» Family, and Dela- 
 ware*.— See, alw, PoKTiAC's Wah; I'mtkd 
 States or Am. : A. D. ITeS-HeS; and (fur an 
 account of " L<ml Dunmnre's War") see Ohio 
 (Valley): A. I). 1774. 
 
 Shcepcatcrt (Tukuariki), Sec below: Siio- 
 RUoNKAN Family. 
 
 Sheyenne*. Sec al>ove . AixiongriAN Family. 
 
 Shosliooean Family, — "This iiiiiiiirtaut 
 family iMciipled a large part of the great Intiriur 
 basin of the United States. Upon the mirth 
 8h(»lii>nean tribes extendetl far into On'gnn. 
 meeting hhnliapllan territory <in about the Itth 
 parnlU 1 or along the Dlue Mountains. Upon the 
 DortlK'i^t the lastirn limits of the pristine Imlii- 
 tat of the Shuiiliiiuean tribes are unknown. Tlic 
 narrative of I^wis and Clarke contains the 
 cxplirit stnt< mint Unit the Shoshotd liands tu- 
 countiTed upi'n tlie .Ii'lTenum Uiver. wlmsi' nuni- 
 mer home was upon the head waters of the 
 Columbia, formerly lived within tlulr own 
 recolliitlon In the plains to the east of the lli«iy 
 Uotinlnms, wiience thiy were liriven I" liuir 
 mountain retri'ats l>y the Miunetaree (.\tslna), 
 who hiul obtained Ilreanus. , . . Luter a divl- 
 
 •:>»•• X"|p, A|>|H'ii.li« K, vi.l. }, 
 
 1 
 
 ^HERICAK ABORIOIXES. 
 
 sion of the Bannock held the finest portion of 
 Southwestern Montana, whence apparently they 
 were being pushed westward across the moun- 
 tains by Blackfeet. Upon the east the Tukuarika 
 or Sheepcatera held the Yellowstone Park 
 country, where they were bordered by the Siouan 
 territory, while the Washaki occupied south- 
 western Wyoming. Nearly the entire moun- 
 tainous part of Colorado was held by the several 
 bands of tho Ute, tlie eastern and southeastern 
 parts of the State being held respectively bv the 
 Arapaho and Cheyenne (Algonquian), anu the 
 Kaiowe (Kiowan). To the southeast the Ute 
 country included the northern drainage of the 
 San Juan, extending farther east a short dis- 
 tance into New Mexico. The Comanche divi- 
 sion of the family extended farther east than any 
 other. . . . BouVgcmoiit found ■ Comanche 
 tribe on the ui'iHT Kansas River in 1734. Accord- 
 ing to Pike Ilie Comanche territory bordered 
 the Kaiowe on the north, the former occupying 
 the head wai s of the Tpper Ited River, Arkan- 
 sas and Rio Oranoe. How far to the southward 
 Shoshonean tribes extended at this early period 
 Is not linown, though the evidence tends to show 
 that they raided far down intoTexaa, to the terri- 
 tory they have occupietl in more recent years, 
 viz., the extensive |ilains fnmi the Rocky Moun- 
 tains eastward into Indian Territory and Texas 
 to about 97°. Upon the south Shoshonean terri- 
 tory was limited generally by the Colorado 
 River . . . while the Tusayan (Moki) hod es- 
 tabllslied tlieir seven pueblos ... to tlie east of 
 the Colorwlo Chi(|uito. In the s ithwest Slio- 
 shonean tribes liad poshed across i ilifornia, w- 
 cupying a wide ban. country t< the Paciflc." 
 — J. W. Powell. .St ...,, Anninil Htpl., Hiireuu 
 of Ethnology, pp. 109-110.— "The Pah Utes oc- 
 cupy the greatiT paa of Nevada, and extend 
 southward. . . . The Pi Utes or Piutes inhabit 
 Western Utah, from Oregon to New Mexico. 
 . . . The Uosh Utes lUosuites] inhabit the coun. 
 try west of Great Salt Lake, and extend to the 
 Pah Utes." — II. II. Bancroft, Xatit* Hat f of 
 tht Paeijle Statu, t. 1, eh. 4. 
 
 Siktiua, or Sisikas. See above: Blackfeet. 
 
 Sionui Family. — Sioux,* — "The nations 
 which Break the Sioux language may be con- 
 sidcrc' In rttennco both to their reBwcllve 
 dialecu and to their gi-ogniphiejil position, as 
 consisting of fmir sulMllvislons, viz., tlie Winne 
 bagoes: the Sioux proper and t! !• AstiinllHiiiH. 
 the Mineture group: and the • iges and oilier 
 southern kindnil triU-s. The u innebagiHS, so 
 culled bv the .Mguiikins, but ealltnl Piiai!^ and 
 also Otcuagnis by the Friueli, and lloroje i Ilith- 
 eaters') by Hie Onuihaws and other soutliirn 
 tribes, call theniMives lltH'hungorab, or the 
 "Trout' nation. Tlie Ureen Hay of Lake .Mii lil- 
 gao derives its French name from theirs illiiyi' 
 lies Puans). . . . Acconiing to tlie War Depart 
 ment they amount [IKW] to 4.IXHI souls, ami up 
 pear to cultivate the soil to a coiiaiderabledi grti' 
 Their principal stnta are on the Fox lllvir i( 
 I^ke Michigan, und towards the bends of iIk 
 R«Kk River of the Mississippi. . . . The M.'.x 
 proper, or Niiudownuiiis, names given to ilum 
 by tile Algonkliis aiHl tlie Fri'nrh, callHieniwhcs 
 Dahcotas, aii<i sometimes 'Oihente Shakiwns 
 or the Seven Fires, and are divided Into wym 
 bands or tritirs. clowly connei ti^d togrliur. iui 
 apparently IndeiK'iident of each other. Thi y do 
 Dut appear tu hav« b««ii known to the FreuJi 
 
 
 
AXEBICAK ABORIOINES. 
 
 AM.?RICAK ABORIOINES. 
 
 before the year 1660. . . . The four moat eastern 
 tribes of the Dahcotas are known by the uam; 
 of the Hendewahkaiitoan, or 'Oens du Lar,' 
 Wabkpstoon and Wahk pakotoon, u' 'People 
 of the Leaves,' and Hisitoans. . . Ihe three 
 westerly tribes, the Yanktons, the Yanktonans, 
 and the Tetons, \.andcr between the Mississippi 
 and the Slissouri. . . . The Asslaiboins (Stune 
 Indians), as ( hey are called by the Algonkins, 
 are a Dalicota tribe separated from the rest oif 
 the natiim, and on that account called Hoha or 
 'Rebels,' by the other Sioux. Tliey arc said to 
 have made part originally of the Yainktons. . . . 
 Another tribe, called Sheyennes or Cheyennes, 
 were at no very remote period seated on the left 
 bank of the Red River of Lake Winnipek. . . . 
 Carver reckons them as one of the Sioux tribes; 
 and Mackenzie inform* us that they were drivru 
 uway by the Sioux. They now [1886] live on 
 the heailwaters of the river Sheyenne, a south- 
 western tributary of the Missouri. ... I have 
 bcin, however, assured by a well-informed person 
 wLu trades with them that they speak a distinct 
 language, for which there is no European inter- 
 preter. . . . The Minetares(MiuetarceandMinc- 
 taries) consist of three tribes, speaking three 
 diSerent languages, which belong to a common 
 stock. Its affinities with the Dahcota arc but 
 remote, but have a[ipearcd sufficient to entitle 
 tliem to be considered as of the same family. 
 Two of those tribes, the Mnndanvs, whose num- 
 ber d(H'S not exceed l.SOO, and the statiorary 
 Minetiires. amounting to 3,0(10 souls, including 
 those r.'illi'il Annahawas, cultivaU) the soil, and 
 live in villages situated on or near the Missouri, 
 between 47^ and 48" north latitude. . . . The 
 'thinl Minetare tribe, is tliat known by the nume 
 of the Crow or irpsaroka [or Absarokaj nution, 
 probalily the Kceheetsiis of Lewis and Clarke. 
 They iir'c an erratic tril>e, who hunt south of the 
 Missouri, between the Little Missouri and the 
 southeastern brunches of the Yellowstone River. 
 . . Tlie southern Sioux co.isist of eight tril>c8, 
 speaking four, or at most five, kindred dhilecta. 
 Tlicir territory originally extended along the 
 Mississippi, from oelow the mouth of tlio 
 Arkansas to the forty -Ant degree of north lati- 
 tude. . . . Their hunting grounds extend as far 
 west as the Stony Mountains: but they nil culti- 
 vate the soil, and the must westerly village on 
 the Missouri is in about 100* west longitude. 
 The three most westerly tribes are the Qua[>pas 
 nr ArkauHns. at the nmutb of the river of that 
 name, and tlie Umges and Kansas, who tnhabi 
 tlie eiiiiiiiry south of the Missouri and of tue 
 river K«ii!%ii«. , . . The Osages, properly Wau- 
 saslie, Wire more numerous •■' >l powerful than 
 any of llie neighbouring tribi ind per|K'tua!ly 
 at war with all the other It i, without ex- 
 npiing the KaiuMS, who « unie diuh'ct 
 
 with themselves. TheyW' iially divided 
 
 Into (Inat and Little ().<ui>; : aNiut furty 
 
 vears iii;ci ulmoNt one half ot nation, known 
 
 liy the name of Chaueera, or i iermont's bund, 
 *|i.irilr<l from tue r"ht, and removetl u> the 
 rinr .VrkansH. The villages of th<ise several 
 siiMi visions are now [IHSe] on the healnuters 
 of the river Osage, and of the Venllgri.s, a 
 iiorthiTn tributary stream of the Arkansa. They 
 amount toalHiut ".'i.tHIO souls, and have ceded a 
 jMriiiiii of liiiir ininis t<i the L'nitetl Mates, re- 
 nrvlug to themM'lvrs a territory on the Arkansa, 
 south of ^' north latlttuW, oxtsiMUng (rum 9V 
 
 11 
 
 to I00» west longitude, on a breadth of 4{> to SO 
 miles. Tlie territory allotted to the Cherokeea, 
 the Creeks and the Choctaws lies south of that of 
 the Osajj'c. . . . The Kansas, who have always 
 lived on the river of that name, have been at 
 peace with the Osage for the last thirty years, 
 and intermarry with them. They amount to 
 1,500 souls, and occupy a tract of tbout 8,000,000 
 acres. . . . The five other tribes of this sub- 
 division are the lownys, or Pahoja (Grey Snow), 
 the Missouris or Neojehe, the Ottoes, or Wah- 
 tootahtah, the Omahaws, or M^ias, and the 
 Puncaa. . . . All the nations speaking languages 
 belcUi^ing to the Qrca* Sirux jfamily may . . . 
 be computed at more than 50,000 souls." — A. 
 Gallatin, Sj/nnptig of t'^ Indian Trihtt (AreTtao- 
 logia Amei'cina, t. ':), net. 1. — "Owing to the 
 fact that 'Sioux' 1<, a word of reproach and 
 means snake tr enemy, the term has been dis- 
 carded by many later writers as a family designa- 
 tion, and ' Dakota, ' which signifies friend or 
 ally, has been employed in its stead. The 
 two worus arc, however, by no means prop- 
 erly synonymous. The term ' Sloui ' was used 
 by Galktin in a comprehensive or family 
 ».nse and was applied to all the tribes collec- 
 tively known to him to speak kindred dialects of 
 a widespread language. It is in this sense onljr, 
 as applied to the linguistic family, that the term 
 is here employed. "The term ' Dahcota ' (Dukota) 
 was correctly applied by Gallatin to the Dakota 
 tribes proper as distinguished from the other 
 members of the linguistic, family who are not 
 Dakotas in a tribal sense. The use of the term 
 with this signification should be perpetuated. 
 It Is only recently that a definite decision hai 
 been reached respecting the relationship of the 
 Catawba and Woccon. the latter an extinct tribe 
 known to have lieen liniruistically niated to the 
 Catawba. Gallatin thought that he was able to 
 discern some affinities of th: Catawbau language 
 with 'Muskhogce and even with Choctaw,' 
 though these were not sufficient to liidui-e him tn 
 class them togetU' r. Mr. Gatschet was the lirst 
 ♦o call attention to the presence in the Catawba 
 language of a considerable numlx>r of words 
 having a Siouan afflrity. Recently Mr. Dorsey 
 has mailc a criticu examination of all the 
 Catawba linguistic material available, which has 
 been materially increased by the labors of Mr. 
 Gatschet, and the result seems to justify its in- 
 clusion as one of the dialects of the widespread 
 Slojan family." The principal trilH's in the 
 Siouan Family named by Major Powi'U arc tlio 
 Dakota (Including Santoe, Slsseton, Walipeton, 
 Yankton, Yanktonnais, Teton, — the latter em- 
 bracing Hrule. Sans Arcs, Blackfi-et, Minnecon- 
 jou, Two Kettles, Ogu!ala, Uncpapa), AssiiialKilu, 
 Umaha, Ponca, Kaw, Osage, tjuapaw, Iowa, 
 Otoe, Missouri. Winnebago, .Mandaii, Oros Ven- 
 tres, Crow, Tutelo, lliloxi (see MfBKIIooK.vX 
 Famh.v). Catawba and W.iccon. — J. W. I'.. well, 
 a tenth Annual Hept. of the Bureau of Ethnulogy, 
 p. 113. 
 
 Aljio i!« J. O. Dorwy, \Hgrationt nf Simian 
 Trihrl {Af nnin A'lilu'riilint, r. iO. ifarrh). — 
 The same, i... «n' Itiili^nis -if I/t<iitiitn,t iV.P. 
 adilnuA.A.A S, 1898).— See. nliovr: HlIurSA. 
 
 Sitietobs. See aU.ve Sioian K.tMii.v. 
 
 Six Natlona. See above: Iiukjiuis Coh- 
 r«DBn,\cT. 
 
 SkittaKctan Family.— "A family design*- 
 tiou . . . retained (or the tribes of the tjueea 
 
 1 
 
' 
 
 i.i'M. 
 
 mi' 
 
 AKSPTCAN ABOniOINES. 
 
 Charlotte Archipelago 'which hare usually been 
 called Ilaida. From a comparison of the vocabu- 
 laries of tlie Haida language with others of the 
 neighboring Koluschan family, Dr. Franz Boas 
 is incHned to consider that the two are g''uetically 
 related. The two languages possess a consider- 
 able number of words in common, but a more 
 thorough investigation is reqnisi'e for the settlc- 
 
 ,ment of the question." — J. '■»'. Powell, tvxnth 
 
 {Annual Itrpt., Bureau of Ethm4ogy,p. 120. 
 
 ' Snakes. See alwve : SBOsnuxEAN Family. 
 
 I Stockbrid^e Indiana.—' ' The Stockbridgc In- 
 dians wen' originally a part of the Ilousiitaimuck 
 Tribe [Molicgans]. to whom the Ix'gislature of 
 JL-tesatlmsetts granted or secured a township 
 jafterward called Stockbridge] in the vnnr ITSi 
 Their numlxT was increased by Wapp! m and 
 Moliikanders, and perhaps also by lu au be- 
 longing to several other tribes, both of New 
 England and New York. Since their removal to 
 New Stockbridge and Brotherton, in the western 
 
 Sarts of New York, they have been joined by 
 [ohcgans and other Indians from East Connecti- 
 cut, and even from Rhode Island and Long 
 Island."— A. GalUtin, Sl/nopti* of Indian Tribei 
 [Arrhavlogta Amrriea.ia. t. 2), p. 85. 
 
 Also is A. Holmes, AnnaUofAm., 1/36 (t. 2). 
 — 8. O. Drake, Aboriginal Bacct, p. 15. 
 
 Susquehanna*, or Andastes, or Conestogat. 
 — " Dutch and Swedish writers speak of a tribe 
 called Minquas; . . . the French in Canada . . . 
 make frequent allusions to the Oandostoguis 
 (more brieHv Andast&i), a tribe frieu<lly to tliclr 
 allies, the Hiirons, and sturdy enemies of the 
 Iroquois ; later still Pennsylvania writers speak 
 of the Cipncstiigas, the tribe to which Logan be- 
 longed, and the tribe which perished at the 
 hands of the Pnxton boys. Although Gallatin 
 in his map, fullowed by Bancnjft, placed the 
 Andiistis n( • Ijxke Erie, my researcln-s led mo 
 to correct uds, and Identify "the Hu»(iMehannas, 
 3Iinqua, Ando^t^s or Oundastogiies, and Cones- 
 to^as as iK'ing all the same tribt', the firf.t name 
 bemjj apparently an appellation given them by 
 the \ irgiiiia triln-s; the second that given them 
 It the Algonquins on the Delaware; while Oan- 
 ilai.iiigue as the French, or Conestoga as the 
 English wrote It, wos tlieir own tril)al name, 
 meaning cablnpole men, Natio Perticarum, 
 from 'Andusta,' a cabin-pole. . . . Prior to 1000 
 the Sus(iuehaunas and the Mohawks . . . came 
 Into collisliin, and'tlio 8iis(|uehttnuas nearly ex- 
 terminated the Mohawks in a war whitli lasted 
 ten years." In 1847 they offeml their aid to the 
 llurons against the IriMiuols, having 1,'MiO war- 
 riors trained to the use of flreanns by thri'e 
 Swedish soliliirs; but the proposed alliance 
 fallid. During the third quarter of the 17th 
 century tiny wem to have been in almost con- 
 tinuous war with the Five Nations, imtil, in 
 1675, tliey wire completely overthrown. A 
 parly of almut 1(K) relnat<\l into .Maryland 
 oixt biianii' invi'lvdl there in a war with the 
 coloni^i.H mill Were de»ln>ye<l. '■'riie rent of 
 the trilK-, utii r making (jveVtutfs to l»nl Balti- 
 more, Kiitiniiitcd to the Kive Nations, and 
 were alliiwid to retain their ancient grounds. 
 When l'enii.sylvaiiia was settled, llii'y iH'canie 
 known as Coiieslogos, and were always friindly 
 to the r"l"ii!«!« "f Penn. ss thev had !;!■!■!! Ui the 
 Dutch and tSwedes. In 1701 CauixHlaniili, their 
 king, inaile a treaty with Penn, anil in the docu- 
 Blent they are stj'led MinquaS; Cdueatogoa, or 
 
 '.v. .\..lc, AplH n.h.x K, v„|.5. 
 
 112 
 
 AHERICAIT ABORIGINES. 
 
 Susquehantiaf. They appear as • tribe In a 
 treaty in 1748, but were dwindling away. lu 
 1763 the feeble remnant of the triSe became iu- 
 vlved in the general suspicion entertained by 
 -c colonists against the led men. arising out of 
 lassaeres on the borders. To escape danger the 
 poor creatures took re'uge in Lancaster jail, and 
 here they were all butchered by the Paxton boys, 
 who burst into the place. Parkman, in his Con- 
 spiracy of Pontiac, p. 414, details the sad story. 
 The lost interest of this unfortunate tribe centra 
 in Logan, the friend of the white man. whose 
 speech is so familiar to all, that we must regret 
 that it has not sustained the historical scrutiny of 
 Brantz ISajbt {Tafiga/{fuU ; or Logan and Cant. 
 Michael Crttap, Maryland Hitt. Soe., May. 1051 ; 
 an<f 8r). Albany, 1867). Logan was a Cones- 
 toga, in other words a Susquehanna."- >J. U. 
 Shea, yote 46 to Oeorge Altop't Character of the 
 Province of Maryland (Oowan'i Bibtiotheea Ameri- 
 tana, 6). — See, also, above : IiuMil'Ois CoNrco- 
 
 BRACT. 
 
 Tacbie*. See Texas: Thk abobioinal m- 
 
 DABITANT8 AKD TnG NAMI. 
 
 Tacullie*. Bee below: Athapascan Faxilt. 
 
 Taenaaa, See Natcheban Family. 
 
 Takilman Family.*— " This name was pro- 
 posed by Mr. Gatschet for a distinct language 
 spoken on the coast of Oregon about the lower 
 Itogue lUver."— J. W. Powell, SecentA Annual 
 ^pf-, Bufau of Ethnology, p. 121. 
 
 Talligewi. See above : Alleorans. 
 
 TaSoan Family. -"The tribes of this family 
 in the United States resided exclusively upon the 
 lUo Grande and its tributary valleys from about 
 33' to about 86°. "—J. W.Powclf, t^ixnth An- 
 nual liept.. Bureau of Ethnttlittry, p. 122. 
 
 Tappant. See above: ALnoKiiriAK Family. 
 
 Taranteena or Tarratinci. See above : Ab- 
 NAKls ; also, ALOONqi'i AN Family. 
 
 Tarascans.- " The Tarascaus, so called from 
 Tama, the name of a tribal goil, had tlie reputa- 
 tion of being the tallest and handsomest people 
 of SIcxico. They were the inhabitants of the 
 present State of .Mlehoacan. west of the valley of 
 Mexico. According to their oldest traditions, or 
 |)erhu|>s those of their neighlmrs, they had nii- 
 grattHi from the north In company w'th, or about 
 the same time as, the Aztecs. For some 300 
 years liefore the conipiest they had been a seden- 
 tar)-, Bemi-civiliired people, maintaining their in- 
 dependence, and progressing steadll> in culture. 
 When first encountered by the Spaniards they 
 wcri' quite equal and in some respects ahead of 
 the Nuhuas. . . . In their costume the Taraiicos 
 dlllered considerably from their neighbors. The 
 feather garments which they manufactured sur- 
 passed all others In durability and lieauty. C<it- 
 ton was, however, the usual material. " —D. (). 
 llrlnton, The Amrrimn Han, ;/. 136, 
 
 Tarumi, Sec above: CAKiua and their KiK- 
 
 DRICl). 
 
 Tecuna. See above : Oitk or Coco Ohoit. 
 Tebuel Che. See aliove: PATArio.NiANa 
 Telmelchei. See aliove: Pami'ah Tkiiie*. 
 Tcquestaa. SeelH'low: Timi'vi'ana.n Family. 
 Tctont. See above: Bioian Fa; ilv. 
 Ttntecai, or Tcnez. See lielow : Zapotccs, 
 
 ETC. 
 
 Timntjuanar Family, — The Tetjuestas. — 
 " Beginning at the southeast, we first mei't the 
 hisiiiric Timucua family, the tribes of which are 
 extinct at the present time. ... In the Itlth 
 
, — — - —---J. » Mw Av/uikttT*a were n 
 
 niipratory mople and a colluries gentium, whose 
 eirliist liabitat is unknown. Their flrat men- 
 ti»n occurs In 1719; at that time and ever since 
 they roamed In the western and southern parts 
 of what Is now Texas. "—J. W. Powell, Sntnlh 
 Anri'ial li-pt.. Bureau of Ethnology, p. 126. 
 
 Tontoi. See above: APACHBGnorp. 
 
 Toromonoi. See BoLniA: Aborioikal w- 
 
 nAllITANTB. 
 
 Totooacos. — "The first natives whom Cortes 
 mot on landing In Mexico were the Totonacos. 
 Till y occupii'd the territory of Totonlcapan, now 
 inclu(!c<l In tin- State of Vera Cruz. According 
 to traditions of their own, they had resided there 
 (<U0 vcars, moat of which time they were Inde- 
 ixndcnt, though a few generations before the 
 arrival of the .Spaniards tliev had been subjected 
 liy tlic arms of the JJonteiumaa . . . ftjiagun 
 diMTibes tliem as almost white in color, their 
 hfwk nrtilicially deformed, but their features 
 rpeulor and handsome. Robes of cotton lieaull- 
 fully (ly.-d Bcrved them for gannents, and Iheir 
 ii t Were covered with sandals. . These 
 
 peop],. were hijrhly civilized. Cempoalla, their 
 capital city, was situate about five miles fr^m the 
 S.-1, at t^he Junctirm of two streams. Its houses 
 v::f.- r., hrW'A asd mnrtar, and each Was cur- 
 rMinilcd by a small garden, at the toot of which 
 a Htnam of fresh wiiler was conductetl. . . 
 Thn ntllnitles of the Totonacos are ilifflcult to 
 m«t«'out, , . . Their language h»i many words 
 
 1 
 
 AlfERICATT ABORIOmsa 
 
 t 
 
 oentuiT the Ttmucua inhabited the northern 
 and middle portion of the peninsula of Florida, 
 and although their exact Umits to the north 
 are unknown, they held a pirtion of Florida 
 bordering on Georgia, and some of the coast 
 islands in the Atlantic ocean. , . , The people 
 ri'ceived its name from one of their TilUges called 
 Timagoa. . . , The name means 'lord,' 'ruler,' 
 'master' ('atimuca,' waited upon, 'muca,' by 
 servants, ' ati '), and the people's name is writ- 
 ten Atimuca early in the l»th century. . . , The 
 languages spoken by the Calusa and by the peo- 
 ple next in onier, the Tequesta, are unknown to 
 us. . . . llie Calusa held the southwestern ex- 
 tremity of Florida, and their tribal name is left 
 recorded in CalusahatchI, a river south of Tampa 
 bay. ... Of the T?questa people on the south- 
 eastern end of the jwninsula we know still less 
 than of the Calusa Indums. There was a tradi- 
 tion that they were the same people which held 
 the Bahama or Lucayo Islands."— A. 8. Oat- 
 schet, A Migration Legend of tAe Creek Indiant 
 t. 1, pt. 1. 
 
 Tinneh. See above : Athapascah FAim,T. 
 
 TiTitint*. See abore; CABisa ahd thbib 
 K»:dbed. 
 
 Tlascalani. Bee Mexico: A. D. 1519 (Junb 
 — October). 
 
 T'linketi. See above : Athapascan Pamilt. 
 
 Tobacco Nation. See above: Hcromb; and 
 iBoqidis Confederacy : Their name. 
 
 Tobat, See above: Pamp.vs TitiBEa 
 
 Toltect. Sec Mexico. Ancient. 
 
 Tonikan Family.— "The Tonika are known 
 to have occupied throe localities: First, on the 
 Lower Yaioo Uiver (1700) ; second, east shore of 
 Mississippi Kiver (about 1704); third, in Avoy- 
 elles Parish, I/)ui8iaua(1817). Near Marksville, 
 the countv seat of that parish, about twenty-flve 
 are now living."—.!. W. Powell, Seventh Annui:l 
 "'£!■ ^""'^^ of Ethmlo^,p. 12.5. 
 
 Tonkawan Family.- •'• The T6nkawa were a 
 
 AHERICAK ABORI'^mES. 
 
 from Maya rooto, but it has also many mora 
 from the Nahuatl."—D. G. Brinton, The Amtri- 
 can 'jtcf, p. 139. 
 
 Tukuarika. See above : 8HOiHONiiANFAirn.T. 
 
 Tupi.— Guarwii.— Tupnyaa.— "The first In- 
 dians with whom the Portuguese came in con- 
 Uct, on the discos ery of Brazil, called themselves 
 Tupinama, a u-rn derived by Bamhagcn from 
 Tupi and Mba, -^mething like warrior or noble- 
 man; by Slartiu. from Ti'pi and Anamba (rela- 
 Hve) with the signification 'belonging to the 
 Tupi tribe. ' These Tupi dwell on the east coast of 
 Brazil, and with their language the Portuguese 
 were soon familiar. It waa found especially ser- 
 viceable as a means of communication with other 
 tribes, and this led the Jesuiu hiter to develop it aa 
 much as possible, and introduce it as a universal 
 language of intercourse with the Savages. Thus 
 the ' lingua geral Brasilica ' arose, which must be 
 regarded aa a Tupi with a Portuguese pronun- 
 ciation. The result was a surprising one, for it 
 really succeeded in forming, for the tribes of 
 Brazil, divided in language, a universal mcani 
 of communication. Wthout doubt the wide ex 
 
 * -— -— — •™" ,-'■ " .v-wui, uvuuv but; wiue ex- 
 tent of the Tupi was very favorable, especiallr 
 rince on this side of the Andes, as far as th« 
 Caribbean Sea, the continent of South America 
 was overrun with Tupi hordes. . . . Von Mar- 
 tins has endeavored to trace their various migra- 
 tions and abodes, by which thev have acquh^ 
 s sort of ubiquity in tropical "South America. 
 ... This history . . . leads to the supposi- 
 tion that, had the discovery been delayed a few 
 centuries, the Tupi might have become the lord* 
 of eastern South America, and have spread a 
 higher culture over that region. The Tupi 
 family may be divided, according to their 
 fixed abodes, into the southern, nonhem,! 
 eastern, western, and central Tupi ; all these an 
 ngain divided into a number of smaller tribes. 
 The southern Tupi are usually called Ouarani 
 (warriors*, a name which the Jesuits first in- 
 troduced. It cann< t be determined from which 
 direction they cam. . The greatest number are 
 m Paraguay and the Argentine province of Cor- 
 rientes. The Jesuits brought them to a very 
 high degree of civilization. The eastern Tupi, 
 the real Tupinamba, arc scattered along the At- 
 lantic coast from St. Catherina Island to the 
 mouth of the Amazon. They are a verv weak 
 tribe. They snv thev came frotn the south and 
 west. The northern Tupi are a weak and widely 
 scattered remnant of a large tribe, and are now 
 in the p^>vlnco of Para, on the island of Maraio 
 and along both banks of the Amazon. . , , It 
 is somewhat doubtful if this peaceable tribe are 
 really Tupi. . . . The central Tupi live in 
 several irw hordes Iwtween the Tocantins and 
 Madeira. . . . Cutting off the heads of enemii< is 
 in vogue among them. , , . The Mundrucu , . o 
 esfH'cially the headhunting tribe. The western 
 Tupi all live in Bolivia. They are the onlv ouet 
 who came in contact « itli llio Inca empire, and 
 their character and manners show the iiilliienco 
 of this. Some are a picture of iilvllic ».Mvety 
 and patrianlial mildness."— rA* Sl'.indanl 'Xnt- 
 unit Ilti^l. i.r. S. Kingtie//, ed.) p. «, ;i/. 24S-349 
 —"In fre(|iient contlguitv with the Tiiiii< wai 
 uuoihcr su)«k, also widely rtlspera<'d I'l.rough 
 Brazil, callwi the Tupuyas. of whom the lloto- 
 cu'los in eastern Biazll are the mo.st promiuent 
 tribe. To them also belong the Oes nations, 
 south of the lower Amazon, and others. They 
 
 3 
 
AMEBICAN ABORIOINE& 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIOIXEa 
 
 ■re on a low grade of culture, going quite 
 naked, not cultiTating tiie soil, Ignorant of pot- 
 tery, and Willi poorly made cauoes. They are 
 doiichnccphalic, and must have inhabiteti the 
 country along time." — D. O. Brinton, Haetiand 
 Ptoplet, pp. 269-270. 
 
 Turiero, See above: Crtjchab. 
 
 Tttscaroraa. See above: lBu<)noia Cohtbd- 
 SRAcv, and Iboqcois Tribes or the Soctb. 
 
 Tntelocs. See above: Siouah Familt. 
 
 Twightwees, or Miamis. See above: Iixi- 
 
 IK>I8. 
 
 I Two Kettle*. See above : Siou an Fahilt. 
 I Uaupe. See above: OucK on Coco Oropp. 
 
 Uchean Family. — "The pristine homes of the 
 Tucbi are not now traceable with any degree of 
 certainty. The Yuehi are supposed to have 
 been visited by De Soto during his memorable 
 march, and the town of Cofltachiqul chronicled 
 by him, Is believed by many investigators to 
 have stood at Silver Bluff, on the left bank of 
 the Savannah, about 23 miles below Augusta. 
 If, as is supposed by some authorities, Coflta- 
 chiqui was a Yuchi town, this would locate the 
 Yuchi in a section which, when first known to the 
 whites, was occupied by the Shawnee. Later 
 the Y'ucbi appear to have lived somewhat farther 
 down the Savannah. "—J. W. Powell, Setmth 
 AnniuU Sept., Bureau cf Bthnotogy, p. 120. 
 
 Uhitchet. See above: Pampas TRiBBa. 
 
 IJirina. See above: Occk or Coco Qrodp. 
 
 Uncpapaa. See above: Siouan Family. 
 
 Upsarokat or Abiarokai, or Crowa. 8m 
 above: Siouam Family. 
 
 Utahs. See above: Sbosbonsan Family. 
 
 Wabenakiea, or Abnakia. See above : Abna- 
 
 ES. 
 
 Wacos, or Hnecoa. See above: Pawksb 
 (Cadi>ua>) Family. 
 
 Wahpetons. Sec above: Sioc an Family. 
 
 Waiilatpuan Family. — "Hale established 
 this f»mily and plueiHl under it the CaiUoux or 
 Cayuse or Willetpoos, and the Molule. Their 
 headquarters as indicated by Hale are the upper 
 part (if the Walla Walla Itfver and the country 
 about Mounts Hood and Vancouver."— J. W. 
 Powell, Sectnth Annual Report, Bureau of 
 Ethnology, p. 127. 
 
 Waikaa. See above: Carib8 and thkib 
 
 EiNIIKED. 
 
 Wakashan Family. — "The above family 
 name wiu baiivti upon a vocabular}- of the 
 Waku^ih Indians, who, according to Qallatin, 
 ' inlintiit the island on which Nootlia Sound Is 
 situated. "... The term ' Wakash ' for this 
 group of languages has since been generally 
 Ignurinl, and in Us place Xootka or Nootka- 
 Columbian has been adopted. . . . Though by 
 no means as appropriate a designation as could 
 be found, it seems clear that for the so-called 
 Wakahh, Newitt^'e. and other allied languages 
 lUsuallv assemuleii under the Kootka family, the 
 jterm Wakash of I!<<6 has priority and must be 
 retained. "—J. W. Powell, tktrnlh Annual Be- 
 fort, Uurtati of Ethnoln<iy.pp. 120-130. 
 
 Wampanoafs, or Pokaaoketa. See above: 
 
 PoKANOKETS. 
 
 Wapiiianaa. See above: Caribs and their 
 
 KiSDIlED. 
 
 Wappinfcra. See above : ALOosqinAii Fam- 
 aY. 
 Waraua. See above : CAJUBa and tbxibKik- 
 
 DBSO. 
 
 lU 
 
 Waabakia. See above: SRoaHONBAN Family. 
 
 Waahoan Family.— " This family is repre- 
 sented by a single well known tribe, whose range 
 extendea from Keno, on the line of the Central 
 PsQ^fic Railroad, to the lower end of Carson 
 Valley."— J. W. Powell, Seventh AnnuiU Be- 
 port. Bureau of Ethnology, p. 181. 
 
 Wichita*, or Pawnee Picta. See above: 
 Pawnee (Caodoan) Family. 
 
 Winnebagoe*. See above : Sioc an Family. 
 
 Wishoakan Family.-" This is a small and 
 obscure linguistic family and little is known con- 
 cerning the dialects composing it or of the tribes 
 which speak it. . . . The area occupied by the 
 tribes speaking dialects of this kuguage was the 
 coast from a Uttle below the mouth of Eel River 
 to a little north of Had River, including par- 
 ticularly the country about Humboldt Bay." — 
 J. W. Powell, SetetUh Annual Beport, Bureau of 
 Ethnology, p. 188. 
 
 Witnmka*. See above: Mubsboukan Fam- 
 ily. 
 
 Woccon*. Bee above: Siouan Family. 
 
 Wyandot*. See above: UuRONa 
 
 Yamasia and Yamacrawa. See above: 
 
 HCBKUOOEAN FAMILY. 
 
 Yamco. See above: ANOBSlANa 
 
 Yanan Family. — "The eastern boundary of 
 the Yanan territory Is formed by a nuiice 
 of mountains a little west of Lassen Butto 
 and terminating near Pit River; the northern 
 boundary by a line running from northeast to 
 southwest, passing near the northern side of 
 Round Mountain, three miles from Pit River. 
 The western boundary from Redding southward 
 is on an average 10 miles to the east of the 
 Sacramento. North of Redding it averages 
 double that distance or about 20 miles, " — J. W. 
 Powell, tiertnth Annual Beport, Bureau of 
 Ethnology, p. 135. 
 
 Yankton* and Yanktonnaia. See above: 
 SioCAN Family. 
 
 Yncas, or Incaa. See Pebc. 
 
 Yuchi. See atmve: Uchean Family. 
 
 Yuy^uanongo. Sec above : ANDESiANa 
 
 Yukian Family. — " Round Valley, California, 
 subsequently made a reservation to receive the 
 Yuki and other tribes, was formerly the cliit f 
 seat of the tribes of the family, but they also 
 extended across the mountaius to the coast "— .! 
 W. Powell. ,Sf«n<A Annual Btpvrt, Bureau if 
 Ethnology, p. 138. 
 
 Yuman Family.—" The center of distribution 
 of the tribes of this family is generally emi- 
 sideri'd to be the lower t'olorudo ani'i tiiU 
 Valleys." — J. W. Powell, Secenth Annual /.'»■ 
 port. Bureau of Ethnology, p. 137.— See alxivp: 
 Afache Qrocp. 
 
 Yuncaa. See Perc. 
 
 Yurok* or Euroc*. See above: Hoooca,<£c. 
 
 Zaporo. See above: ANDtsiANs. 
 
 Zapotecs, Mixtecs, Zoquea, Mixe*, etc — 
 "The greater jmrt of Usxaca IMexittij and llie 
 neiglil><>riug regions arc still occupied bv the 
 Ziipjtees, who call themselves Didja za. There 
 arc now alK>ut 2«.'5,OUO of tliem, aliout SO.OtJU uf 
 whom speak nothing but their native tongue. la 
 ancient times they constituted a power'al 
 independent state, the citizens of which si"-'!!! !0 
 liave been quite as highly civilized as any meiu- 
 ber of the Aztec family. They were agritul- 
 turol and sedentary, living in viUages uuj 
 constructing buUdiugt uf stone and mortar. TIm, 
 
 ^'k 
 
 k 
 
 i^^i 
 
AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 AMHON. 
 
 moit renurkable, but bj no means the only, 
 ■pecimeni of these still remaining are the ruins 
 of Mitla. . . . The MIztecs adjoined the 
 Zapocecs to the west, extending along the coast 
 of the Pacific to about the present port of 
 Acapuloa In culture they were equal to the 
 Zapotecs. . . . The mountain regions of the 
 isthmus of Tehuantepec and the adjacent portions 
 of the states of Chiapas and Oaiaca are the 
 habitats of the Zoques, Mixes, and allied tribes. 
 The early historians drew a terrible picture of 
 their ralor, savagery and cannibalism, which 
 reads more lilce tales to deter the Spaniards from 
 approaching their domains than truthful 
 accounts. However this may be, they have 
 been for hundreds of yean a peaceful, ignorant, 
 timid part of the population, homely, lazy and 
 drunken. . . . The faint traditions of these 
 peoples pointed to the South for their origia 
 . . . The Chinantecs inhabited Cbinantla, which 
 is a part of the state of Oaxaca. . . . The 
 Chinantecs bad been reduced by the Aztecs and 
 severely oppressed by them. Hence they 
 welcomed the Spaniards as deliverers. . . . Other 
 names by which they are mentioned are Tenez 
 and Teutecas. ... In speaking of the province 
 of Chiapas the historian Herrera informs us that 
 it derived its name from the pueblo so-called, 
 ' whose inhabitants were the most remarkable in 
 New Spain for their traits and inclinations.' 
 Ther bad early actjuired the art of horsemanship, 
 they were skillful m all kinds of music, excellent 
 painters, carried on a variety of arts, and were 
 withal very courteous to each other. One tra- 
 dition was that they had reached Chiapas from 
 Nicaragua. . . . Biit the more authentic legend 
 of the Chapas or Chapanecs, as they were pro- 
 perly called from their totemic bird' the Chapa, 
 the red macaw, recite<l that the whole stock 
 moved down from a northern latitude, following 
 down the Pacific coast until they came to 
 Soconusco, where they divided, one part enter- 
 ing the mountains of Chiapas, the other pro- 
 reeding on to Nicaragua. ' — D. O. Brinton, 
 The Aintriean Raet, pp. 140-146. 
 
 Also ix A. Bandelier, Rept. of Anhaological 
 Tour in Maico. 
 
 Zoqnts. — See above: Zapotecs, etc. 
 
 ZuBian Family.— " Derivation: From the 
 Cochiii term Suinyi, said to mean 'the people of 
 the long nails,' referring to the surgeons of Zulil 
 whii always wear some of their nails very long 
 (fushing)."— J. W. Powell, Setenth Annual 
 R(pi>rt, Bureau of Ethnotogy, p. 138. — See, 
 above, PriBLos; also, America- Preqibtoiuc. 
 
 AMERICAN CIVIL WAR. See Csited 
 Statks op Am. : a. D. 1860 (Novbmbeb— De- 
 CEMnERX and after.— Statistic* ol See same- 
 A. n 1H6.5 (Mat). 
 
 AMERICAN KNIGHTS, Order oC See 
 United States or Am. ; A. D. 1864 (October). 
 
 AMERICAN PARTY, The. See U.tiTED 
 Statf.s or Am. : A. D. 1*52 
 
 AMERICAN SYSTEM. Tha. See Tabiw 
 Leoislatios (Ukiteo States): A. D. 1816- 
 1 •*■,'». 
 
 AMHERST COLLEGE, Th« foundinr of. 
 hee hm'rATi4)N, MoDKR.s 
 .AMHERST'S CAMPAIGNS IN AMER- 
 ICA. See Canada (New Frasce): A. D. 1T58 
 lo 1760. 
 
 AMICITIJE. 
 
 AMIDA, Sicm oC— The ancient city of 
 Amida, now Diarbekr, on the right bank of the 
 Upper Tigris was thrice taken by the Persians 
 from the liomans, in the course of the long wars 
 between the two nations. In the first instance, 
 A. D. 3.59. it fell after a terrible siege of seventy- 
 three days, conducted by the Persian king Sapor 
 in person, and was given up lo pillage and 
 slaughter, the Roman commandt.-s crucified and 
 the few surviving inhabitants dragged to Persia 
 as slaves. The town was then abandonel by the 
 Persians, repeopled by the Romans and recovered 
 its nrisperity and strength, only to p!i.s.-i through 
 a similar experience again in .503 A. D.. when it 
 was besieged for eighty days by the Persian king 
 Kobad, carried by storm, and most of its inhabit- 
 ants slaughtered or ensUved. A century later, 
 K. D. 603, Cbosroes took Amida once more, but 
 with less violence.— O. Rawlinson, Seatnth Great 
 Oriental Monarthy. eh. 9, 19 and 24.— See, also, 
 Persia: A. D. 226-637. 
 
 AMIENS. — Ori^n of lume. See Beloje. 
 
 A. D. 1507.— Sorpriie by the Spaniardi.— 
 Rccorenr by Henry IV. See Fbasce: A- D. 
 159»-159t! 
 
 A. D. 1870.— Taken by the Germans. See 
 PkaSCE: a. D. 1870-1871. 
 
 See OuiLoa or Flakdibi. 
 
 AMIENS, The Misc ot See Oxford, Pro- 
 
 TISIOSS OF. 
 
 AMIENS, Treaty of ( i say 1.— Negotiated by 
 Cardinal W olsey, between llenry VIII. of Eng- 
 Und and Francis I. of France, cstabliibing an 
 alliance against the Emperor. Charles V. The 
 treaty was scaled and sworn to in the cathedral 
 church at Amiens. Aug. IS, 1.527. — J. S Brewer, 
 Heijn of Il'nry VIIL, t. 2, eh. 26 ami 38 
 
 AMIENS, Treaty of (tSoi). See Fraxoc: 
 A. D. 1801-1802. 
 
 AMIN AL, Caliph, A. D. !m-%\Z 
 
 AMIR. — An Arabian title, sijrnifviug chief or 
 ruler. ' 
 
 AMIRANTES. See M.iscarese Is- 
 
 LANDS. 
 
 AMISUS, Sieje of.— The siege of Amisus by 
 LuculliJa was one of the important operations of 
 the Third Mithridatic war. The city was 
 on the coast of the Black Sea, between 
 the rivers Halys and Lycu.'i: it is repre- 
 sented in site by the mollem town of Sam- 
 soon. Amisus. which was besi-ged in 73 B. C. 
 held out until the following yi ar. Tyrannio the 
 grammarian was among the'prisoners taken and 
 sent to Rome.— G. Long, Dtdii,* of tU lijman 
 ReixMie. r. 3, (h. 1 and 2. 
 
 AMMANN.— TIUs is the title of the Mayor or 
 President of the Swiss Communal Council or 
 Gemeindcrath. Sec SwrnERLASD : A. U 1848- 
 1890. 
 
 AMMON, The Temple and Oracle oC— The 
 Ammonium or Oasis of Ammon. in the Libyan 
 desert, which was visited by .\lex:»ndi'r the Great, 
 has been identified with the oasis now^ known as 
 the Oasis of Siwah. "The Oa»is <,i Siwah was 
 first visited and described bv Brown.' in 1792; 
 and i» identi;y with that of Ammon fully estab- 
 lisheil by Major Rennell (' Oeog. of Herodotus," 
 pp. .577-591). . . . The site of the celebrated 
 temple and oracle of Ammon was first discovered 
 by Jlr. HamiituD in 1868. " 'Its laraous oracle 
 was frequently visited by Greeks fn)m Gyrene, 
 aa well as from other pans of the Hellenic worid, 
 and it vied in reputation with those of Delphi 
 
 115 
 
AMMON. 
 
 AMPHIKTTONIC COCKCIL. 
 
 * i 
 
 and Dfxlona."— E. H. Bunbuiy, IIul. nf Ana'fnt 
 Qeog., ch «. ntet. 1, andth. 12, $ect. 1, and ru>te E. 
 — An rxjM .lition of SO.OOO men gent by Cninbyses 
 tc Amnion. B. C. BS5, is said to have perished in 
 tli3 desert, to tlie last man. See Eotpt: B. C. 
 835-3:tt. 
 
 AMMONITES, The.— According to the nnr- 
 rative in Genesis zlx: 80-89, ttie Ammonites 
 were descended from Ben-Ammi, aon of Lot's 
 ''lecond duuijliter, as the Moabites came from 
 Moab, the eldest daughter's son. The two people 
 are inucli assix'iatc*! in Biblical history. "It it 
 'hard to avoid the conclusion that, while Moab 
 was the settled and civilized half of the nation of 
 Lot, the Bene Ammon formed its predatory and 
 Bedouin scetion." — G. Grove, Diet, of the Bible. — 
 See Jews: Tue Eablt Hebbew History ; also, 
 
 AMMONITI. 8c( Florencr : A. D. laW. 
 AMNESTY PR'SCLAMATION. See 
 
 United St.\tks OP Am. A. D. 1868 (DECRMnER). 
 
 AMOOR, OR AMUR, The. Sec SinEHi.i. 
 
 AMORIAN DYNASTY, The. See Btzah- 
 inre Empire: A. U 820-1057. 
 
 AMORIAN WAR, The. — The Byzantine 
 Emperor, Theopliilus, in war with the Saracens, 
 took and destroyed, with peculiar animosity, the 
 town of Zapetra or Sozopetra, in Syria, which 
 happened to be the birthplace of tho reigning 
 caliph, Motassem, son of Uaroun Alraschid. The 
 caliph had condescended to intercede for the place, 
 and his enemy's conduct was personally insult- 
 ing to him, as well as attxiciously inhumane. To 
 avenge tlic outrage he invaded Asia Minor, A. D. 
 838, at the head of an enormous army, with the 
 speciiil purpose of destroying the birthplace of 
 Thcophilus. The unfortunate town which suf- 
 fered that distinction was Amoriuni in Phrygia, 
 , — wlieni'fc the ensuing war was called the Amorian 
 I War. Attempting to defend Amorium in the 
 'field, the Byznntines were hopelessly defeated, 
 and the doomed city was left to its fate. It made 
 an Iicn)ic resistance for flfty-flve days, and tho 
 siege is said to have ost the caliph 70,000 men. 
 But 111' entered the place at last with a merciless 
 sword, and left a heap of ruins for the monument 
 of his revenue— E. Gibbon, Decline ami t'aU of 
 the liatntin Empire, eh. 53. 
 
 AMORITES, The. — "The Hittites and 
 Amorites were . . . mingled together In the 
 mountiiiis of Palesti.".e iilte the two races wliirh 
 ethnologists tell us go to fora the modem Kelt. 
 But the Egyptian monuments teach us that they 
 were of very different origin and character. The 
 Hittites were a people with yellow skins and 
 'Mongoloid ' features, whose receding foreheads, 
 obliciue eyes, und protruding upper jaws, arc rep- 
 resenteii ns faithfully on their own monuments 
 as they .'ir>' on those of Egypt, so that we cannot 
 accuse the Egpytiiin artists of caricaturing their 
 enemies. If tlie Egyptians have made the Hit- 
 tites ugly, it was lieeause they were so in rr'ality. 
 The Anuirites, on the contrary, were a tall and 
 hand.some people. They arc depicted with 
 white skins. Iihie eyes, and reddish hair, all the 
 characteristics, in Met, of the white race. Mr. 
 Petrie p<jiiit8 out their resemblance to the Dar- 
 danians of Asia Minor, who form an inter- 
 mediate link between the white-skinned tribes of 
 theOrw'k !■-■•:;« and the fairmmpieTtionwi I,thy;in= 
 of Nortlieni Africa. The latter are still found in 
 largo numbers in the mountainous regions wiiieh 
 Kretcb eastward from Morocco, and are usually 
 
 known unong the French under the name of 
 Ksbyle*. The traveller who first meets with 
 them in Algeria cannot fail to be struck by their 
 likeness to a certaii. part of the population in the 
 British Isles. Their clear-white freckled skins. 
 their blue eyes, their golden-red hair and tail 
 stature, remind him of the fair Kelts of an Irish 
 village ; am' when we find that their skulls, which 
 are of the so-called dolichocephalic or 'long- 
 headed ' type, are the same as the skulls discov- 
 ered In the prehistoric cromlechs of the country 
 they still inhabit, we may conclude that they 
 represent the modem descendants of the white- 
 skinned Libyans of tlie Egyptian monuments. 
 In Palestine also we still come across representa- 
 tives of a faircomplexioned bliie-eyc(f race, iu 
 whom we may see the descendants of the ancient 
 Amorites, just as we see in the Kabyles the des 
 cendants of the ancleat Libyans. We know that 
 the Amorite type continued to exist in Judah long 
 after tlie Israclitisb conquest of Canaan. The 
 captlvei ti< ken from the southern cities of Judah 
 by Shidwk in the time of Kehoboam, and de- 
 picted by him upon the walls of the great temple 
 of Kamak, are people of Amorite i ngin. Their 
 'regular profile of sub-aquiline cast,' as Mr. 
 Tomkins describes it, their high cheek-bones and 
 martial expression, are the features of the Amor- 
 ites, and not of tho Jews. Tail- s of statuni 
 hasalways been a distinguishing —■acteristic of 
 the white race. Hence it was tl *, the .. .lakiin, 
 the An-orito inhabitants of Hebron, seemetl to 
 the Hebrew spies to be as giants, while they 
 themselves were but 'as grasshoppers' by tlie 
 side of them (Num. xiii : W). After the Israei- 
 itish invasion remnants of the Anakim were left 
 in Gaza and Gath and Ashkelon (Josh, xi: 2'2). 
 and in the time of David, Goliath of Gath and his 
 gigantic family were objects of dread to their 
 neighbors (2 Sam. xxi: 15-22). It is clear, then, 
 that the Amorites of Canaan belonged to tho 
 same white nice as the Liliyans of Northern Af- 
 rica, and like them preferred the mountains to 
 the hot plains and valleys below. The Libyans 
 themselves belonged to a race which can Iw 
 traced through the peninsula of Spain and tLe 
 westem side of France into the British Isles. 
 Now it iscnri>us tliat wherever this particular 
 branch of the white iice has extended it has bem 
 accompanied by a particular form of cromlech, 
 or sepulchral chamber built of large uncut stones. 
 . . . It has been necesaiiiy to enter at this len(;tli 
 Into wliat has been discovered concerning \\w 
 Amorites by recent research, in order to show 
 how carefully they should be distinguishc<l from 
 the Hittites with whom they afterwards inter- 
 mingled. They must liave been In possession of 
 Palestine long before t he Hittites arriveil there. 
 They extended over a much wider area."— A. II. 
 Sayce. The Jlif'ilft. rh 1. 
 
 AMPHIKTVONIC COUNCIL. — ".Vn 
 Amphiktyonic, or, more correctly, an Am phi k- 
 tionlc, body was an assembly of liit tribes who 
 dwelt around any famous temple, gathered t.i- 
 
 f ether to manage the affairs of that tiniple. 
 here wen- other Anijiliiktyonic Assembli s in 
 Greece [besides that of Uelplii], amongst » liih 
 that of the isle of Kalaureia, off the coas "f 
 Argcilis, was a b<Kiy of some celebrity. Tho 
 .•\iiij-hiktytin3of IVIphl nht.-iinri! grmief imp- ft- 
 anee than any other Amphiktyons only tieeiiuse 
 of the greater ImiKirtance of the Deljihic 
 sanctuary, and because it Incidentally bap- 
 
 6 
 
AMPHIKTYOinC COUNCIL 
 
 AMSTERDAM. 
 
 pened that the gmter part of the Greek na- 
 tion had some kind of n>presentation among 
 them. But tliat bodj could not be looked 
 upon as a perfect representation of the Oreek 
 nation wfaich, to postpione other objcctioni to its 
 constitution, found no place for so large a frac- 
 tion of the Hellenic body as the Arkadians. 
 Still the Amphiktyons of Delphi undoubtedly 
 came nearer than any other existing body to the 
 chancier of a general representation of all Greece. 
 It is therefore easy to understand how the relig- 
 ious functions of such a body might tnctdentairy 
 assume a political character. . . . Once or twice 
 then, in 'he course of Grecian history, we do 
 find the Amphiktyonic body acting with real 
 dignity in the name of united Greece. . . . 
 Though the list of members of the Council is 
 given with some slight Tariationa by different 
 authors, all agree In making the constituent 
 members of the union tribes and not cities. The 
 representatives of the Ionic and Doric races sat 
 and voted as single members, Me by side with 
 the representatives of petty peoples like the 
 Hagn^sians and PhthiOtic Achaiana. When the 
 Council was first formed, Dorians and lonians 
 were doubtless mere tribes of northern Greece, 
 and the prodigious development of the Doric and 
 Ionic races in after times made no difference in 
 us constitution. . . . The Amphiktyonic Coun- 
 cil was not eiaetlv a diplomatic congress, but it 
 was muc"" more like a diplomatic congress than 
 it was like tho governing asat^mbly of any com- 
 monwealth, kingdom, or federation. The Pyla- 
 goroi and Hleromn^ones were not exactly 
 Ambassadors, but they were much more like 
 Ambassadors than they were like members of a 
 British Parliament or even an American Congress. 
 . . . The nearest approach to the Amphik- 
 tvonic Council in modem times would be if the 
 Ciillege of Cardinals were to consist of members 
 chosen by the several Roman Catholic nations of 
 Europe and America. " — E. A. Freeman, Ilut of 
 Fidernl (fort.. t>. 1, eh. 8. 
 AMPHILOCHIANS, The. See Akarha- 
 
 KIANS. 
 
 AMPHIPOLIS.— This town in Macedonia, 
 occupying an Important situation on the eastern 
 bank of the river Strymon, just below a small 
 lake into which it widens near Its mouth, was 
 oriRinall v called • ' The Nine Ways. " and was the 
 soene of a horrible human sacrifice made by 
 Xerxes on bis march into Greece.— Thlrlwall, 
 //(»(. nf Oneff, eh. 15.— It was subsequently 
 taken by the Athenians, B. C. 437, and made 
 a capital city by them ["ee Athens: B. C. 
 44i)-437], dominating the surrounding district. Its 
 name being changeilto Amphipolis. During the 
 I'oioponncsian War (B. C. 424», the able Lacedie- 
 monian general, Brasidas, led a small army Into 
 .Maccdotiia and succeeded in capturing Amphl- 
 |iolis, which caused great dismay and dlacoutage- 
 niiiit at Athens. Thucydides, the historian, was 
 "lie of the generals held responsible for the dis- 
 a.<tcrand be was driven as a consequence into the 
 tirtimalc exile which pro<luced the composition 
 c'f his liistory. Two years later the Athenian 
 denmgoffue-lcader, Cleon, took command of an 
 cxpeiiiticn sent to recover Amphipolis and 
 otlicr poinu in Macedonli and Thraw, It was 
 ilististrously beaten and Cleon was killed, but 
 linisKias fell likewise in the battle. Whetlier 
 Atli'.'ns suffered more from her defeat than 
 bparu from her victory is a quesUon. — Thucy- 
 
 11 
 
 dldei, JIutoiy. **. 4, leet. 108-185. bk. n, leet. 1-11. 
 —See, also, Atiie.vs: B. C. 466-i.M, and Greece: 
 B. C. 424-431.- Amphipolis was taken by Philip 
 of Macedon, B. C. 8S8.— See Ouece: B. C 
 359-858. 
 
 AMPHISSA, Sieee uid Csptore by Philip 
 u -5';S?'?« *^- C. 33»-33»). See Oribce: 
 
 IS. C ooi-ooo. 
 
 AMPHITHEATRES, Roman "There 
 
 was hardly a town in the [Roman] empire which 
 had not an amphitheatre large enough to contain 
 vast multitudes of spectators. The savage ex- 
 citement of gladiatorial combats seems to have 
 been almost recessary to the Roman legionaries 
 in their short intervals of inaction, and was the 
 first recreation for which they provided in the 
 places where they were stationed. . . . Gladia- 
 torial combats were held from early times in the 
 Forum, aud wild beasU hunted in tlie Circus; 
 but until Curio built his celebrated double 
 theatre of wood, which could be made Into an 
 amphitheatre by turning the two semicircular 
 portions face to face, we b&ve no record of any 
 special building in the peculiar form afterwards 
 adopted. It may have been, therefore, that 
 Cuno's mechanical contrivance first suggested 
 the elliptical shape. . . . As specimens of archi- 
 tecture, the amphitheatres are more remarkable 
 for the mechanical skill and admirable adaptation 
 to their purpose displayed in them, than for any 
 beauty of shape or decoration. The hugest 
 of all, the Coliseum, was ill-proportioned and 
 unpieasing ia its lines when entire."— R Bum, 
 Some and the Campngna, introd. 
 
 AMPHORA.— MODIUS. — " The fRoman] 
 unit of capacity was th*- Amphora or Qua- 
 drantal, which contained a tublc foot . . . equal 
 to 5.687 imperial gallons, or 5 gallons, 3 quarts, 
 1 pint, a gills, nearly. Tlie Amphora was the 
 unit for both liquid and dry measures, but the 
 hitter was generally referred to the Modius, 
 which conuined one-third of an Amphora. . . . 
 The Culeus was equal to 20 Amphorae. "—W. 
 Ramsay, Manual of Roman ArUia., eh. 13. 
 AMRITSAR. SeeSiKUB. 
 AMSTERDAM: The rite of the city.— 
 " In 1205 a low and profitless marsh upon the 
 coast of Holhind, not far from the confines of 
 Utrecht, had been partially drained by a dam 
 raised upon the hitherto squandered stream of 
 the Amstel. Near this dam a few huta were 
 tenanted by poor men who earned a scanty live- 
 lihood by fishing In the Zuyder Sea; but so 
 uninviting seemed that barren and desolate spot, 
 that a century later Amstel-dam was still an 
 obscure seafaring town, or rather hamlet. Its 
 subsequent progress was more rapid. The spirit 
 of the land was stirring within it, and every por- 
 tion of it thrilled with new energy and Ufe. 
 Some of the fugitive artizans from Flanders saw 
 in the thriving village safety and peace, and 
 added what wealth they had, and, what was 
 better, their manufacturing intelligence and 
 skill, to the humlilc hamlet's store. Amsteldara 
 was early admitted to the fellowship of the 
 Hanse League; and. In 1842, having outgrown 
 its primary limits, required to be enlarged. For 
 this an expensive process, that of driving piles 
 into tlie swampy pkin, was necessary; and to 
 this circumstance, no doubt. It is owing that the 
 date of each successive enUrgcnient has been so 
 accurately reconled. "— W. T. McCullagh, Indut- 
 trial UMory of Thrtt Natioru, vol. 2, M. ». 
 
 I 
 
AXT. 
 
 ANABAPTISTS. 
 
 
 AMT.— AMTER. See Scasdwatian 
 Statm (DB!OiAn« — Icklasd): a. D. 1849- 
 1874; and the aame (Nobwat). A. D. 1814-1815. 
 
 AMUR, Rntiian Acquisition of the batia 
 of the. See Siberia. 
 
 AMURATH I. and II., Conqneete ot Bee 
 TUBBS : A. D. 18(10-1389, and 1402-1451. 
 
 MnCLM, The Silence ot— Amrcls waa 
 the chief city of Laconia while that district ot 
 Peloponnesus was occupied by the Aclupans, 
 before the Doric invasion and before the rise of 
 Sparta. It maintained its Independence against 
 the Doric Spartans for a long period, but suc- 
 cumbed at length under circumstames which 
 gave rise to a proverbial saying among the 
 Ureeks concerning "the silence of Amyds." 
 " The peace of A inycls, we are told, had been 
 so often disturbed by false alarms of the 
 enemy's approach, that at length a law was 
 passed forbidding such reports, and the silent 
 city was taken by surprise. " — C. Thirlwall, 
 Birt. ofOreeee, eh. 7. 
 
 AMYTHAONIDAC, The. See Arckw.— Ab- 
 
 OOLIB. 
 
 AN, The City of. See On. 
 ANABAPTISTS OF MONSTER.— 
 
 "MQnster is a town in Westphalia, the seat of a 
 bishop, walled round, with a noble cathedral and 
 many churches; but there is one peculiaritv 
 about MQnster that distinguishes it from all 
 other old Ocrman towns; it has nut one old 
 church spire in it. Once it had a great many. 
 How comes it that It now bos none? In MQnster 
 lived a draper, Knipperdolling by name, who 
 was much excited over the doctrines of Luther, 
 and he gathered many people in his bouse, and 
 8[)oke to them bitter wonls against the Pope, the 
 bishops, and the clej^. The bishop at this 
 time was Francis of Waldeck, a man much in- 
 clined himself to Lutheranism ; indeed, later, be 
 proposed to suppress Catholicism in the diocese, 
 as he wanted to seize on it and appropriate it as 
 a possession to his family. Moreover, in 1544, 
 he joiueii the Protestant princes in a league 
 agamst the Catholics ; but he did not want things 
 to move too fast, lest he should not be able to se- 
 cure the wealthy See as personal property. 
 Knipperdolling got a young priest, na'ned '^•-•t- 
 mann, to preach in one of the chutiacsaj, > .^t 
 the errors of Catholicism, and he was a man of 
 such fiery eloquence that he stirred up a mob 
 which rushed through the town, wrecking the 
 churches. The mob became daily more daring 
 and threatening. They drove the priests out of 
 the town, and some of the wealthy citizens fled, 
 not knowing what would follow. The bijhop 
 would have yielded to all the religious Innova- 
 tions if the rioters hod not threatened his tem- 
 poral position and revenue. In lUSi the pastor, 
 Rottmann, began to preach against the baptism 
 of infants. Luther wrote to him remonstrating, 
 but in vain. The bishop was not in the town ; 
 he waa at Mindcn. of which Sec he was bishop as 
 well. Finding that the town was In the hands 
 of Knippenlolling and Rottmann. who were con- 
 fiscating the goods of the churches, and exclud- 
 ing those who would not agn>e with their opin- 
 ions, the tiitihnp a<lvanced to the place at the 
 hcaci of anme soldiers. Mnnstvr cIowhI Its gates 
 against him. Negotiations were entered into; 
 the Landgrave of Hesse was called in as pacifica- 
 tor, and articles of agreement wore drawn up 
 and signed. Some of tlie churches were given 
 
 to the Lutherans, but the Cathedral wis reserved 
 for the Catholics, and the Lutherans weie for- 
 bidden to molest the latter, and disturb their re- 
 ligious services. The news of the conveislon of 
 the city of Monster to the gospel spread, and 
 strangers came to it from all parts. Among 
 these was a tailor of Leyden, called John Becker 
 son. Rottmann now threw up bis Lutheranism 
 and proclaimed himself oppowd to many of the 
 doctrines «Mch Luther still retained. Amongst 
 other things be rejected was infant baotisin. 
 This creat^ a split among the reformed in MQns- 
 ter, and the disorders broke out afresh. The 
 mob now fell on the cathedral and drove the 
 Catholics from it, and would not permit them to 
 worship in It. They also Invaded the Luthenin 
 churches, and filled them with uproar. On the 
 evening of January 28, 1534, the Anabaptists 
 stretched chains across the streets, assembled in 
 armed bands, closed thegates and phkced senti- 
 nels in all directions. When day dawned there 
 appeared suddenly two men dressed like Proph- 
 ets, with long ragged beards and flowing man- 
 tles, staff In hand, who paced through tlie streets 
 solemnly in the midst of the crowd, wlio bowed 
 before them and saluted them as Enoch and 
 Ellas. These men were John Bockelson, the 
 tailor, and one John Mattheson, head of the Ana- 
 baptists of Holland. Knipperdolling at once as- 
 sociated himself with them, and shortly the 
 place was a scene of the wildest ecstacies. Mm 
 and women ran about the streets screaming ana 
 leaping, and crying out that they saw visions of 
 angels with swords drawn urging them on to the 
 extermination of Lutherans and Catholics alike. 
 . . . A great number of citizens were driven out, 
 on a bitter day, when the land waa covered with 
 snow. Those who lagged were beaten; those 
 who were sick were carried to the market- place 
 and re-baptized by Rottmann. . . . This was t<x> 
 much to be borne. The bishop raised an army 
 and marclied against the city. Thus began a 
 siege which was to last sixteen months, during 
 which a multitude of untrained fanatics, com- 
 manded by a Dutch tailor, held out against a 
 numerous and well-armed force. Thenceforth 
 the city was ruled by divine revelations, or 
 rathet. bv tlie crazes of the diseased brains ot 
 the prophets. One day tliey declared that all 
 the otScers and magistrates were to be turncJ 
 out of their offices, and men nominated by them- 
 selves were to take their places; another day 
 Mattheson said it was revealed to him that 
 every book in the town except the Bible was to 
 be destroyed ; accordingly all the archives sd'I 
 libraries wire collected in the marketplace nnct 
 burnt. Then it was revealed to him that all the 
 spires Were to be pulle<l down; so the church 
 towers were reduced to stumps, from which the 
 enemy could be watched and whence canima 
 cou..' nlay on them. One day he declared be 
 had bet., ordered by Heaven to go forth, with 
 
 Sromise of victory, against the besiegers. He 
 ashed forth at the head of a hirge banil. but nu 
 surrounded and he and his band slain. The 
 death of Matthes<m struck dismay into the 
 hearts of the Anabaptists, but John Biickel»>a 
 took advantage of the moment to establish him- 
 self as head. He declared that It was revc?!.-d 
 to him that Mattheson had been killed because be 
 bad dlsoI)eyed the heavenly command, ^vhich 
 was to go furtli :v|th few. Instead of lli»t be 
 had gone with many. Bockelson said he had 
 
 118 
 
 1 ♦! ■ 
 
 n 
 
 m 
 
ANABAPTISTa 
 
 been ordered In vbion to marry Mtttheion'i 
 widow and auume his place. It waa further re- 
 vealed to him that MQnster waa to be the 
 beaTenlr Zion, the capital of the earth, and be 
 was to be king over it. . . . Then he had an- 
 other revelation that every man was to have as 
 many wives as he lilied, and he gave himself 
 sixteen wives. This was too outrageous for 
 some to endure, and a plot waa formed against 
 him by a blaclcsmith and about 800 of the more 
 reiipecteMi' citizens, but it was frustrated and 
 led to tli<- siezure of the conspirators and the 
 execution of a number of them. ... At last, 
 on midsummer eve, 1536, after a siege of sixteen 
 months, the city was taken. Several of the 
 citizens, unable longer to endure the tyranny, 
 cruelty and abominations committed by the king, 
 helped the soldiers of the prince-bishop to cliinb 
 the walls, open the gates, and surprise the city. 
 A desperate hand-to-hand fight ensued: the 
 streets ran with blood. John ^kelson, instead 
 of leading his people, hid himself, but was 
 CRUglit. So was Knipperdolling. When the 
 place was in his hands the prince-bishop entered. 
 John of Leyden and Knippierdolling were cruelly 
 tortured, their flesh plucked off with red-hot 
 
 Einccrs, and *''en a dagger waa thrust into their 
 earts. Fir . their Dodies were hung in iron 
 cages to the vof athurch in MOnstcr. Thus 
 ended this ; ous drama, which produced an 
 indesorib.ible effect throughout Germany. Mons- 
 ter, after this, in spite of the desire of the prince- 
 bishop to establUh LutheranUm, revened to 
 Catholicism, and remains Catholic to this day." 
 — S. Baring-Qould, Tht Stury of Oermany, eh. 
 86. 
 
 Also rs : L. von Ranke, Hint, of the Beforma- 
 tinti in Orrmany, bk. 6, eh. 9 (s. 3). —C. Beard 
 The Uiformatim (Ilihbert Ijert»., 1883) ' 
 
 AN/ESTHETICS, The diicoTerr of. 
 See Medical 8cik>xe: 19th Century. 
 
 ANAHUAC— '• The word Anahuac signifies 
 ■ near the water ' It was, probably, first applied 
 to the country around the lakes in the Mexican 
 Valley, and gradually extended to the remoter 
 regions occupied by the Aztecs, and the other 
 senncivilized races. Or, possibly, the name 
 may have been intended, as Veytia suggests 
 (Hist. Antio , lib. 1, cap. 1), to denote the land 
 betwotn the waters of x\\v Atlantic and Pacific." 
 — \V. H. I'rescott, Vonquntuf Mexico, bk. 1, eh. 1 
 noU 11— 8ee Mexico: A. D. 1325-1503. 
 
 ANAKIM, The. See Hohites, and Amob- 
 rrEa 
 
 ANAKTOaiUU. SeeKoRKTBA. 
 
 ANAPA: A. D. iSaS.— Siege and Capture. 
 - Cession to Russia. See Tirks: A. D. 1886- 
 18i9. 
 
 ANARCHISTS.— "The anarehUU are . . 
 a small but determined band. . . . Although 
 their programme may bo found almost word for 
 won! in Proudhon, they profess to follow more 
 closelv Bakounine, the Russian nihilist, who sep- 
 araUMi himself from Marx and the Internationals 
 anil formed secret societies in Spain, Switzerland 
 Fnincc, and elsewhere, and thus piopao-ated 
 nihilistic views; for anarohy and n!U!'i« i are 
 pn^tt/ much one and the sane thbt ■ en 
 nihilism is undrrstoo.} in t! :- !dei.:i .icier 
 WDse, which does not incluue. as it does 
 In a larger and more mo<'<- . sense 
 tli<)9e who are simply poUtical and Cu....itutlonBl 
 reformers. Like prince Krapotkine, Bakounine 
 
 119 
 
 ANCHORITES. 
 
 OMM of an old and prominent Russian famflr: 
 like him, he revolted against the cruelties anj 
 Injiistices he saw about h'm; like him, be de- 
 spaired of peaceful reform, and concluded that no 
 great improvement could be expected until all 
 our present political, economic, and social insti- 
 tutions were so thoroughly demolished that of the 
 old structure not one stone should be left on 
 another. Out of the ruins a regenerated world 
 might arise. We must be purged as by fire. 
 Uke all anarehiaU and true nihilists, he waa a 
 thorough pessimist, as far as our present manner 
 of life waa concerned. Reaction against conser 
 vrtisna carried him very far. He wished to 
 abolish private property, state, and inheritance. 
 Equality is to be carried so far that all must wear 
 the same kind of clothing, no difference beUig 
 made even for sex. Religion is an aberration of 
 the brain, and should be abolished. Fire, dyna- 
 mite, and assassination are approved of by at 
 least a large number of the party. T^ -y are 
 brave men, and fight for their faith with the 
 devotion of martyrs. Imprisonment and death 
 are counted but as rewards. . . . Forty-seven 
 anarchisu signed a declaration of principles, 
 which was read by one of their number at their 
 trial at Lyons. ... "We wfah liberty [they 
 declared] and we believe its existence incom- 
 patible with the existence of any power what- 
 soever, whatever ite origin and form — \rhether 
 It be selected or imposed, monarchical or repub- 
 lican — whether inspired by divine right or by 
 popular right, by anointment or universal surf- 
 rage. . . . The best governments are the worst. 
 The substitution, in a word, in human relations of 
 free contract iwrpctuall v rcvisable and dissoluble 
 is our ideal. •'•-U T. £ly, Prtneh mui Oemutn 
 Soeialum in Modern Timet, eh. 8.— "In anarchism 
 we have the extreme antithesis of socialism and 
 communism. The socialist desires so to extend 
 the sphere of the state that it shall embrace all 
 the more important concerns of life. The com- 
 munist, at least of the older school, would make 
 the sway of authority and the routine which fol- 
 lows 1 herefrom universal. The anarchist, on the 
 other hand, would banish all forms of authority 
 and have only a system of the most perfect lib- 
 erty. The anarchist is an extreme individual- 
 ist .. . Anarchism, as a social theory, was first 
 elaborately formulated bv Proudhon. In the 
 first part of his work, nVhat is Proprrty V he 
 briefly stated the doctrine and gave it the name 
 'anarchy, ' absence of a master or sovereign. . . 
 About 13 years before Proudhon published his 
 views, Josiah Warren reached similar conclusions 
 In America."— II. L. Osgood, Seientifle Anareh- 
 itm (Pil. Set. Quart., M,ir., 1SN9), ;,;,. 1-8.— See, 
 also. Nihilism, and Social Movements 
 
 ANARCHISTS, The Chicago. See Cm- 
 CAOO: A. D. 1886-1887. 
 
 ANASTASIUS I., Roman Emperor (East- 
 em.) A. D. 491-518. . . .Anastasius II.. A. D 
 71&-716. • 
 
 ANASTASIUS III., Pope, A. P. 911-918 
 
 • • i ^S^SSSP'."? 'V-' •*"?«•> ^- D. 1153-1154. 
 
 ANATOLIA. See Asia Minor. 
 
 ANCALITES, The.— A tribe of ancient 
 Britons whose home was near the Thames 
 
 ANCASTER, Origin of. See Cac8E!«n.b. 
 
 ANCHORITfiS.-HER»SlTS.-" The fer- 
 tile and peaceable lowlands of England 
 offered few spots sufficiently wild and lonely for 
 the habiution of a hermit; those, therefore. 
 
AKCHOKITES. 
 
 ANGLES AND JUTES. 
 
 who visaed to retire from the world Into a more 
 strict and solitary life than that which the mon- 
 astery afforded were in the habit of immuring 
 tbemxelves, as anchorites, or in old English 
 'Ankers.' In little cells of stone, built usuallv 
 against the wall of a church. "There is nothing 
 new under the sun ; and similiir anchorites might 
 have been seen in Egy pt, 5()0 years before the 
 time of St. Antony, Immured in cells in the 
 .'temples of Isis or Serapis. It is only recently 
 ithnt .tntiiiuurics have discovered bow common 
 (tills practice was in England, and how frequently 
 ^Uie truces of these cells are to be found about our 
 parish churches."— C. Kingsley, The Hermit*, 
 p. 3i9. — The term anchorites is applied, gener- 
 ally, to all n-ligious ascetics who lived in solitary 
 cells. — J. Bingham, Antuf. oft/u Chrutian Ch., 
 bk. 7, eh. 1, net. 4.— "The essential difference 
 between an anker or anchorite and a hermit 
 appears to have been that, whereas the former 
 paiised his whole life shut up in a cell, the latter, 
 although leading Indeed a solitary life, wandered 
 about at liberty. '—R li Sharnc, Int. to "Ojfcn- 
 dar of Willi in the Court of hutting, London," 
 
 AifciENT REGIME.-The political and 
 iooi;il system In Fniuce that was destroyed by 
 the Kivoliitlon of 1T8B is commonly referred to 
 osllie "nncien regime." Some writers translate 
 t\i\* in the literal English form — "the ancient 
 regime;" others render it more appropriately, 
 perhaps, the "old regime." Its speciiii applica- 
 tion is to the state of things described under 
 Fhanck: .\. D. 17t<9. 
 
 ANCIENTS, The Council of the. See 
 
 FbaMK: A.I). ITftTMCNK — tSUTKUBEH). 
 
 1 ANCRUM, Battle of —A ciiccess obtahied 
 by the .VmIs iivir UN English force making an 
 Incursion into tlie ixinler dlsirict." of their country 
 A. 1>. I."i44.— J. II. Hurton, lli»t. vf .ScvtUiml, ch. 
 85 (.-, 3). 
 
 ANDALUSIA: The name.— "The Vandal.s, 
 . . . tlioiigh they passetl altogether out of 
 Spain, have left their name to this day In its 
 soutliern part, under the form of Andalusia, a 
 name wlii( h, under the Saricen comiuerors, 
 eninsuliL' — E. A. 
 'trupe. ch. 4. ixfl. 3. 
 — Se, also; V.IND.4LS; A. I). 4W. — Kouglily 
 siK-aking, Aiulalusia represents tlie country 
 known to the aniieuw, first, a» TartcMus, anil, 
 latir. as Tiirdilani;i. 
 
 ANDAMAN ISLANDERS, The. tke 
 Ifii'H; Thk .ViionriiiNAL I.shabitants. 
 
 ANDASTES, The. Heu Amkhic.v.-* Abohi 
 
 OIMS: .-sc >*jrKnANNAA 
 
 ANDECAVL— Tlie ancient name of the city 
 of .\np rs. Knince, and of the tribe which oi^u- 
 plicl that ngiou. Bee Vkmsti or \Vi!»Tliii.>J 
 
 ANDERIDA.~ANDERIDA sylva.- 
 ANDREDSWALD,— ,\ gnat forest which an- 
 cleiiily sinidHil at nim Surri'v, iSunsi'X ami Into 
 Kent (souliiiajiterii England) wascallinl Auderiila 
 B>l»a by the lti>itmii.s and .Vmln'dawalil liy the 
 Saxons. It coiiMi<hd nearly nitli the tract of 
 country called in iii.nlerii limes the Weald of 
 
 ijin lid ilwlf over the whole pel 
 1-reeniuii. IIi»t»ricitl {jtJty. of hnn 
 
 against the Saxons. In the fifth centurr, and An. 
 derida was only taken by .-Elle after a long siege. 
 In tlie words of the Chronicle, the Salons "slew 
 all that were therein, nor was there henceforth 
 one Briton left."— J. R Oreen, The Making of 
 Eng., ch. 1. 
 
 Also ui T. Wright, Ceit, Rcmutn, and Saxon, 
 ch. 5. 
 
 ANDERSON, Major Robert.— Defenie of 
 Fort Sumter. (See United States of Am., A. U. 
 ISOiXOkckmbku); IHfll (.Mauch— April). 
 
 ANDERSONVILLE PRISON-PENS. See 
 Pbisoss and I'hison-Pkns, Conreuekatk. 
 
 ANDES, OR ANDI, OR ANDECAVI, 
 The. 8<'e Veneti of Webtebn Gai'L. 
 
 ANDORRA.— A little semirepublic In the 
 Spanish Pyrenees. Enjoying a certain self-gov. 
 ernment since tlie French Kevolution. it is prac- 
 tically a part of Spain. The inhabitants are 
 exempt, however, from Spanish conscription. 
 
 ANDRE, Major John. See United States 
 OF Ah.: a. D. ITW* (AiouBT— Seitemheki. 
 
 ANDREW I., II., and III., Kior* of Hua- 
 fary, A. D. 1046-1000, 1204-12:15, 1290-1301. 
 
 ANDRONICUS I., Emperor in the East 
 
 (Byzantine or Greek), A. D. 1 183-1 IM 
 
 Aodronicui II. i Palcolopit), Greek Emperor 
 of Constantinople, A. D. 1282-1328. .. An- 
 dronicus III, (Palcologui), A. D. 1328-1341. 
 
 ANDROS, Governor, New England and 
 New York under. See New E.xoi.a.nd: A.I) 
 1080; Mas8.^< in setts: A. D. I671-10H6; imd 
 1080-1689; New Yoke: \. D. 1088; and toN- 
 NECTK it: a. U. 1(185-1687. 
 
 ANDROS, Battle of (B. C. 407). See 
 GUEECE: II, V. 411-107. 
 
 ANGELIQUE, La Mtre. Sre Port Rotal 
 and Tilt: Ja.nhi-.msts: A. D. 1602-i(i60 
 
 ANGE RS, Origin ot See Veneti of West- 
 ern (iAII.. 
 
 ANGEVIN KINGS AND ANGEVIN EM- 
 PIRE. See Em.l.vnd; A. 1). 115i-ll8U. 
 
 ANGHIARI, Battle of (1425). See Italv: 
 A. n. 1412-1447. 
 
 ANGLES AND JUTES, The,- The men- 
 tion of the Angles by Tacitus is In the followiiij 
 raSHiice: " Ne.vt [lo the I.angol)ardl| come (lie 
 lleudjgni. the Aviones, the Anglil, the Variiii, 
 the Eudoses. the Siianloues, and NultlioueM, wlio 
 are fenceil In by rivers or forests. None of iness 
 trilK's have any noteworthy feature, exci pt thiir 
 eoninion wonthip of Ertha. or motherfjirtli. ami 
 their lieliif ihat »lie Interposes in human alfairs. 
 ami visil.s the iialloiis in her car In an islmui if 
 the fH laii there is a nacnil gnive. andwithiu it 
 a conseeraU'd chariot, eoTenil over with a irir 
 meiit. (July one prie.sl la permilti'd to touch ii. 
 He can |v rcelvo the prisence of the nc«l.|(»« in 
 tills sacred recesn, and walks by her nlde with 
 the utmost revirence as she Is drawn aloim liy 
 heifers. It U a seiisim of rejoUiiig, and fi ^llvily 
 nlgns wherever she deignsto go and lie nnmii. 
 They do not go to battle or wear arm»,ii<iy 
 wea|Miii Is under link; |ieace and i|iilet an' »i|- 
 coined only at these times, till the godiU-M, « '-iry 
 of Imnuiir inlenoiirse, is at length n>l. nl I'y 
 the same priest 10 her temple. Aderwards ilw 
 
 Kent, to whiih It gave lu imim' of iliu Wahl or ! car. llie vestments. aiMl, If you like lo In lii \ 
 
 Weald, On llio wmtlH'm <-oast Imrder of the 
 Anih'rida ."^vlva the Koinani eslalilUliid the Im. 
 ixinaiit loriress and jxirt of .\iidiriiltt, which has 
 Iwu iileiillllisl with Duxlerti Pevensi-y, jlere 
 Itw KoiuaiiO'Urlluiw mode an obttiiufai stand 
 
 120 
 
 11, 
 
 the divinily lierMlf. are puriliisl in a stint lik-. 
 
 SlaVrM IMTfitftll I)li< ritf!. who f|rn iriKtiifitlv MU.kl. 
 
 lowisl up liy lis »at*rs. Hence arises a my-iir- 
 lous ternir and a iiinus ignorance toucen.iiik ttis 
 uatUK v( that whkb ia maaa only by men duuuasl 
 
ANOLES AND JUTES. 
 
 tn die. Thl« branch Indeed of the Suevi atretche* 
 Into the remoter regions of Glermany." — Tacltua, 
 Qermnny; trans, bg Church ami Brodribh. eh. 40. 
 — "In close neiglibourhood with the Saxons in 
 the middle of the fourth century were the Angll, 
 a tribe whose origin Is more uncertain and the 
 applicntionr of whose name is still more a matter 
 oi question. If the name belongs, in the pages 
 of the several geogra^ lers, to the same nation, 
 it was situated Tn the time of Tacitus east of the 
 Ellje ; in the time of Ptolemy It was found on 
 the middle Kibe, between the Thuringians to the 
 south and the VarinI to the north ; and at a later 
 perio' it was forced, perhaps by the growth of 
 S.'ir " ii i .Mna power, Into the neck of the CIm- 
 t>fk ,., :: ..-ma. Tt may, however, be reasonably 
 r; <u!.tnl whiihtr »!• i hypothesis Is sound, and 
 It is !iy no nif.m!) < i ■• . ■ whether, If It be so, the 
 An; i' were not "om .tted more closely with the 
 Til ".Hijiaiisth.'iaT. h the Saxons. To the north 
 . I'lo .VnL'l; iittcr i .ey had reached their Schles- 
 .,!.- :..,.r , •!• -e tje Jutes, of whose early his- 
 tory we know no„dng, except their claims to be 
 reunrdi'il as kinsmen of the Ootbs and the close 
 siniiliirity between their descendants and the 
 neighbour Frisians."— W. Stubbe, VoiM. llitt. 
 ofkiif/., T. 1. eh. 3. — " Important as are the An- 
 li\i% it is nut too much to say that thev are only 
 known tlirough their relations to us of England, 
 tbcirilisoendanU; indcetl.wiclioutthi.spammount 
 fuct, tlu'y would be liable to be confuawl with 
 the FriMiina. with the Old .Saxons, and with even 
 .>*liiviiniiin3. Tlds Is chieMy iK'causo there is no 
 Biitlsfiirtory trace or fragment of the Angles of 
 Ocrniiiny within tk^rmany ; whilst the notices of 
 tliu oIImt writers of antiquity tell us as little as 
 tlie (Jill' wc find in Tb( itus. And this notice Is 
 not only liricf hut complicated. . . . I still think 
 that till' Angll of Tacitus were— 1; Tlie Angles 
 of Enirlimd; 2: Occupants of the nortliem parts 
 of lliinovor; 8: At least In the time of Tacitus; 
 4: .\n.l that to the exclusion of any territory In 
 Holsti ifi, wliieh was Friitian to the west, and 
 Slavonic to tlie east Still the question is one of 
 gn-Ht nuicnitude and numerous complications." 
 — Ii. U. ijitham, ?"*< Oermaiiy of Tiuitiu; EM- 
 t^mrii.i, Krt. 4H. 
 
 Al.w) I.N J. .M. Ijippenhcrg, flint, of Kng. under 
 Ihf A'r/lofiijon Kingn, t. \, pp. 81>-1).-). _ (St-e 
 alio, .\VH)<«Ki«, aud S.woNS — Tlieconquestsand 
 Bcttlcni.'nla of t|i(. Jutes and the Angles In Brit. 
 nln a^ dtwritiiil under EnolakdiA U 440- 
 47:t. and .MT-n;i:t. 
 
 ANGLESEA, Ancitnt. Sec Mona, Moif afi * 
 an.! N.iiiMAN!!: htii-Otii Ck-nti-hiks. 
 
 ANGLOSAXON.-A term which may be 
 Ciin>l.lcni| as a comimuml of Angle and Saxon 
 tlic iiainci. of the two principal Teutonic triliei 
 whic- 1 t<«ik powsslon of Hrilain and formo.1 the 
 hiifltsli nnti.>n liy their ultimate union. As thus 
 riii.inl.il iin,| UM'd to (icaignalo the race, the 
 iinirn,.L'.. and llielnstitiiiionMwhlchresulKHl fn)m 
 lliat unlnn, it ia oulv objectionable, piThaps, as 
 h<ine wiptrttuous. Wause KnglUh is the ar 
 c<pl.|i name of the |H-ople of England and all 
 jx ria nniB to them. TJut the term Anirlo-Saxon 
 M* also Nen more jMirtlcularly employed to 
 '•'■^iitnale the Karly fengll.h pe<.plc ami their 
 anmiaife iK-foro the Norman Con.iuest. as 
 i."-'h liier «. r» Anglo Saxon at th,u ptriM 
 »'fl txcame Kiigli,b aflrrwanls. M(Kleni his 
 
 ,,,,l,„. „ »■—•■•.<■- uniB. iqiKirni DIS 
 
 j'reemaa (AormM Vanjmtt, ». 
 
 tb« term. Mr. 
 
 121 
 
 ANJOU. 
 
 1, ru>t» A), says: "The name by which otH 
 forefathers really knew themselves and by which 
 thev were known to other nations was English 
 and no other. 'Angll,' 'Engle,' 'Angelcyn,' 
 ' Englisc, are the true names by which the Teu- 
 tons of Britain knew themselves and their lan- 
 guage. ... As a chronological term, Anglo- 
 Saxon Is equally objectionable with Saxon. The 
 'Anglo-Saxon perio<l,' as far as there ever wa« 
 one, is going on still. I speak therefore of our 
 forefathers, not as ' Saxons," or even as 'Anglo- 
 Saxons,' but as they spoke of themselves, 
 as Englishmen— 'Angll,' 'Engle,'— 'Angel- 
 cyn.'" — See, also, Saxoks, and Asoles asd 
 
 J I'TES. 
 
 . ^"P.t?"' ^■"'« »'• -Fought in Armenia. 
 A. U. 543, between the Komans and the Persians. 
 
 ANGOLA. — The name now given to the ter- 
 ritory which the Portuguese have occupi«l on 
 the western coast of South Africa since the 16th 
 century, extending from the Congo Free State, 
 on the north, to Uamamland, on the south with 
 an interior boundary that Is somewhat indefinite. 
 It is divided Into four districts, Congo. Louudo 
 Benguela, and Mossanudes. 
 
 ANGORA, Battle of (140a). See Timoib; 
 also. TuHKS : A. I). ia'tU-14ua 
 
 ANGOSTURA, OR BIJENA VISTA. 
 Battle of. l^ee.MEXIio: A I). lMO-1847 
 
 ANGRJVARII, The. -The Angriv.iriwero 
 one of the tribesof ancient Germany. "Their set- 
 tlemeuls were to the west of the'Wcser See 
 BRfCTKBl. 
 
 ANI.— Storminr of the Turki (io6«). Seo 
 TiHKS: A. 1). KKjif KCl. 
 
 ANILLEROS, The. Seo Spain: A. D, 
 1814-1837. 
 
 ANJOU : Creation of the County.— Origin 
 of the Plontof eneti. — " It was tlie policy of 
 tins unfairlv depreciated sovereign ll'liaries the 
 Bald, grandson of Charlemagne, who received 
 In llie dismemberment of the Carlovingiun Empire 
 tlie Neustrian part.out of which wasdeveloped the 
 miHlem kingdom of France.and who nigned from 
 840 to 877], to recruit the failing r\nk8 of llic false 
 and degenerate Frankish arlatocracv, by cdliug 
 up to his peetuge the wise, the able, tlie honest 
 aud the bold of ignoble birth. ... He sought 
 to surround himself with new men, the men 
 without ancestry; ami the earliest historian of 
 the llouso of Anjou ImiIIi de«rilas tliis system 
 and affords the most uplendid exann>lo of the 
 theory adoptetl by tin. king. Preeminent 
 amongst these parveniLs wa.< Torquatus or Tor- 
 tulfus, an Armorican peaaiiiit, a very ruatic, a 
 biekwoixlsnmn. who livitl by hunling and such 
 like occupations, almo't iii solitude, cultivating 
 hU 'nuillcis,' his 'cucillettes,' of land, and driv- 
 ing his own oxen, hamcssi'il to hia plough. Tor- 
 qualus enter»'<l or was inviteil into the wrvico of 
 Cliarlesle Chauve. anil rose higli in his sover- 
 eigns contldence: a prudent, a lK)i(l, ami a good 
 man. Cliarles apooinliHl him Fore»U!r of^the 
 for.>at rallcl 'tlic Ilia, kbirds .Nest,' the 'nid du 
 merle.' a pleasant name, not the le-ss pleasant for 
 its familiarity. This happened during the con- 
 rtiets with the Northmen. Torquaius sirveil 
 Charles strenuously li. the wars, and olifciliuil 
 gnat authority. Tertullus, sun of Torquutua. 
 Hit., ijled hia raiiier's energies, quick anil acutei 
 [lalii-nt of fatigue, ambitious mi.,| tt»plring; h» 
 biraine the liegeman of Charlis; and his mar- 
 riage with I'etnnlUa the Klng'i cuusta, Couol 
 
ANJOU. 
 
 ANJOU. 
 
 M 
 
 Hugh tlie Abbot's daughter, introdnced him 
 into the very circle of Uie royal family. Ch4- 
 teau Landon and other benefices in the Qastinois 
 were acquired by him, possibly as the lady's 
 dowry. Seneschal nlso was TertuUus of the 
 same ample Oasitinois territory. Ingclger, son 
 of Tertullus ami Pctronllla, appears as the first 
 hereditary Count of Aujou Outre-Maine,— Mar- 
 
 Suis, Consul or Count of Anion, — for all these 
 ties are assigned to him. \ et the ploughman 
 Torqutttus must be reckoned as the primary 
 Plantagenet : the nistic Torquatus foumled that 
 brilliant fiimlly . "— Sir F. Palgrave. JUiit. of Nor- 
 mamiynnd England, bk. 1, eh. 8. 
 
 Ai.s<> IN K. Norgiite, England under tht An- 
 geein Kingn, r. \, eh. 2. 
 
 A. D. 987-1120.— The ereatett of the old 
 Count!.- " Pule Ncrra, Fiilc the Black [A. D. 
 987-1040] is tlie gn-atest of the Angevins, the 
 first in whom we can trace that marked type of 
 character which their house was to preserve 
 with a fatal consuincy through two hundred 
 Tears. He was without natural affection. In 
 bis youth he bunied a wife at the stake, and 
 legend told how he led her to her doom decked 
 out in his giiycst attire. In his old age he 
 waged his bitterest war against his son, and 
 exacted from him when vanquished a humilia- 
 tion which men reserved for tlie deadliest of 
 their f(X'S. ' You are cnnquere<l, you arc cou- 
 
 aueri'd!' shouted the old man in fierce eiulta- 
 nn. HS Oeoffry, liridlctl and saddled like a beast 
 of bunlcn, criiwleil for pardon to his father's 
 feet. . . . But ni'lllicr the wrath of Heaven nor 
 the curses of men linike with a single mishap 
 the fifty years of lil« success. At his accession 
 Anjmi WttS the Inist important of the greater 
 proviiKvs iif Friiiiii'. At his death it stood, if 
 not In exU'Ut, at Uiist in ri'al power, first among 
 them nil. . . . His overthrow of Brittany on the 
 field of Conniirrcux was followed by the gradual 
 absorption of Southern Touralne. . . . His great 
 victory at rontlovol crushed the rival house of 
 Blois; the sri^uro of Siiumur completed his con- 
 quests in till' South, while Northern Touralne 
 was wiMi Mt by bit till only Tours resisted the 
 Anei'vli Tlie ':naclnrous »<Uure of its Count, 
 Herlwrt Wiikc-doif, lift Slalne at his mercy ere 
 the old m»n iHiiuiviilicd his unflnisheti work to 
 his son. As a wiirrior, Oeoflry Martel was 
 barilly Inferior to his father. A decisive over- 
 thMw wresleii Tours from the Count of Blols; a 
 .leei'nd left I'oitou at liis mercy; and the seizure 
 of he .Msns brought him to the Norman lionler. 
 Here . . . Ills nilviinic was checked by the 
 
 Senilis of Williiim tin- Con<|iieror, and with his 
 eath thi' krrinliiess of Anjou W'cined for the 
 tlmi- to hiivc coinc to iin end. Slrlpixnl of Miiiiu- 
 by the .Nornuitis. and weiikened by Internal di» 
 si'iisloMs. till' wi':ik uiiil protllirate administration 
 of Full' Idrliln li fl .\iiJou powerless against its 
 rivals aloiitr till" Si iiiiv It woke to fresh energy 
 Willi till' uccosion of Ills son, Fule of Jerusalem. 
 . . . Full' «ii» till' one iiM-my whom Henry the 
 first ri'iillv (liiri-.l ii was tii disarm his ri'-tless 
 himtiliiy limt tin' Kiiii: yieldid to his son, (oof. 
 ley till' IIiiiiiNonif. the hand of his daughter 
 Mtalllilii.'— .1. It llri'.n, A »h«Tt lliitory 1/ «/w 
 £ng!M /V.'///c. fh. i. »rt. 7. 
 
 j^f Mil t«i K Niiri?i*te. ^M/f2f|i^ utu^ fJU ^M*. 
 tin Kingi. r. I, eh )J-l 
 
 A. D. 1154.— The Couatt beteint Kinpef 
 BaiUuUl. bee Esuladu: A. U. 1 154-1 IHU. 
 
 A. D. IM4. — Wrested from the Encliib 
 King John. Bee France: A. D. 1180-1234. 
 
 A. D. 1*0^1443. — English attempts to re- 
 cover the county. — The Third and Fourth 
 Houses of Anjou. — Creation of the Dnkedom. 
 — King John, of England, did not voluntarily 
 submit to the sentence of the peers of Frano 
 which pronounced his forfeiture of the cefs ot 
 Anjou and Maine, "since he invaded and hod 
 possession of Angers again in 1206, when, Ootb- 
 uke, he demolish^ its ancient walla He lost it Id 
 the following year, and . . . made no further 
 attempt upon It until 1213. In that vear, having 
 collected apowerful army, he htndedat Itochclle, 
 and actually occupied Angers, without striking 
 a blow. But ... the year 1314 beheld hbn 
 once more in retreat from Anjou, nevir to reap- 
 pear there, since he died on the lOth of October, 
 1216. In the person of King John ended what is 
 called the 'Second House of Anion.' In 12ii4, 
 after the confiscations of John's Pleach inwik's. 
 slons, Philip Augustus established beniiitary 
 seneschals in that part of France, the fir<<t of 
 whom was the tutor of the uufortunate Young 
 Arthur [of Brittany], named William des Roches, 
 who was in fact Count in all except the name, 
 over Anjou, Maine, and Tourraine, owing allc- 
 gUmce only to the crown of France. The S«'ne- 
 schal, WlUiam des Itoches, died in 1222. lib 
 son-in-law, Amaury de Craon, succeeded lilm," 
 but was soon afterwanls taken prisoner during t 
 war in Brittanv and lucarceraKHl. Henry III. 
 of £nglan<l still clalmol the title of Count of 
 Anion, and in 1330 he "disembarked a consiil. 
 erable army at 8t. Malo, in the view of re-run. 
 quering Anjou, and the other forfeited posM'.-vsluni 
 of his crown. Louis IX., then only fifteen vtan 
 old . . . advanced to the attack of the allli" . hut 
 In the following year a peace was conciuili'd. ths 
 province of Ouienne having been ceded to the 
 English crown. In 1241, Louis gave the counties 
 of Poltou and Auvcrgne to his brother Alplionso; 
 and, in the y \i 1244, he invested his brotber 
 Charles, Couut of Provence, with the counili s of 
 Anjou and Maine, thereby annulling tlie rank 
 and title of Seni'schal, and instituting the Tiiinl 
 House of Anjou. Charles I., the founder of the 
 proud fortunes of this Thlni House, was ainlii- 
 tious in character, and events long favouml hii 
 ambition. Count of l*rovence, throuih the is. 
 heritance of bis consort, had not lonK been 
 invested with Anjou and Maine, ere he hhs in- 
 vitwl to the conquest of Picily [see Italy 
 (SoiTnKBN): A. 1). 12.'iO-126.'<].'' The Third 
 House of Anion endcsl In the [wrson of .|..|in. 
 who became King of France In 1850. In lit'ifl 
 he invest4'd his son Ijouls with Anjou ami .M liur. 
 and in 1860 the latter was cn'aU'd the llrsi Piilie 
 of Anjou. The Fourth llou«' of Anjou, wliirh 
 began wl''. this (irst Duke, niiiio to an nul two 
 generatiiuis later with Ifciiu, or Itcgiilir, — the 
 "good King KenA" of history and story, mIiom 
 kingdom was for the most part a nainc hikI who 
 is bt'st known to Kiiglisb reailers, |)<'rli;i|>9, M 
 the fiitliir of Marifsnt of Aiijou, tin- .-i.mt- 
 lu'ortinl iiuitn of Henry VI. On the ilinih of 
 liisfnilier, Louis, the second duke, itene l.iomt 
 liv his father's will Count of Uuhw, his iliitf 
 brother, Ixiuls, Inheriting the dukeilom In 
 1434 the brother diitl without Issue sii'l Ken* 
 siicereileil lilin In Anjou, .Maine and I'mm-uit. 
 He had already liecome Duke of Uai, n« tbt 
 adopted heir of bis great-uncle, the csrOhwI- 
 
 122 
 
 l^i 
 
AKJOU. 
 
 duke, and Duke of Lomlne (1430), by desinm- 
 tion of the late Duke, whose daughter he lud 
 married. In 1435 he rrceived from Queen 
 Joanna of Naples the doubtful Icgary of that 
 distracted kingdom, which she had previously 
 bequeathed first, to Alphonso of Aragon, and 
 afterwards — revoking that testament — to Kent's 
 brother, Louis of Anjou. King Rene enjoyed 
 tbo title during his lifetime, and the actual king- 
 dom fur a brief period ; but in 1443 he was ex- 
 pelled from Naples by his competitor Alphonso 
 (see Italt: AD. 1412-1447). —M. A. Hook- 
 ham, Life and Tina of Margaret of Aryou, 
 iiitrod. and eh. 1-8. 
 
 ♦ 
 
 ANJOU, The Engliih HouM of. See Eko- 
 LAND: A. D. 115«-nK». 
 
 ANJOU, The Neapolitan HooM of: A. D. 
 ilM.— Conquest of the Kinplom of th« Two 
 Sicilies. See Italy: A. D. 1250-1268. 
 
 A. D. laSa.— Loai of Sicilv.— Retention of 
 Naples. See Italy: A. D. 1282-1300. 
 
 A. D. 1310-1383.— PoMcition of the Hnn- 
 garian throne. See Hunoaky: A. D. 1301-1442. 
 
 A. O. 1370-1384.— Acquisition and lots of 
 the crown of Poland. See Poland: A. D. 
 lau-i.wi. 
 
 A. D. 1381-1384.— Claims of Louii of Anjou. 
 —His expedition to Italy and hit death. S% 
 Italy: A. I). 134;i-i;W9. 
 
 A. D. 1386-1399.— Renewed contest for 
 Naples.— Defeat of Louis II. by Ladisla*. 
 Set' Italy: A. I). i;)S«-1414. 
 
 A. D. 1133-1443.— Renewed contest for the 
 crown of Naples.— Defeat by Alfonso of Ara- 
 gonand Sicily. Sci^ Italy: A. D. 1413-1447. 
 
 ANKENDORFF, Battle of. See OEOicAirr : 
 
 A. I> l^-oT (Fkbhiauv IlNK). 
 
 ANKERS. S.M' .\n< Hi.niTits. 
 
 ANNA, Ciarina of Rutaia, A. D. 1780- 
 174(1 
 
 ANNAM: A. D. 1883-1885. — War with 
 France.— French protectorate accepted. See 
 I HAS. k: ,V I). 1H7.'>-INH», „n,| Tonkim. 
 
 ANNAPOLIS ACADEMY. .See Educa- 
 TtoN. M.iiiKiiN : .\iiK»i( A : A. I). I*M 
 
 ANNAPOLIS ROYAL. See New Eho- 
 I AM' A l> 171)2-1710. 
 
 ANNATES, OR FIRST-FRUITS.— "A 
 
 Mti( (' liail existwl for mmw liundreds of years 
 
 all ihe churches of Kumpc, that bishops and 
 an lilii»hcip«. on prescnution to their seca, should 
 tmiwmii to the pope, .m n-ciiving their bulls of 
 invisini.'nt, one ye.ira iiiconio from their new 
 pnfirinitiu. h win riilli'<l the payment of An- 
 UHtcs, or (Irst fruit*, and had originaU'd In the 
 lime of ilif (■r»»ailc», aa a means of nMvldIng a 
 fuiul for (he holy wars, (inc.! establfshed It had 
 wiilicl into curit4im, ami wm one of the chief 
 rimitir. Ill of the papal revenue "—J. A. Kroude 
 //M/..ry ,/ En,jl,i,ul. eh 4 —■• The claim [by the 
 l"i|K I lo ihe flml fruits <if bishoprics and other 
 rrt.tii.Mii.iiiiwa»»ppBrpiiilvftr»t made In Knghind 
 l.y Alnan.lcr IV. in i2.Vl, for llvo years; it was 
 r, IK W.--I hv flnnent V. In llliHl, to last for two 
 vriirs. «ii,( It was in a meaauro succMsful. Ily 
 . oliii \\n. It was claimeil llinnighout Christen- 
 "loin for ihrrn years, and met with unlveiaal 
 r.-,i.!,ow.,. . «!,,„,!,- r.-..n!..=f«l as it wia ia 
 t II- ( iMin.il i.f CiHiHtance. ami fn^uently maile 
 t «• ...lijirt of debrtU- in iwrliani.nt and eoum-il 
 tUt dcuiauJ must bavu UivQ itigularly oompUea 
 
 ANTILLES. 
 
 I with."— W. Stubbs, Corut. Hitt. of Eiv/..eh. 19, 
 ' uet. 718. — See, also. Queen Anse's Bounty. 
 
 ANNE, Queen of England, A. D. 1702-1714. 
 
 ANNE OF AUSTRIA, Queen-regent of 
 France. See France: A. D. 1842-1(M3, to 1651- 
 
 ANNE BOLEYN, Marriage, triM and 
 execution oC See Esoland: A. D. 1S27-1534. 
 and 1536-1543. ' 
 
 ANSAR, The. See Mahometan Conquest : 
 A. D. eo»-632. ^ 
 
 ^Siii-J^ 5* England: A D. 1087-1185. 
 
 ANSPACH, Creation of the MareraTate. 
 See Oermany: 13th t'ENTunv Separation 
 from the Electorate of Brar nbarg. See 
 Bkamiknbiko: A. I). 1417-164" 
 
 ANTALCIOAS, Peace of (B. C. 387). See 
 Oueece: B. C. 899-387. 
 
 ANTES, The. See Slavonic Peoples. 
 
 ANTESIGNANI, The.-" In each cohort [of 
 the lioman legion, in Ca-sar's time] a certain 
 number of the best men, probably about one- 
 fourth of the whole detachment, wan a«sii:ned as 
 a guard to the standard, from whence they 
 derive.! their name of Antcsignani. "— C. Meri- 
 vale, Ilitt. of the Humiint, eh. K. 
 
 ANTHEMIUS, Roman Emperor(Westcm), 
 K. D. 487-473. 
 ANTHESTERIA, The. Sec Dionysia at 
 
 I A T il ICIffH 
 
 ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE. S.'o Tar- 
 
 IFK I,KOI8L.*TION(KN(iLASD): A. 1). 1H30-1839, 
 and lH45-lWfl. 
 
 ANTI-FEDERALISTS. See United 
 States .)r Am. : A. I>. 17x9-1702 
 
 ANTI-MASONIC PARTY, American. See 
 Nkw Y.mik: A. 1). lH2fl-lM;!2 
 
 ANTI-MASONIC PARTY, Mexican. See 
 
 MkXICO: a. I). IHJ'.'-IM-.'H 
 
 ANTI-RENTERS.-ANTI-RENT WAR. 
 
 See LiviNoaToN M ».\on. 
 ANTI-SEMITE MOVEMENT. See 
 
 Jews: 19TII C'F STfRY. 
 
 ANTI-SLAVERY MOVEMENTS. See 
 Slavery, Neoiio. 
 
 ANTIETAM, Battle of. Sie rMTKD 
 Statkk OK Am. : A I). lHfl3 (Hkpt.; .Mxrvund). 
 
 ANTIGONID KINGS, The. .Se Greece: 
 B. ('. :I(I7-1!IT 
 
 ANTIGONUS, and the wars of the Di^ 
 dochl. S<f .Mai KiKj.MA : B. C. :)2a-^ll6: 315- 
 310; 310-301. 
 
 ANTIGONUS CONATUS. The wars ot 
 See Maceooma: B. C :.'T:-244 
 
 ANTILLES.-ANTILIA.-' Familiar as U 
 the name.)f the Anillli's, few arc uware of the 
 anti.|uity of the word: wlillc its po'ciw signitt- 
 cancc seta etymology .'ii ilcllance. Common con- 
 sent Identified the Antilia of legi'ml with the 
 Isle .if the Seven Clllea. In th.' year 734, says 
 till' sUiry, the Aralin having ciini|iirn'il most iif 
 the SiMtnlsh peninnula. a numlHT of Christian 
 iMiilgrunU, under the direction of ».viii holy 
 l.i.ilior«i, among them the anliliishop of Dimrto, 
 siiiliil wi'HtwanI with all that tlnv ha.1, and 
 renched an Inland where they foii'nd.il wn-n 
 towns. Arali KiogrH|ili.'n« »|K'ak of an Atlantic 
 liilimd called In .\nilvic Kl tennvn. or Al tin (Isle 
 .if SjTpenta), a uami' whi.h niay pi'ssililv have 
 iTriiimc by rnmipti..i. Alitilla. . Tiic' «'Vru 
 
 binhops wen' lM'lleve.1 In the I«!h ..iiturv to Iw 
 still repn'seuted by ijiclr »uciv««iir«. iiml'lii pre- 
 side over a nuncrvut and wvnitby people. Moat 
 
 123 
 
 vi^^ii- 
 
ANTILLEa 
 
 ANTHC8TIONE8. 
 
 I^grapbere of the 16th century believed In the 
 I'Xistence of Antilia. It was represented as lying 
 west of the Azores. ... As soon as It Iwciimo 
 known in Europe that Columbus had di8covcre<l 
 s larf;e island, Kspnflola was at once identified 
 with Antilia. . . . and the name . . . Uas ever 
 Jnce been 8|)pllefl (reneniliv to the West Indian 
 islands." — E. ,1. Payne, Ilint. of tht Xeie Wovld 
 mUtd AmeHcii, r. 1, p. 9S.— See, also, West 
 iNniKs. 
 
 ANTINOMIAN CONTROVERSY IN 
 PURITAN MASSACHUSETTS. See Mah- 
 baciubktth: A. U 18:1«-163H. 
 
 ANTIOCH : Founding of the Citj. See 
 6elki'i'idj£; and M.\ckix>.m.\, 4c. : B. C. 310- 
 8U1. 
 
 A. D. 36-400.— The C :'. itiu Church. Sec 
 CnRIsTI.\SITT: A. I). Xi-uA. 
 
 A. D. 115.— Great Earthquake.— "Early in 
 tlie year 115, acconling to tlie most exact chron- 
 ology, . . . the splendid capital of Syria was 
 visited by an eartliquake, one of the most disas- 
 trous apparently of all llie similar inflictions 
 from whicli that luckless ilty has |>eriodically 
 suffered. . . . The calamity was enhanced by 
 the presence of unusual er»)wds from all tlie cities 
 of the east, as.semt)led to i>«y homage to the 
 Emperor [Trajiin], or to take part in his expe- 
 dition [of conquest in tlie east]. Among 
 the victims were many Itomans of diatinctioii. 
 . . . Trajan, liimself. only est'iipc-d by creeping 
 throucli a winclow." — C." Merivale, Ilut. of the 
 Uunitin* ch. 0-^. 
 
 A. D. 360.— Surpriae, maiaacre and'pillaKe 
 bj Sapor, King of Persia. Sec Persia: A. U. 
 256-«27. 
 
 A. D. 526.— Deitruction bT Earthquake.- 
 During the niirn of .Tustinian (A. I). 61»-.'>65; the 
 cities of the lioinan Empire "were overwhelmed 
 by earthiiiiukes mon: fricjuent than at any other 
 period of history. Antioi h, the metropolis of 
 Asia, was eiilirily destniyed. on the 20tli of 
 May, Wi6. at the very tiim when the inhabitants 
 of the ftdjaci'nl country were asseinble<l to cele- 
 brate the festival nf 'the Ascension; and it la 
 atllnnitl that '.i.Vl.tHHl persons were crushed hv 
 the fall of its >uni|ituous edillces."— J. C. L. i(e 
 Sismoiidl, Full of the llumnn Kminre, eh. 10. 
 
 Also IN: E. GihlHiu, DfcUnt and thU of tht 
 Bi>tfuin K>ni»rf, '•h. 4IJ. 
 
 A. O. 540.— Stormed, pillaged and burned 
 by Choiroe*, the Persian King. Sec Peusia: 
 A. I). '.".'B «2T. 
 
 A. O. 638.— Surrender ti. the Arabs, See 
 
 MAUoMfTAN t'oNylKST: \. D Bll'J-flSlt. 
 
 A. D. 94)9.— Recapture by the Byxantines.— 
 
 After hiiviin: rt iiiaiiM d H'.'H yiam in tlie |Kis»e»sion 
 of tlieS;ir!i<rii» .ViiliiHli tv.id ritakeii in the winter 
 of A, I) WWliy tli.HyzaiitliM EmiH'nir, .Meeplio- 
 riis l'liiika'>. tiiil iieiaiiii- again a < 'irlKllan 
 city. Three \iars l:it<r tlie .Moslems i.iade a 
 
 freat elTort In re< over the 1 Ity, liiil weredefentnl 
 lie IlyzHiiiine anus were at this time highly 
 suecessf'il ill the never Hiding Saracen war, anil 
 John Ziiniskes. sueo'^wir of Nieephorua Phokas, 
 mantled triuinplmnilv to the Tigris and threat 
 ene<l even llagd id Ilut most of the coni|Uests 
 thus iniide in Svria and M'sopotaniia we.e not 
 :. tinir.— '!. Fliilav. Ilnd.of th« Hfantint Km- 
 f.i,,. ,i /; Tir.-Ii»i7, .'.A J. r/i. 3.— S««B»»A>- 
 
 TINK KMnilK, \ It. IW) lOM 
 
 A. D. 1097-1098 Siege and capturi by the 
 CniMdert. See ChLsaUU; A. I). lUM-lWB. 
 
 A. D. 1009-1144.- Principality. See Jeru- 
 salem: A. D. 1009-1144. 
 
 A. D. 1368.— Extinction of the Latin Prin- 
 cipality,— Total destruction of the city.— An. 
 tioch fell, before the arms of Bib:i - the Sultan 
 of Egpyt and Syria, and the Ijitii. principality 
 was bloodily extinguished, in 1268, "Tlie lirst 
 seat of the Christian name was dispeopled by 
 the slaughter of seventeen, and the captivity 
 of one liundred. thousand of ber inhabitants." 
 This fate befell Antioch only twenty three years 
 before the last vc tige of the coni|Ue8ta of the 
 crusaders was obliterated at Acre.— E. Gibbon, 
 Drdiite and Fall of the Koman Umpire, eh. 59.— 
 "The sultan halted for several weeks in the 
 idain, and nennittcd his soldiers to hold a large 
 market, or fair, for the sale of their Ixioty. This 
 market was attended by Jews and pedlars from 
 allpartsof the East. . . . ' It was, ' savs the Cadi 
 Mohieddin, 'a fearful and heartrending sight. 
 Even the hard 8tone» Te softeneti with griel.' 
 He tells us that the i.., .Ives were so numerous 
 tlmt a fine beartv boy might be purchased for 
 twelve pieces of sliver, and a little girl for five. 
 When the work of pillage bad been completetl, 
 when all the ornaments awl decorations liad been 
 cairied away from the churches, and the lead 
 torn from the roofs, Antiwh was flre<l in dif- 
 fert^nt places, amid the loud thrilling shouts uf 
 'Allah Acbar,' ' 0<kI is Victorious. ' The great 
 churches of St. Paul and St. Peter burnt wltb 
 terrllic fury for many daya"— C, G, Addison, 
 T.'.c Knii/htt Temjil.irt, ch.'9. 
 ♦ 
 
 ANT'OCH COLLEGE. See Edltatios. 
 MolilcilN : Kkkohms: A. I). ISt4 IHtfl. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS SOTER, AND ANTIO- 
 CHUS THE GREAT. S<e Sklelcid.*:, Tuk: 
 B. C 2H1-224. and 221-187. 
 
 ANTIPATER, and tha wars of the Oia- 
 dochi. See Macehosia: B. C. 32;l-316. 
 
 ANTIUM. — " Antlum, oneeallourishingcity 
 of the V'olsci, and afterwanis of the Itmians. 
 their conquerors, is at present niluced to a miiiill 
 numlHT of inhabitant.'*. Originally it wan niib- 
 out a port: the harbour of tlie Antiates liaviin; 
 lieen the neiglitKiuriug indentation in theena.it uf 
 Ceuo, now Kettuno, distant more than a mile to 
 the eastwanl. . . . The piracies of the anciiut 
 Antlat<'»all proceede<l from Ceno. orCerio. wliere 
 they had 22 long ships. These Numiciii:, tii<>k: 
 . . , some were taken to Home and their rojtra 
 siis|H'nded in triumph In the forum . . It 
 (.Vnllimi) was reckoned 260 slailia. or iilioiit Si 
 miles, fMin Ostltt." — SIrW. Oell. 'Jojix/. nl' I'mnr. 
 1: I. 
 
 AN'iIUM, NaT- 1 Battle of (i378>. .<'. 
 'k.mck: a. I). 1117K-1879. 
 
 ANTIVESTiEUM. S<-e IIkitain, Tiudm 
 
 OK < Kl.TIC. 
 
 ANTOINE DE BOURBON, King of Ns- 
 »arre, A. I, I.W.VI,M7. 
 
 ANTONINES, The. See Uoke: A. I) las- 
 1811. 
 
 ANTONINUS, Marcus Aurelius, Roman 
 Emperor, A D IflllHii 
 
 ANTONINUS PIUS, Roman Emperor, 
 A l» LlH-lBi. 
 
 ANTONY, Mark, and the Second Triumri- 
 rale, .^-Romk: B i 44 to ,U 
 
 ANTRUSTIONES.-In the Sali<' law of 
 the Krsnka, there is no trace of any ni.':.-ni/«l 
 order uf ooblUtjr, "W« uuict, Uuwvvii, will) 
 
 124 
 
 iMMM 
 
ANTRCSTIONES. 
 
 terenl titles denoting temporary rank, derircd 
 from offlces political and judicial, or from a 
 position alKiut the person of tl>e king. Among 
 tlic«c the Antrustiooes, who were tn constant 
 attendance upon tlie king, played a conspicuous 
 part. . . . Antrustiones ami Convivie Itegis 
 [Rnmi\n9 who held the same position] are the 
 prrdfcessors of the V'assi Dominici of later times, 
 and like these were bound to the king by an cs- 
 peciul oath of personal and perpetual service. 
 Thev formed part, as it were, of the king's 
 family, and were expected to reside In the palace, 
 where they superintended the various depart- 
 ments of the royal household." — W. C. Perrv 
 Thf fhmkt.eh. 10. " 
 
 ANTWERP : The name of the City.— Its 
 commercial greatneai in the i6th ccnturr.— 
 "The city was so ancient that Its genealogints, 
 with ridiculous gravifv, ascended to a p lod 
 two centuries before tlic Trojan war, snu dis- 
 covered a giant, n-ioicing in the classic name of 
 Antigonu.s, established on the Scheld. This 
 patriarch exacted one half the merchandise of all 
 navigators who paa'icd his castle, and was ac- 
 customed to amputate and ctuii into the river the 
 riglit liands of those who iufriiised this simple 
 tariff. Thus 'Hand- werpen,' hand throwing, be- 
 came Antwerp, and hence, two liands, in th.' 
 escutcheon of the city, were ever held up m 
 iicnililic attestation of the truth. The giant was, 
 in his turn, thrown into tlie Scheld by a hero,' 
 named BralK), from whose exploits Brabant de- 
 rivwi it.-i name. . . . But for these antiquarian 
 researches, a simpler derivaticm of the name 
 wo"M seem 'Hut' werf,' 'on the wharf.' It had ' 
 now [in the first half of the 16lh centurj-j be- j 
 ojimc the principal entrep<1t and exchange of ' 
 Europe . , . the commercial capital of the world. | 
 . . . Venice, Nurembnrg, Augsburg, Bruges 
 were sinking, but Antwerp, with Its deep and 
 convenient river, stretched iu arm to the ocean 
 snd anmht the golden prize, ns it fell from its 
 sister eitien' grasp, ... No citv, except Paris, 
 8urpft.weil it in population, n,)ne approached it 
 in conmierelal splendor."— J. L. Motley, Tfit 
 Rii "fthi- Ihitrh lifpuhlif. Hint. IntnHt, tn-t 13 
 A. D. I3i3.-Mada the Staple for Bnrtieh 
 trade. See supi.e. 
 
 , AD. 1566.— Riot o. 'ae Ima|;e-brcakcrs la 
 tue Churches. See Nkthkri,.\!«d8: A. D 150ft- 
 l.Vi". 
 
 A. D. 1576. -The Spmnith Fuiy. See Neth- 
 
 i!RiAM>-> A 1). MT.vis;:. 
 
 . \, °- .'577.-DeliTerance of the city from 
 lis Spanish garrison.— Demolition of the Cita- 
 del. See Nktiikhi,\n1)k: A I). I.ITT-I.WI. 
 K^" D;,'5*3' -Treacherous attempt of the 
 Duke of Aniou. -The French Fury. See Xbth- 
 
 EllUMm: .V I). l,'i81-inM4. 
 
 A. D. is84-i585.-Sie»e and redaction by 
 AI»«ander Farnese. Ouke of P»rma.-Thi 
 
 .K^ •?• ''<«-S«cri«ced to Amiterdam in 
 sA.mI" J °S Mttneter—Cloilng of the 
 acneldt. s,> Nktiikki.aniw: A. I) "(U6-ttHH 
 
 .nH'.kA',7°*~^'"l?"''*''*<' *• Marlborough 
 'tot • " '^""'"LAKDe: A. D. ITlW- 
 
 f-JlT-l-?" *".""»• "«'N''TilERLA«ne: A. H 
 „;,^''"' »"' Aix LACBArttut; Tm Co.«c. 
 
 V. 
 
 APOLLONIA m ILLTRIA 
 
 A. D. i83a.-Sieje of the Ciudel by the 
 French.— Expulsion of the Dutch nrrison. 
 SeeNETHEKLA-MW: A. D. 1830-1833. 
 
 ♦ 
 
 APACHES, The. See America;* Arorio- 
 «*ii*rYiI?iBe"^' ■°'' Athapascan Family. 
 AfALACHES, The. See Amkricak Auob- 
 I0I.NE8: Apalacres. 
 
 APAMEA — Apamea, a citv founded by 
 Seleucus Nicator on the Euphrates, the site of 
 which IS occupied by the modem town of Bir 
 had become, in Strabo's time (near the beginning 
 of the Christian Era) one of the principal ante™ 
 01 Asiatic trade second onK to Ephesus. Thap- 
 sacus, the former customary crossing-place of 
 the Euphrates, had ceased to be so, and the pas- 
 sage was made at Apamea. A place on the 
 opposite bank of the river was calleil Zeugma or 
 "the bridge." Bir "is still the usual place at 
 which travellers proceeding from Antiwh or 
 Aleppo towards Bagdad cross the Euphrt-.tes "— 
 E. H. Bunbury. /fut. of Andent Geog.,efi 22 
 leet. 1 (r 2, nn. 2W and 817). 
 APANAGE. See App.v.tAGE. 
 APATURIA, The.— An annual family festi- 
 val of the Athenians. celebrat«i for three days 
 in the e..riy part of the month of October 
 (Py-inepsion). • This was the characteristic 
 festival of the Ionic race; handed down from a 
 period anterior to the c<mstitution of Kleisthenes 
 and to the ten new tribes each containinif so many 
 demcs. nnd brinitlng together the citizens la 
 t.ieir primitive unions of familv, gens, pliratrv 
 \ etc., the Bggri'cate of which had originallv con' 
 ; BtltuU-il the four Ionic tribes, now supenmnii.ited. 
 j At the Apaturia, the familv ceremonies were 
 gone through : inarrlaecs were enrolliil, acts of 
 adoption wer. promulgated and certified the 
 names of voii!l,fwl citizens first entere<l on the 
 gentile and phralricroll; sacrifices were j..iritly 
 ctl^ebratetl by tliese familv as.semblagcs to Zeus 
 Phratrius, AlhfnC. and otlier deities, accompanied 
 with much festivity and enjoyment. "—O. Orote 
 Uitt. of Hr„n.it. 3, eh. W (r. 7). 
 APELLA, The. See Sparta: The Co»- 
 
 •TITITIOS, A( 
 
 APELOUSAS. The. See Texas: The ado- 
 
 RK.IXAT. InIIAHTTANTS. 
 
 APHEK, Battle of.— .\ great victory won by 
 Ahah. king of Israel over Benhadad, klnir of 
 IMmascus— II. Ewald, Ili,t. of Itratl bk 4 
 
 Kft. 1. .■ . , 
 
 APODECTiE, The.- "When Aristotle 
 speaks of the ..lllccra of govrrunient to whom 
 the public revenuen were delivered, who kept 
 them and dlstriliute<| them to the several admin- 
 istrative departments, these are called, he adds 
 apodectie and Invisurers. In Alhei.s the 
 apodecta; wen- ten in number. In accordaiiie with 
 the numlwr i.f the tritn-s. Thev were appointed 
 by lot. . . . riiey hail In their p.is»emion the 
 lists of the delitors of tlio state, received the 
 money whicTi whs palil in. registered an aieounl 
 of It and iioteii tlie amount in arn^ar. and in the 
 council house in the im-sence of the Ciiiicll, 
 erased the names of the debtora who had palii 
 the deinancU apiinst them from the li^t and 
 deposlte<l Ihi-; aiiain In the an-hlves. Finally 
 they, toictisrr wll!-. the r.->!n,-f!. sj.jntHit.m;! the 
 sums rei-eivcd "~A, Boeckh, Pubtie ICainumy <4 
 Athtnt[tr. h^ Uii.h). M 3. cA 4 
 
 APOLLONIA IN ILLYRIA, The Fonad. 
 ing of. Htx KuuKViu. 
 
 !5 
 
AP08TA8ION. 
 
 AQUITAINE. 
 
 i 
 
 i : 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 APOSTASION. SeePoLRTA 
 
 APOSTOLIC MAJESTY: Orirta of tbe 
 Titlf. Sw Hcnoart: a. D. 978-1111 
 
 APPANAGE.—" Tbe tenn appanage denotes 
 tuc provision maiie for the younger children of 
 a king of Fnince. This always consisted of 
 lands and feudal superiorities held of tbe crown 
 by the tenure of pi'cmge. It is evident that this 
 usage, as it prtxlticed a new class of powerful 
 fcuduturies, was hostile to the interests and policy 
 of the sovereign, and retarded tbe subjugation 
 of tbe ancient aristocracy. But an usage coeval 
 with the monarchy was not to be abrogated, and 
 the scarcity of money rendered it imposaible to 
 prcvide fur the younger branches of the royal 
 family by any other means. It was restrained 
 however as far as circumstances would permit" 
 — H. Ilallam, Tht Middle Agt». ch. 1, pt. 2.— 
 "From the wonis 'ad 'and 'panis,' meaning that 
 It was to provide bread for the person who held it 
 A portion of appanage was now given to each of 
 the king's younger siins, which descended to his 
 direct heirs, butln default of them reverted to tbe 
 crown." — "t. Wright, Hut. of France, v. 1, p. 
 808, note. 
 
 APPIAN WAY, The.— Appius CUudius, 
 called the Blind, who was censor at Rome 
 from 312 to 308 B. C. [see Rome; B. C. 812], con- 
 structed during that time " the Appian road, the 
 queen of roads, because the Latin road, passing 
 by Tusculum, and through the country of tbe 
 Hernicans. was .so much endangi'rrd, and had 
 not yit iKva quite rt'coveretl by the Romans: 
 the Appian road, passing by Terracina, Fundi 
 and Mola, to Capua, was intended to be a shorter 
 and safer one. . . . The Appian road, even if 
 Appius did carry it as far as Capua, was not 
 executed by him" with that splendour for which 
 we !>tiU admire it in those parts which have not 
 been destniyed intentionally: the closely joined 
 polygons of bas.ilt, which thousands of years 
 have not Ixrn able to displace, are of a some- 
 what later origin. Appius commenceil the road 
 because there was actual need for It; in the year 
 A. r. 4.'37 I B. C. '297] peperlno, and some years 
 later l)asalt (silcx) was first use<l for paving 
 roads, and, at the beginning, only on the small 
 distance from the Porta Capcna to the temple of 
 Mars, as we are distinctly told by Livy. Roads 
 constructed acconling to' artistic principles had 
 previously existeil"— B. O. Nlebuhr, Letti. on 
 the Ifii-t. of limf. leet. 45. 
 
 Atjso in: Sir W. Oell, Topog. of Rime, v. 1. — 
 U. (1. Mddell. llhl nf R,mu. r. 1. p. 2.51. 
 
 APPOMATTOX COURT HOUSE, Lec't 
 Surrender at. See I'mtkd Statks or An. ; 
 A. I>. IKfi.'X.Veuii.: Vihoinia). 
 
 APULEIAN LAW. Mee Majkst.^s. 
 
 APULIA: A, O. I04>-Iia7.— Normao con- 
 quest and Dukedom.— Union with Sicily. 
 Bee It.\lv (Soitiiers): A. D. 1000-1090, and 
 1081-1191. 
 
 ' APULIANS, The. Bee SAaiHET, also. Sam- 
 BrrKd 
 
 1 kq^^X. SEXTIiC. 8ec Haltks. 
 - AQUiG SEXTIiE, Battle oC See Cixbm 
 aNi> Tkitosh^: H C. 118-103. 
 
 AQU/E SOLI&— The Roman name of the 
 long famous naiiTing place known In mfNiem 
 Kn^Und M ihc iiiv ..f luth. Ii wiw gpU-udtdty 
 adomol In Roman limes with temples and other 
 editicea— T. Wright, tV», Hman and Saxm. 
 «A 5. 
 
 AQUIDAY, OR AQUETNET.-The native 
 name of Rhode Island. See liooDB Iblahu; 
 A. D. 1638-1640. 
 
 AQUILA, Battle of (1434). See Italy: 
 A. D. 1412-1447. 
 
 AQUILEIA.— A<|uileia, at the time of the 
 destruction of th:)i city by tbe Huns, A. D. 452, 
 was, "both as a fortress and a commercial 
 emporium, second to none in Northern Italy. It 
 was situated at the northernmost point of the 
 
 fulf of Hadria, about twenty miles northwest of 
 tieste, and the place where it once stood is now 
 in tbe Aust'ian dominions, just over the Iwrder 
 which sepb ates them from the kingdom nt 
 Italy. In tae year 181 B. C. a Rimian colony 
 had been sent to this far comer of Italy to serve 
 as an outpost against some intrusive tribes, called 
 by the vague name of Oauls, . . , Possessing a 
 good harbour, with which it was connectc<l by a 
 navigable river, Aquileia gradually liccame the 
 chief entrepdt for the commerce between Italy 
 and what are now the Illyrian provinces «( 
 Austria." — T. Uodgkin, Italy and tier Intadert, 
 bk. 2, eh. 4. 
 
 A. D. 338. — SicKe by Mazimin. Sec Rome: 
 A. D. 238. 
 
 A. D. 388.— Orerthrow of Mazimna by The- 
 odosius. See Rome \. P. 879-89S. 
 
 A. D. 45a. — Destiuctiob by the Han*. Sec 
 HvKS; A. D. 4S2; also, Venice : A. D. 452. 
 
 AQUITAINE: The ancient tribes.— The 
 Roman conquest of A<iultania was achieved. B. ('. 
 66, by one of Caesar's lieutenants, the Youiicor 
 Crassus, who first brought the people callcil 
 the Sotlates to submission and then deflated 
 their combined noighbors in a murderous buttle, 
 where three-fourths of them are said to have 
 been slain. The trib<'S which then subniittdl 
 "were the Tarbelll, Bigerriones, Preclaui, Vo 
 cates, Tarusatcs, Elusates, Oarites, Ausci, Oar- 
 umnl, Bibuzates and C(ico8at>:a The Tarlulll 
 were In tho lower Iwisln of the Adour. Thiir 
 chief place was on tin' .site of the hot spriiii;9 «f 
 Dax. The Btgerrlon.'S appear In the imme 
 Bigorre. The chief place of the Elusates was 
 Elusa, Eause; and the town of Auch on the rivir 
 Gers preserves tho name of the Aus»l. Tlie 
 names Oarites, If the name Is genuine, and li:ir 
 umni contain tbe same element. Oar, as the 
 river Oanimna [Garonne] and tho Oers. It ii 
 stated by Walckcnaer that the inhabitants «f tlie 
 southern part of Les Landes are still eulliil 
 Cousiota. Cocosa, Canss^quc, is twenty four 
 miles from Dax on the road from Dax t" llir- 
 deaux." — O. Long, Dri-lint of (he linnan Rt- 
 pubtie, v. 4, M. 6. — "Before tho arrival ft the 
 nracbycephalic Llgurian race, the Hnriaiii 
 rangcil over the greater part of France. ... If, 
 as seems | robable, wo may Identify llieie with 
 tl. Aquitani, one of the three races wliuh oc- 
 cupied Gaul In the time of Cn'sar, they uiiisi have 
 retreated to the nelghlHiurhiiod of the r>rtnir» 
 before the beginning of tbe historic peri.ii"— 
 I. Taylor, Origin of the Arynne, ch. 2. »«■'. G. 
 
 In Casar** time. See Oaul debchiiieo it 
 
 CiKSAR. 
 
 Settlement of the Visigotha. Bee Ooni 
 (ViBUMirns): A. P. 410-419 
 
 A. 0. 567.- Divided belwean the M«rdf is- 
 gtaa Kinn. See Fhanks: A. I) nil-7v.> 
 
 A. O. OSi-TM.-Th* independent Oukei 
 aad tlMir lubjufatioa.— 'lliu old Ikjiuu 
 
 126 
 
AQCITAINE, A. D. 681-768. 
 
 Aquitanik, in the first division of the spoils of 
 the Empire, had fallen to the Visigoths, who 
 conquered it withoi.*. much trouble. In the 
 struggle between them and the Merovingians, it 
 of course passed to tlie victorious party. But 
 the quarrels, so fiercely c<>nt<'st«! between the 
 different members of the Frank monarchy, pre- 
 vented them from retaining a distant possession 
 within their grasp: and at thia period [6ai-718, 
 when the Mayors of the Palace, Pepin and Carl, 
 were gathering the reins of government over 
 tlie three kingdoms — Austrasia, Neustria and 
 Burgundy— into their hands], iudo, the duke 
 of Aquitalne. was really an independent prince. 
 The population had never lost its Roman char- 
 acter; it was, in fact, by far the most liomanized 
 in the whole of Gaul. But it had also received 
 a new element in the Vaacones or Gascons [see 
 B.tsqf s], a tribe of Pyrenean mountaineers, who 
 descen. ..g from their mountains, advance^ to- 
 wards ti. •" north until their progress was checked 
 by tlie broad waters of the Garonne. At this 
 time, however, thev obeyed Eudo, '■ This duke 
 iif A uiuine, Eudo, allied himself with the 
 Neustrians against the ambitious Austrasian 
 Mayor. Carl .Martel, and shared with them the 
 crushing defi-at at Soissons, A. D. 718, which 
 established the Hammerer's power. Eudo 
 s(knowltdgc<i allegianre and was allowed to 
 retain hi.s dukedom. Hut, halfacenturv after- 
 wards. Carl's son, Pepin, who had pushed the 
 •faineant ' Merovingians from the Frank throne 
 and seated himself upon it. fought a nine years' 
 war Willi the then duke of Aquitalne. toestablish 
 his Mjverciguty, "The war, which lasted nine 
 ytara [TBO-TftH). was signalized by frightful 
 rHvagi> and destruction of life upon Ixith sides, 
 until, at la.st. the Franks became nuisters of 
 IVrri, Auvergne. and the Limousin, with their 
 priuripal cities. The able and gallant Guaifer 
 ['IT Waiferj was as-iassinateil by his own sub- 
 jects, and Pepin had the satisfaction of tlnally 
 uniting the grand-durhy of Aquitalne to the 
 ninnarchy of the Franks."— J. O. Shepoard 
 Fdl nf liome. Irrl. 8, ^' 
 
 Al.so i.\: P, 0<xlwin. Ifitt. nf Frani-f : Ancient 
 Oaiil. rh. lt-15,-\V, H. Perry, The Franla.ch. 
 5-6. 
 
 A. D. 732.-R«T»Ked by the Motiemi, 
 Sie .MArioMKTAN ('iiNyiKKT: A. I), 71.VT32. 
 
 A. |3. 781.— Erected into ■ separate king> 
 dom by Charlemagne,— In the year TMl Cliarle- 
 nmitne crerted Italy and Aquitalne into separate 
 liingilimn. placing his l»-o infant sous, Pepin 
 and l.uclwig or Louis on their nsiK'Otive thr^mes, 
 " file kingdom of Afjuitalue enibratTii Vasconla 
 lOascnn'), Sqillniania. Ac|iiiiaine pmtier (that 
 IB. thi ..untry Iwtween the OaMuiu and the 
 l/ilni :iiul the county. 8uli8<'quentlv the duchv, 
 of roulouse. Niiuiinally a kingiloi'n. Aquitaliie 
 wasinn'ality a p^)vince. entirely dependent on 
 tlie central or personal government of Charles 
 • I he nominal designations of king ami 
 kiugduni might gratify the feelinns of th« 
 Aijuitanians, but It was a »<lieme coutriviil for 
 hdMini; iheiu in a stole of atisolule depc^nileuce 
 sn.l sulionllmitlon,"— I I, MomU-rl, IIM. of 
 I IfirltM Ihr llroil. A* a, rA 11 
 
 A. p. 843 _ln the dirition of Charle- 
 "'^P'* Empire. S,e Fha.n. k: A l>. Wa. 
 fc,n,:,4 "'VJS'.-The and of the nominal 
 tangdom.- The disputed Ducal Titl«.-'('«r 
 loman [who died 8WJ, ion of LuuU Ui« HUm- 
 
 AQCTTAIIfE, A. D. 1137-1152. 
 
 merer, was the last of the Carlovingians who bore 
 the title of king of Aquitalne. This vast sute 
 ceased from this time to constitute a kingdom 
 It had for a lengthened period been divided 
 between powerful families, the most illustrioua 
 of which are those of the Counts of Toulouse 
 founded in the ninth century by Fredclon, the 
 Counts of Poitiers, the Counts of Auvergne, the 
 Mar j>sof Septimania or Gothia, and the Dukes 
 of Ga^. . .ny. King Eudes had given William the 
 Pius, Count of Auvergne, the investiture of the 
 duchy of Aquiuine. On the extinction of that 
 family in 928, the Counts of Toulouse ami those 
 of Poitou disputed the prerogatives and their 
 quarrel stained the south with blood for a long 
 time. At length the Counts of Poitou acquired 
 tJie title of Dukes of Aquitalne or Guyenne [or 
 Guienne, -supposed to be a corruption of the 
 name of Aquitalne, which came into use during 
 the Middle Ages], which remained in their house 
 up to the marriage of Eleanor of Aqiiitaine with 
 Henry Plantagenetl. [Henry II.), King of 
 England (1151)."— E. De U<innecho«e, Ilirt. of 
 fYance, bk. 2, eh. 3, fool iwte.—" The diichv 
 Aqiiitaine, or Guyenne. as held bv Eleanor's 
 predecessors, consisted, roughly speaking, of tlie 
 territory between the Loire lind the Garonne 
 More exactly, it was bounded on the north bv 
 Anjou and Touraine. on the east by Berry anil 
 .\iivergne. on the south east by the l^uercy or 
 County of Cahors. anil on the south-west by 
 Gascouy, which had been united with it for the 
 last humlred years. The old Karolingian king- 
 dom of A(juitania had been of far greater extent • 
 it had, in fact, included the whole country 
 iK'tween the Loire, the Pyrenees, the Khone and 
 the ocean. Over all this vast territon- the Counts 
 of Poitou as.serteil a theoretical cla'im of over- 
 lordship by virtue of their ducal title; they had 
 however, a formidable rival in the hou.se of the 
 Counte of Toulouse. "—K. Xorgate, EngUmd 
 'initrr the Angetin King», r. 1. eh. 10— See, also 
 TolXOlSE: lOrii AND llTll Ck.ntikiks 
 
 A. p. 1 137-"52.— Transferred by mar- 
 "■f« from the crown of France to the crown 
 of England — In 1137, -the last of the old lineof 
 the dukes of Aquitalne— William I.\., son of 
 the gay crusader and troubadour whom the Ued 
 King had ho|)e<l to succeed — died on a pilgrim- 
 age at Compostella. His only .son WH.saliettdy 
 dead, and before setting out for his nilgrimago 
 he did what a greater personage hail done ten 
 years before: with the consent of his barons he 
 left the whole of his dominions to his daughter. 
 Moreover, he iH'queathiil tlii' giri herself as wif« 
 to the young king Ix>uis ( VII, ] of France. This 
 marriage more than doubled the strength of the 
 Ireiich crown. It gave to L.miIs absolute pos- 
 8»'ssion of all western Aqiiitaine, or Guvenne as 
 it was now iH'ginning to h,' .ailed: that is the 
 counties of Pi.liou and Gas< v, with the im- 
 mediate overlonlsliip of the whole district Iviug 
 between the I>.|re and the P\ renees, the Itliona 
 and the oc-ean:- a territory five or six times as 
 large as his own royal domain and over which 
 his predecessors had never U-en able to assert 
 more than the merest shadow of a nominal siiiHTi- 
 "rity. " In \\\l I^.uls obtained a divorce from 
 hn-.:fivt, sunrnafrin^ uji Hit- gr.al territory 
 which she had adiliil to his dominions, ruher 
 than maintain an unhappy union. 'The same 
 ;■. ..r tl.e gay duchess was w'eddtil to Ileurv Plan- 
 tagvnvt, then Duke of Nonuandy, aftorwania 
 
 27 
 
AQUTTAINE, A. D. 1137-1152. 
 
 ARABIA. 
 
 nonry IT. King of England. By .is marriage 
 Ai|uitiiinr txTunii' joini'ii to tlip crown of England 
 and rcnmined ho for three hundred years. — K. 
 Norgrite, Eiigtaiui under the AngetitiKingt, v. 1, 
 cA. «. 
 
 I3th Century.— The state of the ■outhem 
 parts. See I'novENCE: A. 1), 1179-1207. 
 
 A. D. 1360-1453.— Full sovereigfnty pot- 
 aessed by the English Kings.— The final con- 
 quest and union with France.— " By the Peace 
 of Hntijtny [see Fkanck; A. D. 133.-1380] Ed- 
 wanl III. nsigned his cliiinis on the crown of 
 Fnnee; Init he was recognized in return as inde- 
 pendent I'rinoe of Aiiuitnine. without any hom- 
 age or superiority iH'ing reserved to the French 
 monareli. When Aqiiitainc therefore ^n" inn- 
 quered bv FViinee. partly in the 14th, fully in 
 the l.Vh century [see Fr.\nce: A. D. 1431-1453], 
 it was not the "reunion ' of a forfclte<l flcf, but 
 the absorption of a ilistinct and sovereign state. 
 The feelings of .\ciuitaine itself seem to have 
 been divide<l. The nobles to a great extent, 
 though far fnim universally, preferred the French 
 connexion. It better felf in with their notions 
 of chivalry, feudal deiK-ndency, and the like; 
 the privileees too which French law conferred 
 on noble birth would make their real interests 
 lie that way. But the great cities and, we have 
 reason to believe, the niiuss of the people, also, 
 clave faithfully to their ancient Dukes; and they 
 had go<Kl reason to do so. The English Kings, 
 both by habit and by interest, naturally pro- 
 tected the municipal li))erties of Bourdeaux and 
 Bayonn<'. and ex]>osed no part of their subjects 
 to the liormrs of Fn-ncli taxation and general 
 oppression."— E. A. Freeman. 7'Ac t\nnk» and 
 the (liiiih {,/li»ti>noil A.'»».f//». 1»< tierie*, .>'<>. 7). 
 
 AQUITANI, The. Sic InEKiANS, The 
 
 Westkun. 
 
 ARABIA.— ARABS: The Name.-" There 
 can be 110 doubt that the name of the .\rib.s Wiis 
 . . . j.'iviii from their living at the westernmost 
 part of .\sia;and their own word 'Qlmrh,' the 
 ' West.' is another form of the original Semitic 
 nami' .Vnib." — O. Hawlinson, Sotcj to llerodotui, 
 T. 2. I'. 71. 
 
 The ancient succession and Tusion of Races. 
 — 'The population of .Vnbia, after limg cen- 
 turii's. more especially after the propagation and 
 triumph of Islamism' In-iame unifonn through- 
 out the pininsida. . . . Hut it was not always 
 thus. It W!is very slowly and gradually that the 
 Inhabitants of the various parts of .\nibia were 
 fused into one race. . . Several distinct races 
 successively immigrated into the |K>ninsula and 
 remained wparati' for many ages. Their dis- 
 tinctive cliaracteristies, their manners and their 
 civilisation pnive that these nations wen- not all 
 of cric bliKxI. Vp to the time of .Mahimiet, 
 sevi nil <lilTrrent languages were spoken In 
 Ariliia, ami it was the intrixluctlun of Islamism 
 alone tliut g:ive predotninence to that one 
 ainonjrst ihi ni now callid Arabic. The few 
 Arabi.tn hislciriaiis di'sirvirig of the name, who 
 have used any discernment in coUecting the 
 tnulili.ins of iheir lounlry, Ibn Khaldoun. for 
 cxamiile. distinguish thn'C suecessive popula- 
 tions in the ■H'nluinla. They divide ihea<- primi 
 live, seeimdary, and terllnry Arabs Into three 
 divisions, callfl .^riba, Motanba, anil Mostarebs. 
 . . . The .Vrilia were the first and most ancient 
 Inhabituutt uf Arabia. They cuusistod prln- 
 
 cipsllr of two great nations, the Adites, gprung 
 from Ham, and the Amallkaof the race of Aram, 
 descendants of Sheir, mixed with nations <if 
 Bcctmdary importance, the Thumudites of the 
 race of Ham, and the people of the Taam, and 
 Jadis, of the family of Aram. The Motarcba 
 were tribes sprmig from Joktan, son of EImt, 
 always In Arabian tradition calle<l Kahtan. The 
 Mostareba of more mo<lcrn origin were Ismae'- 
 itish tribes. . . . The Oushitcs, the first in- 
 habitants of Anabla, arc known in the national 
 traditions by tlie name of Adites, from their pn)- 
 genitnr, who is called Ad, the grandson of Ham. 
 All the account given of them by Arab his 
 torians are but anclful legends. ... In the 
 midst of all the fabulous traits with which th< ie 
 legends abound, we may perceive the remem- 
 brance of a powerful empire founded by the 
 Cushites In very er.r'.Y ages, apparently including 
 the whole of Araoi Felix, and not only Yemen 
 proper. We also tnd traces of a wealthy nation, 
 constnictors of grea* buildings, v"h an advanced 
 civilisation analogous to that of Chaldtra, pro- 
 fessing a religion similar to tiie Babylonian; a 
 nation, in short, with whom material progress 
 was allied to great moral depravity and obscene 
 rites. ... It was alamt eighteen centuries be- 
 fore our era that the Joktanites entered Southern 
 Arabia. . . . According to all appearances, the 
 invasion, like all events of a similar nature, whs 
 accomplished only by force. , . . After this in 
 vasion, the ("ushfte element of the jmpulation. 
 Ix'ing still the most numenms, and possessini; 
 great superiority in knowledge and civilisjitinn 
 over the Ji>kta.iites, who wen' still almost in the 
 nomadic st Te, soon recovered the moral and 
 material supn'nia<'y, and political dominion, A 
 new empire was formed in which the power still 
 ladonged to the Satwans of the race of Cush. 
 , . . Little by little the new nation of Ail waa 
 formeil. The centre of Its power was the cinntry 
 of Slieba proper, where, acconling to the teiith 
 chapter of Ginesis. there Wiis no primitive ,1 ok 
 tanite tribe, although In all the ni ighlmurinij 
 provinces they were already settleil, . . . ll was 
 during the first centuries of the si'iiind .\ liu- 
 empire that Yemen was temporarily siibjic inl 
 by the Egyptians, who callwl it the laml of I'lin, 
 . . , Conquered during the minority of Thothnies 
 III., and the regency of the Princess lliui-u. 
 Yemen appt'ars to have been lost by the Ki.'\ p 
 tians In the troub'ous times at the close of ilie 
 eighteenth dvniusty. liamses II. recovered it 
 almost immediately after he a.sccndi'd the tlinme. 
 and it was not till the time of the elTeinii.ate 
 kingsof the twentieth dytm,sly, that this siili mliil 
 oniament of Egyptian jvower was tinully l.».t 
 . . . The concjuest of the land of Pun nnilt-r 
 llatasu Is related in the elegant lias nliefs ,,f ihe 
 temph-of Deir el-Hahari, at ThelM's, oubli.-lnd ly 
 M. Duemlchen. . . . The bus ifliefs of the 
 t<'mpleof I)eir el-HidiarlaflonI undoubleil jiroefs 
 of the cxistenee of commerce betwwn Imlii and 
 Yemen at the time of the Egyptian cxpnliliim 
 under Hatasu. It was this commene, much 
 more than the fertility of its own soil iiii'l ill 
 ni\tural priMluetlons, that made Southeni .\ralii« 
 one of the richest countries in the world. . . 
 V:'.r a long time It wa» carried on bv hir.d ::r;)v. 
 by means of caravans cnissing Araliia, for tde 
 navigation of the Red S»'tt, much more ilillicMlt 
 and dangerous than that of the Imllan iKma, 
 was not atlemptod till soom centuries later . . 
 
 128 
 
ARABIA. 
 
 ARABIA. 
 
 Th« c«i«v«M of myrrh, incense, and balm crosa- 
 in? .\nibia towanis the land of Canaan are men- 
 tiunfil in the Bible, in the hist/iry of Joseph, 
 which lielongs to a period very near to tlie first 
 esUiblishmcnt of the Canaanites in Syria. As 
 S(K)n as commercial towns arose in Phnpnioia, we 
 find, as the prophet Ezekiel said, 'The mer- 
 chants of Sheba and liaamah, tliey were thy 
 merchants: they occupied in tliy fairs with chief 
 of all spices, and with all precious stones and 
 pnhl.'. . . A drreat number of Phfrnician mer- 
 chants, attracted by this trade, established them- 
 wlves in Yemen, Hadramaut, Oman, and 
 Bnhrein. Phcenician factories were also estab- 
 lished at several places on the Persian Gulf, 
 amiinKst others in the islands of Tylos and 
 Arvail. formerly occupied by their ancestors. 
 . . . This commerce, extremely flourishing dur- 
 ing the nineteenth dynasty, seems, together with 
 thi- Egyptian dominion in Yemen, to have cea-sed 
 under the feeble and inactive successors of 
 Kamses III. . . . Nearly two centuries pa.ssed 
 away, when Iliram and Solomon despatched 
 > tsels down the Red Sea. . . . The vessels of 
 the two monarchs were not content with doing 
 merely what had once before Uvn done under 
 the Egyptians of the nineteenth dynastv, namely, 
 fetching from the ports of Yemen the" merchan- 
 dise collected there from India. They were 
 much bolder, and their enterprise was rewanled 
 with suivess. Profiting by the regularity of the 
 miinsKins, they fctclusi the products of India at 
 first lwn<l, from the very place of their shipment 
 in the ports of the land of Ophir, or Abhira. 
 These distant voyages were repeated with suc- 
 cess as long as .Solomon r<igne('. The vessels 
 goinjr to Oiihir necessarily touched at the ports 
 (if Vemin to take in provi.sious and await 
 fiivmirable winds. Thus the renown of the two 
 allied kings, particularly of the power of 
 Silomcin. was sprea<l in the land of the Aditcs. 
 This was ;he cause of the ii>urney made bv the 
 quien of : 'icba to Jerusalem to see Solomon. 
 . . The sea voyages to Opliir. and even to 
 Yiiiicn. ceaM'd at the death of Solomon. The 
 wpurritiim of the ten tribes, and the revolutions 
 that simultaneously took plw'e at Tvre, rendered 
 iiiiy su( h exp('ditii>ns impracticable. . . . The 
 eni|iire of the second Adites lasted ten centuries, 
 (luring which the Joktanite tribes, multiplving 
 in cadi generation, lived amcrngst the C'lishite 
 Halmans. . . . Thea-ssimilationof thcloktanites 
 to the I'lisliites was so complete that the revolu- 
 t:un whiih gave political supremacy to the 
 ( escenilanLs of Joktan over those of ('usli pro- 
 Mu d no sensible change in the civilisation of 
 icm :ii. Kui although using thesame language, 
 the two elements of the population of Southern 
 Aniliia wire still i|uile distinct from each other, 
 ami antag.inistic in their interests. . . . 1^ tli 
 W(T.' .alicil Sabieans, but the Bible alwavs ,re- 
 fiilli dislingiiishes them bv a different V ,«)g- 
 r'i|'li\ . . . Tlie majority i.f the Salwai .ish- 
 iti's, however, especiallv the superior istes 
 rcf'is,,! 1,1 submit to tlie Joktanite voke. A 
 isparatii.n. therefore, took pliU-e, giving rise to 
 the .Vrab proverb, 'divided as the Saha'ans ' and 
 tMc mass of the Adites emigrat«l to another 
 c:".:T.!ry Acti^flli,^- i„ M. faussin de r,.r<e\ at, 
 lie passage of the Saba'ans into Abvssinla ii to 
 '»' alinliuted to the consequences of the revolu- 
 li'ii that eslabllsliHi Joktanite supri'macy in 
 » L'li, n. . . , The date of the paaaage of the 
 •J 
 
 Sabteans from Arabia into Abyssinia ismuch more 
 difflcult to prove than the fact of their having 
 done so. , . . Yarub, the con(iueror of the 
 Adites, and founder of the new monarchy of Jok- 
 tanite Arabs, was succeeded on the throne bv 
 his son, Y'ashdjob, a weak and feeble prince, o"f 
 whom nothing is recorded, but that he allowed 
 the chiefs of the various provinces of his states 
 to make .hemselves independent. A' J, Shems, 
 surneiiied Sheba, son of Y'a.sh(ijob, recovered the 
 power his predecessors had lost. . . . Abd Shems 
 ha(' several children, the most celebrated being 
 Ilimyer and Kahlan, who left a numerous pos- 
 terity. From fhe.se two personages were de- 
 scended the greater part of the Yemenite tribes, 
 who still e.\isted at the time of the rise of Islam'- 
 ism. The Himyarites seem to have settled in 
 the towns, whilst the Kahlanites inhabited the 
 countrv and the deserts of Y'emen. . . . This is 
 the sulistance of all the information given by 
 the Arab historians."— F. Lenormant and E. 
 Chevalier, ifunual of Ancient Biit. nf the £att 
 bk. 7, eh. 1-3 (r. 2). 
 
 Sabaans, The.— "For some time past it has 
 been known that the Himyaritic mscriptions fall 
 info two groups, distinguLshed from one another 
 by phonological and grammatical diflen nces. 
 One of the dialects is philologically older than the 
 other, containing fuller and more primitive gnim- 
 matical forms. The inscriptions in this dialect 
 iH'long to a kingdom the capital of which was 
 at Main, and which represents the country of 
 the .Minieans of the ancient-s. The inscriptions 
 in the other dialect were engraved ■)v the princes 
 and people of Saba, the Sheba of the t)ld Testa- 
 ment, the Satxeans of classical geograpliv. The 
 Salwan kingdom lasted to the time of Sioham- 
 med. when it was destroyed bv the advancing 
 forces of Islam. Its ruh"rs for several gcncra- 
 lions had been converts to Judaism, luid had lieen 
 engaged in almost constant warfare with the 
 Efhiopic kingdom of Axum. which was backed 
 by the influence and subsidies of Home and 
 Byzantium. Dr. Gliiser seeks to show that the 
 founders of this Ethiopic kingdom were the 
 Habitsa, or Abyssinims, who migrated from 
 Himyar to Africa in the second or flrst century 
 B. C. ; « hen we flrst liearof them in the inscrip- 
 tions they are still the inhabitants of Nortliem 
 Yemen and .Mahrah. .More than once the Axum- 
 ites made themselves masters of Siuthem .\mbia. 
 AlHiut A. I). 3<)(), they occupied its ports and 
 islands, and from il'iO to 3T« even the Sabaan 
 kingdom wm tributary to them. Their last suc- 
 cesses wen' gainiKl in .')■.;■".. when, with Bvzantine 
 help, they eon(iuen(l the w hole of Yemen. But 
 the Sabiean kingdom, in spite of its temporary 
 subjection to Etiiiopia, had hmg been a formitl- 
 able State. Jewish cohmics settled in it, and one 
 of its prin(vs became a convert to the Jewish 
 faith. Mis 8ucccs.sors gradually exu-nded their 
 douiinion as far as Omiuz. and after the success- 
 ful n volt from Xwim in 378, bn)ught not onlv 
 the Hholc of the southern coast under tlici'r 
 sway, but the western coast as well, as far north 
 as Mekka. Jewish influence made itself felt in 
 the future birthplace of .Mobamincd. and thus 
 introduced those ideas and N'liefs which snlise- 
 (|(uullv iiad so pnifoiind an effect up(m the hirtli 
 of Islam. The Byzantines and Axumites en- 
 deavouTd to counteract the influence of Judaism 
 bv means of Christian eohinies and progelvtism. 
 The rviult wan a conflict between SabA luid it* 
 
 129 
 
ARABIA. 
 
 ARAVISCt 
 
 aamilants, which took the 'nnn of a conflict 
 bvtwern the membere of *'. two religions. A 
 violent peraerutinn was Qirected against the 
 Chrisitians of Yemen, avenged by the Etiiiupian 
 concpiest of the country and the removal of its 
 capitnl to San 'a. Tlic intervention of Persia in 
 the struggle was soon followed by the appear- 
 ance of MohamnxHlunism upon the scene, and 
 Jew, Christiiui, an<i I'arsi were alike overwhclme<l 
 by tlie flowing tide of the new creed. The epi- 
 g'raphic evidence makes it clear that the origin 
 of the kingdom of SabA went back to a distant 
 date. Dr. Glaser traces its history from the time 
 when its princes were still hiit Makarib, or 
 'Priests,' like Jethro, the Priest of Midian, 
 through the ages when they were 'kings of 
 8abS, and later still ' kings uf'SabA and liaidun,' 
 to the days when thev claimed imperial suprem- 
 »-y overall the princfpalilies of Southern Ariilila. 
 It was in this later period that they dated their 
 inscriptions by an era, which, as Ilalevy tlrst dis- 
 covered, cnmsponds to 115 B. C. One of the 
 kings of Saba is mentioned in an inscription of 
 the Assyri.m king Sargon (B. C. 715), and Dr. 
 Uliuier M-lieves that he has found Ids name 
 In a ' Ilimvaritic ' text. When the la.st priest, 
 Samah'ali f)arrahh. b«>came king of Sabft. we do 
 not yet know, but the age must be sutflciently 
 remote, if the kingdom of 8ab4 already existeil 
 when the Queen of Sheba came fn)m "Ophir to 
 visit .Solomon. 1 he visit need no longer cause 
 ast(mishmi nt, notwithstanding the long journey 
 by land which lay betwei'n Palestine and the 
 soutli of Amhia. ... As we have seen, the in- 
 scriptions of Ma'in set before tis a dialect of more 
 priiiiiiive character than that of SabJ. Hitherto 
 ft liad iHrn supposed, however, that the two 
 dialo'Ls were 8[>oUen contemporaneously, and 
 that the Mina-an and Salwan kingdoiiis existed 
 side liy side. But i»eogn>pliy olTeri'd dilliculties 
 in tlie way of siuh a Ix'lief. since the wats of 
 Miiiaan power were emlK'ddiHl in the mi<lst of 
 the Saliaan kingdom, much as the fragments of 
 Cromarty are emlx'dded in the midst of otlur 
 counties." Dr. Gla-sor has now made it clear that 
 tlie old supposition was incorrect, and that the 
 Slinaan kingdom pnceded the rise of .Sal>£. We 
 can now understand why it is that neither in 
 the Old Testament nor in the Assyrian in.scrip- 
 tions do we hear of auy princes lif Ma'in, and 
 that though the cl.as.siojil writers are acnuainled 
 with the Mina^an people thev know nothing of a 
 Mina>an kingdom. The ^liiKean kiiigilom. in 
 fact, with its culture and monuments, tlie relies 
 of which still survive, must have nourished in 
 the grev dawn of histoi-y, at an epo<li at which, 
 as we fiave hitherto iiiiagined, Arabia was the 
 home only of nomad barbarism. And yet in this 
 re'nioie age alphat)etie writing was already known 
 and iiractisrd, the alphaliet iH'ing a iiKxliticatioii of 
 tlie I'ha'iiieian written vertically and not horizon- 
 tally. To what an curly date liri' we ri'fern'd for 
 the origin of the Plio'iiician alphnbel itself! The 
 Miiiaan Kingdom must have liait a long exi.>^t- 
 enee. The names of thirty-three of its kings are 
 alriady known to us. ... A power wliieh 
 reached to the Ixjnlera of Palestine must neces- 
 sarily have come into contact with the g; it 
 monarehies of the ancient w>irld. Tiie army of 
 .Julius Uallus wun doiilitiervs not tlie iint »iiieii 
 had sought to gain possession of the cities ami 
 (pice ganlens of the south. One such invasion is 
 •Uuded to in an inacription which waa copied by 
 
 130 
 
 H. Halivj, . . . But the epigraphy of ancient 
 Arabia is atill in its infancy. The inscription^) 
 already known to us represent but a small pro- 
 portion of those that are yet to bo discovered. 
 . . . The dark past of the Arabian peninsula Ims 
 been suddenly lighted up, and we And that loii^' 
 before the days of Mohammed It was a land uf 
 culture and llt<>ratuiv:, a seat of powerful kini.' 
 doms and wealthy commerce, which cannot fail 
 to have exercised an influence upon the general 
 history of the world." — A. H. Sayce, Ancient 
 Arnhia [ConUmp. I!ee., Ike., 1889). 
 
 6th Century.— Partial conquest by the Abys- 
 tinians. Sec Vuys8INL\: 6tii to 16tb Cen- 
 
 TCniES. 
 
 A. O. 609-633. — Mahomet's conquest. See 
 MAnoMETAN C'o.n<}I!K8T: a. D. 609-633. 
 
 A. D. 1517.— Brought under the Turkish 
 sovereignty. Sec Tukks: A. D. 1481-1520. 
 » 
 
 ARABS, Conqoesti. See Mahomctas 
 CUN4UEST.— Medical Science. See Medical 
 Science: 7-1 Itd Cbnturibs.— Trade, tjee 
 
 TltADB, AHCIENT AKD MEDI.SVAL. 
 
 ARACHOTI, The.— A people who dwelt an- 
 ciently in the Valley of the Arghandab, or Ir- 
 gundab, in eastern Afghanistan. Herodotus gave 
 them the tribal name of "Pactyes," and the 
 modem Afghans, who call theins«'lves " Pashtun " 
 and "Pttkhtun," signifying " mountaineers," are 
 prolmbly derived from them. — M. Duncker, Iliit, 
 iif AntitfKiti/, bk. 7, ch. 1. 
 
 ARAGON : A. D. I035-I358.— Rise of the 
 kingdom. See Spain: A. D. 1035-1258. 
 
 A. O. 1 133.— Beginning; of popular repre- 
 sentation in the Cortes. — The Monarchical con- 
 stitution. See Cohtks. The Kari.y Si'AMi-i!. 
 
 A. D. 1318-1338,— The first oath of alle- 
 
 f:iance to the king, — Conquest of Balearic 
 stands.— Subjugation of Valencia. Sec .Simin: 
 A. I). i2i2-ii;tM, 
 
 A, D. 1410-1475.— The Castilian dynastj. 
 —Marriage of Ferdinand with Isabella of 
 Castile. See Si-ain: A. 1). 13(1H-14T'J. 
 
 A. D. 1S16.— The crown united with that 
 of Castile by Joanna, mother of Charles V. ^ 
 Spai.n: A. D. 1490-1517. 
 
 ARAICU, The. .See Amehicas Abouioixes; 
 
 Gt CK OK ClKO GllOl I'. 
 
 ARAM.— ARAM NAHARAIM. — APAM 
 ZOBAH — ARAMiGANS. See Skmh» :il>o, 
 Semitic l,A.Not:AoK«. 
 
 ARAMBEC. Sie Xouimiieiia. 
 
 ARAPAHOES, The. Se.' Amkuicax .Vim 
 uuii.SEs: .\l.(iONniiAS FA.MII.V, and I'awm.k 
 (I'ABiHiAN) Family. 
 
 ARAR, The. — The ancient name of the river 
 Saone. in Frame. 
 
 ARARAT. — URARDA. See At.Anoi>us« 
 
 ARATOS, and the Achaian League, ^e« 
 GkekcE: M.V. 28i>-146. 
 
 ARAUCANIANS, The. See Chilf. 
 
 ARAUSIO. — A Ilontaii colony wus (ouniled 
 by .\iigustus at Antiisio, which is repns<iiii-.i ia 
 name and site by the m-Hlern town of Dniiui . in 
 the department of Vaueliis*', Fnini-e. \x niilrt 
 north of .Vvignon. — P. GiHxiwin, llitl.of Friiia: 
 AiiC iliiul, bk. 'i. rh. 5. 
 
 ARAUSIO, Battle of iB. C. 105). See Cat- 
 BHi andTkutones: B. C. li;l-l(>3. 
 
 ARAVISCI AND OSI, The. — " Wli.itier 
 ... the Aiavisci migrated into Pannouia iron 
 
ARAVISCI 
 
 the Ori. t Oermtn race, or whether the 0>< came 
 from the Arariaci into Germany, aa both nations 
 still retain the same languajre, institutions ami 
 customs, is a doubtful matter." — "The locality 
 of the Aravisci was the extreme north-eastern 
 part of the province of PannonU, and would 
 thus stretch from Vienna (Viodobona). eastwards 
 to Itaab (Arrabo), taking in a ponion of the 
 southwest of Hungary. . . . The Osi seem to 
 have dwelt near the sources of the Oder and the 
 Vistula. They would thus have occupied a 
 jiiirt of Oallicia." — Tacitus, Otrmnny, trant. bg 
 Chuirh and Brndrihb, irith nrog. ruttet. 
 
 ARAWAKS, OR ARAUACAS, The See 
 Americ*-* Aborioines : Caribs. 
 
 ARA.. "S, The. — This name seems to have 
 Ntr applietl to a number of Asiatic streams in 
 anrii-nt times, but is connected most prominently 
 with an Armenian river, now called the Aras, 
 which flows into the Caspian. 
 
 ARBAS, Battle of.— One of the battles of ihe 
 Komiins with the Persians in which the for- 
 mer suiTcrcii defeat. Foiipht A D. 1581 
 
 ARBELA, or GAUGAHELA, Battle of 
 (B. C. 3311. See .Macedo.nia : B. C. 334-330 
 
 ARBITRATION, Intematioiul. See In- 
 
 TF.R.VATIO.VAL ArBITRATIO.N. 
 
 ARCADIA.— The central district of Pelo- 
 ponnesus, the jieat southern peninsula of Greece 
 -a district surrounded by a singular mountain 
 circle. "From the '.cle of mountains which 
 h.is been pointed ou' all the rivers of any note 
 take their rise, and i.-om It all the mountainous 
 ranges direree, which form the many headlands 
 Md poinU of Peloponui'sus. The interior part 
 of the country, however, has onlv one opening 
 towards the western sea, through which all its 
 waters How united in the AInheus. The pecu- 
 liar character of this inhind tract is also i„- 
 (Teased i)y the circumstauce of its bein? inter- 
 sected by some lower secondary chains of hills, 
 which compel the waters of the valleys nearest 
 to the ?re«t chains either to foim lakes, or to 
 »eek a vent by subterraneous passages. Hence it is 
 that in the mountainous distnct in the northeast of 
 Pel(ip<innesiis many streams disappear and again 
 emerge from the earth. This region Is Arca.lia; 
 a country consisting of ridges of hills and ele- 
 vatiii plains, and of deep and narrow valleys 
 With streams Ilowing through channels forme«i 
 by precipitous rocks; a country so manifestly 
 separatetl by nature from the rest of Pelopon- 
 nesus that, although not politically united, it was 
 always considered in the light of" a single i .im- 
 munity. Its climate was extremely cold : the at- 
 mosphere dense, particulariy In the mountains to 
 the nnrth: the effect which thia had im the char- 
 acter and dispositions of the inhatdtants has Ijeen 
 <lis(ntH'd in a masterly manner by Polvbius 
 liims<lf a native of Arcadia."— C. O. MdIUt' 
 //ly. „nd Ahliq. of the Done Raft. bk. 1, eh. 4 — 
 •Ihe later Koman poets were wont to speak of 
 Are:ulia as a smiling land, where grassy vales 
 w.Hi,T,il by gentle and pellucid streams, were 
 tnhabited by a race of primitive and picturesque 
 sliepl.enls and shenherdesses, who dividcil their 
 time iHtween tending their flocks and making 
 love to one another in the most tcniler and roman- 
 tir fashion. This Mvllic conception nf x\v 
 '"in'rv and the people is not to U traced in tbc 
 HI llellen.' poj-u, who were better acquaint^ 
 « itli tlie actus facu of the case. The ArcadUina 
 we-e sufflcicmly primiUve, but there waa very 
 
 ARE0PAGC8. 
 
 little that was graceful or picturesque about (heir 
 land or their lives. "-C. H. Hanaon, The Land 
 tf (irteu, pp. 8HI-.382. 
 
 B. C. 37i-362._The union of Arcadian 
 towns. Restoration of M«ntinei«.— Buildin* 
 of Megalopolis.— AUiance with Thebes'- 
 y!f? ?"« ■^*^ »n<i Elis—Disunion— 
 Battle of Mm,une»a. See Greece: B. C. 871 
 and 371-3u,^ 
 
 B. C. 33». - rerriteries restored by Philip of 
 Macedon. See Greece: B. f ;KT-a{6 
 
 B. C. 243-i46.-In the Achaiaa Leafne. 
 See Gbeece: B. C. 280-14«. ^ 
 
 See 
 
 ARCHIPELAGO, The Oakes of the 
 
 Maxos: The SIedl«vai, Dikedox. 
 ARCHITECTURE. See Sities in Archi- 
 
 TKCTimi. 
 
 -,ARCHON. See Athens: From the Doriak 
 
 MlORATIO!* TO B. C. 68.3. 
 
 ARCIS-SUR-AUBE, Battle ot t 3 
 *^V=S.^A ^ ^ '^'* (Jani art-March). 
 . ArTSr^' Battle of (17961 See Frasce: 
 A. IX I79«-1797 (October-April). 
 
 ARCOT: A. D. I7si.-Capture from the 
 
 .'^ ,.,^°'' <**f«°e« oy Olive. See I.ndia : 
 A. L>. l»43-17,'i'2. 
 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATION. See Polak 
 
 ElPLOBATIOX, 
 
 ^'^S?*? • Po™»t of.-The largest forest In 
 early BriUiin. which covered the itreater part of 
 modem Warwickshire and "of which Shakes- 
 peare's Arden became the dwindled representa- 
 I'^'c- -J. Ft Green, The ilakinj of England, 
 
 ARDENNES, Forest of. -"In Oesar'a 
 t me there were in [Gaul] very exten.sivc forests, 
 the hirgest of which was theArduenna (Arden- 
 nes), which extended from tlie banks of the lower 
 Uhine probably as far as the shores of the Xorth 
 '^J-"— 0. Long. Ikdintofthe Komnn llep'thtir 
 r 3, eh. 22.- "Ardennes is the name of one of 
 the northern French departments which c-ontains 
 a part of the forest .\rdenne8. Another part is 
 in Luxemburg and Belgium. The old Celtic 
 name exisU in England in the .Vrden of War- 
 wtctshire."— y^«*im*. r. 4. cA 14 
 
 ^5S?.'{.9L'* ARDRIGH, The. See Tcath. 
 , ARDSHIR, OR ARTAXERXES, Found- 
 ing of the Sassanian monarchy by. See Per- 
 sia: B. C. l,V)-.\.. D. 228. 
 
 ARECOMICI, The. See Volcje. 
 
 ARECUNAS, The. Sec America.v Abo- 
 rigines: Caribs axd their Kindred 
 
 AREIOS. See Aria. 
 
 ARELATE: The ancient name of Aries. — 
 The territory covered by the old kingdom of 
 Aries is sometimes calledthe .\relate See BtrB- 
 ol-ndt: a. D. 1127-1378, and Salves. 
 
 ARENGO, The. See San Marino, Tm 
 KEriBLrr iw. 
 
 AREOPAGUS, The. -"Whoever [in an- 
 cient Athens! was suspected, of havii q blood 
 upon his hands had to abstain from app oaching 
 the comniim alurs of the land. Aoco.-dingly 
 for the purpose of judgments concerning the 
 gjilt . Iilofxl, choice had been made of the 
 barren. r.Kky height which lies opposite the 
 ascent t.. thr clladci. It was detilcatiHi lo Ares 
 who was said lo have been the first who was ever 
 jiidgetl here for the guilt of blood ; and to the 
 Ennyes, the dark powen of the guilt stained 
 conscience. Here, instead of a single judge a 
 
 ISl 
 
ARE0PAGU8. 
 
 ARGENTINE REPUBUO. 
 
 ' 
 
 college of twelve men of proved liilogrlty con- 
 ducUil the trial. If the accused h:iil an eiiual 
 numlMT uf votes for and against him, he was 
 acquitted. Tlie court on tlie hill of Arcs is one 
 of the most ancient institutions f Athens, and 
 Done achieve<l for the city an earlier or more 
 widely-8^. ad recognition. — E. Curtius, Hint, 
 oj Oretef, bk. i. r>i. 3. —"The Areopagus, or, 
 as it was interpreted by an ancient legend. 
 Mars' Hill, wa.s an eminence on the western 
 side of the Acroiwlls, which from time Immemo- 
 rial hud lieen the seat of a highly revered court 
 of criminal justice. It toiik "cognizance of 
 charges of wilful murder, maiming, poisoning 
 and un«>n. Its forms and modes of pn«ec<ling 
 were peculiarly rigid and solemn. It was held 
 in the open air, perhaps that the judges might 
 not be polluted by sitting under the same roof 
 with the criminals. . . . The venerable character 
 of the court seems to have detemiineil Solon to 
 apply it to another purpose; and, without mak- 
 ing any change in Its original jurisdiction, to 
 erect it into a supreme council, mveMed with a 
 sup<'rintending ami controlling authority, which 
 extended over every part of the social system. 
 He constituted it the guanlian of the "public 
 morals and religion, to keep watch over tlie "iu- 
 cation an<l conduct of the citizens, and topn ect 
 tiic State from the liisgracc or pollution of wan- 
 tonness and profaneness. He arme<l it with e.x- 
 traoniinary powers of interfering in pn'ssing 
 emcrgenciea. to avert any sudden and imminent 
 dang< r which threatencilthe public safety. The 
 na*i;'e of its functions rendered it scarcely pos- 
 sible pncisily to detino their limits: and"Sol(>n 
 probably tho"uglit it best to let them remain in 
 that ol)seurity nhieli magnifies whatever is in- 
 distinct. . . ' It WHS tilled with archons who 
 had discharged their offlee with appn>veil liilelitv, 
 and they held tlieir seats for life."— 0. Thirlwall. 
 Jliiit. of Griece, r. 1, ch. It. — Tliesc enlargeil 
 functions of the Areopagus were withdrawn 
 from it in the time of Pericles, through the 
 agency of Ephiultes. but were restoreii alMiut 
 B. C. "4(KI, after the overthrow of the Tliirty.— 
 "Some of the writers of antiquity ascribed" the 
 first estulilishment of the 8<'nate of AreoiKicus 
 to Solon. . . . But there can lie little doubt that 
 this is a mistake, and that the senate of .Vre 
 opagus is a primordial institution of imnuinnriul 
 anti(|uity, though its constitution as w.li as its 
 functions tmderwcnt many changes. It stcKul at 
 tlrst alone as a permanent ana collegiate au- 
 thority, iprik'inally bv the sidi- i^f the kings and 
 ufterwunls hy the side of the :irihonai it would 
 then of (ourse Iw known by the title of The 
 Boole, — the senate, or council; its distinctive 
 title •senate of Areopagus," Iwrrowed from the 
 place where its sittings were held, would nut Iw 
 bestowiHl until tlie formation by 'Solon of the 
 second siniite, or eoiiiuil, from which there was 
 neeii to diseriminate it. "— (• Oroti', Hint, nf 
 Orwff, ]it. '.'. eh. 10 {' ;i).— Stx', also, Athens: 
 B. C. 477 Wi. :ind 4rtti 4.'')4. 
 
 ARETHUSA, FounUin of. See SvmcisE. 
 ' AREVAC^, The.— One of the tribi-s of the 
 CeltilHTians in uiieient Spain. Their cliief town, 
 Kumantia. was the stronghold of Celtibcrian re- 
 sistance 111 the Roman conquest See Xumau- 
 TIAN W i.. 
 
 ARGAOEIS, The. Sec Phtl*. 
 ARGAUM, BsUle of (1803). See India: 
 A. D. 179B-1S0'5. 
 
 ARGENTARIA, B«tU«of(A. D. 37D. See 
 Alemanni: a. I). 3TH. 
 
 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: Aboricinal 
 inbabitaot*. See American Aborioines: Ti cl 
 
 — Ol'AKANI. 
 
 A. D. 1515-1557.— DiKOTery, exploration 
 and early aetttement on La Plata.— First 
 fonndinK of Bucnot Arres. See Parauiav: 
 
 A. I). i.M.i-i,'..-.:. 
 
 A. D. 1580-1777.- The final foondinc of the 
 City of Bueno. Ayrea.— Conflicts of Spain and 
 Portugal on the Plata.— Creation of the 
 Viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres. — "In the year 
 15WI the foundations of a lasting city were'luiil 
 at Buenos Ayres liy Dc Garay on the samesitiiu- 
 tion as liail twice previously been clioaen — 
 namely, by Mendoza, and by Cabeza de Vara, 
 respectively. The same leader had before tliis 
 founded the settlement of Santc Fuonthe Hartimi. 
 The si>e selecteii for the future capital of 
 the Pampas is probably one of the worst ever 
 chosen for a city . . . has probably the wcir«t 
 harbour in the world for a large commerdal 
 town. . . . Notwithstanding the inconveiiii me 
 of its harbour. Buenoa Ayres soon became tin- 
 chief coinmereial entrepot of the Valley of tin- 
 Plata. The settlement was not effected wilhniit 
 some severe llghling iH'twceii I)e Oaray's fnnv 
 and tlie Querandies. The latter, however, wiri' 
 effectually quelled. . . . The Spanianis Here 
 now nominally masters of the Rio de La I'lati 
 but they had still to apprehend hratilities on ili,' 
 part of the natives tietween tlieir few and f.ir 
 distant settlements [concerning which set; F.vii t 
 Gf.w: A. n. l.'ib'i-l.-w;]. Of this Ihibility It,. 
 Garay himself was to form a lamentable e.\iiiii|>li' 
 On his passage back to Asuncion, having imau 
 tioiisly landiil to siiip near the ruins of the ell 
 fort of San Espiritu. he was surprised by a purtv 
 of mttives and munien^tl, with all his conip;inl 
 ons. The death of this brave Biscayaii wa* 
 moiinied as a great loss by the entire colnnv 
 The importance of the cities founde<l by him win 
 soon apparent: and in tO'iO all the st'ltlenieiits 
 south of the confluence of the rivers Paniiia aii'l 
 Paraguay were formed into a separate, indipi :i 
 dent govcniiiient, under tlic name of Riode l.i 
 Plata, of which Buenos Ayres was declare. I the 
 capite' This city likewise iK-came the seii of 
 a bislio;! :. . . . The merchants of Seville wlui 
 had olitjiiiieil a monopoly of the supply of .Mexico 
 and P<';u, reganled with niucli jealousy the 
 prospe. t of a new opening for the S<iiith .Viiieii- 
 can trade by way of Iji Plata," and iircKiirnl re 
 strictions upon it whiili were rela.iiHl in Itlis *. 
 far as to permit the sending of two ves.si-lsof Iiiii 
 tons each every year to Spain, but sulijeet t" a 
 duty of ,50 per cent. " t'niler this misentlile 
 coinmereial legislation Buenos Avres contiiiiutl 
 to langui.sh for the first century of its exisn me. 
 In 17i.'i, after the treaty of I'treclit, the KiiLrlisli 
 . . . obtained the 'asiento' or contract for mi|>- 
 |)lying Spanish colonies in America with .Vtrioan 
 slaves, ill virtue of which tliey had permission to 
 form an establishment at Buenixs Ayres. iinil 10 
 send thither annually four ships wiih 1 '.'OO 
 negroes, the value of which they might e\i>ort in 
 produce of the country. They were strieili for 
 bidden to introiiuie other gooils than tlnw« 
 iieiressary for their <iwn estabiisiiinenis: iiiu 
 under the temptation of gain on the one siile and 
 of demand on the other, the asiento ships natur- 
 ally became the means of trausactiag a coiuider 
 
 132 
 
ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 1880-1777. 
 
 able contraband tnde. . . . Tho English wore 
 not the only amuKglerH In the rivt-r Plate. Uy 
 tlic treaty of Utrecht, the PortiiKueite hail obtained 
 llie important settlement of C'olonia [the first 
 Nttlement of the Banda Oriental — or 'Eastern 
 UorJer'— afterwards calleii Uni^juay] directly 
 fiicini; Buenos Ayres. . . . The Portuguese, . . . 
 not contented with the po«ses.,ion of Colonltt . . . 
 <c>mmence<l a more important settlement near 
 .Miiiite Video. From this plaie they were 
 (li'tliMlired bv Zavala [Uovenior of Buenos Ayres], 
 «Ihi. Iiy order of Ids government, proceeded to 
 I'slalilish .settlements at that plai e anil at .Mnldo- 
 iiiulo. I'nder the oIotvc detaileil circumstances 
 iif lonlention . . . Wiis founded the healthy and 
 airncahle city of Monte Video. . . . The incvi- 
 talile consequence of this state of tilings was fresh 
 antaironism between the two countries, wluch it 
 « IS .sought to put an end to by a treaty tx'tween 
 thf two nations conclude<l in li.V). One of the 
 :irti( U'S stipulated that Portugal should cede to 
 Spain all of her establishments on the eastern 
 Ii-ink of the Plata; in return for which she wsa 
 t" receive the seven missionary t<iwns [known as 
 tlie ■ Sven Keductions '] on llie Iruiruay. But 
 . . . the inhabitjints of tlie Missions natundlv 
 n In Hell against the idea of l)«ing han<ied ovit to 
 :i |ieo|ile known to them only by their slave deal- 
 in:.' atrocities. . . . The result was that wlien 
 a.iHKt natives had lieen slaughtered [in tlie war 
 knnwii as the War of thi' l*;ven Keductions] and 
 till ir ^ittlenients reduced to ruins, the Portuguese 
 ri imdiiited tlie compact, as thev coiilil no Linger 
 uiiiw their eiiuivalent. and they still tlierefore 
 ri-T. lined Colonia. When hostilities were re- 
 nrwisl in 1762, the governor of Buemw Avrcs 
 Miceeeded in pos.sessing himse'f of Colonia; 'but 
 inthi- fiilloning year it was resto.iil lo the Por- 
 tuiu, «■, who continued in pos.-essiiin until 1777, 
 wlaii it was definitely ceded to iSpain. Tlie con- 
 tinual incroachnients of the Portuguese in the 
 Kill lie I,a Plata, and the imputiity with wliich 
 llie (iintniband trade was carried' on, together 
 with llie questions to which it constantlv gave 
 rise Hiih foreign governments, had long 'shown 
 tlie iimssity for a change in ttie government of 
 that n.l.iny; for it was still under the superinten- 
 ilinie of the Viceroy of Peru, n'siiling at Lima, 
 H.ooo miles distant. The Sjianish authorities 
 nil rilingly resolveil to give Iresh force to their 
 ri^pri sentatives in llic Rio de La Plata; and in 
 ITTii ihey took tlie Important resolution to sever 
 till- mnnection bctwe»'n the provincesof Li Plata 
 mill the Viceroyalty of Peru. The former were 
 iiiiw en I t«l into anew Viceroyaltv, tlie capital 
 iif which was Buenos Ayres. ... To this Vice- 
 r. • illy was appointeil Don Pedro Ccvallos. n 
 ("riiiergoverniirof Buenos Ayres. . . . The ti ret 
 act of Cevallos was to take possession of the island 
 of St. Katherine. the most Important Portuguese 
 possession on the coast of Brazil. Procveiiing 
 till nie to tlie Plate, lie razed the fortifications of 
 Coliinia to the ground, and drove the Portuguese 
 from the mighlmurhiKKi. In October of the foi- 
 l-wing year. 1777, a treaty of peace was signed 
 ■; St. Ihlefonso, lietwecn Queen Maria of Portii- 
 wul and Charles IIL of Spain, by virtue of which 
 St K.;'lierine's was restored to the latter country 
 wiiilst Portugal withdrew from the Banda Orien- 
 '-' r Iniguay, r,iv\ reliiiquislied ull pretensions 
 to ihc right of navigating the Kio de La Plata 
 atiii itsHlfluenU beyond its own frontier line. 
 The Vioiroyalty of Buenot Ayre* w 
 
 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, 1806-1820. 
 
 Into the provinces of— <1.) Buenos Ayres, tho 
 capital of which was the citv of that name, and 
 which comprised the Spanish pisscsslons tlint 
 now form the I{epiiblic of Uruguay, as well 
 as the Argentine provinces of Buenos Avrc'S, 
 Santa Fe, Entrc Uios. and Corrientes; (2.) Para- 
 guay, the capital of wliich was Asuncion, and 
 which comprised what is now the Republic of 
 Paraguay; (.3.) Tuciiman, the capital of which 
 was St. lago del Estero. and which included 
 what are to-day the Argentine provinces of Cor- 
 dova, Tucuman, St, lago, Salta, Catamarca, 
 Kioja, and Jujuy; (4.) Las Cliarcas or PotosI, 
 the capiul of which was Im Plata, and which 
 now forms the Kepiiiilic of Bolivia; and (5) 
 Chiquito or Ciiyo, the capital of wliich was Men- 
 doza, and in wliich were comprehended the pre- 
 sent Argentine provinces of St. Luiz, Jleiidoza, 
 and St. Juan."— U. O. Watson, Spniiith atul Pt>r- 
 turjiuK Suuth Ameriru, r. 2, i-h. 13-U. 
 
 Auto IK; E. J. Payne, /filtiry of European. 
 Oianit; ch. 17.— S. H. Wilcockc, Hut. uf Ifa 
 i i«rmy«;/y nf liueiu^ Ai/rt: 
 
 A. D. 1806-1830.— The Engltth ioTasion.— 
 The Revolution.— Independence achieved.— 
 Confederation of the Provinces of the Plate 
 {*'»«» "d its dissolution.- •Tiielnideof the 
 1 late Kivir had enorniouslv increaseil since the 
 substitution of register sliips for the annual 
 flotilla, ami the erection of Buenos .Vyres into a 
 viceroyalty in 177H; but it was not until the war 
 of 1797 that the English iK-canie aware of its re.1l 
 e.vtent. The British cruisers hiul enough to do 
 to maintain the blockade: and when the'Knglish 
 h'urniil that millions of hides were rotting in tho 
 warehouses of .Monte Video and Buenos -Vyrcs, 
 they concluded that the people would si«)n sec that 
 their interests would be liest served by submis- 
 sion t/i tlie great nival power. The peace put 
 an end to these iili-is: but Pitt's favourite pro- 
 ject for destroying Spanish influence In South 
 America by the English arms was revived and 
 put in e.xecution siHin after the opening of tlie 
 second European war in 1803. In lHofl ... he 
 sent a squadron to the Plate River, which offered 
 the liest point of attack to the British Ueet. and 
 the roail to tho most promising of tlie Sjianisli 
 colonics. The English, under Gcniriil IkTes- 
 ford, though few in numtwr, soon tisik Buenos 
 Ayres, for the Spaniards, territied at the sight 
 of British troops, surrendered without knowing 
 liow insignilicant the invading force really was. 
 When they found this out, tliey mustereil cour- 
 age to attack lU-resford in the citadel; and the 
 English commander was obliged to evacuate the 
 place. The English soon afterwards tiMik pos- 
 session of .Monte Video, on the other side of tlie 
 river. Here they were joined by another s<iua- 
 droii, wlio were under orders, after reducing 
 Buenos .\yres. to sail round tlic Horn, to take 
 Valparaiso, and establisli posts across the conti- 
 nent connecting timt city with Buenos Avres 
 thug executing tlie long-cherislied plan of Loni 
 Anson. Buenos .Vyres was therefore Invcsteil a 
 .second time. But the English land forces were 
 too few for their task. The Spaniards spread all 
 round the city strong breastworks of oxhides, 
 and collecteil all their forees for its defence. 
 Buenos Ayres was stormcf) by the Enslish a; 
 two points on the .'ith of July, 1WJ7; but they 
 were unable to hold their ground against the 
 i. j._,j 1 >""-'e«»'n8 fire of tho Spaniards, who were 
 sub-divided I greatly superior in numbers, and the next day 
 
 133 
 
AROENTINE BEPCBLIC, 1806-1880. 
 
 AROENTmE REPUBLIC, 181»-;874 
 
 pr 
 I in 
 
 Ihcy capitulated, and ngreed to evacuate the 
 T)rovincp within two monllis. The EDKlish had 
 inaKini-d that the colonists would readily flock 
 to tlieir standard, and throw o(t the yoke of 
 Spain. This was a great mistake ; anrl it needed 
 the event* of tWW to lead the Spanish colonists 
 to their iiuU'pendvnce. ... In 1810, when it 
 came to he known that the French armies had 
 croaaed the Sierra Morena, and that Spain was a 
 conquered country, the colonista would no 
 longer submit to the shadowy authority of the 
 colonial olBoers, and elected a Junta of their own 
 to carry on the Government. Moat of the troops 
 in the colony went over to the cause of inde- 
 pendence, and easily overcame the feeble resist- 
 ance that was macic by those who remained 
 faithful to the regency in tlie engagement of Las 
 Piciiras. The leaders of the revolution were the 
 advocate Castelli and General Belgrano; and 
 under their guidance sj-arcely any obstacie 
 stopped its progress. Thev even sent their 
 armies at once into Upper Peru and the Banda 
 Uriental, and their privateers carrie<l the Inde- 
 pendent flag to the coasts of the Paciflc; but 
 tliese successes were accompanietl by a total 
 anarchy in the Argentine capital end provinces. 
 The most intelligent and capable men had gone 
 off to flght for litjcrty elsewhere; and even if 
 they had remained it "would Imve been no easy 
 task to establish a new government over the 
 scatterc<l and half-civilized population of this 
 vast country. . . . The flrst result of indepen- 
 dence was the formation of a not very intelligent 
 party of country proprietors, who knew nothing 
 of the mysteries of politics, and were not ill- 
 content with the existing onler of things. The 
 huxiness of the old vireroyal government Wds 
 dell-gated to a supreme Director; but this func- 
 tionary was little more than titular. How 
 limited the aspirations of the Argentines at flrst 
 were may lie gathered from the instructions with 
 wlilrh liclgrano and Uivadavia were sent to 
 Europ<' In 1814. Thev were to go to England, 
 and ask for an Englisli proleclomte; If possible 
 under an English princi'. They were next to 
 try the same plan in France. Austria, and Kus- 
 sia. hikI lastly in Snaln ilself: and if Spain still 
 rcfuseii, were to offer to renew the subjection of 
 the colony, on condition of certain spedfltHl con- 
 cessions lieing made. This » iis indeed a strange 
 contrast to the lofty aspirations of the C'oloni- 
 bians. On arriving'at Hio, the Argentine liele 
 
 fates were assured by the English minlsU'r, 
 xir.i StrangfonI, lliat. as things we", no Euro- 
 p«'an power would do anything for them: nor 
 did tliey Biicn-eil Im'IUt in Spain itself. Mean- 
 while tlie governmi'nt of tlie Ouenoa Avres 
 junta was |Kiwerh-aa outside the town, and' the 
 country was fast lapsing Into the utmost dis- 
 onler and confusion. At length, when Oovera- 
 ment could lianlly he said to exist at all. a 
 
 Kiieral ciingiTHs of the provinces of the I'late 
 Iver luwmbled at Tiicuinan in 1N)8. It was 
 n-siilvei| that all the states shoiilil unite In a con- 
 finhriillon to be called the TnltiHl l>nivince» of 
 the I'lale HIvir: and a musillulltiu was cWkt- 
 aliil. In imitation of the famous one of the 
 I'liilcd Swtes, providing for two legislative 
 rliamiirraand a pn-sident. . . , The inniienee of 
 the capital, of which all the other provinces 
 were knnly jeakitis, predonilnstiii In the eon. i 
 gn-m, auil Piiyrredon, an nctivi' Biienoa .\yni I 
 poUticlau, wo* iumIv suprtiue Uiivclor ol tlM 
 
 134 
 
 Confederation. The people of Buenoa Ayres 
 thought their city destined to exercise over the 
 rural province* a similar influence to that which 
 Atliens, under similar circumstances, had exer 
 cised in Greece; and able Buenos Ayreans like 
 Puyrrcdon, San Martin, and RIvadavla. now lic- 
 carae the leaders of the unitary party. The 
 powerful nrovincials, represented by such men aa 
 Loner and Quiroga. soon found out that the Fed 
 eral scheme meant the supremacy of Buenos 
 Ayres. m.d a political change which would deprive 
 them of nifist of their influence. The Federal sy» 
 tem, therefore, could not be expected to last very 
 long; ani it did in fact collapse after four years 
 Artigas led the revolt in the Banda Orient.ii 
 fnow Uruguay], and the Riverene Provinces soon 
 followed the example. For a long time the 
 provinces were practically under the authority 
 of their lix-iil chiefs, the only semblance of poliii- 
 chI life lieing conflued to Buenos Ayres itself"— 
 E. J. Payne, HM. of Eunrptnn Colonia. M. 17 
 Also ix: M. O. Mulhall, TKe BnglM in fi 
 Amerifa. eh. 10-13, iiiirf 16-18. -J. Miller, .Vrm- 
 oiri nf General Hitter, eh. 8 (r. 1).— T. J. Patre, 
 /yi Ptiita. the Argentine Gutfederation and Pnni'. 
 guay, eh. ;!1. 
 
 A. D. 1819-1874.— Anarchy, ciril w«r, deipot- 
 Ism.— The Ions itranle for ordtr and Con- 
 federation.— "A new Congress met in 1819 aiul 
 ma<ie a CunstitutioD for tlie country, which wus 
 never adopti-d by all the Provinces. Pueyrnnlon 
 resigned, and on June 10th, 1819, Joai Rondeau 
 was elected, who. however, waa In no conditlou 
 to pacify the civil war which had broken out 
 during the government of his pre<lecessors At 
 the commencement of 1830, the last • Director 
 General' was overthrown; the municipality uf 
 the city of Ruenos- Aires seUwl the government; 
 the Confedi'ralion was tieclared dls»<ilved, ainl 
 each of its I'rovinces receivol lilierty to orKniii?e 
 itself as it pleased. This was anarchy otfirially 
 pn>claime<l. After the fall in the safiie yenr ..f 
 some military chiefs who had seized tlie "power 
 Gen. Martin Rodriguez was named Oovernur 
 of Buenos- Aires, and he auccee<led In esubliiih- 
 ing some little onler in this chaos. He dKwe 
 M. J. Garcia ami Bernardo Rtvadavia — mie of 
 the most enllghtenivl Argentines of h.stinus- 
 as his Ministers. This administration did a un ;it 
 (leal of goiKi by exchanging conventions ,.f 
 friemlship and comment-, and ent.'ring Into 
 diplomatic relations with fon-Ign natiims. At tin- 
 end of his term General \jt» Heras — iHh May. 
 1824 — took charge of the government, siij 
 called a Constituent Assembly of all the I'm 
 vinces, which met at Buenns-Airps. DccciiclHr 
 mth, and electeil Bemanio Kivailavia Pri>liic iii ,pf 
 the newly Confiilerated Kepiibllc on the Ttli K-li- 
 ruary, 18M. This excellent Argentine. hn». v, r. 
 found no Bssislanee In the Congn>aa. No iimli r 
 staniling muld la- come toon the form or IIh' tut 
 of the Coiiailtiition, nor yet upon the pliici. nf 
 B'sldence for the national Oovemnient WlilM 
 Rivadavia di'sln'<l a centraiiziil Constitution — 
 cHlle<l lien" ' uninlarian '— and that tlie ■ it v nf 
 Buenos Ain's ahouhl Iw de<'laml capital nf llw 
 Republic, the majority of Congress hel<l « ,|if 
 fen-nt opininn. and this dlvergpiicc cuiiscij ihe 
 nwigimtkin of the President on the 5th July. I«.!7. 
 After (his event, the attempt to esUhlish a (nu- 
 fixleratlim which would (ncliide a!! th« !"?:■_ 
 vlncf* was considennl a* defeated, ami esili 
 Plurlnoc went on lt« own way, whlUt Uueuuc 
 
AROKimNE REPUBUC. 1819-1874 
 
 Aires elected Manuel Dorrego, the chief of the 
 fedenU party, for IM QovemoT. He was 
 inaugarated on the 18th August, 1827, and at 
 once undertook to organize a new Confederation 
 of the Provinces, opening relations to this end 
 with the Oovemment of Cordoba, the most 
 imporUnt Province of the interior. He suc- 
 ceeded in ntisUbiishing repose in the Interior, 
 and was instrumental In nreservinir n general 
 peace, even beyond the limits of "his young 
 country. The Emperor of Brazil did not wish 
 to acknowledge the righu of the United Pro- 
 vinces over the Cisplutinc province, or Banda 
 Oriental [now Uruguay!. He wishe.! to annex 
 it to his empire, and declared war to the Argen- 
 tine Kepublic on the 10th of December, 18a«. 
 An army was soon organized by the latter, under 
 the command of Oeneral Alvear, which on the 
 2iilh of February, 1827, gained a complete 
 victory over the Brazilian forces — twice their 
 numN-r — at the plains of Ituzaingd. in the 
 Brazilian province of Hio Orande do 8ul 
 The navy of the Argentines also triumphed on 
 several ocr-uions, w) that when England otfered 
 her intervention, Brazil renounced all claim to 
 till- territory of Uriiiruiiy by the convention of 
 the 27th August, 182M, and the two parties 
 agreed to recognize and to maintain the neutralily 
 and independence of that country. Dorrego 
 however, had but few sympntliii'4 "in the army' 
 ami a short time after his n-lurn from Brazil the 
 «r)lilier!i uniler liavailc relielleil and forced him 
 to fly to the country on tlie Ist December of the 
 same year. There he found aid from the Com 
 mander General of tlie country districts Juan 
 Manuel Kosas, ami fornu'<l a snuill liattalio'n witli 
 the intention of marrliing on the cily of liuenos- 
 Alres. Hut Lavalle triumphed, took him 
 friioner, and shot him without trial on the 13th 
 l)eeemlier. . . . Not only did the whole interit)r 
 of the province of Buenos Ain-s rise agiiliist 
 Uvslle, under the direction of Kosas, but al*i ii 
 Urge part of other Provinces consideml tlili 
 event as a declaration of war. and the National 
 tongresa, then assembled at Santa Fo, declare I 
 Lavalles government illegal. The two parties 
 fought with real fury, butin 1829, after an Inter | 
 view Mween Kosas and Lavalle, a temporary ' 
 reenncillation wa«e(Tect«l. . . . The legislature 
 Kf Hiienos Aires, which had been convoked on 
 mniunlof tile reiH.nHllatloo between Uvalleand 
 K't«M, electiKl the lalt.r as (Jovemor of the I'n) 
 V t.,r. on IVcemher 6th, 188U, and accor.le.1 to 
 him ejtraordjnary p..*,™. . . . During this the 
 
 ftrst iMriiHl of his government he di.l not app. .r 
 m Ills true nature, and at its conclusion 1; 
 nriisiM a n- election and retired to the counir\ 
 Oenera .luan R. Bidearce was then-17tli 
 l>e.ember, 18.13- name<l Oovernor, but could 
 "Illy maintain hlnistir simie eleven months- 
 \ uimont »uccee«le<l lilm. also for a short time 
 "illy Now the moment hail come for liiMns 
 "I sereple.! the almost unlimil.-.| IMcUtorshlp 
 
 Ml. Hgnetlln a horrible nwii.ier like a ma,i 
 man. until his fall .Several times the attempt 
 
 valiant efrorta of p,>iieral Uvalle d.-serve to lie 
 mentliwid; but all was in vain Kos.. n-mglaea 
 
 rmni.fi-*^'''*"'''. **'■'''''"' •"""" J"** Do 
 liLi J!r'.i^*'"™"rj''."" province of Enlr.- 
 HkM, U> •UiuoD wltli tlM province of Corrlcnte. 
 
 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 1880-1891. 
 
 and the Empire of Brazil, rose against the 
 Dictator. He first delivered the Republic of 
 Uruguay and the city of Monte- Video — the 
 asylum of the adversaries of Roaas- from the 
 army which besieged it, and thereafter passing 
 the great river Parani. with a relatlvelylarOT 
 army, be completely defeated Rosas at Montt- 
 Vo'lSf'^f,"'!?'' ""eno^-Alrcs, on the 3rd February, 
 ieoi iJuring the same day, Roaas souirht arid 
 received the protection of an English war- 
 vessel which was In the road of Buenos Aires, In 
 which he went to England, where he still 118761 
 resides. Meantime Urqulza took charge of the 
 Government of the United Provinces, under the 
 title of 'Provisional Director," and called a 
 general meeting of the Governors at San Nicolis 
 a frontier village on the north of the province of 
 Buenos-Aires. This assemblage confirmed him 
 in his temporary power, and called a National 
 Congress which met at Santa Fe and ma<le a 
 Watlonal Constitution under date of 2.'5th May 
 18.M. By virtue of this Constitution the Con- 
 gress inet again the following year at Parani, a 
 city of Entre-Hios. which hail lieen made the 
 capital, and on the 5th Mav. elected Oeneral 
 t rqulza the first President of the Argentine Con- 
 federation ... The important province of 
 Buenos-Alres, however, had taken no part in the 
 dclibcrHtions of the Congress. Previously, on 
 the 11th September 1832, a revoluthm against 
 Irquiza, or rather against the Pnnlncial 
 trovemment in alliance with him, had taken 
 place and caused a temporary separation of the 
 J rovlnce from the Republic. Several efforU to 
 pacify the disputes utteriy failed, and a Imttle 
 took place at Cepeda in Santa Fe, wherein 
 I rciulia, who commandeil the provincial troops 
 was victorious, although his success led to no 
 <ieflnite result. A short time after, the two 
 armies met again at Pavon — near the site of 
 the former lialtie- and Buenos Aire* won the 
 diiy. This secured the unity of the Republic 
 of which the victorious General Bartolome 
 Mitre was elected President for six years 
 froin October, 1869. At the same time the 
 >»tional Oovemment was transfemsl from 
 InrntiA to Buenos- Aires, and the latter was 
 <l.il8iT<l the temporary capital of the Nation, 
 riie Kepublic owes much to the Oovernn.ent of 
 .Mitre, and It is prolwhle that he woiil<l have done 
 more good. If war had not liMken out with 
 Pnraguav. In 1863 |s.y- ParaoiavI The Argen 
 "" ■ '■ e of the 
 
 136 
 
 tines t.Kik iwrt In It as one of the three aijie.1 
 States against the Dictator of Paraguay Fran- 
 cisco SoUno Ixipez. «)n the I2lli (hiober, 1868 
 Domingo Faustino .Snrmiento siicreeiled Oen' 
 
 ?'''r',H'"l';, ''■?■"'''•■■"">■ The litlHMober; 
 
 1«74, Dr. Mcoliis .Vveilaneda surci'isled him in 
 the Oovernment. '-ri Napp, Th* Ar^ntint 
 
 Also IK: D F Sannicnto. L^fe in Ihf Arnfntint 
 KriiHhlir in Ihe Ihiiit r,f ihf Turinh —A \ King 
 I'rrHtjffiwri/nin in th, Arornlinf Hrp'Mir 
 
 A. D, tUo-l89l.-Tht Constitution «nd its 
 workinr. — Govcmmtntal comiption. — Tht 
 R«*olutloB of 1890, and tha financial coUaps*. 
 — 'The Argentine const It 111 Icihul svsiem In Us 
 oMtwaril form corresponds c liwlv to that of the 
 I iilte.1 Slates. . . But llw iriwiir.l arace of 
 eu -hiraKl t»„hlt,-. "pfBl,* i, hrking, and 
 political practice fails below the level of a self 
 governing democracy. Congn-ss enacts lawa, 
 but the Prusldvnt as coumanasr in chief of Uw 
 
! -. 
 
 AROENTINE REPCBUC, 1880-18»1. 
 
 limy, and as the head of a civil service depend- 
 ent upon his will and caprice. posHosws abso- 
 lute authority in administration. The country 
 is governed by executive decrees rather tlian by 
 constitutional' laws. Ele«:tions are carried Iiv 
 military pressun^ and manipulation of the civil 
 service. . . . President Roca [who sun^eoicd 
 Avellanetia in IHMI) virtuallv nondnnted, and 
 elected his brother-in-law, Juarez Celman, as 
 his successor. President Juarez set Ids heart 
 upon controlling the succession in the interest of 
 one of his ri'liitives. a prominent official ; but was 
 forciil to retire before he could carry out his 
 purpose. . . . Nothing in the Argentine sur- 
 priseil me more than the boldness and freedom 
 with which the press attaclicd the government 
 of the day and exposed its corruption. . . . The 
 government paid no heed to these attacks. 
 Ministers di<l not trouble themselves to ri^pel 
 charges atTecting their integrity. . . . This 
 wholesome criticism from an indejiendent press 
 had one important effect. It gave direction to 
 public opinion in the capital, and involved the 
 organization of the Union Civica. If the coun- 
 try had not iH'en on the verge of a tinancial 
 reviUnion. there might not have been the ri'volt 
 against the Juarez lulministration in July, 1890; 
 but wltli ruin and disaster confronting them, 
 men turned agninst the President whose incom- 
 petence and venality would have been conilone<l 
 If the times had tieen good. The Union Civica 
 was founded when the government was charge<l 
 witli niiilailministration in sanctioning an illegal 
 issue of #W,0(H».tHK)ofpapermoney. , . .The gov- 
 ernment was suddenly confn>nte<l with an arinni 
 coalition of the liest battalions of the anny. the 
 entire navy, and the Union Civica. The manifesto 
 ImhciI liy the l{«>vn|utionarv Junta was a terrililc 
 arnilginiient of the I>i)liti(ik1 crimesof the Junn'Z 
 Uoverninent. , . . The revolution onenetl with 
 evi'ry prospect of suci'ess. It failed from the 
 incapacity of tlic leaders to co-opcrati' liarino- 
 nioiisly. On July 10. 1890, the defc-rtion of the 
 army was discovered. On July M the n-volt 
 briilie out. For four days there was blo<><Uhe<l 
 without definite plan or purp<Me. No deter 
 mined attack was made U|H>n the government 
 p«l;ice. Till' Meet opj'ned a fantastic boinliard 
 nient upon thi suhurlis. There was iiiexpliciible 
 mlsmanagenii'iit of the insurgent forces, and on 
 July '.ill an ignnmiiiioiis surrender to the govern 
 nii'iit with It pnKiamation of general amnesty 
 tiinrml KiH'a riinnlnetl la'hind tlie seines, apiwr 
 enlly iiin^li r nf the situation, wliile Presiilent 
 Jimri'j hiiil Heil to a plai-e of nfiiitc on the 
 Ui>s;irii< niilwny. and twi> factions of the nrniy 
 wiri' playiii)! nl cross pur|NM'S. and the (Hilii-e 
 and tlie vnhintetn of tlie Union Clviia were 
 shiHitIng wiiinin and chihln-i in the stnits. 
 Anoihir week of h<i|H<|eas confusion p>iss<il, anl 
 Uc'iiiml iliN'a aniiouiioMi the n-signitlinii nf 
 Pri'siilint Jiisri'/. and the suecesslon nf vice 
 Pnsiili'iit l*i'l|i'i;nni Then the city was illiiml 
 IMti'd. and for threi> days there was a pitnile 
 moniiini of popnliir njoiiing over a victory which 
 DolNsiy exi'pl tli'mrai l(-H'a undersliMHi. . . 
 In June, I-*!!! Ilir ili pl.iralile state of .Vrgentine 
 flnance wim nvnileil In a luminous sta<einent 
 made by Pnsiiliiit Pellegrini. All business 
 
 Inti'n-sts wiTi' stagnant. Immignilion liad Inh'u 
 llivcrtiil U> Hi'..i:ll . All Inijostrica wi<n< 
 
 pMslraUsI exi-epl (Milltics, and the pernicious 
 Mtlrlty displayed by factluni was an evil augury 
 
 AKQONAUTIC EXPEDITION. 
 
 for the return of prosperity. . . . During thirty 
 years the country has trebliHl its populatiun, its 
 Increase bein.i; relatively much more rapid than 
 that of the United Htatesduring the same pcriixl. 
 The estimate of the present popuUtion [1892] la 
 4.000,000 in place of 1,160,000 in 1857. . . . 
 Disastrous as the results of political government 
 and flmmeial disonicr have been in the Argeii 
 tine, its ultimate recovery by slow stages U 
 probable. It has a ningniocent railway system, 
 an industrious working population recruited 
 from Euro|K-. and nearly all the material appli- 
 ances for progress. " — I. N. Ford, Trajnml 
 Ameriea. eh. «.— See Cosstitutiow, Aroektink. 
 A. D. 189a,— Pretidcntiml Election.— Dr. 
 Luis Saenz- Pcna, former Chief Justice of the 
 Supreme Court, and reputed to Ih' a man of 
 
 5reat integrity and ability, was cliosen Presi- 
 ent, and inaugurated October 12, 1892. 
 
 ARCINUSAE, Battle oL See Greece: 
 B. C. 40«. 
 ARCONAUTIC EXPEDITION, Tbe.- 
 
 "The ship Argo was tlie theme of many songs 
 during the oldest |H'riiids of the Un'cian Kpic, 
 even earlier than the (Myssey. The king ..KCtCs, 
 from whom she is diparttng, the lieru Jasdn, who 
 commands her. and the gixidesa iltrf, who 
 watches over him, enabling the Argo to traverse 
 diatanc(« and to csca|i<> liangers which no aliip 
 hail ever before encountereil, are all cln-iini 
 stances briclly glanced at by Oilyaseus in his iiar 
 rative to Alkinous. , . . Jasiin, eommnniieii liy 
 Pelias to depart in quest of tile golden Hei'ce Ik>- 
 
 longing to tlie speaking ram which had earriiil 
 awav Phrvxus and ililT?, was e-Li.-ouraged by ihr 
 oracle to fnvite the noblest vouth of (Irw-ce to his 
 
 aid. and tifty of the most ilistingiiiNlieti nmonL'st 
 them obeyed the call. Il(>nikl0a, TliOsius. 
 TelaniAn and P><k'us. Kastor and Pollux, Mus 
 and Lvnkcus — '/.HCn and Kalats, the wliii."il 
 sons of Hort-as — Meleager. Amphiaraus. Ki'ph 
 ens, LaertCs. .\iitiilykus, Memetius, Aktor. Kr 
 ginus, Kunh^mus, Auka'us, Picas, IVriklviin'iMii. 
 Augeaa, Eurytiis. Adin(<tus, Akastiis, kaiir. 
 Kuryalus, P^ueleiV and I/<<itus, Askalaphiis :im>I 
 lalmcniu, wen' among them. . . . Since s<i in oiy 
 able men have tn'ateil it as an undispiihj 
 reality, and even made it the pivot of systiiiiiiiii 
 ciminological calculations. I may heri! i^'Imhi iIh 
 opinion long ago expressed by Ileyne. ami m' 11 
 Indicated by Bumiann. that the pris-ess of ilj. 
 seeting the story, in si'srch of a liasis of fari i» 
 one altogether" friiilliss.'— (1. Orole, IlitI -t 
 (trtfff. r. 1, i>l 1. cA. 1:1.—" In the rich 1 lu-i' r 
 of myths which surround tlie captain of tin 
 Argo and his fi Hnws are pn'si'rvisl to iis tin' 
 whole life and doings of the nnn'k niariiimi' 
 Irilaw, which gndiially iinltinl all the iiaia|>. »l!li 
 one another, and altractisl Hellenes dwilliin,' 111 
 the mi St different seats into the splnn' nf iliur 
 activity. . . . Tlie Argo was sidii to liuvi' 
 welghi'tl anchor from a variety of (sifts— fh'in 
 lolciis in Thiiwaly, from Antlieiion and Siplie m 
 Ikpolia: IIh* home of Jason hinwlf wns •■!, 
 Mount IVIion liy ttie sea, ami again on !,• tnir.-s 
 and in Corinth; a clear pnsif of how h- iih' 
 gemtius wen' the in. iienoes running on v.iii'us 
 cimsts. However, tlie myths of the Argn mrt 
 developed in the gri'Stesl comph-teness mi •!•• 
 
 \*Hg»K4'un gulf. In tile ■#>>!« nf Ih" Min^i ^'"i 
 
 they are IIk' first with whom a perceptible in >i- 
 nwDt uf tiM Pulaagiaa tribw bcyand tba srs is 
 
 136 
 
AROONAUTIC EXPEDITION. 
 
 other wonb, s Oreek bUtonr io Europe — be- 
 gin*. "— E. Curtlus, UM. of Orttee, hk.l.ch. %-ii. 
 ARCOS.- ARCOLIS. — ARC! VES.— ■ ' No 
 
 district of Oreece contains so deoae a lUccoiatoD 
 of powerful citadels in a narrow space as Argo- 
 lls [the eastern peninsular projection of the 
 Peloponnesus], Lofty Larissa, apparently de- 
 iigned by nature as the centre of the district, is 
 succeeded by Mycen», deep In the recess of 
 the land ; at the foot of the mountain lies Mides, 
 at the brink of the sea-coast Tiryns; and lastlr, 
 at a farther distance of half an hour's nurch, 
 Kaupliu. with its harbour. This succession of 
 ancient fastnesses, whose Indestructible struc- 
 ture of stone we admire to this day [see Schlie- 
 mann's ' Mfftna' and Tirynj'] U clear evi- 
 ilenoe of mighty conflicU which agitated the 
 tiirlit'Ht days of Argos; and proves that in this 
 line philn of Inaclius sevcrnl principalltiea must 
 have arisen by the side of one another, each 
 putting iU conlldcnce in the walls of its citadel ; 
 some, according to Uielr position, maintaining 
 an intercourse with other lands by sea, others 
 rather a connection with the inland country. 
 The evidence preserved by these monuments "is 
 liorne out by that of the mvlhs, according to 
 which the dominion of Danaus is dirlded among 
 his successors. Exile<l Pnptus Is brought home 
 to Argos by Lycian bands, with whose lidii he 
 builds the cottstfortress of Tirvns, where he 
 holds sway as the first ami mightfest In the land. 
 . . . The other line of the Itanaidie is also tu- 
 tlnuilely connected with Lyria I for Perseus . . 
 [who) on bis return from the East finmds Mycenn"! 
 as the new regal seat of the uniUnl kIngiiiHn of 
 ArnDs. is himself essentially a Lt-clan hero of 
 
 I)..l.» I... I. .„..!.... ... .1... II *!.„ ../ . 1. 
 
 ARQ08. 
 
 but Impotent competitor. By what steps the 
 dechne of her power had taken place, we are un- 
 able to ;nake out, nor can we trace the succes- 
 sion of her kings subseiiucnt to Pheidon fSth 
 centurv B. C ] . . The title [of king] existed 
 (thougli prolmbly with very limited functions) 
 Bt the time of the Persian \Vjir [B. C. 490-»791. 
 . . .There is some ground for presuming that 
 the king of .\rgos was even at tliat time a Her- 
 akleid — since the Spartiins offeri-d to him a 
 thini part of the comniiind of the Hellenic forec 
 conjointly with their own two kings. The con- 
 
 auest of Thyn.^ ;e» by the .Spar.ans [about 847 
 .0.] deprived the Argeians of a valuable por- 
 tion of their Periirkis, or depimdcnt territory. 
 But Omeie and the remaining porlion of Kynu- 
 ria still continued to belong to ihcm: the plain 
 round their city was very priNliittive; and. ex- 
 cept Sparta, tliere was no other power in Pelo- 
 p<mnesus superior to them. .Mykenie and Tirvns 
 nevertheless, seem lioth to have been indepen- 
 dent States at the time of the Persian War since 
 IxHh sent contingents to the Iwtlle of Plaliea, 
 at a time when Argos held aloof and rather 
 favoured the Pcrsian-s. " — O. Orote, Ilitt of 
 Grttee.pt. i, ch. 8 (r. 2). 
 B. C. 4g6-4at. — Calmmitout War with 
 
 ;, T . . ","■■ ■"""•■»".< • «.»<.i«ii iHTu oi ntiii extone<l fnmi the .fiir nrtuns «t Vuni.lln 
 
 n.htl».longing,o the rrlglono^ Apollo. . . . ! and rava«-d the Argivet^ri or Thcffl^^^^ 
 Finally, lleracles him.icif s cimnect ' w th tho m,..t.....r,.ii .i.„i. J .. . ;, . ,■,'"• ■^' *," '"''» 
 
 Finally, Heruiles him.icif Is cimnect "' with the 
 fsinily (if the Pcrseids, as a prince .,om on the 
 Tir)-nthlan fastness. . . . During these divisions 
 III ihe house of Danaus. ami the misfortunes lie- 
 falling that of Pro'lus, foreign fHmilit>s aci|uire 
 inliuiiice and ilominlon in Argos: these ai« of 
 the race of .Eolus, and oriKinally hehmg to the 
 hHrNiur-coiintry of the western coast of Pelo- 
 IHinui'sus — the Amytlia<inidfe. . . . While the 
 ilominion of the Argive land was thus sub- 
 iliviiled. and Ihe native warrior nobility sulme- 
 (liiciilly eihausteil itself in savage Internal feuds, 
 s new roysl house But'n<-<li'd In grasping the 
 •upn-me power and giving an entirely new im- 
 |)..rl«iire u» Ihe wiuntry. This house was that 
 •if the Taatalidff [or Pklofiim, which see] 
 unlUil with Ihe I'ones of Achmin piipulallon. 
 . . . The n-siiltie of fact Is. tliat Ihe ancient dy- 
 nasty, c<iiine<'lul by descent with Lycia was 
 nvcrthniwn by the house whicli derive<l Its 
 I'riirin from LydIa, , , , The poetic myths, ab 
 hiirring long rows of names, mention thre.> prin- 
 i'«s» niling hen' In suciTsslon. one leaving the 
 "vpinnf I'rloiMU) the other, vlt. Atri'Uu, Thv 
 ivi« and Agnmeinniiii. Mvcenw Is "he chli-f 
 "Hi of their rule. whi. h Is i^it restricted to the 
 ilKtri.t of Argos."— E. Curtlus, UitofUi-r^ 
 Ml, M. 8 —After th.- Uiric invasion of lia- 
 1 1 ii ivinnesiis {mv Urketk: Tii« .Mhikatiom.. 
 sKi, DoKuNs AXD Io!ii.*ssi, Argtis appears In 
 UfiTk history as a IViric state, originally the 
 fori'miist one in iMweramI Influence, but humlli- 
 sinl after Iohk years of rivalrv bv her HrMrmn 
 r» iMlilnmm. Argia never forgot that »li 
 
 Sp«it».— Noo-«ction in the Persian War.— 
 Slow recoTtryof th* crippled State.— "Ono 
 of the heaviest blows which .Vrgos ever sustained 
 at the liand of hertnulitioiml foe befell her alNiut 
 41« B. C, six years before the Hrst Pi-rsiim In- 
 vasion of Qrvwe. A war with .Sparta having 
 broken out, Clmmenes, the Ijirnl.i.moniin king, 
 "iicceeileil in landing a lurire uniiv, in vessels ho 
 Imil extone<l from the .Et'lnetuns. at Nuuplin 
 
 muslenif all their ?orces to nsint him. and the 
 l»i> nrinies encampeti opiMislte emh other nenr 
 Tirvns. I'leomenes, however, eoiitriveil to at- 
 tack the Argelans at a moment niieii they weto 
 unprepareil, making use, if Hernlotus is to be 
 credited, of a stratagem which proves tlie ex- 
 Irente incapacity of the opposing generals, and 
 completely routed them. The Argeians loik 
 n>fuge In a sacred «• ive, to which the rcmorsu- 
 less Spartans set lire, and so de<itrove<l almost 
 the whole of them. No fewer than HidOl) of the 
 citizens of Argfis perislietl on this dlsuHtrous day. 
 I'leomene* might have captured the city Itself- 
 but he was, or a/TeoUM to Is-, liiiiden-d" bv nn- 
 fttvouralile omens, and drew oH his troops. ' The 
 loss sustained by Argos was so ss'verc as to re- 
 duce her for some years u> a coiidiilon of girat 
 weakness; lull this was at the time a fortunate 
 circumstance for the Hellenic ciiiiw, Inasiiiiich as 
 It enabled the [.iMetilieinoniiins to devoie their 
 whole encrifles to llie work of reslstanii^ to the 
 Persian invasion wllhmii fenrof eminii-sat lumie. 
 In this great work Arifm t<s>k no iMrt, on the 
 iHiaslon of either the tirst or wccinj atU'mpt of 
 the Persian kinirs lu bring Hellas under their 
 dnmlnion. Inde-l, the city was strongly sus- 
 ix-cteil of ' medisInK ' t<<iii|enclrs. In the jiertod 
 following the final overthrow of the Persians, 
 while .Vi hens was pursuing the sple-.^id career 
 of aggrandisement and conqueat tli it maile li<.r 
 Ihe fori'mosl stale In Ureece, and while the Lace- 
 dirmonUiis were paralyzed by ilie revolt of the 
 Mes»-s!3!!s. .\rgo» n^4fw=*i rtf-'ii-fh aftti in 
 flueiice. whl< h site at imce emplovol and In 
 
 „-- . ,,,,,^ aHwi K^iftn iiiAi HIM- hiwl 
 
 i;^nXtwiM^'5'^''L:^t.r"^'-''l".;."'« r*-'' "V»'- han..rp;;ih.v:'""'"Tde",;';puta: 
 
 «r iwiiDg tuwanis ttpwta wm tbat of a jvaluua Un( MyoMMl aati TJrya^ WhUe iht cooimUwI 
 
 137 
 
AR008. 
 
 ARIANISM. 
 
 ■erenl other lemi-independent places In the Ar- 
 
 Silld to acknowledge her ■upreraac> During 
 e first eleven years of the Pi-loponnesian war, 
 down to the peace of Nlclaa (421 B. C), Arg » 
 held aloof from all participation in the struggle, 
 adding to her wraith and perfecting her military 
 organization. As to her domestic conditions and 
 political sysu-m, little is known ; but it Is certain 
 tiiat the govi'rament, unlike that of other Dorian 
 states, was dcmocretic in its character, though 
 there was in tlie city a strong oligarchic and 
 philo-Laconiiin party, which was destined to ex- 
 ercise a decisive influence at an important crisis." 
 — C. H. Hanson, The Land of Oiteee, eh. 10. 
 
 Also w : O. Orote, IliH. of Oreeee, pt. 2, eh. 86 
 (e.4). 
 
 B. C. 4ai-4i8. — Lean* formed against 
 Sparta.— dutbreak of War.— Defeat atlfan- 
 tinea. — RcToiution in the OUnrchical and 
 Spartan interest. See Orbkcb-B. C. 421-418. 
 B. C. 395-3S7— Confederacj acaiiMt Sparta. 
 —The Corinthian War.— Peace of Antalddas. 
 See Qrkece: H, C. SMIMST. 
 
 B. C. 371.— Mob outbreak and maasacre of 
 chief citizens. 80c Greece: B. C. 871-363. 
 
 B. C. 338.— Territories restored by Philip of 
 Macedon. SccUkef.ce: B. C. 8S7-886. 
 
 B. C. 271.— Repulse and death of ^rrbns, 
 king of Epirus. See Macedokia : B. C. 277- 
 844. 
 
 B. C. a39.—Lil>erated from Macedonian con- 
 trol. SecURKKcK: B. C. 2HO-146. 
 
 A. D. a67. -Ravaged by th* Cotha. See 
 OoTlIs; A. 11. 2.'>H-a«f 
 
 A. D. 39$.— Plundered br th* Goths. Sec 
 Oothd: .\. T). 3B,'>, 
 
 A. D. 1463.— Taken by the Turks, retaken 
 by the Venetians. 8ee Greece: A. D. 1434- 
 147U. 
 
 A. D. 168A.— Taken by the Venetians. Sec 
 Tl'BKS: A. 1). I«(*4-16»6. 
 
 » 
 
 ARGVRASPIDES, The.-" He [Alcxamler 
 the Orcnil then marched into India, tlml he 
 might Imve lii^ eniiiiro hounded by the ocenn, 
 and tlie cxtn'nic |mrts of the f^ust. ThHt tli« 
 equipments of Ills army miRht be suitable to the 
 gli)ry of the K.xiittiltion, lie mounted the trap- 
 pings of the homes snd the arms of the soldiers 
 with silver, ami lall.d a body of his men, from 
 having silver sliliUls, Argyraspldes."- Justin, 
 Z/iV'.ry (tr.tn: fty J. S. WnUrnn). bk. 13, eh. 7. 
 
 AiJio im: I'. Thlriwall, Hint. M '}rttet, eh. 5«. 
 — S<T. iilw). Ma('Kim>ma: B. C. ^23-816. 
 ARCVRE. So<' (RRTSR. 
 ARIA.~AREIOS.-ARBIANS.-The name 
 bv whiih till' llcrirud and its valley, the illstriit 
 of modern llrnit, was known to the «nil<nl 
 Ort'eks. Il« liiliiililtuntswcro known as the Ari'l- 
 ans — M l>iiii< kir. Iliil. of Anliq.. hk. 7, rh 1. 
 ARIANA. — " Mtnitio uses the name Arlsiin 
 for the liinil of lilt v nations of Iran, enifpt 
 that of the Mnlin and I'treians, i. e,, for the 
 whole eaulini half of Iran"— AfghaniiUn and 
 BelixK-hlMtaii — M. Diinckrr. Uia. of Aiititiuitu, 
 f. 8, Mr. 7, M I, 
 
 ARIANISM.-ARIANS.-F>r)mthesemnd 
 century of lt.n rtiatenrr, the Christian rliurrh 
 was diviiliil by hitter controversies tourhing the 
 mystery of the Trinity. "The word Trinltv Is 
 iouiiil liritlMr ill ilie Holy Scriptures nor m'tlio 
 writings of the Hnit ChrUthms; but it liail been 
 Mipioyed frum the beginning uf the sewud cvn- 
 
 138 
 
 tury, when a more metaphysical turn had been 
 given to the minds of men, and theologians had 
 begun to attempt to explain the divine nature. 
 . . . The Founder of the new religion, the 
 Being who had brought upon earth a divine 
 light, was he God, was he man, was be of an in- 
 termediate nature, and, though superior to all 
 other created beings, yet himself created t This 
 latter opinion was held by Arius, an Alexandrian 
 priest, who maintained it in a series of learned 
 controversfaU works between the years 818 and 
 823. As soon as the discussion had quitted the 
 walls of the schools, and been taken up by the 
 people, mutual accusations of the gravest kind 
 took the place of metaphysical subtleties. The 
 orthodox party reproached the Ariana with 
 bUspheming tlie deify himself, by refusing to 
 acknowledge him in the person of Christ. The 
 Ariana accused the orthodox of violating the 
 fundamental law of religion, by rendering to the 
 creature the worship due only to the Crcntor. 
 ... It was ditncult to decide which numbcreii 
 the hu'gest body of followers; but the ardent en- 
 thusiastic spirits, the populace in all the great 
 cities (and especUlly at Alexandria) the women, 
 and the newly-founded order of the monks of 
 tiie desert . . . were almost without exception 
 partisans of the faith which has since been de- 
 clared orthodox. . . . Constantine thought this 
 question of dogma might be decided by an as- 
 sembly of the whole churcii. In the year 82.'5. 
 he convoked the council of Nice [see ?Jic.«a[ 
 CofNclL orl, at which 800 bishops pmnouncil 
 in favour of the equality of the Son with the 
 Father, or the doctrine generally rrgar li .1 as 
 onh<xlox, and condemned the Ariana to exile 
 and their books to the flames."— J. C. L. dc 81s- 
 mondi, FiiUofthe Rniuin Umpire, eh. 4. — "The 
 victorious faction [at the Council of Nice] . . . 
 anxiously sought for some im-concilable mark 
 of liistinction, the rejection of which might in- 
 volve the Arians in the guilt and cnnaeqiienrcs 
 of heifsy. A letter whs publicly read ami igno- 
 mlntously torn. In whidi their patron. Eiis«T)lus 
 of Nicomnlin. Ingeniously confesw'd that thi' ml- 
 misnion of the hom(M)usion, or consubatantial, a 
 word already familiar to tlie Platonists, was in- 
 compatible with the principles of their tliiii. 
 logical system. The fortunate op|M)rti.nitv was 
 eagerly cmliraced. . . . The consulMtnnliality 
 of the Father and the Son was esUbllshed liv the 
 Coimcil of Nice, and has liecn unanimoiisfy re- 
 ceive<l as a fiinilanienfjil article of the Cliristlim 
 faith by the consent of the Greek, the l.atln. the 
 Oriental and the I'Mti-stant churches." N.it- 
 withntanding the ili-cisloii of the Coiinrll of 
 Nice against It. the heresy of Arliis ciintliiiietl to 
 gain ground in tlie Kast. Even the Kin|M'ror 
 Conslanfine hti-ame frieiully to it, and the noim 
 of Conifantlne. with some of tlie later eniiMn.rii 
 who foUowiii them on the eastern throne, wi n- 
 anient Arians in belief The HomcNiuniniiH, ..r 
 ortlioilox, were siilijecteil to peraecution. whi, h 
 was illnK-ttil with spe<-ial bitterness againxt tin ir 
 git-nt leader, .\thanaslus. the famous l>it<lio|i if 
 Alexantlria. But Arianism was weakemil bv 
 lialr-spllttiiig illstinciions, which resullitl in 
 many diveriring cni-ils. "The sect which as- 
 serteil the iloctrtneufa 'similar sulistanc*'' was 
 the moat numemiu. at !<>iut In thn pnivimTa of 
 Asia. . . . 'I'he Greek woril which was rhiwa 
 to express this mysterious resemblance bears »<> 
 close an aflSoity to the orttodu symbol, Ibat th* 
 
ARUNISM. 
 
 profane of every age have derided the furioua 
 contests which the difference of a tingle diph- 
 thong excited between the Homoouslans and the 
 Homoiouslans. " The Latin churches of the 
 West, with Home at their head, remained gen- 
 tmlly arm in the orthodoxy of the Homonusian 
 creed. But tlie Qoths, who had received 
 their -"hristianity from tl)e lUut, tinctured witli 
 Arianism, carried tlut ueresy westward, and 
 apreaii it among their barl>arlan neighbors — 
 \nnil»i9, BurguQillaiisand Sueres — through the 
 iutlucnce of the Uotliie Bible of Ulfllas, which 
 lie iiikI his missionary succesaors bore to Uie Teu- 
 tonic peoples. " The Vandals and Ostrogoths 
 lieraevered in tlie profession of Arianism till the 
 liaal ruin [A. O. 833 and 553] of the kingdoms 
 wliich they had founded in Africa and Italy, 
 Tlie barbarians of Gaul submitted [A. D. 807] 
 to the orthodox dominion of tlio Franks; and 
 Spain was restored to the Catholic Church by 
 the voluntary conversion of the Visigotlis [A. D. 
 SN9]." — E. Qibbon, Veelitu) and mi of tht 
 Riiiuin Empire, ch. 21 nitd 87. — Theodoaius 
 formally proclaimetl his adiiesion to Trinitarian 
 orthodoxy by his celebrate<l olict of II. D. 880, 
 and commanded its acceptiince in the Eaatem 
 Empire. See Home: A. U. 879-89.5.— A. Ne- 
 sndcr, Oen. Hut. of Chrut. Bel. and Ch., Iran: 
 bi/ Torn/, V. i, $tft. 4. 
 
 Almi in: J, Alzog, 3fanualof Cniv. Ch. Hitl 
 ««•(. IKKIU.— W. O. T. Shcild, Uut. of Chrut. 
 Diirli-ine, At. 8.— J. H. Newman, Ariant of Vie 
 Ftiurlh CtHtiiry. — A. V. Stanley, Leett. on the 
 Hilt, uf the Hut. Ch., IteU. 3-7.—.!. A. Domcr, 
 Uitt. iif the Dtivluimtent «/ lite Itoctrine of the 
 /Vrwrt nf Chritt. die. 1 (r. 2).— S'f, also. OoTiis: 
 A. 0.341-381: FiiA.iKs: A. D. 181-511; also, 
 OoTilsiViKiiioTiis): A. O. 507->V)9. 
 
 ARICA, Battlt of (i88o). Sec Chile: A. D. 
 l83:Mmt. 
 
 ARICIA, Battle of.— A victory won by the 
 Riimaiis oviT llic .Vuruncians. B. C. 497, which 
 suiniiuirily endi'd a war that the latter had lie- 
 clarc<l Hguinst the former. —Li vy, Jliil. of Btme 
 bk. -i. eh. M. J J . 
 
 ARICIAN GROVE, Tht.-The sacred grove 
 St Aricia (one of the towns of old Latium, near 
 AllNi Louga) was the center and meeting-place 
 of an curly league among the Latin peoples 
 «li.iut which little is known.— W. Ihne, Hiit. of 
 liwu. hk. «, rh. 8.— Sir. W. Ovli, Toitng. of Hume 
 r I.— "On the northern shore of the lake [of 
 .Viiiii] ridht under the preri|iitou.<i cliffs on which 
 the nicKltrn vlllttifeof .Nenii is fwrrheil, stood the 
 M( hnI KMve mid sttnctiiary of Diuna Nemort- osis 
 or nihiiii of llie Wo.n1. . . . The site was cx- 
 Divntfi iu 1883 liy Sir John Saville Lumley 
 KiiitliMi ai. .hassador at Home. For a genenii 
 ili'uriiilion of the site and exinvations. tee the 
 AllHiiieum. lOth Ortolier, 188,1. For deUlis of 
 111. llii.|Hiii.e'Bull.'tlnodell' Instltutodi Corris- 
 I1..111I.M1M Archeoiogioa," tHH.V . . . The hike 
 :iiiil thi' If n.ve wen' Miini'tinii'S known as tlie lake 
 Mv\ itrovi- of Aril-ill. But th.' t.iwn of AricU 
 (the mi«l..rn U Itliiia) was situated about three 
 iiiil..» i.tT, Ht the f.M of the All«n Mount. . . . 
 \i 1-or.liiig to one utory, the woniliip of llUna at 
 N.iiii was iu^liriiU.<l by On-stes, who, after 
 killiiiit Thoaa, King of tlie Tauric Chcrs-weso 
 ■'■"■ '•-«>■ HI rt^l wllli his shitrr t.) Itaiy, hrinij- 
 iu« Willi liim the Image of ilie Tauric Diana. 
 ■ . . Wllhiii the aancliMry at NemI grew a cer- 
 laiu tree, of which Do branch might be broken 
 
 1S9 
 
 ARIZONA. 
 
 Only a runaway sUve wag allowed to break oft 
 ir he could, one of lu boughs. Success in the 
 attempt entitled him to flght the priest in single 
 combat, and It he slew him he reigned In his 
 stead with the title of King of the Wood (Rex 
 Nemorenals). Tradition averred that the fateful 
 branch was that Golden Bough which, at the 
 Sibyl's bidding, iEneas plucke.1 before he 
 cssaved the perilous journey to the world of the 
 dead. . . . This rule of succession by the sword 
 was observed down to imperial times; for 
 amongst his other freaks Caligula, thinking that 
 Hie prJest of NemI bad held office too long 
 hired a more stalwart rufflan to slay nini."— 3. 
 O. Frarer, The OoMen Bough, eh. t leet 1 
 
 ARICONIUM.— Atown of Koman Britain 
 which appears to Imve been the principal mart 
 of the iron manufacturing industry in the Forest 
 of Dean.— T. Wright, The Celt, tlie Soman and 
 the Siuvn,p. 161. 
 
 ARIL The. See LraiANa 
 
 ARIKARAS, The. See American Abori- 
 gines: Pawnee (Caddoax) Family. 
 
 ARIMINUM. — The lioinun colony, planted 
 In the third century B. C, wliicli grew into the 
 modern city of Rimini. See ItoMK: B. C. 205- 
 191.— When Cesar entered Italy as an Invader, 
 crossing the frontier of Cisiilpine Oaul — tlio 
 Hubiron — his first movement was to iK-cupy 
 Ariminura. He baited there for two or three 
 ww'ks, making his preparations for the civil war 
 wliich he had now eiiU-rul uiKm and wiiitiiig for 
 the two legions tliat he had oriicnil from OauL 
 — r. M.Tlvale, iHiit. ufthe Iliminm, eh 14 
 
 . A?l9y^*-°"S' *^'°K of 'he Lombardi, 
 A. I). 626-638. 
 
 ARISTEIDES, AacendancT of. Sec Ath- 
 E.Ns: n. C. 477-402. 
 
 ARISTOCRACY.-OLIGARCHY.- 
 
 •■ Aristocracy signitlcs tlie rule of the Ih'sI men. 
 If. however, this epithet is n^fc-m-d to an absolute 
 ideal standard of excelUiice, it is miinif.st that 
 an aristocratlcal government is a mere alistract 
 notion, which has nothing in liistorv. or in nature 
 to correspond to It. But if w.' corit.'iit ourselves 
 with taking the same terms in a iilutivc si-nse, 
 . . . aristocrHcy . . . will Ik' tli:it form of gov- 
 ernment In which tlie ruling f.w are distin- 
 guished from the multitude livilliiHtrimis birth 
 hereilitary wcailli. and iMr-iiiiul •ncrit. 
 Whi'never siicli 11 change t.K.k jil.iir in ilie char- 
 acter or the n-iiitivo iMmitioii (if thu riiliiiir Ixidy, 
 that it nolongi-r conimaml.-.l lli.t resp.. 1 of fu', 
 subjecta, but four I itself opiM.sc.| to them, and 
 eom|)elliHl to direct its nuiwiin-s iliieily to the 
 pn'st'rvation of its jiower, it ceased to Itv, iu the 
 Greek sinsc an ari»t.K'ra» v; it U'liinie a faction, 
 ail oligarchy."— C. Thirlwall. Jliel. of Orteee, 
 eh, 10. 
 
 ARISTOUNEAN war. S<e .MEB««.^iAa 
 
 .\ Alia, t lUHT AND Second. 
 
 ARIZONA: Th* Name.-" Arizona, proba- 
 bly .\rlr.oiiae in ita original t.irm. was tlic native 
 au.l pMliably I'lina name .if tin- pluei-- of a 
 bill, valley, stream, or some otli.r lisnl feature 
 — just south of the mixlern iNiuiidurv, in the 
 mountains still so cnllnl. on tli.' li.wlWal.rs of 
 the stream Howing past Saric , wliir.^ the famous 
 I'laiiehas de Plata mine wus disovenil in ilis 
 niiililie of Uie IHtli »*ntury, ili.- iiaiiii' being first 
 known to Spanlanls in tliat coninrlion nii.llH-ing 
 '"'" " niinaa. 
 
 Known 10 spanlanls In tliat coninrlion nii.1 Ih< 
 ii|)plie<l to the mining camp or n'al i\v nili 
 Iba aburlxliiel mouliig of thu term U 
 
ARIZONA. 
 
 ABKAN8AS. 
 
 known, tboueh from the common occurrence In 
 this region of the prefix ' ari,' the root ' son,' and 
 the termination 'ac,' the derivation ought not to 
 escape the researrh of a competent student. 
 Sucli guesses as arc extant, founded on the native 
 tongues, offer only tlic barest possibility of a 
 
 Sartial and accidental accuracy; wliilo similar 
 criva'ions from the Spanish are extremely 
 absurd. . . . The name should properly be writ- 
 ten and pronounced Ariaona, as our English 
 sound of the z dws not occur in Spanish." — 
 H. H. Bancroft, Jlut. of tht PMi«c State; t. 13, 
 p. 620. 
 
 Aboriginal Inhabitant*. See Amekicas 
 Adorkiines: Pukblos, Ai'achk Group, 8ho- 
 •noNEAN Family, a.nd Utahs. 
 
 A. D. 1848.— Partial acquitition from Hex- 
 leo. See Mexico: A. D. 1848. 
 
 A. D. 1853.— Purchase by the United SUtee 
 of the ■outnem part from Mexico. — The Gads- 
 den TreatT.— "On December 30, 1858, James 
 Gadsden, United StiUes mini»tt-r to Mexico, con- 
 cludiil a treaty bv which the boundary line was 
 moved southwanl so as to give the United States, 
 for a monetary consideration of 110,000,000. all of 
 modem Arizona south of the Gila, an effort so 
 to fix the line as to include a port on the gulf 
 being unsucces.<<ful. ... On the face of the 
 matter this Uaiisilen treaty was a tolerably satis- 
 factory settlement of a boundary dispute, anil a 
 purrhitse by the Unitwl States of a route for 
 a southern railroad to California." — H. H. Ban- 
 croft, JJiit. of the hmjie Htiitet, e. 13, «*. 30. 
 
 ARKANSAS, The. See Axericam Abo- 
 
 KKiiNKw: SiiiiAN Family. 
 
 ARKANSAS: A. D. 1543— Entered by Her> 
 nando de Soto. See Florida: A. 1>. 1338- 
 IW.'. 
 
 A. D. 1803.— Embraced in the Louisiana 
 Purchase. Sic I.m isiana: ,V I). 17WH-1803. 
 
 A. D. 181Q-1836.— Detached from Missouri. 
 —Organized as a Territory.— Admitted as a 
 State. — ■■ I'rcpiinitiiry to the assumption of 
 stute gnvcrnniciit, the limits of the Missouri 
 Territory were nstricletl on the south by the 
 parallel of 3tP M north. The restriction was 
 maiie by an act nf Congress, approved March 3, 
 181V. entitled an '.\ct establishing a separate 
 territorial govcrtiinciit in the southern portion of 
 the Missouri Tcrritury." The pirtlon thus Sep- 
 aratc'i was sulwcuucntly orgaiiizoi into the 
 second grade of ti'rritorial government, and 
 Coloni'l Jaini's Miller, a meritorious and dislin- 
 gulsl'.cil iitltciT of the Northwestern army, was 
 ap|H>intcd tint KDvcmor. This territory was 
 kniiwn H* the .Vrkuiisas Territory, and, at the 
 periiNl of its tlr'<l organization, contained an 
 aggregate nf nearly U.tMW inhabitants. lU 
 limits ciiniprisi'd jiII llie territory on the west side 
 of the Mississippi U'lween the parallels 83" and 
 30' 80', <ir iHiwtin the northern limit of I.oui- 
 siana and the souilicrn Ixiundary of the Slate of 
 Missouri. On tlic west it rxtendeil iiulellnitely 
 to the Mcxiciiii territories, »t least (WW miles. 
 The Post of .Vrkiiiisiis was made the seat of the 
 new govenmii'iit The population of this exti-n- 
 slve tiTritiiry for several years was comprisiil 
 chiefly In the setlli'nicnls upon the tributaries of 1 
 While HIver niirj iiie m Fmncis: upon the Mis- ! 
 Blsslppl. Iietwi'i II Ni'w .Madrid and Point Chicot; { 
 aiul U|Min IniIIi Kide* of the Arlunsas Kiver. 
 wlthia lUO miles ul lis muuUa, but sapedally in 
 
 the Tidnlty of the Post of Arkania*. . . . S« 
 feeble was the attraction in this remote region 
 for the active, industrious, and well-disposed 
 portion of the western pioneers, that the Arlcan- 
 sas Territory, in 1880, ten years after its organ! 
 zation, had acquired an aggregate of only 30,8^ 
 souls, including 4,676 sUves. . . . The western 
 half of the territory had been erected, in 1834, 
 into a separate district, to be reserved for the 
 future residence of the Indian tribes, and to be 
 known as the Indian Territory. Prom this time 
 the tide of emigration began to set more actively 
 into Arkansas, as well as into other portions of 
 the southwest. . . . The territory increased rap- 
 idly for several years, and the census of 1835 
 gave the whole number of inhabitants at 08,134 
 souls, including 9,630 slaves. Thus the Arkan- 
 sas Territory in the last five years had doubled 
 its population. . . . The people, through the 
 General Assembly, made application to Congress 
 for authority to establish a regular form of stats 
 government. The assent of Congress was not 
 withheld, and a Convention was authorized to 
 meet at Little Rock on the first day of January, 
 1886, for the purpose of forming and adopting a 
 State Constitution. The same was approved oy 
 Congress, and on the 13th of June following the 
 Statie of .Arkansas was admitted into the Federal 
 Union as an independent state, and was, in point 
 of time and order, the twentv-flfth in the con- 
 federacy. . . . Like the Missouri Territory, 
 Arkansas had been a slaveholding country from 
 the earliest French colonies. Of course, the 
 institiitiim of negro slavery, with proper checks 
 and limits, was sustained by the new Constitu- 
 tion." — J. W. Monette. lUtntrery nnd Settkment 
 of the Vatlfii of the Mimuipiri. bk. 6, eh. 17 (0. 
 2).— Sec, also, United Stati:^! or Ax.: A. Dl 
 1818-1821. 
 
 A. D. 1861 (March).— Secession Toted down. 
 See United States or Am. : A. U. 1861 (March 
 — April). 
 
 A. D. 1861 (April).— Coremor Rector's reply 
 to President Lincoln's call for troops. See 
 United States of .\m. : A. 1). 1861 (April). 
 
 A. D. 186a (Januarr— March).— AdTance of 
 National forces into the Stats.— Battle of Pea 
 Ridge. See United States or Am. : A. 1). 
 1862(Janiart— March : Misnoimi— Arkansas). 
 A. D. i86a (July— September).- Progress of 
 the CiTil War. See United States or Am. : 
 A. D. 1863 (JcLY— Septemrcr: Missouri- 
 Arkansas). 
 
 A. D. iSAa(Decemb«r).— The Battle ofPrairie 
 Grove. See United States or Am. : A. D. 
 1863 (Skptembkh — December: Missouri- 
 Arkansas). 
 
 A. D. 1863 (January). —The capture of 
 Arkansas Post from the Confederates. S<'e 
 United St.\tks or Am. : A. D. 1863 (Januahv: 
 Ahkanhan). 
 
 A. D. 1863 (July).— The defence of Helens. 
 Si* United States or Am. ; A. U. 186:1 (.Irn: 
 On the Miwisrippi). 1 
 
 A. D. 1863 (Angast— October).— The break* 
 ing of Confederate anthority.— Occupation of 
 Little Rock by National forces. See I'NiTKq 
 SiATEsor Am. : A. D. 1888(.\LouaT— OiToBtu.' 
 Arkansas — MisaorRi). 
 
 A. D. 1864 fMarch^.OetoberV-'Lsst !«> 
 portaat operation* of the War.— Price's Raid. 
 SiH- United States or Am. : A. D. 1864 ^MAJtcU 
 — tXToaui: AasAMsas— XissuuHi). 
 
 140 
 
ARKANSAS. 
 
 A. D. iSAi.— First steps toward Receutrue- 
 tion. See I sited States of Am. : A. D. 1868- 
 I8M (December — Jclt). 
 
 A. O. 1865-1868.— Reconstrnction com- 
 pleted. See United States op Am. : A. D. 186S 
 (Mat— JcLT), to 1868-1870. 
 
 • 
 
 ARKITES, The— A Canaantte tribe wlio 
 occupied the plain north of Lebanon. 
 
 ARKWRICHTS SPINNING MACHINE, 
 OR WATER-FRAME, The inTention oi 
 See Cotton Manufacture. 
 ARLES : Oriria. See Saltes. 
 A. D. 411. — Double siere. See Brttaui: 
 A. D. 407. 
 
 A. D. 435.- Besieged by the Goths. See 
 OoTns (VwiooTHs): A. D. 419-451. 
 
 A. D. 508-510.— Siege by the Frmnks.— After 
 the overthrow of the VUigotliic kingdom of 
 Toulouse, A. I>. 507, by the victory of Clovls, 
 king of the Frsoks, at Voclad, near Poitiers, 
 "the great city of Aries, once the Roman capital 
 of OttuI, maintained a gallant defence againfit 
 the united Franks and Burgundians, and saved 
 for generations the Vlaigothic rule in Provence 
 nn.l southern Languc<liir. Of the siege, which 
 lasted apparently from UnS to 510, we have some 
 f.niphic details In the life of St. Ciesarius, Bishop 
 of Aries, written by his disciples." The city 
 was relieved in 510 bv an Ostmgothic army, sent 
 by king Theodoric of Italy, after a great battle 
 in which 30,000 Franks were reported to be 
 slain, " The result of the Iwttle of Aries was to 
 put TheodoHc in secure possession of all Pro- 
 vpnoi- and of so much of Languedoc as was 
 nwdful to ensnrr his acn>ss to Spain"- where 
 tlie Ostrogotliic king, as guardian of his Infant 
 grandson, Amalaric, wa-s taking care of the Visi- 
 gnthic kingdom.— T. Ilodgkiu, Ilalg andUer In- 
 twkfcr*. bk. 4, th. 9. 
 
 A. D. 933.— Formation of the kiardom. See 
 BiiidiMiv: A. I). W»-93:t. 
 
 A. D. 1033-1378. — The breakinK up of the 
 kingdom and its gradual absorption in France. 
 8i«lt\i((UNi)Y: A. I). 10;«. ami tl27-l.'J78. 
 
 1002-1107.- The fl court of Provence. 
 Sit I'kovence: A. D. 9»3-li)0'J, and 1179-1207. 
 
 ♦ 
 
 AitHADA, The Spanish. See Enqland: 
 A. I> ivs. 
 ARMAGEDDON, S<'e Meoiddo. 
 ARMAGH, St. Patrick's School at. Sec 
 Ihkiaso: .'itli ii.mh Centuries. 
 
 ARM AGNAC, 1 he counts of. Sec France : 
 A. I» I;t27. 
 
 ARMAGNACS. Sec France: A. D. 1880- 
 14l\ iin.l I4I.VI410. 
 
 ARMENIA. — " Almost immediately to the 
 west i.f tlie Caspian tli.tv rises a high tableland 
 cliversilled by ninuiilaliis. wliirli stretches east- 
 "iinl fcr more tliiin eighteen degrees, lietwecn 
 the HTlh'uid 41st parallels. This highland may 
 pr..|Krly Iw reganlftl as a eonllnuation of the 
 criui Imiieiin pluU'au, with wliiih it is connected 
 at Its sinithnistem comer. It comprises a por- 
 tion of till- nLxlem Persia, th<' whole of Armenia, 
 ■iiiil ni(»t of Asia Minor. lis primHpal moun- 
 l:iin rinff.s an- latitudinal, or from west hi east. 
 only the inlnor onu takins the oppfwite or l<in. 
 KliieiiiiiiliiinTiioii . . . The lieart of (hemoun 
 lai'i rinion, the ir.Ml extending from the district 
 of hrivnn on the e»»i tn the upiier course of the 
 hliii Irmsk river and the vicinity of Sivia upon 
 
 ARMENIA. 
 
 the west, was, cs it stm Is, Armenia. Amidst 
 these natural fastnesses, In a country of loftt 
 ridges, deep and narrow valleys, numerous and 
 copious streams, and occasional broad plains— a 
 country of rich pasture grounds, productive 
 orchards, and abundant harvests— this interest- 
 ing people has maintained itself almost un- 
 changed from the time of the eariy Persian 
 kings to the present day. Armenia was one of 
 the most valtuble portions of the Persian empire, 
 funilshlng, as it did, besides stone and timber, 
 and several most important minerals, an annual 
 supply of 20,000 excellent horses to the stud of the 
 Persian king."— O. Rawlln8<m, Fice Grmt Man- 
 anhiet: Pertia, eh. 1.— Before the Persians es- 
 tablished their sovereignty over the country, "it 
 seems certain that from one quarter or another 
 Armenia had been Arianized; the old Turanian 
 character had passed away from It; immigrants 
 had flocked in and a new people had Xteen formed 
 —the real Armenians of later times, and indeed 
 of the present day." Submitting to Alexander, 
 on the overthrow of the Persian monarchy, Ar- 
 menia fell afterwards under the yoke of the 8e- 
 leucidae, but gained independence about 190 
 B. C, orenriier. Under the influence of Partbia, 
 a branch of the Parthian royal family, the Arsa- 
 cids, was 8Ubse(iiiently placed on the throne and 
 a dynasty established which reigned for neariy 
 six hundred years. The fourth of these kings, 
 Tigranes, who occupleil the throne In the earlier 
 part of the last century B. C, placed Armenia 
 in the front rank of Asiatic kingdoms and in 
 powerful rivalry with Parthia. Its sul>se<iuent 
 history is one of many wars and invasions and 
 inuch buffeting between llomans. Partlilans, 
 Persians, and their successors in the conflicts of 
 the eastern worid. The part of Armenia west 
 of the Euphrates was called by the Koinans Ar. 
 menia Minor. For a short period after the revolt 
 from the Seleucid monarchy, it formed a dis- 
 tinct kingdom called Sophene. — O. liawlinson. 
 Sixth niut Sffrnth Umit Orientnl Mim-irehic 
 
 B. C. 69-«8.— War with the Romans.— Great 
 defeat at TirranocerU.— Submission to Rome. 
 See Home; H. C. 78-6H. and 69-63. 
 
 A. D. 1 15- II 7.— Annexed to the Roman 
 Empire by Trajan and restored to independ- 
 ence by Hadrian. .See It>ME: A. 1). tW-liw. 
 
 A. D. 4aa (?).— Persian Conquest.— Becomes 
 the satrapy of Persarmenia. See Persia: 
 A. D. 826-627. 
 
 A. D. ioi6-i07t.— Conquest and dcTastatioa 
 by the Seljuk Turks. «<■<■ Ti rks (Skuiuks): 
 A I). 1(XM-I(l8:i. and 1063-1073. 
 
 iath-i4th Centuries. -The MedicTal Chrit- 
 tian Kingdom.— "The hist decade of the lath 
 century saw the establishment of two small 
 ChristfHn kingiloms in the L,evant. which long 
 outlived all other n-lios of the Crusades except 
 the military onlers; and which, with very little 
 
 help from the West, susiidiied a Imzardo'us ex 
 Istence In complete contrant with nimmt every- 
 thing around them. The kiniriloms of Cyprus 
 and .\rmenla have a hislorv vi ry closelv'inter- 
 twineil. but their origin ami most of tliVir cir- 
 cumstances were very dilTen-nt. Ilv Armenia as 
 a kingdom Is mi-ant little mon> thai) the ancient 
 Cillcia. the ka.! !«-lB.-nrn Tsnni- sii-l i!,r sra. 
 from the frontier of the principaliiv of Antioch 
 I oaatwani, to Ki lendcris or Palivopolis, a little 
 j beyond Sileucia; this lerritorv, which was com, 
 ' puted to contain 16 days' Joumey In lenfthj 
 
 141 
 
ARMENIA. 
 
 ARNiEANa 
 
 raeuQicd from four mile* of Antioch, by two In 
 breadtb, waa separated from tlie Oreater Ar- 
 menia, which before the perim] on whicli we are 
 now employed had fallf n under the away of the 
 Seljuks, by tlie ridges of Taurus. The populit- 
 tion wiis composed largely of the sweepings of 
 Asia Miuor. Christian tribes which had laltea 
 refuge in the mounuins. Their religion was 
 partly Orcclt, partly Armenian. . . . Their 
 rulers were princes descended from the house of 
 the BagriuitiiE. who had governtHl the Greater 
 Armenia as liings from tin- year 883 to the reign 
 of Constantine of M»nciinn('lius, and had then 
 merged their hazardous independence in the mass 
 of the Orceli Empire. After the seizure of 
 Asia Minor by the Seljuks, the few of tlie Biigra- 
 tidiB who Imd retained possession of the moun- 
 tain fastnesses of Cilicia or the strongholds 
 of Mcsopotmnia, act<"d as independent lords, 
 showing little respect for Byzantium save where 
 there was something to be gained. . . . Rupinof 
 the Mountain was prince [of Cilicia] at the time of 
 the capture of Jerusalem by Saladln; he died in 
 1189, and his successor, Leo, or Livon, after hav- 
 ing successfully courted the favour of pope and 
 emperor, was recognised as king of Armenia by 
 the emperor Henry VI., and waa . rowned by 
 Connul of Wittelsbach, Archbishop of Mainz, in 
 1198." The dynasty ended with Leo IV., whose 
 " whole reign was a continued struggle against 
 the Moslems," and who was aasassuiated 
 about 1343. "The five remaining kings of Ar- 
 menia sprang from a branch of the Cy priot house 
 of Lusignan [see Cvpnca : A. D. 1193-14891. *— 
 W. Htubbs, Left: on the Stuilu of Mediatal and 
 Votknt UM.. ttet. 8. 
 
 A. D. 1633-1635 — Subjugated by Peraia 
 aad renined by the Turkf . See Tcbks : A. D. 
 lOantMo 
 
 A. 0. 1895.— Turkish Atrocities in. See 
 TrnKs: A. I). 189.'). 
 
 * 
 
 ARMENIAN CHURCH, The.-The church 
 of the .Vniicniaiis is "the oldest of all national 
 churches, They were converted by St. Gregory, 
 called 'The Illuminator,' who was a relative of 
 Dertad or Tiridatcs, their prince, and had been 
 forced to leave the count •• at the same time with 
 him, and settled at C. 'n Cappadocia, 
 
 where he was initiated into u. > hristian faith. 
 When tliey returned, both prince and p<'ople em- 
 braced the Oosm! ilirougli the preaching of 
 Oreifory, A. P. "ira, and thus presente<l the first 
 insum I' of an entire nation becoming Ciiristian. 
 . . . Hy an accident lliey were unrepresented at 
 [the Council of] Chalcedon r.\. D. ^il], and, 
 owing to the poverty of their language in words 
 serviceable for the purixMcs of thiiilogy, they 
 had at that time but one woni for Nature and 
 Person, iu consequence of which they misunder- 
 stood the decision of that council [that Christ 
 p()aaesse<{ two natures, illvlne and human, in one 
 Person) with suttlcicnt cleameM. ... It was 
 not until elithty four years had elapsed that they 
 finally :idiipii-ii Kutychianism [the diKtrine that 
 the dlviiiiiy Is the sole nature in Christ], and an 
 anathema wns pninoiinci'd <m the Chalcedonian 
 decrees iiaili ' — H. F. Toier, The Vhurrh and 
 the liulirn Kmpirr, rh. .1— "The religion of 
 Armenia could not derivi. iiiocli gUny frijm the 
 ieaniing or tlie power of its inhabitants. The 
 royalty explreil with the origin of their schism; 
 ptui their Christian kings, wiio arose and fell in 
 
 the 18th century on the confines of Cilicbi, were 
 the clients of the Latins and the vassals of the 
 Turkish sultan of Iconium. The helpless nation 
 has seldom been permitte<l to enjoy the tran- 
 quility of servitude. From the eariiest period 
 to the present hour, Armenia has been the theatre 
 of perpetual war: the lands between TauHs and 
 ^rivan were dispeopled by the cruel policy of the 
 Sophis; and myriads of Christian families were 
 transplanteil, to perish or to propagate in the dis- 
 tant provinces of Persia. I'nder the rod of 
 oppression, the zeal of the Armenians is fervent 
 and intrepid; they have often preferred the 
 crown of martyrdom to the white turban of Ma- 
 homet; they devoutly hate the error and idola- 
 tiy of the Greeks."— E. Gibbon, DeelintandfUll 
 of the Ronuin Empire, ch. 47. 
 
 ARIIINIANISM. 8eeNETiiERLA]fDS:A.D. 
 160»-1619. 
 
 ARMINIUS, The Detirerance of Germany 
 by. SeeOERMANT: B. C. 8-A. O. 11. 
 
 ARMORIAL BEARINGS, Oricin of.— "As 
 to armorial bearings, there is no doubt that em- 
 blems somewhat similar have been Imm'-moriailv 
 used both in war ami peace. The shields of aii- 
 cient warriors, and devices upon coins or seals, 
 bear no distant resemblance to modern blazonry! 
 But the general introduction of sucli bearings, as 
 hereditary distinctions, has been sometimes at- 
 tributed to tournaments, wherein the championi 
 were distinguished by fanciful devices; some- 
 times to the crusades, where a multitude of all 
 nations and languages sto(Ml in need of some vis- 
 ible token to denote the banners of their respec- 
 tive chiefs. In fact, the peculiar symbolsof her- 
 aldry point to both these sources anil have bei-n 
 borrowed in part from each. Hereditary an..j 
 were perhaps scarcely used by private families 
 liefore the beginning of the thirt<-enth century. 
 From that time, however, they became verj^ gen- 
 eral,"- H, Hiillam, The Middle Age*, eh. 8, pt. 2. 
 ARMORICA. — The peninsular projection of 
 the coast of Gaul between the mouths of tlio 
 Seine and the Loire, embracing modem Brittany, 
 and a great part of Normandy, was known to 
 the Romans as Amiorica. The most importaut 
 of the Armorican triln's in Ciesar's time was llmt 
 of the V^enetl, " In the fourth and fifth centu- 
 ries, the northern coast from the Loire to the 
 frontier of the Netheriands was called 'Tract us 
 Aremoricus.' or Aremorica, which in Celtic sit'- 
 nirtes ' maritime country.' The commotions iif 
 the third century, which continual to incn'asi 
 during the fourth and fifth. reiM'aU^lly drovi' 
 the Itomans from that country. French antiqii;!- 
 ries imagine that it was a regularly constitim-il 
 G.'dlic republic, of which Clilovis had the protci'- 
 torate, but this Is wrong, "—H, O. Xiebuhr, hel: 
 on Ancient Ethnography nmt Uexg., t. 2, p. 81H 
 
 .\Leo im: E. II. Bunliurv, llitt. of Anci.ut 
 Of,)}., t. 2, p. 23.1.— Se.', alsi'i, Vkneti of Wk.-t- 
 KKN 0.\ri,, and InEKrANs, The Wksterm. 
 
 ARMOUR INSTITUTE. See KDUCATio.f, 
 MuiianN: America: A, D, 1824-1893. 
 
 ARMSTRONG, General John, and the 
 Ncwbnrgh Addresses. See Vn im d States of 
 
 Am, : A. D. 1782-1783 Secretary of War.- 
 
 Plan of descent on Montreal. Sw Ukited 
 Statbs or Am,: A, I), 1813 (Oct,— Nov.). 
 
 ARMY PURCHASE, Abolition of, P=« 
 E.<cni,ANl>: A. D. 1871, 
 ARNAANS, The. See aHUCB: The Ml- 
 
 OIUTIONa. 
 
 142 
 
ARNAULD. 
 
 ARNAULD, JacqaeliBe Marie, and the 
 MooMtetT of Port ftoy»l. See Pobt Rotai, 
 »nd the Jasseihsts: A. D. 1603-1660 
 
 ARNAUTS, The. Sec AtBAMiAjis, Midl« 
 
 ARTHtm. 
 
 See 
 
 ARNAY-LE-DUC, Battie of (1570). 
 FKASfK: A. D. 1588-1570. 
 
 ARNOLD, Benedict, and the American 
 ReTolution. See Casada: A. D. 177.%-! 776 
 »nd I SITED States or Am. : A. D. 1775 (Mat);' 
 1 . . . (J rtr— October) ; 1780 (Anocsr— Septem- 
 BEH); 1780-1781; 1781 (J ANUART-May, ; 1781 
 (.Mat— OrToBER). '' 
 
 r*^9^° °? bRESCIA. The Repablic 
 of. SefUoMF.: A. I>. 114.V1I.55 
 
 ARNOLD VON WINKELRIED. at the 
 U^l*«8 "" **"■* '^'^''^^'"^"O- A. D 
 
 ARNULF, Kinr of the East Franki 
 
 &rA%^8«»= '^'"'^ "' "•'^ "" 
 
 ARPAD, Dynaety of. See Hcnoariass: 
 1114 I Mill W^'""™' " Hcnoary: a. D. 972- 
 ARPAD, Siece of.— C.n.lucted by the 
 n 7"*>o ^<"?"*r'"' T'Kl«'h Hlescr. boijinning 
 ^,h tP.** Ii"li.ng twoyeBin. The fall of the 
 city brought with it the submission of hII nortii. 
 "'iw^.'V;r> " **»."•« l«.Vri.i. M. 2. 
 
 ARQUES, Battle* l,,(icSo). See FHiNrr- 
 .V. I) 1.^9-1,590. *^ oee *B.4SCE. 
 
 UWUU*^'^"^'' '^'"- ^ f'WRENCE: A. D. 
 ARRAPACHITIS. See Jews: The E«i,y 
 
 nEllKKlV Hl?TORT. ^AKI.l 
 
 ARRAPAHOES, The. See .\xebicaj. Abo- 
 "■'I'^^.Aloo.s.ji-ian Family. »« *ki. 
 
 ARRAS: Oripn. S<e BeL(i«. 
 
 A. D. 1583.— Submiision to Spain See 
 Netiu;ki..\.nu«: A. D. 1.584-1.585. ^^ 
 
 A. D. I654.— Uniuccesiful Siere hi the 
 f.?"'im ^°°"- ""'"^ *■«*•'«: A. D 
 
 -♦ 
 
 Pears, rA< fUl of 
 
 Sec 
 See 
 
 ARRAS, Treaties of (1415 aaj J4,r^ 
 
 APBW-^.RJ**.i-'^i'''"'f^'*-^'^-'*^ 
 
 ARRETIUM, Battle of (B. C 38«) 
 
 R..MK. H. C. 2»,5-191 *'• 
 
 ARROW HEADED WRITING. See Cc 
 
 .NEIKOIIM W HITISO. oee LC 
 
 ARSACIDiE, The—The ilvnaatv of Par- 
 ...... kmjs were so calle,!. from 'the Lnder .ff 
 
 a. lin... Araaces, who Id the r..volt of Partwi 
 
 n1ms.11 10 the throne. Acnmling to some 
 ..nu..nt writers Arsaoe., was a Bactrifn • ac^ nl 
 
 (^r'„VS,f VV'^T-?- ««-«^''!^'^-^A 
 AKbEN-In one of tlie earlier raids of the 
 
 Armenian commerce." E 
 
 OaiularUinople, eh. 2. 
 
 Lakf of^v»„' irJ^f-T^", ""''''"' '^«'n« 0' the 
 sfraho P H ^"""^K '' »l^' *^"«' Thopitis by 
 
 ArmenT.'^'^JIr h^a' C^builtTnlki t.°' 
 superintendence of Hanni[;:i.Vhile «"re uL^^ 
 Armenia. At a later tin.e it was c^Hed Ve^il 
 
 Pe1."^^f.^5^=„.e4^°''G'j-ANUS,Kin.of 
 
 ^^enie, Ochu., King of Perwa, B. C. a.wl 
 ^. . . . Artaxerxes, or Ardshir, Foiiuder of the 
 f"j^*» »»n"chy. See PeksLi: B C im! 
 
 ARTEVeT^ 8eeDAST..0ERD. 
 AKieVELD, Jacqnes and Philio Van- 
 
 rs.'raStj^Vi^iis/''""'- «-^--": 
 
 RMn7*xf S* ^*'^\ *°"* *•"* Knights of tha 
 
 a wo^nr?*' " h'^torical Arthur or not 
 ;„' ... " ?' t*° ""'St now be devoted 
 
 nrin V'!"'*"'* never calls Arthur a gwledi/^r 
 pnnce bi.t emperor, and it may be inferr«l tlSl 
 
 I man, tl ,?.L""'T' */'*']'"' JepartuR.. of the 
 
 aJnr ^™^ '"!'"'T' ""= L.""' 'i'le of^lmper 
 ator emperor.' and made it into 'amheramlvr ' 
 
 »V!..k: »«>m— . imperator ceased to have 
 
 anything more to say to this couX theS 
 was given to the highest olBcer In the iaian 
 woXvr'fmr "."'«?'«'■ "-d thatK 
 
 or wiioever it was tliat wrote the HistorU 
 Brittonum a.scril».d to hlni- fh.'ii. a«? 
 U r,,,r..«>ntod «,h.ing in Impsny wiUi^he 
 kings of the Brythous in deff of their 
 common country. L Mng their "*1rr , w^ 
 
 -ui;x^ii:fa??iX;;:a!;Sp^l* 
 
 w^snootLerlhan Arfhur.it would .uW*~ 
 reason why that writer called Mael^S -uilll? 
 
 143 
 
ARTHUR. 
 
 ARTAXS. 
 
 Itrli dntoo,' 'the dngon or war-captain of the 
 bland,' and why the latter and fats auocewors 
 aftvr him were called bv the Welsh not gwledigs 
 but kings, though thefr great ancestor Ciineda 
 was only a gwlediK. On the other band the 
 way in wliicli Oilclas alludes to the uncle of 
 Mac'lgwn without even giving his name, would 
 Mvm to suggest that in liis estimation at least ho 
 was no more illustrious than his predecessors in 
 the position which he held, whatever that may 
 have been. How then did Arthur become famous 
 above them, r ' how came he to be the subject 
 of so much story and romance t The answer, in 
 short, which one has to give to this hard question 
 mayl be to the effect, thnt besides s historic 
 Arthur there waii a Brythonic divinity named 
 Arthur, after whom the man may have been 
 calleil, or with y hose name his, in case it was of 
 a different origin, may have become identical in 
 sound owiag to an accident of speech; for both 
 explanations are possible, as we shall attempt to 
 Buow later. Leaving aside for a while the man 
 Arthur, and assuming the existence of a god of 
 that name, Ut us see wliat could be made of him. 
 Mythologically speaking he would probably 
 have to be regarded as a Culture Hero; for, a 
 model king and the institutor of the Knighthood 
 of the Itound Table, he is represented as the 
 leader of cxpeiiitions to the isles of Hades, and as 
 one who stood in somewhat the same kind of 
 relttion to Owalchmel as Owydion did to I Leu. 
 It is needless here to dwell on the character 
 usually given to Arthur as a ruler: he with his 
 knights around him may be compared to Con- 
 chobar, in the midst of the Champions of Emain 
 Madia, or Woden among the Anses at Valhalla, 
 white Arthur's Knights are called those of the 
 Round Table, around which they arc described 
 sitting: and it would lie interesting to under- 
 stand the signification of the term Round Table. 
 On the whole it is the table, proliablv, and not 
 lu roundness that is the fact to which to call 
 attention, as it possibly means that Arthur's 
 court was the first ejrly court where those 
 present sat at a table at all in Britain. Xo such 
 thing us a common table figures at Conchobar's 
 court or any other descrilml in the old legends 
 of Ireland, and the same applies, we lielieve, to 
 those of the old Norsemen. The attribution to 
 Arthur of the first use of a common table would 
 fit in well with the character of a Culture Hero 
 which we have ventured to ascribe to . ', and 
 it derives countenance from the pn-tem' i ' jtory 
 of the liound Table; for the Ar'.hu'-' .'gend 
 traces it back to Arthur's father. L'thr iragon, 
 in whom we have under one of his y names 
 llie king of Hades, the realm whenc II culture 
 was fable<i to have been deriveil. In a wider 
 i<ense the Itound Table possibly signified plenty 
 or abundance, and might be compared with the 
 table of the Ethiopians, at which Zeus and the 
 other gods of Greek mythology used to feast 
 from time to lime." — J. Rhys. Stmlirt in the 
 Art>iiin,in lieg^nii^ch. 1. — 8ee. also Ci'MBRI.V 
 
 ARTHUR, Chester A.— Election to Vice- 
 Preiidency. — Snccestion to the Presidency. 
 (>ee I'.NiTED States ok Am. : A. D. ItWO and 
 1M<1. 
 
 ARTI OF FLORENCE, See Florbuce: 
 A. I» ri.VV-1298. 
 
 ARTICLES OP CONFEDERATION 
 {American). See Umtf-o States or Am. : 
 A. 1>. 1777-1781, ud 17t).'i-17a7. 
 
 ARTICLES OF HENRY, The. See Po. 
 LAND; A D. 1S78. 
 
 ARTOIS, The Houie ot See BotntBoii, 
 The House of. 
 
 ARTOIS : A. D. 1529.— Preteiuioni of the 
 Kinr of France to Suseraintr resigned. Kee 
 Italy: A. D. 15a7-15S». 
 
 ARTS, The Fine. See Music, Paistiso 
 Scm.piURR, Stti.eh ih Akciiitectubk. 
 
 ART YNI. See DmiuBoi. 
 
 ARVADITES, The. — The Canaanite inhnb 
 Itanu of the island of Aradus, or Arvad, and wl),) 
 also he'd territory on the main land. 
 
 ARVERNI, 'The. See JEom; also, Oaitls. 
 and Allobrooer. 
 
 ARX, The. See CAPrroLOfB Hill, also 
 Oens, Roman. 
 
 ARXAMUS, Battle cf.— One of the defeats 
 sustained by the Romans in their wars with the 
 Persians. Battle fought A. D. 803.— O. Raw- 
 liu.son, Sertnth Grmt Oriental Monareha, rh 24. 
 
 ARYANS.— ARYAS.—"Thlg family (which 
 Is sometimes called Japhetic, or deacenduuts of 
 Japhet) includes the Hindus and Perdans among 
 Anatic nations, and almost all the peoiiles ut 
 Europe. It may seem strange that we Engllth 
 should be related not only to the Oermans mul 
 Dutch and Scandinavians, but to the Kus.si:in!i. 
 French, Spanish, Romans and Qreeks as will; 
 stranger still that we can claim kinship with 
 such distant peoples as the Persians and llindus. 
 . . . What seems actually to have been the ca>e 
 is this: In distant ages, somewhere rbnut the 
 rivers Oxus and Jaxarles, and on the north of 
 that mountainous range called the Hindoo- KiKish, 
 dwelt the ancestors of all the nations we Iwvo 
 enumerated, forming at this time a sini;!)' ami 
 united people, simple and primitive in tluir way 
 of life, but yet having enough of a comnn 1 na- 
 tional life to preserve a common language. Thev 
 called themselves Arvas or Aryans, a wuril 
 which, in its very earliest sense, seem.-, t.i havf 
 meant those who move upw.irds, or strak'ht 
 and hence, probably, came to stand for the noble 
 race as compared with other races on whom, of 
 course, they would lixik down. ... As thiir 
 numbers increas«Hl. the space wherein thty ilwilt 
 became too 'mall for them who had out of one 
 formed mnny different peoples. Then lieira"^ a 
 series of migrations, in which the collei tion of 
 tribes who spoke one language and forninl otif 
 
 ale started off to seek their fortune in new 
 1. . . . First among them. In all prohaWlity, 
 started the Kelts or Celts, who, tniMlliug 
 Perhaps to the South of the Caspian ami the 
 North of the Black Sea, found their war to 
 Europe and spread far on to the extrenii \Vest. 
 . . . Another of the great families who 1. ft the 
 Arvan homo was the Pelasgic or the linro^- 
 Italic. These, journeying along first South 
 wnnis ai:d then to the West, passed through 
 Asia Minor, on to the countries of (JriTfe 
 and Italy, and In time separated into those 
 two great peoples, the Greeks (or Iblliin-^, m 
 'ley came to call themselves), and the It 'nians 
 - . . Next we come to two other great fiiiiilies 
 of nations who seem to have taken tin- ume 
 route at first, ami perhaps began their travels 
 toeelher as the Qreeks and Romans did Ti!?«e 
 are the Teutons anil the Slaves. . . . The word 
 Slave comes from Slowan, which in old Shivonitu 
 meant to speak, and was given bytheSinvoniini 
 to themselves aa the people who could s|><sk ii 
 
 144 
 
ARTANa 
 
 oppottUon to other mktioni whom, u they were 
 not able to undentand them, they were pleaaed 
 to cuDsider u dumb. The Oreek word harbami 
 (whence our barbarUiu) arose in obedience to a 
 lilie prejudice, only from an imiutinnof babbling 
 
 such as is made by laying 'bur-bar-bar.'" 
 
 C. F. Keary, Itaitn ofj/ittorp, eh. 4.— The above 
 passage seta forth the oider theory of an Aryan 
 f»milv of nation* aa well aa of languages in its 
 uii'iuulifled form. Ita later moditlcatlons are in- 
 iliiHted in the following: "The discorery of 
 .Sanscrit and the further discovery to which it 
 led. that the languages now variously known as 
 Aryan, Aryanic, Indo-European, Indo-Oermanic, 
 InJn-Celtic and Japhetic are closely akiu to one 
 another, spread a spell over the world of thought 
 which cannot be aaid to have yet wholly passctl 
 away. It was hastily argucil from the kinship 
 of their languages to the kinship of the nations 
 that spoke them . . . The question then arises 
 as to the home of the 'hoiethnos,' or parent 
 tribe, before its dispersion and during the pro- 
 ethnic p«rio<l, at a time when aa yet there was 
 neither Greek nor Hindoo, neither Celt nor 
 Teuton, but only an undifferentiated Arran. 
 Of course, the answer at lirst was — w'hcro 
 could it have been but in the East. And at 
 length the glnttulogist found it necessary to 
 sliift the cradle of the Aryan race to the 
 nciichbourhood of the Oxus and the Jaxartes, so 
 as to place it somewhere between the Caspian 
 Si'S and the Himalayas. Then Diwtor Latham 
 liolillr ralseil his voioe against the Asintic theory 
 aliogether, and stated that he reganled the at- 
 tempt to deduce the Aryans from Asia as n-sem- 
 blinj an attempt to derive the reptiles of this 
 country from those of Ireland. Afterwards 
 Benfcy argued, from the presence in the vocabu- 
 lary common to the Aryan languages of words 
 for bear and wolf, for birch and beech, and the 
 absence of certain others, such as those for liun 
 tiger »nd palm, that the original home of the 
 Arya must bare been within the temperate 
 101. . Europe. ... As might be expected in 
 the > a; of such a difficult question, those who 
 are inilined to believe in the Eurogiean origin of 
 the Aryans are by no means agreed among them- 
 selves as to the spot to be fixed upon. Latham 
 place<l it east, or south-east of Lithuania, in Po 
 du!ia, or Volhyniii; Benfey had in view adistrict 
 nlH.ve the Black Sea and not far from the Cas- 
 I'l.iri; Peachcl fixed on the slopes of the Caucasus- 
 ( uno on the great plain of Central Europe 
 Hiirier on the southern part of Russia; POsche 
 on the tract between the N iemen and the Dnieper ■ 
 L. Gelger on central and western Germany; and' 
 ieiikaon.Sranilinavia.' — J. Rhys, Ai<« T/ieorirj, 
 in .^nrl'nm-tl«n Hee., Jan., t8S»).—" Aryan, in 
 Mi.ntiflc language, is utterly inapplicable to race 
 11 nuaus language, and nothing but language- 
 an.l. if we si.eak of Aryan race at all, wp should' 
 Kn.iw that it means no more than x + Aryan 
 r,'"'" ; i • K ''■'■* •I'^'srwl sttain and again 
 Umi If I say Aryas, I mean neither bloo.! nor 
 tK|n.-«, nor hair nor skull; I mean simply those 
 who »i>eak an Ar)an language. The same ap 
 riles to Hindus, Greeks, Romans, Germans. 
 I (lis un.l Slaves. ... In that sense, and in that 
 w nse only, do I mv that even the hU-k.'st (fin. 
 'liiyepresent an earlier suge of Aryan speech 
 "n.! thought than the fairest ScamllnaVians 
 1. 'it. answer must be given as U>llie place where 
 uuf Aryan ancestors dwelt before their «paration, 
 
 " 146 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 whether in large swarms of millions, or in a few 
 scattered tents and huts, I should still say, as I 
 s«i<l forty yean ago, 'Somewhere in Asia.' and 
 no more. — F. Max Mailer, Biog. of W,>rd» am» 
 Home oftheArynt. tk. 6.— The theories which 
 dispute the Asiatic origin cf the Aryans are 
 strongly presented by Canon Taylor in T/io 
 Oni/xn of the Arynnt, by G. H. Readall. in The 
 ii'"'." "J"^ Aryan*, and by Dr. O. Schnuler in 
 Pifhulone Antiquitia of the Aryan I\,,ple». 
 — See, also, Ijtdia: The ABomoisAL IsnABiT- 
 ARTS: The iMvioRATroir amd Co.vqcESTS of 
 TBI Abtab, and Edropk 
 
 TIUS.— Ihe term As [among the Romans] 
 and the words which denote its divisions, were 
 not confined to weight alone, hut were applied 
 to measures of length and capacity also, and in 
 general to any object which could be regarded as 
 consisting of twelve eoual parta. Thus they 
 were commonly used to denote shares into which 
 an inheritance was divided." As a unit of 
 weight the As. or Libra, "occupied the same 
 position In the Roman system as the pound does 
 in our own. According to the most accurate 
 researches, the As was equal to about Hi oz 
 avoirdupois, or .-ST.? of an avoinlupois pound " 
 It '■ was divided into 13 ecjual parts calle<i unciie 
 and the uncia w.is divided into 24 equal pans 
 called scrupula. " • The As. regarded as a coin 
 [of copper] originally welghiKl, as the name im- 
 plies, one pound, and the smaller copper coins 
 those fractions of the pound 'enoted by their 
 names. By degrees, however, tiie weight of the 
 As, reganled as a coin, was greatly iliminished. 
 »Ve are told that, alwut the conimenii-ment of 
 the first Punic war. it had fallen from 12 ounces 
 to a ounces; in the e.irly part of the second 
 Punic war (B. C. 817), it was reduced to one 
 ounce; and not long afterwards, by a Lex 
 Papiria, it was fixe.l at half-an-ounce, which re- 
 mained the standard ever after." The silver 
 cojns of Itome were tlie Denarius. ef|uivalent 
 ter 217 B. C.) to 16 Asses; the Quinarius and 
 tile Sestertius, which became, respectively, one 
 half and one fourth of the Denarius in value. 
 The Sestertius, at the close of the Republic, is 
 estimau-d to have been equivalent in value' to 
 two pence sterling of English money. The 
 coinage was delnised under the Empire The 
 principal gold coin of the Empire was the De- 
 narius Aureus, which passed for 2.1 silver De- ' 
 narii.— W. lUmsay, M.iiimi of Ihiiuin Antio . 
 (■A. 13. ■ " 
 
 ASCALON, Battle of (A. D. looo). See 
 Jeki-salem; a. I). 1099-1144. 
 . ASCANIENS, The. See Brande.vbcro: 
 
 A. D. 998-1142. 
 ASCLEPIADiC, The. See Medical Scr. 
 
 B.N('E, GlIKKK. 
 
 ASCULUM. Battle of (B. C. aTo). See 
 Rome : B C -i^i-irr, /y; ° ^ 
 
 _ ASCULUM, Massacre at. Sec Rohe: 
 
 B. C. 90-^. 
 ASHANTEE WAR, The (1874). See 
 
 ASHBURTON TREATY, The. See 
 United States of Am.: A. D. 1842 
 
 ASHDOD. .Scr PntusTiSEs. 
 
 ASHTI, Battle of (1818). See Ibdia: A. D. 
 181 6-1 Ml 9. 
 
 w « ®l^ • J*" N»me.— " There are grounds for 
 belieTing Europe and Asia to hare originaltf 
 
ASIA. 
 
 ASIA MINOR 
 
 ■ignlfletl ' the west ' ud ' the owt ' respectively. 
 Both are Semitic terms, and pnilutlily paaneil to 
 the Qn<p|is from tlie I'l>aMii( iaug. . . . The 
 Greelis tirst applied the 'itlc [Asia] tr> tliat por- 
 tion of the eautern continent which lay nearest 
 to them, and with which they became first ac- 
 quiiinlecl — the coant of Asia Minor opposite the 
 Cyclades; whence they extended it as tiiiir 
 knowledge grew. Still it hud alwars a speiial 
 application to the country about Ephesus — O. 
 lian'liiison, Xotit to llertHtiitu; r. 8. p. 83. 
 
 ASIA: The Roman Prorincc (lo called). — 
 "As originally constituted, it corresponded to the 
 dominions of the Itinn of Pergamus . . . left 
 by the will of Attalus III. to the lionuin people 
 (B. C. 133). ... It included the whole of Mysii 
 and liVdia. with ..ISolis, Ionia and Caria, except 
 a ■mull piirt wliicli was subject to Rho<les, ami 
 the greaUT part, if not the whole, of Phrygia. 
 A portion ol'^ tli(> last region, however, was de- 
 tached from it."— E H. Bunbury, Hut. o/Aitcien^ 
 Oeog., ch. 20, urct. I 
 
 ASIA, Central.— Hongol Conque** Sec 
 
 MOXOOI.B. 
 
 Turkish Coaqaeit. See Turks. 
 
 Rutf ->n '~''aqueiti. See Russia; .V. D. 
 
 : ■ ■ .m(9-i>wi. 
 
 A- 'j^ I-'. ' UR. — "Thenameof AsiaMinor, so 
 'i. i. .11- to the stmlcnt of a-icient geogra{)i..y, wa> 
 • ■•! I UM' I ulier among Greek or itoman writers 
 u 1 a very late pi^riod. Orosius, wlio wrote in 
 111. 5fth century after the Christian era. is tlic 
 Ir-' xtant writer who employs the term in its 
 -,!• .; rp «en.«e'— E. 11. Bunbury, //><(. of An- 
 ci.iil ''■■",/.. e/i 7, »rt. 2.— The' name Anatolia, 
 wliirli is of <»n'ek origin, synonymous with 
 "TIk' Levant, signifying " The Sunrise, " came 
 Into use among the Byzantines, aluut the 10th 
 century, aud was adopted by their su(xessors, 
 the Turks 
 Earlier Kingdom* and People. See Phrtoi- 
 
 A.NSAS11 MVKIANI*.— LyOI.VNS— C'ABIASS.— LVCI- 
 AS* — liirilYSIANS — PoSTf;! (CAPr.ADOClJk). — 
 PaPHLAC.OSI ANS. — TROJA. 
 
 The Greek Coloaies.— " The tumult which 
 had lx'»'n caused by the irruption of the Thts- 
 protians into Thessaly and the displacement of | 
 the population of Greece (see Grekce: Tiie 
 MiORATio.N. Ac] did not siiUsiJe within the lim- i 
 its of the p.-iiinsuia. From the north and the i 
 8.1UII1 those inlialtitantg who were uiialilo to main- 
 tiiii their v'ri'unci against the incursions of the i 
 Tlies.salians. .Vriiai'ans. or Dorians, anil preferred ■ 
 exile to Militiiission. sought new homes in the is- | 
 lands of tin- .\ei;ean and on the western coast <.f ! 
 Asia Miii.T The migrations eimtinucd for sev- ' 
 eral generations. When il length tliev came to ' 
 an end, aii.l the Anatolian roast from >lount Ma ' 
 to the Tri.ipian headlami, with the adjacent 
 islands, was in tlie posin-ssion of the Greeks, tlirei' 
 great divisions or trilvs were distinguished in 
 the new settl.'ment.<: Dorians, loniuns, and 
 Aeolians, In ^pite of the presence of some alien 
 elements, the Dorians and loniaiis of Asia Minor 
 weri' th" sjinif trilx-sas the Dorians and lonians 
 of Omii- Thf .\eolian-s. on tlie other hami, 
 were a eomposite tribe, as their name implii- 
 ... Of these three divisions the Aeolians lav 
 farthest tolhenirth. The precise limiu of tlieir 
 territory were differently nxed bv ilitferi'nt au 
 thorities , The Ae<ilie cities' fell into two ' 
 groups a northers, of which lyCslNn was the 
 centre, and ■ Kiuthem, compowd of the cities in 
 
 the immediate neighbourhood of the Herrous, 
 and founded fn)m Cyme. . . . The northern 
 
 frmip included the islands of Tenedos and Leslios. 
 n the latter there were origiaally six cities: 
 Methymna, Mytilene, Pvrrha. Eresus, Arisha, 
 and .\ntisHa, but Arisbs was aubaequently con 
 quered and enslaved by Mytilene. . . . The sec 
 ond gn'ut stn-am of migmtion pniceeded from 
 Athens (after the death of Cislrus — we Athens : 
 From the Doriak Mioration to B. C. 683 — 
 aiconiing to Greek tradition, the younger sons 
 of Codrus leading these Ionian ei 'h >nisl8 acMss 
 the Aegean, first to the Carian citv of Miletus — 
 see Mii.KTis, — which they capturi 1, and tlien ti> 
 the eoiM(Uesl of Ephesus aiid the island of .Samos] 
 . . . The colonies spread until a dodecapolis was 
 establislH'd, similar to the union widch tln' 
 lonians had founded in their old settlements oti 
 the nortliem shore of Peloponnesus. In some 
 cities the Ionian popidution formed a minority. 
 
 , . Tlie eolonisati(m of Ionia was undouhlKlly, 
 'n the main, an achievement of emigrants from 
 .Vttiea. but it was not accomplished by a simile 
 faintly or in the space of one lifetime. . . . Tlie 
 two f st famous of the Ionian cities xerv Mi- 
 letus and Eohesus. The first was a Carian eily 
 previously known as Anactoria. . . . Ephesus 
 was originally in the hands of the Li'lesres niul 
 the Lydians, who were driven out by tlie lonians 
 undiT .\ndroclus. The! ancient sanctuary of the 
 tutelary gtsldess of the place was transfonnni 
 by the (ireeks into a temple of Artemis who 
 was here worshippetl as the gochieas of birtl ind 
 productivity in accordance with Oriented r lier 
 than Hellenic Ideas." The remaining Ionic . 'ics 
 and islands were .Myus (naineil fnMii the m ><- 
 quitoes which Infested it, and wiii. h liii.ilty 
 drove the colony to abamhm it), l*riene, !'.!', 
 thrac, ClazomeniB, Teos, I'hocaea, t.ilop! 
 Lebedus, Samos and Chios "Chios was 
 inhabited by Cretans . . . aiid subsi-quent ! \ 
 Curians. ... Of the manm'r in which Cliio^ 
 came connecteil with the loni.ins the Chians 1 
 give no clear account. . . The southe; . | 
 of the Anat.'lian coast, and the southem-m 
 iiUids in the Aegean were colonis<-d bv 
 Dorians, who wresteti them from thi? Phoeiiii 
 or Carian occupants. Of the islands, Crete is 
 most lm|iortant. . . . Crete was one of the 
 est centres of civilisation m tin Aegean 
 Chetr ]. , . . The Dorian (. .ny in Rho'-* 
 like that in Crete, was ascribed to ihi' band win .1 
 left Argos under the eomiriand of Althaemeni-~ 
 , , . Other islands col. .nisi'd by the Dorians Win 
 Thera. . , Mehw, , Cnrpathus, Culv.irit, 
 
 Nisyrus, ::nd Cm. . From the islands, the 
 Dorians g| .ad to tie- mainland. The p< nin«iila 
 ofCnidus vas |>erha|.s the first scttlemeni , . 
 Ilalicarna^sus was f..unded from TnH'reti. :iri.l 
 
 ■le Ionian element must have Wvn . .insi.lirilL, 
 , Of the Dorian ei!ii.s, six uniteil in th. ..in- 
 a.in wi.rship .f Apoll- on the heaiilaiid . ! in 
 '. Ilium, Tiles, were I.iudus, lulysu.s, ai,ii ( s- 
 iniriis in iih.siis. Cos. ami, on the mami 1:. 1 
 llali(arntis.sus nii.l Cnidus , , , The tern: ry 
 which the .\e.ilians acquired is d<'»<ril«.! 'v 
 llensiotus as more fertile than that miupi.l ' v 
 the lonians, but of a less excellent i;limste ft 
 was inhabiti ' by a niiiiilM-r of tritws .on.ng 
 whicli the '!'• or Ti ucri were the clii. f 
 In Homer the il habitants of the city of 111. Inn.! 
 are Dardani or Troes, and the name Teurri i »-» 
 11, 1 occur. In historical time* the liergi'tM 
 
 -si 
 
 ■r 
 
 1 li.e 
 • •\d- 
 
 146 
 
ASIA MINOR 
 
 wbo dwelt tn the town of the lame name . . 
 v»r Lampaacus, and also formed the lubject 
 papulation of Miletua, were the only remnants of 
 IhU once famous natioD. But their former jfreat- 
 ress was atteste<l by the Homeric po<?ms. and the 
 cccurrence ot the name (iergithians at various 
 places in the Troad [see Troja]. To this tribe 
 ticloneed the Troy of the Grecian epic, the site 
 «( which, bo far as it represents any historical 
 city, is fixed at Hiasariilc. In the Iliad the 
 Trrijan empire extends from the Aesepus to the 
 Oiicus; it was dividol — or, at least, later his- 
 l.irians speak of It as divided —into principali 
 t.'s which recognised Priam as their chief But 
 tSe Homeric descriptions of the city ami its emi- 
 nence are not to be taken as historically true. 
 Whatever the power -nd civilisation of the 
 sDcienr stronghold exhumed by Dr. Sohliemann 
 may have been, it was necessary for the epic 
 piie't to represent Priam and his nation as a d:in- 
 perous rival in wealth and arms to the gmit 
 kings of Mycenae and Sparta. . . . The tradi- 
 tional dates fix the«<- colonies [of the Greek.* tn 
 Asia .Minor] in the generations which *■ Ilowed 
 th*- Trojan war. ... We may suppose iiiat the 
 colonisation of the Aegean and of Asia Miniir bv 
 tae Greeks was coincident with the expulsion o"f 
 the Phoenicians. The greatest extensiun of the 
 Pho<^ dan power in the Aegean seems to fall in 
 ■he 1". !i century B. C. From the 13th it was 
 grailu^i iv on the decline, and the Greeks were 
 -nslili': !o secure the trade for them-.! ves. . 
 By lllio B. C. Asia Minor mav have Ijeen in ■ 
 h,".niU of the Greeks, tli iuti the Phoeniti^i; 
 
 ;11 mai; mod themv ives in Rhodes ui. ' 
 • vpms. '.. A all attei- pts at chronology u: 
 illusory."— i; .\bbott, /. rf of Ortfee. eh. i (e li 
 -Vlsoln: L. Curtius, j-:-t of Oruet, hk. 2 cA 
 8 I 1).-G. Orote, »/i,r f Onefe. pt. 2, eh 
 \X-\:, —J. A. Cramer, Oet-,- irutHitt. Ihtrription 
 tf.Uit .)fin»r, net. 6 (r. 1). — See, also, .Miletis 
 
 Phi KE.lSrI. 
 
 B. C. 784-539. -Proiperity of the Greek 
 Colonies.— Their SubmistiontoCrcesus, King 
 of Lydia, and their conquest and anuexation 
 to the Persian Empire.— " The Grecian , r,|,,nies 
 on tlic r .>iist of Asia early rose to wealth bv means 
 of tmile and manufactures. Though wc hav. n.it 
 the ni' Mus of tracing their comnii • e. we know it 
 it wa-. considerable, with the inoilier i 
 with Italy, and at length Spain, with Pi 
 ami t!i.- interior of Asia, ^ .nee th. ,iro<lii. 
 of I:, U\ pa»,sed to Greece The V 
 had ' if woolen mnnufnctufes, . 
 commerce to the Euxine. ot. all ? 
 ihcy founde<I factories, and exr 
 III liiufjrt'jres and other goods with 
 ai. 1 the n ehbouriiiiT peup|c!i for 
 rnv l,i,l, bees-wax, flax, Iwmp. 
 Tlnf . ven reason t.i suppo~ ths 
 of ■ .iia. their tni iers hart. • ' 
 no: : ,r from the conti; i of Chii 
 . But while thev »•->> adv 
 »n.i prosperity, apowerfi; rnona 
 i'l l.v.lia. ,.f which tl •■ i-v 
 at th.. r«)iof Mount Tti 
 of th Mermna.: ilynast 
 iTiiu-x,. whose reign Ik 
 at).. lit IS r 734 
 
 ast 
 » Lv 
 
 Ionian cities on ti 
 « half theelTor 
 iluce these sta: • 
 l'»l- K) [ft t. 
 
 I'sifln^, \ ..i 
 
 nde.i ti'ieir 
 
 is-.i of which 
 
 ingctl (heir 
 
 iieScv'hians 
 
 ...ve- <„.l. 
 
 etc. 
 
 means 
 
 if war. ^ 
 
 MiLETI - 
 
 . iT in we.t! it 
 ' •T■r\^^^\ it.self 
 .Sanies, a citv 
 is._ yges, the flrs't 
 'f - iian kiiiifA (See 
 IM •.<lti) li.ive t«.gun 
 -'"' — ^^.- ^^Hirii! the 
 I hiring a century and 
 ■d=»n monarchs to re- 
 re una .limi: At length 
 iSft-! Jtr .»M,rHted C'rtuus 
 
 ital 
 
 14; 
 
 A8U MINOR 
 
 mounted the throne of LydU, and he nude aH 
 Asia this aide of the River Halvs (Lycia and 
 tilicia excepted) acknowledge "his dominion. 
 1 he Aeoliar., lonten and Dorian cities of the 
 co,«t all paid him tribute; but. according to the 
 ! usual rule of eastern conquerors, he meddled 
 I not with their political institutions, and their 
 ! might deem themselves fortunate in being insured 
 , against war by the payment of an annual sum of 
 tnoney Cr-psiis, moreover, cultivated the friend- 
 } ship of the L.ircpean Greeks. " But Crtesus was 
 ; overthrown. B. C. IVM, by the conquering Cvrus 
 ; and his kingdom of Lydia was swallowed ti'p in 
 I the great Persian empire then taking form fsee 
 Persia: B. C. 54i>-.521], Cyrus, during his war 
 , with trcEsus, had tried to entice the lontans 
 """y ',f"m the latter and win them to an alliance 
 with himself But they incurre<l his resentment 
 by refusing. ' ' They an.l the .EolUns now sent 
 amimssadors. praying to be received to submis- 
 , sion on the same terms as those on which they 
 1 had obeyed the Lvdian monarch ; but the Mile- 
 I sians alone found favour: the r-st had to prepare 
 ! for war. They repaired the walls of their towns. 
 I and sent to .Spartii for ai J. Aid. however was 
 I refused : but Cyrus. Ixing called awav bv the 
 war wMth Babylon, neglected th-m for "the 'pres- 
 ent. Tlir.e years aft. rwards (Ol. .59. 2), Harpa- 
 giis. who had saved ( yrus in his iiifsincv from 
 Ills .grandfather .\styac ■ ,ime as governor of 
 i.y.lia. He instantly ,)r.-[«»red to reduce the 
 -ities of the coast. Town after town submitted 
 .he Teians abandoned theirs, and retired to 
 -Vbdera in Thrace: the Phoc*ans, gettiii on 
 shipboard, and vowin:; never to ntum, saik .'or 
 Corsica, and l» ng there harass<-.| by the Car- 
 tliagenians an.l Tyrrhenians, they writ to 
 Rliegion in U&\\ and at length founded ■ issalia 
 (Marseilles; .n •■»■ coast of Gaul. The -ecian 
 coloniM tho- ^ ame a part of tlie P.r em- 
 P'f^ — T. K i-'htley, Hitt. of Oreeet, pt 49 
 Also IX: : rodotus, Uint.. tr. and e,l ',y O 
 R.iiet,,M,n. \, arulapp.— yi. Duncker, i/i»«. 
 of .Uti'/uitit . 8. eh. (5-7 (r. 6). 
 
 B. C. Soi-493 —The Ionian revolt and its 
 suppretaion. S<e Persia: B. C .521-49:) 
 
 B. C. 479.— A -hens aisumea the protec:ioa 
 of loma. .See -ie-vs: B. C 4;tt-478. 
 «^" ^- S'^^■~^ Jrmation of Confederacr of 
 Deloa. Sec Gil • : B. C. 4Ta-477. 
 ,. 8- C- 413.— aute again demanded from 
 the Creeks by the Persian Kior.— Conspiracy 
 against Athena. Se.- Greece ; B. C. 4;:i 
 ''• C. 4i3-4»--ReTolt of the Greek cities 
 m Athens.— Intrigues of Ai-biades. See 
 ^ ece; B. C. 4I$-41>. 
 
 ^- C. 4ta.— Re-submission to Persia. See 
 Hstv: B. C. 4>I«-J0.>. 
 
 B. C. 401-400.— Espeditton o- Cyrus the 
 . cunger, and Retreat of the Tea Thousand. 
 .■>..<. I'kksia: B. C 40I-1(X). 
 . B C. 399.387.— Spartan war with Perki« 
 in -naif of the Greek cities.— Their abao- 
 dooment by the Peace of Anta,cid*s. See 
 GiiKECE: B. C. I199-:J«T. 
 
 B. C. 334— Conquest by Alexander the 
 Great. Nr .Hacedoxia : B C 3;«-.t<o 
 
 B. C. 3ot.— Mostly annexed to the 'hracian 
 Kingdoir. of Lysimachus. Sie M. ixjxia, 
 &r : «. t . 310-aoi. 
 
 B. C. 281-324.— Battle-ground of the war- 
 ring monarchies of Syria and Egypt — 
 Changes of nuutert. See Selbucid*. 
 
ABU. MINOR. 
 
 ASSASSINS. 
 
 B. C. 191.— Fint Entrance of the Romaiu. 
 — Their defeat of Antiochaa the Great.— 
 Their expansion of the kin^om of Pttfm- 
 mnm and the Republic of Rhode*. Sve Hsuco- 
 cms: B. C. 224-187. 
 
 B. C. iao-65. — Mitbridatea. —Complete 
 Roman Conqoeit. See Mitiihidatic Wars; 
 alio KoMK -. B. C. T8-(M, and HU-m. 
 
 A. D. 4S>ioo.— Rite of Chriitian Churchei. 
 Bee CunuTiAMiTY : A. I>. 33-lU(). 
 
 A. D. 39a.— Dio. .etian'i scat of Empire es- 
 tablished at Nicomedia. See Uome: A D. 
 »n-my 
 
 A. D. te»4a8.— Persian invasions.- DcHt- 
 trance by HeracUus. See ItoME: A D. S«S- 
 •28. 
 
 A. D. 1063-109*— Conquest and ruin br the 
 Scljuk Turks. See Turks (8eui'Ks): A. D. 
 lU6a-107a: aod 1073-1092. 
 
 A. D. 1097-1149.- Wars of the Crusaders. 
 Bee Ckisadks: A. D. 1090-1099. aod 1147-1149. 
 
 A. O. iM4-ta6i.— The Empire of Nicaa 
 •ad the Empire of Trebisoad. See Orbbs 
 Ehpihr or Nic.cA. ^ 
 
 ASIENTO, OR ASSIENTO, The. See 
 Blaveht: a. D. 189U-1778; Utrrcht: A D. 
 1713-1714; Aix-la-Cbapkllr, Tub Cunorrm 
 op: Enulard: a D. 1789-1741: aod Qburuia: 
 A. I). 173S-1743. 
 ASKELON. See PniurriNEs. 
 ASKLEPIADS.— ■■ThmuKhout all the his- 
 tortinl »iiv* lof On^rrv) the dcun-DdauU of 
 Axkl^piiw [or Eaciiliipiuitj w<-rc nuinvniua and 
 widely dilTuartt. The many familiva or Kcntca 
 .callnl A«ltl<<|iia<U. who dvvnini th«iiup|vFt to 
 [the Ktudy and pnu'liiw of mi-diiiiit-, and who 
 |prini'i|«llr dwfit near Ihf tt'iiipli'a of Aakl<>|>iiiii. 
 fwhilher auk and aulTcrin); nii-u cnmo to olimiii 
 Irvlicf — all n-coitnUi'il the K'xt. not tni-rrly aa thv 
 'otijtH'tof their t'omiiion worHliip, hut alim aa tlirir 
 actual pM)(«uttor. "— U. Urole, Jlitl. of Umet, 
 ft 1. fh. 9 
 
 ASMONEANS, The. Ber Jews: B. C. Ifltt- 
 40. 
 
 ASOKA. S.'e I Mil A : B. C. 813- -s 
 ASOV. See Azop. 
 
 ASPADAN.— The ancient name of which 
 
 that of lijialian ia a corniptnl form. — U. 
 
 Rawlin.tiin, Fit* limtt M'in-irrhut: Vnlia, eh. I. 
 
 ASPERN-ESSLINCBN (OR THE 
 
 MARCHFELOl, Battle of. See Uermany: 
 
 A. I>. IWWIJaNIAKV— .IlNKI. 
 
 ASPIS, The. Stf PiiALAXX 
 
 ASPROMONTE, Defeat of Garibaldi at 
 (lS6a>. S.-.. It MY A. I) li^rtJ l-iW. 
 
 ASSAM, Enflish Acquisition of. See 
 Inku .\ U IHjS IHiCT 
 
 ASSANDUN, Battle ef,-Tlie lUtb sn<l 
 lai>l Iwtlli'. .\ l> UMA. tH'tween l^lmimd Iron- 
 alili ••. till' Kiitrli<h Kinit. and hin Danlnh riviij, 
 t'liiil, or (aniile, for llic I'rown of Knglaml. 
 The Kni{li«h w.-re li-rrihiy dcfi-atiil ami the 
 flowiT of tlii-lr ni>l>lllly iwrloliol on iIh- Scld. 
 iTIw nwdt WW « ■livUion of tht' kioedoni: hut 
 Kdinund wxin iliiil. i>r wan klllixl Avhiuttton. 
 In K-scj. wiiii ihi' Iwtllr jjnmud. Hw Knolanu: 
 A l> UTU mitl 
 
 ASSASSINATIONS, NoUbls.- Abbas, 
 Pasha of Erjrpt.^ .s<'<' F^iypt: A I). IN4o l*iw 
 . . . Aiczandtr !!. of Ratiis. ^><. tcr'-ii.l, 
 n |m;u I'M) Reatoun. Cardinal. r«<i!>i<>T. 
 LaMi a 1) IMI. ...B«ck«t,Th»mM. xeeKliu- 
 
 laicd: A.D.11I»-1170. ..Bnckinrbam. SeeKNa 
 laud: a. D. 1838. . .Casar. See Komp.: B. C. 44. 
 . . .Capo d'Istrea, Count, President of Greece, 
 See Orebcb: A. D. 1880-1863. . ..Carnot. 
 President. See Francb: A D. 1894-1898.... 
 CsTendish, Lord Frederick, and Burke, Mr. 
 See Ireland: A. ?). 1883. . . . . Concini. See 
 Prance: A. D. 161&-1619. . . .Danilo, Prince of 
 
 Montenegro (1S60). See Mo: teneuro 
 
 Damley. See Scotlaiid: A. D. LMl-lseS. . . . 
 Francis of Guise. See Framcb: A. D. 1900-1563. 
 — GarAcId, President. See United States 
 OP Ax. : A. D. 1881 .. . .CusUtus III. of Sweden. 
 See SoANDiHAVUN States (Sweden): A I). 
 1730-1793.... Henry of Guise. See France: 
 A. D. 1584-1589. . . .Henir III. of France. See 
 France: A. D. 1S84-18)J».... Henry IV. of 
 France. See France: A. D. 1599-1000..... 
 
 Hipparcbua. See Athens: B. C. 500-510 
 
 John, Duke of Burgundy. See France: A D. 
 1415-1419.... Klcbor, General See Francs: 
 
 A. D. 1800 (January— June) Kotscbue. 
 
 See Oermajty: A. D. 1817-1890.. .. .Lincoln, 
 Preaident. See United States op Am. : A. I). 
 
 1805 (April 14tb) Marat. See Francs: 
 
 A. D. 1798 (July). . . .Mayo, Lord. See India: 
 
 A. D. 1803-1876 . . .Murray, The Regent. S<e 
 Scotland: A. D. 1501-1568. ...Omar, Caliph. 
 See Mahometan Coni)UESt. Ac. : A. D. 661 ... 
 Paul, Csar of Russia. See Rumia: A. D. 1801. 
 
 Perceral, Spencer. See England: A. I>. 
 
 1806-1813.... Peter III. See Klwia: A. U. 
 1761-1762 ...Philip of Maccdoo. SeeOBKErG: 
 
 B. C. 857-836 ...Prim, General (1S70). tV« 
 Spain: A. D. 1866-1873. . . Rissio. 8.-e Scot 
 
 lakd: a. I). 1561-1.568 Rossi, Count. Si'* 
 
 Italy: A. D. 1848-1849. .. .Wallsnstein (16141. 
 See Orrmahy: A. I). 1683-1634. .. .Wili.ua 
 the Silent. See NETORRLANDe: A. P l.V<l- 
 1584 ...Witt, John and ComeUua de. .S« 
 NBTaERLANDS: A. U. 1673-1674 
 
 ASSASSINS. The.-" I must apeak ... of 
 Uiat wonderful nnithrrhni<d of the Aiuwtiiitia. 
 which during the 12th aod 13th rcnturiea «pri ad 
 •uch terror thn>UKh all Aaia, Miiaaulman and 
 Chriathio. Their deeda sliould be atudkil is 
 Von liammer's hiat4iry of their order, of w iilcli 
 however there is an excellent analyaU In TavInD 
 iliatory of Mohammedaniain. The word .Xwiiviiti, 
 it muat lie rrmeinbcreil, in itaunlluary alitnilic^i 
 lion, ia derived fnnn this order, sod not the n- 
 vene. Tlu) Aaaaaaina were not so callnl Im ,iii'«< 
 I'ley were miinlerera. but munterera are vMit! 
 »M««Kln« la'<'au«<- tin- Aaaaaaina were murdenm. 
 Tlif orl){ln of the word Aaaaaain haa Ihi n mm I 
 dUj.iUnl liy oriental acholara: but IHaiiplinitlii 
 la MillU'leully written U|mid llie Aaiatic liiKlcirv "| 
 the 12th century. The Aaaaaaina wen' iioi. -n '. ily 
 JUH-Hkinif, adynsaly, hut miher an onhr. lik. ilie 
 Templars: 
 
 ■nly the ollliti of ( Irand Ma>li r. Ilkii 
 the Caliphate, lM'<«m« bereililarv. They »<rv 
 orii(iniilly a liraoch of the KKynllan Ixhitiiu liii^ 
 [nee .M\iiiiMKT.*N ("imm'EaT: .\. I» 9il8 li;il 
 ami at Hnt proteased tlH> principlea of thai k^ i 
 But then' can lie 00 doubt that llieir lniitr.i« 
 IriiU' latanieal last smere iH'ffatiiHi of all n lii^i' a 
 ami all niomlity. ' To U'lU've nothing an! M 
 dan' eterylhinjt' waa the aumniary of iIkK 
 l4-achlnK Tlieir esoteric principh'. adiln""'!'! t« 
 the lion Initialed nu'inhen of tlie iinli r inl 
 •jliiptt idiiid t.tM-.Ii«'lKe Ut Uh* Hiil t»f iii' •> "<* 
 IN'riora If tbe .Vaaaaain waa ohiertil to laki''>< 
 a Caliph or a Suluit bjr tits dagger ut Uw li"*^ 
 
 148 
 
ASSASSINS. 
 
 the deed wu done; tf he was ordePMl to throw 
 bimae ( from the ramparts, the deed was done 
 likewije. . . . Their fuunrler was IlasaaD 8ubuh 
 who, in 1090, shortly before the death of Maiek 
 Shah, seized the castle of Alamout — the Vul- 
 ture's nest — in northern Persia, wlience tliey ex- 
 tinded their possessions over a whole chain of 
 niduntiiin fortresses in tliat country and in Syria. 
 The Umud-Master was the Shvikh-al-Jebel, the 
 fninoua Old tkn of the Mountain, at whose name 
 Etirupeand Asia shuddered. "— E. A. Freeman, 
 
 Ifiil. iiiut CiiTuiUfli nf lilt Sartutnt. Uet. 4. " In 
 
 tilt' Piitimide KImlif of Egypt, they [the 
 
 ASSYRIA. 
 
 .Vswiissuis, or Ismailiens of Syria and Persia] be- 
 lii'lil an incarnate deity. To kill his enemies, in 
 uli.itfver way they l)est could, was an action. 
 till' merit of which could not be disputed, and 
 Ilii.' reward for which was curtain." Hasan 
 hiibiih. the founder of tlie Order, died at Ala- 
 moiit A. D. 1124. "Prom the day ho entereil 
 Aliiiriut until that of his death — a period of 
 tliirtj-flve years — he never emcrgel, but upon 
 nvnnodialons, from the seclusiim ot his house. 
 I'ililcM and inscrutable as Destinv. lie watclied 
 Ihf irimbled world of Oriental ixriitics, himself 
 iiivisililo, and whenever he perceived a formida- 
 ble f(i«', caused a dagger to be driven into his 
 heart. " It was not until more tlun a centurr 
 after the deatli of iu founder that the fcarfiil 
 orgauijation of the Assassins was extinguished 
 (.V. I). IS.-)') by the same Hixxl of Mongol inva- 
 sion wlilcli awept Bagdad and tlie Caliphate out 
 of enLicuce. — R D. Osbi>rn, ItUtm uiuler Iht 
 Kkiilijunf lii'jiUd, pi. 3, (A. 8.— W. C. Taylor, 
 nut '/ Miihiimmriltnitm aiut its SefU, e/i. 9.— 
 Till- .\~«i«iii» wen" rootol out from all tiieir 
 striMiglioliU in KuhlaUn and the neighboring re- 
 giim. sail were pravticallr cxterniinatol, in li57, 
 by tlif .Mongols under Khulagu, or Houlagou' 
 bmthi-r of .Mongu Khan, the great sovereign of 
 the .H.mgol Empire, then nignlng. Alamut 
 the \ uiture's Nest, was demolished. — II II 
 llowiirlli. Iliit.iiflht MonifJt, fkirt I, p. 193- ntui 
 I'iria. l(l-l(H-S<-e Haoi>ai.: A. D. I'iW 
 
 ASSAyE,B4ttltof(iao3). SeelHDiA:A D. 
 
 ITilt |sii.-, 
 
 »»?SI¥°^X °'' J"? NOTABLES IN 
 FRANCE (I7t7), See Pkas A. U. 1774- 
 
 ASSENISIPIA. Tht propoMd Stktt of. 
 
 ** NoHriiwKsT Tkhhitohy of tub United 
 
 t>TATK»UK .Vn : .\. I). I7M4. 
 
 *|SIDEANS, Tht. See Cihsidim. Tub. 
 ASblENTO, The. S... .\-iknto 
 ASSICMATS. Hee PnAME • A. D. 17S»- 
 l.iM ITW-ITK,', (Jii.r-ArKiii; also, MoNiT 
 
 ASSINARUS, AthtoiAo defsat and tur- 
 Ac4fi.'.oV., i^'' '*»"*"»'< » C 4IV4i:l 
 AasiNlBQlA. Nee NimrnwMT Tkiihi- 
 
 TcMll>...KrvN»|l\ 
 
 ASSINIBOINS. Th.. See Anemcan Aao- 
 
 ■VllSK- MilUAN KaMII.V 
 
 AA?^l'i?'M ^''* ■'••«>y- *« EHOLANO: 
 
 A II ttw:» (SKrtKMnKw) 
 ASSIZE OF BREAD AND ALE. -The 
 
 A«M/.. „f Hriail an.1 Ale w.m ni, Kngllsh .mil. 
 wm.or ,.,i«,imcnt, .laling l««-k to iIh. llnicf 
 l-iiry 11 |„ tlK. lath miiury, which flx«l il,,. 
 ITl... ,.r iliiw. cimmiHlitic. by a scale rcir"i«i.d 
 L, I ' f "' 'v. tT "'"'■'•■' I'"'-'-* "t wlicat. Iwrlcy 
 •" Ulrly as the b«j;liwiin «' H" Usl wBtury and 
 
 149 
 
 wa» only abolished in London and tU neighbour- 
 hood about thirty years ago "-that is, early in 
 n®,-''/^'" century. -O. L. Cndk, Uut! of 
 Brituh Ommerce, t. 1 n 1,37 "' 
 
 Ar SIZE OF CLARENDON, The. See 
 Enc -j: a. n. IIBJ-IITO 
 
 ASS'ZE OF JERUSALEM, The.-" No 
 sooner had Godfrey of U<,uilloii [flecte<I King of 
 Jerusalem after the Uiking of the Holy City by 
 tlie Crusaders A. I), lOOoT accepted tlii offlreolT 
 supreme magistrate than he solicite.1 the public 
 and private advice of the Utin pilgrims who 
 were the best skilled in tlie statutes and custona 
 of turope. From these materiaU. with tha 
 counsel and approbation of the Patriarch and 
 barons, of the clergy and laity, Oodfrev com- 
 posed the Aiwlsc of Jerusalem, a precious" monu- 
 nient of feudal jurisprudence, tiie new code, 
 
 'h^' f* ^1 "'* "*"''-"'. "'« •^'"8' «''e Patriarch 
 and the Viscount of Jerusalem, was deiMwited 
 In the holy sepulchre, enriched with the im- 
 provementaof succeeding times, ami resm'ttfullv 
 consulted as often m anv.loubtful question aroii 
 in the tribunals of Palestine. Wtli the king- 
 dom and city all was lost; the fragments of the 
 written law were preacrve<l by Jealous tradition 
 and variable practice till the middle of the 
 tiirteenth century. The co<le was restore.1 by 
 the pen of John dlbelin. Count of Jaffa, one of 
 the principal feudatories; and the final nvislon 
 was accomplUliwI in tlie year thirteen IniiidrMl 
 and sixtynliie for the use of ilie Latin kingdom 
 nf Cyprus. "-E. Uilibou, Ikdimami FMof Iht 
 Homan Kii^hiy, r/i. .V). 
 
 ASSIZES.— " Tlie formaledicU known under 
 the name of Asslxcs, the Assizes of Clarendon 
 and N(.rt linmpton. the Assize of Arms, the 
 Assize of tlie Forest, and the Assizes of Mca.Hures. 
 are the only relics of the legislative work of tira 
 perio.1 [reign of Henry II. Fn England]. Tliese 
 eilicu arc chieHy comp<»«l of new regulations 
 tor tlie enfonx^ment of roval Justice la 
 
 this respect they strongly fi-semble the caiiitu- 
 arietof ilie Frank Kings, or, to go farther lliick. 
 the cflicu of tlic Homan pncUirs Tlie 
 
 term Asaize, which comes Into use in this mean- 
 ng about the midilie of the twelfth centiirv 
 Urth on the contliirnt ami in England, apinari 
 to bo the i>ro|Hr Norman name for such edicts. 
 ... In the ■ Assize of Jerusalem' it simnlv 
 means a law: and the same in Henrys Kirllla- 
 lion Secondarily, it meiins a form of trial 
 Mlol>lislie<l by the (uirtlcular law, as tlie Ori'at 
 ,\Mi«e, the Assize of Mort dAiicesl.r; and 
 lliliil y the curl h.1,1 to lio|,| ,„cli trial. In 
 wlilc I ai'tiM- It li conimoiily iiaed at the pnwnt 
 
 ''*ior.^» """■'•'• '■""' ''**' "/AV.M. 13. 
 A99UR. Sti AssYHIA. 
 
 ASSYRIA.— For matter relating to Anyrlan 
 
 history, the reader Is nferrinl to the caption 
 
 ?.?.!"/'?•."""''.' *''''■'' " " '" •»' «l»"' The sub- 
 Jert Is defernd to that part of this work which 
 will go later Into print, for the reason tliat every 
 month Is addinc to tlie knowlwlgeof thestiidenta 
 of ant ieiit oriental history and clearing away dis- 
 pute.! <|tieatlona It is <,iiltv p,«|bre that the 
 Unw Utw«n the publication of our Hrst volume 
 and t>ur fourth or lifih may make important ad- 
 ditions to the scanty literature of the subject In 
 
 ancient cities In tlw hjut. bringing u> light larin 
 llbranr eollerlions of inscribed rlav tableU - 
 Mcnd and hblurical writlajt, oiBctal ivroid^ 
 
A88TIUA 
 
 bnalneii oontruti imd muiy TsrtetlM of intcrip-' 
 tloiM,— have almoct leTolutionlud the rtUuT of 
 ancient histonr and the vlcwg of antiquity derived 
 from It. " M. Botta, who waa appointed French 
 coMul at Moaul in 1842, waa the «nt to com- 
 mence excavationa on the aHea of the burled 
 cities of Anyria, and to him la due the honour of 
 the flret diicovery of her long loat pahuxa. M. 
 Hotta commenced hia Uboura at Kouyunjik, the 
 ihrge mound oppnalte Moaul, but he found heie 
 Tery little to compeuaate for hi* laboura. New 
 at the time to excaTationn, he doea not appear to 
 have worked In the beat manner; M. Botta at 
 Kouyunjik contented himwif with ainkinic piu 
 in the mound, and on these proving unproduc- 
 tive abandoning them. While M. BotU waa ex- 
 cavating at Kouvunjik, hia attention waa called 
 to the mounda of Khonabad by a native of the 
 Tillage on that site ; and be aent a party of work- 
 men to the spot to commence excavaUon. In a 
 f-'w days his perseverance waa rewarded by tlie 
 ilbcoTcry of some aculpturca, after which, aban- 
 doning the work at Kouyunjik, he transferred 
 his esublishmcnt to Khoraabad and thomughlv 
 explored that site. ... The palace which M. 
 Botta hail discovered . . . is one of the most per- 
 fect Aiwvrian buildings vet explored, and forms 
 an eio'llent example of Assyrian architecture. 
 Beside the palace on the mound of Khonabad, 
 M. Botta also opew 1 the rem^ina of a temple' 
 and ■ grand porrh decorated by six wingetl bulls. 
 . . . The operations of M. BotU were brought 
 to a close in 184.1, and a snlenild collection of 
 sculptures and other antif|ultlea, the fruits of liU 
 labiiun, arrived in I>arla in 1844 and was dc- 
 waited in the louvre. Afterwards the Krenrli 
 Ooveninient ap|H>lnU-d M. I'lurt consul at Mosul. 
 and he r.>ntlnue<l some of the excavations of liN 
 predi'oe««or. ... Mr. Layard, whose alttiiiloii 
 was carlv lum-.I In this dlrrctlon. vtsitrfl tlir 
 country In l»4il il sfh'rwanls Umk a great In- 
 terest In tlip ex'itvalions iif M. Botta. At length. 
 In 184,1, Ijiynnl was enaliliil through the assis' 
 tani'e of .SirMratfonI Canning to commence exca- 
 vallnns in Asayria himself OnlheSlhof Novrm- 
 brr lie st«n«l fn)m Mosul, and dean-ndnl the 
 Tigris to Nlmmud. . . Mr Uyanl haadearrilicil 
 In his works with great minutenrM Ills suniwlre 
 rxcavallons, and the remarkable and Interesilnv 
 dlarovirlrs he rowle. . . . After making tlii-n' 
 diaixiveriea in Assyria, Mr. Uvartl vlsll.-.l Hal.v 
 lonla. and upeoeil trrnchis in several of ifif 
 mounils there. t)n the ntuni of Mr. LaynnI in 
 EnirlniHl, excavations wrro continued In the 
 Kii|>lintl).s valley uiidi-r the superintrmlence of 
 (••oIimhI (now Wr Ilenryl Itawllnson. I'mler his 
 (lln-itlnnii. Mr. Ilormuni liaasam, Mr. Loflus. 
 kimI Mr Tsrlor excavated various sites and made 
 hMimniiMillsroveric*, the British Museum tri-rW 
 ing till' U'Rl of the monunu'nla The materials 
 roUi'itt-.l III tlir national miiM>uma of Kramv ami 
 KngUiiil. and the ti merous inscrintlooa pub 
 llalMil. Hiiroite,! ilie ' nlion of the bamed, and 
 very simiii loniidintlili light was thrown on the 
 historr, liniji'iigf, nninnir*. and customs of an 
 clent AsKjria anil lUbylnnla."— O Smith, At 
 fliri,in thtnmntt, rk. I.— "(hie of the moat Im- 
 poruni remtluof Wr A. II. Uranl's exploiatloos 
 at Niueveh wa« the liisroviry of the ruinnl 
 library of the ancient city, now Iniried under the 
 piithb trf K™iT-jniii: TSm, i.r..ferii .lay (auiri. 
 belirtiglng to this library not only fumlalied the 
 •tudenl with an immjitv nait of UlHuy ■utter. 
 
 160 
 
 ASTT. 
 
 but ^ with dfawt aidi toward* a knowledge of 
 the Aayitan syUabMy and lan>tia«& Among 
 the liteistun nprewnted in the libntry of Kou- 
 yunjik were lisU of cfaaractoa, with their various 
 phonetic and IdeogTapbic meanlnga, tablea of 
 synonymes, and catalogueaof the nameaof phuiu 
 and animals. Thla, however, waa not alL The 
 Inventors of the cuneiform lyatem of writing had 
 been a people who preceded the Semitea in the 
 occupation of Babyloaia, and who spoke an ag- 
 glutinative Unguage utteriy different from that 
 of their Semitic aucceaaora Theae Acc»dlan« 
 u they are usually termed, left behind them a 
 conaiderable amount of literature, which was 
 highly prixed by the SemitiG Baby kmiana and As- 
 syrian*- A large portion of the NInevite tablets 
 accordingly, condste of Interiineaf or paralici 
 tr nalationa from AocadUn into Aaayrian, aa well 
 aa uf reading books, dictionarie*, and grammars 
 In *hich the Accadian original la plact i by tin- 
 side of iUA**yrian equivalent. . . . The bilingual 
 tcxU have not only enabled acholars to recover 
 the long-forgotten AocadUn hmguage ; they have 
 also been of the greateat poaifble assistance to 
 them in their reconstruction of the Assyrian dic- 
 tionary itself The three expeditiona conducted 
 by Mr. George Smith [187»-1879], aa well as the 
 later one* of Mr. Hormuzd Rassam, have adiird 
 largely to the sUx-k of Ubieta from Kouyunjik 
 originally *<<|ulred for the British Museum l.y 
 Sir A. II. Layard, and lave alao brought to light 
 a few other tablet* from the librariea of Baby- 
 lonia."— A. H. Sayce, /Vwa* light from tA« An- 
 eitnt Monument; ch. 1. 
 
 AMOWifJ. Rawlinann, Flrfflrfnt HHmarrhitt 
 TV AdMNf Mannrchf, ek. ».— M. Diincker, Jli,t 
 vf AHtiqnity, blu. B-4._8w, alao, Habvi.onh- 
 BMim*; LlHRAHIKS, Ani'IKXT; EoUCATIO.t 
 AMCIBIIT; MoRIT ADO BAKai.NU. 
 
 ASSYRIA, Epeajrm Canon oC— "Just as 
 tliere were arrluHis at Athens and consuls at 
 Home who were ek-cted annually, an among tlw 
 Assyrians tlicre was a custom of elerllng one 
 man to lie over the year, whom they cnlliil 
 ■llmu,' or 'eiMHtym.' . . . BnliykHiInn and 
 Assyrian doruim-nta were more generally <IiiI(n| 
 by the iinines of tlieae epoovms than l^v'thst nf 
 the n-igning King. . . . li IHAi s,, II,.„ry 
 Itawllnson i|lsctivere<l the fragment .f the 
 eponym ramiu of Assyria. It was one of ihc 
 grenilmt and must liiiii<irt«nt dlsciiverh-s mp 
 made, for It ha* dt-ciiitil iletlnltely a greiit iiuiiiy 
 poinu whleh iHlierwIae i-iiiild wver have Ixiii 
 clwiml up. FragmenU of wven niplcsof ihU 
 canon were foiiiHl, ami from thene lli« i-li-iinol(ii;y 
 of Assyria ha» lii«n dctlnitely wtllrtl from II l' 
 13*1 to aUiiit H. (• (WO — K A. W Uuilit.'. 
 ifaA|f<.i«|.iii A,(/> >iHrf lliatorfl, rh. it 
 
 ASTOLP, KlBC of th« Lembwda, A, I) 
 74l» 7W 
 
 ASTRAKHAN : The Khwutc H.-e Mox 
 oois: A. n I8*«-1I»| 
 
 A. D, ts««.— RaaaiM renulat of tha Turks. 
 acelti'ssiA: .\. I) l.VM-lsfl 
 
 ASTURIANS, The. Si-e ('AirrAnniA<i« 
 
 ASTURIA8: Rtaitt«ace to the Moonsh 
 Canaaeat. SivHpaisi: a I) 7I!V-T3i 
 
 A8TY, OR ASTU, The.-Tlie an. I. ni . iir 
 of Alh<'n* proper, aa dUtlniulslieil fn«ii llsn.n 
 nart.d hariior*. waa chIIiiI the Astv, nr A>iu 
 —J. A. »t. J..hn, I'h* tIrlUiui. ht. l,'fk 4 
 
 Aun IN W. M. I.eake, r"j>-/nip*y »f .IMms, 
 -a. la— tie*, alao, Atiuun: Amu. *c. 
 
ladgeot 
 AmoD^ 
 if Kou- 
 Tsrious 
 bica of 
 f planu 
 L Thp 
 ing bad 
 > in the 
 
 anag- 
 3m that 
 adiaiM, 
 them a 
 !h waa 
 1D(I As- 
 taUrts, 
 parallel 
 aa wril 
 nmare, 
 
 by tbi- 
 lingual 
 recover 
 !J have 
 mc« to 
 an die- 
 ducted 
 laathp 
 
 adilid 
 yunjik 
 urn 1))' 
 » iJKht 
 
 Bahy- 
 h$Aif 
 
 trrhin: 
 . JIM. 
 
 ONII; 
 »TIO!«, 
 
 Uit M 
 
 ula at 
 tg the 
 g "lie 
 
 CHJIctl 
 
 and 
 diilcil 
 hat iif 
 Henry 
 f I he 
 i>f the 
 1 enr 
 iiuiiiy 
 ' Ixell 
 if Ihii 
 Kiliiirv 
 111' 
 iud):e. 
 
 A. I) 
 urki. 
 
 loriih 
 
 A«lu 
 
 IhtlU, 
 
 "P5 
 
 r • 
 

 3? 
 
 • -. ~ 
 
 - y . 
 
 7 I ^ = ■: & 
 
 * « :t - .= 
 
 
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ATHENS. 
 
 ASTVNOMI.— Certain police offldab In an- 
 ririit Athena, ten in number. "Tlicy were 
 >'linr|f^-a witli hII thiit IM-Iimgs to street tupet- 
 vision, e. f.. tlie eli>iuisinK of the streets, for 
 wliicli piir|Mwv the copntlngl. or Htreetsweepers 
 wen> under tlii'ir onlcra; tlie securing of momlity 
 snil decent lieliiivivur in the strwts."— O. F. 
 i^Miwinn, AHlii/.ofdrreee: TJie Stult, pi ;1 rA 3 
 
 ASUNCION : A. D. 1537. -The foundiiiK 
 of the city. See Paiiacuav: A. D ISl.Vl.m 
 „AJAf EOS, ATTABEGS, OR ATTA- 
 BECK5.— " From tin- deilim- of tlic dynasty of 
 Siljook to the coniiucst of Persia by ilulakiMi 
 Khan, tlie mm of Clunuliia, n |K-rio<l of more 
 than a century, that country was distracted by 
 the contests of |Mlly princes, or governors, 
 (sllnl AttalK-ffs, wlio, taking advantage of the 
 wealtness of the last S)'lj(H)kian monarchs, and 
 iif tlie (listraetlDnK wliicli followed their final 
 t'Xtinrtion, estalilishcd ihoir authority over some 
 of tlie finest provinces of the Empire. Many of 
 these petty (lynastles ac.iulrixl such a local fame 
 as, to this day, gives an Importance to their 
 memory with the inliahiunts of the countries 
 liver wldch they nik.l. . . . The wonl Atta- 
 Ih'k is Turkish: it is ,1 compound wonl of 'atta ' 
 ma»li-r, or tutor, ami 'Im-v', lonl; and signifies a 
 governor, or tutor, of a lord or prince. '^Ir J 
 
 ATHENS. 
 
 Malcolm, Ilitl. ofPenin, t. 1, eh. 9.— "It Is true 
 tliat the Atabeks appear but a short space as 
 actors on the stage of Eastern history; but these 
 •tutors of princes' occupy a position neither 
 Insignificant nor unimportant In tlie course of 
 events which occurrcl (n Syria and Persia at tlie 
 time thc^y fiourlshed. "— W. H Moriey, Prefiu» 
 to Xirkhimrt IIM. of the AUibela.—iieK. also 
 8ai.ai>in, The Empirb or. 
 
 A.^^^,Kf^*r' '^ '-"• ^-^ P-- 
 
 ATELIERS NATIONAUX OF 1848. AT 
 PARIS. See France: A. I). 1848 (Pebkuart 
 — Mav). and (April— DECKMncii). 
 
 ATHABASCA. The Diitrict at SeeNoRTii- 
 WEST Tkriutories or Canada. 
 
 ATHABASCANS, The. See America.1 
 Aborioinrm: Atiiapasca.n Family. 
 
 ATHALAYAS. See Sardinia, The Island 
 
 NAME ANI> EAKLV IIISTORT. 
 
 »AJ,5.^ ":.•- ^THE L I NO.- ATHE L- 
 BONOE. See Ad>:l. 
 
 ATHENRY, Bi ;tle of.— The most desperate 
 liattle fought by the Irish in resisting the Eng- 
 lish conquest of Ireland. They were terribly 
 slaughtered and the chivalry of Connauifht wa» 
 crushetl. Tlie Imttle occurrwl Aug. id K D 
 1316.— .M. Uaverty, nut. <^ Irttamt, p. 888. 
 
 The Preeminence of Athena.— " When we 
 «j«'ak of UretK-e we think first of Athens. 
 T" citizens and to stninirers hy means of epic 
 reiiiatiuiis and ilrainiilii- siMKtacles, she presented 
 M idealised image of lifi,. itself. Slie was the 
 Inline of new lih'as, ilie inotlierclty from which 
 [p.Htr.v. eio,iuen<T, and philosophy spreail Ui 
 distant lands. While ihe chief dialects of Greece 
 mrvive, each not as a mere dialect but as the 
 latittuaKc of literal un-, -a thing unknown in the 
 lii-tory of any oth.r people,— the Attic idiom, 
 in which llie cliara<-teiisiic eleinenta of other 
 lii:!!^^ met and wen- lileiiileil. has become to 
 u^ :!■• It ilid to the aiieieula, the very type of 
 ll.lltnic- spiTch. .\iliens was not only the 'capl- 
 lii! of liriTce.' tlie 'scliiN.l of Greece; it deserves 
 ilie mine appllisl to il in an epitaph on Euripides: 
 
 Ins iiMuilry is Alliens. UrviHV of Onwce.' The 
 rays of the Gn-ek giniiis hen' found a centre and 
 > f,.,iis — S. II. Itiilelier, S„ne AepteUofthe 
 iirni /,V;ii««. ;,/, ;w :«.— "Our interest in an- 
 111 lit lii«iory. it may Im- wild, lies not in details 
 liiil in hirge massi-s. It mailers little how early 
 ilii Anailiaiis aci|iiinil a iMililieal unity or what 
 -N.iliisdid 111 .Myei'ii^e: llial which Interests us is 
 the I oii.ijiullon of Alliens, llie repulse of IVrsIa, 
 III.- Iirlef liLsmi of TImIn's. Life is not so long 
 
 "'" * Hi«|a'iiil oiinlaysover the unimportant 
 
 fat.- of iiiiintirestlni; trilMHi and towns. " 
 
 Area and Population.— 'The entire cireult 
 yi llie Astv (Ihe lowiT lily, or AHiens pMper] 
 lj'm< Widls and mariiime city, taken as one in- 
 >i -im . IS e.|ual to alKiut 17 English miles, or 
 I !■< «ta.|es. This is very dilTerent frtim the 8U0 
 iiii-l.s »lii(h Dion Chrysostom states to have 
 iHin Hie cireuinfen-iu'e of iIm> mnny> w.ills an 
 e-iiiimi.ejiceisling liy more than 'J()stailes even 
 til. sum of tlie iM'riplieries of Ihe Astv and 
 
 l.iraH towns, a< nling to the numh^n of 
 
 iiiutj.lides. , . . HoiiM! was cin-uUr, bjriBcuM! 
 
 ATHENS. 
 
 161 
 
 triangular, and Athens cnnslste<l of two cireuUr 
 cities. Joined by a street of four mil<.» in length 
 — a figiir... ihe siiiwrflcles of which was not mora 
 tlian the fourth part of that of a citv of an eiiual 
 cireiimfcrent')-, in a cireular form, 'llenif wlien 
 to Home within the walls were wMed suburb* 
 of eipial extent, ita popuiatlim was greater than 
 that of all Attica. That of Athens, altiiough 
 the moat populous city In Greece, was prolMldr 
 never greater than aOti.lXK) ."— W. M. Leake 
 Ti>iKx/mpAiff,f Alhfiu. KTt \" ' 
 
 loniaii Orii^in. Sec IKini vns and Ioni vns. 
 The BecianinK of the citj-atate. — Hew 
 , Attic* was abwirbcd in it* capital.- ■ In the 
 j ilays of Ceeniiis and the first kings [see Attic \1 
 ; down to Ihe nign of Thes.us, Allien was dividisl 
 I Into ctmimunra, having their own town halls luiil 
 ' inagistratM. Emi-pl In case of alahu the whole 
 pople did not assemble In council under the 
 king, but administered their own alTairs. and ad 
 vised together in their several townships Some 
 of them at times even went to war with him, ai 
 the Elciisinians under Euinolpua with ErtY-tlieiis. 
 Hut when Theseus came to the throne, he, iM'Ing 
 a iMiwerfiil as well as a wise ruler, among other 
 Improveiiients in the ailininislratlim of tlie coun- 
 try, (IIssoIvihI the councils and separate govern- 
 ments, and unlti.d ail the inhabltanU of .Vttica In 
 the present city, eslalilishing omi council and 
 town hall. They continiieil to live on tlielr own 
 lands, but he comiH'IKsl them to resort to Athens 
 as their inetni|><ilis. and liem-eforwanl tliev were 
 all InscrilNHl in tlie roll of her ciiizens .V ^ri^l 
 city thus anw which was linndtHi down hv The- 
 «<iis to his di'siTndaiita, and fniin his da\ 1.1 thta 
 the .\f!i..ntw= Mv,> rp»Hlsf!y relrbratctf thr n»- 
 lloiial festival of the Synoeria, w 'union of the 
 communes ' in honour of the goildess .\ihene. 
 liefore his lime, what is now the Acmtiolls and 
 Utv gruuiMl lying unOer It to tbo south wa* tlM 
 
PLA!» OF ATHENS. 
 *Vor,i "MytM^y and iloKwmmU of Ancinl AiStra," by Jatu JT. BarrUon and MargartI d* O rerrall 
 
 BARBOBa ITIUUta. 
 
 152 
 
ATHEKa. 
 
 ATHENS, a C. 634. 
 
 dtr. Many icmoim may be urscd In proof of 
 thfintolcment"— Tliucydldes, Uittor^ (Jowttfi 
 tniM.). bk. 2. uet 13. 
 Al«) in : M. Duncker, Ilitl. of Ontte, bk. 8, ck. 
 
 TC 3). 
 
 From the Doriaa MiKration to B. C. 683.— 
 End of kiofahip and inatitntion of the 
 Arcboni.— At the epoch of the Biicntiaa and 
 Doriiin mignitiona (itee Oreeck: The Miora- 
 Ti<>N>i. Attica was RucKled by fugitives, both 
 finm tlic north an<l from the Peloponnesus. 
 " Hut tlic btilli of the refugees paase*! on to 
 Asia, and built up the cities of Ionia. . . . 
 Wiivn the swnrnis of emigrants clcantl off, and 
 Athens is again discernable, the crown has passeil 
 fn>m the old nival house of the Cecnipidae to a 
 family of exiles from Peloponnesus. ... A 
 genrriitiiin later the Dorian invasion, wlilch hail 
 (iverwlii-lmcil Corinth and torn away .Megara 
 from tlie Atlic dominion, swept up b) the verv 
 gales nf Alliens. An oracle declared that the 
 city would never fall if its ruler perishol by the 
 luind of the Invaders; therefore King Codrus 
 <iisi;iii«'<l himself as a peasant, set out for the 
 Dorian (»nip. struck down the first man he met, 
 and WHS himself slain by the secimd. The Inva- 
 sion fHiled, and the Athenians, to perpetuate the 
 memory of their monarch's patriotism, would 
 not hIIiiw the title of ' king ' to be borne by the 
 ciesr ndanls who succoedetf him on the throne, 
 but cimnged the name to 'archon,' or 'ruler,' 
 . . . Tiiosc legends evidently cover some obscure 
 vhanci's in the internal history of Attica." — 
 C W C. Onuin. HM. of Onter, ek. 11.— "After 
 the death of Coiinis the nobles, taking advan- 
 tage, pi'rhaps, of the opportunity afforded by 
 the ilispute between his sons, are said to have 
 alK)li^lll•d tlip title of king, an<l to have substi- 
 tuted fnr it that of Archon. Tills cliange, how- 
 ever, seems t4> have lieen im|H)rtant, rather as it 
 iiiiliiated tile new, pn-cnrioua tenure liy wliiili 
 tlie royiil power was lield, tlian as it immetliately 
 affwte.l the nature of the olBce. It was, Inditil, 
 still held for life : and Medon, the »on of Codrus, 
 trHiisrnilled it to his posterity. . . . After twelve 
 n>lgn», ending with that of Alcminm JB. C. 
 7.VJ], the duration of the office was limited to 
 ten jKirs; anil through the guilt or calamity of 
 Ilippoineiies, the fourtli decennial archon, the ; 
 h.viise of .Me<lim was deprived of its privilege, | 
 iinil the supreme magistracy was tlirown o|«:n I 
 t> till- whole body of nobles! This change was i 
 ■ eilily followeii by one much more important. 1 
 The duration of tlie arclionship was again ; 
 rnluie.l to a single year [B. C. 883); and, at the < 
 *itm time, its branches were severeil and ills- I 
 triliiited among nine new magistrates. Among I 
 tlu-ii-. tlie llrsl 111 nink retaineil the distinguish- j 
 iii^' title nf the .Vrchon. and the year was markeil I 
 I'v his imiiie. He representeil the majesty of the I 
 siite. iin.l exeri'iiieii a |Hruliar jurisdiction — that 
 wliii li liiiii U'longiil to the king ■■ tlie common 
 [im-i.t iif hi.-i ik-ople, the protector of families, 
 llie iTuiirdian nf iirphniM and heiresses, and of 
 the irmeml right.i of inheritance. For the 
 sienii.l iinhiin the title of king Ibasileus], If it 
 h!iii lueri laid aside, was reviveil, at the func 
 t! .^> .i-:«lgneil to hlin were those moat associated 
 »;tli 111. lent nKolh'ctlimB. He repreM-nleil tin. 
 k .; 1^ liie higli priest of his people; he regit- 
 liiel the lelelimtion of the mysteries and the 
 m.»t .*,lei!in fesiiviils; diH-l.led all causes which 
 ifftcted tht Intcrtuu of reli|[tua . . . Tlie tltinl 
 
 153 
 
 archon bore the title of Polemarch, and filled 
 the place of the king as the leader of his people 
 In war, and the guanlian who watche<l over its 
 security in time of peace. , . , The remaining 
 six arcuons recelveil the common title of thesmo- 
 thetes, which literally signifles Icgislatom, and 
 was probably applied to them as the Judges 
 who determined the great variety of causes 
 which did not fall under the cognizance of their 
 colleagues; because, in the abst'nce of a written 
 cmlc, those who declare and interpret the laws 
 may Ix? properly said to make them."— C. Tlilrl- 
 wall, Ilut. nf ChttM, ek. n.— • We arc In nu 
 coiiditloD to determine the civil classiAcatiou and 
 IMiliticul constitution of Attica, even at the 
 period of the Arclionship of Kreon, 683 B. C, 
 when authentic Athenian chronology tirst com- 
 mences, much less can we pretend to any knowl- 
 eilgc of the anterior centuries. ... All the 
 information which we possess respecting that 
 old polity Is derive<l from authors who lived 
 after all or must of these great changes [by 
 Solon, and later) — and who. finding no records, 
 nor anything better than current legends, ex- 
 plained the foretime as well as they could by 
 guesses more or less ingenious, generally at- 
 
 tachetl to the dominant legendary names." 
 
 O. Qrote, IIM. of Grteet. pt. 2, ek. 10. 
 
 Also is: O. P. Schftinann, Antiq. nf Greeee: 
 The Sl,iU, pt. 8, ck. 3— >L Duncker, Ilia. „t 
 Qrrtft. bk. 8, ek. 7 (r. Si. 
 
 B. C. 694.— Under the Draconian Ltgitlt' 
 tion.— " Drako was the flrst tliesniotliet, who 
 was called upon to set down hi^i tliesinoi [onii- 
 naiices and decisions] in writing, and thus to in- 
 vest them essentUlly with a diameter of more or 
 less generality. lu the laUT and la-tterkiiown 
 times of Athenian law, we find these anriions de- 
 prived In great measure of their jwiwers of Judg- 
 ing anil deciding, and restricUil to the task of 
 first hearing of parties and collecting the evi- 
 ili'iice, next, of introducing the matter for trial 
 into tile appnipriate dikastery, over which they 
 pri-sided. Originally, there was no separation of 
 powers; the archons both Judged and adminis- 
 tered. . . . All of till'!*!' functionaries belonged 
 to the Eupatrids, and nil of them doubtless acteil 
 more or leas in the imrrnw interest of their onler: 
 moreover, there was ample nsiin for favouritism 
 In the way of coiinlvniii'e as well ns antipathy on 
 the part of the arciiniH That such was decid- 
 edlv the case, and tliat disionteiil Ixifan to bis 
 serious, we may infer fmni the ilutv iiii|Hiseil on 
 the thesmothet Drako. U. C. 6-U. to' put in writ- 
 ing the Ihesnioi or oniiimnces. so tliat tliey niiglit 
 Ir- ' shown publicly ' and known befnreliiind. 
 He did not meddle w"ilh the political ci institution, 
 and in his onlinances .VristolleliiiilH little worthy 
 of remark except the cxlri'me severity of the 
 punishments awanleil: petty thefts, or even 
 pn>vi>d idleness of life, Is'ing' visited with death 
 or disfranchisement. But we are not to i-oiiKtriie 
 this reiiuirk as demonstrating aiiv special inhu- 
 manity in the ciiaraiter nf Drako, who was not 
 investeil with the large power wliich Solon af- 
 terwanis enjoyed, and cannot Ik- Iniagined to 
 liave imposeil u|)im the cimimunilv si'vere laws 
 of his own ln%-ention. . . . The general sjiirit of 
 jM-iial legl«|iiili>n liiid tutom" '^> niiieh niiUler. 
 during tlie two centuries wliieli foilowiHl. that 
 the-K- old nnlinnnees appeiiieil In .Vristotle intol- 
 erably rignnms."— 0. Orote, JIul. of Urttet, pt. 
 2, eh. 10 (p. 3). 
 
1^» 
 
 * -3f 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. eiS-M6. 
 
 B. C. 6ia-S9S.— Coniplfmey of Cylen.— 
 Buitbment of the Alcmaonida.— The flret at- 
 tempt at Alhiiw to overturn the oligiin-liUnl 
 government ami establish a pemonal tyranny 
 was miule, B. C. 613. by Cvlon (Kylon), a 
 patrieian, wminlaw of the tyrant of MeKiira, 
 viho was em-ouniKiil anil helped In his under- 
 takinif by tlie latter. The conspiracy failed 
 misembly. The imrtisnns of Cylon, blockaded 
 in the acropolis, were forwd to surrender; but 
 they plaitnl thi'msclvps under the protection of 
 the goddess Minerva and were nn)niise<l their 
 lives. Mon- elTectuulIy to retain the protection of 
 the KiNldes!) until their escape was effected, they 
 attache<l a conl to her altar and held it In tliefr 
 hamis as they pas.s.i| out through the midst of 
 their enemies, rnhappily the cord bnike. and 
 the archon Mepacles at once declared that the 
 safcKuanlof Minerva was withdrawn from them, 
 whereu|Mm they were massacrol without mercv, 
 even though they fled to the neighlwring altars 
 and clung to lliem. The treachery and bad f.iith 
 of this cruel deed does not seem to have dis- 
 turbed llie Athenian p<'ople, but the sacrilege 
 involved In it ciiuse.1 horror and fear when they 
 had had time lo rellcit upon It Megacles anil 
 his whole family — the Alemmnnids as they 
 were called, from the name of one of their an- 
 cestors — wiTc held accountable for the affront 
 to the gods and were considered polluted and 
 accursed. Every public calamity was ascribed 
 to their sin, and at lenirth, after'a solemn trial, 
 they wen- banislni) from the city (about 586 or 
 695 B. ('.), while the dead of the family were 
 disinterreil ami east out. The agitations of this 
 affair e.\eriis<d an im|iortant influence on the 
 course nf eviiits. which o|)ene<l the way for 
 Solon anil his roiistitiilional reforms.— C. Thirl- 
 wall. Ilitl. <if If nifr, rh. II. 
 j Ai.si) IN : (}. (irote. Ilinf of Orvfff. pi. 2 eh. 10 
 B. C. 610-586.— StruKle with Henra for 
 Salunis.— Cirrhcan or First Smcred \Var.— 
 "The petty state of Megara. which, since the 
 earlier iigi-s had, from the dependent of .\thens. 
 grown up to the dignity of \.n r val, taking ad- 
 vantage .if the internal dissensions in the latter 
 city, suiiiiilid in wre-^Mng rr,m the Athenian 
 governnii'iit the isle of Sahimls. It was not, how- 
 ever, w ithoiit bitter and repeatei] struirgles that 
 Athens at la.st siibinittitl to the Gurrender of the 
 Isle. lim, after signal losses and defeats. a.s 
 nothing is ever more oilious to the multitude 
 than uiiHucressful war, so the popular feeling 
 was siirli as to induce the government to enact a 
 decri'e by ttliiih it was forbidden, njion pain of 
 death, I., pn.posi'reassi'rting the Athenian claims. 
 . . . .Many cif tlir younger [mrtion of the com- 
 munitv, pining at the dishonour of their einin- 
 try, uriil 1 au-i r f"r enterprise, were secretly in- 
 cliniMl t.. luiiriti iiaiiiT any stratagem that niiglit 
 iniluie 111.' r.v.TMil of the decree. At this time 
 there went a rip..rt tliniugh the city that a man 
 ofdisiiiigiii.|i..| birth . . . had incurred the con. 
 •ecratiiig mi«f.iriune ..f in.sanity. Huddenly this 
 person apjs ami in ilie market "place, weariiig the 
 peculiar ba.k'e |a cip) that distinguisheil the 
 
 *'<•'' \«rifi.liiig the M. me from which the 
 
 heral.is iiiadi' tliiir priKlamations, he began tore- 
 citeaiiiiula poi'in upon the lossof Salamis, Isildly 
 repniviiig tin- 1 ..w.-inlii-i. of the people, a!::! in 
 citing tliiiiiuk'nin t.iwnr. ilisKuppostnl insanity 
 protectiKl him fr.iin the law -his rank, ri'pula- 
 tiuo, and the circumstance of his being himself a 
 
 154 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. SM. 
 
 natlre of Salamis, conipiretl to give to hit exhor- 
 tation a powerful effe«'t, and the friends ho hiil 
 s«'cure<l to back his attempt louuly priK-iaiineil 
 tlieir applauding sympatliy with tliJ spirit of the 
 address. The name of the pritendiil mai'man 
 was 8olon, son of Execestides. the descendant of 
 t'iKlrus. . . . The stratagem and llie eloi|uence 
 of Solon produced Its natural elTect 11 '^in Ms 
 spiriteil and excitable audiem-e. anil the' public 
 enthusiasm p<>rmitteil the oliganhical govern- 
 ment to propos)^ and effect the reiieal of the law. 
 An expedition was decreed and planneil, ami 
 Silon was lnvest<-il with its command. It was 
 but a brief struggle to recover the little island of 
 Salamis. . . . But the brave and nwiiute .Mega- 
 rians were not men to lie disheartenni by a sin- 
 gle reverse : they iwniistiKl in the eonU-st- losses 
 were lustaineil on eit'ier side, and at length both 
 slates agreeil lo refer their several claims on the 
 sovereignty of the island to the decision of Spartan 
 arbiters. And this ap|M-al fnim arms to arbitnt- 
 tion is a pnwf how much throughout (JriiHi) had 
 extended that spirit of eivilisution which is hut 
 an extension of the sense of justice. . . . The 
 arbitration of tlie unipin-s in favour of Athens 
 only suspended hostiliiii-»;and the Megarians.iiil 
 not cease to watch (aii.l shortly afdTwanIs they 
 found) a fitting oci-asi.Hi to n-gain a settlement so 
 tempting to their ambition. The creilit ai-iiiiind 
 by Solon in this expedition was shortly after- 
 wards gn-ally increasisl in the esliiiuition of 
 (}«.!•«■. In the Bay of (%)rinth was siluati-.i a 
 town calleil CIrrha. inhabited by a flirce and 
 lawless race. who. after devastating the sacnd 
 territories of nelplil, sacrilegiously iK-siegiil the 
 city Itself. In the desire to |K)sst.ss" themselves of 
 the treasures which the piety of (Jreei-e had ac- 
 cumulaU-d in the Temple of "Apollo. Solon ap- 
 pi-ared at the Amphictyonic i-ouncil, repri'senteii 
 the sacrilege of the ("'irrha-ans. and iM-rsuailiHl 
 the Oreeksto arm in defenc-eof the altars of iliiir 
 tutelary gml [B. C. .'i!).)]. t'listhenes. the tyrant 
 ofSicvon, wnssentascoinmnnder-in-chief against 
 theCirrhffians: and (according to Plutan-li) the 
 reconls of Delphi inform us that Aicmieon was 
 the leader of the Atlienians. The war (knonu 
 as the First Sacreil War) was not very sucii'ssfu! 
 at the onset; the oracle of Apollo was consultiil 
 and tile answer makes one of the most amusing- 
 aneciloU'S of priestcraft. The Is-siegers were in- 
 f.irmed by the gisl that the placi; woul.i not \v 
 niliiciil until the waves of tlie Cirrlmiin Sia 
 washed the territories of IVIphi. The reply lur- 
 pleXiHl the army . but the suiierior sagiui'ty .i{ 
 Solon was not slow in discovering tlial the 'h..ly 
 intention of the oracle was lo appropriate the 
 lands of the Cirrhteans to the prolll of the lem- 
 pie. lie therefore ailvisi<d tlie besiegers to .nt- 
 tark and to ciini|uer Cirriia. and to delicate its 
 whole territory to the wrvi™ of the g.sl. Tin- 
 advice was adopU^I — CirHia was taken (II. i'. 
 .'►><«) : it iK'came thenceforth tin arsenal of Delphi. 
 ami the insult|.|l deity ha.l ' le aatisfaili.iu .f 
 Wfing the sacred lands washiil by the waves .f 
 theflrrhieanSi'a. . . . The I'vlldan gaimscni 
 meneiil, or were reviveil, in celebrali.iii of this 
 victory of the Pythian gisl." — Sir K Ibilwer 
 l.yttim, Atkfiut: ht Itiie and Fall. I,k. •i.tl. 1.— 
 S«.e, also, Dki.piii. 
 
 B. C. 594.— The Constitution of Soion. - 
 The Council of Four Hundred.— • N>l.>n, 
 An'hon 01. 46,1, was chosi'n nnsliat.ir K.piitv 
 and moderation are described by the ancients •■is 
 
ATHENS, B. C. 894. 
 
 Contlitutttm 
 
 ATHENS, B, C. 5M. 
 
 the chanctrriitirs of hii mlr - le det«rmined to 
 
 ali»llsli the pririle^ra of part.^uUr clane*. and 
 the nrliitniry power of otflcera, and to render all 
 the pHrtiilimtont in riril and political freedom 
 equal In the eye of the low. at the same time 
 ensuring to every one the integr.ty of those 
 rights Ik which his real merits entitled him; on 
 the other hanil, he was far from contemplating a 
 tnt«l subversion of existing regulations. . . 
 Wlmliver was excellent in prescription was In- 
 ciirpiirale<l with the new laws and therehv 
 stjinipiil afresh; hut prescription as such, witii 
 tlie exi I ption of some unwritten r^'igious ordin- 
 snces cif the Eumolpids, was deprivetl of force. 
 The liiw was destinitl to be tne sole centre, 
 whence every memlM-rof the political community 
 WHS til derive a flxiil rule of conduct." — \\'. 
 Wai'lmmuth. IlitlortMl Antiqtiitifi of the Greek; 
 mrt V\ (f. I ),— ■• Tlie factions, to allay the reviv- 
 ing «nimi»ilies of which was Solon's immoliate 
 olijeit. had, at that time, formed parties corre- 
 spomliiig to the geographical division of the 
 country, which wc have already adverted to; 
 tlie I'ciliiei, or inhabitants of the lowlands, in- 
 Bisleil on a strict oligarchy; the Panili, on the 
 coast, who, <lid we not find the Alcmaeoiiid 
 Mipii Ics at their head, might be considered the 
 w.iillliiir p<)rtion of the people, wished for a 
 mixcil cinstitution; buttlie Diacrii orilrperacrii 
 fcif tlie uiountninous district) forme<l the great 
 nmjority, who, in their Impoverished state, 
 loiikeil for relief only from a total revolution. 
 Sdlim niiulit, had he so chosen, liave made him- 
 self tvnint by heading this |)oiiulace: but he 
 prcferr.cl iietirig ns mediator, and with this view 
 cauxd himself t» tw elected archon, B, C. 504. 
 a.* tv inir un Kupatrid of the house ... of 
 t'oiiru< "— C. F. Hermann. Mil imal »/ the Pnlilif.il 
 Anli'iiitiet nf Orrm, r/i. !i, utt. 106.— "The 
 chief power was vesteii in the collective people; 
 but in onler that it might lie exercised with ad- 
 vsmiL-e it was nei-easary that they should lie 
 emlim.il with common rights of citizenship. 
 Solon etieetiil this by raising the lower class 
 from itideiiradaliou, and by subjecting to lei;al 
 eontpi.l thos*' who had till now formed the 
 ir^verninir onler, as well as by rendering the 
 lilwrty of l«iih dependent upon the law. 
 This < li.inite was bmuglit aUmt by two onlin- 
 smvs, which must not he reganle<l as men' 
 p iiiclies for the al.nses of that pericsl, hut na the 
 pcnniin.nt Imsis o! free an<l legal citizenship. 
 The one was the .Sisachlheia; tlds was eimeted 
 by Solon to afTonl relief to oppr(<s.se<l debtors, 
 ' V riiluiing their debts In nmoimt, and by rais- 
 iiiiT till- value of money in tlie payment of inter st 
 an.l iirineipal; at the same time he abrogaleii 
 Ilie former rigorous law of debt by which the 
 (n-eni.in might lie reduced to servitude, and thus 
 w'un-il to him the unmolested pos.session of his 
 h L':il rinhlH. . . . A secimd onliimncc enjoineil 
 lliat their full and entire rights sliould be resloreii 
 l'>iinriii/.ens who bud incurred Atlmia, except 
 '■ al'solute criiuinnls. This was not imlv 
 ■i.->iimc| to heal the woimda which had bwn 
 fjiUMid by the previous dissensions, but as till 
 that time the law of debt had been able to re 
 riuoe . Ill/ens to Atlmia. and the majority of the 
 AtH!-: pointed ,«,! |,y s„!,.n Were slave* for 
 iiei't, iliat ileclaration itnud in clow ramnectlon 
 '"til the Selsachthela. and had the effect of a 
 pn» laniatUm from the state of Ita intention to 
 fiurantee the validity of tbe new ciUxeoablp 
 
 155 
 
 . . . The rlifht of n»tur«llzatlon wan miited by 
 8olon to deserving adens, when 8,000 citizena 
 declared tlienisrivei in favour of the measure, 
 but these new citizens wen- likewise deficient in 
 a few of the privileges of citizenship. . . . The 
 statement tliat Solon received a great many 
 fon-igners as citizens, and every artizan that 
 presented liimself, appi-ara highly improbable, 
 as Solon was the first legislator w"ho aystemati- 
 cally regulated the condition of the Mettvci. 
 The MctfBci . . . probably timk the place of 
 the former r>emiurgi ; their (xisition was one of 
 sufferance, but the protection of the laws woe 
 guaranlee<l them. . . . The servile onler, ex- 
 eluKively consisting of purchased aliens and their 
 desci-ndanis, did not, as a bo<ly, stand In direct 
 relation with the state; individual slaves beoime 
 the pmperty of individtiul citizens, but a certain 
 number were cmploywl by the state as cjerka, 
 etc., and were abandoned to the arbitrary 
 pleasure of their oppreasive taskmastera. . . . 
 Those who were manumitted stiKxl upon the 
 footing of Metwci; the citizens who enfranchised 
 them liecoming their ProsUt*. . . . I'pon at- 
 taining the age of pulierty, the sous of citizent 
 entered public life under tlie name of Ephebt. 
 The stale gave them two years for the full 
 development of their youthful strength. . . . 
 Upon the expiration of the second, and accord- 
 ing to the most authentic accounts, in their 
 eighteenth year, they n'ccived the sliield and spear 
 in the popular assembly, complete armour being 
 given to the s<ms of those wlio had fallen in 
 battle, and in the temple of Agniulos took the 
 oath of young citizens, the chief obligations of 
 which concerneii the defence of their country, 
 and then for tlic space of one or two years per- 
 forme<l military service In the Attic border 
 fortn-sses under the nameof PerifMili. The cere- 
 mony of arming them was followed by enrol-' 
 ment In the book which contained the names 
 of those who hail attained majority; this em- 
 jHiwennl the young citizen to manage his own 
 fortune, preside over a household, enter the 
 popular assembly, and speak. When he asserted 
 the last right, viz., the Isi coria, Parrhesia, he 
 was d<-nominated Ithetor, and this appellation 
 denoted tlie difference between him and the 
 silent memlier of the tts.semblv, the Idiotes. 
 . . . V\mn attaining his 3ihh year, the citizen 
 might assert his su|H'rior rights ; he was qualified 
 for a member of the sworn Iribunnl entitled 
 Heliiea. . . . The woni lleliast does not merely 
 signify a Judge; but the citizen who has fully 
 attaineil maturity. . . . Tlie judges of the courts 
 of the Diietetie and Kphetjc. wliich existe<l without 
 the circle of theonliimry Iribuimls. wen- required 
 to lie still older men tliiin the Heliiists, viz., SO or 
 60 years of age. 8<5lon ap|Hiiiite<l gradations In 
 the rights of citizenship, acconling to the con- 
 ditions of a census In n'feri'iice to olfli-esof state. 
 . . . Upon the principle of a conilltioiml equality 
 of rights, which assigns to every one iw much ai 
 he deserves, and which is high'ly elmmcteristic 
 of Solon's policy in geneml. lieinstitiitol four 
 cIhsw'S acconling to a valuation; thesi- were ttie 
 IViilaeiwiomeiliiiiiii [whose land yielded .WO 
 ineasun-s of wheat or oil), the ilippeis [horse- 
 men], the ZougitJE [oAiiers of ■ voke of mules], 
 and the Tlietes [or laltonrs]. 'Tlic valuation, 
 however, i^nly altectnl thai portion of capital 
 from which contributions to the state biirtheni 
 were required, coniequcntly, accoidlng (a 
 
i! 
 il 
 
 11 
 
 ATHEN'H. a C. 5M. 
 
 BAekh, a taxaMe capital. . . . The Thptca, the 
 laat of thrw rbuaes. were not rt-KuIarly iiim- 
 moixtl to ptTfiirm military iervici", but only 
 exrn-ianl flu- civic riftlit as tnemlKn of the a»- 
 wmlilyamllhelawniiirts: . . . the higheat class 
 exclusively siipplieil the superior offlcea, auch as 
 the arrhonship. anil lhniU);h this the council of 
 the Armpatriis. . . . In lieu of the former coun 
 oil of Hdministration, . f which no memorial has 
 Jieen pre«er^•e<l. Solon inatituted a Council of 
 four hunitreil citizens tulten from the lirst three 
 riasw-t, 100 from .very Phyle, of which no 
 person iimler 30 years of agecoukl lie a member. 
 The appointments were renewed annually: the 
 cancliilBtia underwent an examination. a<i<l such 
 as wire deemed eligible drew lots."— W. Wachs- 
 muth, IliftoriMl AniioKitif of the Orttkt. tct 
 4«-47 (r. 1). 
 
 Also in : O. P. Schnmann, Antii/. nfOnev: Tht 
 StnU. pt. 3. eh. 3, ».r 4.— E. Abbott, llitt. «f 
 Orrrrt, pt. 11, eh. 3 - (>. (Jroie, Jli»t. of Oreeer. 
 eh. 11.— Plutarch, .v^.n.— Aristotle OithtOinM. 
 of Athens (tr. hi/ K nmtr). eh. 5-13,— S,*. also, 
 AKEni-AitrK. I'KYTANf,!'. llKi.iif "ind Okbt. 
 
 B. C. 560.510.— Tht tyrar >f th? Piti*. 
 tratidB.— "The constituliiin .1.., he [Solon | 
 framed was fountl lo lie tnsr, i n even in his 
 own lifetime. . . . The po r •• ? v re still 
 {VMir. in spiteof the S'iMi. ti.a reform 
 
 of the conHtitution. At ti. ■■ .nc the ad- 
 mission of the lowest elasH ^uie of prop- 
 erty to the ri({hta of Atl .'itizenship. and 
 the authority (tiven to tl. ^.^-m nil Assi'mbly. 
 bad thniwi. .» i>ow. r into the hand.t of the masses 
 which rtlliii the nun- conservative citizens with 
 resentment and alumi And so the oUl party quar 
 rels, which hiul dividiil Altii-a before the reforms 
 of Silon. reappeanii after them with even ereater 
 vioUnre. The men of the plain were le<l by 
 Miltiades. a grandson of the tyrant of Corinth, 
 and l.ycurgus. the so,i of Aristolaidas: the men 
 of the shore by .Mipacles. the Alcnueonid, who 
 had ncently striniitbeueil the position of his 
 familv by his niHrrmpe with Agariste, the ' 
 dfughter of Clistliiiies of Sicvon. At the liead 
 of the mountaiiii'iT- sIiknI I'isistratus, a descend j 
 ant of the roviil stork of Nestor, who . . . had ' 
 greatly distintfuished himself in the Salaminian 
 war As he possessiil propi'rtv in the neighlsir I 
 hooii of Marathon. I'i>lstratu8 may have In-en I 
 intimately known to the inhabitants of the 
 iidjaient bills. . Silon watcheil the failure of ' 
 his hopes with the dwp<.8t dlstn-ss He en- ' 
 de.'ivoun^l to recall the leaders of the contend ' 
 liitr parties to a sensi- of their duty to the 
 roiinlry, and to siHiihe the bitterness of their 
 followers. With a true instinct he regarded 
 Pisistratus as by fur the most ilangeMUS of the 
 three. Pi.sistnitus was an approved general, and 
 thi faction whiili he li d was composeil of (Mpor 
 men who had uothinj; to lose. . . . I'isistratus 
 met the vehenunt e\|iri-sslons of Solon by driv j 
 Ing Wounded into the market place. The ! 
 peoples friend had siilTenil in the peop|<.-H ! 
 cause; his life nn* in ilanger. The incident ' 
 MU!i.il the .\thenians to an unusual exercise of '■ 
 poliit.al flower WiiliiMit any previous (lis. I 
 cussioii in the t'ouni il. a decree was pas8e<l bv i 
 the [H-ople all.iwinc I'isiijiralus tosummnd hini ■ 
 self with a b.,!y i.".!::r,! ,:f tiftv men. srr! to arm : 
 them with liulis. 'I'lius prolei-teil, he threw off i 
 all disifuises. and e»labli»hed himself in the ! 
 Acropolia a* tyrant of Athens [B. C. S«0]. , I 
 
 106 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. SlO-507. 
 
 Hemdotu* tells us that Pisistratus was a just 
 and miolerate rtiler. He did not alter the l.i«s 
 or remove the existing forms of governnimi 
 The Council was still elected, the Assign.).! 
 continued to meet, though it is impmliable il, 
 eltliei the one or the other was allomil to exti uri 
 Its functions beyond domestic affairs The 
 arcbons still continueil to lie the executive i. ,^-,> 
 trates of the city, and ca>.a of munler mr.' 
 triiil, as of old, at the An'M|«gus. The tyrant 
 contented himself with occupying the Aenipiilia 
 with his tnmps ami securing lin|Mirtant ixmN in 
 the administration for his faniiivorhisadbereMlK ' 
 Twice, however, Pisistratui 'was driven fr.m 
 power by the combination of ills opp<ment.s. an.l 
 into exile, for four years in tlie lirst instance m ! 
 for ten yi-ars in the last : but A ibens was compi 1;, . | 
 toacci'pt him for a ruler in 1 he end. "PisiMiratus 
 remained in undisturbed piawtssion of the thrni,, 
 till his death in S27 B. C. lie was sui 1 1 i-,ie.i 
 by his eldest son Hippias.with whom Hippnrelni.i 
 and Thessalus, his younger si'im. wen- usv , j 
 ated in the government.'^ But thi'se vouiik.'ir 
 tyrants B<«n mads themselves intolerarilv liati 
 fill, and a eonspimcy formed against thVni Ij 
 I lUrmistius and Arisiogellon wiis succeH^ful i'-i 
 I taking the life of HipiMtn-hus. Kour years Inti r 
 In .510 B. C, with the helpof IVlphI and S^.n 
 Hippias was driven from Ih.- city. Clislli, ,.^' 
 at the iiead of the exileil .\ .. nuionids. wu- the 
 I master spirit of the n'voluti.ii, and It wa« i.iil.r 
 : his guiiUmvthat the .\theuian ilemisrHlic ■■•n 
 stitiition was n-organizcd.— E. Abbott, JJttl ..r 
 I Oreere. r. 1, eh. l.'i. 
 
 I AI.SOIN. ii. Gwte. lliDt.nf (7 reeee. eh. U'l ml. <> 
 
 I B. C. 510-507.— The constitution of Clei 
 
 i thenet.— AdTance of democracy.- -Tlie .x 
 
 I pulsion of the llsistratids left the deniih rati,;,l 
 
 : party, wlw.h had first raiatil them to p..H,r 
 
 t without a liader. The A^.-inaHinids had »l.i ivj 
 
 I lieen iiin8ider..| as its ad . ersarii-s. ihoufrh tti.v 
 
 I were no Iitis opposed 1 the faiiion .f Ilie 
 
 n.iblea. which seeiiui at tJiis time to bav. ' .n 
 
 headeil by Isagonis. . . Clei»then<.sf.uiii.| , 
 
 self, as his party hait alwavs Invn, unal.,. m 
 
 oi|>e with it; he resoh.-.i, ti,'. r,.fore, to sliilt his 
 
 ground, and to attai li hiii.- ' to that p.rMiUr 
 
 cans*, which Pi.iiKimtus liail u>. .1 as the Mepr inn 
 
 sloneof his amliition. His aim.*, however, ».n 
 
 not conllned to a teinpot irv lulvanlnge over liis 
 
 rivaij; be planned an in.) r'ant chiuiL'e in ilie 
 
 ■■onsiitution, which shoulil .rever l.n ak the 
 
 |Hiwerof his whole onler, bv iiiwih ini: *. nie .i 
 
 the main link.' by wliieh thef.- »w»v was * , iir» I. 
 
 Kor this piir|i.«e. having gaimil "the con;i.i. :;,¥ 
 
 of tlie coniiiKinaltv and oblaiuiil the sanrii.r.i .,f 
 
 the Delphic oracle, be alsilishtHl the fcmr am i, ut 
 
 triU'S. and made a fresh geographiial lir. imii 
 
 of Attica inio ten new trilas. eaeh .if »hi. .'1 
 
 Imre a name derived fnun wime Attii la f" I"!;. 
 
 ten trilas Were siiUliviihil into diMruK 
 
 various extent, called denies, ea, li (•.im.iiiiij:^. , 
 
 town or village. . . , t hi«theni.s up|u.,rs t.. 
 
 have prewrVHl the an.ient pbratriis. !■ .t ss 
 
 they Were now left lnsulatt.<l bv liie sNliti -ii 
 
 of the Irilas to which they lal.int'. I, th. i i.~t 
 
 all poliiieal iin|H.rtance. . , . Cleisihein^ it the 
 
 same lime ini nai«-il the strength ..f 'I, .;. 
 
 nionally by making a great inani m-w hm/.i:*. 
 and be is ^ji.i (,, haw enfram n. itl 1 -uv 
 alicna- and these Nith residenuaii u'l. 
 from abroad — but slaves. . Tin- 
 frame of the s •■. .e wai leorgauizc" o cur; 
 
 ..Jl'TS 
 
ATHl S. B C 
 
 «7. 
 
 with the new ci!viki..o of 
 S'Oafe f>^ the Fotir Hufs^ii 
 Fits llur ml, tha» *ift> n 
 ( irh tri' uhI ' ' ' i* 
 WM wlat 'I to th,, • i!.. 
 I f earh « filling i 
 thirty"' iliiys In « 
 (illfifn nij elrrtwl ■ 
 triN^i t i piv«lde «t th-' 
 ■■f the P»->f)lf which .. 
 four timfr 'n the iii>intl 
 uivsijrneil !' t-mh met'lin^' 
 
 ihc antry. The 
 
 •<l wii. Inrreaied tr. 
 
 ,'ht !»■ (li^wn from 
 * of thi' [•r.ufclcnry 
 
 the fifty c*»U(iHll"''H 
 •ttlrc for thirty five • r 
 "■•(ion. ind nine roiin- 
 from < a'h of thp 'n^r 
 inril ami the Au^-mlily 
 < no« ■ ille<l ri'giilHrly 
 '■erfiiin Imnincaii heing 
 The Ht'ltaa w«s alwi 
 
 u.-<.^i^ ■••-•■ ■ > <»■ '. ••■ii.Kd^ am. itt-it^n "visa itiMi 
 
 (iistriliutp<l ir-.itenr<)un»: anil the Mim division 
 hcnreforth [ TVa 'I in m<>«t nf 'he pMblic 
 offl'H, thouj;!! th' imt)er of tl.i- in:hoii« re- 
 mained iinohnngf-l. To C'lelsthi i •* also 1% 
 ;i»(ril>e<l iie f'lrrtiKl inatiliition of the ostracism. 
 Th'w rtMinire«. anil the influcnre they 
 acqiiinit for tl«ir niithor. reduced the j"irty of 
 Isaginiit to utK-r wi-akni-gs. and they saw no 
 pr.i[.rt! of maintainin;.' themselves but bv 
 f. rt iirn ai'i ' Isacror.i'*. m iiinJingly. applied fi'r 
 help to< I- -tnenes. one of iji,- kings of (Sparta, 
 who h'ui 11, ready interfereil i-i Athenian affairs 
 by »«Bu.iii.j nt the expuKion < i the Pi»i«tratida' 
 Cle'i^i-ni* re'-p'iniled In fining 'o Atheon with 
 a *r-,i]\ f.'rre [B. C. -V)^, wi h sufficed t.. nver 
 a». '!' people, and. li -liming dirtatorial 
 a'lthor be est»!'i.»hi'd Ini/orasin power. With 
 :in Hltei'ii led niirranijement if the govornment. 
 !! hi'gin by iKiniiliing 7"<( 'imiliel^desisnateii 
 I'V Uig'ir..-'. lui'l then prooec'l' I to s'lrpress the 
 Oiiu.cil of the Fii.- Hundn ir.d i I'ldge the 
 gr.vi rnment in the hands if ,rre Hundreil of 
 iiw fi^ieml - p«itisai;i. W '.•■:. himever. the 
 f.MiDiili r« resit-" <l '.W.^ attempi. the p-ople took 
 i.''!rt, :•'!. (!• II. :hs nnd *'>i,'nr«» having 
 • ipi. 'i I,, eii.i .. i !■'«; in a ! , !;. ,nd beslegwl 
 fie'ti tli-r' As tun w-re not {rejiared'to 
 (,ii>.lJiin ;i .-"k-e thiy mp; .'ated . r. the thirl 
 li.ij : ('!ei; in„ and Iva.'nris were l«'rmltted 
 t ilepiirt «iih the 1,nr, la'nionia;i trooiw, hut 
 thiv wir •M,nnelle.l lo niiandon thei- 'idherents 
 toihemer.y 'f their eneiiiicn. AH were put to 
 ileiih. and rl.i-thenes and the 70<) banisheil 
 fanilies retiirw,! triumphan'ly Ij Athens." 
 Clii'Pienes so^n aft, r« irdii nii'^d a force with 
 whiih to But«ii'e .\!h. n« and restore Is-igoras. 
 T '• .\theniiins in their alarm sent an embassy to 
 S'lf itstiiwiMcit •!!■ proterti.m of t'>e Persiin.<. 
 For!iin»lely. nothing came of it, and Ck-omeues 
 wa-s Ml nmdi opixised in his project, bv the 
 f iriDthian* and "tiier allies of Sparw, ili'al he 
 had ! tiive It up.— C. Thirlwall, Hit. if Uretft 
 
 .Si.eeilV: <; Grote. lift of Greeet, pf 2 M 31 
 -K. AW-itT, //,»( of lirem: rh. 1.'!. — Aristotle 
 , ., rV '...,.• of AtUu'Mr. hyf: /Wfi.fA. 30-23 
 
 B, C. 509-506.— Hoitile undettakinn of 
 Kleomenes and Sparta.- Help aolicited from 
 the Persitn king,— Subjection refuted.— Fail- 
 ure of Spartan tchemei to reitore tyranny.— 
 Protest of the Corinthians.— Succeaifui war 
 with Thebes and Chalcis.— " With Spans it 
 i>;,* otivioiis th.it the Alliiniatui now hail a 
 deadly inMrri'l, and on the 01 or side they knew 
 that lllppiis was sci-king t > pr. ripitatc on them 
 the i«m-,r of the Pemlan king It seemed 
 Tit-T-^f-rt- tti hr a m.i:trr ..f ,;, n, necewiitv 10 
 sntii ipal. the intrigues of their Iwnnhed tvfant ; 
 I'nd the Alheninns accordingly M-nt ■inilmaaadors 
 w. .sanh is U) i;. ik ar. ind.pi.mlent alliance with ' 
 Uie Persian uc>.-'t. The envoys, oa being 
 
 15 
 
 ATHEN'S, B C. S01-4SK3 
 
 bitnigbt Into the presence of Artaphemet, the 
 Satrap .,f Lydia. were told that Darei'- woul.i 
 admit them to an alliance if they would give 
 htm earth and *ater.— in other words if they 
 would «' knowledge themselves l.is slaves. To 
 this den. and of absolute subjection the envoys 
 ^■ave an aaaeot which was indignantly npudl- 
 ated tc the whole boily of Athenian citizens. 
 - . . toiled for the tini«- In his eff,,rts, Kleo- 
 menes was not cast down. Keganimg the Klela- 
 theoian constitution as a personal iiis-jlt to hlm- 
 «lf. he was resolved that Isagoraa should be 
 despot of Athens. »>ummoning the allies of 
 Sparta [including the Bipotian League headed 
 by Thebes, and the people of Ctialcis in Eulwai 
 he led them as far as Eleusis, 12 miles only 
 from Athens, without Informing them of the 
 purpfine of the campaign. He had no sooner 
 cor feaeeil it than the Corinthians, declaring that 
 they hail been brought away from home on an 
 unrighteous errand, went back, f.illowed bv the 
 other Spartan King. Demaratos. the son of Aris- 
 1 ton; and thN conflict of opiniin broi:e ,pthe 
 I rest of the army. This discomltur- ■ ' 'their 
 enemy seemeil to Inspire fresh strenj^t, n , , the 
 Atlienians. who won a series of ticiories over 
 the B< ioiians and Euboiai ■ — complet, !v over- 
 thmwing the latter — the ihalcidians— taking 
 possession of their t Ity, and making it a peculiar 
 colony and dependency of Athens —.See Kler- 
 triia. 1 he anger of ftleomenes "on being dis- 
 conifltcd at Eleusis by the defection of his own 
 anil's was heightened by indignation at the dis 
 C'lvery that in driving o"nt his friend Hippias he 
 h.'id tieen tnply the tiHil of Kleisth, iies and of 
 the Dilpi, .0 prjestc"; whom KIei..thene!. had 
 bri))eil It was now clear to !, '11 and to his 
 countrymen that the Atheniai,, would not 
 aciiuie-re in the pr«<lomiimnce of Sparta, and 
 that if they retaini-d their freeibm, the power 
 of Ath'ns would «,ion be eijual to their own. 
 Their only fafety lay, therefore, in pr.ividing 
 the Athenians with a tyrant. An invitation 
 »»s, therefore, sent to Hippia.<. at Sigeion. to 
 attend a congress of the allies at Simrtu. who 
 were summoned *o me<t on ;lie arrival of the 
 eilled iesp/it " The appointed congnss was 
 lield, nnd the Spartans bi.sought their allies to 
 aid t!j,m in hiim'olinit the Athenian iKmocnicy, 
 with the iihj'it of resl.iring Hippias to (wiwer 
 But sfuin itic (■,..: 't.ians protestwl, bluntly 
 sugg «!ii • ! sf rtans thoueht tvrsnny 
 
 a !!.;.)<: fv ,f flrst try it for tliem- 
 
 scivps. B) ,. g in his own iH'half, 
 
 attempii! i-> ooovince tnem that the time was 
 comiue ■;•. which thi . wouhi find the Athc- 
 DiiK'fr a th-rr in their si !c. For the present his 
 exhortat ri .rs w. r, thrown a\-By. The allies 
 protested Nii«iiir.:oijsly against hfl attempts to 
 interfere wilh ilie inlenaradministmtion of any 
 Hellenic liij , am! the banished tyrant went 
 back disapiiouit. .1 to Sigeion, "—{f. W. Cox, 
 77ie Gr,,kt irmi tht J^trnart; rh. 4. 
 
 Also in U. Omte, Ilitt. of ijnere, ol 2 M 
 Slir-J ' /- • ■ 
 
 B. C. 501-490.— Aid to lonians against Per- 
 »ia.— Provocation of King Darius.— His wrath 
 and attempted vengeance. —The first Persian 
 invasions.— Battle ot Marathon.— it is un- 
 denlalile that the extension of tlie Persi in do 
 ininii !i liver Asia .Miuor, Syria, and Eirypl gave 
 a violent check to the onwaril movcmeni'of (Jni-k 
 life On the other hand, it seemed a." if the great 
 
 ft- 
 
 
ATHENS, B. C. 801-490. 
 
 iViftait 
 War. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 501-490. 
 
 IP: 
 
 enterpriK of Diiiiiiii Hyiuupl* Kgafntt the Scy- 
 tliiiUM (luglit to have uuitiil thi- Um'k!! hiiiI IVr- 
 »iHU». It was of a pint whli the ^rciunil policy 
 of Darius that, after ilefeatinft «« nianv other aif- 
 vernarie*, lie unilertook to iirevent for all sue 
 ceediii); ihiic a ri'iM-titioa of tlioae Innnils with 
 whieh. Dome reiiluriea before, the Seylhiaiis luiil 
 visiteil Asia and the civilized worlil. He ixw- 
 Htietti authority enough to unite the ililfenut 
 nations whieh ola-yed his sceptre in a srri'at eain- 
 paijrn iiKainst the S<ytlilan8. , . . The Ureeks 
 Were his Uiil allies in his eainpai);n: lliey built 
 him the bruise by whieh he crossed the Uoai>oru». 
 and nix) the briiltre of Ikmu over the Dnuuln- 
 by which he made his invasion into the enemy's 
 U-rriiory. Tlie n>sult was not one which coiild 
 pro|HTly lie called unfortunate; yet it was crr- 
 laiulyofa very doubtful ehanu'ter . . . Aureiit 
 region, in which they had already obtalnt^l very 
 eonsidemble lutluenee, was closed to Iheiii oii<"e 
 more. The I'ersiau anny bniuirht uv ixipula- 
 tiohn u|H.n the htrymou. many 11 numUr and 
 imliviilually weak, under the dominion of IVrsia 
 Kid even Amyutas. thi' king of Makeilonia. one 
 of a raceof rulcrsof (ireek origin, was cominlled 
 to do homaice to ih« On-»i King. Thus the 
 movement nliieh had Ihri'st liack the Unrk^ 
 fnim Kgypt and Ania Minor maih' lulvani-es even 
 Into tlie ri'L'iiins of Kuro|>e which lN>nlered u|k>u 
 Northern llelhw. It was an almiMt imvltable 
 conx i(ueineof this (liatthe (in-i'ks wen' menac<'il 
 and Hlnilemil even in tlieir pro|M'r lioiue. .V 
 pn le\t and i>p|Nirtunily for au atuiek ui>.m the 
 IJreek i?dand« was pn-M'nIitl lo the IVrslam liv 
 the i|Uei>lionsat issue iMtwiTUtlie |Kipulalion»o'f 
 the lilies and the tyranla. . . . The iuitnmieiil 
 by whom the erinU wiu Immght alsiiit was in.i 
 a (H-raou of .iiiv great im|Hinau<r Ii is noi -M 
 ways grial iiaiuns. or nalun-s strong in (he euii I 
 niousness of their own (mwers. that bring ..m ' 
 ■iii'h Cdulllcl*, Ibis is i.,rnetiiiies llie work ..t 
 IhoM' tlexilile chanu-lcrs which. Uiug al ilic- ! 
 
 point of contact tatween II pposing f.mv- ' 
 
 pass tn>m one side to the other Such a ( hara. I 
 Ur was Aristagoras of .Miletus . .Morally ' 
 
 ronleiii|iiil,|e. b,it gifltsl Inl.lle.lually with a I 
 rajiiT" iif ill. as of unlimilisl exiinl. .\risiagon.s \ 
 maiie for hini« If an im|M'risliable name by Wu,^ ' 
 the lirst lo eclerlaln the thought of a r,,l|,ell». ' 
 on|h«iiion lo the Persians on the pari of „|| i|,< ^ 
 Ureeks, iven conlem;<lating the |Mis»iliility of 
 waKiiiga griala'uUuiiTHiifiilolTen.Hive warup..ii 
 lluui II.- aiUMuninsi m Mil.iiis liis ,>hii i 
 
 ri»U'nali.>h .f |h.w.raiii| the nst.iriiion !.• ib.- 
 |»..l.|.'..f Ih.ir ..Id laws A g. ii. ml ..v. r 
 
 thn.n ..f t\rannv eiisuisl ||| (' .VMj. iin..|yiii;.' ' 
 a r. n.li fr..iii I', rsia. an.l Siriligl w.ri ,v,r\' ' 
 wh.re a|>|...uil..| Thi' supniiii' jh.iv.t In il.,- 
 ciii.s ».„ l.r^,| u|H.n a goal un.l.rsiaudiii-' 
 iMtw.-in 111. Ii.i|,l,rs..r |h.w.r an.l the l'.r,ian~ 
 th.- fi.l Ih.i .,11. .,f 11,,^, rulirs f.iiuel 111.' au 
 tli..hty ..I til.' r. Tsi uis iiil.il. ralile was Ih.' ►ii.'ii ,| 
 f.ir 1 iiiimrvil r.'>..|| Ari.iag.ims hiiiis. If »,,| i 
 
 unl inly niit.iiii.,.,| ii,etvnuuij, il i|,. r l\r:iiiii '< 
 
 w.r.' .oii,|»||,i| |„ nil,. ||„, ^,,„„. ,,,„„: g„| i 
 thus 111. (ili.s. a.sMiiuiiig at Ilie same liin.' .i.l.'ne. ; 
 iTili.- orgaiii/aii..ii cum.' into li.miiiii\ uiih 
 INrsi.i riie .hies aii'l Hlan.ls w hi; h |,;el i 
 
 «ii..fl.nt»'.'ii for. I'll i..«.ibiiil„ione,,ii|,lii,,t i,,,,,,. ! 
 to ni^.i till INrsiaiis l.\ ilM-irowu iiimid.-.i iir.rts I 
 fcveii Anslag.iras ....d.l !..'• ,ve e»|«',i.',l „, ! 
 much . M.'vi»ii.,| Uk. iiHui, tiM' •iroiiif ' 
 
 W trf UM! Ofwk powers. In pinou. au.| en i 
 
 108 
 
 deftvorrd to carry her with him In his plans. . . 
 Ilejected by Sparta. Aristagonis N'Uuk himself 
 to Athens. . . . The .\i:ieniaiis granteil Arista- 
 g.>ras twenty ships. t» which the Ereirians, from 
 friemlship to Miletus, ailihsl five more. Th.. 
 e.)ur»ge of tlic lonians was thus revive<l, and an 
 ntuick ii|ion the l>i<rsiaii d.iminion rommenciil. 
 din'cti.d. not inileisl against Siisa. but against 
 Sanlis. in their immisliaie M.-iglilMirlioiNl. the enpi 
 tal of the satmpy whicli iiii|Mised on them their 
 heKvl(.8t bunlens. . . . Rv I he burning of , Sanlis 
 in which a sanctuary of' Kyls-le had bis-n ile 
 stniyisl. the Syrian nations luul Xuva outragtsl in 
 the iHTson of their g.sls. We know that it was 
 part of the system of the l>ersians to take the 
 goils of a country uii.hr tli.ir prot<H-tl.m. N..r 
 w.iul.l the gn-at king who thought himself ap- 
 |Kiinte.l to U< masii-r of Iheworid fall Ui n'si-nt 
 an Invasion of his .l.imini.>iis as an insult railing 
 for n-venge. The hostile attempts of the lonians 
 made no gn-at impn-sfi.in u|Min him, but li.- 
 aske.l who wen- the Alh.iiiaiis, of whose shan- 
 In the campaign h.' Iia.1 lN'.'n informtil. Tli.y 
 wen- r.in-igiiers. of wliosi' jsiwi'r tl • king had 
 scarcely heanl. . . . Th.' eiilerprise of Arista 
 gonis hiwl meanwhih- i-ausisl genend (simmotl..n 
 He had by far III.- larger part of Cyprus t.. 
 gether with th,- fariaiis. .m his si.le. All Hi.- 
 country iii-ar the l'n.)M.iitis and the Hellesp.mt 
 was in n'volt. Th.- I'ersians wen- eom|M'lle.l t-. 
 I make it their flrst onci-rn t.i suppn-ss this iiisiir 
 i n-clion. a task whi.-h. if atleinpte.l by wa. .11 1 
 
 I not pnmiise to Is' an .asv In their llrsl .'ii 
 
 I .-."iintcr with the I'lioniiians th,> lonians ha.l ih.- 
 
 I a.|yaulage. When. Ii..».-yi-r. the foni-s of ih,. 
 
 I gn'at enipin- wen- asst'inliLsl. the liisurn'i lion 
 
 i was everywhen' put il.iwn . . . Il must U. 
 
 n'<'konisl am..ng Hi.' c(iiisi,|iien<S's of Ih.- baltl ' 
 
 .if ImIv, by w..ii-li tin- i..iiiliiiiall.m againsi tliu 
 
 renian enipln- lia.| In. n aniiiliilatisl, that King 
 
 I'arius. ii..t ninteiii « iib Inving isinsoli.lati<.| In-, 
 
 il.imlnion in l.inia. on.i' n- n'siinnsl lii.- pl.-i 
 
 .>■ pushing f..rwar.| into Kiin.|M., of whiih hit 
 i^nlerprise against li. ' S yihians f.imi.sl part 
 with the execuli..n of lliis pniject he e.>miiii> 
 siontsi one of the priii.lpal ii.rs.ins of ih.' i'iii|iir.' 
 ami theco'iri. Mar.loiiius byname, wh.iii 
 
 he unltisl I.) his family by marrying him I.. Iils 
 .laughter This g.-nl nl ,-nau...| t|ie M. II, , 
 
 poMI with a large army, his ih.-t always a.-.. .mi 
 panviiig him al.mir the shon- whilst I'm- |iu..ie-.| 
 .m by (he maiiilan.l ||.- ..nis- m..n' siil»|.i,.| 
 .Maki-.l.inla. ph.liably lln- .lisiri.-ls whieh li.-ul 11..1 
 yi-l. liki' 111.- .Mak. -.Ionian Iviruf, l«s-iibroiii,'lil into 
 sulij.-i-tion. an.l cai.- ...it tint his aim »n 
 .lin-.t.sl againsi Kntnaaii.l Atli.-ns. Ihe .-lu-ini. s 
 ..f III.- king III lie .i,,rmv wal. rs n. .,r 
 
 M.iiint AthiH, whi.h hav.- alwa* s ina.l.- the n.,,1 
 gili.ai of llu' .Kg.-an .lull. nil. his H.et sntf. r. I 
 
 ship wns-k Hut niilioui 11 iva' Biip|H.rl»h nil 
 
 not li..|s' to gain |h„„-«|,,i, ,,f „„ i,|„i„l a,,.! i 
 marilim.- !..» n !.itual. .1 ..11 a pnmiont-iry Ki. 11 
 l.y lin.l 111' en, ,iiiit.-r.-.l r.si»iaii.e mi llial ti- 
 I 'Uii.l it a.lvisiil.l. I,, p,>,l|Hiii< Ih.' further . »i.ii 
 ti'.iiof Ills UM.hrtakiiigsl.. iii.,i|i.rliiii.- In 
 
 • ■r.l.r t,. siiIkIu.- Ill,' n, il.itraiils. .-.is. 1 illy 
 .\lli. Il- and Knirii. aii.uli. r slli-ni|il was..rkMn 
 1/.-.I «iili..iit .1. 1..y I ii'l. r two g.-ii.-rals ..ti. .f 
 wh..iu. Ifcihs. wi.aM.sh ih.-.aher, Aria'.h. n..^. 
 
 'he s I III.- fcitripof S,ir.|is of Ihi- s.tlli. liiin,- 
 
 aii'l brolln-r ..( lln- hinm wli.i was in alli.n..' 
 with llippias. a marilitii. . (|HHliii.iii was uii.l. f 
 Ukeii fur tlu^ iiuuH-dlale subjugukm ..f Itw 
 
ATHENS, B. C. S01-49a 
 
 War. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 48»-t80. 
 
 Miuifli iuhI the maritime dlttrlett. It wu bm dc 
 lignrd (or open iKMtility Kgmliut the Oreelu In 
 jSt'iKraL . . . Their design wu to uUtlze the in- 
 U'n»] diaension* of Oreece in conquering Uie 
 nriocipal enemief upon whom the Oieiit King 
 liid awom venminoe, and preieating them a* 
 I Kptires at hit feet The project luccredetl in 
 iliccaseof Kretria. In spite of a brave rraist- 
 »nce it fell by treachefy into their hands, and 
 ihry could avenge the sacrilege committed at 
 Sutlln bv pluniiering and derastating Orucfw 
 unrtuaries. Tlicy expected now to be able to 
 over|M>w(T Athi'iis alao without much trouble. 
 ... It was » cin'iinMtancu of great value to the 
 Atheniita.H that there was a mun amongst them 
 who was familiar with tlie PiTxian tactin. This 
 was .Miltiatii.'H. tboBimof Kiiimn. , . . Although 
 a Thnii'iHn priufe, lie had never oenaeil to be a 
 cltizt'Q of Athens. Here be whh im|H'u('liv<l for 
 bsTing held a tyranny, but was ac<|ultte(l and 
 clinarn strateKUS, for the democracy could not 
 rejrrt a man who was so admirably uualiHed to 
 lie at their head In the intcn-luuige of hnatilitles 
 with Persia. Miltiadt-H was ciiuducting his own 
 personal quarrel in uiiderulilnir the defence of 
 .Utii'a. The force of tliu I'eniaiis was indeed 
 inoom; jably tlie larger, but tlie plains of Mara- 
 thon, on which they were drawn up, prevented 
 Ihrir |iru|H'r deployment, and they saw with as- 
 timisbment the Athenii'i hoplites displaying a 
 (runt as extendeil as their own. These troops 
 now rushed upon tlu-m with an im|H'tus which 
 gtfK swifk'r at every monu'ut. TIm- Persians 
 I'ssiiy succeeded In Itrcaking through the centre 
 of llic Athenian army; but tiMt was of no 
 momtnt, for the strength of the onst't lay in the 
 two wings. wIktc now l>ei,'»n a hand-to-liand 
 flght. The Ptmian swon!, formidable elsewhere, 
 was not adapted ki do gooil service against tlie 
 brm/r armor and the siwar of the Hellenes. On 
 l»th tUnits the Athenians jbtaine<l the ailvan 
 U','c. anil now attaclted tlie I'erslan com re, which 
 WM iii>t able to withstand tl e onslau)(lit of men 
 will ~e natural vlitor was heig iienetl by gymnastic 
 Iraimrig. The Persiaiu, to 'heir mislortune, had 
 (»l™i!ili-<l uwm di's-rtior in the ranks of their 
 npiKiiiiMUi, fiiile.1 In tl,;.. h.i|H', they rvtreatwl Ui 
 the shore and to their ships, liiniiliitus in- 
 tiinatti that the iVrsiiins had sa-cret intelligence 
 with a party in Alliens, and t<Kik th«'ir course 
 rmnd the pnnnonuiry of Hiinium towani the city, 
 UI the lio|ie of surprisiuii It But when they 
 >»m- 1" anchor Ow Albeiiians ha<l arrived alsii, 
 Miillhiy saw themH<'lv<-s once mo^■ coufronte)) 
 liy the vli-lors of Miiratb«n."~L. von Kaoke, 
 Chi .> rml IliMorji, t. ,. 
 
 Aiao IX ; lleroiloius, ll,M>My. hk, t. ~ V. Duruy 
 llitt ./ Ilrfrv, eh lB(r •.') —S,^, ,u, Pkhsi;^- 
 H (' JJI-IIU, siiil Uhkki'k: U. C. 4U'j 491, and 
 
 B C. 4*9-4*o.-Ceadamaatian ud dMtk 
 of »liltiades.-Th« ^Kinataa war.— Naval 
 power created by Tbamistoclta.— The vie 
 
 1 If) ..f Marathon was chiefly iliie to Miltlailea, 
 it w u he who bniught on the eiiiraK<'ine„t, and 
 he umihief in niniinaiid on tlie day when th« 
 lain.- wss foUKht. Much a brilHanl siMXvaa 
 KPiily Improvwl hia p<iaition to the Hty, and 
 '__«'ii<.l in his enemies a sllll de^'|>er batrad 
 Kv.r on the wslch for an opportunity to null 
 " •'! their rivsl it was m)t long befora they 
 I "111 I i«ie rioon after bla vickiry, Mllthules 
 i-auk lirfuic the AtbuBhuM with ■ rwtucal that a 
 
 159 
 
 iqtiwtamnf 70 Ihlpi might he pbccd at hl« din- 
 Posal. The purpo*) for which he required them 
 he would not disclose, though pkidglng his wont 
 that tlie espeditiuo wouhf mid hrgely tc the 
 wealth and praaperitv of the dty. The request 
 being grante<l, he sailed with Uie ships k) Para 
 an ishuKl which at Uiis dme waa subject to 
 ■•ersia. From the Parians he demanded 100 
 tah-nts, and wiR-n tliey refused to pay lie block- 
 aded the city. So vigorous and succe.«f'd waa 
 the resistance olTereil that, after a long debiy 
 Miltiailcs, hinuelf dangcrouslv woiualwl, was 
 aimpellcd to return home, flls ewniit-i, with 
 Xantbippus at Uieir head, at once nlUiknl liim 
 for misconduct in the enterprise. . . . Mihiadcs 
 waa unable to reply in |iersoii ; he was carried 
 Into court, while hb friends pb-ailed his cause. 
 1 he sentemw was given agaiuat him. but the 
 penalty was re<lucc<r from dealh to a line of .10 
 
 «','"'*• ** '*''*" • •""" *"• "*'"' '•""• <''""^ 
 Miltiades could pay; he waa thrown into prison 
 as a public debtor, where be soon dii^d from liw 
 inortiUcarlon of his wound. . . , His comtemna- 
 tion wsa one in a long series of simihir punish- 
 ments. Tlie AthenUns never learnt to lie Just 
 to those who served them, or to dbitinguish be- 
 tween trencherr and errors of Judgment. . . , 
 We Imve very little Information about the state 
 of Athens Immediately afk-r tlie battle of Mara- 
 thon. 8o far as we can tell, for the ciinmology 
 Is most uncertain, ahe was now cngageii in a war 
 Willi .Cgina. . , , Meanwhile, a man was rising 
 to (wiwer, who may be said to have creak-d the 
 bisl.iry of Athens fur the rest of the century,— 
 Tliemistocles, the sim of Neocles. ... On the 
 very day of Marathon, Themiska lea lit I prolw- 
 biy roaile up bis mind that the I'emians would 
 visit Greece again. What waa to keep them 
 away, so long as they were masters of the 
 .«geanT . With an Insight almost incredi- 
 ble be perceived tliat the Athenians couW be- 
 come a maritime nation; tluit AtlH-na ixmiessea 
 barlaiura large enouirh to receive an enormous 
 llitt, awl capable of Iieing strongly fortilled: 
 tliat In posass s lon of a fleet slie could not only 
 •.•(■ure her own safety, but stand forth as a rival 
 iH.»er k> Hiwrto. But ho-v coiihl Tbeinlskxles 
 Iniluce the AtbeoUns k> abamlon the Hue In 
 which they had bee?> so successful for a nuaie of 
 warfare In which even Miltiades liad failed? 
 After the fall of the great gi-ueral, the conduct 
 of alTalrs was in the bamls of X.uithippua . . . 
 and Aristldes. . . . They were by no p- tns 
 prepared for the change which ThemiskK-iea -vaa 
 lunllMting This Is more especially true of 
 Aristldes He had been a friend of Cllstlienes; 
 lie waa known m an atimirer of rtpanan customa. 
 . . . He luwl bi«n mmmi in command at Mare- 
 t!: m, and was now the moat eminent geia-ral at 
 Aihena Frimi him Themislocles cuuld only ex- 
 |MH| the mi«t resolute opiwaition. Xaiithippiis 
 ami Aristldes could reckon on the au|)|iiirt of old 
 traditions and gieat contiectlons Themialocb'S 
 bail no aupiiort of tlie kind lie hail to maU 
 his party . . (^Hlacioua of tlwir oan (msi 
 lion. AristiileaamI Xantbliipiis lis'kcit ^itbcou 
 tempt uimn tie l.n.it of nun who Umm t v 
 itatber rounil tticir unmannerlv and unruUlvaliil 
 leaiU-r AimI ther might. |H'riia|>s. Imvi. hihiu. 
 kilneil their poailiim if it bail not Is-in (or llio 
 .iC^ineUn war That unlucky slriiunlr bail l»' 
 gun. ai»n after the reforms of (^lt»ibriii'<. wiili 
 an unprovoked attack u( the .Egiot lans ou tba 
 
■i j : 
 
 ATHENS. B. C. 480-480. P 
 
 roMt of AttloadWe B. C), [.Eginii being «lll.-.l 
 wiih Thobft in the war nipntiimvil alMivp — H.C, 
 ."«)a-."i001. It was rpni-wril when tlio .Ks^iwWris 
 frivo fiirth mm! water to the lieraliU of l)«rii;» in 
 4U1. an I tlioii^h sustX-ndtil at thn tirap of tlw 
 Persian Inviwion. It broke out aRiiln witli re- 
 i:cwcil fepK-ilv noon aftorwanls. Tlie .tijini'Uins 
 liaii the stroncer fleet, and defeated the Athenian 
 lililpa. "Such experiences naturally causeit a 
 I hanjre in the minds of the Athenians. ... It 
 was clear that the old arrangements for the navy 
 wi'n- n,iit4> inade(iuale to the task which was 
 now reciuired of them. Yet the leaders of the 
 BtHte ntide no proposals." TliemlstiM-les now 
 "rame fnrwarrl publicly with pm|KMaU of naval 
 ri'form, and, as he expected, he drew upon liim- 
 wlf the strenuous opposition of Aristldes. . . . 
 It w,ts clear that notiiin:; doHsive i-ouM Ik- d.me 
 in llie .Bjfinet.tn war u:dess the proponaN of 
 TliemistiK'les werv lurriid ; it was c ciiillv i l.'ar 
 i;iat thiy never would N- c.irried while Aristides 
 uiid Xanthippus were at banc! to ojipow tlieni. 
 I'nder these clrcumsianei'S n^courw was had to 
 the safety-valve of the cunstilullon. OitrMlnm 
 was proposiHl and afciptcd; and in this inaiiner. 
 br 483 H. C, Themistocles h:iil got rid of inilli of 
 Ins rivals in the city. He wm now master of 
 the situation. Tlwonly obstacle to the reall- 
 ^.illon of his plans was the expense involve<l in 
 liiiilding ships. .\nd IhU he was able to meet 
 by a Imppy accident, whl.h broui{ht into the 
 inasury at this time a large surplus from the 
 .■-ilver mines from Ijiurium. ... By the sum- 
 mer of 4M0, the Athenians . . were able to 
 I.I inoii 180 Teasels. lK>sides jiroviding 30 for the 
 use of the Chalcideans of Eulxca. ... At the 
 F'une time ThemistiK?les set alxitit the f.irtilica. 
 li m of the i'eimus. . . . I'ould he have earrieil 
 t!>r .Vthenians with him. be would have made the 
 l*tire«» the capital of the country, in onler that 
 the Khips and the city might Im- (n lioac connec 
 tion llul for this the people were not pre- 
 panil ■— E. Abbott, Ptrifitt and Iht U 'Ilex Aje 
 :f .Ith.iu. eh. a 
 
 Ai.-<.>ix: IMutareh, AnMi,U:~Tlumi,lu-Uii. 
 
 B. C. 4II-479-— CoBcrait at Corinth. -Or- 
 Ksoised Helltaic Union, undtr the headship 
 of Sparta S<'e (IukkiK II (' 4'4| KJ 
 
 B. C. 480-479.— The second Persian i.-j»a- 
 •ion. - Thcrmopylx, Artcmisium, Salaiiis, 
 Platxa. - Abandonment of the City.— ■ I'lie 
 l;i-.l d:iys of KariiiH wi n- il mdi d by tlie di«is|i r 
 of Mar.itli.in. ■tliiit Imtle firmrd llif luniirii} 
 |M.lnt of his go.Kl f.iniine.' and it w.iild wtiu 
 th.it il.e news of it I11I to sevir.il Iniiirn-iiiont. 
 partiiularly that of Eifvpt, Imt tbev wen- sin;! 
 put down t>arius dlid (lllymp. T.l .li. siil 
 Xi rxcT whosui (•••.■dwl bim. K^mpreventi'il fru:-! 
 t-ikiii.' rvcriire on the .V!lM>ni:im by ctii- nv.ill of 
 l.il.\pl. will, Il cniTiigi'd bin uitrnti vii d rl'i;; tlie 
 flrvi M.iM .if lii« n i:fn. Hut he com;,! t, ly ivm 
 oil r d \\v l:iK'iri;rnt* after Ihi'y biwl ii. 1 ■! ;iiaet| 
 lli.iii* Ivi 1 all ml four or live yi'srt. and hi llien 
 made pnpariii >«•< firihat vi'ti.reimi> on .Vrliiria 
 for Khiih bis tnrbirlan pride was Im riu.; The 
 anouiil iif tlie ilirre years' pr<'p:irili..ni of 
 X<r\r«. h .* lie a«■^mbled hl« army In ,\sla 
 Mill r. hoiv he m.idr a bridge ai nnts the llelli-s 
 Ik.iil II 1* he cut a 1 uial tbMUith llie Islliinus of 
 Mi'iiil .\l!ini t.i prevrnt hU Hiil In iiig di'»iroyi'd 
 by »1 .ritiH — ill Itii4 is known lo every om- » Im 
 has r ad llirt«|ii!u» History U hi'n- so mm h In 
 l<r»<ne« with |«sjlry. Ibtl'thiy '-aa 00 longer 
 
 '•" ATHENS, B. C. 480-479. 
 
 IT. 
 
 be ippimted. . . . The Qrceks awaited thp at- 
 tack (Olyiup. 7.5, 1). ■ but they wer.' not asrreid 
 among tbemwlvn. The Argivcs from halreil i<| 
 H,Hkrta Joined the Persiaiia, and tlie miserable 
 UoeottaiU likewise auppurtmi them. The otherH 
 kept togetlier only fnim neo-asity ; and without 
 the noble tpirlt of the Alh<'ni.iiw Onvce would 
 have btwn loet, and that from the most paltry 
 circumstance*. A dispute arose as to who was 
 to be honoured with tliusupn'ine eommaml: the 
 Athenians gave way to all. for their oalv desire 
 was to lave (Ireece. Had the Persians miiveil on 
 rapidly, they would have met with no resistance, 
 but their proceeded slowly, and matters turniil 
 out dllferently.' A Ort-ek annv was encfuipetl 
 at Tetniic, at' the entmii(!e of Tbeasaly, and at 
 llrst iletermineil on defending Tlieasiily. But 
 they must have «e«'n that they could Iw "entirch 
 surrounded from l'p|MT Thensiily; and when 
 they thus diseoven-l the Imposdibllity of stop 
 ping the Persians, they relreansl. The n:irr,iliv'> 
 now contains one ineonei-ivable eir<'Uiiistani:<' 
 after another. ... It is Incoaciivalile tint, as 
 the tSreeks did make a stand at Tlieriiiop> jai-. 11 1 
 one else took lii.s piisilion thire exispt Kiu^ 
 Ixs)nidas and his .'Spartans, not ineluiling even 
 the IJlct^laemonians. for they n'niained at hoini': 
 Only l.0(«) Phociatis (a-eupiisl the bei.,'hla. 
 though that |ie<iple might sunl? have furnislud 
 10.(li»!> men; 4IN» of the Ittaiitians wi're |Hwteil in 
 the n-ar. as a sort of hostages, as Hennlotus re 
 marks, and 7IH) Thespians. Where wi'ni all the 
 rest of the Oreeks t . . . (."oiiiilli'ss hosts an- in- 
 vading Uns>ee ; the (tnrks want to defend them- 
 selves, and are making active pn'iMniiions at 
 ■ea; but on lanil hundredsof Ihoiuands are met 
 by a small baud of l'elo|Hmnesiaiis, 7iH) Thes- 
 pians. 4110 Thelians as hostages, and 1,1)1)0 Pho- 
 elans, stationed on the helirhtal A pass is ivhu. 
 pleil, but only that one, and the others an' left 
 ungiianUsl. . . . All this Is ipiite uninielliLMble; 
 it would r.lmnst ap|iear as If there had Ic-i-n an 
 Intention losacritliw I.i<-<midas and his men, but 
 we cannot supixna^ this. These ciicumstanii < 
 aloni' aiiggi'st to us. that the numbers of i!ie 
 IN'rslan army cannot have Ixs'niu gn>al as liny 
 ar»' deserilssi; but even if we n-duiv ilic in to in 
 Immense extent, it still n-inains lucoiii'.i\ilili' 
 why Ibi'y wen- not opposed by greaur nuniluM 
 of the (Jrei'ks, fir as afierwanls they viii 
 tun-l 111 attack the Persians in the opin'riil,:, it 
 was iirlainly mmh nion- natiiml to opiMw tlniu 
 while inarching across tile bills, llul Inmevi r 
 this may be, it Is an iindoiibied fact, tli.it l,i'iiii 
 das and' his Hpartaiis fill in the contest, of wlm h 
 we may form a emiispii in from the dem ripiini 
 of Hennlotua, wlien afar a n-slstance of tbni- 
 lays they were surrouiidnl by the Perslms .\ 
 fiw of tfie Sp irlaus estM|Msl 00 very ex. nn^^ilile 
 LTi'unds. but lliiy were so geiieruliy di^|ii»i-il. 
 that their life la-came unendurable, an I lie v 
 maile away with tbi-mselves. This Is 11 rtaiiilv 
 historiiiil. . . . After the victory of Tlhriniiiyliie 
 all Hellas lay open bi'foB< the I'ersiaiis. and tin v 
 now advamssi towanis Athens, a disianci- nlil' li 
 Ibey iiiuld march in a few days Thels's .iixin I 
 her gates, and Joyfully ail'inllted them fmni 
 halnsl of Athens • Mrantlme a portion of ilw 
 armv ap|M-«red befnn- Iti-lphI It Is almost in 
 eoncelvHlile that the Persians did nol smiiisl i.i 
 biking the temple . Tim miracles by wlmli 
 
 the li'mple Is said U> have Is-en saviil. an- re 
 peated li tbe Muoe manner duriuy Ihu attack of 
 
 160 
 
ATHENS. B. C. 48(M7S. 
 
 War. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 47JM78. 
 
 ti>e (knli. But the temple of Delphi wu entalnl 7 
 not plundered.'. . . Thecitynf .Vthenthiul Inthe 
 mnntime been •baixloDed by all the imipli- ; tliH 
 di-fcaerlea had taken refuge intlieiinull Uliuiil of 
 HaUmU, or of Troezen, 'and all the Athenians 
 capable of bearing arm* embarked in the Itect. ' 
 . . . The Perriaiiathu* took Athena without any 
 resiitanee. . . . Durins the nme dajri on which 
 the battle of Thermopylae waa fought, the Oreek 
 flert wu engaged in two indeciilTe but glorious 
 battles near the promontorr of Artemisiunt ' In 
 a thin) the Peralana gained the upper haml. and 
 when the Qreeks at the same time heani of tlie 
 defi-at at Thermopylae, tbcy withdraw, and 
 doul>ling Cape Sunium aailc<l towarda 8aUmi». ' 
 (}<>l arnt them a sUirm whereby the Periiana in 
 tlicirpursuittufferHiiihipwrcck. . . . While tlie 
 (itwk fleet waa tlationeil in the channel between 
 tlif island of Salamis and Attica, towania Pi- 
 rieeuB. discord broke out among the Ore. k». The 
 I'l'loponnesiaos thought only of ihemaeive*: 
 Ihi'vliml fortlHed the luhmus; tSere they wnre 
 aswmlilml. and there they wanlcl to offer resist- 
 naif u> the Persians. In their folly they fnrgol, 
 that if the enemy with his superior fleet, ahiiulil 
 limi Hirainst IVInponnesus. they mii(lit land 
 wlMn-vertheyllke<l. . . . ButThemlaUirl«s now 
 dclared, that all the hopes of the Atlicninns 
 weriMlirecled Uiwanis the r?roviTy of their nwti 
 rity; lliat, if the Peloponnesians should sarrirt<v 
 Ihcm. sod. thinking of tliernselvea imlv. stmiihl 
 alKinilon Attica to the barbarians, the Ath<-ni;tii4 
 wouM not be so childish as to sacriflce thenvHclvcs 
 f.ir tlii-rn, but would Uke their women anl rliil 
 iln'n cm Imanl their ships, and sail far away from 
 tli<> IVnians to tlie ii^land of Sardinia, or some 
 otiiir place where Oreek colonies were eslnti- 
 li<li'-.l. that there they would settle as a tnv 
 pe..pli', and aliandin Peloponersus to iu fat.- 
 and that then the peninsula would sixm be in the 
 hand* of the enemy. This frighU>n<.<l the Pelo. 
 iiorininiirn. and they resoleed tosUnd by Athene 
 It in ivj.lint that, throughout that timei Thi'iiiis- 
 ti. 1. 1 luwl u> struggle with the m<Mt intolemlile 
 dilliultiii, which the allies placet! In his w«v. as 
 well as with Ihrlr Jealousr, meanness, and into- 
 lince. ' Tlw riid'-nem of tl>e Spartans ntid Cor- 
 iritliiinsltnowlirtr morpHtronglvcimlnwlii". with 
 liic nittiem.-iit of the Atlvniaiis. than on lliat 
 K'TiMoii.' But after he hwl tried erervihini; 
 «ii_i ov,ni.tne by everr pussitile means a liiindri- i 
 liTiTrtit dimcullies. he yet saw, tliit he c.mi|,| 
 n t n-lyon the perseverance of the IVI..[),inne- 
 'i.in«, anl th:it ifiey would turn to tlie I-ilhmin 
 .1 H,.,,! a, X.rses shoiiM pr<K-ee<l in th-il dine 
 11 .11 II.- an-..nlingly induml the Persian kin^, 
 '>y a f 11-* mrwitte. ti snrnninit the Un'i.k fleet 
 f.rili.- piiriKMc of rutting off tlieretn-itof tlie 
 I ' I .|..nn.-,ian< IFe deifarpd Uims<.|r n-a.lv 10 
 ■ livi r iIm- whole of the Oreek rte>-t into' hi* 
 |ii>i.li riiiiilevli* was iiuiteui tlie inin.l of the 
 i . roaiM. X.rx.-« Wlercl him. and follow.^ Iiis 
 ', ■?'. ^*"'" Themi«t.irles waa thus sum of 
 III.. IMotKmneslans. the ever memorable Imtile of 
 >»Uini«.-,imrm.n<iil, which isas certainly hisl.iri- 
 <al 4>ilMt .>f Canme. orany molcm battle ■ what 
 • V rtl» niiml.ers may lie. ' The battle pr.K*e.l«| 
 N.m. what In the manner of the battle of l,.lpiig 
 wirnlhewue waadecidnl. aportl.mof th.»ie wlio 
 "ii'hi 1,1 liarr Jolneil their (.ountrymen b.f..re 
 i"« I.- .-onimon cause with the Onirks Tlieir 
 
 *.v«ii>uii«-r«ase<l thericuwyof ibeOreeks 
 lenaln si the battle of thUmls Is, all the .uvounis 
 
 lei 
 
 of what tnok pU e after It. are rerr doubtful. 
 ThU much is certain, that Xerxes letumed 
 leaving a portion of his army utid.r .Mardonius 
 in Greece;' . . Winter was now approaching, 
 and .Uantonlus withdrew from ravagt^l Altica 
 taking up his winter-quarters partly In Thesaalr 
 aii,| partly in BoeotU. . . . l*lie pr.>lwbillly is 
 that tlie Athenians remained the winUr In 
 Hilainis in sheds, or under the ojien sky Mar- 
 il.inius offered to restore to them Attl(» unin- 
 juriMl, w far as It had not alreadv been devas- 
 uited, if they would conclude peace with him 
 riie." might at that time have obtained anv 
 terms they pleased, if they had abandoned 
 the common cause of the Greeks; and the Per 
 sians would have kept the peace; f.ir when thev 
 ionclud«l t^•l.tles they observe<l them: they 
 were not faithless barb«1ana. But on this occa. 
 sion again, we see the Athenian people in all 
 Its greatness and excellence; it scorned su<h a 
 pe«.i., and pref..rn.d tlie goi.1 of the Pelopon 
 neaians. , . . .Uardmiius now again advauei-tl 
 towanls Athens; the Spartans, who ouglit 10 
 have prooeeilod towards Oithaeron, had not ar 
 rived, and thus he again t<»ik posw-wion of 
 Attica and ravaged it completely. At hngth 
 however (Olymp 7a. «). the Aih.-bians pnvailed 
 upon the Peloponnraians to leave the Uthmua, 
 and thev gradually advance.1 towards B<ieotl». 
 Tliere the battle of Plataeac was fought 
 In regani to the accounts of thN battle it is his- 
 torimlly certain that it was completely wi>ii by 
 the Greeks, and that the remn.int.i of the Peniao 
 armv retreatetl without lieinn vigorously pur- 
 sue.1. It must have reachnl Asia, tmt ft then 
 diaapp«ra. It U also histort(.ally certain, that 
 I auaanias was the commander of the allied 
 army of the rirceks. . . . After ihelr vl.uiry 
 the (Jreeks a<lvance<l towanls ThelM-s In ai- 
 (Mrlancj with a vow which tliey ha.1 luaite 
 '"•fore the war, Thelies ought Ui have Im-n di- 
 »lrove.l by the Greeks. But their opinion.i were 
 divi.l,.,!. ... On tlie same day on whidi the 
 luttle of Plataeae was fiHight. the allied Greeks 
 gainiN] as complete a victory at sea \fier 
 
 this vi<tory of Mycale. the itmian cities rev..li,-.i 
 against the Perstaos "—a O Miebuhr /^lurr^ 
 on AnfienI llUtorf, s. >, ImU 87 .i»-f IW 
 
 AlJM t!t: Herodotus. Uutor^; tn,m ,iml fl 
 A.V If AiWi'<w.>«, »t 7 (p 4l.-Pliilarrh Thf 
 nM.«-W«._<J W C.x. rh, l/r^kM„n'l l'.r.„„., 
 f; C. 479-47I-— Pretaction of looi* assumed. 
 — Sitja ud captur* of Scstus.-KcbuildiaK 
 And cnlarK*m«nt of the city and its walla.— 
 laterferanct of Sparta foiled by Tbemistoclct. 
 — ' The ailvanUgt.li oliuiiie.1 by the ll<.||.ne« (in 
 their w.ir with Per<ja| eame ii|)oo Ihrm so unex- 
 |«H'te,lly as t/> lln.l them totally unpnpart-.l, 
 anl aiTorlingly einharrassivl bv ilieir own vie 
 I.iri.'s. VVIliI was to be d.Mie with Ionia ? 
 
 "" 'I'c wholt inirv to lie ndmilte<l into 
 
 the llilli-ni nfedi-ralion T T.kv gn-al a n- 
 
 »pon«ihilliy woiil.l In the opinion of the Peloixm 
 nesiins. Ik. Iniiirrwl liyaui-haslep It would 
 
 Ik' Is.tler Ui saiTirtiv the eounlrv. and extalilish 
 the lonians in w.illements in I'.ther pans at 
 the expense of tliott- who hail favi.nn..l ' the 
 M«l.-t. 1. e . ..f the Argives, Hivotians I^k ri 
 siK, and Tlie»«ahsns . The Athenians on 
 the other hand. esp.Mised the i»use of iht. litiea 
 l.inla oiiitiil to lie a bulwaik airainat Iha 
 Harliarljiot aii.l i.. \v\tm\( Ui tin- llilli-nea 
 The Aiiieiilana (.iiiud a supptiri iu Iha fMilag 
 
H 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 4T»-«T8. 
 
 piCT»laot kmoof the lonluu, who were MturallT 
 oppowd to aaj forcwl •ritliment. Accorilliialv, 
 in the lint liMUm-e, ^ialn»ll, Lesboa, I'hicw, «n.l 
 • number of other iiUoJ towni, werv uliuitli'il 
 into the confederation . . . and a new Ijcllu* 
 wa» formed, a Oreek empire comprehending U)th 
 •Meaofthe lea. CdUKideratlooa of caiitiuo made 
 it neceaanry, alMve all, to lecura the paaaage 
 from Aain to Europe: for it waa unireraall; liC' 
 Beved that the bridge over the Hetleapont was 
 •Uhir (till In exisU'Uce or bad been reatnred. 
 When it waa found to hare been deatroyed, the 
 Feloponnealana urged the termfawtion of the cam- 
 paign. . . . The Atheniana, on the other hand, 
 declared theni«rlvp« n-aoWed ... not to leave 
 unllnished what they had begun. Seatua, the 
 atrongeat fortrcaa on the Hellespont, ought not 
 to be left In the hands of the enemy ; an attack 
 on it ought to be risked without deUiy, before 
 the city bad prepornl for a siege. They allowcil 
 the IVlii|H>niiesians to Uke their departure, hikI 
 under the command of Xauthippua united with 
 the ships of the lunlana and Uelleapontiana for 
 the purpose of new undertakings. " The PersUns 
 in 8estua resisted obstinately, enduring a long 
 •iege, but were forced to surrender at hut. 
 "Meanwhile, the main point conaiatcd in the 
 Atheniana having n'maioed alone In the field. In 
 their having fratt-mlziHl with the lonlana aa one 
 naval power, and having after such successes 
 attained to a conadence in victory, to which no 
 eoterprlae any longtr seenmi either too distant 
 or toodUleult. Alrewly they regarded their city 
 •a the centre of the ci«»t lands of Qnm. But 
 what was the cnnilitioo of tUa litv of Athena 
 itaelf? A ffw fragini-nts of the ancant city wall, 
 a few scattrred bouses, which had served the Per 
 aian romnian<lers as tbrlr quarters, were yet 
 st4adlng . the rest was aabes and ruins Afi«-r 
 the battle of IMataw the iohabiunts bad retume<l 
 from Salamis, Tr>eaene, and -Egina; not even the 
 ••et and lu crews were at hand to afford them 
 aasls t s n ce. They endeavoured to make shift aa 
 heat they could, to pass through tlie trials of the 
 winter. Aa soon as the apriag arrived, the res- 
 toration of the city waa comouincad with all 
 poasible actlvitv. But even now It was nut 
 
 the comforts of dnmrsticllr which occupuxl their 
 thoughts, but, above all, the city aa a whole and 
 iU security To Tbemlsl.«les. the founder of 
 the port town, public contldeiice was iu ibis 
 matter pro|wrly accorded. " It waa not poMiblv 
 ■to carrj- out a i.cw and regular plan for the 
 city; but it waa ns..lv«l to extend lu circum 
 ference beyond thi- circle of the ancient walU, 
 _so aa to be aide. In case of a future sieir.'. 
 to offer a retreat to the country (MipuUl Ion with 
 In the capital Itai-lf Hut the Albtniana 
 
 wer«' not even to be | i<rrallted to build lliclr 
 walls umiisturbeil . for. as Mion as (heir t-raml 
 plan of u|ieratioiu Utaiue known, the envy and 
 insidious jeabmity of tbilr nrubbours broke out 
 afreafa The IVIotHinnrswn staler. aUite all 
 
 ^glnaand( 'irintb W-iinol u> dirctt tbt atten 
 lion of ^<|lana to lur >iiuatbm of affairs. 
 Aa at Htiarta illy waila wrm objected to on 
 
 princlpb), au.1 as |..uhui prevaitnl with riitaril 
 
 to the fai I tttsi a well fortlAmt tiiwn was iiupreg 
 aable to ilw ullltery art of Uir IV l.itMifin.-.ian.. it 
 was artualiv rr«.linl at aiiv prti-e to provctil tbe 
 buildinir of ihr walls In .\tn, « ||,it f.wMiainr , 
 sake, the lalrrfi-rriu •- iiMK^taken by .fMns was 
 put upon tha grouu<l Uw; >„ tba eveni ut a (uiiir» 
 
 U)2 
 
 ATHEira, B. C. 4n-4M. 
 
 invasion of th« country, only tbe paniaaolaeoulii 
 be successfully defended ; that central Qreei < 
 would neceasarUy be abandoned to the eneniv 
 and that every forUfled city io H would fuml'li 
 htm a dangerous base. " At auch a criaia craft 
 alone could be of avaU. When the Sparun* 
 made their imperious demand at Athena, Themis 
 toclea ordered the immedhta oeaaatioo of buil.l 
 ing operations, and with aaaumed lubmiaaivt 
 neaa, promised to present himself at BparU, In 
 order to pursue further negotlationa in person 
 Un his arrival there, he allowed one day after 
 *^« »»^' to «o by, pretending to be waiting for 
 bis fellow envoys. " In the meantime, all AUitns 
 waa toiling aight and day at the walla, and time 
 enough waa gained by the audacious duplicity 
 of TBemistoclea to build them to a safe height 
 for defence. " The enemies of Athens saw that 
 their design bad been foiled, and were forced to 
 put tbe best face upon their discomflture. They 
 now gave out that they had intended nothing b.' 
 Tond go.«l ailvice."— E. Curtiua, Uut. of Om^, 
 I*. 8, cA. a (e. 8). J . 
 
 ALao IN O. W. Co». Uul. of Qrtttt, U. i eh 
 7-« (». 1-3). 
 
 B. C. 47H77-AUe««tion of the Aaiatic 
 Creeks from SpuU.— Fonutioa of the Con- 
 fedcracy of Osles.— The founding of Athenian 
 Bmpirt. SeeUiiKErB: B. C. 4i(M7i. 
 
 B. C. 477-4te-— CoostitBtional fains for the 
 democracy. —Aacendsncx of Aristcidss.- De- 
 clining Mpalarily and ostracism of Themis- 
 tokles.— Taa sastentation of the commons.- 
 Tho strippiog of power from the Areopagus. 
 - At the time wheu lite I'onfcilrracv of I). I.., 
 was formed. "Ihe Persians siill bilil not only 
 tbe Important poats of Kion on the Strvmon suil 
 iKiriskus lu Thrace, but also sevi-rnl other posu 
 in that country which are not s|>ecilled to us 
 We may thus understand why tlie Oreek citlea on 
 and near the Chaikidic (H-ninsula . . . were n..t 
 lesa anxioua to seek protection In Ihe bostmi if 
 the new confeilenicy than tbe I>orian islandu uf 
 Ithodes and Coa. the Ionic inlands of rtamoa an.l 
 t'hios, the .Kollc l^aboa and Teneiios, or (. n 
 tinenul towns such aa Miletus and Byiantlum 
 SKMae sort of union, organised and ol.li 
 gatory u|iun esi-h city, was inilis{M ii.table U> iht- 
 saf.'ly of all Indit-il, even with tliat aid. at tlii- 
 time aliea the t'lmfnlrnky of llrlos Has I.fHl 
 f.irmeil. it waa by no nu-atis certain the AsUiii 
 Miiniy would I* effectually kept out. eaiiecialh at 
 the IVnuiw were strong iiul im-r. ly from tii.ir 
 own font but also from tlie aiti of lutirhul 
 |>art»-» In many of the (ireclan stali-s— trail. irt 
 wiUilii. as well as ivilc» without. Amonc tin «• 
 trBiU>rs, tbe first lu rank as well as the iin^t 
 fomildabli . was the Spartan l>aii>aiil:i» ' 
 Pausanbia, whose trrasonablc iiitrigun ailh \h>- 
 Peraiau^klngjiegan at Uruntium (See (iKtri i 
 H t' 47H-4**) was ion\icti4l some nine or i.u 
 years later, and suifervd a terrible fair Uu.t 
 shut within a temple to wbli h he had tieil i,i.a 
 starved. IIU trmaiaiable projects lni|.li.«i. I 
 and brought to dUgraiT a man far Kriimr il.m 
 blmwlf-the Atbiiiiao Tlomlstokles Tl« 
 
 rhirj" lagainst Thiiiil«iokli-«) of rolliitlon wlili 
 tbi Ivrsians loiimris li«.lf with tlir jirii.-iS 
 movement of |H>lllli'»l |>artiea . . Tbi- rnnltv 
 of Tbemistokles sod Arialeldes had Urn irriitiiv 
 •piMasml by tbe iuvaaloo of Xersrs. oiilili ti.l 
 ' upon both the (xremplury un twlij .x 
 
ATHENS, B. C. 477-Ml 
 
 ATHENS, a C. 477-409. 
 
 cni>peratloD agaiiut a commoii enemy. And 
 apparently it wu not returned during the timu* 
 whii'h laiin.Hliiitcly •mTcwItxi the return of tlio 
 Atlirnlsns t<i their country: at leaat we bear of 
 both in elTei'tive M-rvira and in promineDt puatn. 
 Tbeniistoltles ■tanili forward aa the contriver of 
 the city wall* ami architect of Peiraeua: Aria- 
 triiles \» commander of t lie fleet and flrat organiaer 
 of the ('iinfe<leracy nf I>elo«. MoreoTer we leem 
 hi detect a change in the character of the latter 
 lie hmi ceaMil to be the champion of Athenian 
 old fMbioned landed intereat, agalnat Themit- 
 toklej aa the oriicinator of the maritime inno. 
 TntiiHif Thoae InnoTationi bad now, aince the 
 battle of Halamia, become an eatabliahed fact. 
 . . . Prom henceforth the fleet ii endeared to 
 every man aa the grand force, offentive ami 
 defenilve, of the atate, in which character all 
 the iniHtical leuiler* agree In accepting it. . . . 
 The iriri iiies, and the men who manned them, 
 takin iilhrtively, were now the determining 
 element in the ii'tate. Mori-oTcr, the men who 
 nwrineil them had juat rcturniil tnim Salamis, 
 fnsli friiiu aiceiie of trial and danger, anil from 
 a hurt est of vliUiry, whiih had ci|ualizeil furtlie 
 iiiuiiietit nil AthenianaaaaulTerera. Ht combatant*, 
 anl lilt imtriulH . . . The piilitical change 
 ari-iiiii; from hence In Athene waa not leM 
 imsiiriaiit than the niilltury. 'The muritimo 
 miiliiiii.le, authiin of the Tirtiiry of Halamin." 
 nil I iiKtrumeiitii of the Tiew viKallon at Athriiii 
 »« luaii of the Dillan Cimfederacj . HpiHiirniiw 
 K- , h.Unl in the political cim»tltiril.in al-n; imt 
 ill iiiiy w.iy M a separate or privile^iil rla^a, but 
 a» li :ui nini; the wlinle iiiasH. atn-nstheiiini; the 
 ilriL K 'aii.il M'litiiiii'iit, and proleiting iitfain'-t 
 all i.iii){iii«.'.l |Hiliiiral Ine.iualilies . Rirl,- 
 
 afi' r I.I.- nliirii to Atti.a, tlii' Klel-illiii.i.ih 
 C"i.-iiuiiiui wiw enlHri,-i'i| ai ri -i iit.< elicililii / 
 to '.i:- iiiaifi^lraiv Anoriini; tii that cmi'il 
 tiii-ii. tlie f Mirth nr la-t rlais i.n the Suli iilaii 
 nil i«. iiirhiillnj; the inn^iileraMe maj'Titv if 
 fn •< I Reren.it a<lMii^»l!ile to iKTl.e* i.f siate. 
 til .illiy pi.,-i.ii!« ij votes In (■•ininiui with 
 111 I »l. no [wnmn waa eliKilile to lie a magia- 
 Irni.- mil, w he Ixlonged to one of the Ihne 
 lii^ I.n l.isMH. Tills restriction naaiKiwanniillid 
 ail I . Ii.iliility cxirti.leil to all the riliitena. We 
 nil. i|.|rriilale the »ln.n«lh of deling with 
 wUi. ii ■ II h rif..rm waa ileinaniliil when we find 
 til 11 it H.H pr,i|»i«.|| liy Ari«teiilea . . . The 
 I'.'iiiliriiy tliiiB eimiireil to hliii, pMliably heigh- 
 till.. I li) Minie n.>;r. t fur hU prevloua oatraciam, 
 w.i« raleulali'.l tii aiijiilre |irrni«nence fnim hU 
 •traik'lilfiirn ird "id iiKnrnipiilile character, ihiw 
 brmicht Into atri.nj! relief by hia function aa 
 aaaiwir to the new Ilellan i'onfeileracy. On 
 the other hand. Ilie anieuilen.r of Tbrmiatoklea, 
 Ih.iuifh ao often e «all«l by hin unrivallnl poliil 
 cal genlua and daring, aa well aa by the algnal 
 value of hia public rieoniniinilationa, waa aa 
 ofti a iiverthMwn by bi» diiplii Ity of meana ami 
 unprineipleil ihlral (..r mmer New p<.lilli»| 
 epliiuentaaprung iip against 'him. men ~ . iiiiia- 
 Ihisi,,, with Arl.lii.l.-, <»f the*, the chief 
 
 wiri. KimoD [f'ini ^1 ,..,n i.f Miltiadeai, and 
 AUiiiinn ■ In 411 II ( riieinialokiet waa aent 
 ini i.ili. liT a v.iti. I.f iMw. ism. and retired to 
 Arc H Five yi ir» lull r be waa accuaed of 
 ri>ii.|.licitr In the trii«onalile intriguea of 
 
 lui.iiilaa, and All li. i! mrt of the I'emlan 
 
 kill- . where Ii.. .p, nt the niiiaiml. r i.f hia ihiv« 
 ■■ AriitieiJea iliol aiMiit three or f mr yvnn after 
 
 the ottndim of ThemlatoUea."— O. Orote. IhtT. 
 offtnui. pt. 2, eh. 44 (e. 8).— Th« conatituti<iDal 
 ellectauf the Peraian war, and the political situu- 
 lion of Athena immediatelv after the war, at« 
 Kpreaented tomewhnt dJITerpntlv from the 
 account almve, in the lately iliscovered work on 
 the Conttitutlon of Athens which ia attributed to 
 Ariatotle. The following is iiuotiil from one of 
 the tranalatlona of the latter: " After the Median 
 war the council of Areopacus [.See AREOPAOua] 
 recovered strength ami ruled the Mate, nottliat 
 any law conferred the hegeiiii.iiv on them, but 
 becaiiae the aristricmtic partv b 'd the credit of 
 the victory at Salamia. For' when the generals 
 hud dvapaircd of the country and pnK'laimeil a 
 aauve qui peut, the Areop'agiia mi.sed funila, 
 gave every man eight drachinna («a. (d ) and 
 iiulu(.ei| them to man the ahipa. In cona-'ipnni e 
 of thia public aervii e the Kci liiiia vlelled the 
 aacen.leney to the Are<ipagu«. and public arairj 
 were niltiifrably adininiatereil during the follow. 
 Ing ep<Mb. For thev acipiin-d the ort ef w.ir, 
 iiiaite their name )ionoiiri.<l tliroinrbout tlic 
 IleUenic worM, and posai-axd tbemaelvea of the 
 aovereignly of the sea with the conacnt of 
 Ijikeilaimon. At tbia time the leaden of the 
 conimona were Aristeides, »,n of Luainuicboa. 
 ami TbemUtokles. ».n of Neukba ; the latter 
 alU'Houa of the arts of war. the former reputeil 
 eminent in stalesmanabip imd honeat la'Vond 
 biHC«ntcmpor:irie-i : wliirb i li^raeters made tbclr 
 e.eintrymen emplor the . iie as a general, the 
 other aa a ci.umllW Tlie nlniiliring of the 
 walla of Athena waa tliiir j. int work, thougb 
 tb.'V Were otherwise at feml. The ilelarbment 
 of the lonlans from Persia ana the formation of 
 an alliance with i^parta were iliie to the counocla 
 of Ari.steidet. who wi/ed the opportunity 
 nfforileil by the diacreiiit east ..n the I,akonlana 
 I y the conduct of Pausanias. lie tmi orlginallv 
 npjK.rtloucd, two year* after the battle of 
 Sijamla, in the anbonship of Timi»thenct 
 i '.''* n v.), the ctmtribiition to be pail by the 
 {..lander*. . . . Hulwipii nlly, when 'lofty 
 tbiiughta filled every laMoin and wealth waa 
 aecumulating, Arisl'eblea advised tliem to 
 adminlater the beseni.ny with their own 
 banda. to leave their naii'ilrv oiiupatii.ns and 
 flx their domicile In the liiv' Siisientnlii n. be 
 pnmiiseil, would be pniviilid for all, elllier aa 
 aoMiers or aailor* in aeti\e mrvbe, orastriH.pa 
 in garriaon or aa pul.lic airvanH; and then Ibey 
 eould increase the vit'ourof ili.ir imperialsway. 
 They foilowni hia advice, ami. taking the rule 
 into their own hanila. n-iliie. d tlieir alliea to the 
 poeitlon of voaaala. except tlie Cliiana, I-eablanji. 
 and Hamlant, whom Ibi y kept aa aatellitea of 
 their |M>wer, and |>erniiiii.<l to n-tain their own 
 constitutions and to rule lliilrownilep«.n<lencie*: 
 and they provided f,.r their own austentalion by 
 the melhwl wbiih Aristeldea lndicali.<l: f.ir iii 
 the end the public revenues, the tales and llie 
 thbutea of the alliea gave nialnlenaiiee to more 
 than S<),(NX) There were A.ISK) dliasts or Jiir..ra, 
 I «!)"> anhers. \:i(.M) eavalry, .VMI ainalofs. .'lOO 
 s..|ilieraof thediK kyani narriaon, .Wcilv ^iiar.la, 
 TiNt home i-iaglslrates. TiHt foreign magiMnti-a, 
 '.'."riNi bravv armed aoiilier* (this was tin Ir hum 
 tier at the iieglnnlng of the I'elii|>oiiii..slan «ari, 
 4.ISNI salbira manning til) giianUbips. .' is>i) 
 •iiilors nppolnteii by lot, manning 2(1 tribute 
 11. Meeting ships, and In ti|.lill..u In tli< se the 
 I'rutuneion, the orphans, lliu gaolcra . and all 
 
 hvi 
 

 ATHENS, a C. 477-l6«. 
 
 1 p«noni were malnuinad at the expense of 
 Uw mtioiwl (mwury. Tlie iiulvnutiou of the 
 comm..n» wiu thun secured. The 17 yi«r« » hi. li 
 foniiwiHl the Mnliau w»r were about the inTiixi 
 dunii).' which the country continued umlcr ll.c 
 tMcrmieocy of the Areopagui. though lis uristo- 
 «»tic fraturei were mdually on the wiiiie. 
 »h.n the nuMes had grown more and more 
 pnpoiiilerBtit. Ephtaltea. aon of Sophoiii.li-a. 
 npulfil iiui>rniptible in hi* loyalty U> iler.ioc 
 ncy. became Itwicr of the commooa. and iK'Ran 
 to attack the AfiNipagua Firat. he put to 
 deatli many of its membera, by impeachint; tliein 
 of ofrin<vi commitiiHl in their admiuinlralion. 
 Afterwanlii in the archonahip of Komrn (468 
 B. (jhe dcinH>llHl the council itaelf of all lla 
 more recently aciiuired attributea. which were 
 the kcynlone of tlic eximiiie constitution, and 
 dUtrtbuted them aiming the Senate of SiHI, Iho 
 Enlea a, niiil tlir court* of law. In thi* work 
 he had the <■<. ..iMrati.« of Thembtoklea. who 
 wa* hmiai'ir an An-opagite, but expe.tinx '" '"« 
 tmpt-ached f..r tnawiiiuble <^>rrc«|x>iid.n<e with 
 iemta. . . . KphiHltcs and TbemiHUiklcH kept 
 accmine the Arinpuirua before the H.-iiute of 
 000, and afruin iK'f.irc the cinnmona, till ftnallv 
 they 8irip|«<l it of all |u principal functions 
 The asaassiiKition of EphtulU'* lir the instru 
 mentality of Arist.»lil(.« „f Taniiirra foll„w«| 
 not lonif after Sui li win- i|,r .inimistam cs I'f 
 the overthrow of tlie An-oijajrus. After this 
 the ileeradailoii of the cimstltiillon priHcciltil 
 witliout intermission trtm the eapcriicss cif 
 r>olitician* to it in (Mipuhir favour: ami at the 
 •anie time there hapiH'iietl to be no oritani/ier of I 
 the aristwratic party, whose heiul, Kiiiion. the I 
 aon of .Miltiades. aax tisi yonnit for siHne y.-ars I 
 to enter iMilitical lit..; l»-siilea which their rank* I 
 were muili dcvastalMl by war. Kxpeditioiiurv i 
 forces were recruited by eonarription ; and as j 
 the tfi-ncrals hail no military ex|)erience and • 
 ow.-.! their ap|K>inliuenl u. the nputalion ..f | 
 their aneestont. each expetlition entuileil the 
 •acrlfice of 4.(HM» r)r 8.000 Uvea, chiellv of the 
 noblest son* of Athena, whether lielonKing tollie 
 wealthy claaw-s .>r to the commmu."— Arixtotle 
 Wa tht t'omlitiiUiiit nf Alhriu itr, by K. i*(*le ) 
 «». M-'ifl— Oulliealsive. Dr Abls.ti c<iminenla 
 aa follows: "S.i miiih of this account aa refers 
 to Themistocles may be at om-e dismi.-«e<i u un 
 historii-al. ... If tlie evidence of Thucvilidia 
 U U> count for anythiiiir, it i* quite certain that 
 Tbemisliicles flually left (Dreece for I'eraia alioiit 
 4«8 H <■ . I'lutan-h says not a word aUiut 
 
 ThemisUicles But the remainder of the account 
 /of the attack on the Areopa»riis] is aiipiMiHeil 
 liy all our autliorill.s-if indee<l it i. not merely 
 re[Maled l.y tliem -E Abbott, JU.I „f (irmi 
 
 Ai.~> IN J !• Mahaffy, /h-.JJ,,,^ ,„ On-rk 
 llfi.rfi ;, Ml - riiit.,r< h. rhrmifil:^l,t 
 Hi'e. ulw., I.I..W H (■ 4(l«4.-,4 
 
 B. C. 470-464.— Conlinuad war aguaat Ik* 
 Peraiana - Cimoa'a *lctori«a at the Euryma- 
 don.-Kt»olt and aabjugatiea of Naao*.- 
 
 • I iiil.r tlir K'H'laiM-t' of Athena, the niir hlmIiisI 
 the i'<T-.lans «a» mntinueil. liinon IKimohi 
 s-iilt-i with a Meet to the coast of Thraie (nil 
 
 Inid Hieife to Ei. n the Htrvnion |H ( 47ii 
 
 The IVrnlan ;rirrl«in made a «r->llaiii defence 
 an<l iiriiilly Hoc, « i(„. ^ov.nior, Miher than 
 siirreiid. r. ciist nil hi- ^old nti,| tiltir into the 
 nver, anil, l.auoK rai«ii a huge pile of w.»«l. 
 
 m 
 
 ▲THEMS. a C. 406-154. 
 
 'I'T J**?, **»"• «Wldi»n and ilarea. tad Ui.l 
 their Nxliea on It ; then setting flrs to It. ho flunir 
 hiouelf into thetbmaa: the garriaon •urtendere.l 
 at discretion. Uuriacua was attacked in vain 
 liut all the other Persian garriaona in Eumiw 
 were reduced. C'imon then, aa executor of an 
 Amphictvimic decree, turnwl hia arma against 
 tlie piratic Dohipiauaof the laleof Hcyraa whom 
 he ex|)elled, and fllletl the ialand with Athenian 
 c iloniata. t>n this occaaion he aought and found 
 (as wa* auppoaedl the bones of the lero Theseus 
 who had died in thiaiafaindlMOyean bafoie; and 
 he brought them in hia own trireme to Athens — 
 an act which gainetl him great farour with tli« 
 people. By thia time, acme of the confederates 
 w-ere grown wearj of war, and began to miiriimr 
 at the toila awl cxpenae to which it put ihein 
 The peopteof Naxua were the flrat who ikwi 
 tively refused to contribute any longer: but the 
 AthenUna. who had taaled of tlie sweet* of cm 
 iiiand. wouhl m>t now iiemiit the exertiae of fn. 
 wjll to their allies. Cimon appeared (((I. :k;(i 
 m. ( 4W| with a large Heet before Naxoa: the 
 ftaxians defended themselvea with rigour hni 
 were at length forced to aulimit: and' the 
 Athenians hail the hardihiKKl to leduce them i i 
 the condition of subjnts to Athens — an ex 
 amphi which they siM>n fothiweil in other cnnev. 
 . . . After the reduction of Naxos, Cimon will, i 
 over U) the (imst of Asia, and learning that tli, 
 Pemhin generals hud aMenibletl a large fleet sn,l 
 army In I'ainphvlia. he c<il|«teil a tieit of Jiii) 
 IrinniesHt (nidoa, 'ith which lie prtKiwIed i,. 
 the c.ia«t of that country, and laid hiege to ||„ 
 city of l>haaelis. which, though On-ck ol.n.l 
 the Persian monarch Having re.iuce.1 ii i,, 
 siihmisaion. he resolved to proceed and Htiuilt 
 the I'eraian fleet ami arniv. which be lenrnnl 
 were lying at the river Euryniedon. On hi. 
 arrival, the Persian fli-et. of *iO triremes, tenr 
 ing at first to flght till HO I"h.»iilcian »ei.i«N 
 
 which they were ex|M< tliiir. rhould ii ii, 
 
 kerit in the river: but hiuling that the tJn.i.* 
 were preparing to attack, they put out to „, 
 and engaged them The action dhl not coniiniM 
 Jong: the Ihrlwrians fle<l to the hind: atsi.liii., 
 fell inUi the hamls of the victors, anl seieml 
 wer»' destniywi. Without a moment s ililiv 
 Cimon iliseitiliarknl his men, ami M th.in 
 Bgainiit the htnd forces the reauitance of il,e 
 renians was olwtinute for some time but at lait 
 tiM-y turiieii ami Il.^l. having their . >imp a i,r, v 
 to Ihe coni|iieron: and Cinion had thus the r» e 
 glory of having gain),<l two inip<irtant vieton.. 
 ill the one day. Hearing then that the «tt |'1„, 
 nicUn vesaela were at llyilroa. in the M, „( 
 « yprus he iniiiie,lialclr saileil thither and l...|c 
 or de»ln.ve,i the wluib< of tlicm. The victor, 
 on the Kiirymedoii niav Iw regarded as ilm 
 lerniluatlon of the lonfll. I lirtween (ireece «i„l 
 '.'"'" '"'"■ .*■"■'"■ »'''' it «»l 7H.4) |H «' 4ti,'ii 
 Xerxes wa-) n^xuutinaieil. and the usual confmion 
 l.«.k f.la. e in Ihe court of Sua*' - T. Keightley, 
 Jli't -r i;n,,r. 1,1 I. M la 
 _Ai.soi:, W >V ix.yi ru .\gt ,ff }Vn^. .k 
 
 S. 1. also I'F.HsiA ; H ( 4>*«-(a'i 
 
 B. C. 4M-4S4 - Lcaderahip is the Drlisn 
 confederacy chaafed to *OT*rei|a«r. -Revolt 
 and subjugation of Tbasos - Help le Spsrt. 
 and Its ungraciou* requital.- Fall mmt e».l« 
 of Cimon Rise of Pericle* aid tae demo- 
 cr»t»e Mti-Spartu policy. -RcMMal oi th» 
 
ATHENS, a C. 466-lU. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. Ma-tSl 
 
 federal tmtnrj from Detoi Bnildinx th« 
 
 Loog Wkli*. — " It wot now evUciii ti> ilw tvbolc 
 l>.iily •>( tUe allies of Athena that by jolaint; the 
 IcijitR they bmJ proviliil thenuelvi-s with a 
 nlstivM rather than a leader. . , . Two yvAT* 
 ■iltr the niluctlon of Nazoa another powi rf iil 
 UlauJ Ktnte broke out into rebellion aminiit 
 tlie iupn'Riacy of Athens. The people of 
 Tba-wM bad from viTy earlr tliiiei poeacned 
 tcrribjrr on the mainland or Thrane opposite 
 to thrtr Island. By holding this r<Kk>t-8llp 
 liiey encromed the trade of the V.illcy of the 
 StrymDti. and held tbe riclt giKl luiries of 
 Miiuiit Panzaciu. But the Athenians, after the 
 I'.iplure of Eton, set themscivi'ii tu devilop that 
 |K>rt as the commercial n-ntrc uf TlinifX'. . . . 
 .V spot called 'The Nine Ways,' . . where 
 tlist inmt river first bogitis to bri«t>!i!i out into 
 iui estuary, but can still be spanned by a bridfre, 
 WBK the chosen site of a fiirtnais tu secure the 
 h lilt of Athens on the land. But the native 
 'I'krarian tribes band««^ tbenuielves tof^ther, and 
 fi'U u|Hia the invaders with such dc^ipt ration tti:;t 
 . . . the .\thenianarmii!S were defeat! d. ... It 
 was probably tbe discuuraf^iniDt which this 
 ilrfent lauwHl at Athena that embnlilemil Tlias<><i 
 to di>clari' iHfr aeci'iuiion from the ('•>nfeileracy of 
 Delia. She wisbvl to atve her Thrnciaa trade. 
 In fiiH' Athens could nuilie anotbi r attempt to 
 iliM-rt it fmiii her. Tlu- Tlmsiaii!! dii uot rely 
 •>n tliiir own n-aourfcs alone; tliev euiisU'il tbe 
 I'limi'iiins and .M.icetioniunjt of ibe mainland, 
 fiiiii M-nt to Sparta to ciuieavnur to iuiluce the 
 rphiirs to decUrti war ou .\!h<ns." The Spar- 
 t iiis were well illsixtmil to taki' up the oaiiiv of 
 f^H* ThaMians; but ut tbat luunieiit tbey were 
 KVirnlii limil liy tiie calainilr of the frightful 
 Linui|:iakr uf 464. in»bujtly followed liy the 
 nsiMiT of tlu' Ilcloti itntl tbi- tbini Mcssrnian 
 «:ir I.S.C MrxsKsuN War. Tiiic TiiiaU). "Tliu 
 ivluriil Hiuie was tbtrifore b ft to its own re- 
 >>"Unv«: and tbeiie wire so coiuiJernlile t!i it she 
 hiM uut ataiust thi' force of Lie Atlu-ni.m con- 
 f;'.|i'r»iy for two wlifile v<ar<. . , . .slw was 
 oliiiiCi'd at but to .'<urnn<lir to Ciiuon [fl ('. 
 W,i]. whose army bud lintg ln-eu lyin.; before 
 brr walls Like Na.fii*. olie wasi puut.ihcd for 
 Iht cIi fpction by the loss of hi r war tlo-t and 
 I IT fortiMcaltons. ninl thu iiii|M>>:tion of a Hne of 
 maiiv In^'ntM. Still mure iralliii .' must have lieen 
 lur low of her tnuie Willi Tiirocc, wbiih now 
 |iito«Ml I'litin-ly into AtlHuia-i Imiuis. . . Tlie 
 ^|i«rtaii> weri' atlll riii;iiKi'>l i:i a ib'«|M>rale ulruK- 
 >.'l>- with liifirreviiluti sulijii !» wluii tli • niceof 
 IttHN'" raiiie tuamii I. I'liuoii. nbowa^nowat 
 ih< l,< iL'lil of bin n|oit:iiioii ami imwir, saw 
 ui'.li il|.ilre.is Ibc tnul.l.'s of tlic i ity be so much 
 a.liiiiri .1 lie set liiiiiicir to inT'iuailf liie .Vibe- 
 i.i»ii» that tbi'y i«ubt t.i fon it" old itriulai'S, 
 iiiilwii- fnim"ile<tm. Ihn tlie bi.itc which Lid 
 »iiaiii| Willi »lnm l.i.- itlory i.f llie i'eraian war. 
 Ill* |i|iiii!iii^ HiiK lii'iterly o|'|>ow^| by the 
 hiiii Spartan partv iii .Vtlicni', lieald bv two 
 «l«t.5nitu, Epiii.lii. n!vl ririiiii, who had 
 itir»«ily come in o riotiiv ii» nuia'.'ontnu of 
 
 • iroon Hut tli n i:iniro'i< »ii,| uiiwi«' 
 
 |«iliiy pri'vailel, ami 4 mo b"i'liu-a <vere Kent 
 to tin- sill of S|Birt;i (M <■ 4il':| Tbi. army 
 was putsiKil by mn-fortiim . it was so uiioiin i-mi 
 fill in nttai'kiiiK Illiiiiii- that the ."<|mrtaii» 
 stirlba..! 11. failun' to .11 will ratber than ill 
 ink riiey. Ili.nfon-. Uuun to trial ilmr 
 aUla wnb madwii dtacu.irlisj , auil at lust sent 
 
 them home wttbout a word of thanks, merrlr 
 statiui; that their services could be of n.i fur.hi'r 
 u*f [See MKtiaK!(iA!« W.vii. Tiik Tufni)]. This 
 ru liiiess and ingmtituilc fully Justified llio 
 au-.i-Spurtan party at Athena . . . I'limm was 
 n!iw no lon)^r able to deal with the policy of 
 the state as he chose, and tbe ci>:iiluct of altair* 
 Ix'inn to po-sa into tlie honJa of nun whose for- 
 eii;n and domestic policy were alike opp<>.*-d to 
 all his views. Ephialt<'4 and Perirles procewled 
 to form alliances abro:ul with all tbe states 
 which were ill disposed towani Sparta, and at 
 home to commence a revision of tlic coastitulion. 
 They were determined to carry out to Its fur- 
 thest logical development the dcmocmtic ten- 
 dency wbicli Cleistiieucs bad Intrxluci-d iuto 
 the AUicnian polity. Of Kphialtes, the sou of 
 Sojihonidcs, comparatively lit le ii known. But 
 Pericles . . . was the son of Xanthippus, the 
 accuser of Miltiodes In 4Hi>, B. C. and the victor 
 of Mycale and Sestos; while, on his mother's 
 tide, he came of the blooii of the Alcmai'onldae. 
 Piricles was staid, self-contained, and luiuebty — 
 a klranire chief for the popular party. But Ms 
 nlaLiiiiiablp to CleUtbenes. and the enmity which 
 exited U-tween hU bouse and that of "rimon. 
 ur^i-d him to eiipouiie the cauiic of ili-n-.ii.ricy. 
 . . . While riiiion bad Gn^ece iu bin mind, Pcfi. 
 r!( > could only think of Athins, n;i I tlie 'eitiixr 
 of llie times was favourable ii tbe n:trro«er 
 
 f'.Ii-y. . . . Till- first aim wbirh I'lridn in.! 
 ll'liioltes set iH'forc tbeniwlvi's w:i; t!ii' cu'.iins 
 il i«u of tbe |>"Wer of the .\n>ops;:iH [ Vi :i!i .ve: 
 II. V. 47:-irt','|. Tbat IhxIv had ►imc the I'lr. 
 si in war N ronie the Rtronj,')io!d of liiu C'orwrva 
 tie and pliilo-I^imiau party. . . . Kpbialles 
 t hik tbe li-oil in the ;ittack on tbe .\n- pinus. 
 it.' cb'Mc a moment when Ciniou wan anny at 
 * % bint on a-wi.sting a r Inllion arainst" the 
 Gr at Kinff which hiul liroken out iu ^^,-y•lt. 
 After a violent struggle, he succnilid in i irry- 
 li\i » law which deprivifd the .Vreopapus of its 
 stiiii lit censorial power, awl nduitnl It I la lu? n? 
 c I lit to try bomioiiles. . . . When Cinion cumu 
 bitiie fmin r».'ypt he was wildly enMcul. . . . 
 Ilivo irsc was'lud to the tixt of iwlrirism. It 
 ili'i i'ltl :i:;:iinst Cimon, who then-fore win: into 
 banisl.nii lit [R. (' l.^.a). Hut tbi* wronk'M-ainst 
 tlic ({riatist pinir. I of .Xllii-ns wai. not l..u^ 
 afur, avin.','i''l by an over ^i.tlousaud uiiHirui.ii 
 lous frieiiil. Kphialtes was slain bv ika.sa.v.iii« in 
 his own liouii' . . . The imnifiliale ti -.nil of 
 this munler ».« to b :ive Peril len in sile ant 
 uudividi I coiiiruand of the ilimo< ratic party 
 The fon-iifn poliiy of IVricles ko'D biiin to 
 Involve .Mbeiii in trouMes at home. He con- 
 cluded alb inin with .Vrjjot sn<l I'lieixily, both 
 sial.-s at V: riaiiiv »iib Spart.i, and then liy maile 
 a i.i!li»lon witli ibe I.aii-dsmouian confiihtncy 
 ineviubli-. II' pive slill more illriit olTime to 
 t'.irint!i. oik of the most powerful menil«'n of 
 thiit loiifidri-aiv, by comluilinK a cb.*' ullianra 
 with Mc-art. In IbKiitU. ti«). be siirftsl up 
 
 (nnoly. by trivini; an aitive suppon to tin- ditiio- 
 cratir I'lrty ri Ihit country Tliisi' provma- 
 tjoni ou'ii- I » .ir iiii'viuible' In (."iH n (' tbe 
 utor'ii burst . .\t tbe niimiiut of t! r .iii 
 
 bri' ik "f till' ilrit I'liporta'it naval wir iviii' Ii she 
 b'kl lo tt iL-' nitli a (lisik eii-iny sii.i . the 
 firinitiion of bi r i tni»i^-'. .Vthin-i t-v>K iivo In, 
 li.i.iiil si. (IS ■''II,- iir-i V -IS ib'llni.l to _-uanl 
 aitMiiist .ill' H-'-v f ti i.-(i.riiij.i-s h> SI. I. ii .'i.ii 
 kistt I in tlie irau.sfen'Ui.t' l'..iii lli'loa |o .Viiuus 
 
 lU'-j 
 
ATHSN8, a C. 408-154. 
 
 Itj*??^, ••!??*"' •u'JwHUft between 46t and 
 434 B. C] of the oentnl trauur>- of the confed- 
 eracy. ... It waa not long before the Athe- 
 niaiu came to regard the tiwwury aa thcfr own 
 and to drew up»n it for punly Atllc needi. 
 Which had no connection with tho welfure of the 
 other <J'nf«l';™l«* • ■ . The second important 
 event of the year 438 B. C. was the commence- 
 ment of the famoua 'Loug WalU' of Atfena 
 [See I.«xo Wall*]. . . . When they wetx' lln- 
 tehed Athena, Peineus, and I'hal.run.. formed 
 the aovlea of • raat fortiaed trlanjrle, while the 
 ■pace between them, a oonaiderable ejtpanae of 
 open country, could be utilized ai a place of 
 refuge for the nopuUtion of Attica, ami eren for 
 their flocki and j>erd*"-C. W. C. Oman, Zfirt. 
 tf Oretce. th. 23-34. 
 
 At JO IK E. Abbott. PtridMandthf 0,JUn Ant 
 !f "t'^f^'of*- £;« -C- Thiriwall, lli,t. ,.f<}r,en, 
 <*. 17 (e. 3).— Plutarch, CSmon; P.-ir-l., 
 
 ,^- p- 4«<J-449-— Ditaatrona expedition to 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 460-440. 
 
 Ml 
 
 ^ M *'» i* "° "•• P«lopouneiian Coaat. 
 —Recall of Cimon. — Hia last enterprise 
 •minat the PerauiM.-The disputed Peace of 
 Omon or C*HUa.--Fi»e years truce with 
 3>*rt*-— Inurus. king of some ..f ihe Ubvan 
 trib.-8 on the wesurn bonier <if Kirvpt had 
 Mcitid an iiiBiirPection there airuinxt tin" Persians 
 [about 400 B. (J, and liisamhoritv wasaeknowl- 
 edged thn.mrhont tlie pnurer (Kift of ih.- o>un- 
 trv Art«»er.xes irnt his lirr.ilier Aehamencs 
 with a pnat anny to -luell tlii* reMli.m An 
 Atheniim armament of ':(I0 ^ail.yii was lying at 
 the time off ( ypni«. ut.i Inariw wnt to irfxain 
 lt» H^iM^lanc.v The Alluniin omimanden 
 wlicth.r rul|„Hln« ihcir own ilbK-relioii. or after 
 oMer^r.ivivwl fn.in home, fiiiitiwl (vimn and 
 lianiii: Joined wiili ih,- lii»urL'ent.t. eiiAlili-<l iliem 
 tod. fiat Ail.,emeiit.,, who fell in the l«iile by 
 the iK.ii.l ,.r InariH. Tluy llieii s.,ilul up the 
 :sile 1,1 M. nii^hiH, «hen'al>.i.lvof IViviar, and 
 si'ine I.^;,i|,i,iiM. who Mill .ulh.r.il to Hair eaiiae 
 
 '^n"'.";.-'.'.'-*"^"'"" "' """' '!"-'rt<r of llie liiv 
 ea)I.Hl While (;„si|e. Tlie r.^t w,w Mii.i.vt io 
 
 '","■'"• •' ""■'■<• '!"• Atiuiihuw st,iti.,ii,-,i iheiii. 
 
 H'lvis. ami l*«ie(;„| H... I'.rsiaiH \rtax 
 
 tT\,H Milt a IVrsi.m. naind .Mu^.l a/,., to 
 h|urn. «iili a aiiiii of inoiiev. U) t»- . int.] ,vmI in 
 linliiiitf the |.riiKi|)ul H[«rtiriui to um i|„ ,r iiitiii 
 <n., „. as to enttaee their roiiiilrvio. i, i,, an 
 ti|mli;i..n aeaiiwt Altioa Meiralia/iiH .li,l „„t 
 tiiul I!.,, hailing .-^paruuis unwillinL' t., t.-.iiie 
 hinni..p>.v. l,„t tiM y »,*m u> have Urn unahle 
 t..rrri,h r him tlie M-rvUe for wliirli it wa.- oll.r.,! 
 Ith.HiM- .nil h,.|,| out: and S|wrta had |.i..l,:il.iv 
 iM't v.t -uilUiently .itiMr n-eover«l her sinnetli ' 
 ornstor..! internal traii.iullity. to vi iiiiir, f>u llie j 
 |ir.l»i'.Mliiiva.<ion SoiniriimcHirsol !lil ta i{oei». 
 thai n in lM\e r.iMhe,| Aiheiis. and h..>, qiu, k- 
 
 "•">' Tey with whiih i-eriifc, i.,.« Lritrd ' 
 
 the e..nij.l,iion of the Umf walb. Riu [ 
 
 •mohtf l.is M|,|H.n,.i,t» llM-ri' wac a fa. im -vho i 
 Tlew.nl il„ pniitr.iw of thN unnt «..rli in a ! 
 dlffK.i.i li.;lii from Ciiiioii an.l aaw ill 11 i><4 iIk. > 
 meuiM.i vniruip tie liah |h iideiHr ..| Aih.iu. 
 lull a »ml« irk of the hut.il .-.mimon lin riiey 
 l<"i Wou,.i hu\e i.-hi.||y laeii ,„| li,v,„li„^ ,nin i„ 
 Aili.a. ul.i. h i„l,.|„ „,^i„ ij„.,„ i„ ,|, ,,r,,;.|, , 
 Uie work ..i„| Us aiith..r«' Tlil« |,.irl> 'wa* 
 weuM.I ,,f ., mpatliv win, |h,. Siwriaii .'«|„.,|l 
 Moil »huh .aihe lo Ihe heU, ,,f i>.,rl, . ai,.,! |.,,, 
 ri».»i.iii- im5T li ('.and ,vhi. h .l.(.,ii ,1 ii„. 
 AUHiiiaa.s St Ta!i,n;ra i.-m liiiij;. t ll. I 4J»- 
 
 (4M). In 4*1. the Hpartans were remimhil thsl 
 Uiey were nlw> llahk. to he atlacki'il at In, me 
 An Athenian arman.<!ut of .V) galleys and il we 
 may trust Dlodoni,, with 4,0(10 li.avy armefi 
 
 '"".''"4.'" *""•"'• ""'''"^ "■"""'I I'el' l««>ni»s..u» 
 under TolmiilcH. hiinit tlie Spartan arwimi ,t 
 Uythlum. took u town immeil Chaleia tnloi i-jutf 
 to the Corinthians, aiHl defeated the .Mryonian, 
 who atUinntwi to op|i.»ie the landiiiij of n,; 
 tniopa Hut Uie miMt imi>ort.inl advantaite 
 gained in the exp.-illtion was tla- <ai.iure of 
 «aup«etu.s, whl< h lMl.,n«ed t<,the(»/oliaii |,,xh 
 ans, ani now fell inu> thelmmlsof ih. .Viheninn^ 
 at a very stusoiuihle Jimcture. Tlie ihini M,., 
 aenian war luui Just conu- to » rlom. The hnl^ e 
 defenders of lihonie luul olitaiiMil hoiiourahi,. 
 ^rma . . . Ttie U-jiiew-d were pemiitteilto ,,u,i 
 Pelopoiinesus with thiir families, on eoii,litlo,i 
 of MnK rietaioeil in sUverv if thev ever i\ iiim*,i 
 Tolmkles now settled tlie hoim-hM waiaienrs in 
 ^aupnotus. ... Hut these «ie<fi>M n wrre 
 couiiterlMlanoed hy a ifverse whieh l» fil the 
 arros of Athena thia same year in antrtlur <( uarf er 
 After the def.-at of Aelueinens, Artaxerxes 
 disappointed Ui hia hoiaa of assiiOani'r from 
 Hoarta, . . raised a great army, whieh be 
 
 Shiccd unler the command of an abler general 
 legabyzus, son of Zopynjs. Megabyius 
 defeaUtl the insurgenta and their allies, and 
 forced the Greeks to evacuate Memphis, and to 
 take refuge in an island of ibi Nile, named 
 froaopitiii, whieh rontuini,datown(:aniil Hyblus 
 where he taak-gt^d tliem for 18 niuhili»; At 
 iengtli he reaort«l to tlie eontrivanee of tuminv 
 thj' stnum. . . . Tl«' (Jreek galleys ».r.all 
 left aground, and were Itnil by tlie Atl,. iiiano 
 tlieniselvi-s, that they might not fall into the 
 ineniy s hamls. Tlu- iVrslnn. then man h<d intj 
 tin' bilanil over Ihi- dry lail of the ri>.r the 
 tirypiiaus in dlsmav aliiindi4ieil tin ir alii, » who 
 ver<. oMnaiwentl "by riiimlars aial almost all 
 destroyui. . , . InanishiinHilf wrjilairnvedhito 
 the lunda of ihi- I'eniiaiM and pu* to d<-«t'h. 
 Kirypt . . . was aifaiii niliu'eti under ilie Per- 
 sian yoke. ex.'eiK a (airt of tlM' Ulta, where 
 an itlar pnti'iHler, iianit'd AmvrtieiiH, who 
 assum«-.l the tftU' of king . , malntaiiuHl him 
 self for several yejim against tla' power of Uie 
 I emhin iiioiiarrhy. Hut tlu- iiiiafortuiii' of thi- 
 Atlienlans ilkt not rial with tlie il.-»tnirtion ot 
 the gr, at lie, i and army whi. h lia.1 lain tir-t 
 iinployixi III ila war. fhev ha<l eiit a s<iiiadroii 
 of SU galh y» lo the relief of lUIr > o.intr\ 
 men. whiih. arriving la-fofe tlie news of the 
 reo-nt divu,j, r luul naelasl tlwm. em. reil th-- 
 M.iwlesiaii bran. Ii,,f iIm. Ml,- Tlay were la i- 
 MirprJM.l h\ a <i.iiil,iii...l alta.k ..f the IVrsiiiM 
 hiial f,.f>.- anil a i'luanii iaii lle.t. aial lint fi « 
 e.s..i| .1 lo In ar tia- inoumfiil thiiiiiTN I,. Alliens 
 \ .1 e\en aft. r i;,i- . alaiiiilv wi- hml th. Aiheni 
 tins. mitHiiiim i r |«aii', but Unl on . »i. mlinir 
 th ir |«>«i r. ami annoying llM-ir enemies ' 
 Ijirlv In 4,M il« > ,.,,1 „„ n.a,||||,a, („,„ tj^,. 
 t-ily. 1,1 n-I.,r.. a riikr iiaiiieil ( ireaiii., who hail 
 Urnilriv.n oui ■ H„| ||„. Bii|»rioritv of the 
 llaasiillaii- 111 ia>.ilrv .li.ik.sl all Ih.lr oiiera 
 lions III ihi tH 1.1 II,. V f.,11, ,1 in an ,i,, ,„„, „p,<, 
 I'hanuiiii- aii'l »iri al k iiirlh fori .si lo retlf* 
 viiili.mt haiiii., ni.,aii|.li..|ii,| any of thiir ends, 
 ll » ... |»r!,,i| , •., ».,,il„. t|„. |„i>,ii, .li.,rt|,|M>int 
 niii.t ili;ii I'iri, |, < shortly afi.rwanU . nilatrked 
 HI l'i(.a- « 11, I ikM, „„.„ „,,,( ,.,.„|j,n, ^1, 
 south side of Uie i orimhiau gulf made a 
 
 lit) 
 
ATHENS. B. C. 46(M4B. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. Ut-Ul. 
 
 dcfCTDt on the territory of Sieyon, knd routed 
 the 8lcyon fun* «ent to nppoee bii Umilin^. He 
 then . . . laid liege to the town of (Kniadie. 
 . . Till* attempt, hnwevcr. proved unvucreu- 
 fill: and the general result of the campalfpi 
 •ernu not to have been oo the whole advantage- 
 »ui or en<viiraplni{. ... It neeni* to have twcn 
 not long after the event* which have been juit 
 related that Cimon wan m'alliHl from biieille; 
 and the ilerree for that p-irpnuo was moved by 
 Perli-leii himself ;— a fart whii-h avema to Inti- 
 mate that aome change ha-l taken place In the 
 relations or the temper of pnrtiea at Athens. 
 . . . The three yenrs n.-st follo.ving CImon'l 
 return, as we have Hxeil its dat«' [H. C. 4SI or 
 4.VI!, pnsaeil. happily for hia contemporarici, 
 without alTori'ing any m.itter for the hiatnrlan ; 
 and thi:> pause wih followed by a dre years' 
 trace [with 8[>art.il, In tlie course of which 
 Omon embarked in hia Inst eipe<lilion, and 
 dieil near tlie scene of his ancient glory. The 
 prete.-i.lcr Amyrtaus hail solicited succtiur from 
 the .\ili< iil:itia . . Cinion WHS appointed to the 
 cuniiii.ind of a fleet of ;'<ki g.-ille.vs. with which he 
 uile.1 to Cvpnis. and siiit a wpiadrnn of W) to 
 the a.*»i-t.inci> of Amyrtieus, while he hlmaclf 
 with the rest laid sic-, to < ilium. Here he 
 wai (urri.'d off by illiii-« or the cimaequences 
 of s woiinci; and theaii?i.tment was siMm after 
 conipi ilid. by want of pr.. virions, to raise the 
 sii'Bc !t«l Cymon's spirit still aniinnled his 
 counlrMU'U, who. when thev had Miled away 
 with liis remains, fell in with a great flwt o"f 
 l'lii»-iiiii,in and t'ilirlan galleys, near the 
 Cypriiii SiliiMiis, and, having compl. tely de- 
 feate.i tli.iii, followed up tlieir lunal vicU)ry 
 
 with iiiiithir wliich they gni I (m short, cither 
 
 over liie tn>"|)i wliieh had h.ndeil from tlie 
 enenivs sldps. or over a land force by which 
 Ih.'V were supportinl. After thin they were 
 ioineii by ilie stjiiadron wlih h liad been ai-nt to 
 Egypt, and winch returne<l. It would >p|iear, 
 wlthiiut having achieved anv material object' 
 and all sailed home (B. C. 440). In aftcrtlmea 
 Cimon's miliu-.ry renown was enhuuce<l by the 
 report of ■ pi-ai-e [aometiiiies called the Peace of 
 Cimon. and sometime* the I'<>ace of Callias], 
 which his victories had compelled the Tertian 
 king to conclude on terms most humiliating to 
 tile nimarehy Within Icrs Ibnn a century after 
 his .li'iilh it was. If not commonlv lielievcil. con- 
 tidenily userted. that by this irealv. negotiated 
 as it was suniHwed. by Cnllhis. son .if iiipiHrni- 
 ciis. ilie I'ersians had agreed to aluintlon at least 
 the niilitsry oc-eupaiiou ..f Asia .Minor, to the 
 liistanie of three days Journey on fool, or ime on 
 lionelwik, fn>m the const, or, aiTonling to 
 snollier account, the whole peninsula w . »t of the 
 ll.lv-' an.l t,> abstain frun passing tl.j umtb of 
 tlie H.i..piioriis ami thefh. li.lonianlslaihls, on the 
 c,M»l „r l.yei.'.. .,r the town of rims. lis. Into the 
 \\e.i.-rn,>*ea The mer.sllen. eof 1 hu. v.iiileson 
 »o iniporiaiit a tmnsaciiou w.iul.l Iw eiiougb to 
 ren.l. r the uhole account ejtrein. h siispii ious " 
 --t' Ihirlwill. Ilinl. of tlr,,^,. ,h '\: {r a>. Mr 
 J.roi, i.vepi. III.- IVai-e of t iniun its an historical 
 fs't. 1 Mf (urtiiisreji-ctsll.— (i tir.ile Ihtt ,.f 
 '•>.--. ,./ ••, M 4.1 (e 5). — K. Cuititis; //„/ „,■ 
 Ur„. '.< :|, ,t, .j,^ J, 
 
 1..1 ^ ■•5j:4j* War for Me»ra with Cor- 
 iBlh «:..! itgina. Victories of Myrooi<'e»,- 
 |.iege«„,| c.nqu.stof/egina. -Colinionwith 
 t«* Spartaat m Bootia. - Dr ut at T«ii«itra. i 
 
 ic: 
 
 -Oywthrvw of tlM ThtbMa.— Racovtrad A*- 
 
 Ctadcncy. t)ee Oruce: a C. 458-456. 
 
 .. °- S; 449^S.-HoitU« rtvolution ia Boo- 
 '*:";9**"' ■* Coron«l«.-Rtvolt of Enb<M 
 •»« MttmrB — The thirty ytara' trace.— Ter- 
 ritorial lotsat.— Spartaa rtcofirnition of the 
 DeliM Cenredency. SeeORKKcB: B. C. 44»- 
 
 B. C. 445-43'<— Supremacy of Perldea aad 
 the popular arte \n which he attained it.— 
 The eplendor of Atheai and grandeur of tht 
 Atheniaa Empire under hit rule,- ■The con- 
 clusion of peate left the Atheui .in lo their coq. 
 fcienicy anil their Internal polities. . . . After 
 the d"atli of Cimon ;/ic ollgnrel,icu; party at 
 Athens had Iieen h-.l by Thucvilid.s, the son of 
 .Melesias, a man of higK chamcter ami a kinsman 
 of Cimon. . . . llilherto the nieniliers hud sat 
 [ here or there in the assemlilv as tliev pleusid- 
 I now ihey were eombluod intoa single "ixxly, and 
 Sit in a s|>e( iai pl.-ic. Such a con.solidation waa 
 dou!illes8 n.eilcl if the parlv was to hold itsown 
 a'.'ain.st I'.iirles. who woa rnphllv carrying 
 nil iM-f.ire him. For years past he bail pnn'id.^ 
 a Milisisteme for many of the poorer citliens by 
 means of his niimemus colonies— no fewer than 
 •ViHK) Athenians must have been sent out to the 
 •cleriiehlcB 'in the interval bet ween -J.lil B. C and 
 444 B. (". The new sysU-ni of juries [.See Dl( A- 
 STKiin] had also l«en established on the fall of the 
 Areo|iagus. mill the jurym.n were |i:iiil--a sicoiid 
 source of Income to the piKir. .Siirli nnusires 
 Mvre Iwyond any.hlngthat the private lii.inility 
 of '"imon — spli iidid IS it was — .-ciil,! ailiiive- 
 and on Cimon's iK-atb no other urist.M-rat i iroe 
 forward lo aid his partv with his |i:,r-e IVri- 
 cles did not stop here." Since t;,e cisvitii.n of 
 tlie war with I'ersia there Lnd lie. n feu-r .Ir.ilij 
 oti the public purs<-. and the contrilMiiii.ns ,.f the 
 allies were a>Tumulatlng in the public treusury. 
 A sirupulous nuui would hnv.- regar.ieil the 
 iuroliia as the money of the alli.s. . . I'l ri.lca 
 to.ik another view. He plalnlv lold the Allieid- 
 ans that so hmg us the cltv fufflll. ,1 the conlni< t 
 made with the allied cities, ami ki|it I'ersiiin 
 vessels from their (.hores, the surplus w -a iit the 
 dis|MisMl of Aihi'iiv Ac'ing on this ,-lni iple he 
 devole.1 a iwrt of It to the emliellisliMi.nl of the 
 city, V\ ith theaid of I'hei.lias, the >. ii|pt..r and 
 litmus, the ar.hilecl, a new t.ni|.|e ii.i;an to 
 rise on the AerojHills In honour of Atluiia — the 
 ceh'l.rit.<l I'arthen<m or 'Viiu'ins ri,anilHr' 
 |is.e r\tiTIIi:N<.N), , , . i),l„.r public |,i,il,iii,M 
 were also tieirun alniut this time Ath.n.swas 
 In fact a va-t w,.rksli..p, in whiih employment 
 was found f„r a preit nuniUr of ciii/, n^ " Xor 
 was this all . . Kit eight months of tlie year 
 00 ships Were kept at tax with crews on lioani 
 in or.ler that ili.r.- might \w nu ample siipplv of 
 practical H.-aiii<ii . . Thualiy.linrv ..r imli'reti 
 means I'.ri.h-. in.ide the stair ih.' pivninster of 
 s va.^t niinilsT . t i Iti/.-is. and the' Mate was 
 [iractlially hiiii>.:t, .kiili h. «e pui I .i!i/,i,H at 
 his back. At ;li.- vanie llrue the pulli. f. Rivals 
 of the city were . ilar:,'eil and nilorii. .1 witii i„ iv 
 M'!.;n.|..iir . That -.11 mithi aueiKl t! ,- thea- 
 tre in ulii. h the pluv- vere ai;.-.|. I'eri. ie. pro. 
 \il.>.l thai every , , ii should rni-ue ii, in the 
 Mai.- n h'lm ■u;tU i. ^ ii ;,av the .hririre .1. i..,o. u,l 
 from ilie sp.M-.nl. r» I ihe l.-v« ,■ |^, ,- |ii,,iioi v| 
 ».■ may l-Kik on these nua«iiris b-. !!i • -iris of a 
 ilemagugue. ... Or wo may saj i.,,t 1'. i,le« 
 
ATUEX3, B. C. 44S-43t. 
 
 Age nf 
 
 PfTieia. 
 
 ATHEX8, a c. ^^^-^s». 
 
 I 
 
 WIU «bl* to (fTWIfy hit pMHtrq fnr »rt at the FX 
 |M!U»'ofthc VtliFnUnt tnd their klliei. Ni-ithrr 
 of lli.ae vlrim b iilt«|{ctlier unteniiMf; anil Ixilli 
 j»re far fiwiii iocluilfnK Ibe whole iruili. riritUi 
 . . . wiw. if we pleu-at to My |l. it ileniiiK' >){"(-• 
 ituil i» coanoiMeur. liiii In- wim ■oiiwlhin); iiiiirt. 
 I^xikiiiif III •ie whole t->ul,ii,v iK-fore im with 
 inipurtiHl It' - we rBnniii rifu-M- to »c14imi«1c1i:o 
 Hint Im- rheriMlu'il ^wpirittiimii worthy of a (frent 
 •iHltitimn. He siiuvrrlr deninii that every 
 Atli. niiux siioiiM owe to LUcily the blewiiii; of 
 •n eiliH-atiim in all tliiit wiis livautiful. awl the 
 opportunity of a happy aotl useful life. . . 
 Tlie oliicanhn ilelermliir.l (o piiil ilmvn IVrirle*. 
 If it wen- (NisKilile . Tliev pmiMweil, in (lie 
 
 winter of 44.5 B. (' , tl»t tliere hIioiiIiI I,. ,m 
 iwlrarism in tl..- eity. The txople avriv.!. .il 
 the usual am iijfementa were inmle. But wip ■> 
 ilie ilay ciinie f.ir ilerision. in tlie aprini; of 4+1 
 B t'.. till- wii' iiie fell, not on I'eriolea, but o;i 
 Thui v.lnleH. i he M-nlenre h ft no douht alMiiit 
 the t'ei'liiiK of (lie Alheniiin iKiiplc. ami it wiu 
 ail . pieil at tlnal. ThurydiilesiliKappt'anil from 
 Athens, ami for the next tlfieen years IVri' |i» 
 WHU ni.M. r-if tliiiity, . . . Wliife Athens «.i» 
 liilive, oritini/in'; her ronfislenu'V and tui iirini; 
 her roniinunii i'i..ii with the mulh, the I'elo- 
 poiinexiaiiit hiel allowed the ye:ir» U> parn In 
 a|>athy und inanention. At le'n.ilh ihey awoko 
 U> a Kelts.' 1. 1 ;lir situation. It was oieiir that 
 Athens liail aivoi'loiied all iii.-u of war with Per- 
 sia, anil Lhat tile ' .>iifedera< y of Delon waa traiia- 
 foriiied into all Alhenian eiii|iin'. of wl.oae fon-ia 
 the irreiit eily wa« alim.liiu ly inisiniie And ; 
 nieanwlii!.- in visible Kreatnesg A 'In lis hiul In-- I 
 ennie far the Hr»t city in (}niie — K Alilxilt. | 
 /', iiW.», M. |l>-ll. — "A r»|ild ulaui'"- will s.illld. 
 to sliow the eiiiineim- wliieh Atliena hiui .iiinitii-d | 
 over ilie olli.r stales of Uiveec. She w.is liie I 
 lieai! of the ! niaii U'litfuv — the niUlress .f inu ! 
 (ineliin (ie;i-: will) -<parta, the sole rival that I 
 eoulil i-oiK- Willi ler arniiea and iirn-si tier am- 
 bition, slie had olii imeil a jK-aee Corinth waH ' 
 huiuliled — .Kirin.i ruiinsl — Mei .n liad shrunk 
 into her de|Hiiiiein V and ifarri».in. The siati s 
 
 of BiiKitia had n-eeiveil their very i siitulion ; 
 
 fniin tl.e hands of an .Vtlieniaii V'"'''^d — tlr- I 
 deiniHniiiis plaiitisl iiy Athens wrusl t,i make i 
 lilierty llsilf sulM<rvient to her will, and involv.-d I 
 in her safely. Mlie had n-niedi<sl lin- stirllily of j 
 her own soil by si lurinjf the rieli |i.,-.iim» of^^tlw 
 nelirhliiiiirihi: KuIkim. Slie had addisl the ifild 
 of Tills..-, I., the silver of l.iurion. and estali- 
 li.sli. .1 4 f •pii.i.: in riiessaly whirli was at muv a 
 fortri -,s au'ainsl the Asiatie arms and a iiuirt for 
 ^»i,:i. eoniiiiiTie Tlie fairest lands of the 
 (ippi..!ii eoasi —the most pioveifiil islandsof the 
 Oniiaii s.-as — roii:ributisl lo li-r tnasiiry. or 
 Wen- aliitM.i I, irally sulijivled to her n.veiijte. 
 
 ■ I" ill <in e. .Mvrouides was perhaps Ilie 
 
 ablest LI iiiTal - ri-rieies . . . was uiidoiiblislly 
 
 the ni..st highly edu'-atwi. rauiloiis und i i- 
 
 niandink' siHlisiiiai, . . . lu aeti;al pos« ssion of 
 the irilmie .i hi r allii-s. Alliens ii< ipiired a new 
 
 riKlii tl- ir« 1 .||.-. ii,.n and its iiiaiii.'.- :i., and 
 
 whil ■ sli,- div.iiid some of the Inasiiris to the 
 nmint. naiiee of her slrentrth, she iK'traii early to 
 uph .11 Hie pnr.i^-ative of appnipnaling a part 
 to Ilie I iilii'iiiiiient of her splendour. ... It 
 w.^.s III. IV I ilsait H C. 4441 reaolvtsi Ui make 
 Ail.iii. iK , tile Slat ami .eiitre of the judieial 
 sii-l. riiv lla- Mihjeit allies wire eom|Kll.sl. 
 V liut ub iniuor, ul Ivaki uu all iiii|>orUut eawa, 
 
 to tf^im to AtbmUn cnnrta of Uw for Jiiaiiee. 
 And thuaAtheiu became, as it were, Iheinetrop.k 
 lis of the allies. . . . Uefor»« the lVr«ian war 
 and even searcely la-fore the time of fiinim' 
 Athens cannot be said to have n-liiMii) her 
 iielKliliours in the arts and scienct Hlw- Im-- 
 eame the centn- anil capital of the most polislii .| 
 eoniinuniiies of Uni-ce, and she dn-w intoa fiMus 
 all tlH- Un-eian inu-llect; slie ohuineii fMm her 
 de|M-ndenis the wraith to s<!mini.Hter the arts, 
 which uiiivenal tralHc and inleniiiirse taught 
 her touppneiati-: and thus the Odism. and tlia 
 HirtheiiiMi. and the IVipyla-a arose. Diiriniftlio 
 same ailministration, tlie fortilleations were n.u. 
 phtisl, and a thini wall, parallel and near to tlmt 
 uiiitinit r>eu« with Athens, consiimmateil il,,. 
 works of 'i In-inisbiclc* and r'imou, aiul i)n.s.rvi I 
 the eommuniealion la-twis-n the twofold i iiv 
 even shoul I the outer walls fall into the liaiii'ls 
 of 1 eiieiny."— K. (J. Bulwerl.ytton, Al/tfiu- 
 riM i.fttiKi Hill. hk. 4, eh .1, U: H. r/t. 2. 
 
 .VijKi IM: W \V. IJoyil. Tlu Ane uf l\HcUt 
 — I'lulan-li, I\r,Hf 
 
 B. C. 445-439— The Ajfe of Pericles: Art. 
 — •' riie (}ii .ks , . . wen- iniliistriiiiis. ciMiimir- 
 cial. seiisiiive to physhal and moral Uauly. 
 ea^er for diseiisaion and controversy, thev wi'n- 
 pniiidof their hninanitv, and happy in tlie i.,,,,. 
 w-^ionof tiieir pi«-u. Ibtir hisloriaiis. tliiir on- 
 •.irs and artisis. It is sinirular, in tin- hisi.irv of 
 nations, to meet with a ptsip.e dlslinifuisliei at 
 once by mercantile aptitude, and by an exipii-iie 
 fi-(lini;and sympatiiy for works of art; to s,s- 
 the vanity of wealth compatible with a uin- ilis- 
 (■eminent for the true principlea of taste; lo la-, 
 hold a Dstion, inconHlaut in ideaa, inionn-ivalily 
 dcklc in pn-Judiei-a. worMhippinn.. man oik- di'ir 
 Mild pnaa-riliinif him the neJit. vet at the saiiii 
 tillleproBr<•ssill^; with uiilieuni of rapidity ;»iiiiin 
 tlie space of a few years traversing all Hvsti iiis of 
 phil.Mopby. all foniis of i{overnineni. laying' the 
 foiitiilations of all Mieius-s, niukini; war \n\ all iu 
 iiri4;hls.rs, yit. in the iiii-Ut of lliis i haos of 
 loeas. systems, and piLssions, developiiit; art 
 su-adlly and with calm intelliirenee. Bivim: '.> it 
 nov'lly, oriititialily, and ln-auty, while pnsi-rv- 
 iiiK it pun- fniiii the alMrrntions and i-aprins i.f 
 wliat we now call fanhioi.. At the time ul lln- 
 Iirtitleof SalHmi.s. 4H0 11. C. Athens hail l»s-n 
 iiestniyisl. Its .erritory rava^isl. and the Allmv 
 ians had iiolliiiii; left but theii ships: yet so 
 Knat was the miiviiy of this iHimmeri iiil hut 
 artistic people, that, 'only twenty years after- 
 wants, they had built the Parthenon.' — K !■;. 
 Vi.illet le-Diic, lUmiurtt ..a Arrhilrfiiin ;. W 
 B.C. 445-439. -The Age of Pericles; Do- 
 meatic life. -The Athenian house -■ Koruiv 
 one comliiu' fmiii Asia it s<-eiiiiil as if in eni. rial; 
 
 Athens he was iiinK into an ant's iiisi I'm 
 
 m-asiiii;. lit Hie ipiH-h of its iin-atest powi r tlie 
 thns- |>ort« of Muiiyehia. riiiilerum and II..- I'i- 
 rens. it lovensl adlslrirt whose lin uii;!. r. n-i- 
 nieiiBiinsI two liiiii.lndsiailiadwentv f..(ir mil. -; 
 Hut it w.isHniuiMi ;lie .\eni|.uiis that tli ■ I. .u- s 
 Win. ,nmii.-d I...... tliir 1 iid the popni iii.ii 
 
 •tlways In 111 livlty I'here waitons w.-n- n.s.int' 
 to and fni. tillid with inenhainliM In. 1.1 Hid 
 
 ports or ( .ejillii il lllilher I'llr sl!v,|» ,11.1 
 
 jiiiblii pill IS ill whiih |Msi,.le piss..! 1.11 ln.-s 
 |in-s<-i:te.| a busy and noisy sn iie. Sir in .ii-s, 
 who laiiii- lo liiiv ..r t.i s.11. "w. n- loiitimial'i ii- 
 tiriiiir or l.avih,- the slinps and pl.i. . - ..f in mii 
 faetuiv, and slavi-a »ea- carryiuf.' iiii .s-i.i(,'es or 
 
 1G3 
 
ATIIEXS. a C. 44.>-489. 
 
 Af of 
 r»rUu. 
 
 ATHEXS, a C. US-Oi. 
 
 burdeni. Women u well •* men wen to be 
 
 Ken in the itreeU, guiog to tlw nurfcetii. the public 
 piiii-* aiul the mcttingt of corporate lioilifs. 
 Fmm the esrliett lioun of the (lay larse nuinlH'n 
 of in-iunnU inl)(lit be Ken bringinit in vi^tiiiblm. 
 
 fruit and lOTultry. and crying Uiiff w«rt» in tliu 
 •tnitt Iloiuea of the hlfflicr clau wcuni,,! the 
 «eo>nil zone; they generally posMwuvd a itaniin 
 anil soniolimi'9 outbutlilinKK of coiuiilintblv vx- 
 Unt. Annind them were to be sttn cliciiu uud 
 iwrasilcs, waiting for the hour wh<-n the nidau-r 
 nhoulil inakehiaappraraocv; nnil whiling away 
 the time liiaeuuing the news of the day n-iK'al. 
 iug til.' rumoura, true or false, that Were current 
 hi lUc city: getting the alarca to ulk. and laugh- 
 ing among themwlv« at the atrangera that hap- 
 pined to be poaalng, or aildreuing them with a 
 view to make fun of tlnir aceent, garb or 
 (Iriiw. The house of C'hremvlua. ri'cently built 
 rn that fcrond ion*, waa a aubji-rt of renuirk for 
 all the iillers. Chremylua, who hiul laU'ly be- 
 cuiu.' weuliliy by mean* of ctMnnii ni-, ami of 
 ccruiin tranaaetions of more or lusa cttiiiublu 
 cluractcr in the colonies, waa an objcx-t of envy 
 an.l ( nticUm to moat people, and of ailniiratioii 
 f..r»,.uie who did justice to his iuulligence and 
 iuvDiy He eiiioyed a certain de«ife of in- 
 llij. iHv in the publfc asaembli.s — thanks to his 
 lilKnlilv, while he took care to ai'cure the g(»Hl 
 (fruci-s of the nrrlioiis and to enrich the temples 
 
 ft AS or ATHKXtAK BOl'lUL 
 *>• have fin ,Mc acmmpanyini; flguifl the 
 
 r<«.l Tl... »ii,. i, („„nded on eithrr si I.- by 
 r.nm ((. «|,i,.h I, ,i,mMiml«l by iK.nl.-..H At 
 U.. slay.,, with kit.,l,eu at C aa.l latrli.es at a 
 
 Prom tbia flnt court. In the centre of which la • 
 auall fountain with a baain which recclvea the 
 
 r.uVp''' ','•'•, !»»?«« ^ ""^ '"«» "»« Inner 
 tourt E, which is htrger and ia likewise sur- 
 roundc-d by portlo*. At O Uthe receptl.m room, 
 at II the strong room for valuables, and at 8 the 
 
 ng provUions and wine; and at I the ainall din- 
 ing room (triiliiilum); the cooking-room for the 
 family being at J with latrines at b. The Urire 
 triclinium U at K. The pansaije ni «'mils U, the 
 gyn«ceum. couUiinJng tli.,- beiln.ims I' al.mij tlio 
 portico M, aoomiiion room for the women with 
 lU small enclosed garden, and chweu at e The 
 quarten for vUitora are entered by the pasMige 
 t, and consist of bedr.K,ins V, a ponicITT a 
 small garilen and el.aeu f. At d is an omuing 
 into tl«! Une for the servants, wluii r,-, ulrej 
 The gwilens ext.n.l i-i the dinilicu Z. This 
 house UsituaU'<i ou the sixties of the hill which 
 to the iouth-nest looks UmanU the Acropolis- 
 thus it is sheltered from the vi,>l,nt winds whirl, 
 sometimes blow frinu this >,uari.r. Krom the 
 largo dining-hall and fp.m the t. rra..- L. whi. U 
 ailjoins it, tlier<f is a clianiiiu« pnMiH'cl for 
 alx.vc the tr.-.s of the ganlin is «-in tin- cliy 
 I'V/.I" .'o'l ""J' ."'e Acr,.,H.lis. „„d towards the 
 lef the hill of the AreoiMgiis. From this terra, e 
 L there U a descent to the ^.ard.-.i by „l»,ut 
 twelve steps. The p<iaition wus . liosiii wi,l, » 
 view to prou-ction against the ^ill^s beat and Iha 
 troublesome winds. From tlie iK)rti. j of tlu- 
 irynieceum are seen the liills ext.iidin- towar.U 
 llie north, covered with housi-s siirnmn.l.d by 
 ol yetrees: and In the backKroin«| .M,„„it iVif. 
 I'liius ... In the dwelling of Ch.-i-inylus the 
 various departmenu were arnmeed at iho pri>- 
 priitor s dis. n-tion, and the arrliii.-et only ion- 
 formttl to his instructions. Tims the fr iit part 
 of tlie house is assigueti to the external r. Iali.>u» 
 of the owner. In this court O a.s.s<iiil,lf the 
 agentKor factors who ciiiie to give uu aic.uui of 
 the commissions they have ex<.iiti.i. or to re- 
 ci'ive onlers. If the master wi.sli,s to sinak to 
 any of them, he Uki-s him into liis re.i|.tiou 
 nxim; his UiUlminbir biing at U. hr can i',i,ily 
 n-iuiir U) that n-oeption-Mom or to ili.- gynaeium 
 rmrvcil for the women and youn^.r cliildriu 
 If he enteruiiis frieads. they have tin ir s.|mrate 
 apartiiiiiits, which are shut olf. not Ik-'uii in 
 tonimiininition with the lirst court exnpt 
 thrjiugh (he passage t All that part of the l,«l'i- 
 tation which Is bvvond the wide entrance hall I) 
 is i-onawrote.! to domestic life; nii<l only the iiiti- 
 iiuite friemis of the family aiv admitted into the 
 wc- mil court; for example, if thvy are inviie.1 to 
 iilmmiuet.— whiih is held in the great hall K 
 I he maiiter usually takes his finals with his wife 
 mid one or two in. niU-rs of his family who live 
 in tliehmis.. in the smaller r...m I, the .iMulies 
 i.t whi.hwill hold six pirsoiis; wli.rea, lifiwu 
 jjii.st* can Ik' ii<-comni.i.lated on the eoiuh.s ot 
 'he v-nat hall K. Chreniylu, |„i.s spaml •i.tliing 
 tonnderhis li.. use one of tlu ino.'-t siiii,|,i,i,,ii» 
 in tlie city. The eoluiiiu.s of IN nleli. ,ui marble 
 siipiHirt ar-hitraves of -.v,..!, v,„„i.,ui,i, -j [,„ 
 friezes anil mniiees overlaid Willi Mue(„ anil 
 oniKPient.sl with cVlicule paiiitiiii.' I very, 
 where tlie walls an- nwtt.l «iil, iji.e Mii„oth 
 planter. ail..nie,l «iih iKiintiu:.-,. .,:.,| the .eiljnea 
 r artist h-aily 1 
 
 ari- of liiiilK'i 
 — K. \iollet li 
 11.'/ Ayia. th. i'. 
 
 wrouirlii aim e.iloim'd. 
 
 I>iii', T)'4l UMit.iUfh, 
 
 'J 
 
 l/.l 
 
 169 
 
m 
 
 w 
 
 [ 
 
 "Is* 
 
 ill I 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. MS-429. 
 
 Agt of 
 PaieUt. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 445-430. 
 
 B. C. 445*439.— The Ase of Pericles : Law 
 and tti Admiaiitntion.— ContrMt with the 
 Romans. — "It is remarlcsble . . . iLat the 
 '(•(|tiality'of laws on which the Greek dcraoc- 
 racics prided themselves — that equalitv which, 
 ill the iM-autiful drinking song of Coillstnitus, 
 Hiirinodius and Aristogitou are said to liavc 
 given to Athens — had little in common witli 
 the 'equity' of the Romans. The first was an 
 eqiml administration of civil laws among the 
 citizens, however limited tlic class of citizens 
 ini^'ht be; the last iinplic<i the applicability of a 
 law, which was not civil law, to a class which 
 dill not necessarily consist of citizens. The first 
 exrltided a despot; the last included foreigners, 
 and for some purposes slaves. . . . There are 
 two special dangers to which law, and society 
 wliich *» held together l)y law, appear to be 
 liiililc In their infancy. One of thcin is that law 
 mtiy l)e loo rapidly developed. 'This occurred 
 with the codes of the more progressive Greek 
 communities, which disembarrassed themselves 
 with astonishing facility from cumbrous forms 
 of procedure and needless terms of art, and soon 
 ceased to attach any superstitious value to rigid 
 ruK's and prescriptions. It was not for the 
 ultimate advantage of mankind tliat they did so, 
 though the immediate benefit conferred on their 
 citizens may have been considerable. One of 
 the rarest qualities of national character Is the 
 capacity for applying and working out the law, 
 as such, at the cost of constant miscarriages of 
 abstrut justice, without at the same time losing 
 the ho|>c or the wish that law may be conformed 
 to a higher ideal. The Greek Intellect, with all 
 ita nobility and elasticity, was quite unable to 
 confine itself within tlie strait waistcoat of a 
 legal formula: and, if we may judge them by 
 the popular courts of Athens, of whose working 
 we possess accumto knowledge, the Greek 
 triliunuls exhibited the stnmgest tendency to 
 confound law and fact. The remains of the 
 Orators and the forensic commonplaces pre- 
 served by Aristotle in his Treatise on Hhetoric, 
 show that quistioiis of pure law were constantly 
 argued on every eoiisiilcration which could 
 possibly influence the mind of the judges. No 
 durable syst^'in of jurisprudence ,\mld be pr»)- 
 du«'il In this way. A coininuiiily which never 
 hesitated to relax rules of written law whenever 
 they stood in the way of an Ideally perfect 
 decisiim on the facts of particular cWs, would 
 only. If it bcqueathe<l any iMKly of judicial 
 principles to posterity. 1k'i|i"i(m"- one consisting 
 of the ideas of right and wrong which hnpixMicd 
 to be prevalent at the tiini'. Such jurispru- 
 dence would eimtaln no frnniewr)rk to wliich the 
 more hiIvhih eil eonceptiiui'* of siiliHe<|U>'iit aiies 
 could Ih' fltli'd. It woulil amount nt iNsttua 
 philosophy, marked with the lin|><Tfectlons of 
 the civilisHtioii under wiiiih It grew up. . . 
 The otiier liiiliilily to wlilih the iiifaiKV of 
 society U ixposcd has prcvcnteil or arrextiHl tlie 
 progress of far the (rrealer part of iiiiuikliul. 
 Tlw rigidity of primitive law, sri*ipg ihietly 
 from Its cnrllir assiH'lutlon ai.d Identiflcatioii 
 wllh religion, liax clialnod down the muss of the 
 human raiv to tlioKe views of life and cop lucl 
 wliii'h they entertalnwl at the time when their 
 iiMii^es were first consolidated Into a By«..'maii<' 
 form. Then- were one or two racM exempteil 
 hy a inarvilious fite from this (iilamity, and 
 irafu fruiu these stocks have fertilbui) « fi.w 
 
 modem aoeletiea; but it Is still true that, orer the 
 larger part of the world, the perfection of U>w 
 has always been considered as consisting in 
 adherence to the ground plan siipposetl to Lave 
 been marked out by the original legislator. If 
 intellect has in such cases been exercised on 
 jurisprudence, it has uniformly prided it8<df on 
 tlie subtle perversity of the conclusions It could 
 I'lild on ancient texts without discoverable 
 departure from their literal tenour. I know no 
 reason why the law of the Romans should be 
 superior to the laws of the Hindoos, unless the 
 theory of Natural Law had giveu It a tyiie of 
 excellence different from the usual one." — II. 8. 
 Maine, Aneient fMir, eh. 3-i. — "But both the 
 Greek and the English trial by jury were at one 
 time the great political safeguard against state 
 oppression and injustice; ami, owing to this 
 origin, free nations b«>coinc so attached to it that 
 thev are blind to its ilefecis. And just as 
 Ireland wouM now U'nefit licyond conception 
 by the alH)lilion of tlie Jury svstein so the 
 secured Athenian (or any other) ih luiKTaey 
 would have thriven In'tte'r had its laws lieen 
 adminLstered by courts of skillml judges. For 
 these large bcHliea of average citizens, who, by 
 the way, wir- not like our iiirymen, unwilling 
 occupants of the jury-lKix, but who made it a 
 paid business ami an amusement, did not nganl 
 the letter of the law. They allowed actions 
 barred by the reasonable limits of time; tliey 
 allowed arguments totally beside the quesliou, 
 though this too was Illegal, for there was no 
 competent judge to draw the line; they alloweil 
 hearsay evidenci', though that too was against 
 the law; liidetHl the evidence produced in most 
 of the speeches Is of the hMiscst and (HKirest kind. 
 Worse than all, there were no pniper re<onls 
 kept of their decisions, and wltni-sses were ealle<l 
 In to swear what hail been the past dicisions of 
 a jury sittiug in the same city, and under the 
 same procedun'. This Is the more reniarlialile, 
 as there were state archives. In wliicli tiie 
 decrees of the pi>| iilur as.semb:y were kejit. . . 
 There Is a most "tniordlnary speech of Lvviui 
 against a man called NIchomaclius, who" was 
 appolnteil to trauscrilM.* the hiws of Solon In four 
 montlis, but who kept them In his possessiiui for 
 six years, and Is accused of having so f.ilsilleil 
 tliem as to have suballlut«<l himself for Solon. 
 Hence there can have Ix'en no recognlzeil dupli- 
 cate extant, or such n thing ei;uld not be 
 attempted. 8<i again. In the ', nijiezlticin of 
 IsocniU's, it is mentioned as a Well known fact, 
 that a certain I'ythalorus was convlited of 
 tampering with stati'-documents, signed sud 
 sealed bv the magistnites, and de|)oslte<l In the 
 AtroimlU. All these things meet us In every 
 turn In the court speeches of the .Vttic oraiirni. 
 We are ania/.eil nt wiliig relationships proved in 
 will (asj's by a man coming In and swearin; that 
 such a niius liilier hiwl told hliu tliii hii 
 lirollier was inarrietl to such a w.im.in. of ^m li a 
 house, \V(. Olid the most lilM'tlous (liir.;i'» 
 lirou;{ht aicainsl oppont'iils on mottirs t'lilly 
 Is-side till' (piesiion at Issoi", and even f.nrnal 
 evidence of general bad characU'r iidiiidli'ii. 
 We find some siM'Bkers In omseqiieiKi' Ihating 
 the Jury Willi a iBirt of ininirl-d defenine and 
 eonieinpl wlili li Is amusing 'On the f.'riiicr 
 trial of I his i.w,' they say, ' my opponent iiiau- 
 ag.il to tell vmu nianv" well "devised lie.,, of 
 !our«c you wepj deceived, bo-* ct);iW lt!»: iisfo-r- 
 
 no 
 
ATHENS. B. C. 443-429. 
 
 Agt of 
 Puricla. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 445-439. 
 
 wtee, knd you made a false decision ;' or else, 
 ' You were so puzzled tliat you got ut variance 
 witli oue anotlier, you voted at sixes and sevens, 
 and by a small majority you came to an absunl 
 decision.' 'But I tliink you Itnow well,' says 
 Isocrates, ' that the city has often repented so 
 bitterly ere this for decisions made in passion 
 and without evidence, as to desire after no long 
 interval to punish those who misled it, and to 
 wish those who hod been calumniated were moro 
 than restored to their former prosperity. 
 Keeping these faols before you, you ought net 
 to be hasty in believing the prosecutors, nor to 
 hear the defendants with interruption and ill 
 temper. For it is a tliame to have tlie character 
 of behig the gentlest and most humane of the 
 Or^eks in other respects, and yet to act contrary 
 to this reputation in the trials which t.ike place 
 here. It is a shame that in other cities, wbtn a 
 human life la at stake, a considerable majority 
 of votes li required for conviction, but that 
 among you those in danger do not even get an 
 equal chance with their false accusers. You 
 swear indeed once a year that you will attend to 
 both plaintiff and defendant, but in the interval 
 only keep your oath so far as to accept what- 
 ever the accusers say, but you sometimes will 
 not let those who are trying to refute them utter 
 even a single wonl. You think those cities 
 uninhabitable, in which citizens are executed 
 without trial, and forget that those who do not 
 give both sides a fair hearing are doing the very 
 same thing.'"— J. P. Mahaffy, Soeial Lift in 
 Ortm, eK. 13. 
 
 . ^; F; 44t4a9-r'^'>« Ab« of Peridet : Poli- 
 tical life.— The democrMr.—" The real life of 
 Athens lasted at the most for 200 yars: and yet 
 there are moments in which all that we have 
 won by the toils of so many generations seems as 
 If It would be felt to be but a small thing beside 
 a ningle hour of Perikie*. The Democracy of 
 Athens was in truth the noblest fruit of that self- 
 .ii'vclopjng power of the Greek mind which 
 workeii every possession of the common heriUge 
 into some new and more brilliant shape, but 
 whieh leamc<l nothing, nothing of all that formed 
 its real life and iu real glory, from the Barba- 
 ri rius of the onU>r worid. Men tell us that Qrcc -o 
 liiirned this or that mechanical invention fMm 
 rimnlcla or Egypt or Assyria. Bo it so; but 
 stand in the Pnyx; lUten to the contending era- 
 torn i lliiten to the ambassador* of distant cities; 
 li«l« n to each side as it is fairly hearkened to, and 
 see the matter in band decided by the peaceful 
 vote of thousands— heifl at leaat of a truth is 
 sjimething which Athens did not learn from any 
 Awvrlan despot or from any Egyptian priest 
 .\nd we, children of the common suVk. sharers In 
 the common heritage, as wo sec man, Aryan man, 
 111 llio full growth of his noblest type, wu may 
 ^1 » 'hrill as wo think that Klelsihcne* and 
 IVrlklOs were, afUT all, men of our own blooil — 
 •• we think that the Institutions which grew up 
 uni er their hands and the Institutions uiidiT 
 whi. h wo ourselves are living are alike braueh™ 
 sprung from one stock, (x.rilon* of one inheri- 
 tance In which Athens and Knghind have an 
 equal right. In the Athenian I).m.H racy we »lv 
 » l>opularconitltution taking the form which wa< 
 natiiriil for such o constitution to take when it 
 w«» able to run Iu natural course in a common- 
 wealth which conatNtiMi only of a sinsfie rity 
 Wherever the Ajwml>ly really remains. 1u truth 
 
 171 
 
 aawellMin name, an Aiaembly of the whole 
 people in their own persons, it must in iU own 
 nature be sovereign. It must, in the nature of 
 things, delegate more or leas of power to magia- 
 trates and generals; but such power will bo sim- 
 ply delegated. Their authority will be a mere 
 trust from the sovereign body, and to that sov- 
 ereign body they wiU be responsible for its exer- 
 ctoe. That is to say, one of the original elementt 
 of the St'iU', the King or chief, now represented 
 by the elective magistracy, will lose ite indepen- 
 dent powers, and will sink into a body who have 
 only to carry out the will of the sovereign Assem- 
 bly. So with another of the original eleinenU 
 the Council. This body too loses its independent 
 being; it has no ruling or checking power; it be- 
 comes a mere Committee of the Assembly chosen 
 or appointed by lot to put measures into shape 
 for more easy discussion in the sovereign body 
 As wwlety becomes more advanced and compU- 
 cated the Judicial power can no longer be exer- 
 cised by the Assembly iuelf, while It would be 
 against every democratic Instinct to leave It In 
 the arbitrary power of Individual magistrates. 
 Other Committees of the Assembly, Juries on a 
 gigantic scale, with a presiding magistrate as 
 chairman rather than as Judge, are therefore set 
 apart to decide causes ami to sit in Judgment on 
 olfenders. Such is pure Democracy, the govern- 
 ment of the whole people and not of a part of it 
 only as carried out In iU full perfection in a 
 single city. It is a form of government which 
 works up the faculties of man to a higher pitch 
 '",»" »uy other; it is tlie form of government 
 which gives the freest scope to the inborn genius 
 of the whole community and of every member of 
 it. Its weak point Is that It works up the facul- 
 ties of man to a pitch so high that it can hardly 
 be lasting, that Iu ordinary life needs an enthusi- 
 asm, a devotion too highly strung to be likely to 
 live through many generations. Athens In the 
 days of her glory, the Athens of PeriklSs, was 
 truly ' the roof and crown of things; ' her democ- 
 racy raised a greater number of human being* to 
 a higher level than any government before oy 
 since; it gave freer play than any government 
 before or since to the personal gifu of the fore- 
 m(»t of mankind. But against the few years of 
 Athenian Klr)ry we must set the long ages of 
 Athenian decline. Against the city where Peri- 
 kli>8 was General wo must set the city where 
 Hadrian was Archon. On the Assemblies of 
 ■>lher Grecian cities It I* hardly needful to dwell 
 ()ur knowledge of their practical working I* 
 slight. Wo have one picture of a deliate In the 
 impular A**cmbly of SparU, an Assembly none 
 the leas popular In Its internal conslilutfon be- 
 cause it was the assembly of what, a* rcgar.led 
 the oxcludod classi's of the Bute, was a narrow 
 oligarchy. Wo see that there, as might bo l(M)keil 
 for, the chiefs of the Sutc, the Kings, and yet 
 more the Ejihors, spuko with a degree of olllcial 
 as distinguished from personal, authority which 
 fell to the lot of no man in the Assembly of 
 Athena Perikl«* reigned supreme, not birauso 
 he was one of Ten Generals, but because he was 
 P'-fJ!''''*- • ; ■ In <he Ekkl«sla which listened to 
 PerlklOsand Demoathenfi* we feel almost n» much 
 at home as In an Institutlcm of our own land and 
 our own times. At least wo ought to feel at 
 home there; for we have the full materials for 
 cvWnn iiji the political iifc nf Ath.u* Iu all iU 
 fullnej*, and within our own time* oue of tlie 
 
 •! 'J: 
 
 \\- '-in: 
 

 
 . i 
 
 
 iwii 
 
 Mi 
 
 
 1 
 
 i "^ ■" ■" "'! 
 
 i 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 445-489. 
 
 Age of 
 Pericles. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 445-429. 
 
 pnntrvt minds of our own or of any age has given 
 Its full strength to clear away the mists of error 
 iind culumny which so long shroiidcU the parent 
 Rta.p (if justice and free<lom. Among tlic con- 
 tcrnporiiries and countrymen of Mr Oroto it is 
 shame indeed if nici fail to see in the great De- 
 miK-racy the first state which taught manliind 
 that tlio voice of persuasion could be str,.nirer 
 than a despot's will, the Hrst which taught tiiat 
 disputes could be settled by a free debate and a 
 free vote which in other lands could have been 
 decided only by the banishment or massacre of 
 the weaker side. ... It must be constantly 
 borne in mind that the true differenee between 
 an aristocratic an<l a democratic government as 
 thoie words were understood in the politics of old 
 Oreece, lies in this. In the Dcmocracv all citi- 
 zens, all who enjoy civil rights, enjov also politi- 
 cal rights. In the aristocmcy political rights 
 belong to only a part of those who enjoy civil 
 ru'hls. But. in cither case, the highest authority 
 of the State is the general Assembly of the whole 
 ruling bo<ly, whether that ruling body be the 
 whole people or only a part of it. . . . The slaves 
 and strangers who were shut out at Athens were 
 according to Greek ideas, no Athenians; but 
 every Athenian had his place in the sovereign 
 assembly of Athens, while every Corinthian had 
 not his place in the sovereign assembly of 
 Corinth. But the aristocratic and the democratic 
 commonwealth both agreed in placing the final 
 authority of the State In the general Assembly of 
 all who enjoy the highest ifranchise. . The 
 people, of its own will, place<l at lu head men of 
 the same class as those who in the earlier state of 
 things had ruled it against its will. PeriklCs 
 Nikias, AlkibiadOs, were men widely differing 
 in character, widely dlllcring in their relations to 
 the popular government. But all alike were 
 men of ancient birth, who. .ia men of ancient 
 birth, found their way, almost as a matter of 
 cours.'. to those high places of the Stiite to wliieli 
 Klcon found his way only by a strange freak of 
 fortune. At Home we find quite another storv. 
 There, no less than at Athens, the moRd Influence 
 of nobility survive.1 its legal privileges- but 
 more than this, the htitil privileges of the el.ler 
 nobdity were never wlinllv swept away, and the 
 inherent feeling of re»i>(ct for illustrious birth 
 called into Ix'ing a yonniter nobility l)v ii4 side 
 At Athens one stage of reform placeil a dislinc 
 timi of wealth Instead of a distinction of birtli 
 iinoiher stage swept awav the dlslincti.i:i of 
 wiMlih als<j. But the reform, at each of in 
 stages, was general; it alTec'ti-d all iiitices a'ike 
 bavo those sacred olllees whii li siill remained the 
 special heritage of certain s.ieri-.l families 
 In an aristocratic cominoinvealth there is no room 
 for I'erikPsi ther.' is no nniin for the people tii.l 
 hearkened to Periklt^s: but in men of th,. si'Cond 
 oriler. skilful conservative administrators tnen 
 able to work lb.- system which they find i^tab 
 llshed, no form of government Is so fertile 
 But everywher.. wo learn the same leiun the 
 Inconsistency of commonwealths which boast 
 themselves of ibilr own freedom and exalt thetn- 
 lelves at the co<t of the freeiloro of otiiers.' — 
 
 E. A. Freeman. Cumnmtitt l\Aitiei, Uet .5-fl 
 
 " D«mo« was hims. If King, Minister, ami I'arlia 
 ment. He ha<l his smaller oDIcials to carry out 
 the necewary d.-taila of publjc businesa, but he 
 was most undoubtedly his own First Ix>rd of the 
 Treasury, his own Foreign Uecreurr. his own 
 
 171' 
 
 Secretary for the Colonies. He himself kept up 
 a personal correspondence both with foreign 
 potentates and with his own officers on foreign 
 service; the 'despatches' of Nikias and the 
 note's of Philip were alike Bfldrcssed to no om 
 cer short of the sovereien himself; ho gave per 
 sonal nuiliencc to the ambassadors of other states 
 and clothed his own with just so great or s<) 
 small a share as he deemed good of his own 
 Iwnndless authority. He had no need to entrust 
 the care of his thousand dependencies to the mys- 
 terious working of a Foreign Ollice; he liimHlf 
 sat in judgment upon Mitvlenaian rebels; he him 
 self settled the allotment of lands at Chalkis or 
 Amphipolis : he <lecreed by his own wisdom what 
 duties should be levied at the Sound of Bvzan- 
 tion; ho even ventured on a task of which "two- 
 antl-twenty ages have not lessened the difflcuitv 
 and undertook, without the help of a Loni 
 High Commissioner, to adjust the relations ami 
 compose the seditions even of Korkyra and Z.i 
 kvnihos He was his own Lord High Chancellor 
 1^1 ■ "/'"■/'"n' Pri™"'*. '"is own Commander in- 
 thief. He listened to the arguments of Kleon 
 on behalf of a measure, and to the arguments of 
 N klas against it, and ho ended by 'ridding 
 ?iiki8» to go and carry out the propos , which 
 he Iiad denounce<l as extravagant or unjus* He 
 listenc<l with approval to his own ' explanations • ' 
 he passed votes of confidence in his own policy- 
 he advised himself to give his own royal assent 
 to the bills which he had himself passed with- 
 out tlic form of a second or third reading or the 
 vain ceremony of moving that tiie Prytaneia ilo 
 leave Micir chairs. ... We suspect that the 
 averagi; Athenian citizen was, in political Intelli- 
 gence, above the average English Me.nber of 
 1 arliament. It wa'* this concentration of all 
 power in an aggri'gate of which every citi.-en 
 foinied a pert, which Is the distinguishing ciiar 
 actenstlc of tn-e Greek democracy. Florence 
 had nothing like it; fiicre has been nothing like 
 it in the modem worid: the few puredemocra 
 cies which have lingered on to our own day 
 have never had such mighty questions laid iK'for.' 
 them, and have never had such statesmen and 
 orators to lead them. The great Democracy li.n 
 had no fellow; but the political lessons which it 
 tca»hes are none the !p<i,s lessons for all time and 
 for every land ami people, "_E. A. Freeman, 
 //M^nnmf «M,iv»(r. •»).• m Athtnian Demx-nu-v 
 " The individual frceilom which was enjoyeil at 
 Alliens ami which Is extolled by Pericles was 
 plainly an exciption to the common u.sagc of 
 Greece, and is so regarlerl in the Funeral Speech 
 riie w.ird 'freedom,' It should be rememlKnd 
 iKirc an ambiguous meanmg. It denoted on the 
 one hand |)olitical liidep<ndencc,— the exeniin 
 of sovereign power by the State and of poliile il 
 rights by the citizens. In this sense every Gni k 
 citizen could claim It as his birthright Kveii 
 the Spartans coiil.l tell th,. Persian Hyilarnes th il 
 Me had not, like them, tasted of fret«Iom auddi 1 
 nut know whether it was sweet or not. But tli.. 
 wonl also denoted p«T»onal and social lilierlv. - 
 freedom from the excessive restraints of Uw' Di ■ 
 absence of a tyrannous public opinion and of in 
 Inleraiire between man and man. Pericles clainn 
 for Athens ' freedom' in this double sense Hut 
 fretilom so far as It Implies the absence of h^'il 
 lnU;rfer<'nco in the private concerns of life «,n 
 but little known except at Athens."— S 11 
 Butfher, Aa, 4,^^, ,y> 5,^ q^„^ „ 
 
ATHENS, B. C. 445-429. 
 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 440-137. 
 
 70-71.— "To Athens . . . we look ... for an 
 iinswer to the question, Wh«t dofs history teach 
 ill regiinJ to the virtue of a purely democmtic 
 {Tovcrainent T And here we may safely say tliiit, 
 under favourable circumstances, there is no forni 
 of government which, while it lasts, has such a 
 virtue to give scope to a vigorous growth and 
 lu.xuriant fruitage of various nunhood as a pure 
 ilemocn\cy. . . . But it does not follow that 
 though in this regard It has not been surpassed 
 by any otlier form of government. It is therefore 
 absolutely the best of all forms of government 
 . . . Neither, on the other hand, does it follow 
 from the shortness of the bright reign of Athenian 
 democracy —not more than aoO years from Clis- 
 tlienes to the Macedonians — that all democracies 
 are short-lived, and must pay, like dissipate! 
 young gentlemen, with premature decay for the 
 feverish abuse of their vital force. Possible no 
 doubt it is, that if the power of what we may 
 call a sort of Athcnif.n Secon:! (;iinml)er, t'.i'e 
 Areiopagus, iu.stead of being weakcne<l ns it was 
 by Aristides and Pericles, li.ul b<x.'n built up ac- 
 cording to the idea of ^schylusaud the intelli- 
 gent aristocrats of his day, such a iKxIy, armi-d. 
 like our House of Lords, with an efleciivo n"g;i- 
 tlvc on all outbursU of popular mshness, miglit 
 have prevenU'd the ambition of the Athenians 
 from launching on that famous Syracusan expedi- 
 tion wiiicli exhausu-d their force and maimed 
 their action for the future. But the lesson taught 
 by the shortlived glory of Athens, and ifa sub- 
 jugation under the rough foot of the astute Mace- 
 donian, is not that democracies, under the inHu- 
 inre of faction, and, it may be, not free from 
 veniility. will sell their liberties to a strong neigh- 
 twur— for aristocratic Poland did this in a much 
 more blusliless way than democratic Greece — 
 but that any loose ngg,Tgato of independent 
 •States, given more '.c quarr/ amongst themselves 
 tliiin ti) unite 8g-iln:,t a '?omn;on enemy, whether 
 (lemooratie. or ari.U ratin, jr ..lonarchical in 
 their form of govemmi'nt, cannot in tlie long rim 
 maintain the.r ground against tlic I'rra policy and 
 the well-massed force of a strong monarchy. 
 Athens was Iilotted out from the map of free 
 peoples at rhienmea, not licoausc the Athenian 
 piKiple hail too much frcc<loni, hut b<'causc tlie 
 Greek StJites had too little unity. They were 
 used by Philip exactiv in the s,ame w.iy thit 
 Napoleon useil the German States at the com- 
 
 menci inent of the present century. "—, I S 
 HliRkie. What itiiet Ilintitrn Tenrh t /)■). 2M-:tl _ 
 • In Herodotus you have 'the beginning of the 
 age of (li«eus«ion. . . . Tliedl<rours<sondemr>c- 
 r:iey, aristoeracy, and monarchv. wliieli be puts 
 into tile mouth of the Pirsl.iu ennspinitors wluii 
 the monarchy was vacant, h ive Justly licen r:\]],;\ 
 absur.1. :is 8|>eeclie» supposed U) have lieen sp. .k,n 
 by tliiiv pereons. No Asiatic ever thought of 
 siicli things. You might as well Imagine Saul 
 "T Daviil speaking them as thos<! to whom lliro 
 ilotus attrlliuU'S them. They an- Greek spie.'hes 
 lull of free Greek di iissions, and suggcsK'-l by 
 llie experience, alre.idv considerable, of the 
 Greeks In the results of discussion. The age of 
 ilchaU' is beginning, and even Herodotus, the Uw,. 
 of a wrangler of any man, and the most of a 
 swirl and simple narrator, fi'lt the effect When 
 we come lo Thucydldes, the results of discussion 
 ore as full as tlK-v have ever been; his light U 
 ■m. 'dry light.' free from tlie ■humours' of 
 i3!)!<, and purgwi frum cuu«icral«a usagu. At 
 
 1 
 
 t 
 
 Groto s history often reads like a report to Parlia- 
 ment, so half Thucydidi-s rends like a speech or 
 ni itermls for a spc-ech, in the Athenian Aa-K-nibly ■ 
 — w. Itngihot, Fhi/Mic aiut Piilitict. pp 170-171 
 •1 440-437— Ne v settlements of Kler- 
 oiichoi.-The founding of Amphipolis.— 
 Revolt and subjueation of Samos.— ' The 
 great aim of Perikles was to strengthen the 
 powiT of Athens over the whole area occupied 
 by her confederacy. The establishment of 
 settlers or Klerouclioi [sec Kt.EnuciisI, who re- 
 tained their riirhts as Athenian ritzens had 
 answered so well in the Ix'lnntian plain of 
 EulKiia that it was obviously go(Hl policy in ex. 
 tend the system. The territory of Hesliala in 
 the north of Eulioia and the islands of I.<>iniios 
 Iinbros, and Skvros, were thus occupied; and 
 Perikles himself led a botly of settlers to Hie 
 Thrakian Chersonesos where he repaired the old 
 wall at the neck of the penlnsul.i. ami even to 
 Siiiope which now became a meinlier of the 
 Atheniiin alliance. A genemtion had parsed 
 from the lime when Athens lost lO.tKHt citizens 
 in the attempt to found a colony at the mouth of 
 the SIrvmon. The task was 'now undertaken 
 surcessfully by Hagnon, and the city came into 
 existence \vlii<-li was to Iw the cause of disaster 
 to the historian Thucydldes and to witness the 
 death of Brasidtus and of Kleon [see Amphi- 
 l-o!,is1 . . Two years liefore the fiHinding of 
 Ampliiimlis. Samos a-volted from Athens. 
 In this revolt of Samos the overt action ci.nns 
 from tiio oligarclis who had seiwd upon the 
 Ionian town of Priene, and defeated the Mile- 
 sians who opposed them. The latter appealed lo 
 the Athenians, and received not only their aid 
 but that of the Sainian demos. The latter now 
 Iiecame the ruling iKuly in the island, fifty men 
 and fifty boys iH'ing taken from the ohgarrliic 
 familiesaml plaeeil as hostages in Ix'innos. which 
 as we have seen, \vm now wholly oceiipii?<l liy 
 Athenian Kleniuehoi. But the Samian exiles 
 (for many hail lie 1 rather than live under a 
 deinocnu'y) cntereil into covenant with Pis- 
 soutlines, the S;inlian satrap, en)ssed over to 
 Samoa and si'ired the chief men of the demos, 
 then falling on lA-mnos succeeiled In stealing 
 away the ho-itages: and. having bandnl over to 
 Pissoutlmes the Athenian garriscm at Samos, 
 maile ready for an e<pe<liii,m against Mileios 
 The tidings that Uyz mtion liad JoinH in this 
 last revolt left to the Atik-nians no room to doubt 
 the gravity of the crisis, A Heet of sixty ships 
 was dispatched 'o S.imos under Perikles and 
 nine other generals, of whom Ihe poet Sophoklcs 
 is said to have bei-n one. Of these ships sixteen 
 were si-nt. some to gnther tlie allies, others to 
 watch for the Phenii ian Heet which thev lie- 
 Ileved to U- off the Kuii:in coast ailvsncirig to 
 Ihe aid of the Saniliiii oligarchs. With the re- 
 m.ilnder Perikles <lid not hesitate to engage the 
 Samian fleet of seventv ships which he encoun- 
 tered on lis reiurn from .Mlletosoff the ItlamI of 
 Tragla. The Athenians gained the day and 
 Samos was lilnckadeil by land and sea. Bn! no 
 sooner had Perikles aslled with sixty shii-. lo 
 ira-et tlie Piienician tieel. than Ihe Samlans, iiiak- 
 liig a vlgomiis sally, broke the lines of the lie- 
 sl.'gers ami for fourteen days remalm-d masters 
 of the sea. The return of Perikles changed the 
 face of things, Soou after the resumption of 
 the sle-je Ihf iirrfviil nf Bi,i[tV frerth sliiiis fnitn 
 
 I Atbens under dve btralcgoi iu two duiarliinents, 
 
 73 
 
i:\l 
 
 ATHENS. B. C. *4(M37. 
 
 Aloponnaian 
 War. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 431. 
 
 with thirty from Chlo§ and LMboa, damped the 
 energy of the Samian oligarchs; and an unsuc- 
 cessful effort at sea was followed by their sub- 
 mission in the ninth month after the beginning 
 of the revolt, the terms being that they should 
 raze their walls, give hostages, surrender their 
 ships, and pay the expenses of the war. Follow- 
 ing their example, the Byzantines also made 
 their peace with Athens. The Pheniciaa fleet 
 never came. . . . The Athenians escaped at the 
 same time a far greater danger neater home. 
 The Samians, lilte the men of Thasos, hail ap- 
 plied for tid to the Spartans, who, no longer 
 pressed bv the Helot war, summoned a congress 
 of their allies to discuss the question. For the 
 truce which had still flve-and-twenty years to 
 run Sparta cared nothing; but she encountered 
 an opposition from the Corinthians which per- 
 haps she now scarcely expected. . . . The Spar- 
 tans were compelled to give way ; and there can 
 be no doubt that when some years later the 
 Corinthians claimed the gratitude of the Athen- 
 ians for this decision, they toolc credit for an act 
 of good service singularly opportune. Had 
 they voted as Sparta wUlied, Athens might by 
 the extension of revolt amongst her allied cities 
 have been reduced now to tiic condition to which, 
 in consequence perhaps of this respite, she was 
 not brought until the lifetime of a generation 
 had been spent in desperate warfare."— G \V 
 Cox, Hilt, of GrcfM, bH. 3, ch. I (v. 2). 
 ,.?■ C.43'-— Beginning of the Pelopoaneuan 
 War.— Its Causes — 'In B. C. 431 the war 
 broke out between Athens and the Pcloponncslan 
 League, which, after twenty -seven years, ended 
 ' the ruin of the Athenian empire, It began 
 through a quarrel between Corinth and Kerkyra, 
 in which Athens assisted Kerkyra. A congress 
 was held at Sparta ; Corinth and other Suites 
 complained of the conduct of Athens, ami war 
 was decided on. The real cause of the war was 
 that Sparta and its allies were jealous of the 
 
 great power that Athens had gained [see 
 RKBCE: B. C. 43.'M;!3 and 433-431]. Afar 
 greater number of Greek States were cngageil in 
 this war than had ever been engaged in a single 
 undertaking before. States that hud takra no 
 part in the Persian war were now lighting on 
 one side or the otiier. Sparu was an iillii.irchy 
 and the friend of the nobles ovcrywlaru' 
 Athens was a democracy, and the frienil of the 
 common people ; so tliat the ,var was U) some 
 extent a struggle betweeen these classes all over 
 Greece, and often within the same city walls 
 tlie nobles and the people attacked one anotlier. 
 the nobles Iwing for Sparta and the people for 
 Athens. On the side of .Span.i. when the war 
 liegan, there was all I'elopoimc-i'n except Argos 
 and Acliira, and also the ollgunhlcnl B-eotlan 
 League under Thebes besiile.1 Phokis, I^jkris 
 and other States west of thera. They were very 
 strong by hiud, l)ut the Corlnthians'alone had a 
 good fleet. Later on we shall see the powerful 
 Slate of Syracuse with iu navy, adinfc, with 
 Sparta. On the side of Athens there win- almost 
 all the „t,giean Islands, and a great uiiinli«T 
 of the A^.tan coast Uiwns as well lis Ker- 
 kyra and certain SUtus In the west of tireece 
 riie Atlisnlans had also made alliance with 
 Nlalkes, the barbarian king of tiiu interior of 
 Thrace, Athens was far stronger bysealliaii 
 bparu, but hail not such a Btr)ng land armv 
 Oa ths otiier hand it bad a large trea»jr>'. aod'a 
 
 s;rstem of taxes, while the Spartan League had 
 little or no money,"— C. A. Pyffe, Ilitt. of 
 Orttet (Ilu-tory Primerii), p. 84.— The Ionian 
 cities, called "allien" of Athens, were subjects in 
 reality, and held in subjection by tyrannical 
 measures which made the yoke odious, as is 
 plainly explained by Xenophon, who says ■ 
 "Some person might say, tliat it is a great 
 support to the Athenians that their allies should 
 be in a condition to contribute money to tliem. 
 To the plebeians, however, it seems to l>e of 
 much greater advant^ige th.U every individual of 
 the Atuenians should get some of the property 
 of the allies, and that the allies themselves should 
 have only so much as to enable them to live and 
 to till the ground, so that they may not be in a 
 condition to form conspiracies. The people of 
 Atiiensseemalso toha' acted injudiciously in 
 this respect, that Aey c re their allies to make 
 vovages to Athens for the decision of their law- 
 suits. But the Athenians consider only, on the 
 otiier hand, what beneflts to the state of Athens 
 are attendant on this practice; in the first place 
 they receive their dues throughout the year from 
 the prytaneia; in the next place, they manage 
 the government of the allied states while sitting 
 at home, and without sending out ships; they 
 also support suitors of the lower orders, anj 
 ruin those of an opposite character hi tlieir 
 courts of law; but If each sbite had its own 
 courts, they would, as being hostile to the Athe- 
 nians, be the ruin of those who were most 
 favourable to the people of Athens. In aildition 
 to these advantages, the Athenian people have 
 the following profits from the courts of justice 
 for the allies being at Alliens; first of all the 
 duty of the hundredth on what is lauded at the 
 Peineeus affords a greater revenue to the city ; 
 next, whoever has a lodging-house makes more 
 moni'v by it, as well as whoever has cattle or 
 Slav .or hire ; and the heralils, too, arc b<'uijlltcd 
 by tlie visits of the allies to the city I'.^i les. if 
 the allies did not come t,i Alliens for law, they 
 would honour only such of the Athenians !is 
 were sent over the sea to tliciu, as geuirals, aal 
 capliiins of vcssi'ls, and ambassadors; but now 
 every indlvi lual of the allies is obli,r,.,l t. 
 liattur the people of Athens, knowim; that m 
 goin:? to Athens he must gain or lose his ra»*> 
 nceordiag to the decision, not of other Julian. 
 b»t of the people, as is the law of Athens; au i 
 he is comiK'lled, too, to use supplication befun' 
 tlie court, and, as any one of the people enters, 
 to take him by tlie hand. Uy these means tli" 
 allies lire in consequence rendered much in irf 
 the slaves of the AthenUn people."— Xenophi^n. 
 Oi tlie Athenitin Oomnnunt (Hiwir It'.r*. 
 tniiui. hi/ iter. J. S. WatHDn), p. J:),"). — The ro\ a 
 of these ciK'rce,l and hostile "alHea," upon lii- 
 outbreak of the Pelipoaneslan War, was Iuim 
 table— ■'"he prominent events of the Pelopoiiiu 
 slau war, in wlihli nio.t of, the Grwk Stati* 
 were involved, are pro[HTly narrated in th.ir 
 connection with Urei'k history at large iv 
 OiiiiKci;: B. C. 4;ll-4a9, and aftiT). In liii, 
 place ii will only be n-eessary to take accoa:r 
 of the consequences of the war as they altic!. I 
 ll.i^ rin irkable city and pi-oplf whose sapirinr; » 
 h.i I od-asioned it liy challenging and S'lmiw lii'. 
 o.rcu,lvi.|y provoking the jealousy of tliii 
 nel'.;til»ors. 
 
 174 
 
 B.C. 4)1. — Peloponaesian invasions of 
 A'";»- — Siege of Athens, - WiilLj tiir !\: 
 
ATHBNS, B. C. 481. 
 
 Funeral Oration 
 0/ PtricU*. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 430. 
 
 ponncsiana were gathering at the Isthmus, 
 and were still on their way, but before they 
 enteiwl Attica, Pericles, the son of Xanthippus, 
 who was one of the ten Athenian generals. . . . 
 repeateil [to the Athenians] his previous advice; 
 tliey must prepare for war and bring their prop- 
 ertv from the country into the city; they must 
 defend their walls but not go out to battle; they 
 should also equip for service the fleet in which 
 lay their strength. . . . Tlie citizens were per- 
 suaded, and brought into the city their children 
 and wives, their household goods, and even the 
 wood-work of their houses, which they took 
 down. Their flocks and beasts of burden they 
 conveyed to Euboea and the adjacent islands. 
 The removal of the inhabitanu was painful : for 
 the Athenians had always been accusU)med to 
 reside in the country. Such a life had been 
 chancteristic of them more than of any other 
 Hellenic people, from very early times. . . . 
 Whin they came to Athens, only a few of them 
 had houses or could find homes among friends 
 or kindred. The majority took up their 8bo<le 
 in the vacant spaces of the city, and in the tem- 
 ples and shrines of heroes. . . . Many also estab- 
 li-shcd themselves in the turrets of the walls, or 
 iu any other place which they could find; for 
 the ciiy could n,'t contain them when they first 
 cami^ in. But afterwards tliey divide<l among 
 tliem tlie Long Wa'ls and the greater part of the 
 I'iricus. At the same time the Athenians ap- 
 plied themselves vigorously to the war, summon- 
 ing their allies, and preparing an expedition of 
 100 ships against the Peloponnese. While they 
 were thus engaged, the Pelnponnesian army was 
 adviinring: it arrived first of all at Ocnoc." where 
 Arcliidiimus, the Spartan king, wasted much 
 timi' in a fru'tless siege and assault. "At last 
 tliey ni;irche<i on, and about the eightieth day 
 after the entry of the Thebans inU) Plataea, in 
 the middle of the summer, when the corn was 
 in full ear, invaded Attica. . . . They encamped 
 ami ravaged, Srst of all, Eleusis and the plain 
 ufThria. . . . At Achamae theyencampiM). and 
 remained there a considerable time, ravaging the 
 lounlry." It was tlie expectation of Archidamus 
 that tlie Athenians would be provoked to come 
 out and meet him in the open field; and that. 
 ini|«,i, they were eager to do; but the prudence 
 of till ir great leader held them back. "The peo- 
 ple were furious with Perioles, and, forgetting 
 all his iirevious warnings, tliev abused liiin for 
 nut leading them to battle." But he was vlndl- 
 nitid by the result. "The Puloponneaians re- 
 mained in Atticji as long as their provisiims lasted, 
 an.! ilicn, taking a new roiit«, retired through 
 "."■"tia. ... On their return to Peloponnesus 
 the tnK)ps disperse.! to tlieir several cities." 
 -Hiiiniiim' the Athenian and allied fleets were 
 nivui'inif the Pelopounesian const. ' ' In the same 
 sunmur [B. C. 431] the Athenians expelled the 
 .Vt'in, tans ami tlieir families f mm Aegina, alleg- 
 ini: that they had Ik'en the main ciiuae of the 
 wsr . . . The Lacedai'monians gave the Aegine- 
 tan r\ili..< tlie town of Tlivrea to occupy and the 
 «"ll"inini: country to cultivate. , . . About the 
 fw of llie summer the entire Athenian force. 
 imlurling the metica, inviwled the territory of 
 » fi"^" ■ ■ • ■'^'"^'' •"'"""rmg the greater part 
 ot th,. cnnitry tiny retired. They repeated the 
 nviiM ,., wunetimcs wiili cavalry, sometimei with 
 iiw wi,,,|,. Atiipoi,,,, „„„y , . year during the 
 •w until .Nis:«-:; was taken [B. t. 424]."--l-hucy- 
 
 176 
 
 ?o'o^' ,^*^/ '«>»"• »y B. Jouett, bk. a, net. 
 \o-o\ (e. 1). 
 
 B. C. 430.— The funetsl oration of Pericle*.— 
 
 IJunng the wmterof the yewr B. C. 431-430 "la 
 accordance with ao old national custom, the 
 funeral of those who first fell in this war was cele- 
 brated by the Athenians at the public charge 
 The ceremony is as follows: Three days before 
 the celebration they erect a tent in which the 
 bones of the dead are laid out, and every one 
 brings to his own dead any offering which he 
 pleasia. At the time of the funeral the liones 
 are placed in chests of cypress wood, which are 
 c<>nveye<l on hearses; there is one chest for each 
 tnbe. They al.so carry a single empty li"er 
 decked with a pall for all whose Ixxlies u-e mi j- 
 ing, and cannot be recovered after the battle 
 The procession is accompanied by any one » lio 
 chooses, whether citizen or stranger, and the 
 female relatives of the deceased are present at 
 the place of interment and make lamentatiou 
 The public sepulchre is situated in the most bepu- 
 tiful spot outside the walls; there they always 
 ■""■y those who fall in war; onl^ afU-r the battle 
 of Marathon the dead, in recognition of tlieir 
 pre-eminent valour, were interred on the field 
 \\ hen the remains have been laid iu tlie earth 
 Boi.ie man of known abilitv and high reputation 
 chosen by the city, delivera a suitable oration 
 over them ; after which the jieople depart. Such 
 is ttic manner of iuk-rment ; and the ceremony 
 was repeated from time to time throughout tlie 
 war. Over those who were the first buriwl 
 PcTicles was cliosen to speak. At the Httiuij 
 Miriinent he ailvanced from the sepulchre to a 
 "fty stage, which liad ln-en erected iu order tliat 
 he iiiiglit lie heard as far as pos.sible bv tlie inul- 
 litude. and spoke as follows:— ' Most of those 
 who have spoken here before me have tom- 
 mended the lawgiver who added this oration -> 
 our other funeral customs; it seemed to thei . 
 worthy thin^ that such an honour should Ik' gi> a 
 lit their burial to the dead who have fa'', o on 
 the field of battle. But I shouI<l liave preferred 
 that, wlien men's deeds have Leen brave, thev 
 should Ik! Iionourc<l in I'-ed onlv, and with such 
 ail hcmour as this public funeral, which vou are 
 now witnessing. Then the reputation of many 
 would not have been impiiilled on the ehxiucnce 
 or want of elo(iU"nce ot one, and their virtues 
 lielieved or not as he spoke well or ill. For it is 
 difficult to S.IV neither too little nor too imieh; 
 and even mcKleration is apt not to givr the im- 
 pression of truthfulness. Tiie friend .)f the de:-d 
 who knows the facts is .Ikelv to think timt the 
 words of th. spi'aker full short of his kn.iwli.lge 
 and of his wishes; another who is not .s,> w.-ll in- 
 forine.1. vhon he hears of anytiiiiig wlii.ii sur- 
 passi'S his own powers, will tw envious anil will 
 suspect cxaggerati.m. Mankind are tol.rant of 
 the pralsesof otlie.sso long as each hearerthinks 
 that he can do as will or neiirty as well himself, 
 but, wlien the speaker rises alwve him. ji'alnusv 
 lsarous<'ilandlieb<'ginstobclncr. duloiis. Ilow'- 
 ever, since our ancestors liave set ll.e seal of Ihi-ir 
 approval upon the praelice, I must obey, im.l to 
 the utmost of my power shall eii.l.'ai ..- to 
 satisfy tlie wishes ami Iwliefj of all « ho hear me. 
 I will speak first of our ancestors, for it :s right 
 and twcoming that now. wlien we are lamiiitlag 
 the deai' a tribute sliouM lie paid to their mem- 
 ory. There has never lieen a time when thev 
 aid Out iuhabil this land, wli.ch by their vaiour 
 

 ),-^ 
 
 m 
 
 lit- " i' » 
 
 I;: 1 I 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 480. 
 
 Funtrat Oratim 
 0/ PirieU*. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 430. 
 
 they have hnnded down from generation to gen- 
 eratioD, and we have receiveil from them a free 
 state. But if tliey were wortliv of priiise, still 
 more were our fathers wlio adilcil to thiir hiheri- 
 tancc, and after many a struggle transmitted to 
 us their sons this great empire. And we our- 
 selves assembled here to-day, wlio are still most 
 of us in the vijjour of life, have chiefly done the 
 work of improvement, and have richly endowed 
 our city with all things, so that she is sulllcient 
 for herself botli in peace and war. Of tlie mili- 
 tary exploits by which our various possessions 
 were acqiured, or of the energy with which we 
 or our fatliers drove back tlic tiile of war, Hel- 
 lenic or Barbarian, I will not speak: for tlic tale 
 would be long and is familiar to you. But be- 
 fore I praise the dead, I should like to point out 
 by what principles of action we rose to jK)wer, 
 and under what institutions and througli wliat 
 manner of life our empire became great. For I 
 conceive, that such thoughts are not unsuitcil to 
 the occasion, and that tills numerous as-iembly 
 of citizens and strangers may proBt.ibly lisU.Mi to 
 them. Our form of eovenifnent ilnes not enter 
 into rivalry with the Institutions of others. We 
 do not copy our neighbours, but are an example 
 to them. It is true tliat we are called a democ- 
 racy, for the administration is in tlic hands of 
 the many ami not of the few. But while the law 
 secures equal justice to all alike in their private 
 disputes, the claim of excellon<'o is also recog- 
 nlse<l ; and when a citizen is in anv w.iy distin- 
 guislied, he is proferri'd to the public service, 
 not a.s a matter of privilege, but as the reward 
 of merit. Ncitlierii poverty a bar, tut a man 
 may bineflt his country whatever Iw the olMcur- 
 ity fif his conilitii>n. There is no exclusiveness 
 In our iniblic life, and in our private huercoursc 
 we are not suspiciius of one another, nor angry 
 witli our nei.,'bl>oui if he does wlmt he likes; we 
 do not put on sour looks at him wliieh, tliouHi 
 harmless, are not pleasant. Wliile we are thus 
 uneonstniiiied in our private inUTcourse, a spirit 
 of n'veniicepervadesourp..;)licaets; wearepro- 
 venled from doing wrong by respect for autlior- 
 ity and for the laws, having an es|vcial regard 
 to those which arc ordained for tlie proteiiiiin of 
 the injured as well as to those unwritten laws 
 which bring upon the transga'ssor of them ti,, 
 reprobation of the general sentiment. And wi' 
 have not forgotten to provide for our wi-arv 
 spirits m.iny relaxations from toil; w have rLg.i- 
 lar games and sjicritlces tliroughout the ye.ir- 
 at home tlic style of our life is rellned ; and the 
 delight wliicli we daily feel la all these thing's 
 helps to banish melancholy. Because of tile 
 grealmss of our city the "fruiu of the whulo 
 earlli ll.nv in upon us; so that we enj"y tlie 
 giKxis of othiT countries as fni'ly as of our own 
 Then, again, our militiirv training i.s in manv 
 rcspci l».,,iperiorto that of ourailversaries. () fr 
 city is thrown open to the worlil, and we never 
 expel a f.in'inixT or prevent him from si.^irii; or 
 learning anylliing(.f whhh the secret if revealed 
 to an eniiny uiiglit proilt him. We relv not upon 
 luanagementor trickery, but uponourown liearts 
 and lianils. .Vnd in the matter of Hlucation, 
 wliinMH tliey fri>m eariv youlii are always under- 
 going lalioriousexiTei.seswhiehare tomaketlii.in 
 brave, we live at ease, and yet arc eipialiv ready 
 to face the l,.iee(|iiemonians come into Atlica not 
 by ihemsi-lves, but with their wli.ile confcleraey 
 foUowlQg;wegoa!om;liit^>ane!^'libuur'=futi!ilry: 
 
 176 
 
 and a' • 'lough our opponent* are fighting for their 
 Uomi id we on a foreign soil we liave sel.loiri 
 any d . Ity In overcomfiig them. Our encinity 
 have yet felt our unitcil strengi li ; tlie tare 
 
 of a navy divides our attention, and cm Ian I we 
 are obliged to send our own citizens every wlurt 
 But they, if they meet and defeat a part of our 
 army, arc as proud as if they had routed us all 
 and when defeated they pretend to have lueii 
 vanquisheil by us all. If then we prefer to iniat 
 danger with a light heart but without lalK)ri„us 
 training, and with a courage which is gairnil liy 
 habit and not enforced by law, are we not envulv 
 the gainers 1 Since we do not anticipate tli<' paJQ 
 although, when the hour comes, we can lie a^ 
 brave as those who never allow themsihis to 
 rest; and thus t(x) our city Is equally ailrniriyi! 
 in peace and in war. For wc are lovers of tli. 
 Iieautiful, yet simple in our tastes, and wc eiil" 
 ti vate the mind without loss of manline.^. Woaltli 
 wc employ, not for talk and o»tentalio:i. bit 
 when there is a real use for it. To avow pov- 
 erty with us is no disgrace-; the true lis'niio |j 
 in doing nothing to a\oid it. An Athetiiiiii eiti 
 zen does not neglect the state Ihwiiuw Itc takes 
 care of his own household ; and ever thos,. of us 
 who are engaged in business have a v.ry fair 
 idea of politics. Wc alone rogarj a inari wlw 
 takes no interest In publii- affairs, not as a Innn- 
 less, but as a useless cliaracter; and if few of u, 
 are originators, we arc all sound jiidins of a 
 policy. The great inip<iliment to aeiio:, i,< in 
 our opinion, not disim.ssion, but the want of ihu 
 knowledge which is gained bv ilis<ii<,i,,ii nn>. 
 paraUirv to action. Forwe haveapiculi ironivor 
 of thinking l»'fore we act and of a.iiii,' km 
 whereas other men are courageous from i ' i ranee 
 but hesiuite upon roflecticm. Ami thm aiv ^ iroU 
 to be esteemed the bravest spirits who lining 
 the clearest sense both of the pains ani pi. imi^j 
 of life, ilo not on that account slirink from ilan- 
 ger. In doing g<x)d, again, we are unlike oihcrj- 
 we make our friends by conferring, not hy re- 
 ceiving favours. Now ho who coiiHrs a ravour 
 is the firmer friend, becau.se he would f on by 
 kindness keep alive the meinorvof aiiohli itioo 
 but the recipient is colder in his feelings. Ivcause 
 ho knows that in requiting another's irin. msity 
 he will not lie winning gratitude butoiilv [nvin- 
 adebt. Weahmedo good toour neiithlilinrs" m 
 mxm a calculaticm of interest, hut in tln' oma- 
 deneo of fn>edoin an<l in a frank ami fcarlew 
 spirit. To sum up; I say that Alliens is tbc 
 stiKHil of Hellas, ami that the imiividual .\tbe- 
 nian in his own pi'rson seems to have the pow,.r 
 of adapting himself to the most varie.1 forms of 
 action with the utmost versjitiliiv and iirace 
 This is no piLs.siiig and i.lle wonl, but tnitli and 
 f let: 11,1 1 till' iiss,.rtioii is vi'riliod !iy the p.^itinn 
 to wliieh tlii'se cpiiliiies have raisV.l tlir sate 
 For in the lioiir of trial Athens alone am .n- lier 
 ciintemiximri.'s is siqierior to tlie n'port,,f licr 
 No enemy who eiimes ag.iinst her i.s indinn ant at 
 the reverses whiili he sustains at tli' binds of 
 Huch acily; no sulijcct coinpiains that his raaa- 
 Urs are unworthy ,if liini. Ami we shall u- 
 s'iredly not lie without witnesses; th ie are 
 nil 'hty monuinenis of our po.ver wlii 'i will 
 
 make us the wornlir of ihi) uml of sir ^linij 
 
 ages:weMliall not iioed the pmis<s of II ror 
 
 of any olhcr panegyrist whose |)oe|rv niav pkiue 
 for tile iiioineni, although his n-|)ri>sinratMUof 
 tju facu will not boar the light of day. For w« 
 
\THEKS. B. C. 430. 
 
 Fmrral Oralltm 
 of PtricUt. 
 
 ATHENS, B. r 
 
 h»Te compelled every land and every «ea to open 
 a path for our valour, and have everywhcru 
 planted eternal memorials of our friendship and 
 of our enmity. Such is the city for whose sake 
 tlic-ie men nol)ly fought and died; they could not 
 btiir the thought that she might Iw taken from 
 them; and every one of us who survive 8houl(l 
 ghully toil on her behalf. I have dwelt ui)on the 
 griMintss of Athens because I want to show you 
 that we are contending for a lilgliitr priic tiian 
 tliii*.' who enjoy none of these privileges, and to 
 estahlish by manifest proof the merit of tliose 
 men whom I am now commemorating. Thiir 
 loftii'st praise bag been already spoken. For in 
 mauMifying the city I have magnified them, and 
 men like them whose virtues made her glorious. 
 An.l of how few Hellenes can it be siiirl as of 
 thim, that their deeds when weighed in the 
 bilince have been found equal to their fame! 
 Mctliinks that a death such as theirs has been 
 givis the true measure of a man's worth ; it mav 
 be tiie first revclaliim of his virtues, but is at any 
 r:iie their final 8<-al. For even those who come 
 sh .r. In other ways may justly plead the valour 
 wi;h which they have fought for their country; 
 they have blotU'd out the evil with the good, and 
 hive benefitc.l the stjitc more by their public 
 Servicer than they have injured her by their pri- 
 vate ;i' tions. None of these men were enervatoil 
 by IV !th or hesitaU- 1 to resign the pleasures of 
 life; .. .lie of them put off the evil day in the 
 hope, natural to poverty, that a man, thougli 
 poor, may one day become rich. Hut, deeming 
 thai tlie punishment of theircnemies was sweeter 
 tli:m any of tliese things, and that t!iev could fall 
 in n . nobler cause, they determined nt'the hazard 
 of thiir lives to be honourably avenge I, aril to 
 leave the rest. They resigned' to hope their un- 
 known cha.nee of happiness; but in the faee of 
 (le.iih they resolved to a'ly upon tliemselves 
 alone. And wlien the moment tame they were 
 minled to resist and suffer, rather than to Hy 
 ami s;ive their lives; they ran awav from tlie 
 w.jnl of dishonour, but on the battle fliM their 
 feet si(Hxl fast, and in an InsUmt, it the height of 
 tie ir fortune, thcv pa-.sed away from the scene, 
 not of tlieir fear, but of their glorv. Sueli was 
 the eri.lof these men; f'ley were wirthy of Athens 
 anltlie living ne • • .< re :o have a more 
 h.roic spirit alt, • v pray for a less 
 
 futil is<ue. Th 'a spirit is not to 
 
 lie expressed in .,» can discourse to 
 
 vou for ever all ^^L3of a brave de- 
 
 fyiiee winch yo y. H„- instead of 
 
 listening' to him ..ave yr. ..av by dav 
 
 fix yoiir eyes iipou i.ic givatuesso .thens.' until 
 you become filled with the Live of ,i, r; amlwIeMi 
 jou are Impressed by the spectacle of her glory 
 reflect that this empire has iH-en acquinMl hV 
 men who knew tlieir dutv and had tlte couniir",' 
 t<)<lo it; who In the hour of contiict had the fear 
 of dishonour always present to them, and who. 
 ir ever they failed in an enterprize, wouhl not 
 allow their virtues to be lost to their count rv. 
 but freely gave their lives to her as the fairest 
 ollering which they cull present at her feast, 
 llie sacrifice which ihey collectively made was 
 iniiviilually repal.l to them; for tliev received 
 ig:iin each one for himself a praise wldeh grows 
 not oM. and the noblest of all sepulchres — I siH'ak 
 
 °f o* .'"*' '," "''''■'' "'^'''' "'"'«'"•• "re lal I. but 
 0. !.M! J!) wlilth their glory siirviv.-.s, and l» pi., 
 aaiineU alwaya and ou every fitting otcusiou 
 
 1< t 
 
 both in wOTd and deed. For i.ie whole earth is 
 the sepulchre of famous men; not only are they 
 coinmemorated by columns and inscriptions in 
 their own country, but in foreign lands there 
 dwells also an unwritten memorial of them graven 
 not on stone but in the hearts of men Make 
 them your examples, and esteeming courage to 
 be freedom and freedom to Ir. happiness do not 
 weigh too nicely the perils of war The un- 
 fortunate who has no hope of a change for the 
 better baa less reason to throw away his life than 
 the prosperous who, if he survive, is always 
 liable to a change for the worse, and to whom 
 any accidental fall makes the most serious dif- 
 ference. To a man of spirit, cowanlicc and dis- 
 aster coming together arc far more bitter than 
 cleath striking him unperccived at a time when 
 lie is full of courage and animated by the gen- 
 eral hope. Wherefore I do not now commiserate 
 the parenU of the dead who stand here; I wo'iM 
 rather comfort them. You know that your life 
 has been f. is.sed amid manifold vicissitudes- an.l 
 that they maybe deemed fortunate who have 
 g.-iinwl most honour, whether au himourable death 
 like theirs, or an honourable sorrow like yours 
 and whose days have been so onlered that the 
 term of their happiness is likewise the term of 
 their life. I know how hard it is to make vou 
 feel this, when the good fortune of others will 
 t'M) often remind you of the L'ladness which once 
 lightened your hearts. And s. .rrow is felt at the 
 want of those blessings, not which a maii never 
 knew, but which were a part of his life before 
 they were taken from him. Some of you are of 
 an age at which they may hope to have othe' 
 children, and they ought t., biar their sorrow 
 better; not only will the chil Ireu who may here- 
 after be bom make them for^'et their own lost' 
 oni'3, but the city will be doublv a gainer Shs 
 will not be left desf>late, ami she will be safer 
 For a man's counsel cannot have equal weight 
 or worth, when he alone has no children to risk 
 in the general danger To those of you who 
 have passed their i..ime I say: "Congratulate 
 yourselves that you have iRvn happy during the 
 greater part of your days; remember that vour 
 life of sorrow will not last long, and be comforted 
 by the glory of those who are gone. For the 
 love of honour alone is ever young, and not 
 riches, as some Siiy, but honour is the delight of 
 men when they an; old and useless. " To you who 
 are the sons and brothers of the departed I see 
 that the struggle to emulate them will be an 
 anluous one. For all men praise the dead, and, 
 however preeminent your virtue mav be, hardly 
 will you lie thought, I ilo not sav to equal but 
 even to appniach them. The living have their 
 rivals and detractors, but nhe-i i\ man is out of 
 the way. the hi>nour and gikd will which he re- 
 ceives is unalloy(.il. And. if I am to speak of 
 womanly virtues to those of vou who will hence- 
 forth be widows, let me sum them up in one 
 short admonitiim: To a woman not to show 
 inor.. weiknc'sthanls natural to her s(..\ is 'igriat 
 glory, and n.it to lie tjilkerl al>.Mit for giHHl or for 
 evil among men. 1 have paiil the rcquire-l tribute, 
 in obe.lienee to the law. making use of such lit 
 ting words as I had. The tribute of dewls has 
 been paid in part; for the dear! have been honour 
 alilv iiilerri'l. and it remains only tint their 
 eliildreii should be maintjtinwl at the publi,. elpir^n 
 until liny are gn>wnup: this is the soljil prize 
 with which, as with a garland, Athens cmwus 
 
 
I 
 
 K* 
 
 
 
 ii^i. 
 
 ui,. 
 
 ATHENS. B. C. 4S0. 
 
 IV PIlVIM. 
 
 ATIIENS, B. C. 439-421. 
 
 her anna living and dead, after a strugRlc like 
 liifira. For where the rewards of virtue iiri> 
 Itrentost. there the noblest citizens are enliste.l in 
 the service of the state. And now, wlien yoti 
 have duly himented, every one his own dead, von 
 miiy depart.' Such was the order of the funeral 
 oelebratetl In this winter, with the end of wliich 
 ended the first year of the Pe'oponnesian War. " 
 — Thucydidea, Jlulory, traru. by B. Jowett. r I 
 Ik. 8, tet. 84-47. 
 
 B, C. 430-439.— The Plague in the city,— 
 Death of Pericles.— Capture of Potidica,— 
 •As soon as the summer retumetl [B. ('. 430) 
 liie Peloponnesians , . . Invaded Attic;i, where 
 they establi^ihcd themselves and ravaged tlie 
 country. Tliny had not been there m:inv days 
 when the plague broke out at Athens for the 
 first time. . . . The disease is said to have be- 
 (Tuti soutli of Egypt in .tlthiopia; tliciice it de- 
 winded into Egypt and Libya, and after spnwl- 
 iuL' over tlif greater part of the Persian Empire, 
 sudiienly fell upon Athens It first attaclied the 
 inli.il)itants of the Pirsus, and It was 8uppos«-(l 
 that the Peloponnesians had poisone<l the cis- 
 terns, no conduits having as yet been made 
 there. It afterwards reached the upper ciiv, 
 and then the mortality became far greater. As 
 to its probable origin or the causes whicli miglit 
 or could have produced such a disturbance ()■ 
 nature, every man, whether a phvsician or not, 
 will give his own opinion. But f shall describe 
 its actual course, and the symptoms by whieli 
 any one who knows them bcforehaml mav remg 
 nize the disorder should It ever reappear.' For » 
 was myself attacked, and witnessed the suffer- 
 ings of others. The season was admitted to 
 have been remarkably free from oitllnary sick- 
 ness; and if anybody was already ill of any other 
 disease. It was absorbed in this. Many wlif> 
 were in perfect health, all In a moment, and 
 without any apparent reason, were seized with 
 violent heats in the heiul and with redness anil 
 lutiammation of the eyes. Internally tlio tiinwt 
 and tongue were quickly suffused with bloocl 
 and the breat'i became unnatund and fetid. 
 There followed sneezing and liDarseness; in a 
 short time the disorder, accompanied liy a vio- 
 lent cougli, reached the chest; then fastening 
 lower down, it would move the stomiich and 
 bring on all the vomits of bile to which physi- 
 cians have ever given names; and thev were 
 very distressing. . . . Tlie txxly extemallv was 
 not so very hot to the touch, nor yet pale ; it was 
 a livid colour inclining to red, and breaking out 
 in pusttdes and ulcers. But the internal fever 
 was lnten.se. . . . The disorder which had origi- 
 nally settled in the head pa,sse<l grailually 
 through the whole body, and. if a person got 
 over the worst, would often seize the extremi- 
 ties and leave Its mark, attacking the privv 
 parts anil the finirers and toes; and some escapi'il 
 wit' .he loss of tliese, some with the loss of their 
 eyes. . . . Tiie crowding of the [leople out of 
 I le country into the city aggravated tiie misery; 
 and the newly -arrive<l suffered most. . . , The 
 mortalitv among them was dreailful and they 
 jierishcl in wild disfmier. The dead lay as they 
 hail died, one upon another, while others hardly 
 alive wallowed in the streeta and crawled aljout 
 every fountain craving for water. The temples 
 In which they lodged were full of the corpses of 
 tlinse who died in them; for the violence of the 
 calamity was such that moo, not knowing where 
 
 178 
 
 to turn, grew reckless of all law, human and 
 divine. . . . The pleasure of the moment aril 
 any sort of thing which conduoed to it took the 
 place both of honour and of expediency. Xo 
 fear of Ooil or law of man deterreil a crimin.il ' 
 Terrilled by the plague, when they learned of it 
 the Pelopoimesians retreated from Attica, after 
 ravaging it for forty days; but, in the mein- 
 tiine, their own coasts had been ravaged, as be- 
 fore, by llie Athenian fleet. And now, being one.' 
 more relieved from tiie presence of the eneniv 
 though still grievously alilicted by the plagu'f 
 the Athenians tume*l upon Pericles with com- 
 plaints and rep-oaches, and imposed a fine upon 
 liim Tliey also sent envoys to Sparta, with 
 IH-ace proposals which received no encourage 
 ment. But Pericles spoke calmly and wisely to 
 the people, and they acknowledged their sense 
 of dependence upon him by re-electing him gen- 
 eral and committing again "all their affairs to 
 his cliarge." But he was stricken next year 
 with the plague, and, lingering for some wwks 
 In broken health, he died in the summer of 429 
 B. C. By his death the republic was given over 
 to striving demagogues and factions, at just the 
 time when a capable brain axa^ han.l were neeiled 
 in its government most. The war wert on 
 acquiring more ferocity of temper with every 
 campaign. It was especially embittered in the 
 course of the second summer by the execution, 
 at Athens, of several Lacedaemonian envovi 
 who were captureil while on their way to solicit 
 help from the Persian king. One of tliesi' un 
 fortunate envoys was .Vristcus, who had organ 
 izcd the defence of 1' lidaea. Tlir city was still 
 holding out against tlie Athenians, who 1! hU- 
 aded it obstinately, although their trooji-; suf- 
 fered frightfully from the plague. Bu' iu the 
 winter of 430-429 B. C. they succumbed . star- 
 vation aud surrendered their town, being per- 
 mitted to depart in search of a new li.ime. 
 Potidaea was tlien peopled anew, with colonists 
 — Tliucydides, Ilutory, tr. by Jomett, bk. -.' *•'•( 
 8-70. 
 
 Also in: E. Abbott, Periela anil the GM/n 
 Aye of At/ient, eh. 13-1.5.— W. W. Lliiyil T!u 
 Age of Perides, eh. 64 (o. 2).— L. Whiblev, /'../, Yi ■ 
 (vii Pnrtie» in Athens durimj the Ptloponn^niin 
 iKar.— W. Wiichsmuth, //«»«. Antiquities ■■fthe 
 Orr.kn, neele. 02-64 (c. 2). 
 
 B. C. 429-421.— After Peridei,— The rise of 
 the Demagoeues,— "When Pericles rov to 
 nower it woulll liave been possible to fniiiie ,1 
 Pan-Hellenic union, in which Sparta anil .Mliens 
 would liave bein the leading states; anil sueli a 
 dualism would have Imkii the best guarantee lur 
 the rights of the smaller cities. Wlien he liiiHl 
 there was no policy left but war with Spana. 
 and conquest in the West. And not only so, but 
 there was no politician who could adjust the 
 relations of domestic war and foreign ccm.iuesl. 
 The Atlienians pasist'd from one to the nlle r. as 
 they were address<'d by Cleon or AUiliiales. 
 We cannot wonder that the men who live.l in 
 those days of trouble spoke bitterlv of I'erii les, 
 holding him accountable for the miseries «liiili 
 fell upon Athens. Other statesmen li.i.l be 
 Queatheil good laws, as Solon and Clistlieiies. or 
 the memory of great achievements, as Tlniui-i.' 
 cles or Cimon, but the only changes wliieh 
 Pericles had introduceil were thought, nut wltli- 
 oiit reason, to be changes for the worse: an.l In- 
 left his Country involved in a ruinous War. — li 
 
 t 
 
ATHENS, B. C. 42«-481. 
 
 Rue nf the 
 UemagoQuee, 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 484-408. 
 
 Abbott. PerieUt and the Ooldea Age of Athewi 
 l,;i. 362-363.— "The moral cliaOKe wliicli U.i\ 
 . . befallen the Attic community \im\ it U 
 true, even (luring tlic lif, ime of Pericles, manl- 
 fisled itself by means of sufflciently cleiir pre- 
 monitory siffM; but Pericles lia,l. notwitlistand- 
 ill?, up to the (lays of bis la.st illness, remainc.i 
 the centre of the state; the people ha ' igain and 
 agiin returned to him, and by suboriinatinL' 
 tliemaclves to the personal authority of Perick^ 
 Imd succeeded in recovering the demeanor wliicb 
 liilitted them. But now the voice was hushed 
 wliich had l>een able to sway the unruly citizens 
 I viii against their will. So other authority was 
 111 cxntence — no aristocracy, no official class, no 
 Ij.Kini of experienced 8tal.esmen— nothing in 
 f.ii t. to which the citizens might have looked for 
 tluiJanee and control. The multitude had re- 
 covered absolute independence, and in propor- 
 tion iw. in the interval, readiness of speech and 
 sopiiistic versatility had spread in Athens the 
 numlier had increased of those who now' put 
 tlieiiiselves forward as popular speakers and 
 \m\en. But as, among all these, none was 
 capable of leading the multitude after the fashion 
 of Pericles, anoiher method of leading the people 
 anollier kind ot demagogy, sprung iiitoexistenre' 
 Pemles stood above the multitude His 
 
 successors were obliged to alopt other means- 
 inonlcrto ac(iuire influence, they took ii.ivi-i. 
 taje not so much of the strong as of the we ik 
 points In the character of the citizens and 
 achieved popularity by flattering their iiiclina 
 tious, and endeavoring to satisfy the cravin-'s of 
 tlieir baser nature. . . . Now for the first Time 
 men belon-ing to the lower class of citizens 
 tliriist themselves forward to play a part in 
 rolitus.-menof the trading and artisan class 
 till' culture and wealth of which hi: i so vigor- 
 ou>ly mcreased at Athens. ... The office of 
 gciicral f re<iuently became a post of martyrdom • 
 am) the bravest men felt that the prospect of 
 beini; called to account as to their campaigns liv 
 coT.inily demagogues, before a ca jricious mi- 
 tit'Kle. disturlied the str.iightforwaid ioyoiisncss 
 of thrir activity, and threw obstacles in the way 
 of their successes. ... On the oratou' tribune 
 t!ie contmst was more striking, "ot^ the first 
 immunent successor of Perich a certain 
 
 1. .inites. a -ude and uneducated who was 
 
 r.iniW on the comic stage as ■ 'boar' or 
 ; ir of .Mehtc (the name of t,.c district to 
 « uili he belonged), a dealer in tow and mill- 
 owner, who only for a short space of time took 
 he lead in the popular assembly. His place was 
 .■uen by Ly.sicles, who had acquired wealth by 
 
 . M. !,■» that the dem:igogues attained to power 
 w lio h.1.1 lirst made themselves a name by their on- 
 p .Miion a,;uinst Pcricies.and, among thcm,Cl(;on 
 « .1 ^ 1 le li rst who was able to maintain his authority 
 I .ra lon-,.r period of time; so that it is in his pro- 
 i( -lin;;, liuring the ensuing years of the war 
 I. > ,e who (■ character of the new demiigogy 
 ■/, , I, Tjl'^^' 'n'">'f'-'>"« itself. "-E. CurtiiV,. 
 . 1 ; ,;;n ■"*"• '• ■'• •■''; '-"The characters 
 
 " ii. military commander and the political 
 
 'ZZ.TZ *-':^".''"'"y ^-P^rated. The first 
 J.J MIS or his division we find in the davs of 
 
 iKHii. but his real genius cleariv cillci |ii,„ ,„ 
 .Tl" '"„,*'"' '\-^^<^n„n. Periklfls w,« ,11 
 .hi. and «uc(;es8ful genenU; but in hiiu the 
 
 military chaiiicter wag quite auborditiale to that 
 of tlie political leader. It was a wise com 
 promise winch entrusted Kiinon with the de 
 fen. of the state abroad and PeriklCs with its 
 ina.iagetnentathome. AftPi Pcriklc-alhescpara- 
 ..n widencl We nowhere liear of DOmos- 
 tlieirfj an( Phormion as political lea.lers; and 
 even m SMaa the political is subordinate to tlic 
 military (;lianicter. Klefln, on the other Land 
 WIS a piihtician but not a soldier But the old 
 notion of combining military and political iiosi 
 ion was not quite lost. It was still deemed that 
 he who proposed a wariikc expedition should 
 hi it!!, if It v,-ere needful, be able to conduct it 
 uJ^f "'l-r'" ^""'.w** tempted to take on 
 himself iiuliliry functions; he was forced into 
 comiiiiu.d agamst SphakUJria; by the able and 
 loyal help of DOmosthenCs he acquitted himself 
 with honour. But his head w.as turned by suc- 
 cess; he aspired to independent command- he 
 measured himself against the miglity Brasidas 
 andthe fatjil battle of Amphipolis wMtlie result 
 It now iKcame clear that the Demagogue and the 
 General must commonly be two distinct persons 
 I he versatile genius oi AlkibiadCs again united 
 the two cliaracters; but he left no successor 
 ■ . . A Dijinagogue then was simply an influ- 
 ential speaker of popular politics. DflmosthenOs is 
 commonly distinguished as an orator, wliile 
 Ivleon is branded as a Demagogue; but the 
 po.sition of the one was the same as the position 
 of the other. Tiio only (,ue.stiou is as to the 
 wisilomand honesty of the aducc given either 
 liy Kleon or by OamosthenCs."— E. A. Faemau 
 
 lIMariral Evfiyg, id net., pp. laS-UO 
 
 B C. 429-427— Fate of Platia.-Phormios 
 V.ctone,.-^evolt of Lesbos.-Siege of Mity! 
 
 M 'VT^'*"" •,'''°°<'' itcttK and its reversal 
 See Oreeck: B. C. 429-427. 
 
 n,°" C- 42s— Seiiure of Pylus by Demos- 
 theneo, the general.— Spartans entrapped and 
 captured at Sphacteria.— Peace pleaded for 
 and refused. S,-e Gueece: B. C. 425. 
 
 B. C. 424-406.— Socrates as soldier and 
 ati*en.-the trral of the Generals.-" Socrat.s 
 was hntn very shonly before the year 46» B (' 
 ills father, Soplironircus. was a sculptor his 
 mother, Pluenarete. a midwife. N'olliing 'di-ii. 
 nite IS known of his moral and intelle.tii .1 
 development. There is no specific record of 
 
 * il" .., . *- * *'"■" ''" "■"» '"■"'•ly forty 
 
 years old. All that we can siiy is tliat his voiitii 
 and manhood were passed in the most splendid 
 
 Ceriod of Atlienian or Greek history . As a 
 »>; he received the usu-il Athenian liberal edu- 
 cation In music and gymnastic, an education 
 that is to say, menUil and idiysical. He was 
 fond of (luoting from the existing Greek litera 
 ture, and he seems to have lieeu familiar witli it 
 especially with Homer. lie is represented by 
 Aenophon as re|K'ating Pnxlicus' fable of llic 
 choicc of Heracles at leng'h. He says that he 
 was in the habit of studyi.ig with his friends 
 tJie treasures which the wise men of old have 
 left us in their books: ' collections, tluit is of 
 the short and pithy sayings of the seven sag( s 
 ■uch as -know thyself; a saying, it may !,,'. 
 noticed, whieli lay at the root o' his whole 
 U-achiiig. And l.j Imd some knowledge of 
 malheni; s, ahd of science, as it ^x,^u•U .a 
 those di-.ys. He understo"d something i,f 
 aKtroiiomy and of a.lvuuc;.d geometry; uml he 
 
 179 
 
 ' 
 

 ATHENS, B. C. 424-406. 
 
 uiul CifOen. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C 481. 
 
 wa« acquainted with certain, nt anv rate, of tlic 
 thvorius of liU predecessors In plillowphv. tlie 
 Physical or Cosmicul pliilonophers. sucli ii.s 
 Ileraclitusund PurinenidiD, anil, espi-ciaily, witii 
 those of AnaxaRoms. But tiierc is no t rustWnrt liy 
 evidenre which enableii us to go 1-eyonil tlic 
 bare fact that lie had such knowledge. . . . All 
 then that we can say of the first forty years of 
 Socrates' life consists of general statements like 
 these. During Ihcso years there is no specitii: 
 record of him. Betwct'u 433 B. C. anc'. '29 B. C. 
 he served as a common soldier at the siege of 
 Potldsea, an Athenian dependency which had 
 revolted, and surpassed every one in his powers 
 of enduring Imrigcr, thirst, and cold, and all the 
 hardships of a severe Thracian winter. At this 
 siege we hear of him for the first time in con- 
 nection with Alcibiadcs, whose life he saveil In a 
 skirmish, and io whom he eagerly relinr(iiished 
 thj prize of valour. In 431 B. C. the Pelopon- 
 nesian War broke out, and In 434 B. C. the' 
 AthcnUus were disastrously defeated and 
 routed by the Thebans at the battle of Uelium. 
 Socrates and Laches were among the few who 
 did not yield to panic. They retreiiled together 
 steadily, and the rv.soliite bearing of Socrates 
 was conspicuous to friend and fiHs alike. Had 
 all the Athenians behave<l as he did, says 
 Laches, In the dialogue of that name, the di'feat 
 would have been a victory. Socrates fought 
 bravely a third time at the Imttle of Anipiiipolis 
 [432 B. C] against '' - Pelo|ionnesian forces, in 
 which the commands on both sides, Cleon and 
 Brasidas, were killeo. :t there is non-cord of 
 his specific services on that occasion. Aliout the 
 same time that S<wratcs was displaying con- 
 spicuous courage In tl'.e cause of Alliens at 
 Delium and Aniphipolis, Aristophanes was hold- 
 ing him up to hatred, contempt, and ridicule in 
 the cometly of tlie Clouds [B. C. 42,"}], . . . Tlie 
 Clouds la his protest against the immorality of 
 free thought and the Sophists, He chose 
 Socrates for his central flgUK-, chiefly, no doubt, 
 on account of S(K-rates' well-known and strange 
 personal appearance. The grotesque ugliness, 
 and flat nose, and prominent eyes, and Silenus- 
 like face, and shabby dress, might be seen everv 
 day in the streets, and were familiar to every 
 Athenian. Aristophanes cared little — probably 
 he did not take the trouble to find out — that 
 Socrates' whole life was spent in fighting against 
 the SophlsU. It was enough for him that 
 Socrates did not accept the traditional beliefs, 
 and was a good centre piece for a comeily. . . . 
 The Clouds, it is needless to sav. is a gross nn<l 
 absurd libel from beginning' to end: l)Mt 
 Aristophanes hit tlie popu-ir conception. "Tlie 
 charges wlilch he made iu 423 1!. (' stuck to 
 Six-rates to the end of liis life. Tliey arc exactly 
 tlie cliarges made hy [i..pular nrejuiiice. against 
 which Socrates defends liimself In the first ten 
 chapters of the Apolouv. and which he savs have 
 been so long • in tlie air. ' He formulate"s them 
 «s follows: • Socrates is an evil doer who busies 
 himself with investigating things beneath he 
 c.irtli and in tlie sky, and who makes tlie worse 
 appear the better reason, and who teaches others 
 tlies.!same things,', . . For sixteen vears after 
 tlic battle of Aniphipolis we hear iiothing of 
 Socrates. The nv\< events in his life, of which 
 there is s specific econl. are tiiose narrated liy 
 himself in the twi-ntieiji chapter of the Apolo-^-v 
 'luey illustrate, as lie ine:iut llicm to illustrate. 
 
 180 
 
 his invincible moral courage. ... In 406 B C 
 the Athenian tied defeaU<<l the Laimliemoni iin 
 at the be'tlc of Arglnusip, so called from sciao 
 small islands off the south-east pt)!nt of Th-sUis 
 After the battle the Athenian conii.iatidera 
 omitted to recover the IkxHcs of their dead an.' 
 to save the living fniin olT their dl*ihl|.,i 
 enemies. The Athenians at home, on hearlne nf 
 this, were f; js. The due p«'rfomianee of 
 funeral rites was a very sacred duty with tlie 
 Greeks; and many citizens mourned 'for frien.Is 
 and relatives who had been left to drown, Tho 
 commamlers were immediately recalled, ami s" 
 assemlily was held In wlileh they were aceii»-J 
 of neglect of duty. They ilefendtKl themsilves 
 by saying that they had orilered certain infirior 
 olficera (am<mgst othere, their accuser Tlura- 
 menes) to perform the <luty, but that a storm 
 had come on which had rendered the perfi.-i. 
 ance impossible. The delwte was adjourn, 1 
 and It was resolved that the Senate slionKl 
 decide In what way the commanders slmuM lie 
 tried. The Senate resolv<>(l ikit il,e Allienun 
 people, having lieard the aecusaiion and x'.k 
 defence, should priK-eed to vote forlliwiih f r 
 the 14 (|uitlai or condemnation of the eiirht i.-i 
 man.lTs collectively. Tlie resolution «'is 
 gnissly unjust, and It was illegal. It suNti 
 tut<(l a popular vole for a fair and formal tri il 
 . . , SiK -rates was at lliat time ameinlierof ili^ 
 Sen,ile, tlie only olHei! that he ever filled. I'ii 
 Senate was ci>nipo.>«-d of five hundred i iii/, as 
 clciteil by lot, fifty from each of the ten Irilv-i 
 and holding olHce for oni! year. Tlie iiieuiVr^ 
 of ea<-li trilH! held the Prvlunv, tliat is wen- 
 responsible for the conduct of business .vr 
 thirty-five days at a time, and ten out ..f ili,^ 
 fifty were proedri or presidents every seven .!,i\ < 
 in succession. Every bill or motion was e\:im' 
 ined by the proedri In-fore it was submitlol to 
 the Assemlilv, to s<-c if it were in acair.Liiuv 
 with law: if It was not. it was iiuaslied: ouo of 
 the proedri presided over the Si-nate ami th,- .t-- 
 sembly each d:iy, and for one ihiy onlv: ho was 
 called the Epistates: it was his duty t"o jnit ih 
 question to tlie vote. In short he was -.h. 
 speaker. . . . (In the day on -.liich it was pro- 
 |)osed ti> take a collective vote on the ai ,|uiiiai 
 or condeinnatiim of the eight ciinimandiTs 
 Socrates was Epistates. The propoiil was as 
 we liave seen, illegal: but the people wire 
 furious against the accused, and it w.is a verv 
 piijiiilar one-. Some of the prcn-dri nupos,-,! i'; 
 before it was submitted to the Assemlilv. oa ihe 
 .L-ronnd of its illegality ; but they wire' sK n.rii 
 by threats and sulisided. Socrates alone refuse i 
 to give wav. He would not put a ijues!i-n 
 which he knew to be illegal, to the voie 
 Threats of suspension and arrest, the elamoi;:,'; 
 an angry people, tlie fear of impri.souiii.nt , r 
 death, could not move him. . . . IkH h:* 
 authority lasted only for a (lav ; the pm,v, Ihu-s 
 •" • idjoumwi, a more plfant Epishuo* -.» 
 d hira, and the generals were conie;]i:i-! 
 aLdcxecuted."—F. J. Church, Intr.:4. t- / ■• 
 nid Death of fix-nitea, pp 9--.';! _.<e ■ . - 
 Obeeck: B, C, 406, 
 
 B. C. 421.— End of the first period of the 
 Peloponneiiaa War.— The Peace of Niciss - 
 "The first stage of the Peloponnesian w ir ,.n. 
 to an end just ten years after the liiv i.; n . ' 
 Attioi by Arch: iamiis in Ml 15, C, i;> r -u:;., 
 had been almost purely negative, a vast .(i^a 
 
ATHENS, B. C. 421 
 
 ExptdiUtm. 
 
 ATHENS, n. C. 4IV 
 
 •itT of IjIooiJ and treasure h«/| Jxwn wa«t«il 
 ',a "-:«;h 8i 1p. but to no great purpov- "li... 
 Ath<nian naval power was unim|>.'iire<l. aL tlj<; 
 coafoleraof of Iklos, llioiiijli uliakirn by tlie 
 sucfMsfiil revolt of Amphipoli* atl tlie Tiirarc- 
 w»r'i towns, waa ttill k-ft sutmistin? On tlw 
 lAhtT hand, the attt.npu of Allnni to iu:ii<m- 
 piiiih anytLin,» on land had cntiniv fai;»!<l uii I 
 the defensive policy of Periclea ha(i befn no far 
 jxstiSed. Wtll would It have be«n for Athcni 
 if !i( r citizens had taken the lemon to heart, tud 
 < .[itfn!"i thi-mselvea with having escaped «o 
 <aaily from the greatest war ther ha/1 tvr 
 known.— C. W. C Oman, llitt. of Qrtv^. p. 
 '41 — The tn-aty called since ami.mt times the 
 rv&Tf: of Nicias . . put an tnd to the wir }« 
 tw'<:a the two Gre.,k confwlcrations of sut/js 
 aft/r it hoiJ lasted for rather more than tcri 
 years, viz,, from the attack of the IVe^jtians 
 up-.n Plat**. i)\. Ixxxvii. l 'Ije^riunini of 
 April B C 431 1 to Ol, Uxxix 3 'towards the 
 mi'M!" of April B. C, 421) Th.; war was for 
 this r>-:.*.n known umler the n;>m<> of the 
 Ten Years' War, while tlie P.loponnpsiaui 
 call-i It the Atiic War. Its en,! constitute 1 
 a triumph for Atheui; for ail the plaas of 
 the enemies who hail attacked her had come 1 1 
 nauibt; Sparta ha-l been unable to fulfil a sin- 
 gle "ne of the promi^s wi.h which she Iia<l 
 enter, i upon the war, and was ultimatelv fotred 
 to aeiinowledge the dominion of Athens in its 
 w!)fc!e extent.— notwittstauding all the misukes 
 and inis/ivmes, n'>twithstandini{ all the calami- 
 tit-9 attributable, rr not, to the Athenians them- 
 selvs: the re*jurces of off, nee and defence 
 ■vhii .i the city owed to Pericles had therefore 
 rrov 1 their excellence, and all the fury of her 
 opp-,:icnis ha.i wasted itself ai;ainst her in vain 
 Spir 4 hers. If was satisfied with the advanu^ej 
 whi 1 the peace o3ered to her own citv and citi- 
 zens, but great was the discontent amon? her 
 eoaf. .erates, particularly amonif the sec^tndary 
 .-•ate. »jo had originallv occasione.1 the war 
 inl ,::,az(A Sparta to take part in it. Even 
 after t,ie conclusion of tlie pea!.-, it was impos- 
 sib.e to ,n,iuce Thebes and Corintli to accede to 
 It. 1 he result of the war to .Sparta was there- 
 fore tiie dis.so!tnion of the confe,leration at wb.»e 
 hea.1 siie had lje?un the war; she felt herself 
 tlir;r.-()v place.l in s.j dangenjuslv Lvjlatcd a posi- 
 tio.n, that slie was oblijed to fall back upon 
 .Vtlieni m self k-fence ariinst her own confeder- 
 •ites, AecorrJinily the Peace of Xicias was in 
 the Course of the same rear convencj into a fifty 
 ycari alliance, under tli« terms of which Sparu 
 ■M'i Alliens contracted tlie obligation of mutual 
 ■ivsistance a?uiiist auv hostile att*-k.'— E Cur- 
 tu-. II..-. „fiir„^,, M-. 4 <./, 2 ,. 3, _see also 
 '■iiEF.i K: B. C, 434-421, 
 
 B, C, 4J1-418.— New combinations.— Con- 
 axting alliances with Surta and the AreiTe 
 Co.niederacy.-Rising ioflaence of Alcibiades. 
 -War in Ar^os and Arcadi*.— Battle of Mao- 
 t:aea, .SeOREECE: B. C, 4aI-41■' 
 B C 416— Siege and conquest of Melos.— 
 «»s,s ,-e of the inhabitants. S • iIrefce 
 
 r-,« J\^\~^^* expedition ajainst Syra- 
 cjie.-Mitilation of t£e Herm* :Hermai). - 
 
 A-rMiTii having brolien out in .■9i. ilv. iKtue^-n 
 
 ,''; '■'"^ ."/ Seu-e-tta and Selinou., ■'■the latt.T 
 
 :■ eii:.-! aid frc.,,. Svracaw rp.-,a ti,i^, S-.-.-.-sla 
 
 '">!--' vaiuiy sought heip from Carthage, »p 
 
 l^i 
 
 pealed t , Athens, where the exile.1 Sicilians wrr» 
 n irnerou.,. Alkiblades ha<l been oueof the in.«t 
 , urgent f ,r tlie atfj>ck upon Mel«. and he .lid not 
 , Vm-. th- f,r.s..-iit opiwrtuuity to Incite the Athen- 
 ians t.. ;:, .■nterpriv:.^ much jtreator iiniK.rtance 
 I and wh.-re he hoped t,. be in cominan'l All 
 
 , mens minds w.,re fllle,! >ith ambithius hopes 
 Lverywhere. says Pli, .rch. were t.. be w-en 
 younif men in the gymnasia, ohl m.n in work- 
 sho(«i an 1 publl.; places of m.tetlni', -Irawine tlie 
 map of Sicily, talking alxmt the s'-a that sur- 
 rounds it. the ijwluess of its hirljors, its pcni- 
 tion opp.jsit« Airi.^ii. Est«blisli..d chere, It would 
 tK; ea-.y to crf«s over and subjugate Carthage 
 and extend their swav as far as the Pillars 0' 
 Hercules. The rich did not 'ipprove of this rash- 
 nes.s. but feare.| if they opp<«ed It hnt the op- 
 posite faction wouM nccus« them . wishing to 
 avoid the service and Cf«ts of ■ mg gnllevs. 
 Mkias haii more courage; even -r 'he \tlion. 
 lans had appointed him general, ,1 Alkibiades 
 and I-amachw, he spf^ke pub! against the 
 
 enterprise, showed the Imoru.lcnce of going In 
 search of new subjecu when th<^- they alr.ady 
 r-u .T^^? " ""^ """nei' in « sUteof revolt, as in 
 thalkidike, or only waited for a disaster to bre:ik 
 the chain which bound them to Athens He 
 ende.1 by repr-oching Alklbiades for iilunging 
 : .' republic, to gratify his personal ambition 
 '■ ) a foreign war of the greatt^st danger, . . 
 • ae of the demagogues, however, replied that 
 lie woii.d put an end to all this hesiution, and he 
 propw-d and secured the passage of a decree 
 giving the genenli full power to use nil the 
 re.s<.urc.s of the city in pntparing for th- i-\ .edi- 
 tion f.Mar.h 24. 41.", B, C) Nikias was vim- 
 plete y in tbt! right. The expe<Jition to Sicily 
 was Impolitic and foolUh. In the .Egaan Sea 
 I ay the empire of Athens, and there oalv it cnuhl 
 lie, within reach, clc«e at hand. Every acquisition 
 westward of the Peloponnes.^ was a soure.- of 
 weakness. .Syracuse, even if coniiucre<l would 
 not long remain subject Whatever might be 
 the result of the expedition, it was sur- V, be 
 disastrr.us in the end. ... An event whicli t.wk 
 place shortly before the departure of th.- fl.et 
 '*-» June; threw tftrro- 'tito the citv: on.- i 'n- 
 ing the hennai througi, the city' w.re s , 
 
 have been mutilated. . . . 'Tli.-si- Her-i. 
 half-statues of the god Herm.'s. T'rrr> bl,x ' 
 nwble about the height of the himan tii .e 
 The upper part was cut in*o » h. nd ' .e m-'k 
 and bust; the lower part w.u ft s-. ,. ..ua.l- 
 rangular pillar, broad at the ba.v u-iu,out arms 
 Ixxly, 01 legs, but with the sir .. t tn.irk ..f 
 the male sex in .■ •. Ti, -v wei. .: ,ribut.-d In 
 great numbers r - -bout Athrn., in.l always 
 m the most cons, . ., .is situation-:; >taf!irig be- 
 side the r.uterdfxirs of private liousts a-, ».-ll as 
 of tempi, s, near the mo.st fnt.iuente.1 iM.rti, .n at 
 the intersection of crjss ways, in the public 
 agor»^ • \- The religious feelings of the Greeks 
 considered the gfxl to be planted or domicile,l 
 Where his statue sto.>l, so that the (.-.inip-jnion 
 ship, sympathy, and guardmnship ..f H.rip's 
 Ucame ai.-(.xiate.l with m.^t of the manifesta- 
 tions of conjuuit life at Athens,— i...litical 
 s.>cial, cominerci.ll. or gvmnastic,'. , , To all 
 pious minds the citv seemed menac.-l witli i;riat 
 misfortunes uale-is th,.- aUL'er .,f Heaven -I1...1I.I 
 be app.-a.vvi by a sulfici.-nt expi.iti.m. While 
 .\;»i:il.„I.-. had inauv p.ini-ians. lie Had :i!-m vi.. 
 at enemies. Not long U,-forL- this time llyiK-r 
 
 I 1 
 
 i 
 
ATHENS, B. C. 415. 
 
 Sieillitn 
 Expedition. 
 
 AXaESS. B. C. 4l5-tl3. 
 
 bolos. a contemptible man. had almost gucceedetl 
 in obt.%lnin); his banishment; ami he had C9capc(l 
 tliij danger only by uniting his party with that 
 of Nilcias. and causing the demagogue himself to 
 suffer ostracism. Theaflairof tlie hermai ap- 
 peared to his adversaries a favourable occasion 
 to repeat the attempt made bv Hyperbolos, and 
 we have good reason to believe in a political 
 machination, seeing this same populace applaud, 
 a few months later, the impioiu auiiaclty of 
 Aristophanes in his comedy of Tlie Birds. An 
 inciiiiry was set on foot, and certain metoikoi ami 
 »l:ivcs. without making any deposition as to the 
 hermai, reralled to mind that before this time 
 some of these statues had been broken by young 
 men afK'r a night of carousal and intoxication, 
 thus in lirectly uttackini; .\lkiljladoii. Others in 
 set tfrmi accused him of havint; at a banquet 
 piroJied the Eleusiniaii Mysteries; and men took 
 alvanta!?eof the superstitious terror* of the peo- 
 ple to awake their political anxieties. It was re- 
 peated that the breakers of sacred statues, the 
 jirofaners of mysteries, would n-spcct the gov- 
 ernment even leas than they had respected the 
 fro Is, and it was whispered that not one of tliese 
 (Times liad been committed without the partici- 
 pation of Alkihia les; and in proof of this men 
 spoke of the truly aristocratic license of hi) 
 life. Was he in led the author of this sacri- 
 legious freak? To beli"ve him capaMe of it 
 w.iuld not l)e to calumniate him. O;, on the 
 other hand, was it n sciwnie pl.anneti to do him 
 Injury ? Although proofs are lacking. It is cer- 
 tain that among tlie rich, upon whom rested the 
 heavy burden of the naval expenses, a plot had 
 l)e.'n formed to destroy tlie power of Alkibiades, 
 and perhaps to prevent the sailing of the tieet. 
 The demagogues, who had inloxir iu«l the peo- 
 ple with hope, were for tlie expedition; hut the 
 popularity of Alkibiades was obnoxious to them : 
 a compromise was made between tlie two fac- 
 tions, as is often done in times whe.i public 
 morality is enfeebled, ami Alkibiades foun I liim- 
 self thrratenol on all sides. . . . Urging .is a 
 pretext the dangers of delay in sending olT the 
 expeilition, they obtained a decree that .\lkil)iadi's 
 should embark «t once, ami that tlie (luestion of 
 his guilt or innocence should be postponeil until 
 after his return. It was now tlie midillo of 
 summer. The day appointed for departure, the 
 vvh lie city, eitizens and foreigners, went out to 
 IMraii'us at daybreak. . . . At tliat moment tlie 
 view was clearer as to the doubts and d angers, 
 and also the distance of the expeditim; but nil 
 eyes were drawn to the imnien*! pretiiralioin 
 tlmt hod iK'cn niadi', and ronficlence ninl pride 
 consoled tlioHc wlm werealxMit to pari.' V iMi- 
 riiv, ffitt nfth- d'lrk Ml ,/,•, .-V 21. «'<-r a {r 3| 
 Also !•« TIiucv liles, Itiilini. H: H.ir-. Jj-js 
 — <}. V . Cm, r/i' Alhfiiiiii kn lir. r'l ,1. — (1 
 Orote. /fitl. of tlrrri-,-, f,t. i. cA, .H (r 7) 
 
 B. C. 4'S-4i3< -Fatal end of the expcditioa 
 aKaintt Syracuie.— ■Alkllilaili's w asc ill.' I liark 
 to Athens, to lake his trial on a eiiarge of im. 
 piety. . . . He did not go bark to .Vlluiis for 
 Lis trial, but estaptil to IV-loiionnAsoH, wliire we 
 shall hear fmm him again. Meanwhile the coin- 
 man I of the .Vtlienian forec In Sicily was left 
 prariicaijy In tl„. |,aiiils of NIklas. .Vow Miklas 
 coull always ait well when he diil ai-t; but It 
 was very liar.l to m.ike him art: alnivc all on an 
 erraiii wiijrU he ii it<-r|. i»ne might say tliat 
 Byraruse waasavol through the delays of Nikias. 
 
 He now went off to petty expedilions in the 
 west of Sicily, under coverof settling matters ai 
 Segesta. . . . The Syracusans by this time iiuite 
 despised the invaih rs. Their horsemen roile up 
 to tiie camp of the Athenians at Katari<> and 
 asked them if they had come into Sicily nuTely 
 to sit down there as colonists. . . . Tlie winter 
 (B. C. 415-414) waschletly spent on both sid^s in 
 sending embassies to and fro to gain allies 
 Nikias also sent home to Athens, asking fm 
 horsemen and money, an 1 the pi^pIc, without a 
 word of rebuke, voted him all that he asked. 
 But the most important embassy of all was that 
 which the Syracusans simt to Corinth and Sp in i 
 Corinth zealously toik up tha ciuse of i„,r 
 colony an I plead.<d for Svricuse at ,Sp irta .\n I 
 at Sparta Corinth an I Syracuse found alnlp.rin 
 the banislie 1 Athenian Aliibiadfls. who was n <v 
 c; ling ail that hs ciuld against Atlieiis. . . . H,. 
 tol 1 the Spartans to occupy a fortri'ss in .Vttica 
 which they soon afterwarls diil, and a great .Ital 
 came of it. But he also told them to give vigor 
 ous help to Syracuse, an I above all t\\i.ij;1 to 
 send a Spartan co:ii Hinder The m t<! ni n^ nf 
 Sparta went for a great deal in those days; Imt 
 no man could have been better chosen than tlie 
 Spartan who was stmt, lie was Oylipjios, the 
 deliverer of Syrarus'. He was mire lil<e an 
 Athenian than a Spartan, ijuirk and ready nf 
 resource, which few Spartans wen;. . . . Ami 
 now at last, when tli" spring rann (U4) XiJsias 
 wasdriven todosom'thing. . . . The .\iliiniaas 
 . . . occupied all that part of the hill wliiili lay 
 outslile the walls of Syracuse. They were 
 joined by their liorscmen, Greek an. I Siliel, anj 
 after nearly a year, the siege of Syraous<. n ally 
 began. The obji-ct of the Athenians now wu 
 to build a wall acniss the hill and to carry it 
 down to the sea on both sides. Syracuse would 
 thus be hemmed In. The object of the Hyr»- 
 ciisans was to builil a cross-wall of their own 
 which should hinder the Athenian wall from 
 reaching the two points it aimed at. Tliis they 
 tried more than once; but in vain. TliiTe were 
 several fights on the hill, and at last there w is s 
 fight of more importAnce on the lower irrnanil 
 by the (Jreat Harbour. . . . The Syrac.itins 
 were defeated, as far as fighting went; but tliev 
 gained far more tlian they lost. For l^im i.h.Ji 
 was killed, and with him all vigour passed iwny 
 from the .Vthenian camp. At tlie sam i in munt 
 the Athenhm Heet sailed into the On'at II irlioiir, 
 and a Syracusan attai'k on the Atlienian w irks 
 on the hill was defeate.l. Nikias n^m lined in 
 comman I of the invaders; but he was iiri v r.islv 
 sick, an I for once In his life his liead vr<m i, 
 have been luriie I by suocoss. He lliiisinil tlie 
 wall on the south "side; but ho iiegle,i,| to 
 •Inish It on the north siilo also, so that SyMenw 
 was not ri'ally hemmed In. But the In iru uf 
 the Syrariisims sank. ... It was at this d irkist 
 moment of all that lieltventnce came. A 
 
 (Virinthian ship, under lU captain (Jon.'vlo- 
 sailed into the Little Harbour. He bron^-ni tli' 
 news that other ships were on their wav fr>in 
 i'eloponn^soa to the help of Syracuse, an I. vet 
 more, tliat a Spartan gi'iieral was aeiuiil'in 
 Sicily, getting together a land fori'e for th. <am. 
 end. As soon as the go<Nl news was heani, ilnh' 
 was no more talk of sunfnder. . . .Vnd one 
 rl«y the Alhenlsn camp was start!«! hv tli- i!^ 
 pearaoceofa l^ciNlsinonian herald. olterin< tliiiu 
 » truoo of Ave days, that tbcy might get tUeui 
 
 188 
 
ATHENS, B. C. 415-413. 
 
 KxptditUm. 
 
 ATHEN8, B. C. 413-418. 
 
 nut of Sicily with bag and bagj^go. Gylippos 
 was now on the hill. He of course did not ex- 
 pect that the Athenian army would really go 
 Hway in Ave days. But it was a great thing to 
 show both to the besiegers and to the Syracusang 
 that the deliverer had come, and that deliverance 
 was beginning. Nildas had kept such bad watch 
 th»t Oylippos and his troops hod come up the 
 liiM ami tlio ^yracusans had come out and met 
 tUem. without his luowledge. The Spartan, as 
 II matter of course, took the command of the 
 whole force; he offered battle to the Athenians, 
 which they refused; he then entered tlie city. 
 The very next day he began to carry out his 
 scheme. This was t<) build a group of forts 
 near the western end of the hill, and to join tliem 
 to tiie city by a wall running east and west, 
 which would binder the Athenians fn)m ever 
 linisliing their wall to the north. Each side 
 went on building, and some small actions took 
 place. . . . Another winter (B. C. 414-41:1) now 
 (•ami; on, and with it much si-ndiug of envoys. 
 Oylippos went about Sicily collecting fresh 
 troops. . . . Meanwhile Nikias wrote a letter to 
 the Athenian people. . . . This hater came iit a 
 time when the Lacediemonian alliance ba>l de- 
 ternilnt'd to renew the war witli Athens, au i 
 when they were making everytliing reaily for an 
 invasion of Attica. To send out a new 'force to 
 Sicily vna simple madness. We hear nothing 
 of the di'lmuw in tlie .\thenian asscmWy. wliellier 
 any one argued against going on with llie .Sicilian 
 war, and whether any ileiMHitogue laid any 
 blame on Nikias. But the assenililv voted that 
 a new force eiiual to the llrst sliould bt; sent out 
 imdcr IMmostlienC.4, the b«nit soldier in Athens, 
 and Euryiufdim. . . . .Meanwhile the Syracus- 
 ans wiTestrengtIiened by help both in Sicily and 
 from Pi'lop irini>sjH. Tlieir m:iin oltject now was 
 to strike a blow at the fleet of Nikias bi'fore the 
 new force came. ... It had lieen just when tlio 
 SymcuHiint were most downcast that they were 
 cheere<l by the eorning of the Corintliians and of 
 0ylip|>o8. And just now that tlieir spirits 
 were higliest, they were d;tslie<l again by the 
 the coming of IMmostlienAs and Eiirymediln. A 
 flei't as gn'at as the first, sevi'nlytlve sliipi, car- 
 rying .l.OOO heavy. armeil and a crowd of liglit 
 tnxips of every kliifi. suilnl into the Oreat Har- 
 bour with all warlike pomp. The IVloponne- 
 jiiiins were aintady in Attica; tliey li:ut plaiito.l a 
 l'elo|>imneHian garrisim there, which bwunlit 
 .Vthi'iis to gn'at straits; but the flwt w:w sent 
 out to Synieuw all the same. l)Omo<tliemVH kn.'w 
 what to do as well as Lamaclios liad known. He 
 saw that there was notliing t<» lie done but to try 
 "lie gn'St blow, and, if that failed. Ui lake llie 
 rtict liome again. . . . Die attack was at tlrst 
 xiicTtwfiil, and the Ail uians lixik two of the 
 .Syniiimn f .ru. Hut the Thespian allies of 
 Syrwiise Bt'i-id their ground, and drove the as- 
 »:iilaiits baek. Utter coufuMon followiil. 
 The lait chance was now lost, and IWinostlienJs 
 was eager l« go Iwiiie. But Nikias would stay 
 mt . When sickness grew In the camp, 
 when fn'Hh lu'l|i fron .Sicily and the great Iwdy 
 "f the allies from I'eloponuAsoa came into Syra- 
 < ii*>. he at iitsi agreiNl u> go. Just at that 
 m iin 'lit the iniKm was eclipsed. . . , Nikias 
 c >.i«iil!e I hi.4 siNithsayers, and he gave out lliat 
 i'r v ;ii i3t st.iy iw.i.ty.iiiu,, d«»s, auoliier fuii 
 r i"liitiiii of the mo<m. This reaolvu was the 
 Jesirucikm of the b«*l«|[lng army. . . . It wh 
 
 183 
 
 felt on both sides that all would turn on one more 
 fight by sea, the Athenians striving to get out 
 of the harbour, and the Syracusans striving to 
 keep them in it. The Syracusans now blocked 
 up the mouth of the harbour by mooring 
 vessels across it The Athenians left their 
 position on the hill, a sign tliat the siege was 
 over, and brought their whole force down to the 
 shore. It was no time now for any skillful 
 m.anoeuvres; the chief thing was to make the sea- 
 fight as much as might be like a land-light a 
 strange need for .Vtbenians. . . . The last tight 
 now began, 110 Athenian ships against 80 of the 
 Syracusans and their allies. Never before did 
 w> many ships meet in so small a space . . . 
 The light was long and confused; at last the 
 Athenians gave way and fled to the shore. The 
 battle and the invasion wereover. Syracuse was 
 not only saved ; she liad begun to take vengeance 
 oa her enemies. . . . The Athenians waited one 
 day, and then set out, hoping U> in ikc their way 
 to some safe place among the friendly Sikels in 
 the inlanil country. The sick hail to 1m; left lie- 
 hin I. ... On the sixth diiv, after frii?litful toil, 
 tlii'y deteriiiiiied to change their course. . . . 
 They set out in two divisions, that of Nikias 
 going flrxt. Much Ik'tter order was kept in the 
 fn)nt division iiinl by the time Nikias reached the 
 river, IWmnstlienLrs was six miles liiliind. . . . 
 Ill the morning a .Syracusan fono cam.' up with 
 t'.ie frightful news that the whole division of 
 DVn-nthetrfswerepris.mers. . . . The Athenians 
 tried in vain to escape in the nii;lit. The next 
 m irtiing thev set out. hara.Hsed lu liefon;, and 
 driven wild by intolerable thirst. They at last 
 reached thi- river .VssliiapM, which runs by the 
 present town of Noto. Tliere was the end. . . . 
 Tile .Vtheniaiis were so maddened by thirst tlmt, 
 though men wen; falling umler darts and the 
 water was getting inud.ly and bloody, they 
 thought of nothing but drinking. ... No 
 furtlier terms were made; most of the horse- 
 men contrived to cut their way out; the rest 
 were made prisoners. Most of them were 
 embeizled by Syracusans as their private 
 slave*; but alnrnt T.OiJi) men out of the two divi- 
 ■ioiia were led prisoners into Synriise. Tlii'V 
 were shut up in the stone-iiuiirrieH, with no 
 further lieed than to give each min dally h ilf a 
 slave's allowance of f.xKl imd drink. .Mniiv ili^d , 
 many were sold; some escaped, or were set fr.c; 
 the rest wen- after a while taken out of the iiuiir 
 ries and si't to work. The generils hail made no 
 terms for theinsi-lves. HermokntOs wished to 
 keep them as hostages against future .Vlhcnian 
 attempts against Sicily, Ovlippos wished to 
 lake tliein in triumph io Sparta. The Corinth- 
 laus were for putting them Ui (h'alli; and s.. It 
 
 »'a»d . . . So ended the Athenian invaslcm 
 
 of Sicily the gn'atest attempt ever made by 
 llivek.-. a.; liiist Greeks, and tluit which came to 
 the most iiil<T failure. "—E. A. Freeman, /'A* 
 4«>.c,V ./ .s,V,V«, /)/>. |17-t;l7. 
 
 AlJ*i> IN: Thucyiliiles. lliitnrti ; tram, hi/ n. 
 JoifM. hk. tt-i (e. 1).— .See, also, Svkaccsb; 
 U. (' 415 4i;j 
 
 B. C. 4i3-4>'-— CoaMaucdr:et oftht Sicilian 
 Espedition.— Spartan aftiaac* with the Per- 
 •iani,-Plottiar of AlciUadtt.— The Dectliaa 
 War,—" At Atliens. wlK-re. even lieforj- this, 
 every one liail la-en In the most anxious suapens)-, 
 the news of the lose of the expclliion pn»liice<i 
 a ooiMleruatiuD, wUicb waa oertaiuly greaU r iliao 
 
 ii 
 
 !, 
 

 l3|: 
 
 i! 
 
 ATHENS, n. C. 413-413. 
 
 that at nninc after the battle of Canoac, or timt 
 lu oiir own diiys, after the battle of Jena. . . . 
 ' At Ifiist 40,000 citizens, allies ami slaves, had 
 perished; and among them there may easily have 
 been 10,000 Athenian citizens, most of whom Iie- 
 li)n,ite(l to the wealthier and higher cliuscs. The 
 flower of the Athenian people was dcstrovcd, as 
 at the time of the plague. It is impossible to say 
 what amount of public property may have liocn 
 lost; the whole fleet was gone.' The conse- 
 quences of the disaster soon shewed themselves. 
 It was to be foreseen that Chios, wliich hi«l long 
 Iwen wavering, and whose disposition could not 
 b" trustol, would avail itself of this moment to 
 ri'volt; and the cities in Asia, from which Athens 
 derived her large revenues, were expected to do 
 the s;ime. It was, in fact, to be foreseen, that 
 tlie four islands of Lesbos, Chios, Samos, and 
 Rhodes, would instantly revolt. The Spartans 
 wen- established at Decelea, in Attica Itself, and 
 tlience ravaged the country far and wide: so that 
 it was impossible to venture to go to the coast 
 without a strong escort. Although there were 
 many districts in wliich no Spartan was seen from 
 one year's cml to the other, yet there was no 
 safety anywhere, exct-pt in fortilied places, ' and 
 tlie Athenians were constantly obliged to guard 
 the walls of their city; and this state of tilings 
 had already been going on f,>r the last twelve 
 months.' In this fearful 8itu:ition, the Atlienian 
 people showed tlii^ same tlrmuess as the Uomans 
 after the battle of Cannae. Had they hut had 
 one great man among them, to whom the state 
 could have been entrusted, even more mi^lit per- 
 haps have been di>ne: but it Is astoniihing that. 
 lUthough there was no such man. and although 
 the leading men were only second or third-rate 
 persons, yet so many useful arranifcinents were 
 ma<le to meet tlie necessities of the ease. . . . The 
 most unfortuuaU' rircumstaiioe for the Athenians 
 was, that Alcihlades, now an enemy of his 
 country, was living among tlie Spartans; for he 
 IntriMluceil inu> the undertakings of the Spartans 
 the very element which before they li:id Ix-en 
 altogether deficient in, namely energy and elasti- 
 city : he urged them on to undertaliings, and in- 
 duced tliem now to send » fleet to Ionia. 
 Erythrae, Teos, and Miletus, one after anotheri 
 revoiu-d to the Pelommneslans, who now con- 
 cluded treaties with TLssapherncs in the ii:i:ne of 
 the king of Persia — Darius wa* then king — anil 
 in his own name aa satrap ; ami in this manner 
 they aacrifle.Hl to him the Asiatic Orwks. . . . 
 The Athenians were an object of antipathy and 
 Implacable hatntd to the Penians ; they had never 
 dimbted that the Athenians were their ^■al oppo- 
 nents in Greece, and were afraid of them; but 
 they did not fear the Spartans. They knew that 
 the Atlieuians would uke fmm them not only 
 the Islands, but the towns on the main l;ind, and 
 were In great fear of their maritime power 
 Hence they joined the Spartans; and the latter 
 were not luthamed of negoiiuting a tn-aty of sub- 
 hidlea with the Persians, in which TIssaphemes 
 In the king's name, pmmised the aasisUnre of the 
 PhiH'nleian fleet; and large «ulHidli>s. as pay for 
 the anny. ... In return for this, they re- 
 nounced, in the name of the Ori'eks, all ehifms to 
 liuiiiM'udenee for the Greek cities in .V»la ."— 
 II U. Niebuhr. {•fftnnt nn \nri>nt HMnrii r a 
 tfrt: 53 anJ M.— See, also. Uurkce: B. 6'.' 41.')- 
 
 .\l^ IM O. Orot«, Ui$t of Or:M€, A. 81 (e 7) 
 
 184 
 
 ATHENS. B. C. 415-411. 
 
 B. C. 413-4"- -Rerolt of Chios, Miletna, 
 Leiboi and Rhodes from Athens.— Rerolu- 
 Hon of Samos. Sei- Grkrce: B. C. 418 
 . B- C. 4«3-4«i.— The Probuli.— Intrigues of 
 Alcibiades.— Conspiracy against the Consti- 
 tution.— The Four Hundred and the Fire 
 Thousand.— Immediately after the lireadful 
 calamity at Syracuse became known, "extraor- 
 dinary measures were adopted by the p<«iple ; a 
 number of citizens of s<lvnnced age were formed 
 into adclibenitlvc and exiK-utive iHidy under Die 
 name of Probuli, ami empowereil to fit out i 
 fleet. Whether this laiil the foundation for oli 
 garchlcal machinations or not, those aged men 
 were unable to brins back men's minds to their 
 former course; the prosecution of the Hermo- 
 copidte had been most mischievous In its results; 
 various secret associations had sprung up anil 
 conspired to reap advantjige to themselves from 
 the distre'ss and embarra.s3iiient of the state; thi' 
 indignation caused liy the infuriateit exceases of 
 the people during that trial, pos ibiy here, as 
 frequently happeneil in other Grecian st;ites. 
 detcrmine<t the more respectable members of the 
 community to guard ag:ihist the recurrence of 
 similar scenes in future, by the establishment of 
 nit aristocracy. I.istly, the watchful malice of 
 Alcihlades, who was the implacnblo enemy of 
 that populace, to whose blind fury he had been 
 sacriflced, baflled all attempts to restore confi- 
 dence and tnuiipiilllty, and there is nodoubt that, 
 whilst he kept up a eorres|H)ndenco with liispar- 
 tlsiins at home, he did everything in his power 
 to increase the p.'r|>lexlty and distress of his 
 native city fmm without. In order that he might 
 Ik- recalled to provide for Its safety and defence. 
 A favourable opportunity for tlio execution of 
 Ills plans prescnte<i Ksi'if in the fifth year of his 
 exile, Ol. »i. 1; 411. B. C. ; as ho had lneurn-<i 
 the suspicion of the Spartans, and tXooi higli ii 
 the favour of Tissaphernes, the Atheniau-i 
 thought that his inlen-ession might enable them 
 to obtain assistance from the Persian king. "The 
 people in Athens were headed by one of his most 
 invetenitc enemies, Androcles; and he well knew 
 that all attempts to effect his return would W 
 fruitless, until this man and the other dernaito 
 jrues were removed. Hence Alcibiades ciiWred 
 Into negotiations with the commanders of the 
 Atlienian fleet at Samoa, respwling the estah 
 llahment of an oligarehical constitution, not from 
 any attachment to that form of government in 
 itself, but solely with the view of promoting \\U 
 own ends. Phrvnirhus and Plsander wer 
 emially insincere iu their co-opcratiim with .Met 
 blades. . . . Their plan was that the latter 
 should reconcile the people to the change in tlie 
 c<instituti(m which he wished to effect, by pr.. 
 mising to obtain them the as.Hlstenc<j of tlj<' gn-ii 
 king; but they alone resolved to reap \W 
 Ixpellt of his exertlrms. Plsan<ler took upon 
 himsi'" to miina-je the Allieniiin populace It 
 was in truth no sliglit underi ikIng t<i attempt to 
 oVl■rtll^lw n democraev of a ioindreilami tweniv 
 yeirV st.indinir. and of InteiiMt development; liir 
 lunt of the able biKlied eltixens were absent wi!:i 
 the rtii-l, whilst such as were still In the cil v 
 were confounded by the imminence of the dan^'.r 
 from without ; on the other hand, the pnwpect of 
 succour from the Persian king douhtle,* hi I 
 some weight with them, anil thev piuailiU- f. :i 
 ikiiMe symiitoms of n'lurnlng slTerUon for tliiir 
 former favourite Alcibia.ic's. Nevvrtbuloss Pl«a;i 
 
ATHKXS. B. C. 418-411. 
 
 PtU)p'jfiHr*ian War. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 404-403. 
 
 der and hU accomplices employe) rraft r»nd per- 
 fldy to accomplish their ilestgna; tjie pcoplu wlti; 
 not persuaded or convinced, but entrapiieil Into 
 compliance with their meaaures. Pisandcr 
 gained over to bis purpose the above named el ubs, 
 and inducrd the people to lend him with ten 
 plenipotertiaries U, the navy at Samos. In the 
 mean timj the rest of the conspirators pro<iecutp<l 
 the work of remodelling the constitution." — W, 
 Warhsmuth, Jlitl. Anttiuitiet of the fJnxkt, t. 2. 
 pp. 2.')i-3.M. — The people, or an aiK mbly cleverly 
 made up and raunipulatcd to represent the 
 people, were Indiiceil to vote all the powers of 
 
 SDVemment Into the hands of a council of Four 
 [undred, of which council thecitizens appointed 
 only five members. Those Ave chose ninety- 
 five more, to make one hundred, and each of that 
 hundred then chose three colleagues. The con- 
 spirators thus easily mailc up the Frmr Hun- 
 dred to their liking, from their own ranks. This 
 council was to convene an jemblv of Five 
 Thousand citizens, whenever it saw fit to do so, 
 But when news of this constltution,'kl change ! 
 reached the army at Samos, where the .Athenian I 
 heaiiijuarters for tlie Ionian war were fi.xe<l. the 
 citizen soldiers refused to submit to it — repudi- ■ 
 «te<l it altogether — and organized thrmselves as i 
 an in'it-pendent state. Thf ruling spirit among 
 them wus Thrasvbulus. and his inlfucniv brought 
 about :i reconciliation with Alcibiades. then an 
 eille slieltcred at the Persian court. Alrlbiailcs 
 was recalled by the army and placed at its liivul. 
 I'n'8<'ntly a reaction at Athens ensued, after the 
 oligarchical party had given aigni of trea.sonable 
 communication with SparU, anj In June the 
 people aiisembled in the Pnyx and reasserted 
 their sovereignty. " The Council was deposed, 
 and the supa'me aovereignty of the state 
 restored to the people — not, however, to the 
 entire multitude; for the principle whs retained 
 of reserving full civic rigbu to a committee of 
 men of a certain amount of property ; and, as 
 tlie lisu of the Five Thoasand had never been 
 drawn up, it was decreed, in order that the 
 ili>nin'cl end might be speedily reached, to follow 
 tlio prcce<lcnt of limilar institutions in other 
 8t.itcs and to constitute all Athenians able to 
 furnish tliem»<Ives with a complete military 
 e'luipment from their own resources, fullcitizcnn. 
 with the righu of voting and participating in the 
 government. Thus the name of the Five Thou 
 sand liail now become a very inaccurate designa 
 tion ; but it was retained, because men had in 
 'hf iMt few months become habituattti to it. At 
 th.' same timf, the abolition of pay for civic 
 otflr.4 »nd functions waa decreed, not merclv as 
 » t.'mporary measure, but aa a fundamcnt.il 
 principle of the new commonwealth, which tlic 
 citizens were bound by a solemn oath to main- 
 tain. This reform was. upon the wln.lc, a wise 
 combination of ari^unracv and denvK-racv; ami, 
 acconling to the opinion of Thucvdi'ies, the Iwst 
 constitution which the Athenians had hitherto 
 prnvwod. On the motion of Critias. the recall 
 ■f Al'lbiades was ilpcrecl alwut the same time. 
 »n.l a deputation was despatched to SamcH. to 
 »<compli«h the uniim bctwwn armv und cirv — 
 K. f irtius. Hint. oftirtfTf. hk. 4. rk. .1 — Mi'«t of 
 till' 1. idew of the t'lmr Hundred fle<l to the Spar- 
 tan I imp at Dici'lia. Two were taken, lri«l 
 i::\ '.iiiruwd —Tiiutnlides. lliHnty. hk S, trrt. 
 4H-«: —See, also, Ukiseie: B. U. 4i.'M13 
 kiMin: V. Uuruy. Uul.^fUrim, ck. 'UCr ;| 
 
 B. C. 4t 1-407.— Victories kt CTnoitema and 
 Abydos.— Exploits of Alcibiades.— Hit tri- 
 umphal return.— Hit appointment to com- 
 mand.— Hii aecood deposition and exile. 
 SeeOBEECE; B, C. 411-407. 
 
 B. C. 406.— The Peloponnesian War: 
 Battle and Tictory of Arginusae. — Condem- 
 nation and execution of the Generals. See 
 GliKECE: B. C. 406; and above: B U. 424-406. 
 B. C. 405. — The Peloponnesian War : 
 DecisiTe defeat at Aigospotamoi. See Oiieece : 
 B. C. 40.i. 
 
 B. C. 404.— The Surrender to Lysander. — 
 After the buttle of .CgospoUmi (August, B. C. 
 40-5), which destroyed their navy, and cut off 
 nearly all supplies to the city by sea, as the 
 Sparuns at IXcelea had lonir' cut off supplies 
 upon the land side, the Athenians had no hope. 
 They walteil in terror and despair for their 
 enemies to close in upon them. The latter were 
 In no baste, for they were sure of their prey. 
 Lysander, the victor at .(EgospoUmi, came 
 leisurely from the Hellespont, receiving on his 
 way the surrender of the cities subject or allieil 
 to Athens, and placing Spartan bamiosts and 
 garrisons in them, with the local oligarchs 
 establisheil uniformly In power. About Jik)vem- 
 twr lie reachcil the 8aronic gulf and blockaded 
 the .Athenian harbor of Pini'Us, while an over- 
 whelming Peloixinnesian lanrl force, under the 
 Liicediemonian king Pausanias. arrived simul- 
 taneously In Attica and encamped at the gates of 
 the city. The Athenians had no longer any power 
 except the power to endure, and that they cxer- 
 clsetf for more than three months, mainly resisting 
 the demand that their Long Walls- the walls 
 which protectwl the connection of the city with 
 Its harbors — should lie thrown down. But when 
 famine hail thinnol the ranks of the citizens and 
 broken the spirit of the survivors, they gave up. 
 "There was still a hlgb-splrit*.!! minority who 
 entere<l their protest and prcfcrre<l death by 
 famine to such insupportable disgrace. Tlie 
 large majority, however, accepted them [the 
 terms] and the acceptance was made known to 
 LysandeT It was on the Iflth day of the Attic 
 month Munychlon,— aliout the middle or enrl of 
 March.- that this victorious commander saileil 
 Into the Peira-us, twentyseven years, almost 
 exactly, after the surprise of Platiea bv the 
 ThelMns, which opened the Pelop<mnesian"War. 
 Along with him came the Athenian exiles, 
 seveml of whom app<-ar to have been WTving 
 with his armv and assistine him with their coun- 
 st'l."- 0. Orntc, Jfiil. of (ireef*, pi. 2, eh. «!i (r «i. 
 -The Long Walls ami the fortifications of 
 Pineus Were demolished, and then followe<l the 
 organization of an oligarchical government at 
 .\lliens. resulting in the reign of terror under 
 ■ The Tliirly. ' — E. Curtlus, Jlitt. of Orttet, bk. 4, 
 eK J, 
 
 .Vi.so rx: Xenophon, IIMtmrt, t>k. 8, eh. 3.— 
 Plutarch. Ayoiubr, 
 
 B. C. 404-401.— The tfraanj of the Thirty. 
 —The Year of Aaarchy.— In the summer of 
 B C. 404. following the siege and surrender of 
 .\thcns. and the humiliating cliwe of tlie long 
 Peloponnesian War, the petunwl Iciiders of the 
 ollgarciiical [mrty, who had IxTn in exile, sue- 
 cx-edcil with the help of their 8|»irt»n frlemls, in 
 overthrowing the democratic cimstltutlon of the 
 city and establishing tlieinsilves in power The 
 rvvolutiou wiu accomplished ut a public aaseui 
 
 18.j 
 
ATHEKS, B. C. 404-408. 
 
 bly of citizens, in the presence of Lynunder, the 
 Tlctorioiw L.ice<licmoniBn Bdmlral, whose fleet 
 in the Piraiia lay ready to support his demands. 
 In this assembly, Orocontidas. a scoundrel upon 
 whom repeited sentences had been passed 
 brought fDrwarda motion. proposinR the transfer 
 or the government into the Immls of Thirtv per- 
 •ons; and Tliemmenp.^ supported this pn^posal 
 which he declared to express the wishes of 
 Bparto. Even now, these speeclics produced a 
 storm of indienation; after r!! the acU of vio- 
 lence which Athens had undergone, she yet con- 
 tained men ouUpoken enough to venture to 
 defend the constitution, and to appeal to the 
 fact that the capitulation sanctioned by both 
 parties contained no provision as to the Internal 
 affairs of Athens. Hut, heriMipon, Lysaiider 
 hlms<lf came forward and spoke to the citizens 
 without reserve, like one who was their absolute 
 muster. ... By such means the motion of Dni- 
 contldas waspas-sctl; butoniy a small niimlierof 
 unpatriotic and cowardly citizens raised their 
 han(ls m token of assent. All better patriou 
 contrived to avoid participation in this vote 
 Itext. ten members of the government were 
 chosj.n by Critias an<i his colleagues [the Critias 
 
 of I lalo 8 Dialogues, pupil of Socrates, and now 
 the viol.'nt nnl I.I.kxI thirviv leader of tlieaiiti- 
 demmratie levuliition], ten hv Themmene.^, the 
 conlidentiul friend of Lys.iii<ler. and finally ten 
 out of tlie assembled niiilliluile. prob.hly by a 
 free vote; and this Inianlof Tliiitv was liercumm 
 establislie<I as the supreme government authority 
 bv a resolution of llie assembly presi'nt. Atost 
 of the memlurs <.f the new government hail 
 formerly l«.en among the Four Ilumlre.1, an.i 
 hart therefore Ion!; piirsiicnl a commcm course of 
 action. The Tliirly Tyrants so plaail in power 
 were masters of Athens for eight months, au.i 
 executiii their will without coiistiencc or merev 
 having a garrisim of Spartan soldiers in the 
 Acropolis I,, support them. Tliev were also sus- 
 taine.1 by a [Ueked Ih«Iv of citizens, "the Tlinv 
 Ihoiisiud," who iHire arms while other citizens 
 were stripped of every weapon, fjirife nuinU'rs 
 of the more patriotic an.i high-spirile.1 Athenians 
 bad escaped from their uiifortiiniite eitvaii.l ha.l 
 takeiin-fuge, chlelly at TlielH^s, the o'ld enemy 
 .. "Vi . ■ '"" "'"" «;i"l""l"ticin her distress" 
 At TheK's these exiles ..rganized tliein»..|v,., 
 under Thrasybulii ,i,l Anytus. and deieimliie.l 
 to exp«'l the tyrants and to nis.ver their homes 
 They first »viu;l a sirong post at I'livie in 
 Attica, where they giiiiie<l In nunilH'rs rliiilillv 
 •ml from which point they wer<' able in a f.'w 
 jrj-eks to advance and ixeupv Hie I'irens 
 Wlien the tr.Hips of The Tl.irly e:,me ,„„ ,„ 
 
 rJl**;,, /'«■ "'••:•.'''•'■" ''■"■I' '" the «di;icent '■ 
 belt-It of .Muhv.hla and ih,re fo.ivlit a biitile 
 »hleh .Ivlivend their , ity from the Tyrants 
 Lrm««, i!„. must, r !.|iirit of the usiirpaliori, xv.is 
 •lain; t.,e more violent of his iMJIeaglleS Imik 
 refucc at Kieu-is, an<l Alliens, for a ilui,' 
 rcma Incil uij.ler the goveriin.enl of a new olltf-,r- 
 chieal IJoardof Ten. while Thrasybulus an.l th.' i 
 dem.«rnllr lil,enit,.rs .i.:.i„Iained t'heir hea.h,uar. i 
 ter. at Munyehla. All parlies waite.1 the aelion 
 of Sparta. Ly,,,nd>r, the S|wrtan general. ! 
 iDMched an army Into Attica t„ restore the | 
 lyninny which was of his own creating: but one ' 
 of tb» two Sparun klngi. I'auaanliui, Iniervcned ' 
 a»8iji.ir,I the ci.iomnmi in his own p«r*m. and 
 •l.plle,! his cfforu to the unagia't "' PiHce 
 
 It 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 839-338. 
 
 between the Athenian parties. The iwult was a 
 restoration of the democratic constitution of the 
 Attic state, with some important reforms. Sev- 
 eral of The Thirty were put todeath,— treacher- 
 ously it was said,— but an amnesty wa« extended 
 .riuV partisans. Tlic year In which they 
 ami The Ten <ontrolled affairs was termed in the 
 olHeial annals of the city the Year of Anarchy 
 and its maifistrates were not recognized.— e' 
 Curtius, IIi8t. of Orefce, 4*. 4, eh. 5. an<f 4*. 5^ 
 
 AiM> IS: Xenophon, Ilellenies. bk. 3, eh. 3-4 _ 
 C. Saiikey, Tlie Hjtartan and Theian Huprema- 
 cte*. eh. 2-3 
 
 ^:,9.- 39S-387— Confederacy ■Minit Sparta. 
 
 — Alliance with Per»ja.-The Corinthian 
 War.— Conon i rebuilding of the Lonr Walls. 
 
 — Athenian independence reitored. — The 
 Peace of Antalcidas. See Qreece: B, C. 3»»- 
 387. 
 
 B. C. 378-371.— Brief alliance with Thebes 
 Sparta. Sc^ " " ~ 
 
 the Social War.— Upon t'heLihi^ration oftli "k^ 
 
 aeainit Sparta. Sec Orbkce: B. C. 379^:1" 
 BC. 378-157.- The New Confederal and 
 
 -- — --— .. v|"'*> iii«. uiuurnm^uui llieoeS 
 
 and the signs that began to appear of the tieeline 
 of Spartan power— during the yearof the arclion- 
 ship of Nausinicus, B. C. 37H-f, which was m:ule 
 memoralile at Athens by various movements of 
 political reger-eralion,- the organization of a new 
 I onfederaey was undertaken, analagoua to the 
 Confederacy of Dclos, form.'d a century before 
 Athens was w be, " not the ruling Ciipital. but 
 only the directing city in possession of the i.ri- 
 macy, the sent of the fwleral council. . . Calll- 
 straius was in a sense the Aristides of the new 
 confisleration and doubtless did much to bring 
 alKiiit an agreement; it was likewise his work 
 that, in place of the • trihuies ' of odious memory 
 tlie payments necessary to the existence of the 
 confederation were introduced under the gentler 
 name of •contributions.'. . . Amicable n-lation* 
 were r..sume<l with the (^yelmleg, Klio.les and 
 1 erinthus; in other wonla, the ancient union of 
 navies was at once renewed upon a large scale 
 and In a wide extent. Even such staU's Joined 
 t as had hitherto never sUskI in confwiemte re- 
 lationswith Athens, above all Thebes."— E Cur 
 tius m,l. nf r.rtee,. bk. 6. eh. 1. — This weoiid 
 confederacy n-newol much of the prosi, rliv and 
 influence of Athens for a ,.rief p<.riod of iil),„ii 
 twenty ye.irs. But In 3.-.7 B ('., four lmp,.ri:int 
 nieiii Hrs of tlieConfnIeri.cv, namely, Chios, I'o, 
 Ub.Hles, and Byzantium I, .giied thems..|ves i:i 
 revolt, with the aid of .Maus,.ius, prince of Caria 
 and an inglorious war ensue,|, known as llie 
 NK'liil War. which la.slpd threw years, Athens 
 was foreeil at last to ass,.nt to the si-cc-sslon of the 
 four revolted nlies and lo n^eognize llieir irid.' 
 IH'iiilem-e. whji li gnmlv im|iaire<l her presti •■ 
 and power. Just al the lime wh.n she wasealle I 
 upon to resist tlie <ricroaeliinenls of I'liilii) of 
 .Mii<ed..iila. -C, ThlHwall, //,V „r l/mYe. eh (.• 
 Tk K 37<^3«»; -Alliance with Sparta against 
 T^-'H'rJ!?"'* •' Mantinea. See (JifiiKn 
 
 B. C. 359-338.-The colliijon with Philip < f 
 
 SL^"'*''?^/''? '*'"''' "' Demoithenei H.il 
 Policy of Phocion.- ' A n.w periisloiH-n* «i: . 
 '.'•ii*-'''".".!''.'!'.""' -Mawlonian imwer 1111 i,r 
 I'liillij (:i.-,lt-;|.1« B C ) We ar.. hc^ chlelly . ..,. 
 \"'7"'' !'' "'•'"'*■ "«■ ■•fftft on the Cily-Siaic ...f 
 Ailiens), not only of the str<'nKth and policy .,f 
 this new power, but alio of the effofti of'lhe 
 
ATUEX3. B. C. 330-339. 
 
 Demonthfnri 
 and Macedon. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 339-333. 
 
 Orcclu thenuelves to counteract it. At the time 
 of Philip's accesiiioD the so-calleU Tlicban 
 suprnmacy had just practically ended with the 
 death of Epaminondas. There was now a kind 
 of balaucc of power between the three IcatliuK 
 Stiites, Spartu, Athens, and Thebes, no one of 
 which was greatly stronger than the others: and 
 such a bahince could easily lie worked upon by 
 any great power from without. Thus when 
 JIacedon came into the range of Oreek politics, 
 under a man of great diplomatic as well as mili- 
 tary capacity, who, like a Czarof today, wished 
 to secure a dnn footing on the sea-lxwrd of the 
 ^gean [see QiiKErK: B. C. a59-3,W), slie found 
 her work comparatively easy. The strong im- 
 perial policy of Philip founci no real antagonist 
 except at Athens. Weak as she was, and 
 straitened by the break-up of her new con- 
 federacy, Athens could still produce men of 
 great talent and energy ; but she was liampered 
 by divided counsels. Two Athenians of this 
 periinl seem to represent the currents of Oreek 
 political thought, now running in two dilTerent 
 directions. Demosthenes represents the cause 
 of the C'itr-State in this age, of a union, that is, 
 of iwrfcctly free Hellenic cities against tlic com- 
 mon enemy. Phocion represenu tiie feeling, 
 which seems to have been long growing up 
 among thinking men at Athens, that the Clty- 
 State was no longer what it had been, and could 
 no longer stand by itself; that what was needed 
 was a general Hellenic peace, and possibly even 
 an arbiter from without, an arbiter not wholly 
 un-ilclleuic like tlie Persian, yet one who miglit 
 surcevj in stilling the fatal Jealousies of the 
 liailin? States. . . . Tlie efforts of Demosthenes 
 to olici:k Philip fall Into two peri'xls divided by 
 tlie pi-iice of Philocratcs in 316 U. C. In t. o 
 liMt of tiiese ho is acting chiel1% with Athens 
 alone; Philip is to him not so moil; the eomaioii 
 enemy of Greece as the dangenyus rival of 
 Athens in the north. His whole mind w,.i giv. ii 
 to the internal reform of Atlieus so as to 
 strengthen her against Philip. In nor relation 
 to other Greek States he perhaps hanlly saw 
 '■"Vond H balance of power. . . . After iJ40 Ids 
 Atlieiiian feeling seems to h -^ome more dis- 
 tinclly Hellenic. But what culd even such a 
 minus Demosthenes do with the lliilasof that 
 il.iy 1 He could not force on the On.Tks a real 
 ami permanent uniim; he could but urge new 
 iilli.inccs. His stre-ttgth was spent in embassies 
 wuh tliis object, embassies Um often futile. No 
 alluiuce could save Greece from liie Macedonian 
 piwcr, as iul)8e(|uent events plainly showeil. 
 Wiiat was needi . was a real feiiend unii... be- 
 iwirn the leading StaU-s, with a stmng ontral 
 eonlrtplling force; and Demosthenes' iM.liiy was 
 ImiKless Just 1k-c«us<' Athens could never iie tliv 
 rcnirf of such a union, nor could any otlic- city. 
 i»iMi,isllienes is tluK tlie last, and "in simie re- 
 j'lKi is llie most heroic cli.mipion of the oii) Greek 
 
 iiistiiiet for uul jii.v. He is 'he true ciiihl of 
 
 thi CltyMtale. but too child of its old age an<l 
 "lernpiiudo. He still iK-lieves in Athens, awl it 
 sm Alliens that all h.s hopes are biis.'d. He 
 (■"■k« on I'hillp as one who must inevitably lie 
 llie fill' alike of Athens and of Oreeei' He 
 •"■••nistoihinkthal he can be beaten off as Xeries 
 was. and to forget that even Xerxes almost 
 tnumpIiedonTili,- divisions of the Greek Slates, 
 and that Philip I, n nearer, ■ more prominent, 
 wiUafur less barUirimi {u*. . . . Phociou «a« 
 
 167 
 
 the somewhat odd exponent of the practical side 
 of a school of thougiii, which had been gaining 
 strengtii In Greece for some time past. ThU 
 school was now brought into prominence by the 
 rise of Macedon, and came to have a marked in- 
 fluence on the history of the Citv-State It 
 began with the philosophers, and wfth the idea 
 that the philosoplier may belong to the world as 
 well as to a particutar city. . . . Atlieiis was far 
 more open to criticism now than in the days of 
 Pericles; and a cynical dislike betrays itself in 
 the Itt-public for the politicians of the day and 
 their tricks, and a longing for a strong govern- 
 ment of res .... Aristotle took thi; facta of 
 city life as ihey were and showed how they 
 might be made the most of. . . . T) liiin Mace- 
 don was assuredly not wholly b:i: irian; and 
 war to the death with her kings coulil not have 
 been to him lis natural or desinible as it seemed 
 to Demosthenes, ^nd though he has nothing to 
 tell us of Macedon, we can hardly avoid the con- 
 clusion tliat his desire was for [hhcc and internal 
 refonn, even if it were under the guarantee of 
 the northern power. ... Of this philosophical 
 view of Greek politics Phocion was in a manner 
 tb political cx[)onent. But his policy was too 
 much a negative one; it might almost be called 
 one of indifferentism, like »' feeling of Lessing 
 and Goethe in German most momentous 
 period. So far as we kno Phocion never pro- 
 posed an allUnce of a n.rabie kind, either 
 Athenian or Hellenic, with Macedon; he was 
 ctmtent to be a purely restraining influence. 
 Athens ha<? been constantly at war since 433; 
 her own resources were of the weakest; there 
 was little military skill to be fouml in lu r, no 
 reserve force, much talk, but little solid courage. 
 Atliens was vulnerable at variou.i points, and 
 could not possibly ilefend more than one at a 
 time, therefore- Phocion despaired of war, and 
 tlie event prove<l him right. The faithfulnesa 
 of the Athenians towards him is a pniof that 
 they also instinctively felt that he was right 
 But he was wanting on the practiail and cre'ative 
 side, and never really dominated either Athens, 
 Greece, or Philip. ... A policy of re'sistance 
 fouml the City-State too weak todefenci Itself; a 
 policy of inaction would Und It in a .Maceilonian 
 empire which would still further weaken its re- 
 maining vitality. The flrst polity, that of 
 Demostlienes, did actually result in disastir and 
 tlie presence of .Macedonian garrisons in Greek 
 cities. Tlie attcond policy then took its place, 
 and initiaUil a new era for Greece. After the 
 fatal battle of Chieronea (.'ttS B. C.) Philip 
 assumi'd the jiosition of leader of the Gnik 
 cilies.'— W. \V. Kowler, T/if ''it// .'^,i/e i>r' the 
 (Irrrku n-ul limoiiui, cA. 10.— Se<', al.^o, GlilECE' 
 
 B. C. 340.— Alliance with Briantium •' aintt 
 Philip of Micer on. SceGnKKcK; li c "no 
 
 B. C- 33(* jt2.-Eni of the Struggle with 
 the Mac.doniani.— Fall of Democracy.— 
 Death of Demotthtnee.— Athenian decline.— 
 
 An unex|)eetiil ineidrtit elianiris tlie whole 
 aspect of things. Philiji falls the victim of 
 assassination; ami a youth, who as yii is but lit- 
 tle known, is his successor. Imnudlately 
 IVmosthenes institutes a seconil alliani-e of 
 the ()n.i.k<; but Alex.indcr "udd; iilv apja^ira !»- 
 fore Thelies; llie lerrilile vengeaiire whicli be 
 here takcK, Instantly ilestroys the league; l>emot- 
 thvues, Lycurgus, and several of their support- 
 
 m 
 
ATHENS, B. C. 33ft-32a. 
 
 
 Mae^Jonian 
 
 ATH£NS. B. C. 336-823. 
 
 ill; 
 
 e», are required to be delivered "in ; but Dfnuulci 
 ii at tbst time able to lettle thee' acuity aud to 
 appease tlic king. IIU atrength was tbcreforo 
 enfeebled as Alcxauiler ileparted for Asia; bo 
 begins to mise bis head once mope wlien Sparta 
 attcmnts to tbrow off tbe yoke; but under Anll- 
 palcr lie is overpowereil. Yet it was about tills 
 very time tbat by the most celebratol of bis dis- 
 courses lie gained tbe victory over tlie most elo- 
 quent of Ids atlvcrsaries; and ^scblnes was 
 fore ed to depart from Atbens. But tbis seems 
 ?;::1;- >" have the more cmbittere'l bis enemies, 
 the leaders of the Macedonian puriy; and they 
 soon found au oniwrtunlty of preparing hfs 
 downfall. When Harpalus, a fugitive from the 
 army of Alexander, came with his treasures to 
 Athens, and the question arose, whether he could 
 be iwrmitted to remain there, Demosthenes was 
 accu8e<l of having been corrupted by his 
 money, at least to be silent. This was sufficient 
 to pnwure tbe imposition of aflne; and as this 
 was not paid, he was thrown into prison. Prom 
 thence he succeeded in escaping; but to the man 
 who livf^l only for his country, exile was no leas 
 an evil than imprisonment. He resided for tbe 
 niost part in ^giiiaand at Tnrzen, from whence 
 he 'cmked with moist eyes toward the neigh- 
 bouring Attica. Suddenly and unexpectedly a 
 new ray of light broke through the ciouds. 
 T (lings were brought, that Alexander was dead. 
 The moment of deliverance secineil at hand ; tbe 
 excitement pervaded every Orecian state; the 
 ambassadors of the Athenians passed through 
 the cities; Demosthenes Joined himself to tJic 
 number and exerted all his eloquence and power 
 to unite them against Macedonia. In recjuital 
 for smli services, tbe people decreed bis return • 
 and years i.f sufrcrings were at last followetl by 
 a day of exalted compeiiaatlon. A gal'oy was 
 sent to .Eglna to bring back the edvocate of 
 lilierly. ... It was a momentary glimpse of i 
 tbe sun, which still darker clouds were soon to 
 conceal. Antipatrr and (,'raterus were victori- 
 ous; and Willi (bciii the Macedonian party In 
 Athens; Dcmcwilicncs and his friends were num- 
 bered among tbe aivusid. ami at the Instigation 
 of Demades were condemiuii to die. . . . De- 
 mosthenes hail esciiiHil U> the Island Calaiiria 
 in the vicinitv of Tin'zen; and took refuge In 
 the temple of Neptune. It was to no purpose 
 tbat Arelilus, the satellite of Antipatcr, urged 
 bliii to nurrender lilinsclf under pnimlsc of par- 
 don. He pretendeil lie wislied to write some- 
 thing; bit the quill, and swallowiil the |)i)i(um 
 contalne<l in It."— A. H. L. Ileeren, Hfflictiiiin 
 on tin lUilim of Aiieient (Ireie, trniu hu (I 
 Bann-ofl, p,,. a7H-iW().-8ee. also. >m llic " Unilan 
 War, ilic siipprewiion of IX'iiKK'mey at Athens 
 »ud tbe expiiLsiim (if iKHir citizens, Oi'iKKCK M c' 
 823-:f,'a.— •Willi the decline of |)oliiical .ndc' 
 pendenee, . . . tbe nitntal powers of the iialiou 
 rect'lved a fatal blow. No longer knit together 
 by a jHiwerf ul esprit de corps, the Greeks lost tbe 
 habit of working for tbe common weal ; and, for 
 tlie iiioitt part, gave llieii' tlvcs up to the iiclty 
 luluri'sts of bdiue life a their own personal 
 tmubli-s. Kv.n the betU-r dJsiHMed were too 
 much Dccupicd in opiwring the low tone and 
 corruption of the timei, u> lie able to devote 
 llieiii«lvcs, in Ibeir momenU of relaxation, to a 
 free and 8|Hculiitlv« consideration of thing. 
 W ml coulU Ik' cxpectal In such an age, but iliat 
 philoDophy would take a decidedly practical 
 
 turn, if .ideed It were studied at all f And yet 
 such were the political sntecedenU of the Stoic 
 aud Epicurean lyttenu of philosophy. 
 Stoic apathy, Epicurean self-satisfaction, ami 
 Sceptic ImperturUbility, were the doctrines 
 which responded to tbe political helplessness of 
 the age. They were tbe doctrines, too, wbicb 
 met with the most genenil acceptance. The 
 same political helplessness produced the sinking 
 of national distinctions In tlie feeling of a com- 
 mon humanity, and the separation of morals 
 from politics which characterise tbe pbilosopby 
 of tbe Alexaiiurian and Roi lau period. The 
 barriers between nations, toge her with national 
 independence, bad been swept away. East and 
 West, Greeks and barbarians, were united In 
 arge empires, being thus thrown Uigcther, and 
 brought Into close contact o:i every possible 
 point. Pbilosopby might u-ac!i that all men 
 were of one bloo.1. that all w 're equally citizens 
 of one empire, that morality resteil on the rela 
 tlon of mnn to bis 'ellow men, independently of 
 nationalUies and of social ranks; but in so doing 
 she was only explicitly stating truths which had 
 been already n i;'iHed in part, and which were in 
 part corollaries from the existing state of so- 
 ciety."— E. Zoller, T/ie .*«•<-,, Epieureaiu, and 
 Seepliet. pp. 18-18.— •• What we have said con- 
 cerning the evidence of comedy about the age of 
 the tirst Diadochi amounts to ti:i: Menauder 
 and his successors — they lasted .1 x'ly two gen- 
 erations—printed in a few stereotypes a small 
 and very worthless soiiety at Athens. There 
 was no doubt a similar set of people at Corinth, 
 at Tbelies, possiblv even in the city of Lycur- 
 gtis. These |K-ople, idle, for the most part rich 
 and in mxKl society, spc-nt their earlier years In 
 debauchery, and their laUr in sentimental refl(>c- 
 tioiis and regrets. They bad no serious object 
 111 .lie, aud regarded the complications of a love 
 affair as more Interesting than the rise aud fall 
 of kiiigd.inis or the gain and loss of a nations 
 lilK-rty. Tliey were like tlie people of our day 
 who spend all their time reading novels from tlie 
 libnines, aud who can t(>lerate these eternal 
 variations in twaddle not only williout clisgiist 
 but with Interest. They were surrounded with 
 slaves, on the whole more intelligent aud Inter- 
 esting, for in the first place »l«ves were iKiiiud 
 Jo exercise their brains, and la tbe second tliey 
 had a great oblect— liberty — to give ilii-m a 
 keen pursuit In life. The relations of the sexes 
 In this set or portion of society were bad, owing 
 to the Want of education In tbe women, ami the 
 
 want of eaniestneas In the men. As a natura 
 coiisequenc-e a class was found, apart from 
 household slaves who t<K>k advanUge of these 
 defects, and, bringing culture to fascinate un- 
 principled men, established thou nlatious 
 whlrli brought eatrangenients. If not ruin. Into 
 the home life of the day. "—J. P. Mahaffy, Greek 
 Uftnml rh„u;,ht. pp. 123-184.— "The amount 
 of Persliin wealth poured Into Greece by the 
 oceidents of the conquest, not by Its own Indus 
 tries, must have pro<liiccd a revolution in priita 
 not sime equalled extvpt by the Intlux >f the 
 gold of tbe Aztecs and Incas into Spain. I hare 
 already poinu-d out how this change must have 
 pressed iiiHin ixKir people in Greece who did not 
 share In the plunder. The price of even ne( i-s- 
 i-iry Mild :.lmjiit: things must have oft.n ri.-,tu 
 JH'yiHid their means. Kor the adventurirs 
 brouglit home large furtuuui. aud the •radirs 
 
 18;> 
 
ATHENS, B. C. 836-823. 
 
 Ex)ian»toH of 
 iittUniam. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 33»-323. 
 
 ant! •'urreyora of the armies made them ; and with 
 tlieae Eiutcrn fortunes must liave come iu tlio 
 tastu for nil the superior comforts and luxuries 
 wbieli tlicy found among the Persiun cranducs. 
 Not only the appointments of the table, in the 
 way of plati! and pottery, hut the very tastes aud 
 flavours of Greek C(H)kery must have profited 
 by comparison with the knowledge of the East. 
 So also the furniture, cspotially In carpets and 
 h:\i.gingB, must have copied Persian fashion. 
 Just as we still affect oriental stuffs and designs. 
 It was not to be expecte<l 'hat the example of so 
 many regal courts and so much royol ceremony 
 should n"t HfTect those in omtact with them. 
 These iiiMuiuces were not only shown iu the 
 vulgar ■ braggart <'upuiin,' who came to show off 
 Ills suiMen wealth in impudent extravaj;a ro 
 iiiuoii^' his olil tow-.^pcople, hut in the ordinary 
 life of rich young men. So I imagine tlie personal 
 iippolutmcntsof Alcibiades. which were the talk 
 of Gieece in his day, would have appeared poor 
 and mean beside those of Arams, or of the gen- 
 eration which prec-eiled him. Pictures and 
 statues began to adorn private houses, and not 
 temples and public buililing* only — a change 
 beginning to show itself in Demosthenes's day, 
 but coming in like a torrent with the opening of 
 Orccte to the Eastern woKJ. It was noticed 
 tltat Phwion's house at Athens was modest in 
 size and furniture, but even this was rellevetl 
 from shabbiness by the quaint wall decorathm 
 of shining plates of bronze — a fashion dating 
 from prehistoric times, but still admired for its 
 very anllc|uity."-J. P. Maliaffy. (jrnk Life and 
 Thowilit. pp. 105-100.— "The modern historians 
 of Greece are much dlvidei! on the questum 
 where a history of Hellus ought to end. C'T- 
 tlus stops with the battle of C'iiaeroneia ana tjie 
 prostration of Athens before the a<lfancing 
 power of Mace<lon. Grote narrates the cam- 
 paigns of Alexander, but stops short at '.h, con- 
 clusion of the Lamian War, when Greece had in 
 vain tried to shake off the supremacy of his gen- 
 erals. Thiriwall brings his narmti.e down to 
 the time of Hummlus, the melancholy suck of 
 Corinth and the constitution of Achaia as a 
 lionian province. Of these divergent views we 
 regard that of the German historian as the most 
 correct. . . . The historic sense of Grote did not 
 exclude pretudices, and in this cjiso '•- was 
 probably led astray by political bias. Ai the 
 close of bis ninety -sixth chapter, after mention- 
 tag the emuassii's sent by the degenerate Athe- 
 nIaiiB to King Ptolemy, King I.ysiumcuus, and 
 Antipater, he throws down his pen in disgust, 
 and witli sadness and humiliation brings his nar- 
 rative to a close.' Athens was no longer free aud 
 no longer dignified, and so Mr. Grote will have 
 done with Greece at tiie very moment when the 
 new Comedy was at iu height, when tlie 
 JIusium was founded at Alexandria, when the 
 Jilaysof Kuriphles were acted at Ujibylon and 
 tabul, and every Greek solillcr of fortune car- 
 ried a diadem iu hU baggage. Surely the his 
 tonau of Greece ought either In have stopped 
 when the Iron hand of Philip of Mac».iion put an 
 end to the IH)ertle8 and the ix.litlcal wrangliugs 
 of llillas, or else persevered to the time wlien 
 Itonu' and Parthia crushed Greek imwer lictween 
 tlieiti. like a sidn between two icebergs. No 
 Mouirinm reply wouhl U\ that he declined to 
 reifard the triumph aliroad of Mr' rlouian anus 
 u a cuulinualiuu of the history ilcllas. 
 
 189 
 
 The truth is, that the history of Greece consists 
 of two parts, in every respect contrasted one 
 witli the other. The first recounU tl e stories of 
 the Persian and Pcloponnesian wars, aud ends 
 with the destruction of Th.U. i and the subjuga- 
 tion of Athens and Sparta. Ths Hellus of which 
 It speaks is a cluster of autonomous cities in the 
 Peloponnesus, the Islands, aud Northeru Greece, 
 together with their colonies scattered over the 
 coasu of Itoly, Sicily, Tliracc, the Black .Sea, 
 Ashi Minor, and Africa. These cities care only 
 to be independent, or at most to lord it over one 
 another. Their political institution.s, their re- 
 ligious ceremonies, their customs, arc civic and 
 local. Langimge, commerce, a couunon Pan- 
 theon, and a common art aud poetry are the ties 
 th.t bind them togcti r. In Its u!Coiul phase, 
 Greek history begijs with the cxiMHiition of 
 Alexander. It rcv.als to us t:.e Greek as ev ry- 
 where lord of the barbarian, as fouuding king- 
 doms and feden.' systems, as the instruct* ' of 
 all nutnkind in ait aud science, and the spicader 
 of civil niid civilked life over the known world. 
 In the first perii«l of her history Greece is form- 
 ing herself, iu h .'r second she "is e<lucating the 
 world. We w!'' venture to borrow from the 
 Germans a convenient expression, and call the 
 history of indeptmdeut Greece the history of 
 Hellas, that of imperial Greece the history of 
 Helleiiisiu. . . . The Athens of Pericles was 
 dictator among the cities which had joined her 
 alliance. Corinth, SparU, Theln-s. were each 
 the political head of a group of towns, but none 
 of tlie three admitted these latter to an e(jual 
 share In their ci- ucils. or adopted their political 
 views. Even in the Olynthiau I.eague. the 
 city of Olynthiis occupied a iM)sition quite 
 superior to that of the other cities. But tlio 
 Greek cities hail not tried the exp< riinent of an 
 alliance on equal terms. This was now at- 
 tcinpte<l by some of the leadinir ritjes of the 
 Peloponneae, aud the result was ;ie Achaean 
 league, whose histoiy shells a lus e on the last 
 I., -s of independent Greece, and wliosc generals 
 w.,1 licar comimrison with the statesmen of any 
 Greek Kepuhiic [see Gkeeck: B. (.'. 2B0-146]. 
 . . On tiie field of Sellasia the glorious hopes 
 of Cleomcnes were wrecked, and the recently 
 reformcil .Siwrta was handeil over to a succesxlon 
 of bhiodthinity tyrants, never again to emerge 
 fnim ol)8curily. But to the Achaeans themselves 
 the intcrfer.-ncc of Maceilou was little '.•ss fatal. 
 Henceforth a Maceiloiiian garrison occupied 
 Coriii'li, w.iieh had l>een one of the chief cities 
 of the League: and King Antlgoiiiis IX>son was 
 the recognlitiMl ari)lter in all disputes of the 
 K'lo|M>niiesian Greeks. ... In Nortlieni Greece 
 
 a strange i imst presente<) Itself Tlie historic 
 
 races of the AtheiilKiis and Boeotians laiiguisiied 
 In iieace, obscurity, au,l luxury. With them 
 every day saw something added to the enjoy- 
 ments and elegancies of life, and every day 
 I)<illtlcs drifteil more and more Into the back- 
 grrmnd. On the other bawl, therinleseml Orn^ks 
 of the West Aetollaus. Acamaiiiaiis, anil Kpl- 
 rotes, U> whose niauhiKxl the repulse of the Gauls 
 was mainly due. came to the front anil slioweil 
 the lK)ld spirit of Greeks divortvd from the thier 
 faculties of the race. The Acamanians formed 
 ft !e»g:ii. snmewli-it on the plrtli of llie .\ch;u-au. 
 But they were overslmdoweil by their neiglilHirs 
 the Actollans. whose union wiis of a dilTereiit 
 character. It was the Unit time that there hod 
 
U ;■ I 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 83ft-39a. 
 
 been formed in HelUt a state framed In order to 
 prey upon ita neighbours. ... In the course of 
 the Pcloponneslan War Grcelc ri'llgion began to 
 lose iu hold on the Greelts. This was partly the 
 work of the sophisU and philosophere, who 
 sought more loftv and moral views of Deity 
 thun were furnished bv the tales of popular 
 mythology. Still more it resulted from growing 
 materialism among the people, who saw more 
 and more of their immediate and physical needs 
 and less and less of the underlring spiritual 
 elements in life. But though pliilogopliy and 
 materialism had made the religion of Hellas paler 
 and feebler, they had not altered its nature or 
 expanded it. It still remained essentially 
 national, almost tribal. When, therefore. Greeks 
 and Macedonians suddenly found themselves 
 masters of the nations of the East, and in close 
 contact with a hundred forms of religion, an 
 extraordinary and rapid change took place in 
 their religious ideas. In religion, as In other 
 matters. Egypt set to the world •••e example of 
 prompt fusion of the ideas of Greeks and 
 natives. . . Into Greece proper, in return for 
 her ' opulation which flowed out, there flowc<l 
 !n a c. owd of foreign deities. Isis was especially 
 welcomed at Athens, where she found many 
 votaries. In every cult the more mysterious 
 Clements were made more of, and the brighter 
 and more materialistic side passeil by. Old 
 statues whicli had fallen somewhat into con- 
 tempt in the (lays of Phcidias and Praxiteles 
 were restore.! to their places and received ex- 
 treme veneration, not as beautiful, but as old 
 and strange. On the coins of the previous 
 period the representations of deities had been 
 always the Iwst that the die-cutter could frame 
 taking as his minlels the finest contemponirv 
 sculpture; but henceforth we often find them 
 strange, unciutli figures, remnants of a period 
 of struggling early art, like the Apollo at 
 Amyi-lae. or tlie Hera of Samos. ... In the in- 
 tellectual life of Athens there was still left 
 Tltalily enough to formulate the two most com- 
 plete expressions of the etliicul ideas of the 
 times, the diKtrines of the Stoics and tlie Epi- 
 cureans, towards one or the other of which all 
 educated minds from that day to this have been 
 drawn. No doubt our knowledge of these dix-- 
 trines. being largely drawn from the Latin 
 writers and their Greek contemporaries, is some- 
 what coloured and unjust. With the Romans a 
 •y^f™ "f pliil(«ophy was considert'il mainlv In 
 Its bearing upon conduct, whence the etiiical 
 elements in Stoicism and Epi<un>aiiism have 
 been by their Homau ailherents so thrust Into 
 the foreground, that we have almost lost sight 
 of the intellectual elemenU, which can have had 
 mtle less ininortance in the eyes of the Greeks 
 Notwithstanding, the rise of the two philosophies 
 must be held to mark a new era in the history 
 of thought, an era when the Importance of con- 
 duct wan for the first time recognii.-d bv the 
 Un'iks. It is often observed that the ancient 
 Uri'eks were more modern than our own an- 
 cestors of the .Middle Ages. But it in less 
 generally recogniicil how far monMn.Klern thin 
 the (trceksof Pericles were the Greeks. )f Aratus 
 In very many respecu the age of Hellinism and 
 our own age presint remarkable similarity. Id 
 both there «pp./.ir« a sudden Inrn-aso (n the 
 power over material nature, arising alike from 
 llie greater accessibility of all paru of the world 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 900. 
 
 and from the rapid development of the sciences 
 which act upon the physical forces of the worid 
 In both this spread of science and power acts 
 upon religion with a dissolving and, if we mav 
 so speak, centrifugal forra-, driving some men Ui 
 take refuge in the most conservative forms of 
 faith, some t« fly to new creeds and superstitions 
 some to drift into unmeasured scepticism Iii 
 both the facility of moving from place to place 
 and finding a distant home, tends to dissolve the 
 closeness of civic and family life, and to make 
 the individual ratlier than the family or the citv 
 the unit of social life. And in the family re- 
 lations. In the character of individuals, in the 
 state of morality, in the condition of art we 
 find at lioth periods similar results from the 
 similar causes we have mentioned. "—P. Gardner 
 Aein CImplm in Oretk llitUini, eh. lH. 
 
 B. C. 317-316— Siege by Polyspercho.1.— 
 Democracy restored.— Execution of Phocion 
 — Demetriui of Phaleron at the head of the 
 groTemment. See Gukkck: B. C. 32l-;tl2. 
 
 ?C. 307-197 —Under Demetriui Poliorcetes 
 *™ the Antigonids. See Greece: B. C. 307- 
 
 B. C. 388-363.— Twenty years of Indepen- 
 dence.— Siere and subjugation by Antigonus 
 ConaUa.— When Demetrius Poliorcetes lost tli,. 
 Macetlonlan throne. B. C. 2«8. his fickle Athenliu 
 subjects and late worshippt^rs rose against his 
 authority, drove his garrisons from the Museiiiri 
 and the Piraeus and abolis.'ied the prie8tli(K>il 
 thev had consecrate<l to him. I)emetrius 
 gathered an army from some quarter and l;ii,| 
 *."'P .*" "'* "^y^ *"" without success. Thi' 
 Athenians went so far as to invite Pvrrhus the 
 warrior king of Epiriis. to assist them ngiiinst 
 "''"• , Pyrrluis cnine and Demetrius ix-tiicl 
 The dangerous ally coutente<i himself with a 
 visit to the Acro|K>lis as a worsliip|M'r, and left 
 Athens in possession, undisturbe;' of her fnslilv 
 gained freedom. It was enj.xed after a fasiiioh 
 
 n'"o"li^^'^.y™"' *' "'" ""'' "f ^'licb Perin,!. 
 iJ. C. Z68, Antigonus Oonatas. the son of l).'nie 
 trius. having regained the Mace<ionian crown 
 reasserted his claim on Athens, and the citv wis 
 once more besieged. The Lacediemoniaiis ami 
 Ptolemy of Egypt both gave some inelTeetuul 
 aid to the Athenians, and the siege, interruiitiil 
 "n several occasions, was prolonged until li C 
 283, when Antigonus tiH)k posst'ssion of the 
 Acropolis, the fortified Mus«-iim and the Pineus 
 as a master (see M.\ckih)NIa, ifce. : B. 277-244) 
 Tills was sometimes callwl the (?hn'inoiiiilean 
 War, from the name of a patriotic Athenian wlio 
 took the most prominent part in the long liefence 
 of his city, -C. Thirlwall, IIM of Ortea; ch. Bl 
 B. C. aaj. -Liberation by the Achaian 
 League, hee Oukeck: B. C. 280-146 
 J °; C. ayo.— Vandaliam of the Kcond Mace- 
 donian Philip.— In the year B. C. 200 the .Mjkv- 
 (lonian king, Philip, ma<le an attempt to surprise 
 Athens and failed. "He then encamix-d in tlie 
 outakiru, and proceeded to wreak his vengeaucv 
 on the Athenians, as he had Indulgcl it at 
 Thermus and Pergamus. He d<"strovc-<l ..r de- 
 faced all the monuments of religion "and of nrt 
 all the saco'd and pleasant places which adornr.l 
 the suburbs. I'lie Aca.lemv, the Lv.ruin. an I 
 Cynosarges, with iheir temples, scIi.'kiIs gn.v.s 
 an-l ganltns. were .lil wasted with tin- .N"t 
 *.»•'? "'<' «'P"lclin's were spared."- C. Thiriwall, 
 Itut. of Urt*n, fA. 64. 
 
 190 
 
ATHEIfS, B. C. 197-A. D. 138. 
 
 Ptantinc of 
 ChrUtkmily. 
 
 ATHEXS, A. D. 54 (T). 
 
 B. C. 197-A. D. 138.— Under Roman rule. 
 
 — "Athens . . . affonjs the disheartening pic- 
 ture of a commonweftlth pampered by tlie su- 
 preme power, and flnaocially as well as morallv- 
 ruine<l. By riRhts it ought to b&vv found iLwff 
 in a flourishing condition. . . . So city of an- 
 titiuity elsewhere possessed a domain of its own, 
 such as was Attica, of about 7(X) square miles. 
 . . . But even U'yond Attica they retained what 
 they possessed, as well after the Mithridatic 
 War, by favour of Sulla, as after the Pliarsalian 
 battle, m which they had taken the siilc of Pom- 
 ptius, by the favour of C.tsar;— he asked them 
 onlv how often they wrmld still ruin themselves 
 and trust to be saved by the renown of their an- 
 cestors. To the city there still belonged not 
 
 ated In no long time.— W. Ihne, Iliil. of Rom*. 
 **. 7. cA. 1..— "Athens was . . . taken by 
 »«Mult . . . The majority of the citizen.-- was 
 slain; the camaee was so fearfully great as to 
 l>ecome memorable even in that age of bloodshed ; 
 the private movable property wa» seized by the 
 so diery, and Sylla assumed some merit to him- 
 self for not committing the rifled houses to the 
 flames. . . . The fate uf the Pineus, which he 
 utterly destroyed, was more severe than that of 
 Athens. From Syllas campaign in Greece the 
 commencement of tlie ruin anildepopulation of 
 tlic country is to be date<l. The destruction of 
 property causc-d bv his ravages in Attica was so 
 great that Athens from that time lost its commer- 
 cial as well as its p,)litical importance. The 
 
 merely the territory, formeriy" p^S^ "by { ^'^ ol A"thenir„ chiz^n;'^;" aSrextirpaSi'' 
 Uahartus, in B.K'ot.a, but «l.v, on their own and a new population. composedTa heterow^' 
 
 OUS mass of Setf lem fvr^.ivn^l thn ..;.>1.» ^t ^i^. 
 
 coast Sulamis, the old starting-point of their 
 dominion of the sea, and in the Thracian Sea tlie 
 lucnitive islands Scvros, Lemnos, and Imbros, as 
 well as I)elos in tfie Aegean. ... Of the fur- 
 lli r L-ninls, which they had the skill to draw by 
 liuttiry from Antoninus. Augustus, against 
 «liuin tliiy hail taken part, tixik from them cer- 
 tiinly Acgina and Eretria in EulxH-a, but they 
 wi-re allowed to retain the smaller islands of the 
 Thracian .Sea. . . . Hadrian, moreover, gave to 
 Uii Ml ilij Iwst part of the great island of C'eplial- 
 Icnia in the Ionian Sea. It was only by the 
 KiiiiK-rnr fv'verus. who bore them no gc)od"will, 
 tliui a [tortion of these c.xtran<-ou3 ixMsessioiii 
 «;u withdrawn from them. Il.idrian further 
 grunted to the Athenians the delivery of a cer- 
 tiin ijii.intity of grain at the e.xpense of the em- 
 pire, aud by the extension of this privilege. 
 hitiurto reserved for the capital, acknowledged 
 Athens, ns it were, as anotlier metropolis. Not 
 li>s was the blissful institute of alimentary en- 
 (lowm» [its, which Italv had enjoye<l since Trajan's 
 time, extended by Hadrian to Athens, and the 
 cipit.il requisite for tills pur|K>se certainly pre- 
 .sc iitid to the Athenians from his purse, 
 Yi t the community w,is in constant distress ' — 
 T. Momuisen. Ili'l. nf Home. bk. 8, eh 7 
 
 Also I. \: ,1. P. .MahafTy, Ue Greek KorUI under 
 U,,i,ii, .^my.—Sce, also, Giieece: B, C 146- 
 A I). 1-0. 
 
 B, C. 87.86,— Siege and capture by Sulla.— 
 Massacre of citizens.— Pillage and depopula- 
 ''on- -Laitine injuries.- The earlv successes of 
 .MKiiriihites of Poiitus, in his savage war with 
 tiif IJciiians, included a general rising in his 
 f iv, r among the Greeks [see MiTURtD\T c 
 n Alls], siipporU'd by the fleets of the Pontic 
 Kini; aud by a strong invading army, Athens 
 au'l tiie Pineus were the strongholds of the 
 On-rk revolt, and at Athens an adventurer named 
 An«t.<.n. bnnging from Mithridates a body-guard 
 of 2.IKIO soldiers, maile himself tyrant of the city 
 A .ve.ir passed before Home, distracted by the 
 In uinmngs of civil war, could effectively inter 
 ;' ■■'; J}"-'^ Sulla came (B, C. 87) and laid siege 
 I'tlie Pineus, where the principal Pontic force 
 WIS l,>,ls;,-,l, while he shut up Athens by blockade 
 -111 the t.illowing March, Athens was starved to 
 ^'|> h weakness that the Romans entered almost 
 uiiipp,Bi.,j and kille.1 and plundered wi;'i no 
 ineny , but the buildings of the city suffered 
 litile harm at their handit The siege of the 
 i-iraus was carried on for some weeks longer 
 until Sulla had driven the Pontic forces from 
 every part except Munychia, and that they evacu- 
 
 191 
 
 ous mass of settlers, receivc<l the right of citizen- 
 shin. — G. Finlay, fjreeee under the limaiu. eh 1 
 • ^- Pa^ (?».-The Visit of St. Paul.-Plaat- 
 ing of Christianity.—" When the Jews of Tlies- 
 salonica had knowledge that the word of God 
 was proclaimed of Paul at Bea.a also, they came 
 thither likewise, stirring upand troubling thcmul- 
 titwde Aud then immediatclv the brethren sent 
 forth Paul to go as far as to the sea: and Silas 
 and Tmiotlieus alxHie tlure still. But they that 
 conducted Paul brought him as far as Athens- 
 and receiving a coinmani'ment unto Silas and' 
 Timotheus that tliev should come to him with all 
 s|Hed, they departed, Now while Paul waited 
 for them at Athens, his spirit was provoked 
 within him, as lie lieheld the city full of idols 
 So he reasoned in the synagogue with the Jews 
 aud the devout persons, and in the market place 
 everj; day with them that met with him. And 
 certain also of the Epicurean and Stoic philoso- 
 phers encountere<l him. And some said what 
 would this babbler say ? other some. He seemeth 
 to be a setter forth of strange gwls: because he 
 preached Ji <us aud the resurrection. And they 
 t<x)k hold of him, and brought him unto tlie 
 Areopagus, saying. May we know what this new 
 teaching is, which is sixikcn by thee ? For thou 
 bringest certain strange things to our ears: we 
 would know therefore what these things mean. 
 (Now all the Athenians and the strangers sojourn- 
 ing there spent their time in nothing else, but 
 either to tell or to hear some new thing. ) Auil 
 Paul stixxl iu the midst of the -Vreopagus, and said, 
 ie men of Atiiens, in all things I perceive tliat 
 ye arc some-vhat superstitious. For aa I passed 
 along and observed the objects of your worship 
 I found also an altar witli this Inscription, ' To 
 an Unknown God.' What therefore ye worship 
 in ignorance, this set I forth unto you. . . . Now 
 when they heard of the resurrection of the dead 
 some mocke<l ; hut others said, We will hear thee 
 concerning this yet again. Thus Paul went out 
 from among them. Howbeit certain men clave 
 unto him, and believed: among whom also was 
 Dionysiiis tlie Arcopagite, and a woman nanietl 
 Damaris, and others with them."— .lrt» -/ </i«' 
 Al*i»lU; Iterimd Vernon, eh. 17.— "Consider the 
 dillicullics whicli must have beset the planting 
 of the Church in -Vtliens, If the burning zeal o? 
 the great Apostle ever pcnnitteii him to feel 
 dinideuce in addressing an assembly, he may well 
 have fcit ii when he a.idicswd uu Mars' Hill for 
 the first time an Atlienian crowd. No doubt the 
 Athens of bis time was In her decay, inferior In 
 opulence and grandeur tc many younger dti^ 
 
ATHENS, A. D. 64 (TV 
 
 Yet even to a Jew, provided he hud n^celved aome 
 educntioiMl Impressions Iwyond the fanatical 
 sliibbiiletlis of Pharisaism, there was much in 
 that wonderriil centre of IntellJKenoc to shalte his 
 most inveterate prejudices and Inspire him wi'! 
 unwilling respect. Shorn indeed of her political 
 sreatni-ss. deprive<l even of her pldlosophicid 
 supremacy, she still shone with a brilliant after- 
 glow of esthetic and inU'llectual prestige. Her 
 monuments Sashed on the visitor memories 
 recent enough to dazzle his ImaginHtion. Her 
 scliooU claimed and obtainnl even fn)m Emperors 
 the homage due to her unique past. Recognis- 
 ing her as the true nurse of Hellenism anil the 
 chief missionary of human refliiement, the best 
 spirits of the age held her worthy of admiring 
 love not unmixed with awe. As the scat of the 
 most brilliant and popular university, young 
 men of talent and position flocked to her from 
 every quarter, studletl for a time within her colon- 
 nades, and carrie<I thence the recollection of a 
 culture which was not always deep, not always 
 erudite, but was always .ind genuinely Attic 
 To subject to the criticism • f this people a 
 doctrine professing to come dii.. t from God, a 
 religion and not a philosophy, depending not on 
 argument but on revelation, was a task of which 
 the dilficulties might seem insuperable. When 
 we consider what the Athenian character was 
 this language will not seem exaggerated. Keen 
 subtle, capricious, satirical, sated with idoas 
 eager for novelty, yet with the ragemcss of 
 amused frivolity, not of the truth-seeker: critical 
 by instinct, exquisitely sensitive to the ridiculous 
 or the absurd, disputatious, ready to listen, yet 
 impatient of all that was not wit, satislied with 
 everything in life except its shortness, and there- 
 fore hiding all references to this unwelcome fact 
 under a veil of complacent euphemism — where 
 could a more uncongenial soil be found for the 
 seed of the Gospel ? ... To an Athenian the 
 Jew was not so much an object of hatred (as to 
 the Roman), nor even of contempt (as to the rest 
 of mankind), as of absolute indifference. He was 
 simply ignored. To the eclectic philosophy 
 which now dominated the schools of Athens, 
 Judaism alone among all human opinions was as 
 If non-existent. That Athenians should be con- 
 vmced b^ the philosophy of a Jew would be a 
 proposition expressible in words but wholly des- 
 titute of meaning. On the other hand, the Jew 
 was not altoget:u . uninfluenced by Greek 
 thought. Wide apart as the two minds were, the 
 Hebraic proved not insensible to the charm of the 
 Hellenic; witness the Epistle to the Hebrews 
 witness Philo, witness the intrusion of Greek 
 methods of interpretation even into the text-books 
 of Rabbinlsm. And it was Athens, as the quin- 
 tessence of Hellas, Athens as represented by 
 SMKratea, and still more by Plato, which hail 
 gained this subtle power. And just as Juda'a 
 alone among all the Jewish communities retained 
 IS cxclusivenes.^ wholly unimpaired by Hellen- 
 ism, so Athens, more than any Pagan capital 
 was likely to ignore or repel a faith coming iii 
 the garb of Judaism. An.l yet within less than 
 a century we find this faith so well established 
 there as to yield to the Church the gmnl fruits of 
 martyrdom in the person of its bishop, and of 
 alile defences in the person of thri'eof iu teachers 
 The early anil the later fortunes of the Athenian 
 C:iiiinh are buriisl in oblivion; it comes but for 
 a brief period beXure tbc sceoe of history. But 
 
 ATHENS. A. D. S39. 
 
 the undying Interest of that one dramatic m )mrnt 
 when F^ul proclaimed a bmlilv resurrection to 
 the author* of the conception of a spiritual im- 
 mortality, will always cause us to linger with a 
 strange sympathy over evenr relic of the Chris- 
 tiiuiity of Athens."— C. T. Cfruttwell, A Litcran- 
 tlittary of Girly Chrulianity, t. 1, bk. .3 eh 4 
 Also ts: W. J. Conybeare and J. 8. Hi'.waon' 
 Life and Utten of St. Fiiut, v. t, eh. 10 —F V 
 Baur, P>xul. pi. ., eh. 7 (» 1).— On the inscriiK 
 tion, see E. de Pressensc. The Earlg Ymrt ,.f 
 Chnitinnity: The Apoetolie Km. bk. 2. cA 1 
 
 A. D. ia5-i34.--the works of Hadrian.- 
 Ihc Lmperor Hadrian intciesteil himself greatlv 
 in the venerable decaying capital of the Oreiks 
 which he visiteil, or resided in, for consideraWo 
 periods, several times, between A. D. Vili and 
 134. These visiu were made important to the 
 city by the great works of rebuilding whioli he 
 undertook and suiKTvised. Large parts of the 
 city are thought to have been reconstructcii bv 
 him, "In theopenand luxuriousstyleof Antiiwh 
 and Ephesus.' One quarter came to be nilkl 
 " Hadriauapolis," as though he had created it 
 Several new temples were ere-cted at his com^ 
 mond ; but the greatest of the works of Hatiriaa 
 at Athens was the completing of the vast national 
 temple, the Olympieura, the twginning of wliicb 
 dated back to the age of Pisistratus, and which 
 Augustus had put his hand to without finisliin ■ 
 — C. Merivalc, Ilitt. oj tlte Itnrnnm. ch. (W ' 
 A. D. 367.— Capture of, bjr the Goths. See 
 GoTOS; A. D. 2.58-i67. 
 
 A. D. 39s.— Surrender to Alaric and the 
 Gothi.— VVTien the Goths under Alario inva iid 
 and ravaged Greece, A. I). 395, Athens was sur- 
 rendereii to tliem, on terms which saved tlie citv 
 from being plundered. "The fact that tha 
 depredations of Alaric hardly exceeded the nrli- 
 nary license of a rebellious general, is . p, r 
 fectly established. The public buildini;s an I 
 monuments of ancient splendour suffir.-d no 
 wanton destruction from his visit; but then- can 
 be no doubt that Alaric and his troops Kviol 
 lieavjr contributions on the city and its inhaliit- 
 - .ts. '— G. Finlay, Oretee under the Botnam ch 2 
 tect. 8. 
 
 Also i»: E. Gibbon, Decline and Fill „f (V 
 Roman Empire, eh. 30.— See, also, OoTUs: A D 
 31(5, AL.\Ric'g Invasion op Greece. 
 
 A. D. 529.— Suppression of the Schools by 
 Justinian.— " The Attic schools of rhet.irio anj 
 philosophy maintained their superior rej>m;iMoa 
 from the Peloponnesian War to the reign nf Jus- 
 tinian. Athens, though situate in a barnn suil. 
 possessed a pure air, a free navigation, an i the 
 moncments of ancient art. That sacri.l ntirc- 
 ment was seldom disturbed by the b i>ini>< <A 
 trade or government; and the last of tin' Athen- 
 ians were di.stinguished bv their livelvwit tl;e 
 purity of their taste anil language, tl'i rir siiil 
 manners, and some traces, at least in di-cuiir»<>. 
 of the magnanimity of their fathers. In the 
 suburbs of the city, the Academv of th" Ph- 
 tonists, the Lycwum of the Peripatetics the 
 Portico of the Stoics and The Garden of tlic Epi- 
 cureans were planted with trees and dtcoriitid 
 with statues; and the philosophers, instial if 
 being immured in a cloister, delivered tlicir ia- 
 struitions In spacious and pleasant walks, wliiih, 
 at different hours, wen- rnnsecrated to tlir ■ srr- 
 cises of the mind and body. Tlie genius of me 
 founder* still lived in tiiose reneiuble aeata. . . . 
 
 192 
 
ATHEXS, A. D. 820. 
 
 Tb« achooli of Athena were protected br the 
 wuest and most rtrtuoua of the i^oman prince*. 
 . . . Some vestige of mvsl bounty may be found 
 unJer the successors of Conttantine. . . . Tlie 
 golien chain, as it was fondly atylc<l, of the Pla- 
 tonic succewion. continued ... to the e<ilct of 
 Justinian [A D. 52»] which impoMxl a per- 
 TMturjl silence on the schools of Athens, and 
 excited the grief and indignation of the few re- 
 iniining votaries of Greek science and aupersti- 
 ti n."— E. Gihboo, Dteline and Fail of the Soman 
 Emrri-f. eh. 40. 
 
 K. O. taos.— The foonding of the Latia 
 Dnkedom.— '■ The portion of Greece Iving to the 
 south of the kingiom of Haloniki was divided by 
 the Crusaders [after their conquest of Tonstan- 
 tiaoplc, A D. 1*H — see Btiastixe Empire: 
 A I). I2fti-12(M] among several great feudatories 
 of the Empire of Romania. . . . The lords of 
 Bojdonitza, Salona, Negropont, and Athens are 
 alone mpntioned as existing to the north of the 
 iithmos of Corinth, and the history of the petty 
 sovereigns of Athens can alone be tracefl in any 
 detail. . . . Otho de la Roche, a Burgundian 
 .iobleman, who had distinguished himself during 
 the sicee of Constantinople, march<^ southward 
 with the army of Boniface the king marquis, and 
 g-iiaed possession of Athens in 120.5, Thebes 
 aad Athena had probably fallen to his share In 
 \.\'; pirtition of the Empire, but it is possible that 
 th» king of .Saloniki may have found means to 
 inr rea«i his portion, in order to induce him to do 
 h jmage to the crown of .Sjiloniki for this addi- 
 ti n. At all events, it appears that Oiho de la 
 R a^he did homage to Boniface, eith<r as his im- 
 m 'iiate superior, or as viceroy for the Emfieror 
 cflt.-unia. . . Though the' Byzantine aristoc- 
 ricvar. 1 dignified clergy were 'severe sufferers 
 b_v the transiference of tiie goverament into the 
 h.ini'i of the Franks, the middle classes long en- 
 j:.ved peace and security. . . . The social civili- 
 m:: a of the inhabitanu. and their ample com- 
 m mi of the ni-cessaries and many of the luxuries 
 of Hfe. were in those days as much superior to 
 tbe condition of the citizens of Paris and London 
 a.« tiny are now interior. . . . The citv was large 
 an 1 wealthy, the country thickly co'vered with 
 v;;i.»i;.<, of which the ruins mav still be traced 
 in spots aff.irdine no indication? of Hellenic sites. 
 . . . The trade of Athens was considerable, and 
 the I'iX!iry of the Athenian ducal court was celc- 
 Iratt 1 ia all the regions of the West where chiv- 
 alry flourished. •— O. Finlav, HM. of Qntet from 
 iu c.tq'iijit Jy the Cnmuitri, cA. 7 
 
 A'*. L\: C. C. Felton. Onea, Aneient and 
 M'^lern: Vh Courte, Itet. 5, 
 
 ATLANTIC OCEAV. 
 
 I ,^A.D. 1311-1456.— Uoder the CaUUnt and 
 I the Florentuet. See Catai^ax Gbaxd Com- 
 ; PA,"fv 
 
 1 A- J. 1456.— The Tork* ia pouesiion.— 
 
 , Athtr,.* was not occupied by the Turks imtil 
 three years after the conquest of Constantinople 
 (see CoNsn>m>opLF.: A. D. l-fclS). In the mean- 
 time the nign of the Florentine dukes of the 
 house of Acciaioli came to a tragical close. The 
 last of tlie flukes, Jlaurice Acciaioli died, leaving 
 a young son and a young widow, the latter re- 
 nowned for her beauty and her talents. The 
 duchess, whom the will of her husband had made 
 regent, married a comely Venetian namtnl Pal- 
 meno, who was said to have poisoned his wife in 
 order to be free to accept her hand. Thereupon 
 a nephew of the late duke, named Franco, stirred 
 up insurrections at Athens and fled to Constanti- 
 nople to oomplain to the sulun, Mahomet II 
 '•The sultan, glad of all pretexu that coloutwj 
 bis armed intervention in the affairs of these prin- 
 cipaliric^. ordercl Omar, son of Tourakhan, chief 
 of thf permanent irmy of the Peloponnesus, to 
 take possession of Athens, to dethrone the 
 duche^ and to confine her sons in his prisons 
 of the citadel of Megara." This was done; 
 but Palmerio. the duchess's husband, made 
 his way to the sultan ind icteroeded in her be- 
 half. " Mahomet, by the advice of his viziers 
 feigned to listen equally to the complaints of 
 Palmerio. and to march to reestablish the legiti- 
 mate sovereignty. But alreadv Franco, en- 
 tering .Megara under the auspices of the Otto- 
 mans, had strangled both tho duchess and her 
 son. Mahomet, advancing in turn to puni.-h him 
 for his vengeance, cipelled Franco from Athens 
 on entering it, and gave him, in compensation, 
 the inferior and dependent principality of Thebes, 
 in Boeotia. The sultan, as lettered as he wn« 
 warlike, evinced no less pride and admiratio , 
 than Sylla at the sight of the monuments of 
 Athens. • What trratitud' ' exclaimed he bef re 
 the Parthenon and the tem]. of Theseus, 'do not 
 religion and the Empire owe to the son of Tour- 
 akhan. who has made them a present of these 
 spoils of the genius of the Greeks. " — A. Lamar- 
 Une, nut. of Turkey, bk. 13. fft \(\-Vi 
 
 A. D, 1466.— Capture and plundering by the 
 itians. See Greece; A. D. U."»4-14T9. 
 
 Venetians. 
 
 A. D, 1687,— Siege, bombardment and 
 capture by the Venetiaos.— Oestructire ex- 
 plosion in the Parthenon. .See Tceks: A. n 
 Ift-H-lflM 
 
 A. D, 1831-1829.— The Greek revolution and 
 war of independence.— Capture by the Turks 
 See Greece; A. D. 1*21-1529 
 
 , ATHERTON GAG. The. See Uxited 
 STATES op Ajj. ; A. D. 18t , 
 
 ATHLONE, Siege of ,k. D. 1601). See 
 Ikki.am> a. D. 18hi>-1691 
 
 ATHRAV \S. See Maqiaxs, 
 
 ATIMIA— The penalty of Atimia, under 
 SO' 1 :.! .Vthenian law, was the loss of civic 
 rviiu— (j. F Schumann, Antiq. of Grtttt: Tt\t 
 
 ATIMUCA, The. See Ajreaicoi Abo- 
 Bi.iNEs T'MrcrA. 
 
 ATLANTA : A. D, 1864 (May-September,, 
 -bnerman t advance to the city,— Ita sieze 
 sndcapiure. See LsmcDST.tTESorAn. ; A. D. 
 O^RU 7' ^^*^^^' *^ (MaT-aMTMfBHi: 
 
 la 
 
 193 
 
 A. D. 1864 (Septerrber— November).— Re- 
 moval of inhabitants. — Destruction of the 
 city. See United States op .\m .v D. l^iVi 
 (Septembbb— October: Gemroia',, and (Xo- 
 
 VEMBER— DecEMHER : GeoRoIa). 
 
 ♦ . 
 
 ATLANTIC CABLE, See Ei.ErTitirAT, 
 Dist DVEKT AM) Invention .V D l'-54-I'>6S 
 
 ATLANTIC OCEAN: The name.— The 
 Atlantic Ocean is mentioned bv that name in a 
 single passage of Herodotus, "but it is clear 
 from the incidental wav in which it [the name] 
 ia here intrrii'.wd that it was -t-ne wei! k;:t*a ia 
 hisjay. ■— E. H. Bunbury. mt of AnHtnt Otog.. 
 eh. '.. Itet. 1, rutlt.—ToT a sketch of the history of 
 the modem uieof the name, see Pacific Ockax. 
 
J ml 
 
 ATREBATSa 
 
 ATREBATES, The.— Thin name was borne 
 by a tribe in ancient BelftirOaiil, wliicli ocrnpiiil 
 nioilcrn Artois and part of Frcnoli Flanders, nml. 
 also, by a tribe or group of tribes in Britniii, 
 which dwelt In a region between the Tlmines 
 and the Severn. The latter was probablr a 
 colony from the former. See Beixi.*:; "also 
 BniTAiN. Cei.tio Tribes. 
 _ATROPATENE.- MEDIA ATROPA- 
 TENE.— " Atropatene. as n namefor the Alpine 
 land in the northwest of Iran (now AderlH'ijaii), 
 came into use in the time of the Greek Empire' 
 [Alexander's]; at any rate we cannot trace it 
 eariier 'Athrapaitl' means 'loni of tire;' 
 'Athmpata,' 'one protected by Are;' in the re- 
 mote mountains of this district the old flro. 
 worship was preserved with peculiar zeal under 
 the Sclcueids."— M. Duncker, Hint, of Anli'iuil//, 
 bk. 7, eh. 4. —Atropatene "comprises the entire 
 bain of Lake trumiyeh, together with tlie 
 country Intervening between tliat basin and the 
 high mountain chain which curves pouml the 
 southwestern come' of the Caspian."- G. Knw- 
 linEon, f\Te Orent Monitre/iiei: Mtdin, eh. 1,— 
 Atropatene was " named in honour of the satrap 
 Atropates, who had declared himself king after 
 Alexander's death."— J. P. MabaCFy, Story of 
 AUxdiuler't Umpire, eh. 13. 
 
 ATSINAS. Sec Americau AaoRtaiKEs: 
 Bl.\<kfket. 
 ATT. 3EGS. See Atareos. 
 ATTAC APAN KAMI LY, Th«. See Ameri- 
 can AiionioiNEs; Attacapan Pamiit. 
 
 ATTAINDER.— BILL OF ATTAIN- 
 DER. — ' '.Xn attainder Cattinctura') is a degrada- 
 tion or pulillr dishonouring, which draws after It 
 corruption of blood. It is the consequence of any 
 condemnation to death, and induces the disheri- 
 son of the heirs of the condemned person, wliirh 
 can only be removed by means of parliament. 
 A bill of attainder, or of pains and pennlties, 
 inHiets tlie consequences of a penal sentenei- on 
 any state criminal. ... By the instrumentality 
 of such bill the penalties of higii treason are 
 eenenilly impose<l. Penalties may, hi.we^er, 
 be iniposn! at pleasure, either in" aeeonlnnce 
 with, (ir in contravention of. the common law. 
 No other court of law can protect a person c .-. 
 deninrd in siiih manner The first bill of the 
 kind orciirp I under Edward IV., when the 
 
 ATTICA. 
 
 mend. Ktij. Coiut. flint., eh. 10 (id td.. p. 8»3» 
 
 foot-niit*. • 
 
 tn^SS^A.?' ^'^■^"■AN. SecCoasACKs. 
 
 ATTECOTTI, The. 8ce Otadeni; iW, 
 Britain, {?ki,tic TiiinRs. 
 -ATTIC SALT.— Thyme was a favorite ,-..n. 
 diment among the ancient Greeks, "whj.h 
 throve nowhere else so well as in Attica. Kvin 
 Mit was seasoned with thyme. Attic salt lipw 
 ever. Is famed rather In the flguratlvo tl'ian in 
 the liteml sense, and did not form an article ,,f 
 trade."— G. F ^\\ttma.nn, Antiq. of Oretee ■ T„ 
 SInte. pt. a, eh. 3. 
 
 ATTIC TALENT. See Talent. 
 
 ATTIC WAR, The. See Tew Yeaks' 
 War. 
 
 ATTICA.— "It forms a rocky peninsula 
 ■enamteil fnm the mainland by trackless nidiin' 
 Mm, anil Jutting go far out into the Ea-tc rn 
 Sea that It lay out of the path of the trilnj 
 moving from north to aoutli. Henee the 
 mlgratorv pai^sagcs which agitatwl the «hcile,.f 
 Hellas left Attica untouched, and for this n ■is.in 
 Attic history is not divided Into such ni,irl>,i| 
 epochs as that of I>eli>p<mnesus; It possesses a 
 superior unity, and presents an unlnterruntid 
 development of omditions of life native in iluir 
 origin to the land, ... On the other Imiui 
 Attica was perfectly adnpteil by nature f..r 
 receiving immigranU fnim the sea. Fur Ilio 
 wliole country, as Its name Indicates, consists, .f 
 coMtland; and the coast alH)Uiids in ImrlKnirs 
 and on account of the depth of water in ilj,> 
 roatis la everywhere accessible ; while the best of 
 its plains open towanis the const . . . Int.. ilie 
 centre of the entire plain advances from the di. 
 n'ction of Hymettus a group of rockv liii-lit« 
 among tlietn an entirely separate ami ini.-hn 
 lil(jek which, with the exception of a narrow •to- 
 cess from the west, offers on alt sides viiiiiallv 
 pn'cipitous walls, surmounted by a broa,i 1, vtl 
 gnfflcienlly roomy to alToril space for the saii.tu- 
 aries of the national gods and the hahitaticns of 
 the national rulers. It seems as if natiiri' lud 
 designe<l!y placet! this ro<k in this positi„n r\« 
 tlie ruling castle and the cjntre of the nati.M-i! 
 historv. This is tlie Acropolis of .\tli,ns 
 . . . .So far from being 8uia<iently Iiixuriani 
 to allow even the lillc to And easv means of 
 sustenance, the Attic soil was stonv, devoid of 
 
 - • V ■. """'■ »-■•""■■■ •'■. "■"" luc siisienanee, tne Attic soil was stonv dei 
 commons h to confirm the statute condemning « suffl.ient supply of water, and for th 
 Clnri'nee to death. This conven ent meilinH nf -..rf „..!„ ..i ....••'... .!._.'-,_:. . 
 
 C'lnri'nee to dtntli. This convenient method o? 
 tettiiip rid of disagreeable oppoiwnts was in 
 high favour during the reign of Henrj- VIII. 
 . . . What had bien an instrument of' kingly 
 despotism, under Tudnr sway, was converted, 
 under the StuartR. into a parliamentary engino 
 against the crown. The points of indictment 
 against .>strafTord were so weak that the lords 
 were for acquittinghim. Thereupon, Sir Arthur 
 Ilaselrig intrc»iuced a bill of attainder in the 
 commons. The staunch friends of freedom, such 
 aa Pym and Hampden, did not support this 
 mea.sure A bill of attainder may refer simply 
 to a conente ease, and contrive penalties for nets 
 which are not specially punishable by statute, 
 whereas an impeachment applies to some viola- 
 tion of rerosnized legal principles, and is a 
 solemn indictment preferrecl by the commons to 
 the house of lords. '—E. Fischcl, The Enc. Con- 
 
 ilitutiiin. ht. T, eh 9 "By the !«* S4 Vict c. 
 
 23, forfeiture and nttalnder'for treason or felony 
 have been abolished."— T. P. Taswell-Lanf- 
 
 194 
 
 part only adapted to the cultivation of Iviricv ; 
 everywhere . . . labour and a regulated indus- 
 try were needed. But this labour was n.t lin- 
 remunerative. Whatever orchard and irinl.-n 
 fruits prospered were pcciillariy delicuc and 
 airreeahle to the taste; tlie mountainlurlis wire 
 nowliere more odourous than on Hvraettus : ,siid 
 the sea abounded with fish. The mo\nitains 
 not only by the beauty of their form i.iv.si the 
 whole seeniTv with a certain nobilitv. but in tli. ir 
 depflis lay an abundance of the most cTiill.nt 
 building stone and .sliver oi« ; In the lowlands 
 was to be found the best kind of elav f -- pur- 
 poses of mantifacture The materials existi- i f.^r 
 all arts and handicrafts; and flnallv .Vtti'-a 
 rejoicc>cI in what the ancients were wisc^ invach 
 to recognize as a special favour of Ilea von. 
 a dry and transparent atmosphere. , . . The 
 Immigrants who domesticated themselves in 
 Attica were . . . chiefly fuuillles of siifurior 
 eminence, so that Attica gained not enlv in 
 numbers of population, but also in maU-riaii of 
 
ATTICA. 
 
 eiiltiiTe of tvtry flpwriptlon."— E. Curtiui, ITut. ' 
 ,f lirftft. »*. 2, i-K. 2. 
 
 Ai>f> IX: J I. Lockliart. Attim and Alhtm — 
 Stc !i\*n, Atiiess: Tiik BKniNxixa 
 
 ATTILA'S CONQUESTS AND EM- 
 PIRE. Sp Hin- 
 
 ATTIOUANDaRONK, The. Sec AnERt 
 
 CAN AwiKUilXKS; Hi ROSS. 4r. 
 
 ATTYADiE, The.— The first <lyn««ty of the 
 
 kian of LyiliH, claimed to tx; unninif from 
 At.tv'i. son of thu (fo*! Manen.— M. I.luDCker, 
 m»t '/ AntimiU)!. hk. 4. rh. 17. 
 
 AU3AINE, The right of.— ".\ prer<-)ff»tive 
 bv wliirh the Kiti?s of Franee rlajmcd the prop- 
 erty of f'in;i?Dcrs who flip<l in their kinirilom 
 witlKiut Ijoinir n.itTiriliz(.-<l." It wm nuppresscil 
 by (.v.lliert. in the reii»n of Louis XIV— .J. A. 
 B'lan.iui, UM. of P>A. Eeonomg in Europe, p. 
 
 AUCH: Oriapnof thenune. See AQcrr.nsE: I 
 The .\\rrENT TmiiEit. ■ 
 
 AUCKLAND, Lord, The Indian Adminis- 
 tration of. See IsDI.4: A. [>. 19:11^.11*4.5 
 
 AUOENARDE. S.e OifuXARDE. 
 
 AUDIENCIAS.— "For more than two ren- 
 turies ami a half the whole nf ."^oiith .Vmirir.i. 
 e.tcipt Brazil. sfttle<l down untjir the roloni.ii 
 irivfmm<nt of Spain, and durini; the irnatcr 
 part of th.1t time this va.st territory wa« under 
 the rule of the Viceroys of Peru' residing at 
 Lima. The impfs-sibiliiy of cunduetiii^' an'effl- 
 citnt ,\dmini.str,ition from sncli a centre , . at 
 onci- 11-. ime apparent. Courts of justice called 
 AudietK i.s werf. therefon-. established in the 
 di^unt provinces, and their presidents. s<imetiinis 
 ■ivith the title of cipl.-^ins-cenenl. had charire of ■. 
 tt.i? QXf. .tire under tlie orders of the Vicerovs. 
 The .Vii lienci.i of t'hareft,s (the mrxlem Bolivia) ■ 
 WW istal)li,hed in 1.'>.J9. Chile was rule<l by 
 ciltains-ieneral. and an Audiencia w,-is estab- 
 li.^bi d at -Santi 120 in l-WS. In Xew Grenada the 
 pre,! !■ at of the .Vudiencia. ereateil in l.VU. wis 
 alv, faptaiu eeneral. The Audiencia of yuito. 
 h'M, with its pn-sident as captain-general, datwi 
 fnra 1V12: and Venoiuela was under a eaptain- 
 eintril. " — C. R Markham. C-hr,i.U JIM, nf 
 .■• Am. iXirratiee and Critieal UM oi' Aii\ r 
 
 8, p. e'.f,.. •' ' • ! 
 
 AUERSTADT, Bittle ot See GEim.AST: i 
 
 .V I) l-»Ml<ToBF,RI. 
 
 AUGEREAU, Hanhal, Campciens of. rU>e 
 
 FU'. K: .\. I). 179; I SEPTEMBER): GeR\(ANV: 
 A 1' 1X1)6 ((kTOBERI: SPAIX: .\ U IxllO 
 'pF.niir.-.RT — IiNEi; and Ri.-»ia .A 1) lsl2 
 i.IixE — SF.rxEMBER): '.Sl.-J (AcofaTi, iOcTo- 
 BEp, nrTonKii — December*. 
 
 AUGHRIM, OR ACHRIM. Battle of (A. O. 
 
 1691. >•• I,iF.i.'..>r>: A U. Iwy-lUUi. 
 
 AUGSBURG: Oripn. See Aiolsta Vis- 
 riKn-oinM. 
 
 A., p. 95S.-Great defeat of the Hunpuiana. 
 N-HiNnRrvNs A D. 6.U-9.-).5 
 
 A. D. iS30.-Sitting; of t -,e Diet.-Sirnine 
 and reading of the Protestant Confeiiion o' 
 ^alth.— The Imperil Decree condemning the 
 rrotestants. .S-.- ^Ap^cY A I) l.".;io-I.*>;Jl 
 
 A D- '555— The Religious Peace con- 
 cii'ded. .N, Germany: a I). l-'.-jJ-IWI 
 
 AD. 1646.— Unsuccessful siege by Swedes 
 and F.-ench s,... Oermiw; A V> \>w~\-'A* 
 
 A. D 1686.1697.-The League and the 
 war of the League. See C.ekmast: A. D 
 lu-M), and Fuses : A. D, 16i>»-169o, and after. 
 
 AUGURS. 
 
 A. D. 1703.— Taken bj the French. See 
 Gerj«ast: a. I). 170:i. 
 
 A. D. 1S01-1803.— One of six free cities 
 which surriTcd the Peace of Luneville. See 
 
 t.ERMANV: A. I). I'Kd-l'K),'}. 
 
 A. D. 1806.— Lost of municipal freedom.— 
 Absorption in the kingdom of Bavaria. See 
 Gerj«.\.st; A D. l'Mi.*)-l>*)fl. 
 
 I t^ ° "t?* s. - PONTIFICES. - fetia. 
 LES.— '• There was . . enouijh of pricsthfx«l 
 anti of priests in Home. Thfwe. however, who had 
 business with a g'»\ resfirted to the ftiA. and not 
 to the priest. Every suppliant and inquirer ad- 
 dressed him.self directly to the divinity . . . ; 
 tio intervention of a priest was allowetl to con- 
 ceal or to olrtcure this original and simple rela- 
 tion. But it was no (^sy matter to hold con- 
 verse with a jrorl. The irf«i had his own wav of 
 speakin?, which was ihtellliible only to those 
 acrjuaintcl with it; but one who liid riiihtly 
 understand it knew not o ly how to a.scertaln 
 but also how to manage, the will of the cod. and 
 even in case of nee<l to overreach or to con-train 
 him. It was natural, therefore, that the wor- 
 shipper of the grul should re?iilarlv consult such 
 men of skill and .isten to their advice; and 
 thence arose the corpontions or collefres of men 
 specially skillefl in rirligious lore, a thorow:;hlv 
 nati mal Italian instituliDn, which had a far 
 more important intluenee on politital develop- 
 ment than the individual priests or priesthofids. 
 These colleer.s have tan often, but erroneously, 
 conf'pundtil with tlie priesthof«!s The priest- 
 IkkkIs were charirod with the worship of a sp<>cific 
 divinity. . . . I'nd'r the Roman constitution 
 and that of the Ijitin communities in gi nend 
 there were originally but t-o such collr/es: 
 that of the augurs and that of the pontitires. 
 The six augurs were skilled in interpreting th'; 
 language of the giyls from the flight of birds; 
 an art which was p..>4ecut.-.1 -vith great earnest- 
 ness ami reduced to a qiiaM-sci.ntitic sv^t.-m. 
 The live 'bridge builders' (pontifices) derived 
 their name from their function, its sjicred as it 
 was politically impurtant. of conducting tlie 
 building ami demolition ot the bril.'e over the 
 Tiber. They were the Roman engineers, who 
 understood the mystery of measures unrl nuni- 
 hers: whence there devolved upon thi also the 
 duties of managing the calendar of t' tate of 
 proclaiming to the pf-..p|,. the time 01 new and 
 full mcKjn and the da^ s of fesiiv:ils, and of see- 
 inL' that every reliL'ious and every judicial act 
 t'lok phice cm the riirht day. . . Thus tliey ac- 
 • juireil 'although not protwbly to the full extent 
 till after the abolition of the monarchvi the iren- 
 enil oversight of I{oman worship anil of what- 
 ever -« n connecte-l wit', it. [Tlie presi.lent of 
 their (.1 re was callerl the Pontifex .\Ia.<imus ) 
 . . They theni.s/'lves descrilied the sumof tlieir 
 kr.owle<lge as 'tlie science of things divine and 
 human.' . . , By the sirle of these two ol.lest 
 and most eminent corporations of men vers. .1 in 
 spiriiiial lore m.iy be to some extent ranked the 
 Col!. .»,. of the twenty stateheralds (fi.ti:de.,, 01 
 uncertain derivati.>ni destined as a living rei.'.si- 
 tory to pres<>rve traditionally the n'lni.mliraiire 
 of the tnaties concluded with neiglil^irini; e.Mi- 
 muuiik-s, t- prtinotiiK.f an auth..ritatit.' opuo-u 
 on allegiil infrjcti.ms of treatvright-i. an I in 
 case of neol to demand satisfaction ami .b. hire 
 war.'— T. Muuimsea, llM. of Uun^, tik. 1, cU 12. 
 
 195 
 
'*=!' 
 
 I' d- i 
 
 4 ]"f» i i 
 
 ACGCRS. 
 
 Also in: E. Guhl and W. Koner, life of tht 
 Oreeka and Uomtint, leet. 103. — See, also, Acs- 
 picks, iinil Fktiales. 
 
 AUGUSTA TREVIRORUM. See TatviM, 
 Orioin Ol'. 
 
 AUGUSTA VEROMANDUORUM.-Mod- 
 
 ern St. Quentin. !<«,> Bklo.«. 
 AUGUSTA VINDELICORUM. - " Au- 
 
 Busia Vindeliconim is the mndera Aiigsburjf 
 fouiidwl. it may lie suppoaed. aliout tlic year 740 
 [B. C. 14] after tlio c<)n(|iie8t of Hhietia by Drusuii. 
 ... Tlie Itin •Ti\r.v% represent It as the ci-ntru of 
 tlie roads from ViToiia, Sinnium, and Tri'viri." 
 — C. Morivale, Uitt. of tite Homant, ch. 86 
 notf. 
 
 AUGUSTODUNUM.-Thc Emperor Au- 
 gustus chanKed the name of Bibracte in (Jaul to 
 Au^iist.Kluuum, which time has corrupted, since 
 to Autuii. 
 
 AUGUSTONEMETUM. See Geroovia or 
 
 Tin; .\KVKIINI. 
 
 AUGUSTUS.- AUGUSTA: The Title.- 
 '•Urtavius [see Romk: ». C. 31-J4] lind warily 
 d<<limd any of the rpcognlze<l desiifuations of 
 BoviTiiitn rule. AnUwius had alKilished the dic- 
 tatorship; his Buceessor respected the arclania- 
 tious with whirl! the people had greeted this <ie- 
 cree. The voices wliich had sniutnl Ca-sar with 
 the title of king wire peremptorily commanded 
 to be dumb. V.t (Ictaviuswas fully awan^ of 
 the intluenee whirh attiiclied to distinctive titles 
 
 of honour. Wliile ho wrupulouslv renou ■d 
 
 the uiuiies upon whirh tlie breath of'humau Jr.il 
 ousy had blown, be coneeived tlie subtler polii y 
 of erialinit anothrT for himself, which Imrrowiiil,' 
 Its uriL'inal splendour from bis own cliaractir, 
 •liouhl ntleet upon him an untarnished lustre. 
 . . . The epithet .\iiiruslus . . . Iitwl never been 
 iMinii' by any man liefore. . . . But the adjunct, 
 tboii^'h neviT given to a man, had been applied 
 to Iliiriits most nolile. most venc-nible and most 
 divin.v The riti'sof the gods wen' called august, 
 till- tunplfs wen,' august : tile word itself was de' 
 rivi-d fn; 1 thi' holy auguries by which theiliviiK! 
 will was revealiHl; it was ciinneetiil with the 
 favour and authority of Jove himsj'if. . . . Tlie 
 IllMslrious title wa.-, In'.slowed upon the heir of 
 the C'a'sarian Empire in the nii(hlle of the month 
 of January, 727 U. C. 27), and tlieticeforth it Is 
 by the iiHiiicof .\iigustus that he is recogni/ed 
 In Uoiiian liistor> '— I'. Merivale, Hint.' of th4 
 Itni.n,,., i-li. ;)0.— ■ When Octavlanus had timdv 
 ^■^lalllisllel| his iwiwcr anil was now li fi without 
 • rival, the .S'liale. Iieing ilesinmsof disliiutiiish- 
 Inif liim liv some pimliar and eiiipiialir till,., de- 
 creed, in ft. (• 1>7. that he should Ih' .stylwl Au- 
 giisliis. an epilhel pni|>eHy applicable lo some 
 
 ubjei I (hiiiaiidiiig nspecl anil veiiinilion liev I 
 
 wiial is bisiiiwisl upon human things. . . .'This 
 lieiiur an honorary appell'ilon ... It would, as 
 ■ matlir of course, ha»e Imn Iransmilleil by in- 
 hchliitice to his Imiiii'diHli' drsei'iidaiits. . 
 Clnuiliiis, altliiiugh he could not ln' n'ganlcd as 
 a di'Mi iidant of Oelavlanus. asMuiied on his ne 
 cisslon the liilo of AuL'ii.ius, and his eiami.le 
 WHS (..||.,w,,| bv :,11 suen.aiMit rillrrs . . . hI„, 
 
 coiiimuiilrnliil till' tiili' of Augusta to liiilri 
 
 sorts" -W. Hamsav. M-imi.il „f H„nvtn Aiilut 
 fh. .%-_S'.'. also HmiK II. (• ,H|-A. I) 14 
 AULA RECIA, The. .Sc Clhi.i Ukuib ok 
 
 THK \oini(> KiM.s. 
 
 AULDEARN, BattU uf (A. O. 1643). B«i' 
 HcuTLAAU: A. I) 1044-1043. 
 
 AUSPICES. 
 
 AULERCI, The.— The Aulercl were an rjc- 
 tensive nation In ancient Oaul which occupiid 
 the country from the lower course of the Seine to 
 tlie Mayennc. It was subdivided into tlin'e 
 great tribes — the Aulerri Cenomannl. Aulerci 
 I)iahliiitc8 and Aulerci Eburovices.— Naix)leon 
 III., Ilitl. of Cinnr, bk. 8, eh. 3. 
 
 A.^D"V4'»1P5?9"''^"- ■"•■'• ^ ''■""'-^ 
 
 A^""»UK;93°'"'' "'"SPa). See France 
 
 A A?^!?^V^1^'"'' *' <'587)- See Fha.>ck; 
 
 A. I/. li>H4— loHil. 
 
 AURANGZEB, Moghnl Emperor, or Padii- 
 ch«h of India, A. D. 1858-1707. 
 
 » *,H?.Ay'. ?'"'• »' <'3«S). See BRiTT.i.Nv: 
 A. 1). i:i4i-l:<0.v 
 
 AURELIAN, Roman Emperor. A. D 270. 
 27.5. 
 
 AURELIAN ROAD, The.— One of the gn.,it 
 
 Uoman roads of antiquity, which ran from Home 
 to Pisa and Luna.— T. Mommsen, Hut. of ll„iue 
 bk. 4, rh. 11. ■ 
 
 AURELIO, King: of Leon and theAtturias 
 
 or Otriedo, A I). 708-774. ' 
 
 AURUNCANS, The. See Auso.mans; also 
 
 OSCANS 
 
 AUSCI, The. See AqniTAisK, tiik ancie.nt 
 TniiiK.s. 
 
 ,„^,"^9'-^'C"' The. See Austria: X. 7). 
 
 AUSONIANS, OR AURUNCANS, The.- 
 A tnlie of tlie ancient Volsiians, who lUnU jn 
 the lower valley of the I.iris, and who ari. said 
 
 •" "«ve b I exterminatiil by tlu' Komaiis It (' 
 
 .HI4. — \V. Ihne, Jlul. of lime, bk. 3, ch.' M -i 
 Si't . also, < >s<-ANs. 
 
 AUSPICES, Taking the.-" The lionmns, 
 In the eariier ages of their historv, never eiitind 
 upon any liiijiortnnt business wliatsisvir 
 whillier public or private, w itiiout eiuliavouriiu;' 
 by means of divination, to ascertain llie will „f 
 llie giKis in n fen'Hce to the uiiderlakiiig. . . . 
 I his openilioii was termed 'suiiiirc »ii>|.iii,i ' 
 and if tlie omens pniveil unfavoumble llu' husi- 
 ness was aliamloned or defem'd. . . . N,, miii. 
 Ing of the Comilia Curiata nor of the ( omiiia 
 Cinturiala could be lield unless tlie auspi,,, lui.| 
 Ucn previously Uken, . , . As far as piililic 
 priKci'dings were iimcemed, no privai. in- 
 ili.idual, even among the patricians, hail the 
 right of taking -iispin-s. this duty de\..|nil 
 upon the siipn. me magistrate alom., . . . |i, an 
 niiny tliis power belonged eKilusivelv 1,. the 
 commander iiichief; hmiI hence all aeliiivum iiH 
 «en' said lo k' performed under his aii-|ii.t». 
 even ahhouitli he wen' imt pnsenl. . . . TIm 
 olviects observed ill taking these auspices inre 
 biriN ihe class of Hnlnials from whieli ihr H,,ri| 
 is ilcnved (• Auspleluin ab ave spieieiiilai (If 
 
 these, soine wen' IhIIcvisI to give imlicii s l.y 
 
 "" "■ "inlit IhiTs liv ilieir Holes .,r iri.i 
 
 . . . while a thinl class consisted of elii. kins 
 Cpiilli ) kept in cages. When it was d,s 1, d 10 
 oblaiii an iHiien from lliene hist, fissl wiis (.l;ii«l 
 bi Ion. Ilieiii. and tlie niaiiiii r in wliich tlir\ i.«ii- 
 poitiilllicmselvea wasclos.lv walcliisi, . . , Tlw 
 maimer of takinif tla. auspices pnviims M liie 
 
 CoMiilia was as follows: — Th aitislrilc »ii(. 
 
 was III iin'side at the hsmiiiIiIv anise imim liihly 
 after miilnlirhi on (|ii. ihn f..f «h!..!i It li::-.! Ine!! 
 siimmoiHsl, and called uihhi an augiir 1.. uvisl 
 hiiu. , , , Wilii 111* aid a rvgluu u( the sky AUii 
 
 106 
 
AUSPICBa 
 
 AUSTRALIA. 1601-1800. 
 
 » space of ground, withtn wblcli the auspices 
 were olnerTetl, were marked out bv the divining 
 staff ('lituus') of the augur. . . . iTIiis opcrutiun 
 was perfornie<l with the greatest care. ... In 
 making the necessary observations, the president 
 was guided entirely by tlic augur, who reported 
 to him the result." — W. Ramsay, Manual of 
 Bom. Antiq., eh. 4. 
 
 Also is: W. Ihne,Zri«<. of Borne, Mr. 6, eh. 13. 
 — See. al»i>. Ai'orK. 
 
 AUSTERLITZ, Battle of. See Fkance: 
 A. I). IHO.! (.M.tucii— Dkckmbeh). 
 
 AUSTIN, Stephen F., and the settlement 
 of Texas. Sc-e Tkxah: A. I). IHlll-lsa'i. 
 
 AUSTIN CANONS, OR CANONS OF 
 ST. AUGUSTINE.- "AlxMit tlie middle of 
 the lltli century an attempt liad l)een nnule to 
 redn'ss tlie balance between the ri-gular and 
 secul: r clergy, and restore in the latter the Influ- 
 ence anc! considenitinn In spiritual matters which 
 they had, partly by their own fault, already to a 
 great extent lost. Some earnest and thoughtful 
 spirits, distressed at once by the abuse of numastic 
 privileges and by the general decay of eeclesiasti- 
 caionler. sought toelTi-ct a reform hv the estid)lish- 
 nient "f a stricter ami lictter organized discipline 
 in lliiiw cathedral and other churches wliich 
 were serveil by coUeges of wcuhir priests. . . . 
 Towards the I'legliwiiiig of the twelfth century 
 tlie atlempia at canonical nform issued in the 
 fi)rin of wliat wius virtually a new ri'liglous 
 onkr, that of the Auguxlinians, or Canons 
 Hegul.ir o' the orciiT of S. Augustine. Like tlie 
 monks and unlike tlie secular canons, fmm wlunn 
 tliey weri> can'fully liistinguished, they had not 
 Hilly their table and dnelling but all things in 
 ciimiiicai. and were bound by a vow to the olwer- 
 value "f llieir rule, groiiiided upon a piwsage in 
 ciiie iif the letters of that gri'iit fatlni of the Latin 
 Cliunh from whom they tiK)ktlieir name. Their 
 Mheiiie was a coinpniinise In'tween the old- 
 fushioneil system of canons and that of tlie mon- 
 H'^lic confnilernities; but a compromise leaning 
 strcjML'ly lowiirds the nioiiustic aide. . . . Tlie 
 Au»liii canons, as they were c<imiiionly called, 
 iiiiiile their way ai'niss the chanm I in Henry's 
 niitii "-K. Norgate, EngUml iinil.r tU AiiiKciii 
 KtiKjt. r. 1, rt. 1. 
 
 Also in: K. L. Cutta, Seenaand Chamcttnof 
 Iht Mi.hllf .\,,,,, eh. 3. 
 
 AUSTRALIA: A. D. i6oi-i8oo. — Dis- 
 covery and early exploration.— The founding 
 of the penal colonies at Sydney and Norfolk 
 lilanij.— •■ .\iisiralla has iuiil no t'obiinbiis. It 
 is (Veil ilouliiful if the ilrxt naviiriitora who 
 riiiche.l hiT shores set out withanv hha of dis 
 i"Vi riii^' II jrreiit south lanil. At all events, it 
 Hciulil seeiii, their aeliieveiiients were so little 
 eslienicil by themselves and their countrvmen 
 tliiit no iiieiins were taki'u to pnwrve "their 
 iiiiiu- In roiini'xioii with their dls<Hivciies. 
 Ili>ll,iii,| Inint hml the cn^dit of bringing to light 
 tle( MMeiiienr tliul islmiii Continent, wiilch until 
 ri (Tilt yi'uis wu.t best known by her name. In 
 I'^'H. honivrr, .Mr. .Major, to whom we are 
 
 uiilt litid for re n'lvnt resiarch iipim the sub- 
 
 J'll. priMluiiil evhh'iire which appeared to 
 iliiuoiiMinlellial tlie I'ortiiguese hud reached the 
 slmn.of Aiislniliii In liloi. the years lafon' the 
 IMit.li yaihl Ibiyphiii. or hove. — llie earliest 
 1 M, »!„,„ iiiiMM' has been iianded down, — 
 ►urhtid, ahout Man h, lOlKt, what U U'liuved to 
 Uuvc Utu the coast near Cape Vurk. Jlr. Major, 
 
 In a learned paper read before the Society of 
 Antiquaries In 1872, indicated the probability 
 that the first discovery wag made 'In or before 
 the year 1581,' The dates of two of the six 
 maps from which Mr. Ma^or derives his Infor- 
 mation are 1531 and 1.543. The latter clearly 
 indicates Australia, wliich Iscalled Jave la Grande. 
 New Zealand is also marked."— P. P. Ijibilllcre, 
 Birlg Hint, of the 0,tn„ii of Vietoria, eh. 1.— In 
 1006, De Quiros, a Spanish navigator, sailing from 
 Peru, across the Pacitie, reached a shore which 
 strc'tched so far that he took it to be a continent. 
 "He called llie place 'Tierra Australis de 
 Espiritu Santo,' that is 'Southern Land of the 
 Holy Spirit.' It Is now known that this was 
 not really a continent, but merely one of the 
 New Hebrides Islands, and more than a thousand 
 miles away from the mainland. ... In after 
 years, tlic name he had invented was divided 
 into two parts; the Island he had n-ailv dis- 
 covered being called Espiritu Santo, wliife the 
 continent lie thought he had di.scovered was 
 callwl Terra Australis. This last name was 
 shortened by another discoverer — Flinders — to 
 the present term Australia." After the visit to 
 the Australian coast of the small Dutch ship, the 
 " Dove," it was touched, during the next twenty 
 years, by a number of vessels of the same 
 nationality, "In 1622 a Dutch ship, tlio 
 'Leeuwin,' or 'Lioness,' sailed along the south- 
 ern eimst, and its name was given to the south- 
 west cape of Australia, ... In 1628 General 
 Cariienter siiikil completely round the large 
 Oiilf to the north, whicii lias taken its name 
 from this circumstance. Thus, by degrees, all 
 the northern and western, together with part of 
 the southern shores, came to lie roughly explored, 
 and the Dutch even had some idea of colonizing 
 this continent. . . . During the next fourU-en 
 years we hear no more of voyages to Australia; 
 but in 1643 Antony Van Diemen, the Governor 
 of the Dutch posscssiims In the East Indies, sent 
 out his frienil Aliel .laiisen Tasman, with two 
 ships, to make discoveries In the South Seas" 
 Tasman discovered the island which he called 
 Van Diemen s Land, but which lias since been 
 named In his own honor — Tasmania. "This 
 he did not know to be an Island; he drew it on 
 his maps as if it wen- a peiiiiisnla beloiiKlnnto the 
 mainland of Ausiialia." In Wmil. thi' famous 
 buccaneer, William Danipler, was j;iveii the com- 
 mand of a vessil sint out to the soulheni seas, 
 anil he cxplori'd alKnit INK) miles of the norlh- 
 ttcsteru cimst of Auslnilia: but the diseiiptlon 
 which be gave of the country did not eneoimiu'e 
 tlieadventimmstoBeek fortune In It. " We hear 
 of no further exploiallons in this part of the 
 world until nearly a ceiilurv after; iiiiil, even 
 then, no one tlioiiirlit of wnilbi!; out ships 
 «|M'chilly for the purp.ise. Hut In the vearlT.i) 
 a series of iinportant iliscoverh'S "i le iiidiri'iliy 
 brought alMjut. The liuyal Sinlety of l.on.lon. 
 calculating that the planet Venus" would cross 
 the disc of tlH! sun in 17(111, |H>rMuadiil llie 
 Kugllsh -foveninient lo send out an expedllion to 
 the I'acillc Ocean for the piir|i<>si< of making 
 oliservatlons on this event which woulil enable 
 astronomers to cahulate the distance of the earth 
 fiiiin the sun. A small vessel, the ' Endeavour.' 
 \\'as elioMeii ; mitronoiiierw w{i|} their Inuir'imt'Uts 
 cnibaiked, and the whole placed under the ihari'e 
 of" llie n-iiownid sailor, Caiitaln .lanns ( isik. 
 The astiuuomical |)ur|H>««4 of the vxiiedltiun 
 
 1 
 
 197 
 
lli 
 
 if 
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1801-1800. 
 
 wcrcBfttisfartorily aoTOtnpIisliol nl OtiUidtc nnrl 
 I nptiiin ('(Mik then pnKccIrd to nil explomlinri 
 of ilR" slions (if New Zciiliind iiiul Austnilin. 
 Hiiviiig vntiTiHl a liin' biiv <in the soiitliciisturii 
 const of Ausiniliii, 'lie exiimined tliu coiiniry 
 for a few mil.H Inland, nnd two of his solentlllc 
 frk'tidH — Sir Joseph Hunks and Dr. SoI.uidtT— 
 niiidc'splcndi.l lolloctions of lioljiniciil spcclnicna 
 From this cirnimstnnif the pliite was chIIihI 
 Botany Hay. and its two hcad-hinda rcoelved the 
 nanus of Cape Banks nnd Capo Solnndor. It 
 was here that Captain ("ook . . . took iioswsslon 
 of the ooiintry on Inhalf of His BritJinnic 
 Majestj-, giving It the name 'New South 
 Wales, on iiiiount of the resemlilancc of its 
 masts to the southern slmresof Wales. Shortly 
 after they h.iil set sail from Holany ttiy they 
 <>liserviHl a small opening' in the land, but Cix.k 
 del not slay to examine It. merely marking it on 
 Iisehart as I'ort .faekson, in honour of his frienil 
 Sir Oi'orgi! .Jackson, . . . The reports linin!.'ht 
 lioinehy Captain Cook completely clmnge.1 the 
 beliefs current In those days with regard to 
 Australia. ... It so hap|H'ni-d that, sliorlly 
 after C(Kik a return, the Knglisli nation hail to 
 (leal with n gn-at dillleiiltv In regard to lis 
 criminal populaliim. In 1776 the United Stales 
 dwlared Iheir Indeix'iideiice, nnd the Knglisli 
 then found thi'y c-oulil no hmger senil their c.mi 
 yicts over to Virginia s they had formerly done 
 In a short time the uaols of England were 
 cn)wdiKl with felons. It liecinie neei'ssary to 
 select a new place of tninsportiition ; and. Just as 
 this dittlculiy an>si.. Capi.iin Cooks voyages 
 called allenlion to a land in every way suiteil for 
 such a purp..«|., Ii,iih bv n'asim of lis fertility 
 ami of Its ureal distance. Viscount Sydney, there- 
 fore, (lelcrmined to send out a party to' H<ilanv 
 Hay. Ill order to fcmiid a convict witlement then' • 
 and III May. 17H7. a licet was ready u> sail ■' 
 After a voyaire of eight moiilhs the Hl'cl arriv.'fl 
 at Holany lliy. in .lanuary, J7MH. The waters 
 of the Hay were found i„"l«> Iim shallow for a 
 proper liailsiur. and Captain I'hillip the 
 a|i|Hiiiile.l (J.iycrnor of the settlement, set out 
 with time Isiats, to search for soniclhing In'tter' 
 "As he passed along iju. coast he tiiineil to 
 cxaiiiine the opening whic h Capuiln CiKik had 
 called Port Jai'kson. and siKm found himself In a 
 winding chaunid of water, with great clilfs 
 fMwniiig overhead. All at ontv a inagnllleent 
 j)ro«p<-ci o|»neil on his eyes. A harUiiir, wlil, h 
 Is. iM-rhaps, the most iHaiilifiil ami perfect In the 
 world. SI niche,! b.'fore him far to the west till 
 It was lost on the distant hori/.on. It seemed a 
 vast maze of winding waters, dotbHl here ami 
 then' with lovely isl.l,. . , . c,,,,,,,!,, I.|,i||j,, 
 K'U'cled. as the i.l.Mv most luituble to Ihu sitll,' 
 meni. a small Inlet, whic li. In honour of the 
 Mlnlsler of Slale, he called Svdm'y Cove It 
 was so ,1,,'p as to allow veswds to appr-wch 
 wi .III a yard or two of the shore." Onat 
 dlltlciilticsaiid suirerings nltendisl the founding 
 or the iiiMial Hiiileiiicnt. atiit many dicil of ncliiil 
 ►tarvallonaswcllasofdUe.,,,.; but In twelve years 
 llie|.opulali„u bad risen ,o l„.twcen 6,IKN1 ami 
 ..iHtil iHisoris. .Meaniirne a brincli coh.ny h.id 
 "■en . stal.ll»h,.d on Norfolk Island. In 171li 
 tJovernor I'hillii,, bn.keii in heallh. ha.| n'signcd I 
 jnd n l..t.1hel„„| iHcn suce.sslc.1 by Ooyeriior ^ 
 Mnnter. •When »)overn..r Hunter nrrlvisl. In , 
 
 .i! .» I. '"f" "'■'' ^'•'"' "" '■-"''••' l'i«»l.i|-, 
 tUf Ifc'lliiuce, a young surguuD, Oforifu Uuw 
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1800-1840. 
 
 ami a midshipman callc<l Matthew Flinders 
 1 hey wens young men of the most adinimlile 
 chameter. . . . Within a numlli after ihcir 
 arrival they purelia.se<l a small lioat nlK.ut ci-ht 
 f<'et In length, which tli<'y clirisl4-ne<I the 'Ton, 
 1 humb. Its cn-w conslsKil of themselves and i 
 iMiy to assist." In this Kinall craft they Ivgiin a 
 survey of the c<„st, Hs..f,illy charting many 
 miles of it. Sisin sflerwanis, fteorge Bass in uii 
 open whale III >at, piirsiuil his explorations south 
 >yanl8, to the n-gion now nillisl Victoria and 
 through the straits which bear his name 'thus 
 discovering the fact that Van Diemens I.iiid or 
 
 JiSI'"!."'*' '" "" '"'"'"'• """ » IM-ninsula. ' In 
 1.1)8, Bass and Flind.rs, again ns.sociated and 
 furnished with a small shsip, miIIikI round and 
 surveytsl tlie eiitin^ coast of Van Dlemeus Ijin.l 
 Hass now went Ui South America ami there .lis- 
 appeared. Flimlers was commissionetl by the 
 British Oovernment in 1H(H) to make anexi,.nsive 
 survey of tile Aiislnilian coiists, ami <lid so 
 IMimiinp to England with his maps, he wis 
 taken pns<iner on the way by the French and 
 held In aiptivity for six vi^ars, while the fruits 
 of his labor were st.ilen. He diisl a few yiirs 
 .ifter b,.|, ,.|,.as..,l.-.V and U. Sutherland, 
 Iliiit. of Aimtrnlin. ch. 1-3. 
 
 .\i.s<) IN: O. W. Uusilen, //,..(, of AuMmlia. eh 
 l-'l ('• 1). 
 
 / i).i8oo-i840.— Beginning of the Pros- 
 '• "' "— '=-"1 Wiles. -Introduction of 
 
 198 
 
 peiuy of New South .. _ ^,.„„ „, 
 
 ihcep-farminor.-The founding of Victoria and 
 South Auttralia.— "For lwcnlyy,.ars an.l nmre 
 m. one at li.niie gave a thought to N..» South 
 Hales, or 'Hotany Bay,' as It was still einm- 
 eously calleil, unless in vague liomir an.l cm 
 passion f,,r thi' pisir cri-atui-es who livi'il tlien" ia 
 cMie ami sl.arvati.m. The inily civili/.in - ,1,. 
 iiiint In the plaiv was the pn-seiice .if a .l.'v..i, ,| 
 ■ l.rgyman iiaiu.'.| .Iohns.m, wh.. h.ul v..luiiui.ily 
 a.i-.inipanii'.l liie llrst liatch of onvi.ts 
 C'.lonel Lichlau M.ic.iuarie .•nl.'rr.l on llieolll.e 
 of governor In IWIO, an.l rule.1 the selthni.nl r,.r 
 iwelve years. His adminislnitlon was ih.. liivt 
 turning imint in lb. hisbiry. . . . Mae.,iiaiics:..v 
 that llic liest ami cliea|H>st w.ay of ruliii' the 
 c..nvl.t8 was to make tliein fnvmen as ».;„i m 
 |...sslble. B.f..re his time, the goverii...N In,) 
 , lo..k.sI on the omvhts as slavi-s, to Ik^' ttork.d 
 tor Ih.. pr..tlt ..f the g..yernm,-iit and of th.' fi.r 
 sctth'i-s. .Maciuari.- .11.1 all he coidd |.. d.v.t,. 
 the class of emancipists, anil u> incoura -e ili,. 
 convicts 1.1 pemevi.ri' In solwr Imlustrv la l!.e 
 liopt. of one .lay acpiiring a n>s|H'cbil.ie|KKitiMi, 
 II.' Isgan to.lise.inlinue the govcrnm.aii fmin 
 ami to eiupl..y llie cmvlils In nia.l makin' s,. ,i 
 to .'Xliml th.' c..|.iny in all din', lions. Wli.n in' 
 caiiU' t.i Sy.lmy. the country more than a .la\ s 
 rule from the i.iwn was .jiiite unknown Th.' 
 growth of the s.'ith.m,.ni was si.>pi»v| ,„, ti,,' 
 
 ";••;'''/» "ing.. ,.a||,..| the H M..u„i:,i„.. 
 
 whl.li iH'f.in' his tiin.' n.i .me lia.l su.n.d. d ii 
 cr..s«iiig But In \Hy.y th.r.. .am,' a .|...,i.-ii- 
 up.,ii t h..n.h.ny: Ih.'.allle. ..ii wlii. hcv.'.viliuu- 
 .I.IHii.l.-.l. wer.. uiiaiil.- i.i timl f,»kl M.i.'.|iiaH,' 
 si.nii Is..! (hat ih.r,' must Im' ph'ntv of pasiiiiv ,.ii 
 till' plains alM.ve the Blue Mountains: he s,,,! ,:, 
 >vpl;|ring imrty, t.'lliug th.'m (hat a pis, ,„ ,.t 
 "• dls<'.,v.'r,..l. In a f.'w iii.>ntlis. m.t ..iilv « u 
 this task a<<-omplish..,|, ami the vast ami f.ri'e 
 niHlun's .if ILiihiirst r!'a,!i.',l h:,t a t..;.\ : M 
 Miil.s long wasiiiaile. e.Hiii...l|iig iheiu with S( 1 
 '"■y. ihe U>'hlan an.l .Ma.'.|uarle rivers « r» 
 
ACSTTULIA, 1800-1840. 
 
 AUSTOALU, 1800-1840. 
 
 traw'l out to tlic west of the Blue Moiintnlng. 
 Bt-siiles tills, cfml was found at tlio month of the 
 Hiintir river, and the wtllcment at Newoa«tlc 
 foriiiiil. . . . When it Ijeraine known tliat the 
 IKHul settlement w!i.s irradu.illy Ixroir.in'f a free 
 rolnny, anil that Sydn' y and its po|Mi!ation wen: 
 rapidly ehanging their rhameter, Enelisli and 
 fic'itch people iw)on Ix'tlioiizht them of cmi- 
 t'nitina to the neweountry. Macijuarie returned 
 home in 1«22, liavini,' New South Wales four 
 limes as populous, and twenty times as lar^e as 
 when he went out, and many years in advance of 
 what it miiht have Ixin under a less able and 
 eniTL'>'tie poverror. The discovery of the line 
 pastures U'vonil the Ulue Mountains settled the 
 destiny of tlic eolonv. The settlers came up 
 thither with their tlorits long iH'fore Maojuarie's 
 rt«d was tinished; and it turned out that the 
 downs of .\usfr,ilia wen' the liest sheep walks In 
 the world. The shi><p thrives better there, and 
 pn«liues finer and iiiirc abundant wool, thananv- 
 wliire els.'. .Fohn .Maiaithur, a lieutenant in the 
 XdvSiuiii Wales crir|H, liiul sp<'nt si.'vcral vears 
 in studyine the elTirt of the Austmlinn clfmatc 
 iiIK.n the shitp; and he riuhtly surmised that 
 tlie staple of the colony woulil'lic its fine wool. 
 In l-io:). he went to Kiu'laud and procured s.>me 
 pure .><p;iriisli menno shop from the ticK-k of 
 iJ.orL'e III . . riicrrivy Council listened to 
 his wimpI proje'- , and he ri'ceived a larce grant 
 of land. .Mauiriliur had found out the true way 
 T<i .\u-traliau prospi-rity. When the irreat up- 
 Imd p'lMures wen? dis<overed. the merino hn-ed 
 WIS Will esUblisheil in the eolonv; and the 
 sljisp ovtnirs. without waiting for L'r'ants, spread 
 witli tie ir tl'if ksover immense tracts of country. 
 This w IS tile tx'L'inninv' of what is calle<l squa't- 
 tiiij. Till 8.|uatiers afterivarils paid a ijiiit rent 
 t'l the L'ovcrnment and thus got their runs, as 
 till y calli-d the unat clistricts where tliev rias- 
 tun.l their ll'K-ks. to a certain extent secure*! to 
 llii-m . . Iluiidnds uinm hunilreds of square 
 niili-s of the urn-at .Vusiralian downs were now 
 explorid and stocked with sheep for the Knglish 
 w,K,l ni.irket. ... It w!is iu the time of Mac- 
 (luarii- s sueisssor, Sir Thomas llrisliane, that the 
 nrns|».. Is of New South Wales iH-caine peni'mlly 
 known ill England, t'nv eniigmnts, each brinir 
 ItiiT niori' or less caiiital withhiin, now jiounsl 
 in . 1111 1 the demand for lalMiiir liecauic enormou-S. 
 .\t tir^i ih- ixnal settlements were n^newefl as 
 di-ii-its for l!if supplv of lalx.ur, and It was even 
 pr.,|>.~-.| liiat the convicts should bes.ild bv auc- 
 tion oi. 111, ir arrival ; but in the end the intfux of 
 free l.iboiuvrsent" '. alterwl the question. In 
 jlri.lianes iline, it of his sui-ceiwir. Sir 
 
 Kiilpli KirliiiK. « !-• s fell and work Ix-camc 
 virr.' Ill En.'land, and Enelish working men 
 no«i„ii„.,|t||,.jrii,i,.,|ii,,„,„Xusi™iU. Hitherto 
 t he |i.ri|i|,. iimi |„.,.|, ..jii,,., convicts or free si't- 
 l.Tsof 111,, re ir hss Wealth, and Ix'tween these 
 ri.iss,-, ihiri. »•„, ^,r,.„ liiiiernessof feeling, each 
 iiiiliirilly .■iioiiirli. ihiiikiug that the col.iny ex! 
 l-!ed f..r their own exclusive l»ne«t. The free 
 ili..ur, rs u iio „,,w |,.,,,r,.,i i„ grj.,.„]y rontribute,! 
 ill t"";- of lime to lushii, the |).,i„ilation into 
 one III llrisliane « tim,., trial bv Jurvand a free 
 |iirs, w.re lntr..|,ie,sl. The finest 'iiasiuns In 
 .^M^lrllll. the Darliiiif Downs near Mon-ton IJhv 
 ».«• .Iwoverisl uu,|«itliKl [is-.M). The rivers 
 
 " " !'■ ■"■ '"■" M..1.I..I1 tiav weni expion-<i 
 
 en. uf tliein was named the Hrislwne, and a few 
 UiUn troiii lis mouth the luwu of the luoc imme 
 
 was founded. Brisbane Is now the capit.al of the 
 colony of Queensland : and other explonitions in 
 Ins time led to the foundation of a s<;cond inde- 
 iwndeiit colony. The Macqiiarie was traced lie- 
 vond the marshes. In whieh It was supposed to 
 I'ise Itself, luid named the Uarling: and the .Mur- 
 ray river was dis<-ovend [IS'JD]. The tracing 
 out of the Murray river bv the nrlventiimus 
 traveller Stiirt, led to a eolonv on the site which 
 he named South Australia. "In Dariing's time, 
 the Swan Hivcr Colonv, now calk-d Western 
 Australia, was cominence<l. Darling 
 was the first to Mil the land at a small 
 fixed price, on the system adopted in America 
 - . . Dariing returned to Enitland in lH:il; 
 and the six years ailministration of his sue 
 c-ssor. Sir Hichanl Boiirke, marks a fresh 
 turning-point in Australian hi.story. In his 
 time the colony threw olf two great offsluKits. 
 lort I'liillip, on which now stands the great citv 
 of Mellmume, luui U-en discovere<l in 1W». niid 
 iu the next year ii,.- government sent hither a 
 convict colony. This did not prosper, and this 
 fine site was neglected for tliirf v vears When 
 the sudden ri.se of Xew South \Va"ies iK-gan the 
 squatters liegan 'o settle to the west and north of 
 I'ort Iliilllp; and .he government at once sent 
 an exploring party, who reporttsi most favour- 
 ably of the country aroiiml. In Ih;i«, Governor 
 U'liirke I'oundesl a settlement In this new land, 
 which had lieen calleil. fmin its rich promisi' 
 .\ustralia Felix: and under his din-ctions the 
 site of a capital was laid out. to lie callisl Mel- 
 bjmrne, in houoiirof the Eiclisli Prime .Minister 
 This was In 1*17. so that the N^ginning of the 
 toloiiy corresponds neariy with that of gm-en 
 \ ictorias niiin; a elreinnsiaiiee which afler- 
 
 wanls led to its being n i I Viciori.i. Further 
 
 west still, a se'cond new eolonv aros<; alxuit this 
 time on the site discovere.i In- Sliirt In \xnt 
 This was called South .\iislnilia, ami the first 
 t'ovenior arrivisl there at tlie end of the vear 
 l><ifl. The Inteniled capital was naineil .\de- 
 laide. In honour of the Queen of William IV' 
 IJ<illi the newci.lonles were commenced on a new 
 system, called from its inventor the Wakeliel | 
 system, but the fnuu.lers of South Australi.i 
 were able to carry It out iii.ist elTectuallv N- 
 aiisi. they were quite in.|i|i. mlent of the experl- 
 and the prejiidiies of tin • ' 
 
 em 
 
 mint .Mr. \Vakefield was 
 
 and a clever writer. ... II 
 
 the new colonies ouzht to I 
 
 ii'l the pr 
 -Mr \V. 
 
 199 
 
 ney coNern- 
 
 iiioiis man 
 
 is I in was that 
 
 _ -"' •■■ ■"• made 'fairlv to 
 
 represent English s<Kieiv.' His pl.in was to ar- 
 nst the strong dem<icratic tendencies of the new 
 community, and to repr.«luee in Australia the 
 strong distlneiinn of . lassis whieli was found In 
 Englaml. He wanieil the Lmd sold asileara- 
 pMsibie, so that lalniiirers mii;lil not beiome 
 laiel owners: ami the pr«lueeof ih,- laml was 
 to iw< appliisl In tempting hili<iiirers to emigrate 
 with the pMs|H-ct of l.ii.r ivaife, than thev got 
 at hoiiin. A Company was lasilv formiil loiarry 
 out these ideii» in Smtli .\ii«irilia . . I.lkc 
 the ». iilement of Carolin:i as frimisl by !,,« ke 
 and .-soiners. It was n-allv a plan for ireiting the 
 advanlaires of the colony inio ihi> hands of the 
 non lalKiiiring classes and bv the natural laws 
 .if imlitinil economy, it f.iih-.l evervwbere 
 
 -Vdelal.ll! I>eci«me the •(..n.j ,,f 2~ ^..'.....11,^ 
 
 • bubble ■ Tli.. lan.l J.ibliers ami m.inev l.n.lers 
 ni.a.l.' f.inuii.-s but the p...pl.. who i mli:nii..| 
 in.«tly bil.inglug to the middle and upiKt 
 
;t| 
 
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1800-1840. 
 
 classes, found the scheme to be a delusion. 
 Land rapidly rose in vulue. and as rapidly sank; 
 and loU for which the omigranu had paid high 
 pric-cs became almost worthless. The labourers 
 emigrated elsewhere, nn<l so did those of the 
 capitalists wlio had anything left. . . . Tlie de- 
 pression of South Australia, however, was but 
 tcmrxirary. It contains the best corn land In the 
 whole island : and hence it of course 8<Kin be- 
 came the chief source of the food supply of the 
 nelghlmuring cnlonies, iK-sides exporting large 
 cmaiitities of corn to Knghind. It conUiins rich 
 minis of copi r. and produces larirc quantities 
 or w.Hil. — E J. I'ayne, Jliit. of b'uroimn Colo- 
 met, eh. v;. See SocTii Walks, Victoria, and 
 
 BOITH Als-. IIAI.IA, 
 
 Also in: O. W. Rusden, Hitt. ofAnrtralia. 
 A.p. 1830-1855.— Propesi of the Port Phillip 
 District.— Its Separation from New Sojth 
 \Vales and erection into the colony of Victoria 
 —Discovery of Gold.— Conititutional organ iz«. 
 Ji"" °/ "If; colony-— " lu 1«J» the population of 
 1 ort I'liilllp amounted to nearly 6,000, and was 
 being rapidly augmented from without The 
 sheep in the ilistriet exceeded half a million, and 
 of cattle and horses tlie numbers were in pro- 
 portion eiiually large. The place was daily 
 growing in Importame. The Home Government 
 tlierefore <lecidiil to 8<nd an offlcjr, with the title 
 of Superintendent, to lake charge of the district, 
 but to act under the O.ivemor of New ikmlii 
 Wales. Cliarles .loscpli Jm Tn)be, Ksi\ was ap- 
 pointed to this otlice. ... He arrived at Mel- 
 Imurne on the 30tli Siptemlier, ISHl). Soon after 
 this all classes of tlic> new comiiiuiiltv appear to 
 have lieioine alTecliHl Iiy a mania for s'lH'culation. 
 . . As is nhvays the eas,' wjen speculation 
 takes the jilire ,if sliudv industry, the neces- 
 saries of life I aiiic fabulously dear Of 
 
 money there wiis but little, in consldeRition of 
 the amount of bu.iriess done, and large tninsac- 
 ticms wi ciricted by mcansof paper and erwiit. 
 St to lowist. all lived extnivagiuitly 
 I. a stale of things could not last for- 
 lf<4j. by which time the population 
 ■asi'd to 24.IH)(), rhe crash came. . 
 hr ,. iliisdepressiontheeolonyslowlvrecovered 
 and a soiindir l)u<iness sy.stem took the place of 
 thcspeculativcMimv . . . All this time, however 
 the colony was a d.pendeney of .\cw .South 
 Wales, and a strong filling had gained ground 
 that it suffered in eonseiiuenee. ... A ( rv was 
 raised for separaliun The demand was " as a 
 matter of course, resisted bv New South Wales 
 but as the agilalimi was eariied on with ineniisi.i'l 
 aetlvity. it was at last yieldisl to bv the Ibune 
 aulli.irili.s The vessi 1 U-aring llielnielligiiiee 
 arrived nn tlie llih .Nnvi inUr, IS."ii). The news 
 SjKin spread, ami gniit was the satisfaetii.n ef 
 the eMlunl^ls. Hi |..ii iiiirs were kept ii- In Mi 1 
 bourne fur live < iinseeutive davs. . . Hi f.uv 
 however the », parallon could la. :,.g„llv ai eoni' 
 pllsheil. ii was iiiiissary that an Ai t Miiuild Ih' 
 passed in NVwSmiiUi Wales to settle del, ils. 
 The nijuisile luriiis »■ rr at length givin eifeei 
 to, :inil. on tin- Im .July. IS.'.l. a day wiiirii has 
 ever since hei. MM riipiil.Mi.lvobserveil as a pulilie 
 hnlnlay, it «:i« pmi luinii-.rthat the I'.irt I'liiliip 
 disliiit of .Niw SuiMli \V;i|r, had iHTU eo'cled 
 .uto a »<'|.arile , i,l,,ov to \,v ,„1|imI Vietoria, aflir 
 tlie iiaiiie i.f Her .Nliwf Urailous Malesty Ai 
 the wiiii. liiiK' Ii,,' S.i|iiriiitendent, Mr' (• ,J 
 L» Trolw. was raised to the rauk of Lieuteuaut- 
 
 From lii^ 
 , . . Sui 
 ever t 
 had 
 
 AC8TBALIA, 1839-1858. 
 
 Governor. At the commencement of the year of 
 separation the population of Port Phillio num. 
 b«red 76,000, the sheep O.(K)O,0O0. tl/catlle 
 »»o,UUO . . In a little more than a mouth aftir 
 the esUbhshmeiit of Victoria as an independent 
 colony, it became generally known that ri.h 
 deposits of gold existed within its borders 
 The discovery of gold . . . |„ Srv, s'.iitl, 
 Wales, by Hargreaves, in February, 18.'.l.caiis.d 
 numbers to emigrate to that colony. This bein- 
 coiisidere<l detrimental to the Interests n? 
 Victoria, a public meeting was held in .Melbourne 
 on the 9th of June, at which a ' gold diseoverv 
 committee ' wasappoliite.1. wliiih was aiilliorizill 
 to offer rewards to any that should diiwover goM 
 In remiinenitivc quantities within the colony 
 The colonists were already on the alert Al the 
 time tills meeting was held, sevenil parties w, ,0 
 out searching for, and some had already f„m,i| 
 gold. The precious metal was tirst dislvivenil 
 at Cluncs, then in the Varra ranges at Anderson's 
 Creek, smm after at lluiiinvong ami Ballanit 
 shortly afterwnnls at Mount Alexandir an,i 
 eventually at BeiKllgo. Tlii'deposits were found 
 to bo richer and to extend over a wider ana ih in 
 any which had been disei.v.rtHl in New Son;li 
 Wales. Their fame soon K|.n'ail to the adiannt 
 colonies, and thousands h.istened to the spot. 
 . . . When the news n-aelinl home cruwils of 
 emigrants from tlic United Kimrdom huiried lo 
 our shores. Inhabitants of other Knrupoan 
 
 Anii-ri. ;ins 
 
 .'ounirlesquicklv joined in liierush. 
 from the Atlantic .States were not long m loii.nv 
 '"K- Stalwart Califoriiiaiis l.fi their own i:nl,l. 
 yielding rocks and placers to try their furlnni's 
 at tlie Simlhern Eldorado. Lnst" of nil, sw^unn 
 of thliiese arrival, eager to unite In th,- g.niml 
 scramble for wealth. . . . The iinporiani imm- 
 liou which the Au.stralian clonics lia.l olit.iin,-,l 
 n cons<-inienee of the diseuviiy of gol,|, and ila- 
 Intlux of population cousi-iiucnl iheriMm w.is liie 
 (K-casionof the Im|)erial tiovcrnment del, nnia- 
 ing ill the latter end of Is.V,' il„,t each e.ilnnv 
 should be invited to frame such a Consiitmioii 
 for Its government as Its representatives mi'lit 
 deem best suited to its own iM-eiiliir eireuni- 
 stances. The Constitution fninied in Viiti.r 
 and afte .-anls approved by ih,. Ilriiish I'mHii: 
 ment, WIS avoweilly basi'd upon ili.it ,,| tlie 
 LnitiHl Kingdom. It pnoiilid for the i-imIiMnIi 
 mentof twol.msesof L.gislalim., wiili p,,«,r 
 to make laws, sii ijeet to Hie absent of ih,. i r,,H.i 
 as repre!«-nled generally by tli,. ((,,vi.rn..r of ilie 
 colony; tlieI,e„'iHlatiye('oiiieil.orrpiK.rl|,.iiv 
 to consist of :v>, and the l.i iiislalive A-s.nil.iv' 
 or Lower House, to conM-i uf «i) iii,inl.,i> 
 .Memtx'rsof iKith Houses to Is- .liciivr an I t,) 
 tiiHsess property qualitli ali.iiH. El.i l..!-...! I. .i!i 
 Houses to possess either i>rop.irly or pr..lisvi..n,il 
 qualilleati.iiis (the properly ,|iialilliaii..n..t ni. ni- 
 iM.rsand el|.iiors of the l,.ov.r II.him. ha, ,,■.,>•• 
 Nrn al.,.lisli«l|. . . . The Ippir ll.niv n..i |.. 
 la' ill«s..|ved. but five iiietiii..rs to niir.' ,v.rv 
 two years, and to in- eligible l.ir re eleeii..n TliV 
 I.«iwer House to bi? dissulvi.l every tiv.' v. trs 
 [since nsluced to three|, ..r urieiier' at 111.: .Ii, 
 creilon of the (Jovernor. c. rtaiii oili,, rs .1" ih.' 
 
 (Joverninent. four at least of wl 1 s:„,.i: i 
 
 have seals In I'ariiament, I.. Im' dii'innl Ii. 
 sponsllde Ministers • . . This (•iiiisliiiiii,.n « is 
 prorlaimi-.l la V!.-iaria <■» it,,- i.ui N,,, •::■.:■; r. 
 m\ —II. H. llaylcr, Auf<a an M« tWcit ./ 
 Vtcturta, cA. I. 
 
 200 
 
AUSTRALIA, 1830-1855. 
 
 AdtraHm. 
 
 APSTRAUA, 1890. 
 
 Atso in: F. P. LBWlllcre, Rirty JBtt. ef tht 
 Colony of Vietoria, t. 2.— W. Wcstgarth, I\rtt 
 l\e€nlu Yean of the Colony of Victoria. 
 
 A. D. 1859.— Separation of the Moreton Bar 
 District from New South Wales.— lu erection 
 into the colony of Queentland.— " Until Uvcem- 
 ber, 1M9, the nortU-west purtion of the Fifth 
 Continent waa known n.s the \f iireton Buy ilislrirt, 
 anil belonged to the rolony of New South Wales- 
 but at that date it had grown so large that it was 
 erected into a sepnmte and independent colony, 
 under the name of Queensland. It lies iK-twecn 
 lat. \<P 43' S. and 2i»^S.. and long. 138' ami l.W 
 E. , bounded on the north by Torres Straits ; on the 
 nortlieast by the Coral Sea; on the east bv the 
 South Pacific: on the south by N'ew South vVales 
 and South Australia; on the west by South 
 Australia and tlic Northern Territory; and on the 
 northwest by the Gulf of Carpentaria. It 
 covers an area . . . twenty times as large as 
 Ireland, twenty-three limes as larire as Scotland, 
 and eleven times the extent of Kiigland. 
 NuniircMis ginid liartKiurs an- f md. many of 
 which form theoutletsof navigalili rivers. "The 
 principal of tliesc lis] Moreton Bay, at the head 
 of which stuniis Hrlsbane. the capital of the 
 colony. , . . Tiie mineral wealth of Queensland 
 i3 very great, and eviTy year sees it more fullv 
 develoiml. , . . Until the year 18«7. when tlie 
 Gympie liild was di.scoverol, gold mining as an 
 inl isirv wa.s iiardlv known."— C. H. Eden The 
 /r". Cnnliuent. <•/(.' 10. 
 
 A D. 1885-1892.— Proposed Federation of 
 
 the Colonies. — "It has lieen a commrn saving 
 
 ill Au^iraliii that our fellow countrvmen in that 
 
 part nf the world did not recoirnise the term 
 
 • Au-itraluii;' e.-.i h ri-(-i>gnis<'d onlv his own 
 
 colony and the empire But the advocates of 
 
 combin^ition for ciTtain common purjioses 
 
 achievi-d a sreat step forward in the formation of 
 
 a • Fediwl Council' in iss.v It waa to lie only a 
 
 ■ Coum il.' its decisiims having no force over anv 
 
 col.itiy unless a(-ro|)t(d afterwards by the colonial 
 
 I,i-L'i>!itiin'. Vi<tori:i, Queinsland. Tasmania 
 
 and W.-vt Austnilia joined. New South Wales 
 
 Siiith Australia, and New Zealand standing out. 
 
 and. S-. ( onsiiiuted. it met twice. Tlie results of 
 
 the ilelilxratjont Wert' not unsatisfactory, and the 
 
 oiinim that the move was in the right dlrvction 
 
 r ;.ily grew. In Febru.-irv of \<m) a Federation 
 
 ' .f.Tince. not private but representative of the 
 
 • Uli-rcnt Gi.vernmi-nts. wa«calleil at .Mell)o.irne 
 
 It ii Lifted 111, address to the Queen declaring the 
 
 ";>iiii '11 i.f the confenucf to be that tlie best 
 
 irit.r.-«isi,f the Australian colonies require the 
 
 CHily r.rmalinn of a union under the Crown into 
 
 0111- (...vcrnm, nt. Inith legislative and executive 
 
 tvints pnHvcd ipiickly in Colonial History. In 
 
 111- course of isy.) ||„. hesitation of New "South 
 
 Hui.s was Ilnally overcome; ixiwerful factors i 
 
 lielii,: the weakening of the Free Traile position i 
 
 a! the eUelion of IsiH). the report of (^.neml I 
 
 tdwiirds on the Defences, ami the dllHculties ' 
 
 «"oiit ( liim-se iiiimiiiralion. A Convention i 
 
 ai-i.,riliiii:l> ;,ssi.mliled al Svdncvin .March. IWl I 
 
 wlmli a.-reed upon a (•on;titiition to bo recom- \ 
 
 iii-ri.|.-.| to the s.-veral Colonies.-— A. Caldeisitt. ' 
 
 A.v, ,«,(■,,/„,, ;„f,„„ ,,,„/ l-:ii,i,ir, f/, ■; ,„i .1 _ . 
 
 "11 M"ji.:.-iy. March ;.'ml, ls«i. tlic National I 
 
 .Vi-'riliislan Convention met at the |»srliain""> i 
 
 H".- .Sidney. .Sew Saith VValwi. ami »as ! 
 
 aucMl.il hy Kven n'pre«ntallvi-« from each 1 
 
 tviuuy. except New Zealand, which only sent 
 
 three. Sir Henry Pa.kcs (New South Wales) 
 WHS electc<l Prcsiden of tiie Convention, and Sir 
 Samuel Griffith (Quee.islaml), Vice President A 
 st.nes of resolutions, moved bv Sir Henry Parkes 
 occupied the attention of the Conventitm for 
 several days. These restdutions set forth the 
 principles upon which tlie Fedem! Government 
 should be esublishejl. which were to the effect 
 tliHt tlic powers sod privilegesof existing Colonies 
 should be kept Intact, except in cavs where 
 siirrender would lie necessary in order to form a 
 Fc(leral Government; that intercolonial trade 
 and intercourK- slioul<I lie free ; that power to 
 impo.se Customs duties should rest with the Feil- 
 eral Government ami Pariiameu.; and that the 
 naval and military defence- of Australia sliould 
 be eutrustc<: to the Feileral Forces under one 
 command. The resolutions then went on to 
 approve of a Federal Constitution which should 
 cstiililish a Federal P;irliam<nt to consist of a 
 Senate and a House of Kepriwutatives; tliat a 
 Judiciary, to consist of a Federal Supreme Court, 
 to be a High Court of Appeal for Australia, 
 should be estsblisheil ; and that a Federal E.xe- 
 ciitive. amsisting of u Governor General, with 
 rt-sponsible advisers, should be constituted. 
 These resolutions were disi-ussed nt great length 
 and eventually were adopted. The resolutions 
 wen- then referred to three •'oinniltlies chosen 
 from the delegaU'S, one to considir Constitutional 
 Mailiinery and the distrihulion of powers and 
 fiinctions; one to deal with nmitcis relating to 
 Finance, Taxation, and Trade licLMilatioiis; and 
 the other to consider the i|iieslion of the estab- 
 lishment of a Federal Jiidii iarv. A dmft Hill, to 
 constitute the 'Commonwealth of .\ti-inilia ' was 
 tmiiight up by the first meiitioneil ni these Com- 
 mitti-es, and after full coiisideriition was adopted 
 j'y,""' t'onvention, and it was airreeil that tlie 
 Bill should Ik presented to each of the Austra- 
 lian Parliament.s for approval and adoption Oa 
 Thursday, April Otii, the Coiivi iiii,,i; closeil its 
 I>ro(( edings. The Bill to provide f. .• the Keiler- 
 ation of the Australasian mlonies entitled • A Bill 
 to constitute a Comnionwealth of Australia' 
 which wasdnifttsl by the National .Vustr:ila.sia'n 
 Convention, has Urn iuti-odiict-d into the Parlia- 
 ments of most of till- (oloiiies ot ihc L^riiiip and 
 Is still (OiIoIbt. lHi|-,'i, under I onsi, brill ion.' In 
 \ictoiia it his piis.si-d the I.o>vi r llou-.. with 
 some amemlin.uts. — .**.i(,»«, '« Yi.irlf>„k 
 \'*'M. />. ;ios. 
 
 A. D. 1890.- New South Wales and Vic- 
 toria.— "New til Wiiies heirs toVicloriaa 
 Ttain statistic.-, scmbliiiice. The twocol,iiiies 
 'he same population, and, 
 -It tlic suine revenues, ex- 
 "le. Iniiich. a irr-.'at capital 
 irhooil more than a third I I 
 ■ ■ But consiilera'jle 
 
 I an,l an- lik.-ly to develop in 
 
 have [l!(901 
 roughly spei, 
 Iiiiidifire, d( 
 Collects in oue 
 the total popiil 
 dilTei-encvs lie Im I 
 
 the liiiure. New .Siulli Wide-, in'the opinion of 
 her enemies. Is less eiiterpri-iiig iliaii Vietoria 
 and tins less of the go liiead spirit whi. h disHn 
 giiishi-s the .Melliouriie |m.o|.|,.. On the other 
 h.iiid she poKsi-SM's a lurirer t.rriiorv. abundant 
 supplies of coal, and will liave pr.ihihh. in «on 
 N-i|iicnce. a greater liiiiiie. Althotigh New 
 Soiiiii Wales is time aiei a half tiim s as l.irge as 
 
 V'1.'1..i-Im I I .,.. -r f 1' f ,. ^ . 
 
 and Italv conihiiiiil. she is of i-oiiis<. much 
 smaller than th, three other but as vit le». Im- 
 portant coIonicD of the Auslraliin loiitinent [see 
 
 201 
 
I 
 
 1 1 *.'■■■ 
 
 AUSTRALIA, 1890. 
 
 QVSBNSLAND, South Acstbama and WE«TEni» 
 Australia]. As the country was in a large 
 degree settled by assisted emigrants, of whom 
 simicthing like half altogether have been Irish, 
 while the English section was largely composed 
 of Chartists, ... the legislation of "New South 
 Wales has naturally shown signs of its origin. 
 Map'KKxl sulTrago was carried tn laW; the abo- 
 lition of j)rimogcniture In 1888; safe and easy 
 transfer of land through the macliinery of the 
 Torrens Act in the same year; and nlso the 
 abolition of statu aid to religion. A public sys- 
 tem of education was introduced, with oilier 
 measures of democralic legislation. . . . Public 
 education, which in Victoria is free, is still paid 
 for by fees in New South Wales, though cliildnn 
 going to or returning from school arc allowed to 
 tnn I'l free by railway. In gencnd it may be said 
 that ^ew South Wales legisTatinu in recent times 
 has not iKTii so bold as the legislation of Victoria. 
 . . . Tlie land of New South Wales has to a 
 large e.vtent come Into the liaiids of wealthy per- 
 sons who are becoming a territorial aristocracy. 
 This has lieen the effect flrstlj of granU and of 
 Bipialting legislation, then of the perversion of 
 the Act of 1861 (for -Fri^ Selection before 
 Sur%-ey '] to the use of those against whom it had 
 been aimed, and timilly of natural causes — soil, 
 climate anil the lack of water. . . , The traces of 
 the convict element in New South Wales have 
 liecome very sliglit in the national cliaracler. 
 The prevailing cheerfulness, running into fickle- 
 ness and frivolity, with a great deal more 
 vivacity than exists in England, does not sug- 
 gest in the least tlie inlermi.xlure of convict 
 IiIimhI. It is a natural creation of the climate, 
 and of the full and varied lift led by colonists 
 in a youiii cmih-i-y. ... A population of an 
 excellent ty|>e has swallowed up not only the 
 convict elemfiil. but also the unstable and 
 thriftless eleiiient shipped by friends in Brit- 
 ain to ISyilney or to .MellKmme. The ne'er- 
 do-wi^els were either sonii'what almve the aver- 
 age in brains, as was often the case with tlnw 
 who reiovereil themselves and started lU- 
 afresh, or i«'ople who drank themselves i,i 
 death anil ilis<ip|M'ar(il and left no descendants. 
 The coiivicl.s were also of various classi's; some 
 of tliini wire men in whom crime was the 
 outcome of restli'ss energy, a.s, for instance, in 
 many of those tiansportnl for treason and for 
 manslaiighter; while some were people of 
 avemge mnrility ruined through companions, 
 wives, or suihlin tem|)talion. and some persons 
 of an ess<.ntiall. depmved and criminal life. 
 1 lie liiitiT elassii of convicts, in a new country, 
 away from tin ir ohi conipanions and old tempta- 
 tions, tiirneil over a new leaf, and tluii abilities 
 and llieir strong vitality, which in some cases 
 hml wroiiL'ht their ruin in the ohl world, found 
 healthful sio|k' in sulKliiing to man a new one. 
 Criiiie in tlair easi's was an aecideut. and would 
 not Ik' transmitted to the children they left be- 
 hind them. On the other liaml. the genuine 
 criminals, and also the drunken De'cr-do-wifls. 
 left no clill.ireii. Drink and vice among the 
 'assigned servants' el.iss of convicts, and an 
 absence of all facilities for marriaire, worke<l 
 them off the faceof the earth, and those who nad 
 not l)-en killed Is'fore I he gold discovery generally 
 
 dran.< tliems4'lves to death nnon the dlairiiiL'u " 
 
 Sir C W Iliike, truOienu' of UnaUr' Jiritaiii, 
 fi. 8, ch. 8. 
 
 AUSTIUSIA. 
 
 ^ AUSTRASIA AND NEUSTRIA. OR 
 NEUSTRASIA.— ■- It is conjectured by Lude , 
 with great probability, that the Rlpuarians .c 
 originally adled the • Eastern ' people to d in- 
 guish them from the Salian Franks who lived to 
 the West. But when the old home of the con 
 cpierors on the right bank of the Rhine was 
 united with their new settlements in Gaul, the 
 latUT, as it would seem, were calle<l Neiistriaor 
 Neiistrasia (New Limds); while the term Aus- 
 trasia came to denote the original seats of the 
 Franks, on what we now call the German bank 
 of the Rhine. The most im|>ortant differenie 
 between them (a differe-nce so gnat as to leiul to 
 tlieir |)crmanent separation into kingdoms of 
 France and Germany by the li v .)f Verdun) 
 was this: that in Neustna the Fraiiliish element 
 was quickly absorlied by the mass of Oallu 
 Romanism by which it was surrounded ; while 
 in Aiistrasia, which Included the ancient seals of 
 the Prankish compierors, the German clement 
 was wholly preilominant. The Import of the 
 word Aiistmsla (Austria, Austrifnuicia) is very 
 fluctuating. In its widest sense it was used to 
 denote all the countries ineor|M>rated into tlie 
 Frankish Empire, or even held in sul jection to 
 it, in which the German language and population 
 prcvailcil; in this actvptati.m It include.1 there- 
 fore the territory of the Alemanni, Bavarians 
 Thuringians, ami even that of the Saxons uiiii 
 Fnses. In its more common and pro|)er seiisi,' it 
 meant that part of the territory of tlie Franks 
 tliemselv,^« which was not indudeil in Neiistria 
 It was siilMlivided into L'p|)er Austrasia on tlie 
 Moselle, and Lower Austrasia on the Rhine ami 
 Meuse. Neustria (or. in the fulness of the 
 monkish Latinity. Neustrasia) was boiiinlid i>ii 
 the north by the ocean, on the south by the Lnin-, 
 and >^ _i the southwest [simtheast?] tiiwaiiN liiii' 
 gundy by a line which, lieiriniiing IkIow (Jiin ..ii 
 the Loire, ran through the rivei-s Loing and Voniir, 
 not far from their sources, and passing noiili 
 of Auxerre and south of Troyes, joined the 
 river Aube above Arcis.' — W. f I'errv 77„ 
 Franhi. eh. 8. — "The northeastern part ,.f 
 Gaul, along the Rhine, together with a .slice i.f 
 ancient Germany, was already distinguished as 
 we have 8<"en, by the name of the Eastern Kiiit' 
 dom, or Ostcr-rike, Ijitiiiized into Austrasia It 
 embraced the region fli-st oc-cupied by the Hi 
 puarinn Pranks, and where- they stiiriived the 
 most compnctiv and In the greatest numlKr 
 This was, in the cslinmliou of the Franks, the 
 kingdom by cminenee, while tlie rest of ilir 
 north of Gaul was simply not it - ■ ne nsti r 
 rike, or Neustria. A line drawn from ilie 
 mouth of the Scheldt to Cambrai. and iliemr 
 acnws llie Marne at Chateau-Thieriv to \W 
 Aulic of Bar sur-Aulie, would have sipanilcl 
 the one from the other, Neustria eomprisiii' iiil 
 the northwest of Gaul, lH'twe<>n the Loire mid 
 tlie ocean, with tlic exception of llijit,iiiv 
 This had been the first j.ossi'ssion of the .s.ili m 
 Jranks in Gaul. ... To such an exlint had 
 they been absorlied anil infiuenciKl bv tin. |t«niiii 
 elements of the |«ipulath>n, that Ihe'Auslrasiaiis 
 scarcely consideriKl them Franks, wli'le tin v in 
 their turn, regarded the Austrasians as" tlio 
 merest untutoretlbarlinrlans."— I'. (l.Hlwin, //i.r 
 0/ fV«n«.- Aneieiit Ihiiil, bit. 3. eh. 13, iri7A «.f.. 
 Alsoih: K ,A Pr.w™an. //r.-f, (,V-v. ''fH-tr:;:r. 
 eh. 8, teet. «— ."ice, nlso. FuA.NKs (.M't:iiuviKut.v.N 
 Lmpire): a. I). 5I1-7S8. 
 
 202 
 
if 
 
 i 
 
 ^.' '«!* 
 
~ i^Sn 
 
 ^j: 
 
 
 
 t'rWlf 
 
 1*. 
 
 
 *3, 
 
 
 It- 
 
 
 
 
 1 'WMSi 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
Houa 
 
 
 kauiiiF 
 
m 
 
 Ir" 
 
 I 
 
 u\ -i\ 
 
AUSTIUA. 
 
 ACSTRU. 
 
 J^ ^fS^-r'"^" ?»™ "' Au«tria, Oe.ter. 
 relcli — Ostrich as our forefathers wrote It— Is 
 naturally enough, a common name for the east- 
 SIl'!?f''li,°'«''y kingdom The Franlclsh king- 
 dom of the Merwlngs had Its Austria; the Italiw 
 kingdom of the Lombards ha<l iu Austria also. 
 We are half inclined to wonder that the name was 
 never given in our own island cither to Essex or 
 to EastAnglia. But, while the other Austrias 
 have passed awav, the Oestcrreich. the Austria 
 the Eastern mark, of the German kingdom Jts 
 defence against the Mapvar invader, has lived 
 on to our own times. " not onlr lived on. 
 
 but it has become o, ,e chief European 
 
 ^JTu Ami it Ims K-cme so by a proceSto 
 S . ''woi'l'l be hanl to find a parallel "— 
 E. A. Freeman, Tht Uutorieal Otooravhu of 
 burope, V. \, eh. 8, p. 305. '~n f » "j 
 
 The birthplace.-' 'On the disputed frontier. 
 In flie zone of perpetual conflict, were formed 
 ami dev. ,ope<l the two states which. In turn 
 were to dominate over Germany, namely. Aus- 
 tria and Prussia. Both were born In the midst 
 of the enemy The cradle of Austria was the 
 Eastern arch, established by Charlemagcc on 
 the Da .m bevond Bavaria, at the veiy gate 
 
 from the Orient . . . The cnulle of ftussia was 
 the march of lirnndenburg, bctwecs the Elbe 
 and the Oder In the region o." the exterminated 
 Muvs. — i,. Lavissc, Oeiieml VieiDoftlte PolUi- 
 calllutory of Europe, eh. 3, wet. 13 
 
 The Smgfularity of Austrian hiitory.— A 
 power which is not a national power.— 'it Is 
 liy no means an ™sy task to till the story of the 
 vanous lands which have at different times 
 ronie under the dominion of Austrian princes 
 he story of each land by itself, and the story of 
 tliem all in relation to the common power A 
 cmtinuous narrative Is Impossible. Sfuch 
 
 mischief has been done by one small fashion of 
 mcxlcrn speech. It has withiu my memory be- 
 fome usual to personily nations and powers on 
 llie snmllest occasions in a way which was for- 
 merly .lone only in language ;norc or less solemn, 
 rhetonral or poetical. We now talk every mo- 
 ment of England, France, Germany, I{u.ssia Italy 
 
 f^K.p 7 VS '^'^"'- A"'' •" '""8 «9 ills 
 onl) England. France. Germany, Kussia, or Italy 
 
 Is done; the thing is a mere question of stvle 
 t r those are all national powers But 
 
 wl.™ we go on to talk in this way of 'Austria,' 
 >il lurkey, direct harm is done; thought is 
 (•infused, and facts are misrepresented I 
 
 mvn seen the wonis 'Austrian uatlonal honour ' 
 i l.ayo romc across people who believed that 
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 Austiia was one land Inhabited by 'Austrians,' 
 and that Aastnaus' spoke the 'Austrian' lan- 
 guage. All such phrases are misapplied. It Is 
 
 o lK3 presumed d.at In all of thim 'Austria' 
 means something nore than the true Austria 
 
 10 arcliduchy: wl at Is commonly meant bv 
 thm is the whole d( minions of the sovereign of 
 
 ;;"!';'' F'i'"^K '"'"'? """ »•>« Inl'abltanu of 
 I imse dominions have a common being a com- 
 mnn interest like that of the people ofEngland 
 
 Jrinee. or Italy There if DO AtStrian 
 
 longuage, no Austrian nation; therefore there 
 can be no such thing as 'Austrian national hon 
 f jr. Nor can there be an ' Austrian policy ' in 
 
 203 
 
 FSllf.h ^"§^- '^' "' » P""<=y '" ""Ich the 
 wnf , .K '/"«'^^ government carries out the 
 wllfof the EnglUh or French nation. . . . Such 
 r„,wr ". A"«'^»'> intereste.' 'Austrian policy.' 
 ami the like, do not mean the Interests or tLe 
 policy of any land or nation at all. Tliey simply 
 mean the Interests and policy of a particular ruf^ 
 ng family, which may often be the same as the 
 Interesta and wishes of particular parta of their 
 dominions, but which can never represent any 
 common interest or common wish on the part 
 ?K f'? '^'"''"'- • • • We must ever remeiXr 
 that he dominions of the House of a" "r^^ 
 
 hm.'?i![.,*.~".?^"°°K »' ■''ngd'""'. duchies, etc.. 
 brought together by various acci.Iental causey 
 but which liave nothing really in common, no 
 wTiIT? T*^'"' "^ common feeling, no common 
 merest. In one case only, that of the Magyars 
 In Hungary, docs the House of Austria nile over 
 a whole nation ; the other kingdoms, duchies, etc., 
 ?n!..?°^ parts of nations, having no tie to one 
 f^^2J ;.,"?' ''"''"? ""« '^''«e't ties to other 
 fifilKl'*'r.'*'J*™'^ nations which He close to 
 
 ThT' 1 '.!!:''i^'' ■"* ""^<''' °"'" governments. 
 The only bond among them all is tliat a series of 
 ■larriagcs, wars, treaties, and so forth, have 
 gl^eI. them a comm. n sovereign. The same 
 person Is king of Hungary, ArehSuke of Austria 
 Countof Tyrol Lord of Trieste, aud a hundnx^ 
 
 other things That is all The growth a^ 
 
 the abiding dominion of the House of Austria is 
 one of he most remarkable phenomena in Euro- 
 rw".^''.'".'"'^; /"*■'=" °f ""e same kind have 
 arisen twice before; but in both cases tlicy were 
 
 ofTfi;^^"''" ' '■''.";""' P°«-" "' tl'e^Hous^ 
 or Austna has lastctl for several centuries The 
 power of the House of Anjou in the twelfth cen- 
 
 ll!7«rl IT*'"' "f "■* """'* "f Burgundy la 
 the fifteenth century, wen; powers of exactly the 
 same kiud. They too were collections of scraps 
 with no natural connexion, brought together by 
 lluj accidents of warfare, marriage, or diplomacy 
 Now why H It that both these iK)were broke In 
 pieces almost at once, after the reigns of two 
 princes hi each case while the power of the Hoiiss 
 of Austria has lasted so long? Two causes suggest 
 themselves. One is the long connexion Ix'tween 
 
 in?i l'^"'*^''''*i"J!,'''* «"'' "«' «"■""'■ Empire 
 and kingdom of Germany. So many Austrian 
 pnnccs were electcl Emtwrors as to make the 
 Austrian House seem something great and im- 
 periil in itself. I believe that this caus^ i,Ts 
 lone a good deal townnls the result; but I be- 
 lieve that another cause has ilone yet more. This 
 is that though the Austrian [lowcr is not a 
 national power, there is, as has been alrca<lv no- 
 ticed, a nation within it. While it contains only 
 scraps of other nations, it cimtalns the whole of 
 the Magyar nation. It thus gets s.imething of 
 tiie strength of a national power. . . The 
 kingdom of Hungary Is an ancient kinmlom. 
 with innwn boundaries which have changal sin- 
 gularly httle for several centuries; and ita con- 
 nexion with the archduchy of Austria ami the 
 kingdom of Bohemia is now of long standing 
 Anything beyond this is mo<lcm and shifting. 
 Ihe so-called empire of Austria' dates onfy 
 from the year 1804 This Is one of the simplest 
 matters In the worid. but one which is constantly 
 forgotten. ... A smaller point on which con- 
 
M 
 
 . 
 
 !■ 
 
 W 
 
 I 
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 fiiiJon aln preT»lI« ta this. All the memben of 
 the House of Aiistrin are commonly spoken of 
 OS nrehdukes and arrhduchessea. I tee] sure Hint 
 many people. If asked the meaning of the wonl 
 archduke, would say that It was the title of the 
 children of the 'Emperor of Austria,' as grand- 
 duke Is used iu Russia, and prince In most 
 countries. In truth, archduke Is the title of the 
 sovereign of Austria. He has not given it up; 
 for he cills himsilf Archduke of Austria still, 
 though he calls himself 'Emperor of Austria' as 
 well. But by Geniinn custom, the children of a 
 duke or count arc all called dukes and counts 
 for ever and ever. In this way the Prince of 
 Wales lscalle<l 'Duke of Saxony,' and In the 
 same way all the children of an Archduke of 
 Austria arc archdukes and archduchesses. For- 
 ninlly and historically Ithen, the taking of an 
 hereditary Imperial title by the Archduke of 
 Austria Id 1804, nrv\ the keeping of It after the 
 
 AUSTRIA, A. D. 80S-13M. 
 
 gmwth, age* in which the Idea of right, as em- 
 b4i<lled Id law, was the leading Idea of states- 
 mcD, and the idea of righu Justlllcd or justiflnble 
 by the letter of law, was a profound influence 
 with politlcbui*. . . . The house of Austria . 
 lays thus the foundation of that empire which is 
 to be one of the great forces of the next age : not 
 by fraud, not by violence, but here by a politic 
 marriage, here by a well advocated Inheritance 
 here by a claim on an Imperial fief forfeited or 
 escheated: honestly where the letter of tlic law 
 Is In her favour, by chicanery it may Iw here 
 and there, but that a chicaiic.y that wtars a spe- 
 clous mrb of right. The Imperial idea was but 
 a small influence compared with the super- 
 structure of right, inheritance, and suzerainty 
 that legal instincU and a general acquiescence In 
 legal forms had raised U|)<)u It."— W. Stubbs 
 Snentten Uetun* on the Study of Jtedieml and 
 Modem Uutorf.pp. 209-215. 
 
 prince who t 
 of Qerinu' 
 sheer aud . 
 posture wbi 
 ends."— E. A. i 
 of Aimtrnl/iin'j,!.^ 
 history of rights am. 
 
 •""d ceased In 180« to be King 
 
 " Emperor-elect, was a 
 
 ure. But it is an Im- 
 
 'ily well served its 
 
 • to Lcger't IlUtury 
 
 1 History is a 
 
 modern History 
 
 as coutnisted with medieval divides itself into 
 two portions; tlic first a history of powers, forces 
 and dynasties; tlie second, a history In which 
 Ideas take the place of both rights and forces. 
 . . . Austria may lie regarded as representing 
 the more ancient form of right. . . . 'Tlie middle 
 ages proper, the centuries from the vear tOOO to 
 the year 15U0, from the Emperor tlenry II. to 
 the Emperor Maximilian, weie ages of legal 
 
 201 
 
 .* ?*«•»•— "The ethnical elements of the 
 population are as follows (1S90 for Austria ar'l 
 1880 for Hungary) on the basis of lanitiiai'c — 
 Austria (1890); German 8.461,580; lioLeinian. 
 Moravian and Slovak 5,472,871; Poli.sh :| TIM - 
 232; Ruthenlan 3,iai221: Slovene l.lTtifiTJ- 
 Servian and Croatian 644, 9-26; Italian and Latin 
 875.30o; Roumanian 209,110; Magyar S lliu. 
 Hungary (1880): German 1,972,115; Bohemian, 
 Moravian and Slovak 1,892,806; Rutlieiiiai) 
 8«0,0,51; Slovene 88,401; Servian and Cnwitiiin 
 2,359, i08; Roumanian 2,423.387; .Magyar 
 M78,7il; Gipsies 82.2.T0; Olliers 83,94li."— 
 Stiitftman's Tmr Bxik. 1S93 ,• at buJ. .v ii,llU. 
 A. D. 80S-1346.— The Rite of the Margrav- 
 i«te, and the crMtioa of the Duchy, under the 
 
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AUSTRIA, A. D. 805-1246. 
 
 Babenberg 
 
 AU8TRU, A. D. 805-1848. 
 
 Babcnbergft.— Changing relations to BaTkrU. 
 — End of the Babenberg Dynasty.— " Austria, 
 as is well known, is hut tlie Latin form of the 
 (icrman Oesterreich, the kingdom of tlie cast [see 
 iilH)ve; AustkasiaI. This celebrated liistoHnal 
 name appears for the first time in 990. in a doca- 
 mont signed by tlieemnenir Uto III. (' in regione 
 viilgari nomine Osterrichi ' The land to which 
 it is tlicrc applied was crealcil h march after the 
 destruction of tlie Avar empire [SOU], and was 
 
 foverned like all the other German marches, 
 ditically it was divided Into two margnivlates; 
 that of Friull, including Friull properly so culled, 
 Lower Pannon'a to the south of the Drave, Car- 
 intliia. Istria, anil the interior of Dulmatia — the 
 Beacoast having been cedetl to the Eastern em- 
 peror ; — the eastern margraviate coniprisinir 
 Lower Pannonia to the north of the Drave', 
 I'pper Pannonia, ami the Ostmark properly so 
 eallcil. The (tetmark included tlie Traungau to 
 tlie east of the Enns. which was com)iletely Oer- 
 limn, and the Oruiizvittigau. . . . The early his- 
 tory of these countries lacks the unity of interest 
 which the fate of a dynasty or a nation gives to 
 those of the Slagyar and the Chckh. They form 
 hutaportionof the German kingdom, and have no 
 stroiiply marked life of their own. Tlie march, 
 with Its varying frontier, had not even a geograph- 
 ical unity. In 876. It was enlarged by the ad- 
 illticm of "iJavaria ; in 80<), it lost Pannonia, which 
 was given to Ilriieislav. the t'roat prince, in re- 
 turn for his help against the Magyars, and In 
 9;!T. it was dcstniyed and absorlietl by the Mag- 
 yars, who exlei»h(l their frontier to the river 
 Enns. Aftertlie liaiileof liCilifeld or Augsburg 
 (!)V>1, Ocrmaiiy and Italy iM'Ing no longer cX|H)8cd 
 to Hungarian Invasions, the niHreh was re con- 
 stituted and granted to the margrave Burkhanl. 
 the liritlier in lawof Henry of Havarla. Leo|Hihl 
 ct lialK'nlwrg Bucceedcfl hfin (OTilj. and witli him 
 liij-'iMS tlie ilvnasty of Iljilienlierg, which ruled 
 the iiiiintrv (furing the time of the Premyslides 
 [in Doheiiila] and the house of Arpad [in Hun- 
 gary ), The HalienlK-rgs derived their name from 
 tlie easlle of Balienlier^', built by Heii,-y, mar- 
 gmve of Nonlgau. in lionor of ' I e, Babn. 
 
 sister of Henry I lie Fowler. It In the 
 
 iiiiiue of the town of Itainlierg • . forms 
 
 putt of tlic kingdom of llavari 'ougli 
 
 not of right an hereditary olflee, tl j.„'.iivlulo 
 BiKin iHTiime so, and retnained In ilic family of 
 tin. Dalieiiliergs; the march wai so importjinl a 
 |';irt of tlie empire tliai hi dimht the em|KTor 
 was j'lad to make the defence of this exposed 
 distrlit the eiju'eial inlen'st of one family. . . , 
 The marriages of the UalicniK'rgs were fortunate ; 
 in nasilie lirollierof Leonohr (Fourth of that 
 iiauii' ill ilie Margravlnle] Conrad of Holieu- 
 staufen. Duke of Iraneonla, was made cmiicnir. 
 It Was now that the struggle U'gan Iwtwwii the 
 liiMw (it llolieiist4iiiren and the great house of 
 \Vilf (or (liielf: Hee Ol'Kl.n AND OnniKLlNRs] 
 «li.i«c n presentalive wiu Henry ihc I'roiul, Uuko 
 of .>*axoiiy and Havarla. Henry wim I'.efeated lu 
 llie iiiii'i|iial strife, and was plaeetl under the l«n 
 I'f ilii- Kiiipin'. while the ilucliy of Haxony wii» 
 uwanlid 'o Alln'rt tlic Hear of Hraudenburg, and 
 till' (hu liy of Itavnria fell to the share of Uh>|h>M 
 IV (IliiN) Henry the Proud died In the follow- 
 I'H'uar, leaving iK'hind him a son under age, 
 « 111! was known later on u ileory Uio Lion, flla 
 iinv ic tt (It woulil not iiilimit to tliB forfeiture by 
 hu liuuMi uf tiiulr old duiuluknis, owl tuafdted 
 
 against Lenpold to reconquer Bavaria, but be was 
 defeated by Conrad at the battle of Welnsberg 
 (1140). Leopold died shortly after this victory, 
 and was succeeded both in the duchy of Bavaria 
 and in the margraviate of Austria by his brother, 
 Henry II." Henry II. endeavored to strengthen 
 himself in Bavaria by marrying the widow of 
 Henry the Proud, and by extorting from her son, 
 Henry the Lion, a renunciation of the latter's 
 rights. But Henry the Lion afterwanls repudi- 
 ated his renunciation, and in 1150 the German 
 diet decided that Bavaria should be restored to 
 him. Henry of Austria was wisely persuaded 
 to yield to the decision, and Bavaria was given 
 up. " He lost nothing by tliis unwilling act of 
 disinterestedness, for he secured from the emperor 
 tonsidcrable compensation. From this time for- 
 ward, Austria, wliicb had been largely increasc<l 
 hy the addition of the greater part of the lands 
 lying between the Enns and the Inn, was re- 
 moved from Its almost nominal subjection to 
 Bavaria and became a separate duchy [Henry II. 
 being tlie first hereditary Duke of Austria]. An 
 lm|>erial edict, daU-d tlic 2l8t of Septcmlier, 1156. 
 declares the new duchy hereditary even in the 
 female line, and authorizes the dukea to absent 
 themselves from all diets except thot,' which wci« 
 held in Bavarian territory. It also |K>rinits them, 
 in case of a threatened extinction of theirdynasty, 
 to pro|>o8c a successor. . . . Henry II. was one 
 of the founders of Vienna. He constructed a 
 fortress there, and. In order to civlli/.c tlie sur 
 rounding country, sent for some Scotch monks, 
 of whom there were many at tliis time in Ger- 
 many. " In 1177 Hcnrv II. was succeeded by 
 Leopold v., called the Virtuous. " In his reign 
 the (Idcliy of Austria gained Styria, an important 
 addition to it« territory. Tliis province was In- 
 haliited by Slovenes and Germans, and took Its 
 name from the castle of Sleycr, built in 9W) liy 
 Otokar III., count of tlie Trungau. In 10.56. it 
 was created a margraviate, and in 1150 It was 
 enlarifed by the addition of tlie counties of Mari- 
 bor (Marlmrg) and filly. In 11«». Otokar VI. 
 of Styria (llM-119'2) obtained the lienilltary title 
 of duke from the Enimror in return for his help 
 against Henry the Lion." Dying without ehll 
 (lieu. Otokar mode Leopold of Austria his heir. 
 " Styria was annexed to Austriain 1193, and has 
 remained s<> ever since . . . Leopold V. is the 
 first of the Austrian princes whose name is known 
 lu Western EuroiH'. He (oined thetliiiilcrusaile." 
 and tpiarrelled with Uieliard t'oeur de Lion at 
 the slegi' of St. Jcand' Aeri'. Afterwards, when 
 liichard, returning home hy the Adriatic, at- 
 tempted to past through Austrian territory in- 
 cognito, Leopold revenged liituself liy sel/.ing 
 and imprisoning tlie English king, tinal'ly selling 
 his royal captive to a still meaner Kinperor for 
 SO.IKXt marks. Leopohl VI who sueeceded to 
 the Austrian duchy in 119M. did mucli for the 
 ommerce of his country. "He made Vienna the 
 staple town, and lent a sum of BU.tKW marks of 
 silver to the city to enable It to Increase Its trade. 
 He adonieil It with manv new liuililings. among 
 them the Neue Burg." lllsson. called Kn'derirk 
 the FiiiliU'r (l'J3U-U46) was the last of the BalH'ii- 
 lierg dynasty. His hand was against all hit 
 ueighlsirs, including the Emperor rre(leri(k II., 
 and their liands v.ere tu'ainst him. He periahud 
 In June. 1246. on the banks of the UHUa. while 
 at war with the Huugariuui — L. Lcger, Uut. uf 
 
 206 
 
 hi^^ 
 
^J 
 
 AUSTRIA. 134ft-i283. 
 
 Rodolph of 
 Hafmmiy. 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1240-1282. 
 
 AiJW) IN : E. F. Ilendcrson, Select IIM. Doet. of 
 the MidiUe Age». bk. 2, «/<. 7. 
 
 A. D. 1346-1282.— Rodolph of Hansburr 
 and the acquisition of the Duchy for his 
 family.— " The Hoiiae of Austria owes its origin 
 anil power to KlxHiolpli of Hnpsburgh, soa .f 
 AllK-rt IV. fotiiit of Ilupslnirgli. Tlio .\u8t''ian 
 jfeiie:ilo,i{ist8, wlio li;ivf taken indcfntlgahic but 
 luetTeetual pains to trace his illustrious il'-aeent 
 from the Honians, carry it with great prolmliility 
 to Ethico, duke of Alsiu-e. in the seventii century, 
 and uui|uestlonal)ly to Uuntnim the llich, count 
 of Alsace and Hrisgau, who flourislied in the 
 tentli." A grandson of Ountrain. Werner by 
 Biinie. " became bishop of Strosburgh, and on an 
 eruincuce alnive Win<lis<'li, built tlie castle of 
 Ilapsburgh (' llabiclitsburg' 'the castle of vul- 
 tures' ), widch became the residence of the future 
 counis, and gave a new title to the descendants 
 of Ountr:iin. . . . The successors of Werner in- 
 creased their family inheritance by marriages, 
 donations from tlu Enipcn)rs, and by becoming 
 prefects, advocates, or administrators of the 
 neiglilxiuring alibeys, towns, or districts, anil his 
 greiil grandson, Alliert III., was possessor of no 
 Inconsiderable territories in Suabia, Alsace, and 
 that part of Switzerland which is now cjtlleil tlie 
 Argau, and held the landgraviate of Upper 
 Alsjiie. His son. lihixlolph. received from the 
 Eni|KTiir, in addition to his paternal inlieritancp, 
 tlie town and distriit of l-aullenbiirgh, an iiu'- 
 periul city on the Ulilne He acquired also a 
 ciiiisidirable aicis.siou of territory by obtaining 
 tlie advocacy of Uri, Schweitz, and Undir- 
 wnlihn, whosi' natives laid the founilalion of the 
 Ilelvitii. Confedenicy. by their union against the 
 oppns,sions of feudal tyranny."— W. Coxe, I[i.-<l 
 uflht ll„iiv of AiiHlriii. eh. 1.— '-On the death 
 of Kmliilph hi 1232 his estates were divided 
 bctwi-eii his sons Albirt IV. and ' tlolph U 
 the former receiving the laiidgra ■. 3 of L'p|Hr 
 Alsaie. and the county of Hapsburg, together 
 with the patriiniiiiial castle: the latter, the coun- 
 ties Kheinfeldeu and LaiilTenburg, and some 
 olhir territories. AlU-rt csiHiused Hedwige 
 daughter of Llrie, count of Kyburg; and froiii 
 this union sprang the great UiHlolph, who was 
 born on the 1st of May 1218, and was pre- 
 sentcti at the baptismal font by the Emperor 
 Fred(i,c n. On llie death of his father Albirt 
 in l:i4il, Hmhilph sucu'etled i. his estates- b 
 the gnali r portion of these were in lli> hands of 
 his paternal uncle, HiKlolpli of I ..ufTenlmri: 
 and all he could call liis own lay within sight of 
 the gnat hull of his castle. . . . His disposilinn 
 was wavwnnl and restless, and drew him into 
 niMiiied contests with his neighlkmrs and n.-\n 
 
 51""," .,■ ; '" " '1"»''"' »'ll' till! Bishop of 
 Basle, Itodolph IimI his troops against that city 
 and burnt n convent in the suburbs, for whii'll 
 he WHS exroinmunitatcil by I'ope Innocent IV 
 He then cnlercd the service of OtIiK-ar H. Iving 
 of Uoiii'inla, under whom he servwl. In compniiy 
 with the Tiiilonic Knights, in Ills wars ngainst 
 till- I'russijin pagans; and afterwanls against 
 Bela I\ Mng of Hungiry." The surprising 
 c eeli.in. In Viti. of this little known iimnt of 
 Hapsburg, to lie King of the Ifcimans, with 'lie 
 sutwtaiue if not the title of the Imperial dlgnltv 
 which that eleetiou earrhsl with it, wiudue lok 
 Mngiilar rricndshli) which he had uc(|iiirc?tl sonio 
 fouftcyu j-rart before. WheO AlcIiI.i.Uop VVer 
 ■•r, Elector of Hsau, wu ua bis way tu Howe 
 
 la 1239, to receive the pallium, he " was escorted 
 across the Alps by Rislolpli of Hapsburg, and 
 under his prelection secured from the robhirs 
 who beset the passes. Charmed with the alT i 
 bility and frankness of his pnitector, the An li 
 bishop conceived a strong reganl for IliHlolpl, ■ 
 and when, in 1272. after the Great Inti'rri -nn'm 
 IseoOKKM.KNV: A. I). i:.-.<t-t272], the Oerimni,. 
 Electors foiiml ditllcultv in choosing an Kin 
 penir, the Elirtor of .\lent/. recommended liij 
 friend of Hapsburg as a camlidalc. "The 
 Electors arc descrilied bv a contemporary .is 
 desiring an EmiK>ror but detesting his imwir 
 The comparative hiwlhiess of the Count ..f 
 Hapsburg recommec i. '. him as one from whmn 
 their authority stiKMi 1.1 little jeopanly; but ilie 
 claims of the King of Bohemia were vigoron^ly 
 urged ; and it was at length agreed to deride the 
 election by the voire of the Duke of Bavarii 
 Lewis without hesitaticm nominated Rih1o1]iIi 
 . . . The curly days of Rmlolph's reign wire 
 disturbed by the contiunacy of Ottocar KhiMif 
 Bohemia. That I'riiice . . . persisteil in r, ?iis 
 ing to acknowleilge the Count of Hnpsbiir.' ih 
 his sovereign. Possessed of the ihitelii.H' nf 
 Austria, Styrin. Carniola and Carinthia. he mi -lit 
 rely upon his own resources; and ho was f.,rii. 
 Heil In his resistance by the alliance of Ilcnrv 
 Duke of Lower Bavaria. But the very p. «>,"<' 
 sion of these four great flefs was siililcicut I.) 
 draw down the envy and distrust of the cilur 
 German Prinees. To all these territories in 
 deed, the title of (Htmar was siiftleienily' ,lii. 
 putable. On the dcilli of Kiederic II. liUli 
 duke of Austria [ami last of the ll.ilienli. r - 
 dynasty] in 124B, Ihut duUliy, togethir ttiifi 
 IStyria and Carniol.i, was ilained by liis nii . ■ 
 Gertrude and his sister .Margaret, liy a inir 
 riagc with the latter, and a viilmy over I!i la IV 
 King of Hungary, wliosi' uncle married (in 
 trudc, OtliK-ar obiuindl jiosscsslon of Au^un 
 and Styria; and in virtue of n purrhase fmin 
 Ulrlc. Duke of Carintliia and Canii.ihi. he p.n. 
 sessed himself of Ihose diilrhies on I'lric 's (|( ;ith 
 in 1269, in delianee of the claims of I'liiiin 
 brother of the late Duke. Against so pmv, rfni 
 a rival the Priiires assembl.d at Aii'simr' 
 readily voleil surroiirs to |{i»l.)lph; and OHn.,ir 
 having refused to sunvudir tlie Austrian d.iniiii. 
 ions, and even hanged the lurilds wlio wnc 
 sent to pronounce tlie consi.,jueiit scntemv .f 
 proscription, HiMlolph . iili his aceiistoni,,! 
 promplitude tiK.k the field [IJTO). and i..n 
 founded his enemy by a rapid man li up .n 
 Austria. In his wav"lie surprised and v:iii 
 quisheil the lelxd Duke of Bavaria, wh.ini lie 
 eomiH'lled to Join his forces; he besliircd and 
 reiluciil to the last extremity the rin if Viinmi 
 and hull already prepand n bridge of li.,:tN in 
 cross the Oanulw and invade Bohenii.i. wlmi 
 Oltocnr arrested his pnigress by n iie-isa:;.- ,if 
 siiliiiiisslon. The terms agnrd U|>oii Hvrc 
 sevenly bumiliniing to the pniud soul ..f ilii.i 
 ear," and he was wkm, in revolt again, witliilm 
 •iipix.rt of the Diike of Bavaria. K.^LIpli 
 iii.iiihed aiainst him. and a ilesiierate liiiti,' w is 
 fought at Marsihfeld, August 2<J, 12TH. in whi. '1 
 Ottocar, deserted at a critical iiioiiiiiit by lliu 
 Moravian troops, wasdefeatiil and shiln. "'■|lii) 
 total lost of the Bolieiuians on thai falnl iliy 
 amoiinteil to inon! (Iijiii 14.000 men. In !!:c 
 drit moments of his triumph. Kmloiph design.il 
 to approprlal. the duuiiuious of hU ditnuia 
 
 206 
 
AUSTRIA, l.'M<-1283. 
 
 enemy. But his avidity was rcstraloed by tlic 
 Princes of ( o Empire, who iiiturpoacd on behalf 
 of the son o; Ottooar; and Wenceslaus was pcr- 
 niiiud to retain BobemiA nml Moravia. The 
 projected union of the two fiimilics was now 
 renewed: Judith of Hapsburi; was anianced to 
 the younji; King of Doliemia: whose sister Agnes 
 WHS married to liodolpli, youngest son of tlie 
 Kin? of the Romans." In 1283, R<Kl<)lph, 
 "afler satisfying tlic several olaimants to fli!)se 
 territories by various cessions of lands . . oli- 
 taioed tlie consent of a Diet held at Augsburg to 
 the settlement of Austria, Styria, and Carniola, 
 upon his two surviving sons; who were accord- 
 iQgly jointly invested with those dutcbies with 
 great pomp and solemnity; and they are at this 
 hour enjoyed bv the descfendanU of Rodolph of 
 lapsliurg. "—Sir R Comyn, UM. of the Wettern 
 . Miiire, eh. 14. 
 
 Also in: J. PlanU, Hut. of the Hdtttic Confed- 
 erivg, bk. 1, ell. 5(1). 1). 
 
 A. D. I383-I3IS.— Relations of the House of 
 Hapsburg to the Swiss Forest Cantons.— 
 The Tell Legend.— The Battle of Morrarten. 
 Se Switzkkla.nd: The Tiikeb Fouest Can- 
 tos!. 
 
 A. D. 1390.— Beginning of Hapsburr designs 
 upon the crown of Hunnrr. See IIunoauy- 
 A. I). 1114-1301. 
 
 A. D. 1291-1349.— Loss and recoTery of the 
 imperial crown.— Liberation of Switzerland. 
 —Conflict between Frederick and Lewis of 
 Bavaria.- The imperial crow.i lost once more. 
 — Kii l.ilf of llapsburg ilesinil the title of King 
 of llic Uomatis for his son. "But the electors 
 iilii:i.ly found that the new house of Austria was 
 liic .iminit too | cjwerful. and tiiey refused. On 
 his (li Mill, in fact, in 1291, a prince from aiiotlier 
 family, piKir and olpscure. Adolf of Nassau, w:is 
 eh'i i<d after an iiiterreirntini of ten mouth;. ' llij 
 rtiirii of six years is marked by two events- ho 
 Bold hiinsilf to Edwanl I. in 1294, against I'li'ilip 
 the Fair, for KW.OilO pounds sterling, and used 
 llie money in an iitlempt to obtain in Thiirini;ia 
 a priiulpality for his family us Huihilf had ihme 
 iu Austria. The electors were displea-sed :iiiil 
 chosi. AllKTt of Austrii to succeed him who 
 ii'iir|iiiii(| and killel his adversary at GiUilieim 
 mar \V.,rtus (I29H). The ten years reign of the 
 n>w kirm of the Uomaiis showed that he was 
 viTV amhiii.uis for his family, wliich hi' wished 
 to esiahlish on the thnne of ■Uohenila, wlure the 
 Mivoiiic (lyii,i.,ty had lately died out. and iilsoin 
 . liuriiiL'i* and .Meissen, where he lost a liattle 
 He w;is also iH-nt upon extending hl.s rights even 
 un|iisily— in Alsace and Switzerlanii — and it 
 priivid an iiuforluimU^ ventuie for him For 
 on the one hand, he roused the three Swiss can' 
 loiw .if Iri. Sehweilz, and Untcrwaliien to 
 revolt, on the other liaml, \v roused the wrath 
 of his 11, phiw ,?olin of .Swiibia, whom he 
 lie rmuili.l of his iiiheritaiieedl, .mains InSwitzer- 
 laii.l Swal.ia and Alsiue) As he was crossing 
 ilie It.uss, .lolin thrust hlin through witli his 
 swoni (|:t0M, The assn.ssin escaiK^I. One of 
 j\ll« ri s daiii!hter». Agnes, dowager queen of 
 
 f 7 ■>,!"' '"""' "''"' " "lousand innocent 
 '■'•"ple killed to avenge the death of her father 
 li.' griHiir part of the priwiit Switzcrlaml had 
 Ism oriirlimlly includi-.I In tlir Klti"-d.Ti ,.f !5.,r 
 piiiHl.v aii.l was eeiliMl to the empire, together 
 with ihat klnirdom, in 10;i;l, A feudal nobility, 
 lay and ii'cl«i«stlc, '-d gained a Ann footing 
 
 ¥, 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1291-134a. 
 
 there. Nevertheless, by the 12th century the 
 cities had risen to some importance. Zurich, 
 Basel, Bern, and Freiburg had an extensive com- 
 merce and obtained municipal privileges. Three 
 little cantons, far in the heart of the Swiss moun- 
 ^ins, preserved more tlian all the others their in- 
 domitable spirit of independence, Wlien Albert 
 of Austria became Emperor [KingV] he arro- 
 gantly tried to encroach upon their independence. 
 J hree heroic mountaineers, Werner Stauiracher, 
 Arnold of Slelchllia!, and Waller Fttrst, each 
 with ten chosen friends, conspired together at 
 RiUli, to throw off tiie yoke. The tyranny of 
 the Austrian bailiflf Oessler, and William Tells 
 well-aimed arrow, if tradition is to be believed 
 gave the signal for the insurreC on [see Swit- 
 zerland: The TauEE Fouest Ca.nto.ns] 
 Albert's violent death left to Leopold, !iis suc- 
 cessor in the duchy of Austria, the care ot 
 repressing the rebillion. He failivl and waa 
 completely defeated at Mortgarten (1315). That 
 was Switzerland's deld of Marathon. . . . Whea 
 Rudolf of Hapsburg waa chosen by the electors, 
 it was because ot his poverty and weakness. At 
 his death accordingly they did not give tluir 
 votes for his son Alljert. . . . Allie.t, however 
 succeeded in overthrowing his riv.i. But on hi* 
 death they were firm in their decision not to 
 give the crown for a third time to the new and 
 ambitious house of Hapsburg. They likewise 
 refused, for similar reasons, to accept Charles of 
 Valois, brother of Philip the Fair, wli,.in the 
 latter tried to place on the iinpiii,d throne, in 
 onler that he might indireetlv rule over Ger- 
 many. They supported the Count of Liixem. 
 burg, who iK'caine Ileiirv VII. Bv choosing .m. 
 perors [kings?! who were poor, tlie'eleetnrs placed 
 them under the temptation of enridiiiig them 
 selves at the cxiK'iise of the empire, Adolf 
 failed, it is true, in Thuriiici:;, hut Rudolf 
 gained Austria by victory; Henry succeeded In 
 Bohemia by means of marriage, and Bohemia 
 was worth more than Austria at that time 
 iH'caiise, besides .\Ioravi;i, ii was made to cover 
 Silesia and a part of Liisatia (Ulieriausitz). 
 Henry's son, uoiiii of Luxemburg, ma Tied tlie 
 heiress to that royal crown. As fi r Heiiiy him- 
 self ho remained as |)(H)r as before. He bail a 
 vigorous, restless spirit, ami went to try his for- 
 tunes on Ills own acei-iint lievond the Alps, 
 He was seriously threatening Naples, when ho 
 died either from some sickness or Iroiu being (wii- 
 soned by a Dominican in partaking of the host 
 (1313), .Vyearsintirngii'.ini follow. d; ihentwo 
 emiK'n.rs [kings vl at once : L.wis of Bavaria and 
 Frederick the Fair, son of tlie Enipii.ir AllK'rt. 
 After eight yearsof war. Lewis gain.,! bis p.ilnt 
 by the victory of .Mnhhloif (13221, which d.liv- 
 crcil Freiierick Into his lian.ls. He kept liiin in 
 captivity for tliree years, nn.l at the eii.l of that 
 time became recuiciled with him, ami thev were 
 on such giKul terms that both iKire the title of 
 King and governed in comin.m, Tlie fear 
 lnspln.Kl in Lewis bv France and the IL.lv Sea 
 dictal(.il this singular agreement, Henrv' VII 
 hail revived the p.ilicv of interfinnce liy tho 
 German einiwrors in the allairs of Italv, null had 
 kindksl again the quarrel with tlie Papacy 
 which had long n|i|>eared extingulshe.l, l^'wis 
 I\, did !lii t.,uiu, , , . Uiiiie Hotiiface Vlll, 
 was making war on Philip the Fair, Albert 
 allleil himself with him; when, on the other 
 'land, thL' Papacy was reduced to the state of a 
 
 207 
 
i 11 
 
 i II. 
 
 >.' "i ( 
 
 t^ ;: 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1291-1849. 
 
 Tyrol. 
 
 AUSTRIA, 133&-13«4. 
 
 ierrile auxiliary to France, the Emperor returned 
 to his former liostility. Wlienex-communicatcd 
 by Popo John XXII. , who wished to give the 
 empire to the king of France, Charles IV., 
 Lewis IV. made use of the same weapons. . . . 
 Tired of a crown loaded with anxieties, lewis 
 of Raviiriii wiis finally aliout to submit to the 
 I iipi- iiiiil abdicate, when the electors perceived 
 tlie luivssity of supporting their Kmperor and of 
 foriiiiilly releasing tiie supreme power from 
 foreign depeudcucy which brought the whole 
 natMn t,) shame. Tliat was the object of the 
 I'rugniatie .Saiiclion of Franlifort, pronounced in 
 ll} ""' '"'''' "" *'"-' "'port of the electors. 
 . . . Tlie king of France and Pope Clement VI., 
 whose claims were directly affected by this 
 declarati.m, set up against Lewis IV. Charles of 
 Lu.xenilmrg. son of John the Blind, who became 
 King of Uoheiiiia in laiO, when his father had 
 JK-en Isillcd ligliting on the French side at the 
 battle of freiy. Lewis died the following year. 
 He liad giiiued possession of Brandenburg and 
 the Tyrol for his liouse, but it was unable to 
 retain possession of them. The latter county 
 reverted to tlie house of Austria in 1363. The 
 electors most hostile to the French party tried to 
 put lip, as a rival candidate to Charles of Lux- 
 emliurir. K<iwar.l III., king ,.f England, who 
 refuseil the empire: then they offered it to a 
 lipive kniglit, (Junther of Schwarzburg, who 
 dieii, perliaps poisoned, after a few months (1349). 
 r.ie kinir of lioh.-mia then became Empcmr as 
 (liarUs l\. Ijy a second election. "—V. Duruy 
 y/"' /lixlon/ ,/ the .\fiil,l/e A>/e», bk. 0, eh. 30 — 
 Sir. also, {Jkkm.vnv: A. D. 1314-1347. 
 nV. ?/ '330-i364.-Forged charters of Duke 
 Kadolf.— The Privilegium Majut.— His as- 
 sumption of the Archducal title.— Acquisition 
 of Tyrol.— Treaties of inheritance with Bohe- 
 mia and Hungary.— Kill;: .lohn, of Bohemia, had 
 
 iieirri,'.! Ihssk 1 son, ,/,,hn Henry, at the ago 
 
 of M^rht. to the aflirwarils notable Margaret 
 .Vajillas< ill' (I'iiiiehnioiiili), daughter of the duke 
 of l.vrol ami Carintliiii, who was then twelve 
 years old. He liopeii by this means to reunite 
 tlii..se provm.es to Boh, nila. To thwart this 
 seliinie, the Kinpenir, Louis of Bavaria, and the 
 two Aiistri:iri princes, Albert the Wise Bn(> Otto 
 the (Jay, eaiiie to an understanding. "By the 
 tnaty of llag.iiau (1330), it was arranged that 
 on the (le.itli of duke Henry, who had no male 
 li'irs, ( annthi.i shouM lavome the properly of 
 Au.-lria, Tyrol that of the Emperor. Henrv 
 (lieil in 133... wlun-upon the Emperor, Louis ilf 
 Bav.,na dr, hired that .Margaret Maultaschc had 
 lorti Mill all rights of iiihi'riljiucc. and proo'cdid 
 to a.ssiirn the two provina'S to the Austrian 
 I|rliie(s, with the exception of «<mie portion of 
 the Ijrol uhieh devolved on the house of Wl- 
 telsliiii h ( iirlnlhia alone, however, olxved the 
 Liiipiror; the Tyrolese nobles declared for Mar- 
 garei, Mild, villi the help of John of Bohemia 
 tins iirineess was able to keep possession of this 
 part of her inherll.iiK'e. . . . Carinlhia also did 
 not loiiL' nniain in the undisputed pos«e««l.>n of 
 Austria. .Margaret was sikhi dlvorcid from her 
 very youthful husband (1342), ami shortly after 
 Iiiarned the son of the Eiiii« ror I^ailsof Bavaria 
 who hoped to Ik; able to Invest his son, not only 
 with lyn.l, but Iso with Carinthia, ami once 
 mnr<. we !>:i:! !i,r h=-..i=»s r.f Hap^burgand Lux- 
 emburg unltol by a comimai Interest. . . When 
 . . . Charles IV. of Bohemia was ctosen em- 
 
 peror, he consented to leave Carinthia lo the 
 possession of Austria. Albert did homage for it 
 . . . According to the wish of their father the 
 four sons of Albert reigned after him ; but the 
 eldest, Rudolf IV., exercised executive authority 
 in the name of the others [1358-1365]. . . If,, 
 was only 19 when he came to the throne, but ho 
 had already married one of the daughters of the 
 Emperor Charles IV. Notwithstanding this 
 family alliance, Charies had not given Austri i 
 such a place in the Golden Bull [see Germany 
 A. D. 1347-1492] as seemed likely to secure 
 either her territorial importance or a proper 
 position for her princes. They had not Ihtu 
 admitted into the electoral ccllege of the Eiiipin 
 and yet their scattereti possessions stretche.l froiil 
 tlie banks of the Leitha To the libine. . . . These 
 gnevances were enhanced by their feeling of 
 envy towards Bohemia, which had attained great 
 prosperity under Cliaries IV. It was at this 
 time that, in order to liierca.se the importance of 
 his house, Rudolf, or his offlcers of state, had 
 I recourse to a measure which was often employi i| 
 in that age bv princes, religious IkxHcs, ami 
 j even by the Holy Sec. It was pretended that 
 I there were In existence a whole series of charters 
 ! which had been granted to the house of Austria 
 < by various kings and emperors, and which 
 j sicurcd to tlicir princes a position entirely inde 
 i pendent of both empire ami Emperor. Aieord- 
 I iiig to these dcHUmenls, and more especially the 
 one calle<l the 'privilegium majiis,' the duke of 
 Austria owed no kind of serviie to the empire 
 « hlch was. however, bound to protect him ; . . 
 he was to appear at the diets with the litie if 
 arehdukc. and was lo have the first place among 
 the electors. . . . Itudolf pretended that tlaso 
 iLwumentshad Ju.iteome to llijht, and demauiUd 
 their eontlrmaliim from Cliarhs IV., wlion fused 
 it. Xevertheless on the strength of these h iiig 
 charters, he took the title of palatine an hd'ukr 
 without waiting to ask the leave of Charles, and 
 used the royal iii.signia. Charles IV., who eoiild 
 not fail to be irritated by these' pretensions in his 
 tuni revived the claims which he had inliiriied 
 from Pn'mysl Otokar II. to the lands of Au!-lria 
 t^tyria, Carinthia, and Carniola. These i laims[ 
 however, were simply theoretiial. ami no attempt 
 was made to enforce them, and the niediuiior. of 
 Louis the Gnat, King of Hungary, lliially h'ci to 
 a treaty between tlic two prinees,"wlii(h KitislUd 
 the ambition of the Habsliurgs (13Uli. Kv this 
 treaty, the houses of llahsburg in Austria ami of 
 Luxemburg In liohemla each guaranteed the In 
 heritanec of their lands to the other. In ease of 
 the extinction of either of the two families, and 
 the estates of Bohemia and Austria ralilied this 
 iigreement. A similar eompaet was eoia luded 
 between Austria and Ilunnarv, and thus the 
 Isiuuilaries of the future Au»tr{an state wi re for 
 the 'Irst time marked out. Bmlolf himself 
 gained little by these hmg and liitrleatn neitotl. 
 alions, Tyrol being all he ailded to his territory. 
 .Marirant Maullam he had marrhil her son .M. lii- 
 Imr.l to the daughter of Allsrt the Wis,, at the 
 siinie time deilaring that, in default of h< irs ni:de 
 lo her son, Tvnd should once more beiniue the 
 possession of Austria, and it did so hi i;W3 
 Kiidolf Immislialely set out for Bolzen, an<l tin r« 
 ri'ccived the homatrii of the Tyrolese nobles. . . . 
 1 lie iM.<|uuilion of Tynil was most Important to 
 Austria. It united Austria Pro|H'r with the ..Id 
 pijasvssiuDS of the Uabsburgs tu Wcjtcm tier- 
 
 203 
 
ACSTRIA, 1330-1364. 
 
 The Hungarian 
 Crown. 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1438-1493. 
 
 many, snd opened th3 way to Italy. Margaret 
 MniiltAgrbc died at Vienna in 1309. The ineniory 
 (if tills nstless and dissolute princess still survive! 
 among tlie Tyrolese."— L. Leger, UM.afAuHro- 
 Uitnijary. pp. 143-148. 
 
 A. D. 1386-1388.— Defeats by the Swiss at 
 Sempach and Naefels. See SwrrzEKLAKo; 
 A. U. 13S6-1388. 
 
 A. D. 1437-1516.— Contests for Hunraryand 
 Bohemia.— The right of Succession to the Hun- 
 earian Crown secured.— "Euroiie would Imve 
 li.iil iiotliiu),' ti) fear from the Burliarian.s. if Hun- 
 gary Imd l»fn pemianentiv united to liolienila, 
 and littd held them in clicc1<. Hut Hungary in'- 
 terforcd botli with the independence and the re- 
 ligion of Bolicmia. In this way they weakened 
 eiich other, and in the 15th century waveri'd be- 
 tween the two Sclavonic and Oo-nan powers on 
 tlicirhonlers (Poland and Austria) [sivHcNOAnv 
 A. I). 1301-1442, and 1442-14.W]. United undei 
 aOermnn prince from 14.M to 1458, separate ' 
 for a lime under national sovereigns (liohemis 
 until 1471, Hungary until 1490), they were onre 
 more united un(l('r Polish princes until 1526 at 
 wljicli period they iiassed definitively into the 
 hands of Austria. After the reign of Ijidislas of 
 Austria, wlio won so much glory by the exploits 
 of.lohn Hunniades, George P<Hliebrad obtained 
 the crown of ISolienda, and Matthias Corvlnus, 
 Xiw sun of Hunniades, was elcctiMl King of Hun- 
 pnry (14.W). These two princrs opposed sue- 
 ccssfullv the chimerical pretensions of the Em- 
 peror frciierick HI. I'.xliebmd protected the 
 Hussites iirid incurred the eiunity of the Poih-s 
 Jl:itihi!is victoriously encountered the Turks and 
 iililamcil tlie favour of I'aul 11., wlio offered him 
 llie crown of P(Klielirad, his fatherin-law. The 
 liitlir opiM)sed to the hostility of Matthias the 
 allhnie of the King of Poland, whose eldest son, 
 Liilisliis. he designated as Ids successor. At tlie 
 fumii'limc. Casiiuir, the brother of Ijidislas. en- 
 ilnivoiircd to U»kc fnim JIaitliias the cniwi; of 
 llinii,Mry. .Matthias, thus [iressed on all sides, 
 w:i,,,l,li.^oil(on'iiouiiccthecoii(Hiestof Uohemia] 
 and iiintcnt himself with the provinces of Mom- 
 via, .^il.sia, and Lusatia, which were to return 
 li' i.idisliis if Mattliios died first (I4T.5-1478). 
 Tlie King of Hungary cominnsated himself at 
 llii' expense of Austria. On tlie pretext lliat 
 lrcil<Ti.k III. had refusi'd to give him his 
 iliiifiitir. he twice invaded his states and re- 
 tiiiiiid them in his possessicm [see Hinoary- 
 A. II. 14Tl-;487). ^\ Itli this gn-at prince Cliris- 
 tiniloiii lost lis chief defender, Hungary hereon- 
 -imsis nnd her political prenoiideraiice (14U0) 
 lliucivill/Hilon which heliad tried to Intnnluce 
 into liia kingdom w.j deferred for manv cen- 
 Innes. . . bulislas (of Poland), King of"Bolie- 
 inia. Iiaving been elected King of Hungary, wiu 
 atliKked liy Ids brother John AIUtI, and by 
 .>r.xiinilian of Austria, who Ixith imlended to 
 tliut( rown. He appeased lilslin.lher bv tlieces- 
 si.in of Silesia (I4U1), and Maximilian b> vesting 
 in the House of Austria tlie right of succession 
 I" il.f Ihione of Hungary, In case he himself 
 Bhoiild (lie witliimt male Issue. Under Ud- 
 Mas, 1111,1 under his s.m Ixmis 11, who succw-ded 
 liini wlidc still a eliild. in 15l« Hungary was 
 ravaged wiih Impunity by the Turks. "-J. Jliclie- 
 ).t. .1 s-,,,,,,,„.„^ ,j(.,.^,, „.,, ^^ ^ ..^ 
 
 al«o, Hoiikmia: A. I). 14.W-I471. 
 
 A D. i438-i49r_The Imperial Crown last- 
 ingly regauw<J.-Tli« aboit rciga of Albert II., 
 
 and the long rei^^n of Frederick III.-" After 
 
 the death of Sigismund, the princes, in 1438 
 elected an emperor [kingVJ from tlie house of Ausl 
 tna, which, with scarcely any intermission, has 
 ever since occupied the ancient throne of G' 
 many. Albert II. of Austria, who, as soninla 
 of the late Emperor Sigismund, had liecome at 
 the same time Kin.jof Hungary and Bohemia, was 
 a well-meaning, distinguished prince, and would, 
 witliout (Joubt, have proved of great benefit to the 
 cnipire; but he died ... in the second year of 
 his reign, after his return from an expedition 
 against tilt- Turks. . . . In the year 1431, during 
 the reign of Sigismund, a new council was as.sem- 
 bled at Basle, in order to carry on the work of re- 
 forming the church as alreadv commenced at Con- 
 Jtance. But this council scxjn became engaged 
 in many perplexing controversies with Pope Eu- 
 gene IV. . . . The Germans, for a time, took no 
 part in the dlspuu-; at length, however, under 
 the Emperor [King?] AUkti II., they formally 
 adopted the chief decreesof the council of Basle 
 at a diet held at Mentz in tlie year 1439 
 Amongst the resolutions then ad<"ipted weri such 
 as materially circumscribed the existing privi- 
 
 legesof the |)ope These and other deiisions. 
 
 cii culated to give Important privileges and con- 
 sideralile independence to the German churcli 
 were in a great measure, annulled by Allierfs 
 cousin and successor, Duke Frederick of Austria 
 who was elected by the iirinces after him iu the 
 year 1440, as Frederick III. . . . Frederii k the 
 empcMr, was a prince who meant well but at 
 the same time, was of too (jiiiet and easv a nature • 
 lis long reign presents but little that was calcu- 
 lated to (lisiiuguish Germany or add to lis re- 
 nown. Fnim the east tlie empire was endangered 
 by the appniacli of an enemy — the Turks, a-iiinst 
 wliom no precautionary measures were adopted 
 They, on the 29th of .May, 1453, cou(iuered Con- 
 stantinople. . . . They tlieu made their way to- 
 w-ards the Dannl*, and very nearly succeeded 
 "'";•"> .•■'king Hungary [see Hl-.noary: A. D. 
 144',-14.K'<J, . . . The Hunirarians, on the death 
 i>f the s<m of the Em|)eror"'AllKTt II., Wladislas 
 Poslliumus, in tlie year 1457, witliout leaviii" nu 
 lie r to the tlmme. chose Matthias, the son of 
 Jolin Corvlnus, as king, being resolved not to 
 elect ()iie fnim amongst the Austrian princes. 
 1 he Bohemians likewise selected a private nolilc- 
 man for their king. George Pudriabnid (ir P,Hlie- 
 bradj. and thus the Austrian house found itself 
 
 - J' . : .......iii».i iiv'ita^- iiiiuiii iiseir 
 
 for a time rejected from holding jklsscssIoh „f 
 ' '■■' ■ ""se cc.imries. ... In Geriinny, 
 
 eilher of 
 
 meantime. Ih. re existed numberless contests and 
 feuds; each party cimsldered only his own per- 
 s.«ial (piarrtls. . . . The emperor could not give 
 any weiglit to public measures; scarcely could 
 lie maintain Ids dignity amongst his own sub- 
 jects. The Austrian nobilily were even Iwild 
 enough to st'nd challenges to their sovereign' 
 whilst the city of Vienna revolted, and his brother 
 Alliert, taking pleasure in this disorder, was not 
 backward in aiding to it. Thinns even went to 
 such nn extremity, that. In 14(1:.', Ilic Emperor 
 Jrisleriek. t.igcllier with his consort and son 
 Maximilian, then four years of age, was besiegd 
 by his sulij, ( ts in his own castle of Vienna A 
 plelK-ian burgher, nanunl llolzer. had phuci! !.;i.i. 
 «lf III the head of Ihe insurgents, and was made 
 burgomaster, whilst Duke AUwrt cninelo Vienna 
 perwaially to sii|M'rintend the siege of the ca.slle 
 whkli was lutrei' '..cdaud bumUrilea. . . . Tbe 
 
 201) 
 
!i 
 
 AUSTRIA. 1488-1488. 
 
 TS4 BuTgundian 
 Marriagt. 
 
 ACSTRIA, 1477-1495. 
 
 Oprmar. princes, however, could not witness with 
 l^udifftrcncc such disgraceful trentment of their 
 
 "'" ■"" ' liberate him. 
 
 was the first 
 
 lire, set the 
 
 ciliation be- 
 
 iperor, how- 
 
 ■ n. for ciplit 
 
 AllMTt dic(i 
 
 lie Gi rniaiiic 
 
 : was lu little 
 
 ids. . . . The 
 
 rick's ri'ijfn to 
 
 emperor, and thev assembled 
 Geor-(/ Padriabrad, Kin); of Boli 
 who Imstened to the spot with 
 enipororat libcrt.v, and effected 
 twicn him and liis brother, 
 ever, was obliged to resig! 
 rears. Lower Austria and \ 
 in tlie followinji^ year. . 
 empire, the voice of the ci 
 heeded as in his heredita 
 ■ feudal system raifol undiT j „..,.., .,-,„„ ,„ 
 such ane.\teut, that it was purMud even by the 
 lower classics. Thus, in 1471, the shoeblacks in 
 Ljipsic sent a challenge to the university of that 
 piaie; and the lakers of the Count "Palatine 
 l-ew is, and those of the Margrave of Baden defied 
 sevenl imiwrial c. s in Swabia. The most im- 
 portant transaction in the reign of Frederick, was 
 tlie union which he formwi with the liouse of 
 Murgundy. au<l which laid the foundation for the 
 griatuess of Austria. ... In the vear 1486, the 
 wliol,. of the assembled prineis, intiuenccd es- 
 pechilly by the represt'ntations of the faithful 
 and now v.nerable AIIhtI, called the Achilles of 
 Urandcniiuri;, electc<l .Maximilian, the emperor's 
 son. king of Kome. Indeed, about this period 
 
 II c hanged and improved spirit began to show 
 Itself in a niiiarkable degr^ in the minds of 
 many tlirougliout the emi.ir. . so that the pro- 
 toiiii.lcontemplatorofcommgcventsniighteasily 
 Sic the dawn of a new era. . . . These last yeaii 
 were 111.' best in tlie whole life of the emperor 
 iiiid yii Ided to him in return for his nianv sufTer- 
 
 ngs ih.il tran.iuillity which was so well' merited 
 by Ills faiiliful g. nerous disiiosiiion. He died 
 on the lllili of August. 149;), after a reign of ,54 
 vcars. 1 he einiKTor lived long eiioiiirh to obtain 
 
 III 111.' year UIHI. the restoniti.m of his hiTcilitary 
 e.<jt.il.s by the .1, atli of King .Matthias, by means 
 of a e..nipai t mail.- with Wla.lislas, his su<'ces.sor " 
 ~t. Kohlrausch. IIUt„iji of Gennany, eh. 14 _ 
 SeerjKinnNv: A. 1). I:i47-1493. 
 
 A. D. i.<68.--In»asion by George Podiebrad 
 or Bohemia.— The crusade against him. See 
 lioiiKMn: A. I» 14.V-I47I 
 
 A. D. 1471-149'— Hungarian invasion and 
 capture of Vienna.— Treaty of Presburir 
 —Succession to the throne of Hungan 
 •ecured.-"lJeorge, King of Uoh.niia, expind 
 ''.'. "•>; "lid the claiiii.H of the Knipiror ami 
 Km; .,f Hungary lieing ciually <lisr.%'.'ird,'.l, the 
 """". ",','? "■""f''''".l <m Uladi.slau9, s.mi of 
 
 a'm""."',/^ V"^'",", "f ^"'""''' ""J Knin,l.,„n of 
 AllHTt II. To this eleciicm Kre.leric long p.r. 
 Msle. ill wiil,h,,l,ling his a.ssent; but at 
 ^ngtli h.' .l.t.iiulne.l to crush the claim of 
 Slat Unas by tormally investing riu.lislaus with 
 1 1- king.lorn and el.itorate <if IJolicmia, an.l the 
 oltl..' of iiTiprnul eiip.|».anT. In ri'vengc f,.r 
 tins .ilTront. Malihia.i marcli.'.! into Austria- t.K.k 
 poss. s.,,„„ „f ,iie forlnsMsof the Uanuln'; an.l 
 omiKll.M th<. hmpernr t.. purchase a cessation 
 of li.«tiliii, , ,y uml. rtaking to pay an huiidri',1 
 thoii^in,! gul.lin ll.*rii„ i.h.-lialf of which was 
 disbursed by the Aii«tr.,f, stal.s at the appointe.l 
 time Hut as the Kinir o' ilungary still .lelav,.l , 
 to yield up ,1,,. <„,,i„r,,l fortresses, Frederic 
 refused all further payment; and the war was I 
 •gain reneweil. Matthias invade.l ami ravs">'d ' 
 Auttru, 1.11,1 liKMiifli iie exiierieneed forml.ia~ble i 
 retUtiuio! Irom ievcral towns, bli anus were 
 
 210 
 
 crowned with success, and he became master of 
 Vienna and Neustadt. Driven from his capital 
 tlie terrified Lmpenir was reduced to the utmost 
 distress, and wan.lered from town to town and 
 froin convent to convent, endeavouring to aMuse 
 the German States against the Hungarians Yet 
 even in this exigency his goo<l fortune did not 
 wholly fiirsake him ; and he availed himself ..f a 
 Diet at Frankfort to procure the election of Ins 
 son Maximilian as King of the Ilomans. To this 
 Diet, however, the King of Bohemia received no 
 summons, ami then'fore protested against the 
 validity of the election. A full npoloiry ,,nj 
 admission of his right easily satisfie.1 I L.dislaus 
 and he consented to remit the fine which the 
 Golden Bull had fixed as the penalty of the 
 ??^f ',"!)• .'^'"' ''™"> "f Mi'tthias Corvinus in 
 14WU, left the throne of Hungary vacant, an.l the 
 Hungarians, inlluenced by their widowed ..lur,, 
 conferre.i the < rown upon the King of B.)li<iiii,i' 
 without listening to the pretensions of Mnvi! 
 nullan That valorous pnnce, however, s\v„r,l 
 nhand recoven.l his Austrian dominions: and 
 tlic rival kings concluded a severe contest by the 
 treaty of Presburg, by which Ilungary was f„r 
 the pn-sent secured to Uladislaus; but on his 
 death without heirs was to vest in the d.sr. n- 
 dants of the Kmix-ror."- Sir K. Comvn The 
 Ihttory of the Wmtern Empire eh 28 '(c "^ _ 
 8»'0 Ilt:NG.\nv: A. I). 1471-1487, ami 14.s7-r-,:.'i) 
 A. a i477-i49S--Marriage of Maximilian 
 with Mary of Burgundy.— His splendid do- 
 minion.- His joyous character.— His vigorous 
 powers.— His ambitions and aims.-" Miixi 
 mi lan, who w is as active an.l enterprising as his 
 father was in.i.)l,.nt an.l timi.l, marrie.l at . ith- 
 ton years of age, the only dauifhter of Ch.irl,., 
 tlic Bol.l duke of Burgiinily [st'c Nkthkkhm.. 
 A. u. 14,,J. _ She bmuglit him Flarjd.r^ 
 tranche^Comte, ami all the Low t'ountri.s 
 Louis M., who disputed some of tli.s.' t, rri^ 
 tories and who, on the d.'ath of the .hike had 
 sclze.1 Burgun.ly, 1'icar.ly, Ponthieu, an.l .\r;..i. 
 as llefa of !• ran.T. whi.h c.mld mit K' p.is^ .,^.1 
 by a w.mian, was .iefeated by Maximilian at 
 Ouinega.stc; and Charles VIII., who r.Tieued ih,. 
 same claims, was obligi.l to cmclu.le a .lisa.l- 
 vantageoiis peace." Maximilian sii.-.r.-,l.,i i„ 
 V.'L"'','I"'V. ""'"'"-' "» •''« "leath of his fahi, r in 
 1.1 T^- "'"«'■". "'»!■ "fM"<lenL K'ir.,i, l.ti r 
 4« (r. 1).— " Bi'twwn the Alpsan.l tin- l{.,li.nii,n 
 tronlier, the mark Austria was first foiuM,,! 
 r<)und and about the c tl.s of Kr.ms and .M, Ik 
 Since then, N'lfinning first in the vall.'v to«;,rla 
 iJavanaamI Hungary, an.l coming to the llnii^e 
 of llabshurg, it ha.l extend..! across th,' «l„.l,. 
 of the northern sl.,|)e of the Alps until wli, r.' th« 
 Slavish, Italian, an.l Oeriimu tongu.'s part ai].l 
 .>v.r t.i Alsace; thus becoming an arih.lii.liv 
 fioina mark. On all si.les the Ar.h.liikes hail 
 claims; on the German side to Switz.Thii.d. ..a 
 t le Italian to the Venetian ixissessions, and ..ii 
 the Slavish to B..liemla ami Hungary. Tosinli 
 a pilch of greatness ha.1 Maximillan'by his mar- 
 riagc with .Maria of Durgundv brought th.- h. rii- 
 iiL'.. recelv.-.i from Charles the Bol.l. Tni,. 1,. 
 the .NetheriaiKlcrs' gn'eting, in the inscripticu 
 .ivcr their gates, 'Thou art our Duke. Iluht .mr 
 battle f.ir us, war was from the first his haii.li- 
 craft. He silopteil Charles the Bol.l's ho,iilu 
 a'tifu.ir f.wRrrls Francx; hr sav.d ti..- v'r...i.f 
 part of his inhcriUnce from the 8<li.ni.s ..f 
 Louis XL Day and night it was his wliol* 
 
AU8TRU. U77-1498. 
 
 Jr<u<ma<a». 
 
 AUSTMA, 1477-1496. 
 
 thought, to conquer It entirely. But after Maria 
 of B-jrgundy's premature death, revolution fol- 
 lowed revolution, and hla father Frederick being 
 too old to protect himself. It came about that In 
 the year 1488 he waa ousted from Austria by the 
 Hungarians, whilst Ills son was kept a prisoner in 
 Bruges by the citizens, and they had even to fear 
 the estrangement of the Tyrol. Yet they did 
 not lose courage. At this very time the father 
 demited with the vowels, A. E. I. O. U. ('AUes 
 Erilreich ist Oestcrreich unterthan '— All the 
 fnrtli is subject to Austria), the extent of his 
 hopes. In the same year, his son negotiated for 
 a Spanish alliance. Their real strength lay in 
 the imperial dignity of Maximilian, which they 
 hud from the German Empire. As soon as it be- 
 g;m to bestir itself, Maximilian was set at liberty ; 
 us .sdon lus it supported him in the persons of only 
 a few princes of the Empire, he became lord in 
 his Xetheiiands. . . . Since then his plans were 
 directed against Hungary and Bur-;un'v. In 
 ilungiiry he could gain nothing jxccpt atouring 
 the succession to liis house. But never, frt° 
 (luently as he concluded yniHcc, did he give up 
 liis intentions upon Burgundy. . . . Xow that 
 he ha<l allied himself with a SforEa, and had 
 j"ined the Liga, now that his futlier was dead 
 and the Empire was pledged to follow him across 
 the mountains, and now, too, that the Italian 
 (dniplication.s were threatening Charles, he took 
 fresh liope, and in this hope he summoned a Diet 
 nt W ornis. .Maximilian was a prince of whom 
 although manv portraiU have been drawn, vet 
 there is scarcely one that resembles another "so 
 cisilv and entirely diil h(! suit himself to circum- 
 st:in( es. . . . His soul is full of motion, of joy 
 111 tl]inj.'s, and of plans. There is scarcely any- 
 thiiii; that he is not capable of doing. In liis 
 mines lie is a good sceener, in his armoury the 
 best plater, capable of instructing others in new 
 in\ eutious. \S ith musket in hand, he defeats his 
 l»>t marksman, George I'urkhard; with heavy 
 eiinncra, wlueh he has shown how to cast, and 
 liiis plaeed on wheels, he comes as a rule nearest 
 tlie mark. He commands seven captains in their 
 seven several tongues; he himself chooses and 
 mixes Ins food and mediein.s, la the open 
 cumiiri, he feels himself happiest. What 
 
 really distinguishes his public life is that pre- 
 sentiment of iho future greatness of his dyna-stv 
 which lie lias inherited of his father, and the 
 restless stnving to attain all that devolved upon 
 him from the House of Burgun ' Ai. his 
 I'llu y ami all his schemes were cncentrated 
 ii"t ii|«.n Ins Empire, for the real neeilsof which 
 lie n meed little real care, and not immwliatelv 
 1111.111 the w. [fare of his liereditary lands, but 
 upon tlie realization of tiiat sole idea. Of it all 
 "?''"',"'."».' .spwclies are full. . . . In Mareh, 
 14Jj, Maximilian cjimc to th(' Diet at Worms 
 ■ • . At this Ueichstag the King gained two 
 ni-mientous prospccu. In Wurtemberg there 
 lad sprung of two lines two counts of ouiie 
 "l'l'"site cliuracters. . . . With the elder, Slaxi 
 mlian now enU^red Into a comp,ict. Wurtcm- 
 l«rg was to \k raised to s dikedom — an eieva- 
 ion wlueh excluded the female line from the 
 fueeession-and, in the event of the stock fail- 
 uig was to be a ' widow's portion ' of the realm 
 to the Ka, .-.f the Imjn.ri.ii Chamber. Now as tile 
 sole hopes of thU family centred In a weakling 
 Of a b,,v. this arrangement held out to MaxImiluS 
 Md bin iuccetwn the proipect of acquiriog a 
 
 splendid country. Yet thl» was the smaller of 
 his two successes The greater was the espousal 
 of his children Philip and Margaret, with the 
 two cliildren of Ferdinand the Catholic, Juana 
 and Juan, winch was here settled. This opened 
 to his house still greater expectations, — i' 
 Drouglit him at once into the most intimate alli- 
 ance With the Kings of Spain. These nutters 
 might possibly, however, have been arianged 
 elsewhere. W'hat Maximilian really wanted in 
 the Iteichstag at Worms was the assistance of 
 the Empire against the French with its world- 
 renowned and inuch-envicd .soldiery. For at this 
 time m ail the wars of Europe, German auxilia- 
 nes were decisive. ... If Maximilian had 
 unitt'd tlic whole of this power in his hand 
 neither Europe nor Asia would have been able to 
 withsUind him. But God disposed tliat it should 
 rather be employed in the cause of freedom liian 
 oppression. What an Emjiirc was that which 
 in spite of Its vast strength allowed its Emperor 
 to be expelled from his heritage, and did not for 
 a long time take steps to bring him back again ? 
 tf we examine the constitution of tiie Empire 
 not as we sliould picture it toours<;lves in Henry 
 111. s time, but as it had at length become — the 
 legal independence of the several estates tlie 
 emptiness of the imperial dignity, the cleetive- 
 ness of a head, tliat afterwards exercised certain 
 rights over the electors,— we are led toiiKiiiire 
 not 80 much into llie causes of its disintegration 
 for t us concerns us little, as into the wav in 
 whieli It was luld figether. Wliat weldwl it 
 together, and preserved if, would (leaving tra 
 dition and the Pope out of the question) appear 
 
 1 i ,: V ■!■' ■"<. "■ lilt iiuesiKini appear, 
 
 Ix'fore all else, to have been the rights of in- 
 dividuals, the unions of nciglibours, and the 
 Kicial regulations which universally obtained 
 Sucli were those rigiits and privileges tliat not 
 only protected the citizen, his guild, and his 
 quarter of the town against his neighbours and 
 more powerful men than himself, but wliich 
 also endowed him with an inner independence 
 . . . >ext, the unions of neighbours Tliese 
 were not only leagues of cities ami pea.santries 
 expanded from ancient fraternities — for who 
 can tell the origin of tlie Han.sa, or the earliest 
 tre-aty between L'ri and Schwyz? — into lar'c as- 
 sociations, or of knights, who strengthened a really 
 nsignilicant power by confederations of iieigli- 
 bours, but also of the princes, who were bound 
 together by joint iuhentaiices, mutual expectan- 
 cies, and the ties of blood, wliicii in some cases 
 were very chise. This ramitlcation, depindent 
 upon a supreme power and coulirined by it l«nind 
 neighbour to ueii;hbour; and, whilst securing to 
 each his privilege and his libertv, ' .iided together 
 all countries of Germany in leg .ondsof union 
 But It is only in the siKial re- atioiis that tlie 
 unity was really pereeivable , Inly as long as 
 the Empire was an actual n .ly, could the su- 
 pre-me power of the Electors, each with his own 
 siiecial rights, lie maintained; only so long could 
 dukes and princes, bishops and abliots hold their 
 neighbours In due re'spect, and through court 
 offices or here<litarj- services, tlmmgli liefs and 
 the dignity of their independent position give 
 their vassals a peculiar position to the whole 
 Only so long could the cities enjoying inimeiiiate- 
 uess under the Empire, carefully divided into 
 free and imperial cities, be not merely protected, 
 but also assured of a participation to tlie govem- 
 meut of the whole. Coder tlili MuctlAed and 
 
 2U 
 
 iJSi^m 
 

 AUSTRIA, 1477-1495. 
 
 Thrift. 
 
 AUSTRI.' 1.119-1565. 
 
 tradlMnnal system of suzerainty and vassalage 
 all were happv and contented, and bore a love to 
 It such as is cucrislied towards a native town or 
 a father's house. For some time past, the House 
 of Austria \\m\ enjoyed the foremost position. 
 It also liail a union, and, moreover, a great fac- 
 tion on its side. The union was the 8ual)ian 
 Lcaguu. Old Suabia was divided into three 
 leagues — the league of the peasantry (tlic origin 
 of 8wii/' rli\nd); the league of th- knights in the 
 Black I St, on the Kocher, tlK Xeckar. and the 
 Danu, and the league of the cities. The peas- 
 antry w .re from the first hostile to .\ustria. The 
 Emperor Fredirick brought it to pass that the 
 cities and kniglits, that had from time out of 
 mind lived in feud, bound themselves together 
 with several princes, and formed, under his pro- 
 tection, the league of the land of Suabia. But 
 the party was scattered throughout the whole 
 Empire. ' — L. von Ranke, History of the Latin 
 and Teittonir Jfationt, bk. I, ch. 3. 
 
 A. D. 1493-1519.— The Imperial reign of 
 Maximilian.— Formation of the Circle of 
 Austria.— The Aulic Council, gke Geumanv : 
 A. I). 1493-1.519. 
 
 A. D. 1496-1499.— The Swabian War with 
 the Swiss Confederacy and the Graubunden, 
 or Grey Leagues (Gnaons).- Practical inde- 
 pendence of both acquired. See Switzerland : 
 A. U. 1396-1489. 
 
 A. D. 1496-1526.- Extraordinary aggran- 
 dizement of the House of Austria by its 
 marriages.— The Heritage of ':harles V.— 
 His cession of the German inheritance to 
 Ferdinand.— The division of the House into 
 Spanish and German branches.— Acquisition 
 of Hungary and Bohemia.— In 149ti, Philip ilic 
 iiiir. soil (if Maximilian, Archduke and Emper- 
 or, by his marriage with Ma-v of Burgundy, 
 "espoused tJie Infanta of C-i daughter of 
 
 Fenliniiml [of Aragon] and L , of Castile. 
 
 They liad two )ns, Char.ca a- , .^rdinaiul, the 
 former of whom, known in history by the name 
 of Clmrles V., inherited the Low Countries in 
 right of his father, Philip (1506). On the death 
 of Ferdlnuml, his maternal grandfather (1.518), he 
 became heir to the whole Spanish succeasion, 
 which coiiipiehended the kingdoms of Spain, 
 Aaples, Sieily, and Sardinia, together with 
 Spanisli America. To these vast possessions 
 were;i(l(l(d his patrimonial dominions in Austria, 
 wliicli were tmn.sniittcd to him by his paternal 
 gruiidfather, tlie Emperor Maximilian I. About 
 tl- same time (1.519). the Imperial dignity was 
 
 .erriil on this prince by the electors [see 
 A. 1). 1519]; so that Europe had 
 
 Gbkm.^ny 
 
 not seen, since the time of Charlemagne, a 
 monarchy wi powerful as that of Charles V 
 This Emperor concluded a treaty with his 
 brother Ferdinand; by which he ceded to him 
 all his hi reiiiiary posses-iions in Qermanv. The 
 ,two lirolhers tl.us Iwcame the founders of the 
 itwo princ i|iiil lirnnclies of the House of Austria, 
 viz., that c»f Spain, which iM'gan with Charles 
 ;V. (cuIIhI Cliaries I. of Spain), and ended with 
 Charies II. (17()0); and that of Germany, of 
 which Fenliiiand I. was the ancestor, and which 
 became extinct in the male Hue in the Empen)r 
 Charles VI. (1740). Tliese two branches, closely 
 allied to each other, acted In concert for the 
 advanceiuei.1 of their reciprocal interests; more- 
 over they gained each their own separate advan- 
 tage! bjr the msnisge oonnexions wtUcb tbey 
 
 formed. Ferdinand I. of the German line marri»d 
 Anne (1521). sister of Louis King of Hungarv 
 and Bohemia, who having lieen slain by the 
 Turks at the battle of Mohscs (1526). thesV two 
 kingdoms devolved to Ferdinand of the House .if 
 Austria. Finally', the marriage which Clmrles 
 V. contractwl with the Infant Isabella, (lau);lii,r 
 of Emmanuel, King of Portugal. procure<l l'|,ilip 
 II. of Spain, the son of that marriage, the wliuie 
 Portuguese monarchy, to which he succei'deil mi 
 the death of Henry, called the Canlinal (I.5.S111 
 80 vast an aggranilisemcnt of power alamieil tlie 
 Sovereigns of Europe."— C. W. Koch, The l!,r„. 
 lutionx of Europe, prriml 6. 
 
 Also in : W. Coxe, llitt. of the JJome of A utlrin 
 eh. 25 an,/ 27 (r. 1).— W. Roliertson, l)iM. ofih 
 ReignofaharU»V.,bk. 1.— See, also, Sp.\in: A. 1). 
 
 A. D. 1510.— Death of Maximilian.-Elec- 
 tion of Charles V., " Emperor of the Romans " 
 8eeGERM.\Nv: A. D. 1.519. 
 ^.^•,°- .',519-1555— The imperial reign of 
 Charles V.— The objects of his policy.-His 
 conflict with the Reformation and with 
 France.— " Charles V. did not receive from iiiiture 
 all the gifu nor all the charms she can bestow, imr 
 did experience give him every talent ; but lie \\ :is 
 equal to the part he bad to plav in the wmlil 
 He was sufficiently great to keep his maiiv- 
 jewelled diadem. . . . His ambition was ,Mi,l 
 and wise. The scope of his ideas, which are m.t 
 quite easy to divine, was vast enough to enninl 
 a state composed of divers ami distjint portimis 
 so as to make it always very difflcult to anial;:u- 
 mate his amdcs, and to supply them willi f.iuil 
 or to procure money. Indecd'its very e.xisiini 
 would have lieen exposed to permanent il.ui'tr 
 from powerful coalitions, had Francis 1. kiicwn 
 how to place its most vulner.ible points uu.i.r a 
 united pressure from the armies of France , f 
 England, of Venice, and of the Ottoman Enipin 
 Charles V. attained his first obie<-t when he ire- 
 venU'd the French monarch from taking' lies 
 session of the inheriluuce of the house of .Anj.m 
 at Naples, and of lliat (,f the Viseontis at .Milnp' 
 He was more 8iic<'essful in stopping the manh ,1 
 Solyman into AusI . ia than in checking the spn .ul 
 of the Reformation in Oerinanv. . . . Churlis 
 V. had four objei-ts very much at liiart: he 
 wished to be the master in Italy, to clii( k the 
 progress of the OtU)iiian power" In tlie wi^i ,,f 
 Europe, to concpier the King of Fninee. and t,) 
 govern the Germanic body by dividing it. and In- 
 making the Hi^formation a religious pretext for 
 oppres.sing the political ('.efenders of that lulief. 
 In three out of fourof these objects lie.siurei.lerl. 
 Germany alone was not conquere<i: if sli,. w,u 
 beaten in battle, neither any political triinepli 
 nor any ndigioiis results cnsue<i. In Ciirnmiiv. 
 Clmrles V. Ingan his work t(X) late, and aiieii ;.«) 
 slowly; he undertook to subdue it at a lime win n 
 the abettors of the Uef.irmation had irmwii 
 strong, when he himself was growing waiiir 
 . . . Like many other brilliant caners, ihu 
 career of Charh'S V. was more 8uc(f»,st ' ami 
 more striking at the ciimmenctment niai llie 
 miildle than at the end. of Its course, .\t 
 Madri<I, at Cambrai, at Nice, he made his rival 
 bow down his head. At Crespy he again f.irie<i 
 him to obey his will, but as he had cornel'jtflv 
 made up his mind to have peace, Charles ilic- 
 tated it, in some manner, to his own detriment. 
 At I'lHau he had to yield to tbe terms of his enemy 
 
 212 
 
AUSTRIA, 1519-15M. 
 
 Charin M« 
 Fiflk. 
 
 ArSTRIA, 152»-15a7. 
 
 — of an rncmy whom diarlos V. encountered 
 in liU old age. and when liis iMiwers liad decayed 
 AltliDtigh it may Iw said tliat the extent ami the 
 power iif tiie sovereignty wliich Charles V. left to 
 his successor at his death were not diminishe<l 
 still his armies were weakened, his finances were 
 exhnusted, anil the country was weary of the 
 tyranny of liic imperial lieutenants. The 
 Buprerniiey of the empire in Germany, for which 
 he had struggled so much, was as little estab- 
 llslie<l at the cud as at the Ix'ginning of his reign ■ 
 religious unity was solemnly destroyed by the 
 •Recess 'of Augsburg. ! • that which marki 
 the position of Charles V. .is the representative 
 man of his epoch, and as the founder of the 
 IKihcy of miKlern times, is that, wherever he was 
 Tirt4)rlous, the effect of his succesE was to crush 
 the last efforts of the spirit of the middle ages 
 ami of the imiependenee of nations. In luviv lii 
 Siwin. in Germany, and in the Low Countries 
 Ills Irimnphs were so much gain t(j the cause of 
 a'lSdlule monarchy and so mii<h loss to tlie 
 liUrty ileriveil fnim the old state of s.icicty 
 H li.itever wag the character of lilierty in the 
 miilille ages — whether it were contested or 
 inconiplite, or a mockery — it pl.iyed a greater 
 part llian in the four succeeding centuries 
 Cliiirles V. was aisurcdly one of those who con- 
 tnluitiil the most to found and consolidate the 
 jiolitiiil system of modern govcmmenu. Ilis 
 hislnry has an as|)ect of grandeur. Had 
 hrjuiiisl. U'enas sagacious in the closet as he 
 was h,il,l in the field, by a vigorous alliance with 
 hii!.'!iiii(l, with Pnitestant Germany, and with 
 s..me of the republics of Italv, he might perhaps 
 have balimced and controlled the power of 
 Charles \. Hut the French monarch ilid not 
 I»is.sc¥S the foa'sightand the solid understandiug 
 mcissary to pursue Mich a iiolicy with success 
 Ills riv:il. therefore, mcupics the fi-st place in 
 tlie liw.irical pictua' r' the epoch. Charles V. 
 had il,e se^ntiment of his position and of the 
 pun he had to play. "-J, Van Praot, £«,,«, o,i 
 the luhtiail lUttwy of tlu \T,th, Wth. and I'th 
 icHlurua. pp. liK)-194._See, also, Germ.\.nv 
 ;-„P,.';V® "' '""S-lWl, and FiiANCE: A. D. 
 li;'(Hi-,'.'J, to l.WT-I.Wa. 
 
 A, D. 1525-15*7 -Successful Contest for 
 the Hungarian and Bohemian Crowns— In 
 
 lliiiigiiry, "under Kbig .Matthias the house of 
 ^;ip..|.va, so called from a tihivonic village near 
 i .isoluga, whence it '.riginatcd, rose to peculiar 
 emmcnee. To this iious^-, in particular. King 
 ^^lKllslas had owe<l his accession to the throne- 
 "liince. Iiowcver, it thought itself entitled to 
 • IniMi a ..hare in the sovereign power, and even a 
 j-.rl of |.rosp..etivc right to the throne. Its mem- 
 l"rs were the wealthiest of all the magnates ; thev 
 Ms^ssed seventytwo castles. ... It is said 
 tlwi a pnjphecy early promised the crown to the 
 ). iim- ,I„lin Zapoly.i. I'ossessed of all the power 
 cunrerred by hi.s^rieh inlieritance. Count of Zips, 
 aiut \\„mode of Transylvania, he soon collected 
 a strong party arounil him. It was he who 
 :iminl.y persuaded the Hungarians, in the year 
 >0.,. to exc u, e all foreigners from " - Oirone 
 '.» a formal deeae; which, tlioug -y wea; 
 i.y ahvavs able to maintain in forct-, tney could 
 
 .uar l.,!4 the WoIw.Ib micociUiI in putting 
 J own an exceedingly formidable insun-ection o? 
 
 the lesser nobility priced tlie more highly, because 
 
 213 
 
 It enabled them to reduce tlic peasantry to a 
 sill harder state of servitude. Ills wish was, ou 
 the death of Wladislas, to become Gul«mutS of 
 the kingdom, to marry the deceaaed king's 
 daughter Anne, and then to await the courae of 
 events. But he was hea- encountered by the 
 policv of M.jxinili«n Anne was married L tlio 
 ^n,i .'J, ' J''"l!n»"d: Zttiwlya was excluded 
 from the administration of the kingdom; even 
 the vacant Pa atinatc was refuse.! him ami given 
 to his old rival Stephen Bathory. He was liTghlv 
 
 I?**."!"'- ,• • ■ ^"' " '■"' "f* ««1 'I'c year l.WS 
 that Zapolya got the U|)per hand at thelJakosch 
 . . .>o one entertained a doubt Uiat he aime.1 
 at the hrone. . . . But before anything was 
 accomplished— on the contrary, JiJat as these 
 party conflicts had thrown the country into the 
 utniiKt confusion, the mighty enemy, Soliman 
 appeared on the frontiers of Hungary, deU-rmined 
 to nut an end to tlie anarchy. , . . In his prison • 
 at Madrid, Francis I. had found means to entreat 
 the assistance of Soliman; urging that it well 
 beseemed a great emiieror to succour the op. 
 preascd. Plans were laid at Constantinople, 
 accordmg o which the two sovereigns were to 
 attack Spain with a comblne.1 tieet, and to send 
 armies to in- ade Hungary ami the uonh of luilv 
 tollman, ^ ithout any formal treaty, was by liia 
 position J ally of the Ligue, as the kitlg (,f 
 Hungarj wa.s, of the "mpea)r. On the 2*1 of 
 April, lo28, .Soliman, after visiting tl, .■ gi^ves of 
 his forefathers ami of the old Moslem martyrs 
 niarchctl out of Constantinople with a niig"l,tv 
 host, consisting of about a humlred thousiiud 
 men, and incessantly strengthened by fresh re- 
 cruits on its road. . . . ^Vhat power ha<l Hun. 
 gary, in the condition we have just described 
 of resisting such an attack ? , . . Tiie youiiiJ 
 kmg tiH.k the field with a following of not mot? 
 than three thous.-md men. . . , He procewle.l to 
 the fatal plain of Mohaez, fully resolved with 
 his small band to await in the open field the 
 overwhelming force of the enemy . . Personal 
 valour could avail nothing. The Hungarians 
 were Immejliately thrown into di.sorder their 
 best men fell, the others took to Uight The 
 young king was compelled to Heo. It was not 
 even granted him to die in the field of battle- a 
 far niore ui.siTable end aw-.-iiled him. Mourt'id 
 iK-liind a bilesian soMier, who served him as a 
 guide, he had already lieeti carried nrnws the 
 dark waters that divide the plain; his horvu 
 was alaady climbing the bani;, wli,-„ he slipped, 
 fell back, and buned himself and his rider in the 
 moniss. This rendered the defeat dc-isive 
 N>lim.an had gained one of those victories wiiicli 
 decide the fate of nations during long ep,«.-hs 
 . . . That two thrones, the succession to which 
 was not entirely free from doubt, hivl thus been 
 lelt vaiant, wiu an event tli!,t necessjirilv c:iusi-il 
 a great agitation thn.ughout Christendom It 
 was still a .pieslicin whether su(-h a EuMpean 
 power as Austria would continue to exi.st— . 
 question which it is only iieces,sarv to -tat'e ■ 
 onler to be aware of its vast i'nixrrlanee to the 
 fate of mankind al larin-, and of Gennnny in ii;ir- 
 ticular. . . . The claims of Ferdinand" to IxMh 
 .-owns, unquestionable as tliey might bo in 
 reference to tlie ta'aties with the'reigning h."i«e» 
 «tTui,p|Mwi.,l iu tile nations thems'elvi's, by tho 
 r ghtof elect ion and theauthority of considerablo 
 rivals. In Hungary, as soon as the Turks had 
 retired, John Zapolya apiwaieU with the duo 
 
■i fe 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1525-1587. 
 
 Skngarn and 
 auhtmla. 
 
 AUSTniA, 1564-1618. 
 
 Sr}^.iT^f .^ ''1^'' '"'''' ^'^ 'f""" "'« inflict: 
 of Ills Ivrrsarii'S. . . . Even in Tokiiv liow- 
 
 wl. Ic tlKMli,k.-»..f Bavari,. cmciv..! il.c .l.-sil 
 of getting i...»«.88l„n of tlio throne of UohcmRi. 
 
 n; ; .1 "■ *'" '', '" •'"' 'W" kimtiioms alone 
 U at t K.SC pretenders ha.1 a consi,le,,.bIe part" 
 The sta e of politu, |„ Europe was such as to 
 
 .jsur.. hem powerful support'ers ahrcvul I^tl^ 
 whh'y t^/"'T''' ^J"^ fntimaU'ly conne<.te,I 
 
 he pope was al his sicU'. ami the Germans In 
 
 on of'X "u'T" V"" ri'""^"' "»'*'""' "'« fac 
 tion of the \\ oiw.Mle with money. Zaiiolva sent 
 
 n lmitte.1 a uiemher of the LIgue of cl.^nae In 
 
 plrtS *""• ";{:,*""'"'■" '""f l""g "a.T .levote.l 
 piirtiaiins, . . Th« conse(|ucnces that must 
 ■ave resulted, had this scheme sueee.-dt"l are « 
 Inoaloulahle. that it is not t.H. m.uh t., 8,,y 1111^ 
 hi',l!;.if'p" compU^ely chanjred the pJIli ie.d 
 history of Europe. The power of Rivaria would 
 have o„tw,.|j:he,l that of Austria In both oZan 
 iind hiavonian countries, and Zapolva. thus su,, 
 
 Sm Th"" ""'* T-^ awe to-main,.!"' s 
 station; the Ligue. and with it hiffh ultm-mon- 
 tanc opmums would have held the ascendency 
 ^c.istem Europe Never was there a pm ?t 
 more pn.snant with danirer to the crowing p,>wer 
 
 with all the prudence and enerjry which that 
 house h,u, so often displayed in .liSfcultemerKc'n 
 cies. tor the pn'sent. the all important obieet 
 was the cn)wn of Bohemia. . . . All his meas 
 ures were taken with s,.ch skill and prudence 
 that on the .lay of election, thou^-h the Bavarian 
 
 dH ;?, 'f •> "'' '" *"" '""' "-'""It. not the slightest 
 doubt of the success of his ne^r,„ia,|ong. an over- 
 whelming majority in the three estates electe<l 
 Fenlinaml to tli.. throne of Bohemia. This t.K.k 
 Place on the 2;W OcIoIkt. 1.5J.t. . . ()„ Jds 
 brothers birth-day. the 24th of February "v'7 
 Ferdinand was crownwl at I'rairue. . The 
 affairs of Hungary were not so e.isilv or so peaee- 
 
 fo^ani'"';, 1.- • • A' "^^'^ «"™ ^■'I.olya'^^ame 
 forwani, full armed and powerful out of the 
 general .iesolalion. he lm,l the uncontesU^ 
 supenontjv The capital of the kingdom s,«rgl 
 his pn.,ection. after which he march,,! to StuI 
 weissi^nburg, where his partisans. b,.re d,>wn all 
 attempts at opposition: he was electe.1 an.I 
 cTowncI (llth ,,f NovemV-r. 1,W8); in Croat a 
 AM :.I nn''',"h '"■''""» le'lged king at a diet; he 
 fllle 1 all the numerous places. temp,.ral anil 
 spiri„i|,l. Ic, vacant by the dis,ister of Moh,u7 
 
 a In. 'l?u /■,',""''.'■••. ■ • n'>"J "'e Germans 
 tt.liancci Mthou interruption; ami as s.«.n as 
 it nppeariKl iwissible that Fenlinaml might lie 
 succes.sful, Za,K.lya-8 follower In'gan to . Im'rt 
 him. . -Never .11.! the Oennan,r,H,psdS,y 
 more bnivery and constancy. Thev had ofu'n 
 iKi.her nuM, nor brca.l. an.i were obliged o iv" 
 on »u<h fruits as th,.y f.mn.l In the ganlens: he 
 1 ihabi Ian s were wavering ami uncertain - th..v 
 sul.in,l„.,|. an,l ilu^n revoltul again t,. the emmv ■ 
 Z,ip,.lyas troops, ai,l.,l by their knowlclg,. ?,f 
 
 bv" nk'h! • .m;'''-;r "n " '"^ ("'"^^.M^ at^cks 
 b> iiiirht; but the Germans evince,!, in the 
 moment of ,l«uger the skill an,! ,!eterm nation of 
 a H.,man hgi.ai: iln.y sh.,w«|. t,«, a noble con- 
 sUimy umrcr .lllll.nltira and privations. At 
 Tokay they .IcfcateU Zupolyu and comp..!?.^ him 
 
 214 
 
 1).7, Feitlinand was crowne. n Mtuhlwii*,,.,, 
 
 pl le, Ferdinan.1, however, distinctly fell ,| , 
 this appearance was .Musivc. . . . In Boh,, , 
 too IS, „,wer was far fr..m secure. Ilis Bav„ 1 
 .^r vll.".? ""' "."' "■'Inquish.Kl the hop,. 
 Irning him from the thnme at the first g,.n,r. 
 urnoFaflrairs. The Oltomims, mcanwhll, ". t 
 ng upon the persuasi.m tliatev..ry lam! in wl,i, l, 
 Uie lea. of their elii..f ha.l Mtid belo.iw, 
 „f; . '.JL"'""' *T P"T''ring to ri'tum to Um 
 gary ; cl her to take pos.*.ssi,m of it thenis,""" 
 or at lirst as was th.'ir c.ist.mi, to licstow it „„ ,; 
 nativj. ruler -Zapolya, who now eageriy .s,„i "l 
 an a iance with them -as their vas^i'!: 
 
 ITJ H^". "i'^ "/ ""^ formation iVi dr. 
 many, bk. 4, ch. 4 (r, 2) 
 
 dolph and Ferdinand II.- Prelude to th, 
 Th'rty Year. War.-" Then, is no peri',! c J,' 
 nec,e.I with these r,.||gious wars thiit ,|,.«,.rv s 
 m,)retobe8tudi«! than tliese reigns . Kirili 
 nan,l I., Maximilian [the 8..coml],\ml th.t: ,,f 
 his 8um^,rs who preceded the tliirtv v.ars' 
 ,^. ;.i ". '""I "" ""^•^"■iSn who exhibit, ,1 th,,t 
 exercisoof m,xlerati,m ami rikkI si-nse wl,i, |, „ 
 pl ilos,.phcr w.iuM re,,ulre, but Maximili,.,,; a 
 
 ■ was lmn.e.liately followe.1 by prin.vs ,f a 
 different complexion. . . . Nothing c.uM 1... 
 m, re compl..te than the .lilflculty .,? t„l,.r,„i.n 
 « he time when Maximilian nigne.!; «n,l |, ' 
 ndl,l policy could be attended with favoun.l.I,' 
 eff,.ctsinhisageam! nation, there can l)e li,i|. 
 fear of the experiment at any oiIi.t peri,>,l \„ 
 riTX,!!"; •'r'!^"" .'"."'" *""« w»» then disp.K,.,| 
 ,w i^V '"l'i'''>;'"'"ur from anv sens,. „f u„. 
 justice of such forbearance, but from moliv,, „f 
 leini«,r.,l pohcy alon... The Lutherans, it uill 1„. 
 seen, could not bear tliat the Calvinisis ^h^uM 
 
 «.|ve,Tf"'y? ,'■'■''>'''"•'* privileges with tl„m. 
 8. his. The Calvinisis were c,,ually opinion:it,.,l 
 ami unjust; and Maximilian himself wai prnl,„|,|v 
 U.lerant and wise, chiefly bt^cause he w... i„ l.u 
 real opini.ms a Lutheran, and in outward pro- 
 
 r, ,i 1 ^"' '"'S'''*' y™"' «''e whole of his 
 reign, he prcscrvinl the reliirlous peace ,)f tlje 
 eommimity. without destroying the r.Ii'i. ' 1 
 free,l,.m of the human min.l/ He supp."„:i u" 
 
 allTl^l, 'l*'!'!'"'^' "' "«' l"-"l»minanl p,„.v. in 
 all their rights, possessions, am! privil,'-, ,;" l,„t 
 c pro„.c„.,l the I'rot,.s,ants in ev'-ry ..vTr. isi' !1 
 their religion which was then pra;n,„bl,.. I„ 
 .therw.)r,ls, he was as tolenmt an,l just as tl„. 
 emper of 8,Kuty Ih.'n a.lmittol. ami mure „, 
 than the state ,.f thinirs woul.l have su2L',st,d 
 
 ... Ihcm.'rit of Maximilian was butt,H,a ,r. 
 
 em the m„m.;nt that his 8,>n R,Molpli was , , l,,l 
 UH,n,. supply his ph.ce. . . . He lull alu.vshft 
 the (Mliuiatum of his son ami successor |o,,„„i,h 
 ;i,'.i„. ' ;' «'^"™ "f Ilis bigot.H! con8,irt Ho 
 dolph. his son, was ther..f,.re as igimnui! an,l 
 f nous .m his part as were the Pr,.,estants „n 
 theirs; !,r l,ad imimillate recourse t,. th,. usum! 
 (xpedi,,,., — force, and the exwuti,in .f the 
 e'r '''•''« /I'O' "'■"'•r. . . . After K.«l„l|:h 
 (oiries Matthias, ami, unhappily for all Eim.|».. 
 :""■"■'•' '*"'' 'he empire felt afli-rwanls ,i„.i,r 
 the management ..f Ferdinand II. Of the ,liir,.r 
 ent Austrian princes, it is tbc t«lgn of Feniinsna 
 
AUSTRU, IMl 1818. 
 
 TUrhiTian 
 Iror. 
 
 AUSTRIA, Ut8-1M8. 
 
 n. that b more pnrttcularly to be cnnildcrctl. 
 Siidi WM the iirbllrary nature of his gdvem- 
 nwnt over liin siiliji-rta In Bnhcniiit, tlmt tlicy 
 n'vcilicd, Tliiy ilfctcfl for tliiir king the 
 jouiig EliTtnr Paliiline, hoping thus to extricate 
 tluniselvcs from the higotry and tyranny of 
 Ftriiiuiind. TIds crown 8i> offered was ucconted ■ 
 and, in tlie event, the cau9<; of tlic Bolicmlana 
 Ix'Oimc the cause of the Reformufion In Gor- 
 miiny, and the Elertor Palatine the hero of that 
 cause. It Is this which gives the great Intert-st 
 tnthlsrol^'n of Fenlinand II., to thise concerns 
 f)f hiHsuliJects in Rohemia, and to the character 
 of tliis Elector Palatine. For all these evenu 
 and circumstances led to the thirty years' war." 
 — W. t<myth, l^rliim on Moilern flinhrry t I 
 Ifrl. 13. — See B<iiiEMi.\: A. D. 16U-16lk and 
 GER.M.VNT: A. I). 1B1»-Ifi20 
 
 A. D. is67-i66o.-Stnig:Blet of the Hapt- 
 burg House in Hungary and TransTlvania to 
 establish rights of sovereigntj,— Wars with 
 the Turks. Sec IIlmhuy: A. D, 1567-1604 
 and lOotUBflO. • 
 
 A. D. i6i8-i648.-The Thirty Years War. 
 -The Peace of Westphalia.— 'The thirty 
 vinrs war made Germany tlie centre point o"f 
 Lun.peun politiea. . . . Nn one at il.s eommcnci 
 
 d iratlon and 
 
 —IS L-verywhen; 
 
 let it goinjr; 
 
 , and sw.il- 
 
 .y truth, tliat 
 
 ..iirlydiipluyed. 
 
 first broke "out 
 
 (>p( 
 mint could luive foreseen the 
 exiint. But the train of r- - ^ 
 laid, and required only the • 
 mere than (.iie war was jo 
 lowed up in it ; and the n 
 war feeds itself, wasnever t ^„ 
 
 . . . Thiiugli tin- war, wii.vli „^ „„ 
 
 in B<iliemia, concerned only the hoii.sc of Austria 
 vitljy its originating inVeliirious disputes by 
 Its i» culiur character as a nligious war and I>v- 
 t he miiisures adoptwl iK.tli by the Insurgeiilsand 
 ti.e eijiperor, it acquired such an extent that 
 even thequellins of the in-urrcction was'lnsuf- 
 tioi, nt to put a stop to it. . , . Thoueh the 
 lJ..hemian war was apparently terminated, V( t 
 the name had communicated to Gernuinv lind 
 Hunirary, and new fuel was added by the act of 
 proscription promulcated a^-ainst the elector 
 ^r,-,l,ric ami his adherents. From this the w ,r 
 itcrived that revolutionary character, which was 
 hem tfnrwani peculiar to it; it was a step that 
 couldnutbut lead to further results, forllieques- 
 ii.rinf the relations betw,-. n the emp.mr ami 
 his states was in a fair w,. of being practically 
 
 formed in \ieuna and Madrid, where it w.is 
 r« lived to renew the war with the Netherlands. 
 Lnder the present circumstances, the suppn^s- 
 sion of the Protestant redigion ami the overthrow 
 of(,ermanand Dutch liberty app«ired insepar- 
 a!.-, uhle the success of the lm|Krial arms, 
 > "Ir!,' "*''"'}• *i-"^, hy the league and the 
 f 'r ' M u* *;f"'"""->l8. gave just grounds 
 
 I . « '.r i.v • • ^?' "'': '•■"."■Jing of the war into 
 t^mnlf^ "'■• v."' P^"'iP»' seat of the Protes- 
 tant religion in Germany (the states of which 
 had a,,p.,i,„« chtistian IV. of IX.nmark »^ 
 n J, ""'■""-■'''• ?«>'' "t their confwieracy), 
 the- i^onhem s- .tes had already, though with.iu 
 anv benehcial result. iKK-n inv^lvcl ln*'the ^ri e 
 "Id the Danish war had broken out. But the 
 
 r'/.\:':.""';'f/."T," i ^V""^"*'^-!" to the di"ni,v 
 ., .,.,„,..,[ j.„ jj.j,j|j ^^^^ ini|K;rial gencmloye'r 
 
 m r,^- niportance. as it affi-cted the whok- couri 
 »fldcUa«eltro/UK. war. From this time tU^ 
 
 215 
 
 M. iL J ".'° '■"' ?■';," ■» ""■ m'iiutenauce of 
 his army coul< noi fail to make It such . 
 The <lhitlnguh,h«l success of the ImpcTiul arms 
 
 ^l,em..Tu","'"r"J',""'^''"'«' «'■<-■ ''"ring 
 schemes of W allensteln. He did m.t come for- 
 ward as conqueror alone, but. by the investiture of 
 Mecklenburg as a stale of the empire, as a ruMne 
 
 this noTus homo, exasperated and annoye<l the 
 
 ,H.'ll"'n I? ','•'" "'"" "'« Pr"testant\tati.s 
 i-spicially the league and iu chief: all implored 
 
 rMi','",1,^^'"™'"'''"'« discharge. Tl 'u ?^ 
 the diet of the elwtors f.t Augsburg, the emperor 
 was r«luced to the alternative of resigni g him 
 or Ids allies He chose the former.*' Wallen- 
 ste n was .llsmissecl, the majority of his army 
 disbandt, , an,l Tilly m.miuaW commander lu^ 
 chief of the forces of the en.|)eror m,1 the l.ague 
 w;.tlif '? '"''■,"' "•« <^'»Peror sufflcient care 
 r.^.^ "i^ '" ?"''""» ""^ *»■■• The refus,il to 
 restore the unfortunate Frederic, and even the 
 bide of his up|)er Palatine to Bavaria, must with 
 justice have excited the apprehensions of the 
 other princes. But when the Jesuits finally 
 suceewlwl, not only In extorting the edict ,]l 
 restitution, but also in cimsinc iff. Im. enforce; 
 n the m(«t .hIIous manner, the Catholic st.ites 
 themselves saw with reg.-t that peace cuuld no 
 longer exist. . . The grea> r tile suce...,s that 
 attended the house of Austria, the more actively 
 foreign p(dicy lal)oure<l to counteract it. Knl 
 land had taken an interest in the fate of Frtnl- 
 eric V. from the first, though this interest was 
 evinced by little Iwyond fruitless negotiations. 
 Denmark became engagifl in the ,,uarnl mostly 
 through the inHuemx. of this iKiwerand Holland 
 Richelieu, fn.m the time he l)eeame prime 
 numster of France, had exerted him.sdf in 
 opi»»,ing Austria and Spain. He found employ, 
 ment for Spain In the contests respecting 
 
 of Mantua. W lliugly would he have detachi-,1 
 the German league from the interest of 
 he emperor: amf though he failed in this 
 he procured the fall of Wallenstein 
 Much niore imiwirtant, however, was Hiche^ 
 l!»"J /"""'■"C'; on the war, by the essential 
 share he had In gaining Oustavus Adolphus' 
 active partieipatum In it. . . . The nineteen 
 yeareof his ^Gustavus Adolphus'l reign which 
 8lri-«'ly elapsetl, together wi'th the Polish 
 war, which lastiHl nearly that time, had taught 
 the world but little of the real worth of this 
 great and Uilented hero. The decisive superi- 
 ority of Protestantism in Germany, under his 
 guidance, soon created a more just knowledge and 
 nt the same time showed the advantages' which 
 must result to a victorious supporter of that 
 cause. . . The Imttle at Uipzig w»s decisive 
 for Oustavus Adolphus and his party, almost 
 U-yond exiiectation. The league feirasun<lcr 
 arid in a short time he was master of the ( oun- 
 irics fMm the Baltic to Bavaria, and from the 
 Rhne to Boheniia. ... But the misforiunes 
 and death <.f Tilly bn.ught Wallenstein again 
 on the stage as absolute commander in chief 
 bent on plans n„t ., whit K-^ extensive than 
 those he had iK-fore formctl. N.)pt'rio.lof the w,-ir 
 gave prtmiise of such great aiul rapid successes 
 or reverses as the present, for both leaders wen^ 
 Uctcrmined to effect tbem; but tbe vlctor>- of 
 
AUSTRIA, 1018-1648. 
 
 Peactcf 
 tpkaha. 
 
 Wttt, 
 
 AUSTRIA, 167»-1714. 
 
 1„ H 
 
 LOtzen while It cost Gustnvus his life, prepared 
 the full of \V a :ensteln. Though the fall of 
 
 Uustavus Adolphus frusiratnl his own private 
 views, It did not those of liis party. . . The 
 school of OustHVHs produced a number of men 
 peat In the n'Mwt and In the field: yet it was 
 hard, even for an Oxensteim, to preserve the 
 Importance of Sweden unimpaired; and It was 
 but partially done by the alliance of Hcllbronn. 
 ... If the forces of Sweden overrun almost 
 every part of Germany in the following 
 months, under the guidance of the pupils of the 
 King, Bemant of Weimar and Oustavus Horn 
 we must apparently attribute it to AV.illonstein's 
 Intentional Inaotivitv in Bohemia. The distrust 
 of him Incnas,.,! In Vienna the more, as he took 
 but little trouble to diminish It; and thougli his 
 fall was not sufficient to atone for treachery, If 
 proved it was for his equivocal character and 
 Imprudence. Ills death probably saved Oer- 
 iimny from a calastronbe. ... A great change 
 UH)k place upon tlie ileath of Wallenstein; as a 
 prince of the bloo<l. Fenllnand. king of Hungary 
 and Bohemia, obtained the command. Thus an 
 end was put to plans of revolutions from this 
 quarter. But in the same year the battle of 
 Honllmgcn gave U) the imperial arms a sudden 
 preponilcrance, such as it had never before 
 acquired. The separate peace of Saxony with 
 the emperor at Prague, and soon after an alli- 
 ance, were its consequences; Sweden driven back 
 to Pomemnia, st'cmcd unable of herself, during 
 the two following years, to maintain her ground 
 In Germany: the victory of WItUtock turned 
 the scale In her favour. . . . The war was pro- 
 longinl and gri'allv extended by the active share 
 
 --.„... ..„..^.v,.,,, ^^vcuuvu uj lue Hciive snare 
 taken In it by trance: first against Spain, and 
 soon against Austriii . . . flic German war 
 after the treaty with Bemhard of Welmnr was 
 mainly carried on by France, by the arming of 
 Oemmns against Germans. But the pupil of 
 Oustavus Adolphus preferred to fight for him- 
 self rather than utliers, and his early deatli was 
 almost as much mvetnl by France as by Austria 
 The succi'ss of the Swe<ilsh arms revive<l under 
 Bauir. ... At the general diet, which was at 
 last convened, the empemr yielded to a general 
 amnesty, or at least what was so designated 
 But wh.'n at the mwling of the ambassii.iiirs of 
 the leading jKiwcrs at llaml.urg, the pnlimin- 
 Bries Were Rlgnul, and the time and place of the 
 ci)ngrcss of p,ac.. fixed, it was de/crred after 
 Klchelicu » d.iitli, (who was succee<led by M«/.a- 
 rin). by tlie war. which both parties conlinuwl 
 III the hoiK' of s.-.uring Oetter coniiltions by 
 victi.ry A new war broke out In the north 
 b<twc(n Swcihn and Denmark, ami when at 
 
 '»"• " tigress of peace was oiwucd at MunMcr 
 
 ■nd OHHiiliruck. the negotiations draggcl on 
 for llinc vcurs. . Tlie German p<'ace was 
 neg„tlai,.,l „i .Muiister between the emperor and 
 f ranci', and at IKnaliruck lietwiTn the emperor 
 ■nd Cwclin; hut iH.lh treaties, according to 
 express auncmcnt. Oct. 24, 1648, were to tic 
 conslderifl MS cue. under the title of (lie West- 
 phallan '-A H I, llecrcn. A »v,;.,l ,.f tht 
 tl„l;ry nf the IU,I,^.,I si„l„n of Knrmr „H,iif 
 ("<.:„.>. ,>,,. 91-(tH -Tlie Peace of Wc.ili>hall» 
 littj. riicl manifold hostile conimenu, not only ln 
 carlLr. hut also In later, llni.» Oi'rnmn patriots 
 romplnuiiil that 'iv It the unity of the Empire 
 ws-i f,.;,;. an,! in.f.i^j tiic c..uiwtli.iu of the 
 Bute., which even Uforc was kKMc, was relued 
 
 t°^,*e extreme. This was, however, an evil 
 which could not be avoided, and It had to iv. 
 accepted In order to prevent the French ami 
 Swedes from using tiielr opportunity for tlie 
 further enslavement of the land Tlie 
 
 religious parties also made objections' to the 
 peace. The strict Catholics condemned it as a 
 work of Inexcusable and arbitrary injiistiit. 
 v. •-"*. dissatisfaction of the Protestants wa., 
 chiefly with the recognition of the Ecclesiastical 
 Keservatlon. Tliey complained also that their 
 brethren In the faith were not allowed the frie 
 exercise of their religion in Austria. Their h,.,. 
 tiiity was limited to theoretical discussions 
 which soon ceased when Louis XIV. took udv in' 
 tage of the prt^pondcmnce which he liiul won 
 to make outrageous assaults upon C«miauv 
 and even the Protcstanu were compdUd i,; 
 acknowledge the Emperor as the real dcfcmler 
 °I . i2'"'''"'*P<""''^'«;«"— A. OIndely, UiHon 
 of the Thirty Tenrt' War. e. 8, ch. 10, tect. 4 -Sw 
 also, Germant: A. D. 1618-1620, to 1«4)*' 
 f627S'i*' "■ *^^^''^- """l It*'-*: a. D,' 
 A. D. i6ai.-Form«l eitablisbment of the 
 rtght of primogeniture in the Archducal 
 
 * X* ^^eO^-XMAXv: A. D. 1636-l«:tT 
 D- u o '''i.-'*^;— Hoitile combinations of 
 Richelieo.-tbe Valtelline war in Northern 
 
 lUly. 8ceFRA.NCE: A. D. 1624-1620 
 A. D. 1637.1631.-War with France over 
 
 the iueceiijon to the Duchy of Mantua. 8c. 
 
 Italy : A. D. 1627-1031 
 A.D. i648-l7is.-Relationa with O-rmanT 
 
 and France. See Okrm.vnt : A. I). lii|s-i;i.i 
 A. D. i66»-i6tf4.— Renewed war with the 
 
 Turks. PeeHiNdAKv: A. I), laoo-loill 
 A. D. 1668-1683.— Increased oppression and 
 
 relimoua persecution in Hungary. Revolt of 
 
 Tekeli.— The Turks again called in. Mus- 
 
 tapha a great invasion and tiege of Vienna - 
 
 DeliTtrance of the city by John Sobieski. Sw 
 
 HtNOAKT: A. I). 160H-1(W;I. 
 
 »t1f ?/ ir'*""'7'Ar''"'V ."■" 'rith Louis 
 XIV. of France: War of the Grand Alliance. 
 -Peace of Rjrswick.— " The Ica.liiig prindnle 
 of the reign [fn France] of Ixiuis xfv is 
 
 the principle of war with the dynasty of ( harl.s 
 V —the elder branch of which reignnl in .•^iMiri 
 while the desccmlania of the younger hramli 
 occurile<l the Imperial throne of'Gcrniaiiv 
 At the death of Maiarin, or to si.cit tn.*. 
 correctly. Immediately after the death of I'hilip 
 IV.. . . the early ambilion of Louis .\1\' 
 sought to prevent the junior branch of the 
 Austrian dynasty from succeeding to Iho in- 
 heritance of the elder branch, lie had no disiro 
 to see reconstilutwl under the Impirlai s< 1 pirr of 
 Ocrmanv the monarchy which Cliarlrs V. h:ul 
 at one time wishni to transmit enlln to liis »..n. 
 but which. Worn out and weakened, he »iil) 
 seqiiently allowed without ri'grct to lh> ,livi,|,d 
 iK'tween his son ami his brother. Bifon' iii.ikinit > 
 war upon Au.stria, Louis XIV. last his vut 
 upon a portion of the territory bi'loniriiiir'to 
 Spain^nd the exiHiilt ion against llollaitil U-zm 
 
 I'i.. 'l.l"* NF-TIIKni.ANIW (HOLLAXIM X 
 
 1672-1674, ami IH74-I07M1, for tlie purixw of 
 absorbing the Spanish provinces bv overwhelm 
 
 Ing them, opened the series of hi» vast e r 
 
 prises. Ilia rtrst irreat war w:ts !:!i!.:Hrf;!!r 
 speaking, his first great fault. iTe faiii .1 In hit 
 object: (or at the end u( six campalgus, duruif 
 
 216 
 
AUSTRIA, 167a-1714. 
 
 Wan tcith 
 ItmU XIV. 
 
 AU8TRU. 1673-1714. 
 
 which the French armies obtained creat and 
 deserved «ueceM, Holland remained uncon- 
 qucred. Thus was Europe warned that the lust 
 of con(|iicst of ft young monarch, who did not 
 liinisk'lf possess militiiry (tenlus. but who found 
 in his Rcncrals the resources and ability In which 
 he was himself deficient, would soon threaten her 
 Independence. Conde and Turenne, after having 
 been relK-llious subjects under the Regency, 
 were about to become the first and the most 
 illustrious lieutenants of Louis XIV. Europe, 
 however, though wametl, was not Immediately 
 ready to defend herself. It was from Austria, 
 more directly exposed to the dangers of the 
 great war now commencing, that the first sts- 
 tematic resistance ought to have come. But 
 Austria was not prepared to play such a part; 
 and the Emperor Leopold possessed neither the 
 genius nor the wish for it. He was. in fact, 
 nothing more than the nominal head of Germany. 
 . . . Such was the state of affairs in Europe 
 when William of Orange first made his appear- 
 ance on the stage. . . . The old question of 
 suprrniiicy, which Louis XIV. wished to fight 
 out as a duel with the House of Austria, was 
 now alMMit to change its aspect, and, owing to 
 the presence of an unexpected genius, to bring 
 into the qu.irrel other powers besides the two 
 original competitors. The foe of Louis XIV. ought 
 by rights to have been bom on the banks of the 
 Danube, and not on the shores of the North Sea. 
 In fact. It was Austria that at that moment most 
 neciled a man of genius, either on the throne or 
 at the lii'iicl of alTain. The events of thecenturr 
 woulii. In this case, doubtless have followed a 
 dllTiTi'iil course: the war would have been lesH 
 gcnenil, and the maritime nations would not 
 have Ixen Involved in it to the same degree. 
 The treaties of peace would have been signed in 
 winie small place in France or Oermanr, and not 
 in two towns and a village In Holland, such as 
 Ximeguen, Kyswick, and Utrecht. . . . William 
 of Orange found himself In a position soon to 
 form the Triple Alliance which the very policy 
 of l,.>uis XIV. sugKesUHi. For Fmnce to attack 
 H.illiin.l, when her object was eventually to 
 n-adi .\intria. and keep her out of the Spanish 
 »U(W*.i,in, was to make eiirmies at one and the 
 sjinic lime of «paln, of Austria, and of Holland. 
 iJui if It aftcrwanls rcquirrd considerable efforts 
 rn the part of Wlljlam of Orange to maintain 
 tills allmncc. It denunded still mor« cnergv to 
 ixtenil It It fonmii part of the StadthoMers 
 iillerlnr Plans to combine the union between him- 
 self and the two branches of the Austrian 
 .,'11 ■*'■ "'"' "'" "'"' Anglo-Swedish Triple 
 Alliance, which had lust Inrn dissolved under 
 the strong pressure brought to bear on It by 
 Louis XIV. . . I^ul, Jciv.. whose finances 
 wetv exhauste<J. was very soon anxious to make 
 peace even on the morrow of hit most brilliant 
 vidories; whilst William of Orange, beaten and 
 relrealiiig, anienlly desired the continuance of 
 'he »,.r . . The I'race of Nimeguen was at 
 iMl Mi-neil. and by It wen' secured to lA>ula XIV 
 rraiielie romte, and some important places In 
 till- Hpan sh Low t'oimtries on bis northern 
 fnmtler (we NlMKoiKN, Prac- or]. This 
 was the nilminating point of the reign of Louis 
 A!\ Alil.mjgh the ttaUthm haxf prpvpntrfi 
 
 ag.ln.| the House of Austria, which bad been 
 w ausorb by ooaqucst so mucb of tba territory 
 
 217 
 
 belonging to Spain as would secure him against 
 the effect of a will preserving the whole In- 
 heritance Intact In the family, yet his armies had 
 been constantly successful, and many of his op- 
 pomaw were evidently tired of the struggle. 
 . . . Some Tears passed thus, with the appear- 
 ance of calm. Europe was conquered; and 
 when peace was broken, because, as was said, 
 the Treaty of Nimeguen was not duly executed, 
 the eventaof the war were for some time neither 
 brilliant or Important, for several campaigns 
 Iwgan and ended without any considerable re- 
 sult. At length Louis XIV. entered on the 
 second half of his reign, which differed widely 
 from the first. . . . During this second period of 
 more than thirty years, which begins after the 
 Treaty of Nimeguen and lasts till the Peace of 
 Utrecht, evcnta succeed each other in complete 
 logical sequence, so that the reign prescnta Itself 
 as one continuous whole, with a regular move- 
 ment of ascension and decline. . . . The leading 
 principle of the reign remained the same; it was 
 always the desire to weaken the House of Aus- 
 tria, or to secure an advantageous pariltion 
 of the Spanish succession. But the Emperor of 
 Ocrmanv was protected by the coalition, and the 
 King of Spain, whose death was considered 
 Imminent, would not make up his mind to die. 
 . . . During the first League, when the Prince 
 of Orange was contending against Louis XIV. 
 with the cooperation of tiic Emperor of Ger- 
 many, of the King of Spain, and of the Elector! 
 on the Rhine, the religious clement played only 
 a secondary part In the war. But we shall see 
 this element make ita presence more inauifest. 
 . . . Tims the influence of Protestant England 
 made Itself more and more felt In the affairs of 
 Europe, In proportion as the government of the 
 Stuarts, from its violence, its unpopularity, and 
 from the opposition offered to it, was approach- 
 ing its end. . . The seomd coalition wai 
 neither more united nor more firm than the first 
 had U-en : but, after the expulsion of the Stuarta, 
 the germs of dissolution no longer threatened 
 the same dangers. . . . The British nation now 
 made Itself felt in the balance of Eunipe, and 
 William of Orange was for the first time In his 
 life successful In war at the head of his English 
 triMips. . . , This was tlic most brilliiiut epoch 
 of the life of William III. ... He was now at 
 the height of his glory, afU'r a [M-rio-l of twenty 
 years fn>m his start In life, and his .!■ ^tiny was 
 acn>mpllshed; so that until the Treii; ..f Rys- 
 wick, which In 1698 put an eml to his hiwtiiitles 
 with Fmnce, and brought about his nTognitlon 
 as King of England by Louis XIV., not much 
 more was left for him to gain; and he had th« 
 skill to lose nothing. . . . The negotiations for 
 the Treaty of Ryswick were omduited with less 
 ability and b>ildnesa. and ronclmliil on less 
 advantageous terms, than the Triii-e of Ratlslmn 
 or the Peace of Nimeguen. Nevcriheless, this 
 treaty, which secured to l,<iiii« the possession of 
 Strasbourg, might, particuliirly as ttfte was now 
 crxH'ping on him, have dosiil I'lls military career 
 without disgrace. If the eternal quistlon. for the 
 solution of which he had mniie so many sacri- 
 fices, and which had always held the foremost 
 place ill his thoni^hts, had not remalne<t as uo- 
 Srillrt! oil! 03 fu:l nf diiEcuity as or, the a^j 
 when he had mounted thethi^one Charles It. 
 of Spain was not dead, and the question of th« 
 Spanish luccMtioa, whkh bad so MtlTtljr 
 
1r 
 
 AUSTRIA, l«7a-1714. 
 
 o/VtneU. 
 
 AUSTOIA, 1718-1738. 
 
 employed the Brmletof Loult XIV.. and taxed 
 his dlplomncy, wns aa utiilwidcd aa at the bc- 
 ginnlngofhis wlgn. Lo.,|,xiV. sawtwoalter- 
 natlvcs before Uim: a partition of the aucceaaion 
 between the tmpomr mid lilmw-lf (a aolution 
 proposcil thirty yearn before as a meant to avoid 
 war), or else a will In fuvoiirof Fmnce. followwl 
 C .m!'."" ^ \ UToninicnecment of general 
 
 hostilities Loul, XIV. pr<.|K»ed fn si"' 
 
 cewion two schemes, not. as thirty y.^ra befon-, 
 to the Emperor, but to the King of England 
 
 «,i"f iR"''", "?.'' ,'*'"'* Seniua rendeit5 him 
 the arbiter of all the great afTalre of Eurow. 
 
 «; i V'!. "'?' "' ""' "i'"«''« "' Pirtili-n, 
 Spain and tlie I»w Countries wef« to be given 
 U. the I'rince of Bavaria; in the second, U, the 
 Archduke CImr les. In both. France obtainwl 
 Naples and Sicily for the Dauphin. . . Both 
 tlii-se arrangements . . . suile.! both Prance and 
 tngland as a paclflc solution of the question 
 . . . Hut events as we know, deranged all theae 
 calculations, and C'lmrl."8 II., who, by continuing 
 tol ve had dimppointed so much impatient ex- 
 pectation, by his Inst will prt)voked a general 
 war. to be carrii'd on apainst France by 
 the union of England with t|„. Empire and with 
 Ho land — a union which was much strengthcnwl 
 under the new dynasty, and which afterwnnis 
 embraced the northern stales of Germany. . . . 
 >V illiam III. dicl at the age of flftytwo, on the 
 91 h of March, 17(«, „t the iKginnlng of the 
 H ar of Succession. After him, the part he was 
 to have played was dividol. Prince Eugene 
 Marllx.n)ugli and Il.iiwius (the tirand Pen- 
 sionary) had the conduct of political and 
 especlallv of miliwry alTttlrs, and aca-<l in con- 
 «rt. The disastnius onwijuences to Prance of 
 that war, in which A\illliiii, i,a,l no part arti 
 notorious. The battles of Uleuheim. of /lamilies, 
 and of Oudraanle brouirht the allie<l armies on 
 f le soil of Prancv. ami plact^l l^.ulg XIV on 
 t ,e verge of ruin. ••^. Van Praef, Eu,,),, on 
 
 lentiine: pp. afl(>-414 im.lUl-tVi 
 Also in: H. Martin. //m«. „/ fh,nft: Aofof 
 
 .i.^ii°- '*;3-«M7-Mercileia tuppretiion of 
 the HuBjarian re»olt.-The crown of Hungary 
 made h.rediUry in the House of HapabuT? 
 Ne llis.nHV: A. 1). I()*l-lrtS7 ' 
 
 A. D. i683-i6M.-E>pultioB of tha Turka 
 from HunjarT.-the Peace of Cwlowits. B.e 
 
 A. D. 1690-171 j.-Suppreaaion of the Re- 
 volt under Rakocay in Huneary. See 11^^ 
 uamt: a i> imw-i;m *^ 
 i-^h?" ■7<»<>-''>';"" of the Imperial House 
 
 rr...i»_ n<v (iKHmNV: A. I). |fl«, |u 
 
 A. i»: 
 
 A I). 
 
 '-ceaaion. 
 
 lTAi,r: A I) 1MI-171S: Si'ain 
 
 ««ii^' 'V.'.^'^'" ^ "' "•• SP"'*" Sac 
 ceaaion.— Ita Circumi ancea chanced —"Tlu. 
 
 UA. wh.jlech^,er'of''u„.'W«r.,7he hSI 
 Bucceaaion. Ai J«.ph kft u« male belS! the 
 
 218 
 
 hereditary dominions of the House of Austria 
 devo v,Kl U,bU brother, the Archduke Cl.ark? 
 and tliough that prince had not In-en elec,«| 
 King of the I{<,maiis, nn<l had li.trefore tol*. 
 c.)mc a candi<late for the lm,K-rial c^.wn vet 
 there could be l.t lie doubt that he would a Uin 
 that dignity, ll.nee. If t'liark-s should »|!i |J! 
 n.nie aovcrelgn of Simln an.l the In.lles, the v,^t 
 
 , emp.re of Charles ^. would U- again imilclTn 
 one pcraon; and that very evil of ,n i.lm.«t unl 
 versnl monarchy would be established, the nn^ 
 ventionof which had iKrn the chief cause f,.r 
 
 I taking up arma against Philip V. . . After «n 
 intern-gnum of half a year, during which th2 
 affaira of the Empire ha<t Nen conductal liv the 
 Eh^-tflr Palatine ami the Ekn-torof Saxony „ 
 
 the Archduke Charies waa unanimously na.n.d 
 Empejmr by the Electoral College (Oct I'th) 
 :^ ,. ^- ■ "Wef'^i'd the imperial (Mwn 
 ^j^.r"}^'"';^J^ 8*.<. *itl' the tlt/e of CLarl," 
 \' ,,-T- U- Dyer, Hut. o/M.Mlern Europ,, hk 5 
 
 c/l. O (9. o). « ■ , 
 
 «t.^n!ifc'Z'^'^'1~^°^i"8^ °'*''« War of the 
 ^•^.^ Succeaaion.-The Peace of Utrecht 
 i^d the Treat, of Raat^lt.-Acqui.ition of 
 «^e Spuiah rfetherlanda. N.plea and Milan. 
 See Utukciit: A. D. I7I3-17I4. 
 -4^1; ?• ,'7«3:;7l9--Continued differcncei 
 with Spain.- Tie Triple Alliance.- The 
 (Quadruple Alliance. S<* Spain: A, 1) 1T13! 
 
 A. D. 1714.— peDeaertionof the Catsians. 
 SecSpAi.N: A. D. I7i:»-i:u 
 
 A. D. l7i4-;7«8.-RecoTery of Belgrade 
 and final expulaion of the Turka fromliuD- 
 *'!'•«'* '"■""*'«*: A. I). 161HJ-171H 
 
 e,«i«- 'VJ:'2"~'^?* l"«»ti««> Of the Sue. 
 VI .^iu* P"Pn"»": Sanction of Charles 
 VI., audita narantec by the Powera- im 
 he death [A. U. 1711] of J.«.ph, the l,o|«, „f 
 the house of Austria ami the future d. stinv of 
 
 of Spain, Charles III., Iiiehcctuallv cnu.siini 
 
 Ml, ■'v"'*'',. "'"'"'". *'"' ""> '*•'"""'" •"■!* 
 I lillp V. ; afterwards, as Empt^ror, Cliarl.s VI 1 
 who was the only surviving male of lii» III,,,! 
 trii.us family. Bv that event the houxs of Aus- 
 tria, Uermany and Euroiie were placiil in a mw 
 and critical situation, t'n.m a principl,. „f n,l,. 
 taken pollcv the succeaslon lo the hinilitan ilo- 
 minions mil never lKTne8U.l.li»h,.,|arii.nli„i;l,„„ 
 Invariable rule; for It was not clearlv as., rtaiiiid 
 whether mslis of llio collHiiral lirHmlHs sliouij 
 U- pri.femil to females In lineal dew-iil. an un 
 eirlalnty which hiul fri'iiuenllv ,Hr»»i..,ie,| nnuv 
 vehement disputes. To obvlale this .vil if 
 
 7. \ ** J", r"'**"' 'I't'ire di»|iiii.s. I i«.|,| 
 
 Ifalher of Joseph and Chnrles) had arninu. J ilio 
 ■.nlrrofsuecession: to .l,H..ph he awl^-n..! Una 
 garyand Bohemia, and the olh. r liinillMn ,|... 
 Ill iilous; and to Charles the cnnvn of Snm{ .irhl 
 Hi the territories which Ulonge.1 lo llic S|.nin,li 
 inherilanw. Shoukl J.wph die wlil„,ui K..,,- 
 mall' the whole aui>ceM<i<>n was to il.-M,ti,l 1,1 
 t harles, and In case of his death, iiiuler -iinll.v 
 elniinisijinees, the Austrian ilomlnions h.o 10 
 ilevolveon tlie daughters of J,.w'|>|i h, ,,rif,r 
 .•nee to those of Charles. This family i,i,n,,»ot 
 was signed by the two brother* In ilii< (.n-.j.. 
 r.r U-MHiM. .I,«,.pu ,i,„i without nislr Iwiie: 
 but left two daughtera." He was suiiiidiil liy 
 CbnrhM in accunlaoce with the touipMi. "On 
 
AU8TRU, J718-1738. 
 
 PragmaHe 
 auieticm. 
 
 AUSTRIA. 1740. 
 
 the Sod of Augtiit, 1718, iood after the ilgnature 
 nf tlie Quadruple Alliance. Ckarlei promulgate*] 
 a new law of lucccasion for the Inhcritaace of 
 the hnuM) nf Austria, under the name of tlie 
 Pratrnmtic Sanction. According to tlie family 
 compBot formwl liy Tvcopolil, and conflnncd by 
 .loscpli and Charles, the guccesilon wa» entailed 
 on tlip dnuehtcm of Joseph la '.reference tii 
 the il»U)rhters of Charles, shoiii they both 
 (lie witliout issue male. Charles, ImweTer, had 
 sromly awcnded the throne, though at that 
 lime without chihlrcn. than he reversed this 
 cnmpae I and setllwl the right of succession, in 
 diruult i>( his male Issue, flrst on his daughters, 
 then on the daughters of Joseph, and afterwanis 
 
 "" — ..-..-. u. w.m^pu, «uii oiujrwHnil 
 
 on the nupen of I'ortugal and the other daugh- 
 ters of I,c<ip<,I(l. Since the promulgation of that 
 (iecree. the Empress had borne a son who dir<l in 
 his infiinrv. and three daughtera, Maria Theresa, 
 Maria .\ime and Maria Amelia. With a view to 
 insiirp the succession of these daughters, and to 
 oliviftii' tlie dangers which might arise from the 
 claims of the Josephine archduchesses, he puh- 
 llsheii the Pragmatic Sanction, and comptlled 
 his nieces to renounci- tlicir pretensions on their 
 marrinpes with the electors of Saxony and Ba- 
 varia. Aware, however, that the strongest re- 
 nunciations are diareganled, he obtained fmin 
 llic (lifTcn'nt states of his extensive dominions 
 tlie ac kriowliiltemeiit of the Pragmatic Sanction 
 anil m.iilc it the great object of his reign, to 
 Willi li he sucrillreil every other consideration, to 
 rriieiin> tlie guaranty lit the European powers" 
 This k'uaranty was nbtained In treaties wiiu llie 
 si'venil powers, as folldws: Spain in ITS.'S- Rus- 
 sia. i:.'«. n hewed in 1T;W: Prussia, 1728; Eng- 
 land ami Holland. 1781 ; France, 1738: tlieEmpiri' 
 17;K. Tlie inheriunee which Charles thus eii- 
 lieavim'd to secure to his daughter was vast and 
 imp<«inL'. "He was bv election Emperor of 
 (Jernianv, by herpilii...v right sovereign of Hun- 
 gary, •irans.vlvania. IJoliemia, Austria. Stvria 
 (armlhiaanil Caniiola, the Tyrol, and the bris- 
 pau. and he had nrentlv obtained Naples and 
 .•»i(ily. the Milan<se and the Netlierlands."— \V 
 (•"Xc. UiKt. „fihe IhiiM! nf Auitria, eh. 80. Hi-ail 
 '■" , ~,.' ' '"' •'fi'K'">'>"c Sancthm, though framed 
 in i. rilize the aeotaion nf Maria TlieniMi, ex- 
 (luiliHtlie priM-nt EmiHwr's daughters and his 
 gri.iuj, liihl by nostrHinliig the sueossion of 
 limahs to that of mahs In the family of Cimrlis 
 ;, 7 • ". ""•"■cliier. The IhriUqt of tht 
 aipi,l';r,;,i/;.rl„i(,/,l!D !{,».. Murfh. l»89t 
 
 Aix. IN : II. Tiittle. /li,l. o/Pruma. 1740-174.5 
 
 t' w '^ 'I""'"""- ""'■ <^ "^ Uermani'f 
 
 A. D.1719.- Sardinia ceded to the Duke of 
 
 kV I", ■.'?'?,"«• f". S'^llr- S«^« Sl'AI.N: 
 
 i7:n '''•^''-'^' »""' Italt: A. D. 171,V 
 
 -A: ?■ 'T^'-."''"''? aecond Treaty of Vienna 
 KJ^kT '"'' """"*'• S*'"**'"^ A 1) 
 
 A M lT:IMr?r* P'"*"**- Si-o PuI.A.M>: 
 
 A. D. i733-i735.-The war of the Polish 
 
 Spain, and Lorraine and Bar to Fraace. s.* 
 
 Iti.v'iTiM i'-'i-It:K. «id Um.x: A. 1». 
 
 I urki, in alliaoc* with RoMia,— HuaUiatiac 
 
 219 
 
 S?£*QfL°*''T?'*-^?1«""'«' «' Belgrade, 
 A. D.^m^75S "**" "^ '^ livmu.: 
 
 n.\-°' '7?"* <Oe»o<>«f)-Treachery amoiw 
 
 .. rif ""t"*"" of M«rie Theresa disputed. 
 
 ^.h f ^^IP^""" S'i'I'''-"* ^'^ died on the 
 
 20th of October, 1740. Hi» daughter Maria 
 llicresa, the hcire&s of hU dominions with the 
 title of Queen of Hungary, was but twenty- 
 three years of age. without experience or knowl- 
 e;ge of business; and her husband Francis, the 
 titular Duke of Lorraine and reigning Orand 
 .u^»,?^ Tuscany, deservwl the praise of amiable 
 qualities rather than of commanding taleuta 
 Her Ministers were timorous, irrescilutc, and 
 useless: 'I saw them in despair,' writes Mr. 
 Itobinson, the British envoy, 'but that very 
 despa r was not capable of rendering them 
 bravely desperate. ' The treasury was exlTausteil. 
 the army dispersed, and no General risen to re- 
 place Eugene. The succession of JIaria Theresa 
 was. Indeed, cheerfully acknowledged by her 
 subjects, and seemed to be secured amongst 
 fore gn powers by their guanmtee of the I»rag- 
 matic Sanction; but it soon apiiearcd that sut-h 
 guarantee* are mere wortiilesa parclimenU 
 » licre there U stnmg temptation to break and 
 only a feeble army to support them. The 
 principal claimant to the succ-ession was the 
 t-lrttiir of Ilavaria, wlm maintiuned that the 
 will of the Emperor F.idinand tlie First devisiKl 
 he Austrian stales to his .laughter, from wlioni 
 the Elettor descended, on fai' re. of male liiieaire 
 It anpearcfl that the origiiiu: ..ill In the archives 
 at Vienna referred to the failure, not of the 
 male but of the legitimate Issue of his sons: 
 but this document, tliou-h ostentatiously dis- 
 plave.1 to all the Ministers of state and forelim 
 amliassadors, was very far from Inducing the 
 hli^cUir to desist from Ids pretensions. As to the 
 t.reat Powers-Ihe Court of France, the old 
 nily of the Bavarian family, and mindful of its 
 iijuries from the Hous.' of Austria, was eager 
 to e.xalt the Urst by the depression of the latter. 
 1 he UourUms In >|iain followed the dirtKlion of 
 the BciurUms in France. Tlie King of Poland 
 and the Empn-ssof Hussia »er<. more friemlly 
 In their cxprtwiions tlmn in tli.ir designs Au 
 oi.p.«itc ..pirit |i. rvail.Ml Enitiaiid am! HollamI 
 Where motives of honour and of policy combineti 
 to support the rii:lils of Maria Theresa. In 
 (.ermany itself ||„. Elector of Coh.gn... the 
 llavarians brother, warmly csimiusjiI hia cause - 
 and -the remaining El.cton..' says I In .tertleld," 
 like elwtors with ii», lhoughl"it a proiier op- 
 p<irtun ty of making llie most of their votes — 
 *[! ?" ".'..""' '■■<J'<''»<' of the helph'ss and 
 abandoned House of Austria!' The lirst bhiw 
 however came from Prussia, where the King 
 JreMlerick William liad dieii a few months l». 
 fore, ami lM.en siiece.iliil by lila son Frwierick 
 the Second; a Prince siirnsmiil the Onat by 
 ■.lets. — I^mi Mahon (Earl StanhoiK.). //„« ,;/ 
 ft"?.. 171»-I7Hil, M SHir. »)- -The elector ,.f 
 itavariaacUnl in a prompt, hon^t. and consistent 
 manner. He at on.e l.><lg|.<| » ,,rot,i,t against 
 any d sposltlim of llie h.nsliiarv estates to the 
 prejuilliw nf his jwn riehU; ln>ik!<^<t .-.„ (1;;. win 
 of Ferdinand I ; and demanded the pitidui lion 
 of the original tt'xt It was iiromptly prislureil. 
 Hut It was found U. lonvey tlie sin ii.«.i»n to ihe 
 iieii* of liM (laughter, the auutttvos of Um 
 
AUSTRIA. 1740. 
 
 War 0/ M« 
 
 AUSTRIA. 1'40-I741. 
 
 ill' 
 
 elector, not, u he contended, on the failure of 
 male heirs, but In the al>«ence of more direct 
 heirs bom in wedlock. Mitria Theresa could how- 
 ever, trace her descent through nearer male heirs 
 and ha<i, therefore, a superior title. Charici 
 Albert was in any event only one of several 
 claimants. The Kma; of Spain, a Bourbon, pre- 
 sented himaelf as the heir of the Hapsburir 
 emperor Charles V. The King of Sardinia 
 alleged an ancient marriage contract, from which 
 he denved a right to the duchy of Milan. Even 
 August of Saxony claimed territory by virtue of 
 an anti(|unted title, which. It was pretended, the 
 renunciation of his wife could not affect. All 
 these were, however, more vultures compare<l to 
 the eagle f Frclcrick of Prussia] which was men 
 to descend \\\Min iu prev."— li Tuttlc, llitt. of 
 Prnma, 174(»-1745, eh. 3. 
 
 A- D- «74«>(Octob«r— Norember).— The War 
 of the Succetsion. — Conduct of Frederick the 
 Great ■■ explained by himaelf.— "This Priig- 
 matic Sanction had been guarantied by France 
 England, Holland, Sardinia. Saxony, and the 
 Roman emi)ire; nay bv the late King Frederic 
 « illiam fof Prussia) also, on condition that the 
 court of Vienna would secure to him the succes- 
 sion of Juliers and Berg. The emperor promised 
 him the eventual suc<'ession, and did not fulfil 
 his engagemcnta; by which the King of Prussia 
 his successor, was freed from this guarantee to 
 which his father, the late king, hail pledged him- 
 aelf, conditionally. . . . Frederic I., when lie 
 erected Prussia iiilo a kingdom, had, by that vnin 
 gramleur, plantiil the wion of ambition in llio 
 bosom of his posterity; which, soon or late, must 
 fruclify. The moiiarchv he had left to liis des- 
 cendant.* was. if 1 may Ik- permitted the cxpres- 
 sion, a I i-"l of iHTmapliriKlite, which was rather 
 morenr ..rtonite than a kingdom. Fame was 
 to be Ok , iireil liy determining the nature of this 
 lieine- i„i ihis ««'nsation crruinly was one o' 
 those which strengthened so many motives, con- 
 spiring to enuMgc llie king in gmnd enterprises 
 If the ar.pii.Miii.n of the dutcliy of Ikrg had nnt 
 even met Willi almost iiisunnountablo impiili- 
 ment« it wiis in iijK.lf so small that the posNssiou 
 would add Imle gninchMir to the house of llnn- 
 dcnliouri; 'Ihesc retleitioiis occasioned the king 
 to turn his views towanl the house of Austria 
 thesuec'ssii.n of which wouUI Ucome matter of 
 litigaiiiin. at the death of the emfwror, when the 
 throne <if the Osars should be vacant Tlin* 
 event must !»• favourable to the distinguish. d 
 partwhidi th.' king had to act in Uemianv bv 
 the various . laims of the houses of Saxonv and 
 Bavaria to tlii-^' states; bv the number of candi- 
 dates whii h iniirht canvass for the imperialcrown' 
 and by the pn.J.cts of the court of Versaillea" 
 which, on such an iKcaslim. must naturally pn.tli 
 by the Iroiililes that the death of Cliarles VI 
 could n..l fiil to excite This accident did n.it 
 long kci 11 the world in expectation. The cm 
 pcri.r cii.jii! hi* (lavs at the palace U Favorite 
 onthc'Jllil,|.>(MI,],|«y,,f((ci„Wr. 1740. The news 
 urriv<i| at Kb. in^ls rir « li.ii ibe king was ill of a 
 IZ^":. : ,"' '"'""''iai- ly rt-solved to r. claim 
 lhoprinci|aliii,s,.f Sllc,i;l;llH!righUorhishllUlll• 
 towhllh lloiitf d.imiaiil. the claim dating back 
 to a orlaiii covcnuiil of heriUgebrolherhiKKl 
 with the duke i.f Llegnin, In lS87, which the 
 
 TT'^^'fuT' t^ '"'*-^' ^' ^ s^uiliKi by ii.« 
 (tiatcN nf lt..bcnila| *. re Inconteiublc : and he 
 prt'lMutil, at the aanut time, to lupport ttietc pro- 
 
 tenalon^ If neooMry , by arms. Thta project ac- 
 compUahed all his political view*; it affonled the 
 tneana of acquiring reputation, of augmentiuir 
 the power of the atatc, and of Urminating what 
 related to the litigious succession of the dutchv 
 of Berg. ... The state of the court of Vienna 
 after the death of the emperor, waa deplorable' 
 The finances were in disonler; the army was 
 ruined and discouraged by ill success in its wars 
 with the Turks; the ministry <li8unite<l, and a 
 youthful unexperienced princ'ss at the h.ad of 
 the government, who was to ilefend the sucies- 
 sion from all claimants. The result was that the 
 government could not appear formidable It 
 was besides impossible that the king slioiiid he 
 destitute of alliea. . . . Thewarwhii-h he migh^ 
 undertake In Silesia was the only offensive war 
 that could be favoured by the situation of hu 
 stotci. for It would be carried on upon his front- 
 iers, and the Oder would always furnish him 
 with a sure communication. . . . Add to these 
 reasons, an anny fit to mareh, a treasurv ready 
 prepared, and, periiaps, the ambition of ■acquir- 
 ing renown. Such were the causes of the war 
 which the king declared against Maria 1 liensa 
 'i *."»'"»• a"'"*"" "' Hungary and Bohemia "- 
 Frederick U. (Frederick the Great), llitt „f Vu 
 Oitin nmet: FbHhumoiu Wvrki (traiu. bu 111 
 (Tr>fl), e. 1, eh. 1-3. * 
 
 ^- D. »740-i74i— The War of the Succei- 
 "^J Faithlaaaneaa of the King: of Prussia. 
 --The M»c«ul«yTerdict.— "From no iiiiartir 
 did the young queen of Hungary receive stron,-, r 
 aaaurances of friemiship and siipp,,rt ilmn 
 from the King of Prussia. Vet the Kim; cf 
 Irussia, the 'Antl-Machiavel,' had already fully 
 determined to commit the great criiue of 
 violating hia pllghUil faith, of n.bbinf the 
 ally whom he waa bound to defeml and A 
 plunging all EuMpe into a long, bl,«Kh ,ud 
 desolating war, and all this for no end « luitevtr 
 except that he might extend his dominimis and 
 ^•e his name in the gaxettes. He ,hteriiiiii,d to 
 assemble a great anny with swk'.I and s.rr. ■ v 
 to invaile Silesln iK-fore .Maria Theresa slioulj \^ 
 npprixed of hia dcaiirn, and to arid thut riih 
 province to hta kingdom. . . . Without auy 
 declaration of war, without anv demand f.r 
 reparation. In the very act of pourimr fort li.oni 
 plimenU and assurances of gissl win. Krclenc 
 commenced hostililies. .Many thous.iiid» of his 
 lr>M)ns were actually In Silesia b<'for.) the Uu.ca 
 of Hungary knew that he hud s.-t U|) anv claim 
 to any part of her territories. At Icnirthhe sent 
 licr a message which could Iw regarded . nly ,j 
 an Insult. If ahc woul.l but let him have .Xiici.i 
 he would, he aaid. stand bv her aL'ain>t anv 
 power which chould try to deprive hir.f her 
 other dom' '..ns: aa if he was not nlrca<lv UninJ 
 to stand by ner, or as if his new prmiiii' nmia 
 tic of more value than the ohl one. It wi. tlic 
 depth of winu-r. The cold was sivere and tlie 
 ri«i.ls deep In mire. But the l'ru,s,»iain proM-d 
 on. Resistance was imposKible. The .Vii>irl.-in 
 army was thru Ueilli. r nuiiwrous ii.ir e:!l 
 I lent The small portion of that ariiiv whi>h 
 lav In Silesia was impre|>anKi for liM,iil,t.ts. 
 Oogauwasblockaile.!; Br,.»lsiiotHnedii> .'«i,,, 
 lihlaii was evaciiatisl, A few siBtlercd irsrri 
 sons still hchl out; but the wlii.|n ..[-.n ."iin'rv 
 ""••"''JV**'"*: no enemy ventured to cm. initrr 
 
 the klnf In tbo ileid ; ami," before the end ,.f .lin 
 uary, 1741, ha 
 
 220 
 
 I returned to rec*lv« the cougraluU- 
 
AUSTRIA, 1740-1741. 
 
 Omduel of 
 
 I Onat. 
 
 IVwitrfckM* I 
 
 AC8TMA, 1741. 
 
 tions of hi§ aubjecU at Borlin. Had the Sile«!an 
 question been merely a question betnreea Frederic 
 aad .Maria Theresa it would be imp.M«ible 'o 
 acijuit the PruMlan king of ijroM perfidy. But 
 whin we conifidcr the elTecta which his poliry 
 Iiwlureii, and could not fail to prwluce, on the 
 whi.le community of civilized nations, we arc 
 coniiitilcd to pronounce a con '•■•nnation still 
 more severe. . . . The 8<.'lflsh rapacity of the 
 kinf of I*rassia gave the Kignal to bis neigh- 
 hours, . . . The evils prixiuced by this wicked- 
 ness were felt in lands where the name of Prussia 
 was unknown ; and, in order that he might rob a 
 noigliliour whom he ha<l promised to defend, 
 blat k men fought on the coast of Coromandel, 
 SD'I r.il men scalped each other by the great 
 lak.s of North America. Silesia had Ixjen occu- 
 piLii without a battle; but the Austrian troops 
 w(re advancing to the relief of the fortresses 
 whiih still held out. In the spring Frederic re- 
 joined his army. He had seen little of war, end 
 hail never comman<led any great bf»iy of men in 
 thefiild. . . . FnKlerics'Hrst battle was fought 
 St .Milivitz [April 10, 1741], and mver did the 
 curii r of a gnat commander open iu > more in- 
 aii-imiou» mauner. His army was vicUirious. 
 ^' it only, however, did he not establish his title 
 to the < imricter of an able general, but he was 
 so unfirtunateas to make it doubtful whether he 
 pos.«sMd tlie vul(jar counige of a soldier. The 
 cuvulry. wliich ! commanded in person, was 
 P'lt to lliiht. i'.i... cu.ttomed to the tumult and 
 camaie of a field of battle, he lost bis »eif-pos- 
 siwioii, and listened t.io readily to those who 
 urt-'d liini to s.ive himself. His English gmy 
 rarri.-.l liim m.inr miles from the field, while 
 Sih'.v. nil, though wounded in two places, man- 
 Tilly ufhilf! the day. The skill of the old 
 Kiell M irslial and the steadiness of the Prussian 
 iMttalions i.nvailed. ami the Austrian armv was 
 driven fr.m the field with the li«sof 8.<J0<)men 
 Tlie n' « s was carrie<l laic at night to a mill in 
 wlie h ihe king hud taken shelter. It gave him 
 ■t hitter pang, lie was successful; but he owe<l 
 his «ii<e,»s to dispositions which others had 
 tni le, and to the valour of men who had fouglit 
 whili- lie was flying So unpromising w.is the 
 fir-t api.e.irinc-.. of tlie greatest warrior of that 
 «-• -- l,onl .M.iniulay, Frtderic tkt (Jrtat (/i- 
 
 A. D. 1741 (April-M»y).— The War of the 
 Succession : French respontibility. — The 
 
 Ctrlyle verdict.— "The battle „f .Mollwiti w.nt 
 otlhk. a sunal shot among the Nations; Inll- 
 m.i!iri„' tliat tlnv were, one and all, to go battling 
 Will, h i!iey dil. with a witness; mAking ■ tcr- 
 nt)le tliiiiit of It, over all the world, for above 
 sev..r, vears t. come. ... Not that Mollwiti 
 kiullid huMi«.; .Kuropc was already kindled 
 I..r»..inetw., yeurs past ;— especially since the 
 lite haw r, lied, and bis Pragmatic Sanction was 
 JUP"M lied to the other troubles afoot Dut 
 •inie that Image of Jenkins's Ear had at 
 "I up in the slow English brain, like a 
 nry,,,„.|,.|UtionorSign in the Heavens, syi 
 '••iK-r v,e(, injustha, and unendurabllities. a 
 ha,l li^.l,!., ||„, Spanish. English War [see E!«a- 
 '~^y< \ I> 17;»-17411, Eumpe was slowly but 
 pr. , ly surelv taking fir,., France ' could not aeo 
 -,i:.. i;i.,.r,...,| „i,e Mi.i: England (In lu own 
 ■111 1 fetlmg, and als., In the fart of things), could 
 
 H,'lu "i. "" *'""'l'* ""»''l'l<T»l'ly humbling 
 SjNiln fraoce, endlessly totcretled in tUt 
 
 la.! U< 
 
 and 
 
 Spanish English matter, was already sending out 
 Beets firing shoU,— almost, or altogether, put- 
 ting her hand in it. 'In wnich case, will not, 
 must not, Austria help us?' thought England — 
 jindwa.sasking,d"ly, at Vienna . . . when the 
 late Kai-ser died. ... But if not as cause, then 
 as signal, or as signal and cause together (which 
 it pr.)|KTly was;, the Battle of .Mollwitz gave the 
 finishing stroke and set all in motion. . For 
 directly on the back of Mollwitz, there ensued, 
 first, an explfwion of Diplomatic activity such 
 as was nrver seen before; E,\cellenci(S from the 
 four winds taking wing towanis Friedrich; and 
 talking and insinuating, and fencing and fug- 
 ling, after their sort, in that Silesiau camp ot 
 his the centre being there. A universal rookery 
 of Diplomatists, whose loud cackle is now as if 
 gone mail to us; their work wholly fallen putres- 
 cent and a< oldable, dead to all cn'atures And 
 scconrlly, in the train of that, tli.re ensued a 
 universal European War, the French and the 
 English being chief parties in it ; which almiinda 
 In battles and feats <,( arms, spirited but delir- 
 ious, and cannot be got stilled for seven or eight 
 years to come; and in which Friclrich and hi« 
 War swim only as an intennittent Epi.siKle hence- 
 foilh. . . . The first point to lie noted is. Where 
 did It originate T To which the answer mainly 
 is . . . with Monseieneur, the Mar.'ehal<le Helle- 
 isle principally; with the ambitious cupiilities 
 and baseless vanities of the Fniich Court and 
 Nation, as repn^sented bv U<lleisle The 
 
 English -Siianish War had a I)a-,is to stand on in 
 thislniverse. The like had the Prussian- Aus- 
 trian one; so all men now admit. If Friiilrich 
 had not lnLsiness there, what man ever had in an 
 enterpris<' he ventured on? Frinlrirh after 
 such trial ami pr.mfashas ».l.iom Ihcm, got hli 
 claims on Seldesien allowiil In- the Kestiuies. 
 ■ • Friedridi had business in this War; and 
 Maria Tlien-sa versus Friedridi had likewise 
 cause to appear in Court, and do her utmost 
 Pleading against him. But if we u>k. What 
 Bellcisle or F'ance and Louis XV. Ii.ad to do 
 tiK'reT the answer is rigoroiisiv Niithiiii;. Their 
 own winly vanities, amliiiiiuis, sanctioned not 
 by fact and the Almightv Powers, but bv Phan- 
 taMn and the babble of Versailles; transcendent 
 silf conceit, intrinsically in^une; pretensions over 
 their fellow-creatures whii li were ivithoiit basis 
 any whin' In Nature, excejit in the Fn'iiili brain 
 it was this that broiiirht ll.llei,le and France 
 into a (ierninn War, And Helleisle ami France 
 having gi.ije into an Anti I'rairiiiatic War the 
 unluckv (k-or-e anil his Enirland were dnm-ged 
 Into a Pragmatic one.— ijuitiing their own busi- 
 ness, on tlie Spanish Main, and liurrving to (Jer 
 many.— in terror as at iKuimsiiav.'aud zeal to 
 save the Kevstone of Nalim> tliep-' That is the 
 notable p<iint in regard to this War That 
 Prance is to In- called the aiillior of It. who 
 alone of all liic parties, h.t<l no business there 
 wh'ttever ■•— T. Carlyle, //i«f .,f AViVrfnV* ir It 
 la, eA. 11 ir 41— See. als/i FrwiK: A I> 1733 
 A. D. 1741 iMay— June .—Mission of Bell*. 
 '«'••— The thickening of the Plot. -■ The ilefcat 
 of Maria Theresas onlv- army (at .Mollwitz] swept 
 away all the doubu and scruples of Fraiin- Ths 
 flerv Bellei-le h.tl a!r»-a.!y =..» ..:,; ;ijj^.=, |,i, 
 mission to the various tierman courts, an ii-d 
 with powers which were nliictanllv LTaiitisI . y 
 the canlinal [Fhury, thi' Fn'iieh iiiinisierj. anii 
 
 oador to 
 
 y enlargnl by the ambaasaJ 
 
 21 
 
 •)') 
 
■ i 
 
 lit r 
 
 1^' 
 
 |';f 
 
 iii 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1741. 
 
 wit hig own more ambitlnui views of the dtua 
 tlon. He travelled in oriental state The 
 
 almost royal pomp with which he strode into the 
 presi-nce of princes of the bUxxl, the copious 
 eloquence with which he pleaded his cause 
 were .mly the outward decorations of one of" the 
 most iniquitous schemes ever devised by an un- 
 scrupulous .liplomacy. The scheme' when 
 stripped of all its details, did not indeed at first 
 appear alwoluuly revolting. It proposed simply 
 to secure the election of Charles Albert of Bavaria 
 M emperor, an honor to which he had a perfect 
 right to aspire. But it was difflcult to obtain 
 the votes of certaii electors without offering 
 them the prospect o. territorial gains, and impos- 
 sible for t haries Albert to support the imperial 
 dignity without greater revenues than those of 
 Jiivana. It was proposed, therefore, that pro- 
 vinces should be taken from Maria Theresa Ler- 
 ■elf first to purchase votes against her own 
 husband, and then to swell the Income of the 
 successful rival candidate. The three episcopal 
 electors were first visited, and subjected to vari- 
 ous forms of persuasion,— bribes, flalterv, threats 
 — until the eflecu of the treatment "began to 
 appear; the count palatine wasdevoted to Prance 
 and these four with Bavaria made a majority of 
 one. But that was too small a margin for Belle 
 Isle s aspimtions, or even for the safety of his 
 project. The four remaining votes belonged to 
 the most powerful of the German states. Prussia 
 Hanover, hujcony an<l Bohemia. . . . Bohemia! 
 If it voted at all, would of course vote for the 
 gr8n.|..luke Francis [liuslwnd of Maria Theresa! 
 Baxoiiy and Hanover were already negotiating 
 with .Jluria Therrsa; and it was well understooa 
 that Austria coul.i have Fredericks support bv 
 
 DaVlllif his nrici* " Aiiatrtn *«>r.,.....i ..,..-..-.'' 
 
 MariaTStrtm 
 inHmtgcuTi. 
 
 ACSTRIA, 1741. 
 
 h.:- ■?> 
 
 paving his i.rice." Austria refused to pay the 
 pnci-, and Irrd.rick signed a treaty with the 
 ,ll^ t?'"" "' "'*•''''»" on the 4tli of June 
 1741. The tss; lice of it was continued in four 
 secret urticU'S. In these the king of Prussia re- 
 noun<f(l hl.s claim to JUlich-Berg in l>ehulf of the 
 hou«|of t.ul«buph, an<l agreed to give his vote to 
 tUe ilidor of Bavaria for eminror. The king 
 of I- roue eiiKag,-.! to guarantee Prussia in the 
 possession of lAiwer .Silesia, to sen<l wlllilu two 
 months iin anny to the support of lluvaria. and 
 to provoke an immediate rupture beiwein Swe- 
 
 Ii40-li4.i, e/i 4. 
 
 M^uaT/'a' ^^' *'"'"'' "'"' "f """'»'*' "f'^^"^. 
 
 A. D, 1741 (June— September),— Maria 
 Theresa and the Hungariani.-" During these 
 anxious summer months Maria Tli.r.™ and the 
 AUKirian court had re«l.|e<l mainly at Presburff 
 In lluiiKarv. Here she had b.in .«<upied in tiie 
 solution of dimiestle as well as IntiTiiatlonal 
 pmhl.MMs. I he Magyars, as a m.-.nly and 
 chivalmus race had Nrn touched by U..|.irilous 
 ■itiHton of the young quw-n; but, while 
 
 ?"''■""> I"' «'i»K their loyally. Insisted not the 
 
 Kss on the n.oL-nilion of tliWr own iiiall.'iial.lo 
 rights. Th.M. had iMcn iniwleiiualelv observed 
 
 in ren nt v. ars, ai,,| j, se.iuence no little dls 
 
 affe. ti..n ,,n.,ail,.d ii. Hungary. The magnates 
 res.lv,.,|. then for-, as th.y had re».,lve.l at the 
 b..gii,,i.,g of pn-vlmis nignii. to dcmami the 
 n^ oral on „f all thHr rigl.U ui.l privileges. 
 But t! .!,»., „„. :,,,i„.^r Il:r:l th.y wiii'.HJ U, Uk,> 
 
 any u ig.ii..r..us advantage of the s<'X or the 
 necessities of Maria Ther?.,. They were ar^u 
 
 mentatlve and stubborn, yet not In a bargamlnir 
 mercenary spirit. They accepu-d in .luue a 
 qualified compliance with their demaiiils; and 
 when on the 25th of that month the q„,."a 
 appeared before- the diet to receive the crown of 
 »t. Stephen, and, according to custom waved 
 the gre'at sword of the klng.loin toward the 
 four pointa of the compass, toward the irorlh aiij 
 the s<>uth, the east and the west. challin-inL- all 
 enemies to dispute her right, the asseinhlv was 
 carriei away by entliusiasm, and it wcini ,1 ,„ if 
 an end ha»l forever been put to coiistitiiii,.nal 
 technicalities. Such was. however, not lie case 
 After the excitement causi'd by the dramatic 
 coronation had in a measure siibsideil tin. olJ 
 contentions revived, as bitter and vi.xalimis as 
 before These concerned especially the ii,,.iiii, r 
 n which the administration of lIu'iiKary should 
 be adjusted to meet tlio new state of ilii,,,.. 
 Should the chief political ollUes be (ill,,! hv 
 native Hungarians, as the diet diinanded ? ( \»m 
 the co-regency of the grand-duke, whic li wis 
 ardently desire-d by the quwn, l)e a<<( |,i,,| i.r 
 the Magyars? For two months the di^iiui,. „v,r 
 these pmblems raged at Preshurg, uiiiil ijniillv 
 Maria There-sa herself found a ImiM, iio'. nious 
 and patriotic solutii.n. The news of tli.' Kniicp' 
 Bavarian alliance and the fall of Pa^siiu ,1. i.r. 
 mined her to throw hersi'lf eoinplctelv u;>..iiilie 
 gallantry and devotion of the .>lagvars. U |,a,i 
 long lieen the nolicy of the court of Vi.iuia ri„t 
 to entrust the Hungarians with arms. Hut 
 
 Maria Theresa had not Iwen rol.l>,.,| |„ Hpii,, „f 
 her experience with France and I'rus-ia of all 
 her faith In human nature-. She look Hi, r, si„,ii- 
 sibility of her decision, ami the result pn'vid 
 that her insiglit was correct. t)n tin- nUi ,.f 
 St'ptember she summoned the meml«rs .f the 
 diet before her, and, s.'ate(l on tli,> ihn.n,. 
 explained to them the peril.uis situaii,.ri ,.f 1,,t 
 dominions. Tlie danger, she said, thn.u, „c,l 
 herself, andall that was deart,>h.r Aliiii,|,ii„.,| 
 by all her allies, she took refiiKc in the li.Miiv 
 and the ancient valor of the Huiil iri.iiH i"„ 
 whom she entrusted herself, her chilli, 1, iiu.l 
 her empire. Hire she broke iiii,, LursaiiJ 
 covere-d her face witli her hanilker<lii, I ' The 
 diet respondeil to this apju-al bv prm laimiiiL' ilio 
 ' insurre'ction ' or the equipment of a lai •. i„,|i. 
 ular forec for the defence of the ,|ii,>ii iSo 
 great was the enthusiasm that it inarK s», pt 
 away even the original aversion of th,. Una. 
 gariansto the grand-duke Krancis, wh.. i„ the 
 queens delight, was filially, thoii^l, ii,>i wiihout 
 Willie murmurs, accepted as eon i;, nt 
 rhls uprising was organired ii,,t nii liMur t.H) 
 early, for dangi-rs were pressing iinoii ih. ,|u,.,a 
 
 ['■i'^ .^.*','w'"y '''''^•■"-" tuttle, //„(. ..f h-,ma. 
 1740-1.45, ek, 4. 
 
 AlJHtiN: Due do Broglie. f^titfiirk t>„ (,r„i( 
 anil Maria 7T*.c<«.i, rh. 4 (r. 2| 
 
 i,^' ?•-''*' (Aujutt — November!. - Tht 
 
 French-Bavarian onaet •■France 11.. » I,, v.u 
 
 to act with eneriry. In the ni..ntli "f .\iitii»t 
 II44I] two French armiescnw.siil the Khii,, ,aih 
 about 40,000 strong. Tlieflrsl inanhe.li ,\V,st- 
 phalia, and frightened f},.orge II liuo ...i lii.l 
 ng a treaty of neutrality for llaiioM r. an.] nnm- 
 Ising his vote lo the Kiwlor of Havana The 
 Si'coml advanii,(t thr<>iii;h South <tt-r:!:::;;v ::n 
 Paasau, the fn>iitier city of Bavaria an,l .\ii,iris 
 As soon as It arrived on Oennan soil, the Kr,i.ili 
 officers aiiuoied the blue and white OHk^de of 
 
 822 
 
AUSTRIA. 1741. 
 
 SOtla to 
 JVrdcr»r<r. 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1743. 
 
 BtTUia, for U wu the cue of France to tppear 
 onW u an auziliarr, and the nominal command 
 of her army waa vested In the Elector. From 
 Pauau the French and Bavariaua paned Into 
 Upper Austria, and on Sept. 11 entered iU capi- 
 ul Linz, where the Elector aaaumed the title of 
 Archduke. Five days later Saxony joined the 
 alliei. Sweden had aiready declared war on Kus- 
 sia. Spain trumped up an old claim and at- 
 tacked the Austrian dominioas in Italy. Itseemetl 
 as If Belleisle's schemes were about to be crowne<l 
 with complete success. Had the allies piishud 
 forward, \ ienna must have fallen into tlieir iiands. 
 But the French did not wish to be toe victorious, 
 lest they should make the Elector too powerful, 
 uDd so independent of them. Therefore, after 
 six weeks' deUy, they tumeil aside to the con- 
 aucst of Bohemia."— F. W. Longman, Frederick 
 th* Grait and the Seven Teare VTar, eh. 4, tet. 4. 
 — '■ While ... a portion of the French troops, 
 under the command of the Count de Segur, was 
 left in I'pper^ustria, the remainder of the allied 
 army turned towards Bohemia ; where they were 
 joined by a body of Saxons, under the command 
 of Count Rutowsky. Tlu-y took Prajrue by as- 
 sault, on the night of the Mtli of November 
 while the Grand Duke of Tuscany, the husband 
 of Maria Theresa, was marching to his relief. In 
 Prague, 8,000 prisoners were taken. The elector 
 of Biivaria hastened tliere, upon hearing of the 
 success of his arms, was crowned King of Bo- 
 homU, during the month of Decemlwr, anil re- 
 ceived the ooth of fidelity from the constituted 
 authorities. But while he was tfc:-.8 employed 
 t>ir Austrian general, Khevenhuller, had driven 
 the Count de Segur out of Austria, and had him- 
 self entered Bavaria; which obliged the Bavarian 
 army to abandon Bohemia and hasten to the de- 
 (tnce of their own country."— Lord Dover. Life 
 0/ Fi-fdtrick 11, bk. 8, eh. 8 (e. 1). " 
 
 Also in: Frederick II., /Art of Mv v i limei 
 (Potthumoue Work; ». 1, ek. B), 
 ^*\ P- '74; (October).— Swret Tr««ty with 
 Fredenck.— Lower Silcaia conceded to him. 
 -Austrian success.— ■' By October, 1741. the 
 fortunes of Maria Theresa had aunx to the low- 
 Mt ebb, but a great revulsion speedily set In. 
 The mnrtlHl enthusiasm of the Hungarians, the 
 siilAKly from England, and the brilliant mUitary 
 talents of Oenenil Khevenhuller, restored her 
 armies. Vienna was put In a state of defence, 
 •nd at the same time Jealousies and suspicion 
 niwle their way among the confederates. The 
 tlpiKiri of Bavaria and Saxony were already In 
 Mnir.legree divided; and the Gcrmana, and es- 
 (x-eial J- Jrcderick, were alarmed by the growing 
 a.s,e,„iency, and irritated by the haughty do- 
 mtanoui of the French. In the moment of her 
 cxtnnie depresaion, the Queen consented to a 
 ronn ssion which England had vainly urged upon 
 litr Ik fore, and wliidi laid the foundation of lier 
 future succrsa. In October 1741 she entered 
 iiio a secret convention with Frederick [caUed 
 
 "• convention of Obcr-Schnellendorfl. by which 
 lliHi IU.IUU. sovereign agreed to desert his allies, 
 nn.l I c«n,i from li.wiilitT,.,, „n condition of ultl- 
 m«l( ly obtaining Ix.wer SilesU, witli Breslail and 
 •M !»«.•. tvery precaution waa Uktn to ensure 
 •ecrecy. It waa arranged that Frc<lerick ah.iuld 
 
 .,..., n.,-t„ besiege Smsse, Uial liie luwn should 
 illuimie y he surrendered to him. and that his 
 'r;.M|» should then reUre Into winter qusrUrs, 
 »nd lake no furUier p«t In Ui« war. As the 
 
 sacriace of a few more lives waa perfectly In- 
 dllTerent to the contracting parties, and in order 
 that no one shouhl suspect the treachery that 
 was contemplated, Neiase, after the arrangement 
 had been made for Its surrender, was subjected 
 for four .lays and four nights to the horrora of 
 bombardment. Frederick, at the same time 
 talked wiili his usual cynical frankness, to the 
 English aiiil>aasador about the best way of at- 
 tacking his allies the French; and observed, that 
 If the Queen of Hungary prospered, he would 
 perhapssupporther,lfuot— everyone must look 
 lor himself, lie only assentetl verbally to this 
 convention, and, no doubt, resolved to a'wiiit the 
 course of events. In order to decide which Power 
 it was his interest anally to betray; but In the 
 meantime the Austrians obtained a respite 
 wiiich enabled them to throw their whole forees 
 upon their other enemies. Two brilliant cam- 
 paigns followed. The greater part of Bohemia 
 was recovered by an army under the Duke of 
 Lorraine, and the French were hemmed In at 
 Prague; while another army, under General 
 Khevenhuller, Invaded Upper Austria drove 
 10,000 French soldiera within the walls of Linz 
 blockaded them, defeated a body of Bohemiana 
 who w-ere sent to the rescue, compelled the 
 wliole Frencii army to surrender, and then, cross- 
 lug the frontier, poured in a resistless torrent 
 over Bavaria. The fairest pkins of that Imiuti- 
 ful land were desolated by hosU of irregular 
 triMips from Hungary, Croatia, and the Tyrol; 
 and on the 12th of February tlic Austrians 
 marched in triumph into Munich. On that very 
 day the Elector of Bavaria was crowned Emperor 
 of Germany, at Frankfort, under the title of 
 t harles V II., and the Imperial crown waa thus 
 for the first time, for many generations, separ- 
 ated from the House of Austria "—W EH 
 
 Letky. Uiet. of Eng., 18<A Century, eh. 3 (p 1) 
 _ Also in: P. Von Raumer, ContHhutione 
 
 Iliet.; Fredk II. and hi* Tinue, 
 
 to 
 
 ch. 
 
 See 
 
 MiHUrn 
 13-14. 
 
 A. D. I74i-I743--Successcs io Italy. 
 iT.tLv; A. I). 1741-1743. 
 
 A, D. 174a a«nu«rT — May).— Frederick 
 !^"f ''•^ '""' •«««« -Battle of Chotusiti.- 
 
 I he Queen of Hungary had assembleil in the 
 beginning of the vear two considerable armies in 
 Moravia and Bohemia, the one under Prince 
 Lobkowit? to defend the former province and 
 the other commanded by Prince Charles of Lor- 
 raine, her brother-in-law. This young Prince 
 possessed as much bravery and activity as 
 Frederick, and had equally with him the Ulent 
 of insi)lnng attachment and confidence. . 
 Jrederick, alarmed at these preparations and the 
 progress of the Austrians In liavaria, abruptly 
 broke off the convention of Ober-Schnellendorf 
 and reciimiiieuced hostilities. . . . The King of 
 Prussia became apprehensive that the Queen of 
 Hungary would again turn her arms to recover 
 Silesia. He therefore dispatched Marshal 
 tkhwerin to seize Oiniiitx ami lav siege to Glatx 
 whiil' surrendered after a di's|'>eratc resistance 
 on tl..- 9th of January. Soon after this event 
 the King rejoinwl his army, and eiideavouri'd to 
 drive the Austrians from their advanUgeous 
 I position in the siu|t||«m parts of Bohrtni^ tthii-h 
 would have dellvereil the French tr.xips In the 
 neighlKmrhood and checked the progn-ss of 
 Khevenhuller In Bavaria. The klug advanced 
 to IgUu, on the frontiers uf Boheoda, and, oo- 
 
 223 
 
AUSTBIA, 1749. 
 
 &$ 
 
 i i: ■ 
 
 ill 
 
 
 Baity of 
 ChottitiU. 
 
 AUSTRIA. 1748. 
 
 cupylng the banks of the Taya. made Irruptioni 
 into Lpper Austria, liia hussars stm'ading tern>r 
 even to the gates of Vienna. The Austrians 
 drew from Bavaria a corps of 10,0()() men to 
 eover the capiul, while Prince Charles of Lor- 
 raine, at the head of S0,000 men, threatenetl the 
 Pru8Bian magazines In Upper Silesia, and bv this 
 movement compelled Frederick to detach a con- 
 siderable force for their protection, and to 
 evacuate Moravia, which he had invaded. 
 Broghe, who commanded the French forces in 
 that country, must now have fallen a sacriflcp, 
 had not the ever-active King of Prussia brought 
 up 80,000 men, which, under the Prince of 
 Anhalt-Dessau, entering Bohemia, came up with 
 Prince Charles at Czaslau, about thlrty-flve miles 
 from Prague, before he could form a Junction 
 with Prince Lobkowitz. Upon this cnsutil [ .May 
 1 .. 1742) what is known In hiatorv as the Iwltlc 
 of Czaslau [also, and more commonly, called the 
 battle of Chotusltz], . . . The numbers In the 
 two armies were nearly equal, and the action 
 was warmly contested on both sides. . . . The 
 Prussians remained masters of the field, with 18 
 cannon, two pairs of colours and 1.200 prisoners; 
 but they Indeed paid dearlv for the honour, for 
 it was computed that their loss waseq'al to that 
 of their enemy, which amounted to 7,W0 men on 
 either side; while the Pnissian cavalry, under 
 Field-Marshal Buddenbrocb, was nearly nilne<l 
 . . . Although in this battle the victory was 
 without doubt, on the slile of the P.-ussians, yet 
 the imme<iiate consequences were highlv favour- 
 able to th<^ Queen of Hungary. The Riug was 
 disappointed of his expected advantages, and 
 conceived a disgust to the war. He now lowerwl 
 his demands and made overtures of accommixla- 
 tion, which, on the 11th of ,Iune, resulted in a 
 treaty of peace between the two crowns, which 
 Was signed at Breslau under the mediation of the 
 British Ambassador."— Sir E. Cust, AnruiU of 
 the Wanoftht iSth Ctntnry. r. 2 p 1» 
 
 Also is; T. Carlyle, Ilitt. of Priedrich U. of 
 Prumin, hk. 18. <•». 18 (r, »). 
 A. p. 1742 (June).— Treaty of Breslau with 
 
 Ql DmaaiA •' ft... #..11 t ., 
 
 the Kmgof Pruiiia.— "The following are the 
 preliminary articles which were signed at 
 Breslau: 1. The queen of Hungarv ceded to 
 the kirg of Prussia Upper and Lower Silesia 
 with the principalitv of Olutz; except the towns 
 of Troppau, JaegendorlT and the high mountains 
 slttiale<i beyond the Onpa. 2. The Prmwians 
 underUmk to repay the English 1,700,000 cn>wns 
 which sum was a mortgage loan ou Silesia. The 
 remaining articles related to a suspension of 
 arms, an exchange of prisoners, ami the free<lom 
 of religion and trade. Thus was Silesia uniteii 
 U> the Prussian States. Two years were suf 
 ficlent for the conquest of lliat"lmporlant prov- 
 ince. The treasures which the Inle king had left 
 were almost extieniled; but pnivim-i's that d.. 
 not cost more than seven or eight millions are 
 dieaply piirehasetl."— Frederic U.. //iW ,.f Mil 
 (hfn l\nui (Ihitthummf ^^^ork^, r. 1) cA 8 
 
 #Aw "»''*'.. 'Jnne-Decemberl-ExpuUion 
 of the French from Bohemia.— Belleisle'a re- 
 treat fri>m Prague.-- The Austrian arms Ugan 
 now to lie sueci'ssf ul In all quarters. Just Mnn 
 the signature of the preliminaries. Prince I/>b. 
 cowltz, who was stationed at Budweiss with 
 iO.noO mc n, madi- hh i.tiafk on Frauenlierg : Hrf)g- 
 lio and Bcllelsic advanced from Ilseck t<7 relieve 
 tlie town, and a combat took place at Sofaay, in 
 
 224 
 
 which the Austrians were repulsed with the low 
 of 300 men. This trifling affair was magnllicl 
 into a decisive victory. . . . Marslml Brogii,, 
 elated with this advantege, and ndylng on 11,^ 
 immedUte junction of the King of Pro- m re 
 mained at FrauenbiTg In perfect secui'ty. But 
 his expectations were disappointed ; Fr< .ieric ha,) 
 already commenced his secret negotiations, ami 
 Prince Charles was enabled to turn his f.irrcs 
 against the French. Being joined by Prince l/>b 
 cowltz, they attacked Brogllo, and compelled iiim 
 to quit Fraucniwrg with such precipitation that 
 his baggage fell inU) the hands of the light troop, 
 and the French retreated towards Bnmau har- 
 as-sed by the Croats and other Irregulara.'. 
 The Austrians, pursuing their success a»!ninM 
 the French, drove Broglio from Branau, ami fol 
 h>we<i him to the walls of Prague, where he found 
 Belleisle. . . . After several consulbttions tlip 
 two generals called In their posts, and sciiiml 
 tlieir army partly within the walls and luriK- 
 within a peninsula of the Moldav. .s,]„"u 
 
 afterwards the duke of Lorraine Joincil tlic armv 
 r<>f Prince Charles], which now amounted to Td". 
 000 men, and the arrival of the heavy anillprv 
 enabled the Austrians to commence the sieiro "— 
 W. Coxe, llitt. of the Iloute ofAutlri,,. eh 'w 
 (e. 3).—" To relieve the French at Prague, .Mar 
 shal Mailleliois was directed to advance with his 
 army from Westphalia. At these tidings Prince 
 Charles changed the siege of Prague to a M.xk- 
 ade, and marching against his new opihuienls 
 checked their progress on the Bohemian frontier' 
 the French, however, still occupvi;"r tlie town 
 ?/ 1?*?™' ^' "'"' "'"''''' ""^' firciimsUuu cs that 
 Belleisle made his masterly and renownwl retreat 
 from Prague. In the nigh"t of the 18tli of Dcrem- 
 ber, he secretly left the city at the hciul of 1 1 (KKl 
 foot and 8,000 horse, having deceived the .Vus- 
 trians' vigilance by the feint Oi a general fora^rt 
 in the opposite (juarter; and pushe<l for Kcm 
 through a hostile country, destitute of nsoun-cs 
 and surrounded by superior enemies. His ml 
 diers. with no other food than frozen hreuil and 
 compelled to sli-ep without covering on the 
 snow and Ice ; ' -\ in great numbei^i; Imtthp 
 gallant spirit oi ^. ,e triumpheii over cv, rv 
 obstacle; he struck tnrough morasats alrm^t 
 I untrodi'-n lieforc, offered battle to Princi' Lobko 
 I witz, who, however, declined engaging, and at 
 length Bucceede<l in reaching the oiIkt I'nnrh 
 ; army with the flower of hl« own. The r. iiijiiint 
 i left at Prague, and amounting only to A (Km mm 
 I seemed an easy prey; vet their threat' of Urine 
 I the city, and peri.shing lM>ncath Its ruins, mil ilie 
 I recent proof of what despair can do, ol.i.iine.l 
 I for them honourable terms, and the pernii.vsi.in 
 I of rejoining their comrades at Egra. Iliii in 
 i spite cf all this skill and cr>unige in llio Fnnili 
 Invaders, the final result to them was f.iilim . 
 nor hail they attained a single permanent adv in 
 tage lieyond their own safety in n'treal Maille 
 hills and IX' Broglie took up winter quarierv in 
 Bavaria, while Belleisle led bock his division 
 acrosa the Ithine; and it was computeil ilmt, of 
 the 85.000 men whom he had first conduei.d into 
 (Jermany, not more than 8,000 returned lKiie;iih 
 his tianner. "— Lord Mahon (Eari Stanhoih > ll„t 
 of hng.. 1713-1783, th. 24 (r. 8).— •' Thus at the 
 termination of the c.impais-n »!! IVilw n-,:^ ■=•:■,- 
 regained, except Egra; and'on the Uth of M«v. 
 '^^Ol^fla Theresa wassooii afterwards crowned 
 »t Prague, to the recoTery of which, aayi her 
 
AUSTRIA, 1743. 
 
 BatlU af 
 
 AUSTRIA, 174»-1744. 
 
 great rlTtl, her flnnnew had more contributed 
 I linn the force of her amw. The onlf reverie 
 which the Aiutriani experienced in the midst of 
 tlieir succesaes waa the temporary loga of Ba- 
 v.iria, which, on the retreat of Kevenhuller, waa 
 occupied by maraba] Seclcendorf; and the' Em- 
 pf ror made hia entry into Munich on the %\ of 
 October."— W. Coxe, Bi*t. cfthtHouteofAuUria 
 ch. 103 (r. 8). 
 
 A. D. 1743.— England drawn into the con- 
 ;.— The Prajnnatic ArmT.— The Battle of 
 
 diet. ._. __„„„. 
 
 Dettingcn.— " The cauae of Maria Theresa liml 
 begun to excite a remarkable enthusiasm in 
 England. . . . The convention of neutmlity cn- 
 tenni into by George II. in September 1741, and 
 till- extortion of his vote for the Elector of Ba- 
 varia, properly conceme<l that prince only as 
 Elector of Hanover; yet, as he was also King of 
 England, tliey were felt as a disgrace by the 
 English people. The elections of that year went 
 apinst WalpDlc, and in Febr ;:iry 1742' he found 
 himself compelled to resign. He waa succeeded 
 in the administration by Pulteney, Earl of Batli 
 though Lord Carteret was virtually prime min- 
 ister. Carteret waa an ardent supporter of the 
 cause of Maria Theresa. His accession to olflcc 
 was immediately followed bv a large increase of 
 thearmy and navy; five millions were voted for 
 carrying' on the war, and a subsidy of £500 000 
 for the (^ueen of Hungary. The Earl of Stair, with 
 an army of 16,000 men, afterwards reinforced by 
 a large body of Hanoverians and Hessians in 
 British pay, was dcspatche<l into the Netherlands 
 to cooperate with tl.c Dutch. But though the 
 StaU's-OeneraV at the instance of the British 
 Cabinet, voted Maria Theresa a subsidy, they 
 were not yet prepared to take an active part in a 
 war which might ultiinat<<ly involve them in 
 hostilities with France. The exertions of the 
 English ministry in favour of the Queen of Hun- 
 gary had therefore been confined during the year 
 1742 to diplomacy, and they had helped to bring 
 about ... the Peace of Brestau. In 1743 they 
 wire able to do more." In April, 1743, the Em- 
 ptror, Charles VII., regained posieMion of Ba- 
 varia and returned to Munich, but only to be 
 
 (Inven out again by the Austrians in June. The 
 Bavarians were badly beaten at Simpach (May 0) 
 jnd Munich was Uken (June 12) after a short 
 bombardment. "Charles VII. was now again 
 cMiiied to fly, and took refuge at Augsburg. 
 At his command, Seckendorf [his general! made 
 a I onvention with the Austrians at the village of 
 NieihrscliOnfeld. by which be agreed to abandon 
 to them Bavaria, on condition that Charles's 
 tnxips should be allowed to occupy unmoli'Sted 
 quarters between Franconla and Suabla. Maria 
 I hen'sa 8eeme<l at first indisposed to ratify even 
 terms so humiliating to the Emperor. She hod 
 iHionie perhaps a little too much exalted by the 
 f.i\M turn of fortune. She had causol herself 
 to l» crowned in Prague. She had received the 
 l.oinage of the Austrians, and entered Vienna In 
 a virt of triumph. She now dreamt of nothing 
 I' s.. t lan conqHering I^rralne for hen!.lf, Alsace 
 for the Kmphx.; of hurting Charies VII. from 
 till- Imperial throne, and placing on it her own 
 lonwrt. She was persuaile<l, however, to con- 
 sent at length to the terms of tli.. Nii..|er~-l!nnfeld 
 ir"V "!'"", 'Meanwhile the allie<i army of 
 tiigish and Germans, under the Earl of Stair, 
 nearly 40 (WO ,trc«ig, which, from Its destlne.1 
 object, had awumed tfa< oame of the Pr.igmatic 
 
 22G 
 
 Army, had croand the Meuae and the Rhine in 
 March and April, with a view to cut off the 
 army of Bavaria from France. George II had 
 not concealed his intention of breaking the Treaty 
 of Hanover of 1741, alleging as a ground that 
 the duration of the neutrality stipulated in it 
 had not been determined; and on Jfiiue 19th he 
 had joined the army in person, He found it in a 
 most critical position. Lord Stair, who had 
 never distingufaheii himself a.s a general anil 
 waa nov. falling into dotage, had led it into 
 a narrow valley near Aschaffenburg. between 
 Mount Sneaaart and the river Main: while 
 Marshal Noaillet [commanding the Frenehl 
 .. no had crossed the Rhine towards the end of 
 April, by seizing the principal fords of the Main 
 both above and below the British position had 
 cut him off both from his magazines at Honau 
 . 'is" ""PP"e» which he had expected to 
 procure In Franconla. Nothing remained but for 
 SiT..'° M" '*'» *•? '»<='' to Hanau • In the 
 batOe of Uettingen, which followe<l (June 27), 
 all the advantages of the French in position 
 T^ thrown away by the ignorant impetuosity 
 of the king 8 nephew, the Duke of Orammont, 
 who comtnanded one division, and thev suffered 
 ?,if?12«'**'''"' /'The French are said to have 
 loat 6,(»0 mer and the BriUah half that number 
 u \a uie last .viiou lu wiiicli a King of Kntrland 
 has fought in person. But Gwirge II., or rather 
 I<ord Stair, did not know how to profit by his 
 victory. Although the Pragmatic Army waa 
 joined after the battle of Dettingen bv "l5 000 
 Dutch troops, under Prince Maurice of" Nassau 
 nothing of importance was done during the re- 
 niainder of the campaign."— T. H. Dyer, Biit. 
 of Modern Europe, bk. 6, eh. 4 (r. 3>. 
 
 Also in: W. Coxe. Hiit. of the IJouu of Am- 
 tria, eh. 104 (c 8). — Sir E. Cust, Annaii of the 
 nartofthe mh Century, v. 2 pp. 30-36— Lord 
 Mahon (Eari Stanhope), Hilt. ofEng.. 1713-1TS3 
 eh. 2.5 (5. 3). ./ » , 
 
 ^.A. D. 1743.— Treaty of Wormi with Sar- 
 dinia and England. Sec Itai.v: A. D 174;! 
 ^ A- P- '743 (October).- The Second Bourbon 
 Family Compact. See France: A. D. 1743 
 
 (OCTOBKB). 
 
 A. D. 1743-17^. — The Pruttian Kinr 
 rtnket in aKain.-The Union of Frankfort.— 
 Siege and capture of Prague.— ■ Everywhere 
 Austria was successful, and l^'rederick had reason 
 to fear for himself unless the tide of conouest 
 could be stayed. He explains In the • Histoire 
 de Mon Temps ' that he feared lest France should 
 abandon the clause of the Emperor, which would 
 mean that the Austrians, who now boldly spoke 
 of conipensulion for the war. would turn their 
 arms against himself. . . . France was trem- 
 bling, not for her conquests, but for her owu ter- 
 ritory. After th(- battle of Ih'ttingcii, the 
 victorious Anglo-Hanoverian force was to crosi 
 the lUiine alxive .Mavenco and march into 
 Alsace, while I'rinee Charles of Lorraine, with a 
 stnmg Austrian army, was to pass near Basle 
 and oc-cupy Lorraine, taking up his winter quar- 
 tera in Burgundy and Champagne. The English 
 crosseii without any cheek and moved on to 
 Worms, but the Austrians failed in their at- 
 tempt Worms l»'r»me a r-.'titrt; of intrigue 
 which Frederick afterwanls called ' Cette abyme 
 lie mauvalse f..i.' The Dutch were persuaded 
 
 by Uinl Carterti to join the English, and they 
 did at ioat wad U,U(W men, who we>« oever of 
 
 

 i I 
 
 u 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1748-1744. 
 
 Capture o/ 
 rragut. 
 
 AUSTRIA. 1744-1749. 
 
 Uw le«it u«e. tOTd Carteret ilao deUxhcil 
 Charles Emanuel, King of Sardinia, from his 
 rri-nch leanings, and persuaded him to enter 
 Into the Austro-Engllsh alliance [by the trriitv 
 of Worms Sept. iS, 1748, which conceile.1 to 
 the King of Sardinia Finale, the city of Plarcn- 
 tia, with soma other small districu and cave 
 him command of the allied forces In Italy] It 
 was clear that action could not be long post- 
 poned and Frederick began to recognize the 
 necessity of a new war. His first anxiety was 
 to guard himself against interference from his 
 northern and eastern neighbours. He secured 
 as he hoped, the neutralfty of Russia by mar- 
 rying the young princess of Anhalt-Zerbst, 
 afterwards the notorious Empress Catherine, 
 with the Qrand-Duke Peter of RussU. nephew 
 and heir to the reigning Empress Elizabeth. 
 . . Thus strengthened, as he hope<I, in his rear 
 and flanik, and ha- Ing made the commencement 
 of a Oerman league called the Union of Frank- 
 furt, by which Hesse and the Palatinate agreed 
 to join Frederick and the Kaiser, he concluded 
 on the .'Sth of .June, 1 ?44. a treaty which brought 
 France also Into this alliance. It was secretly 
 agreed tlint Frederick was to Invade Bohemia 
 conquer it for the Kaiser, and have the districts 
 of KOniggrStz, Bunzlau, and Ix;ltnieritz to repay 
 him for his trouble and cosU; while Prance 
 which was all this time at war with Austria and 
 England, should send an army against Prince 
 Charles and the English. . . . The first stroke of 
 «ie coming war was delivered by France. Louis 
 AV . sent a large army into the Netheriands under 
 two good leaders. Noaillcs and Maurice de 8sxe 
 l/rgcd by his mistress, the Duchesse de ChSteau 
 roux he joined it himself early, and took the 
 nominal command early in June. . . The 
 towns [Menin, Ypres, Fort Kno<iue. Fiirnp^l 
 rapidly fell before him. and Marshal Wade, witli 
 the Anglo-Dutch-Hanoverian army, sat still and 
 lookeii at the success of the French. But on 
 the night of the 30th June — 1st Julv, Prince 
 Charles crossed the Rhine bv an operatfon which 
 Is worth the study of mflitary students and 
 invaded Alsace, the French army of observation 
 falling back before him, Louis XV. hurried 
 back to Internosc between the Austrians and 
 Paris. . Maurice de Saxe was left in the 
 Netheriands with 45.000 men. Thus the French 
 army was paralysed, and the Austrian army in 
 Its turn was actually invading France. At this 
 time Frederick struck in. He sent wortl to the 
 King that, though all the terms of their arrange- 
 ment had not yet been fulfilled, he woul.lat 
 once invade Bohemia, and deliver a stmkc I 
 ag'iinst Prague which would certainly cause tiic 
 retreat of Prince Charles with his 70,0(K) men 
 If the French army would follow Prince Charles 
 in his retreat, Frederick would attack him and 
 between France and Prussia the Austrian army 
 would certainly be crushed, and Viedna be at 
 their merey. This was no doubt an excellent 
 plan of campaign, but. like the previous opera- 
 tions concerted with Broglio, it depen.lH for 
 succPM upon the goo.1 faith of the French, ami 
 tills turned out to lie a broken reed. On the 7th 
 of .\ugu8t the Prussian am' ssador at Vienna 
 esve notice of the Union of nkfurt and with- 
 drew from the court of Austi .., and on Uie 15th 
 Uie Prussian army was put in march upon 
 lii^liS te'-S-""".'.'. »."«« "» 8eco^nd 
 
 three columns tte toUI ittcngth being ove- 
 80,000 . . Maria Theresa was now a|ain in 
 great danger, but ai usual retained her Utb 
 courage, and once more called forth the enthu. 
 slasm of her Hungarian subjecta, who sen* 
 (wanns of wild troops, hone and foot, to the 
 seat of war. . . . On the 1st of September th, 
 three columns met before Prague, which had 
 better defences than in the last campalen and i 
 garris. of some 18,000 men, . . . Duri'ne the 
 night of the IKh the bombardment commenced 
 . . . and on the 16th the garrison surrendered 
 1 nus, one month after the commencement of tlie 
 mareh Piaiue WM captured, and the campaira 
 opened with a brilliant feat of arms. "-Col C ¥ 
 Brackenbury, Frtderiek the Ortat «A 7 
 
 Also IN: W. Russell, Hitt. of Modern Enrmt 
 K 8, Wtor 28._F. Von Raumer, Contrihutionit:, 
 |^«*g-» Bit ■■ fredk. II. and hit Tima X 
 
 , \ Hi '744-i74S--Frederick'» retreat and 
 freab triumph.— Anitria recovers the imperial 
 crown.- Saxonr »nbdned.-The Peaie of 
 
 Si;!r!!°,:~^'?'". "•* "'d"«l'"> of I-ragu., 
 Frederick, -in deference to the opinion of .MarshM 
 Bellelsle, but against his own judgment, advanced 
 into the south of Bohemia with the view of 
 threatening Vienna. He thus exposed himself to 
 the risk of twing cut off from Prague. Yet even 
 so he would probablv have been able to main- 
 tain himself if the French had fullilleii Hioir 
 engagements. But while he was conquerinc ihe 
 .llstricts of the Upper Moldau, the Austri,in 
 army returiie<i unlmpaire<l from Alsace The 
 French had allowed ft to cross the Rhine unmo- 
 lested, and had not made the slightest attempt to 
 Harass its retreat [but applied tlicmselves lo the 
 siege and capture of Freiburg], Thev were 
 only too glad to get rid of it themselves. " In Ihe 
 env.--'-; operations Frederick was completelv 
 outmanoeuvred. Trauii [the Austrian genenlj, 
 
 liaok tonaras 
 
 »]. Frederick's foroM moved io 
 
 -• •• ...■«.. |nn ^\I4BIIUII1 1 
 
 without ri.sklng a battle, forced him bark 
 the Silesian frontier. He had to choose' lietween 
 abandoning Prague ami almndoning his rom- 
 munications with Hilcsia, and as the Saxons hail 
 cut off his retreat through the Electorate, there 
 was really no choice in the matter, So he fell 
 back on Slleshi, abandoning Prague ami liij 
 heavy artillery. The retreat was uttendeil with 
 considerable loss, Frederick wa , icli stniek 
 with the skill displayed by Tra ^' ad savs. in 
 his 'Histoire demon Tcmpa,' •' .e reglinled 
 ''"» /^'npa'gn as his school in t' t of war and 
 SI, de Traun as his teacher, T ampalirn may 
 have be«'n an excellent lesson . the art of war 
 but In other respects It was very disastrous to 
 tredenck. He had drawn upon himself t^ie 
 whole power of Austria, and had hiirnt liov 
 little the French were to be dependisl ii|~.n His 
 prestige was dimmed by failure, and ev, n in his 
 own army doubu were entertained of his i apa- 
 city. But, bad as his position alreadv « ,~ i; 
 became far worse when the unhappy "Kmi. r 
 dle<l [Jan, 80, 174.1], worn out with diseas, ,,■; ! 
 calamltv. This event put an end to the Ini.™ 
 of Frankfort. Frederick could no lonp r < laim 
 to be acting in defence of his opprrssdl soven icn. 
 the ground was cut from under his feet. Nor 
 was there any longer much hope of pnventing 
 thp Im(*rial Crown from reverting i.. Ai.,tfU, 
 The new Elector of Bavaria was a mere hov In 
 this altered state of affairs be sought to mske 
 peace. But Maria Theresa would not let him 
 
 226 
 
ACSTraA, 1744-174S. 
 
 ffinur o/ Hap*- 
 burg-Lorraint. 
 
 AU8TRIA, 1765-1790, 
 
 off loeuilv. In order that she might use all her 
 forces againit him, ihe gnuite<l pearc to Bavuria, 
 lad (fave bacli to the young el«'U)r liig liere<li- 
 tarv (luminioDii, oo coodition of liia n-signing all 
 claim to hera and promising to vote for her Tiug- 
 biiiul as Emperor. While Fredericic thus lost a 
 fricn<i in Bavaria, Saxony threw herself com- 
 phtclv into the arras of his enemv, and united 
 with Austria in a treaty [May 18] whicli Irnil for 
 its ()l)jiTt, not the reconquest of Silesia merely, 
 l)iit tlic partition of Prussia and the miuetioii of 
 till' king to his ancient limits as Mnrgmve of 
 Bnwlcnburg. Saxony was tlicn muc'h lurgir 
 tlmn it is now, but it was not only the nuiuhir 
 u' triMips it could send into the fluid that made 
 its hostility dangerous. It was partly the geii- 
 graphioal position of the country, which niaiTe it 
 an I'xcellent base for operations against Prussia, 
 but slill more the alliance that was known to 
 subsist iM'tween the Elector (King Augustus III. 
 of Poland) and the Russian Court. It was prob- 
 able that a Prussian invasion of Saxony would 
 he followed by a Russian invasion of Prussia. 
 Towanis the end of May, the Austrian and 
 Sa.xiin army, 75,000 strong, crosse<l the Giant 
 Mountains and descended upon Silesia. Tlie 
 Austriaus were again commande<l by Prince 
 ( liarlts, but the wise head of Traun was no 
 lonsir there to guide him. . . . The encounter 
 took place at Holienfriedbcrg [June 5], and 
 n'Siilliil iu a complete victory for Prussia. The 
 Austrians and Saxons lost 0,000 killed and 
 woundid, and 7,000 prisoners, besides 00 cannons 
 and T;1 Hags and standards. Four days after the 
 batt'c tbcy wer, back again in Bohemia. 
 Fnilcrick followed, not with the intention of 
 sti.uking them again, but in order to eat the 
 coiijiiry bare, so that it might ndord uo susten- 
 anil- to the enenjy during the winter. For his 
 own part he was really anxious for peace. Hi 
 nsoiiri t » wore all but exhausted, while Aust 
 was fed by a constant stream of English su 
 Biiliis. As in the former war, England iuterposed 
 with bcr good ofliccs, but without efleit: Maria 
 Till nsa was by no means dishearteneil by her 
 dil'iul, and refusiKi to hear of peace till she had 
 trinl the chances of battle once more. On S»'pt. 
 la lur liiisband was electeil Emperor by seven 
 voti<oiit of nine, the dissentients lieing the King 
 of Prussia and the Elector Palatine. This event 
 niiMil the spirits of the Empress Queen, as Maria 
 Tlicrisa was heiicefurward called, and opened a 
 wiilcrticldforherambition. Shesent peremptory 
 onlirs to Prince Charles to attack Frederick 
 before be retireil from Bohemia. A battle was 
 aiconlingly fought at Sohr (Si'pt. 30], and again 
 victory rested with tlie I'russians. The season 
 was now far advanced, and Frederick returned 
 home expecting that there would be no more 
 fighting till after the winter. Such however, 
 was far from being the intention of his enemies ' 
 A plan for the invasiim of Braudcnluirg by tlin* 
 Austrian and Saxon armies, simiiltaneoiisfv was 
 neeri'tly concerted; but Fn'dcrick had timely 
 warning of it and it was fni.stnited by his 
 activity and energy. On the 2*1 of November 
 he surprised and defeated Prince Charles at 
 1 I iiiiirsdorf, "Some three weeks afterwards 
 tl>«i . 15) the Prince of I>e9sai! defi .it.'ti a e :~-.n.-I 
 Baxon and Austrian army at Kesu-lsdorf. u few 
 miles from Dresdi-n. This victorv compleUd the 
 iulijugation of Saxonv ami put nn end to the 
 war. Three day* afur Kesstladorf, t>«derick 
 
 entered Dresden, and astonished erery one by 
 the graciousness of his behaviour and by the 
 moderotion of his u-rms. From Saxony he 
 exacted no cession of territory, but merely a con- 
 tribution of 1,000,000 thaiers (£150,000) towanla 
 the expenses of the war. From Austria l>j 
 demande*! a guarantee of the treaty of Breslau 
 in return for which he agreed to recognize 
 trancis as Emperor. Peace was signed [at 
 Dresden] on Christmas Day. "— F. W. Longman 
 Ftederiek the Great and the Hecen Team War 
 ell. 3. ' 
 
 Ai*o in: T. Carlyle, ni»t. of Frtdtriek 11., bk. 
 15, ek. 8-15 (r. 4).— Lord Dover, Life of Frederick 
 II. .bk- a, «A. a-.5(r. 1). 
 
 ,A- **•„ '745-— Orerwhelming ditaatcri in 
 Italy. See Italy: A. D. 174.",. 
 
 A, D. 1745 (Ma/).— Rereraei in the Nether- 
 lands.— Battle of Fontenoy. See Netiieb- 
 LAN08: A. D. 1745. 
 
 A. D. 1745 (September— October).— Tht 
 Consort of Maria Thereta elected and crowned 
 Emperor.— Rise of the new House of Hans- 
 burg-Lorraine.— Francis of Lorraine, Grand 
 Duke of Tuscany and husbaml of Maria Theresa, 
 »;as elected Emperor, at Frankfort, Sept. 13, 
 1745, and crowmnl Oct. 1, with the title of Fran- 
 cis I. " Thus the Empire ntunied to the New 
 House of Austria, that of Hapsburg-Lorruine, 
 and France had missed the principal object for 
 which she had gone to w.ir." By the treaties 
 signed at Dresden, Dec. 25, lietween Prussia, 
 .\ustria and Saxony, Frc(leri<k. at Elector of 
 Brandenburg, assented to and recogniz-etl the 
 election of Francis, against which he and the 
 Elector Palatine had previously protested.— T 
 H. Dyer, llitt. of Modern Eu'roix, bk. 6 eh. 4 
 (f. 3). 
 
 A. D. 1746-1747.— Further French con- 
 quests m the Netherlands.— Lombai.-'^ recov- 
 ered.— Genoa won and lost. .See . -ieb- 
 I.A.NOS: A. D. 1746-1747; and Italy: .1 D 
 174B-1747. 
 
 A. D. 1748 (October).— Termination and re- • 
 suits of the War of the Succession. See Aix- 
 laChapklle, The Conqrkss of. 
 
 A. p. i75S-»763-The Seven Years War.— 
 Qerma.ny: a. D. 1753-1:56, to 1763; ahio. 
 
 See Qerm ^ 
 
 Seven Yeabs Wau. 
 _ A; D- '765-I790.— Joseph II., the enthroned 
 Pbilosopner. — "The prince who best sums up 
 the spirit of the cen'ury is not Frederic [the 
 Great, of Prussia], it is Josiph 11. [the emperor]. 
 Frederic was bom s master, Joseph II. a dis- 
 ciple, and it is by disciples that we j-idge 
 schoola The king of Prussia dammed up the 
 waters, directed their flow, made use of tlie 
 current ; the emperor cast himself upon ti, m 
 and permitted himself to be carried. With 
 Frederic the statesman always dominates, it is 
 he who proposes and Snail v' derides; the phil- 
 osopher is sulHinilnate. . .'. With Joseidi II. 
 rational conception precedes political calculation 
 and governs [t. He had breadth of mind but 
 his mind was superflcial : Idi-as slipped from it. 
 He had a taste for generosity, a passion for 
 granileur; but there was notliliig profound in 
 hiin but ambition, and it was all counter stroke 
 ami rtrflretitiu. He wished t.i Sllrp«^» I'reii. lic: 
 his entire conduct was but an awkwani, Impru- 
 dent and ill-advised imitation of this prince 
 whom he had made his liero. whom bislorv made 
 his rival and whom he copied while detesting 
 
 227 
 
AUSTRIA, 1765-1790. 
 
 JoMI* II. 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1790-1797. 
 
 him. The political genius of Fiederic was born 
 of ({i)od »enae »nd nnxlenitio i : there was uothing 
 In Joseph II. but the imm.Hli rii'e. lie was a 
 nun of systems: he had ciilv .t,Teat Telleitiea. 
 Hia education wai mediocre, a'ad, as U> methods, 
 entirely Jesuitical. Into this contracted mould 
 he cast confusedly notions h»tilj !> arrowed from 
 the philosophers of Friiiire, In. n .;ie economists 
 cs|K'ciaUy. He thus formed ii • ory vague ideal 
 of political aspirations and en exiggersted 
 sense of the power at his dis|"Mi>; .1 o realize 
 fliem, 'Since I as<'ended the tliron md have 
 woru the tintt crown of the worb' ' . .ite he in 
 Uil, 'Ihiive mail"' Philosoph' '',1 , naker of 
 my empire. Ht-r logical an-l, -lUous i,!«? going 
 to trunaform Austria.' Heu. ' ruike rc.irmsin 
 every direction at once. K;,~i> • n M i <rhim, 
 tnulitious do not count, uof n ts •• uired. 
 
 There is no race, nor perif ', .1 r ■ roui. ingclr- 
 cumstances ; there is the .^ , c w i;rl: i? every- 
 thing and can do everytl \c j. F wr es In 
 1782, to the bishop of Htra>l) iir ■ ■ t i»ing- 
 dom governed conformabl< 1 . tu- ; j; iplea, 
 prejiKlice, fanaticism, borlu.n jf -xnr ', nuist 
 disappear, and each of r v >:i';eci,. ibj>i, •. 
 reinstated in tlie posses')!,) : <>, Ms r,s'"ni 
 rights.' He must have v.wX-', \nd, i' . icji 
 condition, the rejection ' .;i ip vi;*!!' , ' r 
 Chance malies him operat.' n , \ .«,il ■ .1", m,->x 
 heterogeneous, the most int^ iirent, t!ii' ni., i 
 cut up, parccleri out and trav' led by ,irr .,^. 
 that there is in Kunjpe. X(, ning in <Mir,'.„ii, 
 among his subjnis. neither Ian? lage. nor ira- 
 ditioiiH, nor intensts. It is frum this, acconiiii^- 
 to him. that thedefi'ct of moimr' hy arises. ' The 
 German language is tlie universal language of 
 my empire. I am llie empcnr of Germany, the 
 "tates which I possess are pniviuces which form 
 luit oni' b(Hiy with the State of which I am the 
 licad. If the kingdom of Ilunirary were the 
 most Important of my possessions, f should not 
 liesilale to impose its tongue on the otiier 
 (o'lniries ' So hi' iiniioscs the tierman language 
 on the Hungarians, the Croats, the Tchfijues, 
 tlie I'dles, iin all tlic Slavs, lie suppresses tire 
 ancient tirritorial divisions . thev recall the suc- 
 cessive agglomerations, tlie irregular alluvions 
 which hail formed the monarchy; he establishes 
 tliirtet'n governments and divides them into cir- 
 cles. The diets di8ap|«-ar; the government 
 pa.ssea into the hands of intendants according to 
 the French formula. In the cities tlie imrgonias- 
 ter appointed by the government becomes a func- 
 tionary. The nobles lose the part, already much 
 curtailed, that they still had. here and there, in 
 the government He taxes thini, he ta.\es the 
 ecclesiastics: he meditates establishing 8 tax 
 ["•oportional to Incomes and reaching all classes. 
 He prote(;ts the peasants, alleviates serfdom, 
 diminislies the corvi'-cs, huilds hospitals, schools 
 aliove all, in which the state will form pupils to 
 olii y her. His iil«-al would be tlieeoiiality of his 
 sulpjccts under the uniform sway of his govern- 
 ment. He unifies the laws; he institutes courts 
 of appeal with a supreme court for the entire 
 empin-. He makes regulations for manufac- 
 tures, binds commerce to the most rigorous 
 proU'Ctive ^ystr-m. Finally he puts a high hand 
 on the church and d.srees tolerance. . . . This 
 immen^i revolution was sceompHshnd hy means 
 of decr»>es. in less than Hve yi-ars. If we com- 
 pare the state of cohesion which the Bourbon 
 govemmmt had brought about in France in 1789, 
 
 228 
 
 with the Incoherence of the Austrian monarthv 
 on the death of Maria Theresa In 17(W, It wiii 
 be seen that tlie revolution which caused thi' 
 Constituent Assembly was a small matter coni^ 
 pared with that which Joseph II Intended to 
 effect."— A. Horel. L'£un>pe tt la Hetolutinn 
 {m"*"*" ('""^/"^ '^ J^yeneA), pt. 1, pp. uu- 
 
 _A. D. I77»;l773.-The Firtt Partition of 
 Poland. See Polakd; A. D. 1763-1773 
 
 A. D. 1777-1779.— The quettionof the Bava- 
 nan Succesaion. See Bavahu: A. D. 1777- 
 1779. 
 
 A. D. I78a-i8ti.— AlMlitioa of Serfdom 
 See Slavirt. Msdijeval: Obrmant. 
 
 A. D. I787^t79i<— War with the Turlts.- 
 Treaty of SiatoTa.— Slight Acquisitions of 
 Territory. See Turks; A. D. 177»-179i 
 . A. D. 1790-1797.— Death of Joseph II. and 
 Leopold II.— Accession of Francis II.-The 
 Coalition acainst and war with revolutionary 
 France, to the Peace of Campo Formio.- 
 ''It is a mistake to imagine that the European 
 "rw attacked tlie Revolution in France. It 
 Revolution which attacked them. The 
 .natisU of the 18th century viewed at lirst 
 with cynical indi^erencc the laeeting of the 
 States - General at Versailles. . . , The two 
 miiuls which occupied the attention of Europe 
 in 1789 were the condition of Poland ami the 
 troubles in the East. The ambitious designs of 
 ■'atherine and the assistance lent to them by 
 Joseph threatenol the existence of the Tul■l(i^ll 
 Empire, irritated the Prussian Court, and awak 
 iiied English apprehensions, ulwuvs sensiiiv 
 iiliont the safety of Stamboul. I'olanil, thi,' 
 I'tittle-fleld of cynical diplomaty, torn by lnui; 
 dissensions and ruined by a miserable constitu- 
 
 'i was vainly endeavouring, umler the jenlnus 
 
 eyes of her great neighliours, to avert the doom 
 impending, and to reassert her ancient claim to 
 a place among the nations of the world. Hut 
 ltus.sin had long since determined tli.it I'ohin 1 
 nmst lie a vassal State to her or cea.se to u 
 ^^tnte at all, while Prussia, driven to face a iMn) 
 necessity, realised that a strong Poland iiml ., 
 strong Prussia could not exist together, and that 
 if Poland ever ro8»! again to power, Prussia must 
 bid good-bye to unity ami greatness. These 
 two questions to the States Involved seemed to 
 lie of far more moment than any political reform 
 in France, and engrosseil the diplomutisn of 
 E_unipe until the summer of 1791, In I'lliriMrv. 
 1790, a new inllucnce was inlrodiiceil imo 
 European polities liv the death of the Kin|ierot 
 Joseph and the ai icssion of his brothi r ljo|h,l,; 
 II. IxMipohl was a man of remarkalib- shiliiv 
 no enthusiast Rii.i no dreamer, thorout'lilv \- 
 In the selfish truiliiions of Austrian policy ai 
 some of tlic subtleties of Italian statccmft. 
 cerning, tempemU\ resolute and clearln :. 
 quietly determinetl to have liis own wav 
 genemtly skilful enouj^h to secure it. \.< • 
 lonnd his new dommions in a slate .f liw 
 utmost confusion, with warandnUllion li r,:ii,n 
 Ing him on every side. He 8|H-eilily ■-. i nl«.;it 
 restoring order. He rcpealeil the uniH,[iiiliir .1. 
 crees of Joseph. He conciliatc<l or n |ires.se,i l,.s 
 discontented subjects. He gradually re 1M..I1- 
 "=Ih?<! ti,e aMllioritv of the Cniwn. . . . Xiv. 7 i 
 Ingly, the first efgliteen months of Uo|h i 
 reign were ocrupie<l with his own imiiH-lKii 
 interests, and at the cod of that time his succom 
 
 1 
 
 i-i la 
 
 •iis- 
 
 ,^.,i 
 
 .A 
 
AUSTRIA, 17«ft-17»7. Wan with 
 
 Rt wUittionarl/ 
 Fmner. 
 «u marked. Catherine'i vaat sclienes iu Tur- 
 key had been checked. War had been averted. 
 l'<ilaD<l had been itrengthened by intenutl 
 cliaDKC'S. Pruvta bad been conciliated anil out- 
 nunieurred, and lier influence had been imiwirvd. 
 At last, at tlie end of August, 1791, the Emperor 
 was free to face the French problem, and he set 
 nut for the Castle of Pillnitz to meet the King of 
 Prussia and the Emigrant leaders at the Saxon 
 Elector's Court For some time past the restless- 
 ness of tiie French Emigrants had been causing 
 great pcriilexity in Europe. Received with open 
 arms l<y tlie ecclesiastical princes of the Khue, 
 by the Electors of Maircnce and TrJves, they 
 proceeded to agitate busily for their own restora- 
 tion. . . . The object of the Emigrants was to 
 bring pressure to bear at the European Courts, 
 with tlie view of Inducing the Powers to inter- 
 vene actively In their belulf. . . . After bis 
 escape from Fiance, In June, 1790, tlie Comte de 
 Provence established his Court at Cobleutz, 
 wlien' he was joined by his brother tiie Comte 
 il'ArUjis, and where, on the plea that Louis was 
 a prisoner, he claimed the title of Regent, and 
 iissumed the authority of King. The Court of 
 ttic t«(i French princes at CoLilentz rvi.resenteil 
 faithfullv tlie faults an<l follies of the Kuiignii:: 
 party. But a more satisfactory sjiectacle was 
 offered by tlic camp at Worms, where Cond£ was 
 bravely trying i.. organise an army t.-. fight 
 iigaiiist the Rcvol ^tion in France. To Condi's 
 stamliml tlfickcd ihe more patriotic Emitrrants. 
 . . But the German Princes in the nelgl.liour- 
 hood lookeil Willi disfavour on the Emigrant 
 army. It caused i'i>afusion in ilieir dominions, 
 ami it drew .Uiwii .m them the lostility of tlie 
 French Govt-rnnieii! The Emperor joined tliem 
 \h protesting airai.st It. In February, 1792, 
 ( oiiile's army wiut i niiipelled to abandon its camp 
 ;4 Worms, and to n 'ire fiirtlier into Gtrmiiny. 
 Die Emiwnjr whs U aware of the nckless 
 seltisliMessof the Emigrant princes. He Iiud as 
 little sympatliy with tliem as his sister. He did 
 not intenil to listen to their demands. If he in- 
 terfered ill France at all, it would only be in a 
 tautiousaiid Unttitive manner, and in onler to 
 save Miiriu AnUiinettc iiml her husband. Cer- 
 liiiiilylr would not umlertiike a war for the restor- 
 ation . ; tile Ancien liegime. . . . Acconlingly 
 Mie inlervii ws at Pillnitz came to nothing. . 
 i..irlv in .Mureh, IT92, Lwnolil suddenly died. I'l; , 
 liiir Fnincis, unrestrained by his father's tact and 
 mixlcmtion, assiinii d a different tone and showed 
 less pMience. Tlie chances of any elTectivc prcs- 
 Min; from the Powers declined, as the pnwpect 
 nf w;ir rose on the Iiorizon. Friiiiris' language 
 «ii8 Mifflciently sliari. to give the A-> uibW tli<' 
 pntixt which it longed for, and c the Siitj 
 .\pril, Louis, amid >:eneml cntliusiasm, (,une 
 ■ lowii to the Assimlily and d«-lured war aitainst 
 Austria The elfects of thiit inomenUjiis step no 
 uimmciit lari exagircrate. 1 1 riiinwl the liest 
 ^ ixsuf !h,. Hcvojuiion, aii.l preimml tlie way 
 . r u miliLiiy des|).ilisni in 11^. futiir. —C. K 
 .Mullet. J he Fnnd, /;,„^„l„„i. 7 — St- 
 
 l-K*.\eE: .V. D. 1790-17, ■. 171. ,.l, . , -Decem- I 
 UKK); 1T91-K92; 17tn! (Apku.-.J, , v), and 
 iSEPTEsiiiEii-DKcKMnEii). 17U-.'-179;i Decem- 
 
 llEIl-l'KUlllAHV); IT*! (FeUHIAHV^ Ah|(I(., I 
 
 'i-u< ",.,!:'~'"'-"-'""'" 'IW (.MARrii— Jui.Y) i 
 liW-l.Kj (IXTOUKK M.»Y); 17!)5 (Jine— De- 
 
 1797 lUtToBtn— Apbu.). 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1798-1806. 
 
 A. D. i794-i;96.— The Third petition oi 
 Poland.— Auatnan share of the apoil*. See 
 Poland: A. I). 1793-1796. 
 
 A. p. i7OT(Octob«r),-TreatT of Campo- 
 Formto with France.— CcMioo of the Nether- 
 land* and Lombard proTincei.— Acquisition 
 of Venice and Venetian territories. See 
 Fbance: a. D. 1797 (.Mat— October) 
 
 A. D. i798-x8o<.— Congreas of Raitadt.— 
 Second Coalition asainit France.— Peace of 
 Luneville.— Third Coalition.— Ulm and Aui- 
 'f''.*.*-."?*"* <*f Preiburg.— Extinction of 
 the Holy Roman Empire.— Birth of the Empire 
 of Auitria.- •■ When Bonaparte sailed for Egypt 
 he had left _ congress at Rastadt discu-Mng 
 means for the execution of certain ariir les in the 
 treaty of Cainpo Fonnio which were to establish 
 peace between Franco and the Empire. . . . 
 Though openly undertaking to invite the Ger- 
 mans to a congress In order to settle a general 
 peace on the basis of the Integrity of the Empire 
 tlie Emperor agreed In secret ..licles to use his 
 iniluence to procure for tlie Ucpiiblic the left 
 liunk of the Rliiuc witli the exception of the 
 Prussian provinces, to join with France in obtain- 
 ing comiH'nsatiiin in Germany for thof"; injured 
 by this change, and tocontnbute no more than 
 Ills necessary contingent if the war w.re pro- 
 longed. The ratification of the.s.' awni pro- 
 visions had lieen extorted from till muc.-is by 
 threats before H. iiapwrte liiul left, !■ i ih.- ques- 
 '■ nof indeniiiiiH;iiion hiid progres.s. i mi farther 
 lu a decisiou to secuhirlse the • '. ^ill.^tical 
 s., !cs for tht puriiose, when extnivii^,'iiut de- 
 m.-.'idsfrom ti French deputies broiiirht nego- 
 tiation toa dea. i ck. Meanwliile, another en.ili- 
 tion war hud Ui brewing. Paul I. of I{iis.siii 
 had regarded wit i little plen.siire the di insrs of 
 the Ilevolntiun, and when his pnjteges.tl- kniirliis 
 of St. John of Jerusalem, had been di ; rived of 
 Malta by Bonaparte on his w:,v to Egypt, when 
 the Directory established bv 'force Vt iiriiis a 
 nclvetic republic in Switzerland, when it fniinj 
 occasion to carry off the Pope iutoexile uihI . rrct 
 a Roman republic, he aliandoiieil the (iiuinus 
 and self-seeking i>oli(v of Catlien . . m„i , ,,rJi. 
 ally responded to Pin - lulvaiicis nii alli^iiicc. 
 At the same time Turkey was lied by the 
 
 invitation of 1 vpt to iiily itself mce with 
 Russia. Austi conviiKr.l that !,i i rtiuli did 
 not intend to pay a fair 
 Campo Formlo, also de! 
 ties; and Naples, cxaspi 
 a republic at Koine, and 
 -'ressiveness, enrolled il»i 
 Xeapolitau king, iinleeil. 
 some 8ucces.s, Ix'fore he < 
 from his al'ies; but hi- wh 
 the French und his 
 
 Into a Pan. impean .blic. An tia, on 
 
 contrary, iiv> .iied ti mval of iho Ru-. .m 
 
 forces; ami lb ceni ( anipaign began early in 
 
 1799. Th Fr wh. 'iting against such iriner- 
 
 bIs a> the Ar al«k iharlefl and the liu^.-ian 
 
 Suvarwff, wir iit • ,■ sup. lision of Carnut or 
 
 ;.') ■■! iiler|)ri»« of noiiMparte, 
 
 vet r,M rses and great priyaiinua. 
 
 lie 111.! the Russian amiv endured 
 
 ishin a "n-mnt of (\ts- s Iflsli- 
 
 .Vus!? .Ill ibinet; and this caused 
 
 light ii. had other riasoiw for 
 
 .iidniw iiis tr ...ps from the field. 
 
 rice for the i 
 mined to reiie 
 lied by the siic 
 
 I rilled by ¥: 
 ' in • vj leag 
 
 ipti: the V 
 <■< -ilil receive 
 Kin vamiuih... 
 
 'lions we^ conv 
 
 V of 
 4ili- 
 eof 
 
 Hg- 
 
 The 
 «ith 
 
 ■port 
 
 1 liy 
 
 rted 
 
 he 
 
 tiie atrat 
 suffered - 
 Town 
 muc 
 
 ncK^ ■! ti 
 the 1 sar. 
 disci ;eni 
 
 . Whe 
 
 229 
 
 Uotiaparu' was made First Consul the 
 
ACSrraA. I78S-180*. 
 
 Van trilk 
 Xapoimm, 
 
 AUSTRIA. 1796-1808. 
 
 milit«r7 pndtioD of France wm, ncvertlu'loM 
 very precarious. . . . Tlw Roman nii<l Cisalpine 
 republics linJ fslien. Tlic very conirn-sn iit Ras- 
 tadt hail been illsperseil :.y the iippnuuli of llic 
 Austrians; and the French emissiiries had lieen 
 sahreil by Austrian tro..[ier8, tlinugh how their 
 insolence came to be thus foully punialieil has 
 never been clearly expluinwl. At this crisU 
 France was rescued from forel^jn fin's and 
 domestic disonlera by Its most siici-essful gen- 
 eml. ... In tlio aimpuign whi.h followed, 
 France obuineil signal satlsfneiion for lu 
 chagrin. Ix-aving Morenu to carry the war into 
 Oermanv, BooaiNirte sud<lcnly cmssed the Alps 
 and defeated the Auslriikns on the plain of 
 Marengo. The Austrhius, though eompletply 
 ci)we<i. refrained from concluiling a <Ieflnll« 
 XH'MV out of respect for their enumgenienU with 
 Englanil; and armistices, ex|>lring into desul- 
 torv warfare, prolonged the conU-st till Moreau 
 laid the w-ay open to Vienna, by winning a 
 splendid triumph at Hohenlinden. .\ treaty of 
 grace was Anally concluded at Lunevjllc. when 
 Francis II. pledgetl the Empire to ila provisions 
 on the ground of the consenu already given at 
 K«Bta<ll. In conformity willi the treaty of 
 Canino Formio, Austria retained tliel>oundary of 
 Ihc Adigc In luly; France kept Belgium and 
 the left liank of the Rhine; and the princes, dis- 
 poaaesHCfl by the cessions, were pmnilseil com- 
 IK-nsation in Uermknv: white Tuscany was 
 given to France to sill Ui Spain at the price of 
 Parma, Louisiana, six ships of the line and a 
 sum of money. Shonly afterwanls peace was 
 cTtended to Naples on easy ti'mia . . . Tlie 
 time was now come for the Itevdhilion In Com 
 P'ete tlie niin of the Holy Komau Empire 
 Pursuant to the treaty of Luneville, the German 
 Diet mi't at Kegenxliurg to iIIm-iiu a scheme of 
 coni|>eiiiuit|iin fur the ili!i|MMsi'x.vil rulers. Vlr- 
 tunlly the Hurting was a renewal i.f the ningnw 
 of Uiwluilt. ... At Itastadt llie IniiMiennee 
 anil ilisinti-KrHlinn of tlie venerable Empire lijul 
 beciimc painfully a|<i>an'nl. . . . When it was 
 known th:it the hiwl of the nalLin, who had 
 giiaranlceil Ilie inl.grily of the Eniiiirv in the 
 pnliuiiniiries of I/ei>U-n, aiwl had renewiil the 
 awuranee when he eonvoked the awtemblv liml 
 In truth iKtrayeii to the stranger nearly all the 
 left iHiiik of the Rhine,— the (»ennaii riilen. 
 tntilil) hasteneil to siture every iNissible Irille 
 In till- M-nonlile nf nHlistriliutiiin The slow ami 
 wiariii.me ilelmtes were supplenieiiteil by 
 intritfun I.f ilie nuisl degradetl nature. Cm; 
 
 «■ " 'hat the French Consul eiiulil give a 
 
 cieiiiiiif v.ite i.n any dlKputeil i|Ui-«ti<>n the 
 priniiH f.HiMil no liiillgnilv tiio shameful no 
 trirk till Ins.-, to nbtnin his faviiur . . Tbe 
 Hr«t C.iiMil, (,n hia side, pniweuliil with 
 
 - -•■ •' — "••■' . I'K-Ki HU1I Willi a 
 iliipliiily nixl mldn'ss, herelofure iineiMmllnl 
 the tniililiMiial (Milliy nf France In Oennaii 
 , "'"* r'iK'il'itf In Uke Into ii'miMinvIa 
 
 the MuiiiB r^r, whiM- cnnvenient rrieiii|»hlp 
 wa.i liiiix iiwlly iilitaiiiiilnn luiiHinl nf hi< family 
 mniiii tit.im with Hie (tiniiaii e<«in«, hi driw 
 upa Mhiiiienf )iiilrinnih<alii.M and pnwntitl It 
 to the l))i I f..r I ii<l.,n«niint. In due lime a mr 
 vile nsm-M h.u> glvin In every (Milnt whieh enn 
 nrniil iIh two aulixnits. fty this wltleminl 
 AiiMtria and I'niwia were miin- eiiiially lialniinii 
 
 nrinniieme in Wiiiieni (l.nnanv. ami Hie hiHer 
 BuUIng In mure cuavtulint situations • rich 
 
 li30 
 
 recompense for Ito oosionson the Rhine; «|ii|r 
 the middle stales, Bavaria, Baden, and Wanmi 
 berg, n^-eived very considerable acceasiniiH of 
 territory. But if Bnna|iarte dislocatetl yei fur 
 ther tlie (lolitical structure of (^jrmiiny lie was 
 at least instruinenUl in removing llio wnrsi of 
 the ana.^hrouisms which stlflcil the develniiirieut 
 of iinpn 111 institutions among a large di\i<ion 
 of its [K-nple. The same measure which bmiielit 
 Oemian 8i-|>arali8in toacliiiiax.alsoextinifiiislicii 
 the ecclesiastical sovereignties anil nearly all ilie 
 free cities. That these slninghnliis of prii-,tly 
 obscurantism and Imurgeois apathy wiiulil «.ia",. 
 day be invaihil by their more ainbitinus ami 
 active neighlmura, hiul long liecn ap|>an'iil 
 And war was declare<l when Uiouxamls „f 
 British subjecu visiting France hail alrniily 
 lieen ensnared and imprisonetl. . . . I'iit |,ai'| 
 taken tlic conduct of the war out of the liamlsof 
 Addingtons feeble ministry. Posaessiinf il,t. 
 confldence of the powers, he rapidly com liidiii 
 offensive allhnces with Ruask, Sweilen sml 
 Austria, though PrussU olistinaUly reiuaiiml 
 neutrJ. Thus, by 1H05, Napoleon had put u. 
 baxjnl all hia Utely won power In a emitliet 
 with the greater part of Europe. The lialtle of 
 L^pe Trafalgar crushed for good hU maritime 
 power, tad rendenxl England safe from ,Unit 
 attack. The campaign on land, however, mailc 
 bim master of central Euroiio. BringiiiK tlie 
 Austrian army in Oemuiuy to an inglnrious 
 capitukttioo at Uien, lie marehcil UinaiKli 
 Vienna, aiHl, with inferior forra-s won In hii beiit 
 stTte the battle of Austeriiti against the ir.«,|), 
 of Francis and Alexander. The aelinn was 
 decUivc. The allies thought not of niiiwini! 
 the war with Uie nlays of trta.ps whirl, were 
 hiirrying up fmm Nortli and South. I<ii«>i»n 
 ami Austrian alike wislml to be rid of thiir ill 
 fatiil connection. The Emperor Alixamirr 
 sllenlly retiirneil home, pursued only bv Naiai 
 Jeons Haltering tokens ofi-sUem: the tiniiiror 
 Francis aeei'pted the peace of I .vsliurg h hli h 
 deprived ills house of the ill gotten Viinllaii 
 HIales, Tyrol, and iu more disUnt |Hwie« 
 slons in Weatem Uermany; the Kiinr nf 
 Prussia, who hail been <m tlie point of joininn 
 ll«- coalllion with a large army (I his m.'liation 
 were unHuccessfiil, was commllteil to an allianei' 
 with the eoiiiiuerur by bis Urritliil muni u.r 
 Anil well dill Napoleon appear Ui nialte the 
 friiils of victory ci>in|ietiaat« France for iin m r 
 lions. The empire was not made more iiii»{,ih' 
 n bulk, but its de|MndenU. Bavaria. Wnm™ 
 l>erg, and Uailen, niTlveil conniderable a, n-» 
 slons of territory. sihI the two flrst wen- ml«M 
 to the rank of kingdoiiui; while the EmiKnu. 
 Italian |.riiicipiillty, which he liml slnaily 
 lumeil Into a kingilom of luly In the gre.il ilit 
 gust of Ailalria. was inereaan'l by the aiLliilnii 
 of the eeiliil Ven.tian lamls Uul the full il,-|ith 
 of t,iini|H< a hiMiiilialion was niH exid-riemiii till 
 the two fntlnwing yeani. In I** an ,\.| ..f 
 Fiileijlion was.igne.1 by the kiiiin nf llnaria 
 and W llrtiiiilNrg, iIh- Kleelor nf Hail.n ami 
 Ihlrtwn minor princes, whii-h iinititl thrni itilna 
 li-agiie iiniler the nniteclion of the K .mil 
 hni|>en.r The oliJi..ia of this iiMifnii raiy. 
 known ii-< the lUieinliuml were defenre ac^iiist 
 fiin-Ign nggn-BSHHi bikI the exen-iae nf e..iiii.N-ir 
 niii..i...in> Hi ii.iiiie. . AInwIy Hie i.-nne 
 iiiMii. .-M of Hie I'lure of l.unevllle hs.| in.|iiii.| 
 the ruliug Ua|Mburg to assure bis cqualil} wilk 
 
AUSTRIA, 17a»-1808. 
 
 the lOTercigiu of France ami nunia by taking 
 tbe imperial title in Ilia own right; ami Ix'furetlie 
 ('uiifc<leratioa uf tlic Kliinc wtu iiuxli' public Iiu 
 fiiniiully renouiicol liisofticT of cli-clive KnijH'ror 
 ■if the Holy Koniiin Empire ami relcoaetl from 
 uliiyiuncv t<> hint all the stnteaaml princetof tlie 
 IMch. Tlie triumph of tlio German policy of 
 the Conaulate was complete. "—A. Weir, The 
 tlulorinU Hutu uf Modern Europe, eh. 4, — See 
 iilso, Khanck: a. I). 170H-ITW, to 1805, and 
 Okhmany: a. I). 1801-lWW, U) 18aVl»06. 
 
 A. D. 1809-1814.— The aecood atmnle with 
 Ntpoieoo and the tccond defeat.— The M»r- 
 riacc alliance.- The Cernutnic War of Liber- 
 ation.— The final alliance and the overthrow 
 oftheCoraican.— "On the 12tUof July, 1806, 
 fourteen princea of the south and west of Oer- 
 inany uniu-d themselves Into the confederation 
 of the lUiine, and re<'ngnised Napoleon as their 
 pr>itM'lor. On the Ut of August, they signifletl 
 to the diet of Ratisbon their separation from the 
 (J«-nimiiic body. The Empire of Oemianv 
 ecaacd to exist, and Frnncis II. abdicated the 
 title by prorlsmation. By a convention slgneil 
 ut Vienna, on the 15tb of I>ecemlK-r, Pniasia 
 exeliuiigiil the U'rriUiries of AnHpaeh, fleves and 
 NeufcJmU'l for tlie electorate of ilunover. Na|ni- 
 leon had uil tlie west under liis |M>wer. Absolute 
 master of France and Italy, ns empemr and king, 
 lie Kiis also master of Hpain, by the ilependenee 
 of that court; of Naples and lloilaiid, by his 
 two lirKthers; of Hwitzerhtnd, bv the act of 
 niedlHlion; and in Oermany he had at hisdiH- 
 ixwiil the kings of Bavaria and WurU'nilierg, ami 
 (lie idiifeih'nition of tlie Hhine against Austria 
 1111(1 1'riifsla. . . . Thhiencp<aching progress gave 
 riiie to tlie fourth coalit'.m Prussia, neutral 
 Kinii'llieiM'aivof Bile, liar, ir the last cam|iaign, 
 Uin on tlie point of loiniu,- the Austro-Ruiainii 
 niaiilion Tlw rapidity of the emperor's ' 
 tiiric« had alone restminiil her; but now, alarm. 'I 
 lit llw iiiigramlizement of the empire, and enoour- 
 tiitiil liv llie line comlitioii <if Iwr troops, she 
 liKKUtcl with Uiiasia to drive the French from 
 (nriiuiiiy. . . . The cain|iaign o|N'iieil early in 
 <Hl..liir. NaiNileon, as usiia', everwhcliiRil the 
 iimlilloii by tlie iiromptltude of his iiiunhes aiul 
 the vigour of his measures. t)n the Utii of 
 thlolK-r, he deslroynl at Jena the military 
 monHfiliy of I'mssia. by a dn-ixive vlct4try. 
 liii' < uiii|Niign in Poland was lew rapid, but as 
 Inilliiint lis iliat of Priiisia. KiiisU, for tlw thini 
 lliiic. nil HsiintI its strength with Fnnce. Con- 
 'jiiend at Zurich and Auslerlits, it was almi 
 ili-reHtiil at K> lau and Frietllaml. After Ihiiie 
 num. .milk' Imiiles, the emiM-n.rAlexiinderentenil 
 into s ni'golistioii. and coiicliidiil at Tilsit on 
 ihf.'M of June, 1H07, an armisiiiv whicli waa 
 t,.ll..»ii| bys detlnitive treaty on the Tib of July 
 I 111 |H aif of Tilsit exleudiilthe Friiich ilonilna 
 
 [' "" '«• "Hitinent. Prussia was reiluoal Ui 
 
 Imlf lU extent. In tlie south of (iemiany 
 >ii|>oliiin hml liiiililiil<i| the two kliigihiins of 
 Ifcivnris aiHl Wiirtemhrrg against Austria 
 (irihi r to the north, he created tlie two feudatory 
 l>iinr.|..ms of Saxony awl Wotphalia against 
 • "i«m. luonler to obtain universal himI 
 
 111". nil still supniiMMy. he niaile use of arms 
 «)!«iii»i llienmiinent, and the it«Mli<in of ••om 
 
 111' lonlliMuUl states all oanmuiiicatioii with 
 f.iiitlHiiil. he ttu pn lutriug mw dintcultitv for 
 uumll, auU mwu atUed to Uw oaliBuaity of 
 
 Ifura Wfk 
 JVmwiMm. 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1809-1814. 
 
 opinion excited by hit detpotiim, and Uie hatred 
 of BUtes produced by his conquering doinl- ' u, 
 the exaspenUon of private interesU and com- 
 mercial sulTeriug occasioned by the blockade. 
 . . . Theexpetiitionof Portugal in 1807, and the 
 mrasion of Spain In 1808, began for him and for 
 Euroiie a new Older of events. . . . The reaction 
 iiisiilfitit.-d Itself in three countries, hitherto 
 allies of France, and it brought on the fifth 
 coalition. The court of Rome « as dl»aiuisll«l ; 
 the peninsula was woundi-d in its nullonul pride 
 by having imposed upon it a foreign king; In its 
 usages, by the suppression of convents, of llic 
 Imiiilsition, and of the gmmU-es; Holland 
 suffered in its commerce fmin the blockade, and 
 Austria supported ini|>atleiillv its liauea am) 
 sulionlinate condition. Eughiml, watching for 
 an opiNirtunity to revive tlie stniggle on the 
 continent, excited the resisUince of Home, the 
 |M■llinsull^ ami the cabinet of Vienna. 
 AuslrU . . . made a |Niwerfui eHort, and raised 
 .M0,000 men, comprising the Laudwehr, and 
 tisik the field in the spring of 1800. The Tynil 
 rose, and King Jenmie was driven from Ills 
 capital liy the Weslplialians; luly wavenil; and 
 IViiiwia only wailtil till Napoleon met with a 
 reverse, to take arms ; but tlie em|HTiir was still 
 at tlie lieight of hb iMiwer and pnw|H'rity. He 
 hiistened from Madrid In the la-ginning of Feb- 
 ruary, ami (lirvcteil the nicmtM'rsof the confiibra- 
 lion to kirp their contingents in reailineBs. 
 t)ii the lilh of April he left Paris, piuweii lla- 
 Kliiiie, plunged into U<>rinaiiv, gaineil the 
 viiuiri« of Kckmahl and Es.Hiiug. iMiiiplud 
 Vienna a second time on tlie l.tlli of .May, and 
 overthn-w Ibis new coalition by the bii'ltle of 
 Wagram, aftir a campaign of four nioniliH. . . . 
 Tlie|H-aceof Vienna, of the IlthoftKlolHT. 1809, 
 depnvetl tlie house of Austria of several more 
 pnivinces, and compelled it again to adopt tla! 
 conlim'ntid system. . . . Nnp'Ii-on. who m^eiiuil 
 to folhiw a rash but inltexihi policy, deviatiil 
 from his course about tills lime by a second 
 marriage. He di' 'reed Joaepliiiie that he might 
 give an heir to tla empire, and marriinl, on tlic 
 Isl of April, IHIO, .Marie touiM-, arch diiclu-ss of 
 Austria. This was a deciiletl error. He iiuiiiitl 
 his iMsiilion and his [»m\ as a parvenu and nvo- 
 lulionary monarch, op|Hising in Kranir the 
 ancient couns as the reniililii' liad op|MMed tlie 
 .;ncient governments. He placiil liiniMlf in a 
 false situation with M<|ie«t to .Viistria, which he 
 ought eillier to have rriiaheil atler the victory of 
 Wagmni. or to have reinslulitl In its |HMScssion8 
 after Ills marriage with the arch duchrsa. . . . 
 The birth, lai the StHU of Manh, l.sil, of a sim, 
 wlm n-irlvwl the title of klug of Rome, seemwl 
 to ■tinaoliiliite the |Miwer of .NaiHileon. by nciur 
 Ing Ui hliii 11 suciisaor. The war In Spain was 
 iiniwTUted Willi vigour during tlie years INIilsnd 
 1811. . . . While the war was pni<<ee<ling in ttw 
 (s-niiMula Willi lulvantagc. but without any 
 del idi'd siiii-esi, a new campaign waa pfe|iariu|r 
 III tlie north. Kuwla |H'ni'ivi.<l the empire ol 
 Napoleon appMaihiug its terrilories. . . . .Msiut 
 the rliwe of 1810, II liH-n-aae<l its armies. rcniwiHl 
 lu conimenial n'lations wilh tin-at Britain, aial 
 dhl iHit si^eiii imlis|Hwil to a rupture. The year 
 IMll was spent in m-gotlalions which leil to 
 toolbibii. oihI |m|>aniiiiHw U<t war wen- maaie on 
 laithshle*. . . . Oiillu'Vlhof Manh, NsfMileon 
 k-fl Paris. . . Ituring si'Veral inontiis he'll xeil 
 hli GUim at DivMku, wtan thu ein|H.'iur iil 
 
 231 
 
 Tm 
 
lir-' 
 
 i! •, 
 
 i-. 
 
 AUSTRIA. 1800-1814. 
 
 Austria, the king of PnmU, ROfl hII the 
 •ovcrcfgM of Oermiiny. crnne to bow before liis 
 high fortune. On the Mud of June, wnr wm 
 <ktl»r«l against KiimIh. . . . N«|)olet)n. who, 
 •ccinling to his ciut.mi, wlglicil to ttnish all in 
 one cnnipaign, advanet-d at onre Into the heart 
 of Hiwsla, nutead of prudently organiiing the 
 1""'!' '!?;f''„i: »«•'•'«" "• III' «nny amount.-.! to 
 alwut .VI«).(HK» men. He piuwe.! the Niemenon the 
 J-«tli of June ; Uh.Ic Wilna. ami Witcptk, .lefeate,! 
 the RuMiau. at Astrowno, Poh.tak, Mohilow 
 Nnolensko, at the M.wkowa. and on the Uth of 
 Jj'pU-mber, maile his entry Into M.weow. 
 M.W.-..W was bumtil by its governor. The 
 
 emiMTor ought to liave seen that thin war wouhl 
 not terminate as the others luul ilone; yet eon- 
 ■luiror of tile foe, and nuwter of bis oipltal he 
 .•om-eiye.1 hopes of iwaee which the /tuminns 
 ski fully eneourag.'.l. Winter was nppr.»uhlng. 
 ami Naiwleon ProlonKe.1 his stay at Moacow for 
 six w.rks He .lelayed his movements .>n 
 •ecount of the d.-ceptlvc n. ,-otlatl.ins of the 
 Russians: ami .11.1 n.it decl.lc on a nlrt-at till the 
 tl>th of t)rtober. This retreat wiu .llwsttui.s. and 
 began the (h>wnfall of tlio empire The 
 
 caliitiel of Berlin Iwgiin the defections. ()n the 
 Isl of .Marih. IS13, it Joined Russia ami EnglamI 
 whir 1 1 ero fonning the sixth coalition. Sw.Hlm 
 acc.-.li-.l to it so<m afu-r, yet the empemr, whom 
 the .-..nfeilenite power thought pnMlrate.1 l.y 
 the la>t diwwier, o|)ened the camiiaiifn with new 
 vletorieii. The Imttle ot Lutx.n, wm liv eon 
 script*, on the Jml .if May, the .atupalion of 
 l)ns.l.n;the victory of Uaiiixen, and the war 
 .■iirri.-.! to the Kllie. astonishe.1 the eixiliilon 
 Austriii, whl.li, »ln.e IHIO, Iwd bti-n on a f.K.t- 
 ing of (H-aiv, was resuming arma, aii.l alreadv 
 meditating a elmnge of allian.-e. She m.w pni. 
 IXW-.I li.rsclf lis 11 nii-.liatrix la-tween llieeiniH-Kir 
 ami the .Miif.d.niles. Her ine<li<ilioii w,,, 
 aovpu-d: an iiriiiisti.e was eoneludcd at Pless- 
 wit/., on the 4lh of June, and a eongnss 
 ask'inlil.'tl at I'nigiie to negotiate |M.-aee. It wiw 
 lni|KM.sili|,. i„ ,.,„„i, t,, „.„„, Austria 
 
 Jtilii.-.l theeuililinn. and war, tl niv means of 
 
 M'ttling this >;niit lontest, was .esiiiiieil The 
 emiMror luul only ixil.im men against .■>«() INM 
 \iiiory w.in..i|. at flmt, l.i M<<<iml him 
 At llri'Mliii he dtri-ut.il the eomliiiml fonis- 
 but the defeats of hi, lieutenants d.rangid his 
 plans. Tlie priii.vsof the eonfedemtion of 
 
 tin- Khiiie .liose this moment to d..s.'rl tlir i uis.- 
 of Ihrenipir,' A ni.t eniragi-ment haviii,: lakin 
 pla.. nt l,.iiisi<- iH'tween the two armies ih,. 
 S»».>iis and ft iirtcmla-rgers pa«M<<l over to (he 
 enemy on (|„. », Id of battle. This d. f.vli.m to 
 the sIreiiKtIi ,.f iIm- oakvecl jxiw. r», who ha.l 
 leariie.^1 nior.' I'onitHK't ami sklffnl tmsleof war 
 far>. oblitfid .\ii|M,).iin to n-in-at. after astriig 
 gle of ihn-.- day ., The empire was lnv,ul,,| 
 
 in all ilin-.'tioiis The Aiistriaiis ei.i. r.-d Italy 
 lie Knglisli, Imving mwle tlM>ma<>lv.<s mnslemof 
 the (HMiiKiila during the lost Iw.. n:ir. hiul 
 IMvwsl II,.. Hi.|.is.s.w, iimler r-neral W. Ilinirton 
 ami «ma,in,l on the J'yn-mvs. Thnv armi-i 
 pres-d oil Y ran.i- Ui the ea«t and north 
 
 SaiK.lc-on was .dillge,l to mit |.> the 
 
 ♦•.MLlllona of il„. ttllLsl (a.wers; their pretensions 
 Inere.uasl with Hair |N.wer . . . On the 1 1th of 
 .'.',. '*■ '"■ ""'""Mwl for himaiir ami 
 
 ' '''"/♦"'J ,''*'• !!!r.nn nf FriJi.,, «„,; iuiv. ami 
 l»selv.sl in eneliange for his vast si.v.rigniv. the 
 Uiiiiis of wbkb IuhI Mteodul tfvm ladls °tu tiie 
 
 Ot^ertkrom of 
 \ttpoltim. 
 
 AUSTRU, 181»-18&.. 
 
 naltic Sea, the little Island of Elba."— P \. 
 Mignet. Uittorgof lit* f<nueh HnolntioH, ch iV 
 -becOjtrtJiAMT: A. U. 18»)» (January— June), i„ 
 1813; Russia: A. D. 1813; and Fhamck: A II 
 lSlO-1818 U> 1814. 
 
 i.^ °L '••♦•-"•^"'** ™l« In Northern 
 lt«ljr. See Italy: A. D. 1814-181.'5. 
 
 ^ °- '«'4-«»«5--Trt«tie« of Paris and Con- 
 
 Esaa of Viciiii«.~R«adjuatinciit of French 
 undanca.— Recovary of tha TTrol from Ba- 
 varia and Lombardjr in Italy.— Acquiaition of 
 tha Vtnatian aUtaa. See Fhamce: A. I) ihu 
 (Aprii.— JuN«), and ISI.'J (Jitly— N.)veiibkhi 
 also ViKNNA, TitK CoNoRnw or. 
 
 A. D. ili4.iBao.— Formatioa of the C^-. 
 maoic Conftdaration. Sec Qermany' ' 1) 
 1814-18-JO. 
 
 A. D. Ili5.-The Holy Alliance. Sec Hoi.v 
 
 Al.I.tAXCE. 
 
 ^P- '8'5-— Return of Napoleon from Elba. 
 — The Quadruple Alliance.— The Waterloo 
 181?-'wS' *"** "* **"""•■ ''^'^' ••'"*'«"' -V 1) 
 
 ••^.?;-fi'**''i5.-.T5"l*"" P'«Kli. Prinet 
 ?!?"V^'^, "" 'I"* ■y'teni."— 'After tli< 
 
 232 
 
 treaty of \ieuiia In IWW, ami still more ...n 
 sptetiously p.'lcr the paeiaeati.in of Eiin.|». the 
 |H>litlcal wis,h)m of the nihrs of Austria in 
 cllne«l them ever more ami more to the iimin 
 teoance of that state of things wMeh was km.»n 
 to frfcmla and fi*s as the System. Iliit wlmt 
 was the SysUm T If was the orgnuisation of d.. 
 nothing. It cannot even la. said to have h.Tn 
 reacthmary: It waa slin|.ly Inaetionarv 
 Mark time in pla<w' was the WonI of ...mmaii.i 
 In every goumment offlee. The biirea-ii nu v 
 was enn .,-„| from morning to night in iiiaiiiiiK 
 work, but notliing ever came of It. Not .v.n 
 were the hla-rwl lnm)vatlons which ha.l lii«i„| 
 t .tough the reign of l^.pold p,t rid of Kvirv 
 liiiig went on In the eonfuse.1, unrtnlsh.M. and 
 lmfT.-.tivo .late In which the great war ha.l 
 fouml It. hneh was the famous System nhiili 
 was viiieralisl by the ultra- Tori«-« of ev.rv I.111.I 
 ami ni,»t vencrat.-.I where It was least iiiKler' 
 st.Msl Two men dominate the history of 
 .\ustria during this unlwnpy time — m. 11 who 
 though utterly unlike In ehar* t.r ami Inl.lle. i 
 were nevertheless ailmirablr lllle.1 to wi.rii 1.. 
 gellKT, and whom nnniea w(ll h.. hiiig iinite.i in 
 an uiienvlnlile notoriety. Tins,. «,.re tl.,- 
 Kinjanir KramU an.l l'rin.-e Meii..rni.h TIh- 
 tlrst was the evil genius of lnt.-riml i».|||i.<s i|,a 
 s.-eond eii, r. Is.sl a hanlly 1.-M lianefiil inH.i.m-o 
 ov.r foreign affair.. . . . For the e»t.rm.l polk y 
 of PriiHi. Meiierni.h. tin- first ami ni.«i iie.--i. 
 sary omdition was, that Austria should tflve to 
 t.uro|a- the linnnsslon of nxn\ adhen me to ilw 
 most extreme onsi-rvsli- e vh-ws. So (or ni.iiiy 
 jears tli.y w h| together, Prim-e Meti, rnl.li 
 always .).-. laring that he was a mere l.«,| h, the 
 
 ham Is of his master, but In n-aliiv far re 
 
 nlwolute In the dinethm of his own d. iwrli t 
 
 .,"'1 .""'"'""■*"•''''''• Prime M, II. r 
 
 m.h ha.l the power »f making th.- m.-t of ull 
 lie knew, and constantly h-ft U|>..n |»r~.ii» .f 
 real merit the Impn-saiou tlwt he »as >i imhh . f 
 Miy aspiratl..iis ami liberal views. »ho f.r.i.l 
 hlniaeir ui repn-sa such temlfiii i.-* In oih. r« !«• 
 cause lie thought that ilu.ir repr-.-^i-.-!! «=s a ='"r 
 ijui lion lor Aiulrlo. Tlie nu-u of ahiliiv «li ■ 
 liiM-w him Intlnwiely, thought h-ss well .If |,ii., 
 To them h« appeared vain and supertlilal. »iiii 
 
AUSTRIA., 181&-18S3. 
 
 Frtmtm IMUmtek mod 
 •■UuSttUm." 
 
 AUSTRIA, 181S-18M. 
 
 moeh that raotUed the French nobleeee of the 
 old regime in hie wkjr of kmklnc at thinn, and 
 empbatioUly wutiog in erery elemeot of giest- 
 nea. With the outbreak of the Qreek in^unec- 
 tlon in 1881. began a period of dllHculty and 
 romplicatlona for the itateemen of Austria. 
 There were two thinn of which they were 
 ninrullr afraid — Ruaaia and the revolution. 
 Now, If they aaieted the Oroeki, they would he 
 plKriag into the liamU of tlie eerond; ami If 
 thf'v oppneed the Orceki, they would be likely 
 to I'lubmil theniwlvet with the flr*t. The wliole 
 art nf Prince Mettemlch waa tiierefore ex«rt£<l 
 to keep things quiet iu the Eaalem Peninsula, 
 sihI to postpone the intiilerabla ■ question 
 il'Orlent.' Many were the shifts lie friwl, and 
 Homi'times. asjustaftcrtheaccesfciniiof Meliolas, 
 U» hopes rose »ery hlih. All wiw, howevt-r, in 
 Tsin. England and Russia settled matters be- 
 hind bis back : ami altluiugh the tone which the 
 nulillciats In his pay ailoptwl townnis tlie Greeks 
 be(»me more favourable in 1820-7. the battle of 
 Navarino was a sail surprise and mortification to 
 the wily duucellor. Nut less annoying was the 
 commeaceroeut of hostilities on tlH-' l>anube be- 
 tween Kuasis and the Porte. The reverses with 
 which the (rrest neighbour met Iu bla first cam- 
 palyn cannot have been otherwise than pleasing 
 St Vienna. But the unfortunate success which 
 aitiniknl his arms in the second campaign soon 
 tunie<l III'dlssembkKl Joy inU> ill ciinceuk-d 
 aorn>w. and the treaty of Adrianople at once 
 hiweml Austria's prestige in tlie Kast and de- 
 pose.1 Metternlch from the comnmniling p<Mltion 
 which he l»d oicupiiHl in the coiincila of the 
 Holy .lilies. It liecame, indeed, ever more ami 
 mure evident in the nest few years tliat 
 tile age of Congress politics, during which be 
 hail lieen the observeil of all obaervrn. was past 
 ani gone, that the diplomatic period bail van- 
 UIhiI away, ami tliat tlie military i>vriial bati be- 
 gun The very form In whh-h the hl<rlieat in- 
 ternational iiuesllons were delmted was utterly 
 cbangei] At Vienna, in 1814. tli« dlpbunaliau 
 had l»fn reKlly the primarv. Ilie sovereigns onlv 
 •nnndary personages; while at the interview of 
 Mniirhengrati, between Nicholas ami the Em- 
 IxTtir Prancis, in 1883, the great tocrat ap- 
 ("•anii to look up<m Prince MetU-n. h as hanlly 
 iiinri' than a confidential clerk. The dull 
 m..ri.iii,ny of servitude which oppresaeil nearlv 
 ih«- whole of the empiie waa vartetl by tlie agita- 
 tions „f one of lis component parts Wlien the 
 lluriK«riai.I»letwa«dissolved In INU.ilw emperor 
 ha.1 ookmnly pnmiiaeil tliat It sbouhi be called 
 i.'ir. iImt sgaia within three years. I'p to 1HI5 
 aiiiTillngly, the nation went on giving ei- 
 irHMrlliiary levies and supplies without much 
 '•pl"»liiiMi. When, however, the ap|M.lut«<t 
 ilmi' was fulflllwl. It lagan to murmur 
 ^mr iiv year the agluilon went on incn-aoing. 
 111! il la.t the hn-akliig out of the On^ek revi.lu- 
 II 11 :.iid llic threatening ap|icarsiH« of Eoalem 
 !► h!,.«, IihIikimI l-rintw Metlemiih to Joiu bis 
 «iiir.,iiie« to tliiKie of many irtlier i ounacllors, 
 wh. I ,HiW not !«• suspect«<l of the sllglit«»i lean 
 111.' (o conatltMtlonal views At length tiie 
 < iit« r..r yiehlwl, ami In lHa.% Preaburg was once 
 iiir. lillnl with the best bhaal an.1 nioM «,.ii.» 
 •i".u ,.r iIh, u,HJ, oaaemhleii in psrlinment. 
 —Mi: ami iinnny were llw debates which enaiied 
 mill t waa. from Um« u. time, the veiatlon nf 
 tit. >'iti|ieiw. and great was the exdtettwat 
 
 throughout Hungary. In the end, howeTer, the 
 court of Vienna triumphed. Hardly any griev- 
 ances were redressed, while iU demands were 
 fully conceded. The Diet of 1843 was, however 
 not witliout fruit. The discussion wbicb took 
 place advanced the political education of the 
 people, who were brought back to the point 
 where they stooii at the death of Joseph IL— 
 that is, before the long wars with France bad 
 come to distract their attention fmm their own 
 affairs. . . , The slumbers of Austria were nor. 
 yet over. The System dragged its slow length 
 along. Little or nothing was done for the Im- 
 provement of the country, KlebcUberg ad- 
 ministered the finances In an cosy ami cureieas 
 manner. Conspiracies and rising:) in Italy were 
 easily checked, and batches of priaonera ac^nt off 
 from time to time to Hsntuu or hpiellxTg, 
 Austrian influence rose ever iiiKher and higher 
 in all the petty cnuru of the Peninsula, ... In 
 other regions Russia or England might lie will- 
 ing to tliwart him, but iu luly Prince Meiu-r- 
 nich might proudly reflect that Austria was In- 
 dce<l a great power." The Fnnch Revolution 
 of IKW waa at first alarming; but when it re- 
 siillej In the enthronement of a ilynaaty which 
 called to lu aid a ■cabinet of re|iri-«»iiin.' all 
 fears were stilled. The EmiH-ror Francis con- 
 tinued to say, when any cbaiivv waa pn.|>o<itil, 
 ' We must sleep upon it,' anil dlid lu Ift-Ti in 
 ' the abundance of peace.'"— M. E. (Jrant Duff. 
 MtMifM* I* Sun^iutn hililia, pp 14U-14U.— See 
 also, Okrmant: A. D. 141I«-1H47. 
 
 A. D. t8i5-i846.-<!aia8 of the HansburK 
 monarchr. — Its agfressiT* absolutism. — 
 Daath of Francis I — Accession ol Ferdinand 
 
 I.— Sappreaaioa of rt*olt in Galicia Extinc- 
 
 tiooaadaaatxatiooof the Republic of Cracow. 
 —"In the new partition of Eump*-, arraugeil iu 
 the Congress of Vienna [see Vik.nna. Tiik ( ox- 
 nHMS or). Austria recelve<l l.,oihlHir<ly and 
 Venice uniler the title of a l.,onilninli> Venetian 
 kingdom, the Illyrian provlncei also oa a king- 
 dom. Venetian Dalnuitia, the Tinil, Vonirllarg, 
 Haltburg, the Iniivlertel and ilauKrnckavicrti'l 
 ami tlie part of Uallcia ceiled bv her at an earlier 
 period. Thus, after three and tweniv years of 
 war, the monanby boil gnlneil a cons'iilemlilc 
 acceaion of stn-ngtb, having olitiiineil, in lieu 
 of iu remote ami iinpnillialilc {MweiviMna in the 
 Netherlands, territoriea which iHinaolidated lu 
 power In ttalv, and nuule it oa gr»at ii extent as 
 It hod been In the days of Charlea VI , ami far 
 more oomnact and defcnuiMe. The gmud 
 duchies of Miah'na. I>amia, ami Plan ntla, were 
 moreover niiloreil to the colhilcral bramhca of 
 the boiiae of llapaliiirg, . . . After tlie luai fall 
 of NajHiletio . . the grvat iwiweia of the cim- 
 tinent . . . conatltiilt'illheinai'lve^thei ham|i(i>ns 
 of the principh' of al>»i>lul« monanhv. Tho 
 malntenanei' of that primlple iillinmiclv"Uiaiiie 
 the chief object of the wi calliil Holy Alliance 
 eatnhllshtKl in |x|fl beiwr<>n Kuwia. Aualriu and 
 Pniasia. and was pursiieil with remarkaliii' mead, 
 faaltiess by the Km|Mriir Francis and hia niin- 
 latJ-r, Prim-e .Metternieb (see lloi.v Ai.i.unckJ. 
 . Tliencef.irth It lieeame the iivoweil iM.licy 
 of tin- chh-f Miveri'igns of (.)<'niuiny Ui inalnlain 
 •he riehts :<! -.lysuaUrx |r ■-.; H,|-,>f.^ „-;.„. .„ 
 tliiMC of tlnlr aubjnta. The pciple, on the 
 other ham I, deeply resinlnl tin' lin'ii. Ii nf Ihian 
 pn>miaes which hail la-en ■> lavUbli inaili lo 
 tbe:n uo the general summons to Ike war uf 
 
 883 
 

 IIH 
 
 4 
 
 i^^H 
 
 
 ifl^^^^^^B 
 
 - " 
 
 
 1 
 
 '^^^B 
 
 
 '^Hl 
 
 ^Ji! 
 
 •g^^^H 
 
 ik 
 
 S^^^^EO" 
 
 'i 
 
 ACBTRIA, 1815- !84S. 
 
 libentiaa. DiMffectloD took the place of that 
 enthiMUitlc loyiltT with which they hwl bled 
 and (ufferad for their natiTe princea; the lecret 
 •ocleties. funned with the concurrence of Uicir 
 rtilcra, for the purpowi of throwing off the yolie 
 of the foreigniT. became ready instrumcnu of 
 ■edition. ... In ihe winter of 1818, a German 
 r«lfraU»e ominuB aawmbled at Vienna. In 
 May of the f. il..wlni year it publlsheii an act 
 eimlalnlnR oloaer didnltioni of the PedcraUve 
 Act hai-,n;f i.r ilMjlr enential objecu the ex- 
 clusion of the vurloi!» piorincial Dleu fi«m all 
 poaltive iiu-frrtnce in the general affaln of 
 Uirmany, ami an Incrr^iie of the power of the 
 pnrM'ea o ur their respective DieU, by a ffuaian- 
 tee of aid 00 the part of the confederate*" (see 
 Oermany: a. n. 1814-1820). During the next 
 UiTvf yean, the powers of the Holy Alliance 
 under the leail of Austria, and acting under a 
 conoert established at the successive congresses 
 of Tn.ppau. Uvlwnh and Ven)na (see Vkrona 
 C ON0REH8 or), Interfered to put down popular 
 risings sgainat the tyranny of goremment in 
 Italy and Spain, whlli- il„ v discouraged the re- 
 To t of the Orael(s («,• Italy: A. D. 1880- 
 1821 ; and Spaik: A. I). 1814-1827). "Thccom- 
 motlons that pervaded Europe after the Fr<>ncb 
 Rej-olutlon of 1830 affected Austria only In her 
 lUltan dominions, and there but indirectly for 
 tjie Imperial aulhority remalocd undisputed in 
 tlie I^nilwnlo- Venetian lilng.lom. but the 
 duke of Modena and the archduke of Parma 
 Kcri' lillgwi to quit tlioee sUtes. and a formid- 
 able Insurrecllon broke out In the territor- '.f the 
 i lum-h. An Austrian army of 18,0i .> men 
 quickly put down Oie Insurgents, who nise 
 ajTHin. however, as s.Nm as It was withilrawn. 
 Tlie poiH- again invok«'<l the aid of Austria 
 wlidse triMips entere<i Bologna In January I88a' 
 and r*UI>lished themselves then- in garrison' 
 I pon this, ttie French lmnie<liately sent a force 
 to occupy Ancona. and for a while a r»'newal of 
 the oftnp<ated conflict Ulwctn Austria ami 
 France on Italian ground se<me<l inevitable; but 
 It siNin appeared that France was not pnpaied 
 U> supnort the nvolullonary party in tl«- popes 
 dominions, ami that d-nger pai>ae<l awiiy. The 
 Fnnrh rrmained foramne years in Aonma. and 
 Uie Austnans in Holoirna and .itlier towns of 
 Itomagna This was tlie last Important Im-ident 
 In llie foreign affairs of Austria pnvious to Iho 
 di-alh of tlie Emperor Francis I. on the 2n<l of 
 Msrch, 18)H. after a reign of 44 veaia. . The 
 Emperor Francis was suceenl'ed by his son 
 Fe^lllland I , whnae accesHlon occasioned no 
 change in the political or ailnilnlstrative svsh-m 
 of th. emnlnv IncapaclUtwl, by physical and 
 mental liiflmilty. fnwn labouring as his fallier 
 ha<i done In the business of the stale, the new 
 monarch left u> I'rim-e Mettemlch a much inon> 
 unrestricted power than that minisl4'r had 
 wlehieil in the pre<v<llng reign. . . . The pmy- 
 Joce <if (>ali( ia began eariy in the new rvlgn to 
 o«»»ii>n uneaalnesa t4> the govemnient. The 
 (.'oogrvsa of Vienna hail oinstTtuU-d the cllr of 
 < r»«i.w an intiepemlent republic— a fiitlle 
 representative of tlut l^illsh nathmality which 
 flad utuv rtumlnl from the Haltic to the Black 
 .■^.>..*"'''; »'"•'•"'"»"' the Polish iDaum>clion 
 of 1881 against HusaU. <;rac..w U-came the focu* 
 or rn-sli eoiiKoirariio i<j niit ,u> ,.[,.i t,, tchirfc the 
 nty was ihi unlwl by a mixed force of Kuariaoa. 
 PruMtMM, a.id AuitriuMi Um twa (ofner waie 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1815-1849. 
 
 SSS *W^T?- ""'i '^t >•'««' """^ned until 
 1840. When they alao bad letired, the Polish 
 propaganda waa renewed with conshlerable 
 TSJ^ u*° InsBrrecUon broke out in Ualicia in 
 184«, when the acantioess of the Austrian uiili 
 tary force in the prorince seemed to promise it 
 success. It faihxl. however, aa all previmis 
 effort* of the Poliah patriote had failed, bccaus.- 
 It rested on no baala of popubr sympathy. Tlie 
 nationality for which they cont^nd^ had ev,r 
 been of aii oligarchical pattern. hoaUle to llie 
 freedom of the middle aoil lower classes. The 
 Oallciaii peavinu had no mind to excliange the 
 yoke of Austria, which pressed lightly uik.u 
 them, for the feudal oppression of the Polisl, 
 nobles. They turoeil upon Uie insurgents au.l 
 •lew or t<K>k them prisoners, tlie iHilioe iniitiiiL. 
 them to the work by publicly offering a rew.inl 
 pi nve florin,, for every suspeittd pcnum ili 
 Uvered up by them, alive or dead. Tims ilie 
 agenw of a cIviilzMl government becamu tlie 
 avowed Instigators of an Inhuman ' ju.<,uerie ■ 
 The houses of the Umleil pn.(.riet-)r8weieHi..k,,l 
 by Uie |>easanta. their luinal. - were U.rture,l ..i.l 
 muni riHl. and bloody anarl,., raged tlirougii„iit 
 the land in the pnwtitutnl name of lovallv 
 The Au.striiiii trcwps at hist n-ston-d onier" ; liiit 
 Ba-ia Uie iemler of the sanguinary murHuil, rs 
 was thanke.1 aud highly rewaideif in the name 
 of hb sovenlgn. In the same year the timr 
 protecting powem, Austria. KussU. and l'ru»>iii 
 took possi.sslon of Craci.w. and. Ignorinir ii,e 
 right of ihe other parties to the treaty of \ i, mm 
 Blves alHiut the fate of tin- 
 
 234 
 
 to concern themsel „. .„„ ..„ „, i,„. „. 
 
 public, tliey announced Uiat ita indeiHii.l, n,,.. 
 was annulled, and that the city and teriiinn of 
 Cracow were annexed to. ami forever iii.oi|«, 
 raUHl with, the Austrian monanliy. Knuii tliit 
 time forth the iMilitlcal alinosp lerv of Euroiie 
 tscaine more and more loailiHl wlUi the pr. nil-.h 
 of the storm Uiat burst in 1848 "—W. K Kelly 
 (i»>t,i„iali,m of Cut,; IM. „f the ll.mv 'uf 
 AuMna. ch. .V8. 
 .. ^ D- «««5-««49.— ArraBtements io Italy of 
 
 »•.?""*'•!? «V'*"»^ -"••»'«>•«» o'«l>« 
 Austrian yokt.-Tht Italian riainrs.- lly 
 the treaty of \lenua(181,^), Uie . . . emir, king 
 dom of \ enetlau Lombardy waa handed m, r u. 
 the Austrians; Uie duchies of Modena. XU^-^m. 
 «-llh Maasa and Carrara, given Ui AuMriiui 
 Drinii*; Parma. Hacenaa. and auaat>ill;t u> 
 >a|H.le,ins queen. Maria Luisa. because slu ks< 
 an Austrian princess; the grami duehy of Tui 
 cany to Ferdinand UI. of Austria, the dm hv ..f 
 Lucca to a Bourbon. Rome and the Ifc.iimL 
 Stalin were restored Ui the new Pope, llus Ml 
 Mlciiy was united Ui Naples under the B.iiirlK,iis. 
 and Uler deprived of l.er wiostltuthin <l. >iiii« 
 llie pnmiisetl protei-Uon of England, the ( «iii„a 
 Tlclno, though atricUy Italian, aiineietl to ilie 
 Hwls* < i*ili-.leral!mi : the little republic of .•«i 
 Marino left Intact, even us the primipslitv uf 
 Monani KnglamI reUiine.1 Malta; forsiiuHss 
 left to fraiice Italy, so MelU-nikh «'«i Euniie 
 fonllv ho|M..|. was iwlunil Ui a gi-og uphi. «1 ex 
 prrasion I'njusl, brutal, and tn-a. l«•^Ml. ss 
 w»s thttt parlliion, at hast It taught ilic li .lu 
 that who wouki he free himself muststrik ih« 
 blow. It uniteil them Into one Gumiiton h.iind 
 of Austriaand Austrian satelliiea By •uIh.iiiui 
 ifig impai, .\j«rt»n, an.i itourtiuu desis>ii.<.ii. I'.t 
 the free Instltutluos, c.«h'S, and constlliilion, ,,| 
 tie Maiwiauiih: era, it taught Uwm Uie .liflir, u. t 
 
AUSTRIA. 181S-184>. 
 
 The Fmtikforl 
 Amgmm}/. 
 
 AUSTRIA. 1848-1849. 
 
 between rule and mi-^nile. Hence tlic ilcmnnil 
 of the Nciipolltans duriug their flnit revolution 
 (1830) was for a conatitutfon; tliat of the Pieil- 
 mnntese and Lombards (1831) for a ninstltiition 
 and war against Austria. The Bourbon swnru 
 and foreswore, and the Austrians ' restored onler ' 
 In Niipli-s. The Pledmnnteae, who liiul not con- 
 rcrtcil tlicir moreinent until Naples was cruslied 
 —after tlie abdication of Victor Emmanuel I. , the 
 frranting of the constitution by tlie regent Charles 
 .Mliert, and its abrogation by tlie new king 
 Charles Felix— saw the Austrians enter Pie<r 
 mont, while the leaders of the revolution went 
 nut into exile [see Italy: A. D. lW?i)-lftJlj. 
 Uut those revolutions and tliose fiiilurcs were the 
 boffinning of the end. The will to be lnde|i<'nilrnt 
 of hII foreipcrs, the thirst for freedom, whs 
 universal; the very name of empire or of em- 
 pemr. was rendere<l ridiculous, reducol to a 
 parody — in ihe (lorson of Penlinand of Austria. 
 But one illusion remained — in the lilMrating 
 virtues of France and the Freneli; this had to lie 
 dispelled by bitter experience, and for it siilistl- 
 tiitetl the new idea of one Italy for tlie Italians. 
 a nation united, inde|>endent, free, governed bv 
 a pri'sident or by a itiii j chosen by the sovereign 
 people. The apostle of this iilca, to which for 
 lifty years victims and martyrs were siierifloil 
 liyiliousinds, was Joseph .Mnzzini; its champion, 
 Jiiw'pli (inrilHihll. By the genius of the former. 
 Ilie prowess of the latter, the abnegation. Ihe 
 eonslaniy, the tenacity, the iron will of Inith, all 
 tile inipnlations of Iwly were siibjugatol by that 
 Ide.i: pliilosopliers deriionstrntetl it, poets sung 
 it. pious Christian priests priKlaimed it. states- 
 men foiinil it confMnting their negotiHtions. 
 Iiaffllnir their half-measures." — J. W. \'. Mario. 
 I itrifhirtinn t>t Autiihififfr'tphtf tif frttrifmUfi — 
 See Itai.v: A. D. I**)-!***!, and IH4«-1M0. 
 
 A. D. 1835.— Acccuioo of the Emperor 
 Ferdinand I. 
 
 A. D. iS3O-il40.— The Tnrko-Ecntian 
 '(uestion and Its Mttlcmcnt.— QoftdrnpTe Alli- 
 • nce. StTi'HKS; A. I). IKJl-KWI. 
 
 A. D. 184*-— Th« Ctnaaaic rcvolntioiury 
 risinj. -National AaMmbly "t Frankfort.— 
 Archduke lahn elected Admiatetrator of Ger- 
 many. —' When the thiril Frr-nch Kevoliition 
 lir keoiil. Its influence was Inuiieiliatelv felt in 
 Ce rinnny Tlic popular movement this time was 
 Very dilTennt from any the <l-'Wmincnt» hail 
 hliicrtn had l« contend with. The people wen- 
 evil, iiily ill earnest, anil rcsolviil to obtain, at 
 Willi! ver cost, Ihelr clilef ilemanda. . . . The 
 I{ev.,liiilon was inont •erioua in the two great 
 flirni.in Slates, I'russiii and Aiutriii. . . It 
 «H i.',ner:illy liopisl that iinlim as well as fn-e- 
 '! rn »:i» now Ui !«• iwhleved by Germany: but, 
 i< I'russia ami Austria wene fn t<»> much dis- 
 ' I. T to do anything about .MDtlleniians from the 
 » in. IMS States mil at Fmnkfurt, and on .March 
 II I'lMstitiileil Ihemsi'lviMi n pnivlstonal I'arlla- 
 "I'lit An PxtnMiie party wislieil the assembly 
 ti'li-.liire Its,|f perm.inent; but In this the inii 
 Wiiy would not agn-e. It was 1leeld.1l llial a 
 >ili"iial Aswinblv should h<- rlwHil forthwith 
 hy ih.- fkrmaii tnnple. The Conf. derate i>iel 
 l<n"wliig that till- iinivlslonal Parliament w.ia 
 ij'pniv.-d by the nation, recngnlntl itaautliorily. 
 T.'.rr-.-.ij.-!-, tj^p f)4jij (1,^ y^^„„j Qj,j.^^jjj..j,jj| jj.,i,.p 
 
 ' 'itiinunimled with, ami all of theiu ngn.t-\ to 
 mike arruigemniu for tlie elections. . . TIh- 
 ^•itonal AaemMy was upeonl la Fmnkfurt on 
 
 »Iay 18, 1848. It elected the Archduke John of 
 Austria as the head of a new provisional central 
 Oovcminent. The choice was a happy one. 
 The Archduke was at once acknowledged by the 
 diflerent governments, and on July 12 the Preil- 
 dent of the Confe<lemte Diet formally made over 
 to him the authority wlilch hod hitherto belonged 
 to tlie Diet. The Diet then ceased to exist. The 
 Arclidiike chose from the Assembly seven mem- 
 liers, who formed a responsible ministry. Tlie 
 Assembly was divided into two panics, tlie 
 Kiglit and the U-ft. These again were limken 
 up into various sections. Much time was lost in 
 uai'less discussions, and It was soon suspected 
 that the Assembly would not in the end prove 
 tMlunl to the great task It had undertaken."- 
 J. Siine, History of Otrmnni/. eh. 19, «r(«. 14-11. 
 — SeeOKRMANT: A. D. 1848 (.March— Seitem- 
 BEII). 
 
 A. D. it4t (December).- Acceation of the 
 Emperor Francia Joaeph I. 
 
 A. D. I84S-IS40.— RerolntionaiT riainn.— 
 Bombardment of Prane and Vienna.— Abdica- 
 tion of the Emperor Ferdinand.- Accetaion of 
 Francis loacph.— The Hung^arian ttrunle 'or 
 independence.— " The rise of national feeling 
 among the Hungarian, Slavonic, ami Italian 
 KUliJectsof the House of Hapshiirg was not the 
 only difflcully of the Empenir Fenllnaiid I. 
 Vienna was then the g.iyestand thedeari'st ci-ntre 
 of fashion and linury in Kunipc, but side by side 
 with wealth there aei-llied a mass of wretchcil 
 povirty; and the prolcctive trade system of 
 Austria so incieiuied the price of the necessaries 
 of life that lireail-riols were frequent. . . . Tlio 
 university stiiihiits were fon>mo«t In the demand 
 for a cimstitiition and for the n-moval of the 
 rigid censorship of tlie pn-sa ami of all IxHiks. 
 S<i. when the news came of Ihe rtli;lit of I^iiils 
 I'hillpiie fmm Paris [sec Fkance: A. 0. 1H41- 
 1S4M. and I^SJ the stiidenu as well as the 
 artiaiins of Vienna rose in revolt (.Man-li 13, 
 1H4S). the lattiT breaking machinery and ntlnek- 
 Ing the iHiiiaes of unpopular employe™. A 
 deputation of cltizeoK elaimiiireil for the resigna- 
 llim of the haled Metlemlch: his house was 
 burnt down, and he tli-d to England. .\ scconil 
 oullin'ak of the excited |><ipuhiii'(Mav 1.1. lK4i<», 
 siiit the Em|N'nir Fenlinanil in lielple-ui llieht U) 
 Innsprnek In Tyrol; but he retiimeil when they 
 Bvoweil tiM'lr loyalty 1« his pcnton, though they 
 detesteil tlie idd hurcaui ratic sysU'm. Far more 
 compllcale<!. however, wen' the race Jealiiiisles 
 of the Em(>ire. The Slavs of llohcmia . . . hiul 
 demanded of Fcrillnand the union of liohemla. 
 Moravia, and Austrian Silesia in Estates for those 
 provinces, and that thi- Slavs should enjoy e<|ual 
 iiHvllev* with the Oerinans. After an unsotls- 
 factory answir hail la-<'n n'(vlve>l, they convokeil 
 a Slavonic » .Mii^n-sa at Prague. . . . lint while 
 this Babel of tongu<>« was sit-king for a means of 
 fusion. Prince Winiliscligrftti: was aswinlillng 
 Austrian troo|M around the Roliemiiui capital. 
 Fights in the slnfls lc<I to a iKimbanlmentof the 
 (Ity. which Windisehgrfttl soon enlereil In 
 triumph. This has hft a bitterness hrtwei-n the 
 Tsechs or Bohemians and the (Jermans which 
 still divides Ihiliemia socially and (lolltleally. 
 . . . The exciting news of the spring of 1H48 
 hw) mit<i< tin- tiol Ai^Hlte titoal of IIh- Mngynrs 
 boll; yet even Kossuth and the ilenuKrits at 
 (Irst only ih-inandcsl the atmlltlon of Metter- 
 nlch's system In favour of a tvprcsentntivo gov- 
 
 i 
 
 236 
 
AU8TRU, 1848-1849. 
 
 HungariaH Stngglt 
 for htdtpndntxt. 
 
 AUSTRIA. 1848-1849. 
 
 ft 
 
 that the Magynr laws and languaf^e must now 
 
 also in tiK. Humrariim 'crown lands' ofT)alm«. 
 Ha, Croatia, and Slavonia, and Uie enthusiastic 
 
 „J?'^^""i..*'*J"^' *'"" '" •'*"■'' »'« ancient 
 princ palily of Transylvania; but this apiiu wm 
 Momly resisted by the Roumanians. 81avs. and 
 Saxons of that little known comer of Europe 
 and their discontent wai fanned by the court of 
 \lenna. Jellachlch. the Ban or Governor of 
 I roiilla, iKwlcd this movement, which aimed at 
 malii»K A»rram the capital of the southern Slavs. 
 Their revolt apiinst the Htinjrarian ministry of 
 Battliyanyi was at flrst disavowed in June I84S 
 but in (VtobiT wasencourageil, by theperfldioua 
 eoycromcnt of \ienna. A confennce between 
 Rilthyanyi and Jellachlch ended with words of 
 deflance: Then we must meet on the Drave.' 
 sahl the Hungarian. 'No. on the Danub.-.' re 
 , • J™' '••"'n'P'on of the Slavs. The vacil- 
 lalmg Fenlinand annulled hU acceptance of the 
 new Hiinmrian constitution and declared 
 Jellachlch dictator of Hungary. His tool was 
 unfortunate. After crossing the Drave. the 
 Slavs were defeated by the brave Hungarian 
 honveds (defenders); and as many as » ()()(» 
 were made prisoners. Unable to subcliie 
 Ilungary, Jellachlch turned aside towanis 
 \ ienna to crush the popular party thetv. For 
 the demwrats, exasperated by the ptrtldious 
 po icy of the government, hail, on October 6 
 1»4M, risen a third time: the war minister 
 Ijatoiir. hait lw>n hanged on a lamp post, ami 
 the emperor again fled from his turbulent c«t>ilal 
 to the "•<"■■ faithful Tyrolese. But now Jella- 
 rhl( h and W indischgrStz bombarded the rebel 
 lious cnpit.1 . It was on the point of sum-ndering 
 when the Hungarians appeared to aid the city ; 
 but the levies raised by the exertions of Kossuth 
 wen. this time outmanieuvred [and defeated! by 
 the lm|Hri«li(,is at Scliwcchat (<)<-tob<T ao imni 
 and on the next day Vienna surrendenii. Blum' 
 « <le egHte frr)m Saxony llo the German Parlhi'- 
 
 of mediation to Vienna, but who had taken a 
 part in the flghting). and some other democnits 
 were stmt. By this clever but unscrupulous uw 
 of race Jealousy the Vienn.^ Government 
 •e<-mcd to have overcome B<)hemlan.H. Italians 
 Hunganans and the citizens oflts own capital 
 in tiiro; while it had diverted the «,utWrn 
 Slavonians from hoslillty to actual service ou its 
 InW.nf ifl'iT *"^ health and va,-ill„lng 
 spirit of Fenlinand did not satisfy the knot of 
 courtiem of \ ienna, who now, Hushed by siiceesa 
 
 r«hfn.',""u'"'^'"""*J'" ?"""••■ 'n«he Viennese 
 tabmet. Worn out by the excilemenis of tlie 
 } ear and bv the demands of these men, Fenll 
 Hand, on l>.cymb.-r 2. 1H4N. yieldd up the 
 crown, not t» his rightful suci^-s^.r, his brother 
 but to lis nephew. Francis Jo«-ph. He. a vouil 
 of eighteen. ««,ude,l the throne m t^ide y 
 shaken, and st II n spite of almost uniform .lii 
 usier in war. Iml.l, sway over an empir,- larger 
 and rmire (xmerful than he found It In IMH 
 The lliingahnns nfused to recognise the voiini 
 sovenign ,h„. ,..^x ^^ ^^ ^ ,^ '^8 
 
 that he was not cir.wnej at Pirsburg with the 
 Mcre.1 iron crown of St. Stephen show.<l that Iw 
 dW n,|^ Intend „, r»,.^s^ ,fe. n,,„^^^\*^_ 
 
 .„l,^?i. ^"£1''V !"«?•"'»»" Windiscl.grit, 
 intered Buiia-fMU., but the Uunfartun pauiuu 
 
 withdrew from their capital to organize a 
 national resistance; and when the Austrian Gov 
 ernmeut pro<laimed the Hungarian ainstituiiori 
 alK.li»l,«f»„,|the complete atieorption of 1,, 
 Kary in the Austrian fempire, K.«uth and 1, 
 colleagues retorted by a IX-clamtion of I,„|, 
 pen,lence (Apri 24. 1^49). The House of 1 , , , 
 burg was .lecUretl Uuiishcl fn)m HunA v 
 which was to be a republic. Kossuth, the ll«i 
 governor of the new rvpubllc. and (jorgei ™ 
 general, raisejl armies wfilch soon showt5 I'li, ir 
 rowess. • The fli,.t Important battle of the w« 
 had Iwen fought at Kapolua. ou the right bank 
 of the Thel™ on the 8«Ui of February. H49 
 Onrgel and I)<mbinski eoinnianding tlic Hun- 
 pmans an.l Win.lis.l.gratz lea.llr.gV Aulir - 
 ans. The latur won the victory, and il,,. 
 Hungarians retreated toward Uie Theias. Al».ut 
 the. niddle of March, QOrgel resumed the off" 
 
 f.A'^rjl"'"'"* ,'"*""' P™*^' •»<» e>>count,'r,"| 
 the Austrians«tl8as/.eg, when- he defeated ili,i,i 
 n a harv -fought battle. -or rather in twl, t"' 
 ties which are sometimes called by dilTennt 
 names: viz., thatof Tapio BIscke fough Apr" 
 4tli, and that of (Jodolo, fouglit on Uic .'StI I 
 was now the tura of the Austrians to fall l,„ck 
 and they .-onci'iitrateil b»>hiud the Rakcn 1,; 
 cover I'esth. The Hungarian general inj, 
 round their left. carrieS Walton by 1 .Tn 
 ^jrocd them to evacuate Pcsth and to felnai in 
 I^sburg, abandoning the whole of Huiii:,,ry 
 
 they IkI I The most lmport«it of these f.iri 
 n.««js, that of Buda, the "twin-city, " ™p,MU. 
 Pestli on the Diuiiilie, was besieged U ih, 
 Hungarians aiid carrie.1 by storm on the iU „f 
 Mav. 'In Transylvauia. too. the Hunmrians 
 umlcr tne talenied Polish general Bem. ove,-,- ,e 
 n^.^'Kio*^"' S'"*""!*^ »n<l Roumani,.,,, i,, 
 miuiy brilliant encounter*. But the pnHl.uiu 
 Hon of a r.-|nibllc bail alienaud those llniira 
 riaus who hwl only striven for their old con-iii„ 
 tloiml rights, so (juant'ls anae U'tw.-eu (;„r,..i 
 and the anient dem.«r.it Kossuth. Wors.. ..till 
 the (zar Nicholas, drea<ling the format i,m of a 
 np hlic near his Polisli provini^es wn. the 
 11 iliuuy aid which Francis Joseph in May IS4II ini 
 plored 8o™>t«»,0()(H<u«|M,8 under P«ki,witrl, 
 poured over the north.m Carpathians to heli. 
 the bea en Austrian., while olher»overp.i«>r,,l 
 i^'i^/i*'*?' '^'™ '" Transylvania. Jellaehi, h 
 with his t ronis again iuvadetl South Huiicrv 
 and Haynau, the s.t>urge of I.<.inlmr.lv. manhnl 
 on the «lron^,t Hungarian fortrtsa. |{,>m,„n. ,.„ 
 he Ihiuiibe. The Hungarians, overpower,,! I,v 
 the combination of Austrians and H.is,iuti« 
 again.l them, were defrntcd at Pcnil Juii, M 
 
 ■infVfA '.'V '*'.'^""?"r""'"'y "•«« Wail/,,,.' 
 July l«.«t^Ioml«r, July 30; atS,ge,var. .lulv 
 .11, at IMinciln, August 2; atSzegedln. Atiir,,:! 
 V »' Teinesvar, August 10. "In ,|,.|,,ir 
 Kossuth handed over liu dlcUtorahipto hi> rual 
 Grtrgei who soon surrendered at V!lag,««iih 
 all bis force* to the Russians (August lit I -I!) 
 About 5.000 men with K,>ssuth. fc-m. ami ,.ih,r 
 leaders. («cape,| to Turkey. Even th< rf Ituvi;, 
 and Austria soujtht to drive them forth, bir .-„ 
 Porte upheld V.y the WesU-ra Powers. ..uii. 
 Hilled its right ui give sanctuary ac-onlii,.; i„ 
 tlu- Koran. Koasuiii iitHi many of his fi ]l-» 
 ixiL-s nnully salle.1 u. England [and sfurwar.l. 
 to America), where his majestic el.«iu.n,e 
 aroused d«vp syniNtUiy for Uie •flUcttd euuniiy 
 
 236 
 
AUSTRIA. 18«a-1849. 
 
 Otrmnn 
 Burtaucruen. 
 
 AUSTRIA, 184»-18M. 
 
 Mmit Hunifiirfan putiints luffnrpfl rlonth. All 
 rrbels had their pmpvity noaHiicatH. and the 
 (fluntry wu for yean ruled by armed force, 
 iind iu old righu were nbolislied. "— J. H. Roac, 
 A Cthtury mr OanlinmM llutory, eh. 81. 
 
 Also in: Sir A. Aliaon, IIM. nf Europe, 181.V 
 18.K, <■*. M.—A. Oflrgcl. Mg Life and AeU in 
 U'lHqnry. — General KInpka, Menniin of the War 
 •■f Indtptndtntt in Hnngarj/. — Count ilartie, 
 llfneMt nf tht Berolutim in Au4tria. — W. H. 
 Stileo. Auilriain 1H4H-49. 
 
 A. O. 1848-1849.— Rerolt in Lombardj and 
 Venetia.— war with Sardinia.— Victories of 
 Radetskr. — Italy vanquished arain. See 
 Italy: A. D. 184»-184». 
 
 A. D. i848-i85o.— Faiinrc of the morement 
 for Germanic national onitr. — End of the 
 Frankfort Assembly. — " FraiiMort had iM'co'iie 
 Ih.-tentrcof themoTcment. Thclielplcsa Diet had 
 iirknowledged the necessity of a Oerninn parlia- 
 ment, and had summoned twelve men of conH- 
 ilcnn- charged with drawing up a new imperial 
 ((institution. But it was unable to supply what 
 was most want(!d — a strong eierutive. . , 
 lnatea(i of establishing before all a nimng pxerti- 
 tive able to control and to n-aliac its reaolulionsi, 
 ilie Araembly lost months iu diwuMing the 
 fundiinientiil rights of tlie Gorman people, and 
 
 given, and even at the time of failure it was 
 certain, as Htoeltmar said, that the necessity of 
 circuinstunces would bring forward the nmn who, 
 prcUting by the experiences of 1848. wouhl fulfil 
 the national aspirationa. "— F. II. Oeffclten, 
 The Unitfiof Germitiin (Englith ni'turiml Het., 
 il/'nV. 1891). —See Germany: A. D. 1848-1850. 
 A. D. 1849-1859.— The Return to pure Ab- 
 solutism. — Bureaucracy triumphant. — " ' The 
 two great giiins which the moral earthquake of 
 1848 brought to Austria werv, that througli wide 
 pmvinces of the Empite. aud more cspecUlly iu 
 Hungary, it »n-ept away the sort of semi- 
 vassMlage in which the peaanntry hod been left 
 liy the Crbnrium of M:iria Theresa [an edict 
 whicli gave to the peasauu the right of moving 
 from fdace to place, and the riirlit of bringing 
 up their children us they wi.shed," while it estnb- 
 lisbed in n-rlain ojurts the tri:il of all suits to 
 which they were parties], and other reforms iikin 
 to or founded uiion it, and introduced modem in 
 the place of miitttle-age relations between the 
 two extremes of society. Secondly, it overthrew 
 the poliry of do-nothing — a surer guarant'e for 
 tile c(mlinuanre of abuses (hau even the deter- 
 uiination. which soon mauifesu-d itself at head 
 quarters, to make the head of the state more 
 almildte than ever. After the takiug of Vienna 
 
 hiis was overliaulcd by the events. In June, \ by \Vlndis<hgratz. the National A^-mbly had 
 Priiice Windischgraets crushed the insurrection 1 on tlie l.'Sth of Novemlter 1848, bi^n removed 
 at Prague; and In Novemlicr the anarchy which I from the capital to the small tiiwn of Kremsier 
 
 had prevailed during the whole summer at 
 Berlin was put down, when Count Brandenburg 
 became llrst minister. . . . Scliwar/.enlHTg [at 
 Vienna) declared sa soon as lie had taken the 
 reins, that his programme was to nutiutain the 
 iinily of the Austrian empire, and denuimled 
 Hint the whole of it should enter into tlie U<-r- 
 m.inic confederation. This was incompatible 
 Willi the fe<leral state as contemplated by the 
 Xutioiial .\aaemlily, and therefore Uagem, who 
 hail U-eome president of the imperial ministry 
 [it Frankfort], answered Schwanenbcrg's pro- 
 (.'ramme by declaring tlwt the entcriug of tlie 
 Austrian inonarcliy with a majoritv of non-Oer- 
 insu imtionalities into the German ° federal state 
 »ii« an im|K)s»ibility. Thus nothing was left 
 but 1(1 place the king of Prus-iia at tlic head of 
 the German state. But In order to win a 
 iiisjorlly for this plan Gagem found it neces 
 wry to make large concession.'! to the democratle 
 
 in .Moravia. Here it proUjngiHl an Ineffeitivc 
 existence till March 184», when the court 
 camarilla felt itself strong enough to put an end 
 to an inconvenient censor, and in March 1840 
 it ceased to exist. A C(msiitution was at the 
 same time pnimulgated whicli contained many 
 gO(«l pnivistons. but which was never heartily 
 appnived by the ruling powers, or vigorously 
 carried intoefft'ct — the proclamation of a sute 
 of siege in many cities, and otiier expedients of 
 authority in a revolutionary period, easily enab- 
 ling it to be set at naught. The successes of the 
 reaction in other parts of Eunipe. and, above all, 
 tlie coup d'etat in Paris, emltoldened Schwartz- 
 euberg to throw off the mask: aud on thi' last 
 day of IMl Austria liecanic once more a pure 
 despotism. The young emperor had taken 
 ' VIribus unitis' for Ids motto; and his advisers 
 interpreted those words to mean that Austriit 
 was henerf(irw!ird to be a aUtle as iiighlv ci'n- 
 trslisrd as France — a state iu wliich the minister 
 
 party, sinoncst otiiers universal aiiffrage. This 
 WHS not calculated to make the offer of the 
 
 iniiH-rial cmwn acceptable to Frederic William ..-..,..,.,... „, i.„ ,,,,„ „„„- ,„ 
 
 I\. but lii« principal niwra for declining it was, 1 aulhorilv haif been Mverely f( It in the pit- 
 
 at Vienna was absolulelv to govern eveiylhing 
 from Salzburg to tli6 Inm Gate. The hand of 
 
 iriu frtmi (k-rmany. After the refusal ol the 
 (T'.wn by the king, the National Aaaemblr was 
 iliKinicd; it had tvrtainly cominltU'd great I'nults. 
 but the (IccUive resMm of its failure was the lack 
 cf n rli-ar and resolute will in !*russi». History, 
 however, teaches that great enterprises, such as 
 It was to iialfy an empire dismembered for ceu 
 turies, niivly succ«e<l at the first attempt. The 
 iapi'sl importance of the events of 1848 was 
 ilwl they had made tlie (ierman unionist move- 
 " V. nil hijtoricai iiu.\ . il Oiuld never be eiraivd 
 
 more trouble. The old pcjliical 'llviBi(m into 
 counties was swept away , the whole land was 
 divided into five provinces: and the courtiers 
 might imagine tliat fnim henrefortli the Magyars 
 would be us easily' led as the inliubitauls of 
 l'pp<'r .\iistria. Tliese delusions 80')n became 
 general, but they owed their origin partlv to the 
 enlliusiaslic ignorance of those who wen> at the 
 head of the army, aud partly to two men "— 
 Frinci- Schwsrtrenberg and Alexander Bacb- 
 Or the latter, the two leading Ideas were to 
 
 ii"i,i iiie snnsis tliat all the G<<rman gorem- i cover the whole empire with a tJennan biiivau- 
 iii.m. had publicly scknuwioigrd that temlency : craey. aud to draw ckwr the ties which con 
 •• (egtumau;, tlM dirrctioa for the future wu | nccted the court of Vienna wliJj that of IlunM. 
 
 237 
 

 AUSTRIA. 1849-1830. 
 
 TV War 
 <• Ualf. 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1869-1886. 
 
 ... If kbKlutitm In Austriit liad a fair trial 
 from llif 8Ut of DecemUr 1851 to the lulliin 
 war. itUto Bach tliat It waa owlns; and If It 
 utterly and luilicmiisly fallwl, It la he more than 
 any other man wlio must U-nr the bliimc. 
 Already, In 1840. the bureaurniry had be<n 
 reorKani«c<l. but in 18S8 new and stricter rreuln- 
 lions were Intrnducnl. Everything waa <ktcr- 
 mlmil by precise rules— even the exact amount 
 of hair which the employ^ waa permittixl to 
 wear upon hia face. Hanlly any question was 
 thought suffldentlr insignlllcant to be deciiled 
 upon the spot. The smallest maturs bad to be 
 n-firn^l to Vienna. ... We ctm hardly be sur- 
 priw-d tliat the mat ruin of the Italian war 
 bmught down witli a crash the whole ediflee of 
 file reaction."— M. E. O. Duff, Slurlif in A'uro- 
 jinni Pititiet, cA. 8. 
 Aijo in: L. Lcger, Hut. of Atutm-ffungnry, 
 
 A. D. 1853.— Commerciml Treaty with the 
 German ZoilTereia. See TARirr Leoislation 
 
 (Ukkmv.vy): a. n. 18.53-1893. 
 -/ 
 A. D. 1H.VJ-I8.VI. to 1854- 
 
 A. D. 1851-1856.— Attitude in the Crimeaa 
 
 •. S'C HIT ' "^ -■ - - 
 
 War. 
 
 18.56. 
 
 I'WIA : 
 
 A. D. i856-i859.-The war in Italr with 
 Sardinia and France.— Rercrtea at Maccnta 
 and Solferino.— Peace ofVtllafranca.- Surren- 
 der of Lombardy.— "Prnm the wars of 1848-0 
 the Kinif of .Sanlinia was looked iipcm by tho 
 moderate pnrty as tlic champion of Italian fri'C- 
 dom. Clitirics Albert luid failed: yet his sim 
 Would not, and indeed coulil not, go bacit 
 though, when lie In-gan his reign, there were 
 nmiiy Uiings agaimit him. . . . On-nt effort* 
 were made to win him over to tlie .\ustriMn 
 iwny. but tlie King was neither cast down by 
 defeat ami distnist nor won over Iiv soft wonlil 
 He soon showcil tliat, thouich he hiid Xmn forred 
 to make a treaty with Austria, vet lie would not 
 ca^t in his lot witli the oppn-mlim of Italy llu 
 made Masalmo dA/.eglio \i\* chief Minister and 
 fiiinlllo Benso di Cavour his Mlnlnti r of Com- 
 meree. With the help of iIh.sc two men he 
 honestly carriwl out the reforms which had iK'cn 
 granted liy his father, and set new ones on finit 
 . . The quick prr>gres» of n form frigliKiici 
 lount .Massimo d'Axrirllo. He retired fmm 
 office in 18.18. ami his place was tnki 11 by Coiint 
 Cnvour, who made a cimlition wiih the di'inii- 
 cralic imrly In Pte<lmont hendi-d by L'rlnno Itit- 
 tim«i Tho new chief Minister bigan U) work 
 not only for the good of Piedmont but for If^ily 
 Ht large The Milanese slill listened to tlm 
 hoim which Mai!i:ini held out. and couM not 
 i|iilrtly hj-ar their subjection. Ci.iint Cavoiir 
 Imliuiiiantly remoii»trate<l with Railetcky for his 
 hiirsh government, . . . The division and shivery 
 of Italy had shut her out fr.m EiirtiiNnii ixilitirs 
 Civour hel.l tlia;. if she was once lookinl upon 
 as an useful iillv, then her dellvenuiee iniicht 
 \»- lasteneil liy foniun interference. The .S,ir- 
 diiilan army had Ucn bmught into goo.1 onler 
 by Alf<HiBo della Mamiom: and wn» n-udy for 
 Bcthin In lavi, Sanlinia made alliance with 
 hnicluirl anil Krance, who were at war with 
 KiiMla ; for Cavour looknl on tliat power as the 
 1tre.1i sup|K>rt of Hie system of despotism on the 
 tomlitftit, aiHl hehl tliat it was ner.-s«iry for 
 IlHlinn fti-e.h>m llwt K.iwl, Mi.'tl,! lie humbhd. 
 The .Sardliiiitn army was t!.. fore sent Ui the 
 t rtmea, under La Mamiom. whcro it did gowl 
 
 service in the baUle of Tchemaya. . . The 
 next year tiie Cnngreaa of Parli was held to 
 arrange terms of peace between tho allies and 
 Itussia. and Cavour took the opportunity of l.iy. 
 ing before the repreKnUtivea of the Euronian 
 poweni the unliappy state of his countrymen 
 ... In December, 1851. Louis Napole<in Buo- 
 naparte, the PreeMent of the French Republic 
 seized tlie government, and the next year took 
 the title of Emperor of the French. He was 
 anxious to weaken the power of Austria, and at 
 tlie beginning of 1850 it became evident that w,ir 
 would soon break out. As a sign of the friendly 
 feeling of the French Emperor towanU the 
 Italian cause, his cousin. Namdecm Joseph, mar- 
 ried Clotilda, the daughter of Victor Eniiiuinuil 
 Count Cavour now declared Uiat SardinU would 
 innke war on Austria, unless a separate and na 
 tional government waa granted to Lomlumlv 
 ami Venetia, and uniesa Austria pr0mls.1l to 
 me<ldle no more with the rest of Italy. On the 
 
 other hand. Austria demanded the disannu iit 
 
 of Sardinia. The King would not iUteii to this 
 deinaiul, and France and Sanlinia declarvd w ir 
 against Austria. The Einpemr NniK,l(.,n ,K.. 
 dared that he would free Italy from Hie Alps to 
 the Adriatic. . . . The Austrian army cn«,s..,l 
 the Tieino, but was dcfeaUsI by the Kiii' un.l 
 General Claldini. Tlie Fitncli victory .1? M,. 
 genla. on June 4th forecd the Aiistrians to n- 
 tmit from Uimlmnly. ... On June 24lli tlic 
 Aiistrians, who had crosseil the .Mincio wire 
 defeatwi at Solferino by the allied armies of 
 trnnvv and Sunlinia. It seeim-d as tliouitli the 
 Fremli EiniH-nir would keep bis wonl. Hut lir 
 foiinil that If he went further. Prussia wimlil 
 take up the cause of Austria, and that he would 
 »"*e «o "(fl't on the Kliiuo as well as on the 
 Adige. Wlicn. therefore, the Frcnili nniiv 
 Clime licfore Verona, a meeting was armnv'id 
 iK-tween the two Emperors. Tills UM.k plare ut 
 Villafmnca. and tliero Buonaparte, without roii 
 suiting his ally, agree<l wiUi Francis Josepli to 
 favour the estalillsliment of nn Italian (oiif,n|,r 
 iilion. . . . Austria gave up to the Kins of Siir 
 fliiila I.omlianly to the west of Mincio. lint Hie 
 (Jniiid Ibike of Tuscany and the Duke of M> 
 dina were to return U> their States. The pn>. 
 IKDHsl Confeilenitlon waa never iimih', fnr ilu' 
 IMsiple of Tiiscuny, Molemi. Pnnn;i. aii.l li,i 
 niaitn.i sent to tlie King to pray that llicv nilnlit 
 be made |>iirt of his Kingdom, and Viii.ir Km 
 rnaniiel refused to enter on the sclaiue nf Hi,. 
 Jrench £m|>eror. In return for allnvinit iln' 
 Italians of Central Italy to shake off Ha- yoke, 
 Buonaparte aaknl for Savoy mid .Vi/./.a. . 
 The King. . . c.msente.1 to give up the u'lorlnus 
 cradle of his Monareliy ' in excliaiico for I'ltitril 
 Italy,"— W. A. Hunt, IliMtoi-g,,/ ft.iljt.i-k. II. 
 
 AI.SO in: J. W, Pndivn. Iliitg f].m 1h|.1 i,> 
 lWt<». M. »-10._C. de Manwle. Z,/,- ./ <:...,.t 
 (,ir,f»r. » 2-7._Hoe, also. It.*i.V: A. I» 1.S.W- 
 18.59. an ; 1 OB-IHfli. 
 
 A. p. l86a-ilM.-The Schletwir-Holsteia 
 quettion.— Quarrel with Prussia.— The humili- 
 atinf Seven Weeki War.-Contllet » ith I'm, 
 sia grew out of the coinplieausl Sclilcsu • ,: 
 stein mieation. reopenisl In 186-Jaiid proi '. 
 
 settleil by a delusive amingenieiit b'twin n 1. 
 sla and Austria, InlowhichllK' latter wiisai ; '»• 
 drawn iiy I'rince iiiainnrek. S<s' [scanihs n \ 
 HTATMlDltNIIAHK): A D. 1848-lH6i. and i.tK 
 "ANY: A. D. 1881-1860. NosuMKr wa-lhe wur 
 
 as8 
 
AUSTRIA, 186»-18W. 
 
 War. 
 
 AUSTRIA. 1866-1867. 
 
 with Denmark over, Uutn " Pninia sliowiil that 
 it wan her intentinn to annex the newly ai'i|uin.tl 
 liiiriiic* to herself. This Austria could not en- 
 dure, and accordingly. In 1866, war limkc out 
 IrtwiH-n Austria and Prussia. Hrus.sia sought 
 alliAiH-u with Italy, which slie stirred uptonttacli 
 Austria in her Italian p<i«acssions. The Austrian 
 armv defeated tlic Italian at Eustnzza [or Cua- 
 Wi«a (we Italy: A. D. 1863-1866)]; hut tlic 
 fortunes of war were against them in Germany. 
 Allied with the Ausitrians were the Haxons, the 
 Bsviirians, the WOrtemlierKers. Ba<len and 
 Hesse, and Hanover. The Prussians advanc<^l 
 with their chief army into Bohemia with the 
 utmi«t nipidity, dreading lest the Southern allies 
 sliould march nortli to Hanover, and rut the 
 liinii'lnm in half, and push on to Berlin. The 
 [•ruwians had three armies, which were to enter 
 Bolieniia and effect a Junction. The Elbe army 
 uiidor the King, the flrst army umier Prince 
 Frtilerick Charles, and the second army under 
 the Crtiwn I*rince. The EIIh- army ailvancetl 
 acnws Saxony by Dresden. The Urst army was 
 in LuKilia. at Keichenberg. and the seomd army 
 In Silesia at Heisae. They were all to meet a"t 
 (ilt.scliin. The Austrian army under Uenend 
 Ilemdc k was at KOniggrilti. iu'Easteru H<)Iien<i:i. 
 . . .U in the wars with Napoleon, so was it 
 now; the Austrian genends . . . never did the 
 riL'l4t tliin!;at the right moment, llenetiek ,iid 
 inili'i'il manh against tlic lirstarmy, but too late, 
 and when lie found it was alrr'udy thrtiiigh the 
 moiiiilain iliHir lie retrealetl. and so gave time for 
 llio thn* arii.ies to ronrentrate up<m him. The 
 Ell<e army and the first met at MUnchengratz, 
 and dcfeatnl an Austrian army there, pusliiil on. 
 and drove tliem b.tck out of Uilsrliin on KOnig- 
 L'rillz. . . . Tlio Prussians puslied on. and now 
 tlie Kllie army went to Siuidar. and ttie first army 
 to lliirrilz. whilst the si-coiul army, under the 
 ('n>«n Prinee. was pu.Hliing on. and had got to 
 (inidliti. The little river Blstritz is crossed by 
 ilii' hidi riHui to Knniggrlltz. It runs through 
 swttiiipy ground, and forms little marshy piNds 
 or lakes. To the north of Kftniggnllz a little 
 stream o! much the same character dribbles 
 lhrou.i;h iiogs into the Eilie. . . . Hut «ls>ut 
 I'liluMi. Neilelist and Lippa is ternced high 
 irniiind. and tlierc Ik-neilek planteil his cannon. 
 Till' I'nisxians ailvancetl from Smidjir iijainst 
 llie lift wing of tlie Austrians. from il.irzitz 
 ai.'aill^t I lie eentre. and the ( nnvn Prinee was to 
 att.irk li.e right wing. The Imltle iH'gan on the 
 :i.l i.f .I'lly, at 7 oi!iMk In the morning, bv the 
 ■.iniu];aii«iu i advam e of llie Elbe and the flrst 
 uriiiv iijion the Hi'iiiitz. At .Sudnwa is a wool, 
 atid ilhie the lialile mgiil iiiosi lienidy. . . . 
 Two ihinga were against the .\iistrians; first, 
 lia ill i.iMih.uiiei' 'f tlu'ir gemril. and, setcmdly, 
 (ill' li.fi riori'v of ti<oir guns. The Prussians hiid 
 wlial re nilled twUe guns, breath hwders, 
 whu li i.n- Hred by ilie p-iek of n niKillc, and for 
 1'^" M|iiiiily with wliieli IIm\ nin In' firiil far 
 •u',.a>«i| llie old fa'thioned inii/.zl loidirs usiil 
 by till A islrians .Vfler tlii<. vreat luiti:e, .viiiili 
 iHcalii'.l liy ilie Knnrli and Ent'li-h the bmtl.' -if 
 ShdowaiSailrtwa. not Sndflwa. im it is emweously 
 i>rMiMunr(Hii. but whieh Ilie Cermans call tlie 
 liaiil. cif KdniggrHtn, the Pni««ians maniieil on 
 Vl-r-ia. ami narfaed tin- M.tr. lit. id Infori- Ilie 
 Kni|>.nir Krancis,Io«epli would come to tenns. 
 At hut, on the 33il of August, a ixw-e whieh 
 gave a erishiiig prcponderaiice ta Ut-nuau; to 
 
 Pntssla, was concluded at Prague. '—S. Barlng- 
 Oould, Tlie Nttiiy of Otrmany, pp. aV0-)iW4.— 
 SeeOEii.ii.vNY: A. D. 1866. 
 
 A. D. i866.-The War in Italy.— Lott of 
 Vcnetia. See It.u.v: A. D. 1862-1)166. 
 
 A. O. 1866-1867.— ConccHion of nationality 
 to Hung^ary.— Formation of the dual Austro- 
 Hunganan Empire. —"For twelve years the 
 name of Hungary, as a State, was enuie<l from 
 tile map of Europe. Buienurratic Absolutism 
 ruled supreme in Austria, and did its Iwst to ob- 
 liU-rate all Hungarian institutions. Uermanisa- 
 tion was the order of the day, the Qennan tongue 
 lieing dwianil tlie exclusive language of ofiieial 
 life as Well iisof the higher schools. Ooveniniint 
 was carried on by means of foreign, Oerman. and 
 Czech o;il<'ials. No vestige was left, not only of 
 the national independence, but cither of Home 
 Rule or of self-government of any sort; the 
 country wiw diviiled into provinces without re- 
 gard for historical traditions; in slum, an at- 
 tempt was made to wipe out every truce denoting 
 tlie existence of a separate Hungary. All ranks 
 and clossi-s opposed a sullen passive resistance to 
 tliese attacks against the existence of tlie nation ; 
 even the sirlions of the natiimaiities whicli linil 
 rclsdUil against the enactments of IH^x. at tlie 
 instigation of the reactionary Camarilla, were 
 e<|ually disaffecli'd in consi-quenci- of the sliort- 
 sigiiUil poliry of despotical centralisiition. . . . 
 Finally, after the collapse of the systiin of Ab- 
 solutism in consei|iience of flnaniialdiwiMers ami 
 of the misfortunes of the luilian War of lx.">!t. 
 tlie Hungarian Parliament was again convoked: 
 anil after protracted negotiations. Imikenolf ami 
 resumed again, tlie impracticability of a Kvslini 
 of pnivineial Federalism liaving Ixru pmviii in 
 Ilie miiinlime. and the defeat iunirnHl in the 
 Pnisshin War of 1866 having d<'inoiistnittil tlie 
 fiitilllv of any reconstruction of the Empire of 
 Austria in which tlie national aspirations of 
 Hungary were not taken Into due omsideratiim- 
 an arrangement was concludeil under the aiis- 
 pices of Francis Deik, Count AiidnUsv, anil 
 Count Delist, on the basis of the full iicknowl. 
 eilgnient of the separate national cxisieiiii' of 
 Hiingiiry. and of the continuity of it.s legal 
 rights. Theidenof acentraliseii Aii.striiui Em- 
 pire had to give way to the dual Austnilluii- 
 gariiin monnnliy. which is in fact an inili.>«oliible 
 fe<lemtion of two ei|ual Slates. undiT the com 
 mon rule of a single sovereign, tlie Eni|K'ror of 
 Austria and King of Hungary, each of the 
 States having a eonstltiiiion, giiveniinint. anil 
 
 fiarliament of its own. Hungary esixcially retain- 
 ng, with fliL'ht niiNliflc<itions,'ilsaiieii'nt iiiHtitii- 
 liims remiHli'lled in 1848. The ailminisintion of 
 the fondun ixilicy, the management of ihe army, 
 and the ilisliiirsement of the expentlitim- ni-ci-s- 
 sary for tlirsi- purposes, were settieii u|ion as 
 common nlfairs of the entire monanhy. for the 
 mnnagi'mi'iit of wliicii common ministers were 
 inslitulinl. rfHponsible to the two deieuntions, 
 cini|iial (ommitteesof the pariiaments of Hun 
 gary and of ilie I'islelthanlan (.\ii«lrian) pn.v- 
 Inn* Elalmrale provisions were rraiiud fur ilie 
 smiKiih working of these common insiilntions, 
 for givin',' W( iiiht to the eonstitiilional inllncniT, 
 ever in iiiHtlersuf common policy, of tlir Kipa- 
 rule ('i>lrilliaiiiiiii and Hungarian ininixirii-H. and 
 for nnilering their rvsimnsibility to the ri's|H et- 
 ive i'lirilamenlH an earnest ami solid nalilv. 
 The financial queitiuiii |K-uding in the two iuiia- 
 
 239 
 
AUSTRIA, 18e«-18«7. 
 
 w 
 
 l-i. 
 m\ :. 
 
 
 ■■'3.-' 
 
 penilcnt uil equal Suttaa were wttird by n com- 
 promlw: mcanircs were Ukeo for the ™iilulilo 
 •rraiiKtTOint of all matters which nil"lit «rl«- In 
 ifliition to Intorreta toiirhinif In>i1i Suii,., g,„.|, 
 as <liitk.g. commerce, nml In.llnrt t.ixation, hII 
 legislation on these siilijocu l,lkln^' plnrc by 
 memis of Identical laws scpamuly cnaoteil by 
 the Parliament of ea»h State. . . . Simiilta- 
 nooiisly Willi these arranp-ments the political 
 (llffercnciii between Hungary ami C'nmlla were 
 compromlsecl by gmnting pn.vinri,.! Home Kiilc 
 to the latter. . . Tims llic organisation of the 
 AustroHungarian monarrliy on the luutis of 
 nualtsm, anil tlie compromise etitereil Into lie- 
 tween the two halves comp<wiii!; it, whilst iinitinit 
 for the nurposi's of tiefence the forirs of two 
 States of a mnilemte size ami extent Into those of 
 a great empiri', al)Ie to cope with the exigencies 
 of an a.l.^,|iate ixwitlon amongst (he Hrslelass 
 nmeniof i,uro|>e. restomi also to lliinsrary lis 
 lii<lep<n.lence ami its unfetteif<l sovetxigtiev In 
 nil Internal matters." — A. Puls/.kv, Il„„L,u 
 (.yitiiiiuil Life and Thowjht. Uct ' .•!) —••The 
 Aiis^leieb, or agreement with llnngarv was 
 arri.nse.l by a committee of 87 meml'iera of 
 the Hiingarian <llet, at the liea.l r.f whom was 
 the tranklin of Himgarv, Fmneis I>eak the 
 true patriot and inexomble legist, who lud 
 taken no part In the ri'volntions, hut who 
 ■ml never given up one of the smallest of 
 .' "¥ «,%?'^ ■'* '""'""O-- ... On the nth of 
 June [ISrt,] the empetDr Fninels Joseph waa 
 crowniKl with great pompat l>..»ih. Onihe 2Sth 
 of llic following June-, he appn.v.,1 the decisions 
 of the diet, which settled the iXKiii.in of Itun- 
 pry with regani to the otiier cuntrin U'long- 
 ing to his majesty, and mo.liti<d «,„,e portions 
 
 of th.. laws of \>m Sin™ ,he Ausgleleh 
 
 the einpin- lias consisted of two parts For 
 
 the s^ike.if clearness, political language has U>cn 
 mcria.s4d by the Invention of two new terms 
 tisliiihania and Tmnslelthania, to dcserils. the 
 two gnmps. s..,wnit«l a little Nlow Vienna by a 
 small atHuent of the I>anul»., callcl the I^itiia— 
 a stnani wliicU never expecli.,1 to iH-eomo so 
 "^t^T^a ''*"'• "^ '/''«""'■//««• 
 
 Also in: Francis Dmk. A Mfttfir, rh Sfl-Jtl _ 
 ( <»iiit vi.n Ik^ust, Mrnwirt. r. •,• M ;w _i 
 »ellKrm.inn, l/<i„o„rg and if I\„:,U rh .-, " 
 v^AiJ?- '?*«-'887.-Th. Auatro-Hun«rian 
 Empire -Its new national life.-Its difficul- 
 ties and proraiMs—Ita ambitions and aims in 
 Southeaatern Europe.-" l.,.»..e ,M,IilirianHn,av 
 ►.u that a war always do,-, niori. harm tliaii 
 
 alw.ivs ,!,»., at any rate, niomlly siH-aking. „ 
 the vM,.rs: but that it d.HMi not ll, the van 
 
 Filially exel.id«l from Italy and (l.rmanv liv 
 th.. ,.a,i,,u,g„ of ,NM, sh<. has cast asl.!.' h.T 
 dreams of foreign domination, ami lias „| her 
 self ma.ilullv t.. the task of making a i,«,i„„ ,„u 
 of tlie vinous .tinllicliug nationalities „ver 
 which s.„ pt,.shi,i.. It ,loes not n-quire niiicl, 
 n.u-h. to ,».nvive that as long a, ^r ,,. 1,1 her 
 pmi.io,, n, (^niiany this f,„i*n was bo|„.|..„ 
 ■ lie oycrwh.lmi.ig pn-pomlerauo. „f the (>,.r. 
 man .leni. m n„Mle any ap|,r<«t.h 'to a r,., (pro. 
 
 MIL' .mli..n:,l,i„;„s;„i;jw.U:'|V was" forth™"".. 
 co,..„,au.l, for thuK,. to ol«.y. 1„ |ik,. mtt,„„.r u 
 
 V>rua Jhiiiirt. 
 
 AUSTRU, 18M-1887. 
 
 ?^. .?'?**■"''*' '"' """ Austrian Oovcmment to 
 establish a mutual undenlan.liiig with a i^im 
 lUion which felt itsi'lf attn.ct.,1?- „iike hi 'the 
 tics of rai:e, language, an.l ^'eogranhi,al i),;,iii,„i 
 -to another |Hilitlcal union. .Vay m'or, a* 
 long as the oceu|Mtlon of the Itjilian pn.viluvs 
 romaluejl as a blot on the Iin|NTial e«ulcl.„,„ 
 It was iintaissible for tlie Uoveriiim-nt to.,.,n! 
 mijnd any genuine 8ym()alliy from any .,f ju 
 suhjecU. fiut with the cloi of the war with 
 Prussia these two .lilHcullies-tho relation, 
 with Oeniiany and the relati..ns witli liilv_ 
 were swept away. From this lime f..r«.r.l 
 Austria n.ul,| «p,M.nr U'fore the w.irl.l o^, . 
 Power bimling together for the interest, oi all 
 a number of la'tty nationalities, ea.h ..f which 
 was loo feel.le to maintain a separate e.\i.si, „,.. 
 In short from the year 1886 Austria li;„l ^ 
 mison diHri-, whereas before she lia.l no..,- 
 Itanin Ik-iisl, mi tlie 7th of February. |.><o; t.„k 
 offlix. umler Fran/. J,.,t.ph. His pro,.r.niii,c 
 inay lie st|.le<l as f..l|ows. H.' s<iw that H.. Z 
 of ct^ntralism and imperial unity was gon, ,^i 
 reaUl. ajidtliatthe most lilR-ml Cinstituiinii iu 
 the worid would never recmeile the natioiuliUes 
 U) their present p<«ition. as pn.vimxu uii.kr llio 
 always detested uii.l now despia*..! Eiiipin' But 
 then came the questl<m-Oranu.d tli.it a cnain 
 disintegration is ineriuhle, how far is this dig. 
 Integration to go? Beiist pr.>po.«.si i,. .lisariu 
 the opposition of the hading natioiialiiv hv the 
 gift of an a most complete iii.h.iHii.lcn'.,.. ami 
 resting on the supix.rt thus obtaiiie.1. t.. gai,i 
 inie for conciliating the n-muining pn.vii,, , , |,v 
 building un a new system of free govern,.,..,,! 
 It wouhl be out of place u. give a .i,,aili,i 
 account of the well-kn..wn me.isur.- whi. h eon 
 verteil the "Austrian empire' into tl... Vustm 
 Hiingnnau rnonarchy.' It will Ik. ,„,,,sirv 
 howeiM.r to Ie8cr...e tlie s<lditioiis iii*!,- 1„ it liy 
 the ixihiical nwchinery. The Hungarian 1{, ieh/ 
 tag wasoaistrucUHl on the same principle ,is the 
 Austrian liel.hsrath. It was to iiiwt in l',.»il, 
 as the I{eicli.s,..th f '•icnna. anil was to hue Iti 
 own re»p..iisihle ministers. From the m, lal^r, 
 of the Itichsrath and Ileichstag r..s|Mrtivelv 
 were to be ehiwen annually sixty deh'gat.s to 
 ri;iiresent Cisleitliauhui ancf sixty t.j n pr.scnt 
 Hungarian interesu - twenty Uing t.ik.n iu 
 eacli case from the Upwr, forty from the Umu 
 House. Thi-setwo ■ rv-legations, ■ wh,«,. vote, 
 were to Iw taken, when neei«8«ry, .nil., ijv.li 
 though each IK.legation satinailiatim 1 1 l,;,i„litV' 
 owing to the diirer..n<x^ of langimge, lor,i,„i 
 the .Supreme Imp'rial A»«.mblv, an.l m. t all. r 
 nate years at \ ieniia and Pwih. Tli.y wire 
 
 ' ui|H.i..ut in matters of foreign is.liiv. 'i,, „,||i 
 '"" -'■••' —'•- — ■ in TmiHrial liaau... 
 
 lary adniinistraiion. and 
 
 .U their h.ad nt.sKl three Impi.ri'al iiiini,hrs — 
 he l{eicli«k.iii/.ler, who presUhsl al th.' ForeiKu 
 • •III •e, aii.l was ex officio Prime .Minister, the 
 Mi.i,si,r of War, .,,,1 the .Miiiist..r of Fiaau.v 
 1 hi-s.. thn.e niinisi.rs w.re iui||.|. iiileni „f tl,e 
 HeiclisMth an.l |{, idwtag. anil i...,il,l oiiiv be 
 ilismiM..! by a vol.- ..f want of e.«ill,leii.v ...l the 
 |>art .,f th,. l»,|./.,ti,„„. Tiie • Aus.'hi.h ■ .,r 
 Mhenicf f.slcmiion wiih Hungary is. ii.Mloiibt. 
 miieh open to i riti, Imii. both as » 'whole ,„i,| in 
 its several iwris. li must always Ih' b.me io 
 niiml thai aitniinislralively aiul iHiljtii.iHv h u-a^ 
 u r. (rogn.sHioii .\, „ time i„ which all ..ih.r 
 hiir.i|Man nations — iiotahly Nortli O.-niioiv- 
 werc simplifying and unifying their poUtkal 
 
AUSTniA. 186C-1H8T. 
 
 Aiutro-Hun- 
 faruM Kmpirt. 
 
 AIX. -U. 186e-1887. 
 
 Ijiteim, Austria wu found dnln;; Um Tvry 
 re/i-nc. . . . The truo answer to thcie objec- 
 tions U, that the n<"iwiirc of ttM7 wu ««■ 
 ■tnii'tcd to mwt a practinil ililBrult- . Itat-nd 
 wiw not the furmatiiiii of n aymmvtrio. •fitcm of 
 gDvtninirnt, but the pucinnitlon uf li;in<;iiry. 
 . . The intcrnni history of llio two halves oif 
 the empire flows in two dilTert'nt cluinneU 
 linif .Viulntssy, the llungarlun Pre.nicr, Ivid a 
 Kiriipiimlively easy task before hlin. There 
 were sevtril rtasons for thin. lu the Brst pliiee. 
 the pRNloininance of the Magyars in Hunif.iry 
 wu* more assured than that of the (lennniu in 
 C'i<l' ilimnia. It is tnie tliat tliey nuinliereilonly 
 5,1)111), (dW out of the 16.000,0(10 inluibibinU; but 
 In tliese .V(KIO.00O were inrlmlctl alinost all iho 
 ranlt, wealth, and intclll^'nrc of the country. 
 HeiKf they formed In the Reicli»tag » c uuipact 
 ami liomogentHms majority, under whieli tlie 
 reinaiaing Slivaka and Cnntians sn>m learnt to 
 mnite themwivcs. In the second [ilaee, Hun- 
 gary liad tlie great adrniitai^e of suirtlni,' in a 
 certiiin ilegree afresh. Her govenuneut was not 
 IkhuuI by thi^ traditional p-iliry of former 
 Viciuiam'inistiies, ami , , , it iiwl inanniieil to 
 Icivp its Hnancial einilit unimpairetl, lu tlio third 
 place, as tliose who are u<-<|uainted witli Hun- 
 garian liistory well know. Parliamenurv institu 
 tioiis had for a loni; time tlourislicf I in llungnry. 
 Indeiil the Maeyars. wlio among tlieir many 
 virtues eau lianlly lie crediteil with the virtue (if 
 humility, assert tliat the world is inisuken in 
 ascribing to England the glory of having 
 invetitiif tvpresentulive government, anil claim 
 this glory for themselves. Hence oni; of tlie 
 main ililHcultieii with which the C'isb'itli.inian 
 Oiiv.'rrunciit had to deal was already solved for 
 Gr.if .\ndm.s.sy and Ids colleagues." — .Imtri,) 
 $iiirf Siihmi {^mirlfHi/ Hivift. r, 131. pp. «"»- 
 IH). — "It is ditDcull fiT any imo except an 
 Aii^iro Hungarian stau-sman to nali<e tliu dilll- 
 ciiliiis of goveridng the Dual .Mon,ir<-liv. Cis 
 I/'illiani.'i has, as is well known, a Itetchsral b 
 an'l wvenlcs'n Pnivincia! DieU. Tbi; two 
 Auslri.-w, !<tvria. Curinthia. and SaUliurg pre- 
 seiii ii.i difricultivs, but causes of tniul>le are 
 almnl^int in tlie other districts. The Em|H-nir 
 will prolMbly end by gettin.^ himself crowneil 
 Kill,' of ll<iliemi:i. although it will be ditneult 
 for liimtolcn.l liliiiself to a proscription of the 
 <!-nnaii lan^'oage by the Tsechs. as be has been 
 fnriT.| by tin: Magyars to lend himself > . the 
 pnncTiption in parts of Hungary of IdMiman and 
 of v:irious Slavonic languagi-a. But how far is 
 this priHvss toomtinue Y Tlie German Austriaiis 
 ire as un|iopular in Istria ami Dulinatia as 
 in Bohemia: arid Dalmatia is also an andi-nt 
 kingilom. These terribiries were originallv 
 o taine<l by the electhm of the King of lluii 
 r^y to the crown of the tripartite kint'doin of 
 Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia, Is ' F- n-nc/. 
 Jotsef ■ to bo crowntsl King of Dalmatia? And 
 It Dalmatia to have Its wparate .Ministrv and its 
 separate officia' language, and its co'mplctelv 
 separate lawsT And what then of Kliime. the 
 so-called Hungarian \mn r Then, again, Oalici , 
 Is also an ancient kingilom. although it liiu at 
 other times funneil part of I'oland: and the 
 Empiror U King of Qalida, „ he is Kin-,- of 
 Bohemia and l>.dmati:L Is he to !»■ cniwniil 
 King of Qaliciat And if so. is the s.-panile 
 eJiMtence of Ualicia to be a Polish or a Uutlaiiiau 
 Muienoe, or, iotleeil, a JewUhT for the Jews 
 1« 
 
 241 
 
 are oot only extraordinarily powerful and 
 numeroui there, but arc gaining ground day by 
 dar. The Rutbenians cmiplaiu as bitterly of 
 being bullied by tlio Poles in Oalicia as the 
 Croats complain of the Magyars. Even here the 
 difflcultica arc not emk-d. Tlie Margraviate of 
 Moravia contains a large Taech popuUtlon, and 
 will have ti> lie iuhle<l to tlic lloheiniaa kingdom. 
 Biikowlna may go with Galicia or Transylvania. 
 Austrian Silesia may be diviiled between tlie 
 Tsechs of Bohemia and Moravia on the one part 
 and the Poles or Itutliiniaus or Jews of Oaliciii 
 on the other. But what is to become of tlint 
 which, with the moat obstinate disregard of 
 pcdanta, 1 Intend to omtinue to call the Tyrol ? 
 Trieste must gi> with Austria and Salzburg ami 
 the Northern Tyrol and Slyria iiud Carinlhin no 
 doubt; but it U not dilltciilt to show that 
 Austria would actually be slrengtlienetl by 
 giving up the Southern Tvrol. wliere the Italian 
 people, or at least the Italian language, is gain 
 Ing ground day by day. There really seems 
 very little left of the integrity <if the Austrijin 
 Empire at the couclusion of our surrey of Ita 
 constituent parts. Matters do not look much 
 better If we turn to Trans Uiiliauia. Hungary 
 has its Reichstng (which ia alao known by si me 
 terrible Magyar name), iu House of Reprcaenta- 
 tivea, and its House of Magnates, and, althoiigli 
 there are not so many Pn>vincial Diets as in 
 Austria, SUvonia and the Baunt of Croatia 
 poasess a Common Diet with which the Magyars 
 are far from popular; and the Principality of 
 Transylvania also pos8<»se<l s»-paniti' local righu, 
 for trying completely U> Kiippress which tlie 
 Magyars are at present highly untKipular. The 
 Principality, although umler Magyar rule, ia 
 dividfil between 'Saxons' and Koiimans, who 
 ei|ually iletest the Magyam. anl tlie Cruau and 
 Slovenes who people the lianai are Slavs who 
 also execrate their I'grian rulers, inscriptions iu 
 wiiose language are defaced whenever seen. 
 Croatia is under-representisl at Pest, and says 
 that slie (fix's unheard, and tlie Croats, who 
 have partial Home Hule without an executive, 
 ask for a local executive as well, and liemauil 
 Fiiiiiie and Dalmatia. If we hmk Ui tlie nuinla-rs 
 of the various racx-s, there are in Austria of (Jer- 
 mans ail Jews alaiiit U.INIO.IIOO to about 
 lil.lWKI.IHKI Slavs and a few Italians and i{ciu 
 mans. There are in the lamisof the Crown of 
 Hungary 3.000.000 of OiTiuans and Jews, of 
 Idiuinans nearly a.(HW.(HXl. alllioii^h tlie Mag- 
 yars only acknowleilge J,."!!!*).!!!)**, and of Mag- 
 yars and Slavs la'tween live and six millions 
 apiece. In the whole of the territories of tlie 
 Dual Monarchv it will lie «■■ pi that tliere are 
 1-i.lKW.noO of Slavs and only IT.OOO.OtK) of tl.a 
 ruling ra-es —Oeniiaus, Jew<. and Magyan — 
 while iMlwcen three and four millions of IJou- 
 toans and Italians count akaig with the Slav 
 malorltv as being hostile to the doniiimnt 
 natlonallllcs. It is dilHcult Ui exaggerate ilio 
 gniviiy for .Vustria of the stau- of things which 
 tliesi- rtgun-s ri'veal,'— r**' I'rtttit Pmlioii ,4 
 Kui-'Httiin l\Mia {Fltrtniiihlli/ Heriiir, l/iril, 
 ISSTi — ' III piwt times, wliin Austria lial held 
 Kriuui- light iMiuiid betwei<u .Spain. tJinuany. 
 ;ind the Nvi|-,i.r!«ri'ls, s'tr liad a.it'ilTnl to 'a 
 dominant piMition in Weal^-rn Kuni|H-; ami. so 
 long as her eyi« were tunit-d in tliat direction, 
 she naturally bail every iiilerest in pn-serviiig 
 the Otiuinan Empirv iutjict. for slie was thus 
 
V ■] 
 
 il « 
 
 i f 
 
 AUSTRIA. 18««-18R7 
 
 iimrantpoil Heninnt %» atuclu from tlip Boiith. 
 Wm, iifi< r till- liiM of lnT Itnlkiii iwwsi.ssi.ius in 
 1*»>. itml of puit of Cniatio in mm. «fnr llii' 
 tllwuiK™ of 1H4». lt»» aoil ltM6. iilir rliouclit 
 more, noil moit- wrioiuljr of ImlimnifyliK hir 
 Mif Ht the cxiKMe of Turkey. It waa mom.v.r 
 ivlilrot that, in order to iwnilyae the <lamiiL'liiir 
 powir nf HunifHry. It was Mwntial for Iwr to 
 Hs<imil«l<- the primitive and scattered peoples of 
 I lirkcy, arciistomed to centuries of complete 
 siilmusslon nnd obedience, and form thus » kind 
 of irc.n band wlilch should encircle Hunmiry ami 
 cffictually prevent her from rising. If, in fact 
 we glanot hark at the podtioo of Austria in 
 ItMl, and take the trouble carefully to study the 
 change of Idem and InteresU wh'ch had then 
 Uken plati in the poiicy of France and of 
 Ki'.ssia. the U-ndcncles of the strongly consti- 
 tuted nations who were repugnant to the 
 authority and Influence of Aujtria. the basis of 
 tbs power of that empire, and, duallv, the 
 internal ruin with which she was then thteat- 
 cn«l, we cannot but arrive at the conclusion 
 that Austria, by the very ln<itinct of self- 
 preservrtion. was forced to turn eastwards and 
 to consider how best she might devour some, at 
 least, of the European provinces of Turkey 
 Austrian statesmen have been thoroughly con- 
 vinced of this fact, and, Imtjelled by the instinct 
 iibovi-mentioned, have not ceased earefully ami 
 consistently to prepi.re and follow out the policy 
 here indicated. Their objects have already been 
 Mrtially attained by the practical annexation of 
 Bosnia and Heriegovina ib 1878 |se« Tdr«s: 
 A. D. 1878) ; and it wn striking to observe with 
 what bitter feeling and resentment this measure 
 w,-« looked upou at the time by the Hungarian ; 
 section of thd empire. . . . Kussia has never ! 
 made any secret of her designs upon Turkey; I 
 she has, indeed, more than once openly made I 
 war in order to ci^rr)- them out. But Austria ' 
 
 AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN EMPIRE. si7~ 
 Austria: A. I». 18«a-l>«7. 
 
 AUTERI, The. Sec Irkijino. Tribes oj' 
 EARLY Celtic (MiAnrrANTs. 
 
 AUTUN : Origin. See Oalls. 
 
 A. D. 387.— Sacked by the BsKaads. See 
 Baoauim. 
 
 ♦ 
 
 AUVERCNE, Ancient. The country of the 
 Arveroi. See iEoci ; also Oal'Ui. 
 
 AUVERGNE. The Great Dan ot See 
 FhaSCR: a I) !««.-, 7 i. ore 
 
 AUXILIUM. See Tallage 
 
 *VA. Si-e I.VDIA : A. I). 1823-1833. 
 ..J^ .-*"*• ** NEwrotrNiiLASiJ: A. D. 
 iaiU-16.Vi: iitid .Mahtxamd: A. D. iKti. 
 
 ^VARICUM. See BoriuiBs, OHioLf op. 
 
 AVARS, The.— The true Avars an.- repre- 
 sented to have Uh-u a powerful Turanian p<-ople 
 who exercise,! (n the sixth century a wid,. 
 dominion in Central Asia. Among 'the IriN-s 
 subject to them was one called the Ognrs or 
 Oiilgours, or Ouiars, or Oiiar Khounl. or Varch 
 onites (thi-ae diverae names have beirn given to 
 llie nation) which is supposed to have Nlongcl 
 to the national family of the Iluns. Some tPme 
 In the early ha./ of the sixth century, the Turks 
 tlien a people who dwelt in the vety center of 
 Asiii. ,it tlit- f,n,t of the Ait.il moiiutaina, making 
 tiieir flnt apnearance In history at conquerors 
 cruahed and almuM annihilated tlM ATaii^ theie^ 
 
 AVARS 
 
 remains a fata] obstacle In her pnlli Kven ai 
 tiling* at present stand. Austria, bv Iut l-mi- 
 grapliical p<wltion, so commands and' dominates 
 the Kussian lino of operations that, once the 
 DaniilH! uasscd. the Russians are omstamlv 
 ■"'"""C"* >'/ Austria on the dank and n-ar 
 And if this be true now, how much more tme 
 would it be were Austria to continue her march 
 eastwaids towanls Salonica. That necessarily 
 at some time or other, that march must lie eon' 
 linued may be Uken for almost certain ; but that 
 Austria has It in her power to commence it for 
 the present, cannot, I think, be admitted She 
 must further consolidate and make certain cif 
 what she has. Movement now would tirinif 
 upon her a struggle for life .rt- death — a slrutvle 
 whose issue may fairiy be said, in no unfriemllv 
 spirit to Austria, to be doubtful. With at home 
 a bittcrty di«t«ntcnte<i Croatia, strong Pan 
 slaylstic tendencies in Bosnia. Herzegovina ami 
 Ualmatla, a Greek popu' Mon Lhoroughlv dis 
 affectetl, and a Hungary . •> f 
 
 ful, she would have to d ... 
 with the not contemp' ,:■,' 
 bined, of ServU. Bii >ri, 
 aspirations she wo-' 
 
 with a bitterly hnsti. 
 with the whole arine 
 the gigantic militar 
 is not fantastic to aii 
 
 ^ loyalty to dfoubt- 
 
 ■VOU.I her frontiers 
 
 mios. when cim 
 
 id reece. wbuse 
 
 lilting for ever. 
 
 .>n in Hacnionia, 
 
 ..< Turkey, and with 
 
 of Russia; whilst it 
 
 that Oermany would 
 
 be holering near, ready t.. pounce on ler 0,r 
 man provinces when the moment psyeholi.iri 
 Q'le should occur. With suoli a nnwivot 
 before her, it would be worse than madnew for 
 Austria to move until the eanla fell mim- 
 favourably for her."— V. Caiilard. The liul 
 !f<man ImbrogUo {PWtRigkUy Renew. iMeemWr. 
 
 I WW). 
 
 A. D. i|78.--Th« Treaty of Beriin.-Acqui- 
 •J*'»» J^^"*"^ ■"*• HenejOTina. See Turks 
 
 242 
 
 bv bi-coming the lords of the Ouigoura. or ()u«r 
 Khouni. But tb« latter found an opportunity |.> 
 escapje from the Turki!* yoke. ••Oath.-rin< 
 together their wives and their children, ih.ir 
 flocks and their herds, they tume,! their wwer-n^ 
 towards the Setting Sun. This immense exxl :, 
 comprised upwards of SOO.'JOO persons The 
 terror which inspired their flight rendcre,! ib.ni 
 resistless in the onset; for the avenirliii; Turk 
 was behind their track. They overtum.'.l . i.rv 
 thing before them, even the Ilunnie irit»-t „f 
 kindred origin, who had long hovenii ,.n xh,- 
 north east frontiers of the Empire, nnd .Irivini- 
 out or enslaving the inhahitiims. estaWisi*! 
 themselvM In the wi.le plains which »tr.trh 
 betwwn the Volga and th<^ Don. In that at,- ..f 
 imperfect information they were naturally emmeh 
 confounded with the greatest and most f.. mill 
 ab.e tribe of the Turanian stock know:i u> the 
 nations of the West. The report that the .Vvari 
 had broken loose from Asia, nnd wen- eomimr In 
 Irresistible force to overrun Europe, spreail lls.lf 
 all along both banks of the IMnuN" and pemimutl 
 to the Byzantine court. With true Iwrbarie ( un 
 ning, the Ouar Khounl availed themselvei c.f iho 
 mistake and by calling themselves Avars Ijirfilv 
 Increaied the terrors of their name and Iliiir 
 chancea of nonnuest." The nreter..!.- i A -.art 
 were taken into the pay of the Empire hv ,liiv 
 tlnlan and employed against the Hun tribe^ north 
 and eart of the Black Sea. They piesently 
 
 \ 
 
AVAia. 
 
 afqiilwd «flrm footiotr on both banks of tlic 
 liiuiiitw, and turned their amu H.-»lnM the 
 Euipire. The lmport«ui i Ity of Sinnlum wnii 
 tukin by them after ao >'i>stltiHt« siij^e aa<l iu 
 inhiiliitants put to »li« »worrt. Their niv ijfeacx 
 Icr.lfd over centrnl EiinijH to the Ellif. whrrv 
 iImy were beaU-n bocli My the warlik >ank8 
 »n(l. aouthwarUs, thniugli Moeaia, Illyrii. ' irace' 
 Miimlonia and On*oe, even to the Peloptianuiua! 
 Coiisijuillnoplc iMelf was threatened mon; than 
 rmi''. and in the summer if 62^ it wasdespcr- 
 BU-ly attacked by Avars and i'ersians In con- 
 junction (see RoMB: A. D. j6.,-«28), with dls- 
 iistrous results to the assailants. But the seat of 
 tlitir Empire was the Dacian country — modtrn 
 Ruumania. Transylvania and |>«rt of Hungary — 
 in whirh the Avars had helped the Lombonb to 
 rrusU and extinguish the OepidiC. The Slavic 
 tribes whl. h, by this time, had moved In grea' 
 numbers Into rvntral and south-ei4.t«m Eumpt 
 were lareely in subjertion to the Avari! and did 
 their bidding In war and peace. "These uiifor 
 tunale creatures, of apparently an Imperfect 
 or, at any rate, imperfectly cultlvate<i intelli- 
 gence, endured such frightful tyranny fn.m their 
 Aviir i-nnquerors, that their very name has passed 
 Inu. u. aynonyme for the moat degraded servitude " 
 -^I (t. Hbeppard, Fall of Borne, Itet. 4 
 
 Also tH: E. Gibbon, Dteliat and MtV ,.f the 
 limtan Empire, ch. 48. 
 
 7th Century,— The SUvic Revolt.— T!.. Km 
 rire of the Avars was Omhnn and much >!hiiin 
 i!il)e<l in the Seventh ( .Di'-ry by an vx'i-i,^\:-.. 
 rising of their opnresaeu .■;*vlc subjecir r ',i,.-,| 
 :inil IcI, It is said, by a Frank merchant, ..r ,-.d 
 venturer, named Samo. who became their M.g 
 I iir first U> throw off the yoke were a tril* cai;,.,i 
 ti.e V.ndes, or Wendes, or Venedl, In Bohemia 
 ^!io were n-putc<l to be half castes, n-sultini 
 fr.m intercourse between the Av«r warriors and 
 the women of their .Slavic vassals. Under th.> 
 M of S,mo, the Wendes and Slovenes or 
 Miv,.fi(ans drove the Avars to the east ami 
 ■1. »nd it seems to have been In conneotioii 
 
 «iili il.n nvolutlon that the Emperor Heraclim 
 iiiduceil the Serbs or Servians and Croiti^ 
 •>l«vie trihi-9 of the same rac. and region— i. 
 
 " in depopulated Dalmatia. "■Pmm tlie 
 
 jei; '.W A »■ writes M. Thierry, 'the Avar 
 pj'oi . an no longer mentioned In the annals of 
 of th. tiisti the succeisora of Attila no longer 
 Bsun t.-side the successors of < .instantinc It 
 r.-ili]m-.l new wars In the West to bring upon 
 the siaire of hi.«ory the khan and hU people ' 
 In the* wai^ [of Pepin and Charlemagne] 
 they weri. finnlly swept off from the roll of Euro- 
 pwi nations. "-J. O. -Sheppanl, F„U of Ii„nt 
 
 AD. 79i-8os.-Conqne«t by Charlemacne, 
 - Ilun^rarv, now »o ealU^I, wai possesdTj by 
 he Avars who ioming with thcmacrves a multl 
 tu<le of llimnlsh triU*, accumulaU"d the Im 
 raen«. sp.„la whieh l„th they tlK-msclves and 
 tlielr eciually l«r!):jrou8 pn-deetasors had torn 
 tn>m the other nations of Kurope Thev 
 
 extended their limits towanis iTmhanly, and 
 
 vT" , ' "" ''" "■'y '■"?'-■ "' ft'varia . . . 
 «uru ot ,1 e.i eastern fmnlier was now lost, al- 
 m.»t wi; ,,it a »"ugglc on their part, liv ti.e 
 f 't 1 . . . r U. ..r».u8 natJODK. especially the 
 
 ETil^JL"^.*""* " ""■ ""•«"' t-harle- 
 n»«i>e. whom they proTokeU by forming an al- 
 
 AVIONOX, 
 
 Ik e with --^ nmbii .,us Duiu' of aivnris. Ta»- 
 t' 7 If'.*' ■"«*"'"" of all Kle. resJMled the 
 ^' < kiUKs 1 .("ni.us uuil imiMrial r.,ie In 
 a "«"» vig'" lis campaisnu. Iietweeu 791 !,d 
 Charlemagi!' lushed the power 'lieAvars 
 •••"I took poss- JM of their co,..,irv The 
 r.'ral " ring " or fonghold — In-lieved 'to have 
 !»•■ Miluated In ti^e ne1ghl»>rh<»Ml of Tiit^ir !«.•- 
 tw, a the Danube and the Tin iiw— was im w- 
 tmuil, and the vast treasure >,tor(il theie was 
 siized. Charlemagne distriliw -d it wiili ,v ..e„. 
 en.us hand churches, to m uaMi ri.-s and to 
 the poor as well as to his o« -. nobles. >er.anis 
 ui.l soldiers, who are said to liave W-vn made 
 inrli. There were subsequent risings of the 
 Avars and wars, until 805, when lb.- ninnant of 
 that almost annihilated people obt iine<l p« rmis 
 Mon to settle on a tract of land between .Nirvar 
 ind Haimburg, on the right bank .f the I>;ii»be 
 wb, ,,. tlK^y would be prolectoi from their 
 .•^l.i> ...ian enemies. This was the end of the 
 Av:ir nation -a. P. R. ..'ames, Uut. vf VharU 
 
 '■■■"l:^. IA.1. \) ,l,ul 11. 
 
 • "^f .."'i, ' '• -^"mbert, nUt. of Charia thi 
 
 AVARS, The Rings of the. -The fortiflca 
 ti.ais of the Avars were of a peculiar and effec- 
 tive construction and were calWd Brings, or 
 Khjgs, 'They seem i l.av. ,n*n a series of 
 eight or nine gigantic .npans, constructed in 
 concentric cinlei. tb. ; .er one of all being 
 cjMvd the riyxl circle or camp, when- was de- 
 I* :-nca all 'i- valuable r.Iunder which the war- 
 rii M bad , -.1, -ted in il=,-ir expe<litions. The 
 
 nuiuKl of CM.;Mnicth:K Ui nimparis was 
 
 R..niewuat siiiiriilHr. Two parai'el rows of gigan- 
 tic (>;;.-3 were drivci. into the ground, some 
 iw-in, feet span Tlie Inn rveninur space was 
 nil'. I with 9UWCS or a species <f chalk, so ct.in 
 pnei.-il as to become a solid n.nss. The (id. s 
 and summit were covered with soil, upon wbu h 
 were planied trees and shrubs, whost- ink-rlaciug 
 brnnchei. firmed sin impeuetrable hedge. "—J 
 Sheppanl /•'.i-V ,,; /4,iB«, ^^( 9. 
 
 AVEBURY. .See Aburt. 
 
 AVEIN, Battle of (1635). See Xf.ther 
 lands: a I». 18*5-1938. 
 
 AVENTINE. The. See Sevk.n Hills or 
 
 Ri'HE. 
 
 AVERNUS. Lake and Cavem.-A gl,«,m) 
 i.»ke calhsl Avenius, which fllli-<l the crater of an 
 extinct volcano. situate<l a little to tlie north of 
 the Bay <if Naples, was the object of many siip;r- 
 stitious imaginations among the ancients. 
 '■Then- was a placr near Lake Avemus called 
 the prophetic cavern Persons were In attend- 
 ance tlK're who ca!i<d up ghosta. Any one 
 desiring 11 came ibiiber. mid. having killed a 
 victim and ismriil oiu lilsitiims. summonetl vluit- 
 ever ghost b.' wanted. Tlie ghost came, very inint 
 ami doubtful t^i the sirfit. — .Mii.timii» tvrius 
 aiiotedbyC i '. Feltoti in (irttr,, Aufienr .,,„t 
 .V.W-rn. c. i, l,rt »._!<,.e. :iIk,i. Ci M.K and BAi.li. 
 
 AVERYSBORO, Battle of, .Se I sitfd 
 Statbs of Am. a. 1). 1>*(M iKfcUBLAKV— .Mahi H: 
 Thk Carolina-). 
 
 AVICENNA. SeeMEDK ALStlENCB: 7-llTH 
 
 CESTITH!; ; 
 
 AVIC.MOM: loth Ceotury.-In the Kini- 
 
 dPraef Aries -leeBiiniiNDV .\ 1). W)-i'.S. 
 " "^ " SeeAL- 
 
 A, O JSJi -Si-jeby Louie villV 
 
 2Ai 
 
il 
 
 
 AVIONON. 
 
 A. O. tsao-i34t.— Ilatii the Mat of the P«- 
 
 pacT-PurchaM of the :itjr by Clement V. 
 bee Fapacv: A. I). ia94-l»W. 
 
 A. p. 1367-13^— Temporanr return of Ur- 
 ban V. to Rome. Sec PAi-Arv; A. 0. IllVi I:i7s 
 
 A. D. I377-I4I7-— Return of Pope GreirorT 
 XI. to Rome.— Reaideisce ef the anti-popei of 
 thecreatSchiam. 8<f I'apaoy: A. I). 1:177-1417 
 
 A. D. iMo-iTvi.-Rerolatioa aad Anarchy. 
 — Atrociticacommitted.-Renaiea with Fraace 
 decreed. Hce Franck: A. r> ITW-tTei. 
 
 A. D. 1797-— Surrendered to France by the 
 Pope. Hev Fkamck: A. D. 17i«-1797 (Uctobkr 
 — April). 
 
 - A. D. 1815.— Poaeeaalon by Prance con- 
 armed. Sec V lEs.yA, The Cunukcm or. 
 
 AVIONES, The. — "The Arionra wrn> a 
 Bui'vlc clan. Tlicy urr mpnti(>nal liy Tnritiis in 
 connexion with the Ucii.liKnl, Angll. Viirinl, 
 fcudowji. Simr<lc>ncs niiil Niiithoo.-.. nil Smvic 
 clauii. Tb<wtrtlH-8 miiat have iici'iiplol Mrok 
 Icnliurg; Jkhwiriu. M.oklinbiirit 8m-lltz nnd 
 Wtiwick HoUti-ln, I III! Kllw \».iug tlielr Ea»tem 
 hHimUry. It 1«, Ik.wivit. ImpomihU; to dfllne 
 tlielr pn-clw loc«liili»."_A. J {Uiiirhiinil W J 
 BriMlrilib. Minor Wuria of T^ieitii; Ihnn. \ota tu 
 th* Oertmnig. 
 
 ,J5^}h.^^* Houae of. jcc Poutuoal: A. D. 
 X9(»~lSHa. 
 
 AVIS, Knifhta o'.— Thl« U a Portumieee 
 
 ?1 J, .''^"■"'5'""* "'""''■ *''''■'' oriKln«to<l nbniit 
 1147 iliirlni; the wnni witli tin- Muiini. iin<l which 
 lormerlv odecrvHl thr in«nastir nilw of Hi Bine- 
 diet, it IxTiimp .t.im<Ttii| with the onler of 
 Lalatrava in .H|mln uml itTi'lvnl from llie Utter 
 iu prniM-ily in fimiiCHl I'oiie P.H1I III iinluil 
 the Uruiil MnufniliJi) to tin- Oniwo of I'ortiiKul. 
 —P. C WoimIIiiiiim'. MiliUrg Itelir/i.iut Onlm. 
 Pt*^—>*n\ iiImi. I'oRTroAi.: A. I> lOH.Vlsa.'S 
 AtK.}7^^' *»"•" Emperor (Weitemi, A D 
 
 AWIli, The. — The (iriiflnnl inlinliiiniii* nf 
 the ■oiith we*t iiimer of Cwjuui. fmiii wliidi 
 they were.lrlveii l.y the l'lim.llni*-ll Ewnl.l 
 /«•/ of hniet. hk I . trrt 4 
 
 AYACUCHO, Battle of (ila4). s.-< Prrc 
 
 A. I» IM.tl-lK-.tl ^ 
 
 AYLESBURY ELEnTION CASE. S.,. 
 Emii.anii .\ I) |70:| 
 
 AYLESFORD. Battle of (A D. 4SS>. -Tl«. 
 flnt Imltle roii«:lit i>n.| won l>y the Inviwlini. 
 Jut™ after llieir Inii.tln^ In Hriuin iio<ler Hen 
 
 fr«iin.l llonit It wiM fougbt itt the lowe«t 
 ml of the river .Meilwny. Sec Exoi.AKii .\ |» 
 
 AyMARAS,The. See Peri-. Tiik .\iioi.iot 
 
 RAl. iMItniTANTII 
 
 AYOUBITE OR AIVUBITE DYNASTY 
 
 OK' Sm.adin. Tiirc Kmpimk or 
 
 AZINCOUR (ACINCOURT), Battle of. 
 Bee Fkan<r a I» 141.1 
 
 AZOF OR AZOV: A. D. l69ft.-Tak.B by 
 thcRuaaiant. s. Thiki. A II 1«h4-|(H»(I 
 
 A. D. i7ii.-Reiloratlon to the Turka. See 
 
 S< 4.N01KAVIA.V SIATKH ISWEUBN) A l> 1707- 
 
 ^'*i2'?"*lW :Caotured by the Ruetiaai. 
 -Secured to them b* tbe Treaty of Bclrrada. 
 few Ki IMA . A I> 1 7M 1 789 
 
 IMJ-liWll, alao. Amkricam AuuRianw: NAiAa 
 
 244 
 
 AZTEC AND MATA PICTURE -WRITINQ 
 
 i*^?^?^*''? '•A^A PICTURE-WRIT- 
 INO.— No nation cTcr rviliicnl It [pIctoeMnhvl 
 niojv to a iy»tcm. It was in conuant uk in i|,e 
 •Inlly tntniiaclioos of life. Tliey [tlio An.-.-,) 
 mnnuforturwl for writing purpoaes a tliiek 
 coane paper from the leavea of the agnvc pkut 
 by a procees of maceration and pnswm- An 
 Altec iNwk cloaely rewmbhia one of our oiwrtn 
 rolunirt. It is maile of a tinrle alieet, 18 to 15 
 inrlie» wWe. and often 80 or TO feet lonir nml ii 
 not rolled, but folded either in wiuans or titmn 
 111 inch a manner that on opening theiB aiv two 
 page* expnaed to »lew. Thin wooden biMnli 
 are fMtened to each of the outer learea, no tint 
 the wlioh! preaenti a« neat an «pp.«mnc.. remark. 
 
 ^■^;^*!'^yI: s 'f " '*"'' """" '"»" "« ■••"p of 
 
 a akllfiil book bhxler. 1 .>y alao coTereil builil 
 Ingii. tapeatriea and trrolU of parchment with 
 til.*, devices. What is still more «»toni,h 
 
 ii»r. there Is reason to liellere. In some huunr..^ 
 tiKir rtg.tres w<re not palnu-d. but «rt..«ny 
 printed with movable blocks of wnoii on whi.li 
 tlie symbols were carveii in relk-f, tlmuuli tl,|, 
 was probably conDncd to those Intendiil f,.r 
 omanu-nt only. In these reconis we iliHcni 
 something higher than a mere BymU.lle nnt,iiii,n 
 rhey ponuin the germ of a phonelli- Hlplialx t 
 ami represent sounds of spoken liuigimKi' Tliii 
 symUil is often not cnnnecuil with the Mm hut 
 with the wonl. The inixlc in wliirli ml, u '.l.,nr 
 oiirn-sixwU prrclsily u> thiit of the nliiH It i, 
 a slniiie methol. renilily suggesting Its. If |n 
 the middle agi-s it was much In vogue In Kiininc 
 for the same purpose for which Ft w,w . hi. i\. 
 einnloy,.,! |q Me»i.ii at the sain<- tim,> ih' 
 writ ng of prnpir name*. F..r "jiiinpl.v il,.' 
 fcngllsh fam.iy liolt.m was kn.>wn In li. nl.lrv 
 by a 'ttin'tmnstlxnt by alH.lt.' Pr..i«<lv*. 
 the Mexican Kmpenir IxcontI i>i mention. I inthu 
 AiUT maniiM-riiiu iimier the flgure of » wr.H nt 
 c.»itl, plenitl l.v olMhllan kniven, I, til ' 
 Ashsyllalileroiild Ir- expn-^'te.l l.v iiiiv iil.j, , t 
 wh.Mc nam.' ■■..imneneed with It. n", f.w »,.n|i 
 can lie given tin- f..rm ..f n n bus wiih.mi »i,i,„. 
 Umngj-, as the Itgiin's sometimes r. pnseni ih. ir 
 iiill phom-tle value, soiiietlmes only tlmt ..f ih, Ir 
 inillsl sm;'.,l. aii.l as uniTeiaally tli<- sti. nii.n „f 
 
 the nrtlst «iw .MnTU-d l.« t<i the s. I ih in i<, 
 
 llieldi.a. the ilhlactle piilnting .)f the M.\i. .ii. 
 »lii«tever It might have Ixtu u. them, l» >i «. ,,l,,i 
 l«".kl.. us. and must nmaln so in gr.;.i p,n 
 Immi'nM- masses of aiirh iI.m iiiiiimh, «, .,• 
 •I'.ml in tin- ImiM'rial nrehlvt^sof am hiii .M. »i. .. 
 Ti.r.|tieinii.ln nax'rts that live cities ahin.' \ i. M. .i 
 t" the .S|iiinli>li g.ivenii<r ..n one n'i.wl»iii..ii n., 
 Irsnthan Ifl.iNHi v.iliinies or senilis' Kv.rv I. af 
 » li i|,.Hln>ye<l In.leetl. so llii>n>iii,'h lui'i who!.' 
 sale was tli.' ilestrmtiiHi of ilii'v m.-MmiliiK ii'iw 
 s<i precious In .iiir eyes, that huhilv .li'm-h 
 remain to wliet llie wfu of aiilt.itmii.; In ilic 
 libraries of Paris. I>n«len, P.Mli, .in.l tlw 
 Vatican are. however, a suffleleiii n.iii.U r lo 
 make us despair of ih-elphering iIi.mi h:..| wo 
 for comparisiHi all which the S|i,iiiUr.l, ,1,'s. 
 iroyeil. Ilevon.1 all oihera the .M ivw. ^-.i.h .it 
 on the peninsula of YiicaUn, wonM w..!. in 
 have sppnmch. art-st a true pli.m.li.' kvhi, m 
 They ha-l a re» ....r ami will un.h'r<t.»l nl|.hH 
 bet of SJ7 elemcnury soiiikU. tlie liltert ..f » In. Ii 
 are totally different fnnn tl«i«' ..f «iiy "thir 
 nation, ami evidently origluaU'.l with lli. lii'" I.. . 
 But lieshles these they iiiH'.t a larg.' Hiiiiil..r nf 
 purely eoDrenlloaal syiubuls, and ui..n^>vi.r 
 
AZTEC AND MAYA PICTCRE -WRrTINO. 
 
 wrrc •eciutomcd ccatUntlr to employ the 
 iiiiik-nt pictugmpliic metboU In uldltlon as > 
 «irt »f commvDtary on the louml repmcntMi 
 . With tlie M at thU alpbalwt, which hw 
 firtunately b«en preeerved, we mn ennblcd to 
 ^|H■II out a few wonis on the YucHtvcan manu- 
 scripu and fnfade*, but tlius hr with uu pusitive 
 
 BABYLOmA. 
 
 reaulta. The loaa of the ancient praaundation 
 U CTiH-cittlly Id the way of such itudiiii In 
 duuth Aiiii-rica. aho. there b aaU to huv« lieeo 
 a nation who cultivated the art of picture 
 
 D O. Brinton, Tlu MftU of (A« W WarU. 
 
 BAB, Tht.-This title, iliniirTlnK "gmte" 
 or •door." w« Kjren to a young reriglout n- 
 fnnner, namml MIrxa All Mohammed, who ap- 
 ncareil In I'crela about 1K44. claiming to bring « 
 dlrinp meaaage laU^r and bifrhcr than tlioac for 
 which Jesua and Mohammnl were icnt. Ilia 
 Irachinir forbade polygamy and divorce, anil hU 
 own life waa pure. lie won a large body of 
 ill« Ipira, and the aert be founded is wid to be 
 .till •.t-n-lly tpreading, notwitbatandfng con 
 tinuni iieraeriitlon. The lUb waa himacif out 
 to d.-«th in 1H8I. -M. F. Wilaon. 7»« «»«,'- 
 iSf IlilUCoHtrmiMirarfi Htr.. Ittf., 1H«8). 
 
 BABAR, KUk of^Fcrrhau, A. D. 14M 
 
 King of kabnl A. I> lT,.>4-; Ile|hnl Em- 
 peror or Padiachab of India, A. D T.va6-l»su 
 
 BABENBERCS, Tht. Hee AtaTRiA: A. d! 
 
 BABYLON : The Clty.-"Thc city «tand» on 
 « hroad plain, and la an rXBCt ii<|uarp. a hundred 
 «ncl iwenry fiirlonpi In li iicth wirb war. •<> that 
 
 'I nlin' linuli is four humln.'d and ifithf fur- 
 
 l.iriir« Wliilr Ruch la it* «i«-, In magnilJcenctf 
 ihiTp i» nil oihi-r citv that approacbra it It la 
 virrounded. in the lin.1 place, by a linad and cl.cp 
 ni-wl. full of water, behind which riaena wall flfty 
 r.valrubiu In wi.lih and two hundnn! In height 
 On the ton, along tlH- edges of tliewall. ther 
 ciiniilrurud buildings of a single chamber fadug 
 one anotlicr, k«vlng lictwecn tlicni nxiiu for a 
 (iiiir horw- chariot to turn. In the circuit of (lie 
 w»ll Ktv a liuiidrcd gatea, all of bniaa. with 
 tirij.n llnt.U and aiilc iKwts. The bitumen Uit><l 
 ill Ihi- worit was Imiugiit to Babylon from the Is 
 mnmll tin-nm which Hows into tlw Euphretes 
 HI till- iK.int wlicri' llir city of the aanir name sUnds 
 • lUlit . inn' Journey from lialiyion. Lumps of 
 hiHiiKiiitrf found in gn'iit abunilanc*- in this rircr 
 The niy it lilvideil into two portions by tlie 
 riri r Khlih ninn llimiigh the mhlst of It. Tills 
 r vir li the Kuplirs:!-.. ... The city wall U 
 lir.m»ht down on Ixiili sidca to the itlgc of the 
 «renin. tlHiice, froin llie comers of the wall 
 Mien- l> rarrir.1 uionic eaili hiuili of the rirer a 
 (in,e i.f Immt briiks Tlio nouses are mnstly 
 Mmv mill four stories lilgb t :e stni-is all run In 
 •iniifht llni-«. not only tliiw pnndlel to the 
 nver hut ai»i |t„- cross stnvli. which leail 
 'I'wn to the water shie. At the river cml of 
 
 'hai ^l»mi the slre„m. which are, llli. the great 
 CH. H In the outer wall, «f brass, and own on 
 II" «nier Tlie outer wall la tlie nuiin defence 
 Hf the , iiv TlH-re K however, a «..oihI Inner 
 «iil. ..f \,« thiekm^ss timn tlic flrst, but very 
 I'" '• Infer. ,r to It In strength The mm- of 
 •ell 11^11^.41 of the town waa 0.1 uitktl l,v a 
 »"ni« In llM- iMie aloo.) the |w|«r- of tlie 
 kmc, .urMiiiKle,! by „ w,|| „, ^„,„ ^1, 
 
 r V iJv ""' """' *•• ""' •*"^' pfwiwi "1 
 
 •^I'ller IWlii, a «|„ar,. emhwir.'. two furlong, 
 •*h way. wlib gates of solid braaa. wbkh wm 
 
 B. 
 
 also remaining In my time. In the middle 0/ 
 the pre, iiict tliero was a tower of solid masonry 
 a furlong In k-ngthaiid breBdtli, upon which waa 
 ndswl a aecoml tower, and on that a thini and 
 sji on up to eight. The ascent to the U>p Is oo 
 be outside, by a path which winds round all 
 iiie towers. ... On the topninsl t<iwer there is 
 a spnrimis temple. "-Hciwlotus. Hut., tmiu. 
 A* /i<,<if.«»«. Mr, I, M, n8-l8i,_Acc,mllng 
 
 ^..1 ."'J,''*. "^"" "'J'" *»"» "' IJabyloS 
 was but 9S0 furlongs. The historians of Alex- 
 ander agreed nearly with this As regaida I lie 
 beiglitof thewa^la. "Strabo and the "liatoriuns 
 of Alexawler substitute 50 for the »» cnl.its of 
 Hero, otua, rnA It may Uierefore be su»|Mite<l 
 lliat the Utter author referred to liands. four of 
 which were eoual to the cubit. The measure. 
 liHlcwi. of SO rathoma or 300 royal cubits for the 
 walUof a city In a plain b ijulto prep.«.ten>ua. 
 . . Mv own belief b that the height of tlie 
 walls of Bnbvlcm did not eice«i «0 lir TO Eng- 
 llah f,vt. -II. C. liawlinson. n<>U t„ aiocr —See 
 also. IUbtuima: B. C 6XV-.l:i9 
 
 BABYLON OP THE CRUSADERS. Tht. 
 fleeCiifSAtiBs: A D. lilM-liM 
 
 BABYLONIA, Primltl»..-(Ho much new 
 knowbdge of th, ancient peoph-a In the Knu has 
 been 8U.I Im Mi g brought to li^ht liy r,,-,nt 
 jeareii aiid study. «n<l the acwuntof It inEniriinb 
 htatorleal llterali-re las;) im>agreas vet. that llure 
 srenis to be gcv:d reason for deferring llie In at 
 ment of ti.;-.- subjecu. for tlie moat part lo a 
 Inter volume of tUs work. T1k> reailer b refemM 
 tJierefore, to llie article "Semlleii," In th,' lio-m 
 that, Ufore iu publiiation la reached, in tU 
 fourth or flfUi volume, tlM-re will lie later nn,l 
 lielter woriia to ijuote from on all tla- miI.Ji , is 
 emlinuK-d Terrfcn de Ijur,.uperie-» int. r, Ming 
 tlMxiry, which b Uitrnduc,",l ImIow, in ilii« iilu,," 
 Is qucstione,! by many biIkiUfs. and I'mf.Mof 
 Niyre. w e writings have don,: niuili to |«ipu. 
 ariie the new orienul atmlU-i. aeenia Ui Kohoine. 
 Ilm,« in advance of the aure gr,uii»l>_Tho 
 Nmilriana, inliahlianu of tb Hhlnar of iIh- Ohl 
 TeatMiienl narrative, ami AixadUna, Hiio dl- 
 vUtil prin.ltive llabyloniu latwcen lti,ni • were 
 overrun and coni|iier,il hv tlie .Vndll,' llaby 
 loutanaof later hl«tnry, Ai,ail UIng apiwn ntly 
 the llmt half of th,- country to fall iiihhr tin- 
 •way of tlie new cowers »» b |Hjaailil,< that 
 I asillm, tin- ll.lin'W woni translaliil Clmldeeanr 
 ('hiihleann in the Hiilhiiri<ii| venioii. is tin' llidiy- 
 Ionian ■ caxldi ' or ciwiijiMrora. a title wlii, h i-on- 
 linueil U) I ling to tin m in niii«-<|ueiiei> i.f i|„ir 
 coni|iiest. Tlie Aermliuna bad lieeu tile ii;ven- 
 toraof the plctoriid hiinigivphica wlii< ii nfier- 
 wanis iievelo|ie<l into the 1 1'lni iform or wi-lue 
 aliiiiMii writing. Iln-v bail foiiiHleil tlM'griiii i'li|,-s 
 III ( liidilea, and Inwl attaiiieil to a bigb degn-e of 
 < iilturi' and civili/Htion Tlwlr citiis p<N«>a«^| 
 lllir»rl<>s. stocked with books, written pHrtly on 
 IMipyrus, partly on clay, which was. whib stUl 
 
 iV> 
 

 iifl 
 
 BABYLONIA. 
 
 •oft. hnprpwrd with chnnrtm by menat of it 
 inrtiil ilyliis. Tlir iMmki were nuinfn>iw. hihI 
 n'lattil to n vRrit-ty of niblrrts. ... In miirM- 
 of time, howcvrr, Uh- two ilUlcrla of Wiiniir luiil 
 Acnul n-nifl to be apokt-n ; but Dm- i»-<twity for 
 Inirninjc tiM-in Mill n-mnlnol, nml we Anil, Hr- 
 ttinllnKly. Ibiitilowntotln-laiiiitiUyiiof Ixali Aa- 
 ayrin anil IlMliylonU, th*- eiliicHltil rliisaca were 
 tttiiKlit tlH- iilil rxlinrt Amulinn, luat lu in mivl- 
 rraKiimpftliryHntUUtflit Ijitlu. — .V II. Sayiv, 
 FriMk U,iht from the AiH-iinl MonHiiirnlt, eh. 2. 
 —'■Since Siimir. tlie Shinnr of the Bible, wiu 
 tlH- flrst pun of the eountry ornipiiil i>v tlie In- 
 THilin)! Similea, while Amiil Iihik mntlniiol to 
 lie rcitimli'd aa the teat of nn alien race, the lan- 
 ifiiaiti ami nopulalbm of primitive Cliiililea have 
 l«Tn namcH Arrailian by tlie niajorilv of Aa- 
 ayrian aelHilar*. Tlie part plavi-d liv iliiite Ae- 
 f aillana in tb»' Intellrrtiml hiitlnrv of inankiiKl la 
 lii/flily iinpiirtant. Tliiy were llie enrlii-sl livili- 
 7.era of Weitem Aala, and it la to tlieiii that we 
 /«ve to Irare the arta ami ■rlvneFa. the n'Mxioiia 
 tnulitkioa anil tlie philoaophv not only of ilie Aa- 
 ayrlana, but also i.f the I'lHvnirlana. the Am- 
 nuiiina. anil even the llebrewt themavlrea. It 
 waa. Um. fitim I'lialdea lliat the verma of Onvk 
 art anil of miioh of the On-ek pantheon anil myth- 
 oliicv orliilnally eaine. ('oiumoar arrhiteeture 
 reai'luil ita (lr»t anil hiKheat development in 
 Uiiliy Ionia; the liooa that atill guant the main en- 
 trance of My ken* aiv diatinrtly Aaarriao in char- 
 arteriand the Om-k llenUtle* with hia twelve 
 laboun llnda hia nnttotyne In the hem of the 
 irnvt Chaldean epic. It la diinrult u> aay how 
 much of our piMent culture ia not owed to the 
 •tiinted. oblique-eynt people of ancient Baby- 
 lonia. JeruiMlem and Athena an- the aacnil citiet 
 ofourtmaieni life;aadlHiih Jeniaaleninml Athena 
 wen- pn>founilly influenced by tlie iileaa whiih 
 liail their Arat alarting point in Drlmieval Ai-cnil. 
 TIk- Heralle liaa ever been a tradi r and an Inler- 
 niiiiiary. ami hiai-arlleat work waathi- pn<riiiiia 
 tnule in aplritual ami mental warea Knlivlnnla 
 waa iIh' iHiine ami miilher of Semitic ciillun- and 
 Hemiliclnapiration: the Pbirniciana never foritot 
 tiMl tlM-y were a oilony from the IV-nlan (Julf. 
 widle tlie lantelile rmiunteil Hint hU fmln-r 
 Aliniham had lui-n bom in I'r of the Clinldet-H 
 AIniiwt llie wlwOe of the A»vrlBn litenitiin' wie* 
 ihriviil from Aiiiui.Hiid Iranaiatitl fnmi thi'deinl 
 laiiiiiiatre of primitive Ciwliiea."— A II (<«vii- 
 /liAjA.oina lAlrnilMrt. ;ip. *-7 — Tlie aa'nie] 
 AtteirHl fCnptntnfthr KimI. tt/tp. 2 —••Tli,. plaii. 
 of China in tla- imat and future i« md that which 
 It w:ia lonir •upiKiwil |o 1». lii-renl n-o-an-he* 
 have iiiM'li«)-<l llinl tin liviliintion. like oiim war 
 varloiialv deriveil fnmi lh>>aameokl fiMiixof ciil 
 tun-of aiiutb weateni Aula. . . . It wax my |ri»l 
 fortum- III lie ahli- III irliim, in an uninierrupliil 
 »< rim of a «<iir« or hi iif |iii|i< ra in |H<ri<>licHia of 
 eomniimicatlona lo the Uoyal Aaiatic S.i,-iety and 
 elaiwhere. piitiliahetl and unpublialMil. ami of 
 coniriliiitlona to aeveml wiirka alner April Itmt 
 downwiinla. Hint the wrilinit iml mmw kmiwl' 
 edtfe (if ana. mIi nee and iroveniineni ..f iIh' early 
 Chlneae. niori' nr Um eniimeraliil Nhiw. wen- 
 di-riveii fmm tin nki civiliutlon of llthyhmia 
 lliniuuh IIh- m iimilary fiK ua of Miiatana. ami that 
 thia ih-rivallou «iia a walal faii. n-aultlUK w>t 
 from aeh-nlirte li-uiiiiiif but fMm pracilral In 
 unimrw of aonM- k-nvlh la twii-n lh<- .Hiiaian iihi 
 fiih'ruliHi ami the future i-lvilUert of llie C.iiiH-ar 
 tbi Bak i.lbea, who, ffma ifadr nviybbouftoi 
 
 246 
 
 BABYLOKIA. 
 
 ■Pttlemenu in the N.. moved eaatwan^aat ihi- 
 time of the (freat riainif of the XXIII. iinliirv 
 n. C. Coming a/rain iu the Held. I>r ,1 K.lkin, 
 lia« Joine<l roe on the tame line. "— Terriin il, 
 I.«coujperie. AiiyfeniVi ami ChtM {Aouhmi/ 
 Ann. 7, 1880).— '■ We could enumerate a Imli; 
 aerlea of afflnitica between Chaldean ciiitim ami 
 ChlD-JH! civilization, allluiuxh the liiat win ii.,i 
 iKimiwed diivrtly. From what evklence we h.n , 
 It aeema highly 6mbHble ilint a certain niinilHr. t 
 famiiiea or of trlla-a, wiiiimit any apparent urn 
 eric name, but among which the Kiiiu fliliil an 
 imporunt pualtkio, came U> China aUiiit tin- vi-ir 
 MtW B. C. Theae tribea. which came fn.ni ii„ 
 Weat, were obliged to quit tlie nei){htHnirhiii»l 
 probably north of tin- Suaiana. and wen- loni 
 priaeil in the feudal agKloineralion of that n-einn 
 wlH're tlii-v muat have been intluemitl hy ilii- 
 Akka.lo('haldeMn culture."— Terrien ile Ijicnu 
 |a-rie. Knrlif Hul „f Chii^mi CiriluaUon. /. H.' 
 
 — **«•. alao. China Thk < Ikiuin or tiik l^: i 
 
 Th« early (ChaMeaai moaarchy. - iiur 
 eariieat glimpw of tlie pi .itical comliliim „f 
 Chaidea aliowa ua the country dlvidnl im,, 
 numeniua amall atatea. each hemled by a t-nai 
 city, maile fannHiaand powerful by tlieaannunrv 
 or temple of aome nartlcular deity, and nili-d h'v 
 a jwleai. a title whh-h ii now thought to mean 
 prieat king. I. e , prieat aad king In one Tliin' 
 can be little doubt that the beginning of ihi- 1 itv 
 waa every where the temple, with iU nilliife .If 
 mioktering prieala, and that the aumiiiii.lini; 
 aeltlement waa gnilually formeii by piUhnu 
 and worahlppen. That myalty diveloixMl „iit 
 of the prieathiKal ia ala<i more than pniti.ihle 
 . . . Tht-nr comet a lime when for the title nf 
 pateti la lulaMltuted that of king. . . It js 
 notli-eabh- that the iliaiinction latwein tbf 
 Hemitic newconien ami the iniligenoiin Shiimiri 
 Accaillana contlnuea long to la- inu-ealili- in the 
 namet of the mval tem|lle-hlllhle^^ even iifi.r 
 th«" new Hcmillc Idiom, wliich we inll ilii 
 Aiayrian, liail eiitln>ly oiiateil the old laiu-iifni 
 . . Kurtliermore. even aiipertlcial iili«-rv.-iil,in 
 aliowa that the old fainguage ami the old minii-n 
 aiirvive long<>at In Hhuinir, — IIm' Houih. Krin 
 thia fact it ia to lie Inferreil with little ilmnn ,.f 
 miatake that tiie North.— llw lami of .Xi.wl - 
 waa eariier HemitlznI. that the Semitir ini 
 niigranU eaUbliah«-<l their Hrat lM-a<h|uan.r« m 
 that part of tlie country, that Ihelr i«i«ir nml 
 intliiemi- Ihemv apreail'to Itie Houlh. r ulU in 
 acconlance with Ihi-ae imiicniiona. llie Hmi i-rrinil 
 hiatorical figure that merta ua at the I n-li.-M .■! 
 Chalilean hiaiorv. dim with the mialaof ■iifi- uml 
 fabuknia tnulltlona. vii unmiatakalili r. il. m 
 that of th<' !4eniile t^lwmikln. king of .\,..i,|. 
 or Agadc. aa the gn-at Northern city ranw- 1.> l» 
 calhil — more iL'enerally known In hl»li.ri w^'.-t 
 thf corrupt nHaieni nwllng of .StrL'in nnl 
 c-allnl Hargon I . 'tlie Finn.' to illalinir<ii'<li lnm 
 fnim a vi-r>- famoiia Aaayrian miinnr> li ••< il.i 
 tame name wlm relirneii many ifiiiiirii-. ho. r 
 At U> the city ..f Airaile. It la no niln r ih.iii Ilir 
 city of Accail mentioned in (ieneaia t. |o li 
 waatltuateil cloae lo tlie Kuphniea mi « »i.l. 
 canal Jual op|i>aille I4|ppar. an ihat In lliii- ili* 
 two clllea came l<i be <<onaiilen-<t a* one .lniMe 
 city, and Ih.- Ilebrewa alwava i-alhii It ili.' i»- 
 Hippara — Heplmrvaln which ia often a|..>kini'( 
 In the liilih- The tivniemloualv amfanl 
 
 lUtv of IHUU B C h now gewrally' lo .< I'l'M 
 fur Harguo ot A(»d« - pcrfaapt tbr nm<um 
 
BABYLONIA. 
 
 BACTRIA. 
 
 tuthrntic lUte yrt arrlvrd at Id liUtnry. "— Z. A. 
 iUfrorin, Ktanaf Vhalden. «*. 4.— "A hnrde of 
 I awitii. or K<«armni iw ;.» down fmm the 
 nioiiiiliiins <>f NortlM-ni Elain uikIit tlieir Ivuier, 
 KImiiimiiniKM; Aowl wiu roiiijiKTi-d. a furpifrn 
 ilyiir.ity n(Uil>liiiiM!<l In the litnil, anil the nipttul 
 traip'firrol fMm A);aile to RHii.vlon. Babylon 
 now liM'ame a city of importanii: for tli« llret 
 liiiii': th<.- rank aaiiKtml U> it in tin- mytlilml »fi' 
 niM lint a reflprtlon of tlw puaiiinn it lii'kl afu-r 
 ihi' CiiMite comiueat. Tin? CiuHite dynasty i« 
 pn.lmlily ' i" Anil>iHn ilynaaty of IVniaiM. . . . 
 A ncH Iv foiiwl inmriptioD of NuliunidiM makes 
 tlif dale ("f Its advi-nt) B. V. ST.V) \fiiottU)lt\. 
 . . . Tlip tint ran; of Khtminiiniirns. after rstab- 
 liiliinK liiniM-lf in Arratl. was li> cxti'nd his sway 
 KviT ilif Miiitliem kinploni of Siimrr as well. 
 . . . Khammurana Ix-mnir kiriK of tlio «|iolc 
 iif Batiylonia. From thia tinii- onwani thecoun- 
 try rrifialned a united mouanjiy. Tlui Cassile 
 ilyna>ty muat have lasted for serenl cenliiries, 
 aiiii iiniba'jiv inrlude<l mure than oor line of 
 kiniK. . . U waa under the CaMiite drnasty 
 that the kinfplom of Assyria tlmt t<>4i Its'risi-,— 
 partly, perhaiw, in conaequem-e of the Asiaiie 
 n>n(|iie«ts of ttic Kgyplian monarcha of the 
 rlirhtiinth dynasty. ... In B. V. 1400 the 
 CsMijie kinr married an Assyrian princess. Her 
 •im, Kara Murdas, was munlerol by tlie party 
 oppnui-d to Assyrian influence, but the usurjier. 
 Nazi buKas, was quickly overthmwn l>r the 
 Assyrians, who placed a vasaal prince oh tlw 
 throne. This erent may be cimaklemi the lum- 
 inir iNiint In tlie history of the klnifloms of the 
 Tlirriaand Euphrates; Asayria henceforth lakes 
 lli<|il»ciMif the worn out monnnhy of tlalivlonla, 
 ami |il»_VH the chief part In the afTaintof VVcstem 
 A>ia until tlie flay of lu flnal fall. In little more 
 ihni] :i huri>lrr<l years later tlic Asayriana were 
 acnin In Babylonia, but this time as avowed 
 1111 inirt lo all parties alike ; Balirlon was captured 
 tiv ilu- AMvrlan monarch Yitflath Adiir lu B. ('. 
 
 I ITo. aiHl the rule of the CiMslle dynasty came 
 111 an end "—A. II. 8ayc«, Anfifiit Kmjiim of 
 tht hint, apfi. 2. 
 
 .\i.iMi IN (J Kawlinson, Fire (Imit Moivtrrhif ■ 
 l-l„M,.-, <•* H — Hee. abai. AssTHIA. 
 
 B. C. 6as-S39.-Th* Imttr Empirt.-Por 
 Binri' thiin »1» c<>nturi<<s after iIh- coiKjuesi of 
 
 II ( I'.'M. Babylonia «n< olwun'tl by Aswyria. 
 Itiirinir nnxit ui that kmit (lerioil. the CbHlili-an 
 kint'iliin Mas aubji>ct lo lis nonliem iH-iiriilair 
 iiiiii triinriMMl by Assyrian vliiiMvs TIhti' »etv 
 fn <|iii'nt revolis and arane Iniervala of imlepen 
 ill mi', bill they werv lirlef. ainI Ihc |i<iliticiil life 
 "1 ItHbylotiia as a itlMinct |io«ir oinv !■<• mid to 
 li.Ki hiin sua|iended from I'.'M iiulil Art H. C , 
 » tun .N,ilii>|>olaaaar wIhi nikil llmt im iht- vlcrniv 
 
 • ■( III.' .Vioyrian UHaian-h. threw oil his yoke. u»>k 
 till silriliiili-s of soven-lirntv lo hiiiisi>ir. ami 
 !■ iiH-il ilie Mithis in eillntfulshlnff the «lorv of 
 Niin-vi'b "TIm- Assyrian Kinpirr w«« iinw 
 fliiin-l lirtwiien MiilU ami Ilabvlon NuImi 
 I'hiiir uim-r. or N'eburhadn<r.rar. SaUipok.ionra 
 
 • I.I.M MHi, waslhrn-al rmmhrof iIm- liabvlonian 
 iiiuilri' The alleropt of Pliaraoli Ni-cS«i'lo w In 
 ("■r Kivpi ihe Intwrilnnre of Asavriii wan i»i<r 
 il.fon HI ibe Imllhof I'lm iHiiriab. aiHl wlau 
 .N>lii).h«i|n'«*ar siiii<i<e<|e<i his fatli. r in II f 
 «"4 Ik fuiiiMl hlnmlf iIh- uiMllspiitnl loni of 
 " . -I. rti Alia. l'Hh<«lim' was cta'ninl in niri. uml 
 II.. .ii-.iru<'tloo of Jerusalmi in .V»7 liiid a way 
 Hitu Ivr tiw luTaaluo ul £«ypl, witiili tuuk 
 
 24; 
 
 place twenty years later. Tyne alio underwent 
 a louK siege of tliirteeo years, but it is doubtful 
 whither ft was uken after all. Babylon waa 
 now eurichitl with the spoils of foreign coouuesL 
 It owed as much to Nebuchadrezzar aa Rome 
 owed to Ausustiis. The buildings and wnllt 
 with wliich It was Bilome<l were wortliy of tlie 
 metnipolis of the world. The palace, now rep- 
 rcHentMl by the Kasr mound, was built In tlftecn 
 days, awl the outermost of Its thife wells waa 
 si'vcn miles in circuit. HanffinK gartlens were 
 constructed for Queen Amy lis, the daughter of 
 the Meilian prince, and the great U-mpIc of B«'l 
 was niufeil with cedar and overiaid with gold. 
 The temple of the Seven Lights, dnlicateil to 
 Nibo at Borsippa by an early king, who hail 
 raiseil It to a height cf forty-two cubiu, was 
 completetl, aiHl Vk:1ous otlMT temples were 
 erecuid on a sumptuous scale, both in Babylon 
 awl in tlie neighlaiuring cities, while new libra 
 ries were established lliere. After a reign of 
 forty-two years, six months and twentvonc 
 itays, Nebui-bailrezzar dl«l (B. V. ,V)3), ani'l left 
 tlie crown to his son Evil Memdach, whohnd a 
 alairt and inactive ivign of three years and thirty- 
 four daya, when he was murderetl bv his bmther- 
 inlaw, Nergal-sharczer, the Neriglissar of the 
 Oreeks. . . . The chief event of bis fvign of 
 four years and four months waa the construction 
 of a new pabur. His son, who aucceetled him. 
 was a mere lioy, and was muirleivtl after a brief 
 ivign of four months. The power now paastil 
 from the hoi;«e of Nabopolaaaar,— Nabu-nuhid 
 or Nabonidos. who was raised to tlw throne, 
 la-ing of anotlHT family. His reign lasted 
 seventeen years and five months, awl witnessed 
 the end of the Babylonian empire,"— which was 
 overthrown bv ("yrus the (in-at mr Kvnw) li c 
 .•WW— see Pehsia: B C .^41♦-.V21 —A.' II. Saycci 
 .tiinriil Kminni nf tht Kitl. ny.y. -i. — Ni.. ,il«,, 
 Skmitk<. Eimiation, A.smkst: LninAiiiKsi 
 .\NiiKNT: .Mkdical Hcik.ick, Babtminian ■ 
 .MojiKT A.vD Bankino; Tiiadb. 
 
 .Vlso is: M. Uuucker. //i«<, tf Antiguily, bk. 
 I. '*A. l,V 
 
 BABYLONIAN JEWS. OpcIkwo: B C 
 
 rt.l4.Vm: B V Xm \ I> .>!. «n.| A l> 21KI-4.SI. 
 
 BABYLONIAN TALENT, S, Tm-kxt 
 
 BABYLONIAN TALMUD, The. ike 
 
 Tai.mmi 
 
 "BABYLONISH CAPTIVITY" OF 
 THE POPES. Sel'Mniv A D l.lil l;HM 
 
 BACCALAOS, OR BACALHAS, OR 
 BACALHAO COUNTRY. h.t; .VitwroiNu. 
 i «Mi A i» iioi-i.^rN 
 
 BACCHIADvE. s-e Cohinth. 
 
 BACCHIC FESTIVALS. S.e Oiojuma 
 
 BACONS REBELLION. SeeViK„.MA; 
 
 BACTERIOLOGY. t<.?eMii>i. ai. S. irn, k 
 ll»Til Ck.i<ii IIV 
 
 BACTRIA.-" Wher<' Ihe iilifi- [nf the tilil.i 
 lind of Iranj rws to ilie l.ifiv llliidii Kii.h. 
 ilieri- lies iin itn iionbtrn ilupe a favonHl ilnirii t 
 In Ibe reifiiMi i.f lUe Tpptr <)zii» iin the 
 
 lianks of iliii river, which flows in ii ninli 
 westerly illn-.iii.ii. eiit^nd liM*| niiiuiitaiii pss- 
 tiires, wlM-re •ii|.|K.ri in foumi lu iIh- fn-Ji nimin- 
 tain sir for minieroiis ber<ls of horses aiel «lii'. n 
 ami bemiiih ilu wonbil hilU ar<' blooming s»i 
 leva Mil ili.-«- .li.t... „r tiM' llimln Ku«h ihe 
 inlddk singe Utwemi tlie table laad and (^ 
 
BACTRIA. 
 
 BAGDAD. 
 
 deep pUin of the CMpUn Sen, lay the BArtrtann 
 — the Bnkhtri itf the Achaemi'niilii. tlie lUkhdlii 
 of tlie Av«sta. ... In ucirnt timen the Rac- 
 trtana wcrv hanily dlitinguhlicd fn)m nnmiuls; 
 but thpir Uml wm exteutve ami ntn(luoi<d fniita 
 of all kind«, with the exception or tlie vine. The 
 fertility of the land enabled the Hellrnic princes 
 to make great conqiietta. "— M. Duncker, Jlitl. of 
 Antiquity, bk. 6. ch. 3. —The Bactriaoa were 
 among the people lublugated by Cyrus the 
 Orent and their country formed part of the Per- 
 ■ian Empire until the latter waa orerthmwn by 
 Alexander (are MACttraxiA, ifcc. : B. C. 880-438). 
 In the diriaion of the Maeeiloniao conqueita, 
 after Alexander's death. Bactria, with all the 
 farther east, fi'll to the share of Scleucus Nicator 
 and formed piut of what came to be called the 
 kingdom of Syria. Alwut iM B. C. the Bactrian 
 pn>vlnce, being then governed by an ambitious 
 Greek satrap named Diodotus, was leil by him 
 into revolt against the Syrian monarrhv, and 
 easily gained its independence, with Diudotus 
 for fulling (aee Seijci'cio.*: B. C. 3«1-334). 
 "The autluirity of I>iodotus was conflrmed and 
 riveiiil on his K(iliJ<-ots by an umllsturbed reign 
 of eigliurn years iM-fore a .Syrian anny even 
 showed Itself in his nelelilxn'rliooii. . . The 
 Bactrian Kingdom was, at any rate at ita com- 
 mencement, as thoroughly Ureek aa that of the 
 Heleucida! " "From B. 0. »)« to aliout B. C 
 ItiS was the most tlourishhig |M<rioil nf the Bw 
 trian monareliy, which expandeil during thrat 
 spwf from a small kingdom to a coosiderahte 
 empire" — exu-wllng over the gna a ii part of 
 niixli'm Afghanistan awl acniw tlw' Indus Into 
 I lie Ihinjaiili. Rut mrantimi' the nnghhoring 
 I'lrtliiaiu. who threw olT the tteleucid yoke s<N>n 
 nftiT the Baelrinns luul done ■■>, were gniwing 
 in |(iiwi r anil tliev soon paiiiK-<l fmni rivalry to 
 miMlrry The biictriuu kingiloin w»« prac- 
 tieallr extinguiahe<l alH>iit t.to R. C. by thr con 
 (^ueniit iif the l>artliiau Mithridates I , ' uithouKh 
 t.re«k nionarrhs of the H^tctrian serii« i^iniiniinl 
 mSHiem nf Calml an<l Wenlerii Inilia till Hhou! 
 H (■ IJli •_<! \lnw\[n*<u. .Sifi (Jrr.il Uritnl:il 
 
 BADAJOS: Th« Geographical Cooeresa 
 
 (IM4). K.1- AmKKHA .\ 11 llm-l.V.'t 
 
 ■Aden : E«rly Sueric popalatiea. Si 
 HrKvi 
 
 A. D. iSai.|l03.— Ae^uiaitiea of territory 
 under the Treaty of Luneville. 8ee Okhmanv 
 
 A l> 1N01-1H(« 
 
 A. D ltos-iao6.— Anrraadiaad by Napo- 
 I'on. -CroatodaGrBodJtachy.— JoiMd tothe 
 Confederation of the Rhine. Hee OmMtN-v 
 A II IMO,-, I'VM. ami 1*>H i.lA<cfAHr— VioinTi 
 
 A. D. iai3.-AI>aadonmeat of the Rhoaish 
 Coafederacy and the Froach Allianc*. I<ee 
 
 Kmsi-K. A l>. |H|4 (jANItHV— M«K< ill. 
 
 A. D. Il49.— RoToiutioa sapprosaod by 
 
 PrusatAB troopa. See Ukumahv: A l> 1H4.'« 
 11V » 
 
 A. D. i8M.-The Seven Weeha War.— In- 
 4ennity and territorial ceioi— to Pmaaia. 
 He<- Okhuasv a H l»«) 
 
 A. D. ia70-it7i.— Treaty of Uoioa with the 
 Germanic Confedtratioa, aaoa traaafermed 
 into the German Bmpire. Hee Oknhamv A 
 I* mTutHKjTKMiiKK-nih-iiiaKa), and IM7I. 
 
 BADBN.OR RASTADT.TrMtyoTdrM). 
 
 Bee t'nuKUT A U l7U.tTI4 
 
 BADR, OR BEDR, Battlo of. See Ma- 
 notiKTAN CoNiitiarr? A. D. 60S-4I83. 
 
 B^CULA, Battle of. See Puxtc War. 
 Tiia Hrcond. 
 
 B^RSARK. See Bitnannm. 
 
 B^TICA. — The ancient name of the prov- 
 ince in Spain which aflerwanis took rn)m the 
 Vandals the name of Andalusia. 8ee Spain 
 B. C. 818-85, and A. P. 488; also Tckdktani. 
 and Vanuaui: A. D. 438. 
 
 B.AT1S, The. — The ancient name of the 
 Ouadalquirrr river In Spain. 
 
 BAGACUM. See KERVit. 
 
 BAGAUOS, Insurrection of the (A. D. 387). 
 —The peasants of Gaul, whose condition had 
 become very wretched during the distractions 
 and misgovemment of the third century, were 
 provoked to an Insurrection, A. I». S«7. which 
 waa general and alarming. It waa a risirn: 
 which seemt to liave been much like those tliut 
 occurred In France and England eleven centuries 
 later The reliel peasants were called Bugiiudn. 
 — a name which some writera derive tnmx ibe 
 Celtic word "bagad" or "bagat,' signirving 
 "tumultuous assemblage." They sscked'and 
 ruined several cities.- taJting Autun after a »ieire 
 of seven montha, — ami committed many tirrilile 
 atmcitiea. The Emperor Maxlmlan—cnllengu.' 
 of Diocletian. — sucoeetled, at last. In suppn'wing 
 the general outbreak, but not in extlnguisliing 
 It every where. There were traces of it mirviv- 
 Ing long afterwarda.- P (Godwin, //i»<, of 
 fymmtr. r. 1 : Aiitient (hr*i, hk. 2. ek. « 
 
 Atao n : W T Arwd.1. The Hewtan SftUm of 
 P'nnmnal Ailmiiulration, rh. 4— See, also, 
 Denrrmrs. 
 
 BAGDAD, A. D. 763.— Tha feaading; of the 
 new capital of the Callpha. .>«e<< Maiiomktan 
 
 CoMJJIKOT ANIl EmPIHK .\ D l«8. 
 
 A. D. Its-V^S-— Decline of the Calipkate. 
 
 See MaROMKTAM COHUL-KKT ANU EmPIMK \ II 
 
 8t.VIM.V 
 
 A. D. lose.— In the handa of the Sctdjuk 
 Tnrka, «»■<• TriiKK A D linM-lotCi 
 
 A. D. 1158. -The Fall of the Caliphate. 
 Destruction of the ctty by the Moa(ols.-!:i 
 l.'.Vi, on till- nccewiion Ml M:iiiifu Kh.iii ijriniU.ii 
 nf .linpis KImn. to tlie wivenifiily nf ih. 
 Mongol ICinpire |w MoNnoiji|, a irniil Kurili li 
 iirrnuii'il wiw lii'id. at which It v>:i'< di riili«l t.> 
 wnd »n •'«)><<iiiiiiin Into iIh- West, fnr t»n pur 
 |>inii< III. tn exienniiiule tlie iaiiiailtiin.. • 
 Awmwlnii, « h.i «tiil niaintiiintil tiieir |».«. r : , 
 mirtlirm Pi-ntta; (SI. t<i niliu-e tin- t «iipli .1 
 ll:igd>i>l tn aiihmimlon tn tlie .Mnniriil Hiipniiiiii ^ 
 The command of thi- expe<liiii>n wa-. iriv.-n i.i 
 Mangu'n limiher Khulagti. or Houliii{i«i. »h.i 
 IH'rfoniied liii ap|ioinli'il tiwk* willi tliomui'fi 
 neas and uumen-iful n-Milutlnn In IJ'i7 h' 
 made an end of the .Xkmimiim. to ilie irr> 1' 
 relh'f of th<> wluile eastern world, Mulmmiiiiu 
 and Chrtetuui. In l'J.V< he |uvtiir<l on In Itn >iul 
 preceded by an emlMMV wliieli ■timmiunil tin- 
 I'ullphlo submit, to miu- the vrulit nf iUu'lpI 
 t» give up his vain preienainnM UilheKoverricf'i 
 "f tlie Mnak-m world, anil to aiknowletli'i •■ 
 Ureal Khan fur ht« lord The fcelih >>ali|il> .11 1 
 his irearlM-nuu awl im-afiaMc iiiiniai-n miiii ' 
 •MlHni'leil mir rn O ili i vtr»nxii> preparalinn- I r 
 rtp#eoee A*» mnviiiieim- iiairdaii wax i ik. 1 
 afti-raslege win. h noly etclted Uh- f^riHiH "( il,. 
 Mongols TI..V ttreif llif' rtiv atel ^auifhiio-l 
 lU (H-uple, esuepiittit sonic Clirlslauu. wIk> an 
 
 248 
 
 M 
 
xSdiii 
 
I 
 
 'I 
 
 I* 
 
 m 
 
I ^ 
 
BAODAD. 
 
 DAINBIUDOE. 
 
 uM to bAvo hcxa ipaied through thr infliirncp 
 of one of Khiihigu's wivei, who wa» a Nrstorinn. 
 The sack of RKgdad lasted tevcn dnys. The 
 number of the aead, we an- tuld by liaachid, 
 wa° HOO.OOO. The caliph. M'MtaHu-m. with all 
 hU family, wa» put to death.— 11. H. Hownrth, 
 lliit. '/ tht MuneoU. t. I, pp. lil.H-aoi.— Fora 
 n>nHidrnible period before tbb flnul <!atastrophe, 
 In the declincof the Seljiik Empire, the Caliphate 
 at Dagdad bad l)ecom'^ once more "an ladc- 
 nendent tempoial state, though, instead uf rul- 
 ing iu the thir« qiinrten of the globe, the 
 CfiTlphi ruled only over the pmvlnee of Irak 
 AmbI Their position was not unlike that of 
 the Popes In recent times, whom they alio 
 restmbled in aasuminK a new name, of a pious 
 cbsnctcr, at their Inauguration. Both the 
 Christinn and the &loHl<'m pontiff was the ml 
 temporal sorerelpn of a small state . each claimed 
 to lie spiritual soverelRn over the whole of the 
 Faithful; each was recognized asauch by a large 
 bn<lv, but lejectfl by others. But in truth the 
 spiritual recognition of the Abhaside callplis was 
 mon- nearly univenal in their last axe than it 
 had ever been before. " With the fall of Bagdad 
 fell the caliphate as a tempond sovereignty; liut 
 It iiirvlvtd, or was resurrected, in its spiritual 
 fimetl'ins, to beo/ms merged, a little later, la 
 the supremacy of the suftan of the Ottoman 
 Turks. " A certain Ahmed, a real er pretended 
 AblHi<j>lde lleil [from Bagdad] to Egypt, where 
 hn was pro<lninied caliph by the title of Al 
 Mns'anser BIMah, under th.. pmtection of tnc 
 then ^itiHan Bibars. He aad bis successors were 
 itci nicd. In spiritual things. Commanders of the 
 Fuitiiful. and lliey were found to be a convenient 
 in!itniment iioth by the Mameluke sultans tuil 
 liy 11' lur Mahometan princes. From one of them. 
 Bai i/i-t the Thunderbolt received the title of 
 Su.iitn; from another. ISelim the Inlleiible pro- 
 runil the cemion of his claims, and obtainol the 
 rii;ht to deem himself the shsdow of Ood upon 
 i-arth Since then, the Ottoman Padishah has 
 liern held to inherit the righU of Omar and of 
 Hnniim. rights which if strictly presse<l, might 
 Ik' tcrribk- alike to enemies, neutrals, and allies." 
 -K. A. Freeman. Uiii. andConq. of the Saraeent, 
 
 A. D. 1393.— Timoar't pyramid of tmmda. 
 S<f TiMorii 
 
 A. D.tAa3-t63S.—TakM by the Persians knd 
 retaken by the Turks.— Fearful slanrfattr of 
 the inhabitants. Sit^TrHKS: A. l>. 16S3-t94U. 
 
 BAGISTANA. Si* Bkiiisitk, Rock or. 
 
 BAGLIONI, The.— ■TbeBaglioni flrst came 
 Intn rii.tic !■ iiuring the wars thuy carried on with 
 tlie ( idiii „f Perugia In tne Nth swl I5lh cen- 
 turies This was i>or of those duels to tlic death, 
 liki' that of tiM- Vlseonti with the Torrensi of 
 Mllnn. on which the fa.e of so manv Italian 
 citH* of the middle ages hung The nobles 
 t'wiKht; the townsfolk atsisUtl like a Oreek 
 chorus, sharing the |masi»oa of the actors, but 
 coniriliutlng little to the catastrophe. Tho 
 piaiia was the theatre on whirh the tragedy 
 w«» playod In this (-..nteil the B««Ho,ii proved 
 the utMnger. snd U'gan u> sway itie sUf of 
 leniitla afu-r tli« irn-guhr faahioa of italiao 
 (lesDou They hwl no legal right over Uh- lity, 
 
 no heredil""" ' * -*-' * * 
 
 authority. 
 
 ■spoU They had no legal right over tin- eity, 
 
 > hereditanr magistracy, no Utle of prinwly 
 
 ithority. The Church was irckooed the 
 
 •upnrme ■dmlnlsttslur uT tbe Perugiao t-ummon- 
 
 wealth. But in reality no man could set foot 00 
 the Imbrian plain without permission from tbe 
 Bsglionl. They elected the officers of strte. 
 The lives and goods of the citixens were at tbeir 
 discretion. When a Papal legate showed hta 
 face, they made the town too hot to hold him. 
 ... It was hi vain that from time to time ths 
 people rose against them, massacring Pandolfo 
 Bnglioni on the public square In 1893, and johi- 
 Ing with nidolfu and Biacdo of the dominant 
 bouse to aa8Ha<iinAte auother Pandolfo with his 
 son NIccolo in 1460. The more tiiey were cut 
 down, the m<.ro tliey flourislieil. The wealth 
 they derived from their lordships in tlie duchy 
 of Hpoleto and the L'mbrian hillcitles, and tbe 
 treasures they accumulated in the service of 
 the Italian republics, made them omnipotent 
 in their native town. . . . From father to son 
 they were warriors, and wc have re(:.->i<la of 
 few lulian houses, exceiit perhaps the Maiatestl 
 of Rimini, who equalled them in banlihoud and 
 flerceneas. Esperklly were they noted for the 
 remorseless vendetle which they airried on 
 among themselves, cousin tracking cousin to 
 dentil with tbe ferocity and and craft of sleuth- 
 bounds Ha>l they restraineil these fratricidal 
 passions, they might, perhaps, by following 
 some common policy, like that of the Medlei in 
 Florence or the Bentirogli in Bologna, have suc- 
 cessfully resisted tbe Papal autliority, and se- 
 cureil dynastic sovereignty. It is nut until UOS 
 that the history of the Bagliuni beeomi-a dra- 
 matic, possibly because till then tliey lacked llie 
 pen of Matarazzo. But from this year forward 
 to their final extinctkin, every detail of their 
 doings has a pictures<)iie nrn awful interest. 
 Domestic furies, like the revel descrie.l by Cas- 
 sandm above the palace of Mycenae, seem 10 
 take posaei-sion of the fatnl bouse ; anil the doom 
 wliieli has 'alien on them is worked out with 
 pitiless exactitude to the last generation. "—J. A. 
 Symonds. tHuleAtt in Itait; and Ortta, pp. 70-79. 
 BAGRATIDAE, The. See Abiuuiia; 12th- 
 
 I4lll CENTITHtES. 
 
 BAHAMA ISLANDS: A. D. 149a.— Dia- 
 coTcry by Columbna. See AnKiurA: A. D. 
 14U-.>. 
 
 BAHRITE SULTANS. See Eotpt: A. O. 
 
 ia.V)-l.M7. 
 
 BAI^.— Dais, in Campania, opposite Puteoli 
 on a small Iwy near Naples, was the favorite 
 watering pla^e of tlie ancient Romans. "As 
 soon as tho reviving heals of April gave token 
 of advancing summer, the noble and the rich 
 hurried from Rome to this ''boli'o retreat, and 
 here, till the raging dogt.U; forbade tbe toils 
 even of amusement, they di;iporte<l Ibemaelvee 
 or shore or on sea, in the thick groves or on the 
 piarld lakes. In Ittten and chariots. In gilded 
 Ihiiis Willi palntol sails, lulled by day and night 
 V Ith the sweetest symphonies of song and musk, 
 or gazing indolently on the wanton measures of 
 male and female dancers. The bath, ehiewbere 
 tbeir relaxation, was here th<> business of tbe 
 dsy: . . . they turiMd tbi' |KKils of Avc-mus and 
 Lu'-rinus into tanks for swimming: and in these 
 pie.isant waters both sexes met familiarly to- 
 
 £ ether, and convened amklst th<:- rosts sprinkled 
 ivishlv nn their surface." — C. Merivale, UiiL 
 tf tkf Hm<iiu. M. '0. 
 
 BAINBRIDCB, Commodore WiUlam, :■ 
 the War of iSia. See Uiiitbd «tatw or Am. : 
 A. U. ttll3-l»U. 
 
 249 
 
H R 
 
 ¥ ''t. 
 
 Wss, 
 
 BAIWttJXa 
 BAIREUTH, Creation of tkt Priocipalily 
 
 of. N-eUKRJIAWT: TninTBEHTH ClNTfur 
 
 Separation from tkt Eltctorat* of Braadan- 
 tntf. Sfe Uhamukmhi... a. D. 1417-l«4t». 
 
 , BAJAZET I.-TnrkUh Saltan, A P 1389- 
 
 BAKAIRI, The. ti« Amehkan Abohkh 
 im ('ARim. 
 
 «?.*'^f -• Co'o^' Edward D., KiUed at 
 Ball ■ BlnC iSrv I .\n EO Htatu or Am. ■ A 1) 
 1061 (Oc^uBCIi: ViRiiiMA). 
 BAKSAR, OR BAXAR, OR BUXAR, 
 
 "1J*? »',.','%'•. 2:' ■""■aA.D. 1757-1773. 
 .^BALACLAVA. Battle of. See Hi>^ia: A. D. 
 
 1854 (OCTOIIKM— NiirKVBKHI 
 
 BALANCE OF POWER. In E ,rop«,n 
 diplomary, « phrni- sL-nifvlnif Ihe poli.v wlii.li 
 •imni at lir.'|iinu' mi approKiiniitc (viuilihriutn 
 or pnwiT amoii)( tbe urcnti-r niitloiw. —T J 
 L«wr<Ticc, IiiUriMtionul Lair. p. r.'d. 
 
 i^KSL't^.^ Roman Emperor. A. D ?.T8 
 »..?,^JrB<*A S DISCOVERV OF THE PA- 
 CIFIC. S('« America: A 1). 1513-i:)17 
 
 BALCHITAS, The. 8ee Ambrican Ar.o- 
 
 RIGZNEg: PaMPAII TRtBES. 
 
 BALDWIN OF FLANDERS. The Cm- 
 
 a^a ■ . . t'"l"*l>E8: A. I). I2»)1-1S()3 
 Baldwin I.. Latin Emperor at ContUntiaoole 
 (Rmnania), A. D. l!H»i-iao5. .... Baldwin It 
 A. D. 1287-1891. «»«»wia ii.. 
 
 BALKAN ASn DANCBIAN STATES. 
 
 BALEARIC ISLANDS.-' The nam. n.. 
 I.sre.' wai.t, rived by the Orrekt from ' l»ill, |" 
 '■" i-J; ""l!.' '» ■" ''""•'« Phwnlriun -1 
 
 Mu"'"^ '"■ ■* *-*'«""'»'«•* -Kid 
 
 BALI. "*«* Malat AnCHiMLAeo : Ditch 
 
 BALIA OF FLORENCE, Tht.-The chief 
 
 in»tnim<iit cmplou^l |,y the McdIcI to eiil«l.li«h 
 Iher p..*,r in fl„n-uce wu "tlio p,.n,i, i.,,,, 
 »y.u-m of the I'Mrl.u.unto nn.l Ilalla. l>ym.«iM«f 
 which the iMf.pl, ■uM-nil.lnl fmm time to time in 
 the public iKiuMn', unit iotimidiiu-d by liic niai;ln» 
 fxtlon, mru.t«l full powen to a » l.-.t ,,„„! 
 nilttre ruminalwl in pri\ iilc by the ch,. f, ,if Ute 
 
 rr'i'IlI.T- • •. \^P'' »«>■'= 'The Parl»,„..,„„ 
 S. ' ""^I'nf "' "'« Klun-ntlne people ,,„ |. 
 Piaii, .,f tlie SI({nory. When the slgnory I,. . 
 trtlien 11.. plm-c to tuhlrvM the meeting, tl„ pi ,/, . 
 li guarded by anued men, and then th.. m ..i.le 
 are aikwl whether they wish to give all*.| ,ic 
 pow.r (Balb.1 and authority tothodll.. n,n«MH,l 
 t..r their g.«Hi. \\ hen the anawer. ye., promputi 
 
 la return. ,1, the Mf Dory immediately retfn ^ im, 
 hepaUir Thi» kalf that i« meant by thin h«r 
 lamini... which thua .dve« away the full ,»,\v,.r 
 or eil.Tiing » (bAOA- in theaUte."— J .\ >;« 
 inimda, Jirnaiuawf ,„ Half : Af^Ou Ik.,.,t4 
 
 A. D. 1878-1437. aud 145H-14M. 
 
 BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES.' 
 
 Ancient Hiitory. — The Slatea of aouth 
 eautern Kurope, Ut«ly cnmncipimil, for the 
 most |mrt, from the rule of the Turka uro ao 
 a««K mted by a common hintory. although re- 
 markahly diverw In rac... tlial it aetmaexr»nllent 
 to bring them for iluw-uMion togi hor TIkv 
 ■iccupy mainly tlie ngiona known inRoinun 
 times aa Momia. Daiia an<l Ii.i.vrici m to 
 which namea the n-ader la nfem-d for «om, 
 acoiunt of the a<nnly inci.ienta of tlieir early 
 niatory — See. also, Avahh. 
 
 Races exifting.-" In u part of Wratern 
 Europe do we And distrieU iiihul.it.,1 l,v men 
 difTerhig in ancech and uaiioiml fw-linK, liinit in 
 distinut patclMTi here and tluir over a larj 
 
 r.""".'"- , ,V"''"^" "*'• ""<■ "f ""' l"ri"r .-ouii. 
 t e» in » h . h one parish, |)erhap, „„„ hm.,|r,.,| 
 ajHike Welaii anoUier Latin, aiiothe. Kiik1i.Ii 
 aiiotlier Maniah, another Old Knnch, aii,,tli, r 
 the tongue of more mwlem a.-ill.n., KlenilnK. 
 Huguenota or Palalinea. la aniiiiililiig w hich «,' 
 find lianl to c<m.-eive. and which, a<« «ppli«l i„ 
 ciirown land or to any other Weiiem land wunda 
 al~..nl on the face of It. When we p.M Into 
 Houlh .HHlen. Kurope, Uila state of thing., the 
 very ,leu of which «-em. abaunl in the W«f |. 
 
 w, fln,| dwelling tliere at Uie beginning of 
 rerorried l„.,.,ry, together with aeveral «c 
 which have come In ainee, .|| „maln. not an 
 Znu I'^rr'^' '" "!"■**»'«■ but aa nationa. 
 f^Hn™ L' * ""'."r' '""K'^R"^ •"'« national 
 feellnga and each having lu greater or le«. 
 aliar,' of pructioal ln.|«)rtapce in tjie iHilitica of 
 thepr.p,.„ moment Setting aalde ra<-ea which 
 have ai inply puMMt^ Uirough Ok country without 
 M:cupylng it, we may «iy that all the lacet 
 •8»» Ap|itndi<f> B and r, vol. |. 
 
 'ioi) 
 
 wl r!> have ever iettled in the eountry are there 
 Mill aa diatii.et rarea. And, though each race 
 hi.a ta own particular region where It r.,ri„s the 
 whole p„,ple „r ,|,e gre.i majority of the .,. .,,.1, 
 Mill there arc large diatricU where illir '. ui 
 race, really live aide by aide in the ven >.»v 
 which aeem. K> abaunl wIhu we try to coi„ , ,ve 
 Urn any Wettem country We cannot ,,,„. 
 cilve a Weleb, an EngliJi, and a Nomuiii vi|. 
 
 a Turkiah village .idc by aide la a thi-ig »l,;,h 
 may be M-eii in manv part, of Tlira.e. The 
 ohieat race, in thoae Inndh. tha«! which answer 
 to U«M(ue. and Brrtona in Wcatern Eun.iN. l„,i,l 
 iiuiu- another pnaiiiuo from tliat of Baixiue'. ,ii,,| 
 Ilreton. in Wcalcrn Eur..p, They form ihnr 
 Mvintf and vignrou. naiionn, OreeV, Allm; >.ii, 
 .i.id ilouman. They «iand aa nations al .tu.lil'' 
 
 •f the Slave, wlm in Uier, and who answer 
 
 Muithly to the r-iitona in the m-ot. while .,ll 
 alike are under tlie rule of thu Turk. wh.. Im> 
 nothing answering to him in the H\>| 
 «hen the Honiana con.|uer.d the .Smlli la-uni 
 landa. they found there thnv gnat rail, ilie 
 (Jreek, the lllyri.n, and tlie Thra.ian. il„.H, 
 three rana are all then- still. Th.> (lre.k. .,„ .,li 
 for tliimaelvea The Illvriana are repr, .,.,!..! 
 by the modem Alhuilan'a. The Thrai ian. are 
 rrpr*^^.^!, there st-ems every reaaou to U li, >e, 
 by llie mnlern Koumana. Now had iIk «Ih le 
 ill ■ •'""'I' «»lern landa la-en Inhabit.l Iv 
 lllynana and Thraciana. thoae hinds ft..ui;i 
 doulitles* have Uicme aa thoroughly ll>ni,,M u 
 the Healern lands liecanie ... But the |..«i 
 lioii of the V.ntk nation, iu long hialory si„l in 
 high tlvilizailou, hinden-<l thia. The (ir.^ks 
 could Dot become lUimaiM in any but Iht m.^ 
 
 Mr. 
 
DANUBIAN \ « 
 
 AND ^^ : 
 
 BALKAN STATES ' 
 
 •MOWINO CHANOCt OUNINa 
 
 THt PRUENT UNTURV 
 
 r^'r«Ji/-'4JM«MtaHM<«fll«aMMlff BOM AS 
 
 "u.. ...,,. ,t,.,M.r.rt««»»» ITALIC 
 
 U 'TIMS *«*'»t»H|4«^»o«w<4ft ■,.«..« 
 '»• *MJ«i*r««« >.iiM<wn «cnrilMy f» r»« f^Mfy 
 
 1^^ !•»««■*. ft.. j«/^. « r. 
 
 l4!i. 
 
BALKAN AND DANCBUN STATES. 
 
 pui-ely political aenw. Like other gubjecU of 
 the Koman Empire, they gradually took the 
 Homan name; but they kept their own lan- 
 guage, literature, and civilization. In sliort we 
 nmy §ay that the Koman Empire in the East 
 occame Greek, and that the Greek nation be- 
 came Roman. The Eastern Empire and tlic 
 Orcek-biH-akmg lands became nearly coe.xtcn- 
 aive. Greek became the one language of the 
 tastern Homan Empire, while those that spoke 
 t still called themselves Romans. Till (luito 
 lately, that is till the mo<icm Ideas of nationality 
 iKgim to spread, the Grecksp<aking subjecta of 
 the Turk called themselves by no name but that 
 of Romans. . . . While the Greeks thus took 
 the Homan name without adopting the Latin 
 language, another people in the Eastern penin- 
 sula adopted both name and language exactly 
 as the nations of the West did. If , as t here is good 
 reason to believe, the modem Roumans repre 
 sent the old Thracians, that nation came under 
 the general law, exactly like the Western 
 nations. The Thracians became thoroughly 
 Roman in speech, as they have ever since kept 
 the Roman name. They form in fact one of the 
 Romance nations. Just as much as the people of 
 Gaul or Spain. ... In short, the existence of s 
 highly civiliasl people like the Greeks hindered 
 in every way the influence of Rome from being 
 BO thorough in the East as it was In the West 
 Tlic Greek nation lived on, and alongside of 
 Itself, it preserved the other two ancient nations 
 of the peninsula. Thus all three have lived on 
 to the present as distinct nations. Two of them 
 the Greeks ami the lllyrians, still keep their own 
 languages, while the third, the old Thracians 
 swak a Romauce language and call themselv™ 
 Kiiumans. , . . Tlie Slavonic nallons hold in the 
 hast a place answering to that which is held by 
 the Toutiinic nations in the West . But 
 though the Slaves in the East thus answer in 
 many ways to the Teutons in the West their 
 position with regard to the Eastern Empire was 
 not (|uile the same as that of the Teut4ins to- 
 wards the Western Empire. . . . They learned 
 
 BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. 
 
 much from the half Human, half Greek power 
 with which they had to do; hut thev dlil not 
 themselves hiTome either On-ek or ijonian in 
 the wav in which the Teutonic con.iuerors in 
 tlio Western Empire U'cuuie Roman . 
 Thus, while In the West everything except a 
 few survivals of earlier nations, is either Homan 
 or Teutonic, in the East, Greeks, Illyrian«. Thnu i- 
 ans or Roumans. and Slaves, all slool side by 
 side as distinct nalli,. s when the next set of in- 
 vailera came, ami they remain as distinct nations 
 itill. . . . TliirecameMTiongthem.inihefiinnof 
 the Ottoman Turk, a people with whom unlnn 
 Was not only ImnI but inipoxsilili', a jwople wlio 
 Wen- kept illsllnct, not by speeiul ( ire iiuistances 
 but liy the inherent nature of llie case. Had 
 the Turk Ik'cu other than what he reallv was 
 be might simply have Income a new "nation 
 Jl.mgslde of the other Southeastern nations 
 B«'ing what he was the Turn couhl not do this 
 . . . The original Tii-ks did not l»'long to the 
 Ar}Bn bnuK h of nmnkind. and their original 
 spcich Is not an Arjan •pcecli. The Turks and 
 their aiH'eih Uloug to »ltogeth< anolhi-r class 
 
 of nations and lauiriMgei ^ng before tlio 
 
 Turks came into Eurom.. the Msgyan or llun- 
 garians liail come ; an<t, iN'fore the Magyan came 
 tiM UulK«riaui had oume. Both tin M*(yars 
 
 and the Bulgarians were in their origin Tur 
 anlan nations, nations as foreign to tlfe Arviin 
 people of Europe as the Ottoman Turk.s thrm 
 selves. But their history shows that a Tunuiian 
 nation scttlmg in Europe may either be aMimi. 
 lated with an existing European nation ..rniav 
 sit down as an European nation along.si,!,. of 
 others. The Bulgarians have done one of iliese 
 things; the Magyars have done the other t|,.. 
 Ottoman Turks have done neither. So much 
 has been heard lately of the Bulgarians as I,,!,,,, 
 in our times the special victims of the Turk that 
 some people mav (ind it strange to |,,,,r «ho 
 the original Bulgarians were. Thev were a 
 people more or less neariv akin to t)io Tiirlis 
 and tliey came into Europe as bnrlMirian eon". 
 querors who were as much dreaded !iv the 
 nations of South-eastern Europe as the turlts 
 themstOves were afU'rwanls, The oM Bulirar. 
 lans were a Turanian people, who 8ettle<l in a 
 large part of the Southeastern peninsula in 
 tands which had been nin.idy occupied bv 
 Slaves. They came in as 1. ,i barian conquerors- 
 but exactly as happened to so many conuu.rors 
 In Western Europe, they were presently as^imi. 
 Uted by their Slavonic suhjrets an.l iieighlx.urs. 
 They learned the Slavonic speech; they enulu- 
 ally lost all traces of their foreign origin Those 
 whom we now call Bulgarians are a Slavonic 
 people speaking a Slavonic tongue, and thev 
 have nothing Turanian alwut them exiei.t the 
 name which thev borrowe<l from their Turanian 
 masters. . . . The Bulgarians entered the Em- 
 pire In the seventh centurv, and eml.raied 
 Christianity In the ninth. Tiuv rose to cnat 
 power in the South-eastern lamis, and pl^ivid a 
 great part in their h..(torj-. But all thVir later 
 history, from a comparallvelv short time «ft,.r 
 the first Bulgarian eon.iuest, has iK-en thai ,,f » 
 Slavonic and not that of a Turanian |„.,nle 
 Thi' history of the Bulgarians therefore shows 
 that it is quite possible, if cireumstancs are 
 favourable, for a Turanian pt^ple to „ttle 
 among the Aryans of Europe and to Ix. i|,„r. 
 oughlv assimilated by the Aryan nation anmiut 
 whoiiilhey setthHi."— E. A. I'ri-eman. The mio- 
 man /infer in Eiiroix, eh. 3. 
 
 Also in: R O. Latham, Tlu XationalitU, cf 
 A'/r«;»e. ■' 
 
 7th Century.-(S«rri«, Croatia, Bosnia. 
 
 Dalmatia and Mentco«Kre.)— The Slavomc 
 settlement.— "No country on the face ..f nur 
 unfortunate planet ha. wtn oftener ravat'c-.l no 
 
 and so ofu-n soaked with the blood , f its In 
 haliltaiiu. At the <iawn of histor)- n,.»,ila 
 fomKHl part of Illyria. It was said to have Im-cb 
 already iK-oidcl ty Slav trilies. Rome <(,n- 
 ilueriHl all this region as far as the Oanulii- and 
 annexed It to Dalmatia. Two proviiid's were 
 formed, 'nalmalia maritlma," and • Dalmatia in 
 U-n\i\, or 'Illyris Imrbani.' Onler reigiinl and 
 as tlie Interior communicated with the c oa»i ihs 
 whole country flourished. Important |»>rti 
 grew upon the littoral. ... At the fall of the 
 Kniplre came the Goths, then the Avars, who for 
 two iTiilurii's, burned and massacred, ami turm^d 
 till- whole country into n desert, ... In i:;to llie 
 (roats iK'gau to occupv th>' present Cn'itls, 
 Slavonia, and the north of Bosnia, and In Kto the 
 Servians, of ili« uinc met- ami jaiiKUBtfi', ex- 
 linuinaliil the Avars and [leophil flcrvla, 
 Sjiutherii B<isnia. Montenegro and Dalnmlla. 
 The ethnic situation which exisu to-day daua 
 
 252 
 
BAXKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. 
 
 BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. 
 
 from this spoch." — E. de Laveleye, The Balkan 
 PeniMula, eh. 8. — "Heracliiis [who occupied 
 the throne of the EHStcrn Empire iit Constan- 
 tinople from 610 to 642] appears to have forined 
 the plan of establishing a permanent barrier in 
 Europe against the encroachments of the Avars 
 and Sclavonians. . . . To accomplish tliis object, 
 Heracliug induced the Serbs, or Western Scla- 
 vonians, who occupied the country about the 
 Curpatliian mountjiins, and who had successfully 
 opposed the extension of tlic Avar empire in that 
 direction, to almndon their ancient scats, and 
 move down to the South iirto the provinces be- 
 tween the Adriatic and the Dauiibc The Roman 
 and Ori'i'li population of these provinces had 
 been driven towards the Bcacoast by the con- 
 tinual incun^ions of the nortliern trilios, and the 
 desolate plains of the interior had been occupie<l 
 by a few Sclavoniun subjects and vassals of the 
 Avars. The most importiii.t of the western 
 Sclsvonian tribes who moved southward at the 
 invitation of Heraclius were the Servians and 
 Croatinns, who settleil In the countries still 
 peopled by their descendants. Their original 
 settlements were formed in consequence of 
 friendly arrangements, and, doubtli-ss, under the 
 sanction of an express treaty; for the Sclavonhm 
 people of Illyria and Dalmatia long regarded 
 themselves as bound to pay a certain degree of 
 territorial allegiance to the lilastern Empire. . . . 
 Tiipse colonies, unlike the earlier invaders of the 
 Empire, were composed of agricultural com- 
 munities. . . . Unlike the military races of 
 Ootlis, Huns, and Avars, who had preceded 
 them, the Servian nations increased and flourished 
 in the litmis which they hod colonized; and by 
 the absorption of every relic of tlie ancient 
 piipulati(m, they formul political communities 
 snd independent states, which olTercd a firm 
 barrier to the Avars and other hostile nations. 
 . . . The staU-B which they cnnstitutetl were of 
 consiilirable weight in the history of Europe; 
 and the king<l»nis or bannats of Croatia, Servia, 
 Bosnia, Kascis and nalmatia. occupietl for soma 
 centuries a political porfticm very similar to that 
 now held by the seccmdary monarchical states of 
 the present day."— G. Finlay, Onere undtr the 
 Rmniu, eh. 4, •«•<. 6.— St'e. also, Avars: Tira 
 Breakino or theik Dominion ; and Slatonic 
 Nations; 6th and 7tii C'ENTi'Ruti 
 
 7th-8th Centuries (Bulgaria).— VasMlmn to 
 the Khaiara. See Khazahb. 
 
 9th Century (Serrial.- Ri»« of tht Kiar- 
 dom.— " At the period allude<l to [the latter part 
 of the ninth century) the Servhiiis did not, like 
 the rest of the Sclavonians. constitute a distinct 
 state, but acknowledged the supremacy of the 
 Eastern Roman Emneror: In fact the country 
 llicy inhabitetl had. from ancient times, formed 
 part of the Roman terrilory ; ami itslill remained 
 nsrt of the Eastern Emiiln- when the Western 
 Empire was re esubllshwl, at the time of Charle- 
 magne. The Servians, at the same tieriod, em- 
 hrae.'.l the Christian faith ; but In doing so they 
 dill not subject themselves entirely, cIlhiT to the 
 empire or church of ihe Greeks. ... The Em- 
 ■^'T' ; .■ P*""'tl«l tlie Servians to be ruled by 
 native chiefs, solely of their own election, who 
 preserved a patriarchal form of government 
 . In the eleventh century, the Greeks, des 
 pit* of the stlpulathms lliey had ent.ml into at- 
 tempted to uke Servia under their immediate 
 •oatrol, and to subject U to their flnanH^l ty*. 
 
 tem. The attempt met with a defeat which 
 wasdeclsive. •' Notonly did It put a speedy ter- 
 mination to the encroachment of the Court of 
 Constantinople In imposing a direct government, 
 but it also firmly established the princely power 
 of the Grand Bhupanes; whose existence de- 
 pended on the preservation of the national inde- 
 pendence. ... Pope Gregory VII. was the 
 first who saluted a Grand Shupane as King "— 
 L. Von Ranke, mtt. ofSenia. cA. 1. 
 
 0th-l6th Ceatnrie* (Boania, Servia, Croatia, 
 Dalmatia.)— Conrertion to Christianity.— The 
 BoKomilei.— Huorarian crusades. — Turkish 
 conaueit.— AfU-r the Slavonic settlement of Ser- 
 via, liosnia, Croatia and Dalmatiu, for a time " the 
 B<)vereignty of B,-zantium wa.t acknowledged. 
 But the conversii/n of these tribes, of identical 
 race, totwodiffen-ntChristianrites, creatal anon- 
 Wgonism which sliU exist*. The Croau were con- 
 verted first by missionaries from Rome; they 
 thus adopted Latin letters and Latin ritual ; the 
 Servians, on the contra-y, and consequently 
 part of the Inhabitants of Bosnia, were brought 
 to Christianity by Cyril and Methodius, who, 
 coming from Thessalonica, brought the char- 
 ncUrs and rites of the Eastern Church. About 
 860 Cyril translated the Bible Into Slav, Invent- 
 ing an alphabet which bears his n"me, and 
 which Is still In use. . . . In 874 Budmir, the 
 first Christian Khig of Bosnia, Cri«itia and 
 Dalmatia, called a diet upon the plain of 
 Dalmlnium. where he tried to establish a regular 
 orgauiiation. It was about this time that the 
 name Bosnia appeared for the first time. It la 
 said to be derived from a Slav tribe coining 
 originally from Thrace. In 90.T Brisimir, King 
 of Servia, annexed Croatia and Bosnia; but this 
 union dhl not lost long. The sovereignly of 
 Byzantium ceased In these parts after the year 
 1000. It was gained by Lndislaus, King of 
 Hungary, obout 1001. In 1103 Coloman, King 
 of Hungary, added the titles of ' Ilex Ruinie^ 
 (Heraegovma), thenof 'Rex Bosniie." Sincetlien 
 Bosnia has always been a dependence of the 
 crown of Saint Stephen. . . . Almiit this time 
 some Alblgenses came to Bosnia, who converted 
 to their iK'llefs a large number of the people who 
 were called Catare, In German I'utarener. In 
 Bosnia they received and a(li>pte<l the name of 
 Bogomile, which means 'loving Gfxl.' Nothing 
 is more tragic than the history of this heresy. 
 . . . They [the Bogomilrs] became in Bosnia a 
 chief factor, both of Its history and its present 
 situation. . . . The Hungarian Kings, in oltcdl- 
 ence to the Pope, ceaselessly endeavoured to 
 extirpate them, and their "frequent wars of 
 extermination prov..ked the hatred of the 
 Bosnians. ... In li3H the first great cnisade 
 was organized by Bela IV. of Hungory, in 
 obeilience to Pope Gregory VII. The whole 
 country was devasUted, and the Uogomiles nearly 
 all massacnsl. exeept a numlNr wlio escaped to 
 the fon-Kts and mountains. In 1243 the Hun- 
 garian Bishop of Kalocsa hintmlf led a second 
 crusnile. In I2H0 a third cnisaile was under- 
 uken by I^dlslnus IV., King of Hungary. In 
 order to n-galn the Pope's favour, AlKUit 
 
 the year IHOO Paul of Breblr, ' lianus Croutorum 
 et Uosulse domlnus,' finally added Herzegovina 
 to Bosnia I'lider the Ban Stephen IV., the 
 Emperor of Servia, the great Dushnn, occupied 
 Bosnia, but it soon regaineil its independence 
 (ISW), awl uwler Stepbea Tvartko, wijo took 
 
 253 
 
BALKAN AND DANXJBIAN STATES. 
 
 BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES 
 
 ~ri.!!/'o^t^°i•„i'•„'^^»5't7 '"^"^^r »'!!?' »"^. "f!?. i-lr °r "-F--E- PLbbon. /..,.. 
 
 pcnod of peace and proeperity, . .'." Before liia 
 death tlic Turks appeared on the frontiers. At 
 the memorable and decisive buttle of Kowiovo 
 fcf* •^*^'''o'"'i^- ^ 1360-1389]. whieli wave them 
 bervia, 30.000 Bosnians were engaged and 
 thougli retreating stoppt^ tl,e conqueror! 
 Inder Tvanlto II., tlic seconc* king, wlio was a 
 /r!S'"!', ."•, ""^nl'* '■nJoye'l some years' pence 
 i'.'S*;'-t*,^'' '^'"'" f"'!"""! [sctTlkks: A. D. 
 Iwa-lWll a bloody inu-riudc of civil war" 
 winch invited the Turks and pr<p.are.l the way 
 for them. " .Mohammed II,, wlio had just taken 
 Constantmopic (U.Vl), advance<I with a formid- 
 able army of 1,50,000 men, whicli nothing coul.l 
 resist. The country was laid waste: 30 000 
 young men were circumcised and enrolled 
 amongst the janissaries; 200.000 prisimers were 
 maile slaves; the towns which resisted were 
 bumed ; the churches turned into mosques, and 
 the land couUscated by the conquerors (1463). 
 :. • ,. P*'""''"' "f Wugglo lastiHl from 1463 till 
 the detinue conquest In 1527 [see Tuhks- A D 
 1451-14«11. . . . Wlien the battle of Moliaci 
 (August 29, l.^Sfl) gave Hungary to the Otto- 
 mans [sec IlrNBAHv; A. D. 14«7-1528] Jaitche 
 the last rsMipart of Bosnia, whose defence had 
 Inspired acts of legendary courage, fell in iu 
 turn in 1527. A strange cfroumsUnce facilitoted 
 the JIussulman conquest. To save their wealth 
 the grittter number of magnates, and almost all 
 the Uogomiles, who were exasperated by the 
 cruel iHTsecution* directed Kgainst them went 
 over to Islaniism. From that time they became 
 the m.»t anient followers of M<ihammedanism 
 whilst keeping the language and names of th. r 
 ancesKirs. They fought everywhere In the fop-- 
 front of the battles which gained Hungary for 
 the Turks." Within the present century the 
 Btk man Miissulmiins have risen in arms "against 
 all the reforms that Europe, in the name of 
 modem principles, wrested from the Porte "— 
 E. de Ijjveliye, T/u IMkan ruiiMiiUt, ch 8 
 Also in: L, von Uankc. IIM. i>f Serrin Ae 
 loth-iith Centuries (Bulrarial.— The First 
 Bulnrian Kingdom and its overthrow by 
 Basil 11.— ■• riie Kl,)ry of the llulgarians was 
 c<>nniK><l to a narrow s<opo IkiiIi of time and 
 place. In the 9th and 10th centuries they 
 reigned to the south of the Danutie, but the 
 more powerful nations that hiul foilowwl their 
 emigration niHlled all return to ilio north and 
 all pn.aress to the west. ... In the l».gi„ning 
 of the 1 th e.nliiry, I lie Second Basil [liyzomine 
 or (Jn-ek tnipernr. A. I). U70-llt2.-.| wlic was 
 lK>rn in the jmrpK , ,h'sciv«l tlie appellation of 
 cimqiieror of tlic Bulgarians [sulHiued by his 
 pmh'irssor. .Folin Zimisccs, but still reU'llfousl 
 Ills avariei' w».h in some measure rnitlHcd bv a 
 treasure of 4(X»,(H)0 pounds steriing iIOIhW 
 pounds weight of golil) which he f on .id In'tlie 
 palace of I.vehnidus. His cruelly inHictal a col 
 am exiiuli.|le vengeance on 15.0<>l),,,ntives who 
 hwl b«'en guilty of the defence of tlu ir coiintrv 
 They were deprived of sight, but to one of e.u'l'i 
 hundnd a slnirl.' eve was left, that he might con- 
 duct his blind century to the pnT«.|icc of their 
 
 •'I?", V":^' •''"" '» "•''1 '" '"♦»••• '"P'rcii of 
 grief and li.irnir, (he nation was awiil by this 
 terrible example; the Bulgarians were swept 
 «wa.V fn)in their setlleinenU. and clreumscrilM-d 
 within a narrow province, the surviving chiefs be- 
 queathed to their chllilrea the advice of patience 
 
 254 
 
 and fall of tit Romiin Empire, eh. 55 
 
 Also in: O. Finlay, Jiitt. of tht Byznntiue 
 Emrnn.fnna 716 to 1007, bk. 2, 7k. 2.-Sie i Is^ 
 C ONgTANTiNopi,E: A. D. 907-1043, and Acukika' 
 1 HE Kingdom op. 
 
 pA,°; '096 (BulB«ri»\-Hostilltie. with the 
 FHjt Crusaders, bee CRuaAUEs: A. 1). lu«(^- 
 
 laith Centnrr (Bulg«ri«).-The Second Bui- 
 B«n«n or WjUehUn Kingdom.- • The reign 
 of Isaac ir. [Byzantine or Gre-ek Emneror A T) 
 1185-1195] is Hlk-d with ««,ries of rev'Sts 0^^,^ 
 by his incapable administration and anaiieial 
 rapaciiy The most important of these was the 
 great rebellion of the Vallachian and Bulgurian 
 populathm which occupied the country between 
 Mount Ha;mug and Uie Danube. The immense 
 population of this extensive country now sen- 
 arated itsi-lf finally from the government of the 
 Eastern Empire, ami iu political destinies ceased 
 to be united with those of the Greeks. A new 
 European monarehy. called the Vallachian. 01 
 bccond Bulgarian kingdom, was formol. which 
 for some time acted an important part in tlie 
 affairs of the Byzantine Empire, ami contributt'd 
 p<)wcrfully to tlie depressio. of the Greek raee 
 ThcsuddenimnortanccassMne.Iby the VallueliiaD 
 population in this revolution, and the gnat e>t -ut 
 of country then occupied by a iwo|iie wii., .md 
 previously acted no prominent part in th. political 
 events of the East, render it necessar- to Kive 
 some account of their previous history. Four 
 dilTerent countries are siwken of under the name 
 of Vallachla by the Byzantine writers: (ireat 
 V allachia. which was the country round tlie i.laia 
 of 1 hessaly, iiarticulariy tlid s<iiithern and south- 
 western part White Vailachia. or the niulern 
 Bulgaria, which formed the ValJachlo-Bulgariun 
 kingdom that re-volled from Isaac II.: Black 
 Va lacliia, Mavro-Vallachia, or Karolwplcn, 
 which Is Mohhivia; and Hungamvallachia, or the 
 vallachla of the present day, comprising a lart 
 . Ti"!!*'''.'"";'*- ■ • • '^'^ question remains un- 
 decided whether these Vallachians arc the lineal 
 <U-«ccndanU of the Thracinn race, who. ^\nU> 
 tells us. cxUnded as far south as Thessniy, and us 
 far north as to the borders of Pannonia ; for of 
 I, i:.;. '"'" language wo know nothing "— 
 U. Finlay, Ihrt. of the nytiinUiudvii Hi,rk Km 
 pin; from 716 to 1453, A*. 8, eh. 8 wrr 1 - 
 
 " ,!',",''.'■'■ ""'y wreofHlavIc origin or of Gaelic 
 or Welsh origin, whether they were the u1k>- 
 riglnal Inhaliitauls of themuntry whohad<oiiie 
 umlerthc intluencc of the elder Home, aiul had 
 acquired so many Latin words as to overlay tlieir 
 language am' to retain little more than Ihi'Vrain- 
 nmtical forms and iiiouhl of their own lant'imiie 
 or whether they were thedescendanlsof the I n 
 cohmlsta of Ducla (we Dacia: ThajanV Con- 
 HVKtr] with a large mixture of other |)ei.pli-«. 
 are all questions which have been much i..nlro- 
 verUil. It is remarkable (hat while no people 
 living on the south of the Balkans appear t., Ijc 
 mentioned as Walliichs until the (eiilli eeiiiiiry, 
 when Anna Coninenn menllons a village lalUii 
 Ezclian, near Mounl Klssavo, iKTupled bv ilntn, 
 almost suildeiily we hear of (hem as a tnat 
 niiliontodicsouthof the Balkans. Tliev ►poks 
 a language wliirb differed little from' Latin 
 Thessniy. during the (welfih (rnlurv in ii»iially 
 called Great Wallaehla. . . . Ih'sides lln^ U»l- 
 lachs in Thessaly, whusc descendants are now 
 
BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. 
 
 called Kutzo-Wallachs, there were the WallKchs 
 in D»cia, the ancestore of the preaent Rouman 
 Una, and Mavm-Wallacha in Dalmatis. Indeed 
 according to the Hungarian and Byzantine writ- 
 ers, there were during the twelfth century a 
 series of WallHchian peoples, extending from the 
 Thci58 to the Dniester. . . . The woia Wallach 
 is usi'd by the Byzantine writers as equivalent to 
 shepherd, and it may be that the common use of 
 a dialect of Latin by all the Wallachs is the only 
 liond of union among the peoples bearing that 
 name. They were nil occasionally spolien of by 
 the Byzantine vrriters as descendants of the 
 
 '5°'S*''"- ';Z^- ''™"- ^'^ ^^ "f CorutantinopU 
 eh. 3.-''The classical type of feature, so ofTa 
 met with among Roumanian peasants, pleads 
 strongly for the theory of Roman extraction and 
 if just now I compared the Saxon peaaanU to 
 Noah s arit figures rudely carved out of the 
 coarsest wood, the Roumanians as often remind 
 me of a type of face chiefly to be seen on cameo 
 ornaments, orancient signet rings. Take at ran- 
 dom a score of individuals from any Roumanian 
 rillaee. and, lilce a handful of antique gems 
 which have been strewn broa<Icast over the land 
 you will there surely find a pood cnolce of classi- 
 cal profiles worthy to be Immortalized on agate 
 onyx, or Jasper. An air of plaintive melancholy 
 pnera ly characterizes the Roumanian peasant- 
 It is the melancholy of a long-subjected and 
 oppressed r«cc. . . . Perhaps no other race pos- 
 sesses in such marked degree the blind and 1m- 
 mo^'ablc sense of nationality which characterizes 
 he Roumanians. They hardly ever mingle with 
 the surrounding races, far less adopt mannen 
 snrt customs foreign to their own. This sinirular 
 tenacity of the Roumanians to their own dress 
 manners and customs is probably due to the In'- 
 tluenr.. of thc|r reHgion [the Greek chureh] 
 I'inf !i"™ !'" *;™y 'll^'-rpence from their own 
 es abl *|,^ .„Ir, i, sirf,,|.-'_E. Gerard, Tmn- 
 •ylmnimi i-,,pif, (CrHte-np. lirr.. .Vanh 1887) 
 
 Stephan Oushan.-'In 1.341. when John Can- 
 n™z™usas«ume,lthepurple[at Constantinople], 
 mportant prospccu were opened to the Servfani 
 
 t^ntarurenus . went up the mounuins and 
 
 trv ™ "'^*^''>,'"'- ■"•horn he fouml i^ coun- 
 L> ,r'Tf ,V '^"'■». '« Join his cause." As the 
 nsu.t of this connection, and by favor of the op 
 ^.rtunit,,.. which the ,ivil war and genera? de- 
 
 T Civ MlJiii' *;'" ''"-"'"i""' over EnVrus 
 •Tr^auu*''"**'™'"- ■""' « P'»rt Of Thrace 
 The .Shkypetares in Albania followed his 
 In piinAr "O'l Joannina were in his ^«.J1* 
 wnL^ ^^ri^r f"''"" '■'' Volvo,!,., [Palatines], 
 
 f,7^„ ^ ° J'^ ^*''''"' '">'' 'ho Mnrizzn as 
 Z " U'llgaria, which he also regarti," lis a 
 
 266 
 
 r.^ ^ 'J*^ laid the foundation, and ere be 
 n^Jnl?"!^!;.?!? his power by the bulwark of 
 
 &^ «A 1-a" ^"^ ^^- '^°° ^''''*' -"*"• "•'' 
 
 Also IK: M'me E. L. Mljat,)vich, Khuovo, Int. 
 
 A. D. 1380 (Bulg:ari«).— Conqnett by the 
 
 5^60^389 ■" *'^'"' 0™"ANS): A. D 
 
 ft.Ii«J^'"i!.'^ (Bnlgrari.).- Subjection to 
 ,%^i.v^ "J™?*"^- A D. 1301-1448. 
 I4tb.i8th Centunei (Roumanla. or Wal. 
 
 cSrfikSf.. >Jold.»i.).-Four cintnrie. of 
 hr « V ^*'' Hunpinane and Turks.—" The 
 hlv"".l"?"'^'^*° monarehv, whatever may 
 have been Ito limits, was annlfelUtcd by a hoiSfe 
 of Tnrtai^ about A. D. 1250. The mme raci 
 committed great havoc in Hungary, cmS 
 t ^"^"l r?"*" ""IdaviaT trensyl'vanK 
 middle of the 14th century, when tncv wer» 
 driven northward by the Hungarian, Saxon and 
 exlt'w'^'h*"' '!i Transvlvanit and with Xir 
 exit we have done with the barbarians. 
 
 h.i i..1?*f "y *,'!? '■'»'"''»>'« of Roumanla havi 
 o?^,i.""''ii^)i"'' """™ •^"naming the events 
 -^""f P*""? "cyond traditions wilich, though 
 very Interesting are now gradually giving plaTe 
 to recoBled and authenticated fabts * It u 
 ^l?!,;^!^. ""' the plains and slopes of the 
 Carpathtons were inhabited by commuiiities 
 naledover bv chieftains of varying powcTand 
 rm?nvf wK.^T *""= banatis,*ar that of 
 ni!; a*' . •'''i' '°".^ remained a semi Indepen- 
 dent State; then there were petty volvo<Ieror 
 
 £1,^.1. • • '"""^ ^^"^ tfiese' there were 
 Khanates, . . some of which were pettr 
 principalities, whilst othen were merely thJ 
 goveraorships of villages or groups of them 
 
 hUt;,^ '^; °"*, "' "•* '"'"*' "' Roumanian 
 history, not only secured the independent 
 
 f^L ^l *m encc of God.- but in 1.389 he 
 formed an alliance with Poland, and assumed 
 ° h" title* by the right of conqucsr This 
 m1^^, 1 • ^ '"'■ It? "bjocts the extension of 
 his dominions as well as protection airalnst 
 Hungary on the one hand, and the Ottoman 
 power on the other: for the . . . Turkish ar^ie" 
 had overrun Bulgaria, and about the year 1891 
 tUL , ?"!f "'*l'' apt^sfHice n,>rth of the 
 
 successful In stemming the tllle of invasion" 
 but after a year or two, "finding himself be- 
 tween two powerful enemies, the King of Hun- 
 gary and the SulUn, Mireea elected to form an 
 al ance with the latter, and concludcl a treaty 
 with him at Nicopolis (1893). known as the Fii/t 
 Capitulation, by which Wallachia retained its 
 autonomy but agreed to pay an annual tribute 
 and to acknnwlclgethe suzerainty of the Sultan 
 . . . According to several historians Mlrca did 
 not adhere to it long, for he Is said to have been 
 In command of a contingent In the army of the 
 cruM,lers, and to hnv,. I^n present at the battle 
 of Nicopolis (1396). in whIcA the i'.uwer of tie 
 French nobility fell. and. when he found thei? 
 muse to be hop,.|,.ss, once more to have deserted 
 hem and joine,! the victorious anna of Bsjazet. 
 ur the contiuucd wars and dissensions in Wal- 
 lachia during the reign of Mireea It Is unnc-ces- 
 "'X'l'^/ff*^ J^' "''•■'< *•"> varying fortunes 
 until His A n " A Srt-ond Capitufali.m w2 
 ooncludwl. M AdiUcople. wiUi Uie TuriU, S 
 
m 
 
 i 
 
 H 
 
 ;!Ji 
 
 BALKAN AND DANXJBIAN STATES. 
 
 Ji*?; *'7 ,* '■'*"■ Wallachian voivcdc, named 
 Vlad. It incrvased the tribute to the Porte but 
 made DO other important chanire in the terms of 
 suzerainty. Meantime, in the neighbouring 
 aioldavian principality, events were beginning 
 to shape themselves into some historical distinct- 
 ness "For a century after the foundation of 
 Moldavia, or, as it was at first called, Bogdania, 
 
 bv Bogdan Dragisch [a legendary hero], the 
 hjstory of the country is shrouded in darknerf 
 Kings or princes are named, one or more of 
 whom were Lithuanians. . . . At length a prince 
 """* fSr*''^"' """ ">* ■*** ascended the throne. 
 ■ A ■ . ^'" Stephen, sometimes called the 
 ^^«^\ °J' Good' ■ . ■ He came to the throne 
 about 14o6 or 1458, and reigned until 1504, and 
 his whDie life was spent in wars against Transyl- 
 vania \V allachia, ... the Turks, and Tartars. 
 ... In 1475 he was at war with the Turks, 
 whom he defeated on the river Birlad In 
 
 that year also Stephen . . . completely overran 
 vvallachia. Having reduced it to su'hmission 
 he placed a native boyard on the throne as his 
 viceroy who showed his gratitude to Stephen 
 bj rebelling and liberating the country- from his 
 «r ,; ,H' "'= ^'»» '° his turn murd-red by his 
 Wallachian subjects. In 1478 Stephen sustained 
 a temblc defeat at the hands of the Ottomans at 
 \ alea Alba (the White Vallev), but eight yeara 
 afterwanls. allied with the Poles, he again en- 
 counu-red [and defeated] this terrible enemy 
 ■ ■ ■ After the tattle of Mohacs [see Hcsoart- 
 A. D. 1487-1526] the Turks began to encroach 
 more openly upon Roumanian (Moldo-Wal- 
 Uchian) territory. They occupied and fortilie<l 
 Uraila, Giurgcvo, ami Clalatz; interfered in the 
 election of the princes . . . adding to their own 
 influence, and rendering the princes more and 
 more subservient to their will. This state of 
 tilings laste<l until the end of the 16th ce -iry 
 when another hero, Michael the Brave o. Wall 
 lacliia. restored tranquility and independence to 
 the Irimipshties, and raised them for a season 
 in the esteem of surrounding nations. " Michael 
 wlio nioiinled the throne in 1593, formed aii 
 alliance with the Prince of Slcbenbtlrgen 
 (Transylvania) and the voivo<lc of Moldavia 
 against the Turks. He began his warfare! 
 rjovember 1501. by a wholesale massacre of the 
 Turks in Bucharest and Jassv. 'c then took 
 Giurgevo by stonn and defeated the Ottoman 
 forces in a battle at Rustchuk. In 1595, Giurgcvo 
 '«■'« Jlie sctueof two bloody battles, in both of 
 which Mhhael came off victor, with famous 
 laurels. The Turks were effectually driven from 
 tlie country. The ambition of the victorious 
 Jlichael was now excited, and he invaded 
 Ininsylvania (l,59«i desiring to add it to his do- 
 minions. In a battle " which is called by some 
 the buttle of SchellenlxTg. and by others of 
 llermauHtadt." he defeated the reigning prin • 
 (ardlual Andreas, ami Transylvania was at hit 
 feet. lie »iilKlue<l Moldavia with equal ease 
 and the whole of ancient Daela lieoanie subject 
 to Ills rule. The Emp<.mr Rudolph, as suzerain 
 of Transylvania, fcognized his aiilhoritv. But 
 his reign WHS brief. Before the doae of the year 
 IWK) a rising ix-curred in Transylvania, and 
 Michael was defeated In a battle fought at 
 Miriszlu. He escaped to the mountains and be- 
 came a fugitive for some months, while even hit 
 Waliachlan throne was occupied bv a brother of 
 ue MoUavka volvode. It length he mtde 
 
 BALKAN AND DAm'BIAN STATES. 
 
 term* with the Emperor Rudolph, whose nn. 
 thority had been slighted by the Traimlvanmn 
 Insurgente, and procured men and money with 
 which he returned in force, crushed his opmraenta 
 at Goroazlo, and reigned again as viceroy But 
 he quarreled soon with tlic commander of the 
 hnperial troops. General Basta, and the lattir 
 caused him to be assassinated, some time , 
 August 1601. ... The history of Mol.lo.W,.|. 
 acliia during the 17th century . . . p,w«.s*s 
 little Interest for English readera. " At thTemi 
 ?i we 17th century "another grea; Powir 
 IKussia] was drawing nearer and nearer to Ron- 
 mante, which was eventually to ezcrcl«. a erave 
 influence upon her destiny. ... In the iHcin- 
 ning of the 18tli century there ruled two 
 voivodes, Corjtantine Brancovano. In Wallacliii 
 and Der rius Cantemir in Moldavia, both of 
 whom ha(. t>een appointed in the usual inanucr 
 under the suzerainty of the Porte; hut tlusc 
 princes. Independently of each other, had cntemi 
 Into negotiations with Peter the Great after th,. 
 defeat of Charles XII. at Pultawa (17i)9) to 
 assist them against the Sultan, their suzciiiin 
 stipulating for tlieir own Independence uudcr 
 the protection of the Czar." Peter was ludurid 
 to enter the country with a considerable amiy 
 [1 .11], but soon found himself in a posiliuri from 
 winch there appeared little chance of esrspe 
 He was extricated only by the cleverness of the 
 Czarina, who bribed the Turkish comnisnclcr 
 with her Jewels — see Scandinavian .Stvtes 
 (MVEDES): A. D. 1707-1718. The Mohlnviaa 
 Volvodc escaped with the Russians. Tlie Wal- 
 laehian, Brancovano, was aeizcd. taken to Con- 
 stantinople, and put to death, along with his 
 four sons. " Stephen Cantacuzene. tlie son of 
 his accusers, was made Voivode of Wallachla 
 but like his pretlecessore he only enjoyed the 
 honour for a britf term, and two years after- 
 wards he waa deuoaed, ord' ;d to Constantinople 
 imprisoned, and deu- litated; and with him 
 terminated the rule of the native priiinn who 
 were followed, both In Wallachla and Muhiavia, 
 by the so-called Phanariote governors [sec 
 PiLANARlOTEs] or farmere-^eneral of the I'orte, " 
 — J. Samuelson, Soumama, Piut and I'l-meiit 
 pt. 2, eh. 11-18. 
 
 I4th-t9tli Centuries: (Montenegro) The 
 new Serria.— " The people that inliabit ilio two 
 territories known on the map as Serviu and 
 Montenegro are one and the same. If voii asik 
 a .Montenegrin what language he siHakn. he 
 replies 'Serb.' The last of the S-rb (Varsf.ll 
 gloriously fighting at Kossovo In l:i.s9 [ste 
 Ti-RKs: A. D. lMO-1389]. To this ,l,v the 
 Montenegrin wears a strip of black silk upon 
 his headgear In memory of tliat faUl day. . . . 
 The bravo Serbi who escaped from Kd«.snvo 
 found a sanctuary In the mountains that <.\ ( rlimk 
 the Bay of CatUro. Their leaiicr, Iv.. vur- 
 nam«Hl Tsemoi (Black), gave the iim .. of 
 Tzmogora (Montenegro) to tliese desert n.cki. 
 . . . Servia having become a Turkish proviniv, 
 her colonists created In Montenegro a m w and 
 Independent ServU [see Turks: A. 1» U'll- 
 1481]. The memory of Ivo the Bkik U still 
 grven in the country. Springs. ruiiiN and 
 caverns are- called after him, and the people \mt 
 forward to the day when he will reapixar as 
 a political Metdall. But Ivo'a desniulanU 
 proved unworthy of him ; they commltii 1 tbs 
 unpardunable aln of marryiag sUcn*, atid •■ ^\r 
 
 256 
 
 Ilii 
 
BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. 
 
 In the l«th century the last desoendnnt of Ivo the 
 Black retired to Venice. From 1518 to 1607 
 Montenegro was ruled by elective Vladikas or 
 Bishops; from 1697 to 18.51 by hereditary Vla- 
 dikas. For the Montenegrins the 16th. 17th 
 and 18th centuries formed a period of Incessant 
 warfare. ... Up till 1703 the Serbs of the 
 mountain were no more absolutely independent 
 of tlie Sultan than their enslaved kinsmen of the 
 plain. Tlie Havatch or Sultan's slipper tax was 
 levied on the mountaineers. In 1703 Pinilo 
 Pftrovitch celebrated his consecration as a 
 Christian Bishop by ordering the slaughter of 
 every Mussulm.in who refuse<l to be baptised. 
 This massacre took place on Christmas Eve 1703. 
 . . . The 17th and 18th centuries were for 
 Montenegro a struggle for existence. In the 
 19th century began their struggle for an outlet 
 to the sea. The fall of Venice would naturally 
 have given the mountaineers the bay of CattJiro. 
 had not the French stepped in and annexed Dal- 
 matia." In 1813, the Vladika, Peter I., "with 
 the aid of the British flei.'t . . . took Cattaro 
 from the French, but (pursuant to an arrangement 
 between Russia and Austria) was compelled sub- 
 sequently to relinquish It to the latter power. 
 . . . Peter I. of Montenegro . . . died In 1830, 
 at the age of 80. . . . His nephew Peter II. was 
 a vise ruler. ... On the death of Peter II., 
 Prin'.a Danilo, the uncle of the present Prince, 
 went to Russia to be consecrated Bishop of 
 Montenegro. The czar seems to have lauglieii 
 him out of this ancient practice; and the late 
 Prince instead of converting himself Into monk 
 and bishop returned to his own country a.nd 
 married [im[]. . . . Prince Danilo was a-ssiis- 
 sinntod at Cattaro (I860). . . . He was succeeded 
 by his nephew Nicholas."-^. G. C. Minchin, 
 .SpmVi and Jfimteiugro (Nationnl Life ami 
 Thnuqht, kct. 19). — "The present fiirm of 
 eovernment In Montenegro is at once the most 
 Uespotic and the most popular In Europe— des- 
 potic, because the will of the Prince Is the law of 
 the land ; and popular, because the personal rule 
 of the Prince meets all the wants and wisliesof the 
 people. No Sovereign In Europe sits so firmly 
 on his throne as the Prince of this little Stale, 
 and no Sovereign is so absolute. The Montene- 
 grins have no army; the/ are themselves a 
 stiinding army."— J. O. C. Minchin, T/u> Orncth 
 of rrffdiin in the Balkan PeninntUi. eh. l.—\. A. 
 Patnn, Rifitreha on the Diinuhe and the Adriatii; 
 hk. a, M7(e. 1).— L. Von Ranke, Iliet of Serria. 
 ♦c. .■ HUiK Pn ~:neei of Trtrketi, eh. %^ — 
 "Montenegro is an extremely curious instance 
 of the way in which favourable geographical 
 cimiliiions may aid a small people to achieve a 
 fame and a place in the world quite out of pro- 
 p'Ttmn to their numticrs. The Black Mountain 
 Is the one place where a South Sclavonic com- 
 munity maintained themselves in Independence 
 Koniiliines seeing their territory overrun by the 
 lurks, hut never acknowledging Turkish 
 amlK.rily de Jure from the time of the Turkish 
 t iimiucst of the I.Mh century down to the Treaty 
 of ll.,lui Montenegro could not have done 
 that but for her geographical structure. She Is a 
 hijrli mass of limestone; you cannot call it a 
 plHtesM, because It is seamed by many valleys, 
 and rises into many sharp mountain-peaks. 
 . •> l?^ mountain num. the average Iielg.it 
 of which Is rather more thin 8,000 feet above 
 U e •<.». with summlu «««■ hlt,« i,W;. It is bare 
 
 257 
 
 BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. 
 
 limestone, so that there Is hardly anything 
 grown on It, only grass— and very good grass— 
 In spots, with little patches of com aud potatoes, 
 and It has scarcely any water. Its upland U 
 covered with snow In winter, while in sum- 
 mer the Invaders have to carry their water with 
 them, a seriousdifflculty when there were no roads 
 and active mountalncera flred from behind every 
 rock, a difflculty which becomes more serious the 
 larger the invading force. Consequently It is 
 one of the most Impracticable regions imaginable 
 for an invading army. It is owing to tliose 
 circumstances that this handful of people — 
 bcQiuso the Montenegrins of the 17th cent .ry 
 did not numlier more than 40 100 or 50,0<i) — 
 have maintained their inde|,endt.,ce. That they 
 did maintain it is a fact most important in the 
 history of the Balkan Peninsula, and may liave 
 great consequences yet to come."— J. Bryce 
 Helntioiu of Hittoiy and Oeography (ConUmn. 
 Bet., Mar., 1886). 
 
 I4th-i9th Centnrist.— (Ser*;«) : The lonr 
 oppreision of th» Turk.- Strurele for fre^ 
 dom onder Kara Georsr and Dfilotch.- Inde- 
 pendence achiered.- The Obrenovitch dy- 
 nasty.— "Tlie brilliant victories of Steplian 
 Dushan were a misfortune to Cliristemlom. 
 Tliey shattenKi tne Greek empire, the last feeble 
 bulwark of Europe, and paved the way for 
 those ultimate successes of the Asiatic conqucr- 
 ora which a timely union of strengtii might have 
 prevented. Stcphan Dushan conquerc<l, but did 
 not consolidate: and his scourgir'? wars were in- 
 sufficiently balanced by the advantage of the 
 code of laws to which he gave his name. His 
 son Lrosh, being a weak and incapable prince, 
 was murdered by one of the generals of the 
 army, and thus ended the Neman dynasty, after 
 having subsisted 813 years, and priKliiced eight 
 kings and two empemrs. The : )wn now de- 
 volved on Knes, or Prince Las.i .i < nnexion of 
 the hruse of Neman. ...(>' all the ancient 
 rulera of the countrv, his ini'inory is held the 
 dearest by the Servians of the prexent dnv " 
 Knes Lasar perished in the fatal battle of Km- 
 sovo, and with him fell the Servian monarchy 
 (see TCBKS: A. D. 1360-1389. UOS-lWl and 
 1459; also Montkneoiio). "The Turkish con- 
 quest was followed by the gradual dispersion or 
 disappearance of the native nobilitv of Servia, 
 the last of whom, the Brankuvltch, lived as 
 'despots' in the castle of Svincndria up to the 
 iH'vinning of the 18th century. . . . The period 
 preceding the second siege of Vienna was the 
 s|)ring-llde of Islam conquest, Affr this event, 
 in 1684, began the clili. Hunearv was lost to 
 the Porte, anil six yeara afterwanis 37,000 Ser- 
 vian familii-a cmlgrate<l into that kingdom : tli's 
 fli-st led the way to contact with the civilization 
 of Germany, . . . Servia Proper, for a sliort 
 time wrested from the Porte by the victories of 
 Prince Eugene, again became a" part of the do- 
 minions of the Sub in [see Ri-ksia: .V. D, 1719]. 
 But a turbulent n.ilitia overawed the govern 
 ment and tyrannizwl over the Rayahs, Pa,sviin 
 Oglou and his bands at \VI''llu were, at tUc "';! 
 ofthe last century, l:i oix-n t.'vi.lt against the 
 Porto. Other chiefs had followed his example; 
 an<i for the first time the Divan thought of 
 associating Christian Rayahs with the spalls, to 
 put down thes-j rebels. Tue Dahls, as these 
 brigsnd-ehiefr, \ttK called, resolved t<i anticipate 
 the appnwciiiiig Mruggle by a luaawtcre ot the 
 
II' 
 
 n 
 
 v, 
 
 1 i 
 
 ml. .,■ 
 
 BALKAN AND DANUBUX STATES. BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. 
 
 most influential Christians. This atrocious ma- 
 ■acre was carriwl otit with indescribable horror 
 i^„ . "^ ^^« P^"^^ George], a peasant 
 .< , "'. ToPo'* «!>"'" the year 1767, pettin 
 timely information tliat his name was in the lisi 
 or the (i.Tomed. fled into the woods, and irradu- 
 ally orpinized a formidable force. In tlie name 
 Of tlie l^orte he combatwl tlie Dahis, who had 
 usuriKil Iwal authority in dcHnnce of tlie Pasha 
 of B,.I,;ra,lc. The Divan, little anticipatinR the 
 ultimate Issue of the strujr«;le in Scrvia, was at 
 ■flrst delighted at the success of Kara Oeorg; but 
 aoon saw with consternation that the rising of the 
 .Bervmn peasants grew into a formidable n^lwlllon 
 and onlcr.-d the Pashas of Bosnia and Scodrs to 
 Msemble all their disposable forces and Invade 
 ^,» *<• . Between 40,000 and 50,000 Bosniacs 
 ?^ ^°*f,,'^^^'^ ?° the west, in the spring of 
 1806, cutting to pieces all who refused to receive 
 Turkish authority Kara Ocorg undauntedly 
 met tlie storm," defeating the Turkish forces 
 near Tchoupria, September. 1804, and more 
 Mverelv two years later (August, 1806) at Sha- 
 ^/: u ^«<*'"]«'" o' the same year he surprised 
 and took Belgrade. "The succeeding years were 
 pajwed in the vicissitudes of a guerilfa warfare, 
 neither party obtaining any marked success; and 
 an auxiliary corps of Rus-sians assisted In pre- 
 venting the Turks from making the re-conqiest 
 pt Scrvia. . . . Kara Oeorg was now a Russian 
 lieutenant-general, and exercised an almost un- 
 limited power In Scrvia; the revolution, after a 
 •trugcle of eight years, appeared to be success- 
 lui, but the momentous evenU then passini; in 
 Europe completely altered tin aspect of affaira 
 Kussia, in 1812, on the approach of the countless 
 legions of Napoleon, precipitately concluded the 
 (treaty of Bucharest, tlie eighth article of which 
 Iformally assured a separate administration to the 
 Bervians. Next year, however, was fatal to 
 Kara Oeorg. In 1813, the vigour of the Otto- 
 man empire . . . wa.s now concentrated on the 
 resubjugation of Servia. A gencml panic seeme.! 
 to seize the natic ,; and Kara Georg and his 
 companions In anns sought a retreat on the Aus- 
 
 l"","».'-"iIi'>'"?.V*^'',""'"™ PaMwt into WallBchla. 
 In 1814. 300 Christians were impaled at Belgrade 
 by the Pasha, and every vallev in Scrvia pre- 
 sented the spectacle of infuriated Ti.r-..:sh spahls 
 avenging on the Servians the blood, exile and 
 conHsoation of the ten preceding years. At this 
 period, Milosh Obrenovltch appears prominently 
 on tlic po Itlcal tapis. He spent his youth In 
 herding the fame<l swine of 8«-rvia; and during 
 the revolution was cmploved by Kara Oeorg to 
 watch the passes of tlie Balkans. ... He now 
 saw that a favourable conjuncture had come for 
 his advancement from the position of chiefuin 
 to that of chief; he therefore lost no time in 
 making terms with the Turks, offering to collect 
 the tribute, to serve them faithfully, and to aid 
 them In the resubjugation of the people. 
 He now displayed singular activity In the ex- 
 tirpation of nil the other popular chiefs,' until 
 he found reason to suspect that the Turks were 
 only usins him to destroy him In the end. Then 
 In mn he turned upon tliem and raised tlii 
 standsr.1 of revolt. The movement which ho 
 headed was so formidable that tlie Porte made 
 haste to treat, and Mllosch made favourable 
 terms for himself, being reinstated as tribiitc- 
 coileclor "Many of the chiefs, Impatient at 
 the apeedy lubmiadon of Miloah, wlahad to flght 
 
 258 
 
 the inatter out, and Kara Georg. in order to glTe 
 effect to their plans, landed In Scrvia. MlC 
 Mretended to be friendly to his design, but 
 >retly betrayed his place of concealment u> the 
 governor, whose men broke toto the cottas! 
 where he slept, and put him to death."-* A 
 Paton, rUMarchn on the Danube andth* Adrintt 
 bk. 1. f.8.-"In 1817 Milosch was pr.Xim% 
 hermlitary Prince of Scrvia by tlie' Nm™„ 
 As-scmbly. ... In 1830 the autonomy of ii^rv^ 
 was at length solemnly recognized by the Pone 
 and Milosch proclaimed ' the father of iheFiitLnr' 
 1 ;:ii • V a*''"' »''y the descendants of .Mil. 
 osch stiM rule over Servia. and not the descen' . 
 ants of Kara George, my answer is that cverv 
 step in bervian progress is connecte<l with tlw 
 Obrenovltch dynasty. The liberation „f ,1 
 country the creation of a peasant preprietarv 
 «ie final withdrawal of the furkish troop, f S 
 Belgrade In 1863, the Independence of he 
 country, the extension of iu territory, and t Z 
 making of itarailwayg._all of these are aiiC 
 he results of Obrenovltch r-le. The founder o? 
 the dynasty had n 1830 a great opportunity o 
 making his people free as w»ll as indepenclent 
 But MTlo«^h had lived too long with Tuiks to te 
 a lover of freedom. . la 1839 Milcscli ab- 
 dicated. The reason for this step was timt he 
 refused to accept a constitution which Hussia 
 ■ .J".u'"'' ^"'^•^tcd for him. This charter 
 vested the actual government of the country in 
 a Senate compose.! of Miloech's rivals, and en- 
 tirely Independent of that Prince. . U was 
 anti-democratic, no less than nnti-dynastic Mil. 
 osch was 8uccec<lodflrst by his son Milan, anj 
 on Milan s death by Michael. Michael W8.i too 
 gentle for the troubled times in which he lived 
 and after a two yearss reign he too st.irt«l imoi 
 his travels. .. . W hen Michael crossi'il the Save 
 Alexander Kara Georgcvitch was elected Prince 
 of Servia. From 184? to 18.58 the son of Black 
 George llve.1 — he can scarcely be said to have 
 reigned -- In Belgrade. During these 17 years 
 this feeble son of o strong man did ahsnliit, ly 
 nothing for his country. . . . Late in is.i, h'e 
 fled from Servia, and Jlilosch ruk-.l In h\i stea.l 
 Milosch is the Grand Old Man of Serb hi.story 
 His mere presence in Servia checked the \a- 
 trigues of foreign powers. He died peaeefully in 
 hisbe<l. . . . Michael succeeded his father " 
 Pnnce Michael was munlered by convicts in the 
 park at Topscliidcra near Belgrade " He "uas 
 succeetled (1868) by Milan, tlie graud.son of Ze- 
 nlirem, the brother of Milosch. As .Milan \v;u 
 barely fourteen years of age, a Regency ef thne 
 was appointed. "—J. O. C. Mincliin, Srn.i „nd 
 MonUneirro {\ationnl Life and T hou'ihl krt 19] 
 Also in: E. dc Laveleye, Tha Balhin linin- 
 tula, fli. 6. 
 
 .^\°- J-'tS (BoanU).— A part ceded to Aus- 
 tri* by the Turks. See Hungary: A. I). 1091I- 
 lil8. 
 
 A. D. 1739 (Bosnia and Roumanial.-Entire 
 restoration of Bosnia to the Turks, and Ce«- 
 •i.»no' Austrian Wallachia. ScoHimia: AD 
 
 19th Century (Roumania and SerriaV- 
 ,'l*""'"K "' ■ National Spirit.- Tfte effect 
 of historical teaching.— "No poliiieal fa.l is of 
 more importance and Interest In nioderu loull- 
 nental history than the tenacity with wiiirli the 
 smaller nations of Europe preserve their pride of 
 nationality in the lace of tb« growing tendfiicy 
 
BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. 
 
 tflvanUi the fomution of large, ttronsly con- 
 ct'ntratcd empires, supported by powerful armies. 
 Why should Portu^ utterly refuse to unite 
 with Spain? Why do Holland and Belgium 
 cling to their existence as separate States, in 
 spite of all the efforts of statesmen to join them T 
 Why do the people of Bohemia and Croathi, 
 of Finland, and of Poland, refuse to coalesce 
 with the rest of the population of the em- 
 pires of which they form but small sections? 
 Why. finally, do the new kingdoms of Roumanht 
 and Serria show such astonishing vitality ? The 
 argiuncnts as to distinctive race or distinctive 
 iHDguaKe fail to answer all these questions. . . . 
 This rekindlirsof the national spirit is the result 
 chiefly of the development of the new historical 
 school all over the Continent. Instead of remain- 
 hig in ignorance of their past history, or, at 
 best, regarding a mass of legends as containing 
 the true talc of their countries' achievements, 
 these small nations have now learnt from the 
 works of their great historians what the story 
 of their fatherlands really is, and what title they 
 have to be proud of their ancestors. These great 
 historians— Herculano, Palacky, Szechenyi, and 
 the rest — who made it their aim to tell the truth 
 and not to show off the beauties of a fine literary 
 style, all belonged to the generation which had iu 
 interest amused in the history of the past by tJie 
 novels of Sir Walter Scott and the productions of 
 tlie Romantic School, and they all learnt how 
 history was to be studied, and then written, from 
 Niebuhr, Von I{ankc and their disciples and fol- 
 lowers. From these masters they learnt that 
 their histories were not tr be made interesting at 
 the expense of truth. . . . The vitality of the 
 new historical school In Roumania is particularly 
 Mnarkable, for in the Danubian provinces, 
 which form that kingdom, even more strenuous 
 efforts limi been made to stamp out the national 
 spirit thim in Bohemia. The extraordinary 
 mpiility with which Uie Roumanian people lias 
 reassertwl itself in recent vears, is one of the most 
 remarknlile facta in nuxfem European history 
 and It is If-rgely due to the labours of its liistor- 
 ions. Up till 1832 the Woumanian languaw was 
 vigorou«1- ,r() c'led; the rulers of the Danubian 
 I'T"* ■* instruction to the upper 
 
 <^'"* ge of the rulers only, and 
 
 *'"*■ n the days of the Phanariota 
 
 ""^j in! and fiuhionable language, 
 
 j''"' ■ he uobility and bourgeois, 
 
 "* r- 'cft in ; ."iorance. Four men, 
 
 wbose .oservc n M. first endeavoured 
 
 U) niise the lioumoniai ansuage to a literary 
 fcvel. and not only studied Roumanian history, 
 buttrirf to tearh the Roumanian people some- 
 Uiing of their own early history, (jf these four, 
 Oiwge Sohinkal was by far tlie most remark- 
 alile. Hi. was an inhabitant of Transylvania, a 
 Ifciuinsniiin province which still remains subject 
 U> llun^jarj- and he first Umught of tryinp to 
 revive 11^. Kimmnntan natUmality by teaching 
 UR. |x«i>l,. their history. He arraugi^d the annals 
 f hU.^umry fr„n. A. D. 8« to A. U. 173» with 
 liia<rwnr:u,ie laNiur. during the last half of the 
 
 fnlT •",'■"'''' .™*'''™ '""'*'•• "fter such care- 
 f 1 weighing of ..rigtaal autlKirities, and with 
 sue rmeai power, ilmt Iu- dewrv™ Ki b.- rank«l 
 
 ILri ';«"">' l»e saki that Schinkals Histx.ry 
 was not allowed to be printed by tlu! Hungarian 
 
 259 
 
 BALKAN AN .XUBUN STATES. 
 
 authorities, who bod no desire to see the Rou- 
 manian nationality re-assert Itself, and the censor 
 marked o" It "opus igne, auctorpatlbulodignus.' 
 It wa.not published until 18.53, mor« than forty 
 years after iu completion, and then only at Jassy, 
 for the Hungarians still proscribed it in Transyl- 
 vania. Schinkafs friend, Peter Major, was more 
 fortunate in his work, a ' History of the Origin 
 of the Roumanians in Dacia," which, as it did 
 not touch on modem society, was passed by the 
 Hungarian censorship, ami printed at Buda 
 Pesth in 1818. The two men who first taught 
 Roumaiihm history in tlic provinces which now 
 form the kingdom of Roumania were not such 
 learned men as Schiukal and Petar Major, but 
 their work was of more practical Importance. 
 In 1818 Qeorge Asaky got leave to open a Rou- 
 manian class at the Greek Academy of Jassy 
 under the pretext that it was necessary to teach 
 surveying in the Roumanian tongue, because of 
 the questions which constantly arose in that pro- 
 fession, in which it would be necessary to speak 
 to the peasanta in tlieir own language, and In 
 his lectures he carefully Inserted lessons In Rou- 
 inanian history, and tried to arouse the spirit of 
 the people. George Lazarus imitated him at 
 Bucharest in 1816, and the fruit of this instruc- 
 tion was seen when the Roumanians partially re- 
 gained their freedom. The Moldo-Wallachian 
 pnnces encourageii the teaching of Roumanian 
 history, as they encouraged the growth of the 
 spirit of Roumanian independence, and when the 
 Roumanian Academy was founded, an historical 
 section was formed with the special mission of 
 studying and publishing documenta connected 
 with Roumanian history. The modem scientific 
 spirit has spread widely throughout the klng- 
 doin. — H. Morse Stephens, Modern Ilutoriaru' 
 "SS "'^ Nationalitie* (Contemp. liet., July,' 
 1887). 
 
 A. D. 1839 (Roumani*, or Wailachia and 
 MoldaT:?>. — Important provisions of the 
 Treaty of Adrianople.— Life Election of the 
 Ho»pod«r».— Substantial independence of the 
 Turk. See TunKS: A. D. 1836-1829. 
 
 A. D. 1856 (Roumania, or Wailachia and 
 MoldaTia).— Privileges guaranteed by the 
 TreatT of Paris. See Russia: A. D. ISSi-lHSe. 
 
 J.. ''S8-t866.— (Roumania or Wailachia 
 and Moldavia).— Union of the two provinces 
 under one Crown,- Accession of Prince 
 Charlei of Hoheniollern. See TcnKs: A, D. 
 1861-1877. 
 
 t\.1- '»7S-i878— The Breaking of the 
 Turkish voke.— Bulgarian atrocities.— Russo- 
 Turkiih War.— In IsT.i, a revolt broke out in 
 Herzegovina. "The efforts made to suppress 
 tlie growin J revolt strained the already weakened 
 resources of the Porte, until they could bear up 
 aga nst it no longer, and the Herzcgovlnesc re- 
 bellion proved the last straw which broke the 
 back of Turkisli solvenrv. . . . The hopes of 
 the insurgents were of (durse quickene<i bv this 
 catastrophe, whii li. as tliev saw, would alienate 
 niuch sympatiiy from the Turks. The oiivlsin 
 of tlio Sultan, therefore, thouifht it neccsjuiry to 
 lie omcillstory, and . . . they induced him to 
 Issue an Irade, or circular note, promising tlie re- 
 mission of taxes, and ramomical and s<Hial 
 rt'torms. . . . Europe, however, had sniwii tin^d 
 of the Porte's proniisiii <.f amendment, an.l for 
 some time Uie Imix'rial Powers hiui Ikho laving 
 tlieir heads together, and the result of their 'con- 
 
Hi 
 
 ri 
 
 n-' 
 
 ^4r, 
 
 tK 
 
 w 
 
 BALKAN AND DANtJBIAN STATEa BALKAN AND DANOTIAN STATES. 
 
 iultntions waa the Aadnusj Note. The date of 
 this document was December 80th. 1875 and It 
 wag sent to those of the Western Powers who 
 
 ^fhn^^h'?^ ''' '."iS""? ?' ^^- I' J^*:'*™*! that 
 >™ ? i"" ""* 'P'"^' °' tl"* »"«gegted reforms was 
 good there was some doubt whether the Porte 
 had the strenRth to carry them out; Count An- 
 drassy. therefore, proposed tlm the execution 
 or the necjssary measures should be placed under 
 the care of a special commission, half the mem- 
 bers of which should be Mussulmans and half 
 Christians. . . . It concluded with a serious warn 
 
 »n™ .i.-.T»ii.' ■ ^"'— '"tu niiuaotTioiis warn- 
 ing, that if the war was not gone with tlic snow 
 
 Ji. K K "■"'^'"5'"* °' ^"^ """l Montiuegro 
 which have had great difficulty In Itceping aloof 
 from the movement, will be unable to resist the 
 current. It was evi.knt, however, that this 
 
 note would have but little or no cCku it coa- 
 talnwt no coercive precautions, and accordingly 
 
 i^H^l^f ."^"j:,""°Ji"^ "■« question to drSp, 
 and contented Limself with profuse promis^ 
 . . . So affairsdrifted on; the little war continued 
 to sputter on the frontier; reinforced by Servians 
 and MooteDcgrins. the Herzegovinese succeeded 
 in keeping their enemy at bay. ana. instigated, it 
 to said, by Kussian emissaries, put forWkrd de- 
 mands whkh the Porte was unablfl to accept 
 ... 1 he Powere, In no wise disconcerted by the 
 failure of their first attempt to settle the diffl- 
 cuities between the Sultan and his rebellious sub- 
 lects, had published a sequel to the Andrassy 
 JNote. There was an infonnal conf- ace of the 
 three Imperial Chancellors. Prince Bismarck. 
 Prince Oortschakoff. and Count Andrassy. at 
 Bcriin. in May . . Then on May 18th the Am- 
 
 (.fT^iT S'.^''Si?'"'' *'™»™- «°'» Italy were 
 invited to Pnnee Bisnmrcks house, and the text 
 of the famous Beriiii Jlemorandura was laid be- 
 
 w„™ V'""- • • .-, P".'!-' "■« ""«e Chancellors 
 were forging their diplomatic thunderbolt, a 
 
 catastrophe of such a terrible nature had occui^ 
 In the interior of Turkey that all talk of armis- 
 tices and mixed commissions had bi-come stale 
 and unprofitable. TIr. Beriin Memorandum was 
 not even presented to the Porte; for a rumour, 
 though carefully suppressed by Turkish officials 
 w as beginning to leak out that there had been an 
 insurrecthm of the Christian population of Bul- 
 garia, and that the most horrible atrocities had 
 been committed by the Turkish irregular troops 
 to its suppression. It was communicatcil to Lord 
 Derby by bir Henry Elliot on the 4th of May. 
 i,fm , .1, "^ '?"* a^letter was received from 
 him at the Foreign Office, s;iying, • The Bul- 
 garian insurrection appears to be unquestionably 
 put down, although I regret to say, with cruelty, 
 and. in some places, with brutality.'. . . A week 
 afterwards the Constantinople correspondent of 
 the Daily News . . . gave the estimates of Bul- 
 garians slain as varying from 18.000 to 30 000 
 and the number of villages destroyini at about a 
 hundred. . . . That there was mGch truth in the 
 Btstementa of the newspaper correspondents was 
 . . . demonstrated beyond po8slbil'»y of denial 
 as soon as Sir Henry Elliots despatches were 
 made miMic. . 'I am satisfied.' wrote Sir 
 Henry ill.,,1, • Uiat, while great atrocities have 
 been committci. both by Turks upon Christians 
 and Christians upon Turks, the former have been 
 
 ■,L .. J?"?***!' a'">o"glJ the Christians were 
 undoubtedly the first to commence them.'. 
 Meanwhile, the Daily News had nschr-.' on send- 
 ing out a special commissioner to make an In veaU- 
 
 2C0 
 
 gatlon independent of official WDorts. Mr I * 
 JIacGahan,an American, who "had been onetf 
 that Journal's correspondents during the Fran^ 
 
 .^Zl"i ^"' *" '.'"' J?""" elected. X 
 Started in company with fir. Eugene Scl uyler 
 the great authority on the Central A«i.» 
 ouestton. who, in 'the capacity o™ Con uT 
 deneral, was about to prepare a similar Tta'e 
 ment for the Hon. HoraSe Maynard the V .tn 
 States Minlsterat ConstantinoprT^L,!;'Hr'v'^^ 
 at Phillppopolis on the 25th of July, Avtllb 
 
 5^*'<^'t*"^«' •"■« °^ ^^0 Secretaries ,!f The 
 B.uish Legation at Constantinople, wa, n\t,J, 
 
 MriS'^A°K~' "".""'^ information. The first o^ 
 Mr MacGahan's letters was dated Jul.-tlie 's-h 
 and ita publication in this country revivi-d in » 
 moment the half-extinct excitement of h, popu 
 l«*c. . Perhaps the passage which was m«"t 
 
 ta which he descnbed tlio appearance of the 
 mountain village of Batak. 'We enter" ha 
 town. On every side were skulls and skeletons 
 charred among the ruins, or lying entire where 
 they fell in thei- clothl,, sr. Thereiere skefctoil 
 of girls and women, wul. long brown hair ha^ 
 
 tSJ^ ?h""" """"i ^^'^ ''PP'-«'«=l'ed the church. 
 There these remains were more frequent until 
 the pound was literally covered by skdetor 
 ski-lFs. and putrefving bodies In cl tS 
 Between the churcl. and school there were 
 ?■?""?; The st=nch *a3 fearful. We entered 
 
 The whole churchyard, for three feet deep was 
 festennt with dead bodies, partly c„ve,^.d 
 hands legs, arms, and heads projectinir in 
 ghastly confusion. I saw many littk, all, 
 heads, and feet of children t'ree^ years «"«e 
 and girls w. h heads covered with l.e.uti^ui 
 flair. The chureh was still worse. 1 lie tioor 
 was covered with rotting bodies quite uncovered 
 1 never imagined anything so fearful. The 
 
 own had 9,000 inhabitanu. There noivrema a 
 
 i;?^;w ''"'^:'''"' ^'"' '■^"P*"'' •""' •^■'"nied 
 recently, weeping and moaning over their ruined 
 
 half a mile off. Some were dlggini' out the 
 skeletons of loved ones. A woman was siuL. 
 moaning over three small skulls, with Iwir 
 cliDgmg to them, which she ha.1 in h.r lap. 
 The man who did this, Achmcd Agra, has been 
 promoted and is still governor of the district ' 
 An exceeding bitter cry of horror au.i dis-ust 
 f.w.'l t5i""'K''0"' the country on the rt'ceipt of 
 this terrible news. Jtr. Anderson at onee asked 
 for Information on the subject, and Mr. Bourke 
 was entrusted with the difficult dutv of replvins 
 He could onlv read a letter from Sir Bam,' -. in 
 which he said that, as far as ho had b<.eu ahle to 
 discover, the proportion of the numlnrs of the 
 slain was about 12.000 Bulgarians to .'ioo Turk.! 
 and that 80 villages had been wholly or paniallv 
 burnt. ... Mr Schuyler's opinions wen, m 
 might be cxpectetl from the circumstanee that 
 his Investigations had been shoru-r than tli.)sc of 
 Mr. Bijrine, and that he was ignorant of the 
 Turkish language — which is that chiefly 
 spoken In Bulgaria — and was therefore at the 
 mercy of his interpreter, the more highly 
 coloureji lie totally rejected Lord B-aeons- 
 field s Idea that there had been a civil war and 
 that cruelties had been committed on both sides. 
 Un the contrary be asserted that ■ the insurgent 
 ▼luages mads UtUe or no resistance. In many 
 
BALKAN Ain> DANVBIAN 8TATKS. 
 
 BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. 
 
 CUM they nimndered their sniu on the flrat 
 demand. ... No Turkiih women or children 
 were IdUed in cold blood. No Mussulman 
 women we' ' TioUted. No Mussulmana were 
 tortured. No purely Turkish village was 
 attacked or burnt. No Mosque wu desecrated 
 or destroyed. The Baslii-Bazouks, on the other 
 hand, had burnt about "'' villugea, and killed at 
 least 15.000 Bulgarians.' The terrible story of 
 the destruction of Batak was told in lanfuage of 
 precisely similar import to that of Mr. Slac- 
 Onlian, whose narrative the American Consul 
 had never seen, though there was a slignt differ- 
 ence in the numbers of the massacred. ' Of the 
 8,000 inhabitants,' he said, 'not 2,000 ate .now.i 
 to survive'. . . . Abdul Aziz had let loose tLc 
 hordes of Bashi-Bazouks on defenceless Bul- 
 garia, but Murad seemed utterly unable to 
 rectify the fatal error; the province fell into a 
 state of complete anarchy. ... As Lord Derby 
 remarked, it was impossible to effect much with 
 an imbecile monarch and bankrupt treasury. 
 One thing, at any rate, the Turks were strong 
 enough to do, and that was to defeat the Ser- 
 vians, who declared war on Turkey on July 1st. 
 ... Up to tlie last Prince Milan declared that 
 his :Dtentions were purely pacific; bit the 
 Increasing troubles of the Porte enabled him, 
 with some smal! chance of success, to avail him- 
 self uftlie anti-Turkish spirit of his people and 
 to declare war. His example was followed by 
 Prince Nikita of Montenegro, who set out with 
 his brave little army from Ccttigne on July 2nd. 
 At first it appealed as if the principalities would 
 have the better of the struggle. The Turkish 
 generals showed tlieir usual dilatoriness in 
 attacking Scrvia. and Tchcmaieff, who was a 
 man of considerable military talent, gave them 
 the giKKlbye, and cut them off from their base of 
 operations. This success was, however, tran- 
 sitory; Abdul Kerim, the Turkish Commar icr- 
 inChiof, drove back the enemy by mere force of 
 numbers, and by the end of the month he was 
 over the herder. Meanwhile tlie hardy Monte- 
 negrins had been considerably more fortunate; 
 but their victories over Mukhtar Pasha were not 
 sufticiently important to oflect a diversion. "The 
 Servians fell back '-^n. all tlicir positions of 
 defcinw, and on " \bcr 1st received a most 
 disastrous beating I the walls of Alexinatz. 
 
 ... On ScpteniTw • h the Porte agreed to a 
 suspension of liostiliiies until tlie 25th. It must 
 be Hcknowledged that the Servians used this 
 period of grace exceedingly ill. Prince Milan 
 *a8 proclaimed by General Tchemaieff, in ilia 
 absence and against his will, King of Scivia and 
 Bosnia; and though, on the remonstrance of the 
 Powers, he readily consente<l to waive the 
 obnoxious title, the evil effect of the declaration 
 remained. Lord Derby's proposals for peace, 
 which were made on September 2l8t, were 
 neverthek'ss accepted by the Sultan when he saw 
 that imunlmity prevaih.'d among the Powers, 
 and hi> offered in addition to prolong the formal 
 8us|Knsion of hostilities to October 2nd. This 
 olier tlie Servians, rvlyirg on the Kusshin volun- 
 U-ers who were flockiug to joir "'ohemaieff, 
 rejectiii with some contempt, a., hostilities 
 Were resumed. They paid dearly for their 
 temerity. TchemaiclT's position before Ale ■ 
 iiiatz was forced by the Turks after three da- 
 "■vtrv flgliiing; p(»ition after pogltlon ylelj-d 
 to them; on October 3Ut Alexiuau was ukeo. 
 
 and Dellgrad was occupied on November 1st. 
 Nothing remained between the outpost of the 
 crescent and Belgrade, and it seemed as if the 
 new Kingdom of Servia must perish in the throei 
 of its birth." Russia now Invoked the Inter- 
 vention of the powers, and brought about a con- 
 ference at Constantinople, which effected 
 nothing, the Porte rejecting all the proposahi 
 submitted. On the 24th of April, 1877, Russia 
 declared war and entered upon a conflict with 
 the Turks, which had for its result the readjust- 
 ment of affairs in South-eastern Europe by the 
 Congress and Treaty of Berlin.— CiMe«'»/H««- 
 trated Hittory of England, e. 10, eh. 23-23.— See 
 Turks: A. D. 1877-1878, and 1878. 
 
 A. D. 1878.— Treaty of Berlin.-Tr»nifer of 
 Bosnu to Austria.- Independence of Serria, 
 Montenegro and Roumania.— Division and 
 Mmi-independence of Bulgaria.- "(1) Bo«nU, 
 including Herzegovina, was assigned to Austria 
 for permanent occupation. Thus Turkey lost a 
 great province of nearly 1,250,000 inhabitants. 
 Of these about 600.000 were Christians of the 
 Greek Church, 450,000 were Mohammedans, 
 mainly 11 the towns, who offered a stout resist- 
 ance to the Austrian troops, and 200,000 lioman 
 Catholics. By the occupation of tlie Novi-Bazar 
 district Austria wedged in her forces between 
 Montenegro and Servia, and was also able to 
 keep watch over the turbulent province of Mace- 
 donia. (2) Montenegro received less than the 
 San Stefano terms had promised her, but secured 
 the seaports of Antivarl and Dulcigno. It needed 
 a demoustration of the European fleets off the 
 latter port, and a threat to seize Smyrna, to make 
 the Turks yield Dulcigno to the lAontenegrians 
 (who alone of all the Christian races of tlie penin- 
 sula had never been conquered by the Turks). 
 (3) Servia was proclaimed an independent Prin- 
 cipality, and received the district of Old Servia 
 on tlie upper valley of the Morava. (4) Rou- 
 mania also gained her independence and ceased 
 to pay any tribute to the Porte, but had to give 
 up to her Russian lienefactors the slice acquired 
 fnim Russia in 1856 between the Pruth and the 
 northern mouth of the Danulie. In return for 
 tills sacrifice she gaine-d the large but marshy 
 Dobrudsclia district from Bulgaria, and so ac- 
 quirwl the port of Kustendie on the Black Sea. 
 (5) Bulgaria, which, according to the Sun Stefano 
 terms, would have been an indepcnileiit State as 
 large as Roumania, was by tlie Beriin Treaty 
 subjected to the suzerainty of tlie sultan, divided 
 into two parts, and confined within much nar- 
 rower limits. Besides the Dobrudsclia, it lost 
 the northern or Bulgarian part of Jlace<lonitt. and 
 the Bulgarians who dwelt between the Balkans 
 and Adrianople were separated f ron ttieir kins- 
 folk on the north of the Balkans, in a province 
 called Eastern Roumelia, with Phili.jxipolia as 
 capital. The latter province was to remain Turk- 
 ish, under a Christjiin governor nominated by the 
 Porte with the consent of the Powers. Turkey 
 was allowed ti> occupy the passes of the Balkans 
 in time of war."— J. H. Rose, A Onturg nf Con- 
 tinental lliitory. eh. 43.— See Tchks: A. D. 1878. 
 Also in: E. Hertslet, The Map of Euroiie by 
 Trenty, r. 4. no». .518, 5'34-533. 
 
 A. D. 1878-1891.— Proposed Balkan Con- 
 fede. ation and its aims. — ' During the reaction 
 against Russia which followed the creat war of 
 1878, negotiations were actually set on foot with 
 a view to forming a combination of the Balkan 
 
 261 
 
BALKAN AKD DAKUBIAN STATIC. bALKAj, AKO DANCBUN STATEa 
 
 I 
 
 .J 
 
 SUtei for the purpose of reslntor RumIm seirm. 
 ^on . I'rince Alexan-Ur alwa« f«v«^ 
 the I. k.« of a Balkan C«iife,leratiou wl.'ch ,J^ 
 to include Turkey ; and even llatened to propoJL" 
 on the part of Greec... defining- the BulffSrKd 
 Greek spheres of inrtucnce in Macedonia Tli.t 
 «.e revoft of taa.em noumelia, foMowed by"he 
 n,^'^''^?"",? '■" ""<* "'« cl'«»<l«cment of 
 S^. ^f / ' •"-' '"*'"■ I'""»''ed «, much bitter 
 nesa of feelin/r among the rival racvs that for 
 
 '~„ s .....i.iig uiv rivtti ratvs that for 
 
 r^l r"", """''-IJ? ""'«' ""•" ''f»"l «f » Balkan 
 Confedemtion. The idea liaa lately been ivv ved 
 under d,fr..rent auspices and with Somewhat dif 
 ferent ainis. Durmg the past six years the 
 Tn .1.. Alliance, witli EnglandThas, draoito tl e 
 
 Ba kL'„"Tt°S''"""' BFsmar^k pnSj le 
 Balkan States in general, and Bu garia in par- 
 tieular from the armed intervention of Ru^ia*^ It 
 hasal8o acted the part of policeman In pTewrv- 
 ing Uie peace throughout thb Peninsula. a„d in 
 de ernng the young nations from any dangerous 
 indulgence in their angry paaiona The mrwt 
 remarkable feature in the^GS^ of this periSl 
 ha. been the extraordinary proVw maj^ bv 
 
 Bulgaria has been treated by Dame Eurooa as i 
 aaughly child But the Bulgarianf hX be, , 
 
 !n^r' i""!??** •°''"* ""' tfie Central Power^ 
 and England have an interest in their n„«o.i" 
 independence and consolidation; they hal^ n' 
 cogniseji the truth that fortune favoure th<^ 
 who help themselves, and they have boldly uk^ 
 tl^,r own ,rse. while can-fully avoiding any 
 hrin 1k"^ ' "'™P"«'es such L might aga"n 
 bring them uij_ er the censure of the lurop™" 
 vH'T'Ti J''^-y venture.i, in.leed, to eTct 
 
 their himli,, an(i pniphesied that Prince Fenli- 
 nands davs m Bulgaria might, perhaps be as 
 manr „, Pn„ce Alexander's yeara^ Yet Prh," 
 
 InJTlf "■'I'T'"? "" '.''« "'">"«• ""d is now en' 
 gngi.i in celebrating the fourth anniversary f 
 his accession: the internal development of the 
 country pr,H-ec U apace, and the progress of I e 
 
 o. *^r''""1,'^"'"!""Tr* ""'"'''^ "'e country-"^ 
 other words, the Macedonian propaganda -is 
 no, a whi behind The Bulgarians have made 
 their greatest strides in Macecfonia since tl ™faH 
 
 hf.JT"""?,'^'^""'"*^''- "■"•' «a««lways ready to 
 humour Russia at the cxix-nse of Bulgaria 
 What happeueil after tlie great wa"- of 1878 ? ' \ 
 ponmn of the Bulgarian rSce was given a nom^ 
 °" ,f:rt"" ^■■"''^ *■'". ""'T expected toTa 
 mi ity; Russia pounce.1 on Bessarabia. EneLd 
 
 Fran ;r"'',-^'""™.'?° Bosnia and Herzegovfna 
 J- ranee pot sometung elsewhere, but that is 
 another matter. The Bulgarians hive never fo 
 raV.^, ; i'h""'"'™'"'''''' ''"• "•<•• division of their 
 ?rZ; \^ ' hav, «en some bitter jH^'ms upon the 
 mf^W'™rV '" ""-■ Bulgarian tongue whch 
 laZl ri;' r"" 'J ^•<"'''' ,"->' ?«"> to Sear tran? 
 l^H In J''J.^'^'I'S l'''v« liatci us since ou-.orr: 
 pation of (yprus, and Hrmly believe t; 
 mean to take Crete as well, the Se^.ians ,. .c 
 not forgotiei, how Russia, after instigating them , 
 
 J?sLs rlf^'Th"""' 'I™'' with their claims ' 
 at Sau .^tefmio; they cannot forgive Austria for 
 her occupation of fi<«nia and iferzegovlna an I 
 every Servian peasant, as he pays his ifMvy taxes 
 or reluctnr.iy gives a big pfic^ for sJime^orth 
 
 I'll iirtlfln fjiula *i.^ III 
 
 ^3rrc^fX.nt^rS 
 
 the Balkan people* Imve no reason i..^ 
 much benefit from the next great wf, (^.2^^ 
 European Conference whiclf^rirwiowTt "or 
 from the sympathy of the Christlai, P„"e^ 
 rA„,^^~.'.' "'^°' ^^ "'" """">« of the pro *S 
 
 Object ? The Balkan States are to act in<l,p,n, 
 ;he foM' irn Po...»... —.1 ._ - """•"nil 
 
 i™» !„ ■', f'"^'." "'« pnce lor sot 
 
 less imponed article, feels the gaUlng yoke of 
 her flKal and commercial tyranny. ifeJd it bo 
 
 262 
 
 SolreXtao^Xfa^re?irke'rwt£"'' 
 portunity present, itJelf. TieymuTt „"„"?£ 
 
 Peninsula. In either case the hones of H,» . «... 
 nations will be destroyed forev^"?' ut ^S 
 fore soug^it to extricate a jwrtion at leasi of the 
 Eastern Question from the tangled web „5 
 European politics, to isolate it, to deal ^Uh ^ 
 as » matter which solely conce™ ,he 8 ck Mii 
 and his immediate successors. It ta howd tL« 
 
 imMH*' ^/l"? ""y ^ '"""^ by the detZiin" 
 nttitude of his expectant heirs to make on'r to 
 them theirseveral portions in his lifetime should 
 he refuse they must act In concert and ,,me 
 
 eutlmiiaslaf„rthemoribundownerof.M..cSa 
 Crete. an.l Thrace. In other wonia it i« u. !.!i 
 that the a,lk«n States, if oncTtSly "o , d'en,"^ 
 
 wh«['is"kfto}"H"".l." "■S"."'^ tLir cl'imMo 
 w lat Is left of the Ottoman Empire in Enrnn,. 
 
 ffiiTJ'""'^. ■■""^ without ZaMofTny 
 ttv is ^oT; ^""« «''<^'' P"'^""' to bear u^h 
 1 urkey as to induce her to surrender maceulilv 
 her Eur,.pe.m inwsessions, and to contem he « ff 
 henceforth with the position of an Asiatic P.'^er ' 
 
 iM.v;!i'""'r5'^'*' Semi -Abduct on aid 
 «bdic«tion of Prince Alexander.-" TheB,"" 
 Treaty, by cuttlnK Bulgaria into three ,^.ee, 
 
 , . "IT •^"'•«'«'>"l of both geograpliica .m. 
 
 wlTcri'cJir- T' """""^l the^l^n^und'fn";! 
 w men a crop of neverend iig aKitali.u was 
 
 Trea'tv oy^TL^Sf }" "Pring-a^rorwl. icl, T, 
 
 Boh ?rt *^'l V""?; ''''" "' "'« B«""""'. '""!' in 
 un!nTJ:"\ '" «"""»''i«. the same .leMre for 
 union existed. Both parties were agn, ,1 as to 
 
 I. en,?''i"'''ri'^.'"^"''' •" "> tl'e mean.sliv which 
 
 ?,l,ir.V '"'■,"""";'''■•'• "" tl'« other haiHl, main 
 tain«ltliat hey should be diallengcl. It was 
 a few Individuals bi'longing to the latter pirtv 
 and acting with M. KaravA,ir, the l^'ul ,lf2 
 
 carrie<l out the revolution of .SptemlM r 1^ \m 
 
 So unanimously was this move ni si,|.p..it.(i by 
 
 the whole population, including ,'v,u the 
 Mussulmans, that it was accomplish.",! and the 
 union pnx'inimcd without the least resistance 
 being encountered, ami without the shedding of 
 one drop of blood I Prime Alexander was in no 
 way muuu aware of what wa« in preparation! 
 
BALKAN AND DANTBIAN PTATES. BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. 
 
 but he knew very well that ' Tould I ! his duty 
 to place himself at the h J of any national 
 movement, and in a proclamation dated the 19th 
 of September, and addressed from Tlmova. the 
 ancient capital, he recommended union and 
 assun.cd the title of Prince of North and South 
 Bulgaria. The Porte protested In a circular 
 dated th^ 28rd of September, and called upon 
 the Powers who had signed the Treaty of Berlin, 
 to enforce the observance of Its stipulations' 
 On the 13th of October, che Powers collectively 
 declare ' that they condemn this violation of the 
 Treaty, and are sure tlmt the Sultan will do all 
 that he can, consistently with his sovereign 
 rigliis.bi'fore resorting to'the force which he has 
 at his disposal' From the moment when there 
 was opposition to the use of force, which even 
 the Porte did not seem in a hurry to employ the 
 union of the two Bulgarlas necessarily became 
 an nreomplished fact. . . . Whilst Enghind and 
 Austria both iioceptcd the union of the two 
 Bulgarlas as being rendered necessary by the 
 position of affairs, whilst even the Porte (although 
 lirotesting) was resigned, the Emperor of Russia 
 illspliivefla passionate hostility to It, not at all la 
 accord with the feelings of the Russian nation 
 ... In Russia they had reckoned upon all the 
 liberties guan iiteed by the Con -'utlon of 
 Timova becoming so many causes f; disorder 
 and anarchy, instead of which the i.ulgarians 
 were growing accustomed to freedom. Schools 
 werp being endowed, the country was progress- 
 In- in every way, and thus the Bulgarians were 
 IxLiming less r.d less fitted for transformation 
 into Russian subjects. Their lot was a pref. r- 
 able one, by far, to that of the people of Rus.sia 
 — henceforth they would refuse to accept the 
 Russiiin yoke! ... If, then, Russia wanted to 
 maintain licr high-handed policy In Bulgaria 
 tlie must oppose the union and hinder the con- 
 solidiition of Bulgarian nationality by every 
 means in her power; this she has done without 
 scruple of any sort or kind, as will be shown by 
 a brief epitome of what has happened recentlv 
 bervn. lioping to e.\tond her territory in tfie 
 direction of Tru and Widdin, and, pleading 
 regard for the Treaty of Beriin an I the theotr ot 
 the balance of power, attacks Bulgaria. On 
 Novimber 14th [17th to 19th?] 1885, Prince 
 Alexander defends the Slivnitza positions fin a 
 three days' liiittlo] with admirable courage and 
 strategic skill. The Roumelian militia, coming 
 in by forced marches of anhcardof length per- 
 form ppHligiea of valour in the field. Wi.hin 
 eight days, i. e., from the 20th to the 28th of 
 ^ rvemlKr, the Servian army, far greater in 
 numbers,!, driven back Into Its own territory 
 the Draiiomun Pass is crossed ; Pirct is taken hv 
 assjiult; and Prince Alexander is marching ,.}, 
 Aisch, when his victorious progress is arrestwi 
 by the Austrian Minister, under threats of an 
 armed intervention on the jiarl of that country ' 
 Uii Deirmbtr 21st, an armlstic! is conclude"d 
 atlerwanls made into a treaty of peace, and 
 siL'Dnl at liiicharwt on March Srd by M 
 
 for the N.ltan. Prince Alexander "did all he 
 
 C0UI.1 to bring about a reconciliation with the 
 
 Mr and ,.ven went so far as to attribute to 
 
 liusMan instnictors all the merit of the victories 
 
 Ti„ „' 1 J"L*""- ''''"■ *""f *""''! not vleld. 
 Then the Prince turned to the Saltan, and with 
 
 him succeeded In coming to a direct understand- 
 ing. -The I'rincc was to be nominated Oovemor- 
 beneral of Roumclla; a mixed Cor.,mis»ion was 
 to meet and modify the Roumelian Mtatutes: 
 more than this, the Porte was bound to plat e 
 troops at * disposal, in the event of his bei- ' 
 attacke.1 {"rom that date the Czar swore 
 
 that hi would cause Prince Alexander's down- 
 
 n ; li *2*^'"J'' *'"•' ^f'n™ Alexander of 
 Battenberg had chani^eci into a sword the sceptre 
 which Russia had given him and was going to 
 turn it against his benefactor. Xothing could 
 be more untrue Up to the very last moment, 
 he did everj-thlng he could to disarm the anger 
 of the Czar, but what was wanted from him was 
 
 &■'!"" m* ■'" '■'' ■""''e Bulgaria an 
 obedient satellite of ussla, and raUier than con- 
 Mnt to do so he t Sotia. The story of the 
 » '^'=*'^f''"'"* •'^ ^y Kussia-i influence, or 
 as Lord Salisbuij- 1, by Russian gold, is well 
 Known. A hantf ot malcontent offict:-s, a few 
 awets of the Ecoib Mlliuire, and some of Zan- 
 Koffs adherents, banding themselves together 
 broke into the palace during the night of the 
 ^Ist of August, seized the Prince, and had him 
 wried off, without escort, to Rahova on the 
 Uaniibe, from thence to Rent i'. Bessarabia. 
 Where he was handed over to the Russians I The 
 conspirators endeavoured to form a government, 
 but the whole country rose against them, la 
 spite of the support openly given them by M. 
 BogdanolT the Russian diplomatic agent. On 
 t.1e 3rd of September, a few days after these 
 occurrences. Prince Alexai '.er returned to his 
 capital, welcomed home by the acclamations of 
 the whole people; but in answer to a respectful 
 not to say too humble, telegram in which ha 
 offered to replace his Crown in the liands of the 
 J-zar, that potentate replied tlmt he ceased to 
 have any relations with Bulgaria a.s long as 
 ITIncc Alexander remained tlierc. Owing to 
 advice which came, no doubt, from Berlin 
 Ifflnce Alexander decided to alnlicate; he did so 
 because of the demauds of Oic Czar and in the 
 
 dc Ijiveleyc, T/u 
 
 fitrufrgle of th» 
 Iroirth of fyee- 
 '.. Koch, Prince 
 
 263 
 
 Interests of Bulgaria."— E 
 Balkan "niiuula, Inlrod. 
 
 Also A. Von Iluhn. 
 
 Bulgariant.—J. G. C. Mine. 
 dom, in Vie liaikan Penimulo 
 Aleiaruler of Batl i^berg. 
 
 A. D. i(<7o.ilido (Seryia).— Quarrels and 
 divorce of King MiW and Queen Natalia.— 
 Abdication of tm- K.ajf.— Tn Octolier, 1875 
 . . -Milan, then t i .ei.fy-one years old, mar- 
 r ;•• atalia Kechi. ,, l.erself but sixteen. The 
 pi' , r Ouecn was -e daughter of a Russian 
 ol. . and of the Princess Pulckeric Stourdza. 
 She as little as her husband, had lieen bom 
 with a likeliho<Hl to sit upon the throne and a 
 quiet burgher educction had been hers at Odessa. 
 Hut even here her great beauty attracted notice, 
 as also her abilities, her ambition and her 
 wealth. ... At first all went well, to outward 
 appearance at least, for Milan was deeol ,- en- 
 amoured of his beautiful wife. .,ho soon became 
 the Idol of the Servians, on account of her 
 beauty and her amiability. This affection was 
 but increased when, a year after her marriage 
 she presented her subjects with an heir. But 
 from that hour the domestic discord Iwgan The 
 gueen had hern ill long m\A seriously after her 
 boy s birth ; Milan had sought distractions else- 
 where. Scenes of jealousy and recrimination 
 
'Pi i 
 
 1^ 
 
 tag 
 
 BALKAN Am) DAKUBIAN STATE& 
 
 / frequent Further, BenrU wiis then pais- 
 Jng through a dilHcuIt poHUcal crisis: the 
 Turkish war »a» in full swing. Milan, little be- 
 loved ever since he Iwgan to reign, brought home 
 no wreaths from this conflict, although his sub- 
 JecU distinguished themselves by their valour 
 Then followeil in 1882 the raising of the nrinei- 
 
 Sality into a kingtiom — » fact which left the 
 ervians verj- imiKTerent, and in which they 
 merely beheld the |)ruspect of Increased tnxes, a 
 prevision timt wiis ronlized. As time went on 
 and troubles inrrciised. King Milan became some- 
 what of a despot, who was susUinc<i solely by 
 the army, itself undermined by factious In- 
 trigues. Meantime the Queen, now grown some- 
 what callous toiler husband's Infldelities, aspired 
 to comfort herself by assuming a pollticiil rOle, 
 for which she Ulieved herself to have great ap- 
 Htude. ... As she could not influence tin- de- 
 cisions of the Prince, the lady entered Into op- 
 position to him, and made it her aim to oppow 
 ^1 his protects. The quarrel sprvad throughout 
 the entire Palace, and two inimical factions were 
 formed, that of the King an<i that of the Queen. 
 . . . Meantime Milan got deeper and deeper into 
 debt, so that after a Umc he luul almost mort- 
 gaged his territory. . . . While the husband and 
 wife were thus quarrelling and going their own 
 ways, grave events were maturing in neighbour- 
 ing Bulgaria. The coup d'etat of Mllippopoll 
 which annexed Eastern Roun-lla to the princi- 
 pality, enlarged It in such wise that Servia 
 henceforth had to cut a sorry flgure in the 
 Balkans. Milan roused himself, or pretended 
 to rouse himself, and war was declared against 
 Bulgiirin. . , There followe<l the crushing de- 
 g'at of Slivitzu. in which Prince Alexander of 
 BaltcnlKT^' nirricd iilf such laurels, and the 
 Servians Iniil to lunt adisgriiceful and precipitate 
 rctniit. Fur frcni proving himself the hero Na- 
 thalie had dreiiiiMil. .Milan . . . telegraphed to 
 the Queen, biisiiil with tendi.ig the woundnl 
 that lie intended to abdicate forthwith. This 
 cowardly oonduct gave the death blow to any 
 
 BALTIMORE. 
 
 hellng the Queen might have retained for the 
 King. Henceforth she despised him, niul tixik 
 no paini to hide the fact. ... In 1S87 the pair 
 parted without outward scandals, the Ouwn 
 taking with her the Crown Print*. . . . Florence 
 was the goal of the Queen's wanderin^ts and 
 here she spent a quiet winter. . . . The winter 
 ended, Nathalie ciesiri'd to return to lielirnule 
 Milan would not hear of it. . . . The iJuein 
 went to Wiesbaden in consequence. While re- 
 siding tliere Milan professecl to lie suildenlv taken 
 with a paternal craving to sec his son. . \,|,| 
 to the shame of the Uennan Ot>veniiiieiit W it 
 said they lent their hand to alwluetini: m onlv 
 child from his motlier. . . . Before ever the ej. 
 citemcnt about this act could subside in Kiirope 
 Milan . . . petitioned the Servian SyniKl f„r a 
 divorce, on the ground of 'irreconcilable mutual 
 antipathy ' Neither by canonical or civil law 
 was this possible, and tho Queen refused her 
 consent. . . . Nor could the divorce liave JK'en 
 obtained but for the servile cumplaiKiinre of 
 the Servian Metropolitan Theodore. . . Ouick 
 vengeance, however, was in store for Slilan 
 The international affairs of Servia had grown 
 more and more disturbe<l. . , . The Kiuj.' per- 
 plexed, afraid, storm tossed betwwn dividiHi 
 counsels, highly Irritable, and deeply impre«8e<l 
 by Rudolph of Hapsburg's recent suicide sud- 
 denly announced his intention to aMiinle in 
 favourof hisson, . . . Without regret his people 
 saw depart from among them a man who at 
 thirty-dve years of u>.'e was uirtadv d.-. r.nii 
 . . After kneeling down before his s.>ii nid 
 sweariiig fldelity tu him as a »iibj(<t i March 
 !«■<!'), Milan bci<K)k hluiMir otf to t.mr ilirou-h 
 .I''',''*;,- • • ''''"'™ ItW'ts an' uppoiMi.,1 ",„ 
 iiHd the Kingduring IiIh minority."—" Poliiikos ' 
 TAf Sinretgnt, pp. JWI-Jtoa. 
 . *;, 9l, ««93-Roy»l Coup d'^tat.-In 
 April, 1H93, the yiiiins; king, AUxiuidir, thin 
 8evente.>u years old. bv a sudden rou\> .I'.tut 
 dismissed the regents, and took the nin.s into 
 his own bauds. 
 
 BALKH.-Destructlon by JinKit Khan 
 
 (A. D. UJli.— Fniin his crmquest of the region 
 beyond the Oxus, >)ingisKlian moved southwanl 
 with his vast horde nf Mongols, In pursuit of the 
 fugitive Khahri'iminn prince, in TiSOor 1221 
 and Investeil th>' great city of Baikh,— which is 
 thouglit in the eiuit to be the old.-»t city of the 
 worid. and wiiicli may not impossibly have N-en 
 one of the capiliiU of the primitive Aryan race 
 '•Some iilea of Its exU-nt and rirhes [at that 
 time] may possibly Iw funned from the statement 
 that it eoniaiiiiii 1,2<M) largo moHques, without 
 Including chapels, anil 2lM» public batlis fir the 
 use of fon'ltrn merrlmnu and travellers — though 
 It has iM'en siiggi'sted that the more correct 
 readlnit would Im' 2(HI mos(|ues and 1,200 liatha. 
 Anxi.iiis to avert the horrors of storm and 
 pillage, the ritirens at once offered to capitulate; 
 but Chlnthi*, ilistnisting the sincerity of their 
 iuhmis«loi> Ml lonif as Sultan Mohamme<l Sbah 
 wasjil nlivi'. pn ferriKl u> carry the place by 
 force of arms lui achievement of no gn-at dlffl- 
 cullv. A horrible butchery ensued, and the 
 'Taliemsrie of Islam '— as the pious town wu 
 calUd — was rajeil l<i the ground. In the w«inli 
 of the Pinian iKS't. uuntcd hv Mainr Prlr» 
 • Tlie uohle ciiy he laid as smooth as tlie palm of 
 Uibaod — iu tpiKloua aitd kifty ilructurw be 
 
 Itutton, (hitrdl 
 
 \f"itfft>ts. 
 
 264 
 
 levelled in the dust.'"- 
 Afia, eh. 4. 
 
 Ai,soi!t: II. II. Iloworth, //i«f oft/i, 
 t. 1, eh. 8. 
 
 BALL'S BLUFF, The Battle of. S<« 
 I NrTED States or Ah. : A. I>. imll (nduiiuK 
 VimiiNiA). 
 
 BALM ACE DA'S DICTATORSHIP. S,r 
 CllII.K: A. I). 188.'5-1H01. 
 
 BALNEA. See Tiieri(.s. 
 
 BALTHI.OR BALTHINCS.-' Hi, nilin. 
 of the Vislgolhs, though they, like Ihi- .\nml 
 kings of the Ostnigoilis. htvl a greui liuii.c, ilic 
 BalthI, sprung from the si'ed of (IimIs, iIIiI n,ii 
 at this time [when driven acnms ilic liiiniilie 
 by the Huns] N-ar the title of KIiilv I.mi am 
 tented themselves with some humhh r i!. »iL'ns 
 lion, which the I..atin historimis trmislati.l inin 
 Judex (Judge)."— T. Ilmlgklu. Il,,/^ „,ul hfr 
 Inmrtm. int., eh. B.—Hiv HAfX. I.c.iii.- or 
 
 BALTIMORE, Lord, and the Colonisation 
 efMarTluid. See Mahtlano: A Ii lii;«, to 
 I8H8-lfn7 
 
 BALTIMORE, A. D. 17*9-1730. Found- 
 iBrefthidtjr. SitMabyland: A. n i:.'!i \in>i 
 
 A. D. iSll.—Riating'af the War Party -Th« 
 mob and th« Podtralisti. .S41' I'nitku States 
 or Am. : A. D. t«lli (JuMI-Ocruaut). 
 
BALTIMORE. 
 
 BALOCHISTAN. 
 
 A. D. 1814.— Britiih attempt agfaiatt the 
 city. See United States or Am. : A. D, 1814 
 (Auou<<T— September). 
 
 A. D. i8io.— The Douglas Democratic and 
 Constitutional Union ConTentions. See 
 United Statu or Am.: A. D. 1860 (ApbiI/— 
 Noveuber). 
 
 A. D. lUt (April).— The citj controlled hj 
 the Secessionists. —The attack on the 
 Sixth Massachusetts Reriment. See Uxited 
 State* op Am. : A. D. 1S6T (APHit,). 
 
 A. D. 1861 (May).— Disloyalty put down. 
 See United States op Am. : A. D. 1881 (Apbil 
 — )1at: Maryland). 
 
 BALOCHISTAN, OR BALUCHISTAN. 
 
 — "Balochistan, in the modern acceptation of 
 the term may bo said, In a general sense, to in- 
 clude all that tract of country which has for Its 
 
 northern and northeastern boundary the large 
 kingdom of AfglianUtan, Its eastern frontier be- 
 ing limited by the British province of Sindb, and 
 Ita western by the Persian State, while the Ara- 
 bian Sea washes its southern base for a distance 
 of nearly six hundred milea ... In area Balo- 
 chistan had long been supposed to cover in Its 
 entirely quite 160,(K>il square miles, but the latest 
 estliuiites do not raise It higher than 14i9.0()0 
 Si|uari' miles, of which BO.UUO are said to belong 
 to wliiit is termed Persian Balochistan, and the 
 rcmiiininK HD.IXK) to Kiilati Baliwhistan, or that 
 portion which is more or less directly under the 
 rule of the Brahui Kluiii of Kalat. . . . Balo- 
 clilstaii may be said to be Inhabited chiefly by 
 the Haloch tribe, the most numerous In the 
 rmintry. and this name was given to the tract 
 tliiy iK-eupy by tlie great Persian monarch, 
 N idir Shah, who, as St. John remarks, after 
 (lriviii!;the Afi;lian Invaders from Persia, mttds 
 himself master in his turn of the whole coimtry 
 tt-.st iif tiie Indus, and placed a nntlvechlef over 
 tlie new province, formed out of the districts 
 boiiiiiliHl „n the north and south by the Halmand 
 vulley and the si'a, and stretching from Karman 
 on the west to Sindh on the east This newly. 
 forniiHl province he called Balochistan, or, the 
 country of the Balocli, from the name of the 
 most widely spn-ad ami numerous, though not 
 the dominant, trilH-. Aeciinllng toMasson, who, 
 It must be admitted. Iiiui more ample opportuni- 
 ties of olitaining correct information on this sub- 
 Jii I than any other European, the Balochls are 
 divided into three great elas.se«, vis., (1) the 
 Hr thnis ; {■>) Uie Kinds ; and (il) the Lumrts (or 
 Nuniris) ; but this must be taken more in the 
 sense of InhalillanU of BaicH-histan than a* divis- 
 ions of a trlbi". <in<-e the llmhulaarp of adIITen'nt 
 nice and lani; ige, ami call the tnie Balochls 
 'N' inds.'lu (ontraillstlncllon to tliemselves as 
 
 Hilnils.' . . . The origin of the word 'Bahsh' 
 Is evidi iilly involved In some obscurltv, and has 
 gtv.Mi rise to many dllTi-rent Interpretations. 
 I'rolf.snr Hawlins<m supposes It to be derived 
 «r..ni It,.!,,,, kini; of Haliylon, the NImrod of 
 Holy W rit. ami that from 'Kush.' Ilie father of 
 Nlinr.Hl, comes the name of the KalatI eastern 
 district. -ICaehh." I'otlinmT believes the Balo- 
 chls to be of Turktmian lineage, and this from a 
 simdarity In their institutions, habits, religion — 
 ' ■, ,-';**-. in rvrrsttiiiiii l,ul llieir language, lor 
 • lilcli latter anonialv. however, he has an ex- 
 planatliin to offer. Bill Ix- this as It mav. tlie 
 very irlbc' themselves nstTlbu their origin to the 
 
 265 
 
 earliest Muhammadan invaders of Persia, and 
 are extremely desirous 01 being supposed to be 
 of Arab extraction. They reject with scorn ail 
 Idea of being of the same stock as the Afghan. 
 They may possibly be of Iranian descent, and 
 the affinity of their language, the Balochki, to 
 the Persian, bears out this supposition ; but the 
 proper derivation of the word • Bahxh ' still re- 
 mains an open question. . . . The Braliuis. who, 
 as a race, arc very numerous In Balothistau, 
 Pottinger considers to be a nation of Tartar 
 mountaineers, who settled at a very early period 
 in the southern parts of Asia, where they U^d an 
 ambulatory life in Khels, or siwieties, beaded 
 and governed by their own cldefs and laws for 
 many centuries, till at length they became In- 
 corporated and attained their present footing at 
 Kalat and throughout Balochistan generally 
 Masson supposes that the word 'Brahui' is a 
 corruption of Ba-roh-i, meaning, literally, of the 
 waste; and that that race enu>red Balochistan 
 originally from the west. . . . The country may 
 be considered as divided into two portions— the 
 one, Kaiati Balochistan, or that either really 01 
 nominally under the rule of the Khan of Kalat; 
 and the other as Persian Balochistan, or that 
 part which Is more or less directly under th« 
 domination of the Shah of I'ersia. Of the gov 
 ernment of this latter territory, it will suffice tc 
 say that It Is at present lid ministered by the 
 Governor of Bam-Narma.shlr, a deputy of the 
 Kcrman Governor ; but the only district that Is 
 directly under Persian rule- is that of Baiiiurr — 
 the rest of the country, says St. John, Is left in 
 charge of tlie native chiefs, who. In their 'urn. 
 Interfere but little with the heads of vilUjrcs and 
 tribes. ... It wotdd , . . app<'ar that the su- 
 premacy of the Shah over a very large portion 
 of the Immense aiea (6(1,(1(10 square niilesi known 
 as Persian Balochistan Is more nominal than real, 
 and that the greater numbiT of tlii' chiefs only 
 nay revenue to their suzerain when compelled to 
 do so. As regards KalntI BalochisUin, the goT- 
 eniinent Is, so to sreak. vested hereditarily in 
 tlie Brshul Khan of Kalat, but his sovereignty 
 In the remote poHloiis of his extensive territory 
 (80,0(10 square miles), though even in former 
 times more nominal than real. Is at the present 
 moment still more so, owing to the alniust con- 
 stant altercations and quarrels which take place 
 between the reigning Kluin ami Ids Sanlara. or 
 chiefs. . . . In . . . the imslcrn history of Ka- 
 hiti Balochistan under the pn*nt dvnasty, ex- 
 tending from sbout lli.- couimencenient of the 
 iNtli century, wheu Abdiila Khan was ruler, 
 down to the present lime, a ixriod of, say, nearly 
 IHO years, there is not much to call for remark. 
 Undoubtedly the AiiiriiBtau age of llalochistsn 
 was the ndgn of the flmt Nasir Khan [IT.'* nit,')) 
 he Oreat Naiir, as he is to this day called by 
 tlie Balochia Of his predecessors little seems to 
 bi' known ; they were indeed simply successful 
 mbliers on a large scale, with but few trail's of 
 any enllghteneil policy to gild over a long suc- 
 cession of dcisls of lawli-ssiicsM, rapine, and bhssl- 
 shed. . . . Had his Rinci'«ors U-rn of the same 
 stamp and metal as himself, the Kidati kinirdom 
 of today would not perhaps show lliat aiianliy 
 and confusion which are now iu most »trlkli!i; 
 characteristica"— A. W Hughes, f/,, O'linlni 
 nf lUilntkittan, ftp. 8-4X, and a:!.-, —By treaty. 
 Ill IH.-H, the Khan o* Kalat, or Kl- lat, ri'ceivi'ja 
 subsidy from the British government in India. 
 
I 
 
 II 
 
 BAL0CEI8TAN. 
 
 «pd WM brought under its Influence. In 1876 
 the subsidy was increased and the British ob- 
 tained praitloal poaaeaslon of the district of 
 VJuitta. Since that time, by successive arranire- 
 Dients with the Kliaii, they have extended 'ht-ir 
 ailimmstnitive control over the districts of Bolan 
 ail I Khctran, and established their authoritv in 
 tlie country between Zhob valiey and Gumal 
 rasa An important ptu-t of Balochlstan has 
 thim become pra<iicaliy British territory, at- 
 tached to the British empire in India. This 
 rcjfion Ims been fortiiied, has been and is beinir 
 intersected witli railways, and is a portion of the 
 delusive frontier of IndU on the east 
 
 BAN.-BANAT.-'Ban is i)ultc(Dui), and 
 Ban.it 18 Duchy. The territory [Hungarianf east 
 of the ( arpatlii.ins is the Banat of Severin and 
 that of tlu- west the Banat of Temesvar. . . 
 llie Hanat is the cornucopia, not only of Hun- 
 Kar}\ hut of the wli,>lc Austrian Empire."— A. 
 A. Paion, UeKuieh,, on the Danuie and the 
 ^'l"'"tc, r. 2. p. 2^ -Among the Croats, "after 
 the kinp, the raost important officers of the state 
 were tlie bans. At Hrst there was but one ban 
 who was a kind of lieutenant-general ; but later 
 on tliere were seven of them, each known by the 
 name of the province he governed, as the ban 
 of ^lrmlil, ban of Dalmatfa, etc. To this day 
 tlie royal lieutenant of Croatia (or ' govcmor-jrcn- 
 enjl. If I l.;,t title be preferred) is called the iMn " 
 
 a Ai'i^'Z^J'"' "■'' ■'io'trv-ITungarv, p. 5a. 
 11?H IHt ''np*ri«l. SccSaxosi: A. D. 
 
 the°*R ^.V^Xt- B*"ie Of—Sometime, called 
 
 the liaitle of Kilirecote "; foiieht July 80, 146B 
 anil wiih siKcess. hy a bo<ly of Lantistrian in- 
 suru'cnts, in the KnKli,h •• Vi'ars of the uZ-, 
 
 ff'""w ""■„'""•? °f •'"' ^'"'kist king. Edwarf 
 
 BANDA. See .Molcccas. 
 
 BANDA 0RIENTAL,Th«.-8ignlfyinR the 
 
 tMj^Urn Uonler : a name applied originally by 
 th.. >puniH..is u. ilie country on the eastern side 
 of Km .ie U I'lata whi. h afterwanis t.»,k the 
 *""m' 'I -i."!?"?-^- **•"•' Ahoestisb Kri-i-blic : 
 
 A- I • 1 '>'^''~1 ( « I 
 
 BANKOFTHEUNITEDSTATES. 8« 
 
 ^MV^i^T^.'^^'""' '^'* •*•. I). i*«-iH!w. 
 i« ilKi*'£- ;""'' ^'""^ *"" hankino. 
 
 BANKS, NathanitI P.-Spt.k.rthip. See 
 IMIKI. M»TKs OK Am: A. X). 1»*.M-T8,M- 
 Command in th« Shenandoah. »<o U.mtkd 
 SniE-oF Ah ; A I) |S6« (Mat-Ji^xk : Viu- 
 «iMAi . . Sieje and Captur* of Port Hud- 
 ton NelsivKoSrArKs or Am.: A. D. iwia 
 
 piu-.li ,v : Ox -riiR MispisHtppi) R,4 
 
 Ri»er Expedition. Se,. I-kitud Mtaiks or 
 ^nA«J'o "Ji' '^'*'" "-MaV: 1^,1 INIANM 
 
 , '^"ANCE.— The Bank of Anisierilnm 
 Wrts r...ii„l,.,| ,„ irtoit, and replaced, after 1N14 
 by tlie N, Ilierland Bmk. The liank of Kngland 
 was f.un.lHl in im.4 hv William PatU rson,™ 
 8. ot, hm in , an.l tlinl of |.'ranre by .lolin Law, In 
 l.Ifl 1 lie latter lulbp,,^ with the Mis«l«ln,,l 
 ••heme anil was n-vlve.) jn i7-« ._.! i |^) ', 
 f( < itri^./.Hi,! uj lu. Hcitnet. »«e .Mo.nkt a.nd 
 BA.^Kl^u. 
 
 2C0 
 
 BAPTISTS. 
 
 TANKS, Wildcat. See Wildcat Bawi 
 BANNAr{^^^T.,""''.i \^ 1887-l(«r^ 
 
 BANNOCKBURN, Battlo of (A. D. 13,4). 
 
 ^^S^^- ^ °- 18": and 1814-1828. 
 
 5 ANT, The. See Gau. 
 
 BANTU TRIBES, The. See Sonn Af- 
 kica: This ABOBiomAi, inh a kitants : and 
 
 A™CA: ThB DTHABrriNO RAIKH 
 
 o f If I, ^'^^•~'^''"'"' "*"'* ■ HuPtist* was not 
 a aelf-chosen one. In tlie early Reformation time 
 those who withdrew from the dominant churdies 
 because of the failure of these churches to ills. 
 criminate between the church and the world 
 between the regenerate and the unrepenerate' 
 and who sought to organize churches of h-licv' 
 er» only, laid much stress on the ln<k of iScriii- 
 turai warrant for the baptism of infants and on 
 the incompatibilitv of Infant Iwptism with re- 
 generate meniberabip. Following wluit thev 
 believed to be apostolic pncept and ..vaninle 
 they made baptism on a profession .if f„ith 
 a condition of church fellowship. Tiiis re- 
 jection of Infant baptism and tljis insist, me 
 on believers' baptism were so distindive i.f 
 these Christians that they were sti»:iimlize,| „s 
 Anabaptists.' • Catabaptist.s.' and som. linu s iis 
 simpiv 'Baptists' ; tliat is to say, they Merc de- 
 clared to be 'rcbaptizers,' 'p«'rverter9 ol hop. 
 Ti """; '? ""duly magnifying bapii-m and 
 making it the occasion of scliism, siiiiplv 'ban- 
 tlzere. These party names they carne'silv re- 
 piulinled, preferring to cull tlicmsclves Brdiinn 
 thristiani. Disciples of Christ, Believers ttc" 
 . . . IJaptlsU have, for the most part, been at 
 one with the Itoman Catholic, ii.. (;r.ek Cmh- 
 olic, and most PnHeslant coinn. unions in ac- 
 cepting for 8ub«tBiic-e the so-called Apuslles'. 
 INlccne, and Alhaiiaslan cre<Mls, not, however 
 iHcause they are venerable or because of the de^ 
 cIsioDs of ecclesiastical councils, but because 
 and only in so far as, they have appeared to 
 Uiem to be in accord with Scripture. \s 
 
 ri'mnls the set of dixtrines on which Angilstin 
 dllTjred from his theological predecessors ami 
 modern CalvlnisU from Arminians, H«pt|,M 
 have always been dlvide<l. . . . The great nn 
 iority of the Baptists of tuiay hold to what may 
 i)e calliH moderate Calvinism, or Calvinism lein 
 IKTW with the evangelical antl-AuBustiniauisni 
 which came tiirmigh the Moravian Urtiliren to 
 Wesley and bv him was brought |H)w,rfullv to 
 liear on all b<«lie» of cvangeli.al ( liristinns. 
 Baptists are at one with tlie ^'nnt (..ncreLa- 
 tloual body and with most of the n.iia.r de- 
 nonilnations as nganls chiinh K"veriin,( nt - 
 • ■ 1 ^J'*"*", A llitlury -f l/,r /l.i/,li,i n.uirfitt 
 I't the V «, »■;.(>->«/. — "Baptist prim 11 ,s are 
 dlsooTcrable In .New Knglaml fi.uii r 
 earliest colonial settlements. The I'm 
 I lynioiith had minghHi with Oio Dutch 
 •luring the ten years of tliclr sojourn in I 
 aiul some of them teem to have bnuti, 
 Haptlst tendencies even In the ,M,i\lli)«,r 
 Dutch Baptists had eniigrat.'.l to y.unUw] siid 
 extended their principles there : and frnm lime 
 tolimeap..rs<'<-nliHl UaptUt In Knvlan.l ^•i,M 
 M!:„.. in .imeriiB. ami, pianlnl iieo', iiciiifht 
 forth fruit after his kinii. But as every olT«l„-.| 
 if these principle* here wasso speedily liiul » Ig.ir 
 
 very 
 
 l.s of 
 
 ptisU 
 
 i inliil, 
 
 over 
 
BAPTISTS. 
 
 BARBARY STATES. 
 
 ou»ly beaten down by pprseeutlon. and etpeclally 
 as, after the banighnu i of Koger Williams, 
 tliere was an asyliim a few miles distant. Just 
 over Narraganset Bay, wliere every persecuted 
 man could find liberty of conscience. Baptist 
 nriJcipU'S made little projrcsB in the New Eng- 
 l»'jd colonies, except Khude Island, for the first 
 > undred aii ! twenty ycsrs. [On the banishment 
 of Roger William.-t from Massachusetts, the 
 founding of Rhode Islanil, and the organization 
 of the first Baptist Church in that colony, see 
 Massaciiusktth : A. D. »!).%, and Riiodb I*- 
 LAND. A. D. 1531-1838 to 18.39.] A little church 
 of Wilsh Baptists was founded In Rehoboth, near 
 the Rhode Island line, in 1863, and shortly after- 
 wanls was compc-lled by civil force to remove 
 to Swimjea, where, as it was distant from the 
 centres of settlement, it was suffered to live 
 without very much molestation. It still exists, 
 the oMcst Baptist church in the State. In 1669, 
 the First Baptist CT- ch In Boston was organ- 
 ised, nrid, alone, for r...uo9t a century, witlistood 
 the fire of persecution, — ever In the Barnes, yet 
 never (|uite consumed. In 1698. a second church 
 was constituted in .Swanzia, not as a Regular, but 
 as a Six I'rinriple, Baptist Church. In 17(W, a 
 Baptist church was formed in Oroton, Connecti- 
 cut. These four churches, three Regular and 
 one ?ixPrinciple, having in the aggregate prob- 
 ably less than two hundred mrmbers. were all 
 thf Baptist churches in New England outside of 
 Riiixlv Island previous to the Great Awaken- 
 iiiif,'— D. Weston, Rirly liiptuU in Mam. (The 
 HijiliMiii nntl the Xitliniyil Centenary], f>p. 18-18. 
 —■•The represetiiatlve Baptists of London and 
 vicinity, who in 1689 put forth the Confession of 
 Faith which was aftcrwanl adopted by the 
 PhilHilciphia Associatifm, and is therefore known 
 in this country as tlu- Philaitelphia Confession, 
 copied the Westminster Confession word for 
 word, wherever their convictions would permit, 
 and declnred that they would thus show wherein 
 they were at one with their brethren, and what 
 I'.invictloiis of truth made impossible a com- 
 plete union. And wherever Baptists appeared. 
 however or by whomsoever they were opposed, 
 the gr .und of complaint aralnst them was their 
 princi |>les. Some of I hese pri nri pies were sharply 
 antapmlstic to those of existing churches, and 
 al*) 111 those on which the civil irovemments were 
 administered. Thev were widely disseminated. 
 e«p<'cinlly in Ilolbnil. England, and Wales, 
 and tliere were separate churches formed. 
 rnm purely doctrlniil causi-s also came di- 
 visions among 'the Baptlr.e<l churches' them- 
 Klvea The most notable one was that In 
 
 England between the General or Armlnian Bap 
 tists, and the Particular or Calvinistic Baptists. 
 With the latter division do the Regular Baptists 
 of America hold lineal connection. . . . The 
 churches of Philadelphia and vicinity kept the 
 closest connection with the mother countrv, and 
 were most affected by it. In New England, in 
 ' the Great Reformation' under the lead of Jona- 
 than Edwards, there was made from within the 
 Congregational churches a most vigorous assault 
 against their own ' half-wav Covenant ' in the 
 Interest of a pure church. " Along hii lines of 
 thought lie started multitudes who could not 
 stop where he himself remained and would fain 
 have detained them. They wparated from the 
 Congregational churches, and were hence called 
 Separates. A large propi.rtiop of tlitm beciimo 
 Baptists, and formril themselves into Baptist 
 churches. Through the laLors of earnest men 
 who went from them to Carolina and Virginia, 
 their principles were widely disseminated in 
 tliose and the neighboring colonies, and, in con- 
 sequence, many churches came into existence." 
 
 G. D. B. Pepper. Doctrinal Ilitt. and I'imtion 
 (The mmt). pp. 81 -52. 
 
 BAR, A. D, 1659-1735.— The Duchy ceded 
 to France. Sec France : A. 1>. Irt.W-lGBl, and 
 IT.'W-lTa.l. 
 
 BAR : The Confederation of. Sec Poland : 
 A. D. 1:6.3-177.1. 
 
 BARATHRUM, The.— "The barathnim. or 
 ' pit of punishment ' at Athens, was a deep hole 
 like a well Into which criniimils were precipl. 
 tated. Iron hooks were inserted in the sides, 
 widch tore the bixly in pieces ns It fell. It cor- 
 responded to the Ceadas of the I.iice<la'moniiiiis." 
 — (}. Rawlinson, Iliit. of lleiudottu, bk. 7, tct. 
 1.S3, note. 
 
 * 
 
 BARBADOES.— This, the most eastward of 
 the Windward poup of islands in the CarlMn'an 
 Sea. hns been claimnl by the Enirlish slut e 1B(J.'5, 
 occupied since 1685, and has always remained 
 in their possession. 
 
 BARBADOES : A.D. 1649-1660.— Royalist 
 •ttitode towardsthe EorlishCommonwealth. 
 See Navioation Laws; A. D. IMl. 
 
 A. D. 1656. — Cromwell's colony of disor- 
 derly women. Bee Jamaica : A. D. Itl.'i.j. 
 
 BARBARIANS. See AnVANS. 
 
 BARBAROSSAS, Piracies and dominion 
 of. See lUiinAiiv States : A. !». MlO-l.'VI.V 
 
 BARRANCAS, FORT.-Seixure by Se- 
 cessionists. See I'MTED STATE.S: A. U. l»«y- 
 
 lt<61 (DlKSMBtll— FEBHL'AUV). 
 
 A. D. 64V.709.-Mshemetan 
 North Africa. See Maiiumrtak Co'soirtsT 
 A I) H47-7()9. 
 
 AD. 906-1171. -The Fatlmlte Caliphs. 
 Se,. .Mmiomktan Comji isT AND EnmnE : A D 
 
 diiS -] 1 , 1 _ 
 
 . * J*- »4'5— Siege and captors of Ceuta by 
 the Portugaesa See Poiitcoai,: A. D. 141*- 
 
 A.p. ijOS-1510.— Spanish coaqassts en the 
 cosst- Orao. _ Bagia.- Algiers.— Triooll— 
 In \y<\n Spnnlsh expedition, planned sodurged 
 by Cartlinal Xlmenes, oapturad MaitaniulTer, an 
 
 BARBARY STATES, 
 conquest of 
 
 267 
 
 " Important port, and formidable neat of pirates, 
 on the Barlmry coast, nearly oppositi' ('iirlha- 
 gena." In IStW, the same energetic prelate led 
 personallv an expedition of 4.1XK) horse and 
 1(1.(11)0 foot, with a fleet of 10 gsllevs ami hO 
 smaller vessels, for the conquest of'Omti • This 
 place, situated atiout a league from the former, 
 was one of the most conslderalile nf the Moslem 
 possessions in the Medlterranenn. hi inc n princi- 
 pal mart for the trade of the Ix-vant." emi main- 
 
 falr.i!!) :^ 5-xsnn "f Ofiil^rr^. Whi'-!l J-.-, rjrl fhc 
 
 Mediterranean " and made fearful depri'dations 
 on Its populous borders." Oran was taken by 
 
BARBART STATES, 1805-1810. 
 
 AirAoKiwai. 
 
 BABBART STATES, 1819-153S. 
 
 •torm. No mercy wu ihown; no Kspect for 
 »ge or iei; and the soldiery abandoned them- 
 •elvea to all the brutal license and ferocity which 
 seem to stam religious wars above every other. 
 . . . No less than 4,0()0 Moors were said to liave 
 fallen in the battle, and from 8,000 to 8.000 were 
 made prisoners The loss of the Christians was 
 ^considerable." Recalled to Spain by Kiiiit 
 Ferdinand. Xlmenes left the aSy to^Afri^ 
 Mdcr the command of Count Pedro Navarro 
 rjavarro 8 •'first enterprise was andnst Bugia 
 (Jan. 13th. 1510), whose king, at tEo head of a 
 powerful army, he routed in two pitched battles 
 and got possession of his flourislilng capital 
 (Jan. 3Ut). Algien. Teunis. Trcmecin. and other 
 cities on the Barbary coast, submitted one after 
 another to the Spanish arms. The inhabitanU 
 were received as vassals of the Catholic king 
 • #• ,,^^^ Kuarantced. moreover, the liberation 
 V. L^?;'^*'.'?'' "'Pt'^es 'n their dominions; for 
 which the Algerines, however, took car« to In- 
 demnify themselves, by extorting the full ran- 
 sonj from their Jewish residenu. ... On the 
 ^Bth of July, 1510, the ancient city of Tripoli 
 after a most blooily and desperate defence, sur- 
 rendered to the arms of the victorious general 
 whose name had now become terrible along the 
 whole northern borders of Africa. In the follow- 
 mg month, however (Aug. 28th), he met with a 
 serious discomfiture in the island of Oclves. 
 w-herc 4,000 of his men were slain or made 
 prisonera. This check ,ii the brilUant career of 
 Count Navarro put a final stop to the progress 
 of the Castillan arms in Africa under FerdlMnd. 
 The resulu obtained, however, were of great Im- 
 portance . Most of the new conquesU 
 escaped from the SpanUh crown In later times, 
 through the imbi-cllitv or indolence of Ferdi- 
 nand s successors. The conqu-i«s of Xlmenes 
 however, were placed in so stioug a posture of 
 defence as to resist overv attempt for their re- 
 covery by the enemy, and to remain permanently 
 
 incorporated with the Siianlsh empire."— W II. 
 Pre»..ott. Ui,t of the lUign of fltrdinand'and 
 iKtwUii, ch. 81 (r. C). 
 
 A. D. t5i6-is«.-PiraUe*l dominion of the 
 Barbarossa* in Alpera. — Etubliahmeat of 
 Turkish soTcreirnty. — Seiaura of Tunii by 
 the Corsairs and its conquest by Charlca V 
 — •• About the Inglnning of the Iflth century a 
 su(I ri revolution hiipnencd, which, by render- 
 mg the states of niirlmry formidable to the 
 Europeans, hath maile their history worthv of 
 more attention. This nvolution wai broQght 
 about by persons bom in a rank of life which 
 entltle<l t .em to act no such Illustrious part 
 Horuc and Ilsyradin. the sons of a potter i^the 
 Isle of LI»lK)8, promptwl by a restless and cnter- 
 priiing spirit, forsook their fathers trade, ran to 
 sea, and joinnl a crew of pirates. They soon 
 dl.^tingui»lied themselves by their valor uid ac- 
 I vity, and, becoming miuiUTS of a small brigan- 
 tlne carrictl on their infamous trade with such 
 conduct and succ-ss that they asaembied a fleet 
 of IS galleys, Inxldra many vessels of smaller 
 u. ..'.*'''" ""■'''■ ""f""^' 'he elder brother, 
 called Ilarbarossa fmrn the red color of bis beaid 
 w«sa.i,^iral, audHiiyra<lin second in command' 
 but with almost equal authority. Ther called 
 thems<ves the friends of the sea. and the ene- 
 mies of all who sail upon It: and their names 
 Kv>o tireamc terrible frr.m H« Slraiui of the Dar- 
 •JaneUea to Uioee of Oibraliar, . . . TUy often 
 
 carted the prizes which they took on the coast. 
 
 and enriching the InhabitanU bv the mkot 
 the r booty, and the thoughtless "piodigan y "f 
 S*' Mt*^ ""'« "elcome^uests fn every 1^' 
 at which thev touched, -fbe convenient ^iZ 
 tlon of these harbours, lying so near tlie ga'at^st 
 commerce states at thit time in Chrisumlora 
 
 Sl^'co'SSt^^'^A" ^"^ '°'r «t.-WiShment?i 
 that country. An opportunity of accomplishing 
 this quickly presenteJ itself flSlO], whieh he? 
 did not suffer to pass unlmpiovtd." InviteX 
 
 taking a Spanish fort which had been built ta 
 hU neighbourhood, Barbarossa was able U, mur 
 ^ri™ ISSJS'""'*'''? """P'"/". n"««ter the Al- 
 ^.1 «®J''°??'"? *°^ "*"'T '»» crown. "Not 
 satUfled wfth the throne wliich be had acquired 
 he attacked the neighbouring king of Tremecen' 
 and. having vanquShed him In battle, JSte 
 dominions to those of Algiera. At the same 
 time he continued to Infest the coasts of Sndn 
 and luly with fleeU which resemble<l Z iZt 
 mcnts of a great monarch, rather than the liirht 
 squadrons ofa corsair. Their frequent cruel X 
 viMjution. obliged Charles fthe R?th- ,rgreS 
 Emperor and Ring of Spain: 1519-15,W1, afcut 
 
 quU de Comares. governor of Oian, with ttoons 
 
 wf^"."'.?? '"~=? '''""• " BarbarlMsa waHe 
 fcated in the ensuing war, driven from Tren.c 
 
 known Ilkewhw. by the name of Barlmr,«« 
 assumed the sceptre of Algiera with the same 
 ambition and abilities, but with better forttr 
 His reign being undisturbed by the arms of the 
 Spaniards, which had full occupation in the wars 
 !?»?£m " European powers, he regulated with 
 admirable prudence the interior police of his 
 kingdom, earned on hh naval operation, «ith 
 ^Hnlif"!' "^"tende.1 his conquests on tlie 
 continent of Africa. But perceiving tlist the 
 Moora and Arabs siibmittcd to his government 
 with reluctance and bein» afraid that his eou- 
 
 f iJJ'.'k''''"^*"?"! *""''' '">« •'"y draw u|K«. 
 him the arms of the Christians, lie put hi,, 'l„- 
 
 "1 '°/i'.."„'V'*'' *■;• protection of the dran<l .S.ig- 
 Pi.?' fJ'nJ' •"«'„»ceiv.Mi from him [win, tUe 
 liiM°' ^i;?' Bevlcrl. y] a body of Turkish 
 soldlera 'jfflclent for his domestic as well as 
 forelsTi enemies. At last, the fame of his exploits 
 daily Increaaing, Solymun offered hliii the com- 
 mand of the Turkish ttni. . . . Bart«n.s»« re- 
 paired to Constantinople, ami . . . guln,,! Uic 
 ent re confidence both of the sultan hikI his 
 til V v" .' . ™ ''* cu'nniunicated a sclmiie 
 vvhich he had formed of nuiklng himself iim.s|rr 
 or funis, the most flourishing kingdom st that 
 time on the coast of Africa; ami tills Ixing so- 
 proved of by them, he obtalnwl whiili ver he 
 Jlcmandiil for carrying it Into exeeullon. Hit 
 hope, of success In this undertskiiin Here 
 foundeil on the intestine divisions In th, kin,{- 
 dom of TunU." The last king of that i-o.iMr". 
 11 . ".* "'"• ''^ "llfferent wivi-s, lind estuii- 
 IWied one of the younger sons on the tlmmi' -.,§ 
 his successor. ThU young king atteniincl lo 
 put all of hU brothen to death ; but Alnisdiid. 
 *{'" *»• one ot the eldest, escaped and ll.il lo 
 Algiers. Barbaiusaa now proposed to the Turk- 
 ish su!t«a to attack Tijb!» n.-. the pr<=t< :)r^ -f 
 yindlcating the rigbU of Alraachid. His pro- 
 "~-' -* -itedr ■ ■ • - ' 
 
 poeal WM adop 
 268 
 
 and carried out; but ereo 
 
BARBABT STATES, 1518-1S88. 
 
 Xxr*diUon 
 o/OmiinV. 
 
 BARBARY STATES, 1343-1560. 
 
 before the Turkish expedition uiled. Alnucbid 
 himsvlf disappeared — a prisoner, shut up in the 
 Seraglio — and was never heard of again. The 
 use of his name, however, enabled Barbarossa to 
 enter Tunis in triumph, and the betrayed in- 
 habitants discovered too iate that he came as a 
 viceroy, to make them the subjects of the sultan. 
 "Being now possessed of sucli extensive ter- 
 ritories, he carried on his depredations against 
 the Christian states to a greater extent ana with 
 more destructive violence than ever. Daily 
 compiaints of tlie outrages committed by his 
 cruiaera were brought to the emperor by his 
 subjects, both in Spain and Italy. All Christen- 
 dom seemed to expect from him, as its greatest 
 and most fortunate prince, that he would put an 
 end to this new and odious species of oppression. 
 At the same time Muley-Hasccn, the exMed king 
 of Tunis, . . . applied to Charles as the only 
 person who could assert bis rights in opposition 
 to such a formidable usurper. The Emperor, 
 scconlingly, In \TiSS, prepared a great expedition 
 against Tunis, drawing men and ships from 
 every part of his wide dominions — from Spain, 
 Italy, Oemmny ana the Netherlands. "Op the 
 tOth of July the fleet, consisting of near 5(K res- 
 scls, having on board above 30,000 regular 
 troops, set sail from Cagliari, and, after a p-os- 
 perous navigation, landed within sight of Tunis." 
 The fort of Qoletta, commanding the bay, was 
 invested and taken; tlie corsair's fleet sur- 
 rendered, and Barbarossa, advancing boldlj from 
 Timls to attack the invaders, was overwhelm- 
 ingly l)oaten, and fled, abandoning his capital. 
 ('Imrle.t'8 soldiers rushed into the unfortunate 
 town, esciiplng al! restraint, and making it a 
 i#ene of indescribable horrors. " \l)ovc 30,000 
 of tlie innocent inhabitauu perishca on that un- 
 happy day, and 10,0(i.i were carried away as 
 eliives. Mulry-IIasctn took possession of a 
 throne surrounded with carr"ge, abhorred by 
 his subjects, on whom he hud brought such 
 rnlamities." Before quittirg the country, Charles 
 nmcluded a treaty with Muley-IIascen, under 
 which the latter acknowledged that he held his 
 kliigilnm in fee of tlie crown of Spain, doing 
 Iwnisgc to the Emp -or as his liege, and main- 
 tJiining a Spanish garrison in the OolctU. He 
 also released, wlihout ransom, all the Christian 
 slaves in his dominions, 80,000 in number, and 
 iiromised to detain In servitude no subject of the 
 Kmperor thereafUT. He opened his kingdom to 
 the Chri.stiun religio" and to free trade, and 
 pledgeil himself to exclude Turkish corsairs 
 from Ii'b ports.— W. Robertson, "ft. oftht Heion 
 vfCliarht r.,bk. 5(c. «), 
 
 n^- P- ,'.M«--tT'«« di»Mtro»« txpcdition of 
 Charles V. agaiott Aljfiert.— Encouraged, and 
 lUii iveil, by bis easy success «t Tunis, the e.n- 
 p«n)r, riiftries V., detennineii, i,i LWI, to under 
 t.ilie till riiluction of Algiers, and to wholly 
 I xti nniii;ite the freebooters of the north African 
 <|«i»t. \h fore hit preparatiims were completed 
 •■ the 9CHS0T unforti.natelv was far advanced on 
 wliiih ncco.mt the Po|h; entreated, and D;)ria 
 ■iHiJurici him not to expow bis whole armam« nt 
 t(. a destruction almmt unavoidable on a wild 
 sliiire iluriuK tlic violence of the autumnal gaics. 
 Aillhring, however, to his plan with determined 
 ;'i>«in.i<y. !ic rmhsrhed at pnrto Vcncrr 
 The f„r,.c . which he lia.l collected . . 
 c>u«ltu-ci of 80,000 f<mt and a.OOO Iwnk,, moatly 
 tcfnuu, togctUcr with 3 000 Yolualwrt. 
 
 Besides these there bad Joined his standard 1,000 
 soldiers sent by the Order of St. Jolm, and led 
 by 100 of Its most valiant knighu. Landing 
 near Algiers without opposition, Charles imme- 
 diately advanced towards the town. To oppose 
 the invaders, Hassan had only 800 Turks, and 
 6,000 Moors, partly natives of Africa, and part'/ 
 refugees from Spain. V»'hen summoned to ear- 
 render he, nevertheless, returned a fierce and 
 haughty answer. But with such a bandfil of 
 troops, neither bis desperate courage nor ■xin- 
 summate skill in war could have long resisted 
 forces superior to those which had formerly 
 t ^ated Barbarossa at the head of 60,000 men.''' 
 He was speedily relieved from danger, however, 
 by an opportune storm, vhlch burst upon the 
 region during the secon.l .iav after Charles's de- 
 barkation. The Spanish camp was flooded ; the 
 soldieiB irenched, chilled, sleeoless and dis- 
 pirited. In this condition they' were attacked 
 by the Moon at dawn, and narrowly escaped a 
 rout. "But all feeling of this disaster wag 
 soon obliterated by a more affecting spectacle. 
 As the tempest continued with unabated vio- 
 lence, the full light of day showed the ships, on 
 which alone their safety depended, driving fn>-n 
 their anchors, dnsliing agamst one another, and 
 many of them f i-d on the rocks, or sinking in 
 the waters. J: ^ than an nour, 15 ships of 
 war and 140 ti -rcrta, with 8,000 men, per- 
 ished before their even; and such of the unhappy 
 sailora as escaped the fury of the sea, were mur- 
 dered by the Arabs as soon as they reached land " 
 ^^'ith such ships as he could save, Uoria sought 
 shelter behind Cape Matafui;, sending a mes- 
 sage to the emperor, advising that he follow 
 with the army to that point. Charies could not 
 do otherwise than act according to the sugges- 
 tion; but his army suffered horriuly in the 
 retreat, which occupied tbn* days. "Many 
 perished by famine, us the whole army subsisted 
 chiefly on roots and berries, or on the flesh of 
 horses, killed for that purpose by the emperor's 
 orders; numlieis were drowned in the swollen 
 brooks; and not a few were slain by the enemy." 
 Even after tlic army had regained the fleet, and 
 was rcenibarked, it was scattered by a second 
 storm, and several weeks passed before the 
 emperor reached his Spanish dominions, a wiser 
 and a sadder man.— M. Russell, JliH. of th< Ikir- 
 bary Statrt, ch. 8. 
 Also in: W. Robertson, UiH. of tht lidgn of 
 
 A. D, i$43->(eo.— The pirate Drurut and 
 hi* exploiti.— Turkish capture of Tripoli,— 
 Ditattrous Christian attempt to recover the 
 
 Pl«ce.— Dragut. or Torghnd, a native of iho 
 Laramanian c<iiMit, opwsite the Island of Rhmies, 
 began bis career as a .Nlediterranean corsair somo 
 time Vfore the last of tbe B,. b'lrossas quitted 
 the ' .ene and waa advance*) \y ■ the favor of the 
 Viifcrine. In 1,140 he fell Into the hands of one 
 of the Dorias and was bound to the oar as a 
 galley-slave for three years.— which did not 
 sweeten his temper toward the Christian world. 
 In 1.543 be n is ransomed, aud rvs" ned his 
 piracies, with more energy than before. " Dra- 
 arut't lair was at the UUnd of Jerlia f>alle<I 
 Cielves. by the Spsninnts]. . . . Not content 
 with the rsfh j,|njltiuf Europe, Dmgut took tiio 
 Spanish outpost* in Africa, one by one — Suta, 
 Sfax, Monastlr; and Anally set forth to conquer 
 'Africa.' Itlsaot luoommon la Atabictocall 
 
 2C9 
 
BARBART STATES, 184».I8M. 
 
 Lonpf 
 
 
 M A'. 
 
 BARBART STATES, 1578-1578. 
 
 » country and ita capital by the ume name. . 
 
 Africa meant to 'he Arabs the province o; 
 no^tT^t^T ^ri' ""■ "» <»pltnl. which w^ 
 n,m^ -T^ Throughout the later middle age, the 
 ^it i'^^'^u '* °PP'^ ^y Christian writeri 
 to the latter city. . . . This was the citv which 
 
 J;J?«il.Jf'''* !,''■"? !'!*? '° »" "narthic State, 
 ruled by a council of chiefs, each nwlv to betrav 
 tte otber and none owl.,, the smJl&neS 
 Tunr/n»l^'.'™f' ?' "I' "•« ''«»Pl''"d king of 
 faZr n-^n- T';,° ■; "^ t^'P^ «"<* blindeJhls 
 .h;2! '..,"."• i^harles V.'s prot«g5. One of 
 
 he dtv bv'nWh?™^"' i?** '"'' ""'"y •""''>'°° 
 tne city by night. . . . So easy a triumph roused 
 
 the emulation of Christendom!'. . DonGarda 
 
 dc Toledo dreamed of outahinlng the Coi^Tr^ 
 
 lo.^- «„'h ' /?"'"• *'"' 7'°="'y "' Napier he 
 AnK;.» ilS""^."', ?>?■"'"*<> their aid, and old 
 Andrea Doria took the command. After much 
 delay and consultation a large body of tZos 
 JZT'A^ to Mahdiya an^ dStarkeZ^u 
 Dmfert 'J^- , ^"S""' though aware of the 
 project, was at sea, devastotin* the Gulf of 
 
 Genoa, and pavlng"him-seif"'ln";;2fvan« for any 
 Christians might Inflict In Africa: hte 
 
 ii-J .! 
 
 .!l^i.™ -.-■■— —""•"■K'lk luiuci m Ainca: bis 
 nephew Hisar Reis commanded In the city: 
 When Dragut returned, the siege had gone on 
 
 mL .r"'> ''V' J" '""^ In attempting to 
 raise it and ret red to Jerba. Mahdiya was 
 ramed by assault on the 8th of September 
 ->,extyear, 1551, Dmgufs place was wiJhU.e 
 Ottoman navy, then eommanJed by Sinan Pasha. 
 snlHipr, LT^^ ^^ Kalleysorgalleots, 10,000 
 Boldiers, and numerous siege-guns, Sinan and 
 Drngm sailed o,^ of ,he DanliScllei -whither 
 bound no Christian could tell. They ravaged 
 M usu..,l, the Straita of Messina, and then™ vef ^d 
 Uie pomt of attack by makiug dinH^t for Malta " 
 
 fnniiM.i ""'"/'.?'";.•'' .'•"^= "K"'"" the strong 
 fortiflc. tionsof the KnighUof St. John was ill- 
 planne. and feebly executed; It was easily 
 If£': if , To wipe out his defeat, Sinan "snllea 
 strnieht for Tripoli, some 64 leagues away Tri 
 
 i^.-i^ ".T,'' '".','* ?"'8''"' of St. John-muc 
 agamst their will — Inasmuch as the Emneror 
 had made their defence of this easS™ 
 
 Malta But the fortilications of Tripoli were 
 not strong enough to resist the Turkish W 
 bnMm..„t, andOasnnrd de Villiers, he c^m- 
 niandunt, was forced to surrender (August 15tlO 
 
 wl I. 1 Sueynmn granted to the Knights of 
 Rh.Kies. But Sinan was no Sulevmant mow 
 
 Ord':r"'lT'" 'I'.l: '"^"Jl' ™8* "'■"• the^Me 
 Order, Ht put the garrison -all save a fcw- 
 
 n chains and carried them olT to grace his 
 
 triumph at Stambol. Thus did Tr-.olffall once 
 
 more Into the hands of the Moslems. Th^ 
 
 misfortunes of the Christians did not eiid here 
 
 i ear after year the Ottoman fleet appeariKl In 
 
 Italian waters . . . Unable as they Wit thein 
 
 selves o eop. dth the Turk, at .e ' U.e ,k Vw,^ 
 
 ou nn".™ .''-"r ■^'"'""^ to strike one more 
 blow on land, and recover Tripoli A H.^.t nf 
 
 Snl^r f""?'.-'! .hKthej7ron 
 Spain. Genoa, 'the IWiglon,' thel'ope fmn. a 
 quarters, with the Puke de MedlnaSl „7 U.:/ 
 6e&.r nascmbicd at Jtessina. . . . Five times the 
 ezpedlUou put to ita; flv. times wm It driven 
 
 w'^i^ contraiy winds. At last, on Febmarr 
 10, 1560, It was fairly away for the aS ™ 
 coast. Here fresh troubles awaited if r '"" 
 delays in crowd«l vessels had pt^u^rf ^.'"j? 
 d««trrus effects; fevere and*^ scurfy and 
 .In"**.? ''*™ ''"''''"8 their terribl ",^va«^ 
 "■^""ftfie crews, and 2,000 «)rpse, were flu^n, 
 Trinl" T.?.- l\ *"« impossible tr lay siege ,f 
 Tripoli with a diseased army, and *hen artn,,ii^ 
 n Bight of their object the idmirals p?ve '™ .'.^ 
 
 XTJ'h™ "^J"^ A »•"'''''" descent qmVkw 
 save them the command of the beautiful Uanf 
 ■ „i ,. '*° mo:,t;.T a strong castle wa- Snii 
 with all scientlfl. earthwork8%nd the adZ i 
 prepared to cany home such troops m ^^"'o 
 neede<I for Its defence. Unhappi^ forllm he 
 
 had lingered too long ft^ was aCt to 
 
 prepare for departure' when news came tlu ,1 e 
 turkish fleet Ud W^n seen at Goza. I, ston,lv 
 all was panic. Valiant gentlemen forg rthS 
 
 valm-r, forgot thoir cooffiess Before hev 
 
 could make out of the strait . . . the d"^ 
 
 Pa»Ta''i°"«^'^ •''r*"' »"'• Ochiali and Aa^ 
 Pasha were upon them. Then ensuwl a sr, ne 
 
 nf wT'.V'T "";' '"'"•''' 'inscription. Despa ri '° 
 of weathering the north side of J^rba the Z c' 
 S"*'-'^ Clii^tians ran their s.ilps ashort^ "id 
 deserted them, never stopping evVa to <^.t them 
 onflre. . . On rowed tlie fdrks; gdlevVand 
 
 flm'cl^ti^T^ "l"^'/'' intofhei'r"an';i"1 
 t»,ouo Christians ved down Ixf-re tluii^ 
 
 Mi'^fSA "'*'*"''' "P""" tnemomble 11 1 of 
 May, lo(K), was a confused medley of strati 'led 
 ships, helpless prisoners. Turks I.ifsy it, I'l^tt-^ 
 T" ,!l5'*u??."'"y''-''"'» a ''id™"» '-"-of 
 w*'*li"!{"'^- The fleet and the an-. «hi U 
 had satled from Messina . . . were a.,«,lut" y 
 
 p>XiT:ItlT°''- ""'■ "^ "^^"^""-^ 
 
 fr«™ ?:JS63-i.56s-Repulie of the Moon 
 P««n it°v.T"' M^yqoi'er.-Caoture of 
 m!»t nf* Xe'*»--I'> ll'c spring at \m a 
 most determined and formidable attempt was 
 
 S'm Sn^ i"j)f*'?' ^^"'X^y "'■ ^^'ff'""", to drive 
 wlLh^??'*"*! I"'.™,/*™" ""'i Mazurquiver, 
 which they had held since the Afri.au eon- 
 quesu of Cardinal Ximenes. The siege w^ 
 fierce and desperate; the defence nuwt liimi,- 
 The beleaguered garrisons held their gmund 
 U.III a relieving expedition from Spain cai..,. In 
 
 re?ll.», °° /""f,, ^"'r"' .•'""e, when the .M.xir, 
 retreateti hastily. In the summer of ih,. mm 
 year the Spaniards took the stnmg i land fortnsi 
 of Penon de \ elei, breaking up one mon. ncs, of 
 pintc" and strengthening their footing on t],e 
 Barlwry coost. In the course of the y.ar fol- 
 lowing they blocked the mouth of the riv, r 
 letuan which was a place of refuu'e for ili>. 
 marBudeni._W. H. Prescott, Jh.l. ofth. It.,:,,, , f 
 I'Mip II, hk. 4, eh. 1 (r. 2), 
 
 A. D. lS65.-P«rticip«tlon in the Turkish 
 Siege of M»lta.-Death of Dragut. .vo 
 HosprrALLKRs OF St. .liiuN A 1> ivhim" 
 I ^- O- «57«>-«57«--War with the Holy 
 Leane of Spain, Venice and the Pope. -The 
 Battle of Lepanto. See Tl bus: A. 1>. I.-.W- 
 
 r,A. p. 1S7»-»S73 -Capture of Tunis by 
 Dob John of Anstria.-fts recovery, wita 
 
 r^fVftu''' *''• ''"'"''•• "«« Tuwts: A M. 
 1573-1570, , 
 
 270 
 
BARBART STATES, 1979. 
 
 WanwUk 
 MVxtnai. 
 
 BARBART STATES, l««4-188t. 
 
 A. D. 1579.— Inrasion of Morocco bj Scbaa- 
 tiaii of Portiigal.— Hia defeat and death. See 
 Portugal: A. D. 157»-1580. 
 
 A. D. 166^-1684.— Ware of France aniut 
 the piratical powera.— DcatmctiTc bombard- 
 menli of AlMn.— "The sncicDt alliance of 
 the crown of France wltli the Ottoman Porte, 
 »lwayo unpopular, and less necessary sinca France 
 had become so strong, was at this moment [early 
 in the reign of Louis XIV.] well-nigh broken, to 
 the great satisfaction both of the Christian 
 nations of the Boutn and of the Austrian empire. 
 . . Divers plans were proposed in the King's 
 cou! il for attack'sg the Ottoman power on the 
 Moorish coasts, and for repressing the pirates, 
 who were the terror of the mercliaii' shipping 
 and maritime provinces. Colber inuuccd the 
 khig to attempt a military settlement among the 
 Moors as the best means of holding them in 
 check. A squadron commanded by the Duke de 
 Beaufort . . . landed 5,000 picked soldie- be- 
 fore Jijeli (or DJIgelli), a small Algerine port 
 between Bouglah and Bona. They took posses- 
 sion of JiJeU without difBcultr (July 28, 1684) ; 
 but discord arose between Seaufort and his 
 officers; they did not work actively enough to 
 fortify themselves," ind before the end of 
 September they were obliged to evacuate the 
 place prccipiuteiy. ' ' The success of Beaufort's 
 squadron, commanded under the duke by the 
 celebrated Chevalier Paul, ere long effaced the 
 impression of this reverse: two Algerine flotillas 
 were destroyed in the course of 1865." The 
 Dey of Algiers sent one of his French captives 
 an officer named Du Babinais, to France with 
 proposals of peace. maKing him swear to return 
 If his mission failed. The proposals were re- 
 jected; Du Bubinais was loyal to his oath and 
 retumeil — to suffer death, as he '.xpected, at the 
 hands of the furious barbarian. •' The devotion 
 of this Brt'ton KcKulus was not lost : d. spou.-f ency 
 soon took the pla.'c of anger in the heart of the 
 Moorish chiefs, Tunis yielded first to the gr 
 of the French squadron, brought to b ar on i 
 from the Bay of (Joletta The Pacha and the 
 D van of Tunis obligated tlicmsclves to restore 
 all the French slaves they possessed, to re- 
 'R^4 '^'*"'^'' *•»'?». "d thenceforth to release 
 ^1 Frenchmen whom they sho"Ui capture on 
 foreign ships. . . . RlghU of auu. le, and of 
 •wmlraity and shipwreck, were suppressed as re- 
 garrtM Frenchmen (November 25, 1865) The 
 station at Cape Negro was restored to France 
 • . .Algiers subrnFtted. six months after, to 
 nearly the same conditions imposed on it by 
 Louis XIV.: one of tlie articles atipulated that 
 freiirli merchants should bo treaUnl us favorably 
 JS."."'' '""•'«" nation, and even more so(MBy 17, 
 lB«fl). More than 3,000 French slaves were set 
 at liberty. Betw»"en 1869 and 1872, Louis XIV 
 was «'riously mtKiitating a great war of conquest 
 with till. Turks and therr depcn.l.nciea, but pr.. 
 fentMl, Hnajiy, to enter upon his war with Hoi- 
 land, whirl brought the other project to naught. 
 -,„ ?'T "",' "■* ""Oman empire then remained 
 on U.lmbly good terms until 1681. when a 
 squadmn of T-ripoliUn corsairs having carried 
 on a lTi.nch ship on the coast of Provence, 
 Uuniiesne, Ht the heail of seven vessels, pur- 
 
 I'.t ti ''"'^' "i"" ,"^ *»'*™ "f Orcece. They 
 took nfugc in tlie lisrbor of Scio. Duaueue 
 
 ;r"u""J ""I ^^ °f o to experS 
 rh» Pacha refrnwd. .ad -.ed on thlTftSnSi 
 
 271 
 
 squadron, when Duqueane cannonaded both the 
 piratet and the town with sue/- violence that the 
 Pacha, tenUed, asked for a t.-uce, in order to 
 refer the matter 'n tb<i Sultan (July 23 1681) 
 Duqueane converted tht attack Into a blockade! 
 At the news of this violation of the Ottoman 
 territory, the Sultan, Mahomet IV., fell into a 
 rage .. . and dispatched the Captain-Pacha to 
 Scio with 82 galleys. Duquesno allowed the 
 Turkish gaUeys to enter the harbor, then block- 
 aded them with the pirates, and declared that he 
 would bum the whole If satisfaction were not 
 had of the Tripolitana. The Divan hesitated. 
 War was about to recommence with the Em- 
 peror; It was not the moment to kindle It again jt 
 France." In tb" end there was a compromise, 
 and the Tripolitana gave up the French resael 
 and the slaves they b'd captured, , romising 
 also, to rer^lve a French consul .it TripoB. 
 "During th J time anothci' squadron, o >mnianded 
 bv Chiteai-Renault, blockaded thu coasta of 
 Morocco, tie men of Maghreb having rivalled 
 in deprediitions the vassals of Turkey The 
 powerful Smperor of Morocco, Muley Ismael. 
 sent the g'vemor of Tetuan to Franco to solicit 
 
 geace of . ouls XIV. The treaty was signed at 
 aiut-Oennaln, January 29, 1682, on advantage- 
 ous conditions," including restitution of BVench 
 slaves. "Affairs did not terminate so amicably 
 with Algiers. From this piratical centre had 
 proceeded the gravest offenses. A captain of 
 the royal navy was held in slavery there, with 
 many other Frenchmen. It was resolved to In- 
 flict a tcTlbH punishment on the Algerinea 
 The thougnt of conquering Algeria had more 
 than once presented itself to the king and 
 Colbert, and they appreciated tlie value of this 
 conquest; the Jiji ii expedition had been formerly 
 a first attempt They did not, however, deem 
 it incumbent on them to embark in such an 
 enterprise; a descent, a si( , would have re- 
 quired too great preparation . thev had recourse 
 to another means of attack. The regenerator of 
 the art of naval construction, Pctit-Itenau, in- 
 vented bomb-ketches expressly for the purpose. 
 ■ ;_; ^"'' ^^' ^''**' Duquesne anchored before 
 Algiers, with 11 ships, 15 galleys, 5 bomb- 
 '(etches, and Petit-Renau to guide them. Afte.' 
 Ave weeks' delay caused by bad weather, then 
 by a fire on one of the bomb-ketches, the 
 thorough trial took place durin" the night of 
 August 80. The effect was terrible: a part of 
 the ,-reat mosque fell on the crowd that had 
 takf 1 refuge there. During tlie night of Sep- 
 tember 8-4, tlic Algerines attempted to capture 
 the bomb-ketches moored at the entmnce of their 
 harhjr; they were repulsed, ami the bombard- 
 ment continued. The Dey wished to negotiate! 
 the people, exasperated, prevented him. The 
 wind shifting lo the northwest presaged the 
 equinoctial storm; Duquesne set sail again 
 September 12. The expedition had not Wn 
 dwislve. It was begun anew. June 18, 1683, 
 Duquesne reappeareil in the road of Algiers; he 
 had, this time, seven bomb-ketches instead of five. 
 These instruments of exU-rmination had been 
 perfected in the Interval. The nights of June 
 26-27 witnessed the overthrow of a great num- 
 bor of hnuwfe, several mosques, and the nslan-e 
 of the Dev. A thousand men perished 'n the 
 harbor and the town. " The Dey opentnl negotia- 
 tions, giving up 700 French slaves, but waa 
 killed by Ua Jaaixariea, and one Uadsl-Huiaela 
 
BARBaUT states, l«64-ia84. 
 
 i 
 
 S—litanet. 
 
 BABBART STATES. 17W-1801. 
 
 proclaimed In hU stead. "The bombardment 
 wag resumed with Increasing violence. The 
 
 Algerines .-jvenged themselves by binding to the 
 muzzles of their guns a number of Frenchmen 
 who remained in their hands. . . . The fury of 
 the Algerines drew upon them redoubled 
 calamities. ... The bombs rained almost with- 
 out intermissioo. The harbor was strewn with 
 the wreclis of vessels. The city was . a 
 heap of bloody ruins." But " the bomb-ketches 
 had exhausted their ammunition. September 
 was approaching. Duquesnc again departed: 
 but a strong blockading force was kept up, dur- 
 ing the whole winter, as a standing threat of the 
 return of the 'infernal vessels.' The Algerines 
 finally bowed their head, and, April 25, 1684 
 peace was accorded by Tourvilie, the com- 
 mander of the blockade, to the Pacha Dey 
 Divan, and troops of Algiers. The Algerines 
 restored 3'JO French slaves remaining in their 
 power, and 180 other Christians claimed by the 
 King; the Janizaries only which had been taken 
 from them were resto.ed , they engaged to make 
 no prizes within ten leagues of the coast of 
 France, nor to assist the other Moorish corsairs 
 at war with France ; to recognize the precedence 
 of the fl.ig of France over all other flags, Ac 
 4c. ; liustly, they sent an embassy to carry their 
 submission to Louis XIV. ; they did not, how- 
 •^«r. P«y tbe damages which Duquesne had 
 wished to exact of them."— H. Martin, Iliit of 
 Frarue: Age of Louit XIV.. t. 1, eh. 4 ond 7. 
 
 A. p. 1785-1801.— Piratical depredations 
 upon American commerce.— Huinili«tinE trea- 
 ties and tribute.— The example of resistance 
 eiven by the United States.— "It is difficult 
 for us to realize that only 70 years ago the Medi- 
 terranean was so unsafe that the merchant slilns 
 of every nntion stood in danger of behig cap- 
 ture<l by pirates, unless they were protected 
 either by au armed convoy or by tribute paid to 
 the i>cttv Biirlniry powers. Yet we can scarcely 
 open a Iwok of travels during the lost century 
 witliout m.ntion boiuT made of the immense 
 nsks to which every one was exposed who ven- 
 tured by sea from Marseilles to Naples. . . 
 The European states. In order to protect their com- 
 merce, had tlic choice either of paying certain 
 sums per head for each captive, which in reality 
 was a premium on capture, or of buying entire 
 freedom for their commerce by the expenditure of 
 ^rge sums yearly. The treaty renewed by 
 France, in 1788, with Algiers, was for fiftv years 
 and it was agreed to pay fiOO.OOO annually, be- 
 sides large presents distributed according to 
 custom every Un years, and a great sum given 
 down. The jK-ace of Spain with Algiers is said 
 to have cost from three to five mlUionsof dollars 
 There is n'lison to believe that at the same time 
 EnRland was paying an annual tribute of about 
 f280.0<X). Kii:,'land was the only power sulB- 
 dently »t rong on tlie sea to put down these pirates- 
 but in onltT to keep her own position as mistress 
 of the seas she preferriHl to leave them in existence 
 In order to be a scourge to the commerce of otlier 
 Euro|)oan powers, and even to support them by 
 paying a sum so great that other aUtes might 
 find it (lilllcult to make i>eace with them. When 
 the Kevoliitlon broke out, we [of the United 
 Btatt'S of America] no longer had the safeguards 
 tor our commerce that had been given to us bv 
 t.ngiuud, and ii was therefore tliat In our very 
 Ont negotiatioM for a treaty wlU» France we 
 
 desired to have an article Inserted into the trcatv 
 uiat the king of France should secure the \a- 
 habitanu of the United States, and their vessels 
 and effects, against all attacks or depredations 
 from any of the Barbary powers. It was found 
 impossible to insert this article in the treaty of 
 1778, and Instead of that the king agrei ^ to 'em 
 ploy his good offices and Interposftion order 
 to provide as fully and efficaciously as possible 
 {?', "'e„beneflt. convenlency and safety of the 
 United States against the princes and the states 
 of Barbary or their subjecU.'"— Direct negotia- 
 tions between the United States and the piratical 
 powers were opened in 1785, by a call which Mr 
 Acams made upon the Tripolitan ambassador' 
 The tatter announced to Mr. Adams that " ' Tur' 
 key. TripoU, Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco were 
 the sovereigns of the Mediterranean j and that 
 no nation could navigate that sea without a treaty 
 of peace with them.' . . , The ambassador de- 
 manded as the lowest, price for a perpetual p^ace 
 80,000 guineas for his employers and £3,000 for 
 himself; that Tunis would probably treat on the 
 same terms; but he could not answer for Algiers 
 or Morocco. Peace with all four powers would 
 cost at least |1,000,000, and Congress had appro- 
 priated only 180,000. . . . jfr. Adams was 
 strongly opposed to war, on account of the ex- 
 pense and preferred the payment of tribute 
 ... Mr. Jefferson ouite as decidedly preferred 
 war. 'The opinion in favor of a trial of pacific 
 negotiations prevailed, and a treaty with the 
 Emperor of Morocco was concluded in 1787 An 
 attempt at the same time to make terms with the 
 Dey of Algiers and to redwm a numlwr of 
 American captives In his hands, came to nothing 
 '• For the sake of saving a few tliousand dollars 
 fourteen men were allowed to remain in imprison- 
 ment for ten years. ... In Novemlwr, 1793, 
 the number of [American] prisoners at Algiers 
 amounted to 115 men, among whom there re 
 mained only ten of the originalcaptives of 1785 " 
 At last, the natlor began to realize th- intoiirable 
 shame of the matter, and, "on January 2, 1794, 
 the House of Representatives resolved that a 
 'naval force adequate for the protection "f the 
 commerce of the United States against the Al- 
 gerine forces ought to be provided. ' In the same 
 year authority was given to buil.l six frigates, 
 and to procure ten smaller vessels to be equipped 
 as galleys. Negotiations, however, coutiuued 
 to goon," and In September, 1795, a treaty with 
 the Dey was concluded. "In making this treaty 
 however, we had been obliged to follow the 
 usage of European powers — not only pav a largo 
 sum for the purpose of obtaining peace', but an 
 annual tribute, in order to keep our veasels from 
 being captured In the future. The total cost of 
 '"Ifllllnp the treaty was estimated at <I9»2,- 
 463.85.'— E. Schuyler, AmeriMn Diplomify, pi. 
 4.— "The first treaty of 1795, witli Algiers, 
 which was negotiatod during Washington » ad- 
 ministration, cost the United States, for the ran- 
 som of American captives, and the Dey s f.irlxar- 
 ance, around 11,000.000, in addition to which an 
 annuity was promised. Treaties with other Bar- 
 bary States followed, one of which purchased 
 peace from Tripoli by tlie payment of a gross 
 sum. Nearly $2,000,000 hail.liwn squandered 
 thus far in bribing these powers to respect our 
 flag, and Prpsi.|.-.nt .Adam-j omplaitini in i"-00 
 that the United States had to nay three times th'' 
 tribute Imposed upon Sweaea sud Denmark 
 
 272 
 
BARBABT 8TATBS, 1785-1801. 
 
 Dteatm't 
 JbploU. 
 
 BABBABT STATES, 180&-180S. 
 
 But this temporizing policj 011I7 nude matters 
 worse. Captkln Bunoridge arriTed at Algiers 
 in 1800, bearing the annual tribute money for the 
 Dey in a national frigate, and the Dey ordered 
 him to proceed to Constantinople to deliver Al- 
 gerine dispatches. ' English, French, and Span- 
 bh ships of war hare done the same,' said the 
 Dey, insolently, when Balnbrldge end the Ameri- 
 can consul remonstrated. ' Tou pay me tribute 
 tiecause you are my slavea ' Balnbrldge had to 
 obey. . . ■ The lesser Barbary States were still 
 more exasperating. The Bashaw of Tripoli had 
 threatened to seize American vessels unless 
 Presideut Adams sent him a present like that 
 bestownl upon Algiers. The Basliaw of Tunis 
 made a similar demand upon the new President 
 [Jefferson]. . . . Jefferson had, while in Wash- 
 ington's cabinet, expressed his detestation of the 
 method hitherto favored for pacifying these pests 
 of commerce ; and, availing himielf of the pres- 
 ent favorable opportunity, he sent out Commo- 
 dore Dale with a squadron of three frigates and 
 a sloop of war, to make a naval demonstration 
 on the coast of Barbary, . . . Commodore Dale, 
 upon arriving at Oibraltar [July, 1801], found 
 two Tripoiitan cruisers watching for American 
 vessels; for, as bad been suspected, Tripoli 
 already meditated war. The frigate Philadelphia 
 blockaded these vessels, while Balnbrldge, with 
 the frigate Essex, convoved American vessels in 
 the Mediterranean. Dale, in the frigate Pred- 
 dent, proceeded to cruise off Tripoli, followed 
 by the schooner Experiment, which presently 
 captured a Tripoiitan cruiser of 14 guns after 
 a spirited action. The Barbary powers were for 
 a time overawed, and the United States thus set 
 the first example among Christian nations of 
 making reprisals instead of ransom the rule of 
 security against these commercial marauders. 
 In this respect Jefferson's conduct was applauded 
 at home by men of all parties."— J. Schouler, 
 Hilt, of the U. S., eh. 6, tKt. 1 (v. 3). 
 
 Also in: R L. Playfair, The Soourge of Chri$- 
 ttndon, eh. 16. 
 
 A. D. 1803-1805.— American War with the 
 pirates of Tripoli.— "The war with Tripoli 
 aragired tediously along, and seemed no nearer 
 its end at the close of 1803 than 18 months be- 
 fore. Commodore Morris, whom the President 
 sent to command the Mediterranean squadron, 
 cruised from port to port between May, 1803, 
 and August, 1803, convoying merchant vessels 
 from Giliraltar to Leghorn find JIalts, or lay in 
 harbor and repaired his ships, but neither block- 
 a<li.il nor molested Tripoli ; until at le igth, June 
 2i, IMS, the President called him home and dis- 
 misst-d him from the service. His successor 
 was Commmiore Preble, who Sept 13, 1803, 
 reached Gibraltar with the relief-squadron which 
 Secretary Gallatin thought unnecessarily strong. 
 ... He found Morocco taking part with 
 Tripoli. Captain Bainbridge, who readied Qib- 
 raltiir hi the ' Philadelphia ' August 34, some 
 thit-c weeks before Preble arrived, caught in the 
 rHghborhotKl a Moorish cruiser of 23 guns with 
 an AnuTican brig in its clutches. Another 
 Amiriiim brig had Just been seizetl at Mogador. 
 peterniined to stop this peril at the outset, 
 Pa'ble united to his own squakln}n the ships 
 wiiich he had come to relieve, and with this 
 rran!-.ir,P.l force, . . . scadiag the ' Phihidclphia ' 
 to bl(Kkade Tripoli, he crossed to Tangiers 
 Uctober 6, and brought tha £mperor of Horaoco 
 
 to reason. On both sides prizes and prisoner! 
 were restored, and the old treaty was renewed. 
 This affair consumed time ; ana when at length 
 Preble got the ' Constitution ' under way for the 
 Tripoiitan coast, he spoke a British frigate off 
 the Island of Sardinia, which reported thai the 
 'Philadelphia' had been captured October 21, 
 more ttum three weeks before. Bainbridge, 
 cruising off Tripoli, had chased a Tripoiitan 
 cruiser into shoal water, and was hauling off, 
 when the frigate struck on a reef at the mouth 
 of the harbor. Every effort was made without 
 success to float her; but at last she was sur- 
 rounded by Tripoiitan gunboats, and Bainbridge 
 struck his flag. The Tripolitans, after a few 
 days work, floated the frigate, and brought her 
 under the guns of the castle. The officers be- 
 came prisoners of war, and the crew, in number 
 800 or more, were put to hard Ubor. The affair 
 wag in no way discreditable to the squadron. 
 . . . The Tripolitans gained nothing except the 
 prisoners; for at Bainbridge's suggestion PreMe, 
 some time afterward, ordered Stephen Decatur, 
 r young lieutenant in command of the 'Enter- 
 prise,' to take a captured Tripoiitan craft re- 
 named the 'Intrepid,' and with a crew of 75 
 men to sail from Syracuse, enter the harbor of 
 Tripoli by night, board the 'Philadelphia,' and 
 bum her under the castle guns. The order was 
 literally obeyed. Decatur ran into the harbor 
 at ten o'clock in the night of Feb. 18, 1804, 
 boarded the frigate within half gun-shot of the 
 Pacha's castle, drove the Tripoiitan crew over- 
 board, set the ship on Are, remained alongside 
 until the flames were beyond control, and then 
 withdrew without losing a man." — H. Adams, 
 Sitt. of the IT. S. : Adminutration of Jeffermn, 
 t. 2, en. 7. — "Commodore Preble, in the mean- 
 time, hurried his preparations for more serious 
 work, and on July 25th arrived off Tripoli with 
 a squadron, consisting of the frigate Constitu- 
 tion, three brigs, three schooners, six gunboats, 
 ant' two bomb vessels. Opposed to him were 
 arrt;yed over a hundred guns mounted on shore 
 batteries, nineteen gunboats, one ten-gun brig, 
 two schooners mounting eight guns each, md 
 twelve galleys. Between August 8rd and Sep- 
 tember 3rd five attacks w^ere made, and though 
 the town was never reduced, substantial dumage 
 was inflicted, and the subsequent satisfactory 
 peace rendered possible. Preble was relieved 
 by Barron in September, not because of any loss 
 of confidence in his ability, but from exigencies 
 of tlie service, which forbade the Government 
 sending out an oflicer Junior to him in the relief 
 squadion which reinforced his own. Upon his 
 return to the United States he was presented 
 with a gold medal, and the thanks of Congress 
 were tendered him, his officers, and men. for 
 gallant aud faithful services. The blockade 
 was maintained vigorously, and in 1805 an attack 
 was made upon the Tripoiitan town of Dema, 
 by a combini'd land and naval force; tlic former 
 being under command of Consul -General Eaton, 
 whonad been a captain in the American army, 
 anil of Lieutenant O'Bannon of the Marines. 
 The enemy made a spirited though disorganized 
 defence, but the shells of the war-ships ilrovs 
 them from point to point, and finally their prin- 
 cipal work was carried by the force under 
 O Bannon and Mid.^hipman Mann. Eaton wag 
 eager to press forwani, but he was denied rein- 
 forcemenu and military stores, and much of bit 
 
 273 
 
t!f|i --i, 
 
 ill :! 
 
 BARBART STATES, 180H806. 
 
 •dTKitage was lo6t All further oper»tIon» 
 were, however, discontinued in June 1805 
 when, after the usual intrigues, delays, and 
 prevarications, a treaty was signed by the 
 Fasha which provided that no further tribute 
 shou d be exacted, and that Americ;^ vessels 
 Should be forever free of hU rovers. Satiafac- 
 tory as was this conclusion, the uncomfortable 
 fact remains that tribute entered into the settle- 
 ment. After all the prisonere had been ex- 
 changed man for man, the Tripolitan Govera- 
 ment demanded, and the United States paid, the 
 handsome sum of sixty thousand dollars to 
 Close the contract. This treaty, however, 
 awakened the conscience of Europe, and fram 
 the day it was signed the power of the Barbary 
 corsairs began to wane. The older countries 
 IBW their duty more clearly, and ceased to legalize 
 robbery on the high seas."— S. Lane-Poole, 
 afoiy of tht Barbary Conair; eh 20 
 
 ALsouf: J. p. Cooper, HUt. of tli» U. S. 
 Navy, el, eh. 18 and v. 9, eh. 1-7.— The same 
 W'oJ PrebU.—X. 8. Mackenzie, Lift of Deca- 
 tur, eh. 8-7. 
 
 ntl °A ef5.-Fin«l V/ar of Algier* with the 
 united Sutes.— Death-blow to AlKerine 
 tlif'^T"^"*' ** '••« '«'« war with Great 
 BriUm broke out, the Dey of Aiglets, taking 
 offense at not having received from America the 
 
 Ccise articles in the way of tribute demanded 
 unceremoniously dismissed Lear, the consul 
 nad decUred war, and had since captured an 
 American vessel, and reduced her crew to 
 Slavery. Immediately after the ratification of 
 the treaty with England, this declaration had 
 been reciprocated. Efforts had been at once 
 made to lit out ships, new and old, includine 
 several small ones lately purchased for the pro- 
 posed squadrons of Porter and Perry, and before 
 many weeks Decatur sailed from New York 
 with the Guerriire, .Macedonian, and Constel- 
 lation frigates, now released from blockade- the 
 Ontario, new sloop of war, four brigs, and two 
 jch«)nera. Two days after passing Gibraltar, he 
 fell in With and captured an Algerinc frigate of 
 44 guns, the largest ship in the Algerine navy, 
 which struck to the Guerriire after a runmng 
 nght of twenty-flve minutes. A day or two 
 after, an Algerine brig was chased into shoal 
 water on the Spanish coast, and captured by tlie 
 onallcr vessels. Decatur having appeared off 
 Algiers, the t-rrifled Dey at once consented to a 
 treaty, which he submitted to sign on Decatur's 
 quarter deck, surrendering all prisoners on hand 
 making certain pecunUry indemnities, renouncing 
 au future claim to any American tribute or 
 presenu, and the practice, also, of reducing 
 prironers of war to slavery. Decatur then pro- 
 Jo^Ji'J to Tunis and Tripoli, and obtained from 
 both indemnity for certain American vessels 
 captured under the guns of their forU by British 
 cruisers during the late war. The Bey of 
 Irtpoli being short of cash, Decatur agreed to 
 accept in part payment the restoration of liberty 
 to eight Danes ami two N'eapolltans held as 
 i^"'- •r"„""'''^t'i. IIi,t. of the U. S., Second 
 aertet, eh. 30 (r. 3). 
 
 13^14*' "''•^^- ilafkenzie. Life of Decatur, eh. 
 
 A. D. i8i«.— Bombardment of Alnera by 
 Lord Exmouth.— Reiinquiihment of Chriatiaa 
 tlavery m Algiers, Tripolij and Tunla.- •nio 
 eontaira of Barbary still scouted the Mediter- 
 
 Bombardmmit 
 efAlgttn. 
 
 BABBART STATES, 1816. 
 
 nmean; the captives whom they had taken from 
 Christian VMseta, still langutahed In captivit/S 
 Algiers; and. to the disgrace of the civiliW 
 world, a piratical state was suffered to exIsUn 
 
 r",!ryn'*°,'-'? P"> conclusion of the war 
 
 [of the Coalition against Napoleon and France! 
 made Uie continuance of these ravages utUrlv 
 intolerable In the tateresto of civilization it 
 was essential that piracy should be put down 
 Bntaiu >•. as mistress of the seas, and it therefore 
 devolved upon her to do the work. . . . Hannilv 
 for this country the Mediterranean command Wi 
 ^]^ ■?¥,«> "la*^/ [Lord Exmouth] whose braver, 
 and skill wenj fully equal to the dangers before 
 him. . . .Early In 1816 Exmouth wa.sin?t™eted 
 to proceed to the several states of Barbarv to 
 require them to recognize the cession of tlie 
 Ionian Islands to Bntain ; to conclude peace with 
 i^iM^^l^r."' ^l"'* """l Naples; and to 
 ^Ush Christian slavery. The Dey of Altera 
 readily assented to the two first of these omdi 
 t ons; the Beys of TripolU and Tunis followed 
 the example of the Dey of Algiers, ami in add™ 
 tion consented to refrain in future from treatiuj 
 prisoners of war as sUves. Exmouth thereuDon 
 returned to Algiers, and endeavoured to obtain a 
 simUar concession from the Dey. The Dev 
 pleadea that Algiers was subject to the Ottoman 
 Porte and obtained a tnice of three momlis In 
 order to confer with the Sultan. But meantime 
 the Algennes made an unprovoked attack upon 
 a nelghbounug coral fishery, which was 6ro- 
 tccted by the British flag, ma»acring the flsLer- 
 
 Frmwh u^^^?^[",i. *« ^»«- Tills broucht 
 Exmouth back to Algiers in great haste, with an 
 ultimatum which he delivered on the S7th of 
 August No answer to it was returned, and the 
 
 the Dutch navy) sailed into battle range that 
 same afternoon. "The Algerines permitted tlie 
 ships to movfc Into their stations. The British 
 reserved their fire till they could deliver it 
 
 watched the ships from the shore; and Exmouth 
 waved his hat to them to move and save them- 
 selves from the fire. They had not the prudence 
 to avail themselves of hU timely warning A 
 signal shot was flred by the Algerines from the 
 mole. The -Queen Charlotte" repli«l by 
 delivering her entire broadside. Five hundred 
 men were struck down by the first dUcharge. 
 ■,• • The battle, which had thus begun at two 
 p clock in the afternoon, continued till ten o'clock 
 n the evening. By that time half Algiers had 
 been destroyed; the whole of the Algerine navy 
 had been bunie<l; and. though a few of the 
 enemy s batteries still maintained a ca.Mial lire 
 their principal fortifications were cruinblinK 
 ruins; the majority of their guns were dis- 
 mounte<l. The Dey humble<l himself to the 
 terms proposed by the British commander. " On 
 the first day of September Exmouth had the 
 satisfaction of acquainting his government with 
 the liberation of all the slaves in the city of 
 Algiers, and the restitution of the monev paid 
 «nce the commencement of the year liy the 
 Neapolitan and Sardinian Governments for the 
 redemption of slaves." He had al.*> cxU)rted 
 from the piratical Dey a solemn declaration that 
 he would, in future wars, treat all prisonorB 
 according to the usagi>s of European nations. 
 f° Jhe battle which won these important results, 
 188 men were killed and 680 wounded on 
 
 274 
 
 ;|!U 
 
BABBART STATBS, MlflL 
 
 BARBART ST.' TZS, 1880-1846. 
 
 bmrd the Britteh fleet; the Dutch loet 18 killed 
 ■nd 52 wounded." — 8. Walpole, Hiit. tf £m 
 front 181S, eh.a(v. 1). 
 
 Also a: H. Hutineau, Eitl. cf (A< Thii , 
 r«art Prnte, bk. 1, eh. 6 {v. \).—L. Heitilel, 
 CMeeiion ^ Trtatitt and Omteatiom, e. 1. 
 
 A. O. 1830.— French coaqnett of Algiers.— 
 "During the Napoleonic wars, the Dey of Al 
 pii'n supplied grain for the use of the French 
 iirmiea; it was bought by merchants of Mar- 
 willtfi, and there was a dispute abni-t the matter 
 whirh was unsettled as Ute as 1829. Several in- 
 stiilincnts had bee:i paid; the dey demanded 
 payment in full according to his own figures, 
 while the French government, believing the de- 
 mand excessive, required an investigation. In 
 one of the numerous debates on the subject, 
 Hussein Pasha, the reignine dev, became very 
 angry, struck the consul with a fan, and ordered 
 him out of the house. He refused all reparation 
 for tlie insult, even on the formal demand of the 
 French government, and consequently there was 
 DO alternative but war. " The expedition launched 
 from the port of Toulon, for the chastisement of 
 the insolent Algerine, "comprised 87,500 men, 
 3,000 horses, and 180 pieces of artillery. . . . 
 The sea-forces included 11 ships of the line, 23 
 frif^ates, 70 smaller vessels, 877 transports, and 
 2.30 boats for landing troops. Oeneral Bourmont, 
 Minister of War, commanded the expedition, 
 which appeared in front of Algiers on the 13th 
 of June, 1830." Hussein Pasha "had previously 
 ssl(ed for aid from the Sultan of Turkey, but 
 tliat wily ruler had blankly refused. The beys 
 of Tunis and Tripoli had also declined to meddle 
 with the affair."' The binding of the French 
 WHS effected safely and without serious opposi- 
 tion, at Kidi-Ferruch, about 16 miles west of 
 Algiers. The Algerine army, 40,000 to 60,000 
 strong, commanded by Aga Ibrahim, son-inlaw 
 of the dey, took its position on the table-land of 
 Staoui'li, overlooking the French, where it waited 
 while their landing was made. On the 19th 
 Otni'ral Bourmont was ready to advance. His 
 sntagoList, instead of adhenng to the waitiug 
 attitude, and forcing the French to attack him, 
 on liis own ground, now went out to meet them, 
 and Hung his disorderly mob against their dis- 
 ciplined luttalions, with the result tliat seldom 
 fails. "The Arab loes in killed and wounded 
 was about 8,000, . . . while the French loss was 
 less than 500. In little more than an hour the 
 battle was over, and the Osmanlis were in full 
 ami disorderly retreat" Oeneral Bourmont took 
 possession of the Algerine camp at Staouvli, 
 where he was again attacked on the 24tb of 
 June, with a similur disastrous result to the Arabs. 
 He then adva ■d upon the city of Algiers, 
 estaUislied his an. y in position behind the city, 
 constructtii batteHes, and opened, on the 4th of 
 J ly, a boinbardm_at so terrific that the dey 
 h...*t«l the white flag in a few hours. " Hussein 
 I'aslia hoped to the last moment to retain his 
 country and its independence by making liberal 
 conceasions in the way of indemnity for the ex- 
 penses of the war, and offered to liberate all 
 (.hnstian slaves In addition to paving them fo.- 
 iheir scrvic-es and sufferings. The English con- 
 sul tned to mediate on this basis, but his offers 
 of mMiation were politely declined. ... It was 
 Anally agree<l that the dey should surrender 
 Algiers with all its fortt anil mlliUry stores, and 
 t)e permitted to retire wherever be chose with 
 
 his wives, children, and personal belnngings, 
 but he was not to remain hi the country under 
 any cireumstances. On the 5th of July the 
 Frencii entered Algiers in great pomp and took 
 possession of tha citv. . . . The spoils of war 
 were such as rarely fall to the lot of a conquer- 
 ing army, when its numbers and the circumstan- 
 ces of the campaign are considered. In the 
 treasury was found a large room filled with gold 
 and silver coins heaped together indiscriminately, 
 tlie fruits of three centuries of piracy; they were 
 the coins of all the nations that had suffered 
 from the depredations of the Algerines, and the 
 variety in the dates showed very clearly that 
 the accumulation had been the work of two 
 or three hundred years. How much money 
 was contained in this vast pile is not known; 
 certain it is that nearly 50,000,000 francs, or 
 £2,000,000 sterling, actually i-eached the French 
 treasury. . . . Thecostof the war was much more 
 than covered by the captured property. . . . 
 Many slaves were liberated. . . . The Algerine 
 power was forever broken, and from that day 
 Algeria has been a prosperous colony of France. 
 Hussein Pashf. embarked on the 10th of July with 
 a suite of 1 10 persons, of whom 53 were women. 
 He proceeded to Naples, where he remained for 
 a time, went afterwards to Leghorn, and finally 
 to Egypt." In Egypt he died, under circum- 
 stances which indicated poison.— T. W. Knox, 
 Dteiiite Battlei Since Waterlx), eh. 8. 
 
 Also in: R L. Playfair, The Scourge of Chrit- 
 tendom, eh. 19.— E. E. Crowe, Hitt. of the Reignt 
 of Louie XVIII. andCharkeX., e. 2, eh. 13 
 
 A. O. 1830-1846.— The French war of Sub- 
 junition in Algeria with Abd-el-Kader.— 
 " When Louis Philippe ascended the throne [of 
 France, A. D. 1830] the generals of his predeces- 
 sor had overrun the country [of Meiers] — 
 though they did not effectually subuuo it; their 
 absolute dominion not extending far found Al- 
 giers—from Bona, on the east, in la.. 86° u3' N., 
 long. 7' 46' W., to Oran, on the west — nearly 
 the entire extent of the ancient Libya. . . . 
 There was always a party in the chamber of 
 deputies opposed to the conquest who deprecated 
 the colonisation of Algeria, and who steadily op- 
 posed any grants of either met! or money to be 
 devoted to the African enterprise. The natural 
 result followed. Ten thousand men could not 
 effect the work for which 40,000 were required; 
 and, whilst the youn^ colony Unguished, the 
 natives became emboldened, and encouraged to 
 make that resistance which cost the French so 
 dear. Marslial Clause!, when entrusted with the 
 government of the colony, and the supreme com- 
 mand of the troops . . . esublished a series of 
 fortified posto, which were adequately garrisoned ; 
 and roads were opened to enable the garrisons 
 promptly to communicate with eacn other. 
 These positions, rapidly acquired, he was unable 
 to maintain, in consequence of the home govern- 
 ment recalling the greater part of his force. To 
 recruit his army he resolved to enlist some corps 
 of the natives; and. In October, 1830, the first 
 regiment of zouaves was raised." ... In 1833 
 we " first hear of Abd-el-Kader This chief was 
 the sonof a marabout, or priest, in the province 
 of Oran. He united consummate ability with 
 great vuluur; was a devout Muhammedun ; and 
 when he raised the standard of the prophet, be 
 called the Arabs around him, with the fullest con- 
 fidence of success. His countrymen obeyed lUs 
 
 275 
 

 S'\1 . 
 
 I, 
 
 BARBART BTATES. 1880-1848. AU^Xaa^. BARBABY STATZ3. 1830-1848. 
 
 e»lHn great numbers; and, encouraged by the 
 •^VL''.^'""" "'"^ dtaplsyed. he first, at the close 
 of 18.«, proclaimed himiclf emirof Tlcrasen (the 
 former name of Oran), and then seized on the 
 port of Arzew, on the west side of the gulf of 
 that name : and the port of Mostagsnem, on the 
 opposite coast. The province of Mascara, lying 
 at the foot of the Atlas, was also under hi* rule 
 At that time general Dcsmichels commanded at 
 Oran He had not a very large force, but he 
 act«l promptly. Marching against Abdnsl-Kader. 
 he defeated him In two pitched battles j retook 
 Arzew and Mostaganem; and, on the 20th of 
 February, 1834, entered Into a treaty with the 
 emir, by which both parties were bound to keep 
 the peace towards each other. During that year 
 the terms were observed; but, In 183S, the Arab 
 chief again commenced hostilities. Ha marched 
 to the east, entered the French territories, and 
 took possession of Medeah, being received with 
 the utmost Joy by the Inhabitants. On the 36th 
 ot June, general Trezel, with only 8,800 men 
 marched a^Mnst him. Abd-el-Kader had 8,000 
 Arabs uni-cr his command; and a sanguinary 
 combat took place In the defiles of Mouley Ismaef. 
 After a severe combat, the French (oreed the 
 mssage, but with considerable loss. . . . The 
 French general, finding his position untenable 
 commenced a retrograde movement on the 28th of 
 June. In his retreat he was punued by the Arabs- 
 jd before he reached Oran, on the 4th of July 
 he lost all his waggons, train, and baggage; be- 
 sides having ten oflloera, and 253 sous-offleera 
 and rank-and-file killed, and 308 wounded The 
 heads of many of the killed were displayed In 
 triumph by the victors. This was a severe blow 
 to the French, and the cause of great rejoicing 
 to the Arabs. The former called for marahal 
 Clausel to be restored to his command, and the 
 government at home complied; at the same time 
 Issuing a proclsmution, declaring that Algeria 
 AouM not be abandoned, but that the honour of 
 the French arms should be maintained The 
 marshal left France on the 28th of July; and as 
 soon as he landed, he organised an expedition 
 against Mascara, which was Abd-el-Kader's capi- 
 tal. .. . The Arab chieftain advanced*" meet the 
 enemv; but, being twice defeated, he n .jlved to 
 abandon his capital, which the French entered 
 on V !■ 6th of December, and found completely 
 ae» ed. The strecU and houses were alike 
 empiy and desolate; and the only living creature 
 they encountered was an old woman, lying on 
 jome mats, who could not move of herself and 
 had been either forgotten or abandoned. The 
 French sot flrc to the deserted houses ; and having 
 effecte.1 the destruction of Mascara, they marched 
 to Mostaganem, which Clausel determined to 
 make the centre of French power In that dis- 
 
 m. 63*-fld5.— A camp was esubllshed on the 
 Taafna in April 1836, and an action took pUce 
 rSS 2? "'^ ^'"'' '"'"^" •''« Tableau states that 
 8,000 French engaged 10,000 natives; and some 
 of the enemies being troops of Morocro, an ex- 
 planation was required of Muley-Abder-Rach- 
 man, the emperor, who saiil that the assistance 
 wasgiven to the Algerines without his knowledire 
 On July 6th, 1836, Abd-el-Kader suffered a dia- 
 ■strous defeat on the river BIkkak. near Tlemsen 
 fL!?* ^i' "' Msrshsl Bugeaud. November 
 1M8, the flrat expedition was formed asainst 
 Constantlna. . . . After the faUon of dauiel 
 
 276 
 
 9*?"?LP"""*"°"' '">• "PPolnted governor 
 Feb 12th 1887; and on the 80th of mIv ,he 
 treaty of the Taafna between General B.ijeau.i 
 and Abd-el-Kader left the French government a 
 Uberty to direct all their attention against Co" 
 stantina. a camp being formed at Tifi^jny-cj. 
 Ahmar In that direction. An army of 10 0(10 
 men set out thence on the 1st of October IN37 
 for Constantina. On the 6th it arrived 'before 
 Constantina; and on the 18th the town was taken 
 I.S V nl*"* 1«". 'Ofludlng Damr«mont. Mar 
 Tifi n '*? i""**'"' Oamrimont as govern". 
 Jf thI,n.H'''Js^2?'J!""'°* <>"*"'yed the la.st r,iic 
 of the old Turkish government. . . . Bvth.'>7ih 
 January, 1838, loS tribes had submitted to Z 
 ^nch. A road was cleared In April by (Jcnml 
 Negrier from Constantina to Stora on the ees 
 TTiU road, passing bv the camps of Smendou and 
 the Aijouch was 23 leagues In length. The 
 coast of the Bay of Stora, on the site of the an 
 cient Kuslcada, became covered with French 
 settlers : and Phlllppevllle was founded Oct 1838 
 threatening to supplant Bona. Abd-elK-ider 
 advancing ta December 1837 to the province o 
 Constantina^the French advanced alsb toobserve 
 him ; then both retired, without comUig to blows. 
 A misunderstanding which arose respecting the 
 riK** 'iL^^' °! the treaty of Taafna'was si'ttled 
 ta the beginning of 1838. .. . When Abd-el- 
 Kader assumed the royal title of Sultan aud the 
 command of a numerous army, the French with 
 republican charity and fraternal sympathv 
 sought to Infringe the Taafna treaty, and embroil 
 the Arab hero, ta order to ruin his rising empire 
 and found their own on lu ashes. The Emi- had 
 been recognised by the whole country, f^ r. th" 
 gates of Ouchda to the river Mijerda. Tn; 
 
 war was resumed, and many French razzias t(K.k 
 place. They once marched a large force fron. 
 Algiers on Millanah to surprise the sultan's c-r n 
 They failed ta their chief object, but nearl- \- 
 tured the sultan himself. He was surroun , .a 
 the middle of a French square, which tiiou ' 
 Itself sure of the reward of 100,000 francs (£4 Ouu, 
 "5'',^.^°'",''*'"= •"" "ttering his favourite 'en- 
 shaliah (with the will of God), he gave his white 
 horse the spur, and came over their bayonets ua- 
 wounded. He lost, however, thirty of bis bo.lv- 
 guard and friends, but killed si.x Frenchmen 
 with bis own hand. Still, notwithstanding his 
 sucresses, Abd-el-Kader had been losing all his 
 former power, as his Arabs, though brave could 
 not match 80,000 French troops, with artillery 
 and all the other ornaments of civilised warfare 
 Seven actions were fought at the Col do Jloursia, 
 where the Arabs were overthrown by the roval 
 dukes. In 1841 ; and at the Oued Foddha, where 
 Ohangamier, with a handful of troops, defeated 
 a whole population in a frightful gorge. It was 
 on this occasion that, having no guns, he launched 
 his Chasseura d'Afrique against the fort, s.iying, 
 ' Voda mon artllleriel ' Abd-el Kader ha.1 then 
 only two chances,— the support of Muley-Abd-tr- 
 liahman. Emperor of Morocco ; or the peace that 
 the latter might conclude with France for him. 
 General Bugeaud, who had replac«l Marshal 
 VallSe, organised a plan of campaign by movable 
 columns radhiting from Algiers, Oran and Con- 
 stantina; and having 100,000 excellent soldiers 
 at his disposal, the results as agatast tlie Eralr 
 we«) slowly but surely effective. U>}neritl Ne- 
 
 frier at Constantina, Changarnler amongst the 
 ladjout* about MedeahudMiUaaah, C^valgnac 
 
B.UtBART 8TATKS, 1830-18M. 
 
 BARCELONA. 
 
 ud Lunoridire in Ono,— carried oat the 
 commander-ia-cbieCR instructlona with untirinfr 
 energy and perMverance ; and to the *prlD«t of 
 1843 the Due d'Aumale, in company with Oen- 
 ersl Changaraler, aurprlsed the Emir'i camp in 
 the absence of the greatest part of hi* force, and 
 It was < ith difllcultr that he liimself escaped. 
 Not iong afterwards he toolc refuge in Morocco, 
 excited the fanatical passions of the populace of 
 that empire, and thereby forced its ruler, Huley- 
 Abd-er- Rahman, much against his own inclina- 
 tion, into a war with France ; a war very speedily 
 terminated bjr Oeneral Bugeaud's victory of Isly, 
 with some slight assistance from the bombard- 
 ment of Tangier and Mogador by the Prince de 
 JoiDvilie. In 1845 the struggle was maintained 
 amiilattbe hills by the partisans of Abd-el-Sader; 
 but our limits prevent us from dwelling on its 
 particulars, save in one instance. ... On the 
 niglit of the 12th of June, 1843, about three 
 months before Marshal Bugeaud left Algeria, 
 Coianeis Pelissier and St. Ar-xHud, at the hrad of 
 a considerable force, attemn>e<l a razzia upon 
 the tribe of the Beni-Ouled-Kiah, numbering, in 
 meu women, and children, about 700 persons. 
 This was in the Dahra. The Arabs escaped the 
 first clutch of their pursuers; and when hard 
 pressed, as they soon were, toolc refuge in the 
 cave of Kliartanl, which had some odour of sanc- 
 tity about it: some holy man or marabout luul 
 lived and died there, we believe. The French 
 troops came up quiciily to the entrance, and the 
 Arabs were summoned to surrender. They made 
 no reply. Possibly they did not hear the sum- 
 mons. ... As there was no other outlet from 
 the cave than that by which the Arabs entered, 
 a few hours' patience must have been rewarded 
 by the unconditional surrender of the imprisoned 
 tribe. Colonels Pelissier and St. Arnaud were 
 desirous of a speedier result; and by their order 
 an immense fire was kindled at the mouth of the 
 cave, and fed sedulously during the summer 
 night with wood, grass, reetls, anything that 
 would help to keep up the volume of smoke and 
 
 flame which the wind drove. In roaring, whirling 
 eddies, into the mouth of the cavern. It was 
 too Ute now for the unfortunate Arabs to offer 
 to surrender; the discfavge of a cannon would 
 not have been heard in the roar of that huge 
 blatt-f umacc, much less smoke-strangled cries of 
 human agony. The flre was kept up throughout 
 tnr night; and when the day hail fully dawned,' 
 the then expiring embers were kicked aside, and 
 as soon as a sufficient time had elapsed to render 
 the air of the silent cave breathable, some soldiers 
 were directed to ascertain how matters were 
 within. They were gone but a few mhiutes; and 
 they came back, we are told, pale, trembling, I 
 terrified, hardly daring, it seemed, to confront 
 the light of day. No wonder they trembled and' 
 looked pale. They had found all the Arabs 
 dead — men, women, children. ... St. Arnaud 
 and Pelissier were rewarded by the French miu- 
 ister; and Marshal Soult observed, that 'what 
 would be a crime against civilisation in Europe 
 might be a ju^Mflabie necessity In Africa.' . . . 
 A taste of Fn ich bayonets at Isly, and the 
 iKioming of French guns at Mogador, had 
 brought Morocco to reason. . . . Morocco sided 
 with France, and threatened Abd-el-ICadcr, who 
 cut one of their corps to pieces, and was in June 
 on tlie point of coming to blows with Muley- Abd- 
 el-Rahman, the emperor. But the Emperor of 
 Morocco took vigorous measures to oppose him, 
 nearlv exterminating the tribes friendly to him; 
 which drew off many partisans from the Emir, 
 who trieil to pacify the emperor, but unsuc- 
 cessfully." In December, 1848, "ho asked to 
 negotiate, offered to surrender; and after 24 
 hours' discussion he came to Sidi Brahim, the 
 scene of his last exploits against the French, 
 where he was received with military honours,: 
 and conducted to >he Duke of Aumale at Ne- 
 mours. France has been severely abused for the 
 detention of Abd-cl-Kador in Ham." — J. R. 
 Morell, .Vqeria, eh. 23. 
 
 A. D. .liSi,— T"-iia brought nnder the protec- 
 torate of France. See Frasck: A. D. 1875-188i». 
 
 BARBES.—BARBETS.—Theelders among 
 the early Waldenscs were called barbes, which 
 si^nilied " Uncle. ' Whence came the nickname 
 Barbels, applied to the Walilensian people gen- 
 erally.— E. Comba, ni$t. of tht WaUetmi of 
 lUili/.p. 147. 
 
 BARCA. See Ctrexe. 
 
 BARCELONA: A. D. 713.— Surrender to 
 the Arah-Moora. See Spai."»: A. D. 711-713. 
 
 A. D. 1151.— The County joined to Araron. 
 See Spain: A D. 1033- 12.W. 
 
 I2th-i6th Centuries. — Commercial prosper- 
 itv and municipal freedom.—" The city of Bar- 
 oolona, which originally gave its name to the 
 oo'.inty (if which it was the capital, was distin- 
 jtuished from a very early period by arapk 
 municipal privileges. After the union with Ara- 
 gon in the 12th century, the monarchs of the lat- 
 ter kingdom exteuaed towards it the same libt'rai 
 legislation; so that, by the 13th, Bi-.rcelona had 
 rciiclicd 'legreo of commercial prosperity rival- 
 ling that of any of the Italian republics. She 
 divided with them the lucrative commerce with 
 Alexandrin; and her port, thronge<i with foreign- 
 ers from every nation, became a principal em- 
 iv>r1iim fn the Mediterranean for the spices, 
 drugs, perfumes, and other rich commodities of 
 tlie East, whence they were diffuied over the in- 
 
 terior of Spain and the European continent. Her 
 consuls, and her commercial factories, were es- 
 tablished in every consiiLrable port la the Medi- 
 terranean and in the nonft of Europe. Tlie natu- 
 ral product" of her soil, and her various domestic 
 fabrics, supplied her with 'luniiant articles of 
 export. Fine wool was if rted by her in con- 
 siderable quantitifs fro.-n iingland in the 14th 
 and 15th centuries, and returned there manu- 
 factured into cloth ; an exchange of commodities 
 the reverse of that existing between the two 
 nations at the present day. Barcelona claims the 
 merit of having established the first bank of 
 exchange and deposit in Europe, in 1401 ; it waa 
 devoted to tto accommodatinn of foreigners as 
 wellasof herown citizens. ShecUlmsthe glory, 
 too, of having compiled the most ancient written 
 code, among the modems, of maritime law now 
 extant, digested from the usages of commercial 
 nations, and which formed the basis of tlie mer- 
 cantile jurisprudence of Europe during the Mi<i- 
 dle Ages. Tlie wealth which dov.ea in upon 
 Barcelona, as the result of her activity and ont-er- 
 prlse, was evinced by lier numerous public works, 
 her docks, arsenal, warehouses, exchange, hospl- 
 u\i, and other construct Idiis of gifueral utility. 
 Strangers, who visited Spain In the 14th and 15th 
 centuries, expatiate on the magniflcenoe ot ti;da 
 
 277 
 

 
 H 
 
 BARCELONA. 
 
 ^H' '" fMnraodlons prirste ediflcM, the ctauiH- 
 nesBof iu streets and public squuro (n rlrtuebv 
 no means usual in that day), andT the J^enit? 
 ofltaganiens and cultivated environs. But the 
 
 her municipal institutions. Her government 
 consisted of a senate or council of on^h^",^' 
 
 were sylod varying at times from four to six 
 n number; the f![.rmer intrusted with the leiris 
 1« ive the latter with the executive functlonf of 
 ~lmmi.,tn.tion A large proportion ofTeSe 
 ^lies were selected from the n\erchants. ti«dS! 
 men. aD<l mechanics of the city. They were in- 
 vestcl not merely with municipal authority but 
 with many of the rights of sovereignty, thev 
 entered into commercial treaties wiuj foreign 
 powers; superintended the defence of the cUy 
 in time of war; provided for the security of 
 trade; gnintal letters of reprisal against any na- 
 
 of ?^f, f* Pf"" ™r*y» f"' ^^ oonstnictiou 
 rL.f/^ r";""' "'■ "*« encouragement of such 
 commercial a.lventures as were t^ hazanious or 
 
 LlPo^'wh'"""'!'.^'','""' <'-'*^Pri»e. Th^^u" 
 scllors who presided over the municipality were 
 complimented with certain honorary privllcires 
 not even accor,l«l to the nobility.^ ■fi/Jy /ere 
 wi&il '^ 'Y """' of '^sniflcci: wew SeatlS? 
 with their Iiea<l8 covered, in the presence of roy^ 
 alty;were prece<le<l by macc-bearera, or lictora. 
 in their progress through the country ; and depu- 
 ties from tiieir bojiy to the court wc^ admitted 
 on the f(>.iii,g and received the honors of foreign 
 ambass;«l.,r,. These, it will be rwollccted, were 
 plebeians,— merchunu and mechanics. Trade 
 
 «ir.»™ TTi » '''-K^J'tlon in Catalonia, 
 as it csm(^ to bo In Castile."— W. H Prcscott 
 
 tnUl "1(1%'^'"" "■^ ''"^'*"»<'a'»'' ItabOa, in- 
 
 184a-?M3'*°"~'°*""""°"- ^■«8paiji: A.D. 
 
 A. p. i6si.i«52.-Sien and C4kptnrc by tta« 
 
 A. D. 1705.- Capture by the Earl of 
 Peterborongh. S.-.- sTpaix : A D 1705 
 t,." ?• '7o«-— Un»nceeMfnl liere by the 
 French and Spaniardi. 8,^. Sp.un: A. D 17(W 
 
 th^Ami2'^■47'«^-^•''•'•' "'» -e-rtion by 
 
 1 "^ni4 SP*»'""- ** Spais; a. D 
 
 A. D. 184a.— Rebellion and bombardment 
 See 8pai.\: .V D 1H;1;|-1S46 >«^»«eni. 
 
 15'-l""''°'*^' '^'•"^rot. Sec Itait; A.D. 
 
 Th^e*"?!???^', °", BARciNB PAMILY. 
 
 Ihe.— I lie family of the great Cartluiglnian 
 
 UanulbaJ. TIh' surname »>r<». or lUrrai, given 
 u. laihilcHr H riiulvalent to the U.brew ft ™S 
 will Nik'mliiil lighliiiii,: 
 
 BAROI. Hie .Mu.VKT ASD BA.NklNU: Flor. 
 
 KN I INK, 
 
 BARDS. See Fii.i. 
 
 BARDULIA. S«e Spatti ; A P lMe-12S0 
 
 BAREBONES PARLIAMENT.Ti^ i^ 
 
 MAKENTZ, Voyajet of. See Pulah Ex- 
 PUBLIC SAFETY. «rc Fca.mb. a U 
 
 BABNEVELDT. 
 
 A.°d''?^S^,?(5''' ^'J'"" ■^"•^•' S«lt.n. 
 
 Tt^^TU^^^°^\ °^ BARMEKIDES 
 
 1; .I.Tm''.* Barm, rides, or Barmelcides ,mi„„i 
 » J "/''^."y °' ""• Caliplmte at Bagrt, Tnl 
 made familiar to a the world bvthe «nri'. . 
 the "Arabian Nights." we™ a fa,i:iI%S'n,"J 
 
 .^. , V I^™"'' or custodian of one of hi 
 most«^lebrated temples of the Zoro,istr?m f.i h 
 n^f^^^^^ MahometaiMsm and beo^imo Lt 
 nL-S '"^l' "«'■'"» °' "le conspiracy "iS 
 AK,^^':f '^ "'^ Ommiad Caliphs ahd rai* 1 S 
 .^S^^if I*" "'^ """"«• The flm of tTubt 
 
 the sons of Yahya wi» te^Ln^ tt^ ™S "' 
 thl"^ of n«roun'andThote''th "fl.fc 
 the Barmecides to iu acme of splen. I "r Sn 
 
 ZlaJ^^ '" ' ^"'»° hou«,'eTd ^wi^ 
 Jealousy, however, among the Arabs, an.i In the 
 end, the capricious lonl and master of do „n 
 P.|werful vizier Jaafar turned his hear^ , .^j " 
 
 Barmecides was made as cruel as their ad v.nc*' 
 hZJ'^,.^'^''} unscrupulous. J««f«r w, T 
 headed without a moment's warning' his f ith^r 
 ""' ^rother were Imprisoned, an/k thom,, 
 sUte R n iSfJ'""^,"* "'"^ *» have T „ 
 
 I ^Also i.n; E. H. Palmer, ffaroun Alr,ur/,i.,. 
 
 BAHNABITES. — PAULINES • t>. 
 derksregularof St Paulfpaulff wh';«. J,'' 
 l^&nf"?^ '°"""*'^. •>' A..t;>nlo Maria 
 d^tJ. m °'.,^"'"'°"» "^ two Milanese «*.,. 
 I ™ .„.■*•. "P''i"''"' ^7 Clement VII. in 
 in'i »°,'i.^™"fl™«l «« Inifepenileiit l.v I'„„i 
 111. in I.WI, in 154,5 took the name of I! - . 
 bitee, from the church of St. Hamal.,is, « „ , 
 WM given up to them at Milan. The R.rim. 
 ofl^^.l^S"''7"'i^^°?i«^'. '" "'^ <""'•.«•„,, 
 r/'n!^p »■ ~^^-^"^- "" '*'"'"'•'• /'V'nmi- 
 M.fn^?-"^,"" COLLEGE. See Edication 
 
 Aif^rirKs"!?- «-^'— wsop 
 
 Wara of the Ho«e«." E.lward IV. having 
 be,;ndriveno,it of England ami Henry \ , n' 
 Instated by Warwick, "the King niak'.r " the 
 fTjiior retiirae,! In-fore ,lx months had n.i«,"l 
 ;. " .n-ijle 1.1, wav to I>.nd,>n. Warwick ulZ^l 
 
 v. Ji ii ,^? '■'"""' '"f'tl"'' "n Kasl.T Smii,I;,v, 
 l-«.. Ion. TlH, victory, long d..ul.tful. «■„ «„„ 
 
 bl.»Kllly adiieve.1, The Eari of W«r»i, k w« 
 am(.ng the slaiu. 8e« E.xoLA.fD: A U. HVV 
 
 278 
 
BARON. 
 
 BARON.— "The title of baron, unlike that of 
 Earl, U a creation of the [Norman] Conqueat 
 The word, in its origin equivaient to 'homo,' 
 receives under feudal institutiooa, like ' homo ' 
 Itself, the meaning of vassal. Homage (homin- 
 ium) is the ceremony by which the vassal 
 becomes the man of his lord ; and the homines 
 of the king are barons. Possibly the kins's 
 thegn of Anglo-8n.ion times may answer to vie 
 Norman baron." — W. Stubbs, CorM. Hill, of 
 Eni}., eh. 11. tet. 184. 
 BARON, Court. See Makors. 
 
 BARONET.— "One approaches with reluc- 
 tance the modem title of baronet . . . Qram- 
 maticall^, the term is clear enough; it is the 
 dlminutire of baron; but baron is emphatically 
 a man. the liege vassal of the king; ana baronet, 
 therefore, etymologically would seem to imply a 
 a doubt. Degrees of honor admit of no diminu- 
 tion ; a ' damoisel ' and a ' donzello ' are gram- 
 matical diminutives, but they do not lessen the 
 rank of the bearer; for, on the contrary, they 
 denote the heir to the larger honor, being 
 attributed to none but the sons of the prince or 
 nobleman, who bore the paramount title. They 
 did not degrade, even in their etymological 
 signiflcation, which baronet appears to do, and 
 no act of parliament can remove this radical 
 defect. . . . Independently of these considera- 
 tions, the title arose from the expedient of a 
 needy monarch [James I.] to raise money, and 
 was offrred for sale. Any man, provided he 
 were (if good birth, might, ' for a consideration,' 
 canton his family shield with the red hand of 
 I'LjUt '— R T. Hampson, Origina Patricia, tm. 
 8(»-3fl9. '^^ 
 
 BARONS' WAR, Tht. See Ekolaito: 
 A. D. 1216-1274. 
 
 BARONY OF LAND.-" Fifteen acres, but 
 hi sivme places twenty acres."— N. H. Nicolas 
 X.litm lliitoriea. p. lilt. 
 
 BARRIER FORTRESSES, The rssiar 
 o' the. See Nktuerlands (Holland^: A. tt 
 
 BARRIER TREATIES, The. See Eko- 
 L.t;«D: A. D. 1709. and NBTmauixDa (HoL- 
 UND); .V D. 1718-1715. 
 
 BARROW.— A mound rained over the buried 
 di«d " Thl!< form of memorial, . . . as ancient 
 M It Ims been lasting, Is found in almost all 
 parts (if the globe. Barrows, under diverse 
 nam( «, line the coasU of the Medltermnean, the 
 BTftii iif iinciint empires and civilisations 
 They almimd In Great Britain and Ireland d'lf- 
 fcnnff m Bbape and size and made of various 
 mat. n:il8; and are known as harrows (mounds of 
 fsnii) Biid cairns (mounds of stone) and popu- 
 lar)- In Home naru of England as lows, bouea. 
 and l.m,ps.'-Vv. Orcnwcll. BHIiA Aim.«^ 
 
 BARRUNDIA INCIDENT, Tht. See 
 
 UVTIIM, AMf-TtIC*- .\ I) ISKt)-t«»4 
 
 BARTENSTEIN. Treaty of. See Om- 
 
 "o^Io-^.l'. 'i«'' (•'"nKI'ART-ljfNE). 
 
 A- I' 1*11 (.Iakcart). 
 
 Jt h,*^"***' ** ""■ '•■**'• «'™«» «» 
 
 BASHI B0Z0UK8, OR BAZOUKS— 
 
 tt^'M:r:::;!l?:^^i''.VT''^' '^'^'^ '° 
 
 J- .VKK,;;fi^•,:i»'?S);^;Ud^'^'th;''^?i:^■S? 
 
 »««» engaged agalott Um Buljaitao^ fmt 
 
 270 
 
 BASmO HOUSE. 
 
 nnmbers of the Moslem part of the local popu- 
 latlon had been armed by the Government and 
 turned loose to fight the InsurgenU in their own 
 way. These irregular warriors are called Bash! 
 Bozouks, or Rottenheads. The term alludes to 
 their being sent out without regular organizaUon 
 and without officers at their head."— H O 
 "^S^iTurkiA Life in War Titne. p. 15. 
 . ?u ^i"- '• <'!;'••"' *•» Macedonian), Emperor 
 tathe East (Byzantine, or Greek), A. D 867- 
 
 ^i.J •°""'.",yH.»% '-.Grand Duke of 
 
 Volodomir, A. D. 127i-lS78 Basil II 
 
 Emperor in the East (Byzantine, or Greek).' 
 
 A 0. m-lOiS Baail. Sr Vassili, II., Grind 
 
 fnne« of Moscow, A. D. 1889-1425 BasU 
 
 »"• (The Blind), Grand Prince of Moscow. 
 
 BASILEUS.— "From the earliest period of 
 history, the soverelps of Asia hod been cele- 
 brated in the Greek language by the title of 
 Basileus, or King; and since it wos considered 
 as the first distinction among men, it was soon 
 employed by the servile provincials of the east 
 in their humble address to the Roman throne."— 
 E. (JIbbon, Decline and Fall of the Soman Empire, 
 eh. 18. 
 
 BASILIAN DYNASTY, The. See Btzah- 
 TISE Empire: A. D. 820-1057. 
 
 BASILICA — " Among the buildings appro- 
 priated to the public service at Rome, none were 
 more important than the Baslllcie. Although 
 their name Is Greek, yet they were essentlafly 
 a Roman creation, ancl were used for practical 
 purposes pcculUrly Roman,- the administration 
 of law and the transaction of merchants' busi- 
 ness. Historically, considerable Interest attaches 
 to them from their connection with tlie first 
 Christian churches. The name of Basilica was 
 applied by the Romans equally to all large 
 bulldlags intended for the special needs of pubHc 
 business. . . . Generally, however, thev took 
 the form most adapted to their purpiises — a 
 semicircular apse or tribunal for legal trials and 
 a central nave, with arcades and galleries on 
 each side for the transaction of business They 
 exUted not only as separate buildings, but also 
 as reception rooms attached to the great man- 
 sions of Home. ... It Is the opinion of some 
 writers that these private baslllcie, and not the 
 public edifices, served as the model for the 
 Christian Basilica."- R Bum, Rome and tht 
 Campagna, introd. 
 
 Also is : A. P. Stanley, Chriitian Inttitutione 
 eh. 9. 
 
 BASILIKA, The.— A compilation or codifi- 
 cation of the Imperial laws of the Byianline Em- 
 pire promulgated A. D. 884, In the n'ijm of 
 Basil I. and afterwaMs revised and amplitlcd bv 
 his son, I,eo VI -(J Flnlay, lliit of the Bumn- 
 tine hmpirr, fr,.m 710 to Vm, hk. 2, cA 1 M^t 1 
 
 BASING HOUSE, The Storming and Da- 
 atructionof,—' Basing House [mansUm of the 
 Marquis of Winchester, near Basingstoke. In 
 Hampshire], an Immense fortress, with a feudal 
 CBstle and a Tudor palace within Its nimparts 
 had long been a thorn in the side of the Parlia- 
 ment. Four yearsit had held out. with an army 
 within, well pMvlsioni-d for years, and blocked 
 the road to the west. At Isst It was resolved to 
 Ukell . itud Tromweil was directly commissioned 
 br Parliament to the work. lu capture is one 
 of the most terrible and stlrriof tncidenu of tte 
 
! 13 
 
 11 li 
 
 BASING HOUSE. 
 
 war. After six days' constant cannonade, the 
 itorm began at six o'clock in the momlnir of the 
 14th of October [A. D. 1645]. After some hoiim 
 of dc8p<'rate liKliting, one after another lu de- 
 fences wire talien and its garrison put to the 
 sword or taltcn. The plunder was prodigious; 
 the destruction of property unsparing. It was 
 gutted, burnt, and tlie very ruins carted away, " 
 — F. Harrison, Oliter Cnmtr^eU, ch. 6. 
 
 Ai.som: 8. R. Gardiner. Hut. ofthtCinl War, 
 
 «A. 37(p. 2).— Mrs. Tliompson, RecoUtetiont of Lit- 
 
 trani Vharaetert and Ctlthrated Place; v. 8, e*. 1. 
 
 BASLE, Council of. See Patact; A. D 
 
 1431-1448. 
 
 BASLE, Treat!** of (1795). See Framce: 
 A. 1). 1794-1795 (OcroBKB— Mat), and 1795 
 (June— Deckmbkr). 
 
 BASOCHE.-BASOCHIENS.-"The B.-M- 
 oche was an associaticin of the ' clercs du Parlc- 
 ment ' [Parliament of Paris]. The etymology 
 of the name is uneeruin. . . . The Basoche is 
 supposed to have been instituted In 1308, by 
 Phllippele-Bel, who gave it the title of ' Roy- 
 aumc de la Basoche,' and ordered that it should 
 form a tribunal for judging, without appeal, all 
 civil and criminal matters that might arise among 
 the cltrks and nil actions brou^tht against them. 
 He likewise ordcrwl that the pre.sident should be 
 called • Rol dc la Basoche, 'and that the king and 
 his subjects should have an annual ' montre ' or 
 review. . . Under the n^ign of Henry III. tli > 
 numU'r of .>. ibjects of the rol de la Basor ■• 
 •motinted to nearly 10,000. ... The menilx-rs 
 of the Basoche timk upon themselves to exhibit 
 plays in the 'Palais.' in which they censured the 
 pulilic manners: Indeeii they mav be said to have 
 been the flrnl comic authors ami actors th.it ap- 
 pj-ari'd in Paris. ... At the commencement cif 
 the Itevolution. the Bawx'kiens formed a troop, 
 the uniform of which was reil, with epaulette* 
 and silver buttons; but thev were afterwards 
 disbanded by adecreeof the National Assemblv. " 
 —Uiit. of Parit (Lomhn; O. B. Whitlaktr, 1857), 
 r. a, p. lOfl. 
 
 BASQUES, The,— 'The western extremity 
 of the I'yn-nres, where France and 8pa)n join, 
 gives \i% a locality . . . where, although the 
 towns, like Bayonne. Painpeluna, and BIIImo, 
 are French or Spanish, the country people arc 
 BaM|Ufs or Hiscuyims — Basiiucsor Ulscayans not 
 only In the provinces of Blway, l)ut In Alava, 
 UpiHT Navarn-. and the French districu of La- 
 bourd and S<iij1(., Tlii-lr name Is Spanish (the 
 worl having oriirlnated In that of the ancient 
 Vftsmne>>, ami It is nut the one by which they 
 desiitnnte themselves; though possibly it Is in- 
 directly itinni'cted with It, The native name is 
 deriveil fr.mi the txwi Eusk-; which becomes 
 Euskara when the langiiiigp, Euskkrrrla when 
 thec.iuntry, and Euskalilunac when the people 
 are np.iken of '— H. G. Latham, Ethnology <f 
 Hurrifr, i-h. 'i. 
 
 Al.KO IN: I Taylor. Origin of iht Arvnnt. M. 
 4, tft. 4 —See. also. iBXHlA.ts, Tnit Wkstkhn, 
 and .\rri;Ni>i\ A. v 1 
 BASSANO. Battle of. SeeFRAHcit: A D. 
 
 17ml (.\PHII,— llrTDBKR.) 
 
 BASSE IN, Treaty of (tloa). See India: 
 A. I) 179H-1N<W 
 
 BASSORAH. See Bissohar. 
 
 BASTARNA, Til*. See P«cctin. 
 
 BASTILLE, The.^ Thf caw .-»f Bast!!!*' 
 *r BMtcl w**, in aocleot time*, (Itcd 10 any 
 
 BATAVIAN3. 
 
 kind of erection calculated to withstand a mili- 
 tary force; and thus, formerly in IJnglanil and 
 on the borders of Scotland, the term Biistel- 
 houae was usually applie<l to places of strengtU 
 and fancied security. Of the many Bastilles In 
 Prance that of Paris, . . . which at first was 
 called the Bastille St-Antoine, from being 
 erected near the suburb of St-Antoino, retained 
 the name longeat This fortress, of melancholy 
 celebrity, waa erected under the following 
 circumstances: In the year 1356, when the 
 English, then at war with France, were In the 
 neighbourhood of Paris, it waa considered neces- 
 sary by the inhabitants of the French capital to 
 repair the bulwarks of their city. Stephen 
 Marcel, provost of the merchants, undertook this 
 task, uud. amongst other defences, a<lded to the 
 fortltlcalions at the eastern entrance of the town 
 a gate flanked w-ith a tower on each side." Tlilj 
 was the beginning of the constnictlons of the 
 Bastille. Tliey were enlarged in 1369 by Hujh 
 Aubriot, provost of Paris under (Charles V. 
 He "added two towers, which, being plaewi 
 opposite to those already existing on each side 
 of the gate, made of the Bastille a square fort, 
 with a tower at each of the four an -les '' 
 /''er the death of Charies V., Aubrio: wlio 
 h-Hl many enemies, was prosecuted for alleirwi 
 crime*, "was condemned to t)erpetual coiitine- 
 ment, and placeii in the Bastille, of whii h, ac- 
 conllng to some historians, he was tlie tirst 
 prisoner. After some time, he was rrmovod 
 thence to Port TEvSque, another prison," from 
 which he was liberated In l!!8l, by the itisurn-c- 
 tlon of the Maillotins (see Paris: A. I>. lltNl). 
 "After tlie insurrection of the MallKitins in 
 1382, the young king, fharies VI., still further 
 enlarged the Bastille by adding four tnvers to 
 it, thus giving it, instead of the square f,>rm it 
 formerly possessed, the shape of an ohI..ai; or 
 parallelogram. Tlie fortn-ss now ciin<i^ieil of 
 eight towers, each 100 feet high, and. like the 
 wall which united them, nine feet Uilek. Four 
 of these towers looked on the city, ami fniir on 
 the suburb of Bt-Antoine. To incre,i»e its 
 strength, the Bastille was surroundnl bv a ditiU 
 25 feet ilwp and 120 feet wide. The roid which 
 formerly passefl through It was turned on mie svW. 
 ■ . . The Bastille was now completed(13K:h,aii(i 
 though addition* were suli*cquently made tn it, 
 the body of the fortress underwent ho iiiipdrtant 
 change. . . . Both as a platw of niililarv de- 
 fence, Bn<l a* a state prison of ereat »tn ncth. 
 the Bastille was, even at an earlv perii).|. verv 
 formidable. "—//i»f. of t/it HulilU (rA.i.nVri'i 
 MiftlUing, BO. 182, e. 17).— For an aecnint of 
 the taking and destruction of tlie Risiille bv the 
 people, in 1789, see Franck: A. D. 17hs) i.liLv), 
 AlJK> IM: D. Bingham, Tk> liutitU.—ll A. 
 Davenport, Ifiil. nf thr lUttilt. 
 BASTITANL Th*. See Tcbpetahi 
 BASUTOS, Th*. See South Krmcs. : A. D 
 1811-1868. 
 
 BATAVIA (I«TB). Oririn of. See Nkthkb 
 LANDa: A. D. 1594-lA'JO. 
 
 BATAVIAN REPUBLIC. The. See 
 PRAMrK: A. D. 1794-1795 ((HT<mitR—M»Tl 
 
 BATAVIANS, OR BATAVI, The.- Th« 
 Germanic Batavl bad been peacefully iinitid 
 with the [Romanl Empltt!, not hv ('Haar. but 
 not long aftarwarns, perhaps by iVrusus. Thef 
 were settkrt! tn the tthinc delta, that h .-a the 
 toft bMik of Um Khliw ukI on tii* iilandi fomwd 
 
 280 
 
 9 
 
BATAYIANS. 
 
 BATTLE OF THE EEOS. 
 
 hj lu armi, upwards aa far at leaat ai the Old 
 Rhine, and go nearly from Antwerp to Utrecht 
 and Leyden in Zeauind and Boutbem Hoiland, 
 on territory originally Celtic — at leaat the local 
 names are predominantjy Celtic: their name is 
 ■till borne bv the Betuwe, the lowland between 
 the Waal ana the Leek with the capital Noviom- 
 agus, now Nimeguen. They were, eapecially 
 compared with the restless and refractory Celts, 
 ob('(lii'nt and useful subjects, and hence occupied 
 a disiinctlTe position in the aggregate, and par- 
 ticularly in tne military system of the Roman 
 Empire. They remained quite free from taxa- 
 tion, hut were on the other hand drawn upon 
 more largely than any other canton in the re- 
 cruiting: this one canton fumishcfl to the army 
 1,000 horsemen and 9, (KM) foot soldiers; besides, 
 tiie men of the imperial bixly-guard were taken 
 eapeciiilly fn)m them. The command of these 
 Bntavian divisions was conferred excluslTelr on 
 native IJatavl. The Batavi were accounted In- 
 dlsnutahly not merely aa the beat riders and 
 iwlmmoni of the army, but also as the model of 
 true soldiers."— T. M6mm.scn, I/itt. of Home, hk. 
 8, eh. 4. — " When the Cimbri and their aaaociates, 
 about a century before our era, made their 
 memnnWe onslaught upon Rome, the early in- 
 habitants of the lihlne inland of Batavia, who 
 were proli'lily Celt*, joined in the expedition. 
 Arectnt ind tremendous inundation had swept 
 away tt. ,r miserable homes. . . . The island 
 was di~rte<l of ita population. At almut the 
 Siiine piTiod a civil dissension among the ChattI 
 —a powerful German race within the Her- 
 cynlan forest — resulted in the expatriation of a 
 ivmioii of the people. The exiles sought a new 
 hnme in the empty lUilne island, called it 
 'Bt't auw,' or 'good meadow,' and were them- 
 (elvcs called, thenceforward, Batavi, or Batav- 
 ians."— J. L. Motley, Hut of tht Dutch BepMie, 
 introd. . tret. 2. 
 
 A. O. 69.- Revolt of CiTiUt.— "Oalba 
 [Roman Emperor], succee<ilng to the purple 
 upon the suicide of Nero, dismissed the Batavian 
 lire-(riii\rds to whom he owed hl» elevation. He 
 is murdered, Olho and Vltelliua contenil for the 
 fucnwion, while all eyes are tumiKl upon the 
 eight Batavtan re,i{iment«. In their hands the 
 scales of Empire seem to rest. They declare for 
 Vitellius and the civil war begins. Otho la 
 defcatitl; Vitflllus acknowledged by Henatu and 
 xipli'. Fearing, like his predeoi'.ssors, the 
 in|xrlou« lurbulonce of the Batavian legions, 
 he, ti«i, Hends them into Ocmiany. It was the 
 siirnal fur a long and extensive revolt, which 
 had will '■•■'\\ nvertunied the Roman power In 
 0;ml arl ■•r Germany. Claudius CIvllis 
 WIS a ll.i'aviiiti of noble rnee, who had •erve<l 
 ivtenty five years in the Roman armies. His 
 Teutonic name has perished. . , . After a quarter 
 of a (rntury's service be was sent In chains to 
 Rnm and his Imrther executeil, both fals< h- 
 (hari.i-.| with consplrarv . . . Desire to aTenm- 
 his own wmngs was mingled with loftier 
 miitiv,.« In his breast. He knew that the*cvptre 
 J>u In the girt of the Batavian soldiery. 
 
 111 
 
 liy his eourage, elmiuence and talent for polltl 
 r.il rnnibinutlons, CIvllis etlt(te<l a general con- 
 ("l-ratim of all the Netherhind trilies. both 
 I ■llic and German. Kor a brief moment there 
 w-JiaTiEltcd prrpie, a tUuvUu cuwiiioiiwenllh. 
 ■ The details of the revolt [A. D. 001 have 
 been carefuUy pivwrrwl by Tadtui, vaA form 
 
 one of hU grandest and most elaborate pictures. 
 . . . The battles, the sieges, the defeats, the 
 indomitable spirit of Civilis, still flaming most 
 brightly when the clouds were darkest around 
 him, have been described by the great historian 
 in his most powerful manner. . . . The struggle 
 was an unauccessful one. After many victories 
 and many overthrowa, Civilis was left alone. 
 ... He accepted the offer of negotiation from 
 Cerialis [the Roman commander]! ... A col- 
 loquy was agreed upon. The bridge across the 
 Nabalia was broken asunder In the middle and 
 Cerialis and Civilis met upon the severed sides. 
 . . . Here the story abruptly terminates. The 
 remainder of the Roman's narrative is Ifwt, and 
 upon that broken bridge the form of the Batavian 
 hero disappears forever."— J. L. Motley, Bit of 
 t/ie Dutth BemMie, intrad., terti. 3-4. 
 
 Auso in: Tacitus, Uittory, bkt. 4-5. 
 » 
 
 BATH, The Order of the.— "The present 
 Military Order of the Bath, founded by King 
 George 1. in 'he year 1725, differs so essentially 
 from the Knighthood of the Bath, or the custom 
 of making Knights with various rites and cere- 
 mtmics, of which one was Bathing, that it may 
 almost be considered a dl.stinct and new fra- 
 ternity of chivalry. The last Knights of the Bath, 
 maile actordiiigto the ancient forms, were at the 
 coronatioci of King Charles II.; and from that 
 
 f)crlod until the reign of the first Oinrge, the old 
 n8tit\ition fell Into total oblivion, Al; the latter 
 epoch, however. It was determined to revive, as 
 it was termed, The Order of the Bath, by 
 erecting it ' Into a regular Military Order ' ; and 
 on the 25th May, 1723, Letters Patent were 
 Issued for that purpose. By the Statutes then 
 promulgated, the number of Knights, indepen- 
 dent of tlie Sovereign, a Prince of the Blood 
 Royal, and a Great Mjkster, was restricted to 85." 
 It has since been greatly increasid. and the 
 Order divided into three classes: First Class, con- 
 sisting of " Knights Grand Cross," not to excised 
 80 for mllitarv and 25 for civil service; Second 
 Class, consisting of " Knights Commanders, " not 
 to exceed lO'i for military and 50 for civil 
 service; Tlilrd Class, "Companions," not to 
 exceed .595 for military and 200 for civil service. 
 —Sir B. Burke, Book of Orden of Knighthood, p. 
 104. 
 
 BATH, in Roman times. See Aqu.* Soms. 
 
 BATHS OF CARA-'tr.LA, Nero, etc. 
 See TilKHM*. 
 
 BATONIAN WAR. Vhe.-A formidaMe 
 revolt of the DiilmatiaO't and I'annoninns, A. 1> 
 6, Involveil the Roman Kinpin', unlir Augustus, 
 In A serious war of thn'e vimts dunilion, which 
 was called tl.r Ilatonlan \V;\r, from the nanu-s of 
 two leaders of the Insurgent.s, — Uiito the Uiilma- 
 tlan, and Bato the I'iinnoulnn.— T. Mi....msen, 
 Hint of lime, bk H, eh. 1. 
 
 BATOUM : Ceded to Ruaaia.— Declared a 
 free port. See TniKs: A. I) !•<;?*. 
 BATTIADi€, The. See Cvhi;ne. 
 BA'^TLE ABBEY. See E.nui.^sd: A. D. 
 
 10«)«><TOI1KB). 
 
 BATTLE ABOVE THE CLOUDS, The. 
 See L'MTKn Status or Am. : .\. 1» l^eatOcTo 
 
 ■KK— NoVKMBKK: TkMNKIWI':K> 
 
 BATTLE OF THE CAMEL. Sec Ma 
 BiiMr.TiM t oNyi kkt; A. D tiiil 
 
 BATTLE OF THE KEGS, Th*. 8w 
 pHiLASlLruu: A. U. 1777-1778. 
 
 281 
 

 £ i'A 
 
 u: 
 
 BATTLE OF THE NATI0K8. 
 
 BATTLE OF THE NATIONS (Leip.Jc). 
 
 BEn), and (Octobkb). 
 
 ^I^^IJ-"^ O'' THE THREE EMPER- 
 ? n'T^, fi?*"'* o' Au9terllti-8ee Pkancb: 
 A. U. 1805 (March— Dbcembkk)— wasao called 
 bv Napoleon. 
 
 A^l^TnTT^^' 7f''' ""j^- ^ '^*'' Common: 
 
 i.ATT^c^o'' v."' CRrMWAL: A D. 1818. 
 
 BATTLES.— The battles of which account 
 
 Is given In this work arc scTorally indexed under 
 
 the^naraea by which they are hlatoricaUy 
 
 BAt'RE, The. See Ahericaw Aboeioike8: 
 
 ANORI HX8. 
 
 .ofV^iJTZEN. Battle ot See Germakt: A. D. 
 
 1813 (.MAT— Al-OCST). 
 
 BAUX Lord! of; Gothic Origin of the— 
 
 The Illustrious Vi!!ijrotliic race of tlie ■■Diilthi" 
 or Hatha ("tlie bold"), from which sprang 
 Alaric. "continued to flourish in Fiance fc the 
 Gothic province of Septimonia, or Laniniedoc 
 <mder the corrupted appellation of Baux, and a 
 (■ranch of that family afterwards settled In the 
 tlT'i'?! °l ^«pl<■s.'-E. Gibbon, JDMline and 
 tmofthe limmn E.npire, ch. 80, nott. 
 
 BAVARIA: The name.— Bavaria derived Its 
 name from the Boii.-K. O. Latham, Tht Ger- 
 mama of Tacitut; EpiUgamena, net. 20— See 
 also, Boians. ^ 
 
 fj^^i! ^•''"'''^P ,'!''— ","»^"'» • • • f«II»Into 
 two divisions; tne Bavaria of the Rhine, and th» 
 Bavann of the Danube. In Rhenish Bavsrir. the 
 descent Is from the ancient Vonglones and Ne- 
 metcs, either Germanized Gauls or Gallicized 
 Uermans, with Itoman superadditions. After- 
 wanis, an ext.nsion of the Alcmaunicand Suevic 
 populations from the right bank of the Upper 
 Rhine completes the evolution of their present 
 Germanic character. Danubian Bavaria falls 
 Into two Bub<livisions. North of the Danube the 
 valley of the Naab, at least, wai originally 8U- 
 T :.ic containing an extension of the Slavonic 
 P; .ilatfon of Bohemia. But disturbance and 
 di-,.laceiiient began early. . . . In the third and 
 '."i ^nO'il'S- the SueW and Alemanni ex- 
 . luled themselves from the Upper Rhine 
 I he northwestern parts of Bavaria were probablr 
 Oeniian from Ihe Uglnning. South of the Dan- 
 ube lie etlm.ilogy changes. In the llret place 
 the I{.>man element* IncreaK; since Vindelicia 
 was a Ifoman province. . . . lu present charac- 
 ter has arisen from an extension of the Germana 
 of the I pper Rhine. "-R O. Latham. Ethnciocl 
 of huritpe, eh. %, — ~»» 
 
 .-.Ab' 547--Subleetlon of the BaTkriau 
 
 to the Franks.-' It Is about this period FA. D 
 Ml) that Ihe Havarians first bi'come known in 
 history as tributari.'s of the Franks; but at what 
 time tli.y Ixeame so is matter of dispute. 
 ivm the nrevicMiB silence of the annalists re- 
 spert iig this |«.. pie, we may p«'riiaps Infer that 
 both tli;y an.l the Mualiian: remalnixi independ- 
 ent until the fall of , he Ostrogothic Umpire in 
 \u^ ..T'l'" ^V.'."'''" ■'■•"''''Ions V ere bounded on 
 the north by Itlwiia and Xori.um; and between 
 thes.. countries and tim Thuringians. who lived 
 still further to the north, was the country of the 
 Bavarians and .Suablans. Thiiringia h^l long 
 been jioHsess.;. by the Franks. Rhaala was a^ied 
 by Vilisges, king of Italy, and Venetia was eon- 
 iulTi V;r ■^^•""':j'<'-t fthe Austraslan Kmnk 
 KlnjJ. The Bavarians were therefore, at this 
 
 BAVARIA. 
 
 period. alnMMt turrounded by the Frankish f» 
 ritorie* . . Whenever they may have fl« 
 submitted to the yoke, it U certaii that a. ,? 
 time of TheudelirtV death [T D. «? o 
 shorty after that event, botfi Bavarians and 
 
 Sw., W"*^ kings. "-W. C. Perry,^^-!: 
 
 A. D. 84>o«a.— Tlie ancient Duchy. Sce 
 Gbkmany: a. D. 848-968 ' 
 
 a^P'^J^~:*^f^^ *» *■'• Austrian March 
 Bee Austria: A. D. 805-1846 "»«rcn. 
 
 A. D. iQ7t-ii78._The Dukes of the House 
 ofGnelt See Oueijs and GHiBBLmE" m^ 
 Saxost: a. D. 1178-1183. ' " 
 
 w*;r°o"^'~°'*"*""'» C™«*<>e of Duke 
 Welf. SceCRtfflADEs: A. D. 1101-1103 
 
 .f^" ^'J?S-«iSa.-The origin of the Elector- 
 ate. See Germany : A. D. 1184-1873 
 
 A. D. II3S-II83-— loTolved in the b^ i« 
 ningaof the Guelf and Ghibelline CoSflkti 
 The strurelet of Henry the Proud and Henry 
 the Hon. See GrELKs and Gbuielli.nes anj 
 Saxony: A. D. 1178-1188. 
 
 A. p. list-Separation of the Austrian 
 March, whicn becomes a diitinct Duchy &* 
 Ai-stria: a. D, 805-1348 ' 
 
 K. D. n8o-i3<6 -The Houie of Wittelt- 
 S'^'Hr't* «C'«?'»ition of Bavaria an" thj 
 Palatinat* of the Rhine.-Losi of the Elect 
 tora^ Vote by Bararia.- When, in 11% The 
 dominions of Henry the Lion, under the h,in of 
 
 A. U. 1178-1188), by the imperial senten.-e of for- 
 fe ture andwere divided and conferre,! upon 
 others by Frederick Barbaroasa, the Dmhy of 
 WiT?,'^fhJh" «^"" to Otto, Count Palatine of 
 Wi tclsbach "As he claimed a descent fn.nian 
 ancient royal family of B«varia,itwa8allep,.,li!ml, 
 In obtaining the iovereignty of that state he had 
 only In some measure regained those righu 
 which In fomer times belonged to his aunstora. " 
 -Sir A. Halllday, AnnaU of the Uoiue of Han- 
 
 Tx\\>^<.^V^r"R^^ ■ ■ ■ "osades.Vn.lant 
 of that Duke Lultpold who fell in combat with 
 the HunMrians, and whose sons and gnimlsoni 
 had already worn the ducal cap of Bavari Xo 
 princely race in Europe is of such ar ..nt e.x 
 •-iction. . .. Bavaria was as yet de.stitute nf 
 towns: Landshutt and Munich first rose Into nin- 
 rtderatlon in the course of the 13th eenturv 
 Katlsbo:?, already a flourishing town, was n- 
 garded as the capital and residence of ilie Oukcs 
 of Bavaria. ... A further accession of ilii:iiitv 
 
 and power awaited the family in 1214 in the 
 lisltion of the Palatinate of Ihe lihlnc. 
 
 acquii 
 
 Uuke Ludwig was now the most powerful i.rinee 
 of Southern Gcnnany. ... Ills son On', ilie 
 Illustrious remaining . . . true to the Imiih rial 
 house, died excommunicate, and his diinlni.jni 
 were placed for several years un<ler an iiiK rdicL 
 . . . Ipon the death of Otto a partition nf ilie 
 Inheritance took place. This parliilon b-iame 
 to the family an hereditary evil, a fatal sourc-e of 
 quarrel and of secret or open ennillv la 
 
 Ithe] dark and dreadful perioii of lii't. rr. cnmn 
 (»<-eGERMAKT: A. I). 1250-1'.'7'J]. wlnii ail men 
 
 282 
 
 waited for tlie final dissolution of the inwiire 
 nothing appears concerning the Witt.isliarh 
 family. . . . finally in 1273 Hii.iolf, the first of 
 the lUh»bur«, awrn-lrd the hr.^ unurcuricd 
 tlirone. . , , He won ovi-r the Bavarian nrinres 
 by bwtowiac his daughtvn upon them hi 
 
BAVARIA. 
 
 BAVABIA. 
 
 intrriBgc. LouU lenuined faithful and Tendered 
 blm good lerrice; but the turbulent Henry, who 
 had already made war upon his brother for the 
 possession of the electoral vote, deserted him, 
 and for this Bavaria was punisheid by the loss of 
 tlie vote, and of the territory aboTe the Enns." 
 Afterwi -ds, for a time, the Duke of Bavaria and 
 ttie Couiit Palatine exercised the rieht of .be 
 electoral vote altematelr; but in 1&6 by the 
 Ooklcn Bull of Charles IV. [see Obbmant : A. D. 
 1347-14931, the vote was given wholly to the 
 Count Palatine, and lost to Bavaria for nearly 
 800 years.— J. I. von DOllinger, Tlu Jloute of 
 Wittrhiaeh (Studiet in Burmean HUtory. eh. 2). 
 
 A. D. 1314.— Election of Lonia to the im- 
 perial throne. See Obbmaict: A. D. 1314-1347. 
 
 A. D. 1500.— Formation of the Circle. See 
 GEBM.iST: A. D. 1493-1519. 
 
 A. D. 1610.— The Duke at the head of the 
 Catholic Leapie. See OsiutanT: A. D. \WH- 
 1618. 
 
 A. D. 1619.— The Duke in command of the 
 forces of the Catholic League. See Oerkaht : 
 A. D. 1618-1820. 
 
 A. D. 1633.— Tranafer to the Duke of the 
 Electoral dignity of the Elector Palatine. See 
 Germ.kNT: a. I). 1621-1623. 
 
 A. D. 1633.— Occupation by CnataTus Adol- 
 phus. SretiERM.^T: A. D. 1631-1632. 
 
 A. D. 1646-1648.— Ravaged by the Swedea 
 and French.— Truce made and renounced by 
 the Elector.— The last campaint of the war. 
 SwOerm.vnt: a. I). 1646-1648. 
 
 A. O. 1648.— Acquisition of the Upper Pala- 
 tinate in the Peace of Weatphalia. See Okh- 
 M.\SY: a. D. 1(M8. 
 
 A. D. 1686.— The League of Aursburg. Si'e 
 Oeiim.*nv: a D. 1686. 
 
 A. D. 1689-1696.— The war of the Grand 
 Alliance against Louis XIV. See France: 
 A I). 1689-1690; 1689-1691; 1692; 1693 (.luLV); 
 1694; 189.')-1696. 
 
 A. D. 1700.— Claim* of the Electoral Prince 
 
 00 the Spanish Crown. See Spain: A. D. 
 1698-1700. 
 
 A. D. 1702 — The Elector Joins France 
 against the Allies. See Okrmaht: A. D. 1702. 
 
 A. D. 1703.— Successes of the French and 
 Bavarians. See Oermant: A. D. 1703. 
 
 A. 0. 1704.— Raraged, crushed and aurren- 
 dered by the Elector. See Qermamt: A. I>. 
 1704. 
 
 A. D. 1705.— DisaolutioB of the Electorate. 
 SeeOKRMANY: A. I), 170.V 
 
 A. D. I7i4.-The Elector reatored to his 
 Dominions. See L'trkcht: A. D. 1712-1714. 
 
 A. D. 1740.— Claima of the Elector to the 
 Austrian succession. See Austria: A. L>. 
 
 174U (( ll TOIIKK). 
 
 A. D. 174a.— The Elector crowned Emperor. 
 
 SeeAiNTKiA: A. 1). 1741 (OrroBKR). 
 
 A. D. 1743 (April).— The Emperor-Elector 
 recovers his Electoral territory. See Am- 
 thia: a. n 1742 (,IiNE-l»ECKMBKn), and 1743. 
 
 A. D. 1743 (Junei.— The Emperor-Elector 
 again a fugitive.— The Auatriana in Posses- 
 sion. Sif AfHTKu: A. 1) 174.1 
 
 A. D. I745.-Death of the Emperor-Elector. 
 -Peace with Austria. See ArsTRlA: A. I). 
 Ii41 ITl.'i 
 
 A. D. !74S. -Tsrminitlon and resaltsef the 
 war of the Austrian Succesaion. See Akla- 
 
 1 HAPEtXE, TUK CUMUIIUB, 
 
 A. D. 2767.— EspnIsioB of the Jesnita. See 
 jMFirrs: A. D. 1761-1769. 
 
 A.D. 1777-17/9.— The Succession question. 
 — " With the di^ath of Maximilian Joseph, of 
 Bavaria (80 December, 1777;, the younger branch 
 of the house of Wittelsbach be<»rno extinct, and 
 the electorate of Bavaria . . . came to an end. 
 By virtue of the original partition iu 1310, the 
 duchy of Bavaria ought to pu.-? to the elder branch 
 of the family, represented by Charles Theodore, 
 the Elector Palatine. But Joseph [the Second, 
 the Emperor], saw the possibility of securing 
 valuable additions to Austria whiclii aduM round 
 off the frontier on the west. The Austrian claims 
 were legally worthless. They were based chiefly 
 upon a gift of the Straubiniren territory which 
 Sigismund was said to hava .nade in 1436 to lis 
 son-in-law, Albert of Austria, but which had 
 never taken effect and hud since been utterly 
 forgottea It would be impossilile to induce the 
 diet to recognise such cliiims, but it might be 
 possible to come to an underataiiding with the 
 aged Charles Theodore, who hiid no legitimate 
 children and was not likely tc feel any very keen 
 interest in his new inheriuince. Without much 
 difflculty the elector was half frightencHl, half 
 induced to sign a treaty (3 January, 1778), by 
 which he recognised the claims put forward by 
 Austria, while the rest of Bavaria was guaranteed 
 to him and his successors. Austrian troops were 
 at once despatched to occ-ipy the ceded districts. 
 The condition of Europe seemed to assure the 
 success of Joseph's bold venture. . . . There 
 was only one quarter from whieli opposition was 
 to l)e expected, Prussia. Frederick promptly ap- 
 pealed to the fundamental laws of the Ein|iirc, 
 and declared his intention of upholding them 
 with arms. But he could find no supporters ex- 
 cept those who were immediately interested, the 
 elector of Saxony, whose mother, tt.s a sister of 
 the late elector of Bavaria, had a legal claim to 
 hisallodiii! property, and ehariesofZweibrQcken, 
 the heir apparent of the childless Charies Theo- 
 dore. . . . Frederick, left to himvlf, despatched 
 an army into Bohemia, where th s Austrian troops 
 had bejn Joined by the emperor In person. But 
 nothing came of the threatened hostilities. Fred- 
 crick waa unable to force on a liattle, and the 
 sn-atUed warwas little more than an armed nego- 
 tiation. . . . Fnini'e and Kussia undertook to 
 mediate, and negotiations were opened ia 1779 at 
 TeachcD where pe:ice waa «igne<l ou the 13th of 
 May. Austria withilrew 1 claims which had 
 been recognised iu the treaty with the Elector 
 Palatine, and received the '<;uartirof iho Inn," 
 I. e., the 'ivtrlct from Pansim to Wildshut 
 Frederick' i'ntual claims to the succession in 
 priiici|ialiiie» of .Vnspach and 
 Austria had every inU'rest in 
 recognl.vd by the tri'aty. The 
 ly were bought olt by n pryment 
 lalcrs. The most uiiaiitlifaclory 
 I>art of the in-aty was that it was giiarauteetl by 
 Krncc and Kussia. . . On the whole, it was a 
 gn-at triumph f"r Frederick and an eijiial h nil- 
 
 the Fni 
 Bulreu! 
 I pposir; 
 rlalins o: 
 A 4,00().(: 
 
 ulion for Joseph II. His schemes of aggruuu 
 Iseinent ha<l Innn foileil."- K. Lodge, Uii 
 Minttrn Karopf, cA 20, aft 3. 
 
 AlJo IN: t. H. Dyer, lliit. of Modem Eurvpt, 
 bk 6, eh. 8 (B 3). 
 
 A. D. tSoi-iSoj.— Acquititiau of leiiitacy 
 under the Treaty of LuoeTillc. Sec Qekmamt: 
 A. D. UMl-ltWS. 
 
 283 
 

 i 
 
 BAYABIA. 
 
 A. D. i«os-i8o6.-An:tmadl».d by Napoleon. 
 —Created a Kiaffdom.— Joined to the Con- 
 federation oi the Rhine. See Qehmaitt: A. D. 
 180*-1806, and 1806 (Jamcabt— Acoubt). 
 
 A. D. 1809.— The reTOlt in the Tytol.— 
 Heroic ttnigeie of Hofer and his conntrrmen. 
 See Oebmant: A. D. 1809-1810 (Apw^-Fkb- 
 buart). 
 
 ^A. 9. 1813.— Abandonment of Napoleon and 
 the Rheniah Confederation.— Union with the 
 AUiei. Soe Germany: A. D. 1818 (Septbmbbb 
 — OcTODEH), and (OcroBEit— Dkcembkr). 
 
 A- D. 1814-1815.— Restoration of the Tyrol 
 to Austria.— Territorial compensations. See 
 Vienna, The Conqress of, and Fbance: A. D. 
 1814 (April — June). 
 
 A. D. 1848 (March).— Rerolutionary out- 
 break.— Expulsion of Lola Hontez.— Abdi- 
 cation of the King. See Qebmant: A. O 1848 
 (MARcn). 
 
 A. D. 1866.— The SeTen Weeks War.— 
 Indemnity and territorial cession to Prussia. 
 SeeUEHMANY: .i. D. 1868. 
 
 A. D. 1870-1871.— Treaty of Union with the 
 Germanic Coofeder .tion, soon transformed 
 into the German Empire. See Oermany: 
 A. D. 1870 (Septe mbeb— Dec bmbeb). aud 1871. 
 
 BAVAY, Orifin of. SeeNEBYii. 
 
 BAXAR, OR BAKSAR, OR BUXAR, 
 
 ---I w-» w.«c»w«»n, vrn DUJkAn 
 
 Battle of (1764). S«e India: A. D. 1757-1772 
 BAYARD, The Cheralier: His knightl- 
 deeds and his death. See Italy: A. D. 1501 
 
 BAYEUX TAPESTRY.-A lemarkaUe 
 roll of niedliEval tajMjstrY, 214 feet long and 
 80 Inclips wide, preserved for centuries in the 
 cathednil at liijeii?'. Normandy, on which a 
 pictoriiil history of tlie Norman Invanlon and 
 conqutst of England is represented, with mo- 
 5J '<;™ "I names and explanatory Inscriptions. 
 Mr. h. A. Freeman {Xartnun Conguat, r. 8, ««<« 
 A)Mya: "It will be seen that, tliroughout this 
 volume, I accept the witness of the Bayeux 
 Tapeslrv as one of my highest authorities, I do 
 not hesitate to say tliat I look on -t as liolding 
 the first place among the autlioritii » on the Nor- 
 man side. That It is a contemporary work I 
 entcrtoin no doubt whatever, and I entertain 
 Just as little doubt as to lu being a work fully 
 entitled to our general conddence. I believe the 
 Upestry to have U-en made for Bishop Odo. and 
 to have l)een most probably designed by liini 
 as nn ornament for bis newly rebuilt ciitiie.lnd 
 churdi (if Bayeux." The precious tap.strv is 
 ""ZIZ:!',','^!" "'« Puljllc library at Hnv.-ux. 
 
 BAYEUX, The Saxons of. See Saxons ok 
 Bayki \. 
 
 BAYLEN, Battle of (!«)«). Sec Spain- 
 A. 1). I-^o'^iMay— Skptembeu). 
 
 BAYOGOULAS, The. See Amkkk an 
 ABi)iiimM-..< Ml KKiior.EAN Family 
 
 BAYONNE (15651. See Frame: A. D. 
 l.WI I'lTil 
 
 BAZAINES SURRENDER AT METZ. 
 
 S^eehiiA.s, I, A I) l-<Ti» (Jii,v_Ai m^ii 1 \r- 
 <»rsT-M:fTi:.Mm;ii), ,,,i,| (Skptkmiiku— Oi Kp- 
 ltKiw. 
 BEACHY HEAD, Battle of. See Kno- 
 
 LANIl \ I) 1«IK»(.Iim;) 
 
 BEACONSFIELD iDiaraeli) Ministries. 
 
 rr,' t'\"'*^" -^ " IWl-lSOa; 1858-1859^ 
 18»i8-l»ro, aud I87a-1K80. 
 
 284 
 
 BBC. 
 
 A."|^5,^Sf7^<*' '^•'•- «« <'-->«»": 
 
 Bc°±^?:=A.^5,' /JS. "' "" ^'"""•- «« 
 ♦fc^J?' 'S«»-At""'''^'' '°"' ^ Tpor-ted in 
 iSaM*^ '•■ ^'»*^"- A. D 
 
 ?;<.. 5.;5'"'* '^ Nantes. See Fbakck; A. D. 
 
 1001— 1d¥o. 
 
 r°^'^a°"''' Cardinal. The aasassiDstion 
 of. See Scotland: A. D. 1S46 
 „ BEAUFORT. N. C, Capture of, by the 
 National forces (i862>. See United States of 
 Am.: a. D. 1863 (J iart-Apbil- North 
 Caroijka).. 
 
 ^f.^H'^^l ^"'« of- -The English com- 
 manded by the Duke of Clarence, defeated in 
 Anjou by an srmv of French and Scots, under 
 the Dauphin of Prance; the Duke of cian'oce 
 slain. 
 
 ,.,?! A"?!^'*CHAIS'S TRANSACTIONS 
 WITH THE UNITED STATES. X 
 United States of Am. : A. D. 1776-177H 
 
 a °n^K5*?.'*'^' B'"'« »'• S™ ^''^•'"■'; 
 
 A. U. 1>>70 (AUOUST — SEPTFMnER) 
 
 BEAUREGARD, General G. T.-Bombard- 
 ment of Fort Sumter. See Uniteb Statks ok 
 Am. : A. D. 1861 (March- April). ... At the 
 first Battle of Bull Run. See United .Stvtks 
 OF Am : A. D. 1861 (July: Virginia). . . Cora- 
 mand in the Potomac district. See Ixrriu 
 States of Am.: A. D. 186I-1H62 (DErEMiiuii- 
 
 April: \ iRoiNiA) Command in the West. 
 
 See United States of Am. : A. U. 1882 (Ficimi.- 
 ART— April: Tennessee), and (Aphii,— Mu- 
 
 Tenne8«ee— Mississippi) The Defence of 
 
 Charleston. See United States of Am ■ A D 
 
 =J4^V?.V?'.'Z^'^'^"'""'"= South Carolina). ' 
 BEAUVAIS, Orimn ot See Belo.« 
 g|BRYKIANS.Vhe. See Bithyniani 
 BEC, Abbey of.— One of the most famous 
 abbeys and ecclesiastical schools of the middle 
 ages. lu name was derived from the little beck 
 or rivulet of a valley In Normandy, on the banks 
 of which a pious knight, Herlouln. retiring fmu 
 the world, had fixed his hermitage. The renown 
 of the piety of Heriouin drew olliers around 
 him and resulted In the formation of a religiom 
 community with himself at lu head. Among 
 those attracted to Herlouin's retreat were a nolde 
 Lombard scholar, Lanfrsncof Paviu, wlionfttr- 
 wanis became the great Norman arelil.i.-hiip of 
 Canterbury, and Anselm of Aoslii, anoihcr 
 Italian, who succeeded Lanfranc at Canlr rlmry 
 with still more fame. The teaching of Lanfranc 
 at Bee raised It. says Mr. Green in his SJ..rl 
 /fi»<.»ry </ tlu Rngliih I'ciplf, into tlie most 
 famous school of Christendom ; it was, in fart, 
 the first wave of the inUilleetuiil ni .vcmcnt 
 which was spreading fnmi Italv to ilie rtidir 
 countries of the West. The fubilc of lli.' c.inon 
 law and of mediaeval scholastliisni. wiili tlie 
 philosophical skepticism which tiMi HwoKeiindrr 
 its infiuencc, all trace theirori»:iri to llei- 'The 
 glory of Uee would have iM-eii as ti:lll^iI^ry as 
 tliat of other monastic hrnm's. Imi f .r ihf ap 
 pearanceof one illustrioiw man [LiiiifniM | who 
 came to lie enrolled as a private miiulnrif the 
 hrrithrrh.->.--i. snd wh;, g^-.r I!.t fur :i w-Hic a 
 special and honorable cliaracter with which 
 hardly any other moiiuslcry iu Christendom coul J 
 
BEC. 
 
 BEGCINE3. 
 
 compart."— E. A. Freeman, Norman Corupuit. 
 
 BECHUANALAND.— The country of tha 
 Berhuanas, S. Africa, between the Traiisvaa! and 
 Oerman territory. Partly a possession and partly 
 A protectorate of Great Britain since 1884-8i 
 
 BECKET, Thomu, and King Henry II. 
 SccENnLAXD: A. D. 1162-1170. 
 
 BED-CHAMBER QUESTION, The. See 
 Enol.vnd: a. D. 1X37-1839. 
 
 BED OF JUSTICE.— "The ceremony by 
 which the French kin^ compelled the registra- 
 tion of their edicts by the Parliament was called 
 1 ' lit de justice ' [bed of justice]. The monarch 
 pncceded in state to the Grand Chambre, and 
 llie chancellor, having taken his pleasure, an- 
 nounced that the king required such and such a 
 decree to be entered on their records in his 
 pri'sence. It was held that this personal inter- 
 ference of the sovereign suspended for the time 
 being the functions of all Inferior magistrates, 
 anJ the edict was accordingly registered without 
 « word of objection. The form of registration 
 was as follows: ' Le roi s£ant en son lit de Justice 
 a iirdonn^ et ordonne que les presents Sditaseront 
 curogistrcs;' and a* the end of the decree, 'Fait 
 en Parlemcnt, le rol y scant en son lit de ^\u- 
 xke.'"—StudeiUi' Hint, of France, not.) to eh. 19. 
 —See, also, Pabliamknt of Paris. — "The 
 origin of this tirm ['l)ed of justice'] has been 
 much discussed. The wits complained it was so 
 Btylcd because there justice was put to sleep. 
 'file term was proljubly derived from the arrange- 
 imnt of the throne on which the king sat, 'The 
 Iniek uiid sides were made of bolsters and it was 
 called a bed."— J. B. Perkins, France urtder 
 .Vftitii-i:!, t. 1. p. 388, foot-note. — An elaborate 
 aiul eiitertiiiuing account of a notable Bed of 
 Ji.stice held imder the Regency, in the early 
 part of the reign of Louis xV., will be found in 
 the Memoirs of the Duke de 8uiut Simon, 
 abridiK il tnmslation of St. John, v. 4, ch. 5-7. 
 
 BEOR, Battle of. See MAnoMETAN CoN- 
 qiEsT: .V 1). 61)9-632. 
 
 BEDRIACUM, Battlet of. See Rom: 
 A. 1>. IW. 
 
 BEEF-EATERS, The. Certain palace at- 
 ti'n>l:i'itr< i.n tlio Kmrli.-ih sovereign whose duty is 
 toeiirry >ii> the royal dinner. See Yeomen or 
 
 lilKGlMil). 
 
 BEEF STEAK CLUB, The. See Clubs: 
 
 i nK lil K.K Stkak. 
 
 BEER-ZATH, Battle of.— The field on 
 wliieli the great Jewish soldier and patriot. Judos 
 Miieeabieiis, liaviug but 800 men with him. was 
 iK-sel tiv 111! army of the Syrians anil slain, B. C. 
 161.— .fosephus, Aniiii. „f the Jem, bk. Vi. eh. 11. 
 
 Also in: II. Ewiild, ifitt. ofltmtl. Iik. 5. teet. 2. 
 
 BEG.— .\ Turkish title, signifying prince or 
 lorl; whenri', als4i, Hey. See Bkv. 
 
 BEGGARS (Gueux) of the Netherland Re- 
 volt. See .NKTlIKiU..l.NDS: A. D. 1 jfl'2-l.')88. 
 
 BEGGARS OF THE SEA. See Nethkb- 
 
 I.-KNIIS A II. Vui. 
 
 BEGUINES, OR BEGHINES. — BEG- 
 HARDS. - Weaving Brothera.- Lollardi.- 
 Brethren of the Free Spirit,— Fratricelli.— 
 Biiochi.- Turlupina.— " In the year 1180 there 
 liwd in Liejje a certain kindly, stainmeriug 
 jinest, known from bis iDflrmlty as Laml>ert le 
 L'-.^iLie T!'.i» msr, tt-'k pity on tlie destitute 
 wiiluwsnf the town. Despite the impediment 
 in his speeeh, he was, as ofun happens, a man of 
 4 tertuiii power and cloijuence lu preaching. , . . 
 
 This Lambert lo moved the hearts of his hearers 
 that gold and silver poured in on him, civen to 
 relieve such of the destitute wunien of Liege ns 
 were still of good and pious life. .With the 
 moneys thus collected, Lamliert built a little 
 square of cottages, with a church in the middle 
 and a hospital, and at the side a cemetery. IIcic 
 he housed these homeless widows, one or two in 
 each little house, and then he drew up a half 
 monastic rjle which was to guide their lives. 
 The rule was very simple, quite informal: no 
 vows, no great renunc'ation bound the 'Swes- 
 trones Brod durch Got." A certain time of the 
 day was set apart for prayer and pious medita- 
 tion ; the other hours they spent in spinning or 
 sewing. In keeping their houses clean, or they 
 went as nurses in time of sickness into the 
 homes of the townspeople. . . . Thus these 
 women, though pious ana sequestered, were still 
 in the world and of the world. . . . Soon we 
 find the name ' Swestrones Brod durch Got ' set 
 aside for the more usual title of Beguines or 
 Bcghines. Different authorities give different 
 origins of this word. . . . Some have thought it 
 was taken in memory of the founder, the chari- 
 table Lambert le B*gut. Others think that, even 
 as the Mystics or Muttercrs, tlie Lollards or 
 Hummers, the Popelbards or Babblers, so the 
 Beguines or Stammerers were thus nicknamed 
 from their continual murmuring in prayer. This 
 is plausible: but not so plau.sible as the sugges- 
 tion of Dr Mosheiin and M. Auguste Jundt, who 
 derive the word Beguine from the Flemish 
 word 'beggen,' to beg. For we know that 
 these pious women bad been veritable begcars; 
 and Ix'Kgan should they again become. With 
 surprising swiftness the new order spread 
 through the Netherlands and into France and 
 Germany. . . . Lambert may have lived to see 
 a beguinage in every great town within his keu; 
 but we hear no more of him. The Beguines are 
 no longer for Liege, but for all the world. Each 
 city possessed its quiet congregation ; and at any 
 sieK.be<l you might meet a woman clad in a 
 simple smock and a great veil like mantle, who 
 lived only to pray and do deeds of mercv. . , , 
 The success of the Beguines had made tfiem an 
 example. . . . Before St, Francis and Mt, Dominic 
 in8titul<'d the mendicant orders, there ha<l silently 
 grown up in every town of the yetheriands a 
 spirit of fratemitv, not imposed by any rule, but 
 the natural impulse of a people. The weavers 
 seated all day long alone at their rattling hHnns, 
 the armourers beating out their thouglits in iron, 
 the cross-lejfgiil tailors and busy cobblers think- 
 ing and stitching together — these men silent, 
 pious, thoughtful, joined themsi'lves In a fra- 
 ternity modelled on thai of the Beguines. They 
 were' called the Weaving Brothers. Bound by 
 no vows and fettered bv no rule, they still lived 
 the worldly life and plied their trade for hire. 
 Only ill their leisure they met together and 
 prayeil and dreamed and thought, , , . Such 
 were the founders of the great fraternity of 
 ' Fratres Textori'S,' or Ileghurds as in later vears 
 the iieople more gi'iieniUv calleil them."— A, M. 
 F, Iloliinson, The Kh.l ,',f the Midille Agn. 1 — 
 " The Lollards differed from the Heglmrds less 
 In reali'y than In name. We are informed ro- 
 spcLting thrm t;,.it, ii their origin In .Vnlrtetp, 
 shortly after 1300, tliey ossociateil together for 
 the purpose of waiting upon iMUienls danger- 
 ously sick, and burying 'he dead. . , . Very 
 
 285 
 
1 ^" 
 
 BEGUINES. 
 
 early, however »n element of a dUTerent kind 
 began to work In those fellowghipg. Even about 
 the do« of the 18th centunr Irregularities and 
 extravagances are laid to their charge The 
 
 cliargra brought against the later Beghards and 
 Lollards, m connection, on the one hand, with 
 the fanatical Franciscans, who were violentlr 
 conu-nding with Uie Church, and on the other, 
 w th the Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit 
 ro ale to tlirec particulars, viz., an aversion t<i 
 all useful industry, conjoined with a pnjpensity 
 to mendicancy and idleness, an inU-n^perate 
 spirit of opposition to the Church, and a skepti- 
 cal and more or less pantheistical mysticism 
 Ihcy . . . declared that the time of Antichrist 
 was come, and on all hands endeavoured to em- 
 broi the people with their spiritual guides. 
 Their own professed object was to restore the 
 pure pnmeval state, the divine life of freedom 
 Innocence, and nature. The idea tliey formed 
 or that state was, that man, being in and of hhn- 
 self one with God, requires only to act In the 
 consciousness of this unity, and to follow un- 
 restrained the divinely implanted impulses and 
 lucl nations of his nature, fn order to be good and 
 
 ifodly. -C. tllinann, Stformert btf^re the Re- 
 orrmttwn e. 2, jm. 14-16.-" The names of beg- 
 lards and beguincs came not unnaturally to be 
 tised for deyottes who, without being members 
 of any regular monastic society, made a profes- 
 sion of rehgious strictness; and thus the applica- 
 tions of the names to some kinds of sectaries was 
 easy — more especially as many of these found 
 It convenient tu assume the outward appearance 
 of betfhanls, in the hope of dUguising their dif- 
 fennces fr<>m the church. But on the other 
 hand, tliis drew on the orthodox bocliards fre- 
 quent jHTsecutions, and many of th.'m, for the 
 sake of siifety. were glad to connect themselves 
 as tertianes with the great mendicant orders 
 U-i.i' .> ^ '■"'' «'"tiiry, the popes dealt hardly 
 nith the beghards; yet orthodox s<Kicties under 
 this name still remained in Germany; and in 
 Bjlgiurn. the country of their origin, sisterhoods 
 Of l)e«uines flounsh to the present day 
 Mattl.i.isof Janow. the Bohemian reformer, 'in 
 the end of the 14th century, says that all who 
 act < ilTeremly from the profane vulgar are 
 called Ix.ghardi or turiupini. or by other blas- 
 phemouii names. . . . Among those who were 
 confoumled with the beghartis- partly because 
 like them, they abounded along the lUiine — 
 were the brethren and sisters of the Free Spirit 
 Ihese appear in various places under various 
 names. They wore a peculiarly simple dress 
 professrc to give themselves to routemplatlon 
 and. K.l.ling tliat laUiur is a hindrance to con- 
 templaliDii and to the elevation of the soul to 
 2?i ;, ''^■'^.''.r beggary. Their doctrines 
 were mystical and alnuMt pantheistic. . Tlic 
 brethri'n and usters of the Free Spirit were much 
 pers«<iiteil, and pml>al)ly formed a large pro- 
 portion .if ili,«e who were burnt under tlie name 
 of bej:lmr.is --.J, c. Uohcrtson. I[i.t. of Chri>- 
 turn I hurfh, l,k 7. ch. 7(r 8) -••N,.«r the clos,. 
 oft ns centiirv (the Ilith] origlnaud ii Italy the 
 I-ratrijeili and liij.Hhi. parties tliat in Germany 
 ami l-miue were denominated lUgiianls; and 
 
 othir pontiffs con<lemned. and wishe.1 to see 
 pcrsiTute,! l.y the In-.iuUltinn and rxtenii'.aatcd 
 1?J'"'';T r.T"'''-' .""y- The Fratrieelli, who 
 •lao '.ailed themselves In Latin ' Fratres parvi ' 
 
 286 
 
 BEHRINO SEA CONTROVEHSY. 
 
 (tittle Brethren), or ' Pratcrcull de paupere vita' 
 (Little Brothers of the Poor Life), ^re fVancta 
 can monk., but detache<i from the great f mUv 
 of Pruiciscans : who whAed to obse^e the S 
 lations prescribed by their founder 8t ¥tlsL 
 more perfectly than the others, and tlitrefo« 
 PO-esMd no property, either individually " 
 collecUvely, but obtained their necessary fo.^ 
 from day to day by begging. Tliov m/ 
 
 dieted a reforniation and puriflratlon ..f the 
 wlw- ■ A ■ They extolled Celestine V. L the 
 legal founder of their sect; but Boniface an<i h« 
 succeeding pontiffs, who opposed the Fr.triee HI 
 they denied to be true p6ntiffa As IIr. .reat 
 Franciscan family had iu associates and .U-xnU 
 
 St Francis [which required only cerUin nious 
 observances, such as fasu, prayers, eonlinlZ 
 
 >.^J^' '^^^K^^- ^""'"y °' manners, &c.' 
 but did not prohibit pnvate property. niar^isCT. 
 pubUe oiBces, and worldly occupktioMl. and wl^ 
 
 tae Fratrieelli ... had numerous Tertlarii of 
 Ito own. These were called, in Italy. UizocW 
 and BocaaotI; in France Beguini; and inTer 
 many Beghardi, by which name all the T.rt aril 
 Tl!^^J^°uJ ^^^:^.- These differ«l from 
 
 Th«^Vi^ r • • ""'y. '" "',"' ■"«!« <'f life- 
 The Fratrieelli were real monks, living m„ier 
 
 11 ?.'? "1 ?'• r™""^'*; b"' the BizwliT or Be- 
 gulni lived in the manner of other people 
 rotally different from these austere Heguini 
 and Beguino!, were the German and Iklitic 
 Beguins, who did not indeed originate in this 
 century, but now first came into notice 
 Concerning the Turiupins. many have written- 
 butnoncaccuratcly. . . The origin of th,. name,' 
 I know not; but I am able to prove fr>„„ mh- 
 stential documents, that the Turiupins who were 
 burned at Paris, and in other parts of Kmna> 
 were no other than the Brethren of the Krw 
 Spirit whoin the pontiffs and coun( ils ron- 
 ^^"i^eA —J. L. Von Mosheim. I,uf> ..f tWl,. 
 »M*h«jf IIut..bk. 8. century l:i, pt. 2, cli'. i, „,t 
 89-41, atuleK. 5, iret. 9. foot-note. 
 
 Auo in: L, Mariotti (A. Gallengs). /V,i Mdm 
 ""£.£.1 ?>'»"•— See, also. Pii ahoh. 
 »f3B^^K?r ^"°." <OUDE), Warren 
 PBS<^5-f?,''M""'o "1? India: A. D. i::;i-iis\ 
 BEHTSTUN, Rock of.-" This rein.irkal.Ie 
 spot, lying on the dire<'t route iH'tween Hiil.\ Ion 
 and Ecbatana, and presenting the umisuul n,,,.- 
 blnat on of a copious fountain, a riili pi liu ami 
 a rock suitable for sculpture, must Imvc ,i,rlv 
 attracted the attention of the great moriardi's 
 who marched their armies tliroiigh the Zneros 
 range, as a place where they might eonveni<nlly 
 set up memorials of their exploits The 
 
 tablet and inscriptions of Darius, wlil.li liavc 
 made Bchistun famous in miKlern times ,m In a 
 recess to the right of the scariM^i f,i,e of U\e 
 ")ck, and at a considerable elevation ■— (J U;,w. 
 linson, /^Vm Great .V„i,arc/iif» : .\U,/i,i ,■>, \ _ 
 The mountain or rock of Uehistun fixes the 
 location of the dUtrict known to ilieiin.ksaa 
 HagLstana. "It lies southwest of K.iviml 
 between that mountain and tlic Za^rnis iu tlie 
 valley of the Choaspcs. and is the distrid now 
 known as KIrmenshah."— M. Duncker, ;//»( ,/ 
 Anttquiti/, hk. 8. eh. I 
 
 BgHRINC SEA CONTROVERSY, and 
 ArDltratioo. See Ukitbu States ok Am.: 
 A. O. ltJtM-1883. 
 
BEIRUT. 
 
 BELORADB. 
 
 BEIRUT, Origin of. See BBRTTca. 
 
 BELA I., Kiae of HanEUT, A. D. 1000- 
 
 10«3.....B«U II., A. D. 1181-1141 Bel« 
 
 III.,A.D. Ii78-11M.....B«UIV., A. D. 1280- 
 1270. 
 
 BELCHITE, Battle oC See Spain: A. D. 
 1809 (Fbbrcart— Jum). 
 
 BELERION, OR BOLERIUM.— The 
 Romto name of Land's End, Engfauid. Bee 
 
 BUTAIN: CBtTIcTRTOB. 
 
 BELFORT.— Siece bj the Germaas (1870- 
 1871). See Francb: A. D. 1870-1871. 
 
 BELG.£, The.— "This Belgian confedera- 
 tion includea the people of all the country north 
 of the Seine and Mame. bounded by the Atlantic 
 na the west and the Rhine on the north and east, 
 except the Hediomatrici and Treviri. . . . The 
 old oiTisions of France before the great revolu- 
 tion of 1789 corresponded In some degree to the 
 divisions of the country In the time of Cssar, 
 snd the names of the people are still retained 
 with little alteration In the names of the chief 
 towns or the names of the onte-rerolutionary 
 divisions of France. In the country of the Rem! 
 between the Hame and the Aisne there is the 
 town of Reims. In the territory of the Suessiones 
 between ihe Mame and the Aisne t here is Solssons 
 on the Aisne. The BelloTact were west of the 
 Oise (Isara) a branch of the Seine: their chief 
 town, which at some time received the name of 
 Ccaaromagus, is now Beauvais. The Nervii 
 were between and on the Sambre and the Schelde. 
 The Atrebates were north of the Bellovaci be- 
 tween the Somme and the upper Schelde : their 
 chief place was Nemetacum or Xemctooenna, 
 now Arras in the old division of Artoia The 
 Ambiani were on the Somme (Samara): their 
 name is represented by Amiens (.Samarobtlva). 
 The Horini, or sea-coast men extended from 
 Boulogne towards Dunkeroue. The Mcnapii 
 hnnlcrMt on the northern Horini and were on 
 Imth sides of the lower Rhine (B. O. iv., 4). The 
 Caloti were north of the lower Seine along the 
 cosat in the Pays de Caux. The Vclocasses were 
 ciLst (if the Cslcti on the north side of the Seine 
 :u far as the Oise : their chief town was Rotoma- 
 I7US (Riiuen) and their country was afterwards 
 Voxin Normand and Vexln Fran^ais. The Vero- 
 maiidui were north of the Suessiones: their 
 cliU'f town under the Roman dominion, Augusta 
 Veromanduorum. Is now St. Qucntin. The Adus- 
 tucl were on the lower Maas. The Condrusi and 
 tbe others incluled under the name of Oermant 
 were on the M...is, or between the Maas and the 
 Kliine. The Eburones had the country about 
 Tcingem and Spa, snd were the immediate neigh- 
 lioureuf tbe Menapii on the Rhine. "— O. Long, 
 DefUne of tKt Romin BepuNie, v. 4, eh. 8.— 
 "CiEsar . . . informs us that, in their own esti- 
 mation, they [the Belgte] were principally de- 
 scended from a Qerman stock, the offspring of 
 8<)me early migration across the RLlne. . . . 
 Stmbo ... by no means concurred in CiEsar's 
 view of the origin of this . . . rare, which he 
 Ix'licved to be (iaulish and not Oerman, though 
 ili!l«ring widely from the Oalli, or Oauls of 
 111" ccntml region."— C. Merivale, Jlut. of the 
 
 Also i.n: E. Guest, Originn Celtiat, t. 1, eh. 12. 
 
 B- C, 57.~Cseaar'9 campaign against the 
 confederacy.— In the stcond year of Cesar's 
 command in Gaul, B. C. 87, he led his legions 
 against the ficlgs, whom he chanctorised b his 
 
 Commentaries as the bravest of all the people of 
 Gaul. The many tribes of the Belgian country 
 had joined themselves in a great league to op- 
 pose the advancing Roman power, andwereable 
 to bring into tbe field no less than 290,000 men. 
 Tbe tribe of the Reml alone refused to join the 
 confederacy and placed themselves on the Roman 
 side. Csesar who had quartered his array during 
 the winter in the country of the Sequani, marchca 
 boldly, with eight legions, into the midst of these 
 swarming enemies. In his first encounter with 
 them on the banks of tlio Aisne, tbe Galgic bar- 
 barians were terribly cut to pieces and were so 
 disheartened that tribe after tribe made submis- 
 sion to the proconsul as he advanced. But the 
 Nervli, who boasted a Germanic descent, together 
 with the Aduatucl, the Atrebates and the Vero- 
 mandui, rallied their forces for a struggle to the 
 death. Tbe NervU succeeded in surprising the 
 Romans, while the latter were preparing their 
 camp on the banks of the Gambre, and very 
 nearly swept Cnsar and his veterans off the field, 
 by their furious and tremendous charge. But 
 the energy and personal Influence of the one, 
 with tbe steady discipline of the other, pn vailed 
 in the end over the untrained valour of the N'crvii, 
 and the proud nation was not only defeated but 
 annihilated. "Their eulogy is preserved in the 
 vrritten testimony of their conqueror; and the 
 Romans long remembered, and never failed to 
 signalize their formidable valour. But this 
 recollection of their ancient prowess be<»me from 
 that day the principal monument of their name 
 and history, for the defeat they now sustained 
 well nigh annihilated the nation. Their combat- 
 ants were cut off almost to a man. The e'ders 
 and the women, who had been left In secure re- 
 treats, came forth of their own accord to solicit 
 the conqueror's clemency. ... 'Of 600 sena- 
 tors,' they said, 'we have lost all but three; of 
 80.000 fighting men 500 only remain.' Cirsar 
 treated the survivors witli compassion." — C. 
 Merivale, UM. of the Human*, ch. 7. 
 
 Also in: Julius Ciesar, 0<i«tV! Wnn,bk. 2.— 
 0. Long, Deelintoftlielioman Republic, e. 4. <!A. 
 3.— Napoleon III., Jlint of Caiar, bk. 8, ch. 5. 
 
 BELGiE OF BRITAIN, The.— Siippo^i^d 
 to t)e a colony from tin- Belga; of the 1 ontiiient. 
 SeeBiiiiAiN: Ci i.Tf TuiiiF.ti. 
 
 BELGIUM: Ancient and Mediaeval His- 
 tory. Sec Bei.o.k, N'kiivii, Fuanks, Loiiuainb, 
 
 FLANDKKS, LifeoE. NiTnEllI.ANDS. 
 
 Modem History. See NKTnKRi.AND«. 
 
 Constitution of 1893. See Constitltioii 
 or BsLOirM. 
 
 BELGRADE : Origin.- During the attacks 
 of the Avars upon the territory or the Eastern 
 Empire, in the last years of tbe 6tb century, the 
 city of Singidunum, at the junction of the Save 
 with the Danube, was taken and totally 
 destroyed. The advantageous site of the extinct 
 town soon attracted a colony of Sclavonians, 
 who raised out of the ruins a new and strongly 
 fortified city — the Belgrade, or the White CMty 
 of later times. "The Sclavonic name of B>;1- 
 grade is mentioned in the 10th century by Cun- 
 stantine Porphyorgeoitus : the Latin appellation 
 of Altia Gneca is used bv the Franks in tbe 
 beginning of the 9tb."— E. Gibbon, Decline and 
 Pifl.-.fthr' Rfljfuin Bnr-frf. eh. 48. ft'-fr. 
 
 A. b. 1435.- Acquired by Hungary and forti- 
 Bed acainst the Turk*. See Hunuahy; A. U. 
 1301-1443. 
 
 287 
 
BELGRADE. 
 
 A. D. I44a.-Pint npnlae of the Torki. 
 R-r TunKS (Tire Ottoman*): A. D. 1402 • I'li 
 
 A. D. 1456.— Secoad rcpnlie of the 1 urkt. 
 Svv HuKOARY: A. D. 1443-1*58; and Turk» 
 (TbrOttomaxs): A. D. 14.51-1481. 
 ^A. p. isai.— Sien and upture br SolTman 
 the Mafnificeiit. Bee Homoabv; A. D. 1487- 
 1336. 
 
 A. D. i68S-iteo.— Taken by the Anitrians 
 and recorered by the Tnrks. See Hdnoart: 
 A. D. lfl8S-16M. 
 
 A. D. 1717.— RecereiT from the Tnrka. See 
 Hcnoart: a. D. ItW-lllS. 
 
 A. D. 1739— Restored to the Tnrka. See 
 Rdwia: a. D. 1725-1789. 
 
 A. D. 1780-1791.— Taken by the Anatriaaa 
 and rettored to the Tnrka. ^ Turm: A. D. 
 1778-1798. 
 
 A. D. t8o6.— Snrpriaed and taken by the 
 Serrians. See Balkan and Dandbian Statbs: 
 14th-19th Centdr»8 (Sbrvta). 
 
 A. D. i8«3.— Withdrawal of TnrkUh 
 troopa. See Balkan and DAiniBtAN States: 
 14Tn-19TH Centuriks (Skbvia). 
 
 I - > 
 
 *i t' 
 
 BELGRADE, The Peace of. See Rossia: 
 A. D. 1725-1739. 
 
 BELIK, Battle on the (Canha—B. C. u). 
 Sec Rome: B. C. 57-53. ** 
 
 BELISARIUS, Campaigns ot See Van- 
 dals: A. D. 533-534.1111(1 Home: A. D. 535-55-'?. 
 
 BELIZE, or British Hondnras. Sec NiCA- 
 R.*01!a: a. D. ISW. 
 
 BELL ROLAND, The great. See Oiient: 
 
 A. n i.-jsa-i.vto. 
 
 .^^^y- TELEPHONE, The invention of 
 
 t&e. See Ei-Et-iKK Ai, Discovkut and Inven- 
 TicN-: A. D. 1S78-1892. 
 
 BELLE ISLE PRISON-PEN. The. See 
 
 ^■'A'^'^% ^.'.' I R"-0«-PkN8, CoNFKDKIiATK. 
 
 ilJ-LOVACI The. See BKi.<i.f;. 
 BELLVILLE, Battle of. See Uhfted 
 
 BELMONT, Battle of. Sec Umi in .Siates 
 
 OF.\.M.: A. D. 1881 (SBPTKllBEU-NuVKMDEn: 
 
 On Tni'. MtBsiBsippi). 
 
 BELOIT COLLEGE. Sec Eui cation, 
 MomnN: Ameuica : A. D. 1769-1884. 
 
 bEMA, The. SeePNvx, 
 
 BEMIS HEIGHTS, Battle of. Sre United 
 
 BENARRQ^ \'' lT77(Jui.v-Ot,oi.EK). 
 
 titinAKEls.— Benares "msy even date 
 from tlie time when the Aryan race first spread 
 Itself over Nortlicrn India. ... It is certain 
 that the city is ri'ganled by all Hindus as coeval 
 with the birth of Hinduism, a notion derived 
 both from tnulltlon and from tlicirown writings 
 Allusions to Benares are exceedingly abundant iii 
 ancient Sanskrit literature: and perhaps there Is 
 no city In all Hindustan more frequiiitly referred 
 to. lly reason of some subtle and nivstcrious 
 charm, It has linked itself with the Vdlgious 
 sympathies of the Hindus through every century 
 of iU existence. For the sanctity of ||a In- 
 habitants — of lu temples and reservoirs — of its 
 wells and streams — of the very soil that Is 
 trodden — of the very air tliat is breathed- and 
 of everything In and around it, Benares has been 
 Tamed for thousands of years. . . Previously 
 to Uic Introduction of the Buddhist faith Into 
 India, she was already the sacred dty of the 
 iaod,— the centre of Hinduism, and chief seat of 
 Ita authority. Judging from the strong feelings 
 
 BENEDICTINE ORDERS. 
 
 of veneration and affection with which the 
 native community regard her In the present dav 
 and bearing In mlncTthat the founder of Bud' 
 dhism commenced his ministry at this snot ii 
 seems Indisputable that. In those early times nn. 
 ceding the Buddhist refonnatlop the city i.uia 
 have exerted a powerful and wldc-spi^ad 
 relMoiM Influenci over the hind. Thioiighoiu 
 the Buddhist period in IndU-a periodext.n 
 tag from 700 to 1,000 years- she gave the same 
 support to Buddhism which she had previously 
 given to the Hindu faith. Buddhist works of 
 ™' e™ • • • c'esfly establish the fact that the 
 HuddhlsU of those days regarded the city with 
 much the same kind of veneration as the Ilindii 
 doesillw."- M. A. Shcrring, T/it Siwrf Ciivof 
 tn* JuMu; eh. 1.— For an account of the Enit- 
 llsh annexation of Benares, see Indu- A i) 
 177;'-1785. 
 BENEDICT II., Pope, A. D. 684-085,,.. 
 
 Ben<.-dlct III., Pope, A. D 835-838 t'en- diet 
 
 IV., Pope, A. D. 900-003 Benedict V 
 
 A°??' ^ B;.*^"*^ Benedict VI., Pope' 
 
 t;JLV^'"i Benedict VII., Pope, A. n 
 
 «2:*^ Benedict VIII., Pope, A, 1). 101": 
 
 1^1- -.XVo^""!''' ^^■' ^SP'' A- D- 1033-1044. 
 
 1047-1048 Benedict X., Antipope. A D 
 
 10,'!8-1059 Benedict XI., Pope, AD IMlll 
 
 1804 Benedict XII., Pope, A. D. 1334-134" 
 
 ....Benedict XIII., Pope, A. D. 1394-1423 (at 
 
 Avignon) Benedict XIII., Pope, A. D 1734- 
 
 1730..... Benedict XIV., Pope, A. D. ' 17401 
 
 BENEDICTINE ORDERS.-The rule of 
 St. Benedict.— "There were many monastirfca 
 in the West bi'fore the time of St. B»"ne.lictof 
 NursLi (A. D. 480); but he hus been rightly con- 
 sidered the father of Western monastlcisiii ■ for 
 he not only founded an onlcr to which liiany 
 religious houses became attnrhed, but he estab- 
 lished a rule for their government which in Its 
 main features, wns adopted as the rule of mon- 
 astic life by all the orders for more than five 
 centuries, or until the time of St. Dominic and 
 St. Francis of Assisl. Benedict was first a 
 hermit, living In the mountains of Snutliorn 
 Italy, and In that region he afterwards estab- 
 lished In succession twelve monasteries, each 
 with twelve monks and a superior. In tlic year 
 .530 he founded the great mouastery of Monte 
 Casmo as the mother -house of his order, a house 
 which iK'came the most cclebmted and powirfiil 
 monastery, according to .AIontalcml)ert, in the 
 Catholic universe, celehmted especially because 
 there Benedict prepared his rule and fonnci! the 
 type which was to serve as a moilel to the 
 innumemblc communities submitting to that 
 sovercigu code. . . . Neither In the East nor in 
 tiic West were the monks originally ecclesiaitirs; 
 and It was not until the eighth century that they 
 became priesU, called regulars. In contrast with 
 the ordfn:iry parish clergy, who were called 
 seculars, ... As missionaries, they pmvi'd tlic 
 most powerful Instruments In extending the 
 authority and the boundaries of the church. 
 The monk had no Individual property: even 
 his dress belonged to the m mastery. ... To 
 enable him to work effleiently. It was neocssary 
 to feed him well; and such was the Injunctiob 
 of Benedict, as opposed to the former practice of 
 strict ascellciMn. "— C, J. Stiltc, .Vij,/„j is 
 Medtmud JIM., eh. 12.-" Benedict wouKI not 
 have the monks limit themselves to spiritual 
 
 288 
 
BENEDICTINE ORDERS. 
 
 BENEVOLENCES. 
 
 labour, to the action of the loul upon itself; he 
 mode external labour, manual or litemry, a strict 
 oliIlKStion of his rule. ... In order to banish 
 indoienrc, which he called the enemy of the soul, 
 be reguiated minutely the employment of every 
 liour of the day according to the seasons, ami 
 ordained that, after having celebrated the 
 praises of God seven times a-day, seven houra 
 adsy should be given to manual labour, and two 
 hours to reading. . . . Those who arc sicilicd in 
 the practice of an art or trade, could only exer- 
 cise it by the permission of the abbot, in all 
 humility i and If any one prided himself on his 
 Ulent, or the profit which resulted from it to 
 the bouse, he was to have his occupation changed 
 until he b'-' '•'nbled himself. . . . Obedience 
 Is also to . a work, obedientiae laborem, 
 
 the most i..e.itoriou8 and essential of all. A 
 monk entered into monastic life only to make 
 the sacrifice of self. This sacrifice implied 
 especially that of the will. . . . Thus the rule 
 pursued pride into its most secret hiding-place, 
 t^ubmission had to be prompt, perfect, ami 
 absolute. The monk must obey always, wltli- 
 niit reserve, and without murmur, even in those 
 tilings which stemed impossible and above his 
 strength, trusting in the succour of Ood, if a 
 humble and seasonable remonst'-ince, the only 
 thing permitted to him, was rot accepted by hb 
 si.j jriors."— The Count de Hontalembert, The 
 Monkt of the West, bk. 4, leet. 2 (c. 2). 
 
 Also IK: E. L. Cutts, Sanet and Charnttertof 
 theMimieAgt»,e 2.-8. R Maitland, The Dark 
 Ai/et, Xb. 10.— J. H. Newman, Mition of St. 
 Benetlict (Hut. Sketehet, t. 2).— P. Schaff. Uut. 
 of the Chrittian Church, v. 2, eh. 4, teet. 4S-4.'!. 
 — E. F. Henderson, Select ffiit. Doa. of the 
 MiMlt Age*, bk. 8, no. 1. — See, also, Capcchtns. 
 
 BENEFICIUM. -COMMENDATION. - 
 Feudalism "had grown up from two great 
 sources— the beneflcium, and the practice of 
 commendation, and had been specially fostered 
 on Gallic soil by the existence of a subject popu- 
 lation which admitted of any amount of exten- 
 sion in tlie n;ethods of dependence. The 
 beneficiary system originated partly in gifts of 
 land made by the kings out of their own estates 
 to their kinsmen and servants, with a special 
 undertaking to be faithful: partly in the sur- 
 render liy landowners of their estates to churches 
 or powerful men, to be received back again and 
 held by them as tenants for rent or service. By 
 the latter arrangement the weaker man obtaine<l 
 the protection of the stronger, and he who felt 
 himself insecure placed his title under the de- 
 fenoe of the Church. By the practice of com- 
 mendation, on the other hand, the inferior put 
 himself under the personal care of a lord, but 
 witliout altering his title or divesting himself of 
 his riglit to his estate; he became a va.ssal and 
 did homape, The placing of his hands between 
 those of his lord was the typical act by which 
 the connexion was formed.'— W. Stubbs. 0>rut. 
 Ui,t.,fEiu;., ch. 9, met. 98. 
 
 ALfoiN: H. Hallam, The MiddU Age*, eh. 2, 
 V'- 1 -See, also, Scotland: IOth-IIth Ckh- 
 
 TrKIEf 
 
 BENEFIT OF CLERGY.-' Among the 
 most llll^lortant and dcariyprized privileges of 
 the ,!,»rrh was that which .-r.nfprred on Its 
 [;iemlK rs immunity from the operation of secu- 
 ir law, and relieve<l them from the lurisdic- 
 Uou of secular tribunals. . . . 8o priceleaa a 
 
 prerogative was not obtained without a long and 
 resolute struggle. ... To ask that a monk or 
 priest guilty of crime should not be subject to 
 the or<Iinary tribunals, and that civil sulu be- 
 tween laymen and ecclesiastics should be referred 
 exclusively to courts composed of the latter, 
 was a claim too repugnant to the common sense 
 of mankind to be lightlv accorded. . . . The 
 persistence of the church, backed up by the 
 unfailing resource of excommunication, finally 
 triumphed, and the sacred immunity of the 
 
 firiesthood was acknowledged, sooner or later, 
 n the laws of every nation of Europe." In 
 Englaiul, when Henry II. in 1164, "endeavored, 
 in the Constitutions of Ckrendon, to set bounds 
 to tlie privileges of the church, he therefore 
 especially attacked the benefit of clergy. . , . 
 The disastrous result of th" quarrel between 
 the King and the archbishop [Becket] rendered 
 it necessary to abandon all such schemes of re- 
 form. ... As time passed on, the benefit of 
 clergy gradually extended itself. That the 
 laity were illiterate and the clergy educated was 
 taken for granted, and the test of churchman- 
 ship came to be the ability to read, so that the 
 privilege became in fact a free pardon on a first 
 offence for all who knew their letters. . . . 
 Under Elizabeth, certain heinous offences were 
 decUred felonies without benefit of clergy. 
 . . . Much legislation ensued from time to time, 
 effecting the limitation of the privilege in vari- 
 ous offences. . . . Eariy in the reign of Anne 
 the lienefit of clergv was extended to all male- 
 factors bv abrogating the reading test, thus 
 placing the unlettered felon on a par with his 
 better educated fellows, and it was not until the 
 present centurj- was well advanced that this 
 remnant of mediieval ecclesiastical prerogative 
 was abolished by 7 and 8 Geo. iv. c. 28."— 
 H. C. Lea, Studies in Church Hist. , pi. 2. 
 
 Also in: W. Stubbs, Const. I/lst. of Eni 
 teet. 722-725 (eh. 19, t. 8).— See, also, E.noland: 
 A. D. 1162-1170. 
 
 BENEVENTO, OR GRANDELLA, Bat- 
 tle of (1266). See Italy (SoiTnERNi: A. D. 
 12.">0-I2«8. 
 
 BENEVENTUM: The Lombard Duchy. 
 — The Duchy of Bcncventum was a Lombard 
 fief of the 8tli and 9th centuries. In southern 
 Italy, which survived the fall of the Lombard 
 kingdom in northern Italy. It covered nearly 
 the territory of the modem kingdom of Naples. 
 Charlemagne reduced the Duchy to subniis.sion 
 with considerable ditflculty. after he had extin- 
 guished the Lombard kingdom. It was after- 
 wards divided into the minor principalities of 
 Benevento, Salerno and Capua, ami became 
 part of the Norman conquest. — See Italy (Soitth- 
 KR.N); A. D. 800-1016; and 10(K>-1090; also, 
 Lombards: .\. I). .'>T:i-774, and Amalfi. 
 
 BENEVENTUM, Battle of (B.C. 275). See 
 Rome: B. C. 2S3-2T.-). 
 
 BENEVOLENCES. — "The collection of 
 benevolences, regarded even at the time [Eng- 
 land, reign of Edward IV.] as an innovathm, was 
 perliaps a resuscitated form of some of the wor^t 
 measures of Edward IL and Kichard II.. but the 
 attention which it aroused under Edwanl IV. 
 shows how strange it had become under the 
 Intervealiig kin^s. . . . Such evidence nA 
 exists shows us Edward IV. canvassing bv 
 word of moutli or bv letter for direct giflji i\t 
 money from his subjccu. Uenry III. had thua 
 
 289 
 
i 
 
 ,1 ^^1 
 
 Hi 
 
 .■* 
 
 1 •"! 
 
 BENEVOLBKCES. 
 
 begged for new yeu't gtfu. Bdwaid IV. 
 requ8«ed aiid extorted ' free-will offeringt ' from 
 ererj one who could not mr no to the plead- 
 tanot lucb • ktag."-W. Stubbe. Cofut Hit. 
 ?m^m!' ***■ •"••-^ Buouakd: a. D. 
 BENGAL. Th*Bn|UtliKqnis]clenot See 
 
 BEMqAL:"P«mun«itS«tU«ment." Bee 
 Utdia : A. D. 1785-1798. 
 
 BENNINGTON, Battle of. See U»it«d 
 
 BENTINCK, Lord WilJlam, The Indiui 
 Mministratlon ot See Imdu : A. D. 1828- 
 
 BENTONSVILLE, Battle ot SeeUsrrED 
 Statm or Am. : A.D. 1863 (Fbbiiuabt-Maiich : 
 
 Thb CAnOLINAS). 
 
 BEOTHUK, The. See Ajuricah Abobi- 
 or.NKs: Beotrukan Famii.t. 
 
 BEK1ERS, The. See Libtaks; Notiid- 
 lANS J --r, Obioih o» thr akciert pkoplx • 
 and ii. I, I). 
 
 BERE.x-CE, Cities of.— There were three 
 cltiee of thk name (glTen In honor of Berenice 
 mother of the eecond of the Ptolemice) on the 
 Egyptian coast of the Red Sea. and a fourth in 
 Cvrenaica. 
 
 A °n^^,f}^^' ''••••?• »' '•>•• See Rcsiu : 
 A. D. 1818(OcTiinEn— Dkcembeh) 
 
 BERESTECZKO. Battle of (1651). See 
 Poland : A. D. 1648-1634. v 3 »• ow 
 
 BERGEN, Battle, of (1759 and 1799). See 
 Orkmakt: A D. 17.W (Apmi.-AuQcrT ; and 
 
 *^'i^2o"/; A.'ii^ (SEPTEIinKR-OCTOBEK). 
 
 BERGEN-OP-ZOOM, A. D. isSa.-Tfce 
 •«f* raised. See Nbthkblands: A. D. 1888- 
 1593. 
 
 A. p. i6a3.— Unsuceessfnl siege by the 
 fP*""*™!. See Netherlands: A. D. 1621- 
 
 A. D. i747.i748._Taken by the French and 
 restored to Holland. SecNETnEiii.ANDs 
 
 1746-1747, and Aix-LA-CHAi-ELi.B, The 
 
 ORKgg. 
 
 AD 
 
 CON- 
 
 BERGER. See BiitoEit. 
 jjBERGERAC, Peace of. See Frasce : A, D. 
 
 BERING SEA CONTROVERSY AND 
 ARBITRATION. See United "?AT^> op 
 Am.; a. D. 1886-1898. 
 
 BERKELEY, Lord. The Jersey Grant to. 
 »e New Jersey : A. 1). 1664-1667. to IOhS-itsn 
 
 BERKELEY, Sir William. GoTernmenl of 
 
 Vi'iiFVl,'',- ^^ VIRGINIA : A. I). 1642-184<J, to 
 I0W>-IOj7. 
 
 BERLIN: A. D. 1631.— Forcible entry of 
 y • *<lolphns. See Geuma.nt : A. I). 
 
 BKRSBRKZR. 
 _P=?LIM CONFERENCE (iSSj-igg,,. 
 
 T^i'*A"l).187S«"""°"''^"'*'«^- 8«e 
 
 BERMUDA HUNDRED, Butler's Arnli 
 •*• flee CNIT.D States or Am. . A. D iS^ 
 
 ^^KRMnffl'S'' Tm Armt or the Jame, 
 
 BERMUDAS, or Somers Islands.-Tlil. 
 group of small islands, iltuated in the wes .4 
 Atlantic. nearW «00 miles eastward of (w 
 HMteras, was dlscorered In 1S13 bv a SpanS 
 mariner, Juan Bermudes, and was -well C,„ 
 
 •^IS"*^"' '•*, ""' «*■"•"?• but never "Z 
 pied. The region bore a bad reputation f, 
 storms. By the wrecking of the fcnglUh ,h n 
 ••Sea Venture,'; with Admiral «lr Georg"so7 
 
 ieW-1616), the l«knds were brought into rtla 
 tions wHh the Virginia colony, «Sd were I^ 
 arterwanls Inclndedin the grant to the Virelnla 
 Company, but sold presentfy to another colS 
 
 t'Sfn'hS'TSr- ^b^^ British D«va,ta 
 
 u ; %. *",'?" A"*""' ^'y "re to some extent 
 what Mauritius is In the Indian Ocean, but far 
 
 tht BntiA OoloniM, t. i,ieet.l ^ •' 
 
 ^^BMN, Diatrich eC See Veboha: A D. 
 
 L^V*V!^^fi'^*^ .^^ See France: 
 
 ,^L.n^(ter-fSS?;>iiRT % 
 
 &wE'S;ri.Wir6E^i;:-rD'' 
 
 1818-1818; 1818 (Adocst). (SkpTEiBE^ciS: 
 BER), (October— December) 
 
 BERNARD, St.. and the Second Crusade. 
 See Crdsadeb: A. D. 1147-1149 
 e Jif'll'^; *i- °- '353--Joined to the original 
 Swiss Confederation, or Old League of High 
 "«"n«ny. See Switzerland: A. D. 1332-1490 
 
 A. p. 1798.— Occnpation by the Fr«nch.- 
 The plundering o' \ht ; r» jury. Sci ^fui- 
 erland: a. D. 1798-1798. 
 
 Threatened by the Swedes. 
 • A. D. 1640-16tss. 
 Ing Austrian attack. Sec 
 
 "(Jl-LT— DErKMIlKIl) 
 
 -en and plundered by the 
 ■■■— SccOeumanv: a D. 
 
 Set '. 
 
 A. 
 German. 
 
 A. D. I7t..- . _.,:„ , 
 
 Austriaasaad Russians. 
 
 1780. 
 
 A. D. 1806.— Napoleon in possession, 
 Oermant: a. D. mm (OoToiii-H) 
 .„^,P; '•48.-Mistaken battle of soldiers 
 ana citisens.— Continued disorder.— State of 
 ?«f-i8W** "*'"''' ■ * '^ '**" tMA«c"), and 
 
 See 
 
 BERNICIA, The Kingdom ot See Exo 
 land: a. D. 547-688; and Scotland: 7th Ce.v- 
 ttrt. 
 
 BERSERKER. - B.fiRSiERK. - • The 
 
 word Bffirswric is variously spelt, and statpd to 
 be derived from ■ bar ' and ' sierk,' or • barcshirf 
 ■riie men to whom the title was applleil [among 
 the Northmen] . . . were sUteti to be in the 
 hHJit of flghting without armour, and wiarlng 
 onlv a shirt of skins, or at times . ki.l. In 
 Iceland they were sometimes called I'l..' ^In 
 I. c., wolfskin. The derivation of Bsisierk has 
 been questioned, as in philology is not uncom- 
 mon. The habit of their wearing bear (l)jftrn) 
 skins, is said to afford the meaning of the word. 
 In philology, to agree to differ la heal. Tlie 
 Bienferks, according to the sagas, appear to have 
 i)een men of unusual physical development and 
 savagery. They were, moreover, liable to what 
 was called Rwrasrkegang. or a state of (•-•icite- 
 ment In which they exhibited auperhiunan 
 strength, and then spared neither friend nor foe. 
 . . . After an attack of Bxrscrk frenzy, it wis 
 
 290 
 
BERSERKER 
 
 BET. 
 
 beliered that the inperfaumaD lufliienoe or (pirlt 
 left the Bcncrk's bodT m s 'ham,' orcait-off 
 shape or form, with the mult that the Bar- 
 lark iuffered great exhauitioD, bis natural force* 
 
 being uied up." — J. F. Vicary, Saga Time, eh. S. 
 Aijo in: p. ~ ~ "■ ■■■ "■■ ■ 
 
 *. t. eh. 20. 
 
 Aijo in: p. B. Du Chaillu, Ttu Yikint Age, 
 
 BERWICK-UPON-TWEBO: A. D. 1393- 
 
 1333.— Conqnaat bythe Barlith.— At the begin- 
 ning, in \'f»i, of the ttruKgle of the Scottish nation 
 to cast o9 the feudal yob which Edwaru i. had 
 laiil upon It, the EDgliih king, marchlnK angrily 
 northwards, made his lint anault upon Berwick. 
 The citizeni, whoae only rampart wai a wooden 
 ttmkatle, fooUihly aggrsTated bit wrath by 
 gibes and taunta. "The stockade wi.« stormed 
 with the loss of a single knight, anil nearly 
 8.000 of the citizens were mown down ic a ruth- 
 less carnage, while a handful of Flemish traders 
 who held the town-hall stoutly against fill assail- 
 ants were burned alive in it. ... The town was 
 ruined forever, and the great merchant city of 
 the North sank from that time into a petty sea- 
 port." Sulnequently recovered by the Scotch, 
 Berwick was held by them in 1838 when Edward 
 III. attempted to seat Edward Balliol, as is 
 vassal, on the Scottish throne. The Englist \ 
 •lege to the place, and an armr under the r, 
 Douglas came to its relief. The battle of 1. -. 1- 
 don Hill, *n which the Scotch were utterly 
 routed, decided the fate of Berwick. "From 
 that time the town remained the one part of 
 Edward's conquests which was preserved by the 
 English crown. Fragment as it was, it was 
 viewed as legally representing the realm of 
 wkli'h It had once formed a part. As Scotland, 
 it had Its . chancellor, chamberlain, and other 
 offleeni of state; and the peculhtr heading of acts 
 of Parliament enacted for England 'and the 
 town of Berwick-upon-Tweed still preserves 
 the memory of its peculiar position. '—J. R 
 Green. Short Hist, of Iht Sttgluh People, eh. 4, 
 Utl. 3 and 6. 
 
 .Vl.^u in: J. U. Burton, Hitt. of Scotland, eh. 
 17 — .•>ee ScoTLAKD: A. D. 1290-1305. 
 
 BERWICK, Paciflcationof. See Scotlasd : 
 A. I> 1638-1640. 
 
 BERWICK, Treatyof. SceScarutKD A. D. 
 15."jH-15tW. 
 
 BE RYTUS.— The colony of Bervtus (mo<lem 
 Beirut) was founded by Agrippa, B. 0. 15, and 
 maile a station for two legions. 
 
 A. D. 551.— Its Schools.— Its Destruction 
 by Earth '.uake.— The city of Berytus, modern 
 Beirut, was destroyed by eartl ■uske on the 9th 
 of July, A. D. 551. " 'Thttt city, on the coast of 
 Phcenicia, was illustrated by the study of the 
 dvll Uw, which opened the surest road to wealth 
 and dignity: the schools of Berytus were fille<l 
 with the rising spirits of the age, and many a 
 Touth was lost in tne earthquake who might have 
 lived to be the scourge or the guardian of his 
 country."— E. Gibbon, Oeelint and FaU of the 
 Butnan Empire, eh. 43. 
 
 A. D. nil.— Taken by the Crusaders. See 
 Cbisades: a. D. 1104-1111. 
 
 BESAN90N : Origin. See Vesontio. 
 
 a D. ii<a-iA48 — a Free City of the Em- 
 pire. See F'sAMCiiK Coiitb. 
 
 A. p. 1674.— Siege and capture by Vauban. 
 bee NETRSBLAIID8 (IIoUjLHD): A. D. 1674- 
 I643. 
 
 BESSI, Th* — The Beisl were an ancient 
 Thracian tribe who occupied the mountain range 
 of Hamus (the Balkan) and the upper valley of 
 the Uebrus. They were subdued by Lucullus, 
 brother of the conqueror of Mltbridates. — E. H. 
 Bunbury, JKit. qfAneitnt Oeog.,eh. 18, tet. 6. 
 
 BESSIN, The.— The dUtrict of Bayeuz. See 
 Saxons or Batkux. 
 
 BETH-HORON, Battles of.— The victory of 
 Joshua over " the live kings of the Amoritea " 
 who laid siege to Gibeon ; the decisive battle of 
 the Jewish conauest of Canaan. ' ' The battle of 
 Beth-horon or Qibeon is one of the -nost important 
 In the history of the world ; and yet so profound 
 has been the indifference, first of the religious 
 world, and then (through their example or In- 
 Quence) of the common world, to the historical 
 study of the Hebrew annals, that the very name 
 of this great battle Is far leas knovra to most of 
 us than that of Marathon or Cannse."— Dean 
 Stanley, LeeU. on (As HM. ofth* Jeteuh Chvreh, 
 teet. 11.— In the Maccabean war, Beth-horon was 
 the scene of two of the brilliant victories of 
 Judas Maccabeus, in B. C. 167 and 162.- 
 Joaephus, Antia. of (As Jen; bk. 12.- Later, at 
 the time of the Jewish revolt against the Romans, 
 it witnessed the disastrous retreat of the Roman 
 general Cestius. 
 
 BETHSHEIIESH, BatUe of.— Fought by 
 Joash, king of Israel, with Amaziah, king of 
 Judah, defeating the latter and causing part of 
 the walls of Jerusalem to be tlirown down. — 3 
 Chranieht, xxv. 
 
 BETH-ZACHARIAH, Battle of.-A defeat 
 suffered (B. C. 168) by the Jewish patriot, Judas 
 Maccabaeus, at the hands of the Syrian monarch 
 Antiochus Eupator; the youngest of the Macca- 
 bees being slain.— Josephus, Antia. of th* Jtai, 
 bk. 12, eh. 9. 
 
 BETHZUR, Battle oL— Defeat of an army 
 sent by Antiochus, against Judas Maccabeus, 
 the Jewish patriot, B. C. 165, Josephus, Antiq. 
 of the Jeait, bk. 12, eh. 7. 
 
 BEVERHOLT, Battle of (1381). See 
 Flanders: A.. D. 1379-1381. 
 
 BE Y.— BE YLERBEY.— PACH A.— PAD- 
 ISCHAH.—" The administration of the [Turk- 
 ish] provinces was in the time of «Iahomet II. 
 [the Sultan, A. D. 1451-1481, whose legislation 
 organized the Ottoman government] principally 
 Intrusted to the Beys and Beylerbeys. 'These 
 were the natural chiefs of the class of feuda- 
 tories [Spahis], whom theirtenure of office obliged 
 to serve on horseback in time of war. They 
 mustered under the Sanjak, the banner of the 
 chief of their district, and the districts them- 
 selves were thence called Sanjaks, and their 
 rulers Sanjak-beys. The title of Pacha, 
 so familiar to us when speaking of a Turkish 
 jirovincial ruler, is not strictly a term imply- 
 ing territorial jurisdiction, or even military 
 authority. It is a title of honour, meaning 
 literally the Shah's or sovereign's foot, and 
 implying that the person to whom that title was 
 given wa.s one whoi" the sovereign employed. 
 . . . The title uf pi- . ' was not at first appliuil 
 nmimg the Ottonran .^.iusivcly to those olliirrs 
 who comaiiiir.led i<rn ics or ruled provinces or 
 eitlea. Of t!ie ft-.:- first Pr,.-has, t!i-,t uro 
 mentioned by • .-nan writers, three were liUT. 
 ary men. By de.^'rees tills honorary tith' was 
 appropriated U> those whom the Sultan employed 
 in wu and set over dUtricta and important 
 
 291 
 
-r t 
 
 ij-t 
 
 BET. 
 
 town*; S.1 that the word Pscha became almnat 
 •yuonymou* with the word governor. The 
 titlK Pmliachali, which the Sultau liiinself bcar». 
 and •vliich the Turltiah diplomatists have l)ciii 
 very jealou* in allowing to Christian Sovereigns 
 is »n f.tirely different word, and means the 
 great, the imperial Schah or Sovereign. In the 
 time of Mahomet II. the Ottoman Empin- con- 
 tttlued in Kuro|)e alone thirty-six Saujalia, or 
 lianners, around each of which a&scmbled about 
 400 cuvalierB.'— Sir E. 8. Creasy, Uut. of tU 
 Ottoman Turin, eh. 6. 
 
 BEYLAN, Battle of (1833). See TtiBKa: 
 A. D. IS31-1840. 
 
 BEYROUT, Oripn of: See Berttvs. 
 
 BEZANT, The.— The bezant was a Bvzan- 
 tlne gold coin (whence iu name), worth a'little 
 leas than,ten English shillings— $8.50. 
 
 BEZIERES, The Massacre at See Albi- 
 SBNSK8: A. D. 1209. 
 
 BHARADARS. Sec Ihdia: A. D. 1808-18H. 
 j^HONSLA RAJA, The. See I»du: A. D. 
 
 BHURTPORE, Siere ofdSos). See India: 
 A. D. 1798-1805. 
 
 BIANCHI AND NERI (The Whites and 
 macks). See Pu)Behce: A D. 1295-1300, and 
 
 BIANCHI, or White Penitents. See White 
 
 Pknitknts. 
 
 BIBERACH, Battles of (1796 and 1800) 
 See Fh.\.\ck: A. U. ViW (Apkil— Octobek): and 
 A. D. lHOO-1801 (Ma»-Fkbkuarv). 
 
 BIBLIOTHftQUE NATIONALS. S« 
 Li niiAiiiKH, Modern: France. 
 "RACTE. S.M. G.m:i.«. 
 
 ^CI, The.— .V tribe of ancient Britons 
 
 m-ar the Timnicn. 
 • ERAL SYSTEM, The.-Tliis term 
 1 ..d by Jereniy liinthMiii to the divisicm 
 
 o . Slsliitivc biKly into two (lminh<r.« — such 
 "ni'i^ti'.""*' ' '•'"■''" "'"' """"'' "f ''"'unions. 
 
 BICHAT, and physiological science. See 
 ilKrm u, .SciKNcK : ISm Ikntiiiv 
 
 BICOQUE, OR BICOCCA, La. Battle of 
 (I«3I. ."Sir FiiAM K : A I> I,V20-IM:) 
 BIG BETHEL. Battle of. S« United 
 bJTS!; 4i;.-^ ^- "*•" ^ivsK. Viii.:isiA). 
 BIO BLACK, Battle of the. He. L'nitkd 
 Btatk* or Am . A I>. ln«8 (Ai'Uii.-Jui.T : On 
 Till; .MiKsiKsii'pi) 
 
 BIGERRIONES, Th.. See A.ji,TAii.t, 
 
 Thk ANdKNT TmiWB 
 
 BIGI, OR GREYS. The.-One of the three 
 factions whiih divided Flonii.e In the time of 
 Savonarola, and after. The Hlnl. or Ureyt 
 Were the imrliHithN of the Medici ' 
 
 BILL OF RIGHTS, tk* K.soi ani>: A I) 
 
 l«N«(().TonKH). 
 
 BILLS OF EXCHANGE. S.e I,.uv, Com. 
 Mi.S: .\ 1» l»Iii;t. 
 
 BILLAUD-VARENNES.and the French 
 RcTolulionary Committcs of Public Safety 
 
 t^ FlUN.E: A I). 17«;t (.llNK-O. T..nKU)' 
 (SrPTEm(l.-K— I)Kl KMBKl;), lo ITW-lTUj 1 Jlj.¥— 
 Arnri ). 
 
 BILOXIS, The. SwAmerkan Adokioihks: 
 Bi"i'»N Family. 
 
 A^lMSn/' ''"''* '''"^ ^' ^^ Amkiika: 
 BIRAPARACH, Fonrssa of. Sw Jlroi. 
 
 BLACK DEATH. 
 
 „°"*°^"' KJ»f of Sweden, A. D. 1290- 
 1319 Birnr. Rennt, A D. 1250-1266 
 
 A^n^"«.S.'',ffi^*A ■^''•- 8«««™TLand: 
 A. U. 1638-1640; and Enoland: A D 16411 
 
 ^BISMARCK ARCHIPELAGO. See Me^ 
 
 BISMARCK'S MINISTRY. Bee Obr. 
 
 MANY: A. 0.1H61-1866, to 1889-1890 ; and Feaiii «• 
 A. n. 1870 'Ju.NK-Jui.T); 187(^1871; 1871 (Ja, 
 lABv— MA^h and Papacy : A. D. 1870-1874 " 
 BISSEXTILE YEAR. See CAii^NDiR 
 Julian. 
 
 ^!'^,"y'i'^fS''^"^'"ANS.-"AIongthe 
 
 coast of the Euxlne, from the Thraclan Bo«nlK,ru« 
 eastward to the river Ilalys, dwelt Bithynians or 
 Thynians, Mariandynians and Paphlagonians — 
 all recognized branches of the widely extended 
 ThracUn race. The Bithynians especially In 
 the northwestern portion of this territory and 
 reaching from the Euxlne to the Propontis are 
 often spoken of as Asiatic Thracians,— while on 
 the other hand various tribes among the This- 
 cians of Europe are denominatecT Thynl or 
 Thynians.— so little difference was there in the 
 population on the two sides of the Bosphorus 
 alike brave, predatory, and sanguinary. The 
 Bithynians of Asia are also sometimes called 
 Bi'brykians, under which ilenomination they ex- 
 tend as far southward as the gulf of Kios in the 
 Propontis."— U. Grote, llitt. of Greta, pt. 2 rA 
 16 —The nitliyniaus were among the penpl'e in 
 Asia Minor Bubjugnted byCr(Psu.s, king of Lvdia 
 and fell, with Ills fail, under the Persian nile' 
 Hut, in some way not clearly understo<Kt, an in 
 di'iMnileut kingdom of Bitliynia was forineit 
 alout the middle of llie 8th century B. C which 
 rfisted the Persians, successfullv rcsistiil .Mix. 
 iiiiiler the Great and his successors' in Asia .Mitmr 
 ^•slsted Mithridates of Pontiis, and existed until 
 H. C. 74, when its last king Nlcorae<lis III 
 bi'i|ueathcd his kingdom to Rome and it was 
 made a Itomaii province. 
 
 A ^,'7,9.^J.9i.^'"'* "' <'734)- See France 
 
 BITURIGES, The. See .«dii; also 
 Bot'Hoi.s. OitioiN or. 
 
 BIZOCHI. The. See Beocines, etc 
 J BLACK ACTS. The. SeeSioTtAM. A 1) 
 
 BLACK CODES. S.* pag.. !M:8 ,, .' :, 
 BLACK DEATH. The.-"The III.1. k IVath 
 npiwirs to have Imd iU oriiflii hi tii<' o,ritrM .,f 
 Cliliia, in or about the year i;a-( It is w.;.| il.ut 
 it was acroin|>anieil at Its ouilircnk by v;iric.ii!i 
 terr.-strial and atmosplierir pliieiiomi-iui uf u 
 niivil and most destructive eimracli r phi- 
 noiiiena similar to those which rliari( li riznl tl.« 
 flmt apiM-arance of the Asiatic ("hoi. m. .,f Hie 
 Iiillui uia, anil even iu more remiit4> times of the 
 Atli. niiiii Plague. It is a singular fait that nil 
 ephle.iiics of an unusually destru.-tive 1 luirsrl.T 
 have had their homes in the farth.'st l-jt^i nmt 
 have travellnl slowly fMm those regions in«anl« 
 Kur.pe. It appears, t<M), that the ill8.-n«.- ex. 
 hHUslcl Itatlf In the place of its origin at .'ilioiit 
 Ilie Nime time In which it made its apwiiranee 
 In Kuroiie. ... The disease still exists iiniler 
 tlw name of the Levant or Oriental I'lagiii', and 
 is.'ndeinir in Asia Minor, in parta of Tiirkev 
 and ill Egypt. It Is speclllcally a .llsesw la 
 wlijih Uiii lilnnfj (• poisoned, la wfc'.:-h •!■!- c-.-^u-r-. 
 sciks U) ndleve itself by suppuration .d ilw 
 glands, and la which, tlie tissues becoiulof ills 
 
 212 
 
BLACK DEATH. 
 
 BLOCKADE. 
 
 or^nnljicil, and the blood thereupon being In- 
 UliruU-'il into them, dark blotches appear on tlio 
 skin. Hence the earliest name by whicli tlic 
 Plugiie was described. The storm burst on the 
 Island of Cypnis at the end of tlie year 1347, 
 ami WHS accompanied, we are told, by remark- 
 able physical phenomena, as convulsions of the 
 earth, and a total change In the atmosphere. 
 Many persona ailccte<l died instantly. The Black 
 iJeath seemed, not only to the frightened im- 
 agination of the people, but even to the more 
 sober observation of the few men of science of 
 the time, to move forward with measured 4teps 
 irom tlic desolated East, under ♦; • Ut-r> of a 
 dark and fetid mist. It is v v-hU^:: .;.«t "<,!'- 
 sequent upon the great pi. ' Jil convul.iii.r^ 
 which hiul rent the earth am :)rc('i!od the dis- 
 ease, foR'ign substancea of a c el it r us characl »r 
 liail iK'pn projected into thi alu ■ sjiheri!. , . . 
 The Black Death appeared a; , vgi^on ii Jan- 
 liiiry 1348, visited Florence u^ A. r-'i'-O of 
 .\|iril. and had thoroughly penetrated Krant. 
 iiiiii Germany by August. It entered Poland in 
 1349, reached Bwedcn In the winter of that year. 
 and Norway by infection from England at about 
 the !iame time. It spread even to Iceland and 
 Oretnland. ... It made its ap|)earance in Rus- 
 sia ia 13Sl,aftcr it hod well-nigh exhausted itself 
 ill Euroiw. It thus took the circuit of the Medi- 
 ttrriinean. and unlike most plagues which have 
 |H-nelratC(l from tlie Eastern to the Western 
 world, was checkeil, it would seem, by the 
 barriir of the Caucasus. . . . Ilecker calculates 
 the loss to Europe as amounting to 25.000, UUO. " 
 —J. £. T. Rogers, Uitt. of Ai/rieuUur» and 
 I'rirfi, e. 1, «A. 15. 
 
 Also in: J. F. C. Heckcr, Etiidtmift of t/u 
 Viddh Aget—See.. also, Encii.and; A. D. 134«- 
 134H; Fhance: .V. D. i;U7-134«; Florencic: 
 A. I). 13W; Jkws: A. I) 1348-1349. 
 
 BLACK EAGLE, Order of the.— A Prus- 
 sian onlir of kniu'lithood institutetl by Frederick 
 llI.,<l«torof liniriclenburg, in 1701. 
 
 BLACK FLAGS, The. Bee Fuance : AD. 
 
 l<T"i 1NH». 
 
 BLACK FRIARS. HeeMiNDirANTOiinKKS. 
 BLACK FRIDAY, btr Nkw Vokb : A. U. 
 
 I 111 I. 
 
 BLACK HAWK WAR, The. See Illi- 
 MMs: .\ |>. im:w. 
 
 BLACK HOLE OF CALCUTTA, The. 
 Se<-lM>i*: A. 1). 17.VV17.17. 
 
 BLACK PRINCE, The wart of the. See 
 I'oiTlKlis; Franck: .\. I), 1360-13W); and SPAIN 
 (CA^Tii.K): A. 1) i;m<H3ll9. 
 
 BLACK ROBE, Couatcllort of the. See 
 VlNHK: A. D. 1IK)S-1319. 
 
 BLACK ROD.—" The gentleman whose duty 
 it is to preserve decorum in tlie House of 
 I/inN. Just as it is the duty of the Hergeontat- 
 Km\s to maintain onler in the House of t'om- 
 miihK These otHclnls are bound to execute the 
 conimandi of their respective cliamliers. even 
 tlii>U):li the task Involves the foreilile ejection of 
 snotwiri'iicrousniemN'r. . . . Hls|Hliick Itxia) 
 must disturbing i«x'ii|)nlion, now aiiays. is when 
 lie conveys a nie»j<,ige fnim the l-ords to the 
 t'omnioiis. . . . .\(, siH>uiT do the [Kilieemen 
 lieralil his appnituh fniin the loblili's than the 
 il'iorsof the Ixiwir ('haniU-r are elomil against 
 
 liire r.n.! !;;-- i= r.-.n-.pjl^i t,> »,;!; f„f a,!lSli-ii.-a 
 
 Willi Iseoming liiimiilty and humhlenrai. After 
 this has been granted, he advouect to the bar. 
 
 l>ow8 to the chair, and then — with repeated acta 
 of olit'isance — walks slowly to the table, where 
 his request is made for the Speaker's altim lance 
 Ih the L'pi»r House. The object may be to listen 
 to the Queen's speech, or it may simply be to 
 hear the itoyal assent given to various bills. . . . 
 The conse(juence is nearly always the same. 
 '. e Sergeunt-at- Anns shoulders the mace, the 
 Speaker joins Black Rod, the mcmliers fall in 
 behind, and a more or less orderly procession then 
 starts on its way to tlio Peer's Chamber. . . . 
 No matter what the subject under consideration. 
 Black Rod's appearance necessitiUes a check . . . 
 till the journey to tlie Lonls has been completed, 
 The annoyance thus caused has often found ex- 
 fessioii diiriug recent sessions." — i'o)iuiar Ae- 
 : unt of Purliaimiitarv I'metdure, p. 11. 
 
 BLACK ROOD, of Scotland. See Uolt 
 Rood ok Si othsd. 
 
 ••BLACK WARRIOR," The case of the. 
 Bee CuiiA : A. U. ItiSO. 
 
 BLACKBURN'S FORD, EnraKement at. 
 See United States or Ak. : A. l7. 1861 (July: 
 Viroinia). 
 
 BLACKFEET. SeeAsiEitiCAN Adohioikes: 
 Ul.vckkkkt. 
 
 BLAOENSBURG, Battle of. Sec Tnited 
 States OF Am. : A. U. 1814 (Ai!oi;st— Ski'tkm- 
 
 IIEII). 
 
 BLAIR, Francis P., Sr., in the "Kitchen 
 Cabinet " of President Jackton. See L'nitku 
 States OK Am. : A. 1) 1829. 
 
 BLAIR, General FrancisP.,Ir.— Difficulties 
 with General Fremont. See L'mtkd .■'T.itks 
 
 1801 (AfoL'sT— Octoukk: .Mis- 
 oC 
 
 or Am. : A. D. 
 
 SOUKI). 
 
 BLAKE, Admiral Robert, Victories 
 See Knoi.anh: A. I) l«.Vi-lil.-)4. 
 
 BLANC, LOUIS, Industrial scheme of. 
 See S»( m. .MovEMKNT-: A. I) ["lil-lsis. 
 
 BLANCO, General Guiman, Thedictator< 
 
 •hip of. See Vknizi-hf A : A. l>. lHli!l-lMIJ 
 
 BLAND SILVER BILL, The. S.c1;mii£D 
 SlATliS (IK All.: A. 1). 1878. 
 
 BLANKETEERS, The. See EsoLANn: 
 A. 1). 1810-lH-.'l». 
 
 BLENEAU, Battle of (1653). SeeFuANiK: 
 A. 1). l(V>l-lil.">.t 
 
 BLENHEIM, Battle of. See UKiiM.vvr: 
 A. I). I7in 
 
 BLENNERHASSET, Harman, and Aaron 
 Burr. See L'.NiricD firATKHor Am. : .\ I) I'^iMt- 
 1807. 
 
 BLENNERHASSLTT'S ISLAND.- An 
 Islanil in the Ohio, near Mariettji. on tvltii li ll.ir- 
 inan Illennerliaisi'lt. n geullenuui Iroui In I mil. 
 had creatitl a eliannlng home, ut tlie l>' ;iiiiiliii; 
 of the present eentiiry. He wa.s drawn iuio 
 Aamn llurr's mysterious aebeiiie (wf I'MTKn 
 Statkh ok Am. : A 1>. 1806-1807): his Island lie- 
 eame the rendezvous of the ex|H'dition. and he 
 «aa involved in the ruin of the tnason.lile pri- 
 ject. 
 
 BLOCK BOOKS. See I'hintino A I> 
 14311-1 l.V! 
 
 BLOCK ISLAND, The oame. See Nkw 
 YmiK .\ l>, HllO-lrtl4. 
 
 BLOCKADE, Paper.— This t<Tin lias Nen 
 applii'il toihe Mssuinplion liya lielliKeri::! power. 
 In war. of (he ri.'ht lo ihclari' a givii roust or 
 
 vrrtrtl-i .-iHiHi-i:-.!*-! J---FH. !-• 'v i'i Piv -Hit-'.f 
 
 hliH-kuili'. wlllioiit actual presi'iiee of l.lm bailing 
 squailroiia to euluns the declaration; lu by lue 
 
 '.•3 
 
p. m 
 
 (■ ■ 
 
 BLOCKADE. 
 
 ^^fMilP'^^ •" Council. "and the " Berlin- 
 s' ITiJS^ P*"^ °'. N«P«'«>n. In 18(»-1807. 
 
 Hf oV5°T'"*Tf°',^ = A. D. 1804-1809. 
 15M Treatlei of. See Italy : A. D. 1501- 
 
 BLOOp COUNCIL, The. See Netii«ii 
 LANDx: A. D 1887 riiTHKii- 
 
 _;;^0£D AND IRON" SpMck of Bl.. 
 ti»rtk. See Oekxabt : A. D. 1861-l8fl« 
 
 «,?i;°°°y ^^'H.LE- The. To UK.TED 
 
 A."a'?S?r8.^S. ^''- ^ ^-'^- 
 
 E±5Po°IS"i°6?5'''^""<>' «-NKW 
 BLOODY MARSH. The BatUe of the. 
 
 Bee Qboroia; A. D. 1788-1748 
 BLOREHEATH Battle of (A. D. 1450). 
 
 -Fought on a plain called Blorehcath. near 
 
 V t^l^ Dudley, and about half that number of 
 Yorkists under the Earl of Salisbury. See En" 
 lAsn , A. I>. 14.W-1471. ' 
 
 BLOCKER'S CAMPAIGNS. See O.b. 
 MINT; A. D. 1806 (OcTOBKU): 1812-1813; 1813 
 OVlllIL — Mat) to (OCTOIlKIl — I)KtEliBER)- 
 FkaKO: A. O. 1814 W.-..UAHT-MABCH). ,^d 
 
 .n^""A%",fejsr"""- '^''^•-"'- 
 
 BLUE LICKS, Battle of (A. D. 178a). 
 
 Sw kKNTlTKV: A. D. 1775-1784 ' ' 
 
 BLUE-LIGHT FEDERALISTS. -" An 
 
 nciilcnt, rtal ,.r imapiuary, which Im.l Uu-iy fin 
 181J] wrurrtHl at New London IConnectlcitl 
 wna aeiied upon a. additional pnxij of collusion 
 between the FedemlisU and the etieniv Ifk-c 
 iNiTKD State* or Am.: A. D. 181^1" As the 
 winter approached. Decatur hail vximtni to gel 
 to «•« wftb his two frigate.. Vexe,( l„ timl hHn- 
 •cir thwarted In every attempt by thr; wiitchfu! 
 nesa of the enemy, he wrote to the Nav 
 Department In a fit of dlagu.t, that, h,.you.l ull 
 ■ •.il.t the British had, by signals or otiirrwiw 
 i^H ant4iniH)UB Information of all his movcmenu, 
 and as pr.K,f of It, be suu.l that, after s^.v.rai 
 niffhui of favorable weather, the report eln-iilnt 
 nif ill the town that an attempt was to lie mmle 
 W' get out. 'In the course of the eveniiiR two 
 Mue lighi.s were burned on boUi p<iinu of the 
 lmrl«.r» mouth/ These -signal, to the en.mv,' 
 for .uch he unhesitatingly prououn.i.l th.ni hail 
 l«ei. re,R.ate<l, „, ho wrote, and lia.1 Ixmi. «, „ 
 
 though it(lo4Tinot appear that Decatur hlnmir 
 wiuonrof the number . . . Such a.h.mor wh,, 
 ruiiKd aN.iit it, Uiat one of the CunHertiiut 
 meml».rs of Congress mored for a o>i,„„lttee 
 of iuv.stlgutlon. ... The Inquiry was 
 quashrd, but the story sprea<l and grew, ami 
 the more v.-liement onnonenui of the war began 
 to Ih. MigmaliiH as 'blue light Fetlerali ' 
 
 BCEOTIA. 
 
 .BLUE PARTV (of VenesaeU)" The 
 
 Bee 
 Bee 
 
 VBNi.il KI.A. A I) I8afl-'l88a. 
 BLUE RIBBON, The Order of the 
 
 BIHAI'tllM 
 
 BLUES, Roman Patlioo of the. See Um 
 vm, Factior. or TBE lioiiAji. 
 
 2P4 
 
 S^in. See Spain: A D. 1478-141(2. 
 
 ^^ BOADICEA, Rerolt ot See BRrrAW : A. D. 
 
 -9^"*^', .The.- A "Cow-lord," having 
 
 BOARIAN TRIBUTE, The.-Also oiiled 
 
 exaction said to have been levied on Ihi 
 province of Leinster by a King Tuathal of Erin 
 
 '"iSSi/"'' fi*" hundred years. 
 
 BOCAGE. The. See Fua.nce: A. I) 170a 
 (Mahcii— Aphii,). '"*' 
 
 BODLEi'AV^>?°l'^*''°- ^'"^'■""■ 
 
 iS'o¥A'^^Hs'^''s^;"^rTrAAr;';^. 
 
 BCEOTIA. - B(EOTIANS - "i;;tweer 
 Phokis and Lokris on one side, snd Attica (from 
 
 and Pames) on the otfier. we Bnd the im,K,rtaiit 
 territory called Bofotla. with its u^n or nv,™* 
 RUtonomou. cities, forming a sort of confederacy 
 under the presidency of Thelies. the most power 
 ful among them. Even of this territory 
 dost ned during the second period of this liistorv 
 to play a part so conspicuous and effertive w'c 
 
 7?«"n"^ '"vg ''!.'''"» ''"' *™' »*" '^'""rics after 
 77B U. L. We first acquire some insight into It 
 on wcaslon of the disputes between Thebes 
 and Plabea. alKiut the year 530 B. C.'-O tJrote 
 iM of Untct pi. 2, eh. 8. -In the Greek 
 legendary peruKl one part of this territory sub- 
 sequently Iki-otian- the Copaic valley "in the 
 north- was <K-cupled by the enterprising ,„,,ple 
 called the .Mmyl, wliiwc chief city wu.h (irelio- 
 meuus. Their neighbors were the Cadriuians of 
 Thebes, who aro "rich," as Orote expr.s,v« it 
 in legemlarv amiouitles." The npuUni 
 founder of Thebmi was Cadmus, bring, r of llttoni 
 to Hellas, fmm Phcenicia or from Egypt «, ,„ni 
 Ing to dilTerent represenutlons. lii„i,v.u« 
 nijicchus) and U<>n«kl(>s were both 8unp„*;i to 
 ncognlie the Cadmelan dtv as their birth place 
 The terrible legends of ftldipu, «„,i Ui\ „„! 
 happy family connect Uiomselves with llir wme 
 place and the incident wars between IIuIk's 
 anil Argc*. — the aasaulta of the sevni Ar^'lre 
 elil, fj and of tlieir suns, the Epi^imi - xeir 
 perliiips. real causes of a real destruction of the 
 power of some race fur whom the Caiirn.laus 
 stand. They ami their neighlHirs, (lie Miiivl of 
 Oreliomeuus. iipinar to have given way li-fore 
 another |«i,ple. fn,m Thesaaly, who gave Uie 
 name Bipotia to the country of Niih and who 
 Were the liihabilant. of the Thel-t of hi»torii 
 llnies.— a. (Jrote, IlitI of Urefft, ,.t 1 rh 14 — 
 h t-iirtlus. Ilirt „f llrttn. bk. 1, eh 4 -■That 
 the Birotla of hisUiry should never have altalneil 
 to a slgnlHeanee corre.puoding to the nalursl 
 advantages nf the locality, and to the nnwin'rity 
 of llHi ilislricl in t;i,. pr,. Homeric age. U due 
 at»ve all to one priiieiiial eauw. The iinnilgrs 
 tion of the Theasalimi Ikeotianx. fnim whiih the 
 country derived its name and tiM l*ginniniji of 
 .•„,""'!"'*■''■'' ''i*tory. desln.yni the 1 arlier 
 civilisation of the laud, withoiil niKnriliiig hi 
 esUbllshiiig a new eiviiiiatiou capable if eoo- 
 ducting the entln' district to a pn«|«Toii« and 
 harmonious development. It caniml la- wtid that 
 the ancient eeniis i:f f.!l!:;ri! -.x-.k. i,.,..!.!--^.-! ^if 
 tlwt liurlwMua times suixrviuiil Vhe siii-ieBl 
 s«au of the guUs aud uraules cootioued lo to 
 
BdOTIA. 
 
 BOHEUIA, ISSS. 
 
 boDOured ud the ancient featlTali of the Muiei 
 on Mount Helicon, and of the Cliarite* at 
 Orchomenoi, to be celebrated. In Bceotia too 
 the beneficent influence of Delphi was at work, 
 and the poetic scliuul of Hesiod, connected aa it 
 wu with Delphi, long maintained Itielf here. 
 And s yet stroczer ncUnation waa displayed by 
 the i£olian immiEr <ta towards music and lyric 
 poetry. Theculttv .ilon of the musicof the flute 
 was encouraged by the excellent reeds of the 
 Copaic morasses. This was the genuinely 
 national species of music in BorotU. . . . And 
 yet the B<Botians lacked the capacity for attract- 
 ing to themselves the earlier elements of popula- 
 tion in such a way as to bring about a happy 
 am»lgitmation. . . . The B<Botian lorda were not 
 murb preferable to the Tbesaalian; nor was 
 there any reeion far or near, inhabited by Qreek 
 trilies. which presented a haiaher contrast in 
 culture or manners, than the district where the 
 roail led from the Attic side of Mount Pamea 
 acmas to the Bootian. "— E. Curtlua, But. of 
 Orott. bk. fl, <A. 1. — See, also, Orebce: Tbs 
 
 MiO RATIONS. 
 
 BOEOTIAN LEAGUE.— "The old Boeotian 
 Lcairuo, as far as its outward forms went, seems 
 to h,Hve been fairly entitled to the name of a 
 Federal Government, but in its whole history we 
 trace little more than the gradual advance of 
 Thebes to a practical supremacy over the other 
 cities. . . . The common Kovernment waa carried 
 00 in the name of the whole Bceotian nation. Ita 
 miw: iiiipr>rt«iit magistrHtvs bore the title of Btso- 
 tarili'i; tlicir exact number, II or 13, is a dis- 
 piiriil |)iii ii . . . Tlicbvs chose two Boeotarcha 
 ami II. Ii iif the other cities one." — E. A. Free- 
 man. ///«( ■/ h'llfnU (tort., rh. 4. »«/. 3. 
 
 BOERMAAVE, and humoral pathology. 
 See Ml 111. .41, SciKNCK : ITxii Ck.nturt. 
 
 BOERS, Boar War. Hee Sodtb Anuca: 
 A. D. 18(»-1881. 
 
 BOGDANIA. Bee BjiLKan aro DaxtmiAH 
 
 STATKS. UTII-15TB CKMTURtKSdiOUMAKIA, ETC.) 
 
 BOGESUND, Battle of (ism). See Scan- 
 WHAViAN .Statks; a. D. 13l>7-152r. 
 
 BOCOMILIANS, Th* .'. religious sort 
 which arose among tb I'ans of Thrace 
 
 and Bulgaria, in the century, and 
 
 iuffeted persecution in. ludox of the 
 
 Greek church. They ». ..«! with the 
 
 IcoonclasU of former timi were hostile to tlio 
 adoration of the Virgin and sainu, and took 
 more or leas from the heretical doctrines of the 
 Psullolsns. Tliiir name Is derived by some from 
 the two 8claviinian worda, "Bog, signifying 
 Ood, itnd "'mllui," "have mercy. Othen say 
 that " Bogumll," meaning "one beloved by Ood. 
 wss the correct designation. Basilios, the leader 
 of the Bugomllians, was burned bv the Emperor 
 Alexius Comaenos, in the bippoifrume, at Con- 
 stantinople, A. D. lUA— O. Finlav, Ili$t. »f th» 
 HuturtUiu and Orttk Smptnt. 71»-1453, Mr. S, 
 tJt. i. mrl. I— See Balkan ANt» Dani-bian 
 8t»ii.,i« t)Tii-ieTR Crntcrikk (Bosnia, ktc.) 
 
 BOGOTA, The fouadincof the city (1538). 
 8e. ( OLOMBUN Htatbs; A.I) 1,M«-IT31. 
 
 BOHEMIA, Dcrivatioa of the iwma. See 
 
 B<>I\M«. 
 
 Its people sad their early hiitery.— " What- 
 
 r'lT may be the i!)fer>nces from th- fact of 
 l;<iin uiU having been polltlcallv connected with 
 llie eiiipira of iho Oennanic Marcomaonl. 
 wUtever may be thuae from tbm elemaat Boio-, 
 
 M coonectlng ita population with the Boil of 
 Gaul and Bavaria (Baiovaril), the doctrine that 
 the present Slavonic population of that king- 
 dom— Tshekhs [or Czekhs] as they call them- 
 selves — Is either recent in origin or secondary to 
 any German or Keltic aboriginea, is wholly 
 unsupported bv history. In other words, at the 
 beginning of the historical period Bohemia was 
 as Bktvonic as it la now. From A. D. 526 to 
 A. D. S50, Bohemia belonged to the great Tbur- 
 ingian Empire. The notion that it was then 
 Oennanic (except in ita political relations) is 
 gratuituua Nevertheless, Schattarik's account 
 is, that the ancestors of the present Tshekhs 
 came, probably, from White Croatia: which 
 waa either north of the Carpathians, or each side 
 of tliem. According to other writers, however, 
 the parts above the river Eulpa in Croatia sent 
 them forth. In Bohemian the verb 'cetl'='to 
 begin,' from which Dobrowakv derives the name 
 Czekhs = the beginners, the foremost, i. e., the 
 Ilrst Slavoniana who passed westwards. The 
 powerful Samo, the just Krok, and hia daughter, 
 the wise Libussa, the founder of Prague, oegin 
 the uncertain Uat of Bohemian kings, A. D. 634- 
 700. About A. D. 722, a number of petty chiefs 
 become united under P'remyal the nusband of 
 Libusaa. Under his son Xezamysl occura the first 
 Constitutional Assembly at Wysegrad ; and in 
 A. D. 848, Christianity was Introduced. But it 
 took no sure footing till about A. D. 960. Till 
 A. D. 1471 the names of the Bohemian king* 
 and heroes are Tahekh — Weoeeslaus, Ottoluir, 
 Ziska, Podiebrad. In A. D. 1564, the Austrian 
 connexion and the process of Oernianiziiig tiegan. 
 . . . The history and ethnology of Moravia ia 
 nearly that of Bohemia, except that the Mar- 
 romannic Qermuns, the Turks, Huns, Avars, 
 and other less important populations mar have 
 effected a greater amount of Ind rmtxturo. 
 Both populations are Tshekli, speuking the 
 Tsliekh language — the language, probably, of 
 the ancient Quadi." — R. O. I.,atbam, Sthnology 
 0/ Burom, eh. 11. 
 
 7th Century.— The Yoke of the Avar* 
 broken.— The Kingdom of Samo. See Avars: 
 7tii Cextikt. 
 
 ^th Century,— Subject to the Moraviaa 
 Kingdom of STatopluk. .Sec Moravia. Oti 
 
 CKNTfHV. 
 
 13th Ccntuiy.- The King made a Germanic 
 Elector. SeeOBRMAMT. A I) 11?.1-1!!7a. 
 
 A. D. 1276.— War of King Ottocar with 
 the Emperor Rodolph of Hapsburg.— Hia de- 
 feat and death. See Ai;stria: A. D. 1246- 
 Vixi. 
 
 A. D. 1310.— Acquisition of the crews by 
 John of Luxembourg. See OcaMAirr: A. D. 
 law- 181 3. 
 
 A. D. 1347.— Charles IV. elected to the In- 
 
 ferial throne. See Obrmaht: A. D. 1847- 
 4t)». 
 
 A. D. 1355.— The iuccesiion fiaed ia the 
 Luxemburg dynaaty.— Incorporation of Mo- 
 ravia, Silesia, ftc— The dirt of the nobles, in 
 13.VI, Joined ('harles IV, In "fixing the order of 
 sui'ct'ssliin III the ilynastr of Luxemburg, and in 
 delinltely establlsliing that principle of primo- 
 geniture which liatt alreaily been the custom in 
 the Premvslide dynaitv MnraTta, f.'.'.i-sin, 
 Upper Lusalia, Brandenburg, which had been 
 arquirad from the margrave Otto, and the 
 oouaty of OloU (Kladiko), with the oooaeat ol 
 
 295 
 

 
 I '^S| " "^5' F 
 
 ll;l 
 
 DOHEMU, 1*55. 
 
 JoXn Hui. 
 
 BOHEMIA, 1405-1415. 
 
 Uie (lieu of these provinces, were Utclared In- 
 tegral nnd inalienable portions of the Itingdom 
 of Bohinnia. — L. Leger, Uitl. of Auttro-nun- 
 gary, rh. 11. 
 
 A. p. 1364.— RcTcrsion of the crown piar- 
 anteea to the House of Austria, See Aus- 
 TRU: A. D. 1330-1384. 
 
 A. p. 1378-1400.— Imperial election and 
 A ''l°"l347 1493 "'"'""■ *** Germany: 
 I A. D. Mos-Mij.-john Hus, and the 
 moTement of Religious Reformation.— "Some 
 sparks of the lire whicli Wiolif li:iil lighted faee 
 Enuland: A. I). 13«0-1414], l.hnvii over half 
 Europe, as fnras remote Bohemia, iiuirkeiied into 
 stronper artivliy a flame which for l-mg years 
 l)urm-;l and scorched and consumed, dcfyinjr all 
 effcirts to c.xtinKuish it. But for all this, it was 
 not Wicllf who kindled the Bohemian fires 
 His writing did much to fan and fee.1 them; 
 while the assumed and in part errrmeously 
 Msumed, idonlity of his teaching with tliat of 
 Hus tontnbutiil not a little U> .shape the tragid 
 tasues of the Bohemian reformer's life. But the 
 Bohemian movement was an indeiwndent and 
 eniinentlv a national one. If we look for the 
 proper forerunners of Hus, his true spiritual 
 ancestors, we shall find them in his own land in 
 a succession of earnest and faithful preachers 
 . . John Hus (b. 1389, d. 1415), the central 
 Ogurc of the Bohemian Reformation, took in 
 the year 1394 his degree as Baihelor of Theo- 
 logy ill lliat Iniversity of Prague, upon the 
 fortiiiii-s of wiiiih he was destiniil to exercise so 
 hwtiiig an inlluencc; and four years later in 
 13«H, he Ixgan to deliver lectures there ' 
 He siM)n signNllz..d himself by his diligence in 
 breaking the briml of life to hungering souls and 
 his boldness in relmking vice in high places as in 
 low. So long OH he confined himst^lf to reproving 
 the sins of the l.iity, Ic ..g those of the Clergy 
 and monks una.s.-ail<Hi, ,.,: found little »p|)osition 
 nay. rather support and applause from thesi'' 
 Hut w lien [\i»:,] he brought them also within the 
 circle of hm eoiiilemnation, and began to upbraid 
 theiu forllinrcovetousness, tluir umbition, their 
 luxury, their sloth, and for other vices tliey 
 turneil angrily upon him, and sought to under- 
 mine his authority, everywhere s|madiug reports 
 of the uiihouudtiess of his teaching . V,M\e 
 matters were in t '» strnined ciiidition events 
 took place at I'rsg.ie which ar.' ti . elom'lv con- 
 nected with the Ktorv th», we nri' tilling" e.ver- 
 cised tiHi great «n iiirt..eiice in briiigiiig'abo„t 
 the Issues that lie U-for.' us. to allow us -o pass 
 them by . . Tlie University of }'ngw. 
 though nrently founded — it only dateii liaek to 
 tlieyear 1348— was now, next after those of 
 I'aris and ( ixfoni, the moat illustrious in Europe 
 This l-niversity, like that of I'aris, on tliu 
 pattern of which It bad been m0dell.1l, was 
 diviiledintofour'nations'— four groups that is 
 or families of k Iml.rs — each of these having iii 
 academical alTiiirs a single col|o,tiv,. vote 
 These nations wen' the navarlin, the .Sixon the 
 PolHh. and tin- Bohemian. This dis's not appear 
 at first an unfair division -two (iemmn and 
 two Slavonic; but In practical working Jie Polish 
 was so largely reeriilled from Hllesia, and other 
 Oi'rnian or half (Jerman lands, that Its vote was 
 n t:ut Oerm^i.. si,„, Tl.-r Trutr.ni. voU» were 
 thus as three to one, and the llohenilans In their 
 own Uad and their uwa I'Divenit/ un trtrj 
 
 296 
 
 mportant matter hopelessly outvoted. When 
 by aid of this preponderance, the University wm 
 made to condemn the teaching of Wiclif 
 matters came to a crisis. Urged by Hus who 
 as a stout patriot, and an earnest lover of the 
 Ilohemmn language and literature, had more than 
 a theohigicai interest in the matter,— bv .leronie 
 lof Prague],— by a Urge numlier of flie IJoho- 
 niian nobility,- King Wenzel publish.,! ,„ 
 edict whereby the relations of nativ.s a„d 
 foreigners were completely revenwd. 'fliere 
 should be henceforth three votes for the liohe 
 mian nation, and only one for the three others 
 buch a shifting of the weights certainly aippean 
 as a reiirossing of one inequality bv . riming 
 another. .' i all events it was so earnestly resf ntij 
 by the Germans, by professors anil stuilints 
 alike, that they quitted the University in a IkhIv 
 some aav of five, and some of thirty thousand and 
 founded the rival University of hipsjc l,,,vini 
 no more than two thousand students at I'riigue 
 »uli of indignation against Hus, whom tliev 
 rsgarde<l as the prime author of this affront and 
 wrong, they spread throughout all Gernianv the 
 moat unfavourable reporUof him and of his ti"ach- 
 Ing. Thiaeicxiua of the foreigners hail left Hus 
 who was now Rector of the Unlversitv, with a 
 freer field than before. But Church matters at 
 Prague did not mend; they became nior.^ om- 
 fused and threatening every day; until prewnlly 
 theahamcful outrage againstali Christian nioraliiv 
 which a century later did a still more elL-ciuiil 
 work, served to put Hus Into open opiKwiti.m to 
 ^e corrupt hierarchy of his time, hw .iohn 
 XXIII., having a quarrel with the King .if 
 Naples, proclaimed a crusade against him wiili 
 what had liecome a c.mstant accompaiiini. nt of 
 this,-- Indulgences (o match. But to.l,Ti,„in.e 
 Indulgences, as Hus with fierce and rigl,i,„ii8 
 iniiignation did now, was to wound K.mie in h.r 
 most sensitive part, lie wnsexcommiinicai.-.Ut 
 once and every place which shoiil.l harbour him 
 stricken with an iiitenllct. While matt, rs were 
 In this frame the Council of Constanc [•<,.• 
 Papacy: A. I>. 1414-141**] was opem.l wl.i.h 
 should appciise all the troubles of Christen.l,.m 
 and correct what.ver was amiss. The Holninmn 
 dllHculty could ii.it Ik- omitteil, ami Hus ».« 
 summoned to nnike answer at Coiisiin.'.' f..r 
 himself. He h.i.l not been there four nirlis 
 when he was rii|uired to appear Ih fore Ih.' I'niie 
 andCanliiials(.Nov. 18,1414). AfKra l.iief ii.lor- 
 mal hearing he was commilted to harsh .luran.-e 
 from whicli he never issmil as a fri'e nmn ai;iiln 
 NIgismund, the German King and Knii'.rnr 
 Elect, who had furnlshe.l Hus with .1 sau iim- 
 duct which shoul.l protect him. 'g .ing l.ithe 
 Council, larrjingat the "oiineil, returning' fp.ra 
 the Council,' was abs«'nt 'r.mi Con«t«riie aiihe 
 time, and lieani with real displeasure lio» lithllr 
 regarded this prmilse and pledg.' of hi- \v.vl 
 Iwen. Home big wonls Urn he spoke, tlir. .1. ning 
 to come IdmM'ir and releiuie the pri-, mr t>y 
 force; but, being wait<sl on bv a il. pui.iiii.ii 
 from the Count II, who represen'tnl to l.ini I'lst 
 h.', asa lavnian. In giving •uch a saf.- ...n.liict 
 had exrenled his |«iweni. and inlruii..! intns 
 region which was not bis. ,Sigisniuii.l was .vn- 
 vinMil. or affected to be convliieed. . Mere 
 than seven nionlhs ehipmsl I ..tor.' H>i< e.mlil 
 obtain a ln'arlng liefon' the C 11 il Thin «w 
 
 S ranted to him nt last Thrice heanl (June S, 7, 
 . 1418),— if indcud such tumultuary nittiiigt 
 
rOHEHIA, 1405-1419. 
 
 VMorUa at tU 
 Humttm. 
 
 BOHEMIA, 1419-1434. 
 
 «bcn the man inMiking for his life, and for 
 miic'b more Uum his life, wua cimtioually inter- 
 •n]iied and overborne by hmtile voicfs. by Idud 
 1 '".eti of ' Recant,' ' Kecant,' may be reckoned aa 
 hcHriiigs at all, — he bore himself, by tlic cnn- 
 frssinn of all, with ciuiraf^e, mcelineiu and 
 ilipnity." He refuned to recant. Some of the 
 Hrticlc'S brought agalnnt him. he uid, "rhnrgcd 
 liim with teaching thhijn whic li he had never 
 tHii^ht, and he could not, by tliis formal act of 
 retraction, admit that he had tavight tlicin." He 
 was condemned, sentenced '» tlie stake, and 
 Immed, on the 8th of July, 41i5. His friend, 
 Jerome, of Prague, suffernl tlie siime fate in the 
 following May. —R. C. Trench, Leelt. on Mediaeval 
 Chunk llttlory. leet. 22. 
 
 Also in: E. H. Gillett, Life and timet of John 
 Hut. — A. H. Wratiilaw, John Hut. — A. Neander, 
 Oenernl Hitt. of Chrittian Belif/ion, t. Q, pt. 2. 
 
 A. D. 1410. — Election of King Sigismund to 
 the imperial thron*. See Uekxany; A. D. 
 1347-1493. 
 
 A. D. 1419-1431.— The Hnisite Wars.— 
 The Reformation checked.— "The f..ta of Hiiaa 
 and Jerome created an instant and tierce excite- 
 ment among the BohemUns. An addrem. 
 defending them againit the charge of heresy and 
 prnte.sting against the injustice and barbarity of 
 the Council, was signed by 400 or 500 nobles and 
 forwarded to Constance. The only result was 
 that the Council decreed that no safe-conduct 
 could be allowed to protect a heretic, that the 
 I'nlversity of Prague must be reorganized, and 
 tlie strongest meaf -ires applied to suppress the 
 HiDwite doctrines in Bohemia. This was a 
 (leflance which the Bohemians courageously 
 Hoceptod. Men of all classes united in proclaim- 
 in/' tliat the diKtrincs of Huss sliciuld be finely 
 taii^lit, and tliat no Intenlict of the Church 
 uliiiulii lie enforced: the University, and even 
 W'l iizeis queen, Sophia, favored this movement, 
 wliicli siHHi l)ecanie so powerful (liat all priests 
 tt iio nf used to administer the sacrament ' in both 
 f.iniis' were driven from the churches. . , . 
 When the Council of ConsUnce was dissol veil 
 IMIN], SIglsmund [the Emp»Tor] liasteiied to 
 Hungary to carry on a new war with the Turks, 
 who were already extending their conciuests 
 iiloiiff he Danulio. The Hussites in Holieniia 
 ciii|)loyiHl this opiwrtuiiitv to organize tlieni- 
 silves for resistance: 40.(HX) of tliem. in July, 
 UIH. aHseniblcd on a mountain to whieh Ihev 
 pi>e the name of Tal)or. and chose as tliefr | 
 liielir n nobleman who was siirnamcd Ziska. ! 
 Ih.- oiieeyeil.' The excitement s<«'n rose to 
 Mi.h n piieli that severnl immast, Hes were i 
 M..1T1111I and plundered. King Wenir, I arrested i 
 ►ome of the ringleaders, but tills only Inlhinied I 
 liie spirit of the |«-ople. They fomi"<l a pro- i 
 (esMon in Prague. marche<l through the citv I 
 (iirrvinir tlie saeramenul cup at their iiead, and 
 I'N.k foreilile iHisM'SMJon of several churches 
 ^\ hill they halted liefon> the citv-hall, to demand 
 the r. h'ss,. of their Imprisontif brethren, s vmes 
 Win- thrown at them (Mm the windows, wliere- 
 iil'"ii liny bn.ke into the building and hurled 
 till- HurKiimaster and six other ollleials umm the 
 uplu hi siK'nrs of those Mow. . . Tile Huss- 
 ites^ wen- nirraily divided Into two parties, one 
 m:=.: r,!,. jii jj, ,!,.n,anii5_ (.giij,,) (j,„ j-„ij^,j,„., 
 tn,m the Utin ' calix.' a rhsMce, which was their 
 «v,i,l».| [nferrlng to their demand for the ad- 
 mhiistr^aon of the eucbarUlic cup to the laltv 
 
 or communion ' sub utraque specie '— whence 
 they were also called ' Utraquisw '] ; tiic other 
 radical and fanatic, called the •Taborites,' who 
 priKluimed their separation from tlie Church of 
 Home and a new system of brotherly equality 
 tlin)Ui,'li which they expected to establish the 
 .Millenium upon earth. The exigencies of their 
 situation obliged tiiese two parties to unite in 
 common defence against the forces of the Church 
 and the Empire, during the sixteen years of war 
 which followed: but they always remained 
 separated in their religious views, and niutual'v 
 intolerant. Ziska, who called himself 'John 
 Ziska of the Chalice, commander in the hope of 
 God of the Tabcrites," had been a friend and 
 wag an ardent follower of Huss. He was un old 
 man, bald-headed, she-, broad-shouldered, with 
 a deep furrow acroij his brow, an enormous 
 aquiline nose, and a short red nioustaclie. In 
 his genius for military operation . he ranks 
 among the great commanders of the world; his 
 quickness, energy and inventive talent were 
 marvellous, but at the same time 11c knew 
 neither tolerance nor mercy. . . . Sigisniund 
 does not seem to have been aware of tii . formid- 
 able character of the movr mcnt, until the end oC 
 his war with the Turks, fjme months afterwanis, 
 and he then perauadcd ..he Pope to summon all 
 Christendom to a crusade against Bohemia. 
 During the year 1420 a force of 100,000 soldiers 
 was collected, and SIgismu.nd marciied at their 
 head to Prague. The Hussites met !iim with the 
 demand for the acceptance of the following 
 articles: 1.— The word of G'kI to be freely 
 preached ; 3. — The sacrament to be adniinistereu 
 in both forms: 3.— The clergy to posses- no 
 property or temporal authority: 4.— All sin-, to 
 lie punished by the proper authorities, .sigis- 
 niund was ready to accept these articles as the 
 price of their submission, hut the Papal I.*gate 
 fiirbaile the «greement. and war followed. On 
 the 1st c: Novemlier, 1420, the Crusaders were 
 totally ilefeated by Ziska. and all Bohemia was 
 soon relieved of their pr^icnco. Tlie dis,'ute 
 between the nroderaU-s and tlic radirals broke 
 out again : the idea of a community of nni|)erty 
 Ik, n to previ.il among the Taborites, and most 
 of the Bohemian notileii refuseil to act witli them. 
 Ziska left i'ragiic with his tn)ops and for a time 
 devoUKl himself to the task of suppn-ssing all 
 opIMisition tlirough the country, wiili lire and 
 swonl. He burned no hss tliiin .V>0 eonvenU 
 and monasteries, slaying tlie priests and monks 
 who refused to accept the new doelrines. . . . 
 While Ijcaleging tlie town of Ifciliv, an armw 
 destroyed his remaining eye, yet lie eoniinued to 
 plan battles and sieges as before. The very 
 name of tje blind warrior iK'canie a '.error 
 throughout Oennanv. lu September, I4'j|, a 
 second Crusade of Sixi.lHK) men, commanded by 
 five German Electors, enlereil Bohemia from tlie 
 west. . . . But the blind Ziska, nothingdaunted, 
 led his wagons, his Hail iiien, and mucewielders 
 against the Elittors, whiwu insips Iwgan to ily 
 iH'fore them. No bittle was fought : tl«! StH),000 
 Crusaders were scatU'n-d In all ilireetion.s. and 
 hist heavily during tlieir ri'treat Then Ziska 
 wheiled alKiut and niarelied against ,sigi»mund, 
 who ,'.a» late In makinir his appeamnie The 
 two nrniies met on ttie »th of January. I4'.'2 |at 
 DeiitM-hbnNi]. and the Hussite victory was so 
 eiinipleUi that the Emperor narrowly eseji|MHl 
 falling into their bauda ... A thin) Cruaads 
 
 2T, 
 
hi 
 
 
 3 
 
 l^irt 
 
 fi ,.' 
 
 *1 -"sf 
 
 BOHEMIA, 1419-14S4. 
 
 The Fr/ormaHo» 
 Ckteliwt 
 
 BOHEMIA, U84-14S7. 
 
 WM arranged and Frederick of Brandinbiirg 
 (the Hohenzollem) wl<>cted to comumnd It, l,„t 
 the plan failed from lack of support. Tlic dK 
 lensions among the Humltes became fiercer than 
 ever; Ziska was at one time on the point of 
 attai-king Prague, but Uie leaders of the mo,lcr- 
 ate party succeeded in coming to an under- 
 standing with him, and he altered the citv in 
 triumph In October, 1424, while marcfiing 
 against Duke Albert of Austria, who had invaded 
 Moravia, he fell a victim to the plague. Even 
 after death he continued to terrifv the German 
 •oldiers, who believed that his sliin had lieen 
 iniide nto a drum, and still called the Hussites 
 to battle. A majority of the Taborites elected a 
 pncst, called Procoplua the Great, as Uicir com- 
 mander in Ziska ■ stead; the others who thence- 
 forth styled themselves ' Orphans,' united under 
 another priest, Procoplus the Little. The 
 approach of another Imperial army, in 1426 
 compelled them to forget their differences, and 
 the result was a splendid victory over their 
 enemies. Procoplus the Great then invaded 
 Austria and Silesia, which he laid waste without 
 mercy. The Pope called a fourth Crusade, 
 which met the same fate as the former ones: the 
 united armies of the Archbishop of Treves, the 
 ilectnr Frederick of Brandenburg and the Duke 
 of haxony, aOO.OOll'strong, were utterly defeated 
 and fled in disonl.r, leaving an enormous quan- 
 tity of stores and munitions of war in the hands 
 of the Bohemians. Procoplus, who was almost 
 the equal of Ziska as a military leader, made 
 ■ev-ral unsuccessful attempu to unite the 
 HussiU's in one religious body. In ordc; tv 
 prevent their dissensions from becoming danger- 
 ous to the common cause, he kept the soldiers of 
 ail sects under his command, and undertook 
 fierce invasions into Bavaria. Saxony and Bnin- 
 denburc. which made the Huiwite name a terror 
 to all Germany. During these expeditions one 
 hundred towns were destroyeil, more than I rm 
 Tillages burned, tens of tiiousands .)f the inhabi- 
 tanw slain, and such quantities of plunder col- 
 lected that it was impossible to tniiisport the 
 whole of It to Bohemia. Fmlerick of Branden- 
 burg and several other princes were cuniiwlled 
 to pay heavy tributes to the Hussites: the 
 bmpirc was thoroughly humiliateil, tl.e neonle 
 weary of slaughter, yet the 1' .|m- refiis.'d even to 
 cal! a ( oiineil for the disrusKiou of thedilli, ulty 
 . . . The German prini'es made a la.staii.! iles- 
 p<Tale effort : an unny of 130,000 men, 40 ik'MI .if 
 whom were cavalry, was brought to/.ether 
 under the command of Knhleriik of Branii.ri- 
 burjf, Willie Allurt of Austria was to support it 
 by invading IJoheniia from the south. I'nKn 
 pius and his dauntless Huasilis nut the ( riisiiders 
 on the I4th of August. Uai, «t a place called 
 rhauss. and vmn another of tlieir marvellous 
 victories. The Im|icrial army was literallv cut 
 to pieces, S.IKIO wagons, filled with iir.iv[si..ns 
 and iniinitiiins of var, and I.W cannmiH were 
 left upon the field. The Hussites nianlied 
 
 northward to the Baltic, and eastward i Hun 
 
 garj-, burning, slaying, and plundering as they 
 went, tven the Pope no\, yielded, and the 
 Hussites were Invltetl to attend the Couneil 
 at Basil, with the most lolemn stipulations in 
 regard to personal safety and a fair discussion of 
 their <n«n,!x In l^.--.-?. fiimily 3i)0 Hussites, 
 
 heaile.i b^ Procoplus, appeared in liasel. They 
 
 liSii K '."'^,'™ "P"" "'''"='' ""ey "^ united in 
 J^\ ^1" ?,'"•■' Jf"™ ***''» °' talk, during 
 which the Council agreed upon nothing «,„| 
 primised nothing, they marched away after 
 stating that any further negotiation must Z 
 airried on in Prague. ThU course compelM 
 the Council to act: an embassy was appointed 
 which proceeded to Prague, and on the 30th of 
 November, the same year, concluded a tnaty 
 with the Hussites, the four demands were 
 granted, but each with a condition attache! 
 which gave the Chureh a chance to remin 
 lost power. For this reason, the Taborites an I 
 Orphans refused to accept the compact tlie 
 moderate party united wflh the nobles and 
 undertook to suppress the former by force i 
 fierce inu-rnal war followe.1, but it was of shon 
 duration. In 1434 the Talmrites were defeat 
 [at Lipan, May 80], their fortified mounlS 
 taken, Procoplus the Great and the Little were 
 both slain, and the membemof the sectdispersed 
 jhe Bohemian Reformation was never airahi 
 dangerous to the Church of Rome."— B Tavlnr 
 Hut. ofOermann, eh. 28. ' ^ ' 
 
 An^J""- ?: ^- ^^^^- ^o'^tion and 
 AnUKtfonmtton in Bohtmia, introducluni eh 
 
 9, M. 18-18.-E. de Schweinltx, ilit. oftKiCk 
 
 - ^;°i,'*?*-'fS2.-Omiiia«tlonof the Utra- 
 qnitt NatTon./ Churcli.-Minority of Ladit. 
 laui Poathumua.— Rejrency of CcotKe Pod «I 
 ,«»"^-OW» «'tb. Oniti Fr.tSS!-'!Th^ 
 battio of Lipan was a turning point In the his 
 
 vhi ir.^) the hands of the UtraquisU. an.l enabled 
 them to carry out their plans unhindered The 
 man who was foremost in shaping eveiiu auil 
 who became more and more prominent, until he 
 exercised a commanding influence, wb.s J„\m of 
 Hokycana. . At the diet of 1435 he «,s 
 
 unanimously elected archbishop. . . . Meaniirac 
 Ngismund endeavored to regain his kin>;,l„m 
 The Diet ma.le demands which were strinci nt 
 and humiliating; but he nledge<l himself to fullill 
 them, and on the 8th of July, 1436, at a niciing 
 held Willi great pomp and solemniiv. in the 
 niarket-place of Iglau, was formally "acknowl- 
 edgeilas King of Bohemia. On the same .x.u»ion 
 the t.impacUta were anew ratified and the 
 Bohemians readmitted to the fellowship of the 
 mother church. But scant- ly had SiKisniiind 
 reacheil his capital when he began so serious a 
 reaction In favor of Rome that Kokyeans 
 sicretly left the city and retired to a eastle 
 near Parduhic (14af). The kings Inaeherv 
 was, however, cut short by the hand of death 
 on the 9th of December, of the same year si 
 i^naim, while on his way to Hungary ami his 
 successor and son-in law, Allwrt of Au.iria fol- 
 lowe.1 him to the grave in 1439, in the midst of 
 a campaign against the Turks. Bohemia was 
 left without a ruler, for AlUrt had no eliiMrpu 
 except a fKwthumoua son [l,a<li8laus I'osthuniiis. 
 — .See Hlnoarv: A. D. l.*Jl-l44a, and 144*- 
 UM], A time of anarchy began and various 
 leagues arose, the moat powerful of which stood 
 un.hr Baron I>tacek. ... He . , . called so 
 ^™'«'»'«"tl<'al "invention at Kutlenlierg (i let.. her 
 4th). This conreution brought about far nwh. 
 iug resulLH. . . , iiokycaiia was acknowle.l(fed 
 as Archbishop elect, the supreme dlre<tioii of 
 
 demud^a nulWng mo™ U«n th«l.Z«„™'"^» " Arehblsho,, elect, the supreme dlre<tio„ of 
 iwHiawi«u ouuuug mure uuut U«i acceplanoe of j eecIeaiaaUca) affairawaa committed Into hhi hands, 
 
 298 
 
BOHEMIA. 1484-1487. 
 
 The Vnltat 
 AVafriiM, 
 
 BOHEMIA., 1458-1471. 
 
 the priests promised him obedience, and 34 doc- 
 trinal and coostitutiuaal articiea were adopted 
 whicli laid tlie foundation of tlie Utraquist 
 Cliureli as the Katiooal Church of Bohemia. 
 But the Taboritea stood aloof. . , . At last a dis- 
 putation was agreed upon, " as the result of which 
 the Taborites were condemned by the Diet. 
 "Tliey lost all prestige; their towns, with the 
 cxirptioD of Tabor, passed out of their hands; 
 tlieir membership was scattered and a laree part 
 n( it joined the National Church. In the follow- 
 ing summer Ptaceit died and Qeorge Podiebrad 
 iuccceded him as the bead of the league. 
 .\UUougb a young man of only 24 years, he dis- 
 played the sagacity of an experiencied statesman 
 ami was distinguished by the virtues of a patriot. 
 In 1448 a bold strolce made him master of Prague 
 and constituted him practically Re* ^nt of all 
 Bohemia; four years later his regency -as form- 
 ally aclinowledged. He was a warm friend of 
 Rokycana, whose consecration he endeavored to 
 bring about" When it was found that Rome 
 could not be reconciled, there were thouglits of 
 cutting loose altogether from the Roman Catholk 
 and uniting with the Oreeic Church. " Negotia- 
 tions were actually begun in 1493, but came to 
 an abrupt close in the following year, in conse- 
 quence of the fall of Constantinople. About the 
 tame time Ladislaus Pusthumus, Albert's son, 
 awumcd the crown, Podiebrad remaining Re- 
 gent The latter continued the friend of Roky- 
 cana; the former, who was a Catholic, conceived 
 a strong dislike to him. As soon as Rokycana 
 liad given up the hope of conciliating Rome, ho 
 began to preach, with great power and eloquence, 
 against its corruptions. " It was at this time that 
 a movement arose among certain of his followers 
 which resulted in the formation of the remark- 
 al)le religious b<xly which called itself Unitas 
 Fnitrum. The leading spirit in this movement 
 was Kokycana's nephew, commonly called Ore- 
 gory the Patriarcli. Tlie teaching and intiucnce 
 which shaped it was that of Pet<!r Chelcicky. 
 OK'gory and his companions, wishing to dwell 
 togitlier, in the Christian unitv of which they 
 had formed an ideal in their minds, found a re- 
 treat at the secluded village of Kunwald, on the 
 esiHte of George Podiebrad. " The name which 
 they chose was 'Brethren of the Law of Christ' 
 — 'Fratrca Lcgis Christl'; inasmuch, however, 
 u this name g'lve rise to the idea that they were 
 a new order of Monks, they dianged it simply 
 iotn ' Bretliren. ' When the organization of their 
 Church had been completed, they assumed 
 the Aiii'itional title of 'Jednota Brstrska,' or 
 Unitas Pratrum, that is, the Unit*- of the 
 Bri'tliren, which has remained the .incial and 
 signlflcant appellation of the Church to the pres- 
 ent day. ... It was often abbreviated Into ' "The 
 foHy. Another name by wblcli the Church 
 called itself was 'The Bohemian Brethren." It 
 related toall the Brethren, whetlier they belonged 
 ui Bohemia, Moravia. PrussU or Poland. To call 
 them The BohemianMoravian Brelhien, or tbo 
 Moravian Brethren, la historically Incorrect The 
 name Momvtan arose in the time of the Renewed 
 Brethren's Church, because the men by whom 
 it was renewed came from Moravia. . . . The 
 orgsniutiou of the Unitas Pratrum took place In 
 the year 1457."— E IV Brnwrfntt^. Hint. */ «*« 
 CAiircAiaawaai Unitai fhitrum, (A. Ift-W. 
 . ^'^vMS*- -Election or OMrn Podiabntd 
 to tht threo*. See UimoAmT : A.D. 144i)-14S8. 
 
 A. D. 1458-1471.— Papal escommmilcatioii 
 ■ad deposition of the king, George Podie- 
 brad.— A crusade.— War with the Emperor 
 and Matthias of Huafarr.— Death of Podie- 
 brad and electioa of Ladisiaui of Poland.— 
 "George Podiebrad had scarcely ascended the 
 tlirone before the Catholics, at the iistigation of 
 the pope, required him to fulfil I oronation 
 oath, bv expelling all heretics from tlie king- 
 dom, lie complied with their request, bunish«l 
 the Taborites, Picards, Adamites, and all other 
 religious seots who did not profess the Catholic 
 doctrines, and issued a decree that all his sub- 
 jects should become members of the Catholic 
 church, as communicants under one or both 
 kinds. The Catholics, however, were not satis- 
 fied ; considering the Caliztins as herev.cs, they 
 entreated him to annul the compacts, or to ob- 
 tain a new ratiflcatica of them from the new 
 pope. To gratify their wishes lie sent an em- 
 baasy to Rome, requesting a confirmation of the 
 compacts; but Pius, under the pretence that the 
 compacts gave occasion to heresy, refused his 
 ratification, and sent Fantino deila Vuile, as 
 legate, to Prague, for the purpose of persuading 
 the king to prohibit the administration of the 
 communion under both kinds. In consequence 
 of tills legation the king called a diet, at which 
 the legate and the bishops of Oimutz and Bres- 
 lau were present The ill success of the embassy 
 to Rome having been announced, he snid. ' I am 
 astonished, and cannot divine the iuteutions of 
 the pope. The compacts were the only means 
 of terminating the dreadful commotions In 
 Bohemia, and if they are annulled, tlie king- 
 dom will again relapse into the former disoniers. 
 The council of Bislo, which was composed of 
 the most learned men in Europe, approved and 
 grant«d them to the Bohemians, and pope 
 Eugenius confirmed them. They contain no 
 hercsv, and are in all respvcU conformable to the 
 doctrines of the holy church. X and mv wife 
 have followed them from our childhood," and I 
 am determined to maintain them till my death.' 
 . . . Fantino replying in a long and virulent 
 invective, the king ordered him to quit the 
 assembly, and imprisoned him in the castle of 
 Pixliobrsd, allowing him no other sustenance 
 except bread and water. The pope, irritated by 
 this insult, annulled the compacts, in 146.1, and 
 fulminated n sentence of excommunication 
 against tiie king, unless he appeared at Home 
 wituin a certain time to justify his conduct 
 This bull occasioned a great ferment among tlie 
 Catholics; Podiebrad was induced to lilierate 
 the legate, and made an apology to the ofl^ended 
 pontif!: wiiilu Frederic, gretctui for the assist- 
 ance which he had recently received from the 
 king of Bohemia, when besieged by his brotlier 
 Albert, interposed his me<ilatli>n with tlie pope, 
 and procured the suspension of the sentence of 
 excommunication. Pius dying on the 14th of 
 August, 1464, the new pope, Paul II., perse- 
 cuted the king of Bohemia with Increasing acri- 
 mony. He sent his legate to Breslau to excite 
 commotions among the Catholics, endeavoured 
 without effect to gain Caalmir, king of Poland, 
 by the offer of the Bohemian crown! and applied 
 with the same ill success to the stales of Ger- 
 many. He ni length orcroimc the gratitude of 
 the emperor by threats ami pr,.iui»i.i, and at the 
 diet of Nuremberg In 1467, the proposal of his 
 legato IVuitlao, to form a crusade against Um 
 
 2\)9 
 
,'. f 
 
 ' 
 
 1 
 
 i : 
 
 BOHEMIA. 1«8-U71. 
 
 ^'"'S^'** BOHEMIA, 187»-1«01 
 
 his emissaries wi 
 •xle tliruufchout 
 the Austrian tcrr 
 <ric drew from 
 violent iuvrcli- 
 formal derlan 
 declaration by 
 ing devastatio: 
 In vain appliei 
 assistance: ttii< 
 of Hungary ai; . 
 
 Im^*!? 1^°*'^''' ^'le'^. »M «upported by the 
 Imperial ambassadors. Altljougli this uronosal 
 
 sentence of dep..s,i,„n against Pinliebrad, and 
 Ilowed to preach the cru- 
 iny, and in every part of 
 The conduct of Fred- 
 ^1,' of Bohemia, In 1468, a 
 !ist his ingratitude, and a 
 war; be followed this 
 ption into Austria, spread- 
 as I !..• Danutw. Fmlcric 
 if princes of the empire for 
 ■ngth excited Matthias king 
 i»»V r="-'. ■":' ■ ' '"' father-in-law, by offcr- 
 hig to invest him with the liinsdom of ftiomia. 
 Matth as, forgetling his obligations to Po.lie- 
 brad to whoni he owed his life and crown, wa? 
 dazzled by the offer, and being assisted by 
 bod'-^of German marauders, who ha<I assumed 
 the u J88, invaded Bohemia. At the same time 
 
 ^1„f, l^^T "'.."" P"P* •^'^c'ting the Catholics 
 to psurrection the country again became a prey 
 to the dreadful evils of a civil and religious war 
 The vigour and activity of George Podiebrad 
 suppressed the internal commotions, and repelled 
 the invasion of the Hungarians; an armistice 
 
 rS^f T ao*^'; 'i'i'' "'" '"° ^'"go- °° t'"' 4th of 
 April U69, held an amicable conference at 
 Sternberg in Moravia, where they entered into 
 • treaty of pear,.. But Matthias, influenced by 
 the perfidious i, . sim, th.it no compact should be 
 kept with hcretir.s, w.is persuaded by the papal 
 legate to ri'sume hostilitfes. After overrunning 
 Moravia and bilesia, he held a mock diet at 
 Olmutz with .some of the Catholic party where 
 he w,« cmson Ijing of Bohemia, and iolcmnlv 
 
 crowned by the legate Po.liebra<l, in ord/r 
 
 to iMlfle the designs both of the emperor and 
 aialthias. siimiiioncd a diet at Prague, and pro- 
 p.«.. to the Mates as his 8ucces.«.r, Ladislaiis, 
 e^drst mn of Ca.siiiiir. king of Poland, by Eliza- 
 bj-ih, see,)nd daughter of tlie emperor Albert 
 I he prriposiil w:u wurnily approved bv tlie 
 nail"". ... as the (Jatliofics were desirous of 
 
 inH".*f "']'.'■,•".''"•'"'''"' ""■'■■ o*" communion, 
 and the ( alixims an.>;ii>u9 to prevent the aocea- 
 sioii of Fie,|, r,e „r Matthi.is, b.,th of whom were 
 hostile to their .|. .ctrines. Tlie stites acc<.nlii,g| y 
 a88<'nled witlioui lie.^itation, and Udi-laus was 
 unanimously n..min.il(.d sueces.sor to the throne 
 I he mdnrimtion of .Matthias was intl,im<>fl bv liis 
 disiippointment. and liostilities were cnntihue 1 
 with ncreasing fury. The two armies, con- 
 ducted by tlieir respective sovereigns, the ablest 
 genera » of the a^e. f„r some time kept each 
 other in elieek: till at len-th both tiarties 
 wearied by tlie devastation of tli.ir resn.etive 
 mintricH concluded a kind of armistice, on the 
 »Jn<l of .luly, 1470 which nut a peri.M to I, « 
 tililies. On the death ol l'o«iiebrad, in tlic 
 
 18 
 
 ensuing vear irederic again presenting hiiiiwlf 
 as a caiididute. was 6up|M)rte<l by still fewer ad- 
 herenu than on tlie former occasion; a morr 
 numerous party espoused the InteresU of Mat^ 
 uilag. but the majority declaring for Ladislaus 
 Bewail re.lerted, and proclaimed king. fml'. 
 eric .uH^trtod Lailislaus in preference to 
 JJatthlas. and by fomenting the troubles in 
 
 iill'''"/-ii I" ";*" "^ ^'y '''" Intrigues with the 
 king of Polaml. i nde.<v,.„n,d not onlv tn dliwt>- 
 |H>int Miitililas of the throne of IV.liemU. but 
 eveu to drive bim frotn that of Huogwy "— W 
 
 A. D. 147 1-1479.— W«r with Matthias of 
 Hungary—Surrender of MorarU and Sde.iL 
 See UUNOAKV; A. I). 1471-14«7 ^"e»'«. 
 
 th™?»/t?*~'^'°*^ LadiaUu. elected to th. 
 throne of tfungary. See Hungary: A. D. 14«7! 
 
 „fa;,R" '^'tL57«.--Acceiiion of the Houn 
 Al.«„'!;~^\' Reformation and its .treng^? 
 i;;1i5f« VI '?*i '°'"*t.on and perwcutioS.- 
 In 1489 \ ladislav • was elected to the throne nf 
 Hungary after the death of Mathlas Corv im» 
 He died in 1516, and was succeeded on the tl m» 
 of Bohemia and Huni^ary bv his mim,r rn 
 I^uta. who perisli«i in 152/ at the bat ifof 
 
 1487-1528]. An equality of rights was main 
 taiued between the Hussites ^d the iCan 
 Catho ic» during theae two reigna, LouisT, ft 
 no children, an/was succeeded*on thelSrncf „ 
 Hungary and Bohemia by Ferdinand of Austria 
 [see also, Austria: A. t). 1496-1526). bS 
 of the E,np,.ror ChariesV..and marritd to X 
 sister of Iajuis. a prince of a bigoted and desnoUc 
 
 found aspeedy echo amongst the Calixtines und/r 
 the prece<ling reign; sn.F Protestantism gained 
 so much ground under that of Petxlinanl tS 
 the Bohemians refused to take part in the war 
 against the Protestant leajrue of Smalkalden. and 
 formeil a union for the defence of the nai onal 
 ami religious liberties, which were menami bv 
 
 h^,7'Ti J."* ''¥<'•'• "' "'« Protestantsa the 
 battle of Muhlberg. in 1547, by Cliaries V wh ", 
 laid prostrate their cause in Germany, pnKluceJ 
 a severe reaction in Bohemia. Several leallm 
 of tho union were executed, others inipris.,nea 
 or banislied; the property of many nobles w,« 
 coiiliscuted, the towns were heavily (in,-,l d" 
 prived of several privileges, and sibjeit,.;! to 
 new taxes. These measures were carried in 
 execution with the assistance of German, .Spani" l" 
 and Hungarian soldien,, and legalized by an as- 
 seinbly known under tiie name of the Ul,KKly 
 
 i„„ .1 ■ .• ■ ■ ^''? "'**U'*" *'*^"' "'"« Intiwlueed dur- 
 ng that r,.ign into B<.hemia. The privileires of 
 thctal xtine or, as it was officially call,,!, the 
 PnM?„ ^^ Cliurch, were not abolished, and 
 l-erdinand, who h.»d succeedi'd to the imperial 
 erown after the 8b<lication of his brother Charles 
 \ ., wftened, during the lalt^^r years of hi.s reign. 
 his harsh and despotic character. . . . He .lied 
 In 1..64, i-'ncerely regretting, it is said, tlie a( t« 
 of oppre „ion which he ha.l committed acainst 
 his Bohemian subjects. He was succeede,: bv 
 his son, the Emperor Maximilian II.. a ni.in u'i 
 noble character and tolerant disposition, whidi 
 cd to tlic Uhef that he himself Inclineii Inwanli 
 t''« 'Iwtnnes of the Ke'forniation. He <lip<l ir. 
 1579, leaving a name veneraUKl by all parii,s. 
 • . . Maximilians son, the Emperor Hu,l..l|ili 
 was educated at the court of his cousin, I'hiiip 
 u. o. Spain, and could jot be but adverac to 
 I rotestanlism, which had, however, become t..> 
 sinmg. not only in Bohemia, but also in AuMru 
 proper, to be easily suppreascil; but several wi- 
 direct means were adoj.iwl. in order a.-sdually t- 
 <^ecl this objeea.-V. Krasinski, l^u „„ tU 
 Jitiwtmit IIinl uf the Slawnie Xations, Uet i 
 
 A. p. 1576-160*.— PejMcuUon of Protestants 
 BTRudolph. Siee Uuhoabt: A. I). 1M7- 
 
 800 
 
BOHEMIA. 1811-1«18. 
 
 Th' Letter of 
 
 BOHEMIA, 16U-iai8. 
 
 A. D. 1611-1618.— The Letter of VLtAttij, 
 or Rojal Charter, and Matthias's Tiolation of 
 it.— Ferdinand of Stjria forced upon the 
 nation as king: hy hereditary right. -The 
 throwing of the Royal Counsellors from the 
 window.— Beginning of the Thirty Years 
 War.— In 1811. the Emperor I{o(lolph was 
 forreil to surrender the crown of Bohemia to liis 
 '.irotlier Miittfaias. The next year ho died, and 
 Matthias succeeded him aa Emperor also. "The 
 tranmiillity which Hn<lolph II. 'a Lietterof Majesty 
 soe Germant: A. D. 1608-1018] had established 
 in B<ilieiriiB tested for some time, under the 
 ailmi!:istijtioD of Matthias, till the nomination 
 of a new h«ir to this kingdom in the person of 
 Fcnllnanii of Oratz [Styria]. Tills prince, whom 
 we shall afterwards become better acquninte<l 
 with under the title of Ferdinand II., Emperor 
 of Germany, had, by the violent extirpation of 
 the Protestant religion within his liereilit.iry 
 dominions, announced himself as an inexombic 
 zealot for popery, and was consequcntir lookeil 
 upon by the Roman 'Catholic nart of Bohemia 
 as the future pllbtr of .iieir church. Tlie declin- 
 ing health of the Emperor brought on this hour 
 rapidly ; and, relying on so powerful a sup- 
 poner, the Bohemian Papists began to treat the 
 Protestnnts with little moderation. Tlie Protes- 
 tant vassals of Roman Catholic nobles, in pur- 
 ticulNr, experienced the harshest treatment. At 
 length several of the former were incautious 
 enough to speak somewhat loudly of their hopes, 
 nnd by threatening liiuts to nwaken among the 
 Protestants a suspicion of their future sovereign. 
 But this mistrust would never have broken out 
 into nrtual violence, had the Ib>inan Calliolics 
 conflueil themselves to general expressions, and 
 not by attacks on individuals furnished the dis- 
 content of the people with enterprising leaders. 
 HiMiry Matthias, Count Thum, not a native of 
 B'ljii'inia, but proprietor of some estates in that 
 kinidom, had, by his zeal for the Protestant 
 cause, and an enthusiastic attachment to his 
 ni-wly adiipted country, gained the entire con- 
 fitliuce of 1 lie Utniquists, which opened him the 
 war to the most im|)ortiint posts. ... Of a hot 
 anil Impetuous disposition, which loved tumult 
 beoiiise his talents shone iu it — rash and 
 thou^tlitless enougli to underhike things whicli 
 cnid [irudcnce and a caliiuT temper would not 
 hive ventured ujxm — unscrupulous ciioiigli, 
 where the gratiflciilion of his piissinns was con- 
 ccraed. to sport with the fate of tliousaiids, and 
 al the same time jiolltic onougli t/) hold in lead- 
 inir strings such a peoph the Toheminus then 
 were. lie had alrvadv tjiriin an active part in 
 the troubles under Rudolph's administration; 
 »iid the Ixjtter of Maiesty which tlie States had 
 ixtiirted from tliat Em|)eror, was chiefly to I)c 
 laiil to his merit. The court had intrusted to 
 hun, as burgrave or caaUdlan of Calstein. the 
 iu*!i«ly of tlie Bohemian crown, nnd of tlie 
 naticmal charter. But the nation had ploced in 
 i.ii hands sonu'thing far more importimt — itaelf 
 — Willi ih<> olBce of defender or protector of the 
 fuiih Tlie aristocracy by which the Empi^ror 
 « '« ruled, imprudenjy deprived him of thi^ 
 ■ irinl(-s guanli.iwliip of the dead, to leave him 
 III- fiill inrtuemc over the Uving. They took 
 ti in him his oillce of hiirgrnve. or eonstJilile of 
 li.f . ;u.ile, which litwl remlered him dependent on 
 ll.i' •■■uri. I hereby opening his eyes to the im- I 
 lK.n»nie uf the other which remained, and 
 
 wounded his vanity, which yet was the thing 
 that made his ambition harmless. From tbS 
 moment he was actuated solely by a desire of 
 revenge; and the opportunity of gratifying it 
 was not long wanting. In the Royal Letter 
 whicli the Bohemians had extorted from Rodolpb 
 II., as well as in the Qerman religious treaty, 
 one material article remained undcermiued. 
 All the privileges granted by the latter to the 
 Protestants, were conceived in lavour of the 
 Estates or goveruing Iradies, not of the subjects; 
 for only to those of ecclesiastical states had a 
 toleration, and that precarious, been conceded. 
 The Bohemian Letter of Majesty, in the same 
 manner, spoke only of the Estates an<l the im- 
 perial towns, the magistrates of which had con- 
 trived to obtain equal privileges with the former. 
 These alone were free to erect churches and 
 schools, and openly to celebrate their Protestant 
 worship: in all other towns, it was left entirely 
 to the government to which they Ijelonged, to 
 determine the religion of the inhabitants. The 
 Estates of the Empire had availed themselves of 
 this privilege in its fullest extent; the secular 
 indeed without opposition; while the ecclesias- 
 tical, in whose case the declaratio.i of Ferdinand 
 had limited this privilege, disputed, not without 
 reason, the validity of that limitation. Whnt 
 was a disputed poiut in the religious treaty, was 
 left still more doubtful In the letter of Majesty. 
 ... In the little town of Klostergrab, subject 
 to the Archbishop of Prague; and in Braunau, 
 which iK'longed to the abbot of that monastery, 
 churches were founded by the Prote-stants, and 
 completed notwithstanding the opposition of 
 their superiors, and the disapprobation of the 
 Emperor. ... By the Emperor's oniers. the 
 church at Klostcrgrab was pulletl down; that at 
 Umunau forcibly shut up, and the most turbulent 
 of the citizens thrown into prison. A general 
 commotion among the Protestants was the con- 
 sequence of this measure; a loud outcry was 
 everywhere raised at this violation of the Letter 
 of Majesty; and Count Thum. animated by 
 revenge, and particularly called upon by his 
 oflice of defeniler, sliowed himself not a little 
 busy in inflaming the minds of the people. At 
 his instigation deputies were suininoued to 
 Prague from every circle in the empire, to con- 
 cert the necessary mea.siircs again.st the common 
 danger. It was resolved to petition tlie Emperor 
 to press for the liberation of the prisoners. Tiio 
 answer of the Emperor, already olleiisive to the 
 states, from its lieing addressed, not to them, but 
 to his viceroy, denounce.l their comliiot as illegal 
 and rebellious, justified what had lieen done at 
 Klostcrgrab and Brauiiau as the result of an im- 
 perial mandate, and contained some passages 
 that might be consfied into threats. Count 
 Thurn did not fail t. .mrment the unfavourable 
 impression which t - imperial edict made upon 
 the assembled E les. ... He held it . . . 
 advisable flrst to .! it their indi^'nation against 
 the Emperor's coiia.sellors; nnd for tliat piirpo.se 
 circulate<l a reimrt, that the imperial pnnhiina- 
 tion had l)een drawn up by the gmemnieiit at 
 Prague and only signed in Vienua. Among the 
 imperial delegates, the chief objects of the 
 popular hatred, were he President i>f the Cham- 
 iK-r. S!aw.it«, ami Bar.in .\ffirtinitz. who lis.1 been 
 elecWd in place of Count Thurn, Burgrave of 
 Calstein. . . . Against two characters so un- 
 popular the public indignation was easily ex 
 
 SOI 
 
i 
 
 'A; 
 
 'IJ 
 
 BOHEMIA. leil-lSIS. 
 
 I*<rt» Fton 
 
 BOHEMIA, 174a. 
 
 dted, and they were marked out for a iacrlflcc 
 to the eeneral Indignation. On the 23nl of May, 
 1B18 the depuUea appeared armed, and In great 
 numbers, at the roTal paUoe, and forced their 
 way Into the haU where the Commlaioncrs Stem- 
 herg. Martlnlti, Lobkowiti, and SlawaU were 
 assembled In a threatening tone they demanded 
 to know from each of them, whether he had 
 taken any part, or had consented to, the Imperial 
 proctamatlon. Sternberg received them with 
 composure. Martlnitz and SUwata with defiance. 
 This decided their fate; Sternberg and Lob- 
 kowitz, leas hated. , id more feared, were led by 
 the arm out of the room: Martlnitz and SUwata 
 were seized, dragged to a window, and pre- 
 cipitated from a height of 80 feet. Into the castle 
 trench. Their creature, the secretory Kabrlclus 
 was thrown after them. This singular mode of 
 execution naturally excited the surprise of 
 clTlllzed nations. The Bohemians Justified It as 
 a natloMl custom, and saw nothing remarkable 
 in the whole affair, excepting that any one should 
 have got up again safe and sound after such a 
 fall. A dunghill, on which the Imperial oom- 
 mlsslonere chanced to be deposited, had saved 
 them from Injury. [The Incident of the flinging 
 or the obnoxious ministers from the window fi 
 wten referred to as 'the defenestration at 
 "ague.] . . . By this brutal act of self-redress, 
 no room was left for Irresolution or repentance 
 Md it seemed as if a single crime could be 
 absolved only by a series of violences. As the 
 deed itse f could not be undone, nothing was left 
 but to diaann the hand of punishment. Thirty 
 directors were appol ted to organize a regular 
 Insurrection. They seized upon all the offlcea of 
 state, and all the imperial revenues, took into 
 their own service the roval functionaries and the 
 soldiers, and summoned the whole Bohemian 
 nation toavenge the common cause. "— P Schiller 
 Hint, of Uie Thirty Tcart' War. bk. 1. pp. 8l-S.^' 
 Also Df: 8. R. - 'Hlner, Tht Thirty Yrari' 
 War. .«A 8.-A. I -y. Hint, of tht Thirty 
 
 n ■' "^l- ^„- Kohlrausch, HiU. of 
 
 Oermany, eh. 23. 
 
 # ^' ?-'*'8-«6«>.— Conciliatory measure! de- 
 feated by Ferdinand.— His election to the Im- 
 penal throne, and hit deposition in Bohemia. 
 —Acceptance of the crown by Frederick the 
 Palatine Elector.— Hia unsupported situation. 
 SceQERMANT: A. D. 1618-1620. 
 .,\°A •*»»--Di»»PPointment in the newly 
 elected KinK.— His ^tcressivc Calvinism.— 
 Battle of the White Mountain before Prairue. 
 —Frederick's flight.— Annulling of the Royal 
 charter.— Loss of Bohemian Liberties. See 
 Oekmant: a. D. 1620. and Huhoart: A D 
 10(*fl-1660. 
 AD. 16a1.1648.-The Reign of Terror.- 
 j * • .T.'*""*'""*'"' 'onfiication, dranioo' 
 ades.— The country a desert.— Protestantism 
 crushed, but not slain.— "In June. 1621, a fear 
 ful reign of tiTror began in Bohemia, with tlie 
 execution of 37 of the most distinguished here- 
 tics. For years the unhappy people bled under 
 It; thouaaniN were banished, and yet Protestant- 
 Ism was not fully exterminated. The clinrtcr 
 was cut into shreds bv the Emperor himself- 
 tliere could be nn fofb-mrance towards 'such 
 acknowledged rebels. ' As a matter of course, 
 the Lutheran pn«cl.ine was forbidden umlsr the 
 heaviest penalties; heretical works. Bibles es- 
 pecially, were token away In heaps. Jesuit 
 
 colleges, r rches, and schoob came Into power- 
 but Uils was not all. A large number of dli-' 
 t nguished Protestant families were deprived of 
 hefr property, and, as if that were not cnouKh 
 it was decreed that no non-Catholic could be a 
 citizen, nor carry on a trade, enter Into » m.,. 
 riage, nor make a will; any one who harlmured 
 a Protestont preacher forfeited his pronertv- 
 whoever permitted Protestont Instruction to t» 
 
 given was to be fined, and whipped out of town- 
 le Protestant poor who were not converted 
 were to be driven out of the hospltols, and to be 
 replaced by Catholic poor; he wfio gave freeze? 
 presslon to his opinions about religion was 'o ho 
 executed. In 1634 an order was issued to all 
 ^^ "", u?^^ »eachera to leave the country 
 within eight days under pain of death; ana 
 finally. It was ordained that whoever had not 
 become Catholic by Easter, 1626, must emigrate 
 . . . But the real conversions were few ; thousands 
 quietly remained true to the faith; other thou 
 sands wandered as beggars Into foreign lands 
 more than 80,000 Bohemian families, and among 
 them 800 belonging to the aristocracy, went into 
 banishment Exiled Bohemians were to be 
 found In every country of Europe, and were not 
 wanting In any of the armies that fought against 
 Austria. Those who could not or would not 
 emigrate, held to their faith In secret. Arainst 
 t lem dragoonadea were employed. DeUchments 
 of soldiers were sent Into the various districu to 
 torment the heretics till they were converted 
 The 'Converters' (Scllgmacher) went thus 
 throughout all Bohemia, plundering and murder- 
 ing. . . . No succour reached the unfortunate 
 people^ut neither did the victors attain their 
 end Protestontism and the Hussite memories 
 could not be slain, and only outward siibmi3.slon 
 was extorted. ... A respectoble Protestant 
 party exlato to this day In Bohemia and .Momvia 
 But a desert was created; the land was crushed 
 for a generation. Before the war Bohemia had 
 i-^S?^ Inhabltonto, and In 1648 there were but 
 700,000 or 800,000. These figures appear pre 
 nosferous, but they are certiSed by Bohenilan 
 histonans. In some parts of the coimtry the 
 population has not attoined the standard of 1630 
 fo this day. "—L. HBusser, The Period of tht Rt- 
 forina. on, ch. Z2. 
 
 Also in: C. A. Peschek, Reformation and 
 Anti- Hfformatinn in Bohemia, v. 2 — E do 
 Schwclnitz. Hitt. of the Church knoten at tht 
 Unitat Fratrum, eh. 47-51. 
 
 A. D. 1631-1633.- Temporary occupation by 
 the Sa=ons.— Their expulsion by Wallenstein. 
 ScoOermant: a. n. lfWI-16:)3. 
 
 A. D. 1640-1645.— Campaigns of Baner 
 and Torstenson. Sec Oehmant: A. 1) I6411- 
 164.1. 
 
 ■^ °;. i«4*-'«48.— Last campaigns of the 
 Thirty Years War.— Surprise and capture of 
 part of Prague by the Swedes.— Siege of the 
 old city.— Peace. See Oehma.nt: A. 1). I«4«- 
 1648. 
 
 A. D. f 740.— The question of the Austrian 
 Succession.- The Pragmatic Sanction. t«^ 
 Austria: A. D. 1718-1738. a.- ' 1740. 
 
 A. D. 1741.— Brief conquest by the French, 
 Bavarians and Saxons. See Ai-xtuia: .K. D 
 1741 (ADOcrr— NnvEMBEit). and (Octdhkhi. 
 
 A. D. 1741 (January— May).— Prussii.! inva- 
 sion.— Battle of Chotusitz. Sec .•li.ariu\ 
 A. D. 1748 (Jandarv- May). 
 
 302 
 
 [ml- 
 
 \± u 
 
BOHEMU, 1743. 
 
 BOKHARA. 1819. 
 
 A. D. 174a (Tone — December). — Bxpuliien of 
 the French.— Beileiile's retreat. — Maria The- 
 resa crowned at Prague. See Auuthia: A. D. 
 1742 (June— December). 
 
 A. D. 1757.— The Seren Years War. — 
 Frederick'! InTaaion and defeat.— Battles of 
 Prague and Kolin. See Oermahy: A. D. 1757 
 (April— June). 
 
 BOHEMIAN BRETHREN, The. See 
 BoiiEMi.i: A. D. 1434-1457, and Oebxamv: 
 
 A. D 1830. 
 
 BOHEMIANS (Gypsies). See Otfsies. 
 
 BOIANS, O" BOII.— Some pas *es in the 
 curlier Uistory ..ail movements of the powerful 
 Otillic tribe KDown as the Boii will be found 
 touched upon under Rome: B. C. 890-847, and 
 
 B. C. 29.5-191, in accounts given of the destruc- 
 tion of Rome by tlie Oauls, and of the subse- 
 quent wars of the Romans with the Cisalpine 
 Osuls. After the final conquest of the Boians in 
 (jallia Cisalpina, early In the second century, 
 B. C.. the Romans seem to have expelled them, 
 wholly or partly, from that country, forciig 
 them to cross the Alps. They afterwards occu- 
 pied a region embraced in modern Bavaria and 
 U,>Iicmia, both of which countries are thought 
 to have derived their names from these BoTan 
 people. Some part of the nation, however, as- 
 sociated itself with the Ilelvetii and Joined in the 
 migration which Ciesar arrested. He settlei 
 these Boians in Qaul, within the .Eduan terri- 
 tory, between the Loire and the Ailler. Their 
 capital city was Gergovia, which was also the 
 name of a city of the Arverni. The Oergovia of 
 the Boians is conjectured to have been modem 
 Moulins. Their territory was the modern Bour- 
 bonnais. which probably derived its name from 
 them. Three important names, therefore, in 
 European geograpliy and history, viz. — Bour- 
 bon. Bavana and Bohemia, are traced to the 
 Gallic ua*' n of the Boil. — Tacitus, 'Jermans, 
 tnint. by (Jhureh and Brodrihh, notes. 
 
 Also in: C. Merivale, Jlitt. of the Romnnn, e/t. 
 12, note. 
 
 BOIS-LE-DUC— Siege and capture by the 
 Dutch (1629). See NhTtiEULANUS: A 0. 1621- 
 KCJS. 
 
 BOKHARA (Ancient Traososania).- 
 ' Taken literally, the name [TmuwxaniaJ is a 
 translation of the Arabic Mavera-un-uehr (that 
 which lies beyond or across the river), aad it 
 might therefore be siipposed that Transoxanlii 
 meant the country lying Iteyond or on the right 
 sliore of the Oxua. But this is not strictly 
 8;)eiiking the case. . . . Prom the period of the 
 SumaniJes down to modern times, the districts 
 iif Talltan, Toltliaristan and Zcm, althougli 
 lying partly or entirely on the left bank of the 
 Oxiis. have been looked on as integral portions 
 of Bokhara. 0>ir historical researches seem to 
 
 gn)ve that this arrangement dates fmm the 
 umaniiles, who were themselves originally 
 natives of that part of Khonissan. ... It is 
 almost impossible in dealing gcognphically witii 
 Transoxania to assign detinit<;ly au accurate 
 frontier. We can and •■■ill therefore compre- 
 hend in our definition ' f insoxania solely Bok- 
 hara, or the khanate 01 .i,)khara; f«' .ilthough 
 it ha.4 iiiity betu known liy llie iatu-r name since 
 the time of Shctbani antf of the Ozbegs [A. D. 
 1500), ihc shon-H of the Zerefshan and the tract 
 of country stretching southwards to tiie Oziu 
 
 and northwards to the desert of Kizil Kum, 
 re|ireaent the only parts of the territory which 
 have remained uninterruptedly portions of the 
 original undivided state of Transoxuiiia fronitlia 
 earliest historical times. . . . Bokhara, the capi- 
 tal from the time of the Samanides, at.'! tlie 
 date of the very earliest geogmphicHi i>>>iirts 
 concerning Transoxania, is said, during Hh jiros- 
 perity, to have been the largest city ol the 
 Islamite world. . . . Bokhara was not, however, 
 merely a luxurious city, distinguished by great 
 natural advantages; it was also the principal 
 emporium for the trade between China and 
 Western Asia; in addition to tiie vast ware- 
 houses for silks, brocades, and cotton stuffs, for 
 the finest carpets, and all kinds of gold and 
 silversmiths' work, it boasted of a great money- 
 market, being la fact the Exchange of all the 
 population of Extern and Western Asia. . . . 
 Sogd . . . comprised the mountainous part of 
 Transoxania (which mav be described as the 
 extreme western spurs of the Thien-Shan). . . . 
 The capital was Samarkand, undoubtedly the 
 Maracanda of the Greeks, which they specify as 
 the capital of SogdU. The city has, throughout 
 the history of Transoxania been the rival of 
 Bokhara. Before the time of the Samanides, 
 Samarkand was the largest city beyond the 
 Ox us, and only began to decline from its fonner 
 importance when Ismail chose Bokhara for his 
 own residence. Under the Khahrezmians it is 
 said to have raised it^olf ugaiu. and liecome 
 much larger than its rival, and under Timour to 
 h:ive reached the culminating point of its pros- 
 perity. " — A.. Vambery, Ilitl. of Bt>kluirii, iiitrod. 
 
 Also in: J. Button, Central Anin, eh. 3-3. 
 
 B. C. 329-337. — Conquest by Alexander the 
 Great. See MACEDONtA: B. C. 330-.S23. 
 
 6tb Century. — Conquest from the White 
 Huns by the Tnrks. See Turks: Btu Cen- 
 tury. 
 
 A. D. 710.— The Moslem Conquest. See 
 Mahometan Conqukst: A. D, 710. 
 
 A. D. 991-998. — Under the Samanides. See 
 Samanioks. 
 
 A. D. 1004-1193.— The Seldjuk Turk&, See 
 Turks (TuE Seldjdks): A. D. 1004-luii3, and 
 after. 
 
 A. D. iao9-iaao. — Under the Khuarezmians. 
 See Kiiuarkzm: 13Tn Ckntury. 
 
 A. D. 1219.— Destruction of the city by 
 Jing^s Khan. — Bokhara was taken l)y Jingis 
 Kimn in the summer of 1219. "It was then a 
 very large and magnificent city. Its name, 
 according to the historian Alaiudilin. is de- 
 rive<l from Bokliar, which la the Magian lan- 
 guage means the Centre of Science." Tne city 
 surrendered after a siege of a few d.iys, Jingis 
 Khan, on entering the town, saw the great 
 mosiiHC and asked If it was the Sultan's palace. 
 "Being tolil it was the house of Qod, ho dis- 
 mounted, climbed the stem, and 8;tid in a loud 
 voice to his followers, 'The hay is cut, give 
 your horses fodder.' They easily understood this 
 cynical invitation to plunaer. . . The inhabit- 
 ants wen; onierud to leave the town . niliixly. with 
 only their clothes, so that it might Ih! more easily 
 pillaged, after which the spoil was divldeil 
 among the victors. ' It wm a fearful i\.\y,' says 
 Ibn al Itliir; 'one only iieani tiie solis an<l wii'p- 
 ing of men, women and chlhlren, who were 
 separated forever; women were ravished, while 
 meD died rather Ihan survive the dishonour o{ 
 
 303 
 
t i 
 
 fl 
 
 ^1 
 
 BOKHARA, 1819. 
 
 b^ll.tTiTrfl""'.*'",?''?*"-' "^ Mongol, ended 
 
 i^DdiL* » '[fre/'ullt of firiok remained 
 •tanding. _H h, Howorth. n~,. of the Mon- 
 fft'.T. 1. MS.-" The flourishing city on the 
 t^J^^ ^ ^T • ''"••"P "f ".bCish. but 
 
 wUch deserves our admiration. Tlie Mongol 
 
 wl^^f,.°S^'' ^'^"'V "'" B"'"""-i"t8 themsclvea 
 7^ J^ "■' *" i'"' »?«"''Sl»'lil<'": but all In 
 
 Jh/«in I' Y"" <=«'•P^•«<'' "'en ""'I unimals that 
 
 Kfi,.!^,' ''"''■ T''« ix-aceablc portion of the 
 
 reristance. More than 80,000 men were executed. 
 
 the v?^"??''"'",''*"' *'"' 'he exception of 
 ine very old people among them, reduced to 
 slavery, without any distinction of rank wha^ 
 I! ™i ? .' j"? the InhabltanU of Bokhara, lately 
 10 oelelmited for their learning, their love of art. 
 ana their general refinement, were broueht 
 ^nT^Jatri't^'"'';! "' '"'~^y »"" .ie/mdatfon 
 5/,i^?aTi *° "I' quarters. "-A. ■C'ambcnr, 
 nsllla: "• '^* Mongols: A. 0. 
 
 A. D. 1868.— Subjection to RouU. See 
 RfHBiA: A. n. 18.W-1878. "■»—»• oee 
 
 
 BOJ-ERIUM. 8cc BEI.KRION. 
 
 lOlHl-Kli) Boleslaui 11., Kine of Poland 
 
 A- ,1^ '""f-l"*) Bolesliu, ifl., Duke of 
 
 Poland A. D. 1103-1138. .. . Boleilaui IV 
 
 '•"»*., King of Poland, A. D. 123:-ia7» 
 
 r..S?n Y'*'l^'""~***'"*K«' *"•' "d e«e- 
 l."3f^°54:i ^•'*<"^'"'- A. I>. 1527-1.531; and. 
 
 nRf'S^Ji';., Sec Bcloaria: Orioi.v op. 
 BOLIVAR'S LIBERATION OF XHP 
 SOUTH AMERICAN STATES. See "? 
 
 LOMi.iAN States: A. D. 1810-1819, 181B-1830- 
 1826- InT' 1830-1836. 1825-1826. and 
 
 "Wh^'.y^" """ ■ho'j.K''"'! inhabitants.- 
 VVitl! t he Toromonos trilK-. who (x-cuj.ied as 
 Orb.sny t<-ll8 us. a district of from IP to 13^ of 
 bomli latitude, it was an established rule f,>r 
 .vtrv man to build his house, with his own 
 hands iil.jiie, and if he did otherwise he lost the 
 title of man as well as became the laugliing- 
 wn^! >"^ r f'^^"""' e't'^nB- The only clothin^' 
 worn I.y tliese p<.ople was a turban on the head 
 c..ini«,H,.,l of feathers, the rest of the liody being 
 P«rf.iily naked; whilst the women us«l a gar 
 m.^nt, manufactured out of cotton, that only 
 partially vnyered their persons. . . . The oma 
 mom m whu-h the soft sex took most pride was 
 a necklHiH- niade of the teeth of enemies, killed 
 \v their husliands in battle. Amongst the Mox<« 
 polygamy was tolerated, and woman's infldelitv 
 severely punish,,!. . . Tlie Moxos eullivateJl 
 the land with ploughs, and other implements of 
 agneulture. maile of wood. They fahricaU.l 
 canws, fouiiht and fishe<i with bows and arrows 
 Jntl.e nrnvinre of the Mox.» lived also a tribe 
 ea! .<! lK..,.mir^, wh,,. !K:sidrs the«' i„,,i ,M,„ai 
 Instriimenls of war. used twool-cd wo<«len 
 Jcimitam. The immonillly of thes,. Uonomoi 
 
 BOLOONA. 
 
 WM Mmething like that of the Mormons of our 
 time . . fhe Canlchanas. who live.",,™; 
 Machupo. l«tween 13° and W 8. lat. and Ot' "o 
 fl«o W. long, t 8 reputed by M. d'Orbiimy as 
 the bravest of the Bolivian IndUns. Tli.v „n! 
 accredited to have been cannitials. . . w>i,"^ 
 Jujuy-the most northern province of t^ 
 Argentine Republic-iolns Bolivia, we have in 
 
 ndirnTT,"'?,/'"' ««'««"«?« «"'' t»„h^ 
 Indians. The latter are represented to me by Oi 
 Mattenzo of Itosario. as intelligent and dfvoted 
 to agricultura labor. They have fixed to .1 .riu 
 K*.™^' "".* '"'"'*» of whfch are clean and iiea" 
 Each town is commanded by a capitan. whose 
 
 only."_T J. Hutchinson. T/u: /^.r«,w. '/" 4 - 
 a^'-rupi' ^'"^'"'^'''* Aborioines: A-ndewahs, 
 
 In the Empire of the Incaa. See Peru Tm 
 Empire op tub Incas. 
 
 »f ri?' 'SS9--E»tabliihment of the Audiencia 
 of Charcas. See Acdiencias. 
 II- r D- »;a5-'*a6— The independent Repub- 
 Uc founded and named in Upper Peni.-Yhe 
 BohTian Con«titution.-"Up,ier P.ru |„r 1^ 
 Charcas, as It was more spec ically ku,>wi 1 
 
 RKPCnLic: A. D. 15^-1777] fmm the ^oJ'm- 
 ment of Lima ... to form part of tin. newlv 
 ronstituted Viceroyalty of BSen,« Ayres The 
 fifteen years' struggle foi" independence w,w here 
 
 a sanguinary one fiideed. There-'is^i'anTl'y's 
 town, viUage or noticeable place in this vast 
 region where blood is not recorded t,) liavo l»en 
 alied in this terrible struggle. . . "Thf Snunlsh 
 army afterwanis sueeumlieil to that of tin' inde 
 pendents of Peru; and thus L-pp.r Per.i p,i„«i, 
 not indee.1 liberty, but independence iind, r the 
 rule of a republicim army. This vast i.mvince 
 was incapable of governing itself Tl„' .Vriten 
 tines aid claim to it as a province of th, Jon 
 UHleration ; but they already exercisi'd t,H> irreat 
 a preponderance in the South Am.rican system 
 and the Colombian generals obtained Ilic nlln 
 miishincntof 111, 'ii. pretensions. Sucre (itolivars 
 Chief of htniri lussumed the government until a 
 congn-ss TOuf.l lie a.sseml)le,i: „„,| „n,|,r the 
 inHuencc of the Colombian sohiierv IniHr I u 
 was erectol into an inil,|H>ndent stjiU' by , ,e 
 iiaiiie of the I{epublic of Bolivar, or Ilolivia '- 
 *-• J. 1 ayne. Jlift. of Eun>i»m Coloni,: n 29() 
 — tor an account of the Peruvian war of lilKr 
 ntion — the results of which embraced Inp-r 
 leru — ami the adoption of the Bolivian tunsli 
 ,oJi'" hy I lie latter, see Peru: A. I). 1830- 
 1826. and IMi-,-182(l. 
 
 A. D. 1834-1839.— Confederation with Peru. 
 -War with Chile. See Peru: A. I). 1828- 
 
 A. D. i879-i88^.-The war with Chile. See 
 Chile: .\ |) ik!'U1884. 
 
 BOLIVIAN CONSTITUTION, or Code 
 BoUvar. See Peru : A, 1). 1835-1828, auii 1836- 
 
 lc*iO. 
 
 BOLOGNA: Oriein of the city.— On the 
 flual eomiuest of the fJoianOaiils in .North Italy 
 a new Itoman colony an.l frontier fortnss were 
 establishwl. B. C. 189. callwl ftret F.'lsiiis and 
 then Bonoiiia. which is the Bolosna of msalern 
 Italy.- 11. u. Ll.ldell. Ui,t. of liome. bk. i, eK 
 
 Origin of the name. Sec Buians. 
 
 304 
 
 K?- 
 
BOLOGNA. 
 
 BOOK OF THE DEAD. 
 
 B. C. 43.— Cenftreiic* of tli« TrianTin. 
 SecRomt: B. C. 44-48. 
 nth Centnry.— School of Law.— The Gloo- 
 
 Mton.— "Juit lit thia time [end of the 11th cen- 
 turv] we find a famoui school of law establishetl 
 In Bologna, and frequcnt«Ml by multitudes of 
 pupils, not only from all parts of Italy, but from 
 Otrmnny, France, and other countries. The basis 
 of hII itx instructions was the Corpus Juris CiTilis. 
 Its teachers, who constitute a series of dis- 
 tin)riii»be<l Jurists extending over a century and 
 a liiilf. devoted themselvcn to the work of ex- 
 piiunding the text and elucidating the principles 
 of the Corpus Juris, and especially the Digest. 
 Frdin the form In which they recortled and 
 bawled down the results of their studies, thev 
 have obtained the name of glossators. On their 
 copies of the Corpus Juris they were accustomed 
 tn write glosses, 1. e., brief marginal explanationa 
 and remarks. "—J. Fladley, Intnd. to Human Late, 
 Uel. 3. See, iilso. Education, MKDr.KVAt.. 
 
 iith-i2th Centuries. — Rite and Acquisition 
 of Republican Independence. See Iiai.t : 
 
 A. n. lorja-iiw. 
 
 A. D. 1275.— Sorereienty of the Pope con- 
 firmed by Rodolph of Hapibure. See Qsu- 
 UANV A. D. 1273-131)8. 
 
 A. D. 1350-1447.— Under the tyranny of the 
 Visconti. S'l' .Vtii.A\ .V. U. 1277-1447 ; and 
 Fi.'iKF.Nt E : A. n \mv 1112. 
 
 A. D. 1512.- .. -■ ion by Pope Juliut II. 
 Sii' Italy ; A. I'llH. 
 
 A. D. 1796- . n ined to the Cispadane 
 Republic. S. .<<k : A. D. 1796 (Apuii.— 
 
 Oi I'l'iKii): 17^^ r'.t7 (OrronK.it— .Vrmi.). 
 
 A. D. 1831.— Revolt suppressed by Auitrian 
 troops. (M'C Itai.v: A. I>. 1830-1N12. 
 « 
 
 " BOMBA." 8.e Italy : A. D. imR-lS49. 
 
 BOMBAY.— Cession to England (1661). 
 See Isnn: A O 1«<K)-1702. 
 
 BON HOMME RICHARD, and Serapit, 
 sea fight of the. See United Htatks or Am. : 
 A II 177!l (Skptkmbkb). 
 
 BONAPARTE, Jerome, and his Kingdom 
 of Westphalia. See Okbm.\.vt: A. D. 1807 
 
 (.IlNK .IlLY); i-^lS (SKITE.MBER — OCTOBEn), 
 
 aiiii (i)c roiiKii— l>i:('KMiiKii). 
 
 BONAPARTE, Joseph, King of Naples and 
 King of Spain. Sue Filv-mk; A. D. iSo.VlWW 
 (l)KrnMiiKK— Srftksiiikki; Spain: A. D. 1808 
 (Mw— Seiti MiiKH). to 1812-1814. 
 
 BONAPARTE, Louis, and the Kingdom of 
 Holland S<r Nktiikrlands: A. D. 1808-1810. 
 
 BONAPARTE, Louis Napoleon. See Xapo- 
 
 LKDS III. 
 
 BONAPARTE, NAPOLEON, The career 
 
 of. See France: A. I). 17»:)(Jclt— DErEMBKB), 
 and 17M (OcTonER— Decembeii). to 181."). 
 
 BON AP ARTE F AM I L Y, The origin of the. 
 — " About four miles to the south of Florence, on 
 an eminence overlooking the valley of the little 
 river Greve, and the then bridle-path leading 
 towards Siena and Rome, there was a very strong 
 castle, called Monte Boni, Mons Boni, as it is 
 styled in sundry deeds of gift eiec-itetl within 
 its walls in the years 1041, 1085, and 1100, by 
 which its lords made their pea"* with the Church, 
 in the usual way, by sharing with churchmen 
 Uje proceeds of a rnurse of life such as ne<Hled a 
 whitewashing stroke of the Church's office. A 
 strong castle on the road to Rome, and just at a 
 point where the path ascended a steep bill, offered 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 ■dvaotages and temptations not to be resisted; 
 and the lords of Monte Bon! ' took toll ' of pasxen- 
 gers. But, as Villani very naively says, 'the 
 Florentines could not endure that another should 
 do what they abstained from doing. ' So as usual 
 they sallied forth from their gates one fine morn- 
 ing, attacked the strong fortres.s, and razed it to 
 the ground. All this was. 0.1 we have seen, an 
 ordinary occurrence enough in the histnry of young 
 Florence. This was a w.iy the burghers had. 
 They were clearing their liind of these vestiges 
 of feudalism, much as an Ameriuin settler clears 
 his ground of the stumps n muining from the 
 primevol forest. But a special interest will be 
 admitted to belong to this insLince of the clearing 
 process, when we disaiver who those noble old 
 freebooters jf Monte Boni were. The lords of 
 Monte Boni were called, by an ca.sy, but it might 
 be fancied Ironical, derivation from the name of 
 their castle 'BuonI del Monte,' — the Good Men 
 of the Mountain ; — and by abbreviation, Buondel- 
 monte, a name which we shall hear more of anrn 
 in the pages of this history. But when, after the 
 destruction of their fortress, these Good Men of 
 the Mountain became Florentine citizens, they 
 increased and multiplied ; and in the next genera- 
 tion, dividing off Into two branches, they as- 
 sumed, as was the frequent practice, two distinc- 
 tive appellations; the one branch remaining 
 BuondelmontI, and the other calling themselves 
 Buonaparte. This latter branch shortly iifter- 
 wanis again u'vlded Itself into two, of which one 
 settled at 9an Ailniato al Tedesco, and became 
 extinct there in the person of an aged canon 
 of the name within this century; while the 
 other first established itself at Sarzana, a little 
 town on the coast about half-way betw.'eii 
 Florence and Genoa, and from thence at a later 
 period transplanted itself to Corsica ; and has since 
 been heard of."— T. A. Trolloiw, iri»t. of the Com- 
 mimrr.iHh nf Florrwe, t. 1. pp. .'lO-.'il. 
 
 BONIFACE, ST., The Mission of. See 
 Christianity: A. D. 496-800. 
 
 BONIFACE, COUNT, and the Vandals. 
 S<e Vandals: A. D. 429-439. 
 
 BONIFACE III., Pope, A. D. 607, Febbcart 
 TO November. . . . Boniface IV., Pope, A. D. 
 008-01.'5 Boniface V., Pope, A- D. 819-625. 
 
 . . Boniface VI., Pope, A. D 896 Boniface 
 
 VII., Pope, A. D. 974, 984-985 Boniface 
 
 VIII., Pope, A. I). 1294-1303. . . . .Boniface IX., 
 Pope, A. D. 1.380-1404. 
 
 BONN, Siege and Capture by Marlborough 
 (17031. See Nethehlands: A. D. 1 702-1704. 
 
 BONNET ROUGE, The. See Liberty 
 Cap. 
 
 BONONIA IN GAUL. See Oesoriaci-m. 
 
 BONONIA IN ITALY. See Boloosa. 
 
 BOOK OF THE DEAD.— "A collection 
 (ancient Egyptian) of prayers and exorcisms com- 
 [OTged at various periods for the benefit of the 
 pilgrim soul in his journey through Araenti (the 
 Ki»yptian Hades); and it was in order to pn)vide 
 liim with a safe conduct tlm)ugh the perils of 
 tint terrible valley that copies of this work, or 
 portions of it, were buried with the mummy i:i 
 ills tomb. Of the many thousands of papyri 
 which liave been preserved to this day, It is per- 
 haps scarcely too much to say that one half, if 
 not two thirds, are copies more or less complete 
 of the Book of the Dead."— A. B. Edwards, 
 Aeademii, Srpt. 10, 1887. M. Naville puhlislied 
 in 1887 a collation of the numerous differing 
 
^•^1 
 
 BOOK OP THK DEAD. 
 
 U^m'i,*k" ?*;'',"' "•" ^*^- o" »•"> Prep^tlon 
 
 nnJ?M=" '"^l' '" '■" e'>8»««s<» '<» ten yekn. 
 ir.^9 S5' ?'":?'• "•' "«• ••ttliment of 
 Md ITTlMTsI*"' '^'^'""•'"^ ^ J*- "65-1778, 
 
 A^P^iSw'iS-'-^' ^•*H« »' See MiMocB,: 
 
 A. I) 1S«I(FKBKCARr— JULT) 
 
 BOONSBORO. or South feountmln, Battle 
 of. Ne LNiTEn 8TATEII or Am.: A. D. 1863 
 (.SEPTKMHitR: .Maryland). 
 
 Pr!.^?.L"'.^»''". Wilke..-A.MMin.tioii of 
 aL A K Vi!!?"'?- ^ ^''""° State, or 
 *1i'^- "• "*M.\Puii. Uth). 
 BOR-RUSSIA. SeePHUB«A:TnEOiuoii.Ai, 
 
 Ps^?!l?.^f "\, *'" SLATEBr. Medmsval: 
 
 A.Nor.\.Nt): iilso Man-okk 
 
 Tt.wf" Mahomktak Comucew: A. D. 
 
 Ste;.°»fV5?°-~.'*"^* "' ""• Frondeurt.- 
 aleee of the citr — TreatT of Pmu s^ 
 
 0™J1 "T-'**''*"'?," »C *'•• Soiiety of the 
 and iubmiMion of the city.-- The pence of 
 Bonleaux InOctob. r. l.r.0. h'i l.-ft ,h« cUrtrr/n 
 
 neither att«rhn,J to th- ffovemuirt.t nor afmi.l of 
 
 .'i„' i "JT .*■*,■• •" "I '^'"^'*- " ^'ol''"' element ol.. 
 
 !i L*?"".:''' """''r '"■■ '""•orl'anee. and not 
 
 alarmed by the posslhllity of radlenl rl,ang,.H in th,. 
 
 f^uTt" """"« ""^ I">l'<il'>r emoli.M, 
 
 amilriHt EiH'rnon, nieetmgn, moMllv of the lower 
 Claniwij, had been hehi umler annie Kreut elms 
 near the rit v. and from thia circumiiUnce a party 
 hml taken ttie n.ime of the Ormec. It now as- 
 sumed a niof definite form, and befjan to pro- 
 test niralnst the aliM-knesa of the offleem au.l 
 miiKi.»tml<>>i. who It wh« clmrjfed, were ready to 
 
 «»'."! ""i/ V .i;"!"!'""" ""•«•• The I'arllati.ent 
 wan i»..fdivid,.,l into two factions." Itnown as 
 111. Litilc Fronde and the (Jwit Fronde — the 
 latter of whl.h wns dev„ie.l to tlic Prinee .:f 
 
 «H"'r"ii V"' ''V.'"^" *"'* "■'■'ety comiKiml 
 originally of a smnll numU-r of a.tive and vio. 
 
 I.'L"i!i.'".'i."' ""'.' '" L'" '"•(r'«nl««llon not wh.illy 
 
 unlike the s-niety of the Jh<-obin« Troul.lii 
 
 tocrraae,! I«.tw...„ IliU s.m|hv ami the parlia- 
 ment am on .1 ,.,,,■ 3d (19.-.2| it held a mWtinK 
 atU.nd«l bv HICK) ann.-l men, nn.l d.Tided on 
 the ..<lle of foiirtw n of the Judges who were rr- 
 jtar.1"! as ir.itnrs to the <a.i«.. . . . The offend- 
 Ine Judife. w.re ohiiired to leave the city, l,ut In 
 f'V* ''»> • I'Tlioment aRain ol.l«in«| con- 
 trol and the exile, were nrullwl and rc^-elved 
 with If real solemnity. Hut the Omific was not 
 thus to lie over.;ome. On June 8.1th the.,, cm- 
 U-'ts resulti-l In n buttle in the itreels, In whl, li 
 llie s.Kietr l;'»'l llie advaMta^e. Many of the 
 
 JiidKea abiuid •.! the confli<t and lefl'lhe ritv 
 
 1 he Onnfc establl.lH,! Itaelf at the Hotel do 
 i I"'';. •"'' ""'•'■'-•'"'t In controllint for the moat 
 pait the affairs ot the Hty. . . . iNmdi decide,! 
 lli.it ]»■ would re<Hi(tnli;e the Ormft- a^« a political 
 orifiinlMtion. anil «ir.n«lhen It bv his approval 
 . . . 1 ho restomtlon of lh« Kind's authority at 
 Paris f»„. Jhakcr: A I). 1M1-I(W;)] slwnith- 
 ene.1 the part;- at llonli-aiu that ilesfre<l peace 
 
 and Inen^Kf the .!,,ie.,..r ,,f the ,.,r,j- thsi" wai 
 •ppoied to It PloU w«r« laid for the orw^ 
 
 BORNEO 
 
 throw of the local authoriUei, but they wem 
 wholly unsucctWul. . . . The desire of i|« 
 people, the nobility, and the clerKy was f r 
 peace Only by speedy aid from Spain could 
 the city be kept In hoatllity to iu Kfcg and n 
 allcrlancetoeondfi. Spali waa a.k«f to ^nd 
 assistance and prevent this important loss \mt 
 the Spanish delayed any vigoroS actlolpa ' y 
 from lemisuieu and partly from lack of in^Z 
 and money. The most of the province of Oulenne 
 was/fiuduallylosttothetasurminta. . . Con.iI 
 seems to have left Ouienne to itaelf ' in 
 llihi condition the people of Bordeaux turied to 
 [; h"l!!r'.'i."' "" ""V Peraon who had the power 
 io help them. . fhe envoyi were reieiv.Hl 
 W Cromwell, but he took no step, to send aid to 
 Bbrdeaux. Hopea were held out which en 
 couragcd the city and aUnr-d »:,e French mini,, 
 ter but no ahipt were sent." MeanUme. th. 
 Kings forces In Ouienne advanced with stead v 
 success, and early in the lummer of 1653 tliev 
 ^S?f„ '^S "'*** "' the city. The peace party 
 ni!?l°' ^^ encouraged, soon overthrew the 
 Ormfc. and arranged terms for the iubml««ion 
 of the town. "The government proceede.1 st 
 once to erect the castles of Trompette and H4 
 and lliey were made p.)werful enoueh to check 
 any future turbulence. "-J. B. Perkins. Frane, 
 vnder Maiarin, rh. 15 (». S). . « » «« 
 
 I -^"i '?/."'-7''"''« girendiati in the National 
 H«f *?,'?"" Asaembly. See France: A. 1) 
 nui (<HroBi.;n). 
 
 A. D. 1793.— ReTOlt anintt the Revolu- 
 tiooary Covemment of Paria.— Fearful ven- 
 geance of the Terrorists. ^'■•^ '•'ranck V I) 
 
 l.»:ll.Il'.NE); (.h l.Y— DeIEMBEK); SU.I I71*i-i:W 
 (OCT.inKB— .Vphil). 
 
 IS.^^lMsf""""'''''^''®- **KAIfSA.;AD. 
 1708 (APKII,— OCTUBEH). 
 
 jjfjORC'AS. Tht. See Pafact: A D. MTt- 
 
 doS ,S^i^°T J*"' ,'»™'''-ly powerful kl.,«. 
 
 nZi 1 r "■' ^'? '" "«""• '» * *""'«lm< 
 «r,,n i V"" '"i""^' '^■'" '«''"''' "f «l'i''i " 
 h.?' ",( ; ,""" '«<T' '-"^t. , . . Kx,lu,l,n« 
 
 thc.ohil„,.,it„| u„,l ,„,,„ „ i„„, „,.^ ,^,,^,^, ,^^ 
 
 . . - With the Hilju.eiitiit.lj. . . jt h,„ai.,.„I 
 
 two an. a half tln,,.s that of U... Hriil,], |,lei 
 . . . JBya,ievenoreijrlit times smHll.r,..«(,„li 
 t t.;n or twelve time, ii, the nundsr nf |i, i„ 
 habitants.^ even the thinly pe„p|„| i,iH,„| „f 
 Hima.ra U more than twi,-.. li f„,,„|.,„s. 
 .,' r.?', li'T".?'' •••*'"»"• <ll«proporlioi, mui.t Im- 
 ^>re,Ui which enclnl,, nearly th.. whole „f ihe 
 
 wn?'""i:u-- • • ""•I hunting U 11 lv.,l,j...t 
 
 wiU. which many trib,.» ai.prau h ll...if .1. idi 
 Dora. . SighteiJ by the 1'ortuiru.w pn.UMr 
 
 306 
 
 in tlie flrat years of the.Uleenth.Tnlurv" H..ri. 
 reniHln.M unknown to history till I,Wl.'v.l„i, ii». 
 survivors of .Magellan's expedition r.,ui,.l th- 
 glolie pn ...nUHl lhem«-lve. iM.for.. Brunei ^,.« 
 aftrr this evout. J„r«e ,i,- M.^neses «rt„l,ll,l„-.| s 
 factory 00 the writ cuaat; the Uul.b made iLeit 
 
BORMXC. 
 
 tpponnce la 1086, wad they were toon followed 
 bv the BngUth. But all attempt* at ezploratioD 
 were lUCceHively abandoned. . . . Permanent 
 European aettlemention the coaat were first made 
 in 1813, wben the Engllih occupied Pontianac and 
 BiuiJermaMin, wbicb were two yean later tn'.r- 
 rendered to tbe Dutch. . . . The Dutch, matters 
 of all the rest of Indonesia, except the eastern 
 half of Timor, bare not bad time to establish 
 tlirir rule over the whole of Borneo. They have, 
 liDwever, gradually redui«d or annexed all tbe 
 aection Irfng south of the equator, as well as 
 Hbnut half of the northern districts. But possvs- 
 Hion of tbe north-west and northern parts has 
 l>t«n secured by the EnKiisb, through various 
 treaties with the Sulian of Brunei, former 
 tiizersin of the whole of this nwlon. In 1H40 
 tile British goTemmcnt obtaineu tbe absolute 
 cnwion of tbe island of Labuan, at tlie entrance 
 of Brunei Bay, despite thi- protests of the Netb- 
 erlHods But the sultan had already granted to 
 James Brooke the principality of Harawak, com- 
 prising the southern part uf his kingdom. In 
 return for a yearly subsidy, this soldier of 
 fortune, commonly known as Kajab Brooke, 
 thus became master of an extensive territorv. 
 which has since been gradually enlarged at tlie 
 expense of the sultan's domain. On the i>piM> 
 site side of Brunei the tultan lins also yieUied 
 llie northern part of the islaml to a powerful 
 llritlsh company, which has already oiitained a 
 royal charter from tbe Crown of Gnglatid. A 
 pirt ot this territoiy having also Ixren eliilnieti 
 by the sovereign of the Sulu archlpel.igt), tliiit 
 piti'ntate. like hit Brunei colleague, has U-en 
 fxiiiitht oir by a pennon. Thanks to this piir- 
 oliaiwof the land, Hpain, which had meantime lie- 
 eoine the suierain of the Hulu prince, baa lien(«- 
 (nrlh been excluded from all claim Ui the 
 powwlon of any part of Borneo. Lastly, the siil- 
 uiuBic of Hrunel itself depends for its verv exist- 
 piii-e cm the suiferance of England, and it' Is now 
 prc)iK»ed to unite it to tbe other territories of the 
 twii cumpanies, under the direct protectorate of 
 Great Britain. But a frontier question still re- 
 niiiinn to be settled between tbe Dutch govem- 
 iiivnt and the North Borneo Companv. arising 
 nut nf a misunderstanding aa to the Klentity ot 
 Un- river ,Sebukn. which Is accepted by both 
 •iiles as the lioundarr line. . . . Borneo tllll 
 liHilHiiirs many alwilutely savage peoples. . . . 
 Till- )!rt«t bulk of tbe inland populations are 
 rnllwtlvely known as Davaks [or Dvaks), a 
 term . whi<'h, for tbe .Vislava. has sl'mplv the 
 sen* of 'wild' or ' heathen.'''— K. li<'clus, T/u 
 Kirih ,vid lit In'iiihitiinUi : ttftnuim. rh. «.—«<■<• 
 ,MAl.^v^1 K.iK — 'Hlr James Uro-ike visited 
 Hnrncn in ih.^, lo sueceeil In carrying out. by 
 hi« ii«ii pi'PKinal energv, what the gnat East 
 IjkIIii Coiiiininv had fiiflifi to arcompllxh lie 
 f.iiii.|.-l Saniwuk With the aid of Ailmlral 
 Ki piwl III' annlhllaterl the dangerous Imnles of 
 t'lrHii-i tliai Infi-mtiHl the western coasU He 
 Micwfiili,- xamiM-d out a risinc of Clilnese, 
 in will, h ojx-niilim llm native tribes lovallv cume 
 111 lin HHHlstaiiee ; and he has (leiiiiin«trat<-d. 
 tlrnin. iaily niHl politically, the wtalom of thoae 
 enrlv Hutch and Hrlliali ailventurers who saw a 
 »l>ii^ri<lii| prop<-rtv In the iKlaiKt of Uomeo. In 
 
 1*4, the t''neli>h e<3Ver!..!!«!t, »eri.-jjr tIsB (?B- 
 
 ixirtani-e of a station in this latttutle, piirrhaMil 
 Uhiian, sn Island ofl the onaM of Borneo, and 
 ■uUe it an English colony, wltk a fovtroor and 
 
 307 
 
 BOROUOa 
 
 all tbe necessary offlcen and applUncM of aa 
 effldent administration. Such is the brief hi*, 
 tory of Borneo, poatession of which is now 
 divided between tbe Dutch government, the 
 Hultan of Brunei, Rajah Brooke, and the British 
 North Borneo Company, the latter recently 
 (IHtllJ endorsed in ita undertaking by the royal 
 charter of her Majesty Queen Victoria. Borneo 
 has been made familiar to the general reader by 
 the settlement of Sarawak, which is situated on 
 the western side of tbe island. Rajah Brooke's 
 territorv iionslsts of over IW.OOO sijuare miles, 
 . . . Alone and unaided, without state protec- 
 tion or oHlrlal service, for forty years Sarawak 
 lifls maintained an independent position, her 
 Eu^Miah ibief holding sovereign power, bis gov- 
 ernment being often spoken of by travellers who 
 have visited Borneo as an example worthy to be 
 studied by some of tbe world's greatest powers. 
 1'lie Britiab North nomeo Company have raised 
 tlitlr Hag over about the same extent of country 
 Hs that which comprises 8arawak : and they 
 have wisi-ly Imitated the policy of Rajah Brooke 
 In ruling the natives through their thiefa, and 
 with all due respect to tbeir own laws, cualoros, 
 and religion. Harawak is a happv and pnwiM-r- 
 mis colony. With a populatlim of IMtl.WHi souls, 
 it has a respectable military force, garrisons, and 
 forU ; it pays a competent staff of Euro|>ean and 
 native ofUccrs : and maintains three gunlMnts to 
 imrtect its commerce and guarantee the safety of 
 life and property to its 8iilije<ts. (Rajah UriK.ke 
 left Sarawak in IwW, and died in England in 1M18. 
 He was succeeded aa rajah bv a nephew who 
 had taken his name. Sarawak was placeil under 
 BriUiih protection In 18HH.) . . . The I>iit<h 
 claim suzerainty over all the other portions of 
 Honieo that are not occupied by Kajab Hr(H>ke 
 In Harawak, the British North itdrni.'i tnnipany 
 in Habab and tbe Hultanate of Uruiui. Tliey 
 have established something like a regular gKV- 
 emment over the coast dlKtricts of the west and 
 south. They have Residents in the sotithern 
 and eastern districts, and their chief town is 
 Pontlanak. A native sultan is nominal ruler. 
 They have as yet, however, done nothing in the 
 way of developing this colony compariHl with 
 their working of other posaessibna "— J. llatton. 
 Be Mne OiloH. rk 8. 
 
 BORNHOVED, Battia ofdsay). See Bcan- 
 DIHAVIAK Htatss: A. D. 101K.-i»i7. 
 
 BORNY, OR COLOMBEY-NOUILLV, 
 Battle of. 8eeFR*m«: A.n l«70(Jt!LT— Ado l 
 
 BORODINO, OR THE MOSKOWA, 
 Battle of, Hee Husiia: A. D. mt (Jurb— 
 
 HiPTKMaRM) 
 
 BOROUGH,- CITy,-TOWM.-VILLB. 
 —••The burh of the AnglivBaxon period wae 
 simply a more strictly organiznl form of the 
 township. It was prol«bly In a more ilefenslhle 
 position : hail a ditdi and mouml instead of the 
 imickset hedge or 'tun' from Kblcli tbe town- 
 ship took Its name ; and as the • tun ' originally 
 waa the fenced humesti'sd of the tiiltivator. tlie 
 burh waa the fortlHed bonne and courl-vani of 
 the mighty man — the king, tlie magistrate, or 
 tlie noble."— W. Stiihha, Cntuit. Him. oi tSnf , 
 th. B.— "I must freely confess that I do not 
 kn<iw what dllTrrence. except a dtfferenre la 
 ntnk. there !» in England bclwra-n a rity and a 
 Nirough. ... A city doe* not seem to have sny 
 righu or power* as a city which an aot rqiially 
 siMnd by every other corporate town. Tbe oeir 
 
 !■■ n 
 

 BOROVOa 
 
 eorpoimte toWM whkh hsre any ipedal power* 
 •bove other. «re those which are coumfeaof 
 tlieniael»e«i and all cities are not counties of 
 thcmaeWea, while aome towns whicli ure not 
 cities are. The citir in En«hmd U not so easily 
 deHned as the city in the United Sutea. There 
 eveiy corpont« town is a dty. This makes a 
 »rmt many cities, and it leada to an use of the 
 word citv In common tallc which seems a little 
 atranmi In British ears. In England, even in 
 speaking of a real city, the wonfclty U seldom 
 used, except In language a litUe formal or 
 rhetorical: In America It U used whenever a 
 city is mentioned. But the American rule has 
 I I.*?"'?** °{ •*'"« perfectly cliarana avoid- 
 ing all doubt And It agrees very well with the 
 Origin of the word: a corporate town is a 
 civltaa, a commonwealth; any lesser collection 
 or men hardir U a commonwealth, or b such 
 only in a much leas perfect degree. This brings 
 us to the hUtoricsl use of tiie word. It Is cl<ar 
 at *Urtlng that the word is not English. It haa 
 no Old-English equivalent; burh, burgh 
 hMwugh in Its various spellings and variSui 
 shadea of meaning. Is our native word for urbes 
 of every kind from Rome downwanl It Is 
 curious that this word should In ordinary 
 speech have been so largely displaced by the 
 vaguer word tun, town, which means an enclos- 
 ure of any kind, and in some English dialecU ia 
 still applied to a single bouse and iu surround- 
 ings. . . . In common uik we use the word 
 borough hardly ofteuer than the word city; when 
 the word U used, it has commonly some direct 
 reference to the pHrtlanuntary or municipBl 
 charactera of the town. Miiny people, I suspect, 
 would define a borough as a town which sends 
 members to Parliament, and such a definition, 
 though still not arc urate, has. by lato changes 
 been bought nean-r to accuracy than It used to 
 be. City and Ummgh, then, are both rathtr for- 
 mal wonls; town is the word which comes most 
 naturally to the lips when there is no special 
 reason for ustag one of the others. Of Uic two 
 •ormsl words, borough Is English; city is Latin 
 It comes to us from (}»ul and Italy by aome road 
 or other. It U in Domes-lay that we find bv 
 no means l.s first use In England, but lu first 
 clesriv formal use, the firet use of it to dls- 
 Ungulah a eeruin class of towns, to mark tiiose 
 towns which are 'civltatcs' as well as burgi 
 from those which are burgi only. Now ia 
 
 -'"'.K""J;i*"*i .'° '""^ '♦■"""> language 
 WMthe tribe and its territory, Uie whole Inn,l 
 of mo ArvemI, Parisll. or any other tribe. In a 
 secondary sense It meant the hcati town of the 
 JH ; i.- y»^hen Christianity was esubli-ihf.i, 
 
 eiuat of the bishops diocese; Oie civlias' 
 to Iho narrower «nso bwmme the ImnuHliate 
 •eat of Us bishupstool. Th..» we amnot 
 say that in Oaul a town Ucamc a cKv 
 bH.-ause It was a bUhop'a see; but we may mv 
 thai a ceruin clans of towns became hlJi.,!,,' 
 sevs because they were alrvadv cities. Bui in 
 ni'xi.m french use no dUlfnction U mA<le 
 l«rween these ancient oapiuls which b.Hamo 
 hi.hopricaand oUicr towns of leas temporal ami 
 
 hill "S^ ^'' ■ "^ "" "' ">• bt^opric. the 
 lM-a.1 of the .iiclent Drovtaos, the hMM] of Um 
 m,iil.«^d«p-rtm-at. ifi= tnm\u>f sr-wa which has 
 m-vir rissD to any of those dlnitlaa. an >ll 
 •iilurllW. loro-s-'w-uirW-IitairwlJ! 
 
 BOSPHORUa 
 
 808 
 
 dbtlngulshed from meaner places. The woM 
 cite is common enough, but it haa a purely I,kS 
 meaning It often llstingulshea Uie old pa?? 
 a town the ancient Vivrtas,- from later addN 
 tlona. In Italy on the oUjerhand. citU isC 
 U>8 familUr and Uie formal name for town, 
 grat and malL It is used ^ust like ville " 
 fv^:.~^J- Freeman, fti, and Bo^h 
 (Jfumtttsn'i Mag., May, 1889). ^' 
 
 j,,|^ROUCH-6ncLISH. SeePiuDALTra- 
 
 mB."m",SS^."'.?®5l.,"**"« ot-Pought 
 March 1«. 1W8, In the civil war which arose la 
 England during the reign of Edward II. m sc^ 
 count of the fing-s favorites, the IMspenw^ 
 Thomas, Eari of Uncaster, the leader of oppW- 
 
 'i^^^^'^- '^^"^' ""»°-Hix £?*:« 
 
 BOROUGHS, Rotten and Pocket Sm 
 
 BORROM«AM. OR GOLDEN LEAGUE. 
 The. See Switxbrlahd: A. D. 167»-168() 
 
 the Greeks gave anciently to the river now 
 
 ^° - ^0 Dnieper, 'it ,1,0 became th' 
 
 name of a town near Uie mouth of Oie river 
 
 which was originally called 01bla,-a very earl. 
 
 tiling settlement of the Mllesl^ ' ' 
 
 BOSCOBEL.Th. Royal Oak of: See Scar. 
 "ND: A. D. 1651. D«!ocoT- 
 
 8TA?at*"^ ^ °*'''^ *"" DA.^rBU!, 
 BOSPHORUS, OR BOSPORUS, The- 
 
 straiu from Europe Into Asia. They gave the 
 name particularly to that channel, oS wh"h 
 C.mstantlnople lies but applied it al«« to other 
 
 ^ "f ' •'.r'"2' '"'^.'' " ""' Cimmerian Bosporus 
 opening the Sea of Aiov. '^ ^ 
 
 The city and kinrdom.— " nesnectlni; Bm. 
 
 fTL^ ^r""^'^' 'f™ "oth nS doIZ 
 )^.„^. city, though Uie former luinie often 
 comprehends be whole snnci»l domlni.m) 
 
 It SJu K'™™«'^»'',B*»P"rus (near K.risch) 
 wo first hear, about the period when Xtnn 
 waa repulsed from Greece (4«(M79 B C » 'i 
 was the centre of a domlni.m inclu.ling Pham- 
 
 on Uie AsUtic side of the strait; and it in ui,| u. 
 hnve been governed by what aeems to have beta 
 iiu oligarchy— called the Archmin«ktl,l,i_f„r 
 f,.i1y-two voari(4»(M88 B, C ) After ll„m we 
 have a series of princes standing out Imlivi,!,,- 
 ally by "aire and succeeditv each other In tl„ 
 same family. [488-384 B. cf. . . . During tl,e 
 relps of tbaeo princea. a connexion ..f mnw 
 Intimacy subsisted between Ath-niami U,».|»,ri.,; 
 a oonnesloo not political, since the I».«|H.r«in,> 
 prinoea bad little Intoreat in Uie conlentlmn «l«)ut 
 Hellenic hegerajwy _ but of private lnt<p.vur*., 
 commercial eichangeand redprucal g(K»l i.tflee<. 
 The eastern comer of the Tauric (^herwHi.«u.i. 
 between Pantikapcum and Theodosia. ww well 
 suited fof the production of com; while iiieiuy 
 I*!: ^i" ^" •• •«»". "«• to he ha<l In or nei 
 the Palus Mootia Com. salted fish »i..l .n.>sl, 
 Wde* and barbaric slaves In oonshleral.le num 
 oral, w«r« iu demaaii among all (Jreeks niuiul 
 SLwT**?' •««» "Ot lea* at Athens, where 
 MqrtWaa alavsa wen nunerous; while oil and 
 
B08FH0RU& 
 
 BOSTON, 188t. 
 
 trine, and other products of more ioutheni 
 re^loni, were uceptable in Bosporus and the 
 ntlier Pontic ports. Tliis important traffic 
 Menu to have been mainly carried on In ships 
 sod by capital belonging to Athens and other 
 Mgaia maritime towns, and must have been 
 gmitly under the protection and regulation of 
 ibe Athenians, so long as their maritime empire 
 subaUteil. EoterprisGig citizens of Athens went 
 to Bosporus (as to Thmce and the Thraclsn 
 Chemonesus), to push i "Ir fortunes. . . . We 
 have no means of following [the fortunes of tlie 
 Doaponiaic princes] in detail ; but we know that, 
 almut a century B. C. , the then reigning prince, 
 I'arisades IV. found himself so pre««l and 
 squeezed by the Ucytliians, that he was forced 
 (like Olbia and the Pentapolis) to forego his 
 independence, and to call in, as auxiliary or 
 master, the formidable Mithridates Eupntor of 
 I'ontus ; from whom a new dynasty of Bospor- 
 anic kings began— subject, however, after no 
 long Interval, to the dominion and Interference 
 ot Rome."— O. Orote, Ilut. of Oittee, ft. 8, 
 th.m. 
 
 Also ir: T. Hommsen, IIM. of Rome, bk. 8, 
 th. 7.— SeeMrTHRiOATic Wabs, and Romb: & C. 
 47-W. 
 
 Acqnisition by th« Goths. Bee Qoths, Ac- 
 qonunoH or Bospborus. 
 
 A. D. 565-574.- Captor* by tba Tarkc— 
 " During the reign of Justin [A. D. 56.V-574] the 
 dty of Bosporus, In Tauris, liad been cnpturecl 
 by the Turks, who then <ir< iipird a considerable 
 portion of the Tauric C'liersnnesus. The city of 
 ('hemon alone continued to maintain its inde- 
 pendence in the northern regi>^ns of the Block 
 f'ea."— 0. PlnlaVi Oneu under tht liomaiu, eh. 
 4, itct. 8. — See Tinuts: Sixth Csirri'BY. 
 
 BOSSISM.— The ' ' S polls Svstem " In Amerl- 
 ran politics [see Spoils System] developed enor- 
 mously the influence and power of oertam leaden 
 »n<l niB.. ^n of party organlistions, in the 
 ^■nal cliirs and some of the states, who acquired 
 the niimcsof " Bosses," while tlie system of poli- 
 tics wlilcli they represented was called "Boss- 
 Urn." The notorious William M. Twee<l, of the 
 New York "Tammany Ring" [see Nkw York: 
 .\. n. 180ii-t8i 1] terms to lisve been the flrst of 
 theH|M'ries to be dubbed "Boss Tweed "by his 
 " het'lors." or followers, and tlie title passed from 
 bini to othcr<i of like kind. 
 
 BOSTON : A. D. 16*8-1630.— Th* feaad- 
 Ing and aaminr of tha city. Hcc llAStACav- 
 ^KTTl^ A. U. 16!»-I62(*. and l«80. 
 
 A. D. i43i-i65i.-Th« Paritan Tbaecrae*. 
 AeeMASSAravsiCTTS: A. O. 1881-1686, to 1646- 
 IH'il. 
 
 A. D. 1635.— Ponndlnc th* Latin School. 
 
 8ee ElltTATION, MoDKHM : Amrrica. 
 
 A. O. 1656-1661,- Tho porsocation of Qna- 
 ksrs. See Mass ACBtWRrrs : A. D. I6M-1A1. 
 
 A. D. 1657-1669.— Tho HalfiraT CovoMuit 
 aad the foundiac "' **>• Old South Chnrch.— 
 
 " In MnsMihiisittji after 16.VI thi<j|il;iiim rapidly 
 gxini'd gn>uo<l Uiat all baptlani perMiiia of up- 
 riithl anil dtroniun lives ought to lie innRldered, 
 fur pniiiiral purposes, as mrmbers of the cl.urch, 
 »ikI llicn'fore entitled to the exerriiie of pollllral 
 riKhla, even tliough unqnalifled for pnrtlclpatluo 
 iu ihc I.ord's {(iipiirr. This liieury of churrb- 
 ini'nihcrslilp, bosefl on what wss at that Uma 
 itijiinatlsed u tbv Halfway Covenant, aroutsd 
 
 Intense opposition. It was the great question of 
 the day. In 1657 a council was held in Boston, 
 which nppmved the principle of the Halfway 
 Covenant; and as this decision was far from 
 satiaf viiig the churches, a synod of all the clergy- 
 men in Massachusetts was held Are years Uter, 
 u> a-coDsider tlie great question, llie decision 
 of tlie synod substiiutlally confirmed the decision 
 of the council, but there were some dissenting 
 voices. Foremost among the dissenters, who 
 wished to retain the old theocratic regime In all 
 Its strictness, was Charles Chaunccy, the presi- 
 dent of Harvard College, and Increase Mather 
 ngn'ed with him at the time, though be after, 
 ward saw reason to cliange his opinion and pub- 
 lished two tracts in favour of the Halfway Cov. 
 cnant. Host bitter of all toward the new theory 
 nf cburch-memberahip was, naturally enough, 
 Mr. Davenport of New Haven. This buming 
 question was the source of angry contentions In 
 the Pint Church of Boston. Its teacher, the 
 learned and melancholy Norton, died in 1668, 
 and four yean later the aged pastor, John Wil- 
 son, followed him. In choosing a successor to 
 Wilson the church decided to declare Itself inop- 
 poattion to the liberal decision of the synod, and 
 in token thereof Invited Davenport to rome from 
 New Haven to take charge of it. Davenport, 
 who was then seventy yeara old. was disgusted 
 at tlie recent annexation of his colony to Connec- 
 ticut. He accepted the Invitation and cnme to 
 Boston, against the wishes of nearly half of the 
 Boston congregation, who did not like the illib- 
 oril principle which he represented. In little 
 more than a year his ministry at Boston waa 
 ended by death; but the opitosition to his call 
 had alreailr pro ile<i so far that a secession 
 from the old church had become inevitable. In 
 1889 the a<l vacates of the Halfway Covenant or- 
 gauizeil themselves into a new society under the 
 title of tlie • Third Church in B<iston.' A wooilen 
 meeting-house was built on a lot which had on< a 
 liclonged to tlie late governor WInthmp, in what 
 was then the south part of the town, so that tha 
 society and its m(>eting-liouse became known aa 
 the South Church; and after a new church 
 founded in Summer Sln-et in 1717 took the name 
 of till' \cw South, the church of 1869 came to 
 lie fiirilier diitlnguislied a» the Old S<mth. Aa 
 this eliunli represented a liberal idea which waa 
 growing in favour with the people, it soon be- 
 came the most douriahing church in America. 
 After sixty vears its numticrs had increased so 
 that the old mi-elingliiiuw could not contain 
 them; and in 1<;!9 the famous building which 
 still stands was erected on 'ho same sp<it, — a 
 building with a gramirr history than anV other 
 on the American cimtlnent, unless It be that 
 other plain brick building in Philadelphia where 
 the Declaration of Independence waa adopted 
 and the Federal Co..stitutlon framed."— J. Flake, 
 Th* BiginniHf »/ AVw fiu.. eh. 8. 
 
 Amow: H. M. Dexter, Thi Omfrrtgalionalitm 
 <^th*lail 900 gean. het. 9.— B. B. Wisn'-r, lti,t. 
 vf Ou Old Smth Chvrrh. wn»n« 1.— W. Emer- 
 son, UiH. Hheteh eflht F\nt Ch. in liiiton. itct. 
 4-7. 
 
 A. O. l674-i67t.-KiaK Pbllio'i War. See 
 Nbw Ekolaxd: a. D. 1874-167.'): KIT'i, 1«T6- 
 1678. 
 
 A. D. i6<9.— Tbe rieiac for William and 
 Maiy Md tbe downlall of Andrea. Sci' .VI asoa- 
 cmornm. A D. I8M-16(M. 
 
 109 
 
::;■ 
 
 i> 
 
 BOSTON, ie»T. 
 tj^ ?• ''97:;-Thrwitene«l attack by tht 
 
 A. O. i704._Th« fifst newipaper. See 
 pRlwriNo, 4c. : A. U. 1704-1729 ' 
 
 Hall. 8ee Panbdil Hall. 
 
 A. D. 1761.— Th« qnattioa of the Writs of 
 auistaoce aad W. Otia'a tiSech^ s^ 
 MAMACHPBBTre: A. D. 1761 "»««»• oee 
 
 Non-importation amementa. »«« UirrrED 
 Btatim ok Am. : a. tt 17W-1767 
 
 / n ^ LiBBRTT Trek. 
 
 . Jr ?• y?*— Tht acisure of the sloop " Lib- 
 *■'*'• -«'oto»» patriotiim.— ■' For some veani 
 ^Htn?':^?, '"' the custom.) had bJnTcTuffln 
 making neizures of uncustomed goods, which 
 
 n^™^ I •"""?• ""* ">* <Jcterml£i»ti^of the 
 rommiMloDcni of customs to brealt up thU prsc- 
 lice freouently l«l toeolltalons; but no flaSunt 
 outbreal occurred until the seizure of 5X 
 
 with a csrjfo of Madeirs wine. The offlcer in 
 
 In the cabin the greater part of the cargo w^ 
 rpmoTed, and the remainder entered at the cus- 
 tom-house as the whole cargo. ThS led to »?z 
 ure of the ve«el, „M to h.%e been IhelreTZie 
 bv the commissioners, and for security she Was 
 placed under the guns of the ' Romncy, ' . ma" 
 of^ar In the harbor. For this the re^nueTfS- 
 cere were roughly handled by the mob. Thdr 
 
 i^v I^fhli;""'; ""•".'!""«'• threatened. aSd 
 they with their Blarme.1 families, took refuge on 
 Iioani the ' IV,mney, ' and llnally in the cSle 
 These prooe«llng, undoubtedly led to the «nX 
 i-.< adJitionsI milit.,rj' force, to Boston In ^p 
 
 I ' • time, but no effectual nroc-twUngs were Uken 
 •..■.ln»t the rioters. Pubfic sympathy wm with 
 
 -M. rhsmberlafn. Tht limMion Immmiina 
 
 . *• "• "TM.— The quartering of British 
 
 f« h^l . '" '*"r"'"; "M" "■«'"»<•'"» from Httll 
 fax lia<l iK^n onienil thither. When news of 
 thst not arriv,,!, two .ddlti.mal reglminu were 
 orter,.d fn.m Inlnnd. The srrival of an „ffl^7 
 sent by Ouije fn.m New York, to nnTvide 
 quarters for these trrwps, oc-caslone-l i town 
 -ne-tlng in !!.«,.,„, by w'Sch iSTgorern' r ws° 
 req<,™t«l to summon a new General ( "ourt which 
 he p..mmptorily n.f..«,i to d,.. The m*?h g 
 then rrcmmind.-l » amvenllon of delem,u5 
 
 /„»".'" ;'">■■•• '"'■'•"«•' luence of prevail- 
 Ing s|.preh,.„,io„H of a war with Franco '--such 
 was tif pr- teiKc -they s,W|mhI all p,.non« n. t 
 . re«.ly provided with 'rtrr-arm, u, pn'^-^ Jhem 
 St once , ,h,y a «, ..ppolnu-l a dnv of fa, ?„, .nd 
 praver. to U- „l.«.rvr,l by all the CongrpJtl.ma 
 
 r.*t^,..>','''T ',""" """^ «»"» l?2nd^ 
 iZ, -w "'■" '^ ''"«l.v at Iho day appointed 
 
 1^1 %''{"": V''"""K. «l»«ker\,f iW 1^ 
 .10 uic. a. tiM-lr chairman. and p.tltlon,Kl Bernanl 
 tosummon a .Jen.ml Court. Vhe gnvernTSo 
 
 BOSTON, 1788. 
 
 eautloui and mc'-'^te. All nretmainn. . 
 poUdcal authority were ex^fy^dSci" 
 In tlw couias of a four days' i««iion aS™ , , 
 
 i^nfr££!l.'*r*u^ ""1 « letter to "t, 
 toTf.^ ^"^^ of which the chief buniea wm 
 to defend the prorhioe against the charge of ^ 
 rebellious spirit Such was toe flrsroftl^L* 
 
 n^^ru^ts-'fjss.'iji^rtTtt 
 
 3^rt^ '5 ""' '"""^ The council werSS 
 tJie quartering Act. as they a legeil till ii„ 
 barracks were ?ull there wui L necl^ y " nro: 
 bir^T.'^ZJlif'""'"- ^7»"1 '■"Ute/tl.it'^ire 
 
 conridered as already full. The ^uncH^repM 
 that. eTen allowing that to be the case bylh; 
 J«™» »' the act, the provUion ^qu7rte« 
 bel«ged not to then-, but to the locsl^™^^ 
 iratea There was a large building hi Bostnn 
 bdong^ng to the provinceflnown as*the '& 
 
 poor !amlllea Bemaid pressed'the cimneU to 
 jdTlse that this bu'ldlng lie cleared and nrt^DaJrt 
 reft.^'^K"'"' °' '"e^r^jpsThSt they utw^ 
 ™ h^^- The governor then undertook to do it 
 ?.nHii '^"..'""^•"^•y-- The troops ha.1 aliwMll 
 landed, under cover of the ship, of war loihl 
 
 Peared to demand an entrance Into the Manii. 
 
 only Refused u. nnlve tlieir 'iH-tUiiln but iIa- 
 "iti charff. the proceeding wore eiceediagly 
 
 310 
 
 which liad no tents, the temporary use of R. L i 
 th«Tr: "'•"•»*nt'y/l«l«le>l; t^ the res. ..f h 
 
 except the council chamlx-r. was thrown .,,,..„ 
 by the governors order It was Sunday, th" 
 Town OouM was directly opposite the nieetin« 
 In" W ; ^.^'"'Chureli; "LUnon wen' Kl 
 stnlu ,h. 1 ^ M.""™''* ""•"= "tatl,,,,,,! in the 
 streets; the Inhabltanu were challenged amh.v 
 PMsed. The devout were greatly ncKrivm,,! 
 
 tnarehing of the troops. iWntly Oa«,. .Hme 
 to Boston to urge the provUlon of ,,,,.,rl.r. 
 The council dlrecte.1 blsatunllon to tlie 'i.r.n, ,.t 
 the act. and referred him to the wlreim. n .v, 
 the act spoke only of justice, of the ihs.,. il,,' 
 jelectnu^n decline,! to' take any s.e « ii' {i: 
 matter Bernard then r..nstltute.f*i,Ht he ,„11«| 
 M,i^~ °l ; !?1!"'*'^1 ?"'' f'-i"''*! them t,. linl 
 fl„L '■"if"',""'*'''"'*' «'"l'"rity. Oage waH 
 
 outof his own mlllury chest the firing. l«-.|.|in.- 
 and o her arUce. menll,m«t In the ^iiartorl. .• 
 Act the .»uncll having declined toonltr anv . x 
 pendlture for those purnosi,. un the «r-M,iHl 
 that the appmpriaUon of money hlonit^i . » 
 clu^vHy to the General Court.'_R llWreti, 
 
 r 1 S- •*• •'"thlneham. Uf: .,sif n=i^ f 
 .rrtf ?'■"*."■..'•* 8_-T. Hut^hlna(,D, Hit* »/ 
 1*« AwNass^ Mrtm. ibjt, I7«-1774, pf. »(»-glT 
 
B08T0X, 17W. 
 
 A. D. I7<9.— The pktrioU tbrMtenid and 
 VimnU ipcakiaf out. See Uhitkd Statu or 
 
 AM. : A. D. nro. 
 
 A. D. 1770.— Soldiers ud citiseu in col> 
 liiion.— The " MMMcre."~Remoral of the 
 troopt.— "As Uie spring of the year 1770 «p- 
 pmiwl, the 14th and 20th regiment* had l^en m 
 boston about seventeen months. The 14th was 
 in barracks near the Brattle Street Church ; the 
 Stthwas quartered jus' -nuth of King Street; 
 •bout midway between them, in King Street, 
 ud close at hand to the town- liouse, was the 
 main fcuard, whose nearness to the public build- 
 ings bod been a subject of great annoyance to 
 the people. . . . One is forced to admit . . . that 
 a good degree of discipline was maintained; no 
 blood had as yet been shed by the soldiers, 
 although provocation* were constant, the rude 
 element in the town growing gradually more ag- 
 gressive as the soldiers were never allowed to use 
 their arms. InaulM and blow* with flste were 
 frequently taken and given, and cudgels also came 
 into fashion in the brawls. Whatever awe the 
 regiment* had inspired at their flrst coming bad 
 long worn off. In particular the workmen of the 
 rope- walks and ship-yards allowed their tongues 
 the largest license and were foremost in the en- 
 countv'rs. About the 1st of March fights of un- 
 usual bitterness had occurred near Orey's rope- 
 vslis, not far from the quarters of the 89th, 
 between the hands of the rope-walk and soldiers 
 ot that regiment, which had a particularly bad 
 reputidi .1. The soldiers bad got the worst of it, 
 and »i-."j much irriuted. Threats of revenge 
 bail been made, which liwl called out arrogant 
 replii'8. and signs abounded that serious trouble 
 was n<it far off. Prom an early hour on the 
 evening of the Sth of March the symptoms were 
 very ominous. ... At length an altercation be- 
 ran in King Street between a company of lawless 
 boys and a few older brawlers on the one side, 
 kA the npntlnel, who paced his beat before tlie 
 cu«ti>mhou«e, on the other. . . . The soldier re- 
 treatnl up the step* of the custom-house and 
 callr<l out for help. A Die of soldiers was at once 
 df«p«trhc<l fn>m the main guard, across the street, 
 byC'aptain l'rest<in,oincer of the guard, whohim- 
 «elf ftxm followed to the scene of trouble. A coat- 
 in? of ice covered the ground, upon which shortly 
 before bad fallen a light snow. A young moon 
 wanfihining; the whole transaction, therefore, was 
 plainly visible. The soldietn, with the ««ntinel, 
 nine in number, drew up in line Ijcfore the people, 
 who gnally outnumbered them. The pieces 
 were IhbiIhI and hi Id reaiiy, but the mob, bellcv- 
 inu tliat the tMops would not use tbeir ar-ns ex- 
 cept ujion n'i|iilsition of a civil magistrate, 
 (houted ooarse insulu, pressed upon the very 
 muiilcs of the pieces, struck them with sticks, 
 «nd BMHultcti the MiUliers with balls of Ice. In 
 the tumult preclaely what was said and done 
 lannot Im known Many affldaviu were taken 
 In the Investigation that followed, ami, as always 
 •I tuib times, tlie testimony was most contredic- 
 i«>ty. Henry Knox, aflerwards the artillery 
 ten,m\. at this time a b<x)kseller, was on the 
 »pot and uaeil his liifliienoe with Preston to pre- 
 vent a <^>inmand to flre. Preston dwiarwl that 
 he nevHr Kive the command. The air, however, 
 Wh« full of «hnuta. darin- the «oli!'er« u> Are 
 •"me of wiiich may have been easily unlrrsUwd 
 u > 'inmanilii. and at laM the diwbarfe came. If 
 tt lud taiM 10 Goaa, iodoMl, ttM (urbMiMM 
 
 BOSTON, 1770. 
 
 wonM have been quite miraculmia. Three were 
 killed outright, and eight wtw wounded, only 
 one of whom, Crispus Attucks, a tall mulatto 
 -.ho farod the soldiers, leaning on a stick of coid- 
 WO.HI, bad really laken any part in the dia- 
 turbance. The test were bystander* or were 
 hurrying 'nto the street, not knowing the cause 
 of Uie tumult. ... A wild confusion . . . took 
 possewion of the town. The aUrm-bells rang 
 frantically ; on the other hand the drums of the 
 regimenu thundered to arms. . . . WiuU averted 
 a fearful battle in the streeU was the excellent 
 conduct of Hutchin*on"— the lieutenant-governor 
 who made his way promptly to the scene, caused 
 the troop* to be lent back to their barrack* 
 ordered the arrest of Cuptain Preston and the 
 nine aoldlers who had done the firing, and began 
 an investigation of the affair the same night The 
 next day a great town meeting was held, and, as 
 crowds from the surrounding towns pressed in 
 It was adjourned from Faueuil Hall to the Old 
 South Church, and overflowed in the neighboring 
 streets. A formal demand for tlie removal of the 
 troops was sent to the governor and council by a 
 committee which had Samuel Adams at its head 
 Governor Hutchinson disclaimed authority over 
 the troops; but their commanding olBcer, Colonel 
 Dalrymple, proposed to compromise by sending 
 away the 89th regiment and retaining the 14th. 
 As the committee returned to the meethig with 
 this proposal, through the crowd, Adams dropped 
 right and left tlie words, "Both regimenu or 
 none."— "Both regimenu or none." So he put 
 into the mouths of the people their reply, which 
 they shouted as tvith one voice when the report 
 of the committee was made to them. There was 
 a determination in the cry which ovenume even 
 •he obstinacy of Oo'emor Hutchinson, and the 
 departure of both regimenu waa ordered tlut 
 same day . " In EngUod the affair was regarde<l 
 as a • successful bully ' of the whole power of 
 the government by the little town, and when 
 Lord North received details of these evenU he 
 always referred to the Uthand 29th as the ' Sam 
 Adams regiment*. ' "—J. K. Hosmer, Samuel 
 ArliW. eh. 11. 
 
 Also in: K. Frothingham, Lift and Timei nj 
 JompK Warrtn. eh. «.— The same, Th* Sam 
 AdaiHt RrgimenU {AlUntie .VxiUAiy, r. 9, 10, ami 
 18; ltWM3j.— J. Q. Adams, Life of John Adamt 
 eh. 8 (». 1).— T. Hutchinson, Ifint. of (he Proriaet 
 »/-"<««•. Ilfiv, 1749-1774, pp. 270-3SO.— H. Mies. 
 Prineiplf and AeU of thr Reruliition (CkiUniniat 
 tdition),pp. 15-79.— F. Keddcr, lliit. of ih* Burton 
 Matnert. 
 
 A. D. 1770,- The fair trial of the soldiers.— 
 " The episode [of the affray of March Sth) had 
 ... a sequel which is exlremrly cnxliublo to 
 the American people. It was determined Ui try 
 the soldier* for their lives, and public feeling 
 ran so fiercely against them that It seemed as If 
 their fate was sealed. Tlic trial, however, was 
 delaye<l for seven months, till tlie excitement had 
 In »ome degree subsided. CapMin Prestnn very 
 judiciously appealed t.) John Adams, who wa* 
 mpldly rising to the llrst pUce both among the 
 lawyers and the popular patrioU of litMton. to 
 umleruke his defeni-e. Adams knew well 
 how much lie wa* risking by espousing so un- 
 r«>p«I»r a r-suse. Inil ho kacw aiio his pro- 
 fesaloniil duty, ami, though violently oppoaed tt 
 the British government, he was in eminently 
 honest, brave, and hlUMM maa. jt WIUUB9 
 
 ail 
 
Ji 
 
 Pll 
 
 BO8T0X, 1770. 
 
 Uon with JcMUh Qulncy, a young lawyer who 
 wu aim of tlie patriotic party, he undertook the 
 inridious taak, and he diicharged it with con- 
 summate ability. . . . There was ahumlnnt 
 evidence that the soldiera had endumi gnws 
 provocation and some violence. If tlie trial liad 
 been the prosecution of a smuggler jr a setlitJDiis 
 writer, tlie Jury would probably have deciiletl 
 agaiost evidence, but they had no disposition to 
 she<i innocent blood. Judges, counsel, and 
 Jurymen acted bravely and honourably. All 
 the soldiers were acquitted, except two, wlio 
 were found guilty of mansUughter, and who 
 escaped with very slight punishment. It is very 
 rcmarkabl'i that after Adams had accepted the 
 task of di lending the incriminated soldiers, he 
 was el('cte<l by the people of Boston aa their 
 representative in the Assembly, and the public 
 opinion of the province appears to have fully 
 acquiesced in the verdict. In truth, although 
 no pvople have indulged more largely than the 
 Americans in violent, reckless, and unscrupulous 
 language, no people have at every period of 
 Ibc'ir history been more signally free from the 
 thirst for blood, which in moments of great 
 political excitement has been often shown Doth 
 In England and Prance.'— W. E. H. Lecky, 
 lliil. »/ Eng. in th» 18<A Centnry. th. 12 (». 8). 
 
 Almoin: J. Adams, AvtMngraphy (Woria, ». 
 2, ;>. 280).— Lord Mahon (SiW Stanhope), Hit. 
 of Eng.. 1713-1788, e. 8, a 260. 
 
 A. D 1773.— The Tea Party. — •' News 
 rraolied Boston in the spring of this year [1778] 
 tliiit the East India Company, which was em- 
 Inrmmeil by tlie accumulation of tea in England, 
 owing to the refusal of the Americans to bi:y it, 
 had iiidua-d pitriiament to permit iuexpnrtation 
 to Aiiiprica without the pityment of the usual 
 duiv [sec United States or Am: A. D. 1772- 
 1773]. This was intended to bribe the colonisU 
 to buy ; for there had bt-i'n a fluty Ixith in Eng- 
 land /ind in America. Tiiat in Eiiglancl was six 
 pence a p<mnd, tliat in Amcrioi three pence. 
 Shins were laden and sent to Boston, New York, 
 Philadelphia, and Chiiricston, and they were 
 now expected to arrive in a short time. ... On 
 the 2«th of November, 1773, whl<li wasSiiniliiv, 
 the (Init ten-ship (the ' IMrtm.Hiih') eiiU-mi the 
 harlKir [of Boston!. The f.)llowlna; miirniiig tlie 
 rllizens were iniormcd by plaeanl tlmt tlio 
 • worst of plagues, the detested tea,' had arlually 
 arrivetl, and that a meeting was to lie hchl at 
 nine in the morning, at Faneuil Hall, for the 
 pirposc of making 'a united and suecesHfui 
 nuiatanre to this last, worst, and most deslruc- 
 live measure of administration.' The Cradle of 
 Mlwrty WHS not large enough to conuin the 
 •Mwd that was calleil Uigellicr. Aiiiims rose 
 nnd made a stirring motion expressing deter 
 tiilnalion that the lea slioiild not be liimTed. and 
 it was unanimously agni'.l to. The mtH'ting 
 then adJoumc»l to the Old South meeting house, 
 wliere the motion was repeated, ami again 
 aiiopted without an opposing voice. Tlio owner 
 of tlie sliiii protested in vain tlutt the pmriwl- 
 ings were Illegal; a watch of twentyBve persons 
 was set, to see that the intenti'Hi:! of llie citiscns 
 *vn- not pvaiU-d, and the meeting ailjoumt'.l to 
 the following morning. The thnmg iit ilmt 
 time was as gn«t as usual, and whih; the A, liU-r 
 atlolM were gi.ing on, a nwange was received 
 from the governor, tliroiigb the sheriff, ordering 
 ' —i to CUM) their ttruveuaiogs. It wm voM 
 
 8 
 
 BOSTON, 1778. 
 
 not to follow the adTioe, and the sheriff was 
 hissed and obliged to retreat disoomflted It 
 was formally resolved that any person importing 
 tea from Enghud should be deemed an eueniv 
 to his country, and It was decUred tiiiit at the 
 risk of tlieir lives and properties the landiuc of 
 the tea should be prevented, and its nium 
 effected. It was necessary that some posiiive 
 action should bo taken in regard to tlie ten within 
 twenty days from ita arrival, or the col leetor of 
 customs would confiscate ships and cargiws 
 The twenty days would expire on the ietli of 
 December. On the fourieenth a crowded meet- 
 ing was held at the Old South, and the importer 
 was enjoined to apply for a clesranre to allow 
 his vessel to return with its cargo. He applied 
 but the collector rcfuscil to give an answer 
 until the following day. The meeting therefore 
 adjourned to tlie 10th, the last day before oontis 
 cation would be l^gal, and before the tea wouM 
 be placetl under protection of tlie shins of 
 war in the liarbor. There was another eirlv 
 morning meeting, and 7,000 peopli^ tliron'e!! 
 about the meeting-house, all filled with n nenae 
 of the fact that something notable was to o,Tur 
 Tlie importer appeared and reported that the 
 collector refused a clearance. He was tlun 
 directed to ask the governor for a paiw to enahic 
 him to sail by the Castle. Ilutcliinwm h ul 
 retreated to his mansion at Hilton, and it would 
 take some time to make tlie demand The 
 importer started out in the cold of a New Eni- 
 land winter, apologlxed to his Excellency foi his 
 visit, but assured him that it was involuntary 
 He received a reply that no pass could \k given 
 him. , . . It was six o'clock before the importer 
 returned, and a few candles were brought In to 
 relieve the fast-increasing darkness. He n>port«i 
 tlie governor's reply, and Samuel Adams moe 
 and cxcUimed: 'This meeting can do nothing 
 more to save the coiintrv I' In an instant there 
 waa a shout on the porch; there wasawar-whoop 
 in response, and forty or fifty of tlie men (liasuised 
 as Indians rushed out of the doom, down Milk 
 Street towards QrifBn's (nfterwanls Liverpool) 
 Wlmrf, where the vessels lay, Tlie mectiiiit was 
 decUred dissolved, and tlie throng followed their 
 leaders, forming a determined giiunl about the 
 wharf. The 'Mohawks' entemi the vrasil; 
 tliere was tugging at the ropes; tlien- was Imak 
 ing of light boxes ; there was pouring of pniious 
 tea into the waten of tlie harbor. For two or 
 throe hours the work went on, and three hun- 
 dred and fortv-two chests were emnti. j. Then. 
 under the light of the moon, the Indians mnrrlipii 
 to the sound of flfe and dmm to their liomes, and 
 the vast throng meltctl away, until not s nuin 
 remained to tellof the decil. The committee of 
 oorreapoodcnce held a meeting next clay, and 
 Samuel Adams and four others wero sppolntiii 
 to prepare an account of the affair to N^ ixotol 
 to other plaoea. I'liui Revere, who in aald 10 
 have been one of the ' Mohawks,' was aeMiexpres* 
 to Phlhuk-lphia with the ww«, whuh waj 
 received at tliat place cm the •ifltli. It wm 
 Bnnounce<l by ringing of lielUi. awl tin re wu 
 every sign of toy. . . . TIh' eoulinent ww uiii 
 vcrsally stirred at !•«. "—A. Ulliiiau, TA. .V./» 
 ^f Baton, e/t.m. 
 
 Al*o I." : E. Q. Phrter, Tke Re.Tinr.ir--: ,-.! .'>..• 
 hntitUitn (iltmuriiU Hit. <tf Ontim. r. ;l r/i li 
 — B. J. I/Ming. M<A( riM* nftitt /£ nVxfi "I n I 
 «». «1.-T. UutchiMou, Uit. u/ Uk I'/whoi ■■/ 
 
 t 
 
BOSTON. ITJt. 
 
 BOSTON, 1774. 
 
 Mam. Bay. 174»-in4, pp. 4aM40.— S«rac, Diary 
 and Letten, p. 188.— <}. Baacroft, llUt. of l/u 
 U. S. (Autht>rf$laitrmm<m), v. 8,eA. 84.— .J. Kim- 
 hall, The 10(MA AntUvtrmry of tht Dtntraetion of 
 Tea {Euex Intl. Iliit. GM., c. 13, no. 3). 
 
 A. D. 1774.— The Port Bill and th< Mmm- 
 chuietts Act— Commtrce interdicted.— Town 
 Meeting* forbidden. See United Btatiw or 
 Am. : A. D. 1774 (Marcu— ApniL). 
 
 A. D. 1774.— The enforcement of the Port 
 Bill and its eflecta.— Military occnpation of the 
 city by General Care.— "The exeoutiim of thii 
 measure [the Port Bill] devolved on Tbomas Oage, 
 who arrived at Boston May 13, 1774, as Captain 
 General and Oovemor of Masaacbusetts. He 
 was not a stranger In the colonies. He had ex- 
 hibited gallantry In Br.uldock's defeat. ... He 
 had married In one of the most respectable fami- 
 lies in New York, and hail partaken of the boa- 
 pitalltiea of tbe people of Boston. His manners 
 were pleasing. Hence he entered upon his pub- 
 lic duties with a large measure of popularity. 
 But be took a narrow view of men and things 
 about him. . . . Oeneral Oage, on the 17tb of 
 May. landed at the Long Wharf and was received 
 with much parade. . . . On the first day of Juno 
 the act went into effect It met with no opposi- 
 tion from the people, and hence, there was no 
 difHrulty in carrying It Into rlf^orous execution. 
 'I hear from many,' the governor writt-s, 'that 
 tlieacthasstaggeroithcmcHi presumptuous: the 
 violent party men seem to break, luwl people to 
 fall off from them.' Hence he looked for sub- 
 mi&siiin ; but Boston asked assistance from other 
 ciil(inio3, and the General Court requested him to 
 appoint a day of fasting and prayer. The h)yBl- 
 iKts felt uncassy nt the absence of the array. . . . 
 Ilonrf a respectable force was soon concentrated 
 la IloHton. On the 4th of June, the 4th or king's 
 own rcfe'iment, anil on the 15th the 43d regiment, 
 lanilwl at the Long Wharf ar ' encamped on the 
 common." The ."Sth and 3? 1 -egimenta arrived 
 m\ the 4th and 5tli of Jul} , .ho PIHb regiment 
 was lamlnl at 8alein August 6. and additional 
 troops were ordereil from New York, the Jerseys 
 anil Quclwc. "The B<>.non Port Bill went Into 
 'ipcration amid the tolling of bells, fasting and 
 pniyiT. ... It liore severely upon two towns, 
 Boston and Clmrlestown, which hiul been long 
 (-onncctrd hyacommon patriotism. Their laborers 
 woro thrown out of employment, their poor 
 Wire deprived of bread, anci gloom pervaded 
 their streets. But they were cheered and 
 siisialncil by the large contributions sent from 
 evi TV quarter for tholr relief, and by the noble 
 woriis that accompanied them. . . . The ex- 
 cit<'ment of the piilillc mind was intense; and 
 till' months of June, July, and August, were 
 fliaractcrlMil by variol political activity. Mul- 
 lituile* signed a solemn league and covenant 
 agiiinst the use of British goods. Th» lireach 
 lutwi-en the whigs and loyalists daily became 
 wilier. Patriotic donations from every colony 
 were on their wav to the suffering Uiwns. 
 Bupplles for the British tnxips were refused. 
 It wss while tlw public mind was i.i l»'l* 
 state of exciteownt that other acU arrivecl wh^■h 
 Oencml Oage was Instructed to carry into effect. " 
 These were the acta which virtuallv annulleil 
 liu! Mwmchuaetu ciiaru-r, which forbade town 
 meetings, and which pmvltlod for the sending of 
 aetiuHKl penoos 10 England nr to other colonies 
 fur trial. " SbuuiJ MiMacbuMtU tubmlt to the 
 
 new acts T Would the other colonics see, with- 
 out increased alarm, the humiliation of Massa- 
 chusetts T This was the turning point of the 
 Kvvolutlon. It did not find the patriots unpre- 
 pared. Thev had an organization beyond the 
 reach alike of proclamations from tbe govemoia, 
 or of circulars from the ministry. This was tbe 
 Committees of Correspondence, chosen in most of 
 the towns in legal town-meetings, or by the vari- 
 ous colonial assemblies, and extending through- 
 out the colonics. . . . The crisis called for all 
 the wisdom of these committees. A renurkable 
 circular from Boston addressed to the towns (July, 
 1774), dwelt upon tbe duty of opposiug the new 
 laws: the towns, In their answers, were bold, 
 spirited, and firm and echoed tho necessity of 
 resistance. Norwasthlsall. The people promptly 
 thwarted the first attempts to exercise authority 
 under them. Such councillors as accepte<l thefr 
 appointments were compelled to resign, or, to 
 avoid compulsion, rvtiretlinto Boston. Oeneral 
 Oage now began (In S:.'pterabcr) movements to 
 secure the cannon and powder In tho neighbor- 
 hood. Some 850 barrels of powder belonging to 
 the province were stealthily removed by his 
 orders from a magazhie at Cbarlestown and two 
 field-pieces were carried away from Cambridge. 
 " The report of this affair, spreading rapiilly, ex- 
 cited great indignatioa The people collected in 
 large numlwrs, and many were In favor of at- 
 tempting to recapture the powder and cannon. 
 Influential patriots, however,8uccee«lcd in turning 
 their attention in another direction. . . . Mean- 
 time the fact of the Kmoval of the powder be- 
 came magnifietl into a report that the British bod 
 riinnonodiHl Boston, when the bells rung, beacon- 
 fires bhued on tbe hills, the nci);libor colonics 
 were alarmed, and the rf)ads were filled with 
 armed men hastening to the point of supposed 
 danger. These demonstrations opened the eyes 
 of the governor to the extent of the popular 
 movement. . . . Oeneral Oaiire saw no hope of 
 procuring oliedtenco but by the power of arms: 
 and the patriot party saw no safety in anything 
 short of miiilary preparation. Uesistance to the 
 ants continued to l)c manifested lu every form. 
 On the 9th of SepU'mln-r the memorable Suffolk 
 resolves [drawn by Joseph Warren] wore adopted 
 
 thy a convention of Suffolk county, which em- 
 raced Boston] . . . and these were suc(x>ede<l 
 by others In other couuties equally bold and 
 Ylrited. These resolves were approved by the 
 Continental Congress, tlien In session. Every- 
 where thepeoplc either compelled the unconsti- 
 tutional olncers to resign, or opposed every at- 
 tempt to exercise authority, whether by the 
 governor or constable. They also made every 
 effort to transport ammunitiim and stores to place* 
 of security. Cannon and musket* were carrieil 
 secretly out of Boston. The guns were taken 
 from an old battery at Cbariestown. where the 
 navy yani is, . . . •ilently, at night . . . Oen 
 eral Gage immeiliately began to fortify Boston 
 Neck. This addeii inU-nsiiy to tho excitement. 
 The inbabitanta berame alarmed Kt so ominous 
 a movement : auvl, on the 5th of September, the 
 selectmen waited on the geoeral, represented the 
 public feeling, and rcquealed bim to explain his 
 ohject Tb-» srovemor 8tsi!!d In reply tbal hU 
 object was to protect hi* najesty's troops and 
 hi* majesty's subjects; and that he hod no Inten- 
 tion to stop up the avenue, or to obstruct the 
 frte passage ovtr It, or to do anything heitUe 
 
 SIS 
 
m 
 
 i\ 
 
 BOSTOX, 1T74. 
 
 •gnlnst the InlmliltanU. He went on with the 
 works nnil soon mounted on them two twenty- 
 four noumlers ami eight nine pounders. ■ — R. 
 frotlilngliam. //irt. of Uui IXtgi of Bottoa. dt 1 
 AlJM IM: TUe same. Ltfe nnd Timet of Jonepli 
 
 rjj'"'^!^- "■ ",i^ "I!P- ' <fl»"'V tut of the Suf 
 f'ik Awrf»)._w. if. Wells. Life of Samud 
 Adam,., a pp. 164-233. -W. Tudor. Lift of 
 J'unet Otit, eh. 27-20. ^ ■' 
 
 1 t: ^' '175 -The bcKinoinr of war.— Lex- 
 ington.— Concord.-Bnnker Hill. See Uhited 
 Btatrb of Am. : A. D. 1778 
 
 A. D. i775-i776.-Th« iieM.-ETacuBtlon 
 of the city by the British. Sec Umtkd States 
 CP AM. : A. D. 1.7,'>-17T6 
 
 A D. i87a.-The Crest Fire.-A fire which 
 broke out Jfov. 9. 1872. swept orer 6.'. aires in the 
 business heart of t he city. Loss «SO,UOO,0(IO. 
 
 BOSTON UNIVERSITY. See En. ca- 
 tion. MoDKRN: Amrrica: A. D 1789-lt<84 
 
 BOSWORTH, Battle of (A D. MSsT See 
 England : A. I). 14«8-1485. 
 
 ^^^7Jir ^*^- ^ ^-™--- A. D. 
 
 BOTH WELL, Earl of. and Mary Stuart. 
 Bee Scotland : A. D. l.WI-lSeS 
 BOTHWELL BRIDGF, Battle of. See 
 
 «,?.?J.°^"°°^''^''«- ^« Amkbican Abo- 
 BiniNES: Trpi. 
 
 BOUIDES, The. See MA^oMlCT^^ Cor- 
 QUKST AND Emi'irk : A. P. 015-945 ; also Turks • 
 A. D. 100|-1(I63: also. Samanidks " 
 
 BOULANGER, General. Ti.e Intrigues ot 
 See France: A. D. 187.'5-1889 
 
 SSHJ-I;.T.'l«- ^^ Areopaocs. 
 
 BOULOGNE : Origin. See Gewjriacui.. 
 
 A. D. 1801.— Bonaparte's preparations for 
 the invasion of Eng:rand.-NelslMi's atUck. 
 Ne Fka.nce; A. D. 1801-1802 
 
 i-S9H^°''/.^'"'« "^ See France: A. D. 
 tu^h^^a"^"^'^ EXPEDITION. See Po.n 
 
 BOURBON. The Constable: His treason 
 and bis attack 00 Rome. See FRANrE' a i> 
 
 n|A°V:«r ?, • ME°"h^ ^t-7 ""•• «« 
 
 F„^m"ll^^°^' T"' "»"• of: It. oripn.- 
 Fmin kiug Louis IX. (St. Louis). „f Fniiire 
 
 r„»?"S /! ' ''"' ""''" '■''''■'• ""'«« >'e Vniw. 
 Comte de Clermont, sprang the House of Hour- 
 
 Beatrix, wife of this i)rinee. was en.cte,l Into a 
 frhr''IIlL" """f."' Lo"l». I'U son, and gave 
 to his iJesoemlants the name which they havt rc- 
 tnlne. that of hVance lH.|ng reserved for the 
 Uoyal branch. . The Huu*, which h,ul the 
 honour of s.mplylnp »,,verelgns to our couutry 
 -as.nlhM ■J.Vi.ice.'' But our kings. Jealous of 
 tlrnl t-reat name, rt^rved It for tLelr own sons 
 M^tftT M^iJ''''"? the designation ' fils ' an.l 
 ■m. p '* Tj*"^ The posterity of each 
 flls de France forme,! a clct branch which t<w.k 
 
 Artols BourlHin Ac. At tbe time of the acces 
 .Ion of Henry IV Uie name of Bourbon mit!!."" 
 wiUi those younger bmnches of tJoii.le.uid .Mont- 
 Knrier wh ,:h h»l spning from the main branch 
 before the OutUi of ilenry Hi But Henry IV. s 
 
 814 
 
 BOCROES. 
 
 children, those of Louis Xin., and those of tli.i. 
 succe^wrs In the throne, were su™I^«l 1' 
 Pr».K)e ; whibt in conformity with™Tavf to 
 de«:en.UnU of LouU XUI. '. tcond «.n r^^d ' 1 
 the surname d" Orl«ans, from the UUe bon, • W 
 their gmmlfaUicr. . . Posser-.rsof vast .rf 
 tones which they [U.e BourL.,ns] owed m.' ,'"o 
 fjimily alliances than to the gencii)slty of kinifs 
 lev hml known how to win the affec.io, * f 
 tlK'Ir vassals. Their magnlflcent hospitality ,lrow 
 arumid t|„m a numerous and brilliint nobiliiy 
 Thus the ■ hotel- of those breve and auirust 
 L^w'^V^irl'V* ^""•'« Bourbon.' as ou 
 school in which a young nobleman could lf„r„ 
 the DTOfession of anna. Tlie order of t he In, 
 ^tftuted by one of them, hiul been coveted „,i 
 worn by tlic bravest warriors of France s" 
 flclently powerful to ouuhine the rauk and flic of 
 the notlllty. they had at the «,me time n" l, „ 
 
 ii'I!P..*'Vi'^ ■"" "'« '""nense power wliicl, 
 enablejTthe Dukes of Bourgogno. U Bretag ,? 
 Md otiier great vassals, to be,5)ine the rival,"; 
 the enenjlesof the royal authority." The ex 
 ampte of the trr-<aon of the Constable Bourlxm 
 
 by any of the princes of his House Tlip 
 
 pmnerty of U,e Conndlable was deflnltelV aliin 
 ated from hs House, and Vendflme [his brotlurl 
 did not receive the hereditary posseilons of ilic 
 Dukes d Alenyon, •/> which hU wife was eutltl«l 
 He died on the 25th of March, 1538. leaving t 
 a scanty i»triinony to his numerous descin.hmts. 
 . . . JT,»c only of his sons obtained their uiaioritv 
 
 Antoine [Due de Vendome and afterwards Kinc 
 of Navan* Uirough hU marriage with Jeanne ,r 
 Albret. see Navarre: A. D. A2S-15631. fatl.or 
 or Henry IV.. who was the ancestor of all iIr. 
 
 born 15J01, who was the r.K,t of the House „ 
 Conde and all ito branches. " —Due d' Amiulc 
 I'»it.ofthePri<M,aftUUouMofCondrhk. 1 el,' 
 
 BO ^'^N : The Spanish House. S.e 
 ^''i^J?.;^-^ '8I»-1700. Snd 1701-17"' 
 BOURBON FAMILY COMPACTS. 
 
 (A"orT^^°"«''"*«<«"-'"''^ 
 
 word Bourg ongmally meant any aggregati.mof 
 houses, fmm tfie greatest city^o tlies.n.-.ll.-st 
 hamlet. But. . the wor,lshifte<l itsnuanir.ir. 
 and came to signify an nssemblaffc of h„u„s 
 jurrounded witE walls. Si.c»„,||y. ,|.e word 
 Bourgeois also was at first use.1 us synonym.,,,, 
 t th the Inhabiuiiit of a bourg. Afterw.ir.l 
 when corporete fnuichises were bcstowe.1 on par 
 tieular bourgs, tlio word acmiired a sense nlru' 
 sponding wfth that of the English dcslgnalioa 
 Burgess; that is a per»>n entitled to the privi 
 leges of a municlpia corpomtion. Finally, tlic 
 word Bourgeoisie, in lu primitive sense, wi, tlic 
 description of the burgesses when spoken .if 
 collectlvelv. But. in lU later use. the woni 
 would be best rendered Into English by our term 
 citizenship: that is. the privilege or fnncbise of 
 bjng a »«'g«»-^'-Sir J. Sviphen.^wto.. //,,< „/ 
 
 unUtnA ^.'^"i* •■ >«*"-l»TH Cksti. 
 
 HOURCES, Origin of.— Thedty of Bourc. « 
 
 I ranc»-, was originally Uie capital dty of uc 
 
 Spe 
 1761 
 
 the 
 
BOUROES. 
 
 Oallic tribe of the Btturigea, tod wai called 
 Avuricuin. "As with many other Okuliah 
 towus, the original name became exchanged for 
 thut of the pei^ple, I. e., Biturigea, and thcoce the 
 mixlcTn Bouriea niid the name of the province, 
 Ikrri."— C. Mcrirale, JIM. of the Romaiu, eh. 
 13.— Stf. »l»o, JEdvi, and Oaiti.: B. C. 88-81. 
 
 BOUVINES, Battle of (A. O. 1314).— The 
 battle of Bou vines, fought at Bouvinea, In Flan- 
 ilcrs. not far from Touruuy, on the 27th of August, 
 A. D. 1214, was one of tlie ini|>ortnut battles of 
 EurniK-au history. On one side were the French, 
 Iwl by their king Philip Augustus, and fighting 
 (isli'nsibly as the champions of the Pope and the 
 cliiirch. On the other si<le was an allied army of 
 Euglish, under king John, of Ocrmam under 
 Otho, the Ouelf — one of two rival claimants of 
 llie imperial crown — and of Flemings and 
 liOtliaringUns, led by their several lords. Philip 
 Aujfustua had expelled the English king from 
 his Norman dukctlom and caused a court of the 
 p<^rs of Franco to c 1 .-cUre the title forfeit. From 
 that success his . ubltlon rose so high that be 
 luul aspired to tlie conquest of the English 
 crown. A terrible pope — Innocent III.— had 
 approved his ambition and encouraged It; for 
 John, the miserable Engllahkhig, hadglven pro- 
 vocations to the church which had brought the 
 thunders of the Vatican upon his head. Excom- 
 municated, himself, his kingdom under Interdict, 
 — thelatltr offered itself a tempting prey to the 
 vigorous .French king, who poeed as the champion 
 of the pope. Ho had prepared a strong army and a 
 fleet for the invasion of England ; but fate and 
 papal dii 'omacy had baffled his schemes. At the 
 last moment, John had made a base submission, 
 had meekly surrendered his kingdom to the 
 lH)pc and had received it back as a papal fief 
 Wlii'reuiwn the victorious pone commanded his 
 Fri'uch champion to forego his intended attack. 
 Philip, under these circunutauces, detcrnilneil to 
 UBc tliearmy he had assembled against a trouble- 
 tome and contumacious vassal, the count of 
 Flanders. The iwpe approved, and Flanders 
 was overrun. King John led an Englisli force 
 across tli,^ channel to the help of the Flemish 
 count, and Otho, the German king or emperor, 
 who was king John's nephew, joined the coali- 
 tion, to antagonize France and the iwpe. The 
 Utile of Bou vines was the decisive contlict of the 
 war. It humbled, for the time, the independent 
 Bpiiit of Flanders, and several remoter conse- 
 iiuciiccs can be traced to It It was "the first 
 mil Flinch victory. It roused the national spirit 
 lis noihiug else could have roused it; it was the 
 niuions tli-st taste of glory, dear above all things 
 t" ilie French heart. . . . The buttle somewhat 
 inikc the higli apirit of the barons: the lesser 
 l«ii.iii» iind cimrclics grouped themselves round 
 ilic kiiii,'; the greater lonis came to feel tlieir 
 wiamicss in the presence of royalty. Among 
 111- iniiilciital consequences of the day of 
 U..11 vines Win the ruin of OUio's ambition. He 
 nil! triMii the llcid into utter obscurity. He 
 rvUn;\ u> tlic llartz mimnUlns, and there spent 
 liii; rcMMiiiing jciirs of his life In private. King 
 •iHliii, iiK), was utterly dlscrDdiU-d by his share In 
 [he vcar.s campaign. To It may partly be traced 
 Ins liunuliiitlon k'fore hlsbamna. and ihpslKnios 
 I'! ilif Gmil CiiariiT in the following year at 
 hiimymHc'-rj. W. Kitchin, /li.l. .^hanet. 
 '*■ .t.r/. 7.*>p<.4.--TlieliBttleof Bouviueswaa 
 not ilie vhiury of Philip Augustus alone, over a 
 
 315 
 
 BOV8 IN BLUE. 
 
 coalition of foreign princes; the victory was the 
 work of king and i>eople, barons, burgliers, and 
 peasanu, of Tie de France, of Orleanness. of 
 Picardy <,f Normandy, of Champagne, and of 
 Burguiuly. . . . The victory of Bouvmes marked 
 the commencement of the time at which men 
 might speak, and Indeed did sneak, by one 
 single name, of 'the French.' The nation in 
 France and the kingship in France on tliat day 
 rose out of and above the feudal system."— F P 
 Guizot, J^pul<tr Hut. ^ France, eh. 18.— See! 
 <^}»o. Italy: A. D, 1188-12S0, and Enolamd: 
 A. D. 120,5-1313, and 1218. 
 
 BOVATE, OR OXGANG.-" Originally as 
 much as an ox -team couhl plough in a year 
 Eight Bovatea are usually said to have made a 
 Carucate, but tlie number of acres whicli made 
 a novate are variously stated In ililTerent records 
 from 8 to 84."— N. H. NIcohu, yotitia Uittoriea 
 p. 134. 
 
 BOVIANUM, Battle of (B. C. 88). See 
 Kosfit: B. 0. 90-88. ' 
 
 BOWDOIN COLLEGE. See EoucAxioif, 
 HoDBiiN: Akeuica: A. D. 1794 
 
 BOWIDES, The. See MAnoMBTAH Cow- 
 ^citT AND EsfpiBB : A. D. 818-848. 
 
 BOYACA, Battle of (1819). See CoixMrniAW 
 Btatbs: a. D. 1810-1819. 
 
 BOYARS. — "In the old times, when Russia 
 ' ,,"*'*'? » collection of Independent prin- 
 cipalities, each reigning prince was surrounded 
 by a group of armed men, composed partly of 
 Boyars, or large landed proprietors, and partly of 
 knights, or soldiers of fortune. Tliese men, who 
 formed the Noblesse of the time, were to a cer- 
 tain extent under the authority of the Prince 
 but they were by no means mere obedient, silent 
 executors of his will. The Boyars miglit refuse 
 to take part in his military e.x|K'<liii(m8. . . 
 Liider tlie TarUir domination this political equi- 
 librium was destroyed. When the country Irnd 
 been conquere<l, the princes became servile vas- 
 sals of the Khan, and arbitrary rulers towards 
 their own subjecta. The political sigiiirtcancc of 
 the nobles was thereby gnally dliiiiuUne<l. '— 
 U. M. Wallace, Ru—ia, eh. 17. 
 
 BOYNE, Battle of the (1690). See Ireland: 
 A. D. 1689-1691. 
 
 BOYS IN BLUE.- BOYS IN GRAY.- 
 Soldicr nicknames of the American Civil War. 
 — " During the first year of the war [of the Keliel- 
 llon, in the United States] the Union soliilcrs 
 commonly called their oppom-nu 'Kcbs' awl 
 •Sccesh"; In 1862, 'Confeds'; in 1803, ' Gray- 
 backs ' and • Butternuts ' ; and in 1864, 'Johnnic-s ' 
 The nickname 'Butternuts' was given the Con- 
 federates on account of their homespun dollies, 
 dyed re<ldlsli-l)niwii with a dye iimilc of biittemiit 
 bark. The last name, ' Joluinies. ' hi siiid to have 
 originated In a quarrel iH'twwn two pickets, 
 which l>egan by the Union mans saying tliat the 
 Confederates de|K'iido<l on England to get tlK'Ui 
 out of their scrape. . . . The Union nmn . . 
 said that a 'Hcb' was no better than a Johnnv 
 Bull, anyhow. . . . The name stuck, ami in the 
 hut part of the war the Confederate soldiers 
 were almost universidly called 'Jobiinica.' 
 Throughout the war the Confeileretes diiblied 
 all the Union snldlcn ■ Yankr^K ' und 'Yriiikii,' 
 without any reference lotlH' imrt of tlie country 
 they came from. . . . Otiier nicknnnies for 
 Union soldiers, wcaslonallv umiI, were Kiila.' 
 ' Blue Birds and Blue lie I'lii's.' SIncx- the wa' 
 

 I -I I 
 
 
 BOTS m BLUE. 
 
 the opponenti have been oommoDlr called ' Bon 
 In Bluo'uid 'Bovi in Or»y.' "—J. D. Chunp- 
 lln, Jr., Young FhtM BStUnrf (tfVu War for Vu 
 Union, p. 187. 
 BOZRA. SeeCARTRAOB: DivuioHs, Ac. 
 BOZZARIS, Marco, The death oC See 
 Orkbcb: a. D. 1831-im 
 
 BRABANT : Mythical Bsplaaatlon of the 
 name. See Amtwerp. 
 
 4th ceatnrr.— Firat Mttlement of the 
 Franks. See Toxandrix. 
 
 9th century.— Known as Basse Lorraine. 
 See Lorraine: A. D. 848-870. 
 , *^P- '096-1009.— Dnke Godfrey de BouiUon 
 in the First Crusade, and his kinrdom of 
 Jerusalem. See Crusadis: A. D. l()9»-109e: 
 and Jerusalbm: A D. 1099-1144. 
 
 lath to 15th centuries. — The county and 
 duchy. — From the berlnniugof the 13tli century 
 the county. afterwanU the duchy, of Brabant, 
 ezistec' under Its own counts and dukes, until 
 the beginninf; of the l.')th cpntury, when U 
 drifted under the sovereignty of the burgiuidisn 
 dukoa. 
 
 A. O. 1430.— Acquisition by the House of 
 Burgundy. See Ne 1 hbrlanim : A. D. 1488- 
 148U. 
 
 BRACCATI, The. See Roint : B. C. 878. 
 BRACHYCEPHALIC MEN. See Oom- 
 
 CnOCKPIIALIC 
 
 BRACTON, HENRY DE.and early Enr- 
 lish Law. Sik- Law, Common : A. D. 1216-1878. 
 
 BRADOOCK'S DEFEAT. See Ohio 
 (VAr i.Kv); A. D. l?.^. 
 
 BRADFORD, GoTcmor. See Massachu- 
 setts : X. D. 1681, and after. 
 
 BRADFORD ACADEMY. See Educa- 
 tion, MoriFKN : Refohmn: A. D. 1804-1891 
 
 BRADFORD'S PRESS. See Prwtiho, 
 4c. : A. I). 1585-1709, 17i>4-1789. 
 
 BRAGANZA. The House of: A. D. 1640.— 
 Accession to the throne of Portunl. See 
 PoHTUOAL: A. D. 1637-1868. 
 
 BRAGG, General Braxton.- luTasion of 
 Kentucky. See United States of Am. : A. D. 
 1868 (June- Octoueh: Tennessee — Kkn- 
 TOCKT).....The Battle of Stone River. Sec 
 Ukited States of A>i. : A. D. IWiJ-lSttI 
 
 Prcbmber — Janc.vrt: Tennessee) The 
 
 Tullahoma Campaira. See United States of 
 Am.: A. D. 1863 (June-July: Tennemke). 
 . . . .Chickamanga.— The Chattaooora Cam- 
 paign. See UNrTBD States of Am. : A. D ISO:) 
 (Auouan^-SBPTBiiBBB, and Uctobbii— Xovem- 
 BBR: Tennessee). 
 
 BRAHMANISM. See India; The immiora 
 
 TION AND CONQUESTS OF THE AltYAS. 
 
 BRAHMANS. See Caste system of India. 
 —Also. India: Trb AooRiaiNAi, iNUAmTANTS. 
 
 BRANCHID.A, The. See Ur.\clE8 of the 
 Greeks. 
 
 BRANDENBURG: A. D. 9*8-1 wa.-Be- 
 (Innittgs of the Marparate.— "A. I). 928 
 Henry tlie Fowler, msrcbin}; Hcnua I lie fnir.en 
 bogs, took Bniunlbor, a chief foitrtvi of the 
 Wemls; flr»t mention in human speecli of tlio 
 place now called Itrandenburg : Bor or ' Burg of 
 the Brenns ' (if ' pre ever was any Tribe of 
 Ureni!!!.— Brenn! there w rl.owhprr' Ik-lng 
 name for Kin« or ^ adcr); • Burg of ilic Woods^ 
 say otlKTS,— whoasllttleknow. Probably, atthat 
 time, a town of cUy huts, with ditch aud palisaded 
 
 BRANDBiroURO, 1149-11S3. 
 
 !?*S?" /"■'""' "' certainly 'a chief forutssof 
 the vrei^ — whb must have been a cowl dial 
 surprised at sight of Henry on the rimy winter 
 morning near a thousand years ago. That 
 
 Henry appohitod due Wardcnship In Bp.miilmr 
 was In tlie common oourae. Sure cnouiM wunc 
 Markgnf must Ukechsrce of Braunibor —lie of 
 the Lausitz eastward, for example, o- \k of 
 Salzwedel westward:— that Braunibor, ii time 
 will Itself bo found the fit place, and I :ivf its 
 own Harkgraf of Bramlenbure; this, a, A what 
 in the next nine centuries iJrandenljiiri; will 
 grow to, Henry is far from surmising. . la 
 . T. " *™ "*" °' "■* P'^mitive >IarkKraves 
 of Brandenburg, from Henry's time downward- 
 two wu, • Markgreves of tlio Witekiud nice ' 
 and of another: But tliey are altogetlicr uncer- 
 tain, a shadowy intermittent set of Miirkitravcs 
 both the Witckind set and Uie Non-Wireklnd- 
 and truly, for a couple of centuries, seem none 
 of them to have been other than subaltern Depu- 
 ties, belonging mostly to Lausitz or Salzweilel 
 of whom tlicrefore we can say nothing here but 
 must leave the Prst two hundred years iu tlicir 
 natural gray state,- perhaps sufflcicntly con- 
 ceivable bv the reader. ... The J)itnwrs,li. 
 Btade kindred, much shkia ta battle with tlie 
 Heathen, and otiierwisc beaten upon, died out, 
 about the year 1180 (earlier perliaps, pcriiaps 
 later, for all Is shadowy still) ; and were succeeiled 
 in the Salzwedel part of tlieir function liy a kin 
 dred called 'of Ascanlen and BaHcnslil<it ■ ; tlie 
 Ascanlcr or Anbalt Margraves; wiiose History 
 and that of Brandenburg, becomes liencefortli 
 articulate to us. . . . ThU Aacanien, iiapoily 
 has noting to do with Brute of Troy or the 
 pious .Sneas'a son j It Is simply tiie name of s 
 most ancient Castle (etymology unknown to me 
 rums still dimly traceable) on the uortli s1o|k' of 
 the Hartz Mountains; short way from Aschore- 
 lebcn,— the Castle and Town of Aschirsliben 
 arc, so to speak, a second edition of Awaniea 
 . . . The kindnd, called Grafs aud ultimately 
 Hcrzogs (Dukes) of 'Ascauien and Balleiistadt ■ 
 arc very famous In ol<l German llistorv, espe- 
 cially down from tliis date. Some r.tkiin that 
 they had intermittently been Markgnif* i.i 
 tlicir n'gi(ra, long before this; which U coin', iv- 
 able enougli; at all events It Is very plain they 
 (lid now atudn the Offl<.c in Salzwedel (BtraiL'ht- 
 way shlftinif It to B >, lenburg); and held it 
 
 I else that lay adjacent, 
 , coQspicuous maimer. 
 lasted for alxjut two- 
 Carlyle, Fre(krick thi 
 
 316 
 
 continuously, it and r. 
 for ccnluricH, in a •■' 
 In Brandeiiliurg tli 
 Imndred vciirs."— I 
 Grtal. Ilk. 5, cA, 8-L 
 
 A. D. iiaa-iisa.— The Electorate.- • He 
 tlicy cull •Albert the Ik'iir (Albr. Lht d.r lUr),' 
 first of the AsciUiieii Markgmves of Ilniiulen- 
 Imrg; — Unit wholly definite Markgraveof linio- 
 dcnburg that there is; once a very sliinlnij lii-ure 
 in tile wo/ld, tlioi.ijli now fallen dim ui..iigh 
 
 »?»' got tlie Xorthern part of what ii 
 
 still called S.ixtmy. ami kept it 1. Iii^i fiinily. 
 
 got the Bmndenlmrg Countries withal, grii the 
 ausitz: was tlie slifnin:.' Hgiire iind ffM man 
 of the North in his day. Tlic MarkgriMim of 
 Salzwedel (which sixm became of BrandenlMir/j) 
 he very naturally ac(|ulrcil(.V. D. 1143 oniirlier), 
 very iiaiunilly, tousideiiiig wiial S:ix..ji itad 
 other honours uud |>one«sioiis ho hail aln-adv :.'ot 
 hold of We can only siiy. It was tlie luckiest o( 
 events for Braudeuburg, aud the bcgiuuiug of ail 
 
BRANDENBURG. 11«»-115>. 
 
 BRANDSNBURQ, 1168-1417. 
 
 the better deaUnief it baa had. A conspicuoua 
 Country ever ■Incu in tlie world, and whicU growa 
 criT more so In our late times. ... Ho trans- 
 ferml the Harlignifilom to Brandenburg, proba- 
 bly as more central in Ills wide lands ; Salzwodel 
 is knccforth tbe led Markgrafdom or Harck, 
 and soon falls out of notice in the world. Salz- 
 wedcl is called henceforth ever lince the 'Old 
 Marck (Alte Harck, Altnurck)'; the Branden- 
 burg countries getting tbe name of ' New Marck. ' 
 . . . Under Albert the Markgrafdom had risen 
 to be an Electorate withal. The Markjgraf of 
 Brandenburg was now furthermore the KurfQrat 
 of Brandenourg; ofllcially 'Arch-treasurer of 
 the Holy Roman Empire '; and one of tbe Seven 
 who have a right (which became about this time 
 an exclusive one for those Seven) to choose, to 
 'klercn ' the Romish Kaiser; and who are there- 
 fore called ' Kur-Princes,' KurfQrste or Electors. 
 as the highest dignity except the Kaiser's own." 
 — T. Carlyle. Frederick the Oreat, bk. 8, eh. 4.— 
 See. also. Oeruany: A. D. 1135-1872. 
 
 A. D. 1168-1417.— Under the Ascaniui, the 
 Bavarian and the Lnxemburg line*i to the 
 first of the HoheiuoUem. — Allicrt the Bear was 
 ■ucceeiled in 1168 by his son Otho. "In 1170, 
 as it would appear, the name of Brandenburg 
 was substituted for that of North Mark, which 
 had ceased to describe more tiuin the original 
 nucleus of the colonv, now one of tlio several 
 districts into which it was divided. The city 
 and territ<>ry of Brandenburg were not probably 
 included in tbe Imperial grant, but were in- 
 herited from the Wendish prince. Pribislaw, 
 whom Allx'rt had converted to Christianity. . . . 
 Under Otho II., brother of the preceding, the 
 (auiily luliuritance was sori'ly mismanaged. The 
 Marjjnivc becoming involved in some quarrel 
 with the See of Magdeburg, the Archbiaiiop 
 pkicLiI him under the ban; and aa the price of 
 release Otho was required to ar nt the 
 Suieniinty of the prelate for the old'" d better 
 part of his dominions. His l)rotlii and suc- 
 ceawir. Albert II., was also unfortuuate in the 
 bcgiiuiiiig of his career; but recovered the favor 
 of the Emperor, and restored tbe prestige of his 
 house before hia death. . . . Very important 
 acquisitions were made during the reign of these 
 two princes The preoccupations of the King 
 uf Deumark gave them a secure foothold in 
 Pomeniuia. which the native nobility acknowl- 
 edged : the frontiers were pushed eastward to 
 the Oiler, where the New Mark was organized, 
 and tlie town of Frankfort was Iniil out; pur- 
 ciMiie put them in possession of the district of 
 Lcbus; and the bride of Otho III., a Bohemian 
 Iiritiees-i, brought him as her dowry an extensive 
 rigiun on the Upper Spree with severni thriving 
 Tillai;e9 — all tliis in spite of the division of 
 power and authority. . . . Otho III. died in 
 1J67. John one year laU-r; an<l a new partition 
 of tlie estate was made between tlicir several 
 fcins, the oldest. Otho IV., receiving, however, 
 liie title and prerogatives of head of the house." 
 Tiie last iiiiiriJtrave of the Ascauian line. Walde- 
 iiui. died in l:il9. •■ His cousin and only heir, 
 ll.iirv, WHS a minor, and survived him but u 
 .veur • Tiien •' a host of claimants nrose for the 
 wlinli' (if paru of ihe Mark. The estate! showed 
 M lii>i ii p.llaiit devotion to the wi<low. and in- 
 tnisiid liie reins of aviliority to her; but she 
 
 •■'!i-"d tlii* ttdelitv by hastily es|Miusing the 
 Uulie of Uiunswick, avd transferrlug iier righu 
 
 to him. The tnuiiaetloo wm not, howarer, 
 ratified by the esutes, and the Duke failed to 
 enforce it by arms. PomeranU throw off tbe 
 voke which it bad once unwiUhigly accepted; 
 Bohemia reclaimed the wedding portion of 
 Otho's bride; the Duke of LiegniU sought to re- 
 cover Lebus, although it had once been regularljr 
 sold; and in the general scramble tl:<> Church, 
 through its local repnaenUtivcs, fought witli all 
 the energy of mere worldly robbers. But in 
 tids crisis the Emperor forgot neither tlie duties 
 of his station nor the interests of his house. 
 Louis II. of Bavaria then wore the purple. By 
 feudal law a vacant fief reverted to its suzerain. 
 . . . It wrj not therefore contrary to law. nor did 
 it shock the moral sense of the age. when Louis 
 drew the Mark practically into bis own posses- 
 sion by conferring it nominally uimn his minor 
 son. . . . During the minority of fjouis the Mar- 
 grave, the province was admiuisteri'd liy Louis 
 the Emperor, and with some show of vigor." 
 But troubles so thickened about the Emperor, in 
 his contiict with tlie House of Austria, on the 
 one hand, and with the Pope on the other [see 
 Oer.hanv : A. D. 1314-13471. that he could not 
 continue the protection of his son. "The Mark 
 of Branilenburg was invaded by the King of 
 Polaud. and its Jtargravo " watched the devasta- 
 tion in helpless dismay." The people defended 
 themselves. "The young city of Frankfort was 
 the leader in tlic tJiniv but successful uprising. 
 The Poles were expelled; the citizens had for 
 the time saved the Mark. . . . The )Iargrave 
 Anally wearied even of tlie forms of authority, 
 and sold bis unhappy dominions to his two 
 brothers, another Louis and Otho. In the mean- 
 time his father bad died. The Electors— or five 
 of them — bad already deposed him and chosen 
 In his place Charles of Moravia, a prince of the 
 house of Luxemburg, aa bu successor. He lie- 
 came respectably and even "iredilably known in 
 history as Charles IV. ... / ''ough he failed 
 in tbe attempt to sulidue by ai.. Uie Margrave 
 of Brandenburg, who had naturally espoused 
 his father's cause, he was persistent and in- 
 genious in diplomatic schemes for overthrowing 
 the House of Bavaria aixi bringing the Mark 
 under his own eceptre. . . . From Uiuis he pro- 
 cured ... a treaty of succession, by which he 
 should acquire Brandenburg in case of tbe death 
 of that Margrave and his brother Otho without 
 heirs. His Intrigues were finally crowned with 
 complete success. Louis died suddenly in 1365. 
 Otho. thenceforth alone in the charge, vacillated 
 between weak submission to tlie Emperor's will, 
 and spurts of petulant but fc>-ble resistance; 
 until Charles put on end to the faroe bv Invading 
 the Mark, crushing the anny of tbe Margrave, 
 anil forcing him to an abject capitulation. In 
 1371, after a njiiiinal rule of half a century, and 
 for the price of a meagre annuity, the Bavarian 
 line transferred all its rights to the family of 
 0h.«rie8 IV. ' Ohnriea died in 1378. HU sou 
 Wenzcl, " for whum the Mark had been destined 
 in the plans of Charles, acquired, meanwhile, 
 the crown of Bolicinla, a richer prize, and 
 Braodeulmrg passed to the next son, Sigismond. 
 The cliauge was a disastrous one." Si);isnionii 
 
 Sawne<i the Miirk to his kinstn-iii, .Uilwt. of 
 loravia, and It fell Into great disonler. "Im- 
 perial alTnirs during tills |)crio<l were in scarcely 
 leas confusion. Wcnzel of Boiieiiiia liiid lieen 
 chusen em|icror, and then deposed for obvious 
 
 317 
 
BRANTENBCRO, 1108-1417. 
 
 unntnoii jpert, Count P»l»tine. had next 
 been elected. bj'iI lixl dUxl. Again the iioit wai 
 Tueunt. Mini SlfiMnnnd, Mill the ival Elector of 
 BrniiiJeabiinr. . lasuwl auccemfully from the 
 conlcsl. Hi. (:^' 1 fortune wa* due In a con- 
 »pieuou«degrci' ■ > the influence and the money 
 of Frwlrri.-. Htingnnc of Nuremlicrg r«ee 
 H011KNZ01.1.K ;^ I(HK OF Tire House ok); and 
 it is to ilie cr il.' ,1 Sigisinond that he did not 
 »d<l insrutiti.l to Ids oilier vices, but on his 
 election as era • rot hastened [1411] to malie his 
 
 BRAKDENBURO, 16«^lfl88. 
 
 patron stattba I 
 
 years later. In U,: 
 Tentvil with the »■ 
 M.irgravc ami l^i, 
 
 x-roj-of ttie -Mark." 81x 
 cderic was formally In- 
 igniy of the Hark, as 
 — H. Tuttle, Out. Of 
 ■>/ Frederick th» Oreat, 
 
 -n-c 
 
 .re. 
 ioh 
 
 •n integral part of 
 lUa, Bee Boobmia: 
 
 5.,u -Rii ng importance of the 
 
 lam- v.- .^.':quilition of the 
 
 I iug Invested with the 
 
 ^ Trederick of Nurem- 
 
 •' paje t'> the Vurem- 
 
 -i'.l' ':'■''■■ '-. y ■ . ince. 
 
 ■ •'■ ' us, he 
 
 . ■ ; from anarchy 
 
 .~ Sigianmnd he 
 
 '.ag the i-eign of 
 
 istically known 
 
 ''3). the strong 
 
 ! M nl)urg became 
 
 and onier. The 
 
 Pru—iit ti> t 
 eh. landi. 
 
 A. D. nr; 
 
 the Kinpio"- 
 A. D. !3.r! 
 
 A. D. I i ••/- ; 
 Hohensolltrii 
 Duchjr of P'u«sif - 
 Electorate of Ur • i m: , 
 berg sold tl.. . '-■ ..f n 
 bergers anr .^c : >'■< ,i I : ■ 
 "Temiierat. , inst ani, Jjim ; 
 succeeded . i ducir.;^ ariii ) l 
 to order. ',r mi'- jn leiKtv 
 had beguii ih ■ in-',.. 
 his son and s^ i-aaor, > ii 1 -.. 
 as Frederick 1 -nteeth i 14 ' 
 nand was not ', ixeil; a 1 i . 
 tbenceforwari) lamntl i,, \-.\i „.„, „rucr. me 
 Electorate, wli;ch during tiic ji.M edin;} century 
 had been ciirtailvd by losses in war and by sales 
 began again to .'iilarge its borders The New 
 March, whicii liiid been sold in the davs of Sigii- 
 mund to the Ti-iitonic Knights, was now [14551 
 bought back fmin them in their need. . . . 
 Albert Achilles, the brother and successor of 
 Frederick II., was a luan as powerful and as 
 able lu his pn-dcci-swr. By his accession the 
 
 Cu-ipiUlties of Baireuth and Anspach, which 
 been separated from the Electorate for the 
 TOuuKersous .f Fn-derick I., were ri'united to 
 it; and by a sclieme of criws remaijiders new 
 plans were laid fnr the acquisition of territory 
 ... It W.1S already unilerstood that the Elector- 
 ate was to desceml according to the law of 
 primogeniture; but Auspiich ami Baireuth were 
 still reserved as appanages for younger sons- 
 and upon tlie dratli of AIUti Achilles, in U84 
 Ins territories were again diviiled, and remained 
 so for more than a hundreii years. Tlie result 
 of tlie ilivision. however, was to multiply and 
 not to weaken tlie strength of tlie Hou.su. The 
 earlier years of the 16th century saw the Hohen- 
 zoik-ms rising everywhere to power Albert 
 Acliilk's liad been succeeded [t4«6) by John of 
 whom littl*- is known except his eloquence, and 
 bv .Joachim [Ul»9], who was preparing to bear 
 his part against the lieforraation. A brother of 
 Joachim had become, in 1514, Elector of Mentz- 
 auil the double vot.,- of the family at the election 
 of diaries V. ha<l increased their importance 
 The younger branch was rising also U, eminence 
 (Jfoige of Brandenburg. Margrave of Anspach 
 and grHiklsou of Albert Achilles, was able iii 
 1TJ4 to purcliase the Duchy of Jain.mdorf In 
 Sllesm. awl with it tiie reversions to the prind- 
 iwlilies of OpiK-hi and lUtibor, which evontuailr 
 fell to hha His youuger brother, Albert, had 
 
 been cnoaen in 1511 Qrand MaMer of the Ttu 
 
 tonic Order, and was already converting 1,1, 
 o.'Hce into the hereditary Dukedom of Prussia ■• 
 woicu it became in 1535 (see Poland- v n 
 l*«-l-^73). •• The Elector Jo«;liim I. of 7in,n 
 denburg U perhain the least prominent, but wm 
 not the W prudent, of hb family. Thr»u«li- 
 out hU life he adheiud to the old faith, and nre 
 served his dominions in trauquililv His wn 
 and succeaM>r, Joachim II , to the' joy of his 
 people, adopted the new religion ri,'i;i91 ami 
 found in the secularized bishoprics of BrVndeo 
 burg Havelburg, and Lebua, some compensation 
 for the eccleshutical Electorate which « i., about 
 to pMS, upon the death of Albeit of .Mentz 
 from hU family. But he atao was able to .vcim. 
 the continuance of peace. Distrustful of the 
 •uccesi of the League of Smalkald he refMs-d to 
 Join In it, and became chiefly known as a media. 
 tor in the struggles of tiie time. The EI«t.,r» 
 
 [l.W(Ma08] follo»-l the same poli< v of [i^acc 
 . . . Peace and luwrnal progrus.- hail (imrac- 
 terized the IBth century, war .ml external 
 ftcquisltlons were to mark the 17th. The failure 
 of the younger line in 1603 caused liivreutii 
 Anspach, and Jaiferndorf to fall to the 'Elisior 
 Jo*-him Frederitii. ; but as they were re j'Rinie.l 
 almost at once to younger sons, and uevir ui;,lu 
 reverted to the Electorate, their ae(iuiMti„u 
 became of little imiKirtauce. Tin- Mar -nvu 
 George Frederick, however, had heltl, in siliiiiion 
 to his own territoiiea, the olHce of mimiiiistraior 
 for Albert Fre<lerick, second Duke of I'nis,sia 
 who had become imbecile; and, by his ilialli 
 the Elector of Brandenburg became next of liin 
 and claimed to succeed to the olBce, Tlic sui 
 mission of this claim pliiced the Electors in 
 virtual possession of the Duchy. By a th-i-.l of 
 co-iufeofl'inent, wiiieii Joachim II. had obtaiiie,! 
 in loAH from his father-in-law the Kins,' of I'liUm' 
 tliey were heirs to the Duchy u|ion fuiiiire 
 "I '''0 younK'-r line, . . . Duke AlUrt .i;..lin 
 1618; and Brandenliurif and 1'rus.sia weri ;lien 
 united under the EU-eior John Sigismiin i It 
 was well that the Doi-liy had b-en secunsl Ik-- 
 fore the storm which was already gatlieriiii,' ov -r 
 the Empire had burst. . . . ihmas, the Icmi; 
 
 struggle of the Thirty Years' W.ir. liie liistory 
 
 of Brandenburg is tliat of a sullenr niihir tliau 
 
 an acuir. . . . Gi-orge William, wlm ilu.l in 
 1840, bequeathed a desert to his suci-essor Ttuit 
 
 successor was Frederiek William, to Ik- kiimn 
 
 in hUtory as the Great Elector, "—t'. !•" ,I.jiiu 
 
 stone, llulorim A'mtr.ictn. ch. 5. 
 
 .\L80 in: T. Carlyle, IlUt. of Fr„i k the 
 
 Or, 'It. bk. S(c. 1(. 
 A. D. 1609.— The JUlich-CleTe contest See 
 
 Okkiianv: a. I) IdOS-luis 
 A. D. 1637.— Occupied by Wsllenstein and 
 
 the Imperial army, aee (it..u>n.Nv hi,',- ;i.j;) 
 A. D. 1630-1631.— Compulsory allia.icf of 
 
 the Elector with Guitavus Adoli)::»s of 
 
 Sweden, tiee Uuuma.ny : .v 1). l«:lo-iii,ii i,.,,! 
 
 1631. 
 A. D. 163a.— Refusal to enter the Union of 
 
 Heilbronn. See GKiim.\v. .V li lii.i.' |i..tl 
 A. D. 1634. -Desertion of the Prote; -it 
 
 »"»«•— Alliance with the Emperor, ^e. 
 
 JiASYt A !> !(!.{+- !!'.:M1 
 
 A.D. 1640-1688. -The Great Elector.-His 
 deTelopment of the strena^th a', the Electorate. 
 — Hia Miccettfui wars.— His acquisition of the 
 
 318 
 
BRAKTiENBUBO, 1«40-1688 
 
 CMBPlH* foverticaty of Pnu«i«.— PtbffetUia. 
 
 — "rVoderic Wtlltom, koown la hiatory u the 
 Orait Elector, wu only twenty yon uld whco 
 he iiicceeded hli fatter. He fouail everytlilng 
 In diaonder: b<» country d>>aoUte, hit fortrmci 
 i;iiiTi>nn<Hl by troops undei a tnlemn order to 
 obcycnly the nianil>ic((4 the Emperor, hUarmy 
 to be counted almoeton the flngera. Hit flnt 
 CUV WW to conclude a tnioe with the Swedei; 
 bis aecond to Kcure hU western borders by an 
 tllisDce with Holland ; his third — not in order 
 of sitioD, for in that respect it took first place — 
 to ralM the nucleus of an army ; his fourth, to 
 cauM the eTacuation of his fortresses. ... To 
 uilar tlic wrath of the Emperor, be temporised 
 uutil bis armed force had attained the number of 
 8,000. That force once under arms, he Ixtldly as- 
 Kfted h<8 position, and with so much effect that 
 in the discusRions preceding the Peace of West- 
 phalia he could exercise a considerable Influenoe. 
 By the terms of that treaty, the part of PomeranU 
 known as llinter Pommem, the principalities of 
 Magdeburg and Haloemtitdt, and the bishoprics 
 of Minden and Kammln were cedrd to BraiMlen- 
 hur(. . . . The Peace once signed, Frederic 
 William set dillKi'ntly to work to heal the dis- 
 ordtn and to repair the mischief which the long 
 WHr had caused in his dominions. . . He specf 
 tlly cherished his prmy. We have SPf^ its small 
 U-'ginning In i64(M3. Fiftn'n year< later, in 
 16.1.5. r seven ycam after the conclusmn of the 
 Peace ' Westphalia, it amounted to ftVOOOmen, 
 well 'trilled and well diacipli'u'd, dispn^ng of 
 wvcniy I -vo pieces of cannon. In the ; les In 
 which lie lived he had nee<t of such an -rmy. 
 In 18.V(. Christina, 'he waywanl and ..'Ifted 
 Liughti ' nf Oiutavus \dclphu4. had abdicated. 
 Her sui -asor on the throne of Sweden was her 
 couuD. ibarlcs OustAvus. Duke of ZweibrQcken. 
 . . . The right of Charles Oustavus to the suc- 
 ceisioD » a. however, contested by John Casimir, 
 Kill) >f i land . . . War ensued. Inthatwar 
 tlie Klar of Charles Oustavus was in the asrpnd- 
 aut, and the unfortunate John Casimir was forced 
 to shandiin his own dominions and to flee into 
 SiWa The vicinity of the two riv-ils to bis own 
 outlyin;^ territories was, however, too netr not to 
 render an xi<. us Frederic William of Brandenburg. 
 Toprotect Prussia, tlien held 'ntlef from the King 
 "t Poland, he marched with 8,000 men to its bor- 
 ders But even with such a force h'- was unable, 
 or p<Tliiip8. more correcily, he va^ prudently 
 unwilliiie. to resist tlioimiiatance put upon him 
 at Knmifsberg by the victorious Kmg of Sweden 
 (KLVIi i4i transfer to him ilie feudal ovorlordahip 
 of that pfovince. Great results follo»'l from 
 this (ompliance. Hanlly had liic tre,iy been 
 (iened. when John Casimir >tumingfromSileal« 
 with an Imperial army ii: his hvk. drove the 
 Swi'l-s from Poland, and reoovcK^I his domin- 
 iont He did i«)t evidently inttnil to stop there. 
 Tbin it was that the opi>ortiinitv arrived to the 
 On-M Elector. Earnestly w.licitfKl liy the King 
 of Swpil.n to aid him In a oootcst wli'ieh had as- 
 sumed liimensions so formidable, IVnleric ftil- 
 liam c(.a*-.ii'-d. hut ool u the coixiition tluu 
 besihould ret-svetht Polish palatinates (Woiwod 
 *aften) of Pmm utd Kaliscli as the price of 
 '-"-■~~~~ -— --jslgn. He ihr^ ioinrd the S:: 
 with hisani metlhrencnivat Warww.fouuh. 
 with him ( h«« to ihM .ity a great h«t(te, wbioh 
 la*nl liin^ ,iay« («l^h to SOth July ]«M), anl 
 wucb tt'rmiaated tlk-o, thanks mainly to -im 
 
 BRAXDKNBURG. lMO-ia(l& 
 
 pertlnarity of the Braadenburgen — in the com- 
 plete defeat of the Poles. The victory gaineiL 
 Fretleric William withdrew his tiu>p& . . . 
 Again did Joan Casimir rccorer from his defeat; 
 again, aided by Uie ImperUllita, did be muih 
 to the front, reoccupy Warsaw, and take up a 
 threatening pnaition oppodto to the Swedish 
 camp. The King of Sweden beheld in this actfcw 
 on the part of his enemy the prelude to his own 
 certain deatructlon, unless l>y any means be cnukd 
 induce the Elector of Brandenburg once more to 
 save him. He sent, then, urgent meaaengen 
 after htm to beg him to return. The rocssengcni 
 found Frederic WUlUm at Labian. There the 
 EI<<ctor halted and there, joined the next day, 
 SOua November KM, by King Cliiirlcs OuaUvua, 
 he signed a treaty, by whiiii. on condition of hit 
 material aid in the war, tiie latter rcnouna'd hia 
 feudal orerlordship over Prussia, and agreed to 
 acknowledge the Elector and his male descenJ- 
 ants as sovereign dukes of that province. In the 
 war which followed, the enemies of Sweden and 
 Brandenburg muluulled on every side. The 
 Danes and Lithuanians espoused 'he cause of 
 John Casimir. Its 'isue seemed to i rederic Wil- 
 liam inore than doubtful. Hs asked himself, 
 then, whether — tiie newer -mieswhohail arisen 
 being the enemies of Sweden and not of himself 
 — he bad not more to gain by sharing In the 
 victories of tiie Poles than in the i efeato, of the 
 Swedes. Iteplying to h nwl' alUrmatively, he 
 concluded, afllh (Septcnlur 1657, through the In- 
 terint-Uiation of the Emp.r.ir. with the Pi>l<«. at 
 W"hlau, a treaty wbereli .e duke<loni of Pr's- 
 aia was ceded In absoluu- sovereignty to liio 
 £le< !»i of Brandenburg and his male hsue. with 
 reverse >n to PoUnd in case of tliv exllnition of 
 the family of the PraoconUu Hohenzolb 'iw in 
 return. Frederic WIDUm engaged himself t «ip. 
 port the Poles in their war a.Tiinst Hvedcr «ith 
 a corps of 4.000 n'en. But before this c en- 
 tlon could be aited upon, fortune had iilu 
 smiled upon Charles Guatavus. Tuminir . tlie 
 height of winter agfinst the Danes, tin King of 
 Sweden liad defeated them in tlic open Oehl. ptir- 
 sued them across the tnizen wiLivnof tlie BcH ■■> 
 FQnen an ' Heelaiid, ai hiul iiii|«>Hc<! upon tin ir 
 king the huiiiiliatiiit' -.oeot Kooskilde (lest^t 
 He seemed iuriined < eed still further in i! 
 
 dest-'iction of the anra- ival of his couiilij, 
 whri acom'inid amiv ■: Poles and Bmndvn- 
 
 burgers sui tily poiire<I 
 burg into H istidn. drove 
 and gave tin '< no rest till 
 likewise Schi ^wig nnd Ji 
 battle which i««»k a-e sh 
 the IsUnd of F, n,t, t Ny b 
 fercd a defeat. T!i:a defeat 
 tavusdespni 
 > treat fi" 
 
 'Ugh Mcckk-n- 
 
 e the Swedes, 
 
 luui evacuated 
 
 ! (IMQ). In a 
 
 afterwards fin 
 
 the Sweiles suf- 
 
 uie Churh'S Ous- 
 
 >i'.«ea8, and he liail alnixly liei^un 
 
 when I -ath sua) (lied him from 
 
 MY leeO) The nei- ! iaiions which 
 ■»< -•••r, continued, ainl flnully iK'nce 
 '.! the 1st May 1980, In lite mononiiTy 
 «e to Danzig. This peace (-ontiniKtl 
 rof rtrHmlenburghisBoverelKnriglits 
 luehy if IVussia. Fr>m this epoch 
 coinplele union of Brandenliurg uiid 
 PritNsta — a union upon which a great iiiun was 
 abic u. '^iiiic fuumlAliou ui a iiuwerrui North 
 Qenna Kliittdom!" During the mxt dozen 
 Ttaf -im <r"iMt Elector was chiefly lnitiie<l in es- 
 :at>i> :iiiig biK auilHirity in his doniiiiion.t and 
 cnrfamg the power of tnc nobles, puriii/.irly iu 
 
 \iH' 
 
 sceue 
 
 ha.: 
 
 bcgu 
 
 wa- 
 
 sIgD' 
 
 of 
 
 Mva 
 
 to 
 
 KU 
 
 ov. 
 
 th. 
 
 dsi 
 
 li 
 
 sm 
 
r • 
 
 BRANDENBURG, 1M&-1688. 
 
 PnutI*. In I«74. when touii XIV. of France 
 provoked war with the Oennan prince* by hii 
 attack on the Dutch, Frederic William \vd 20,000 
 men Into Aliace to Join the Imperial forces. 
 Louia then called upon hia allies, the Swedes, to 
 hivade Brandenburi, which they did, under Gen- 
 et^ Wrangel, in Januaty, 1875. "Plundering 
 ud burning aa they advancetl, they entered 
 HaTelUnd, the granary of Berlin, uud carried 
 their devastations up to the very (futcs of that 
 capital. " The Elector was retrettlin!.' from Alsace 
 befora Turenne when he heard of tlie Invasion. 
 He paused for some weeks, to put bis army in 
 good condition, and then he hurried northwards, 
 by forced marchea. The enemy was taken by 
 surprise, and attacked while attempting to re- 
 treat, near Fehrbcllin, on the 18th of June. After 
 two hours of a tremendous hand-U)-hand conllict, 
 "the right wing of the Swedes was crushed and 
 broken ; the centre and left wing were in full re- 
 treat U>wards Fehrbellin. The viiU.rs, utterly 
 exhauste<l — they had scarcely quitted their tjul 
 dies for eleven days— were too worn out to pur- 
 sue. It was not till the following niomiuK that, 
 refreshed and recovered, thev billowed the re- 
 treating foe to the borders of .Merklenburg. . . 
 The Ureat Klector proniptlv follnwed up hia vic- 
 tory till he hnd cumpelled tne Swedes to evacuate 
 all I'omeninia. Three years Inter, when they 
 once more rroased the bonier from Livouia, he 
 torcfl them again to retreat; and although in the 
 treaty signc<l at St. Uermaln in I6*l» he waa 
 forc«Hl to nnciuiiee his I'omeraulun conquests, he 
 did not the leas extablish the ultimate right of 
 the SUte of which he was the n»l founder to 
 thow landH on llie Baltic for which he had so 
 hanllv struKRlinl at the negotiations wbieh pre- 
 ceded the Peace of Westphaliu. Whin he dleil 
 (Ihh .Mav 1«W) he left the Klnp.lom ainady niatle 
 In a luwlllun of priMperily ■ullliieut to justify his 
 son nnil Huricssor In aaiiunilng, thirtein viars 
 laliT, on till- anniveraary of the vlclnrv of tVlir- 
 belliii, the till,, of King."-(). B. .Malliwm. Uo 
 Balltr h\MM„f llfrnMiiii.fk. H — S.i-. «!«> S«aii- 
 DlN.*vi\N St»tk.s(,Swki.M): A. I) l«44-i««r 
 
 A. D. 1648. -The Pmc* of Westphalia.— 
 Loss of part of Pomcrania.— Compcnsatiar 
 ■cauisitions. Sir Ukkm.i.ny: A. I). HUH 
 . *■ O- •*Z»-«*7»--ln th« Coalition arainst 
 
 Louis XIV. !»«• XltTnKIII.ANIIl. (lli.I.l.AM.) 
 A l» IflTJ l(IT4, and I874-187H, alwiXiJiKiiiKM 
 
 A. D. i68y-i«96.-The war of the Grand 
 Alliance against Louia XIV. Si- Kua.mk 
 A. I> HWK l«H«i. t(i 18V.VI8IM. 
 
 A. D. 1647. -Tbo Traaty of Ryawick.- 
 Rtatitutiona by Fraac*. See Fha.nik A. I>. 
 
 A. D. i7oa.-Tha RIactor mad* Kior of 
 Prussia. Si. I'hib*ia : A. I». I7uu 
 
 BRANDY STAtTonT OR FLEBT- 
 WOOD. Battle of. Si. Imrmi Htatks or 
 
 A* .\ It l'««Wl.ll„IC V BOIMIA) 
 
 BRANDVWINE, Baltit of U* (A. D 
 1777'. S.<> t NiitiiSTATMur Am. : A I» 1777 
 (Jam miv I>ki>mu»:h) 
 
 BRANKIRKA, Baltit of (1(11). SeiH^A-*. 
 DiN.Mts .M tt»« \ |l |iiti;.iKg7 
 
 ..BRANT, CHIEF. and iha Indian wartert of 
 lbs Amtrican RcTolution. tiit- I'NrrKii Statks 
 or A« A U 1T7B .Jiaa-NovMUM), and 
 
 iJuLV). 
 
 i 4 
 |3 
 
 BRAZIL, ISIO-IMI. 
 
 BRASIDAS IN [CHALKIDIKE. 8«a 
 
 OllKBCB: B. C. 4M-4S1. 
 
 BRAZIL: OrMn of the lUUB*.—" As the moat 
 valuable part of the cargo which Americus Vcl. 
 Ductus carried back to Europ3 was the well 
 known dve-wood, 'Ceaalpina BraziMinsis '_ 
 called In the Portuguese hinguage ' pau brazil ' 
 on account of ita resemblance to • bm/.ns,' • .mi 
 of Are,'— the land whence it .-ame was icrmid the 
 • land of the bnuil-wood '; and Bnally this appel- 
 latlon was shortened to Brazil, anil cimii.llicly 
 uaurped the names Vera Cruz, or Sunla Crui: ■'_ 
 J^\ Fletcher and D. P. Kidder, /lr.,:,t „,„) (A, 
 Bmttliaiu, eh. 8. — See, alao, Ameriia: .\. D 
 1800-1514. 
 
 The aboricinal inhabitanta. See AnKiiicAii 
 Aboriulnes: Tin,— OUARA.M.— Tii-ivx> ^, 
 GtJCTt or Coco OnutT. 
 
 A. D. i500-lS04.-DiscOTef7, exploration of 
 the coast and Brat aettlemeot. S.-.' A m i uica 
 A. D. 1496-1500, l.VW-ISU. and l.-,0;H.To| 
 
 A. D. 1510-1661,— Portugucae colonization 
 ■ad acriculture.— Introdnction of Slavc-v — 
 The cominf of the Jeauits.-Cor.cues'.s of 
 the Dutch, and the Portuguese recovery of 
 them. — "Umzil, on which tlir I'liriuu'in s,. ^iiip, 
 had been cast by accident, Imil Uiii f .mi 1 to 
 unite In Itw'lf the capniiilities of i-v.rv |:irl(i( 
 the world in which Eiimiwun Imv.' s, lUwl 
 though happily gold and silv.r hnd 11. .1 v. t Iwii 
 discovered, sml the colonists b«l.«.k ilu'invlvu 
 from the Unit to agriculture. The llr^t i.. mis 
 nent aettlemenU on this coast «iri' rn ilc by 
 Jews, exlhil by the perserutiou of ih,. |:„|:ii,i. 
 tion; and the govenimiiit siippli im nii <l ilirsc 
 by sending out criminals of nil ki:i.K Hut 
 gradually the conseiiu.ii.i' of IJri/il Unimc 
 recognized, and, as afterwnnis hN|>|H iir.l I:; N.-w 
 Enilan.!, the nobility at fannie a.'.kiii In sh inlhr 
 land among themselves. Eiiiniuiiiii I «. ,il I mit 
 countenance such a claim, but IIiIh lii.iI irinw 
 died In IXil, and his su.ii'ssi.r. J Im III n 
 tended to Brazil the same sysli in » liii li h „i \ma 
 ailopteil in Mnileira ami the A/<>ns. 1 1„ «||„|,. 
 sea-coast of Brazil was panTll.il mil \\ f, u,lal 
 panta. It waadivideil Inlo rniiiulm ii ^'. ,. h ,W 
 leaRues hi length, with no liniils in ih. ,; :, rior. 
 and these were granhil out us iii,il, 1.'. witli 
 absolute power over the iialiMs, >,i, U ... ;.: ilmi 
 time exishil over the serfn wlin till, , I ih, - ij In 
 Euro|ie. But the native BrHiillniis », n n, lUirr 
 ■oeasy aconqui-st asthePinivli is, n. r».i:uilv 
 inilueeil to InlHiur; and the I'lirtu 11, -, : » U- 
 gnn to brini; mxros frum iln iluii;, ,1 ,.«»t. 
 This tralTtc in huiiinn tii-sh hwl h _■ Ik. n ujiir 
 ously puniued in vnrious iwris i.f llMri* ,"thf 
 Portuguese now intriMlu.iil it to Ann ru 1 Tlif 
 selllers of Hrazil «ire, pni|irrly »|.<»kiiit', the 
 first Kuni|>ean lolimisU, For llii v o.M ihi irown 
 iMMseaniiins st home, and liMuirlil tli.ir hnuw 
 holds wllh Ihini to the new cnuiilrv riiinlbry 
 Krwlunlly forni.il Hi.' henrt of a ih-h n^iikia 
 when-as the ililif Spaninnts »l«,i\, Munml 
 home after a eirlaln tenure of iliilr' .Hli. ir sad 
 those who reiimiiiiil In the colony ileni. intid to 
 tlie rank of the r«ni|iirnit nsllVi < .Miiir of 
 tlioae wh.i eniiie lo Kraril Iwd alrimh s. ri.il la 
 the expeiiiiioiM to Hie l-jisl, •ml Ih.'- nnurslly 
 [lerceiveii that ilw roast of Ameriia ii.ii-hl rslsr 
 the pmlueilmm of India ll.iice Ilni/il .srlr 
 N««ime a RlaElatluo •.■■.A-.a-.v zvM !:= ;-..-; .ii.riir U 
 very much due Ui the nilluri' of llii' »iiit«r i-aar 
 Tbe Hortuguess were greatly aasiihnl. IkiUi is 
 
 820 
 
BRAZIL, 15I»-1MI. 
 
 the Eut ibA the Weet, hy the eflotta of the 
 newlT founded order of the Jeeuiti. . . . John 
 III. (n [1649] KDt out liz of the order with the 
 fint goTemor of BrmzU. . . . The Dutch, made 
 bold oy tbeir giemt tucoeiee* in the Eut, now 
 ■ought to win the trade of Brazil by force of 
 irmi, ud the lUCCCMof the Eut India Company 
 rnrciurafed the idveaturen who iubicribea the 
 funds for that of the Weit Indiea, incorporated in 
 1821. The Dutch Admiral, Jacob Willekena, luc- 
 ressfully aaaulted San Salrador [Bahia] In 1634, 
 iiiil ibouKb the capital wsa ofterwardi rvtakro by 
 tiie Intrepid Archbishop Texeira, one half of tbe 
 coant of Braiil lubmitted to the Dutch. Here, 
 i> in the Eaat, the profit of the company was the 
 whole aim of the Dutch, and the spirit In which 
 they eiecuted their design was a main cause of 
 Its failure. . . . But ... tbe profits of the 
 company . . . roee at one time to cent per cent. 
 Tbe visions of the speculaton of Amstenlam be- 
 came greater; and they resolved to become 
 masten of all Bratll. . . . The man whom they 
 despatched [1687] to execute this design was 
 Prince John Maurice of Nassau. ... In a short 
 time he hnd greatly extended tbe Dutch posKS- 
 ■ions. But the Stadhouder was subject, not to 
 tlic wise and learned men who sat In the States- 
 Gt'neral, but t<> the merchants who composed the 
 rourtsof the nimpany . Tbvy thought of nothing 
 but tbi'ir diviilt-nds ; tbey considered that Maurice 
 kept up nuire tninps and built more furtreasea 
 Ihun wfre necessary furs mercantile community, 
 and that he lived In too princely a fasliion fur 
 one in tbeir service. Perhaps tbey suspccled him 
 ofsn intention of slipping into thut n>yiil dig- 
 nity which tbe feudal frame of nnziliati society 
 ■ei .1(1 t«i offer bim. At any rat*, in 1848, tbey 
 forced bIm to resiva. A recent revolution had 
 tenninated the sut i ctiun of Portugal to 8pttin, 
 sn<l llie new king cf Portugal nmcludefl a truce 
 for t«u years with ilolUnd. War w.ns therefore 
 •upiuMi'd to lie out of tbe question. Hut tbe 
 
 nrall of .Maurii-f was the signal for iin imliiK'nd- 
 ent revolt in Brazil. Though tbe motlier ciiun- 
 trii-> were at |>eacc, war broke out between tbe 
 Dutrh and the Portuguese of Braxll In 164-'S. 
 The Ji'suits bad long preacbcd a crusade against 
 the bcntic Duti'h. . . . John Kenlinand de 
 VIcvra, a wcsltby men-hiint of Pemamburo, le<l 
 s |ti tiernl uprihlng uf tbe itraxillans, and although 
 till- Dutcli msiie a stubUirn resisumw, Ihey re- 
 r<ivii| no aHiistance from borne , tbey were ilriven 
 fr'ni one post after another, until, in 18.M. tlie 
 liut of tlie mmpuny's servanU iiuittml Hnuii 
 Tlie Dutth lierlanil war a^rainst I'ortugal; but 
 hi IDitl |>ea«* was inaile. anil the Dutch sold tbiir 
 cUiiiu for S.OOt.OOO florins, the right of trading 
 being secured to them. But after tlie eipuUioii 
 of the Dutch, tltr trade of Brazil came more ami 
 more into the bands of tbe Knglish '— E. J 
 I'srne, /At*, r/ Kui->i<nin a*'«i«». M. 3-3. 
 
 Aiao iH: rt. 0. Wat*.n, f^piniih nnd /».r<B. 
 fMsi SnlkAm€ritn. » l.rA. »<tn<i 1(1,- e. 9. e*. 
 1-4.-11 Boutbey. IIMM UmH. r. 1-4 
 
 A. D. 1524.— Conceded to Portnnl. See 
 Amkkica: A l> I.1lt>-l.t34. 
 
 A. D. ISJ1.1641.— The Republic of St. Panl. 
 -The Paulistas or Mameluke*.- The cele 
 brated republic of St Paul, as it Is usually 
 oenominalAl. h^d It! fi"e aLhh.!! tl^e vear !SS!. 
 'nim a very Inconsiderable beginning. A mariner 
 of the name of Hamalhn. having been ship 
 wrecked oa this part of the coast, wm rcMlTcd 
 SI 
 
 a: 
 
 pidly. 
 'ng • 
 
 BRAZIL, lSSl-1641. 
 
 •monc a naU Indian tiiba oaUed tbe Pbatinlnn, 
 after the name of their chief. Hera he waa 
 found by De Sousa some years aft -wards, and, 
 contrary to the esubllahed policy .^nnitting 
 no settlement excepting Immediately on the sea- 
 coast, he allowed this man to remain, on account 
 of his having intermarried and having a family. 
 The advanUge* of this establishment were such, 
 that permiidon waa soon after given to others to 
 settle bera, and aa the adventiirera intermarried 
 with the nati vea, their numben Increased rai 
 ... A mixed race was formed, poesese^ng _ 
 compound of civilized and uncivilized mannen 
 and custooa. The Jetulte soon after establislied 
 themselves with a number of Indians they had 
 reclaimed, and exerted a salutary influence in 
 softening and harmonizing the growing colony. 
 In 1S81, the seat of government waa removed 
 from St Vincent on the coast to St. Pauls; but 
 Its subjection to Portugal was little mora than 
 nominal . . . The mixture produced an im- 
 proved race, 'the European spirit of enterprise,' 
 says Boutbey, 'developed itself in constitutions 
 atlapted to the coimtry.' But it la much more 
 likely that the fne and popular government 
 which tbey enjoyed produced the same fruit* 
 here as in every other country. . . . They soon 
 Quarreled with the Jesuiu [IMl], on acootmt of 
 the Indiana whom they had reduced to slavery. 
 The JesulU declaimed against the practice; but 
 as there were now many wealthy families among 
 the I>aullstaa, the greater part of whose fortune* 
 consisted In their Indians, it was not heard with 
 patience. The Paulistas first engaged In war 
 against the enemies of their allies, and afterward* 
 on their own account, on finding It advantageous. 
 Tbey "stebllahed a regular trade with the other 
 provinces whom they supplied with Indian 
 slaves. Thev by this time acquired tlie nuine of 
 Mamelukes, from the peculiar military discipline 
 tbey adopted, tiearing some r«-semlilance to the 
 Mamelukes of Egypt The revolution in Portu- 
 gal, when Philip II. rf Spain placed bimsilf on 
 lu throne.cast the Pau I istas In a stete uf independ- 
 ence, a* they wera the only settler* In Bmiil 
 which did not acknowlettge the new dvtuisty. 
 Prom thcyear 1S8U until tbe nildiile of the 'follow- 
 ing century, they may be regtinleil as a npiililic, 
 and It was during this p«'ri.Kl tbey displavi-d that 
 active and enterprising character for whleli tbey 
 were so much celebnte<l . . . While a HpuoUli 
 king <iocuple<l tbe throne of Poriugal, tbey 
 attacknl tbe Spanish sitllenients on the Para- 
 
 fruay, allegini; timt tlie ^puniards were encroaeh- 
 ng on their terrllorv. . . . Tbey attacked the 
 Jesuit missions 1I6JV]. ... .is tbey bad fixed 
 IlienwIvfseast of tbe Parana, the I>Bullstaa laid 
 bold of this as a pretext Tbey carrii'il away 
 upwanis ivf a.tKXl of tlieir Indians Into captivity, 
 I lie greater part of whom were sold and dls- 
 tributeil as slavea The Jesuiu complainetl to 
 tbe king of Hpain and t<> tbe p<ip«; tbe Inller 
 fulminated his excommunication The Paullnlii* 
 attacked the Jesuiu in tbeir college, and tii:t 
 tbeir prinri|>al to death, cx|K'lled the r<'msiii<ler, 
 and set up a religion of tbeir own, at least no 
 longer acknowle<lge<l thesupn-macyof tliei>o)iv. 
 Ineimspquence of '..,e Interruption of tbe .\rriean 
 Irn.le during the Dutch war, tbe demand for 
 
 !5:!!»n s'.s-.rj srM rs-rv n-.-.j.-h m.-r«i54aj Tiie 
 
 Paulistas ivibiubled tbe/rexertions, awl traversed 
 every part of the Braiils in armed iruopa. . . . 
 The fuuadatloii was laid of enmity to the Portu 
 
 ? 
 
 ii 
 
11 
 
 !i 
 
 f - i; 
 
 
 
 BRAZIL, isn-iait: 
 
 rxw. whleh oootlBaM to Ihia day, althouch • 
 pomplete ttop wu put to tlw intunoiu practice 
 
 In the )r«ar 17S6. 
 
 Wlwo the bouae of Bia- 
 
 gaoia. in 1640, awmided the throne, the PaulU- 
 tas. inatead of ackaowledcinc him. oooccived 
 the Idea of electing a king for UieinaelTea. Tbor 
 actually elected a diatinguiabed dtlien of Uie 
 name of Bueno, who peniated in refuaing to 
 accept, upon which thev were induced to ac- 
 kn.>wl«ige Joam IV. [1»41]. It waa not until 
 long afterwaida that they came under the Portu- 
 giute ^Temmeot."— U. M. Brackenildge, Yog- 
 
 eh. n 
 
 iSSS-'fto.— Attempted HocBeaet 
 A. D. ISftClMa, 
 
 agt to SautA Amniea, t. 1, ek. ». 
 
 ALao tM: a Boutfaey, JKK. of Braml, 
 <». 8). 
 
 ,^A. D. iS40->54>--O'«U«aa'8 veraga down 
 the Ama aon a. »ee AMaioHa Rivbr. 
 
 A. D. 
 calonj I 
 Flouda: a. _. .„ 
 
 A. D. i654-t777.— The Peitunca* policy of 
 •>clnaion and reatrlctioo.— BoBodarT dia- 
 patea with Spaifc— " The period of oeace which 
 followed tlieae rlctr-iea [oTer the Dutch] . . . 
 waa uaed by the Ponugueee government only to 
 get up a kind of old Japaneee ayalem of liolatlon, 
 by which It waa intended to keep the colony in 
 perpetual tutelage. In oonaequenoe of thia eren 
 ■pw, after the lanae of half a century aince It 
 *iolenUy aeparated itaelf, Biaiiliana genenUly 
 aatertain a bluer grudge agaiait the mother 
 ■ountry. All the trade Ir and fiom Braxil waa 
 angraaed by Portugal; f.rery functionary, down 
 to the laat cle.k, wan Por«ugueie. Any other 
 Curopean of adentiflc education waa looked at 
 with auapicioo! and particularly they aought to 
 
 Krevent by all meaoa the eiploratlon of the 
 iterlor, ai they feand not only that the erea of 
 the naUrea might be opened to their mode of 
 admlnlalrstioa, but abo that luch trarellera 
 might tide with the Spanbrda In their lung dis- 
 pute regarding the boundaries of the two 
 nationi, as the French aatmnomer. La Conda- 
 mine, had done. Thia queation, which arose 
 shortly after the diacorery, and was hushed up 
 only during the slmrt union of both crowns 
 (from l.Wl-llMO), bnike out with renewed rlifor 
 now and then, maugra i:m Treaty of Tordealirias 
 •? li** t"" AMBaiiA: A. I). U»4). ... By 
 the Treaty of tM<> Il.iefooso, ia 1777, both partira 
 having long felt how lmpraclfa»ble the old 
 arrangemenu were — at least, for their American 
 colonies — the buundariee were fixed upon the 
 principle of the utl poasidetla,' at any mte so 
 far as the imperfect knowledge of the hiterior 
 allowed -. but this effort alao proved to be rain 
 . The unsolved question descended aaan evii 
 heritage to their respective heirs, Braall and the 
 Boutb Aawricaa Hepublka. A few y<«n ago It 
 gave rise to the tefrilile war with Paimguav and 
 it wlU lead to fresh cunlllcta between Braxil and 
 the Argentine Republlr "— K. Keller 7'*« 
 Amattm and )f<KUnt Mmn, pp g3.g4 
 Also IK: R tJouthey, MMwy ^ BrtM, .. • 
 
 med. Bee (JniKaT. A. D. 17IS-t7t4. 
 
 jii;;.a;i»rf7r^-'*^^-»- ^ 
 
 A. O. lart-llM-SMMMS tb« 
 
 idlag _ _ „,. 
 
 .— ■• Whihi aoaKhy and ruin 
 
 — - ri7*itr— Tke hMdiM^Tu? !•■ 
 
 ImI iMira.-- Whlb aaaKly and ruin 
 
 'verawwJ W« gi«kWr part of tiii beauUtui 
 
 Of BmUi AMttea, Ike l«yif« Of Bm- 
 
 12'1 
 
 BRAZIL, 1808-180. 
 
 ^ won an independent enatanca without blond- 
 shed, and kept it with credit. The Dutch 
 oonqueat of Bnuil, and iu raoonquest by the 
 Port"*""*". •»• been mentioned In a former 
 chapter. The country long remained under the 
 cloeeandoppreaaivemonopiriy Impoaed upon it 
 by the PortugtMse: but in 1858 [l807]whcn N. 
 pblcM invadid Portugal, the regent wnbarkcd 
 [see Pobtooal: A. D. 1807], witC the royal in^ 
 signia, for Braxil. which at once assum^ the 
 dignity of an Integral part of the kingdom. The 
 porta were opened to the commerce of the world 
 the printing-preaa waa introduced; learning was 
 encouraged; tha enonnoua naources of the 
 country were explored: foreign aettlon were In 
 Tited to eatabliah themaelvea; emhaales were 
 aent to Konpean powers of tha fli - rank, sod 
 diptomatio agoito (eoelred. N/>w towns and 
 harboura were planned: new Ufa was breathed 
 into every department of tha atata; After a few 
 yeara. the atato of affaiis in Europe compelled 
 King Jobn VL to return to Europe, as the only 
 chtnoe of preserving the Integrity of the mon- 
 archy. The Cortea of Llabon Invited their sover- 
 eign to revisit his ancient capital, and deputies 
 from Braxil were aummoned to attend the sit- 
 Ungs of the National Assembly. But before the 
 deputies could arrive, the Cortea had rehired 
 tl>'~ Braxil should be agabi reduced to aUolute 
 dependent* on Portugal A resolution more 
 scnseieas or mora impiacticabie can haidly be 
 imagined. The territory of Braxil was s> farm 
 aa all Europe put U)«.ther; Portugal wu a 
 little kinplom. Isolated and without luflu.uce 
 among the monarchies of the Ol.l World v.t it 
 waa deliberetoiy decree<l Uut all the nioM.iix.jic. 
 or the exphxled oolonlal svsi. m should Iw re- 
 vived, and that Enghmd siiould bedeprin^lof 
 >er free tnde to baxlL The king apHuied 
 hta eMeat son, Dom Pedro. Regent of the new 
 kingdom, and soon after took lila departure fur 
 Usboo. with many of the emlfrrant nohiliiy 
 I>>m Pedro assumed the government undrr the 
 perplexing circumstances of an empty trcmurv 
 a heavy public debt, and the pruvincrs alm.«t lii 
 revolt. Bahia diaavowed hU authi>rity, and the 
 Cortea wlthheM their support fr.Mu liim. The 
 regent reduced his expenditure to the monthly 
 sum altowed to hia princess for pin nion.) . h^ 
 retired to a country house, ami olwin'Jl tUc 
 most rialii economy. By great exerilonn h.' n- 
 ducBl the public expenditure fnHn $.'W,ij(«m«ii) 
 to ll.t.UUO.UUO; but tlie uunh<-m au<l liu<m»l 
 piDvlncea still wlthlield tliilr t«sn, the «niiy 
 liecame mutinous, anil the niinistcn r.f hU 
 fatlwr. who still remalne<l in power, were ua 
 popular; the regent In despair deinaninl hi* 
 recall. But the Bntlllan* were at k-nitth dU 
 armed by his noble conduct; llwy ni-oKui/nl his 
 artlvtty. his benefloenoe, hU amiduliv In th« 
 affs s of government, and tlie iMtiituai fci lino 
 of I., jtlon and respect for the IIoum uf Brs 
 
 ria, which had for a moment b«n Islil v\nn 
 . diatruat, were reawakened with nix wwl 
 •tjength. It waa fortunate that the uii«ml» 
 which diatttrbad Braxil wrreaonMninu!«U'<< !• r»r« 
 the arrival of Intelligence from Portugal lUnlly 
 hail the king arrived in Lisbon wlien he f..uud 
 bimaelf obilged to aaeat to s ronstituiluo whh h 
 treated Ua BrBslUaa subjects as mere I'oluauu, 
 
 ItuiBllfaitinf to the Brexlllaaa The deslKu •>( 
 lieeiariag BruU aa ladapaadant kiBgdum. grew 
 
 =. I 
 
BRAZIL, 180e-18M. 
 
 BRAZIL, 1871-1888. 
 
 mon and mora In public farour; but the prinoe 
 wM uDwttUnK to place btmiclf in direct nbcllion 
 to the crown of Portunl, and ■taulily adhered to 
 hii determination to leave America. At length, 
 it ii related, a deipatch was delivered to the 
 regent, which he declined to ihow to any of hta 
 mmiaten, but which evidently excited in hit 
 Blind no ordinary emotion* of anger: he cnuhed 
 the paper in hia hand, and moved away to a 
 window, where he stood for a few momenta in 
 thought; at length he turned to bis council with 
 the words ' Independencia ou morte': — the ex- 
 clamation waa received with tumultuous cheers, 
 and wss adopted aa the watchword of the Bevo- 
 lutioa. The Portuguese troops wer« sent back 
 to Europe. The Cortea of Lisbon were now 
 anxious to recall their obnoxious decrees; to 
 sdmi' the deputies from Brazil; to make any 
 concession that might be demanded. But It waa 
 too late: the independence of Braxtl waa for- 
 mally procUlmed m August, 1833, and in De- 
 cember of the same year, Dnm Pedro was 
 crovned Emperor of BiBxil. This is tile first, 
 and a* yet the only inatanoe of a modem colony 
 achieving ita independence, and aeparating itself 
 completelv from ita metropolla without blood- 
 shed. "—Viscount Bury, £«Miiif tf 0» WmHtm 
 Xatimi, «, 3, cA. II. 
 
 Also IS: J. ArmiUge, Bitt. (tfBratO, e*. 1-7. 
 —See, also, Portvoal: A. D. 11130-1884. 
 
 A. D. iSas-i86s.— Wars with th« Arreo- 
 tiaes.— Abdication of Dom Pedro I.— Tb« 
 GuarradosCabaaoa.- " In 1838, chinHy through 
 tli« mediation of England, Braxil was acknowl- 
 edged as an indepeodent empire. But the inner 
 i-ummntions continued, and were not even sootheti 
 by s new Constitution, drawn up in 1838, and 
 sworn to bv the Kmperor in 1884. New revolu 
 in IVmambuco, and aiime of tlie otiier Northern 
 prorinm, and a war of three yeara with tlio 
 Argi'otine Kepubltc, which ended in 1823 by 
 Brazil giving up Banda Uriental, annexed only 
 eleven years before, disturbed and weakened the 
 Uml. The foreign soldiers, enlisted for this war, 
 and retained afl«r iu condusioa to keep down 
 If Opuaition. anti the extravagant private life 
 if ilie Empemr, who recklessly trampled down 
 tlie honour of respacUble famlliaa, provoked 
 dliMliifsctlon and murmurs, which rose to the 
 b\iiUi'»i pitch when be inaisi ' upon earrviiig on 
 a Hunt unjHipular war in Po. ugitl to derentTtiie 
 riKliU o( Ilia daughter. Dona jiaria da Gloria (in 
 whuM faviiur he had abdicated the Portuguese 
 Crown), against his biuthcr. Don Miguel [see 
 i'oKTiiiAL: A. n. ]884-t88»] In April, Iftll, 
 U'Mi Hniro I., so enthuaiaatically raised to the 
 Hmziliitn Uinme only nine yeare before, waa 
 fnnwl to abdicate It. deserted and betrayed by 
 evfry one, in behalf of hia younger son, Pwiro 
 1 lie next peritKi was the most disturbeil one tliHt 
 U.0 voung Empire hiid yet witnewwd Hhve 
 K;»<>lls at Bahia, a civil war In tlie >louth, which 
 alinwt n<tl it tlie pnivinceof Hioarawledu Hul. 
 ami tlie bloody rebellion known aa the Ouerra 
 iii« ( alunos. In I'ara and Amuim, fn>m 1883 to 
 l!w:, (i>llowe<i each other quickly. In tlila last 
 revolt, the Bratilians bad stirred up Uie Indians 
 anil mesUniea agaltiat tb« abhorrad Portuguess, 
 «iihout ixmsiderlng that they skouki not be 
 slile to gucDch tlia Are thev had UMOHalvaa 
 S.MM. in » ahm time, tke fury of M* wboU 
 Allured populaikw tunMd aniMt ail wUmh 
 imilltaaa aad PunuftMM iBka, wHkoui aajr 
 
 distinction. Mon than 10,000 persons are said 
 to have perished in this Guerre dos Cabanos; 
 and, to tlie preaent day. those terrible times and 
 the barbarous cruelties committed bv the In- 
 dians, lialf-castes, and mubttoes, continue to be 
 talked of with awe In the two provhiccs. A 
 revolution in Uinaa, got up by the personal 
 ambitiona of a few polUical leaden, rether than 
 emanating from the spirit of the people, and the 
 war against Roaas, the DicUtor of Uie Argentine 
 Republic, passed over Brazil without leaving 
 deep traces, at leaat when compared with the 
 last war against Paraguay; which, besides the 
 stimulus of the old differences about boundariea, 
 waa occaaioned by the endless vexations and re- 
 atrictiona with wlilch the DicUtor Lopez strova 
 to ruin the Brazilian trade on the Pant,aay, and 
 
 to prejudice the province of Mato Qroaso." F. 
 
 Keller, 1%4 AnaioH and Madtin Binrt, t». 
 
 Also di: J. Armitage, Bit. rf Braril, 1808- 
 1881.— See, alao, Aaournra Rkfcbuc: A. D, 
 1818-1874. 
 
 A. D. 1I6S-1I70.— Th« war with Paracuay. 
 SeePAHAOUAT: A. D. 1806-1878. 
 
 A. D. t87i-i88a.— Emaacipatioo of SUvas. 
 —The Brazilian act of emancipation, known as 
 the Law of Rio Brenco (taking tliat name from 
 the Minister who carried It through) was passed 
 on the 38lh of September, 1871, "and from that 
 date it wu enacted 'that cliildren henceforth 
 bom of alave women shall be considered of frea 
 condition.'. . . 8uch cbildren are not to b* 
 actually free, but are bound to serve the ownen 
 of their motliera for a term of 31 yean, under the 
 name of 'apprentices.' These must work, under 
 severe penalties, for their bereiiitary niastera; 
 but if tlie latter inllict on tlicm excessive bodily 
 piinUliment, they are allowed to bring suit in a 
 criminal court, which mnv declare their freedom. 
 A pnivlslon was alao maJe for the emHncipalion 
 of government slaviii, and there was a clause 
 which insured a ceruin sum, U> tie annually set 
 aside frnin Hue*, which was to aid each pmvince 
 in emancipating by piirrlntae a certain number 
 of alaves. . . . The passage of this hw did not 
 prove merely prospective in ita elTwln, In a 
 very short time tlie sums placed aaiile roremnnri- 
 pating slaves by purchase resulted in tlie frreiiom 
 of many bondmen. And more tlian this, there 
 seemed to be a genenms private rivalry in the 
 good work, fMm motives of lienevolencf and 
 from rellgloiia iiiHueiice. Many p^raona in various 
 parts of firatil lilieratcd their alxrea without cim- 
 p«-nsation. ... I am happy to say tliat the 
 number llbcreuil, either liv the provisions of the 
 Huie or by |irlv«tp imlivUunla, N slways in an 
 increasing mlio. When the writer lint went to 
 UrHZll [IH.U| ... It wiM estlinale.^ that there 
 were S.UUll.UUi) In alarery. . . . There were at 
 tlie beginning of \n'\ when the law of emanc. 
 patlon hail iMvn hut a little more than three 
 
 fean In onerHtlon, l,478,S8i slavea. "— J. C 
 letcbcr and l> 1' Kidder, Ortuit n/uf Iht Bm- 
 iil,aiu. eA. 38— "(Mi the 35lh o! .Manb. |fM(. 
 alavery waa abolialied In the pmvince of Ciiini 
 The lUo News says. The movemt-nt began only 
 18 nmatiu ago, the first municipality ilbcntting 
 IM ikvaa OB tl<e lat of January, 1888. The new 
 <•« tow of \aM Nnvinnber emtiv acc-leraled 
 Ikis n i o grsM. because It mad* alavehokllng im- 
 POHibto, tk* value of the slave being leaa than 
 UMtar"* Ua tiis 38tk ot OapUaber, 1888, ifet 
 
 828 
 
f! 
 
 BRAZIL, 1871-1888. 
 
 IrapstlMioe of the BniflUiii to rid thenuelrei of 
 sUrerv eipitMnd itMlf In a new EmancipaUon 
 Act, known u the Suaira Uw. It pn^ided 
 f^ 1?'^* haitenlni the extension of 
 
 BRAZIL, 1888-1881. 
 
 freedom, by ina«Mlng the public fund Bppropri- 
 •t«l to Jt, by defining the Ttluation of glaTee, 
 and bT other effecUve provliions, so that 
 ■•within ten yean (from ita date] it ia siippoMd 
 ?5 'If 'ST? ""' •"»" «*«<' to e»l»t in Bntil. " 
 . 7i}- k- """''• ■* '«»'■ •'» -Shut/, op. 381-2tM — 
 '•'On March !», 1887, the official return nve the 
 nu Tiber of ilares in Brazil aa 788.419, of Uie 
 |legarr,Iu« of $485,885,818. On May 18, 1888, 
 itfce Crown Princeaa, aa reeent, javc the royal 
 aifcnt to a itiort measure of two clauMis. the flrat 
 decUrfng that ilg ery was abolished in Brazil 
 Ttom the day of the promulgation of the law, and 
 the second repealing all former AcU on Uie sub- 
 ject. Boih Cbar.u)ors refused to consider the 
 claim for compensation made by the sla»e own- 
 ers. —Statr^imurt Ttnr-Book, 1890, n 391 
 
 of the Empjre.-B8UbUahmeBt of the Republic 
 of the United Stataa of Brazil.— RejVjoua 
 
 freedom declared.— "The sudiko ollapsooftlie 
 Imperial Oiivcrnment in November fl88"l 
 resulting in the downfall of Dom Pe<lro and hU 
 banishment, causi-d universal surprito. For 
 some time the Government had been cniilied bv 
 the Republican Journals with the wish anil 
 intention to dUperse Uie army througlio,.. the 
 provinces and along the frontier, ro Uutt with 
 the assUtance of th- newly-organised National 
 Ouaid, the succession of the Prfncesa Imperial to 
 the throne might be secured 1 1 the event of tlie 
 djMth or incapacity througl Id age of the 
 ^peror Dom Pedro. An infantry battollon 
 ordered to embark for a disUnt province, 
 mutinied and refused to go. The W«' Depart- 
 ment resolved to compel them by force to 
 depart The result was a general niuUny 
 (NoTember 15 1888). which soon l«fame i 
 rsTolutloo. "The organlurr of Uie muUny was 
 Colonel Benjamin C<msUul Botelho de Magal- 
 kMt, an officer of exceptional ability andPro- 
 Umatia the MlUtary Academy. The movement 
 •wmed dlivcted at first only against Uia 
 oboozlous Ouro Preto Ministry ; but the enUiusi- 
 Mm of Uie iMpublicana. under Uie leadership of 
 a popular agitator, J(«e da Patn^lnio. waa so 
 IT'^uP.T^'^'^'J'"'' •' • nieeUng held In the 
 dty hall. In Uie afternoon of Nov. 15, a rrtolu- 
 tioo proclaiming Uie Republic was pasaed bv 
 aixlamatlon. About the same hour, a silf con- 
 stltuu-jl committee consisting of General Deo 
 don. |,la Fonseca], Benjamin CoosUni, su.l 
 Uiilntliio Bocayuva, met ami organlse<l a Pro 
 vl»l.«i«l Government," with Marshal l).i.l.«i)da 
 Foims-a f..r iu Chief. Colonel UoU ll.o .K- M„„|. 
 bar. f,.r .Mlni.t.'r of War. •• A f.Hinal decree 
 wa» lssue<i d«larln» a fe.l.nil Kinulill.. the 
 sevrral provlnren of the lain Kmpln.u-..n»t;i«ilng 
 the Hutes and eaih Htate arranging iu o»ii mn- 
 stitutlon and clerti'ig Iu drllU-milve Uxli,-. ami 
 tooal govemmenu On Uie iiK.rnIng <.f tlw IMih 
 the denoani Kmpiror received liitlmatkin ilmt lie 
 and hia family niu»t leave the ii.iintry wlthi,, 
 twenty four hours — • Between ii and 3 oolmk 
 on tlie morning of lliv 17lh an olBcr app«Breil at 
 Uie palace and liif .rmrii Uie KinpenV that lie 
 m.»t St nsee emte^k. «iil, .\\ 'Sht Wrmlx:™ of 
 l.m family. The wrtlclw,! ,.l,| ,mo prolealed 
 UMt 1m waa not a fmlllvu, and Uiat he prefarreil 
 
 to embMk by day; bat aftw Iktmilng to the 
 officers ezplanaUoo Uiat a cooOict might occur 
 Md blood might be ahed, he flmilly y e^' 
 proteating thatln such a criaia hia old griy S 
 was the only one Uiat was oooL And so at the 
 dead hour of night, wiUi no one to say a fair, 
 well MKl bid him Godspeed, the aged iTmperor' 
 with hi. dcirated wlfeiS^childreV^wmtt 
 to the Caes Pharoni, where a launch was wait 
 ^g to convey them out to the small RuniKwt 
 Pamahjrba. About 10 o'clock the gunlx" 
 steamed out of the harimurand w.-nt down („ 
 Ilha Orande to wait for Uie merchant ,u,.mer 
 ^'S*"^ ^■^^'^ "^ •*•» <^'>«rt"wl to cnvpy the 
 
 exile, to Europe- It waa said tlwt he 
 
 Imperial MinUt^. prindnally throuifh the 
 
 with Dom Pedro to abdicate at the rnj i 
 January. 1890, in favour of hU daughter the 
 i^ ."««" dEu- But the CounteM, with' her 
 ausband, was extremely unpopular wiih ilio 
 army and navy and from tli««e the f.rlins of 
 disloyalty spre«l rapidly among the pcplo [u- 
 decree of Um Provisional Ooveni.n; ,u, ,hi 
 pi^ovinoes of Brazil, united by th.- tic of f«l,.r. 
 atlon were to K .lyU-d the •United StaU,. of 
 Brazil, and general elections were to Uikc nlare 
 n August 1890, to confirm the esUbllalmient of 
 the l^public. A counter-revolution lm.ke out 
 ! > '.'S "^- '*■ •* nximXm of soldiers, aailnn 
 an.l clvlltans took part in it, and troops hail t.i !« 
 on,, red out to disperse them. It was not mitll 
 I Uie m)\ that the disturbance was flnally iiui'lli,! • 
 -AuHunl RmMtr, 1889, ft. 1, „,. 444-MK - 
 The revolution was the work of leaii.M who 
 were not only conscious of their power liiii alao 
 confident that Uie nation would inevitably con- 
 done their temporary acu of usurpation. 'Tlieie 
 were no signs of weakness, vacillation or uncrr- 
 
 tainty in their actio! A coalition of the 
 
 •"Jjy officere and the conatlluUon mak.Ts and 
 political dreamers of tlie League would iiare 
 been im7racticable If the leaders ha/i not known 
 that tha80 provinces of the Emplr weiv pro- 
 roundly dlMlTected and would readily acquiesce 
 In a radical change of government. . . . The 
 Emperor of Bnszii haa enjoyed Uie repuUtion of 
 being one of the DMst enlightened and pm- 
 grnalve aoveraigoa of hIa Ume. ... He was s 
 ruler wlUi maov faKinathigandestimalile trhitu 
 w ho endeared bImMlf to hU people. Thia and 
 much moie may ba said in prcise i>f the ilep,.*! 
 and baniahed Emperor; but when the ntonl ,.f 
 hts public services and of his privau- vlmi.-» in 
 riimplete, the fact remains tliat he stool fur s 
 svilein of centralizatitm that practically dinrinMJ 
 the great series of fedeniu-d provlmi-s of' llu ir 
 BUtonuiny and his sulijccts of the privilege,, if 
 •elf government. Dom I'lilni II whs not a ,..« 
 sUtutional rtlormer. The charur wliii li he lu,| 
 reoslved from his father was not ni<Klitie<| In any 
 easenUal respect during his long reign •-.>■ )* 
 
 TViJiilM «n,„, r. I, M. 18 (I8N9)-' A new 
 ConsUtutfcitt . was raUlled liy tlw flr-t 
 NutliHwl Congri'M. ronve->e.l ihi Nor l.l. \-<wt 
 By this instrument liie Il.nuilian uitllon (vtiml- 
 tut«-i| lui'lf Into a finiersl rrpubllc, uii,li r tin 
 name of the Unitwl Suu^s of llrsiil K i, k of 
 Uiooiil provinces was di-rliinHl a self ifm, miiin 
 su««, to In atliuinisleriMl uudorareiMiliViniii f.irra 
 of guiretuuu-tu, with power to Impose t««, i. aii,l 
 nibjoct to no interfi rencn from Uie ( . ntrai 
 Goveranwnt, except for purposes of oati<iUiil 
 
 324 
 
BRAZIL, 18W-18n. 
 
 BRnrBNTELD. 
 
 df fcBM or tlM pmerratUn of IntoAil order or 
 for Um execution of Fedenl bwi. Lea[liUtion 
 reUtiog to cuitonu, paper cturencj, wid poatal 
 rommunlcetions ii reeerred to tin Fedenl 
 Govcrament. The right of lOffrBge te Mcured to 
 all male citizeiu over 21 Tean old, wtUi the 
 i<ir«pt!oa of brggmn, peraooa ignonuit of the 
 alphabet, soldieni in actual lerTke, and penom 
 under monaatlc Towa, regtalratlon beHng the 
 only prerequUtte. The ezecutlTe authority is 
 Tfttnl in the Preddeot . . . elected by the 
 people diivctlv for the term of liz years, and 
 not eiigilile for the succeeding t«nn. . . . 
 Senslors are electt-d by the Legislatures of the 
 Sutes for nine yean, three from each State, one 
 retiriog and his sucoeaaor being choieu every 
 tbivt' yi'Sts. . . . The Chamber of Deputies has 
 the initiative in all laws reUting to taxation. 
 I)eputic« lire elected for three yean by direct 
 popular vote in the proportion of one to every 
 lO.OOO inlubitanta. ... It is declared that no 
 •I'd or church sliall receive aid from the National 
 or State governments." In 18S1, differences 
 aroae between the President and Congress, at 
 flrst over financial nieaaures paaard by the 
 Chambcn and vetned by the I*resident and 
 Khemes recommended by the President that 
 were voted down by Congress. In November 
 the President published a decree dissolving 
 CoDgreas, closed the Chambcn by force, pro- 
 rlslmed himself Dictator on tlie invitation of 
 offlcrn of the army, and convoked a new Con- 
 gress, to be charged with the revision of the 
 constitution. The State of Rio Orande do Sul 
 led off in a revolt against this usurpation, and on 
 thf 23d of November, after some shots had been 
 tiriHt into the city of Rio de .laneiro by a naval 
 't.juailrun acting against him, President Funseca 
 ri'aigned. " Floriano Peixuto was immedlataly 
 I Killi'ii br tlie revolutionary committee ssPrn- 
 ii|i-ni In his metui."—Apt>lrton'i AtiHvai Cyrl^- 
 I '.lut isiil. ;./) Dl-M.— Fora time, the govem- 
 I lint oiKicr President Peixoto was maintained 
 vviih < oiiHidemlile sticress : but in iH98 a serioui 
 r-lx llion. in which the navy took the lead, ^)rok• 
 Mil. The naval insurgents held the harbor of 
 Uio de Janeiro for some months, but gmdually 
 I < support. On the Ist of Manh. INtM. a pre*' 
 M'-ntial I'lertinn was hrkl. which n-Miltrd m th« 
 rhoicc of Prudente Morws, a civilian. This ra- 
 movnl the leading grievance of the rrbeU. that 
 iVi\'ito WHS (lerpctuatint! a regime of purr milt- 
 iHriuu. On the 11th <il Manli the f.ret which 
 the governmi-nt hail In-i n fitting nut In tb« 
 I'liltitl Htittrs and Eur<'|if appeari-d at the en- 
 irariiv to the harbor of Rio. The Insurkjnt 
 rominanili'r ufTired to surrender on cooditKma, 
 whii h heinir n'fuvHl. he and his ofllrfn sought 
 ii«ylum on flrst ii Krcnrli and later a Portuguese 
 n If vi'wi'l Tims ili'iH'rted, tlie orews of the 
 i'i<iir<i'nt TPam'U surrrndered without rrslstaoca 
 wlii-n till' government iNttlcrles opened flr*. In 
 III" rtr»t n.irt of April the Eovimment forcM 
 ' 'I'tllv ilrreuted the rebels In Hio Urande do 8uL 
 NT 0o^8^lTt•TlOH or Rrazil. 
 
 BREAD AND CHBKSB WAR. 
 
 NtTiiKiit «M>»: A. I>. 14W-14im. 
 
 B«« 
 
 BRECKINRIDCB, lehn C- Defeat bi 
 
 Ree I'siTHi 
 
 Preside.itiai clecMea. Bee I'xiTi' i> Htatbs or 
 
 ">x A Ii imKi (ApHII.— KuVKMHKH) 
 
 BREDA : A. D. IS7S.— Spaaish-Ottch Cm> 
 grtsi. tiaa Nbtbularim : A. D MTtiy 1977. 
 
 A. D. ino.— Optm hf Priaet Maorlca •! 
 NasBan-Orann. Bee NvmEBLAmis: A. D. 
 1588-1503. 
 
 A. D. iAa4-l6as.— Sicfe and captara by th« 
 Spaaiarda, See NBTiiKRi.AMoa: A. D. ISSl- 
 lKi3. 
 
 A. D. 1637,— Takta br the Pihica of Oraas*. 
 See Nbtrkrlands: A. D. lOWV-lOHS. 
 
 A. D. 1793.— Takca aad lost by the Preach. 
 SeeFRAHca: A. P. 1798 (Fbbhuakt— Arau,). 
 > 
 
 BREDA, Dcclatatioa from. See Eholaxd: 
 A. D. 165»-1«60. 
 
 BRBDA, Treaty of (tM6). See NcracB- 
 laKiM(HoLLAHO): A. D. 16l»-lflW. 
 
 BREED'S HILL (Bnakcr HiU), Battle oC 
 See UifiTSD Status or Am. : A. D. 1775 (Juki). 
 
 BREHON LAWS.— "The portion of the 
 Irish tribe system which has attnuted most 
 attentio ia tlie mode in which the judicial 
 authoritv was witiidrawn from the chief and ap- 
 propriated by the hereditary caste of tlie 
 Breiions, and also the supposed anomnlous 
 principles which tliey applied to the decision of 
 the cases which came before them. The curlier 
 English «'riten foiud no terms too strong to ex- 
 press their abhcrrenco and contempt of tliese 
 natlvu judges, and their contempt for the prin- 
 ciples upon which they pn)cee<lt>d. On the otlier 
 hand, Irish writcrr attributeil to them> profes- 
 sional nrbitml'irg advuicol princlplni of equity 
 wholly foreign U) an early community. . . . The 
 tnn^ation of the existing vast nia«.H of Rn'hon 
 
 law books, and the trunslatlon [publication?] of 
 the moot Important of tlicm by the onivr of the 
 government, have disposed of the argumenta 
 and awcrtions on hotii sides. It is now ad- 
 mitted, that the aysiem and principles of the 
 Brehun jurisprudence pn>senl no characteristics 
 of any special character, although in them 
 primitive ideas of law went eUbonted in a 
 manner not found elsewhere ; ... the hiws 
 which existed among the native Irish were In 
 substance those \?liich are found 10 have pre- 
 vailed among other Aryan tribes in a similar 
 stage cf social progress ; as the social develop- 
 ment of the nation was prematurely arreslea, so 
 also were the legal ideas of the same stage of 
 existence retidned after they had dlaappearMi In 
 all other nations of Europe. This legal survival 
 continued for centuries the property of an 
 hereditary caste, who had acquired thn knowl- 
 edge of writing, and some tincture of scholaritic 
 pbUosophy and civil law. . . . The learning of 
 the Brehons consisted (1) in an acquaintance 
 with the minute ceremonies, intelligible now 
 only to an arcbnologist, and not alwavs to bim, 
 by which the action could be instituted, and 
 without which no Hrrhon rould sasume the m! 
 -if arhitrator: and (2) in a knowledge of i' 
 tradilioiia, customs and precedrnta of the tril 
 In accordance with whlcn the dinnule should in 
 decided."— A. O. Rlcbey, SKtrt liiM. qftkt IriiA 
 Aentt eh S. 
 
 Also .m ; Sir II Maine. XaHg IIM. / M- 
 MtuHonM Uet 3 
 
 BRBISACH: A. D. id)t— Si«icc aad can- 
 tar* br Dnka Barahard. ?» Qrrma.iy: A. ft. 
 l«S4-ta8» 
 
 A. D. 1641.— Ceaalau to Fraac*. Hee Oaa- 
 
 HANV: A. I> iOM. 
 
 BRBITBNFBLD, Battle of lor Srst battle 
 •r LaipaiC). See UaaMAJIV: .V I*. IU3I ... 
 
 i ' 'tt. 
 
 325 
 
t. ' 
 
 BRUTUUFKLO. 
 
 Jk I 1 V tf 4tf ^T ■ III I 1 - - * L ft* * 
 
 BRETWALDA. 
 
 R^rmed RdJcien. 8ea Papact: A. D. 1334- 
 
 S^» ^^iSLly^"*^ "K *'•• Blihoprlck to 
 . JJ"* "^OfUtAWT: A. D. 1«48 
 
 Ommaict: a. D. IMl-lsS. **"~^*- "^ 
 A. D. iSiit.— AuMscd to Pnacc Sae 
 
 FkaH«; A.D. J8lO(F..ROABT-DECKI.B«Rr 
 
 A. D. iBio-iSi(.-LoM aad rtcerery of 
 •BtomHnraa • "£f dty." See Crrw7lM 
 rtniAi, AHD Fmb, op Obmaht 
 
 A. D. iSic.— Onco mort a Fn* City sod a 
 
 AbUtKtt^^SteiSJOrs;; 
 
 OaBMAmr: A. D. 1888. 
 
 BRBMI : A. D. l63S-t««t.— Takon br tha 
 Fr«aeli.-RacoTM^ tqr tft^ SpanUrti' SeS 
 Italy: A. D. ItatV-lASs' -•—"»• oee 
 
 BRtMULB, Battla of (iito). See X>a- 
 Laxd: a. D. 1067-1 18S. Vh a^ ajxa 
 
 BRBMTlfORD BatUe oC-Foujht and 
 woo by Edmund frtnulde. In hU oonMet w^th 
 CMut. or CMiute. for tb. Engltah thro^ aTd! 
 
 I ^"^^'Ai ^ ^^ «5«».— Captara aad bU. 
 j*|J by the French. See Italt: A^R 18?S^ 
 
 A. D. 1849. — Bombardment, capture and 
 imtal treatment bj the Anatria^ HiynM. fcS 
 Italy: A. U. 1(»4»-1M». "•jnau. ckv 
 
 ,"""SLAU : A. D. 1741.1760.-In the wara 
 
 1.41 (Mav-Jlm); 174a (JA:iuABr_MAr) :Va 
 (Jr««): Okhmakt: A. D. I7S7 (JctV-l kk" 
 ■cm, ami 1700. i'k.«»- 
 
 whlcl, fr,.m tie llr-i Ul^.uwl uiler "«■ ,L"X: 
 fecu and Imptrfeotl.m,. h«l in counK of tlm„ 
 
 10 \>\ect of tlH-mwIVM. or been lUnDn-au.! 
 Th- two tl.ln«.. h„w«v,r. Mill eitauJl 'Tli^e 
 prt.p..„«lty u. «llKl,H„ M«idall«r am' 
 l^H-""! "'•""«*'"'< •«ndlli,H., which m u"mi 
 and n.n,i,.„,l pr«ctlc»l,le ti.e effort. utb^^T^ 
 
 taSr.iA'^""'" '"»•«"«« of the Common Lot 
 !!l "","••, • Tli« ant ■otiiur of thtancw 
 
 1* -uli dc Umnt, urlmnlu, Ma«nu«), a^Sa 
 •f flowla* piety ««i (mat Id loTUag gwU 
 
 powerful popular orator aad an affoctloiiato 
 I?L^2?.®I'*Pi?T*'^ the ancient Fathew l,ln 
 lerting the racorda of Chttatian antluuitv 
 Hence, ho had tona before employed young men 
 under I.U 0Yerri|i>t, aa copyliu. thereby «! 
 compltahlng the threefold edd of multipiln, 
 the* good theological worto, giving proflubif 
 employment to the youths and obtalSlnir mod 
 portunltr of influencing their mind.. TT,U L 
 continued more aad more to do. The dnlr. nf 
 hU youthful friend., «Aolar^ Md\Sni:riU 
 became from day to day larger, and grew «t 
 
 part owed It. origin to the copying of tlie S<riD 
 ture. anddeTotlooal book.. tlJe's-Siety fmmX 
 out«t, «id through it. whole continuince, ^1* 
 ^ Holy Scripture and iU prop.g.tio„^e 
 ^'?i?- ~"|«^«. PW"'^*. •lid Stilizinu „f 
 good theological and Mcetical boolu. one of lt» 
 
 BreUiren of t^ Common Lot,' [or of tli.. Cam. 
 f??n J;"'J 1', Brethren of Good Will.- • Fnitre. 
 Coltatlonan .' 'JeronymUn..' and 'O^rKorUnT 
 . . . ImitathiB the Church at Jeruaalt-n« aoj 
 K!?S?^.h^^*u'^ BffecUon. they nm!u»IIy 
 
 er ty. or c oomcrated al«> their fortune. If tlier 
 P?||*ijed any. to the wrvlce of the communlt/ 
 rrom thiaaource. and from donation, aad leeV 
 
 ejch of which a certain number of memlxrs lir«| 
 together, .ubjected. it i« true, in drew, dl, t .nd 
 general way of life, to au appointed ruk" hut 
 wkh^M^ST'"^'? "^''"'^red from tlie world, 
 with which they maintained coovtaot Int^m.urw 
 and in .uch a way h. In oppoiition to .M..n>i<h: 
 fEui"" ''^.'r." '*• J"''«^P'« of imlivMu.! 
 Utjerty. —C.lllnuum,Afun:tmirfor(thtll,f„r. 
 7Xy- t?J,.'^- *.- '^- »— "ThroJgh th.. w,.D 
 derful actirity of that fraternity of teailier!, 
 
 rS^' "?»' »«»■<»"«> th« B^thren of tS 
 LummoD Ufa, the Netherland. bad the Unt ivi- 
 
 K i?!!f "".M*'"^..'"r*5r '•"■(!• town .n.1 Kln,„t 
 ^tke IfithMandi, p. &_8ee. alw, Eolhatio!.: 
 
 •i-jRC**'* ff OommoH Lift, M. )M1 (r Ii 
 
 .i?i!!?ili°.f X.' '^'•^ ot-The treaty. cnlW 
 ?•?•,';""*» pdward HTof Englao.1 .„,| .i;,|,d 
 n«,l?"""T' '1 "£!'='' ^""^ r..|i,.,.n...l hii 
 L^!!^2^ '",'?" '^•"■'' '•"'"''■ "•"'•««■'' f" » 
 r^Il!:'"'^'''!'"'--"'*'' » Priioner lo hi. I>.,ikU. 
 and rorolvedtlie full •.ven-ignty of (Jul, „«■. 
 lo^tou and Ponthieu in Praiia-. btidc. r..i*lni„K 
 Calah and Oulwea-ace F«a«cb: A. U IJt: 
 
 the early Eogllah kinga " Opinions ilim r u 10 
 the meaoiug of the word Brtlw.ld*. I-Klirmvt. 
 •?•„ WP^nwwf take it a. equivalent to 
 
 of Briuhi': Kemble cooMniM it 
 
 326 
 
 „ nilfr 
 .■j~lizr", ■ ."""""^ ""•"n""" II bniail niliiiir.' 
 •M eoee in it a dignity without duty. Iianfly 
 
 SSS!'*J''.!M'''"*'"»' 1»:1u<I" El mum of 
 *•«■ WM iiroke the powvr uf tlio putty klagf 
 
BRZTWAXOA. 
 
 u far u the Homber, Redbald of Eait AncIU, 
 who obuined it bj gome nukai eren in tbelife- 
 time of Etbelbert, uid the tbree past North- 
 umbrisn kings, Kdwin, OtwoM Mid Oiwy, wboM 
 iupremacy howeTerdid not eitend to Kent" — 
 C. EltoQ, Origiiu of BngUtk HiM., p. SM, aota. 
 
 Aim nf : K A. Freeman, Hut. if IM* Jioiman 
 Odiu. of Bng., ». 1, am. A— See, also. Eholamd: 
 A. D. 477-527, and EaoLAND: 7th Ckntuht. 
 
 BREWSTER, WiUUm, and the Plymonth 
 Pilninu. Bee iHDBPEifoeim: A. D. 1001-1617, 
 UHTMAnACBiiBrm: A. D. 1680, anil after. 
 
 ERE YZ AD.— The people and the language 
 of Brittany, or Bretagne. See BHiTTAiiy: A. 5. 
 618-912. 
 
 BRIAN BORU, The reign in Ireland eC 
 See Ireland: A. D. 1014. 
 
 BRIOGE, BatUe of the— A lerioue reverie 
 suffered by the Arab followen of Mahomet in 
 tbeir early moTemenU against the Persians, 
 A D. 684. A force of 9,000 or 10,000 having 
 croaed the Euphiatea by a bridge of boats were 
 beaten back, their bridge deatroyed and half of 
 them slain or drowned.— O. Rawlinaun, Smnlh 
 Ortat Oriental Mmankp. eK. M.— See Mauomk- 
 TAX roNqtmr: A. D. ma-651. 
 
 BRIOGEWATER,OR LUNDY'SLANB, 
 Battle of: See UMrnco Statu op Ah. : A. D. 
 1814 (JcLT— SarrtMBiR). 
 
 BRIOGBWATER, Storming et See Eng- 
 laud: a. D. 1648 (July- Siitkmbeb). 
 
 BRIENNE, BatUe et See Fhahcb : A. D. 
 1814 (Janitabt— March). 
 
 BRIGANTES, The.— One of the stmngest 
 snd flpiwst of the tribes of ancient Briuin. be- 
 lirvnl liy some historians to have been the origi- 
 lul [irr (Vltic inhabitanu of the Island. At tlie 
 time of lhi> Roman conqueat they held the whole 
 interior northward from the [lumber aod Mersey 
 to the Forth and Clyde. They were subdued 
 by Aifrioola.— E Quest, Origiiui Otttiea. ». 1, M. 
 1 —See, also, Britaim, Celtic TRiBca, and A. O. 
 43-,'l3. also, Irblaud, Tmibbs of Early Celtic 
 iNHABrrANTa. 
 
 BRIGANTINE.-BERCANTIN. See 
 
 Caravklh. 
 
 BRIHUEGA, Battle of (A. D. 1710). See 
 Spaih : A. D. 1707-1710. 
 
 BRILL., Tha capture oC See NETnERLANOa: 
 A. I) I.ITJJ. 
 
 BRISBANE. See ArvniALU : A. D. 1800- 
 
 1841). And law, 
 
 r.o«5S?Jl.P" WARVILLB AND THE 
 GIRONDISTS. See Frahce : A U. 1791 
 (I)<tx>bf:k). to 178S(HErTBMBEH— December). 
 
 BRISSOTINS.-The party of the Gimn- 
 ilUu, In the French Hevolution, waa aoroetimes 
 to I'slk'd, after Brisaot de WarTllle, one of iu 
 lestlrn. 
 
 BRISTOE STATION. Battia eC See 
 
 iMTKllSTATEaOPAM.; A. D. ltM8(jDLY— No- 
 
 vemrch: Vinuinia). 
 BRISTOL: i«th CeBtur.-ltt aUpt trade 
 
 and other cemmtrcc.—- Within iu compara- 
 tively narrow limits Bristol must have been In 
 feneral rliaracter and aapect not unlike what It 
 " fT"^'' r * •^y' ""^'tog. doselypached city, 
 full of tlie eager, active, surging life of cinn 
 
 full 
 
 ""Th' ,',?'"e^- 0«me" tnm Watcrf.ml 
 »"• >u!,i::i. horthinen Uwn Uw Westero Isles 
 sn.1 ih- more distant Urknoya, and even from 
 
 • "-" '-' ' olfi Uis 
 
 which 
 
 m 111- more distant Urknoya, and even fi 
 Ni'rw.y Itself Iwl long ago leant to avoiii 
 *w* «f (hi UigiB.' ika mlgMy cumat wli 
 
 BRISTOL. 
 
 itni kept iu heathen aame deriTcd from the aea- 
 jod of their forefathers, snd make it serve to 
 float tliem into the safe and commodious har- 
 bour of Bristol, where a thousand ships could 
 
 iS.'J'L'i'J?^'. A»,»5««™»ttn«ling centre of 
 the west Bristol ranked ss the third dty in the 
 kingdom, surpassed in importance only hy Wln- 
 clinter and Ixmdon. The most lucrative branch 
 of IU trade, however, reflecu no credit on lu 
 burghers. All tlie eloquence of 8. Wulfstan 
 and all the sternness of the Conqueror had barely 
 availed to check for a while their piactice of 
 kidnapping men for the Irish slave-market; and 
 tliat the tnfflc was in full career in the latter 
 years of Henry I. we learn from the eipericnces 
 of the canona of Laon. "— IC Norgate, Bn^nd 
 under tht Angnin King; t. 1, eh. 1. 
 
 A. D. 1497.— Cabot's voyage of diacoTcrr. 
 See America: A. D. 1497. 
 
 A. D. 1645.— Tha stormiBC of tha city by 
 Pairlas. See £.<iolaiio: A. D. 1643 (Jult-- 
 September). 
 
 A. p. 1A8&— The ceoimarca and wealth of 
 the city.— '• Ne«t to the cspiui. but next at an 
 Immense distance, stood Bristol, then the flret 
 English seaport . . . Pepys, who visited Bris- 
 tol eight vears after tlie Restoration, was struck 
 by the splendour of the city. But his sUndard 
 waa not high ; for he noted down as a wonder the 
 circumstance that, in Bristol, a man might look 
 round him and see nothing but houses. ... A 
 few churches of eminent beauty rose out of a 
 labyrinth of narrow lanes built upon vaulu of no 
 great solWity. If a coach or cart entered those 
 alleys, there was danger that it would be wedged 
 between tlie houses, and danger also that it 
 would break in the celUrs. Goods were therefore 
 conveyed shout the town almost exclusively lu 
 trucks drawn by dogs; snd the richest inlwbit- 
 nnU exhibited their wealth, not by riding in 
 carriages, but by walking the streeU with trains 
 of servanu in rich liveries snd by keeping tables 
 loaded with good cheer. The hoaplulity of the 
 c'ty was widely renowned, and especially the 
 collatlooa with which tlie sugar reflnen r«nled 
 their visltoii. . . . This luxury waa suppi>rte<l 
 by a thriving trade with the North American 
 PfamUtioas and with the West Indies. The pas- 
 sion for colonUI tratllc wiis so strung tlist there 
 was scarcely a small shopkc«pcr in Bristol who 
 tiad nut a venture on b<«nl of some ship bound 
 fur Virginia or the Antilles. Some of these ven- 
 turers indeed were out of the most honourable 
 kind. There was. in the Transatlantic pusses- 
 sioasof tlie crowu, a grent deiiiHiid for hibour; 
 and tills demand was piirtly siipplieii by a system 
 of crimping nmi kiilimiipiug at the principal 
 English seaports. Nowhere was this system in 
 such active ami extensive operation as at Brialol. 
 . . . The numlivr of iiuusi-a appears, from the 
 returns of tlie hearth-money, to have been, In the 
 vear 168,1, Just 8.800. . . . The popuhtiim of 
 Bristol must therefore have been about S9,0OU."— 
 Lord .Moeaulay, //.««. uf Eng., rA. 8 (». 1). 
 
 A. D. iljf.— Ths ffsform BUI Riots.— The 
 popubv excitement Drodiiced In England in 18dl 
 by the action of the House of Lords in rejecting 
 tlie Heform Bill, led to riou hi several pbon, but 
 most seriously at Bristol. " Th* Bristol mobs 
 have always Been noted for their bruUlity ; wd 
 tlie outbrsak now was such as to sinase and con- 
 found the the wbois kingdom. . . . Tlie lower 
 parts of the city wsri tlMi barUMurage of probably 
 
 327 
 

 BRISTOL. 
 
 a woiH ieaport populace tban any other place In 
 England, while the police waa ineffective and <lc- 
 moraliwd. There waa no city In which a greater 
 amount of aavagery lav beneath a society pr<)uil, 
 excluaWe, and mutually repellent, rather than 
 enlightened and accuitomed to aoclal co«pem- 
 tlon. Thcae are circunutancea which go far to 
 account for the Bristol rloU being ao fearfully 
 Imil ns they were. Of this city, Sir Charles 
 Wcthcrell — then at the height of his unpopularity 
 ns n vigorous opponent of the Reform Bill— waa 
 recorder; and there he bad to go. Id the laat days 
 of October, in his Judicial capacity. . . . The 
 symptoms of discontent were such aa to Induce 
 tlie mayor, Mr PInncv, to apply to the homc- 
 offlcc for military aid. Lord Melbjume sent 
 clown some troops of hone, which were quartered 
 within reach. In the neighbourhood of the dty. 
 . . Sir Charles Wetherell could not be indurad 
 tn relinquish his public entry, though warned of 
 the danger by the magistrates themsolvca. . . . 
 »)n Sotimluy. October 2«, Sir Charles Wetherell 
 entcrwl Bristol in pomp : and before he reached 
 tlie Mansion House at noon, he muat have been 
 pretty well convinced, bv the hootlnga and 
 throwing of stones, tint he Lad better have fore- 
 gone the procession. For some hours the special 
 constal>le8 and the noisy mob in front of the Man- 
 sion House cxdiangrd discourtesies of an em- 
 phatic character, but then- wa.i no actual violence 
 till night. At night, the Slansion House was 
 attAcko<l, and the Klot Act was read; but the 
 military were not brought down, as they ought 
 to have been, to clear the streets. The mayor 
 liiul • religious scruples,' and was ' humane '; and 
 liLi indecisinn was not overborne by any aid 
 from his brother ma^'islrates. When the mili- 
 tary were brought in, it waa after violence had 
 been committed, and when the passions of the 
 mob were much excited. Sir Charles Wetheiell 
 escaped from the city that nlitht. During the 
 dark hours, sounds were hearil provocative of 
 further riot; shouU in the slreetH, anil the ham- 
 mering of workmen who won- Itonnling up the 
 lower windows of the Mansion nnuw and the 
 neighlKiuring dwellings. l>n tlie Sunday morn 
 ing. tJie rioters bmkv into the Mansion Ilnuso 
 without oppoKilion; and from the liiiie they got 
 into the cfllars, all "iiit wrouj Hungry 
 wretches and boys broke the necks of the ImtTi-s, 
 and Queen Sijuarc was strewed with the Inxlles 
 of the ilead ilrunk. The soldiers were left with- 
 out onlers, and their otlleers without that sanc- 
 tion of the magistracy In tlie altsence of whirh 
 tliiy could not act, but only raradr; and in this 
 parnding. some of the soldiers nalurallv lost 
 tlwir tempers, and siMikc anil uiaile gestures on 
 lliilr own accoimt, which iliil not lend to the 
 smithing of the mob. This mob never consisteil 
 of more than live or sl.x huiiiireil. . . . The mob 
 ihi'lanil op^-nly what they were golns In do , and 
 they went to work un'eherkeil — armeii with 
 suves anil bludgeons from the quavn, and witli 
 inm palisades fmm IIm- Mausiou House — to bn-a., 
 open au.l burn the briilewell. the Jsil, the lil.Hlmps 
 palace, the eusiomhnusc. and Queen Siiiian> 
 They pave half an hour's notice to the inhali<uiils 
 of each house In the si|iiare, wliieli thev then set 
 Hre to In regular sucnHnihin. (Ill two sides, each 
 measuring S.W fitt. lay in smoking roln. The 
 b>aiitt« of the rininken'were se<-n roasting in the 
 (Ire. The grea'" <<iirober of the riotera were be- 
 Ucvad to be unUi.t twenty years of age, and some 
 
 BRITAIN. 
 
 were mere children; MMiie Sunday acholaia, 
 hitherto well conducted, and it may be ques- 
 tioned whether one in ten knew anything of tlie 
 Kiform Bill, or the offences of Sir Charles Weth- 
 erell. On the Monday morning, after all aetual 
 riot seemed to bo over, the soldiery at last niaile 
 two slaughterous charges. More horse arrived 
 and a conshlerablo Ixxiy of foot soldiers; ami the 
 conatebuhtry became active: and fmm that time 
 the city was In a more onlerly aUto than the nsi 
 denta were accustomed to see it. . . . TbcniairiS' 
 trates were brought to trial, and so was Cnlimel 
 Brereton, who was understood to be In comnuimt 
 of the whole of the miliUry. The result of that 
 court-martial caused more emotion throuirliout 
 the kingtiom than all the sUughtering ami hum. 
 Ing, and the subsequent executions wliich marked 
 that fearful season. It waa a year before the 
 trial of the magistrates waa entered upon. Tlie 
 reault was the acquittal of the mayor, and the 
 consequent relinquishment of the proeccutlnn of 
 his brother-magistrates."— H. Martlncau, A Hit- 
 torn "/ '*< Tliirtg Tean' Pent*, bk. 4, eh. 4 (t. 2). 
 » 
 BRITAIN.Connt and Duke of.- The military 
 commmndera of Roman Britain. HeeUHiTAix' 
 A. D. 838-337, also Arthck, Kiwa. 
 BRITAIN, Tha name. See BRrrAiran. 
 Celtic Tribea.—" It appeara that the south- 
 eaatem part of the laland, or the district now oc- 
 cupied bv the county of Kent, waa occupiiil bv 
 tlie Cantii, a Urge and Influential tribe, which iii 
 Cnaar's time, waa divided among four cliltfs or 
 kinga. To the west, the Regni held the mi»lem 
 counties of Suaaex and Surrey, fromtlic sia e.iast 
 to the Thamea. Still farther west, the Bilirie ne- 
 cupied the couutry from the aouthem coast to 
 the Bristol Channel, Including nearlv the whole 
 of Hampahire, Wiltahire and 8omeraet»hiie The 
 whole of the extensive district extemiingr fruin 
 the Bclga to the extreme western point nf the 
 island, then called Antivestvum or Boleriiim (nnw 
 the Land's End) Including Devonaliin- ami C.rn 
 wall, waa occupini by the Diiinnonil, or Dam- 
 nonll. On the coast between the I)umiiMiiii iinj 
 the Belg.e the smaller tribe of tlic IMin.irij-e* 
 held the moilera county of Dorset. On the ntlur 
 side of the Thames, extending nortliwani^i t,i t!i^ 
 Stour, and including the greater part of .Mill. lie 
 sex as well as Eamsx, Uy the Triuoliuites. To ili- 
 north of the Stour dwelt the lei-ni, e^lemlin;.' 
 over the counties of Suffolk, Norfolk. Ciinliriil.'o 
 and Huntiugdoa The Coritavl piwuewed li..' 
 liP'sent counties of Northampton, L<iiv»ter Uu! 
 lomi, Derby, Nottingham and Lincolii; ,m\ the 
 southeaslem par* of Yorkshire was lnM h\- xUc 
 Parisl. Between the tribes last eiiuniirati-.l. In 
 tlic counties of Buckingham, Biilford iwil llert 
 ford, lay the tribe called by Itolei'.v ilie ( a'- 
 yeuchlani, ami by others Cstuvelhinl.' .\ii.>ther 
 name, apparently, for this lrilH3, r.r f„r a .livibion 
 of It, was the Cassli. West of lliiiw were the 
 Atrehates. In Berkshire; and still further west 
 were the DobunI, In the counties of (»»f,.ri snii 
 (Jloucester. . . . Theinteriurof theisiami inirtli 
 ward waa occupieil by the Brigantes. wIh> liel ! 
 the extensive districts, difflc"'' uf appriMih i>a 
 account of their mouuuin* wimmI^ ikiukI 
 
 ing from tlie Humber and Mewy ii> the 
 
 prraent iK-.nIrr* nf S.--->tl«^.! Tiil-i .v :....-■;».. 
 tribe appears to have fncluih-u .-veral Miinller 
 ones [the Voluutii, the Seatuni.i. the .Iniidiiti:! 
 and llM Cao(i]. The Brigantes are bvlievnl ui 
 
BRTTAIK. 
 
 hire bren Um origbukl lahitblUnta of the laUnd, 
 who had been driren northward by niccoMlTe in- 
 Tuiom. . . . Wale*, alin, WM lnbabtte<l by a 
 primitive population. The northern countie* 
 . . . wu the territory of the Ordovlcea. Thcsouth- 
 eutrm rountiea . . . were lield by the Demetac. 
 The still more celebrated tribe of the Silures in- 
 hatiiteii the modem counties of Hereford, Radnor, 
 lirrolinoclt, Monmouth and Cbmorgan. Between 
 tlieae and the Brigantci lay tlie Comabii or Cam- 
 tbii. The wilder parU of the island of Britain, 
 to the north of the Bricantes, were inhaliitcd by 
 a great number of smaller tribes, some of whom 
 seem to bare been raised in tlie scniu of eiviliza- 
 tiim little above savages. Of tlicae we liare the 
 names of no less than twenty-one. Bordering 
 on the Brigantes were the Otadcni, inhabiting 
 the coast from the Tyne to the Firth of Fortli. 
 . . . Next to them were the Oa>icni. . . . The 
 Selgova inhabited Anoandale, Nitbadale and 
 Eikdale. in Dumfriesshire, with the East of Oallo- 
 wsT. The Novantes iuhabite<l the remainder of 
 Oslloway. The Damull, a larser trilie, held the 
 country from the cliain of hills separating Oal- 
 loway from Carrick, northward to the river £m. 
 Thrw tribes lay to the south of the Forth and 
 Clj'iie. Beyond the narrow boundary formed by 
 Ihrw rivers lay [the Horestii, the V-nricones or 
 Vcrnicnmes, the Taixali or Taexali, the Vaco- 
 nugi. the Albani, the Cintai, the Logi, the 
 Cafnabii, the Catini, the Mertc, the Camonacc, 
 the Crcones, the Cerones, and the Epidii]. The 
 ferocious tribe of the Attaootti inhabited part of 
 A' :> Icshire, and the greater part of Dumbarton- 
 »hire. The wild forest country of tlie interior, 
 ■(Down as the Caledonia Sylva (or Forest of Cel- 
 riiiion). extendeii from the ridge of mountains 
 bttween Inverness and Perth, nonliward to the 
 forest of Balnagowan, including the middle parts 
 of luverneas aiul Rosa, was held by the CaMonil, 
 wliirb appears to have been at this time [of the 
 conquests of AgricoUJ the most important ami 
 powerful of all the tribes north of the Briganles. " 
 -T Wright, Tlie Celt, the Roman and the Saxon, 
 eh.i. 
 
 .\i.ai)iM: J. Rhys, Cellie Britain.— J. P. Skene, 
 •Vliu Heollaml, bk. 1, eh. 8. 
 
 B- C. 55-54.— Caaar's inruions.— Having 
 Fitendeti his conquesU in Oaul Ui the British 
 riiannel and the Strait of IK)ver (see Oacl: 
 H ('. 5H-51), Cvaar crossed the ! ler. In August, 
 II (' !y\ and made his first Uiidiiig in Britain, 
 whhtwn legions, numbering 8.000 tu 10.000 men. 
 P'>rtu« ItUia, from whicli he sailed, was probably 
 eiiliir Wl^aant or Boulogne, and his landing 
 pliire on the British coast is believed to have 
 l)e. II ii< HI Deal. The Britons disputed his land- 
 ing witii great obstinacy, but were driven back, 
 iin.l ()IT<rc'd to submit; but when a few days 
 iCerviinls, Camnr'n fleet suffered greatly from a 
 "I'-nii, they rcconaidemt their submission and 
 opened hi.'^tllltics again. Iioutc<l in a second 
 Iwllle. tlK'jf once more sued for peace, and gave 
 U»Utfn; whereup<m Cesar recmlmrkcd his 
 tri»ipi. and returned to the contin. ,;i, having 
 n-nwlniil in Britain not more titan three weeks 
 »nil penetrated the island a short dutaiice only. 
 The f.illowing summer be cruuttl lo Britain 
 sgdin. deU'i-minnil im maklDK a tii!>rou^h cnn 
 quest or the «>imtry This time lie hati five 
 legi'ins at his bnt-k. with two thousani horse, 
 ««■! the eipeditlun was embarked on more than 
 eiflit huodfed ships H« sailad from and Uadad 
 
 BRITAIN, A. D. 4a-sa 
 
 at the same pointa as before. Ha vtais established 
 and garrisoned a fortlflcd camp, ho ailvanced 
 into the country, encountering and defeating the 
 Britons, first, at a river, supposed to be the 
 Stour which flows past Canterbury. A storm 
 which damaged his fleet then interrupted his 
 advance, compelling him to return to the coast 
 When the disaster had been repaired he marched 
 again, nud again found the enemv on the Stour, 
 assembled under the command of^Caasivelauniu, 
 whoso kingdom was north of the Tliamcs. He 
 dispersed them, after much fighting, with great 
 sbiugliter, and crossed the Thames, at a point, it 
 is supposed, near the Jimction of tlie Wey. 
 Thence he pushed on until he reached the "oppi- 
 dum " or stronghold of Caaaivelaunus, which la 
 Iwlleved by some to have been on the site of the 
 modem town of St. Albans. — but the point la a 
 disputed one. On receiving the submission of 
 Cassivelauniis, and of other chiefs, or kinga, 
 fixing the tribute they should pay and taking 
 hostages, Ciesar returned to the coast, reem- 
 barked his army and withdrew. His stay in 
 Britain on tills occasion was about sixty daya — 
 Coisar. Oattie War, He 4, eh. 80-86, and bk. 7, 
 eh. 7-83. 
 
 Also nt: H. M. Scarth, Raman Britain, eh. 3.— 
 O. Long, Decline of the Roman RepuHie, t. 4, ek. 
 • ami 11-18. — T. Lcwin, Inmeion of Britain bf 
 Caear.—T. T. Vine, Cmar in Kent.—Z. Guest, 
 Originee Oeltiea, t. 8. 
 
 A. D. 43-53. — Coaquesta of Claudiua.— 
 Nearly a hunured years passed after Ciesar's 
 hasty invasion of Britain before the Romans 
 reappeared on the isbind, to enforce their chiim 
 of tribute. It was under the fourth of the im- 
 porinl successors of Julius Coesar, the feeble 
 Cliuidius, that the work of Roman conquest in 
 Britain was really begun. Aulus Plautius. who 
 commanded in Oaul. was sent over with four 
 legions, A. D. 43, to obtain a footing and to 
 smooth the way for the Emperor's personal cam- 
 paign. With him went one, Vespasian, who 
 began in Britain lo win the fame which pushed 
 him into the imperial seat and to a great place 
 in Roman history. Plautius and Vespasian 
 made good their occupation of the country aa 
 far as the Thames, and planted their forces 
 strongly on the northern bank of that river, be- 
 fore they summoned the Emperor to their aid. 
 Claudius came before the close of the military 
 season, and his vanity was gmtiflc<i by the nomi- 
 nal leading of an advance on the chief oppidum, 
 or stronghold of tbe Britons, called C^mulo- 
 dunum, which cx-cupie<l the site of the modem 
 city of Colchester. The Trinobantes. whose 
 capital it was, wore beaten and the place sur- 
 rcnden-d. Satisfied with this easy victory, the 
 Emperor returned to Rome, to enjoy the honors 
 of a triumph : while Vespasian, in command of 
 the second legion, fought his way, foot by foot, 
 into the southwest of the island, and subjugated 
 tbe obstinate trilxn of that region. During the 
 next ten years, umlvr the command of Ostoriiis 
 ScapuU, who succeeded Plautius. and Avitiis 
 DIdlus Oallus, who succeeded Ostorlus, the 
 Itoman power was firmly settled in southern Bri- 
 tain, from the Stour. at the East, to the Exe and the 
 SfTrm St thi- Wi-at. Th« .Hll'.m-*, of ftiiith 
 Wales, who had resisted moat stiiblHimly, under 
 Caractariis, the fugitive Trinobnntine prince, 
 were siibducii and Caractacus made captive. 
 The loetU (in Suffolk, Norfolk and Cambridf*- 
 
 829 
 
BRITAIN, 
 
 
 Aln) wme ndaccd fhmt alllM to lulleD depend- 
 MU. The Brigantei, mnt powerful of M the 
 WbM, ud who held the gnmltr part of the 
 Whole north of modem Enclaod. were etUl in- 
 dependrat. but dtotracted by Internal dimnaioni 
 wnich Roman influence waa active in keepioc 
 •"»•• Thl«. 't«ted briefly, waa the extent t3 
 which the conquest of Britain waa carried dur- 
 ing the reign of Claudiui,— between A. D. 43 
 •nd 54.— C. Merivale, Mut. of lAt /bmaiu. e*. 
 01. 
 
 ALao w : K. Gueat, Originet OUiem, t. 2. pi. 
 J, (*. 18.-H. M. Hearth, Jhman Britain, ik. 
 4.— See, alao, CoLcmcaTBR, Oaiom or. 
 
 *• D; *'•— Camnalgna of Snatoaiu Panli- 
 ans.— From A. D. SO to 61, while Didiua Oallus 
 ami hU lucceiMr Veranlua commanded in 
 Briuin, nothing waa done to extend the Roman 
 acquialtiona. In the btter year, Suetonius 
 Paulinus came to the command, and a stormy 
 period of war ensued. Hit flrM movement waa 
 to attack the Druids In the iaie of Mona. or 
 
 i^'}'^^^ i"?" ."'** ^r •»<« retreated from 
 Gaul and Britain, in suooesalTe flights, before 
 the ImphMble hostility of Rome. "In this 
 gloomy Uir, secure apparenUy, though shorn of 
 might and dignity, they still persisted in the 
 practice of their unholy sapentftion. . . Here 
 thejr retained their aaaemblies, their schools, and 
 their oracles; here was the asylum of the fugl- 
 tlTes; here was the sacred grove, the abode of 
 the awful deity, which In the stillest noou of 
 night or day the priest himself scarce ventured 
 to enter lest he should ruth unwittingly into the 
 pivience of Its lord. " Prom Segontlum (modem 
 Caernarvon) Suetonius croaied the Menal Strait 
 on rafu and boatt with one of hit legion., the 
 Batavian cavalry twimming their hones. The 
 landing w»t fiercely dteputed by women and 
 men. priests and worshlppere; but Roman valor 
 bore down all resUunce. "Prom thlt moment 
 the Dnilils disappear from the page of history; 
 thev were exterminated, we may Relieve, up^n 
 their own altara; for Suetonius took no half 
 metaurea ThU accomplished, the Roman 
 commander was qnlcklv called upon to meet a 
 terrific outburst of patriotic rage on the part of 
 the powerful nation of the Icenl. who ociupied 
 the region now forming the countiet of Suffolk 
 Worfolk, Cambridge, and Huntingilon. Thev 
 had iK-en alllet of the Romans, first; then tribu- 
 taries. under their own kinir. and flnnllv sub- 
 Jecta. much opprette<i, Their latt king. t>rasu- 
 tMut. had vainly hoped to win favor for hit 
 wife and children, when he died, by bequeath- 
 ing hU kingdom to the Roman Slate. But the 
 widowed queen, Boudicea, or Boadicea. and her 
 daughteri, were only expow^l with more htlp- 
 hemaemto the insolence and the oiitmges of a 
 brutal Roman officer. They appealed u> their 
 people ami m(ul.lene<l them by the exposure of 
 indcK-ribal.lo wrongs. The riting which ensued 
 was flcrrc ami Kcniral bevond precedent. •• The 
 Roman offld«ls fli'd. or, if arreatail. were slaugh- 
 teml ; and a v.tst multitude, armed and unarmnl 
 lolled southward to overwhelm and extirpate 
 the Intrudera To the Coin*, to the T^merM 
 the tea, the country lay enthnely open." The 
 - ^Z. •» C»n;ulodunum (Colchawefx waa de- 
 •troyed: Veruhunium (St Albans), and Loo- 
 ninmm (l«hl<Hij. «ere tacked and burned; not 
 less than 70.000 of the Romans in Britato ;rere 
 tUufhtersd without micy. buetooluT 
 
 BRITAra, A. D. 78-M. 
 
 hatte to quit ABflaiej when Um diMdful newt 
 reached hJm, and preasad, with all speed ^ 
 «» f!^ W«''7'y of Watitag 8tiwt!l^ffl 
 up Eta forces In hand -beVent-tofe.?^ ,Sf 
 awfu scene of rage and terror. Ha had col. 
 le«ed but 10,000 men when he eonfronte.i i, 
 hut, the vast swarm of the insnraentt. oi t 
 
 ;ilI1."'i''M'5?!.i' 'T'^'^ "»* »» haJtecun.l, la 
 the neighborhood of Camulodunum. But once 
 more^ vakwof undltdplioed teml-barliari,™ 
 wrecked Itaelf on the flrm'shiekb of the It^ma™ 
 johort* Mod 80,000 Britona are said to mJ 
 fallen In the mereil«. flght The IntunecSi 
 wat cruthed and Roman authority in Bri™Q I? 
 
 l?ISr- ..?".V ""e,*^™ Suetoniut dealt so 
 hanhly with the broken people that even Home 
 remooatrated. and he waa. preaently, recalled to 
 give place to a more paclflc commander —(' 
 Merivale. Eim. <!fa» TajSoiu. ^^^"-^ 
 
 ALao «: H. A BcMrak,Jloman Britain, tk. J. 
 — T. Mommten, BiH. ef Bomi, bk. 8, ck 5 
 
 A. D. 7M4.— CMipalcaa of Agricola.-Far 
 Kventeen yeart after the recall of Suetoniut 
 Pwlinua (A. D. 61) there wu a tutpension 0? 
 Roman oonquett In Britato. The military power 
 to the bland luffered great demorafuation, 
 retulttog naturallv from the chaos of affsin « 
 Home, between Nero and Veapaaian Thete 
 conditiont ceated toon after the acceision of the 
 
 in Britato the foottoa from which he clImM to 
 the throne, interested hbnself In the epretilinir .f 
 
 island. C. Julius Agricola was the soldier and 
 statesman— a great man to each charader — 
 whom he selected for the work. Agricola wu 
 nwle prefect or Oovemor of Britain. A f) 78 
 •• Even to hta first summer, when he had been 
 but a few montht in the taUnd, and wlien none 
 even rf hta own ofllcers expected active «rrvi<-e 
 Agricola led hta forcea into the country of the 
 Ortlovicet. in whose mountato passes the war of 
 lndei«nd.noe still lingered, drove the Briuinji 
 across the Menal Straita and pursued them inio 
 AJL'U.«/, aa Suetonius had done before him hv 
 boldly croastog the boiling current in the fare of 
 the enemy. Another summer saw him advance 
 northward Into the territory of the Bri»ranl«i, 
 and complete the organization of Uie dlmrict, 
 Uitoly reduced, between the Humber and Tyne 
 Struck perhapa with the natural defences ol'^the 
 line from the Tyne to the Solway, when- ii,e 
 Island seems to have broken, as ft were, in the 
 middle and soldered unevenly together he lin'W 
 » p^'n o' 'oris from tea to sea. ... In the 
 third year of hta command, Agricola pushed 
 forward along the caatern coast, and, niaklog 
 gooA with rowlt and fortrestet every inch of bit 
 progrns, reached, as I imagine, Uie Firth of Korth. 
 . . . Here he repeated the opeiations of the 
 preceding winter, planting hta camps and stations 
 from hill to hill, and securing a new belt of 
 
 territory, ninety miles ac ' - " 
 
 tion." The next two 
 
 830 
 
 I, for Roman orriips 
 
 — yean were »i>eiii In 
 
 strengthening hit poaitkni and organiilnir hit 
 conquest In A. D. 88 and 84 he a.lv«n(.d 
 beyond the Forth, to two campaigns of hard 
 flghting. the Utter of which was made m< mor 
 aUe by the famous battle of the Onunpiaus. or 
 Graupiaa, fought with the CsfctKnjian hcrj Gai 
 pcua. At the clote of tbta campaign he tent 
 his flaat Borthward to explon the unknown 
 to kwa the rsaoMr Mbn, tad It i* 
 
BRTTAIK, A. D. 7»44. 
 
 IRITAIX, A. D. a8»-888L 
 
 tUmed that tiie tmmI* of Agrloola dreumiMrl- 
 latcd the uIwmI of Britain, for the first time, and 
 WW liie Orkneyt and Shetlaod*. The further 
 pUns of the lucoeaiful prefect were Interrupted 
 by liii sudden recall. Vfipaelan, flrat, then 
 TU.is, hud died while he r.ued hie vtctorioua 
 course Id Caledonia, and the &^ean Domltian waa 
 envious and afraid of his renown.— C. Merirale, 
 Ui$l. oftkt Bamaiu, <*. St. 
 
 Alm> ik: Tacitus, il^n'cjta.— Momnuen, Ittit. 
 tfOmit, hk. 8, ck. S. 
 
 j:-3d Ceotariea.— latrodnction of Cbri»> 
 tianitT. See CHKurriAiimr: A. D. 100-813. 
 
 A. D. jot-aii.— Canpaigoa of Sararaa.— 
 A frf^i Inroad of the wild Caledoniana of the 
 north upon Roman Britain, In the vear 906, 
 caused the Emperor Sererua to visit toe distant 
 Uaad In person, with hia two worthlesa sona, 
 Cancalla and Qeta. He desired, it is said, to re- 
 DtoTc those troublesome youths from Rome and 
 to subject them to the wholesome discipline of 
 militnry life. The only result, so far as they 
 were concerned, was to give Caracslla opportuni- 
 ties (or excltinf mutiny anaong tlie troops and 
 for making several attempts against his fatber'a 
 life. ButSeverua pvrslsted In his residence In 
 Britain during more than two years, and till hi* 
 death, which occurred at Eboracum (Yorli) on 
 the 4th of February, A. D. 811. During that 
 time be prosecuted the war against the Cale- 
 doniana with great vigor, penetrating to the 
 northern extremity of the iaiand. and loaing, it 
 is uid, above SO, 000 men, more by the hardabipa 
 of the climate and the march than by tlie attacks 
 of the skulking enemy. The Caletloniana made 
 a pretence of submlsuon, at last, but were soon 
 hi arms again. Sevenu waa then preparing to 
 pursue them to exierminatioa, when ho died. — 
 £. Gibbon, DtcUnt and fUU ^ th* Oman Bm- 
 fin, ck. 6. 
 
 AI.80 1S: T. Mommsen, IKH. <if Rome, M. 8, 
 A. S. 
 
 A D. a8S-«97.— RabellioB of Caranaius.— 
 " During the reign of Qalllenus [A. D. 30O-26H] 
 . . . the pirate fleets of the Franks infested the 
 British ^M, and it became needful to have a 
 lle<-t to protect tlie coast The command of tliis 
 tteet hml litvn conferred on Caiausius. a Mcnaplan 
 birtb : but he was suspected of conniving at 
 
 Eaty. in order that he might enrich himself by 
 iimins a slurer in their booty, wlicn they re- 
 turned laden with plunder. To save hiinseif, 
 tlicrefore, from punishment, h<' usurfMil the Im- 
 perial power, A. D. 888, and reigned over Briuin 
 lur seven years. A vast number of bis coins 
 strurk in Britain have been preserved, so many 
 tlMt tlie history of (,'arausius has been written 
 (Mm liis medala. He waa slain at length by hi* 
 miniHler Allcctus, wlio usurped his power. The 
 FntiiltK [iM allies o( Allectus] had well-nlgli 
 eslalilisbiil their [lower over tlie south portion of 
 Briiiiin when it wss broken t»v Consuntlua, the 
 father of Constantlne the (Jfcat, who defeated 
 Alleitiit in a deciaive battle, in wliich that 
 usii'-iH-rwatsiitin. . . . Allectu* held the govern- 
 ment of Britain for three yeara. Many of hIa 
 coins are found."— II. M. Hearth, Rn'f.m Britain, 
 th. II). 
 
 A1.S0 hi: T. Wright, OU, Ammh am) /l^am. 
 ch 4 
 
 A- D, 333-3W.— Ceaatantiac'a Orraalsatiea. 
 — I niler the scheme o( government designed by 
 Diucieiiau and amended by Cooatautioe, " Briiaia 
 
 formed part of a Taat pro-oouufaite, extaadta* 
 from Mount Atlaa to the Caledonian deaerta, and 
 waa govened by the QaUlc prefect, through a 
 'vicar' or deruty at York. The ialaod waa 
 divided Into five new provlnoea. . . . Britain 
 was under the orders of the Count of Britain, 
 assisted by the subordinate offloen. "TIm Duka 
 of Britain commanded in the north. The Count 
 of the Suoa Shore, governed the 'Maritime 
 Tract ' and piDvided for the defence of the south- 
 eaatem coast. The Saxon Shore 00 the coaat of 
 Britain must not be mistaken for the Saxon 
 Shore on the oppoalte coaat of France, the bead- 
 quarteiaof which were the harbour of Boulogne. 
 "The namga of the several provlnoea into which 
 Britain waa divided are given in the ' Notttla,' 
 vix:— 1. Britannia Prinu, which included all the 
 south and weat of England, from the eatuary of 
 the Thame* to that of the Severn. 8. BriUnnla 
 Secunda, which included the Principality of 
 Walea, bounded by the Severn on the eaat and 
 the Iriah Channel on the west 8. FUvla 
 Cnarienal*, — all the middle portion of Britaia, 
 from the Thamea to the Uumber aud tha 
 eatuaiT of the Dee. 4. Maxima Caaariensls,- 
 the Brigantlan territory, lying between the 
 eatuarieaof the Humber aiid Dee, and the Barrier 
 of the Lower Isthmua. S. Valentia,- the moat 
 nortbera portion, lying between the barrier of 
 Hadrian and that of Antoninu*."— U. M. South, 
 Ammm Britain, th. 10. 
 
 A. D. 367-370.— DaUTaraaca br Thcodoaina. 
 -The dlatracted condition of affsira In the Ro- 
 man Empire that soon followed the death of 
 Constantlne, which waa relieved by JulUn for a 
 brief term, and which became worse at hi* 
 death, proved eqiecially rulnoua to Roman Bri- 
 ti\ia. 'The savage tribea of Caledonu — the PIcta, 
 now beginning to be aasociated with the Scota 
 from Ireland — became bolder from year to year 
 In their incunion*, until they marched acrnaa the 
 whole extent of BritaiiL "Their path waa 
 marked by crueltiea so atrocious, that it was be- 
 lieved at the time and recorded by St Jerome 
 that they lived on human fleah. London, even, 
 was threatened by them, and the whole i»land, 
 wliich, like all the other provinces of the Empire, 
 liiul lost every spark of military virtue, was In- 
 capalile of opposing any resutaoce to them. 
 Tbeodosiu*, a Spanish otncer, and father of the 
 great man of the aame name who was afterwards 
 aasncbkted In the Empire, was charged by Vaien- 
 tiniun with the (ie(ence o( Britain. lie forced 
 tlic Scots to fall buck (A. U. 387-370), but with- 
 out having been able to bring them to su en- 
 gagement"— J. C. L. de Sianiondi, Fail uf tht 
 lioman timpirt, eh. 9. — "Tile nplendour 0} the 
 cities and the security of the (ortiUcntiona were 
 diligently reatnn^l l>y the patenial care of Tbeo- 
 duaiua, wlio with a strong liau>l contlneil the 
 trembling Caledoiiiiuis to Uie northern angle of 
 the Island, aud periictuated, by the name and 
 aettlement of tlie new province of Valentia. the 
 glories of t!ie reign of \ alentiniao. " — £. Qibbon, 
 Dtfline and Fail of the Hitman Empire, eh. i!i. 
 
 A. D. 383-3U.— RcTOitof Masimu*.— In :i83, 
 four vean after Theodoaius the Oreat had been 
 asKKiated in the Roman sovereignty bv the 
 younif Emprnr Oratlan. aiwl !>lw"l <m the tl!rt.oe 
 of the East, the geuerou* Uruliiin lost tiia own 
 throne, ami bis li(e, thnnigli a revolt tliat waa 
 organised In Britain. "Une Maxiinua, a Span- 
 iara by birth, uix'upying a high olBclal position 
 
 331 
 
Is : 
 
 '% 
 
 BIUTAIX, A. D. 88S-888. 
 
 fa that proTince, ^>n«d on Uep bj ttrp into In- 
 •unectlon. by a loldiery and a people of whom 
 he anpcara to have been the fdol, raiM-d tiie 
 itandard of rcrolt in the island, and paaied orcr 
 .»;'.>,&"''■ ■«««'''>«l l>y « Urp) multitu.Ic.- 
 \%^^m men and 70,000 women, bhvi Zociimut 
 the By/jintino historian. This colouy, iettllnjr 
 In the Armoriran peninsula, gave it the name of 
 Brittany, which it has since retained. The rebel 
 tones were soon victorious over the two Em 
 perors who had aneed to share the Roman 
 IhroiJB [OratUm and his boy-brother Valeutinian 
 who divldt'd the sovereignty of the West between 
 them, while Theodosius ruled the East]. Gra- 
 tian they slew at Lyons; Valentinian they 
 speedily expelled from Italy. . . . Theodotius 
 adopted the cause of his brother Emperor" and 
 overthrew Maximus (s<« Roue: A. D 871Mi05) 
 —J. O. Sheppard, FaU of Bmm, Uet. 6. 
 
 Also ih: E. Oibboo, DtAin* and f\M of tk, 
 Roman Empire. cA. 87. 
 
 " -r?- ^?7— Th« UanrpaUoii of CenatMtiiM, 
 — The Roman soldiers In Britain, aeeing that 
 the Empire was falling topieces under the feeble 
 sway of Honoriua, and fearing lest they, too 
 should soon be ousted from their dominloQ In the 
 bland (part of which was alrewiy known as the 
 Saxon Shore) clothed three usurpers wccesiivelr 
 with the Imperial purple [A D. 4071. falling, u 
 -ar as sod, 1 position was concerned, lower and 
 lower fa their choice each time. The last and 
 least ephemeral of these rulers waa a ;;rivate 
 soldier named Coostantlne. and chosen for m, 
 pthjr reason but his name, which was accounU-d 
 lucky as having been already borne by a general 
 whi. had been carried by a BritUh army to 
 supreme dominion. "—T. Hodgkln, Italy aniUtr 
 Inmtb-,, bk i, M. 5.— The usurper Constantine 
 soon led his legions acmas the channel Into Gaul 
 then ravagwl by the Vaiidal.H, Smvcs, Alans and 
 Burgundlaus who passed the lUiine In 406. He 
 was welcoine.1 with joy by Uie unhappy people 
 who found themselves abau.loncjl to the bar- 
 barians. Some BUcriHiaes which the new Con- 
 stantine had, in pnnlent encounters with de- 
 tached parties of the German iuva<l..rs, were 
 greatly magnlfled, and pave pnstiKC to his cause 
 Ue was still more succt-ssful, for a time, in buyini 
 the precarious friendship of some tribes of the 
 enemy, and made, on the whole, a consiilerable 
 show of dominion In Gaul during two or thn-« 
 years. The seat of his gov.m.mnt was estab- 
 lished at Aries, to whicTi city Uie ortiocs and 
 court of the Roman I'netect of Oiiul h,ui 
 retreated from Treves in 408. With the help of 
 • c<.nsi<lerable army of barbarian auxiliaries (a 
 curious mixture of Scota, Moors and Mareom. 
 anni) he extendc<l his sovereiifKly over Spain 
 He even extorteii fnini tlie pusilliinimoiu court at 
 Kaveiina a recognition of his usurpeil n.yaltv 
 and promiswl assistance to Honorius against tlid 
 Gotl^ But the tide of fortune preseniTy turned 
 The lieutenant of Constant iiM; in Spaih. Count 
 Uerontius, l»ecame for some reason disaffcolwl 
 and crowmil a new usuriwr. nam.'d Maximus 
 In support of the latter he attackwl Constantine 
 
 ?|i P^iL' "'1?,"^ i" *'*«l. A' "'« «">« "me. 
 tlie bmperor Honorius, at Ravenna, having made 
 
 peace with the Goths, sent his general ClonJtantius 
 
 ?!'*.':".*.L'^ Oa.k.-Britl.* usun-T. CoT^nthH 
 
 BRITAIN. X. D. UM. 
 
 Arlsa capitulated to the representative of the 
 great name which Honorius still bore, as tituUr 
 rn:pei«tor of Rome. Constantine was s,, t To 
 Jr.T*"^ S?**. P"* *» <*«•"> on » '« way (X U 
 »!^^ M° 8.^ ^•■"' "** ^ '^ "" '^'"'' 
 
 .. /v. ?• 4»o.-Ab»ndontd \n th« Romans.- 
 
 . 2J° n"L."^l?"i' • • • "■'«'' "»« '"UxrUI 
 troops quitted Britain, we tee them ablr asilv 
 to repel the attacks of lu barbarous ».v.,ilanti 
 When a renewal of their inroa<ls left Britain 
 weak and exhausted at the accession of tli,. Em. 
 peror Honorius. tlie Roman general Stilid,,, „. 
 newed the triumnlis which Trie<Ml,»,,usliml ,„n 
 The Hct was driven back afn*l,, the Ss„« 
 boats chased by hU gallevsas far as ll.,. ( )rk,„ v" 
 and the Saxon Shore probably •.trengtl...i«l wlili 
 fresh fortresses But the campaign of .Mili,.ho 
 — the hut triumph of the Empire lu li« «i sttrn 
 
 waters, 
 drew In 
 fifth cer 
 and th. 
 sheb 
 1L 
 by. 
 thar 
 
 ai.pnMM-hing Aries, found It already besieged bv 
 Qerontius, The btter waa aU nSone.! VhU 
 
 troop., and fled, to bo •tain «»B afterw^ 
 
 832 
 
 "i struggle Rome had wagwl «,, |„„» 
 to i-s end: at the o\w\mvs, „t tu' 
 I' '^rn.siataiipesuddenly broke (li.wu 
 fx mass of barbarism wiili »i,iti; 
 '. \ b- ..ke in upon tlie Empire. . 
 i' llie Empire, broken everywliere 
 volts. Was nowhcri- more timkcn 
 ain. where the two legion- wliidi re- 
 •urn, artered at Rlchlxirough au<j York set 
 
 up I. ./.„ tlwn once their chiefs as En.|x mrs and 
 followe<l them acroes the channel fa a mar, 1. uiion 
 Home. The histof these pretenders. Cuisiaiiiiue 
 crosfce.1 over to Gaul In 407 with tlie bulk „t ilic 
 soldiers quartered In Britaia. aii,l the pn.viuce 
 seems to Imvc been left to ita own dcf, m f„r it 
 was no longer the legionaries, but ' ll„. i. ,nle of 
 Britain who 'taking up arms.' npuLvi . „.» 
 onset of the barbariana . . . They api...,. I to 
 Honorius to awcpt their obedi. ni.c, and r, i.moe 
 the troo|)s. But the legions of tlie Enii.ire », re 
 needed to guard Rome itself: and in 410 a Utier 
 of the hmjwror bade Britain pr,>vide t.r its ..»u 
 g,)v..ninient and lu own defence. K,.* si iie- 
 ments are more false than those wliiih pin, in; 
 tiie British pmvinclals as cowanis, „r ii,.ir 
 struggle against the barbarian as a w,ak .u.,1 mi 
 worthy one. Nowhere, fa fact. tl.r, .^U Hie 
 wimie circuit of the Roman worl.1. wn., .- . I. :,. 
 and so desperate a reaislauce offerx.,! to il... „ 
 sailanta of the Empire. . . . For B,)me iliirtr 
 years after the withdrawal of the legion.s th, frti 
 province maintained an eiiual struggle .ii. ,ju»i 
 her foes. Of these she proliably e«uut, i tin. 
 Saxons as still the least f,)rmldable. . It «•«» 
 with this view that Britain turned t,i what 
 seempjl the weakest of her assailanu. an.l »ir..T8 
 to tlnil . . . troops whom she could us,- as iicr- 
 cenaries against the Pict."— J. R Qreeu Tin 
 Maktitg of fngUiut, int. 
 
 Also in: J. M. Uppenberg, IIUI. of Km. 
 under IhtAnjiotiixon kinff: ». 1. p/,. ST-iW 
 ,. *• "• 44*— The Uat appeal to Rome.— 
 let onre again a suppli.atiiig cinlia..v.v was 
 sent to the R<iman general .Stius. durini; his 
 third coiisiilship. in the vear 448. . .Kiius 
 was unable to lielp them.'*-J. M. Lapp..iil»rj, 
 io "iC*''^ ""*'■ '*• -*««*> •'*"«"« Ai ',.... p 
 83.—" The date of the letters of appeal i» fixed 
 by the form of their address: 'The gn«n. of 
 tlie BriUins to Aetlus for the third time Coi,, i 
 Tlie savages drive us to the sea and the sea < »su 
 u« back upon the ••▼•(«■: so arise two kinds of 
 
BRITAIN, A. D. 446. 
 
 ^anSH COLCHKA. 
 
 dmth, ud « are either ilrowncd or ilaaglit«md. ' 
 The thin) ( •naulaie of Aetiiu (ell in A. I 446, 
 t year memorable in tlu? >Ve(t aa the be^t ining 
 of a profouo'l calm wtiich precni>->l < ' on- 
 tUu^ht of Attila. The 'omplaiut'jf iirii i liaa 
 Irft ti'i irare in the poenii n uich celebr •^ tlie 
 year ^f repoM- ami our i'ltroniclcs »t :>t any 
 mte wronK win n they attribute ita rejct tion to 
 the strtiM of j war with t'. ' una. It ia pnniblc, 
 indeetl, tliat the appeal w« ..'Ver made, ai '•- tlutt 
 the whole ttorr r<'pnr.vnts nothing but a rumour 
 current in the ilayn if Uildiui among tlie BritiEh 
 exiles in Anno'ri< . "— 0. Elton, Origint of 
 Snfluh /lut., cA. 1 
 
 A. D. 449433.— The Anglo-SAxoa Cod- 
 qnest. tV e Enulamd ; A. D. 44V-473. Ui :>4;-«):i 
 
 Ath CcBtaiy. The cnaubdued Brttona.— 
 "The Hritiios were soon reatricttKl to ihe 
 we*t<-m parta of tlie iilanil, where tliry main- 
 tainetl thenuelvea in aeventl aimill at«tc:i. of 
 which lliiwe lying U> the east yitiUcil more and 
 more to Germanic inr. uen( "; the others ppiu-cted 
 by their mountains, preserved for a c< luUlerable 
 time a gradually decreasing iDilepeD<'t'n>u. . . 
 In the southwest we nw ' with ll- (."""'ert'ul 
 territory of Damuoniu, the kingdon >\ Arthur, 
 wbii'li iMire also the name of \s < »' Wales. 
 Paiiirinnia, at a later periixl. was I. .<ited to 
 Uyvn.tiul, or Uevonshin.', by ilut sepunition of 
 Cirnau, <ir t'omwull. The ilitlricl3 1'ulleil by the 
 Saxous those of the Sunioi^itin, of the Thoru- 
 KClmt (IKimetshire), anil llif vViUstttaH wure lost 
 to the li'T." of Uyvnaiul it au e;irly period; 
 tlioii;;h (i^iuriea after- •■ rila a la ■;'<" Bntisl, 
 |H>pul:itioii ^.aiit»!nediti>cl' ., tiioHepit ' aiiioo^ 
 the Sax. Ill settlers, as aI! as mii i< tb' 
 Defnsiiias. long after the Nixon o,iii| ii it Oi 
 Dyvimiiit. who for a considerable lime pti virvcd 
 tollic luitivr^t of thjit shirt* tlieapiH'ila'in . if Uio 
 "Wclsli kiml Cambria (('yiuru). tlie ci ;iitry 
 whii !i at tbi' pn'M'tit day we (all Wilm. wiia 
 aiviili I into w-nnil »t«t«8. " The iliief if these 
 early xtAtes uiu Veiietlotia (Gwyiutltll, the Ikiug 
 of which was supreme over the other states 
 Araoiii; these latttT were Dimetia (Uyvcd), or 
 West Wttle.i ; Powys, which » as east of UwyiiciM 
 and Pnowdon iiiountuiu; (iweiit (Monmouth- 
 shin) or South tast Witlcf, the ounlry of the 
 Hilures. "The usages aud Uws of the Cam 
 brisiis were in all these states csiientially the 
 same. An invaluable aud venerable iiionumeui 
 uf tliim. although of an age in whirli tiic Welsh 
 had long lieen stilij'Ct to the Anglo ..txons, and 
 had adopted many of their insliliaiona aud 
 custoiiis, are the hiws of the king llowel Dtia, 
 who reigned in the early pari of the luth century. 
 . . . The partition of Cambria iuto several small 
 states in not, as luts often been supixiseil, the 
 eonaeipi nee of a divislou mile by kinjj Hudri 
 Mawr, or Koderic the Great, among b3 lona. 
 ... Of Dyfeil, during the tint centuries after 
 the coining' uf the Saxuus, we know very little : 
 but witli ri'gard to Owynedd. which was in con- 
 suiit 'varfare with Northumbria and .Utrcia, our 
 infoniiation is hss scanty: of Owent, also, aa 
 tlie bulwark ot Dimetia, frequent mention occurs. 
 On ilie whole we are less iu want of a nuaa of 
 M.furiiiation respecting the Welsh, than of 
 a-xuracy and precision iu that which we poaeaa. 
 . An olwuniy still more dense than tiLit 
 ' T Wales involves tlie dbtrict lying to tin 
 north of that country, comprised under Uv: 
 nauie uf Cumbria [lee Ccmbma amd eiJUi.; 
 
 cLTDEl "— J. M Lappenberg, JSitl. et Br.^. under 
 (W AmA iiMtii Kinf, e. 1, p. 11I>-I23. 
 
 A. D 63;.— Defeat of the WeUh by th« 
 Ei^ltah of Banicia. See Uevehvixu), Battljc 
 
 3 ITAIN, Great: ." 4option of the name 
 for le United Kingdoms of Eneland and 
 Scoi.aad. bee HCUTLANO: A. U. 1707. 
 
 BRITAIN, R«aaa WaUi in. See Hoiiam 
 Walls in Britaoi. 
 
 BRITANNIA, The Origla of the name.— 
 " Mauv aiv tii>* .speciilatioos which have been 
 si«rte<l ai to the - tymolugy of the word Britan- 
 nia, and among tue hiter ouea iiuve lieei: some of 
 tlie most cxtmordinary. Vci surelv it is not one 
 of tliosc philologinl dlfflculties wdich we need 
 despair of solving. Few penons >viU question 
 tliat the name Britannia is connoctcJ with 
 Uie n-uno Britanni. in the same way as Oer- 
 manU, Uallht, Graoia, &c., KithOertnani, Ualli, 
 Graeci, &c., and 1: ia not unreaaonable to as- 
 aume Uutt Britanni was originally nntliii.g 
 more than the Latinized fcrm of the Welsh word 
 Brytlion, a name which we find given in the 
 Triads 1 one of the three tribes,who tlrst coto- 
 uized Br lain. . . . Prom the Welsh ' brith ' and 
 Irish ' l-rit,' parti foloureo, may have come Bry- 
 I then, which on this hypothesis would signify t£e 
 I paiated men. ... As far ttien as philology la 
 I concerned ' liere vem» tc be no obJetti,jti to our 
 j assuniiig :rytbou. and therefore also Britanni, 
 to signify '10 painted men. How this Celtic 
 I name tlrst »amc to denote the inhab't.i-ts of 
 liH-iu- ifilaniis is a quostiou, the propter aii^ ver to 
 I Aliuh liei* •lifjK.'r than is generally suppo»!tl. 
 . . . The liiiiaonic Isles' is tin.- oldest name 
 v>t fird given m theie islands iu the clait-sieal 
 writers Vndtr this title I'olybius (:i. 57) refers 
 to tliem In connection with the tin iraile, and 
 'he well known work on the Kosmos (c. 3) men 
 litxui 'The Britimnic Isles, Albion aud leme." 
 . . But in truth ueither the auiiiorKliip nor the 
 ago of this laat-named work haa been satisfac- 
 torily aettli'<l, and therefore we cannot aasert 
 thai the pU.-ase ' The Britannic Isles' came into 
 uj" before the second century B. C. The Uiime 
 Britanuia flrst occurs in the works of Cowai and 
 waa not iripr?l>ably Invented by him. " -K. 
 Guest, Origint* Celtica, t. 2, eh. l.-^Tl.,- etymol- 
 ogy contended for bv Dr. Quest ii- so 
 Mr. IUiy8,onprinciplesof Celtiephoiiilf-i 
 on the contrary, traces relatiui,-. tiei ^ 
 
 name Brython and "the Welsh ^.^aLlea 
 ' bruthy n, ' cloth, and itr congeners, " aii' ) con- 
 cludes that it signified "a clothed or cloth clad 
 people." — J. Rlivs. CeUie Brituin, eh. 6 
 
 BRITANNIA PRIMA AND SECUNDA. 
 See BKITAI.N : A. I). 328-837. 
 
 BRITISH COLUMBIA: AboriKinal iif 
 babitaota. Sec Amkricak Abobiolnks: Atra- 
 PASCAN Family. 
 
 A. D. 1856-1871.— Eatabltshment of provin- 
 cial (oremmenl.— Union with the Dominion 
 of Canada. — "British Columbia, the Urgest of 
 the Ctnadian province*, cannot he said to 
 have had any existence ai a colony until 18S8. 
 Previous to that year provision had lieen made 
 by a series of Acts for extending the Civil and 
 Cnnitnailrfiwsol the Court/) of lower and L'ppcr 
 t'anada over territories not within any province, 
 t'ut o.iierwise the territory was useil as a hunting 
 ground o! the Uudaun's Bay Company. The 
 
 333 
 

 ^ 
 
 I 
 
 BRTTISH COLCKBIA. 
 
 Aq>QtM and dlfflcuitiM thtt aroM from Um ta- 
 
 t2?ii.^^n **!!; •*»«»»»o«> of the lloence of 
 the lIudMo I Bi..' ComtMuiy. sad the paMlar of 
 the mperi.1 Act M A £7ic,. c. M. tiToJlde 
 for the iruvcnimejt of Britiih Columbb. 
 ^H k"^. ^'""''TJ^ tppolnted Oorernor 
 •aa bv bU cuinmiiiion be wu authoriied to 
 make Uwi. Institutione and ordinanoea for the 
 Rj^w r ""^ '^^ P»»erniiiBnt of Britiih 
 Lm "■■'''- P"wlamatlon Iwued under the 
 puhic ieal of the colony. ... The OoTemor 
 contlnue.1 t» kgiiUte bjr pmchunatloo uaUl 
 1W4. wben bii pmclamatloaa gave way to Onll- 
 nancet paned by the Oorernor with tie adrlca 
 
 and coMint of the LegUMre Council 
 
 L p to thii time the Goremor of Britiah Colum- 
 bia was alao OoTrrflor of the neichbourinf Uhmd 
 of Vancoujrer. VancouTer', Itland ultotori. 
 cany ao older colony than Britiah Columbia. 
 Though diicof ered in ISM it remained practicallr 
 unluowa to Europeana for two oenturiea. and ft 
 
 r^u""?."".'" ""*• "•»" ">« '»'««» "■• ranted 
 to the Hu.l«>n, Bay Compayr. that a oSreroor 
 waa anpo nted. . . . In 18«f the legialature of 
 the ItlatMl adopted a aeriea of laaolutiona in 
 farour of union with Britiah Columbia, and br 
 the Imperial Act W ft W Vic. (i). c. 67. the twb 
 oolonlfa were united. ... By an Oixler in 
 Council datol the Itth day of kay, 1871, BriUih 
 Comnibia waa decMred u be a prorhice of the 
 
 i«?i f'"" '"^ ^lj*..*"i- ^ '^ •"•'• "nJ •TW- 
 ISTS) from the *«h of July. 1871."— J E. C 
 
 Munro, Tht r.Httilulion of Camula, cA. % 
 
 A'JK) is: ii. H. Bancroft, Hit. .jT UU AmOd 
 
 A. O. ia7a.-SettlMwnt of the Sm laaa 
 Water B{>undarT OUpate. Hee Baa Jcai oa 
 NoMTirwKn'EiiM Water BovMOiuiT QimmoH. 
 
 APRl'cA*"s?^r '^""'CA AND SOUTH 
 
 AFRICA. .Ste .\FHH A : A I). Il«4-l(j|». ,nd 
 "»'L._""- ""< Til ArHicA. and Ibka 
 BRITISH HONDURAS. See C««Tm*L 
 
 BRITISH MUSEUM. .Sre Libbawim. 
 
 pJ?i?i^'?!f u''°'*'^" BORNEO COM. 
 BRITONS, .s,-,. ('Ki,T« , «|«.i. BniTAHMiA- 
 
 BKi TTANY ; la the Roman period. Haa 
 
 AH«..m, » : ,|„j^ VKNitii ..r Ui,«Tieii!« (Jac. 
 A. D, jlx-Britiah aattlamaat aad —- > 
 .Vf lliiii «iN : A. I), DMMHN. "- 
 
 , ^ **• 4*?-— Independanee aaaarted.— At ih> 
 t m.. lh.tX Brl.iruUn.1 pmrtiaSi; J^V^ 
 it. omn.^ ti.m will, the e«plrinK Homai Kmnire 
 (.b.,u. 4(W, the Briu-Oi of Uie 'mU^-Tt^^ 
 Armonna pn.Tloce. or m<>iem Brittanr - 
 MU.w.,| the eiampl. "Thry eipeiw'ihe 
 Rmiaii marfl.tnii«. who .rt«i uod^the au^ 
 thorily of the uaurprr ConslaiiUne ; and a free 
 ««vrmm..„t WM«ul.lUh.,i anH,.,, , peopl-wh^ 
 ha.1 •. long l«.n .uhj«t to th^ arli.Ary will of 
 
 »«►•» kmp,r,, r* 81 -■■Km.n thi. timr Vr 
 
 fmni ih.- i^Uilr, of the r»t of FrwKw whirh 
 
 war. found flghllng by th.- .i.|, „f 1,V.«al 
 
 BRirrAKT 
 
 H** ^°?"* "P*"* *^ HuBi, on the great 
 dar at Chalona. Bee Ho«a: aTd. 451 "^ 
 _ *•. D-, •i»-9H.— Tha Brarsad Kingdom - 
 Sat^ien to tha Normaa l)«kaa.-3^rrir 
 '"•«°« "uprenutty over the Armoricam in»v bt 
 oompared to Uie dominion exeitrfaed by I„„"rW 
 R«»* •»<»«»» the Caucadan tribea-Jh.^ 
 
 righU of Independeoce. intercahued amon«»t the 
 coorerje perloda when the Emperor cannont^rt 
 the rig hu of authority ; yet the Pranit woul.llt 
 abaadw the prerogaUTe of the Cae«n^ Th Ut 
 
 ^tJ^S^.SL •'""'n'on on the one part. .,,.1 the 
 1 ^SI5!?!5"?°°'j?^'*»«'0'>»heotlK!r. nri.Mnv 
 b dirMed into Bretagne Bretonnu.,t« «,„| h^'^ 
 
 kST^IS'L-^ ^"*' conatltuted tl... m J^ 
 Unda, and here .he Counto marrhen, w.r*. pl,„,i 
 by Charlemigne and bU auecewr., Kniu 
 moatly by llm.a«e: ret one Breywd. Ncuii,.* 
 waa tniated by loufc-le-dibonnalr,! A. I) "*) 
 with a delegated authority. Ncwnli,.* ,1.^ rv^ 
 .i ^**n' '•«*»•.•»"<' "' the n<'w m.i.„f the 
 era, Ilterelly ukrn from the ploiii;li Tl» 
 
 dlaeenaiooa among the Pnuik.cnabl.,| Xo,„in.*t« 
 tacreaae hia auilH.rlty. Could th.r.- l« „,. 
 adTeiaary of the Kii,pire *o (tupl.1 ui ,i ,i u, 
 prolltbT the l«tllo of Wntemiy. .' . . s.mL\i 
 aaaumea the royal title, Tindloile.! ,h.. ImM. "a 
 denoe of hU a„,lcnt p.«ple. ami .-miblnl ,h. , ,, in 
 Uptime of Hollo, toawcrt with inoom.i g^^a- 
 dUoouenoB panlonable In political .rg„„,.„i ,i,., 
 UieFranit had nrver rrlgned within tl..^ |.rn„.r 
 Armorican bcMindaric •' Nomln.* lr«Mi,iuiii«| 
 hia crown to hl» ion ileriapoe; but lli.' I.iur 
 re giied bri<>ny. .u,vumhlng u, a ..„„,,ir.cy 
 which raiac.1 hi« nrplu-w, SoCmon, loll,,, ilm.w 
 au.?^ .■T"» ' v'Kon'Ua warrior. ...m. lin^ 
 lf,i. IL*^ '^™"''»' 1'"* ">"«■"•»■•• "tnu-dins 
 email klngdoii,. lie rxu-nd^l bu .loti,i„|.,n. 
 
 S!!!: *"?'•_'?. 'I'"'"*' .*fj"»- ""1 ""■ '"iiira 
 "til 
 
 --" --~w* --"•-"..». .■•■■•■u. will iiic itlMire 
 
 Normandv. and hie royal title waa «n. i,o„.,| bv 
 Chariea the H„l,| H„t he. U»i, »u ,,„„|,i^a 
 againit. bllmtia and (ifthn>i,rd, dying in |,ria.in 
 !^mIS^.' I?- Ihe.-^ond duke of X.,rln«,„i; 
 eaUbliabed hia ioniihip ovrr tlif ili-'ri.in| 
 country. •• ili.iorir«| BrIUniiy miiL^I im., f,,,,, 
 great ■muntl.'H. whith alio alMorli.^1 |I„ c.r. 
 lovlngian mar. It IkiuU. I^nmn, .Nnnl.< Vnnneg 
 an<l ( .^ounill. ■.. rivHillng ami je.,l„„K;ni; ,i,»ri 
 Ing ami warring agaliMt r* h olht r f,.r il„. r, J 
 or ducal dlgniiy. imiil tlic mipnnia. v » .. i-r 
 nianemly «iUhlUl,«l in Alan »Vri,'Hnr. Iin. iIh. 
 ally, the onnonciit, llirnon In law of W illi.i.i ihi. 
 liaaUnl. Hut ll,r •iiu-raliilv or«ii|>crii.nit ..f »l| 
 Hritanny waa vraie.1 In the (•.M,.iu.r..r < ii, 1 !!»■ 
 Planugenrt'a lim^ge, tlU tlw forfciiiin. in. urtwl 
 Sr King JiJtn — an unJuAlcjcniwnf Iumi,,. _ 
 
 M. I, M. 8. 
 
 .i.^i°:.'»f' V -'^''« ""» D»k" After 
 
 the death of hi.r h, . . all tln-o- .li»in. i.iif 
 
 territorire nM-rgi'.l In th^- thrw (l.-minmi nn .if 
 Nantea. Rennra, ami ('onmuailln .\ni..ii -.t (he 
 (•ella nmnm\ w«> lm|Nwiili|<' In ,»As~ -.mt^ 
 Nomrnop the Hul.rof Cormnialll. , lw,l *.,iiii»,| 
 I'V l*r auilHirily. ihi' n.v»l ,\\\. l.m ib, 
 r.iiinu.if Ki'nmv ai'iiuinMl ihcpri' finiihiMi .»rr 
 llir .Hher chlefuin. Higalliv ,;,m,|,„| (j„,f 
 friy. aua of I'ouau [A O. VW Knm' iuuM 
 
 334 
 
BRITTANT. 
 
 BBIXHAM CAV. 
 
 bi dtattDguiihad m the flnt Duk* of Brittany. 
 Ba cooiUtuted himaelf Duke ttrnply bv takinf 
 Dm Me. Thl* HMimptiaa nuy poaibly hav* 
 ben HiictlaiMd b/ the ett c c — o r of Saint Peter; 
 ud, by decreet, hie rank in tlie dTll hieraroiiy 
 bttame olilmately Teoognixed. . . . The Count* 
 of Brittany, and tlie Dukea in lilu manner, in 
 bter timee. Tendered homage 'en parage' to 
 Normudjr In the ilrit instance, and tliat tame 
 homane wai afterwarda demanded br the enwn 
 ofFnuux. ButtheCapetianmonarcharefueedto 
 letainwledge the ' Duke,' until tiie time of Peter 
 Ibuclerc aoo of Robert. Count of Dreui, Earl of 
 RIchinonil (A. D. UlS-lSST]."— ,?lr F. Palgrave, 
 Biit. ^Jiormandg and Rng., «. is, p. 165. 
 
 A O. 1341-1^5.— The lone Civil War.— 
 Montibft agaiatt Bloia. — Aimoat limuitane- 
 oualy with the beginning of tlie Hundred Years 
 Wir of the Engliu kings In France, there broke 
 out s malignant and destructive drii war in 
 Brituoy, which French and English took part 
 in, on the opposing sides. "John III. duke of 
 thsl province, had died without issue, and two 
 rivsU disputed his inlierilanre. The one was 
 Cbsrlea de Bluis, husband of one of his nieces 
 tod nrpbew of the King of France; the other, 
 Montfurt, . . . younger bruttici of the last duke 
 sod . . . disinherited by him. The Court of 
 Pwra, devoted to the king, adjuJgrd the duchy 
 to C'lisrk« de Blois, his nephew. Hontfort im- 
 awillat«ly made himaelf master of the strongest 
 nlscc*. awl rendered homage for Brittany to 
 Liog lidward [III. of EnglanU], whose ssslstsnoe 
 he Implored. This war, in which Charles de 
 BMa wu supported by France and Montfort by 
 Eoxlaod, lasted twenty-four years witliout Inter- 
 lupthio, anil presented. In the midst of heroic 
 sctiou. a lung oiunte of trmchprics and atrocious 
 mbberics." Tlic war was ended In lUM by the 
 bsttli! uf Auray, in which Charles de Blols WM 
 •lain, snd Hcrtrand Du Quesdin, the famous 
 Brrtun warrlnr, was taken prisoner. This was 
 •nnn followeil by the treaty of Ouiiande, which 
 MUblitliml Miinlfurt In the duchy.— E. Da Bon- 
 aeibw. Hit of Franet, s. I, bk. % eh. % mad i. 
 
 Almi m : Proiisart (Johnes), CArmMss, U. 1, 
 M. 64-227. 
 
 A. D. 1491.— Joia*4 kv ■aniaga tm tha 
 French crown.— The famlnr of Montfort, hav- 
 iag bm'n raUbliiliol In the auchy of Brittany by 
 the >mi» (if tlie English, were naturally iacUned 
 to Kntclinb (xntiiTtliina; " but the Bretona would 
 ■rliluiii prmill thrm to be effectual. Tvro car- 
 ilinsl (rrllDM guiilrd tlie eomiuct of this brave 
 ukI fjiilliful iietiplr; the one an attachment to 
 th<- Fri-iu'b natiiin and monarchy In oppoaltion to 
 fiinifii riu'iiiica: the iiibrr, a rral fur tiielr own 
 privilojje*. aiul tlii- family of Montfort, In opposi- 
 tion Id lilt' t'nrMarb'iients of Uie crown. lu 
 FniH'ii il . tlie pn-i<:.t duke Jat the time of the 
 tmwi.in of Clmrli's VIII. of France. A. D. iiM], 
 llir mail- line of tliat family was about to be sx- 
 lliii;iii>Uii<l Ilia ilaiiirhter Anne was natumlly 
 tl iil>)i'ii r many siiluirs. amonic wliom wera 
 INtnii'iilarIt (limiiiguiiilinl the tluke of Urleooa, 
 »h<,Mi<inii u> havi. been pn'frmil by herself, 
 liu iiml of Altmt. a inrmlHT of the Uaariin 
 family nf |-\il« fii».niwi by tlif Bn-Um nobility, 
 • » iiiiml liii Iv 1.1 (imn-rre tlie prnce and lilirrtles 
 "f llitir <iiuii(ry. Iiiit whoee niro .Tniiemi him 
 im viTv iuir|il«ti|,! ui a yniilhful prinoras: tnd 
 Mmtmilian, liih< of the Homiui* [wlMaie Arst 
 «llr. Mary uf Burgundy, died Ui t^U] UriUur 
 
 waa rent bj ffeetfams and OTsmin l>y the armlei 
 of Uie regent of France, wito did not lose tliis 
 opportunity of interfering with its domestic 
 troubles, and of penacuting her private enemy, 
 tiM duke of Orieaaa. Anne of Brltany, upon Mr 
 fatlwr's death, finding no oUier means of escap- 
 ing tlie addresses of Albret, wss married by 
 proxT to Maximilian. Tliis, however, aggra- 
 vated the evils of the oountrv, since France waa 
 reaoived at all events to bresik off so dangerous a 
 connexion. And as Mazimillan himaelf waa tu- 
 able, or took not tuffldent pains to relieve his 
 lietrathed wife from Iter emiMutassments, she waa 
 ultimatelv compeiled to accept the hand of 
 Charles VUL Ua had long been engaged by 
 tha treaty of Arraa to marry the daughter of 
 Maximilian, and that princess vras educated at 
 the French court. But this engagement had not 
 prevented several year* of hostilities, and con- 
 tinual intrigues with tha towns of Flanders 
 againat Maxuaillan Tha double injury which 
 this latter sustained in the marriage of Cliarles 
 with the halrsss of Britany seemed likely to ex- 
 dte a protrtctad contest ; but the king of France, 
 wlio had other objects In view, and perhaps was 
 conscious that he had not acted a fair part, soon 
 came to an accommodation, by which be restored 
 Artois and Franchs-oomtA . . . France waa 
 now oonsoUdatad into a great kingdom: the feu- 
 dal sjitem waa at an end."— H. tiallam, Tht 
 MUUU Afm. ek. t.jpt. a— In the contract of 
 .narriage between Charlea VIIL and Anne of 
 Brittany, "each party surrendered all scpaiata 
 pietenshins upon tlie Duchy, and one stipulation 
 alone wss comddered requisite Ut secure the per- 
 petual union of Brelaoy with France, namely, 
 that in case the queen should survive her con- 
 sort, she should not remarry unless either with 
 the fu'un king, or. It that were not possible, 
 with the n.-vaamptive heir of the crown."— C 
 Smedky, Uut. <^fyanct,pt. 1, «A 18. 
 
 Aiaon : F. P. Quisot, npularBitl. ttftVaitm, 
 ck. *6. 
 
 A. D. rsja.— Piaal raaaioa with tha crowa 
 of Frail je.—" Duprat [chancellor of Francis L 
 oi F.ance], whose auminiatratioo was . . . 
 shameful, promoted one measure of hi^h utilitv. 
 Francis I. until then had govenH«i Britunv only 
 In the oualitv of duke of that ptovlni v , iViprat 
 counarllvd him to unite this duchv in an ludis- 
 soluble manner with the crown, anil he prevailed 
 upon tlie Hutas of Brittany thomaelvealii request 
 this rvunktn, which alone was capable of pre- 
 venting the brsakina out of dvil wan at the 
 it h of the king. It was Irrevocably voted by 
 the H'stes asK^mbled at Vanoes in I.Vl;i. The 
 king swore tii reaiMft tli« rights of Brittany, and 
 not to raiw any sul:«iily llirreiu without the con- 
 srnt of the Mutes i'rovincial. "— E. de Uonne- 
 chuse, Uut ,^ FroMi. bk \.tk.%. 
 
 A. D. 179].— Raaistaaca to tha French 
 Ravelatioa.- ThaVaadaaaWar. HvoKKANca: 
 A U. I7W (Mamcm— AraiL), (Jtna); (Jilt— 
 
 DasCBMBU). 
 
 A. D. i7«4-i7«6.— Tha Chanaaa. 8«a 
 FnAJica: A. iTlTiH-ITWI 
 
 
 BRIXHAMCAVB.-AmvimnearnrlilMm, 
 Ilevunahlre. Knglaml. In wlilrh niit»l ■■ti.lciiiit 
 of a very early rwr of mi'ii, t-oatriii|»iriiieiiua 
 with i-rrtain estlmt aninuUa, have Im-n found.— 
 J <>plktr. rrrkftanr Kurap* 
 
 AUK> UI W. B. Uswkiaa, Osat tfaniinf. 
 
 335 
 
1 ; i' ■ 
 
 
 BBOAD-BOTTOMD ADMINISTHATION. 
 TION°T^.'°lIS'*"° ADIIINISTRA- 
 
 I8?r°8« 'nSS!!!!.'?:?' ^ "'• War ol 
 loia. see UxiraD StATn opAm.: A D iHia 
 
 *»SS22!.=-*- •* 1867-1878. *'' 
 
 BROMSE BRO, P«w* of ( tUtt Rh. n.. 
 
 MAST: A D. 1640-l«2k ' ^^ 8«>0t«. 
 
 ^.SS^^'lJL^f "^"^^ SPRUIT, B.ttle of 
 
 BoM^''*' "•J'*' "^ S"-""^- 8« 
 BROOKLYN, N. Y.: A. D. i6m -The int 
 
 the women worklug in Uit- (iiW,. ,|,iu. ,|.e ^ 
 71^ «"«■«« In tlie KTvice of the Dntrh Wwt 
 
 l»«d.-The occupation of luid within the l&lta 
 of the preMotctlT of Brooklyn . . . hwlHwrfUr 
 progiMiMl. until now (l«A) nearlr thewbol* 
 w»ter.fn«t,fromN.wto;„C™ektoihe^2Ss; 
 iniUi """•?'"» ""y. »•• In th,. poaealoBoY 
 
 v^iT^ '''i'"";rr "«•««! "> lu^lcturicuiti. 
 
 A. D. 177«.-B«ttl. of Lou I.»«i. li 
 
 IKITKI) STATE" or Am.: a I) 1776 lAllmwrT 
 BROOKLYN BRIDGE.- T^e ^Ji^tTi 
 
 K \7\"^ Brooklyn, at • h. i«ht of m feet 
 a,«» feet ; ri»er upwi, I.S».'4 HH'i-iuci. 
 
 JlTen 
 11 
 
 h,"i?°.M""* JONATHAN._A title 
 
 by WMhln^Um to h , cIom frien.l, Oov. Jon, 
 
 BRoV{«iSfitnn.J> P'""? «" An..ri<W 
 
 SSSSrlPJ?^ ^'■"^> ■>■»«•• W,.' ( 1 1 1« 
 rH.?°^J!'*:?"«*' •"•• *•■• C«««di«i "CltM 
 
 Ilia. He« iKiTtu Maik, ,„ Am a 1) mi 
 
 (>M«^IB«B--^.,^E^BKHi; IMH ,(.,to„»,,_ 
 
 pi;i x' .J"''" - Attack on Harper'. 
 
 Ferrr.- Trial and ...cutioo. .S., l.uki' 
 
 »TAiM..r Aw A l> IKW 
 BROWN UNIVERSITY. H« K.„ , at...v 
 BROWN?STB* ^i l> .r«-17..u 
 
 J»«^!W.^" "°^"' ""^ "* 8«»»l«»d. A I» 
 
 nllSv -""•■^"■"'* " 
 
 but the feotral aic«uot bow li, thai the ChM- 
 
 BRUNSWICK. 
 
 •vl «n.J AagriTaill eot««d their wliLment, 
 dn.ve them out ud utterij exterminui.TS 
 wiih Uie common belpof the nelglilMiiritu' in «" 
 either from hatred of their tyriiny or fn m ii ' 
 attmctlon. of plunder or fr4 bii." , fl' ,t' 
 aW« regard for ua. it did not eve,. gruZT^ 
 
 Ell' —..S^"' ^ Roman amu «n<l w,«,h,i„ 
 ^.'S;.*''?**'*'' •*'•>"> our d..|lg|,i„( e,T" • 
 "The origta.l«rttlemenUof the B„.cJ>^ ?r„r 
 
 ^P"fH'...'"5' '° '»''• '^■n »>itween the 
 T^?f ISlSl?"' "".•"•'•'■•'Jo of thJup^" 
 Their deatmctioo couM banllv have Ik-,.„*L, 
 complete M Tadtui repiwente. aalliev-^. .„t^ 
 "9UenUjr««..loned S, CI^V-ItZZ 
 
 BRUGES : Itth C«.»«.y.-Th. Great Fair 
 SeeKLAHDiM: ItTHCwrrwET. ■"*'™"^»"- 
 oJ^fiti!?S C«»tlri~.-Commerci.l i». 
 
 B^'asiii?.'irF;!^^^-/V^^^^ 
 
 A. D- >379-i3ti.-HeMUiU«a with Cheat. 
 See Flaxdbiu: A. D. 187»-ia«l. 
 
 *".°" .'J?*~^»*«" ■"* plnadered b» the 
 poopit of Ghent. S.*Fi^5d£h.: A I) i". 
 A. D. 14to.1488.-At war with Ma«im.liaa. 
 
 A. p. 15S4.— SubmiMion to Philip of Spaia 
 Bee Nktiiehlakos: A. I) IStW-l.W.'i 
 
 [J.^^ i "'•«;. NKTHE«LAN,«l(A,;,rKU.N I'Roy. 
 CO^^ Ac "^ ~.a A,X.LA.CHAPEtLK 1 U, 
 
 See Ambmcan AiioRMi.<(t> 
 
 See FitA.M-( 
 
 of. .Sv 
 
 n (■ 
 
 BRULE, Tho. 
 Sioi'A.v Kamii.t. 
 BRUMAIRB, Tht moath. 
 
 A D nW (OCTIIBBB). 
 
 BRUIIAIRE, Tht Elckteenth 
 
 I''i*''<K A. I) 17»(N0VEMBKH) 
 
 ^■RUNDISIUM: Origm. He« Ro»k 
 
 «^°i,^*»-^''W •'Pompeiut before C«».. 
 Be- ItoMK U v. 5(MI». '--■"• 
 
 -i.?." '^•n*"~'^** P^» "^ Aatony and Octi- 
 Tiua.-llie peai-e whi.li Ani.«iy .n.l iM.v.u. 
 wen. fonwl by their own eol.llt'n t.. luak. .1 
 Brun(li,ii.iii. B C. «), p,» poor.l f,.i t,,, u-.r. 
 Ilw ttuMi Mruggle hetweeu the two rlii, f Tri in, 
 vlre. J„r a much Innnr time It ".li I at l.«,! 
 •ecure ti.e rep,*, of lljjr. F..r « jxri,,! ,.f ,1,,,, 
 humlre.1 and flfty ynm, eie..pt (.■„• ,1,, , e.ihr 
 tag lo the atrecu of Rome, from lUirgnim t,. 11,. 
 KuMcoa 00 awonia waie again cm«m^ inwsr 
 — 8ea RuMB : B. C. 81. 
 
 BRUNEL SeoBommn. 
 BRUNKBBURG,Battl««r tht (1471). S«. 
 
 BRUNNABURGH, OR BRUNANBURH, 
 Battle oC Hee Krolahd: A D »;•< 
 BRUNSWICK. The citr of.-OrigiB awl 
 
 tma.- In the tenth (intiiry, it priii -• ' 
 
 336 
 
 Bruno, younger kmi of Uir relifnln» iiiiki' .f "b» 
 Ttlte, aad gnuideuB of the Emperur Ucnry Ita 
 
 Hi 
 
BRUNSWICK. 
 
 BVDQXT. 
 
 TtmUr, ntiind h bii patrtniaaT the country 
 tbout the Ooker. " HbtIdk flied hi* reiidenoe 
 tx * Tillage eMabliabed br Ch«rleiiui|nie on the 
 bulu of that rirer, it became known a* the 
 ■Vh-us Branonix,' acu. wlien enlarged and 
 formed into a city, afterward* gave it* name to 
 the prindpaikT of which it formed the capital " 
 -Sir A. fiblUday, AntuUt <if tK$ Umm <ff 
 Uawrr, «.l, Uc 4. 
 
 la the HaoMatie Laafv*. See HAvaA 
 TowKi. 
 
 BRUNSWICK-LUNIBURG, OR HAN- 
 OVER. See HAifOTKi. 
 
 BKJNSWICK-WOLFENBUTTEL, OR 
 BRUNSWICK : Oricin of the heu* sod dnke- 
 doB. See Saxokt : The Ulo Dvcht, and A. O. 
 1178-1188. 
 
 The Goetf conaacttao. See Qvmlw axv 
 Ohibklumk, and Em, Hovtm or. 
 
 A. D. 1543.— ExpaJaioa of D«k« Hetur b* 
 the Leant of SmalaUd. BeeOBBMAMT: A. U. 
 15.<«-lS4a. 
 
 A. D. 1S46.— Final aapaimtiaa from the 
 Llacbarc or Haaovariaa braach af the heaaa. 
 bee UAHOvut: A. D. IIM*. 
 
 A. D. ito«.-Tha Daka'a iimlnleaa coaSa- 
 cated by Napolaoa. See Osbhakt : A. D. ISOS 
 
 (OcTOaSa— DiCBMBBB). 
 
 A. D. ilo?.— Abaerbad ia the Idafdom of 
 Weetphatla. See Oemuamj: A. D. IWT (Jma 
 
 — Jl'LT). 
 
 K D. lije.— Dapoaitlaa of tfca Duka. See 
 QauAHY. A. D. 1&I9-1847. 
 
 BRUSSELS: A. O. 1577.— Tha Uaioe of 
 Ik* patriot*. See NrrBBBLAima: A. D. 1573- 
 1S77. 
 
 A. D. 15SS.— Sarreadar to tha Spaaiarda. 
 8r« .NamaLAHD*: A. D. IDM-liMM. 
 
 A. 0. 169s.— Bombardmaat by tha Freach. 
 8ee PHAxrB: A. D. 1«»IV-16M. 
 
 A. 0. ifaA.— Takaa by Marlberoach and tha 
 AUie*. See NvnuaiJuiD*: A. D. t7(M-1707. 
 
 A D. i746-i74S.~Takaa by tka Freach aad 
 rt*tef«d to Aaatria. See NaraBBLAKD*: A. D. 
 17M-1747, and Au-LA-CHAmLi.B: Taa CoH- 
 aan*. Ac. 
 
 A. D. fits.— Tha Battle af Watarlao. See 
 fntiic*: A. D. 1816 (JcHE). 
 
 A. D. ilje.— Riot aad Rarolatioa.— Datch 
 tttatk oa tha city rapaUad. See Mbthbu- 
 UKM: A. D. 18a»-lMS. 
 
 BRUTTII, The. See SAMNrraa. 
 8RUTUM FULMEN.-A phraae. aignify- 
 
 Ini; t hllad tbniiit which wa* applied in a coo- 
 I' tiiiHinirv pamphlet by PranrI* Hutman to the 
 
 Kill of I'irominiink-atiini Ifutied br Pope tiixttis 
 i'luN. K: A l> 1W-I.V<1». 
 
 V aifMiiat HenrT of Navarre, In ISM —See 
 
 BRUTUS, Luciu* Jaaiaa, aad the eapal- 
 lion of the Taroaina. Hee KoMB : R (' ItlU 
 BRUTUS, hiarcu* laalaa, aad the ataatai- 
 
 ■ttioa of Caaar. Si^IUimb -. B. C. 44 l<> 44-42 
 
 BRYN MAWR COLLEGE, ^«e« Enii a 
 
 r!"-<, M.iiiicRs Hk oiiMx A. D. ISIM lt«l, 
 
 BRYTHONS, The. See Cblt^ The 
 
 BUBASTIS— On the eaalern aide nf the 
 
 IMii, |.,f ibe Nile], more than half w«v from 
 
 «• ">i>lin Iti Z.«n. Ur the (treat Htv of I'l beielh. 
 
 IT Itiibuiit V»«t moimil* now n.iirk tlie ilii' 
 
 »iiil prewrve tli.- name; deep In ll»'lr nitii»t He 
 
 tlie •haltered fragmrota uf the beautiful lemplt 
 
 whl:>h ilerodotu* aaw, aad to which in hi* day* 
 the Egyptian* came annually in va«t numben to 
 keep the grealeet featlral of the year, the Amem- 
 bly of Boat, the goddea* of the place. Here, after 
 tlie Empire bail fallen, Shiahak [Sbeahonk] aet 
 up hi* throne, and for a abort *pace revived the 
 Imperial magniflcenoe of Thebe*."— R 8. Poole, 
 6V(M* «f BmpI, ek. 10. 
 
 BUCCANEERS, Tha. Bee Ambbica : A. D. 
 18»9-1700. 
 
 BUCENTAUR, Tha. See Vbhicb: Urn 
 Cekti'rv. 
 
 BUCHANAN, JAME&-Pratidantial alac- 
 tien aad admiaiatratiax Bee L'hiteo State* 
 or Am. : A. D. 1806 to 1861. 
 
 BUCHAREST, Treaty of (itiiV See 
 Trax*: A. D. ITW-ISIS; alio Balban and 
 Dahubiam State*: 14TH-l»ra CEMTtJBU* 
 (Sbbvia). 
 
 BUCKINGHAM. AaaaaaiaaUea oC See 
 Enoland: A. D. 16%. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM PALACE. Bee St. Jameb, 
 Tar. Palace ahd Coitbt or. 
 
 BUCKTAILa Bee Nbw Yobx: A. D. 1917- 
 1810. 
 
 BUDA : A. D. tsa6.— Takaa aad plaadarad 
 by tha Tarka. See Hdnoabt : A. O. 1487-1696. 
 
 A. D. iu»-is67.— Takaa by the Tarka.— 
 Baaiagad by tha Aaatriaaa.— decayed by tha 
 Snitaa.— Bacomaa the aaat of a Paaha. Sea 
 liUMOAar: A. O. 1SS6-1567. 
 
 A. D. 16M.— Racovary bom th* Tarka. See 
 IIUNOABT: A. D. 168»-1687. 
 
 A. D. iaA9.— Sicga aad capture by tha Haa- 
 gariaaa. See Aiitria: A. U. 184»-184». 
 
 BUDA-PESTH: A. D. 187*.— Uaioa of 
 
 tha citiaa.- Buda, on the right bank of the 
 Danube, and Peath, un the left were incorpoiBtcd 
 in 1873 into one city — Buiia I'enth. 
 
 BUDDHISM. See India: B. C. 81S- -; 
 alio LAMAa— LAMAitM: and Chixa: The rk- 
 uaioNa 
 
 BUDGET, Tha.— "The annual financial 
 ■Uleinent which the Cbaooellor of tlie Exchequer 
 make* in the llouae of Common* in a Commlltee 
 of war* and mean*. In niaklng thi* Matrnient 
 the mini*U-r give* a view of the general finaiirial 
 policy of the government, and at the nime lime 
 preaenu an eatimate of the probable income and 
 expenditura for the following twelve mnniUi, 
 and a atatement of what taxe* it i* intencletl to 
 reduce or aboliah. or what new om-i it may be 
 nercaeary to impoM- — To open the budfret, to 
 lay before the IrglKlatlve hoily the flnanrUl <*• 
 timateoand plan* of the executive gov't." — Imp. 
 IHft— Mr l^twrHinhbt lluli-ry ,(fTiuntit>H ir 1, 
 M. S) (taUii that the plinuH- ' i>|ienlny the Budget ' 
 came into uie In EngUml during the reign of 
 (leorge III., hwI that It Ikirv a reference to the 
 bougette, or lillle hag, in whicli the cluincellor 
 of the exche<|uer kept hit papera The French, 
 he add*, ailoptni tlie U'rm In tlie preient centuiy, 
 about 1814. 1'lin fidlowlnif, however, ia la dl*. 
 agreement with .Mr. INiwell'* explanattoo: "In 
 tlie reigu of Uenrge II Hie wnni w*a utetl with 
 cnn*riou* ■lliinlnn to the relelmited pamphlet 
 which ridlcuieil 8lr It. Wulpole a* a conjuror 
 opening III* liiuliret or 'bag of trick*.' Aft<'r- 
 wanU, it mum, f«r a time. Iiave been current a* 
 •lang. bul. a* It •unplled a want. It wa* M«>n 
 taken up loki titeonllnary vocabulary. "—<< (Am- 
 mum, m 14. t8»t. p. Sli 
 
 837 
 
M 
 
 i 
 
 if iH^ 
 
 BVDim. 
 
 BUOINIiTlM.— A noniaaic tribe which ITfm- 
 iotiu dncrlbM M kodentir inhablUnff » ngina 
 bctwera the Lral Mouauina ud tlie CwDlao 
 8e» ;;5; Onte. ISH. </ OriMt. pi. 9, a. 17. 
 w°'i5?'iV' G«"*S»f *>« CmIo*, Cuaptignu 
 fr *» Ukiwd BTATn o» Am. : A. lyitiai 
 (Jdit— NovBMBBii); I86t (Jahvary— FUIRD- 
 A«T: KlWTrCBT-TlUOIBMt); (Pbbhuakt- 
 
 *»•«»•= TwmwMB); (Jcm-Ociobbh: Tew- 
 ■■•«■— KwrnrcBTX 
 
 HC VH. oee AJWBHTUf B tUCPUBLIC. 
 
 BUENOS AYRKS. Tl» City of: A. D. 
 *S*-~f**^ "^ ■MBCCMrtU budlac of tht 
 
 ■""'ALO, N. v.: Tb« .boricioal occih 
 MBU of Um lit*. See Ambricak AaoKioDiBa: 
 UUBONt, Ac. 
 
 A. D. i744._C«Mloo of tb« Pear Mite Strip 
 br tk* Smmcm. See PoHTiAc'e Wab. 
 
 A. D. IT79.-TIM BlU eccapted by tk* 
 
 yMiTRD BTATRa or An. : A. D. 1779 (Auaovr— 
 Sbptbmbbb). 
 
 Uw ettr. ^ Nbw Tobb: A. D. 178M793: 
 
 Bee Uhitbo Stat « or Am. : A. O. 18U (Ssr- 
 
 TBMBBM— NOTBMBBR). 
 
 A. D. tti].- Deatnctioa by Billirt aad la- 
 
 •UM. See CiitTBO Statbb or Am.: A. D 
 
 1818 (DaCBMBBB). 
 
 See NBW YoBB: A. D. |1i7-1M1l 
 
 A. D. i^t.— The HaMaaai Pfaa-Sail Caa- 
 «|«rti0B. Am Unitc* SKatm or Am : A. O. 
 
 A. D. rtM.— Tba Paaiaa iavaataa af Ca»- 
 •4*. SeaCABAOA: A. D. 1H88-1871. 
 
 BUFFALO HILL, Battlaa af. 8« Ukitbo 
 *''*'"^"' *"■ ■ ^ " ><••> (Auoi»T— Decbm- 
 
 BBB: WbTT VtROIHIA). 
 
 BUFFINCTON FOBD, Battte oC Bee 
 iHlTBoSTATBeorAM. : A. D. 1H« (JrLT: Kbh- 
 TtTTBT). 
 
 BUCIA, CMqaaat br the Spaaiardt (1510). 
 
 BULGARIA. See Balbak a»d ftAKraiAB 
 
 SH'-'^^i**"' ^^ raUgioaa Sectariea ao 
 callad. See pACLiciAin. 
 
 A'.i'^^Niisr^'' "^^ "" •'««-= 
 A"n"Vi:,tr^'^'-^- ^"""--^ 
 
 Pope BoDlfan Vllt. Feb. S4. 18M, f..rlikldlni 
 the clergy to pay aod the Hwukr (>nwen u> 
 eiert under penalty of eioommuntcslina. ooa- 
 trlliutione or ta»a. tentha, Iwnitteth*. bun- 
 ftiwrtth^ or the like, fmm the n-vraura or the 
 jn^of the churchae or their mtnlef w."— W. 
 
 .A *lSi?' ' J^ '. Headafano. Mte* Bim /W. ^ 
 
 . BULL "DaaUaaa R- ji .l_.- Saa 
 
 Jaatrm: A. tV ITa»-lll7I 
 BULL "Bsana Daiaiaa.'* flae Pavadt' 
 
 BUROmfDIANB. 
 
 BULL,G«MaiL 8ea GoLon Bitll, Btiab. 
 TJJ.B; alao Obbmaot: A. D. 1847-U«8.i£ 
 III xiiABT: A. D. 1114-1801. ' ™ 
 
 BULL. "LMidabiUtar/' Tha.-A paixU bun 
 promulntod in 1185 by ^peAdriaTlv X 
 one EasUahmaa who erer attained to St. pi-i^ 
 "•Vu'TE?^^*^'^'' "» klBfdom of uS«a 
 
 A.^D^'riCSS^-"^-"'^ ««'•-- 
 
 BULL "Ualfaaltaa," The. See Port Rotu. 
 lUtSi-ir ?Hf/ °" MANASSAS, Fim 
 
 BULLA. Tha. SeeTooA. 
 
 OBO V. (NOTBMBEB-l)«CK)IBmj; 
 
 .BUND, BUNDBSRATH. BUNDESPRB. 
 BIDBNl'. BUNDBSCBRltHT, The S\^ 
 See SwiTSBBi.Ain>: A. D. 184»-18M 
 ,g}WNgB8<TAAT. 8.. oiSLr: AD. 
 
 BUNDSCHUH INSURRBCTI0N8. Be. 
 
 BUNKBR HILL, Battte af. See ix^tD 
 Statb. or Am.: A. D. 1775 (JiTit) n« 
 fiaaite monammt. 1891 fm In heiKht whki 
 
 S38 
 
 BUR6BS8. See BooaeBon 
 ^M»OH. OR BURGI, OR BURH. 8m 
 
 BURGOS, Battte af. See SrAm: A D m 
 (SBrrBMBBN— Ubgbmbbb). 
 
 BUROOYNB. GoMnJ lafca. and the W., 
 af tfea A«aricaa Re*olaUoa. Sh linn) 
 STATBaorAM.: A. D. 1773 (Apkil-Mav\ 1T77 
 (Jtav— Octobkb). 
 
 BURCRAVBS. See Palatitcb. fnr^ 
 
 BURCUNOIANS: OnKinaadMririuMarT 
 —"About the middle of the fourth cvnlurv li" 
 cmtntrtea. perhapa of l.unwv mh] Thurini[«, ..0 
 either aUeof the Kibe, were (iccupii\l bv ilu- \»gm 
 dominion of tha BuririuMiteaa - a w«rlikr wj 
 numeruua people of the Vandal mo., wh.* !, 
 acure name inaeaaibly awelM into » -..w.-rful 
 kin((dom, and baa finally aettlnl no a H.urtiliin* 
 province. . . . The diapuied ponnuno or hokk 
 rwlt-plta eataged the Alemaaal and th.. ttm^n- 
 iliana hi frequent conteata. Thi- Uu.r « m 
 ea^ tempted by the aeiwt •i>ll<ii>iii..n> 1 id 
 liberal offenof theempemr IVnlnuinUn. A :> 
 ".'J.- ■°«1 U^lf fabuloua ileaceat fn.m tl,.- Ifc.., in 
 ly^-^T had formerlr been Irfi to gm: .n 
 tha fortraaaea of l)ruau» wm ulinUuil wili 
 J" ."-*~ «"«lullty, aa It waa cm iidvr to miimtl 
 ™"JJ*- An anny of founon ihoiiMii.l llur- 
 cuadlana anna appeami on the i«nkK ..f thr 
 Hntoe. and Impatiently rmiulml ili.«ui.|«.niiiij 
 ■JwaMtea which Valenllnlan h*! (inrnilneil tmi 
 ***y.^ — ■a m aaii with eiruara An<l ilciav. till >t 
 ''1*"i.«ft ar a fn iltleiai t«prr»at(<-h. timv win 
 "■^'■!"*.*? •■■* The Aima aail fortllii «imi 
 •r tfea Oalltr Kvatier check d Ite fury ..f thrit 
 iuat w i n liiiB L ."-K UMhb. OmttJamd m 
 
BCItOCNDUNS. 
 
 BDBOUKDT, A. D. Stt-MI. 
 
 f Oi Rm»» XK^n, A. IS.— "Weflnthearof 
 them [the Bunundtaoi] M • trilie of Teukwio 
 itork. kiorted betwen Uie Oder and the ViMuta, 
 no riUwr Imnk of the river WarU. When the 
 Grpiilc dcKendcd louthwanl with the Oothi, 
 tfar Buixundians were onmpelled tn recoil before 
 tlie idmm of the former tribe: one portion of 
 tlM-in toolc refuge in Bomholm, an island of the 
 Bdtic: the rnnaiodrr turned westward, and 
 mide an attrmpt to enter Oaul. They were re- 
 piilird by Probua, but permitted to settle- near 
 the lourccs of the Main. JovUu sltowiil tlirm 
 fivour, and gave them lands in the Ocnnania 
 gwunda. This was in the latter part of llie 
 fourth ccntunr. Just at its cloae, tlu-y adnpli-d 
 Christianity, but luder an Arian form. Ammi- 
 sous tells us that they were a most warlike 
 rsce."— J. 0. Bheppard, TM* FnU of Home, 
 bet. 8.— "The other Teutonic people hnil very 
 little recaid for the Burgundlans: tliry accused 
 thrra of haring degroeratMi from tlie vakir of 
 thrir snccsturs, by taking in petty towns (biiur- 
 gaili'*), whence their name BurKundii sprang; 
 sni they looked upon them as bt-iug more suit- 
 sblr for the profesuooa of mechanica, smiths, and 
 arprnters, than for a military life." — J. C. U 
 de Htsmondi, Th* fYtnelk andrr U« Merann- 
 fiaiu, eA. 8. — "A document of A. D. TM, in 
 Dotiring the high tract of huds between Ell- 
 wsoKcn and Anspacii, has the folli>wing ei- 
 uivwiim,— ' in Waldo, qui Tocatur VIrgunnia.' 
 Urimm looka for the deriratioa of this wuid in 
 the Moao-Oothlc word 'fairgunl.' Oh! High 
 Oennan 'fergunnd'= woody bill-range. ... I 
 have little doubt but tlutt tills is the nuiiie of the 
 tni't uf land fmm which tlie name liiirgundl 
 anair; and that it Is the one which dxes tlicir 
 kxiiiity. If io, iM'twM'n the Burgundhin and 
 Sut'vir Orrmans, the diifrn-nop, such as It was, 
 was probably almoat wholly pulitical. "— IL U. 
 Lsthiun, Tilt Otrmania of Taaliu; Spiltgamena, 
 ml It. 
 
 A. D. 406^09.— UtmIm of CaaL Bee 
 Oah. : A. 1>. VM-4M. 
 
 A. D. 443-4S>-— Tbtir Savajru kiagdoa. 
 — " In the •iiutu-rast of Uaul, tiie Burgundians 
 h«<l. sfti-r niaiiy wars and auroe reveraea, eatab- 
 liiluil tlirii»irlvt's(44S) with the consent of the 
 Itiiriiaiit in the <IUtrict titen called thipaudU and 
 niiw Maviiy. Their territory was somewhat 
 nuire rxU'milve tlian the pmviniv which was the 
 cTullr of the pment ruval house of Ilalv, since 
 it tlntiiKMi DOfthwanls lieyond tlie lake uf 
 Ncuft hiit4'l and suuthwani* hd far as Qreoobk-. 
 Hrrr the HurgundUn imiii. raiiu under tluir 
 king Quoiltuk, were busy si ttiiiig tbrmarlvrs in 
 Ihi'lr new possession. cult'vatinK the kuds 
 whk-h they lud dirliled by hit. eat-h one ivcriv- 
 hif half the estate of a Itoiiiau h<iat or 'hos|M's' 
 (for under such gentle naiuea tlie spoliathia was 
 TCilrd), when the news cam* that tlie t<'rriM<' 
 Hun bad cmssed the Rhine {A. D. 4.M|, ami Hint 
 all hosts and auesu in Usui must unite fur its 
 defence"— T, lliidgklu. lUUg and Utr inuidtr; 
 
 a J, <A s. 
 
 AD. 4Si.-At Ut bMtIa of Chaleaa. thw 
 BiKs A. D. t«l. 
 
 A, D. *ae.— BBtMsiMi of thair Uard«m.— 
 "Their (the BurauwiUnsI domain, conahirrHhly 
 nnre eitenatTe than wlirii we hut vlrwnl it on 
 Um' evi nf Attlhi'a invanlon. wiw Iwtiiili.l lli« 
 hlrr norliKt't of Biirgiimly, Kraut lu'ConiitS 
 ■ml Dauphlui, beaidea Haroy and Um groaler 
 
 part of Switierland —In fact the whole of th« 
 Talkys of the tteone and tlie Rhone, save that 
 for the but hundred mihss of iu course the Visi- 
 goths barred them from the right bank and from 
 the moutha of the latter river." At the tlnw 
 now spoken of (A. D. 000), the Burgundian 
 kingdom was divided between two bruther-kiDfi, 
 Oundofaad, reindng at Lyons and Vienne, and 
 Oodegiael at Qeneva. Oodcgiaei, the younger, 
 had conspired with Cloris, the king of the 
 Franks, against Oundobad, and in this year SOO 
 the two confederates defeated tlic latter, at Dijon, 
 driving him from the most part of his Ungdom. 
 But Oundobad presently recnveivd hia footing, 
 besieged and captured Us treaclienMia brother at 
 Vtenne and promptly put him to death — there- 
 by reuniting the kingdom.— T. Hodgkhi, IIoIm 
 mmt Utr latadm, M. 4, eA ». 
 
 A. D. S344— Final coaqneat ^ th* Franka.- 
 " I am impatient to pursue the final rule of lliat 
 kingdom [the Burgundian] which waa accoro- 
 
 Slfaibed under tlie reign of Bigismond, the son of 
 undobald [or Oundobadl. The Catholic Sigia- 
 mood haa Mquired the honours of a saint and 
 martyr; but the handa of the royal saint were 
 stained with the blood of his Innocent son. . . . 
 It waa hia humble prayer that Heaven would 
 inflict tn thia worid tne punialimrnt of his sins. 
 His prayer waa beard; the avengeia were at 
 hand ; and the provinoea of Burgundy were over- 
 whelmed by an army of victoriuua Franka. After 
 the event of an unauocessful battle, Sigismiind 
 . . . with his wife and two children, waa tfana- 
 ported to Orleana and buriul alive La a deep 
 well by the stem command of the sons of Clovis. 
 whose cruelty ndght derive some excuse from 
 tlie maxims and examph-s of their barbarous 
 age. . . . The rebellious Burguniiians, for they 
 Hitemptcd to break tiieir clMlna, were still per- 
 niitteil to enjoy their natiouni lawi under the 
 oblintioa of tribute and military service; and 
 the Merovingian princes peaceably rt-igned over 
 a kingdom whoae glory and greatnesa hail been 
 first overthfown by the arma of Clovla." — E. 
 QibboD, DtUM and nu tf tin Human Kmpirt, 
 M. 88. 
 Also m: W. C. Perry. Tht FYaiUit. «*. 8. 
 
 BURGUNDY: A. D. SM-7SA-Tha Mer*. 
 
 Ttngiaa kin g dom.— Afu-r iLe .ivrrthmw of the 
 Burgundian mooarrhy by tlie sons of (kivis. the 
 territory of the Burgundlaoa. with part of the 
 neighboring Frank terriuiry luhkil to it. Iieaune, 
 umler the name of Burgumlin or lliirguody. one 
 of the three Frank khigiTonw ( .\ tiiti nuin awl >ieus 
 tria being the other I wo), into which iIh- .Mrnivin- 
 gian princes divhini thrlr doiiiiuiou. ll uccu- 
 pk^ " tlie east of the country, iHtwren tlif Uiire 
 iind tlie Alps, fnmi I'nivi'iH'e ou iIh- sihiiIi to the 
 liillrangfs of ttie Vuagi-a on tlu' north."— P 
 (tiHlwiii. IliM. 11) fYiiiift ■ Aiirifiil U'liil, (•*. II, 
 A. O. I4J-9JJ.— Divisions of the early king- 
 dom.- The latsr kingdoms of the south ana 
 the French dakedem of the northwest.— Ily 
 tlie In-Hly of Vrnlun. .\ I) H|:l. mIh, h iMinmllv 
 diviiliil Hie I'lnpliv uf I'iMrh'iiiuKiH' l< 1 Mt n his 
 thnv KnunlMina, a part uf DnrKuiiilv »<» iiikiii 
 to fonn, with Ilalv awl i^irniiiM-. tin l.iiiK>him 
 of the Eni|H'nir IxitiMr, »r l^otluilrr In lbs 
 fiirtlM-r iliiwiliitiisM whicii fulkiuiil, w khitcclom 
 uf liuri;uiHl> 01 I'rovi'iiK kiw liiiniiitl In x?? bv 
 irtH* iUimt. a iiniH-i- \\\¥* IumI iimiDiit lniiiiti;nru, 
 dsugbler u( tlu: Lui|Hrur Lmaa II , »« ol 
 
 sau 
 
1 -a 1 
 
 -ii 
 
 iJl; 
 
 V 
 
 I'vl '' ' 
 
 . ~ J 
 
 G > 
 
 n 
 
 1 
 
 f* 
 
 1 
 
 
 t 1! 
 
 
 BCROUNDT, A. D. 
 
 L<Hh»lre. It "liieludad ProTmcc. Dituphlni. 
 the luiithcni put of aiToy, ud the ciintry 
 between the 8mim ud the Jura." »n<l ii *.ni.' 
 tlmM calle<l the kinRdom of CU-Juniue Bur- 
 fundy. "The Ungdom of Tnuis-Junuie Bur- 
 ffUDdy, . . founded bjr Rudolf In A. U 88H 
 recogiiiied la the ume yew by the Enipimr 
 Arnulf, included the northero part of 8«voy 
 •nd all SwiUerUnd bMween the Keux and the 
 Jun. —J. Bryoe. Tht JMf Roman Bmmn. ck. 
 6. and aTV..not, A.—"Tbe Ungdomt of Pro- 
 r*^^ '."^ Tranajuran Burgundr were unlt«l. 
 In ».«. l.y Raoul II., King of iWjumn Bur- 
 guoily. and formed the kingdom of Arlea. 
 SILT"*'..'''.?" B87 to W8. by Conrad le 
 , f"!!'."' ..r'l O"!*"*. tSM. 4 ariliMtinn. 
 
 and England. 6t. 1. «*. 4.-" Several of the 
 greater and more commercial town* of France 
 •uch aa Lyona, Vienne. Geneva. Braancon 
 Avignon, Arlea, Marseille and Grenoble were 
 ritualed within the bounda of hU ftJonrad the 
 Pacinca] atatea ■— J. C. L. de SUmondl, fVaiM 
 «»*r M. f>udal S^mtm, M. g.-'Of the older 
 Burgundlan kinmlom, tiie northweatem part 
 forming the Und l>est known ai llie Uurhy of Bur- 
 *"?V'' rS • •" **" <llrt»iona of tlie ninth century 
 a Jef of KarolingU or the Western Kingdoin. 
 Thia b the Biirarimdy which ha* DlJon for lu 
 capital, and which wai held by more Uian one 
 dynaity of dukea aa raaaala of the Weatem kinn. 
 flratatUon.andthenatParia TbU Bursundv 
 which, aa the name of France came to Uiir fta 
 modem aenae may I* dittlngulshed aa Uie French 
 Duchv,muit be carefully dUtinguWied fn,m the 
 Royal Burgundy " of tlie ClaJunine and Trana- 
 Juranv kintrclnrnt mrntii>nr<t alwvc — E. A. Free- 
 man, IliMlnri-iU l/f'j. of furu/r, fh. fl ttd 1 
 _*■ P- M»-«0}J.-th« French Dnkedom.- 
 Tha fonndiof of tha Fint CapttiMi Honaa.- 
 Of the earliest iirimeii of thia northwenttrn frag- 
 ment of the ul.l kinKilom of Burgundy little aet ui« 
 to have be.n diwNivrmble. The flef and ita title 
 do not weni U> hav.- lHMX.nic here<llury until thrv 
 fell nto the gruHpInK hamln of the Capc-tlan 
 family whhh ImpiHiinl Juit at the time when 
 the aaplring omnu of Haria were rl«ing to royal 
 rank. In the early yean of the t.-ntfi i-entiirv 
 the reigning count or duke wan Rirhanl le-JuiJ 
 ticler wlxiM- (ii«iii)gul.iliiiig prim-tly virtue U 
 recorUeiJ in lila name Thii Kutianl )c Juatl. Lr 
 *."*>' '»'•"'"•' "'that Boao, or Boaon. aoo In law 
 ».l tiiip.p.r L.,ula II , who Kok advantage 
 il .'I" ""'""*"' ">« «'">««<• fa«hl.>n for him- 
 aeira klng<li>m of Burgundy In the .South (('1«. 
 Jurane Burifumly, or Provence,— ire above) 
 Rl< l.«r.l . •«! lUoul, or Rudolph, marrie.1 Emma 
 the daughter of Uobert. Count of Pari, and j 
 uune of trautv, who waa axon aftirwanU. lio«,n ' 
 h.ng, ,,y the noblin, who tlre.1 of ( nrlovlnaUn \ 
 mijrule Kinn HolMrt . reign waa ali..rt. In- f,.|l ! 
 lnl»lllo wilhth. (ariovlnjan.. atHolii«M» tlie 
 
 . J!^L."' Tlie Onat. found It more u. hU taate 
 to be khig nwk.r than U. lie king He di-clln«l 
 the pnAer.-.! . mwn. and brought about the coro- 
 natior, of hi. ImMher in Uw, the llurgumlUn 
 . ' .''''JH'".'.'*'?'^ '"' «'«vn year. Vihru he 
 ''.'"m '5,***' ""»?''«'»•«"»' ••Ill lirld the crown 
 at hi. dUp<iaal ami .till refuMl !.• wi-ar It him 
 
 Tli i T'" t'**^ "•'» l"n<f n-ker to »t a 
 t.arlovlngian priiiie on the lhr..ue, Im iIic ner«.n 
 Of Loula dOutr. Her. a young mx of tCfcS 
 
 BCROUNDT, 1082 
 
 the Simple who had been reaivd In Ernland bv 
 hla tnghah mother. But, if Duke Hn^uZZ 
 nothing for the name, ho cared much f<ir tli.„,b 
 stance of power. He graaped dominion whtr,.; 
 ever It fell within hU reach, and the Burgundiw 
 duchy waa among the Matea which he cluicUH 
 King Rudolph left nom to Inherit eith.r |,u 
 dukedom or hb kingdom. lie had a bn,t|„!r 
 Hugh, who claimed the Duchy; but the gr,.,UT 
 Hugh waa too strong for him and KcurwT, aiih 
 t^io •utbority of Uie young king. hi. prUcKe, t™ 
 Itle of Duke of Burgumiy amfthe largrr iwrt ? 
 the domain. •• In the Duchy of France or il,. 
 County of Paria Hugh le-Orand had nothing ° 
 yowl the regalltlM to desire, and both In BurKun,tv 
 Md the Duchy he now became an imnimnble 
 \ Iwroy But the privllegessoobtaine.1 l.v Hugh 
 le-Urand produced very Imporunt p.iliiii-»| re 
 sulU, both present and future. Hugh awunvil 
 even a loftier bearing than before: Burgundy »» 
 anneje.1 to the Duchy of Prance, and m«»,1 »i" 
 the Duchy ; ami the grant thereof made l>y llufh 
 tapet to hU son [brother? ] Henri IcOrand k v*r 
 Ing the same from the crown. creale<l the on- 
 mier Duchy of Christendom, the most .pifuili,! 
 appanage which a prince of the Uiinl ml i. (lUe 
 Caiwllau.! c<.uld enjoy- the rival of the lhn.ne 
 ^^llr V Paiivvttwa f/.'^ .^ \r • . .. 
 
 — Sir F. Palgrave. Uut. of A^rwoVi/V W AV 
 !-♦ — Hugh-le-Grajid diwlln 
 
 81U 
 
 *». I, pf. %° di. . 
 
 •M. ••His power, which, more than hLuk'nili 
 or ezploiu. bad given him the naiiie of UrfW 
 was divided between hU chlhlren, who vvtv yet 
 very young . . . There Unomrdoubtas toiluir 
 numlier and the ordir of their birth. It miwm 
 however, that Otho waa the el.lwt of liis iLn-c 
 sona He had given him hi. part of tlu .lii.liv 
 of Burgundy, and had made him nmrrv ili;. 
 I daughter and heir of OWebert. duke of «i;.,ii„r 
 I part of Burgundy, to which (Uho»ii<i-,-,-,|.,| ib. 
 I same year. The Utur dying in »M ,.r Wi-I il«. 
 duchy of Burgumly passed to his thlnl bnnhir 
 I .ometlmea named Henry, wmetiinc. Kul™ 
 I Huguea [Hugh], sumanail Capet, who »«<•. .•.,l,..l 
 ! U) tiie county of Paris and the duchy of Kmiuf 
 , waa but the second sou."- J. C. L. de Sism,.u.li' 
 I Th* fYrwA undtr tk* Cttrlorinffiaii; rk. l."i ■- In 
 W7 Hugh C«|>et became king of Fmuiv .u.l 
 founded the lasting dynasty whliti U»r< hU 
 nan». Hi. ehler brotlier Henry nm«iu.-l Duki- 
 of Burgundy until hi. death. In Wn wlniiliU 
 royal nephew, lioUrl. son and »u.i-.».».r ..f 
 Hugh, annexiil the Umhv to the CroKii It ». 
 r.-inaio«i until Wfi Thin Kiiiir II, i,r. I ».n 
 of Robert, grante.1 it ai an .ppnnak-; t., Iii, 
 hnilber Robert, who founilnl tlic llril t«i«-iiui 
 HouK of Burgundy —E. ile B.mii..h.i«.-. iha 
 «/ AVwaar, 4*. 1, eK. i 
 
 A. D. loja.— The laat kiogdom.- It. uniaa 
 with Carmaoy, and its dissolution. - Ihi- Iwt 
 
 kiiigtlom which liorc «hn im I Huriiun.li - 
 
 tlxmgh more often calM ih.- kluiftl.mi ,1 .Ulii 
 — fortmnl, aa sute<l aliove, hy tin- iinio.i i,f i(w 
 short lived kingdoms of Prminrt- sii.l 1 mii.ju 
 rune Burgundy. iK-came In lictj iioini.Mll) uiiii«i 
 to the domiiiiona of iIh' EmpiT..r KIbk- uf i«r 
 many. Ita hut lnd<')ienileut knot *as Itii.li.lf 
 III . son of Conrail the Paiilir. wlm »*. uii.le 
 to the Emperor Henry II iiehiK .hil.lirfx. in- 
 named Henry hi* heir The latter ti,.Kivfi 
 dle«l first. In 10'J4, and Rudolf «tuiiipi.-l t.. 
 canifl his lieijiniit. clslminn ibal It "an iiw-l.- !•> 
 Henry |ier»>nallv, not a* Kins "' 'lie li. nnann 
 WUen, however, ibo Burgundlan king iluil. la 
 
BUBOUNDY. loss. 
 
 BURGUNDY. 1127-1878. 
 
 ton. the then nigntng Emp«ror, Connul the 
 HtUc, or the FnuioonUn, formally procUinied the 
 unioa of Burgundr with OcmuDV. ' ' But aince 
 Bur^ndy «» ruled klnxxt eiclusirely by the 
 mat nobility, the eovereignty of the Oemian 
 Empvron there wu nerer much more tlian 
 ■ominiti. Betidee, the country, from the Bemeae 
 Oberlanii to the Hfditerranekn, except tlut part 
 of All'-niwioia which la now Oerman Switzcr- 
 land, waa inhabited by a liomauce people, too 
 dininct in language, ruatnma and lawa from the 
 Oerman empire ever n-ally to form a part of It 
 . Yet 8wit(erlaDd woa thenceforth connecttd 
 forever with the development of Oemiany, and 
 for BOO yean remained a part of the empire."— 
 C. T. Lewto, Bitt. of Otrmany. hk. 9, eh. ft-T— 
 " The weakncta of Itodolph-leFnineaot [Hodolph 
 III., who made Henry II. of Ucrmany hia heir, 
 ai itatrd above], gave the great lonla of the 
 kioftiiom of Aiiea an opportunity of conaolidat- 
 \zf tbdr Indepenilciioe. Among theae one begina 
 torcnmrk Berchtold and hia ton. Humbert-aux- 
 BUnchtn Maine (the White-handed), CounU of 
 .Mauriinne, and loundera of the iluuae of Savoy ; 
 Otto William, who it la pretendeil waa the aon of 
 .VIullxTt, King of Itiily, and heir by right of 
 his iiiMlliiT to the county of Burirundv, waa the 
 f.iuii'liT of the Bovrrvign hiiuae of Pranche- 
 Cimitc [County Palatine of niirgundy] : Oulgue, 
 Ciiunlof AllHin, founder of the aovpn'ign bouae 
 of tbr dauphin.s of Virnnoia: and William, who 
 it U i.n'lenilotl waa the i-wuc of a brother of 
 Ralulph of liurirundy. Kini; of France, and 
 who waa aoven'isn count of Provence. Theae 
 (our Innla had. tlirouKhouf thr reign of Rodolph. 
 much incin- power thnn he in tlie kingdom of 
 Aril's; an<l when at hiit ilfaiii liia rniwn waa 
 unltril to iIkiI of till' F^mplre ihr fnidatoriiM who 
 hail i;r""'n titrtA at hia expiiiaa- became alnioal 
 alMi>liiti'ly imii-pendent. On the other hand, 
 their vaiuala liegan on their aide to aci|uire 
 impiirtanre under them : and In Hrovenre can be 
 traeeil at thin periiMl the HU(?ct*!iJiion of tlie rounta 
 of Kcmilquier and of Veimiiwin. of tlie pnuces 
 i>f Oranire, of the viacoiinta i>f Slaraeilie. of the 
 llama* of Baux, of Hault. of Uricnau. and of 
 Cwtiilane. We can atill follow the fonnatiimof 
 a frn'at numlier of other fi'udatory «r rather 
 anvrn inn lioiiapa. Thiw the eouiitaof Tixiliiuar, 
 Ibipni' nf Itiiiiergue, the iluki-H of (luM'imy. tiic 
 I'oiihU iif Fiilx. of IMwrn, and of (anamime. 
 ilate 1(1 li'wi! from thia e|Mich ; but their exUlfOi'C 
 is SMUiHineeil to ui> only by their dililoiuaa and 
 ihfir 'villn ."— ,1 0. L. de Hlnmoudl, >n«K« uiuUr 
 "m- r'.'i-M Aiiltm. eh. 8— See. aiiio. Pbovtsce: 
 A !• iMS-lOB'J. and Fhani'HK t'.iMTK. 
 
 A. D. ti»7-i378.— The Franco-Carmaoic 
 conteit for toe valley of the Rhone.— End 
 of the kmgdem of Arlaa.— "Aa aomi aa the 
 I 'apt ti.iii niitnarehn buitnri)tiinii enough atrrogth 
 It li.iiii- 1,1 In' alilr III liKik with aafety abrtwd, 
 tliev l"eiui to make iiiti^riMliiiia nn tlw tempting 
 •nj wenltliy ili'iMiideinifii of tlie itialant em- 
 jK'pirs Hut tlie Itlitini' valli-y waa Ion ini|>ortant 
 in i!« If. auil of tii.1 xnal utratrgli-al value aa 
 •aeuniii an eiwy ri«d to Italy. t«i make It p.*- 
 •IbW f.r till- emiMron to iui|Uieac«! eaailv in lla 
 loaa Ill-nil' « I'ing eoiirtut, whleh aonn im-ame 
 a aaiii.iial i-onlliit of Frtiiirh and Oeraana. to 
 ■auiuiii the Imfierial piwilion in llie aiddle 
 kme t.im ' ,,f tlie Ulmne valley M Fneniier a 
 lii«li !<!- ItovaiMB. i Ark-B et lie Vienn 118»- 
 ll>i . par I'aul Fuumtvrj ahaa at gtviag an 
 
 adequate account of thia ttruggte. . . . From 
 the time* of the mighty Barliaroiaa to the ilnieii 
 of the pretentioiu nnd cunning tburles of 
 Luxemburg [aeeOsaiiAHT: A. D. (ISS-I^IM, and 
 A. D. 1347-I4V8], nearly every emperor aougbt 
 by conatant acta of eovereignty to uphold lila 
 prt'carioua power* in the A relate, tnablo to 
 effect much with their own rcsoiircea, the em- 
 pc-rora cxbnuated their Ingenuity iu tinding allies 
 and inventing brilliant achemea for reviving the 
 Arclate, which invariably came to nothing. 
 Barbaroaaa won the band of the heiresa of the 
 couiity of Burgundy, and sought to put in place 
 of the local dynaatles princes on whom be could 
 rely, like lierthold of zkringen, whiit>e father had 
 received in 1127 from Conrad III. the higli- 
 aounding but mcaoinglea* title of Hector of the 
 Burgunuiea. But hia quarrel with the church 
 aoon aet the clergy against Frederick, and. led 
 by tlie Carthuaiwi and CiatercUn onlera, the 
 Churchmen of the Arelate began to look upon 
 the orthodox king of the French aa their truest 
 protector from a schismatic emperor. But the 
 French king* of the period saw in the power of 
 Henry of Anjou [Henry II., of EnKland — aee 
 ENoijtND: A*. D. 1154^11Ntt] a more real and 
 preaalng danger than the Empire of Ilic Itohen- 
 Ktaufen. The result waa an alliume betwei-n 
 I'hilip Auguatua and hia auccessora ami the 
 ISwabUn emjierora, which gave Fnilerirk and 
 Ilia aurcesaora a new term m whii h they could 
 Ktrive to win back a real hold over HurVumly. 
 Knilerii-k II. never lost sight of thii i.'.jni 
 Ilia invmtlture of the great feudal lord \Vi!li;ini 
 of Baux with the kingdom of Aries In l'.*!.'!. his 
 lonir istruggle with the wealthv nienliuiil riiy o( 
 Maraa-illt-s; hia alliance with Ihiynioirr of 
 Toulimae and the heretical elements in l*ro%enre 
 ngainut the Pope and the Freneli : bin itTort ^ to 
 leoil an army against Innocent IV. at Lyons, 
 were among the chief phases of his ioii.>tuut 
 elforts to make the Imperial Influeiiee really felt 
 ill the valley of the Hhone. Hut he lind Ni'litllo 
 sureesa that the French cruandet<< ai;:iiu»t the 
 .VUiigenaes wnfed open war within its liiiiit]. 
 and destroveil the heretic eltv of ,\vij:noii («ii> 
 Ai.nioK!i»its: A. D. 1217-1229). while liiii.»i'iit 
 ill hi< ex:le could And no surer protiitinn a.'Miiint 
 the emjieror tlmu In the Im|>erial i ity of l.\.iiia. 
 After Fnderlek'a death the poliiy of St l-oula 
 of France waa a complete triumph IlislirMilier. 
 Clisrlea of Atijou, eatablislied hini.-<lf i:i l*niv- 
 eu.e, though in later llimathe .Xncivin ! riis of 
 I^nivcnee and Naples bi-rame ao mroiu' that tlii ;r 
 local intereats maile them enemies ruili. r ilian 
 friendaof the exteualonof French |h)»i r on ilicir 
 Imnlera. The sul>«eiiuent efforts of the i'ni|', mra 
 were tlie m^'rest ahania and unn'ulilies. liiidolf 
 of llapaburg wuiiiesced without a miinnnr iu 
 the pnigreaa of Philip the Fair, wlio niuli' liim 
 «'lf master of I.yona. and si-cursil tin- Kn-o 
 County of llurgiindy for his aon [ai-e Fhami UK 
 ( iiMTEJ. . . . The "n-aldence of the I'oiiea at 
 Avignon was a further help to lli- Fn neU 
 lulvauc)' . Weak as wen the early \ alon 
 kiuga, Ihey were a'.ning enough W ii'u-,h aliil 
 further the ailvuntage won by their greaUT pre- 
 desi-saom The rivalry of the lerding htuti-a of 
 tile Rhone valley. 8avoy b.'mI Daupliiny. faiili- 
 Uleil their task. Phllln VI. a»j)ire<l t'- take 
 Wnne an Philip IV. hoi! obtalueil Lyons The 
 IHtuphin. lIunilK-rt II.. stniggh'<l in vain against 
 him. and at last accepted tbs hieviuble by 
 
 Ul 
 
f! 
 
 ^^fi 
 
 BUBOCITOT, n>7-lST& 
 
 ?*"« «<» *• 'WW* kliif the lucceaion to all hta 
 n«nu in DauphiiiT, henceforth to become the 
 •ppwMge of the eMett •om of the Prem h klnin. 
 At last. Ouu-lea of Luxemburg. In 1378, nVe 
 toe Piwich airrcfiioni a legal basii by con- 
 ferrtag the VIcariat of Arlw on Uie Dauphin 
 ghyl**. auhMquently the mad Charlea VI. of 
 riaoCT. From thia mnt Bnroy only waa ex- 
 »pte4 Henceforth the power of Fiance in the 
 Hhooe TallcT became ao great that It aoon be- 
 S?^ .J*", 'f^'*"" y •''•jP'*' "uwl Ignore the 
 •"^ 0«. 8, 1801 (retieving "U Btmumt 
 A. D laoMJoi.-AdTaacaeftha demioiou 
 
 BeeBATOT: Htb-IStb CurrtmiEa. 
 A. p. >3&t-— Th* Frueh DDkadom.— Th« 
 
 iy^'Jj*'^-:^*"^ Oukeof Burgundy 
 Rober*. aoo of King Robert, died in December. 
 
 the Chlteau d« Rourre. near Pljon. had been 
 Wa Mrthplaoe. and hia reaidence He waa Mill 
 to Ua youth when he died, although he had 
 borne the ducal Utie for twelre ycara. It fell to 
 him at thr age of four, when hU father died, 
 nom lil. mother and hIa grandmother he In- 
 herile.1 ad<litioii»])y, the county of Burgundy 
 yianchp Coml«) and the cnuntiet of Boulogne 
 Anv-rtroe and Artoia Hlx tender veara had not 
 
 SreTtutfd the marrUge of the young duke to 
 Iar«ret, daughter and beireaa of the Count of 
 Ilanden JoKn 11. King of Fnuce. whoae 
 mother was a Burgundian princeaa. claimed to 
 
 ULi ..''"^'.'V'*"'*°"'"'y"'">* "Juk". when 
 the Utt.-r .lied in IMI, and. although hia claim 
 
 ^.^/"•'T* '•^ ""> King of NavSrn.. diariS 
 the Ba<r Kina John took poaaeaalon of the duke- 
 
 „."• J,'* "JrJl''? ■?«'" °' •"n»"lo". and not 
 
 of King ftolwrt having en tain*. I no rev.mlonarv 
 pn.viiii»ii. Kranche Comt*. or the c.inly of 
 Burgumlv together with Artohi. rrmalne.1 to ti.e 
 I?,?,",f *''''"^""K»'«« of Flandeia, while the 
 oountl.-. of Boulogne and Au»ergne pa«M<d U) 
 John of Uoulogne, Count de -Montfort. A tmx 
 opportunity for atnngtheuing the crown of 
 F>«ii.r, l.y annexing to it the powerful B.irg.in 
 
 ^^ri i". ""'■ ."""o-pff'™! «« King John .?l,„t 
 ho lii.k.'.l (lie wlailom to improve it. He ur.f.rr.Kl 
 to grant it a»ar aj a anlemlid appaiiagr for hi., 
 ft.von...*„,_,|,cfourtl.-theapirit«dhul Philip, 
 ni LhI t ... Frarl,.... wIh. had stood by hia f«th.-ri 
 ^1- m II.. . I«,tr.m. battle of PoitiAni. and wl... 
 
 »h.. h t...k rtT.<t on King John. dcaUi, in IM4 
 
 Pliilji, II... Marie., ,o,l on bis h.lia. «.«.« »/i,r 
 »«r.l-. I l.ilip. m.rTia„v with th* young wl<l.,w 
 on.i.,m,„K.,.,«o., I'lm=pd..i{.,uvre. w«»lm„,»|,i 
 alw. .> ..« h i,«or..,i :i,. ir f .rmer union with 
 the u,,K„|.„„ ibe Mori. .,«lUn County (Kran,he 
 Con I. , „„| beewiui, » Artoia, wl.ilr it guv« 
 W .l« ,„ « :hike pR..,...„v,.ly the rich .-orinly 
 of H«i,.l.r>, I., which .Mar^flnt waa th.. I„ in«i 
 
 JvlTrMl'T' '(',"»'■•"»"• m,«t for,„l.l,l,le 
 rival nhi.i, ,(„. ^,,,1 iH.w^f ,„ Ynacf t,w| ev^r 
 l«.j..nu r.,1 will,. an.l ihr ..laKnlluileof tl,o l,|,„„|.., 
 
 ll ,""■' , '" u^"^ "■'■'••'."'' '"•'•"' half » r...,iury 
 ^ ij'lT* ~ '"^ (j,.h,K.,) C-ArwaK/«, 4*. { 
 
 BUROUNDT, IMT. 
 ^Auom: 7. p. Oolaoi, IkruUu- UiM. o/fh^ 
 
 A. D. i3S»-Flaad«rs addad to the dotal 
 domintooa. 8m Fiajionia: A. D. laa 
 
 ^ °- »4«-l453--CiTU war with the Ar. 
 ■iacMca.-iaUMct with the Engli.lL >i^ 
 fKAllc*: A. D. 1880-1418; MlV-UlJ^un 
 14W; 14S9-1481: 1481-1488. "*^""'' '*"- 
 I ^ D- J4^--Holtaiid, Haiiwidt and Friaa. 
 iMul ateeiUl by th. dakta. See .N'S 
 i^oa (HoLuutDAHO Hajhadlt): a. Dnit. 
 
 il« wilS-T*^"*^" »*• B<»«>-Hi.po.i. 
 UoOtbctwaMGwauuiTaad France.-HiJai 
 taCMlMB to Letiia xf.— The "Middle KiS^ 
 
 hlOoryM Cl*rlea the BoW. became Ii„li,M,fTr 
 '""^ ?.r*;^A»"?*«*""9 '"'• '"her Philip mi 
 namea-ThaOood." " Hi, portion w J, t", 
 
 ChviM held the rank of one of the flr«t prinm 
 taEurope without being a King, ,„,| iuSZ 
 poaaeaalng an Inch of ground for whi.h he did 
 not owe wrrice to aome auperior l..r,| » J^ 
 more than thh. he did not owe ^rvue t^Z 
 lord oriy. The phnae of Orfat l'o*,„ m 
 not bwn inrented in the ISth ont.irv bw 
 torn CM be DO doubt tliat. if It hH.1 !«.„ thi 
 Duke of Burgundy would have ra«li...| ,„W« 
 the foremoat of them. He w«», i„ ...^1 
 strragth. the equal of hU royal miKhlNntr to Uw 
 weat and far inore than theequal of I.U lni,KtUI 
 ne^hbour to the eut. Yet for evrrj- 1„, i, !,f ™ 
 teiTltoriM he owed a Taaal'a duty to .,..« or 
 °*^'.°'i,'"'°h ^'•<*' "n 'he bonl.ni of Knuw 
 and the Empire. M>me of hia terriLwi., «,.„■ heU 
 of the Empire an.! «>nie of the Fnn. h ( n.wn. 
 Charka. puke of Burgumly^ Count of Himlen 
 and ArtoU, wa. a vaMal ofTr«nce; l.«t ( l,„rl«s, 
 Duke of Brabant. Count of Burgumly, Ii„||.i3^ 
 and a down other duchiea and counti..., I.,.M hii 
 d..mini.Hi. aa a vanal of Cawr. HU .Inniinioai 
 were large in ptisltive extent, and they wn» 
 Talaab e out o^ all proportion t<, their eMent. 
 ^o other nrin.^e In Eun>|>e wa« tl... .liiect 
 •ovcreigii of •<> many rich and flourinhing riti««, 
 ryn.Ier..d stil ni..re rich and fl..uri«hing thn.utli 
 ■ ' ■""«»;''•,'" *^o ""'n. P««<*ful a.lmin:itii 
 Hon of hi. father. The ritie. of tl.« N.lli.rlMdi 
 were ncomparahly greater and m..re pr,..i.muii 
 than th.«c of Iramt- or Kn^'lau.l: .n.l. lUouili 
 they enj.iyed Urge mi.ni.'i|ml privil.,f..H ibry 
 were not, like thiMe of U.rmanv. in I, |»-M.lnit 
 i»inm<.nwealtha. acknowledging wilv hi. . »i.nwl 
 suztnilo In their n.>niinnl h>r| (lih.rtMru.)! 
 l.i. doniinliM).. tlie Duihv ..f Burgun.lv ,>|».i 
 ally, were aa rich In m.-n hh Klnn.l.r.. km ri.h id 
 m.mey 8o farthe I)uke.,f B:ii«un.lv lii.<l aime 
 great a<lvanug<« o\.reverv .uli.r priii.e..f kb 
 lime. But, on the ..Iher ^i«o.|. hU .l..miniooi 
 were further r.Miiov...l than ih.Mr of «nv prince 
 in fcuropr from f.>nnlng a |.<.in|Kt< i « li !.■ lie 
 *»f P"» King .if one kingiloin, hut Diik.. CouBt, 
 and l»nl .>f iuniini.nilih' .lu. hi..H, .^otniiitMi ud 
 l.irtl»hl|.«. a<'.|uir...l l.y .lifT.n-nt nteai... h.M by 
 
 .,— ,--.-.. I — .... ..J <i,ii(-n-iiL iiit-Kiift. n.-ii, 
 
 ll- m" . *'"' "' ■''"••"•nt overi..nl«, HiMak- 
 ilij.'.i to.lllT.Tinl lawi, 
 .lmir.nt riil.'« i.f i 
 
 342 
 
 ing different Ungii«i'..«, »ul,i.Hi to.lllT.nni 1 
 tnoainittod .oconliuii to .|l(T,r.nt riil..« i.f __ 
 ceaMion. , . . Th.'V l»v in tw^. large luAue* the 
 two Burgumliea f ,nnlng on.' nn<l the Uw 
 Couotrira forming the .M her. iki tl.ni ihcirixninuia 
 maatM cuuU not go from one capital u. uwiiMt 
 
Af 
 
 8n 
 417- 
 
 riw 
 
 m. 
 «17- 
 
 lur- 
 
 ion 
 out 
 ilA 
 Dd. 
 xt 
 >«1 
 
 )Ut 
 
 llM 
 
 "« 
 
 Ul 
 
 bt 
 
 Ul 
 
 lii 
 
 or 
 
 ee 
 
 U 
 
 n. 
 
 n 
 
 «, 
 
 1 
 
 U 
 
 u 
 
 r» 
 
 L 
 
 CI 
 
 I. 
 
 h 
 
 w 
 
If] 
 
 ill 
 
 t- -^L 
 
 
 m 
 
BUBOUXDT. 1467. 
 
 BCnOCXDY. 1467-1468. 
 
 without pudnc through • (orplgn territoiy. 
 Awl, even within theae two i^rntt niMus, ttivrv 
 wrn- ptirtioni nf territory intenpctinc th« iliical 
 ildiiilnlooi which there wai no hope of Annexing 
 liy fair rocani. . . . The citreer of Cluu-lcs the 
 B<il<l . . . divides ittelf into a French ami a 
 Oemuio portion. In both alike be is expoiie<l to 
 the rfJtleas rivalry of Lewis of France; but in 
 the one perlnl tliat rivalry is rnrriMl on openly 
 wiiliin the French territory. «liilc In the second 
 nericiil llie crafty kin)( fiiiiU tlie means to deal 
 far more effectual blows tbroiiuh tlie airency of 
 Tiiili'iiic banils. ... As a Fri'nrh prince, he 
 juiiinl with other French prinifs to nut limits 
 on llie power of the Cniwn, arui to divide tlie 
 kingdom Into gnat feudal holdings, aa nearly 
 Imlcpeudent as might be of the common over- 
 liinl. As a French prince, he plavotl his part In 
 the Warcf the Public Weal [see Framci: A. D. 
 14<1-146(*]. and insisted, as s main object of 
 his policy, on the estnblishmrnt of tlie King's 
 bnitlirr Bsanall but indeiH'udcnt Duke of Nor- 
 mandy. The object of Ia'wIs was to make 
 Friiiio a compact monarchy; the oliji'ct of 
 C'hurlt'S and his fellows was to kicp France aa 
 marly as might be In the same stnteas(]<'rmany. 
 But, when the other French princt-s liad Imtu 
 grailiially conquered, won over, or ^"t rid of in 
 sonic way or other by the crafiy jHilicy of Lewis, 
 Cliarles remained no longer the chief of a 
 coalition of French princea, but the personal 
 rival, the deadly enemy, of the Frencn Kini». 
 . . . ClirKnologically and gi-ogmphitully alike. 
 Cliarli'!! and his Uucliy form tin- ^rcat harrier, or 
 the ^-reat ainnecting 'link, whichever we chfMwo 
 to call it, lietween the nuin divisions of Kuro- 
 rifan history and Euroix-an g<-<ignphy. The 
 Iiuki's iif Burgundy of the I(oui)>> iif \ ah>ls form 
 a Hirt (if bridge lM>tweeu the later Middle Age 
 smi the period of ttic Kenalimtnoe ami tlie 
 Iti fiirinatioii. They omnect tlnwe two jx-riiMU 
 liy forming the kernel of the vuHt dominion of 
 that .Vustrian House which became their heir, and 
 whi<'li, mainly by virtue of that heirship fllisi 
 •ui'h a space In the history of the IBth auti irih 
 (viiliirii's. Buttheduminlonsof the Hurgundiaii 
 Ihiki-s hold a still higher historkiil position. 
 Tlii'V may be said to bind together tlie whole of 
 Euni(iran history for the last tliousand yearn. 
 Kroni the 9th century to the llhli. the |><>liticii of 
 Eiirc.|ie have largely gatlu-n-d riuiiid Ihi' rivalry 
 tielwcin the EasU'm and the Wi-stern Kiiigdi>nia 
 — ill iiioili'm language, between IJermanv and 
 Fniiice. From the Ihh century to tiie I'lHh, a 
 Binitssion of efforts liave been niaile to estubUHli, 
 ill niK- shaiH) or another, a mkldle siiite lietwej'n 
 ilic iwii. Over and over again during that long 
 |iiri.«l havi' mtn niriven to make the whoU; or 
 »iin,' (Hirtlun of the fmnller lands streU-hing 
 (nm, till! iiiiiuth of the Ithine to the mouth of the 
 lih.mi' Into an iii<lf|iendeiit barrier alute. . . . 
 T!i:il olij.ct was never more distinrtly aiiniil at, 
 anil it never sctiiieil nearer toil* ai-roiiipllHliment, 
 Slum w Inn ('liHrliii the ilolil aitiially reignni fMni 
 Uic /.iiiclir Zee to tlie Ijike of Neufi-htti'l. ami 
 »»» mil without ho|ies of exteniling bin fmnller 
 tn 111,. (;i,lf of Lyons. . . . liohllng. as lie dt<l. 
 imnn iif iilit Ixitharinghi and parla of old Riir- 
 guiiily. there can be nodoulitthul heaimeil at the 
 n- intalillshment of a great Middle Kingdom, 
 Willi h sliiiuld Uke In allthat had ever been liur- 
 gundisn or Ixitbaringian ground. He alnii'd, In 
 shurt, aa utbcrt have aiiDetl before and since, at 
 
 the fonnatlnn of a aUta which should hold aoen- 
 trul position lietween France, Oermany and luly 
 — a state which should discharge, with Inanitely 
 greater ativngth, all the duties which our own 
 age has endeavoured to throw on Switzerland, 
 Uelgium and 8«voy. . . . Undoubtedly it would 
 have lieen for the permanent interest of Europ* 
 If he had succeeded In hia attempt."— EX A. 
 Freenuui, CkarUt th» BoU (UutoriaU E—af, ls( 
 laie; no. 11). 
 
 A. D. 1467-1468.— The w«r of Charlea tha 
 Bold with the Lieceoia ud his troubles with 
 Lonia XI.— "8oon after the pacillcation of the 
 troulilea of France faee Frakce : A. li. 1461- 
 146H], the Duke of Burgundy began a war 
 against the Llegeoia, which lasted Tor several 
 years; and whenever the king of France [I.,uuia 
 aI.] bad a mind to Interrupt him, he attempted 
 some new action against the Bretons, and, in the 
 meantime, supported the Liegcois underliund; 
 upon which the Duke of Burgundy turned 
 against him to succour his alliea, or else they 
 came to some treaty or truce among themselves. 
 . . . During theae wara, and ever since, secret 
 and freah intriguea were carried on by tlie 
 princea. The king was so exceedingly exasper- 
 ated against the Dukes of Bretague and Bur- 
 gundy that it waa wonderful. . . . The king of 
 France's aim. In the meantime, was cliietly to 
 carry his design against the province of Bn-tagne, 
 and he looked upon it aa a more feaiiible attempt, 
 and likelier to give him lesi resisbinre than the 
 house of Burgundy. Besides, the lintons wire 
 the people who protected and culi-rtaineil all his 
 malcontents; aa his brother, and otlien, whose 
 Interest and intelligence were great in his king- 
 dom; for this cause heendeavoiikHl vorv eanuntry 
 with (. harles, Duke of Burgundy, )iy several 
 advantageous offers and proiMWaU, to prevail 
 with him to deaert them, promising that u|ion 
 tlioHe terms be also would abandon the Lii-geois, 
 and give no further pnitection to his malcoiittuts. 
 The Duke of Burgundy would by no means 
 consent to it, but again made preparations fur 
 war against the Liegeois, who hiul bMken the 
 ixace." This waa In (><tobir, 1467. The Duke 
 (Clmrlea the Bold) attacked St. Trim, which waa 
 held bjr a garrison of 8,000 of the men of l,iegc. 
 The I.,ief;euis, 8U.000 strong, came Ui the relief of 
 the iK-siegiii town, and were rouleil, leaving 
 6.000 slain on the fle'd. St. Tron and Tongrea 
 were Imth surrenderetl, and Liege, itself, alu;r 
 considerable strife among its citizens, o|ie!ied its 
 gall's to the Duke, who entered in triumph (Nov. 
 17, l4A7)aod hanged haifa dozen for his moder- 
 ate saliafaclloti. In the i-ourae of the next sum- 
 mer the French king opened war afresh upon 
 the Duke of Bn-UKne and fimiil him into a 
 treaty, before tlie Duke of Burgundy, his ally, 
 could take the lii'ld. The king, then lieing 
 extri'mely anxious to pacify the Duke of Bur- 
 gundy, took the extraonlinary step of \isitiug 
 the hitter at Pennine, without any guani, trusting 
 himoelf wholly to the honor of his enemy. But 
 it happi'ned unfortunately, during the king's 
 stay at Peronne, that a feriicious revolt oeeuri*d 
 at Lii'ge, which was traceii tieyond denial to the 
 intrigues of two agents whom king Louis had 
 si'nl thither not longlM'fore, for !:iisihief making 
 piiriioaes. The Duke, in his wnitli. wan not 
 vM\\y restraintil from doing some vinlenre to tha 
 king; but the royal trickster cM'a|Hil tri>m his 
 grave predicament by giving up the unhappy 
 
 S43 
 
-il 
 
 !l 
 
 BCRaUNDT, 14C7-14<e. 
 
 Liegeoii to the reiifteuiM of Duke Charles uid 
 peraonallv usiRting the Utter to Inflict it 
 After the conclusioii of the peace [dictated by 
 Charles at Peronne and dgned ■ubmiwivelr by 
 Louis] the King and the Duke of Burgundy set 
 out the next morning [Oct 18. 14«8] for Cam- 
 bray, and from thence towards the country of 
 Lioge: it was the beginning of winter and the 
 wrather was very bad. The king had with him 
 only hu 8cot=h guards and a small body of bis 
 stimimg forces: but he ordered 800 of his men- 
 at arms to Join him." LMge was invested, and. 
 notnithstandingiu walla had been thrown dowi 
 the nrevioiis year, it made a stubborn defense. 
 During a siege of a fortnight, several desperate 
 sallies were rajde, by the Ust one of which both 
 the Duke and the King were brought into neat 
 personal perU. Exhausted by thfi final effort, 
 the LiegeoU were unprepared to wpel a grand 
 assault which the besieging forces made upon the 
 town the next morning— Sunday, Oct 80. 
 Ll#ge was taken that day almost without resist- 
 ance, the miserable inhabitanU flying acnw the 
 Maes into the forest of Ardennes, abandoning 
 their homes to pllUge. The Duke of Burgundy 
 now permitted King Loais to return home, whlto 
 
 -k!*? v.™^ ' '*T "y! """f" *" deioUte U«ge, 
 which his flerce hatred had doomed. " Befon 
 the Duke left the city, a great number of those 
 poor creatures who liad hid themselves in the 
 bouses when the town was taken, and were after- 
 wards made prisoners, were drowned. He also 
 resolved to bum the city, which had always been 
 very populous; and orders were given for Bring 
 It in three different places, and 8. WW or 4,000 foot 
 of the country of Limbourg (who were their 
 nelgbboura, and used the same habit and lan- 
 
 Cuage), were commanded to effect this desolation 
 ut to secure the churches. . . . All things beini 
 thus ordered, the Duke began his marehlnto the 
 country of Pranchemont: he was no sooner out 
 of town, but Immediately we saw a great number 
 or bouses on Are beyond the river; the duke lay 
 that night four leagues from the city, yet we 
 Muld hear the noise u dUtinctly as (f we had 
 been upon Uie spot; but whether It was the wind 
 which lay that way, or our quartering upon the 
 river, that was the cause of ft, I know not. The 
 next day the Duke marcheo on, and th.ise who 
 were left In the town continued the conflagration 
 accord ng to his orden; but all the churches 
 (except some few) were preserved, a. .1 above 
 •BO houses belonging to the priesU and ofllcere of 
 ^inh^SUirS'"'*''' '? 't" ^-"^ " »•« «> soon 
 the priesU. "--Philip as Commlncs,jr»mfl,>,. it » 
 
 BUBOUIIDT, UTt-HTt. 
 
 of Burgundy tried means to Uke away Lorratoe 
 from the voung Sent. That province was ne^ 
 
 S^L'^K "'•.*° "r*" ^ i"^ *^ northern eStoi 
 with thoK In the south. The conquest wm 
 
 KMh; but it was reserved for a small oeoDle 
 f^' celebrated for their heroic valour and by 
 i^^!^" °' "»>e'ty. to beat this powerful muL 
 Irritated agaiiut the Swiss, who had braved him' 
 ChsjrlM crossed over the Jura, besteged the litili 
 town of Gnnson, and, in despite of a capitu'a- 
 tion, caused aU the defendere to be hanged or 
 ^wned. At this news the eight cantons which 
 then composed the Helvetian rSpubllc arose and 
 
 i^^S^I^' t^ ""'"y they attacked the Duke 
 and dispersed his troops [March 8, 11781 Some 
 month, later [June £],' supported b^ you?| 
 Ren« of Lorraine despoUed of his inhirftan. ,? 
 they exterminated a second Burgundian army 
 SSST.mS'*- *^'^1"^ vanouisEed, reaasem- 
 Wed a third ar^, and marched in the midst of 
 
 i^^^^^^"^\ 7"<* •»«» '""en into the 
 huMUoftheSwtaaandLorralners. It was there 
 th«he perished [Jan. 8, UV] betrayed by 1^ 
 mwcenary soldiery and overpownna by bum- 
 AtTi Z^^.??^^- ^**- '^ ^»«. » 1. 
 
 T^,^ A."»^'»ble out-load of sheep skins that 
 the Count of Romoot had taken ftonithe Swlssi 
 
 Also ih: J. P, ifirk. But. of Chart,, thi BoU 
 f. 1, M 7-B; M. ».-<•. F. W^llerCni A.W 
 I^M Jr;:-8ir. W. Scott. ««»<.; Dun,a?d.l 
 Bee, also. DiNAirr. 
 
 A, D. Ufi-un. -CiMriss the Bold ud the 
 •wlM—HJs ds/eats and his death -Tha 
 ^. c.f hia fall.-" Sovereign of t~ "i.l.y of 
 Burgundy, of the Free County, of Halnaut of 
 '•T-lrrs of Holland, and of ^ueldreThsrl^ 
 wlshe.l,hy Joining to it Lorrelne, a piortion of 
 Bwlt«^|,.„,|. an-lth. Inheritance 'of dd King 
 
 d^Sfk?,!'^?' "' i>^". «« «*o»po«< the an' 
 clent kingiiom of Lorraine, such as It had exUled 
 under the Carlovlnglan dynasty; and flattered 
 hi.u»lf that by offertn, his daughter t^SK? 
 milUn mm of |(S*derick"in. , he wUuid obitlnxha 
 tiUe of king. Oeodved la hla hopes, th« DuU 
 
 844 
 
 Almighty haf not f onaken the Duke of Burgundy 
 M».!?f?* «»ceiTable he would have expoaeS 
 Umself to such areat dangers upon so Sinalland 
 
 Sl^.f°a'S*T"i "PecUlly considering the 
 offers the Svriss had made him, and that his con- 
 2^J "k "* enemies would yield him neither 
 profit nor honour; for at that Ume the Swiss wc:» 
 not in such esteem as now, and no peopl.. in the 
 world could be poorer. " At QransoT' • the |.,»r 
 M^ rT. "n J"'«^"^ enr ched by the plun.l.'r of 
 hU[the Duke of Burgiody's] camp At tint 
 they did not understand the value of the treasure 
 Ifl r'"'r>'""i°"u °'j especially the coininon 
 soldiers. One of the richest and most maguifl- 
 cent tents in the world was cut into pi,,*! 
 There were some of them that sold quantities of 
 dishes and plates of silver for about two sous of 
 our money suppodng they had been ne-ri«r. 
 His great diamond, . . wfth a large p. .r, fl,ed 
 to it was Uken up by a Swiss, put up again 
 Into the case, thrown under a wamn, Uk.n up 
 again by the same soUier, and after all omn-.l li 
 a priest for a florin who bought it and sent it 
 to the magistrates of that country, who returned 
 bim throe francs as a sufllcient reward. I This 
 was long suppos^ to be the famous iiuicy 
 diamond ; but Ilr. Streeter thinks that the tnidl- 
 tlon which BO connects it Is totally dlsprovnl] 
 They also took three very rich Jewels .iilhd the 
 inree Urothers, another large ruby calli^l U 
 Hatle, and another called the Ball of Flandrrs, 
 wh ch were the fairest and richest in the W(.rl.l; 
 Je»™es a prrxllgious quantity of other giw-ls," 
 In hU last battle, near Nancy, the Duke had lea 
 •ban 4,000 men, •• and of that number not sl^ve 
 IJOO were lo a ooodltion to fight." He en(^.un 
 tered on this oooaakm a powt^ul army of Swl« 
 and Chrmana, which the Duke of LorraUio had 
 been able to ouUeot, with the help of the king of 
 mnoe and others. It was against the s<l vin. of 
 V} J»«.o?«»™ello« that tbs beadatrang, Ulf mal 
 Duke Ctwrlet dwbed to fittis aniiy afiiia (bit 
 
BUROUNDT, 1478-1477. 
 
 BCHOUNDT. 1477. 
 
 (mter one, and be paid the penalty. It was 
 broken at the first shock, and the Uuke was killed 
 la the confused rout without being known. His 
 body, stripped naked by the pillagers and mangled 
 br wolves or dogs, was found frozen fast in a 
 ditch. "Icanunteasilydetermlne towards whom 
 Ood Almighty showed his anger most, whether 
 towards him who died suddenly, without pain 
 or sickness In the field of battle, or towards his 
 subjects, whoneTerenjoyedpeaceafterhisdeath, 
 but wers continually involved in wars against 
 which they were not able to maintain themselves, 
 upon account of the civil dissensions and cruel 
 animosities that arose among them. ... As I 
 bad seen these princes puissant, rich and honour- 
 able, so itfarea with their subjects: for I think 
 I have seen and known the greatest part of 
 Europe, yet I never knew any province or country, 
 though of a larser extent, so abounding in money, 
 so extravagantly fine in their furniture, so sump- 
 tuous in their buildings, so profuse in th«<' 
 expenses, so luxurious m their feasts and enter- 
 tainments and so prodigal in all respects, as the 
 subjects of these princes !n my time; and if any 
 think I have exaggerated, others who lived in 
 my time will be of opinion that I have rather 
 laid too little. ... In short, I have seen this 
 family in all respects the most flourishing and 
 celebrated of anv in Christendom: and then, in 
 a short space of time, it was quite ruined and 
 turned upside down, and left the most desolate 
 and miserable of any house in Europe, as regards 
 boiA prince and subjects. "—Philip de Commines, 
 Memoiri, bk. 8, eh. 1-8. — "The popular concep- 
 tion of this war [between Charles the Bold and 
 the Swiss] is simply that Charles, a powerful 
 and encroaching prince, was overthrown in tiiree 
 great battles by the petty commonwealths which 
 he had expected eaafly to attach to his dominion. 
 Grandson and Morat are placed side by side with 
 MorKsrten and Bempach. Such a view as this 
 implk-s complete ignorance of the histciv ; it im- 
 plies ignorance of the fact that it was the Swiss 
 who made war upon Charlea, and not Charles 
 who made war upoa the Swiss; it Implies ignor- 
 ance uf the fact that Charles's army never set 
 foot on proper SwiM territory at all, that Orand- 
 son and Mont were at the beginning of the war 
 no part of the possessions of the Confederation. 
 . . . The mere politioal accident that the country 
 which formed the chief seat of war now forms 
 pan of the Swiss Confederation has been with 
 m.iny people enough to determine their estimate 
 of the quarrel. Grandson and Mont are in Swiu- 
 erlaml; Burgundiaa troops appeared tad were 
 defeHU'd at Grandson and Mont: therefore Charles 
 must have been an invader of Switzerland, and 
 the warfare on the Swiss side must have been a 
 warfare of purely defennive heroism. The sim- 
 ple fact that it was only through the result of 
 the Burgundtan war that Onndson itnil Mnnt 
 ever became Swiia territory at once (llspones of 
 IhU Una of argument. . . . The plain facu of 
 the raae are that the Burgundian wnr wu a war 
 dwUnnI by Bwitierliind against Burgumiy . . . 
 sii'l tUiit In the campaigns of Grandson and Morat 
 the Duke of Burgundv was simply spelling and 
 avenging Swiss Invasions of his own territory 
 anil the territory of bis allies. "-E. A. Fneman. 
 Uularieal Asom, ». 1. no. U. 
 
 Also in: J. T. Kirk, Bit. tf Chnrltt t** BM, 
 «. 8.-L. 8. Costello. iltmttn «f Jfoi* </ i»i»r- 
 ;a«%, ei, 14-S7. 
 
 A. D, 1477.— Pcnnmocntlj restored to tkt 
 French crown.— Louis XI. of France, who had 
 been eagerly watchhig while Charles the Bold 
 shattered his armies and exhausted his strength 
 in Switzerland, received early news of the death 
 of the self-willed Duke. 'WTille the panic and 
 confusion which it caused still prevailed, th« 
 king lost DO time in taking possession of the 
 duchy of BurguLdy, as an appanage which had 
 reverted to the crown, through default of mala 
 heirs. The legality of his claim has been much 
 in dispute. "Charles left an only daughter, un- 
 doubted heiress of Flanders and Artob, aa well 
 as of his dominions out of France, but whose 
 right of succession to the duchy of Burgundy 
 was more questionable. Originally the great 
 fiefs of the crown des<«nded to females, ana this 
 was the case with respect to the two first men- 
 tioned. But John had granted Burgundy to his 
 M>n Philip by way of appanage ; and it was con- 
 tended thjkt the appanages reverted to the crown 
 In default of male heirs. In the form of Philip't 
 investiture, the duchy was granted tu him uui 
 his lawful hein, without designation of sex. 
 The construction, therefore, must be left to the 
 established course of law. This, however, was 
 by no means acknowledged by Alary, Charles's 
 daughter, who maintained both that no general 
 law restricted appanages to male heirs, and that 
 Burgundy had always been considered as a 
 feminine fief, John himself having poswssed it, 
 not bv reversion as king (for descendants of the 
 first dukes were then living), but by Inheritance 
 derived through females. Such was this ques- 
 tion of succession between Louis XI. and Mary 
 of Burgundy, upon the merits of whose preten- 
 sions I will not pretend altogether to decide, but 
 shall onl V observe that, if Charles had conceived 
 his daughter to be excluded from this part of 
 his inheritance, he would probably, at Cfonflans 
 or Peronne, where he treated upon the vantage 
 ground, have attempted at least to obtain a re- 
 nunciation of Louis's claim. There was one 
 obvious mode of preventing all further contest, 
 and of aggrandizing the French monarchy far 
 mire than by the reunion of Burgundy. This 
 was the marriage of Mary with the dauphin, 
 which was ardentiv wished in France." The 
 dauphin was a child of seven years; Mary of 
 Burgundy a masculine-minded young woman of 
 twenty. Probably Louis despaired of reconcil- 
 ing the latter to auch a marriage. At all events, 
 while be talked of It occasionally, he proceeded 
 actively In despoiling the young duchess, seizing 
 Artois and Francbe Comli, and laying hands 
 upon the frontier towns which were exposed to 
 his arms. He embittered her natural enmity to 
 him by various acts of meanness and treachery. 
 "Thus the French alliance becoming odious in 
 Flanders, this princess married MHxImilian of 
 Austria, son of the Emperor Frederic— a con- 
 nexion which Louis strove to prevent, though it 
 was impossible then to foresee that it was or- 
 dained to retard the growth and to bias the fate 
 of Europe during three hundred years. This 
 war huted till after the death of Mary, who left 
 one son Philip and one daughter Margaret"— U. 
 Hallam, Tht ViddU Aga. eh. 1, pi. 9— "The 
 king [Louis XI. 1 had reason to bo more than 
 nrdinarilv pleased at the death of that duke [of 
 Burgun(ly], and he triumphed more in his ruin 
 than in tliat of all the rest of bis enemies, as he 
 thought that nobody, for liw futuri), sitiutr of 
 
 846 
 
i 
 
 **ii 
 
 '« 
 
 
 i 
 il 
 
 ^ji 
 
 BURQUNDT, 1477. 
 
 hii own gubjccta, or his neighbours, wouM be 
 able to uppose him, or disturb the tranquillity of 
 his rclgn. . . . Although God Almighty has 
 shown, and docs still shiw, that his determina- 
 tion is to punish the family of Burgundy sevrrely, 
 not only in the person of the duke, but In thei. 
 •ubjecu and estates; yet I think the king our 
 master did not take right measures to that end. 
 For, if he had acted prudently, inateRd of pre- 
 tending to conquer them, he should rather have 
 endeavoured to annex all those large territories, 
 to which he had no Just title, to the crown of 
 France by some treaty of marriage ; or to have 
 gained the hearts and affections of the people, 
 and so have brought them over to his interest, 
 which he might, without any great difflcultv, 
 have effected, considering how their late alflfc- 
 tions had impoverished and dejected them. If 
 he had acted after that manner, he would not 
 only have prevented their ruin and destruction, 
 b'lt extended and strengthened his own kingdom, 
 •nd established them all in a firm and lasting 
 peace."— Philip de Commines, iiemnirt, bk. 6, eh. 
 18.—" He [Louis XI.J reassured, caressed, com- 
 forted the duchy of Burguadv, gave it a parlia- 
 ment, visited bis good city of Dijon, swore in 
 8t Benignus' church to respect all the old 
 privileges and customs that could be sworn to, 
 and bound his successors to do the same on their 
 accession. Burgundv was a land of nobles; and 
 the king raised a bridge of eold for all the great 
 lords to come over to him.^'— J. Michelet, Btrt 
 ^(fFrana.bk.\^.eh.^-^. 
 
 A. D. 1477-I4«a.-Reign of the Burgnndian 
 htiresa in the Netherlandt.— Her marrian 
 with Maximilian of Anttria. See Nrhsr- 
 IJUIDS: A. D. 1477. 
 
 A. D. tsia.— FormatioD of the Cirelt. See 
 Gcrmany: A. D. 1498-1819. 
 ^A ?• J544.-Renttnciation of the Claim* of 
 Charlet V. See France: A. D. 1888-1547. 
 
 BURH, The. See BonocoH. 
 
 BURI, The.— A Suevic clsn of Germans 
 whose settlements were anciently in the neigh- 
 borhood of mo.lem Cracow,— Tacitus, Otmany 
 traru. hfi Church and Hrmtrihl). Oemj notet 
 
 BURKE, Edmund, and the American Rt*o- 
 Intion. See United States or Am. : A I) 
 
 1775 (Jawuakt— March) And the French 
 
 RtTOlution. See Enoland- A. I), 1793-IT96 
 -.T^^k^'O"' ^o""- •"<• *>«• "ip* of Queen 
 
 aSnS.yi'PA'SI CHINESE EMBASSY 
 AND TREATIEa See China: A. D. 1857- 
 
 BURMA : Risaof th« kinrdora.— First war 
 with tht English (18j4.18a6K-Ces.lon of a" 
 ■mm and Aracan. Bee India: A. D. 1833-]f33 
 
 A. D. i8sa.— SMood war with tha Earllih! 
 ~k??iJ//.;C-..?*'«''"'lA: A. D. 1858. 
 A."D"?r-?8?0^''°"''^»- «~«coT.,x,„: 
 
 BURNSIDE, Canaral Anbrea* E.-B>p«. 
 
 AM. : A. O. 18«8(Jani'aiit— Apiiil: North Car- 
 ouRA), .Command of tht Annr of tha Poto- 
 ,fffL ** Un'"° »tatwi op Am. : A. D. 1868 
 
 ((Mtorcr-Dbckmbkr: ViRoratA) RMira- 
 
 mtnt (rem command of tht Armr of the Poto- 
 mac. S« Inited States or Am. : A D 1888 
 
 •f Saat ToaatMM. Sea Uitmo fSm 
 
 BX7TLER. 
 
 or Am.: A. D. 1868 Acotwr— Ssfxeitber' 
 
 TKXNBsen) Defenae of KnosTille. iSee 
 
 Usited States or Am. : A. D. 1863 (OcTonER- 
 
 December: TEifNEssEE) At the siege of 
 
 Peterabttrg. Bee Uotted States or Am. : A. D 
 1864 (JtrxE: ViKGiinA), (Jolt: VlRoufiA). , 
 
 BURR, Aaron. See United States or Am • 
 A. D. 1800-1801, and 1806-1807. 
 
 BURSCHENSCHAFT, The. See Gem- 
 MANY : A. D. 1817-1820. 
 
 BURU. See Malax Aiicbipxlaoo. 
 
 BUSHMEN, The. See Afkica: The ih. 
 HABrriNa races. 
 
 BUSHWHACKERS.— A name commnnlv 
 given to the rebel guerrilla* or half-bandits of 
 the southwest, in the American Civil War — J 
 Nicolay and J. Hay, Abraham Lincoln, t. 6, p. 
 
 BUSIRIS.— DtstroTtd by Diocletian. See 
 Alexandria: A. D. 296. 
 
 BUSSORAH AND KUFA, The rise jd 
 impertaace oC— In the first yean of their con- 
 quest and occupation of MesopoUmU and the 
 Delta of the Euphrates and Tigris— as early as 
 A. D. 688 — the Moslems founded two cities 
 which acquired importance hi Mahometan his- 
 tory. In both cases, these cities appear to have 
 ariara out of the need felt by the Arabs for more 
 salubrious sites of residence than their predecps- 
 ■o™ *" ^ .mcient country had been contented 
 with. Of Bussorah, or Baasorah, the r'lv 
 founded in the Delta, the site is said to have Utn 
 changed three time*. Kufa was built on a plain 
 very near to the neglected city of Hita, on the 
 Euphrates. ' Kufa and Bussorah . . . had a 
 singular influence oa the destinies of the Caliph 
 ate and of Islam itself. The vast majoritv nf 
 the population come from the Peninsula 'and 
 were of pure Arabian blood. The tribes wlilrh 
 with their families, scenting from afar the prey 
 of Perala, kept streamhig hito Clmldaja from 
 every comer of ArebU, settled chiefly In thrso 
 two cities. At Kufa, the races from Yemen and 
 the south predominated ; at Bussorah, from the 
 north. Rapidly they grew into two great and 
 luxuriouscapitals, with an Arab population .w li 
 of from 180,000 to 800,000 souls. On the lit.™ 
 ture, theology, and politics of Islam, these liiips 
 had a gieater Influence than the whole Moslem 
 world besides. ... The people became petulant 
 and factious, and both cities grew Into hoil^'ds 
 of turbulence and sedition. The Bedouin ilc 
 •.nent, conscious of its strength, was jealmn of 
 the Coreish, and Impatient olf whatever clif< keil 
 ita capricious humour. Thus factions spranir 
 "P T'hleh. controlled by the strong and wl.*- ami 
 of Omar, broke loose under the weaker Calipli«, 
 eventually rent tha unity of Islam, and bKiU|.'lit 
 on diaaatroua daya"— Sir W. Muir, Annal, ,f 
 thtSartf 0aUiMl4, eh. IH.-Bee, also, Maiiomk 
 TAN Comodkot: a. D. 689-681. 
 BUTAbA,Tke. See Phti-a 
 BUTB'SAbMINISTRATION. SecE.xo 
 hAim: A. D. 1760-1768. 
 
 BUTLBR, Ceaeral BeiHamio F.— In com- 
 maad at Baltiorare. See UNrnto Statks or 
 Am. ; A. D. 1861 (Apbil-Mat: Martland! 
 UceauMaiatPortrtaaMowoe. SeeUNiTKU 
 BTATnorAM: A. D 1881 (Mat)..... The Hat- 
 
BUTLER 
 
 BYZANTINE EMPIRE. A. D. 717. 
 
 ten* Bzpeditioa. See Unitrd States of Am. : 
 
 A. D. 1861 (AcouBT; North Carolina) 
 
 Commajid at New Orleans. See United 
 States OP Am. : A. D. 1883 (.May— December: 
 
 LociuAMA) Command of the Army of the 
 
 Jamei. See Unitbo States of Am. : A. D. 
 1864 (May: VraonnA). 
 
 BUTI.ER, Walter, and the Tory and In- 
 dian partisans of the American Rerotution. 
 See United States of Am. : A. D. 1778 (Junk 
 — NovE.UBEn). and (July). 
 
 BUTTERNUTS. See Boys in Blue; also 
 United States of Am. : A. D. 1884 (October). 
 
 BUXAR.OR BAXAR, OR BAKSAR, Bat- 
 tle of (1764). See India: A. D. 17.'57-1778. 
 
 BYNG, Admiral John, Esacutioa ot Bee 
 Minorca : A. D. 1738. 
 
 BYRON, Lord, in Greece. See Gruecx: 
 A. D. 1821-1829. 
 
 BYRSA.— The citadel of Carthace. See 
 Carthaoe, The Dominion or. 
 
 BYTOWN. See Ottawa. 
 
 BYZACIUM. See Carthagb, The Domin- 
 ion OF. 
 
 BYZANTINE EMPIRE. — The Eas-.cm 
 Roman Kmpire, having; its capital at Byzantium 
 (modem Constantinople), the earlier history of 
 which will be found sketched under the caption 
 Rome: A. D. 8t>4h-895, to 717-«00, has been 
 
 Sken. in its later years, the name of the Byzan- 
 ne Empire. The propriety of this designation 
 Is questioned by some historians, and tlie time 
 when it l)egins to be appropriate is likewise a 
 subject of debate. For some discussion of these 
 questions, see Romb: A. D. 717-800. 
 
 Its part in history.— Its defence of Europe. 
 — Its ciTilising influence.— "The later Roman 
 Empire was the bulwark of E'lrone airalnst the 
 oriental danger; Hauricr and .'.jracfiui'. Con- 
 ■tantine IV. and Leo die I> jrian ^erc Cue suc- 
 cessors of Themistocles and AfHcunus. . . . 
 Until the days o' the crusailcs, the Qermnn 
 nations did not combine with the Empire against 
 the common foe. Nor did the Teutons, by 
 themselves, achiere any successof ecumenical Im- 
 portance against .lon-Arvan races. I may be 
 reminded that Charles the Orent exterminated 
 the Avars; but that was after they had cease<l to 
 I* really dangerous. When there existed a 
 tnily fnrmtdablc Avar monarchy It was the 
 Roman Kmpire that bore tlie brunt; and yet 
 while most people who read history know of the 
 Avar war of Charles, how few there arc who 
 have ever hrard of Priscus, the gcmml who k<i 
 bravely warned against the Avars in the rrlgn of 
 Maurice. I may bo remimU'd that Charles Mnrtcl 
 won a great name by victories in southern Gaul 
 over the Saracens; yet those successes sink Into 
 Insignificance by the side of tho achievement of 
 bit contemporary, the tlilnl Lj-o, who held the 
 gate of eastern Europe against all the forces 
 which the Saracen pow< r, then at lu height, 
 cnuld mutter. Every oiif knows about the ex- 
 ploits of the Prank; it is almost Incredible how 
 little Is known of the Roman Emperor's defence 
 of the greatest city of Christian Europe, In the 
 quarter where the real danger Uy. . . . The Em- 
 pire was much more than the mtliury guard of 
 the Asiatic frontier; it not only defended Imt 
 sito kept alive the trwllllons of Greek and 
 Homsii culture. We cannot orer-estimate the 
 Importance of the presence of a highly clvlllsul 
 ■••• lor ■ system of aatlons whicli were as vet 
 
 only beginning to be civilised. The constant, 
 intercourse of tho Empire with Italy, which 
 until the eleventh century was partly imperial, 
 and with southern Qaul and Spain, had an in- 
 calculable intiuence on the development of 
 the West. Venice, which contributed so much 
 to the growth of western culture, was for a long 
 time actually, and for a much longer time nomi- 
 nally, a city of the Roman Empire, and learned 
 what it taught from Byzantium. The Byzan- 
 tine was the mother of the Italian school of 
 painting, as Greece in the old days had been the 
 mistress of Rome in the fine arts ; and the Byzan- 
 tine style J architecture has had perhaps a 
 wider influence than any other. It was to New 
 Rome that the Teutonic kings applied when 
 they needed men of learning, and thither stu- 
 dents from western countries, who desired a 
 university education, repaired. ... It was. 
 moreover. In the lands ruled by New Rome that 
 old Hellenic culture and the monuments of Hel- 
 lenic literature were preserved, as in a secure 
 storehouse, to be given at length to the ' wild 
 nations ' when they had been sufSciently tamed. 
 And in their taming New Rome played an in- 
 dispensable part. The Justinian law, which 
 still interpenetrates European civilisation, was a 
 product of New Rome. In the third place the 
 Roman Empire for many centuries entirely 
 maintained European commerce. This was a 
 circumstance of the greatest Importance; but 
 unfortunately It is one of those facts concerning 
 which contemporary historians did not think oT 
 leaving records to posterity. The fact that the 
 coins of the Roman Emperors were used through- 
 out Europe hi the Midole Ages speaks for itself. 
 ... In the fourth place, the Roman Empire 
 preserved a great idea which induenced the 
 whole course of western Europeon history do'vn 
 to the present day— the idea of the Roman Em- 
 pire itself. If we look at the ecumenical event 
 of 800 A. D. from a wide point of view, it really 
 resolves itself into this: New Rome bestowed 
 upon the western nations a great idea, which 
 moulded and ordered their future history; she 
 gave back to Old Rome the idea which Old 
 Rome bestowed upon her five centuries before. 
 . . . If Cons(antinople and the Empire bad 
 fallen, the imperial idea would have been lost in 
 the whirl of the ' wild natlo"t. ' It Is to New 
 Rome that Europeans really owe thanks for the 
 establishment of the principle and tho system 
 which brought law and order Into the political 
 relations of the West"— J. B. Bury, Hittory 0} 
 the Littr Roman Empire. S(>e TiunE. 
 
 A. D. 7x7.— Us organisation br Lm th« 
 Isaurian. — " The nccessinn of Leo the Issurian 
 to the throne of Coniiti'.itiiiople suddenly opened 
 a new era In the history of the Eastern Empire. 
 . . . When Leo III. was proclaimed emperor 
 [A. D. 717], It seemed as ft no human nowtr 
 could save Constantinople from falling as Roma 
 had fallen. The Saracens considered the sov- 
 ereignty of every land, in which any remains of 
 R' man civilization survived, as within their 
 grasp. Leo. an Isaurian, and an Iconoclast, con- 
 sequently a foreigner and a heretic, ascended the 
 throne of Constantine and arrested the victorious 
 career of the Mohammedans. He then reorgan- 
 ized the whole administration so completely hi 
 acconlance with the new exigencies of Biastem 
 society that the reformed empire oulllvetl for 
 many cent-:ri«s every government cuntemporary 
 
 847 
 
-sM 
 
 ?; 
 
 BYZANTINE KMPIHE. A. D. 717. 
 
 with iti ntabllghment. The Enstern Roman 
 Empire, thus refonned, ii called by ii:odeni hi8- 
 toriangthe Byzantine Empire: and the term is 
 well devised to mark the changes effected in the 
 government, after the extinction of the last 
 tncesof the military monarehy of ancient Rome. 
 . . . The provincial divisions of tlie Roman 
 Empire had fallen into oblivion. A new 
 geographical arrangement into Themes appeara 
 to have been established by Heraclius, when he 
 recovered the As<atic provinces from the Per- 
 sians; it was reorganized by Leo, and endured 
 as long as the Byzantine government. The 
 number of themes varied at different periods. 
 The Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus, 
 writing about the middle of the tenth century, 
 counts sixteen in the Asiatic portion of toe 
 Empire and twelve in the European. . . . The 
 European provinces were divided into eight con- 
 ttneDtal and five insular or transmarine tfaemea, 
 until the loss of the exarehate of Ravenna re- 
 duced the number to twelve. Venice and 
 Naples, though they acknowledged the suzer- 
 ainty of the Eastern Empire, acted generally as 
 independent cities. . . , When Leo was raised to 
 the throne the Empire was threatened with Im- 
 mediate ruin. . . . Every army assembled to 
 -ncounter the Saracens broke out into rebellion, 
 .'he Bulgarians and Sclavonians wasted Europe 
 up to the walls of Constantinople; t!'e Saracens 
 ravaged the whole of Asia Minor to the shores 
 of the Bosphorus."— O. FInlay, JIM. <ff tkt 
 Bjfiantint Empire, bk. 1, eh. I. 
 
 Also -»: E. W. Brooks, Tht Emptror Zenon 
 andthe /iaunaruiEnolUh Hitt. lin., April, 1898). 
 
 A. D. 717-797.— The Isaurian dynMfy.— The 
 dynasty founded by Leo the Isaurian held the 
 throne until the dethronement of Constantine VL 
 by his mother, Irene, A. D. 797, and her de- 
 thronement, in turn by NIcephorus I., A. D. 802. 
 It embnici-d the following reigns: Constantine 
 v., called Copronymus, A D. 741-775; Leo IV., 
 77.'i-780; Constantine VL, 780-797; Irene, 797- 
 
 ana. 
 
 A. D. 736-751.— The Iconoclaatic Contro- 
 ▼ersr.— Rupture with the West.— Fall of the 
 Exarchate of RaTenna.- End of anthority in 
 Italy. See Iconoclastic Co.ntrovirsy, and 
 Papacy : A. D. 738-774. 
 
 A. D. Soa-Saa— Emperors : Nicpbonis L, 
 A. D. 80a-«ll ; SUaracius, A D. 811; Michael 
 I., A. D. 811-818; Lto v., A. D. 813-820. 
 
 A. D. S03.— Treaty with Charlemagne, fix- 
 inr bouadariet. See Vknicb: A. D. 897-810. 
 
 A. D. 830-1057.- The Amorianand Baailian 
 or Macedonian dynaatict.— MIrhacI, the 
 Amnrian (820-829) so named from his hirth-place, 
 Amorium, in Phry gia, was a soldier, raised to the 
 throne by a revolution which deposed and 
 anaaslnated his friend and patron, the Emperor 
 Leo V. Michael transmitted the crown to his 
 son (Theonhilus. 829-843) and grandson. The 
 Utter, caltaHi Mirlmel the Drunkard, was con- 
 snired against and killed by one of the companions 
 01 hU drunken orL'te»(887), Basil the Macedonian, 
 who liHd t)een In early life a groom. Basil 
 founik'd a dynasty whicD reigned, with several 
 InK-rruptlnns, from A. D. 887 to 10."S7 — a period 
 rovtriiig tlie following reigns: Basil I.. A D 
 B«7-HKe; Leo VI.. A. D. 8*V-91I; Constantine 
 VII. (I'orphyrogenltus). A. D. 911-9.V); Komanus 
 I (Colleague), A D. 919-944: Constantino VIII. 
 tUoUeague), ▲. D. 944; Rumaous IL, A. D. 
 
 BYZANTINB EMPIRE, 1087-1081. 
 
 989-983; Nicephom* II., A. D. 988-989; John 
 Zimisces, A. D. 969-978; Basil IL, A. D. 96»- 
 1028; Constantine IX., A. D. 988-1028; Romanus 
 IIL, A. D. 1028-1084; Michael IV., A. D. 1034- 
 1041; Michael V., A. D. 1041-1042; Zoe and 
 Theodora, A. D. 1042-1088; Constantine X 
 A. D. 1042-1054; Michael VL, A. D. 1056-1057 
 
 A. D. 865-1043. — Wars, commerce and 
 Church Connection with the Rusaians. See 
 Rdbsiavb: a. D. 885-900; alsoCONBTAUTiNoPLZ- 
 A. D. 868 and 907-1048. 
 
 A. D. 870-1016.— Fresh acquisitions in South- 
 ern Italy. See Italy (SotrrHXBii): A. D. 800- 
 1018. 
 
 A. D. 963-1035.- Recovery of prestige and 
 territory. — "Amidst all the r-lmcs and revolu- 
 tions of the Byzantine govi, nent — and its 
 history is but a series of crimes and revolutions 
 — it was never dismembered by Intestine war. 
 A sedition in the army, a tumult in the theatre, 
 a conspiracy in tBe palace, precipitated a mon- 
 arch from the throne; but the allegiance of Con- 
 stantinople was instantly transferred to his suc- 
 cessor, and the provinces implicitly obeyed the 
 voice of the capital. The custom, too, of parti- 
 tion, so baneful to the Latin kingdoms, and 
 which was not altogether unknown to the Sara- 
 cens, never prevailed in the Greek Empire. It 
 stood In the middle of tlie tenth century, as 
 vicious Indeed and cowardly, but more wealthy, 
 more enlightened, and far more secure from its 
 enemies than under the flret successors of Herac- 
 lius. For about one hundred yean preceding 
 there had been only p&rtial wars with the Mo- 
 hammedan potentates; and in these the emperors 
 seem gradually to have gained the advantage, 
 and to have i>eoome more frequently the aggres- 
 sors. But the increasing distractions nf the East 
 encourage) iwo brave usurpers, NIcephorus 
 Phocas ana John Zimisces, to attempt tta 
 actual recovery of the lost provinces. .Tjey 
 carried the Roman arms (one may use the term 
 with less reluctance than usual) over Syria; 
 Antioch and Aleppo were taken by storm; 
 Damascus submltt.Hl ; even the cities of Mesopo- 
 tamia, beyond the ancient boundary of the 
 Euphrates, were added to the trophies of Zim- 
 isces, who unwillingly spare<l tlie capital of the 
 Kli»llfate. From such distant conquests It wu 
 expedient, and indeed necessary to wlllulraw; 
 but Cilicla and Antioch were pprmancnlly re- 
 stored to the Empire. At the close of tlio tenth 
 century the empcrore of Constantinople pos- 
 sessed the best aud greatest portion of the 
 modem kingdom of Naples, a part of Sicily, the 
 whole [present] European dominions ot the 
 Ottomans, the province of Anatolia or Asia 
 Minor, with some port of Syria and Armenia."— 
 H. Hallam, Tht MiddU Age; eh. 8. 
 
 A.D. 970-IUI4.— RscovetTafBnlgaria. See 
 Const ahtikoplb: A. D. 907-1043; also Bcl- 
 
 OAHIA, and ACBKIDA. 
 
 A. O. 1054.— Ecclesiastical divlslea of the 
 Bssttm from ths Roman Church. See Fii.i- 
 OQtnt CoimtovERsv, and OnxHODOx CiirRCH. 
 
 A. D. loS7-ioSt.— Between the Basilian and 
 ths Comosaiaa dynasties.— A dark period.- 
 " The moment that the last of the MiicpilnnlHn 
 dynasty was gone, the elements of diTDrl 
 seemea unchained, and the double i<coiiri;i' nf 
 civil war and foreign invasion begsn to Htfll' t 
 the empire. In the twenty four yesrs t»'iwiin 
 1087 add 1061 were prBsaud more disast«n than 
 
 348 
 
BTZANTINE EMPIRE, 1057-108t 
 
 kid been leen in any other period of East Roman 
 histoiT. ure perhaps the leign of Heraclius. 
 . . . The aged Theodora had named as her suc- 
 cessor on the throne Michael Stratlocus, a con- 
 temporary of her own who had been an able 
 soldier 25 years back. But Michael VI. was 
 grown aged and incompetent, and the empire 
 was full of ambitious generals, who would not 
 tolerate a dotard on the throne. Before a year 
 had piused a band of great Asiatic nobles en- 
 tered into a conspiracy to overturn Michael, and 
 replace him by Isaac Comnenus, the chief of one 
 of the ancient Cappadocian houses, and the most 
 popular general of the East. Isaac Comnenus 
 tnd bis friends took arms, and dispossessed the 
 aged Michael of his throne with little difficulty. 
 But a curse seemed to rest upon the usurpation; 
 Isaac WKS stricken down by disease when he had 
 been little more than a year on the throne, and 
 retired to a monastery to die. 'His crown was 
 transferred to Constantine Ducas, another Cap- 
 padocian noble," who reigned for seven troubled 
 years. His three immediate successors were 
 Roraanus IV., A. D. 1087-1071; Micliael VII 
 A. U. 1071-1078; Nicephonis III., A. D. Um^ 
 1081.— C. W. C. Oman, The Story of the SJitan- 
 tiiu Enpiri, eh. 80. 
 
 A. D. io63-i09a.— DiiMtera in AbU Minor. 
 See TiHKS (Skuuks): A. D. 1063-1073 ; and 
 A. D. 1075-1098. 
 
 A. D. 1064.— Grc .t rerlTal of pilarinuufes 
 from Weitem Europe to tho Holy LutdTSee 
 Crcbapes: Causes, etc. 
 
 A. D. 1081.— The enthronement of the 
 Cemnenian Dyiuety. See Const antisoplk • 
 
 A. a losi. 
 
 A. D. 1081-10(5.— Attempted Norman con- 
 ouest from Southern Italy.— Itobcrt Ouiscard 
 the Norman adventurer who had carved for him- 
 self a principality in eouthem Italy and acquired 
 the title of Duke of Apulia,— his duchy coincid- 
 ing with the subsequent Norman kingdom of 
 Naples — conceived the ambitious design of add- 
 ing the Byzantine Empire to his estate. His 
 conqiieaU in Italy had been mostly at the ex- 
 pense of the Byzantine dominions, and he be- 
 ilcveil that he had measured the strength of tlie 
 degenerate Roman Greeks. He was encouraged 
 moreover, by Uie successive revolutions which 
 tossed the imperial crown from hand to hand 
 Slid which had Just given It to the Comnenian, 
 Alexius I. Beyond ail, he had a claim of right 
 to Interfere in the affair* of the Empire; for his 
 young il.iughtcr was betrotlii-d to the heirex- 
 pemnt whose expectations were now vanishing 
 snd had actually been sent to ConsUntinople to 
 receive her education for the throne. To pro- 
 mote Ills bold underUking, Robert obtained the 
 apim.vBl of the pope, and an absolution for all 
 who would join his ranks. Thus sDiritually 
 equipped, the Norman duke Invaded (freece in 
 thesuinmerof 1081, with 150 ships and 30.000 
 men .Miiking himself master, on the way. of 
 thcls.mi.i of Corcyra (Corfu), and taking several 
 port* on the mainland, he laid siege to Dyrra- 
 .hlum, ...id found it a most obsttante fo-tidcatlon 
 to red.ie... It, massive ancient wallc delicd the 
 
 1^ ,' J^ K f^ Ouiscard gained possession of 
 k- u,»n bv the tr«ichery of one of It. .lefend- 
 '.N Mciii tinu; the Noi mans had routed an.| soat- 
 1^.^ on,, large army, which the Emper,,r Al«!ril., 
 W ia prrsua to ih« ttlM of Dyrmmiumi but 
 
 849 
 
 BYZANTINE EIhPIRE, U4«. 
 
 the fortified towns In Illyrla and Epirua delayed 
 their advance toward Constantinople. Robert 
 was called home to Italy by important affairs and 
 J Is *"" ^hemund (the subsequent Crusader 
 and Prince of Antioch), in command. Bohemund 
 defeated Alexius again in the spring of 1083, and 
 rtill a third time the following autumn. AU 
 Epirus was overrun and Macedonia and Thesaaly 
 invaded; but the Normans, while besieging 
 Larlisa, were undone by a stratagem, lost theS 
 camp and found It necessary to retreat Robert 
 was then just reentering the field, in person, and 
 had won an important naval battle at Corfu 
 over the combined Greeks and Venetians, wheii 
 he died (July, 1085), and hia project of conquest 
 in Greece ended with him. Twenty years after- 
 wards, his son Bohemund, when Prince of An- 
 tioch, and quarreling with the Byzanttaes, 
 gathered a crusading army in Prance and Italy 
 to lead it against Constantinople; but it was 
 stepped by stubborn Dyrrachium, and jever got 
 beyond. Alexius had recovered that strong 
 coast defence shortly after Robert Ouiscard 1 
 death, with the help of the Venetians and Amal- 
 flans. B> way of reward, those merchant alliea 
 received important commercial privileges, and 
 the title of Venice to the sovereig-.ity 01 Dalma- 
 tia and Croatia was recognized. ' ' From this time 
 the doge appears to have styled himself lord of 
 the kingdoms of Dalmatia and Croatia."— G 
 Finlay, HiH. of the Bymntine and Greek Empire*. 
 it. 8, eh. a, tet.X. 
 
 A. D. to8i-i 185.— The Comnenian emperor*. 
 — Alexius I., A. D. 1081-1118; John II., A. D. 
 1118-1143; Manuel I., A. D. 1143-1181; Alexius 
 II., A. D. 1181-1188; Andronicus I., A. D. 1188- 
 
 A. D. 1096.1097.— The pusag* of the firrt 
 Crutadert. See Crusades: A. D. 1099-lOW. 
 
 A. D. 1146.— DeatnictiTe iuTaaion of Rorer- 
 king: of Sidly.— Sack of Thebee and Corinio. 
 —When Roger, king of Sicily, united the Nor- 
 man possessions in Southern Italy to his Sicilian 
 realm he became ambitious, in his turn, tft 
 acquire some part of the Byzantine possessions. 
 His single attack, however, made simultaneously 
 with the second crusading movement (A. D. 
 1146), amounted to no more than a great and 
 destructive plundering raid in Greece. An 
 insurrection in Corfu gave that island to him, 
 after which his fleet rav.igcd the coastaof Euboea 
 and Attica, Acamanii and jElalla. "It then 
 entered the gulf of Oorinlh, and debarked a body 
 of troops at Criasa. This force niart;hed through 
 the country to Thebes, plundering every town 
 and village on the wav. Thebes offered no 
 resistance, and was plundered in the most deliber- 
 ate and barbarous macner. The inhabitanU 
 were numerous and wealthy. The soil of 
 B<votia is extremely productive, and numerous 
 manufactures establigbe<i in the city c . Thebes 
 gave additional value to the abundant produce 
 of agricultural Industry. . . . All military spiri* 
 was now dead, and the Thcbans had so long 
 lived without any fear of invasion tliat tliey had 
 not even adopted any effectual measures to 
 secure or conceal their movable nrop<.'rty. The 
 conquerora, ar^un against all danger of Inter- 
 ruption, plundered Thelies at their Visure. . . . 
 Whe,. all ordinwr means of collecting booty 
 were exhausted, the citizens were compellod to 
 take an oath on the Hnlv Serintur; « that they 
 had n^t cononaled any ponion of tiwir pivpvtgr 
 
It! 
 
 'li 
 
 
 BTZANmrSBMratB, 1146. 
 
 jet many of the wealthiest were dragged away 
 captive, in oriltr to profit by their ratuom; and 
 m.my of the most sltilful workmen in the silk- 
 manufuctories, for which Thebes had long been 
 famous, were pressed on board the fleet to labour 
 at the our. . . . B<.-njamin of Tudcla, who visited 
 1 hcbcs about twenty years later, or perhaps in 
 1161, speaks of it as then a large city, with two 
 thousand Jewish Inhabitaute, who were the most 
 eminent manufacturers of silk and purple cloth 
 n all Greece. The silks of Thebes continued to 
 be celebrated as of superior quality after this 
 invasion. . . . From Boeotia the army passed to 
 Corinth. . . . Corinth was sacked as cruelly as 
 Thebes; men of rank, beautiful women, and 
 skilful artisans, with their wives and families 
 were carried away into captivity. . . . This 
 Invarion of Greece was conducted entirely as a 
 plundering expedition. . . . Corfu was the only 
 conquest of which Roger retained possession ; 
 yet this passing Invasion Is the period ftom which 
 tlie decline of Byzantine Greece Is to be dated. 
 The century and-a-half which preceded this dis- 
 aster had passed In uninterrupted tranuuiUity. 
 and the Greek people bad increased rapidly In 
 numbers and wealth. The power of the Scln- 
 vonlan population sank with the ruin of the 
 kingdom of Achridaj and the ScUvonians who 
 now dwelt In Greece were peaceable cultlvatore 
 of the soil or graziers. The Greek population, 
 on the other hand, was in possession of an 
 extensive commerce and many flourishing manu- 
 fivctures. The ruin of this commetxa and of 
 these manufactures has been ascribed to the 
 tnmsferenco of the silk trade from Thebes and 
 Corinth to Palermo, under the Judicious pro- 
 tection It n-celved from Rc^'er; but It would be 
 more correct to eay that the Injudicious and 
 oppressive financial administration of the Byzan- 
 tine Emperors destroyed the commercial pros- 
 perity and manufacturing Industry ( ' the Greeks • 
 while the wise liberality and intelligent pro- 
 tection of the Norman kings extended the com- 
 merce and Increased the Industry of the Sicilians 
 When the Sicilian fleet returned to Palermo 
 Kogcr determined to employ all the silk-manu- 
 facturers In their original occupations. He con- 
 sequently collected all their families together 
 and settled them at Palermo, supplying them 
 with the means of exercising their Industry with 
 profit to themselves, and inducing thorn to teach 
 his own subjccu to manufacture the richest 
 brocades, and to rival the rarest productions of 
 the East ... It Is not remarkable that the 
 commerce and manufactures of Greece were 
 transferred in the course of another century to 
 
 and Greek Emri'-t, from 716 to 1458, 4*. 8, eh. 2 
 
 ^P- "47:J«4»— Tronbit with th« Gcraum 
 f, ., ,f?i?'" Cru«»d«rfc See Crusades: A. D 
 1147-1149 
 
 BTZAN-nni! EMPIRE, 1808-1204 
 
 oratemmlble m before his coronation, and 
 
 received no tlutiure of manliness or virtue from 
 that ceremony. In the second year of his reiT 
 
 wtiif "EiF'" ""t •^°"l "' '" Bulgarian 4d 
 Wallachlan provinces by a successful revolt 
 In the ten^ year (A. D. 1193), Isaac was pushed 
 from his ttrone, deprived of sight and shut ud 
 in a dungeon, by a brother of equal worthless- 
 ness, who styled himself Alexius III. The 
 latter neglected, however, to secure the person 
 2;.n« ^ "on Aiexjua. who escaped fmnVCoD- 
 ^ mP'® »"<* mxie Jjls way to his sister, wife 
 of Philip, the German King and cUim.-iiit of 
 the western hnpcrial crown. Philip theriMinon 
 plotted with the Venetians to divert the giZ 
 crusading expedition, then assembling to take 
 ship at Venice, and to employ It for the Rstora 
 Won of young Alexius aiul his father laiac to 
 the Byzantine throne. The cunning and ner- 
 moxia means by which tiiat divlrsion V'a 
 brought about are relatcnl In another place fsee 
 Crusades: A. D 1801-1808). The ^at £ 
 of the crusading fliibustere arrived In the Ros- 
 phorui near the end of June, 1803. The arn-v 
 which It bore was landed first on the A .iatf- 
 side of the strait, opposite the Imperial city 
 After ten days of parley and preparation It wis 
 conveyed across the water and began Us attack. 
 ^e towers gua-ding the entrance to the Golden 
 Horn — the harbor of Constantinople — were 
 captured the chain removed, the harlmr occu- 
 pied, and the Imperial fleet seized or destroyed 
 On Uie 1 .th of July a combined as,sault by laud 
 and water was made on the walls of the city at 
 their northwest corner, near the Blaehera palace 
 where they presentetl one face to the Horn and 
 Mother to the land. The land-attack failed 
 I he Venetians, from their ships, stormed twenty- 
 five towers, gained possession of a long stretch 
 or the wall, and pushed into the city far euough 
 to start a conflagration which spread ruin over 
 an extensive district. They could not hold tlielr 
 ground, and withdrew ; but the result was a 
 victory. The cowardly Emperor, Alexius III 
 fled from the city that nigiit, and blind old Isajic 
 Ajg lus was restored to the throne. He was 
 ready to associate his son In the sovereipniv. and 
 to fulfill, If he could, the contracU whic'li the 
 tatter had made with Venetians and Cru^ulers. 
 These invaders had now no present excuse for 
 making war on Constantinople any further. But 
 the excuse was soon found. Money to pay their 
 heavy claims could not bo raised, and tli<ir hato- 
 fulness to the Greeks was Increased b- the in- 
 solence of their demeanor. A serious "collision 
 occurred at length, provoked by the plumlc ring 
 °' ■ S^nomctan mosijuc which the Byziiutinea 
 
 A. D. Ii8s-ia04.— The Annll.— laaac II 
 
 1808; Altxini IV., A. I». 1203-1804. 
 
 A. p. iao3-iao4.-Iti orerthrew by the 
 VtBetiana ana Crus«deri.-S«ek of CoBttaa- 
 tinople.— The lastof the Comnenlan Emperors 
 
 J K J"?'*Ji'?'-'''« •'"''»' Andronlcus I.— 
 Sl«w i'"*"^.'' y. '?, * '■"■' iMurrectlon at Con- 
 stantinople which his tyranny provoked. A. D. 
 
 .11, -I Jli*!!"*?"': ^"""^ Angelas, collater- 
 My leUted to ths Imperial JjoSse, bad been a 
 
 had tolerated In their capital. Once "mor.', on 
 this occasion, the splendid city was fired liy the 
 ruthless invaders, and an immense district lu the 
 richest and most populous part was desiroved, 
 while many of the Inhabitants perished. 'The 
 '"» '"•«d two days and nights, sweeping a 
 wide belt from the harlxir to the Marmora. The 
 suburU of Constantinople were pillaged and 
 ruined by the Latin soldiery, and muve and 
 more It became Impossible for the two n^tnred 
 eoiperors to raise money for paying the claiiru of 
 the Crusadcn who bad champlomil them. Their 
 subjecu bated them and were clespcraio At 
 Jut, In January, 1804, the public feeling of 
 Oonstutlnople flamed out In a revolution which 
 crowuMd a new emperor,— one Alexis Uucss, 
 
 If 
 
 350 
 
BTZAirmn: empire, 1203-1204. 
 
 nicknamed Mourtzophloa, on account of bli eye- 
 brows, which met A few days afterwards, witli 
 suspicious opportuneness, Isaac and Alexius 
 died. Then both sides entered upon active pre- 
 parotioDs for serious war; but it was not until 
 April Otii tliat the Crusaders and Venetians were 
 Kiuiy to assail the walls once more. The first 
 assault was repelled, with heavy loa< to the be- 
 siugcrs. They rested two days and repeated the 
 attack on the 12tb with irresistible resolution 
 and fury. The towers were taken, the gates 
 were bmkcn down, knights and soldiers poured 
 into the fatc<l city, killing without mercy, burning 
 witlinutscniple— atartingatliirdappailingconlla- 
 Kration which Uid another wide district in ruins. 
 The new emperor fled, the tmops laid down 
 their irms,— Constantinople was couqucred and 
 prostrate. ' ' Then began the plunder of the city. 
 The imperial treasurr and the arsenal wct« 
 placed under guard ; but with these exceptions 
 the rigl't to plunder was given indiscriminately 
 to the troops and sailors. Never in Europe was 
 a work of pillage more systematically and 
 shamelessly carried out. Never by the army of 
 a Christian state was there a more barbarous 
 sack of a city than that perpetrated by these 
 soldiers of Chr^t, sworn to chastity, pledged be- 
 fore God not til sheu Christian blood, and bearing 
 upon them the emblem of the Prince of Peace. 
 . . . 'Never since the world was created,' says 
 the .Marshal [Villehnrdouin] ' was there so much 
 booty gained in one city. Each man took the 
 liouse which pleased him, and there were enough 
 for all. Those who were poor found themselves 
 luddenly rich. There was captured an immense 
 supply of gold and silver, of plate aud of precious 
 Hones, of satins and «f silk, of furs and of every 
 kind of wealth ever found upon tlic earth.' . . . 
 riie Greek eye-witness [Xiccliis] gives the com- 
 plement of the picture of Viiielianlouin. The 
 lust of the army spared neither maiden nor the 
 virgin dedicated to God. Violence and debauch- 
 ery were everywhere present . cries and liimen- 
 tations and the groiius of the victims were heard 
 throughout the city ; for everywhere -pillage 
 "•••' ed. . . . A 
 ^ in the 
 ise. . . . 
 - .nt-.-rend 
 'ii? were 
 .. Mc-y 
 M obtair Ue 
 adorned. . ho 
 
 was unrestrained and Ir 
 
 large part of the booty h 
 
 tim'e ihurches designate 
 
 The distribution was n- ■ 
 
 of April. Many work: 
 
 sent to the meltiog-po. 
 
 statues were broken up 
 
 metals with which they ....^ .„.>,.„™ 
 
 eimquerors knew nothing and cared nothiu-. for 
 
 the art which liad added value to the metal "— 
 
 t. Pears, T/it Fall of CoiutantinopU, ch. 14-15 
 
 Also in: O. Fiulay, Ilirt. of the Bytantine and 
 (imk hmptret, fivm 716 to 14a'3, hk. 8 cA. 8 
 tet. ;). • I . 
 
 A. D. lJ04.-Relfii or Al»iut V. 
 
 A. D. tao4-iaos.— Th« partitioniiu: of tht 
 
 »'','" 1 "■* Crusaders sad the VenctiAn*.— 
 
 Uifore the crusaders made their last successful 
 altmli on Constantinople, they concluded a treaty 
 Piirtitmumg the Byzantine empire and dividing 
 tlie plumier of the capital. . . . This treaty wm 
 entered into by the Frank crusaders on the one 
 part and the citizens of the Venetian republic 
 ™ the oilier, for tlie purpose of nrcventing dis- 
 P t,s and preserving unity in tte expedition." 
 1 he treaty lurther provided for the creation of 
 Sii fcmpire of Itomauia, to take the place of the 
 Bytaaime Empire, and for the el^ oVaS 
 
 BTZANTINE EMPIRE, 1804-1205. 
 
 Emperor to reif^ over it Tlie arrangements of 
 the treaty in tliis latter respwt were carried out, 
 not long after the taking of the city by the elec- 
 tion of Baldwin, count of Flanders, the most 
 esteemed and the most popular among the 
 princes of the crusade, and he received the 
 imperial crown of the new Empire of Romania 
 at the hands of the legate of the pope. "Meas- 
 ures were Immediately taken after the coronation 
 of Baldwin to carry into execution the act of 
 partition as arranged by tlic joint consent of the 
 Frank and Venetian commissioners. But their 
 Ignorance of geograpliy, and the resistance 
 offered by the Greeks In Asia Minor, and by the 
 Vallachians and Albanians in Europe, threw 
 innumerable difflculties in tlie way of the pro- 
 posed distribution of fiefs. The quarter of the 
 Empire that formed the portion of Baldwin con- 
 sisted of the city "f Constantinople, with the 
 country in its ImineJiate vicinity, as far as Bizya 
 and Tzouroulos in Europe and Nicomedia in 
 Asia. Beyond the territory around Constanti- 
 nople, Baldwin possessed districts extending as 
 far as the Strymon in Europe and the Sangarius 
 In Asia; but bis possessions were intermingled 
 with those of the Venetians aud the vassals of 
 the Empire. Prokounesos, Lesbos, Chios, Lem- 
 nos, Skyros, and several smaller islands, also fell 
 to his share."— O. Finlay, IIi»t. of Gretee from 
 iti Commat by Vie Crumden, eh. 4, tect. 1-2.—" In 
 the division of the Greek provinces the slmre of 
 the Venetians was more ample than that of the 
 Latin emperor. No more than one fourth was 
 appropriated to his domain ; n clear moiety of the 
 remainder was reserved for Venice and the other 
 moiety was distributed among tlie adventurers 
 of France and Lombardy. The venerable Dan- 
 dolo was proclaimed Despot of Romania, and 
 was invested, after the Greek fashion, with the 
 purple buskins. He ended at Constantinople his 
 long and glorious life; an.: if the prerogative 
 was personal, the title was used by his successors 
 till the middle of the fourteenth century, with 
 the singular, though true, addition of • tords of 
 one fourth and a half of the Roman Empire ' 
 . . . They possessed three of the eight quaitera 
 of the city. . . . They had rashly accepted the 
 dominion and defence of Adrianoplc: but it was 
 the more reasonable aim of their policy to form 
 a chain of factories and cities and islands along 
 the maritime coast, from the ucigbUmrhood of 
 Ragusa to the Hellespont and the Bospliorus. 
 . , . For the price of 10,000 marks the republic 
 purohascd of the marquis of Montferrat the 
 fertile island of Crete or Candia with the ruins 
 of a hundred cities. ... In the moiety of tlie 
 adventurers the Marquis Boniface [of Montferrat] 
 mi^iit claim the most liberal reward; and 
 besides tlie isle of Crete, his exclusion from tlie 
 throne [for which he had been a candidate 
 against Baldwin of Fiandere] was compensated 
 bv the royal title and the provinces bevond the 
 Hellespont. But he prudently exchanged that 
 distant and ditflcult conquest for tlie kingdom 
 of Thessalonica or Macedonia, twelve davs' 
 Journey from the capital, where he might 'be 
 supported by tlie neighbouring powers of his 
 brother-in-law, tlic king of Hungary. . . . The 
 lots of the Latin pilgrims were regulated by 
 chance or choice or snbseduent exchange. 
 At the lieail of his kni;lit« and archers each 
 baron mouLled on horseback to secure the pos- 
 ■estion of hi* share, and their first efforts were 
 
 361 
 
n\ 
 
 '1f 
 
 ' t i 
 
 I' 
 
 «■ 
 
 i 
 t 
 
 BYZANTINE EMPIHE, 1204-iaos. 
 
 fcncmlly succcMful But the public force wu 
 wenkencd by their dUpcrslon ; and a thousand 
 quarrels must arise under a law ami among men 
 whose sole umpire was the Bwonl,"— E. Qibbon 
 Dteliiu! and FnU of the Roman Em,.irt. eh. 61. 
 
 A. D. iao4-iao<.— The political ahaping of 
 the frapnenti. See Romania. Thk Empire: 
 Obkkk Empire or Nicjia; Thebizond; Epirus; 
 Naxos, TnE Mediaval Dukedom: Achaia: 
 A. D. 1805-1887; Athens: A. D. 1S0S-14M: 
 
 BALOMKl. 
 
 A.D. »26i.i453._The Greek reitoration.— 
 t"* >tny[K>e with the Turks and final orer- 
 throw.— Tlie story of the shadowy restoration 
 of a Greek Empire ist Constantinople, its hut 
 struggle with the Turks, and ita fall te told else- 
 where-.— See Constantinople; A. D. 1261-1453, 
 to 14.53.—" Frcm the hour of her foundation to 
 tliat in which her sun finally sank fa blood 
 Christian Constantinople was engaged In con- 
 stant strugrles against successive hordes of bar- 
 barians. BTic did not always triumph In the 
 strife, but, even when she was be8t<'n she did 
 not succumb, but carried on the contest still ; 
 and the fact tliat she was able to do sc is alone a 
 Bufflciug proof of the strength and vitality of 
 her orgnnization. ... Of tlio seventy-six em- 
 
 Eerors and five empresses who occupied the 
 lyzantinc throne, IS were put to death, 7 were 
 blinded or otherwise mutilated, 4 were depose<l 
 and imprisoned In monasteries, and 10 were 
 comixlled to abdicate. This list, comprising 
 nearly half of the whole numlKT, is suflicient Iniir- 
 cation of the horrore by which the history of the 
 empire is only too often markcl, and it may be 
 frankly admitted that these dark stains, dis- 
 flguring pages which but for them would be 
 bright witli the things which were licautiful and 
 glorious, go some way to excuse, if not to Jus- 
 tify, the obloquy which Western writers have 
 been so prone to cast upon the East. But it is 
 not by considering the evil only, any more thfcn 
 the good only, that it is possil)le to form a just 
 judgment upon an historic epoch. To judge 
 the Byzantine Empire only by the crimes which 
 denied the palace would be as unjust as if the 
 French people were to be estimaunl by nothing 
 but the Massacre of St. Bartholomew, the Reign 
 of Terror, and the Commune of 1871. The 
 dynastic crimes and revolutions of New Rome 
 were not a consUnt feature iu her history On 
 the contrary, the times of trouble and anarchy 
 were epiwxles between long |)erio<ls of peace 
 They arose citlicr from quarrels in the imperial 
 family itself, which degraded the dignity of the 
 crown, or from the contentions of pretenders 
 struggling among themselves till one or other 
 hail wors' 1 his rivals and was able to become 
 the founder of a long dynasty. . . . The most 
 deplorable epoch in the history of the Byzantine 
 tnip re, the period In which assiisslnntion and 
 mutilation most abounded, was that in which it 
 was exposed to the Influence of the Crusadeni 
 and thus brouj?ht Into contact with Western 
 Eun)|X'. . . . The Byzantine people, although 
 in every respect the sup«rior8 of their contem- 
 poraries, wore unable entirely to -scape the In- 
 fiuencc of their neighborhood. As the guanlians 
 of classical civilization, they strove to keep almve 
 the deluge of barimriSm by which the rest of the 
 world was tlien inumlatcd. But it was a flooti 
 whose waters prevailed eiceedlngly upon the 
 Mftli, aud sumetiines all the Ugh biUs were 
 
 BTZANTIUM. 
 
 ooTBTBd, even where might have rested the 
 a.* In which the vraditions of ancient culture 
 were being preserve<l. ... The Byzantine Em- 
 plre was predestinated to perform in espec i«l one 
 great work in human history. That work was 
 to preserve civilization during the period of 
 barbarism which we call the Middle Ages. 
 Constantlncple fell, and the whole Hellenic world 
 piMed Into Turkish slavery. Western Eumiie 
 looked on with unconcern at the appalling ciit:ij. 
 trophe It was In vain that the last of the 
 ™alologoi cried to them for help. 'ClirlstcD- 
 rK^i'.f''/^"''*"'' 'l^held with indilTeiincc 
 the fall of Constantinople.' ... Up to her last 
 hour she bad never ceased, for more than a 
 thousand ychrs, to flght. In the fourth eenmrv 
 she fought the Goths; In the fifth, the Huns and 
 Vandals; in the sixth, the Slavs; In Oie seventh 
 the Persians, the Avars, and the Arabs: In the 
 eighth, ninth, and tenth, the Bulgars. the Mair- 
 yars, and the Russians; In the eleventh the 
 Koumanol, the Petzenegol. and the Sili .I'lkiaa 
 Turks; in the twelfth, thirteenth, fiiiiuenth. 
 imd fifteenth, the Ottomans, the Normans, tlie 
 Cnisatlcrs, the Venetians, and the Genoese No 
 wonder that at last slic fell exhausted' Tlie 
 wonder Is, how she could keep herself alive so 
 long. But it was by thb long battle that she 
 8ucceede<l In saving from destruction, amid the 
 u 'ersal cnt«clysm which overwhelmed the 
 classical worid, the clvilizition of the ancients 
 mojiifled by the Christiau religion. The moral 
 and inU'llectual development of modem Eumpe 
 arc owing to the Byzantine Empire, if it he true 
 that this development is the common offsprinr 
 of antiquity uiKin the one hand and of Chris- 
 S?,°"}[ "•""' "'" otlier-"— Dcmetrios Bikelas, 
 The Bytantine Empire (SeoUith Rev., t. 8, 1888). 
 
 BYZANTIUM, BeglnBiajsot-The ancient 
 Greek city of Byzantium, which occupied part 
 of the site of the modem city of Constantinople 
 was founde<l. according to tradition. Iiv Mesa- 
 rians, in the seventh century a C. Its situation 
 on the Bosplionis enabled the possessors of thu 
 city to control the important com supply wliicU 
 cam* from the Eiixme, while its tunnv tish- 
 enes were renowned sources of wealth, 'it was 
 to the latter that the bay called the GoMen 
 Horn was said to owe iU name. The Persians, 
 the Laceihemonians, the Atlienlans anil the 
 Macetionians were successive masters of Hvzan- 
 tlum, before the lioman day, Athens and Spnrta 
 having taken and retaken the city fn)in one 
 another many limes duriug tlieir wai-s. 
 
 B. C. 478.— Taken by the Greeks from the 
 Persians. See Gukecb: B. C. 4TH-I77. 
 
 B. C. 440.— Unsuccessful revolt araiost 
 Athens. See Athens: B. C. 440-41)7. 
 
 B. C. 408.— Revolt ud reduction by the 
 Athenians. See Gheece: B. C. 411-407. 
 ..B- C. 340-— Unsuccessful siege by Philip of 
 Macedon. See Ohekck: B. C. 34(1. 
 
 B. C. 336.— AlUmnce with Alexander the 
 Great. See Gkeecb: B. C. 336-33.5. 
 
 A. D. 194.— Siege by Serems. Sec noint: 
 A. D 192-384. 
 
 A. D. 367,— Capture by the Goths. See 
 OoTiis: A. I). 2,W-867. 
 
 A. D. 333.— Siege by Constantme. See 
 Rome: A. D. SO.VSaa. 
 
 A. D. 330.— Tfansfonntd Into Coostastl* 
 aopl*. See ComrAireuiopijL 
 
 S52 
 
 m^-m 
 
<;aira. 
 
 CABIKBT. 
 
 CA IRA: The origin of the cry and the 100^. 
 
 _'' WTIicn the news of the disastrous retreat [of 
 Wasliington, in 1776] through the Jerseys and 
 the mlssries of Valley Forge reached Pr— ce, 
 many good friends to America began to tbiulc 
 that now indeed all was lost. But the stout 
 heart of Franklin never flinched. 'This is in- 
 deed biul news,' said he, 'but ^ ire, 9a ire 
 [litemlly, 'this will go, tills will go'], it will all 
 come right in the end.' Old aiplomnts and 
 courtiers, amazed at his confidence, passed about 
 his clicerlng words. They were taken up by 
 the newspapers ; they were remembered by the 
 people, and, in the dark days of tlic French 
 KeTolution. were repeated over and over again 
 on every side, and made the subject of a stirring 
 song which, till the Marseillaise Hymn appeared, 
 had no equal in France." — J. B. >lcMa8ter, JUitt. 
 of tlie People of the U. &, v. 2, p. 89.— L. Rosen- 
 tlial, Ameriea and fYanee, p. 883. — "The 
 original words (afterward much changed) were 
 by i^&dre, a street singer; and the music was a 
 mpular dance tune of the time compose<l by 
 Becourt, a drummer of the Grand Opem." — 
 Century Dieiionnry. — " The originr] name of tlie 
 tune to which the words were written is 
 'Le Carilloa National,' and it is a remarkable 
 circumstance that it was a great favourite with 
 the unfortunate Marie Antoinette, who used to 
 phy it on the harpsichonl." — J. Oxenford, Book 
 of Frenrh Sonr/t {nnte to " Ca ira"). 
 
 CAABA AT MECCA, The.— "An Arab 
 legend asserts that this famous temple was erected 
 by Abraham and his son Ishmael wiih the aid of 
 thcanicl Gabriel. Mahomet lent his authority 
 to the lege.id and devoted to it several chanters 
 in tlie Koran, and thus it became one of tlii Mus- 
 
 sulman articles of faith. Even before the intro- 
 duction of Islamism tills story was current 
 through a great part of Arabia and spread abroad 
 in proportion as the Ishmaelitish tribes gained 
 grouad. . . This temple, wlio?c name ' snuare 
 Iwuse ' indicates its form. Is still l)resei-ve(l. It 
 was very small and of very rude conitniition. 
 It was not till comparatively recent • that 
 
 'lad Ti door with a lock. . . . For .. time 
 
 I •-■si.i- sacred object it contained wa- a-je- 
 bratcd lilack stone hadjarel-aswad, an ..t-rolite, 
 which is still the object of Mussulman venera- 
 tion. . . . We have already mentioned Hobiil, 
 tlie first anthroponiorphic idol, placed in tlie 
 Canlm. Tins example was soon copied. . . . 
 The Caaba thus iK-oaiiie s sort of Arabian Pan- 
 tliccm. and even the Virgin Mary, with her child 
 on her knees, eventually found a place tliere."— 
 F. Lcnormant, Manual of Ancient Hut. of the 
 But. hk. 7, th. 3. 
 
 Also IN: Sir W. Muir, Life of Mahomet, eh. 8. 
 
 CABAL, The. Sec Cabinet, The Ekousii ; 
 also. Enoi-and: A. D. 1«7I. 
 
 CABALA, The.— "The term Cabala is usu- 
 ally iipiilicd to tliat wild system of Oriental plii- 
 liwiphy wiiich was introduced, it is uncertain at 
 *liat i«Tl(Ki, Info the .lewUh schools: in a wider 
 wnw it mmpridieiided all the decisions of the 
 Italiliiiijcal courts or schools, whether on re'.igious 
 iir civil pnints."— II. H. Milman, lli»t. of the Jem. 
 f. 2. bk. lH._"Thc philosophic Catwla aspired 
 Jo be a more sublime and transcendental Rabbin- 
 Mm. It was a myst<>rv not e.-icluslvc of, but 
 stKivc their more couunon mystcdee; • eecret 
 
 853 
 
 more profound than their profoundest secnti. 
 It claiini'<l the same guaranty of antiquity, of 
 revelation, of tradition; It was the true, occult, 
 to few intelligible sense of the sacred writings 
 and of the sayings of the most renowned Wise 
 Men : the inward interpretation of the genuine 
 Interpretation of the Law and the Prophets. 
 Men went on ; they advanced, they rose from the 
 most full and perfect study of the Talmuds to 
 the high' <■ f)r>ctrines, to the more divine contem- 
 
 C' iona 'tht Cabala. And the Zoliar was the 
 k of ihe Cabala which soared almost above 
 the comprehecsion of the wisest. . . . Tn its tradi- 
 tional, no doubt unwritten form, the Cabala, at 
 least a Cabala, ascends to a very early date, the 
 Captivity; in its proper and more mature form, 
 it belongs to the first century, and reaches down 
 to the end of tlie seventh century of our era. 
 The Sepber Yetzira, the Book of Creation, which 
 boasts itself to be derived from Moses, from 
 Abraham, if not from Adam, or even aspires 
 higher, belongs to the earlier period ; the Zohar, 
 the Light, to the hiter. The remote origin of the 
 Cabala belongs to that period when the Jewish 
 mind, during the Captivity, became 30 deeply 
 impregnated with Oriental notions, those of the 
 Persian or Zoroastrian re-ligion. Some of the 
 first principles of tlic Cabala, as well as many 
 of the tenets, still more of the superstitions, of 
 the Talmud, coincide so exactly with the Zen- 
 davesta ... as to leave no doubt of their kin- 
 dred and afllllation."— H. H. Milman, Uitt. of 
 theJettf. bk. 30. 
 
 CABILDO. The. See Louisiana: A. D. 
 1769. 
 
 CABINET, The Amiriean.— "There is in 
 the govemncnt of the United Stau-s no such 
 thing as a Cabinet In the English sense of the 
 term. But I use the term, not only because it is 
 current in America to describe the chief minis- 
 ters of the President, but also because it calls 
 attention to the remarkable difference which ex- 
 isM between the great officers of State in America 
 and the similar officers In the free countries of 
 Europe. Almost the only reference in the Con- 
 stitution to the ministers of the I'resident is that 
 contained in the jiower given him to • require the 
 opinion in writing of tlie principal officer in each 
 of the executive departments upon any subject 
 relating to tlie duties of their respective offices.' 
 W\ these departments have been created bv Acts 
 of Congress. Washington began in 1786 with 
 four only, at the head of whom were the follow- 
 ing four officials: Secretary of State, S<'crelary 
 of the Treasury, Secretary of War, Attorney 
 General. In 1798 there was added a Secretary 
 of the Navy, in 1829 a Postmaster General, and 
 in 1849 a Secretarv of the Interior. . . . Each 
 receives a salary of $8,000 (£1,600). All are ap- 
 pointed by the President, subj.-ct to the con- 
 sent of the Senate (which is pmctically never 
 refused), and may lie removed bv the Presiilent 
 al' '. Nothiiiit murks them off from uny other 
 of als who inlglit be placed in charge of a de- 
 partment, except that tliey arc summnned by 
 the President to his pHvate council. None of 
 them can vot n Congress, Art. XI.. §6 of the 
 Constitution ; roviding that 'no person holding 
 any office under the United States shall lie a 
 mcmlKT of either House during his cnniinuance 
 in office, ' "—J, Bryoe, The Am. QmtmonveeaUh, eh. 
 
fi! 
 
 tri 
 
 ll-. 
 
 iJliilJ 
 
 ll ■, 
 
 CABINET. 
 
 • — "In IMa s nporate Department of Airricul- 
 turewas eatabliafied. ... In 1889 the hSd of 
 
 CABINIT. 
 
 r r, — --~™™".. . . . tu loan me neaa or 
 tie Department becune Secretary ot the Depart- 
 ment of Aericulture and a Cabinet officer: A 
 Bureau of Labor under the Ir>erior Department 
 
 m.bi^,. L » iepwate department, but did not 
 ?.K.t l" ^ l ^'*'^' '""^ therefore not a 
 tabinet officer." There are now (1891) elirht 
 heads of departmenta who constitute the F %i. 
 denfs Cabinet. _W. W. and W. F. WiUoughby, 
 Oott.and Admtnutrationoftlu U. S. (JohniSmj. 
 
 ™.. M . *^' ^*" EnBh»h.-"Few things in 
 our history are more cuiTous than the origin and 
 growth of the power now possessed by the 
 
 F, .'i«tH h^.^ "" *i"'J: P*"^ '•'8 Kings of 
 t.''?^? ^ *^'' »«'»ted by a Privy Council to 
 Tn J"^ ^ - '?'' "SiP-ed many Importiit f uncUons 
 and duties [see Pbivt Councii.]. During several 
 T^'"^Vh '"dy dellbemtei on the*gnivSt 
 Md most delicate affairs. But by deg^ lt« 
 diaracter changed. It became too large for des- 
 patch and secrecy. The rank of Privy Councillor 
 was often bestowed as aa honorary distinction 
 Ml persons to whom nothing was confided, and 
 •ehose opinion was never asked. The soverelen. 
 on the most Important occasions, resorted for 
 advice to a small knot of leading ministers. The 
 „,w°J^f fjf* dlsadvantogcs o1 thU oourae were 
 early pointed out by Bacon -vith hU usual ludir- 
 ment and sagacity: but li as not tlU after the 
 Restoration that the Inter. «uncll began to 
 attract general notice. During many jdn old 
 fash oncd politicians continu^ to reW the 
 Cabinet as an unconsUtutional and dingerous 
 board. Nevertheless, It constantly becami more 
 and more important. It at length drew to Itself 
 the chief executive power, and has now been 
 regarded, dunng several generations, as an essen- 
 ;?>i P"".-"' ""' P°'"y- ^'<'*- "range to say. It 
 f'"' <:°°"""«8 to be altogether unknown to the 
 WW. The names of the noblemen and gentlemen 
 who compose it are never officially announced to 
 the public No rc-cord is kept if ite meetings 
 and resolutions; nor has its existence ever bein 
 recognized by any Act of Pariiament During 
 some years the word Cabal was populariv used 
 M synonymous with Cabinet. But It hapWd 
 by a whims ral coincidence that, In lehVthe 
 Cabinet consisted of five persons the taitlai let- 
 nu„°L'"^°^ names made up the word Cabal 
 Clifford Arlington, Bucktagfiam. Ashley wd 
 
 J^nH'^f,"'*- ,3T "'"Istfiraweri therefore m- 
 phatically called the Cabal; and they soon made 
 that appellation so Infamous tha- ft has n^r 
 since the r time l.«en used except as a tem of 
 "^^t^Vr}^'^ Slacaulay, IRt^^of Eng^di. 8 
 — Walpoleswork, . . . thecffectof htaDolicv' 
 iLh ?hl' r.lf."? "y carried through, waS K5: 
 Ilsh the Cabinet on a definite foothig, as the seat 
 jnd centre of the execuUve government, to mfln- 
 toh^ he executive In the closest relaUoS with the 
 legfalature, to govern through the leglstature, 
 
 ?^m-,'".'T'fJ ""• eoyefaod authoifiy of tS 
 Crown to the House of Commons. Some writCTs 
 have held that the first Ministry In the mXn 
 •enae was that combination of Wljlgs whom Wil- 
 Uam called to aid him In govemSent In iSfli 
 ?}^ZTKr^ that the .i^nd adrntalitratton 
 ofLord Rockingham, which came Into power ta 
 
 i^'lSi wV^#'i"2P5r°'."" Americii colon: 
 K^ tlie faU of LoHi North, and Ute defeat of 
 
 854 
 
 George HI., waa the earliest Ministry of the tyn, 
 of to-day A- whatever date we choose first to 
 see all the decisive marks of that roinarEbfe 
 
 Initiative in the executive, with the possess! onof 
 
 i7trM%?!!!irr itTSxi 
 :e"re"fit'fiT^t p;'Sfar„,::;""io3f 
 
 and that the Cabinet system receive/ then„T,?i 
 ston that it bears In our own time. . . I '"£ 
 the most Important of all the dUtinctions bit»4n 
 the Cabinet In Ite rudimentary stage at Z 
 beginning of the century and Ito"^ late? pmai„ 
 remains to be noticed. Queen Anne he-id , 
 
 n^llf.' r*7 ^"""^y- " wWeh'he was Uer^lf 
 present Just as we have seen that she was pri 
 ent at debates to the House of Lords. Whht 
 doubtful exception In the time of George III 
 
 r^wJr *° ^ '^° P"""' •» » "eetlng uf th'i 
 Cabinet since Anne. ... ThU vital chan™ -.j 
 probably due to the accident that Ann.li sue 
 cesser did not understand the language in which 
 Ito deliberations were carried on. The with 
 drawal of -he sovereign from Cabinet Council, 
 was essential to the momentous change which 
 has transferred tha whole substance of authoritr 
 and power from the Crown, to a committei 
 
 P-T" K"^" '»"°'*' °' "•« »*o H»"*a of 
 JKarUament from among other members. . 
 
 iilh ru.?"°'?f •■ i? "•* keystone of the Cabhiet 
 arch. Although to Cabinet all ita members stand 
 on u equal foottog, speak with equal voice, and 
 on the rare occasions when a division is taken' 
 are counted on the fraternal principle of one nian! 
 one vote, yet Uie head of the Cabinet is ■ primu. 
 toter pares, and occupies a position which, so 
 long as It lasts, fa ote of exceptional and peculiar 
 authority. It Is true that he fa In foruT chosen 
 by the Crown, but In practice the choice of the 
 Crown fa pretty strictly confined to the man who 
 Is designated by the acclamation of a party ms- 
 Jority. . The Prime Minfater, once appoinUKl, 
 ch.X)ses hfa own colleagues, and assigns them U> 
 their respective offices. ... The flexibility of 
 the Cabinet system allows the Prim.- Jlinister 
 to an emergency to take upon himself a power 
 not Inferior to that of a dictator, provided alwavj 
 that the House of Commons wfll stand by hiib. 
 In ordtoary cireumstonces, he leaves the heads 
 of departmenta to do their own work ij tlieir 
 own way. . .Just as the Cabinet has been 
 described as being the regulator of relations be- 
 tween Queen, Lords and Commons, so is the 
 rame Mtaister the regulator of relations lietween 
 the Queen and her servants. . . . Walpi.le was 
 to practice able to invest himself with more of 
 the functions and powers of a Prime -Minister 
 tnao any of hfa successors, and yet was com- 
 pelled by the fecltog of the time .■amcstly and 
 profuwiy to repudiate both the name and title, 
 and i-ve' - of the pretensions that it involves. 
 the ( instance In which I have found the 
 
 ..ead of lue government designated as the Premier 
 to in a letter to the Duke of Newcastle from the 
 Duke of Cumberland In 1746."— J. Mori, v, Wai- 
 vote, ch. 7.— "In theory the Cabinet is nothing 
 but 8 committee of the Privy Council, yet with 
 the Council It has In reality no dealings; and 
 Jc"f .r'8«"*"""l''™7 result has taken nhice, 
 that the Government of England fa in the iiandi 
 or men whose position is legally undeflneii: that 
 while the Cabinet fa « word of every-day use, n« 
 
OABraST. 
 
 C.X8AR-AUQUSTA. 
 
 kwrer can mt wlut • Cabinet b: thu while n. 
 oiduisiT Xngiiihniaii luiowi who the Lord* ot 
 the Council an, the Church of England prayt, 
 Sunday by Sunday, that theie Lordi may be 
 'endued with wiidom auii undentandinfr ' ! that 
 while the collective responaibiiity of Miulsten ia 
 a doctrine appealed to by i.^embera of the Gov- 
 eminent, no less than by their opponents, it ia 
 more than doubtful whether such responsibility 
 could be enforced by any legal penalties: that, 
 to sum up this catalogue of contradictions, the 
 Privy Council lias the same political powen 
 which it had when Henry VIII. ascended the 
 throne, whilst it is in reality composed of persons 
 many of whom never have taken part or wished 
 to take part in the contests of political life." — A. 
 V. Dic»y, Tht Privy Council, p. 148. 
 
 CABINET, The Kitchen. See Uxited 
 States or Ax. : A. D. 1828. 
 
 CABOCHIENS, The. See Fkance: A. D. 
 1380-1415. 
 
 CABOT, John and Sebaatian.— Americui 
 DiscoTeric*. See Ambkica : A. D. 1497, and 1498. 
 
 CABUL : A. D. 1840-1841.— Occupation by 
 the British.— Succeaaful natire riting. — Re- 
 treat and deitruction of the Britiah army. See 
 AroBAKWTAN: A. D. 1888-1842. 
 
 A. D. 1878-1880.— Murder of Major Carag- 
 nari, the Britieh Reaident. — Second occupation 
 by the EoKUah. See Afohakutah: A. D. 186i^ 
 1881. 
 
 ♦ 
 
 CACIQUE.— " Cacique, lord c' vassals, was 
 the name by which the natives of Cuba, desig- 
 nated their chiefs. Learning this, the conquerors 
 applied the name generally to the rulers of wild 
 tribes, although in none of the dialects of the 
 continent is the word found."— H. H. Bancroft, 
 But. of the Pbafie Statet, t. 1, p. 210, foot- note. 
 
 CADOOAN FAMILY, The. See Ameri- 
 can Aboriowes: Pawnee (Caddoan) Family; 
 also, Texas: The ABORiomAL inhabitants. 
 
 CADE'S REBELLION. See England: 
 A. D. 1450. 
 
 CADESIA (KADISIYEH), Battle of.— 
 This was the first of the decisive series of battles 
 in which the Arab followers of Mohammed 
 effected the overthrow of the Persian Empire 
 (the Sassannian) and the conquest of its domin- 
 . ins. It was desperately fought, A. D. 838, 
 under the walls of the fortified town of Cadesia 
 (Kadisiyeh hi the .\rabic) situated near the Qea of 
 Nedjef, between the Euphrates and the Arabian 
 desert. The Persians numbered 120,000 men, 
 under Rustaro, thek beat general. "I'he Arabs 
 were but 80,000 strong at first, but were rein- 
 forced the second day. They were commanded 
 by Sa'ad and led by the redoubtable Kaled. The 
 battle was obstinately prolonged through four 
 days, but ended in the complete rout of the Per- 
 sians and the death of Rustam, with 40,000 of 
 hismea— 0. Rawlin3on, Seeentk Great Oriental 
 M<mard,;i rh. 26.— See, alao, Mahometan Coh- 
 •JDISt: a. 1). 632-651. 
 
 CADIZ : Origin. See Utica, and Oadeb. 
 
 A. D. 1506.— Taken and sacked by the 
 English and Dutch. See Spain: A. P. 1596. 
 
 A. D. 170a.— Abortive Engliah and Dutch 
 expedition against. See Spain: A. U. 1702. 
 
 A. D. i8io-i8i(.— Siege by the French. 
 Bee bPAis : A. D. 1810-1812. 
 
 A.D.i8a3.— Siege, bombardment and cap- 
 lureby the French. Bee ISpain : A. D. 1614-1827. 
 
 CADMBA(KADMEIA),The. SeeOnucB: 
 B. C 888. 
 CADMEANS, OR KADMEIANS. See 
 
 BffiOTIA. 
 
 CADURCI, The.— TheCn 'iircl were one of 
 the tribe* of ancient Oaul wl. -.e chief pUce was 
 Divona, now Cahors on the Xx)t.— Q. Long, De- 
 cline of the Riman Republic, v. 4, eh. 17. 
 
 CADUSIANS, The.— An ancient people so- 
 called by the Greeks, whose territory was on 
 the south-western border of the Caspian Sea,- 
 the district of modem Persians called Ghilan or 
 Ohulan. Their native name was "Gaels."- 
 M. Duncker, Hiit. of Antiquity, bk. 8, eh. 1. 
 
 CADWALLON, De«th ot See Gbven- 
 
 FIELD, BaTTLK or TBK. 
 
 CALIAN HILL, The. See Se- Hills 
 or RoMB. 
 
 CAERLAVEROCK, Siege of.- famous 
 siege and reduction of the Scott)' .astle of 
 Cacrlaverock, in Dumfriesshire, bv ;^ward I. 
 A. D. 1800. 
 
 CAERLEOM.— "Caer,"like the "Ceaster" 
 of the Saxons, is a comiption by Celtic tongues 
 of the Roman " Castrum." " In memory of the 
 second lesion, which had been so long established 
 at •''» Silurian Isca, they [the Welsh] gave 
 to ti- rulna of that city the name of Caer- 
 Legi J, the city of the legion, now softened to 
 Caerleon."— T. Wright, Celt, Soman and &am, 
 eh. 5. 
 
 C.SSAR, JULIUS, Career and death oC 
 See Rome: B. C. 69-«8, to 44; Gaul: B. C. 6."- 
 61; and Bmr.uN: B. C. 55-54. 
 
 CiESAR, The title "Octavius was the 
 
 adopted heir of Julius Cesar; from tlic moment 
 of his adoption the surname Csesnr became ap- 
 propriated to him, and it wns by this name 
 accordingly that he was most familiarly known 
 to his own contemporaries. Modem writers for 
 the sake of distinction have agreed for tlie most 
 part to confine this Illustrious title to the first of 
 the CiEsarian dynasty; but wj should ''oubtless 
 gain a clearer conception of the gradual process 
 by which the idea of a dynnstic succession fixe ' 
 tscif in the miuds of the . "ins, if we follow . 
 their own practice in this pa.i. :ular, and appl^ 
 the name of Cesar, not to Augustus only, b . 
 also to his adopted son Tiberius, to t .'le scions 
 the same lineage whci succeeded hi- 1, ard <jveu 
 to those of later and independi' :i ;!vn!istl rf. As 
 late indeed as the reign of Diocletiw., h<> iioman 
 monarch w IS still eminently the C r It vas 
 not till the close of i,-. 'hird ecntur) ■.' ur era 
 that tliat illustriou. i! wa.1 dipos-il from its 
 
 Sreeminence, and rr id to a seiflnuury and 
 eputed authority. Its older use w.j however 
 revived and perpetuated, though less exclusively, 
 through the declining ages of the empire, and 
 has survived with perhaps unbroken continuity 
 even to our own days. The Austrian Kaiser still 
 retains the name, though he has renounced the 
 succession, of the Cesars of Rome, while the Czar 
 of .Muscovy pretends to derive his ai.tional desig- 
 nation by direct inheritance from tlie Cesars of 
 Byzantium."— C. Merivale, Ilitt. of the Sumant, 
 ch. 31.— See, also, Rome: B. C. 31-A. D. 14. 
 
 C^SAR-AUGUSTA.— Oneof the fortified 
 posts established in Spain by the Emperor 
 Augustus, B. C. 27, and in which the veterans 
 of the legions were settled. The place and its 
 name (corrupted) survive in modem Saragosaik 
 — C. Uerivale, £w<. o/<A« Somant A 84. 
 
 355 
 
C^SAREA IN CAPPADOCIA. 
 
 Origin. 
 
 C^SAREA m CAPPADOCIA 
 
 Dee Mazaca. 
 
 A. D. 3«o.— Capture, massacre and pillan 
 ^at^r, fang of Persia, See Pkmia : A^. 
 
 CiESAREA IN PALESTINE: MaMacn 
 of Jews. See Jews: A. D. «»-70 ■•«>«■ 
 
 lOO-Sia^**"** «n- See CHHwruiriTT: A. D. 
 
 C^SAROMAGUS IN BRITAIN.- A 
 
 Roman town Wentifled. generally, with modem 
 Chelmsford. -T. Wright, OU. Biman and Scuon, 
 
 C.SSAROMAGUS IN GAUL.- Modem 
 
 Beauvnis. Sw Beloa 
 
 jgCj«SARS, The Twelve See Rom: A. D. 
 
 j^CAESAR'S TOWER. See Towkb of 
 
 CAFFA. See Oenoa: A. D. 1861-1290 
 CAHORS : Oririn. See Cadubci. . . . A. D 
 I«o.-SieKe and capture by Henrr of 
 *•?.'? I5V, ^* !■ "axcb: a. D. I6TO-1680. 
 LAIkN. See Bakrow, 
 
 -.S^"*° • ^- °.- *«'-Ori|C''". See Mahome- 
 tan CoNyiEgT: A. D. 64(M(46. 
 
 r.^„?: 9«7-"7i.-Capital of the Patimite 
 l.aliplis. b(c Mahometan Conouest ind 
 Empire: A. I). 9(W-1171. 
 ^. A. D. 1517-— Capture, sack and massacre b» 
 irSo °"° ''""''"■ '^ Turks: A. D. 1481- 
 
 Bn^P.rJI^-Z^p"'*'**' '*'.*''« •'«»«* "»<««' 
 Bonapaxts. Sw Fr.\.nck: A. D. 1798 (May— 
 
 tt^nr?' l^~^"'*K wppressed by the 
 French. Stc France: A. D. 1800 (Jakcaby— 
 
 JCNE). 
 
 A. D. i8ei-i8oa.— Surrtndtr to the Enclish 
 
 im-Vm^""^"'^"'"^- »«•*"«*«« .Tt. I). 
 
 , d- "• i'°5-;»8"-Massacr»s of th« Mame- 
 lukes. B<cL(iYiT: A. 1). 1808-1811 
 Hi~.^.i'.'i,'^/"3-ReTolt against the Khe- 
 fLV^? t"°'*^V? controL-Oceupatlon by 
 
 CAI^TRAVA AND BANTIAaO. 
 
 ^f."^ ^^ "*" necessaries, obtained by 
 ravaging the country round and by ahipment 
 from England." Calita held out for a yea? and 
 Migered the king 10 bv ito obstinacy that when is 
 August 1847, starvation forced Its people tos^ 
 render, he required that six of the chief burm»8M 
 
 their necks, for execution. Eustache St Rem 
 and five others nobly offered themselves for the 
 sacrifice, and It was only by the weepinif inter- 
 cess^n of Queen Phlllppa that E.lwlkl was in. 
 duceH to spare their lives. He expelled all the 
 nhabltants who refused to take an^th of feahJ 
 w V°K "P^OP^ the town with Englishmen 
 8.— «ee, also. France: A. D. 1887-1880 
 8e^ST'L'a?»-'"• ^'••"* '" =-«""« '™'- 
 
 F44'ieiSsrT'^'ll4^lf5Sf •" •» 
 
 ,i.^" • 'S«4.— Pinal surrender of Enrlish 
 claims. See France: A. D. 156S-15W * 
 
 the Spaniards.— Restoration to France 8™ 
 Fbancb: a. D. 1598-1598. '•™"- Bee 
 
 A. U "^'l*^** Caligula, Roman Emperor, 
 
 CAKCHIQUELS, Tht. See American Ado- 
 «»"'NK»i it '"n"*. «n<l .MAYAa 
 
 .1.71 r.?'^' ''"'■'"•''•'■•'*»>• name.-"Aftor 
 the l,ws of the true Cnlabria [to the LombanNl 
 the vanllv „f the Gr,H;ks subitltiiU.l that name 
 Instead of tlie mom iRnoble appellation of Unit 
 
 r.il'"'!.!}' '1* "]""'''' "PPt'O" to have taken 
 place hefnn. the time of ( Charlemagne. "-E Gib 
 
 A. D. iota— Norman duchy. See Italy 
 (Southern): A. 1). 1000-1090. 
 
 t-E^h^B^l^AW*'".' W7-Slegt and cap- 
 ^. •*'. ^'''••"* III.— ImuMdUleiy afur IHs 
 
 rJui ii"-. ';;''' "''f" «» "'" w^otf Hty „f 
 "wMh k'" 'n"l "J"*" "' •""• "'"nJ the rlly 
 I. ... i^K "«'"'■''' •^^•*t"*'' tlio Hold,' and laid 
 Uout with a market, regular .tr.*u and shop!, 
 all the necessary acrornmodatlrai f,.r .n 
 •nny, md tillher were carried in vast stoivs of 
 
 356 
 
 of ^Vt^J^^^ AND SANTIAGO, Knights 
 S;^ Y was to repress the never-ceasing incur. 
 ?L^?' "''.Mohammedans, as weU as t., ntuni 
 ttiese Incurslcins with Interest, tliat, in the time of 
 rf„'^1'"*° I*?'™?<'o XL of the early .S ,S 
 kingdom ol Leon], two mllltory orden, th.«e of 
 Calatrava and Santl.™ [or /t. Jago_or St 
 iT?* "/ Compostcllal, were InslitSu^. The 
 origin of the former order was owing to the 
 ^^.'""."U"" Cistercian monks; .St. IfciymoDd 
 abbot of Fitero, and hU companion, the riw 
 plego V elasquei. These Intrepid men. who had 
 iH^^^^^f""* P"*"'""* to their m„n.wtic pro- 
 fcsslon, Indignant at the cowardice of the T.ran- 
 ars, who resigned into the king of (U»lile^ 
 ^^fll "^ '?['?*; "/ Calatrava, wlilch ha,| been 
 confided to their defense by the emperor Alfonio 
 proposed. In 1158 to the regency of that kiZi 
 do III, to preserve that position against the as.sa!j. 
 ants, llie proposal was readily accented The 
 preaching of the warlike abUit w,w so elll<,,d„us, 
 that In a short time he assembli-,1 20 (KN) niin 
 whom he conducu-d to Culatrava. and immnii 
 whom were not a few of his own monks. Thoi; 
 he drew up the institutions of the <ir.ler. which 
 took Its name from the place, and which In Its 
 religious government long followed th.,(i,i, n iiin 
 rule and wore the same monastic hal.it -. 
 
 ??-* Tk^.-'^.I "^Pulary- tUypoiw IVtinllct 
 AIIi. the habit was dispensed with, sihI the 
 knigjts allowed to marry ■.nee.'- A%.r,„,(, 1 
 riie other onler commence.! In 1 161. .S<pnie Mb- 
 bers of Leon, tourh.'d with their past eni.niiltie., 
 resolved to make reparation for them, l.y il, fiixl- 
 Ing the frnnllers against the liicumh.M of the 
 Moliammedans. Don I'edro Fernanda - if iho 
 
 ^"Jl . i'm? "' '*•" •'•''*•' •" «**'» "omilhliiK liko 
 respectability to the origin -w,u the rhlef 
 founder of the onler He engaffcHl the Imlhrco 
 to assume the rule of 8t. Ausu.sline, in a,|.li:i..n 
 to the ordinary obligations of knightlu><>i. Ilia 
 military and monastic fraU-mity was H|.pr..v,d 
 t>y king Fernando; at whiwe suiriteniinn the 
 knig lU chose Santiago as their piilron, whi«e 
 blo.«ly Bwonl, In form of a cr.w.. NTarno Iheir 
 pr<if.-«lnn3| Bj.ribol. Thrsfl two or,l.,, »,re 
 richly endowed by sucoessive Ungt of Uun and 
 
CALAXaiVA AND SANTIAGO. 
 
 CALENDAR 
 
 Casttle, until their pnsussioiu became Immenae." 
 —8. A. Dunham, Iiut. of Spain and Jhrtugal.'Uc. 
 8. tcet. i,eh.l. die. 2. —In 1398 the knighU of 
 the order of St. James of CorapoBt«lla " received 
 permission to marry. In 1493, the Grand Master- 
 ship was united to the crown of Spain." In 
 1933 tlie right of nomination to the Grand Mas- 
 tereliip of tlic Order of Calatrava was transferred 
 from the Pope to the crown of Spain, "and 
 since that lime the order has gradually merged 
 into a court institution. The state dress u a 
 white robe, with a red cross on the left breast. 
 The permission to mnrry has been enjoyed since 
 1.540."— F. C. Woodhouse, Military Beligiimt 
 Orderi, pt. 4. 
 
 CALAURIA, ConfederatioD ot— A naval 
 confederation, formed at a very early period of 
 Greek history, by tlic seven maritime cities of 
 Orcbomenus, Athens, .Cgina, Epidaunis, Her- 
 miune, Praais and \auplla against the kings 
 of Argoa. The island of Calauria, off the 
 eastern point of Argolis, was tlie center of the 
 confederacy. — K. Curtius, Uisl. of Orteee, e. 1, 
 hk. 1, ch. 3. 
 
 CALCINATO, Battit of (1706). See Italt 
 (Savoy and Piedmo.nt) : A. D. 1701-1718. 
 
 CALCUTTA : A. D. 1608.— The feoadiac 
 of the city. See I.ndi.v: A. D. 1600-1703. 
 
 A. 0. 1756.— Capture br Suiajah Dowlah.— 
 The traredy of the Black Hoi*. See India: 
 A. D. 175S-1757. 
 
 • 
 
 CALDERON, Battle oC See Muuco : A. D. 
 
 181U-1819. 
 CALEDONIA, The nam*. See Scotlamd, 
 
 THK NaMK. 
 
 Ancient Tribes. SeeltRiTAiN, Celtic TaiBBi. 
 Wars of the Romans. See Bbitaim: A. D. 
 
 78-M. 
 
 » 
 
 CALEDONIA SYLVA. See BmiTAni, Cel- 
 tic Tin IIKS. 
 
 CALEDONII, The.— One of the wild tribes 
 which (Hcupied the Ilighhinds of Scotland when 
 the Hnmims held nrittiin, and wliose name they 
 gave ttniill.v to all the Highland trilies and to that 
 part of liie Island.— W. P. Skene. Celtic Seotland, 
 t. 1— St BRrrAiN. Celtic Tribes. 
 
 CALENDAR, The French RopnbUcan. See 
 
 Framk.: a. I). i;U:l (OCTOBER). 
 
 CALENDAR, Creeorian.— Grcforian Era. 
 
 —■'I his wiu a i-orncilon and Improvement 
 of the.Iulian [w-e Cai.k.xdar, Julian]. It was 
 (liRovercil Ht length, by more accurate astronomi- 
 cal olwrviiliimi, ihatlliu true si> ir or tropical 
 year was IKW (lays, .1 li..urs, 48 minutes, and 57 
 h'cimd!*; whence it I. J short of the Julian or 
 Egyptian computation of ))6.1 days and Ohouraby 
 aniiilcrvulof It minutes, Ssecimds. . . .which, 
 in the loiirw of lao years, amounted U> a whole 
 (lay .\i the end of 1;I0 years, therefore, the 
 tnipl<aiy,iir Ix'sanaihiv earlier tlun the civil 
 or f< II hm k a day behind It. ... In the time of 
 lopcdngnry XIII., A. D. 1889, ... the [ver- 
 nal| equinox wa» found to be on tlie Uth of 
 .Mure h. having fallen l.iick ten days. In order 
 thinfore, to bring it forwanl to its former place 
 or the •JNt, h,. |,.ft out ten days In Octolicr, call- 
 ng 111.. .VI, the l.lih day of tliat month. Whence 
 in thai y, !,r of confusion, thn 2?.l ilgy nf Deccm- 
 Wi l„-.aiiic the dmt of January. A. D. 1S88. 
 Which was the ilrst ysu of tile Ongorian Era. 
 
 In making this correction, he was principally 
 assisted by the celebrated mathematician Clavius. 
 But to prevent the repetition of this error in 
 future, a further reformation of the Julian Calen- 
 dar was wanting. Because the vernal en uinox fell 
 backwards three days in the course of 890 years, 
 Gregory, chiefly by the assistance of Aioysius 
 Lilllus, decreed that three days should be omitted 
 in every four centuries: namely, that every 
 firat, second and third centurial year, whico 
 would otherwise be bissextile, should be a com- 
 mon year; but that every fourth centurial year 
 should remain bissextile. Thus, the yeare A D. 
 1700, 1800, 1900, and 2100, 8300, 8800, were to be 
 common yeare; but A. D. 1600, 8000, 8400, to 
 remain lean yeare. By this ingenious reform, 
 the Julian Calendar Is rendered sufflcicntly accu- 
 rate for all the purposes of chronology, and even 
 of astronomy, for 6000 yeare to come. . . . The 
 Gregorian or reformed Julian year was not 
 adopted in England until A. D. 1751, when, the 
 deficiency from the time of the Council of Nice 
 then amounting to eleven days, this number was 
 struck out of the month of September, by Act 
 of Parliament; and the 3d day was counted the 
 14th, In that year of confusion. The next year 
 A. D. 1753, was the first of the new style, be- 
 
 rlng January 1, histead of March 33."— 
 Hales, yea Analyrii of Chronology, r. 1, 
 bk. 1.— The change from Old Style, as the Julian 
 Calendar, and dates according with it, now came 
 to lie called to New Style, or the reformed, Gre- 
 gorian Calendar, was made in Spain, Portugal, 
 part of Italy, part of the Netheriands, France, 
 Denmark, and Lorraine, in A. D. 1.W3; in Poland 
 in 1.586; in Hungary in l.W; in Catholic Switzer- 
 land In 1583; in Catholic Germany in 1584; in 
 most parts of Protestant Germany and Switzer- 
 land In 1700 and 1701, and, lastly. In England, in 
 1751. In Kussia, Greece, and the East generally, 
 the Old Style is still retained.— Sir H. Nicolas, 
 Chmntiloai/ nf Hintory. 
 
 CALBi«DAR, Julian.— Julian Era.— 'The 
 epoch of the Julian Era, which precedes the com- 
 mim or Christian Era by forty-flve yeare, is the 
 refonnation of the Roman caleuilar by Julius 
 CiEsar. who ordained that the Year of Home 707 
 should ronsist of 15 months, forming altogether 
 445 days ; that the ensuing year, 7U8, should be 
 ciim|»ised of 863 days; and that every fourth year 
 should c<mtain 866 days, the additional "day 
 being introduced after the 8tli of the calends of 
 Manli, I. e., the 84th of February, which year 
 he called Bissextile, liecause the 6tli"of the calindi 
 of Marrli were then doubled. Julius Ca'sar also 
 divliled the innntiu into the numherof days whicli 
 they at present contain. The Uoman calendar, 
 which Wild divided into calends, nones and idea, 
 was used In most pulillc Instruments throughout 
 Eun>|)e for many centuries. . . . The caleud ii 
 the Ist day of each month. The Ides were right 
 days in each month: In March, May, .luly and . 
 OctolH'r the ides commence on the iSth, and In 
 all other months on the 13th day. The nonet 
 are the 5tli day of each month, excepting in 
 March, May, July and Octola'r, wlMsn the nonet 
 fall on the 7th day The ilayt of the mimUl 
 were n-ckonisl backwards Instead of forwards:' 
 thus, the 3il ralrnds of February Is the iXllh of 
 January ; the 4lh calends of February the 29th 
 JaniLiry. . . . E![c-.!!!!ni'.r::!yai!!) .\ii!r:i=t. which 
 were uaninl after Julius ami Augustus Ca'sar, 
 having been called l^uiutUia and Sextllts, tlM 
 
 857 
 
m; 
 
 CALENDAR 
 
 jXi.'Jwl*? '" «'jf» after the dcth of 
 JuHui C«i«r, from reckoning eveiy third instead 
 of every fourth year a bi«?xUlo. or leap y^ 
 
 ?Sl. ■luJt""''"'?'"*^ 88.5 days. 8 hours. *^When 
 ^U mUtake was detected, thirteen intercalations 
 ^n'J?^".ir^ iMtead of ten. and the year conse 
 quent y began three days too Ute: the calendar 
 
 deied that each of the ensuing twelve years 
 
 Should not be any leap year until A. U. C. 760 
 
 1 1 : !• ,V""" **"" "">e 'he years have been 
 
 calcuUted without mistakes, and the Roman year 
 
 ^,^.h'^?P.^ '•y "" ^"ristian nations, though 
 
 !^hLh%''"''a*".'"'>'.f''«i' J*^" t" «J»'« from 
 ^blrth of our Saviour. "-Sir if NlcoUs. fflroa- 
 o^y of Iluton/ p. 4. -" It might naturally have 
 been expeeud that Julius CsJu would havTso 
 ordcrci his reformed solar year, as to begin on 
 the day of the w nter soUtlce, which. In the* Year 
 
 Sf fh. JH?'"", f- "■• "'« y*" '" '"'"* 'he error 
 or the calendar was corrected] was supposed to 
 fall on Dec. 85. But he chose to begin Wnew 
 
 on that day the moon was new. or hi conjunc- 
 tion with the sun. at 7 hours. < mhiutes and 8S 
 •econds after noon. By thU means he began his 
 
 ?^". n ".T™' ^'*<'' <"■ '•"'y d'y among the^an 
 cicnt Dniids, with whose liages be wai well ac- 
 quainted, and also nia<le his new year the first 
 
 "J^rJZl.7tiT^'- "'"»• ^'^ ^'^'^ 'f 
 
 rJk^ir v'' ^- *'••'''••>*• ^f**- 0/the Soman*, 
 H^;„ „>Th ""■•"»=«";'""' th. subsequent correc- 
 tion of the Julian calendar, see CxiiuDAB, Gb«. 
 
 rAi''Snr'?S- A" ^^■•«:'>"*". J' ".'AN. 
 
 CALHOUN, John C, and the War of i8m. 
 »■>• tj«:"KD ^T.vrKH or Am.: A. I). lSIO-1813. 
 . . .His Nullification and Pro-tUvcry policr. 
 
 ^i'r ih'^"" x'tJ,"? "' Am.: A. D. luaTlUM, 
 jM.-lN.tN, and 1>M7. 
 
 ».E^''F°,'*'"^= ■r'"* aboriflnal inbabi- 
 
 N«m,?,«„«"' ^"'^'' ^'"' "•"" CAL,KOK«,A 
 
 -i^i ^- "S,43-i7«i.-Ori»in of th« namt.- 
 T^'fa^^u- e«ploration and Mttlement.- 
 The founding of ih« Franciscan missions.- 
 
 ulThi*;, *;'"'"'"■"" ",f •''« SpanUh missionaries 
 forniK dau- from the first f.mndatlon of San Diego 
 m.«h f I"" ?;*»'"'« that were lat.r founded 
 north of San Dl.go were, with the original 
 "^'•"'''■"'•■nf "*lf. f"r a time known merefy by 
 •om,. colk^ctlve name, such as the JfortLra 
 Missions. But lat.r the name California alrea.lv 
 tong slncp applM u, the cuntry of th™ h^dIS 
 ml«.lon. „ th.. Southward. w,i exun.!...! to tt 
 new land, with various prefixes or qualifying 
 
 Tn^ .''i . ^ ''■''''■' f^"'"""'!* at last came, Wng 
 appllH to our pn.s.1,1 country durinir the whole 
 p.ri,.i of ,h.. MeM,an lUpibllcTn *," ..^^ u';^ 
 As to the orlitln of ,h,. ,.ame California, no 
 
 J^.'*i';?^',^ r""? '*" "»'• '•«» to a portion of 
 U.wpr (allforula, was derived fn.rl, an old 
 
 wh I I 1 * "■•"•oovered in 186a, ami tn,m 
 For, la thJf romance, tb* B«Be Caafoniia waa 
 
 CALIFORNIA, 1S4S-1781. 
 
 ISilSlJlS*'*'" "*? ■P.P""1 1" » fabulous Island. 
 de«»46ed as near the Indies and also 'very nei 
 the Tenejtrial Parmltae. • Colonlsu whoiXiS 
 brought to the newly discoveiwl peninsula^ 
 1585, and who returned the next yea%- maT ha« 
 been the first to apply the name t8 thU TupJZi 
 Island, on which they had been for a tinr,^ 
 
 vf.lL J^^ "^^°* UPP" California" :S^'i 
 visited during the vovace of the p»nUr. ' , ™ 
 Cabrillo m ,52-48. H^'yl^l llndlng'^s' w , 'Z 
 made on the coast and on the Islfn.l,, „ Z 
 SanU Barbara region. ... In 1.57B ri^.t 
 
 IsnUi*" "^^^^r [«* akkrica: a'"^' 
 
 sure that ie did not en/^r'or ob'irv'^'.hriS 
 Gate, and that be got no sort of i.leao ttS 
 existence of the QreSt Bay. . . . This result „f 
 the examination of the evidence about 1 mki ! 
 
 3X''r''/"'"j'''^"'"^P«*'J. "IthmiZ-S 
 peopfe will always try to inai»t that DrakeX-' 
 covered our Bay of San Francisco. The Lme 
 8u Franctaoo was probably ai.plied to a port on 
 thl. coast for the first timi by Cermefion'^who 
 ^SJ°^,T. '"""/H" Philippines in imZ 
 RTvIf' Z, "P'?'<°« the c-st mar Po™ 
 ^yes. It is now, however, perfectly sure thst 
 
 wM^h^'" 'PP'i*^ *■>'* '»"''• •« °"' Pr.»™t bsT 
 ^.^Hn^^rM"* li^I^y unknown to European 
 
 yixcaino conducted a Spanish explorinir exneZ 
 tion along the Callforara oo«.,t . . # rnSu 
 voyage a little more knowledge of the ch "rac?" 
 
 geographical researches in the region „f (all 
 EJ'?i».5r'^. '"f »""' a rentury%nd » la) . 
 
 868 
 
 Wl.iT^^iJVi 1 ' " reniury and 
 
 With only tliU meagre result we fvach il,. , r,, „f 
 
 misdons of the peninsula of Lower California 
 fnT^i,'°i™'; by the expulsion of th,. .l.Uit^ 
 Into the hands of the Vmndnrans; „,„| ,S 
 
 tractcd in this direction l.y the rlmiii.'e.l cnn- 
 
 long-chcrished plan to provi.le the Manilla ship,, 
 on their return voyn^re. with go,»| ports ,.f 
 supply and repairs, and to occupy tl, . north 
 west land u a safeguard agali..V Kussian "r 
 
 ynL?"^ XK '"^'"'^fy aii.1 sittleuienl i„ ( „li 
 lornla. The rurly years show a genenllv rapil 
 Drogres^ only one great <li«Mt<T .K-eiirrin,;' - l., 
 aestructlon of San Die«o ,Mi,«i„„ i„ i;;-, i,v 
 •J^SjndlanB. But tl w. w,ls ,|,ii, klv r.:. 
 
 founded at Monterey. In ITTi, « land ,x,„,li 
 J^uTY^""^ andCreM.I, tlrst e.vj.l,.r„t the 
 easum shore of our San Kraiic I.h<-o lh\ in an 
 effort u, reach by lan.l th,. ,.|,1 I'ort of s.,, iU 
 «• 3. . . . AfU-r 1778, il„ old ,„i,„e |„i..„nto 
 
 thenceforth, the name l'..rt of Han ■Fru.i*,; 
 means what we now mean thenliy. In KM 
 Lieutenant Ayala entered the new liarlH.r hv 
 water In the following y,«r the .MlsKi,.,, „i San 
 Francisro was founded, anil in « ».tol>, r it, < hurrh 
 was dedicate,! ISot only iiil>«.ioiiH. ho» . v. r. hut 
 Fk ir, '"''«''lted by Spanish it.loni.ls. lav in 
 the odlclal plan of the new ui.,l,rt«kinK« Ylie 
 flrst of tliese to be establlah.-,! wa« .San },m: 
 foun<l.Hl In November, 1777. The next «,« I/« 
 Angelee, founded In H<'ptember >'"< "—J 
 Koyoe. Cai\/Qmta, eh. 1, tet » 
 
CAUFORKU, 1548-1781. 
 
 Auo m: H. H. Bancroft, ffitl.of the Paeifle 
 aatf. e. 18 iOalifomia, e. 1).— P. W. BUckmar, 
 £^nM IiutUutiimt of the SmUhwat, eh. S-IS. 
 
 A. 0. 1846-1847.— The American eonqueit 
 ■nd its unezplainr 1 prclodt.*.— " Earlv in 1846, 
 the Americans in CalUornIa numbered about 200, 
 mostly able-bodied men, and who In tbeir 
 tctivity, enterprise, and audacity, constituted 
 quite a formidable element in this sparsel, in- 
 habited region. The population of California at 
 this time was 8,000 Mexicans and 200,000 In- 
 dians. We now come to a period in the history 
 of California that has never Deen made clear, and 
 respecting which there are conflicting statements 
 soa opinions. The following facts were ob- 
 tained by careful inquiir of IntelUgent parties 
 who lived in Califomh during the period men- 
 tioned, and who participated In the sr< let nar- 
 rated. The native Callfomiana appea> u> have 
 entertained no very strong affection for tb :;ir own 
 
 Sverament, or, rather, they felt that under the 
 luences at work they would Inevitably, and 
 St no very distant period, become a dismembered 
 branch of the Mexican nation; and the matter 
 was finally narrowed down to thla contested 
 point, namelv, whether this state surgery should 
 be performed by Americana or Engluh, tiie real 
 struggle being between then two nationalities. 
 In the northern part of the territory, such native 
 Califoraians as the Vallejoa, Caatna, etc., with 
 the old American settlers, Leese, Larkin, and 
 others, sympathized with the United States, and 
 desired annexation to the American republic. 
 In the south, Pio Pico, then governor of tlie ter- 
 ritory, snd other prominent native Callfomians, 
 with Jsmes Alexander Forbes, the English con- 
 sul, who Bettle<l in Santa Clara in 1828, were ex- 
 erting themselves to bring the country under 
 English domination. . . . This was the sute of 
 affairs for two or three years previous to the 
 Mexican War. For some months before the news 
 that hostilities between the United States and 
 Mexico had commenced [see Mexico: A. D. 
 1848-1H47] reached California, the belief that 
 such an event would certainly occur was uni- 
 versal throughout the ti-rritory. This quickened 
 the impulses of all parties, and stimulated the 
 two rivals — the Ameriraii and English — in 
 their efforts to be the first to obtain a permanent 
 hold of the country. The United States govem- 
 raent had sent Colonel Fremont to the Pacific on 
 sncxiiluring expedition. Colonel Fremont had 
 pas8*'il through California, and was on his way 
 tn Oregon, when, in March, 1848, Lieutenant 
 Olllesple, of the United SUtea marine service, 
 wss sent fnim Washington with dispatches to 
 Colonel Fremont. Lieutenant Oillesple went 
 screws Mexico to Msxatlan, and from thence by 
 sea to Califomia. He finally overtook Fremont 
 early In June. 1848, a aliort distance on the road 
 to (Ingon. and communicated to him the purport 
 of hla (iJKpstches, they having been committed to 
 memory and the papers deatmyed before he en- 
 tered M, xlct). What these Instructions author- 
 lied Cfijonel Fremont to do has never be«n pro- 
 muleaini, hut it is said they directed him to 
 rrmain in rallfomia. and hold himself in n-mll- 
 neM to conp,.rate with the United SUtes Act, in 
 caw' war with Mexico should occur. Fremont 
 Imtiii.liately returneil to Califomia, and camp.-d 
 s short lime on Feather River, and then took up 
 tu n..i.i4u«iler» at Gutter's Fort. A few days 
 after, ua buaday, Jiim 14U^ 1841, • pMty of 
 
 OAUFORIOA, 1848-1847. 
 
 fourteen Americans, under no apparent com- 
 mand, appeared in Sonoma, captured the place, 
 rwsed the Bear flag, proclaimcclthe independence 
 of Califomfai, and carried oS to Fremont's head- 
 quarters four prominent citizens, namely, the 
 two Vallejoa, J. P. Leese, and Colonel Prudhon. 
 On the consummation of these achievements, one 
 Merritt wai elected captain. This was a rough 
 party of revolutionista, and the manner in which 
 they improvised the famous Bear flag shows upon 
 what alender meana nations and kingdoms are 
 sometimea started. From an estimable old hidy 
 they obtained a fragmentary portion of her 
 white skirt, on which they painted what was in- 
 tended to represent a grizzly bear, but not being 
 artistic in their work ... the Mexicans, with 
 their usual happy faculty on such occasions, 
 called it the 'Bandera Colchis,' or 'Hog Flag.' 
 This flag now ornaments the rooms of thcPioneer 
 SocietyTn San Pranciaco. On the 18th of June, 
 1848, William B. Ide, a native of New England, 
 who had emigrated to California the year pie- 
 Tious, issued a proclamation as commander-in- 
 chief of the fortress of Sonoma. This proclama- 
 tion declared the purpose to overthrow the 
 existing government, and establish in its place 
 the republican form. . . . General Castro now 
 proposed to attack the feebly manned post at 
 Sonoma, but he waa frustrated by a rapid move- 
 ment of Fremont, who, on the 4th of July, 
 1848, called ameetingof Americans at Sonoma; 
 and this assembly, acting under his advice, pro- 
 claimed the independence of the country, ap- 
 pointed Fremont Governor, and declared war 
 against Mexico. During these proceedings at 
 Sonoma, a flag with one star floated over the 
 headouarters of Fremont at Sutter's Fort. The 
 meaning of thla lone-star flag no one seems to 
 have understood. . . . Just as Fremont, with 
 his company, had started for the coast to con- 
 front Castro, and act on the aggressive generally, 
 he was suddenly brought to a sUnd by the as- 
 tounding intelligence that Commodore Sloat had 
 arrived at Monterey, and that, on the 7th of 
 July, 1848, he had raised the American flag and 
 taken possession of the place; also, that, bv com- 
 mand of Commodore Sloat, Commander "Mont- 
 gomery, of the United States slixip-ofwar Ports- 
 mouth, then lying in San Francisco Bay, had, 
 on the 8th of July, taken pos.scs.sion of* \vr\Mk 
 Buena and raisetl the American flag on the plaza. 
 This of course settled the business for all par- 
 tica The Mexican flag and the Hear flag wg^ 
 lowered, and in due time, nolens volens. all ac- 
 quiesced in the flying of the Stars and Slri|)ea. 
 . . . Commodore Hloat . . . had heard of the 
 commencement of hostilities on the Kio Grande, 
 . . . sallwl from Mazathin for Califomia, took 
 possession of the country aril raised the Ameri- 
 can flag on hia own resiiimHlhlllly. These deci- 
 sive steps on the part of t'onuniKlore Slont were 
 not taken a moment too soon, as on the 14th of 
 July the British manofwur ColllngwoiNl. Sir 
 George Seymour commimding, arriviii at Moo- 
 U-ny," Intending, as Sir George acknowledged, 
 "to take poaaession of that p<irti<m of the coun- 
 try." lu August, Comni.siore Sloat rellmiui.shed 
 the command of the Pacitic sqiimlron to Com- 
 miKlore Hliickton, who "imme<liaU>lr instituted 
 bohl and vigorous measures for the subjugation 
 of the territory. All his avnlUlile foriw fi>r land 
 operations was 8SU men — sailors and marine*. 
 But io impU mmI •klUul were StocktoB's noTT 
 
 869 
 
H ? 
 
 CALIFORNIA, 1846-1847. 
 
 F^mA„?°^..^ efflcicnt WM the coSpentlon of 
 Fremont with hta small troop. th.tCaUfon.ta 
 was effectually conquered in January 1847 
 During all this perioj the people of tK CnH^ 
 States were tenorant of what was transpiring In 
 California anS vice versa. But the ictlon of 
 Commodore Sloat „d . . . CommcSore 
 
 thr^r^.,^B. f ** ^"' anticipate the wishes of 
 June, 1846, dispatched General Kearney ac^es 
 the county from Fort Leavenworth [s^ Nkw 
 
 I„^,. lit". *" '"'"'"" CaUfomta. and whei 
 Mnquere.1 to assume the governorship of the 
 tenftory Ooneral Kearney arrived In cSliforSa 
 jIaSan PM,,,ml with greatly diminished forces. 
 December, 1848, a few weeli before «:M veTm- 
 tary operations In that region ceased."— £ E 
 Dunbar, The Romance of Xh» ^Tm. 2iM8 
 
 Aate,. t 17 (California, t. 6). A. l-ll-JTc. 
 Fremont, Mhnotn of my Ufi, «. l, «*. 14.15. 
 
 A. p. 1848.— Cesaion to th* Uaited SUtM 
 Bee Mexico: A. D. 1848 •"»»"• aim.vn. 
 
 .-^.?: ."48:i849._Th« diMovMT of Gold 
 »nd the immigration of the Gold-honten — 
 
 „,"/»*, ''"™"" °' •***^ "•• American residents 
 ^L.i . ',*i. ?T'*^'''''« Perhapa 2,000. and 
 mostly established near San rfar.riico Bay 
 f?^^~ °^^ *'"" '"'P« "<» confidence to thi 
 .u.nTf .•,'■'[ f"'^™™™* held secure posses- 
 J^on of the whole territory, and had announced 
 lis p»rp.«e to hold it pehlunently. " It » 
 «;;f,iri'? .I*""' "/ t''i»Jln>e one It the leading 
 S»^»-^i K™?' Anierican InteresU In Califor- 
 ta^e f n"''° ■^V^""'*'-. * Swiss by his paren- 
 toge: a Qerman by tlic place of £ls birti. ;n 
 f w r • m1 ^""T'™n '">• n-sldence and naturallza- 
 Uon in Missouri; and a Mexican by subsequent 
 
 1830 he had settled at the lunctlon of the Sacni- 
 menu. and American Hvers. near Uie site 
 Ir, t"'*"' V''>' "' Sacmmento." His 
 
 ranclio became kn.wn as Sutter's Fort. 
 
 IPT of '.""S""" ",n'**^'.*" P'"""" 'he build, 
 ing of a flour-mill, and "partly to irrt lum 
 ber f.,r it, he d, tem>ine.i to bulUd /saw-SSfl iZ 
 Since there was no g«xl timber in the vallev 
 if.^ r!?,"!;""" "" ' ^ '" "-e mounuins. Tfle 
 Siflv2' '/ V* ";"'^'"^ ""y J«"" W. Marshall, a 
 native of New Jersey, a skilful wheelwright by 
 occupation nclustri.ms. honest, genemus blu 
 
 ^ZliJfA^^}^ '"'^'**' "d defmivehi' 
 •ome kinds of business sense. . . The nlwn 
 
 1.VK) f„.t above the level of the sea, and 45 
 
 r.^'" in"". ^""""' '^""' '""" '^b^ H was 
 am ,.«ib ,. by wagon without expense for roa. 
 
 7^^::' \ 1 ^^'^' '" "**' "•" -* ">•" *»• n^iy 
 
 the nu-e to cairy away some of the I.hhw dirt 
 and gmv.l, an.i then h,ul bcrn turned o.T again 
 On tl...„ft,.m.,.nof M.mday, the !Mth of January 
 Man, mil was walki,,^ lo ,he tall.,«;e, when on 
 Its rot . n «mnit.. b..d nn-k he saw some vellow 
 parti, es and ,,i. k«l up several ofXm.^ Th^ 
 largest wer,. aljout the .i»„ of grain, of wheat 
 . . . lie Ihmighl lli.y were gold, and went to 
 ''••"'"■ «"■"; he told the men that he hm 
 fou.Ml a gol,i mine At the time, little import 
 anee w,,, atta. lio,i to hi, sUle^nent. iT was 
 rrifanl..,! as a pn.jHr ..ihject for ridl<iil» Mar 
 moll liiwuKreU his new metal ud found It 
 
 CAUFORNIA, 188*. 
 
 malleable; he put It into the kitchen flm «i.,i 
 observed that It did not readily melt or M 
 discolored: he compared Its color with goldS 
 and themore be examined It the more 1 e wu 
 convtaced that It wa. gold." He soon fouml^ 
 opportunity to show his discovery to 8u te7 
 who tested the metal with add and by oarefui 
 weighing, and utbfled himself that Marsha U 
 oonclujion wa. correct. In the spring „f 1848 
 w.^.5*^' • ""•«« "' »hout 7(10 inhab? 
 ^T\y}^c>»? nf*!p»Pe". 'he ' Californiai' 
 5 ^. ^ ..5'"'°'^*' *"• hoth weeklies. The 
 first printed mention of the gold discovery was 
 
 the 15th of Jtarch. stating that a gold mine l,ad 
 been found at Sutter's Mill, and Siat a packsM 
 of the metal worth |30 had been receVved S 
 t^r.^^w't.- • • ^'0"' 'he middle of Ju^ 
 the whole tenrttorv resounded with the cry^ 
 
 t£^ 'r • • ^'.y.*" »he men hurrie.1 off to 
 tte mines. Worksliops, stores, dweiliosi 
 
 for a time to take care of themselves. . 
 
 ihe reporto of the discovery, which beiran tn 
 "»'h the Atlantic States In 8eptemCr%»° 
 commanded little credence there liefore January 
 butthenew»of theanlval of large amounts if 
 Ck'L'^l'!'; VlP-™i«o. P»nrm.,an,iNe°w' 
 JnH . S^ ^^^ Pf" °' 'he winter, put sn 
 end to all doubt, and in the spring there was 
 Buch a rush of peaceful migration is the worM 
 
 SCO 
 
 had never jeen. In 1849, 2S,000-afcor,li„g to 
 one authority 80,000-imm.grant8 w.ut bv 
 
 4^ 00?^^ Mountains, and by s..a perhsn, 
 4ii,(j)0 from other parta of the worid. . Tlie 
 gold yield of 1848 was estimated at ^.smm- 
 i^'n,2f J^'J" *W.»0O,0tK); that of INW a 
 »'!O,0OO,OOO; that of 1858 at »6.'..00(I.WIO and 
 tlien came the decline which has coiitiriii.Hi until 
 
 i^2R,'2?^i"'"*,f*2**].rh'-'' 'he Jl'l'l is atom 
 •18 01)0,000 '^-J 8. Hittell, Thi Dim.r^ of 
 
 OM^tn aUtfonua (Oenturg Magatine. tV,nari, 
 
 Also nj: E. E. Dunbar, Ttu Somnwf nf tht 
 
 Age. or the Diteotery «f O.M in <:■■ ^\i \\ 
 
 Bancroft. Htet. of the PMiJie Slatee, , IHiCali- 
 
 fornta, t. «) eK 3-4. 
 
 /~- 5' ;"50-— Aomiialon to tht Union as t 
 
 «?!J****T^*'! Comproml... 8.e I mtkd 
 States of Am. : A. D. iR-x) 
 
 A. D. (8s6.— The San Fruteiaco Vigilaace 
 r"*.?™ ^*J!?-~"^heass<Hiation of cili/.eM»lvnown 
 as the vigilance committee, which was (.rcunlmi 
 In Han Fnuiclaco on the 15th of Mav, IK,I\ has 
 nail such an Influence on the growth arui pms- 
 perity of that city that now [1877). at th,' , ml of 
 ii years, a true account of the origin and .»ul»e- 
 quent action of that association will 1m. nail with 
 interest. For some time the comipticiu in the 
 courts of law, the Insei-urily of the Imlint Imi 
 at elretlons, and the Infamous cluinicter of many 
 of the public offloials, had bi^en the kuI.j.tI of 
 complaint, not only in Han Framiv,.. but 
 throughout the Sla'.o of Callforola it \vi» evi- 
 dent to the honest and respecial.!.. ,iii/ru« of 
 San Francisco that ... it would U-v>,m,- the 
 amy of the people to protwt ihiiii«Kr< by 
 refonning the courts of law. and bv laliim; the 
 imllol Imx from the hands of "gr<.-.lv and 
 unprincipled politicians. " The latter w. n' n pte- 
 '^luJ i^ ° nt^'Tspaprr f4ii!.-.i Ihe Suinlui Tirnt*. 
 editiMl by one James 1». Casiy. The oi'ilnioo of 
 
CALIFORNIA, 18M 
 
 OALIFORNU, 18M. 
 
 the better cliuaea of citizeiu was voiced by the 
 Evening Bulletin, whoee editor was James King. 
 On the Uth of May, 1856, King was shot by 
 Cwey, in the public street, receiving a wound 
 from which he died six days Uter, and intense 
 eicitement of feeling in the city was produced. 
 Casey surrendered himself and was lodged in 
 jsiL During the evening of the 14th some of 
 the members of a vigilance committee which 
 had been formed in 1851, and which bad then 
 checked a free riot of crime In the suddenly 
 populate<l and unorganized city, by trying and 
 executing a few desperadoes, came together and 
 determined the organization of another committee 
 for the same purpose. " The nextday (the ISth) 
 a set of rules and regulations were drawn up 
 which each member was obliged to sign. The 
 committee took spacious rooms, and su citizens 
 of San Francisco having the welfare of the city 
 at heart were invited to Join the association. 
 Several thousands enrolled themselves in a few 
 dsya. . . . The members of the vigilance com- 
 mittee were divided into companies cf 100, 
 each company having a captain. Early on Sun- 
 day (tlie 18th) orders were sent to the different 
 captains to appear with their companies ready 
 for duty at the headquarters of the committee, 
 in Sacramento Street, at nine o'clock. When all 
 the companies had arrived, they were formed 
 Into one body. In all about 2,000 men. Sixty 
 picked men were selected as a guard for the 
 executive committee. At half-past eleven the 
 whole force moved in the direction of the jail. 
 A large number of spectators had collected, but 
 there was no confusion, no noise. They mnrrhed 
 through the city to Broadway, and there f rmed 
 in the open space before the Jail. . . . The 
 houses opposite the jail were searched for men 
 and arms secreted there, the committee wishing 
 to prevent any chance of a collision which might 
 lead to bloodslied. A cannon was then brought 
 forwTl and placed in front of the Jail, the 
 muizi. "vdnt^d »t the door." The jailor waa 
 now cttllwl ujion to deliver Casey to fhe com- 
 mittee, and complied, being unable to resist. 
 One Charles Cora, who had killed a United .States 
 msniial tlie November previous, was taken 
 fmm tlie Jail at the same time. The two prisim- 
 ers were escorted to the quarters of the vigilance 
 eomniiitev and them conflned under guard. 
 Two days afterwards (May 80th) Mr. Kiug died. 
 Casey nnci Cora were put on trial before a tribu- 
 nal which the committt . had organized, were 
 condemned to death, and were hanged, with 
 solemnity, on the 22d, from a platform erected in 
 front of the building on Sacramento Street. 
 "The executive conii.iite«, Undlng that the 
 power tney held was petftrtly under control, 
 anil that tliere waa no dancer of any popular 
 exeesscs, (Iet4>miined to continue their work and 
 rid the country of the gang of ruffians which had 
 for SI) long a time managed elecHiona in San Fran- 
 cisco and its vicUiit/. These men were all well 
 kn"\vn. and were ordered to leave San Francisco. 
 M;u:y went away. Those who refused to go 
 Were arrested and taken to the rooms of the 
 ^)mmiltee, where they were conflned until 
 optiorl unities offered for shipping them out of 
 the country. ... The governor of California at 
 this lime was Mr. J. Neely Johnson. , . . The 
 °?j"'' *(>lKn«l of the secuod division of swte 
 militia (which Included ♦ he city and county of 
 Ban Francisco) was Mr WUIUoi T. Sberman 
 
 [afterwards well known In the world as Qeneral 
 Sherman] who had resigned his commission in 
 the United States army and had become a part- 
 ner hi the banking house of Lucas, Turner & 
 Co., hi San Francisco. . . . Toward the end of 
 Mav, Oovemor Johnson . . . appealed to Gen- 
 eral Sherman for advice and assistance hi putting 
 a stop to the vigilance committee. At tliis time 
 Oeneral Wool waa In command of the United 
 States troops, and Commodore Farragut had 
 charge of the navy -;-d." Oeneral Wool was 
 applied to for arms, and Commodore Farragut 
 was asked to station a vessel of war at anchor off 
 San Francisco. Both officers declined to at as 
 requested, having no authority to do so. " When 
 Governor Johnson returned to ^cramento, a 
 writ was issued, at his request, by Judge Tenr 
 of the supreme court, commanding the sheriff 
 of San Francisco to bring before him one William 
 Mulligan, who was then In the hands of the 
 vigilance committee." The vigiUnce committee 
 refused to surrender their prisoner to the sheriff, 
 and Oener ' Sherman was ordered to call out the 
 militU of hiS division to support that officer. At 
 the same time the governor issued a r n>cIaiiiatlon 
 declaring tho city of San Franciac a state of 
 insurrection. General Sherman fou it impossi- 
 ble to arm his militia for service, a. A resigned 
 the command. The governor sought and ob- 
 tained arms elsewhere; but the schooner which 
 brought them was soized snd the arms possessed 
 by tlie committee. On attempting to arrest the 
 person who had charge of the schooner, one of 
 the vigilance committee's policemeu, named Hop- 
 kl. s, was stabbed by the afterwards notorious 
 Juage Terry, who, with some others, had under- 
 taKen to protect the man. "The signal for a 
 general meeting under arms was soundc<l, and in 
 a short time 1.500 men wtro reported ready for 
 duty. In an hour 4,000 meu were under arms 
 and prepared to act against the so-called law- 
 and-order party, who were collected in force at 
 the different armories. These armories were 
 surrounded." Judee Terry was demanded and 
 delivered up, and all the arms and ammunition 
 in the armories were removed. "In this way 
 was settled the question of power between the 
 vigilance committee, who wished to restore 
 order and were working to establish an honest 
 judiciary and a pure ballot, and their opiKiuents, 
 the law-and-order party, who wlslnil to uphold 
 the dignitv of the law by means of a butcher's 
 '^nlfe in the hands of a judge of the supreme 
 court. Althougli the committee were masters in 
 San Francisco, their position was made nu-re 
 precarious by the very fact of thi'r having dis- 
 armed their opponents. The attention of the 
 whole Union was attrac*.>d to the state of thir.gs 
 in California, aud it 'm nimored that instruc- 
 tions hsd been ac. trum Washington to all the 
 United States vessels In the I'uclflc to pniceed at 
 once to San Francisco ; and tliat onlers were on 
 the way. placing the Unit<il States military 
 force in' California at the disp(>.oal of Oovornor 
 Johnson. The committee went i>u niinilily witii 
 their work. ... All the important cliangcs 
 which they had undertaken had been r«rried 
 out successi'ully, and they would gladly have 
 given up the responsibility they had assumed had 
 ft not iH-en for the lase of Judge Terry. ... At 
 last the ntiystctans announced that Hopkins waa 
 out of danger, and on the 7th of August Judge 
 Terry waa released. . . . lUvlof got rid of 
 
 861 
 

 
 CAUTORMIA. IVt. 
 
 th7 wH^ " " • 'T- "x' "° tlie 18th of August 
 the whole aasotmtion, numberinir over 8 (XX) 
 
 fn a„ "»"^'»co. returned to their he«dqu8rtcr» 
 
 In L%T '""y fr'^'^ ""<"'«1 'n>m duty. T . 
 In the following Novembor thero waa an elertion 
 of city and county officer.. Eve" ^Ingwen" 
 on . ry quietly. A -people's t'cket\ Kie 
 wL^Z °' /''°:r"8'5'y "jrustworthV cmJena! 
 m^i^'Jfr * f. P"f J'- '"" elected by a larn 
 majority and for the last 20 years San Franc)»?o 
 ^.•"•d the reputation of being one of^*ete«? 
 Srv '^/'i"' '^""' . ^'°''"' States. "-T. O 
 (.iltMnrii; Monthly, Dee. 1877) 
 «,^tof"«?«rr.;v "'*"C"'ft, JWrf. o/(», fli«7fc 
 Sherman, Memnn. ch. 4 (el) ^>""- "• »• 
 
 ^«.n .„ in 18 < 7 a meeting was called in San Fren- 
 «tT«^t^£Rrf *y"lP«thr with the men then on 
 ftiii^t i' "ttsburg In Pennsylvania. . . . Some 
 strong language used at thft meeting, and ex- 
 nggerated by the newspapers, frigfiened Uie 
 
 KbVLV'f •" '°™'lf » -^t of Slt^ 
 
 iL5 ."'' **'^-ty- • • • The chief result of the 
 incident was furtlier irritation of the poore? 
 
 witi^ tT™ '' Sh"": ""= ,^''P««^ to deal ha«hly 
 m M„l, inT" -?'""«'y •ff^r c«me an election of 
 
 Satur,. T?" """^ •""•"*" "' the State 
 legisiatun-. The contest, as Is the custom in 
 
 ^'.nSVn"'"'^'" '!"" "'" « numSr"o?°c?u "s 
 and otlier organizations, purporting to represent 
 
 I?l^^ »■;!?" '',';.'^'!-">"' of apart}, and am^g 
 tH,"" I'^-.'y.^J'l^f, 't^V". ' The Working men* 
 
 CAUFORNIA. 1877-1880. 
 
 poiltlon wai flnally usuivd bv hi. \^i 
 along with several other siSen an«,t„Y„"!i 
 prosecuted on a charg. of riot fn r^^.^ 'fT 
 Bammatory speeches delivered at T^xSni '"" 
 the top o(Nob Hill, one of the Mc^d ^iilf 
 which n»ke San Fhuictoco the most pirt, S ,,' 
 ^American cities. The prosecution fail" U^' 
 Kearney was a popular tero. Clerks an i t^ 
 better class of citliens now began to at?^n ' 
 meetings, thooirh in.nv^ -.,,. PXl _ A"^" 
 
 _ . ,„, iia,.,, jne worklnir men 9 
 
 Tra.le ami Ubor fnion.' the Secretary of w^iicl' 
 
 was' ov%" k" ^'"'^ ^T'^T' ^'•^'' ti cimlon 
 W« imi„„' K™rnoy declared that he would keen 
 Ws tmion going, and form a working man'f party 
 
 Wm to ai;;'^';' "'«"^" '? *?''■ t° h<»ve a^t t^ei 
 
 clur™^ui M* ?""'""' "t » 8-mdny debating 
 Club called ilie I.yceum of Self Culture 
 Kearneys tongue, loud and abusive soiin 
 CrrJ "" "'""'■''"• "" the west side of &^S 
 L7^~ar/."?h'""" the peninsula from tlm 
 .\1^1 '"wards the ocean, there is (or the, wi.5) 
 vpM^.mV'"'' "P"""' ""^ °"t for building, but n 
 
 «^h.^ f • '/'■"" *'"' ""h had been wont to 
 Mrtv ^rr "r^''^'" ?^**™''? formed hU 
 l^n f.nt oL J l^ ''?*' ""^'^ '"ga^wnds to lis- 
 1dm un T? """. '""^ ''"t newspapers took 
 M LiJ^ n T'""* ')*"■ "'« Chronicle and the 
 m r «,^„? 'a T.r '" ""•" ""^'y- •■«' "'e for 
 golniri^he«,l m. ' 1^ "'""•"ent a chance of 
 matter .„M I "'"'■','"' T'""""' "'th tenMllonal 
 mtn went In hot an.T strong for the'sand Lot 
 ?irl/«v'.Ki K"''r"'*"'*"t which the Chro- 
 °'h",,*f^* hlin bv its report, and article., and 
 
 »«e 1^ soon made him • penoDage; and his 
 
 862 
 
 President . . The Sand l>.t party rfre-^f 
 
 M m the East, have the larger share of tS 
 P.™'Ki.*'™'*Jt' '^'e "■" "''••■ unwelcome o ,h! 
 weauea their old opponents: while »h» tJz^ 
 
 ?™S' ""f?* "'"'S'^y to 'capture U%^ve^ 
 feeble resistance. Thus it «rew thn ?,,<,,. ! 
 »on began to run a tlck'et ofTown a'"' i', ' '^ 
 1^-^^"^^°^ " ""^e^ """t of the c ty ft,^ 
 ^nZ'"'K .'?* ^"""tion was submlttci to to 
 people whether a new Constitution shouH (^ 
 framed for California, it threw i vot^ in L^r 
 of having one and prevailed. . . Next <^° 
 n the summer of 18^8, the choice of delcraS 
 
 stitution. The Working mans Party ol.t linivl . 
 substantial representation in the convent ,mw 
 ^nominees were ignorant men, witi out „ 
 perience or constructive ideas. . . . h,,'"; 
 the working men's delegates, to«.th;r w th S 
 
 excen?toi^fit'"rK '""'""f 't "ttle ,u„lK?ri,; 
 except to cartr out by statutes the provi.,i„ns ot 
 
 hL^r"!')"""- 't make, •lobbying ie 
 r,"Plf^tio'i of a legislator, felony. 3. It fcrhids 
 fXf^ leglBtature or local ...tliorities t, incur 
 ?.„^"i*y??'' •.•*ftaln limit, taxes uncultivS 
 land equally with cultivated, makes s.i , V due 
 "f ™°«g»P taxable In the distri.'t wC o 
 
 of e'v^vh^^." ' "'«'■'? '"luli.ltorial .. ruliny 
 
 Clare, thaf .hi s? . u'* *»»«rin« of «,„ k, ' dc 
 ~,~,J_ ,"'*S "^tf •"" Po*" to pfvcrt cor- 
 P?„7Hn^/r"" "'"''rtinB their busin.s, snaMo 
 
 nanle? ^L^^^t^,"^ teleimpf, ,„,| g^, com 
 
 ^ln„ «."'"'"" V.'t''?"''"" to fix the tn,n«p„r. 
 
 ^kS «h".^'". ""."^•** ■""' examine the 
 books and •«»unt. of „, transportation mm- 
 
 £?S ?h.i- " ^°^^ all cornorBti.>n« to . nploy 
 fShM? KT- '^"^^ them from the milTrU. 
 «m^..ii"'' ^P'oyytnton any pul.li.- worts 
 ?hLy.a.^'.~'"r^ for -coolie labour.' dimt. 
 the legislature to provide for the punishn,. m of 
 anycompany which shall Import Cliii., m-. to 
 IniT* "^"""t'oM on the residence of ihin.*, 
 andto cause their removal if thev fail to . h«. rve 
 
 nn .H-.^ 'ij""yi\"* • '«g*' 'l*^' work on .11 
 public worka. When the Constitution came to 
 
 ■' 1 
 
 M 
 
CAUFORNU, 1S77-188C. 
 
 CAMBORICUM. 
 
 te submitted to the Tote of the people, to Hay 
 1879, it WM vehemently opposed by the monled 
 men. . . . The stru-jgle was severe, but the 
 Gnrnger party commanded so many rural votes, 
 and the Sand Lot party so many in San Francisco 
 (whose population is nearly a third of that of the 
 entire State) that the Constitution was carried, 
 thoug) jy a small majority, only 11,000 out of 
 s toUl of 145,000 citizens voting. . . . The next 
 thing was to choose a legislature to cany out 
 the Constitution. 1 1 id the same Influences pre- 
 vailed in this election as prevailed in that of the 
 Constitutional Convention, the results might have 
 been serious. But fortunately there was a slight 
 reaction. ... A series of Statutes was passed 
 which gave effect to the provisions of the Con- 
 stitution In a form perhaps as little harmful a* 
 coulii •>!! contrived, and certainly less harmful 
 than ' J. '. been feared when the Constitution was 
 put to the vote. Many bad bills, particularly 
 those aimed at the Cliinese, were defeated, and 
 one may say generally that the expectations of 
 the Sand Lot men were grievously disappointed. 
 While all this was passing, Kearney had more 
 and more declined in fame and powck. He did 
 not sit either In the Constitutional Convention or 
 in the legislature of 1880. The mob had tired of 
 his harangues, especially as little seemed to come 
 of them, and as the candidates of the W. P. C. had 
 behaved no better in ofllce than those of the old 
 parties. He had quarreled with the Chronicle. 
 He was, moreover, quite unfitted by knowledge 
 or training to argue tiie legal, econondcal, and 
 political questions Involved in the new Constitu- 
 tion so that tiie prominence of tliese questions 
 tliriw him into the baclcground. . . . Since 1^ 
 he lias played no part in Califomian politics."— 
 J. Bryce. The Amerimi Commmu'tallh, eh. 90 
 {r 2). atui app. to e. 1 (containing the text of the 
 Vnnt.ofCnl.). 
 
 CALIFORNIA, Unirertity of. SeeEDCt.A- 
 
 TIUN, HODEBN : AXEBICA : A. D. 1868, 
 » 
 
 CALIGULA. SeeCAics. 
 
 CALIPH, The Title.— The title Caliph, or 
 Khalifa, simply signifies in the Arabic language 
 '■ Successor. '' The Caliphs were the succeswrs 
 of Mulinmet. 
 
 CALIPHATE, The. See Mahometan Cos- 
 
 (JCEBT. 
 
 CALIPHS, The Turkish Snltao become! 
 successor to the. See Baot>ad; A. D. 1858. 
 
 CALISCH, OR KALISCH, Treaty of. See 
 Gekm.\nt; a. I). 1813-1818. 
 
 CALIXTINES, The. See Bohemia ; A. D. 
 U19-I434. 
 
 CALLAO: Sie^e, t8a5-i8a6. See Pkro: 
 A. 1). 1820-1826. 
 
 A. D. i866.— Repulse of the Spanish Beet. 
 SwPehu: \. D. 1826-1876. 
 
 CALLEVA.— One of the /rreater towns of 
 Roman nrttain, the walls of wlilcli, found at 811- 
 fhfsifr enclose an area of tliree miles in circuit. 
 — T. Wright. Vdt, Romnn and Hum, eh. 8. 
 , CALLIAS, Peace of. See Athens: B. C. 
 
 CALLINICUS, Battle of.— Fought In the 
 wars of tlie Homsns with the Persians, on the 
 h»nli» of the Euphrates, Kaster Eve, A. r ^gl 
 The Koinana. commanded hv R/-!|ai)riu« s ered 
 au apparent defeat, but they checked an intended 
 advance of the Persians on Antloch.— O. RawUo- 
 ion, Severn Unat Onental ManarOf, eh. It. 
 
 CALLISTUS II., Pope, A. D. 1110-1184. 
 
 . . . .Caltistna III., Pope, A. D. 1 vm>-i158. 
 
 CALHAR, The Union ot See Scakdina- 
 ▼lAN States; A. D. 1018-1807, ejid 1897-1527. 
 
 CALPULALPAM, Battle of (i860). Bee 
 Mexico: A. D. 1848-1861. 
 
 CALPURNIAN LAW, The.— "In this year, 
 B. C. 149, the tribune L. Calpumius Piso Frugl, 
 who was one of the Roman writers of annals, 
 proposed and carried a Lex Calpumia, which 
 made a great change In the Roman criminal 
 procedure. Before this time and to the third 
 Piuiic war, when a maglstratus had misconducted 
 hii; self In h's foreign administr . ion by oppres- 
 sive acts and spoliation, tliere were several ways 
 of Inquiring Into his offetice. . . . but these 
 modes of procedure were insufficient to protect 
 the Btib<ects of Rome agt.'nst bad maglstratus. 
 . . . liie remedy for these .>v{l8 was tiic establish- 
 ment of a court under the name of Quaestio Per- 
 petua de pecuniis repetu idis, the first regular 
 criminal court that existed at Rome. Courts 
 similarly constituted wer afterwards established 
 for the trial of persons charged with other 
 offences. The Lex Calpumia defined the offence 
 of RepetundK, as It was briefly named, to be 
 the taking of money by irregular means for the 
 use of a governor. The name Repetunds was 
 given to this offence, because the object of the 
 procedure was to compel the governor to make 
 restitution. . . . The court consisted of a pre- 
 siding judge ... and o'' a -<xly of Judiccs or 
 Jurymen annually appointed. The numlwr of 
 tlih body of judlces Is not known, but they were 
 all si-nators. Tlie Judge and a jury taken from 
 the body of the judiccs tried all tiie cases wliich 
 came before them during one year; and lionce 
 < m.c the name Quaestio Perpetua or stan Ung 
 court, ill opposition to the extrnoniinary coi> ds- 
 slons whic'i had hitherto been appointed ih tlie 
 occasion ai y;.' We do not know that the Lex 
 Cainumia tuntalncd any penalties. As far as the 
 evidence shows. It simply enabled the complain- 
 ants to obtain satisfaction."— O. Long, Decline 
 of the liuman Rtpublic, ch. 2. 
 
 CALUSA, The. See American Adorioi.nes: 
 TiMlQl-ANAN Familt. 
 
 CALVE N, Batth of (1400). Sec Switzer- 
 land: A. D. 1396-1499. 
 
 CALVIN AND THE REFORMATION. 
 See P.\p.*rY: V. D. 1821-ir)33; and Ge.neva; 
 A D. 1536-l,'S64. 
 
 CAMARCUM.— The ancient name of the 
 town of Cambral. 
 
 CAMARILLA. — A circle of irresponsil)le 
 chamber counsellors —courtiers — surrounding 
 a sovereign with Influences superior to tiiose of 
 his responsible ministers. 
 
 CAMBALU.ORCAMBALEC. SceCuiNA: 
 A. D. 12.'S!>-12»4. 
 
 CAMBAS, OR CAMPA, OR CAMPO.The. 
 See Bolivia: AnoRtoiNAi. inhabitants. 
 
 CAMBOJA. See Tonkin. 
 
 CAMBORICUM.— A Roman town in Bri- 
 tain.— " Camborlcum was without doubt «. very 
 important town, which commnnde<l tlic southern 
 fens. It had tliree forts or citadels, the principal 
 of which occupied the district called the Cnstle- 
 eiid.in the modem town of Cambridge.nnd np|>eara 
 tn liavr h.vl a hrtdgp m-orthe Cnm, -"T Orsirita; 
 of the others, one stood below the town, at Cliee- 
 terton, and the other above It, at Oranchester. 
 Numerous ruadi branched off from this tow& 
 
 863 
 
CAUBORICnit 
 
 «."-; ?*^Si**!!* *''* »epre»ent«tlve of Cambori- 
 cum, ta hl« time, a 'llttte deierted city.' and 
 
 coffin for their wtatly abbeM, EtheWreda. they 
 ^h.?** ' brajutlful Kulptured taiSSus o^ 
 white marble outside the dty walbof the 
 |^^J"J'»-"-T. Wright. Cto, Baman and 
 
 ri£^^-il^o^^ D; iS«x.-Un«ucce»»luI 
 SSKe'l' D. T^!!«?l ''•™^ 8" ^"""«- 
 
 |»rernorBalH:nl.-S»e|;e «ad captnriby the 
 
 «n». SeeFBAKCE: A. D. 1SS8-1S96. 
 wiL?" **77--T«ken by Looia XIV. See 
 MBTHaRLAin]e(HoLL.u<D): A. D. 1874-1678 
 
 n'^&T*'**'**' *• Fiance. See NncK- 
 
 CAMPBELLITSa 
 
 ttUKir, Tbk nuCB OR 
 
 iim-ff^'' **•■" "•' ** ^'*^'= ^ °- 
 
 CAMBRIA.— The early name of Walca. See 
 »ra«Y, and Cumbria ; also. BRiTAUf : tfrn Ckn- 
 
 O^ilfc^i^^^' ^"-^ °^ «•'• See 
 
 «5t"'|?'J?<^=' »•••— The ant aettle- 
 
 CAMBRIDGE, Platform. The. See MAasA- 
 CHi-SETTs: A. D. 1646-1651/ 
 
 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY. SeeEou- 
 
 CATION. 
 
 CAMDEN, Battle of. See United States 
 
 ,-!P.**'^'*ONIAN REGIMENT, The.-In 
 lfti». when ClaTerhoiise was raisinir the Hiirh- 
 
 «n, clans in favor of .lames U.. " William Cle- 
 
 , n ,"'"",'"' '<!"?'" with distinguished bravery 
 at Botliwell, and was one of the few men whom 
 Clavpj-house feared, made an offer to the [Scot- 
 tish I hstates to raise a regiment among the Cam- 
 eronians, under the colonelcy of the Earl of 
 Angus, and the offer was acccpti'd. Such was 
 the origin of the Csmeronian regiment Its first 
 heutenant-olonel was Cleland : its arst chaplain 
 was Shields. Its courage was first tried at bun- 
 keld. where these 800 Covenanted warriors rolled 
 b,., k the tide of Celtic invasion ; and since tlaV 
 nn.l.gencrate though changed, it has won trol 
 pill, s ill every quarter of the world."_J. Gun- 
 
 F»^Am°?f03r,%'-» - "». See 
 
 ..,9A»<0RRA, OR CAMORRISTI. Th..- 
 
 avi^fuiv .L";'^"'" "»"«>'*"«» know'n to tnd 
 avowed by the law . . . there existed under tlm 
 Bour.Hu, rule at Naples [pverthmwn by '^riUim 
 I _!., J^ * self const tut«( BUthoritv mom 
 terrible than either. It wa. not rasy LK 
 
 wL^;^?:ttne"^n^srrn•t'!;f\TC 
 
 ^BV^i^U''^%X^l}l^^ CAMPBELI..SirC 
 
 rejealed ftelr exUtence by the orders which 
 they issued. This secret influence was that S 
 tMn St™-, r Camorristi, a sort of^mS„t 
 ttonof the violence of the middle ages, of tto 
 trades union tyranny of Sheffield, and of Z 
 
 were a body of unknown IndivlduaU who suS 
 sistol on tlie public, especially on the small, 
 tradespeople. A man effecU-d a lale of his warr 
 as Uie customer left his shop a manof the til 
 would enter and demand the tax on the saT?o 
 the Camorra. None could escape from th, 
 SS?"* ^TSSy- I' ^" Impal^ble to Z 
 S? m^»r ^^. ""' ?"'/°« itself tTthe Imlus ?, 
 ?hJ"Tl'^H*"?i!°S- It i^ued Its orders. When 
 f^f.^'^'jS P"""™"! Imposed stamp duti« 
 that aenaiblv increased the cf..t of litigation h« 
 Indtapenaable luxury of the Neapolitan., tte 
 advocatM received letters warning thtm to cease 
 a^ practice In the courts so longit, Uiese ,S 
 dutfea were enforced. 'Otherwise,' continued 
 ^e mandate, • we shall take an early onp,«u„"i^ 
 of arranging your affaire.' SigJeJ by ■t^ 
 C™>°n» ot the avvocatl.' ThramZment 
 hinted at was to be made by the knife Th. 
 
 Italian government, much to Its credit, made s 
 great onslaught on the Camorrlstl. Many were 
 arrested. Imprisoned or -!xile<l. some even killed 
 
 o?l??^i5t, P^f ?• . ^" ""^ *<"»' <'™'li'-»tioa 
 of «) terrible a soctal vice mutt be [published in 
 
 i^ J. ' ^"i.°',.ff<*' difficulty, liemverai." 
 
 CAMP OF REFUGE AT ELY See Pm 
 
 land: A. D. 106l»-107i: "*'"-"• »<« £sa. 
 CAMPAGNA, OR CAMPANIA.-' The 
 
 name of Campania.' says Pelligrinl. ' which »m 
 
 tended Itself by successive rc-aningcnunti of 
 iLlv L^ provinces over a great part of (.Vnini: 
 i,I?A'i'. *SL^^ gradually shrank back si'ain 
 
 J^„ .Jr".^'","' ?°? city only. Naples, and that 
 one of the least Importance In Italy What 
 naturally followed was the total disu^ of the 
 ^ \^i y^" **"" Campania, theivfon., be- 
 came obsolete except in the writings of a few 
 mediaeval authore whose statemeiits cnatrf 
 some confusion by their ignorance of the different 
 senses In which it bed at .lifferent tini.s liofB 
 U8c<l, An Impression seems, however, to have 
 prevailed that the district of Capua Im.l Inrn so 
 named on account of iu flat and fertile natui* 
 and hence every similar tract of plain cumtrv 
 {?„"1? ^ ■* rS?"'^ * campagns iu the Italian 
 SffnTj .Tlio^ exact tinio when the name, 
 which had thus become a mere appellative, was 
 applied to the Roman Cnmpngna is not aiciiralelr 
 
 Mcertalned It will "hv sc-en that the tenn 
 
 itpman tampagna Is not a geographical ilctiiiiiion 
 of any district or province with clearly ti.<ed 
 llmlU, but that it Is a name Iixisely emnloved in 
 speaking of the tract which lies niund tlie city 
 of Home. — H. Burn, Jime and tlui fammgna, 
 eh. 14, note at end. 
 Also in: Sir W. Oell. Top,,/;, of Ibmr r 1 
 
 * S^¥J^^°"*°' °*'»1« ^ See FLoitE.-(n!: 
 A. u, 1380, 
 
 ^ CAMPANIANS, Tho. See Sabines , slio, 
 
 CAMPBELL, Sir Colin, The Indian Cam- 
 
 """'' "" ' A. D. l«,5:-lN.Vs 
 
 Sec Uisciri.i'.s. 
 
 364 
 
CAMPBELL'S STATION. 
 
 CANADA. 
 
 CAMPBELL'S STATION, BMUe et See 
 Chiteo Btatm op Am. : A. D. 1808 (OcTOBBBr— 
 DiCEXBKR : Tjantmaa). 
 
 CAMPERDOWN, tttmil tetUe ot See 
 Emolasd : A. D. 17OT. 
 
 CAMPO-FORIIIO, Peace o£ SeeFRAHca: 
 A D. 1797 (Mat— OcTOBBR). 
 
 CAHPO SANTO, Battle of (1743). See 
 ITALT : A. D. 1741-1748. 
 
 CAMPO-TENESE, Battle of (1806). See 
 Fbamce: a. D. 1805-1806 (December— Sbp- 
 
 TEMBER). 
 
 CAMPUS MARTIUS AT ROME, The. 
 
 —"The history of the Campus Martius presents 
 us with a series of striking contrasts. It lias 
 been covered in successive ans, first by the 
 comDelds of the Tarqulnian dynasty, then by 
 tiie parade ground of the great military repub- 
 lic, next by a forest of marble colonnades and 
 porticoes, and, lastly, by a confused mass of 
 mean and filthy streets, clustering round vast 
 mansinns, and innumerable cliurclies of every 
 size and description. . . . During the time of 
 the Republic, the whole Campus seems to have 
 been considered state property and was used as 
 s military and athletic exercise ground and a 
 place of meeting for the comitia centuriata. " — 
 it. Bum, Home nnd the Campagna, ch. 13, pt. 1. 
 —"We have hitherto employed tliis name to 
 designate the whole of the meadow land bounded 
 by the Tiber on one side, and on the other by the 
 Collis Hortulorum, the Quirinal and the Cupito- 
 line. . . . But the Campus Hartius, strictly speak- 
 big, Yin that portion only of the fiat ground 
 
 which llei in the angle formed hj the bend of 
 the stream. According to the narrative of Livy, 
 It wa» the property of the Tarquins, and upon 
 their expulsion was confiscated, and then conse- 
 crated to Mars; but Dionysius asserts that it had 
 been previously set apart to the god and sacri- 
 legiously appropriated by the tvrant . . . During 
 the republic the Campus Martius was employed 
 specially for two purposes. (1.) As a pUce for 
 holding the oonstitutional assemblies (comitia) 
 especially the Comitia Centuriata. and also for 
 ordinary public meetings (concioues). (3.) For 
 gymnastic and warlike sports. For seven cen- 
 turies it remained almost entirely open. ... In 
 the Comitia, the citizens, when their votes were 
 taken, passed into enclosures termed septa, or 
 ovilia, which were, for a long period, temporary 
 wooden erections. "—W. Ramsay, Manual of 
 llomaa AiUig., eh. 1. 
 
 CAMULODUNUM. See Coujbbcteb, Ori- 
 gin OK. 
 
 CAMUNI, The. See Rh.«tians. 
 
 CANAAN. — CANAANITES. — " Canaan 
 signifies 'the lowlands,' and was primarily the 
 name of the coast on which the great cities of 
 Phoenicia were built. Aj>, however, the inland 
 parts of the country wer j inhabited by a kindred 
 population, the name tame to be extended to 
 designate the whole of Palestine, just as Pales- 
 tine itself meant originally only the small territory 
 of the Philistines.'— A. 11. Sayce. fWMJi Light 
 from the Ancient Mmumentt, eh. 2. — See PiiosNi- 
 ci.\K8; Oriqin and early HISTORY; also, Jews: 
 The £arlt Hebrew History, and HAMiTsa. 
 
 CANADA. 
 
 (NEW FRANCS.t 
 
 Namei.— "The year after the failure of Ver- 
 razano's last enterprise, 1S25, Stefano Oomez 
 sailed from Spain for Cuba and Florida ; thence 
 he steered northward in search of the long hoped- 
 for passage to India, till he reached Cape Race, 
 on the southeastern extremity of Newfoundland. 
 The further details of his voyage remain un- 
 known, but there is reason to suppose that he 
 entered the Oulf of St. Lawience and traded 
 upon iu shores. An ancient Costilinn tradition 
 existed that the Spaniards visited these coasts 
 before the French, and having perceived no ap- 
 pearance of mines or riches, they exclaimed 
 frequently "Aca nada' [signifying 'here is 
 nothing 'T; the natives caught up the sound, and 
 when other Europeans airived, repeated it to 
 them. The strangers concluded that these words 
 were a designation, and f mm that time this mag- 
 nificent country bore the name of Canada. . . . 
 Father Hennepin asserts that the Spaniards were 
 the first discoverers of Canada, and that, finding 
 nothing there to gratify their extensive desires 
 for gold, thev bestowed upon it the appellation 
 of Capo di Nada, 'Cape Nothing,' whence by 
 corruption iu present name. ... La Potherls 
 gives the same derivation. . . . This derivation 
 would reconcile the different assertions of the 
 early discoverers, some of whom rive the name 
 of Canada to the whole valley of the St. Law- 
 rence; others, cuuaily worlli> of credit, confine 
 it to a small district in the neighbourhood of 
 attdacona (now <)ueb«<4 . , , Dupunceau, in 
 
 the Transactions of the [American] Philosophical 
 Soficty, of Philadelphia, founds his conjecture 
 of the Indian origin of the name of Canada upon 
 the fact that, in the translation of the Qospel of 
 St. Slatthew into the Mohawk tongue, mule by 
 Brandt, the Indian chief, the word Canada U 
 always used to signify a village. The mistake 
 of the early discoverers, in taking the name of a 
 part for that of tiie whole, is very pardonable in 
 persona ignorant of the Indian language. . . . 
 The natural conc'usion ... is, that the word 
 Canada was a mere local appellation, without 
 reference to the country; that each tribe had 
 their own Canada, or collection of huts, which 
 shifted its position acoording to their migra- 
 tions. " — E. Warburton, The Comreit of Canada, 
 c. 1, eh. 1, and foot-note. — " Canada was the name 
 which Cartier found attached to the land and 
 there is no evidence that he attempted to displace 
 it . . . Nor did Roberval attempt to name the 
 country, while the commission given him by the 
 king does not associate the name of Francis or 
 any new name therewith. . . . There seems to 
 liave been a belief in New England, at a later 
 (lay, that Canada was derived from William and 
 Emery de Caen (Cane, as the English spelled it), 
 who were in New France in 1881, and later. 
 Cf. Morton's 'New English Canaan,' Adam's edi- 
 tion, p. 283, and Josselyn's 'Rarities.' p. S: also, 
 J. Reude, iu iiis iiiatory of geogranhical names 
 in Canada, printed in New Dominion Monthly, 
 It. 844."— B. S. De Costa, Jaequu Carti*r and 
 
 865 
 
CAKADA. 
 
 
 \i 
 
 „i^ *7^' ^l" "' £"«»«•' He oonflnl. the 
 name of Canada to a dUtrict extending from the 
 Isle am Coudrea In the St Lawrence to a Vint 
 at lome distance above the site of Quebec, ^he 
 country below, he adds, was call^ bVthe In 
 dians Saguenar. and that above, Hochelsga. In 
 the m»p of (Jerard Mercator (15<W) the name 
 
 P,^, „*„'!k^'!S° ^S ^T°' ''** «" adjacent dU- 
 trlct, on the river Stadln (St. Charles). Lescar- 
 
 h^fh M *'',Tu'*'!,''- t"""* "»' ^0 country on 
 both sides of the 8t Uwrence. from Hochelaga 
 to iU mouth, bore the name of Canada. In the 
 ^??i.,"o"''xr°' 0««»"». PublUhed about the 
 Si^m'P'. ?'"'/'?"«'• Nova FrancU is thus 
 .ij»'l'"iii^'°2**"'»'*'*"^=""' ""St Lawrence 
 
 PaundMotf 
 
 CANADA. laOS-iaOBL 
 
 .h,.„.Vi,'„Di o "' •"'"inCTonineDt. Lawrence 
 f^ Inl^ ?ir'^'«".*°?y '• ' CUlagaVHochelaga), 
 the angle between the OtUwa and t^e St Liw- 
 rence; Saguenai,' a dUtrict below the river of 
 that name ■ 'Mo«»«a,' south of the .< Lawrence 
 !Sh *^.'K°^'te ^'^*'" I^cheUeu; 'Avacal.' west 
 Md south of Moscoea; • Norumbega,' Maine and 
 New Brunswick; 'Apalachen,' VTrginU, Penn- 
 ?teJ!-.^'. 'Terra Cortereaiur Ubrador; 
 Flonda, Misriaeippi, AUbama, Florida. Mer- 
 «tor confines the name of New France to districu 
 bordering on the St. Lawrence. Others give it 
 • much broader application. The use of thU 
 name, or the nearly allied names of Francisca 
 and La Franciscaue. dates back, to sar the 
 least, as far as 1,525. and the Dutoh geographers 
 are especially free in their use of it, out of spite 
 to the Spaniards. The derivation of the name of 
 Canada has been a point of discussion. It is 
 without doubt, not Spanish, but Indian. . ' 
 Lescarbot alllrms that Canada is simply an In- 
 dian proper immc, of which it U vain to seek a 
 meaning. Belleforest also calls It an Indian 
 word, but translates it 'Terre,' as docs also 
 iS.7?i: T:^- P»'''"?»n,A<»K»rso//>on«i»«A« 
 Tu » ' C'Aow/'Wn. cA. 1,/oot-mh 
 The Aborigfinai inbabitanti. See American 
 
 ABOHIOINES: AloOJCQUIAN FAMILY; HUBONS; 
 
 Ojibwavs; SiocAJC Familt; Athapascan 
 Family, akd Eskimauan Family. 
 
 r.wT' '3'?'»*9'"^"»»* diacoTerie. of the 
 Cahota. See America A. D. 1497 and 1498 
 
 A. D. X500.— Cortereal on the coaat. See 
 America: A. D. 1500. 
 
 b™;„°b'?"''5'M -Portnpieae, Norman and 
 Breton fiihermen on the Newfoundland banks 
 Bee >E»ifocNDLAND: A. D. 1501-1578. 
 
 A. D. 1534.— The coasting Tojare of Ver- 
 razano. See America. A. O. 1528-1534 
 
 A. D. 1534.1535. —PoaaeMion taken by 
 Jacques Cartier for the King of France. See 
 America: A. I). 1534-1533. ' 
 „A °: .»54»-j6o3.-Jac5uea Cartic.'a laat 
 nndertaking.-UnsuccessSil French attempts 
 "bo? ° ""*"°°' ^"^ America: A. D. 1541- 
 
 „,^- ,D- 1603.160s.-The BeriDninr of Cham- 
 plains Career in the New \frorid.icoloniza- 
 tiou at Port Royal.-Exploration of the New 
 
 ift«i ..^ ''?"^ [»ee America: L D, 1541- 
 J!^J'..^.^"r' ""^ Champlaln, acaptoln in the 
 navv accepted a command ... at the reniipst 
 of 6e Chatte [or De Chastes] ; he w„a"S 
 of Haintr.nge, and had lately rclurned to Fmncc 
 from the ^e»t Indlep,, wUe« he hS galn^^ 
 
 366 
 
 high name for boldness and skill. Under th. 
 
 successful elforu were made to found a dm 
 manent settlement in the magnificent provfc. 
 of Canada and the stain of the errors and dSwen 
 of more than seventy yean was at lenRth wiwi) 
 away. Pontgray*^ J Champlain saile for?^ 
 ~ .^'1*2'*,*° *'^- "Plored it as far m Z 
 rapids of St. Louis, uid then returned to Fmnce 
 They found that the patron of their undcrtakhiB 
 De Chastes. was dead. - Piene du Ouast S 
 ^!. J"""^ J^ succeeded to the powera and 
 privileges of the deceased, with eveia more e, 
 tensive commission. De Honts was a Calvlnta 
 and had obtained from the king the freedom of 
 religious faith for himself an/ hia fonowe™ ?n 
 America, but under the engamment th«t th. 
 Ronutn Catholic worship sho^f Ss" tlM 
 among the natives. ... The tradinir mmn^ni 
 T^^" ^F ^ ^'"''« was%o'2j!K37 
 a Id De Honts waa enabled to fit out a more co™ 
 plete armament than had ever hitherto been 
 engaged inCanadlan commerce. He miled from 
 Havre on Uie 7th of March. 1004. wHh fo° 
 vessels. Of these, two under his Immediate 
 
 h«wSTP',°- """y other volunteera,%m. 
 barked their fortunes with him. purposlnn to 
 cast their future lot in the New Worid. A tirf 
 Sto7n '««P«'«''«1 "nder Pontgrave to ,h1 
 Stra t of Canso. to protect the exclusive trading 
 
 ?o^ tX? "' "'." ^"'P'''/- The fourth 8tecref 
 
 by the Indian hunters from the dreary wihls of 
 the Saguenay. On the 6th of May D« Mont^ 
 I reacheJa harbor on the coast of Acmiia " but 
 for some reason not to be undcrsUnxl. his pro^ 
 jected colony was quartered on the little iskt of 
 ftt. Croix near the mouth of the river of tliat 
 name, which became subsequently the bouodarr 
 between Alalne and New B^Jmswick. Meantim? 
 Port Kn^V^^T An^Po"'. then named 
 ™ .»?^*'v ""^ '^'' discovered, and was 
 fk^M^',.*. \?_'?,''«* surrounding territory, by 
 De Moots to De Poutrincourt, who pm]m^ to 
 ».^tle upon it M ito feudal proprieto'r and lord 
 The colony at St. CroU havfng been hou.,cd and 
 put in order, De Poutrincourt sailed for France 
 
 ?^L> K "°J'*'-, ^ *'<""»• Chaniplain. and 
 hose who remained, suffered a winter of terrible 
 hardships, and thirty-five died before spring. 
 De Monte now resolved to seek a better site for 
 his Infant settlement, and, finding no other 
 ^™? I ."u?"?? ^^ resumed possession of that 
 most desirable Port Royal which he had granted 
 ^M?!? '° Poutrincourt and removed his colony 
 7 i/rfi Champlaln, meanwhile. In the summer 
 of 1805 had explored the coast southward far 
 down the future home of the English Puritans, 
 ooWng Into MaasachusctU Bav, Uking shelter 
 in Plymoiitli harbor and naming it Port St. 
 I^uis doubl ng Cape Cod (which he called Cap 
 Ulanc), turning back at Nausctt Harlior, and 
 jfiuning on the whole a remarkable knowledge 
 ■>f the country and its coast. Soon after Chain- 
 plain a return from this coasting voyage, 
 I>e Monts was called home to France, by newt 
 of machinations that were threatening to ex- 
 tinguish his patent, and Por,tgrsv4 waa left Is 
 comnuind of the colony at Port Royal— E War 
 burton, Tht CbnjMM ^ Canada, r. 1, ch. a-I- 
 
CANADA, 1608-iaOS. 
 
 Mxptontiont. 
 
 CANADA. i6oe-mi. 
 
 De Monti' petitkHi to the Unr for leave to colo- 
 nize Acadia Uist region wu defined " as extend- 
 bg from the 40tb to the 4Atb degree of north 
 latitude, or from Philadelphia to oeyood Mon- 
 treal"— F. Parkman, PioMen ef Frajwt tit tha 
 Sat World: Chanaiain, eh. a 
 
 Alio ra: E. F. Slafter, Mtmoir pr^. to 
 ••VoyagttofSamutl de Champlaiii" (Prince 8oe., 
 1880), eh. 1-5. 
 
 A. D. 1606-1608.— The fortbuet of the 
 Acadian colony.— "I>e Monts found his path- 
 way in France surrounded with diillcultiea. The 
 Boclielle merchants who were partners iu the 
 enterprise desired a return for their investments. 
 Ilie Baron de Poutrincourt, who was still 
 possessed with the desire to make the New 
 World his home, proved of assistance to De 
 Monts. De Poutrincourt returned to Acadia 
 and encouraged the colonists, who were on the 
 verie of deserting Port Royal. With De Pou- 
 trincc a-t emigrated at this time a Parisian 
 advocate, named Mark Leacarbot, who was of 
 great service to the colony. During the absence 
 of De Poutrincourt on an exploring expedition 
 down the coast, l«scarbot drained and repaired 
 the colonists' fort, and made a number of ad- 
 ministrative changes, much improving the con- 
 dition of the settlers. The following winter wss 
 one of comfort, indeed of enjoyment. ... In 
 May, however, the sad news r^Cfaed the colony 
 that the company of the merchants on whom it 
 depended had been broken up. Their depen- 
 dence beinir gone, on the 80th of July most of 
 the colonists left Acadia for France In vessels 
 sent out for them. For two vears the empty 
 buildings of Port Royal stood, a melancboly 
 sight, with not a white person in tlicm, but 
 under the safe protection of Memberton, the 
 Micmak chief, who proved a tnisty friend to the 
 French. The opposition to the company of 
 Rochelle arose from various causes. In addition 
 to its financial difficulues the fact of De Moots 
 being a Protestant was seized on as the reason 
 why nothing was being done in the colony to 
 chnatianize the Indians. Accordingly when De 
 Monts, fired with a new scheme for exploring 
 the northwest passage, turned over the man- 
 agement of Acadian affairs to De Poutrincourt, 
 who was a sincere Catholic, some of the diffi- 
 culties disappeared. It was not, however, till 
 two years later that arrangements were made for 
 s new Acadian expedition. "—O. Brycc, Short 
 HM. of the Canadian People, eh. 4, teet. 1. 
 Alm in: J. Hannay, Biet. . ' Aeadia. eh. 4 
 A D. 1608-1611.— Champ> ^'» third and 
 fourth expeditions.— Hit settlen.ent at Que- 
 bec, discovery of Lake Champlain, and first 
 wars with the . -oquoia. — "De iilonts in no 
 way loBt heart, and he resolved to continue in 
 the career of exploration for settlement. A new 
 ejp(Hlitloa was determined on, and De MonU 
 scleck-d the Saint Lawrence as the spot where 
 the .ilort sliould be made. ChampUin coun- 
 selled the chance. In Nova Scotia and on tlie 
 cast of New Bri-nswick and Maine he had been 
 struck by the number of ports affording protec- 
 tion to vessels from sea. and by the small number 
 or Indians whom he had met. In Nova Scotia 
 he would b^ exposed to rival attempto at setUe- 
 iwnt Mil at ihc same time he could not see the 
 possihiiity of obtaining Indian allies. In Canada 
 Uie full control would remain with those who 
 lint made a aetUement on the Saint Lawrence, 
 
 and Cham plain counted Um natlva tribes ■■ 
 powerful instruments in carrying out his policy. 
 We have the key here to his coMuct in assisting 
 the Hurons in their wars. ... In 1606 Cham- 
 plain started for the St Lawrence. Pootgrevi 
 was with the expedition. A settlement wai 
 made at Quebec, as ^he most suitable place. 
 Some ground was cleared, buildings were com- 
 menced, when a conspiracy was discovered. 
 The ringleader was hanged and three of those 
 actively implicated were sent back to France 
 with Pontgrav£ on his return in the autuma 
 Matters now went peaceably on. The summer 
 was passed in completing the ' Abitation de Que- 
 bec,' of which Champlahi has left us a sketch. 
 It was situated in the present Lower Town on the 
 river bank, in the comer where Notre Dame 
 Street meeu Sous le Fort Street It was here 
 Champhin laid the foundation for the future 
 city. Winter came, the scurvy carrying off 
 twenty of their number. ... In June, Des 
 Maraia, Pontgravi's son-in-Uw, arrived, telling 
 him that Pontgravi was at Tadouiac Cham- 
 plain proceeded thither. The question had then 
 to be discussed, what policy should be follower 
 with the Indiana T Should they be be aided by 
 what force Champlain could command, in the 
 expedition which they had resolved to make 
 against the Iroquois T It is plain that no advance 
 in discovery could have been made without their 
 assistance, and that this assistance could only 
 have been obtained by rendering them service. 
 . . . With the view of making explorations 
 be>ond the points then known by Europeans, 
 Champlain in the middle of June ascendeti the 
 St. Lawrence. About a league and a half west 
 of the river Saint Anne, they were joined by a 
 party of Algonquins who were to form a part of 
 the expedition. Cliamplain tdls us of their 
 mortal feud with the Iroquois, a proof that in no 
 way he created it. They all returned to Quebec, 
 where there was festivity for some days. It was 
 brought to a close and the war parties started; 
 Champlain with nine men, Des Marais and a 
 pilot, joined it [them ?]. With his Indian allies 
 be ascended the Richelieu and reached Lake 
 ChampUin, the first white man who saw ita 
 waters: subsequently for 165 yehis to be the 
 scene of contest between the Indian and white 
 man, the French and English, the revolted 
 Colonies and the Mother Country. . . . The 
 advance up Lake Champlain was niade only by 
 night They reached Crown Point They were 
 then in the Iroquois domain ; very shortly they 
 knew of the presence of the enemy." On the 
 80th of July the invaders fought a battle with 
 the Iroquois, who fled in terror before the arque- 
 buse of Champlain, which killed two of their 
 chiefs and wounded a third. Soon after hia 
 return to Quebec from this expedition — the 
 beginnidg of the long war of the French with 
 the Iroquois — Champlain was summoned to 
 France. The patent of De Monts had been re- 
 voked and ho could not obtain its renewal 
 "Nevertheless, De Moots, with his associates 
 decided to continue tlieir efforts, and, in March, 
 1610, Champlain again started for Canada." 
 After reaching Quebec his stay this time was 
 short lie joined hLs Indian allieii in anntlier 
 expedition of war, and helped them to win 
 another victory over the Iroquois, at a place 
 on the Richelieu, one league above Sorel. On 
 returning be gut news of t)<p assassination of 
 
 367 
 
CAKADA, l«»-18n. 
 
 XiulM aiiaek m 
 Jfov-' - 
 
 SmMlD-trt 
 
 CANADA. 1910-181& 
 
 '* ■ 
 
 Henry rV.MdiUrtedat once for France. "The 
 clefttli of Henry IV. exercbed great influence on 
 the fortune, of Caoida. He bad penonally 
 taken Interest in Champlain'a voyageT and hb 
 energetic mind wai well quallflctl tS direct the 
 fortunes of a growing colony. Louis XHI. was 
 not then ten years old. Jiary of Mcdcci. was 
 under the control of her favourites, Leonora 
 Galigni, and her husband. Conclno Concinl. 
 Klclielleu had not then appeared on the scene. 
 . . The Jesuiu were becoming all-powerful at 
 ^ • • '^'*°<* was unsettled auddisordeied. 
 .Jf ""f«»'^'»; not without provocation, were 
 acting with passion and without judgment. The 
 aMassinatlon of the King had alarmed them. 
 The whole kingdom was threatened with con- 
 vulslor and anarchy, and Canada was to pass 
 out of the notice of those in power: and. In the 
 sense of giving aid, half a century was to elapse 
 before the French Go- ,-nment ^uld comp^* 
 bend tlje duty of taking part In the defence of 
 Jh^J"H''fy' ,""l°^ Protecthig the penons of 
 those living In New Trance. The gSund was 
 
 JLw7.'?'"?*'^.;''"P.''L"»* «eW to? the active 
 trader, side by side with Uie devoted missionary 
 Thus the Government fell virtually under the 
 control of tlie Jesuiu, who, impatient of contra- 
 .1 S'.'"'"^-, °J'^y »' ""i establUhment of their 
 authoritv, which was to bring the colony to the 
 verge of destructioa" Champlaln returned to 
 his colony in the spring of IflU, fachig its pros- 
 pects with such courage as he found In hU own 
 Tm a^Tfl)^" ^'"S"^""'' ^^- of Canada. 4* 
 
 "aijo ix:' E. B. O'Callaghan. ed.. Doe. Sit. 
 of ^1. r., t. 3, pp. 1-9. 
 
 A. D. 1610-1613.— The Acadian colony re- 
 -ll?f ' '*p*j'n'"7"' V "" English of Vifw 
 * u ^^T*^""^ '*°y*' *"* '«f' uninhabited tUl 1610 
 when Poutrincourt returned at the Instance of 
 the king to make the new settlement a centnl 
 station for the ronvcrsion of tlic Indians,— a work 
 which made some Jesuit missionaries prominent 
 ni^ ^^^7,."' •.''.« New World. H& son fol- 
 lowed in 1611, with ff.thers Pierre Blard, and 
 Knemond Mass*. Madame la Marquii de 
 Gui-rchevi He. a ■ ious Catholic, to wlom De 
 
 whom afterwards the French king granted the 
 whole territory now covered by the United 
 Btatts, was the chief patroness of these voyages, 
 pesirmg to make anoUier settlement, she S 
 DatchefTa vewel in 1618 with two more Jesuits, 
 lather Quentin and Gilbert Du Thet. and forty, 
 eight men under U Saussaye. "When they 
 
 sons-fathera Blard and Masse, their servknt 
 the apothecary Hebert. and another. All the 
 rest were absent, either hunting or trading 
 
 Xn^Ii'"?";*^-"'* <*"*«°'* •"««' tS Hubert, wifo 
 represented Biencourt in lite absence, and taking 
 the two Jesuits, with their servant and luggage 
 
 nu.^ hJ *.'^^'''u" Pentflg-'et. which father 
 2i n™^ m'"^ ""'J^" P"=''fou». IJUt when 
 w,S? .*''°.''° » *'•'«='' '"« came on. which 
 asted for two days, and when It became clear, 
 
 MnLf "L'" - 't ^'^'' "^ "'« extern side of 
 Mount Desert IsUnd, m Maine. The harbor 
 
 r,^ if*Pr. ■«:""; Md oommodloua, and they 
 Judged this would be a favorable sitTfor the 
 colony, and named the pUce Su Sauvour 
 La SauMiye was adviied by the ptindptl ookn- 
 
 868 
 
 Isu to erect a sufficient fortification before con 
 menciag to cult vate the soil, but he disre^sJSS 
 tliU advice and nothing was compleJlTthi 
 f[ of lofence. except the rateiug of a snlSl 
 palisaded structure, when a storm* bum S 
 the colony which was litUe expecttd bylS 
 
 chants bul founded a colony on tlie Jam.-, li"" 
 II Vi'-gfnia, wher., after suffering greatly from 
 the insalubrity of Uie climate an! wnt ^f T 
 visions, they had attained a considerable deC 
 
 vessels to tish on the coast of Aca.lla, convovS 
 by an armed vessel under the command of C^^ 
 tain Samuel .' jgal, who had been conn«;u.d wS 
 the CO ony since 1609. Argal was ourof tho« 
 adventurers formed In the Khool of Drake wbS 
 made a trade of olracy, but confined tl"„^7m 
 to the robbery o/^those who were so unfortTnlu 
 M not to be their own countrymen. wC 
 
 Argal arrived at Mount Desert, he was toW b? 
 
 Wli^'*l"Sf "'"' "■,« ^"^ "«« there in itj 
 harbor with a vessel. Leanitag that thev wm 
 not very numerous, he at once ^Ived to at^k 
 
 ^Jl. ^ii "■" ^'^^ "«« •"«'™ when S 
 approached except ten men, most of whom wire 
 unacquainted with the working of a sliip ArcS 
 auacked the French with muiketry. and aV Uie 
 second discharge Gilbert Du Thet Si back Z 
 tally wounded; four others were severely in- 
 iHIT^v''"'' 'wo young men. named Leiioino 
 ri^»;i?'"»-J'""'^ overboard and were 
 drowned Having taken pouKssion of tlie ve.- 
 
 f£aA^^' T*"' "T"™ "d informed La Saussaye 
 that the pl«;e where thev were was English 
 
 i'n^'rT'.r'' '"=""*«• *" ^^ charter of VirJnI. 
 and that they must remove; but, if they Luld 
 prove to him that they were there under a com- 
 mbsion from the crown of France, he would 
 treat them tenderly. He then asked La Saussaye 
 ^n^i'^iH'i!; .""I <»"'n'f»ion;but, as Argal, w4 
 unparalle ed indecenry. had abstracted it from bU 
 chest while the vessel was being plundered by bis 
 '■"■■'■ the unhappy governor was of couine unable 
 to produce It. Argal then assumed a very lofty 
 Y"^\\i.- ^?*° ■*'■«["' •"f'^cd in VirgiuJa, he 
 found that hi? perfidious theft of the French 
 governors commission was likely to caise hu 
 prisonere to be treated as pirates. Tliey were 
 put into prison and in a fair way of being exe- 
 cuted in spite of Argal's remonstrances, untU 
 struck with sliamc and remorse, he prorluwd 
 the wunmission which he hatl so dishonestly 
 filched from them, and the prisoners were set 
 wi ,""' .* production of this document, 
 while it saved the lives of one set of FrenibiiKn, 
 brought ruin upon all the others who remained 
 in Acadia. The Virginta colonists . . . resolved 
 to send Argal to destroy all the French settle- 
 menu hi AcadU, and erase all traces of tbeir 
 power. . . . The only excuse offered for tbU 
 piratical outrage of Argal — which was com- 
 mltteil during a period of profound u( ace -was 
 the claim which was made by Knglaml to tbe 
 whole continent of North America, founded on 
 the dtecovenes of the Cabote more than a cen- 
 tury before. That claim might, perhaps, liave 
 been of some value if followed by imrae<ilat« 
 occupancy, as was the case with the SpanianU 
 In the South, but that not having tiorr i!r.DP, 
 and the French colony being the oldest, it was 
 entitled to, at leut. as much consideration at 
 that of VirglnU. Singularly enough, this act 
 
OAKADA, leio-iais. 
 
 .iHaakmtt* 
 
 CANADA, 1611-1618. 
 
 produced no mnonttimnce from lYuoe."— J. 
 BuDsj, Biit. o/Aeadia, eh. S. 
 
 Also ni: W. C. Bryan' and 8. H. G»r, Apu- 
 lar IIM. oftKtU. 8.,t>. 1, ck. 13. 
 
 A. D. 1611-1616.— The feundiac of Montreal. 
 — whamplain'a invaaion of the Iroquoia in New 
 York.— ' In 1611 Champlain again returned to 
 America . . . and on tbe SStli of May proceeded 
 In search of hii alliea, wliom he was tu meet by 
 appointment Not flndinc them be employed 
 LU time in chooaing a aite for a new settlement, 
 liiglier up the river than Quebec. After a care- 
 ful survey, he fixed upon an eligible spot in the 
 vicinity of Mont Royal. His choice has been 
 amply justified by the great prosperity to which 
 this place, under the name of Montreal, has sub- 
 ■equently risen. Having cleared a considerable 
 apace of ground, he fenced it in by an earthen 
 ditch and planted grain in the enclosure. At 
 length, on the 18th of June, three weeka after 
 the time appointed, a party of his Indibn friends 
 appeared. . . . As an evidence of their good will 
 they imparted much valuable information respect- 
 ing tbe geography of this continent, with which 
 they seemed to be tolerablv well acquainted as 
 far south as the Oulf of Mexico. They readily 
 agreed to his proposal to return shortly with 40 
 or SO of his people to prosecute discoveries and 
 form settlements in their country if he thought 
 proper. Tliey even made a request that a French 
 youth should sccompauy them, and make obser- 
 vations upon their territory and tribe. Cham- 
 plain again returned to France, with a view of 
 making arrap^.ments for more extensive opera- 
 t^'-ns ; out this object was now of very difficult 
 . .^mplishment. De Monts, who had been ap- 
 pointed governor of Saintonge, was no longer 
 Inclined to take the lead in measures of this kind, 
 and excused himself from going to court by stat^ 
 ing tlie uriency of his own affairs. He therefore 
 committed the whole conduct of the settlement 
 to Champlahi, advising him, at the same time 
 to seek some powerful protector, whose influence 
 would overcome any opposition which might be 
 made to bis pUns. The latter was so fortunate 
 as to win over, almost Immediately, the Count 
 de Soissons to aid him in bis designs This 
 nobleman nhtained the title of lieutenant-general 
 of ^ew France; and. by a formal agreement, 
 transferred to Champlain all tlie functions of that 
 high office. The Count died soon after but 
 Champlain found a still more influential friend 
 In ilie I»nnce of Conde. who succeeded to all the 
 privileges of the deceased, and transferred Uiem 
 to him in a manner equally ample. These privi- 
 leges, including a monopoly of the fur trade, 
 gave great dissatisfaction to the merchanto ; but 
 thamplain endeavored to remove their principal 
 objection, by perndtting as manv of thsm ai 
 cLose to accompany him to the New World, and 
 to engage in this traffic. In consequence of this 
 f.^l!' » .; ""eamerchanl, from Normandy, one 
 ; TJ^''*"*,:,"''"* °"e '""" St Malo, accom- 
 panied him. They were allowed the privUeges 
 LfJT '"1* °° <»ntributing six men each to 
 f^„ ..'?, P'?-f?cf o' discovery, and giving one- 
 twentieth of their profit* towards defraying the 
 Mi^'r?.2!i?« ""'ement. In the begibniSg of 
 March [1813] the expediUon sailed Lm Har- 
 
 fZ1*?1 "° *■** '"* »' *'»>' ""*«! »t Quebec. 
 Champlain now engaged In a new project" Hl« 
 
 ftrll»r't?' '"Ji I°f »«• "^ exploration up the 
 Ottawa Paver, which be MoompUsbed with greai 
 
 ** 369 
 
 difficulty, through the aid of hit Indian alliet, 
 but from which ne returned disappointed in the 
 hope he bad entertained of discovering the north- 
 em sea and a way 'o India thereby. The next 
 lummer found Champlain again in France, where 
 " matters still continued favorable for the col- 
 ony. The Prince of Conderetalned his influence 
 at Court, and no difficulty was conseqtiently 
 found in equipping a small fleet, to carry out 
 settlers and supplies from Rouen and St Malo. 
 On board of this fleet came four fathen of the 
 order of the RecoUets, whose benevolence in- 
 duced them to desire the conversion of the In- 
 dians to Christianity. These were the first priests 
 who settled in Canada. Champlain arrive»l safely, 
 on the 2Sth of May, at Tadousaac, whence he im- 
 mediately pushed forward to Quebec, and sub- 
 sequently to the usual place of Indian rendez- 
 vous, at the Lachine Rapids. Hi. •e he found bis 
 Algonquin and Humn allies full of projects of 
 war against the Iroquois, whom they now pro- 
 posed to assail among the lakes to the westward, 
 with a force of 2,W0 fighting men."— J. Mac- 
 Mullen, Hitt. of Canada, eh. 1.—" Champlain 
 found the Hurons and their allies preparing for 
 an expedition against their ancient enemies, the 
 Iroquois. Anxious to reconnoitre the hostile ter- 
 ritory, and also to secure the friendship of the 
 Canadian savages, the gallant Frenchman re- 
 solved to accompany their warriors. After visit- 
 ing the tribes at tlie head waters of the Ottawa, 
 and discovering Lake Huron [at Georgian Bay], 
 which, because of iu 'great extent,' he named 
 ' La Mer Douce, 'Champlain, attended by an armed 
 party of ten Frenchmen, accordi'^gly set out 
 toward the south, with his Indian allies. Enrap- 
 tured with the 'very beautiful and pleasant 
 country ' through which they passed, and amusing 
 themselves with fishing una hux'-'jg, as they 
 descended the chain of 'Shallow uikes,' which 
 discharge their waters through the River Trent, 
 the expedition reached the banks of Lake Ontario. 
 Crossing the end of the lake, ' at the outlet of 
 the great River of Saint Lawrence.' am! pass- 
 Ing by many beautiful Islands on the way, the 
 Invaders followed the easten shore of Ontario 
 for fourteen leagues, toward their enemy's c n- 
 try. . . . Leaving the shores of the lake. t< .>- 
 vaders continued their route inland *o the south- 
 ward, for 85 or 80 leagues.'' After a journey of 
 five days, "the expedition arrived before the 
 fortified village of the Irmiuois, on tl nortlicm 
 bank of the Onondaga Lake, near the site of the 
 present town of Liverpool. The village was iu- 
 rloeed by four rows of palisades, made of large 
 pieces of timber closely intcrlc ced. The stock- 
 ado was 80 1 , high, with galleries running 
 around like a parapet" In the siege wliich 
 followed tlie Iroquois were dismayed by the fire- 
 arms of Champlain and his men, and by the 
 operation of a moveable tower with which he ad- 
 vanced to their stockade and set fire to it But 
 his Indian allies proved incapable of acting in 
 any rational or efficient way, or to submit to the 
 least direction, and the attack was a)x>rtive. 
 After a few days the invading force retreated, 
 carrying Chimpiain with them and foreing him 
 to remain in the Huron country until the follow- 
 ing spring (1616), when he made his way back to 
 Montreal.— J. R. Brodhcad, Hist, of the Stau of 
 yew York, v. 1, eh. 8. — The above account, which 
 fixes on Onondaga Lake the site of the Iroquois 
 fort to which CumpUin penetrated, does not 
 
i t 
 
 li I 
 
 
 CANADA. 16U-161flL 
 
 IV Humdrtt 
 
 CANADA. 1818-1828. 
 
 •gwe with the vlewi of Pftrkmsn, O'Callachan 
 •nd some other historiang. who trace Cliamplain'a 
 loute farther westward in New Vork; but it ac- 
 cepts the concluaioM reached by O. H. Marshall 
 J. V. H. Clark, and other careful studenu of the 
 question. Mr. MacMuUen, in the "HIatory of 
 Canada ouoted above, finds an extraordinary 
 route for the expe<lition vU Ukes Huron and 
 Bt. Clair, to the vicinity of Detroit-J. V. H. 
 Clark, /«.(. of Otiondaga. 
 
 A,'-'", '"= O- H- Marshall, Champlain't Ba,. 
 (Pnrwe Sk.). I880.-E. B. OtalUghan, X 
 
 -I^Hf^^^'" fi"t Je'urt miisioii.-CreatioB 
 of the Corapany of the Hundred AiM>ciatet. 
 
 — I lie exploration In the disUnt Indian terri- 
 tories which we have Just described in the pre- 
 wdinir pages was the last made by Champlata. 
 He hud plans for the Bur\ey of other regions yet 
 unexplored, but the favorable opportunity did 
 not occur Henceforth he directed his attention 
 more exclusively than he had hitherto done to 
 tte enlargement and strengthening of his colonial 
 plantation, without such success, we regret 
 to say, as his zeal, devotion and labors fitly de- 
 served. The obstacles that lay In his way were 
 tosurmounublc. The establishment or factory 
 we OHO hardly call It a plantation, at QuebM* 
 was the creature of a company of men:hants. 
 Tiny had Invested considerable sums In ship- 
 plug, buildings, and in the employment of men 
 to onler to carry on a trade in furs and peltry 
 wiUi the Indians, and fliey naturally di-sircd 
 remunerative returns. This was the limit of 
 their purpose in making the Investment . 
 ln(ler tlu-se circiimstauci'S, Chnmplain struggiwi 
 on for years against a cum-nt which be could 
 barely direct, but by no means control 
 He i*iiece,Hled at length In exu.rting from the 
 company a p. jmisc to enlarge the eslablisliment 
 I" w (arsons, with suitable eqiilpmeiiU, farmlni 
 Implements, all kinds of sce.is, and domestiS 
 sjiimnlH, including cattle and sheep. But when 
 the ti„,„ came this promise was not fulfllle<l. 
 UIITerrnces. bickerings and feuds sprang up in 
 the companv. 8om.. «»nU-.l one thing, and 
 si le wanUii another Tlic Catholics wislied to 
 extend tiie faith of their church Int4) the wilds of 
 t«ua<ia, while the Huguenola denlnxl to prevent 
 , • .",'■ "' '*^'.""' '" P">"i'>te il by their own rontrl. 
 bullona. The company, in»plre.l by avarice an<l a 
 <l'« r,' to restrict the eslabllHlnnent to a mere 
 tnwiing post, raiwil an issue to diiun-dit Cham 
 J?„. ". ■ . "'»? K™''«-ly I>ro|M«ed tliat he should 
 dc».. o himself exclusively U) exploration, and 
 thst the govemiiient and trade . .ould henceforth 
 b* under the din^ction and control of Pont 
 Orave But Chamnlaln . . . obuiued a decree 
 ord. ring that he sfiouhl liavc the command st 
 UuelMc, ami at all Mher settlements In New 
 rrance, and that the company shoul.l almlnin 
 from any nterrrn'm-e with l.lni in the dU.l..rgo 
 Of the . utUH nf hi, offlee. ■ I„ |6») the I>rln?n 
 ae tomlf M>ld his vieeroyallv U) the Duke de 
 M(.ntn«>r<ney, il«.n high ailinfral of France, who 
 commisaiond Chamnlai,, anew, as his lleuten 
 ant and supporUKi him vigomusly Champlain 
 ha.1 iiia<le voyages to Canada in 1817 and 1818 
 »nd 1M.W in llao, h« i.|.-:^«i u: hi. p.-^; 
 
 kn?ui ^l H""'*".''* **«»" lmm«<llately the 
 buikUoc •! • Jurt. wliidi Iw aUM fort St LouS; 
 
 370 
 
 ^e company of lasodates oppw^d this wnrti 
 and so provoked the Duke of .M.mtmor..nry bv 
 their comluct that "In the spring of w^ Z 
 summarily dissolved the ass.K.iat1on nf ^ " 
 chants, which he denominated the •Comn.my „. 
 Rouen and 8t. Malp,' u>d esubllshed an,rtl7r I 
 IW pUre. He continued Chamjilain In the ffl„ 
 
 ?-!,~H'*.TJ!m"' «l"""lt'«l »11 matters relaC 
 to trade to William de Caen, a merchant otS 
 standing, and to fcneric de Caen, the ■• phew «f 
 the former a good naval captain." In the 
 
 fn on^ ° !*/^I~""? f "Panle* we™ con«,li,la,o,| 
 l.JiSV,^'"'"'?*'" ""n"'""! »t Quel,™ f„ur 
 years before again returning to France hl. 
 time was divided between many local enterprises 
 
 riven to advancing the work on the unttnislieU 
 
 ;hrh™,n"'r *" ?""'^i}° 'S*'"' Incursion, of 
 the hostile Iroquois who at one time approached 
 
 tbe St. Charies. In the summer of 1624 (ham 
 plain returne<l again to Prance, where the Duke 
 de Montmorency was Just sellhig. or h«,i s.,ld 
 his vicerovalty to the Duke de Ventadour. 
 
 mlJXt.A.H^^"! ' i^P'y religious cist of 
 mind, had taken holy orders, and his chi.f pur- 
 pose In obtaining the v|.,royalty «„, to 
 encourage the planting of C«lliolic nii5.si,.n« in 
 New France. As his spiritual dlrect,>rs «,.re 
 Jesuito, he naturally committed the work to 
 them. Three faUicra and two lay I.rotl„r, of 
 this on • were sent to Canada In Wi\ imH mhers 
 
 subsequent yjoined them Chanipl.ii,, «," 
 
 reappointcil Ifeii.enant, but remained In Fmnre 
 two years. Hetimilng to Quebec In. Inlv PiM 
 he found, as usual, that everything Im't ihule 
 had suffered neglret In his absence. Nor was le 
 able during the following year, to imiimve 
 much the prospecta of the colony. As a < ,'l„in- 
 • It had never prospered. The averape :iuml» r 
 ccimposing it had not exceeded aliout Wl intvihs. 
 At this time It may have Iieen somewlmt nion- 
 but did not reach a hundred. A single fiimilv 
 only appeara to Imve sulwisted by the culiKatlua 
 of the soil. The rest were sustalneil by sofplics 
 sent from Prance. ... The company a« ,, mrre 
 trading association, was dmibtless KU.irwful 
 • . . he large dividends that thev w,r.' «M,. 
 to make, intlmattii by {'hamplaln to l« n..t far 
 from forty per centum v.nrly. were, of (..iirse 
 highly Hittisfactorv to the cmipany Veirlv 
 
 twenty years hail elapsed sime the f.mn.iinir nf 
 [ QueUr. and it still piissesseil only the rlrirnitfr 
 of a trailing post, and not thai of a c .l,.nial 
 pi' nlation. This progress was »nilsf,„torT 
 nether to Champlain, to the VIihtov, iiorlo the 
 t ouneil of Htnu,.. In the view of ihcne wv,ral 
 lnten.»ted parties, the time had eonie f<.r a la.ll 
 cat elmnge in the organization of the lonipanr. 
 t annual de Ulchelleu hail risen hv his eMnionll 
 nary ahillty as a stau-sman, a "short time an 
 tertor to this, into sukn-niu aiithorilv. ... He 
 lost no iln<e in organUing measims; . . . The 
 cnnipnny of merrhanta wIhmc llnan. . ■« hn.l In'en 
 8(1 skilfully managiKl by the Caena « i- l.y him 
 at once diaMilveit. A new one wa« form. ,1 de- 
 mimlnated 'U Com|Mgnle de ht Noin.lle 
 r ranop, ' consisting of a hundre<t or more nirro 
 Irrn. and niniiriohly kuowu as the ( oniiiniiv of 
 the llundretl Assoclalei. It was under i lis 
 oualrul ana oHUMfMHat <rf BidieUeu kimsslt 
 
CAKADA, 1616-1638. 
 
 r\tiea/tkt 
 ttlim 
 
 Jnuit iHmiotu. 
 
 CANADA, 1684-18SI. 
 
 Iti memben wete Urnlj gentlemen in olBdal 
 positions. ... Its authoritjr extended over tlie 
 wliole domain of New France and Florida. . . . 
 It entered into an obli^tion . . . witliin the 
 ■pace of 15 yean to transport 4.000 colonists to 
 New France. . . . Tbe organization of tlie com- 
 pany . . . was ratified by the Council of State 
 on the tthofMay. 1628."— E. F. Slafter, Memoir 
 ffChampUun {iogaget: Prinu Soe., 1880, e. 1). 
 ch. 9. 
 
 Also ik: PJre CharleToix, flirt, of JVete 
 finnte, tmru. kg J. 0. Shea, bk. 4 (e. 2). 
 
 A. D. i6a8-t635.— Conquest and brief ocen- 
 pation by the English.— Restoration to France. 
 —"The first care of the new Company was to 
 succor QuebPC, whose inmates were on the verge 
 of starvatioL. Four armed vessels, with a fleet 
 of transports commanded by Itoquemont, one of 
 the associates, sailed from Dieppe with colonists 
 and supplies in April, 1628; but nearly at the 
 nme time another squadron, destined also for 
 Quebec, was sailing from an English port. War 
 had at length brolten out In Prance. The Hugue- 
 not revolt had come to a head. Rochelle was in 
 armssgninst the king; and Richelieu, with his 
 royal ward, was beleaguering it with the whole 
 Btrenglh of the kingdom. Charles I. of England, 
 urjrwi liy the heated passions of Buckingham, 
 had declared himself lor the rebels, and sent a 
 flret to their aid. . . . The attempts of Sir 
 William Alexander to colonize Acailia had of 
 late turned attention in England towards the 
 New World ; and. on the breaking out of the 
 war, an expedition was set on foot, under the 
 auspices of that singular personage, to scire on 
 tlie Fnnrh pussemlons in North America. It 
 was a private enterprise, undertaken by London 
 menhaiitx, prominent among whom was Oervose 
 Kirke. an Engli.ihman of Derbyshire, who had 
 long lived at Dieppe, and ha<l there married a 
 Frenchwoman. Oervose Klrke and his associates 
 (Itted out three small armed ships, commanded 
 rwpwtively by his sons David. Lewis and 
 Tlicimaii letters of marque were obtained from 
 the king, and the adventuren were authorized to 
 drive out the French from Acadia and Canailn. 
 Manv Ilujruenot refugees were among the crews 
 Hsving lieen expelled from New France as 
 •■tiler*, the persecuted sect were returning as 
 piiiinles. " The Kirkes reached the St. Lawrence 
 lu Hilvnnre of Ro<|uemont's stipply ships, Inter- 
 o pted I he latter and captured or sunk the whole 
 Till V then sailed back to Knitland with their 
 sp"iM, ami it was not until the following summer 
 thit they returned to complete their conquest 
 M. »!itime. the small larrison and population at 
 tjiiciiec were redue<>d to sUrvation, and were 
 »uh«i»ting on acorns and roots when, In July 
 1H'.», Adinirel David Klrke, with his thtve ships 
 «IM";nred Iwfore the place, riiamplaln could do 
 n-lhiuK hut arrange a (llgnltltHl surrender For 
 time years f.dlowin?, Quelwc and New Franco 
 rrmalneil under the control of the English Thi-y 
 wen- tlun restored, un.hr a treaty stipulation to 
 rranee "U long remained n mystery why 
 hsrlM ciisenttKl to a Mipulnllon wKich plctlged 
 lam to rtsiirn so important a «muuest. The 
 my. ery i, „pl,|n,.,| \,j ^\„ „.,,p„, discovery of 
 
 !..;..r I""" '.''' .'''"K "' S'f •""« Wake, his 
 
 yuein I enrietla Maria, amounting to 800,000 
 crown., hiid been but half pal.l by the Frfich 
 lovsrameut, and Charles, then at Ihu« w'u» bis 
 
 371 
 
 Parliament and In desperate need of money 
 '?«'™ct» bis ambassador that, when he receives 
 the balance due, and not before, he is to give up 
 to the French both Quebec and Port lioyaf 
 which had also been captured by Kirke. The 
 letter was accompanied by 'solemn instrumenU 
 under our hand and seal ' to make good the trans- 
 fer on fulfilment of the condition. It was for 
 a sum equal to about $340,000 that Charles 
 entailed on Great Briuin and her colonies a 
 century of bloody wore. The Kirkes and their 
 associates, who liad made the conquest at their 
 own cost, under the royal authority, were never 
 reimbursed, Uiough David Kirke received the 
 honor of knighthood, which cost the king 
 nothing •— and also the grant of NcwfouudlaniE 
 On the 8th of Julv, 1689, Quebec was delivered 
 up by Thomas Kirke to Emery de Caen, com- 
 missioned by the French king to reclaim the 
 place. The latter held command for one year 
 with a monopoly of the fur trade; then Cliam- 
 plaln resumed the government, on behalf of the 
 Hundred Associates, continuing in it until his 
 <le«tb, which occurred on Christmas Day, 1685 
 
 ■^Tr •.?"?""''• ^""«r" 0/ France in the Xev 
 World: Champiain, eh. 16-17, 
 
 Also IN: CiUendar of State Ftiperi: Colonial 
 ^net, 1574-1660. np. 96-143.— D. Brymncr. 
 Bept. on Canadian AreMeet. pp. xi-iit, and note 
 O—U Kirke, firtt Knulith Oonqueet of Canada. 
 —See, also, Newfoundland, A. D. 1610^1655 
 .wA* ?1 '*%:'*5,'-The Jesuit missions and 
 their fate.— The tirst of the .Jesuit mlsgionaries 
 came to Quetwc in 1825, as state<l above, but It 
 was not until nearly seven yeara later that they 
 made their way into the heart of the Indian 
 country and began there their devoted work. 
 "The Father Superior of the Mission was Paul 
 le Jeuue. a man devoted In every fibre of mind 
 and heart to the work on which he had come 
 He utieriy 8CT)me<l difiiculty and poin. He had 
 received the order to depart for Canada 'with 
 Inexpressible ioy at the prospect of a living or 
 dying mailyrdom.' Among his companions wa« 
 Jean de Brebosuf, a man noble in birth and 
 aspect, of strong Intellect and will, of Heal which 
 knew no limit, and recognized no olwtaclc in 
 the path of duty. ... Par in the west, beside a 
 {treat lake of which the Jesuits had vaguely 
 heanl, dwelt the Humns, a powerful nation 
 with many kindred Irilies over which they ex- 
 ercised Intiucnce. The Jesiiiu resolved to fiiund 
 a mission among the Hunms. Once In every 
 year a lleet of canoes come down the great river, 
 bearing six or seven hundred Huron warriora' 
 who visited Quebec to dlsiKvie of their fun to 
 gamble ami to steal. nrC'txpuf and two com- 
 panions U)ok paasaee [IBW] with the returning 
 fleet, and set out for the ilreary scj'ne of thelt 
 new aposlolate. . . . The Hun>n» received with 
 hospitable welcome the hlackrolied strangen 
 The priests wer able to repay the kindness with 
 services of high value. They taught more 
 effective methiala of fortifying the U)wn in 
 which they live.1. They promiae<l the help of a 
 few French musketeen against an impinding 
 stuck by the Iro<|uols. They cured diwaars' 
 they bound up woumls. They gave simple In' 
 StructtoQ to the vounir. and irnlned ilw h^ana 
 of their pupils liy gifts of Uads and raUlna 
 The elden of the p<-ople came to have tbe faith 
 ezplalnot to them: they readily owned that It 
 was a guud faith fur the French, but thej oouid 
 
11; 
 
 nu 
 
 ' 
 
 CAKASA, 1684-188a. 
 
 in M« ITmI. 
 
 CANADA, 16S4-1878. 
 
 not be pentuded that It was suitable for the red 
 man. The fathers labound in hope and the 
 •avagei learned to love them. . . . Some of 
 their methods of conTersion were exceedingly 
 rude. A letter from Father Gamier has been 
 preserred In which pictures are ordered from 
 *-ranc8 for the spiritual improvement of the 
 Jndians. Many representotions of souls in per- 
 dition am required with appropriate accompioi. 
 ment of flames, and triumphant demons tearinii 
 them with pincere. One picture of saved souls 
 would suffice, and 'a picture of Christ without 
 ?K K ■.■ "''7 .r*." consumed by a leal for 
 the baptism of little chUdren. At the outset 
 the Indians welcomed this ceremonial, believini: 
 that it was a charm to avert sickness and death 
 wut when epidemics wasted them they charired 
 the calamity against the mysterious operations 
 
 H.^® ^Tlv""^ "■'"'"l »»'' to PennI' bap- 
 h^M K^luf " recognized the hand of Satan 
 to tils prohibition, and refused to submit to it. 
 They baptized by stealth. ... In time, the 
 patient, selfnlenying labour of the fathers miirht 
 have won those discouraging savages to the crc«s ; 
 but a fata^ interruption was at hand. A po« . r- 
 rul and relentless enemy, bent on exterminatiou 
 was about to sweep ov. r the Huron territory, 
 Involving the savages u ;il their teachers in one 
 common ruhi. Thirty-two yearn had passed 
 r'UfL f /^ i"i'"'^ expeditions in which 
 Cbamplain had g^vcu help to the Hurons against 
 the Iroquois. The unforgiving savage? hiid 
 
 [1643-164i»] attacked in overwhelming foree the 
 towns of their Huron enemies; forced the Inmle- 
 quale defences; burned the palisades and wo<xl,n 
 huts; slaughtered with indescribable tortures 
 t^ie wretched Inhabitants. In oneof these towns 
 Uiey found Breba;.if and one of his companion.... 
 They bound the illfaud missionaries to sUkes 
 they hung around their necks collars of red-hot 
 ron; they poured boiling water on their heads; 
 hev cut stripes of fli-sh from their aulverinJ 
 limbs and ate them In their sight. To the last 
 Breb,euf cheered with hopes* of heaven the 
 native converts who shared his agony. And 
 
 whTh'^.^.f'*'?'^ "'* T""" "' martyjljom for 
 whkh in die fervour of their enthusiim, these 
 good men had long ycnnied. In a few years the 
 Huron nation was extinct ; famine and small-p<>x 
 swept off those whom the Iroquois spared. The 
 
 Uie nice for whom It was founded. Many of the 
 misslouttrios perishcl; «,n,e returne<< to f-rance 
 Their laUmr sicmcil t.. have Ihk^u in vain ■ th. Ir 
 yea™ of toll and sulTorinir left no trace.' "-U 
 
 ■• W itl. the fall of the Ilurr.u., fel/rhe S«^ti,H! 
 of the Canadian minion. They, and the stable 
 and populous cnmiunllles around them, bad 
 «;'n.i . '"'I'' n"",^r'»' 'f»m '"••Ich the Jesuit 
 w uld have formed his Christian empire in the 
 wllderuess; hut. one by one, these kindred p.... 
 pl.-« were upr,«.lec| and swept away, while the 
 neighboring Algonqulns, to whom lliey had hein 
 » Imlwark, were lnv„|vi,| with them In a common 
 wi.' • '" • >""«ure, the occupation of the 
 -Ti}*^ gone. Some of them went hom... 
 rem™ Tlr*^' "?'"■"'«' Father Superior, to 
 n,.!^.^ Wierombat at the first sound oi the 
 ^1^\ ■ *^"; •-' ""^ "^ remsiBrd, about 
 twenty lo number, several soon fell rlrtlm, to 
 (aaiM, Urdtiiip and Um IroquoJs. iTf.w 
 
 872 
 
 yejm more, and Canada ceased to be a mIssloiL 
 political and commereial Interests graduaUv 2: 
 
 Ar«> IK ; Father Charlevoix, But. of V« 
 ^W. tr. by Shea. bk. 6-1 {v. 8 .-J 6 She? 
 
 ttteandCntuttlllM. of Am., e. 4, M 6) 
 
 f«n:»°Bi'*^''*'*rNicolet.-Marau.tte.- 
 JoUet.-Pioneer exDloration in the West ud 
 dlic«»T«i7 of the rfia.ia.ippi._When ChaSr 
 plain gave up hU work, the map of New FnZ 
 wasb&nk beyond Lake Ontario an,l 7}fI,S 
 BV- Th« flnt of the French explores whS 
 wdened it far westward was a Noi?nan "amcd 
 Jean Mcolet, who came to America in 1618 and 
 
 ^rvice. "After dwelling some time amonfr the 
 NIpissings he vUited the' Far West; seimfnX 
 between the years 1834 and 1640. In a bS 
 Dark canoe, 3 bave Norman voyageur crossed 
 or coasted Lake Huron, entered thf St S 
 River, and, first of white men, 8too<i at the strait 
 now called Sault Ste Marie. Ho does not «?m 
 to hav. known of Lake Superior, but ntunied 
 dowu . ,e St. Mary's River, passed fron. uS 
 Huron through the western detour to Jlieliill 
 macklnac, and entered another fresh-water se« 
 MItchlgannon or Michigan, also afterwa^; 
 known as the Lake of the Illinois, Luke St 
 
 Lake. Here he visited the Mcnomonee tribe of 
 Indians, and sfu-r them the WUinlbag.ies 
 The fierce wrath of the IroquoU had "driren 
 ntimbera of the Hurons, Ottawas, and aevpnii 
 minor Algonquin tribes westward. Tlie 
 
 ..12."°. '.'"'* * **.''«^*' """^ »P'" ""-■ n"«hem 
 tribes tato east and west. Sault Ste Murie be- 
 came a central point for tlie refue.e.*. 
 i^oUier gathering place for the fugitives had 
 been found very near the south-west corner .)f this 
 great lake This was U I'ointe, one of ti,e 
 Apostle Islands, near the present town of .Vsh- 
 land in Wisconsin. The JcsuiU took nii tlu« 
 two points as mission centres. ... In 11W9 the 
 rathera Dablon and Marquette, with tli.ir men 
 hail erected a palisaded fort, enclo.sing a elmi« 1 
 and house at Sault Ste Marie. In the same year 
 Father Allmiez had begun a mission at Cma 
 Hay. In 16.0 an intnpld explon-r, St I.usson 
 under onlers from Intcndant Talon, c.mie west 
 searching for coj.pcrmines. He was .le.om- 
 pnnletl by the afterwards well known Jeiiel. 
 When this party arrived at Sault .Sie Jllurie tlie 
 Indians were" gathered together In gnnt num- 
 hers, and with imposing ceremonies .St. Lusson 
 took possession of •Sshito Slario du Saut, a. tisn 
 of Lakes Huron and Superior, the Ul.ind ef 
 Manetoulln, and ail countries, rivers, lak, », anj 
 streams contiguous and adjacent tlien^uiiw.' 
 . . , It was undoubtedly the pressing d.sin.^ of 
 the Jesuit fatliera to vLit the couiitrv of tba 
 Illinois and their great rlvrr that le.1 to the dis- 
 covery of the 'Father of Wal.rs.' latliir 
 Alloucz Indwil had already as.iii.l.'<| tin- V»i 
 HIver from Lake Michigan, and seen tlie m intliT 
 lake which U the head of a trlhuurv ..f ili« 
 MIsslMippl. At last on June 4ih. f(i:.'. ilie 
 IT-euUi luinUU'r, Coiliert, wrote to Talon 'Al 
 after the Increase of the colony there is ri.tLIng 
 monlntportut for tlw outuny tLaa the discovery 
 
CANADA, 1884-1S7S. 
 
 
 CANADA, 1O37-10S7. 
 
 of a paaage to the South Sea, hit Msjetty wiihes 
 jou to give It your attention.' Tills meaaagc to 
 tlie iDtendsntcame as he was leaving for France, 
 and he reoommended the scheme and the explorer 
 he had in view for carrying it out to the notice 
 of the Governor, Frontenac, who had just 
 Bfrived. Governor Frontenac approved and the 
 explorer started. The man chosen for the enter- 
 prise was Louis Jollet, who had already been at 
 Sault 8t« Marie. He was of humble birth, and 
 was a native of New France. . . . The French 
 Canadian explorer was acceptable to the mis- 
 sionaries, and Immediately journeyed west to 
 meet Marquette, who was to accompany him. 
 . . . M. Jollet met the priest Marquette at 
 St Ignace Mission, Mlchilimackinac. Jacques 
 Marquette, of whom we have already heard, 
 was bom in 1637 at Laon, Champagne, ir 
 France. He sprang of an ancient and dis- 
 tinguished family. ... On May 17th, 1678, 
 with deepest religious emotion, the trader and 
 missionary launched forth on Lake Michigan 
 their two canoes, containing seven Frenchmen in 
 all, to make the greatest discovery of the time. 
 Tliev hastened to Green Pay, followed the course 
 of Father Allouez up thf Fox River, and reached 
 the tribe of the Masci tins or Fire Nation on 
 tills river. These weiv new Indians to the ex- 
 plorers. Thev were peaceful, and helped the 
 voyagers on their way. With guides furnished, 
 the two canoes were transported for 2,700 paces, 
 and the bead wateis of the Wisconsin were 
 reached. After an easy descent of 80 or 40 
 loaeups, on June 17th, 1678, the feat was accom- 
 Vlisbfd, the Misslasippl was discovered by white 
 men, and the canoes shot out upon Its surface in 
 latitude 43°. Sailing down the great river for a 
 month, the party n-ached the village of Akansea 
 on the Arkansas HIver, In latitude 84^ and on 
 July lith began their retumjoumey. It is but 
 Just to say that some of the Recollet fathers, be- 
 tween whom and the Jesuits Jealousy existed 
 have disputed the fact of Jollet and Marquette 
 ever reaching this point. The evidence here 
 wrms entirely in favour of the explore™. On 
 lliHr return journey the party turned from the 
 Mississippi Into a triliulary river In latitude 88' 
 Tins was the Illinois. Ascending this, the 
 Indian town of Kaskaskla was reached and 
 
 here for a time Fatiier Mar<|uetto"pernBliKT 
 d IjIs party passed ou," arriving at 
 
 Jollet and .... p„.,, ,,„«, 
 Montreal In due time, but !, <ing lUl tlielr Mpers 
 In the rapl.U of the St. I , m ,,co. Father Slar- 
 qtictte established a mission among the Illinois 
 Inilians, but his labors were cut sliort. Ho died 
 will e on a journey to Orecn Huv, May 18. 167.'5. 
 i igh enrcjmluma of Father Mnrijuclto fill — 
 «n.l (l™ rvedly so— he 'Jesuit Helatlotis.' Wo 
 have his autograph map of the Mississippi. 
 This gnat sln-am lie desired to call 'f.mceptlon 
 Kivcr luit the name, like ihowof 'Colliert' and 
 Uuaile (the family name of fount Fnintenac] 
 wiilih wire N.th bestowed upon It, have failed 
 totiilie til., place of the muslral Indian name." 
 -^l llrrcf tihvrt Hut. of tu C<i«a«<iun F*opU, 
 
 Also i^. F Parkman, La R^.Ue and the Di, 
 •wnrc/Me (rr,rt. UV.», eh. S-5.-C. W. Bulter- 
 »■'''■, .""' i'f. '}* IH'c«ftry „f tht X W. by 
 
 jV l(, u_s. I Hehberd^/L. J^WU^T^ 
 
 873 
 
 A. D. lfi37-i«S7 — The Snlpician MttlcBMt 
 or Montreal and religious activity at Quebec. 
 — Lhamplain was succeeded as governor of New 
 mnce by M. de ChSteaufort, of whose brief 
 administration little is known, and the latter 
 was followed by M. de Montmngny, out of the 
 translation of whose name the Indians formed 
 .1* ,V"t Onontio, signifying "Great Moun- 
 teln, which they afterwards applied to all the 
 irnncb gOTcmors. Montmagny entered with 
 real into the plans of Champlain, "but difficul- 
 ties accumulated on all sidca Men and money 
 were wanting, trade languished, and the Asso- 
 ciated Company in France were daily becoming 
 indifferent to the success of the colony. Some 
 few merchants and inhabitants of the outposts, 
 ndeed, were enriched by the profitable deal- 
 ings of the fur-trade, but tlieir suddenly -acquired 
 wealth excited the Jealousj rather than increased 
 the general prosperity of the settle™. The 
 work of religious Institutions was alone pureued 
 wiUi vigor and success in those times of failure 
 and discouragement. At Sillery, one league 
 froni Quebec, an establishment was founded for 
 the Instruction of the s.ivages and the diffusion 
 of Christian light [16371 The Hotel Dieu 
 owed iu existence to the Uuchesse d'Alguillon 
 two vea™ afterward, and the convent of the 
 Lreulines was founded by the pious and high- 
 born Madame de la Pcltric. The partial suiceas 
 and subficquent failure of Champlain and his 
 Indian allies in their encounte™ with the Iro- 
 quois had emboldened these brave and politic 
 savages. They now captured several canoes 
 belonging to the Hurons, laden with fura, which 
 that friendly people were conveying to Quebec. 
 Montmagny's miliUry force was too small to 
 allow of his avenging tills Insult; he, however, 
 zealously promoted an enterprise to build a fort 
 and effect a settlement on the Island of Montreal 
 which he fondly hoped would curb the audacity 
 of hit savage foes. The Associated Company 
 would render no aid whatever to this impnrt.mt 
 plan, but the religious zeal of the Abh6 Olivier 
 oje^ame all difficulties. He obtained a grant 
 of Montreal from the king, and dispatch.d the 
 bleur de Malsonneuve and othe™ to tako ' -isses- 
 sion. On the 17th of .May, IWl, the p . les- 
 tineil for the settlement w-as consecra'cii the 
 superior of the Jesuits. At the same tinio the 
 g()vern(.r erected a fort at the entrance of the 
 Klver Richelieu," which to far rhi-cked th<' Iro- 
 quois tli.1t they entered in!) a tn^aty of peace 
 and respected It for a brief i itIihI.— E. M nrbur- 
 ton. T/if Omfuftt of CamnU, r. 1, ch. 12— The 
 settlement of Montreal was undertaken bv an 
 association of thirty five rich and Inllueniiuf [wr- 
 tout In I ranee, among whom was tlie Duke de 
 Liiincourt de la R<K-lie Ouyon. " This company 
 obtnlneil n concession of the Island in 1640, and 
 a member of the asw: 'lall.m arrived at Quebec 
 from Fmiue witli tcv.nil Immigrating faniilies, 
 tome loliliers, and an armainent valued at 8.1,000 
 piastres,' In 1041 "a rliiforccment of colo- 
 nlils arrived. led by M. d'Ailleln.ust de Mu.wau. 
 During (he following year, a teconil party came. 
 At thia tlmetlic European population resilient In 
 Canada ilid not exceed 200 touls. The immi- 
 grants will) now entftrnd {t had been aclecird 
 with tlie utmost cere, "—A. Ikll, Ih$t' .if l\tn„da, 
 hk. 8, eh. 1 (», D— In 1«,57 the selgnlority of 
 Montreal was ceded to the Seminary of 8t Sul- 
 pica in Paris, where the rriot of Its |overnm«il 
 
CANADA, l«87-ia87. 
 
 Kavagn of 
 
 tktlri 
 
 CANADA, 1S63-1674 
 
 i 
 
 
 were held until 1898.— Father Charlevoix, Eitt 
 efli'ea Franet, Irani, by Shea, e. 8 p i!8 
 
 Also in: P. Parkman, Thi JemiU in Xorth 
 Am., eh. 13-16. 
 
 A. D. I64O-I70O.— The wan with the Iro- 
 ?",S*'~ ' """ *'^"' ^^ ?*""■ '•*<' to the year 
 1< 00 a constant warfare was maintained between 
 the Iroquois and the French, interrupted occa- 
 sionally by negotiations and brief Intervals of 
 peace. As the f rmer possessed both banks of 
 thebt Lawrenc, and thecirculUof lakes Erie 
 ■™ u ' ' *''*y intercepted the fur trade, 
 which the Frcnci were anxious to maintain with 
 the western nations. . . . The war parties of the 
 League ranped through these territories so con- 
 stant y that it was impassible for the French to 
 S ass in safety through the lakes, or even up tlie 
 t Lawrcnre above Montreal. . . . Bo great was 
 the fear ( f these sudden attacks, that both the 
 trailcra aud the missionaries were obliged to 
 ascend the Ottawa river to ner.r ita source, and 
 from thence to cross over to the Sault St Marie, 
 and tlic shores of Lake Superior. . . . To retali- 
 ate for these frequent Inroads, and to prevent 
 tlieir recurrence, the coimtry of the Iroquois was 
 often invaded by the French. . . . In 1665 M. 
 Courcclles, governor of Canada, led a strong 
 party into the country of the Moliawks; but the 
 hardships they encountered rendered it necessary 
 for them to return without accomplishing their 
 purpose. The next year, M. de Tracy, Viceroy 
 of ^ew Prance, with 1,200 French and 600 In- 
 dians, renewed the invasion with better success 
 He captured Tctt-ton-tald ga. one of the princi- 
 pal villages of the Mohawks, situated at the 
 mouth of the Schoharie Creek ; but after destroy- 
 ing the town, and the stores of com, which tliny 
 found in csrlics, they were obliged to retire 
 without mi mg an opposing force. Again, hi 
 18(«. SI. I), a Burre, then governor of Canada 
 entered the .ountry of the Onondagss, with 
 
 ■'»"» '■*'•' en. Having readied Hungry Bav. 
 
 on th. simre of lake Ontario, a conference 
 
 was iM with a delegation of Iroquois clilefs. 
 ... A species of armistice was finally agreed 
 upon, and thus the expe<lltlon ended. A more 
 successful enterprise was projected and carried 
 Into execution m 16S7 by M. De Nonvllle, then 
 K:!"^"°'S'''':-'i^- ,"«»'Dg raised a force of 
 2.0(Kt French and 600 Indians, he emlwkcd them 
 in n fleet of 200 bateau, and as many bircli bark 
 Cannes. After coasting lake Ontario from KltiKx 
 ton to Irondeqiioit bay, iu the territory of tlie 
 B.iircnK he landed at the head of this bay, and 
 found liln.s.' f within a few miles of the principal 
 vill.i^-es of tlie Senecas, which were then in the 
 counties of Ontario and Monroe." Aftc' one 
 battle w th about OOO of the Senecas. the latter 
 retreiile.1 Into the Interior, and the * rench de- 
 ilroyed four of their villages, together with the 
 siirrj-undlng liehLs of grr)wing com. " To retali- 
 ate f..r this Invasion, a formidable party of the 
 Iroqiiom in the fall of the same year, made a 
 sudden .lescent upon Fort Chambly, on the SonI 
 Kiver, iiriir .Monlnal. Cnal.le to capture the 
 fort, which wns resolutely defended by the gar 
 n ri, Hoy r>ivngedihes<atlementa»dlHcent,niid 
 reiiimeil with a numlier of cnptlves Alwiit the 
 same time, a party of SOO aitacke<l Frontenac 
 on the site of Kinirston. aud de>in>vn| »"•! i»<! 
 jHnte the Clnniat ions and estalillshments of the 
 French without the fortification. In Julr of 
 Um coiuluc yew u«, French wen made to feel 
 
 874 
 
 •till more sensibly the power of their revenm. 
 A band of 1.200 warriors, animated with the 
 fiercest resentment, made a descent upon the 
 taUndof Montre»l, ... All that were wlthom 
 the fortifications fell under the rifle or the relent 
 leu tomahawk. Their hcus<.s were burned thdr 
 plantation! ravaged, and the whole Island cov- 
 ered with desolation. About 1,000 of the French. 
 according to some writers, perished in this Inva 
 slon, or were carried into captivity. . Over 
 whelmed br this sudden disaster, the French de 
 stroyed their forts at Niagara and Frontenac and 
 thus yielded the whole country west of Montreal 
 to the possession of the Iroquois. At this criti 
 cal period Count Frontenac again became gov 
 
 l7°u,^''"^5\''P'^ '',!i"''*f *''« *'"'« n^sidue of 
 hU life devoted himself, with untiring eneri?r 
 to restore lu declining proaporify. "_ L H Mor' 
 gan. League of the Iroqnai; bk. \, rh \ 
 
 Also ra: Vf. Kingsford, IIM. of Canada bk 
 2-4 (r. l-iJ).-E. B. OTallaphan, A., IhTilui 
 "L? Ja \}: «i- .*r^-i'**-J- «• Broclhead; 
 
 O. H. Manh».n,Emed.oftheMarguudeAonTilU 
 as el the Seneeae (Iliil. Writinfft, pp. 123-1N8> 
 
 A. D. iMo-t688.— French encroachments 
 »nd Engrhah concettione in Newfoundland. 
 See N-vpodwdland: A. D. 1660-1 BS8 
 
 pii'?i"j'*7*-i^"/*«'* •>' Colbert into a 
 5?'^ f ™'*"«--Brief career of the French 
 West India Company.— "In 18(1:1 the nrocceil- 
 Ings of the company [of the hundn'd ii»,wi.iti»l 
 beoime so obnoxious that the king of France 
 decided upon the Immediate resumption of hii 
 rights, and the erecting of Canada Into a rmal 
 government: Monsieur de Mfeiy was anpoiniid 
 govemor, and proceeded from France to (Juekc 
 with 400 regular troops, and 100 families as 
 settlers, with cattle, horses and implenunta of 
 agriculture. Under the royal jurisdiction, tlie 
 governor, a king's commissioner, an iipostolical 
 vicar, and four other gentlemen, were fomiid 
 Into a sovereign council, to whom wen: eonfidni 
 the powers of cognl/ance in all cauaoa, civil and 
 criminal, t Judj^e in the last resort acenrdinK to 
 the laws and ordinances of France, and the prac- 
 tice of the Pariii.ment of Paris, reserving the 
 generaj legislativt powers of the Crown, In Iw 
 applied according t( circumstnnoes. This ('diin- 
 cil was further luvested with the regiil.itic.n uf 
 commerce, the ex;)cndilure of the piihlic ninnies 
 and the establishment of inferior courts at Three 
 Rivers and Montreal. This cli.iiige of lanaila 
 from an ecclesiastlcnl mission to a secuhir tnvcrn- 
 ment was owing to the great {'olbert. whn was 
 animated by the example of (Jreat Hrilain. to 
 Improve the navigation and cominerre of hli 
 country by colonial establishments. The eiillt'lit- 
 ene<l policy of this renowned finaneial ininistcr 
 of Louis XIV. was followed by the suceeas which 
 It di «irved. To a regulated civil gnvcmment 
 was added Increased mllltarv proti'dinn ai;aiiift 
 the Iroquois Indians; the eiiilgratlon of Knnch 
 settle™ to New France was pfom-Mcd l-y cvi rv 
 possible means, and a martini spirit was Liiprirtcl 
 to the population, bv the locntlnn In tlir ("Innv 
 of the disbanded sofdicrs of the Cnpiiriian nti- 
 ment . . . and other troops, wh.iai' (iiIIhts 
 became the principal Seigneurs of lli<M(.limv, on 
 mn.-!ltinn of niiikicg rcasions .-.i ir.nd ur,.;. f ;ho 
 feudal tenure, as It still exists, to the s«l.llc|si and 
 other InhabltanU.' The ambitious pr.JKia of 
 Louis XIV. MOD led, however, to a new measun 
 
CANADA, 1663-1674. 
 
 Meliorations 0/ 
 LaaalU. 
 
 CANADA, 1669-1IJ87. 
 
 which prnved Icsa ntisfactorr in Its working. 
 
 "The French West India Companr was re- 
 modelled [1664], and Canada added to their 
 posBCSslong, lubordinatc to the crown o( France, 
 with powers controlled by his Majesty's govern- 
 ors and Intendanta In the different colonies." 
 The domain of the company embraced all the 
 possessions of France In the New World and its 
 {glands and on the African coast. "The com- 
 pany was to enioy a monopoly of the territories 
 and the trade of the colonies thus conceded for 
 40 years; it was not only to enjoy the exclusive 
 nsvleation, but his Majesty conferred a bounty 
 of SO livres on every ton of goods exported to 
 Franre, . . . The company was not only endowed 
 as St'lgncur with all unconceded lands, but 
 Invested with the right of cxtins;uishlDg the titles 
 o( seigniories granted or sold by previous com 
 panics, on condition of reimbursing the gmntees 
 and purchasers fortheir costs and improvenn nts." 
 The West India Company's management soon 
 showed evil effects, and came to an end after ten 
 years of unsatisfactory trial. "Monsieur De 
 Talon, the Intendant, a man of profound views, 
 . . . perreived that It was the natural Interest 
 o( the Company to discourage colonization. He 
 represented to the minister Colbert the absolute 
 nwessity of the total resumption of the rights of 
 the crown; !rcw his attention to the means of 
 ibtalning al) lulance of warlike Instruments and 
 
 aval stores within the colony . . . and, In fact 
 at last prevailed ; so that, in 1674, the king of 
 France resumed his rights to all the territories 
 conceded to the West India Cimipany, assumed 
 their debu and the current value of their stock, 
 and nppointe<l a governor, council and judges 
 for the direction of the Canadian colonies. . . . 
 From this period (1674). when the population, 
 enihraeing converte<l Indians, did not exceed 
 f),(m. the French settlement in Canada rapidly 
 prngrrswd, and as it rose in power, and assumed 
 offensive (iperations on the New England frontier 
 the jealousy of the British colonies became 
 roused, and Iwtii parties, aided alternately by the 
 Indians, carried on a destructive and harassing 
 border wnrrjre."—H. M. Martin, Uiit. of Upper 
 and irtif. .inarfrt, eh. 1. 
 
 Also i A. Ikll, Jlitt. of Canada, bt. 8, eh. 8 
 (r 1).-K. I'arkmau, TU Old Rtgime in Canada. 
 ell 1(1-17. ' ' 
 
 A. p. i669-i687.-La Salle and the acqnisi- 
 tion of Louisiana.—" Second only to Champlain 
 among the heroes of Canadian "history stands 
 Rokrt Cavelier de la Salle — a man of Iron If 
 ever then waaone— a man austere and cold in 
 manner, jijid endowed with such IndomiUble 
 pluek and persevemnce as have never been sur- 
 passed In this world. Hedid more than any other 
 niiin to extend the dominion of France In the 
 P>ew World. As Champlain had founded the 
 colony of Canada and opened the way to tlie 
 great lakes, so La Salle completed the discovery 
 of the Mississippi, and added to the French poe- 
 T^h" l'"-:,''^' Pf 'vli'cc of Ixiuisiana. . . !ln 
 im Iji Salle made his first journey to the west. 
 Hoping to flml a northwest passage to China, but 
 .^^7.."",'^ '.'"^"*" *•""' ""» •■xpeditlon, except 
 that the Ohio niver was discovered, and perhaps 
 »l»o the Illinois. U Salle's fcu.lal doSTsIn "f 
 S' ^.||^lic«, aoine eight miles from Montreal, 
 Dear, today Oie name of U Chine, or China, 
 wuich is said to have been applied to It In derision 
 f>I this fruitlais ex|wdltloii. J- '«7S tli* ptim 
 
 876 
 
 Marquette and the fur-trader Joliet netually 
 reached the Mississippi by way of the Wiscon- 
 Sin, and sailed down the great river as far «s the 
 mouth of the Arkansas; and now the life-work 
 or La Salle began In earnest. He formed a grand 
 project for exploring the Mississippi to its mouth 
 ''?'l,"^,'i'™ "'"8 '■hetlier it flowed into the Oulf 
 of California or tlie Gulf of Mexico. The ad- 
 ''!^'7 of Spain on the side of Mexico was to be 
 checked forever, the English were to be confined 
 to the e.ist of the Alleghanies, and such military 
 posts were to be established as would effce.ually 
 confirm the authority of Louis XIV. thrr>ughout 
 the centre of this coiitinent. La Salle had but 
 little ready money, and was surrounded bv rivals 
 and enemies; but he had a powerful friend in 
 Count Frontenac, the Viceroy of Canada. . . 
 At length, after surmounting InnumeraMe diffi- 
 culties, a vessel [the Griffon or Qriffln] was built 
 and launched on the Niagara Kivcr [1679] a 
 small party of 80 or 40 men were gathered to- 
 gether, and La Salle, having just recovered from 
 a treacherous dose of poison, embarked on his 
 great enterprise. His departure was clouded by 
 the news that his Impatient creditors had laid 
 hands upon his Canadian estates; but nothing 
 daunted, ho pushed on through Lakes Erie and 
 Huron, and after many disasters readied the 
 southern extremity of Lake Michigan. The vessel 
 was now sent back, with half tlie party, to Ni- 
 agara, carrying furs to appease the crtHiltors and 
 purchase additional supplies for the remainder 
 of the journey, while La Salle with his diminished 
 company pushed on to the Illinois, where a fort 
 was built, and appropriately named Fort Cr*ve- 
 OTur, or as we might translate it, the • fort of 
 the breaking heart. ^ Here, amid perils of famine 
 mutiny, and Indian attack, and exposed to death 
 froin the wintry cold, they walteil until it liecame 
 evident to all that their vessel must have perish- d 
 She never was heard from again, and most likely 
 had foundered on her perilous voyage. To add 
 to the trouble. La Salle was again poisoned ; hut 
 his iron constitution, aided by some lucky anti- 
 dote, again carried liim safely through theorlcal 
 and alHiut the 1st of March, 1680, he started oil 
 foot for Montreal. Leaving Fort CrirvavuT and 
 its tiny garrison under command of his Ithful 
 lieutenant, Tonty, be set out with four » rench- 
 men an.l one Mohegan guide. . . . They made 
 their way for a thousand niles acro.«s Michigan 
 and Western Canada to igara, and so on to 
 Montreal. ... At Ni., , Salle l.arneil that 
 
 a ship from France, fr r him wiih a cargo 
 
 worth more thru 20, i* hud bten wrecked 
 
 In the Gulf of St. La . and nothing had 
 
 been saved. In spite oi ..s dreadful Mow he 
 contrived tr get together supplies and reenforce- 
 menta at Mumrcn,. and had retumeil to Fort 
 Frontenac, at tlie lower end of Lake Ontario, 
 when still more woful tidings were received. 
 Here, toward the end of July, a message came 
 from the fortress so well named t'ri vecn^ur. The 
 garrison had mutinied and deal roved the fort, 
 and made their way back through Michigan " 
 Tlie indomitable La'Saile promptly hunted ihiwn 
 the deserters, and sent them in chains to yuelwc. 
 He then "proceeded again to the Illinois to re- 
 eonstru. t hU fort, sr..-! -=cuf . if rn.i;ri!,K-. hh 
 lieutenant Tonty and the few faithful follciwen 
 who had survived the mutiny. This llti le party. 
 abandoned In the wilder less, bed found shelter 
 MBon; tbe UUooli ladlUM; but durtiig the lum- 
 
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 ^^^^^^K 
 
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 CAl^ADA, 1069-1687. ' 
 
 mer of 1680 the gre»t Tillage or town of the mi- 
 Doia wu destroyed by the IivquoU, and the hard- 
 presaed Freachmen retreated up the western shore 
 of Lake Michigan to Oreen Bay. On anlTing at 
 the Illinois therefore, La Salle found nothing 
 but th: terrible traces of fire and maaaacre and 
 cannibal orgies ; but he apent the following win- 
 ter to good purpose In aecuring the friendship of 
 the western Indians, and in making an alliance 
 with them against tlie Iroquois. Then, In May, 
 1681, he set out again (or Canada, to look after 
 bis creditors and obtain new resources. On the 
 way home, at the outlet of Lake Michigan, he 
 met his friend Tonty, and together they paddled 
 their canoes a thousand miles and came to Fort 
 Frontcnac. So, after all this hardship and dis- 
 aster, the work was to be begun anew; and the 
 enemies of the great explorer were exulting in 
 what they imagined must '<e his despair. But 
 that was a word of which Lu Salle knew not the 
 meaning, and now his fortunes began to dumge. 
 In Mr. Parkman's words, ' Fate at length seemed 
 tired of the conflict with so jtubbom an adver- 
 sary.' At this third venture everything went 
 smoothly. The little fleet paaaed up the great 
 lakes, from the outlet of Ontario to the head of 
 Michigan, and gakicd the Chicago River. Cross- 
 ing the narrow portage, they descended the Illin- 
 ois and the Mississippi, till they came out upon the 
 Gulf of Mexico; and on the 9th of April, 1683, 
 the fler.rs-de-lis were planted at the mouth of the 
 grtat river, and all the country drained by lu 
 tributaries, from the Allcghanlcs to the Rocky 
 Jlouutains, was fornmlly declared to be the prop- 
 erty of the king of France, and named after him 
 Louisiana. Roturung up the river after his 
 triumph. La Salle founded a station or small col- 
 ony on the Illinois, which he called St. Louis, 
 and leaving Tonty in command, kept on to Can- 
 ada, and crossid to France for means to circum- 
 vent his enemies and complete his far-reaching 
 schemes. A colony was to be founded at tlw 
 mouth of the Mississippi, and military statio;. . 
 were to connect this with the French settlements 
 in Canada. At the French court La Salle was 
 treated like a hero, and a fine expedition was soon 
 fitted out, but everything was ruined by jealousy 
 and lllwill between La Salle and the naval com- 
 mander, Beaujeu. The fleet sailed beyond the 
 mouth of the Jli:i(.l8«ippi, the colony was thrown 
 upon the coast of Texas, some of the vessels were 
 wrecked, and Bi^uii ji u — tliough apparently with- 
 out sinister design Railed away with the rest 
 and two y<ars of lerrilile suffering followed. At 
 lust, in Jlii'\:h, 16NT, La Salle started to find the 
 Mississippi, hopi:ii{ to astend It to Tontv » fort 
 on the Illinois, and obtain relief for his foflowers. 
 But lie Imd scarcely set out on this desperate en- 
 •erpii.«> when two or three mutinous wretches of 
 his piirty laid an ambush for him In the forest, 
 and shot him dead Thus, at the early age of 
 forty three, peri.^Iieil thisextraordiuary man, with 
 his iifeworli but half accomplislieif. Yet his 
 labors had done nuuli towards building up the 
 lm|)()sin)f dominion with which New Franee con- 
 frontecl New Knjrlatid in the following century " 
 — J. FIske, Tlie Jinnuiiue of thd Spanith and 
 JiWncA ExplvriTi [Harper $ Mag., t. 64, pp. 446. 
 
 AL8o in; F. Parkman, La SalU and the Dit- 
 ffl«nr=/ Ih^ t!r,.,! n-.*f _f!ie¥al!.-r ToDti, Ac.-'t 
 ^.V.dela SitU'i li,t Krp. (X. T. Ilitt. ."*«. GAi; 
 *. 8).— J. a. Shea, Diioovtry andEipl. qfth4 Hit- 
 
 CANADA, 1689-1690. 
 
 iMfpiJaaey.-C. Le Clereq.Kr.^ EOaHMmt, 
 cf th4 finth in J\r. Franee, tr. by Shea, ch. 21-i, 
 
 ,.^ P^^^^f!f^•—'^* fi"' Inter-ColonitI 
 War (King WiuSun't V^ar): The SchenectaS 
 Muucre.— Montreal threatened, Quebec at- 
 
 *'S-'E*''vf"'' ,'*">'* '*"7"1 1**"" ^ the English. 
 —The Revolution of 1688, In England, which 
 drove Jamea IL from the throne, and called to it 
 jiU daughter Mary with her able husband, AVil- 
 llam of Orange, produced war between England 
 and France (see Fbauce: A. D. 16in I690). The 
 French and Engliah coloniea in .rica were 
 soon involved in the contest, an.. »o far as It 
 troubled American history, It bears in New 
 England annals the name of King Willlam'i 
 War. "If the issue had depended on the con- 
 dition of the colonies. It could hardly have 
 seemed doubtful The French census for the 
 North American continent, In 1888, showed but 
 11,249 peisons, scarcely a tenth part of the Eng- 
 lish population on its frontiers ; about a twentietii 
 part of Engllah North America. West of Mon- 
 treal, the principal French posts, and those but 
 inconsiderable ones, were at Frontenac, at Macki- 
 naw, and on the Illinois. At Niagara, there 
 waa a wavering purpoae of maintaining a post, 
 but no permanent occupation. So weak wore 
 the garrisons that English traders, with an escort 
 of Indians, had ventured even to Maeliinaw, 
 . . . France, bounding its territory ne.xt New 
 England by the Kennebec, claimed the whole 
 eastern coast. Nova Scotia, Cape Bret<in, Xcw- 
 foundland, Labrador, and Hudson's Hay ; and to 
 assert and defend this boundless region, Acadia 
 and lu -dependencies counted but 9<)() French 
 inhabitants. The missionaries, swaying the 
 mhids of the Abenakis, were the sole source of 
 hope. On the declaration of war by France 
 against England, Count Frontenac, onre mare 
 governor of Canada, was charged to nonviT 
 Hudson's Bay; to protect Acadia; ami. by a 
 descent from Canada, to assist a fleet fmm 
 France In making conquest of New York. Of 
 that province De Callieres was, in advance, ap. 
 pohited Bovemor; the English Catholics wire to 
 be permitted to remain,— other inhabitants to be 
 sent into Pennsylvania or New Eujjlaii.l. . . . 
 In the east, blood waa first shed at Cxheco, 
 where, thirteen veara before', an uiisuspiciiug 
 party of 850 Indians had U^en taken pris<iner» 
 and shipped for Boston, to be sold into f..aii;n 
 slavery. The memory of the tn'oelierv w:i3 fn- 
 dellblc, and the lodiaa endssaries lif faslin 
 easily excited the tribe of Penueook to rcvincc 
 On the evening of the STtU of June [KW'.i] two 
 sijuaws repaired to tlie house of Uicliarl Walii- 
 ron, and tlie o<-togenarian magistrate tiaile thcra 
 lodge on the floor. At night, they riv, unliar 
 the gates, and summon their companions, " who 
 tortured the aged Waldron until he died "The 
 Indians, burning his house and others that stood 
 near It, having klll«l tlirecandtweiitv. rciurncd 
 to the wildemess with 89 cnptlves." lu Augiibt, 
 the stockade at Pomaquld was taki n hv' 100 
 Indians from the French mission on ilie IVnob- 
 acot. "Other inroada were nimle In ilie I'lnob 
 scot and 9t John Indiana, ao that the setileracna 
 eaat of Falmouth were dcarrted. In Scpiiinber, 
 commlaaioners from New England held a con- 
 ference ulth the Molmwks Hi AIliHiiv. ^.';i>ilin^ 
 an alliance. 'We have burned Montnil.' saia 
 
 they; ' we are the allies of the English; wu will 
 
 376 
 
CANADA, 168»-1«S0. 
 
 CANADA, 160S-1697. 
 
 keep the Atia unbroken.' But they refiued to 
 iDTode the Abenakia. . . . Frontenac . . . now 
 used every effort to win the Five Nations [the 
 Iroquois] to neutrality or to friendship. To re- 
 cover esteem in their eyes; to secure to Duran- 
 taye, the commander at Mackinaw, the means of 
 treating with the Hurons and tlie Ottawas; it 
 was resolved by Frontenac to make a triple 
 descent into the English provinces. From Mon- 
 treal, a party of 110, composed of French and of 
 the Christian Iroquois, — having De Mantet and 
 Bainte Hclene as leaders ... — for two and 
 twenty days waded through snows and morasses, 
 through forests and across rivers, to Schenectady. 
 The village had given itself calmly to slumber : 
 through open and unguarded gates the invaders 
 entett'd silently [Feb. 8, 1690], and having, just 
 before midnight, reached its heart, the war- 
 whoop was raised (dreadful sound to the mother* 
 of that place and tlieir children I), and the dwell- 
 ings set on Are. Of the inhabitants, some, half 
 clad, fled through the snows to Aib-uiy ; 60 were 
 massacred, of whom 17 were children and 10 
 were Africans. . . . The party from Three Rivers, 
 led by Hertel, and consisting of but 63 persons 
 . . . surprised the settlement at Salmon Falls, 
 on the Plscataqua, and, after a bloody engage- 
 ment, burned houses, bams, and cattle in the 
 stalls, and took 54 prisoners, chiefly women and 
 cbiidren. . . . Returning from this expedition, 
 Hertc'l met the war party, under Portneuf, from 
 Quebec, and, with them and a reSnforcement 
 from Castin, made a successful attack on the fort 
 and settlement in Casco Bay. Meantime, danger 
 taught the colonies the necessity of union, and, 
 on Uic 1st day of May, 1690, New York beheld 
 the momentous example of an American congress 
 [see I'siTKD STATEa OF Am. : A. D. 1690]. . . . 
 At that congress it was resolved to attempt the 
 conquist of Canada bv marrhing an army, by 
 way of Lake Champlam, against Montreal,"while 
 Massurkusetts should, with a Hect, attack Que- 
 bec. "-0. Bancroft, //i»(. oftlie r. S., eh. 31 (r. 8), 
 (p(. 3, eh. 11. t. 2, i'» the "Author'B last Re- 
 rmon"),— Before the end of the month in which 
 the ciiii(.'re88 was held. Port lioyal and the whole 
 of Acadia had nhtmly been cimquered, having 
 Bumnilered to im expedition scut out by Mossa- 
 chusitts, in eight small vessels, under Sir Wil- 
 liam Phips. The larger fleet (consisting of S3 
 ships ami carrying 3,UU0 men) directed against 
 Quebec, sailed in August from Nastasket, and 
 was, likewise, commanded by Phips. "The 
 plan of the campaign contemplated a diversion 
 til bv made by an assault on Montreal, by a 
 forci- ciiniposi'd of English from Connecticut and 
 Xew York, and of Iroquois Indians, at the same 
 time with the attack on Quelicc by the fleet. 
 And a mciind expcditiim into Maine under Cap- 
 tain { hurch was to threaten tlie Eastern trilws 
 wkdiic iiKursicins had, during the last summer, 
 been m disostroua ... As is so apt to happen 
 when u plan involves the simultaneous action of 
 distant parties, the conilitiiin of success fallwl, 
 The mnvcnicnt of Church, who had with him 
 but 3m nun, proved incllective as to any con- 
 tribuiiim to the descent upon Canada. ... It 
 was not till after a voyage of mope than six 
 weeks that the fleet fiiim Boston cast anchor 
 •xl:'.:i- th» iiK-tith v! Ihc river St. Lairrrncc. aiiil 
 meanwhile the overland expedition against Mon- 
 treal Imd miscarriifd. The commanders respec- 
 Hvcly of the Connecticut and the Now York troop* 
 
 had difiagieed, and could not act effectively to- 
 gether. . . . The supply, both of boats and of 
 provisions, was found to be insufticieut. The 
 disastrous result was that a retreat was ordered, 
 without so much as an embarkation of tlie 
 troops on Lake Champlain. Frontenac was at 
 Montreal, whither he had gone to superintend 
 the defence, when the intelligence, so unex- 
 pected, reached him from Quebec ; and presently 
 after came the tidings of Phips's fleet being in 
 the St. Lawrence. Nothing could have been 
 more opportune than this coincidence, which 
 
 fave the Governor liberty to hasten down to 
 Irect his little force of 200 soldiers at the 
 capital The French historian says that, if he 
 had been three days later, or if the English fleet 
 had not been delayed by contrary winds, or had 
 had better pilots in the river, wher« it was nearly 
 a fortnight more in making its slow way, Fron- 
 tenac would have come down from the upper 
 country only to find the English commander in 
 his citadel. As it was, there ensued a crushing 
 mcrtiflcation and sorrow to Massachusetts. Nf w 
 France was mode much more formidable than 
 ever." The fleet arrived before Quebec Oct. 6, 
 and retreated on the 11th, after considerable 
 cannonading and an assault which the French 
 repelled. It suffered storms and disasters on the 
 return voyage, and lost altogether some 200 
 men.— J. G. Palfrey, Iliat. ofXew Eng., bk. 4, A, 
 2 (r. 4). 
 
 Also in: F. Parkman, Count Prontenae emd 
 Xeie PraTiee under Lmit XIV., eh. 10-13.— Doe. 
 nut. ofX r., t>. 1-2.— F. Bowin, I'fe of SirW. 
 Phipn {Library of Am. Biog.,t. 7), eh. 2-3.— J. R 
 Bro<lliead,/7M(. oftht State of N. I'., t. 2, eh. 13. 
 — J. Pearson, et al, IIi»t. of the SchentftaJy Pat- 
 ent, eh. »-10. 
 
 A. D. 1693-1607.— The first Inter-Colonial 
 War (King William'* War): Abortive plant 
 of invaaioo on both sides.— French recovery of 
 Acadia.—" The defeat of the ex])e<litiiin of 109O 
 was probably attributable to the want of concert 
 on the part of the troops from Connecticut and 
 New '^ork and those from ^lassucliusetts. and 
 the failure of the supplies which were 6<iught 
 from England. . . . But there was iiiisniuiiage- 
 ment on all hands in the conduct of the expedi- 
 tion; and it seems to have been predestinated 
 that New England should not Iks delivered from 
 the presence of the French at the north, until 
 time had wrought the ne<^es.siiry changes which 
 were to render the conquest of that country 
 available for the promotion of still more impor- 
 tant ends. Hence a new expedition, projected 
 two years later, and resolved to be jirosecuted in 
 the following year [1693]. was atteiuled with the 
 like circumstances of mortitieation and defeat. 
 England herself participated in this enterprise, 
 and ... the government was Informed that It 
 had ' pleased the king, out of liis great goodness 
 and disposition for the welfari' of all his subjects, 
 to send a considerable strength of ships anil men 
 into the SVest Indies, and to direct Sir Francis 
 Wheeler, the admiral, to &i\\\ to New England 
 from the Caribbce Islands, so us to be there bv the 
 last of May or the mliUlle of June at furthest, 
 with a strength sullicient to overcome the enemy, 
 if joined and seconded by the forces of New 
 Eiislaut!.' . . . UiifortUiKtlrSy fnr t!ie suttv-ss of 
 these plans, the letter, which shoulil ha\en»elied 
 Boston by the first of April, did not arrive until 
 July; and the mortality which prevailed in the 
 
 377 
 
CANADA, 1893-1607. 
 
 CAKADA, 1700-1785. 
 
 :! 
 
 Sif »■ iS ! 
 
 fleet during iu stay in the Weit Indies wu m 
 
 freat that, when the commander-in-chief. Sir 
 riiucia Wheeler, anchored off Xantaaket. — 
 briuging hiinself the news of the projected 
 invasion.— he liad lost 1,800 out of 3,100 sailors, 
 ami 1,800 out of 3,400 soldiers. Ail tboughU of 
 reducing Canada were therefore abandoned ; but 
 a plan for another year was settled with the 
 governor, the details of which were that 2,000 
 land force a should be sent from England to 
 Ciinseau by the first of June, to be joined by 
 2,000 irom the colonies, and that the whole force 
 should go up the St. Lawrence, divide and 
 simultaneously attack Montreal and Quebec. 
 Changes in the government of the province, 
 however, and other causes, prevented the execu- 
 tion of this plan, whose success was problem- 
 atical even if it had been attempted. But if the 
 plans of the English for the reduction of Canada 
 were doomed to disappointment, tlie plans of the 
 French for the recovery of Acadia were more 
 successful. For the first year after the conquest 
 of that country, indeed, the French were as 
 little concerned to regain, as the English were »j 
 retain, the possession of its territory; nor was 
 Massachusetts able to bear the charge of a 
 sulticit-nt military force to keep its inhabitants in 
 subjection, though she issued commissions to 
 judges aud other officers, and required the ad- 
 ministrntion of the oath of fidelity. In the 
 course of that year [1691], authority was given to 
 Mr, John Ni'lson, of Boston, who had taken an 
 active part in the overthrow of Andros, and who 
 was bi.unu thither on a trading voyage, to be 
 commaudtT-in-cliicf of Acadia; but as he neared 
 the mnuth of the 8t, John's, he was taken by 
 Jlonsieur VillelK)n, who, under a commission 
 from the French king, had touched at Port 
 Roval, onci Drdcred the English flag to be struck, 
 and the French flag to be raised in iU place. 
 The next year an attempt was made to dislodge 
 Villebon, but without success. . , . In the 
 summer of 1096, Pemaquid was taken by tlie 
 French, under D'Iberville and Castine, and the 
 frontier of the dominion of France was extended 
 Into Maine : aud by the treaty of the following 
 vear A<a(ila was receded to France, and the 
 English relinquished their claims to the country. 
 The last year of King William's War, as it was 
 long termed in New England, was a year of 
 especial alarm to the province piassacliusetts] 
 and rumors were rife that the French were on 
 tiie eve of fitting out a formidable fleet for the 
 invasion of tlie colonies and the conquest of New 
 York." ArcordUig to the plan of the French 
 undertaking, a powerful fleet from France was 
 to lie jciincd by a force oi 1,500 men, raised by 
 Count Knintenac, hi Canada, and make, first, a 
 concjuest of Boston. " When that town was 
 taken, llipy were to range the coast to Piscataqua, 
 destniyitii; the settlements as far back into the 
 country aa possible. Should there be time for 
 furtlicr Hciiulsitlons, they were next to go to 
 New York, and upon its reduction the Canadian 
 troops wire to march overUnd to Quebec, laying 
 waste llie country as they proceedeti." This 
 project wa.s frustntcd by happenings much the 
 same in kind as those which thwarteef the designs 
 of the English «,(alnst Quebec. The fleet was 
 delHved \>v contrary wlmf», and hy rr-rtain bot 
 less uudiTtiikings in Newfoundland, until the 
 season was too far advanced for the enterprise 
 oonteuiplutcd, "The ...«c« of Ryswlck, which 
 
 878 
 
 •OOQ foOowed, led to a temporary suspension of 
 hostilities. France, anxious to secure as larm a 
 share of territory in America as possible, retained 
 the whole coast and adjacent Islands from Maine 
 to Labrador and Hudson's Bay, with Canada. 
 and the VaUey of the Mississippi. The posset 
 sions of England were southward from the St 
 Croix. But the bounds between the nations 
 were imperfectly defined, and were, for a lon/t 
 time, a subject of dispute and negotiation "—J 
 a Barry, But. <^M<u$., v. 8. cA. 4. ' 
 
 „.^"£ ™- *"• Psrl^an. Omnt Frmtenat and 
 Neu France under Louii XIV., eh. 16-19— j 
 Hannay, Hitt. of Acadia, eh. 14— See, also 
 Nbwtoundland: A. D, 1694-1697. 
 
 A. 0. 1696.— Frontenac's expedition against 
 the Iroquois.— The war with the "Bastonnais" 
 or "Bostonnais," as he called the New England- 
 ers, did not divert Frontenac's attention from 
 "the grand castigation which at last lie was 
 planning for the Iroquois. He had suwcedMi 
 in 1694, in inducing them to meet him in pLnera! 
 council at Quebec, and had framed the lundi- 
 tions of a truce; but the English at Albany 
 Intrigued to prevent the fulfilment, ami war was 
 again imminent. Both sides were emlcavoring 
 to secure the alliance of the tribes of the uppi? 
 Ukes. These wavered, and Frontenac saw the 
 peril and the remedy. His recourse was to at 
 tack the iroouois in their villages at ni.cc, and 
 conquer on the Mohawk the [K'ace hi- nicili.l at 
 Michilimackinac. It was Frontenac s last cam- 
 paign. Early in July [1090] he lift .Mi.ntreal 
 with 2,200 men. He went by way uf Fort 
 Frontenac, crossed Lake Ontario, "lamhd at 
 Oswego, and struggled up its stream, and at 
 last set sails to his canoes on Lake Onondaga. 
 Then his iorce marched again, and Fruntcnaoi 
 enfeebled by his years, was liome ahini,' in an 
 arm-chair. Eight or nine miles and a day's 
 work brought them to the Oiiomiagu village; 
 but its inhabitants had burned it and fled. 
 Vaudreuil was sent with a detachiiunt which 
 destroyed the town of the Oneidas. .Vft<r com- 
 mitting all the devastation of crops that he 
 could, in hopes that famine would help him, 
 Frontenac began his homeward march txfnre the 
 English at Albany were aroused at all The 
 effect was what Frontenac wished, 'ihe Iro- 
 quois ceased their negotiations with the western 
 tribes, and sued for peace."— G. Stewart, Jr, 
 limUmax and hit Timet (Narratin and Critiail 
 UiU. ofAm.,v. 4, eh. 7). 
 
 Also in: F. Parkinan. Omnt Front, wc and 
 yew France under lMui« XIV., ch. 1H-1!I. 
 
 A. D. 1698-1710.— Colonization of Louisiana 
 and the organization of its separate govem- 
 meat. Sc- Loiikiana; A. D. Ifl9»-17r,>. 
 
 A. D. 1700-1735.— The spread of French 
 occupation in the Mississippi Valley and on 
 the Lakes.-" From the time of La Salh i visit 
 in 1670, we can trace a enntiuuous French occu- 
 pation of Illinois. . . . He planted his citadel of 
 St. Louis on the summit of ' Starved I!(Hk,' pro- 
 posing to make that the centre of his colony. 
 . . . At first his colony wasexctH'din^iIv IVcblc, 
 but it was never diseonllnued. '.lout.l I mnd a 
 garrison at Fort .St. Louis ... in lii>^;, :ind in 
 1689 La Uontun bears testimony that ii »iill con- 
 tinued. In 1696 a public docunrrnt jirrivcs its 
 existence; and when Tonty, in 17U0, apain de- 
 scended the Mississippi, lie was attcuilcd by 
 twenty Canadians, residents on the Illinois.' 
 
CANADA, 1700-1780.' 
 
 CANADA, 1711-1711. 
 
 Eren whik the wan named after King William 
 lod Queen Anne were going on, the French set- 
 tlement* were growing in numbers and iocreaa- 
 ing in size : thoae wars over, they made still more 
 rapid progreat. Missions grew into settlements 
 ind parishes. Old Easkaskla was begun in 
 what hi Salle called the 'terrestrial paradise' 
 before the close of the seventeenth century. 
 Tbe Wabash Valley was occupied about 1700, 
 the first settlers entering it by the portage lead- 
 bg from the Kankakee. Later the voyageun 
 found a shorter route to the fertile valley. . . . 
 lie French located their principal missions and 
 posts with admirable judgment. There is not 
 one of them in which we cannot see the wisdom 
 of the priest, of the soldier, and the trader com- 
 bined. The triple alliance worked for an im- 
 mediate end, but the sites that they chose are as 
 important to-day as they were when they chose 
 them. ... La Salle's colony of 8t. Louis was 
 planted in one of the gardens of the world, in 
 tbe midst of a numerous Indian population, on 
 the great line of travel bet^i-een Lake Michigan 
 and the Mississippi River. Kaskaskia and the 
 neighboring settlements held the centre of the 
 long line extending from Cannda to Louisiana. 
 Tbe Wabash colony commanded that valley and 
 tbe Lower Ohio. Detroit was a position so im- 
 portant tliat, securely held by the French, it 
 practically banished from the £ngligh mind for 
 nfty years the thought of acquiring the North- 
 west. . . . Then how unerringly were the 
 French guided to the carrying places lietween the 
 Northern and the Southern waters, viz.. Green 
 Bay, Fox River, and the Wisconsin; the Chi- 
 cago River and the Illinois; the St Joseph and 
 the Kankakve; the St. Joseph and the Wabash; 
 tbe Mauniee and the Wabash ; and, later, on the 
 ere of the war that gave New France to Eng- 
 Itnd, tbe Cliuutauqua and French Creek routes 
 from Lake Erie to the Ohio. ... In due time 
 tbe French began to establish themselves on the 
 Northern frontier of the British colonies. They 
 built Fort Niagara m 1726, four years after the 
 English built Fort Oswego. Following the 
 early footsteps of Champlam, they ascended to 
 the bead of the lake that bears liis name, where 
 they fortiflwi Crown Point ta 1727, and Ticon- 
 dtroga in 17.31. Presque Isle, th« present site 
 of the city of Erie, was cccupied »'pout the time 
 that VInronncs w.,s founded In the Wabasli Val- 
 ley [ITSaJ. Finally, just on the eve of the Ust 
 itruggle between England and France, the 
 Frencli pnnsed into the valleys of the Alleghany 
 and the Oliiii, at the same time that the Kuglish 
 also btgan to enter them."— B. A. Hinsdale The 
 Old XortliiFf^t, cli. 4. 
 
 A. D. X702-1710.— The Second Inter-Colo- 
 nial War (Queen Anne's War) : Border r»T«- 
 «• in New England and Acadia.— English 
 Conquest of Acadia. SecNEwJiNULAKD: A. D. 
 17U4-I7IO. 
 
 A. D. 1711-1713.— The Second Inter-Colo- 
 nial War.-Walker'» Expedition against 
 Quebec- Massacre of Fox Indians.— The 
 gtace of Utrecht.— After the rwiuctiou of Port 
 Ku.vul. wlii.li was practically tlie ciuiquest of 
 Acadia, Colonel Nicholson, who bore the honors 
 Of that mliievenient, repaired to England and 
 prfTdlltil with the govtruimul to fit out au ade- 
 jiuste expedition for the Conquest of Cana<la. 
 
 The llirt, conalstlnB of l.'i Hliips of war and 4<> 
 muisport*, was placed under the command of 
 
 Sir HoTenden Walker; seven veteran regiment* 
 from Marlborough's army with a battalion of 
 marines, were hitrusted to Mrs. Maaham's second 
 brother, whom the queen had pensioned and 
 made a brigadier-general, whom his bottle com- 
 panions called honest Jack HUl. . . . From June 
 25th to tbe 80th day of July 1711, the fleet lay 
 •t Boston, taking In supplies and the colonial 
 forces. At the same time, an army of men from 
 Connecticut, New Jersey, and New York, Pala- 
 tine emigranU, and about 600 Iroquois, assem- 
 bling at Albany, prepared to burst upon Mon- 
 treal ; while in Wisconsin the English had allies 
 in the Foxes, who were always wishing to expel 
 the French from Michigan. In Quebec, meas- 
 ures of defence began by a renewal of friend- 
 ship with the Indians. To deputies from the 
 Onondaf^as and Senccas, the governor spoke of 
 the fidelity with which the French had kept their 
 treaty ; and he reminded them of their promise 
 to remain oulet upon their mats. A war festival 
 was next held, at which were present all the 
 savages domiciliated near the French stntlements, 
 and all the delegates of their allies who had come 
 down to Montreal. In the presence of 700 or 800 
 warriors, the war song was sung and the hatchet 
 uplifted. The savages of the remote west were 
 wavering, till twenty Ilurous from Detroit took 
 up the hatchet, and swayed all the rest by their 
 example. By the influence of the Jesuits over 
 the natives, an alliance extending to the Ojib- 
 ways constituted the defence of Jlontrccl. De- 
 scending to Quebec, Vaudreui^ found Abenaki 
 volunteers assembling for his protectiim. Meas- 
 ures for resistance had been adopted with hearti- 
 ness; the fortifications were strengthcncii ; Beau- 
 port was garrisoned; and the people were 
 resolute and confiding; even women were ready 
 to labor for the common defence. Toward the 
 last of August, it was said that peasants at 
 Matanes had descried 90 or 96 vessels with the 
 English flag. Yet September came, and still from 
 the heights of Cape Diamond no eye caught one 
 sail of the expected enemy. The English squad- 
 ion, leaving Boston on the 80th of July [1711], 
 after loitering near the bay of Gasn6, at last be- 
 gan to ascenil the St. Lawrence, while SirHoven- 
 den Walker puzzled himself with contriving how 
 he would secure his vessels during the winter at 
 Quebec." At the same time, the present and 
 actual difficulties of the expedition wore so heed- 
 lessly and ignorantly dealt with that eight ships 
 of the fleet were wrecked among the rocks and 
 shoals near the Egg Islands, and 884 men were 
 drowned. The enterprise was then abandoned. 
 " 'Had we arrived safe at Quelw,' wrote the 
 admiral, ' ten or twelve thousanil men must have 
 been left to perish of cold and hunger: by the 
 loss of a part, i'rovidence saved all the rest.' 
 Such was the issue of hostilities In the north-east. 
 Their total failure left the expt<liti(m from 
 Albany no option but to return, and Montreal 
 was unmolested. Detroit, in 1713, almost fell 
 before the Valor of a party of the Ottai,'iiniie8, or 
 Foxes. . . . Itiwdving to bum Detroit, they 
 pitched Uieir lodgings near the fort, wliidi Du 
 Buisson, witli but twenty Frenchmen, defended. 
 Aware of their inU-nlion, he summoned his In- 
 dian allies from the eha«'; and. nl>out the middle 
 of May. Oitawas and ilurons and Pottawotta- 
 mlea, with one branch of the 8;irs. Illinois, 
 Munomnnics, and even Osages and Missotiris, 
 each nation with its own ensign, came to liia re- 
 
 879 
 
CANADA, i7u-ina. 
 
 Oitputn. 
 
 { • ^ 
 
 lief. So wide wm the influence of the mlaion- 
 •riee In the Weet . . . The wurlort of the Fez 
 nation, far from deetroying Detroit, were them- 
 selTea besieged, and at last were compelled to 
 ■urrender at diicretlon. Thoae who bore arm* 
 were ruthleaelv murdered; the rebt distributed 
 among the confederates, to be enslaved or massa- 
 cred at the will of their masters. Cherished as ihe 
 loveliest spot in Canada, the possession of De- 
 troit secured for Quebec a great highway to the 
 upper Indian tribes and to the Mississippi. . . . 
 In the meantime, the preliminaries of a treaty 
 had been signed between France and England; 
 and the war . . . was suspended by negotiations 
 that were soon followed by the uncertain peace 
 of Utrecht fApril 11, 1718]. . . . England, by 
 the peace of Utrecht, obtained from France large 
 concessions of territory in America. The as- 
 sembly of New York had addressed the queen 
 against French settlements in the West; William 
 Penn advised to establish the St. Lawrence as 
 the boundary on the north, and to include in our 
 colonies the valley of the Mississippi. ' It will 
 make a glorious country'; such were his pro- 
 phetic words. . . . The colony of Louisiana ex- 
 cited in Saint-John ' apprehensions of the future 
 undertakings of the French in North America.' 
 The occupation of the Mississippi valley had 
 been proposed to Queen inne; yet, at the 
 peace, that immense region remained to France. 
 But England obtained the bay of Hudson and its 
 borders; Newfoundland, subject to the rights of 
 France in its fisheries : and all Nova Scotia, or 
 Acadia, according to its ancient boundaries. It 
 was agreed that ' France should never molest the 
 Five Nations subject to the dominion of Great Bri- 
 tain. ' But Louiitiana, according to French ideas. 
 Included both banks of the Mississippi. Did the 
 treaty of Utrecht assen', to such an extension of 
 French territory? And what were the ancient 
 limits of Acadia t Did It include all that is now 
 New Brunswick T or had France still a large ter- 
 ritory on the Atlantic between Acadia and 
 Maine T And what were the bounds of the ter- 
 ritory of the ^'ive Nations, which the treaty ap- 
 S eared to recognize as a part of the English 
 oininions? Tlitae were questions which wei» 
 never to be adjusted amicably. "— O. Bancroft, 
 Hut. of the U. S. (Author't Latt Bninon), pt. 8, 
 eA. 12 (r. 2).— With reference to the destruction of 
 the Fox Indians at Detroit, a recent writer says: 
 "The French official reports pretend that tlie 
 Wisconsin Indians, being in secret alliance with 
 the Iroiiuols and tlie English, had come to De- 
 troit with the express purpose of besieging the 
 fort and reducing it to ruins; and thtir state- 
 ment has henliifore been unsuspectingly ac- 
 cepted by all historians. But there is little doubt 
 that the charge is a shameful falsehood. The 
 Fox Indians liad rendered themselves very ob- 
 noxious to the French. Firmly lodged on the 
 Fox Uiver, they controlled the chluf highway 
 to the West; a liaughty, independent and in- 
 tracuible people, they could not be cajoled 
 into vossjilage. It was necessary for the suc- 
 cess of the French policy to get them out 
 of the way. Tlicy were enticecf to Detroit in 
 order that they might be slaughtered. '— S, 8. 
 Uebberd, Ilitt. of U'u. vnder tlu dominion of 
 Franct. eh. 5-6. 
 
 Also ra : Hu. Ilitt Sif. Cvll:,v. 5.— W. Kings- 
 fOBl, IIi§t. of Cnruuln, bk. 8, eh. 6-fl (r. 8) —II 
 Brown, UUt. oflht Jtland </ Cap, Brtton, Utt»r$ 
 
 CANADA, ITSO-ITBH. 
 
 8-».— fl«e. alio, Utbbcrt: A. D. 1712-17:4 sad 
 NBWrODKDLAIlD: A. D. 1718. 
 
 A. D. i7aa— Th« fottifjrinK of Lonisbosrr 
 See Caps Bkbtor: A. D. 17>P174S. ^^" 
 «,^ D;X744-i74«— The Third Inter^olonisJ 
 \y w(Klni: GeorK*'* War).— Loss and recovery 
 of LoniabonTK aad Cape Breton. See New 
 Ekouuto: a. D. 1744; 1745; and 1745-1748 
 
 A. D. 1748-1754.— Active measures to fortifr 
 petaeaaioii of the Ohio Valley and the West 
 Bee Ohio (VALUty): A. D. 174*-17.'54. 
 
 A. D. 1750-1753.— Bonndarics dispntes with 
 England.— FotiTenegotiationsat Paris,— "For 
 the past thret years [1750-1758] the commij- 
 siooen appointed under the treaty of Ali It- 
 Chapelle to se.tle the question of boundaries 
 between Francj and England in America had 
 been in leaaira at Paris, waging Intermliuble 
 war on paper; La Oalissoni^ru and Silhouette for 
 France, Shirlev and Mildmuy for England By 
 the treaty of Utrecht, Aciidia belonged to 
 England ; but what was Acadia t Acconling to 
 the £nglish com'uissloners, it comprised not onlv 
 the peninsula called Nova Scotia, but all the 
 immense tract of land between the River St. 
 Lawrence on the north, the Gulf of the aame 
 name on the east, the Atlantic on the south and 
 New England on the west. The French commU- 
 sioners, on their part, maintained that the name 
 Acadia belonged of right only to about a twen. 
 tieth part of this territory, and that it did not 
 even cover the whole of the Acadian pciilnsuU, 
 but only its southern coast, with an adjoining 
 belt of barren wilderness. When the French 
 owned Acadia, they gave it boundaries as com- 
 prehensive as those claimed for it by the English 
 commissionaries ; now that it belonged to a rival, 
 they cut It down to a paririg of its former kK. 
 . . . Four censuses of Acadia while it bilonged 
 to the French had recognized the mainland as 
 included in It; and so do also the early French 
 maps. Its prodigious shrinkage was simplj- the 
 consequence of its possession by an alien. Other 
 questions of limits, more important and equally 
 perilous, called loudly for solution. Wlwt line 
 should separate Canada and her western (le]iendcn- 
 cies from the British colonies f Various prin- 
 ciples of demarcation were suggested, of which 
 the most prominent was a peograpliieal one. KM 
 countries watered by streams falling into the St 
 Lawrence, the Great Lakes, and tlie Mississippi 
 were to belong to her. This would have pliinted 
 her in the heart of New York and nloin; the 
 crests of the Alleghanies, giving her all the 
 interior of the continent, and leaving nothing to 
 England but a strip of sea const. Vet in view 
 of what France had achieved; of the patient 
 gallantry of her explorers, the zeal of hi-r mis- 
 sionaries, the adventurous hanlih<HHl of her 
 bushrangers, revealing to civilized mankind the 
 existence of this wilderness world, wliile her 
 rivals plodded at their workshops, tlieir farms, 
 or their fisheries, — In view of all this, h r pre- 
 tensions were moderate and reasonnWe loinpared 
 with those of England. The tPMlvof I irecht 
 hail declared the Inxiuois, or Five N'aticms, to be 
 British subjects; therefore it was insisttd that 
 all countries conquered by them helon^rc .1 to the 
 British Crown. But what vmis an iroiiuoia con- 
 quest? The Imquois rerply .i.-,-\ii>-;-.l t h"- r.-.-.m- 
 tries they overrun. . . . But the ranLreif thiir 
 war-parties was prodigious: and the Knu'lish laid 
 claim to every mountaiu, forest or prairie wlien 
 
 880 
 
CANADA, 17S0-175S. 
 
 
 CAKADA. 1755. 
 
 in Iroquol* had teken • iCLlp. Thii would slTe 
 tbem not only the oountrr between the Alle- 
 fhuiesand the Miiiiiiippl, but alio that between 
 Lake Huron and the Ottawa, thua reducing 
 Cuada to the patch on the American map now 
 repreaented by the province of Quebec,— or 
 ntber by a part of it, alnoe tiie eztenaion of Acadia 
 to the St. Lawrence would cut oif the preeent 
 couotiet of Qaapi, Rimouald and Boaaventure. 
 Indeed, among the adrocatea of Britiah chdma 
 there were thoae who denied that France had 
 uy rights whatever on the aovf 'Me of tite St 
 Lawrence. Such being the of the two 
 
 untestanta, it waa pUin then ,. «8 uu resort but 
 the lut argument of kings. Peace must be won 
 with the sword."— F. Parkman, Mmtealm and 
 Wotfe.ch.6{t.t). 
 
 Also m: T. C. Hallburton, Aeeaunt of Ifeta 
 Seotia, t.t.pp. 14S-14B.— See, also. Nova Scotu : 
 A. D. l'4l>-17Sr —Relative to the very dubious 
 English claim based on treatlea with the Iroquois, 
 aee N'ew Tobk: A. D. 1684, and 17M. 
 
 A. D. 1755 (April).— Plans of the Encllah 
 agaiaitthe F ich. — "While the negotiations 
 [between En .^i and France, at Puis] were 
 pending. Bra lock M ived in the Chesapeake. 
 In March [17M] he reached Williamsburgb, and 
 visited Annapolis; on the 14th of April, he, with 
 Commodore Keppel, held a congrosa at Alex- 
 andria. There were present, of the American 
 gorernors, Shirley, next to Braddock in military 
 ranli; Dclancey, of New York; Morris, of 
 Pennsylvania; Sharpe, of Maryland; and Din- 
 widdle, of Virginia. . . . Between England and 
 France peace existed under ratified treaties; it 
 was proposed not to invade Canada, but to repel 
 encroaclimeuts on the frontier. For this end, 
 {our expeditions were concerted by Braiddock at 
 Aleiamlria. Lawrence, the lieutenaot-govenior 
 of Kova Scotia, was to reduce that province 
 according to the English interprptation of its 
 boundaries; Johnson [afterwards Sir William 
 Johnson, of New York] from his long acquaint- 
 ance with the Six Nations, was selected to enroll 
 3Iohawli warriors in British pay and lead them 
 with provincial militia against Crown Point; 
 Shirley proposed to drive the French from 
 Niagara; the commander-in-chief was to recover 
 the Oliio valley."— O. Bancroft, But. tf th» 
 V. 8. [AutKor't iait reeition), e. i, pp. 41»-41l>. 
 
 A- D. 1755 (Jnne)-— French disaster at Sea. 
 —Frustrated attempt againat Nora Scotia.— 
 The arrival of Dieskan at Quebec- " In 17M. 
 France fully awakened to the fact that England 
 not only intended to maintain her position in the 
 wilds of America, but likewise by sea. She 
 equipped an srmament under the command of 
 admirals Macnam J« and Bola de la Mothe, of 18 
 ships of the line and frigates, having on board, 
 ostensibly for Canada, eleven battalions of troops 
 under Ocncml Dieskau, an 'ajve' of Marshal 
 Saie. England, apprisil of this force being 
 sent, despatched Vice- Ai 'miral Boscawen with 
 11 ships <if the line and one frigate to Intercept 
 it en mute. Both sailed about the same time, 
 the 22d iif April, 1755. The French ambassador 
 at London being duly notiflcd, replied: 'That 
 nls royal master would consider the first gun 
 nreil at sea in 8 hostile manner to be a declaration 
 of K.ir ■ The esoteric instructions of the French 
 fleet «crr to rendezvous at Chebiictou Harbour, 
 destmy Halifax, and then proceed to Annapolis 
 for the same purpose. While the instructions 
 
 were of neeeaalty secret. It waa well known In 
 Acadia that an attempt would be made by 
 France to recover possession of the province. 
 It waa thia fleet, so eagerlv expected by the 
 Acadians, that gave rise to the insolent manner 
 In which they addressed the Council at Halifax, 
 and which led to an immedUte removal of their 
 arms and subsequent dispersal. Owing to mis- 
 adventure, some of the French fleet under 
 Macnam^ra had to put back to Brest; the re- 
 mainder met the English oS the coast of New- 
 foundUnd [June 8] in a dense fog; avoiding an 
 engagement, aeveral of them escaped by taking 
 the northern route via Bellelsle . . . success- 
 fully reaching their 'harbour of refuge,' Louls- 
 bourg. The ' Lys ' and the ' Alcyde ' were suf- 
 ficiently unfortunate to be compelled to face the 
 guna of the English frigates ' Dunkirk ' and 
 ' Defiance, 'and after five hours close engagemeut 
 the ' Lys ' struck its colors . . . followed by the 
 ' Alcyae,' when Hocquart in command became 
 Boscawen's prisoner by sea for the third time, 
 together wltli £76,000 sterling in money, eight 
 companies of soldiers and several officers and 
 engineers. The unexpected rencontre with Bos- 
 cawen's fleet, the loss of two of their vessels, and 
 the kno .viedge that the garrison at Halifax was 
 considerably reinforced by tht forces brought out 
 by Boscawen, caused the abandonment of all 
 attempts to recover Acadia. Dieskau, after 
 landing a few regiments at Loulsbourg, pro- 
 ceeded to Quebec."— O. E. Hart, The FiM «/ 
 AVte Fhtrtee, pp. 51-54. 
 
 Also c«: J. Campbell, Natal But. of Qreat 
 Britain, e. 5, pp. 104-106. 
 
 A. D. 1755 (Inly).- Defeat of Braddock'a 
 Expedition anuut Fort Duqnesae. See Omo 
 (Vallbt): A.1). 1755. 
 
 A. D. 1755 (Annst— October) : The abortive 
 expedition aninat Niagara.— According to 
 the English plan of campaign, concerted with 
 Braddock at Alexandria, Governor Shirley was 
 to lead an army for the conquest of Niagara; 
 but his march westward ended at Oswego. 
 "Colonel Philip Schuyler led the first regiment 
 of the expedition. Boats were built at (%wego 
 to convey 600 men by lake. Shirley followed 
 by way of the Mohawk, and reached Oswego 
 August St. He was delayed from various 
 causes, and in October a council of war decided 
 that the attack on Niagaia should be postponed 
 for a year. Shirley was to have met Braddock 
 In victory at Niagara. Both branches of the 
 plan haa been shattered. The great western 
 scheme sank to a mere strengthening of the 
 defences of Oswego. Colonc! Mercer was left in 
 command of a garrison of 700 men, with instruc- 
 tions to build two new forts, acid Oeneral Shirley 
 took the remainder of his force back to Albany. 
 The pitiful failure led to recriminations relative 
 to the causes of the fatal delays." — E. H. 
 Roberts, Ann York, t. 1, eh. 20. 
 
 Also a: R Uildreth, Bitt. o/(A< t7. £, M. 26 
 (». 8). 
 
 A. D. 1755 (September).— The Battle of 
 Lake George and defeat of Dieskau.— " Tho 
 expedition against Crnwu Point on Lake Cham- 
 plain, had been intrusted to Qeneral William 
 Johnson. His troops were drawn principally 
 from Massachusetts and Connecticut; a regiment 
 from New Hampshire joined them at Albany. 
 At the head of boat navigation on the Hudson, a 
 fort waa buUt which, Ui honor of their com- 
 
 S81 
 
CANADA, 175S. 
 
 BMxler, whom thny nrenBoed u '» bnre uh) 
 Tirtuoui m»n,' the loldien Mined Fort LTnuui. 
 But when Johntoo Htumed the command he 
 ungenerouily chmnged the name to Fort Edwaid 
 
 rffj* V* ' riHi*"' *" '•''» '<»*■ Johnwn moTed 
 with about 5.000 men to the head of Lake Oeorn 
 and there formed a oamp, intendini to deacnid 
 Into Lake Champlain. Hendrick, the celebrated 
 Mohawk chUf. with hia wairioi;, were am«S 
 theae troopa. larael Putnam, too, wa* there, u 
 a captain, and John Stark aa a lieutenant, each 
 J?i '^*,i*^?* '" ''"*>™- The French were not 
 idle; the diatrict of Montreal made the mott 
 •trenuoua exertlona to meet the invading foe 
 All the men who were able to bear anna were 
 called Into active aervlce; lo that, to gather in 
 the harvest, their places were supplied by men 
 from other dUtricts. ""he energetic Baron Dies- 
 kau re«o.ved, by f attack, to terrify the 
 
 inva(»-r». Taking wit him 800 reguhui, and 
 aboL 1,800 Canadiana aL ' Indiana, iSlietout to 
 capture Fort Edward; but, aa he drew near, the 
 IndUns heard that it was defended by cannon 
 which they greatly dreaded, and they refused to 
 advance. He now changed his plan, and rewjlved 
 to attack Johnson's camp, which wassuppoaed to 
 be without cannon. Meantime scouU had 
 reported to Johnson that they had seen roads 
 made through the woods in the direction of Fort 
 iaward. Not knowing the movements of Dies- 
 t^i." * ae'Kl'raent of 1,000 men, under Colonel 
 tphralm Williams, of Massachusetts, and 800 
 Mohawks, under Hendrick, marched to relieve 
 that poet The French had information of their 
 approach and placed themselves In ambush 
 They were concealed among the thick bushes of 
 a swamp, on the one rje, and rocks and trees on 
 the oUier The English recklessly marehed into 
 fs! . »i''- .. T^^' *'" vimrously attacked 
 ISept. 5] and thrown into confusion. Hendrick 
 was almost instantly killed, and in a short time 
 WUIiams fell also. The detachment commenced 
 to retreat, occasionally halting to check their 
 pursues The firing was hear^ in the camp; as 
 the sound drew nearer and nearer, it was evident 
 the detuchment was retreating. The drums beat 
 to arms, trees were hastily felled and thrown 
 together to form a breastwork, upon which 
 were place>. a few cannon, just arrived from the 
 Hudson. Scarcely were these preparations made 
 When the panting fugitives appeared in sight, 
 hotly pursued by the French and Indians. 
 Intending to enter the camp with the fugitives 
 pieskau urged forward his men with the neatest 
 impetuosity. T' "moment the fugiUvis were 
 past the muzz' uon they opened with 
 
 fh.'tr^'i?^"; "• ''hlcTscattered 
 
 w ^^^^ f"" "^ ""« Canadians, 
 
 w.n.,T''"?.''K -^tenntaed con: 
 
 test ensued, which ,« un,ii .i,. 
 
 IT r" "f,™ "^'i^I J'' e the Indians 
 
 and Canadians did but little execution; thev 
 remained at a respectful distance among the 
 
 .n!f'.K » ' '™*"' H** '"^"y **8"" to retnat, 
 «Dd the Americans leaped over the breastworks 
 and pur8ue<l them with great vigor. That same 
 evening, after the pursuit ha^ ceased, aa Se 
 fff °tl.'^*,^ retreating, they were suddenly 
 attocked with great spirit by the New Hamp- 
 shire regiment, which was on iu way from Fort 
 iiawara. fhey were so panic stricken by thU 
 new assault that they abandoned everythtag and 
 fl*l tor Uieir Uve* Dieskau had bee£ wowided 
 
 Artdsqf 
 
 CANADA, ITU 
 
 onee or twlM at the eommenoement of (he batfls^ 
 but be never left hia post ... He was ukS 
 P'^~^' ^Ji^'y tt«ilennd sent to E^guS 
 where he died. Johnson wa« sllghUy wouDdrf 
 at the commaioement of the battle, and prudenSr 
 retired from danger ToGenetmlLvmanbeirn 
 the honor of the rictory, yet Johnson in iS, 
 report of the battle, dia not even mention S 
 name. Johnson, for his exertions on that djT 
 was made a baronet, and rect-lved fn,,,, royii 
 
 *"- t "V" °' •*«•"*'• He had frien,!, .t 
 TOUrt, but Lvman was unknown. Col. Ephralm 
 WUltoms, wto feU In this battle, whUe p^«Z 
 
 SSSl!?S.t^^7' ^^^^^'^ ** precaution t? 
 make Tils will, in which he bequeatlied property 
 to found a free s^ool in wcsurn MassachiiMtti 
 That school hM since grown hito WllliamaCoI. 
 
 Auo ni: W. L. Stone, J^fi and Time: of &> 
 
 A. p.t7« (Oetob«r-N<»»emb«r).-Remonl 
 ud lUapenroa in e>Ue of the French Acadian 
 See Nova Scotia: A. D. 1765. 
 .i.^.."?? «7SA.— FornuU dcclarmtiona of war- 
 f.*"! ^"X-f? ^ar " of Europe, calledth, 
 
 French aad Indian War" in Brit^h Americi 
 — MontcaJn Mnt from France.— " On tlie 18Ui 
 
 tmty, at length declared war. She had attsclied 
 France by land and sea, turned loose her sliipi 
 toprey on French commerce, and brouglit some 
 800 prizes into her ports. It was the act of s 
 weak government, supplying by spasms of vlo- 
 ^ce what it lacked in conslclerate resolution. 
 
 382 
 
 .. .-.,-^„ .„ >^iiiuii<;ntie n'.soiuuon. 
 
 *>ance, no match for her amphibious enemy is 
 Uie game of marine depredation, cried out ia 
 horror; and to emphasize her complaints and 
 slmalize a pretended good faith wliich hir acts 
 hadbelied,ostenUUou8lyreleasedaBrltlshfriirata 
 captured by her cruisers. She in her turn de- 
 clared war on the 9th of June: and now begun 
 the most terrible conflict of the 18tH cen" -v one 
 that convulsed Europe and shook ^Lueii i !;'iilia, 
 the coasU of Africa, and the islands of the ses 
 [see Enolahd: A. D. 1754-1755, and after alio 
 
 Gkbmakt: >L D. 1755-1756, and after] 
 
 Henceforth France was to turn her strenrth 
 against her European foes; and the American 
 war, the occasion of the universal outbreak was 
 to hold in her eyes a second phtce. . . Still 
 something must be done for the American war; 
 at least there must be a new general to replace 
 Ulesksu. None of the court favorites wanted a 
 command in the backwoods, and the minister of 
 war was free to choose whom he would. Hfa 
 choice fell on Louis Joseph, Marquis de Mont- 
 calm-Gozon de Saint Vfiran. . . . The Chevalier 
 de Levis, afterwards Marshal of France, wai 
 named as his second In command. ... The 
 troops destined for Canada were only two battal- 
 ions, one belonging to the regiment of La Sarre, 
 and the other to that of Royal Rousslllon. Louli 
 aV. and Pompadour sent 100,000 men to fight 
 the battles of Austria* and could spare but 1.200 
 to reinforce New France." Montcalm, who 
 reached Quebec in May, was placed in difficult 
 relations with the governor-general, Va'^JreuU, 
 by the fact that the latter held eomitiawl v! the 
 colonial troops. The forces in New Franc e, were 
 of three kinds, — "the ' troupes de terre,' troops 
 of the line, or regulan from Ftanoe ; the ' troupes 
 
OAKADA. 175C 
 
 I%i"r^r*iKhm>d 
 
 CANADA, 1780-1757. 
 
 d» U muliM,' or oolonr recuUn; and laitly the 
 militis. The flnt coiuMted nf the four battalion* 
 that had come over with Dieakuu and the two 
 that liad come with Montcalm, comprising In all 
 a little leaa than 8,000 men. Beaidea theae, the 
 InttalioDS of Artoia and Bourgogne, to the num- 
 tier of 1 , 100 men, were in garrison at Louisbourg. " 
 This constituted Montcalm's command, "nie 
 colony reguUra and the militia remained subject 
 to the orders of the governor, who manifeatea an 
 early Jealousy of Montcalm. The former troops 
 numbered less than 2,000 men. " All the effective 
 male population of Canada, from 15 rears to 40, 
 was enrolled in the militia. ... In 17S0 the 
 militia of all ranka counted about 18,000; and 
 eight years later the number had increaaed to 
 about 15,000. Until the Ust two years of the 
 war, those employed in actual warfare were but 
 few, ... To the white fighting force of the 
 colony are to be added the red men. . . . The 
 mili'rirT situation was somewhat perplexing. 
 Iroquois spies had brought reporta of great pre- 
 parations on the part of the English. Aa neither 
 party dared offend these wavering tribes, their 
 warriors could pass with impunity from one to 
 the other, and were paid by each for bringing in- 
 formation, not always trusts orthy. They de- 
 clared that the English were gathering in force 
 to renew the attempt made by Johnson the 
 year before against Crown Pomt and Ticon- 
 deroga, as well aa that made by Shirley against 
 Forta Frontenac and Niagara. VaudreuTi bad 
 spared no effort to meet the double danger. 
 Lotbiniire, a Canadian engineer, had been busied 
 during the winter in fortifying Ticonderoga, 
 while Pouchot, a captain in the battalion of 
 Beam, had rebuilt Niagara, and two French 
 engineers were at work in strengthening the 
 defences of Frontenac. . . . Indiiuia presently 
 brought word that 10,000 Endiah were coming 
 to attack Ticonderoga." Both Montcalm and 
 Levis, with troops, " hastened to the supposed 
 scene of danger . . . and reached Ticonderoga 
 at the end of June. They found the fort 
 . . . advanced towardscompie'lon. It stood on 
 the crown of the promontory. . . . The rampart 
 consisted of two parallel walls ten feet apart, 
 built of the trunks of trees, and held together by 
 transverse logs dovetailed at both ends, the space 
 between being filled with earth and gravel well 
 packed. Such was the first Fort Ticonderoga, 
 orCarillon,— a structure quite distinct from the 
 later fort of which the ruins still stand on the 
 same spot . . . Ticonderoga was now the most 
 advanced position of the French, and Crown 
 Point, which had before held that perilous honor, 
 was in the second line. . . . The danger from 
 the English proved to be still remote. . . . Mean- 
 while, at the head of Lake George, the raw bands 
 of ever-active New England, were mustcrhig for 
 the fray."— P. Parkman, Montealm and Wolfe, 
 f. 1, eh. 11. 
 
 Aim in: W. Klngsford, flirt, of Canada, bk. 
 U, eh. 9 (e. 8). 
 
 «.^1 °- '7S6-I7S7- — Prench •nccetaes.— 
 Capture of Oswego and Fort William Henry. 
 -Bloodv work of the sarage alliea.— On the 
 death of Braddock, Gov. Shirley became com- 
 mander In-chief of the British lort-n in Amprirs 
 "a position for which he was not adapted by 
 mUltary knowledge. ... His mlllUry schemes 
 for the season of 1766 were crand in conception 
 aod theotr, but diiastrous ftUuies in practice. 
 
 Ten thouaand men were to advaDce agaioil 
 Crown Point — e,000 for aenrlce on Lake On- 
 tario, 8,000 for an attack on Fort Duquesne, 
 and 9,000 to advance up the tiver Kennebec, 
 destroy the settlement adloining the Cbaudlira 
 and descending the mouth of that river within 
 three uii>es of Quebec, keep all that part of 
 Canada tn alarm. While each of these armies 
 wa* being put into motion, the season had be- 
 come too far advanced for action at any one 
 point. Moreover, the British Government, dls- 
 aatlsfled with a Provincial officer being at the 
 head of its army in America, determined upon 
 sending out General Lord Loudoun. While 
 Shirley was preparing, Montcalm advanced 
 againat the three forta at Oswego, the terror of 
 the French In the Iroquois countir and which it 
 had been their desire to destroy for many yean 
 back; they likewise commanded the entrance to 
 Lake Ontario. The English had a garrison of 
 1,800 men in theae divided between Fort Ontario 
 . . . Fort Oswego . . . and Port George, or 
 Rascal . . ■wut a mile distant from each 
 other." M aim 'ook all three of the forta 
 without m difficulty, and demolished them. 
 "Shiriey wu jiuch bUmed for this defeat and 
 the failure of his projecU, and lost both hi* 
 
 Jovenunent and command, being succeeded by 
 ohn Campbell, fourth Earl of Loudoun, Baron 
 Mauchlaw, one of the sixteen peers of Scotland, 
 with General Abercromby as second In command 
 — both notorious for previous incompetency. 
 . . . They were sent out with considerable rein- 
 forcements, and had transferred to them by 
 Shirley 16,000 men in the field, of whom 6,000 
 were regulars; but, with that masterty inactivity 
 and indecision for which Loudoun was most 
 renowned, no further movement was made this 
 year. The year 1757 waa not distinguished by 
 any miiitaiy movements of much moment. 
 An intended attack on Louisbourg was postponed 
 because of news that a powerful French fleet 
 held possession of its harbor and that the 
 
 garrison was very strong. "Montcalm, finding 
 imself f.ee from attack, penetrated with his 
 armr ft 7,606 men to Fort William Henry, at 
 the head of Lake George. Included were 2,000 
 Indians. The fort was garrisoned by 2,264 
 regulars under Colonel Munroe of the 35th Regi- 
 ment, and in the neighborhood there was an 
 additional force of 4,600 men under General 
 Webb. On the 8d of August the fort was In- 
 vested and, after a summons to surrender was 
 rejected, the attack was begun and continued 
 with undiminished fervor until the 9th at noon, 
 when a capitulation was signed. General Webb 
 did not join Munroe, as he was instructed to do 
 by Abercrombjf's plans, some cowardice being 
 attributed to him by contemporary writers. An 
 incident of the war which has given rise to a 
 
 Seat deal of controversy and iir-fecling up to 
 e present moment, waa the so-called n ^vacn 
 at Port William Henry, the outcon'- ' the 
 numerous horde of savages the F.or i. allies 
 had in the engagement. ... On the morning 
 following the surrender, the garripin na.' to 
 march out under a proper escort t- r feci them 
 from injury at the hands of the Indians. The 
 evacuatfon na-i tarelreommeDa.il, wht-ua repeti- 
 tion of the looting of the day previous, which en- 
 sued immediately after the capitulation had been 
 signed, was attempted. An effort being made 
 by the escort to stop it, some dnmken Indiaai 
 
 883 
 
CANADA, n9»-1787. 
 
 IM r 
 
 >«i 
 
 ittocke'l the defile, which resulted In the murder 
 tnK »nd acalning of some «) or 70 of the 
 prisoners; mBltreatlng and robbing s large num- 
 ber of otiie.s. Upon a careful Investigation of 
 the contemporary authorities, no blame whatever 
 can be attached to the good fame of the brave 
 and humane Montcalm or De Levis. . . , Fort 
 Oeorurc, or William Henry, as It was Indifferently 
 called, like its compeer Port Oswego, was raied 
 to the ground and the army retreated Into their 
 winter quarters at Montreal. The termination 
 of the year left the French masters of Lakes 
 Champlain and George, together with the chain 
 of great lakes connecting the 8t Lawrence with 
 the Mississippi; also the undisturbed posaewton 
 ef all the country In dispute west of the Alle- 
 fhanv Mounuins."— O. E. Hart, TIU FcM of 
 Aeie franee, pp. 70-70. 
 
 Also in: e! Warburton, Ommuit of Qinada. 
 ». 8. cA. a-8. "• J 
 
 A. p. 1758.— The Iota of Lonisbonrr and 
 Fort DuQuenie.— Bloody defeat of the Ene- 
 Mth at Ticonderoca.— " The affairs of Or«at 
 Britain In North America wore a more gloomy 
 Bipect, at the close of the campaign of 1757, 
 than at any former period. By the acquisition 
 of fort William Henry, the French had obuloed 
 complete possession of the lakes Champlain, and 
 George. By the destnictlon of Oswego, they 
 had acquired the dominion of those lakes which 
 ronnect the 8t Lawrence with the waters of the 
 
 '■ ' ' wd unite Canada to Louisiana. By 
 
 LouUhowTD 
 amd TIamderoga, 
 
 CANADA. 1758. 
 
 Missiiis! 
 means < 
 ascenil 
 turlH' 
 Allegi, 
 were dr 
 of the 
 
 . By 
 
 *'i QuCsne, they maintained their 
 the Indians, and held undls- 
 n of the country west of the 
 .tains; while the English settlers 
 I the blue ridge. The great object 
 - 'n tliat quarter was gained, anil 
 J ranee held the country for which hostilities had 
 been toimneneed. , . . But this Inglorious scene 
 was liU.iit to Ik) sucoee<le<l by one of unrivalled 
 brillianty. , The brightest era of British his- 
 tory was to commenoc. . . . The public voice 
 bud. «t length, made its way to tlie throne, and 
 hiul forced, on the unwilling mimareh. a minister 
 who hiis h(( 11 justly deemed one of the greatest 
 men of tlie »^e |n which he liveil. ... In the 
 summer of 17.17, an administration was formed 
 which (orniliate.! the great contending interests 
 In parliament; and Mr. Pitt was plaii-d at iu 
 heiiil. . PosMtwIng the public contldencc 
 wlihcMit limitation, he commanded all the re- 
 aources of the nation, and drrw liberally frtim 
 the puMie purse. . . In no part of his majesty's 
 dominions was the new ailminislration more 
 populiir than in his American colonies 
 The ein ular letter of Mr. Pitt aasureil the several 
 governors that, to repidr tli.' losses and dlsap- 
 poinliuenta of the last inactive campaign the 
 cabinet was determined to send a fnmddable 
 tnrve. to oi>erate by sea and land, against the 
 French in America; ami he called upon them to 
 raise as large Ixnlles of men. within their re- 
 spective governmeuta, as the number of Inhabit- 
 ants might allow. . . . The legislature of Mas- 
 aachuwttji agreed to furnish 7.000 men; Connec- 
 Ocul ft.OIH): and New llam|>ahire S.OOO. . 
 Three eipeditions wei« pro|Mne<l. The first was 
 against r,<)uish()urg ; the si'<t>nd against TIcon- 
 aeri>ga and Crown Point; anil tlm thlnl against 
 fort I>u qu«sne. Ihe army deeUued against 
 LouUhourg, (■oosistlDg of U,000 men, wai 00m- 
 nanded by major general Amhent [The aipe- 
 
 dltlon wa« successful and Loulsbourg fell J.ii, 
 26, 1758.-8ee Capk Breton Island A tf 
 VmS-nOO.] . . . The expedition against Tioo„; 
 deroga and Crovn Point was conducteil bv cm 
 eral Abercromblc In person. His army corisiM 
 tng of near la.OtX) effectives, of wliom 8 000 
 were provincials. » as attended by a fonnidahl. 
 train of artillery, r.nd possessed every rinuisite 
 to ensure success. On the 6th of July he 
 embarked on lake George, and reached the land- 
 ing place early the next morning. A dlsembarJ! 
 atlon being effected without oppositi.m the 
 troops were Immediately formed In fourcolumnj 
 the British In the centre, and the provimialg oii 
 the flanks; In which order they marcheil towarti 
 the advanced guard of the French, composed of 
 one battalion posted In a log camp, whioh on 
 the approach of the English, made a precipi'ute 
 retreat. Abetcrombie continued his nmnh to- 
 wards TIconderoga, with the Intention of invest 
 Ing that place; but, the woods being thick and 
 the guides unskilful, his columns weie thrown 
 Into confusion, and. In some measure, entangled 
 with each other. In this situation lord Howe at 
 the head of the right centre column, fell in with 
 a part of the advanced guard of the French ■ 
 which. In retreating from lake George, was like-' 
 wise lost In tho wood. He Immediately attacked 
 and dispersed them ; killing several, and liikine 
 148 prisoners, among whom were five offlcers 
 This small ailvantage was purchaseil at a dear 
 rata. Though only two ofllcers, on the side of 
 the Britiah, were killed, one of thesi- was lord 
 Howe himself, who fell on the first tire Tliis 
 gallant young nobleman had cndcand iiimsejf 
 to the whole army. . . . Without farther oiiixi. 
 sitlon, the English army took piM».ssinu of the 
 post at the Saw Mills, within two iniles of 
 TIconderoga. This fortress Icalled Carillnn by 
 the French], which commands the cnninuinlca- 
 tlon between the two lakes, is enconipaiisid on 
 three sides by water, and secureil In front hv a 
 "••J™"- The ordinary garrison amoiiniini?' to 
 4,000 men, was sUtioned under the cannnu of 
 the place, and covered by a breastwork, the an- 
 proaih to which had been reiidcn-d cxinnu'lv 
 diflicult by trees felled In fMnt, wiih Ihur 
 branches outward, many of which wen- «harp- 
 eneil so as to answer the purpose of cluvnndf- 
 friie. This body of tniops was rendereiU ,lltmire 
 formidable by Iu general than by it.s |.-»iti,.n 
 It was commamled by the marquis' de .Montcalm. 
 Having learned from his prisoners Ihe strcnitth 
 of the army under the walls of Th ondcrot-a, 
 and that a reinforcement of a.(HKI men »a« daily 
 exiMHteil, general Abercromble thoiijjht It ad- 
 visable to storm the place before tlila niiiforfe- 
 ment should arrive. The troops man hiil lo Hip 
 assault witli great Intrepldit'-; but tlnir m.-mmt 
 efforts couhl make no Impression on the worki 
 . . . After a coldest of near four hours, and 
 several repeaUil attacks, general Alien runihie 
 onlervd a retreat. The army rellrwl to the canin 
 from which It had marcheil In the momliiL-; sml. 
 the next day, reaunml its fomier jiosithm on ilif 
 south side of lake George. In this rash niiimpt. 
 the killed and wounded of the Eugliah anKioiliHl 
 to near U.OOO men, of whom not quite 4i«i wire 
 provincials. The French were covcnii (lurinf 
 the wholR sr!i.--.n, swi tfsrif I--^ 5^i= i---t-i- 
 siderable. Entirely disooncerteil by this unei' 
 |>ecleil and bloody repulse, general Al» '• n>nibl< 
 rtllnqulebed his deslgua sfainat Ticuuderup 
 
 384 
 
CANADA, 1788. 
 
 ot 
 
 (sd Crown Point Seaiching however for the 
 means of repairing the miifortune, if not the 
 disgrace, sustained by his arras, he readily ac- 
 ceded to a proposition made by colonel Brad- 
 ■trcet, for an expedition against fort Fmntignac. 
 This fortress stands on the nortli side of On- 
 tario. . . . Colonel Bradstreet embarked on the 
 Ontario at Oswego, and on the 2Sth of Auiust, 
 landed within one mile of the fort. In two days, 
 his batteries were opened at so short a distan-."* 
 that almost every shell took effect ; and the •■ - 
 emor, finding the place absolutely untcn. ■•'..:, 
 lurrenderctl at discretion. . . . After destrc ing 
 the fort and vessels, and such xtores as coul m ( 
 be bmuglit off, colonel Bmdstri'et return* ' to 
 the army which undertook nothing fartherdu " -i 
 the campaign. The demolition of fort Frontig 
 nac and of the stores which had been collects 
 there, contributed materially tu the success of 
 the expedition against fort Du Qutfsnc. The 
 conduct of this enterprise had Xxxn entrusted to 
 general Forbes, who marched from Philadelphia, 
 about the beginning of July, at the head of the 
 main boily of the army, destined for this service, 
 In order to join colonel Bouquet at Rayatown. 
 go much time was employe*! in preparing to 
 move from this place, that the Virginia regulara, 
 commanded by colonel AVaahington, were not 
 ordered to join the British troops until the month 
 of September. . . . Early in Octolwr general 
 Forbi's moved from Kaystown ; but the olmtruc- 
 tioDS to his march were so ^reat that he did not 
 reach fort Du QuCsne until late in November. 
 The garrison, being deserte<l by the Indians, and 
 too weak to inaintAln the place aj.iiin8t the formid- 
 able iimiy which was ajiproaj'liing, nl-indoned 
 the fiTl the evening tielorc th<! arrival of the 
 Brilisli. and escaped iiown the Ohio in lH>ats. The 
 English placed a garrison in it. and changed its 
 Dame to l*itliiburg, in compliment to their popular 
 minister. The acquisition of this post was of 
 great importance to Pennsylvania, Mnrvland, 
 ao'l Virginia." — J. Marshall, Life of H'<u/iin;(<>n, 
 ». 1. th. IS. 
 
 A1.W1 n: W. C Bryant and S. H. Gay, Pnp. 
 Hi't. oflh r. «. r. a, M. 11.— B. Fernow, JU 
 Ohi., Ullryin Oiioniat IMm. rh. 7.— Major H. 
 Hogm, .Umrnatt, ed. hp llnugh, pp. 11,V133. — 
 W, Ir\ing. Life nf WtuhimjVm, e. 1, rh. 24. — 
 N B. Craig, th* (Men Time, t. 1, pp. 177-200. 
 
 A. D. 175a (June— September).— The Fall of 
 Quebec.— "Wolfe's name stood high in the 
 eslei ni ot all who were qualified to judge, brt, 
 at the Mine lime. It stood low in the column of 
 colonels In the Army List. The great minister 
 |Piil| ihought that the former counlvrbulanced 
 the liitlir . . . One of the last gazetles in the 
 
 J ear 17."iH aimounixtl tlie promotlim <>f Colonel 
 ames Wolfe to the rank of majorgeneml, and 
 his sjipointiiient to the chief cimimand of the 
 eipediiion against Quebec. About the middle 
 of Krl>nmry, 17.W, the squadron sailed from 
 Enitliuid to Ixiuisbourg, where the whole of the 
 BriliKh force destined for the Hlver 8t Ijiwrence 
 wasonlirnd to assemble. . . . Twenty-two ships 
 of the line. Ave frigates, and ninelwii smaller 
 vem. U of war. with a crowd of transports, were 
 musund under the orders of the admirul [8aun- 
 dfnj. ami ailplachnirnt nt artllterT sod enstseers. 
 anil iin Imltallima of infantry, with six companies 
 of Ksnjers, formetl Wolfe's command; the right 
 (bnk roniranles of the three rrglnwoM which still 
 fanixiQcU liBultlwurf MMM •(!» Joioed tka 
 
 385 
 
 CANADA, 17(». 
 
 army, and were formed Into a corps called the 
 LouUbourg Orenadiers. The total of the land 
 forces emlwrked were somewhat under 8,000." — 
 E. Warburton, >.anqu€tt (^Canada, e. 2, eh. 9. — 
 "Wolfe, with his 8,000 men, ascended the St 
 Lawrence in the fleet in the month of June. 
 With him came Brigadiers Honckton, Towns- 
 hend and Hurray, youthful and brave like 
 'dmself, and, like himself, already schooled to 
 .nt;s. . The Orenadiers of the army were 
 aju'ipauuec? hv Colonel Guy Carleton, and part 
 of the ligl.i '• .» itry by Lieutenant-Colonel Wil- 
 liam Howe, h- < h destined to celebrity In after 
 years, in :he 1 unals of the American revolution. 
 Colonel ilorf was brother of the gallant Lord 
 ^lowi whoF .J fall in the pTeceding year was so 
 Kt.ui.:.-'> li.mented. Among the olBceraof the 
 fleet was ^ervis, the future admiral, and ulti- 
 mately Earl St Vincent ; and the master of one 
 of the ships was James Cook, afterwards re- 
 nowned as a discoverer. About the end of June, 
 the troops debarked on the large, populous, and 
 well-cultivated Isle of Orleans, a little below 
 Quebec, and encamped in Its fertile fields. 
 Quebec, Cue citadel of Canada, was strong by 
 nature. It was built round the point of a rocky 
 promontoi-y, and flanked by precipices. , . . The 
 place waa tolerably fortified, but art had not yet 
 rendered it, a< at the present day, Impregnable. 
 Montcalm commanded the post His troops 
 were more numerous than the assailants: but 
 the greater part of them were Canadians, many 
 of them inhabitants of Quebec; and be bad a 
 host of savages. His forces were drawn out 
 along the northern shore below the city, from 
 the River St. Charles to the Falls of Montmorency, 
 and their position was secured by deep intr»'nch- 
 ments. . . . After much resistance, Wolfe estab- 
 lished batteries at the west point of the Isle ot 
 Orleans, and at Point Levi, on the right (or 
 soutli) bank of the St. Lawrence, within cannon 
 range of the city. . . . Many houses were set on 
 fire in the upper town, the lower town was 
 reduced to rubbish; the main fort, however, 
 remained unharmed. Anxious for a decisive 
 action, Wolfe, on the (hh of July, crossed over 
 in boats from the Isle of Orleans to the north 
 bank of the 8t. Lawrence, and encamped below 
 the Montmorency. It was an ill- judgeil position. 
 . . . On the 18th of July, Wolfe made a recon- 
 nolterlng expedition up the river, with two 
 armed sloops, and two transports with troops. 
 He passed Quebec unharmed and carefully 
 notea the shores aliove it Rugged clifls rose 
 almost from the water's edge. ... He returned 
 to Montmorency disappointed, and resolved to 
 attack Montrairo in his camp, however dlHIcult 
 to be approached, and however strongly posted. 
 Townshend and Murray, with their brigades, 
 were to cross the Montmorvncy at low tide, 
 below the falls, and storm the miouht thrown up 
 In trmit of tlie fimi. Moiicktim. at the same time, 
 was to cross, with part of his brigade in boau 
 from Point Levi. ... As usual In compliealed 
 orders, part were mlsundentood. or neglected, 
 and confusion was the consequence.' The 
 assault waa repellnl and Wolfe fell back across 
 the river, having lost four hundred men, with 
 two vessels, which ran azroued and were burned- 
 lie felt the failure deeply, and his chagrin waa 
 increased by news of the suooesMs of bis coadju- 
 tors at Ticimderoga and Niagara. "The dfffl. 
 cultlsa multiplylag wouad bim, and tba delajr of 
 
f 
 
 CAKADA, 17S0. 
 
 Qmen.\ Ambent in hMtening to hia aid, preyed 
 incewantly on bis iplrits. ... The agitatlcn of 
 bU mind, and his acute sensibility, brought on a 
 rejer, which for some time incapacitated him 
 ftom taking the field. In the midst of hU illness 
 be called a council of war, in which the whole 
 plan of operations was altered. It was deter- 
 mined to courtj troops aboye the town, and 
 endeayor to make a diyersion in that direction, 
 or draw Montcalm into the open field. . . . The 
 brief Canadian summer was oyer; they were in 
 the month of September. The camp at Mont- 
 morency was broken up. The troops were 
 transported to Point Levi, leaying a sufficient 
 number to man the batteries on the Isle of 
 Orleans. On the 5th and 6th of September tbe 
 embarkation took place aboye Point Leyi in 
 tran.sporU which had been sent for the pur- 
 P<»e^ Montcalm detached De Bougalnyille with 
 1,500 men to keep along the nortK shore aboye 
 the town, watch the movements of the squadron 
 and prevent a landing. To deceive him. Admiral 
 Holmes moved with the ships of war three 
 leagues beyond the place where the landing was 
 to be attempted. He was to drop down, how- 
 ever, in the night, and protect 'He landing 
 The descent was made In flat-bottomed boau" 
 past midnight, on tbe 18th of September Thev 
 dropped down silently, with the swift current 
 Qui va la f ' (who goes there t) cried a sentinel 
 from the Bhore. ' La France,' replied a capUIn 
 In the first boat, who understood the French 
 language. • A ouel regiment T ' was the demand. 
 I)e Is Heine (llie queen s) replied the captain, 
 knowing that regiment was In De Bougainville's 
 detichment. Fortunately, aeonvoy of provisions 
 was einected down fn)m De Bougainville's 
 which the sentinel supposed this to lie. • Paaw ' 
 CTleji he. and the boats glided on without furtlu'r 
 challenge The landing t<H)k place in a ove 
 near Cape Diamond, which still bears Wolfe's 
 name. He had marked it In reconnoltering, and 
 S^.K .."i ?.'»«»?1 .?»"> "ragKl'd up from it 
 to the Il.igbts of Abraham, which might be 
 climl...; though with difficulty, and that it 
 appeared to lie slightly guarded at top. Wolfe 
 was among the first tluit landed and ascended up 
 the sleep and narrow path, where not more than 
 two could go abreast, and which had been 
 broken up by crass ditches. Colonel Howe at 
 the same lime, with the light Infantry and Hlirh- 
 Und-n, s<-rambled up the woody preclpia* 
 helnmg themselves by the rooU and branches 
 and putting to flight a sergeant's guard posted 
 at he summit Wolfe drew up the men liorder 
 as they mounte.1 ; and bv the break of day found 
 hlmstjf in possession of the fateful Plains of 
 Aliraham. Montcalm was thumlerstruck when 
 woM was brought to him In bis camp that the 
 English were on the helgbu threaUmlng the 
 weakest part of the town. Abaii.lonini his 
 inmmhmenU, be ha*t«no<l across the river 8t 
 Charles and aaccmled the heights, which slope up 
 gnuiusllv from iu banks TlU force was equal 
 in numlwr to that of th.. English, but a great 
 part was ma<ie up of colony trooM and savaites 
 When he saw tlie formidable host of regulars bo 
 hail to <ouU-,id with, he s.nt off swift mSMengeri 
 
 I>tatk<if 
 
 wov*: 
 
 CANADA, im. 
 
 memorable battle which ensued, Wolfe »l,n i-j 
 the English line, received, first,' aluskerw;'?^ 
 Ws wrist, and soon afterward was struck bv. 
 second in the breast. He was borne morSlJ 
 wounded to the rear, and lived just long ,.„3 
 to hear a cry from those around him tb.uT 
 enemy ran. Giving a quick order f..r \\\w, 
 
 Ri»er bridge and there obstruct tlio French 
 ^il??'' ^' ^"™*^ "P"" '"'» »''le, saving •■ Now 
 God be praised, I will die in peace,'' a,u„S 
 In the meantime the French c<m,man,l,.r W 
 <»lm had received hU death-wound. X. 
 striving to rally his flying tr«op,. Th,. virtoi 
 of the English was complete, and they h^S 
 to fortify their position on the Plains of .U rS 
 preparing to attack the citadel. But, M., ,i2 
 aying of his wound the following niominrn" 
 furUicr defence of the place was undortakon It 
 was surrendered on the 17th of Sepu.mbiT t.. Gen- 
 eral Tow-nshend, who had succeedt^d to il,e com. 
 mand.-W. Irving, l(feofWa,Mngton. ,. l mm 
 
 ^-23-— Lord^ Malion (Earl Stanhope), 
 
 \i-'. 
 
 — ,""" "' "^ "KMi Bwiii meiaenffers 
 
 tosiimmnn De Houirsinville with hi,dctachiSent 
 to his aid; an<l IK, Vaiidreil to reinforce him with 
 i.v..! nist-, frrrfi, -trcainp. in the [ii.-ituiliiie be 
 
 P"!!!*^'' "' "'"b ""■ '"" "' ""> English line and 
 rorcc tbem to the opposite prsdploM." In the 
 
 Ena 1713-1-783: mTV U'iy-^rSmA'l 
 of Canada, t. \, eh. t.S. Knox, mioricalj Jr. 
 nal T. 1, pp. 2J.va80; e. 3, pp. l-Vi> 
 
 Vi.U°' '•?" <J««ly-Ang:u.t).-The fall of 
 Nugara, Ticonderon and Crown Point - 
 For the campaign o7 175« the Briii>l, i'„rlia. 
 mentvotejl liberal supplies of men and monov 
 ana the American colonies, encouniijinl hv the 
 successes of the preceding year, raiscllaw num- 
 bers of troops. Amherst 8Ui)ersedtKi .Vlkrcmmbie 
 as commander In-chief "The pl.in for tlie year 
 emlimccKi thri-cextMHiitlons; Fort Xi„g„m wksto 
 be attacked by Pri.ieaux, asslsU^I by Sir William 
 Johnson ; Amheret was to march his f,>n <■ ssaiurt 
 Tlcondiniga and Crown Point; and Ou, Nt wu 
 to Ix- assailed by an army under Wolf,- hh.I a tim 
 un., r Saunders. I'ridoam and AmhciM afltr 
 th. ipturt of the forU, were to dewriul the Sl 
 Lawrence, take Montreal, and join th.. anny \w!on 
 VJuehec. . . . Vaudreull, the Ooveni.ir, liavinir 
 received warning from France of the iuleiiti„ns of 
 the English, sent a small force to Xia^'ara under 
 the entfiniH!r Poucbot, not exiiecling to be abl« 
 to hold the post, and not wishing to sacriflcs 
 many men, or to spare tlie troops fnim the more 
 Important polnU. Poucbot repaln-d tlietbf. pci* 
 and when the alarm was given thai the l.-i 'lish 
 were near, sent for men from \'ti-».in Uk 
 Venango, and Di-troU. Prideaux, in e..nun.ni,l of 
 two British retflmrnU, a battalbm .,f ll,v»l 
 Americans, two liatullons from .New York and 
 a train of artillery, was jolne.1 bv John- ui iviili 
 a detachment of Indians. They \hxmi ilieir 
 march from 8<lienertaily on tlie'SOili ..f .Mar, 
 and, after a difficult journey, n-arhed o-wpiio. 
 where a detachment under 'Coloml llr iuianJ 
 was left U> take jMmseaalou and fnnn a |. -i and 
 the remainder of the forces einlrarl,e.l ..ii Uke 
 Ontario, and on the 1st of July laml.tl wiiliout 
 opfkisitliiu aUiutsix miles east (.f tlii. nicuihof 
 the Niagara. . , . Prideaux liegan his mmtin 
 on the loth, and im the llth a sallv wa* in*l« 
 fp<m the fort ; but the Enxlista plaoHl ib, in* Ives 
 iu line of liattle, and the Pri'mli wire oblu-nl t.) 
 retire. l*rideaux wu •ii<iti)||v ailt-gii.ih; ii)a 
 work . . . when, on ibe IWh. tin was kiilnl br 
 the bunting of a shell from a Coehorn iii^mr In 
 oos of (he trsDcbea, wbarv be bad gone to iisus 
 
 386 
 
 
CANADA. 17M. 
 
 n< JVtndk 
 aurnndmr. 
 
 CANADA, 1780. 
 
 Olden. Amhent appointed Qeneml Oage to 
 ■ucceed him, but before tlie arrival of Oage tlie 
 command devolved upon Qeneral Johnaon, who 
 carried on the siege according t ' the plana of 
 Prideaux." On the 34th a consii rable force of 
 French and Indians, about 1,600 trong, sent to 
 tlie relief of tlie beleaguered fort, waa inter- 
 cepted and routed, most of the French officers 
 and men Iwing slain or captured. This took from 
 Poucli<)t his last hope, and he surrendered the 
 fuUawtni; day. " As the stations tieyond Niagani 
 were unw completely cut off from communica- 
 tion with the east, and had given up a Urge part 
 of ihi'ir men to join D'Aubry [in the attempt to 
 relieve Niagara], they were no longer capable of 
 resistance. Presqu' Isle, Venango, and Le BcEuf 
 were easily taken by Colonel Bouquet, who had 
 been sent to summon them to surrender. " The 
 detachment left at Oswego, in charge of stores, 
 was attacked by a body of French and Indians 
 from La Presentation (Ogdensburg), but the at- 
 tack fnilcd. " For the reduction of the forts at 
 TiconcliToga and Crown Point, Amherst lukd 
 iuraewli.'it more than 11,000 men. He began 
 preparations early in May at Albany, preparing 
 Dosts, gathering stores, and dittciplining the new 
 recruits. " In June he readied Lake George with 
 his army, but it was not until late in July that 
 " the uriny moved down the lake in four columns, 
 in a fleet of whale-boats, bateaux, and artillery 
 rafts, viry much as Abercroniby's men liad gone 
 to tlieir defeat the year Ixfore, and left the U)ats 
 nearly opposite the former landing-place, Tiie 
 vungu^iril, pushing on rapidly over tlie rood to 
 tlie falls, met a detachment of French and In- 
 dians, whom they overpowered and scattenil 
 after a slight skirmish, and the main btxly 
 pressed on au<l took a position at the saw mills. 
 Friim prisoners it was learned that liourlnmaquu 
 commanded at TIconderoga with 8,400 men. 
 Montculm was at Quebec. The French witli- 
 drew fnim their outer lines Into the fort, and 
 
 made a sliow of resistance for several da- lile 
 
 they evacuated the place. An explosi " 
 
 the nli;lit of the 2.*ith of July, "and tl 
 the burning works, assured the Engli 
 reti^stof the Flench, of which they bau 
 heari from a deserter, and Colonel Ilavlla . puf- 
 ■ued them down the lake with a few troops, and 
 look siiteen prisoners and some l>i>au laden with 
 powdrf. . . . AftertheHames«.recxtlngulahcil, 
 AmhiTsI, who had I'Mt about 73 men, went to 
 work to repair the fortiacations and complete the 
 rmil from the lake. 8<>me sunken French boats 
 Win- ralwl. and a brig was buili. Amherst was 
 ilowlv prc(iariiig to attack Crown I>oint, ami 
 sent llouerswilh his rsngrrsto reconnoitre. But 
 on the Urst of August they learned that the 
 rnmh lia<t aliandoned that fijrtalso: and on the 
 lUtli that Ilourlaiiiai)ue's men were ercamosd on 
 the Me aux Nolx, at the northern extremitv of 
 Lake I'Immplain, comiiiaiiillrg the entrance to 
 the Itii h.lifu. They had lieen Joined by some 
 •mall •|.(m limenta, and numtx'ri'd alwut 8.500 
 men. AitiliersI spent his time in fortifying Crown 
 Point, ami ImiMiug boaU and rafts," until "It 
 Was too l.ii,. to deM'enil U) .Montreal anil go to the 
 help of \\,,|f|.; the time for that bail been passed 
 111 elslHirate and useless pn'|>ar>tionB."— R John- 
 r-it. Ir.-^. r,j thi h.mJi War. oA. 18. 
 
 AisiiiM; F.. Warhurton, OmmtMt of dtnada, t. 
 2 M l»-_W L. Huine, Lif, and JYium ^ Sr 
 
 A. D. 1760.— The completion of the EiufUtk 
 conquest.— The end of" New France."— "Not- 
 withstanding the successes of 1759, Canada waa 
 not yet completely conquered. If Amherst had 
 moved on faster and taken Montreal, the work 
 would have been finished ; but his failure to do 
 80 gave the French forces an opportunity to 
 rally, and the indefatigable De Levis, who had 
 succeeded Montcalm, gathered what remained of 
 the army at Montreal, and made preparations 
 for attempting the recovery of Quebec. . . . 
 After several fruitless attacks had been made on 
 the British outposts during the winter, De Levis 
 refitted all the vessels yet remaining early in the 
 spring and gathered the stores still left at the 
 forts on the lUchclieu. On the 17th of April, he 
 left Montreal with all his force and descended 
 the river, gathering up the detached troops on 
 the way; the whole amounting to more than 
 10,000 men. Quebec had been left in charge of 
 Murray, with 7,000 men, a supply of heavy ar- 
 tillery, and stores of ammunition and provisions; 
 but the number of men had been much reduced 
 by sickness and by hardship encounte'cd in 
 1 bringing fuel to the city from forests, some as 
 I far as ten miles away. Their position, however, 
 j had been very mucii strengthened. . . . De Levis 
 encamped at St. Foy, and on the 27th advanced 
 to within three miles of the city."— R. Johnson, 
 I Hint, of thi French M'ar. eh. 21.— "On the 2«th 
 I of April, Murray, marching out from the citv, 
 left the advantageous ground which he first 
 ! occupied, and hazariled an attack near Sillery 
 Wood. The ndvanoe-guard, under Uoiirlamaque, 
 ^ rctuincd it with ardor In danger of In-iiig sur- 
 rounded, Murray was obligeil to lly, leaving ' his 
 ! very fine trainof artillery, and losing 1,000 men. 
 I The Fr«'nch appear to have lost about 800, 
 i though Murray's report increased it more than 
 j eightfold. During the next two days, Levi 
 j [Levis] opened trenches against the town; but 
 ! the frost delayed the work's The English gar- 
 I rison, reduced to 2,200 effective men, labored 
 i with alacrity; women, and even cripples were 
 ! set to light work. In the French army, not a 
 i word would be listened to of the possilillity of 
 I failure. But IMtt had foreseen and prepared for 
 ! all. A fleet at his bidding went to relieve the 
 city; and to bis wife he was able to write In 
 ! June: 'Join, my love, with me. In most hiiiiible 
 and grateful thanks to the Almighty. Swaiiton 
 j arrived at Quelxc In the VanguanI on the 15th 
 ' of May, and destroyed all the Fri'iiiii sliipping, 
 six or seven in numlier, The sieire wis raisj'd 
 on the 17th, with every liappv circumstance. 
 : Tlie enemy left their caiiip sumling: abandoned 
 40 piece! of cannon. Hajipy, happy day I My 
 I Joy and hurry are ineipn^ible. When the 
 , spring openea, .\mherst had no dildciilllKa to 
 : encounter In taking pos.si'ssii>n of Canada but 
 I such as he himself sliould create. A country 
 suffering from a four yean' scarcity, a dis- 
 heartened peasantry, five orsix battailous, wasted 
 I by Incrediljlc services and not recruited from 
 I France, offered no op|x>sltion. .\mherst led the 
 ; main army of 10.(K)0 men by way of Oswego; 
 ' though the laNir of getting there was greater 
 ^ than that of nroceeiling directly uiMin .Montreal. 
 i He desrended the St. Lawn-nre cautiously, fak- 
 ing piMM-asioii of the feeiiie works at t'gdens- 
 burg. Treating the helples* Canaillans with 
 humanity, and with no loss of lives except In 
 paasiuK the niplda, on the 7th of September, 17flU, 
 
 387 
 
CANADA, nao. 
 
 lU 
 
 I Q m tw 
 
 CANADA, 17»-m4. 
 
 he met before Montreal the amy of Murmy. 
 The next day Haviland arrived with forces irom 
 Crown Point; and, in the view of the tiree 
 armies the flag of St George was raisod In 
 triumph over the gate of Montreal. ... The 
 capitulation [.signed by the Marquis deVaiMreuil 
 governor against Uic protest of U.i»j included 
 all Canada, which was said to eitend to the crest 
 of land dividing branches of Lakes Erie and 
 J 1 *^'"i,(™"' "'"^ "' ""« Miami, the Wabash 
 Si. '.'T'1 ^l""- Pnyerty and religioi 
 were cared for In the terms of surrender; but for 
 civil liberty no stipulation was thought of 
 On the fifth day after the capltuUtlon, Romrs 
 departed with 2i)o rangers to ciny English 6^ 
 nersto the upper posts. . . . -nie iSdians on 
 the lak.a were at peace, united under PontUM;, 
 the great chief of the Ottawas, happy In a 
 country fruitful of com and abounding In game. 
 The Americans were met at the mouth of a river 
 by a deputation of Ottowas. • PonUac,' said they 
 IS the chief and lord of the country you are In- 
 wait till he can see you.' When Pontlac and 
 Kogers met, the savage chieftain asked: 'How 
 have you dared to enter my country without mv 
 
 ■ til \ ?'"*'•■ '?P""' "'^ £"«"»»» agent, 
 with no design against the Indians, but Ut re- 
 move the French. •^' Pontiac, after some delay, 
 smoked the calumet with Itogers and consented 
 to his mission. The latter then proceeded to 
 take possession of Detroit. In the following 
 spring ho went on to the French posu in the 
 noithwest-0. Bancroft. /fi,t. oftht U 8. 
 {Author M Uut rention). r. 2, pn 522-534. 
 .J"}^ '.?• W. Smith, nut. of Canada, 1. 1, M. 7 
 (giving the Articles of Capitulation In full) — P 
 l-arkman, .Vonlnilm and Wolfe, eh 59-80 (c 2) 
 -r,^- P- ,'Z'3.-Cede<l to En and by the 
 Treaty cf ^aris. See Seveji \ bars Wxk. 
 ,ri;»5i' '''*|-'774— The ProTince of Quebec 
 Oh a 7° '"" "*' military nileT-The 
 
 Quebec Act of W^.-E.tension of QuebSI 
 ProTince to the 6Woand the MitaJtJfppi!!: 
 
 / V":? J'''*" "f'^'f »li« conquest, the govem- 
 nient of taniula was entrusted to military chiefs 
 •tatlon« at (Juebec. Montn-al and Three Rivera 
 the "^eadquartersof thethn'c departments Inui 
 whlcu General Amherst di decf the coun'-y 
 Military councils were esUbllshed to adminisUT 
 
 ^ :.. k"","',' "?"'t' ""= I^P'**!'-! not resort 
 to such tribunaU, but settled their difflcultics 
 among ,l„.ms..lvea In 1783. the king. O^rgo 
 III., Isauwi a proclamation esubllshlng four new 
 governments, of which Quebec wu Soe. Lab- 
 rador, fnini 8t. John's River to Hudson's Bav 
 Antlco.ll, and the Magdalen Islands, were place,! 
 under the jurisdiction of NVwf.mndland aiil the 
 Island, of &t, John (or Prince Edward liCd „ 
 U was afterward, called), and Cape Breton (ile 
 Royale with tlie smaller islan.l. ..Ijacent tl,er..u' 
 were added to the government of Nova Soolla' 
 
 .h!LT.f P""" ^"^ «''■'■" ^ "'" 8'>''emors, In 
 the l.t ten. patent by which these govcmmenU 
 were .•..,«titut«l, to summon general ««emhli", 
 with iJio advice and cmw'nt of His Majostv's 
 Council, n such manner and form a* was usial 
 n tlH«,.».l,,nies8n.l provimc. which were under 
 the King . imnicliate government'. . . No as- 
 ,«^ £■ '"'"•"•'f- o"" ""•t. a. the FrenchUana- 
 dlao popuIaUnn were unwilHng Ix. take Hje t^jt 
 
 ^iSj""* "T ,»<'r«™ment of the province was 
 OMTled on solily by the governor general, with 
 tbo aMiitaoce of an execuUve oouna, ocapoMd 
 
 388 
 
 In the first instance of the tw- lieutenant «.. 
 
 i^h/*V.."'* surveyor general of custom, .^j 
 eight others chosen from the leading re,i, , V b 
 
 ^n-«!^^av!^'-uS,S'^t!''S;'£ 
 
 p'^'tX-w^^ ""'"^iie-'ri ii 
 
 cWion of 1763. In 1774, PariUment fn "rveS 
 for the first time ■ . Oanadlan affaln. ,.mi „ . 
 Importontconstitu.:.nal7han^ T^e' Ivr'' 
 constitution had been creatSHy IXZ^Z 
 under the great ««1 of Qtf^i Britain, in tl Hi 
 ^l^i;?.K'"JV""°°"S,«'"«l "nJisp-iUd pre. 
 of the old possessions of Great Britain now 
 
 XT.r/h'"' ''°"*^ ^'•'«"" America, had thej 
 origin In the same way. But In J774 a svS 
 of government was granted to Canada liV thS 
 express authority of Parilament This eon^titu 
 tlon was known as the Quebec Act, and giSuv 
 extended the boundaries of the pTvi^^i? 
 
 8n'„^'.f ''V'?"'^''' "■" P'oclamatFon ,! 7:m 
 On one ride, the province extended to tl,e (ma- 
 tier, of New England, Pennsylvania New York 
 prpvU.ce, the ollo, and the left bankT.f tfe 
 
 Territory Labrador, and the Islands ann.x,5w 
 Newfoundland by the proclamation of ITti) were 
 ^^f^ti,!'* "•* Pro'flnce of QueW-c. The 
 
 Act of 1774 was excee<lingly unpopul« i, E„i 
 ^i^t '" "'° English-syaking Llcni' , Thfo 
 at the commencement of tlie Revoluti.m Pa, 
 
 hJ°lf °H«.'~ ?"• 5PP<«" *" '""'e been int)u,.nced 
 by a derire to adjust the gov .rnm.nt of the 
 provtace so as to concilUte tSe majori? ■ ::; ,"'e' 
 F^P . A • ■. ^"^ "ew eoustitutiim ciimi. into 
 ;«"*'" O't^h*'. j"4. The Act sets forth amu„g 
 U^e reasons for legUlation that the pr„vi,S 
 
 nH™hX"'f^P'^'"™«"™'" "88 wire i„,^ 
 pi cable to the state and cireumstanivs ,if the 
 said province, the inhabitanU where„f »„,„uuted 
 ?l..nl?h"''T'' «° «'«ve 65,000 |H.r».nu pro- 
 feaaing the religion of the Church of R.,,,,,, ^^i 
 enjoying an ostablishe.! form of constltiilinn and 
 !S^r?'J"*'' ''y "hieh their persons «m,I |m)p. 
 erty had been protect^l jpjvernci. «„d „r.|,r^ 
 for a long series of years, from tlie tlrst eslalilUh- 
 Ti,^?l . »P'^'^''"^' Cons<-qii..ntlv, it is pro- 
 .lu*!..^' ."?'™'? ^^'"•'olirs should b.. no Innjer 
 . fi^*" take the tost mth, but onlv the oath 
 of allegUnce. The government of the province 
 was entrusted to a governor an<l . legislative 
 roundl appointed by the Crown, i.iasmuch u 
 11 '"•""Mlent to call in asseinhlv ' This 
 council was to compriM not more tliaii" iwetily- 
 three and not leas than ievcnt«'cn iiienilx r< sod 
 hail the power, with the conwnt of the m.v.mor 
 or commander-in-chief for the time Uing. i,, make 
 oMlnance. for the peace, welfan., aiul good 
 g-vemmenl of the province. They h .,i no su- 
 lh.irity, however, to lay on any tales or .iutlet 
 "o ?J" '"?\" ""> InhabltanU ol anv town or 
 district might be authoriie<l w asse;^ or levv 
 within lu proclncu for roads and or-liimrv locsl 
 servloea. No ordinance could lie (laMiit Ijcepi 
 by a majority of the council, and everv .'mi. IH 
 to t« irmiaiiii i i„i within six month* afle'r lueimrt- 
 ment to His Majesty for approval or .lisallow. 
 ance. It was also enacted that In all matteni of 
 controTeny, relatlre lo property and civil tight., 
 
 lii 
 
L^ 
 
 CANADA, 1788-1T74. 
 
 Amitriea» 
 ImvailOK. 
 
 CANADA, 1775-1776. 
 
 ncoune ihoulu be bad to the French dvil pro- 
 cedure, whilst the criminal law of England should 
 obtain to the exclusion of eTerv other criminal 
 code which might have prevailed before 1764. 
 . . . Roman Catholics were permitted to observe 
 their religion with perfect freedom, and their 
 clergy were to enjoy their ' accustomed dues and 
 rigbu' with respect to such persons as profesred 
 that creed. Consequently, the Roman Catholic 
 population of Canada were relieved of tlieir (Us- 
 abilities many years before people of the same 
 belirf in Orrat Britain and Ireland received 
 iimilar privileges. The new constitution was 
 inauguratcdby Major Oeneral Carleton, after- 
 wards I,ord Lorchester, who nominated a legts- 
 e council of twenty-three members, of whom 
 t.Lu. were Roman Catholics."— J. O. Bourinot, 
 Manuiil of Oaiut. Jliit. of Canada, eh. 3-3. 
 Also m: W. Houston, DoeumenU lUuttratite 
 
 (ff the Canadian Conttitution, pp. 90-96 See 
 
 also, Unitkd States of Am. : A. D. 1774 (March 
 — Apbil). 
 
 A. D. 1775-1776-— loTuioa by the rcToitinr 
 American colooiits.— Lois and recoTeir 01 
 Montreal.— Succeiaful defence of Quebec— 
 At tuo beginning of the revolt of the thirteen 
 colonies which subseoucntly formed, by their 
 separation from Great Britain, the United States 
 of America, it was believed among them that 
 Canada would join their movement if the British 
 troops which occupied the country were driven 
 out. Acting on tliis belief, the Continentil Con- 
 gress at Philadelphia, In June, 1775. adoptc<l a 
 rcsolutiim instructing Urncml Schuyler to n-pair 
 without delay to Ticonderoga (which had been 
 jurprisi'd and taken a few weeks l)oforc by Ethan 
 Allen and his " Orcen Mountain Buys "), and "If 
 he found it practicable, and it would not be dis- 
 agntalile to the Canadians, immediately to take 
 pos3cs.sion of St. Jiihn's and Montreal, and pursue 
 any otlicr mea.«Hn>s in Canada which might have 
 a U'mleniy Id promote the peace and 8<'curity of 
 these col.inies." Oeneral Schuyler founcl it 
 dilHcult to gather tnxips and supplies for the 
 projiiled expedition, and it was the middle of 
 August iK'fore he was prepared to move. Ilia 
 chief »iil>ordlnate ollirerwas Oen. Ricliard Mont- 
 (toiiKTv, an Irishman, formerly in the British 
 8.rvur, liut wttled latterly in New York ■ and 
 
 he was 1,1 lie »iippi)rted bv a cooiiemtiVo i'nm"e 
 " le<l by Ik>ne<llct Arnold 
 
 ment planned aiid 
 
 tHiHial .Montiroiiiery, with 3,(X)0 men. would 
 go down I,:ike Clmmiduin and attjick Montreal- 
 while (iimml Ariiohl. with 1,300, was to seek 
 the hemlWHters of Kennebec Hiver, cross the 
 heijtlit of laud, ami dtiwx'nd the Chaudicre to tho 
 very gates of l^udiec. The brave Ch'n.'ral 
 tarlei.in. who Imd lK.<.n with Wolfe at Quetiec 
 was How ill coimuaiid of the forces of Canada — 
 If Hio Ilntish regulars and a few hundrtnl militia 
 mlghi Ik »o ilenoiiiiiiated. No doubt Oovcmor 
 (.arliMu with his small army undertook too 
 murh lli».uglit to defend the wav to Montreal 
 by ho ,|,nu' Korl St. John, and that io (iuclicc by 
 J. finding' Clianil.ly. Both these places fell be- 
 low the Americans. General Montgomery 
 puHied o„ ,|„w„ the Hivcr lUchelleu and occu- 
 r~~'' '^' j'"'"*'»ff forcci across the St 
 
 Laws-:;:' :in;j .-rfT.nl 'laltmrs On ildlfa >i,lv« l<> 
 
 pn'Mni inicriourwi Ix-twwn Montreal and 
 (^uehjc .Montreal, iiuw ' ■fenccli«, was com- 
 pelle.1 to ,„rr,.n,ler on the itfth of November, and 
 u Brtiish Vessels were jlron up to tile eoMDy 
 
 It WM r»ally s dark hour for Canada. General 
 j^arleton has been severely criticized for dividing 
 his fonws. The truth is, the attack was so un- 
 
 "lE^. • ""* *° '°°° *'*«' "•« outbreak of the 
 rebelUon, that no plan of defence for Canada 
 had been Uid. . . . General Carleton escaped 
 irora Montreal, and, in a boat, passed the Sorel 
 batteries with muffled oars under cover of night 
 The general had but reached Quebec in time. 
 The expedition of Arnold had already gamed the 
 Bt. Lawrence on the side opposite the 'Ancient 
 Capitol. The energy displayed by Arnold's 
 men was remarkable. The Kennebec b a series 
 of rapids. lu swift current hurrie- over dan- 
 gerous rocks at every turn. The highUnds 
 when reached consist of swamps and rocky 
 ridges covered with forest. The Chaudiere 
 proved worse than the Kennebec, and the 
 current being with the boaU, dashed them to 
 pieces on the rocks. Arnold's men, on their six 
 weeks march, had run short of food, and were 
 impelled to eat the dogs which had accompanied 
 them. Not much more than half of ^mold's 
 army reached the St. Lawrence. Arnold's fores 
 crossed the St. Lawrence, htndcd at Wolfe's 
 Cove, and built huts for themselves on the Plain* 
 of Abraham. On the 5th of December Mout- 
 
 fomery joined the Kennebec men before Quebec 
 he united force was of some 8,000 men sup- 
 ported by about a dozen light guns. Carieton 
 had, for the defence of Quebec, only one com- 
 pany of regulars and a few seamen and marines 
 of a sloop of war at Queliec. The popuUritv of 
 the governor was such that he easily prevailed 
 upon the citizens, both French and English to 
 enroll themselves In companies for the defence 
 of their homea. He was atile to count upon 
 about 1,600 bayoneU. The defeuces of Quebec 
 were, however, too strong for the Americans 
 On the night of Dcceinlier Slst, a desoerate 
 effort was made to take the citv by escalade. 
 Four attacks were maile simiiltaneimsly. Arnold 
 sought to enter hv the St. Charles, on the north 
 side of Quebec, and Jlontgomery liy the t..>uth, 
 bt'tween Cape Diamond and the St. I^wreiice. 
 Two feints were to be matle on the side towards 
 the Plains of Abraham. The liopc of the com- 
 manders was to have forced the gates from the 
 lower to the upper town in botli cu.ses. Arnold 
 falletl to reach the lower town, and in a sortie 
 the defenders cut off nearly the whole of his 
 column. He escaped wounded. Montgomery 
 was killed at the second entrenchment of the 
 lower town, and his triMips retired in confusion. 
 The American generals have been criticised by 
 experU for not making their chief atUiek on the 
 wail facing on the Plains of Abraham 
 General Arnold remaineil N'fore Uueliei'. tiiougb 
 his troops had bi-come reiiuiiHl to WK) men. 
 General Carieton pursued a policy of acting 
 strictly on the defensive. If he retained Quebec 
 it would bo his greaU'st sueivss. General Arnold 
 sought to gain the «vin(i8tliy of the French 
 Canadian seigniora snd iHHiple. but witliout any 
 success. Three thousauit triMips. however, came 
 to reinforce Amolil early in the vear, and 4 000 
 ow'upled Montreal. St. Johns, and Cham'bly. 
 Hut on the 61I1 of Mav relief came from Kng- 
 iaud; men of war anil trantporta, with three 
 brigades of infantry besides artillery, stores, and 
 an .nunltloM, The ,\inericans withdrew to Sorel. 
 ''he British tniops followed them, and a brigade 
 encampeu at Three lUvera. The Americwu n- 
 
 889 
 
CAXADA, 1775-1776. 
 
 IV nnntfir 
 
 CANADA, 1830-1887. 
 
 H^,^. 
 
 tempted to lurpiiae the force at Three River-, 
 but were repulsed with heavy lou. The Ameri- 
 cans now fell back from Montreal, deserted all 
 the posts down to Lake Champlain, and Oovemor 
 Carlcton had the pleasure of occupying Ie'3-aux- 
 Noix as the outpost, leaving Canada as it had 
 been Ix-fore the first attack in the year before. " 
 — G. Bryce, Short Hitt. 0/ tht Canadian P^pU, 
 eh. 6, leet. 8. 
 
 A1.8O iH: B. J. Lossing, Life and Timet of 
 Philip Sehuyler. v. 1, eh. lfr-29, and v. 3, eh. 1-4. 
 —J. Sparks, Life and Trr<i») n of Benedict ArmtUl, 
 eh. 8-5 (Library of Am. Biog., v. 8).— J. Ann- 
 strong, Life of Bieharti Montgomery (Lib. of Am. 
 Biog., V. 1).— C. H. Jones, Hitt. of the Campaign 
 for the Conquestof Canada in 1776.— J. J. Henry, 
 AmoUl't Campaign against Quebec. 
 
 A. D. 1776.— General Carleton'a unauc- 
 ceaafu! advance against Ticonderora. See 
 United States op Am. : A. I). 1776-1777. 
 
 A. D. 1777.— Burgorne'a diaaatroua inTaaion 
 of New York. 8«'e U.nitkd States of Am. : 
 A. D. 1777 (July— October). 
 
 A. D 1783.— Settlement of bouodariea in 
 the Treaty of Peace between Great Britain 
 and the United States. See Uniteo States or 
 Am. : A. D. 1783 (Septembkhi. 
 
 A. D. 1783-1784.— Influx of the "United 
 Empire Loyaliats" from the United Statea. 
 See Tories op the American Revolution. 
 
 A. D. 1791— .The Constitutional Act.— Di- 
 Tiaion of the province into Upper and Lower 
 Canada. — " In 1791 a bill was introduced by 
 Pitt dividing the Province into Upper and Lower 
 Canada, the line of division being so drawn as to 
 give a grfitt nuiJDrity to the British element in 
 Upper CaiuKlii unci a ureal majority to tlie French 
 settlers in I»wer Canada. The measure was 
 strongly opposed by F(ix, who urged that the 
 separation of the English and French inhabitants 
 was most undesinihle. . . . The act was passed, 
 and is known as the Constitutional Act of 1791. 
 ... In each pmvincc the legislature was to 
 consist if the (Sovemor, a Legislative Council 
 and a I-egislativc Assembly. The Governor liad 
 power to give or withhold the royal assent to 
 bi'ls or to reserve them for conslderatioM by the 
 Crown. He could summon, prorogue, or dis- 
 aolve the lejfislature, but was required to con- 
 vene the legLilature at least once a year. The 
 Legislative Council in Up|)er Canada consisted of 
 not less than 7, and in Lower Canada of not less 
 than 15 members, chosen by the King for life the 
 Siieakerlieing appoint d by theOovemor-Oeneral. 
 The U'gislative As-scmblv was in counties elected 
 by VH. freeholders, aiicf in towns by owners of 
 houses of £.1 yeiirly value and by icslifent inhabit- 
 ants paving i'lO yearly rent. The number and 
 limits of eleetond distrii'ts were fixed by the Gov- 
 ernor-tJenenil Lower Canada had 50 members. 
 Upper Canada 18 memt)ers, assigned to tlieir 
 respective 'egislalures. TlienewCunstUutiondid 
 not prove a sueeess. Serious diftcreuces arose 
 Jietween the Legi.slative Council and th- I cgislat- 
 Ive Assembly in n'gani to the control of the 
 revenue and supplies, differences which were 
 aggravated by the conflict that ■till went on 
 between the Fr-nch and English races. . . . The 
 dlscimtent ri-su twl in the retM>llion of 18S7-8."— 
 J E. C'. Munni. 7"A< Vonitilutionof Canmla, eh. i. 
 Al.rO IS: W. Houston, Dnci. lUiittfMite uf 
 Vu Canadian Const., pp. 118-188.— O. Brvmoer, 
 Btft. en Canadian Archiva, 1880, i^ip. B. 
 
 890 
 
 A. D. i8i»-i8is.— The War of Great Britaia 
 with the United States. Bee United .States 
 OP Am. : A. D. 1813 (June— October), to IS15 
 (Jasuart). 
 
 A. D. 1818. — Convention between Great 
 Britain and the United States relating to 
 Fiaheriea, etc. See Fibiiebies, North Amehi- 
 can: a. D. 1S14-1818. 
 
 A. D. 1830-1837.— The Family Compact.- 
 " The Family Compact manifestly grew cmi of 
 the principles of the U. E. Loyalists. It wiu the 
 union of the leaders of the loyalists witli oihers 
 of kindred spirit, to rule Upper Canada, heedless 
 of the rights or wishes of its people. We have 
 admired the patriotic, heroic ami seiiiiinental 
 side of U. E. loyiilism; but plainly, as related to 
 civil government, its political doctrines and 
 pmctices were tyrannical. Its prominent mem- 
 bers belonged to the class which in the American 
 colonies, in the persons of Governors Hemard 
 and Hutchinson, and many others of hij;li office 
 and standing, had plotted todestmy the lilierties 
 of the people and had hastened the American 
 revolution. ... By the years 1818 or IWO s 
 junto or cabal had been formed, deflnitc in its 
 alma and flrmly combined together, known ss 
 the Family Compact, not to its l)est leaders 
 seeming an embodiment of scltishnes.s, but mther 
 set for patriotic defence and hallowed with the 
 name of religion. "— G. Bryce, ."ih-jrl lli,t. „fiU 
 Cana^an People, eh. 10, sect. 2.— •Upper 
 Canada . . . luis long l)ecn entirely goveim-d by 
 a party commonly dcsignaU-d throufrlumt the 
 Province as tlie 'Family Compact,' a name oot 
 much more appropriate than party desiLMiatious 
 usually are, inasmuch as tlicre l.s,"in trutli. very 
 little of family connection among the pirsons 
 thus united. For a long time this hoily of men, 
 readying at times accessions to its memlKTs. pos- 
 sessed almost all the highest puMii oiliies. by 
 means of which, and of its induinee in tbe 
 Executive Cotmcil, It wielded all the pow. rs of 
 
 {[ovemment; it maintained iidluence in tbe liirfs- 
 ature by means of its predondnnnee in tbe Leg- 
 islative Council ; and it disposed of a l,iri,'e num- 
 ber of petty post* which arc in the patrimniie of 
 the Government all over the Province. Succes- 
 sive Governors, as they came in their turn, iire 
 Siiid to have either submitttHi (piietly to its inllu- 
 ence, or, after a short and unavailini; siruci;le. 
 to have yielded to this well organizcl luriv the 
 real conduct of affairs. The Innch, the rMiigis- 
 tracy, the high olllces of the Episcopal ( burrh, 
 and a great part of the legal profession, nrc tilled 
 bv the adherents of this party : by gninl or pur- 
 chase, tliey have acnuired ni ;irlv the wliole of 
 tlie waste lands of the PnivincV; tbiv ore all 
 powerful In the charu-ml lianks. and. till bitelv. 
 shared among themselves almost exilusin iv all 
 oRlcea of trust and profit. The bulk of 1 bi^ purty 
 couslsts, for the most part, of native Ixirn inljublt- 
 ants of the colony, or of emlgnini.s h bo willed 
 In it before the last war with the I'niiid Slates; 
 the principal members of it btdong to llic cburch 
 of England, and the mainti/iiam e of ibc ilaims 
 of that church has always been one of in dis- 
 tinguishing characteristics."— Earl of Durham, 
 Hrpt. on the Affaire of Hritith .V. Am. p. lOV- 
 " The tnfiuemrs which pn>duce<l ibe Fimily 
 Compact were not contlneil to Upix'r Ciniida. 
 lu the Lower Province, as well asin^ovn .>-nli» 
 and New Brunswhk, similar raUMW led tosniillsr 
 resulta, and the tenn Family Compact has at out 
 
CANADA. 1880-1887. ^ 
 
 time or auotber been a famtlUr one In all the 
 liritisli North American coloniea. . . . The des- 
 ignation Family Compact, liowever, did not owe 
 iw orisrin to any combination of North American 
 colonists, but was borrowed from the diplomatic 
 history of Europe."— J. C. Dent, The 8tory of 
 tht V'i'ptr Canadian StbelUon, ch. 8. 
 
 A. D. 1837.— The Causes of discontent which 
 ptoduced rebellion.—" It was in Lower Canada 
 that the greatest difficulties arose. A constant 
 antagonism grew up between the majority of 
 the Ipgislative council, who were nominees of 
 the Crown, and the majority of the representa- 
 tive assembly, who were elected by the popula- 
 tion of the province [see above; A. D. 1791]. 
 The home Government encouraged and indeed 
 kept up that most odious and dfangerous of all 
 instnimenu for the supposed management of a 
 colony— a 'British party' devoted to the so- 
 called interestsof the mother country, and obedi- 
 ent to the word of command from their masters 
 and patrons at home. The majority in the legis- 
 lative council constantly thwarted the resolu- 
 ti, ■ of t he vast majority of the popular assembly. 
 Disputes arose as to the voting of supplies. The 
 Government retained in their service officials 
 whom the representative assembly had con- 
 demned, and insisted on the right to pay them their 
 salaries out of certain funds of the colony. The 
 representative assembly took to stopping the 
 supplies, and the Government chilmcd the right 
 to counteract this measure by appropriating to 
 the purpose such public moneys as happened to 
 be within their reach at the time. The colony — 
 for iiiilecd on these subjocta the population of 
 Lower Cauada, right or wrong, was so near to 
 being of one mind tliat we may take the declara- 
 tions of public meetings as representing the col- 
 onv — ik'uianded that the legislative council 
 slif'uM l)e made elective, and that the colonial 
 giivirnnu'ut should not be allowed to dispose of 
 tlie mnnevs of the cohmy at their pleasure. The 
 Ilousi' .if "Commons and the Government herere- 
 iliid liy refusing to listen to the proposal. . . . 
 .t is not necessary to suppose that in all these 
 disputes the popular majority were In the right 
 sml thi' officials in the wrong. No one can doubt 
 that there wtis much bitterness of feeling arising 
 out of the mere differences of race. ... At last 
 the npreseniative assembly refused to vote any 
 furthtr supplies or to carry on any further busi- 
 ness. They formulated their grievances against 
 the home (lovirnment. Their complaints were 
 o( srliitniry conduct on the part of the governors ; 
 intdleralile composition of the legislative council, 
 whieh they iusisteil ought to be elective; illegal 
 iippr>l>riaiion of the public money, and violent 
 IiMn.i.Mtlnn of the provincial parliament. One 
 of llie Ic'ailing men In the movement which after- 
 variU liecame ri'tM'ilidn in Lower Canada wa* Hr. 
 Loais .IiiHcph Papineau. This man had risen to 
 high position by his talents, hU energy, and his 
 uniliiibtedly lionouralile character, lie had rep- 
 rescnteii Montreal in the representative Assembly 
 of 1.0 ver Canada, and he afterwards became 
 Speaker of the House. He made himself leader 
 of the iiioveiuent to protest against the policy of 
 the governom. and that of the Government by 
 whom ihfy were sustained. Ho held a series of 
 mee'iUL'5. si ^sime nt wlilrh iinstnuhtpilly rather 
 itrniiir laiiKua;;ii was used. . . . Lord Clotford, 
 the iT'ivemor, tH'ian hr dismissing lereiml mllltta 
 oflcers wl'u had takeo part In lome of ' 
 
 iXmmtmt 
 
 t 
 
 CANADA, 1887. 
 
 demonstrations; Mr. Papineau himself was an 
 officer of this force. "Then the governor issued 
 warrants for the apprehension of many memljers 
 of the popular Assembly on the charge of high 
 treason. Some of these at once left the country ; 
 others against whom warrantu were issued were 
 arrested, and a sudden resistance was made by 
 their friends and supporters. Then, in a manner 
 familiar to all who have rc» I anything of the 
 history of revolutionary movements, the resistance 
 to a capture of prisoners suddenly transformed 
 itself into open rebellion." — J. .McCarthy, Hitt. 
 of our own Timet, t. 1, cA. 3. — Among the griev- 
 ances which gave rise to discontent in both Upper 
 and Lower Canada, "first of all there was the 
 cb nic grievance of the Clergy Reserves [which 
 wt public lands set apart by the Act of 1791 
 for Jie support of tlie Protestant Clergy], com- 
 mon both to British and French, to Upper and to 
 Lower Canada. In Upper Canada these reserves 
 ^.nountcd to 2,500,000 acres, being one-seventh 
 of the lands in the Province. Three objections 
 were made against continuing these Reserves for 
 the purpose for which they Imd been set apart 
 The fir.t objection arose from the way In which 
 the Executive Council wislied to apply the rev- 
 enues accruing from these lauds. According to 
 the Act they were to be applied for ' maintaining 
 the Protestant religion In Canada' ; and the Execu- 
 tive Council interpreted this us meaning too ex- 
 clusively the Church of England, wliich was es- 
 tablished by law In the mother-country. But the 
 objectors claimed a right for all Protestant de- 
 nominations to share In the Reserves. Tlie second 
 objection was that the amount of these lands was 
 too large for the purpose in view: and the third 
 referred to the way fa which the Reserves were 
 selected. These 2,500,000 acn-s did not lie in a 
 block, but, when the early surveys were made, 
 every seventh lot was reserved ; and as thesi' lots 
 were not cleared for years the people complained 
 that they were not utilizetl, and so became incon- 
 venient barriers to uniform (civilization. With 
 the Roman Catholics, both priests and people, 
 the Clergy Reserves were naturally unpopular. 
 . . . Anadditionalsourceof complaint wasfound 
 in the fact that the government of Ui)per and 
 Lower Canada had fouml its wny into tlie hands 
 of a few powerful families luimliil together by a 
 Family Compact Imx above: A. I). l«2()-lt«i7]. 
 . . . But the Constitutional dilllinilty was, after 
 all, the great one, and It lay at the bottom of the 
 whole dispute. . . . Altogether the issues were 
 viry complicated In the St. Lawrence Valley 
 I'rovlnces and the Maritime Pniviuces . . , and 
 to it Is not to be wondered at that some should 
 Interpret the rebellion as a class, and perhaps 
 semi-religious, contest rather than a race-con- 
 flict. The constitutional deadliK-k, however, wa« 
 tolerably clear to tlK«c who lixikeil beneath the 
 surface. . . . The main desire of all was to be 
 freeil of the bunlen of Executive Councils, nom- 
 inated at home and kept in olllce with or without 
 the wish of the people. In Up|)er Canada, 
 William Lyon .Hackenrle, aiul In Uiwer Canada. 
 Louis Papineau and Dr. Wolfred Nelson, agitated 
 for independence. "—W. P. Oreswell, ]Iiit. afths 
 Dominion of Canaiki, ch. 18. 
 
 At*) in: J. McMullcn. Jlitt. of Canatia, c\. 
 19-20. —Earl of Durham. «•/>? <""( PitiutitJuM. 
 — 81r F. B. Head, Xarratirt.—Hei't. «f Cmirt. ap- 
 pointed to inquire into tht qritmncetnmiiUitnfda) 
 inU!»trCanaiia(UKUtl^Oimmi>n: Ftb. 20, 1887> 
 
 il i 
 
 391 
 
II 
 
 CANADA, 1887-1888. 
 
 Ihintliitf of 
 
 CANADA, 184U-184L 
 
 z 
 
 A. D. i837-i838,— The rebel' n nnder Papi- 
 neau and Itackciuie, and it ppraMion. — 
 The Burninr of the Carolinr immediately 
 on the breaking out o{ the a, the con- 
 
 stitution of Lower Canada - spended; the 
 
 revolt was put down at or J with little 
 
 dilHculty. Though the out i Upper Can- 
 
 ada showed that a compar small portion 
 
 of the population was disal' . to the gorem- 
 ment, there were some sha .irmlshes before 
 the smouldering Are was coii , u.'ly trodden out. 
 ... On the night of the 4tU of December, 1837, 
 when alt Toronto was asleep, except the police- 
 men who stood sentries over the arms in the city 
 hall, and a few gentlemen who sat up to watch 
 out the night with the Adjutant-General of 
 Militia in the Pa, iment House, the alarm came 
 that the rebels were upon the city. They were 
 under the command of a newspaper editor named 
 Mackenzie, whose grotesque figure was until 
 lately [this was published in 1865] familiar to 
 the frequenters of the Canadian House of As- 
 sembly. Rumours had been rife for some days 
 last of arming and drilling among the disaffected 
 the Home and London districts. . . . The 
 ahirm threw Toronto into commotion. . . The 
 volunteers were formed in the market square 
 during the night and well irmed. In point of 
 discipline, even in the first instance, they were 
 Dot wholly deficient, many of them being retired 
 offlcers and discharged men from both the naval 
 and military services. . . . Towards morning 
 news came of a smart skirmish which had 
 occurred during the night, in which a party of 
 the rebels were driven l>ack and their leader 
 killed. During the succeeding day and night, 
 loyal yeomen kept pouring in to act in liefence 
 of the crown. Sir Allan, tien Colonel, Macoab, 
 the Speaker of the House of Assembly . . . 
 raised a body of liis friends and adherents in the 
 course of the night and following day, and, 
 seizing a vessel in the harbour at Hamilton, 
 hurried to Toronto. . . . The rebels were de- 
 feated and dispersed next day, at a place some 
 two miles from Toronto. In this action, the 
 Speaker took the commsiKi of the Volunteers, 
 which he kept during the subsequent campaign 
 on the Niagara frontier, and till all danger was 
 over. . . . Mackenzie soon rallied his scattered 
 adherents, and seized Navy Island, iust above 
 Kiuiriira Falls, where he was joiuca by large 
 nuinlKTs of American 'sympathizers.' who came 
 to the flpot on the rliance of a qtiarrel with the 
 Engli.sh. On receipt of this intelligenrc. the 
 Speaker hanteneil fn)m the neighbourhood of 
 Rranifonl (where he liad just dispersed a liand 
 of insuri;enM under the command of a doctor 
 nathi'ii Diiiuiinitx) t») reinforce Colonel Cameron, 
 forniirly of the T9th, who hail taken up a iHmi- 
 tion lit ('lii|i|N'wa. Xavy Island, an eyott some 
 
 ?|uarter of a mile in length, lies In the Niagara 
 {iver within musket -shot of the Canailian bank. 
 The current runs patit the IsUnd on both sides 
 with gn-Ht velocity and, immediately below ir, 
 hurries over tlie twi^ mill's of rocks and rapiils 
 that prvceile its tn^' iK^ms leap. The rcbeU 
 llirvw up wiirkx on the »l<le facing the Cana- 
 dinnn. They drew their supplies frtmi Fort 
 Sf'hiixwer, an Anierirau work nearly opiHisite the 
 villjiiriMif ChitiiM-wii " A Miiall ati'iimtMuit nnnied 
 the C^aniline. Iiail li<>en securiKl by the Insurgents 
 Slid wan piving between Kurt Hcliloaser anil 
 Navy Islauu. She "had bruught over ^vcral 
 
 fleld-piecea and other military stores ; it theiefois 
 became necessary to decide whether it was not 
 expedient for the safety of Canada to destroy 
 her. Qrcat Britain was not at war with the 
 United States, and to cut out an American 
 steamer from an American port was to incur a 
 heavy responsibility. Nevertheless Colonel .Mac- 
 nab determined to assume it." A party sent 
 over in boats at night to Fort Schlosser surpriaed 
 the Caroline at her wharf, fired her and u'nt her 
 adrift in the river, to be carried over the Falls. 
 —Viscount Burr, Exodtuoftht HV»^>,. Sniiant, 
 e. 8, eh. 12. — "On all sides the insui^mta were 
 crushed, jails were filled with their leaders, and 
 180 were sentenced to be hanged. Some of them 
 were executed and some were banished to Van 
 Dieman's Land, while others were pardoned on 
 account of their youtli. But there was a gteat 
 revulsion of fcelmg In England, and after a few 
 years, pardons were extended to slriost all. 
 Even Papineau and Mackenzie, the leaders of 
 the rebellion, were allowed to come hack, and. 
 strange to say, both were elected to si'ats in the 
 Canadian Assembly. "—W. P. Orcswell, UM.vj 
 tite Domininn of Canada, eh. 16, tect. Ij.— On Hic 
 American bonier the Canadian relx'llion «f i»3;. 
 88 was very commonly called "the Patriot War." 
 
 Also in : C. Lindsey, Life and Tiimi nf Wm. 
 Lyon Maeluntie, e. 2.— J. C. Dent, ISIory ,if tU 
 If. Canada Heiellion. 
 
 A. D. 1840-184 1.— International Imbroglio 
 conseauent on the buminr of the Caroline— 
 The McLeod Case.— The bunilng nf the 
 steamer Caroline (see, above, A. I). ;H:iT-183b) 
 
 gave rise to a serious question between Urcat 
 ritain and the United States. "In the fray 
 which occurred, an American naiiied Uurfrce 
 was killed. The British govemnieiit avowed 
 this invasion to be a public act and a necessary 
 measure of self-defence; but it was a question 
 when Mr. Van Buren [I'resident of the liiited 
 States] went out of otnce whether this avowal 
 had been made in an authentic manner. ... In 
 November, 1840, one Alexander McLeml lamo 
 from Canada to' New York, where he boasted 
 that he was the slayer of Durfree, and thereupon 
 was at once arrested on a charge of niun'er and 
 thrown into prison. This aroused gnat ani^ 
 in EngUnd, and the conviction of .McLeod was 
 all that was needed to cause immediate war. . . . 
 Our [the American] "ovemmcnt was, of course, 
 greatly hampemi 1; action . . . by tliefaritliat 
 McLeod was within the Jurisdiction and in the 
 power of the New York courts, and win illy out 
 reach of those of the Unite<i SlaU's. . . . Mr. 
 Webster [who became Secretary of State under 
 President Taylor] . . . was fmrdly in office 
 tiefore he received a demand from .Sir F11.X for 
 the release of Mcljcod. iu which full avowal was 
 made th^l the burning of the Caroline was a 
 public act. M.. Webster determinul that . . . 
 the only way to dispose of McLcixt was to get 
 him out of prison, separate him, diplmnaiically 
 speaking, from the affair of the (.'art'line, and 
 tlien take that up as a liistinct matter fur nei'O. 
 tiation with tlic British goveninient. . . . His 
 first step was to instruct tlie AttoriK y Cii neralto 
 
 finxxed to Lockport, where McLuhI was 
 mprisoned, and comniuni<ate witli tlie counsel 
 for the defence, fumi^sliiu^ them with aiiiliintic 
 information that the destruction of lli. ( amllno 
 was a public act, and that therefore Mcl/eod 
 could nut be held responsible. . . . TLi^i threw 
 
 198 
 
CANADA. 1840-1841. 
 
 Clear OriU 
 (md OmMrmMvM. 
 
 CANADA, 1800-1871. 
 
 the reapoiulbility for HcLeod, and for eonaequent 
 peace or war, where it belonged, on the Mew 
 York authoritiea, who aeemed, however, but 
 little inclined to aaaist the general goTemment. 
 McLood came before the Supreme Court of New 
 York in July, on a writ of babeaa corpus, but 
 they refused to leleaie him on the grounds set 
 torth in Mr. Welnter's instructions to the Attor- 
 iiey-G«neral, and he was remanded for trial in 
 October, which was highly embarassing to our 
 govcrriaent, as it k<!pt this dangerous affair 
 open." But when McLeod came to trial in 
 October, 1841, it appeared tliat he was a mere 
 braggart who had not even been present when 
 Durf iw was killed. His acquittal happily ended 
 he case, and smoothed the way to the negoti- 
 ation of the Ashburton treaty, which opened at 
 Washington linon afterwards and which settled 
 all questions uetween England and the United 
 States.— H. C. Lodge, DanM Webtter a\. 8. 
 
 Also ra: W. H. Seward, Worfa, e. .,, pp. 647- 
 688. -D. Webster. Workt, t. «, m. 247-288. 
 
 A. D. 1840-1867.— Reunion o( the piorincet. 
 —The opposition of races. — Clear Grits and 
 Conserratives. — " The reunion of the two Pro- 
 vinces had been projected before: it was greatly 
 desired by the British of the Lower Province ; 
 and in 1823 a bill for the purpose had actually 
 been brought into the Impcrisl Parliament, but 
 the French being bitterly opposed to it, the Bill 
 bad been dropped. The French were as much 
 opposed to reunion as ever, clearly seeing, what 
 the author of the policy [Lord Durham] had 
 avowed, that the measure was directed against 
 their nationality. But since the Rebellion they 
 were prostrate. Their Constitution had been 
 superseded by a Provisional Council sitting 
 under the protection of Imperial bayonets, and 
 this Council consented to the union. The two 
 Provinces were now [July, 1840] placed under a 
 Oovemor-Oeneral with a single legislature, con- 
 sisting, like the legislatures of the two Provinces 
 before, of an Upper House nominated by the 
 Crown and a Lower House elected by the people. 
 Each province was to have the same number of 
 representatives, although the pii]>ulatloa of the 
 Frenrli Province was at that time much larger 
 than tliat of the British Province. The French 
 language was proscribed in official proceedings. 
 Frenih nationality was thus sent, constitutionally, 
 undir the yoke. But to leave it its votes, 
 necessary and right as that might b- was ^t 
 leave it the only weapon which puts the I'ak on 
 a level with the strong, and even gives tlicm the 
 advantage, since the weak are the most likely to 
 hold together and to submit to the discipline of 
 organised party. . . . The French . . . 'had 
 the wisdom.' as their manual of history . . . 
 complii»'ntIy observes, ' to remain united among 
 themselves, and by that union were able to 
 exercise a happy influence on the Legislature and 
 the Gdvcmment." Instead of being politically 
 tuppr('SM>d, they soon, thanks to their compact- 
 ness OS an interest and their docile jbedlence to 
 their liiulers, became politically dominant. The 
 Britisli factions began to bid against each other 
 for their support, and were presently at their 
 feet. . . . The statute proscribing the use of the 
 Frenrh language in official proceedings was 
 fp^s'-i. sad the Canadian Legislature was 
 made lii lingtial. The Premiership wai divided 
 betWKH the English and the Frendi lewier, and 
 the Hiniatries were deaigiutted by Uie doable 
 
 name — 'the Lafontalne-Baldwin,' or 'the Mac- 
 donald-Tach£.' The French got their full ahare 
 of seats in the Cabinet and of patronage; of 
 public funds they got more than their full share, 
 especially as being small consumers of imported 
 goods they contributed far less than their quota 
 to the public revenue. By their aid the Roman 
 Catholics of the Upper Province obtained the 
 privilege of Separate School in contraventior. 
 of the principle of religious equality and 
 severance of the Church from the State. In time 
 it was recognized as a rule that s Ministry to 
 retain power must have a majority from each 
 section of the Province. This practically almost 
 reduced the Union to a federation, under which 
 French nationality was more securely entrenched 
 than ever. Qradually the French and their 
 clergy became, as they have ever since been, the 
 basis of what styles Itself a Conservative party, 
 playing for French support, by defending 
 clencal privilege, by protecting French nation- 
 ality, and, not least, by allowing the French 
 Province to dip her hand deep in the common 
 treasury. On the other hand, a secession of 
 thorough-going Reformers from the Moderates 
 . . . gave birth to the partv of the ' Clear Qrits, ' 
 the leader of which was Sir. George Brown, a 
 Scotch Presbyterian, and which having first 
 insisted on the secularization of the Clergy 
 Reserves, became, when that question was out 
 of the way, a party of general opposition to 
 French and Roman Catholic influence. ... A 
 change had thus come o<'er the character and 
 relations of parties. French Canada, so lately 
 the seat of disaffection, became the basis of tho 
 Conservative party. British Canada became the 
 stronghold of the Liberals. ... A period of 
 tricky combinations, perfidious alliances, and 
 selisn intrigues now commenced, and a series of 
 weaK and ephemeral governments was its fruit. " 
 — Ooldwin Smith, Canada and the CaTtadian 
 Qittttivn, eh. 7. 
 
 Also is: W. Houston, Doe». llluttratiTe oftht 
 Canadian Omtt., pp. 149-185.— J. O. Bourinot, 
 Manual of the Conii. HUt. of Canada, eh. S. 
 
 A. D. 1843. — Settlement of boundary dit- 
 putea with the United SUtea by the Ash- 
 burton Treaty, See UNrrsD States or Ax. : 
 A. D. 1843. 
 
 A. D. 18M-1M6.— The Reciprocity Treaty 
 with the United States and its abrogation. 
 See Tariff Lioibiation (United States akd 
 Canada): A. D. 18.54-1866. 
 
 A. D. 1864.— The St. Albans Raid. See 
 United States of Am. : A. D. 1864 (October). 
 
 A. D. 1866-1871.— Fenian invasions.— The 
 Fenian movement (see Ireland: D. 1858- 
 1867) had its most serious outer in an at- 
 tempted invasion of Canada fr< the United 
 States, which took place In IHi "Canadian 
 volunteers were under amis all ly on the 17th 
 of March, 1866, expecting a Finiiin invasion, but 
 it was not made: in April an insignificant attack 
 was made upon New Brunswick. About 900 
 men, under Col. O'Neil. crossed from Buffalo to 
 Fort Erie on the night of May 3l!t. Moving 
 westward, this body aimed at dcs roying the 
 Welland Canal, when they were met by the 
 Queen's Own Volunteer Regiment of Toronto, 
 ami the 13th battalion of Hamilton Militia, near 
 the village of Rldgeway. Here, after a eonliict 
 of two hours, in wnlch for a time the Volunteers 
 drove the enemy before tbem, the Canadian 
 
 -*il 
 
 893 
 
CANADA, 1866-1871. 
 
 m mraUm of 
 
 CANAi^ii, 1867. 
 
 f orcet retirea to Ridgew», ud thence to Port 
 Colborne, irlth a lou of nine killed and 80 
 wounded. Col Peacock, in charge of a body of 
 reguUrs, wa.<) marching to meet the volunteers, 
 so that O'Neil wai compelled to flee to Fort Erie, 
 and, crossing to the United States with his men, 
 was arrested, but afterwards liberated. The day 
 after the skirmish the regulars and volunteers 
 encampi ' it B'ort Erie, and the langer on the 
 Niagiii ronlier was past A i'enian expedi- 
 tion till .lened Prescott, aimhig at reaching the 
 capital at Ottawa, and another band o'. marauders 
 crossed the borltr from St. Albans, Vermont, 
 but both were easily driven back. The Fenian 
 troubles roused strong feeling in Canada against 
 the American authorities. ... A Fenian attack 
 was led by Col. O'Neil on the Lower Canadian 
 frontier, in 1870, but it was easily met, and the 
 United States authorities were moved to arrest 
 the repulsed fugitives. A foolish movement was 
 again made in 1871 by the same leader, through 
 Minnesota, against Manitoba. Through the 
 prompt action of the friendly American com- 
 mander at Fort Pembina, the United States troops 
 followed the Fenians across the border, arrested 
 their leader, and, though he was liberated after 
 a trial at St. Paul, Uinnesota, the expedition 
 ended as a miserable and laughable failure. 
 These movements of the Fenian Society, though 
 trifling in elTect, yet involved Canada in a con- 
 siderable expense from the mainterance of bodies 
 of the Active Militia at different points along 
 the frontier. The training of a useful force of 
 citizen soldiery however resulted. ' -O. Bryce, 
 8hori Sut. of the Cartadian People, pp. 468- 
 470. 
 
 Also IK : O. T. Denlson, Jr., The Fenian Raid 
 on fVrt Erie.—Corr. relating t the Fenian In- 
 tation.—OJtU-ial Report of Gen. » yXeiU. 
 
 A. D. 1867.— Federatior of 1 ■ .ovince* of 
 British North .imerioi in tL> i^ominion of 
 Canada.— The constitution of the Dominion. 
 — " The Union between Upper and Lower Canada 
 lasted until 1S67, when the provinces of British 
 North Ameriea were brought more closely to- 
 
 g ether in a federation and entered on a new era 
 1 their constitutional history. For many years 
 previous to 1865, the administration of govern- 
 ment in Caniida had become surrounded with 
 political difflculties of a very perplexiug charac- 
 ter. .. . Piirties at last were so equally bulanccd 
 on account of the antagonism between the two 
 Bc ; )ns, that the vote of one member might 
 dec.ue the fate of an administration, and the 
 course of legislation for a year or a series of 
 years. From the 3l8t of May, 1882, to the end 
 of June, 1864, there were no less than five dif- 
 ferent ministries in charge of the public busi- 
 ness. Legislation, in fact, was at last practi- 
 cally at a dead-lock. ... It was at thte critical 
 Juncture of affairs that the leaders of tlie govern- 
 ment and opposition. In the session of 1864, came 
 to a mutual understanding, after the most ma- 
 ture consideration of the whole question. A 
 coalition government was formed on the basis of 
 a federal union of all the British American 
 provinces, or of the two Canadas, in case of the 
 lailure of the larger scheme. . . . It was a happy 
 coincidence tliat tlie legislatures of the lower 
 provinces were about considering a maritime 
 union at the time the leadUig statesmen of 
 Canada had combined to mature a plan of set- 
 tling their political dlfflcultiei. The Canadiao 
 
 394 
 
 ministry at once availed themselves of this fact 
 to meet the maritime delegates at their conven 
 tion In Charlottetown, and the result was tht 
 decision to consider the question of the Urirer 
 union at Quebec. Accordhigly, on the loth 
 of October, 1864, delegates from all the British 
 North American provinces assembled in confer- 
 ence, in 'the ancient capital,' and after very 
 "nple deliberations during eighteen days serced 
 to 78 resolutions, which form the basis uf the 
 Act of Union. These resolutions were formallv 
 submitted to the legislature of Canada in Janu- 
 ary, 1885, and after an elaborate debate, which 
 extended from the 8d of February to the Ulh of 
 March, both houses agreed by very iar^re majori- 
 ties to an address to her Majesty pravinc lier to 
 submit a measure to the Imperial Purliament 
 ' for the piirpoae of uniting the provinces in ac- 
 cordance with the provisions of the Quebec 
 resolutions.' Some time, however, had to elapse 
 before the Union could be consummated, in con- 
 seq jence of the strong opposition that very soon 
 exhibited Itself in the maritime provinces, moi» 
 especially to the financial terms of the scheme " 
 Certain modifications of the terms of the Quebec 
 resolutiODS wer* acccordingly made, and "the 
 
 grovinces of Janada, Nova Scotia, and New 
 runswick, beUig at htst in full accord, through 
 the action of their respective legislatures the 
 plan of union was submitted on the 12th of 'Peb- 
 niary, 1807, to the Imperial Parliament, where 
 it met with the warm support of the statesmto 
 of all parties, and passed without amendment In 
 the course of a few weeks, the royal assent 
 being given on the 29th of March. Tlie new 
 constitution came into force on the First of July 
 [annually celebrated since, as ' Dominion Day ] 
 1867, and the first parliament of the united 
 provinces met on November of the same year. 
 . . . The confederation, as hiaugurated in 1867, 
 consisted only of the four provinces of Onurio 
 [Upper Canada], Quebec [Lower Canacia], Novs 
 ScoUa, and New Brunswick. By the Udth sec- 
 tion of the Act of Union, provision was made 
 for the admission of other colonies on addresses 
 from the parllameut of Canada, and fr.im the 
 respective legislatures of Newfoundland, Prince 
 Edward Island, and British Columbia, itnpert s 
 Land and the North-west Territory miglit also 
 at any time be admitted into the Union on the 
 address of the Canadian Parliaincnt. ... The 
 title of Dominion did not appear in the Quebec 
 resolutions. The 7l8t lies, j to the ellect that 
 ' Her Majesty be solicited to determine tlie mnit 
 and name of the federated Provinces.' The 
 name [• The Dominion of Canada 'J was arranged 
 at the conference held in London in IHWl, when 
 the union bill was finally drafted. "—.J. tJ. Iliuri- 
 uot, Manual of Oonet. llitt. of Oinwh. rh. 6-7 
 ('?*^ foot- »»*()■—" T^e Federal ('(instituiion of 
 the Dominion of Canada is contiiiiHd in the 
 British North America Act, 1867, a statute of 
 the British Parliament (30 Vict., c. 3). 1 note a 
 few of the many points in which it desi ti\ to 
 be compared with that 01 tlie United States.' 
 The Federal or Dominion Oovernnicnt is con- 
 ducted on the so-called 'Cabiuet system' of 
 England, L e., the Ministry sit in I'arliament, 
 and hold office at the pleasure of the House of 
 Commons. The Govertior Genera! [:i[:;uiateJ 
 by the Crown] is in the position of an imspon- 
 stole and permanent executive similar In tliat of 
 the Crown of Great Briutn, acting on the advice 
 
CANADA, 1867. 
 
 ne Dominttm 
 of Canada, 
 
 CANADA, 1669-1878. 
 
 of reipoiuible minbten. He can dlnolve Par- 
 liament. The Upper House or Senate, is com- 
 poc-^ of 78 pereons, nominated for life by the 
 Govcmor-Gcaeral, i. e., the Mintotry. The 
 House of Commons has at present 210 members, 
 who are elected for five years. Both senators 
 tod members receive salaries. The Senate has 
 very little power or inQuence. The Oovemor- 
 Oeneral has a veto but rarely exercises it, and 
 may reserve a bill for the Queen's pleasure. 
 The judges, not only of the Feacm' or Dominion 
 Courts, but also of the provinces re appointed 
 by the Crown, i e., by the Domiuion Ministry, 
 and hold for good behaviour. Kach of the 
 Frovinces, at present [1888] seven in number, 
 has a legislature of its own, which, however, 
 consists in Ontario, British Columbia, and Mani- 
 toba, of one House only, and a LieTitenant- 
 Oovemor, with a right of veto on the acts of the 
 legislature, which he seldom exercises. Mem- 
 bers of the Dominion Parliament cannot sit in a 
 Provincial leKisUture. The Qovemor-Oeneral 
 has a right of disallowing acts of a ProTlnclal 
 legislatute, and sometimes exerts it, especially 
 when ft legislature is deemed to have exceeded 
 its constitutional competence. In each of the 
 Provinces there is a responsible Ministry, work- 
 ing on the Cabinet system of England. The 
 distribution of matters within the competence of 
 the Dominion Parliament and of the Provincial 
 legislatures respectively, bears a general resem- 
 blance to that existing in the United States; but 
 there is this remarkable distinction, that whereas 
 in the United States, Congress has only the 
 powers actually granted to it, the State legisla- 
 tures retaining all such powers as have not been 
 taken from them, the Dominion Parliament has 
 a gpneral power of legislation, restricted only 
 by the grant of certain specific and exclusive 
 powers to the Provincial Icgi jtures. Criminal 
 law is reserved for the Dominion Parliament, 
 and no Province has the right to maintain a 
 military force. Questions as to the constitu- 
 tionality of a statute, whether of the Dominion 
 Psriiamcnt or of a Provincial legislature, come 
 before the courts in the ordinary way, and if ap- 
 pealed, beforj the Jv-licial Committee of the Privy 
 Council In England. The Constitution of the 
 Dominion was never submitted to a popular vote, 
 sad can be altered only by the British Parliament, 
 except as regards certain points left to its own 
 legislature. . . . There exists no power of amend- 
 ing the Provincial constitutions bv popular vote 
 similar to that which the peoples' or the several 
 States "xcrdse to the United States. "—J. Bryce, 
 T>u American Commonwealth, t. 1, app , mie 
 (B) to eh. 80.— See Cohstitction op Cahada. 
 
 Also nc J. E. C. Munro, The Const, of 
 (Mmda (irilh text of Aet in app.}— Pari. Debate 
 on Confidf ration. M Sem., Sth Prm. Pari, of 
 Oiwirfd.— W. Houston, Doei. Illiutrative of the 
 Canadinn Contt, pp. 186-224. 
 
 A" S- '5?9"'*73-— Acqniiltion of the Hnd- 
 B ". • rV T*""«'y— AamiMion of Manitoba, 
 r1l'"L*'''''"°'''* •"<• Prince Edward's Is' i 
 tothe Dominion.— "In 1869 . . . the Do. u 
 was enlarged by the acquisition of the famous 
 Hudson 8 Bay -rerritory. When the charter of 
 we Hudson 8 Bay Company expired in 1869, 
 Lnrrl Oranvllie, then Colonial Secrelnry pro- 
 {^ ."•" the chief part of the Coini)any'8 
 
 f^7'f'^jl''!>;t'j""'''>.'™"''«"'«' ^ ** DoiSinfon 
 lor ijw.ooo; and tite proposition wm agned to 
 
 on both sides. The Hudson's BayCharter dated 
 from the reign of Charles II. "The region to 
 which it referred carries some of its history im- 
 printed in its names. Prince Rupert was at the 
 head of the association incorporated by the 
 Charter tato the Hudson's Bay Company. The 
 name of Rupert's Land perpetuates his memory. 
 . . . The Hudson's Bay Company obtatoed from 
 King Charles, by virtue of the Charter in 1670, 
 the sole and absolute government of the vast 
 wat<"«hed of Hudson's Bay, the Rupert's Land 
 of t..- Charter, on condition of paying yearly to 
 the King and his successors 'two elks and two 
 black beavers,' ' whensoever and as often as we, 
 our heirs and successors, shall happen to enter 
 into the said countries, territories and leeions.' 
 The Hudson's Bay Company was opposed by the 
 North West Fur Company m 1783, which fought 
 them for a long time with Indians and law, with 
 the tomahawk of the red man and the legal 
 judgment of a Romilly or a Keating. In 1818 
 Lord Selkirk founded the Red River Company. 
 This toterloper on the battle field was harassed 
 by the North West Company, and It was not 
 until 1821, when the Hudson's Bay and North 
 West Companies- Impoverished bv their long 
 warfare— amalg uiated their interests, that the 
 Red River sett' s were able to reap their har- 
 vesu to peace, disturbed only by occ&«iona! 
 plagues of locusts and blackbirds. In 18.S^ on 
 Lord Selkirk's death, the Hudson's Bay Company 
 bought the settlement from his executors. It 
 had been under their sway before that, having 
 been committed to their care by Lord Selkirk 
 during his lifetime. The privilege of extiusive 
 trading east of the Rocky Mountatos was con- 
 ferred by Royal license for twenty -one years In 
 Moy 1888, and some ten years iater the Company 
 received a grant of Vancouver's Island for tlie 
 term of ten years from 1849 to lSo9. The Hud- 
 son's Bay Company were always careful to foster 
 the idea that their territory wat; chiefly wilder- 
 ness, and discountenanced the reports of Its fer- 
 tility and fitness for colonisation which were from 
 time to time brought to the ears of the English 
 Government. In 1857, at the tostance of" Mr. 
 Labouthere, a Select Committee of the House of 
 Commons was appointed to enquire into the 
 state of the British possessions under the Com- 
 pany's administration. Various Oo.emment 
 expeditions, and the publication of many Blue 
 Books, enlightened the public mind os to tlie real 
 nature of those tracts of land which tlie council 
 from the Fenchurch Street house declared to be 
 so desolate. . . . During the sittings of the Com- 
 mittce there was cited in evidence a petition from 
 575 Red River settlers to the Legislative As-sem- 
 bly of Canada demanding British protection. 
 This appeal was a proceeding curiously at varl- 
 ance with the later action of the settlement 
 When In 1889 the chief part of the territories 
 was transferred to Canada, on the proposition oT 
 Earl Granville, the .Red River country rose in 
 rebellion, and rclused to receive the new Gov- 
 ernor. Louis Riel, the lusurpent chief, seized on 
 Fort Garry and the Company's treasury, and 
 pre:'... med the independence of tlie settfcment 
 Sir Garnet, then Colonel. Woiseley, was siMit to 
 command of an expedition which reached Fort 
 Garry on Augu,st 28, whei tlie insu'?ents sub- 
 mltt-d without resistance, and the district re- 
 ceived the name of Manitoba." — J. McCarthy, 
 Mitt, of our own Timet, eh. 55 (t. 4). — Jfanitou 
 
 896 
 
CANADA, 18W-187S. 
 
 and the Korthweit Tcrritoriet were admitted to 
 the DominioD Confederation May 12, 1870; British 
 Columbia, July 30, 1871 ; Priooe Edwanl Ulani, 
 July 1, 1873.— J. HcCoun, Maniteba and tkt 
 Ortat North Wut. 
 
 Also di: O. H. Adam, The Canadian North- 
 teat, eh. 1-18.— G. L. Huyshe, 1%» iM Biter 
 Sipedition.—yi. P. Ores well, JSiW. if tht Do- 
 minion of Canada, p. 813.— J. E. C. Hunro, 
 The Oontitution >f Canada, eh. i.—Q. E. Ellis, 
 The Hudton Bay Company (Ifarratite and Crit- 
 ical met. cjj Am., V. 8).— See, also, British 
 
 CAK0S8A. 
 
 CotuMsiA: A. D. 18{»-187l and Nobthwiw 
 Terbitobiks or Canada. 
 
 A. D. t87i.-The Treaty of Wathin«on. 
 See Alabama Claims: A. D. 1871. 
 
 A. D. 1877.— The HalUax Fishery Award. 
 Bee FiSHUUBS, Nobth Amkhican: A. D. 1877- 
 1888. 
 
 A. D, i8Ss-i8>8.— Termination of the Fish- 
 ery articles of the Treaty of Washington.- 
 Renewtd coatroreraie*.— The rejected TreatT 
 See FisHBBUs, North Ambricah: A. D. IS'n- 
 188a 
 
 CANAI, The See Amxbicak Abobigihes: 
 Aloonqciak Familt. 
 
 CANARES, The. See Eccaoor: Thx abo- 
 rioinal nfRABiTAirrsL 
 
 CANARY ISLANDS, Diacercry of the.— 
 The first great step in African exploration "was 
 the discovery of the Canary Islands. These were 
 the ' Elysian fields ' and ' Fortunate islands ' rf an- 
 tiquity. Perhaps there is no country in the 
 world that has been so many times discovered, 
 conquered, and invaded, or so much fabled 
 about, as these islands. There is scarcely a 
 nation upon earth of anv maritime repute that 
 ha* not had to do with them. Phoenicians, Ov- 
 thaginians, Romans, Hoore, Qenoese, Normans, 
 Portuguese, and Spaniards of every province 
 (Aragonesn, Castilians, Oalltcians, Biscayans, 
 Andaludans) have all made their appearance iu 
 these islands. The Carthaginians are said to 
 have discovered them, and to have reserved tlicm 
 as an asvlum in case of extreme danger to the 
 state. SertoriuB, the lioman general who par- 
 took the fallen fortunes of Manus Is said to have 
 meditated retreat to these ' islands of the biased, ' 
 and by some writers is supposed to have gone 
 there. Juba, the Mauritanian prince, son of the 
 Juba celebrated by Sallust, sent ships to examine 
 them, and has left a description of them. Then 
 came the death of empires, and darkness fell 
 upon the human race, at least upon the records 
 of their history. When the world revived, and 
 especially when the use of the loadstone began 
 to be known among mariners, the Canary Islands 
 were again discovered. Petrarch is referred to 
 by VIera to prove that the Genoese sent out an 
 expedition to these islands. Lat Caaas mentions 
 that an English or French vessel bound from 
 France or England to Spain was driven by con- 
 trary winds to the Canary Islands, and on its 
 return spread abroad In France an account of the 
 Toyage. — A. Helps, Spanith Omqutet, bk. 1, eA. 1. 
 Also IN: £. H. Bunbury, HiM. of Ancient 
 Otog., eh. 30, noU E. 
 CAN AS, The. See Pkbc: Thr aborioinal 
 
 DIBABITANTa. 
 
 CANCELLARIUS. See Chancellor. 
 
 CANDAHAR.— Siese and reUefof Easlish 
 forces (1880). See Apobanistan: A. D. VM9- 
 1881. 
 
 CANDIA.— This is the name of the principal 
 town in the Island of Crete, but has been often 
 applied to Crete itself. See Turks: A. D. Ifi^"!- 
 1W9. where an account is given of the so-called 
 " War of Candia"; also Crete: A. D. 888. 
 
 CANDLEMAS. See Q|7artbr Days. 
 
 CANDRACUPTA, The tmpire of. See 
 iNDrA : B. C. 327-8U, and 313 . 
 
 CANCI, The.— A tribe in earlv Britain whldi 
 occupied the westerly part of Hodem Camarvon- 
 shire. See Britain, Celtic Tbibbs. 
 
 CANN.«, Battles ot See Punic TVas- 
 Tbb Second : and Rome : B. C. 90-«>8 
 
 CANNING, Lord, The Indian administra- 
 tion ot A. D. 1830-1863. 
 
 CANNING MINISTRY, The. See Eso- 
 LAND: A. D. 1830-1837. 
 
 CANON LAW.-" The Canon Law In Its 
 widest sense consists of Holy Scripture the cus- 
 tomary laws and usages of the Church, and of 
 constitutions comprising the decrees and de- 
 cretals of the Popes, the canons of c( . ncils, 
 sod. to a limited extent, the writings of the 
 Fathers. "-J. Dodd, A Bittory of Canon U« 
 p. 15I— In a more restricted sense it is dcscribtd 
 by Blackstone as being " a body of Romsn eccle- 
 siastical law, relative to such matters as that 
 church either has, or pretends to have the 
 p:-oper Jurisdiction over. This is compiled from 
 the opinions of the ancient Latin fatli. r» the 
 decrees of general councils, and the decretal 
 epistles and Dulls of the Holy See " 
 
 CANOPUS, Decree of.— An important In- 
 scribed stone found in 188S at San, or Tanis, in 
 Egypt, which is a monument of the reign of 
 Ptolemy Euergetes, who osccndi'd the tiirone in 
 346 B. C. It gives " in hieroglyphics an. I Greek 
 (the demotic vereion is on the edge) a d.iree of 
 the priests assembled at Canopus for their yearly 
 saluution of the king. When they were so 
 assembled, in Ills ninth year, his infant daughter 
 Berenice, fell sick and died, and there w:is great 
 lamentaUon over her. The decree first recounts 
 the generous conduct and prowess of t lie king, 
 who had conquered all his enemies uliniiui, and 
 had brought back from Persia all the stutues of 
 the gods carried off in old time fn)m E^-vpt by 
 foreign kings. He had also, in a great tliVeatcn- 
 ing of famine, when the Nil.' had failed to rise to 
 its full amount, imported vast quantities of corn 
 from Cyprus, Phcenicia, ikc, and fed his [leople. 
 Consequently divine honours are to be paid to 
 him and his queen as • Benefactor Oodt ' in all 
 the temples of Egypt, and feasts are to be held 
 in their honour. . . . This great inscription, far 
 more perfect and considerably older than the 
 Rosetta Stone, can now be cited as the clearest 
 proof of Champolliou's rvading of the hiero- 
 glyphic*. "—J. P. }A»iaSy, tHoryofAkiarukfi 
 Empire, eh. 1.5, note. 
 
 CANOSSA, Henry IV. at.- In the conflict 
 which arose between the Qcmian Emperor, 
 Henry IV. (then crowned onlv as King of the 
 Romansil and Pope Gregory VII. (the intiexible 
 Hildebnind), the former was place<l at a great 
 disadvantage by revolts and discontents in his 
 own Germanic dominions. Wlicn, therefore, on 
 the 83d of February, A. D. 1076, the audacious 
 
 SontiS proaouuoc-d aguiuiil Uie kiug Uh, Ixuiiu- 
 ou* (entence, not only of excommunication, but 
 of deposition, releaalng all Christiaus from 
 
 S86 
 
CANOSSA. 
 
 ilkghnce to bim, he addreued a large party, 
 both in Gennaiiy ond Italy, who were more than 
 willing to accept an cxcuav for depriving Henry 
 of Ilia crown. Tliis party controlled a diet held 
 at Tribur, In October, which declared timt his 
 forfeiture of the throne would be made Irre- 
 vocable If he did not procure tmn the pope a 
 release from hisexcommuniealion U-forc the com- 
 ing anniversary of its pronunciation, in February. 
 A diet to be held then at Augsburg, under the 
 presidency of the pope, would determire the 
 affairs of the Empire. With characteristic 
 energy, Henry resolved to make his way to the 
 pope, in person, and to become reconciled with 
 bim, liefore the Augsburg meeting. Accom- 
 panied by the queen, her child, and a few 
 attendants, he crossed the Alps, with great hard- 
 thip and danger. In the midst of an uncom- 
 monly cold and snowy winter. Meantime, the 
 pope'had started upon his Journey to Augsburg. 
 Hearing on tlie way of llenry's movement to 
 meet bim, not desiring the encounier, and dis- 
 trusting, moreover, the intentions of Ids enemy, 
 he took refuge in the strong fortress of Canosaa, 
 liigh U(i in the rocky recesses of the Apennines. 
 To thiit mountain retreat tlie desperate king 
 pressed his way. "It was January 21, '077, 
 when Henry arrived at Canosaa; tlie cold was 
 severe ond the snow lay deep. H- V ged 
 
 at the fcKit of the castle-steep, and Inter- 
 
 view with the countess Matiliia [i. 11 .'the 
 castle, iiud devoted friend of the rlugli. 
 
 abbot (if Clugny, and others, in , (^liapul of 
 St. Niiiilas, of which no traces now remain. 
 Three days were spent in debating terms of 
 reconciliation; Matilda and Hugh interce<led 
 with the pope on the king's behalf, but Gregory 
 WH3 inexorable; unless Ilcnry surren<lered tlie 
 crown into the pope's hands tlie bitii should not 
 be takin off. Henry i>nild not stiKip so low as 
 this, liiit he made tip his mind to play the part 
 of a iK'ultent suppliant. Early on the moniing 
 of Jauuarv 2.'i he mounted the winding, rocky 
 path, until he reached the upperiiiust of the 
 Umx Wttll.H, the one which enclosetl the ca.stlc 
 yard. And here, before the gateway which still 
 exists, and perpetuates in its name, ' Porta di 
 penitcn^u,' the memory of this strange event, 
 the king, barefoot, and clad in a coarse woohu 
 uliirt, «rii<Kl knocking for admit'., nee. But lie 
 kwnkcd in vain: from morning till evening the 
 heir of tlie Itoman Empire sIimhI shivering out- 
 siile the fast closed diKir. Two more days he 
 rlimlH-d tlie rugged path and sto<Kl weeping and 
 iraploriiig to lie ailinitted." At last, the Iron 
 willeil pmitill consented to a parley, and an agree- 
 mint w;i9 briuight almut by which Henry was 
 rc'leiiMd friim e.\communication, but the question 
 of his crown was left for future settlement. In 
 theeiul be gaiiiwl nothing by his extraordinary 
 abaseiucnt of himself. Slany of his supporters 
 Were iilieiialed by it; a rival king was elected. 
 Gathering nil bis energies, Henry tlien sttxjd bis 
 ground and made a fight In which even Gregory 
 fled before him; but It was all to no avail. 
 The triiiinph remamed with the priesU.— W. 
 R. W. Stephens, llildebrand and Uu Time$, eh. 
 11-1.5. 
 
 Aiw IN: A. P. Villemain, Ltfe of Gregory 
 nr. y- .>;— See, also, P.\P.«Y: A. D. 1056- 
 1122; iiUi UoME: 1081-I0S4. 
 
 CANTABRIA, Becomes BardtiUaud Cu- 
 tu«. S.e OPAIA; A. U. 102ft-1280. 
 
 CAPE BRETON ISLAKD. 
 
 CANTABRIANS AND ASTURIANS, 
 The. — The Cantabrians » ere an ancient people in 
 the north of Spain, inhabiting a region to tlic west 
 of the Asturians. They were not conquered by 
 tlie Romans until the reign of Augustus, who led 
 an expedition against them in persim, B. C. 27, 
 but was forced by illness to commit the campaign 
 to his lieutenants. The Cantabrians submitted 
 soon after being defeated in a great battle at 
 Vellica, near tlie sources of the Ebro; but in Hi 
 B. C. they joined the Asturians In a desperate 
 revolt, which was not sulidued until three years 
 later.— C. Merivale, Uitt. of the Homunt, eh. 84. 
 
 Also is: T. Mommsen, Bist. of lionu, bk. 8, 
 eh. 2. — See Appendix A, voi 8. 
 
 CKHTJE, The.— A tribe In aiiclent Cale- 
 donia. See Britain, Celtic Thibet 
 
 CANTERBURY.— The murder of Becket 
 (1170). SeeENOLANO: A. D. 1164-1170. 
 
 CANTERBURY PRIMACY, Ortcin of 
 the. See England: A. D. 5»7-6*5. 
 
 CANTII, The.— The tribe of ancient Britons 
 which occupied the region of Kent. See Britain, 
 Celtic Tribes. 
 
 CANTON: A. D. 1839-1842.— The Opium 
 War.— Ransom of the city from English as- 
 sault.— Its port opened to British trade. See 
 China: A. D. 183ft-1842. 
 
 A. D. 1856-1857.— Bombardment br the 
 English,- Capture by the English and French. 
 See China: A. D. 1856-1880. 
 
 CANTONS, Latin. Sec Gens, Roman: also 
 Ai.n.i. 
 CANTONS, Swiss, see Switzerland: 
 
 A. 1). 184I^1B90. 
 
 CANULEIAN LAW, The. See Rome: 
 
 B. C. 44,1i-400L 
 
 CANUTE, OR CNUT, King of England, 
 A. 1). 1(117-1035, and King of Denmark, A. D. 
 
 1018-103.'; Canute II., King of Denmark, 
 
 A. I). lOdO-loae Canute Ilf, King of Den- 
 mark, K. D. 1147-11.')6 Canute IV., King 
 
 of Denmark, A. D. llS2-r2in>. 
 
 CANZACA. Sec Ecihtasa. 
 
 CANZACA, OR SHIZ, Battle of.-A battle 
 fought A. D. 591, by the Romans, under Narses, 
 supporting the caust' of Chosroes II. king of Per- 
 siii, against a usurper Uahram, who had driven 
 him from his throne. Baliram was defeated and 
 l'liosn*8 restored. — G. Kiiwiinson, HeKnth Oreat 
 Oriental Munareht/, eh. 'i'.i. 
 
 CAP OF LIBERTY, The. Sec Libeiitt 
 Cap. 
 
 CAPE BRETON ISLAND : A. D. 1497.— 
 Discovety by John Cabot. See America : A. D. 
 U«7. 
 
 A. D. 1504.— Named by the fishermen from 
 Brittany. See NKWP0tSDL.\ND: A. D. 1501- 
 1578. 
 
 A. D. 1713. — Possession confirmed to 
 France. See Newfoixdi.and: A. D. 1713. 
 
 A. D. 1730-1745.— The fortification of Louis- 
 bourg. — After the surrender of Placentia or 
 Plaisance, in Newfoundland, to England, imder 
 the treaty of l.trccht(5ceXEWPorNDLAND: A. D. 
 1713), the French government determined to 
 fortify strongly some suitable harbor on the 
 iitlanti of Cape Breton for a naval station, and 
 especially for the protection of the fisheries of 
 France on the neighboring coasts. The harbor 
 known previously as Havre i Y Anglois was 
 chosen for ihe ptirpose. "When the French 
 
 •■1 
 
 397 
 
IJ ■■ 
 
 
 CAPB BRETON ISLAND. 
 
 gOTemment dedded In favour of IIaTi« il' An- 
 glois iu name was changrd to LouiiU>urg, in 
 honour of the king; and, to murk the value §et 
 upon Cape Bret >n it waa called Ule Royalc, 
 ■which it retained until iU final conquest in 1758, 
 when iu ancient name was resumed." In 1780 
 the fortiflcatioDS were commenced, and the work 
 of their construction was prosecuted with energy 
 and with unstinted liberality for more than twenty 
 years. "Even the English colonies contributed 
 a great proportion of the niaU iHuls used In their 
 construction. When Messrs. Newton and Brad- 
 street, who were sent to confer with M. de 8t. 
 Ovide [to remonMrate against the supplying of 
 arms to the ludi.Hns in Nova Scotia] . . . re- 
 turned to Annapolis, they reported that during 
 their short sUiv at Louislwurg, in 17S5, fourteen 
 colonial vessels, belonging chieflv to New Eng- 
 land, arrived there with cargoes of Iwards, timber 
 and bricks. . . . Loulsbourg [described, with a 
 plan, in the work here miotedj . . . had, between 
 the years 1720 and 1745. cost the French nation 
 the enormous sum of 80.000,000 livres, or £1,- 
 800,000 sterling; nevertheless, as Dussieux in- 
 forms us, the fortiflcations were still unfinished, 
 and likely to remain so, because the cost had far 
 excowied the estimates; and it waa found such a 
 large garrison would be renulrcd for their defence 
 that the covemraent had alnndoned the Idea of 
 completing tlicm aceordiug u> the original de- 
 sign. "—U. Brown. Hint, uf Iht Island of Ciiiu 
 Jirtton, Utttr$ 9-11.— "The fort waa built of 
 •tone, with walls more timn 30 feet high, and a 
 ditch 80 feet wide, over which was a conmiunica 
 tlon with the town hv a drawbriilge. It had six 
 bastions and three bat I. ties, with platforms for 
 148 ciuinon and six niorl«rs. On an Islet, which 
 was tliuikril on one side by a shoal, a battery of 
 80 guns. 28 p<iimders, defended tlio entrance of 
 the liarlior, which waa almut 400 yards wide, and 
 was also commande<l from within liy the Omnd or 
 Royal Battery, mounting as many guns, of the 
 calibre of 42 pounds. The fort . . . waa a safe 
 rendezvous and refuge for French fleets and 
 
 firlvaUH'rs, sailing in the Western Ileml-Hpliere. 
 t commanded the maritime way InUi Caiiiida 
 and It wutchol the Englisli settlements all along 
 the coast. It was a stjiiiding threat to the great 
 business of New Encl.in.l seamen, which w.is 
 the fishery on the lianks."— J. (i. l"alfr<'y, llUt 
 of S. Kiig., bk. 5, eh. U (r H).—-- 'So gn'at was 
 Its strength that It wii.t called lliv Dunkirk of 
 America. It had nunnerii-sai.d paUces, tirraces 
 and ganlens. That such a city rose upon a low 
 and di-soUle Island In the inlancy of American 
 colonization apiM'am imndihle; explaustlou Is 
 nhiiie fiMiud In the nsliing enthusiasm of tin- 
 P<;n;"l "— f H tllioti, 7 he C. S. aiuUhr \. f 
 rishtnta, yi, 18. 
 
 A. D. i744.-Outbreak of the Third Inter- 
 colonial War. Mir .Nkw England 
 1744. 
 
 A, O. 
 
 A II 
 
 A, D. 1745.— Conqueit by the New Enr- 
 
 laodcra.— Fall of Louisbourc. »•« Nkw E.s" 
 I »NI« .\ 1>. I74,V :in,| E.^ulanii: A. I». 174.V 
 
 A. D. 1748.— Reitored to France. See Aix 
 i..*» lui-Ki.i.K, TifK i <»ouicHs, and N«w E.n<i. 
 L*Ni> A. It IT4.'>-174'< 
 
 A. D. i75«-».r«o.-The final capture and 
 
 dcstnictioo of Lou.ibuurf, by the Enrhsh.- 
 
 ■ in .Mav. 1.,1H Muring the Siveii Veen War — 
 
 •«■ Casaua: a. I). 17SO-175a and aflcrj' a 
 
 CAPITOLIint HILL AT ROME. 
 
 powerful fleet, under command of Admin] 
 Boecawen, arrived at Halifax for the purpose of 
 recapturing a place [Loulsbourg] which ouirlit 
 never to have been given up. The fleet con- 
 slated of 88 ships of the line and 18 frigates. 
 besides transporta, and when it left Halifax It 
 numbered 157 vessels. With It was a land 
 force, under Jeffery Amherst, of upward of 
 12,000 men. The French forces at Louishourg 
 were much Inferior, and consisted of only SsliiiS 
 of the line and S frigates, and of about 4 000 
 aoldlen. The English fleet set sail from Halifax 
 on the 98th of Mav, and on the 8th of June a 
 landing was effecU"d in Uabarus Bay. The neit 
 day the attack began, and after a sha'" ivjflict 
 the French abandoned and destroy^il two 
 ImporUnt batteries. The siege waa then puslied 
 by regular approaches; but it was not until tlie 
 26th of Julv that the garrison capitulated. By 
 the terms of surrender the whole garrison were 
 to become prisoners of war and to tw s<'nt to 
 England, and the English acquired 218 cannon 
 and 18 mortars, Iieside great quantities of arnmu. 
 nition and military storea. All the vessels of 
 war had bi-eu captured or destroyed; but their 
 crews, to the number of upwani of i.m) men 
 were Included In the capitulation. Two yi^ari 
 later, at the beginning of 1780, orders »,re sent 
 from England to demolish the fortress render 
 the harbor Impracticable, and transp'„rt tlie 
 garrison and stores to Halifax. Tlicw orrlits 
 were carried out so effectually that fev 1 <•,.$ 
 of Ita fortillcntions remain, and llie phue Ii 
 inhablte<l only by fishermen. "—C. C. Sniilli Tfn 
 Wiirs on <lu Henboard (Xarratitt aiui Cnlieai 
 Hill, of Am., r, 5, cA. 7). 
 
 Also in: F. I'arkman, Montralm nml \y„lft, 
 eh. 19 (p. 2).— 8if, also, Cajiai>a (Nkw KuAMt)' 
 A. D. 1738. 
 
 A. D. 1763.— Ceded to England by the 
 Treaty of Parie, Set- .Sbvkn Yeakh Waii 
 
 A. D. 1763.— Added to the government of 
 Nova Scotia. See Canada: A. I). I7i»-1T74. 
 
 CAPE COLONY. 8ee Sorxii Arm. a 
 
 CAPE ST. VINCENT, Naval battle ot 
 See Enulami: A. I>. 1797. 
 
 CAPETIANS, Origin and crowning of tht. 
 Sec France: A. t). ml, and 877-987 
 
 CAPHARSALAMA, Batt:. of.-Oiu of the 
 vIcUirlcsof the Jewlsli patriot, Juilns .Miicialmus 
 over the Syrian general .Mctinor. H t' 1(13.— 
 Josenhus. Aiilii/. uf the Jnr; hk 12. rh. 1(1 
 
 CAPHTOR.— An ancient Ph<eiii, ian Mttle- 
 ment on the ciwst of the .Nile Dilia ' Krnm an 
 early peri(«l the whole of this distriit li i.| l«ru 
 e<>lonise<l by the riiienlcluns. and as I'li.iiiliia 
 Itai'lf was ealh-il Keft by the Eg\ ii'iaiir tin- |.:.rt 
 of Egypt In whhh they had settled w, 111 livllie 
 name of Keft ur. or '(Iniilcr I'honiiia '— .V 
 H. Hayce, AW«A l.iahl fr,;n Iht .\iin.i,l V>n'i- 
 menU,eh 2.— On the otiier hand. Kn.iM sud 
 other writers say that 'the I'hiliMidiH mme 
 friMn Caplitor," aiHl lliat " this now i.l»...lete 
 niiiiie pmhHlily designated either the whole or a 
 |iart of Cri'le. " ( 
 
 CAPHYiC. Battle of. -Fought II r t» 
 IsMwien llie Arhieiui ami .!•;(. ili..,ii I., ,,mi,-, 
 CAPITAL PUNISHMENT. >., I.vw, 
 
 ChiMINAI.. .V ll IMSI nnd llUIO-JM-.XI 
 
 CAPITOLINE HILL AT ROME -The 
 
 Capital.— Ill pri'historie times ilij« l.ill nss 
 called the .Mons Suiuriiius, see Varrvj, i,iu. Lat, 
 
 S'JS 
 
cAPrrouMX hul at bohk. 
 
 CABAFFA. 
 
 T. 41 ; it! luune being ooonected wtth that legm- 
 duT 'golden age' when Saturn htnuelf 
 reigned In Italr. . . . Tbii bill, which, like the 
 other hills of Rome, liaa had Ita contour much 
 altered by cutting away and levelling, consUta 
 of a nusi of tufa rock harder in structure than 
 that of the Palatine hilL It appears once to 
 hare been surrounded by cliffs, very steep at 
 ni(wt place*, and bad only approaches on one 
 aide — that towards the Forum. . . . The top of 
 the hill is shaped into two peaks of airaut equal 
 height, one of which was known as the Capi- 
 toliuin, and the other as the An, or Citadel. . . . 
 The Capitolium was also in early time known as 
 the 'Mens Tarpeius,' so called from the familiar 
 legend of the treachery of Tarpeia. . . . In later 
 times the name ' rupe* Tarpeia ' was applied, not 
 to the whole peak, but to a part of its cliff which 
 faced towards the 'VIcus Jugarius' and the 
 'Forum Magnum.' The identification of that 
 part of the Tarpeian rock, which was used for 
 the exeruticm of criminals, according to a very 
 primitive custom, is now almost impossible. At 
 one place the cliff of the Capitolium is quite 
 perpcniiicular, and haa been cut very carefully 
 Into an upright even surface; a deep groove, 
 about a foot wide, runa up the face of thia 
 cuttini!. and there are many rock-cut chambers 
 eicaviili'd in this part of the cliff, some openings 
 into wliicli apiicar in the face of the rock. This 
 is popularly though erroneously known as the 
 Tarpeian rork. . . . The perpendicular cliff was 
 on«' very much higlirr than it is at present, aa 
 then- it a great acrumulation of rubl)isli at ita 
 
 foot That tills cliff cannot be the Tarpeian 
 
 rork where criminals were executed Is shown by 
 Dionyaiiu (vili. 78, and vii. 89), who expressly 
 u,v> that this took place in the sight of p^ple In 
 the Fonim Magnum, so that the popular Rupcs 
 Tsrpeia u on the wrong side of the hill. "—J. tl. 
 Middlr^on, Anrient Bom* in 1885, ch. 7. — 8ce. 
 also. »>Kvr.:< Hills or Rome, and QcMS, Komaji. 
 
 CAPITULARIES.— " It Is commonly sup- 
 pooeil that the term capitularies applies only to 
 the laws of Charlemagne; this is a mistake. 
 The wohl 'capitula,' 'little chapters,' equally 
 spplliD to all tlie laws of the Frank kings. . . . 
 Charlemagne, In hla capitularies, did anything 
 but li'ifiaJHte. Capitularies are, properly speak- 
 ing, tlie whole acta of his government, public 
 seta of all kinds by which he manifested his 
 suthority."— F. Ouiiot, Ilut. <^ Cintimtion, 
 Itrl il, 
 
 .\i.M>i<i: E. F. Ilenderaon, Sritet UM. Don. 
 ^11; Vi'MU A<in, ** i. 
 
 CAPITULATION OF CHARLES V. Sea 
 Otiititw: A U. |.VJU-IS3t. 
 
 CAPO O'ISTRIA, Count, Tha AtMSila*- 
 tioaof. H,v Ohkkce: a. I). i830-i8<M. 
 
 CAPPADOCIA. See MirnKintTic Wam. 
 
 CAPS, Party of th*. »<•« M( andinaviah 
 •tukxSwkdkk): a. I). 17»M71«. 
 
 CAPTAL.— A title, derived fn>m ' ' capiulls, " 
 wiirhiiiny ei|ulv.ilrnt to count, and ancirntjy 
 li Tiic liy wvcral lorils In Aquitaine. "Towanis 
 thr llih irnlurv there were no more than two 
 oipi»l»a.limiwln|grd. that of Huch a"d that of 
 Priiir - ProiMart (Johnea), CArowWw, Mr. 1, 
 
 M IV „„lr 
 
 C TiViTY, Priac« «r tU. Bee ivm*. 
 A. I> im^iiM 
 
 CAPTIVITY OP THE JEWS, Tfc«. »e« 
 iift B. C. 604-M6. 
 
 CAPUA.— Capua, originally an Etruscan 
 city, called Vultumum, was taken by the Sam- 
 nitea, B. C. 424, and waa afterwards a city in 
 which Etruscan and neighboring Oreek influences 
 were mixed in their effect on a barbarous new 
 population. "Capua became by its commerce 
 and agriculture the second city in Italy in point 
 of size — the first in point of wealth and luxury. 
 The deep demoralization in which, according to 
 the accounts of the ancients, that city surpassed 
 all others in Italy, ia especially reflected in the 
 mercenary recruiting and in the gladiatorial 
 sports, both of which pre-eminently flourished in 
 Capua. Nowhere did recruiting officers find so 
 niunerous a concourse aa in this metropolis of 
 demoimliied civiltzation. . . . The gladiatorial 
 sporta ... if they did not originate, were at 
 any rate carried to perfection in Capua. 'There, 
 seta of gladiators made their appearance even 
 during banqueta"—T. Mommaen, Hi$t. of Borne, 
 bk. «, eA. 5. 
 
 B. C. 343.— Snrrendar to tbo Romaaa. See 
 Rom: b7C. 848-290. 
 
 B. C. ai6-aii.— Welcom* to Hannibal.- 
 SicKO and capture by the Romaa*.— Th* city 
 repeoplad, l»ee Pmic War, The Second. 
 
 A. D. aoo-ioi6.— Th* Lombard principalitj. 
 See Italy (SournERN): A O. 800-1016. 
 
 A. D. 1501.— Captor*, sack and maiaacr* 
 by th* Fr*ach. See Italy: A D. 13U1-1504. 
 
 CAPUCHINS, The.- "The Capuchins were 
 only a branch of the great Franciscan order, and 
 their mode of life a modification of its Itule. 
 Among the Franciscans the severity of their 
 Rule lud early become a subject of discuiwion, 
 which finally led to a secession of some of the 
 members, of whom Hatteo de' Bassi. of the con- 
 vent of Muntefalcone was the leading spirit 
 These were the rigorists who desired to restore 
 the primitive austerities of the Order. They 
 liegaa by a change of dress, adding to the usual 
 roonaatic habit a 'cappuccio,' or pointed hood, 
 which Matteo claimed was of the same pattern 
 aa that worn br St. Franria By the bull 
 'Religionk zelus (1S28), Matteo obtained from 
 Pope Clement VII. leave for hinwlf and his 
 companions to wear thia peculiar dresa; to allow 
 their Iteards to grow; to live in hermitngea, 
 according to Uie rule of St. Francis, and to itevote 
 themselves chiefly to the reclaiming of i^rcat 
 sinners. Paul 111. afterwards gave thin iwr- 
 mission to settle wheresoever they like<l. 1 on- 
 sislently with the austerity of their professions, 
 their churches were unadorned, and their ron- 
 venta built in the simplest style. They benime 
 very servlreal)le lo the I'hurch. and tlieir fear- 
 lessness and HMiduity in wailing upon the sick 
 during the plague which ravagiil the wli<i|« of 
 Italy, maile them extremely popular." — J. .\lzng, 
 MiinuiU iif I'liinrmU C/'urfh Ifirt , r. 8, n. 4M. 
 
 CAPUCHONS, OR CAPUTIATI. See 
 
 WlllTK IliHlim (IK PRANrB. 
 
 CARABOBO, Battles of (iRai-tiM). See 
 Coi.niiBIA!« St\TK8: a 1> 18IH-l8;l<t. 
 
 CARACALLA, Roman Emperor, A. 
 211-217. 
 
 CARACCAS : A. D. ilia.-Deitmction 
 •arthqnake. 8ee C01.0MHIAII Htatm: .\. 
 
 CARAPPA, CardiMU (Pop« Paul IV.) and 
 th* Counter Rtformatioa. See Papact: A. U. 
 
 1387-1303, and I53^I(HX). 
 
 
 8U8 
 
f 
 
 ! 
 
 if 
 
 Iff. 
 
 fir 
 
 CARA& 
 
 CARAS, OR CARANS, OR CARANQUIS, 
 
 The. See Eccadok. 
 
 CARAUSIUS, Rerolt of. See BRiTAni: 
 A. D. 288-897. 
 
 CARAVELS. — CALEONS, Etc. — "The 
 term csrevel wu originally given to ships 
 Mvigsted wholly by uTii u distinguished from 
 the galley propelled by oars. It has been 
 applied to a great variety of veweh of different 
 •lie and conitructton. The caravels of the New 
 World discoverer* may be generally described as 
 lonfc narrow boats of from 20 to 100 tons burden, 
 with three or four mast* of about equal height 
 carrying sometimes square and sometimes lateen 
 •ails, the fourth mast set at the heel of the bow- 
 sprit carrying square sails. They were usually 
 naif-decked, and adorned with the lofty forecastle 
 and loftier poop of the day. The latter con- 
 •titute<i over that part of the vessel a double or 
 tri'lile deck, which was pierced for cannon. . . . 
 The- ealera was a vessel of low bulwarks, navi- 
 gatetf by sails and oars, usually twenty or thirty 
 oars on either side, four or five oarsmen to a 
 bench. . . . The galeaza was the Urgest class of 
 galera, or craft propelled wliolly or In part by 
 nam. ... A galeota was a Bmall galem. Iiaving 
 only IS or 30 oarsmen on a side, and two mtists. 
 The galcon was a large armed merchant vessel 
 with high bulwark!, tliree or four decks, with two 
 or three mnsts, square rigged, spreading courst-s 
 and top sails, and sometimi's tup-gnllaut sails. 
 . . . Those which fplled between Arapuico and 
 Mimila wi're from 1,200 to 3.000 tons bunlen. A 
 galconclllo WHS a small galcon. The carao was 
 • Inrge carrying vessel, the one lntcnde<l for 
 Columbus' sti-ond voyage being 1,2JJ0 tonelcsor 
 I,*!*) tons. A nao, or navlo, was a large ship 
 with hitfh bulwarks and three masts. A nave 
 WHS a vessfl with deck and sails, the former 
 dlMinguishlngit from the l)arc«, and the absence 
 of ours from a galera. The bergnntin, or brig, 
 had low bulwarks. . . . The name brigantine 
 WHS npplii'd In America also to an opi-n Hat- 
 botliiini'd lH)at, which usually carrio<l one sail and 
 from H to 18 men.'— U It. ftancmft, Hitl. uftht 
 Ptififif Stilt,*, t. 1, p. 187, /«)<-Bofe.— See, also 
 Amf.kica: a. n. 1403. 
 
 CARBERRY, Marr Stuart'* (nrreodtr at. 
 See SriiTLAND; A. D. l.'Ml-l.WS. 
 
 CARBONARI, Origin and character of the. 
 Sci' 1tai.v(8oittbe«»): A. I). 1H08-1809. 
 CARCHEMISH. See IIittitrs. Tub. 
 CARCHEMISH, Battle of— Fought, B. C 
 604. between the armies of Neclio, the Egyptian 
 Pharaoh, and Xibuchadnezzar, then crown prince 
 of Habylon. N.rho, lieing ilefeatcd, was driven 
 bark u> Egypt and strippe.1 ..f all hi* Syrian 
 conquesta.— K. I^normant, Mjnual of Antirnt 
 I lint «f thf Kul, hk. a, eh. 4. 
 CAROAOEN, Battle ofdSol). Bee Spain: 
 
 A. I> l*W-18(H»(r>l«KMnKII-MAIlCB). 
 
 CARDINAL INFANT, The. SeeXmnn 
 ^: A I) 1(B.V1(WH. 
 
 RDINALS, Cellefe eC 8« CtTiiA, Tii« 
 i> >■« (I'AfAi.), and Hahmt: A. D. 103». 
 r.'-,*''P.V*^"'' The.- flouth of the Ukc 
 [Ijike.if \«n. In Asia M ...r] lay the Canlufhl 
 wlmm the later Greeks all the Oortlywaiis and 
 OonlyeiiM; but anwmg the Armenians Ihev were 
 known as Kortlii, iiinoni; th.j !4vrURft oa K:trTi;} 
 Thrse an- I he anceslors of the mixlem Kurds a 
 nation bImi of the Aryan st«xk. "— M. Duncker 
 Uitt. </ Antiquitt), hk. 2, eA. 12,— 8ee, abo,' 
 
 CARL 
 
 OoBDTKWE.— Under Saladin and the Ayonbite 
 dynasty the Kurds playe<l an imporUnt part la 
 inediaivHl history. See Salaoin. Empirr of 
 
 CARGILLITES, The. See Scotland 
 A. I). 1681-1689. 
 
 CARHAM, Battle ot— Fought and won hy 
 an army of ScoU, under King Malcolm, invad- 
 ing the then English earldom of Bemlcin K D 
 1018, and securing the annexation of Ixitiilan to 
 the Scottish kingdom. The battlefield was near 
 that on which Ffodden was afterwards fou^rht,— 
 E. A. Freeman, Norman G>nque»t, eh. 6 tret i 
 CARIANS, The.— "The Carians may be 
 calleil the doubles of the Lieleges. They are 
 tctmied the ' speakeis of a barbarous tongue ' snj 
 yet, on the other band, Apollo is said to have 
 spoken Cariaa Aa a people of plraU's elml in 
 bronze they once upon a time had their dny in 
 'he Archipelago, and, like the Normans of the 
 Middle Ages, iwoopcd down from the sea to 
 desolate the coaiU; but their real home was In 
 Asia Minor, where their settlements lay between 
 those of Phrygians and Pisidlans, and ei>m 
 munlty of religion united them with the Lydians 
 and Myslana.' — E. Curtius, Uitt. of Qrttee. hk I 
 «A. 2. — The country of the Carians was the 
 mountainous district in the southwesU-m ancle 
 of Asia Minor, the coast of which is Indented 
 with gulfs and frayed with longprojwtine 
 rocky promontories. The ishind of lUuiilini llej 
 close to it on the south. The Carians were sub- 
 jugated by the Lydlan King Cnpsus, sn.l afier- 
 wanls passed under the Persian yoke. Tlie 
 Persians permitted the establishment of a vassal 
 kingdom, under a dynasty which tiled its 
 capluil at Halicamaasus, ana made that ritv une 
 of the splendid Asktic outposts of (irp<'k art and 
 civilization, though always falthfullv Persian in 
 Its politics. It was to the memory oY one of the 
 C^arlan kings at Ilalicamassus, Mausolu'i. Ilist 
 tho famous sepulchral monumuiit, wliieh jruve 
 Ita name to all similar edifia-s, and wljieh ilic 
 ancients counted among the seven woniiers of 
 the World, was ervcttxl by his widi>w. ||«|i 
 carnassus offered an olwtlnatc reslstame to Alex- 
 ander the Ureat and was destniytnl liy thai ruth- 
 less conqueror afu-r it had BuccuniUil to his 
 siege. Subsequently rebuilt. It never gained im- 
 porunce again. The Turkish town of llmlrura 
 now occupies the site.— C. T. Newton. Tr.mt* 
 nml Ditemeriei in the Ijentnt, r. 3.— ,St, al»o, 
 ItAMmcs and Dorians and Ionian*. 
 
 CARIAY, The. See Amkrican AnoHiiii.<iiM: 
 Oi'cit OK Coco Oroit 
 
 CARIBBEAN ISLANDS, The. See 
 
 AmtHicA: A. D. 149»-14X6, an.l Wkst Isnrit*. 
 
 CARIBS, The. See Amuhcan Ahoh.oimu. 
 
 CARtHa. 
 
 CARILLON.— The French name of F.itt 
 Ticonderoga. See Canada (Skw Fhasck) 
 A. I). K.Vt. 
 
 CARINTHIA, Bariy mediaeval history. 
 See Hi.AvoNio PcoruM: 6tii-7tii I'KNTi Hilts, 
 and Uf.iim\nv: .K. D. H4a-9«3 
 
 CARINUS, Reman Emperor, A. I> >:)- 
 
 CARIPUNA, The. See Amerk an Aimiii 
 OINKS: Oi'iK OH Coco Oriii-p. 
 
 CARtSBROOK CASTLE, The flight a( 
 Kln{ Charles to. Sec EsqIwUco; \. v. ioi? 
 (Ai'iirsT— Drtkwrkr). 
 
 CARIZMIAN8. See Khcarezm 
 
 CARL,ORKARL. SeeEntKU-KTHKLna 
 
 400 
 
'iw4' 
 
 CAxusoa. 
 
 CARLINGS. See Fiuiiks (CABl/>Tniaux 
 ExriRE): A. D. 768-814. 
 CARLISLE, Orifin o£ See LvanvALuuK. 
 CARLISTS AND CHRISTINOS. See 
 
 Spain: A. D. 183S-1846, tod 1878-18aV 
 
 CARLOM AN, Kinc of the Franka (EMt 
 Franks— Germanj— in aaaociatioa with Louis 
 III.), A. D. 876-881 ; (BurpindTaod Aq Mtainc), 
 
 A. 1). 879-«94 Carloman, Duke and Priace 
 
 of the Franks, A. D. 741-747. 
 
 CARLOS. See Craruu. 
 
 CARLOVINGIANS. See Fraxxb (Cabo- 
 LDiaiAii Em-iiuc): A. D. 768-814. 
 
 CARLOWITZ, Peac* ot See Hdhoabt: 
 A. I>. 1688-1680. 
 
 CARLSBAD, Congrtsa oL See Qbkkaxt: 
 A. D. IH14-l«iO. 
 
 CARMAGNOLE. See Framck: A. D. 1798 
 (Pkbkiart— April). 
 
 CARMANIANS, The— "The GermanUn» 
 of Ilorodutus are the Carmaniaiu of the later 
 Orci-lu, who also passed with them as a separate 
 nation, though closely allied to the Persians and 
 Medvs. They wandered to and fro to the east of 
 Penis in the district now called Kirman. '— M. 
 Dunckcr, IIM. <^ Antiqutty, v. S, bk. 8. ch. 8. 
 
 CARMATHIANS, Tht.— "In the 277th 
 Tear of the Hegira [A. D. 890], and in the nelgh- 
 butirfaood of Cufa, an Arabian preacher of the 
 name uf Carmath assumed tlic lofty ami tncom- 
 pruliensl'i'.e style of tlie Qutde, tlie Director, tlie 
 Ik-monatration, the Word, the Hiily Gliost, tlie 
 Camel, tlic Herald of the Mi'ssiah, who hiul cci- 
 Terwil with him in a human sliape, ami the 
 rfpri'mntatire of Mohammed the son of All, of 
 St. Jiilin tlic Itiiptist, and of the Aniti'l tliibrii-l," 
 t'annalli »ii» one of the eastern priwi'lviig of tlie 
 
 K.Tt of tlic Uliiiutileans or Ishmailites— tlie same _ 
 
 fMm wlilcli sprang tlie k'rrible secret order of ] heim, InUituU* of EecUtiiulieal Uuton 
 the Awiusiua He foL -Ipd another branch of ' etnt'g 12, pt. 8, eh. 8, tett 21 
 
 the Uliiiiailcans, which, tailing his name, were ~ ' ' ~ 
 
 callctl the Carmathians. The s<'ct made rajiid 
 fiaiu.* among the Bedouins and were su<>n a for- 
 Miidalile and uncontrollable bixly. "After a 
 liliK«iy conflict they prevailed In tlie province of 
 Bahrein, alimg the PersUn Oulf Fur and wide 
 tlic tribes of tlic desert were subject to tlie 
 Kvptre, or rather to the swurd, of Abu Said and 
 liiHMin AbuTaher; and these ri'brliioiis imams 
 ci.iiKl iiiurtcr In the field 107,000 fanatics. . . . 
 TliiM'lliesof Itucca and Baulliec, of Cufa an<l 
 Bawirali. were taken and pillaged ; Bagdad was 
 fliltil with conateniation : and tlie caliph trembliil 
 btliiiul tlie veiU of hi* palace. . . . The rapine 
 of the Carmathians was unnctlfled by their aver- 
 ilea U> the worahip of Mecca. They robbed a 
 caravan of pilgrluia, and aO.iKM) devout Moalems 
 Wire abnmiiiiiwl on the burning sands t« a death 
 iif ImuKi r ami thirat. Anotlicr yi'nr |A. I). Bilt) 
 lliey nitfcriKl the pilgriiiw to pmccihI without 
 liitemiptiiin; but, in the festival of devotion. 
 Aim I'iiher stormed the holy city and trampld 
 on ilic- mmt venerable rt'lics of the Mahometan 
 failJi. Thirty thouaaihl clll/.em ami sirangcra 
 wer»- put to the swoni; the saeml precincts 
 were |>„l|utc.| by the burial of 8,0(10 dead Uidk'S; 
 the Well (if Zemzen overflowed with blood ; the 
 giiMen ii|<,iut was forced from lU place; llic 
 veil of tlie Caalis was divided among Uu-se Ini. 
 [.i..ui. m-iurirs: and tlie black stone, the nr»t 
 Bionunient of the nation, was heme away In 
 Wumph to their capiul. After this deed of 
 Mcrlli gc and cruelty they ountlaued lo lufaat the 
 
 CARNOT. 
 
 confines of Irak, Syria and Egypt; but the vital 
 principle of enthusiasm had withered at the root 
 . . . It Is needless to enquire into what factions 
 they were broken, or by whose swords they were 
 finally extirpated. The sect of the Carmathians 
 may be coDsidered as the second visible cause of 
 the decline and fall of the empire of the cidiphs." 
 — E. Gibbon, Dtdint and fiiU of the Homan Em- 
 pin, eh. 58, and note by Dr. Ant'tA.— See, also, 
 
 AsSASaiNBk 
 
 CARMELITE FRIARS.- "About the 
 middle of the ri2th] century, one Berthold, a Cala- 
 brian, with a few companions, migrated to Mount 
 Carmel [Palestine], and in the place where the 
 prophet Ellas of old is said to have hid himself, 
 built a humble cottage with a chapel. In which 
 he and his associates led a laborious and solitary 
 life. As othera continued to unite themselves 
 with these residenU on Mount Carmel, Albert the 
 patriarch of Jerusalem, near the commencement 
 of the next century, prescribed for them a rule 
 of life; which the pontiffs afterwards sanctinned 
 by their authority, and also changed in various 
 Teapects, and when it was found too rigorous 
 and burdensome, mitigated considerably. Such 
 waa the origin of the celebrated order of Car- 
 melites, or as It is commonly called the order of 
 St Mary of Mount Carmel [and known iu Eng- 
 land as the White Friars] ; » hich subseiiucntly 
 passed from Syria into Europe, and became one 
 of the prlncliNtl mendicant oniera. The Carmel- 
 ites themselves reject with disdain this account 
 of their origin, and most strenuously contend tliat 
 tlie holy prophet Eliiis of the M Testament, 
 waa the parent and founder of tlieir society. 
 But they were able to persuade very few, (or 
 rather none out of their society), that their origin 
 was so ancient and Illustrious. "—J. L, von .>Io»- 
 
 Ik. 8. 
 .en. », tett. 'i\. 
 
 Al.«ora: G. Wiiddlngton, //i»*. of the Churth, 
 eh. to, tect. 8.— J. Alzog, Manual of UmtyrmU 
 Church Ilitt., net. 344 (r. 2).— E. L. Cutts, Seen** 
 and Charaelert of tlie .Viitdle Agee, eh. 5. 
 
 CARMICNANO, Battle of (1796). See 
 France: A. D. 170)1-1797 (October— .\piiil). 
 
 CARNABII, OR CORNABII, The. See 
 Bhitaim, Celtic TuBEa 
 
 CARNAC. See Ahirt. 
 
 CARNATIC. 8<'e Karnatic. 
 
 CARNEIAN FESTIVAL. The.-A Spar 
 tan festival, said to Imvc been institutiii 11. C. 
 676. " The Cameian festival fell in the i^paitan 
 month Camrius, the Athenian Metageituon. cor- 
 resnomling nearly to our August. It was held 
 in honour of A|iollo Carneius. a deity worshipped 
 from very ancient times in the Pclo|Hiiiiiese, 
 especially at Amvclte. ... It wa; of a warlike 
 character, like the Athenian HoedrOmla. "— U, 
 lUwllnson, Sotr to l/rnmli'liit, bi. 7. 
 
 Also IN : E. Curtlus, ;/■•(. of Orrtre, bk. 2, ch. 1. 
 
 CARNIANS, The. H.>e [(ilktians. 
 
 CARNIFEX FERRY, Balllt of. Sec 
 UifiTEu States or Am. : A. D. ISOl (Aiofsr- 
 Dbckkrer: West Viruiniai. 
 
 CARNONACA, Th«. See Britaik, Celth: 
 Tribes. 
 
 CARNOT, Lasara N. M., and the French 
 |(a*9hitiM|, H<-t> KuAMrg: A. L> 17<>!< (JcyE— 
 OiToiiKR), to 17V7 (Septembkh), and IHOl^-1801 
 (May— Februaht). 
 
 CARNOT, Prasldtat, Assaaaioatloa oC 
 8et^ Fiu.'^iK ; A. U i'*ili-18«j. 
 
 401 
 
»Ti 
 
 CARNTTTEa 
 
 CARNUTES, The. A tribe who occupied 
 • region siippnaed to be the center of Gaul. The 
 modern city of Chartrcg stands In the midit of 
 Jt. — Q. Lonp, Ikrlint of the Honmn Bepublie, ». 
 8, rA. S2.— Sec. also, Veneti or WBaTERN Qavl. 
 
 CAROLINA GRANTS. See Axbrica: 
 A. I). 1639; and NoBTB Caboldia: A. D. lt»- 
 167(). 
 
 CAROLINAS, The. See North Caboliha, 
 
 ■nd S<H'TH CAROLtSA. 
 
 CAROLINE, Qaeea, Trial oC See Eko- 
 LAND: A. D. 1820-1827. 
 CAROLINE, The Buning: of tb*. See 
 
 Cakada: a. O. 1887-1838. and 1640-1841. 
 
 CAROLINE BOOKS, The.— A work put 
 forth hv ClmrlcniHgnc a^lngt imnire- worship. 
 
 CAROLINE ISLANDS.-An extenalTe 
 group of sniiill isliinils in the Pacific, lying aouth- 
 eastWiinllv from the Pliilippines, were first called 
 the New Philippines, but afterwards named the 
 Carolines, in honor of Charles tl. of Spain. The 
 Islets are some .lOO in number, but their total 
 population is only 20,000 or .'»,(KX), mostly con- 
 taineil in the three Isrtrer islands, Ruk, or tlouk, 
 Poimpe, an<l Yap, or Qnap. That some of them 
 were onee inhnbiU>d by a race capable of great 
 works is shown by the existence of ruins, con- 
 strurti'd of enormous basalt blocks. The ei- 
 Istina; natives are Polynesian. The Carolines 
 were (li<eovere<l by the Portuguese, in 1527, 
 Their possesion was long in dispute between 
 Spain and (Ji-rmany, but settled, by papal arbi- 
 tration, in favor of the former, In 1885, 
 
 CAROLINGIANS. See Praito (Caro 
 IINOIAN Kmpihk); a. D. 768-814 
 
 CARPFT-BAGCERS. See Vnmo States 
 OP .\M : A I) 1H66-1871. 
 
 CARK .-ilKE.— A Koman work In Britain, 
 formed t. 1 the draining of the Lincolnshire 
 Fens, :iiii; iiml, also, as a road.— II. M. Scarth, 
 Bomiin Rritnin, eh. 16. 
 
 CARRACKS, OR CARACS.-"A large 
 spwies of merchant vessel, principally used In 
 coasting trade. " among the Spsnianls of the 15th 
 and Iflth centuries.— W. Irving, life and Vof/agm 
 ef lUnm/mt, A*. «, M. 1 (r. 1), /x/t-nofe. — See, 
 also. Caravri.s. 
 
 CARRARA FAMILY, The: Its rias to 
 aoTsreipitr at Padua and its atrunl* with 
 the Visconti of Milan. See Verona; A, D. 
 l*8i»-|.t:iH. and Milan: A. I) 1277-1447 
 
 n *;A?-''.*1*' ^"!;» "' '"• C- S3). See Ro¥« : 
 ^^„'y-W (A. D. »97). See Pbrsia: A. D. 
 
 Ca'rRICK'SFORO, BattlaoC See United 
 
 8TATK«nrAM. : A. I). 18ei(JuNB_j0LT: WbsT 
 VlRlllNHV 
 
 CARROCCIO. Th».-"The militia of eTerr 
 rity |Im Lonilmnly, or northern luly, elerenth 
 and iwi lull rentiirles) wasdivldnl Into separate 
 bodim, a( i-ortllnjf to IihsI partitions, each fed by 
 a O<mfalonlere, or slandar<l-lM>an>r. They fought 
 on f'Mit. anil Hnwinhled niund the camKilo a 
 heavy car drawn hy oxen, and covere<l with the 
 flap ami annorlal la-nrings of the clly A high 
 pole nw ill ilie niiildle of this car, iH^aring tfic 
 <x>louri anil a Clulsl which siTmed to bless tlie 
 army, wiili Imtli amis rxtendeti. A prlmi said 
 dally inaxs at an alt«r plaiid In the fn>nt of the 
 Mr T!h' trmnpeter!! -.^f tUr r:-jr.R,!5r,j?y w^fa.) 
 on Hip \mk part, aoiiiKle.) Hh' charge ami the 
 retreat It was llerihert, arriiblahop of Milan 
 toBlemporary of Cammi itm Salic, wlw ioTealwi 
 
 1897, 
 Eiro- 
 
 OAirTHAO,u,. 
 
 this car In Imitation of the ark of allUnce sm) 
 caused It to be adopted at Milan. All the free 
 cities of Italy followed the example: this sacred 
 car, Intrusted to the guardianship of the militia, 
 
 gave them weight and confidence."— J. C. L de 
 Ismondl, ITitt.af the Italian Remibliet. eh i 
 CARTERET, Sir George, The 
 Grant to. See New Jbbset: A. D, V 
 tJ 1688-1738, 
 
 CARTERET'S MINISTRY. See 
 lAND: A. D. 1742-1745. 
 
 CARTHAGE, The foanding: ot-Ethb»al 
 or Ithobaal, a priest of Astsrte, acquired possejl 
 slon of the throne of Tyre B. C. 917, deixisine 
 and putting to death the legitimate prince a 
 descendant of Hiram, Solomon a ally and friend 
 The Jezebel of Jewish history, who married 
 Ahab, king of Israel, was the daughter of this 
 king Ethbaal. " Ethbaal was succceiled bv hii 
 son Balezor (885-877 B. C). After eight years 
 Balezor left two sons, Mutton and Sicluirhaal 
 both under age, , . , Mutton died in the yenr 
 858 B. C. and again left a son nine Tears old 
 Pygmalion, and a daughter, Eliasa. a few ycirj 
 older, whom he ha<i married to his hmihor 
 SIcharbaal, the priest of the temple of Melkarth 
 Mutton had intended that Elissa and IVirnialiiin 
 should ri'ign together, and tlms the power n>iillv 
 passed into the liands of SIcharbaal, tliehuKlpiind 
 of Elissa. When Pygmalion reached \x\n six. 
 tcenth year the people transferred tn him the 
 sovereignly of Tyre, and he put Slcliarliii:il his 
 uncle, to death , , . (tweB.C). Elissa (,.r liiio, 
 as she was also cslle<l] fled from Tvte Nfiin- her 
 brother, as we are told, with others who would 
 not submit to the tvtsnny of Pygmalion. Th« 
 exiles ... are said , , , to liave laniiwl on ihe 
 const of Africa. In the neigh Nmrhood of Ityke 
 the old colony of the Phenlcians. and then'' to 
 have bought as much land of the Libvanj u 
 could be covered by the skin of an lix. Br 
 diviiling this Into very thin strips they ohtaineii 
 a ph-ce of land sufficient to enable them to build 
 a fortress. This nr>w dwelling-place, or the ilty 
 which grew up round this fortress, the waniler- 
 ers callwl. In reference to their old home, Knr- 
 thada (Karta hadasha), 1. e., "the new cliy,' 
 the Karrhedon of the Qm-ks, the Carth.iire of 
 the liomans. The legend of the punlmsi' of 
 the soli mav have arisen fmm the fait that 
 the settlers for a long time paid tribute to the 
 ancient population, the Maxvsns, for iliilr 
 soil."— M. Duncker, llitl. of Antimit), hk. 3, 
 eh. II. 
 
 Al«oi^: J. Kenrirk, Phnemria : Iti'l.i'h. 1 
 Divisions, Sin and Population,— "Hii' iliv 
 pmiHT, at the time at whirh It Is liest known let 
 us, the per' I of the Punic wars, eon»istii| nf 
 the Hyrsa or Citadel quarter, a (Jnik w.inl 
 corruivleil from the Canaanltiah Uorra. orIl.«tni. 
 that (s, a fort, ami of the Cotliim or h.irliour 
 quarter, so Important in Hie history of thi' final 
 siege. To the north and wmt of tlii«i. iiml 
 occupying all the vast -pace belmeen IImmi nnil 
 the Isthmus Is'liind, wini the Megara (iirlm'ir, 
 Mairurim), that Is, the suburbs and i:<ir>li'ii« of 
 Carthage, which, with the city pM|'iT, mvireil 
 an an'a of 211 mile* In clrcii-nferemiv \\* |«i|mi- 
 lation must have lieen fuiiy pn>piirlh>netl loiu 
 siir. Just hrfnrc the third Punic w.ir, whrn ia 
 strength had lieen drained ... It contained 
 IM.im inhabitants."— a B Bmltb, CirtKaft 
 ami th» QirthagiHiani, eh. I. 
 
 402 
 
cabtha6b. 
 
 CARTHAOE. 
 
 C&rthafeBl«a Commerce, 
 
 CIEXT. 
 
 The Dominion ot— " AH our podtlre Infor- 
 mation, scanty u it la, about Carthage and her 
 institutions, relates to the fourth, third, or 
 second centuries B. C. ; ret it may lie held to 
 justify presumptive conclusions as to the fifth 
 centurr B. C, especially in refei. m to the 
 general system pursued. The maximum of her 
 power was attained before her first war with 
 Rome, which began in 2«4 B. C. ; the first and 
 H'cnnd Punic wars both of them greatly reducc<i 
 bcr strength and dominion. Yetln spite of such 
 mlurtion wo Icam that alMut ISO B. C. shortly 
 bcfnrc the third Punic war, which ended in the 
 captun' and depopulation of the city, not less 
 than 700.000 souls were computed in It, as occu- 
 pants of a fortified circumference of above twenty 
 miles, covering a peninsula with Its isthmus. 
 Upon this Isthmus its ciMMlel Byrsa was situated, 
 surmunded by a triple wall of Its oiwn, and 
 crowned at its summit by a magnificent temple 
 of ^cuiapius. The numerous population Is the 
 more remarkable, since Utica (a cnnsiderahic 
 city, nilonlzcd from Phoenicia more anciently 
 than even Carthage itself, and always indci>en<l- 
 cnt >i the Cartliaginians, though In the condition 
 of an inferior nncldiscontenteu ally) was within 
 the (lislanre of seven mHcs from Cartilage on tlic 
 one side, and Tunis si.-emingly not much further 
 nil (in Ihe other. I, ten at that time, too, the 
 Canli:is;iiiians arc tv.ul to have |M>sse8Scd 3iK) 
 tributjiry cities in Libya. Yet tliis wim but a 
 smiill fraction of tlie prodigious empire wlilrli 
 luid iH'liinged to them certainly in the fourth 
 cinturv II C. and in all probability iilso lietwecri 
 tHO-410 U. C. TImt empire extended eastward 
 as fur M the AUiirs of the Philieiii, near the 
 Cwit Syrlis.— westward, all along tlie const to 
 the I'illiirs of Herakles and the western const of 
 MdrtKii) Tlie line of roast soutlieost of Car- 
 tbaire. lu fur as the bay called tlie Lesser Syrtls, 
 was proverbial (under tiic name of Byzacium 
 ami tlie Emporia) fur Its fertility. Along this 
 Mtensive line were dislribukil Indigenous 
 I.lliyiin tribes, living by agriculture; and a 
 mlxeil population called Liby-Pha-nician. . . . 
 Of Ihe Llhy i'hiciiician towns the niimU'r Is not 
 kniiwn to us. but it must liave been pnxllgioiisly 
 gn'.it. . . . A few of tlie towns niimg the coast. 
 — Hippo, Utica, Adrumctuin, Thapsus, Leptis, 
 *c.— were colonies from Tyre, like Cartliago 
 Itself . . . Vet the Carthaginlnns contrived in 
 time to rcnilcr every town tributary, with the 
 e«',.pti„n of Utica, ... At one time, immedl- 
 auly after the first Punic war, they took tnm 
 the mnil cultivators as much as one-half of their 
 proliiie. and doubled at one stnike the tribute 
 levliHl upon tlie towns. . . . The native Cartlm- 
 ginlan», iliough encouragnl by honorary marks 
 to iiinleriake . . . military service ytvn gener- 
 ally avirwj to it. and sparingly employed. 
 A eh.«in divlHioo of »,,V)0 cilisens, men of 
 wenUl, ,111.1 fmnlly. formed what was calltJ the 
 Nneml Uuiid of Cartilage distingtiialii'.l f.>r tin ir 
 liranrv in the flelil as well as li>r the splemtoiir 
 or ihi Ir arms, and tlie gold anil silver plate 
 »h Ml f-rniHi part of their Iwggagc. We shall 
 tlml il„«. ,iti,.,.n troops occaaionally omphiynl 
 •--• - • . :t- :n ainiy ; but moat iwrl of llw Caniia- 
 Itlnlaii ,rmy ronslaU of OhiiIs, Ilierians, Liby- 
 ans. A, , « minghNl host got fogetlier for ifio 
 owssion, ili»tordanl In koguage u well as lu 
 
 See Tbadc, As- [ enstoms."— O. Orote, But. of Oruee. pi. 2 
 
 81. J r . 
 
 eh. 
 
 of Syracuse. See Stra- 
 
 See Sicily: 
 
 ^3;. C. 4>0.— Invasion of Sicily.— Great defeat 
 •t Utmen. Sec Sicily: B. C. 480 
 
 «*• C. 409-40$.— I'.vasions of Sicily.— De- 
 struction of Sehnus, Himera and AKriMntum. 
 See Sicily: B. C. 409-40.5. 
 
 B. C. 3J«.— Siei 
 oubb: B. C. 897-3S 
 
 B. C. 383.- War with Syracnte, 
 B. C, 888. 
 
 B. C. 3<o-30«.— Invasion by AKathokle*. 
 See Syracuse: B. C. 317--W0. 
 
 B. C. a«4-34i.— The first war with Rome.— 
 Expnlsion from Sicily.— Loss of maritime 
 •npremacy. See Pisic W.\n, Tuk Pihot. 
 
 B. C. a4i-338.-ReT0lt of the mercenaries. 
 —At the clo»e of the First Punic War, the vet- 
 eran army of mercenaries with which Hamilcar 
 Barca had maintaine<l himself so long in Sicily— 
 a motley gathering of Greeks, LIgurians, Qauls, 
 Ilierians, Libyans and others — was sent over to 
 Carthage for the long arrears of pay due them 
 and for their discharge. Tlie party in power in 
 Cartilage, being liotli incapable and mean, and 
 being also embarrassed by an empty treasury, 
 exasperated this dangerous body of men by 
 delays and by attempts nt bargaining with tliem 
 for a reduction of their claims, until a genenl 
 mutiny was pn>vi>ked. The mercenaries, 20.001) 
 strong, with Speiidiiis. a runaway Campanian 
 slave, .Matlio, an African, and Autaritus, a Gaul, 
 for their leaders, mareluil from the town of Sicca, 
 where they were quartered, and campeil near 
 Tunis, tiireatening Carthaec. The government 
 becaiiio panic-stricken and took no measures 
 which did not einlKilden the mutineers and 
 Increase their demands. All Ihe oppressed Afri- 
 Gin peoples in tlie Carthaginian iloinain rose to 
 Join the revolt, and pounnl into the hands of the 
 mercenaries tlie tribute money which (,'arthage 
 would have wrung from them. The latter was 
 soon brought to n state of sore distress, without 
 an army, witlmu- ships, and with Ita supplies of 
 fooil mostly rut olT. The neighboring cities of 
 Utlra and Hippo Zarytiis were besiegeil. At 
 length the Cartliaglnian government, roiitrollcd 
 by a party liiMtilu to llainilrar, was oliligcil to 
 call hlni to tlie command, but assoeiateiT wllh 
 him ilanno, his liilten'<t personal enemy and the 
 most Incompetent leadiT nf the ruling faction. 
 Hamilcar Hucceeileil. after a despemto and limg 
 struggle, in destroying the mutineers to almost 
 tl last man, and In saving Carthage. But tlio 
 war, which lasted more than three years (U. C. 
 941-3;W), was mercilevi and horrilile beyond de- 
 scription. It was known to the ancients as the 
 " Truceless War " and tlio "Inexpiablo War." 
 The nvnct ami circiini<tanccs of it have lieen ex- 
 tnionliiiarily piciureii in KlaulH-rt's " tSaiammlio, " 
 whiili is one of the most revolting but moat 
 powerful of historical romances.— it. B. Smith, 
 Carthiigt ami thf Cirlhii'/ininiu, M 8. 
 Also i.\ : W lime, //,W. of llmw. hk. 4, M, 4. 
 B. C. 337-aoa. -Hamilcar in Spain.— The 
 second war with Rome.— Hannibal in ItalT 
 and Sicilr.- Scipio in Africa.— The rreat de- 
 feat at Zaraa.— Loss of naval dominion and 
 of Spain. See I'fMc War. Tii« .SKrovn 
 
 B. C. 146.— Osstructioa by Scipio.— Cat 
 tliaife exisu-d by Kimian sufferance for fifty 
 years after the endlnij of the Second Punic War, 
 aud even rwxivun.'d some considerable prosperity 
 
 408 
 
m 
 
 CARTHAGE. 
 
 In tnde, though Rome took care that her chances 
 for recovery sLniild be slight. When Hannibal 
 gave signs of bt'ing able to reform the govern- 
 ment of the city and to distinguish himself in 
 (tatesnunship as he had Immortalized himself in 
 war, Kome denuuide<l him, and be escaped her 
 chains only by Higlit. When, even without 
 Ilannibal, Carthage slowly repaired the broken 
 fortunes of her merchants, there was an enemy 
 at her door always ready, at tlie bidding of 
 Itome, to plunder them afresh. This was Mas- 
 sinissa, the Numldian prince, client and obedient 
 servant of the Roman state. Again and again 
 the helpless Carthaginians appealetl to Rome to 
 protect them from his depredations, and finally 
 they ventureil to attempt the protection of them- 
 sel ves. Then the patient perfidy of Roman state- 
 craft grasped iu reward. It had waited many 
 years for the provocations of Massinlssa to work 
 their effect; the maddened Carthaginians had 
 broken, at last, the hard letter of the treaty of 201 
 by assailing the friend and ally of Rome. The 
 pretext suHlced for a new declaration of war, with 
 the fixed purpose of pressing It to the last ex- 
 treme. Old Cato, who had lieen crying in the 
 e.irs of the Senate, "Cartliago delemla est," 
 should have his will. Tlie doomed Cartha- 
 cinians were kept in Ignonmce of the fule 
 decrecil, until they hud been foully tricked into 
 the surrender of their arms and the whole arma- 
 ment (if their city. But wlien they knew the 
 dreadful truth, they tli'ew off all cowardice and 
 rose to such a majestv of spirt as had never 
 been exhibited in their liislory bi'foro. Without 
 Weapons, or engines or ships, until they made 
 them anew, they shut their gates and kept the 
 Human armies out for more than two years. It 
 was another Selpio, adoptetl grandson and name- 
 sake of the conquiTtir of Hannibal, who finally 
 entrred Cartlwge (B. C. 146), fought his way to 
 iu eitodei. sireet by street, and, against his own 
 wish, by command of the Implacable senate at 
 Rome, levelli-d its last building to the earth, 
 after sending the inhabitants who survived to be 
 sold as slaves.— R B. Smith, Cart/iagt arul tin 
 Cartluigiiiiuru, eh. 20. 
 Alko in: 11. O. Liddell. ITitt. of Rome, ch. 4«. 
 B. C. 44.— Restoratioa br Casar.— 'A sit- 
 tlement named Junonia, had Uen miulc at Car- 
 thage by C. Oracclius [which furnislu-d his 
 eiiuinics one of thi'ir weapons against him. be- 
 I'ause. Ilicy said, he liiul itmwn in himsi'lf the 
 curse of »( iplo] and it appears that the city of 
 Gracchus s:ill existed. Caesar restored the old 
 name, and, as Strabo savs, rebuilt the place: 
 many Ihimaiis who preferred Carthage to IJoiuo 
 wcrest-nt there, ami some soldiers : and It Is now, 
 adds Straho [reign of Augustus) more populous 
 than any town in Lilya. "—(i. Long, Ikelinf uf tin 
 Jiiiodii liiiiulilii; t. 6. M. 32. 
 
 ad-4th Ctnturies.— The Christimn Church. 
 Sei'CiiiiisriAXiTV: A. I). 1(I(.-312. 
 
 A. D. 439.-T«ken by th* Vandalt.- 
 ( artliagc wiw surpriwl and captured bv the 
 VamlaU on tlie Uth of Dei., A. D. 4:)9,— nine 
 years after the conquest ami deailruetlon of the 
 African provinrcs by Oinseric hi-gaii.— ,VH 
 years afUT the ancient Carthaire was destniyiil 
 by Selpio. "A new city ha.! risen fn>m its 
 rulBs. with the Uth- „f a r;..!...ny; gthi tlh.ug!, 
 Cartilage might yield to tlie niyal prerogallvt-s 
 
 CARTHAOE. 
 
 maintained the seconl rank in the West— u the 
 Rome (if we may use the style of contemporariesi 
 of the African world. . . . The buildhigs of Car- 
 thage were uniform and magnificent. A sbadr 
 grove was planted in the midst of the capital- 
 le new port, a secure and capacious harbour' 
 was subservient to the eommereial industry of 
 citizens and strangers; and the splendid gameaof 
 the circus and theatre were exhibited almost hi 
 the presence of the barbarians. The repuutlon 
 of the Carthaginians was not equal to tliat of 
 their country, and the reproach of Punic faith 
 still adhered to their subtle and faithless charac 
 ter. The habits of trade and the abuse of 
 luxury had corrupted their manners. . . The 
 King of the Vandals severely reformed the vices 
 of a voluptuous people. . . . The lands of the 
 proconsular province, which formed the Im- 
 mediate district of Carthage, were aecirately 
 measured and divided among the barbarians • 
 •-E. OlUmn. Dedine and fhU of tlie Ihmin 
 Bmpin, cA. 83.— See, also, yAHDAi,8: A. D. 429- 
 439. 
 
 A. D. 533 — Taken by Bclisarius. See 
 Vandals. A. D. 583-334. 
 
 A. D. 531-SS».-The TroWnce of Africa 
 after Justmian^s conquest.— "Suecc8.sive ln- 
 riHids [of the Moorish trib<-s] had reslucHl the 
 province of Africa to onetliini of the n-caoure 
 of Italy; yet the Roman emperors conthiuwl to 
 reign aUive a century over Cartilage unci the 
 fruitful coast of the MMllterrauean. But the 
 victories and the Iosskw of Justinian were alike 
 pernicious to mankind; and such was the dcsiila- 
 tion of A'rica that a stranger might wander whole 
 days without meeting the face either of a friend 
 or an enemy. The nstion of the Van. hi Is liad 
 disappeare<l. . . . Their numbers were inliniiiiv 
 surpassed by tiie number of the Moorish fiiniiliii 
 extirpated in a relentless war; and the same 
 destruction waa retaliate*! on the Romans and 
 their allies, who perished by the ,.llinaU'. their 
 mutual quarrels, and the rage of the barliariana. 
 When Procopius first landed [with lleh^urius, 
 A. D. 533] lie oumireil tlio impulousneis of ilie 
 cities and country, strenuou.sly exereised in tlie 
 labours of commerce and agriculture. In le« 
 than twenty years that busy scene was converted 
 into a silent 8<ilitude; the wealthy ciil/ein 
 escaped Ui .Sicily and Constantinople ; and the 
 secret historian has confidently afflrmed thai tlui 
 millions of Africans were c<msuir.e<l hv tin' wars 
 and government of the Emperor Justiiiian ' -E. 
 Olbbon, Dteliiu and Wi« „/ th» Itaman h'miiire, 
 cA. 43. '^ 
 
 A. D. A98.— Oestrjction by the Arabs.-" In 
 the 77lh year of the Hegira \.\.. I). HW] . . . 
 .Alxralmalec [thoCalliih] sent llossan Ibn An- 
 uo'man, at the lieail of 4I).0UU choice tniiipn. to 
 carry out the scheme of African fonquest [wlilth 
 hail Iniiguished for some yiiars, during the civil 
 wars among the Moslems]. That genenil pressed 
 forwani at onci' with his triMips against theciiv 
 of Carthage, which, though deillnei! fnmi lis 
 ancient might and glory, was still an ln.|.irtaiit 
 seaport, forlillcil wlili lofty walls. Imuglitj i.iwtn 
 ami iMJwerfiil bulwarks, and had a numoiDus 
 
 garrisiHi of (ii-eeks and other Christians. lluasHa 
 proceeded acconllng to the old Arab moii.-; he- 
 Inigucrinff and ri.iuelitg it by a twUH »h)(e. tw 
 Zri<.'Z'2i'.^','i^"^\'~"'i"' "r '"■'"' H""*"""" <hcn Bssallcil It bv storm, scaled Us hifiv wsilt 
 ll.^3^ rirl*'.^L » .P*'""!" ««,the traite of with tadih ™, and' inailo hlmsi'ir masteruf tl,.. 
 Aieuwlria or Uie splUMluur of Aiiiioeli, site stUl plaoe. Mwy of the UUutblUuiU fcU by the vtigt 
 
 404 
 
CABTHAQE. 
 
 CARTOUCHE. 
 
 of the sword ; many eicaped by sea to Sicily and 
 gpain. The walU were then demolished ; the 
 citywas given up to be plundered by the aol- 
 dierr, the meanest of whom was enriched by 
 tnoty. . ■ ■ The triumph of the Hotlem host 
 was suddenly interrupted. While they were 
 tevelling in the ravaged palaces of Carthage, a 
 fleet appeared before the port ; snapped the strong 
 chsin which guarded the entrance, and sailed 
 hito the harbor. It was a combined force of ships 
 and troops from Constantinople and Sicily ; re- 
 infora'd by Ooths from Spain ; all under the com- 
 mand of the prefect John, a patrician eeneral of 
 great valor and experience. Hosaan felt himself 
 unable to cope with such a force; he withdrew, 
 however in good order, and conducted his troops 
 laden wiUi spoils to Tripoli and Caerwan, and, 
 iiaving strongly posted them, he awaited rein- 
 forcemenU from the Caliph. Theae arrived in 
 course of time by sea and land. Hoisan again 
 took the field ; encountered the prefect John, not 
 far from Utica, defeated him in a pitclied Iwttle 
 and drove him to embark the wrecks of his army 
 and make all sail for Constantinople. Carthage 
 was again assailed by the victora, and now its 
 desolatiim was complete, for the vengeance of 
 the Moslems gave that majestic city to the flames. 
 A hcup of ruins and the remains of a noble aque- 
 duct are all the relics of a metropolis that once 
 valiantly contended for dominion with Rome." 
 — W Irving, Mahomet and hit Sueet—an, t. 2, 
 cA. M. 
 
 Also i!«: N. Davis, Carthage and Her tlemain*. 
 — S«', ilso, Mahometak Cosr^cMT; A. D. 647- 
 709. 
 
 CARTHAGE, Mo., Battle of. See United 
 States or Am. : A. 1). 1891 (JtXT— Sbpibmbeb: 
 
 Miesoi'Ri). 
 CARTHAGENA (NEW CARTHACt .- 
 
 The founding of the city.— Ilasdrubal.son . law 
 am! sunt-ssor of Ilamilcar Rarca In Si>ain, founded 
 New Ci, rthage — modem Carthagena — some t ime 
 between 229 and 231 B. 0. to be the capital of 
 the C'artliadnian dominion in the Spanish pcuin- 
 >ula.-ll. B. Smith, Carthage and the Cartlia- 
 ffinMns, eh. 9. 
 
 Captor* by Scipio. See Ptmic Wab. Tnx 
 Skcosd. 
 
 Settlement of the Alaat in. See Spagi: 
 A D. 4U»-414. 
 
 CARTHAGENA (S.Am.): A. D. 1697.- 
 Taken and sacked by the French.— One of the 
 
 la«t enterprliK'S uf the French In the war which 
 was cKwed by Hie I'cacu of Uyawick — under- 
 taken. In fact, while the negotiations at liyswick 
 were in progress — waa the storming and aacking 
 nf Carthagena by a privateer squadron, from 
 Brest, commanded by ruar-admintl Vointis, April, 
 16U7. "The inhabitants were allowed to carry 
 uwar their effects; but all the gold, silver, and 
 priciiius Ktoucs were the prey 01 tlu conqueror. 
 I'«iiiii« . . . reentrn?<l Brest safe and sound. 
 I>r<iii;ing Imck to his sliipowncrs more than ten 
 milliiiuH. Tlie nWccrs of the squailron and the 
 privHt -ers hail well provldwl for themselves be- 
 >i<les, ami the Hpuniards hail pmliably lost more 
 tlian twentv milliona"— It. Martin. J/itt. of 
 fUnft: .ijo of LmUXt V. (<r. »* 31 ' L. Booth), 
 r i. rh i 
 
 A. D. 1741.— Attack and repulM of the 
 Sii(lish. ik-« EauuaxD: A. 1). 17S9-1741. 
 
 A. D. iSlS.— Siege and capture by the 
 Spaniarda. See Colombian States: A. D. 1819- 
 1819. 
 
 CARTHUSIAN ORDER.- La Grande 
 Chartreuse.—" 8t. Bruno, once a canon of St. 
 Cunlbert's, at Cologne, and afterward chan- 
 cellor of the metiopolitan church of Rheims, fol- 
 lowed by six companions, founded a monastery 
 near Orenoble, amid the bleak and rugged 
 mountains of the desert of Cliartreuse (A. D. 
 1084). The rule given bv St. Bruno to his disci- 
 ples waa founded upon that of St. Iknedict, but 
 with such modiflcatlons as almost to make of It 
 a new and particular one. The Carthusians were 
 very nearly akin to the monks of Vallis-Umbrosa 
 and Camaldoll ; they led the same kind of life — 
 the eremitical Joined to the cenobltlc. Each re- 
 ligious had his own cell, where ho spent the week 
 in solitude, and met the community only on Sun- 
 day. . . . Never, perhaps, had the monastic life 
 surroimded itself with such rigors and holy aus- 
 terities. . . . The religious were bound to a life- 
 long silence, having renounced the world to hold 
 converse with Heaven alone. Like the solitaries 
 of Thebals they never eat meat, and their dress, 
 as an additional penance, consisted only of a 
 sack-cloth garment. Manual labors, broken only 
 by the exercise of common prayer; a board on 
 the bare earth for a couch ; a narrow cell, where 
 the religious twice a day receives his slight 
 allowance of boiled herbs; — such Is the life of 
 pious austerities of which the world knows not 
 the heavenly sweetness. For 800 years has this 
 order continued to edify and to serve the Cliurrh 
 by the practice of the most sublime virtue ; and 
 Its very rigor seems to hold out a mysterious 
 attraction to pious souls. A congregation of 
 women has embraced the primitive rule." — J. E. 
 Dartas, Uitt of the falhUie Chureh, t. 3, eh. 4, 
 yxir. 26, and ai. 10, ;«r. 11. — From the acoouvt 
 of a visit to the Grande Chartreuse, the jiareut 
 monastery, near Grenoble, made In 1667, by 
 Dom Claude Lancelot, of Port Royal, the follow- 
 ing Is taken: " All I had heard of this astonish- 
 ing seclusion falls infinitely short of the reality. 
 No adequate description can be given of the 
 awful magnificence of this dreary solitude. . . . 
 The desert of the Chartreuse la wholly iuacces- 
 sible but by one exceedingly narn)w detllc. This 
 pass, whicli is only a few feet wide, ii indeed 
 truly tremeiidous. It winds Ix'tweiMi stupeiniiius 
 granite rorka, which overlmng aliovc. . . . Tlie 
 mouaatcry itself Is as striking as the approach. 
 ... On tlie west . . . there is a little .'pnce 
 which ... is occupieil by a dark grove of pine 
 trees; on every otlier side the rocks, wliidi are 
 as sleep as so many walls, are not more than ten 
 ya' ds from the convent. By this means a dim 
 and gloomy twilight perpetually reigns within." 
 — M. A. Schimmelpenninck. A ("«r i(» AUt and 
 La Orantle Clifirtrr'ine. r. 1. />/). 6-13. 
 
 CARTIER, Jacques, Exploration of the St. 
 Lawrence by.— ^XT AMbiiicA : .V. I). 1.>34-I5;i5, 
 ami 1.M1 I6oa. 
 
 CARTOUCHE.—" It is impiMsible to travel 
 in UpiH'r Egypt without knowing what i» meant 
 by u cartouche. .V cartouche Is that eliHiir:ited 
 oval tennlnutnl by a straight line which i:* to be 
 seen on every wall of llie Egyptian liiiiplea. and 
 of which other monuments also alTonl us 
 numerous examples. The cartouche always 
 coutaios the luuue uf a king or of a queeu, ur u 
 
 405 
 
yv 
 
 CABTOrCHK. 
 
 •ome CMM the names of royal prlneeaacii. To 
 dMignate a king there are mo*t frequently two 
 car»«uche« aide by side. The first Ig callc-d the 
 
 Srsnomen, the second the nomcn. "— A. Biarictte, 
 hnumenU of Upper Egypt, p. 43. 
 
 CARTWRIGHT'S POWER LOOM, The 
 iaventioa oC See Cotton Manufactcre 
 
 CARUCATB. See HiDB OF Land. 
 
 CARUS, Roman Emperor, A. D. 283-283. 
 .„9,*?A "ATA, Battle ot See Mexico: A. D. 
 1847 (Harcu— September). 
 
 CASALE: A. D. i6a8T63i.— Siege by the 
 Imperialists.— Final acquiaition by France. 
 See Italy: A. D. 1687-1631. 
 
 A. D. 1640.— Unsueceasfnl siece by the 
 Spaniards. See Italy: A. D. 1635-1680 
 
 A. D. 1697.— Ceded to the Dnke of Savoy. 
 See Savoy and Pieomont: A. D. 1380-1713 
 
 See 
 
 CASALSECCO, Battle of (14J7). 
 Italy: A. D. 1412-1447. 
 
 CASAS, Bartolom< de las, The humane 
 labors oC See Slavery: Modern— of the 
 Imoians. 
 
 CASOIM. See Babtix>nia. PRiurm"',. 
 
 CASENA, Maasacre at. See Italy: A. D. 
 1343-1393. 
 
 CASHEL, Psalter of. See Tara, The Hill 
 
 AKD THE PeIS OP. 
 
 .CASHEL, Synad of. See Ireland: A. D. 
 1169-1173. 
 
 CASHGAR. See TcnKKsTAN. 
 
 CASHMERE. See Kaaumir; alao, Siebi. 
 and I.ndia: A. D. 184.VlS4fl 
 
 ,nlFu^^'**J'* .'•• *?'"« "' Poland, A. D. 1037- 
 J?~ ;.«;*^"'2"" "•• °"^« »' Poland, A. D. 
 11.. -1194 Casimjr III. (called The Great), 
 
 King of Poland, A. I). 1333-1370 Casimir 
 
 IV., Kinr of Poland, A. D. 144JV-1492 
 Caiimir, John, King of Poland, A. D. 1648- 
 
 CASIMIR-PERIER, Presidency of See 
 Pranie : A. D. lHfl4-l«)5. 
 ^CASKET GIRLS, The. See Louisiana r 
 
 A.'i^lS^^TsJ^^^"'*^''^-- «-«cotland: 
 CASPIAN GATES (PYLiE CASPIiE).- 
 
 An iinporUnt iihss in the Ellmrz Mouotoitis so 
 called by the Greeks. It Is iilentiflcd witli the 
 puns known to tlie modern PtTslans as the Ointnni 
 Sunliir-ali, some fifty miles or more easlwunl 
 or n.irthpnatwanl, from Ti'liomn. "Throuirli 
 this \nua alone can armii's proofed from Armenfii 
 Mnlm. or Persia eastwanl, or from Turkestan 
 Khonisan and Afirhanigun inu> the more western 
 parts of Asia. Tlie ponition ig tlierefore one of 
 
 Rrlniary iniimrUncc. It was to guard It that 
 liajtfs was Imllt so near to the eastern end of iu 
 territor}-. ' — O. liawlinson, tiitth Gnat Oriental 
 Moiutrchji, eh. 4. 
 
 Also in: Same, Fitt Ormt Uonarrkin: Me<Ua, 
 cA. I. 
 
 CASSANDER, and the wars of the Dia- 
 dochi. N'c.Macki>onia: H. Caaa-SietoSUT-iiw- 
 alw. Orivcr: B. f. 821-312. 
 
 CASSANO, Battles of (170J and I7M). S.'c 
 Itait- a n. 170}-!7i3. aud France, a" "TW 
 (Apnii. — Septemher). 
 
 CASSEL: A. D. isSL-Hnnied by the 
 Frtack. SeeFLaNDBRS: A. U. lan. 
 
 CASTE SYSTEM OF IXDIA. 
 
 CASSEL, Battles of (13*8 and 1677) Rm 
 Flanders: A. D. 1828, and NETHERLANustHoT 
 LAND): A. D. 1674-1878. 
 
 CASSIAN ROAD.— One of the great H uian 
 roads of antiquity, which ran from Hon « bv 
 way of Sutriiim and Cliisium to Amtium'ana 
 Florentla.— T. Mommsen, Ui*t. of Home, bk 4 
 ck. 11. • • » 
 
 CASSII, The.— A tribe of ancient Britoni 
 whose territory was near the Thames. 8«; 11=, 
 TAIN, Celtic Tribes. 
 
 CASSITERIDES, The.-The " tin Islands." 
 from whicli tlie Phopnicians and Cartlin-iniain 
 obtained their supply of tin. Some arclino|.jLM«. 
 identify them with the British islands, m\w with 
 the Scilly islands, and some with the islands In 
 Vigo Bay, on the coast of Spain.— Charles Elton. 
 OngtruofEng. Ilitt. ^ 
 
 Also in: J. Rliys, Celtie Britain. 
 
 CASSOPIANS. SeeEpiRis. 
 
 . ^!^?*^^}*^^ SPRING.-A sprinp which 
 Usued from between two peaks or cliffs of Mount 
 Parnassus and flowed down-, inl in a cool stream 
 past the temple of AdoUo at Delphi. 
 
 CASTE SYSTEM OF ihoiA, The.- 
 •' The caste system of India is not base.1 uiwo an 
 exclusive descent as involving n differencv of rank 
 and culture, but u|K>nan exclusive dcacmi as in- 
 volving purit V of blood. In the old materialistic 
 religion which prevailed so Inrgelv in the ancient 
 world, and was closely associatjHl wiih scxuaj 
 ideas, the maintenance of puritv of hl()(«l was 
 regarded as a sacred duty. The "indivi,;ual had 
 no existence independent of the faiiiilv Mala 
 or female, the individual was but a link in the 
 life of the family: and any inu-rmixtun. would 
 be followed by the separathm of the impure 
 branch from tlie parent stem. \r a wnni caste 
 was the religion of the sexes, and as sucli'.xisu 
 1.1 Ind a to tills day. . . . The HimliiH arc di- 
 vided into an infinite numlier of castes nccord- 
 ing to their hereditary trades and prof.siiions; 
 but In the present day they are nearly all ora- 
 prehended in U - great castes, namelv the 
 Ilralimans, or prii Kshalriyas, or soldiers- 
 
 thc\ai8va8, or merchi. , ; and the Siidms. or 
 wrvilc clasg. The Bralimans are the iti.Miih of 
 Brahma ; ti.e Rshatriyas are his arms ; tli.- Vaisras 
 are his thighs; and the Siidrus are his fi.t, the 
 three first castes of priests, soldiers, and nicr- 
 chants, are distinguished from the fourtli ea«lo 
 of Siidras by the thread, or paita, which is worn 
 depending from the left shoulder and restinit on 
 flic right side below the loins. The Investiture 
 usuallv takes place between the eiirhtli and 
 tw< Ifth year.andls known as the second liirlh and 
 thosewho are invested are termed the twice 
 bom. It is ditncult to say whether the thread in- 
 dicates a separation between the compiin.rs and 
 the conquered ; or whether it origlnali-d iu a re- 
 ligious investiture from which the Siiilm.s were 
 excluded."— J. T. Wheeler, Ilitt. of liuli.i. e. 3, 
 pp. 114 and 64. — "Among tlic delusions atiout 
 modem Indhi which itwTiiis impoBsibie l.> tiiil.ihe 
 jielief still survives tliat, allhciugh llirre have 
 lieen many changes in the system of caste it re- 
 mains true that the Hindu |xipulath>n is dinded 
 Into the four great classes dewrllK-ii by Mauu: 
 BmlimHns, Kshatrivas. Vaisvas. aim Sudris. In 
 India iuieif this no'tion Is fostemt hv thi- mors 
 learned among the Urahinans, who hive lo make 
 themselves and others believe in the cnntinuoui 
 eiUtcnce of a divinely constituted orgauizatiua 
 
 406 
 
CASTE SYSTEM OF INDIA. 
 
 CASTLE ST. ANOELO. 
 
 To what extent the rcligloas and Mcial mtemi 
 iludowcd forth In the ancient Bralimnntcal litera- 
 ture hiiil an actual existence It is ditncult to say, 
 but it is certain that little remains of them now. 
 The Bralimans maintain their exceptional posi- 
 tion- but no one can lilscera the other great castes 
 whicli Manu described. Excluding the Brah- 
 mans. caste means for the most part hereditary 
 occupation, but it also often signlfles a common 
 oridn of tribe or race. India, in the words of 
 Sir Honry Maine, is divided into a vast number 
 of independent, self-acting, organised social 
 groups— trading, manufacturing, cultivating, 
 •in the enormous majority of Instances, caste Is 
 only tlie name for a numiier of practices which 
 are followctl by each one of a multitude of groups 
 of min, whether such a group be ancient and 
 natural or modem and artificial. As a rule, every 
 trade, every profession, every guild, every tribe, 
 every class, is also a caste: and the i lemuets of 
 a caste not only have their speciui objects of 
 worship, selected from the Hindu Pantheon, or 
 adoplfl into it, but tliey exclusively eat together, 
 and exclusively intermarry." Mr. Kltts, In his 
 Intensting "Compendium of the Castes and Tribes 
 of India," compiled from the Indian Census re- 
 ports of 1881. enumerates 192« different castes. 
 Forty-seven of "licse have each more than 1,000,- 
 000 mcmlx-rs; twenty one Inve 2,000,000 and up- 
 wards. The Bralimans, Kunbis (agriculturists), 
 and Cliuinars (workcre in leather), are the only 
 tlirec ntstfs each of which has more than 10,- 
 000 OOO; nearly 15 percent, of the InhabitanU of 
 India are included In these three castes. The 
 dl8tin<tions and sulMlivisions of caste are in- 
 nuim rahic, and even the Brahmans, who have 
 this in common, that t'.iey are reverence<l by the 
 mcmlKTs of all other castes, are as much divided 
 anion)? iliimst'Ivcs as the rest. There are nearly 
 li000.0<IO Urahmnns; according to Mr. Shcrring, 
 to his wnrlj on " Hindu Tribes and Castes," tlierc 
 are m'ire than 1,800 Brahmanical subdivisions: 
 and it cipiistantly happens that to a Brahman of 
 some particular class nr dUtrict the pollution of 
 callna with other Bralimans would ue nitnous. 
 . . . Tlie Bralimans have become so numerous 
 tlul only a small proportion can be employed in 
 aacrnlotal funi-tiuns, and the charity which it Is 
 a dutv tn bestow upon them could not, however 
 profu'st. be sufliclent for their support They 
 are found in almost every occupation. They are 
 soldiirs, cultivators, tnulers. and servants: they 
 were vi rv numerous In the old Sep.iy anny, and 
 the nami'of one of their sulidlviaions, 'Pandc,' 
 liccami' the generic term by which the mutlneera 
 of iC'iT were commonly known by the English 
 In Inlia. ... Mr. Ibtietaon, in his rejKirt on the 
 census in the Punjab, shows how completely It 
 is tnic thiit castu is a social and not a religious 
 institutiim. Conversion to Mohammedanism, for 
 tostancc. does not necessarily affect the caste of 
 the convert." — .Sir J. Strachev, Iruiin, leet. 8. 
 
 Aisors: M. Williams. RtUgiotit Thought and 
 Life in Imliii, rh. 18.— Sir A. C. Lyall, Atintie 
 Sluriif. eh. 7. — 8ir II. 8. Maine, nilage Gmmuni- 
 tia, rh. J. 
 CASTEL. See MoooicTlAcrM. 
 CASTELAR AND REPUBLICANISM 
 IN SPAIN. Sec SrAix; A. D. 1966-1373, and 
 1B7S-1HRV 
 
 CASTELFIDARDO, Battle of (iltoX See 
 Italy: a. I). 18S«>-18«1. 
 CASTELLANO. See SPAinn Coon. 
 
 CASTIGLIONE, Battle of. See Fiuircx: 
 A. D. 1706 (April— October). 
 CASTILE, Early inhabitants oC See 
 
 CEI.TIBEniANS. 
 
 A. D. 7I3-I330.— Oripn and rise of the 
 kingdom. See Spain: A. D. 713-737, and 1026- 
 
 vm. 
 
 A. D. 1 140.— Separation of Portugal at an 
 independent kinsdom. See Poktl'ual: A. D. 
 109.V1825. 
 
 A. D. 1 169. —The first Cortes.— The old 
 monarchical constitution. Sec Cortes. 
 
 A. D. 1312-1338. — Progress of arms.— Per- 
 manent nion of the crown with that of Leon. 
 — Conquest of Cordova. — Vassalage imposed 
 on Granada and Murcia. See Spain: A. D. 
 1212-1238. 
 
 A. O. 1348-1350.— Reigns of St. Ferdinand, 
 Alfonso the Learned, and their three succes- 
 sor*. See Spain: A. D. 1248-13.50. 
 
 A. D. l366-t36o.— Pedro the Cruel and the 
 inTasion of the English Black Prince. See 
 Spain (Castile): A. D. 1:16« 1369. 
 
 A. D. 1368-1476.— Under the house of Traa- 
 tamare.— Discord and citU war. — The triumph 
 of Queen Isabella and her marriage to Ferdi- 
 nand of Aragon. See Sp.un: A. I >. 1368-1479. 
 
 A. D. 1515. — Inr - poration of Navarre with 
 the kingdom. Sec Navarre: A. D. 144'i-l,'>21. 
 
 A. D. 1516.— The crown united with that o( 
 Aragon, by Joanna, mother of Charles V. See 
 Spain: A. O. 1496-1517. 
 
 ^ 
 
 CASTILLA DEL ORO. See America: 
 A. D. 1509-1511. 
 
 CASTILLON, Battle 01(1450). See Francr: 
 A. D. 1431-1453. 
 
 CASTLE ST. ANGELO.— The Mausoleum 
 of Hadrian, begun by tlie emperor Hadrian, A. D. 
 135, and probably completed by Aut<minu8 Viva, 
 "owes Its preservation entirely to the peculiar 
 fitness of its site and shape for the purjMtses of 
 a fortress, which it has served since the time of 
 Bclisariua. . . . After the burial of Marcus 
 Aurelius, the tomb was closed until the sack of 
 Rome by Alaric in 410 A. D., when his barba- 
 rian soldiers probably broke it open in scareh of 
 treasure, and scattered the ashes of the .\ntonines 
 to the winds. From this time, for a hundred 
 years, the tomb was turned into a fortress, the 
 possession of which became the object of many 
 struggles in the wars of the Qoths under Vitlges 
 (M7A. D.)and Totllas (killed 5.V2). From the 
 end of the sixth century, when flregory the 
 Great saw on its summit a vision of St. Michael 
 sheathing his sword, in token timt the prayers 
 of the Romans for preservation from the plague 
 were heard, the Mausoleum of Hudriun was 
 considered as a consecrated building, under the 
 name of '8. Angelus inter NuIk's.' ' l.'sque ad 
 Cnflo8,'or "Inter Cffilos,' until It was seizetl In 
 923 A. D. by Alberic, Count of Tusculum, and the 
 infamous Marozla. and again N'oame the scene 
 of the fierce struitKles t)ctwc»'n Popes, F.mperors, 
 and reckless adventurers which marked those 
 miserable times. The last Iniuries appear to have 
 been Inflicted upon the building In the contest 
 between the French Pope Clemens VII. and the 
 Itilmti P-r-*; Urban VlII [=r<> Papact: A !>. 
 1377-1417J. The exterior was then finally dis- 
 mantled andstripped. Partial additionsand resto- 
 rations soon began to take phice. Boniface IX.. 
 Id the beginning of the fltteentb century, erected 
 
 407 
 
CASTLE ST. ANOELO. 
 
 new battlemenu and fortillcatioiu on and anund 
 the buUdlug ; aud since his time it liai remained 
 in the poKseiwidn of tlie Papal government. Tlie 
 atrange medley of Papal reception rooms, dun- 
 geons and miliUry mafnzines which now en- 
 cumUirs the top, was chiefly built by Paul III 
 The corridor connecting it with the Vatican 
 dates from the time of Alexander Borgia (1494 
 A. D.), and the bronze statue of St. Michael on 
 the summit, which replaci-d an older marble 
 statue, from the reign of Benedict XIV."— R. 
 Bum, Ronuaiul ,7i« Campagm, eh. 11. 
 
 CASTLENAUDARI, Battle of (i^). See 
 FliANCB: A. D. 1830-1638. 
 CASTLEREAGH, Lord, and the union of 
 
 A'lTniw-l^*'"" ="'^°- ^ J«'"^°= 
 
 C ASTC a WAR "i.— " Durobrivian or Castor 
 ware, as it is variously called. Is the production 
 of the extensive Roinano-Britteh potteries on the 
 Klver Aen in Northamptonshire aud Hunting- 
 donshire, wliich, with settlements, are compuu-d 
 to Iiave covered a district of some twenty square 
 miles in extent. . . . There are several varieties 
 . . . and two especially have been remarked: 
 .„ . /• ''''"'• •"' 8'«te-coIoured, the other 
 reddish-brown, or of a darli copper colour "— L 
 Jewett, 6'/vipe Mmindt, p. 158. 
 
 CASTRA, Roman. — " When a Roman army 
 was In the held it never halted, even for a single 
 night without throwing up nn entrenchment 
 capable of conuiining the whole of the troops 
 and their bngpige. Tills field-work was termed 
 taslni. . . . The formof thecampwasas<iunre 
 each siilc of which was 8,017 Roman feet in 
 length. The defences consisted of a ditch 
 (fossa,) the earth dug out, being thrown Inwards 
 tons to form a rampart, (agger,) ujwn the sum- 
 mit of which a palisjide (vallum) was erected of 
 »_0(xlen Slakes, (valli — sudcs,) a certain number 
 or which were carrie<l by each soldier, alonir with 
 his eiitrem-hing tools."— W. Ramsay, Manual of 
 Komitn Aiiliii^. ch. 13. 
 .Sf^^TJ'CUM. Battle ot See Fkancb; 
 
 A. I). 1i!I9(SkITE.MBER— OCTOBEH) 
 
 ,.fo*.^J..'*'°'^S' ''■''*• SeeALBAKiAKs: A. D. 
 
 l44t)-i4Di. 
 
 CASTRUCCIO CASTRACANI, The dea- 
 
 •^i.'!^ »;-i;'.''J^^''^'= ^- D- 131»-1330. 
 
 CAT NATION, The. See American Abo- 
 Bioi.NEs: lIiHoNs, &Q., aud Ihoouois Con- 
 
 FEOKRACY: TllEIR Co.N<JUE8TS, &c 
 
 CATACOMBS OF ROME, The.-'The 
 Jtoman Catacombs — a name consecratitl bylonK 
 usage, but having no etymological ineauini, and 
 not a very .htcriiilnate geographical one — are a 
 va-st labyrinth of galleries excavated In the 
 bowels of the earth in the hills around the 
 Eternal tity; not in the hills on v.hieh the city 
 Itself was built, out in those beyond tlif walls 
 Their extent Is tnormous, not as to the amount 
 of superticlal »oll which thty un Icriie. for they 
 rarely, if ever, pass U-yond the third milestone 
 from the city, but In the actual 'ength of their 
 gallirics; for these are often excavated on 
 various levels, or plani, three, f-ir, or even five 
 one above the other, and the\ jss and lecniss 
 one another, some time* at i; t Intervals, on 
 each of thrs.. levels: so th.it, on the whole there 
 «e certainly not less that 830 miles of them: 
 that 8 to say. If stretched out In one continuous 
 line, they would extend the whole length of Italy 
 
 CATALAN GRAND COMPANY. 
 
 408 
 
 jticlf. The galleries are from two to four fwt 
 in width anJ vary in height acconling to S. 
 nature of the rock in whicE they are dug The 
 wa Is on both sides are pierced with h,,rizonul 
 niches, like shelves in a book-case, or bertlis to, 
 steamer, and every niche once contained one or 
 more dead bodies. At various intervals t!ii« 
 
 succession of shelve* Is interrupted foraniiment 
 t»t roor Toay be made for a doorway oiunlo,; 
 Into a uuall chamber; and the wall, „f th«! 
 chamber, are generally pierced with gmvesin 
 the *ame way a* the gafterics. These vast ei 
 cavaUon* once formed the ancient Chriatlan 
 cemeterie* of Rome; they were beL-un in 
 apMtolic times, and continued to be used as 
 burial-place* of the faithful until the capture o 
 the city by Alaric in the year 410. In tl e tl. W 
 oenlury. tiie Roman Churoh numbere.1 twen v! 
 five or twenty-six of them, corresponding to t£o 
 number of her titles or parislies witlilii the dtr 
 and bes de* these, there are about twenty oilien.' 
 of «maller dimensions. Isolated monununu of 
 special martyr*, or belonging to this or tb»t 
 private faudly Originally thev all belonged to 
 private families or individuals, the villas or 
 garden* in which they were dug being the 
 property of wralUiy citizens who had eml.raced 
 Uie faith of Christ, and devoted of their sulistance 
 to His service. Hence their most anciiiit titles 
 were taken merely from the names of tli. ir l«w- 
 ful owners, many of which still survive 
 It has always been agreed among nun of learn- 
 ing who have had an opportunity of exaiiiiniuj 
 tliese exravatlons, that they were used exclusively 
 by the Christian* as places of burial and of hol.i- 
 Ing religious assemblies. Jlotiem researih bat 
 placed t beyond a doubt, that they wire also 
 originally designed for this purpose and for no 
 other. -J. 8. Northcote and W. U. Bro»nlo», 
 Roma Sotterranea, At. 1, dt. 1. 
 
 Al^ Ut: A. P. Stanley, C/irutian /mtitulion,, 
 Cn, IS. 
 
 CATALAN GRAND COMPANY, The.- 
 The Catatan Grand Company was a formidable 
 oprty of miliUry adventurers — merceuarv sol- 
 diers—formed in .Sicily during the twcutv'viara 
 "'war that followed the Sicilian Vrajiera. 
 
 High pay and great license drew ihi^ bwt 
 sinews in Catalonia and Aragon into iiicrcen- 
 arv battalions of Sicily and ind' : •li,m to 
 submit to the severest disciplhin ;],„ con- 
 elusion of peace in 1802 Uirew tiii ni.d army 
 out of employment, and the gre ' pan of iu 
 members were enlis'ed in tlie sit* ■ of Aiulrooi- 
 cus II., of the restored Greek empire at t•|p|l^tauti■ 
 nople. They were under the coniiiiaml ..f one 
 Roger de Flor, who had been a T.rnpliir, de- 
 graded from his knighthoo<i for ci.sirtinu. and 
 afterwards a pirate ; but wliosc niililarv lalcuu 
 were undoubtwl. The Grand (Oinpanv soon 
 quarrelled with the Greek emperor: it.-. 'Uailir 
 wa* assassinatwl, aud open war dei land. Tin' 
 Greek army was terribly defeated in a Imttle ul 
 Apros, A. D. 1307, and the t'aulans pluiidired 
 Thnice for two years without resistaiicr. Galli- 
 pot . their headquarters, to which tiny linnigbt 
 their cantlves, became one of the gnat slave 
 Diarts of Europe. In 1310 they niarihi-.| Into 
 the heart of Greece, and were engaged in the 
 service of Walur da Brieuiie. Duke of .\iiitns 
 He, too, found them dangerous wrvants. 
 Quarrel* were followed by war: tin Duke 
 perished In a battle (A. D. 1311) with his CatslsJi 
 
CATALAN GRAND COMPANT. 
 
 netenuries on the Ixuilu of the CephiMUi; bit 
 dakedom. embracing Attics and BoeotUi, wu the 
 nrlM of their victory. The widows and daugh- 
 ters of the Greek noble* who had fallen were 
 forced to marrv the olflcen of the Catalans, who 
 thus settled tnemselves in familv as well as 
 esttte. They elected a Duke of Athens; but 
 nf<)ceeded afterwaids to make the duchy an 
 sppansge of the House of Aragon. The title 
 wu held by sons of the Angoneae kings of 
 SIcilv until 1377, when it pasaedto AlphonaoV., 
 king' of Aragna, and was retained by the kings 
 of Spain aftrr the union of the crowns of 
 Aragon and Castile. The tituhir dukes were 
 represented at Athens by regents. " During the 
 period the duchy of Athens was poaseased by 
 the Sicilian branch of the house of Aragon, the 
 Catalans were incessantly engaged In wars with 
 all their neighbours." But, gradually, their 
 militarr vigor and discipline were loat, and their 
 name aaJ power in Greece disappeared about 
 138«, when Athens and most of the territory of 
 its duchy was conquered by Nero Acciainoll, a 
 rich and powerful Florentine, who had become 
 governor of Corinth, but acted aa an independent 
 prince, and who founded a new ducal family. — 
 6. Finlay, Hut. of tht Bymntine and Greek 
 Empiret, bk. 4, eA. 2, leet. 8. 
 
 Also in : Same, Hiit. of OreeeefYam itt Onui. 
 by thfCnundert, eh. 7, ««■. 8.— E. Gibbon, Dteiine 
 and Full of the Roman Empire, eh. 63. 
 
 CATALANS : A. D. 1 151.— The Cotinty of 
 Barcelona united by marrUce to Aragon. 
 See Spun: A. D. lOSS-lSM. 
 
 A. D. lath-isth Centuries.— Commercial 
 importance and municipal freedom of Barce- 
 lona. See B.^RCELON.v; 12th-16th CESTCRtES. 
 
 A. D. 1461-1473.— Long but unaucceaaful 
 revolt against jonn II. of Aragon. See Spain : 
 A. D. i;W«-14TU. 
 
 A. D. 1630-1640.— Causea of diaalfection 
 and revolt. See Spain : A. D. 1837-1640. 
 
 A. D. 1640-1653.— Revolt.— Renunciation of 
 allegiance to the Spanish crown.— Annexation 
 to France offered and accepted.— Re-sabiec- 
 tion to Spain. See Spao: A. D. 1640-1642; 
 1644-1646; 164&-16.W. 
 
 A. D. 1705.- Adhesion to the Alliea in the 
 War of the Spanish Succeaaion. See Spain: 
 A.D. 1:0.5. 
 
 A. D. 1713-1714.— Betrayed anddeaerted by 
 the Allies. See Spain: A. D. 1713-1714 
 
 Bee Hens: 
 
 CATALAUNIAN PLAINS. 
 
 A D. 4.M. 
 
 CATALONIA. See Catalans. 
 
 CATANA, OR KATANA, Battle of, See 
 SvHAdsK: B. C. 397-396. 
 
 CATANIA. — Storming and eaptnre by 
 King Ferdinand (1849). See Italy: A. D. 
 
 1«HN-1H4». 
 
 CATAPAN. See lTALT(3o0THKaH): A. D. 
 
 800-1(11(1. 
 
 CATAWBAS, The. See Aioeiucan Abo- 
 
 BIOISKS: SlOlAN FaMILT. 
 
 CATEAU-CAMBRESIS, Treaty oC See 
 Fr.\N(K: a. 1). 1547-l.>->«. 
 
 CATERANS,— "In l-ia^ an art wi= passed 
 [hy the Scntili pHrliament] for the nuppreaaion of 
 nmstirfdl pliinilerers, who get in tl:: stjt'ite their 
 Hlfthliinil immo of 'cateran.' . . . This is the 
 flnt uf a long succeaaion of penal and denuncla- 
 
 0ATH0LIC3. 
 
 tory laws against the Highlanders."— J. H. Bur- 
 ton, niU. of Smtland. t. 8. eh. 27. 
 CATHARISTS, OR PATARENES.— 
 
 "Among all the sects of the Middle Ages, very 
 far the most Important In numbers and in radical 
 antagonism to the Church, were the Catlmri, or 
 the Pure, aa with characteristic sectarian 
 assumption they styled themselves. Albigenses 
 they were called in Langueduc; Patartnes in 
 North Italy ; Good Hen by themselves. Stretch- 
 ing through central Europe to Thrace and 
 Bulgaria, they Joined hands with the Pauliclana 
 of the liaat and shared their errors. Whether 
 these Catharl stood In lineal historical descent 
 from the old ManichKans, or had generated a 
 dualistic scheme of their own, is a question bard 
 to answer, and which has been answered in very 
 different ways. This much, however, is certain, 
 that in all essentials they agreed with them." — 
 R C. Trench, Leett. on Mediimtl Church llitt., 
 Ifft. 15. — "In Italy, men supposeil to hold the 
 same belief [as that of the Paiilicinns, Albigenses, 
 etc. ] went by the name of the Paterini, a word of 
 uncertain derivation, perhaps arisini; from their 
 willingness meekly to submit to all sufferings 
 for Christ's sake (patl), perhaps from a quarter 
 in tlie city of Milan named ' I'utaria ' ; and more 
 lately by that of Catharl (the Pure, Puritans), 
 whicli was soon corrupted into Oaiuiri, whence 
 the Ucrman 'Ketzer,' the general worU for a 
 heretic." — L. Marintti, Fri DoMno and hi* 
 IXmn, eh. 1. — See, also, Paclicians, and Ai.bi- 
 
 OENSEa 
 
 CATHAY, See China: The Names op thb 
 
 COCNTRT. 
 
 CATHELINEAU AND, THE INSUR- 
 RECTION IN LA VENDEE. See Fk.vnce: 
 A. D. 1793 (Mabch— April;; (June); and(jDLT 
 
 — D ^MBEB). 
 
 f .'HERINEII.,of Ruaaia. SeeRusBTA 
 
 A. 1761-1762, and 1762-1 T9« Catherint 
 
 of Aragon. See England : A. D. I.'i27-1.'>34, 
 
 1.'i36-15«) Catherine de Medici. See 
 
 Francb: A. D. 1882-1547. 
 
 CATHOLIC ASSOCIATION. See Ibb- 
 LAND : A. D. lSll-1829. 
 
 CATHOLIC DEFENDERS. See Ireland: 
 A. D. 1780-1798. 
 
 CATHOLIC LEAGUES. See Papacy : 
 A. D. 1580-1581 ; and France : A. D. 1578-1585, 
 and after. 
 
 CATHOLIC REACTION. Sec Pap.\ct : 
 A. D. 1.5.14-1540, to l.WS-lfti;!. 
 
 CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY. See F.nuCA- 
 TiON, Modern; America; A. D. 1 769-1 hk4 
 
 CATHOLICS (England): A. D. iS73-i679. 
 —Persecutions. Si* England: A. I). 1572- 
 1603; 158.5-1587; 1587-1588; 1678-1679. 
 
 (Ireland) : A. D. 1691-1782.— Oppression of 
 the Penai Laws. Sec Ireland: A. 1). 1691- 
 1782. 
 
 (England): A. D. 1778-1780.— Repeal of 
 Penal lawa.- No-Popery Riota. See E.vo- 
 land: a. I). 1778-1780. 
 
 (Ireland): A. D. 1795-1796.— Peraecution by 
 Protestant mobs.— Formation of the Orange 
 Society. See Ireland: A. I). lT»r>-179<i. 
 
 (Ireland): A. D. 1801. — Pitt'a promises 
 broken by the King, S.r K.vs;: ^nh a i>, 
 1801-1806. 
 
 (England and Ireland): A. D. 1829.— Eman- 
 cipation from civil disabilitiea. bee Ikklamo^ 
 A. D. 1811-1S29. 
 
 mmi 
 
 409 
 
CATHOUC-. 
 
 ft. Pafact: a. D. 
 
 CATHOLICS, Old. 
 
 1860-1870. 
 
 D SAL'^"*^' TheCoMpiracy ot SeeRoioc 
 
 IS. L. 60. 
 
 £^IL'"a.T''*' ^^ BHiTAnj, Oi.LTic Tbibes. 
 CATO THE YOUNGER a«d the iMt 
 
 CATO STREET CONSi IRACV, The. 
 
 See En(.i,am): A. D. 1830-1827. 
 
 CATRAIL, The.— An ancient ra t ; .wt, the 
 renuma of which are found la f,- •, 1 tj Scot- 
 land, runniDjf from the aom ; .1 , ner of 
 PeubleMhire to the south aide >: Llduew, le It 
 
 la supposed to have marli. 
 betwrvn the old Ani^lian '.-.'u 
 and the territory of the Briiu' 
 (Dumbarton).— W. P. Sket 
 
 CATTANl.- VASSAL i. 
 SERVI.— The feudal baron ; . 
 wca- culled Catunl. In the 1 kro" 
 "many of these Cattani, aft*" i.»\iti 
 
 ih** IxiL ndary 
 ;■• ' o; Bi nicia 
 I' 01 ,' luith 
 ..tt, ,i>tU,.\ . e. 1. 
 -MASNA J.V— 
 It' nor : (■■•n taly 
 ■r ory, 
 .11 iub- 
 
 dued and made citizens of VLx-,.,j;' u,' i,y,„. 
 tained their feudal followi!.i; , -■a wer n*u,; '. 
 attended by troops of retalrer-. Ijiif >lives 1 ' 
 freeilmeu. called ' UominI & M-.sr.. d^,' ' ■'. \l 
 certain possessions of thfi. , , h, ;. .1.,. 
 military service, took oaUii ,f adel • • iO 
 appear to have included every t ok of pi -^. , :i 
 the dilTerent Italian states a<i irdinif 
 qualitv of the chief; but with. .iit any detn .;.• 
 tion of character i» ini; attacht,! to =wh tmpl.n-- 
 
 distill, I lon isnmde between tlie • Vassl," who are 
 Bupp..>,d K. have been vassal of the crown, and 
 
 S^U T^ ■ ■ v''" *'''^" "" '■'^'» «f Freat 
 lords. Ih. Vavasours' were the vassals of 
 great vjissmU. . Ii,«i,ii.g ,i„.sp niilitary Vil- 
 lains, wl,., w.re also called 'Fedeli,' there were 
 two other kiiiu, of slaves amonftst the early 
 Italians, imniely prisoners of war and the labour- 
 ers iittHchfd to the soil, who were considered ns 
 catt le 111 every resp.-.'t except that of t heir superior 
 utility and value. The former species of slavery 
 disappear. d much earlier than the latter"-- 
 
 r A •rT'i""T/ '■"■'»""''"■ ^'""ni, r- 1. p. dU. 
 i,.A I TI, The. See C'ihtti 
 
 CAUCASUS, The R.cet of the.-'One „f 
 the most remarkable characteristics of tin- 
 C uumsus IS that, while it has acted as a barri.r 
 iHtween the north and the somb, stoppin.^ niul 
 tumiiii; aside the niovemenU of populuti..n it 
 has also preserved within its sh.'ltered r..i4ea 
 fragments of the different pcopk-s wl,„ from 
 time to time have pa.ssed by it, or who have been 
 driven by conquest Into it from the lower 
 eounlry Thus it is a kind of ethnolojricul 
 miiseiim, where specimens may be found of 
 count iss races and lanjtuages, some of whi.h 
 probably belong to the eariy ages of the world ■ 
 races that s<eni to have little affinity with their 
 r)res..nt njlghbours, and of whose history w,- 
 know nothin.L' ex<,.pt what comparative piiilol. 
 pgy can revear Even before the ('hristian era 
 It was famous for the variety of Its p<'oples 
 >o more mappropriHte ethnologl<^8l name was 
 ever pn-rounded than tliat of Caucasian for a 
 rwtclnl :::•. ;.sinn of tti. human family, the cream 
 Of nmnkin<l, from which the civiliz^ peoples of 
 Europe are 8upp>.ed to have spri.ng. For the 
 Caucasus is to day, as it wa« in Strabo'a lime 
 
 CAlTCASrS. 
 
 full of imoef differing In religion, langug« 
 Mpect, maonert, character."— J. Brvce TVoiT 
 eauetma atid Ararat, eh. i. • '^w- 
 
 Th« Circsaaiani. — Th« Ruuian Co. 
 qnert.— "The Caucasus has always i».,*««i 
 a certain fascination not for the Kussl!„i,otJv^ 
 but also for western nations, and is i^thI 
 larly rid, In historical traditions, and in Cm 
 ories of ancient times and ancient imtio™ 
 Here, to the rocks of Elbruz, Promelh, ™Tat 
 chained; and to Colchis, where the VhZ 
 flowed towards the sea. through ev, r •!„.„ 
 woods, came the Argonauts. The ..rl^f., 
 
 which, iu the sacred grove of Ares, hung tlie 
 golden fleece. The gold mines which the Uus- 
 sians discovered in 1*4 were apparenth I- »,Sn, 
 to the Greeks, whose colony. Dioscuria- w,. 
 an assemblage of 800 diverse natimmlities 
 
 Black Sea arose the famous Pontine k.i,a,l, ni [see 
 MtTHHiDATic Wars! which in spite ..f its valE 
 -I^T under MIthridates, fell » victim t,, 
 
 ;(■' ggression. Along the rivers Kunsnd 
 
 . u,... ;an the old commercial road fr ,„ Kur i* tu 
 Asia, which enrichij the Venwan.s 1,1 the 
 Genoese In the middle ages. Up to ree.nt limes 
 this trade consisted not only of all sorts of ,itlnr 
 merchandise, but of slaves; numberless eirls iiul 
 women were conveyed to Turkish In.rems aud 
 there exercised an Important intlueii.e on Uie 
 narat-U.T of the TarUr and Mongol niees In 
 the iniddle ages the Caucasus was the r.ute bv 
 wiich the wild Asiatic honles, tlu- (Jotlis 
 hhasars, Huns, Avars, Mongols, Tartars and 
 Arabs crossed from Asia inUj Eumim^ and con- 
 sequently its secluded valleys couuin a n,.i.uU- 
 tlon compose*! of more different ami distinct 
 races than any other district In the wi.rld 
 It was in the 16th century, umler Ivan the Ter- 
 rible, that Russia first turned her attention to 
 •If ?2?5"**' °' *''* Caucasus; but it ->a» not 
 till 1859 that the defeat and capture ef tl-e 
 famous Schamyl brought about the final subiu- 
 gallon of the country. ... In nsr, [afu r the 
 partial conquest of 1784— sw Tlkks: A D. 
 1776-1792] the mountaineers had been incited to 
 take arms by a so-called prophet Scheii k Man- 
 sur, but he was seized and banisheil toSoli.vctsk, 
 on the White Sea. In 1820 a Mollali, Kasi by 
 name, made his appearance in Dagli.sl.w and 
 began to preach the ' Kasawat,' tliat is, I, .iv »«r 
 against the Russians. To him succeed.-.! aii.itlier 
 equally fanatical a.h I'liturer, llamsel llei; Tlie 
 wijrk which they h:i.l begun was carri. .1 .m bv 
 Schamyl, who far surpaasetl his pn-dee.sxire ii 
 all the qualities which make ui> a su.icssfi,: 
 guerilla chief, an.l who maintaiue.l the iineiiusi 
 conHict against the enemies of his .-ouiiirv for 'A5 
 years with singular good fortun.-, miriauntr.1 
 courage, untiring energy, ami c<iiis|.i.utws 
 ability. He was of the trifie of the Us^'liiaos iu 
 I^ghestan. and was bom in 179«. in the \i\UK 
 of Oimri, of poor shepherd parents In -; ^r of 
 Ills humble origin he raisjKl himsill t.i ih. rinJi 
 of an Imaum, surroumlnl himself with 1 -tnmg 
 body-guard of devoted aiiturents. wii.iii he 
 named Muridcs, and succeedeil in Liiiiiiii;: tos 
 flame the patriotic ardour a! his fe!!i:v. :;:;>.-v 
 men. The capture of the mouiitaiu I.tMii.ss'.if 
 Achulgo in 1839 seemed to lie the ili-ailiM..«- .it 
 Schamyl's caU8<-. for it brought alniut tin !.«. of 
 the whole of Uaghcstan. the very focus vl •Jus 
 
 410 
 
CAUCASUS AXD THE CIRCASSUNS. 
 
 lluridcs' actirity. Schamyl barely escaped 
 lKi3g nuule a priaooer, and wa« forced to yield 
 up Ills >on. Djammel-Edden, only nine yean of 
 age M a hostage. The boy was sent to St. 
 P«tt.T»burg and placed in a cadet corps, which 
 be left at the conclusion of his military educa- 
 tion somewhere about 1850 and returned to Ida 
 uaiive country in I(*5i where lir died a few 
 Tims later. In HM the Tchctchcns, who had 
 pn-viously been pa< ided, row in urnig once more, 
 sad Daghestan and other parts of the country 
 followed their example. The country of tlie 
 Tcbctcbens wiu a specially favourable theatre 
 for the conflict with the Ruaaians; its long 
 mountain chains, roclty fastneases, impenetrable 
 foresta, and wild precipices and gorges rendered 
 imbuscades and surprises of constant and, to 
 the Russians, fatal occurrence. During the 
 earlier stages of the war, Russia had ransomed 
 the officers taken prisoners by the mountaineers, 
 but, aubsequcntlv, no quarter wiui given on 
 either side. At lust, by means of a great con- 
 centration of troops on all the threatened points, 
 by furtifyinff the chief central stations, and by 
 funning brtwd military roads throughout the 
 district, the Russians succeeded in breaUnK 
 down Schamyl's resistauce. He now suffered 
 one reverse after another. His chief fastnesses, 
 Dargo, Weden, and Ouui were successively 
 stormed and destroyed; and, Anally, he himself 
 and his family were taken prisoners. He was 
 astonished aud, it is naid, not altogether grati- 
 fied to llnd that a violent death was not to close 
 bis romantic career. He aud his family were at 
 first intermtl at Kaluga in Russia, both .1 house 
 anil a coasiiltrable sum of n.oney for his mutnte- 
 luuee bein. .issigned to hini. But after a few 
 years he was allowed to remove to Mecca, where 
 be died. His sons and grandsons, who have en- 
 tirely adop id the manm-s the Russians, are 
 otfic'LTs ill the Circassian guard. In lti64 the 
 paritiiatiun of the whole country was accum- 
 pli^Mol. and a few years later the abolition of 
 serfiloni «:is proclaiiued at Titlis. After the sub- 
 jugation of the various mountain tribes, the 
 Circassians hal lUe choice giv< 11 them by the 
 Goverunient .f tiling on the low country ali>ng 
 the Kuban, or (migrating to Turkey. The 
 lalttr ciHirse wa.** > hosen by the bulk of the 
 nati 'H, UfLid, therct4), in great measure, by en- 
 voy- fMm Turkey. As many as 4OU.0O0 are said 
 tu liave (i)ine to the ports, where the Sultan liad 
 pnnuisetl to send vesscU to receive them: but 
 detuts took place, and a large number died of 
 want aud disease Those who reached Turkey 
 were settled nn the west coasts of tlie Black .'^. 
 in Buiiraria and near Varna, and proved tlii , 
 selve- most truulilesomc and tmruly subjecis. 
 Most f those who at first remained in Circasaia 
 folKm.d their f' llow-countrymen in 1874." — 
 H. M. llirster, limna, eh. 1«. 
 
 Ai*) l^ F. Mavne. Life 'if Xiehtiltu /, pt. 1, 
 eh. 11 .1(1./ 11.— S. M. Hchmucker Life and tki/rn 
 0/ MfhJ.u I . eh 21. 
 
 CAUr ASUS, The Indian.— The re»l Cauca- 
 sus » IS the most lofty rau|?e of mountains known 
 lo tin- Greeks Ix-fori; lAlcxandcrs conouestsj 
 sad they were ({eneralK reganl.t! as the highest 
 
 m-juntairis m !)■,,. w.-.-!-f '-X-- \.ta ih- ursET 
 
 o( Alexander came in sight i.f liic vast mountain 
 barrier [of tlie Hindoo Koosli] iliat roa<- ivfore 
 them as they advanced northward from Aracho- 
 ■a, they seem lo have at once conclud^ that 
 
 CECROPIA. 
 
 this could be no other than the Caucasus. ' 
 Hence the name Caucasus given by the Qreeka 
 to those mountains; "for the name of HiudiMi 
 Koosh. by which they an still known, is nothintr 
 more than a corruption of the Indian Caucasus. 
 — £. R Bunbury, Hitt. of Ancient Qtog., eh. 13, 
 
 CAUCI, The. Sec Ibbiju(d, Tribes or 
 Earlt Csltic Inbabitants. 
 
 CAUCUS.— In 1634 — the fourth year of the 
 colony of Massachusetts Bay — the freemen of 
 the colony chose Dudley instead of Winthrop 
 for governor. The next year they "followed 
 up the doctrine of rott ^n in office by choosing 
 Haynes as governor, a choice agreea upon bv 
 deputies from the towns, who came together for 
 that purpose previously to the meeting of the 
 court — the first instance of ' the caucus system ' 
 on record."— R. HiWreth, Iliet. of the V. S., e. 1, 
 p. 234. — See, also, Conoress or the United 
 States. 
 
 CAUOINE FORKS, Tha Ronuuia at the. 
 See Rome: B. C. »43-30O. 
 
 CAUSENNiE, OR ISIN.£.— A town of 
 some importance in Roman Britain. "Them 
 can lie no doubt that this town occupied the siUi 
 of the modem Ancaster, which has been cele- 
 brated for its Roman antiquities since the time 
 of Leload."— T. Wright, CM, Honuin and Sojeon, 
 ch. 5. 
 
 CAVALIERS, The party of the. See Eno- 
 .asd: .V L). 1641 (October); also, Roik-w 
 
 llEADS. 
 
 CAVE DWELLERS.— "We find a hunting 
 ami lishing race of cav« iivellers, in the remote 
 pleistocene age, in dob.-' sion of France, Bel- 
 gium, Germany, and Brrain, probably of the 
 same stock as the Eskimio, living and forming 
 
 f>art of a fauna in which northern ami southern^ 
 iving and extinct, species are strangeiy minified 
 with those now living in Europe. In the neolitUic 
 age caves were inhabited, and used for tombs, bv 
 men of the Iberian or Bosque race, which is still 
 represented by the small dark-haired peoples 
 of Europe." — W. B. Dawkins, face U'-ting, 
 p. 4;Ji>. 
 
 CAVE OF ADULLAM. .S.e A vm. 
 
 Cave op. 
 
 CAVOUR, Count, id the unificativi. of 
 Italy. See Italy: A. !>. 18M .M, and l-jj»- 
 1861. 
 
 CAVOUR, Treaty of (1561 .-^e. Savov 
 A. D 15.'5ft— 1580 
 
 CAWNPUR. OR CAWNPORE A. D 
 1857.— Sie« by the Sepoy mutinee — Sur 
 render and massacre of the E ;^i a. See 
 IsuiA A. D. 1857 i.M.w— Ai (H> aud 1H57- 
 
 1«.)8 (JCLV— JCNE' 
 
 CAXTON PRfcSS, Th' -ee Pri> :so 
 a:4D the Press: A i UTil 
 
 CAYENNE, Colontzatto n. :-. e Guiasa: 
 A. D I.VIO-I.SU. 
 
 CAYUGAS. The, "*•■< vsraRi'-VM Abo- 
 
 BIOI^KS: IroijI'OIS Cli Kl« »lV. 
 
 CEADAS, The. .-- li vrimiii. 
 CEBRENES The. ?•-< Thoja. 
 
 CECIL. Si illiam 
 the retni of iteth. 
 
 155.- iolfcS. 
 
 CECORA. Bat >■ 
 A. 1» 159()-1' 4«. 
 
 CECROP i.-CECROPIAN HILL.— The 
 Acropolis of iien Si \iTieA. 
 
 Lord Burleigh), and 
 
 •e r. so LAND: A. D. 
 
 1621 . See PouuiO: 
 
 411 
 
'i«'* 
 
 C£DAR CREEK. 
 
 CEDAR CREEK, Battle of. 8m CirmD 
 9TATB8 or Ax.: A. 0. 1864 (Acoubt— Octobbb ■ 
 
 ViKdINIA). 
 
 CEDAR MOUNTAIN OR CEDAR RUN, 
 Battle ot Skk Unitkd Htateh or Am.: A. V. 
 1868 (JuLT— August : VinoiNu). 
 
 CELEBES.— Tba eilniordlnary conforma- 
 tion of the inland of CVIc-bca (situated east of 
 Born<\)) gives it a coast line of no less tban 
 8,.VI0 miles, though iu area is but 75,000 square 
 niilcM In other words, "although little over 
 oiiethlnl the size of France, It has a seaboard 
 ciiiml in exu-nt to that of France and the 
 Iberinn tVnInsiilii taken together. . . . Were 
 it as densely uei.plwl as Java, it would have 
 a population of some thirty millions, whereaa, 
 according to tlie approximate estimates, the 
 •ctual impulatlon is little over three-quark-ra 
 of a million. Hut, alllmugh nominallv under the 
 Dutrh rule, most of the iiilerior is still occupied 
 by Alfurus. timt is. wllil tribes for the moat part 
 living in Isolated and hostile groups. Nor was 
 the l)utch iKvupation elTecttd without many 
 sanguinary struggles, not always to the advan- 
 tage of the lnva<lers. The Europeans appeared 
 Orst as guests, and the early conHlcts were con- 
 nected with iguestions of Iraile rights. Then the 
 Dutch pri'si'ntixl themselvefi as rivals of the Por- 
 tuguese in 1860, when they seized the fort of 
 MacHHsar, long their only piHuession on tlie coast 
 Later they conclude<i a treaty of alliance and 
 a prou-ctomte with several iietty statra In the 
 south went em peninsula, and since that time 
 thev have emitted no occasion of strengthening 
 their ixmition in the island Yet in nuMt of the 
 inland «UU'S they are still unrepresenu-d by any 
 omciuls. anil even the coast districts are visited 
 only at long int.rvals, «VleU-s has not v.-t been 
 ciimplettly explontl, and some part* are known 
 only iu H ginenil way. . . . The native p<ipula- 
 t ons nr.' usually classed as Malavs ami Alfurus, 
 the Inland wild tribes . . . Ilwingl Indiscrim- 
 inately groiipiil as Alfurus'— K. Keclus, Tk* 
 Rirllt anil iu Inhnhilanti: ttftanii-a rh 8 
 CELESTIAL EMPIRE. H.i. China 
 CELESTINE II., Pope. A I) IIM^UW. 
 
 .. . .CeleetiBe III., Pope. A n lUl-liw 
 
 Celestine IV., Pope, A 1). mi Celettine 
 
 CELESTINES. or CELESTINIAN8. 
 
 —A rligtous onler foundinl by the hermit. IH-U'r 
 of .M.iMne. who sfterwsnls. In tSM, became 
 I'.JH-. snd 1.1. .k the name Celestine V. 
 
 i- r.S'-7"'^^''.l**'S' T"*— ■■ The appellation 
 t eltllN-rians indicHte* that In the northeastern 
 part .if the p. ninsula frtpain] there was a mix 
 tore .if Celt- bihI Ib.rtans.'-W Ihne, t/ul „f 
 
 i^'ci T« ■J.'l "• "^'-«>'<' NfHANTiAN War 
 CELTS, The.-'The Celts form a branch of 
 Ihi' gr»'«t family of nations which has twen 
 Tnri.Hniv calliil Aryan, IihK. Kuropisn, Imlo- 
 Oermunlc, Indo Celtic and Japhetic . . The 
 ( .It. nf antiquity who appeare.1 first and often- 
 «•« In hLtiirv were Ih.Meof Oallia. which, liaving 
 Nrn made (iv tl,, ».>e,^h Into Haule, we »<.nn 
 ««ul ThiCililrfsmllT. sofarback a* we 
 
 can tra<T it into the darkncMi ..f anllqultv. c-on 
 »\*u>\ iif iwii gr»u|M or branches, with llngidstic 
 fiaturi.. iif their own whlrh marked them off 
 from line snolher To the one U'lnnmil th.- an 
 rj itiirs ,.r th. p.-..pi,- »l«i.iM.,k liiM-lir in Irelmid. 
 the I.le iif Man sn.1 the IlighlaiHU of the Niwth. 
 . . The iMljimal rume which the members of 
 
 CENSORS. 
 
 a. one knows, is that ol Oaidhel, pronouioS 
 ami spelt in Engliri, Uael. but forinerlVTnS 
 
 by thenuelTo. Qoidel The other- cmuDi! 
 
 repreeented In point of speech by the ,,'. pe 5 
 WfalM^dthefiretona . . . The natio ,»l "^ L»e 
 
 Briton ; but. slnre that word has now i,., |,r,T|„ 
 meaning, we take the Welsh f.irm ,.f it. « ,"^'^ 
 BiylJ)on, and call this groun Hrythoim and Brr 
 thonic, whenever It is need/ul Ui Ix- cxa, i tI, 
 ancient Oaidsmurt also be classili..d wi,|, ,h,B, ' 
 —J. Ithys, CtlUc lintain, eh. !.—«<,.,. also A» 
 TAR», and AprK.Miix A, vol. 5. 
 
 " Who were the heltie of Sp«ln 7 tlie p Uaikm 
 
 whose name o<rura In the woni (VI i.i JS 
 Ce "berl, Keltic Ibirians or Iln^riun K, ItL, 
 
 LI *^"'•f "'""«* u««l to deii.,niinat«t'|w 
 tribe and nations allied to the Gauln. it lilif wort 
 
 a* little native as WelA is British. , ] thlU 
 i?L??°'*'. ""' " *" • *°"1 belonging t,i U,; 
 Iberian language, applied, until the time of 
 Cesar at least, to Iberic p<ipiilatl.iii«. u 
 
 other words, the Iberian name for an Il,,.ri,n 
 popuUtlon was first adopted by the (i^rk, ,, 
 the name for all the inhabitants of south w,.,tf" 
 Oaul, aitd It was then extended by the IlimsM 
 so as to Include all the populations of (lallis « 
 cepttheBelntandAquftaniana'-a, a. Uihsm, 
 Sthnotoff of Bun.pt, r*. 8. ^^ 
 
 . ^?}'J^'~.A "*""' "f*""'" «mong8rih,r.iln)[lit« 
 to certain prehistoric Imphni.nls, IhhIi st.,i„.»nd 
 bronze of the wedge, chisel, and axe kind It 
 has evidently no connecUon with tlie »,>r,l Cll 
 used ethnological ly. 
 
 CELVDDON, Foreit of (or Coed Celrdtw), 
 See BaiTAi!., Ckltic Thihks. ' '^ 
 
 CENABUM. H<-e ORNAniM 
 
 CENSORS, The Roman.-TI riiiiisl 
 
 business of the lioman censors na« ti. p .-isicrtlie 
 citizens and their pn.|M.rty. They ■ma.l.niil 
 the returns of tlie free popiilatiiin , Imt i|„.vdi,| 
 more; they divided it ac<unllng to it. . ivil ilii- 
 tlnctlons, and drew up a lint of th. », t,„i„r. s 
 list of the e»iiiin», ■ list of the ni. nil« r. ..f ' r 
 several trilws, or of those clllzi-ns »li.. .hjovmI 
 the right of viMlng. and a il.t ..f i),,. ararinr- 
 conslstliiB of those freedm.h. naliinill/Ml nmr 
 gets, and othen, who. iK-lngeim.ll.il in i).,M. 
 poes«'Sjed DO vote in theconiitia. Imi -till 1 ii]..vr.| 
 all the private rights of H.iiimn ,iii„„„ s'„w 
 the lists thus drawn up by lli. .. n~.n. »,•:,■ „■■ 
 garded ai legal evj.lence ".if a nmn . .,,iMlill.«i. 
 . . From thence the traiiHilliui un. >ii,r 
 •cconling In Konan nolLms. t.i th. .1. < i.i.^, ;,f 
 questions of right; such as win id. r u .ititm 
 was really worthy of retaining his riit.li If 
 
 » man behaved tyrannically tn hi^ «if. ..r chil 
 drMi, If ha was guilty of eii-iwiv.' cni, liv i-nn 
 '.". ,*''*'^- " *" negle<t«| bin I,u„| if w in 
 ilulge.1 Id habits of extravagant . »pi "-< . "f fnl 
 IowmI any calling which wan ni:anl.il a> ilf 
 (trailing, the olTince was Jii«llv nui.il hy thi- 
 ornsora, arl the offender »a» strmk ..IT frim Un- 
 list of senatora. If his rank was xi hl|ili ; "r If bp 
 wofN an onliRarr : !!!s"r., h^ w-h -li-"-! fr-a 
 his Irilie, an.l r«lii<tKl to the elKsaof ih. amrlsm ' 
 -T AmoU, U,M «/ lime, <-h 17 -M.v, sian 
 Li;tTHinc 
 
 412 
 
CENSORSHIP. 
 
 CENTRAL A3IERICA. 
 
 CENSORSHIP OF THE PRESS, ia Bag> 
 UodaadGcnamax. SMFkorraaAmiFBMii 
 A. D. 1«W. 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA: Roiaaofuciaot 
 civilintioa, Sm Aximcait Adomoinu: 
 Matai. (D(I Qcicim: alao, Maxico, Ahcicrt. 
 
 DitcoTcrr aad carlj ttttlcmcat. See Amu- 
 l-.» A D. 149S-tiW9: 1509-1511; 18ia-1517. 
 
 A. D. iBai-1871.— Scpantien from Spala. 
 ■od Independtnce. — Attempted Mcntioa sad 
 it! hitaret.— Wan aad rerolotioaa of the Sve 
 Republics.— " The centnti part of the American 
 cnniini'nt. cxtpiulinf; fmm the louthem boundary 
 of Mdim to tlie Isthmus nf Panama, cnnaiited 
 In tlie olil colooini time* of M-veral Intendanclet, 
 all of which were uuitvil in the Captaincy-Oen- 
 ctil of Qualetnala. Lilte tlie Weel Indian 
 Island!, It was a neglected part of the Spanbh 
 Empire. . . . Centnti America has no hiatoiy up 
 to the epoch of independence. ... It was not 
 until the succeaa of the Uevolutlon had beoome 
 certain on both aide* of tlicm. both in Mexico 
 and New Oranada, that the intendanciet which 
 made up the Captaincy-Oencral of Ouatamala 
 dcrlarrd tbemselre* also independent of SpaliL 
 The erf of liberty had indrcd been railed in 
 CoetaRica in 1818, and in Nicaragua in 1818; 
 but the Rerolution waa poatpnncd for six yean 
 loam. OuateraaU, the irat of gOTemment, 
 
 Rublisbed Its declaration in September, 18S1, and 
 I example waa apeediiy followed by San Salva- 
 dor and Honduraa NhsraKua, on prochklmini; 
 its independence, together with one of tlie depart- 
 ment* of Ouatemaia, declared its adhesion to 
 what was known In :.<jxicn as the plan of Iruala 
 [see Mkxk%>: A. D. 183O-1H30]. >!< there were 
 DO Sponish troops In Ceiitml Amer. i the recu- 
 sant HiNuiisli otHolal party could mske no resist- 
 uuv to the popular movrmcnt; and many nf 
 Ihrm crossed the sen to Culm or rptumod to 
 Spain. . . . Tlie Revolution of Central America 
 thut stands alone in the history of Independence, 
 K hiiTing been accompliahed without the slied- 
 (llnj nf blood." During the brief empire of 
 Ilurtiiile In Mexico [see as above) the Central 
 Aim'rlran states were aanexe<l to It, though 
 Willi stning resistance on the part of all exrept 
 Gu^trinaln. "On the proclamation of the Ped- 
 rnl llcpiilillc in Mexico [IH'.M). the whole of 
 Central Anuriia, except the district of Chiapas, 
 wlilxlrrw fnim the alliance, and drove out the 
 Mctlcao offlcials aa only a year before they had 
 Irivcn out the HpaiiUh officials. The people uow 
 hail to face the task of forming a government 
 for thomwlres: anil . . . they now resolved on 
 mmhinint in a fe<leration, in Imiution of the 
 irtrnt Initwl Sutea of North America. Perhaps 
 DO aiAirs were ever less suited to form a federal 
 unhm The petlr terriuirlea of Central America 
 He im twixHTuns. are divi<le<i by lofty mountains, 
 ind bare srarrrly any communtcatfon with each 
 other, anil the citlsena of each have scarcely any 
 innimiin Inirrest. A Central Ameriraa fedt-m- 
 lim, hiiw..v.-r. was an imposing idi-a, and llio 
 P"'|>le rliinjf h> ll with grcnl pertinacity. The 
 lirxl rffiirt for fitlrralkin w,is made under the 
 iliririlon nf (Wnrral Flliaitia All llie IntemUn 
 i-i" » n.nililniil In one aovrn-iftn state; flnil under 
 III- mim.' i.f tin- lnlte.1 IVorloces,' afterwards 
 ^ •-'nixr 52. 1*63; iiH.i*r llwl of Ilia ' Federal 
 Ibinilillr of Central America. . , . A ooMlltu- 
 tion „1 tv nHMt llbeml kiwi was votad. This 
 oiHuUiiiilua Is rciMTkabl* fur havtog b«« Ik* 
 
 first which abolished slavery at onoe and abso- 
 lutely and declared the slave trade to be piracy. 
 . . . The clerical and oligarchic partv set their 
 faces stubbornly against the execution of the 
 constitution, and began the revolt at Leon in 
 Nicaragua. The union broke down in 1830. and 
 though Morazan [of Honduras] ruoonstituted it 
 in 1|J2», its hisuiry la a record of continual re- 
 bellion and reaction on the part of the Quate- 
 nuUtec oligarchy. Of all South American con- 
 servative parties this oligarchy wiu iierliaps the 
 most despicable. They sank U) tliclr lowest 
 when they raised the Spanish tin? in 1«33. But 
 in doing this they went too fur. Morazan's 
 successes date from this time, and liavingbeaten 
 'he Oualemalteca, ha transfcntHl the Federal 
 
 Kvemment in 1884 to San Salvador. But the 
 deral Republic of Central America dragged 
 on a procanous existence until 18.18, when it was 
 overthrown by the revolt of Carrcra in Ouate- 
 maia. From the first the influence of the Fvd- 
 eialists in the capital began to decay, and It was 
 soon apparent that they had little power except 
 in Hoodurss, San Salvador and Nicaragua. Tlie 
 Costa Ricaos, a thriving commercial community, 
 but of no great political Importance, and sepa- 
 rated by mountainoua wastes from all the rest, 
 soon ceased to take any p;irt In pulilic business. 
 A second Folenil Republic, excluding Costa 
 Rica, was agreed to in 184J; but It fiin-il no 
 better timn the first. The chief n<pn-wnt<itlve 
 of tiie FiilcTftllat principle in Ci-ntnil America 
 waa .Morazan. of Ilomlunui. from wIioik; govern- 
 ment Carrem had revolted in IWM. On the fail- 
 ure of the Fe<lcration M )raz.in iiai n.d to Chile, 
 and on his return to Cmta Kicn lie w.is shot at 
 San Jose liy the (,'iimTlsM, This was n gn-at 
 blow to the LiliemU, and it was not until 1847 
 th.'it H thinl Federation, consisting of llomluras, 
 8iL .><:ilvmlc)r, and Nicaragua, was nr).'anized. 
 For some years llnndiirw, at tiie lieml <f tiiesa 
 states. carrie<l on a war iit.'.'iinst (luaii nmla to 
 C(Mn|»l It to Jola the union (iuatemalu was fur 
 more than their miitch; Su;. Salvaiior ami Nica- 
 ragua soim fiih^l In tlic struggh;, and left Hon- 
 (lur\a to carry on the wnr almu.'. Under Ueneral 
 Carnra Guatemala completely defeatt'tl Its rival ; 
 and to his successes are due tlie rvvivnl of the 
 Conservattva or Clerical party all over Centnii 
 America. . . . The government of each state 
 became weaker and weaker: revolutions were 
 everywhere frequent: ami ultimately ... the 
 whole country was near falling Into the hands of 
 a North American a<lventiin'r [see NlcARAorA: 
 A D. 18.WlH(i()]. In former times the Kngliah 
 government had maintained some coonertioa 
 with the country [originating with the bucca- 
 neen and inatie Imporiunt by the maiioganv cut- 
 ting] through the iu<te|ieiident IiidUiM of tlio 
 MiMi|iiitii coast, over whom, for the pur|HMesof 
 their trade with Jamaica, it lia<l iiiaiiitalneii a 
 protectumte : and even a amall Kngllsli coiiimer- 
 eial loltmy. called Oreytown, had Tieen foiindi'd 
 on tills riuKt at the nioiuh of the river Mnii Jii.ni. 
 Towanis the rhw of Cirn-ms aaieiHUncv lliU 
 ONUt was nslgmil to Nimragiia. uuii llie Ikiy 
 Islands, which lleoiT the const, to lloiiilunw. iiiul 
 Kiigiand thiun'taliiiil nothing In lliecoimtrv hut 
 Ute old settlement of liritlth Honduras, wli'li its 
 utiiitai, ileiisr Alu>r< iirr<'ra'i>i4iis<li III I'Ot^. tiie 
 Ubeial party tiegan Ui n-wm-rt itjvlf ami in |n;i 
 there was a I.llieral revolution iu tiunlcmnU It- 
 mU." -E J. Payne, Uul u/Hurvy^ CUva s, isA. ii. 
 
 4ia 
 
CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 .:;( ■ k 
 
 I ' 
 
 A. O. iS7i-i88s.— Atctndsncjr of BaitIm 
 in GuatcmaU.— Hia eOtartt to ratttablith • 
 Central American Union. — The reTolutiou of 
 lt»7l, lu Uiiatemala. eatabliihed a goTemment 
 under tbe control of tlio Liberal*, with Mimel 
 Garcia Qraoadoa a* proviiional pnsidfuL "Tbe 
 new administration had hardly initiated reforms 
 when an insurrection broke out tn Santa Roai, 
 promoted by the prieau ami their aristocratic 
 alilea It does not appear that Garcia Granado* 
 bid at first intended open hostility to tlie re- 
 ligious orders. . . . Tbe priesU would nut rest 
 cuntented with tbe loss of their former high 
 staniling. . . . The new riiime now resolred to 
 cut looDe [fnim] the eccleslastiral incubus, and 
 t<) cstabllab tbe supremacy of the riril authority 
 in the state on a firm lusis. Its tlrsl step was to 
 carry out a decree ... to cxpol the Society of 
 Ji'sus forever from the repul)lic. This was not 
 elTccted without some scaiuial and disturbance 
 from the sealous portlaans of the '>rder. Seventy- 
 three Jesuits, must of whom vere foreigners, 
 were sent away on an American steamship, 
 Ihitind at Panama." The expelled Jesuiu were 
 allowed to land in Nicaragua, where they re- 
 Diained until IHHl. They were Uien accused of 
 instlnatin- an insurrection, and wen driven from 
 that state. In Guatemala the expuWoo of the 
 Jesuits was followed, tn 18iS^, by the sup- 
 pression of tithes, the extinction of religioiu 
 c< immunities of men, and 'be decreeing of free- 
 diim of worsliip. with toleration for all religious 
 Si eta The proTlsiounl pn-aUlent was succenled 
 in June, 18*9, by Justo Riifluo Barrios, electeii 
 liy iMipular vote. Barrios, who bad been the 
 liiiiling spirit of the revolution, was a resolute 
 ami energetic man. His government was vigor- 
 it isly, often violently, maintained, during a 
 pfesiilency of twelve ymrs. Among bis early 
 arts was one which llnlalieii Uie liiHuolutlon of the 
 ri'ligiiiiis houses, by op<>ning the convents of 
 women, and mailing a public allowance of mimey 
 to tlie departing nuns. The chief aim of Bar- 
 rios, throughout his career, was to bring alnut 
 toe long-sought union of Centr J Ameriran 
 statea To that end, he seems to have nasiilii 
 ously interfere<i in tbepoliticsuf themlgliburing 
 n>piiblli'a Hy fom- of anus, lie estiilili>-he<l a 
 government iii Halvaalor ttiat was favorable to 
 nis views, and he ai-nimpllsh«<i the ume in 
 Honduras by pmniotlng a revolution. In Nica- 
 ragua and I'iMM KIca lie hail lex* sui-ci-sa In 
 ltin> a new conslitulion was ntlopliit in liuate- 
 mala, and BarriiM was electeii umier It. iu INNO. 
 for a further terra of six yeara Tlie eountry i 
 enjoyetl a lime of great pnwpiTiiy. ami HarrinK. 
 after visiting Kunipe anil tlif I'liitiii Slal<-«. 
 i<n>|i<iae<l. In IHN3, to n'sl^n lie was peisiiailiil. 
 liipwi'Ver. to n-iiiiiin in offlre. iiiit Ills efToris fi>r 
 the union of M«ti<« wire ri's inieil Tliey en 
 (ountenil so mil' li oppwitliai that he' lust 
 patli'iice, and mslily iiiHlirtiink. in \m^. tn sr. 
 timipliitli till- ijiiineatliin i.f ( intral AnHTJra liv 
 force Bv :i d.-i fee Isnii-tl mi IIh< IWlh of Keb- 
 ruary In tlia! vmr !«■ |l^«•jllra«! tbe omsulltla- 
 tion of the live utates inln i«<' repiilillr. The 
 '.■'ivirnment of liiii»liir»a assenliil . ihi- other 
 lliret- mates fiinneii an allianrein resist HarriiM 
 niarrheil an iirmv li,iiir«alvail<ir, and Inst his life 
 in llie flglitiiK Ihnt eiisueil. — H H. Rani-Mft. 
 //iW"V "f ''*' /"'"•/" SittlHi, r rt, cA, do-i2l. 
 
 A. D. iM6-il«4. -C*aliffa«4 alrnffKliag 
 (sr Ualea, aad coJttaMd r**«liitiMHU7 Cm- 
 
 fliet*.— Not loog after the fkll of Barrloa th^ 
 (OTemuMDt of Salvador itself proposed a con- 
 greia to arrsoge terms of union ; but the propo- 
 sition failed. Nicaragua, always looking for- 
 ward to tbe probable construction of an Istlimlaii 
 canal within her border, and ambitlaus to enlny 
 the great posMvion alone, continued aloof 
 CosU Rica, having some share in the same am- 
 bition, dM likewise. Yet the unionists, who 
 seem to have been always numerous, kept the 
 project alive, and were able, in April, 1»H7, to 
 bring about a preliminary treaty between the 
 five republics, "to establish an intimate relation- 
 ship between them, ami, by making the cmitiDU- 
 ance of peace certain, to provide for their funire 
 final fiisluQ in one country." In the next year 
 President Soto, of Ci».ta KIca, urged the bmpdi- 
 bling of a diet, to establish the uuion. piiKlinit 
 which Costa Kican citizenship was ixliuileil m 
 the citixens of the other repulillca. The iliii nut 
 In September of that year, but the de^ir<sl union 
 was not achieved. In Noveiiiln-r, Imn». th,. 
 three states of Honduras, Guatemala, and Sulla- 
 dor took another step. Joining in a treaty which 
 contemplated a nrovUlunal confederatinn fur im 
 yeara, after which, if it proved salisfuiinrv, » 
 more perfec; and permanent union sljuiilii' u- 
 farmed; but Nicaragua and C'onta Kim wmilil 
 not take parL In Salvaitor, mon-over, ihe ami 
 unkniata rallied, and a conflict Miiirn-il iintu:, 
 In which the government was overlhniwii, the 
 president killed, and liie opimnents of union n 
 tabliibed a provisional c.ivemnieni, wiih (icn 
 KzeU at lu bead. Then the pnsiil. a nf 
 Guatemala, Manuel Barillaa, who hail ■min .^lid 
 Barrios, interfered, and Guatemala ami Nilimht 
 went flert ! ly to war. The Hulvaiiurinnii hwl tW 
 beat of It in most of the fighting, ami Ikrillun 
 was bard pmaed bv revnlutioiUHtH at home luil 
 he kept bis power In (iiiaU-iiiala, iIuhiWi Ih' li.il 
 not succeed In suppressing Kxela anil hin |>;iriv 
 in Salvador. One incktent <>iiine<'li-t| wlih ihi »c 
 events caused excitement and ciHiiruvi>r«i m the 
 United Statea. A Guatemalan exile. Ii;iinin<lii 
 took passage from Mexico, on a i'tuitii .Ma;; 
 steamer, for Salvador, to enlist in the hih I l,e 
 steamer touched at a port in Guatemaln. whirr 
 the auiiiorities undertook to arrent him Ttu 
 captain refused to give bis passenger up hut 
 neither the United Sutea niliiiitiir nor hhmiI 
 olBcers present in the imrt could liml iiiiili riu 
 to sustain the captain's refusal, ami tin liii:<r 
 was farced to yield. Barrumihi n«iMi.| ilie 
 arreat, and was shot. While tlH- i>|i|i<'nini» .>: 
 union triumpheil In Halvsiiiir, iliey l:\iM in s 
 desperate attempt at revi<liillon In liuh.l n.n 
 IVsldent liogran, in tiial state, n)aiti'a>iii''l lilt 
 authority, ant ' as siicretiliHl at the i liw . ( hi« 
 conatltiiiiunal r-n. in l<*Vi, by (ieiH'r:il l.uiii. 
 In IMM, tbe (MVemmeiit of Leiva hik "mi 
 thrown tiy insurgent Lilierala ami i'wliiarpn 
 Boullla made president. uihIit a ni » imii.iiiu 
 tliin. .Vi-aiilime. alTuirs in MearagiiN hi;i! ^uiha 
 dor were e<|ualiy l>>nipesliious. l*nf i>h i;i Nmua, 
 In the furuirr, was rmuM'llnl to mitu, m lf>A 
 Whether lite ailoptlim ni a new coiiniiiiii.iii. iii 
 IflM. and the et|iiiNliiii of a niimlMr or.'mu'ti 
 and nuns, will lulm the ilisonler, iriniiini- In lit 
 seen. In Salvador, Eieta was lirivin fnim tlH 
 prtisldencv in 1I<M. and a provlahiiml i!<>ven 
 meat set up in CosU itica. during iwi ;i. Mierr 
 wsrs ooDlIlol* lietwsvB the preshlrnt aiul ibr 
 legteWturs, (nil no rvrolutiua occurri^l lu 
 
 4U 
 
CKNTRAL AXKBICA. 
 
 CHALCIS AMD SRBTRU. 
 
 Onttenttk, PraridMt Bufllat wm (ueeeadcd ia 
 \m by Gen. Joti Bht1o% ho of Um foniMr 
 proideiiL 
 
 CENTRAL ASIA. Bm Aiu, CHmuk 
 
 CENTRE, TiM. SaeRiaHT, Ac. 
 
 CENTREVILLB. BvMMtiea ot 8w 
 CicrrcD Statu or Am.: A. D. lWl-188a (Da- 
 CM BEm— Mabcb : VimoiKU). 
 
 CENTURIES, Romu. 8«eCoMiTuCB» 
 
 TUBIATA. 
 
 CENTURION.— The aaeeroomiMiidtng CM 
 of the flfty-flTe centuriw or compeiiiee in a Ro- 
 man |p?<oa of the empirtL See LMioa. 
 
 CEORL. Hee Eokl, and BrHmL. 
 
 CEPEDA,BatUeef(iU»)> BeeAMnmn 
 
 rkpcbi ic : A. D. i8i<» lerft. 
 
 CEPHISSUS, Battte ol tk« (A. O. 1311). 
 
 Soft ('ATtLAN Obaxd COMPAinr. 
 CERAM. 8eelfALATABCHirBLMO:l>aTea 
 
 £aiit Ihdim. 
 CERAMICUS OP ATHBN8.— The Ceim- 
 
 inirii« wiM ciriirfDRlly the moet important of the 
 I'lhiirlmn iliMricts of Athena and derived Ita 
 uime (nim the pottiT*. "It ia probal>le tliat 
 »\K:ii tliF time of PinUtratiu the nurliet of tlie 
 anricnt oiiliurb callpil the Ceramicui (for every 
 .\ttic ilUtrirt pnaMiaed lU own market) wa* con- 
 stitiitnl the trntral market of tlie city. . . . 
 Tlvr [the Piaintrntidn] connected Athvoi In ail 
 lilrrftliHu by raailwaya with the country iii»- 
 irirti: tbne madi were accurately mpniiiin.v|, 
 >n<l all met 00 the Ceramicua, In tlie centre of 
 which an altar waa erected to the Twelve Oixla. 
 CVto this centre of town and country were ciil- 
 ruliteil (he distancea to the different country 
 (liMriru. lo the porta, and to the moat important 
 Morluarira of the common fatherland. ... [In 
 the mxl nntury — in the »g» of Periclea — tlw 
 I>npul»iiiin had extended to tlie north and weat 
 •n>l| p.trt of the ancient pottera' diatrict or 
 CcmTiiii'iii had long become a quaiter of the city 
 |th>- liintrCrramicuaj; the other part mnalniti 
 »:iliiirl> (tlie Outer t'eramicua]. Between the 
 !ir<i lav the douhl" ^nle or Oipvlttm, tlie broad- 
 i-t am) m<Mt apk-ndid gate of tira city. . . . 
 il'Tc the bnaul carriafe-raad wliich. avoidln> 
 nil heiflit*, atcended from tiM marliet-phire of 
 lli;<|HiiUinu»dinH'tly to Um eity-narkct of t 
 i<nniini!i, cnleml the city; from Itera atraigi. 
 to the wiM led tlie mad to Eleuaii, tba tacred 
 M.iir* of IJH- fnilve proc ea a i ona. , . . From 
 IhiH nwl amin. immediately outatda the cate, 
 bran<h<-.| oft that which led lo the Acatlemy 
 Tlie liiiih riNwIa in the vicinity of the city 
 era-* weiv every wkert bordered with numeroua 
 Dill luiiilaiimv arpulchral moaumeota, in par- 
 tiriilar tlie riiad leaillnf through tba outer Cera- 
 >i>liii» Here ]»y the Dublic bttrial-gtound for 
 tli<-iliif<.nii who luid fallea in war; the vaat 
 *\wr wai clivliled Into fieida. oarreapondin;; U> 
 till' ililTi nnt Ultle-flekia at boOM and abnaui'."— 
 I I'unm,. //,.«. ^ onm, M. I. M. 9 amf U. I. 
 
 ^.Vijoi!,: W. M. Leake, nipfr'f'^f <^ AtHem, 
 
 CEHHSTES. OR KBRBSTBS. BMUaaf 
 
 (l»». Ni llisuAHT; A. I) IDM-iaiM. 
 
 A ImI?"'""*' "'"'• "^ *'*•!'• ■*«* '»*"■ 
 
 41 
 
 CBRRO GORDO, Battlt oL 8«e Mexico 
 
 A. D. 1847 (MancH-SBrTBitBEK). 
 
 CESS.— A word, corrupted from "aaieia,* 
 Hgnifylng a rate, or tax ; used especially ia 
 Scotland. 
 
 CEUTA, A. D. I4is.-Captnrt by th« 
 Pertanaaa. Hee PoarooAi. : A, D. 141^-1400. 
 
 A. O. 16M.— Cedad to Spain. Hee Pobtd- 
 oal: A. D. 1«87-1«68. 
 
 CiVENNES, The propheta of tha (or the 
 Cereaoi propbata). — The Camiaarda. 8ee 
 Frakcb : A. iV 1708-1710. 
 
 CEYLON.— The name Ceylon la derived by 
 a leriea of corruptions from the Sanskrit name 
 Sinhala. given to tlia ancient people. T.he 
 Oreek name of the island was Taprohane The 
 (Sinhalese, who form the most of the population 
 came originally from India. BuddkiKm was 
 intruluced at an early day (see India: B. C. 
 813—), and is still tlie religion of the Siiibaleiie. 
 The wilder narU of the island are occupied by 
 a people called tl.e VeddiUis, who are probably 
 tlie reinnauta of an abori>pnal race. Arabs and 
 Chinese form a considerable element of the 
 coast population. The Portuguese eKUblisbed 
 llieninelveii In the inland in t!ie Irtth century, 
 but were driven out by the Dutch lietween 1088 
 and Kl.Vl. Ceylon waa ceiliil to England in 
 17IM, and tlio cession conHrme<l in IMrj — (««« 
 Kra.mik: a I). 1I*)1-1H02 — C P. Liieas. A 
 Jiitt. (Jfuij. lifts* BritUk Vittrthii: r. 1. ttrt 2 
 
 CHACASUCO, Battl«ef(l8i7>. HeeCaiLB: 
 
 A. I>. miO-1818. 
 
 CHACO, Tba Graa. Hee Gran Cbaco. 
 CHARONBA, Battlaa of. Hee Uasaca: 
 
 B. C. 857-888 : and .Miturioatic WABa. 
 CHAGAN. HeeKiiAN. 
 
 CHACOS ISLANDS. HeeMA>rARKKR 
 
 CHA'HTAS, or CHOCTAWS, Tha. He« 
 Amkrican AaoRioiRaa : McyKnooBAN Famii.t. 
 
 CHALCEDON.— An ancient Greek lity. 
 foimiieil by the Megariana on the Asiatic side <.t 
 the lioaphoriis. neariy oppoalte to Bvxantium 
 
 A. D. as*-— Captnr* bj tba Cetba. ^ee 
 Ouru^: A. D. ».V(-8A7. 
 
 A. D. 6i64«s.— Tba Partiaaa ia poaaessiea. 
 See I'l.KaiA : A. D. HM-887. 
 
 CHALCEDON, Tba Coaacil of. See Nrii. 
 
 TiMii \\ AND .MovoFayatTE Cojitiiovrii-v. 
 
 CHALCIS AND ERBTRIA- TIk- p. .t 
 danireniiM rivals of Ionia were the townn cf 
 Eub<ea. among which, in the drat in^latice. 
 C.vme. aituateil in an excellent bay of tie east 
 coast, in a district abounding In wine, ami af. 
 lerwanis the two sister towns on the Eiiriniis, 
 CImli'is and Kn-tria. distinguished themselves iiy 
 larirer niea«un-s of colonisation. \> hlle Eretrta. 
 tl»f ■ lily of niwers. ' rose lo (irusperity esperlally 
 by means of purple ll<heries ami a rerry'navi|,>a- 
 Uim conducted on k cunslantly Inrreastng scale, 
 Chalcis, the • liroiue elty.' on the double sea 
 of the Btrotian soumi, rontrivnl to raiw and 
 amptoy foe herself the mnat Important of the 
 Many tnaaures of the tsUnd — lu copper . . . 
 Chateia bacaaie the . . . Greek Hidon Next to 
 Cyprua there were no richer stnras of rrijiprr in 
 IbaOraek world than on Euben "— E. Curilna 
 tSM.^iirmn.hi i.rh S— Tliei bakniians were 
 aal w u risiag ooloniaU. partlcuUrly in Tbnire. In 
 Ik* Macedonian peninsula. . and Insouilrrti 
 Italy aad IMcity . It was the abuudaut wealth g( 
 
. t 
 
 n 
 
 iH'r 
 
 CHALCIS A.XD ERETRIA. 
 
 Thimce In metallic om which drew tlio Chalcl- 
 dUns to It. About 700 B. C. a border find 
 between ChalcU and Eretiia, conct'niiu); reruin 
 "Leianttac ticlda" which hiy betwien tliora, 
 grew to »ucU proportion* and *o nmny other 
 »'»«« <»nie f« Uke part In It, that, •■ Kccordlng 
 to Thucydli'-» no war of more unlverwl import- 
 ance for 'he whole nation wa» fouglit between 
 the fall oi Trojft rnd the Persian war."— The 
 aamc. b. 1, ik. 8, M. 1.— ChalcU waa eubdufd 
 by the Athenians in B. C. 806. Sw Athe.N3; 
 B. C. 80»-»0>i- klao Kt.C81'CES, and EracEA. 
 CHAT CUS. See Taunt. 
 
 CHALDEA.— CHALDBES. See Babt- 
 loniA. 
 
 CHALDEAN CHURCH. See Neotokiasb. 
 
 . SP^k^'^i^"' °*'"« "' ('5'4)- See TcnKs: 
 ^ D, 1481-'1520. 
 
 CHALGROVE FIELD, FaU of Hampden 
 
 at. SeeEKOLARD: A. D. IMS (Acocar— Sef- 
 
 TEXBKR). 
 
 CHALONS, Battlea at (A. D. J7i).-Amon» 
 the many pretenders Ui the Koman Imp.rliU 
 throne— "the thirty tyranU," a« they were 
 OkUed —of the distracted reign of Oalllenua, waa 
 Tetricua, who had been governor of Aquitalne. 
 The dangerous honor waa fon»l upon him. by 
 a demoralized army, and he reigned against his 
 will for leTeml years over (Jaul, Spain and 
 Britahi. At length, when Jie Iron ham led 
 Aur Itan had taken the reins of government nt 
 Rome, Tetricus aerrrtly plotted with Ulni for 
 deUverance from his own uncoveted i. ><itne)>s 
 Aurelian Invaded Gaul and Tetricus led a.i armv 
 against him, only to betray It, in a great buttle 
 at Chalons (271), where the rebels were cut to 
 plecet.— E Gibbon, VteliM aiuf FaU of the 
 Beman Kmpin, cA. 11. 
 A. D. 3««. See Auwaiihi, Ikvasioh or 
 
 OAtn, Bt TUB. 
 
 A.D. 4SI. See HnNs; A. D. «1. Attilas 
 UfTAaioif or Ga(7u 
 
 » 
 
 ^CHALYBES, Th«.-Tho ChalTl)os, or 
 Chalyblana, were sn ancient people' In Asia 
 Minor, on the coast . .' the Euiine. probably east 
 of the Halys, who were noU^I ns workers of iron 
 — E. H. Bunbury, Hit. of Ancient Oeug., eh ii 
 i»o«« A. » . . 
 
 CHAM AVI, Tilt. See Bucctebi; also. 
 Francs; also. Gaul: A. D. 8S.V8A] 
 
 CHAMBERS OF RBANNEXATON, 
 Prnch. See I-'hancc: A. D. I«7»-1(»(I 
 
 CHAMBERSBURC, Baraiac of. See 
 iNiTED Statm or Am.: A. I) 1»<M (.Jiiv: 
 
 VlMOINIA— MARn.ANI>). 
 
 , ^.^'^^T.^^^^- *>'*«*■ «^ *•»• county.- 
 In 'he middle yean of the revolt that il< ilir.mil 
 the ( arlovlngians ,„,( n,|^ „,„ C'apeliuii« to a 
 thnme wLloh they made the thnmeiif a klncdom 
 of Frame, Count Herbert of Vernuindoi« allieil 
 hiiUMlf with the party of the latter, ami Ngan 
 operations for the expanding of his donmin 
 •^The (hampaign of Hheims. the ■ Campania 
 Remenals'~a moat appropriate descriptive de- 
 oomlnailon of tlie nirlon — an eitenaion of the 
 plains of Flanders — Imt not yetemplovi-.l p„litl. 
 callv - 'fealgnatlng a province — wa»pn.iect.'d 
 against Count llen^.t • a the Vermamloi. bonier 
 by the CMlrum Th==rf, t-Cb4trau Thirrrr. 
 Herberts profuM ,■ mUei iodure.1 the 
 eommandcr lo l^irav uu uu:». . . . Herbert 
 through tlito oecupalioa of (^Imu Tblrrry,' 
 
 4M 
 
 CHAKC2LL0R. 
 
 obtained the dty of Troyes and all the ' CamDsak 
 Kemensls,' which, under his potent swat wu 
 spee<lily developed Into the magnidcent (SJuntv 
 of Champagne. Herbert and Lis lineage l,di 
 Champagne during three generations, until snm.! 
 t me after the accesalon of the Capets, when the 
 Grand Fief paiaed from the House „f v,r 
 mandols to the House of Blols."— Sir F Pa|. 
 grave, Ui'm. of Narmnndy and Knn., r !! n 1S> 
 CHAMPkAUBEkT, Battle o/^ i^ 
 Fkancb: a. D. 1814 (Jancabt— MARrni 
 
 A D ^87"?M^'**^'^''"^'- '*^'*"«*'^=^ 
 
 CHAMPIONS HILL, Battle of. s,, 
 yxrraD Statm of Am.: A. D. 1863 (.\prii_ 
 Jilt: On the Mimibippi). 
 
 CHAMPLAIN, S«nii«l.-B«plorations sad 
 Cdomaatioiifc See Canada (New Krasce' 
 A. D. H08-1WB; 1808-1«11: and 1811-1«1«" 
 
 CHAMPLAIN. Lak.: A. D. 1776. -AmoMi 
 UTiU battle with tartetoa. See tKiTKD ™ra 
 or Am. : A. D. 1776-1777, 
 
 A. p. iSi4.-Macdoaouch'a aaral vietoiT. 
 See Lnmo BrATEa or Am.: a. D. 18U isii! 
 
 TEMBSa). 
 
 «??^?f.f^ °." MARS. -CHAMPS DE 
 
 MAI.— >\ hen the MerovlngUn kluvs of tie 
 !• ranks summoned their captains to t:;iiher for 
 the planniiig and preparing of r.i!ii|..iiitn« tlie 
 a^seml'ies were called at first tli.t I li.in,n, i, 
 Mnrn, iM'causo the n»>ellng was in earliest upriat 
 -~ 11 .M„rch. " But as the Franks, fn.m », rvinJ 
 "II fiKit, liecame cavaliers under tlie nemnd [ilil 
 (^irlovinpiiinj race, the time was . haiiircl to 
 May, for the sake of forage, and llic «s.s,mli|if« 
 wire called Champa de Mai -K E Crowr 
 Iha. of Fnnef, eh. 1— See, al»>, Malum jn<i 
 Parliament or Pauib. 
 CHANCAS, The. See Peri-: Tiik Abobi 
 
 OINAL INnAHITANTS. 
 
 ^5"*,f";^^'-0'*' The.-" The name [of the 
 Chanocllorj, derlvnl pmlnbiy from Ilie lamtlli 
 or screen behind which the sivntarial wnrli of 
 the roval household was carried on. clainu soio- 
 siderable antiquity ; and the oBltrs wlili h It ll^ 
 note* are various In proportion. The cliaooelLir 
 of the Karolinghin sovereigns, sucfcedlni; lo tin 
 place of the more ancient referendarius. Isiimply 
 the royal noUry; the arehicanci'llarius ii tlx 
 rliief of a large Iwdy of such omrtm SMKiated 
 umler the name of ihe chancery, and Is the kwpet 
 of the roval seal. It la from this minlntrr tkt 
 llie English chancellor derive* his name sod 
 function. Edward the Confessor, the drsl of our 
 soverelirns who had a seal, Is also tlie (Irit who 
 had a 1 liancellor ; from Ihe reign of the ConnufPr 
 the offlce has descended In reitular »iiroe«»iou. 
 It seems to have been lo a companllvrly lat« 
 perital. generell/ if not slways, at l.-aat in En, 
 laml. held by an *cclv»la«llc who was a mrml- f 
 of Ihe royal household ai.ilon a fi»illiiir with tl,« 
 great dignltarii* The iliancellor v,, tin- bh-I 
 diirniniff of the royal rhaplalns, if ii.ttlii' Iwnl 
 of thai Naly. Tlu> whole secreUrl il ir.irk of tb« 
 household and court fell on the rlninr.) • sail 
 the chaplalaa . . . The chancellor w;i» in a 
 manner, Ihe secretarv of stale for all Ifpsrt- 
 menu."— W. Stublie. Vv.iM< /ft,/ ,/ AV.y .', 11. 
 Kt't. li\. — " In Uie relgu of Edwani I **'• ir^is 
 to perceive sign* of the rise of the e\tra..nlioiir» 
 or equitable jurlaillcthm of the Chai'. ell.T TlW 
 numerou* pctlUuna addrsaaed tu thy Uia| sail 
 
 iwnm 
 
 : i f i .■ 
 
CHANCELLOR 
 
 CHARLI8. 
 
 hii CooDcil, neking tbe interpmition of the royal 
 grace sDd favour either to mitigate the hanh- 
 ness of the Common Law or supply ita detlciencies, 
 bad been in the apecial care uf tlie Chancellor, 
 who examined and reported upon tliem to the 
 King. . , . At length, in 1S48, by a writ or or- 
 dinance of the 83d vear of Edward III. all auch 
 matter! aa were ' of Grace ' were dlrectod to be 
 i|i«patrhrd by tbs Chancellor or by the Keeper 
 of tbe Priry Seal TtUa waa a great atep in tbe 
 rcc< Intuition of tbe equitable jurisdiction of the 
 Oiiurt of Chancery, aa diatinct from the legal 
 Juriadiction of the Chancellor and of the Courts 
 of Common Law ; although it waa not until tbe 
 foUnwiDg reign that it can be aaid to have been 
 peraumently eaubliahed "— T. P. Taawell-Lang- 
 mead. Bag. Cml. IIitt.,pp. 178-174.— "The Lord 
 Chancellor ia a Privy Councillor by his of&cc; a 
 Cabinet Miniater ; and, according to Lord Chancel- 
 lor Ellesmere, prolocutor [chairman, or Speaker] 
 of tbe Ilouae of Lords by pri.cription." — A. C. 
 Ewsid, Tlu Crown and iti A'Intrr; kct. 3. 
 
 Also a: E. Piachel, Thf BiuMth ComtituiiaH, 
 U. .1, eh. 1. tivo, also. Law, Eouitt. 
 
 CHANCELLOR'S ROLLS. See Exchs- 
 ariK.— ExcmnirKR Itoujt. 
 
 CHANCELLORSVILLE, Battles of. Bee 
 rxrrED Statu or Am. : A. D. IWS (Anui^— 
 Mat: Viroinia). 
 
 CHANCERY. See Cba.'vcxi.iar. 
 
 CHANDRACUPTA, OR CANDRAGUP- 
 TA, Tht empire ot See Ihvia : B. C. 337-313, 
 and ;il3 . 
 
 CHANSERS, Tht. See Ajucrica.i Auuri- 
 
 OINKK SlOtAH 1- AHII.T. 
 
 CHANTILLY, Battle of. See I'nited 
 
 StaTK.s iir .\»l : .\, 1). IHfla (.ifOt "T— SltrTEM- 
 BEK VllUlt.MAl. 
 
 CHANTRY PRIESTS.— ■ With the m..rn 
 vrilibv niid lievout jio till- 14th, l.Vh iiud 16lh 
 onluricii) It was the pnu'lice to enit llttli) 
 fh:i|KU nhirh were either aildid to cliiirrhes or 
 eniloMHl Iiv screens within them, wliere eliuiitrv 
 pni"it4niji.'lil relehmte masa fur the gorxl of tlitfr 
 sniil4 in perpetuity. . . . I^r^e sums of money 
 werr . . devotetl to the maintenaucv of chantry 
 priiTt*. whiiie duly It was t<> say maw for the 
 trpow uf Ilie leslttl'or'ssiiul. , . . The • hararter 
 sail nmiluit of tlie ihnntry priests must Imvu be- 
 riiiiu' «innwhat of a las onler In the IKMi cen- 
 tury -—It U Hliar|H', Int. to ••liiUniUir ..i' WiUt 
 in V,r fi,urt !■/ It'iilinfi. Ixnukm," t. 2. ;>, r?i». 
 
 CHAOUANONS, th«. S. r Amkrii am A»o 
 
 ail. INK SlIAW ANKHi;. 
 
 CHAPAS, OR CHAPANECS, Tht. Sec 
 
 AjlKHlr\<( .\lU)llI<ilNK8: Z\I-<>TMS, Ac. 
 
 CHAPULTEPEC, Battle of. See Mbxico: 
 
 A l>. lm7(MAK<ll— .SaPTKMBEH). 
 
 CHARCAS, Las. —The S|>anlsh pruvlnre 
 whifh BOW fonrw the liepublic of Ilolivia. Al«i 
 cbHhI, formerly, I'pper I'rru. ami sometimes the 
 pnivlm-e of Poioal — See Arorntixk Ki.pt-Bi.ii : 
 A D. 1880-1777; ami Bulivia: A U. IC'.'.V 
 
 CHARIBBRT I., King of Aqaitsiat, A l> 
 N1-M7 Chwbtft II„ King of Aauitaint, 
 A. D e»(Ml31 • -• 1 
 
 ^CHARITON RIVER, Batlla of. See 
 
 Usmn HTiT!c« or Am : A !) !><«9 (JrLT— 
 BSmUBRB; MlaBlll'RI— ARRAIlaASI. 
 
 .CHARLBMAGNS-S BMPIRE. Am 
 
 ra»!i«- A l> :«•< HU. (jKn«»'«v A J» llfT- 
 >**<<•>», ,,in| S11..M4.J. Umirnii.- A I) 
 
 n 
 
 HolUad. See 
 
 7S4-774 ; SazoifS : A. D. 77S-8M ; Atabs : 711. 
 805 ; and SPAis : A D. 778. 
 
 CHARLEMAGNE'S SCHOOL. Sec 
 School op the Pti.Arii : also, Education. 
 
 CHARLEROI: A. D. 1667.— Taken by the 
 French. See NETii!;iaA.Nu» (The Spanish 
 Phovinces): a. D. 1667. 
 
 A. D. 1668. — Ceded to France. See Nether- 
 
 I.A.NDB(U0LIJiKII): A. V. 1I>6M. 
 
 A. D. 1679.— Restored to Spain. See Nime 
 ouES, The Peace op. 
 
 A. D. 1693.— Siege and capture by the 
 French. See France: A. 1). 161(3 (J clt). 
 
 A. D. 1697.— Restored to Spain. See Frajicg : 
 A. D. im. 
 
 A. D. 1713 Ceded to 
 
 Utrecht: A. D. 1713-1714. 
 
 A. D. 1746-1748.— Taken by French and 
 ceded to Anstrta. See Nethbrlanm: A. D. 
 1746-1747,and Alz-LA-CnAPELLE,TH> CoRouEas. 
 • 
 
 CHARLES (called The CrtRt — Charle- 
 magne), Kiag of Ncnstria, A. I). 708 ; of all the 
 Franks, A. D. 771 : of Franka and Lombardy, 
 774; EmpcrorofthcWest,tM0-«14.... .Charles 
 of Austria, Archduke, Campaina oL See 
 Frarcei a. D. 17«« (.\PRii,— Oct«bbb); 1790- 
 1797 (October— .Vpbii.); IT": (Apru^Mat); 
 1798-1799 (AiotrsT- April) . 1799 (Aioist— 
 December); also Germany. 1^09 (jA.>rARY— 
 
 JcNE), (.ItLT— September) Charlea of 
 
 Bourbon, Kinr of Naples or the Two Sicilies, 
 1734-17o9. . . . .Charlea (called The Bold), Duke 
 
 of Burrundy, 1407-1477 Charles 1., King 
 
 of England, 1039-1049.- Trial and execution. 
 
 .SeeENoi.AND: A. D. 1049(.I.\NfAHV) Charlea 
 
 I. (of Anion), Kinr of Naplca and Sicily, I.'OO- 
 
 Vin-i: Kinc of Naplca, 13tl3-13ss Charles 
 
 I., Kinr of Portural, 18HU- Charlea II. 
 
 (called The Baldi, Emperor, and Kinj of Italy, 
 A. 1). 875-477; King oi^Ncuatria and Burcundy, 
 
 "iiy-sn Charles II., King of EngUnd, lOAU- 
 
 l(W.^. (Bt a loyal fiction, supposed to have 
 reigned from lOao, when his Uther was be- 
 headed : though the throne waa in Cromwell's 
 
 posscssioa) Charlea II., King of Naples, 
 
 IJts.'V.13il9 Charles II., King of Navarre, 
 
 1.M9-1387 Chvles II., King of Spain, UUii- 
 
 ITtxi Charles III. (called The Fati, Em- 
 peror, Kiag of the East Franks (Germany), 
 and King Of Italy, .V. I). 8H|-nn.><; King ot the 
 
 Weat Franka (France), Ht«4 ^*HH Charles 
 
 III. (called The Simple), King of France, 
 
 A n. H»3-U3fl Charles til., King of Naples, 
 
 lltMI-lSM Charles III.. King of Navarre, 
 
 1.'IN7-I43.*. . Charles III., King of Spain, 
 n.tU-l?)*). . . • hsries IV., Emperor, and King 
 of Italy, lau i:i7M; King of Bohemia, I:l4<>- 
 i:)7N; Ring of Gcimany, i:u;-I3?m, King of 
 
 Burgundy, IHAVIHTm Charlea IV., King of 
 
 France, and of Navarre (Charles 1.), i:l-.>'.>-ia;j>i 
 Charles tV., Kiag of Spain, KNH-twm . 
 Charles v., Emperor, t.MI>-l'>.V4; DukcofBur* 
 gundy. I'liw l.WV King of Spain (aa Charles 
 I.I sndof Naplea, or the Two Sicilies, I.MH- 
 I.VW S<f Aikthia: a 1». UWi^ I.V.'i) . 
 Charles V. ^called The Wisei, King of France, 
 i:UVt-t!«<0 Charles VI., Cermsnic Emp>-rot, 
 •ad Kiag of Hunearr and Bohemia. '. T ! I ''"> 
 Charlea VI. (called The Well-loved', King 
 of France, i^m^ 1433 Charles VII of Ba- 
 varia), Gsrmanic Emperor, ITt'.' I7i'> 
 Charles VII., King of France, 1433 t«i>t . 
 
 417 
 
^1 
 
 ^M 
 
 1 
 
 Itlil^l 
 
 ». ■!. 
 
 CHARLSa 
 
 Cha.'le» VIII., Kins of Fnuic*, 1483-1498 
 
 Charles IX., King of Fnace, 15«0-1.")74. . . 
 Charle* IX., King of Sweden, 1604-lUtl. 
 Charlei X., Kinr of France (the Uat of 
 
 the Houte of Bourbon), 1834-1830 Charlea 
 
 X.. King of SwMiea, 1654-1860 Charlea 
 
 XI., King of Sweden, 1660-1697 Charlea 
 
 *i!;. King of Sweden, 16»7-1718. . . . .Charlea 
 
 XIII., King of Sweden, 180»-1818 Charlea 
 
 XIV. (Bemadotte), King of Sweden, 181»-1844. 
 
 . . . .Charles XV., King of Sweden, 18.>i)-1873. 
 
 iJ-^^^^* Albert, Duke of SaTor and King 
 
 of Sardinia, 18ol-I8l9 CharleJ Emanuer 
 
 DukeofSaToy, I.**)-1630 Charles Emaauei 
 
 II., Duke of SaToy, 1638-16:5 Charles 
 
 Emanuel III., Duke of Sanr and King of 
 
 S'L*'°'V J^-*"-!' '^ Charles Emanuel IV., 
 
 Jin. "' S?^^ ""• Kinr of Sardinia, 1790- 
 180^..... Charles Felix, Duke of SaTOy and 
 
 Kinr of Sardinia, 18-J1-183I Charles Mar- 
 
 tel, Duke of Austrasiaand Mayor of the Palace 
 
 (of the King of the Franks), A. D. 71V741 
 
 Charles Robert, or Charobert, or Caribert, 
 
 KingofHunganr 1308-1343 Charlea Swer- 
 
 kerson, King of Sweden, 1101-1167. 
 
 CHARLESTON, S. C. : A. D. i68o.-The 
 founding of the city. 8e« Sonu Cakoliha: 
 A. D. loro-iowi. 
 
 _A- p. 1706.— Unsuccessful atUck by the 
 French. St-e Soitii Cauollna : .V. I). 1701- 
 li06. 
 
 A. D. I775-I774-— Revolutionary procced- 
 iW;- ** »"'TH Carolina: A. U. 177J ami 
 
 1 1 ID. 
 
 A. D. 1776.— Sir Henry Clinton's attack 
 and repulse. Sec Unitkd States or Am. ; 
 A. I). 1771! (Jixi). 
 
 A. D. 1780.— Siege by the British.— Sur- 
 render of the city. fn*. tNiTKuSTATrsor Am. ; 
 A. 1). liMiKtKimrAHY — Anii-irr). 
 
 A. D. i860.— The splitting of the Nation&I 
 Democratic Convention. S<f L'mtkh SrvTF.t 
 
 O'' -^M- : A. !». iNilMAl-HIL— XoVKMHKllV 
 
 A. D. i860.— The adoption of the Ordinance 
 01 Secession. N-c IMtku Statkh ot- .Vm 
 
 A. I>. l'«HllNoV|..MIlKll— IlKCKMIll-iHI 
 
 A. p. 1B60.— Major Anderson at Fort Sum- 
 ter. Nh- I .SITED .>rATKs or .Vm. : A I) 1^;) 
 (UkckmhkiiI 
 
 A. D. 1861 (AprUi.— The Beginning of war. 
 —Bombardment of Fort Sumter. S.^^ IMteo 
 STyKjoKAM A 1). IxiiKMAii.ii-Apiiii.) 
 
 .^■°'^63iAprjh.-Tht attack and repulse 
 of the Monitor fleet. S.T l.\ni..u Status or 
 Am : A I) I'fW 1 Ai-bil: South Caholina), 
 
 A. p. i8«3 (jB'n-Tlie Uniea troops oa 
 Morris Island. See Unitkd Statrs or Am • 
 A. 1». IH8S (July : South Caboi.in k) 
 
 A. D. ll«3 (ADg«st-Decembcr).-Boa- 
 bardmsBt, See t'.tncu Statkh <ir Am. ; A. D. 
 I8*l(Ariiif«T— DaiKMBEii: Soiih Iaboliiia); 
 
 A. p. iSOS (Ftbmaty).— EraruatioB by tha 
 Confederates. S<« Umitrd Statkh or Am • 
 A. U 186.1 (Pkbbi'abt : 8f>rTR Cabolixa). 
 
 A. D. 1886.— Eartbqaake.— A serers aarth- 
 quske. Aue. 31, 1886, destroywl muck of thedty 
 anil many livrs. 
 
 CHARLBSTOWN, Maa*.: A. D. ifaj.- 
 
 A. n. IflW-lAHM. 
 
 A S!*^!! Jf.5,°^*' '"''••• *» COBHECtlCUT : 
 
 CHlTILLON-SUIl-SKmS. 
 
 CHARTER OP FORESTS. See 
 
 LAKD : A. 0. 1818-1*74. 
 
 CHARTERHOUSE, OR CHARTREt 
 Bee Cabthusiak Oudbk. 
 
 CHARTERHOUSE SCHOOL, - 
 
 See EDncATioK, Hodhm: Eubopkah: 
 
 LAHD. 
 
 CHARTISTS. — CHARTISM. See 
 LAMD : A. D. 1888-1848, and 1848. 
 
 CHARTREUSE, La Craada. See 1 
 thusiar OEDSm. 
 
 CHASE, Jndga. Tha Impaacbmcat 
 Trial ot See Uihteo Stath or Am.: a 
 1804-1808. ^ 
 
 CHASIDIM, ORCHASIOEES, OR 
 SIOEANS, The.— A name, ■ignifrini; 
 
 J wily or pious, assumed by a party anion" 
 ew». In the second century B. C. who rm 
 the OredaDizlDK tendencies of the timv u 
 the influence of the Orcco-Syrian domiim 
 and who were the nucleus of the Maoeal 
 rpTolt The later school of the Pharigrfs is 
 resented by Ewald (Hitt. of Itrael, A*. 5. *< 
 to have been the nruduct of a narmwink, 'i 
 fxrmation of the ■cliool of the CbastiMni ; while 
 EoKonc's, in hU view, were a purer a-8iilue ol 
 CliiiHiilim "who strove after piety, yet W( 
 not join the I'liariwvs " ; who abandoneit "so 
 a.1 wiirlilly ami inrurably corrupt." and in »1 
 "the coiiiicience of tlic nation, as It were » 
 drew inl.i the wilderness."- H. EwaH ;/,, 
 hnul, hi. ,1. If I. 3.— A mmlem wri. iM.mi* 
 the name, fotimUil liy one Israel Baal S'hcm ' 
 first apiHiiml in i'oilolia. in 174<l, iniwiil |.. 
 lirace moitt of the Jewa in (lulloia, lluiip 
 Southern Kuiwla. and Wallachia.— H. V A(J« 
 J/i$l. nf iht Jeum. p. .lai. 
 Ai-Ko IN : H. Oraeti, I/itt. o/theJetn, r .1, d 
 CHASUARII, The. Bee Fhakks: Ohii 
 kti. ^ 
 
 CHATEAU CAMBRESIS, Treaty 
 (»SS9>., «<■<• Kkance: a. U. 1.%47-l.V.y 
 
 CHATEAU CAILLARa-Thi» wm 
 n»me iflveii to a famou.i castle. Iiuill h ■ Uirli 
 t'uMir (le Liou 111 Xormamly, and disiiiiicl t.i 
 the key to the defencTH of tliat Imixirt.iiii ,|iic 
 "A» a monument of warlike «kill, hi* 'Siii 
 f'ttstle,' I'hilteau Uaillanl. atands find aiiiiiun 
 forln'SM'g of the Middle Ajtea. Hi. iianl di 
 HU Kite where the Seine Ih'IkU miditenlv at U. 
 Ion ill a (.'real aemiiinle to the north, ii'nd wli- 
 
 the Viilliv of Ix-s Aiiili'lya limik* the lit f 1 
 
 elmlk (lilfn aloiii; it.s Imiik. The eiiMli' f.mi 
 part of an liitri iiclied eanip wliirli ItulmnI ■ 
 «l>!iiiil to cover his Noniian iiipilal . . 1 
 e.i.v rnliictiiin of Norniamly 011 the Till 
 Chilean (laillani at a later tliii- (wImii it m 
 taken 1)^ Philip Augustus, of Iriin.v] i.nn 
 Hlilmnlit foriHifKht."— J. H. (Jniii, .vA.-rr Hi 
 of till l.'n'/linh I'tiiiAr, eh. a, lerl t) 
 
 CHATEAU THIERRY. Battle of. 8 
 l-iivNM.: A. I). 1n|4(Jakiakv— MMiiir 
 
 CHATEAUVIEUX, Fate to the soMii 
 of. .N|. I.nii:iirv Cai'. 
 
 CHATHAM, Lord ; Administration of. S 
 Kniii.and: a. I). 17.17-17(10: i;(iii-iri..l »i 
 
 I7i'..">-176H And the American Rtvolutio 
 
 Hen rmmi Stath of Am: a. D. I7W. u 
 177.1 (.I.AiirABT— Mabi-h). 
 
 CHATILLON, Baltlaa of (1793). K 
 FiiAM^: A l> nHJKJii.T— DrrmHiTK) 
 
 CHATILLON-SUR-SEINE.Congrens 
 
 Sit FllAJill.. A 1). lM14(jAI(UA«V-ilAll>ll! 
 
 418 
 
CHATTANOOOA. 
 
 CBERUBCL 
 
 CHATTANOOGA :Tlwn«m«. SeeCHiTBD 
 State* of Am . : A. D. 1888 (Adooct— Septkm- 
 ggR: Tbmnmbbe). 
 
 A D. 1863.— Sccored by tht Coiusderatet. 
 See United States or Am. : A. D. 18«3(Jra»— 
 (KToiiKn: TEmcKaBEE— Keittuckt). 
 
 A. D. 1863 (AnKU^).— ETACumtien by the 
 CoLrederatei. Son tsiTKn S'tates of Ah.: 
 A l>. lHfl3(Aroi'8T— Skptuibeh: Tenkebbee). 
 
 A. D. 1863 (October— HoT»mber).— Th« 
 ,i,n.— The battle on Lookout Monntain.— 
 The uMult of Mtitaionwy Ridge.— The Ront- 
 iar of Bragf's mnny. Foe United State* cr 
 a5 : A. D. 1868 (OcTOBiui— NoviuoiEu: Ten- 
 
 lIEfgKK). ^ 
 
 CHATT!, OR CATTI, The.—" Beyon<i [the 
 Mttitioci] are Ute Cba'ti, wlii.iic M-ttlemrots hrgin 
 at Uie I'creynlan forwt, where the country in 
 not ao opn and m&raby a« in the other cantons 
 Into which OcrmanT itielchea. Tliey are found 
 when' tlure are hilu, and with them grow less 
 freijucni.ior the Hercyntan ffreat keeps close till 
 It ha» aet'D the last of it* native Chatti. Hardy 
 frames, close knit limbs, flerco countenances, 
 ao(i a peculiarly vigopoua courage, mark tlio 
 triU. i'liT Oermnna, they have much Intclll- 
 gfnrt' and sagacity. . . . Otiier tril>es you si-c 
 golui? to battle, this Chatti to a campaign."— 
 'The w'ttlpmcnts of the (Chatti, one of the chief 
 Ocmian tribes, aptmrently (»inciiie with portions 
 of WcKtiiliulia, Nassau, HeiBir' Darmstadt and 
 UesM'-Caiwel. Dr. Lntham asaumes the Chatti 
 of Tiiiitus u> be the Sucvi of Ciesar. The fact 
 tliat the name Chatti docs not occur in C'saar 
 rendi n tlii» hypothesis by no means improbable. " 
 —Tacitus, Hermans, tmim. *y Church ait<! Brod- 
 ribb, II iiii Hiitr. — tK'C, also, SfKVi. 
 
 CHAUCER, and hit times. See Etiui.Aiii>: 
 A. I). VKiO-lVM. 
 
 CHAUCl AND CHERUSCI, The.- The 
 fihe of the Chiiuci . . . U'ginning at the Frisian 
 ■ctth-inrnts andoccupvinn a part of tlie coast, 
 itretrlii-s along ilio frontier of all the )rilM'ii 
 which 1 have rnumrrated, till it reaches with a 
 Ijend as far as the (,'liattl. Tliia Ta«t extent of 
 cnutjtiy is not tnerely poaseaaed but ilensely 
 lieoplwl by the ('hauci, tlie noblest of the (Jcr- 
 man rai-ra, a nation who wouhl maintain tlieir 
 irrcHtncM by Hi;hteous dealing. Without am- 
 kiiion. williout lawless violence, . . . the crown- 
 lug pnii.f of their valour and their strength 
 is, th.it they keep up their au|>eri<>rlty wittmut 
 barm to others. . . Dwelling on one aide of the 
 Chain I iind <'hatti. the Clicrwl long cheri^lied, 
 uniusiulctl, an excessive and enervullng love of 
 pciici' Thu was MKin- ph-aaaut tlian safe, . . . 
 Mill »> the Cluruaci, ever reouted giNNi an<l just, 
 arc miH nillnl niwanis and finils, while in the 
 CHM- <<f tlie victorious Chatti siKcesa has been 
 iilculitlisl altli prudeni'e. I'he downfall of the 
 I'hiniwl hrmiglit with it al«> that of the Foal, a 
 srik-lilxiuriiig tril<e." -"TIhi settlementa of the 
 CluiK i . . . muHt have im liidtsi aliiiiiat the en- 
 tlw.imiiiry iK'twcen the Knis and tiiv Weaer — 
 that Is. < ililrnliurg and part of Uanorcr — and 
 havr uikeii in luirtions ot Wesi|ihHlia aUiut 
 Miiidi.r and Pailerlairn. Tlie I'licrusci . . . 
 appcur til have mTUiiiiil Ilninswirk an.l ihe 
 Mfuih |mri i>f ilsniivcr. Arniiiiiuii wiio lii-atniysi 
 tlie ItHiiiitn army umicr Varus, was a ClM-niMMn 
 thief . The Foal . . . must liave la-cupiisl 
 feitof llaoon .{ "- Tacitua, ilimr Wurlu, tran*. 
 
 by Church and Brodribb: The Oermnny, -jiith 
 Oeug. nota. — Bishop Stubbs conjectures that the 
 Cluauci, Cherusci, and some utliur tHbes may 
 have been afterwards ccmprelicndisl under the 
 general name "Saxon." See Saxons. 
 
 CHAUTAUQUA ASSEMBLY, ani! Cir- 
 cle. See EoucATioH, MoocuM: Aiuutira: 
 A D. 1874. 
 
 CHAZARS, The. See Kraza m, 
 
 CHEAi SUMMIT, Battle ot SeerniTCO 
 States or A:i. : A. D. 1861 (Acomr— Decbk- 
 BEB : West VmoiHiA), 
 
 CHEBUCTO.— The origiiial name of the 
 harbor of Halifax. 
 
 CHEIROTONIA,— A vote by show of bands. 
 snODK the ancient Or^ka. 
 
 CHEMI. Bee Egypt: Its Nave£. 
 
 CHEMNITZ, BatUe of (l<i39). See Oeb- 
 MA.vv: A. 1). l»i;il-16iffl. 
 
 CHERBOURG.— Destroyed by the Eag- 
 llsh. See Knoi.and: A 1). ITW (.Ifl-v— AloisT). 
 
 CHEROKEE WAR, The. See Soltii 
 C.KnoMNA: A. D. 17.W-1761. 
 
 CHEROKEES, The. Sec Americas Abo- 
 liKiiNRs: CiiEimKEEa. 
 
 CHERRONESUS, The proposed Stste of. 
 Si-e Northwest Tkrbiturt or the L'nited 
 States or Aic. : A. D. 1784. 
 
 CHERRY VALLEY, The massacre at. 
 See Uxn-ED States op Ax. : A. D. 1778 (Jithb 
 ^— ^ovrmbrr) 
 
 CHSRSON. See Bosphokus: K. D. 563- 
 574. 
 
 A. D. 988.— Takes by tho Rnssiaas.— " A 
 thousand years after the rest of the On-ek nation 
 \VH4 sunk in irremediable slavery, Cherson re- 
 mnined free. Such a phenomenon aa the ex- 
 istence of nutnly feeling in one city, when man- 
 kind everywhere else slept contented in a state 
 of political degradation, deserved attentive con- 
 sideration. . . . Cbenon retained its position as 
 an ind. pendent State until the reign of Theo- 
 plillus [Uvzantine emperor A. D. 839-843], wlio 
 'Compelled it to receive a governor from Con- 
 stantinople; but, even under the ttyznntine 
 government, it contlnue<l to defend its niiiiiicliial 
 liUiiitutions, and. Instead of slavishly soliciting 
 the imiH>rial favour, and adopting Byzantine 
 manners, it boasted of ita constitution and self 
 giiveinment. But U gradually lost ita former 
 wealth and extensive trade, and when \'la(liniir, 
 ti>e Boven-ign of Rusam, attackinl it in 9HH, it 
 was betrayetl Into bia bands br a pncst, who in- 
 formed him how to cut off tlie water. . . . 
 Vladimir obtained the hand of Anue, the sister 
 of the emperor* Basil II. and Constiuitlne VUl., 
 and was tiaptised and marrinl in the cliur<h of 
 the Panagbia at Cherson. To wsithe the vnuily 
 of the Empire, he preten>led to n-tain posM'ssioD 
 of bis conquest an the dowry of his wire. Many 
 of the prieuta who coiivertetl the Kiisstana to 
 Christianitv. and maiiv of the aitlsts wlm 
 adorned the earlirat ItusaUkn chiinin-t with 
 paintinins and mosali-a, were nativesnf Cliirson." 
 -■(J. Kliihiy, llitt, u/ tkt Bytantiru Kmfirt/rom 
 716 to KttT. 
 
 » 
 
 CHERSONESE, The Golden, SerCnKYSR. 
 
 CHERSONESUS.-The UriTk name for a 
 petiliistiiii. nr IiohI '.slMiiii," H|n>tnsi iti.M-i 1 f.|rt-t i. 
 ully III tlic louir tongue of luiid bi'twirn the 
 llcl!fsiH>iit :lll'l the (illlr of MclSK. 
 
 CHERUSCI, The. Suv Cuawvl 
 
 419 
 
CHESAPEAKK AJTO SnANNON. 
 
 « ????;^'*"^'^S AND SHANNON, The 
 
 CHESS, Origin of the guae of.— "If we 
 wtohHl to know, for liistancc, wlio Ims tuuglit us 
 the game of chcM, the name of clieaii wouia tell 
 u» Jwtler than onythlns else tlmt It came to the 
 West from Persia. In spite of all that has been 
 wrttU-n to the contrary, chi-ss was originally the 
 
 fame of Kings, the game of Slialis. This word 
 hah became in Old French cscliac. It. scacco 
 Germ Schach; while the Old French e.*.hecs 
 was furtlier corrupted into chess. Tlie more 
 original form chec has likewise been preserved, 
 though we little think of it when we draw a 
 cheque or when we suffer a check, or when we 
 ■peak of the Chancellor of the Exchequer The 
 great object of the chese-ptaycr is to protect tlic 
 king, and when the king is in doninT the 
 • <>pP"?e°"» obliged to say 'check,' i. e.. SImli 
 the kliig^ . . . After this the various meanings 
 ?\ n'.";r. "^'"*<l"e- O' exchequer become eiiaily 
 Intelligible, though it Is quite true that if similar 
 changes of meaning, which in our case we can 
 watch by the light of hlatoiy, had taken place in 
 the dimness of prehistoric ages, it would be 
 difflcult to convince the sceptic that exchequer 
 or scsccarium, the name of the ohess-boanl was 
 afterwards used for the checkered cloth on 
 which accounu were calcuUted by means of 
 counters, and that a checkere<l career was a life 
 with many crossUnes. "— P. Max MlUler, Biao. 
 tf ff'XYfc, rt. 4. ^ 
 
 CHESTER, Origin of. See Dsva. 
 
 CHESTER, The PaUtine Earidom. See 
 rALATmR.TuB Enomsu Countus: also Walu 
 Princu or. ' 
 
 CHESTER. Battle of. -One of the flcreest 
 of the biitths fought iKtween the Welsh and the 
 
 CHEVY CHASE. See Ottbrbuhn. HArruc 
 or. 
 
 CHEVENNES. OR SHEYENNES, The. 
 Bee Ambhica-X Aborioi.-jes: AuK)NqLiA.N Fam- 
 
 CHIAPAS: Ruins of ancient dTiliaatioa in. 
 
 »eo.\M::!ticA!<ABOiiiuiNK8;MAYAS;andMKXico 
 AjfciKNr 
 
 CHIARI, Battle of (1701). See Italy (Savoy 
 AKD I'lEIlMONT): A. D. 1701-1718. 
 
 CHIBCHAS, The See Ambrican Abo 
 riiiinkh: ('iitnriiAs. 
 
 B ^"i*^^9° • tt- °- «•".— ETaeuation of the 
 Fort Dearborn Post, and maaaacrc of most of 
 tut retreatiog garrison. See Unitkd States 
 or Ajr: .VI) I"<ia (.li xk-Octobe..). 
 
 . °' '»«?— .The Republican National Con- 
 vention. -Nomination of Lincoln. H.r IMteh 
 ^J""-" "" Am. : A. I). 18«0 (Apbii,-.N,)VE¥ 
 
 A. D. i87i.-The rrcat Fira.-" The gnate^l 
 ev.>.K 11. tl... hUtoryof Chicago was tl.,' (Jh-Hl 
 Fin. lis it i» t.muHl. which broke out oii tl... 
 evenin.' ,.f O,., m. i«7i. Chicago was «i il„,t 
 tlin.' I. .n.vpt III th,. biwlness e.-nln) a .itv of 
 wo.«l_ l-or u l.iiig III,,,, prior to til.' <v.ni,ii; rc- 
 fern.l to ilirr.. h,„| l„ .n blowing a hot » in.l from 
 tie «.mil,v...st wlil.l, |„«| (irieil evorvlhin,, to 
 theiiillimiiiiHliiliivof iln-l.r. and it w,w ,ip.,n a 
 
 tlmt thr rtre Inijan in w„rk. It Is .,ip,«,M-,| lo 
 bavi' ..rltflnnuvl from \\w n. , id,.nt;il upwiiin,: of 
 ■ kcnmue lamp in a cow born [.Mrs. OUary'sj 
 
 CHICAOO. 
 
 on De Koven Street, near the comer of Jcffcraon 
 on the west 8i<le of the river. This region «ru 
 composed Urgily of shanties, and the fin- snnJj 
 mijidly, very s.«n or™«lng tlio river to the.s„utj 
 mue. and fastening on that portion of t|„. ,.1., 
 which contjiimM ncariy all tlie leadini- buMnai 
 houses, and which was built up very lajg, ly u-^ 
 stone and brick. But it scenicl to eiikin.lle u 
 if It were tinder. Some buildings were bl„irn 
 up with gunix.wder, which, in conniction will, 
 t le strong southwest gale, prevenltHi Wv in™. 
 slon of the flames to the south. The lln; sweot 
 on Monday stewiily to the north, Includin-fverT 
 tiling from the lake to the South Brand, aij 
 then croase<l to the North Side, and. taki;,. in 
 everything from the lake to the North Ilruicl, 
 it burned northwanl for adistanceof thpv ii,ii«; 
 where it die<l out at the city limiU. wl,c„ t|,e~ 
 was nothing more to bum. In tlie midst „f tlm 
 broad area of devastation, on the north n.le of 
 Washington Square, between Clark Slnrt and 
 Uearbom Avenue, the well-known Ogd, n house 
 stands amid tiv^es of the ancient forest au.l sur 
 rounded by exU'nsive grounds, the soliiarv relic 
 of that section of the city Infore Uie ll.rvlliwd 
 The toul area of the laud burned over w/is " 100 
 acr<» Nearly 2I).()(H) buil.iiags were con.u^^ed; 
 IW.OOO people were rendered homeless; Jilo lira 
 were lost, ud the grand total of values d^tniyed 
 is estimated at $200,000,000. Of this vast Hiim. 
 newly one-half was covered by insunimr but 
 under the tremendous losses manv of tl,e ig. 
 •urance companies were forc«Hi Ui the wall lad 
 went into liqulilatlon, and the victims of iIh'cod- 
 Dagratkm n^overwl only about oi„.-ilfii, „f their 
 aggregate losst^. Among the Imilditiu's nhfch 
 were burned wen- tl,e courtliou.H,., lu.si.iii Imme 
 and post offlce. chanilHT of comim nc ilmr nil. 
 way depou, nine daily new»|mperolll(.» iliirtr- 
 two hotels, ten thcatn^s and lialla, eiirli! nt,bUc 
 schools and some branch schoul buildinc-i f.irty- 
 one churches, five elevators, and all tl,,' n.,iioiiil 
 
 parallel In Us dimensions and the nia!,'i,iluile of 
 its dire results, the charity whirl, followed itwu 
 
 "l"»lly,unrivall.sl in its enlent VII the 
 
 civilized world npix-ared to instanllv aiwinciste 
 the calamity, F.k«1. clothing, siippli,.. „f ,.verT 
 
 kin.l. money, messages of alfccti «yni|«ithT 
 
 etc.. began poiiriiiitin atonceiii aslminiiliitsih 
 peanjl endlcvi ami iHiiioinleas. Inall. tl„ai.uiunl 
 conirilmted reaeiusi ovir 17.000,000 |t w>« 
 
 believed by min.v that tlie lire had f,ir.v,r lil„n«l 
 out Chicago fn>iii il,|. list <,.' gnat .\miric»ii 
 cities but the spirilof Iwr pi-oplewa.s uii.l.iimtBl 
 by calamity, and. cncoiimgiil liy tl„. piiLTom 
 sympathy au<l help from all quartirs tli. v set 
 to work at once to npair their almost ruised 
 fortune* . . lU-building was at on..' iimi 
 ineuccd. »n<l. within a year aft.r ilie lir. more 
 llian WO M," (•KHI H- Tl' expenihsl in impn.n niwili. 
 The cltycanir uj rmm lis ruins far 111. .n- palstisl. 
 splemlid, strung i„i,| imperisiialili. tli.i, l« fore. 
 In one sense iImiIh' was a iH'neflt. Ilscuw.iueace 
 waa a chus of »trucliir>'8 far iK'ttir. li -7 
 M«-ntlal respect, than iKfore the iv.nil 
 Fireproof buiiiliiiK's iNvame llie ruU', li, ,u 
 of wood were carifullv nsiiriclcd, au'l tiic . • 
 of the reconBtni.!...! 'jKirti-.m i;!ii!:::;.;:r-;!:!v .r 
 cceilod Uwt of the citv wl,i<li lia,| \w,n >lisi r, n «! " 
 —MitrifHW lhn,lh,>„k<>fl'l,ini,f,, ,, ■:< -- Tlio«- 
 sandsof people on tl„. .N'ortl,8i,lc tlr,|r„r.. lit. ■nths 
 prairie, but other thuusouds, less fortuuaU', wrr 
 
 420 
 
omcAoo. 
 
 CHICAOO. 
 
 hemmed tn before they could retch the countnr, 
 luid were driven to the Sands, a group of bcacL- 
 iiillnclu fronting on Lake Michigan. These liad 
 hwn covered with rescued merciiandiM and fur- 
 niturr. The flameB fell fiercely upon the heaps 
 of goods, and the miserable refugees were driven 
 iuto tlie black waves, where they stood neck-deep 
 in chilling water, scourged by slieeU of sparks 
 anil lilowmg sand. A great nuinlH-r of horses 
 luid been coTlecte<l here, and they too dashed into 
 the sea. where scores of them were drowned. 
 Towanl evening the Mayor sent a fleet of tow- 
 hosta which took off the fugitives at the Sands. 
 When the next day [Tuesday, October 10] dawned, 
 tlie prairie was covered with the calcined ruins 
 <if more tlian 17,000 buildings. . . . This was 
 tlK* greatest and most disastrous conflagration on 
 reconl. The burning of Moscow, in 1H18, caused 
 B lom amounting to £30,000.000; but the Ion at 
 Cliicago was in excess of this amount. The 
 OrestTIre of London, in 1660. devastated a tract 
 of 436 acres, and destroyed 18,000 buildings; but 
 that of Chicago swept over 1,900 acres, and 
 burned more than 17,000 buildings."— M. F. 
 Swwtser, Chimgo (" dtia of the WorU," ». 1). 
 — The following is the statement of area burned 
 over, and of property destroyed, made by the 
 Chicago Relief and Aid Society, and which is 
 probably authoritative: "The total area burned 
 over in the city, including streets, was 3, IM acres, 
 or nearly three and one-third square miles. This 
 area cDnUined abou 78 miles of streets, 18,000 
 buililini^, and the homes of 100,000 people." — 
 A T. Andreas, Hitt. of Chicago, e. 8, p. 760. 
 
 Also in: E. Culliert and E. Chamberlain, CM- 
 tan" unit the Grtat VonJIniiration. 
 
 A. D. i8t6-iM7.— The Haymarkct Con- 
 spiracy.— Crime of the Anarchists,— Their 
 trial and execution. — "In February, 18H6, 
 Mes.'irs. .McCormick, large agncultunil-machine 
 makers of Chicago, refusing to yield to the 
 dictaliiin of their workmen, who required them 
 to (liM'liarge some non-Union hands they 
 hsillikin <m, an'inunce<l a 'Iwk-out,' and pre- 
 parvil to resume i. jsiness as soon as poasililc with 
 anew ulaff. Spies, Lingg, and other Oerman 
 Ananliims saw their opportunity. They per- 
 siuuii'U the ousted workmen to prevent tlx' 
 '«cab«,'— angiici. ' bUcklegs,' — from enteriuK 
 the works on the day of their reopening. 
 Reviilvcra, rifles, and bombs were readily found, 
 th« isMer being entrusti-il prinripally to the 
 hands of profeiwioDal ' Hcdj." The most violent 
 sppealn were maiie to the members of Unions and 
 thi' piipulare generally : I'lHthouirh nsuecossionof 
 rlou wcri' got op. th?y were easily quidled by the 
 nwiliiti' aitiiin of tiie ii.dlce. iMu-ked by the 
 sppMv d of the immenw iiiijority of tlie people of 
 Cliir.'ii.'o Fitii'lly, a mass inetHlnir in arms was 
 called to lake piaieon May 4lh. 1)*)46, at 7.80 p.m., 
 in Ihi \\i ' marKi't, a long ami n-ciiitly widene<l 
 strwt of t'le town, for the express purpose of 
 'UnMiiihliig tit- tiolici!. But the iulention of the 
 AimrrhiAtH was not merely to denounce the police 
 thin was the pretext onfy. Tlie prisons were to 
 be (.iri-ed, the pidice-stations Mown up, the 
 piihlii' hiiililiiiKS attacked, and tlie onslaught on 
 prop'-rty mid capital to he iimuiriirHted by the 
 •ii'v iMaiion of one of the fairest cities of the 
 Vni II. Ity M p. ni a mob of simie three or four 
 111" I Hid per«ms hail U-en c<dle<-tiHl, and were 
 K-piird liy s|)eerhes that became more violent 
 M Uie lUgUt war* (A At 10 p. m. tte io\io» 
 
 appeared in force. The crowd were commanded 
 to disperse peaceably. A voice shouted: 'We 
 are peaceable.' Captain Schaack says this was a 
 signal. The words were hanlly uttered when 
 ' a spark flashed through the air. It looked like 
 the lighted remnant of a cigar, but hissed like 
 a miniature sky-rocket.' It was a bomb, and 
 fell amid the ranks of the police. A tcrriltc 
 explosion followed, and Immediately afterwards 
 the mob opened fire upon the police. The latter, 
 stiiimed for a moment, soon recovered tliem- 
 selves, returned the Are, charged the mob, and 
 In a couple of minutes dispersed it in every 
 direction. But eight of their comrades lay dead 
 upon the pavement, and scores of othera were 
 weltering in their blood aroiiiul tlie spot. Such 
 was the Chicago outrage of May 4tii, 1886." — 
 Tht Spectator. Apr. 19, 1890 (rtrirmng Srhtuuk'e 
 " Anarehy ami Anarekiett"). — The Anarchists 
 who were arrested ao<l hroucht to trial for this 
 crime were eight in number, — August Spies, 
 Michael Schwab, Samuel Fieldcn, Albert R 
 Parsons, Adolph Fischer, Oeorge Engel, Louis 
 Lingg, and Oscar W. Neebe. The trial began 
 July 14, 1886. The evidence closed on the lOth 
 c'i August; the argument of counsel consumed 
 mure than a week, and on the 20th of August 
 the Jury brought in n verdict which condemned 
 Neeoe to imprisonment for flfteeu yeara, and all 
 the other prisonere to death. I.inijg committed 
 suicide in pris<m;.the sentences of Schwab and 
 Fieklen were commuted by the Governor to 
 Imprisonment for life: the reni:iiiii!ii four were 
 hnnircl on the 11th of November. 1HH7. — .Indite 
 Gary, The Chirntjo Ananhiste "f 1»«6 (Centurf 
 Mag.. April, 1808). 
 A. D. 1889-1893.— Chicago University. >i i- 
 
 EdIHATIOS,M<'1)KH.N: AmKK" a; a I) 1S.Nl|.Isn;j 
 
 A. D. 1891-1893.— The World's Columbiar 
 Expoaition. — " As a fitting nnxii' of n lelirtiiiig 
 the four hundredth anniversary of the Inuiliiig of 
 Columbus on Oct. I'i. 149i, It was pmiHwcd to 
 litivv a universal exhibition in the I'nited States. 
 The idea was flrat taken up by citizens of New 
 York, where subscriptions to the amount of 
 $5,000,000 were obtalneil from merchants and 
 capitalists before application was miule for tlie 
 sanction and support of the Federal Government. 
 When the matter came up in Congn'ss the 
 claims of Chicago were consldereil superior, and 
 a bill was passed and iippmvod on April 39, 
 1890. entitlnl ' An Act to provide for celebrating 
 the four hundredth anniversary of the discovery 
 of America by Christoplur Coliiinbus, by hola- 
 ing an intemationul exhibition of arts, industries, 
 manufactures, and the proilucts of the soil, 
 mine, and sea in the city of Chicago, in the 
 State of Illinois.' The act provided for the 
 appointment of commissioners who should 
 organize the exposition. . . . When the organ- 
 ization was completed and the stipulateil finan- 
 cial support from the citizens and municipality 
 01 Chicago assured. President Harrison, on l)cc. 
 34. 1890. issued a protdaiiiation inviting all the 
 nations of the earth to participate in the World's 
 Columbian Exposition. Since the time was too 
 short to have the gMiinds ami buildings inmi- 
 pleteii for the sumnuT of 189'i. as was originally 
 uilendni, tiie owning of tlie ex|iiwiliiMi was 
 announcMl for May, 189.1. When the work was 
 falrlv lirgun it was accelerated, as many as 
 10,0110 workmen tieing employed nt one time. Id 
 order lo have tiw bulkUogs nwdy to Iw d«di 
 
 421 
 
i-t 
 
 1/ 
 
 cmcAoo. 
 
 nted with Impodnf ceramonlps on Oct 13, 1899 
 lu lominrmonition of the exact date of the dla- 
 covory of Amvric^"— AppUloai Annual CM»- 
 padia. 1891. p. 837.— On May 1, 1(«3, the Fair 
 waa opened with appropriate cetemoiilea by 
 rreaident Cleveland. 
 
 » 
 CHICASAS, The. See Akmicam Abo- 
 mioiNES: Mi'SKnooEAN Familt: alio. Lociai- 
 ajia: a. D. I71O-1750. 
 
 isaviM-""*^*^^' ^•- ** *•"'»= ^ °- 
 
 CHICKAHOMINY, Battlet on Ui«(Gaiii.t' 
 Mill, i86a; Cold Harbor, 1864). Sec Uhitbd 
 8TATK8 or Am.; A. D. IWti (.Iixs-Jult: 
 VimiiNiA); and ISMOUy— Jtsr.: Viuoinia) 
 
 CHICKAMAUOA. Battle ot S« Umt«d 
 States or Asi. : A. D. 1863 (Auoiot— Skptbh. 
 
 BBR: TENXEaaKE). 
 
 „ CHICORA.— Tlie name riven to the region of 
 Boutli Carolina l)y ita Spiin&h dlscoverera. See 
 America : A. D. 1519-1335 
 CHILDEBERT I., King of the Fraiika,at 
 
 Panj. A. D. 511-5.58 diudebert uTkI^ 
 
 of the Frank* (Anitratia), A. D. 573-353! 
 
 (Bumindy). 583-.'.U6 CMIdebert III., Kiar 
 
 09^-7' 1 '■'"^' (Nenatria and BnTpindy), A. D 
 
 CHILDERIC II., KiBc of the Praata. 
 
 A n 6t)(t-67:l Childerielll., A. D. 742-7S 
 
 CHILDREN OF HAN. .Sei Chwa 
 
 CHILDREN OF REBECCA. See IUbec- 
 
 caitk.'*. 
 
 CHILDREN'S CRUSADE, The. See 
 
 CHiSADKit; A. i). 121a. 
 
 V,,9"'LE: The Araucanlan*-"The land of 
 l-liili. tmm dO' Hoiith latitude, waa and is still in 
 part ocrupkd by several tribes who si)c»k the 
 same lanRuaKe. They form the fourth and most 
 ■oiithern jfroup of the Andes people, and arc 
 callH Ariiuniiiians. Like almost all Aii«ri<an 
 triliHl nnnies. the term Araucanwn Ls imietlniu-- 
 ionieliniis it i.s restri<te<l to a single ban<! and 
 sometimes so exieii.iwi as to cinbmec a gfoup of 
 triliea. .Some reirard tliem us a separate family 
 callins them fhilians, while otiiera, whom we 
 follow, r|.,;a^l tliem as the southern memben of 
 the Amies «roup, ami still otlieni riaas them 
 with the Pampas Imli.inj. The name Araiicanian 
 Is an improper one. imnnluceil bv the .Simnianls 
 but it is so (irmly llxe,l that it cannot lie clinnired' 
 The native names are .Moluehe (warriors) and 
 ALipuehe (natives). Originallv they extended 
 from Cxiuimbo to the Chonoa Arehlpehigo and 
 from o<^;in to iKvnn, and even now they extend 
 thoujrh mil very fur. to the east of the Cordlllcraa! 
 They are divide.1 into four (or, If wc include the 
 Plcunehc, Hv.) irltn™, the names of which all end 
 in tcheor •ehe.' the wor.1 for man. Other 
 minor divisions exist, The entire number of the 
 Amucanians is computed at about 80 000 
 •ouls but it is (lecrvaslug bv siekiiesa aa well ai 
 by vice. They « ',■ owner« of their land and have 
 cattle lu «„ i.iiianix-, |>ay no Ux.-s. and even their 
 tabjir in the iimstriietl jn of highways is only 
 light. They a-e warlike, brave, and still enjoy 
 some of the bl, ^'rft of the Inca civilization; 
 only the nal. wcMem Araucaniain in Chill have 
 atlami^d U. a wilentary life. L..iiif before llu! 
 aniv.ii ,if th. ^S|„.niani» the goverumeut of tlic 
 Aniueanlans ollemi a striking itwinblancetotlie 
 military ariHiiK-raty of the old world. All the 
 nat that ba^ been written of their high itage of 
 
 CHILE. 14S0-17S1 
 
 cultttie hai prpred to be an empty picture of 
 fancy. They followed agriculture, built fixed 
 housea, and made at least an attempt at a form 
 of goreniroent, but they stiU remain, aa a whofe 
 CTUel, plundering aavagea."— ITu .%$,utari 
 J^nnrf But. (JT & KingtUt, ed.), t. 8 m 
 m-m— • ' The Anucanhina hihabit the deliirht; 
 Jul region between the Andes and the 8<a snd 
 between the riven Bio-bio and Valdivia Ther 
 derive the appellation of Anucanlans f n.m tlw 
 provtooe of Arauco. ... The political division 
 of the Aiaucanhin stete U regulated with much 
 ntelllgence. It U divided from north to south 
 i.!?i te j?o»en,ment8. . . . Each governnieot 
 la divided tato five provinces, and each pr..viiic. 
 into nine counties. The state consisu of tliiw 
 order* of nobilitv, each being subonlinaie i.> the 
 other, and all having their iwip.Htlve vuskiIi 
 They are the Toquls. the Aiw-Vlmenes, ami the 
 timenes. The ToquU, or governors, art' fourjn 
 number They are hMiependent of pa. h oilier 
 i 'u*??'*"*""*** '*"■ "■* public welfare. The 
 Arch-Llmenes govern the provinces under their 
 reapective Toquls. The Ulmemw ^oveni the 
 counties. The upper ranks, generally, are like- 
 wise comprehended under the term LImeues - 
 K. O. Watson, Spanish and IWtugiuM S. Am.. 
 V. 1, cA. 13. 
 
 TT^}*".^: "'• ^- Molina, Gtog., Natural an.1 CM 
 
 Hut. of Chili, e. a, hk. 8. 
 
 A. p. 1450-17*4. -The Spanish conquest- 
 The Araucaoian War of Independence.-- In 
 the year U-iO the Peruvian liieu, Yupammi 
 deslrour of extending his dominions to»,inl< the 
 south. sUtionetl himself with a iniwerful Hrmv 
 »' Atacama. Thentv he dispatcheil a fonv of 
 '•'•"*> men to Chili, umler the coiiiiii.inl of 
 Uilnchiruca. wl-*. ov,^rc«miing almost iiicmlilile 
 obatacles. marched through a sandv <lesert a.i f»r 
 aa CoplaiK). a distjince of 80 leairues. The 
 Copbpina flew to arms, .md prep»re<l to resiit 
 thU invasion. Wnt r.\ inchiruea. true to the 
 policy which the Incaa always observed .m.»id 
 upon the defi^nsivp. trusting to ptTNimsiiui rithor 
 than to force for the accomplisliimni of his 
 designa. . . . While he proffere<l |»a(.. he 
 warned them of the consoquenn-s of nsi.tiuif 
 the ' Children of the Sun. ' " After wav, ri.u- for 
 a time, the Copiapina submitted tlieiiw hi» to 
 the rule of the Iiieas. •• The adjoiiiiri;; |n.i inee 
 of Coquirabowuseiiailysubjujrateil. iin,l M,.i„lily 
 advancing, the Peruvians, some six ve^irs after 
 their flrst enterin;; the country, llnnlvV>i;iblish«l 
 themselves in the valley of Vliill. „i „ ,li,iauce 
 of more tlian 200 leagues fnmi IIk- frcinii. r o( 
 Atacama. The ' C'hildn-n of the Hum Iu.I met 
 thua far with little n'siaWiice, ami, rni-.,urait.il 
 by suoceas. tliev marelie<l their victorimiMaruiiej 
 against the I'liruinanelans. 
 
 ,,", ^ - ". ■. wurlik" |...ipW 
 
 living beyond the riv.r lUpel." Her., ih, v were 
 desperately reslsKil, In a buttle wl;i. l,■ia^t(J 
 three days, and from whUh ImiIIi aniiin with 
 drew, undefeateil ami iinvletorious. ( tii 1. irning 
 this reault, the Inea Vu|ian<|ui onhnil hi^ iva- 
 ersis to relinquish nil nttiiiipis at fiirili.r<on 
 quest, and to ■•seek, hv the iiiir<«liii iiia of wiae 
 Uws, and by inslnu'tiug the |Moplr iu airriiul 
 tiirc and the arts, to esiablUh tli.ius. h,-, more 
 flmily in th« u-rris.u-v alr^Hilv r,--;\'-\ 1- 
 what extent the Peruvians we're so', , .^^ful la 
 the endeavor to ingmfl theirclvilUutioii. n lirioa, 
 and customs upon the Chilians, it Is at thisilisunt 
 day iinpuiaibic to deter:;iinc, sinii' the eurliert 
 
 422 
 
 h.f.. 
 
CHILE. 14S&-1791. 
 
 CHILE. 1810-1818. 
 
 tbtnrUni dUter widely oa the subject Certain 
 It in, tliat cm tho vnTal uf the SpsnUrd* the 
 Imiui. at least DominallT. ruled the oouotr;. . 
 tnil received an aanuu) tribute of gold from 
 iit'ii|ile. Ill till- year 1585, after the death of tbo 
 unfortunate Inca Atabuallpa, Diego Almagro, 
 8rt'il by the love of glory and the thirst for 
 eold, yieliird to the solicitations of Francisco 
 Piuirrii, ihe conqueror of Peru, and set out for 
 tlic •iibjcction of Chi'.;, which, as yet. bad not 
 bn-n visited by any European. Ilia armr con- 
 (iDliti of 370 Bpanianln, well equip|)ea, and 
 IS.unO Peruvian auxiliaries. Regardless of diffl- 
 cuitirs and dangers this impetuous soldier se- 
 lected tlie near route tiuit Iny along the summits 
 of tlie .Vniles, In preference to the more circuitous 
 roa<l po.ssing through the deiiert of Atacama. 
 Upnn the horrors of this march, of which so 
 thrilling so account is given by Prescott in tlie 
 'C'lirMiuest of Peru,' it is unnecessary for us to 
 lUi'll ; sulflce '.t to state tlutt, on reachlnK Copiapo 
 ■III less than one-fourth uf his 8|»iiiiitu troops, 
 SD<i two-thirds of his Indian auxiliaries, had 
 perlsliitl from the effects of cold. fiiiiKuo and 
 starvation. . . . Everywhere the Spaniards met 
 with a friendly reception from the natives, who 
 regunie<l them as a superior race of Iwings, and 
 tlie after conquest of the country wouW \<T' >)>ably 
 have iK'en atteude<l with no dilUculty had a con- 
 cilialiiry policy Iv^cn adopted; but this naturally 
 inolfennive people, aroused by acts of the most 
 barlian>us cruelty, soon flew to arms. Despite 
 the op|x»ition of the natives, who were now 
 jiiWf! iu every direction to oppose his march, 
 Almagro kept on, overcoming every obstacle, 
 until he reached the river Cachap>oal, the north- 
 em boundary of tlie Purumanciim territory." 
 Here he met with so stulibom and elTective a 
 re»ii)taiice tliat he atiandoneti his expedition and 
 rrtunitii to Peru, where, soon after, he lost his 
 life [.v-e Peru: A. D. ISSJ-liUs) in a contest 
 with tile Piianoa. *' Piiarro, evir desirous of 
 conquering Chili, in 1540 dispatclxd Pfdro V'al- 
 (livia fur that purpose, wiiii some 200 SpaiiiKh 
 soldiers and a large body uf Peruvians.' Tlie 
 iavsKiiin of Vuldivia wiis oppoMil from the 
 miiiiii'iit he enterv<l the country; but he pushed 
 on until he reached the river MnpiK'lio, and 
 "eni'um|)e<i upon the site of the present capital 
 of Chili. Valdivia. finding the IcHiition pleasant, 
 Hod the surrounding plain fertile, here fouiiitf<i 
 a city on the 24th of Kehruarv, IMl. To this 
 tret European settlement in Ohili he gave the 
 nunie of Santiago, in honor of the patruu saint 
 of Spain. He luid out the town in Spanish 
 ttyli' : snd a.i a place of refuge in <'ase of attacit, 
 eniinl II fort u|)«u a steep rocky hill, rising 
 iimie ',>lli feet shove the plain." The Mup<x'liins 
 »«'n !iM .iked the infant town. dMVe its [leople 
 to ilic flirt and bunie<i tlieir wttleinent; but werr 
 finally rimilaed willi dreailful slaughter. "Ou 
 tlic arrivul of a second army from Peru, Vahlivk, 
 wlio-.e niiihition Imd a'-vays been to coniiuer the 
 •oiitli' m pniviuivs of C'fiili, advanced into the 
 coiiiilryif tlie Puruniauchins. Ileri' liUtory is 
 prol'ulily defective, as we have no account of 
 any Iwttlis fiiiight with these brave people. . . . 
 \\v simply learn that the isiunlsh leader cventu- 
 fti'j g^lfirtl tlirir gtun* will, and esfniiii.'ihni with 
 them an alliance both offensive and defensive. 
 In the following year(l-MO) the tSpaiiish 
 forces eroaaed the river .Mauli, the southern 
 buumlary of the Punimanciana, and advancisl 
 
 toward the Itata. While encamped near the 
 latter river, they were attacked at dead of night 
 by a body of Araucanhuis. So uuexpected was 
 the approach of this new enemy, that many of 
 the horses were captured, and the army with 
 diiflculty escaped total destruction. After this 
 terrible defeat, ValdivU finding himself unable 
 to proceed, returned to SantiaEo." Soon after- 
 wards he went to Peru for relnforcementa and 
 was absent two years; but came back, at the end 
 of that time, with a large band of followers, and 
 marched to the South. " Reaching the bay of 
 Taicahuaoo without having met with any oppo- 
 sition, on the 6th of October, 1550, he founded 
 the city of Concepcion on a site at present known 
 as Penoa" The Araucanians, advancing boldly 
 upon the Spaniarda at Concepcion, were defeated 
 in a furious battle which cost the invaders many 
 Uvea. Three years later, in December, 1553, the 
 Araucanians nad their revenge, routing the 
 Spaniards utterly and pursuing them so f uiTousIr 
 that only two of their whole army escaped. 
 ValdivUk was among the prisoners taken and waa 
 sUin. Again and again, under the lead of a 
 youthful hero, Lautaro, and a vigorous toqui, or 
 chief, named Caupolican. the Araucanhins as- 
 sailed the invaders of their country with success: 
 but the latter increased in numbers and gained 
 ground, at last, for a time, building towns and 
 extending settlements in the Araucauiao territorv. 
 The indomitable people were not broken in 
 spirit, however; and in 1596, bv an universal and 
 simultaneous rising, tbev expelled the Spaniards 
 from almost every settlement they had made. 
 " In 1608 . , , of the numerous Spanish forts 
 and settlements south of the ISio-Bio, Nacimiento 
 and Anuco only had not fallen. Valdivia and 
 Usomo were afterward rebuilt. About the same 
 time a fort was erected at Boroa. This fort waa 
 soon after abandoned. Valdivia, Osomo, Naci- 
 miento, and Arauco still remain. But of all the 
 'cities of the plain ' lying within the boundaries 
 of the haughty Araucanians, not one ever rose 
 from its ashes; their names exist only in history; 
 and the sites where they once flourisluti are now 
 marked by ill-defined and grass-grown ruins. 
 Krom the peri<sl of their fall dales the independ- 
 ence of tlie A:-tucanUn nation; for though a 
 hundred years more were wasteil in the vain 
 attempt to reconquer the heroic ptsiple . . . the 
 l^paniartls, weary of constant war, and dislKart- 
 eneii by tlie lotui of so much L!'iod and treasure, 
 were finally compelled to sue for IH'iice ; and in 
 1T'.24 a treaty was ratifietl. ucknowi"dging their 
 freedom, and establishing tlie liniitso' their terri- 
 tory." — E. R. Smith. T/it AniHi-itniiiht, eh. 11-14. 
 
 AlJK) in: R. O. Watson, SjkiiiM uml Utrtu- 
 ffiuM^. Am., t. l.r/i. 12-14.— .1. I. Mo'iiia. (Vox;., 
 yalanil and rinl IfUt. of ChiU. r. 2, l,k. 1, 8-4. 
 
 A. D. 1568.— The Audiencia established. 
 See .\l DiKNCIAs. 
 
 A. D. 1810-1818.— The achievement of in- 
 dependence. — San Martin, the Liberator. — 
 " Chili first threw off the Spanish yoke in Sep- 
 li'"lK'r, 1810 [on the pretext of fidelity to the 
 liourlKin king dethroned by NapoU-on]." but Ihe 
 national independence was not fully eil.iblislifd 
 till .\pril 1818. During the iiiteruioiliute period, 
 llic dissctislims of tlicitiHrrriit I'rtKiv-. (li.-ir dis- 
 putes as to the form of coveniiiieiit and the law 
 of ek-ction ; with other drstnictini; cium's, arising 
 out of tlie ambition of turbulent liolividuals. anil 
 tlie inexperience of the whole nation in political 
 
 423 
 
I &!■' ! 
 
 u^ 
 
 CHILE, 1810-181S. 
 
 »ff»ln; so matprislly retarded th« anion of the 
 epuntry, that the SpwiUnlg, by icDdlDS ezpedi- 
 tloM fn.m Ptru, *,„ enabled, in 1814, to remln 
 their l.>8t authority in Chili. Meanwhile the 
 Oovrramcnt of Bucnoa Avrea, the independence 
 of which had Iwn eiUbfUhed in 1810 faee A«. 
 oestikkRkpiblic: a. D. 1808-18SO], mturally 
 dreaded that the Spaniarda would not long bi 
 confined to the western aide of the Andes; but 
 would »pee<lll;r make a descent upon the prov- 
 nci's of tlie Kiver Plate, of which Buenos Ayres 
 
 ^1 1 1.5*?"*' I" ""^J' '" f""^ •«*''»»» thU for- 
 midable danger, they bravefy resolved themaeWes 
 to become the invaders, and by great eaertlona 
 eouipped an army of 4.000 men. The command 
 of this force was given to General Don Jos« de 
 Pan Martin, a natfve of the town of Yapeyu In 
 Paraguay; a man greatly beloved by airmnks. 
 ami held in such high estimation by the people 
 that to hu personal eiertlona the formation of 
 this army la chiefly due. With these troops San 
 Mnrtm entered Chili by a pass over the JUides 
 heretofore deemed Inaccessible, and on the 18th 
 of February. 1817. attacked and completely de- 
 feated the_^ roval army at Chacabuca The 
 Chilians, thus freed from the Immedtete presence 
 of the enemy, elected Oene-al O'HIg^na [see 
 I^Bu: A. D 1550-1818] as Director; ud he ta 
 1818 offerwl the Chilians a constitution, and 
 nominated Ave senators to administer the alTalrs 
 of the country. ThU meritorious offlcer, an 
 Irishman by descent, though bom In Chili, has 
 ever since [1825] remaine*! at the head of the 
 
 Soveminent. It was originally proposed to elwt 
 en ml 9an Martin as Director; ^ut this he 
 
 "'''^''/v.n''"f''' .P"'po«'n<? hl» companion In 
 arms O Iligglns. hi his stead. The remnant of 
 the Si^nish army took refuge in Talcuhuaiia, a 
 fortitiid seaport near Conception, on the southern 
 froutier of (hill. Vigorous meaaures were taken 
 
 1818. the \ Iceroy of Peru, t)y draining that prov- 
 Inee of Its b<'8t troops, tent off a U.ly of 5 000 
 men under General Osorio, who succeeded in 
 joining the Spaniards shut up in Taleuhuana 
 Tliua reinforce<i. the Uoyal amiv, amounting In 
 sJI to 8,000, drove back the Chlifans, mattli.-.1 on 
 the capital, and gained other considerable mivan- 
 
 .f ^".L?"'"/'".'?'''y '" » "'8'" •"««'' •' Talca. on 
 the 19th of March 1818, where the Kovalisu 
 almost entirely dispersed the Patriot fories San 
 Martin however, who, after the battle of Chaca- 
 buco, had been named Commander-in-rlii.f of 
 ,,."?lf** "™'" "' Chill and Buenos .\vr..« " 
 rallle<l his army and equlpiXKl It anew so iiiiickiv 
 that, •■ on the Sth of April, only 17 days afur hfs 
 defeat he engaged, and, after an obstinate and 
 sangulnar)- onllict. completely route.! the Span- 
 Uh army on the plains of Maypo. From that 
 day Chili may .late her complete independene, 
 for although a small portion of the Sn^uiish 
 inxips endeavoured to make a stand at toncep- 
 tlon they were soon driven out and the country 
 left In the free iios.si'ssion of tlie Patriots. Havini 
 now time to Ln-atlie. the Chilian Government. 
 
 ^!r\,.^' 'J"' °u ^'^"^ Ay**- 'JeU'mlne.l to 
 attai k the Itoyullsu in their turr. by sending an 
 
 ?™",""'"* «»f«inst Peru [see Pbbu; A. I) iSa, 
 1»3«|— a gnat and bold me««iirn. oriffinatini 
 withhan Mart,n."--Capt U HM, Ettraeufh^ 
 a Journal, », 1, c\. 1. 
 
 Al«)in: J. Miller. Mmoin ef Omtni JfilUr 
 A. 4-7(.. 1)._T, ButclUfe. ai^ Tmnt'chdi 
 
 OHILIC, 188S-18M. 
 
 *^J^^y*^r^*^ B- Mitre, Th4 Bmo^ 
 mp^ffa. America. • Hia. of San MartiT^ 
 
 P^trf-A!'S*-l'S^i^"'- '- •••™- 8- 
 
 ^.P' '???•'••<•— A tncceMfal oliKardi. 
 
 ■EiiiS '*!^"*'^-*rk« ^ with Pe?"2j 
 BoUri*.-" After the perfection of ltsnati,3 
 
 'J:^"??^; »»» Cfil-n government *Si 
 paMed Into Uie permanent control of civlllani 
 while the other govemmenU of the went cm2 
 remained prize* for military chieftalrin ■ T, 
 .1"**"^ "»?«»»««««on was framed In im. uA 
 though it is only half a century old it l>^ 
 odest written national conatitution In fon, |" 
 all the worid except our own. unless the M»m 
 Chwtaof EngUnibe Inihi.ied in the eai,,.,,?? 
 The pollticar hwtorv of chile during the sL 
 years of iU life has been that of a Well „niere5 
 commonwealth, but one of - most unuKnal tai 
 Interesting sort. lu gove 
 forcibly overthrown, and 
 tempt at revolution has ' 
 name and In an import t 
 
 yet its government Ir 
 reatricted to those m. 
 tered. who are twent,< 
 ried and twenty -one 
 I'ead and write; and 
 property- qualification 
 
 ■nt hiu nci IT been 
 on.- scriiius sl- 
 ide. Chile U ia 
 a I puhlii, and 
 I'- y. 8ulTra,;i.U 
 who are n i,'is- 
 .trsold If uniiur- 
 ricd, and who cm 
 <! is also a strin;:fnt 
 The consequence is tim 
 
 424 
 
 the privilege of voting is confined to an ari-!,«-. 
 racy: in 1876. the total number of ballots tljr-.w, 
 for president was only 48.114 in a population i' 
 about two and a quarter milli,.na Yhe prpsl. 
 dent of Chile has immense powers of m.mins- 
 tlon and appointment, and when he is a nun of 
 vigorous will he tyrannically swavs imlilte 
 policy, andean almost always dictate the name 
 of his successor. The government li,i.s thus 
 become practically vested In a comimntivelv 
 small number of leading Chilean famlli.'s. Tlieii 
 is no such thing as •public opinion ' It, i!,,- s.n« 
 n which we use the phrase, and the ne«s|>H|»Ti, 
 though ably conducted, do not attemnt. Wimv 
 do not desire, to change the existing or,l. r of 
 things. 'History,' says Mr. Brown.-. Jon 
 °"f. J"™'*'' »n example of a more i. ,w,rful 
 political " machine " under the title of republic 
 nor, I am bound to say, one which has b^n 
 more ably directed so far as concerns tbe s?- 
 grandl7,ement of the country, or more h.iii.stfr 
 aumlnlstered so far as concerns pecuniar; .or- 
 riiption. The population of Chile douhlinl be- 
 tween 1843 and 1875; the quantity of Und 
 brought under tillage was quadrupl,-.! 
 more than 1.000 mile* of railroad were built > 
 foreign export trade of |:iI,BI>.V039 was re|» rted 
 in IM.N; and two powerful iron-cUds. which 
 were destlne<l to pUy a miwt Important piirt in 
 u., ■''*'"■ wre built in England. .Mean- 
 while, the constitution was offlclally Interpreted 
 so as to guarantee religious toleration, and tb« 
 pollticail iK)wer of tbe Koman Catholic priert- 
 hiKid diminished. Almost everything goxl, 
 except home manufa. tures and popular eiliica- 
 tion flourished. The development of the naiioo 
 In these years was !>n a wonderful s<-ale f,>ra 
 South American sute, and the contrast Utweea 
 thlle ami Peru was necullarly striking . . . 
 f-ar!y in 1879 began tho grval series t.f eveuU 
 vhlch were to make the f'. tune of Chile. We 
 Uk- tbe word 'gr»it.' in lu low. sup.rficial 
 senk.' and witb.iut the atU'butlon of any moral 
 signifloui.„> to Um adjeGtiTij. The at^gn.'aaor la 
 
CHItE, 1888-1884. 
 
 CHILE. 188» ll»L 
 
 tbc war between Cbile and Peni wm Inspired ly 
 the mn«t purely Miflah motives, anil It lenuiiiM 
 to be Kfu whether the Jiut gnU will not wir in 
 the lon/r run. even th<iuffh the Burae of their 
 antsgoouti be played with hearily j>late<t imn- 
 clads. . . . At the date U«t mentioned Chile wi>' 
 tuflering, like many other nations, from a genen 
 depinaion In business pursuits. Its people 
 were in no serious trouble, but as a irnTprnment 
 it w«« In a bad way. . . . The means to keep 
 up a sinking fund for the foreign 'l<'>>t hnd 
 {ailed, and the Chilean Ave per eem» were 
 quoted In London at sixty-four. '.V political 
 cloud also was darkening aipilo in the mirth. In 
 Uie renewal of something like a confnlemtioo 
 between I^ru and Bolivia.' In this state 
 of things the (rov.rning oligarchy of Chile 
 decided, rather Kuddenly, Mr. Bmwne thinks, 
 upon a scheme wliich was sure to result - ither 
 In uplrndid pmaperity or absolute ruin, and 
 wliirli contemphited nothing less than a war of 
 cunqiir^t against Peru and Bolivia, with a view 
 to seizing the mott Talual)lc territory of tin 
 fomier country. There Is a certain strip of land 
 bordering up >n the Pacillc und about 400 niili.'S 
 long, of wbk-h the nortliem three quarters be- 
 lon;:(>'i to Peru and Bolivi.t, the remaining one 
 qiiiirtcr to Cliile. Upon tills land a heavy rain 
 nivir fails, and often years pass in which thp 
 anil il<«^ not feel a shower. . . . Its money value 
 la immense. 'From this ref' ■ ' » world dc 
 rivM almost Ita whole sup. ! nitrates — 
 chit'tiy naltnetre — and of Iodine : its moimtains 
 sl!«^ are rich In metnis, and great deposits o! 
 guino nv found In the highlanils bordering the 
 iPB Til' nitrate-bearing country Is a main, 
 from tif!> to eighty miles wide, the nitrate lying 
 in layers Just below a thin sheet of impacted 
 BtoniH L-ruvel, and sand. The export of salt- 
 pplr> U.'.n this region wa» valutil la 1HH9 at 
 near;. liJt.ono.OiX), and the worth of the Peruvian 
 icrti II. w! i > 19 much the largest ami most pr>> 
 duciivo. is '!m»tc<l, for government purprnes, 
 at a r:i[iltal of |600,000,000. Chile waa, natu- 
 rally. '''II aware of the wealth which lay so 
 flnsi' 1 li.r own doors, and to possew herself 
 tliin-of, a ' thus to rehabilitate her natlomU 
 f nunes, kij oddresaed herself to war. The 
 <»'i'aai<in for aar was easily found. Bolivia was 
 first attacked, a difficulty which arose at her 
 port of Antdfagaata, with respect to !jcr en- 
 fon>'ment of a tax upon some nitrate worki 
 carrini on by a Chilean company, affording a 
 gmni preli'.itt; and when Peru attempted inter- 
 volition lior envoy was confrtmted with CLilt's 
 knnwiHige of a sw-ret treatv twtween Peru and 
 Biilivi'i, and war was formally declared bv Chile 
 uii-m IVru, April 8, 1878. " This war "lasted. 
 with Mine breathing spaces. f>r almost exactly 
 five years. At the outset the two belligerent 
 powers— Bolivia Ulog soon practicilly out of 
 the contest— aeenxtl to be about equul in ships, 
 (oldlers, andTe»ourfi>*; buttliesupmnacy which 
 Cliile soon gained upon the sea'i siilmtontlaily 
 detemiinwl tht- v ir in her favor. Koch nation 
 owned two powi tui 1; ,n-clads, and six months 
 were employed !' ac;t!i.ig the question of naval 
 superiority. . . Oi- tli' 21st of Mav . 1878, the 
 P^r-ivian Rert s: r-ki-d „':u aiiai.'sl t!: -'.r-jyrd the 
 Chilean wooden ,igv-j which were blockading 
 Iquique; hut In '-h-ulng a Chilean corvette the 
 larger Temvlan Irorciail— the Indepcndcncia — 
 na 'MO Bear the slnre. and «:« fatally wrecked. 
 
 'So Pent li>- me of I, r ^ 
 pluye<l wii he other- 
 mlnible, ln' a lo^g o 
 October the same y 
 
 attacked . the Chileaii 
 two iron-cluds, and waa t 
 desperate r '■istance. 
 
 :l,^>' . The gnme she 
 he liuoscar — was ad- 
 ■;' and on the 6lh of 
 -ir the Huaacar was 
 "et, which lnclud< 
 ]y captured ' after r 
 im tills moment 
 
 the Pcruvin coast was at Chile's :nerry: the 
 Chilean arm« pn-tailed in every pitcli>'<l battle, 
 at San Fraociac [November 1«, 1879] r.- Tacna 
 rWay 26, I>WU|, at .-riea [June 7, l-'-il; and 
 finally, on the 17th o[ January, Ih^I after a 
 series of actions which resembled in vine of 
 their detail.-) the engagements tliat preceiled oui 
 capture of the ( ity uf Mexico [ending in »hat li 
 known as the Battle cf Mireflores], the victuriou* 
 array of Chile look possession of Lima, the capi- 
 tal if Peru. . . . The results of the war have 
 thus far cx' •■dcd the wildest hcTes f>f ''bile. 
 She has t;i!,< n absolute posaeaslon uf the whole 
 nitrate ri';:i"n, lias cut Bolivia nit from the sea, 
 and a< ! irviil the iM'rmanent duvolution of the 
 Peru-B' liviancoiifiHlenttiuii. .\s a conscqueoce, 
 her f .'i'n trade has doubli ' the revenue of 
 her g rvi- iment has been trebi ;, and the public 
 debt gri'ii ■ V- reduced. The Chilean boniis. which 
 nere sold iit 64 in London in .'snuary, 1^79, and 
 fell to 60 In March of that year, at the announce- 
 ment >f the war, were quoted a' '"> in 'iinimry, 
 H"*! " — Tfui <rrmriii;-j h/tttr ti: '.■■ Hep'ihlie of 
 Chilr.i.UlitHlif itnuthty. Jutit, !-■•!). 
 
 .\l.!«iiv II. Uirkediil, Th' UtU- Wir inS. Am, 
 lOr.-li,,.. r<;tli';. -.'»,■»., Feb. . anri Mil reh. 1984). 
 -(■ R .M -kUain T/. War M. V-ru und Chile. 
 -R. X I! •:. i, Via:; ,1. It, 17. -.If .*ij« of tht 
 rrittiit'%: '' ff.,tr'tn.'initt':iql^pfit ^latingio 
 the Wi'.' ii • Ain .Jan. i<\. » '82.— T. »V Knox, 
 Dfciritt Hi- • n'lt'V H^itirino, ch. 'i'i — See, also, 
 Peiu': a. !) IfJ(i-lsT8. 
 
 A. D. 1885-1891.- The pmidency and dic- 
 tatorship of Balmaceda — His conflict with 
 the Coneress.— Civil war. — "Save in the one 
 8trug.;leln whic b the parties n'>.>rted to arms, 
 the political development of Chih wos fn-e from 
 rh-n disturbances, and the ruling class was dls- 
 tin. iihe<l amon^ the Spanish Araericin nations 
 not inly for weaitli and education, but f 1 its 
 talent for coverniiii at and love of constitutional 
 liberty. The republic was called 'the Enirland 
 of .S)V't< -Vmerica,' and it was a common iKMst 
 that i' ■■ liiii a pronundamlcnto or a revolution 
 waa iniiHisKible. The spirit of modern Liberalism 
 became more prevalent. ... As the Liberal 
 party Ixn-ame all powerful it split into factions, 
 divided liy (|iieationsof principle and by strug- 
 gles for li-a"ier»liip and otace. . . . The patron- 
 •»ge of till' Chilian President Is enormous, em- 
 bracing n. it only the general civil service, but 
 local otHcials, except m the municipalities, and 
 all appointments in the army and navy and in 
 the teleirraph and railroad services and llie giv- 
 ing out of contracts. The Pn'sident has always 
 been able to select his successor, and has exer- 
 cised tlila iN'wer, usually ii. harmony with the 
 wishes of Intluentlai statesmen, itometiiiies call- 
 ing a conference of party chiefs to decide on a 
 candidate. In the course of time tli more ad- 
 vanced wing of tlie Liberala grew more numer- 
 ous !!:an tb* '-■• -ler^Tes The m--* ri-licaJ 
 aectlim h;. I its i)„ jVus In a Reform Club In 
 Bantiairi' ionii.. o .if young university men, of 
 whom ")..lo»ci li w.ii! t:ie flneat oratiir Knter- 
 log Congre^ in IfStS, he took a leading part la 
 
 425 
 
I f I, : 
 
 n 
 
 CHILE, imMSM. 
 
 debatet. .. In 1886 he wi i the matt popular 
 man In the country ; but hii chUm to the presi- 
 deoiial »ucce*.fc>n wa^ contiated by varioua other 
 aapiranu— older puliticiuni and leaders of fac- 
 tion* ttrJTing for tupivmacr in Consreaa He 
 wai elwtiKl by an ovirw licfming niajoritv, and 
 aa ITenldrnt injoyjil an i.nfTamplml deirree of 
 popularity Kor two or ll.rre years the poUH- 
 ciajis who had been his party aaaixUtes worked 
 In harmony with his ideas. ... At the flood of 
 the democratic tide be was the moat popular 
 man In South Amcrira. But when the old 
 tj-rritorial faniilie<i «hw Ihc seat« in Conirrrss nnd 
 the posis in the civil service that bad be.n their 
 prin.Kstlve flilcl by new men, and fortunes 
 nia.l.. by upstarts where all chances bad been at 
 tlieir iliii|).«iil. then a reliction set In, comiptliin 
 was »cenl..,l. im.l .Moderate UbiTala, joiniuif 
 baiHia will, the Nutionalisu and the reviviiic 
 t..iu.rv,itive imrty. formed an opposition of 
 re»peetal>le str. nvtli In the i-arller part of liis 
 *#.'""»,'"'""" "'''"•»••'•'<» had tlie <-o-oper«l ion 
 of the Niitioniili.n. who wer.' repn-wnted in tli.. 
 I iibliict. In the lB»t two yeiiPi.if bin U'rrn. when 
 the linu' ilrew n.iir for wleetiiig liU succiiMi..r 
 deration and rev.,|t nnd the rivalries of «i.pir' 
 oni-. for the .-ic.f«ion tlmw the part v into dis 
 onl.r and an^end in liitlie-.o un juejitloni'd 
 lea.l-r . . In jHiiujiry. l^.*), the '»pp,wiii„n 
 wen- strong enmiifh to p'.ice their candidate In 
 the chrtir when the He ,«■ „f Keprescniatives 
 orgnni/(d Tli tiiiiiistrv resit'iM-d, aiidacontlict 
 b.nve.n the .Jiecullve sihI leL'islallve bramlies 
 
 ;'. .'.'' '.";''"■"""■'" **" "ixnly iM'irun when 
 the I nsident »|>|x.inte.| s Cabinet of his own 
 wl.-iliiin . . Thin ministry had to facesnoTcr 
 
 ^» '"•'' L' iiiaj.'rity naiiinit tlie I'rei.ident, which 
 
 treated li,m -.1* r. .11 lat.ir nnd ln'pin to pass 
 
 h,.«'il.- liws iijiil r.^oliiii.iiis llmt were veUied 
 
 nnd r, fiise.l (,. consider the measures thai he 
 
 r<i ..nini •■.'..Itil The ministers wer>' liud liefore 
 
 the t li.'iinlxrs rinil i,iie.«i..n, d about the inaiiiier 
 
 I'f th.ir ii|.,«,ii,i,iieMt Thev eiih.r ch,|in.Kl to 
 
 au>wi r. (T ii.isw ir.-.| in a wnv that Incri-asiil the 
 
 •nMn...ity of Cin-n... which flnallv iniMd n 
 
 »ote ..f .■,.n„m-, in ■.l,.,|i,.nre to whi'ch, aa wn^ 
 
 usun . IliM Cihm. I r.-iL-i»d. Then H>dnince<la 
 
 •ppothid :i miiiiMrv in M|i,n ileHanie ,,t ( ,,n 
 
 trres- will, -n.if.i.n.p, «, i., .,„„|. the ,,„„, ,.,„, ! 
 
 wiui..lri-rt,ly si..,l,en ,f ■., hi. «-le. I.-I eiii.illdBle I 
 
 f..r the i.r.>id,„.y II,' p^■|M^■.| f,.r tl». ..nig 
 
 ch' that lie ii,v.t.-.| l.y rciH.v ing the .hirf, ,,f the ; 
 
 «diiiini»tniti,„ ..f ilie .1. pirtnient. nnd npiielne I 
 
 them Kith mend. >,.t,.dt.,l,iiUH.If„„| |,i,,„,|i,v ' 
 
 ail. milking ehnntf.-, i., the ,„,!(,.,. ,|,.. ,„||j,i-,' , 
 
 an.l. lo s..m.- .si. i,i. |„ t|„. „rniv nti.l nnrv c..m' i 
 
 liMiK a 1 he yn*- .|. ii-hmcI llln, „« n .li;tnt..r ' 
 
 an.l indlgnnti i,.ii,ii.M »,.„. l„.|,| i„ ,.,,„: 
 
 t'Wii Bnlmn.-.l-. „iid l,i, .iip|«,rt.r» i.rele.i.1,^1 i 
 
 '" "• " "!.» '!"• ■Immpi..iis of the i„. ,|,|,. | 
 
 ajtaiiisl til,. ttri.!.._m,y, l,.,t .,f ,|,e pr/nci .le , 
 of thdi r,r th.. nM»„. -.ii.iMo„'. A„J,.,I 
 |.,W..,,,1W ,,,.,,.,., ,.., -.•■TheUm.tlrtween I 
 I n- ,l.nl ltaii.m...|,, „i„| Cm^rr^ Hp.ne.1 Int.. | 
 rev.^uti.m (l,i.l«n,inry I. Ixyi. the Op,>,.,iti,«i i 
 inernlK n. ..f the Senate aii.l I|..iim' „f Ui.iitles ' 
 in.t and nign-l an .\. i ,1,, Inring that IIm- I'n si I 
 dent was m,»,,rt|,y ..f his |-«t. aiMl that he was j 
 no l.mgjr hew ,.f the stniem* PreaMent of the 
 KepjiLll.-. n-. I»- >».| vl,J,|„| the Constitution 
 «»n .Inn.inry 7 tlK- nn»y .l.-clami In fav..u...f t|,r 
 leglslHt.ir* nu.lairalti.tHalnunT.la The |'n,i 
 IMt deouumed the navy as traltun, abullshtd ..U 
 
 CHILI, 18>l-lbM. 
 
 4Jti 
 
 the lawi of the country, declared hlnurlf nirts. 
 tor, and procUimed martial kw. It was an™ 
 ^ '^T".. T^* "PRS^Uon "crult«d an annv ,„ 
 the UUDd of Santa Maria uinler Oenei,! Irr;., " 
 and CommanderCanto. On February U a « v, r, 
 flght took place with Ibe Oovemmcnt tr.«>i.» 
 In l.|ui(|uc, and the Congressional ariiiv !.«* 
 PoMisalon of Plsagim. In April, Presi.lent 
 iSalmaceda . . . delivered a long message .u 
 
 aTA^Sl'Trj- •. T'^^'-t^tconriniK^ 
 and April 7, Arlca, In the province of Tiir. 
 iwea, waa Uken by the revolutionists. Sme 
 naval fights occurred later, and the ir.in.l,a 
 Ulanco Encahida was blown up by the l»iii« 
 Uir's torpedo cruisers. Finally, on August at 
 Uernral Canto lan.led at Concon, ten miles ii„rtli 
 of V alparaiso KnlmiMwIab forces atla< k^l ini. 
 mejllately ami were routwl, hising S.fHNl kiilnt 
 
 I n!. .1*"^??"':. 7}^ i'onp*" »rmy l.»t mi. 
 On tlw) SUth a decisive battle waa 'ought at |'|» 
 cilia, near Valparaiso The Dictator hail IJikio 
 tro.)|)s, and the opposing anny 10,0011. HiTlnis- 
 ce<U 8 fore.* were complelcly routetl after rtv« 
 hours hard fighting, with a loaa of 1,5IN» men 
 >anting.. fomi.illy surrendered, and the triii.i,|,h 
 of tlie Congrens party was crmipletc A Jiiiiia 
 heailed by heftor J..rge Montt. took chnr-e „f 
 alTain. at \alpsniiso August DO Balniiic-.|», 
 »h.) hail taken refuge at the Argentine bg? 
 tl.in in Nintiago, was not able tnmtie hi.ew luie 
 an.l I.. av..i.' ei.pture, trial, aiul punisliment , .'ni; 
 m Ited sidcide, Heptemlw 80, by slio<,tiiii: |„m 
 «». <»n the ICth November Admlml ,).,rre 
 Montt was chosen be the Klwt.iral Coll.g.. at 
 Santiago. I'n'si.l.nt of Chill, and on I>eceiMlNr"» 
 lie WIS Installi'.l w ith great cen-roony uid g. u, r»l 
 Tvi<iiv{ngt.'~Aiinvit liivt'trr. IN»I n i'Hi 
 II*; P- ••9"-l89a.--Di«cnlt» with the 
 United St«t.. -thremtenad W»r.-I>uri„g 
 till' ilTll war whiih terminated, as U.ld sUn,- 
 ill the overthniw iinil suici.le of the ill.'1iii.,riiii 
 I iisuriwr. lialmiiecla. the triumph of the ( .a 
 gns. party, ami the election to the pre*i.l.ii,v 
 I of AdniintI Jorge .Monti, tie lepreaentaiii.- .'f 
 the l'nite«J States. Mlnl>ler Egan >li..«.<l 
 mnrk.il favor to Balmnciln and his party h hi, I, 
 irritaiHl the <liilenns. iiml [.r-sluiwl among i|„ ,u 
 I a h.«t.,e feeling t.iwanls Americans an.l the 
 I American K..verninent This was Incn'swd l.v 
 I h.' action of Mr Kgan, after the def.Ht . f tl,'e 
 Knlmacedlsts, In sheltering a latg«> n.inil.r ..f 
 refuK.^., of that pnrlv within the walls ..f the 
 American leg:,tl..n The same was i|n„e hy 
 ..Iher foreign npr. s.-ntallves, but ton., s.uh er 
 tejit, exc. pt In the <„«■ ,,f the Hpanlsli l.g»ii..n, 
 A lel.gratn sent t,v Mr Kgan on the f\u ..f 
 «Ht..lrr to the StBte Hepariment at Ws«liii..-t..n 
 stat.sl "Hii [H r»i.M»Kniglit nf.ige In his l.(:« 
 ti.mnfterthe.virthn.w ..f ||„. |f«|nia< mIh am 
 eminent , aUiut tlie same number In llieS|.iiiil«h 
 l.gntion, tt In the nraslllnn. .1 In the Kr.ii.h 
 s.veral In the frugiiayan, i In IIk- (leminii «iMi 
 1 In the hnglish. Kalmaceda sought nfiu-.. in 
 the Ar«^tlne All these have g..iie mil , »,, pi 
 ■ ■"iln his own legation. 1 In the tieriiian ...,.1 1 
 In the Spanish • v : ven'iirin;? t.. \l..l,ii. Hi, 
 privilegi-s of the rican .Minister'. h-.l,|.t:,e 
 
 the Chilean authorities pln<T.| it uti.hr |" : .» 
 surveillance, an.l nrnsUd a niinilsr of i^.-m 
 entering Uie premi..-. The Minister . m 
 rlnln.'<l. ami was s.ipp.,ri.sl In his complale'. st 
 >* ushington. causing further irritation in ( hiif. 
 1 his was again greailf lacrrawl by his >lal» 
 
 
 m 
 
CBILB, Un-1801 
 
 CBDfAIUEAN FAMaT. 
 
 Idi the rfgbt not only to iheltcr the nfugcM in 
 bi^ rt'iidrnce, but to protect them in tbdr de- 
 parture rrom the country. In tliat, too, be wu 
 iiutaiuni by hi* goTeroment, sod the refugees 
 wcn> Mkfi-ly wnt aw«T. Meantime a more leri- 
 ois (iiu« of quurel between the two countriei 
 iuii ariwn. A purty of sailor!) on shore at Val- 
 rwntiiio. from the united Htates ship Baltimore, 
 hiul lie<>n asaaileil by a mob, October 16, and two 
 were Itillefl, while eiibteen were wounded. The 
 t'nitnl Statu* demanded aatiifaction. and mu-'h 
 tagry currespondenne enioed, made particular!? 
 offentive no the Chilean Me bv an insulting 
 drciiliir which HeAor Matta. the Chilean Foreign 
 MIniMer, imued December 13, and which be 
 rsuwil in be- published In the Chilean news- 
 nit|ienL "The note was to the last ilrjfrec in- 
 tuUlii|(. and would hare juvtifled a witlulrawal 
 of our mininter and a serrrance of diplomatic 
 n-latiims. Tb attempt was made lat<-r tn <vl 
 up the claim tlint it was a 'domesllc rommii 
 nimtiim' which could not be the subject of 
 iliplomittic coinpUint Mr. Blaine de<'lini-d to 
 irrrpt tlie view tliat a nation Is to take no notice 
 of nn iimult nut <iirectly communicated, awl n'- 
 fuml t'l rvalue as a siifflcicnt apology a s'liic- 
 ment that the Chilean goremmrnt woiiM strike 
 out the offensive wonla ... In the elslx>mte 
 ri'vh'w cif the difflcully made in his mesaaKc of 
 Jiiii\wrT M, ItW!!. rrc«lilent Harrison s«j« : 
 The nimniunieatlons of tlie Chilean (fovem 
 mint . Ii»ve ntii at any lime taken the form 
 (it a madly anil satlsfuctory expression of retfret, 
 much liiw of apology.' TiiU statement is at!cu- 
 r;il'' .ii l<i the attitude of Ciiile up to the end of 
 .Miitt 1 wiministrntion. . . . Wlien, in .lanuarr, 
 III' I'hileiin fim'iirr. ilepartment paasi'd Into the 
 |j.H!i(l- of (ienor I'ereira. a ehanie Is instantly 
 vi>,hl. . on January 4th S<-fti>r Montt at Wash 
 tiii;t..n iifB<iBlly mentloni'd the nccumnice 
 whicli 'Chile has lamenlni anil iliies so sincerely 
 Iniiiint ' Piiur days later he announcetl that he 
 li:ail nielvetl siMM-ial inatnictiiins t^ stale 'tliat 
 iIh' tiovemmi'ut of Chile has felt very sincere 
 MTil f.ir tlH' unfortunate events which oeciirri'd 
 III ValparaiMi on the 18th of October;' and he 
 ailiinl that hi« Oovrmment 'sincen-lv deplon-s 
 Ihiaf'irewiil ilisturbancp ' Minister Montt hiul 
 singly HUir^'eatiii arbitration a* a means of aet- 
 tlini! ill" <li<piiie On .laniury inth the 
 (.'liileaii a iilioritie* notiHed Mr Kgan that ther 
 <iHiil,| »iili<lraw any offensive paaaaiies in tlie 
 y .111 cirriilar, an<i Wl instru<ie<l their MinU 
 ut it) Wanliiiiirttai to expn'sa retfret. The 
 upoloirr. tliii« eiitir«-«e(l luiih in Was'ilnitton nml 
 SaiitliuM, wa« •ilT ami unifwiTfu' iMTlinp* in 
 *t<i|iiale; but it wsM inaile In kikkI faith On 
 .111 icy 'JOth erideiitly ri'ellni;tlMt all was now 
 wr.ii.' the ChilcaiK vt iituBil. ai'ting on a liliit 
 <'( Mr lliiiiii'it. t4i aik for Kgan's wltlidmwal 
 ii< n |K'r«>'m ni . errata ' What, Ihervfore. must 
 law luiii III'' >ii<niar of the Chileans, ou Jin 
 uin '.'.ll. t.. ri'11'lvr lin offli iai notici'. which the 
 I,, w-ini. mi|iiIiIh»I ati ' iiltinmtum.' euntalnlng 
 I'u. '.hirmi'iit tl.at the l!nite«l Mates C»oTcm 
 in.iii wa« n<a lati^llitl with the result of the 
 'uliii'il iiivestlgatliMi at Val|>anlao and still 
 »>kMl f.ir a siiitahle aiKilngy : ' that for the 
 .Mii';i note tliere must Iwsllll another 'suiliihlc 
 n|..|.«y • without which 'he ('lilted HtalCB wiiiili) 
 ii'niiimie.lli.liimallc reunions ; ami lliat the re 
 '1 "•• ' r Mr Kgnn's witbdnwal could mil at 
 UaX liiiie \k cunsldcrcd. ll was a bittsr draught 
 
 for any gOTcmment ; but threats of war were 
 reaounding through the United States ; Ameri- 
 can naval Teasels were hurriedly being made 
 ready; coal and supplies were going into the 
 Paclflc. There wss power behind the note, and 
 Chile prepared to bend to the storm. The ' ulti- 
 matum' appears to have reached the Chileans on 
 Haturday, January Sfld. On Mondar, January 
 83th. they sent an answer which could not pos- 
 sibly be read aa anything but a complete and 
 abject apology on all the three points.' But on 
 the same (Uy on which this answer was being for- 
 warded, the Pnsident of the United States sent 
 • warlike niesaoge to Congress. "It rehenrsed 
 the whole controversy at great length, submitted 
 copious correspondi'nee. and ended with the sig- 
 nlllcant phrase : ' In my opinion I ought not to 
 delay longer to bring these matters to the atten- 
 tion of Congress for such action us may be 
 deemed appropriate.' ... It la an uiipMllfalile 
 controversy as to whether the ttiitlmritlea in 
 Washington knew that an answer wan on Its way: 
 if ".ey had read the corn'siiomlence ti.ey knew 
 that an answer must rome, and Unit thi- I'hilean 
 Ministry must have wnt a peaceful unswer It 
 is llien-fure ilifflcult to understand tlii' piirposa 
 of the president s message. . . . Thi ilTe<t 
 was to Inflict an unneitssnry humiliation im 
 Cliile. H|«ntsh AinrricunshuvcgmMl nicmiirii a 
 Meiico still cherishes resentment for the war 
 liegun against her forty Hvi- years ngi'; and 
 flirty live years hence the Chileans are jikily to 
 ri'niember the Balmaceda affair as Anieri. iir.s 
 n'memlien-ii the impressment of Anieriran Xia- 
 men by Oreat Britain. We have the aiKjI^gv, 
 hut with It we have the ill will"— A. IJ. Haft, 
 J'riifNetU Umapt oa Ar^natn Unrtrntaenl. Ut- 
 Mjr 3. 
 
 CHILIARCHS.—Cr plains of thousands. In 
 the army of the Vani'jils. — T. IlMlgkin, Uiit$ 
 tiiid hrr Inniil/rf. hit. % ck. 8. 
 
 CHlLLIANW.'.l.LAH, Battle of (1849). 
 
 Hee !mii« A D im.Vlt«» 
 
 CHILPERICI.,KinKofthcFrankslNciis- 
 triat, A D .VII .V«4 . . Chilpsric II., Kinr of 
 the Pranks, .\ I) 7I'^ -.H) 
 
 CHILTERN HUNDREDS, ApplTinffor 
 the Stewardshipof the.— A seat In the Hrilii>h 
 House of Ciiminons "cannot Is* resigned, nor 
 can a man who 'i.is nnc<' formally taken his sint 
 for oiM' constit .cy throw it up and iimii «l 
 anotlier KIther a .I'sqiialiflcation must Ih- in 
 curn-d. or the House must deilare the si-nt 
 vacant." The necessary iiis(iuali''iatiim can lic 
 im urrtil by accepting an nfllce of pmAt umlir 
 the Crown, -wi'nin certain oflldai categoric* 
 "Cirtatu oil! offleea of nominal value In tl»' gift 
 of the Treasury are now granted, ss of courw. 
 tn menils'rs who wish to n-sign their scats In 
 order to l»' ipilt of I'arliamiintjtri .'ufirs or to 
 contest another constituency TlH-se offices nn- 
 the Htewardship of the Chlllem Hunln'iia 
 |Cmwn pr'Wrtv In Huckinghanisiilrp]. of tlic 
 manors of hn»t Hemln'il. Nortbsinul, or Hemp 
 holme, and the escheatorship of Miinster The 
 office Is n-slgiiitl as soon a« it hns operaliil to 
 vacate llie seal"-Nlr W H. .\iisim, /-.iif ami 
 r»tl;m of Mr <\.n%t , r 1, fi iM 
 
 CHIMAKUAN FAMILY, The. Hee 
 .\MriiH IN Anoiiii mts CiiivAkr*!! P.tiiiiT 
 
 CHIMARIKAN FAMILY, The. Xee 
 Aiisnu an AnuniuiiiBs CamaniKAR FamilT' 
 
 427 
 
CHmA. 
 
 CHINA. 
 
 CHINA. 
 
 The NamM of tht Coutry • • Th»t ipaclnm 
 
 •eat of aacieot cl»Uli«tion which we call C'hiua 
 has luomed always lo hirge to weatern evii, 
 . . . that at era* far apart, we flnd It to have 
 been dlwlngulihed by different appellations 
 ac«>r-ling as It was regarded as the t<'rmiinu of 
 a southern sea route coasting the great i«nlD- 
 sulas and Islands of Asia, or as that of a northern 
 lajid route trsTerslng the longitude of th»t con- 
 tinent. In the former aspect the name applied 
 
 2f* ^f'^' ^."'y* '^'' •°"« f'>™ "f «he name 
 
 Sin, Chiu, 8lnir, China. In tlie latter point of 
 
 Ticw the region in question was known to the 
 
 ancients as the land of the Seres; the middle 
 
 ages as the Empire of Cathay. The name of 
 
 China has been supposed, like manr another 
 
 wi.nl and name connected with tm.le and 
 
 r^igmphy of the fur enst, to have cinr u> us 
 
 tliri.ugh the Malays, nnd U> have been applied by 
 
 tliim to the great ea»tem m<«a<Tby fmin the 
 
 itvle of the dynasty of Thsin, which a little mora 
 
 timn two centuries Ufore our era eujoved a 
 
 brief but very vigorous exi»t*me. . tliere 
 
 are reasons however for btlieviug that the nameof 
 
 China must have been liestowetl at a niucli mrller 
 
 date, for It occurs in the laws of Manu. » liich 
 
 awrt the Chinas to Iiuvh l^-en degenentic Ksha- 
 
 tryas. and intheMalialiharat. comjiosltioinniKny 
 
 ceiituriesolder than the im|ii-riai il vnast) of I lisin 
 
 Tills name may have yet pwisiliiy" l^eu i-on- 
 
 nectetl with the Thsln. or some moiiarcliv of like 
 
 dynastic title; for that dynasty liadreignwl 
 
 I'xally In HhensI from theUtbcentUiy l>ef,)reour 
 
 era ; and when, at a still earlier date. tl,.. empire 
 
 was partltloneil Into manv sii.ai| kins<ionn, we 
 
 lln.l among them the dynasties of tli<' Tdn ami 
 
 tlie Ching. . Some at ieaxt of the circiim- 
 
 stamps which have liecn collwteil . . nn<ler 
 
 It the Iras Improbable that the Hinim of tlie 
 
 propbt-t Isaiah should Iw truly Inierpr. ti-d 
 
 as ludicatlnp tlio Chines... Tlie nam. ..f China 
 
 III this form was late in reaching the (ir.-. k» „n\ 
 
 Komaus, ami to them It pMlmblr came ilmiugli 
 
 pcple of Arabtan «peech. as tlw Ariln. iMin^ 
 
 without the s<.und of ch.' ma.le Uie t hini.f rl,u 
 
 Hindus and Malavs Inti' Sin an I 
 
 •II. The KUlMi were a people of Manch., 
 ra<Se. who Inhabited for centuriWi a co,"rr7 „ 
 the north-east of China." During „ ivri.l 
 between the 10th and Uth centurira t|„. Kl,i 
 tans acquliwl supremacy over their nei>rl,lH,u„ 
 and esublished an empire which en,l,r«.,™ 
 Northern China and the adjoining reifions „f 
 TarUry. "It must have been during thi.s peri,«l 
 eadlngwith the overthrow of the dynasty jiallcj 
 the Leso orlron Dynastyl In 112)), snd wliiL tk,. 
 iMwthem monarchy was the face which the Cel,, 
 Ual EmplB! turnwl to Inner Asia, that tiie nam. 
 of Khitan. Khitat, or Khital. became in,liM„ln 
 biy assoeiatetl with China"— H, Yule i„iUi 
 and tAt B'.iy mt/,, r: I'rttiminnry KmujI — ■■ Tlj* 
 term •China.- ar.pliiil by Eumpeans to this p. 
 gion, is iiiikniiwn to the natives, and the T.n 
 r.v?"*-\ "'»■'"•«' probably the Hindu f„rm 
 China has for nenrly flftee , huiidr.il v.a~ 
 reused to rule over tile plains of the llo«usl,„ 
 and Yangtze kiang, Ji„r do tliev nctni/,. 
 the epithet •Cel.siiul,' atlribuUKl lo tlnir .ii',. 
 pin-. ... In onlinary hingiiage the ii.uhI n. 
 presfclon in Chung kwo; llmt Ts. ' Middle Kiiiir 
 doni. ..r • Central Empin-,' In refennre ,.i,|„.r 
 t«) the pn'ponderanie gradually aeqiiinil In tli. 
 ci'ntral plains over the surrounding siatix i.r i \ 
 'les. thill Cliiin 
 
 timeslnto Thin. llemelh'Thino/ th. „.itliorof 
 [he I'erlplusof theKrvlhrieanSea.who ipiuftMto 
 l>etlieflr«e«taiit«u!liortoemploytheni»iie ill this 
 form, hence also the «|iib rihI Thinieof I'toleinv 
 ... If we now turn to tlie SiTes we (i .,| ihi< 
 name mentioned by classic authors iiiik li in. .re 
 ^^ .|ueiil|y sihI st ui earlier date bv nl I. a.| • 
 reniury. The name i« fsmillur enoii.-li i„ ii,„ 
 l.«tlii poeU of the Aug.i»t«n age. but ...h,Ht. in 
 a V iijue way The n-ime .if Si'n* \» pr,>ln» 
 
 Illy from Its earll.'^t ii.«. In the west i.ienlittiil 
 With the name ,.f the siik»t>rm and It. pn.luce 
 ati.l this as«»isi|..n omlnue.! until ih. mm.'. 
 c*am-i\ enllt»ly t.. !»■ u«d a« a g.-..gripiii.a| 
 etnreMi.ia (. was in the .lays ..f th.. M.in 
 
 g'l' . . . that China Hr^t lierame renllv kie.^n 
 ..1 hiirope. an.1 thst by a name whi. h', ll,.mgh 
 •sp..rlally appILd t.> tlien..rth.'rn pr..v in. .s, ulni 
 <v«.iie to hear a m..regen.r»l appliiati..ii I mhav 
 Th:.. name khilai, is ih.t l.y whi.h rhma Is 
 s!> I.M li. this .lav l.y all. „r n.-8rly all. th. i.ait,Hi« 
 wl.i.h know It fr..ni an Inlan.l point of vi .« 
 '"''"'""«.'„; •*""•'•"'. the Peralaiis. ami ih^ 
 BHions ..f Turkestan, and yet It originally 
 ^ulungaU 10 ■ people who wer« not Cbini.*e at 
 
 428 
 
 the iil..a cinnion lo so many |i<.tipi< 
 was reully thecntreof theworl.l. T.ilheu«Mal 
 f.nir limits of Uie compass the Chin.s.. a.1,1 , 
 rtfth-the cntr..: that is, China (-okt ibf 
 Manchu con.j.iesi the .ffldal designati.m n T.t 
 sing k«.,; that is. II,.. ■(;r..ttt an.1 I'nr, Knini,,' 
 or |*rliap,, Ta Tslng-kw... the Kmpln. .,f th', 
 
 ,1 "If^i.'ni"''^.. ■''l"P'-<'I'l'lbem.-l^.,are 
 tlie ( hll.in.u of Han,' ..r the • .Men ,.f r*„iir in 
 allusion to t«o fain.. us dvn»Bli..« Tin sis.. 
 call lheMi«.lv(.< l.iiiiin. an .•"iiiginaticali.nn ,„iii. 
 monly r> n.|.r...l • lilack hain^i Ihic.. ' |l„i i|„.r,. 
 I is 11.1 pr.^iw i.Ht.iral term ..f g.-iHrai »,,.<.;m„ 
 ._llher f..r 111.. ....iintry or Hie jN'ople v y. |i„ i^ 
 
 /'.< h'lith mill lit li,l,„l,it.uit.i. I ',' r', A 
 
 China Proper anj the Chinese Empire.- 
 Tlii. t hin..Ne Fni|.ir.. ..mlira. is Mm li.ir , .Mon 
 
 p.lia. Z.ihLMna, k»«li.'»ri« i-.r K.i»i..ni Tur 
 k< «t..n,. uii.l I iU I, a> n.il as China, |....|m rlv - 
 
 inll..<i Kor..:i was ..».. ,,f i|,|. .1. .« i,,!, ,i, j,; ,,< 
 the Kmp.r.. iiniil iMOft, w|„.„ j, ,p,,,„r,,| |,„i, 
 |M mill,.. . „, I ,.,m».,, ,„.„,.,, ,,f ,(„, ,,^f ,, ,„^^ 
 t liiita a!i.l .lapan |n sr^-a, wnn . U ,u i|, m 
 ..lie llilrd .,f iIm. Kniplre i., .■.,i,t„i,i„| i„ , |, ,,, 
 pr..|«r, bill f„llv iiin. (..nil... ,.f u,. >,„t .,,. , 
 lail.ui ..( th.. Kmpir.. i, a„|,| ,„ i^ ,|«, ;!,,.;;,« 
 thai ....e thini ..f tlir CliiiLs.. .|..iii,iii, Tii. 
 
 na'iir'.I limits ..f « hliia i.r.i..r an. miII!. i.nilv 
 w.ll .htiiLnl (In III.' we I ih. ..asi. rn . \|. i ..,-1 
 of Ih.. Tilrlan plai..au. Inn «. |.ari.t..| l„ .|,vp 
 river valley, iiu,. .I!v..rg..nt ral,^'e,. f,,rti,H „ , i,,,r 
 rr.nlier liMw.vn Ih.l hln.se ainl Ui..|,...l( m.v«i;.. 
 U.l.> Sifan ami ..ih.r hill trila's .\..nh«sr.|. 
 tin- tlwal Wall in-iii-al.-s throiighmit ni.~ , f I'. 
 course the parting line lH.tw.<<-ii the «rabl. ImiU 
 aiMl Ilie si..|.i«. ..r iU-ttn K»nt an.l •.ii.th ,«,t 
 war.U llie l'a<ifi|. ()(i«n wash>.s the sialfciarl 
 whi. h .ler..h,pi a se.niclr<'<itar ..wi.t lin,. .r,r 
 ».<KK» miles in Client Ijistly, i.n llie «v;i|, 
 roimnlain rangr*. plateaus, inar^iv lr.vi« lilK 
 cull river gorg.-s. separate Chins fr..ni In- 
 Trans (langell<.|»nlnsiila Her.. I>..»r..r fl, 
 i?"!l" "'"" '• " " P'"'"''' <..ii»eiiii,mal nn.l : 1 
 thii dirertlofl China merges moregrwliisi!i 'li... 
 
---\ 
 
 CHIKA. 
 
 CHIHA. 
 
 elMwhere with the bacderlandi. It oeeuplet In 
 tbe rxtreme eut of the oonticcat a .(>aoe of al- 
 molt circular form, with one aciiitcircle traced 
 nn tbe mainland, while the othrr is formed by 
 ttrj Pacific Eidboaid. . . . Within it* natural 
 limlu Chimi proper enjoya a fair degree of 
 HfrMgraptiic uoity. Tbe mountain systema run 
 nulnly in the direction from west to eaat, thua 
 rvrry where oiM'ning euy routes from the cnaat 
 IdIiuiiI. The plsinx on either nidc of the main 
 rniKenare al«> con .ected br meant of freouent 
 gapt and eaay pi-awa, ao tLnt the f>w itolated 
 plateaux are nowhere extenaire enoiiffb to pre- 
 Tent the fualon of tbe surroundinK populationa 
 The national unity haa been promi>te<l in a 
 •pnlal manner by the diapiieition of the two 
 rri'at river tyatema. Doth the Yellow and Hlue 
 ftlfi'ra [the HoSDg-hoaod Yang-tie] flow mainly 
 parallel with the equator, and ftllliough their 
 niititlle rounca are widely deflcrtnl north and 
 »iiuh. the interreniag uplaml* are almoat ererv- 
 wbvri' <'nia«r<i by aocemible nuitet . Tfie 
 two Kreat Huvl^I haaina, co-npii)) ng in Tlt>-i, 
 Kuiiu niir, Mongolia, and China an areit of urer 
 t.Hil.iMli) aquare milea, may even he reganliil 
 t* rorining a common hydrop'apbic avalt-m. 
 The section of thit VHat «n-a lying aotilh of the 
 Mon^'olian ateppea and enat of the Tibetan 
 plaie,iux haa naturally become the domain of a 
 uuiteit agricultural nation." Tlie Innda toiith 
 of the two great twin rivera " are leaa aolidly 
 unltpii with the real of the empire. Here the 
 moiintiiina am more eleTatP<l llian in the lieart 
 of the country, and are groupeil in a Kreater 
 tmrobiTof independent rldge«. running, notweat 
 anil ni»t, hut niaiidy a<mth west and north eaat. 
 N<if ran the 81 kiang. the chief river of tula re- 
 gion, he companMl with the two main atjeama 
 111 China, either in extern or in the fncilitlea 
 alfonietl by ita lat<THl Tnlliya fur free inUtid 
 comniuniratiiia. Hence thia portion of the em- 
 pire iimat'.tiitea a dialiiict territory, more nearly 
 alliwi phyaicalir and ethnlcnlly with Further 
 loJia than witJi China pmner Tlie Soiithcrn 
 C'hlni* lilffer widely from llioae of the central 
 
 awl northern region'a. both In '•in h and cua- 
 
 tnma. awl have within tlie hialoric |<erlo<) fre- 
 
 r'nily formed diatinct political ayatema In 
 rnntem bemitphere (?hlna corre«|kHKla with 
 Weat Kuropc In it* climate, pnalucla, and hia- 
 lnrir ileveiopment The maaa of the land doulit- 
 lim Ilea much nearer to th.' ei|u«tor. for ita 
 iiorthrm frontier at the eiint rn ixireniitv nf 
 ilieliri«| Wail la croaaeil liy tlie4(ith parnili'l, 
 lild Mminl Athin, Minorca." ami H<iuth Spain, 
 whili !he whnle ciaat aonllt «( the ('■inlon e«- 
 tiiari lleawithin the Ir.'plin Hut IhelMitheriiml 
 liiw «iloaay. dellert China pn>|«'r northwanla. 
 Iiiipanlng to it a rUtltely i-..ld clinmtr 
 Tliel hiiieaepeonlriHniatltuienneiif ihemiKl Jia 
 iliul vnrlptieaiif nutiikiml They an- i-oniinoiily 
 fnriiiilaaabramhuf theaoi-nll'iii Mi«ig"l type, 
 al!linui:h pnvntiiig a nutriiid ouitrHitt to the 
 n(iiiiii.i irll»-» of lliia name. The v.ry i-xpri* 
 »l<Hi Mi>iigri|. t,i which a more pr-'tine meaning 
 wa» f .riiiftly aaalgniii. denote* at pnaent lii'le 
 more ihan ihe rrlatlonahtp of contwt or p^>x 
 lniil\ Imw.en liie Ka»t .\»i«ti<- na!lona The 
 t'hm.-» are e«ldpnllr ii virr mixeil race pr<' 
 •eiiiliu a great vartny of lypea in the Tn*t 
 le.-l.vi «ir.iihliiif f«>ii( t'linlim lo Ihe Great 
 Wall fr.im Ih.- P.u-lrte * alirnril t<! TlbiH. But 
 »i Iht'W tyiM-a tlie Mongol la perbap* lb* IwMt 
 
 common tmongit the 'Children of Han'. . . . 
 The native* of tile varloua provinoea preaent tbe 
 *harpe*t contraita with etch other. The true 
 national link ia their eommoo culture r,icher 
 than any common racial type. For the •\bori- 
 glnal element* have been divcraely mndifled by 
 mixture with Tibetan*, Tartar*, Mon/iol*, Man- 
 cbiia, Burmeae, Bhana, Malay*, beakle* tbe 81 fan, 
 Minoue. and other atlli half-aavage hill triliea, 
 which have no collective ethnical deaignution. 
 For thouaanda of year* the agricultural popiihi- 
 tiona of diverae origin aettled In the HiHing-ho 
 and Yang tze-klaog baaiua have had tlic aarau 
 biatnric de*tinle8, *peak dialect* of the aanie lan- 
 guage, and have become one nation. . . . Uiit 
 tlie difference* are atill conapicuKUii in *ome of 
 tbe louthem province*, nota'ly In Fokien and 
 Kwangtung."— E. Keclui, n» Earth and i(< 
 Inhalitanl: t. 3, eA. 5.— See, alao. Hanciiv- 
 ni«, MuHoouA, Zdhoabia, TtntKcsTAK, and 
 Tinrr. 
 
 The (rest baeiat of the Heaog-ho aad 
 the Yaag-tse-Kiaaf.— "The region dreioed 
 br the Hoang-ho, or Yellow River, oompriaca In 
 Tibet and China proper a total area of aamu 
 WKi.nOU ai|uare mile*, or about three timew the 
 I'xiint of France. Yet it rank* only m the 
 M-cond river baain of the empire. . . . Tlie Wei 
 i« . . . it* hu-geat affluent, and even more im- 
 portant a* a navigable highway. . . . Both 
 rivera waah down large quantitlea of aedimen 
 lary matter, entimateil In ITWa liv Ktaunioii at 
 ■ ine.flfiieth of tlie whole volume for tin- niiitiii 
 Htriam. . . . Theaedepoaita are one of llie great 
 Houm-a of danger to tlie riverain (MipiilHtiona 
 NiitunI emliaokmenta arc tberehy grailuully 
 fi>rini<d along tbe coiirae of the Kti'eiiiii, wiiiw! 
 bed ia raifted, and new channel* fornie<i lioring 
 tlie fl(KKla, which often caiiae widiiipniiil ruin 
 Like the Nile, I>o. and Mlaahrippi. the V< How 
 Itiver tbua flowa occaaionallv at a lilglier eliva- 
 tion than the aurrounding plain, ailhonirli not >» 
 hirh aa baa tx-en rrpreaented by tlie tirMr- 
 atrii'ken fancy of the inbatiitanta. ' A vtut xv < 
 um of enilianknient* haa hern erected mi li<iih 
 •id>« to keen llie ktrrnm within ita lieil ilurinir 
 tile rlaini of ita waters. . . . But this vitv i.\ a 
 tern iltelf. maintaineil by the conalant inlioror 
 Ro.dtK) handa, lia* the inevitahle re»iilt uf in 
 creaalng the . iliffennce in hvel liel w iiti 
 
 the river.lml and the low lying plaina . . The 
 higher the emhankmenta'are (arrieii tlie iiii>re 
 dangernua becomea tbe atream In apiti- ci( uU 
 precaiitiona. great diaaatera *n> iM-cHniuiiiilly 
 cauaed by tbe I'urating of tlic dvkea, when iliV 
 criip* of'whoie provlnn^a nrv awept awny, umI 
 i nililiona become n prrv to famine and iM'xtili iiit- 
 For Ch ilia Ihe lloang lio atill tTmainatheNih ho, 
 or 'H-'lxlliniiK Kiver.' aa it ia cailiil by th<' <ild 
 ihronlrlera The rl«-erain populati-wa are al 
 waya at the men y of Invailing hiaKa. or I'ven of 
 prtnlatory tmiidi •Iroiig enough to atijc and 
 iipen IIm'"»IuI(i'» . , .\|<ark from the hiiriiliiiida 
 and alluvial plaina, mimt of the lioane ho Imain 
 ii mvereil with hoang tu, or • yelfnw enrlli.' 
 which pnvaii* thMuirhoiit Pw'hill. Slnmti. 
 K*n*u. half of Sheiiai. the northern ditUlun of 
 ilonan. and eitenaive traiia in Hhanlitiig Thi* 
 formation coniprtaing a n'gion lart'er limn liie 
 whole of Franci'. renchea in aome piao-a even to 
 the hanka <'f the Vnni lie. and atreii hi-a Heat 
 wania lo the Tilvtan plati'Miix. In theai- ntU'iH 
 everything is yellow — bills, flelds, highwH}*, 
 
 29 
 
m 
 
 : !■ 
 
 ni 
 
 CHIKA. 
 
 houMu the TBIT tonwiti ud itrMuni charired 
 with slluria. Eren Um TeceUtion ia often 
 coTered with a yallow Teil, while ererr puff of 
 wind raiaM clouds of floe duM. Kr..in tliew.- land* 
 the emperor hlnuelf takes the title of lloang ti. 
 2^'y. . . '^•' «xi"'»»lent to • Matter of the 
 !i_. ^""^loiftoHlchthofen. thehoangtu, 
 regarded by him as a formation analoirous to 
 the loess of the Rhine and Danube banint Is 
 nothing more than so much dust aocuniulated 
 during the course of ages by the northern winda 
 • • • On the plateaux encircled by mounuin 
 parriers forming close*! basinii the yellow earth 
 forms a unifunn layer of unknown depth But 
 wherever the crosfve action of running waters 
 has had full play, enormous AMurtn with verti 
 cal walls hare been opened in the argiliaceous 
 maw. • The erosions rereal in *ini«pliiceii a 
 tbic'kiieH of at krnst 8,000 f«-t, offering a pr>v 
 diglous iiuantity of fortlll/,inif noil, con«imillv 
 wa^hwldown, and malnlainint; the prolmilve. 
 net* of the plains wM.red by tlM^ ll.iang Ixi. 
 Jor thl< yellow earth i» the richest ik>II in China, 
 being far more fertile eren than ordinary allu- 
 Tiuni It re<|uires no manuring, anil goes on 
 pnxluiring heary crops for ag<ii . . Much In- 
 g.nuity has b«,n displayeil in ovrrroniing the 
 ililHi'ultii-* offen-d to frei- conimunicjtiion by the 
 p.Tii.'Mdiiuli»r waIN of the yellow lands To 
 (>.«« from riyer lauln to riyir l.!i«ln a<|yantage 
 h.w be«-n taken of eyery narn>w ll«ur<- dm> 
 rutiings haye been made in many plai-ra. and I 
 f^•.ll n..itet opene.1 when thi-x- liayp bm ailed 
 up by the landalipa Honu- of the km fm- 
 iiiicnl.'.l nwla have been eir«yai«l todrpclM of 
 fr-ini 4o to Kill feet and upwards, and the labor 
 ex[H mied on all these worti \, .t leant eiiual U, 
 that lavi>b>'<t on the building of tlw (Irest Wall 
 or Ihc ctHi'.trucllon of the Oraiul Canal 
 Tlif inouniHin* whnae lower iilo|i.-i( Kn> cnyenti 
 bv ttic v.-llow earth also riMitain smne of the 
 rirli.'M c.«l Ix.,!* in the world. AnUir». (t*. and 
 olh. r Viiri, tle» are foumi in all the pnivinces 
 w»ten'<l 1)V iributaries of the iloaug lio 
 The Vwig l/.e klang basin cmiprU.-* UiriW 
 f(itblh« of China pniper. wlili a iMmululioii es- 
 tiniaii,! b.-f,ire the late c|y|| war, at no lew 
 111 ill ■J.liimiil.iSNI Although not c^ginally 
 found.-,! here the State drew fr,m thi. n-eUm 
 tlie cluef elemrnta of strength, which enalilnl it 
 to ileveloii Into the paramount |«>wer of Kast 
 A«i. «lf the two great Chinese riyem the 
 ^ .1.1- t/.e l« by far the largest, and is henre nim 
 ni.iilv siMiken of simply as the Ta klane <ir 
 t.rcii Kiver It is certainly <Hie of' the 
 
 Very larL-. It ui llie world In the lengUi of Its 
 < ...ir«- >tri<l tlH' eiteni ..f Us basin it U no do.ibi 
 .iirpii-..! by ihr.-.. .ithera in Ask aliHH- U,e 
 <> ■ \.tii«i ami 1,4'na. Hut In yoinme It far 
 ei.e.,U :h.m„ Silx-rian streanw. an.l itccmling 
 to Ih. .ireful nK-asuri-roenu of Hiakisi.Hi an.) 
 <»ii|.|.v. II U.ur|iame.l in ibl> n«|«..-< hv lliree 
 onU III il,.- «ho|e w<jrld - the Aniai.Mw C.w»o i 
 an.l Ui l'l,.i» The Yang i».- tm. never 
 
 c«it«<i «iirh K kl.'.iqva.l ruin a* that wiwb Iim 
 SII.I..1..I the »liiriinr« of tlM' II.imiiiIm. nor 1. ' 
 anv rit.T in Il»- n.H-hl rhht usefnl !..r uayig^ ^ 
 ll.>" If ii .i.«a not yet ii.inili.'r a« main stram' i 
 sf- a« iIm- MiwiMlppl. .«- even th.- \ ..Iga II Is 
 n..i., il> leH, irowiUl «iih Itotlllas of iimk, i 
 siel ruer ,r,,fi „f „„v .1... rlptl.M. while .i. 
 n..iiiiii: |n>|M;laii,Hi ia noinlari.l l.i h,M«t.,..l, ,,f 
 ih.m^iid. llie Yang t«e been r..|y«lfr«»i 
 
 • ('OH It 
 
 ii'l ill 
 llial 
 ■^alll.' 
 
 M Ilk' 
 
 41ft 
 
 CHIKA. 
 
 the Mongolians the tlUe of DahU, or • Sea ■ .ml 
 in the history of China it has playe.1 th. ,"„, 
 part as the ocean and gnat marine inl, i, ,.li» 
 where. It has affonied ey«u great, r fa. iliiie, 
 for trayel. for the transport of go<«l.. „,„i f" 
 the mutual intercourse of the nurnmnilln,, 
 peoples. At the present day Kur.ii»„„ i„rt,, 
 enceaare pt'nelmiing into the hi«rt of tin ,m 
 pire through Ih.' same channel, which f..r nra, 
 tlcal purpiMcs may be regarded asacMiiiniuti,,, 
 of the siniboBrd. stretching some i.4iiii i„ik', iu 
 laiid. The total l.'ngth of the navig;,l,|,' kji,.,, 
 ill IU liaain ia e<|ual to half the cinunif.reiu.' „f 
 the glolie. Thi- h<-ad streams of th.' Vanirt/e 
 are known to ri* on the Tibetan ih.i.uuv fnr 
 bi'vond the limits of China pr,.|HT •- I i; , ;„, 
 ii'f Hirih iiiut ill liihiiiiii.inim r i rl, , 
 
 The Origin of the People and their early 
 History. -The iwlgln of^ the Chini-,.. i,„,. f, 
 shroiiiled in Home oliaciirity. The liivi r. .,,nl< 
 we liaye of them reprewnt them as u l.,i„| ,,| 
 mmigrants seitllng hi tlu' north .aM. „. i.p.v 
 in«-« of the mislern empire of China ;.i»l ■ ri,| 
 Ing lb«'ir way amongst tlie alaaigiiies nn.. h ai 
 tile .)ew.« of old f,M',»,| their way iiii,' 
 against llic various tribes which ili.'t i 
 p.>s*>'saii>n of tlie land. It is pru'l,:,! 
 tlH>iii:h Ihiy all entend China In i|, 
 niute, Ih.y s. parateil into luiii.ls ulni..^i 
 tfan-shold of the cmpiir One Is.lv. ih. 
 hate left IIS 111.' ni-.mls of iluir lii«i.,r\ n, tij,. 
 ancient Cbiiiesi' Usika apparentiv fi.li..«,,| He 
 course ><( th.' Yell..w River »i„|, iuniii,;.. ,.,„ih 
 wahi with il from its n.H-therninosI 1.. u." ., ulcl 
 themaehes iu llie ferlili'ilistriclsof th. • ..hri' 
 provinces of >hai»ii ami Monaii Hiii ,i» ., , ii,|.| 
 also tiwl at alsMit the aaiiie |M'ri.»l a liirj. ^ ill,' 
 UM-nt was nmile as far aouUiaa Annani. .,| nl.i.h 
 there Is ii.> mention in the Iss.ks of tli,. i„.riherti 
 Chinese, we muM aMHim. Ihsl uii,.||i. r !„>|y 
 struck .lire, tly siwlbwanl ibroiiirli ili, vinlhrB 
 pruviiHvs of China to thai i-oiinlry Hi. .,uei 
 tion th.ii arisen, when- iliil Una.: (i.',.).,, .,«» 
 from? and the uiiawer wlili h rii ,iil re»,"o, i, mv 
 H.tHYLosit I'iiihitivkI ifiv.-s 1,1 ihis .|t<.^,ni 
 Is. fnmi the soiiih of the ( aspiaii >e« Ig 
 
 all tir.ilwliilii>, ihi' iiiiilin'ak in S.i.isdu .,( 
 |uwsibly. Bonii' iNiliiiialillainrliaiiie m al».,.i ila^ 
 Stih or a:tr.| leuniry II C , dron ih.. i hinrse 
 from Ilic lan.l of ||„ ir adopthm. i,n,l ih.i i1i«t 
 waii<ien-.l eistwsr.l iiiuil ihev tinallt KiiMin 
 Chiiui aii.i llie ,.,iiiiiriea soiiih ,if n |t 
 
 woiihl a|>t«>ir 'ii«.. Iliat the (Inn..,.' nu . jiiu, 
 
 China |,.««.«.e,| ,,f ilu' r.' r, ,s ..f W •■sfeni 
 
 Asian mliur Hiey br.iiiihl »iih th.ia > 
 kn.iwhsli.'.' of writiiic aial aHiroiiomv. iis u.ll ai 
 of the ari- Mhieli priiiMriiv loinisi, i i,,iln nantt 
 
 aiMl comf.n i.f iinuikiiui Tl i.i.n.si ..f 
 
 lliese ciir|isHi|{ InfliiiiKs's ia IriiiliihiimlU nii'ib 
 ■iieil III 111. Kii,|ier<ir llwani: h. olioi- -.m t., 
 have niL'tMl '• ,,11 II c .'imr •.'"illT liui th, 
 naaH',>f ihn-.i. i, i.n I, ,.!« i,.|,,.u|,|i * ihathe 
 ttrirt ant on ilw tUr.ai, in Chun ti, ■ . f hi< 
 iiaam. w, sri loH was N'al, aim, nllt N«k ani 
 in I'll' I hini'se |N,|(..,CTH|ihi.-al , ,.ll. . ii .n he i» 
 ilesi'rtt»<i l.\ a charai I«r , .Hup.",-,! . f n irmiip 
 of plNHoii, < will, h rewl S,Ak..i, u TV 
 reae mM aiiiy hi-i« «,«, thi. name •a.l il. ,' ..f Nak 
 hunt. »li. ttct.iniinir i,, ih. *ii..itth i- »'* wan 
 thei hiif ,if Ihe ir.»|. t« .Htti, i,.)rtU strikiiif uml 
 nian\ ,>f ih. ailrilii,,,. Iiehmgiiii; l,,bims,. -mh 
 asl'.pla,, him oil mi .',|iMlllr with ll" ''i4«m 
 .l.>ily In , lactsivurdance alsii with tli. «, jUbi 
 
 J 
 
CHINA. 
 
 Btma*Um. 
 
 CHINA. 
 
 of BabjkmUn chronolngy b« nUliltslieJ t cycle 
 of tot'lre yrvn, U)J Uxnl the linKlli of the year 
 at 3tiO lU.Vit cumpoanl vf twelve iiidDtlii, » Itli an 
 isteriaUr'y month to balance the turplut time. 
 He further, we are tuld, built a Linx t«i, or 
 obMTVHiory, reminding ui uf the liabylnnian 
 Zigftunttu, or liouie of obaervation, ' from wlilrh 
 to wnlrh the morements of the heavenly bollea.' 
 Tilt' iirimitive Cbincac, like the Babylonian*, 
 rr(<i)!iii!ic<i five planeta beaiilei the aun anil niuon, 
 •iiil, with one rxceptioa, knew them by thesiuiie 
 luiiira. . . . The varioua pliaaes of these pluueta 
 vpre rurt'fully watched, and nortcnta wire 
 dirivi'il from every real and imaginary chunf^i- in 
 tkeir rilutive miititloua and i-ulnurs. .\ ('iiiiipari- 
 lufl between the astnilogical tableta tniUHliiloi liy 
 Pnifemior Suvi-e and the aa'nilogintl rliiipter 
 (iTili) in the She ke, the earliest of the n>iiuKlic 
 HisUirlps, shiiwi a remarlciililc |Mir»lli'liNiii, nut 
 only ill the general alyle of the fiire«-a»t«. but in 
 partirulnr luirteiita whirh arc ao iiiiitrary tJ> 
 Cliiiiese prrjuiiirca, oa a nation, and the 'rain of 
 thuufrlit iif the people that they would lie atonre 
 putituwn aa of fnreirn origin, even if they were 
 not fiiuml in the linbvlnniun nHonla. ... In 
 the nicn of C'hwau Ilii (2.'}i»-«43.1 H. C). we 
 llnl aiTiinling to the Chim-ac reconln, that the 
 Ttir, ai aniiiiig the ChaMenn*. began with the 
 ihirii niiiulh of the aolar yinr, and a comparison 
 beiwi'en the ancient iianieauf the moiitlia given 
 in Ilir I'rh ya. tlie oldeat riiiiieae dhiionary. 
 vith the Accailian eqiiivulcnta, allow*, in aome 
 instance!!, an exart identity. . . . Tlieric paralM 
 i-iiH. to^'tlier with a luwt of othen whirh niiKht 
 W pnolui'iii, all point to the existence of an 
 curly nlaiioiikhip Ix'tween Cbineae and Meaopo- 
 laiiiUii iiiltiin'; and, arnieil with the advantage* 
 tliiii puMKased, the Cliiiirae enlen>il Into the 
 enipiriMiMT whirh tliiy wire iiltliimti'ly to over- 
 •[•riail tliiuiselvea. Hut they iviiiie among trilies 
 wli... iliouu'h aomewhat inferior to them in 
 ii' III rill ri\iliMition, wire by no mean* di'atjlute 
 if niliiire. . . Among auih people, ami III her* 
 ■ f II l.nir rivilii«iti,in. *ui'h a* the Jung* of the 
 vi .1 mill the T< ka, the aneeator* of the Tekke 
 T'lri.iniaii*. In tde north, the Chineae wiceeeiled 
 iBi.lil.li-liIng themsi'lve*. The Emperor Yaou 
 > .".".(l-;;j.V) IJ. {.' ) dlvidni hi* kingdom into 
 t» 111 |i.irtliiii«. presiileii over by aa many Paa- 
 I r>. in iviiit iniilation of the d'uoilenarir feudal 
 I , -ti 1.1 i.f .Sum « ith thrir twelve l*«*t«ir Vrinrei 
 I- Vi"« nuniiileil Shun, who carried oo li ■ 
 « Ik "f M» pri'iliii>«iir of ciiiiaoliilating the 
 ( l.mix. |».«ir with iiiir>;y and »iHTera. In hi* 
 riii;n llie lirst niiiitiuii i» nmile of rrilglou* wor- 
 sliip . . In !>hun« riij;" i«curr«irtlie great 
 ri<«J «lilih Iniinilateil mimt of the pnivlnie* of 
 the flirting einplri'. The wiiler*. we are told, 
 rue 1.1 Ml iireal a In i({ht, that the people bail lo 
 lirlalie Ibrromlti'ii lo the mountain* to ewape 
 ilratiL Tlie lll»n^ler aroM-, a* many aimlhu' ilia 
 Mli-n. though of a h «• mairniUMle, have ainre 
 •rinen. in cimi«niiiii, e of the Yellow Kiver 
 burntmg iu ImuiiiU, and Uiii 'Ureat Yu ' wa* 
 tpimln'cil to lead the wnlern bark to their chan- ■. 
 n<l Wllh unreniiiUiig emrirv he *et ■Iniit his 
 t»»k, anil in nine jei-.n aini i-eiliil In bringing the 
 rivt un,lrr .•.imri.j . . A. a n-wanl for the 
 •efMre. lie bad n ii.irreil to ilie empire, he wa* 
 lnv.,i.,l with th. |.rimtp«litv nf ll.-a, and Kfler 
 [i»'ine ,i.iu|,l,,| il„. throne I iinjojiiily with Mum 
 '" """«' I'*", be auiietMled that aoverign on liia 
 "-»l>.inS»0«B.f, With Yulwgan the. lynaaly i 
 
 of He*, which gave place, in 17M R C, to the 
 Hhang Dvuaaty. The laat aoverit:n of the Haa 
 line. Kieb kwel, la kuid to have been a monster 
 of iniquity, and Ui have suffered the iuat punish- 
 ment for hhi crimes nt the hand* of Tang, the 
 prince of the Sute of Sliang, who tooli bis throne 
 from him. In like mcnm r. (HO years later. Woo 
 Wang, the print* of Clinw. overthrew Chow 
 Bin, the last of the Sbaiig Dynasty, and estab- 
 Ihdied hinuelt a* the chief of the aoverign 
 *Ute of the empire. By empire It must not lie 
 suppowid that the empire, as it exist* at present, 
 i* meant. The China of the ( how Dynasty lav 
 between the 33nl and 8«lh pnnillels of Ulitude, 
 and the lOBth and ll»th of longitude onlv, and 
 exU'nded over no more than portions of the pro- 
 vinces of Pih ehih II, Shansi, Shense, Honan, 
 Keang-se, and Shantung. This territory »a» 
 re arranged by Woo Wang Into the nine priiici- 
 palllies esubllbhed by Y'u . . , Woo Is held up 
 In Chinese history as one of the model momin lis 
 of antiquity. . . . Under the next ruler. K'ang 
 (B. C. 10T8-1053), the empire was consolidsled, 
 and the feudal prince* one and all acknowleij^'ed 
 their allegiance to the ruling hmiae of Chow. 
 . . . From all accounta there spt'cdilyoccurreil a 
 marked degeneracy iu the cbaraitersof the (bow 
 kings. . . , Already a spirit of lawlessness was 
 spreading far and wide among the princes and 
 noblca, and wars and rumours of ware were 
 creating misery and unrest throughout the coun- 
 try. . . . The band of every iiiuu wa* against 
 his neighlHiiir. and a constant slate of internecine 
 war succiided the peace and pros|H'rlty wliich 
 had exhit«d under the rule of Woowaug. . . , 
 As time went on and the dbionler Increased, 
 supematufsl sign* added their U'stimony to the 
 Impending crisis. The brazen vessels upoa 
 which Yu had engraved the nine divisions of the 
 enipire were observed to shake snil totter m 
 though foreshadowing the appniacblng change 
 in the political poaition. Meanwhile Ts in on the 
 northwest, Ta'oo on the south, and Tsin on the 
 north, having vanqiiislietl all the nlher Halea, 
 engaged in the final struggle for the nmiliry 
 over the oimfederate iiriurlpitlllles. The ullf- 
 mate victory rvstnl with the slatt- of Ts'lti. .-iiid 
 In SS8 B. C, Chaou seang Wang beiitiiie the 
 at'knowie<lge<l ruler over the ■ liLirk haired jieo- 
 ple. Only four V'-aia wen- given him In r ign 
 supreme, aiul at the end of th>it>linie he was i-.u:- 
 ceeileil by his son, tieaoii wan Wang. *hii dL-d 
 almost liumetlUtely on ant emliuii the Ihnine. To 
 liim sucn-edeil Chwang seang Wanir, who naa 
 followed In H6 B C by Che ll«an)! te. tlie first 
 I.m|ieMr of China. The alu.iiil.in i.f femlHlism, 
 W'liii'h wa* the first act of Chi' ll«aiig te riiU'il 
 much dlaiHinti-nt among thoae to wlmni tli> fi'iKlal 
 BValem had brought iiower ami niioliinii ' ». mid 
 the countenance whicb bad Intn h'imu m iIh) 
 sy»tem by Confiiclua suti Mini lus iidiiie It il< ^lr■ 
 aliie — Ml thought the emisnir — to iliiuolliii 
 oni-e fur all their lesiimiHiy in favour of llial 
 coiidllliin of affaira. which lie had ilnriiil slioiild 
 lip aniimg the things of llii past. Willi thit 
 objeet he ll^b'ml that tlH' whole exlslint: liii ra- 
 lure, with llie exiiptiim of Imuks on iimli. ii'e, 
 Hftrli'iilluri', simI illvinaliiin ahonld N' liiir'.d. 
 Tlie liiinv was iiU'jiil as faithfully a« « aa 
 |Hi*allih- In the ease of an awitping an iinllimi.i*, 
 ail I fur many years a night of luiioraMri' n >iiii 
 on the niunlry. The iimslrm iioii of mii tU'ni,. 
 tic work — tbif Uri'at Wall of China - has iiia>i« 
 
 431 
 
It c 
 
 CHINA. 
 
 Jm nsiM ot thl« moDarch u funoui m the dea- 
 tniotion of the hoolu has nude it inramoiia. 
 Fiwlinif the Heung-nu Tarun were mitkiiiK 
 dangeroui Inroad* Into the empire, he determined 
 with cbancteriitic thorGughoeM to build a huge 
 barrier which liiould protect the northern fron- 
 tier of the empire through all time. In 314 B. (.'. 
 the work waa be^un under hi* penonal super 
 »i«ion, and though every endeavor wa* mads to 
 hostun lu completion he died (900) leaving it un- 
 flnishcd. His death wsa the *ignal for an out- 
 break among the dl*poa* e «« e d feudal princes, 
 who, however, aftrr some /earn of disorder, were 
 again reduced to the rank of citizen* bv a luc- 
 cesaful leader, who adopted the title of Kaou-te, 
 and named hi* dymistv that of Han (309). From 
 that day to tbia, with occasional Interrenium*, 
 the empire ha* been ruled on the line* laid down 
 by Che Hwsng-te. Dynasty has succiwlcd 
 dynaaty, but the nolitical tradition ha* renmlned 
 ttnchang<'<l, and tliougb Mongols snd Munclious 
 have at difrernit times wreste<l tht? thrine fn)m 
 its Irgitinutte heirs, they have t/een enitulfiit in 
 the liiimrigennius maa* inhaMtin? the eiupiro, 
 and Intitead of iniprusHing tlirlr seal on the coun- 
 try have tieoome l.iit tlie ri'llction of the van- 
 quished. The (Ivpastiis from liii' Iwginninj; of tba 
 earlier Han, fouudni, -is Hlutetl above, tv Kiiou-tc, 
 arc as follows : — The earlier Han Dynastv B. C. 
 806-A. D M; the late Han A D. 25- Ji'); *Jie 
 Wei 2Sn-2HO; the western T«in 865-317; the 
 eastern Tsln 817-4JO; the Suiib 48i)-«:0, tlio 
 Tse 479-.'S03; tho I,..«ng 5*13-557; the CUiu 5.57- 
 B8B. 8imultani-on»ly with tli»9«— tlie northern 
 Wcl A. D. »»«-,.:«; th-> wcsumWei M.'>-,'m7; 
 the eastern Wei 534-r(5(); the northern Ta'e 5.W- 
 577; the northern Chow 587-589. The Siiv .M»- 
 618: theTangei8-*>7; the Utcr Leang 9<)"7-»en ; 
 the later Tang 9i3-93«; the later T»m 1K18-BI7; 
 the later Han B47-951; the later Chow »5".-9fli), 
 the Surg 980-1127; the southern 8ung 1127- 
 12H0; the Yuen 12S(»-l3fl8; the Ming 18d*-lBM: 
 the Ts'lng in44. SImulUneuualy with some of 
 these — the Ixsoii 007-1125; the wexU'm I*aou 
 1 135-1 1«S; the Kin 1115-1280."— R K. Dougla*. 
 Clitn.1. M. 1 • 
 
 Also IM n.r. noiilirrr, Jlint of ChirKi. t. t-8. 
 Tha Religion* of the People.— Confucian- 
 Urn.— Taouiun.— Buddhiam.— " Vlie L'hiuesa 
 describe theni.«'l\'e4 as |HMaeai>lnK three n'ligioiis, 
 or more aii-iiriuiv, three B<-et«. nnnielv Joo 
 kcaoii, the »nct of Htlmliun; Kuh lieiiori. the 
 •vt l^f Huilllm, and Tmu keaou, lliu sect of 
 Taoii Itiiili ii» n .'imls age ami origin, the wet 
 of Sehi'lur*. . r, .» it i< genenillv cnlici, (on- 
 fnelsnliiii, rcjin .4 iilH pre emiii.nllv llie religion 
 of Cliititt. ft liitH it« riKit In tli'? worNliip of 
 Sliini? le. a il.liv wliiili ix aswK-iated Willi the 
 earliest trwlitioimif ilieChiiieKe rut: Unuin to 
 (2fl'J7 11 (' ) rreiiiil a U'lnple to Iiik honour, uiul 
 • lenr.lliig f ni|i. Tort wi.r»lii|i|., ,1 Ik f.-ro hilt 
 shrin.v Hiirinu ilie inniMciH tiinn whii h 
 
 f illo«e.| after the rii,'n of the few lirsl wivenlifin 
 o( llie Cli.iw l>Viia«iv, the lM-l|.f in n personal 
 diily grew lii.limmet ami cIImi, iinill. when Con- 
 f.. Iii» [l«.ni 11. ( ,V.l) l»gaii hit eaMT. lliere 
 app.a^•d iioihinif str«n;.'e in lils ullieiHile (],«■ 
 \Titu'* Me never in any wav denle,! the ex 
 l.liiiee of .mrn.-Tu- le. but he |-ri..r..l |,ini His 
 coiireni was Willi nisii as a meinli. r if im-lety. 
 an I llie ulij.rl .f IiIh teaihlnK was l-i l.ail hiui 
 
 i:ito tlKw p.llli«.,f h.,||;i|,|,. Hill, I, iiil^lit |,.,t 
 
 wmt-ihute to bis own luippliiess, and t.i ilie well- 
 
 43 
 
 CHINA. 
 
 being of that eommunity of which he foniiM 
 part Man, ho held, was bom good, aud ww 
 emlowed with qualiUa* which, when cultirst«| 
 ami improved by watchf uloaat and lelf-iestraiiit. 
 might enable him to acquire godlike wiadon 
 and to become 'the equal of Heavea H« 
 divided manklDd Into four rl*mi, via., thos! 
 who are bom with tha poaaaaaSon of knowledge 
 those who leam. aod *o readily get poMession of 
 knowledge; those who are dull and stupid, sad 
 yet nicceed in leamisg; aod, lastly, those wlio 
 are dull and stupid, and yet do not leam. To 
 all these, except those ot the but class, the pstli 
 to the climax raached by the 'Sage' la open. 
 Man baa only to watch, Uaten to, undentind. 
 and obey the moral sense implanted hi him br 
 Heaven, aod the highest perfection is wlUiin liii 
 reach. ... In this *yBtem there i* no pisce 
 for a ncrsonal Ood. The impenonal Heaveo, 
 according to Confucius, ImplaiiU a pure nature 
 In every bi'ing at his birth, but, having ilme 
 this, thern is no further supernatural ioterfcfetm 
 with the tboughis and dceda of men. h is In 
 the power of each one Ui perfect his nature, and 
 lliere is no divine inlluriice to restrain tiiuse who 
 UiUe tlio downwsrd course. Blau has his destiny 
 in Ills own liauds, to nuke or to mar. Neither 
 bad C'oufiuius sny indueenient to offer to en 
 coiirage men In the practirc of virtue, except 
 virtue's self. He was a iiia'terof fu t, uclm- 
 j njjiuiulvc man, who was (|ulto eontent looecupr 
 I hiiiiself with tliu study of bis fellow men, snl 
 I wa* dislnellu'Hl to groiw Into llio future cr li 
 jieer upwards. No wonder that his system, sa 
 I hi tnuneiated It, proved a failure. Eacrrlv be 
 I sought in the exeeuliou of bis olflc lui ilutien tr 
 e!Tect the regeneration of the empire, hut Nvond 
 the circle of Ills personal diariples he f.mnj few 
 tollowers, and aa soon as princes snd atate;inieM 
 hud satiafled their curiosity about him Ibej 
 liimcd their backs on his p'recepts snd would 
 noneof his ivpniofs Succeeding sge<, reeoiiils. 
 Ing tlie loflintsa of hi* alms, viiminau-d all that 
 wsa impracticable and unn-al In bl« sysum, snd 
 held fast to that part of it that wss tnic sod 
 good. They mem content to accept the l.igic of 
 eventa, and to throw overhoani the irieal 'isge.' 
 and to Ignore the supposeil i>ot4-n;y of hi:: la- 
 fluence; but they clung to tJie doetrininiif dlitl 
 piety, brotherly line, and virtuoiw living. It 
 waa admiration for the emphiwis whi< li be laU 
 on these ami other virtues wliirh luu drawn m 
 many millions of hh'U imu> him; uhiib hu 
 nuwic his tomb at K«> fi»> h«-n to be the Meces 
 of CoiifiielaiiNm. si\d has wlorned evirvrilvf 
 the empire wlUi uunples built in his Iio!i..'it .' 
 foncurrently with the Unw< iif piin- I ..ii(iici»;i 
 Isni. awl the adoption of iliixie prim i|>iea wlixb 
 find th«'ir earliest expnsBlon in tlw |ir< fuifurisa 
 cU-wiin of China, tliire is nl«. r>nlile a n-iure i.p 
 the worship of ftluiiig te. Tlieiiuwi mniririiiriil 
 t< inpiv in the empire is tlieTeiiiple •>( liiaf u tt 
 rekliig, when' the higheat ohji.t .,f . hincae 
 wnr hip Is wloriil with the pun it ritu 
 What is popularly known In i;iir.|i.- a-i tin 
 fuiiimiara Is, tlien-forv. <'onfu< luiiisio uiiti Urn 
 dl-iiinetlve opinions of Confui ins omliinl . , 
 Hut this worslilp of Hlisnit te is e.>iitlii.-.i .mly ID 
 the emiieror 1 he iMople Iwre no lot orli' ritsc* 
 in the sui'Rd sets of worahio at llie ,Mnr .( 
 Ilea- in. . . Hide bj- side wiili tli.- n>ii.l ( 
 the Ji«i l;iHM)a, urhler till' liilluriiii- "f ( itifiMu, 
 grew up a ayau-m uf s toUilly dlifen-tu luioia, 
 
 J 
 
caocA. 
 
 Bmalrtof 
 Xuitat Kkam. 
 
 CHINA. iaa»>iNi 
 
 ud which, when diveitad of lu Moterie doe- 
 Irioct, ud reducixl bv the practically-iniiided 
 Cblnunen to • codd of morals, wa* destined in 
 future ages to become aUUiated with the teach- 
 logs of the Sage. This was Taouism, which 
 was founded bjr Laou-tazc, who was a cod- 
 Kmporiuy of Confucius^ An air of mrstcty 
 bangs oTcr the blstcnr of Laou-tsxe. Uf his 
 punitage wa Itnow nothing, and tt>e Itistoriana, in 
 tlwlr anilety to conceal their ignorancp of liis 
 nrlier reara, slielter tiiemselves lieiiind the 
 Irnnd that he was bom an old man. . . . The 
 pRnurv meaning of Taou la 'The way,' 'The 
 path,' but in Ltoa-ttze'i philoitopby It was more 
 tiian Iku wuy, It was the way-goer as well. It 
 wu an eternal road; along It all beings and 
 things walked; it waa ererythlng nnd nothing, 
 and the cause and effect of all. All things 
 originated from Taou, conformed to Taou, and 
 to Tariu at last returned. . . . ' If, then, we bail 
 to eiprcsa the meaning of Taou, we should 
 dewribe it as the Absolute ; the totolitr of Biiog 
 sod Things: the phenomenal world and its orlir; 
 and thv I'tbical nature of the good man, and the 
 principle of his artinn.' It waa absorption into 
 this ' Motbcr of all things ' that Laoii-t<ize amiini 
 at And this end wan to bu attniucd to by self - 
 rniptint'tn, and by giving free scope to the un- 
 contaminated nature winch, like ('(nifucias, be 
 taught was given by Ucavcn to all men. . . . 
 But these subtl<tics, like the more abatniae 
 epecuktiuns of Confucius, were suited unly to 
 ttie taste uf the schools. To the rommnn people 
 ther were f(K>ll.shne8S, ami, before Uini;, tlie 
 phiW'phlcal doctrine of LaoU'tat.e of the 
 Ideutitv of t'Xiatcnce and DODexialence, assumed 
 bi their eyes a warmnt for the old £picurean 
 molt), 'Let us eat and drink, for tn-Di>m>w we 
 die.' The pleasures of sense were sut»lituted 
 for the delights of virtue, and the next siep was 
 to desire pMloogation of the time when Uioso 
 pleasures could be enjoyed. Legend said that 
 uwrnute had secured to' himself immuri;y from 
 ilrath by drlnkine the elixir of immortality, and 
 t" enjiiy the same prtirilege became tlie all 
 abr«.rlilng objri t of his followers. The demand 
 k'T (liiirs and rburms produced h supply, and 
 Taiuiim ijuirkly degenerated Into a svsum of 
 nugti'. . . ; Tiie teat'hinga nf Lauu-Uze having 
 fsmillsriiwl the fhluiwa mind with pliildsopbical 
 ilntriiies, «liieh. whutiver were thiir din-ct 
 H'unv. !K)rt a marked rvaembUuce to the mus- 
 ingidt Indian sages, served to prepare the wsy 
 fur the Inirudurtlon of Buddhism. The exact 
 dste at whkh the Chinese ttnt became ac((uainUHl 
 with tlic ductrinea of Uuddha waa, acnirding to 
 •n author qui.Kil In K ang-be's Imperial Emy- 
 cHip^lta, lie thirtieth jtmr of the reign of .4Le 
 Hwang If, 1, c , B. C. 216 The story tills wrtter 
 'I'Hiol <i.e ditUeultIrs which the first miuloDaries 
 rsruunten>d l< rurlous, sod singularly sugges- 
 tiv« of die uomlive of Ht Peter's Imprtson- 
 3»«it. -II K I),.ug!as, CUna. dk. 17 -Also 
 l> The Mtat (vntSmnnitm and Tmnium.— 
 '^ Bml.lliltni |H'wt»k-d to China along the 
 
 aifd r-iiit,. fn>ni iuttia to iliat <-<>untr)-, muml the 
 fc.nii.we,t -„mer of Uie lltnwlaraa and amiae 
 fc*t»n! lurkestan. Aiready in ti«e a«d v™r 
 i> ( . an iinlwMv. perhaps seal by HuvWdia 
 i«h<> i,'i,!i„<l In Kabul and Kaaamm-I took 
 HwkJiwt i».ji, t„ Uw then Emperor of ('hina, 
 A IK ; sud lii, tjii|«r<ir Ming tl, MAP, guided 
 b.v • iinwu II a«i>l lu have sau to Tanary ead 
 2>> 
 
 Central India and brought Buddhist books to 
 China. Prom thia time Buddhism npidlr 
 spread there. ... In the fourth century Bua- 
 dUsm became the Mate rellgloD. "— T. W. lUiTt 
 Darida, AuWUms, dk, (, 
 
 , •^ifS.™ '• Wf«- ^** Stligioni i^Ckina.— 
 J. Edklna, Sdtgion in C'Ai'na.— The some, 
 Ckinm B}i<UAum.—S. Beals, BwUlhitm in 
 Ckiiia.—S. Johnaon, Oriental HiligUmt: China. 
 
 A. D. iao.f-ia34.— Conqueat by Jingit 
 Khaa and bia aon — "The cnoqiiestof China 
 was commenced by Chlnghiz [or Jini;lj Khan], 
 nltliough it was not complctetl for siveral gen- 
 erations. AIrea<ly in 1805 he had Invaded Tan- 
 gtit, a kingdom occupying the extreme north- 
 west <if China, and extending beyond Chinese 
 llinils In the (uune direction, held by a dynasty 
 of Tibetan rare, which was or bad been a vaaaal 
 to the Kin. This invasion was repeated In auc- 
 eeviling ^can: and i.i 1211 his attacka extended 
 to the Linpirc of the Kin Itself In 1!14 he 
 ravaged their provinces to the Yellow River, and 
 in the following year took Chungtu or Peking. 
 Ill 1218 he turned his arms against Western 
 Asia: . . . but a lieutenant whom he had left 
 Ix'hinil him In the East continued to prosecute 
 the subjection of Xorthem China. Chinghix 
 himself on his rcturr from his western conquests 
 renewed his attack on Toag ut, and died on that 
 enU'rprisc. 18th August. Okkodol, the son and 
 successor of Chlnghiz. followwl up the subjuga- 
 tion of China, exiinpuishwl the Kin finally in 
 1234 and consolidated with his Empire all the 
 provinces north of the CIrcat Klong. The 
 tiouthem provinci s remained for the present 
 subject to the Chinese dvnastv of the Bung, 
 reigning now at KingssiVr Hongcheu. This 
 kincdnm was known Ui the Tartars as NangkUss, 
 and also by the quasi (lilnefe title of .MangI or 
 Manzi, mode so lamc>ii!i by >!nrco Polo and the 
 travellen of the following age." — H. Yule, 
 Cathag ami ths B'ay TMther. Prrliminary /",. 
 •fi.V. serf. BI-98. — See, alio, Mongols ; A. D 
 1153-I2S7. 
 
 A. D. ias9-<a94-— The Empire of Kublai 
 Khaa.— Kuldai. or Khubilai Khan, one of li.e 
 gnunlsons of Jingis Khsn. wb..niv'm-d as tl;e 
 Ureal Khan or Supreme lord <.f the Mongols 
 from 12511 until 1291. •■ was the wiven iitn of ilie 
 krgest I'lnplre llmt wm ever ccKitp.lled bv . m- 
 man. China. Con a, Tbiliet, TumrKing, t'.«liia 
 China, a great iKirti.m of Imliti Ix-muhI the 
 Oanges. the Turkish ni:d MIk riun realm., fr, ni 
 the Eastern Sea to the DnlijHT, nlwved bin com 
 mands; and although the obii f uf uie llnnlea of 
 Jagstai and Ogaui rt'fused to ac knowletlge him, 
 the Ilkhans of I'epfia . . . were hia feuiialiTiet. 
 . . . Tlic r«upremi! Klum lutd immediate autboriiy 
 only In Mongolia and China. . . . The caplui e^f 
 the Khakan, after tlw^ accession of Khublhii, was 
 a new city he liulit rlose to the ancient nietrnpii- 
 lis of 'he I.l».i and Kin dynasties. "—11. H 
 lloworlh. Ilitt ./ tUr Mimgi-Li, \: 1. pp. 216.283. 
 — •KhanUillg (Mi.ng,, Tlie Khan's citv'i, 
 the Caraialu of Marco, Piking . . . ws» rap- 
 tured bt Chlnulilz in r,M.\ amlin 12ft4 Kubl-d 
 made It ^lia eliitf residence. In 1207 he built a 
 new etn ihn-e II ' t.i Um. rii.rth east of the old 
 oae, to otiicb was given the name uf Tn tu or 
 'Ureat i «Mirt.' called by the MiMigols INIdu. the 
 Taydo of Odorli- nnd Taidu of INilo. w Im> (tin n a 
 daacrlption of il* dliiien>i<ins, the numlxr nf is 
 etc, stoiilsr to tiau in the text. Tbt 
 
 ma 
 
It 
 
 «. 
 
 CHUrA, 19W-1904 
 
 Ibrtnr 
 
 CHINA, UM-lSm 
 
 Chlneie accounu give only eleren gates. Thto 
 city wu •bandonea a* • royal reahlence on tlie 
 enpuUion of the Mongol dynaalr in \36n. but 
 re .iccupied in Itil by ttie Uilnl Minir Kiiiidror 
 wlio buUt the walla >a they now exist, rediiciiiif 
 their extent auil the number of the gates tn nine. 
 Thia la what la commonly called tlie • Tartar 
 city 'of the present day (ojled alao by fjie Chl- 
 neiie Uu-Cbhingor •Old Town"), wUioh there- 
 fore npreaeou the Taydo of Odoric."— II. Yule. 
 Cat/Mg and th* W<^ Thithtr, ». 1. p. 127, /out- 
 
 AiJO m Marco Polo, TVuarft. wtt* A'ohi bf Sir 
 ^! '^•^ ».-8ee. ahn, MoaooLa: A. D. 1281^ 
 18W, and Pout. Mabco. 
 
 ^^ "V i,"<K-«Mj-Dl»«»lotlon of th« Em- 
 '^ S' ?»"»'«*«».- The MJiiK dyoMty 
 •od its falL— The enthronement of the pre- 
 jent llanckn Tartar DynaMy. of the Tainga w 
 Ch inn.— The appearance of the Portngucae 
 •ad the Jesuit Miaaionariee.— "The immediate 
 aucceaaors of Kublai. broujrlit up in the luxuries 
 of the imperial palace, tht moat gorgeous at that 
 time in the world, relied uikm. the prestige with 
 which the glory of the iale emperor investeii 
 them, and never dr»aiiHHi that change could 
 touch a domhiioo so viwt an^l no nolid. t»omede- 
 voted UiemsoWee to elegant literature and the 
 Improvement of the iieople; lawr nriucra to 
 the mvsteries of Buddhium, which beiame In 
 some degree, tlie sUU- rcligi.m ; and aa the cvi le 
 went round, the dregs of the dynasty ai>au(h>n<'<l 
 thenuelvea, as usual, to priests, women, and 
 eunucha. . . . The disUnt provlncs threw off 
 their subjection; roblwrs ravage.! the land, and 
 piratea the aea; a minorifv and a famine came 
 at the samt moment; and in lesa tlinn ninety 
 yeara after iu cominem-euient, tlio fall of the ' 
 dynasty was i.uly ilhiiniued by some few tlaxlii-a 
 
 of dying heroism, and every anneil TsrUr wlio 
 ~"''' ■ '- ■• l">nio u. aid his flight, s[uimd 
 
 could obUiio 
 
 bjrk to his native deserti Some of "tiiem 
 of the royal race, turning to tliu w.st. took 
 refuge with the Mancliows, and in prwess of 
 time, marrying with the families of the chiefs, 
 intermingled the bl.xid of the two great tribes. 
 The proximate cause of thia cataatrophe waa a 
 Chinese of low birth, who, in the midst of the 
 troubles of the time, found means to raise him- 
 self by hU genius from a servile suiion to the 
 toidership of a boily of the malcontents, aii<l 
 thence to step Into the imperUI throne. Tlie new 
 dynasty [the Mint;! I»t>'»n their relgji with cn-n' 
 brilliann. Tlie . nif.. rur larri.^i the Tartar war 
 into their ..wn touniry, and at homo made uiir.- 
 lenting war U|ioii ,lie abuses of his psla.^.. II,. 
 cuuimitted tlio luLstalie, however. ..f graiiliiiif 
 separate pn».i|M,li|i,,» u th.^ ni.nil.r« (,f his 
 h')ii»e, whii 1. Ill II. XI reikis , :,„« ; 
 war, and tlm ui.u: n of the tlir. 
 umle of the then fii.i» rnr. The u»ui: • 
 it i» reiiiary to trHn»l.r tlw lapiul to l"- . 
 a |Hi*t of ik'feuiv i<;;,nii»t tiiu eaaU-rii i 
 will, now nuide tlirir ainxmramr aijain 
 •vfuiful ntugi.. Ill- was SUO^wfil, hl,», ,,r ,D 
 hi* wars iu t|,c d.M rt. and be aiidtKl Tununln 
 and ( .Khiu t hiiia u> the fhlnese domlni.ms. 
 After hiiii the l.iriuiiefi of tliv dynasty i,vk»nio 
 wane. 1 li,- utivinimint iH-inmo weaker tin 
 lanara stn.im.i, »..m. pHmr* atUcliiHi them 
 SelKTf to 111. rai.m-, N.ri,,- 1 . lloddliisinorTafilsm; 
 1 '"lun ( hina r.v.ili.-l. and v>.m l,«t i., ji,,.,,,, 
 pirs, Japan ravagni the cnuu with her privs 
 
 . ■ ivil 
 ■•> ~n 
 found 
 :iir. iia 
 irisrs, 
 II this 
 in 
 
 434 
 
 teers; famine oame to add to the homn of mis. 
 rule. "-Leltch Ritchie, UM. rt- Ms Orienlat xi 
 <J'«». **. 7, <*. 1 (s. «).-■• rtom without, tlK 
 Mings were oopstanUy hanassd by the enciWt 
 menu of the Ta-tars; from within, the cea«i«« 
 intnguingof the eunuchs (resulUng hionecsM 
 In Uie temporary depositian of an Emperor) vu 
 a fertile cause of trouble. Towards the close of 
 the ISth oenturr the Portuguese appeared upon 
 the scene, and from their 'coaoession ' at Ma^T 
 some time the residence of Camoeus, onenni 
 nimmercial reUtioos between Cliina and the 
 West. They brought the Chinese, among olhtr 
 things, opium, which had previously u"n Im. 
 ported overland from India. Tli.y p,«sii,i, 
 Uugbt them how to make gunpow.lcr, to the In- 
 vention of which the Chinese do n.it mm up a 
 striiting a balance of evidence, to poi«<«kn h. 
 dependent cUim. Aliout the same time n.'SsjI 
 Koine ccmtributed the first inBt«lni.nt ofii^ai 
 wonderful Jesuit fatliers. whose naiiu!i imiy truir 
 be said to have filled the empire 'with »,imi,fj 
 that eiho still.' the memory of their mitniiljc 
 lalioiira and the licnefiu they thus conlt..„l upun 
 I liina having long survive<l the ytniH tud dii- 
 cnnlit of tiic laiUi to which tliey divotid their 
 livr!*. Ami at tlila disUncv of time it iliips Df« 
 apiiear to be a ivii.l statement U> uwrt that hail 
 the Jesuits, tlir Kranciscaiis. and the l)oiiiiiiioiin, 
 1k.ii able to resist quarrelling among tlii'iimivei 
 and had they rallier united to p.'r»ua.l.' I'uiial iu- 
 li.'liliiliiy to iK'riiiit tiM! iucorporation of aiimlur 
 » .i^liip Willi tlie rius ami ceiiiii.,iiii» ..f the 
 l<oiiii.,n church — China would ut thia r. «n«.t 
 be u Catholic iMuntry. and Bu.ldliiMii, T»„i«n, 
 ami Confucianism w.iul.i hmj sini^e iiav.' rw-eiicl 
 liilo tlie iwsL Of all these Jesuit ini.«ioiwrie», 
 the name of .Mutt.-o Wivi [who died in liilU] 
 ••lunda by common ctmsent drat up.iii the long 
 list . . . The overthrow of the mum (.V. I). 
 1«44| was brought alxuit by a combiiuiiKin ol 
 events, of the utniimt ini|M<rtaiice to iliciae who 
 would undenund the present position i.f tin 
 Tartars aa rulers of China. A su.lil.n rel> Uioa 
 had resulted hi the capture of Peking by the in- 
 surgents, and In the suicide of the Empemr who 
 waa faU-d to be the hist of his line. The Im- 
 perial Commander-in-chief. Wii eankuel, jt Uut 
 time away on the frontiers of Manchuris, ea- 
 gacJ in nuisllng tlie Incursions of Uie .Msnchu 
 tara. now for a long time in a sute of fft- 
 n., .It. imi.ie<liau.ly hurried back to the capital, 
 liui was Uiully defeated by the insurKrnt liadt.-, 
 »:. I once more made his way, this timr •» » 
 fugitive ami a suppliant, Uiwards Ihu laii^r 
 camp, lleti' h.' olitaine.1 promises o' a«i;ii«i.r>, 
 ■ liletiy on loudition that he would share hb L 1.4 
 and grow a l«H in a«-..r<hinc« with Mancbu ous- 
 toin. and again set off »1U| his new auiiliann 
 towanis I'l-king. Mng ninforcoi 00 tlie t,s» b» 
 a boiiy of .Mongol volunte.Ts. A^ things turr.»l 
 out Wu Hankiu-i afrivt^l at Peking in sdvam* 
 of tbes.1 alllim, an.l acti; .lly aumwTed, with tU 
 remnant of his own watt-Ted forces, la Muliaj 
 the Iniops of tli.- r. tsl h-ader befo't 'le Tartan 
 and the Mongols came up. He ili.ii j'jirt.'.! m 
 pursuit of llietlyinif f.w Meanwh'lo llie Tar- 
 tar ciwtlngeiit arriv.-.i ; an.) on enteiiug the cajil. 
 ta!. (he young Man. Iiu prince in c.mimandwM 
 invi,...! by tlie {leople of iVaing to ascend Um 
 
 vacant throne. " ■ ■ ■ ' 
 
 l» apiieared h« .... 
 or Tsing dynasty 
 
 tlie |>e<i|de of iVaing to ascend Um 
 
 ne. H.) that by the time Wi Han kuel 
 
 he found a newdySMty [ths Vf'rt 
 
 irnasty u.' the pieseDt dsyj ilr^; 
 
CHINA, 18M-188S. 
 
 Opium War. 
 
 CHIXA, 1888-1849. 
 
 wUbliibcd, uti hli lata Hanchu ally at the head 
 uf affain. Hi* flnt intention bad doubtlea* b«ea 
 to contiaue the Ming line of £mperore ; but lie 
 teeroi to bare leadily fallen in with the arrange- 
 nwnt already made, and to have tendered bia 
 {omuil allcronce on the four following condi- 
 tioni:— (1.) 'I>at no Chineae woman abould be 
 taken into the Imperial aeragllo. (3.) Thnt the 
 fint placeat the great triamiaTezamination for tlie 
 highest literary degreei ahould never be given to 
 a Tartar. (3.) That the people ahould adopt the 
 natioiml coatume of the Taruira in their every- 
 day lire : but tbat they abould be allowed tu bury 
 their rorpac* in tlic drcu of the late dynasty. (4. ) 
 That this cunditiun of costume abuuld not' apply 
 to tlie women of China, who were not to Im 
 compelled either to wear the hair in a tail before 
 marriage (aa the Tartar girls do) or to abandon the 
 custom of compreaaing their feet The great 
 Ming dvnastv waa now at an end, though not 
 4estine<i wholly to pass away. A large part of 
 it may be »iicl to remain in the literary monu- 
 ments which were executed during ita three cen- 
 turies of existence. The dresa of the period 
 survives upon the modem Chinese stavv; and 
 when occasionally the pieacut alien yoke la found 
 to gall, seditious whispen of ' •estoration' are not 
 altogether unheard. . . . TheageoftheCh'ing* 
 i< the age In which we lire; but it is not so n- 
 miliar to some peraoos aa it ought to be, that a 
 Tartar, and not a Chinese •oTereIgn, is now 
 seated upon the throne of China. For some time 
 sfter the acoeasion of thu flrat Hanchu Kmperor 
 there was couaiderable friction between the two 
 faces, due, among other natural causes, to the 
 enfiirced adoption of the peculiar coiffure in 
 Togue among the Manchus — i. e., the tail, or 
 plaited queue of bair, which now hangs down 
 CTerr Chinaman's back. This fashion was for a 
 bog time vigorously resisted by the inhaliitanta 
 of Kiuthem China, though now regarded by all 
 illke as one of the mo«t aacred cfaaracterUtfci of 
 the 'blnck-haired people.'. . . The subjugation 
 >if the empire by the Hancbua was followea by a 
 mlliury on-upatlon of the coontrr, which baa 
 survivetl the original n e cea s lty. and Is part of the 
 system uf g< vemment at the present day. Qu- 
 luans of Tartar troops were stationed at Tarloiia 
 Imp >naiit centrea of population. . , . Tboa* 
 Tartiir guriii'ias still occupy the suoa poaltiocs; 
 sod the descrnilaou of the flnt battalions, with 
 occssional ivinforrements from Peking, lire side 
 by tide ai-d in perfect h.-u-moiiy with tlie strictly 
 Chinese (fipulatioiuk Thcw Bannermen, aa tbey 
 are calle:|, may be known by their equate, beaTy 
 hifn. whi.'li contrast strongly with the sharper 
 and more luluU' physiognomMa of the Chineae. 
 Tbey a|ieak tlte dialect of Peking, now rerogniaed 
 St tile otDrial lautfuage par ezoel'.ence. Tbey do 
 Dot uae their family or aumamea— which belong 
 rather to the cUn than to the individual — but 
 In ll^ier to conform to the roquirementa of 
 Hilmiie life, the persona! name is siibstltutrd. 
 Thiir women do not compreas their fwt, ami tha 
 f"ni»li' coiirurc and dress are wholly Tartar In 
 rhara, t.T. lnU'ni.arriare bt-lween the two racea 
 iiui't I ^nsiilered desirable liiough inataocea ar« 
 iii.t uukri„«n. In otlier respects. It is the olj 
 Morj- 111 • VI, i» victrix ; ' the oonuuerttig Tartara 
 havf bivn lluniaelvea conquered by tbe penpki 
 ovir wtM.in tliey set themsclvva to rule. They 
 hs" v!>|.ti.,| u,, Ungoage, written and collo- 
 |ulal, uf Chhia. . . . Uanchu, tlie languag* of 
 
 the conquerors. Is still kept alive at the Court of 
 Peking, liy a Ktate Action, It is auppowMl to Ik 
 the Unguage of the sovcreiga . . . Eight em 
 perors of this line have already occupied the 
 throne, and ■ become guesta on high ;' the ninth 
 Is yet [in 1883] a boy Teaa than ten yea-a of age. 
 or these eight, the second In every way fills the 
 largest spa<* in Chinese history. iC»Dg Hsi 
 (or Kang Hi) reiined for sixty -one years. . . . 
 Under the thin! .Manthu Emperor, Yung Cheng 
 [A. D. 1788-17861, began that violent persecu- 
 tion of the Catholics wlich has mntinned almost 
 to the present day. The various sects — Jesuits, 
 Dominicans, Franciscans— liiul Urn unable to 
 agree abimt the Chineae equivalent for God, and 
 the matter had been tinally referred to the l*ope. 
 Another difticulty had arisen as to the loleratlon 
 of ancotral worship by Chinese converu pro- 
 fes.^ing the Catholic faith. . . . Aa the Pope re- 
 fused to pi-rmit the embodiment of thU undent 
 custom with the ceremonies of the Catholic 
 church, the new religion ceasi^l to advance, and 
 by-and-by fell into diarrpute."— U. A. Ullea, 
 uulorif China, eh. S-O 
 
 Atao m 8. W. AVilliams, Tht MuMU Kxagdnm, 
 th. 17. and 19-aO (v. 8).— C. Outzlall, Skrtrk of 
 Chine- UiM.. r. 1, eh. 16, e. 9.— J. K<»a, TI14 
 Jf^fwAtis.— Abbi Hue, ChrvUianitM in China, 
 «. «-& 
 
 A. D. 1839-184J.— The Opium War with 
 EBfland.— Treaty of Nanking.— Opening o> 
 the Five Porta.—" The tirst Cliinese wiir [of 
 Englamll waa In one sense directly iiltributable 
 to the alte.t^ poiition of the Eii-st India Com- 
 pany after 1838. [SeelnniA: A.I) lHa»-1838.1 
 Up to that year trailc betweon England and 
 China had l>een conducted In both countriea on 
 principles of strict monopoly. The (.'hineaa 
 trade was sirurni to the East India Company, 
 and the English trade was contined to a company 
 of merchants spm'ially nominated for the pur- 
 pose liy the Ei'ipj'ror. The change of thought 
 which pnxiuced the destruction of monopolict 
 in England did not penetrate to the conservativa 
 atmosphere of the Celestial Empire, and, wbUa 
 the trade in one country was thrown open to 
 everyone, trade In the other wm still exclusively 
 couflned to the merchanta nominated by tha 
 Chinese Government These merchanu. Hong 
 merchanta aa tbey were called, traded separately, 
 but were mutually Ibble for the dues to tM 
 Chinese Oovcmment and for their debts to the 
 foreigners. Such conditions neither promoted 
 the growth of trade nor the solvei.< y of the 
 trailers; and, out of the thirteen line? ivTchaata 
 In 1837, three or four were avowedly iuwilvcnt 
 (SUte Pap..«. V. 27, p. 1810.) Such were tha 
 general coniiilion* on which the trade waa con- 
 ducted. The must inip<.rtant article of trade 
 waa opium. The importation of opium into 
 China bad, imleed, been illegal simx; 1704. But 
 the Chinese Government had made no stringent 
 efforts to prohibit the trade, end a Select Cany 
 mittee of the Houae of Commi>ns tiud declared 
 that It waa ln»<tviaablo to abandon hii iniportsol 
 source 'if revenue to the YjM, India I unipany. 
 (Siate Papcra, v. S«, p. 1020 ) The oplu ,1 trad* 
 conaeiiiientlv tlinive, and grew from 4. liiO olieats 
 In 1796 to 81I.U11U cbi-su In li- 7. and the Chi^iew 
 oiiinlvid at or ignored the gnit.ing Iraite. 
 (111! I., p 1019). . , , In 1837 the CI •«: Gov. 
 eniinent ailopteit a freah policy. It decided on 
 rig'^uroualy stopping lb < Inda at which it had 
 
 435 
 
OHIX&. I8a»-lSU. 
 
 Ofimm War. 
 
 CHINA. I8>»-lStfL 
 
 pnHouslv taritljr connWcd. . . Whether the 
 t'biaew Oovrrnmciit wu n .,lly ilinckfU it Uie 
 trroning uar of the drug anU the cotiiici|ui-nnr« 
 <rf it! ute, or wh«'lber It wiu alurmed ut ■ drnia 
 of fUver from China whicli disturbed what the 
 politica: arithmetlcUoa of KoKland > huntlml 
 yeun befiire would hare mllrd thv hnlaoce of 
 trade. It undoubtedlj delrrmined to check the 
 trafflc by ercry meana at iu illspowil. With 
 thli object It atrengtlieiit'd Iu fiirre on the coast 
 ■nd wot Un, a man of creat energy, to Canton 
 [March, 1830] with iuprome authority. (8tato 
 rapen, t. 39, p. 834, and Autoliiogrtphy >f Sir 
 H. Taylor, t. 1. appx.. p. 843.) Before Uu'i 
 arnral cargoes of opium hod been aclzed by the 
 Custom Iluuaa authorities. On bis arrival I.ln 
 required both the Hhiib mcrchuoti and the 
 Chioeie merchants to dillvcr up all the opium 
 In their puasessiun In order that It might bo 
 destroyed. (State I'ltiiers. t. t.l, p. OM.) The 
 IntereaU of Enfrland in China were at that time 
 entrusted to (harles EllloL . . . But Elliut 
 occupied a very difficult position In Clilna. The 
 Chinese placed on their communir»tlona to him 
 the Chlicae word 'Vu,' and wished him to 
 phice on his despatches to them the Chinese 
 word 'Pin.' But Yu signideaa command, and 
 Pin a humble address, siid a British Plenipoten- 
 ihiry could not receive commands from, or 
 humble himself before, Chinese officials. (State 
 Papers, v. 8», pp. 881, »ij«, 888.) And hence 
 the communications between him and the 
 Chinese Uovemment were unable U) follow a 
 direct oursp, but were frequently or luually 
 sent throuch the Hoax mcrclumts Such was the 
 sute of things In Chinu when Llii, arriving In 
 Canton, insisted on the surri'uder snd destruction 
 of all tlie opium there. Elliot wus at }(acao. 
 lie at nnce (lecidod on ivlurrinn to the poat of 
 dilHeulty and <langer; and, Ui<iu;,'h Canton was 
 l.lockuditl bv Chinese foru« and iU river giurded 
 by Chinese batteriia, he made his way up In a 
 boat of H. M. 8. -Lame,' and threw himself 
 among his imprisonid eountrvnien. After his 
 arrival he ti»'k tlie responsibility of deiiuinding 
 the surrender Into his own hamls, fi)r the scrvlcs 
 of bis Ooverument, of sll the IJritUh opium In 
 Chlua, and he surnnderi'd the opium which be 
 thus obul.ned, ntiiountinK ti> 2I»,2S) rlirsts, to the 
 Chinese authi.iities, by whum it wns destroyed. 
 (Ihld., pp. 045. Ofl;.) Th.' Iminliient dani^cr to 
 the lives and pn>iierties of a large nuuiber of 
 Brilinh subjects wus uiidnubtedlytnmoTed by 
 Elliots action. Thoii;;li some dillleulty arose In 
 c<muerti<in with the sumniler, l.in undertook 
 griMliiiilly to ri'lin the K:riniT<mv(.f thcmeasuri'S 
 whli h he hail ii,l,ipttHl (ilii.l.. p" B7T), and Elliot 
 ho|K.! th.it his i.wn /enlnus elTi.rt.i liicirry out 
 the arranceim nt which he li.i'l innde wmild lead 
 to the mihiiig ..f t:ie hlocLadf He was, Imw- 
 ever. »<»>n uiiilf.t(v«l. (in the 4lh of April 
 Uu requiml him. in cmiJuiHllon with the n»r- 
 chanu. lo en-j r iiii4> a l».nd under whirh all 
 Vessels bereafler eiigap-il In the opium tralEc 
 would have Ixen ei^ulljuMtiil to the Chlne.se 
 Oovemment, ami ull iNnums ennnceted with the 
 traile woidd .-ufT.r dmth at the hiincU of the 
 Ceksliul (f.iirt/ (Il.i(!., p V>:t) This bomi 
 Elliot ateiulily refuHsl ij ijjsn (ihld , p. 902); and 
 feeling timt 'all Mowot i>e<iirity was broken lo 
 pieces' (Ibid , p WK,. be orUiMl nil British sub 
 Jecu t<. leave (aiil4in (ibid., p KKH), he himself 
 Withdrew to the Purlugurse aetUcment at MacM j 
 
 436 
 
 (IblJ.. p. 1007), au! ho wrote to Auckland the 
 Uovemor-fieneral of ItMli^i. for armed assistance 
 (Ibid., p. s)».) The^j grave evenU nalumllr 
 treated profound anxiety. A Select Commltui 
 of the House of Comim^ns had formally declined 
 I . interfere with the trsile. The opium monopolv 
 at that time was worth some £1,000,000 or 
 i;, 800,000 a year to Dritlflh IndU (Ibid., p 1020) 
 and India, engai;<'<l in war with Afglianistsa 
 and alreoily Involved In a serious deBelt could 
 not affonl to part with so hirge an amount of m 
 revenue (il>il.. p. 1090). Nine-tenths ' the 
 British mcr.'lumts hi China were engaged : •]» 
 Illegal traio (ibid., p. 1030), whUe Elliot lo 
 enforcing the surrender of the opium, had dvea 
 tbeinerch ,u bonds on the British Oovemnwnt 
 for Its value, and the 20,000 chesU surrcmlrnil 
 » ore supposed to be worth from 600 to 1 "00 
 d.)llirs a chest (ibid., p. (WT). or say from 
 tJ.4(K»,m-1 to £4,800.000. ... As the 'rnmer 
 advanced, mon-nver, a fresh outrage Imnued 
 tlie Intensity „f the crisis. On the 7th .lulv some 
 British seamen landed Dear Ilong Koni, and 
 engaged la a serious riot A native «:i8 un- 
 fortunately kflliHl on the occasion, and thi>ujh 
 Elliot, at his own risk, gnve the lehjliona of tie 
 victlin a Urge pecunUry compensation, and 
 placed the men engaged la the riot on their trial, 
 Lin was not satisfied. He moved down to the 
 coast, cjl off the supplies of P.ritlsh suhjecti, 
 and thieatened to stop the suinlles to .Macao 'f 
 the Portuguese continued to oi^ist the llrltlsh. 
 (Ibid., pp. 1037-103».) The BritUh w, r.- m coo- 
 Sequence forced to leave .Macao; and u^Mt the 
 same tine a small schooner, the 'Blaik .Kike' 
 was attacked by the Chinese, and a Uriii^h sub- 
 Ject on boani of her seriously wounded. Sum 
 afterwards, however, the arrival of a ship of 
 war, the 'Volage,' In Chinese waters emibk^ 
 Elliot to assume a bolder front He returned to 
 Macao: he even atteinpted to procure sunplk* 
 from the mainfauid. But, though he su> (..Mtd 
 In purchasing food, ' the Mandarin runm ri ap- 
 proMbed and obliged the oatires to take hack 
 their proTlsIoas,' and Elliot, exasperated at ihiir 
 oondiiet, Hied on some war JunJta of the Chimse 
 which Rtumed the lln. A week afu rwanli 
 Elliot declared the port and river of t imton to 
 be la a sUte of blockade. (Ibid., p. 1008.) The 
 commencement of the blockade, however, dij 
 not lead to immediate war. On the contrary, t> 
 rhliieae showed cnoslderable desire to an" 
 fcOBtllltles. They InUsUil, Indeed, that some 
 British sailor must hi surrendered w them to 
 suffer for the death of the Chinaman wlm hikl 
 fallen In the riot of Uong Kong. But th.j 
 showed so much anxiety to conclude an anunkf 
 ment on this point that they endeavouKnl to In- 
 duce Elliot to declare tliat a sailor who was aid 
 dentally drowned In Chinese waters, and vlw~t 
 Iwdy they bod found, was the actual mtirli n r 
 (State l*uiHrs, v. 80, p. 27.) Ami Ic thr i:hiui 
 while the trade which Lln bad InU iidul to dr 
 stnvy went on at leatt as actively as ever. I.ln» 
 nn)ceeillngs bad, Indeetl, the effect of siltnjlat- 
 lag it U> an unprecedented degree. The drviruc- 
 lion of vast stores of opium led to a ri-H' in the 
 price of opium In China. Tlio rise in pric pro- 
 duced the natural consequence of on liirnssfd 
 speculation; and, though IlritUh sliippins wu 
 excluded from Chinese wivun, and the contents 
 of British Tesseln i id to be transfermi to.\rafri- 
 can bottoms for cv.iTexanoe Into Chinese p«tl% 
 
OaOfA, 183»-1841 
 
 OritmWmr. 
 
 CHINA, 1880-lMI. 
 
 Britith tnde hod never bern lo large or to 
 tdvantagcoiM ai in the ucriuj which succeeded 
 Un'i arbitrury pnxMHlluKa. Elliot was, of 
 couno, iioaMc to pruvcnt war cither by the 
 nirrrniler of a liritish tailor to tlie Chineie, or by 
 iTcn aasuuiiug that a tlruwm-d luan waa tlie 
 murderer; and war in conaequcnce became dally 
 more probable. In January, IMO, operationa 
 ictuaily commenced. Elliot was instructed to 
 mslie an armed demonstration on the northern 
 coasts it China, to take iMMacuinn of some Island 
 CO tlic coast, and to obtain reparation and in- 
 demnitr, If possible by a mere display of force, 
 but otoerw&e to procrcd with the squadron 
 ind thence tend an ultimatum to Pckin. In 
 tcconionce with these onlcra tlie lalnud of 
 Chusan waa occupied In July, and the fleet was 
 mt to the mouth of the I^iho with orders to 
 transmit a letter to Pekia But the sea oil the 
 IViho is shallow, the ship* could not approach 
 the coasts, ami the Chinese naturallyrvnised to 
 yield to an empty demonatratlon. The expcdi- 
 tioD was forced to return to Chusan, where It 
 found C'^t the troops whom they had left be- 
 hind were smitten by disease, tliat one out of 
 tTeiy four men were dead, and that more than 
 one-half of the survivors were InTaUded. Thua, 
 throughout 1840, the Cbineaa war waa only at- 
 tended with disaster and distrea. Things com- 
 nenced a little more prusperoualy in 1841 by the 
 capture of the Chlneae position at the mouth of 
 the Canton rlrer. Elliot, after tbia succesa, waa 
 even able to conclude a pn^'limlnary treaty with 
 the Chinese authoritlea. But this tn-aty did not 
 prove aatisfactorv either to the British Govern- 
 ment or to the Chinese. The British saw with 
 dismay that the treaty made no mention of Uie 
 trwle in opium which had been the ostensible 
 cause of tlie war. The Whig Government 
 tccunlingly derldol on superseding Elliot. lie 
 was recalled ami replaced by Henry Pottinger. 
 Before news of his recall reached him, however, 
 the treniy whic:h had led to his supersession had 
 been disavowed by the Chinese authorities, and 
 Elliot hod commenced a frenh attack on the 
 Chinese forrc which guarded the roail to Canton. 
 British sailors and Britlah tmopa, under the com- 
 mand of llnTOcr and Oough, won a victory 
 wblch plao-d Canton at their mercy. But Elliot, 
 slirinkiiiu' from cx|)osing a gn-at town to the 
 homOT of an asiwiilt, stopped tho advance of the 
 troops and admitted the city to a rinsom of 
 £l,2M,O0O. (Sir 11. Taylor's Autobiographr, 
 V. l.appx.. pp. ftW-3f)3.) Ills modemtion wits 
 naturiliy imaca jilaliie to tlic troops and not 
 fntlnly ;ii-provc<l liy the Dritish Clovemmcnt 
 It constituted, however, Elliot's hi«t action as 
 «i:cnt in Cliina. Tlic sulincquent opi-ratlons 
 wrre conducted under Polllngir's a«lvlcc."— 8 
 «a)p<.ic, lli>t. ,<f Eng. fnm 1815, Xott, t. S 
 n- -.^T-S!)! -" Pir Henry Pottinger, who arrlvd 
 M 1 Icnlpotcull iry on the 10th of August, to.ik 
 the chhf .lincilon of tho alTaln ... To the 
 end i.f MI tii.re »i re T-arijsis successes achieved 
 »•}■ the l.i:i,I aid i,;ivttl fonos, which gave tho 
 British ii-SMi-ion of many large fortilleil towns, 
 JjKjjfsl will, h wcr.- .Vmoy, Tinghal, Chinlml, 
 >ms.-\«.. and Slian'fhal. The Chinese were 
 r.evinh<l,-.« pirsevcring in Ui<lr resistance, and 
 10 most .-:i(s evinceii a braviry which showed 
 1.x- mi,:uk.ti were the views which regarded 
 tlic suhj. ciira of this extmordinarj- people as an 
 tuy taii>(. . . . The Britiah fleet oo the IStb of 
 
 Jime [184S] catered the great river KUn(, and 
 on the 6th of July advanced up the river, and 
 cut off lu communication with the Grand Canal, 
 by which Nanking, the ancient capital of Cidna, 
 was supplied with grain. The pdnt where the 
 nver interaecU the canal is the city of Chln- 
 Kiang-foo. ... On the morning of the 9tst the 
 city was stormed by the Britlah, in three bri- 
 gades. The realatance of the Tartar troops was 
 most desperate. Our troops fought under a 
 burning sun, wbow overpowering heat caused 
 some to fall dead. The obstinate defence of the 
 place prevented tU being Uken till all o'clock 
 In the evening. When the streeu wen entered, 
 the bouses were found almoat deserted. Tbey 
 were filled with ghastly corptet, many of the 
 Tartar aoldlen having destroyed the'r famllle* 
 and then committed suicide. The city, ^m the 
 number of the dead, had become unlnbiibiuble." 
 — C. Knlffht, Pbjmlar UM. cf Eng., e. 8, s*. 9& 
 —"The destruction of life was appalling. . . . 
 Every Maurhu pnfcrred resiManoe, death, 
 suicide, or flight, to surrender. Out of a Xanchu 
 popuintion of 4,000, It was eatlmated that not 
 more tlian SOO rurvived, the greater part having 
 perished by t'.ieir own lumda. . . . Within 
 twenty. four houra afl"r the troops landed, the 
 cit V ami suburbs of ChlnkUng were a mass of 
 ruin aud destruction. . . . The total loss of the 
 English was 37 killed and 181 wounded. . . . 
 Some of the large ships were towed up to Nan- 
 king, aud the whole fleet reached it August 9tb, 
 at which time preparations had been made for 
 the osaaiilL . . . Everything was ready for the 
 assault by daylight of August I5th;" but on the 
 night of the 14tn the Chinese made overtures for 
 the negothition of peace, and the Important 
 Treaty of Nanking waa toon afU'rwanls con- 
 eluded. Its terms were as follows: ■■!. Last- 
 ing peace between the two nations. 3. Tho 
 ports of Canton, Amov, Fuhchau, Ningpo, and 
 Shanghai [known afterwards as the Treaty 
 PorU] to be opeoeil to British trade and resi- 
 dence, and tnule conducted according to a well- 
 uuderstoixl tariff, 8 ' It Ixing obvlou.sly neces- 
 sary and desirable tliat British subjecUi should 
 have some port whereat they may careen and 
 reflt their ships when rei|iilre<i.' the island of 
 Hongkong to be ceiled to licr JIaJesty. 4. Six 
 miiliona of dollars to be paid as tlu' vu'luc of the 
 opium which waa delivered up 'as a ransom for 
 the lives of H. B. M. Superintendent aud sub- 
 jecu," in March, 1830. 5. -niree millions of 
 dolhus to be paid for the debu due to British 
 merchants. 8. Twelve millions to be paid for 
 the expenses Incurred In tlie exiH^iition sent out 
 ' to obtain redress for the violent and unjust pro- 
 ceedings of the Chinese liigh authorities. 7. The 
 entire amount of $31,000,000 to be paid before 
 December 81, 1843. 8, All prisoners of war to 
 be ImmcdUtely released by the C'Idnese, 9, The 
 Emperor to grant full and entire amnesty to 
 those of his subjects who had aided the British. " 
 .\nlcles 10 to 13 related to the tariff of export 
 and import duea that should be levied at the 
 open ports; to future terms of oQlcial corre- 
 S(K)ndencc, etc. The Treaty was sipned by the 
 CummUsiouen on the 20th of Augu .t, 1842, and 
 the Emperor's ratilication was received Septem- 
 ber l.lth.— S W. WiilUms, Th* MiddU Jiing- 
 dum, eh. SI-23. 
 
 Alio IN D C. Boulger, Bitt. of China, ». 8. eh. S 
 -7.— £. II. Parker, ChiiumAccttifthtO^um Har. 
 
CHINA, 1830-18M. 
 
 CHINA, 18Sa-18M. 
 
 cif 
 
 \'n 
 
 A. D. 1850-1864.— The Taiping Rebellion. 
 — "The phrase ' Tiiiping RelielHoii Is wholly of 
 foreign manufacture ; at Peking and everywhere 
 among those loyal to the government the in- 
 surgents were styled 'Chang-mao tseh,' or 
 'Longhaired rebels,' while on their side, by a 
 whimsical resemblance to English slang, the im- 
 perialists were dubbed ' Imps.' When the chiefs 
 assumed to be aiming at independence in 1830, 
 in onler to identify their followers with their 
 cause they took the terra ' Ping Chao,' or ' Peace 
 Dynasty, as the style of their sway, to dis- 
 tinguish it from the 'Tsing Chao,' or 'Pure 
 Dynasty ' of the Miinchus. Biich of them pre- 
 fixed tlie adjective • Ta ' (or ' Tai,' in Cantonese), 
 ' Qreat.' as is the Chinese custom with regard to 
 dynasties and nations; thus the name Tai-ping 
 became known to foreigners. " — 3. W. Williams, 
 T/ie MidiUe Kingdom, r/i. U(r. 2).— "This re- 
 markable movement, which at one time excited 
 much interest In Western lands, originated with 
 a man named Hung 8ew-tscuen [or Hung Slu- 
 tscucn], son 'if a humble peasant residing in a 
 village near Canton. On the occasion of one of 
 bis visits to the provincial city, probably in the 
 year 1^33, he appears to have seen a foreign 
 Protestant missionary addressing the populace 
 in the streets, assisted by a native interpreter. 
 Either then or on the following day he received 
 from some tr.iot-distributor a book entitled 
 ' Q(hk1 Wonls for Exhorting the Age, ' which 
 consisted of essays and sermons by Leang A-fah, 
 a well-known convert and evangelist. Taking 
 the volume home with him, be looked It over 
 with some interest, but carelessly laid it aside in 
 his iKiokcnse. A few years afterward he at- 
 tended for the second time the competitive 
 literary examination with high hopes of honor 
 and distinction, having already passed with 
 much cmlit the lower examination in the dis- 
 trict city. His nmbitious venture, however, met 
 with severe disappointment, and he returned to 
 his friends sick in mind and body. During this 
 state of mental depression and physical infirmity, 
 which continued for some forty days, he hail 
 certain stnnirc visions, in which he rccilveil 
 Ci>mmanils from heaven to destroy the idols. 
 TIh'«i fancied revelall'.ns seem to have pr<»luccd 
 a deep impression on his mind, and Itnl to a cer- 
 
 t;iln gravity of demeanor after his recovery and 
 
 his quiet occiini ' 
 vilhi^n schoolmaster. When the English war 
 
 return to his quiet occupation as a student and 
 
 broke out, and foreigners swept up Canton River 
 with their wonderful fire-ships, ... It is not 
 surprising that Hung should hare had his atten- 
 tion again attracted to the Christian publication 
 which Imd lain so hmg neglivted In his library. 
 . . . The wrillnK" of lA'ang Afah contalnetl 
 rhaplers from the Old and New Testament 
 Scriptures, which l.n found to com-spond In a 
 striking manner with the pnrtematural sights and 
 voices of that meinoniblu perhsi in his lilslory 
 [during his sickness, six years lirfore] ; and thts 
 strange coincidence convinced him of their Ir'ilh, 
 tndof his iM'ing divinely app<ilnte<l t^i restore 
 the world. tliHt is China, to the worship of the 
 true Uixl. Hung Si^w t«'Ucn accepted his mis- 
 sion and liegan the work of pn)pak;«ting the 
 filth he hail espoused. Among liis first converts 
 was one Fung Yun-san. who iKvanio a miMt 
 anient missionary anil disinterested preacher. 
 ThoM two leaders of the movement traveled far 
 
 people of all classes and forming a society o{ 
 Qo<{-worahlppers. All the converts rendiuiced 
 Idolatry and gave up the worship of Confucius. 
 Hung, at this time apparently a sincere ami 
 earnest seeker after tnith, went to Canton and 
 placed himself under the instructions of the Kev 
 Mr. Roberts, an American missionary, who for 
 some cause fearing that his novitiate ml^lit be 
 inspired by mercenary motives, denied him the 
 rite of baptism. But, without being oHemled 
 at this cold and suspicious treatment, he went 
 home and taught his converts how to baptize 
 themselves. Ifhe God-worshippers rapidly In- 
 creased in numbers, and were known and fesri I 
 as zealous Iconoclasts. . . . For a year after 
 Hung Sew-tseuen had rejoined the OiKl-wor- 
 shippers that society retained its exclusively 
 religious nature, but in the autumn of 18.50 it 
 wai brought into direct collision with the civil 
 magistrates, when the movement ossunieil a 
 political character of the highest aims." It was 
 soon a movement of declared rebellion, ami 
 allied with a rebel army of bandits and pirates 
 which hod ta'kcn arms against the govern- 
 ment In south-eastern China. — L. N. Wheeler, 
 The Pbrtigner in China, eh. 13.— "The llalika 
 schoolmaster proclaimed his " mission ' iu 1850. 
 A vast horde gathered to him. He norninateii 
 five 'Wangs 'or soldier su'i kings from out of 
 hisclan. and commenced hisnorthward movi'ment 
 from Woosewcn in January, IS.'il. TliMui^li 
 the rich prosperous provinces his desultory 
 march. Interspersed with frequent halts, spriail 
 destruction and desolation. The pe«( i il tteii 
 shudderinely l)efore this wave of fierce, - ilwsrt 
 rumanbood, with its tatterdemnliun tau,iriness, 
 its flaunting banners. Its rusty naked wcaiwiDs. 
 Everywhere It gathered in the fwal wsiuridn lisin. 
 The pirates came from the coa.Ht; the nihkrs 
 from the interior mountains rallied to u,u enter- 
 prise that promised so well for their traile. In 
 the perturbed state of the Chinese populntinn 
 the horde grew like an avalanche as it roileii 
 along. The Heavenly King [:is lluni; now 
 styled himself] met with no opixi-iilioii ti sixik 
 of, and in ItWJ his pnunenaili: ended unilir tho 
 shadow of the Porcelain Tower, in the riiy of 
 Nanking, the second metropolis of the Chinese 
 Empire, where, till the wWlllon and hit life 
 cndeil slmiillanmiusly, lie llveil a life of liirn- 
 tlousness, d.Hrkened further by the cnwae-t 
 cruelties. The relielllon had lasteil neurlv ten 
 years when the fates brought it into cnlllsifm 
 with the armed civilization of the West. Th,; 
 Imperialist forces had made sluk.'k'islily some 
 head against It. Nanking hail iHen i' vested 
 after a fashion for years on end. 'The [ii . -i|Ki Is 
 of the.Tai pings. 'says Commander Uriue. intli* 
 early spring of IS80, had become very (jliomy. 
 The Imperialist generals hail hemmed' 'I'lii pinK 
 dom within certain limits In the lower valley <>( 
 the Yants/e, and the movement lunKulihid 
 further 'from Its deslriicllve iiiiil exli;iii»tlnK 
 nature, which for continued vitality i.m^isntly 
 reqiilri'd new dlstrUts of country to e- 'mu-l ami 
 deslMy.' But In IH.IB China ami the \Ve,l lamo 
 Into collision. . . . The ndnlllon liml upper 
 tunity to recover h>st gniund. F.ir the sislli 
 time the 'Faithful King' ndleved N iiikiniT 
 The Imperialist generals fell back and then lli' 
 Tal-plngs took the olTensive. and as the reniill "( 
 sunary victories, the rebellion regained nn oiilve 
 •ud lluutiaiiiug uuudiUuu. . . , SiwuglMi, uOi: <ii 
 
 
 438 
 
CHINA, 18S0-18M. 
 
 War wilh 
 Snglaiui and Fmnct. 
 
 CHINA, 1856-1860. 
 
 the treaty ports, wm threatened."— A. Forbes, 
 Chinae Oonkm, eh. 8. — "Europe . . . hug 
 known evil dsvs under the hands of flcrcc con- 
 querors, plundering and destroying in religion's 
 name; but iti annals may Iw ransacked in rain, 
 without finding any parallel to the miseries 
 endured in those proTinces of China over whirh 
 'The Heavenly King,' the Tai-ping prophet, ex- 
 tended his fell sway for ten sad years. Hung 
 Sew-t°uen (better known in China by his assumed 
 title, Tien Wang) . . . hod read Christian tracts, 
 bod learnt from a Christian missionary; and 
 when ho announced publicly three years after- 
 wards that part of his mission was to destroy the 
 temples and Images, and showed in the jargon 
 of his pretended visions some truces of his New 
 Testament study, the conclusion was instantly 
 seized by the sanguine minds of a section set 
 upon evangelizing the East, that their efforts 
 had produced a true prophet, fit for the work. 
 Wedded to this fancy, they rejected as the in- 
 ventions of the enemies of missions the tales of 
 Talping cruelty which soon reached Europe: 
 and long after the details of tlie impostor's life 
 at Nonuin, with Its medley of visions, execu- 
 tions, edicts, and harem indulgence, became 
 notorious to the world, prayers were offered for 
 hU success by devotees In Oreat Britain as 
 blgotfd to his cause as the bloodiest commander, 
 or ' Wang,' whom be had raised from the ranks 
 of his followers to carry out his ' exterminating 
 decrees.' The Talping cause was lost in China 
 before It was wholly abandoned by these 
 fanatlri in England, and their belief in its ex- 
 cellence so powerfully reacted on our policy, 
 that it might have preserved us from active 
 intitrvintlon down to the present time, bad not 
 certain Imperialist successes elsewhere, tlie 
 diminishing means of their wasted possessions, 
 and tlie rashness of their own chiefs, brouglit 
 thcTaiping arms into direct collision with us. 
 And with tlie occasion there was happily raised 
 up the man whoso prowess was to scatter their 
 bliKKi cemented empire to pieces far more 
 •pwiily than It had bten built up." — C. C. 
 C'b(»iiiy, Kuny» in Military Biog., eh. 10. — "The 
 Tuiping rebellion was nf so barbarous a nature 
 that its suppression had become necessary In the 
 lntere«u of civilization. A force raised at the 
 expense of the Shanghai merchants, and sup- 
 ported by the Chinese government, had been for 
 some yuan struggling against iu progress. 
 This force, known as the 'Ever Victorious 
 Army.' was commanded at first by Ward, an 
 Amcrii-an, ami, on his death, by Burgevine, also 
 an American, who was summarily dismissed ; for 
 s short time the command was held by Holland, 
 an Kni;Il*li marine oOcer, but be was defeated 
 at Tuiuan 2» Feb.. 1863. LI Hung Chang, 
 govrniorgi'neral of tlio Kiang provinces, then 
 applied to the British commantkrin-chlef for the 
 services of on Engllsli officer, and Qonlon [Charles 
 OiKirge, subsequently known as 'Chinese 
 Ocirdcm'] was authoriae<l to accept the command. 
 Ho arrived at HungKlong and entenxl on his 
 new duties OS a mandarin and lieutenant -colonel 
 In the Chinese service on 94 March 1863. Ills 
 force was cumposeil of some three to four thou- 
 sand Chinese, offlcercd by l.W Europeans of 
 ^mcwt every nationality and often of doubtful 
 character. Bv the indomiuble will of It. com- 
 ■f^' tW* heterogeneous body was moulded 
 ffito a &Ui uiu; wiwse iiigii-souadiof title of 
 
 'ever- victorious' become a reality, and In less 
 than two years, after 88 enga;;eme>its, the 
 power of the Taipings was completely broken 
 and the rebellion stamped out 'The theatre of 
 operations was the district of Kiangsoo, lying 
 between the Yang-tze-Klang river in the north 
 and the bay of Hang-cliow in the south." Be- 
 fore the summer of 1863 was over, Gonlon had 
 raise<l the rebel siege of Chanzu, and taken from 
 the Taipings the towns of Fu.shiin, Taitsan, 
 Quinsan, Kiihpoo, Wokong, Pataehiiiow, Leeku, 
 Wanti, and Fusaiqwan. Finally, in December, 
 the great city of 8oo-chow was surrendered to 
 him. Cordon was always in front of all his 
 storming parties, "carrying no other weapon 
 than a little cane. His men called it his • magic 
 wand.' regarding It as a charm that protected 
 his lifi- and led them on to victory. W hen Soo- 
 chow fell Gordon had stipulated with the 
 Governor-general LI for the '.Ives of the Wangs 
 (reb<'l leaders). They were trcrrheroui'/ mur- 
 dered by Li's orders. Indign<int at ■ Is per- 
 fidy, Gordon refused to serve any longer with 
 Governor LI, and when on 1 Jan. 1864 money 
 and rewards were heaped upon him by the Em 
 peror, declined them all. . . . After some [two] 
 months of inaction it became e idcnt that if 
 Gordon did not again take the field the Taipings 
 would regain the rescued country," and he was 
 prevailed upon to resume his campaign, which, 
 although badly wounded In one of the battles, 
 he brought to an end in the following April 
 (1864), by the >a»pturcof Clianchufu. '"This 
 victory not only ended the campaign but com- 
 pletely destroyed the rebellion, and the Chinese 
 regular forces were enabled to occupy Nuniiin 
 in the July following. The large money present 
 offered to Gonlon by the em|H.'ri)r was again 
 declined, although he hod spent his pi.y in pro- 
 moting the elllciency of his force, so tlmt he 
 wrote home: 'I shall leave China as poor as 
 wlien I entered it '"—Col. R H. Veltch. C/iarUl 
 Oeotyt Oordiin (Diet, of Nat. Hiog.) 
 
 Also ts: A. E. Hake, T/u Story of Chinem 
 OnnUin, eh. 8-8.— W. F. Butler. Chiu. Oeorgt 
 Oonton, eh. 2.-8. Moasman. Qeiural Oonlm in 
 ClUiut.—PiitiU* Diary of Qen. Oonlon in C'Aiiut, 
 —Mm. Callery and \van, Uitt. of the Iruurrte- 
 lion in China. 
 
 A. D. 1856-1860.- War with England sad 
 France.- Bombardment and capture of Can- 
 ton.— The Allies in Pckio.— Their destruction 
 of the Summer Palace.— Terms of peace.— 
 The speech fn)m the throne at the opening of 
 the English Parliament, on Februi..-y 8, IS.'JT, 
 "stateil that acta of violence, Insult* to the 
 British flag, and infractions of treaty rights, com- 
 mitted by the local authorities at Cunton. and a 
 pertinacious refiuuil of redress, luul rendered It 
 necessary for 'her Abjesty's otHcers In China to 
 have recourse to measures of force to obtain satis- 
 faction. The allege<l olTenccs uf the Chinese au- 
 thorities at Canton had for their single victim 
 tlto lorcha ' Arrow.' The lorclia ' Arrow ' was a 
 small boat built on the European model. Tho 
 word ' Lorcha ' is taken from tliv IVrtuguetie set- 
 llemeut at Matao, at the nioiilli of the Canton 
 river. It often iwcura in treaties witli the CI lueso 
 authorities. Ou Ocuiber 8. tti'iO, a party of 
 Chinese in charge of an offlcer lN>anle<f the 
 'Armw,' In the Canton -Iver. They liwk oil 
 twelve men on a charge of piracy, leaving two 
 men to charge of the Forcha. The ' Arrow ' wm 
 
 439 
 
'► ! ' 
 
 CBIXA. 18S0-1890. 
 
 Affair of 
 tk* Arrmi. 
 
 CHINA, 18S0-18aa 
 
 ^: 
 
 declnrod by Its ownera to be » Britiah vessel 
 Our mnsiil at Canton, Mr. Parkcs, ilcmaiulwi 
 irom Yeh, the Chinese Governor of Canton, the 
 return of the men, basing his demand uiion the 
 1 reaty of 1843. sunplementnl to the Treaty of 
 1843. Tliis treaty did not give tlie Chinese au- 
 thorities any riglit to seize Cliincse offenders, or 
 supposed offenders, on Imard an English vessel. 
 It mereiy gave them a right to require tlie sur- 
 render of the olfcnders at the lunds of tlic 
 Engli.sh. The Cliini-Me Governor, Ych. con- 
 tended, however, tliat tlic lorcha was a Cliinesc 
 j)irate vessel, which had no right whatever to 
 hoist the flag of England. It may be plainly 
 8tate<l at once that the • /■ -row ' was not an 
 English vessel, but oiilv a Ciiineso vessel wliicli 
 had obtaine<l by false pretenec« the temporary 
 possession yf a British llag. Mr. Consul Partes, 
 however, wag fussy, and he demanded the in- 
 stant restoration of the captured men, an<l lie sent 
 off to our Plenipotentiary at Hong Kong. 8ir 
 John Bortiliig, for authority and assTstanceln the 
 business. Sir John Bowring . . . ordered the 
 Chinese authorities to surrender all the men uken 
 from the ' Arrow,' and he insisted that an apology 
 should be offered for their arrest, and a formal 
 ple<ige given that no such act should ever be 
 committed again. If this were not done within 
 forty -eight hours, naval operations were to be be- 
 
 ?in against the Chinese. The Chinese Governor, 
 eh, sent back all the men, and undertook to 
 promise that for the future great care should be 
 taken that no British ships should be visited Im- 
 properly by Chinese olHcers. But he could not 
 offer an apology for the particular case of the 
 • Arniw, for he still maintained, as was indeed 
 the fart, that the 'Arrow ' was a Chinese vessel 
 and thai the English hati nothing to do with her' 
 Accmiingly Sir .Jolin Bowring carried out his 
 tirciit, ami had Canton bombarded by tlie fleet 
 J. hi. h Adnilnii Sir .Micliael !S<"\"i,ourcommandetl 
 r-.om »>et()l)er 23 to November 18 naval and mili- 
 tary o, eratious were kept up continuously. Com- 
 missioner Yeh retaliated by foolishly oilerinir a 
 rewanl for the heiul of every Euglishman. This 
 news from China cn'ated a considerable M'nsation 
 In England. t)n February 84, la'jr, \a>v\ IX^rbv 
 brouiflit forwanl in the House of Lonis a motiori 
 comprehensively condemning the whole of the 
 proctjillngs of the British autlioritiea in China. 
 The debate would have U^n memorable if onl" 
 for the powerful s|wwh in which the venerable 
 Lord Lvndhurst supported the motion, and ex- 
 posed the utter Illegality of the raurse pursuwl 
 by Sir John IjAwring. The Houm- of LonIs re- 
 jected the motion ofLord Derby »i a nialoritv 
 of 148 to 110. On February 26 'Mr Cobden 
 brought forward a similar motion in the Hou.ic 
 of Commons. . . . .Mr. CoUlcn h:id pi.'lialily 
 never dreamed of the amount or the nature of 
 llie support his motion was destined to nivlve 
 The vote of censure was carried by 263 voti^s 
 against 247 - u majority of 16. Lord Palmerston 
 announced two or tlirt^*) days after that the 
 Oovemiiient hail nN)lv(^l on a dtwolution and un 
 apixal to the country Lord Palmerston under- 
 sto««l his countrjmen." In the ensuing elections 
 his victory waso.mnlete. "CoUlen, Bright, Mil- 
 ner Glb*,n W. J. Fon, Layard, and many other 
 calling opponents of the Chinese policy, were 
 left without seau. Lord Palmerston came back 
 I'l "Tyi *'"' I*"""*"! »nd redoubled strength " 
 H« bad the satisfaction before he kft offlo: [in 
 
 1858] of being able to announce the capture ol 
 Canton. The operations against Chtoa had I„.en 
 virtually suspended . . . when the Indian Mu- 
 tiny broke out. England had now got the o. 
 operation of ti^ance. France had a complaint of 
 long standing agidnst China on account of the 
 murder of some missionaries, for which nnlresa 
 had Ix'eti asked in vain. There was, therefore 
 an allle.1 attack made upon Canton [DeeemlHT' 
 1S57J, and of course the city wag easily captun^il' 
 Commissioner Yeh himself wag Uken prisoner 
 not until l.e had been sought for and hunted out 
 n most Ignominious fashion. He wag found at 
 last hidden away in some obscure part of a house 
 He was known liy his enormous fatness. 
 He was put on boanl an English man-of-war ami 
 afterwan s sent to Calcutta, where he dic^d iurlv 
 In the following year. Unless report greatly he- 
 lietl him he bad beep exceptionally cruel even 
 fcr a Chinese official. The English and Fitnch 
 Envoys Lord Elgin and Baron Qros, succewled 
 in making a treaty with China. By tie con 
 ditlona of the treaty, England and France were 
 to have minii-ters at tlie Chinese Court on certain 
 special occasions at least, and China was to be 
 represented in London and Paris; there was to 
 be toleration of Christianity in China and a 
 wrtain freedom of access to Chinese rivers for 
 inglUh and French meroantlle vessels, ami to 
 the Interior of China for Enj^ilsh and Ftfnch sub- 
 lectg. China was to nay the expenses of the war 
 It was further agreed tliat the tenn 'barbarian' 
 ?:'i°f °° iS"**"' •" •* applic<l to Europeans In 
 China. There was great congratulation in Eng- 
 land over this treaty, and the prospect it affoniSi 
 of a lasting peace with China. The peace thus 
 procured lasted in fact exactly a year The 
 
 treaty of Tien-uin, which had been arrangid by 
 Lord Elgin and Baron Oroa, conuined a clause 
 pnu'id ug for the exchange of the ratifleaiions 
 at Pekin witliin a year from the dai \ of tlie »ig- 
 iiature, which took place In June laW. b,r,I 
 Elgin returned to England, and his brother, Mr 
 JriHlerick Bruce, was appointed In Slareli IN59 
 Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleniimien- 
 tiary to China. Mr. Bruce wag directetl to pro- 
 ceed by way of the Peiho to Tientsin, and thence 
 to Pekto to exchange the ratiflcatious of the 
 treaty. Lord MalmesLury, who was then Foreign 
 Secretary . . . lmpress«d upon Mr. Bruce lliat 
 he was not to be put off from going to the aipiial. 
 Instructions were sent out from England at tlic 
 same time to Admiral Ho|)e, the Jfaval Com- 
 manderinChlcf in China, to provide a sultii ieot 
 force to accompany Mr Bruce to the mouth of 
 the Pelho. The Pelho river tlows from the high- 
 lands on the west Into the Gulf of Pechell, at the 
 north-east comer of the Chinese domlnlens. The 
 capital of the Emnire is about 100 miles inland 
 from the mouth of the Peiho. It does not stiiud 
 on that river, which flows past It at some Ui«- 
 liince westward, but It U connected with the 
 river iiy means of a canal The t4)wn of Tien- 
 tsin stands on the Pelho near Ita junction with 
 one of the manv riven that flow into It, and 
 alKiut forty miles from the mouth. The entrance 
 to the Peiho was defended by the Taku fori.. 
 On June 20. 1S59. Mr Bruce and the French En 
 voy renciiwl the mouth of the Peiho with Admlnd 
 Ho|H-s fleet, some Dlneteen vessels In sll, to 
 escort them. They found the forU defended: 
 sinne negotiations and ioter-communlca'!uujtook 
 place, itbU a Chiucse uOiviai from Tisa-tgin caiuv 
 
 440 
 
C-aiNA. 18S6-18aO. 
 
 Airbuifunj 
 i» AWk. 
 
 CHINA, 1897-1M8. 
 
 
 uod endeavoured to obtain lome 
 proinin. Mr. Bruce became con- 
 
 vii" .'(1 lufi . the condition of things predicted by 
 :^)nl Malriicsbury was coming about, and tlut 
 tilt Chinese authorities were only trying to de- 
 fciit Ills purpose. He called on Admiral Hope 
 to clear a passage for the vessels. When the 
 Ailmiml brought up his gunboats the forts 
 o|Kne<l Are. The Chinese artillerymen showed 
 unexpected skill and precision. Four of the gun- 
 Uiuts were almost immediately disabled. All 
 tlic attacking vessels got aground. Admiral 
 Hope lUtenipted to storm the foru. The attempt 
 wtti> a compiecc failure. Admiral Hop himself 
 wiis woun<le<l; so was the commander of the 
 French vessel which iiad contribute<i a contingent 
 to the storming party. The attempt to force a 
 passage of the river was given up and the mis- 
 sion to Pukin was over for the present. It seems 
 only fair to cay that the Chinese at the mouth of 
 the'P'.'iho cannot be accused of |>ertidy. They 
 had mounted the forta and liarricadvd the river 
 openly and even ostentatiously. ... It will be 
 eHsily inmgine<i t it the news created .^ deep 
 seniuitiou in England. People in general made 
 up their minds at once that the matter could not 
 be allowed to rest there, and that the mission to 
 Ptkin must be enforced. . . . Before the whole 
 question came to be discussed in Parliament the 
 Conservatives had gone out and the Liberals ' id 
 come in. The English and French Giovemmeuts 
 determined that the men who had made the 
 treaty of Tien-tsin — Lord Elgin and Baron Qnn 
 — should be sent back to insist on its reinforce- 
 ment. 81r Hope Unmt was appointed to the 
 militiiry command of our land forces, and Qeneral 
 Cousin de .Montauban, afterwards Count Palikao, 
 commanded the soldiers of France. The Chinese, 
 to do them Justice, fiught very bravely, but of 
 course they had no clmnce whatever against such 
 forces IIS those commun<led by tlie English and 
 Fnnch generals. The allies ciiptun'd the Taku 
 fort.1 [August, 1800L occui)led Tientsin, ami 
 infirciieil on Pekin. The Chinese Oovemment 
 eniiciivoured to negotiate for peace, and to iuter- 
 |H)se liny manner of delay, diplomatic or other- 
 wise, between the allies and their progress to the 
 espitui. LonI Elgin consented at IhkI to enter 
 into negotiations at Tungchow, a walled town 
 tell or twelve miles nearer tlian Pekin. Before 
 tile negotiations took place. Lord Elgin's secre- 
 taries. Mr. Purkes and Mr. Loch, gome English 
 olticers. Mr Uowlhy, the o>rrespontlent of the 
 'Times,' and some members of the stall of Baroa 
 Oriw, were tiiiieherously seized by the Chinese 
 while uiiiler a Hug of truce and dragged off to 
 viirii us |iri.«iiis. Mr. Purkes and >Ir. L<Kh, with 
 cknii of their companions, were afterwanis n'- 
 leiixd lifter having Iwen treated with much 
 eruclty and Iniilgnity, but thirteen of the prison- 
 ere ill 1 of the horrible 111 treatment they re- 
 cilvei L<)rd Elgin refused to negotiate until 
 the iirismicrs had been returned, and the allied 
 Hriuiis Were B'-tually at one of Ibe great gates of 
 I'elklii, sud lind their guns in ixwUion to blow 
 tlie Kate In, when the Chinese acceiled U) their 
 teriiii. The gate was surrendered, the Bilk's eu- 
 liriil the citv, and the English and French flags 
 wi re Iu.UimJ ,|,|e by side on the walls of Pekin 
 It WHS only after entering the city that LonI 
 Elifiii learned of the munler of the captives. He 
 Hum letemilned that the Summer Palace should 
 K burul duwD ■■ a meuia ui impressing the 
 
 mind of the Chinese authoritiet genenlly with 
 some sense of the danger of treachery and foul 
 play. Two days were occupied in the destruc- 
 tion of the paUce. It covered an area of many 
 miles. Oanlens, temples, small lodges, and pa- 
 godas, groves, grottoes, lakes, bridges, terraces, 
 artillchd hills, diversiHed the vast space. All 
 the artistic treasures, all the curiosities, arch- 
 aeological and other, that Chinese wealth and 
 Chinese taste, such as it was, could bring to- 
 ge*'<°r, had been accumulated in this magnificent 
 pit ' . unce. The surrounding scenery was 
 be . ..'ul. The high mountains of Tartaiy ram- 
 pai :<.d one side of the enclosure. The buddings 
 were set on fire ; the whole place was given over 
 to destruction. A monument was ralsi'd with an 
 inscription in Chinese, setting forth that such 
 waa the reward of perfidy and cruelty. Very 
 different opinions were held in England as to the 
 destruction of the Imperial palace. To many it 
 seemed an act of unintelligible and unpardonable 
 vandalism. Lord Elgin explained, that if he did 
 not demand the surrender of the actual perpetra- 
 tors, it waa because be knew full well that no 
 dittlculty would have been made alH>ut giving 
 him a seeming satisfaction. The Chinese Oovem- 
 ment would have selected for vicarious punish- 
 ment, in all probability, a crowd of mean and 
 unfortunate wretches who had nothing to do with 
 the murders. ... It is somewluit singular that 
 so many persons should have been roused to in- 
 dignation by the destruction of a building who 
 took with perfect composure the unjust invasion 
 of a count^. The allied powers now of course 
 had it all their own way. England established 
 her right to have an envoy In Pekin. whether the 
 Chinese liked it or not. China had to pay a war 
 indemnity, and a large sum of money as com- 
 pensation to the families of the murdered pristm- 
 emand to those who had suffered injuries, and 
 to make an apology for the attack by the garrison 
 of the Taku forts. Perhaps the most important 
 gain to Eumpe from the war was the knowledge 
 that Pekin was not by any means so large a city 
 as we had all imagined it to be, and that it was 
 <m the whole rather a crumbling and tumble- 
 down sort of place." — J. McCarthy, S/iort Hint, 
 of our men Tintt, eh. 13, 15, 17 (cA. 30 aiui 43, 
 e. 8, iif Uirger vork). 
 
 Also i.n: L. Oliphant, NarrnUtt of the Earl of 
 Klgin't Mition, t. 1, — H. B. Loch, Ikrmituil Nur- 
 nitire.—a. W. Williams, The MiMle Kingitom, 
 eh. a (e. 2).— Col. Sir W. F. Butler, Chu. Ueo. 
 Oontun, eh. 8. 
 
 A. O. i8s7-l868.— Treaty with the United 
 States.— The Burlingame Embassy and the 
 Burlinrame Treaties. — "The guvernment of 
 the I'lilteil States vieweil with «n.\iely the new 
 breaking nut of liostilitie:! U'tween Ureut liritain, 
 supported !)»• Friiiict' as an iilly, and Cliiim, in the 
 ve»r IMII. 'Preitident Buchuniin mliI thitlier the 
 ilim. William 1). Keed to wuti h the eourst! of 
 events, and to act tlie part of a miKlistor and 
 iK'aivmaker when opportunity should offer. 
 In Wn* he was sustained liv (lie intliience of 
 Itussla. Mr. Iteed arrived in Ibing Knng. or- llie 
 line war steaim r .Minnesota, NuveiniHT 7, 1N.>7. 
 He at once set himself to reninve tlie dirtlciillies 
 U'lweeu the En»;'i»li anil Chinese, nml s.ive if 
 possible the fulun' elTiisii)n of IiNkmI He en- 
 deavored ill vain to persuade the pmiid mid ob- 
 Hiinate governor Yen tn yii-ltl jiod itive ('iitil^tQ 
 from bombardment. He proceeded to the north. 
 
 411 
 
CHIN^ 1857-1888. 
 
 Burlingame 
 Embanj/. 
 
 CHINA, 1857-18«8. 
 
 and m«do on behalf of bb government a treaty 
 of pt^ce with China which was glgniii June lA 
 Tlic flret article of the treaty contains asicnifi- 
 cnnt referencx- to the posture of the Culted States 
 in n'lation to the war then in proKrvas as well 
 as to any whlcli might thcreafur arise. The 
 artKlo says: -There shall be, as there have 
 always ixua, peace and friendship Iwtween the 
 Lniud States of America and the TaTsiuK 
 Empire, and between their people respectively 
 Tliiy shall not Insult or op,,ress each other for 
 any trttimg cause, so as to pnxluce an estraoKe- 
 ment between them; and If any other natn)n 
 should act unjustly or oppressively, the United 
 btaU's will exert their good offices, on being 
 Infonned of the case, to bring about an amicable 
 arrangement of the question, thus showing their 
 friendly fetiings.' A subsequent article of this 
 treaty Is to be taterpreted by kitping In view 
 tlie bitter root of the dlfflculties between Great 
 
 , Vi.o„''°'',*^'''°» *''''^'' '"> 'o 'he previous war 
 
 of 1839 to 43, and to this war After statlnit 
 
 the ports where Americans shall be permitted to 
 
 reside and their vessels to trade, it continues In 
 
 the following language: 'But said vessels shall 
 
 not carry on a clandestine and fraudulent trade 
 
 at othe- ports of China net declared to be legal 
 
 or along the coasto there-of ; and any vessel under 
 
 the American flag violating this provision shall, 
 
 with her cargo, be subject to confiscation to the 
 
 tliinise government; and any cltizi-n of the 
 
 Lnacd states who shall trade in any contraband 
 
 article of merehandi.w sliall be subject to be 
 
 dealt with by the Chinese government, without 
 
 lieing entitled to any countenance or protection 
 
 from that of the Inlted States; and the United 
 
 Males will take measures to prevent their flag 
 
 from iK'ingabused by tlie subjects of other nations 
 
 as a coyer for the violation of the laws of the 
 
 empire. The development of the foreign 
 
 tm.le with China during the brief time which 
 
 has passed [INTO] since llie Ixst war has been very 
 
 great. . . The American government has ken 
 
 representwl most of the time by the Hon. An8<m 
 
 Uur ingamc. who has taken the lead, with n - 
 
 markabl.. ability Bn<l su.cvss, in establLshing 
 
 the policy of peaceful coi.|)<.ration between the 
 
 chief treaty powers, in encouraging tlie Chinese 
 
 to iidopt a more wise and pn.gressive policy 
 
 n the r entenourse with foreign nations and in 
 
 llie IntrtKluetion of the improveiiienls of the age 
 
 . . . Mr. Uurllngimie. whohailU-enlnChiiiasix 
 
 years, determined [in 18«:| to resign his post and 
 
 reiiim to Amenca. The news of it exc t .'.l iiiiich 
 
 ngret ainoiig lioth Chiiiem. and fon'-n <lipl,mia- 
 
 tiHt.s 1 he former endeavored In vain U) dis-siimle 
 
 him from his purixwe. Failing to lu complish this, 
 
 he wasinvlu.,1 by I'rinc.. Kui.g loa farew.llenler 
 
 jalnnirnt. at which wir.' pn«.nl niiuiy of the l.ad- 
 
 Ing olllcrrs of il,e government. During it they 
 
 exi.r. .H.S.M1 l„ hlin their gratitude for his ofllces to 
 
 theiiiiisan inlclllgent an.l disinterested counselor 
 
 MO friend. And tliey seem to have conceived at 
 
 this thiie the thought of putting th« niations of 
 
 the empire with foreign countries npona more Ju.st 
 
 •nc cjual ba«i.H, l,y «..ndlng to them an impJrial 
 
 eniliassy of which he should be the hea<i T'lev 
 
 nmiimily con8ult..<l some of their more rellabfe 
 
 fri. niU iiniong the foreign gentlemen at the capi- 
 
 M. and 1,1 two days afur they Unden'<l Ui Mr. 
 
 Burlingame. much to his surprise, the appolnt- 
 
 men of mli.lsier plen!;H)tcnti«ry of China to the 
 
 Western pvwct* . . , Sir. Uufllugaiue iufi the 
 
 Cunese capital on the SRtii of XovemlKr 1867 
 The embassy oonsistol. besides the principal of 
 Ch h-kang and Sun Cliiaku, a Mauchu uikI « 
 Chinese officer each wearing the red ball „„ i,u 
 cap which Indicates on offlcfi.l of o rank nfuZ 
 the highest in the empire; J. McLeary Unm,, 
 formerly of the British legathm, andM 1),., 
 champs, as secretaries; Teh Jllng and Fuiixi 
 as Chinese attaches, and several other ...rsons 
 nsulKmlinatc positions. . . . It went to «I,X! 
 hiU, thence to San Francisco, where It was nidt 
 cjiniially welcmicd by both the American axu 
 (.hiiiese mercantile commup:les. It reiulail 
 Washington In May, 1868. riie cmhaj; «„ 
 i^ifiV-' *t' ?"" ''. '"sOnftlon at the A.n.ricua 
 capital. No American statesman was so cnnal.le 
 ami dlsi«.se,l to enter conlially into Its ohje taas 
 
 William H. Seward, wli<«o mind ha.1 1»bk an: 
 preheiided the gre'„; features of the policy wliu'l, 
 American and fcr.ign nations shoulcl pursue in 
 relati jn to the Cldnese empire. On the Ifiili of 
 Ju. the Senate of the United States ratiticU 
 ti«ity which he had made in behalf of tlil. 
 country with the representative of the Chinese 
 government The treaty defines and fixes the 
 P,.f ';.','•■* "' the intercourse of Western nations 
 witu China, of the Importance of which I have 
 already spoken. It secures the territorial iuteg- 
 
 ^X? '•'.".''"'.P'"','""' "'"cedes to China the 
 rights which the civilized nations of the world 
 accord to ca'-h other as to eminent domuiii over 
 land and waters, and jiirisdictioii over ix-^ons 
 and pro|x.rty therein. It t^ikes the oL step 
 toward the appiilntmcnt of Clilnes»' consuls in 
 our si'aports — a measure proniotiv.^ of l„ith 
 Chinese and American Intere^sLs. Itwiiiris u- 
 
 emptiou from all disability or pei*,uiion on 
 faith in either coiinirv. It 
 
 442 
 
 acioiiiii of religi. 
 
 recoi;iii/.cs the rif . o' voliiuUiry eiu'lKioiiiui' mi 
 makes iKiial the v ...ngg „f n^. coolie irulll, It 
 plwigcs priv':.ge8 as to travel or resi.l.ncu in 
 either coi:utry such as are enjoviil bv tin i,«t 
 faytred nation. It grants to tlie CfiiniM mr- 
 mission to attend our schools aixl colli-.r, IiuJ 
 allows us u>fr.Tly establish ami maintain sihoolj 
 In ( una. And while it acknowledg ,„. riifbt 
 of the Chinese government to conti..i ii.s own 
 whole Interior arrangements, as u> niilroiids, 
 tcl.graplis and other Internal Inipreveiii. uts it 
 suggests the willingnesa of our goveriiin. ut to 
 Bllord aid toward their ramstruct'on liv ilisii- 
 iiating and authi.riiing suitable cngiiicrs w 
 perform the work, at the expense of the I'hiuew 
 goveriim-iit. The tr «ty expressly leav,« the 
 (|iiestlim of naturalization in either country «n 
 o|)en one. ... It is not necessary to follow in 
 (htail the pn>gre8s of this first lmpcri.il t'hiniw 
 embassy In England it was re'ci-lved ut tint 
 \ery coldly, and It was some months Ufore 
 pro|Hr attention ci>uld be secured fnmi tin uor- 
 crniient to its obJi-<t«. At length, how.vc r, on 
 >;iv,|iiilK'r at). It was presenteil to the uiinst 
 » iidsor Castle. . . . What hoar* U thin that 
 will not join In theconlial »i.;l. ihu( 'h- tr,.itiei 
 iiuide I).v the emiMtssj- with Great Uritaiii, FruKf, 
 I rii.<>iia ;oid other European powers mH\ !«• the 
 coii.ineiiccmeat of a new era in the (iii"iIoinatic 
 am; national iiitcreourae of China with iliu* and 
 a! other land) of the We8t!"-W. 8pe.r, Ut 
 HUletl unit IIk Xttetit Binpirt. eh. 14. 
 
 AlJt.1 IN T<f>Hia ami amtc::l:'>.v h,: 0* 
 I. H. aiu: uHier J\neen (last), p, lJ»0Bdl7». 
 
CHIKA, 1884-188S. 
 
 Futurt of 
 the Chinam. 
 
 CHIPPEWA. 
 
 A. D. 1884-1885.— War with Frmnce. Sw 
 Fuasce: a. D. 1875-1889. 
 
 A. D. 1893.— Ezdtttion of Chinr.xe from the 
 United Statu. See Unitku Static of Am. : 
 A. D. 18»a. 
 
 A D. 1893.— The future of the Chinese. — A 
 iptculation.— " China ia generally regunled asa 
 stutiiimiry power which can fairly hold its own, 
 tliougli it has lost Anniun tc Fmnce, and the 
 •uieniinty of Upper Biinnah to England, and 
 the AmcKJf Valley to liussia, jut wliieU is not a 
 jcrious coniiH'ti'or in tlie race for eninire. There 
 is a certain i- .lusibility in this vii . •. On the 
 other hand, Cliina luis recovered Eai>.«ni Turkes- 
 tan from MiUiommedan rule and from a liussiaa 
 prutectiimte, is dominating the Corea, and has 
 stamped out a dangerous reljcl'm in Yunnan. 
 No one can doulit that if China were to get for 
 niTeri'iKn a man witli the rrganising and aggres- 
 sive genius of Peter the Great or Frederick the 
 Sjccdod. it would lie a very formidable neighbour 
 to either British India or Russia. Neither is it 
 easy to suppow that the improvements, now 
 tentatively intruducca iutoChiua, will notS'Kin be 
 taken up and puslied on a large scale, so that 
 nilnays will be carried into the heart of Asia, 
 and lar^e armiesdrillcd and furnished -'itharms 
 of precision on the European model. In any 
 such KLse the rights which China has reluet;intly 
 conceded or still claims over Annam and Ton- 
 uuln, over Siam. over Upper Burmah. and ever 
 Ntpaul, may become mitta-rs of very serious dis- 
 cussion. At present the French settlements 
 srrest the expansion of China in tlie direction 
 inoiit dangerous to the world. Unfortunately, 
 tlie elimale of Saigon is sucli as no Euroiwan 
 cares 10 wttle in, and the war to secure Tonquia 
 vss Mj unpopular that it cost a French premier 
 ills tenure of otllce. . . . Whatever, however, be 
 the fortune of China in this direction, it is 
 scarcely doubtful tliat she will not only people 
 up to the furthest Inundary of Iier recognised 
 territory, but gradually acquire new dommiona. 
 Tlie history of our Straits oettleinenta will afford 
 a familiar instance how the Chinese an. spread- 
 ing, Tliey already form half the population 
 predoniiiiating in Singapore i<nd I'eruk, and the 
 best oliservers are agreed that ihe Maluy cannot 
 hold bis own against them. They are beginning 
 to settle in Borneo and Sutiiaira, and tliey are 
 supplanting the natives in some of the small 
 islands of the Pacific, such as Hawaii. The 
 cliinat<' of all these countries suits them, and they 
 commend themselves to governments and em. 
 
 players by their power of steady Industry ; Rud 
 they intcrman^ freely up to a saf j point with 
 the women "f .he country, getting all the 
 advantages of alliance, yet not sacridcing their 
 nationality. Several causes have reUirded 
 their spread hitherto: the regions enumerated 
 liave mrstly been too insecure for an industrial 
 
 Ee^plc to fliurish In, until the Bntish or the 
 lute'-, established order; the government of 
 China has hitherto discouraged emigration; 
 English administrations have been obliged to lie 
 rather wary in their dealings with a people who 
 showed at Sarawak and Penang tl"it they were 
 capable of combining for purposes of mu.s.sicre; 
 and tlie Chinese superstition alHiut burial in the 
 sacred soil of the Celestial Empire mi"''! the 
 great majority of the emij^rants birds of passage. 
 All these causes are dliappearing. . . . Euro- 
 peans cannot flourish unt'er the tropics, and will 
 Lit work with the hand where an interior race 
 works. What we have to consider, therefore, is 
 the probability that the natives who are giving 
 way to the Chinese in the Malay Peninsuli will 
 be able to make bead against them in Borneo or 
 Sumatra. Bo:.-ieo is nearly six times as big as 
 Java, and if it were peopled like Java would 
 suppor a population of nearly 100,000,000. . . . 
 In the long run the Chinese, who O'lt-numbcr 
 t'"' Malays as sixteen to one, who are more 
 <lecidedly industrial, and who organise where 
 they can in a way that precludes competition, 
 are tolerably certain to gain the upper hand. 
 They may not destroy Uie eurly settlers, but 
 they will reduce them to the position of the Hill 
 tribes in India, or of the Aiiios in Japan. 
 Assume fifty years hence tliat China has taken 
 ita inevitable position as one of the great powers 
 of the world, and that Borneo has a population 
 of 10,000,000, predominantly Chinese, is it easy 
 to suppose in such a case that the larger part of 
 Bomi 1 would still be a dependency of tlie 
 Netherlands t or that the whole islanil would not 
 liavo passed, by arms or diplomacy, iiit<i the 
 possession of China t . . . There are those who 
 Jelieve that the Chinaman is likely t<i sujierseda 
 the Spaniard and Indian alike iu parM of »outh 
 America."— C. H. Pearson, A'ativnal Life and 
 CharatUr, pp. 45-51. 
 
 A. D. 1894-1805.— The Korean c|uestion 
 and war with Japan.— Japanese victories. 
 See KoiiKA. 
 
 On other subjects relating to China, see 
 Thade, Medi.eval ; Edl'i A'l ION : LiuitvitrES, 
 MuoEBM ; and Mo.net >nii Bankimi. 
 
 CHINANTECC. The. See A.mkkican Auo- 
 
 niOLNt,*; ZaI-OTECS, ETC. 
 
 CHING OR TSING DYNASTY, The. 
 
 SeeCiiiSA: A. 1). ViMt 1882. 
 
 CHINGIS KHAN, Conquests of. See MoN. 
 •.ou: A. a 1153-1227; and Indu: A. D. P77- 
 12iXI. 
 
 CHINOOK, The. See Amkhicam Abohi- 
 oixeh: Ihinookan Family. 
 
 CHIOGGIA, The War of. See Venice: 
 
 A I) i:n»-ia8i. 
 
 CHIOS.— The rocky Island knovn nncientl- 
 IS tliii*. ealli^l f^cio in modern 'Imes, was one of 
 the places wl ieli claimed Homers birth. It is 
 utuaud iu the Egeun Sea, separated by a strait 
 oiiiv «ve . M,., i,li, from the Asiatic cioaU The 
 wlues of Chilis wire famous hi antiquity ami 
 aire u guud reputation at tlui present day. The 
 
 Island was an important niemlier of the Ionian 
 confederation, and afterwards subject to Athens, 
 from which it revolteil twice, suitcring terrible 
 barlwrities in consequence. See Asia Mlnoh: 
 TheQheek Couimes. 
 
 B. C. 413. -Revolt from Athens. See 
 Ghebck: B. C. 413-412. 
 
 A. O. 1346.— Taken by the Genoese. See 
 CoNSTANTiNoPLi;: A. I). 1348-i;t.Vi. 
 
 A. D. 1681.— Blockade and attack by the 
 French. S<c»AitiiARv States: a. I». 1«(U-U184. 
 
 A. O. 1770.— Temporary possession by the 
 Russians. See Tihkb A. I). 17tW-1774. 
 
 A. D. 1823.— Turkish massacre of Chris- 
 tiana. SeeQHEECE: A. I). 1821-182«. 
 
 CHIPPEWA, Battle of. S« Ukitki.Htatm 
 or Am. : A. U. 1814 (J uly— bKPTEMUEU). 
 
 44S 
 
f I 
 
 CHIPPEWA8. 
 CHIPPEWAS. OR OIIBWAS, The. Soe 
 
 AMERICAN AnoRIOtNM: AUJONQUUW FaMILT 
 AKD CllnWAS. ' 
 
 CHIPPEWYANS, The. See Ai«»ican 
 AfloHiniNEs: Athapascan FAMtLY. 
 nJE b , °''' The.-"Thc chiton [of t\ e ancient 
 Greeks] wiu an oblong niece of cloth armnged 
 round the body so that the arm was put through 
 a hole in the closed side, the two ends of the open 
 side being fasU'ncil over the opposite shoulder 
 by means of a button or clasp. On this latter 
 side, thea.fore, the chiton was completely open 
 at least as far a.s the tliiffh. underneath of which 
 the two ends might be either pinned or stitched 
 together, ft.und the hips the chiton was fas- 
 tene( with a riblwn or girdle, ami the lower part 
 could be shortened as much as required by pidl- 
 Ing It through this girdle. . . . Frequently 
 s!c-eves, either sliorur and covering only the 
 upper arm, or continued to the wrist were added 
 to the el.itou. . , . The short-sleeved chiton is 
 frequently worn by women and children on monu- 
 ments. Of the sleeveless chiton, worn by men 
 over l)oth shoulders, It U stated that it was the 
 "?? of a fn-e citizen. Slaves and artisuns arc 
 said to have worn a chiton with one hole for the 
 left arm, the right arm and half the chest remain- 
 ng quite uncovered. ... It appears clearly 
 tliat the whole chiton consisU of one piece 
 Together with the open and half-open kinds of 
 the chiton we also And the closed double chiton 
 Bowing down to the feet. It was a piece of 
 cloth considerably longer than the human iKxIy 
 and cliwd on lM)th sides, inside of whicli the per- 
 son imtliii jj it on stood as in a cylinder. "— E, Quid 
 Md W. Koncr, Ufiof tht Oreila and li,,n,in. 
 p« I, *,-<, 4i._"X|,e principal, or rather, the 
 ■ole garnioiit, of the Dorian mai.lens was the 
 cliitoii. or liimation made of woolen stuff, and 
 without sleeves, but fastened on either slioulder 
 by a l.irge d.Lsp, ami gathered on tlie bn'a>.t bv 
 a kind of bro-ich. This sleeveless r,)lK., which 
 scl.lom rcaeliiil more than half way to the knee 
 was moreover Kft open up to a cerhiin ix, ..t on 
 both sides, so tiiat the skirts or winjcs Hyliiif 
 op.n IS thcv «alke.l, entirely exp,S."d their 
 iimiw. ... 1 lie married women, however, did 
 not make their appearance in pulilic 'en che- 
 .nlse, Imt wlun going abroad donned a si'Cond 
 ment wlmli seems to have resembled pretty 
 n'lv tlieirhiLoliuuds' himatia."— J. A. St. John 
 • IMIeii,,,, hi:. ;t, eh 8 
 tHITTIM. See KlTTIM 
 ;HlVALRY.--."Tlie primitive sens,, of this 
 «e!l k- ..,1 wunl, durivwl from the Fniieli 
 Che .a . Bigniliis merely cavalry, or a b<Kiy of 
 soldieio (.Tviugou liorsebaek; and has Urn used 
 In that gi'niTal a.ceptation by tlie best of our 
 pmts, aii,ii.|it and modem, from .Milton to 
 IhoDias Canipliell. Hut the present article 
 respects tlie iH< uliar meaning given to the wonl 
 n in.K em burot.,.. as ai.pli^l to the onl.r of 
 kniglithiKHl, established In almost all her kint'- 
 tloms during ilu^ middle ag.'s, and the laws 
 niles, and ciisImmis, liy whi( li it was gov.Tned' 
 riiose laws ami i ustoms have limg '.een anti- 
 <iuale,l. but Hair cITects may still Tk! tracwl in 
 LuroiH'aii manners; and, excepting only the 
 < haiige win, li llowcd from the lntr,«luetion of 
 jhe ( hristian nligion, we kn,>w no cans,, which 
 lias prixluecd sui li general an,l permanent ,liff,T 
 ene,. iMtwixt tlie ancients and mo<lernH, as that 
 wlilth has arucn out of the lustitutiua of chivalry 
 
 CmVALRT. 
 
 . . From the time that cavalry becomes usnl 
 in war, the liorseman who furnishes and sunnom 
 a charger arises, in aU countries, into a person „! 
 superior importance to the mere f.mt R,)l,li„ 
 ... In various militarv nations, ther,f,,r,- .« 
 Hnd that horsemen are <fistinguished as an o'ni.J 
 in the state. . . . But, in the middle u-es 7S 
 distinction ascribed to soldiers serving ou imnt 
 back assumed a very peculUr an.f imfoZ, 
 character. Ther were not merely rcspiK-U'J » 
 account of thefr wealth or military skill bw 
 were bound together by a uni,>n of a'ven 
 peculiar chan;cter, which monarehs were am 
 bltious to share with the poorest of their subject. 
 and govcme<l by laws directed to enlian, e into 
 enthusiasm, the military spirit an<I the s,.nse of 
 jiersonal honour associated with it. The asoir 
 anu to this dignity were not pennitted to u*uine 
 the sacred character of knighthiKxl until ,iftor a 
 long and severe probation, during whidi they 
 practised, as acolytes, the virtues neees.sar>' L 
 the oftier of Cliivalry. Knighthood was the 
 goal t,) which the ambition of every noble v, uth 
 turned; and to support its honours, which (in 
 theory at least) could only be conferrcl ,)n the 
 gallant, the modest, and the virtuous it wu 
 nccccamry he should spend a certain time in a 
 subordinate situation, attendant up.m some 
 knight of eminence, olwierving the eoii.luct of 
 Ills master, as what must in future U- the nindel 
 of his own, and practising the virtues of hmnililv 
 modesty, and U^mperantv. until called uiwn to 
 display those of a higher order. . . In the 
 general and abstract dcliniti,>n of (^hivalrv 
 wheUier as comprising a iMsly of nun vh6i 
 military service was on horseback, Hn,i wlio 
 were investd with p<euliar honours and nrivi- 
 leges, or with reference to the iiuhI,' and peri.jd 
 In which these distinctions ami privil.>;,.s were 
 twferred, there is nothing either i>rigiuul or 
 exclusively proper to our Oothio ancisiors. h 
 was In the singular tenets of C'liivaiiv. — in tlie 
 exalwd, enthusiastic, and almost Bam'tiiiiiinious 
 
 ideas connected with its duties, — i MiL-ular 
 
 balance which ita institutions olTere dsI the 
 
 evils of the rude ages in which it aros. hat we 
 are to seek those peculiarities which r,ii. it so 
 worthy of our attention. . . . Tlie eclM.,,tionot 
 the future knight iM'gaii at an early iiri.»l Tiie 
 care of the mothir, after the ttrst'vi'arsi.f mrlv 
 youth were passeil, was d,.<.ni,il im iiinlcr aiiJ 
 the inilulgences ,)f the paternal roof li k) , ifimi- 
 nate, f,)r the future aspirant to tli,' iionours of 
 chivalry. . . . To eountenu't these lialiits nf 
 indulgence, the first step to the onier of knight. 
 iKKxi was the <legree of Page. The vungana 
 noble stripling, genenilly aluiut his twilfih year, 
 was transfern.,! from liis father's Innise tu that of 
 some baron or gallant knight, .sediil„nslv , Imn 
 by the anxious pari'iit us tliut whiih li.icl'iii, lnM 
 reputatiim for gisni onler ami liiMinliin'. . . . 
 When advani'ing age ami experiiiicc in ihc u« 
 of arms hail qiialiiled the page for the h.lnl.^llip^ 
 and dangers of lutuul war. he was r. miovhI, 
 from the lowest to 111,' tu'cond gra.lniiiin o( 
 chivalry, and bei^ame an Ksciiyir. K-i|iiin', or 
 
 Squire. Thederivali f this plinisi' lix-^ Iwn 
 
 much conteatcl. It Imsbeen genenlh Mip|«i«eil 
 t<i be derived from its lie^eoniinu' the n'tlii lai cluiy 
 of the esquire to carry the shiihl iKm iimf ilie 
 knight his master, until he wa> alHuit i.i engage 
 the cnr.my, Other? hsve feteliii! ilu- iplihet 
 (more remotely certainly^ from Scuria, a swliH 
 
 444 
 
CHTVALRT. 
 
 CHOCZIM. 
 
 the charger of the knight being under the 
 eapeciol care of the iquire. Others, again. 
 ucribe tlie derivation of the word to tlic right 
 vklch the squire himself liad to carry a shield, 
 and to blazon it with armorial bearings. This, 
 hi later times, becaqie almost the exclusive 
 meaning attached to the appellative esquire; 
 and, accordingly, if the phrase now means any- 
 thing, it means a gentleman having a right to 
 carry arms. There is reason, however, to think 
 this is a secondary meaning of the word, for we 
 do not find the word Escuyer, applied as a title 
 of rank, until so late as the Ordonnance of Blois, 
 hi 1579. ... In actual war the page was not 
 eipccted to render much service, but that of the 
 squire was important and indispensable. Upon 
 a inarch he bore the helmet and aliield of the 
 knight and led his horse of battle, a tall heavy 
 animal fit to bear the weight of a man in armour, 
 but which was led In hand in nurching, while 
 the knight rode an ambling hackney. The 
 iquire was also qualified to perform the part of 
 an armourer, not only lacing his master's helmet 
 and buckling bis cuirass, but also closing with a 
 hammer the rivets by which the various pieces 
 wi're united to each other. ... In the actual 
 shock of battle, the esquire attended closely on 
 the banner of his master, or on his person if he 
 were only a knight t)achelor, kept pace with him 
 during the melee, and was at hand to remount 
 him when his steed was slain, or relievo him 
 when oppressed by numbers. If the knight 
 made prisoners they were the charge of the 
 esquire ; if the esquire himself fortunra to make 
 one. the ransom belonged to his master. ... A 
 youth usually ceased to be a page at 14, or a little 
 earlier, and could not regularly receive the 
 honour of knighthood until he was one-and- 
 twenty. . . . Knighthood was. In its origin, an 
 order of a republican, or at least an oligarchic 
 nature; arising . . . from the customs of the free 
 tribes of Oermany [see Cojhtatcb], and, in its 
 essence, not requiring the sanction of a monarch. 
 Ou the contrary, each knight could confer the 
 order of knighthood upon whomsoever prepara- 
 tory noviciate and probation had fitted to receive 
 it. The highest potentates sought the accolade, 
 or stroke which conferred the honour, at the 
 hands of the worthiest knight whose achieve- 
 ments had dignified the period. . . . Though no 
 positive regulation took place on the subject, 
 ambition on the purt of the aspirant, and pride 
 and policy on that of the sovereign princes and 
 nobles of high rank, gradually limited to the 
 totur the power of conferring knighthood. . . 
 Knitthts were usually made either on the eve of 
 battle, or when the victory had been obtained ; 
 or they were created during the pomp of some 
 solemn warning or grand festival. . . . The 
 ipmt of chivalry sunk gradually under a 
 combination of physical and moral causes; the 
 flrat arising from the change gradually introduced 
 into the art of war, and the last from the equally 
 great alteration produced by time in the habits 
 jncl ni,«lc8 of thinking in modem Europe. 
 Liuvalry began to dawn in the end of the 10th, 
 and biirmning of the 11th century. It blazed 
 lortiiwuh high vigour during the crusades, which 
 inuecrt may be considered as exploits of national 
 knight errantry, or general wars, undertaken on 
 y>c "cry snme principles which actuated the con- 
 aucl of individual knighu adventurers But ita 
 nwM biiilimii period waa during the wan 
 
 between France and England, and It was un- 
 
 questionablv in those kingdoms that the habit of 
 constant and honourable opposition, unembittered 
 by rancour or personal hatred, gave the fairest 
 opportunity for the exercise of the virtues 
 required from him whom Chaucer terms ' a very 
 perfect gentle knight.' Froti^rt frequently 
 makes allusions to the generosity exercised by the 
 French and English to their prisoners, and con- 
 trasts It with tlie dungeons to which captives 
 tokin in war were consigned both in Spain and 
 Germany. Yet both these countries, and indeed 
 every kingdom in Europe, partook of the spirit 
 of chivalry in a greater or less degree; and^ven 
 the Moors of Spain caught the emulation, and 
 had their orders of Knighthood as well as the 
 Christians. But even during this splendid 
 period, various causes were silently operating 
 the future extinction of the flame, whiclk blazed 
 thus wide and brightly. An important discovery, 
 the invention of gunpowder, had taken place, 
 and was beginning to be used in war, even when 
 chivalry was in its highest glory. . . . Another 
 change, of vital importance, arose from the 
 institution of the bands of gena-d'armcs, or 
 men at arms in Prance, constituted . . . expressly 
 as a sort of standing army. ... A more fatal 
 cause had, however, been for some time operating 
 in England, as well as France, for the destruction 
 of the system we are treating of. The wars of 
 York and Lancaster In England, and those of 
 the Huguenots and of the League, were of a 
 nature so bitter and rancorous, as was utterly 
 Inconsistent with the courtesy, fair play, and 
 gentleness, proper to chivalry. . . . The civil 
 wars not only operated in debasing the spirit of 
 chivalry, but in exhausting and destroying the 
 particular class of society from which its votaries 
 were drawn."— Sir W. Scott, Euay on Chimlry. 
 
 Also in: O. P. R. James, Hut. of CtiiwUry.— 
 H. Hallam, State of Europe during the Middlt 
 Ane*. eh. 9, pt. 3 (v. 8).— F. P. Quizot, Hut. of 
 Oinlimtioa in Franet, 6rt leet., id eoune (o. 4).— 
 "rt. of Chitalru.—H. Stebbing, Hut. 
 of Chi0u„j and the Cnttadet. — L. Oautier, 
 ChiixUrg.—K. H. Digby, The Broadttone of 
 Honour. — Dr. Doran, Knighti and their Dayt. — 
 See, also, Kniohthood, Orders or. 
 
 CHLAMYS, The.—" The chlamys [worn by 
 the ancient Greek?] . . . waa an oblong piece of 
 cloth thrown over the left shuuldcr, the open ends 
 being fastened acrosa the right shoulder by 
 means of a clasp ; the comers hanging down were, 
 as in the himation, kept straight by means of 
 weights sewed into them. The chlamys waa 
 principally used by travellers and soldiers." — E. 
 Guhl and W. Koner, Life of t>te Greek) and Ro- 
 man*, pt. 1, Hei. 43. 
 
 CHOCIM. See Cnoczisi. 
 
 CHOCTAWS, OR CHA'HTAS, The. See 
 AstEnic*!» AnoRiciiNEs: Ml'8kiioue\.n Pamilt 
 
 CHOCZIM (KHOTZIM, CHOTVN, KHO- 
 TIN, CHOCIM, KOTZIM): A. D. 1633.— De- 
 feat of the Turks br the Poles. See Poland: 
 A. D. 1590-1848. 
 
 A. D. 1673.— Taken by Sobieska and the 
 Pol . —Great defeat of the Turks. See Poland: 
 A. 1. 1668-1696. 
 
 A. O. 1739.— Captured bj the Ruiiiani and 
 restored to the Turks. See Russhi: A. D.IT^}- 
 1789. 
 
 A. D. 1769.— Taken by the Ruttian*.- Oe- 
 featofthe Turks. SeeTcau: A. D. 1768-1774. 
 
 445 
 
CBOCZDt 
 
 A. p. tTM—Dcfcat of th* Torkt by th« 
 Rasiiana. Bee Tvbks: A. D. 1776-1782. 
 
 CHOLERA, The Visiutions ot See 
 Pijioin: : 10th Cbiituiit. 
 
 CHOLET, Battles ot See Fiuiic« : A. D. 
 1798(Jdi,t— DaoxBKK). 
 
 CHOLULA. See Mexico, Aschiit: Tarn 
 ToLTitn Empiu, and Mexico: A. D. 1518 
 
 (OrTOBKR). 
 
 CHONTALS, The. SeeAMKRiCAnABOW- 
 SINES: Choktals. 
 
 CHONTAQUIROS, OR PIRU, The. See 
 Amkrican Aborioikrs : Andbsiams. 
 
 CHORASMIA. SeeKHCARKZM. 
 
 CHOREGIA. See) roiM iKs. 
 
 SSSIfJS'.O'* CHi.JSn-N. SfloKoMtA. 
 
 CHOTUSITZ. OR CZASLAU, Battle ot 
 Bee Apstria : A. D. 1743 (J^kuart— Mat). 
 
 CHOUANS.-CHOUANNERIE. See 
 Frarci : A. D. 1794-1T9S. 
 
 CHRISTUOTTT. 
 
 CHOUT.— The blackmail levied by thelhk. 
 tsttas. See Ihdia: A. D. 18(»-1816. 
 
 CHOWANS, The. See Ammican Abos* 
 oiKis : Iroquois Tbibbs or thk Soutii 
 
 CHREItONIDEAN WAR.The 8«. 
 Athihb: B. C.S8a-M8. . < ^ an 
 
 CHRIST, KniKhts of the Order of. Sm 
 Pobtuoai. : A. D. U1(H4«0. "^ 
 
 CmtlST IAN I., Klajr of Denmark, Norw» 
 
 •ad Sweden, A. b. lfl8-1481 dhriitiS 
 
 II., 1518-1528 Christian III., mi-lM? 
 
 ii--Cfcri»ti«» IV., 158»-ie48... Cri.t^ 
 v., 1«7U-16»9 Christian VI., Vm"im 
 
 wi.f '•5i!l*''" VII., i7«e-i8oe. . . . .chri,ti„ 
 
 VIII., 1889-1848 Christian IX., 18«:i- 
 
 CHRISTIAN BROTHERS. See Kdcca- 
 Tios. Modern : REroRMS : A. D. 188t-lN;8 
 
 st^.t12'^£l^^?]!J>?iSSro;^'-«"»i'e. 
 
 CHRISTIAN ERA. 8eeKBA,CHBHTus. 
 
 ■I I 
 
 !■' 
 
 Historical geographv has of late years be- 
 «)me an inteml part of the historical science 
 Kecent InTestigations have opened up the subject 
 and a solid beginning has been made — but it is 
 only a bcginnrng. ft is clearly ncognized that 
 the land itself as it appears at different periods 
 Is one of those invaluable original documenU 
 upon which history is built, and no stone U 
 being left unturned to clear away mysteries and 
 to bring to our aid a realism hitherto unknown 
 to the science. ... But the special branch of 
 this vast and complicated theme of hUtorical 
 
 Seography which interests us most and which I 
 esire bnedy to bring to your attention is that 
 which deals with the Christian Church Our 
 
 eyes first rest upon that little group at Jerusalem 
 that made up the Pentecostal Church. Itsspread 
 was conditioned by the extent and character of 
 the Roman Erplre, by the municipal genius of 
 that tmpire, its great highways by land and sea; 
 conditioned by the commercial routes and the 
 track of irmies outside the bounds of civiliia- 
 tlon conditioned by the spread of languages— 
 A- '. Greek, and Latin,— and, most import- 
 ■^'' .conditioned by the whereabouts of the 
 
 sev .llion Jews massed in Syria. Babylonia, 
 and -eJPt, and scattered everywhere through- 
 out the Empire and far beyond its boundariea"— 
 H. W HulUrt. The Hitorieal Otoma^y of tht 
 Ohnrtuin Church (Am. Soe. Chunk ffM..t 8) 
 — 'When we turn from the Jewish 'disperaion' 
 in the Last to that in the West, we seemln quite 
 a different atmosphere. Despite their intense 
 natliinallsm. all unconsciously to themselves 
 their mental characteristics and tendencies were 
 In the opposite direction from those of their 
 brethren With those of the East rested the 
 future of Judaism; with them of the West in a 
 sense, that of the world. The one represented 
 old Israel groping back into the darkness of the 
 past; the other young Israel, stretching forth its 
 hands to where the .• wn of a new day was about 
 to break. Tbew J s of the West are known 
 ./'j!.^^*-?' Hellenists. ... The translation of 
 the Old Testament into Greek maybe r.ntded 
 as the staring point of Helleni j. It rtidered 
 possible the hope that what in .>a original form 
 •S«* Apptodiz D, vol. I. 
 
 CHRISTIANITY." 
 
 446 
 
 had been confined to the few. might become sccm. 
 slblc to the worid at large. ... In the account 
 of the truly representative gathering In Jerusalem 
 on that ever-memorable Feast of Weeks, the divi- 
 sion of the ' dispersion ' Into two grand sectioiu 
 — the Eastern or Trans-Euphratic. and the West- 
 em or Hellenist — seems clearly marked. In thij 
 arrangement the former would Include the 
 rarthians, Medes, Elamites, and dwellers in Meso- 
 potamia, Judsa standing, eo to speak, in the 
 middle while 'the Cretes and Arabians ' would 
 typically represent the farthest outrunners re- 
 spectively of the Western and Eastern Diaspors. 
 The former, as we know from the New Tesument 
 commonly bore in Palestine the name of the ' di* 
 persion of the Greeks', and of ' Hellenists ' or 
 Grecians. On the other hand, the Trsiis. 
 Euphratlc Jews, who ' Inhabited Babylon and 
 many of the other satrapies,' were included with 
 the PalestinUns and the Syrians under the term 
 Hebrews, from the common language which 
 they spoke. But the difference between the 
 Grecians and the ' Hebrews ' was fur deeper 
 than merely of language, and extended to the 
 whole directlim of thought."— A. E>itr«heim. 
 TML(rtand TimstofJttu* the Memah. t. 1. h». 
 1, ch. 8-8, and 1.—" Before Pentecost an l^asem• 
 bly of the believers took place, at which the post 
 vacated in the number of the aposths byilie 
 suicide of the traitor Judas of Kerioth, was filled 
 up by the election of ilatthias by lot. )n this 
 occasion the number of the assembled hnUuen 
 amounted to about 130 men. ... At the (esst 
 of Pentecost ... a very considerable nrirssion 
 was made to the font rly mo<leratc band of be- 
 lievers in Jerusalem . . . ; about S.Ooo souls re- 
 ceived the word and were ioinetl to tin- Church 
 by baptism (Acu 11. 41). We must not, Imwever. 
 at once credit the Chureh in Jerusalem with this 
 increase. For among the listeners to the apos- 
 tolic discourse there were Israelitish guests and 
 proselytes from near and distant countries (ii. 5. 
 9-11, 14), whence we may Infer that of those 
 newly converte<l many were not living In Jeru- 
 salem Itself, but partly In Judira and lialilte, 
 partly In countries beyond Palestine, who there- 
 T<SK returued home after the f«agt lia/i woe 
 
 L ■•. 
 
bytheUab' 
 icAK Aaosi. 
 
 JUTH. 
 
 '.The. See 
 
 •«• of. See 
 
 rk^Norwaj 
 .Chriitiu 
 
 ■ ~' riitiia 
 K;>l)-I74«, 
 .Chrittias 
 , 18«:i-. 
 
 8«o Ki)cc\- 
 BI-IN78. 
 
 rheUaited 
 
 r. 
 
 CBBlaTU.V 
 
 conieacctt. 
 be account 
 I Jerusalem 
 !9. thedivi- 
 Dd sectioni 
 1 the West- 
 fd. InthU 
 iliidc ' the 
 •rsinMfiio- 
 ?ak, io the 
 ins ■ would 
 unnera re-, 
 Diaspora, 
 reatflment, 
 >f the ' dis- 
 lenists ' or 
 he Trans- 
 bylon and 
 uded witli 
 r the term 
 a^e which 
 tween the 
 far deeper 
 led to the 
 IvUrsheim. 
 4. t. 1. bt. 
 iin l^ssem' 
 h the post 
 lis by me 
 was filled 
 In thia 
 Ijrethrcn 
 the feast 
 noTsaion 
 ml of be- 
 I souls re- 
 (' Church 
 however, 
 with thii 
 the apos- 
 it'sts and 
 ries (ii. 5. 
 of thoae 
 In Jeru- 
 I Oalllte. 
 lid there- 
 »)i were 
 
i r y j 
 
 
 
 IjgUim 
 
 
 
 
 4^\ 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 ■JSr 
 
 % 
 
 V 
 
 •I- \ K I 
 
 ,^ ;• /• 
 
 
 -p,. 
 
 ''•'VX 
 
 
 ^- 
 
 
 'A 
 
 \^ 
 
 

 Sfe 
 
 
 V'^ 
 
 n s 
 
 ■^y 
 
 ,.jss^ V 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 -VI 
 
 
 -'v U 
 
i ' 
 
 lit 
 
 1 1 n 
 
 i 
 
CHRISTIAinTT. 
 
 JewUk 
 Ckritlinnitf. 
 
 CHRISXIANITT. 
 
 nded. Borne of theie might, under certain cir- 
 rumstance*, form the centre of a imall Church 
 in the diapenlon, lo that gradually Churches 
 Dur have ariwn to which alio James may pos- 
 sibly have addressed his Epistle. . . . Soabun- 
 ilintly did Ood bless with success the activity of 
 tlic cArlr apostles though limited to the nation 
 nf Israel and the land of Canaan, and their fidel- 
 ity within a circumscribed sphere. Hence there 
 ciistcd St the end of the perio<l of which we 
 lR«t numerous Christian Churches in Jerusalem 
 MiJ the whole country of Judasa (comp. Qal. I. 
 ii, etc. : Acts xi. 1), also on the coast (Acts ix. 
 3-2-35. etc.) in Samaria and Oalilce, and finally 
 in Svria. Phenlcia, and Cyprus, (Acts Ix. 2. id, 
 i\ xi. 10), some of which were directly, some In- 
 directly, founded by the Twelve, and were. In 
 any <asc, governed and guided by them. In 
 tlie shove named districts outside Palestine, It 
 miKht not, indeed, have been easy to find a 
 Christian Church consisting exclusively of be- 
 lieving Jews, for as a rule they consisted of be- 
 lieving Jews and indiviiiual Qfntiles. On the 
 other hand, wc shall scarcely be wrong In re- 
 arAmn the Cl>ristian Churches within Palestine 
 ItKlf as n)mpose<l entirely of believing Israelites. 
 Out even among tlieae there were many distinc- 
 tions, e. g., between Palestinians and Hellenists." 
 -0. V, Lcchler, The ApotMit and Patt-Apoi- 
 tMf Timft, t. \,p. 80-3.1.—" We find the early 
 [.lowishl Christians olMervIng the national feasts 
 and hididays (AcU ii. 1; xviii. 21; XX. 6, 16; 
 Itim. xiv. 5). They take part in tlie worship of 
 tlir temple and the synagoeue: they pray at the 
 ouBlomnry houm (chaps. 11. 46; ill. 1; T. 42; X. 
 1*1. They olntcrvc the fasts, and undergo volun- 
 tiirv nbstinenre, binding themselves by special 
 vows like all pious Jews (xili. 3; xvii. 18; xxl. 
 £1). Tiiev scrupulously avoid unlawful food, 
 nml nil legril defllemcnt (X. 14). They have their 
 (kildnn circumcised (XT. S; xvi. 8: Oal. v. 2). 
 . . . This scrupulous piety won for them the 
 esteem and admimtion of tha people (ehap, T, 
 13)." At first their creed was "comprlMd In t 
 riogle dogma: 'JetusistbeMeasIah.' . . . Thair 
 nriHiliinir of the Oospel strictly followed the 
 lines nf Messianic tradition (1. 7; ii. 86; ill. 80). 
 . . . But in reality all this formed only the out- 
 side of tluir life and creed. . . . Herein lies the 
 protauiiii slffniAcance of the miracle of Pentc- 
 iint That il«v was the birtliday of the Church, 
 not heenuw of the marvelous success of Peter's 
 pn-ai liiiig, hut because the Christian principle, 
 uilherto txlsllnf only objectively and extemnlly 
 In the p<rsi)n of Ji-sus, passed from that moment 
 Into till' souls of ills disciples. . . . And thus in 
 the very midst of Judaism we see created and 
 unfolded a form of religions life essentially dif- 
 Trent fnmi it — the Christian life. "—A. Satmtler. 
 Vif .ii>mil4 I^iit, pp. 85-S6.— " By the two 
 
 fiml>li'<<of the Mustard Seeti and the Leaven, 
 hrlst inarke<i out the two sides or aspects of His 
 truth — its rxtemal gmwih tmm the least to the 
 
 Eiwest, and Its internal arllon on society at 
 rge— as scttlni up a ferment, and making a 
 sew lump out of the unkneailini mass of the old 
 humanity. With these two symbols in view we 
 m«v iMife what the gospel was designed to lie 
 •nil to do. It was to grow into a great outwaril 
 
 iOefc'y _ •!:= tr-a> r.f fiiP Ch'irvll ; btit It ws= rIv> 
 to dn a wnrk on M-cular society as such, corre- 
 •IHmdinit to the action of h-aven on flour. The 
 UMory uf Christianity hH been the carryiog out 
 
 of these two distinct and contrasted conceptlooi; 
 but how Imperfectly, and under what draw- 
 backs." — Rev. J. B. Heard, Alexandrian and 
 Qirthaginian Theology Cnntratted, p. 186.— "The 
 organic connection of Jewish Christians with the 
 synagogue, which must, in accordance with the 
 facts before us, be reganled as a rule, is certainly 
 not to be taken as a mere incidental phenomenon, 
 a customary habit or arbitrary accommodation, 
 but as a moral fact resting upon an internal 
 necesolty, having its foundation in the love of 
 Jewish Christians to their nation, and in the ad- 
 hesion of their religious consdousnetw to the old 
 covenant. To mistake this would be to under- 
 rate the wide bearing of the fact. But lest we 
 should over-estimate its importance, we must at 
 once proceed to another consideration. Within 
 Judaism we must distlnguisli not only the Rab- 
 binical or Pharisaic tradition of the original 
 canonical revelation, but also within the canon 
 itself we have to distinguish the Levitical cle- 
 meu* from the prophetic, . . . taking the latter 
 not i t a close but a wide sense as the living 
 spiriti al development of the theocracy. "—O. \. 
 Lechlc, The ApoetoUe and Pott-ApoetMe Timet, 
 v. 1, p. S4.— " Moreover the law had claims on a 
 Hebrew of Palestine wholly independent of his 
 reliirious obligations. To him it was a national 
 institution. 08 well as a divine covenant. Under 
 the Oospel he might consider hti< relations to it 
 In this latter cliiiractcr altered, hut asembixlving 
 the decrees and usages of his country it still de- 
 manded his allegiance. To be a good (Christian 
 he was not re<|iiircd to be a bad citizen. On 
 these grounds the more enlightened members of 
 the mother-church would Justify their continued 
 adiiesion to the law. Nor is there any reason to 
 suppose that St. Paul himself took a dilTerent 
 view of tlieir obllgationa "- J. B. Lightfoot, 
 Dmertatione on the Ajxittulie A^. p. 67. — "The 
 term ' Jewish-Christianity ' is applicaMe exclu- 
 sively to those Christians who really retained, 
 entirely or In the smallest part, the nathmnl im<l 
 political forms of Judaism and inslsteil upon the 
 oliaervance of the Mosaic Law without niodificit- 
 tion as essential to ChristUnlly, at least lo the 
 Christianity of the Jewish-bom converts, or who 
 indeed rejected these forms, but acknowledged 
 the prerogative of the Jewish people also in 
 Christianity. '—A. Hamack, Outtina of the Iht- 
 tont o/Dirgma, p. 75. 
 
 A. D. 33-ioa— The RIm of tha Cburchei. 
 — JeruMiem. — "After the miraculous healing 
 of the cripple and the discourse of the Apostle 
 Peter on that occasion, the liistorinn goes on to 
 say, ' Many of them which beard the word 
 he1ieve<l. and the numlierof the men was about 
 S,0(X)'(iv. 4). It sei'ms as if in consei|uence of 
 this event, which mtule no little stir, a larger 
 numlH'r J(dnv<l themselves to the I'lmreh, Nor 
 is it probable that this heallnit tiHik place until a 
 long time after the beginning of the Church. 
 The miracle, with tha efTeet which It had, 
 Mrrea as a resting place at wlitch the result of 
 the previous growth of the Church may be 
 Morrtalned. And here the number again In- 
 cidentally mentioned refen without doubt to the 
 Church at Jerusalem."— O. V. Lechler, The 
 Apaelolie and l\At- ApottoUe Timet, t. 1, p. 10. — 
 Xfie fRr'r hf"'---'-? --■• t!» rhtirrhMi "faUa lot© 
 tbice periods which mark three distinct stagea la 
 ita progress: (1) The Extension of tha Church 
 to Ike QentUei; (3) The RtoofalUon of Ocatil* 
 
 447 
 
CHRISTIANmr. 
 
 ApoiMte Uimlon: 
 
 CHllISTIANnT. 
 
 Ill 
 
 :x 
 
 Liberty; (3) The Emancipation of the Jewish 
 Churches. . , . And Boon enough the pressure 
 of events began to be felt. The dispersion was 
 the link which connected the Hebrews of Pales- 
 tine with the outer world. Led captive by the 
 power of Oreeli philosophy at Athens and Tarsus 
 and Alexandria, attmctcd by the fiwoinntionsof 
 Oriental mysticism in Asia, swept alunz with 
 the busy whirl of social life in the city and court 
 of the Ciesnrg, these outlying members of the 
 chosen race had inhaled a fn^r spirit and con- 
 tracted wider interests than their fellow-country- 
 men at liiime. By a series of insensible gm<ia- 
 tions — proselytes of the covenant — proselytes 
 of the eatc — superstitious devotees who observed 
 the rites without accepting the faith of the 
 Mosaic dispensation — curious lookers-on who 
 Interested tiiemselves in the Jewish ritual as they 
 would in the worsldp of Isis or of Astarie — the 
 most ». ibom zealot of tlie law was linked to 
 the idolatrous heathen whom he abhorred and 
 who despised him ' turn. Thus the train was 
 unconsciously la: hen the spark fell from 
 heaven and lired it. Meanwhile at Jerusalem 
 
 •ome years passed srfay before the barrier of 
 Judai.'<m was assailed. The Apostles still 
 observe)! the Mosaic ritual; they still conflneil 
 their preaeliing to Jews by birth, or Jews hy 
 •doptidn, the proselytes of the covenant. At 
 len);lli a brearli was made, and tlio assailants as 
 might lie e.xi>ecti'd were Hellenists. The first 
 step towanis the rreatlon of an orKanir.ed ministry 
 was also the first sl«'p towards the emancipation 
 of the (.'liiirch. The Jews of Juda'a, ' Hebrews 
 of the Hebrews' had ever regarded their 
 Helleiii'<t brelliren with suspicion and distrust; 
 and this estmngement repriKiuewl itself in the 
 Christ lan t'him'li. Tlie int<!resta of the Hellenist 
 willows had been neglected in the dally distrl- 
 butlmi iif alms. Hence 'arose a murmuring of 
 the HilienistJi against the Hebrews ' (Acts vi 1), 
 which was mi't by the ap|i<>intment of seven 
 persons s|M'elally charged with providing for the 
 wants (if these neglected poor. If the selection 
 wa« made, as 8t. Lukes hingiiage seems to 
 Imply, not by the Hellenists theinst'lves but by 
 the Cliunh at large (vl. 2), the com'ession when 
 granted was carriiil out In a lllMTai spirit. All 
 the names uf the seven are Ureek, pointing to a 
 Hellenist rather than a Hebrew extrnction. ami 
 one is esjH'iially descrilieil as a proselyte, Ixlng 
 diiuliiliss ehown to represent a hltherlo small 
 but gniwing serllim of the ctmiinunilv. Bv 
 this a|)polnlinent the Hellenist members o'btahieil 
 a sljitus in Uie i^hureh; and the ctfeets of this 
 measure soon N-eame visible. Two out of the 
 •even stand prominenlly forwani as the elinin- 
 plons of eiiiuiieipHtion, rftephin the preaelier and 
 martyr nf lllierty, and I'Ipillp tlie praelind 
 worker ' — ,( B. IjightfiKit, Jn—frl'Uinn» o'l Hit 
 .l/»«f"/„- .\;,f. pp. (HKVi. — •■The Hellenist 
 Stephen niiistsl dei'p stirring movements ehlellv 
 In Hellenist eireles. . . . The permrutlon of the 
 Jenisuleni eonmiunily — |M>rha|M sprelally of its 
 Helleiiist imri — wiiieh fiillowisl the stiming of 
 bti'phen. Iseame a means of promoting the 
 spreail .if till' Christian faith to . . , Cyprus, at 
 la*t to »> lm|H)rt«nt a centre as Antioeh, the 
 Imperial eapilai of the Kast. To the winning of 
 tliH Jews tn faith In .lesiis Om'Tv Ia slreadv added 
 the nsipiion Into the Christian community of 
 the ploii* * lent! h- ( Cornelius, a proselyte of the gate. 
 . . . Tbouyh tblt appwn Id tmUtfam a« an 
 
 Individual case lanctloned by special DIrine 
 guidance, in the meantime Hellenist Cbristiani 
 had already begun to preach the Gospel to iKini 
 Greeks, also at Antioeh in Syria, and surross 
 fully (Acts xi. 19-96), Barnabas Is sent tliither 
 from Jerusniem." — W. Moeller, Iliilory nf th, 
 Chrittian Church, p. 58-54.— "Philip, drivoo 
 from Jerusalem by the peiwcution, preacliod 
 Christ to tiie SamorltaDS. . . . TheApostlea who 
 had remained at Jerusalem, hearing of the 
 success of Philip's preaching, sent two of their 
 number into this new and fruitful field of lulior. 
 . . . Pet*'r and John return to Jcru.salem while 
 the Deacon Philip is called, by a new manifi'sta- 
 tlon of the will of God, yet further toexteml ilie 
 field of Christian missions. It is not a Samari- 
 tan but a paran, whom he next Instructs in the 
 truth. . . . He was an Ethiopian eunuch, a trn-jt 
 dignitary of the court of MeniO, treasunr of the 
 Queen. . . . This man, a pagan by birth, li»| 
 taken a long Journey to worship the true (tod in 
 the temple of Jerusalem." — E. De Pres.sen»e, Tht 
 Barty Yenn of Chnttianity, pp. 71-74.— "For 
 the sake of tlie popular feeling Hensi Ajripps 
 laid hanils on memlM'rs of the comniiniirv, ami 
 caused James the brother of John (the »i>u of 
 Zebedee) to In put to death by the swoni, in the 
 year 44, for soon thereafter Hensl Acrippn 
 <iled. Peter also was taken prisoner, but miracu- 
 lously eseaiH-d and provisionally left Jeriisalfm. 
 From this time on James the bnitluT nf the 
 I.iord ap|)ears ever more and more iw n.illv liear- 
 Ing rank as head of the Jerusalem cumnuinily, 
 while Peter mure and more devotes liiiiistlf 'a 
 the apostolic mission abroad, and imli iil. ninro 
 accurately, to the misshm In Ismel."— \V. .MikIIit, 
 Ilintory iif the Chrilinn Vhureh, p. M.— "The 
 aerounts whii-h we have reimniing the sivistle 
 Peter, represent him as preaeliing the gosjuj from 
 the far east to distant parts of the »ist. . . . 
 Acconling Ui his own wonis. he fouiidcil i Imrches 
 In Pontus, (}alatin, CappuIiKla. Asia, ami lliiliy 
 nlo, and aceoniing to the testimony n( niuieiil 
 historians of the Chureh in the east al«). in 
 Syria, Ikiliylon, Mesoixitamia. Clialdaea. .\raliia. 
 PhiM-nicia and Egypt, and In the west, at Iti'ni'. 
 In Britain. Ireland, Helvetia and Sixiiii "-J. E. 
 T. Wiltach. Ihnd limk of tht ilfKiniphy ,ii.i 
 SInlMiet of Tht Church, r. 1. /71. 1II-J>- 
 "Thri'C and tlm'c only of the personal ili*!- 
 pies and Inimtiliate followers of our Uml \M 
 any pMmliieiit plmv In the .\pcwtolie riii>nis— 
 Jaines, Peter, and John; the first IIm' l,iml> 
 brother, the two latter the foremost ininilnnnl 
 the Twelve Apart from an Incldcniiil tvUr 
 enre to the death of James the son of S^lsilre, 
 which is ilLsmissitl In a single senlemi'. ilic nst 
 of the Twelve are mentioned by name f'lr tiie 
 last time on the day of the Lonl's ■\'<iiri«ion. 
 Thenceforwanl they illsap|M'ar wliollv frniii tlie 
 canonical writings. And this silcecu slio 
 extends to the traditions of sucec'iini: sci 
 We read indeed of St. Thomas In Itidiii, ufM. 
 Andrew In S<ythiii; hut such scanty imllii'*, 
 even if we aeiTpt them as trustwcirthy. slmw 
 only the more plainly ho* little lln' 1 liunli 
 eoiild Ij'll nf her earili-st teachers Ik.iihlli'JI 
 they lalmured xenloiisly and elTiciivi ly In the 
 •pri-ail of the (losiMd; but. so far as wc know. 
 l.'iey h»ve left n^ impresa of IU-At !!!!!'i'!i!»l 
 mind and cliamcii'r on the Church at lariir 
 Ocrupying the foreground, and Indccl oivprim 
 the whuki caovas ul early ' lusUstical liltturj, 
 
 448 
 
CHBISTIANITT. 
 
 AdvHt 
 a/8t.t1uiL 
 
 CHRIBXIANITT. 
 
 ippetr four figure* alone, St. Paul, and the 
 three Apostles of the Circumcision." — J. B. 
 Lightfoot, DiuertatioTU on the ApottoUe Age, p. 
 40— "While Peter (as it appears) is occupied 
 with the work of preaching to the Jews outside 
 of I'ali'stine, the community at Jerusalem, and 
 indeed the Palestinian communities in general, 
 lUnd I :<ler the leadership of the brother of the 
 Lord, J.iracs, as their recognised heiul. They 
 lemain strictly in the life of the law, and still 
 bold securely to the hope of the conversion of 
 the whole of God's people (which Paul had for 
 the present given up). The mission to the 
 Gentiles is Indeed recognised, but the manner of 
 its conduct by Paul and the powerful increase of 
 Psulinc communities excite misgivings and dis- 
 sensions. For in tliese mixed communities, in 
 the presence of whut is often a preponderating 
 Gentile element, it becomes ever clearer in what 
 direction the development is pressing; that, la 
 fact, for the sake of the higher Christian com- 
 munion the legal customs even of the Jewish 
 Christians in theae communities must inevitably 
 be broken down, and general Christian freedom, 
 on principle, from the commands of the law, 
 gain recognition." — Dr. Wilhelm Moeller, Ifitt. 
 cfthe Chrutian. Church, p. 73.— "The fall of 
 Jerusalem occurred in the Autumn of the year 
 70 [see Jews: A. D. M-70]. And loon the 
 catastrophe came which solved the difficult prob- 
 lem. . . . Jerusalem was razed to the ground, 
 and the Temple-worship censed, never again to 
 be revived. The Christians foreseeing the calam- 
 ity hail fled before the t«.'m|)«st. , , , Before the 
 crisis came, they had been deprived of the coun- 
 sel and guidance of the leading apostles. Peter 
 ha>l fallen a martyr at Tiome ; John hud retired 
 1/ Asia .Minor; James, the Lonl's brother, was shtin 
 not long before the great catastrophe. ... He 
 was succeeded by his cousin Symcon, the son of 
 Clopas and nephew of Joseph. Under these ctr- 
 cunistanres the Church was reformed at Pella. Its 
 bistiirv in the ages following is a hopeless blank. " 
 —J. 11. Lightfoot, Di—trtationt on the Avoitolie 
 Aft, p. W— " While Cicsarea succeeded Jcrusa- 
 Irm as the political capital of Palestine, Antioch 
 »ii(«t'ilftl It as the centre of Christendom." — ▲. 
 I'lummer, Churth of the Knrly Fathere, eh. 8. 
 
 Antioch.—" t'nder Macedonian rule the Greek 
 intiU'il had IxTome the leading Inlellecttial 
 poivvr of tlie world. The great Ontrk siicakiiig 
 Uiwns of the East were alike the Htriingiiuld.s of 
 tnti'lliTttial power, the battlelieUls of opinion 
 and systems, and the laboratories of sclintillc 
 reiciin li. where discoveriii were made and liter- 
 ary midi rtaklngs requiring the r(miliiiiation of 
 forcM wire carried out. Such was .\ntiiHh on 
 the Orcntis, the meeting point of Syrian and 
 Onik inlelliTt ; such, al>ove all, was Alexandria. " 
 —J. J. Von DOlllnger, Stnilirt in Kuri'itrim Hie- 
 torn, p lll.V— "The chief line along which the 
 new rcll^'i.m develo|)ed was ihat w hlch led from 
 Byriiiu .\ntiiK'h Uimiigh llie t'iliii.in Gatrs, 
 siruii- l,y.*.iiiU to Eiihi'Kus. ("orlntli, nnci liome. 
 Our mit'.idiary line followed the land route by 
 Philalidphia, Troas, IMiilippI, and the Kgnatiun 
 Wivto Krlndisi and llome; and unollier went 
 nnnh from the Gates bv Tvana and Ciesareiaof 
 Capiii.liKia to .\miMM In I'ontus. the creal har. 
 hour ,.i' ihi' iilark Pea, by which the" traile of 
 Cinir;d .\«iii was ctrried to Ibime. The main- 
 tenHMn' (if I'loMi unit constant communication 
 ■K.tvrt'1'n the scattered oungrcgatlons must be 
 
 m 
 
 presupposed, as necessary to explain the growth 
 of the Church and the attitude which the State 
 assumed towards it. Such communication was, 
 on the view advocated in the present work, 
 maintained along the same lines on which the 
 general development of the Empire took place; 
 and politics, education and religion grew side by 
 side. — W. M. Ramsay, T%e Churchlnthe Roman 
 Empire, p. 10.— "The incitement to the wider 
 preaching of the Gospel in the Greek world 
 starts from the Christian community at Anti<x:h. 
 For this purpose Barnabas receives Paul as a 
 companion (Acts xiil. , and xiv.) Saul, by birth a 
 Jew of the tribe of Beniamin, bom at Tarsus in 
 Cilicia, educated as a Pharisee, and although 
 indeed as a Uellenlst, he had command of Greek 
 and had come into contact with Greek culture 
 and Greek life, yet had not actually passed 
 throueh the discipline of Greek culture, was 
 introduced by Gamaliel to the learned study of 
 the law, and bis whole aoiU was seized with fiery 
 zeal for the Statutes of the fathers. . . . After 
 [his conversion and] his stay in Damascus and In 
 Arabia and the visit to Peter (and James) at 
 Jerusalem, having gone to Syria and Cilicia, ha 
 was taken to Antioch by Barnabas."— W. Moel- 
 ler, Ilietory of the Chnttian Churth, p. 57.— 
 " The strength and zeal of the Antioch Chri.stian 
 society are shown in the sending forth of Paul 
 and Barnabas, with Hark, a cousin of Barnabas, 
 for tlieir companion for a part of the way, on a 
 
 S reaching tour in the eastern districts of Asia 
 liuor. First they visited Cyprus, where Sergius 
 Paulus, the prtx;onsul, was' converted. Thence 
 they sailed to Attalia, on the southern coast of 
 Pamphvlia, and near Perga; from Perga they 
 proceeded to Antioch in Pis; lia, and from tliere 
 eastward to Iconium, ami -> far as Lystru and 
 Derlie in Lycaouia. Retnu ing their steps, they 
 came back to Attalia, and sailed directly to 
 Antioch. . . . This was the first incursion of 
 Paul into the domain of heathenism."— G. P. 
 Fisher, llittary of the Chritti.in Church, p. ti. — 
 " How then should Paul and Barnabas proceed ? 
 To leave Syria they must go first toSeleucei.i. the 
 harbour of AnticK'h. where they would find ships 
 going south to the Syrian const and Egypt, and 
 west either by way of Cyprus or along the coast 
 of Asia Minor. The western route led toward 
 the lUimiin world, to which all Paul's subseiiuent 
 history proves that he considered himself called 
 by the Spirit. The Apostles einlmrkeil in a 
 ship for Cyprus, which win very closely con- 
 nected by commerce and general intereouriH' « ith 
 tlie Syrian coast. After traversing the Uhind 
 fmm east to west, they must go onwanl. f*l ips 
 going westward naturally wiMit across the (■■ ast 
 of Pamphrlla. and the Apistles, after rcuiliing 
 Paphos, near the west cn<l of Cyprus, sailed in 
 one of these ships, and hindeil at Attiillaiu I'am- 
 
 Jhylla." — W, M. Hamsay, The Churth in tht 
 imMii Eminre, p. 6(1. — "'The work starting from 
 AnIkH'h. by which acre<;s to the faith is opcniHl 
 to the Oeiitiies. the formation of (pre{M>niliT«t- 
 Ingly) tlculile Cliristlim communities, now intn)- 
 diuesiiito the oriuiual Christian development an 
 important pnihlem. which (about the year 153, 
 prolialily imt later), (Oul. ii. ; .Vets xv ) 'leads to 
 dliuMiiwiiins and explunatloiiH nt tlip KO'C:illi<d 
 Aposlolic Council [at JerusulemJ. . . . For 
 Paul, who ha« rlwH to perfect indeiKiidence by 
 the energy of his own peculiar stamp of gospel, 
 tbert uuir begin the year* of bis puwcrftit 
 
 449 
 
CHMSTUNITT. 
 
 rutWt Ifimionan 
 
 CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 
 IS 
 
 iH 
 
 •ctlTltytn which be not only again vtolts and 
 extiuds bU former misalonary flelJ In Asta Minor 
 but gains a firm footing In Macedonia (PhUippI), 
 Athens and AchaU (Corinth); then on the so^ 
 called third missionary journey be exercises a 
 comprehensive Influeoco during a stay of nearly 
 three years at Epbesus, and finally looks frr>in 
 Achaia towards the metropolis of the world."— 
 W Moeller. fflW. of tht Ohritian Chunk, pp. 
 07-39.— "If the heathen whom he (Paul) had 
 won to the faith and received into the Church 
 were to be persuaded to adopt circumcision and 
 the law before they could atuin to full nartlcl- 
 pation In the Christian salvation, his pi Mna 
 liad fallen short of bis aim. It bad been In vain 
 since It was very doubtful whether the Gentiles 
 giiuied over to believe in the Messiah would sub- 
 mit to the condition. Paul could only look on 
 thiise who made such a demiind as false brethren, 
 who having no clair. to Christian brotherhood 
 had forced themselves Into the Church at AnUoch 
 In an unauthorized way ((Jal. 11. 4). and was per- 
 suaded that neither the primiUvc Church as such 
 nor its rulers, sharcd this view. In older there- 
 fort- to prevent the (Jentile Christians from being 
 disturbed on thb potat, he deU uined to jro to 
 Jerusalem and there to challenge a decision In 
 the matter that sliould put an eml to the strife 
 (I. .>). The Church at Antiocli ulao recognized 
 this neccjslty ; hence followed the proceedrncs in 
 Jtrusuilem [about A. D. 52]. whither Paul and 
 Barnalws ri'palrud with other u.ssociate8 (Gal U 
 \i ^}',^>\ 8,«f). • • It is ceruin that when 
 Paul laid ..is (free) gospel before the aut.'oritles 
 In .Jerusalem, they added notliliig to it (Gal. II. 
 »-«), 1 e thev did not require that the irosDel he 
 preaclijd W the Gentiles should, besides tliisolo 
 comlilion of faith whi. h ho laid down, impose 
 Judaism up. I. them as a condition of participT 
 1 1.11 in salvation . . Pauls stipulations with 
 tlie authontles In Jerusalem resiwctluir their 
 future work were just as important forlilm as 
 the recognition of his free gospel (Gal. II. 7-10) 
 Thty had for their basis a recognition on the 
 part of the primitive apostles that he was en- 
 trusted with the gospel of the uiulrcumcislon to 
 which tl V could add nothing (11. 6), just as 
 Peter (as admittedly the most prominent amonit 
 the prtmitivc apostles) was entnisted with that 
 of the circumcision. ••-Bemhard Weiss, A Man- 
 *" .'Ci','!^"!f*""' '" "" ^''>' TttUiment. t 1 
 pp. 1/2-1". »'8^'; It seems clear that the first 
 meetlnm of the Christians as a community apart 
 -in.-llnjp that is of a private rather tharT a 
 p^.l«■lytl8in» character — took place as we see 
 from Acu 1. 1»-15. ir. private apartments, the 
 
 w^ith ud social position, who could accomma 
 date In their house, hirge gatherings of t^?JS" 
 f ul : and It is taterestlng to reflect tBat w Lne^m. 
 of the mansions of an ancient city migl ^^^ 
 neasing hi supper, of a Trimalchio or a Vim 
 Kene. more revolting to modern tLS. ii^' 
 a moat anythhig presented by X pag^\^?," 
 others, perliapg hi the same itre. t, nSt be i. 
 seat of Christian wonddp „r of theMS^ 
 
 "plF^rF "?«'«'f^- &«s 
 
 v«« I J"," "'*'"'^ """ » Prtod of tS 
 yrars Larj: spaces are passed over in silcnca 
 
 In L"^"!?'*-"'.'" '»>e catalogue of his mfxXl 
 Incdentallv given, he refers to the fact th""^ 
 ha.1 been sLipwreckH three Umes, and thesl dU 
 asters were a prior to the ahinwr..!.i „ .> 
 Island of JIalta''described"'by Tuke'" Z^y 
 after the conference at Jerusilem he startXJ 
 his second toilsdonaiy tour. He wa« n-^™ 
 paniiKl by Silas, and^M joined by Timothy « 
 Lystra^ He revtaited hu' converts n Eastern 
 Asia Minor, founded churches in Galalia aS 
 Phry,-m and from Tr«». obedlen-. to a h -av/ok 
 .uni. 19, crossed over to Europe ll«vi,, 
 plar atPhilippI a church that "^einaiu '«^ 
 mark ,. devoted and loyal to him. he (Movni 
 the great Koman road to Tbessalon c» t ■ ■ , .t 
 Important city in Macedonia. Driven fnm tL™ 
 and from Berea, he proceeded f. .",S f^ 
 
 cultivated city he discoursed on Mars IliU (o 
 aud!u>™ eager for new ideas In phil„s.,,,h" .lid 
 religion, and in private debatal with SiLi and 
 Epicureans. At Corinth, which had rU-,. fmm 
 U ruins and was once more rich and pr,.,,».nmi 
 he remained for a year and a half. I wai th re 
 
 ,. ,„ .„, ,,, |,,ivai« Hparrmenis 
 
 up|»r n).>ms or large guest chambers In the 
 houses of individual members. Such a room was 
 doubtless provided by the liberality of Titus Jus- 
 tus (Acta xvill. 7). such a nK)m again was tl e 
 upper chamber In which Ht. Paul preaehe.1 at 
 TrouKAcUxx. 7 8), In such awmbVed tK con- 
 veris salutt.l by the AiH«tle as the churc.i which 
 
 .Ld of PblLnion. . The primitive Itoiimn 
 b.n,»c had only one story, but as the cities irh'w 
 o U- more densely populati^^l upjn^^r stories otme 
 iut-. use. and It was the custom to plac- in these 
 laming apartmenu, which were callcl cenarulT 
 »u.h apartmeuls would answer to th« ■ upper 
 
 iou?; L"'l"'i' • ^'"' P'*'''"' •'""'mm.itk. 
 couulocd from u early period members of 
 
 4d0 
 
 prebably, that ho wrote his two Eoistl^ „uS 
 The««lon an Christlami. After a sinrt stay™ 
 Ephesus he returned to Antloch by «„y of 
 Cesarc-a and Jerusalem. It was not Im,? Jhn 
 Paul -a second Alexander, but on a ,«H.-.'f™ 
 expclltlon- began his thlnl great iuiv.i„„ary 
 journey. Taking the lan.l ^,ute from .\,ai"b. 
 he traverse.! Asia Minor to Ephesu-s. a u.„iri»h. 
 
 proWnoe of A.hi There, with occa,i„ual ab- 
 senoes, he macle his abode for upwanU „f two 
 i'^rt; . .".' ^}"i»''?- probably. h<- ^>r„ie the 
 Epistle to the tialatians. . . . Frm. Eplu^su. 
 
 tidans The Second Epistle U, the C.rimhian. 
 he proljably wrote from Philippl. . . Couiiui 
 dowu through Greece, he remalncl thiru thr« 
 inontiis. There he a.mpose<l his E-islle t(. Ilie 
 Itomans. . . . The uitlrmg Apostle 'ii..w turaiHl 
 his tttce toward ■ Jer isulem. lie dcslrcl to bo 
 present at the festlva' of the Pcntecwt. Ii, „nicr 
 to save time, he niiled past E|.h.«u», c M .t 
 IHIletus bade a tender farewell t,. the K|„„»l»n 
 
 elders. He had fuiail..! hU , .-e ^hn\ „| ilm 
 
 conf.renc.- and ho now carrlnl comril,iiii..uj 
 from the Christians of Mace-' iila sn.l .Vchaii for 
 the p.H.r at Jiru«.ilem."-G. P. Kishtr. ll,.l^ 
 oftM Chiutum Vhiink, pp. 87-."m _■• Uc may 
 safe y say that If Saul hiwl b.-.n l.ss of s Jew, 
 l-ao! tlK^ ,\{«>st;re w„u!u have bau i.»» U.ui aaJ 
 independent. His work would have Inen in. re 
 siiuerflcial, and his mind less unfelt.r,-,! IW 
 did uot choow » boatlwu to bo the aposllv for tU 
 
CHRISTIAinTT. 
 
 Labonof at. Fini. 
 
 CHRISTIANITT. 
 
 knthen; for he might hare been ensnared by 
 the tradition* of Judaism, by its priestly hier- 
 srchy and the splendours ol its worship, as in- 
 deed It bsppenra with the church of the second 
 century. On the comrary Ood chose a Pharisee. 
 But this Pharisee had the most complete ex- 
 perience of the emptiness of external ceremonies 
 ud the crushing yoke of the law. There was 
 no fear that he would <!ver look back, that he 
 would be tempted to set up again what t'^e grace 
 of Ood had justly overthrown (Gal. 11. IG). Juda- 
 ism was wholly vanquished in his soul, for it 
 was wholly displaced. "—A. Sabatier, TheAryeilt 
 Paul, p. 69.— "Notwithstanding the opprsition 
 be met from his countrymen, in spite of t.ii the 
 liberal and the awc'iened sympathies whi?h he 
 derived from his w 'rk, despite the necessity of 
 conleD.ling daily ai.d hourl^ trt the freedom of 
 the Gospel among ti.e Ge:;uies, he never ceased 
 to be a Jew. . . . The most ardent patriot could 
 not enlarge with greater pride on the •;lorics of 
 the chosen race than he does in the Epist;-* to the 
 Romana His care for the poor in Judoti is a 
 touching proof of the strength of this n ttlonal 
 feeling. Ills attendance at the great annual fes- 
 ti'alsin Jerusalem is still more signiflcont. 'I 
 riuit spend the coming feast at Jerusalem. ' This 
 nguaKC beroiuea the more striking when we 
 ememlwr that he was then intending to open 
 out a new tleUi of missionary lalmur in the far 
 West, and was bidding perhaps his Inst far"well 
 to the Holy City, tlie loy of the whole earth."— 
 J. B. Lljtlitfoot. Bihtifal Eunyt, pp. 200-210 — 
 "The .Macedonian Churches are honorably dis- 
 tlnguishcil ab^ve all others by their Hdclity to 
 the GiwiM'l a .d their affectionate regard for 8t 
 Paul himself. While the Church of Corinth 
 disirriioil herself by gross moral deliniiuencies, 
 whili' till- Ualittians bartered the lilK'rty of the 
 Gospel for a narrow formalism, while the be- 
 lierera of Kphesus drifted into the wildest 
 speculative errors, no such stain attiiches to the 
 brethren of Pliilippl «n(l Thesanlonica. It is to 
 the Macviloniiin congregations that the Apostle 
 ever turns for solace in tlie midst of his severest 
 trials and sufferings. Time seems not to have 
 chli:,'<l ihi'se feelings of mutual alTection. The 
 Epistle to the I'liilipplans was writu-n about ten 
 yean after the Tlu-agalonian letters. It is the 
 more sur, rising therefore that they should re- 
 wmbic each other so strongly in tone. In both 
 •like .St I'uul drops his olllciiil title at the outset 
 . Olid in both he adopts throughout the same 
 tone of confidence and aroction. In this inter- 
 val of ten years we meet with one notice of the 
 Mawilonlan Churchei It is conceived In terms 
 of luiimiisured praise. The Ma ■•■donians bad 
 l»een c«|l„l upon to contribjto u> the wants of 
 their p()<inr brethren iu Juda'a, who were suffer- 
 og .r .m famine. They had resp«m«UHl n,>bly to 
 itie call I)v«p simk in poverty and sorely tried 
 by peiiiprutloii. they came forward with eager 
 jor and pnur.'.l out the riches of their lllicrBllty 
 •tralDlnij their means to the utmost in order to 
 relieve t he »uffer.-rs, , . . We may imagine that 
 the pe.,ple ,1111 reialni-d something of those 
 •implir habits mil that ntunlier character, which 
 .,»;'',''"■'' '".*' ""*'" ""'I Orientals in the days 
 " r.M,:j. am! AK-iamicr, ai.d l.'ius in the e.rty 
 ^^u . "'j''" <^'"^»"«'' t'hurch the Maccloniai 
 PhalMi offered a successful resistance to the 
 •Jjjulls of .n enemy, before which the lax and 
 «»rv»t*d rvikt of Ada and AciuU bad yielded 
 
 ir^ominlously,"- J. B. Lightfoot, BiNieal Euayt, 
 I '. 849-250.- At Jerusalem, "the Apostle was 
 rescued by a detachment of the Roman garrison 
 from a mob of Jewish mallgnants, was held in 
 custody for two years at Cesarea, and was finally 
 enabled to accomplish a long-cherished Intention 
 to go to Rome, by being conveved there as a 
 prisoner, he having made an appeal to Ctesar. 
 After being wrecked on the Mediterranean and 
 cast ashore on the Island of MalU, under the cir- 
 cumstances rehited in Luke's graphic and accu- 
 rate description of the voyage, he went on his 
 way in safety to the capital."— O. P. Fisher. Ilit- 
 tvryoftKeChrittian Chnrch,p. 29.- "Paulsapos- 
 tollc career, as known to us, lasted . . . twcnty- 
 ntae or thirty years; and it falls into three 
 distinct periods which are summarized in the 
 following chronological table : First Pcrio<l — Es- 
 sentlallv Mlssionery: 85 A. D., Conversion of 
 Paul. — journey to Arabia; 38, First visit to 
 Jerusalem; 88-49, Mission in Syria and Cilicia— 
 Taraus and Antioch ; 50-51,Fir8t missionary jour- 
 "Py— Cyprus, PamphyliaandOalatia tActexiii., 
 xiv.); 52, Conference at Jerusalem ;Ajtsxv. ; QaL 
 li.); 52-55, Secondmissionary jou'jey — Epistles 
 to the Thessalonlans from Coiinth). Second 
 Period —The Great t uiflicts, and the Great Epis- 
 tles: 54, Return to Antioch — Controversy with 
 Peter (Oal. li. 12-22); 5.V5T, Mission to Ephesus 
 and Asia; 66, Epistle to the Oalatians; .WorSS 
 (Passover), Firet Epistle to the Corinthians 
 (Ephesus); 57 or 58 (.Sutumn), Second Epistle 
 to the Corinthians (Maccdoida); 58 (Winter) 
 Epistle to the Romans. Third Period — The 
 Captivity; 58 or 69 (Pentecost), Paul Is arrested 
 at Jerusalem ; 58-60, or 59-61, Captivity at Cffis- 
 area — Epistles to Philemon, Colossians and 
 Ephesians; 60 or 61 (Autumn), IX'parture for 
 Rome; 61 or 03 (Sprint'), Arrival of Puul In 
 Rome ; 63-63, Epistle to the Phillppians ; 63 or 64 
 End of the narrative of the Acu of tlie Apos- 
 tles. "—A. Sabatier, TKe Apottlt Paul, pp. 21-23 _ 
 "The impression that we get from Acta is, that the 
 evangelisation of Asia Minor originated from St. 
 Paul; and that from his initiative the new reli- 
 gion gradually spread over the country through 
 the action of many other missionaries (Acts xfi. 
 10). Moreover, missionaries not trained bv him 
 were at work in South Oalatia and In Enlu'susas 
 early as 64-56 A. I), (Oal. v. 7-10; Acts xviil 
 85). . . . The Christian Churrli in Asia Minor 
 was always opposed to the priinltl»-e native eliar- 
 arter It was t'hristianltv, and not tlu^ Imperial 
 government, which llnallv destnived the native 
 languages, and made Orcek the'universul lan- 
 guage of Asia Minor. The new religion was 
 strong in the towns before it '.'ml any lioM of the 
 country parts. The ruder and the le.ss rivlliaed 
 any district was, the slower was Christianity in 
 permeating it Christianity in tlie eariv centuries 
 was the R'l^Hon o' the more advaneed.'not of the 
 ' barbarian ' [H-opleo , and in fact it wems to be 
 nearlv ceinllned within the limits of the Roman 
 world, and pructically to take little thought of 
 any people l»vond, though Intlieory, ' Hariiarian 
 and Scythhm are ineluded in it. . , . The First 
 Epistle of John was In all prolMbility 'addnssed 
 primarilv to the cln-le of A«lal!c Churrtiis, n! 
 which fcplieaus was the centre.'"— W. M. Ilim- 
 .«y, T"** Church in the Unann Emjiire, pp. 284, 
 44, 80;i.— '■ Unless we arc pre|iared to ri'Jeet with- 
 out a hr ring si' the traditions of Christianity 
 we ca^ji rcfuD to believe that the latest yean 
 
 461 
 
CHRISTlAinTT. 
 
 M/okm 
 
 CHRISTIAKTIT 
 
 of the Apottie St John were ipent In the Roman 
 proTlDce of Asia and chiefly in £phesu8 Its capi- 
 tal. This tradition is singularly full, consistent 
 and well-authenticated. Here he gathered disci- 
 ples about him. organized churches, appointed 
 bishops and presbyters. A whole chorus of 
 voices unite In bearing testimony to its truth. 
 One who passed his earlieT life hi these parts and 
 had heanl his aged master, a disciple of St. John 
 himself, recount his personal reminiscences of the 
 great Apostle; another, who held tliis very see 
 of Ephusus, and writing less than a century after 
 the Apostle's death was linlted with the past by a 
 chi-in of relatives all bishops in the Christian 
 Church; a third who also flourished about the 
 close of the century in I numbered among bis 
 teachers an oid man fn)iii this very district — are 
 the principal, because the most distinct, witnessi'S 
 to a fact which is implied in several other notices 
 of earlier or contemporary wriUTS. As to the 
 time at which St. John left 1 ' original homeanc' 
 settled in this new abode nodirect account is pre- 
 servcti; but a very probable conjecture mav bj 
 hazarded. The impending fall of the Holy t'it ' 
 was the signal for tiic dispersion of the followcM 
 of Chri.st. About this stiine time the tlin^e oil; - 
 great Anostles, St. Peter, St. Paul and St. James, 
 died a nmrtvr's death ; and on St. John, the lost 
 surviving of the four great pillars of the Church, 
 devolved the work of developing the theology of 
 the Gospel and completing the organization of 
 the Church. It was not unnatural that at such a 
 crisis he should fix bis residence in the centre of 
 a large and growing Christian community, vhicU 
 had been planted by the Apostle of the GcntiLo 
 and wat-ri-d by the AiHwtle of the Cirrumeision.' 
 The missionary lalKJurp ol St. Paul and St. Peter 
 in Asia Minor wen- .onflrmed and extended bv 
 the prolonged res'Mcnce of their younger coii- 
 temponiry. At j.II events such evidence as we 
 possess is favouraliie t tni^ view of the date of 
 St. John's si'ttlement at Ephesus. Assuming that 
 the Ap<x-alyp8e is the work of " beloved Apos- 
 tle, and accepting the v'.-w whic assigns it to 
 the close of >en)s rcign or thereal)outs, we find 
 him now for the first time in tlio immediaU 
 ncighlH)Hrhood of Asia Minorniid in direct com- 
 inunicution with Ephesus and the miglibouring 
 Churrlies. St. John however was not alone 
 ^Vhetlu•r <lniwn thii,. r by the attraction of his 
 presence or acting in pursuance of some common 
 agneimnt, the few surviving personal dKciples 
 of the I.<)nl woulil seem to have chosen Asia 
 MiP'iras their permanent abode, or at all events 
 as their remgnW'd Ii<«il,|imrter8. Here at least 
 wc meet witli the friend of St. John's youth an<i 
 perlmps his fellow. townsman, Andrew o' Ilelh- 
 BHlda, who with liira had first lisU'tied to John 
 the Biiptisi. and with himalsohail been the earliest 
 to ricofTiiise Jesus as the Christ. Here tiKj we 
 encounter Philip the Evangelist with his daugh- 
 ters, mid perhaps also Philip o' Ih'thsuidu, the 
 Apostle. Here alv. was settled the Apostle's 
 namesake, John the Presbyter, also a personal 
 disciple of Jesus, and one Aristion, not ether- 
 wise known to us, who likewise had heanl the 
 Ixird. And (sisslbly also other Apostles whoso 
 traditions Pajiias n-eonled Iseo J. 11. LiglitfiH)t 
 A/MfMie Father; p. M^], >fatthew and Thomas 
 Slid James, may have hail some ninrwurinn, tpin- 
 porary or penhanent, with this district. Thus 
 surrounded the surviving disciples of the 
 Lord, by blii.opi tad preibyten of iiit own ap- 
 
 polntinent, and by the pupiU who gathewd 
 about him and l.xiked to him for instruction 8t 
 John was the fo.us of a large and active sor'ietv 
 of heli«ver». In this respect he holds a unique 
 pos-Uon ainong the great teachers of the ucvt 
 faith. St. Peter and tit. Paul converted rtl.scinle's 
 and organized congregaUons ; St. John alone was 
 the centre of a school. His life prtilonped tin 
 the close of the century, when the t'lmreh was 
 
 ,?u^J°'J*^'^, ^"'l *;''•"';' "^"tended, combined 
 with his fixed alxxle in the centre of an estsb- 
 lished community to give a certain deHnitiness 
 to his personal influence which would be wnntin? 
 to the wider labours of these str<.iiy niLssionarv 
 preachers. Hence the notiw-s of St. John haves 
 mnre solid ba»ls and claim grec.ier attention than 
 rojries relating to the other Apostles "—J B 
 Llghtfoit. nmieal Em-'/; pp. 81-,'5.3._" In'.he 
 parable of Jesus, of which we are speskiiiL' it is 
 said that 'the earth br.ageth forth fruit i.f tn,- 
 self;'— that is, to tm:.»fcr the Greek term into 
 English, 'automatically.' That epithet is chosen 
 which denotes most precisely a self netin:,' spon- 
 taneous energy, inherent in thesei'd wliiih Jesus 
 through his discourses, his acts of nierey and 
 power, and his patience unto death, was sowinB 
 in the world. This grand prophetic deelanition 
 utu-red in a figure so simple and beuutlful in 
 the ears of a little company of Oalilerins was lo 
 be wonilerfully verified In the coiuini; O". ,f 
 Christiiin history."— O. P. Fisher, Th« .V, rt 
 and Mrthiid oflttteUitutn, p. 47. 
 
 Alexandria. — "Plutarch looketl upon it a« 
 the great mission of Alexander to iniiisiilunt 
 Grecian culture into distant count ries, mid to 
 conciUate On^■ks and barbarians, ami In fuse 
 them into one. He says of him. not without 
 reason, that he was sent of God for this |iuriinse 
 though the historian did not divine lliiii this eDci 
 itself Was only subsidiary to, and the miiinsef 
 one still hijrl - — the niakiiig, viz., the united 
 peoples of th Kast and West more aeeessihle to 
 the new cnaiioa which was to prMced from 
 Christianity, and by the combination of ihe ele- 
 ments of Oriental anil Hellenic culture the piv- 
 paring for Christianity a material iu wliiih it 
 might develop itself If we overlook this ulterior 
 end. and do not fix our n'ganls i ii tlie hiKlur 
 quickening spirit destined to reanim \U\ for .some 
 new end. that combination which a read v liore 
 within itself a germ of corruption, ac "might 
 well doulit whether that unhin was na.'v a gain 
 to eitlier party; whether, at least, it «;is not 
 everywhere attended with a corre»|Kin(h nt loss. 
 For the fresh vigour which it infused inio tie 
 old national spirit must have Ihm'M con-lanlly f- 
 pressed by the violence which the fi.nii;n ele- 
 ment did to it. To intriHluce into that eoniWns 
 tlon anew living principle of develn|.iiii nt. aud. 
 w'thout prejudiie to their original ess<i.. e. to 
 unite p«'culhirith'« the most diverse Inin a whnli' 
 in which each part shouhl Iw a eoiiipl.'ment to 
 the other, reiiuln-d siuiiethiiig hiirhir than any 
 element of human culture. The true living rora- 
 munion tietween the lOast and Ihi- \\e«t. which 
 ■hould cimiblne together the two peculiar prin- 
 ciples that were equally necessary f.ir a loiiiiihtc 
 exhibition of the tyiH! of hunmnitv. enul 1 Ilrsl 
 come only from Christianity. Uiit'siill. as pre- 
 parst'iry tlufrto, the iniiuenro whi.ii, f, r thrm 
 centuries, went forth fmm Alexandria, that a>n- 
 tre of the intercourse of the world, was of great 
 Importance."— A. Meander, Uentral Uiit. of t\i 
 
 452 
 
CHBISTIANITT. 
 
 n* £arty CkwrA 
 at Bowu. 
 
 CHRISTIAinTT. 
 
 Chritlian Religion and Church, t. 1, introd.— 
 "The Greek version [of the Old Testament, the 
 geptuagint], like tlieTargum of the Palestinians, 
 origiosted, no do ibt, in the first place, in a felt 
 Ditlonal want on he part of the Helk-aisu, who 
 u a body were igi. 'rant of Hebrew. Hence wo 
 Jnd notices of very --ariy Greek versions of at 
 least partsof the Pentateuch. But this, of counse. 
 could not sulBce. On the other hand, there ex- 
 isted, as we may suppose, a natural curiosity ou 
 the part of the students, specially in Alexandria, 
 which bud so large a Jewish population, to know 
 ihe sacred hooks on which the religion and 
 bistory of Israel were founded. Even more than 
 this, we must take into account the literary 
 taste' of the first thitie Ptolemies (successors in 
 Egypt of Alexander the Great), and the excep- 
 tional favour which the Jews for a time enjoyed. " 
 — A. Edersbeim, L\fa and Timti of Jetui the 
 Matinh, e. I. p. 24. 
 
 Rome.— "Alongside of the province of Aski 
 Minor, Rome very early attains to an outstanding 
 Importance for young Christianity. If, as we 
 have supposed, the community here which eman- 
 dpated itself from the synagogue was mainly 
 recniitcd from among the proselyte circles which 
 had formed themselves around the Jewish syna- 
 gogue, if Paid (luring the years of his captivity, 
 ana Peter also, influenccl this preponderatingly 
 OeiitlleChristian community, we must, however, 
 by no means undervalue for the Christian com- 
 munity the continuous influence of Judaism on 
 the Itonian world, an influence which was not 
 lessened but rather increased by the destruction 
 of Jerusalem. Many thousands of Jewish cap- 
 tives bad arrived hei.: and l)ccn sold as slaves — 
 Rome was the greatest Jewish city In the Empire, 
 . . . and in part it was an enlightened and lilwral 
 Judaism. Jowlsh Hellenism bad already long 
 availed itself of the weapons of Hellenic philoso- 
 phy ami stieme . . . in order to exalt the Jewish 
 fpiili. . . . Under this stimulus there was . . . 
 developed a pruselytisni which was Indeed at- 
 trarteil l)y that monotheism and the belief in 
 providence ai d prophecy and the moral Ideas 
 tllieil therewith, and which also had a strong 
 tenileney to Jewish customs and festivals — ea- 
 pecliilly the keeping of tlic Sabbath — but which 
 remuiiied fur fniiii binding itself to a strictly 
 Icgnl way (if Iif(! in circiiiiicision, etc. We may 
 >up|n>He that Koiiian ('hristiani'v not only ap- 
 peared In the charaetj.'r of such a p...;j|ytism, but 
 also retained fmin it a certain Jewish colouring." 
 — \V. Mueller, Iliatory of tht Clirittian Church: 
 A. D. l-flOd. /)/). H3-S4.— "The last notice of the 
 Roman Cliiireh in tlie Apostolic writings seems 
 to ixiiiit to tw(j separate coniinunitics, a Judaiz- 
 \af Chun h uiid a Pauline Churrh. The arrival 
 of the Cleutile .Vpostic in the metropolis, it would 
 aptxar. wiis the siirnal for the scpamtion of the 
 Jmhiirird. »li>i Iniil hitherto associated with their 
 0-r.;;ie linllireii o.dilly and distrustfully. The 
 preseu if M. Puiil iiiiist have vastly strength- 
 ened die iiiiiiilierH and influence of the more 
 li' .al iiuil Ciithi.llc party: while the J'ldaizers 
 piuviikcit In rivalry reihiiililed their efforts, that 
 liimakliij,'e.mvert.-i to the Gospel they might also 
 gain priHelyies to the law."— J. B. Liglitfuut, 
 Diufl.ili,,!,!! :,n Ihe Aixittidie Age, }>. B4. — "His- 
 torical intiiriiiaiion of any certainty on tbe latter 
 peri.id (if Paul, life is entirely wanting. While 
 theeplMlcH reiiiiire this unknown pcrtod, and a 
 Kcoud euptivlty, as a basis for their apottollc 
 
 origin, on the other hi>nd, the hypothesis of a 
 second captivity scarcely finds any real founda- 
 tions except in the three Pistoral letters."— A. 
 fahatier, TIte ApoHle Ihitil, p. 869.— It only re- 
 mains for us, returning to tbe close of the apos- 
 tle's life, to put together the slencler indication! 
 that we have of its date. He embariied for Itome 
 in the autumn of 60 (or 61) A. D. ; but was com- 
 pelled by shipwreck to winter In the island of 
 Malta, and only reached the Etcmui City in the 
 spring of 61 (62). Luke adds tliat he remained 
 there as a prisoner for two years, living in a 
 private house under the guanf of a soldier; then 
 his narrative breaks off abruptly, and we are 
 confronted with the unknown (Acts, xxviii. 30). 
 Paul is supposed to have perished in the fright- 
 ful persecution caused bv the fire -if Rome in 
 July 64 A. D. All that is' certain is that he died 
 a martyr at Rome under Nero (Sabatier). 
 
 [The purpose of what follows in this article is 
 to give a brief history of Christianity in son ~ of 
 its relations to general history by the methou of 
 this work, and in the light of some of the best 
 thought of our time. The article as a combina- 
 tion of quotations from many authors attempts a 
 presentation of historic facts, and also a positive 
 and representative view, so far as this may be 
 obtained under the guidance of ideas common to 
 many of tl.e books used. Some of these books 
 have had more influence on the devehipmeut of 
 the article than others : entire harmony and a full 
 presentation of any author's view would mani- 
 festly be Impossible. Nevertheless, the reader 
 may discover in the article principles and ele- 
 ments of unity derived from the literature and 
 rcprescting it. Unfortunately, one of the es- 
 sential parts of such a history must be omitted — 
 biography. J 
 
 A. D. ioo-3ia.--The Period of Growth and 
 StruEgle. — "Chriitian belief. Christian moral- 
 ity, the Christian view of the world, of which 
 tlic church as a rcligieiis society and institution 
 is the focus, as fluid spii'.nial elemeuts permeate 
 hiimnnity as it liecomesClirii'ittii, fuc beyond the 
 sphere of the church proper; while convcrs<'T 
 the church is not assured against the possibility 
 tl!;it spiritual elements originally alien to her 
 may (luminate snd influence her in their turn. 
 ... In this living interaction tue peculiar life 
 of the c'l'-Th is unfolded. In accordance with 
 its Internal pilpclples of forniatidu, into an ex- 
 iraordinarily maniioM and complicated object of 
 historical examination. . . For this purpose it 
 is necessary to elucidate t'lc general historical 
 movement of the cliuo h by the relative separa- 
 tion of certain of its a!i|M'( is. without loosening 
 the bond of unity."— W, M.K'ller, Ilitt. of tht 
 Clirintiiin Church: A. 1). 1-000. ;i;). 1-3.— "Such, 
 in fact, has been the history of the Faith : a sad 
 and yet a glorious succession of battles, often 
 hardly fouglit, and sonietiiiies indecisive. Ix'tween 
 the new life and the old life . . . The Christian 
 victory of coH'inon life was wroug'iiout in silence 
 and patience and naiiieiess ai;(Miies. It was the 
 victory of the soldiers nmi nul of the captains of 
 Christ's army. Hut in due liuie another cnnfllct 
 had to be sustained, not by the massis. but by 
 gn'atmen, the conse(|iienee and theciimpletiim of 
 tfiut which liad gone tiefore. . . . The discipline 
 of action preee(i(>s tlic elTorl of reascn. ... So 
 it CHiiie to pass tliat the pcriiMl during wliieh this 
 second conflict of tlie Kiitli wiu waned wai, 
 rtiugbly speaking, from tbe middle of the second 
 
 453 
 
CHRISTIAinTT. 
 
 OrMt PhOatopImn and 
 
 CHRISTIAinTT. 
 
 to the middle of the third centuir. "— B. F. We»t- 
 cott, Bmay in tht llittory of Heligiout Thougkt 
 in tlu Wat, pp. 194-197.— ■■PhfloeophT went 
 on its way among the higher cliiiei, but laid ab- 
 ■olutely no hold on men at large. The reforma- 
 tion which it wrought in a few elect apirita 
 failed utterly to spread downward to the mass 
 of mankind. The poor were not touched by 
 it; society was not helped by it; IM noblest 
 men, and they grew fewer and fewer, genera- 
 tion by generation, bewailed bitterly the univer- 
 lal Indifference. The schools dwindled into 
 a mere univeraity system of culture; Christi- 
 anltv developed into a religion for the civilised 
 world. . . . New ideas it bad in abundance, but 
 new ideas were not the secret of its power. The 
 essential matter in the Oospel was that it was the 
 history of a Life. It waa a tale of fact that all 
 could understand, that all could believe, that all 
 could love. It differed fundamenully from Phi- 
 losophy, because it appealed not to culture, but 
 to life. ... It was the spell of substantial facts, 
 living facts, . . . thespcllofaloyaltytoapersonal 
 Lord ; and those who have not mastereil the differ- 
 ence between it philosopher's speculations about 
 life, and the actual record of a life which, in all 
 that makes life holy and beautiful, transcended the 
 philosopher's most pure and lofty dreams, hai'e 
 not understood yet the rudiments of the reason 
 whv the Stoic could not. while Christiaulty could 
 and dill, regenerate socictv." — J. B. Brown, Sioiei 
 and Siinlt, vp. 85-86.— The 'period, from the 
 accedsiun of Marcus Aurelius (A. D. 161) to the 
 accession of Valerian (A. U. 253) was for the Oen- 
 tile wnrld n period of unrest and exhaustion, of 
 femient niid of imlcrision. The time of great 
 hopes and creative minds was gone. The most 
 conspicuous men were, with few exceptions, 
 busied with tlie piist. . . . Local beliefs hiid lost 
 their power. Even old Rome ceased to exercise 
 an unciuestioned monil supremacy. Men strove 
 to be cosmopolitan. Tliey strove vagu ly after a 
 unity in wliieh the scattered elements of ancient 
 experience sliould lie harmonizetl. The effect can 
 be s<'en lK)tli in the policv of statesmen and lii the 
 speculations of philosophers, in Marcus Auielius, 
 or Alexander Severus. or Decius, no less than in 
 Plotiuus or Porphyry. As a necessary conse- 
 quence, the teaching of the Bible accewiihle in 
 Greek began to attract serious attention among 
 the heatlieu. The assailants of C'iiristianity, 
 even if they affected contempt, shewed that they 
 were dwply movol 1^ its doctrines. 'I'lie mem- 
 orable saying of Numenius, • What is Plato but 
 Moses speakhig in tlie language of Athens?' 
 shews at once the feeling after spiritual sympathy 
 which iH'gan to \>e entertained, and the want of 
 splritunl iusiirlit in the representatives of Geniile 
 thought. "—B. F. Westcott, JSMoystn t/m IIMo'y 
 of Urli;/iiim Thdiight in tht Wut, pp. 196-IB7.— 
 " To cur miniis it apiH^rs that the preparation of 
 philosophy for Christianity was complete. , . . 
 The time wiui ripe fur tliat movement of which 
 Ju.stin is the earliest [complete] representative." 
 — Q. T. I'urves, The Tftinwuyof/utliti .Vartyr, 
 p. 135— "The writing in defense of Christi- 
 anity is called t'le apology, and the writer an 
 apologist . . . Tli?rc were two classes of apolo- 
 gists, tlie Greek and the Latin, according ui the 
 lerrlloiy which Ihey occupied, and tile language 
 in which thcv wrote. But there were further 
 differences. The Greeks belonged mostly to the 
 •ecood century, and their wriuogt exhibited a 
 
 profound IntimacT with the Greek pliilosnnhv 
 Some of them had studied in the Greek scliools 
 and entered thechu.ch only in mature life. They 
 endeavored to prove that Christianity was tlie 
 
 blossom of all that was valuable in 
 
 every system. 
 
 They stood largely on the defensive. Tlie fjitjns' 
 on the other hand, were aggressive. They lived 
 mostly in the third century. . . . Tlie priiiclpsl 
 Greek spologisU [were] Aristo, Qiiailnitus Arts- 
 tides [A. D. 181], Justin [A. D. 180], Melito [.V. D 
 1701, Miltiades, Irenaeus, Athenagoms |A. D 
 178], Tatian, Clement of Alexandria | A. I) im 
 Ilippolytus, and Origen [A. D. 8i5].'— j p 
 Hurst, Short IliHory of the Chrirtiun Church n 
 83. Lightfoot assigns to about A. I). 15u (?i 'ih« 
 author of the Epistle to Diognetus. "fimei 
 without number the defenders of Clirlsiianitv 
 appeal to the great and advantageous clinnirt 
 wrought by the Gospel in all who emlinKeti ft. 
 ..." We who liated and destroyed one another 
 and on account of their different manners would 
 not receive into our houses men of a diirirent 
 tribe, now, since the coming of Christ, live fa- 
 miliarlr with them. We pray for our enemlei, 
 we endeavor to persuade those who hate us un- 
 justly to live conformably to the beautiful pu- 
 cepts of Christ, to the end that they niiiv iKTume 
 partakers with us of the same joyful linpe uf a 
 reward from God, the Ruler or all.' This dis- 
 tinction between Christians and heaihin, tbii 
 consciousness of a complete change in eliaraott'r 
 and life, is nowliere more beautifully dibcrilted 
 than In the noble epistle ... to IMo^'nctus." 
 — Gerhard Uhlhom, Tht Conflict of VhiittMiUty 
 with Heathenitm, p. 186, — "For Cliristi;ins are 
 not distinguished from the rest of muukiml eitlier 
 in locality or In speech or in customs. F.t they 
 dwell not somewhere In cities of lluir own, 
 neither do they use some different luiittuage. nor 
 practise sn extraordinary kind of life. . . . But 
 while they dwell in cities of Greeks and liarlis. 
 rians as the lot of e.ich is cest, and I'mMuw the 
 native customs in dress and food an<l the othrr 
 arrangements of life, yet the coustituiidii uf thiir 
 own citizenship, which they set forth, is nuirvil- 
 lous, and confessedly contradicts e.vpiiiation. 
 They dwell In their own countries. Ijut onlv as 
 sojourners; they bear their slmn- in iiM lli'ings 
 as citizens, and they endure all li^ir<!>hi|>s as 
 strangers. Every foreign country is a fullirrlanJ 
 to them, and every ftttiicrianii Is foniirn 
 Their existence is on earth, hut their i iii/.iiship 
 is in heaven. Tliey obey the estalilishid l.iws, 
 and they surpass the laws in tlitir own lives. 
 They love all men and tlicy are persei nt.ii hy 
 all. . . . War is urged against tlieni as all. ns hy 
 the Jews, and persecution is carried <>ri airaiiiit 
 them by the Greeks, and yet those tliat Mat" tLem 
 cannot tell the reason of their lioHtilitv. — ,1 B 
 Lightfoot, Trant. of the Kpitllf to /)/•»/«. r.o i The 
 Apottulie fUthen, pp. 60,V-50fl) — "TIk-- apoln. 
 gists rise against piiilosopliy also, out vf H....a 
 they themselves had arisen, in the full (luiMiuus 
 ness of their faith open to all and not >ii>ly u, the 
 cultured few, the certainty of w hieli, Ui^ld upon 
 revelation, cannot be replaced bv uncertain liiinan 
 wisdom, which, moreover, isself-contra.lic lory in 
 its most important representatives. (In lli'' other 
 liand. they wililnily recogni.se in tlie pliilowphr 
 by means' of whicti tliey had tlieniMiMs lieeb 
 educated, certain elements of truth, wliii h they 
 partly derive from tlio scedconisof truth, which 
 the divine Logos bad scattered among the heatbta 
 
 454 
 
CBRISTIANITT. 
 
 KOM9 
 
 CHRisTiANrrr. 
 
 ilio, putlr eztemally from a dmendeno* of 
 Onek wtMom oo the much older wudom of the 
 Eut, ud therefore from the uae of the Scripture* 
 of the Old Testament To the reproach that they 
 ti*d deserted the religion which had been handed 
 down from their ancestors and thereby made 
 ■acred, they oppose the right of recognised 
 truth, the right of freedom of conscience; re- 
 UgloD becomes the peculiar affair ' * personal 
 coQvictioo, against which methods of force do not 
 tufflce: Ood is to be obeyed rather tlian man." 
 — W. Hoeller, Hill, of the Chrutian Churth: 
 A. D. 1-600, p. 179.— "Such a morality, as Roman 
 greitni'ss was passing away, took pc^session of 
 Uie ground. Its beginnings were scarcely felt, 
 icarcely known of, In the vast movement of 
 sSairs in the greatest of empires. By and by Ita 
 prefDce, strangely austere, strangely gentle, 
 itrangcly tender, strangely Inflexible, began to 
 be noticed. But its work was long only a work 
 o( indirect preparation. Those whom it ctiarmed, 
 tfaoK whom it opposed, those whom it tamed, 
 knew not what was beins done for the genera- 
 tions which were to follow." — FL W. Chureh, 
 The OiJU of Civilitation, p. 159. — "The more 
 spiritual and profound historians of the Church 
 recognize it as a manifestation of this divine 
 life Sowing into human history. But this is 
 true of the organized church only with important 
 qualiHrutiuns. The life must manifest itself in 
 ID organization ; but the organization is neither 
 the only nor the complete exposition of the life. 
 . . . The life wliirh creates the organization 
 penetrates and purifies also the fi-niiy and the 
 state, renovates individuals, and blooms and 
 fructities in Christian civilisations; and these are 
 alto liistorical maaifestations." — 8. Harris, Tht 
 Kingdom of Chi-itt on Earth, p. 87. — It was the 
 great fnrmatlve period of the world's new life, 
 and all streams tended to flow together. The in- 
 fluence of Greek thought on Roman law had led, 
 under the circumstances of Roman commercial 
 life, to the development of an ideal "jus gen- 
 tium." a kind of natural law discovered by the 
 reason. This conception tr»nsf<)rme<i the Roman 
 law and brought it into touch with the new sense 
 of human relationa "It was by means of this 
 bigber conceptior .f equity which resulted from 
 the iili ntiflcatioi f the jus gentium with tiie 
 Jul iiatunilc — th the alliance Ixawcen law and 
 philosophy was i lly made efficient '—\V. C. 
 
 Morey, OulUiu$ _, om Raman Law, p. 114. 
 
 "There were tliree agencies whose influence in 
 workiiii; simultaneously and successively at this 
 Idcntirul task, the developing and importing of 
 the ius gentium, was decisive of tlie ultimate 
 result These were the practorl»n edict [which 
 ftacliij its climax under the Ri;publlc and was 
 coraol.teil under Il»drian],IlomBn scientific Juris- 
 pruiUuL-c [which developed its greatest ability 
 about A. U, 200) and imperial legislation."— 
 K-M\m,IiittUutttnf Itaman Lin. p. 46.— "The 
 Utenl poliiv of Rome gradually extended the 
 
 P""'' ' of her citizenship till it included all 
 
 herBulijrots; nod nloni; with the 'Jus suffragii." 
 went of ciiurM the 'Jus honorum.' Even under 
 Augustus -lud a Spanianl consul at Rome; 
 and under (iallia nn Ejryptian is governor of 
 tgyrt_ It is not long Ix-fore even the emperor 
 rm,^:t X, s;:ppliid by iIk- ()ruviuee«. It ia eosy 
 to eoinpr..h,nd therefor.' how the provincUis 
 torgoi III,, fatherlaml of their birth for the father- 
 Uud of their titlzenship. Ouco win the fran- 
 
 chise, and to great capacity was opened a great 
 career. The Roman Empire came to be a homo- 
 geneous mass of privileged persons, largely 
 using the same language, aiming at the same 
 type of civilisation, equal among themseWes, 
 but all alike conscious of their superiority to the 
 surrounding barbarians. '—W. T. Arnold, Th* 
 Soman SyOem of Provineial Adminutration, 
 P- 87. — "As far as she could, Rome destroyed 
 the individual genius of nations: she seems to 
 have rendered them unqualified for a national ex- 
 istence. When the public life of the Empire 
 ceased, Italy, Oaul, and Spain were thus unable 
 to become nations. Their great historical ex- 
 istence did not commence until after the arrival 
 of the barbarians, and after several centuriea of 
 experiments amid violence and calamity. But 
 how does it happen that the countries which 
 Rome did not conquer, or did nut long have 
 under her sway, now hold such a promhient 
 place in the world— that they exhibit so much 
 originality and such complete confidence in their 
 future? Is it only because, having existed a 
 shorter time, they are entitled to a longer future? 
 Or, perchance, did Rome leave behind her certain 
 habits of mind, intellectual and moral qualities, 
 which Impede and limit activity? "— E. Lavisse, 
 PMtical Hitt. of Europe, p. 6. — Patriotism was 
 a considerable part of both the ancient religion 
 and the old moralltv. The empire weakened the 
 former and deeply injured the latter by conquest 
 of the Individual statea It had little to offer in 
 place of these except that anomaly, the worship 
 of the emperor; and a law and justice adminis- 
 tered by rulers who, to say the least, grew very 
 rich. "The feeling of pride in Roman citizen- 
 ship . . became much weukprns the citizenship 
 was widened. . . . Roman citizenship included 
 an ever growing proportion of the population in 
 every land round tlie Mediterranean, till nt last 
 it embraced the whole Roman worlil. . . . Chris- 
 tianity also created a religion for the Empire, 
 transcending all distinctioi.s of nationality. . . . 
 The path ofdevclopmcnt for the Empire lay in 
 accepting the rcligiou offered it to complete its 
 orjranisatlon. Down to the time of Hadrian there 
 was a certain progress on the part of ilie Empiro 
 towards a recoffnltinn of tliis necessity." — W. M. 
 Ramsay, Tht Church in the Ui,m,m Empire, pp. 
 873, 101-102.— The relations of the laws of the 
 Empire to Christianity may lie britlly stated, but 
 there are diffcrcnci-s of opiiiicn wUuU cannot be 
 noted here: "A. I>. 3i) to IIHI. Cliristians treated 
 as a sect of the Jews and shariiij; in the general 
 toleration accorded to them. A. 1). 100 to 2.50, 
 Christians recognized, . . . ami rendered liable 
 to persecution: (Ist) For treason an(l impiety. 
 ('.!nd) As belonging to illegal associations, but at 
 the same time protected in their capacity of 
 tnembers of Friend 1 v or Burial Societies of a kind 
 allowed by the law. A. 1). 2.)0 to 2U0, Christi- 
 anity recognized as a fomiidalile power by the 
 State. Commcneeineut of an open struggle be- 
 tween Chrislianlly and the secular authority. 
 . . . The cemeteries of the Christians now for 
 the first time inlerfcreil with and became places 
 of hiding and secret asicmbly. A. I). .00 to 800, 
 I'crsecutions cease fur a time, 40 years Peace for 
 the lliurch. Time of mii<h prosiMTily when, as 
 Eiiselilus writes. • great inulliluilrs Hoclted to the 
 religion of Christ.' A. D. 800 to 313, Last de- 
 cisive struggle under Diocletiim. "— O. B. Brown, 
 /'Vum Sehoia to Cathtdral.—" The Judges decided 
 
 455 
 
CHRISTIAinTT. 
 
 
 CHRISTIAinTT. 
 
 Uo 
 
 ibnplj In e^corduice with the km, knd, In the 
 great mejorltj of cues, did lo c^nlly, aUmly, 
 without psMioa, M men who wt umply die- 
 charging their duty. . . . Not tLo prieeta, but 
 the Emperon led the attack. ... It la true the 
 Cbriitians never rebelled againat the State. They 
 cannot be reproached wiub eren the appearance 
 of a revolutiunarT ipirit Deiplaed, penecuted, 
 abused, they itill never reTolted, but showed 
 thenuelTea everywhere obedient to the lawi, ard 
 ready to pay to the Empcrora the honor which waa 
 theii due. Yet in one particular they could not 
 obey, tue worahip of Idols, the strewing of in- 
 cense to the Caesar-god. And In this one thing 
 it waa made evident that in Christianity lay the 
 germ of a wholly new political and social order. 
 This is the character of the conflict which we are 
 now to review. It is a contest of the spirit of 
 Antiquity apinst that of Christianity, of the 
 ancient heathen order of the world against the 
 new Christian order. Ten persecutions are com- 
 monly enumerated, viz., under Nero, Domltlan, 
 Trajan, Hadrian, Marcus Aurelius, Septlmlus 
 Severus, Maximinua the Tbraclao, Dcclus, Va- 
 lerian, and Diocletian. This traditional enumera- 
 tion Is, however, very superficial, and leaves en- 
 tirely unrecognized the real course of the struggle. 
 . . . Thnuirh times of relative tranquillity oc- 
 curred. Christianity remained, notwithstanding, 
 a prohibited religion. This being the case, the 
 simple arrangement of the persecutions lo a series 
 makes the Impression that they were all of the 
 same character, while in fact the persecution 
 under Noro was wholly different from that under 
 Trajan and his successors, and this again varied 
 essentially from those under Decius and Diocle- 
 tian. The first persecution which was really 
 general and systematically aimed at the suppres- 
 sion of tlic Cliurch, WHS the Decian [see Rome: 
 A. D. 192-284], That under Trajan and his suc- 
 cessors [see Home: A. D. 96-188, 188-180, and 
 803-30.')] consisted merely of more or less fre- 
 quent processes against individual Christians, in 
 which the establLstied methods of trial were em- 
 ployed, anil the existing laws were mote or less 
 sharply used agninst them. Finally, the perse- 
 cutions under Nero and Domitian [see IloiiB: 
 A. 1). tU-OJ*. and 70-96] were mere outbreaks of 
 I)er8<iniil cruelty and tyrannical caprice. . . . 
 Christianity is the growing might: \iith the 
 energy of "yotith it looks the future in the face, 
 and there sies victory l)e<konlng onward. And 
 how clianged are now its Ideas of tliat triumph! 
 The eiirlier piTiml had no tliou^htof any vict4>ry 
 but that w hieh C'lirist was to brmg at bis coming. 
 . . . But in tlie time of Cyprian the hopes of the 
 C'riatians are (lirt'ctc<i towards another victory: 
 tb. , begin to grasp the idea that Christianity n ill 
 vanquish heathenism from within, and become 
 tlicdominant religion in the Roman Empire. . . . 
 It is true that the Christians were still greatly in 
 the minority. It is generally assumed that they 
 formeil nlKiiit one-twelfth of the whole population 
 In the Kast. and in the West about oi:c-fiftecntb. 
 Even tills is pirhnps too high an estimate. But 
 there were two things which gave a great im- 
 portance to this minority. First, that no single 
 religion of the much divided Heathenism had so 
 many aiiherents as the Christian. Over against 
 the ecattvri'd for.-^^* of Iteat'renism, the Cliris- 
 tians fortned a close phalanx ; the Church was 
 a compart and strongly framed organization. 
 Second, the Christians were massed in the towns. 
 
 while the rural population wu almost ei- 
 clusively devoted to Heathenism. There existed 
 in Antiocb, for instance, a Christian church of 
 flfty thousand soula"— O. Uhlhom, Tht CoiMet 
 of ChriHiaraty leith IltatKtnitm, bk. 8.— "The 
 Encyclopedia of Missions " on the authority of 
 the late Prof. R D. Hitchcock states that then 
 are on record "the namea of churches eiistiDi 
 at this period [at the close of the perseciitloiu] 
 in SaS cities: cities of Europe 188, of Asia 214, 
 of Africa 128." (See Appendix D.) Tliercwere 
 tendencies at work In many of these against thai 
 toward general catholic (universal) organization, 
 but in suffering and sympathy the Cliristiaii 
 Churches formed a vast body of l>elievers. "Such 
 a vast organisation of a perfectly new kind, with 
 no analogy in previously existing institutloni, 
 was naturally slow In derelopment. . . . The 
 critical stage was passed when the destruclinnot 
 Jerusalem annihilated all poasibility of a loialised 
 centre for Christianity, and made it clear that the 
 centralisation of the Church could reside on ly In tn 
 Idea — viz. , a process of intercommunlcatiuniunido 
 and brotherhood. It would be lianily |w8«ibli! 
 tu exaggerate the share which frequent mtcr- 
 course from a very early stage between the sep- 
 arate congregations had in moulding the lU velop- 
 mentoi iheChurct Most of the d<K'U!n( uts In 
 the New Testament are products and nionuinents 
 of this Intercourse ; all attest in numlierli.sA iletail) 
 the vivid interest which the scattered rom- 
 munities took In one another. From the fii^; the 
 Christian Idea waa to annihilate tlie sepurutioa 
 due to space, and hold the moat distant hrotlicr 
 as near as the nearest. A clear consciou.snt ss of 
 the importance of this idea first appears Id the 
 Pastoral Epistles, and is still stronger In writ- 
 ings of A. D. 80-100. , . . The close n hitioos 
 between dillen-nt coug" gations is lirougiit into 
 strong relief by tlie ciuunistances dis<hiK(l In 
 the letters of Ignatius; Ihn welcome extcmiecl 
 everywhere to him; ihe hiving messages sent 
 when hewoswritingtootlierchurrlies: theilipu- 
 tations sent from churches off Ills road tu meet 
 him and convoy him; the rapidity with which 
 news of his progress was sent round, so that 
 deputations from Ephesus, Magnesia, ami Tniiks 
 were ready to visit him in Smyrna: the news 
 fn>m Antiocb which reueheil hint In Tri':i.<<, hut 
 which was unknown to him in !<niyriiii; the 
 directions which he gave to eall a rouiiiil nf the 
 church in Smyrna, and send a me>.tengt'r ti cud- 
 gratulate the chureh in AntliH h : the kn'ml^lge 
 tliat Ills fute is known to and is eni.':>.L'iiiir the 
 efforts of tlie church in Uonie."— \V. -M. liamsay, 
 Tht Chureh in the Poman Einpir', i>p. ;«>4-;i6« — 
 "The fellowship . . . thus strongly Impressed 
 oy apostolic hands on the infant Chureh. i.i never 
 wholly lost sight of throughout all the aires, and 
 its permanent expression is found in the synoj, 
 whether cecumenic, provincial, orilhuoiin This 
 becomes fainter as we reach the age in w hith a 
 presbyter, told off from the IkxIv lo a ilisiinct 
 parish, attaina gradual isolathm from hii lirttb- 
 ren. But this c(mies some eeutiirii s l.iti r . . . 
 Everywhere, till that decline, the I. ha is that of 
 a brotherhood or corporate oflhe, a unity of 
 function pervaded tiy an energy of iT'ihcrly 
 love. ... It is no mere conlluenee of ui.iis be- 
 fore distinct."— 11 llHviimn. /i. ---"•■ ■'■^''^■di 
 (ConUmp. Her.. (Jet., ISH-JV— " It is the ai;c when 
 the New Testament writings begin to I'^ine to- 
 gether to form a geuctally reeoguueJ canon 
 
 4oG 
 
OHBISTIANITT. 
 
 IUra$rUUt 
 Chunk. 
 
 C'HHIHTIAMITy. 
 
 nt epvMltloB too to the ■oTenigii ipirit of 
 tContanut propbecy undonbtedly locraHed the 
 need (or it . . . After the example it the 
 Oncetict, » begfamlng it tlio made with eze- 
 
 Eitlckl eiplanation of New Teetament writingf ; 
 ellto with one on the ReTclatlon of Jolin, acer- 
 trJn HeriMditut with one on the Apoetlei. . . . 
 rtoally, in thii Hune oppocitlon to the heretic*, 
 it ii tought to Mcure the agreement of the dif- 
 ferent churches with one another, and in this re- 
 lation importance ia gained by the idea of a uni- 
 venal (Catholic) Churdt So-called catholic 
 Epiitlet of men of repute in the church to differ- 
 ent communitiea are nlgblv regarded. Aa illua- 
 tntlonii take tbote of BiahopIHonyiiutof Cor- 
 inth tn Lvcediemon, Athens, Crete, Paphlagonia, 
 Pontus. Rume (Euseb 4, 28)."— W. Mueller, //w(. 
 (f the Chriitian Church, pp. 188-184.— " This 
 period [100-812] may be divided into the Post- 
 Apoetolic Age which reaches down to the middle 
 of the Kcond century, and the Age . the Old 
 Catholic Church which ends with the >..abliah- 
 ment of the Church under Constantine. . . . The 
 point of tranaltion from one Age to the other 
 may be unhesitatingly set down at A. D. 170 
 The following are the moat important data In r> 
 
 fard thereto. The death about A. D. 165 of 
 uatin Martyr, who markt the highest point 
 reached in the Post-Apoato'.ic Age and forms also 
 the transition to the Old Catholic Age ; an<l 
 Irenai'ua, flourishing somewhere about A. D 
 170, vbo was the real inaugurator of this latt' 
 age. Beaidea these we come upon the beginning, 
 of the Trinitarian controversies atraut the year 
 170. Finall ', the rejection of Montanism froB 
 the univereal Catholic Church was effected aboct 
 the year 170 by means of the synodal institutiio 
 called into existence (or that purpose." — J. E. 
 Kurtz, Church lUttory. v. 1, p. 70. — "If evenr 
 church must so live in the world aa to be a 
 part of its collective being, tL^n it must always 
 be construed in and tlirough the place and unic 
 to which it lives."— A. M. Fairbaim, r/tePtar* of 
 Chritt in Modern T^^o/n^.—" The Church of :ie: 
 first tliree centuries was never, except pertepa 
 on the day of Pentecost, in an absolutely iJeK ' 
 condition. But yet during the ages of persr . 
 tioD. tlie Churrh as a whole was Tisiblr aa tia. 
 worldly instiiUtion. It waa a spiritual en 
 in recognized antagonism with the worldeti • 
 — F. W . I'ulUr, The Primititt SainU and ■«• 
 
 of lime. p. LOS.— All thegreaterfoicesof ' ee, 
 politinil and legal, an<l commercial, aidei. lOse 
 working within the church to create au uk-aoic 
 unity. "Speaking with aome qualifications, the 
 patristic church was Oreek, as the primitive 
 church had bcenjewiah, and themedinval church 
 was to he Latin. Its unity, like that of the Oreek 
 nation, was federative; each church, like each of 
 the Orcrian states, was a little commonwealth. As 
 the Orerre wliich resisted the Persians waa one, 
 not by any imperial organization, but by com- 
 mon Ideas and a common love of liberty, so the 
 church of the fatlier* waa one, not by any organic 
 connt'Otion, but by common thoughts and sym- 
 Mthics, ab.)ve all by a common loyalty to Christ. 
 Naturally the questions which agitated such a 
 church were those which concern the individual 
 loul rather than society. Ita meml>en made 
 much of personal beliefs and apeculatiTe opinions ; 
 and so long as the old free spirit laated they al- 
 lowed one another large freedom of tliought, only 
 lequlrhig that common iuttnct of loyalty to 
 
 Christ Hapr-fly for the world, that free tpiilt 
 did not die < t from the East for at least two 
 centuries aftt Paul had proclaimed the indirld- 
 ual relational o of the soul to Ood. . . . The 
 genius of the -eek expressing Itself in thought, 
 of the Latin ruling power, the ChristUnity 
 whichwastoi former a body of truth, became to 
 the latter a syi- :n of government." — O. A. Jack- 
 son, Thi Fatiu ^ of ths Third Century, pp. 164- 
 156.— The Ap 'tolic Ideal was set forth, and 
 wltliin a few g. t-rati^ns forgotten. The vision 
 was only for a ume and then vanished. ' ' The 
 kingdom of Chnst, not being a kingdom of this 
 world, is not liiiJted by the restrictions which 
 fetter other socit tt, political or religious. It is 
 in the fullest sei) -• free, comprehensive, univer- 
 sal. ... It is m «t important that we should 
 keep this ideal drflnltely in view, and I have 
 theiofore stated it as broadly as possible. Yet 
 the br ia statement, if allowed to stand alone, 
 would suggest a false impression, or at least 
 would convey only a half truth. It muft be 
 evident tha*^ no socir-y of men could hold to- 
 •I without offlc.'- without rules, without 
 ms '>f any ■ d; and the Church of 
 s not cxemr- ' m this universal law. 
 iception iuMfe.i ■strictly an ideal, which 
 i*cvcr hold befor .iir eyes. . . . Kvery 
 rof tb»- human f ' 
 -of th< fhunh. 
 
 . It » M lianil. 
 a(»<) h.ii «tmlie<( i, 
 .tlion %T .^ttrntion, 
 Christiar. h irch lia> 
 I in the eautei'ipatioD 
 il in tl3« jifmoval 
 M : class aB»i i j^tas, ami in 'he diftusion of a 
 aeral pii .iaalfampy untr»mi! kd by the fet- 
 ■ '•n of par or race; in s!ii«, ii^t t > 'it mainly 
 msat be -" ' the mfwt iinp"r-ant advan- 
 tage* wh tli< «up>ri"' y of modem 
 socleii ■ ' lusiiou y or uncon- 
 scious .-. ■miversui priesthood, of 
 therii.. f ail men, which, though 
 not untai^ Morf. wxs first enil»xlied in the 
 C'hiir- >)■■'. ■-t0tm. h%«w rked and is working un- 
 t.ild 1 -lU^sSiip- i iustitution.H ami in social 
 life. • !i>- -j-r- -'udent will alrto observe 
 tliat II. -* . - . been vi ry imperfectly 
 anpn'! .ironghout the history of 
 t£- < ' i^ifn strugeliug for rccogni- 
 t ^ ili'eerneU in some of its 
 a«i ;mes ■« holly ignored in others; 
 " th' Ht'tual results are a verv 
 1 irr of its elHciicy, if only ft 
 iTominencc and were allowed 
 son . . It may be a general 
 aadrr ordinary circuinstauecs a 
 •-raal l:iw, that tliu highest acta 
 il worship shall lie performed 
 iicers of the congrega- 
 V" may ari-ic Tvhen the 
 
 ly A-as potentially a 
 as surli, a pries, of 
 denied, I think, oy 
 historv of modem 
 
 hat this conception 
 • en mainly instru- 
 f the dcjrwlcd and 
 
 if artificial barriei°s 
 
 and ■■ 
 
 iiia< - 
 
 cou 
 
 fre. 
 
 rulr 
 
 prHi tK«ttj 
 
 of ^ hf1»*tt)i 
 
 Ihroui'h ?V principal 
 tion. '?' ! an emergen 
 
 spirit > i not the li • r must decide. The 
 Christiat. ideal will then . interpret our duty. 
 The higher ordinance of tjic universal priesthood 
 will overrule nil sptviiil limitations. The lay- 
 man will assume func is wliiih are otherwise 
 restricted to the ordain luiuister." — J. B. Light- 
 foot, Ihtnertationt on tlie Apoetolic Age, pp. 137- 
 140, 837 — "No Church now existing is an exact 
 counterpart of the Apostolic Church. . . . AUu- 
 ■ions bear out the idea tlutt the Church at Corinth 
 wa* at yet almott ttructureleat — little more than 
 
 457 
 
CHRBTUimT. 
 
 Mtmtf 
 
 CHRISnANITT. 
 
 u aggiegtto of IndiTMuab— with no bUbop, 
 picabyteror dewoo."— J. W. CuiuhiKhuii, Thi 
 Orouth cf a* Ckurtk in itt OrganimO&n and In- 
 «'»'•'/,««»». »• n, 18.— "Soiiio Ume b«fora the 
 mlditle of the wcond century hereay benn ndly 
 to diftnct the Chriitiu community ; ud to »Toid 
 imminent danger of ichiim. It wu deemeo expe- 
 dient in • few great town* to arm the diainnan of 
 the eldenhip with additional power. A modifled 
 fonn of prelacy was thua introduced."— W. D 
 
 KUlen, nt Old OatMic Church, p. 81 Rea pect- 
 
 tog the rise of the Episcopate aa a diitinct office 
 there la a dillerence of opinion among acholan — 
 aome holdhiK that i t wa« ex preaely or£dned by the 
 Apoatlea, others that It nroae quite independently 
 of thein ; a third class think that it waa developed 
 gradually out of the eldership, but not without 
 the sanction of one or more of the Apostles 
 For the Church is a catholic society, that is a 
 society belonging to all nationa and ages. As a 
 Mtholic aocletj ft lacks the bonds of the life of a 
 city or a nation — iocal contiguity, common lan- 
 guage, common customs. We cannot then very 
 well conceive how its corporate continuity could 
 have been maintained otherwise than through 
 some succession of persons such as, bearing the 
 apostolic cummis8ion for ministry, should be It 
 etch generation the necessary centres of the 
 Church's llfe."-C. Gore, Tht Mutton of the 
 CAureh,pp. 10, 11.— "Jewish presbyteries existed 
 already in nil the principal citiesof the dispersion 
 and Christian presbyteries would early occupy a 
 not less wide area. . . . The name of the presbyter 
 then presento no difficulty. But what must be 
 said of the term bishop? . . . But these notices 
 besides establishing the general prevalence of 
 episcopacy, also throw considerable light on its 
 origin. They Indicate Uiat the retatlon suggestwl 
 by the historyof the word ' bishop ' and iu trans- 
 ference from the lower to the higher office is tlie 
 true solution, and that the episcopate was created 
 out of the presbytery. . . . They seem to hint 
 also that, so far as this development waa atfected 
 at all by national temper and characteristics it 
 was slower where the prevolling Influenoea were 
 nionp\m]y Greek, as at Corinth and PfaillppI 
 and Rome, and more rapid where an Oriental 
 spirit predominated, as at Jerusalem and Antioch 
 and Ephesus. Above all, they establish thia re- 
 sult clearly, that iu naturer forms are seen 
 first in those regions where the latest surviving 
 Apostles (more especially St John) dxed their 
 abode, and st a time when Iu prevalence cannot 
 be dissociatfil from their influence or their sanc- 
 tion. '—J. B. LiRhtfoot, Diuertationton theAnot- 
 Mie Agt, pp. 151, 100, 191.- "Since then in the 
 constitution of the church two elemenU met to- 
 gether—the aristocratic and the monarchical- 
 it could not fail to be the case that a conflict would 
 ensue between them. . . . These str . gles »»- 
 tween the presbytcrial and episcopal systems 
 belong among the moat impor»aut phenomena 
 connect- i with the process cf the develop- 
 ment cf church life in the third century. Many 
 presbyters mailc a capricious use of their power 
 iiurtful to good discipline and order In the com- 
 munities. —A. Ncander, General Milorv of the 
 ChriUian Religion and Church, e. I, leet 2 — 
 •' As a rule Christianitv would get a footfaig first 
 in the metropolis of Iu region. The leasnr dtiea 
 would be evangelized l)y misslona sent from 
 thence ; and so the suffragan aeei would look oa 
 tbenuelvM aa daughters of the metmpoUtu IM. 
 
 The iMtropoHtao btsbop la (h« natunl rntiir hi 
 unity for tC Uahop. of the provin " rhi 
 
 ri^SfVhV^ metroDolltan sees acoulred certrin 
 
 brothar biahopa. Moreover, among the ni».t Im 
 portant churches • cerUIn order of precdenM 
 grew up which correaponded with the livil dl^ 
 nitr of thecitteain whld, those churches t."i»^: 
 ■ad finally the churehea which were fomKledbv' 
 ™ ^P*^*!J"J" "*»*«1 ""»" peculiar rever- 
 theaetofOmt.pp. 11 and 18.-" The triumpj 
 
 .i'"J!5'*^'" "y*""" undoubtedly promoted 
 unity, order, and tranquillity But, oVtheolTr 
 
 ^Ju," H?Ir°"r''''l'° "•« '™« development 
 of the life of the church; and while thv latter 
 promoted the formation of a pric8tho<xl foreign 
 to the eaaence of that development of the kini- 
 dom of God which the New Testanunt mu 
 forth, on the other hand a revolution of semi. 
 mert which had already been prepand-w 
 alte; ^ view of the idea of the priesthcHl-had 
 no small infiuence on the development of tb« 
 episcopal system. Thus does this change of the 
 original constitution of the Christian comnmni- 
 tics stand Inttaiately connected with another and 
 still more radical change, -the formation of a 
 sacerdotal caste in the Christian church Out 
 
 of the husk of Judaism Christianity had' evolved 
 itsel r to freedom and independence,— had st ripped 
 off the forms In which It first sprang up ind 
 within which the new spirit lay at first con, ,a!cd 
 until by Its own Inherent power it broke throueh 
 them. This development belonged more par- 
 ticuUirb^ to the Pauline position, from «lii(h 
 proceeded the form of the church In the fjentilc 
 world. In the struggle with the Jewish climeuta 
 which r;>poaed the free development of (_ liristl- 
 anity, tnis principle bad triumphantly m.ulr its 
 way. In the churches of pagan Christ i:,ns the 
 new creation stood forth completely unf.ildeil- 
 but the Jewish principle, which had be. n vaa' 
 quishe^, pressed in once more from unotlier 
 quarter. Humanity waa as yet incapable of 
 maintalnlne lUelf at the lofty position of pure 
 spiritual religion. The Jewish position was Ut- 
 ter auapted to the mass, which needed first to be 
 trained before It could apprehend Christianitv in 
 IU purity,— needed to be disabused from iiaiinn- 
 Ism. Out of CI Mianity, now become in.li pen- 
 dent, a princlpl ice more sprang forth akin to 
 the principles 01 the OKI Testament,— a new out- 
 ward sliaping of the kingdom of God. a new 
 discipline of tht law which one day was to bi rve 
 for the tru'ning of rude nations, a new tuior«liip 
 for the spirit of humanity, until it sliould arrive 
 st the maturity of the perfect nianhixKl inthrist. 
 This Investiture of the Christian spirit in a f(.rm 
 neprly akin to the position arrived at in tli.' (i|d 
 Testament, could not fail, after the fruiifi:! prin- 
 ciple had once made lU appearance, to unfold 
 Itself more and more, and to bring to litht (■ce 
 after another all the consequences whii h it in- 
 volved ; but there also began with it a reaction nf 
 the Christian consciousness as it yearned aftir 
 freedom, which waa continually burst in l' forth 
 anew hi an endless variety of appearances until 
 It attained iU triumph at the Reformation "—A. 
 Neander, Oentral Uittory of the ChritUan lUH- 
 gion and ChurrJi, r. 1. te^t. 2. i?.— "Thouch the 
 forma of (pann] religion had broken awav, the 
 spirit of religion was still quick; it had" even 
 developed: the aenae of sin, an almost new 
 
 458 
 
CHRISTIANITt. 
 
 
 CHRISTUinTT. 
 
 phenomenon, begar lu/adeSodetjuidPhlloio- 
 pby ; and along wiu ^bli, an almost importunate 
 craTing after a rsTelation. The changed tone of 
 philoaopbr, the spread of myaticUm, the rapid 
 growth of myttery-worahip, the reviveri Plat> 
 ninn, are all articulate expr«ulon* of thla need. 
 The old Phlloioph J begins not only to preach but 
 to pray: the new strives to catch the revealed 
 Tolce of God in the oracles of lea* unfaithful 
 daya ... In the teeth of an organised and con- 
 centrated despotism a new society had grown 
 up, ielf-supporting,'self-regulated, self-goTemed, 
 a State within the State. CUm and assured 
 amid a world that hid its fears inly in blind ex- 
 citement, free amid the servile, sanguine amid 
 the despairing, Christians lived with as object 
 United in loyal fellowship by sacred pledget 
 more binding than the sacramentum of the sol- 
 dier, welded together by a stringent discipline^ 
 led by trained and tried commanders, the Cburdi 
 had succeeded in attaining unity. It had proved 
 itself able to command self-devotion even to the 
 death. It had not feared to assimilate the 
 choicest fruits of the choicest intellects of East 
 Bud West. . . . Yet the centripetal forces were 
 ■trongcr; Tertullian had died an heresiarch, aiul 
 Origen but narrowly and somewhat of grace 
 escaped a like fatt. If rent with schisms and 
 threatened with disintegration, the Church was 
 ■till an undivided whole."— O. 11. Rendall, Tht 
 Emperor JuUiin, Paganitm and Chrittianity pp 
 21 -22.— " The designation of the Unlvemal Chris- 
 tian Church as Caibolic dates from the time of 
 Irenat'us. ... At the beginning of this age, the 
 heretical as well as the non-heretical Ebionism may 
 be regarded as virtually suppressed, although 
 some aeanty remnanU of it might yet be fouud. 
 Themostbrllliantperiodof Qnostlcism, too . . 
 was already passed. But in Manichajism' there 
 sppeared, during the second half of the third cen- 
 tury, a newpcril of a no less threatening kind in- 
 spired by Parseelsm and Buddliism. . . With 
 Marcus Aurelius, Paganism outside of Christi- 
 anity as embodied In the Roman State, begins 
 the war of extermination against the Church that 
 was ever more and more extending her boun- 
 daries. Such manifestation of hostility, however 
 was tot able to subdue the Church. . . . During 
 the same time the episcopal and sy nodal-hierarchl- 
 cal organization of the church was more fullr 
 developed .ly the introduction of an order of 
 Metropolitans, and then in the following period it 
 reached its climax In the oligarchical Pentarchy of 
 Patriarchs, and in the institution of oecumenical 
 bynois. -J II Kurti, Church UUtory. v. 1 vp. 
 .i-j3 to w-hlch the reader is also referred for aU 
 periodsof church history. See, also.P. SchafT Hit- 
 tpofth Chriitian Church; and, for biography, 
 ftw'"'" '"'i^h^f'^' ^ Dictionary of clri,Uak 
 ftj^apfly.-' Missionary effort In this period was 
 mainly directed to the conversion o/ the hea- 
 then. On the ruins of Jcrusa'. ;: Madrian's 
 colony of J:iu Capitolina was pL.,;. «, "hat 
 even there the cSurch. in iU character and 
 rh^'^''i.''""'''P> *"• » G«''«"e community, 
 apital of the small state of Osrhene, in Me^opo- 
 S?^., ^"*''"'e mUdle of the second centubT 
 S eounr.':," ^"'" ^" """I'^i'-ntly flourisUi^ 
 to count among ita meml»r>, the kins, AbgarBai 
 
 ^...^ ■*'„**""' this time the gospel waa 
 preached m Penrfa. Media, Parthia, and ^triT 
 We bare noUces of aurehes in Ai»bi» In tiS 
 
 V^IJ^^ °[ S^ ^^ century. They wen 
 Tisited several times by Origen. the cefebrmted 
 ™u5? ??? 9'"'"'' '*»«'"" (185-254). In the 
 ^ddle of the fourth century a missionary. Theo 
 philus, of DIu, found chirches in Indta. In 
 SBTr P"""?""? msde great progress, especi- 
 
 •nd other neighboring pUces. in upper Eiypt, 
 
 where the Coptic language and the superatftloil 
 
 of the people were obstacles in ita path, ChrisU- 
 
 •nity had, nevertheless, gained a foothold as 
 
 «rly as towards the close of the second century. 
 
 At this tirne the gospel had been pUnu!d in pro- 
 
 ronsular Africa, being conveyed thither from 
 
 Koms, and there was a flourishing church at 
 
 CWthage. In Oaul, where the Druidlcal syste-n, 
 
 with its priesthood and sacrificial worship, was 
 
 the religion of the Celtic population, several 
 
 churches were founded from Asia Minor At 
 
 Lyons and V ienne there were strong churches la 
 
 the last quarter of the second century. At this 
 
 time IreniBus, Bishop of Lyons, speaks of the 
 
 establishinent of Christianity in Oe.-many. west 
 
 of the lUilne, and Tertullian, the No-'h African 
 
 prMbyter, speaks of ChristUnity in Bi.tain. The 
 
 fathers in the second century describe in glowing 
 
 terms, and not without rhetorical exaggeration, 
 
 the rapid conquesU of the Gospel. The number 
 
 of converu in the reign of lindrian must have 
 
 been very large. Otherwise we cunnot account 
 
 for the enthusiastic langua'e of Justin Martyr 
 
 respecting the multitude 01 professing Christians. 
 
 Tertullian writes in a similar strain. Irensus 
 
 refers to Barbarians who hare believed without 
 
 having a knowledge of letters, through oral 
 
 teaching merely."— Q. P. PIslier, Uittory of thi 
 
 Chrutian Church, pp. ii-ti, 
 
 Alewuidria.— "ChristUnity first began ita 
 acUvlty in the country among the Jewish and 
 Greek population of the Delta, but gradually 
 also among the Egyptians proper (the Copu) as 
 may be inferred from the Coptic (Mempbytic) 
 translation of the New Testament (third cen- 
 tury). In the second century. Gnosticism [see 
 QNosncs], which had ito chief seat here as well 
 as in Syria, and, secondly, towanis the close of 
 the century, the Alexandrian Catechetical School, 
 sliow the importance of this centre of rt'liglous 
 movement and Christian education."— W. Moel- 
 ler, Hitt.oftth Chrittian Church, p. ia>.— " Never 
 perhaps hag the free statement of the Christian 
 idea had less prejudice to encounte- than at 
 Alexandria at the close of the second century. 
 Never has it more successfully vindicaied by 
 argument its right to be the gn^at Interpreter of 
 the human spirit. The instituthms of the great 
 metropolis were highly favourable to this rvsult. 
 The Museum, built hi the Ptolemies, was in- 
 tended tolH', and speedily became, thecentreo'an 
 intense intillcctual life. The Serapeum. at the 
 other end of the town, rivalled it in lieauty of 
 architectiiri and wealth of rare MSS The Sebas- 
 tiot rearcHl in honour of Augustus, was no un- 
 worthy companlim to these two noble establish- 
 ments. In all three, splendid endowments and a 
 rich professoriate attracted the Ulent of the worid. 
 If tile ambition of a secured reputation <lrew 
 many eminent men away to Rome, the means of 
 securing such eminence were mainly pr(X:ureil at 
 ASexaiiilriit. . . . The Christian Church in liiis 
 city rose to the height of Its grand opportunity. 
 It entered tt»- lists without 'ear ami without 
 favour, and :dly proclaimed iU competence 14, 
 
m) 
 
 f 
 
 CHMSTIANnT. 
 
 Ckmnk. 
 
 CHMSTIANnT. 
 
 Mtbfy tlie intellectual craTlngs of man. Num- 
 bers of restless and inquiring spirits came from 
 all parts of the world, hoping to find a solution 
 of the doubts that perplex«l them. And the 
 Church, which had already brought peace to the 
 souls of the woman and the slave, now girded 
 herself to the harder task of convincing the 
 trained intelligence of the man of letters and the 
 philosopher."— C. T. Cruttwcll, A Literary Hit- 
 tory of Birlg Chrutianity, bk. 4, «A. 1 (r. 2).— 
 "Thcqucslion . . . came up for decision towards 
 the cluite of the sub-apostolic age, as to what 
 shape the Church was finall/ to take. Two 
 typos were set before lier to choose from — one the 
 Hebrew-Latin type, as we may call it, into which 
 . . . she finally settled down; the other the 
 Hellenist type of a Demos, or commonwealth of 
 free ritizens, all equal, all alike kings and priests 
 unto Uod, and whose moral and spiritual growth 
 was left very much to the initiative of each mem- 
 ber of the community. In Alexandria, as the 
 meelin^-poiat of all nationalities, and where 
 Judaism \Ue\t had tried to set up a new tvpe of 
 thought, eclectic b«twcen Hebraism and Hellen- 
 ism, and comprehcncUng what was best in lx>th, 
 naturully enough there grew up a Christian type 
 of rcleetieism corresponding to that of Philo. . . . 
 Into this seething of rivu sects and races the 
 Alexandrian school of catechista threw them- 
 selves, and made a noble attempt to re*-Uf the 
 Church, the synagogue, and the Stoics alilie from 
 the one Itanu common to all — the dangerous delu- 
 sion tint the truth was for them, not they for 
 Uie Imlli. Setting out on the assumption timt 
 GoiI'h purpose was the education of the whole 
 human fuinily, they saw in the Logos doctrine of 
 St. .Idlin the key to harmonisu all truth, whether 
 of (lirtxtiun sect, llelirew synagogue, or Stole 
 philosophy. . . . To educate all men up to this 
 standanl seemed to them the true ideal o( the 
 Church. True Qnosia was their keynote; and 
 the (Jnostic, as Clemens loves to desiTtbe hlnuw'lf, 
 was t/> them the patU'rn philosopher and Chris- 
 tian in one. They regarde<l, moreover, a disci- 
 pline of at least three veara as Imperative; it 
 was the preliminary condition of entrance into the 
 Chrisliiin Churth. '—J. U. Heard, Aleriimliinn 
 ami <'iirlh>ii/iiiiiin Thfoltigy OtntrtuM, pii. 37-38. 
 — The two gri'iil Christian writers of Alexandria 
 wi-re Clenii-nt and Origen. "The universal in- 
 fluence of Oritfen maile Itself felt in the third 
 century over the whole field of Oreek thTOJogy. 
 In lilni. as it wi-rt', everything which had hitlierio 
 iK'en striven after In the On>ek Held of tlieoloity. 
 had l»en giithiteil ti>gither, so as, Ining eoUeeted 
 In re in a lenlre, to give an Impulse in the most 
 various direetioiis; lienw also the further de- 
 velopnient of theology In suli«e(|ueni times Is 
 alHiiNsureiistomed to link lts<-ir on to oi]e side 
 or the other of his rieli spiritual heril;ige . . 
 And while this Involves that Christiiiiilly Is 
 phxed on frieudiv relations with the previous 
 phll.iwiiihiiiildevefoiinientof the highest eoiie( p- 
 tlons "f (ii»l anil the world, yet on the oilier 
 lint]<l I lirlstimi truth alwi apiH'Hm c<inver<i|v :\» 
 the uhivenud triilli which gatliem togeilie'r in 
 It-silf all till' hitherto isolated rays of divine 
 truth. ... In the great ivligious ferment of 
 the lime then- was further contained the ten- 
 dt ney lu tvW siniilnr nllglom hieas amid tliii 
 ;,...; rt r,t Tny'h'-T'-K*- ri! fen;;iirTi3 fnrii:3 ;i:i.i ta 
 mingle them syni retisllcally This nligl.ius fcr- 
 uent was still further increased by the original 
 
 content of Christianity, that mighty leavm 
 which announced a religion destined to the re- 
 demption and perfecting of the worid, and by 
 this means a like direction and tendency was Im- 
 parted to various other religious views likewise. 
 The exciting and moving effect of Gnosticism oa 
 the Church depended at the same time on the 
 fact, that Its representatives practically appre- 
 hended Christianity in the manner of the antique 
 religious mystcHes, and In so doing sought to 
 lean upon the Christian communities anil make 
 themselves at home in them, according as their 
 religious life and usages seemed to invite thim, 
 and to establish in them a community of tlie 
 initiated and perfect; an endeavour whirh the 
 powerful ascetic tendency in tlie church exploited 
 and augmented In its own sense, ami for which 
 the Institution of prophecy, which was so highly 
 respected and powerful in the coniinunltles, 
 afforded a handle. In this way the initiated were 
 able to make for themselves a kisis in the ciim- 
 munity on which they couhl depend, while the 
 religio-philnsophical speculations, whicli are 
 always intelligible only to a few, at the same 
 time propagated themselves and branehert out 
 scholasticiilly."— W. Moeller, IlintoryuflluChrit- 
 tian Church, np. 21,1, 213, 130-131.— "".\t .Vlex- 
 andria, Basilides (A. I). 12.">) and Valeiuine ex- 
 erted lu turn an extraordinary inttuiiue; tlic 
 latter endeavored to cstal)li.>ih his st Iick.I iii jtonie 
 nlKiut the year 140. The liiiosties of Svri;\ pni- 
 fcTised a more open dualism than those of Kirvpt 
 The Chun-h of Antioch had to ri'sist Saturuin, 
 that of Edessa tooppose Bordesimesand Tatian. " 
 — E. Uc Pressense, The Kiili/ YiiinffChrintMn. 
 i'y; Ttie Mnrlyrmml Afnl'ijitt»,p. liH — 'iinre 
 was something very Imposinit lu those miirlily v\ s- 
 tema, which embraced heaven and earth. Illnv 
 philn and meagre in ccmiparisou seeiiied simple 
 Christianity! There was something n niarlialilv 
 attractive In the breaiith and lilM'rality of (iimv 
 ticism. It seemed completely to have ni >iiiil(il 
 Christianity with culture. How narrow tlie 
 Christian Church appeared! Even iioMe souU 
 might be csptivate<i l>y the hope of winniiur ilie 
 world over to Christianity In this way . . . 
 Over against the mighty systemsof theOnoslirs. 
 the Church »t<KKl, in soImt" earnestness lu .1 ehill- 
 llke faith, on the simph' Christian ihstriiK' of tliu 
 Apostles. This was to lie souglit in tlie ilmn In i 
 founile<i by the apostles thenivlves. wh.ntliiy 
 hail defined the faith in thi ir pnailiirii- — (t. 
 Uhlhom, 7lieO/nltiri„ft'hnMl,'tnil!/inlli ll,.tiSiii- 
 itm.hk. a, M. 8.— "(irifk pliiloitopliy liail JoiiutI 
 hands with Jewish theiiso|ihy. andllie t Imrrh 
 knew not wliere to lisik for help. .So si li.i'n ili.l 
 the danger strm. w hen it « as a.ssaili'<l at ' m e ami 
 from opiMMlIe shies l>y .lewi^h aiul Orei kt>i«»ot 
 (inimticism. theouefnuutlienioiioihi i«ii< ii'liitnf 
 view Impugning the ()iHllie;iil. the ollii r f r the 
 KiKTtIc side explninlng away las a spirii'i'il lllu- 
 slonj the manliisHt of Christ, tliat tie I liun li. In 
 despalrof iM'allng.rnirhy nii ria|Hi|oi!\ h llliaik 
 on theinethisl of aiilliorily. The (lion ii « iithe 
 only safe kee|H'r of llir dipo-it of sin r-" I iii.liii"n; 
 whis'ver Impugned that triulition. Ii I liim •"■ I'll 
 out of the communion of suits. ' -Ui* I II 
 lliKnl, Altxiiiulhiiii iiHil Ciiriliii'iiiiiiiii ri'i"l".y 
 <'„nlr,ittril,it. 41.— ■Tlieliilen'sl, tliiineiuiim:. "f 
 (inintleism ri-st entirely U|M)n llsitliii.il in "live 
 !t iv.ii iiu at!. lupi, a ». ii.i,i3 ;■;-. 111,';. ; ! i!!:--:"i 
 the dread mystery of aomiw and |"iin. t > iti<«'r 
 that spectnU doubt, which U mostly ii:i>lit."J 
 
 400 
 
CHIUSTIANrrT. 
 
 CkimhM. 
 
 CHRISTIANITT. 
 
 downbjforce — Cftn the world u we know it 
 luve been made by Qod ? 'Cease,' aays Basil- 
 idea, ' fn>m idle ana curious variety, and let us 
 retber iliiicuss the opinions, which even barbari- 
 ans have held, on the subject of good and evil.' 
 'I will say anything rather than admit that 
 Providence is wicked. ' Valentlnus describes in 
 the atmin of an ancient prophet the woes that 
 slflict manliind. 'I durst not affirm,' be cou- 
 ciudea, 'that Oo<i Is the author of all this.' So 
 Tcrtullian says of Marcion, 'like many men of 
 our tlini', and especially the heretics, he is be- 
 wlldeml by the question of evil.' They ap- 
 proach tlie problem from a non-Christian point of 
 view, and arrive therefore at a non-Christian 
 (olution. . . . tiany of tlien^ especially the 
 Uter sectaries, accepted the whole Christian 
 Creed, but always with reserve. The teaching 
 of tile Church thus became in their eyes a popu- 
 lar eintrric confession, beneath their own Qnosis, 
 or Knowledge, wliich was a Mystery, Jealously 
 guarded from all but the chosen few. '— C. Bigg, 
 TheVhruitinn Pl<UonultofAlfjmndHa, pp. 28-'J«. 
 C«iare«.— "Tlie cliief points of Interest in 
 the hi*t<iry of the Church of Cteaiirea during this 
 ueri(Kl are the residence of Origeu there (first 
 {jctwern A. D. 21.1 and 219 and again after bis 
 final departure from Alexandria in 231), the 
 eilucalion of Eusebius, the foundation of the 
 
 Sreat library bv Pamphilus, and the martvrdonia 
 uring the Diocletian persecution. Most of 
 tlicse will come livfore us again in other con- 
 ncilons. but they require mention here. It 
 would In' (lifllcult to ovcrestiinute tiie effect of 
 wliat llicy imply on the Churcli at hirgc. Hail 
 tlie work of Orlgcn, Pamphilus, and Eusebius 
 at C.i^ari'a n'maiuwl unnforde)!, tlierc would l)e 
 a liiigr lilank in ecclesiastical history, rcnderlni; 
 much tliHt is otherwise known scarcely intcl- 
 li!;il)le. Had that work never been done, the 
 courw of iTclesiastiral history would have U-en 
 very ditTertnt. In the whole of tiie second ami 
 Ibird nnturies It would l)e diHicult to name two 
 more iiiHucntinl Christians than Origen and 
 EusrliliH: and Pamphilus lalM>ureil earnestly to 
 pn-scrvc aiitl circulate the writings of tlie "one 
 and to fiullitate thi»«? of tlie other. It was from 
 the lilirurii's of Painphiiua at Ciesarea and of 
 Aiexandir at Jiriisalem that Kuseblus obtained 
 most of Ills nialirial " for Ills " Kcclesiasticai llis- 
 torj." which has pn>served titles and quotations 
 (rum ninny lost iHKiks of exit-eiliug value. — A. 
 Pliininu r, Thr C/iiirrh ofthf Hirlf Fiit/ieni, M. 3. 
 
 Edessa.— " EiU^s^n (tlie moilern Urfa) was from 
 the l« winning of the thlnl ceiilury one of the 
 rhlif ciiilns of Syrian Chrlslian li"f« and thiii- 
 liiKhul Miidy. For many years, ainiil the vhlaul 
 tudiii nf Iheidngiciil persecution, a series of 
 flourislmiir tlienliiKiinl achisds were maintaine<l 
 then', one of which (the ' Persian schiMil ') la i,f 
 p'lit lni|iorianre as tiie nursery of NeatoriHiiiam 
 in th«' exirenie Kjist. It was as' bishop of Edessii. 
 also, that .laeoli linmdii'iia organi/.eif the luonn 
 phvsile rlmrilies Into timl Jacobite church of 
 wlilih he Is tlie hem, Kroin the scholars of 
 hdnu.1 innio niaiiv of the translations whiili 
 c«rri,-.|(ir,Tk thought U> the l':«st, and In the 
 |>crio.l«..fiii(itlngrontn)versy Eitewia was within 
 tile ranee of the thitdoglcHl inovementa llml 
 it.rrr-i( ^!,.^^j..iri;, .^;.._i (\,aiitan:iii..iii. Tiie 
 
 t hnmh le of Kdessa,' as it is ealhil liecailsi- the 
 r;«l«r iiiiuiIn r of Its nuMnm ndale U> blewMiie 
 walni, b a brief ducuiueut in HyrUc cuutaiaed 
 
 In a manuscript of itz leaves in the Vatican 
 library. It is one of the most important funda- 
 mental sources for the history of Edessa, con- 
 tains a long oiHcial narrative of the flissi of A. D. 
 201, which is perhaps the only existing monu- 
 ment of heathen Syriac literature, and includes 
 an excellent and very carefully dated list of the 
 bishops of Edessa from A. D.313 to 543."— .4 n- 
 (towr Jimeie, v. 19, p. 874.— The Syriac Versioiu 
 (of the Oospel) form a gMup of which mention 
 should undoubtedly be made. Tlie Syriac ver- 
 sions of the Bible (Old Testament) are among the 
 most ancient remains of the language, the Syriac 
 and the Chaldee being the two dialects of the 
 Aramaean spoken in the North. Of versions of 
 the New 'Testament, "the 'Peshito' or the 
 ' Simple, ' though not the oldest text, lius been the 
 longest known. . . . The ' Curetonian ' . . . was 
 discovered after its existence had been for a long 
 time suspected by sagacious sciiolars [but is not 
 much more than a series of fnigraents], . . . 
 Cureton, Tregelles, Alford, Ewald, Ble.k, and 
 otliers, believe this text to lie older than tlio 
 Peshito [which speaks for tlie Greek text of the 
 second century, though its own date is doubtful 1. 
 . . . Other valuable Syriac versions are ' Phil- 
 oxenian ' . , , and the ' Jerusalem Syriac Lcc- 
 tioiiary ' . . . a service-lxxik with lessons from 
 the Oospels for Sundays and feast days through- 
 out the year . . . written ut Antioch in 1030 in 
 a diulet't similar to that la use in Jerusalem and 
 from a Orcek text of great antiquity." A recent 
 discovery renders these facts and "statements of 
 pi'culiar interests.— Q. E. Merrill, T/u istoiy of 
 the Wiinunrriptn, eh. 10. 
 
 Rural Poleitine.- " If Ebionism [sec Ebion- 
 ism] was not primitive Christianity, neither was 
 it a creation of the second ceutiiry. As an or- 
 ganization, a distinct sect, it llrst made itself 
 known, we may suppose, in the reign of Trajan: 
 but as a sentiment, it had Ihtu hurlHiured within 
 the Church fnim the very earliest days. .M<sl- 
 inited by the per8<iiial inlluence of the'Aposlles, 
 soothed by the generiil prai tico of their church, 
 not yet forced inU) declaring themselves by the 
 turn of events, though scarcely tolerant of others, 
 these Judaizers were tolenited for a time them- 
 aelyes. Tlie beijinning of llie setond century 
 WHS a winnowing season in the Chiireb of the 
 Circumcision. ... It is a prolialile conjecture, 
 that after the destruction of JeruKtlein the fugl- 
 tlye Christians, living in thiir n'tmniiMit in llio 
 nelghbourliiHsl of the Es«iiu si'tihinents, ri'- 
 ceived largo acci'salons to their niiiiilMTs from 
 this sect, which thus imsuiatnl the Chureh with 
 Its peeuliar views. It is ut hiist worthy i if iintlci-, 
 that In a rellgloiil work enianuling from this 
 s<hiHil of Elilonltes the 'true Unspel' is reported 
 to have lieen llrst propagated ' after the destruc- 
 tion of the holy place.'" — I. II. I.ltrhtfivit, Dit- 
 atrtittiutuion the Atti>i'tt4if A'jr. ;>/', 7N-hO, 
 
 CorthOft.— " If the World is Imlehted to 
 Iliime for theorganlsrttlon of the Church, l{omo 
 is indebteil to Carthage for the theory on which 
 that organisation is built. The career of Car- 
 thage as a Christian ciiilre veiiiplilles Hie 
 simiige vicissitudi'S of history, I'he -Ity which 
 Idime In lier jealousy hail c'rusheil. whleli. no' 
 content with crushing, she had oliliierale.l from 
 the Taiv of ilie earth, had at the liiiiiiitii: of 
 Koine's greatest son risen fnmi her ashes, and by 
 her cansT almost verifliil tlie |)»et's tauir. that 
 thu KrvatiMM uf Conhoge woa rvanxl uu Um 
 
 401 
 

 
 m 
 
 CHRISTIANmr. 
 
 Oartkofomd 
 
 CHRISTIANITT. 
 
 niln of Italy. For In truth the African capital 
 was in all but pilitical power no unworthy rival 
 of Rome. It bad steadily grown In commercial 
 
 f)rosperity. Its site wag ao advantageous as to 
 nvite, almost to compel, the influx of trade, 
 which ever sponUuieously moves along the line 
 of least resisliince. And the people were well 
 able to turn this natural ailvantage to account. 
 A mLxed niitionality, in which the original 
 Italian immlgnitii>n lent a steadying force to tlie 
 native Punic and kindred African elements that 
 formwl its basis, with its iuU-iligence enriched 
 by large accessions of On-ck settlers from Cyrene 
 and Alexandria — Carthage had developed in 
 the second century of our era Into a community 
 at once wealthv, enterprising and ambitious. 
 ... It was no longer in the sphere of profane 
 literature, but in her contributions to the cause 
 of Christianity and the spiritual armoury of the 
 Church, that the proud Oucen of Africa was to 
 win her stTiind crown of fame. . . . The names 
 of Tertuiiian, Cyprian and Augustine, at once 
 suggest the source from which Papal Rome 
 drew the principles of Church controversy. 
 Church organisation, and Church doctrine, which 
 have const ilidatcil her authority, and to sonio 
 extent justitied her pretensions to rule the con- 
 science of Cliristendom."— C. T. Cruttwell. .1 
 lAler.irn Ilithiry of Knrty ChHMianity, bk. 5, c/i 
 3 (r. 2). — "At the end of the second century the 
 African Tertuiiian flrst began to wrestle witli 
 tile dilHeultiea of the Latin language in llic en- 
 deavour to make it a vehicle for the expression of 
 Christian idias. In reading his dognmtic writ- 
 ings tlie 8truf.'L'le is so apparent that it seems as 
 though we Ulield a rider euileavouring t4> dis<;i- 
 pline an unbnikin steed. Tertullian'i doctrine 
 19, however, still wlmlly Oreek in substance, and 
 this ciintinuiHl to Ik' the case in the church of 
 the Latin tongue until the end of the fourtli 
 century. Hilary, Ambrose, even Jerome, are 
 essentially interpreters of On!ek phllosopliy and 
 theology to the Ijitin West. With Augus- 
 tine learning U'gins to assume a Latin form, 
 partly original and imlepeiident — partly, I say, 
 for even later corniMwitious arc aliuudantly inli r- 
 woven with Onik elements and maU'rials. Very 
 
 f'radually from the writings of the Afriian 
 atliers of the ehunh dcK'S the specific Latin 
 element come to iKiupy that dominant poslliim 
 in Western Cliristendimi, which soon, partly 
 from self-autlleient indilTerenee, partly from 
 Ignorance, so completely severwi Itself from 
 On'ek inlliiences tliat the old unity and harmony 
 could never \k n-sUir»'d. Still the HIblicul slmly 
 ■ f the Ijitins is, as a whole, a men^ echo anil 
 copy of (Jrwk pn-dwessom."— J. I. vein Dol- 
 linger, Stiiiliiii in A'ur'i/iwn llittiny, fip. 1711-171. 
 — Fnim I'arthage which wiu aft4'rwar(l the n-l- 
 deme of " tlio primate of ail Africa , . . i\v 
 Christian faith B<»in dlaseminaitsl throughout 
 NuMiiilia. .Mauritania and Uelulia, which is 
 proveii liv llie gnat numlM'r of bishops at two 
 coumlls ill III III Cartilage in 'iM and KW. .\t 
 Uie l«ll«r lhin> weo' S70 bishops, whose nanus 
 are not given, but at the former wen- bishops 
 from(H7) . . . ciilis.'— J. K. T. Wlltsih, //.i/. ^ 
 tuuk of tin OnyniiJiji nml Sl.tliiitirt oftkt Clinn/i. 
 Romt.— "Inthe West, Korne remains and in- 
 detd iM^Mimes evi-r mom and itiiim the '•<•<!"• 
 ApMiolica,' liy far the miwt Important centre 
 where, alongside of the lUimao element, there 
 m tu be found vlemenUitrtsamiug tugelher (mm 
 
 all polnte of the Empire. Greek names, and the 
 long lasting(8till dominant in the second century) 
 maintenance of Oreek as tlio written language o( 
 Ibiman Christianity are here noteworthy. . 
 Rome was tlie point of departure not only for 
 Italy and the Western Provinces, but without 
 doubt also for ProconsuUr Africa, where in turn 
 Carthage liecomes the centre of dillusliin. 
 The diilusion in the Gneco-Roinan worlj as a 
 whole goes flrst to the more important ton us and 
 from these gradually over the country. 
 The tnstrumenu however of this missinu are bv 
 no means exclusively apostolic men, wim pursue 
 missions as tlieir calling . . . ; every Clmstiim 
 liecomes a witness In his own circle, ami Inter- 
 course and trade bring Christians hither sad 
 thither, and along with them their Cliristisn 
 faith."— AV. Moeller, JliMoiy of the Chnilinn 
 Chunk, pp. 105-107.—" It has been cnutendeil 
 and many still believe, that in ancient lionie tlie 
 doctrines of Christ found no proselyli's. except 
 among the lower and poon-r classes of eiiizeni 
 . . . The gospel fuuwl ita way also to the man- 
 sions of tlie masters, nay, even to the palace of 
 the Caaars. The discoveries lately made on this 
 subject are startling, and constitute a new 
 chapter in the history of imperial |{ome. ... A 
 difflculty may arise in the mind of the reader: 
 how was it possible for these magistrates, cen- 
 erols, consuls, offlcers, senators, and govi rnnrs of 
 provinces, to attend to their duties wiili..ut per- 
 forining ucU of idolatry ? . . . The It.iiiian iin- 
 perors gave plenty of liberty to the new n liitinn 
 from lime to time; and some of them, iiinveilhy 
 a sort of religious syncretism, even tried to ally 
 it with the olHcial worship of the eiii|iin-, and la 
 place Christ and Jupiter on the stepsof tin- same 
 'lararium.'. . , We must not Islieve that tlio 
 transformathm of Home from a panau into a 
 Christian city was a sudden and unn[i<-ttid 
 event, which took the world by surprisi'. It 
 was the natural result of the wiirk of three cen- 
 turies, brought to maturity uielir Ciinslaiitiue bv 
 an inevitable reaction against the viuleiuc of 
 DiiK'letian's rule. It was not a revoluliau or s 
 convi'rsion in the true sense of tliesi- w.inis; It 
 was tlie olTicial rp<'ognitiou of a stale i>f thlnjti 
 which had long ceiuu'd to lie a si ml The 
 moral suiierioritv of the new distriiiisuMr the 
 old ndigtirtu was so evident, so ovi rii.vM ring, 
 tlial the n>^ ■ f tin" struggle had Ihiii a fore- 
 goneeonilii I 'i. since the age of the tIrM apolo- 
 gisU. The n'volution was an ex(viiliin.'ly mild 
 one, the transformation almost iiii|urri jitible. 
 . . . Thelraiisfnniiation may lie fidhiwidvtaitehy 
 stage in Uith ita moral and iiialerial Of-pii t There 
 is nut a ruin of ancient Itoine lluit dia ■> nit Usr 
 evidence of the great clia'>ite. . . , \lm<- |»)i- 
 srases authentic remains of tiie 'housisiif prayer' 
 In which the gospel was flrst aniiouiiKil In apiK- 
 tolie times. . . . .\ very old tnnlili.in, ciiilrmiil 
 by tlio ' l.ilier I^mtill<■alis,' descrilns thr nimlim 
 church of S. I'udentiana as bating lu<ri ones 
 the private house of the same i'uileiis hIi.i was 
 Intptlzeil liv the ap<iBth'S. and whi is iie ntiunni 
 inthe episth'sof «. Paul. . . . The ...mi.rtiott 
 of the liniiM- with the aiHwtulate of S.-i I'lhr nod 
 Paul liiaile it viry (Hipiilar from tli>' lu .:inriin{(. 
 . . . Keiiiiiins of thehouaeof I'liili ns »i nfriimd 
 in 1870. Tiiey la-.upy a tsinaideM! !•. sn ■! U!!d»r 
 the m'lghlNiriiig housi's. . . , Anioinr ihildinisn 
 churches whose origin can lie tnued \<> tl i' ball 
 of mwling, besides tliusv of l*udeus and rhwA 
 
 462 
 
CHRISTIAinTT. 
 
 Oattloiul 
 
 ■Iready mentioned, the best prewired ieemg to 
 be that built by Demetriasattlietliird miie-stone 
 of the Via Latina, near tlie' painted tombs.' . . . 
 The Ctiiutians toolc a<lvantage of the free<Iom 
 •cconltHl to funeral colleges, and anociatcd 
 themsclvea for the same purpoac, following as 
 closely as possible their rules concerning contri- 
 butions, the erection of lodges, the meetings, hikI 
 the . . . love feasts; and It was largely through 
 the adoption of these well-undcrst^MMl and re- 
 ijM'rtMl customs that they were enabled to hold 
 their met tings and keep together aa a corporate 
 body through the stormy times of the second and 
 thini centuries. Two eicelient specimens of 
 tchnlie connected with Christian cemeteries and 
 with meetings of 'he faithful have come down to 
 us, one above the Catacombs of Callixtus, the 
 othtrnlmve those of Soter." This formation of 
 Christian communities into colleges is an import- 
 ant fact, and connects these Christian siwieties 
 with one of the social institutions of the Empire 
 which may have influenced the church as an or- 
 nnizntion. "The experience gained in twenty- 
 flve years of active exploration in ancient Rome, 
 both alH)ve and below ground, enables me to 
 state that every pagan building which was 
 capable of giving shelter to a congregation was 
 tniD.sf(>rme>l, at one time or another, into a 
 church or a chapel. . . . From apostolic times 
 to the iM-rsecuiion of Domitian. the faithful were 
 buriiil, separately or collectively, in private 
 tomlw which di<f not have the character of a 
 Church institution. These early tomlis, whether 
 al«ive or below gniund, display a sense of per- 
 fwt M'ciirity, anil an absence of all fear or solid- 
 tuile This feeling arose from two facts: the 
 small ■■xteat of the cemeteries, which aecureil Ut 
 tlitm theriehts of private property, and the pro- 
 tiiii'in and frecMlom which the Jewish otiony 
 in llime enjoyeil from time immemorial. . . . 
 From the time of the npostlesto the flrst persecu- 
 tion (if Diimltian, Christian tombs, whether 
 sbiive i.r Mow ground, wen- built with perfiit 
 iiiipu!iiiy and in delianceof puliljc opinion. We 
 hav.' Ikiii ai'customcd to consider the catacombs 
 of lluiie a.!! crypts plunged In total darkness, and 
 pcnetniiing the bowels of the earth at unfathom- 
 able ilepihs This Is, in a certain measure, the 
 ca.«' nilh those catacombs, or wctioiis of cala- 
 ci)mli«, which were excavated in times of perw- 
 cmi"ii but iiot with those bel<mging fo the tirst 
 centufv The cemeU'ry of these memlwrM of 
 Diimiiiun's family who hail emlirsced the gospel 
 -«uih as Klavlus Clemens, Flavia l)oinilill.i, 
 Pliuiilla, retn)uillii, and others — reveal.s a IhiI.I 
 cxiunple of publicity. . , , How is It |)osail.U' 
 to jnujinc that the primitive Church did not 
 know the place of the death of its two leading 
 »P"»li' s 1 In default of written t<-Mtlmony let us 
 ci'iKiill rnoniiniental evidence. Tlien- is no event 
 of ilie itiiin'rial age and of Imperial Itomi' wliUh 
 is iiii.vii.l by an many noblu structures, nil of 
 whiib |»iliit to the same omclusion.— tlie 
 pn «!ur and cxiMutlon of the apiaillis in the 
 npilal.if theemplri'."— II Ijinciani, JM'/mt niul 
 nn.f,.i„ li,^ fi, , 3 rt«/7._TI,e Cliurch at 
 lli>me ijave no illustrious teachi^rs to am lent 
 ChriMiiriity ... All the greatest i|Uealions 
 »||T .lelwliil elacwheri'. . . . Hv a sort of In. 
 Cij,. r,.r i;«i', (iij iNvupird itai'lf'far mori' with 
 p-ilnw ..f novernment anil organiisation than of 
 •ji-dililMn Its central i«»lil,.n. In the capital 
 crt the empire, and iu Kluriuus memurics, guar- 
 
 CHRISTIANITT. 
 
 anteed to It a growing authority."— E, De Pre«- 
 8ens«, The EaHy Tean of ChHitianity : Tht 
 Martj/n and Ap^ogiiU, p. 41. 
 
 C«ul.— "Of the history of the Galilean 
 Churches before the middle of the second century 
 we have no certain information. It seems fairiy 
 probable indeed that, when we read in the 
 Apostolic age of a mission of Cresccns to 
 'Oalatltt' or "Gaul," the western country it 
 meant rat jer than tlie Asiatic settlement which 
 bore tlie surre name; and, if so, this points to 
 some relations with St. Paul liimsclf. But, even 
 though this explanation should be accepted, the 
 notice stands ouite alone. Later tradition imleed 
 supplements It with legendary matter, but it 
 is impossible to say wliat substratum of fact, 
 if any, underlies these comparatively recent 
 stories. The connection between the southern 
 
 Kirts of Gaul and the western districu of Asia 
 Inor bad been Intimate from very remote 
 times. Gaul was indebted for her earliest civil- 
 iiation to her Greek settlemenU like Marseilles, 
 which had been colonized from Asia Minor some 
 six centuries before the Christian era; ami close 
 relations appear to have been maintaine<l even 
 to the latest times. During the Roman period 
 the people of Maraeiliet still spoke the Greek 
 language familiarty along with the vernacular 
 Celtic of the native popuIatioD and the official 
 Latin of the dominant power. AVlien therefore 
 Christianity had established her headquarters in 
 Asia Minor, it was not unnatural that the Gospel 
 should flow In the same channels which already 
 conducteil the civilization and the commerce of 
 the Asiatic Greeks westwanl. At all events, 
 whatever we may think of the antecedent pro- 
 babilities, llic fact itself can hardly be dispiitcA 
 In the year A. D. 177, umlcr Marcus Aurellus,! 
 a severe persecution broke out on the liaiiks of' 
 the Rhone in the cities of Vienne and Lvons — a' 
 persecution which by iU extent and chanicU'r 
 iK^ars a noble U'stimony to tiie vitality of the 
 Chu"ches in these places. To this Incident we 
 owe tlie earliest extant historical notice of 
 Christianity In Gaul."^I. B. Lightfoot, E»»iyt 
 «n th* teork fntitlrd SiipfrnalnrnI Rtliguni pp. 
 251-252.-" The Cliiirches of proconsular Africa, 
 of Spain, of Italy and of Southern Gaul ciuml- 
 tute, at this iierii*!, the Western Church, so dif- 
 ferent In its ge.ieral type fn)m the Ea.slcrn. 
 With the exception of Irenaeus (liishop of Lynnsj 
 and Hippolytus [the flrst celehmted preiw hrr of 
 the West, of Italy and. for a period, l,viins| who 
 n'prescnt the oriental element in Gaul ami at 
 Rome, the Western Fathers are broadly ili»tin- 
 KuiHhe<l from t' >se <.f the East . . . They 
 HlBrm nillier than demonstrate: . . . Iliey pre 
 fer practical to »|X'culallvo questions. The sys- 
 tem of episcopal authority Is gradually devebipcd 
 with a larger amount of piuision at Carthage, 
 with greater pruilenee and patience 'n Italy. — 
 E. De I'reswnse, 7'A/ Kirlj/ Vnin tf C'A'iwIi- 
 iinily: tht .Vartynt nnii Ain-kiffiittM. 
 
 Spain. — ■• Christians are gem-Mlly mentioned 
 as luiving existtHt in all pans nf Spain at the 
 dose of the secimd century: In-fore the miibileof 
 the tliinl century then' is'a letter of the Ruriian 
 bishop Aiiterus'dn 2117) to the bishops iit iliu 
 pnivlnna nf BfFtica sod Toletana . . . : ami 
 after the middle of the same centurv a letter of 
 Cyprian's was aiMn-BiMd to . . . ix'o'ple In 
 
 the north . iis well as ... in tlie souili of 
 that country —J, K. T. Wlitach, Uamlluuk <if 
 
 40U 
 
CHIU8TIAN1TT. 
 
 Oonnertum 
 c* llu CteUU. 
 
 CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 ihf Oengraphu and Stalittia of the Ohureh, pp. 
 40-41. 
 
 Britain.— " All that we c«n iafcly assert 
 b that there is some reason for jillevlng that 
 there were Christians In Britnin bcfure A. D. 
 200. Certainly there was a British Church with 
 bishops of its own soon after A. D. 800, and 
 possibly some time before that. Very little can 
 be known about this Celtic Church; but the 
 scanty evidence tends to establish three points, 
 (1) It had Us origin from, and remained largely 
 dependent upon, the Gallic Church. (2) It was 
 confined almost exclusively to Roman settle- 
 ments. (3) Its numbers were small and its mem- 
 bers were poor. . . . That Britain may have 
 derived its Christianity from Asia Minor cannot 
 be denied; but the peculiar British custom 
 respecting Easter must not be quoteit in evidence 
 of it. It seems to tut ve l)een a mere blunder, and 
 not a continuation of the old Quarta-deciman 
 practice. Oaul is the more probable parent of 
 the British riuirch. ... At the Council of 
 Rimini in S5U Constamius offered to pay out of 
 the treasury tlie travelling expenses of all the 
 bishops who attended. Out of more tlian four 
 hundred bishops, three from Britain were the 
 only clergy who availed themselves of thia offer. 
 Neither at Rimini, any more than at Aries, do 
 the British representatives make any show : they 
 •piH'ar to he oiiite without intluenco. "— A. 
 Plummer, 7^ Church of t/u Early fUthert, 
 fh. 8. 
 
 Gothi.— "It has been observed that the first 
 indisputable appearance of the Ootlis in European 
 liislory must be dateil in A. D. SHS. when they 
 laid waste the 8outh-Danubian province of 
 MiKsia as far as the Black Sea. In the thirty 
 years (23H-2«9) that followed, there took place no 
 fewiT than ten such inroads. . . . From these 
 exiH'ditions ihey retumc<l with Immeuwt boo^v, 
 — com and cattle, silks and Une linen, silver and 
 gold, and captives of all ranks an<l ages. It is 
 to these captives, many of whom were Chris- 
 tians, ami not a few clergy, that tlie Introduction 
 of Chri.stianity among the Goths is primarily 
 due. . . . The periiHl of the inroads, whicli so 
 strangely formed a sowing-time for Christianity, 
 
 was folfowiii by a long pcriiMl of trani|uillity, 
 j.._. ui.i .1 faith tiH)k roo' 
 
 ful work and pur 
 [Cliristian] men . . . who hail He<i from Roman 
 
 during which the new faith tiH)k root and'sprcall 
 . It is to the faithful work and pure lives of 
 
 civilisation for conscience sake, to the example 
 of jiaticnce iu misfortune and high Christliin 
 character displayed by the captives, and to lli 
 Instruction of the presbyters sprinkletl araoii 
 them, that we must look, as the source 
 CliriKliaiiity among Ihe Goths. . . . The fai 
 which we shall have to refer laier), thi;*, of ai 
 sea raids undertaken by the Goths Ik'tween 
 years Sas and Wi. the Visigoths took part . 
 only two, Willie the 0»tn)goths, who were settled 
 InSiuthern Kiissiu along llie coast ui me Kuxiue 
 fnitn the Criinialo the Dneittcr, were engagi'd 
 probably In all of tin m, makes it verv unlikely 
 that the captives nicnlioiiiil liy PlitkwUirgius 
 Were carriid anywhere else than the ea.sU'm 
 •ctllemcnu. To the iiilluenee of these A.tian 
 Christians, exerted inuiiily. if not entirely u|xm 
 the (>8troi;oili«, must Ik' atiihil the ever increos- 
 
 ir-.V" Intireotirx.: r:»rri;^! ■■■; (-.y i^-;i i-i-iWii-ii llit 
 
 Crimea ami iKitli the southern shore of the 
 Euxine and Conslnniiiiople Vo thesi! pnilialiilt 
 ties baa uuw lo Ui added the fact tlut the ualy 
 
 tr-.ies of an organised Gothic Church existlni 
 bi'fotc the year 841 are clearly to be referte<l tos 
 community In this neigliliourhood. Amoni; the 
 bishops who were present at the Council ,if 
 Nicaea (A. D. 82.1), and who 8igne<l tl« symbol 
 which was then approved, we find a ctrula 
 Theophllus, before whose name stand the wonU 
 'dc Ootids,' anil after it the word ' Bospljiitj! 
 tanus.' There can be little doubt that this wai 
 a bishop representing a Gothic Cliureh on the 
 Cimmerian Bosphorusi: and if, folio vin,- ,iie 
 Paris MS8., we read further down the lisi the 
 name Domnus Bosphorensis or PosphoMnus. we 
 may find here another bislr>p from this dioav 
 and rcganl TI.eopliilus as chief or ap.hhishop of 
 the Crimean churches. The uniloubted presen:^ 
 at this council of at least one bisliop of tlie 
 Gotlis, and the conclusion drawn therefmm in 
 favour of the orthodoxy of the Gothic Chunh in 
 
 feoeral. led atterwards to die greatest confusion. 
 ailing to distinguish between tlie Crimcsn iinii 
 Dauubian communities, the historians of tj'n found 
 tlieir infomiatioD contradictory, and altered it 
 In the readiest way to suit the coailition of the 
 Church which tlicV had specially In view. . . . 
 The conversion of that section of the nation, 
 which iKcarac the Gothic Church, was due to 
 the apostolic labours of one of their own race, 
 — the gri>at missionary bishop Ulltlaa [see 
 GoTiis: A. D. 841-381]. But to him too was 
 to be traced the heresy In which tliey stoppej 
 short on the waj from heathenism to a compiete 
 Christian faith. —C!. A. A. Si'ott. I'lJiliU. Aittlte 
 of the Oollu, pp. 19-30.— "The suiwrstitions of 
 the barbarians, who had found homes in the 
 empire, hail been exehangnl for a more -iholo- 
 some belief. IJut Christianity hail done moru 
 than this. It had extendeil its inlliiencc o 
 the distant East and South, to Abvssinia, 
 and the tribes of the Syrian anil 'l.vhian 
 deserts, to Armenia, Persia, and i'. lia."— "C. i*. 
 Fisher, Jlint. of thi Chrutinn Church, p. MS — 
 • ' We have before us many sigiiitlcant examples nf 
 the facility with which the most intellii.'em of the 
 Pagans accepted the outward rite of Christian 
 liaptisin, and made a nominal profession uf tlie 
 Faith, while tlicy retained and o|xnly pnictimt, 
 without rebuke, without tvmark, with the 
 Indulgence even of genuine bi'lievers. the rius 
 and usai^es of the Pa,;anism they pretemled to 
 have abjur We find abundant reeonlsofthe 
 
 fact tlint pe.sonages high iu otilce, such as eon- 
 Buls and other magistrates, while adiuliii>tiriui{ 
 the laws by which the old idolatries were pro 
 neribetl, actually jwrfonned Pagan rites iiml 
 ven erected public statues to Pagan diviiiitii's. 
 I'll more did men, high In the ix'spwt of their 
 lloW'Cliristians, allow themsi'lves to clurt.h 
 enllments utterly at variinee with the ihllni- 
 lioDS of the Church."— C Merivale. /■I'ur hdnnt 
 on Home t.initJf of Jiirly Church /h'li>rj/ p IV) — 
 "We IcMill back to the early actitaiid ih'iII' y ,,■[ liie 
 Church towanis the new nai'ons, their kinus ami 
 their jviiple; till' vaysand v».., i«nf liir Miiv.ii>n- 
 aries ami lawgivers, I'ltllas aiiioni; the (!olh<, 
 AugiLstine iu Kent, Remlglus in Krau.e Itoui- 
 fiuv in (Icriiiaiiy, Anwiiai in the Nonli.tln ln»h 
 Coliiinban in ilurgiiiiily and ,><wii/>rl.inil, 
 IhiHilict at Monte Cossimi: or the reforniiii< 
 klri^n. tiic .\rian Tiiuxhrric. tiic gn-al ti-.r'-M-tii 
 Charles, the great Eni{li«li Alfnil. .Measund 
 by the liu-lit and the sti lelanls tliey have hel|HHl 
 us tu ututu to, their methods uu doubt surprlte, 
 
 464 
 
CHRISTIAirm. 
 
 
 CHMSTIlinTT. 
 
 diwppoint— It msT be, revolt ut; ud all that 
 we dwell upon u the childishness, or the 
 imperfect monllty, of their attempts. But if 
 tliere is anything certain in history. It Is that in 
 iheae rough communications of the deepest 
 truths, in these [for us] often qLestionable modes 
 of ruling minds and souls, the seed? were sown of 
 nil that was to malte the hope and the glory of 
 I lie foremost nations. ... I have spoken of 
 iM.-.c other groups of virtues whicl^ are held In 
 spiTial regard and respect amoni' us — those 
 (iinnrcted with manliness and hari work, with 
 ri'vcnnce for law and liberty, ard with pure 
 fiiniily life. The ruiliraents and ftndeuclea )ut 
 (if wliich these have grown ap^'sr to have Vx-^n 
 riirly marked in the Oerman ruxs, but thev 
 ueri- nnl^ rudiments, existing in company with 
 much wilder and stronger e.cments, and liable. 
 nmiil the changes and chances of barbarian 
 ixisU'Dcc, to be paralysed or trampled out. No 
 men' barbarian virtues could by themselves have 
 i.t<iu<l the trial of having won by conquest the 
 wealth, the lands, the power of Rome. But 
 lluir guardian was there. Wliat Christianity 
 ilid fo- these natural tenilencics to gOfHl was to 
 lulcipt them, to watch over them, to discipline, 
 t(i ('(insi>liilate them. The energy which warriors 
 W( TV accustomed to put forth in their elTorts to 
 >>>ii<|uer. the missionaries and ministers of 
 ( iiristianity exiiibited in their enterprises of 
 (iinvvr»ii>n and teucbiiie. The crowd of unknown 
 wiuts wlioM! nanu'M till the calendars, anil live, 
 Hiine of tlicm, only in the titles of our churches, 
 miiiiily represent" the age of heroic spiritual 
 vultures, of wliich we we glimpses in the story 
 of ^•t IJonlface, the apostle <if Otmiany; of 8t. 
 (i)liiiiilmn and 8t. Gall, waniliring from Ireland 
 to nclaiin the barbariaas of the Burgundian 
 (lewris and of the shores of the Swiss lakes. It 
 was among men like these — men who were thi'U 
 tinni il einpliaticnlly ' ..len of religion '—that the 
 111 races saw tlie example of life ruleil by a 
 (.•nut and sirious purpose, which yet was hot 
 one of ambition or the excitenii nt of war; a lif<t 
 odlililnraie and sternly indjstry, of hard and 
 unn>iii|ilaiuing lalmur/a life as full of activity 
 ill |«ace, of stout an.l brave work, as a warrior's 
 wasttont to lie In the camp, on tb" march. In 
 the Imiile. It was in thesi' mea and in the 
 I i.n-iiuiiity which they taught, and which 
 li -|i|ii(l ami governed them, that the fathers of 
 our nioiUru nations tlist saw exeniplitled the 
 Kii'H' of human nsponsiliility. first Irarued the 
 iioMi ness of a ruled and disciplined life, first 
 inlirv'ed tlidr tli<mglits of the iws of 
 1 \i«iii»e. tlr->t w<re taught the dignity nnii 
 Ku inliieas of honest toil. These great axioms of 
 nio.liiii life iiasscd silently from the »|ve<lal 
 lioiiii > of n llglous einployinent to thow of civil ; 
 frniiHli,. (loisters and cells of men who, when 
 liny Win' not engaged in worship, wer.- engagnl 
 ill tl.ilwork or luKikwork. - clearing the fi^irest, 
 iMiiiliug eultivation, multiplying manuscripts 
 — !" tlie guild of tile cniftsiimh, the shop of the 
 ini.l.r tliistuily of the sdiolar. Heligion g"uer- 
 itUi\ :inil fed llie-ie ideas of what was manlv and 
 ^^■ril.y in man. '—It. W. Church, rhe iiijU of 
 l..ii,..lli„„, ;,;). STD-Jsil. 
 
 A. D. 3"-337— The Church nai the Em- 
 pire. - ■ Mm.iii.v afier liie In-ginning of the tounh 
 ciiniry ihire iK-eurred an event which. Iiad it 
 -.11 1 riili, ie.1 in the dnvs of Nero or even of 
 iKi-iu-, Would have been deemed a wUd fancy. 
 
 465 
 
 i<. was nothing less than the convetBion of the 
 Roman Emperor to the Christian faith. It wag 
 an event of momentous importance In the history 
 of the Christian religion. Tne Roman empire, 
 from be'ng the enemy and persecutor of^the 
 Church, thenceforward became its protector and 
 patron. The Church entered Into an alliance 
 with the State, which was to prove fruitful of 
 consequences, both good and evil, in the subse- 
 quent history of Europe. Christianity was now 
 to reap the advant.'vges and Incur the dangers 
 arising from tlie friendshii of earthly rulers and 
 from a close connection »;th the civil authority. 
 Constantine was bom In 274. He was the son of 
 Constantius Chlorus. His mother, Helena, was 
 of ob).cure birth. She became a Christian — 
 whetlier before or after his conversion, is doubt- 
 ful. . . . After the death of Constantine's father, 
 a revolt against Oalerius ajgnicted the number 
 of emperors, so that, in 8(W, .lot less than six 
 < lairoed to exercise rule. The contest of Con- 
 stantine was at first In the West, against the 
 tyrannical and dissolute Maxcntius. ft was just 
 before his victory over tliis rival at the Mih i»n 
 Bridge, near Rome, that he adopted the Christian 
 faith. That there mingled in this lieeision, a * in 
 most of the steps of his career, political ambition, 
 is highly probable. The strength of the Chris- 
 tian community made it politic for hiin to win 
 its uniteil support. But he sincerely iK-lieved ' i 
 the God whom the Chriiitians worshipped, and In 
 tlie lielp which, through his providence, lie could 
 liiid to his servants. . . . ShortI" before his 
 victory over Maxentius there occurred what he 
 asserted to be ■..._ vision of a tlaming cross in the 
 sky. seen by him at noonday, on which was the 
 insiription, in Greek, 'Bv this comiuer.' It 
 was, perhaps, an optical illusion, the effect of a 
 parhelion belicld in a moment when the imagin- 
 ation . . . was strcmgly excited. Ueiwhipted the 
 lalwrum. or the siandanl of the cross, which was 
 afterwards carried in his annies, [hee K0.1IE: 
 \. 1). Saa.] In later contests with Licinius. 
 the ruler in the East, who was a defender of 
 paganism, ConstJintine la'came more distiiietiv 
 the cliampion of the Christian cause. The tinal 
 defeat of Licinius, in .taH. left him the master 
 of the whole Roman world. An edict siitueil 
 liy Ualerius, ConsUntine. anil Licinius." in 
 811, had proclaimed freedom and toleration in 
 matters of religion. The edict of Milan, in 
 3ia. emanating from the two latter, estalilislied 
 unrestricted liberty on this siiliject. If we 
 consi ir the time when it was i.sMied, we shall 
 be surprisi'd to find that it alleges as a mo- 
 tive for the eiiict the sacred rights of con- 
 science. "—O. K Fisher, JIiHt. ,if the C/irittiiiH 
 C/iiiir/i, pp. 87-W.— "Towanls'tlie end of the 
 year Constantine left Home for Milan, where he 
 met Licinius. This meeting resulted in the is-^iie 
 of the famous edict if .Milan. I'p to that li<>iir 
 ( liristianily had Isen an ■ illicita religio.' anil ir 
 » a.s a crime to be a t hristian. Even in 'I'mjiir. s 
 answer to I'liny this lamilion is iissumed. tiioi.gli 
 it forms the biisis of humane ngulations. 'I'lie 
 edict of .Milan is the char' r of I'liristianity; it 
 pna hiims absolute fret-iloin lu the matter of 
 religion. Both Christians and all others were |i> 
 1h' Inely iK'miitted to follow whatsoever religion 
 each mitht ciioime. Moreover, restitution was to 
 be maile to the Christian Issly of all clitiri lies 
 and other biiihlings which had twen alieiiateil 
 from them during the persccutiuu. This was in 
 
CHRISTIANITT. 
 
 Ckurek 
 OrgtmitaUon. 
 
 CHBISTIAinTY. 
 
 i ■ 
 
 818 A. D. . . . But the cauKi of diiaensioa 
 remained behind. Once more (828) the question 
 btatveen paganiim and Christianity was to be 
 trifd on the field of battle, end their armies con- 
 frontttl one another on the plains of Hadrianople. 
 Again the skill of Constantine and the trained 
 valour of his troops proved superior to the un- 
 di8(.'ipline<l levies of Licinius; while at sea Cris- 
 pus. the eldest and ill-fated son of Constantine, 
 dcstroye<l the enemy's fleet in the crowded 
 wati'rs of the Hellespont, sowing thereby the 
 seeds of his father's jealousy. Byzantium fell, 
 but not without a vigorous resistance; and, 
 after one more crushing defeat on the site of the 
 modem Scutari, Licinius submitted himself to 
 the mercy of Constantine. . . . What we notice 
 in the whole of these events Is the enormous 
 power which still belonged to paganism. The 
 balance still wavered between paganism and 
 Chrisitiiinity. . . , Constantine had now, by a 
 marvellous succession of victories, placed him- 
 self in a position of supreme and undisputed 
 power. At this juncture it is of interest to 
 observe that ... the divided empire, which 
 followed the reign of Constantine, served to 
 sustain Catholicity at least in one half of the 
 world. . . . The foundation of Constantinople 
 Wis the outwaril symbol of the new monarchy 
 and of the triumph of Christianity. . . . The 
 choice of this incomparable position for the new 
 capital of the world remains the lasting proof of 
 Constantine's genius. . . . The niagniticence of 
 Its public buildings, its treasures of art, its vast 
 endowments, the beauty of its situation, the 
 rapid growth of its commerce, made it worthy to 
 lie 'iLs it were a daughter of Home herself.' 
 But the most important thought for us is the 
 nlaticMi of Constantinople to the advance of 
 Chri.Htianity. That the city which had sprung 
 into hupremncy from its birth and had become 
 the capital of the conquered world, should have 
 ezcluiie<l from the circuit of iu walls all public 
 recoKnition of |Hilytheism, and made the Cross 
 its most conspicuous oniament, and the token of 
 its greatness, gave a reality to the religious 
 revdlution. . . . The imperial centre of the 
 worlil had been visibly displaced."— A. Carr, 
 The Churth anil t/it Rmnnn Empire, eh. 4. — 
 With the first General Council of the Church 
 held at Nicwa, A. D. Bil (see Nic«a). " the 
 ditisioim ... of which received the force of 
 law fnim the confirmation of the Emperor, a 
 
 •'''I'l y was entered upon which was decisive 
 
 for I lie riirther development: decisive also liy the 
 fact lliHl the Emperor held it U) be Ids duty to 
 eoni|M'l sniKinlination to the decisions of the 
 eouiKil (in (lenalty of banisliinent. and actually 
 carried nut this banishment in the case of Alius 
 and wvcral of lila ailherenta. The Em|)eror 
 summoned general synods, the fiscua provided 
 I the cost of travel and subsistence (also at other 
 great ayncHls), an imperial eommimioncr openini 
 tliein by niuling the imp<Tial edict, and watcheti 
 over the r'Hirse of huniness. Only the bishops 
 and their ap|M)inted representatives had votes. 
 Dogmatic jMiints fixed . . . were to bo the out- 
 come of unanimous agreement, the rest of the 
 ordinann-s (on the constitution, discinline and 
 worship) of a majority of vou-s."— W. Mueller 
 /AVf t>/ Ihr C/rnMan Vhtirch. p. 337.— -The 
 illrect Influence o* " 
 
 of the emperor, however, does 
 noi appwr iiniii the Emperor Marclan procured 
 from the C^ouucil of Cbalcedun the oomptetioo of 
 
 the Patriarchal system, \auming that Rome 
 Alexandria, and Antiocu were Patriarcliaus br 
 the recognition of their privileges at the Coiineil 
 of Niciea (though the ciinon of tliat council doM 
 not really admit that inference), the Coiin<i| of 
 Chalcedon, by ito ninth, seventeenth mil twintv 
 eighth canons, enlarged and fixed the patriarchal 
 jurisdiction and privileges of the Church of 
 Consuntinople, giving It authority over the 
 Dioceses of Thrace, Asia and Pontus, with the 
 power of ordaining and requiring candnical 
 obedience from the metropolis of those DiiKcaes 
 and also the right to adjudicate appeals in 
 causes ecclesiastical from tlio whole Kastem 
 Chureh. The Bishop of Jerusalem also ohiniueil 
 in this council patriarchal authority over l'»lw. 
 tine The organization of the Church was thus 
 conformed to that of the empire, the patriarchs 
 corresponding to the Praetorian Pnf.its the 
 exarchs, to the governors of the Diocews anil the 
 metropolitans to the governors of the provinots 
 — the Bishop of Rome being given bv an (diet 
 of \alentinian III., of the year 445," supteme 
 appellate jurisdiction in the West, and the 
 Bishop of Con.s-antinople, by these camms of 
 Chalcedon, supreme appellate jurisdictimi in the 
 East. . . . Dean Milman remarks tliiit the 
 Episcopate of St. John Chrysostom was the last 
 attempt of n bishop of Constantinople to lie imlf 
 pen.lent of the p<ditical power, and (liat his fate 
 involved the freedom of the Churehof tlwti iiv." 
 —.1. H. tgar, Vhritte-ndim : BcfUn.ulinil ,',nd 
 PnUtiml. fnm Contlnnlint to the lt,f„niMtinn 
 pp. 2.V27.— "The name of patriarch! pmlmlilv 
 borrowed from Judaism, was from this piriull 
 the appellation of the highest dignitaries of the 
 church, and by it were more immciliutilv hut 
 not exclusively, designated the bishops of C.n- 
 stiintinople, Alexamlria, Aiitioch, and .lenisnlem. 
 One patriarch accordingly presided over sevirai 
 provinces, and was distingiilshetl from th • metro- 
 politjin in this, that the latter was bu' nlinate 
 to him. and had onlv the superintendem . of me 
 pnivini-e or a small district. However the desii;- 
 mitiim applied only to the highest nilers of ihn 
 church in the east, and not U> those in the wesi, 
 for here the title of patriarch was iioi untir- 
 quently givin, even In later times, to the nu tro- 
 poliUiii. The first mention of this title oceurs in 
 the si'tond htter of the Itoman bishop. .\na(le 
 tiis at the iKginniiig of the senmd ceiiiiirv, ami 
 it is next spokin of by Socrates; and afiir the 
 Council of ChaUedon, in 4.'il, it came into general 
 Use. The bishop of Constantinople |i,.re the 
 »l«'tial title of u'cumenical bishop or put rianh ; 
 
 there were also other titles in use a iir the Xi-s- 
 
 torians and Jacobites. The Primates and Mi ini. 
 isilitaiis or Archbishops aros*- conli nipnnne. 
 oiisly. The title of Eparch isal.suhaiil in have 
 Is'in given to primates aliout the niiddle of the 
 fifth century. The metro|Mditan of Kphi-<in «uh- 
 Bcrilied hinis) If thus in the year flwi, then h.n in 
 the fiuccitiling period. There was no parlli ular 
 title of hmg contlniiancc fur the lUmuM liish. p 
 until the si.xth century ; but from the v ar HM 
 he was usually calleii I'apa. ai'd fmni tin tiiic 
 of On'gorv the Ureat he stvled hiniMlf S.rviu 
 f*trvorum Dei."— J. E. T. V<iltsch. Il<v,'l''-k ••/ 
 thf iJrngraphu and f^ntiitif of the Cluiri-li. jtp. 
 to. 71 Hitti 7i. — ''('hristinnity may now iie said lo 
 have ascended the imperial throne: »iih the 
 single ex<rption of Julian, from this period 
 the monari'hs uf tin Homaii empire prulciisd 
 
 466 
 
CHRISTIANITT. 
 
 
 CHHISTIAmTT. 
 
 the religion of the Ooapel. This important crisi* 
 jD the history of Christianity alniogt forcibly 
 umits tlie attention to contemplate the change 
 viougbt in Chriatinnity by its advancement into 
 * dominant power in the state ; and the change in 
 the nmdition of mankind up to this period, 
 attributable to the direct authority or indirect 
 iofluenre of th'- new religion. By ceasing to 
 exist M a separate community, and by advancing 
 its pretentions to influence the general govern- 
 ment of mankind, Christianity to a certain extent, 
 forfeited Its independence. It could not but 
 submit to these laws, framed, as it might seem, 
 with its own concurrent voice. It was no longer 
 a republic, governed exclusively — as far, at 
 least, as its rellgous concerns — by 'its own inter- 
 nal polity. The interference of the civil power 
 in some «f its most private alTaire, the promulga- 
 tion of its canons, and even, in some cases, the 
 election of its bisltops hv the state, was the price 
 which it must inevitably pay for its association 
 with the rulhig power. . . . During the reign of 
 ConstaLtine Christianit' had made a rapid 
 advanor, no doubt, in the ni mlx^r of ita prose- 
 lytes as well as in Its jztemal position. It was 
 not vet the established religiou of t. empire. 
 It did not as yet stand forward as tlie new 
 religion adapted to the new order of things, as a 
 part of tlie grrnt simultaneous change which 
 gave Ui the Roman world a new capita, a new 
 system of government, and, in some important 
 in«t«nrrs,anewjurispnidence. . . . Tlie- Ilgion 
 o( the enincror would soon become that of the 
 court, ann, by somewhat slower degrees, that of 
 th°empi"e. At p-i^sent, however, as wo have 
 seen, li'de open agression took place upon pagan- 
 ism. The few temples which were closed were 
 insulated cases, and condemned as offensive to 
 public morality. In general the temples stood in 
 sll their former mnjcsfy, for as yet the ordinary 
 process of di-cay from neglect or ruptneness 
 could have pro(luce<i little effect. The differ- 
 ence -viis, that the Christian churches begim to 
 assume a more stately and imposing form. In 
 tlie new capital they surpas8e<t In grandeur, and 
 pnilmhly in decoration, the pagan temples, 
 which beIonge<i to old Byzantium. The im- 
 munities grnntei to the (fhristinn clergy only 
 pUccd tiiem on t.ie same level with the pagan 
 priesthood. The pootiflcal offices were still held 
 ny the distinguished men of the state: tlie 
 emperor himself was long the chief pontilT; but 
 the r<0)tfinus office had become a kinci of append- 
 »gf to the t.niponil dignity. The Christian pre- 
 laUa Wire constantly lulmitted, in virtue of their 
 office, to the imperial presence. "—H. H. Milman 
 Hut of diruUiDiity, bk. 8, ch. 4.—" As early as 
 'onstHnilne's time tlie punishment of crucifixion 
 >:isal»i|i«lie<l; ImiiKiral practices, like infanti- 
 cide, Hiid the exhibition of gloiliatoriiil shows, 
 wen' (ItscDuragwl, tl.» latUT of these being for- 
 liiddin in Ciinstantinoiiie; and in order to 
 Impnui. the relation of the sexes. n-\en laws 
 ■ovn- |i,iK«^| agslnst adultery, and restrict' 
 w-cp' piiicinl on tlie facility of divorce. F 
 the IWi„|m were empoweroi, in the i>t 
 
 rellirinn, to interceile with governors, an. even 
 Willi til,. ,.mi*ror, in behalf of the unfortunate 
 anil oppniimil, Ami grailiuillv they ohtaitied 
 !"c riBiii „f exercising a sort of moral suiteriii- 
 h'tt. en<v over the discharge of their official 
 auli.H l.y tlie Judges, ami others, who belonged 
 w Iteir commuallki. The supervlsioo of the 
 
 467 
 
 prisons, in particular, was entrusted to them; 
 and, ereas in the first instance their power of 
 interfe. once was limited to exhortations addressed 
 to the judges who superintended them, in Jus- 
 tinian's reign the bishops were commissioned by 
 law to visit the prisons on two days of each 
 week in order to inquire into, and, if*^ necessary, 
 report upon, the treatment cf tiie . risoners. In 
 all these and many other ways, the influcuce of 
 the State in controlling and improving society 
 was advanced hy ita alliance with the Church.''' 
 — H. F. Tozer, The Chiirth and tlie Biutern Em- 
 rtre, pp. 56-37.— "The Christians were still a 
 separate people. ... It can scarcely be doubted 
 that the stricter moral tone of Constantine's leg- 
 islation more or less remotely emanated from 
 Christianity. . . . During the reign of Constan- 
 tine Christianity continued to advance beyond 
 theborderaof the Roman empire, and in some 
 degree to indemnify herself for the losses which 
 she sustained In the kingdom of Persia. The 
 Ethiopians appear to have attained some degree 
 of civilization; aconsiderable part of the Arabian 
 commerce was kept up with the other side of tlie 
 Red Sea through the port of Aduiis; and Greek 
 letters appear, from inscriptions recently dis- 
 covered, to have made considerable progress 
 among this barbarous people. . . . The theo- 
 logical opinions of Christianity naturally made 
 more rapid progress than ita moral influence 
 The former ha<i only to overpower the resistance 
 of a religion which had already lost ita hold upon 
 the mind, or a philosophy tcxi speculative for 
 ordinary underetiinding.'j and too unsati.sfactory 
 for the more curious ami inquiring; it hnd only 
 to enter, as it were, into a vacant place in the 
 mind of man. But the moral influence had to 
 contest, not only with the natural dispositions of 
 man, but with 'le Kirbarism and depraved 
 manners of ages. While, then, the religion of 
 the worid underwent a total change, the Church 
 rose on the ruins of the temple, and the pontifl- 
 cal establishment of paganism became gradu- 
 ally extinct or suffered violent suppression; the 
 moral revolution was far more slow and far less 
 complete. . . . Everywhere there wiw exagger- 
 ation of one of the constituent elements of 
 Christianity; that exaggeration which is the 
 inevitable consequence of a strong impulse upon 
 the human mind. Wherever men fwl strongly, 
 they act violently. The more speculative Chris- 
 tians, therefore, who were more incliniHl, in the 
 deep and somewhat stdllsh solicitude for their 
 own salvation, to isolate themmdves from the 
 infected class of mankind, pressed Into the ex- 
 treme of asceticism, the more practioiil, who 
 were' in earnest In the desire of ilissi'niiuatiiig tlio 
 blessings of religion throughout society, scrupled 
 little to press Into their service whatever might 
 advance their cause. With both extremes the 
 dogmatical part of the religion predominate<l. 
 ... In proportion to tlie admitted im[)ortance of 
 the creed, men liecame more sternly and excl.i- 
 sively weii(le<l to their opinions. . . . While 
 they swept in converts iiidiscrimttaately from the 
 palace and the public street, while the emperor 
 and the lowest of the populace were alike 
 admitted on little more- than the open profession 
 of allcfflance. Um'V wen- swfliftn) if th<-ir all*"- 
 glann; in this respect was blind and complete. 
 Heni« a far larger admixture' of hiiiimn passions, 
 and the common vulgar incentives of action, 
 were infused into the cxpanJiDg Chriatiau budy. 
 
\ 
 
 CHBISXIANITT. 
 
 IVOract 
 Ckure*. 
 
 CHRISTIANITT. 
 
 Men bMame Chriatiiuia, orthnlox Christians, 
 *Uh little sacriflre uf that which Christianity 
 aimed chiefly to extirpate. Yet. after all, this 
 imperfect view of Christianity harl probably 
 some effect in concentrating the Christian com- 
 munity, and holding it together by a new and 
 more indismluble bond. Tlie world divided into 
 two parties. . . . All. however, were enrolled 
 uniier one or the other standard, and the party 
 which triiimphetl eventually would rule the 
 whole Christian world."— H. H. Milman. niiit. 
 of Chrittinnity. bk. 3. ch. 4-5._"Of this detcr- 
 lomtion of morals we have abundant evidence. 
 Riwl the Canons of the various Councils and you 
 will learn that the Church found it necessary to 
 prohibit tlie commission of the most heinous and 
 abominable crimes not only by the laity, but 
 even by the clergy. Read the homilies o"f such 
 preacliers as Chrysostom, Basil, and Gregory, 
 and you may infer what the moral tone of a 
 Christian congregation must have been to which 
 such reproofs could be addressed. Read, above 
 all, the treatise on Providence, or De Qubema- 
 tione Dei, w^ritten at the close of our period by 
 Salvian, a presbyter of )Iaiseilles. The bar- 
 barians had over-spread the West, and Chris- 
 tians had suffered so many hardships that they 
 began to doubt whether there was any Divine 
 government of human affairs. Salvian retorted 
 that the fart of their suffering was the best evi- 
 dence of the doctrine of Providence, for the 
 miseries they endured were the effects of the 
 Divine displeasure provoked by the debauchery 
 of the Church. And then he proceeds to draw 
 up an indictment and to lend proof which I 
 prefer not to give in detail. After making every 
 allowance for rhetorical exaggeration, enough 
 nmiiins to show that the morality of the Church 
 had grievously declined, and that the declension 
 was due to tlic inroads of Pagan vice. . . 
 Under this head, lind space permitted, some 
 account would have l)een given of the growth of 
 the Christian literature of this period, of the 
 great writers atid preachers, and of the opposing 
 schools of interpretation which divided Christen- 
 dom. In the Eastern Church we should have 
 had to notice [at greater length the work of] 
 Euscblus of Ca'sarea, the fatlier of Church 
 History and the friend of Constantine; Ephrem 
 the Syrian, the poet-preacher; tlie three I'appa- 
 docians, Basil of Ciesarea. Gregory of Nyssa, 
 am' Gregory of Xazianzus, each great In his 
 OV..1 wrtv, tlie first as a preacher and adminis- 
 trator, the second as a thinker, the thir<l as a 
 poet and pani-gvrist; Chrysostom, the orator and 
 e.Kegete ; Thfoclore of Mopsuestia and Theodortt 
 of Kyros, along with Chrysostom the most in- 
 fliientiiil representatives of the School of Antioch. 
 In tlie Western Church we should have had to 
 sjnak of Ambrose, the eloquent preacher and 
 vulmnltious writer; of Jerome, the biblical 
 critic; and of Augustine, the philosopher and 
 conlrovur»mlist, whose thoughts live among us 
 even at tlie present day."— W, Stewart, The 
 Vhiirrh of tKe ith and hth Centuria (St. GiUt' 
 I^fluret, ith ,,na).—»pc Rome: A. D. 883, to 
 3U1-39.J. — •'Hitherto Christian asceticism had 
 iK-en iudividualistie in its character. ... In the 
 third century hermits began to form a class by 
 thi'mselve-i in tl.r East and in Africa; in the 
 fourth they began to lie organize<l into communi- 
 ties. After the institution of monastic societies. 
 Uii« development of Chriulan asccticiim spread 
 
 far and wide from the deserts of the Tliehnid and 
 Lower Egypt; Basil, Jerome, Athauasius, Au- 
 gustine, Ambrose, were foremost anioiur iu 
 eariiest advocates and propagators; CsMian 
 Columbanus, Benedict, and others, crowned the 
 labours of their predeceseon by a more elaborate 
 organization."— I. Gregory Smith, C/iritUait 
 Motuutieitm, pp. 33-33. 
 
 A. p. 318-335.- The Arian Controrersr ud 
 the Coundr of Niaea. Si-e Ahumsm and 
 >ICAA, The First CouviIl or. 
 /»\ ?• ?32:">S4--T>ie Eaatem (Greek, or 
 Orthodox) Church.— ■■ 'The Eastern Cliurch ' 
 says a well-known writer, ' was like the East 
 stationary and immutable; the Western like the 
 West, progressive and flexible. This distinction 
 is the more remarkable, because at certain periods 
 of their course, there can be no doubt tliat the 
 civilization of the Eastern Church was fur liiglier 
 than that of the ^t'estem.' "— O. F. Maclcar, rA« 
 SUirt, p. 23. — It is the more remarkable be- 
 cause this long-continuing uniformity, while 
 peculiarly adapted to a people and a church 
 which should retain and tron.nmit an inheritance 
 of faith and culture, sunds in singular contrast 
 to the reputed character of the Gnrk-speaking 
 peoples of the East. The word Greek, however, 
 has, as an adjective, many meanings, nnd there 
 is danger of wrong inference through iniittention 
 to these; some of its distinctive charactire are 
 therefore indicated in bracketa in various 
 places In the following matter. "The New 
 Rome at the time of its foundation was Roman 
 . . . But from the flret it was destined to become 
 Greek; for the Greek.s, who now began to call 
 themselves Romans— an appellation which they 
 have ever since retained- held fast to their 
 language, manners, and prejudices, wliile they 
 availed themselves to the full of their rinhu ag 
 Roman citizens. The turning-point in tliis re- 
 spect was the separation of the empin's of the 
 East and the West in the time of An'iulius and 
 Ilonorius; and in Justinian's time we find all the 
 highest offices In the hands of the Gniks, and 
 Greek was the prevailing language. But the 
 people whom we call by this name wen' not the 
 Hellenes of Gn-ece proix-r, but the Jlrtccdonian 
 Greeks. This distinction arosi' with the estab- 
 lishment of Greek colonies with muni(i|ml gov- 
 ernment throughout Asia by AU'.xnndir the 
 Great nnd his successors. The ty|)e of chiiractcr 
 which was developed in tliem and anionir those 
 who were Hellenisiil by their influence, ililTcn-d 
 in many respects from that of the old (-niks. 
 The resi'mblancc betwi-en them was indctil niain- 
 taine<i by similarity of education and social 
 fwllngs, by tlic possession of a coiiiiiion lan- 
 guage an(f literature, and by their cxrUisive- 
 ness, which causcil them to I(X)k donn 011 Icsfi 
 favoured races; but while the inlml'it^iiits of 
 Greece retaine<i more of the indi'|xiidinl spirit 
 and of the moral character and piiiiiotisin of 
 their forefathers, tlie Maceiloiiiiiu (ini k^ wen- 
 more cosmopolitan, more sulisirviint. utv\ more 
 ready to take the impress of those iiinoni; whom 
 they were thrown: and the a.stiiti'n('s.4 :iiLd virsa- 
 tility which at all linn's had fonmil om elemint 
 in the Hellenic character, in tla'ni !»< iiiiii' the 
 leading characteristic. The inllueiKr of liiis 
 type IS tntceaidc lii Itie |Kiilr) of iIk- I;,i.~i<td 
 Empire, varying In intensity in ilifTcnnl ni-i'sin 
 protMirtion to the I)owerexerci9^^l by thi'iinrk*; 
 until, during the later period uf the history -in 
 
 468 
 
CHniSTUNITT. 
 
 2V CkHtNoiUnd 
 
 the tttne nf the Comneni, and still more In that 
 of the Pula-ologl — it la the predominant feature. " 
 — H. F. Tozcr, The Church and the EtuUrn 
 Empire, m>. 9-10.—" What have been the effects 
 of Christianity on what we call national charac- 
 ter in Eastern Christendom? , . . The Orecks of 
 the Lower Empire are taken as the typical 
 example of these races, and the Greeks of the 
 Lower Empire have become a byword for every- 
 tliing that is false and base. The Byzantine was 
 rrofoundlv theological, we are told, and pro- 
 foundly vile. . . . Those who wish to be just to 
 [it] . . . will pass ... to the . . . equitable 
 and conscientious, but by no means, indulgent, 
 liidgrarnts of Mr. Flnlay, Mr. Freeman, ami 
 Dean Stanley. One fact alone Is sufficient to 
 engage our deep interest in this race. It was 
 Greeks rUcIleni-st .lews] and people Imbued with 
 Greek ideas who first welcomed Chrtstlanity. It 
 was in their language that It first spoke to the 
 world, and its first home was in Qreek house- 
 holds and in Oreek cities. It was in Oreek 
 [Hellenistic] atmosphere that the Divine Stran- 
 
 Ser from the East, in many respects so widely 
 ISerent from all that Greeks were accustomed 
 to, first grew up to strength and shape; first 
 8howe<l its power of assimilating and reconciling; 
 first showed what it was to be in human society. 
 Its earliest nurslings were Greeks; Greeks [Hel- 
 lenist Jews] first took In the meaning and mea- 
 sure of Its amazing and eventful announcements: 
 Greek sympiithies first awoke and vibrated to its 
 appeals; Greek ol)e(iience, Greek courage, Greek 
 suffering first illustrated iu new lessons. Hud it 
 not first gained over Greek mind and Greek belief, 
 it is hard to see how it would have made Its fur- 
 ther way. . . . The Roman conquest of the world 
 fouuil the Greek race, and the Eastern nations 
 which it hiul inrtuenced, In a low and declin- 
 ing state — morilly, socially, politically. The 
 Roman Empiri', when It fell, left them in the same 
 (liscouraging rondlilon, and sutTering besides 
 from the degradation and mischief wrought on 
 all its subjects by iU chronic and relentless flscul 
 oppression. . . . These were the men In whose 
 fhilillsh conceit, childish frivolltv, childish self- 
 assertion, St. Paul saw such dangers to the 
 growth of Christian manliness and to the unity 
 of the CUiristian I)ody — the idly curious and gos- 
 siping men of Athens; the vain and shamelessly 
 ostentatious Corinthians, men in intellect, but In 
 moral seriousneas babes; the Epheslans, 'like 
 rhililien carried away with every blast of vain 
 teachius,' the victims of every Impostor, and 
 simrt of every ileceit; the Cretans, proverbially, 
 'ever liars, evil IwasU, slow bellies;' the pas- 
 Mnniite. volatile, Gnrkspcaking. Celts of Asia, 
 tlie ■ foolish ■ Galatlans. . . . The Greek of the 
 Itoman times is portrayed In the special wam- 
 ines of the Apostolic Epistles. After Apostolic 
 times he Is portrayed In the same way by the 
 beatlhn satirist Luclan, and by the Christian 
 pnarhi rChrysostom; and such, with all his l)a<l 
 teiKleui ies, aggravated by almost uninterrupted 
 misrule and oppression, the Empire, when It 
 lin'id' up. left lilm. The prospecta of such a 
 p'>ple. iirniil the cimiing storms, were dark. 
 Evervihiiii;, tlieir gifts and versatility, as well 
 as lliiir fiiulta, tlireatene<l nation?' lecav and 
 •IisiuieLTition. . , . These races v ♦he Em- 
 
 pire of tlie Ca-siirs left like scatttrtv. !ieep to 
 the merey of the barbarians, lived through a 
 lucccsslou of the most appiiuiug storms, and 
 
 CHRISTLANnr. 
 
 kept themselves together, holding fast, resolute 
 and unwavering, amid all their miseries and all 
 their debasement, to the faith of tlieir national 
 brotherhood. . . . This, It seems to me, Chris- 
 tianity did for a race which had apparently lived 
 ito time, and had no future before ft— the'Greek 
 nice in the days of the Ciesare. It created In 
 them. In a new and characteristic degree 
 national endurance, national fellowship and 
 Vmpathy, national hope. ... It gave them an 
 E.mplre of their own, which, undervalued as It Is 
 by those familiar with the ultimate results of 
 Western history, yet wIthsUxid the assaults be- 
 fore which, for the moment. Western civilisa- 
 tlon sank, and which had the strength to last a 
 life— a stirring and eventful life— of ten cen- 
 turies. The Greek Empire, with all iU evils 
 and weaknesses, was yet In ito time the only 
 existing Image In the world of a civilised state. 
 . . . The lives of great men profoundly and per- 
 manently influence national character; and the 
 freat men of later Greek memory are sainto. 
 hey belong to the people more than emperors 
 and warriore: for the Chureh is of the people. 
 . . . The mark which such men left on Greek 
 society and Greek character has not been effaced 
 to this day, even by the melancholy examples of 
 many degenerate successors. . . . Wliy, if 
 Christianity affected Greek character so i o- 
 foundly, did It not do more? Why, If It cured 
 It of much of its Instability and trifling, did it 
 aot also cure It of its falsehood and disslnnila- 
 ti(m? AVhy, If It impressed the Greek mind so 
 deeply with the reality of the objecu of faith, 
 dill it not also check the vain inqutsitiveness and 
 spirit of disputatiousness and sophistry, which 
 filled Qreek Church history with furious wrang- 
 lings about the most ho|)eless problems? Why, 
 If It could raise such admiration for unselfish- 
 ness and heroic nobleness, has not this admiration 
 borne more congenial fruit? Why, if heaven 
 was felt to be so great and so near, was there in 
 real life such coarse and mean worldliiiess? 
 Why, Indeed? . . . Profoundly, permanently, 
 as Christianity aflfected Oreek character, thero 
 was much in that character which Cliristlunity 
 failed to reach, much that it failed to correct, 
 much that was obstinately refractory to Influ- 
 ences which, elsewhere, were so fruitful of g(M)d- 
 ness and greatness. The East, as well as the 
 West, has still much to learn fn)m that reli!,'ion, 
 which each t<H> exclusively claims to mider- 
 stanil, to appreciate, and to defend."— R. W 
 Church, The Giff of Ciriiimtion. pp. lSM-316. 
 —" The types of character that were deveIo|M'd 
 In the Eastern Church, as might be expected, 
 were not of the very higliest. There was among 
 them no St. Francis, no St. Louis. The uni- 
 formity which pervadi'S everything Byzantine 
 prevented the developmcut of such salient 
 characters as are found in the West. It is diffi- 
 cult, no doubt, to form a tnie estimate of the 
 Influence of religion on men's lives In Eastern 
 countries, just as it is of t: ■•ir domestic relations, 
 and even of the condition of tlie lower cliis.ses, 
 Ixrause such matters are steadily Ignored l>v tlio 
 contemporary historians. But all the evi.lence 
 tends to show that inilividiial rallier than heroic 
 piety w!is f.icteri"! tiy thp system wlii..!i |. re- 
 vailed there. That at certain peri<Kls a high 
 tone of spirituality prevailed among certain 
 classes Is sufficiently proviil by the beautiful 
 hymns uf the Eastern Church, many of which, 
 
 469 
 
CHHIBTIANITY. 
 
 WtOntailieai 
 
 i'A 
 
 m 
 
 thank* to Dr. Netle's singular fclldty In tran«- 
 htinn, are In uae among ourselves. But the 
 loftier development of their spirit took the form 
 of rwceticism, and the scene of this was mthvr 
 the secluded monastery, or the pillfr of the 
 Styliie, tlian human society at large. But If the 
 £asU-m Church did not rise as high as her sister 
 of tlie West, she never sank as low."— H. F. 
 Tozer, The Churth and the Outern Empire, pp. 
 «-48.— "The Greek Church, or, as it cafis 
 Itself, the Holy Orthodox, Catholic, Apostolic, 
 Oriental Church, has a venerable if not an event- 
 ful history. Unlike the Church of the West, it 
 has not l)een moulded by great political move- 
 ments, the rise and fall of kingdoms, and the 
 nvulsions which have passed over the face of 
 •uixlern soc-lety. lu course ha* been out of the 
 •ight of European civilisation. It has grown up 
 among peoples who have been but slightly 
 affected, if they have been affected at all, by the 
 pmirri'ssive movements of mankind. It has no 
 midtile ages. It has no renaissance. It has no 
 Reformation. It has given birth to no great 
 universities and schools of learning. It has no 
 Protestantism. It remains very much as the 
 fourth and fifth centuries left it. . . . When the 
 royal throne in the days of the first Christian 
 Emperor was removed from Rome to Constanti- 
 nople, there arose at once a cause of strife 
 l)etwccn the bishops ol old i>nd new Rome, as 
 Byzantium or ConHtantinople was name<l. Eaoh 
 r'aimed pre-eminence, and each alternately re- 
 ct.vcd it from tlie governing powers in Church 
 and Slate. One Council decreed ,A. D. 381) tlmt 
 the Bishop of the new Rome should be inferior 
 only to tliat of the old ; another declare<l (A. D. 
 451) the equality of both prelates. The Patri- 
 arch of Constantinople at tlie close of the sixth 
 century claimed superiority over all Christlim 
 Churches,— a claim which m'ight have developed, 
 had circumstances favoured it, into an Eastern 
 Papacy. The assumption was, however, but 
 sbort-lived, and the Bishop of Rome, Boniface, 
 obtained from the Emperor Phocas in 806 tlie 
 mucli-covefe<l position. The Eastern Church 
 submitted, but from this time looked with a jeal- 
 ous eye on her Western sister. She noted and 
 mafcniaeil every point of divergence between 
 them. Differences or apparent differences in 
 dix-trinc and ritual were denounced as heresies. 
 Excommunitmtions fulminated between the East- 
 em and WesU'rn city, and ecclesiastical bitter- 
 ness was intcnsifieii by political Intrigue. . . 
 In the ninth century the contest grew very 
 fiene. The holder of the Eastern see, Photius 
 formnlatol and denounce<I the terrible doctrinal 
 and iitlier defectiims of the Western prelate and 
 his followers. The list is very formidable. 
 Tliey, the followers of Rome, deemed It proi>er 
 to fast on the seventh day of the week — tlmt is 
 on I he Jewish Sabbath: in the first week of 
 U-nt I hey p<-rmltt«l Uic use of milk and cheese; 
 they (iLsapproved wholly of tlie marriage of 
 priests; they thought none but bishops could 
 anoint witli the Imly oil or confirm the bap- 
 tized, and that they therefore anointe<{ a second 
 time those who liail bc-va anointed by presbv- 
 ters; and fifthly, they had adulterated the Coil- 
 Btantinopolltan Cree«i by adding to it the wonls 
 Flli<"l'ie. thus leaching th.it the Hnlv Spirit did 
 not pn«ee<l only from the Father, but also from 
 Hie Son. This last was deemed, and has always 
 been acemed by the Greek Citureb the great 
 
 CH1U8TIAN1TT. 
 
 heresy of the Roman Church. . . . Thcflrwk 
 Church to-dav in all Its branches— In Turkey 
 Greece, wd Russia- professes to hold flmily C 
 the formula* and decisions of the seven lEcu 
 menical or General Councils, ivganline with 
 •peciai honour that of Nice. The Nlcene and 
 Atlianasian Creeds are the symbols of its fiutii 
 the Filioque clause being omitted from the 
 former, and the eighth article readlnif thus- 
 And in the Iloly Ghost, the Lord and Giver of 
 life, who proceedeth from the Father, and with 
 the Father and Son together is wotshipn«l 
 ajnd glorified.' ... The Greek Church, unlike 
 the Latin, denounces the use of images as objecU 
 of devotion, and holds in abhorri'nce every form 
 of what It terms 'image worship.' Its position 
 In this manr- r is very curious. It Is true no 
 figures of our Lord, of the Virgin, or saints such 
 as one sees hi churches, wayside chapels, imi |n 
 the open fields in countries where the Koman 
 Church Is powerful, are to be seen in Russis 
 Greece, or any of those lands where the Eastcni 
 Church Is supreme. On the other hand, piotuiw 
 of the pbinest kind everywhere take their place 
 and are regarded with the dei-pest veneration.'' 
 —J. C. liccs, T/ie Greek Church (in the Chircha 
 of ChrieUndom). leet. 4.— See, also, Fii.iooci 
 Controversy. 
 
 A. D. 33^47«.— The tall of Imperial Rone. 
 —The ri*e of Ecdesiuticml Rome. -The ixill. 
 Ileal and religious hIsUiry of the Empire from 
 the death of Constantinc is so fully narrated 
 under Rome that mere mention here of a few 
 events will suffice, viz. : the revival of PiipinUra 
 under the Emperor Julian ; the n-iisci'mli -yof 
 Christianity; the formal estalilishmeut of (bris- 
 tianily as the religion of the Romans, by tlie suf- 
 frages of the senate; the final divisiimof the Em- 
 pire into East and West between the .scins of 
 Theodosius; the three sieges ami the sucking o( 
 Rome by Alaric; the legal sipuniliim of thp 
 Eastern and Western Empires: the pillage of 
 Rome by the Vandals and its final subtnLssidn to 
 the barbarians. See Rome: A. D, 3;i7-3fil, to 
 445-4T6. For an account of the earlv bishops 
 of Rome, see Papacy. " A heathen' historian 
 traces the origin of the calamities wliicli he re- 
 cords to the alKilition of sacriflce by TlniHl.wius, 
 and the sack of Rome to the laws against ilie an- 
 cient faith passed by Ills son. Tliis (ilije<!ion of 
 the heathens that the overthrow of lilnlairv and 
 the ascendency of Christianity were the eaiise of 
 the misfortunes of the emplrew iis so wiile spread. 
 and had such force with those, both I'ligans and 
 Christians, who conceiveil history to 1k' the out- 
 come of magical or demonic powers, that .Vul'us- 
 tine devoted twelve years of hLs life to its ntuta 
 Hon. His treatise. ' De Civitate Dei,' was Ingun 
 in 413, and was not finished till 4-'«, within four 
 years of his death. Rome had once iK'iri taken; 
 society, consumed by inward corrupticm, w.ia 
 shaken to its foundations by the violent e;iset of 
 the Teutonic tribes; mens li'arts were failing 
 them for fear; the voice of calumny eridl aloud, 
 and lahl these woes to the charge of the C hris- 
 tian faith. Augustine umiertook to n fute the 
 calumny, and to restore tlie counige of liis fel- 
 h>w Christians. Taking a rapid siirvev nf his- 
 tory, he asks what the gixls had ever (Imie for 
 the Well Ix-ingof the stale or for puhli.- n;..r,iii;v. 
 He maintains that the greatness of Koine in the 
 past was line to the virtues of her sons, unci not 
 to the protection of the gods. He shows that. 
 
 470 
 
CHBISTIAinTT. 
 
 WaltmEmptr* 
 ttndCkMrek. 
 
 CHWSTIAinTY. 
 
 long before the rise of Chrtstlanltr, her ruin had 
 befun with the Introcluction of foreign vices 
 ifter the destruction of Carthage, and declares 
 that much In the ancient worship, iatteauot pre- 
 Tenting, had hastened that ruin. He rises above 
 the troubles of the present, and amid the vanish- 
 ing glories of the city of men he proclaims the 
 itS)fiity of the dty of God. At a time when 
 tlie downfall of Rome wan thought to presage 
 «ppn>achlng doom, Augustine regarded the dts- 
 a»ter» around him as the birth-throes of a new 
 world, as a necessary moment In the onward 
 movement of Christianity."— W. Stewart, The 
 Ckureh of the ith and Sth Genluriei (St. Gila' 
 leettirft, 4<A teria).—" There Is as little ground 
 for discovering a miraculous, as there Is for dis- 
 owning a providential element In the course of 
 erents. The Institutions of Roman authority 
 and law had been planted regularly over all the 
 territory which the conquering hordes coveted 
 and seized; alongside of every magistrate was 
 DOW placed a minister of Christ, and by every 
 Hall of Justice stood a House of Prayer. The 
 Repnwntative of Ciesar lost all his power and 
 dignitv when the armies of Ctesar were scattered 
 Inflight; the minister of Christ felt that behind 
 him was an invisible force with which the hosts 
 of the alien could not cope, and his behaviour im- 
 piesseil the barbarian with the conviction that 
 there was realltr here. That beneficent mission 
 of Leo, A. D. 452, of which Gibbon says: 'The 
 pressing eloquence of Leo, his majestic aspect 
 and sarenlotal robes, excited the veneration of 
 Attila for the spiritual father of the Christians ' 
 —would Ik.' but an instance of what many name- 
 leas priests from provincial towns did, ' not count- 
 ijng their lives dear to tliem,' The organisation 
 of llic Latin state vitalised by a new spiritual 
 'toroe vaniiuislied the victors. It was the method 
 «D(I the nisicipline of this organisation, not the 
 subtlety of its doctrine, nor the fervour of Its 
 officials, that l)eat in detail one chief with his 
 motley following after another. Hence too it 
 came about that the Christianity which was 
 adopted as the religion of Europe was not modi- 
 fie<t to suit the tastes of the various tribes that 
 cmljraced it, but was delivered to each as from 
 a common fountain-head. ... It was a social 
 triumph, proceeding from religious motives which 
 we niav regard with unstinted admiration and 
 gratitude."— J. Watt, The Latin Church (St. 
 OiUt' Lerluru. 4th tenet. — "The temporal fall 
 iif the Imperial metropolis tended to throw a 
 brighter light upon hor ecclesiaslicnl claims. The 
 separation of the East and the West had already 
 enhuneed tlic religious dignity of the ancient 
 capital. The great Eastern pntriarchates of An- 
 tiixh, .Mexandria, and Jerusalem had up to that 
 time all held tliemselves equal, if not superior to 
 lioine. ( imst.'intinople had even assumed certain 
 airs of supri'inacy over all. The General Coun- 
 cils nliieli hiul defined the Faith at MIctea and 
 Constantinople had been composed almo°t wholly 
 of Orientals. The great Doctors of th 'lurch, 
 the men who had defended or diffused tne com- 
 mon Faith, had been mostly Greeks by origin 
 and language. None had been Romans, anu It 
 was ranlv, till the fourth century, that any of 
 them ha<l written in the Latin tougue. When 
 Athauanius, exiled from Alexandria, came to 
 Italy and Gaul, it was three years before he 
 rould learn enough of the language of the West 
 lo address Its congregatioot in puDllc, But this 
 
 curious fact shows that the Western Chrlstiant 
 were now no longer the little Greek colony of the 
 first and second centuries. Christianity had be- 
 come the national religion of the native races. 
 The Romans might now feel that 'ncy were be- 
 coming again a people ; that th"lr 'glorious career 
 was assuming, as it were, a new point of depart- 
 ure. . . . For at this moment the popular In- 
 stinct could not fail to perceive how strongly the 
 conscience of the barbarians had been affected by 
 the spiritual majesty of Christian Rome. The 
 Northern hordes had beaten down all armed re- 
 sistance. They had made a deep impression up(/n 
 the strength of the Eastern Empire; they had, 
 for a moment at least, actually overcome the 
 Western ; they had overrun many of the fairest 
 provinces, and had effected a permanent lodge- 
 ment In Gaul and Spain, aud still more recently 
 in Africa. Yet in all these countries, rude as 
 they still were, they had submitted to accept the 
 creed of the Gospel. There was no such thing 
 as a bartwrlan Paganism established within the 
 limits of the Empire anywhere, except perhapa 
 in furthest Britain." — C. Merivale, Four ieeturet 
 on tome Epoeht of Barly Church Uittory, ;)p. 130- 
 186. — " When the surging tides of barbarian In- 
 vasion swept over Europe, the Christian organi- 
 zation was almost the only institution of the past 
 which survived the flood. It remained as a visi- 
 ble monument of what had been, and, by so re- 
 maining, was of itself an antithesis to the present. 
 The chief town of the Roman province, whatever 
 its status under barbarian rule, was still the 
 bishop's see. The limits of the old ' province,' 
 though the boundary of a new kingdom might 
 bisect them, were still the limits of his diocese. 
 The bishop's tribunal was the only tribunal In 
 which the laws of the Empire coul'd be pleaded 
 in their Integrity. The bishop's dress was the 
 ancient robe of a Roman magistrate. The an- 
 cient Roman language which was used in the 
 Church services was a standing protest against 
 the growing degeneracy of the ' vulgar tongue.' 
 ... As the forces of the Empire became less 
 and less, the forces of the Church became more and 
 more. The Churches preserved that wliich had 
 been from the first the secret of Imperial strength. 
 For underneath the Empire whicli clianged and 
 passed, beneath the shifting pageantry of Em- 
 perors who moved across the staire and were 
 seen no more, was the abiding empire of law 
 and administration, — which chanaeil only as 
 the deep sea changes beneath the windswept 
 waves. That inner empire was coutinuiil in the 
 Cliristian Churches. In tlie years of transition 
 from the ancient to the modern worI<l, when all 
 civilized society seemed to l)c disintegrated, the 
 confederation of the Christian CInirolies, by the 
 very fact of Its existence upon the old imperial 
 lines, was not only tlie most powerful, but the 
 only powerful organization in th" civilized world. 
 It was so vast, and so powerl It seemed 
 
 to be, and there were few to quea.. jn its being, 
 the visible realization of fit Kingdom of 
 God which our Lord Himse' 1 preached." — 
 E. Hatch, Tlu Organitatii .he Chrittian 
 
 Churchet, pp. 160-178. 
 
 A. D. 347-412.— The Syrian Churchei.— 
 " St. Chr}-sost4)m was bom there A. D. 847 ; and 
 it was in his time that AutiocU, with its hundred 
 thousand Christians, became the leading Church 
 In Asia, especially in the Arian controversy [see 
 AM&MMii], for Arianism was very prevalent 
 
 471 
 
CHRISTIAinTT. 
 
 Oohmwmw 
 
 CHKISTJAOTTT. 
 
 lily 
 
 Uicn>. Biit hU this lies outiUe our period. The 
 ncnllitl '8cho<>l of Antiorh' baa iu origin Just 
 Ufore ... our period [311, Wlltsch]. Doro- 
 theiiR, . . . and llio martyr Luciun mny lie rc- 
 ^nlul at) itii fdunilers. In oontnuit to the allegor- 
 ising mysticism of the School of Alcxundria. it 
 was distinguishMl liy a more solwr and critical In- 
 ttrpretntlon of Scripture. It looked to grammar 
 ■ml historj- for its princlpl"S of exegesis. But 
 we must not suppose that iliire was at Antioch 
 an educational estjthlishmeniilketheCutt-ehelical 
 SchiK)! at Alexandria, which, by s succession of 
 great teachers, kept up a tnulitlonal mode of 
 exegesis (uid instruction. It was rather ar in- 
 tellectual tenileney which, beginning with 
 Lucian and Domlheus, developed in a definite 
 direction in Antio.li and other Syrian Churches. 
 . . . These notiiTs of the Churchcsof Jerusalem, 
 Cwaarea in Palestine, and Antioch must suffice 
 as representative of the Syrian Churches. The 
 numlier of these Churches wa* considerable even 
 In the second century, and by the beginning of 
 the fourth was very large indeed, as Is seen by 
 the nunilter of bishops who attend local Coun- 
 cils."— A. Plummer, 17ie Chunk of the Early 
 Fathert, eh. 3.—" It has often a. nished me that 
 no one has ever translated letters of St. 
 
 Jerome. The letters of St. Au inc have been 
 translated, and are In many ^.^.ts very enter- 
 taining rending, but they are nothing in point of 
 living interest when compared with St. Jerome's. 
 These letters illustrate liic about the year 400 as 
 nothing else can. Tliey show us, for instance, 
 what edueation then was, what clerical life con- 
 sisted in ; they till us of modes and fashions, and 
 they tench us how vigorous and constnat was 
 the eoinmunication at that same period between 
 the must distant parts of the Koman empire. 
 AVe are apt totliinkof the fifth century as u time 
 when lliere was vry little travel, and when most 
 certainly the Knsi and West — Ireland, England. 
 Gaul and Palestine — were much more wiiiely 
 and completely separated than now, when steam 
 has praelieallv nnnihilate.1 time and space. And 
 yet such an iilea is very mistaken. There was a 
 most lively intercourse existing between these 
 regions, a constant Church correspondence kept 
 up iH'twei n ilu in, and the inr t intense and vivid 
 iulerest luaiiilained by ihc Gallic afcd Sviiau 
 cliurehes in the minutest detjiils of tlieir re- 
 spective histories. Mark now how this hap|>encd. 
 St. Jerome at Bethlehem was the centre of this 
 intercourse. His position in the Christian world 
 in the beginning of the fifth century can only be 
 compared to, but ^ 's not at all equalletl by, that 
 of John Calvin at ihe time of the Reformation. 
 Men from the most distant parts consulted him. 
 Bishops of highest renown for sanctity and 
 leaniing, like St. Augustine, and Exuperius of 
 Toulouse in sowtliem France, deferred to his 
 authorily. The keen inU-rcst he took in tlie 
 churches of Gnu!, and the intimate knowle<igc 
 he possessed of the most petty local details and 
 nlijiious gossip therein, can only be understood 
 by one who has sliidieil his very" abusive treatise 
 against Vi'.'iliintius or liis correspondence witli 
 Exuperius. . . . But how, it may be asked, was 
 this corr(s[>on<ience carried on when there was 
 no postal system? Here it was that the or- 
 ganizatiim <;f mimaptlrlsm suppiit-U a want. 
 Jerome's letters tell us the very name of bis 
 
 Ewtman. He was a monk named Sysinnius. 
 e was perpetually on the iDsd between liar- 
 
 seillet and Bethlehem. Again and again don 
 Jerome mention bis coming and his going Jli» 
 sppearwice must indeed have been the ktvu ti 
 citement of life at Bethlehem. Trneliin. 
 probably tI» Sardinia, Koine. Greece, mul ih' 
 islands of the Adriatic, he gatbereti up all liinda 
 of clerical news on the way — a piece of cdnduct 
 on his part which seems to have had iis u,u,i 
 results. As a tale-bearer, he not only revi-uled 
 sccreU, but also separated chief friends, uiirl this 
 monk Sysinnius with his gossips seems t.) have 
 lieen the original cause of the celebrated ijuantl 
 iwlween Augustine tad Jerome."— (i. T. Stokes, 
 Ireland and tht Celtic Church, pp. 170-17i 
 
 A. D. 496-800.— The Prankish Churdi to 
 the Empire of Charlemagne.-" The liaptism 
 of Chl(Miovech [Clovis— see Fuanks: A. I) 481- 
 811] was followed by the wlmlesale eonvirelon 
 of the Franks. No compulsion was used to 
 bring the heathen Into the Church. As a lautlien 
 Chlodovech bad treatwl the Church with for 
 bearancc; he was equally tolerant to hiiiiluniam 
 when be was a Christian. But liis eMimple 
 worked, and thousands of noble Franks eniwiled 
 to the water of regeneration. Gregory of Tours 
 reckons the Franks as Christians after tlu' bap- 
 tism of their king, which took place at Christmas, 
 A. D. 496. His conversion made no alteration 
 In the policy and conduct of Chlodovech; he 
 remained the same mixture of cunnini; and 
 audacity, of cruelty and sensuality, thai he was 
 before. . . . But, though his baptism wa-s to Urn 
 of no moral import, its conse.juences were wide 
 spreading. When Gregory of Tours eoinpares 
 the conversion of Chlodovech with that of Con- 
 stentine the Great, be was fully in the rijtht. 
 . . . And the baptism of CliMovtch dediiml to 
 the world that the new blood In-ing poured into 
 the veins of the old and expiring eivilizatioD, 
 had U'en quickened by the same elements, and 
 would unite with the old in the new development. 
 . . . That many of those wlio were liaptind car- 
 ried with them into their new Chris'ianitv their 
 old heathen superstltionsas well as their Ijarliarism 
 is certain; and the times were not those in which 
 the growth of the gnat Christian gnins was 
 encouraged; the germs, however, of a new life 
 were laid."— 8. Baring-Oould, 1/ie C/mn-h i« 
 German!/, 'A- 3.— "The details of the lii,«t»ryof 
 the Merovingian pericnl of Fraiikisli hislorv are 
 extraordinarily complicated; happily, it is not at 
 all necessary for our purixisc to follnn thim. 
 . . . In the earlier years after the euni|ui>l, all 
 ranks of the clergy were tilled by Gallo Knniaui 
 The Franks were the dominant nu-r. ami uire 
 Christian, but they were new cmiverts from a 
 rude heathenism, ami it would take some ^inira- 
 tions to raise up a ' native miuLstry among 
 them. Xot only the literature of the" (Western) 
 Church, but all its services, and, still ni.re, the 
 conversational intercourse of all eivili/.d and 
 Christian people, was In Latin, id siiiis. (lie 
 Franks were warriora, a eimqiieriiur (.lsIo. a 
 separate nation ; anil to lay down ilie ii'ili axe 
 and speer, <\nd enter Into the pc iieefiil r;ink» uf 
 the «. r; ■o-Oallic Church, would have sinned 
 t.) tie" ..Ue chaneiug their natiimaliii fc.rthat 
 1 f till nore highTy eulturtil, perhaps, Imt, in 
 their ijye.-", S'lbject race. The Frank kiiiirs did 
 n: . iun. 'Jjc value of cduc-ation. Cin-.is issaiJ 
 to have established a Palatine school, anil 1 ncour 
 aged his young men to qualify theusilvea for 
 the positions which bis conquests bud uiieuuiout 
 
 472 
 
CHRISTIANITT. 
 
 JCMoMto 
 ttfOOTmOM. 
 
 CHRISTIAOTTT. 
 
 to them. Bli grandioiu, we hATe aeen, prided 
 thcmsolvesonthetrLatinculturc. After a while, 
 Franks aspired to the magnltleent posltloni which 
 the frrcst sees of the Church offered to their 
 ambition; and we find men with Teutonic names, 
 and no doubt of Teutonic race, among the 
 bishops. . . . For a still longer period, few 
 FrankH entered Into the lower ranks of the 
 Church. Not only did the prU. ,thood offer little 
 temptation to them, but also tho policy of the 
 kinffs and nobles opposed the diminution of their 
 mllitarv strength, by refusing leave to their 
 Frank.^' to enter Into holy orders or Into the mon- 
 asterios. The cultured families of the cities 
 would afford an ample supply of men for the 
 clergy, and promising youths of a lower class 
 Kcm already not infrc(|uently to have been edu- 
 cated for the service of the Church. It was only 
 In the later period, when some approach had 
 been made to a fusion of the races, tnat we find 
 Franks entering Into the lower ranks of the 
 Church, and simultaneously we find Oallo- 
 Romans in the ranks of the armies. . . . Monks 
 wieldal a powerful spiritual influence. But the 
 name of not a single priest appears in the bUtory 
 of the times as exercising anv influence or 
 authoritr. . . . Under the gradual secularization 
 of the Church In the Merovingian period, the 
 monasteries had the greatest share In keeping 
 sllve a remnant of vital religion among the 
 people; and In the gradual decay of learning and 
 art, the monastic institution was the ark in which 
 tlie aniiont civilization surviv. I the deluge of 
 barlurism, and emerged at lengtn to spread Itself 
 over tlic modem world." — E. L. Cutts, Charle- 
 maijuf. rh. .5 and 7. — "Two Anglo-Saxon monks, 
 St.'Wilfind, bishop of York, and St. WiUibrord 
 uiidcrt(H)k the conversion of the savage flsher- 
 mi'D of Priesland and Holland at the end of the 
 seventh and beginning of the eighth century; 
 they were followed by another Englishman, the 
 most renowned of all these mis.sionnrics. Win- 
 frith, whose name was changed to Boniface, 
 perliaps liy the Pope, In recognition of his active 
 and Innetloent apostlcship. When Gregory II. 
 appointed liim bishop of Germany (723), lie went 
 throu):h Kavaria and established" there the dio- 
 ceses of Frialngen, Passau, and Katisbon. When 
 Pope Zacliarias bestowed the rank of metro- 
 politan upon the Church of Mainz in 748, he 
 entrusted its direction to St. Boniface, who from 
 that time was primate, as it were, of all Ger- 
 many, under the authority of the Holy See. St. 
 Bonifiiec was assassinated by the Pagans of Fries- 
 land in T.'i.',."— V. Duruy, IIM. of the MiMh 
 ilj«, Ilk. 3, eh. 8. — "Boniface, whose original 
 name was Winfrld, was of a noble Devonshire 
 family (.V. 1). 680), educat«>d at the monastery of 
 Sutcelle, in Hampshire, and at the age of thirty, 
 five years had obtained a high reputation for 
 leamini; and ability, when (in A. D. 716), seized 
 witli the prevalent missionary enthusiasm, he 
 alianiiimiKl his prospects at home, and set out 
 witli two companions to labour among the Fris- 
 ians. . . Winfriil was refusi-d permission by 
 the Duke to preach in his dominions, and he 
 returneil homo to England. In the following 
 spiim; lie went to Rome, where he remained for 
 some niciiitha, and then, with a general au'liori- 
 zaiinn troni the pope to preach the gospel in 
 Central Europe, lie crossed the Alps, passed 
 thruuv'h Bavaria into Thuringia, where he began 
 his work. While here the death of Radbod, 
 
 A. D. 710, and the conquest of Frisia by Cliarlet 
 Martcl, opened up new prospects for the evan- 
 gelization of that country, and Boniface went 
 titither and l"boured for three years ain(mg tiia 
 missionaries, under Willibronl of Utrecht. Then, 
 following In the track of the victorious forces of 
 Charles Martel, he plungetl Into the wilds of 
 Hessia, converted two of Its chiefs whose example 
 was followed by multitudes of the Hessians and 
 Saxons, and a monastery arose at Amiineburg as 
 the head-quarters of the mission. The Bishop 
 of Rome being Informed of this success, sum- 
 moned Boniface to Rome, A. D. 723, and conse- 
 crated him a regionary bishop, with a general 
 Jurisdiction over all whom he shoulil win from 
 paganism Into the Christian f(dd, requiring from 
 him at the same time the oath which was usually 
 required of bishops within the patriurebatc of 
 Rome, of obedience to the see. . . . B</nifaco 
 was not only a zealous missionary, an earnest 
 preacher, a learned scholar, but he was u states- 
 man and an able administrator. He not only 
 spread the Gospel among the heathen, but he 
 organized the Church among the newlv converted 
 nations of Germany: he regulated tlie disorder 
 which existed in the Frankish Church, and estab- 
 lished the relations between Church and State on 
 a settled basis. The meditevai analysts tell us 
 that Boniface crowned Pepin king, and modem 
 writers have usually reproduced the statement. 
 ' Itettberg, and the able writer of the biography 
 of Boniface in Hcrzog (Real Ecy k, s. v. ). argue 
 satisfactorily from Boniface's letters tliat he took 
 no part in Pepin's coronation.' When Biuilfaco 
 withdrew from the active super\ision of tiie 
 Frankish Churches, It is probable tliut bis place 
 was to some extent supplied in the councils of 
 the mayor and In the synods of the ('!;ur;li by 
 Chrodegang, Bishop of Met/., a ■ >. vhosc 
 character and influence In th' the 
 
 Frank C;hureh have hardly bit' .^ .. r^e- 
 
 ciated."— E. L. Cutts, CharU. •;. '? — 
 
 "Both Karlmann and Pippin ' ^^> r; u 
 certain abuses that had crept i ■ > ?!. v. 
 
 Two councils, convoked by KarLuo • ■" 
 
 Germany (742), the other in the f .t-. 
 
 at Lcstines (near Charleroi, in Belgiuii , ■• .p 
 decrees which abolished superstitious rites and 
 certain Pagan ceremonies, still remaiiiing in 
 force; they also authorized grants of Cliurch 
 lands by the ' Prince ' for military purposes on 
 condition of a payment of an annual nut to the 
 Church; they reformed the ecclesiastiral life, 
 forbade the ricsts to hunt or to rule ilirougli the 
 woods w dogs, falcons, or sparrowliawks; 
 a .1, li 1 ■'ade all priests sulKiniinate totlieir 
 ulo"'(in, .11 ' >,is, to whom t"' y were oliliiiinl to 
 givi 1 CO ;ji i-i.ch year of their faith and their 
 minlsl;y - - .i.- f wl'dch were neressary i>n)visions 
 for the organization of tlieecilcsiastleal liierarehy 
 and for the regulation of church Knverninent. 
 Similar mi i ivcs were tiiken liy tlie Council of 
 Soissons, couv'iked by Pippin in 744. In 7' 
 Karlniaim renoaneed the world nmi retired to 
 the cciebroted Italian monasteiy of .Mcmte las- 
 sino. As he left he entruMiil his iliildnn to 
 tho care of tlieir uncle. Pippin, wlio rolil)ed 
 tlieni of tlieir inlieritimce and ruled alone over 
 the whole Krankisli Empire. . . . (^Imrleiiiairiio 
 enlarged and coinpleleii Hit work wliiili liad 
 only iM-en tHgun by Charles Martel and Pippin. 
 . . . The jliildle Ages acknowliniged two 
 Masters, the Pope and the Emperor, and these 
 
 478 
 
I s' 
 
 il 
 
 I .l>t: 
 
 CimiSTIANITT. 
 
 CharUmuMffms 
 and tin Chunk. 
 
 CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 two powprs cnme, the one from Rome, and the 
 other from AiistnuiiHn Fmnee. . . . The mayors 
 of Austrasift, Pippin of Heristal, and Charles 
 Martcl, rclmilt thv Prankish monarchy and pre- 
 pansi the way for the empire of Cliarlemagne ; 
 . . till' lion'mn pontiffs . . . gstlier'-l around 
 them all the churches of the West, aud placed 
 themwlvcs at the head of the great Catholic 
 society, over which one day Gregory VII. and 
 InniM cnt III. should claim to have sole dominion. " 
 —V. Duruy. ///«<. ./ rAo Miitrile Aga. pp. 119- 
 123, los — Sci> Mayoi. iiftiirPaIxAck; Franks: 
 A. I). 7IW-NI4; an' I .M i : *. D. 7M-774, and 
 774. — The iiir. I'iiiri oi •. !'ai'Ic!i '."Tic at Rome 
 by Pope Leo i' (^■e RuM^> K?. i m, A. D. 
 800) pave the ' isicii Cliiinh the v.ce in the 
 state it liad he ' in." r the earlSi r I.i man emper- 
 ors. The chai 'ii t f a<i ^.Tcai, a ; an, the very 
 books he rtwl a .• i I : >iat fi ■( the ' igorous ideal 
 element in so p.n.Hiui u i. iHt are worthy of 
 Interi'Bt ; for this at least he souglii to accomplisli 
 
 — to pivconicr to a tumultuous and barharian 
 worlil, aud to cstahlisli learning, aud purify the 
 church: "While at table, he liked to hear a 
 recital or a reading, and it was histories and the 
 gn'at di'cils of past times which were usually 
 read to him. lie umk great pleasure, also, in the 
 works of St. Au>;ustlne, aud especially in that 
 whose title is •!)<■ Civitate Dei. . . . lie prar- 
 tice<l the Christian religion in all its purity and 
 with cfiat fervour, whoso principl<-s had iieen 
 taught him from his infancy. . . . He iiillg<>nlly 
 stt4'ndi'<l . . . church in the evening and mom- 
 ing, ami even at niirht, to asai-st at the oltlccs 
 and at llic holy Siirrili<e, as much as his health 
 jH-miiltcd lilm. lie watched with care that 
 notliini.' shiiiiM l)e done but with the greati'st 
 pnprii ty. .Mii»tanllv ordering the guanlians of 
 the cliun li iupt to allow anything lo be brought 
 then' or lilt I In ri' iiiionsistent with or unworthy 
 of the sum lily iif the place. . . . He was always 
 ready to hilp Ilic pisir, and It wim not only 'in 
 his own iiiimtiy, or within his own ilomininns 
 that 111 ili^p.ii>.d tli.w gratuitous lils'ralitii's 
 which till' (iniks call 'alms,' but U'yond the 
 seas " in .•^yriu, in Kj.'ypt. in .Ulrica, at Ji'runaliin, 
 at .Ml xaiiilria, at ( arthage, everywhere where 
 he lianii'il ilial (liristians wen* living in iMivcrty 
 
 — he piiii'il tliiir niisiry and loveii to send them 
 monev. If III' wiiiirht with so much care the 
 friendship nf fori'lgn sovereigns, it was, alsive 
 all, to priHuri' for the ChristUns living under 
 their rule In Ip and n'licf. Of all the hnly 
 plaice. 111' lia'l. alKive all, a great veneration for 
 the Cliiinh of the .\|Kistle St. Peterat Home."— 
 Kginhanl. I.i/ruf ' '/mrlfnuit/nt. — '' Thv nligioiis 
 side I if ( liarlis' rharacler is of the greatest intir- 
 est in the study of his remarkable rlMracter as a 
 whole and his n'llgiiius (xilley h'd to the most 
 Iniportaiil and diiralile results of his reign. He 
 Inhiriliil an in lisiastical policy fnim his fnllier; 
 the pnlii y of rigulatlng and stn'ngthening the 
 Inhiii'iiii' of ihi' Chiirch In his dominions as the 
 chief sifiiii nf rivHlr.allon, and a gn-at means of 
 bindiiii; ilie variniis elements of the empire Into 
 ime; till' |»iliiy "f acii'pling the liishopof Hume 
 OS till- Iii'.'kI uf Wisfini Christianity, with patri- 
 archal aiiili.'riiv nvir all iU Churches."— K. L. 
 Cutis. fh.irl.m,i,iur. eh. 88 —The following Is a 
 noteworthy passage fmm Charlemagne's Capllii- 
 larv of Tw?; "l! isMtirwlaliihatvi-.'.: mavtis- ivhst 
 It Ik limes the s.,|iiii<ra of Ihn church' t^i U",— 
 RliKious in heart, leameil lu illsvuunu, puru in 
 
 act, eloquent In speech : so that all who nppmach 
 your house In order to invoke the Divine .Master 
 or to behold the excellence of the nligioiis lifp" 
 may be edified in beholding you, and liiMructtd 
 in hearing you discourse or chant, ami may 
 return home rendering thanks to (Jisl must HiijtL 
 Fail not, as thou regardest our favour, tu scud a 
 copy of this letter to all tliy suffragans and to all 
 the monasteries: and let no monk go tsynnd his 
 monastery to administer justice or to intir the 
 assemblies and the voting-places. Adieu "-J 
 B. Mulllnger, Tht School, of CluirUj, the Ihfnt ' 
 Sth-Tth Centurie*.— The Neitorian, Mono- 
 DbyMte and Monothclite Controversies. Si; 
 
 NeSTOBIAR AMD MoMOPIIYSITE, and Mo.NOTHK- 
 LITK. 
 
 Sth-fth Ceaturici.— The Irish Church and 
 its miHiooi.— The story of the cuuvi-reloa 
 of Ireland by 8t. Patrick, and of the missiimsry 
 labors of the Church which he fouuiliil. is hriitty 
 told elsewhere— see Ireland: ftili-siii Cej,. 
 TUBUS. "The early Church worknl Iht way 
 in the literal sense of the word, 'unc|iri.'r(iiinil,'' 
 under camp and palace, under senate ami f .rum 
 But turn where we will In thes<; Cellir Miis.i,.ns] 
 we notice how different were the featiiri« li ,t 
 marked them now. In Dalarailia Si I'uihik 
 obtains the site of bis earliest chunli fi ,in tlie 
 chieftain of the country, Didiu. At Tiira, lie 
 obtains from King Laoghain- a relintani tokr- 
 ation of his ministry. In Connauglit lir .il.lr, s„.< 
 himself first to the chieftains of finiw li-v an.l in 
 Munster Imptizes Angus, the kinir. ai i ,sln-l 
 the seat of the kings.' What he ilil In \nW:\\ 
 repnsluces it«<'lf in the Celtic missiiais,,f Wiilts 
 and Scotland, and we cannot hut laki- ri"i>' if 
 the important Infiueix-e of Welsli anri I'ji-ijsli 
 chiefs. , , . ' The people nmv lint liavi- ailopli-.! 
 the actual professinn of Cliri'stianity, whi. Ii ims 
 all perhaps tliat in the llrst instanie'tlii-v aiLiiiiiil 
 from anv clear or intelligent appniiul'liin of il* 
 superiority to their fonner n'iigion. But to 
 obtain from the people even an actual pnifissicn 
 of Christianity was an important slip tn ultimiite 
 success. It secured tJileratlon tit least fur Chrii- 
 tiun institutions. It enalileil the ini».sic.iiarli'« tn 
 plant in every tribe their ihurchis, m Ii.h.Ii, »ii.| 
 monasteries, and to establish anning tin' lislf 
 pagan Inhabitanta of the country sisiiiirs ii( 
 noly men, whose devotion, usifulnrss, aii.l plity 
 soon pnslueed an effect on tlie iiinst liarhaMut 
 and savairi' heart*.' "—<) !■'. Macli-sr r...,..>-«c..i 
 of thf \Vr»l: The r-eiU.rh. 11.— "Tlie M.lii v»l 
 Church of the West found iu the sivmlli r. mury 
 an immense task XkUitk It to fiillil. . . The 
 missionaries who aildreasi'd thniisi Ivis \.> the 
 enormous task of the conversion of (i. rtmiiiv 
 mav be conveniently dlvideil Into tlm-i' >.Ti'ii|«t 
 — the British, tlio Frankish, and, i niiritiit ■mtin'- 
 what later into an honourable rl\alry »itli iln-w, 
 the Anglo Saxon. A wi.nl or Iwn uimti mi k nf 
 these groups. The British — thi-v iiiilink Irtsli 
 ami Scotch — could no Umger timf a llilil f ir the 
 exercise of their ministry in Knglaiid, ti..w tkiit 
 there the Unman rule and iliMiplliii t.. wliirh 
 they were so little disixuHsl to suliinii. Ii«'l i viry- 
 where won the day. TlM'irown nligi'iu- limiw'S 
 were full to oveillowing. At home llnn ».u 
 little for them to do, while yil that .liiiw 
 hunger and thirst for the wIhiiIhk of «mlj, 
 
 •a-llii-h !-,,^t .i,, |„^...,^,j (i,,. !,.._.: ..f « 
 
 Patrick, llvisl on in Iheim. To tlii-T "> nuiilnt, 
 pagan Uennauy offen'U a welttiitu- Ikld ul 
 
 474 
 
 I 
 
''HRISTIANITT. 
 
 7nM 
 liimionariea. 
 
 CHW8TIANITT. 
 
 labour, and one In which there was ample room 
 {or all. Then there were the FninkUh misttion- 
 aries, who enjoyed the support of the Prankish 
 kinps, which sometimes served them in good 
 sttMil ; while at other times this protection was 
 very f»r f mm a n'oommeudation in their eyes who 
 were easily persuaded to see in these missionaries 
 Ibe emissaries of a foe. Add to these the AnRlo- 
 gaxons; these last, mindful of the source fn>m 
 which they liuil received their own Christianity, 
 making it a point to attach their converts to 
 Rome, even as they were themselves bound to 
 her by the clo.«'St ties. The language which 
 these 8|>oke — a language which as yet can have 
 diverged verv little from the Low German of 
 Frisia, must bave given to them many facilities 
 which the Frankisli missionaries possessed in a 
 far slighter degree, the British not at all ; and 
 this may help to account for a success on their 
 parts far greater than attended the labours of the 
 others. To them too it was mainly due that the 
 battle of the Creeds, which hail been fought 
 and lost by the Celtic missionaries in England, 
 and was pnsently renewed in Germany, had 
 finally the same issues th^re as in England. 
 ... At the same time, there were differeucea In 
 the intensity and oltstiuacy of resistance to the 
 memage of truth, which would be offered by 
 difleiviil trilK'S. There was ground, which at 
 an earlv day hod been won for the Oospel, but 
 whicli !n the storms and confusion of the two 
 preniliiig renturies had iH-en lost again; the 
 vbiile liiii', that is, of the Danul e and Uie lihine, 
 regions fair and prosperous on<x', but In every 
 sense wMiicruesses now. In these we may note 
 a nadiiT ncceptanct* of the Message than found 
 pliiie ill lands whicli in earlier times that mes- 
 utv h^iil never reached ; as though obscure 
 n-mltiisi rm IS and tntdilions of the past, not 
 whully < xiinri, had hel|Mil to wt forwanl the 
 pn-wiit wiirk." — It C. Tremb. l^rliirtt on 
 MeiHrt.tl ri.iirrh l/inturv. Ifet. ,1. — "Fnini Irihind 
 caiue(i!illii«, Kridolln, Kilian,Trutb<'rt and Levin. 
 . . . The onlir in which these men succreiied one 
 anntlicr cniiuot always be established, from the 
 unccrliiinly nf the accounts. We know thusmuih, 
 liiatiif 111! ihosi' alKivenientiimeil, Galluswasthe 
 llrsi. fiirlii>lulKiur!tln Uelveti8iSwil/.erlaud)were 
 cmitiiiiiiil fnmi ttie preceding into tlie period of 
 Willi h »■ are now treating. On the other hand, 
 il in 1111.1 riaiii Its to Kridoiin wiietber he had not 
 eorapl.ii.i his work Infnre (iallu.s. in the sixth 
 aniur\ , fur in the opinii.n of some he closed his 
 career hi Ibe time of Chsloveus L, but, accord 
 lni( t(i (itliiTs, he is said to have lived umhT 
 Cio(iii..us II., oratanolher periml. His labours 
 tJtemliii over the knds on Ibe Mind lie. in tlij 
 Vimiicit Mmmliiins, oviT Helvetia. Ithaiiii and 
 Nlitra Silva (llie Klack Fori'sl). He built the 
 mmasi.ry of Sekklnga on the Uhlne, Tr\itbert 
 WM .1 i..nteni|MirHry and at the aamo time a 
 niunlr>iiiaii nf Dallus. His siihere of aethm la 
 •aid 1.1 have Ui'n Hrisgovia (lln'i- lu) and the 
 Bhuk l-',.n.t. Almost half a ceii y laU'r Kit- 
 tan |ir.«l timed llie gospel In t : incimla and 
 Wirtjiiiirg, with two aasislauts, Colonatus and 
 Tiitnaims. |u the latter place they converted 
 duke (i.i/lKTt, niid were put to ileath there In 
 *<*. .\ft,.r ihe alKive mentioned miaalnnaries 
 from Inland, in tlie seventh century, had built 
 firif ;:rr, anii miiCiiiU iki ill the aoulheru Ger- 
 nwnv. th, iniHsionariet from Briula ix'twired 
 with a Kiiiiiki purpoi«, to tbc uurtlMtni cuuatrl^ 
 
 . . . Men from other nations, as Willericus, 
 bisliop of Bremn, preached in Tninsalbingia at 
 tlie beginning of the ninth century. Almost all 
 the missionaries from the kingdom of the Fmnks 
 selected southern Gennany as their sphere of 
 action: Eminenin, alxiut 649, Ratislioiia, Kud- 
 bert, about 696, Bajoaria (Bavaria), Corbinlan the 
 country around Frisinga, OtUrt the Brcisgau 
 and Black Forest, and Pirmiuius the Brcisgau, 
 Bajoaria, Fronconia, Helvetia, and Aisalis." — ' 
 J. E. T. Wiltscli, Ilatuibuok of the (lengmjihy and 
 Statutia of the Church, r. 1, pp. 30.)-3a7. 
 
 A. D. 553-800.— The Weitem Church.— Rito 
 of the Papacy.— " Though kindly treated, the 
 Church of Itome did not make any progress 
 under the Ostrogoths. But when their power 
 had been broken l553), and Itime had tieen placed 
 again under the authority of the Eni|Mror of 
 Constantinople [see I{ome: A. I). .5*>-.>.53]. the 
 very remoteness of her new master insured to 
 the Church a more prosperous future. The in- 
 vasion of the Lombanla drove a great miiny 
 refugees into her territory, and the Koman popu- 
 lation showed a slight return of its old eneriry in 
 its double hatred towani them, as Iwrbarians and 
 as Arians. ... It was at this favorable point in 
 the state of affairs, though critical in some re- 
 sjiects, that Gregory the Great made his appear- 
 auri> (.•)9(>-fl04). He was a descendant of the noble 
 Aulciii family, and added to his advantages of 
 birth anil position the advantages of a well- 
 eniloweil tiody and mind. Hu was prefect of 
 Home when less than thirty years old. but 
 after holding this olHee a few inonllis he 
 abandomil the honors and cans of worlilly things 
 for Ihe retirement of the cloister. His reputation 
 did not allow him to remain in the olnuiirily iif 
 that life. Toward 579 he was wiit to Conslanti- 
 nople by Pope Pelagius II. as siirelary or pupal 
 nuncio, and he rendered di.stini.'uislii'd services 
 to the Holy See In Its n^Ialioiis with Ihe Empire 
 and in iu struggles against the Loinbanls. In 
 .'>9(» the clergy, the s«'nate. and the people raised 
 him will) one accord to the sovereign nonlilirate, 
 Ui siii-ceed Pelagius. As it was still neii'ssary 
 for every election to be iimtlrmed by the Em- 
 |«nir at Constantinople, Ort'gory wrote to him 
 lo iM'g him not to sanction Ibis one; but the 
 letter was IntiTceptiil and sinm imlers arrived 
 from Mauri™ ratifying llie elecilon. (ingory 
 hid hinuk'lf, but he was illsi-ovcn-d and liil liiuk 
 to Koine. When once Pope, lliuugli airaiiist hi* 
 will, he usiil his power to strengtii.ii Ihe papacv, 
 to propagate Christianity, anil to iiiipnive tbe 
 discipline and organization of the Cburcji. . . . 
 t*tnngllicncil thus by his own itTuriJi, he under- 
 took llie iiropagalion of Chrisiianity and orllio 
 doxy iMitli within and without Ibe linillsof tlie 
 oldlioinaii Empin'. Williin those limits tlier* 
 were still wmie who clung lo paganism, in Sicily, 
 Sanliniii, and even at the very gales of Itnnii', at 
 Terrmina, and ihiubtb'n also In Gaul, as there 
 is a ciiiislilulion of ChllilelN'rt still extJint dated 
 VV4, and eiilitliil: 'For the alsilitiim of the re- 
 mains iif iiliilalry." Then' were Arians very near 
 lo Itiiiiie — ntmiely. llie I<onil>anis; but tliMugh 
 the Intcrviiilion of Thcuilaliiida, lliiir quiin, 
 Gngory sueeiHileil in having Adelwahl. Ihe heir 
 to llie thniiie. bniiight up in the Ciilholic faith: 
 a« early as M' the Visigoths In Hpsin. under 
 lieei-nnii, were cunverteii. . . , The Itoman 
 Empire had |H'ri»]ied, ami llie barlinriHiis had 
 built u|iou Ita tulua niaoy aUgltt atruulurua uiial 
 
 475 
 
CnniSTIANITY. 
 
 sit of tU 
 Papacy, 
 
 CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 r?:*3' 
 
 were soon overthrown. Not even had the 
 Frank.s, who were destined to Iw perpetuated as 
 a uution, ns yet giioci'eclcd in fotiiiding n UDoial 
 state of any strenttlh; their luck of experience 
 led tlum from one atitnipt U) another, all equally 
 vain even the attempt of IharlcmaRne met 
 will, .1 more pt'rmuncnt success. In the midst 
 of tl.. ■•(■ siiicesMve failiins one Institution alone, 
 (Icvi lii|.injj slowly and steadily through the cen- 
 turiis, followinu out tlie spirit of ita principles, 
 continued to grow and gain in power. In extiait 
 and ill unity. . , , The I'ope had now heeome, 
 in truth, the ruler of Chrisleniloin. lie was, 
 however, still a subject of the Greek Emperor; 
 hut n rupture was iuevitjililc. as his authority, 
 on the one hand, was growing day bv day, aiid 
 
 the cmiwror's on the contrary, was declining." 
 
 V. Puruy, lli»t. ,^thf Miililh Af/in, pp. lU-ll.'S, 
 10tm09. 117. — "The real jMwer which advanced 
 the credit of the Uoniun see during tlu-so ages 
 wag the reaction against the Byzantine des|>otisin 
 over the F:a8tcm Church; and this is the expla- 
 nation of the fact that altliough the new map of 
 Euro|H' had Ix-cn marked out. In outline at least, 
 by the year .liHl, the Ibiman see clung to the 
 easuni cinni'ction until the first half of the 
 eighth century. ... In the political or diplo- 
 matic struggle iH'twein the Church and the Em- 
 perors, in which the Emperors endeavored to 
 make the C'luinh 8ul>s<rvient to the imperial 
 policy, or to adjust the siluulion to the neoes- 
 •IticH of the empire, and the Church strove to 
 retidn Its autonomy as a witness to tlie faith and 
 a Icirislator in the lilTiiirs of religion, the Bishop 
 I'f Home iKianie, so to speak, the conHlltutional 
 lii:id nf the (ipiHisilioii; and the East was willing 
 loe\!ilt his aulhorily, as a counterpoise to that 
 of llie Emperor, to any extent short of acknowl. 
 edging tli.it the priinaey imi'liiil a snpnmacy." 
 — .1.11. Efiir, ('/in>l,ii,f„m : J'>rl,in,ulif,U ami 
 J'i'litir.il, frtiiii ('niifiiinliiie In th« tlijhrnuilion, /i. 
 It».— ■The election system was only usi-d for 
 one degree of t lie ( ( eli«iii.stii al dignitaries, for the 
 bishopric. The lower dii^iiitaries wen? chosen 
 by the l)i.-l' They were ilivided into two 
 
 lategfiric -the liiflier and the lower 
 
 onhrs, T hn .■ hij:her onlers, namely, 
 
 the priesl> ons, and tlie siih-ihacona, 
 
 and liiur In rs, the aeolvtes, the disir- 
 
 kw(Hrs, th) xorcists, and the' ri-adera. The 
 latter orders wen> not ngarihil as an integral 
 pan ,1 the elirtv. as their niemliers were the 
 f«r\;.nlsot till' olhem. As reiranlsthe lerritoriHl 
 divisions, the bishop govenieil the diis.-w.whlih 
 at a much later ilule was divldeil Into parishes, 
 whos4' spiritual welfari' was lu the hands of the 
 parish priest or curate (iiirio). The parishes 
 taken together, eoiistitiilisl the diorese ; the iiiiileii 
 dio(eB.s. ir suffragan bishoprics, conatituleil the 
 ecch siaslieal proviiue, at whone head stixst the 
 nietro|>olitan or an liliishop. When a provin- 
 cial loiincil was held. It met In the melroisilU 
 and was pn -iie i! over by the metn>|Militan. 
 Alsoe tie' nil tropolitaiis «,«• llio Puiriarxhs. in 
 the Eiisl. iind the 1'rini.iles in th« West. hiHho|ia 
 who held the gri'ut lapiials or the apostolic ws's, 
 Conslaiitinople. Ah xaiidria, .\ntria'h, llonie, 
 Jerii'udeni. ( esiina in CappadiM'ia, Carthage in 
 Africa, and lleriH litis in Tiirace; among them 
 Home rankiil hiirher bv one deirree, and fmin 
 this supreme |Hisiiion exen isisl a supreme sulhor- 
 Itjr ackiiowlnlgiil bv all Die ('hur»h."— V 
 Uuru/, Ui4l. </ (A« MiiUU Aft, |y. lU9-lia— 
 
 "The divergence of the two Churches, Eastem 
 and Western, was greater In reulitv tl,an it 
 appears to be from a superlicial view. U ^-^ 
 based on essential variations in the character anj 
 disposition of the people in the East ami in the 
 West, on tlie nature of their civilization. ,.i]„i „„ 
 the dilTen'tit, almost antagonistic. iIim lopiMintuf 
 the Christian idea in one Church and in the ether. 
 . . . The Eastern Church rejoiced in iis direct 
 alHliation with apostolic times, in its mii liil pre. 
 servalion of traditions, and was con- inn .1 of jt, 
 esjiecial right to be considen'd tlie true lie ir nnil 
 successor of Christ. . . . The letter of i|„' h^ 
 superseded the spirit; rillglon stilfened im,, for. 
 maiisni; piety consistol lu strict ohserv^nee of 
 ceremonial riU's; external holiness re|,l:i(f,| ^in. 
 cere and heartfelt devotion. . . . Tliroiifihout 
 the West the tenilency was in a coniniry ilinn^. 
 tion — towards the practical appliealiou of ti,e 
 religious idea. The effete, worn out eivili/ntion 
 of the past was there renovated by coniiii t und 
 admixture with young and vigonMis nnrs. and 
 gained new strength and vitality in the siriii;(;le 
 for existence. The Church, freed from eentrul, 
 became Independent and self-iLssertimr; llie re'- 
 sponsibility cf government, the preservaiiuo ef 
 social order, ilevolved upon it. and it rose 
 proudly to the task."— A. F. Hcanl. I'L /,'i«. 
 lian l.hureh and Jium-in l)in,iil, ji/}, iHi),_ 
 "On the overthrow of the Wesi. rn Eiiipin-, and 
 the demonstraiioii, rendered nmnilVst to all, tint 
 with the complete triumph of the new world of 
 secular p<ilities a new spiritual di'velopniint, a 
 new phase of Divine guidance, was openin^r, 
 the ronscience of the UTievers was arou^iil to a 
 sense of the aiufulnesa of their innanllv iniic- 
 tivlty. 'Go ye into all nations, and inptiw 
 them,' had iH'cn the last wonis of tli. ir hlrssed 
 Master. ... It Is to this new or reviinl mis. 
 slonary spirit which disiiiiguishrd the si\;li nu- 
 tury. of which I would place I'ope (;ieL.,,rv llie 
 First, or the (Jn'at, as the ceiitml tiiriire. ili,,,t I 
 desire now to inlnstuco you. Kinjrinli, r that 
 the Emnire, whiih had rcpresenteii tlieiii,iiv(d 
 mankind, had la'conie dislntegrited and hrekia 
 Into fragmcnta. Meu wen' no |oii;:er H.niaiis, 
 but Ooths and Sucves, Bnrgundiaiis iiii.l Van- 
 dals, and beyond them lluiis, .\>.irs, Kniiilis. 
 and Eonibanls. some «lth a slli.'lii liiMiiire ef 
 Christian teaching, but most wiili nonr . . . 
 lA't but the (fONiK'l Is- pnKlaliiiid to ,.ll, «nd 
 leave the issue in GihI's hands; .Siieh wai tlie 
 eoDtrnst between the age of Eeo and tin- age nf 
 Gregory! . . , The conversion of I lov is ami tlie 
 Franks Is. I lupiHise, the earliest in-.i.inii' id a 
 Christian mission carried out on a ii iiional sealu 
 by the common action of the Chun h n pr. vnlcd 
 by the I'opf and .See of Home. It lnremi'S 
 ■i-conlingly n gnat historical event. d>s<rvin{ 
 the earnest cfinslderallon not of Clnin liim n i.nlv, 
 but of all iMililU'.denipiln'rs. "— C .M. rivali . /■;..> 
 
 Ijtttufit UH H»M K'l>"r/ll nf Kirln I'.'iffnl, lliMl , 
 
 }>p. lT'J-177.— "Chrlslliuilty tlms nnenrd in 
 anlor forproaelytisin, .iml Gnitorv i ..nininiiisl ie 
 Its suci'eaa most wiwly liy eiijotiiun: pn e, ptn et 
 nioderathin u|Hin his' mlsslonnries. and n> ilii< 
 skillful manner In which he mnde the innsiiien 
 to Cath.dlcltm easy Iji the paitans; he «i',ie to 
 Augustine: 'He cawful not lodi«lniv the piiiraa 
 temph'S; It !• only swrsjiarv to de-.ir--.- th-.- !•!■>!•. 
 then to sprinkle iIhi (slillc«> with hoU «anr. siid 
 to build altara and place relies ih. re If the 
 UHupki aiv wtili built, it U » wUi uul uwful 
 
 476 
 
CHKISTUNiry. 
 
 Convertton 
 of tht £ngluh. 
 
 CHM8TIANITY. 
 
 thing ''f t''*™ ^ P*" '""" ">* worship of 
 dfiniw-j to the wonhip of the true 0<x1; for 
 vhilr the nation sees its old places of worship 
 still staiulinK, it will be the more ready to go 
 tliiiv, bv force of habit, to worship the true 
 G()(l.' In the inteiior Gregory succeeded in 
 amint-'ing the different degrees of jHiwer in the 
 Churi'li. and in forcing the recognition of tlie 
 lupreiue power of the Holy S»'e. Wc find him 
 craniiiii: the title of Vicar of Oaul to the bishop 
 of Aries, and corresponding with Augustine, 
 inlilrishop of Canterbury, in regard to Oreat 
 Britiiiii, with the archhishop of S«'ville in reganl 
 til ^'paiii. with the archbishop of Thes.salonica in 
 regiirii t« Greece, and. finally, sending legates 
 1 liilire' to Constantinople. In Ids fastonil. 
 wliirli he wrote on the occasion of his election. 
 auil w liiili became an established precedent in 
 tlie West, he prescribed ti) the bishops their 
 sivi'ral duties, following the decisions of many 
 imincils He strengthened the hierarchy by 
 pnveiiling the encroachments of the bishops 
 upon (1111 imotlier: I liaxe given to you 'le 
 spiritiKil direction of Britain.' he wrote to le 
 amliili"iis Augustine. ' and not that of the Gauls.' 
 He rr;irningeiTthe monasteries, made discipline 
 the I'liji-i t of his vigilant care, reformed Church 
 musir iinil substituted the chant that iH'urs Ids 
 name f"r the Andirosiau chant, 'which re- 
 semlilid. accortling to a contemporary, 'the fur- 
 (it! iioi-i' of a chariot rumbling over pebbles. ' 
 Hmiii'. vii inriiHis again with the help nf (iri'gory 
 till' liri'ul. continueii to push her coni|Uesls to 
 ilivianl rmintriis aft«'r his death."— V. Duruv. 
 Il,,l .ftlif ViMlr Afff. /), lift— Sei'. aliove: 
 X l> 4W1-XII0. and Home: A. I). 51K»-«4(I 
 
 A. D. 597-800. —The Eogliih Church.— 
 'Till' ( athiilie Chun li in ttie west became prac 
 tI'Mlly s|'lil up into two great strtions. One of 
 llie«liiid its centre at Home, drew its inspiration 
 fr'in the culture and discipline of the imperial 
 ciiy. its strength from the traililions of an apoa- 
 iivlir -ei'. and exercisi'd an inlluence none the less 
 nil luKnini' often litful and resented, over her 
 biirUiriancoMqiiironiiiirougliout western Kuni|)e. 
 Till oilier, driven bark to the islands and hills of 
 InUiiil Sniilaml. and Celtic Kngland, develoi>ed 
 •iiijiil ir powers of iH'rsonal sitiiitllness and mis- 
 tii'tiiiry M-Ir Siicrifire among her uncultured and 
 un.li~ iplini il children. Kn^ni the uninii of the 
 tnoihi' I hiirch of England derived its full atid 
 nutuieil life, . . On the tttlh of Novemlier 
 L\. I>. .'ittTi he (Augustine) waaconsi'erated .KnU- 
 M'li'iKif the Knglish l)y Vergiliiis. Anlibishop 
 sml ^l,■tlopolil»n ,)f Aries and the Infant Church 
 nf Kiichiiid began to bi- " — 11. O \V«kem»n. 
 An Inlr-'iliirlion to t lie Jlinlorfi nf tlir Cluirfh of 
 Kviliwl, ell. 1. 3 —"About ilie year .WO, . . . 
 (iri'i:"ry iveupietl ihermiik of a deaiwi. ... lie 
 w»«i»rly noiiil for his zeal and piety; coming 
 iiiiii liiriie |w)«ses«|iins . he had exJM'ndeii his 
 «• iltli in the foundation of no less llian st-ven 
 111 mMieii.-t. and hail become himself the abliot 
 of St Andrew's, at Kome. Devoted as 
 
 he wii> from tlie first to nil . go.nl works, 
 his aiienlton was more jiarticularly lurnecl 
 t' ilie iiiuse of Christian missions by casually 
 Mnarkiiig a troop of young slaves eililbitiHl 
 tor sale in the lioman market. Struck with 
 the lieiutT or fresh c-.inspleiinB of the*' t'.rar.. 
 ms. he nsketl whether thry werr Christ 
 \m' or Pagans. Tlwy wer<' INgans, II wn« 
 ^'l'liP'l lluw sad, h« ticlaluMj, that inch 
 
 fair countcnaces should lie under the power of 
 demons, 'Whence came they ?' — ' From Anglia. ' 
 — 'Truly they are Angels. What is the name 
 of their country?' — "Deira." — 'Truly they are 
 subject to the wrath of God : Ira Dei. And their 
 kingY' — 'Is named .fllla.' — ' Let them learn to 
 sing Allelujah.' Britain had lately fallen under 
 the sway of the heathen Angles. Throughout 
 the eastern section of the island, the faith of 
 Christ, which had been established there from 
 early times, had Iwen. it seems, utterly extirpated. 
 The British church of Lucius and Albanus still 
 lingered, but was chiefly confined within the 
 ruder districts of Cornwall. Wales, and Cumbria, 
 The reported destruction of the people with all 
 their churches, and all their culture, begun by 
 the Picts and Scots, and carried on by ti ■ 
 Angles and their kindred Saxons, had mwle 
 profound impression upon Christendom. T:. 
 ■(Jroans of the Britons 'had terrified all man- 
 kind, and discourageii even the bmve nds- 
 sionaries of Italy and Gaul. . . , Gre.irory de- 
 termined to nuilic the sacrifice himself. He 
 prevaili'd on the Pope to sanction his enter- 
 prise ; but the people of Home, with whom he was 
 a favourite, interposed, and lie was constrained 
 reluctantly to foivgo the p<'ril and the blessing. 
 But the sight he had witnessed in the niarket- 
 |ilace still ntained its impression upon him. He 
 kept the fair-liainvl Angles evir in view; and 
 will 11. in the year .">W'i. he was himself elevated 
 to llie popislom, lie ri'solved In send a mission, 
 and lling upon ilie obscure shores of Britain the 
 full beams of the sun of Christendom, as tliey 
 then seennil to shine so eonspii'uously at Home. 
 Augustine was the preacher chosen from among 
 the inmates of iine of Gregory s monasteries, for 
 till' arduous task thus im|H)sed upon him. He 
 wiLS to lie accompanied by a select bund of 
 twelve monks, togetlier with a i . ,tain numlM'rof 
 attendants. , , . Tliere is something \ery re- 
 markable in the facility with which the "rti rce 
 idolaters, whose name had struck such terror 
 into the Christian nations far and near, yielded 
 to the persuasions of this band of peaceful 
 evangelists." — C, Merivale. Ftmr Ircturt* on p<ime 
 A'/«»-/i» .,/ /'iir/v Churrl. lltntorv. t>l' l!»-!-HW — 
 Se Eno1..\nu: a. 1) »»7-«W.'i— The Honian 
 missionaries ir England landed hi Kent and ap- 
 |H'ar to have had mon- infiueme with the petty 
 courtsof the little kingdoms tliiin with the (Hople, 
 The convitsion of the Nnrtl. of Kngland must 
 be crediU'd to the Irish monastery on the island 
 of loiia, 'At the lieginning of the sixth cen- 
 tury these Irish Christ: ns were seized with an 
 unconquerable '.mpulse to wander afar and 
 preach Christianity to the heathen In !W3 
 Columba. witli iwelvi confederate:), left Inland 
 and founded a monastery on a small Island off 
 the coast of Scotland iloiia or Ilyi. through the 
 iufiiience of which the Scots and Plitsof Britain 
 U'came convertisl to cluistianliy. twentythn-e 
 missions among the Scots and eighlii'n in the 
 omnlrv of the Picts having Ix-en established at 
 tlie death of Columba (.WT) I'lider his third 
 successor the heathen Saxons wen- convert*-!!; 
 Aedan. summoned by Oswaril of Northunibria, 
 having lalMired among them from BIM to tl.11 u 
 missionary, alilsit. and bisliop His successors. 
 Finnan aind Colman. worthilv carrie<! on his 
 work, and inlnsluctil Christianity- into other 
 Anglo-Saxon kingdoms near East Anglia, 
 Mvrcia. and Esaex."— H, ZUumer. Tht Iritk 
 
 477 
 
IIIe- 
 
 CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 TV B%dgariai% 
 Church. 
 
 CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 Stemmt in .Veditmil Cuhure, pp. 19-21.— "Two 
 buids of devoieil men had hitherto been em- 
 pIo^e<l in the conversion of England, the Komao. 
 assisted by their converts and some teachers 
 from FrancH. and the Irish, who were plainly 
 the lare^r Ixnly. Betwet-n the rwo there were 
 the i>l(l dilTcrencos as to the time of keeping 
 Easter and till' form of tlie clerical tonsure. . . . 
 Thiia, while Dswy [King of Mercia] was cele- 
 brating Easter lu^cording f(< the custom he had 
 learnt at lona. Ms ■lucen Eartleila observed it 
 a»'cording to tht rule which she had I'.-amt in 
 Kent, and was s'ill pn\cti.»ing the austerities of 
 Lent. Tlw'W dileren^es were tolerated during 
 the Epiw'opate of Aiilnu and Flnan. but when 
 Finan died and was succeeded by C'olman. the 
 controversy" was terminated bv" Dswv. after 
 much debate, with the words— ""•I viiriiold to 
 St. Pi'ter. lost, when I present mvself at the 
 gates of Heaven, he should close tliem against 
 me.'. . Colman, with all his Irish brethren, 
 and thirty Northumlirians who had joined the 
 monastery, ouittcil Lindisfame and sailed to 
 lona. " — O. I. .Miidear. dmn-rnnn of the W,»t: 
 Tht EnijlM., ;»,). 81-M.">.— The impartial historian 
 to wlioni we owe all the early history of the 
 English Church, thus records "the memory of 
 these devoted men as it remained in the niinds 
 of Englishmen long after their dep.irture. It 
 is a brief passage, one like thosi' in the greater 
 Ecclesiatical History of Eusebius, whi<h iiuist 
 stanil fur much we do not know. Ii<ferrii;g to 
 their devoteil lives ■ -" For this reasim the relig 
 lous iiabit was at that time in great veneration; 
 so tliat wheresoever any clergyman or monk 
 happened to come, he was j(vyfiilly received bv 
 all persons, as (JikI's servant ; and if tliey chanceil 
 U> meit him upon the way, they nm to him, i>nd 
 bowing, were ghid to l«."8ignMl with his hand, 
 or blessed with his mouth. Great attention was 
 also paiil to thiir e.\horta!ions; ami on Sundavs 
 they tl(Kked •airirly to the churdi. or the 
 monasteries, not to feed their bodies, but to hear 
 the word (.f (JvhI ; and if any priest hapiH ned to 
 cimii' into a village, the" inhabitants Hinked 
 together to hear from him the word of life; f,ir 
 the prii'sts and < lergynii'n went into lli, ,illag.> 
 <mno other a<count than to jireai h, baptise, visit 
 the silk. i.nd. in few wonls, to take care of 
 •ouls, andthey wen's., fri'e fn mi woriily avarice, 
 that none of tlicni n'leived lands anil piwsessions 
 for building niotnisteries, unli'ss they were cnm- 
 pelleil to do Ml liy the tein|>oral "authorities; 
 which cusloni was for some time after observed 
 in all the . hurilii-s of the Xorthuirbrians. ibit 
 enoiiizh has now la'en said on this subject." — jiif 
 1>|(. niUf Hfiien KreUtitutinil Ilinlirry „f Hnqln ml; 
 f'l '',1/ ./, .1. (Jilff. bt. U, f/i. •>« — Tlie English 
 t'liunh passed through severiil stages during 
 this piriisl A notable one was the ris«' and fall of 
 • loosi' monastic system which altnutiil men 
 and ■.mmen of the U'tter claases. but fur lack 
 of a siriil rule limught Itwdf into disreimte. 
 AnotliiT was the development of classical leaniing 
 »nd the fiiiincliilion of the schiH.I at .larrow in 
 NorthiMnl»rland resulting In making England 
 the Intellectual centre o( the world. Venerable 
 Ikile, who wiote tie Keclesiasllcal History of the 
 English Church, was the greatest teacher of this 
 epoch; and Aleuln, a Northumbrian bv birth, 
 and of the s.hocil a: V,,rii, ..f liu' i«xl. " iuviled 
 b^ Charlemagne to the Frankish Court, he carrietl 
 Eogllsh learning to the Cuutloent, ami although 
 
 he died at the time of the foundation of the 
 Empire, left bis Influence in manv ways on the 
 development of European culture. "A siuei. 
 fact of interest will suffice, to show the i|„se 
 connection of this early history witli tjiai of 
 Rome and the continent — viz., to AUuin \\|. are 
 largely indebted for the parent si-ripl wiijch 
 formed our Roman letters. (I. Tailnr Tk 
 Alplubtt. T. 3, p. 180.) Northumbrian" li-iirninir 
 and the rich libraries of ancient ami Ain-Iu- 
 Saxon literature were destroyeil by ilu' D.ims 
 who, in their incursions, showc" fiir a Icmmiine 
 peculiar animosity to monks and moiiii»i,.rios 
 Although the service of this eariv Aii;.'li. Siixim 
 Church was partly in the veniac'ular, aii.l l.irirp 
 portions, if not all, of the Gos|)els iiuii Ihcii 
 translati ;, little remains to us of its larlv nlij. 
 ious literature. The translations of iln '(;,,,n;,i 
 into Anglo-Saxon that have come down to usare 
 to be attributed to a late period. 
 
 9th Century.— The BulKuian Church.- In 
 the Iwginning of this 9th ccnturv, a sister ..f the 
 reigning Iltitgarian king. Bogoris, Um h]\n 
 as a captive iiuo the keening of the tJn'i k em- 
 peror. For thirty eight > ears she liviilat Con- 
 stantinople, and wa- there instructed in tlie iI.k- 
 trines of 'ne Christain Faith. .Mianwhil,. the 
 adminis'.iition passetl into the lianiis of ilic em- 
 press Regent, Theodora. She was intinsiid in 
 a certain monk named Ciipharas, who liml t«.|.n 
 taken prisoner by the Bulgarians, and with a 
 view to his n>demption, she openiil tieirotiiitiunj 
 with Bogoris. An exchange of prisoners was 
 Hnallv effected. The sister of H,iir,,ris »n; re- 
 stored to him, while Cupharas was pirniilti.l to 
 return to Constantinople. Hi i r.. the plia'< of 
 the pious monk, however, he liinl striviri. Iliniii,'h 
 quite unavailingly. to win the Bulgarinn prinif 
 to the service of the Cross. These fniill. s» m- 
 deavi-s were supplemenleil by the eiilri:iii.« of 
 the kin;; s sister, on her retuiii front ( .inMinti- 
 nople. . . At last, fear snapivd tlie filters 
 which love had failed to bsiMignge. . . Hi, 
 baptism was celebrated at miilniglii with pnv 
 loundest secriH-y. The rite was ailininistinil hy 
 no lessa p<'r8image than the patrianli I'li.itiiii 
 He emphasized the solemnity of the mi isi.in hy 
 presenlit.g the neophyte with a lemrthv inatiso 
 on Christianity, theoretical and pnuiii-il. mn 
 sidered mainlv in its liearings on the diilii s nf « 
 monarch. The emperor .Michael si.>.«l sii,.ii»ir 
 by proxy, ami the Bulgarian king n ri ivni. ,« 
 his Chrisiiau name, that of his inipiriil ml. 
 father . . . The Iwttle-criis of thii>l"i;v nnt 
 over Christendom, anil the world was p-eiili-il 
 with the 8|)ectacleof a struggle iHtwem the rivsl 
 Cho.riiu's forthepiBuM-ssionof Hulgariu. imiinlrT 
 till re.ently so omspleuously 'islliute nf lim-ras 
 if any kind. The Bulgarians tliemsi hi s.iL.iilit- 
 h'ss much astonished at the upmarfor thelrsikf, 
 and. surely, more |>erple.xed than en r liv the 
 manners anil customs of Christianity. iHgaii to 
 waver in (heir adheremv to the Westi'rn Church, 
 and to exhibit symptoms of an iiulinatiun tutnuu- 
 fer their allegiance to C.)nstaiiiiniipl- The 
 strife went on for years. At la<t. A l> nT7. 
 the Latin clergv having bt'en dismisseil from the 
 omntry. l'o|>e John VIII. solemnly expostiiliitril. 
 
 (iMti-stlng against the Greek priKlivitirs nf the 
 iulgarians. and prtKlictinirdire results fmm their 
 idenlily with a C'liun-h whieli was nniv fr« 
 tnmi heresy in one form or another. .\ wrtbe- 
 less, the ByjtontlDe leooiogs uf Bulgari.t did cul- 
 
 478 
 
CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 Slav and 
 yorthmen. 
 
 CHRI8TUNITY. 
 
 minste in union with the Eastprn Church. A 
 Greek iinhbishop and bishopa of the same rom- 
 raunion. settled .n the country. . . . ' The East- 
 tm branch ' of the Slavonic lHn;;iiages, propj'riy 
 gocullfl. 'comprehends the Rus.sian, with vari<. i< 
 local dialects, the Bulgariiin, and the Illyrian 
 The most ancient document of this Eastern 
 branch is the so-called ecclesiastical Slavonic. 
 I. f,, tlic nn.-ient Bulgarian, into which Cyrillus 
 anil Mi'tluxlius translated the Rilile in tlie I'niildli' 
 of tliiDthcenturv. This is still the autliori/.<il 
 version of the Bible for the whole Slavonic nice, 
 jnd to the student of the Slavonic languages it 
 |j what Gothic is to the student of German. ' " — O. 
 F. Maoleur. Convernoti of the M'fit: The Shu-, 
 fp. .>l-<)9. 
 
 9th Century.— CoiiTeriion of MoraTia. — • In 
 the iipeninir years of the 9th century Moravia 
 siMcliiil frotii the Bavarian liorih'rs to the Hun- 
 pirian river Drina. and from the banus of the 
 D.tuuU'. Iwyond the Carpathian mountams. to 
 the river Stfyi in Southern Poland. Into this 
 terriiiiry Clirislianity had U-en ushered as early 
 as -V. I>. l^ll. by Charlemagne, wiio, as his cus- 
 tom w;is. ciiforeed bfiptism at the point of the 
 swnril. at least as far as the king was coneeme(i. 
 ElI'iK wire suba»'quently made by the arch- 
 hisli.iw of Salzburg and Passau to fan this first 
 fei lile Iticker into something like a flame. But 
 no suiTcss attended their exertions. Paganism 
 was iiv( rpoweringlv strong, and Christianity not 
 only weak, but rude ami uncouth in type. . . . 
 The story of this country, during the process 
 of enianiipiition fnmi paganism, is but a re[M'ti- 
 tion of the incidents with which, in nelghlHiuring 
 Stat, s, we have already become familiar liami- 
 li.aliotis .if the work .if Cyril ami Methodius ex- 
 t.ii.li 'I into S'rvia. The ?*lavonie alphaliet made 
 wiiy ihire, as in Bohemia and Moravia, for 
 Chrisiianity. The Servians 'enjoyed the advant- 
 at'.if a liturcy whi( h was intelligible to them; 
 and we tiiiil that, early in the loth century, a 
 ri.n«iilirable numl)er of Slavonian priists /rf>m 
 all the ilicKeses were ordained bv the bishop of 
 Nona, wh.t w as himself a .Slav ,n by ilescent. ' " 
 — i;. K, Mallear, Oinremiiiii of t/i('Wett: Thf 
 
 SUr,. ,■', 4. 
 
 9th-ioth Centnriea.— The Eaatem Church 
 
 u a missionary Church.— " If the missionary 
 >|iiril isllie best evidence ..f vitality in a chureli. 
 it.irtaiiily wasn.it wantlnir in the Eksteni Church 
 iliiriug tile ninth nt^d tenth centuries of our era. 
 This iieriiHl witnesseil the conversion to Chris- 
 tiiiiiityof the principal Slavonic peopli'S. whereby 
 tley are Is.th llnkeil with ('..nstantinople, anil 
 tfc.uml lOiTither bv thow assiK-latiimsof envil. as 
 w.li as race, wlifeh fonii so important a factor 
 in the KunijM'an |>oliticsof the prewntdav. The 
 Moravians, the Bulgarians, and the Itussians 
 were n.iw brought within the fohl of the Chunh ; 
 ami the way was prepared for that vast exteii- 
 •lon.if the Greek communion by which it has 
 •prea.l. not only throughout the Balkan p«'nln- 
 sulaaiid the laii.ls to the north of It. hut whtr- 
 ev-r liiisslan inHuence is found — as far as the 
 White Sa on the one side, and Kamtchalka ..n 
 llif .ither, aii.l Into the heart of Central Asia. 
 The ha.lers In t'lls great work wen- the two 
 h^.th.m, Cyril and Methodius, who in conse- 
 ij::v::r:- r.i this, h.ive i.in..' Into klioWu as (lie 
 .\|«isil,.s..f the Slavonian* What Meirop did 
 f"t the .Vrmeninns, what Vmias dhl for the 
 Outh., wu, accomplltUeU for that raie by Cyril 
 
 in the indention of a Slavonic alphabet, whidi 
 from this cause is still known by the name of the 
 Cyrillic. The same teacher, by his translation 
 of the Scriptures Into their tongue, provided them 
 with a literary language, thereby pnslucing the 
 same result which Luther's Bible subsequently 
 effected for Germany, and Dante's DIvina Com- 
 media for Italy. It is no matter for surprise that, 
 throughout the whole of this great branch of the 
 human race — even amongst the Russians, who 
 oweil their Christianity to another source — the 
 names of these two brothers shoidd occupy the 
 foremost place in the calenilar of Saints. It is 
 not less significant that their names are not even 
 inentlonetl by the Byzantine historians." — II. F. 
 Tozer, T!ie Church and the Eattern Empire, 
 eh. 7. 
 
 9th-iith Centuries.— The Western Church 
 aa a missionary Church. — The earlier missions of 
 the Western Church have been descrital. but it 
 is noteworthy that again and again missions to 
 the same regions are necessary. It requires such 
 a map as the one accompanying this article to 
 make plain tLe slowness of its diffusions and the 
 long period needed to prmlucc even a nomi- 
 nally Christian Europe. ' ' The views of Charle- 
 maene for the conquest and conversion of the 
 Northern heathens [see Saxons: A. I>. TT'i-S'M], 
 were not confined to the limits, wide as they 
 were, of Saxony. The final jiaciflcation effected 
 at Salz. st<enied to open his eves to more 
 extensive enterprises in prospect. V'olitlcal may 
 have comblne<i with religious motives in induc- 
 ing him to secure the peace of his new frontiers, 
 by enlisting the tritx-s of Denmark umler tlie 
 banner of the Cross, and he conceived the i.lea 
 of planting a church in the neighbourhood of 
 Hamburg, which should f)ecome a missionary 
 c.ntre. This plan, though interrupted by his 
 death, was not neglected by his son Louis le 
 Di-lKinnaire. or 'the Pious.'. . , But it is easier 
 to propose such a plan than find one willing to 
 carry it out. The well-known femcity of tho 
 Northmen long deterred any one from offering 
 liims<>lf for such a duty. At length he re(eivi.3 
 Intelligent from Wala. the abNu of ('. rlK-y, 
 near .\miens, that one of his monks was not 
 unwilling to undertake the perilous enterprise. 
 The intrepid voluntwr was Anskar, "— (i. P. 
 Maclear. f'onrfrnon of the H'Mf; The Xort/im^n, 
 eh. 'i.- "In 82-2. Ilamld. the king of Jutland, 
 and claimant of the crown of Denmark, came to 
 st'ck the help of Louis the Pious, the s<m, and 
 one of the successors, of Charlemagne. . , . On 
 Harold's return to Denmark he was accompanied 
 by Anskar, who well ileserves to be calletl the 
 ajxwtle of Scandinavia. . . . Thus Anskar and 
 AutlH-rt s<'t out In the train of Ilarolil. and 
 .luring the Journey and voyage a kimllv feeling 
 sprang up between the royal and the missionary 
 families, Harold got no'cortllal greeting fMm 
 his pMtiil heathen subjects when he announced 
 to tliem tha* he had ilone homage to tin empemr, 
 ail.; ihat he had embraceil the gospel. He seems 
 to have Iki'U very sincen; end viry earnest in lii ■ 
 emieavoun to in<luce his nobles and subjects to 
 abandon idolatry and embrace (Christianity. To 
 expect that he was altogether judicious in these 
 efforts would be to suppoiie that be had those 
 >ieWH regar.liug Ihe relation thai ought Ui sub- 
 tlst fietween rulers and subjects. . . . views 
 reganiing lll>erty of conscience and the riirht of 
 private judgraeoL . . . The result wsa that 
 
 479 
 
i 
 
 m- 
 
 CHBISTIANiry. 
 
 7%* Aiufian 
 C%urck. 
 
 CHRISTIANITT. 
 
 ^tter.two jetLTi, in 828, he was c impelled to 
 abdicate the throne. . . . The position of Ansliar, 
 difflcult as it was while Harold was on the 
 throne, became still more ditHcult after his 
 abdication. . . . But just at the time when the 
 door was shut against him in Denmark. auot.*ier 
 was oiwned in Sweden, which proniim'd to bo 
 wider and more effectual. . . . He was Itindl.v 
 received by the Swedish king, who gave him 
 permission to preach, and his subjects freetloi- 
 to accept and profess the gospel of Christ. As 
 Anskarliad tieen led to expect, so he found, manv 
 Christian captives, who had been brouglit from 
 other countries, — France. Oerniany, Britain, 
 Ireland. — and who, having iH'en as sheep with- 
 out a shepherd, gladly received from Anskar 
 those consiilations au' "xhortations which were 
 fitted to alleviate fhe . rrows of their captivity. 
 . . . jvftera year and a half's stay in .Sweden, 
 Anskar returned home, and gladdened the heart 
 of the gixxl emperor, and doubtless of many 
 others, by the cliee...ig prospect he was able to 
 present of the acceptance of the gospel by the 
 Swedes. He was now made nominally bisliiip of 
 Hamburg, hut with the special design of super- 
 intending ami conducting missionary operations 
 both in Denmark and Sweden. . . . Horik, 
 king of IDenmark, who had <lriven lliinild from 
 his tlirone. . . . liad been hitherto an uncom- 
 pn)mising enemy of the gospel. Anskar under- 
 took the management of some p<i!itlcal negoti- 
 ations with him. ami in the conduct of them 
 made so favourable an impn's.si(m on him that 
 he refused to have any other negotiator i)r 
 amba,ssador of the German king at his court. 
 He tri'aled him as a i>er8onal friend, and gave 
 him full liberty to conduct missionary operations. 
 Tlie-u' (iperationa he conducted with his usual 
 Zeal, and liy (iixl's blessing, with nuich sucies.s. 
 Many were baptijcil The Christians of Ger- 
 many ami Hiilland traded more freely with the 
 Dane.t than Infore. and the Danes resorted in 
 larger numbers as traders to Holland and 
 Oerniany ; and in these ami other ways a knowl- 
 edge of the gospel, anil .some apprihenslon of 
 the blessings which It brings with it. were 
 diffused among the people . . Allliough the 
 Norwegians wvrv c mtinually coming into cim- 
 tact. In the varying rela'ioiis' of war anil peacr. 
 with the Swedes and the Danes, the Fniicli and 
 the Germans, the English and the Irish, and 
 allhinigh in this way some knowledge of Ilie 
 Chri.ttian system must have iMin diffused among 
 them, yet the formal Introduction of It Into their 
 country was a full ciijiiiry l.itcr than lis Intro- 
 ductlim into Denmark and Sweden. "—Tiiomas 
 Smith. .VfMimil .Viuutnt, ;)/'. li3-13M._'The 
 conversions in Denmark were conllned to tlie 
 mainland. The islands still remained pagan, 
 while human victims contlnueil to lie offernVtill 
 the Kiniien)r Henry I. extorted from Gorm. the 
 first king of all Denmark. In \. D. BS4, protection 
 for the (.'hristians throughout his realm, ami the 
 sl>olillon of human sacritlces. In Sweden, fur 
 •evenly vnim after Anskar s deatli, the nucleus 
 of a Christian Church continued to Ih' restricted 
 to the Delghlxiurhood of BIrka. and the country 
 was liarilly vislteil by Christian missionaries.'— 
 O. F. Madear, fonrfriuin of Ihr \S'e4it : Th, 
 S-jrthmfn. fh. 'i. — 'his verv n-markaiiin that 
 in the whole history of the inlriKluction of 
 Christlanitv Into Norway and IiTlaml. eztendlpg 
 OTer ■ period of a century and a half, we meet 
 
 not with the name of any noted bishop, orecclesl. 
 astic, or missionary. There were, no doubt 
 ecclesiastics employed in the work, ami tbfse 
 would appear to have been generallv Kujriisli- 
 men; but thcv occupied a secondarv place 
 almost their only pi ince being to baptize tlnise 
 whom the kings i. pelled to' submit t,i thit 
 ordinance. The kings were the real niis,si.iiiariis- 
 and one cannot help feeling a kind of uilinir.ition 
 for the ferocious zeal which one and aunthiTof 
 them manifesteil in the undertaking, — cviii m 
 the Lord commendel the unjust steward ln-i-auac 
 he had done wisely, although his wLsiloni was 
 wholly misdirected. The most persistint and the 
 most successful of these missionarv kints was 
 Olaf the Thick, who came from England in ini; 
 and set himself with heart and soul to the work 
 of the demolition of heathenism, an^l the sub- 
 stitution of Christianity as the naiimial re- 
 ligion."— Thomas Smith, Meriimil ifini,,!,, ,,,, 
 140-141. ■" 
 
 loth Century.— The Russian Church.— • In 
 the middle of the lOtli century, the wi.l„wetl 
 I'rincess Olga. lately releasi'd from the <iiresot 
 regency, travelleii from Kief to Constantiiniiilc 
 Whether her visit had political chjeet,, i.r 
 whether she was prompted to pay it wvblv as 
 some say, by a desire to know more i4 tin 'bi.ly 
 faith of which only glimpses had Imvii vumb 
 safed her at home, cannot Im> posiiiveh ibciiicfl. 
 But her sojourn in the Imperial city was a lum- 
 ing-i)oint in her career. Baptism "was ailminis- 
 tered to her by the patriarch Polyene ie<. tlie 
 em|K'ror Constantlne Porphyrogeniius nllic iaiinir 
 as sponsor. I'olyeuctes then snlemnlv uil.lhN^HH 
 the princess, predicting that thn)UL'li her instru- 
 mentality Russia should be riclilv llesw.l 
 'Olga.' writes M. Mouravieff. n.iw Imnuie 
 Helena by baptism, that she might re*nilil. I».th 
 In name and deed the mother of Conslaiitim the 
 Great, stcxxl meekly Ixiwing down her lie ul, ami 
 drinking in, as a sponge that Is thirsty nf neiist- 
 ure. the instructions of the pnlatc. ' ' . . s.mic 
 latent impres-sions favoural)le to Christiauiu her 
 voungest grandson, Vladimir, doubtless imi-d to 
 her. Nevertheless when, at the il.alh .f his 
 brothi r 'Varapolk, for which indeed lie was In M 
 responsible, he mounted the throne. n« .sit-in »( 
 a gracious character revealed themselves IK' 
 was. III! the contrary, a bitter ami bignteil puna. 
 . . . It seems to have (xiurnd to ni.inv mission- 
 aries of varying ty|«s. that a chief of s'neh mark 
 should not Ik- left at the mercv of his own vinlent 
 pasaloms. The spiritual well-being "f Vladimir 
 accordingly l>ecame the object of lalmrii'ii- j"ur- 
 neya, of much exertion, ami uf rediimlan! el* 
 yuence. . . , Lastof all came a tiriek i nnssary. 
 
 He was neither ' a priest nor a mi.ssl>ui.'iry, hut a 
 
 philosopher. ' . . . LIki 
 
 slan chief was greatir moved 
 
 .Ike Bogoris, the wild Kus- 
 - „ _ ;lv moveil. . . . The follow- 
 ing year the king laid Iwfore the elders of his 
 council the rival pleas of these variously recom- 
 mended forms of faith, and stdUlteii tlieir advire. 
 The nobles mused awhile, and then e.mii'MlW 
 their master to aM-ertalu how each reIit:ioa 
 worked at home This, they thought. w»ulil be 
 more practical evidenct' than the plausihle ripn;. 
 sentalions of professors. On this suggesthm 
 Vladimir actetl. Envoys were clioseii,— pre- 
 MimaHv. for their powers i-( i-b^tyA'.'-'.i.—vA 
 the emlNuay of tnnuirv started. ' This public 
 agreement, says the historian of the HuHiu 
 Church, 'eipUins in some degree the luddta 
 
 480 
 
CHRISTIAinTY. 
 
 CHTRCH OP ENGLAND. 
 
 «d genenl acceptance of Chriitianltj which 
 iboitfy after followed in RuMla. It is probab' 
 that not only the chiefs, but the common peopie 
 ilso, were expecting and ready for the change.' 
 A report, far from encouraging, was in due time 
 received from the ambossaoors. Of the Oerman 
 and Roman, as well as the Jewish, religions in 
 daily life, they spoke in very disparaging terms, 
 while they declared the Mussulman creed, when 
 reduced to practice, to be utterly out of the ques- 
 tion. Disappointed In all these quarters, they 
 now piiKTitli'd, by commaml, to Constantinople, 
 or, ss the Russians called it, Tzaragorod. . . . 
 Singularly enough, the Russian envoys, accus- 
 tomed, as we must suppose them to have been, 
 only to the barest simplicity of life, had com- 
 plamed not only of the paucity of decoration in 
 the Latin churches, but of a lack of Iwauty in 
 their appointments. Thus the preparations of 
 the patriarch were accurately fitted to their ex- 
 pectant frame of mind. They were led into the 
 church of S. Sophia, gleaming with variegated 
 marhles. and porphyries, and jasper, at that time 
 'the m.isterpieoe of Christian architecttire. ' The 
 buililinjr glitterofl with gold, and rich mosaics. 
 Tlie strvice was that of a high festival, either of 
 St. .Iiihn Clirysostom. or of the IK-ath of the 
 Virttin, and was conducted by the patriarch in 
 person, clad in hi.-* most gortjeiuis vestments. 
 . . . (In Ihcir return to Vladimir, they dilated 
 with eaiii r <lclii;hton the wonders thev had seen. 
 The kina; listened gravely to their glowing ac- 
 count of 'the temple, like which there was none 
 'ipon earth. ' Afterswcetness, thev protested, bit- 
 ttmt'ss wouM 1)0 unbeumble, so that — whatever 
 others niiitht do — they at all events should at 
 once aboiilon heathenism. While the king hesi- 
 t»te(l, his liovers turned the scale by reminding 
 binithut if the creed of the (Jreeks had not in- 
 deed li;id niiicli to recommend it, his pious ami 
 sanaciiiiis j;randniother. Princess Olga, woiilil 
 not have loveil and otn-yed it. Her iiiinie acteil 
 like a talisman. Vladimir n'solved to conform 
 toChri-tianitv. But still, tcmdly clinging to the 
 Itiliits <.f his forefathers, he cherished the idea of 
 ^Miini; anil winning his new nligion by the 
 swurd . . I'nder the auspices of the sovereign. 
 
 ! the stately church of St. Basil soon arose, on the 
 very spot recently occupied by the temple of 
 Perun. Kief became the centre of Christian in- 
 fluence, whence evangelizing energies radiated in 
 all directions. Schools and churches were built, 
 while Michael, the first metropolitan, attended 
 by his bishops, 'made progresses into the interior 
 of Russia, everywhere baptizing and instructing 
 the people." The Greek canon law came into 
 force, and the use of the service-book and choral 
 music of the Greek communion became general, 
 while, in the Slavonic Scriptures and Liturgy of 
 Cyril and Methodius, a road was discovered 
 which led straight to the hearts cf the native 
 population. ' Cyril and Methodius, if any one, 
 must be considered by anticipation as the first 
 Christian teachers of Russia; their rude alphalwt 
 first instructed the Russian nation in letters, and, 
 by its quaint Greek characters, still totlHes in 
 every Russian book, and on every Russian house 
 or shop, the Greek source of the "religion and lit- 
 erature of the empire.'" — G. F. .Maclear, Cunter- 
 noil nf the Wett : The fHatt. ch. T,. 
 
 "As in the first centuries it w.is necessary 
 that the leaven of Christianity should gradually 
 penetrate the entire intellectual life of the culti- 
 vated nations, before a new spiritual creation, 
 striking its root in the fonns of the Grecian and 
 Roman culture, which Christianity appropriated. 
 Could in these forms completely unfold itself; so 
 after the Siime manner it was neces,sary that the 
 leaven of Christianity which . . . had been intrn- 
 diiiiil into the mas.s<'S of the unt itoreil nations, 
 should gradually penetrate their whole inward 
 life, iH'fore a new and peculiar spiritual creation 
 could spring out of it, which shoulil go nn toi 
 unfold itself through the entire ptriix! of tlioj 
 middle ages. And the period in which we now 
 are must be regarded as still l)elonginir to the 
 epoch of transitiim from that old spiriiu.il crea- 
 tion which flourished on the basis of Grecian and 
 Roman culture to the new one. " — A. Neander, 
 <iimr:il Hint, of the I'lirintinn llili:ii''n ,ind 
 Ch'irrh, r. 3. ii. 4.'>6. — We leave the author's sen- 
 tence incomplete, that it m;iy express the more 
 fully all the suliseciuent history of Christianity. 
 
 CHRISTINA, Queen-regent of Spain, A. D 
 l*l''-l'*tl Christina, Queen of Sweden, 
 
 A. II lit;:i-lii.-,l, 
 CHRISTINOS. The. Se Sp.vim A. I). 
 
 iNCt- l-Ml! 
 
 CHRISTOPHER I„ King of Denmark, 
 A 11 lj.V>-ir,it. ..ChriitopTier 11., A D 
 \m-\xu ..Chriitopher III., King of Den- 
 mark, Sweden and NorwaT, X. I) U:t',(- 
 
 ms 
 
 CHRYSE.— Vague reports of a region called 
 Chr>M. ith.' Golden), wimewhen- Ix-vimil the 
 0»ii;e«. un<l of an island liearing the same n.'ime. 
 
 off 'lie n ths of the Ganges, as well as of 
 
 another island enlleil Argyre (the Silver Islandi, 
 were pri'valent among the earlv Roman geo- 
 paphical writers They probiiblv all ha.l 
 nf: rin. e to the .Malay peiHnsula, whfch I'tolemv 
 callid 111,. Oolilen Chersonese.— E. 11. Uunburv 
 II, .t . C. I .,,.,•, ,ir Uf^tj.. eh, •J.I. 
 
 CHRVSTLER'S FARM, B»tt!e of. Sep 
 I .MTKii Sj.tTM OP Am. : A. D. 18i:l (Uctobek— 
 
 >OVEMllKHI 
 
 CHRYSOBULUM. See Golden Bcll, 
 
 BTU.M1NK. 
 
 ai 
 
 CHRYSOPOLIS — Moilern Scutari, opposite 
 Constantinople; oriirinally the pcirt of the city of 
 Chalcedon 
 
 CHRYSOPOLIS, Battle of (A. D. aai). 
 See Rome: A. i). lid.V.i.':! 
 
 CHUMARS. See ( \-ii System ok Inoh. 
 
 CHUMASHAN FAMILY, The. See 
 
 A.'HEIUC.V.N Am>RICitNF.S: (111 >I\SI!.VN K.VMII.V 
 
 CHUR, The Bishopric of See Ttiiol. and 
 Switzehi.vnd: a. I). i;!IMl-lt;i'i 
 CHURCH, The Armenian. See Armk.nh.n 
 
 ClIllK II. 
 
 CHURCH OF BOHEMIA, The Utraquist 
 NationaL s,r Hoiumu A 1> li;M-I4.->7. 
 
 CHURCH IN BRAZIL, Disestablishment 
 of the. S.C Rin/ii \ I) lss;.-is|ii 
 
 CHURCH OF ENGLAND: Origin and 
 Eitabtiihment. .S'c KNu[..tNi>: A. II. \^i1~' 
 I.1;M: 1.V11-1.'.«8; and l.W.Vl,-.3!). 
 
 The Six Articles. Se.- Enolanp: \. D. 
 1■^3f> 
 
 The completed Church-refortn under Ed- 
 ward VI. S.C Esai..tNn: A I) l.VIT-l.'i.'iU. 
 
 The doubtful conflict of religioni. See Zsa- 
 LAMO: A. U. 1553. 
 
 481 
 
:J| 
 
 CHURCH OP ENGLAND. 
 
 Romanism restored by Marr. See Exolasd : 
 A. D. 15,55-1558. 
 
 Recovery of Protestantism under Elizabeth. 
 See England: A. D. 1558-15S8. 
 
 The Acta of Supremacy and Uniformity. 
 See England: A. D. 1559. 
 
 Rise of Puritanism. See England: A. D. 
 15.5!»-I566; 1564-1565 (»). 
 
 The Despotism of Laud. Sec England: 
 A. n. 16iB-1640. 
 
 Rise of the Independents. See England: 
 A. I). lfl;W-1640. 
 
 The Soot and Branch BilJ. See England: 
 A. D. 1041 (.March— May). 
 
 The Westminster Assembly. See England : 
 A. I). ItUSaiLY), and 1640 (.March). 
 
 The Solemn League and Covenant. See 
 Emu.ani): a. D. 1643 (JiLY— Seitkmher). 
 
 The Restoration.— The SaToy Conference. 
 See F.M.i.A.vo; A. D. 1661 (April— J li.yI. 
 
 Thi Ac; of Uniformity and persecution of 
 NoncGnformists. See Enol.\nd: A. D. 1663- 
 166.). 
 
 Charles' Declaration of Indulgence, and the 
 Test Act. See England: A. I). 1073-1073. and 
 1687. 
 
 James' Declaration of Indulgence.— Trial of 
 the seven Bishops. SeeE.NGLAND: A. D. 10.S7- 
 leyn. 
 
 The Church and the Revolution.— The Non- 
 Jurors. Sec England: A. D. 1089 (.\pniL— 
 AfiicsT). 
 
 A. D. 1704.— Queen Anne's Bounty. See 
 
 QlEEX .A.NNES norNTY. 
 
 A. D. 1711-1714.— The Occasional Conform- 
 ity Bill and the Schism Act. See England- 
 A. I). 1711-1714. 
 
 A. D. 1833-1845.- The Oxford or Tract- 
 arian Movement. See Oxford or Tract- 
 
 AHIAN MoVE.MENT. 
 
 CHURCH OF FRANCE. See Oallican 
 Chiki H. 
 
 CHURCH, The Greek or Eastern. See 
 Chkisthxity: \. D. 3;i()-I()54. 
 
 CHURCH OF IRELAND, Disestablish- 
 ment of the. See Enoi.and: A. I». I86H-IH71) 
 
 CHURCH OF LATTER DAY SAINTS. 
 Si'e Mokmdnism: A. I). IHO.'i-lH.'to 
 
 CHURCH OF ROME. S(c Papacy 
 
 CHURCH, The Russian.— The great schism 
 known as Raskol. Sec Hcssia : \. I>. 10.5.'>- 
 lO.'iU 
 
 CHURCH OF SCOTLAND.-Its birth. 
 See Scotland: .•V. I). 1.547-1557. 
 
 The First Covenant. See Scotl.\nd; X D 
 1.557. 
 
 Rebellion and triumph of the Lords of the 
 Congregation. See .Scotland: A 1). 1558- 
 156(). 
 
 Restoration of Episcopacy. See Scotland- 
 A 1) 1572 
 
 The First National Covenant. See Scot- 
 land; .\. I). 1,581. 
 
 The Black Acts. See Scotland: A. D. 1584. 
 
 Appropriation of Church lands. S<t Scot- 
 land: A. 1), 1.587. 
 
 The Five Articles of Perth. Sec Scotland : 
 A. 0. 1018. 
 
 Laud's liturgy and Jenny Gcddet' stool. 
 SeeSioTLAND: k. U. 1687 
 
 The signing of the National Covenant. See 
 BcoTLAND; A. D. 1888. 
 
 CILICIAN GATES 
 
 The First Bishops' War. See ScntLA-m 
 
 A. D. lfl:»-104(). 
 
 The Second Bishops' War. See ENOLA-ei) 
 A. I). 1040. 
 
 "Hie Westminster A isembly. SecENcinifD 
 A. D. 1643 (July). 
 
 The Solemn I cague and Covenant Sw 
 E.VGLAND: A. D. 1643 (Jilt— Seitemiikki 
 
 Montrose anc* the Covenanters. See Scot 
 LAND: A. 1). 1644-1645. 
 
 The restored king and restored prelacv Sw 
 Scotland: A. D. 1660-1666. 
 
 Persecutions of the Covenanters. .•<i-i. Scot- 
 land: A. D. 1669-1879; 1079: 1681-1«N<) 
 
 The Revolution and re-establishment of the 
 Presbyterian Church. See Scoti.anh \ 11 
 1688-1690. ' 
 
 The Disniption.- Formation of the Fret 
 Church. See Scotland: A. D. 184:). 
 ■* 
 
 CHURUBUSCO, Battle of. Sr, Mexico 
 
 ■ UoXE: 
 
 A. D. 1847 OLkRcii— Septe.mrehi 
 CIBALIS, Battle of (A. D. 313). .s, 
 
 A. D. 30.5-333. 
 CIBOLA, The Seven Cities of. Sir Xntm- 
 
 CAN AllilRI'.INKS : I'lEHLOM. 
 
 CICERO. SeeHo.MK: B. C. ««-«:) ti> 44-4> 
 CID, The. See Spain: .\. I) lii:)i |,i.i„ 
 CILICIA. — KILIKIA. — An ancient district 
 in the southeastern comer of Asia >Iin(ir. iHpnlfr- 
 iug on Syria. It was a satrapy of tin- I'l rsLiii 
 Empire, then a part of the kingdom of the S-- 
 lucidip, and afterwards a liomaii pmvincc The 
 chief city of C'ilicla was Tarsus, :i very unciert 
 commercial emporium, whose people wire noted 
 for mental acuteness. The Apostle I'anI is t,i Ije 
 counted among the distinguished iiativ,-s i.f Tar 
 BUS, and a quite n-inarkalile numlxr ef .-miiient 
 teachers of philosophy were from the .same hin.'i- 
 place. 
 
 CILICIA, Pirates of.— During the Miihridatic 
 wars piraoy was developed to ahiniiirn; propor- 
 tions in the eastern parts of the ^leiliiemmean 
 Sea. Distracteil by civil conflicts iiml i«c-upiiil 
 by foreign ones, simultaneously, the Knninns, for 
 a considerable period, gave no"priii'<'' hoi.ltotbe 
 growth of this lawlessness, until tliev foiiml 
 their commerce half destroyed ami li.'.ni.- ami 
 Italy actually thn-atenwi with starvation liv the 
 intercepting of their supplies fromalir.Kel ' The 
 pirates flourished under the priiteeti 11 :iu(l en- 
 couragement of the king of Ponlu- :it whose 
 instance they established their chi. f head 
 quarters, theirdocks. arsi>nals and nmgiizines, at 
 various points on the coiutt of tillcia. Hence the 
 nami' Cilician came to Ih' applieil i.i all the 
 pirate of the time. This era of pinicv wu 
 orni: it to an end, at last, by Ponipev, wl'ifi wiu 
 sen- .gainst them. B. C. 67. with exinioriiiiisrr 
 po rs conferred by the law known ns the l/i 
 G,i iida. He procec-deil to his undertiibiiii: «iih 
 remarkable energy and ability, nnd hi- liiinliDi; 
 down of the freebooters which he iici oniplisheii 
 effectually within thn-e months from ilie ihiv hit 
 operation's began, was reallv the mi"si lirifliant 
 exploit of his life.— H. O. Liddell. //,»r »/ 
 Hume, lA. 7, eh. 68. 
 
 Also in: C. Merivale, Ilitl. nf the litntaia, 
 <■* 1 — G Lone. DeHine of the lh:u:iu Ufp'ihtit. 
 r. 3. eh. 6-7. 
 
 CILICIAN GATES.— A pass through the 
 Taurus range of mountains, opening troni fap- 
 psducia Into Cllicia, was anciently cilkd tiM 
 
 482 
 
 U-- 
 
CILiaAlT GATES. 
 
 CIMBRI AND TECTONES. 
 
 PyUe Cllicic or Cilician Oates. The city of 
 Traoa was situated at the entrance to the pass. 
 Both Xenophon and Alexrader, who traversed 
 it st'om to have regarded the pass as one which 
 no army could force if properly def ended.— E. H. 
 Bunburv. //<»<. »f Ancient Oeog., eh. 10, >ect. 2. 
 amlrh. 12. *"<«. 1. 
 
 CILURNUM.— A Roman city in Britain, 
 "tlic cxti'iisive ruins of which, well described as 
 a Britisli Pompeii, are visible near the modem 
 haniMsof Chesters."— T. Wright, Celt, Soman 
 and^trntt, ch. 5. 
 
 CIMARRONES, The. Sec Americ.\ : A. D. 
 IST'-'-lWO. and.lAMAiCA: .\. D. 16.55-17P6. 
 
 CIMBRI AND TEUTONES, The.— For 
 » considerable pcri<>d [second century, B. C] an 
 'unsettled people' Imd been wandering along 
 the northern verge of the country occupied by 
 the I'elts on l)oth sides of the Danube. They 
 ralleil themselves the Cimbri. that is. the Chem- 
 pho. the champions, or. as their enemies trans- 
 lated it, the roblH'rs; a designation, however. 
 wliicli to all appearance had become the name of 
 tlie people even Ix'forc their migration. They 
 came from the north, and the first Celtic people 
 with whom they came in contact were, so far as 
 is known, the Boil, probably in Bohemia. More 
 exact details as to the cause and the direction of 
 their mijrnition have not been recorded by con- 
 temporaries and cannot besunpUed by conjectun-. 
 
 . . Hilt the hypothesis thiit the Cimbri, as well 
 a< the similar lionle of the Teutones which after- 
 wanU joined them, belonged in the main not to 
 the t'lliii' nution, to which the Romans at first 
 assi^neti them, but to the Germanic, is 
 supported by the most definite facts; viz., by 
 ■he e.\istence of two small tribes of the same 
 nami' — remnants left behind to all appearance 
 in tlieir primitive scata — the Cimbri in the 
 modern Denmark, the Teutones in the north-east 
 of (Jennany in the neiglibourho<xl of the Bidtic, 
 wliert' I'ytlieas, a contemiwrary of Alcvander 
 tlie (iirat, makes mention of them thus early in 
 oouiiirtion with the amber trade; bv the 
 insrtion of the Cimbri and Teutones in tlie list 
 of the Oermanic peoples among the Ingsvones 
 alongside of the Chauci; by the judgment of 
 Onar. who first made the Romans acquainteii 
 witli the distinction Iwtween the Germans and 
 tlie Celts, and who includes the Cimbri, many of 
 whom he must himself have seen, among the 
 Geriuims; and lastly, by the very names of the 
 jH'ople niul the statements as to their physical 
 apiwai^nee and habits. . . . Un the other hand 
 it i.> eoneeivable enough tiiat such a horde, after 
 luving wandered perhaps for many years, and 
 havinit doubtless welcomed every brother-in- 
 amis who joine<l it in its movements near to or 
 wiiliin the land of the Celts, wouid include a 
 certain amount of Celtic elements. . . . When 
 nun afterwards began to trace the chain, of 
 wliii li this emigration, the first Oermanic move- 
 i:ieiii which touched the orbit of ancient civili- 
 7. .,iim. was a link, the direct and living knowledge 
 "' it liiul long passed awav. " — T. Momiusen, 
 Ili'i nf Wnnf.bk. 4, ch. S.— •'The name Kymri, 
 orryniri. still exists. It is the name that the 
 \Vi Uh itive themselves, but I am not aware tliat 
 iip.v "ilier people hav<- calhti them by that name. 
 Till M' Kymri are a branch of the great Celtic 
 !"■ "pli , and this resemblance of the words Kymri 
 ml t iiiibri has led many modem writers to 
 U3MII1U I hut the Cimbri were also a Celtic 
 
 people, as many of the ancient writers name 
 them But these ancient writers are principallr 
 the later Greeks, who are no authority at all 
 on such a matter. . . . The name Cimbri has 
 perishiKl in Germany, while that of the Teutones, 
 by some strange accident, is now the name of the 
 whole Germanic population. " — G. I<ong, Decline 
 of th^ Roman Republic, r. 2. ch. 4. 
 
 Also in: W. Iline, Hint, of R,/me. bk. 7, eh. 9. 
 
 B. C. 1 13-103.— Battles with the Romans. 
 —The Cimbri and the Teutones made their first 
 appearance on the Roman horizon in the year 
 113 B. C. when they entend Xoricum. The 
 Noricins were an indcpendeat people, as yet, 
 but nrcepted a certain protection from Rome, 
 and the latter sent her consul, Carljo, with an 
 army, to defend them. Carbo made an unfortu- 
 nate attempt to deal trcacherouUy with the 
 invaders and suffered an appalling defeat. 
 Then the migrating barbarians, iastead of press- 
 ing into Italy, on the heels of the flying Ilomans. 
 turned westward through Helvetia to Gaul, and 
 occupied themselves for four years in ravaging 
 that unhappy country. In 109 B. C. having 
 gathereil their plunder into the fortified town of 
 Aduatuca and left it well protected, they 
 advanced into the Roman province of Narbi>, 
 Southern Gaul, and demanded land to settle 
 upon. The Romans resisted and were again 
 overwhelmingly beaten. But even now the 
 victorious host did not venture to enter Italy, 
 and nothing is known of its movements until 105 
 B. C. when a third Roman armv was defeated in 
 Roman Gaul and its commander taken prisoner 
 and slain. The affriglite<l Romans sent strong 
 R'-enforcements to the Rhone; but jealousy 
 between the consul who commanded the nc 
 army and the proconsul who retained commau 
 of the old delivered Ixith of them to destruction. 
 They were virtually annihilated. Oct. 6, B. C. 
 105, at Arausio (Orange), on the left bank of the 
 Rhone. It is said that H0,000 Roman soldiers 
 perished on that dreadful field, besides half as 
 many more of camp followere. "This much 
 is certain," says Mommscn, " that only a few out 
 of the two armies succeeded in escaping, for the 
 Romans had fought with the river m their rear. 
 It was a calamity which materially and morally 
 far surpassed the day of Canuiv. " In the panic 
 which this disaster causeii at Rome the consti- 
 tution of the Ri'public was broken down. 
 Marius, conqueror of Jugurtha. was recalled 
 from Africa and not only reelected to the Consul- 
 ship, but invested with the ottlce for five 
 successive years. He took command in Gaul and 
 found that'the formidable invaders had moved 
 off into Spain. This gave him time, fortunately, 
 for the organizing and disciplininiJ of his demoral- 
 ized troops. When the barbarians reappeared 
 on the Rhone, in the summer of 102 B. C, he 
 faced them with an armv worthy of earlier 
 Roman times. They liad now resolved, 
 apparcntlv. to force tlieir way, at all hazanis, 
 into Italy! and had divided theiV incn-asing host, 
 to move on Rome liy two routes. The Cimbri, 
 reinforced by the Tigorini, who had joined them, 
 made a circuit to the Eastern Alps, while the 
 Teutones. with Ambrones and Tougeni for con- 
 fedeniti's crossed the Rhone and attacked the 
 defenders of the western pas-es. Failing to 
 make any impression on the fortified camp of 
 Marius the Teutones rashly passed it, marching 
 straight for the coast rcwi to I>aly Maritu 
 
 483 
 
m 'M 
 
 II 
 
 I 
 
 1^ 
 
 CniBRI AND TEUTONES. 
 
 antioiuly followed and after tome day* gare 
 battle to the barbarian*, in the district of Aquie 
 Sextis, a few mile* north of Manilla. The 
 Romans that day took reTcnge for Araugio with 
 awful interest The whole barbaric horde was 
 annihilated. "So great was the number of 
 dead bodies that the land in the neighborhood 
 was made fertile by them, and the people of 
 Massilia useii the bones for fencing tlieir vine- 
 Tsrds." Meantime the Cimbri and their fellows 
 had reached and penetrated the Brenner pass and 
 were in the valley of the Adige. The Roman 
 an' stationed there had 'ven wa? before them, 
 anil Marius was needed to roll the lnva.sion hick 
 He (lid so, on the 30th of Julv B. C. 101, when 
 the Cimbri were destroyed, iit'a buttle fousht on 
 the liaudinc Plain near Vercellie. as completely 
 as the Teutones had been destroyed at Aqiue 
 Sextiie.— T. Mommsen, Uitl. of Rome, bk. 4, 
 eh, 5. 
 Also in: W. Ihne, Ilint. of Itomt, bk. 7, eh. 9. 
 
 CIMBRIAN CHERSONESUS.-The mod- 
 em Danish promontory of Jutland i believed to 
 have lieen the home of the Cimbri before they 
 migrated southwards nnd inradt J Oaul 
 
 CIMINIAN FOREST, The.— The moun- 
 tains of Viterbo, which formed nnc-" ntly the 
 frontier of Uome towards Etruriii, vere then 
 covered with a thick forest— "the silva Cim- 
 inia' of which I.ivy gives so romantic a descrip- 
 tion. It was, however, notliintf but .i nntund 
 division between two nations wliich were not con- 
 nected liy friendsliip. and wislieti to have little to 
 do with each other. . . . This forest was liv no 
 means like the 'silva Hercynn' witli wiiiil; Liw 
 compares it, but Wiis of jist such an exten; that', 
 accordin? to his own aceotmi. the li)iiians <iiilv 
 wanted a couple of hours to inarch through it." 
 — H. i;. Xiebuhr, LietH. on the Hint, of liotiv 
 '■•(■t. +4. ■' 
 
 CIMMERIANS, The. -■The name Cim- 
 mcri.ms appears in \\w Oilyssi'V,— the fable 
 deserilk's llinn as (Iwellin:; rievoiiii the ocean- 
 stream. iiTUmrsed in ilarkness and unlilcssed hr ' 
 the nys m llelifis. Of this people as existen"t ' 
 we can render no account, for tliev had passiil 
 awav. or lost tlieir identity and Iwe.' .iie siilijeet, 
 previous to the coniiiieneeinent of tn^stwortliv 
 authorities: hut they s<-eiii toliavelKcn ilieiliief 
 occupants of the Tauric CliersomseiCriimal and 
 of the territory In tween that pc nin, ula and ilie 
 rivi r Tyras l Dneister) at the time when llie (Jreelis ' 
 first commenced their permanent settlements ! 
 on those coasts in the seventli century ll C | 
 The numerous localities whieh bore their name i 
 even in the lime of Herixio'us, aftir they had ' 
 ceased to exist as a nation. — .is well as the tonilis 
 of tli<- Cimmerian kings then shown mar the 
 Tyras, — siillleiently attest the fact: and tliere is 
 reason to lielieve that lliev were — like their con- 
 querors and suecessors the Sevtiiians— a nomadic 
 people, mare-niilkers, muviut' about with their 
 tents and herds, siiitablv to the nature of thos*' 
 unbroken steppes whiili their territory pre- 
 sented, and wl'vli olfered little except herhnec 
 in profusion "itM>tells>is — on whatautlioritv 
 
 we do not ki.,,\— that ti- v. as will as the 
 Tri'res and other Thnuians, had desolate<l Asia 
 Minor more th:in nn<-,. lw-f..r,- the (iine of Ardyi 
 [Mnif of l.ydi^i. seventh eenlurv B. C.l and even 
 earlier than Homer.' —G. droie", Hiit. of (irteee 
 pi. 8. eh. 17. -See, also, C . .M.«. '' ' 
 
 CINCINNATI, SOCIETY OF THE. 
 
 See Atbsks: B. C. 477, 
 ■See Athcks: B. C. 4J0. 
 
 ■ -The fouadinr 
 
 • 87 "anolTeruaa 
 
 CIMON, CuMf oC 
 
 4«2. to 460-449. 
 CIMON, PMce ot 
 
 449. 
 
 CINCINNATI : A. D. t^, 
 aad MmioK of the citjr.- ; 1 
 made to Congress by John . ;- Symines fafi'i" 
 wards famous for Us theory that the eanh u 
 hollow, with openings at the poles], to buy two 
 millions of acres between the Little and the Oreirt 
 Miamis. Symmes was a Jerseyman of wealth 
 had visited the Shawanese countrv had Wn 
 greatly pleased with iu fertility, and had oome 
 away declaring that every acre in the wildest 
 part was worth a silver dollar. It was to., lie 
 thought, only a question of time, and a virr 
 short time, when this value wouhl he douMc!;! 
 and tripled. Thousands of immiRranu were 
 pouring into this valley each year, hundreds ,if 
 thousands of acres were being taken up, and tlio 
 day would soon come when the rich land alooi? 
 the Miamis and the Ohio would be In Krcm Hit 
 mand. There was therefore a mightv fortune ia 
 store for the lucky speculator who "should l,„7 
 land from Congress for five shillings an acre and 
 sell it to immigrants for twentv. But hij 
 
 business laggeil, and though his oiler to pur- 
 chase was made in August, 1787, it was the I.ltli 
 of May, 1788, before the contract was cl,.s«l. 
 In the meantime he put out a pamphlet and made 
 known his te'ins of sale. A copvsi«.n Ml into 
 the hands of .Matthias Denman. "He heeame in- 
 terested in the scheme and purchaseil that section 
 on which now stands the cit v of Cineinn.iti 1 )ne 
 third he kept, one third he sold to Uoliert I'atter- 
 son, and X\\' remainder to John Filson. Tie- ron- 
 diticms of tlie purchase from Svminis l'.ivi tliem 
 two years in which to beirin "niakim: c I.Mrinirs 
 and '.uilding huts. But the thne chtermiiutl to 
 lose no time, and at once made ready to liv out 
 a city diri'ctlv opposite that spot" wli. n'- tlia 
 waters <>f the Licking mingled tlieniselv.s with 
 the Ohio. Denman and Patterson wiri' no 
 schcdars. But Filson had (.-.-e lui^n a -.ii.N.l. 
 imtster, knew a little of Latin and soni.iliinL'of 
 historv, and to him was as-signc-d the .|iit\ (if 
 choosing a name for the town. . . . Iled.ti rminisi 
 to make one, and prcnluced a woni iliit w:(s a 
 most absurd mixturi' (if Latin. Creekand Fr.ii.h, 
 lie called the place Losantiville, whi( li. Ininif 
 interpret:d, means the eitv opposite th,- nioiith 
 of the Licking. A few weeks later the \\'A\-mi 
 sealpeil him.'— J. B. McMa.ster, IIM. ■•< ■'. /'..>- 
 fhofthf r. S.. p. 1, ;,. ,5Irt._The n;in,^ -iv.a 
 a little- later to Filson's settlement was cut, rnd 
 on it by (ieiieral St. Clair. Governor ..| i|i. I'lr 
 ritorv. in honor of the ScK-ietv of the tin. iiiiciti. 
 ,^•1. .NoiiTiiwKsT TEimiTonv ok tiik I . .s .V I). 
 
 Ai.s..t.S: ¥.W. Miller, riiieiuioiti'' l!,'-i, -.it 
 A. D. t86p.— Threatened by John Moruan's 
 
 Rebel Raia. Sec United sSx.tTEs 
 
 A. I). IxtCUJuLY: Kkntickv). 
 
 ol.' .Vll. 
 
 CINCINNATI, The Society of the.- Men 
 
 of the pnsent geiwration who in ehildli.io.i nini- 
 magetl in their grandmothers' cosy i;:irrets .:i;i 
 not fail to have come across scon-s df nmstv .m.l 
 worm-eaten pamphlets, their yelL.w 'iwir.s 
 crowded with iialies and exclamation points, in- 
 veighing in passionate languiiire airain-t the 
 wlckeii and danirenma Society of the CiiKiTimitl 
 Just before the army [of the" American Kevojit 
 
 484 
 
craOINNATI, 80CIBTT OF THE. 
 
 tion] wu disbanded, the offlcen, at the iuggei- 
 tion of General Knox, formed themselves [April, 
 iresj into a secret society, for the purpose of 
 keeping up their friendly Intercourse and cher- 
 iahing the heroic memories of the struggle In 
 which thry had taken part. With the fondness 
 for classical analogies which cha'ticterized that 
 time, tliey likened themselves tu Cincinnatus, 
 who w!is taken from the plow to lead an army, 
 and rctumci to his quiet farm so soon as his 
 warlike duties were over. They were modem 
 Cincinnati. A constitution and by-laws were 
 ntablished for the order, and Washington was 
 unanimously chosen to be its president. Its 
 branches in the scvemi states were to hold meet- 
 ings each Fourth of July, and there was to be 
 a general meelibg of the whole society every 
 year in the month of >Iay. F" jnch offlcers who 
 had tnkcn part In the war ,vere admitted to 
 membership, and the order vas to be p»rpetu- 
 ateil by descent through the eldest male n-pre- 
 lentatives of the families of the mcmb<-rs. It 
 was further provided that a limited membership 
 should fn)m time to time be granted, as a dis- 
 tinguished honour, to able and worthy citizens, 
 without regard to the memories of the war. A 
 golden American eagle attached to a blue ribbon 
 «lg(Kl with white was the sacred badge of the 
 orilir; and to this emblem especial fa' ur was 
 shown at the French court, where the in .gnia of 
 foreign .-itates were genemlly, it is said, regarded 
 with'jealoHsy. Xo political purpose was to be 
 subserved by this onler of the Cincinnati, save 
 in so far as tlie members pledged to one iiiinlhcr 
 their ditirmination to promote and cherish the 
 union Utween the states. In its main intent the 
 Mciity ttiis to l>e a kind of masonic brotheriicxjd. 
 charged with the duty of aiding the wi(lo"s and 
 the .irpliiin cliildren of Ita members in time of 
 neeil. Innocent aa all this was, however, the 
 news of the e»tJil)lishment of such a society was 
 greclcd with a howl of ln<lignation nil over the 
 country. It wiis thought that Its founiiers were 
 inspired liy a deep-laid piditical scheme for 
 centralizing' the government and setting up a 
 hcndit:ir> iiristocracy. . . . Thcabsunlilvof the 
 lilUiilinii was nuickfy realizetl by Wasbiugton, 
 and he prevailed u.ion the society, in its first 
 annual meeting of May, 17H4, to abandon the 
 prim iple iif hereditary membership. The ai'ila- 
 tion «.is thus allayed, and in the pn^seiice of 
 graver iiuestiuns the much-dreaded brothcriiood 
 
 fiiluilly leased to occupy popular attcntiuti.' — 
 Fi-ke, n.e {ntkiil I\riod of Am. Uiat., eh 3 
 --I 1!. .MeMa-ster, Hitt. i>f the'Penpk i^ the V. .«., 
 r. 1. .7). J.— ■The her(^litary succession > as 
 never aliandoned. A recommendation to that 
 effect was indeed made to the several Suite 
 Societies, at the first OenersU .Meeting in Phila- 
 ilelphia . But the proposition, unwillingly 
 uri:(il, was accepted in deprecatory terms by 
 some, and liy others it was toUilly rejected. . . . 
 .\l tlie sec.nd General Meeting, it was resolved 
 th.it tile altemtions couM not take effect until 
 Uiev had lieeii agreed to by all the State Societies. ' 
 rhty nevir were so agreed to, and consequently 
 the oriiimal Institution remains in full force. 
 Ih'Ke MKieties that accepted the proposeil alter- 
 atinns unci.ni!itiona!!y, of r.iurse prrislinl wllli 
 their own generatii ti."— A. .Johnston, SnneAret 
 «ni,e s^. of the 'Snnniuiti (ftnn. UUt. .*«;. 
 -W^'e^r, r. «, ,,;,. „-53).-"The claim to mem- 
 nersuip lias latterly boeu determined not by strict 
 
 CINQUK PORTS. 
 
 primogeniture, but by a 'luitelectirepTeferenoe, 
 especially In the line of tiie flnt-bom,' who luw 
 a moral but not an absolutely Indisputable right; 
 and membership has always been renewed br 
 election. ... Six only of the original thirteen 
 states — MassachusetU, New York, New JerMy 
 Pennsvlvanla, MaryUnd, and South Carolina — 
 are still [In 1873] represented at the General 
 Meetings. The largest society, that of Massa- 
 chusetts, consisting originally of 343 members 
 now [1873] numbers less than 80; that of New 
 York, from 230 had In 1858 decreased to 78; the 
 268 of Pennsylvania to about 60; the 110 of 
 New Jersey, in 1866, to 60; and the 13l of South 
 Carolina was, in 1849, reduced to 71."— F 8 
 Drake, Memorial* of the Soe. of the Cineinnati of 
 Mat*. . p. 37. 
 
 CINCO DE MAYO, Battle of (i86a). See 
 MEXicoi A. D. 1861-1867. 
 
 CINE, The.— Kinsfolk of the head of the 
 tribe, among the ancient Irish. 
 
 CINQ MARS, ConapiraCToi^ SeeFBABCS 
 A. D. lMl-1643. 
 
 CINQUE PORTS, The.-" Hastings, Sand- 
 wich, Dover, Romney, Hythc — this is the order 
 In which the Cinque Ports were ranke<l in the 
 times when they formed a flourishing and 
 important confederation. Winchelaea and Rye 
 were added to these five . . . soon after the Nor- 
 man Conquest. , . . The new comers were 
 otflcially known as ' the two Ancient Towns. " 
 When therefore wc wish to speak of this famous 
 corporation with strict accuracy we say, ' The 
 five Cinque Ports and two .\ncient Towns. ' The 
 repetition of the numljer five' in this title proha. 
 bly never struck people so much as we might 
 expect, since it very soon came to he merely a 
 technical term, the French form of the word 
 being pronounced, and very often spelt ' ."^ynku ' 
 or 'Sinke.' justasif it was tlie Knv'lish 'Sink.' 
 . . . The difference between the Cinque Ports 
 and the rest of the English coast towns is plainly 
 indicated by mediicval custom, since they were 
 generally s, ken of collectively as • The Ports." 
 . . . Most ..tcrs upon this subject . . . have 
 iH'en at pains to connect the Ciiuiue Ports by 
 some sort of direct descent with the five Roman 
 stations and fortresises which, under the Comes 
 Littoris Saxonici [see Saxon .Siioke, Coint of], 
 guarded the southeastern shores of Bnt.ain.'' 
 — .M. Burrows The Ciii'im l''Tt», ch. 1-3— 'Our 
 kings have thought them [I he Cin(|iio Ports] 
 worthy a peculiar regard : and, in onier to secure 
 them against invasions, have grunted them a 
 particular form of goverument. Thev are under 
 a keeper, who has tlie title of Lord Warden of 
 the Cinque Ports (an otilcer first appointed by 
 William tlie Conqueror), who has the authority 
 of an admiral among them, and issues out wriu 
 in his own name. The privileges anciently 
 annexed to these porU and their dependenta 
 were [among others): .Vn exemption from all 
 taxes and tolls, , , , .V power to punish foreign- 
 ers, as well as natives, for theft, , . . A power 
 to raise mounds or banks In any man's land 
 against breaches of the sea. ... To convert to 
 their own use such gooils as they found floating 
 on the sea; those thrown out of ships in a stonn; 
 and those driven ashore when no wretk or ship 
 was to be seen. To be a guild or fraternity, and 
 to be allowed the franchises of court leet and 
 court-baron. A power to assemble and keep a 
 portmote or parliament for the Cinque Porta. 
 
 486 
 
CINQUE PORTS. 
 
 CISTERCIAN ORDER 
 
 '■•:4 
 
 . . . Their barons to have the privilege of gup. 
 porting the canopy over the king's hoail at his 
 coronation. In return for these privileges the 
 Clnciuc Ports were rcqulriKl to (it out 57 ships, 
 each manned with 31 men and a bo/, with 
 which they were to attend the king's service for 
 IS days at their own expense; but If the state 
 of affairs n-quirod their assistance any longer 
 they Were to be paid by the crown. . . . As the 
 term baron occurs contmually throughout all the 
 charters of the Ports, it may not be improper to 
 inform our readers that it is of the same import 
 ■s burgess or fn-eman. . . . The ri'presentatives 
 of the Ports iu i>arliament are to this day styled 
 toirons." The post of Warden of the Ciuijue 
 Ports, " formerly considered of so much honour 
 and consequence, is now converted Into a patent 
 sinecure place, for life, with a salarv of £4.0<H) a 
 year"— y/i,<. «/ the Uomuglu of Ofent lirWiin ; 
 toffetlwr irilK the Cinque Birta. r. 3.— The office of 
 Wanien of the Cinijue PorU has been held 
 durine the pres«'nt centurv bv Mr. Pitt, the Eiirl 
 of Liverpool, the Duke of Wellington, the Earl 
 of Dalhousie, Viscount Palmerston, and Earl 
 Granville. 
 CINTRA, Conrention of. See Spain: A. D. 
 
 1H<I8-18(« (AfOl'ST-^AM-AKV). 
 
 CIOMP. Tumult of the. See Florence: 
 A. ' "'-ft 1427. 
 
 kS, or SIRKARS, The northern. 
 
 S A. D. 1758-1701. 
 
 .SSIANS. See Caucasus. 
 .vwLES OF GERMANY, The. See 
 Gekmanv; a. D. 149:i-1519. 
 CIRCUMCELLIONES, The. See Dona 
 
 TISTS. 
 
 CIRCUMNAVIGATION OF THE 
 WORLD: A. D. 1519-1522.— Magellan'! voy- 
 age : the first in histotr. See AxERii a : 
 A 1). 151il-i.-,24. 
 
 A. D. 1577-1580.— Drake's royage. See 
 America: A. I). IST'.'-l.'iW. 
 
 CIRCUS, Factions of the Roman.— "The 
 ract in its tirst institution [anions the llomaii^]. 
 was a simple control of two chariots, whose 
 drivers were distinguished by white anci n'd 
 liveries; two additional colours, a liirlit green 
 anil a cerulian Mue, were afterwards introduced; 
 «i»l as the races were R'p<'ated twentvlive times. 
 "lie hundred chariou contributed in the siime 
 day to the pomp of the circus. The four fac- 
 tions soon acijuired a legal istalilishnient and a 
 mysU'rious origin, and their fanciful colours 
 were derived from the various iippearancea of 
 nature in the four siMisons of the vear, . . 
 Another interpretation preferred the elements to 
 the seasons, and the struggle of the green and 
 blue was supposi'd to represent the conflict of 
 the earth anil sea. Their respective victories 
 announced either a plentiful harvest or a pros- 
 perous navigation, and the hostility of the hus- 
 liandmin ami mariners was somewh.'it les.s absurd 
 than the liliml ardour .-t tlie Koman p<'oplc, who 
 devoted their lives and fortunes to the colour 
 which they had espoused. . . . Constantinople 
 adopted the follies, though not the virtues, of 
 ancient l{ome ; and the sainc factions which had 
 agitateil the ciriiis msreil with redoubleil furv in 
 the hipp<xirome. Under the reign of Aiiastasius 
 [A. D. 491-518] this popular frenzy was inflamed 
 by religious »-al; and the greens, who had 
 treacherously concealed stones and daggers under 
 
 baskets of fruit, massacred, at a solemti festjvsl 
 ■I.OtN) of their blue adversaries. From ihi mnitsi 
 this pestilence was dilTused Into the iimvimn 
 and cities of the East, and the sportive ili«iiiii ijna 
 of two colours pnsluced two strong uml imnio. 
 cllable factions, which 8h(s)k the foumliiinn, „( 
 a fii'ble government. ... A »eiliti..M, «l,irli 
 almost laid Constantinople In aslii's. was im itca 
 by the mutual hatred and momentary n . m,, iijj. 
 tlon of the two factions." This fearful tiinmlt. 
 which acquired the name of the Nika .k..iiij,,ii 
 fromthecry, "NIka" (vanquish). uilu|iii',| |,v i|ie 
 rioters, broke out in connection with the n llhrj. 
 tlon of the festival of the Ides of Jiiimnrv i D 
 53'i. For Ave days the city was uinii r,|, j,, ,|„ 
 moh and large districts In it were Imri.a jn. 
 eluding many churches and other siai, u „ii. 
 flees. The emjHTor Justinian u .iiM ' i^ve 
 abandoned his palace and throne, liu: f,,r the 
 
 hemic opposition of his consort. Th |..ra On 
 
 the sixth day. the imperial autlmritv ».i, 1, ,siali. 
 lished by the great soldier. HelK.,rill^. afi^f 
 iiO.iKH) citizens had Ix-en slain in the lii|i|>iHlri>iiie 
 and iu the streets.- E. Olblmn. />,<■/,/„ „„,/ /;,« 
 of ttte limuut Kinfnre, rh. 40. 
 
 CIRCUS MAXIMUS AT ROME, The.- 
 "The races and wild In-ast shows in ii,,. ,.|^i 
 were among the most ancient and in.i>t fav.nirite 
 Roman amusements, and the buililini:^ ilc .liiainl 
 'o these sports were numerous, ami m :irlv ,(|uai 
 In .-laiiniflcence to the amphitheatre> tin- ( if. 
 cus .Maximus. which was first pr"vi.l.,| wjtii 
 pirmancnt seats for the spectators as earlv a.» the 
 time of Tarquinlus Priscus. was sueees-ivilvrt. 
 storeil and ornamented by the ri piiMii .u j;.i\Vra- 
 ment in 3'i7 and 174 B. C. and liv .iiiim- 1 i.^ir, 
 Augustus. Claudius, Domitian aiiil I'rijaii The 
 psult was a buUding which, in ilimeiiMiiijs nnil 
 magniflcence, rivalled the Coliseum. I,iit has, 
 unfortuiiati'ly, proved far less iliinilile, .virnly 
 avestigeofit"nowbenigleft'— R. Uurii, lim,t,ii,d 
 the i'limiMiffiui, int. unit eh. 12. — "s,.,. ,,1^,, j'^m-n 
 
 BOARIUM. 
 
 CIRENCESTER, Orign of. .SetoiiiNuu 
 
 CIRRHA. See Delphi 
 
 CIRRHiEAN, OR KIRRHiEAN WAR, 
 The. Sec Athens: B. C. BlO-.'ixti. au^l I>ki.i'hi. 
 
 CIRTA. — .\ii ancient Xumiilhin liiy The 
 mislern town of Constantina in Algeri;i ii . n its 
 
 site. Si' NUMIDIANS. 
 
 CISALPINE GAUL (GALLIA CISAL- 
 PINA). See Home: B. C. :I'Jo-:j4: 
 
 CISALPINE REPUBLIC. Sn Kkame: 
 A. I). 1796-1797 (Octoiieii— Apiui,!: KH? i.M.tT 
 —October); 1799 (April— Seitemiikio. anil 
 
 mn-ims. 
 
 CISLEITHANIA. See Austuia A D 
 186«-1K67. 
 
 CISPADANE GAUL.— Cisalpim' (Jaul south 
 of the Padus, or Po. See Paois. 
 
 CISPADANE REPUBLIC, The. See 
 France: A. 1). 179»>-1797 lOcTonEit-.VrRiD. 
 and 1797 (May— OctoberI 
 
 CISSIA (KISSIA). See Elam. 
 
 CISTERCIAN ORDER.-The Monasteiy 
 of Citeauz. — "Hanling was an V::i::iblinuin 
 who spent his boyhmxl In the nionast. ry i.f Slier- 
 iKime in Dorset, till he wass«MZeil h illi a |ia»sii)ii 
 f.-.r wandering and r>r stti.ly whi. h '■•I 'ii-r- fiK 
 to Scotland, then to Oaul, and at la.-^t to Kome. 
 It chance<i that on his return thence, passing 
 through the duchy of Burgundy, he stupiieil it 
 the abbey of MoICmes. As he siiw the ways sal 
 
 486 
 
 iv- 
 
CISTERCIAN ORDER. 
 
 CITIES, IMPERIAL AND FREE. 
 
 hsblU familiar to his cliildliood reproduced in 
 thoae of tlie moaks, tlic wanderer's lieart vearne<l 
 fur tlie peaceful life wliicli lie bad forsaken ; he 
 took the TOWS, and l)ecnnie a brother of the 
 bouse. But when, with the zeal of a convert, lie 
 began to look more closely into his monastic 
 oblijtations, he perceived that the practice of 
 Muk^mcs and Indeed of most other mona-steries, 
 fell very far short of the strict ru'e of 8. Benedict. 
 He remonstrated with his brethren till they had 
 Dci ri-»t in their min<is. At last after lon^ and 
 anxious. deliates In the chapter, the abbot dcter- 
 iniui'<i to go to the nnit of tli matter, and ap- 
 poinbil two bri'thren, whose learnin); was 
 f(|ualliil bv their piety, to examine diligently 
 the original rule and dvilare what they fouiiil in 
 it The result of lliiir investiijations justitied 
 liunliiig's repn)aclies and caused a schism in the 
 convent. The majiiritv refused to alter their 
 sccustonicd ways: finding they were not to 1k' 
 rfforiii.l. the zealous minority, consisting of 
 Koliert tlie abbot. Harding himself (or i^tephen as 
 he nas called in religion) and sixteen others 
 equally 'stiff-neckcil in their holy obstinacy,' left 
 JlolCnies, and sought a new alHxic in the wilder- 
 Di'ss. The site whfcli they chose — in the diocese 
 of Cluilonsur-Saone, not far from I>ijon — was 
 no happy valley, no ' green nareat ' such as the 
 earlier IJeuedictine founders had Ix-eii wont to 
 seliei. It wa> a dismal swamp overgrown with 
 hru<liwood. a forlorn, dreary, unhealthy spot, 
 from whose marshv character the new hou.se took 
 ii> nuiiie of ' the Cistern ' — Cistellum. commonly 
 calliil Citeaux. There the little band set to 
 work in 1(108 to carry into practice their views 
 nfniona.«ticduty. ... Thrce-and-twenty daugh- 
 ter liousis were brought to completion during 
 his [llanlings] lifetime. One of the earliest 
 UiiH I'onliguy, founde*! in 1114, and destined in 
 afiirdays to become inseparably associated with 
 the name of another English saint. Xext year 
 thiri' went forth another Cistercian colony. 
 whose glory was soon to eclipse that of the 
 niiitherliouse itself. Its leader was „ young 
 monk called Bernard, and the place of its "settle- 
 ment was named C'lairvaux. From Burgundy 
 ami Champagne the ' White Monks, ' as the Cis- 
 lercimi.s were called from the colour of their 
 h»l)it, s<H)ii spread over France and Norman.l \ . 
 In UiS they crossed the sea and matie an e'n- 
 tramv into their founder's native laud." — K. 
 Xiirijatt', Kngland uiuler the Angerin King», r. 1, 
 ch. 1, 
 
 Also is: S. R. Maitland, Tlu Dark Aget. 21. 
 
 CITEAUX, The MonastetyoC See Cister- 
 
 CU.N (iKDEll. 
 
 CITIES, Chartered. See Commuse; also 
 BoHotoHs. and Ocilds. 
 CITIES, Free, of Italy. See Italt: A. D. 
 
 KW-ii.V.'. and after. 
 CITIES, Imperial and Free, of Germany.— 
 
 " The territorial disintegration of Germany [see 
 Gf.k»hnv: i:jTit Centcrv] had intnxluied a 
 new anil Ixneticial element into the national life, 
 by allowing the rise and growth of the free 
 cities. Tiles*- wereof two claaseg: those which 
 sti»Kl in immediate connection with the Empire. 
 ami were practically independent republics, and 
 t!i~i- -.vhirh. while owning some depiudeuce 
 uiK'u spiritual or temporal princes. ha<l vet con- 
 quiriil fur themselves a large nieasim''(if self- 
 jtovernment. The IchmI distribution of the 
 I'rimr, which u curiously uuenual, depended 
 
 •ry 
 
 I lilt 
 
 upon the circumstances which attended the 'is- 
 ■olution of the old tribal dukedom Wber r 
 some powerful house was able to oeize upoi le 
 Inheritance, free cities were few: whereve the 
 contrarv was the case, they sprang up in alu Gl- 
 ance. In Swabia and on the Rhine there " ere 
 more than a hundred: Franconia on the 
 counted (miy NOmberg and five smalle • 
 Westphalia, Portmund and Herford: v 
 Bavaria, Ihgensburg stood alone. ... 1 
 pcrial free lities . . . were self-goveme- 
 constitutions in which the aristocratic 
 denuwratic elements mingled in vari ins 
 tions: the- provided for their own de'" I . . . 
 were repiiblics. in the midst of Statc^ w m i.< 
 personal will of the ruler counted foi i.. :■ ii 
 more. ... In these cities the retii. J m i 
 luxurious civilization, to which the prince^ .» 
 indifferent, and on which the knights waged 
 pri'datory war, found expression in the jiursuit 
 of letters and the cultivation of the arts of life. 
 There, too, the Im|H'rial feeling, which was else- 
 where slowlv dying out of the laiul. retained 
 much of its force. The cities held, so to speak, 
 directly of the Empire, to which tliey bioked for 
 pnitection against powerful and lawh'ss neigh- 
 bours, and thev felt that their liherlies and 
 privileges were bound up with the niaiutcuaiice 
 of the general order. ... In them, too, as we 
 might uaturuUy expect, religious life put on a 
 frcTr aspect. " — C. Heard, M^irtit, Lnllur und l!u 
 liefoniMtiun. p. IG. — -I'rior to the peace of 
 Luneville [1801]. (icnuuny |kis.si's,si(1 i:!;i free 
 cities, called iteichstadte. A Heiclisladt ( ' civitas 
 imperii ') was a town under the inunediate 
 authority of the Emperor, who was reoresented 
 In- an imperial official lalled a Vogt or ISchultheis. 
 The flr-t mention of the tenii 'civitas imperii' 
 (imiH'ri.il citv) im( urs in an edict of the einpemr 
 Frcic rj, k II" [lil-H'-ViO]. in which LulK-ck wag 
 di< I 111, I 'civitas im|H'rii ' in perpetuity. In a 
 in. 1 .■•111 I. i.f the year I'iST, we find tliat King 
 Rod. If teniK d the following places ' civitates 
 regni' (royal ritiesi. viz.. Frankfort, Frieilberg, 
 Wetzlar Oppenheim, Wesil, and Boppurt. All 
 these re yal litiis subseipieutly lucame imperial 
 cities in I'onseijiunce of the Iviiigs of Gtennanr 
 being again raiwd to the dignity of Emperors. 
 During the reign of Louis the Havarian [i:il4- 
 134T] Latin cea.si-d to 1m- the olUcial language, 
 and the imperial towns were designated in the 
 vernacular ' Richstat ' In course' of time tlic 
 imiK'rial towns aci(Uired. cither by purchase or 
 coii(|Uest. their imlepenilenee. " Besides the 
 Reichstildte. then' wen- Kn-istUdte. or freetiiwns, 
 the principal being ( logue, Ba.sle, Maycnce, 
 Ritisboii, ,*spins. and Wurnis. The free towns 
 appear to have eiijoyeil the following im- 
 munities: — 1. They were evempt fnmi the oath 
 of altegiauc to the Emjieror. *. They were 
 noi Uiund to furnish a contiugeut for any ex- 
 peditiou beyond the Alps. 3. They were free 
 from all imperial taxes and duties. 4. They 
 could not be pledged .") They were dis- 
 tingiiisheil from the imperial towns by not hav- 
 ing the imperial eagle emblazoned on the muni- 
 cipal cscutclieon ' Subseiiui ntly "the free 
 towns wen' placi-d on the same footing as the 
 Keieiistiiiii, and the lenii Kreisiadt.'or free lowu. 
 was disused. The goveruincnt of the im|K'rial 
 towns was in tlie hands of a military and (ivil 
 jjoveruor . . On the imperial towns iH-coiniug 
 uidepeudeut, the admiuistrution uf the town was 
 
 487 
 
I .; .-ft 
 
 Mil 
 
 jilt 
 
 I' 
 n 
 
 lit 
 
 
 I?l 
 
 CITIES, DfPERIAL JiSD FREE. 
 
 •Btruited to « colten of from four to twentf- 
 four penoDi, Mconfing to the population, and 
 the memben of this kind of town council were 
 called either Rathsmann, Rathaf-eund. or Rath*- 
 herr. which menu councilman or adviaer The 
 town councillors appear to have wiected one or 
 more of their number as presidenU, with the 
 title of Rathsmcister, Burgrrmcister, or Stadt- 
 meister . . . Many of the imperial towns gainnl 
 their autonomy either by purchase or force of 
 arms. In like manner we And that otlier« either 
 lost their privileges or voluntarily became sub- 
 jects of some burgrave or ecclesiastical prince, 
 e. g.. Cologne, Worms, and Spin-s placed them- 
 selves under the jurisdiction of their respective 
 archbishops, whereas Altenburg. C'liemnftz and 
 Zwickau were seized by Frederick the Quarrel- 
 some in his war with the Empcn)r; whilst 
 others, like tiagenau, Colmar, Landau, and 
 Strasburg. were annexed or torn from the 
 German Empire. As the Impi'riiil towns in- 
 creased In w<-;iltli and power tliev exteniled the 
 circle of their authority over the surrounding 
 districts, and, in onler to obtain a voice in the 
 affairs of the I'inpin'. at leni;th demanded that 
 the country under their jurisdHion should lie 
 represented at the KilcliMtag (Imperial Diet). 
 To accomplish this, lliiy formed tlirinselves into 
 Bunds iir onfeilerations to iissert their iliiims, 
 and sucretnlisi in forriiig the Emfwrnr and the 
 
 f)rince8 to allow their representativis tn take part 
 n the delilH'nitions of the I>iet. The primipiil 
 coiifiilerations brought into existencv l)y the 
 strugirles going on in (iemiimv were tin- Klienish 
 and Simblan Hunds. ami the lliinsa [ve IIa.vsi 
 
 Towns) Vt tlie Diet held at Augsburg in 
 
 1474, It appi'iirs tluit almost all the inijierial 
 towns wen- n pri'scnliil. and in ItWX, an the 
 
 f<:ii t Westphalia, when their presence in the 
 »i.t was fi.riiiMlly rici.gnized, thev were fnnni-d 
 Int.i a Hepuntte mll.ire . . Ilv' the pi-iur ,if 
 Lumville four of tlie iiiiiMrial towns, vi/:.. .\lx. 
 la ChiiiMll.-, Colo^'ne. Spins, ,in,| W. inns, wire 
 ceded til France. In 1x0:1, all the iniiMriul towns 
 lost tlieir autonomy with tlie ixn piion of th.. | 
 following six — .Vufisliiirg, Xuninlsrir, Fnuik- 
 fort, LuU'ck, llanilmrg, ami IJn'tni'M; an. I in 
 IsiKl th|, tlmt thire. and in IHpi th,. oi|i,rs 
 sljarinl tlie siune fate, Init in Hl'i, on tlir fail of 
 Napnii-on. Hn-nien. Ilanitmrg, Kuls-rk, ami 
 Frankfort, n'eovepHl their fri<tloin. nml wiri' 
 n.iniitteil iM nunilsrs of tlii' (Jirman Ibirid. 
 wliii h Ihevcontlioml to Ih' up to tlif viar IxrttI " 
 — W .1. Wyatl. IfiMl nf /Vr(«(,i. r •>. ,,,, 1J7. 
 4if.' — •■ A<i onling to tlie Oirniun hisi.irlans ihr 
 piriisi of till' gnalest siiNn.ioiir of tlii-si. towns 
 wasiliiriutf the Hih ami |.-illi <intiiri.s .In 
 
 till IHth century thev ■till eiijovid the sjiiiie 
 pio,|« rilv. but the i>..ri.Kl of their deiav was 
 cone Thi- Thirty-Years War hasiemd' tlieir 
 
 fall, anl Manily oi f ih>'in estnoeil ilistnic 
 
 lion and ruin during that [sriisl .Nev.rthcl. «, 
 Ihi' Inaiv of Wesiplmlia nHiiilnns them |"isi' 
 llvtiy. and B»«'rtB their p<«itlun as inimisliate 
 stall" that is to s!iy. slates which iii'|it'nd<s| Im- 
 nii'iiiaiily ii|>on the Eni|X'Mr. but the neiirh 
 Isiuriui; .Sovi ri'lifos. ,>ii the one ban 1. and on the 
 other till- .'•nixn.r himself, the i-xiTelwnf whooe 
 flower, simi. the Thirty Years War, was timltisl 
 t'^' the leffl.r v:ix!^iU =:f ifo. .^mj-ifr- frslHri,-,! 
 their novereiirnly within narrower and narMwir 
 limits. In III.- IMih .■.-niiirv. .11 of iheni wen- 
 Mill in viisteuce, they tilled two bciiebMi at tho 
 
 CIVIL RI0HT8 BILL 
 
 diet, ud had an independent vote there; but in 
 fact, they no longer exerciaed any influence upm 
 the direction of general aftai.'s. At home thev 
 were all hearily burtbened with oe'iU, partly be 
 cause they continued to be charged for tlie im. 
 perial taxes at a rate suited to their former 
 splendour, and partly because their own ad- 
 ministration waa extremely bad. It is very r«- 
 markable that this bad administration seenml to 
 be the result of some secret disease which wu 
 common to them all, whatever might be the 
 form of their constitution. . . . Their pupul, 
 tion decreaaed, and distresa prevaileil in tl,|.„ 
 They were no longer the abodes of H.rnuD 
 civilization: the aru left tliem, and went lo 
 shine in the new towns created by the Soven-iinij 
 and representing modem society. Traiie foiw),ik 
 'he'" — their ancient energy and patriotic vimur 
 disappeared. Hamburg almost alone still n- 
 maineil a great centre of wealth and intelligent 
 but this was owing to causes quite peculiar to lier'. 
 •elf."— •^- de Tocqueville, Slals nf S.Hitii i« 
 £V>im-e b^on 1789, note P.— SJee, also, lUsi* 
 TOW.NS.— Of the 48 Free Cities of the Empire re 
 maining in 1808, 43 were then roblsvl of Un-ir 
 franchises, under the exigencies of the Treaty of 
 Luneville (see Oekhanv: A. I). IWH-lijo:)). 
 After the Peace of Hressburg only thn-e sur- 
 vive.1. namely, Hamburg, LulH-ck ami Hnmea 
 (ai-e Germany: A. D. 1805-1806). Tins,, w^re 
 annextsi to France by Napoleon in INK) —See 
 France: A. I>. 1810 (FtBRUARy— I)k< EMiigK) 
 The Congress of Vienna, in ISliS, restored frw- 
 lioni to them, and to Frankfort, likewise, »ii,| 
 they Is'came members of the Oemiaiiii Cud- 
 ftsieration then formed.— 8ec Vikxw, Tin 
 CiiNiiRESs op.— I,ubeck gave up Its privilei-es u 
 a fn-c citv in 1H66, .(oining the I'nissiun (■ii*i,.ra.s 
 I nion. Hamburg and Bremen diil tlie s.inii. io 
 1MH8, Mng absorbed In the Empire. This min- 
 gtiished the last of the "free cities." St-i (ka 
 many: a. D 1888. 
 
 CITIES OF REFUGE. The sis .I.hUi, 
 "cities of refuge" for the inaii-!n.i .,. 
 Numbew xxxy, rt, Ut-l.".! were 'Ki,|,.i,. 
 Sheihim, Hebron, Uezer, It8niolli(;ile..,.l, :ii,i 
 Golan 
 
 CITY. Si.<' KoHoi'oii. 
 
 CITY OF THE VIOLET CROWN - 
 Ancient Athens was so calle«l by the poets 
 
 CITY REPUBLICS. Italiu, ,Se Imr. 
 A. I) 10.VI I -..' 
 
 CIUOAD KOORIDGO: A. D. iSio-itta - 
 Twice bcsi«|[cd and canturtd by the French s<id 
 by the English. See Spain: .\ 1> |s|ii |S|> 
 
 CIVESltOMANI AND PERECRINI.- 
 "Befon' the SiHiiil or .Marslc warill (' isi iln-r» 
 Wen- imly two classes within the llniiui .[..iiiio- 
 ions who were designaleil by a poliiiial ii;iTm-, 
 (Ives Itoinnni. or Itoman citizens. hilI I'lr, crini. 
 a term which comprt'hendiHl the Latini tin S»ii 
 and the I'nivinciales. such as the liihalii' .nn.if 
 Sicily The I'lvi-s Itomani wen- the liti/.ips.if 
 Home thi- elllitens of Koman cuionie-i uiil rhc 
 inhaliiljinls of the Miinlcipia which lis.l nsTiv«l 
 the Roman citizenship "—G Long, Ihrliiif >ftlit 
 lt>iMH llrpiMic fh. 17— See, also, Komk 6 C. 
 
 CIVIL RIGHTS BILL. The Pinrt, !)n 
 
 t rjiTr.ii r^TVTCs of Au A li I'mr. ;,\j.riti - 
 The Stcond, and iti dtclarad uaeanstitutit» 
 ality. See L'nitbu BTATka or Am. . A 0. 
 187.V 
 
 488 
 
crVILSSRYICK REFORM: EXQLAND. 
 
 CrV'IL-SERVICE REFORM: ENOLAKD. 
 
 CIVIL-SERVICE REFORM IN ENG- 
 LAND.— " It was not till long af'er 1832 that 
 the inherent mischief of the partisan system [of 
 ippointments in the national civil service] became 
 msnifest to the great xlv of tbinl(ing people. 
 When that result was attained, the flnal struggle 
 villi patronage in the hands of members of Par- 
 liament began on a large scale. It seems to have 
 betn, even then, foreseen by the best informed 
 tliat it could nut be removed by any partisan 
 ■i^cui'y. They began to see the need of some 
 mi'tliciit by which fitness for the public service 
 coulil Im? "ti'sted otherwise than by the (iat of a 
 mcmlierof I'arliamcnt or the vote of the Cabinet 
 or tlie Treasury. What that methrxl should be 
 vaa one uf the great problems of the future. 
 Ko government had then solved it. That there 
 must Ik' tests of fitness independent of any 
 political action, or mere otflcial inlluince, became 
 more and more plain to thinking men. Tlie 
 leaders uf the great parties soim began to s<'e 
 that a public opinion in favor of such tests was 
 bi'in)? rapidly cleveloped, which seriously thrcat- 
 taiil their power, unless the party system Itself 
 could lie made more acceptable to the people. 
 . . . There was an abundance of fine promises 
 made. liut no member gave up his patronage 
 —no way was opened by which a person of 
 merit could get into an otiice or a place excvpt 
 bv the favor of tha party or the condesceu.<ii<>n 
 of a nicnilMT The partisan blockade of every 
 port of entry to the public service, which nuid'e 
 Ittiiitolil easier for » decayed butler or an in- 
 ciiniiN'iint cousin of a nu-mber or a minister. 
 liua for the promising son uf a rHx>r widow, to 
 !«.< the barrier, was, afu-r the Keform Bill as 
 U ' n; rigidly maiiitaineil. Fealty to the party 
 iii work in its ranks — subserviency to mem- 
 iirs and to ministers — and electioneering on 
 th<ir iMhalf — these were the virtues liefore 
 which the ways to office and the diKirs of the 
 Tniuury wer« opened. Year by year, the public 
 diiconlenl with the whole system Inrieased. 
 . . . During the Melbourne administratlim, 
 txtwiTn 1834 and 1841, a demand for examina 
 tioij». «• a ciindllion for admission to the service, 
 caiiic fnmi two very dilTerent quarters. Due 
 w»« tin' tii)ther ollli'ials, who declari'd that they 
 could not do the public work with such piHir 
 srrranta as the partisan aysk'm supplied. The 
 othir was the more indepi'mlent. thoughtful 
 portion of the people, who held it to be as un- 
 list US It was demoralizing for members of 
 ^aii'aniint and other officers to monopoliie the 
 priviligi. ,.f saying who might enter the public 
 « rviii. Uini Mellmunie then yie|i|e<l so far as 
 to allow pius examinntious to Iw Inatituliil In 
 iiinw of the larger offices; and he was Inclined 
 to fator competltire examinations, but It was 
 tliouKlit to he too great an innovation to attempt 
 stoii.e Thrseeiaminatlons — several of them 
 bfiiigrompetltlve — lntn>duce<l by public offli'tm 
 in n If difi-nce many ye«r« previous to I8,"MI, bad 
 tK'fun- tUt lime prixluced striking ivsulu, In 
 thT I'i...r Imot CommiaaloD, for example, they 
 Mil brought about a reform that arrested public 
 stlfntiou. I' nder the Committee on Education, 
 tiny had caused the selection of teachers ao 
 niiii h superior • that higher lalariea were biditen 
 tor Ihcm for prlvjttc mtricf ' The* ex- 
 
 smmstmna were stmidily eilended from office ».. 
 offlo ,|„wn u> the rwllcsl change made In t8:»a 
 It had bv«B prorUwl, kaf btfon :«U, 
 
 i:: 
 
 that those designed for the civil service of India, 
 should not only be subjected to a pass examina- 
 tion, but should, before entering the service, be 
 subjected to a courae of special instruction at 
 Hailevbury College, a sort of civil West Point 
 This College was aliolislied in 1854, but equiva- 
 lent instruction was elsewhere provided for. 
 The directors had the putninuge of nomination 
 for such instruction. . . . If it Ke<'ms strange that 
 a severe course of study, fur two viapt in such 
 a college, WU.S not siitticient to wi-Id out the in- 
 competents which patMiiaue fom-d iuto it, we 
 must lM>urln mind that the sjime iiitluciice wliich 
 sent them I' ere was used to kci'p tin in there. 
 . . . Both the Derby and the .\1k nliiii udminls- 
 trations. In 18.W and IS.'!:!, took niitice that the 
 civil service was in a comlitioii of piril to 
 British India; and, witliout distinction of party, 
 it was agreed that railiial refuniis niu.st be 
 promptly mnile. There was corruption, there 
 was inerticienry, there was disgraceful ignorance, 
 there was a humiliating failure in the govern 
 ment to eiimnmud the res|M-et uf the niori' intelli- 
 gent |M)rti()n of the people of India, and there 
 was a still more ahmiiini; failun- to overawe the 
 unruly classes. It was as liaii In the aniiy as in the 
 civil olllres. . . . There was. In sliurt.a liutUii 
 of abuses pndiflc of tliow intliiences which 
 causiii the fearful outbreak of IS.'ST. It was too 
 late when nfonn was deciileii u|)ou, to prevent 
 the outlinak. but not too late to save British 
 supn-nmi y in India A ehant'e of system waa 
 entered upon in 1n.-,3 The 36th and 3Tth clauses 
 of the hnlia act of that year pniviiUd • that all 
 powers, rights, and nrivileires of the <'ourt of 
 directors of the saiil Inilia ( umpanv to nominate 
 ur apiMiint piTums to lie udiiiitleif as stuileiits 
 . shall ceas<- : and that, subject to such ngu- 
 lalious as might lie made, any person, being a 
 natural Uim subjett of her Miijestv, who might 
 be desirous of presenting hiiiiseff. should be 
 admitted to lie examintsi as a candidate,' Thus, 
 it will lie seen, Indian patrunage n-nived its 
 deathblow, and the same blow oiniiiil the door 
 iif stuilv for the civil servii'c of India to every 
 British citixen. . . In 1H,W, the British Ouvem- 
 mint hail ri'ached a flnal decision that the 
 tiartisan system of appoimnients couhl iioi be 
 loni-er toUn.ted. HulMantial euntml of iioinina- 
 tlounby memliersof Parlinnient, however guonli'd 
 by restrictions and iiiiprovol by mere pius 
 etamitiatiiins. had continued to Is- demurali/iug 
 In itselTect upon elections, vicious in its inllueiice 
 upon h'gishitlon. and fatal to eionoiuv and 
 elTlciency in the departments . Tlieadminis- 
 trathin, with l^oni .\Unhfii at its head, promptly 
 di'iidwl to undertake n radical and svstematio 
 reform. . . It was deihlid that, in the outset, 
 no appliratliin should Is- made to Parliament. 
 The reform should lie undertaken bv the Eng- 
 lish Kjecutive , , for the lime lie'lng The 
 first step dii'ideil u|»in was nn in<|ulry Into 
 the exact condition of the public service. tMt 
 Siaffonl Niirtheute (the presi-nt Chancillor of the 
 Kxclieqiieri and Sir t'harli'S Trevelyau were 
 appointisl in l"!:! to make such Imnllrv and a 
 rei>on. They siilimitted their n-port In S'ovem- 
 l»r of the same year ... A system of com- 
 petitive MamilMlioiis . [waaim-ommeuiletl 
 T!u^ rri-.:-.rt »i:!. -:e;-.ir.[wnM with ^ sohriae 
 for carrying the exaniiiinlhins into effeit, from 
 which 1 quote the following nsssages. . , 
 ' 8ucb a mvaaure will «a«rcii« Vb» kappleai lalltt 
 
 489 
 
m 
 
 CIVIL-SERVICE REFORM: ENGLAND. 
 
 race in the rduration of the lower classes 
 throughout England, acting by the surest of all 
 motives — the desire a man has of bettering him- 
 self in life. . . . They will liave attained their 
 situations in an independent manner through 
 their own merits. The sense of this conduct 
 cannot but induce self-respect and diffuse a 
 wholesome respt-ct among the lower no less than 
 the highi - clauses of nfflcial men. . . . The 
 effect of it ,11 giving a stimulus to the education 
 of the lower clas.«es can hardly Ik- overt^stiniated. ' 
 Such was the spirit of the report. This was the 
 theory of the merit system, then first appri.vcil 
 by an English adniinistration for the home 
 government. I hardly neeii repeat that the 
 examinations referred to as e.xi.sting wen' iwith 
 sm.ill exception) mere pass examiiiations, and 
 that the new examinations propiwcd verv open, 
 competitive examinations. . . . But the great 
 feature of the n-port, which made it reallvapro- 
 posal for the intro<luction of a new system, wiw 
 its adviM-acy of open competition, ICxcept the 
 experiment just put on trial in India, no nati<m 
 had adopttHl that system. It was as theoretical 
 as it was ra<lical. ... A chorus of ridicule, 
 Indignatiim, lamentation, and wrath arose from 
 ■II the official and partisan places of politics. 
 The government saw that a further stniggle was 
 at h.ind. It app<>ared more clear than ever that 
 Parliament was not a very hopeful place in 
 which to trust the tender years of such a 
 reform. . . . The executive caustnl the report 
 to Ik- spread broadcast among the people, and 
 also re(|uesie<l th" written opinions of a large 
 number of persons of worth and distinction both 
 In anil out f f office The remirt was sent to 
 Parliament ln.t no action U|)on It was requested. 
 . . . -\Ni\u the tinii- that English public opinion 
 h;id pronounced its tirst Judgment upon the 
 official reixirt, and liefore any ttnul action had 
 l» en taken upiHi it, the Alierdeen ailministration 
 went out. . . . Lonl I'alnieraton came into power 
 early in IHM, than wh<im. this most practical of 
 nations neviT pnsluccd a mon- hanlheadt^l, 
 pracliial statesman. . Toon his ailministra- 
 
 tlon fill the duty of deciding the fate of the 
 new system ailvitfated in the" report He 
 
 hail faith in his party, and believcil it would 
 gain more l>y removing grave abuws than liy 
 any partisan use of patronage . . Making no 
 direct apiM^al to PaHiament, and trtisting to the 
 higher public opinion. I>jrd J>»lmerstoii'« «d- 
 ministration ailvis<'<l that an onler shoidd lie 
 maile bv the Qinin In Council for carrying the 
 reform into i^ffn t ; and such an <inier was inaile 
 on the 8Ut of May, 1M.M."_I), n. Eaton, finl 
 Sfrriff in (Iriot llntittn. 
 
 CIVIL-SERVICE REFORM IN THE 
 UNITED STATES.— "The i,ue»tii.n as to 
 the Civil Service (in llie I'nlteil States] arint's 
 from the fact that the prealdi'nt has the imwir 
 of amKiinting a vast numtirr of p- ,1 ,■ oincials. 
 rhielly prwtniaaten and officials ■•onivme,! witli 
 the collection of the feileral revenue Suiu 
 fifllcials have properly nothing lo do with t«)li 
 lies, they are simply the ugents or clerks or 
 servants of the national tnvemmenl in conduct. 
 Inif its business, and If the busincM of the 
 national government is to i<e managed on such 
 onllnary princlniM of pr^iftei^ee as pfevst! In the 
 mananemrnt of private '•uin-'., such servants 
 ought lo Iw wierted for personal merit ud re 
 taioed fur Uf« or during good bcfasTiour. It did 
 
 CIVIL-SERVICE REFORM: THE U. 8. 
 
 not occur to our earlier presidents to regani th» 
 tnanagement of the pubfic business in my other 
 1 ght than this. But as early as the begiMinj of 
 the present century a vicious system was ct*, 
 ing up in New York and Pennsvlvania ',1 th'ow 
 stales the appointive offices came to N^ uh^ ,. 
 bribisoras rewards for partisan servios Bv 
 securmg voles for a successful candidati' a m.ii 
 with little in his pocket and nothln- in tianicular 
 to do TOuld obtain some office witu a coinfcrt iMe 
 salary. It would be given to him as ii nwiml 
 and some other man, perhaps mon. (,.mi„unt 
 than himself, would have to be turm.l ,,« j- 
 onler to make room for him. A nion- itTntive 
 method of driving good citizens • out ..f ,, jitir,' 
 could hanlly l)c devisi'd. It called t.. the fmnt 
 a large cla.ss of men of coarse moril lihr,' 
 The civil service of these slates km s, ri.mslv 
 damaged in quality, politics deireninm,! i,it„ . 
 Willi scramble for offices, salaries wi n- p.M to 
 men who did little or no public servii ,. in ntum 
 and the line which sepaiBtes Uxation fMm rob- 
 Iwry was often crossed. About th.- mtw time 
 there grew tip an idea that there is si.riit-tliinr 
 especially di'mocratic, and therefore tiiiritnri.iiu 
 alKiut 'rotation in office.'" On the ilmiigeof 
 party which took place upon the clii ti.m of 
 Jackson to the presidency in IH-'H. •• th.- imthocls 
 of New York and Pennsylvania were appli,',! on 
 a national scale. Jackson cherishi'd tho alisuni 
 lielief that the administratiuii of lii.s |in.lii ivmr 
 .\dams had been comipt, and he ninii.l 111,11 out 
 of office with a kwn rest. Durini; tin' f.mr 
 .vears between Washington's first hi;iii-iir:cri„ii 
 am' ickson's the total nuinUrof n in,.v,il,fr,,ra 
 office was 74, and out of this nuniNr .1 win- .Ir- 
 faulters. Ituring the first year of .Ia< ks,in j ad- 
 ministmlion the numlKT of cluingis nia.i,. in tin 
 civil service was abtmt 2,(NXI. Sm h »u« the 
 abnint inauguration upon a national si alo of the 
 so-called StHiils System. The phras.' oriKiD.itf<l 
 with W. L. .Marcy, of New York, win. in a 
 speech in the 8<'iiate in 1831 dechin.i ili ! ■ i.i ihf 
 victors belong the spoils. ' . . . In the canva.M.f 
 1H40 the Whigs pn)mis<'d to reform ihi- ilvil 
 service, and the promise brought llum iiLiny 
 Democratic votes; but after they ha.l won iht 
 election they followeil Jackson's Vxaini.l.' The 
 Ik'miKrats followeil in the siunc wav iu isri. ami 
 fnmi that time down to 1NM.5 it wii«'ni»t.iniarv jt 
 each change of partv to maki n ' ilian .»■.■. p' ..f 
 the offices. Soon after the Civil War ilMink.f 
 the system began lo attract serious all. niinn ..n 
 the nart of thoughtful |«iiple ■— J Kl.k., i;„l 
 linrl in rAe I'. S. pp. '2fll-',>(M _■ li w 1, not 
 until 1M87 that any important nio\r was iii*lr 
 [lowanUn.form] . . . This was liv .Mr .Ii-n. li<, 
 of Uhisle Island, who inlnslucisl a'lilll. iiia.le sn 
 able .;'|xirt and several s|Mv<lies in lis !»li.ilf 
 Vn'ortunately. di'sth soon put 1. in.l t.> hlii 
 lalsirs and deprivetl the cause of an able .i.lv.vatf 
 But the seed he had sown bore gissl fruit W 
 lenlion was so awakennl to the necossitv .'f rr 
 'orm. that President ilranl. In his m.ssujr In 
 IHTO, called the attention of Congnss to it, jn.| 
 that tMiily passed an act In March. I"*:! irhiih 
 autborizetl the l>resident to pr.'«< rils'. f .r *lral»- 
 slon to the Civil Service, stioh rt k- ilni"!" «• 
 would hi'st pnimote lis effiiirmv. an.l axTrtnin 
 th* Itneii.-friifh -r-srrililair frf"i::!- ;--■'■■;, tt^ 
 sought. For this purpose. It says, he nny md 
 plor sult«ble pemont to comluct smh liojuirirs, 
 and mmj prcwribv their duties, aad rtubliih 
 
 400 
 
CIVIL-SERVICE REFORM: THE 
 
 CLAraVAUX. 
 
 RgulatioDs for the conduct of persons i 'lo i . 
 nceive appointments in the Civil Service.' 
 icconlance with tliis act. President Orant ap- 
 poinwd a Civil Si-rvice Coniniission, of which 
 fleorge William Curtis was made chairman, after- 
 wards succeeded by Dorman Q. Euton, and an 
 tpproprintion of $35,000 was made by Congress 
 to defray its expenses. A like suia was voted 
 nextvciir; but after that nothing was jgrranted 
 until 'June, 1HS3, when, instead of |-,>.5,00<") asked 
 for by the President, $15,000 was grudgingly 
 sppropriated. It is due to Mr. Silas W. Burt, 
 >sval Officer in New York, who had long been 
 greatly interested in the subject of Reform, to 
 my that he deserves the credit of having been the 
 6m tri introduce open competitive examinations. 
 Before the appointment of Oruat's committee, he 
 had hchi such an examination in his ottlce. . . . 
 Under Orint's commission, open competitive ex- 
 smin»tiim« were introduced in the departments 
 It Washington, and Customs Service at New 
 York, and in part in the New York Postofficc. 
 Alllii'»i>'h this commission labored under many 
 disadviu-'iges iu trying a new experiment, it was 
 ible to inalic a very satisfactory reivjrt, which 
 wa-H approved by the President and his cabinet. 
 , . the r<des adopted by Orant's commission 
 were prepared by the chairman, Mr. Curtis. 
 Thry were adinimblv adapted for their purptjse, 
 and have served as tlie basis of similar niles since 
 thin. The great Interest taken by Mr. Curtis at 
 that time, and the pnu'tical value of his work, 
 entillnl him to l)e reganled as the leader of the 
 Ri'tnmi. . . . Other able men took an active part 
 in the movement, but tile times were not pro- 
 pitious, pulilic wntiment ilid not sustain them, 
 uiil Ci.iitfress refUM'd any further appropriation, 
 sitliiiu^'h tlie Presiilent asked for it. As a con- 
 leqiieBie, Competitive Examiimlions were every- 
 where sii5|HniIeil, and a return made to 'pass 
 (uminalions.' And this melhcKl continueil in 
 use at Wiutliington until July, ItWl, after the 
 pajwaire of the Civil Service Iteforiu Act. 
 Pn«iilenl Hayes favonnl reform of the Civil 
 »rrviee. and ntnmgiy urged It in his messages to 
 (Vinirrew; yet he did things not iiinsistent with 
 his profi's»inn», and Congress paid little attention 
 to liiK n'l-iimmendalions, and gave him no ef- 
 fwlual aid. Hut we owe it to him that an ohiev 
 was pa.'W.-d In .March, INTH. enforcing the use of 
 coni|» titive examinations in the New York Cus- 
 tom ll(i\i»e The entire rliarice of thij work was 
 VI n to Mr Hurt by tlie Colhctor . . In IMWi, 
 'imm.uiler James revlve<l the competitive 
 metlii«l« in some part* of his ollice . . When 
 the I'nsjdeni, ilesiring lliat these examinations 
 ihniild lie mon- general and uniform, asked (on- 
 pess f'T an appropriation, it was nluNil Hut 
 uiitwiilisunding this. com|H'tilive eiamiuntiouH 
 cailinued 111 [„■ held iu the New York Custom 
 Hoiw and I'osioffli-e until the passage of the 
 lleforin .\i t of 1N83. Feeling that more light 
 was niiili ,| upon Uie nietluNls and pmgresa of 
 
 "■'""» ' her wuntries, l>Tealdent Haves ha.1 
 
 fiimully n>iiu<-«l(Kl .Mr. Dorman B hlaton to 
 visit Knitland for the purpow- of making such In 
 quines. .Mr fMUm stK-nt several months In a 
 oirrful. ihnrough examination, and his n-isirt 
 «»« tr»n»nHii.-,| to Congrraa in DecimUr. 1H7» 
 
 uT the l'ri.kitl»iif In . ,_„_-.,._^ .„.|.i .>. ■ . _,, ■ 
 
 ' , r * m—ssgp »ni-,!i lirstTibt-ti 
 
 II »< an elatKirate and compfvbeoslve hisUirr of 
 I!irj"."'f ,""'.'!"'• Thlsrvp.irt waa afterwards 
 tmbudiisi in Ar Uuiat ■ dvll Berrlre la Oraat 
 
 K 
 
 SritaJn.'. . . For this invaluable service Mr. 
 Eaton received no compensation from the Oovem- 
 ment, not even hii personal expenses to England 
 having been paid. And to Mr. Eaton is due, 
 also, the credit of oririnating Civil Service Re- 
 form Associations. "—H. Lambert, TAo Prograt 
 of Cinl Seniee Reform in the United Stale; pp. 
 6-10.— "The National Civil Service Reform 
 League was organized at Newport, R. I., on the 
 nth of August, 1881. It was the result of a 
 conference among members of civil service reform 
 associations that bad sponUneousIy arisen in 
 various parts of the country for the purpose of 
 awakening public interest in the question, like 
 the clubs of the Sons of Liberty among our 
 fathers, and the anti-slavery societies among 
 their children. The first act of the League was 
 a resolution of hearty approval of the bill then 
 pending In Congress, known as the Pendleton 
 bill. Within less than two years afterward the 
 Civil Service law was passed in Congress by a 
 vote in the Senate of 88 yeas to 5 nays, 33 Sen- 
 Btora being absent, and in the House only a week 
 Uter, by a vote of 155 yeas to 47 nays, 6* mem- 
 bers not voting. In the House the bill was put 
 u|)on iu passage at once, the Speaker permitting 
 only thirty minuus for debate. This swift en- 
 actment of righteous law was due, undoubteilly, 
 to the panic of the party of administration, a 
 panic which saw in the disastrous result of the 
 rit-ent election a demand of the country for 
 honest politics: and it was due also to the exult- 
 ing belief of the party of opposition that the law 
 would essentially weaken the ilominant party 
 by reducing ita patromige. The sudden and over- 
 whelming vote was tliat of a Congi ^sa of wliich 
 nmbablv the members bail very little 'r dividual 
 knowleilge or conviction upon 'the subject. But 
 the instinct in regard to intelligent public opinion 
 was uudoubte<lly sure, and it is intelligent public 
 opinion which always commands the future. 
 . . . The pasdage of the law was the first great 
 victory of the ten years of the reform m<ivement 
 The si-cond is the demonstration of the complete 
 prncticability of refonn attestetl by the hemis of 
 the largest otfici's of administration In tlie country. 
 In the Treasury and Navy departments, the New 
 York Custom llouse and Post Ottlee, and other 
 im|K>nantcusUim houses and postortlws. wiihimt 
 me least n'gani to the » Islies or the wrath of that 
 remarkable clnss of our fellowcitizens. known as 
 political iK^ivHia, It Is conceded by ollleent, wholly 
 lieyond suspicion of party independence, that, in 
 these chief branches of the pulilic nTvice. reform 
 is (HTfectly practieable anil the ri'formed svslem 
 a great public iH^netlt And, although a's yet 
 these olTlceaare by no means thoMUghly reorgan- 
 Izwlupon n-fiirnrprineiplea, yet a (|uarter of the 
 if places in the public serviiv to 
 
 whole numUr ... , ._...., _...., „ 
 
 which the n-formed niethisls apply are now In 
 eluded within those nietlnsls "— (J. W. Curtis, 
 Ailiire—, .\,ili,:iuil I' S. Ilrffrm Uiiij'ir. \'^*\. 
 See. also. Cmtkii Statks ok Am.; A. I>. IW-V 
 
 CIVILIS, Revolt of See BAT.kViANs A IV 
 6S 
 
 CIVITA-CASTELLANA. Battle of (17911. 
 SeeKHASCK! A l» ITIf«-171«»iAiaiBT— Aphid. 
 
 CIVITEf A,Siet«of(i5S7). 8eeFB*.\cE: 
 
 A. n i.v»7-:.'v..» 
 
 CLAIR-ON-Er : S, TrMtf •£ ber Non- 
 
 HANS: .\ I) 87«-»ll 
 
 CLAIRVAUX. TiM MeaaMtiy of.-St Her 
 naid, "the (naicti (ctnrnMr u( tjM abuic* at 
 
 491 
 
11 ■ 
 
 11 : 
 
 II 
 
 fir,- 
 
 CLAIBVAUX 
 
 the monastic life, if not the greatest monir in 
 history [A. D. 1091-1158] . . . revived the prac- 
 tice in the monastery of Citesux, which he first 
 entered, and in that of C!airvaux, which lie 
 afterwards founded, of the sternest discipline 
 which had been enjoined by St. Benedict He 
 became the ideal type of the perfect monlc . . . 
 He was not a Pope, but he was greater than any 
 Pope I., his day, and for nearly lialf a century 
 the history of the C'lirLitian Church is the history 
 of the inttuence of one monk, the Abbot o"f 
 Clairvaux."— C. .1. Stllle, ««rfi« in Medimnl 
 llitt., th. IS.— "The convent of Citeaux was 
 found too small fortlienumlKTof persons who de- 
 sired to join the 8<x;iety which could boast of so 
 eminent a saint. Finding his inllucnce bcnefli ial, 
 Uernard proivedcd to found a new monaslerv. 
 The sp)t wliicli lie chose for his purpose was in 
 a wild and elimniy vale, formerly known as the 
 Valli'V of Womiwixxi. . . . The district per- 
 taiuiM to the bishopric of I.,augres; and here 
 Bernard raised Ills far famed abbey of Clair- 
 vaux."— H. SU'bbing, Uut. of Chritt't I'liir. 
 Churth. rh. 28. 
 
 Also im A. Butler, Lire* of iKe SiinU, t. 8.— 
 W. F. IliK)k, Eeettnattieal Biog.. r. 2.— J. C. 
 Morison, l.ife ami Tinin of tH. Bemanl. — See, 
 also, CisTKHCiAN Order. 
 
 CLANS, Highland,—" The word Clan signi- 
 fies simply children or descendants, and I be elan 
 name thus implies tliat the members of it an' or 
 were siipposi.'d to be descended from a common 
 ancest^ir or eponymus. and they were <lisliu- 
 guislied from eiich other by their patronymios, 
 till' use of gumames in the proper sense" tH'ing 
 uukiiown among them. [See (Jens, liojiAN.l . . . 
 lu considering tlie geaealogies of the Highland 
 clans we must U'lir in mind that ir the earlv 
 state of till' trilml organisation the jwiigree of 
 till' sept or clttii, anil of eaili nicmln'r of the 
 trilH-, haii a very iiii|M>rtnnt meaning. Their 
 rights were dirivetl through the common ancestor, 
 and their relation to liim, and through him to 
 each otlier. indicated thfir position in the suc- 
 ccsiiiim. a.'< well as their plare In the all ication of 
 the tiibe land, lu such a state of society the 
 pedigri"' occupleii the same {Kisition as the tille- 
 di;d of the feudal system, and the Seunachics 
 •Krrv as niucli the custodiers of the rights of 
 families as the mere pauigyrisls of the clan. 
 Durlug the 19lh century rht- clans wen- 
 bn)uglit ini*> direct cor tact with the Crown, and 
 in tlie lalUT iiart of it serious elTorts were made 
 by the Legislatun- to establish an ertlciert contml 
 ov r them. Th-se gavi ris<' to the Acts of 1,V<7 
 and \\H . . . ; but ll>ey were followed tn a few 
 yean by an ir.tpurtant Statute, which had a 
 powerful etTei't upou tlie p'>sltion oi the clans, 
 and IhI to another great change in the theory of 
 their descent . . . The chh'fs of the cians thus 
 found themselves comtx-lled to defend their 
 rights uiwn gniunds will, h could compel* with 
 the claims of tlieir erger op|H>n -iits, and to 
 maintain an eijuality of tank and prestige with 
 tlii'm in the ileralds' Uftlee, which must drive 
 them to every derii-e necesaary to ritivl. their 
 I'lirpow, and they would not hesitate D mauu- 
 fiictur*' titles to the land when they <;id not 
 exist, and to put forwanl auurioiu iHitigrm-a 
 Jietter i\aleul(ii«| u. msinlaia their ptailW when 
 u native ilewent \m\ lost its value aud was tisi 
 weak to serve their purpo«v From thU iM'ri.Hi 
 MS. histories of the leading Uighlaiul fsmillrs 
 
 CLANS. 
 
 began to be compiled. In which these pr tensiom 
 were advanced and spurious charter- inserted 
 . . . The form which thess pretentious gmekK 
 gies tfok was that of makins the eponvmrs or 
 male ancestor ot the chu a Nor A-egian, bam cr 
 ^'orman, or a cade* of some distimruLshiil familv 
 who succeeded to Uie chiefship aiid to t|ie tetri' 
 tory of the clan by marriage with the daiiL-hter 
 and helrese of the last of the old Celtic llm, ihiu 
 combining the ailvantage of r descent wliiil, 
 could com|>ete wiih that of the great N ,n lan 
 families with a feudal succession io tliiir lands 
 and the new form of the dun geneajoity wuuld 
 have the greater tendency to iLssume this f.inn 
 where the clan name was derlvtd not friMi « 
 |>ersonal name or patronymic but fropi u iw r.,(,nal 
 epithet of its founder. . . TheconiluMcm. iIkh 
 to which [an] analyds of the clan iK.lijmTJ 
 which have been popularly accepted ai iljff.rtot 
 times has brought us. is that, so fur us tl.iv pro- 
 fess to show tlie oriein of the dilTi reel Vlans 
 they are entirely artificinl and uiilnistwdrti,"! 
 but tliat the olJer genealogies may 1k' ncciimii 
 as showing the descent of the cljii fr..iii \\% 
 eponymus or founder, and withiu rciisi.ual-li. 
 limits for some generations iieyoiul liiin. whilr 
 the later spurious [x'digrees must !»■ njur-il 
 altogether. It may term surprisni; tlut sudi 
 spurious pedigrees and fabulous uriciiis (.ln'ull 
 lie so readily credited bv the Clan l;iniili,« as 
 genuine traditions, am) teciive sudi |.,-.>nipt 
 acvptance as the true fount from ulii.h ili,v 
 sprung; but we must reolhM't that tl.> '.liulou's 
 history of Hector Boece was a;i r.i|.iii;v ami 
 universidly adopted ns the genuine aniiaUnf the 
 nalionul history, and beci-.nii' iiMite<t in iIkiw 
 parts of the country to which its i!,lii .usrvinM 
 related as local tra.litlon'.. \Vl..ii ]i l.irllieir 
 invested the oliacure usurperOriv; \, itii ilie name 
 and attributes of a ttc^lmu., kin^. (in corv ttif 
 Great, and conn«-ted h..ii wi.h the Mviil line ot 
 kirifs, the Clan Oregorat oi le n'lognlv.l liimss 
 their eponymous an-M -'or and tlieinle.'uint from 
 him is now implicitly iM'lievid in l>v nil the 
 JiacOregors. It is ptnAible, howevir, frmithp* 
 ^"healogies, and from other iiidicalinn^. ta liis. 
 tribute th" -tans in certain grouiw ns Imijnj 
 oppHnrnt';. . closer connection with im\\ oiIht, 
 and thes«! grr)ups we hoid in tile nmiu Ii n (ir""- 
 si'nt tl"' gresl i.ils'S in'o which tlie (;:iclir |i..nu 
 hition was divided liefote .hey iMiaine lirlin 
 up into clans. The iwo great inUs ublcli 
 possrsci'd the greater part of the lliirliliin.is were 
 the Qallgaldlieal .ir Uiul in the west, wlio litd 
 Ih'cu under the |niwer of the Norm i:iiin». ami 
 the great trilie of the .Moravians, or .Min ot 
 >!oray, in the Ceiitiil anci Ki.stern llijiliUnds 
 To the former belong all the i luns ili sciiidiil ot 
 the I.,onis of (he Isli-s, the Chuii'Ik lis nml Msi- 
 lends pnibably representing theolil.i iiilaliitiiiu 
 of their respcH'tive districts, to the Init'r Inl.'iij 
 in the main the clans iimughi in t'e <,|<l I.'iih 
 genealogies from the kings of Dnlr^.il i ot ibe 
 tribe of lA>m, amouK whom tlii' oil .Mormarn 
 of .Moray appear. The groii|) ..ni.iinini: thf 
 Clan Anilres or old Bosses, the M»<k(nziis aud 
 .Mathesons, liehing to the tribe of lios>. ihr ( lau 
 I>iinnachy to Atliole. the 'Ian l.nwr<n I" Sttsi 
 heme, and the Clan Pharluie to Leno'V xliiV 
 tlif ffnuin rtKjtalning thr Mai-Vtitui t' -.:■. ^irt-i-:;:. 
 and MacKinnons, >ppear to have eniifi'id (mm 
 Utendis'liarl. at liaat tola' coniiectivl wilh Ih> 
 old Culiiiiibau luouaateries. The C'»ii<, iiroiicrl/ 
 
 4'.»2 
 
CLASS, 
 
 OUVX m INDIA. 
 
 K called, wen thai of natlTe origin; the tur- 
 nunes pvtir of native and partly of foreisn 
 deicent."— W. F. Sliene, Celtic Seotland, bk. 8. 
 
 CLARENDON, The Constitutions and the 
 Aatise o( See Eholand: A. D. 1168-1170; 
 lbs, lee ConeTrrcTioNB or Clasekdok. 
 
 CLARIAN ORACLE, The. Scu Uiuclu 
 or TBI Oruki. 
 
 CLARK, Gcorrt Rorcrs. See Uhitid 
 SttTBS or AM. : A. D. 1778-177P. 
 
 CLARK UNIVERSITY. See Educatiow, 
 Mudehn : Ambrica : A. D. 1887-1889. 
 
 CLAUDIUS, Ronuui Emperor, A. D. 41-41 
 
 CLAVERHOUSE AND THE COVE- 
 NANTERS. SeeScoTLASo: A. D. 1679; 1681- 
 \Ui. and 1680 (Jult). 
 
 CLAY, Hemy, and the war c' iSia. See 
 I'KmtD State* or Am. : A. D. 1810-1818. .... 
 Ntgetiatioa of the Treaty of Ghent. See 
 tirrreD Statu or Ax. : A. D. 1814 (Dicexbbk). 
 ....And the Tariff qncttion. See TARirp 
 Liaiiii..\TioN(Vi«rrBDSTATC«): A. D. 1816-1824. 
 tnd 1833: and UNrnto Statu or Aic : A. D. 
 
 1828-tS33 And the MiaMoii CompromiM. 
 
 gee U.nited Statm or Am. : A. D. 1818-1821. 
 ....In the Cabinet of President John Qnincy 
 Adimt. See Unitbd Statu or Asc. : A. D. 
 182V1X28.... Defeat In the Presidential eiec> 
 ties. See UicrrKo Statu or Am. : A. D. 1844. 
 . . , .The Compromise Measures of iSjo. See 
 I'HiTED Statu or Am. : A. D. laV). 
 
 CLAYBANKS and CHARCOALS.— 
 During the American civil war the Comenrattve 
 ind tiiiiUcsl factions in Missouri were sometimes 
 callrd CUybsnki and Cliarooala — J. O. NicoU«y 
 ukI J. tinr. Ahmhnm Lincoln, r. 8. p. 204. 
 
 CLAYtON-BULWER TREATY, Tha. 
 SeeN'ir.\RAn(TA: A. D. 18S0. 
 
 CLEAR GRITS. BeeCAMAOA: A. D. 1840- 
 1867. 
 
 CLEISTI'ENES, CoosUtntloa o£ See 
 AtHtNs: B. C. 510-507. 
 
 CLEMENT II., Pope, A. D. 1046-1047 
 
 Clement III., Pope, A. U. 1187-1191 Clem- 
 ent IV., Pope, A. D. 1269-1268 Clement V., 
 
 Pope, A. I). 1!)U5-1814. . . . .Clement VI., Pop*, 
 
 A D. 1343-1859 Clement VII., Pope, A. D. 
 
 13;»-13U4 (Antlpope at Avignon) Clement 
 
 VII,, Pope, A. D. 1523-1584. . . . Clement VIM., 
 
 Pooe, A. I). 1591-1805 Clement IX., Pope, 
 
 A.1). 1M7-H89 Clement X., Pope, A. T). 
 
 I«7«-18T« Clement XI., Pope, A. D. 170O- 
 
 IWt Clement XII., Pope, A. D. 1780- 
 
 ITW ... .Clement XIII., Pope, A. D. 1758- 
 "«• Clement XIV..Poee^ A. D. 1769-1774. 
 
 CLEOMENIC (KLBdllBNIC) WAR, 
 The. S.M- (iRUOt: B. C. 980-146. 
 
 CLEOPATRA AND CiSSAR. Bn Alh- 
 
 AXDHiv: B. C. 48-47 And Mark Anton*. 
 
 SeclioMK B C. 81. 
 
 CLEOPATRA'S NBBDLES.-"Thc two 
 otwUdk* known as CIropatra's Needles we« 
 orijtimilly nt up by Thothmrs III. at Hcllopolls. 
 Augustus transfcrreil ;hem to Alexandi >. where 
 they rrmninwl until recentlv. At pn«nt (.July, 
 18*)) ctic (irnAmenU the thsmei Enilmnkment 
 IU>iii|..til while the other is on iu way to tlio 
 Iniiitl HUh'i of America, "—f.. Rnwllnitm. Hitt. 
 of A'vunt Kgypt, M. 20, »»<<■. —The obelisk lost 
 >9»nU.<n!-J E.1W s«»r,.is ',;, C*=nfrsl Psrk, Sew 
 lork. having been brought over ami erected by 
 l'imm»D(lprUorringe, at the expense of the 1st* 
 WlUism U. V*Bd*Ailt.-U. H. Oorringe. Bffp. 
 
 tian OitlUa.—8M, liio, Earn : About B. C 
 1700-1400. 
 CLERGY, Benefit oL See BiKirrr ov 
 
 ClJEBOT. 
 
 CLERGY RESERVES. See Cahada ; 
 A. D. 1887. 
 CLERMONT, See Obrootia or tbx Ab- 
 
 YEBNI. 
 
 CLERMONT, The Council of.- Speech of 
 Pope Urban. See Cbcsadk» : A. D. 1094. 
 CLERUCHI. See Klebl'crb. 
 CLEVELAND, Crover : First presidential 
 *l*ction and administration. Bee Unitbd 
 
 Statu or Am.: A. D. 1884 to 1889 Defeat 
 
 in presidential election. See United Statu 
 
 or Am.: a. D. 1888 Second presidential 
 
 administration. See Uhitbo Statu or Am.- 
 A. D. 1899, and 1895. 
 
 CLEVELAND : The fonndinr and naminv 
 
 of the city (1796). See Ohio : A. D. 1786-1796! 
 
 CLEVELAND, College for Women. See 
 
 Educatiov, MooBBH : RBroBMn : A.D. 1804-1691. 
 
 CLICHY CLUB.-CLICHYANS, The. 
 SeeFsANCB: A. D. 1797 (Sb3TEmber). 
 
 CLIENTES, Roman.— "To [the Roman] 
 familv or househoU' anlted under the control ol 
 a living msster, and the clan which originated 
 out of the breaking ,> of sneh houBchohls, there 
 further belonged the dependents or ■list<'ners' 
 (cllentes, from 'clucre '). This term denoted not 
 the guests, that Is, the members of similar circles 
 who »!■!« temporarily sojourning in another 
 household than their own, and still less the 
 slaves who were looked upon In law as the prop, 
 erty of the liouaehold and not as members of it, 
 but tlioae indivliluals who, while they were not 
 free burgesses of any commonwealth, yet lived 
 within one In a coDtlltlon of protected freedom. 
 The class included refugees who had found a re- 
 ception with a foreign protector, and those slaves 
 in respect to whom their master ha<I for the timo 
 being waived the exercise of his rights, and so 
 conferred on them practical fre«<lom. This rela- 
 tion had not properly the character of a relation 
 ' de Jure,' like the relation of a man to his guest 
 or to his sisve: the client remainc<l non-free, 
 although good faith and use and wont alleviated 
 In his case tlie condition of non-freedom. Henco 
 the ' listeners ' of the household (cllentes) together 
 with the sUves strictly su-called formed the 
 'body of servants ■('fanillia')." — T. .Moiniiutoii, 
 JJitt. of lime, M, 1, M. S. 
 
 Axso IN: Fustel De Coulangos, 7^ Ancient 
 Vitf,bk.4, eh. I<inrf6, 
 
 CLIFF-DWELLERS. Seo Amebica: 
 Pbbbistoric. 
 
 CLINTON, Dewitt, and the Eri* Canal. 
 See Nbw York: A. D. 1817-1825. 
 
 CLINTON, Ceorce, The first Goremor ot 
 N*w York. See New York: A. I). 1777. 
 
 CLINTON General Sir Henry, and th* 
 war of th* Am*rican Revolution. Hec United 
 States or Am, : A. H. ITT.T(Ariiii.— May); 1776 
 (JPNE). (AfofOT); 17T!<(.?INE); 1778-1779; 1790 
 (FKBRUAnV— .VHUKT); ITNl l.lANfABT). 
 
 CLINTONIANSANDBUCKTAILS. See 
 New Vork: A. D. 1H17-1819. 
 
 CLISSAU OR CLISSOW, BattI* ofdToa). 
 See Scandinavian Statu (Sweden): A. D. 
 1701-170- 
 
 CLIVE'S CONQUESTS AND RULE IN 
 INDIA. See UiDU: A. O. 174»-178a, to 17S7- 
 1779. 
 
 493 
 
CLOACA MAXDIA. 
 
 CLCHa 
 
 m 
 
 I ' ■(%»' 
 
 I 
 
 CLOACA MAXIMA OF ROME, The— 
 
 " Even >t the preaent day tlicre standi uochaneed 
 the great iewer, the ' cloaca maxima,' the obfcct 
 of whloh, it may be observwl, waa not merrly lo 
 carry away the rcfua of the dty, but chiefly to 
 drain the large lake whirli wag formed by the 
 Tiber between the Capitoline. Aventlne and Pala- 
 tine, then extended bclwevn the Palatine and 
 Capitoline, and reached as a swamp ns far as the 
 district between the Quirinal and Vlminal. This 
 work, consisting of three semicircles of immense 
 square blocks, which, though without mortar, 
 have not to this day moved a knife's breadth 
 from one another . . . equnlling the pyramids 
 in extent and massiveness. far surpasses them In 
 the difllculty of its execution. It is so gigantic, 
 that the more one examines it the more incon- 
 ceivable it becomes how even a large and power- 
 ful state could have executed it . . . Whether 
 the cloaca maxima was actually executed by 
 Tarquinus Priscus or by his son Superbus is a 
 question about which the anclenU themselves arc 
 not agreed, and respecting which true historical 
 criticism cannot preeume to decide. But thus 
 much may be said, that the structure must bare 
 been completed before the city encompassed the 
 •pace of the seven hills and formed a compact 
 whole. . . . But such a work cannot possibly 
 have been executed by the powers of a state sucli 
 as Rome is said to have been in thoae times." — 
 B. O. Niebuhr, LeeU. on tlu Uitt. 0/ Borne, leeti. 
 Sand a 
 
 CLODOHIR, Kinc of the Frank*, at Or- 
 Itant, A. u. sn-a-M. 
 
 CLONARD, Menutcrf of.— A great monas- 
 tery founded In Meath, Ireland, by St. FInnian, 
 in the sixth century, "which l» said to haveatn- 
 Wined no fewer than 8,000 monks and wliich be- 
 came a great trainlug-scbool ia the monastic life." 
 The twelve principal disciples of FInnian were 
 called the ' 'welve Apostles of Ireland," St. 
 Columha b i the chief.— \V. F. Skene, ftftie 
 Scotland, bk. x. eh. 2. 
 
 CLONTARF, Battle Of. SeelRBLAHD: A.D. 
 1014. 
 
 CLONTARF MEETING, The. Bee Ihb- 
 LAND; A. D. IS41-IH48, 
 
 CLOSTER-SEVEN, Convention oC See 
 OiRUANT: A. I). 1757 (JcLV— DECBMlutK). and 
 I7W. 
 CLOTHAIRE I., KioKofthe FrMks,A. D. 
 
 Slt-Ml Clothaire II., King oi theFruke 
 
 (Neuitria), A. D. 5»4-62« ; ( Austnui*), 91 8-823; 
 
 Burnndy, 010-838 Clothaire III., Kinc of 
 
 the Fraaka (Nenatri« and BnrnnilT), A. D. 
 
 MO-670 Clothidre IV.,Kingof the Franks 
 
 (Aastrasia), A. D. 7I7-7ll>. 
 CLOVIS, Kinc of the Franks, A. D. 481- 
 
 SIl Cloris II., King of the Franks (Neus- 
 
 tria), A. D. 688-854: (Ai-strasia),8Aa-8M: (Bur- 
 nady), 888-684. . . . .Cloris III., King of the 
 Franks (Neostria and Bnrgundv), A. D. 681- 
 6I». 
 
 CLUBS, Ancient Creek. See LEacm, Hkt- 
 JIRIES, Erami and Tbiabi. 
 
 The Beefsteak.—" In ITa*. there was formed 
 
 In the capital [London] the cihhrated Beef 8u-ak 
 
 Club, or ' Sublime Society of Uecf Steaks,' as lu 
 
 membere always desired to be deainated. The 
 
 riglnof this club is singular, and waa in this 
 
 'm. rttch, a celebrated harlequin, and patentee 
 
 ToTsnt Oarden Theatre in the time of George 
 
 vhU* engaged during the daytime In dlRct- 
 
 ing and oontrolling the amngements of the «t«» 
 scenenr was often visited by his friends, of whwn 
 he had a very numerous circle. One dav white 
 the Earl of Peterborough was present. Rich (,1. 
 Uic pangs of hunger so keenly that he cooked • 
 beef steak and faivited the earl u> partake of It 
 which ho did. relishing it so greatly that he came 
 again, bringing some friends with him on purDoie 
 to taste the same fare. In process of time tu 
 beef-steak dinner became an institution Some 
 of the chief wits and greatest men of tliu nation 
 to the numlierof 24, formwl theniseh,,, Into i 
 society, and took as their motto ' iStcuks and 
 Liberty. ' Among iu early celebrities vm Bubh 
 Doddington, Aaron Hill, Dr. Hiwllev. KIchard 
 Glover, the two Coimans, Osrrick'and John 
 Beard. The number of the ' steaks ' remained at 
 iu original limit until 1785, when it waa aug- 
 mented by one. In order to secure the admiaaiM 
 of the Heir-Apparent."- W. C. Sydney £,». 
 kind and the EngUek in the VSth dntu'ry, eh i 
 
 The Brothers'.- In 1711, a political cliih which 
 took this name waa founde<l in Lomlon b? 
 Henry St. John, afterwanls Lord UolimtlTOke' 
 to counteract the " extravagance of the Kit Cat " 
 and "tbcdrunkennesaof the Beef 8l<'Hk." -Thii 
 society . . . continued for some tiim- to restrain 
 tlie outburst of those elemcnte of disunion with 
 which the Harley ministry was so rife. To lie a 
 member o' thisclubwasesteemedadistinKuiAcd 
 honour. They addressed each other as ■ brother ' 
 and we find their ladies in tlieir corri'sixindcnce 
 claiming to be enrolled as sisters. "Tlir mem- 
 bers of this club were the Dukes of Ormocd 
 Shrewsbury, Beaufort; the Earls of Osfoid' 
 Arran, Jersey, Orrery, Bathiirst; Lonis Harley' 
 Dunlin, •iashain; Sir Rolwrt Havniond Sir 
 Willi".;.. Windham, Col. Hill, Col."l)..«icv St 
 John, Granville, Arbuthnot, Prior, S»ift' and 
 Friend."— O. W. Cooke, Memoinof lUiniAnlu 
 e. 1, eh. 10. 
 
 TheClichy. See Fraxce: A. D. 1797 (Si?. 
 
 TBHBER). 
 
 The French Rerolntionarr. See Tmikx: 
 A. D. 1790. 
 
 The Hampden. See Enulamd: A. D. 181<- 
 1690. 
 
 Dr. Johnson's.— " During his Illoranr career 
 Dr. Johnson assisted in the fDiimliition of no 
 fewer than three clube, each of wbiih »;w full; 
 deserving of the name. In 174» h.- c-»t«bll«hed 
 a club at a house in Ivy Lane, I'ateniosiir How, 
 and only the vear before he dieii lie rlrafied a 
 code of rule* for a club, of which the luimben 
 ahouhl hold their meetings, thrire iu imi h week, 
 at the Essex Head in the Strand ; an ist^ililisb- 
 ment which was then kept by a foniu r sirvimt 
 of his ol<l friends the Thrsli-s. TIiom' luirohcn 
 who falleii to put In an appearanci' ui ilii' rluh 
 were required to forfeit the sum of t»o|«m'e. 
 There is an interesting arniunt of one of the 
 meetings of the Ivy IjineCluli, nt wliieh.l'lnisnn 
 preskled, in Sir John Hawkina'a liii>i(ra|iiii of 
 film. . . . Tlie next club with wliiih Jolinsog 
 Itccame acquainted was tlie iiuwt intliituiialof 
 them all. and was the one whii h ia n >w chied/' 
 remcmbeivd lu connection with kia iiaiiu'. It 
 was, however, a plant of alow and Kndual 
 growth, thf <in% meetins of its m"nil«f». who 
 exulted in the deaignatiou of The (liib.'wai 
 held in 1768 at a hostelry called the Turki 
 Head, situated la Oerstd Street, Soho. 'Tki 
 
 494 
 
 ■it 
 
CLUBS. 
 
 Clnb'ntalned Out title until sfter the fmnrsl 
 of Oairick, when it wu *lr ys known u ' The 
 literary Club.' Ai iti nu..^Jen were inuill and 
 UmiUKt, the admiision to it waa an honour greatly 
 ooveted in political, legal, and literary circlca. 
 'Tlie Club' originated with Sir Joshua Reynolds, 
 then President of the Royal Academy, who at 
 lint restricted its numbers to nine, these beine 
 Rpynolds himself, Samuel Johnson, Edmund 
 Burke, Dr. Christopher Nugent (an accomplished 
 Roman Catholic physician), Bennet Langton, 
 Topham Beauclcrk, Sir John Hawkins, Oliver 
 Ooldsmltb, and M. Chamier, Secretary in the 
 War Office. The members assembled every 
 Monday evenhig punctually at seven o'clock, 
 and, having partaken of an Inexpensive supper, 
 conversed on literary, scientific and artistic 
 topics till tbe clock indicated the hour of retir- 
 iai. The numbers of the Literary Club were 
 •uDsequently augmented by the enrolment of 
 Oarrick, Edwani Gibbon, Lord Charlemont, Sir 
 William Jnnes, the eminent Oriental linguist, and 
 James Boswell, of biographical fame. Others 
 were admitted from time to time, until in 1791 It 
 numbiTed 85. In December, 1772, the day of 
 meeting was altered to Friday, and the weekly 
 •uppers were commuted to fortnightly dinners 
 during tbe sitting of parliament. Owing to the 
 conversion of the original tavern into a private 
 house, the club moved, in 1788, first to Prince's, in 
 Sackville Street; next to Le Teller's in Dover 
 Street; then, in 1793, to Parsloe's hi St. James's 
 Street; and lastly, in February, 1799, to the 
 Tlistched House "Tavern in St. James's Street, 
 where it remained until long after 1848."— W. C. 
 Srdney, Englnnd and the BnglM in tht 18(A 
 Centiirg.fJt. 6 (r. '). 
 
 The King's Held. See ilitoLANO: A. D. 
 18:8-1879. 
 
 The Kit Cat.—" The K't Cat CTub waa Inrd- 
 tutfd in 1699 T.; „,,«( lUngtrious meix'jers 
 were Congrev^-, Prior, Sir John Vimbrugl. the 
 Earl of Orrery, and Lord Somers; but the 
 memliers bei'oming more numerous, the most 
 violent party obtainc<l the majority, and the 
 Earl and his friends were less regular in their 
 attendance. . . . The Kit Cat took tu nam 
 from a pastry-cook [Christopher Katt], whoae 
 pies formeil a regular dish at the suppers of tbe 
 (luh.--0. W. Cooke, Memoin of BulitMbroke. t. 
 \.'h.W,f<iot-nott. 
 
 Alto :.«i: J. "nmbs, Club» imf Club life in 
 Ifidm. pp. 47-M.— W. C. Sydney. Enetandami 
 Vu hif/lith in the ISth tientury. th. 8. 
 
 The Mohocks. See Mobocks. 
 
 The October and th* March.— '• The October 
 Uub came limt into imporUnce in the latest yeara 
 of .\nne, although It had existed since the last 
 ilMule of llie Utii century. The sU)ut Tory 
 H»\tn met together In the ' Bell ' Tavern In 
 raw.v. dirty King Street, Westminster, to 
 dnnk October ale, under Dahls portrait of 
 vjuw n Anne, and to trouble with their fletv . 
 uncompromising Jacobltism the fluctuating pur- 
 pojhi of llarley and the craftv counsels of St 
 Juttn. The (tenius of Swift tempered their hot 
 tal with 111.. (-,«,! nir of his 'advice.' Then the 
 wi|.|.r spirit, „K.-e<l.Kl, and formed the March 
 111' wliu h ntained all the anirrv Jacobltism of 
 to pnnt h..iv, but tout all its imporUnce. "— J. 
 KcUrthy. Hut. at (U Fhur Gtm^, ». 1. A. 8 
 
 »V'mA xn the Mth tmtury, eh. 8, 
 
 COALITIONS. 
 
 Bee EnoLAXS: A. D. 18«S 
 
 CLUBIIBN. 
 
 (July- AcoDST). 
 
 CLUGNY.OR CLUNY.Th* Monuteiyot 
 —The famous monastery of Clugny, or Cluny 
 waa founded A. D. 910, at Quny, near Macon, bi 
 Burgundy, by the abbot Count Bemo, who had 
 Prevjpusly established and ruled the monastery 
 of Glgnl, near Lyons. It was founded under 
 the auspices and at the expense of William, 
 Count of Auvergne, commonly called William 
 the Pious. "In the disastrous times which 
 fol owed the death of Charles the Groat and the 
 failure of his scheme to reorganize the Western 
 world under a single head, the discipline of the 
 religious houses fell with everything else ■ fell 
 not perhaps quite so soon, yet by the end of the 
 ninth century had fallen almost as low as it was 
 ponible to fall. But here symptoms of a moral 
 reaction showed themselves earlier than else- 
 where. The revival dates from 910, the year of 
 the foundation of the Monastery of Clugny in 
 Burgundy, which was destined to exercise an 
 enormous influence on the future of the Church. 
 While matters at Rome were at their worst, there 
 were silently training there the men who should 
 Inaugurate a new sute of things [notably Hilde- 
 brand, afterwards Pope Gregory VII.] Already 
 so one said at the time, the whole house of the 
 Church was filled with the sweet savour of the 
 ointment there poured out. It followed that 
 wherever in any religious house there were any 
 aspirations after a higher life, anv longings for 
 reformation, that house affiliated itself to Clugny; 
 thus beginning to constitute a Conpregiition, 
 that Is a cluster of religious houses, Bcattenni it 
 might be over all Christendom, but owning one 
 rule, acknowledging the superiority of one 
 mother house, and receiving its abhotf and' 
 priore fmm thence. In the Clugnian Congrega- 
 tion, for example, there were about twothouaand 
 iiousei In the middle of tlie twelfth century — 
 these mostly In France; the Abbot, or Arch- 
 Abbot, as he was called, of Clugnv, being a kind 
 of Pope of Monasticism. and for a" long time, the 
 Pope excepted, quite the most influential Church- 
 ruler in Christendom."— 1{. C. Trench, Ltet't m 
 Medimal Ch. Jliet. , eh. 8. 
 
 Also nt: 8. R Maltlnnd. The Dark Age*, eh. 
 18-88.— A. F. Vlllemaln. Lifeof OregoryVlI., 6*. 
 1— S. R Gardiner and J. B. Mulllnger. Int. to 
 the StUitg of ISng. Hitt . eh. 3, net. M — E. P. 
 Henderson, Select Uiet. Doet. of the MitUk Aaee 
 bk. 8, no. 4. 
 CLUNIAC MONKS. See Cliuny. 
 CLUSIUM, Battle of (B. C. 83). 8m 
 Romt: B. C. 88-78. 
 
 CLYPEUS, The.— The round mm shield of 
 the Romana— E. Ouhl and W Kouer. Life of 
 the OntJct and Romane. net. 107, 
 CNOSSUS. SeeCHETE. 
 CNUT. SeeC/fiTE. 
 
 CNYDUS, Battle of (B. C. 394). See 
 OREKrK: B. C. 399-387. 
 COA-.JILTECAN FAMILY, The. Sec 
 
 A.HKRIC.\N AbORKII.-HES. ('OAlllILThCAN KaMILT 
 
 COAjIRO, Tht. See Amerhas Ahori- 
 
 OINES: CoAJIRO. 
 
 COALITION MINISTRY OF FOX AND 
 LORD NORTH. See Enoi.asd: A D 178*- 
 1783; and 1783-1787. 
 
 ^ COALITIONS AGAINST NAPOLEON. 
 8m FEaiicii; A. D. 1803 (Jahcakt— Apkil).- 
 
 496 
 
■"♦t -r .; 
 
 f 
 
 coAunoNa 
 
 OmcAirr: A. D. 1819-1818, and 1818 (Mat— 
 AcorRT), and Frakcx: A. D. 1814-181B. 
 
 COALITIONS AGAINST REVOLU- 
 TIONARY FRANCE. See Fkahce: A. D. 
 1798 ( March— Sbfteiuui); 1798-1799 (Anocn 
 — April). 
 
 COBBLER'S LEAGUE, Tht. See Ocb- 
 MAMY: A. D. 1584-1585. 
 
 COBDEN, Richard, and the Free Trade 
 fflorement. See Taritt Lboislatioh (Eao- 
 lAND): A. D. 1886-1889; 1848; ."4V1846; and 
 the sftme (France): A. D. 185S-lb60. 
 
 COBDEN-CHEVALIERCOMHERCIAL 
 TREATY, The. See Taiuft Lsouultio!! 
 (France): A. D. 1858-lt„J. 
 
 COBURG, Orifrination of the Dnkedom ot 
 SeeSAXONt: A. D. 1180-1558. 
 
 COCCIUM. — An important Roman town in 
 Britain, the remains of which are luppoeed to \m 
 found at Ribcheater.— T. Wright, OU, Soman 
 an'' Sojnm, eh. 5. 
 
 COCHIBO.-COCHIQUIMA. The. See 
 
 AmeKICAN ABnRKilMKa: AKOEalAMR. 
 
 COCHIN CHINA. Part of Annam. See 
 
 TOKKIH. 
 
 COCO TRIBES. See Amuicam Abobi- 
 OiNBs : GucK or Coco Group. 
 
 COCONOONS, The. See Amxrk-ah Abo- 
 BloiHKR : Hakiporan Fahilt. 
 
 COCOSATES, The. SeeAqciTAiNE, Thx 
 Ancient Tkibbs. 
 
 COD, Cape : A. D. i6oa.— Named bj Gee- 
 •old. See America : A. D. 1608-1605. 
 
 A. O. 1605.— Called Cap Biaae by Cham- 
 
 filaio. See Canada (New Fbakcb) : A. D. 1603- 
 805. 
 
 A. D. 1609.— Named New Holland by Hud- 
 •en. See America : A. D. 1609. 
 
 CODE NAPOLEON, The. See Fbakcb^ 
 A. I). 1H(I1-1804. 
 CODES. See Law, Cokiiok: A. D. 1848- 
 
 I88;i, *c. 
 
 CODS, The. See NBTHERLA]nia(HoLLAin>): 
 A. D. 1»4.V1354; and 1483-1493. 
 
 CCELE -SYRIA.— " Hollow Syria"- the 
 long, broHd, fertile and beautiful valley which 
 lies Iwtwoen the Uhanus and Antllilianus ranges 
 of mountains, Knd is watentl by thf ()n)ntes and 
 the Loonies or Littany rivers. "Few places in 
 the world arc .-norc remarkable, or have a more 
 stirring histonr, than this wondrrful vale. "— O. 
 Rawlinwin, Mve Great Monarthiei: Ri/itlonia. 
 
 C CE N O B I U M.- C(ENOBITES. — " The 
 
 woni ' Ciriic>bi\iin ' Is equivalent to ' monasto- 
 rlum ' in the IiiUt sense of that word. Cassian 
 distinguislies the word thus. ' Monastcrluin, ' 
 he says, • may In- the dwelling of a single monk, 
 C<»ni)l)ium iiiiiHt Iw of sevoraT; the former word,' 
 he adds, 'expressed only the place, the latter the 
 mannerof living. •••—I. 0. Smith. CkrittianMm- 
 attinim, p. 40 
 
 Also in : ,1. liingham, Antiq. of Vu Chritt. Ch., 
 bk. 7, M. 3, arrt 3. 
 
 COFAN, The. See Amebicam ABORioraca: 
 Amdkhianh. 
 
 COGNOMEN. See Obrr, Rokab. 
 
 COHORTS .'»rp I.ieotnx RoMAf. 
 
 COIMBRA; Early history. BeePoBTVOALt 
 Eari.t histort. 
 
 COINAGE. SeeMoRiiT. 
 
 
 49e 
 
 OOLOHIANa 
 
 COLBERT. See Tabttt hKaw.kTvn 
 A. D.1664-1667. Also. Prancb : A. D.ieei-iSffl 
 
 COLBY UNIVERSITY. SeeED^',^ 
 Modbbh : Axbrica : A. D 1769-1884 
 
 COLCHESTER.- When Ciesar entered 
 Britain, the site of modem Colchest. • vas occu- 
 pied by an "oppidum," or fastness 1 he Trino- 
 bantes, which the Romans called Camulodunum. 
 A little kter, Camulodunum acquinhl some re- 
 nown as the royal town of the Trinohantine 
 king, or prince, Cunobelln, — the Cymbeline of 
 Shakespeare. It was after the death of Cunobe- 
 lln, and when his son Caractacus was Ijinjr 
 during the reign of the emperor Claudius, tbit 
 the Romans began their actual conquest of Bri- 
 tain- Claudius was present. In person, whea 
 Camulodunum was taken, and he founded there 
 the first Roman colony in the island, callinit it 
 Claudiana Victricensis. That name was too cum- 
 brous to be preserved; but the colonial character 
 of the town caused it to be called Colonia ceaster 
 the Colonla fortress, — abbreviated, in time to 
 Cohie-ceaster, and, finally, to Colchester. The 
 colony was destroyed by the Icenl, at the time 
 of their rising, under Bioadicea, but was recon- 
 stituted and grew Into an hnportant Roman 
 town.— C. L. CutU, Oakhfler, eh. 1-8. 
 
 A. D. i6a8.— The Roundhead siege and cap- 
 ture.— On the collapse of the Royalist rising at 
 1648, which produced what is callwl the Second 
 Civil War of the Puritan revolutionary period, 
 Colchester received the "wreck of the insunw' 
 tion," so far as London and the surMundlllr 
 country had lately been threatened by it. Tmnpj 
 of cavaliers, under Sir Charles Lucas and Loni 
 Capel, having collected hi the town, were «ur 
 rounded and oeleuguered there by Fairfax, and 
 held out against their besiegers from June uniU 
 late in August. " After two months of the moet 
 desperate resistance, Colchester. ct)nquered by 
 famine and sedition, at last surremliml (.K\ig. 
 27); and the next day a court-martial oondomned 
 to death three of Its bravest ilefcmlirs. Sir 
 Charles Lacus, Sir Oeorgt Lisle, and .sir Btmard 
 Oascoign, *s an example, it was said, to future 
 rebels who might be tempted to imitate them 
 In vain did the other prisoners, Loni Capel at 
 their head, entreat Faiifax to suspend the execu- 
 tion of the sentence, or at least that they should 
 all undergo it, since all were alike jruilty of the 
 offence of these three. Fairfax, cxritij lijtbe 
 long struggle, or rather Intimidated hv Irtion, 
 made no answer, and the eondenineil oHlct'rs 
 were ordered to be shot on the spot. " Ossoolgn, 
 however, was reprieved at the Inst monicDt — 
 F. P. Oulzot. niH. of the Bng. Il.f.l>it,:,i,. M. 8 
 Also in: C. R Markham, Life uf the Gnat 
 Lord Fairfax, eh. 26-27. 
 
 COLCHIANS, The.- "The Ci.Irhianj ap^ 
 pear to have been In part indeix'nili iit, in part 
 subject to Persia. Their true liimie « iis evidently 
 that tract of country [on the Euxini) ul>"iit the 
 river Phasis- . . . Here they first Ih( .iim- lin'iwn 
 to Uio commercial Greeks, whose early lUalinjfS 
 in this quarter seem to have given rix' to the 
 poetic legend of the Argonauts, Tin- liniiu of 
 Colchis varied at different titnes. but Ilie uatuni 
 bounds were never greatly depart! d fr'tii The.v 
 were the Euiiiio or. the ea»I, lli>' ; .:..isuJ ca 
 the north, the mountain range wliii h formi the 
 watershed between the Phasls (liioni and the 
 Cyrus (Kur) on the weet, and the high grNnl 
 
OOLOHIAKS. 
 
 OOLOHBIAN STATES. 1886-1781. 
 
 tiiween Bttonm hmI Kui (Uw MotchUn monn- 
 tiliu)oa the loath. . . . The most intereiting 
 auestioD connected with the Colchlans is tbkt 
 eoDiiected with their natiooality. Thcv were « 
 black race dwelling in the mid«t of whltca, and 
 In a country whidi does not tend to make its 
 Isbabitants dark complexioned. That they were 
 eompantlTely recent immigrants from a hotter 
 clinistewems therefore to be certain. The notion 
 mtertained by Herodotus of their Egyptian 
 extnction appean to have been a conjecture of 
 Ui own. . . . Perhaps the modem theory that 
 the Colchians were tmmigrantg from India is 
 entitled to some share of our attention. ... If 
 the true Colchi were a colony of blacks, they 
 must have become gradually absorbed in the 
 white population proper to the country."— Q. 
 Rawlinson, Hutory of Btroiotut, hk. 7, app. 1.— 
 See, also. Alarodiamb. 
 
 COLD HARBOR, First and aecon' battles 
 ot gee Uhitbd Btatbs or Ah. : A. D. 1863 
 (Jinn— Jult: VnuuHiA), and 1864 (Hat — Jtnn: 
 
 VnoHHA). 
 
 COLDEN, Cadwalladar, The Uentenaiit- 
 mrcmorship oC Bee Nbw York: A. D. 177S- 
 1774 to 1775 (APBH^-SiaTniBBR). 
 
 COLGATE UNIVERSITY. See Educa- 
 noN. MoDBBH : America : A. D. 1769-1H84. 
 
 COLIGNY, Admiral de. Bee Fbanck : A. D. 
 15(10-1363 to 1573. Also, Florida : A. D. 1963- 
 If , 156+-1565, and l.VJS. 
 
 COLLAS, The. Bee Pbru : Tmc Aborioi> 
 Ial Inhabitants. 
 
 COLLECTIVISM. Bee Social Motb- 
 ia.iTK : DKFiNrrioN op Trrms. 
 
 COLLEGES. Bee Educatiox. 
 
 COLLEGIA.— Numerous aasoclations called 
 "collf{;ia" existed in ancient Kome. Some 
 were reliijious; some were (guilds of workmen. 
 The piilitical clubs were more commonly called 
 "aodalitates."— O. Long, Jkelint of th* Botaan 
 BipvUir. r. ^, ek. 11. 
 
 COLLINE GATE, Battle of the (B. C. 83). 
 See Rome: B. C. 88-78. 
 
 COLLOT D'HERBOIS, and the French 
 RtTolntionarj Committee of Public Safety. 
 Sec Franor: A. D. 1798 (JmK— Octodkr), to 
 17W-i:m (,Iin,r— April). 
 
 COLMAR, Ceesioa to France. See Oeb- 
 HA-XT: A. n. 1648. 
 
 COLMAR, Battle of (1674). Bee Netbkr- 
 LAN-m (Holland^: A. D. 1674-1678. 
 
 COLOGNE: Orifiii. Bee Colokia Aomrpi- 
 lrexl'^^ 
 
 The Electermtc. See Okrmaht: A. D. 1139- 
 127*. 
 
 In the Haaacatic League. See Hakia 
 
 TOWKH 
 
 COLOMAN. Bee KoLOMAif. 
 COLOMBEY-NOUILLY, OR BORNY, 
 Battle of. Bee Frahce: A. D. 1870 (Jult— 
 
 Al'llliq',. 
 
 COLOMBIA, United States oC See Col- 
 
 ovnivN Mtatks. 
 
 COLOMBIAN STATES, The.— This gen- 
 eral title will be used, for cimTcnIence, to cover, 
 for ran.tlilprable nerioiis of their hiatorv. the 
 territiiry now divided Iwtwecn tho republics of 
 Wuc/iiciii, E«'iiHiii)r, and the United Stan's of 
 Cnlnrahia (formerly New Omnaiia), the latter 
 emhrwing the Isthmus of Panama. The hUtory 
 of Uicic countries beiny for a looy time substan- 
 33 
 
 497 
 
 tlaliy Identical In the main, and onlr distingulsli- 
 able at Intervals, It seema to be difflcult to do 
 otherwise than hold it, somewhat arbitrarily, 
 under one heading, until the seveial currents of 
 events part company distinctly. 
 
 The aboriginal uihabitaata. See Ahxsicah 
 Aborioixes: Chibcha. 
 
 A. D. 1536-1731.— The Spanish conqnest o( 
 New Granada.— Creation of the new Tice- 
 roralty.— " For some time after the disastrous 
 fafiure of the attempt of Las Casas to found a 
 colony on the Pnrl coast of Cumani, the north- 
 em portion of Spanish South America, from the 
 Orinoco westwards. Is almost lost to histoir. 
 The powers working for good had signally 
 failed, and the powers of evil seemed to h-we ft 
 almost all their own wav. . . . Lying uehind 
 these extensive coasts to the westward in the in- 
 terior, is the region to which the Spaniards gave 
 the name of the kingdom of New Granada, the 
 name being applied In consequence of a resem- 
 blance which was detected between the plain 
 around Santa Fi de Bogoti and the royal Vega 
 which adjoins the historical Moorish capitd. 
 New Oranida was a most extensive region, com- 
 prising as it did the entire countnr from sea to sea 
 In the north, lying between 60° and 78° longi- 
 tude, and from 6° to 15° of latitude." The 
 Spanish conquest of New Gnmada was achieved 
 in the main by Ximenes de Quesada, who in- 
 vaded the country from the north, although the 
 governor of Quito, Benalcazar, entered it like- 
 wise from the south. "Ximenes de Quesada 
 came to America about the year 1535, in the 
 suite of the Oovemor of Santa Harta, by whom 
 he was selected to lead an expedition again.st the 
 Chibchaa, who dwelt on the plain of Bogot& and 
 around the headwaters of the Magdalena. Set- 
 ting out in April 1536 with 800 men, he suc- 
 ceeded in pushing his way through the forest 
 and across innumerable streams. lie contrived 
 to Bubeist for eight mo"**-*, during which he 
 traversed 450 miles, enduring meanwhile the 
 very utmost exertions and privations tiut human 
 utture could support . . . When he had sur- 
 mounted the natural difBcultics in his path, his 
 remJning force consisted of but 166 men, with 
 60 hones. On March 2d, 1337, he resumed his 
 advance; and, as usually happened, the mere 
 sight of his horsemen terrified the Indians into 
 submissioD. At Tunja, according to the Spanish 
 historians, he was treacherously attacked whilst 
 resting in the palace of one of the chiefs. ... In 
 any case, the chief was taken, and, after much 
 slaughter, Ximenes found himself the absolute 
 poss e ssor of Immense riches, one golden lantern 
 alone being valued at 6,000 ducats. From 
 Tunja Ximenes marched upon the sacred city of 
 Iracs, where two Spanish soldlera accidentally 
 set Are to the great Temple of the Bun. The 
 result was tlwt, after a conflagration which 
 Usted several daj's, lM)th the city and the temple 
 were utterly destroyed. ... On the Bth of 
 August, 15%, was founded the city of liugotA 
 Ximenes was soon here joined by Frederman, 
 a subject of the Emperor Charles V., with 160 
 soldiers, with whom he had been engaged in 
 conquering Venezuela; and likewise by Tlenal- 
 cazar. the conqueror of Quito. This latter 
 warrior iiad craned the continent in triumph 
 at the head of 150 Spaniards, together with a 
 multitude of native followers, " In the Intrigues 
 and jealous rivalriea between the three which 
 
I m 
 
 i^^ 
 
 COLOKBUN STATES, 1<»»-17U. 
 
 fdk>w«d, Ximenei d« QummU wm puahed 
 aude. at dm, and ctco lined and banished bj 
 the Emperor; but in tlie end lie Uiumphed and 
 wa« appointed marshal of the liingdom of New 
 Oranada. "On his return to Bogoti in ISSl 
 he, to his credit, exhibited an energy in pro- 
 tecting the people of the country against their 
 inTaders, equal to that which he had dispUyed 
 in effecting their conquest. Ten yean Uter he 
 commanded a force organized to repel an attack 
 from the ruler of Venezuela; shortly after which 
 he was appointed Adelantadoof the Kingdom of 
 New Oranada. He devoted three years, and an 
 enormous amount of toll and money, to an absurd 
 expedition In quest of the fabled El Dorado [see 
 tr mI^^I-." Q"«»»da died of leprosy in 1878. 
 Until 1718 the kingdom of New Oranada re- 
 mained subject to the Viceroy of Peru. In that 
 year the VIceroyalty of Peru " was divided Into 
 two portions, the northern region, from the 
 frontiers of Mexico as far as to the Orinoco, and 
 on the Southern Sea from Veragua to Tumbei 
 forming the VIceroyalty of New Oranada, of 
 which the capital was Bogota. To this region, 
 likewise, was assigned the inland province of 
 Quito. The VIceroyalty of New dranada, in 
 fact, comprised what now [1884] forms the 
 Hepubllc of Venezuela, the United States of 
 Columbia, and the Republic of Equador." In 
 1731 'It was deemed expedient to detach from 
 the \ Iceroyalty of New Oranada ihe provinces 
 of \ cnezuela, Maracaibo, Varinas, Cumani, and 
 Spanish Guyana, and to form them into a sepa- 
 rate Captain Generalship, the residence of the 
 niler being fixed at Caracas In Venezuela "— 
 R. O. Watson, Spanith and Pitrtugutie South 
 Amfnea, t. 3, eh. 9. 
 
 A. D. 1810-1819.— The ttrunle for inde- 
 pendence and ita achicTement.— Miranda and 
 Simon Bolirar.— The Earthquake in Vene- 
 »nela.--The found ; of the RepnbUc of 
 l.oiombia.— The .omblan .States occupy the 
 first place in the story of South American 
 independence ... The Colombian States were 
 first in the struggle because they were In many 
 ways nearest to Europe. It was through them 
 Uiat intercourse between the Pacific coast and 
 Europe was mainly carried on: Porto Bello and 
 Carthagena were thus the main Inleta of European 
 Ideas. Besides, there was here constant com- 
 munication with the West Indies; and govern- 
 ment, population and wealth were leas centralised 
 than in the more Important viceroyaltles of 
 Mexico and Peru. The Indians of New Oranada 
 ha<l always been a restless race, and the increase 
 of taxation which was resorted to for the defence 
 JL'!"* ™"' '" "•« *»' with Great Britain (1777- 
 1783) produce<l disoontenta among the whole 
 population, both red and white The 
 
 French Revolution, coming soon afterwards 
 was another link in the chain of causes. In 
 
 Venezuela, which the inilustrj- of Ita inhab'ltanta 
 had raised from a poor mission district to a 
 thriving enmmeroUl province, the progress of 
 m<xl..rn id,.«s w„ yrt fwiter. , . The conquest 
 of Tnni<itt(l by England in 1707 gave a new 
 turn to the movemint. ... It was from 
 Trinidad that the first sttempta were made to 
 Mclte the Spanish colonista to revoluUon 
 l^ncls Miranda, by whom <bti was done wa» a 
 typt 01 many other men to whom Is due the 
 credit of le«fhig the South American peoples to 
 talepeudenoe. Ue was a native of Canccaa, 
 
 COLOMBIAN STATES, 1810-1819. 
 
 and wh«i a yo-mg roan had held a French com 
 mission in the American War of IndependeDa 
 On hU return to VenezueU in 1788 he found tS 
 populace, as we have already mentioned ir„ 
 excited state and findhig that he was sugpectt^ 
 of designs for Ubersting his own countrf h 
 went to Europe, arU again attached himwif t^ 
 the FJ'ench service. . . . Being proecrilwd bi 
 the Directory, he turned to Enghuid, and 
 when the wm [between England and Sp'tini 
 broke out afresh in 1804. and Knirland Z 
 out an expedition to invade Buen m AjtS. 
 
 T^"itSS'S*"v •^u'^' Wsopportunity wa. cS 
 In 1808, by Engllab and American aid he uiM 
 from Trinidad and hmded with (500 mtnonth. 
 coMt of VenezueU. But the • Colombian Amv • 
 as Hlisnda named St, met with a cool ncfptloii 
 among the peopk). His utter inability to meet 
 r^^ ^^'^^ force, compelled him to retwt to 
 Trinidad, nor did he reappear on the ronlinent 
 until after the revolution of 1810. The principal 
 inhabitantaofCaraccaahad been medititiD. {h, 
 formation of a provisional government ou the 
 model of the iuntaa of Spain, ever sinw the 
 
 fS^^^L"" ?' *" '''"« f»*« S'A^: A. D. 1807- 
 1808] ; but it was not until 1810. when the Unal 
 victoiy of Napoleon in Spain appeared certain 
 that they made a decisive movement in favour of 
 independence. Spain, for the timo at least wu 
 now blotted out of the list of nations. Ac'tin» 
 therefore, in the name of Ferdinand VII the* 
 deposed the Spanish colonial officer*.' und 
 elected a supreme Junta or council. Similar 
 Juntas were soon established in New (Jmnada. 
 at Santa ¥6. Quito, Carthagena, and the othn 
 chief towns of the VIceroyalty . . . and tha 
 fortune of the patriot party In new Granada, 
 from their close neighbourhood, was clowlv 
 linked with that of the Venuzolans. The 
 Regency of Cadiz, grasping for itwlf all the 
 righW and >ower« of the Spanish nation, 
 determtae<i tc luce the colonists to suhitction. 
 They therefore occlared the port of Caraicas in 
 f *i"'* °' blockade, as the British Kovemraent 
 hsrt done in the previous generation with tlial of 
 Boston; and. as In the case of Boston, this rreo- 
 lutlon of the Regency amounted to a d«lanitioa 
 of war. .A congress of all the pr -vinow of 
 Venezuela now met at Caraccas, and published 
 a declaration of hidependcnce on tlw 5ih of 
 July. 18U, and those of Mexico an.l Xe» 
 Oranada soon foUowed. . . . The powers of 
 nature seemed to conspire with the tvrannvof 
 fcuropc to destroy the young South Ann ricaa 
 Republic. On the 86th of March, IftlJ Vene 
 zuela was visited bv a fearful eartliquiikc, which 
 destroyed the capital [Caraccas | ant I wveral 
 other towns, together with 20.(HX) pinpli, and 
 many othere perished of hunger and in other wavi. 
 ThUday was Holy Thursday; and tlie super- 
 stitious people, prompted bv iluir priests, 
 believed this awful visitation to l» a judgment 
 from God for their revolt. The Spiii;ish troops. 
 under Monteveide, now began a fri*h attaclt on 
 the dlsqulet<d VenezoUns. Miranda. wlK.on his 
 return had been pUoed at the hemi of tli.' army, 
 had in the meantime overrun New (iranuda, and 
 laid the foundation of the futun' I uii«i States 
 of Colombia. But the face of alfairs wu 
 ■-hanged by the at-rrs of the carthquaki-. 8niitKa 
 with despair, his aoldiera now ilcscrKil to the 
 royallsta; he lost ground every » lien', the for- 
 tress of Puerto Cavello, oonuuanded by thi 
 
 498 
 
COLOMBIAN STATES, 1810-18191 
 
 COLOMBIAN STATES, 1818-1880. 
 
 f <i, doUrtf, ttten a ooknel In the lerrtce of the 
 BtLibllc, WM luirenderad through traschny. 
 Ob the SJith of June Mintnda hlmaelf capitu- 
 littd, with all hi* forces; and Venezuela fell 
 oace more into the handi of the royaliitf. 
 Kinnda binuelf wai arreited, in defiance of the 
 ttfini of the surrender, and perished in an 
 Eniopean dungeon, as Toumint had perished a 
 few yeiire before. . . . Honteverde emptied the 
 prisons of their occupants, and filled them with 
 Uie families of the principal citizens of the 
 npublic; and Caraccas became the scene of a 
 RdgD of Terror. After Miranda's capitulation, 
 Bolivar had gone to New Oranada, which still 
 msiotsined its independence, and entered into 
 the H-rvice of that republic. Bolivar now 
 mppesred in a new character, and earned for 
 binuelf a reputation in the history of the new 
 wwld vhich up to a certain point ranks with 
 thst of Washington. Simon Bolivar, like 
 Uirsnda, was a native of Caiaccas. . . . Like 
 Minoda, he had to some extent learned modem 
 Ideai bjr visiting the old world and the United 
 Slates. When the cruelties of Monteverde had 
 made Venezuela ripe for a new revolt, Bolivar 
 reappeared on his native soil at the bead of a 
 unall body of troops from the adjacent repub- 
 lic. The succesaes which he gained ao incensed 
 the royalists that tliey refused quarter to their 
 prisoners, and war to the death (' guerra a muerte ') 
 was proclaimed. All obstacles disappeared 
 before Bolivar's generalship, and on the 4th of 
 August, 1813, he publicly entered Curaccas, the 
 fortress of I'uerto Cavcllo being now the only one 
 in the possession of the royalists. Bolivar waa 
 bailed with the title of the liberator of Vene- 
 lueU. He was willing to see the republic 
 reitoiwti but the inhabitants very properly 
 feareil to trust at this time to anything but a 
 military government, and vested the supreme 
 power in him as dictator (1614). 'The event 
 udeed proved the necessity of a military govern- 
 ment. The defeated rovalists raised fresh 
 troops, many thousands of whom were negro 
 ■laves, and overran the whole country ; Bolivar 
 was beaten at La Ihierta, and forced to take 
 refuge a second time in New Oranada; and the 
 capital fell again into the hands of the royalists. 
 . . . The War of Indcpi'ndencc had tx'cn under- 
 taken ajptinst the Kegeney ; and had Ferdinand, 
 on \m restoration to the throne in 1814, shown 
 any signs of conciliation, he might yet have 
 recovrred his American provinces. But the 
 goveninient persisted in its course of absolute 
 repression. . . . New Oranada, where Bolivar 
 was general in chief of the forces, was the only 
 part where the insurrection surviviti; and in 
 1815 a d^t containing 10,000 men under Oeneral 
 Morillc) arrived oB Carthagcna, its priucipal port. 
 . . . Csrthagena was only provisiuned ror a 
 short time: and Bolivar, overpowerwi by num- 
 bers, quitted tlie soil of the continent and went 
 to the Wej't Indies to seek help to relieve 
 Caithageuu, and maintain the contest for 
 liberty." O* uioing assistance in Ilayti, he 
 fitted out an ixiKNlition " which sailetl Ui April 
 from the port of .\iix Cayes. B<ilivar landed near 
 Cuniana, in the easlem extremity of Venezuela, 
 »nd from this point hn gradually advanced 
 wesiwants, jjaining strength by slow degrees. 
 In tile meantime, after a siege of 116 days, 
 LartiiHgina surrendered ; 9,000 of iU inhabitanU 
 M perished of hunger. Both provinces were 
 
 DOW in Morillo's hands. Fancying himself com- 
 pletely master of the country, he proceeded to 
 wreak a terrible vengeance on the Oranadines. 
 But at the news of Bolivar's reappearance, 
 though yet at a distance, the face of affaii* 
 changed. . . . His successes In the year 1817 
 were sure, though slow: in 1818, after he had 
 been Joined by- European volunteers, they were 
 brilliant Bolirar beat the royalists in one 
 pitched battle after another [Sagamoso, July 1, 
 1819, and Pantano de Bargaa, July 25]: and at 
 length a decisive victory was won by his lieuten- 
 ant, Santander, at Boyaca, in New Oranada, 
 August 1, 1819. This battle, in which some 
 hundreds of British and French auxiliaries 
 fought on the side of liberty, completely freed 
 the two countries from the yoke of Spain." — 
 E. J. Payne, Hut. of European Coloniet, eh. 16. 
 
 Also i» : C. S. Cochrane, Journal ofaRendenee' 
 i/» Coitmbia, t. 1, eh. 6-8.— H. Browoell, JV. and 
 S. America Ittuttruted, pp. 316-331— C. Gushing, 
 SimanBoliTarifr. Am. Rev.. Jan., 1679, and Jan., 
 1830).— H. L V. D. Holstein, Mtmnr$ ofBoUmr, 
 cK 8-aO.— Major Flintner, Uitt. of tht Sew- 
 lution of Caraeea$. 
 
 A. D. 1810-1830.— The rlonr and the fjsll 
 of Boliwar.- Dlssolutionof toe Colombian Fed- 
 eration.— Tyranny under the Liberator, and 
 moDarcbical schemes. — Three days after the 
 battle of Boyaca, Bolivar entered Bogota in 
 triumph. "A congress met in December and 
 decided that Venezuela and Nueva Oranada 
 should form one republic, to be called Colombia. 
 Morillo departed for Europe in 1820, and the vic- 
 tory gahied by Bolivar at Carabobo on June 24, 
 1821, decidM the fate of Colombia. In the fol- 
 lowing January Oeneral Bolivar assembled an 
 army at Popayan to drive the Spanhinia out of 
 the province of Quito. His second in command, 
 Oeneral Sucre, led an advanced guard, which was 
 ri'inforccd by a contingent of volunteers from 
 Peru, under Santa Cruz. The Spanish Oeneral 
 Itamirez was entirely defeated in the battle of 
 Pichincha, and Quito was incorporated with the 
 new republic of Colombia. "—C. R. Markham, 
 Colonial HiH. of 8. America {Xarmtite and Crit- 
 ical Uiet. of Am., t. 8, ch. 5). — " The provinces 
 of New Oranada and VcDczuela, together with 
 the Presidency of Quito, now sent delegates to 
 the convention of Cucuta. in 1821, and there de- 
 creed the iiiion of the three countries as a single 
 state by the name of the Itepublic of Colombia. 
 The first Colombian federal constitution was con- 
 cocted bv the united wisdom of the delegates ; and 
 the result might easily have been foreseen. It 
 was a farrago of crude ami heterogeneous ideas. 
 Some of its features were imitated from the 
 American political system, some from the Eng- 
 lish, some from the French. . . . Bolivar of 
 course became President: and the Republic had 
 need of him. The task of liberation was not yet 
 completed. Carthagena, and many other strong 
 places, remained in Spanish hands. Bolivar re- 
 duced these one by one, and the seoind decisive 
 victory of Carabobo, in 1S22. finally secured Col- 
 ombian freedom. The Engiish claim the chief 
 share in the battle of Carabobo: for the British 
 legion alone carried the main Spanish position, 
 !' ■sing in the feat two-thirda of its numbers. The 
 war now fast drew to its close. The republic 
 was able to contest with the Invaders the do- 
 minion of the sea: Oeneral I'adilla, on the 33rd 
 of July, Itas, totally destroyed the Spanish fleet ■■ 
 
 499 
 
A 
 
 •ni 
 
 COLOMBIAN STATES, 181S-188a 
 
 Md the SpuUh commander flnklly capitulated 
 at Puerto Cavpllo la December. All tlieie hatd- 
 won aucceaaes were mainly owing to the bravery 
 and reaolutioa of Bolivar. Bolivar deserves to 
 the full the repuUtion of an able and patriotic 
 soldier. He was now set free . . . to render im- 
 portant services to thereat of South America: and 
 among the heroes of independence nerhapa his 
 name will always stand first But Bolivar the 
 statesman was a man very different from Bolivar 
 the general. He was alternately timid and arbi- 
 trary, lie was indeed afraid to touch the prob- 
 lems of stjiu-sraanship which awaited him: but 
 instead of leading the Colombian people through 
 independence to lil)erty, he stubbornly aet his 
 face ugain.Ht all measures of political or social re- 
 form. His fall may be said to have begun with 
 the moment when his military triumphs were 
 complete. The disaffection to the constitution 
 of the Iciuling people in Venezuela and Ecuador 
 (the new name given to the old province of Quito, 
 indicating its position at the equator] m 1826 and 
 1827, wa.'i favoured by the Provincial governors, 
 Paez and Mogqiicra ; and Jk)livar, instead of re- 
 8isii:ig the disintegration of the stote, openly 
 favoured the military dictatorships which Paez 
 and Mosquera establiJilied. This policy fore- 
 shadowed the reign of absolutism in New Oranada 
 Itself. Bolivar . . . lu«i now become not onlv 
 the constitutional head if the Colombian federa- 
 tion, but also the military head of the Penuiiin 
 republics [see I'kud: A. D. 1820-1836 i.S2.>- 
 1826, and 1826- 1 ~:e] : and ere can be no doubt 
 that he intended the Colim jian consti- ilion to 
 be reduced to the Peruviai. model. A« * first 
 step to.vards reuniting all tiie South A = : rioan 
 nations under a military government. Pa. be- 
 yond reu.s,. liable douht, with Bolivar's connivance, 
 proeluinuci the indeix ndence of Venezuela, April 
 30th, 182<1. This praetioally broke up the Col- 
 rmtiian federation: and the destruction of the 
 euiistiluti'in. so far as it regarded New Granada 
 itself, Mxiii followed. Bolivar had ».lready re- 
 sorted to tlie usual devices of military tyranny 
 The terrorism of Sbirri. arbitrary arrests, the as- 
 sumption of adilitlimal executive powers, aui 
 finally, the suppression of the vice-presldeiiev 
 ail poinUMl one way. ... At length, after the 
 practical secession of Venezuehi and I iiador 
 under their military nilers. Congress dr •ed a 
 summons for a Convi tion, which met at t Valla 
 in March. 1^38. . . . Ihc lllierals, who were bent 
 on electoral reform and decentralization, were 
 Daralyzfd liy the violent iM-aring of the Bolivian 
 leadint: and Bolivar quartered hinwelf in the 
 ncighbourli.KMl, and thn.'.!ened thi- Convention 
 at the hui >f an army of 8,«I0 veterans 
 He did 111 howevtr resort to open font 
 Instead of lliis. he ordered hia part- to rw*<li 
 from the Convention: and this left ti. Conver 
 tion without the means of making a juorun, 
 J"r ru tlii.s mouiint fhi- designs of Boliv .r we- 
 uninistakat)lf Tln' .linsolution of tne ' nvc 
 tion. and tliv !itp..ititm. it of Bolivar as ! tat- 
 liyajiint:, : nouible followed as a n t^r ( 
 roxirm ai, , t,y the • (»rj:iniic decree ' of ug- ^i 
 2838, iiolivar iwsunuHl ilie ab«olut<- sovet-^iirmy 
 of Colombia A reign of brut' oe now fof. 
 lowed: iMit the Iriuinph of !v r was 'ily 
 
 -;mc:i!r— ;. . . Thf r. derail.. «i, - n.ii, 
 
 U-caine i question of necurinK mil-, % je in 
 the separate pnivinees. A p- -t<.n! ua '.fiance 
 now occurred hi Ecuador, The mocratk party 
 
 COLOMBIAN STATES, 1838. 
 
 under Floret triumphed orer the Bollvlan» nndn 
 Mowjuera: and Paez assured his chief ilmt Z 
 help was to be expected from Venezu. Ii «. 
 the CopTenUon of Bogota, lo 1830, thou^li it »u 
 packed with Bolivar's nominees, it became drar 
 that the liberator'! star had set at last. Tbii 
 
 conTentlon refused to vote him Presiilent Boli 
 ▼ar now withdrew from public life: and a few 
 months Uter, December 17, 1830, he dl.,! hrokin 
 hearted at San Pe<lro, near Santa Martha Boll 
 var, Uiough a patriot as regarded the ulniifjl, 
 with Spain, was In the end a traitor to his fellow 
 citizens. Recent discoveries leave little doubt 
 that be intended to found a monarchy on th« 
 ndna of the 8pa:.ish dominion. England end 
 France, both at this time strongly conservative 
 powers, were In favour of sueh a scheme ; and t 
 I'rince of the House of Bourbon had alreailv been 
 nominated to be Bolivar's succesaor. "— E J 
 Payne, Uul. of European Colonia. eh. 1(1._ 
 " About one month before his death. General 
 Boll kT, the so-called ' Liberator ' of South Amer 
 ica, wrote a letter to the late General Klorcs of 
 Ecuador, In which the following r. markabb 
 passages occur, which have never !>• f.ire been 
 published ir the Englii.h language I hare 
 been in power for nearly 20 years, frotn \> lii-h I 
 have gathered only a few den;iit« r : I 
 -Vmcrica, for us. is ungovernable. 2. I|f nhj 
 dtKiicates < !u"-vices to a revolution, pluws the 
 sea. 8. T .■ only thing tliat can lie d.iue In 
 America, .^ u> emigrate. 4. This (..iintrv will 
 Inevitably ! into the hands ■' tli. unlmilM 
 rabble, ami iUtlr hy little Ik'coh. a pnv t.i n.lty 
 tyranM of all colors and races ■ -¥. llass, urck 
 Four Yairiatiuituj SiMnuhAiii.>^,-am, eh 12 ' 
 
 Also IN: J. M. Swnce, 77.. ijiiut^'f luimr 
 
 1, eh. 7.— E. B. kastwi. . 
 (BdltUofCir'-ib,,). 
 
 A D. 1821-1854.— Emai 
 — Tiie aholiticm of slavery i, 
 of New Omnada. Veui'^iielu 
 
 ' . iiei'i,'l,i. eh. U 
 
 nation of slaves. 
 
 ..■ three ri'iuililici 
 ml Eriiii.|i)r wsi 
 
 iuitiaUsI In the Hepubli, of Coloniliia, while it 
 
 embraced them all. "lUal, . 
 July, 1821. it w.w provid'.ii tli 
 slaves, 1 ru after its pMblieatio. 
 cities ,)f •■ repulilic, should be 
 tain r- s were appropriate! 
 
 (.fan en.. nation fund in en 
 
 .f tlle 21st of 
 
 '"• I'liiliiren of 
 
 tlie principal 
 
 n-e. . . . Cer- 
 
 the creation 
 
 ii>lrirt 
 
 .\side fr. . a certain bungling loos<iii>s with 
 
 Hpanlsh-Aineriiari l:ms are 
 of 1821] contains ~ime very 
 IS, and serviHi t.i liv a solid 
 
 work of eMiiineipstl..n. since 
 
 three repuliliis wliirh then 
 lia." In Eeiiailor tin coniple- 
 ion was reached in I.s.vi — K. 
 
 I><»r» among SjuiiiM .imeri- 
 
 hirh almost 
 Irawii. it [th( 
 '.■nsiiilc regu 
 
 .undallou for 
 
 >mp! !<i| by 
 . inst .te<l ('. 
 t; ! . emaui 
 ■saaurek f\m 
 
 .!«, op. :i i-SJtt 
 
 A. D. .Sa6.— Tb" Conrreat of Panama.— 
 
 The proposition 1 r iisKemlillii:,' this lN«h (inin- 
 iu«l from Bolivar. »lio, in 182:1, as pri>i'.l,-nt of 
 Colombia, invited the governiiieiits of .Meiico, 
 Peru, Chile, and Buenos Avres, !■) form a con- 
 fi .racy of the S|mnish-.(nieri™n ..-ta:.*.. by 
 means of plenipotenliari.^ to lie convini.l in the 
 spirit of classic analog} . in the isthmus i.f P«n 
 ama. To this Invitation the goveninniits of 
 Peru and Mexico promptly Hcri..|..i). Cliili. and 
 Huenos Ayres neglwIisiOr declined to In n;.re- 
 "••nu><l In the assembly, for the reas<ins whieb wi 
 •hal: presently ttat^. T'li^ imgnltlcent iilisofi 
 secuiui Acbaaan Lmgue s<^.-d on the Imagins- 
 
 ■m 
 
COLOMBIAN STATES, 1891 
 
 COLOMBIAN STATES, 18S0-1888. 
 
 tkMU of many ipeculstWe and of some practical 
 men in America and Europe, as deatinod to 
 create a new era In the political hlatory of tbe 
 world by originating a purer system of public 
 Uw, anil almost realizing Bernardin de Saint 
 Pierre's league of the modem natlims. In Its 
 original shape, it was professedly a plan of a bel- 
 ligerent nature, having for its main object to 
 combine the revolutionized states ai^uiast the 
 common enemy. But time was requiad for 
 csrrying it into effect. Meanwhile the project, 
 ma^nilied by tlie course of events, began to 
 change iu complexion. The United Status w re 
 invite<l to participate in the Congress, so as to 
 form an American policy, and a rallying point 
 for American interests. In opposition to those of 
 Eunipe ; and. after the disciusions which arc so 
 familiar to all, the government of the United 
 .States accepted the invitation, and despatched 
 its nprcsvntatives to Panama. ... In the In- 
 terval, between the proposal of the plan and Its 
 execution. Central America was aaded to the 
 ftniily of American nations, and agreed to 
 talte part in the Congress. At length, after 
 many ddavs, this mcxlem Amphtctyonic Coun- 
 cil, consi.Hling of plenipotentiaries from Colombia, 
 Central America. I'eru and Mexico, assembled 
 in the rity of Panama, June 22, 1824, and in a 
 sessii'n of thn-c weeks concluded various treaties ; 
 ouf f p iMliial union, league, and confedera- 
 tion; ^iliir?! rilating to the contingents which 
 the contcderalfs should contribute for the 
 common defence; and another for the annual 
 meetiriL- i.f the Congress In time of war. Hav- 
 ing til ;^ promptly despatched their private 
 affairs, the a.ssembly adjourned to TaculHiya in 
 Mexico, on account of the insalubrious climate 
 of I'iinama. befof tlie delegation of the United 
 Stall- hill arrived, since when it has Justly ac- 
 quiril 'he epithet of 'introuvable.' and probably 
 Dcvi r Kill reiwsemtile in iu original form. Is 
 th. re a>.f n viret history of all this T Why did 
 Ciiili-aii.. .lenos Avrcs refuse to participate in 
 the ( ongr. »s ? Why lias it now vanished from 
 the face of the irth? The answer given In 
 Sii'ith .Vmeriia i.-. that Bolivar proposed the 
 »» mM\ Ai part of a grand scheme of ambition, 
 — i;~ - Uil to him liy the republican party, and 
 not •ithout some countenance from his own 
 cos .'t.— f.Ti-stablishing a miliury empire to 
 i-iii ;:3.T till *li<)le of Spanish-America, or at 
 !.:istaH imi . uniting Colombia and the two 
 Pcrus. To give the ciilor of plausibility to the 
 projectitl aiMembly. tlie United States were In- 
 vited to 1k' rcprcv nicd; and 1' is said Bolivar 
 did mt <K|).'ct, nor very gracio' iv receive, their 
 «ccc|itHnii' of tilt- iovitatlon "— I' Cushlng, Bolt- 
 fir <!<,./ IU Ihlf OmthhiHon {X A. Ret., 
 J.in., l-'Hoj.—In th. . nited Slates "no question, 
 in lis diy, excited more heat and inU'mperate 
 dlscusM .11, or more feeling U-tween a President 
 «a.i S, Mile, than tliis proposed mission to tlie 
 Congr.« of American nations at Panama: and 
 no h-at.-l cjui'stiim ever cooled off and .lied out 
 sosudij.i'.ly mid completely. . . . Th. gh long 
 Jince sunk iiiio oblivion, and Its name alnuist 
 lorgott.ir !■ was a master subjwt on the politic ^ 
 theatre .; . Mg u^ ,)„> ,nd gave rise t.i qu. 
 
 tlOn« of n.n...,Hi r"t;.-.j--i' !.;•.; - 
 
 nslLmal |).,li. 
 lie ocr-asi.ii, 
 Blutii.ti ..f 
 
 fmk I., f 
 
 occur. Besides the grave questions to which tb* 
 subject gave rise, the subject itself bicame one 
 of unusual and painful excitement. It agitated 
 the people, made a violent debate In the two 
 Houses of Congress, Infiiimetl tlie passions of 
 parties and individuals, niised a tempest before 
 which Congress bent, iniide bail feeling bc>tweea 
 the President [John Quincy Adams] and the 
 Senate; and led to the duel between Mr. Ran- 
 dolph and Mr. Clay. It was an ndmii. tration 
 measure, and preaswi by all the means known to 
 an administration. It was evidently relied upon 
 asameansof acting upon the people— as a popu- 
 lar movement which niiglit have the effect of 
 t..ming the tide which was then running high 
 against Mr. Adams and M Clay. . . . Now, 
 the chief beneet to be derived from Its retrospect 
 — and that indeed is a real one — Is a view of 
 the tlrmness with which was then maintahicd, by 
 a minority, the old policy of the l'nit«d States, to 
 avoid entangling alliances and interfervnce with 
 the affairs of other nations;- and the exposition 
 of the Monroe doctrine, from one so competent 
 to give it as Mr. Adams."— T. H. Bentou, Thirtp 
 Teari Vieie, ch. 85 (r. 1). 
 
 Also in: O. F. Tucker, Tk» Uanroe Doctrine, 
 th. 3.— C. Schurz, Life of Ihnry Clay. eh. 11 (o. 1). 
 — International Am. Ciinfereiu-e(of'\tS69): Heptt. 
 and DtKuuioiu. r. 4, Hint, apifnilix. 
 
 A. D. 1830-1886. — Revolutioot mod ciTil 
 wars.— The New Confederation (1863) of the 
 United States of Colombia.— The Republic of 
 Colombia. — "New Oranada was obliged in 
 1830 to recognize the disruption of Colonilila, 
 which had long tieen an accomplished fact. 
 From this date the three states have a separate 
 history, which Is very mucli of a piece, though 
 Venezuela was for some years pn'served from 
 tlie intestine commotions which have from the 
 beginning distracted New Granada and Ecuador.. 
 . . . Mosquera, who had won ilie election which 
 ilecidcd the fate of Bolivar diii not long occupy 
 the presi.l.ncy. . . . Mosquera was soon driven 
 out by tieneral Urdamie. who was now at the 
 head of the conservative or Bolivian party. But 
 after the death of their leader, this party suffered 
 a natural relapse, and I nlanete wa-s overthrown 
 early in 1831. Tlic history of New Grana.lamay 
 be said really to commerue with the presidency 
 of Bolivars old rival and omipanlon in anns, 
 Santaiiler, who was eli-cted under the constitu- 
 tion ot 1S33. . . . llis presiiieiicv . . . was a 
 comparatively liright episiKle: ilnd with its 
 termination in 1836 In gins tlie dark and troubled 
 periisi which the Or.iiiadineseniplialieaUydeslg- 
 nate by the name of the 'Twelv.! Years.' The 
 sc«ntv measure of llln'raliam which Santander 
 had dealt out to the people was now withdrawn. 
 Marquez. his siueessor. was a sceptic In politics 
 and a man of intlrni will. . . . Now began the 
 aseeniiaucy of clericalism, of alisolutist oligarchy, 
 and of government by the gallows. This same 
 sy.sten; e .otimi.fi un.ler Presi.lent Herran, who 
 waaelei 1 in 1^*41; and then appeariKi on the 
 scene, a.i his chief minister, the famous Dr. 
 Oapina. ' who brought back the Jesuits and cur- 
 tailed the constitution. LilK'ralism again gained 
 gnxinil. electing General I»pez to the presidency 
 ' ■ " -r.rni ;;na- mnrr rspriling ;ri.". T, nolto. In 
 i^M a radical revolution overturned the 
 ■ m iitd Pn-sidi nt Ubando \v:is declared 
 .•onwrvHtives rallii' i, however, 
 cssi. '; of the government befort 
 
 t^ 
 
II 
 
 
 H k 
 
 I [J 
 
 
 
 COLOMBIAN tTATES, ISaO-lSM. 
 
 tbo clow of the year. In 1857 Ospiiui entered on 
 tbe presidency and civil war ioon raged througli- 
 out the country. "After a hundred flghta tbe 
 revnlution triumphed in July, IMl. . . . Moa- 
 quent, who wa« now in pimaeaaion of tbe Held, 
 waaa true pupil of Bolivar's, and he thought the 
 time hod come for reviving Bolivar'a plana. . . . 
 In 1N03 Moaquerti'it ni-w FulenU Conitltution 
 wa* priM-lainutl. Ilenri-fortli each State [of the 
 eight fnteral Htatco into which the 44 province* 
 of New Oranaila were ilivided] benimc practi- 
 cally independent under ila own Preaiilent : and to 
 mark the change tbe title of the lutioD waa 
 altered. At first it was called the Uranadine 
 Confederation : hut it aftrrwanis took the name 
 of Colombia [the Cnited 8Utes of Columbia], 
 which had formerly N-cn the title of the larger 
 Confeileration under Bolivar. Among tbe moat 
 Imporunt facts in recent ColumbUn history 
 is the indep<-n<lence of tbe State of Panama, 
 which baa l)ecome of great Importance through 
 the construction of the railway cunnectlDf toe 
 port of Colon, or Aspinwall, as it was named by 
 the Americans, on tbe Atlantic, with that of 
 Pannmaon the PaciBc. This railway was opened 
 in IKU; and in the same rear I*anama declared 
 itself a Koven>iKn stale. The State of Panama, 
 after many years of conservative domination, 
 has now |N'rhaps the most democtatic govern- 
 ment in the world. The President Is ele^ed for 
 two yiara only, and is incapable of re-election. 
 Panama luu hiMl many revolution* of Ita own ; 
 nor liHS the new Knlcnil Constitution solved all 
 the diini'ullii's of the Omnailine government In 
 IHOT .M<i)M|Uera was 01)11x1^1 to have rrcoum to a 
 cou<< il'etHt. and decUrrtl himself dictator, but 
 he 14 soon afterwards arrested; a conservative 
 rcvoli.llon toik platv; Mnauuera was lianiabed; 
 and Oiilirm'r. UtanK' Pn-aident. The lilierals, 
 hoKi'Vcr. lanie back iieit year. underPonce. 
 Slutv XHli |||||. i|,.|i,. of writing being 18TS) 
 Ueiiinil I'rm. lias lieen Prraldent of Colombia. 
 — K .1. I'ayur. Hut. of A'u mania Valmim, rh 
 Id— Tiie fnlcral (•institution of IHU w ui 
 clearly furmiil on the mmlel of tbe Coaatitutlno 
 of the I'nileit Mlatea of Americ*. It remalneii lo 
 force until INM, wlien it was superseiled by a 
 law which gave the Stale a centralliitt organiia- 
 tion and named it llie ' Kepuhllc of Colombia.' " 
 — (J.M/ of tkt lUpulttifof l\4»iHhia, thth Ilitt. 
 Intr-ml. hpU Mom {Snp to AnnnU of Am. AeaU. 
 of lU unit Sr. ScHitfr. J,lM., lh|M). 
 
 A. D. iM .-iloi.-Th* Rerolatioa af iMs. 
 —The eoutitatron of ilM.-Th*pr*aid«ac7 «l 
 
 Or. Nuft**.— 'Cnrlsgi'iia is virtually the centra 
 of poliiical |Miwrr III Ciiiombia, for it I* tbe rrsl' 
 dewe of Prtaident .Niiftrs, a dictator without the 
 name Ikfore tlie rrvolutliia of INN.-! during 
 which Colon waa bunuil and tbe Panama Hall 
 way prolectnl by American marinea, tbe States 
 enjoyiil a large measure of home rule. The 
 insiirtfinls « ho were defeateil in that stniggle 
 were llailiials ami a.ivauced I.lbrnUs. Tbey 
 werv making a staiHl against centralised govern- 
 ment, and they wen' overthrown. When tbe 
 folkiweni of llr. Niiftei were vietnrioUB, they 
 traiisfonm-d tlie conntitutiuoal systtm of tlie 
 (•ntnlry . I)r Niiflen. who bad entered 
 pulilii iitfrnm* IbulU'alagil^Ukr, iwytiffvuniitMlfly 
 afiMiiid the < Inle As the h-ader of tbe National 
 party tie lirramr the allv of Clerlcaliaa. and the 
 defemler of rcclraUatieal tif1vlk-gs. Being a 
 ■M uf uarivalksd capacity fur dlrectlaf pubik 
 
 COIiORADa 
 
 affair* and enforcir • partv dlacipline, he ht 
 establlabed a highl) ....rallzed miliury Rureni- 
 ment without incurring unpopularity by remsta. 
 Ing constantly in sight and openly cii'irisinir 
 authority. . . . Strong government hiu not 
 been without ita advanuge*: but the svmi m rag 
 hardly be considered either republican' or ilinia- 
 cratic. ... Of all tbe tinvcsties of |i»pulw 
 
 Sovemment which have been witneascil in .S|»inisli 
 .merica, the political play enacte<l in itopiti 
 and Cartagena is tbe most gritewiue. |)r 
 Nullez is known aa tbe titular l*re!ii<li'iit <>( tk^ 
 itepublic His practice is to go u> the ( apiul t| 
 tbe beginning of tbe preaidential U'nii. hihI vhn 
 he has taken the oath of office to n-niain ilitm i 
 few week* until all matter* of poliir anl 
 diacipline are arranged among bis follow • rii. He 
 then retires to hi* country seat In ( anamiu, 
 leaving the vIoe-PreaMeut to iKwr the biinli m u( 
 slate.'— I. N. Ford, Tyopieai Amerim, rh vi 
 
 A. D. 119a.— Rs-slwtioa of President Noau. 
 — In IMIS, I>r. Kafael Nuftez was eleiliil Pn<<.i. 
 dent for a fourth term, the term of olllce beiiu 
 six years.— fSltatsSNMn's i'tarbvuk, IWKI. 
 » 
 
 COLON!. See DBDrrtrirs. 
 
 COLONIA ACRIPPINENSIS.-Arrip 
 plna, tbe daughter of Qermaiiicusaiiil ilie niotlwr 
 of Nero, fouiMled on the Itliine the ( 'oli mln .Vinip. 
 pinensi* (modem Cologne) — pnihalilv il.. 
 colony of Roman veterans ever establisluil uixirr 
 female auspices. The site liad been previnutlr 
 occupied by a village of the I'hii. li ^ 
 curious that thi* alnormal colony luu. alotir, of 
 all it* kindred fouiKlallons. n'taineil lo ibe 
 preaent day tbe name of Colonia."— C .Mirivtie 
 JJitl. oflSt Humaiu. rk. fit). 
 
 COLONIA. URUGUAY. S.-e Akokntixe 
 Rkpvblic: a. D. 1.Wi^I7;7. 
 
 COLONIZATION SOCIETY, The Aatri- 
 
 can. Hee SUkVKHT, NcillUl: A. l> l'*|ll IN4; 
 
 COLONNA, Th*. See Komk: |;:iii Uti 
 CBXTt'HiKa, and A. U. 1847-1354; alwi I'ArAtT: 
 A. n liW4-l840 
 
 COLONUS, Th*. Bee Slavkht. Muuxvai 
 Obknant. 
 
 COLORADO: A. O. iSoj-iM. Ac^siii- 
 tioa of the oMtem port ta the Louisiana Psr- 
 cImm aad tki we s> s « part from Mtaico. 
 See LorisiAHA: A U. 17IM-I^<(KI, aii<l >U\ku: 
 A. n. 1848. 
 
 A. D. iIoA-iItA.— Early nptorstie**.- 
 C«M di*cev*ri«*.— Tsrritorial and stsit tt- 
 (■•isotioa.— The flnt Ann riean evi.l.irrr lo 
 
 Iienetiate to tbe mountainn of ( oluriilii wu 
 .ieutenant Zebulon Pike, sint out wiili i miuII 
 ^«rty by Ui-nerai WllkinaiHi. in IHiiH llr 4p. 
 j>niach<-d within 1.1 mik-s of the lim kv M.'uuuis 
 I'l-ak which bear* his name A more ittintiir 
 iifflcial etiilontion of tlie coiinlrv «s« iiixkiB 
 INIt bv Major Sieph<-n II l^onit! «iio<M rrpeft 
 u|Mia the wliole n-gloo dmiiMil bv iIh Mi^mrt, 
 Arkansaa au<l PUlle rivers sihI thrir tni'uurtis 
 was unfavorable and dlsrotimglnx rrummli 
 rxplocatioos, wbk'h Umclteil loliniil" «tn 
 m*''. in t84S-44. "Tbe onlv |» i»«i'. .ik-iki*- 
 Irred in tbe Hocky mnunuliMto Ft> iii< m tt lUi 
 time were the fe« remaining imHrr- nirl tkrir 
 former emp!ot%. Bt-w their !-.!!;••.!!=!- » !: > li'f'^ 
 with their Me'iican and Imllan •ltr» Mi.i hslf- 
 breeil chihiren In a primitive umiimr <'( lifi, 
 usually under the piutection of some ili (railn 
 BtrtMtun cailsd a (oil The first ' " ~ 
 
 GO'i 
 
COLORADO. 
 
 COMTTATUS. 
 
 fcmlW M In Colondo wen • part of the MormoB 
 bitMlioa of IBM, who, with their wtrea and 
 cbildren, redded at Pueblo from September to 
 the ipring and lummer of the following year, 
 when they Joined the Mormon emigration U> Salt 
 Uke. . . . Meaiurei were taken earlv in March. 
 1847. to lelect location* for two United Statea 
 (oru brtween the MiMouri and the Rocky moun- 
 ulm, the i\Ut lelecled beins thoae now occupied 
 br Krarnfy City and Fort Laramie. ... Up to 
 ISSi Cdlnradn'i icant population ttill lived in or 
 near tome defeniive eatabliabment, and had been 
 decrmitinK nther than increaaing for tlie paat 
 decidi', owing to the hoatility of tu Indiana. " In 
 liSi the flnt organized Marching or pioapecting 
 (or gold in tlic n'gion waa begun by a party of 
 Cherokee Iniliao* and white*. Other partie* 
 1000 followed; the aearch aucceeded; and the 
 Pike'i Peak mining region waa ipeedilr awarm- 
 iig with eager aiiventurera. In the fall of 18JS8 
 two riviil town* were laid out on the oppoalte 
 ■ide* of Cherry Creek. They were namril 
 mprrtirely Auraria and Denver. The itruggle 
 (or f liitence between them waa bitter, but brief. 
 Auraria .tuccumbed and Denver lurTived, to 
 become the mctropoli* of the Mountalna. Tlie 
 flnt •ttrinpt at political organiiation waa made 
 •t the Auraria aettlement, in Noremlier, 1838, 
 ud took the form of a pr: ' 'onal territorial 
 
 Xlzitlion, under the name of the Territory of 
 • III; but the nmvisional goTrmment did 
 oot tuit'i'f^ In eatahliihlng Ita authority, oppoard 
 M II Kan by rondirting claim* u> territorial Juria- 
 dlftlon i>n the part of Utah, New Meiico, 
 KuM.". Nebnuka, and Dakota. At length, on 
 the 2*ith o' February, 1841, an act of Congreaa 
 became Irw, by whicli the pro(MM<><i new tenitory 
 wu iliilr rrealeil, but not hearing the name of 
 .lifTiTu 'n " The name of (. olorado waa given to it 
 n' the fii|rge«tion nf the man aelected for Ita fliM 
 k-'vemor • Iti'iimining In the territorial conll- 
 li.in iiiitil July, IHTll. C'olorwlii waa then admit- 
 I"! to the I nlon a* a sutv.— II. II. Baurroft, 
 //«( .Jih, l\uifie fUatf*. r. 30 : lUnnMl*, M. »-4. 
 
 COLOSSEUM, OR COLISEUM. Tkc- 
 
 The rUvlan Amphlthrwlrr, or Coloaaeum, waa 
 built by Vnpaaian and TItii* In the loweat part 
 o( the valley between tiia Cwlcan and Eiqullina 
 Ilnia. whii'h wa* then ixrunlrd by a large artl- 
 Wal pool for naval flghu (• NaumarhU ). . . . 
 TV r\»rt (late of the commencement of the 
 ColoM iiin ii ilimbtful, hut it waa opened fur UM 
 la A l> Ml . . A* built by the riavlaa Km- 
 pefiin ihe upper galleriea ('moenlanl ") wer» ol 
 wood. «ii.| Utnr. a* In the caae of the Clrcu* 
 lUitmiK. at many timea caught Are from light- 
 alni and other caiiaea, and did much damage to 
 Itaftirtie work of the building "—J. H. Middle- 
 too. AirifHl Mow I'a 1888, M. 10, 
 ^ AlJ..i<. J II IVkcr, Arrtiamhni^lbmu. pi. 
 ' — R Hum. W«M« dnrf fAe l\iirpafna, eA. 9 pi 
 <-*r. aim Hoiot- A. I» 7&-M 
 ^SFRii"' °' RHODES. See RRoma 
 COLUMBAMCHURCH.Thr-Tbechurch, 
 irtl. fi;»n:jath>n of ChrialUnlly, In HoHland, 
 wbl. . i.«ili„l fnm the labora ot the Iriah mla- 
 "(jBary. ("lumlia, la the ilith OMtury, and 
 •j'r^ -rr-Tii fr;:ir. th. tfrekl iinmaaiery iiiat be 
 ^>«D.I.-.| on the liiile lafand of luoa. or la, or 
 nu. 11,, ,r (|„, ,n»ier l»buid of MulL-W T 
 
 ALn> m Count de MoataUiBhatt, A* JfcnJto 
 
 •f M« Win. U g (t. 8X-8ee Cbbistiakitt: 
 Sth-Stb CcNTUBiRa, and .'^-800. 
 
 COLUMBIA, Th* Diatrict of.— The federal 
 Diatrict of Columbia, In which the national capi- 
 tal of the United states U situated, wa* orlgl- 
 nallv a aquare of ten mili<<<. lying on both sidt;* 
 of the Potomac lUver, partly cedud to the United 
 SUte* by MaryUnd, in \1hh, partly by Virginia, 
 in 1789. The portion soiiUiwest of the river 
 wa* retroceded to Virginia iu 1848. The preaent 
 area of the Diitrict la 7U wguare mile*. The 
 Diatrict i* controlled by the fedtrel government, 
 through a board of three commiiiaioners, the city 
 of Waabington having no niunicipal liicorpo- 
 ration. A territorial eoycmnient. instituted In 
 1871, waa abolished three years later, and the 
 preaent form waa adopted 'in 1878.— See, alio, 
 Wa*hii(otoh. 
 
 A. D. iSso.— Abolition of alavc-trad* ia. 
 See Ukitbo Statu or A«.: A. 1) IS.TO 
 
 A. D. iMf.— Estcnaioa o^ auffrage to th« 
 Ntfrots. SeeUKiTKoSTAiiuur Am.: A. D. 
 
 18«7(jAaUAttT). 
 
 COLUMBIA, S. C, Th* bnrniar of. Be« 
 United State* or Am.: A. D. 18«3 (Fedkuart 
 — Makch : The Carolimas). 
 
 COLUMBIA, Ttan., Eafagement at. See 
 UiiiTEDSTATEaor Am.: a. D 1864 (November: 
 
 TRXXEasEE). 
 
 COLUMBIA COLLEGE. See F.nrcA- 
 TICK, Modern. Amkhu t : A 1T4«-1T87 
 
 COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, Th« 
 World's. See ('Fnr*<i<i .\ 1» imri imsis 
 
 COLUMBIAN ORDER, The. .V« Tam- 
 
 HAIT SoriBTT. 
 
 COLUMBUS, VoTRfta of. See America:' 
 A. D.1484-14M: 14W3: UII»-141W. 1408-I.Vn. 
 
 COMANA. — Comnna. ru iimieiii ell v of r»p. 
 padocla. on the river SaniH iSiliooiii wiu the seat 
 of a prtesthwxl. In tlie temple of Knyo, or l(cl- 
 lona, so venerateil. to wraltliy ami so iHiwerful 
 that the chief priest of Comanit counted among 
 the rreat Aalat ic dlgnluriis in the time of Cieaar. 
 — 0. Long, ItteiiiM of th* Uutnan lUji.. r. 5, 
 <•*. 24. 
 
 COMANCHES, Tb«, See Amehk an .Vbo- 
 HiuiNEa: SHoanoNEAN Familv, and KiowaX 
 Family, and Apaciik ORoir. 
 
 COMAMS, The. M<v Kidiiaks. I'ATi-m- 
 SAKS; CoaaACE*, and IIinhahy .V D. 1114- 
 l»)l. 
 
 COMBAT, Jadicial. S,^< WtuKitof IUtti.r. 
 
 COMBS LITTORiS SAXONICI. Sm 
 Saxon Hhorc. Cocnt or 
 
 COMBS PALATII. Ar Tmatink Coi nt*. 
 
 COMITATUS.-COMITES.- CESITHS. 
 — THBCNS.— Comliatil* In Iho tnune ^Iveii liy 
 Tacitu* U> a hsty of warlike i<<iiii|iiiiiioiis among 
 the ancient Oermana " wlmnttiK licit tin iiiselves In 
 me cloaest manner to the clili ftiiiii of i!ieir choli'e. 
 Tlicy were In many cases llw sous of the uolile* 
 who win' amtiltlous of niiowii or of a mrfect 
 education In arm*. The |ir{-iii'|» |>r«vli[e<l (or 
 tliem horae*, arms, an<l siii h i>>iiuh ei|iiipmeiit a* 
 Ihey wanted. These anil plentiful eiitrrtainnicnt 
 were acivpted Inaleail of watfis In lime of war 
 the nimllr* fought for thi Ir ■ likf. at ihkv hi* 
 <lefeiitler« aiid Uie rivals of iii-, pniMtitn . in 
 
 the limes of forced an<l unwileiuiic n-sl they 
 were tlHmnigbly hlh', they canil miiber for 
 farming nor for hunting, bii* s;h m the time In 
 feaatiitg aad la alsep. . . . Like the Fraak Ua^ 
 
 SOS 
 
J ; 
 
 coifTrA'nj& 
 
 the Anclo-Skzon king Mcmt to b«Te entered on 
 the fullpoueMinn ofwbat hwl t>een the right of 
 the el<>ctWe principes Tto nomiDate and nuiintain 
 • romitatiu, t<> which lie could give territury and 
 political p«wer]: but the very principle of the 
 comitatun had undergone a cliange from what it 
 was in the time of Tacitua, when It reappean In 
 our liiatorianii. an<l it aermi to have had in Eng- 
 land a prruliar develnpmrut and a bearing uf 
 ■pecial ini|><>rtunre on tlivconititutinn. In Taci- 
 tu« the coiiiit^v are the personal following of the 
 t)rincpps: tbcv live in his house, are maliiuioed 
 by his gifts, tlglit for him in the Held. If there 
 ia llltic diffcrrmc bctwcfn companions and ser- 
 vants, it is Ik-ghusc rivilization has not yet Intro- 
 duced TDluDtary ht'lplesaneaa. . . . Kow the 
 king, the per|M'tunl princcpi and representative 
 of the race, convys to hla penonal following 
 public ilignity and importance. His gealths and 
 thegus are among the great and wise men of the 
 land. The riglit of havinr cuch dependenu Is 
 not restricted to him, but ue gealth of the eal- 
 domian or lii.sliop is simply a retainer, a pupil or 
 award: tbi: free liousehold servants of the ct^orl 
 are in a certain m nse hU geaiths also. But the 
 geslths of tile kinx arc his guard and private 
 council; they may IH.' endowed by him from the 
 foiklaud and admitte<l liy him to tlie witenage- 
 mot. . . . The Daoixh huacarlsof Canute area 
 late repriKiuetioii of what the familia of the 
 Northumbrian kings must have been in the eighth 
 century. . . Tliedetrlopmeatof tliecomiiatus 
 into a territ^irial nobility leeina to be a feature 
 pectiliar to Englisli history. . . . The Lomlwnl 
 
 Sisind. and llie liavarian sindman were originally 
 p snnie thine on tile Anglo-Haxon gesith. But 
 they sank into the genenu masa of vassalage as 
 It gn'w nil ill the ninth and tenth centuries. 
 . . (IomIv coniiii'tHl with the gesith is the 
 thegn; m> clowly that it is scarcely p<iaalhle lo 
 see the ililTennii' emvpt In the nature of the em- 
 ploy iiient. The tlnirn strms to be primarily the 
 warrior gi-«ith, in diia idea Alfred uaeathe woni 
 as traiislatinK the ' miles' of Bede. He la prob- 
 ably the genith who has a particular military 
 duty in his niamerii mTvice. But he also Bp|M>an 
 as a landowner. The ceorl who has acqiiireil 
 Ave hilled of jp-d. and a special appointment in 
 the kini! s ha «ith other Judicial riglita, lie- 
 ctimes theen wi rthy. . . . And fMm thia point, 
 the time of Atlielstan. tho gesith is hist sight of, 
 elitpt very (K<ai.ioiially ; the more iiii|MirUiit 
 menilirni of the elans having lMK»me thegns, ainl 
 the tenser sort »liiking inUi the ranks of mere 
 lervani" to the king The class of thegns now 
 widens, on tlir one hanil the name is given Ui all 
 wlioiMiswils the |mi|i<'ri{iiantlty of land, whether 
 or no tliev stand in the old relation to the king: 
 OB the other the renmins of the old nodillty place 
 themselves In the king's (rrviee. The name of 
 thegii lovent tin- whole clasa which afu^r the 
 t'onipiest spixars iiiiiler the name of knighu, 
 Willi .lie same i|iialilli'ation In Unit an'* m'arly 
 the name olilitfaii,.ii. It also rarHe>l so m-ich of 
 noMliiy as i« Inipliinl in.beraditary pritilege 
 
 The theicn N'm are eontraaled with tba i rl- 
 
 biirn. and are p4 rlmps much the same as the 
 psiiliriind I iiderthe name of ihegn are 
 
 Inelmlid hi Aevir various grwiea of dignity 
 T!i- tirt-ri --f Kinv :! ihr^s b distiBjfuUbrrtfr.ini 
 that of the niiillal thegns, and from a residuum 
 tlial falls in riuik Is'low the latter. . . . The very 
 like titat of the gtailb, htm dlfftfant leaaea 
 
 COIOTIA CTNTURIATii- 
 
 in dlfferaat ages and kingdoms; but the original 
 idea of military service nma through all the 
 meaningi of tbegn, aa that of penonal assiicia. 
 tion la traceable in ali the applications of ge»\ti, " 
 — W. Btubba, Ohm*. JIut. of Stu., th. 3, src( 14 
 and uA 8. <K(. «8-<U. 
 
 Alio tx: T. Ilodgkin, Italfand Iftr Innultn 
 bk. 4, eh. 7. — See, also, CotjiiT akd Uukk 
 
 COMITIA CENTURIATA.-" Under Um 
 original constitution of Rome, the patricisu 
 alone . . . enjoyed political rights in the ttate 
 but at the same time tliey wen- forcol to bear 
 the whole burden of political dutiea In Iheie 
 last were included, for example, the tilling of Uw 
 king's flelda, the construction of publir wnrki 
 and buUdinga . . . ; citizens alone, also, wtrc 
 liable to service in the army. . . . The i>oliUcal 
 burdena, especUlly those connecU><l with tlie 
 army, grew heavier, naturally, as the |H>wer nf 
 Rome increased, anil it waa seen to lie an iojiu- 
 tioethat one part of the people, and that, Um, the 
 smaller part, should alone feel their mlgbt 
 This led t« the first Importsmt modilteaiioa of 
 the Roman constitution, which whs nmile even 
 before the close of the r»'gal iM'rioii. Ai . ontinit 
 totlBdItion, iU author was the king Servius Tuf 
 llus, and iU gemnU object was lo make all men 
 who held land in the state liable to militsrv ler 
 vice. It thus conferml no |iolitieiil rit'lits on 
 the plebeians, but sssigned to Iheiii their ^liure of 
 political dutiea . . . Accor<ting to inuliiinn. all 
 the fn'eliolders In the city lietweeu llie sites o( 
 17aiHi(IU, with some exceptions, were divliled. 
 without distinction as to liirtli, into tite ilsMri 
 ('cisstit,' 'a summoning,' 'calo') forservin mtlie 
 infantry accunling t<i the size of tlieir i >ut«t 
 Those who were excepted scrviii as borwinia 
 These were selected from among the verv rii best 
 men in the slate. , , . of the live elaM«'i (if in- 
 fantry, the first contained Hie rieiiest nim . 
 The members of ilie first cUss were n'<|>iin>il D 
 cooM lothe battle array ineomplele anmr. wiiile 
 leas waa demanded of the iitlier four. ¥m\i ilau 
 was subdivkied into centuries or IsalleHnl s hun- 
 drwl men each, for convenience In srrain;iii){ iIm 
 army. There were in ail lua renlurn-. . . 
 This absolute numlier and this apimriitinment 
 were continued, as the nopulatiou ini'n';i'«'<i and 
 the distribution of wealth alten-d. until the name 
 centurycametohaveapun-ly conventional mean- 
 ing. even if it bail any other In the In L-iiiniug 
 Henceforth a caiyfiil census was talon • very 
 fourth year an.l all fnt-holders om' maile 
 subject to the 'tributum.' The srrinirrmnt 
 of the |>eople thus drscrilml was |irimsrilT 
 made simply for lullitary piiriioM'«. . liraa 
 ually, however, Ihli orgaulMlion mnie to 
 have politk'al slgnifieani.'. until tlii.illy lime 
 men, got together for iliat Is tl'e >liii( jBitiU' 
 cal duty In a primitive slate, injii.M-l «!if' 
 political privileges there were . in tlie 
 
 end, this ' eien-ilus ' of I4rrvius Tulli i» furmeil 
 another popular assembly , the ( 'omit in ( > n\ urtata, 
 which supplanted the comilia eun.iti i i'lrrlT. 
 except In matters r nneihii with ilie r< ii.inn of 
 the family and very sism of pun-lv (.irnil »l|fnl- 
 fleaace. This organiMtion. llieref.r.-. u. niiieol 
 the bigliest civil rmtMirtance. and was < niloufd 
 for civil purposr* long after the armt *.umu 
 fihali«ti Oil ouiu- NiitiUi* j jMrtii. "— .\ * :»"»■, ^*" 
 ml»$m»Ht ii/lht Human riout . rh. 4 
 
 A 1^1 1)1 W Ibnr, //••< •■/ H.m,, l,k t, A. 1 
 — W. Bamiay, Jfaawi^ </ Human AhUh , tk. i 
 
 604 
 
COXITU CUBUTA. 
 
 COMITCNE. 
 
 COMITIA CURIATA.— ■■ In the beginning. 
 my member of any one of the clans whh^ were 
 included In tiv i'^ree original Roman tribea, waa 
 t Roman citi. i. So, too, were hia children 
 bom Id lawful wedlock, and tJiote wlio were 
 adopted by him according to the forms of law. 
 lUeiitimate children, on the other hand, were ex- 
 cluJrd from the number of ritizena. These 
 earlifAt Romans called themaches patricians 
 (patricii. 'children of their fHthers'), for some 
 reason about whirh we cannot bt: surv Perhaps 
 it was in order to liiatinguish themselrea from 
 their illt'jritlmate kinsmen and fr'm such other 
 people as lived about, havmg no pretense of 
 dIoikI connection with them, and who wer9, there- 
 fore, incapable of cuntractiiig lawful maiTiages, 
 scconling to the patrician's view of this religfous 
 ceremony. The patricians . . . were grouped 
 tofethcr in families, clans and tribes. Partly on 
 the basis of blood relstionship, but chiefly on the 
 basis of common reli^Tlous worship. Besides 
 these groups, there was still another in the state, 
 the curia, or ' ward,' which stood between the 
 cisn snil the tribe. In the earliest time*, tradi- 
 tion Fsiil, ten families formed a clan, ten clans a 
 curia and ten curia a tribe. These numbers. If 
 tliey I'ver had any historical existence, could not 
 have Kustained themselves for any length of time 
 in till' caar of the cUna and famiUea, for such or- 
 guisni!! of necessity would increase and decreue 
 quli« irrrgulHrly. About the nature of the curia 
 we bnvi' practically no direct information. The 
 orgsnizatlun tiad become a mere name at an early 
 pCTioii In ll><" city's history. Whether the mem- 
 ben 'it a curia tnotight of themselves as having 
 cliwr kin»hi|> with one another than with mem- 
 ben r>r lit liiT curiae Is not clear. We know, how- 
 ever. Hint tlie c'lriie were drflnl'e political sub- 
 dlvlkii'iM of the city, perhaps like modem wards, 
 tad ilmt each curia had a common religioua wor- 
 ililpfor iismembers' partlcipatior Thus much, 
 St any rate. Is signincant, iiecauae It has to do 
 with ttie form of Rome's primitive popular aa- 
 semlilr. When the king wanttni to harangue the 
 people (' populus.' cf 'populor,' ' to devastate ') 
 Localleiltliem toa 'contio' (compounded of 'co' 
 tnti ' venlii ') But if he wantp<l to propose to 
 tliem action which implied a change In the or- 
 gtaU law of the stale, he summon«i them to a 
 coniliiii (compounde<l of 'con' and 'eo'). To 
 thU the name comllis curiata was given, twcause 
 Its niinilxr^ vhImI by cuilic. Knch curia had one 
 roif. tlie charsicter of which was determined by 
 s nujt'riiy of its memlM-rs, and a majority of the 
 curiie dnhM the mall4-r for the comitia."— A. 
 TIglif. I>frtlm>mtnl of ttu Homan (hntt., eh. 8, 
 
 Almiix: T. Mimimsen, //u(. if Hmt, lilt. 1, 
 fh.i-r Oe CouKiiges, Ths Anfunt Cilg, Nt 
 >. f» 1. I ml Mr. 4 r*. f— See, also. CoMITIA Cm- 
 TCKivn ami C'oHTloNES. 
 
 COMITIA TRIBUTA, Tlw. Bm Rom 
 Be *:> VI 
 
 COMMACBNB, Kiagdom of.- A district ot 
 nof),. T!! •^yris. which was a kin»,ii(:ni in the last 
 c«murv H {.'.. afterwanis a Konukn province. 
 
 COMMENDATION. h*<e BcNaricitit. 
 
 COMMBRCE. HeeTKAKi 
 
 COMMERCiUM. He*' Mi niriPicM. 
 
 COMMITTEE OF CORRESPOND. 
 c»C£^ :^ U«[TK> Btaiks ur Am. : A. O. 
 
 'committee op public bapbtt, 
 
 Tk« PrwKh Rwtttlwiy. Hw Tuamc*. 
 
 A D. 1798 (KABca— Jinii), and (Jmnt— Octo- 
 ber). 
 
 committee on the conduct of 
 
 THE WAR, The. See United Statks or 
 Am.: a. D. t861-18«8 (Dbcember-March: 
 ViRorwiA). 
 
 COMMODUS, Romoa iaaetu., A. D. 180- 
 103. 
 
 COimON LAW, EiK.:- -'"he munici- 
 pal law of England, or the . ,i of jivil conduct 
 prescrilMl to the inhabitants of this kingdom, 
 may with sufficient propriety be diviiled into 
 two kinds; t' e 'lexnon scriptu,' the unwritten 
 or common law; and the 'lex K.Hpta," the writ- 
 ten or sututa law. The ' lex non scripts," or 
 unwritten law, includes tuit n-.ly general cus- 
 toms, or the common law prop.'r:y go cidled, but 
 also the particular customs ( f certain paiis of 
 the kingdom ; and likewise thor • particular laws 
 that are by custom obstrvcd only in certain 
 couru and jurisdictions. When I call thes'- 
 , iru of our law ' leges non scriptse," I would i t 
 Ik understood as If all those laws were at prescn 
 merely oral, or communicated from the former 
 ages to thepresent solely by word of mout'i. 
 . . . But, with us at pixnent, the nionuni ;i,ts 
 and evideiioes of our legal cusu>ms arc c mta ned 
 In the records of the several courts of justice 
 In books of reports and judicial d.'cisious am! t-i 
 tlie treatises of learned s-ges of tlie profcwion, 
 preserved and handed down to us from the lime* 
 of hir -^t antiquity. However, I therefore 
 style I' • parts of our law • le-e* non acripto: ' 
 becau* 'leir original Institution and B'lthority 
 are n c aet down In writing, as Acts of I>a'l|a- 
 ment are, but thev receive their Mi.ding power, 
 and the force of laws, by long and immemorial 
 usage, and by their universal rrci'ption through- 
 out the kingdom."— Sir W. Blackslone. (Jumneit- 
 tnrin. int., tet. 8. Bee. also. Law, Commo.n 
 
 Al.xo IN : H. S. Maine, Anriml Law. rA I _ 
 J. N. Pomeroy, Int. to Municifni Late, teitt. 
 87-43. 
 
 COMMON LOT, or Commoo Life, Brcth< 
 ren of the. Sec Bbetbbkn or the Comhoh 
 Lot. 
 
 '• COMMON SENSE (Paine't Pamphlet). 
 Pfv '?fc*"5» •'• *• I'wiTEU States or A«. : 
 A. I) 1776 (Jabi'viit— June) 
 
 COMMONS, The. .See Estates, Tm 
 Tbhbb. 
 
 COMMONS, House of. See Parliaxb-tt, 
 The Enolish, and Kmc-its nt- tuk Siiihk 
 
 COMMONWEALTH OF ENGLAND, 
 Bstabliekment of the. See K.noi.and: a D. 
 
 l«4»(PCBniARTV 
 
 COMMUNE, The -The c.inmonaltv; the 
 comm IDS. In feudal \iaagr. thi' li rtu »lKnille<l, 
 as d ■ xl 'ij LIttK', the IhxIv of ihe iKnirgrols 
 (It liurghiM of a town wh.i hml ni' 'ved a 
 charter w .ich •tavu them niflita of t If gi^vem- 
 iTiept "In Prance the eiiiiiiniunil io„«tii,j||,in 
 was durinir this (x-riixl (I'.'th «'uturv)eii>'>uraged. 
 s'lhough lint very heartllr. bv lAw - VI., viho 
 saw in It .,nc mi-ans of fetteriuV t'' ■ a 'ion of the 
 barons an.l blahops and secii,lni( to liiiiiM-lf the 
 support iif a stmn; portion nf hi< (wople la 
 some ca*"« the nminitme of r'ranei' U. like the 
 ^tiilil. •> volunUry association, but Itn obiects are 
 inMc. '.ir fin I more liistinciiy poijiual In soma 
 rsuts of till! kingilom tlie u<wn« had risea 
 '«n.ast their lonis la the latter half i>f the 
 el-.'v«a(k eMttW7, Md had rsiolaed tlie truiit o( 
 
 606 
 
if- 
 
 
 r 
 
 comnrm. 
 
 their hard-won rlctorlM. In othm, ther poa- 
 ^Med, In the remaining fragmenta of the 
 Karollnglan conatitution, aome organiaation that 
 formed a baais for new libertiea. The great 
 number <if cbartcra ifranted in the twelfth century 
 ahowa that the poHcy of encouraging the third 
 ewate waa In full sway In the royd ooondla, and 
 the king by niuly recognition of the popuUr 
 right* gained the affectlona of the people to an 
 Mtentwhich haa few parallelain French hiatnry 
 The French cliartem iiro in both atyle and «ub- 
 atance very different from the English. The 
 libertiea which are beiitiiwed are for the moat 
 part the same, cxpniption from arbitrary tax- 
 ation the rijtht t.. l.Hul liiriKilcUon, the privilege 
 of enfraucliising tin; villein who haa been for a 
 year and a day receivwl within the walls, and 
 the power of rU-cting the offlcen. But whilst 
 all tlic Lnglish rhartera conuin a conarmatlon of 
 free and ttotx] custonw, the French are filled with 
 an enumcraii.iti .if b,id onea. ... The Engliah 
 have an ancient local conatitution the memben 
 or w lUli are the reclplcnu of the new grant, and 
 gullils »f at lean aulHclent antiquity h> render 
 their ronflrmation typical of the freedom now 
 guaranlmi: trench cimmunla la a new iMxIy 
 Which, b)- tho action of a awom confederacy liaa 
 wrung from iu nppreaaora a deliverance from 
 hereditary bondage. . . . The commune lacks 
 too the ancient . Iiment of feative religious or 
 merramili- aKWH-iation which U to conaplcuous in 
 the history of the guild. The idea of the latter 
 is tngllsh. that of the former U French or 
 Oallic. ^pf nntwlthsundhig theae diSerencn, 
 the siilwtautial l.l.ntity of the privliecet 
 secured by these charters seems to prove the 
 eaisuncc of much inteniational sympathy 
 The aniiciit liNrtirs of the English were 
 not uniutilligUik- to the townamen of Nor 
 mandy, Uie rising freedom of the German 
 cities rousMl a riirre»i)ondlng ambition In the 
 towns of Flanilcrg; and the atruggle* of the 
 Italian muiii< ip.ilities awoke the energies of the 
 cities cif I'n.v, iiov AH took difTcmit ways to 
 win the same lilHrties ... The German liansa 
 may hsveb.'.n .lirive.! fn.m England; the com 
 inuna of London was certainly derived from 
 France. The communa of London, and of 
 
 th.*.' cih. r Knttlish town* which in the twelfth 
 century umtnl at au.h a constitution, was the 
 ol.l tni:lisii ^^liM In a new French garb- it was 
 the an.l.r.i uswiciatlon, but directed tothealUin- 
 mentof m iniclpal rather than mercantile prlvi- 
 legea -W .siubbs. Const. IKtt. of Sng, tk It 
 — •Oppn-wionand Insurrection wore not theanle 
 orlgln..f the communes . . . Two causea, quite 
 dUllnct from feudal opprraaloa. vii , Ih.man 
 tnititioni. and Cliristlan sentiments bad their 
 •hare In the fomiatiin of the i«mm ne- and in 
 the iDmrtilal n-Kults tliereof. The U'man 
 municipal n ulni. n. which U d«acribe<l in M 
 Ouiiots FiMtti, ,ur niutnlre de France (lit 
 ^•V •'''„! -^^ l«l- In ■ ilist. of Clvlllaiil.m.' 
 v_ «. lect 3 did iiui ,vrry wher»' perish with the 
 tmplre; It kept its f...iiiig in a great uumluT of 
 Uiwiis, cspeciallv in tliinie of Siutliem Gaul "— 
 .F !• Ouiiot /<.iM,/-ir IliM. <^Fniiu». rA 10 
 
 Also IM .Sir .) KienlM-n, Ln,. on (V llinl «f 
 rn»Hfr. UtI .% -See FhaIICK : ISth-IRtm Cuk 
 
 TiHiRK; alao. (I HiA, MimnraL; and Giilm 
 
 PF F! ^Sprh- 
 
 COMMUNE.TbtFlMBlafc. 8«t Uuiijm op 
 
 506 
 
 COMPABS. 
 
 COMMUKE OF PARIS, The Revolt 
 Monwy, of 179a. See FBA^c«: A. D 1 tS 
 
 1871 (Mabch— Mat). "" " 
 
 COMMUNE, Rnaaian and Swiss, g- 
 Mnt, andHwiTZERi.AMD: A. I>. lH4H-iNi)n 
 IgCOMMONEROS. Th.. 'selZirA D 
 
 COMMUNISM. See Social MovEmvi, 
 
 COMNBNIAN DyNASTY.-The^uSi 
 
 ^'1 ^y""""* emperors founded, A. 1) \m!l 
 
 Alexiua Comnenoa, and consisting of Aluiui / 
 
 John IL. Manuel I.. Alexius II., Li AmlmnUi 
 
 A.'g*ff»^?4'2f*=*='' ■^''•- «- ^--« 
 COMPASS, UtrodneUon of the Mariner-i 
 -"It la perhapa Impossible to amvrtain He 
 epoch when the poUrity of the magnet w,« dm 
 known in Europe. The common opinion whfch 
 aacribes Iu discovery to a citizen of Anmlil la 
 
 Oulot de Provins, a French poet who liv,-,! about 
 the VMr 1300, or, at the latest, under ,si CS 
 i*!^^ 'tr ° ""' "LT' "Oequlv'xal language' 
 
 the middle of the 18th century. a.i,l Guide 
 GuinlMelll, an lulian poet of the saii... time m 
 equally explicit. The French, as well as lialiin, 
 cUim the discovery aa their own; but wlutWr 
 t were due to either of these nations, or ratlur 
 eame<l from their intercoune with Uie Saraceui 
 ta not easily to be aicertalned. . . . It U a sinini: 
 
 .^ •'I""™*"'?- »™' "n'y to •» "pliiniHl \, 
 the obaUnacy with which men are apt to n'lert 
 Improvements, that the magnetic n.iill,. »»» not 
 generally adopted in navigation till v.rv loo» 
 . ' T*, alscovery of iu properties, awl even 
 after their peculiar iinporUni-e liad In , n per 
 celled. The writers of the 13th cvnlurv who 
 mention the polarity of the needle. m(riii'.ii sIm 
 IU use in navlntion; yet Capinunv ha.s found 
 nodUtinct proof of Iu employ meul till UiKt .i»l 
 d<>ea not believe that it was fre.|u.-nilv on Ixsud 
 Mediterranean ships at the latter iwrt of the 
 preceding age. "-n. Hallam, Th, !i„i,iu Asm 
 p ^iJ^ .•.."•(* ""''-••IVHh Clmu.Tr tbf 
 EnglUh, and Bartamr, the Scoltlsli. |«p.i alludo 
 familiarly to the compass In IIh' Uih r i.art of 
 the 14th century. "—O. L Crnik, Hut „t llrituA 
 a>mm*rr». r. 1, p l!W.— ■' We havr n„ iTrtaiii 
 Information of the direillve temli iic > ..f the 
 natural mairnet being known earli.r ihan the 
 middle orewi of the llth ivntur>- ■ Kiir..nf of 
 courw). . , . That It was known' H.iatisnd 
 iu practical value recognlu'il ii,.wu bv s 
 
 passage f^>m an Icelandii' liUlon .iu..ti-d"bT 
 Hanatlen In hlslrratlacof T.rrwin.. MiL-mtism. 
 In this extract an expisiiti.m from V .«ay|„ 
 Iceland In tlw year 86H |a dewrllK-il, ^,.1 it It 
 stated that thret- ravens were taken s> g,ii,\n. 
 for, ailila tJie histurian, 'in iluMe itm.-i «.an»n 
 had no Inailstone In the nonlimi <iiunirifS 
 Tills history was writh'u alsiut tin- v.ar A. D 
 UWH. aiHl the allusion I have ipioii'.l oliviously 
 shows that the autlior was awan- of iialuni 
 magneU having been emi>!"V'.«l a* s i-wup— 
 At the same time It fixes a limit of the ill« .irery 
 In northern countries. We tiwi no nuniim of 
 artUkhU nuf neu being to vinphiyed till about » 
 
 B 
 
COMPASa 
 
 eectniT hter."— Sir W. Thompmi, juoitd ig 
 R F. Barim in Ultima TkuU, •. 1, p. 818. 
 
 COMPIBGNE : Captnrt of the Maid of 
 Orlcuu (1430). Bee Pbascb. A. D. 142»-1431. 
 
 COMPOUND HOUSEHOLDER. The 
 gee Ekolako: A. D. 1865-1868. 
 
 COMPROMISE. Tht Critteadea. Bee 
 CHmcD Statu or Am. : A. D. 1860(1)- mmsB). 
 
 COMPROMISE, The Flcmiih. of is«s. Sm 
 Nkturlaxd*: A. D. 116:.1S66. 
 
 COMPROMISE, The MioMnri. BeeCvmD 
 States op Am. : A. D. 1818-1881. 
 
 COMPROMISE MEASURES OP 1850, 
 The. 8ee Uhitbd Statb* or Am. : A. D. 1850. 
 
 COMPROMISE TARIFF OP 1833, Tht. 
 Bee I'kitkd Statu or Am. : A. D. 18^-1888. 
 
 COMPURGATION.— Amoog the Teutonic 
 tnd other peoplea, in early ttmei, one accund of 
 % crime might clear himaelf by hia own oath, 
 lupportol by the nathx of certain compurgators, 
 who bon- witness to hl« tnistworthin)«i. 8ee 
 WaokbofLaw ;aml Law, Criminai.: A.I).1166. 
 
 COMSTOCK LODE, Diacovvrr ef the 
 SeeNnvADA: A. D. imH-1864. 
 
 COMUM, BatUa ef (B. C. 196). See Romx: 
 B. c a)s-i»i. 
 
 CONCIONES,ThtRoawa. BeeCoimoim, 
 
 CONCON, BatUa of (il9i). See Criui: 
 A I). IN(«-18»1. 
 
 CONCORD.— BcKiimiac of the War of tho 
 American Rerolutioa. See UnrnD Statm or 
 Am.: a. 1). 1775 (April). 
 
 CONCORDAT OP BOLOGNA, Th*. See 
 r»A.irE: A D. 1515-15ia 
 
 CONCORDAT OF NAPOLEON.The See 
 F».»NiK A I). 1801-1804. 
 
 CONCORDAT OF 1813. The. BoePAPAcr: 
 A I). IHUJ-ISU. 
 
 CONDE, Th* flrat Priaca Leitia da, and tha 
 Frtach wara of raUgion. SeePRAUCK: A. D. 
 1S«I>-1VI3 an<l 1S63-1570. 
 
 ^Pl'Sr-^''"''* S?J»»* '•'*»« LoBia da 
 ^led TheCraat).-C«mpaicaa ia tha Thirty 
 Years War, and th- irar with Spain. Se« 
 Frasce: A. D. lS48-l»(8i 1648 : Obbm aht : A. D. 
 
 I«40-l«45, 1648-1644 Ia tha wara of tha 
 
 Froadc. Sw Kramcr: A. D. 1647-1648: 16411 
 
 l«.1u iUl: 1651-1658 Campaina anlaat 
 
 f'^**i?«*'"»*'^""»' 8p^»nSee FiSuica: 
 
 A. I) l«.ta-Ui.V). and 16S5-1658 Last caai- 
 
 sajfas. (w NrrBBRLAinM (Holland): A. D. 
 l«7f 1974 aiMl 1674-1678. 
 
 CONDE, Tha Houaa ot See BociMoif . Trb 
 
 Hoi SI. (IP. 
 
 tv the Austriaaa. See Fraiicb: A. D. 1798 
 (Jn.if- Deckmbbh). 
 
 A. D. I794.-Rtc«t«r7 by tha Froaeh. 8ae 
 PRAStK: A. 1). 17 »4 iMar cb-Jplt). 
 
 CONDORE, OR KONDUR, Battlaal (1718). 
 
 SwlsmA: A b, 1758-1761. ''^'^ 
 
 CONDOTTIERB -In the »t»ral meaalac 
 !LL>, '. ; ■ «»'>''uf««i' or leader; applied 
 •perUlly In lulUn hisl«ry, to the profeXMU 
 military ,*!,„ of the 18th awl Mtfi centuries. 
 who „i«.le a btuioeas of war Tery much as a 
 «»«,? ""•"»''i» Tk" » Iwulneas of milroad 
 nwirurtion, and who were open in eoir»«>m?nt 
 •Hh tin tr.«n, at their cnmrnand, by an/prlnce,' 
 
 ToVDRfehT trBB-r^'^ 
 
 CONGO FREE STATE. 
 
 CONBSTOGAS, The. See Ambwcah Abo- 
 Riorau: SusQCEaAiniAa 
 
 nSPjy'^^f "^'^^ °^ DELOS, OR THE 
 DELIAN. See Obeece: B. C. 47S-477, and 
 Araufs: B. C. 466-454, and after. 
 
 r£-u''»?°*"i^'r= STATES OF AM.- 
 conatitation and ornnixation of the n 
 ment. See U»rrED States or Am : A. D 
 (Pbbrcart) 
 
 1861 
 
 A CONFEDERATION, Articlaa of (U. S. of 
 irai United States or Am. : A. D. 1777- 
 
 CONFEDBRATION. AuatraUaa. See 
 ArsTRALiA: A. D. 188.V18W 
 
 .■?5''^°«='**'^'°'*' ■f"' Cenaaalc, of 
 1B14. See Oerhant: A. D. 1814-1 K20 Of 
 tKrp. See Qermakt: A. D. 1870 ( ptember 
 —December). 
 
 Be?SS?r^"A*l'?ISi'^'" "«'*'' ^"-• 
 
 Sw^iSSrSS^^^^'^"' -^ SwlM- «" 
 
 CONFEDERATION OF THE BRITISH 
 
 ^■fPfiS^" PROVINCES. See CaI:;" 
 
 T5°*'f?^'^"*'^'°*' O" THE RHINE, 
 The. See Oermant: A. D. 180.5-1806: 1806 
 (jAMAiiV— AiT.riiT) ; and lNi;t ((),t — Di r ) 
 
 CONFESSION OF AUGSBURG. See 
 Papait A. n. l.VW-l.Wl. 
 
 E«^o?J7„"*l'W97^*"^«"-- «- 
 
 A.'i?'?Sh^5f' "^""^ •' Be, France 
 
 CONFUCIANISM. See China; The Re- 
 
 UOIONS. 
 
 .. ^°^. fl? ''"t"^ ®,TM=> "^ Foondiac of 
 
 !k ~ r . ,?, J^?"'"' "• «cc<"«»on to the 
 throne [of B«-I»luml. his great object has been to 
 secure colonial possessions to Belgium for her 
 eicesa of population and production. To this 
 end he founded, in October. 1876, with the aid 
 or eminent African einlorers, the International 
 African Association. lu object was to form 
 committers in sereral countries, with a view to 
 the collection of funds, and to the establishment 
 of a chain of sutlons across Africa, passing by 
 
 V*'"-I"'f"y'k'- •" »"'''' future eipf'orers 
 Accordingly committers were formeii. whoae 
 
 K!*'''*°IV'f'' ?• '''"<"»»: 'n England, the 
 I^nceof Wales: in Germany the Crown IVInce 
 in Italy the Kings brotli.r; in l'>anre, M de 
 I^ps; and in Belgium, King Ix-opold. Sums 
 of money were subecribeil, and stations were 
 openeil from Bajomoyo (Just south of Zanilbar) 
 . ilf., Jsneanyika: but when toward the close 
 of 18.7, Stanley reappeared on the Atlantic coast 
 and reTealr<i the Immenik! length of the mar- 
 velous Congo Klvrr, King Ixn.nold at once 
 turned his attention In that dinTllon. That he 
 might not put hiniwlf forwent prematurely 
 he acteil under ever of an asatxiation and a 
 
 committee of rxnloratlon, which wei* In" reality 
 ifri'lv supporfeil by the Kings 
 
 fonne<l ami ent,,.,, ,,.,,,„.,,„. „^ ,„i, R,ng, 
 energy and by the largi- sums of money that he 
 lavishwi upon th.ni Through this auMM-iiition 
 King Leopiilii maintained Stanley for Ave vears 
 on the Congo During this time a nw.!' was 
 made f^)m the oast to Stanley I'ool, when- the 
 BaTlgabSc rtirtina of iho \:i,\Kt Congo com 
 mences; and thus was forme<l the basis of the 
 future empire. During this period Stanley 
 ai|Bed DO lest than four thoumud treatiea er 
 
 507 
 
CONGO FREX 8TATS. 
 
 eeaocnkiiit of territoiy, on which upwtiii of 
 two thounnd chiefs bad placed their nutrks la 
 ■ign of adheaioa At • coat of many mootht of 
 transportation, neceialtating the employment o;' 
 thounndi of porters, liiht steamer* were plau.d 
 on the upper river which was explored at far 
 as Stanley Falls. lu numeroua tributaries also 
 were followed up as far as the rapids that Inter- 
 rupt their cuunes. Many young Belgian officers 
 and other adrenturous ezploren established 
 themsplves on the banks of the Congo anJ the 
 adjoining river, the Kouiliou, and founded a 
 series of stations, each occupied by one or two 
 Europeans and by a few aoldters from Zanzibar. 
 In this way the country was insensibly taken 
 powession of in the most padflc manner, with- 
 out a struggle and with no bloodshed whatever; 
 for the natives, who are of a veiy gentle dispo- 
 sition, offered no resistance. The Mnate of the 
 United States, which was called upon, in 1884, 
 to give an opinion on the rights of the African 
 Aswiciatinn. made a careful examination of the 
 matter, and recognized the legality of the claims 
 and title dcttls submltu-d to them. A little 
 later, in onlcr to mark the formation of a state, 
 the Congo Association adopted as its flag a gold 
 star on a blue ground. A French lawyer, M. 
 Deloume, in a very well-written pamphlet en- 
 titled ' Lc Droit des Oens dans I'Afrique Equa- 
 torlHlo. ' has proved that this proceeding was not 
 only legitimate, but necessary. The embryo 
 state, however, larked one essential thing, 
 namely, recognition by the civilized powers. It 
 exintt'd only as a private association, or, as a 
 hostile publicist exiiressiil it, as 'a sute in 
 shari's, indulging in pretensions of sovereignty.' 
 Oreat dilticulties st4XKl in the way of realizing 
 this essential eoniiillon. Disputes, on the one 
 hand with Franei and on the other with Portu- 
 gal. Hppeared inevitable. . . . King Leomild 
 did not lose heart. In 1883 he obtidned rri>ni 
 the Kri'mli government an assurance tliat, wlille 
 maintaining its rights to the north uf Stanley 
 Potil, It would give support to the Intenuitiunal 
 AsMX-iation of the Congo. With Portugal it 
 seemed very dlfflcult to come to an underatanil- 
 Ing. . . . Prince Bismarck U)ok part in the 
 matter, ami In the Uerniun Parliament praised 
 highly the work of tlie African Association. In 
 April, 1884. he pMpoaed to France to come to an 
 understanding, and to settle all difficulties by 
 general af^reement. From this pniposltlim 
 sprang the famous B«'rl':i conference, the re 
 markable derisions of which we shall mention 
 later At the same time, before the conference 
 op<iie<l, (lennany signetl an agreement with the 
 Intemutiiinsl AsmxiHtion of the Congo, In which 
 she ngreeil Ui recognise iU flag as that of a sute. 
 It eji'liHiige for an assurance that her tnule 
 should lie free, and that Uvrman subjecU shoulit 
 enjoy all the privileges of the most favored 
 nations. Hinillur agreements were entered upon 
 with nearly all the ot Iter countries of the glolKv 
 The oelegates of |)i« Assnelatlon were accepted 
 at the conference uo ilie same fixiling as those of 
 (lie dllfen'nt states that wire reprt-si'nlnl there, 
 and on Feliniary M. the day on which the art 
 was slgne<l, Bismarck expresaed hlnwlf as fol 
 lows; 'The m'w Hute of the Congo Is destined 
 to (m- one of the rjijcf iafe ffuar-ls uf the work 
 we lisve In view, and I sincerely trust that Its 
 development will fulltl! the noble sspiratkHis of 
 hs august foundar.' Thus ths Cosfo Inter 
 
 CONORBOATION OF THE ORATORY. 
 
 astionsl Aasodstion, hitherto only a prlvsts 
 enterprise, seemed now to b« reengnized u a 
 sovereign state, without having, however as ret 
 sriumed the title. But where were the limlu ot 
 its territory. . . . Thanks to the hitcrfrtence of 
 France, after prolonged negotUtioris an under- 
 stunding was arrived at on February 15 issj 
 by which both parties were satistleil Thev 
 agreed that Portugal should take possesk.on nf the 
 southern bank of the Congo, up to il.i junction 
 with the little stretun Vango, abo<re Nokkl and 
 also of the district of Kabinda forming a «'«!» 
 that extends into the French territory on tbe 
 AtUntic Ocean. The International Congo Amo- 
 elation— for such was still lu title— was to bi\« 
 access to the sea by a strip of Innd esiendini 
 from Manyanga (weat of l.«opoldvllle) to Hi 
 ocean, north of Banana, and comprising In wiiJI. 
 tion to thlsport, Boma and the important -Mtion 
 of Vivi. These treaties granted the ssmx ution 
 081,280 s((uare miles of terriuiry, that l» to ur 
 a domain eighty times the size of Belgium, wiih 
 more than 7,800 miles of navigable riven, liie 
 limits fixed were, on the west, the Kusngo. sn 
 Important tributsjy of the Congo ; on the snush 
 the sources of the Zambesi ; on the east, the Ijikea 
 Boneweolo, Moero, and Tanganyika, ami a ling 
 passliig through Lake Albert 'Eilwani to the 
 river Quelle ; on the north, a line following the 
 fourth degree of latituilv to the Moliaiigi River 
 on the French frontier. The whole lorms one 
 eleventh part of the African contlmiit. The 
 associatir>'> became transformeil into a state in 
 August 1988, whcu King Uopold. wiih th-! 
 authorization of tlie B«'lglan Chanib.'rs, noilHel 
 the powers that he sliould assume the tlilr i>( 
 Sovereign of the Independi'nt Stale of the dmifo 
 the union of which with Bi'Iglum vis to to 
 exclusively personal. The Congo is, tlunfoi*, 
 not a Belgian colony, but neverthelew the Hil- 
 gUn Chambers have recently given vnli!«ble 
 assistance to the King's work; fltst, in I it nj 
 on Julv 36, I88», lO.OOO.OtW francs' wnnli «f 
 shares in the railway which is to ronnect ihi< sea- 
 port of MatadI with the riverport of Leopold. 
 ville, on Stanley Pool, and secondlv liv irraiiling 
 a loan of 38,000,000 francs to the luil. ixiident 
 HtaU on August 4, 181X). The King, in a will 
 laid before Parllarornt, bequeaths all \m Afri- 
 can possessions to the Belgian nation, author- 
 izing the country to take poMenaion of tlirm 
 after a lapse of ten years."— E. du Uveleye 
 Thf Dinoiim <if Atriea {Thr fWnm. Jnn . Ml. 
 See Afiiiia : A. D. 1H7«, 1HT9. IMM. ami after. 
 
 Al.M)I<i: H M Stanley. The Ciimi.). 
 
 CONGREGATION OF THE ORATORY, 
 The.- "Philip of Neri. a young Kloreiilinei.f 
 gooil birth (1818-1593; c»iioiiiii.ir lil-'-,'i In 
 
 1848 lnstltute<l at Itome the Saietv <>r ihi' l|.>ly 
 Trinity, to minister to the wants i/f ihi' pili:r<nM 
 at Home. But the op<>rations of Iiih ii>i»ion 
 gradually extended till tliey emliruMl the 
 spiritual welfare of the Koiiian ihii'uI lion st 
 Urge, and tlie reformation of the Itom^in clcrir 
 In particular. No figure Is more biphc anil 
 more sympathetic to us In the liUtorv of ilie 
 
 Catholic reaction than llial of tkU liiMinla' 
 
 ,pos' 
 followed the rule of St. Augustine. H|>mn|{ in 
 
 ' apostle of Rome. ' Fnmx his sasiM-ial 1^ 
 
 aliirilar 
 <ii, whirh 
 
 \KtH ths r.-»I!gT?=gRtir,ri ---f !hr t>fn:-fV 1' Iv-F-f, 
 
 famous as the seminary of much that U most 
 admirable In tbe hiboura of the Cstliolli' ilergr" 
 —A. W. Ward, Tkt OtunttrHtfomatun, p. ML 
 
 608 
 
OONaBEQATION OF THK ORITORT. 
 
 CONKAUQHT. 
 
 —"In thereu 17M, then wereaboTea hundred 
 CoBgregatloni of the Oratory of 8. Philip io 
 Europe aod the Eaat Indies; but iinoe the revo- 
 Itttioiu of the last seventy years many of these 
 bsrc ceased to exist, whfle, on the contrary, 
 within the last twelve years two have been 
 established in EngUnd."— Mrs. Hope, IaS* of 8. 
 PUUp N<n, ch. 24. 
 
 Also ih: U. L. S. Lear, PrUttl}/ Lift in 
 fmnit, eh. 4. 
 
 CONGREGATIONALISM. See Ixoxm- 
 
 DENTS. 
 
 CONGRESS, Colonial, at Albany. See 
 VxiTKD Statks of Am. : A. D. 1754. 
 
 CONGRESS, Continental, The First. See 
 I'MTEO Statu or Am.: A. D. 1774 (Scp- 
 
 TUREH), and (Sbptbmbeh— October) The 
 
 Second. See Uiiitkd Stateb or Am. : A. D. 
 i;T5(M.\t— ArocsT). 
 
 CONGRESS, The First American. See 
 I'KrrEi) States or Ambrica: A. 1). IflW). 
 
 CONGRESS, The Pan-American. Bee 
 CxmD Stater or Am : A. D. lt*»-1880. 
 
 CONGRESS, The Stamp Act. See Uhitco 
 gTATEi« oif Am. : A. I). 176.5. 
 
 CONGRESS OF AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, 
 The. i^ Aix-LA-CiiAru.LE, The Conuhess 
 
 A.\U TllEATT. 
 
 CONGRESS OF BERLIN. See Ttnuu: 
 A. 11. li<78. 
 
 CONGRESS OF PANAMA. See Colom- 
 IiIiNSnTfH: A. n. WHS. 
 
 CONGRESS OF PARIS. See RcsaiA: 
 A. P. 1X54-1H.58. and DErLAHATlos or Pahis. 
 
 CONGRESS OF RASTADT, The. See 
 
 FrANCK: .V. 1>. 17»9(APHII.-SKI'TEMBKK). 
 
 CONGRESS OF VERONA, The. See 
 Vkhuna. Thk roxoKEsa or. 
 CONGRESS OF VIENNA. See VnciniA. 
 
 CONGRESS OF THE UNITED 
 
 STATES.— ■' The Cop stltution rrrnted Congn-iw 
 sod confi'mil upon it powers of Uxislstion for 
 utional purposes, liiit mmlc no proviHiou ns to 
 tbe mt'lliud by which these |>owers should be 
 eierciard. In consequeocr CoDftress has itself 
 dfTeloprtl a methotl of tmnMU'tlni; Its business 
 by meanii of committers The Fe<ler»l Li-glsla- 
 lure consUu of two Houses — the Senate, or 
 l'pp<'r and less numerous bmnrh, and the House 
 of Krpniwntatives, or the I.ower and raorv 
 nurafn>u» |>opulAr branch. The Senate is com- 
 posed of twi, members from each State eli-cted 
 bjr the State V'sislatures for a t»Tni of six yciim. 
 one third of wlioni retire every twi> years. The 
 presiding offlirr is the Vlce-Pri'sldent. Early in 
 escb session the Senate cIkhwps a IVsidcnt pro 
 tempiirr. m as to nrorlde for any absence of the 
 Vice President, whether caused by death, sick- 
 ness, or for oltii>r n-asons. The House of Repre- 
 unutives is ai |ir.-» 'nt [1«>1] composed of 833 
 members anil f ..ir .ItUyntes from the Territories. 
 These dele^stM. >i,.we> r. have no vote, though 
 lliev msv speak. 1 ii< iiiiuso is prealiled over by 
 • Speaker, elected at the bi-gliining of each 
 ICoDirrrss]. A quorum for busliirsit Is. In either 
 lIi'iiN', K msjiirity ConirriKH nii its every year 
 In the lieitiunliiif of December. Esch Coogrrss 
 •«!='»r-' jrnhi ami hiiMs two ge>«i mi — » Tiii^i 
 sod s »lHirt sesKlon. The long semlon lasts from 
 Oecemher to midsummer [or until the two IIou>e4 
 •CM upon an adjournment]. Tbe short teaaiun 
 
 latti ftom December, when Congress meets again, 
 until the 4th of Uarch. The term of office then 
 expires for all the men> <ers >f the House and for 
 one-third of the Senate " 1 he long session ends 
 In even years (1880 and X'^i, etc.), and the short 
 session in odd years (1881 and 1883). Extra 
 sessions may be called by the President for 
 urgent businesa. In the early part of the Nov- 
 emoer preceding the end of the sliort session of 
 Congress occurs the election of ReprcsenUtlves. 
 Congressmen then elected do not take their seats 
 until thirteen months later, that is, at the re- 
 assembling of Congress Id December of the year 
 following, unless an extra session is called. The 
 Senate frequently holds secret, or, as they are 
 called, executive sessions, for the consideration 
 of treaties and nominations of the President, in 
 which the House of Representatives has no 
 voice. It is then said to sit with closed doors. 
 An immense amount of business must necessarily 
 be transacted by a Consress that legislates for 
 nearly 63,(XK),000 of people. . . . Lack of time, 
 of course, prevents a consideration of each bill 
 separately by the whole legislature. To provide 
 a means by which each subject may receive 
 investigation and consideration, a plan is used by 
 which the members of Uith branches of Congress 
 are divided into committees. Each commlttea 
 busies itself with a certain class of bwiluess, and 
 bills when introduced are referretl to this or that 
 committee for conalderation, acconling to the 
 subjects to which the bills relate. . . . The 
 Si'nate is now divided between 50 and 00 com- 
 mittees, but the number varies fmm session to 
 session. . . . The House of liepresentatives is 
 orpmized into 60 committees [a|>pointiHl by the 
 Speaker], ranging, in their number of members, 
 fniin thirteen down. . . . The Committi'e of 
 Ways and Means, which regulateM customs 
 iluties and excise taxes. Is by fur the most im- 
 porUinl. . . Cimgress ordinarily assembles at 
 noon and remains in se«dou until 4 or 5 P. M.. 
 tliouish towards the end of the term It frequently 
 remuins In session until Inle in the night. . . . 
 There Is still one feature of Congreitsional govem- 
 nieut which needs explanation, anil that U the 
 caucus. A caucua Is the meeting of the nu'inlicrs 
 of one part> In private, for the discussion of the 
 attitude and line of policy which memlien of 
 that party are to take oaquestions which are 
 expect«l to arise In the 1. gialative halls. Thus, 
 in senate caucus. Is decidinl who shall l>c mem- 
 bers of tlie various cummlltcvs. In tbtse meet- 
 ings is frequently diiwussed Vfhetlieror not the 
 whole party shall vme fur or against tlii.i or that 
 important bill, and thus its fate is ilecidi'il before 
 It has even come up fur debate In ('ouKresa." — 
 \V. W. and W. F. Wlllougiiby, (i-rl. a>ul Ad- 
 miniitration of the I'. S. {JiJt'ti* UojMnt Vni: 
 tVwIut, leritiii., turn. 1-2), (A. 9. 
 
 Ai.ao IM : W. Wilson, d'ngrtmunal Gortm- 
 ment, eh. 8-4.— J. Brvce, 7fl« Am. VommoA- 
 tteallh, pt. 1, M lO-ai (r I). — The tMfr.itM, 
 not. 51-85— J. .Stury. Cmnmtntiiritton the Vault. 
 of the r. S. hk il. eh K :tl (r 3-.1l. 
 
 CONGRESSMEN AT LARGE. See Rxp- 
 
 IlKSKNT'TIVICS AT LaHKE. 
 
 CONI— Sieves. See Italt : A. D 1744 : a>\.l 
 Kit\.MrK: A. D I7B9 ( Al'ui'sT— Dii'KHUKii). 
 COKIBO, The. S« Amkiucam Abohiuuies' 
 
 A!(l>l,JUANa 
 
 CONNAUOHT, Tranaplaatation of the 
 Irish people iato. See lBSi.ajii>: A D. less. 
 
 509 
 
mi 
 
 
 CONNECTICUT. 
 
 1%* Mhtmdtn. 
 
 CONNECTICUT: The RiTcr and the 
 
 «^"~;<" """^ ""* discoveries made of thb part 
 of JNcw England were of its principal river and 
 the toe meadows lying upon Its bank. Whether 
 the Dutch at New Netherlands, or the people of 
 IJew Plymouth, were the flist discoveren of the 
 river Is not certain. Both the English and the 
 Dutch claimed to be the first dlscoTeren, and 
 both purchased and made a setUement of the 
 lands uponit nearly at the same time. . . . B-rom 
 this fine river, whfch the Indians call Quonehta- 
 cut. or Connecticut, (In English the long river) 
 the colony originally took its name."— B. Trum- 
 bull, JIut. o/Gmn., M, 2.— Accordtag to Dutch 
 accounu, the river was entered by Adriaen 
 Block, ascended to latitude il" 48', and named 
 
 16llo!'l614"' *" ""■ ** ^'^ ^°^ ^ ° 
 The Aboriginal inhabitant*. SeeAmiuCAX 
 
 ABORIGINEH: AuiON(<lIAN Faiiilt 
 
 Sele,and otheiTi.-In 16ai, the Eari of War- 
 fill H?^'"ri",' '^'"•S»y ""'I Sfle, LonJ Brooke, 
 Bir Iticharil Saltonstail, and others, "the territory 
 between Namgan-seft Klver and southwest t<i 
 wants New ^ork for 120 miles and west tci the 
 raclHo Ocesa, or, acrorrflug to the words of Pn-si. 
 dent t lap of 'V ale CVileg •, ' from Point Juilith to 
 £(ew -i ork, and from thence a west line to the 
 South Sea. and if we take Narragansett Hlver In 
 Its wholf length the tract will extend as far nortli 
 as W oro,.»u.r. It comprehends the whole of the 
 colonv of Connecticut and more. This was calle.1 
 the old patent of Connecticut, and had bein 
 granted the previous year, 1680. by the Council 
 of Plymouth [or Council for New England] to 
 the Earl of H arwick. Vet before the English 
 hacl Pliintwl settlements in Connecticut the Dutch 
 had purchHsol of the Pequota Und where Hart 
 font now »tan(l9«n.l erecU'd a small tmding fort 
 Oillid -Tlie House of Good Hope.'"— C* W 
 »men, H,umb,ry IHtputtt of Conn., p. 15.— In 
 18*5, four ytars after the Connw-ticut grant said i 
 to Imve b.-,-n (Icriv^l originally from the Council 
 
 for New h„g|,ind. n IKW. ha.l fieen transferre,! bv 
 
 i?h ^''h'^^ *"?■'■'' '">"' "»y »"'! Seal anil I 
 othcm, thc(ouncil made an attempt, in counl i 
 Vance with the English court, to nullify all in i 
 grants, to regain p<»«e«ilon of the u-nitory of | 
 New England and tf) P'irrel it out by lot amon* 
 Hs own -nembers. I,: hi, attemptd parcelling ' 
 which pr.m,lineflreclual, Connecticut fell to th.' 
 tot.d^tl.e Eari of Cariisle, the Duke of Lennox. 
 Md the Duke of Hamilton. Modem Investig..: 
 lion »^.ms to have found tlie alleged jrranl fmm 
 the ( .„ n.ll of I'lymoutli, or Council for New 
 I.ng an.l to llie Earl of Warwick, In 1830 to 1m, 
 mytliii-Ml. •• No one has ever seen It, or li.tit 
 iH-aril of any one who cUlms to have seen li \ 
 It 1« not ininllonwl even in the grant from War i 
 Zu !" '. '"*"•*' *""' •*''<■ PSI'-ntM-s In 1931 ' 
 
 lht..|,.,..| u » mere cjuit claim, which wairant^ ! 
 nc.iluinr and does not even awert title to the soil 
 tmn.frrr...l Why the Warwick transaction i 
 
 t..Ji il.m iKHultar .Imp., ^,\y Warwick trans- ■ 
 ferre.1. wu „nit showir*; il,|e. a territory which 
 the ori^ma owmn. graytH »new to other pal- 
 enie.» In liiav are <iue«iinns which are liev .n.l 
 coDjHti.r,. "-A. Jol.nHU.n, (hnneetwmt, eUi- 
 Hec Nl£W Emoi AND: A 1) 18!« 
 
 ^1 ^; J*J4-i637 -Th* pioaacr t«ttl«n*nts 
 U«l by William Holme.. ..ile.1 up the Cowim 
 
 OONNICnCUT, 1684-1887. 
 
 cut riTjr. and. irfter bandvlng threau with . 
 ^L°U'^i'K'^^ ^ built a rude fort „n uj 
 
 filO 
 
 selves on the site of Windsor. Next year ( loZ 
 nor Van Twiller sent a company of s^v.m Z 
 to drive away these intrudS; but afur Ve«i„ 
 no^tering the situation the Dutchmen thou^u 
 best not to make an attack. Their liltle "('roni 
 i°\^t Hartford remained unmolested TZ 
 
 » .between thU advanced outpost and New 
 Amsterdam, Van Twiller decldeJi to bu Id L 
 cAherfort at the mouth of the river, but tW, 
 ^t^', ^«"* ""1 beforehand. Rumoun o 
 Dutch dedgns may have reached the nnlt 
 Lord Sapr and 8ele and LoM Bnx,ke -1 • fZt^ 
 
 ?T'£ ."J?"'*"* blm In -Marmion-Ulio 
 had obtained from the Council for New Eairlud 
 agrant of territory on the sliore. of the S 
 ]?Iff^S?^'K™° <=''<»«" 'heir agent theyo^rr 
 John WInthrop, son of the Massachuseii, row 
 nor, and thU new-comer 8rrive<l up„n tl,, .cent 
 just In time to drive away Van Twill.r.v^ 
 and build an English fort which in honourT 
 his two patrons he called • Say-Bro„ke. ' IhA It 
 not been for seeds of dlaconu^nt alrea-ly sown In 
 Massachusetts, the English hold upon Uh, c"" 
 necticut valley might iH-rlmps h.-,ve Iwu f. , 
 few years confliied to these two niilitarv outpost' 
 at \Vlndsor and Saybreoke. Hut tf.ere C 
 people in MassachusetU who did not look wiih 
 favour upon Uie aristocratic and th..,«Tatic 
 feature, of iu po Ity. The provision that n.n» 
 but church-members shoulil vote .,r h.;l,l „fflt« 
 was by no means unanlinoiiHly appn^vwl 
 Cotton declared that d( inocrarv was no fli 
 government either for church or" for n.nimon 
 wealth wHl the majority of the n.ini,t, r, »m.,j 
 with mm. Chief among those who dill imi »m 
 the leanH^d and ehHiucnt Tliomaa Hook.r reistor 
 of the church at Newtown. . . . Then- were 
 many in N.-wtown wlio t.Hik Hookers vi,w of 
 the matter; and there, as al.so in Watirtowa ami 
 IJorchester, which In 1933 took the Initiative iu 
 rmming town governments with wic. tinen t 
 utronp disposition was shown (o ev,uU- ihe 're- 
 sirictions u|)on thi- Muffragc. Wliil.' hihI, tliinn 
 were Ulked about, In the sumni.r of IIUI;) the 
 s-lventunms John Oldham wan niakini; hinitsy 
 through the forest anil over the mountains into 
 the Connecticut valley, an.l wh.n he Piuninl t« 
 the coast his glowing accounts set noiik' i«,p|,. 
 to thinking Two y,.«ni afterward, a f, » pi,^ 
 nwrs fnmi I)oreli««ter puslieil through the »ll 
 derneiw as far as the Plynioulli miMi s fort ,t 
 Wliidsor, while a party fmm Waterlown went 
 farther an<l came to a halt upon the site nf 
 Wethersfleld. A larger party. hrini:iiig cattle 
 and such girnds as they coul I (^rrv. m t out is 
 the aiitumn and .ucttHlwl iu na. Iiing Wiml*.r 
 ... In the next June, 19!». the .\.-wto»n con 
 grentlon, a hundn^l or more in nuuilHr. led liy 
 their sturdy pastor, an<l liringiug with tliiin ifti 
 hcail of cattle, m:idc the pilgriniag. lo the Con 
 necticut valley. Women and (hildr.n to,.k part 
 in this pleasant summer Jounicv; .Mrs. lloiker 
 thepastor's wife, bting too Ifl to walli. ku 
 carrleil on a litter. Thus. In the nwmonilil. year 
 ■" "^ ""' "f"*' university was lioni. did 
 ( ambridge lieciHue. in the irui'rtrn'k senw of s 
 much-abused word, the metro|H>lls or •moiher 
 town" of Hartford. The migration at ome he 
 came itiong la numbers. DurUig Uic psit 
 
comncncxrr, ism-imt. 
 
 m m t M Ordtn, 
 
 COKNECnCUT, 188»-16a0. 
 
 twdTnaoDth • icon of ihlpf had bnniKbt from 
 Enghnd to MamchuietU mora than 8,0flU aouls, 
 ud 10 gmt an acoearion mado further inoTe- 
 nenteasy. Hooker's pjU^rimi vert- soon followed 
 bT the Dorchester and Waterto-vu ronf^ref^tions. 
 ud bj the next May 800 pco|ilt> weru living in 
 Windaor, Hartford, and WetlieniScM. A» '-o 
 lead of the«e moTementi, not of l'.(i!viHuals, i ut 
 of organic communities, united 1r. nV,. ii^ce t« 
 a church and its pastor, a>jd hr' K with iK ' 
 iutinct of self-govemmert. •": seem to •«> 
 Greek history renewed, but wit'i centuries of 
 addeit political training. For one year a board 
 of commiwionera from Massachusetts governed 
 Ihe new towns, but at the end of that time the 
 towns chose representatives and held a Oencral 
 Court at Hartford, and thus the sep»ntt« •exist- 
 ence of Connecticut was begun. As for Sprint;- 
 Held, which was settled about the same time by 
 a putv from Roxburr, It remained for some 
 rnn doubtful to whicti state it belonged. "—J. 
 rUke, The BeginninM of Hew Bng., ek. & 
 
 Auout: J. O. PiSfrey, Hut. <f N. Eng.. t. 1, 
 A. Il.-Q. L. Walker, iKtt. of the FinI Ckurdk 
 IS HartfoM, fh. 4-9.— M. A. Qreen, BprintfiM, 
 1«8»-1»<«, rh. 1. 
 
 A. D. 1636-1639.— The ceastitntioaal eroln- 
 tiOB.— •• It must be noted that [the] Newtown. 
 Wttrrtnwn. and Dorchester mieratlona had not 
 been almgcthcr a simple transR'r of indiviilual 
 Mttli'fs from one colony to another. In each of 
 these migrations a part of the people was left be- 
 hind, so that the Massachusetts towns did not 
 cease to exist. And yet each of them bmught its 
 MMsacliuwIts magistrates, its ministers (except 
 Watrrtiiwn), and all the poltllcal and ecciesias- 
 tical macliinery of the town; and at least one of 
 tliem (Dorrlicster) had hardly cliangrd its struct- 
 ure since its members first organizeti in 163U ut 
 Donhi'ster in England. The first seltlrniont of 
 Connecticiit was thus the migration of three dis- 
 tinct snd individual town organlziitiona out of the 
 iurisiiiction of Massachuai^tla and into ah«ulut<! 
 freeiiiim. It was the Haasachusetts town system 
 let liiow in the wilderness. At first tlie'three 
 towns ri'lHiiHii even their MasRarhusetts names; 
 •mi it Wtt« not until the eighth court meeting. 
 Febrii.ir.v 21 lfl;«J (7), that It was decided that 
 'the pl:mt«?on nowe calle<l Newtowne shulbc 
 callfil A- named by the^name of Hurteforde 
 Towno, liki'wi.HC tlic plantaa>n nowe called Water- 
 townf slmllie calloii & named Wyhersfeild,' and 
 'the pliuitacon calletl Dorchester shallie called 
 Wlnili-ir." On tlie same day the boundaries be- 
 tween the three towns were ' agreed ' utmn, and 
 thuii till' germ of the future State was the agree- 
 ment mill iiiilonof tlic three towna Acconlingly. 
 the milmiiiieMt court meeting at Hartford, May 
 1. 1«37. for the first time took the name of the 
 'Oenrnll Curie,' and was composed, in addition 
 to Uie iiiun n>agi»trat4-8 who had previously held 
 it. of ciiMiitlet's'of three from each town. 80 
 Blm|>!y ami niiturally did the migrated town sys- 
 tem ivi.lve, in tills hinal aasemTilv. the seminal 
 pHndple of the Senate and House of Kepreaen- 
 UUvmnf the future Sute of ConmHllcut, The 
 Asuenilily further showi-d its consciousness of 
 lepsnili' enixU'nce by declaring "an olTensive 
 larr :,/; \u,. i'«i|uoilt." ansiguing the proportions 
 of It" iiiiiilittiire army and suppllea to ea<-li town, 
 •mi spiKiiiitIng a commander. ... 811 complete 
 are the fi-stiin-aof SUte-hoixl. tliat we mav fairly 
 •««n M-.v' 1, JM7, M the proper biitiiday of 
 
 Coonectieut No Uns, no Codcrm, presided 
 over the birth : ita seed waa in the towns. Jan- 
 uary 14, 1688 (»), the Uttle Commonwealth formed 
 "ae first American Constitution at Hartford. 80 
 Ut is ito provl^ona are concerned, the King, the 
 I'arliament, the Plymouth Council, the Warwick 
 Trant, the Say and Sele grant, might as well 
 nave been non-existent: not one of them is men- 
 tioned. . . . This constitution waa not only the 
 earlleat but the longest in continuance of Ameri- 
 lon documenU of the kind, unless we except the 
 Rhode Island charter. It waa not essentiallT 
 altered by the charter of 1663. which waa prac- 
 tically a royal confirmation of it ; and it was not 
 until 1818 that the charter, that is the constitu- 
 tion of 1689, was superseded by the present con- 
 stitution. Connecticut was as absolutely a state 
 In 168» aa in 1776. "—A. Johnston, The OenetU 
 efa XmSng. Stale (JahiulIopUiu Unit. Studiei, 
 o* 11)— The following is the text of those 
 " FundamenUl Orders" adopted by the people 
 dwelling on Connecticut River, January 14, 
 1638(9), which formed the first of written consti- 
 tutions: " FoRASMt-ca as it hath pleased the 
 Allmighty God by the wise disposttion of his 
 diuyne p'uidence so to Order and dispa«e of 
 things that we the Inhabiunts and Residents of 
 Windsor, Harteford and Wethersfield arc now 
 cohabiting and dwelling in and vppon the Hivcr 
 of Conectecotte and the Lands thereunto aiiloyne- 
 ing; And well knowing where a people are 
 gathere<i togather the word of 0<kI requires that 
 to mayntaync the peace and vnion of such a 
 people there should be an orderly and decent 
 Uouerment established according to God, to 
 order and dispose of the alTayres of the people at 
 all seasons as occation shall require; doe there 
 fore aaaoliate and conioync our seines to be as 
 one Publike State or Co'iiionwelth ; and doe, for 
 our selues and our Successors ami such as shall 
 be adioyned to vs att any tyme hereafter, enter 
 into Combination and Confvdenition togather to 
 mayatayne and n'searue the liberty and purity 
 of the 1,'ospcll of our Lord Jesus w* we now 
 p'fesae, as also the disciplyne of the Churches, 
 w* according to the truth of the said goapell is 
 now practised amonpt vs; As also ino'Ciuell 
 Affaires to be guided and gouemeii according to 
 such Lawes, Rules, Onlers and derrees a.s sliall 
 be made, onlered * dirrecd, as followeth : — 
 1. It is Ordered, sentenced and decn-ed. that 
 there shall be yer«'ly two gencrall Assemblies or 
 Courts, the on the s«'coiiil tliunidnT in Aprill, the 
 other the second thiinKlav in Septenilwr follow- 
 ing; the first shall lie calliii tlie t'ourte of Elec- 
 tion, wherein shall lie yerely Chosen frO tyme to 
 tvme soe many Mageslrats and other nulllike 
 OIBcers as slull be found requisitte: Wliereof 
 one to be chosen Ooucmour fur the yeare ensueing 
 and vntill another be chosen, and noe other 
 Magestrate to be clioaen for more than one veare; 
 p'ulded allwayes there be sixe chosen besids the 
 Oouernour; w" iH'inirchoiieu and swome acconl- 
 ing to an Oath recorded for that purpost^ sliall 
 haue power Ui ailminister iustice acroniiug to 
 the Lawes here eaublisheil. and for want tliirwif 
 according to the rule of the word of Ooil . w* 
 choiae shall be nuuie by all tliat nf aiinijtied 
 freemen and haue taken the Oath of Fidellity, 
 aiHl d<ie oilubitte w'in this Jurisdiction, (luiuing 
 beene admitte<i Inhabitants by the maior p't of 
 the Towne wherein they liue.) or the nwvor p'te 
 of such aa shall be tliea p'sent 1 It is (irdered. 
 
 611 
 
I* "•'« 
 
 m:--M 
 
 comrecncuT, 1688-16M. 
 
 Katenced and decreed, that the Election of the 
 •foreiaid lUgettnli (hall be on thia manner: 
 euery p'aon paent and quallifled tar cboyie ahall 
 urin^ In (to the I'lons deputed to receaue tliC) 
 one oingle pap' ' the name of him written In 
 yt whom he ut-auxn to haue Qouernimr, and he 
 that huth the ^rrateat odber of papen ahall be 
 Gourrnor for tliat vean". And the reat of the 
 MagestraU or pub! Ike Officers U> be choien in 
 thia manner; The Secretary for the tyme bt'.ng 
 ahall first read the names of all that are to be put 
 to cboise and then shall seuerally nominate them 
 distinclly, and cucry one that would haue the 
 p'son nominated to be rhnaeu shall bring In one 
 single paper written vppon. and he that would 
 not haue him chosen shall bring in a blanke : and 
 euerr one that hath more written papers then 
 blanka ahall be a Msgistrat for that yeare; w" 
 papers shall be receaued ami told by one or more 
 that shall be then chosen by the court and swome 
 to be favthfull therein: but In case there should 
 not be sixe chosen as aforesaid, besids the Oouer- 
 nor, out of those W are miiuinated, then he or 
 they W haue the moat written pap's siiall be a 
 Magestrai^ or Magestrats for the enaueing yeare, 
 to make vp the foresaid ndlier. 8. It ia Ordeivd, 
 sentvnrni and dccn-ed, that the Secretary ahall 
 not nnminatc any p'son. nor shall any p'son be 
 chosen newly Into the Magrslracy W waa not 
 p'pownded in some Henrrall Cimrte l)efore, to be 
 nominated tin- next Election : and to that end yt 
 ahall be lawfull for ech of the Townes aforraiJd 
 by their deputyes to nominutv any two who they 
 conceaue ntte to be put to ehiction: and the 
 Courte may ail so many more as they ludgo 
 reqiiisitt. 4. It is Orden-d, sent4-uee<l and de- 
 creed that ncM! p'son be cluisen Oouenior aboue 
 <!iue in two yeares. and that the Uoucmor be 
 al«»vs a melxT of some approve)! congregation, 
 and fiirmerlv nf the Magi'slracy w*in this Juris- 
 dieiiou; anil all the Magestrats Fret men of this 
 Coniiiuwelth: and that no Magestratc or otiier 
 publike oDlcer sliall exi-eute any p'te of his or 
 their Office i>efore they are seuerally swome, 
 w* shall be done in the face of the Courte if they 
 be p'sent, and in case of abHt>nce by some deputed 
 for timt purpose. .V It is Orderetl. sentenced 
 •nd di'-reed, that to tlie aforesaid (\iurte of 
 Eiectiiio the aeu'all Townes slull send i (leir depu- 
 tyes, and when the Elections are emled they 
 may p'cee<l In any publikc sraruioe as at other 
 Courts. Also the oilier Uviierall I'ourte in Sep- 
 temlK-r shall be for inakeing of lawes. and any 
 olhi-r publike occallon, w* consems the good of 
 the Ciimonwelth. 6. It is Onlered, seiitencetl 
 and decreed, that the Oou'nor shall, ether liyhim- 
 selfe or by the secreury, sewl out sumons to the 
 Constables of eu' Towne for the cauleing of these 
 two sUnding Courts, on month at lest before 
 their sru'all tymes And als4> if the Gim'nor and 
 thegn'test p'teuf tb<- .Magestrats see cause vppon 
 any siH-tiall occatino to call a general! Courte, 
 they may glue onier to the secretary s«c t4> doo 
 W^n fiiwerteene dayes wameing; and If vrgeut 
 necesnity so n^quire. rppon a shorter notice , glue- 
 ing suttlrient gniwmlsfor v t to the deputy es when 
 they meete, or e!s be qiit -ttioned for the same; 
 And if tlie Oou'nor and Mayor p'te of Magestrats 
 shall ether negknt or refuse to call the two Oen- 
 erall sUtudiug < uurts or ether o( thfi. as also at 
 other tymes whin the occations of the Comon- 
 welth require, the Freemen thereof, or tlie Mayor 
 P'te of them, bhall petition to them loe to doc ; if 
 
 comnccncuT, i6M-ie8». 
 
 then yt be ether denyed or neglected ih« «m 
 Freemen or the Mayor pte of them shall bsu 
 power to glue order to the Constables of ths 
 leuerall Townet to doe the same, and so nu 
 meete togatber, and chuse to themselues s Mod- 
 erator, and may p'ceod to do any Acte of power 
 w* any other Oenerali Courte may. 7. li u 
 Ordered, sentenced and decreed that after tlien 
 are warrants giuen out for any of the wid Om 
 crall Courts, the Constable or ConstaM.-s of «* 
 Towne shall forthw* give notice dUtine tlv to ths 
 inhabitanta of the same, in some Pulilike As- 
 sembly or by goeing or sending frO howte to 
 bowse, that at a place and tyme by him or them 
 lymlted and aett, they meet and aswmble tU 
 acluea togather to elect and chuse cerlen dipu. 
 tyea to be att the Oenerali Courte then folbwlns 
 toaglutetheafayreaof thecomonwelih; w*Hia 
 Deputyea shall be choien by ail that an ailmltted 
 InhabitanU in the ieu'all Townes ami Iwueukea 
 the oath of fldellity ; p'ulde<l that non U elmwn s 
 Deputy for any Oenerali Courte w-" is not , 
 Freeman of this Comonwelth. The fdrMsid 
 deputyes ahall be choaen in manner fnllMwinic 
 cuery p'son that Is p'sent and quallitieil us before 
 exp'ssed. shall bring the names of sm h. written 
 In seu'rall papers, aa they desire to haue c Ijoeen 
 for that Imployment, and these 8 or 4, more or 
 lease, being the nOber agreed on to lie (lnwrn for 
 that tyme, tliat haue greatest nnber i)f 1*0,™ 
 written fortbe shall be deputyes for that Courle; 
 whose names shall be endorsed on the Im< kr title 
 of the warrant and returned Into the Courle.W the 
 CimstableorConstebleshand vntotlieHunie. 8. It 
 isOnieretl, sentenced and decreeil. that Wjoilsor 
 llarifonl and Wethersfield shall haue power] 
 ech Towne, to send fower of their freemen ai 
 deputyes to euery Uenerall Courte; ami wlisiso- 
 euer otiier Townea shall be hereafter mUM to 
 thia Juristliction, tliey slutll send si> iiiuiiv ilr|iu 
 tycsasthe Courte sliall Judge meete, »" reason- 
 able p'porticm to the nDber of Frwnn 11 that are 
 in the said Townes being to be attende.1 ihin-in; 
 w* deputyea ahall have the power nf the whole 
 Towne to glue their voata and slonann- to all 
 such Uwcs and onlers aa may lie for tlie puMike 
 good, and unto w* the aaid Towni-s an' lo 1« 
 bowiid. 9. It isoniereii and deereiil, that the 
 deputyes thus chosen shall haue (Niwer and 
 liberty to appoynta tymeanda plaee i.f iiHTting 
 togatlier bi'fore any Oenenill Coiirti' to ailuiae 
 and ci'iiault of all such things as mav eonccnie 
 the gixxl of the publike, as also to exaiiiini- tlirlr 
 owne Elections, wlu-tlier acconllni; t.> Ihi-ivnler, 
 anil If they or the gretest p'U- of llieni Sud any 
 election to be illegsll they may serlu.l such for 
 p'sent frn their meetlug. and retviriio the same 
 and their resons to the Courte; himI if vt pnpue 
 true, the Courte may fyne the p'lv t>r pivi* so 
 intruding and the Towne, If they see 1 .iiiii-. uml 
 
 f;iue out a warrant to goe to a uewe eli-iiiou in a 
 egall way, either in p'te or In whole. \'.t> the 
 saul deputyea ahall haue power to fyue any that 
 shall be disonicrly at their meviinv's. cr !i>rno( 
 coming in due tyme or pUce aceonliri); to ap- 
 
 K>y fitment; and they may retume the nhiI fvuw 
 lo the Courte if yt be refused ti> lie |iaiil. ami 
 the trraurer lo lake notice of vt, and lo estnnr 
 or levy the aame as hi' d'lth iilntT fv'O's l'> h 
 is Onlere<i, sentence.i and deerl1^l, tliat emry 
 Uenerall Courte, except such as tlmiiiKh ntj(lrtle 
 of tlie Oou'nor ami the greatest p'te uf Mairiiiiniu 
 the Freemen Utemtelvei due caU, shall consist o( 
 
 fiU 
 
ooinnccncTTT, lest-iew. 
 
 OWcxy. 
 
 CONNECTICUT, 16n. 
 
 tb« Oeocnor, or Mmw one cboaen to modenito 
 tlic Court, and 4 other MageetimU at Ictt, w" 
 the mayor p'te of the deputyea of tbe aeueiall 
 Townea I jiiiiU > choaeo ; and in caie the Freemen 
 or iii«jor ;<■ )( thC, through neglect or refuaall 
 of tbe Oouernor and majror p'tc of the magea- 
 tnu. sliall cull a Courte, f ihall constat of the 
 mayor p'te of Freemen tliat are p'sent or their 
 dcputyea, w* a Moderator cboaen by thS: In w* 
 laM uenerall Courta aball oonaiat the supreme 
 power of the Comonwelth, and they only shall 
 bsue power to nuke Uws or repealc thS, to 
 rraunt leuyes, to admitt of Freemen, dispose of 
 Unds Tudispoaed of, to aeuerall Townes or p'sons, 
 toil also shall haue power to call ether Courte or 
 JUgi'strate or any other p'son wbatsoeuer into 
 question for any mlademeanour, and may for just 
 csu<e I displace or dcalc otherwiae aco>rding to 
 tbe nature of the offence; and also may drale in 
 any other matter that conccrna the rood of this 
 cnmna welth, excepte elertion of Mogcstrata, 
 w* shall be done by tbe whole Imtdy of i^«emcn. 
 In w* Courte the Oouernour or Moderator sbull 
 bsue power to order the Courte to kIuc liberty 
 of spvch, and silence vnctasonable and diaonlerly 
 ipeakt'bigs, to put all tbinga to voate, and in 
 case the voate be oquall to liaue the casting voice. 
 But Don of these Courts shall be adiurned or dis- 
 soluej w*out the consent of the miiior p'tc of tbe 
 Court U. It is ordere<l. 8«-nU;ncti land decreed, 
 tini. when any Qenerall Courte vpp<m the occa- 
 tions of the Comonwelth haue agreed vppon any 
 sumo or somes of mony to be leuyed vppon the 
 scuiTall Townea W4n this Jiirisdictiou, tliut a 
 Comittee be cboaen to sett out and appoynt w' 
 ■liall be tbe p'portion of euery Towne U> pay of 
 the said leuy, p'vided tbe Comittees be moile vp 
 of an equall nOber out of each Towne. U* Jan- 
 uary, Wa, tbe II Urdere abouesaid are vote<l." 
 — I'uhiie Becunb of the Vuloiiy of Conneetieut, 
 t. 1. 
 
 A. a. 1637.— The Pequot War. See New 
 E-NiiLASD: A. D. 1837. 
 
 A. 0. 1638.— The planting of New Haven 
 Colony.— '■ In the height of tbe llutcbiuaim con- 
 trivcmy [iH-e Mah.\ciil-8ETT8: .\. I). 16it<HB3H], 
 Jolin l»avtiinort, an eminent noncunformixt min- 
 isur from Lonilon, bad arriv«l at Boston, and 
 with liiiii a weidtby company, lc<l by two mcr- 
 cliauia, Tlieopbilus Eiktouand Edwani Hopkins. 
 Alarmfd at tlie new opinions and rt-ligious agita- 
 tiuiis of whicli MasaBobuHetIs was tbe seat, not- 
 withstanding very advantageous offers of setlle- 
 mf nt thire, Ibey preferred U) esublish a separate 
 craniimuity of their own, to be forever free from 
 llic iauovations of error and lia'ntiousness. 
 Ellon and otlicn si'nt to explore the coast west 
 lit llic Connecticut, selccuii a pliice for settle- 
 ment iii-ar the head of a spacious bay at Quina 
 piark ' - '>■ i-^ ■ ' ■ ' ■ . ■ . ^ .. 
 
 . it< 
 
 [or Ouinnlpiack], or! as tbe Dutch caili>d 
 d Hill, where they built a but and spent 
 
 lln> winlir 
 
 Tbev were Joiiieii in tbe spring 
 l\pnl, l&W] by the rest of their rompanv, and 
 l)iiveDp.irt preached his first sermon under tho 
 •luiloof a spreadiuf <mk. Presently they enteretl 
 lulo what tbey culled a ' plantatiim covenant,' 
 •Oil a conimunication being opened with tbe 
 Imliam. who were but few in that neii{bl)orh«Ml. 
 the \»n,U nf QuSnapiack were piirrhawl, except 
 a smiill nervation on tbe east side of tbe bay, the 
 Imliani ni riving a few presenU and a promise 
 of pmuitiim. X tract north of the bay, ten 
 mUes in uoe direction and thirteen in the other, 
 
 613 
 
 wu purchased for ten eoeti; and the coloniau 
 proceeded to lay out In squarea the ground-plan 
 of a spacious city, to which they presently gave 
 the name of :;ew Haven."— R. Hildreth, uSt. 0/ 
 th* U a.,v. 1, eh. ».— "They formed their pollU- 
 cal asiocbtlon br what thev called a 'pUntatlon 
 covenant," ' to distinguish ft from a church cov- 
 enant, which could not at that time be made.' 
 In this compact they resolved, 'that, as in 
 niatters that concern the gathering and ordering 
 of a church, so likewise in all public olflcea 
 which concern civil order, oa choice of magis- 
 trate* and offlcers, making and repealing of 
 laws; dividing allotmcnu of inheritance, and ail 
 things of like nature,' tbey would ' be onlered by 
 the rules wbiib the Scriptures hold forth." It 
 had no exh'rnal sanction, and comprehended no 
 acknowledjiment of the eovcmment of Enghtnd. 
 The compuny consisted mostly of Londoners, 
 who at home had been engaged in trade. In 
 proportion to their numbers, they were the 
 richest of all the pinnutiona. Like the settler* 
 on Xarragnnsett Bay, tbey liad no other title to 
 their lands than timt which they obtained by 
 purchase from the Indians. "—J. O. Palfrey, llitt. 
 0/ XcaEng., r. 1. eh. 13, 
 
 Also i.n: C. H. Levtrmore, The BepMie of 
 NealluKn. eh. 1, 
 
 A. D. 1639.— The Fundunental Agreement 
 of New Haven.— "In June, 1839, the wliolo 
 body of settlers [at Quinoipiuck. or New Haven] 
 came together to fniuie a cimstitution. h. tra- 
 dition, seemlnglv well foimded, says timt the 
 meeting was held in a large liam. Accoiding to 
 the some arcount, the purpose for which tiicy 
 had met and tiie priuciples on which tbey ought 
 to proceed were set forth by Davenport in a ser- 
 mon. ' Wisdom hath builded her house, she 
 hath hewn out B«'ven pillars,' was tbe text. 
 There ii an obvious connection between this and 
 the subsequent choice of seven of tbe chief men 
 to lay the foundation of tbe constitution. . . . 
 Davenport set forth tite general system ou which 
 the constitution oujtbt to be fruiued. Tbe two 
 n,aln principles wliicb he kid down were, that 
 Scripture is a perfeil and suttteient rule for the 
 conduct of civil affairs, and that churcb-member- 
 ship must be a coudition of citizenship. In this 
 the coloni.su were but Imitatiug the example of 
 Massachusetts, , , . After the sennou, dye reso- 
 lutiona [followeil by u sixth, constituting together 
 what was called the ' fundamental agreement " 
 of New Haven Colony], fommlly iutrmluclng 
 Davenport's proposals, were carried. If a 
 church alreaily existed. It was not considered lit 
 to form a basis for the state. Aeenrdiugly a 
 fresh one was fnmnl by a curiously eoinplicateil 
 process. As a Hr-l step, twelve men wen' elected. 
 These twelve were instructed, aft<T a due inter- 
 val for consideration to cbmso seyen out of 
 their own niinilHT, who sboulil saTve as a nu- 
 cleus for tlie church. At thi' same time an oath 
 was taken by the settlers, whieli nmy be looked 
 on a* a sort uf prelimiimry and provisional U.-s\, 
 of citizenship, pledging them to accept the 
 principles laid down by t)aven|M)rt, Sixty three 
 of the iiiliabitunts tisik the oath, and tlieir 
 example was sism followed by fifty more. By 
 (>vto!M-r. fuiif iiiimlhs after the original mi t ting, 
 the seven foniially established the new common- 
 wealth. Tbey granu-d the righu of a freeman 
 to all who joined them, and who were recognixed 
 members either of the church at >'vw Haven or 
 
Um^M 
 
 'i 
 
 OONNBCnCCT, int. 
 
 
 coNNEcnccT, ia«3-iee4. 
 
 P X 
 
 of any other *ppn>TMi ciiuich The fr. -men 
 thus cbown rii'Tsd Into ma a^ ^-cmeDt 'he 
 tame effect u ;be oath ainwl taken. !' ..v 
 tl>eu riveted a (>i>rernoraodfuur mgUumtet r 
 8» tliey were lor the prearnt c»i! 1. a Magiftr» « 
 •od four Deputi^ . . . The luctlona of i 
 Governor and Ma$ri«tntet »rre not defln. 
 Irnit-.-,!, but one -niaJ reaolution wu paaed 
 to th.- conntltutli { the coloni iam.ly. ' that 
 the Wcnl (,f Oo(i Dhall be the onij ruW Httecded 
 unto 111 , ml. ring the affairs of govrmnwnt.' "— 
 J. A. DoyI , r^ Kngluk in Am.; Tht f^Hlan 
 Cotmier • 1. rt, «.-"Of all the New En^Mwl 
 cokmit'ii. ^.■w Haven w»» most purely a govern- 
 ment by compact, bv >iK'ial ri>iiirBct. . . . The 
 fnc filiihtcrs . . signed each their nauiet to 
 thfir vo)'inti.r_'- compact, and ordemi that 'all 
 planters hcrv.ift'r received in this plantation 
 should submit to the said foi.MdamcnUll agrt-;- 
 ment, and li -title the satiu- by si:!»icribing their 
 namea' It h iH'lieved tliat thm Is the sole 
 insunceof tlic furuution of un i>iii<|x-ndrnt civil 
 govemmeut bv a general c •niuuot Hiun'in all 
 the parties totheairrepnH'Dt » • t. le/{iUlv miuir»'<l 
 to be actual i.ii;i-. ■« thereof VVhta this event 
 oocurn-d. John Ixxke was ii his seventh vear, 
 and Itouanenu was a centun away." — ( ' u' 
 Levcriin.r.-. T7if JlipufiUr „f Ae<« J/aten i, 23 
 
 A. D. i639-i«a.-Th« aUeged Bli^e Laws 
 Of New Haven.—' ua when or by whom the 
 acts and iinxtt'diiiE-i if New Haven coIumv wet« 
 nrst sliKiimtiied hs .tiuo LAvnt, caniioi now be 
 ' fi. The r ri'«>iniiitiii!i ljoti<ver is 
 Bi that the n»nrt iiad it-, •iri^in u \:.w 
 
 YorU. and that it tfaii-l ctirrpnt > ii Conv. .ixut 
 am.iiig epi><'(>palian and .>thir' : -.^rit, •. |t,i,l 
 the esublishcd chiirc'.i, belwieii l7v'Uand i'.Mi 
 . . In the colony of Now lla^. i. Uforc llie 
 uni'.n with fiinnecticut, the prinl. ».sof votinB 
 and of bnldinir civil offlc- wen-. !iv the •funds 
 ment.d ierc. nent,' ii-stric'cl i.' i harch-m^rn 
 b.'rs. Ibis i>.Tuliarity of Iw: ccm»ii-ution w.« 
 enough to jrlve color to tin- aa*erti»ii 'hat her 
 Icffislaiiim wHii, preemineiitiv. blue That her 
 old rcconi iH-ik containeil a itkIb of ' blue law-i 
 which were <llH.rcditablH to puritaiiiwi. and 
 which t."-iified to the .. i^er of schism be- 
 came. aniLiic ceruiii cl».», - an aHSun-il Udief 
 To this imagina.y cmle wit and mal'c. made 
 U'gp Hililitioiiii, siinietinieK liy pure Invt-ntlon, 
 •omctiiiics l.y borrowing at«imi or nrhitrary 
 •aws fniiii •tic rn-orJs of (rti(.r colonics .\nd 
 lo the 111 J 1,1 grew. . . . N., specimens of the 
 tows Ml sti(tniati/,e<| seem lo have l)epn publialied 
 bef.ire ITni. when a sketch of some of them' 
 wb:; giv.n |„ t!ic worid by the Kcv. Samuel 
 J lUrt HI • \ tJcneral History of f.«inccticiit ' ' 
 In this •■ llisiiiry." it ') said, were oijllecti-d all 
 the extravagant stories tUt had been "ct afloat 
 during the previou» «fty years. -J, H. Trum 
 bu I. Tfu frue /Sue LaWofCunn. and A', Uarfii 
 Jilt 'il. 
 
 A. D. i640-i«S5.-Th« attempted New 
 Haven coloniaatioa oa the Delaware,— Fresh 
 auarre:s with the Dutch. See Niw Jerset 
 AD. ltv»(H6.V. 
 
 A. D 1 643. -The coofederatlon of the colo- 
 "'"•-The progreii and ttate of New Haven 
 and the River Co:ony. Sea Nkw Emilahd. 
 
 A. P I(r?"- 
 
 ,...^P- '*5»'T^*"'«»»"'»'boundan«e with 
 the Dnteh of New HetberUn<l!. ;i:r Haw 
 
 loUK: A I> 10W. 
 
 I ^A. D. i6s6.iMi.-Tht pertccotioa of 
 Qnmkers. H«e MAsaACHUsxTTs A n mT 
 1661. 
 
 A. D. 1660-1663.-7 he bccinaing of bonad. 
 •ry conflict, with Rhode UlM.d.^Bef Se 
 
 '^ °J "!^.'**lr^''* pretention of tlie 
 of ?>ew Haven the kn.j bad a snecis! cnidi./ 
 Two of the reglchie I uuges ( Whalley and t;„H, I 
 who had sac Tu th.- tribunal which cmdenm.li 
 his fatlier escaped U. New England in IBtiii ■ • 
 were wili received there. . . . The kinits ii',- 
 Jectlves i.,)tly pu.-su«l them throuidi ihe va,\ 
 toDd paths of New England, and ilv wo-il.l 
 1000 have been taken but for the a iil thev n,., 
 from the p.-r,ple. . . . Aft.-r lurkiMt about Xew 
 Haven and Milford for twi, or thr... ve«r» 
 they aoiipht a more ^.ciuded hiUiuL- place n«, 
 Haaiejr.-'-J. Flake. J'U Beyinniny. .„ S,r ^. 
 A. D i66J-iM4.-Th. Royal Chi t„ Zi 
 annesationof New Haven tothe R.v.: Colony 
 — The Restoration in Englan.1 left tl„ \X 
 Haven colony under a cloud in the i,,v..r„f il,, 
 ■ w govemmtnt: it had be«n ii.nly snd ,„,. 
 -nicious m iu procUmation of Charles II j. 
 :i.i.| been especially rembia iu fearcliinn for il,e 
 n-glckle t-ii^la, Ooffe and Wballey: sn.i anv 
 aprillcatlon for a charU'r would have nv.-.t fr„n 
 N. - Haven with a very ill grar,-. ( , ,ie.ii,„ 
 w. iimler Dosuchdi»abllilie«; and it had iii in 
 (1 rnor, John Winthrop [;ho v.urwr .-^ ■, .if 
 iiii first goveniir of MasaachiiiH-i! a man v, | 
 cai"uUt<sl u> win favot with tlir n ., Kine 
 In Jlarch, 1660. the Genera! I'ourt * lenmlv ,ie. 
 claret US loyalty to Clmrles II., »..„i ,h, i;,,,. 
 emorto i;ngto»l to offer a IovhI ad.lres^ i„ tu 
 ."!)?,""" "^ him for a charter, ami laid :i»id(j 
 Vm U>T hiseipensea. Winthr-.p wn, Mi,re»~',d 
 and thcclwrter waa grantwl April 2" \Mi Tlie 
 acquisili-j of the charur r>.ls.-,| the ( ..nuHii.ui 
 k-ailera U> the seventh iaaven of sutisfMrti,,.i 
 And vvell it might, for itwaaagriint of privileii-j 
 with hanlly a limitation. Hracticall-, the 'iio. 
 had <iven W inthrop • carte blanehe, i;i.UlI..Wf.l 
 him to frame the cliarter to suit liiiiiM 1. It iu. 
 corporatol the freemen of O niiei'ticnl iwa ■ i^in' 
 corporat" and fiollliique,- by Uh' «iim- it T;«. 
 Oovemor and Company of wli.i Ijii-l-i, ( ■■ 
 of Conecticut in New En^'uri 
 . . . The people were 10 b.ve I,.-' 
 
 and Immunities of free am', nat, -.ii. 
 
 tlie King, as if bom wiihin thenar... 11 (!r!inti-.! 
 to the Governor and (:<>'Ti|«ny all tl.ai |ian nt 
 New England south of th. Mnssu I .;^ii- line 
 and west of the •Nomiganaii i'iver ciu- 
 monly called Norroganatt liay ' |.. ihi-Suth 
 Sea, with the ' Ulanda tlien>unU> i..li..i..eitii;r 
 . It isdillicul: to see more than i».i 1 mij 
 in which it [the charter] altensi the ■.-rMiiuimo 
 adopted by the townj- n 1639. Thr.- «ire ow 
 to be two deputies fr.im each li>»n, aii.l tlie 
 >M>undarie8 of the I'ominonwealtli now eiiiliriiit J 
 thi rival colony of Nev Haven. . . . Newll.iv.n 
 Jid not submit witliout a struitglc. firmit imlv 
 her pride of separare cuistcDce b>u i he MipremiK v 
 of her eccleshuti'-al system wa., a! .itake. K..'r 
 three yiara a succession of dipl.imatic notn 
 passed tx-tween thc(}eneral (■..minf (•iiiiii..iiiMt 
 and •our honored frl-ndi or .New llavin Mii- 
 fonl. Branfonl. and Ouiiforti ' . . . In (hi.ilrr, 
 1664, the Connecticut (jeaenl Cnirl «p|»ilntfd 
 the Mew Haven maflltiate* coiuuissiooert for 
 
 6U 
 
OOIWECTiCUT, l«6S-ia«4. 
 
 a/ tk< CKarbr 
 
 iHireCTIClT l<W5-tMT. 
 
 tbeir towu, 'whh maghtimtion powrre,' es- 
 UbIUhed the Kew Harfn kwal offloera in th<'ir 
 pUcet f"r th»- time, ^i d ileclaml olillvl. n fur 
 tny put mliitsno! t' 'he iawa. In Dec< hiImt, 
 Unford liavinr alreiul xilirnitted, t/ip remDsul 
 of the New tfnven Otinr»l Court, rtpmentioK 
 New ir»iren, Ouilford, sui<l Bnofori). ^cll^ iw 
 test nuvting and v >>k1 to sulimit. with a saivo 
 jure of i)ur former iiifhts and laim.s, ai a people 
 who hare not yet hecu heani m point of plea.' 
 The next year the laws of New Haven were laid 
 taide forever, and I.er Ux^hh sent depiiiiiii to the 
 General Court at Uartf r I . . In 1701 the 
 Oenenil Court . . voted tliat its annual Octo- 
 ber session should tin ri ufter In- held at New 
 Haven. Thisprovii. f a double capital waa 
 incorporated into the ciaiJiMtutioa of l¥lH, aod 
 continued until in 1H78 Hartfori waa nu>le sole 
 capilJil. ■'— A. Johnston, J'lu Ottirtu of a A«« 
 Biu) !^Ut, pp. 25-28. 
 
 .ii,«o rs: B. Trumbuil, ffitt. tf (vnn., e 1, f* 
 1 PuMie Jiteordi of t/- ' .lung of ' 'mn itjAV 
 
 .V D. 1M4.— Ronl grmnt to • Duke of 
 Vork, in conflict with the charte -^.v Xkw 
 VobK: .V. 1) 1684. 
 
 A. D. 1666. -The New HaTcn migratioa ' 
 Newark, N.J Sec Nkw jEaatv: A D. 166 
 16S7. 
 
 A. D. 1 674.1675. -Lonr Iilan and the 
 western half of the colony f ranted to the 
 Duke ot York.— In 1874, nfter '. motneritiirv 
 rcci'vcrj- of New Vork by the l»;uh, and its 
 re surrender to the Kngliah. ihe kin*; isaued 
 n»w mtent for the provini.- in which he not 
 only imluiletl Long lalHod, but the territory up 
 to the Conneotieut Kiver, wbi' h had licen 
 awigned t'l I'oiitiettlciit by the roval eommi!i- 
 si.atrs. 7 •• astelgnnient of Long Island waa 
 re^retied, 1 it not resixttni ; and the island which 
 is the natural seawall of Connecticut nniird. by 
 mval ifrtw. to a provime whose only natural 
 claim to it waa that It barely touched' It at oue 
 rimer The revival of the duke's claim t.. % 
 part uf llie malnlari,! was a different matter, and 
 irery i>rcparatir,i was rr.oile fi.r reaiiitanre In 
 July, ira, ,<jx m King I'liilip s war liad broken 
 ou in Plymouth, hastv «iird was sent from the 
 ai'tiiurities at llartfoni to CapUin Tliomaa Bull 
 jt Sayhrook tliat Governor Andros of New 
 liirli w.ia on his way through the Sound for the 
 purpose, as h<,- a>owi-d, of aiding the people 
 spunst the Indiana. l)f the two eWls, Connecti- 
 cut ra-.her preferre.1 the Indians. Bull was 
 iMtriKt.'d to inform Androe. If he should call at 
 h«yhrr«ik, that the colony bad taken all pre- 
 C4uti.ms against the Indians, and to direct lilm 
 to the iidual scene of conflict, but not to permit 
 the lauding ..f «ny arme<l loldlera. ■ And you 
 are to keep the king'a colors standing there, 
 tiniler lii.. inaJ.-«ty'B iFeutenant, the governor of 
 lonnw ti(u> and If i.ny other colors be set up 
 I here. .v,.ii are not to ■(•iflfer them Ui Hand. 
 Hut V 11 are in his maiesty'g name rcquliwl to 
 ■ -old Kti.kiiig the first blow; but V. they begin 
 then you ure to defend y.>unielvc8, and do your 
 t«t lo v, ure his r.mjesty'a Interest and the 
 |H.ire ,1 ilie whole colony of Connecticut In our 
 pnw-5!-.:R \T^^T^^ esmc i.nd landed at B..,- 
 hrook. hut aonflued his proeee-lings to reailliig 
 ic (luke « patent against the pmtest of Bull aiij 
 IhcConneriicut reprMenUtlves."-A. ,Iohnston. 
 
 w of 
 
 took 
 
 such 
 
 Town 
 
 '•<% on IM Bmndanet of Ot StaU of 
 p. 81 
 .xL*., n« W Rowen, Tht Bovndarv Dimm^ 
 ofCmn., ;> 70-T , 
 
 A. n i674.|678.-Kiiig Philips War. See 
 j«i" t-v i^sD: A D, 16 -1875 1875; 1878- 
 
 A D. n ^t.,687._ The hoiUle kiocaad tk* 
 hidden charter.— Si; Edmund Androa in bm> 
 s«Mioa of he Koreratncat. " DurinL' the latter 
 
 *rs of I reign "f tiiari, s U. ti,e kinir ha-- 
 Won so ■•cklesKof his pl.dgeaand his -.atj. 
 that 1id not s<niple to »<-t the dan<reroui ei- 
 nmpl. ' Tiolatin;t the charters that had been 
 
 Sl'I'i'. ^•; ' ■"'*"■ <J*'n»rt" the friendship 
 •hat the king !itertalne<l f. Winthn.p, we have 
 seen that Connei it wni. favo ii by him t. a 
 degn-i even after ■■• deal h of tl.it great miu 
 But no looner had Charl., dcmlap<l iui-,1 thf 
 sceptre panel into the Imrxls of h - liigoied 
 brother. King James U., than Conn,, tient waa 
 called upon to contend .leainat her sovii n for 
 liberties that bad been affirmed to her the 
 most R. :emn muniments known to the 
 Knglan i. The , , .. „ „f j.^^g , 
 lace ou the 6tli :■. ,it iu,y i88,'5, :, 
 
 .18 his baste to violaii .' ,tmor of tli- 
 i;iiii.e»rlyia thesunimen.; !*5. a quo warranto 
 *aB isgu«l agai: ;,j the governor and companv uf 
 ( oiim-cticut. < :ig tliem lo app-,ar before Uie 
 km. *it(iiii eijiit days of .-t. Slartin's. to show 
 b nght id tei - t he v exercised cerwln 
 
 ih.Heni jiiid pn iiege.;. ■ Tins was quicklv fol- 
 lowed by two other writ^ conveyed t<. Hurtfonl 
 l)v EdwanI Raiido;! the Implacal' enemy 
 of -he colot^i,^. ihe lay ,,f appeurruif"-- 
 
 nan I In tlie^u was piisse<i long Ufore tlie writs 
 weri «rTe<i Mr, Vhiiinif was sent U. England 
 as the agent of the coloiiv. to exert such Influ- 
 ences as might lie brought to bear against the 
 plainly hostile and uiiscrupilous intentions of 
 the king: but hi^ errand was fruitlesa "On the 
 28th of Decemt>er another writ of quo warranto 
 «.is served upon the goi emor and company of 
 the OTiony. This writ Vin- date the 23(1 of 
 October, and required the defendants to appear 
 before the king 'within eight iiays of the purifl- 
 cation of the Bless.. I Virgin,' , . . Of course 
 the day named was not known to the English 
 law, and was therefore no day at all In legal cou- 
 templatiou." Already, the other New England 
 colonies had been bniiight under a pmvUiunal 
 general government, by i-ouimissloners, of whom 
 .I(>9enb Dudley was nameil presidi'nt. President 
 Oudley "addreaaeil a letter to the governor and 
 TOuncIl, advising them to resign the charter Into 
 the king's hands. Should they do so, he under- 
 took U) use his influenco in iK'half of the colonv. 
 They did not deem it ad\i»iilile to comply with 
 the request. Indeed they hud l-anlly time to do 
 so before the old coiiiiuiasion was broken up, 
 and a new one gmnted, superseding Dudley 
 and naming Sir Edmund Audros governor o"f 
 New England. Sir Ediiitiml arriveii In Boston 
 on the 19lh of Dm'ni.Kr. ICHfl, and the next day 
 lie publialieil lilscominissiou and took thegoveru- 
 ment into his hands. Sear(^•ly hail he cslablislied 
 liin<self, when he sent a letter to the governor 
 and company of Coiinecti'Mit, acqiialutiiig them 
 with his appointment, and infonning them that 
 he was commiasioneti by the king t > receive 
 their charter if tliev woulil give it up to him."— 
 0. IL UoUUter, llitt. of Uunn., t. 1, cA. 11— On 
 
 515 
 
OOKNECTICUT, l«S-l«n. 
 
 Charttr. 
 
 oovstcncvT, iaM>mi. 
 
 NcHpt of th» oommunlcattoD from Aiulra*, " the 
 Ornrral (Jourt wm kt once conTeoed. aod by iu 
 dln^tioD a letter wu ■dd^tiani to the English 
 Berntary of 8ute, eameatly plendinc for the 
 prmerTation of the priTilegn that Bad been 
 granted to them. For the lint time tbey admlt- 
 te<l the poaalblllty that their petition might be 
 dcnlMl, and In that caae requcated to be united 
 to Mamac-huwtta. Thii waa ronatnied by Sir 
 Etimiind asatirtua) iurrrndcr; but aa the days 
 went by he Hiw that be bail mlaUken the spirit 
 anil purpose of the colony. Androa fliially de- 
 cidt i| lo (TO in (lenon to Connecticut He arrlTp<l 
 at ilartfonl the last day of Octolier, attended by 
 a retinue of (Kl officers and soldiers. The Aaem- 
 biy, then in st-xsion, received him with every 
 outwnril mark nf respect. After this forma] ex- 
 chaniTf' of courtesies, Sir E<lmund publicly de- 
 mnniletl the charb-r, and deilared the colonial 
 
 Government dissolved. Tntilitlim relates thut 
 iiivemor Treat, In calm but earnest wonls. re- 
 miinstralni anlnst this action. . . . The debate 
 was (\>ntinunl until the shadows of the earlr 
 autumnal evening bad lallen. After eandlea were 
 ll|(lil<ti, the govenH)r and his council seemed lo 
 yielil; anil the box supposed to contain ttie char- 
 ter wan hMught Into tie n«m. and pitted upon 
 the table. Huildenly the lijrhta were extin- 
 guishetl. Oulet reignnl In the rt am, and In tin- 
 deniie crt>wd outskie the buildinfr. The camll's 
 wen- MMin relighted, but the rharter hail di^- 
 appi-areii, ami after the m<>«t diligent seanli 
 cr.tilil not Ik- found. The oimmnn tnwiition has 
 l»iMi. llmt it was taken umlir cover of the dark- 
 neiis hy t'aplain Joseph WiulAWortb, stiil hidden 
 by him In the Imlliiw trunk nf a vimri'lilo and 
 noble "Ilk tree slanilinir near the enlmncega'. iti 
 Gi'Virrinr \V\ llyn's maunlon. The charti-r laken 
 by faplain Waiiaworth was probably the d ipl|. 
 catc. Hii.l niiutined «afely in his ponarwloi for 
 wveml jiarn There is reason lo believe .liat, 
 some lime Infcre llie loming of An<lma to llsrt- 
 fonl. Ihe iiriclnal cimrter lisil liee.^ rarefully 
 iecreUil. and tlic tmillii.ii nf l«ier limes nukes 
 ll liroUhle lliat, while the iluplii-nle charter that 
 was iHki n from the table was lildilen elsewhere. 
 Ilie oritrliial charter fmiml a iwfe resling place lii i 
 Ihe hiiirt "f the In* ikat will alwiivn lie reineni. \ 
 tienil sa The Charter (Ink Thin irii- Is saki lo ' 
 have l»<n preserviil by the early selilers at the 
 ni|ue»l of ilu> IniilaiiB. ' It luis Ix-eii the gulil» 
 of ouranrraior* for centuries,' ilir -jH, 'asii. 
 the lime of planting our com. Wli.-u llie leavi-s 
 sre Ihe nlze i.f a Ruiuae's earn, then Is Ihe time 
 to put it ill Ihe ground' The rminl of the 
 four' l.rielly suie* that Andnis, having been 
 i..|ii irteii III the gnvemor'a f»t hv Ihe gov 
 erii..r him» If d>'< Ureil llial he Itad' Uvn corn 
 ml««ii.iMd l.y his Majesty to lake on him Ihe 
 ■toviriiment of Counei lieu' The commission 
 liaviiiii lain ri-iMl, he said Ibal It was hii 
 .M.«|.-.ly « |.l. aaure lo make ihe lute gnvem..r 
 Slid t iipiiilii .l.ihn Allvn inemliim of bla iminrll 
 III.' iMini.irv liiindeil IlK'ir c<iinmon si-al l.i hir 
 Klih'iii.l, niid sfl.TwariN wrote ilie«<> wonia Iu 
 
 'I'-'on r.i..rd His Kjifllemy. Hjr l:.i 
 
 in.i.d .Voir.-., •\iilifht. ( 'villain (leneral and 
 ti..vi rii.r ..f i,:. Male.iv s Tirrliory ant Itomin 
 |.«i III New l.iiv-Uii.f. In onh r from Ids .Majesty 
 Klnit ..f Kiirfl.ihd, .Ni.iUihI »u,| Ireland, llwSlat 
 ol i>.i..|ar l*<; l.aik Inn. hla liaiida Ihe govern 
 
 meiil of Ibis .iiliti f I ..imiitUui, ll Islng by 
 
 liU Jlajvsly aoueini w 'he MaasaibuaelU and 
 
 "J. sou MAaBACHUBBTTa: |S7)-|«WI 
 
 ^„D. i6So-i«9r-Kiiic Williams War 
 
 ; Canada (New Fbahcb): A. I). IB-'g-idoo 
 
 other ookwlM under his Eioelleney's gnvenunnt 
 Finla' Andma soon diacloaed a hand nf iM 
 liencath tba velvet f love of plauaible wnnU and 
 fair Dromtaei."— E. R SMiford, IKm. of Cn%, 
 
 Aiao m: J. O. Pklfrey, IKtl. oT An» E,,,. w 
 ?i:i " W'-**- •""• N«* KNoi^KD AD 
 4 • 15" **A'"**L"''*"T5?: l«7i-i6H«, 
 
 See 
 
 and ie»S-l8»7. 
 
 A. D. 1689-1701.— Tht raioMattrntnt of the 
 elMurtar Kovtrament.—" April. 18«», , ,iim. m 
 last. The people of Boston, at the lir»i nriri 
 of the Engliah Revoluibm, clapped Aiidh«, into 
 custody. May 9, the olit Connecticut auihoritiM 
 quiellv resume<l their functions, and e«ll,d the 
 ijaemhly together for the following ninmh. 
 William and .Mary were proclalmni wii:, ™.,i 
 fervor. NiH a word was said alxiut the dlj. 
 appearance or reappearance of the chart, r hut 
 the charter Bovemment waa put Inio full effm 
 again, aa If Androa hail never Inlerrui tul It 
 An address was sent u> the king, askitii; liiat ihe 
 charter be no further Interfv'rwl with. Imi i.»r- 
 aliona uraler It went on aa befot»-. X.i .In i.le,| 
 action waa taken by the home goveniih. m f.r 
 Slime years, except Uiat ita appoinlmmi ,.r iho 
 .New lork governor, Fleleher, to the i,.mm«ii.l 
 of the Connecticut mllliia, implirtl a .|,,i,|..| 
 that the Connecticut cimrter Itail lavn siipir 
 I seiletl. Late In I(W8, Fill John Wlnllir..]. s., 
 I sent to England aa agent Ui obtain a i-.mliiiiwti.fl 
 j of Ihe charter. Ilo s.viired an en.pliaii, |,t'Hl 
 j opinion from Attorney (Jeneral 8oni.ra l.a.kid 
 by those of Tnliy and WunI, tlial lli.- elurtrr 
 t was entirely VHlid. Trebys concumni ..r.ini.o 
 
 Uking thU shape: 'I am of the sail i.ini.iti 
 
 and, as this msller Is aUted, there la i.n i-ri.un.i 
 of doubt.' The basis of the oplni..ii wi, that 
 the charier hail been granleil under lli.. creii 
 neal ; that It bad not been aurrenderiNl uii.lcr tlie 
 common seal of the inilony. nor had anv Jm.|«. 
 ment of record been enlert^l agalnal It , liiat hi 
 operation bad merely lieen liilerfen..| uitli Lr 
 overihiwering fnn-e; thai ilie cli.irler ilimf.ii' 
 rrmaineil valid ; and that Ihe peaceable ..i!„iii»i„ii 
 of the colony In Andnia waa men ty an flli i-HUut 
 pension of hiwful aulliorlly. In olh.r H..r.|. ihr 
 passive allltiiib' of the cilonlal g.i\irnni.Mi li«l 
 disamml Amlnis so far as to slop ihe 1. v d pn. 
 ceedlngs nectwutrv lo forfeit the ehari.r. ami 
 Iheir prompt ai lion, at llie critical iii.iniMi!. 
 secun^d all thai could lie a<rureil uiid. r ll,. .ir 
 cu-nslanct* William was willing in.iiuli t„ 
 retain all p<«allile fruit of Jamea'a ivnnii. «« hf 
 sbo»ei| by enforcing the forfeltun'i<f ili. Ma».v 
 ehusells chsrU'r, but Ihe law In lhi-.i« an 
 t.«i plain, and he ralillnl the lawyer*' . [.mu .11 li 
 April, lOM The clwrter li«l e«^;...| iu 
 eneirles at last, and iU eaia|ie la a i,...ii unuit ..( 
 ime ipf the advaiilages of a real ileiM.« 1 1. > 
 Hi'iiimrBcy hail .lime more for ■'.nitiei 11. m iliui 
 liana Inlluenee b.oil dune for Mi. ... hii.~iN -\ 
 Jnhnalon. (hmtflirut. <•* 11 — The I.k i..i.i,4 
 which i.atabllalted ihe riglila of f..hi..i n. i.i 
 
 IncliiilKl lUiiate laland Tlieae iw iiim.fl 
 
 wealths wen' llie |i.irlli>n of the llriti-l, mipii' 
 diatinglllahetl slaive all olhera liv lip.- Ur»'...| 
 llla'rly. Karh waa a nearly perfe. « ilrm.»rair 
 under Ihe shelter of a iiionsn liv Tlw 
 
 eniwn. by reserving l.i llaelf the rl«lit .f ip|«Ti:. 
 had •till a OMrtiiod uf Inlvrfrrliig Iu the lu^rjal 
 
comnEcncirr, law-iToi. n*Mn<auinm. 
 
 coimEcncxn', im. 
 
 tCaln of the two republlci. Both of them were 
 Included ■moog the CDluniea In which the lord* 
 o( tude advbnl ft complete rcetontloa of tlie 
 pieiontiTee of the crown. Both were aunrd in 
 the bill which, in April, 1701 wu Intnxluced 
 Into parlUmeat for the slirogation of all Ameri- 
 can cbartcn. The Jnumala of the hoiuc of lonli 
 Hate that Connecticut wu publicly heard 
 anlnat the meaaure, and cnntendnl that Ita 
 librrtir* were held by contract in return for 
 •rnrioua that hod been perfnmiMl ; iliat the 
 taklDK away of ao many chnrtrni would dratrny 
 aU confldence In myal pniiuiaca, and would alTonl 
 • nremient danfTcniua to all the cliartvreil cor- 
 poratioosof Kngtaml. Vet the bill wu read • 
 •ponnd time. . . . The Imprndins; war witli the 
 Frmih iHwlpomii tlie pur|io«e t!lT tlie arreuinn 
 n( ilieliou«eiif Itimover "— (} Bancroft, l/itt of 
 thtC. f- iAit'inr'n liut rrriinon). ;.( .S. fh H (r, «>. 
 
 A. D. 1690.— Tht Artt Colonial CoSKrctt. 
 Sv I'mti-:) St.\tf.« or .\>| : A I> ItlKti 
 
 A. D. I70i-I7l7.-The foundinic of Yftlt 
 College. See Rul-catium, Modbiin : Amkrk a : 
 A U. 1701-1717. 
 
 A. D. 1701-1711.— QuMB Anne'.i War. Ser 
 Srw Kmoi AHii: .V n. 17(ri-17IO; and C'aiiada 
 (Nkw FK\N<t:): A. I) 17ll-17i;i 
 
 A. D, I744-I74l.-King; CMrre't War Md 
 the takinf of Louiabourr. S<'-' >kw Knoi.am)' 
 A I) ITU; 174.1: and I ilV-174f). 
 
 A. D. 1753-1709. -Wcatern territorial claimi. 
 — Settlcmenta In the Wyoming Valley.— Coo- 
 licta with the Penn coloniata. Htv Pen.niivl- 
 TA-il* A I) IT.VI-nw 
 
 A. D. I7M--The Colonial Conrrctt at 
 Albany, and Franklin'a pla.i of uaioa, See 
 I'xiTKii .^TtTRO or Am a I> 17.V4. 
 
 A. 0. i7S5-i7«o.-The French and Indian 
 War, and coaqucat of Canada. Hve Ca.nada 
 l\itw KKA-to:) A. I> I7.V> I7M. 1755 17.W- 
 i:.VH7.'i7; 17.W; I7.MJ: I76II. Nova 8c«riA' 
 A l» I74i>-I75,'»; I7.V1; Ohio (Vai.|,bt). A. D 
 i;4H-17%4; 1754; 1755; Cafk BRMtm UlasD: 
 A l» ITW 17(M» 
 
 A. D. i76o.i7«c-Th« ^uttlioa of taaatioa 
 W Parliament. -Tht Sufar Act.-Tha Stamp 
 Act.-Tba Stamp Act Confraaa. »<■.• I Mtkii 
 St»tm or Am.: A. D. I7«>-1775; 17<»-i:»4 
 KM. an.| I7WI 
 
 . ^ °- 'J^i--'^^* "*»»" •«»l»»t tht Stamp ! 
 
 \ct.— ■TlM' Knylinh K'"^emiiieul ■ioiler»iiNK| 
 tin- will tluit IIh' coloniva were eartieHily < 
 opix«p,l to the Hiamp Art, but they hail uo ' 
 tbuudil iif the utorm of wrath aufi rvnliii:iii,t. '■ 
 whlrh it woulil arouiw It wnn a suri'riM' to : 
 manv .if the l<-i(i||.r» of public afTKlm in Anieri.a, 
 (lovini.ir Kltih and Jnn'.i liiKenoll, wiih 
 nthrf |.r..niiiM>nt i'lii/.en* who Ima ilone nil in 
 Ihrlr iH.wir to opnoM' iIh- wlinne of ta.«Kll >n 
 . i-<"in«lln| >uliintul,in. Thiy mi»t<ail( the 
 f.illiik- uf 111,. !HM,p|e , . , Thed.riry wir.'«iill I 
 Uif liarlint i)f puhlir opinion, iwid they wire \ 
 unlttil III iliniiiiriiiil.m of tlie itn-al wmmf. | 
 SvlHlf. wirt. iirtfiinUiti un.ler the nnnie of i!ie 
 Siii of l.lli.rtT. ||„. „.,.n.t puriKMi' of whi, h 
 •m 1.1 n-«l»i the Hinmp Act hv viok'nt nieaKiini i 
 If mHtiwrv , Mr InKer*.°>ll. who hiwl <loiie ' 
 K\ 111 hu i»,w,.r to i.pp,w tlie 1.111, aft«-r li» tw> 
 ••(IP i|.(|.|.-.l to ai^ept tlie p.Mltl.rii of •|,unn i 
 •«nt f..rC,.uiieetlrii Franklin iiricnl hlni to ] 
 Ukf iIk' pl.uv, ami no im- d«iibie<l fiu niollrra ; 
 in ...■.■i.tiii,, It The n,,.n|,. ,.f t'onnwlkiit 
 kuwev.r. win u<A pivaacd with IhU aitiuu 
 
 He wu Tiaited by a crowd of citizeni, who 
 inouiivd Impatiently If he would reaign. " Inger- 
 ioll put them off with evuive repllea for aome 
 time; but Anally there wa« a gathering of a 
 tbouiand men on horaeback. fiom Norwich. 
 New London, Windham, Ix'banon and other 
 towna, each armed with a heavy peeled club, 
 who aurmunde<l the obatlnate atamn agent at 
 « ethemlield and made him undentnnd that they 
 were in deadly eameat "•The cause U not 
 worth dying for,' laid the intreplil niuii. who 
 would never have flinched had lie not felt that, 
 after all, thh liand of earnest men were in the 
 riv'ht A foiTiial resignation waa given hlin to 
 »ign. . . . After he had signed his name, tlic 
 crowd crieil out, ' 8wear to it I ' He beggnl to Iw 
 excused from taking an oath. 'Then shout 
 I.ilierty and Property, said the now gfKHl natured 
 ci.nipnny. To this he had no objertion, and 
 wav.-d hishnt enthusiastically u he repeiiti>d the 
 'vcircls. having given three cheera, the now 
 hiUrious (mrty <lin«; together." Ingerwill waa 
 then escort«Hl to llartfonl, where he n-nd his 
 feaiuimlion piibli ly at the court houae.—E. B 
 teiuifonl, //i»f. (/ C-nnrrlinit, rh. 29 
 
 A. D. t7M.-Th« repeal of the Stamp Act. 
 —The Declaratory Act. Sec Lsitkd Statks or 
 Am : A :; 17M 
 
 A. D. I7«6-I7«8.— Tht Townahend dutiea.— 
 The Circular Letter of MuMchntetta. See 
 IMtkp STATKa or Am.: A. 1>. 17Wi-l767 a.nd 
 i:«7-176H. 
 
 A. D. 17M-1770.— Tht qnarttriar of troopi 
 in Botton.-Thi " Maaucn " and the removal 
 ofthttroopt. See Boaru.x: A. I>, ITHh mi J 
 
 liTD. 
 
 A. D. I7«9-I784.-Tht tndiar of ilartry. 
 Se«' i^LAVEHT, Nkiiho: A. !>. 17l«l-17i.'i 
 
 A. D. l770-i773.-RtMal of tht Townahend 
 duties tactpt on tta.— Committttt of Correa- 
 
 Biadtnct inititnttd.- 't bt tta thipt and tht 
 otton Tta-partj. SeerNrrrnSTATKsor.VM 
 .VJV 1770, and 1775-1773, and Boston A. 1). 
 17711 
 
 A. O. 1774.— Tht Boaton Port Bill, tht 
 Maaaaehnatttt Act, and tht Quebec Act.— 
 The Firat Continental Confreaa. ** IMtku 
 8TATK!<or.\M A I) 1774 
 
 A. D. I775.-Tht btcinninc of the War ol 
 the American Revolntien.— Lenington. Con- 
 cord.-New England in armt and Boston 
 btleapred. - Ticonderofa.- Bunker Hill.- 
 Thc Second Continental Congrcaa. Seel .sited 
 States or Am A D 1T7.V 
 
 A. D. i77«.— Asaumea to bt a "free, tovtr- 
 eiga and independent State."—" In \U) . 1778, 
 the pinple hail (hho fornwlly n'len<e.| fn.'m ih.ir 
 alleglaiire l.i the i niwn . ami In thioluT the 
 general aswmMv (iiuwhI an set auiiniing the 
 fuiirlionii of a Siii.' The lniiK>nanl i»ttl..n nf 
 the ml was tlii' Mmt. as follows; 'TIimI the 
 amiiiil form of civil itovemmeni, enntnliied In 
 the rhartrr fn.m thn..es the H.ivmil, KInir of 
 Kinrliiil. and a.l.ii.'i-d l.y the p,.,)p|(. ,,r this 
 >'ate, thall lie nncf remain the civil ('onsiliiitiMn 
 of ihU Siiile. iin.l.-r the xile nulhorlty ,<f i|i« 
 p«'op!e thereof, Indepen.lcnl of anv liliii; or prliii-e 
 whalevir And th.at IhU Hepiihllc Is, niHl >lial| 
 foriv. - W and remain, a fnv, aoviTelxn niiij 
 liiih pendent .stale, l.v the name of ilic Siai.' i,f 
 Conniiiieiit ■ The ^ortn of the act ^peik* nhat 
 was di.iihtlcM always the liellef of the |K'op|e 
 tuat thtlr charter derived It* vaUdity. out (rua 
 
 617 
 
k'- 
 
 ( 
 
 II ' /: 
 
 J- 
 
 tii- 
 
 it 
 
 comracncDT, im 
 
 Hba win of the rrowD, but from the ■mrnt of ttw 
 peoplr. And tbe curioui Uasiuge of the lut 
 •eoU'nce. I- whiih ' tbii liepulHic ' ilccUros itai'lf 
 to hi! 'a free, •<ivfre(xn, uiil iDdepemlcnt State." 
 msy M-rve to indicHle •oinethiiiE of the apiMsitr- 
 Mice wbii'li Btalf suvpreignty doubtleai pmenteid 
 to the Americutui of lT?»-8»."— A. Jobnuton, 
 Cimiurtieul, eh. 16. — 8oe, alio, Ukitko Statu 
 or Am. : A. 1». 17:6-17;». 
 
 A. D. 1776-1783.— The war and the Tictory. 
 — Indepaadcnca achieved. 8ec I'ihtkd States 
 OF An. : A. D. 1778 U> 1783. 
 
 A. D. 1771.— Th« maatacf* at tht WmmiaK 
 ■cttlcmeot. See Uiciteu Statu or Ax. : A. L>. 
 177»(Jii.T) 
 
 A. D.1779.— Tryen'tmaraiidiagnpaditioBa. 
 8«"e Tnitkii STATKHor Am. : A. l" 17.8-1779. 
 
 A. D, 17M.— Partial cciiioB of weatem 
 territorial clatm* to the United Statei.— The 
 Wettem Reaerve io Ohio. S«f l'mTKi>ST\TEii 
 or Am ; A. I) I7k1-17»«; l>i!(Miiri.VAMA: A. D. 
 PSa-lTW; Kud Ohio: A. I>. 17M-17V6. 
 
 A. D. I78t.— RatiAcatioa of the Federal 
 Conititation. ivv L'kitko Statiui or An - 
 A. 1) 17M7-17H9. 
 
 A. D. 1B14.— The Hartford CeaTcntioa. 
 Bee I'niteu Statu or Am.: A. D. 18U (Us- 
 
 CBMBKH). 
 
 ♦ 
 
 CONNECTICUT TRACT, Th* See New 
 
 YoHK: A. l>. nm-i'm 
 CONNUBIUM. Si'MrxiripitM. 
 CONON, Pope. A. I> 8N6-887. 
 CONOYS. Nt'.VMKHiCA.<« AHUBiniifU: Al- 
 
 OONUI IAN KaMILT. 
 
 CONRAD I., Kiac of the Eait Frank* 
 (Gcrmaayi, (the Arit of the Sazoa lioe), A. 1>. 
 »M-»li' Ciarad II., Kincof the Romaae 
 (KiOKOf CennaaT), A I> HJ^^KKW; Kinf of 
 Italy, !<>-.>A-lii:iu, KinKof ButKaady, lIKIi-liKW 
 
 Emperor, Iii-JT-iikiu Coarad III., Kiw of 
 
 Germany ithe Snt of the Swabian or Hohen- 
 
 ■tauffen dyaaityi, Ii:i7 trU' Conrad IV., 
 
 Kine of Germany, I'.i.'Ht^ \i.\i. 
 
 CONSCRIPT FATHERS-The H..m»n 
 ««ti:iiiirt Wirt- M> riilli-*!. — " I'liiri'e Connripli " 
 Tin' "fijrin ■•( till' dinltriiiiiloii luu liwn mm li ilin- 
 
 rUI.Mll. Hlld till' l'«|.llUIHlil.ll Whlrh llUlt fcMlU.l 
 
 nin»t wif'iitaniT tit llii«. llmt » hfn. at tlic nritutil 
 xatloii iif the l<t piililic, tliiTi' wiu a iww rnuil»n 
 iif nfnitlom. In eil tlif miikn. the nrw m nainn 
 Kiri' iiiIImI "<<>niiirl|iii" ( "wtili',) in Hi,- ri,|| •) 
 • liile llic nldir fiiiis wrrr I'nllnl ' pnin-* 
 (•■ falhcru' I. iw li,f,,r».. Th.n IIh- nhiili' mimXr 
 H«» uddofix-.l n» •■ I'Hlnii <l C'onm'ripti," \klili h 
 lu|-H.l liimllv into " l*iiln-a(°iiOMri|iti. "'-II U 
 Ll.1.1. II. //i-r t limnt. M I rh 4 
 
 CONSCRIPTION. The UrM Freach. S<* 
 
 Fh%vk a I> 171IH l71»»(.Vi..iirr-Ai-Riil 
 
 CONSCRIPTION IN THE AMERICAN 
 CIVIL WAR. r*..- IMtmi Utatm i.r Am 
 A l» I><«HiMah<iii 
 
 CONSERVATIVE PARTY. 1 he Eorliah. 
 — 111!' nmiw ('.in«i rvntli •. " to rrpliin th.il .if 
 TiTv iwi> KN«!.\>ii> A I) l»"i for till' •iriiilii "f 
 III)' Uliir) iM a |wri\' 'l-i<lv'n«ih>ii. wm lint In 
 lr..|ijii-.| In \K\\ l.y Mr John WIUoii I r.'k.r 
 III «niirlli'l<' in lliiQiurbrly Krirlew ■ || cnpt 
 kliiMJ) liii.i Ki-ncrHl fitviHir. iiIiIikiikIi enini- fi w 
 tlirrr wrn- »lii. alwaya liikl out iKitiuiil it. .11 
 «"iir«itMl lij- llir I naiiipli' of tht- lair Itn.li-rMf 
 the iMiriy, r«>r.l Ifcw ..ii«lltld. »li.> wm imt «i ^11 
 utly Iv wteMi a wvlcuutv to Miytiaeg oUkU 
 
 CONSTABLE. 
 
 canw with Mr. Croker'i mark upon It "— L J 
 Jennlnci, r*# Croker htptn, r. a, n. |!»s 
 CONSILIO DI CREOENZA. Sti Itali 
 
 A. n. i05«-ii.w. 
 
 CONSISTORY, The Papal. S.« Ct u. 
 Papau ^ 
 
 CONSISTORY COURTS OF THE 
 BISHOP&— " ThodutlMof tli.-..in.i«K„f ,|^.I 
 couru mcmblnl In theory the dutlin nf ii,,. ,»,,. 
 iors undiT tbe liuman Kvpiiblic. In tlir niijille 
 ages, a lofty effort hsU iM'cn iniulp t<i n\,.riw..a 
 the common limitatlomi of ((ovcrnnunt to intm. 
 dure punikhment for sins «« « ill aa < rji,,, , a,„i 
 to visit with temporal penaltlia tlio bniu li.,f n,e 
 moral Uw. . . . The adniinlntniiion nf m:,.), , 
 discipline fell ass matter of ci.iirar, tctl,", l,rcr 
 . . . This aniar tbroii).'li<>iit Kiin.|H. u svsNmJ.f 
 sflrituil Mirveilliince over the buliiismi.!, ,n,li,t 
 ot every man, cxU'mllng fniMi tlir <nii;i::,. |,, i'|„ 
 castle, takiuff note of all wniii^' diHliiu' A ill 
 oppreaaLm of man by man. of nil li. , i,ii,„,.„i..j 
 and pn>t11){acy. and letm'M'niini.' u]>.iti ,~,n\\ in 
 the priucjplea by whltli it »:u. ifiii.lnl, t|„. i,,, 
 of tlie great triliumd of Aliiiii:hlv (iol >i,„u 
 waa the origin of tbe chun li ciHirtB, pirliaii, i!k. 
 gn'atest InHtltutloiis Vit ili-viM-,1 l.y ihuii Itiii 
 t<i iiim at tbeau higb Itli'uls I.h us ihtIIoi.-. lu ii u 
 noble; anil weapons wlilcb may 1h' khUU- 1nw.1l 
 In tbe lisiida of aainia Ih-ciiiii' fitlal iinpl. uliiK 
 (if niiacblef when aainta biivr ii;,«n| u null 
 tlii'ni. . . TbcConalalory I'.mrn luul(,,|piiuii.il 
 iut.ilheiixternllieenturv with iinriMri. 1.-.1 jurii 
 dii'tion, sIllMKigh they liiiil Ui n f.ir t n.riui.iu 
 mrnly (K'n'tiuinlly tl.'win^ f..iiiiliiiii- fn.liii^ 
 
 the ncli-aiaalUiil excbri|ui'r. 'I'lic nl rumlii.t 
 
 of fvery Eni;liah man ami wimiim niiii.ui,4 lul. 
 Jerl to them. . . . But . . . llw 1 iM.«iin ^ vm 
 no longer apiritiial. TIh'V u.n' etiitin.uiiil in 
 variiiua grailati.int, fur (Mriiiiiury lliir« ..i.i ..uh 
 offi'ni-e agninat ninnility »ii» nt.il nt ii. .|,,ii;c 
 m.wy value In tlK- K|il»<'p«l lulil.^ Hi- 
 
 misilrmi'siiKuni of wbi. Ii iliii.'.rts i<>.k < ;.iii 
 aaii.e wire 'i.tTiiirDS apiiuM ili.iMiii Imr^v.' 
 or nialtrr aamiiiliiii; lliirriint ■ viiihnHfl' 
 ' ilrunkruiii'ss,' 'Mnn.lal.' '.Iifinhiiiini iiii|« 
 tient wi>nl«,' 'bn.k.ii proini- » itmili.' 
 
 'al«'nri' fnnnebur. b.' •(Mnikiuk- . itl 'if .iml«.' 
 'ui>n paymiiit of off. iiiiir».' iit.l ..ii..r il. liii- 
 iiutmies ini'spalilp .if Leal .1. hiuiiiiii —J A 
 FriMlde. i/ial. uf hnglm.il, ,1, A 
 
 CONSOLS.— In i;.'.!, a i»ri. ir ..( Ilrillnti 
 ■OTcmmcnt aecuritlia Min- rcM:«.iliilaU ! Im uw 
 form of at'M'k ralbnl ■ri.ns.»lnl:ii.-"l ai.tjuif.r* ' 
 By abbri'viation lilt y i.'i>i till iiuihi <! .iiimiIh," 
 wliU'b baa rhiiig i<ihII ^"i.il.r ^i 1 'ii.ti.-i x^it.r 
 
 CONSPIRACY BILL, The. (*.. i;>..i4.<o 
 
 A. I» I^IM lH.-,». 
 
 CONSTABLE, The.--' Tl.. imni. 1. .1. rivr,! 
 fmiii till' 'r.inii's atatiiili .f tin lli/4iiini< "'un. 
 and a|i|w«n In the »i">i m earlv'ax ih. iiv-f 
 Onjr.iry of Tuura. Tlii' iliiitini.f llw (■■ii-ii!** 
 i>i France . and Ilim..' nf ilic .-..n'tiWo ■.! 
 Naples are not rxnilly piiMll. I Kitli |ili.i« 
 
 (if| IhecdiiiiUjblmnf Knglaiiil In \;i|i|. ■, tin n* 
 •table ki'pt ttie kiuKa vauoI. hiiiiiiiiiiiiIhI iI« 
 army, apiHiiulnl ibn i|iiiirtir«. ili«. iiiiiunl ilw 
 tnxiiis amliliatrlhii, I'll till' vniihi U. tin iu.>r>iiiiu 
 ami nil nlbt'riirtii'en Im-Iuk lii» aulinriliiiiii^ Tiw 
 FniH'h nttlce waa iiearl> ili.' uuim' In I ijUnii. 
 bnwrver. tlie luambal km uhI »iil«irilii>ii " iii 
 till' niiiatable I'mliulili ibc Kii|{li-Ui luii'lialt 
 fuiniliMl Ills ilulleH wlii.liliail i>iii lu N.niiiiiilr 
 UfaH.'Uar(«il by tite «.uuaubh». TUe iu.j^>1m1 ■ 
 
 618 
 
CONSTABLE. 
 
 ■ore dbtlnctlr sn officer of the court, the con- 
 ■Uble one of the CMtle or nrmj. . . . The con- 
 ■table . . . eierctafii the offloe of qturtermuter- 
 
 rml of the court und hnaj and sviccce<le<i to 
 duties of the An|^Io-Hazon italler."— W. 
 StubiM, Ci.nj<. Ilitl. of Kng., c*. 11, Mel. 183, 
 •ml t>"l*. 
 
 CONSTABLE OX FRANCE.-- No oth.r 
 dipilty In tlie worlil li.-w bc-en held by lurli a 
 iUcretiHion of ifrent nildii-n n* the olBce of Con 
 ■Ubie of France. Tlie Conatable wa» orl^'innllr 
 t mere oRloer of the Htablea, but hU power huil 
 iacm'ted by the lupprenion of the office of 
 OfamI Seneschal, an(l by the time of Phillri 
 AapKtm he exert'lucd control o»pr all the mili- 
 tary firroi of the crown. He waa the gen<-ml In 
 chief "f the army anil the hii(he«t military 
 authnrity in the kincdom. Thecomitablex liad for 
 four o-niurfc-s b> vn liiulen in the wars of Fram-e, 
 u<l tlicy had einerlirnceil stranKc and Tarl<ii 
 (nrt!mi-«. Thf olnce hail been Ixiitowed on the 
 ton i>f Himi)n de Montfort, and he for this honor 
 hni k-ranteil Ui the king of France his ri»bta 
 orer tiKMe vast domuins which had tNfO iivvn 
 hi* father for liiii plou.s coni}uests [^^eo Albi- 
 at-iw.* A I) 1S17-I229) It had been U-- 
 «nw<-ii on Itaoul de Nesle, who fell at Courtrai. 
 whirr llip Kn>nrh nobility suffered its first 
 defmt fnim Kli-nisli boon; on Bcrtrand de 
 Oae»lin. the liwt of the (treat warriors, whoan 
 dei-.l« wi-re sunn "'th those of the palailins of 
 Clisrli-msirni- ; on ClisMm, the victor of Kikmc- 
 beck I .r KiMelieniue]; on Annaf^nac, wliintu 
 nami" lias a bloody iireemineni-e among the 
 leailiTHiif the Aerce sflhllery who ravai^ Fraiic-e 
 liuriiu' tiH- EnKllsh wars; on Buchan, win we 
 Scotoli vaior and fidelity Kslneil him this gn-at 
 tnnt iiwmg a fiiri'i#(n peoph?; i,n Kichemnnt. the 
 cnmpiiiioii nf J. am lUrc; on Saint l*ol. the allv 
 o( Cliirli-. ilie llold, the lietrayer and the victim 
 of U'lni .\l , on llie Ihike of liourlion. who won 
 Ilie tm'ili- lit l'.tilii affainst his sovrreiirn. and liit : 
 bis si'Mii'M t.i that sack of Kihih- whii-li maile ' 
 the r.iv.iif,.* nf (l.-iuM-ric ami .\larii- awm mild. | 
 iMi Anm- nf Monlniiin-nrl. a pnmiiiieut aiU-r iii 
 frery ite«t i-n-nl in France from the battle of I 
 ISvli urainul Charli-s V. to that of St. Drnis I 
 ««in-i ('..li^Mii. on his son. the conipanlon .if i 
 Hi'tirv IV ill Iii-t vouth. and hi» trusuii aitvix-r '■ 
 In 111. im- Till- swonl b..riie bv ituch mi-n '' 
 
 lu.1 1.-, n li,..i„w«| [ |«J| ] on I.uln.-s.'ilie hem uf 
 sn s>>.i»iiiiitiiin. wlKiroiiMnoldrlllacompanvnf 
 laf.ii!r% it WAS now \\m>\ eUrn (.. tl,.. |„.n', „f 
 rannv l.-.|ih.' Kuki-.if U~.l,.,tiil*r.-»|. and tli.- 
 fTvm , • .- wn. i„ ,.,.,!„. in the ItaiiiU of n tn-M 
 •.I.I1.T -J U I'l-rkins. «vi«o« tiiuier Mtfinn 
 ' lA.,^^ ^^••KK»^<K A n ISSIUISTo 
 
 CONSTANCB.Th. CmmtU af. See Pai-act 
 A l> UK Ills 
 
 ^CONSTANCE. Pmm of iiUj). A-e Itai.t 
 
 '^CONSTANSI..IJ,«MiEmp.ror.A t. «17- 
 
 »• Constaai II., llaaaiiBmMror lEaM. 
 
 tmi, \ II tKi-*t>« "^ 
 
 CONSTANTINA. Tk« t.ki>c of (Uj?,. 
 
 !*«■ H«KM1K> SrtTM A I* IH.lllllMM 
 
 CONSTANTINB. Po««. A !• 7.^ 71.1 
 CoBstantins I. icallad Tho Croati, RomM 
 t-«ror, .V 1. 3,w m Tbo Cokwr."^ 
 
 jj^W K I, ^ti ru Ponrod do«.- 
 
 UM.f *,. l.,n„j A H 774 ri Conttaa- 
 no* II . Roman Bapcror, A l> S37 .140 
 tMMaatias 111., RomM Bnporer ia tha Baati 
 
 CONSTANTINOPLE, A. D. 8S0. 
 
 ^- ^ J";*! Conatantina IV. (caUed Pmoov 
 
 toa), Roman Emperor ia the Eaat, A. I). «»- 
 «'«. .CooaUotine V. (called Copronymua), 
 ?'°?f"?.!"i'" ^"' (Byauitine, or Greak^ 
 
 ■ u J**"^' Conatantine VI., Emperor 
 
 m the Eaat (BTaaatine. or Greek), A. I ) 780- 
 797 . CoaataotiBe VII. (called Porphrronni- 
 tua), Emperor in the East (Bysantine, or 
 
 Greek), A. D. Wll-fl.w Conatintine VIII, 
 
 (colleacue of Coaataatine VII.), Enperor in 
 the Eaat (Byaantine, or Creek), A. I). 941 
 Conatantine IX., Emperor in the Eatt (Bysan^ 
 
 Une, or Greek), A. D. fej-unw Conatitina 
 
 r'i7??f."*,n'".*'** ^ (By««ntine, or Greek), 
 
 A'' I'M-i Km Conatantine Xi, Emperor 
 
 '.?«,''• ^^ (Byaantine, or Creek). AD iTwi)- 
 III87. . . .Conatantine XII., nominal Greek En- 
 peror in the Eaat, al>out A I). 1071 Con- 
 atantine XIII. (Polaolocnsi, Greek Emperor 
 of Conatantinople, A. I). 1HH-14.-i;i . Con- 
 •*i?i!S* ""• "•»'?•'• *•« BiiiTAiN: A. I> 4(»7 
 CONSTANTIliOPLB: A. D. 33o.-Triu»: 
 formation of Byaantium.— •( .in»l:intiiie liad 
 for some time ccmtempliitiii the cn-ction of a 
 new capit.il. The experience of nenriv half a 
 century had condrmwl the haKadty u( Di.icle- 
 tiiins seln-tion of a site on the condui-s nf Kiirope 
 and Asia [Nieomeilla] as the wliintilHiuta in 
 which the political centre of gMviiy ,,f tlio 
 hmpire rested. .\t one time Constantiii.- lliimjrht 
 of wloptlnif the site of ancient Trov, and U wiij 
 til have actually cnnimenctil huiidiii^ a new city 
 I ''"ii""'! ■„; *'""' ?■■"*»''■ "•"""IS iilliiiiau-lv pre- 
 valliil. The practical Koiiis of C.mst.mtitie 
 r«inni«ed in the town of ltr):iintiuiii. on the 
 ! l.iin)|»an side of the Imnlir'Uiie Ivtwiin the 
 two omtimiita. the site U*\ a<la|iti'd for bin new 
 i.i|iitjil. All subai-quint atfi-s Inve applaiideil 
 lilt discernment, for experiiiiii- Imn ciidontid tha 
 wisilora of the choice. Uy luiid. with its .VaUn 
 siiliurh of l'hryso|Milis [nuKlirn Scutari 1 it 
 practically spanncil the narrow Htrall and joined 
 hiiroiH- and Asia : by sea. it w,w oin-n on one 
 side to Spain. luly, Oreece. Afrii a. Krfvpt. Syria 
 on the other to the Kuxine. ami wiliv t)ie ll;iiiulM 
 It had easy access to the whole of that liii|>.iriant 
 frontier lietween the Kmpin' ami the IwrUrians; 
 and round all the nortlii rn coasM of the M>a It 
 took the barbarians in dank . , The litv was 
 solemnly diHilcateil with nlli.'ioiiH c.Ti'ni.iiiii-s on 
 the lllb of Mar. iUW. ami lli- m-iuiou win ivle- 
 lirnte.1. after the liomsn fu»lii .ii. I.v n t'reat 
 fiitlval. Isrimvs and Banii-^ in Ilie lii|"ip.«|piine 
 whleh Instill forty ,Jay«. The KniiMmr ^.wv to 
 the lily ln*iitulions modelleil alter tliw.if the 
 aiieient Komc'-E. I. <'uii«, i-„„t.i, ,>,,»• tki 
 <lr,,if, fA. 'JU —"The new wM* i.f l'.m<tantine 
 stn-trhiil fnim tlie port to the l'ii.p,.;i!j, m 
 
 the .li«taiiiv of (If 11 «i:i,ii.i fr..iii ilie ancient 
 
 f.trtiflcation, ami. with the liiy nf Mv/tiiilium 
 tlHV enclihKil five of the m-viii liill*'« hi. h. |,> 
 the ryes of Ihow! who apprmeh ('.iiistniiilnopic 
 apiH-ar to riai< als.vc eai ji ..tli, r in l.-aiiilfui 
 nnler Alwmt a crnliiry iifter llie d, uili „f tho 
 fiumler. the new hiiildliii;s air i.lv i-.iieriil 
 
 the narrow ridge of the sixth iiii.l I'he Lnnil 
 summit of the seventh hill riie Iniil.lintfS 
 
 i>f the new city Wen- exii iilwl bv «ueh iiitilleer* 
 s« the n-lirn of ('on«uuiiiiie c'liM «tT..ril but 
 ihrv wen. d«onit.il by tlu- liamU of the niiMl 
 i«-l»lifate.| luaak'rs of the age nf I'erii les and 
 .\letatider Hy his iiimmaii.N Ih- cities of 
 
 *ir«««:« BiiJ Aata wore dtM|iuilt-J uf tiivlr 
 
 619 
 
■i- [■: 
 
 coxsTAirrmoPLE, a. d. sm. 
 
 ▼kluable omamrata."— B. Gfbbon, DeHiiu and 
 tIMof tXt Hiim-nt Bmpirt, ek. 17.— "The new 
 city wu »n exact copy of ok) Rome. ... It 
 wu InhabilMl liy Knatora from Home. Wealthy 
 Isdiriiluals fmin the provinoea were likpwiM 
 compellml to kn-p up houaea at CooitantiDople, 
 penaioiu were iMnfi'ired upon them, and a right 
 to a certain amount of proTliiong from the public 
 itorea wa« annrxtil to tbew dwrllinn. Eighty 
 tbouaaod loaves of bread were diatribuUid A»ily 
 to the inbabitanu of Conatantinoplc. . . . The 
 tribute of grain from Egypt waa appropriated to 
 ■upply ConiUntlnople, and tliat of Africa waa 
 left fur the contiumpi ion of Rome."— U. Flnlay, 
 Ontet undfr Iht Hmmint. eh. 3. 
 
 AlM> IX: J. B. liiiry. IIi$t. of the taUr Roman 
 Empirr. bk. 1. (h. S (r. 1). 
 
 A. D. 363-518.— Tha Eattem Court from 
 Valeoa to Anaatatiut.— Tnmnlta at tha capital. 
 Bee Komk: A. I>. :«i:t-3T» to 4IIU-.tl8. 
 
 A. D. 378.— Thrtateatd by tka Goths. 
 SeeGoTlIs: A I) i)T»-a83. 
 
 A. D. 400.— Popular riainr acaiaat tha 
 Gothic aoldiery.— Their exBuIsioa from tha 
 Citgr. Se.- HoMB; A. I). 40l>-318. 
 
 A. D. sii-sia.— Tumulti conceminr the 
 Triiagion.— During tlie reign of AnasUtTua, at 
 Corisl;mliiio|iIt', the Hem- conlmvemy which liad 
 ni).'eil fnr many yoam throughout tlie einpin-. 
 Ntwwn tlie .Monnpliyaitea (who maintaineil Hint 
 the divine anil tlie liiiman Daturm in Christ were 
 one), ami the ailhen'nU of llio Coitnril of 
 Clialce<ion (which de<'lnre<l that t'hri«t poineiinnl 
 two natureii in one iHrson), waa emliiltered at tlic 
 imperial cnpital liy oppoaliiou iN'twern (he 
 em|M'n)r, who favon^l tlie Monophyaitei, and tlic 
 
 Satriiirch who vim mrict in ChaleedonUn ortho- 
 oxy In .'ill, aiKl again in SU, it ruvc ri>e lo 
 two aliinnliii! riots at ConstantiDopU-. On the 
 timt iKdision, n .>|onophy«ite or Kutvchlan party 
 "liiirst into the ChiiiMrof the Archangel in tlie 
 Itn|»Tlal riilmennd dan-'i to chant theTe IVum 
 with tlio uildilion of the forliiihlen wonia, tlie 
 War rry of iimnv an Kiilvehi.in moli, ' Wlio want 
 criuirt.-,! for ui.' The Triaagion. a* it wna called, 
 the thric n |«'iite.l cry to the Holy (Jne. which 
 Isaiah in his virion li'earl iitUTjsl 'hy the aj-ra- 
 phim. tx'cami-, liy the aililition of tlieae wonla. 
 aa cniphaiii- a atau-inent aa lliu Monnphysitp 
 party could ilisire of tiielr favourilv tenet t tint 
 liol, not iiiun. hn-nthni out hit aoui unt<i divth 
 ouUide tlie gntea of Jeniaalem. . . . On the 
 DcJt Sunday the Mouo|iliy»itea aang the verae 
 whii'h was tin If war cry in the gn«t flaailica 
 Itsilf" The riot which enaueil waa i^uletiil with 
 ditllcully liy the iialrlnrch. to whom the cni|M'ror 
 huinliled hiuiscif Hut in the next year, on a 
 fast ilay (Nov (1) the Monoplivailea gave a 
 alinilar < Imilenge. smiting (Ik- Trimgion with the 
 pnihihittil wonis ndd!--!. and "again paalrmslv 
 
 ftave pliii»r to hlfiws, men woundeil and dving 
 ay U...11 the ti.i..r of the church . . "The 
 orthislox nn.'i siri'aiiud from all parta Into the 
 gnat fi.rum Tlnre they awami>'<l and awayed 
 to and fM all llmt day and all that niiiht. 
 •hoiiiini fonh. not the gn-atneaa of the Kphi'alan 
 Diana, hut ||,,ly. ifily, Unlv,' without the 
 woM» ■ Who wasi 1 ru<'iliis| ' Tiiev hewe<l down 
 the monk". -a tniiiorily of their ilaM. — who 
 were on thi «i.|r of the imperial cree<l, ami 
 burned their in >naiileriea with lire " After two 
 dayaof riot the agiil emperor bumhieit hlmaeir 
 to the m.Oi, lo liiv great Clicua, offered Ui 
 
 COKSTANTINOPLE, A. D. 86M7S. 
 
 abdicate the throne and made peace by pmmim 
 to reapect the decrees of Chalcedun.—T. ll.sigkin. 
 luUfand Utr Imfntkn, ».V. 4. eh. 10,— s,t, »ljo 
 
 Nk«TOMAX AJtD MoNOPHTalTB CoirmoVEBlT ' 
 
 A. D. SSA— The Sedition of Nika. gn 
 CiRCtra, FACTioMa or tub RoMAif. 
 
 A.'\i.5vi3r-'"* '"^•' ** ••■•-" 
 
 A. D. SS3-— C*'*'^ Cooacil. See Ton 
 CnAmna, THE Diepuraor rnc. 
 
 A. D. «a6.— Attacked by the Avari aad 
 Peraiana. See Komb: A. D. .VI.'MnN. 
 
 A. 0. 668-«7S.— First aiece by the Sara- 
 cens.— " Forty •Ix years after the Hl«ht of JU 
 hornet from Mecca hia diaciplea apiieared in 
 amu under the walla of Conatantioople They 
 were animate<) by a genuine or Hctitioua Mytoi 
 of the prophet, that, to the flrat arrar whicS 
 beaieged the city of the C«"«tra. their aiiia were 
 forgiven. ... No aonner had tlie ('all|.li Moa 
 wiyah [the flrat of Hie Ommiaile oillplis. aealeil 
 at Damaicus,] iiippreaiied Ilia rivals ami esuib 
 liahoi bis throne, than he aspired to expiiuc tlif 
 guilt of civil blooil by the aiiiveaa of tliisholr 
 exp<-<lition: hia preparations liy ten an<i Itiill 
 were ade(|iiate to the importance of Hie ohject 
 Ilia alandnrd waa cntniatvd tii S<iphian, a veirran 
 warrior. . . . The (Jreeks had litlh> toli,,|s'. nor 
 had tbeir enemies any n-aaiins of fear, fr.m the 
 courage and vlgilaui^ of tlie reigniiii; Kiuponir 
 who disgraced tlie name of t'oiistnuline. »nj 
 iniitate<l only the Ingkirious yearn of Ins i;r»rnl 
 father lleracliua. Without Tlelny or (m[»B,iiii.u, 
 the naval forres of the Hnraivna'passist tiirouitli 
 tlie unguarded channel of tlie llellea|Mint. w)ii,li 
 even now, under the feeble ami illsonieriy gov 
 eniiiient of the Turks, is niaiutaiinsl as iIk 
 iiitiiral bulwark of tiic capital Tin' .\r«lii«ii 
 flci-t caatanchorand the tnaipa were lii.s.nilairkrcl 
 near the palace of IlelNhimon. aeven iiiil.s fnia 
 the city. During maiiT days, from tin- iLswo of 
 light to the evening, tlie line of assault 'vm ej 
 ti'ndeil fMm the golden gate to the Ei'tiro 
 pmnionuiry. . . . Hut thelH'aiei.-i'n ha>l (.nntd 
 an inaumcient ealimate of the stn-iiuih sii.i rr 
 Kiurcesof ConsUntinople. The sol ii I an I l.if'r 
 walla were guardeti liy numlaTu and ilU iiilim'. 
 the spirit of the liimmns was nkiiulliil liy Ibr 
 last danger of tln-ir n-ligioii nuil einpire', t!if 
 fugitives from the conipietvd provinn . mure 
 auot-wfiilly renewe<l the defence of Ihiiiasiiu 
 and .\lexaiidr1a: and the Saracens wen"li«nu(«l 
 l>y the alranire and pr<slii;ious elTi'< isif »nilii'i;il 
 fl'ri' This llrm and elTectual r<si«tame ilinrusl 
 their arms to tlie more easy ntiempts of |i!un.ier 
 lug tlio Kurii|>enn and .Vsialic coasts ..f Uk I'm 
 |»'U!is; and. after keeping the s^a fr'iii l!ir 
 in.'iilh of April to llm: of S ptenilsr. 'O tile 
 iipiir.Mch of winter they ^•ln■al.-i fmir tcort 
 iMilis fniiii the capital. Iii the l>le <•( i v/nin, la 
 nliiih till' had estnliMshiit tluir ini. i/iir if 
 apiil aiiii j.niviahins M<i pailini H.iailu:r pir 
 aeverance, or an lamiuid wen- llnir i'|sr»ii.'n». 
 that they repeatetl in the aix followini; Minimin 
 the a<ime attack ami retreat, with n trralul 
 nliiilement of ho|H'and vigour, till tie- iiili liiniin 
 if ahipwrrck and disease, of the sw.pl ami ■ ( 
 lire, conipellnl them to reliniiiii»h Ihi' fniilli'sa 
 enterprise. They might U-wnll He l'»» r iim 
 iiiemiirnte the niarlvnlom. of ;ioi«»i M •ifim 
 who fell intheplegrof Ciai.tantin.ii'le Tl» 
 
 event of the alege revived. Isilh In the I. Ml anil 
 West, the rrputatiun of tlie Itonian amu, aixl 
 
 fi20 
 
OOlTOTAinTKOPUC A. O. M»-«7B. 
 
 cMt ■ momentanr (hade orer the clorie* of the 
 gtraceos. ... A pmoe, or truce of thirty vean 
 wuimtifled between tlie two Empirei; and the 
 ■HpubtioQ of w> annual tribute, flftir hone* of a 
 noble breed, flftjr ilarei, and 8,000 pieces of 
 foM. dt-gnwied the majesty of the commander of 
 the faithful "—£. Gibbon, i>M<iiw and fUt of 
 llu Bumaii Kmpin, eh 53. 
 
 A. 0. <la— General Conadl. Bee MoaoTHE- 
 un C'o."iT»ov«i««T. 
 
 A. 0. 7I7-7IS-— The aecead elcfe b7 the 
 Saraeena.— '■ When Ix«o [the laaurUn] was raised 
 tathe[Byiantinc]tliroue [A. D. 7171, the empl'e 
 wu threatened with Immediate ruin. Six em 
 penirs had been dethroned witliln the space of 
 twcnlT'ODe yrnrs. . . . The Bulgarians and 
 SclsTooians wasted Europe up to the walla of 
 CoDstanilnnple; the Haracens raraged the whole 
 of .Vila Minor to the shores of the Boepborus. . . . 
 The Cilipli 8\ili>iman, who had seen one private 
 ulrenturer Kiicccvtl the other in quick aucoeasion 
 oa the imiH-rinI throne, deemed the moment 
 fsTourable fur the ti-<al conquest of the Chrls- 
 tiani: mid. rc-infordng his bitither's army [In 
 Alia .Minor], he ordered him to lay siege to Con- 
 •UDtln>'ple. The 8sraoen empire bail now 
 R*ch<.i lu great)-st i-itent. From the banks of 
 tb« Sihim ami tli>' Indus to the shores of the 
 AtUntic In Mauri iHnia and Hpain, the order of 
 ifiiilt'inun wa« implicitly olieyeu. . . . The army 
 NiMlrniah liil against Constantinople was the 
 liMt «p|Miint<H| that hiul ever attacked the 
 rhrisiiaus: It consiatiil of M),()UO warriors. The 
 I'aiipli announce)! his Inlriitlon of taking the 
 tli'iil in penm with a<iilitici-uil forces, should the 
 cipiliil of the CbriKtians offer a protractoi rc- 
 niian'F to liic arm.s of IitUm. Tlie whole ex|M> 
 (liliuu in uiil to have cmploywl 180,000 nun. 
 Moilrnuh. afUT capturing I'erganius, 
 Runlit'l to .\li}-il(M. where he was Joined by the 
 SsntiTU tl«'t. Ho then transptiiinl his army 
 tctimi 111.' IIelle«|i<int, and marching Blong the 
 •bore i.f till' rni|i<>ntia, Investml Ix«ln hi»rHpit;il 
 boih iiv land ami s«'«. Tlic str»ng walla of Ci.o 
 •ts. tiuuplc. the entriiics of di-ft-m-n with which 
 lionuu and (Junk art hud covi-nnl the ramparts. 
 Sbl iIk' akill of llw Uyuntine enginrera, rrnilireii 
 f»ery aitrinpt to carry the place liy aaaaiitt h.>iH'- 
 lc«, «<■ that the haracons wi'recomtx'llnl to trust 
 to till- 1 Ifc. t of a strict blockatli- for gaining piw- 
 «*.l.>n nf the city. . . ThcN-aicgerseucainiK'il 
 Uf..rf I'l.nauntlnoplp <in the 13th August .17 
 The ( .iliph Suleiman diiil iM'fore he was abli- to 
 •end auy rrinfnrci-nii'nU to his brother. The 
 wintfr pnneii unuaually severe." Ureat num 
 hir>..f til,, narriiira fMm tlH-niuth weredeatn>rn| 
 by the ini Ii'miiu y of a climate to which tlity 
 li«l n..| iHH'onif lnim'<l; many more died ,if 
 fsniim in thi' Moahincamp, while the braii-ccd 
 lily wm pl.'ntifiilly aiippilnl. The whole unilt-r- 
 taliiuif KM iliwistMiia from Its tirglnning to its 
 closr aii.l. c laclly one v.>ar fmra the pitching of 
 liia (%:„n uu.hr the ilyitaiitiue walls, "on the 
 15tli..f AuitUiit Tis. MiMlrmah raia<-il the siege, 
 
 •tttr r.iiiiiiiu of the fln»it annleathc Sarucciis 
 
 rrer unititilnl Kew niiliury ilwulls ci.n 
 
 certiln.; ft-,,, .lif.-n,.,. of Coiutantinupli- hnvp I 
 Iwn pr..*rn,|. \„n there can he no doiilit thai I 
 H «»« Hir >.f the nimt hrilliant expb.its of a I 
 •»r!lk.. air<- The ranltr .if (Jalllc writers I 
 
 I'M ni..^i,irt.Hi ihr •<i<'<',.as of rharl.'s Martel over ' 
 • i.lun.|.rihrf r«|»iliti.«i of ihe Hpanlsh Amba 
 lalu a niajTcUous vicUiry, and altr'bulad the de- 
 
 CONSTANTINOPLE, A. D. MT-lOa 
 
 llTeraaceof Europe from the Saracen yoke to 
 the Talour of the Franka. A veil has been 
 thrown over the talents and courage of Leo, a 
 soldier of fortune. Just seated on the imperial 
 throne, who defeate<l the long-pliinned srhrmes 
 of oooqueat of tke Caliphs Welld bihI Suleiman. 
 . . . The Samceus were griMlually exiu'lled 
 from moat of their conquests b.'vond Mount 
 Tauria"-G. Finlay, IIM. of the Uytautine A'm- 
 jnnfrom 718 to mi, eh. 1. 
 
 . A;,R;747.-'nie Great Plafue. S.ePiJioi»: 
 A. D. 74i-.4«. 
 A D. 754.— The Icoaoclaatic CennciL See 
 
 ICOROCUISTII' CoNTHOVKIlHY. 
 
 Stk-iotb Ccatnriet. See Trade, Medi.*. 
 
 TAL: BtZANTIKB. 
 
 A. D. 865.— Flirt attKk by the Rntaiana.- 
 In the year 868, a nation hitherto unknown 
 made its flrat appearance in the hiau.rv of the 
 world, where It waadeatlne.l t.>act no unimport- 
 ant part Ita entrance into the |K>Utii'al system 
 of the European nations was innrkiil by an 
 attempt to take Conatantinople, a pn>Jii-t which 
 it haa often revived. . . . In the r.arlW',!. Uurik, 
 a Scandinavian or Varangian efiief, arrive<l at 
 Novgorod, and laid the drat fdiin.latlon of the 
 state which baa grown into the Ituxsian empire. 
 The Russian people, under Varniigian domina- 
 tion, rapitlly Increased in power, an.1 ^^luced 
 many of their nelghliours to sulmiiaaiim. . . . 
 From what particular circunwtanee the Kiiaaians 
 were led to make their ilaring ailaik on Cun- 
 suntinople is not known. The i;iiiiM-ri)r .Micluel 
 [III.] had taken tlie commuu.i nf au army to 
 act against the Saracens, and Oryihaa, ailmintl 
 of the fleet, acted as govirnor of the capital 
 during bia aliaence. Befon^ lhi> Eniixror had 
 commemi'd his military operatiom, a tli-et of 800 
 Kiinsian vessels of small size, taking advanUge 
 of a favourable wind, suddenly panMil through 
 the Bospborus, and anchore.1 at tin- nioiiih of 
 the BUck Hiver in the l'ni|H>iiil*, ulmut IH miles 
 from Conrtantlnoplr. This Ituwiaa exiMiiition 
 hail slnaily plundered the sbor.a of the lllmk 
 S<'a, and from lU station within tliu IkMphorua it 
 ravagni the (»untry about t'onstaiiiiuopl.', and 
 plundered the l»rin<i''s lalan.la. pillaKiiig tlie 
 iiionasteriea anil slaying the iiiuiiks ui w.ll as Ihe 
 other iubabitauu. The E»i|i.r..r, iiifoniiMl by 
 Oryphaa of tlie attack on hii c .ipiinl ha-.i nil to 
 itsdefence. . . . li riiiiiin-il n '(.'n.!!. xcrtioiiaon 
 
 the part of the in.;N'rlal iilll.t r- I jiilp u force 
 
 sufflcitnt to BttoiU Hiul put to ilL-lit iIlm* 
 invaders, but tlie horriil ennliv of tin' Imr- 
 Iwrians, and the \,'ilil ilarini,' of ili. ir Varnnuian 
 Irailrrs, made a prtifouml inipn-iKion on liic 
 t>e<ipleof Conslanluiiiple. "— (i Kihlay, //»»/. uf 
 Ihe Humnlitu Kmiirr, ^A•. 1, rh. !l. trt' ,') 
 
 A, D, 907-1043. -Repeated attacks by the 
 Rueaiaaa. — .VotwiiliBlaieliiii; un uilive utiil ill 
 cn-aaing .iiiiimeniai liii<riMur«' l«i«..ii ilic 
 (ireeks auil tll» Kuaaiail*. ('oii>l.illliili>pli m>m ex- 
 ptiaril, iluring the tenth 11 iitury uinl (uirt of the 
 eleventh, to re|¥-«le<l atla< k« frori the iiiai.ierful 
 Vaningiaiii and their aulijeet* In ili.- 1 1 ar ■•.>.*. 
 a ih'«t of ■.'.INK) liuMian v.i»a.li or Ihkik Knarnie 1 
 int4i the itoaiihiirua. and laid waaii- lli. i>)iiin'a iii 
 the neighlMirhoial of ('oniiuntiiioplr ' It ia no| 
 linpn.lmble tliat the i>x|H-ii,iioit h:..* unili-n ikin to 
 olilaiii inilemuity for sniiie loriiiui n inl l.i-uu . au«. 
 taine<l by tiiijx'rial negliK>'iiii . itLni'iiolv or 
 oppn-aaion The subjicta of Ihe 1 in|i<T >r were 
 murdered, and the liusaians amuani tltiiuwlvet 
 
 621 
 
i".it=^?-, 
 
 
 V( 
 
 I 
 
 00N8TANTIX0PLE, A. D. M7-10IS. 
 
 with tnrtuiHni; their captiret In the moat bar- 
 banuM nmiiner. At length Leo rVI.] purehued 
 tlieir n'in-at hr tin- payment of a large mm of 
 money. . . . 'fhciie h(wtilltie* were U'rmlnated 
 by n oommerrlal tn-nty In 912." There was 
 p<-aep under this fn'aty until »4t, when a thinl 
 attark (in Conitantinnple waa led by Ijfor. the 
 ion of Itiirik. Uiit li endnl moat dimittniualy 
 for the Kiiwians iind Ijfor eacaped with only a 
 few IxmtH. The r.«iilt waa another Important 
 treaty, ni^'otiatcd In IMS. In 070 the Byzantine 
 Einpin- waa nmn- M'rioiialy threatened by an 
 attempt on the pnrt of the Runaiana to kulHlue 
 the kingdom of I!iil;raria; which would have 
 bronpht them into ihf name danKcmiis miv'hl«r- 
 hoiKi to Conntanliiiiiple that the Riiiwia of our 
 own il«y haa lali<ir<ii no hani to rea»-h. But the 
 able Biildier John Zimiwva happened tooc-cupy 
 the Ih/iintine tliroii.-: the Ituwiau Invaalon ilf 
 Rul>r»n.i wiw repelled and Bulgaria, itaelf. waa 
 rpunni'\i'<l to the Kmpire, which piutheil iu 
 bcmtidarii'it to the Danube, once more. For more 
 tlun Imir H <'<'ntury. Conatantinople waa undis- 
 turlHil liv the ( civcioim ambition of her Ruuian 
 fellow ClirialiHiH. Then they invadetl tlie Uoa- 
 phoris aicain with n fonnidalile aminmi'nt ; hut 
 the exiHiiilion W!i» wholly diaaiitniua and they 
 retn-Hlrd with a I.'M of LVlNKI men. "Three 
 veant i'litpM'<i li.r..n- |>ea» waa r<' iiitaliliHheil : 
 but a tnaiy was ihin ronrludifl an>l the Iraiie 
 at CiiiKtanlinoph' plitec<l on the old footing; 
 Knmi tlii« iMriixi llie alliance of tlie Itumiiiiia 
 with tlie Hvr,intim- Kmpire waa lone uniuu-r 
 nipliii. aitcl UK llie (irecks lierame mow deeply 
 imiiui I with eiciiHi.iMlcal prejudlrea, and ni<iir 
 hoHtil.' Ill tlie Ijtiin iiiiiionK. tlie I-jwtem Chureh 
 iM-miii' in tliiir rvfn, tlie aymlxil of their 
 naticiiiiilily. and tlif liisoted attachment of the 
 HuwiiiiiK to I lie Hiiiiii' reli^ioi^it formalitie* oh- 
 tiim-d for tliciii fruiii the Brzantlne (Ircekx the 
 8J>|»llalii>ii i.f th.' iii.»i Chfiitiao nation -(}. 
 Finl;iv. //(»< 7' !><• ltii:,intiM Kmikrr, fnm T18 
 l4i lo.-iT, M ',' rh :i »,/ i 
 
 A. D. I o8 1, Sacked by the rvbcl army of 
 Alcatua Comnenus.— Alexluit Comneniiit, the 
 enipi r T wli.i iHiupiid the llrzantine thnnieat 
 theiiiMii.f ihi' Kir«l ( niMule. and wlio lieeame 
 hiKtoriially i>riiiniriiMil In tliat coniieilion. 
 arijiiiriti hU invwn liy a HUriviiaful rilKlHun. 
 He WHS (■..llnt.Tiilly of the family i-f Immi' 
 t'omririi'H, lUiii. 1 I nliiihail rilifiied liriellv In 
 IIWT |o.".!t. -he, iim. Iirtvinit l»-.;i. In hli. Iin- 
 p.-riul "tli<-.'. tlie pr.^luii iif a n-Kiluii'>n Hut 
 the iiiii rviil of t».tint*o yi-am had *fn four 
 em|«riir» lome mid l'o — two to liir jfraie anil 
 t»" iiii.. iii..ii,Mi(i,- Ml luni.in It waa ilie J-wt of 
 till-- Nin jihorii- III liJi.taneites! timt .\lixiu« 
 di-pl.iiiil «illi till' ►u|i|nir( of au arinv wlileh 
 he Ihid [•ri>itMi..lv rommnmitHl. Oiii- iif the 
 (Iitii ..f Uii. ,;i|,ti«l waa helrave.1 In iiliu hv » 
 (hriTiiii n!vr. . lmr^ and Iw irainiil Uii- ('(ly 
 ainii.^i « nil,. Ill h Ii|,,w "Tlie old KmiH-mr 
 con«nii-.( I.. n-iiTM ll!^ rrown and n^tiri' inuia 
 mimi-i. v AlixiiiMiiilenii the tininTiiil palace, 
 a.-id ilw nil. I army ivimnirni'<'<l pliiniierin^' 
 rv.rv .|iiirtcr ..f ih.- dn Native, luiil nier 
 iiiwriis II.. I M.il, .,t„. nn"il«n- in imnw an.l 
 M|.in. \., ,hini I.f m.-iriv waa wwml from 
 llirir hikt liii.l ivarii .■ and Ihr itimateo of mon 
 a»lern-« , twin »».«. aii,l |Mila<.>' -en. alike plmi 
 d<r..| :.ni iii.iit!..| Till. »iici. ..f ('.iMniniiliiiiiiii. 
 by lie («,|,(v-,.i,,„„ H>iii,artaii«, ami tirwka li 
 the M-rviii I.I 1^1, r i<nilii..a of IJoiuuruun, Hum*. 
 
 OONiTAiniKOPUE, A. D, 1M1-I4(t 
 
 •nd PkleotogtM, who crept treachemimly Igb, 
 the dty, waa • lit prologue to iu sutferinn 
 when It WM Mormed by tlie Cruaailem in IH^ 
 
 A I). 
 
 From thbdlunceful conquest of (^onHtaniinonl, 
 hj Aieilua Comnenua, wc must date the ilrei> 
 of ita wealth and civic auprcmacy, Ixiti, „ i 
 raplul and a commerrfail city, . , The imwer 
 which waa thua esubliahnl in rapine Unniniit«| 
 
 ?'Hi"J,.f ""'""T '•'?' 'n • >''">-ly ven^ianie 
 hinict4Hl by an faifuriated popiiliue on ll.c Im 
 Emperor of the Comnenian family, Andninicui 
 I, ('onitantinople was taken oii th(. i,i „( 
 April, 1081, and Ah'xiua waa eniwned in .St 
 Sophias next day," — O, KinUy, llul nf'th, 
 Hgiarttiu and Vntk Kmpira, from'\ii in\iSi 
 
 OK. 8, l!A. 1. 
 
 A. D. 1304.— Conquest and brutal sack br 
 Craaodar* aad Venctiana. S.-.. Chimde/ 
 A, I), 180I-IS08; ami Uyzantimi: Kmiikk t n 
 IStKt-iaM, ■ 
 
 A. O. ia04-ia«i.— The Latin Empire and its 
 fall.— Recawary by the Greeks, Sn Hum 4.,u 
 Tiia Evmu or, and Bviaxtisk Kkiih 
 latW-iattt, 
 
 A. p. ia6i.— Great priTilcKcs conceded to 
 the Cenocsc.— Pera and its citadel Calau 
 m»en ap to thea. 8»-e liK.No.t: A it ijoi- 
 
 A, D. 1*61-1453.— The restored Creek Em- 
 pire.— «)n the i'Sth of July, A. I) l.'tl! I,„|HUU 
 liiiiiple waa aurpriaeil and the l.i>l l.aM,i • mixnir 
 exiM lli.<l by tlie fortunate arms i,f .\|ii |, „ | l>,i„. 
 oIoj:us, the Ureek uauriH.r at .Nii:ea. iS-iUkeh 
 KMI-IHRor Nir.«A ) Twenty davs l..'i r \|i,|„;i 
 made lib triumphal entry into the urn n m nini 
 tal. "But after the It rst Ininspiirl i.f ih n>(ii,ii 
 and pride, he alKhi.|| nl the dnarv |ir..s|»rt i.( 
 liolitude and ndn. The paiiKi' wns ih iili.l »iih 
 RniokH and dirt and tin- ){ri»« iini ni|nr:iWT.i( 
 the Kranka: whole aln-eiK luid iHini iiihiiimiiI liv 
 tin', or were dentytsi by the injuries if tinii . iW 
 saiTinl and profane eililiics mn- ^lri|•|•l■ll of 
 tlieir ornaments: ami, as if thiv win- i..ii-.iiiu» 
 of Iheir aponaiching exih-. tin-' iii.liixir\ ..f tlie 
 Ijiliiis hail lieen confluNl to the work uf' i.ilUiri. 
 and ili.«tni<-thin, Traile liad i-\pin-.| iiii,l. r liir 
 pn-Miire of anan'hy and distp'ss. nii.l ih. nuinlii n 
 of iiihuliitauu luul di.«re«»<sl wiih Ihe ..|.'il.iiir 
 of the city. It waa the tiM run- i.f ih. lin-rli 
 miiimn'h U) rriuatate the iiolihs in Id.- |.ul,iii-s .,f 
 tluir fatlM-ra. , , He n-iMiipli-iH ,,n.tll,lj||,.!,l(■ 
 l>y alila-ral Inritathio ti. ihi- j.ri.vm,,. Hi i ilir 
 tirave ' vi)lunte<'ni ' wen- wninl in li. ii|l(;il 
 nliii'lihaillieen ris-overi'd li\ Hi. irnrtns I.,-t.al 
 of iHinlsidniC the factories nl Id.- |'iviii« Vrn.- 
 lians. ami UeiioeM., the pnidi IJ ii.ni(ii. n.r m' 
 ceiilcl ilwlr oatlwiif alieitmiii i- 1 Mi..uri.. ■! Ih. ;: 
 liidiislry, c.(>nHrm(.il their priiiii-.,i « at. i iUli «iil 
 them to live uwler the Juii ..lii ii,,ii,.| ih, ir |.M|.r 
 iiiaitlstra'ea Of th(.Hi niii-iiis Ihe I'lvui. and 
 ViiiellaiiM prew'rve<l tin ir ri-'|"riiii ip, ,rii ra ia 
 till- city ; but Ihe » rvieis niil |i.ihi r .1 iln- t»fn- 
 i«-«f (who liail a»i«islnt in lli.- rn.m.i'i. -' f I iio- 
 Htuullnople) deaervisl ni Hh- shiih- lii-i. in- m'i 
 liidi' and the Jealousy nf tli,. i;ri.l.. Tlii:r 
 indi'pi'iidenliiihHiv Kiullrnl |l itiii.hn il-i .1 H"ift 
 liiwiiof lieraclea In Tlinm- Tin i «. r. -i-inlilr 
 M'uIImI, ami wlilisl in iln- i-xi lu.ivi (....^.i-swn 
 of the auhurhof Oalui.i un uiliani.ii-i %- |".kl. 
 In which Ihey n-vlvisi ih. 1 ..mm. r. . nn.i ui'iilii^i 
 till' niaJi.Kty of the My/uJiiu- I nii'in Tin- n 
 eiiverv of ('ootlanliniijiii » .s i-t h l.ra' I « ll" 
 era ot a new tnipin- ' Tu.- m w imiir- iti^ 
 
 .022 
 
OOmTANTINOPLE, lMl-1481 
 
 eMiblifhed In the ancient Roman capital of the 
 Mit niaiie mme uliow (if vipir at Drat. Michael 
 I>»)aalugus " wrenuil from the Praulca leveral 
 of tlie noblest islands of the Archipelago — Lea- 
 bos, Chios, and RluMles. His brother Conatan- 
 tine wss sent to command in Malvasia and Sparta; 
 sod tlic Eastern aide of tlie Morea, from Argoa 
 sod Nspoll to Cape Taiuarua, was repoaaeiwed 
 by the Oreeks. . , , But in the proaecutiun of 
 these Western conqtiesU the countries berond 
 the Hellespont were left naked to the Turks; 
 ud their depredations vcrifled the pnipliecy of 
 tdyinif senator, tliat the recovery of Cunstanti- 
 Bonle would lie the ruin of Asia, " Not only waa 
 .uia .Minor ahandoneil to She new race of Tur- 
 jiishronquemn — the Ottomans — hut those moat 
 ijpvsKive of tlic prowlytea of Islam were In- 
 viteil in the next )r<-neratlim tocrosa the Boa- 
 pluirus, and to enU-r Thrace as partiaans in a 
 (iiwii civil war. Their footing in Kuroiie once 
 pilnei!, tlicy devoun-d the dixtnicted and feeble 
 em\>irt piece i)y piece, until little remained to it 
 b'vcrtid t.'wcnpitiil itwdf. Long lii'fore the IntU-r 
 Ml, the empire was a shadow and a name. In 
 the Tery ■iilmrlm of <'onstantinople, the Oenoeae 
 piidpsta. St I'em or Oaluta. had more iMiwer than 
 lhe(}i«k Kmi^mr; and tlie rival lullan traders. 
 orOenoa, Venice and I'isB, fought their haltkrs 
 under the eves (if 111.' Hyzaotinea with indiffcr- 
 fDce, simiwt, til tlie will or wislies, the opjiosi- 
 tim or the lii Ip of the Iatt4'r. " The weight of 
 the Riiiniin Kiiipire waa scarcely felt fn the 
 bslaaee nf thew opulent and powerful republica, 
 . The Ifcimiiii Kmplre (I smile intmnacrihing 
 the nstiH) miirlit siKin have aunk Into a province 
 (if (^en.w. if the ambition r! the republic had 
 i»it liecii eheckeil by the rul of her fn-edom and 
 i!««l iwm.r. A lung conteat of ISO years waa 
 (IrtrniiinnI hy the triumph of Venice. . . . \Vt 
 Iht jplril nf coiiuiierce »ur» ived that of conquest • 
 •Mi the c.lniiy i.f I'era still awed the capital and 
 mriirsl.sl the Kiuine. till it was Involved liy 
 tlieTurk-tinihe tlnal wrvitiideof ('on.,i«nliiiople 
 ii«lf ■■ -K Cililhin, IhfUiuiHdFaUvfilu Human 
 Em/^r^, i-h Hi na. 
 
 .\|j.(. IN (1. KinlHV, /Hi. of Hit n»-.,nlinf and 
 l.n.t h.mi„r.,, hk- 4, eh. S._Hee. iil*., Tmaa 
 (Tin (iri..<HN.| A n. t340-I3a6; liJa«-l3S»- 
 
 A. D. i34«-t355.-W«r with the Cenecac.- 
 aii. with Venice and Ar8»ou.-J(>hn 
 
 Alliaace _ 
 
 < jnlsdiieniHi. who ii«iirp<ii the "limine in I.mV 
 
 ImI n..t rcirned a vi-ar before he waa Involved 
 l-ih.«ti!iii,., will, ||„. Uenoese wdoiiy of (J»|aia 
 "liHi li,i.| sUnys contained many warm nar- 
 
 ; "»""•' ""' I * "' J^lw-'oit"* [.li«plac„Uy 
 
 (im*.,,,,,,.-! TbU factory had grown intoi 
 a.'un»l,iii< i.iwn. and C(mmian(h-.l a large ixir- 
 
 ).« of the (riid, n Mom. Duri.ig the civil i,„ 
 »K. (h! .,-«. enpllallsu had SU|.|.;ie.| i|,r n-ge-icy 
 «Mh i,...r„ y, «n.i tliey now formed almost every 
 knn(t,..f il„. nv.oi.,. which Uic im|« rial govern 
 ««< i^-nvijl fnim the p,« . . . The fin«ii> Ul 
 ^f ' "' ' "■ '" * enipcnir reduced Uielr 
 & ■ J'"' '•"•"»»'« lndii«lrv of the 
 U^ek., ,.,.1 ,h,. J,v,l„,„y„f „,, lU-nU-n-. l.-d l„ 
 
 1WI10I.I ||„. »„ („ „ ,r,,rl.er..>i« manner with 
 ;LT' ,".'".,'""'■- '"•"'. "■■■ "*l'"''"<- of tlen.ia 
 L.-r ,,' '■ -^ "•■*•' "' ""^1 < ll--bt large ,tnd 
 "Z'r'] '■"'•> v >.<t«. Ui (•(.n.tai.Hn.ipl' 
 
 ••dbunit^i «v,ral buiUiog, aud the gil-ater 
 
 CONSTAKTINOPLE. 1848-1861 
 
 part of the fleet he wa* then constructing. The 
 Empress Iiwne, who administered the govern- 
 ment in the absence of her husband, b«-haved 
 with great prudence and courage and repulsed a 
 bold attack of the OemKsc. Cantacuzeno. 
 bastened to the capital, where he spent the 
 winter in npulring the loss his fleet Iwd ,u^ 
 umed. As siHin as it was nadv foradhm he 
 
 fj^^u ."'**'''""™" '" "«■ P"rt. wlwre he hoped 
 that their naval skill would lie of no avail and 
 Where the numerical superiority of his ahiiw 
 would Insure him a victory. He expected 
 moreover, to gain poxaesslon of OalaU llaelf br 
 on attack on the land side while the (hnoese 
 were occupiiHl at sea. The cowiirdly conduct of 
 Uie Oreeks. I»,th by sea and land, remlered hli 
 plana abortive. The gnaler jNirt of his ships 
 were taken, and his army retreat.-d without 
 nuking a serious attack. Fortiinalclv for Can- 
 tacuienoa, the colonisU of (iaUu rw-eived an 
 order from the Senate of Gen<«i to iniiclude 
 pence. . . Their victory enaliled them to 
 oliliiin favourable terms, anil to k(vp powniion 
 of some land they liad sei»;c,|. ,„„| „n wlih li they 
 ijrjon completed the conotrueti.ni of n new citadel. 
 The friemlly (ljs|MMitiiin iniinifeMed hy the 
 government of (Jenoa iinhuiil < ■.int.ieii/emw to 
 send anibaiwiuion Ui the Seiiule to demuud the 
 restoration of the island of CIiIim, whieh had 
 been conquered by a liand of fjeiioiii,. esiles in 
 l!Ho. A trialy was coiieliided, liy which the 
 Genoese were to restore the l-iliind to th( Kmpen.r 
 of Constaiilinople in ten vears. , , . But this 
 treaty wiis never carried Into executloii for the 
 cxilesat Clii.w set Isith the republic oftiitim and 
 the Or<'ek Eimilre at dellunce. iiiii niuiii.Hl t||,.|r 
 conquest." The peace with Genoa was of shcit 
 duration, ('iiiitacuzenos whs Is^nt upon ex|K'll- 
 Ing the Gen(Hse from Gnluta. and as they 
 were now involved in the war with tlie Vim tlaiM 
 T hieh IS known as the war of CalTa he hop«-il » 
 ttiriiniplish his purpisie by Ji.inliig the latter. 
 "The Genoese had drawn Into their hands the 
 grealer |«rt of the commeree of the Bliick Sea. 
 The town of Tann or A/of was then n place of 
 gr»'at commercial iin|virtance, as inaiiv of the 
 pnKluctioiia of India and China f.iiiiid i)„ir «,iv 
 to western KunqM- Imm its wan limi-is The 
 Gemsse, in eons,.(|iicni .• nf a quam 1 wlih the 
 Tartars. h:iil ls-.ii eniii|i.'nei| t.> Miqiend thiir 
 InteMiurse with Tniia. ..ml l!i.' V.ii. tiain. a>all- 
 ing lli.'m».'lvi's of the oiqs.niiniv, hii.l . vT.ii.!,-d 
 their traih' and imn-as...| th.ir pn.Iits. Tli.invy 
 of the G.'niHse Lsl them In nliHtriiil tlii\,nt'. 
 tian traile ami ciiptiir.' Vin.tiaii slii|i« uiit I at 
 length llu'.iispin.s nf i!i.. tun opiiMii s I.Mke 
 out in op.n war in lais. In Ihe v.ar |:l.-.|. 
 (|antucuA.'iiia« (iitere.1 iiiin an allia'ii.e w itli 
 Venice, ami Jnlned iiis forns in th..».. nf the 
 VViietlans, wlin had al*.. cum lud.il an alliance 
 with I'lt.r ihi Cn'mnninii,, kiiiif nf Arumm 
 Nicholas l'l«aiil. mil- nf the al.l.Ni ailininils of 
 the au'r a!i|i.-.-»rivi l« tnn' CniistaiiijiiMiil,. with the 
 Venetian tim . but li(H..|,i|„ had •oitT.r.-.U.v.r.lv 
 fmm a smrm. aiil \\\% primlnal nl.jnt w,,', 
 all«in..i wli.ii he |.i;l i.annv,,) the in r( h.int- 
 nien.if Veiii... s.if.ly Inln tin" Ilia, k S a. Cm- 
 lacii/riiin, hoHi.i.r, had im . Iij.-.t lint tn t':ke 
 Galala. ami. .\|s-. tiinf tn nnlve lni|«.ri.ii.i M 
 fnmi I'isiini, he aiia.kiil tin- ti.ii.«.,i- inlnnr 
 bv s.-» ami lami ||u s^viul! was ,|. f.al.il lit 
 
 e.iii»-,.ui 11 f th.«.akm,, nf tin (ir-. k, „i,,| 
 
 the lukewarmiiiMof the Veuetliuu. Iln.uii I'tlred 
 
 5U3 
 
'f '*■ 
 
 'M. S' al^''' vi 
 
 
 rt 
 
 CONSTAMTmOPLE. 1S4S-1M& 
 
 toKcgropont, to rffoctn Junction with theCatakii 
 fleet; aou I'anno Dorin, who hail piiniueU him 
 with « •iipcnor force. In n-ttirning to Uslata to 
 piw the winter, sttirmwl tlie town of HcracieU 
 on the Sea of Mttniion, wlirre Ciintaruieno* had 
 colln'teii large mHtiKzInt-* uf provUiona. and 
 carri)-)! off a rich Uxtty, with many wealthy 
 Oreek«, who were cumpellfl to ransom them- 
 aelvra by paying large iiima to thtfie captors. 
 Cautucuzenoa was now benii-gift In Conataoti- 
 Bopif. . . . Thf Uenotw, unuhir to make any 
 inipn-SBlnn on the city, inili'mnlHctI thcnuelvta 
 by ravaging the Urcrk tcrritorr on tlie Black 
 8ea. . . . Early In the year IMS.' Pi-tani rctunx'd 
 to Cnnatantinople with tlie Cutalan fli<<'t. under 
 Ponziu da 8antnpn<v, and a great buttle waa 
 fought between the alliea and tlie Uentieae, in 
 full rlew of C^oniitnniinople and Oalata. The 
 icene of the conibut wna »!T the litlauil of Prote, 
 and it rrceive<l the name of Vntchopli:igaa from 
 iome sunken rm-kfi, of which the Qenoeae availed 
 thrniselveH In their inanfEutrtea. The honour of 
 a diiutitful and bliKxIy day resteil with tlie 
 OeuiH'ne. . . . IlmuiaiHingultt'iltlieDelghSour- 
 liond of Coniitantimiple, and Cantacuicnna, 
 having nothing more to hope troni the Venetlun 
 alliance . . . concludeil a imimi- with tlte ivpub- 
 He of Oenoa. In thia war he lnul exp<iap<l the 
 weakncM of the Greek enipir», hihI the detilne of 
 the maritime fortv of Oreece, to all the alatea of 
 Europe. The tti'aty contirmed ail the previous 
 privilegea and encroachments of the colony of 
 ualata ami oilier Uenoew I'-tiililishments In the 
 Empire." — (J. Finlnv. Jlitl. of lite ItftuHtimnnd 
 Orcfk Kmi>ir,». 7ltl^l«:i. hk. 1. ch. 2. ttt. 4.— 
 The ntiri'tnent of tlie Ure<-k'< irom the contest 
 dhl not ciieck the wnr Utwcin (iencia and 
 Veiili-e mid llie oilier nllles of llie latter, which 
 was •l>nlinlu^l unlll VXtX The OeniMite were 
 defeiii.il, AuKiisi i9, \XiA, liv llio VriiitUns and 
 t'atiiliiiiH, ill a greitt Imllle fii'.ii;lit near I..<>]era, 
 Oil III!' iiiirllicrn coiint of .Sardinia. liMing 41 
 gallcvH iind 4.. 'Ml) or S.DIM) iihii. Tliey olitaineil 
 their" revenge the next ynir. on the 4tb of 
 XovemtHT. when I'sgiiJ- > Doria Rurpriaed the 
 VcnetiHii admiral. i'ii<ui.< t I'ortolongo, oppoaite 
 the I'^IhihI of tSupiei.za, »^ lie van preparing logo 
 Into wiiiter-i|Uurteni. "Tlie Vimiianit Hustulm il 
 not BO much a ilcfi at as a total iliiMi>mtitun\ iM 
 weri'killeil; an eiiorni'xis niinilHr of prisonern. 
 lex J'ly ciilculHteil HI d.iNHI. and ii lii^hly valiialilu 
 Imoly In priziit and slori'ii. were t«kcn. " In 
 June. l:|.Vi. tlie wiir was eiideil liV n In tily wliich 
 excliideil Venice from all Klmk .S.t ixirtsetrept 
 CafTii— W. V Hazlilt. //.W. ./ tlu " 
 ReimWf. eh. |S»-ll»(r :t) 
 
 CafTii— W. l". Hazlilt. //iW. ./ tlu Ventlian 
 V. A. r«rk.r, 7V FL,U„fth4 World, 
 
 Al.so IN 
 
 p;i. Kjt^iu. 
 
 A. D. 1453.— Conqueit bj ch« Turki.— 
 Maiiomct II . M>n of Amunitli II came In the 
 Olliiiian tliroiie, at the aire of tweiiiy one, In 
 H'll "Tlie (iini|iiea: of ( iiiisiaiitiiiiiple was 
 tlie lintt ol>Ji( t on wiiich his llioiigl:is were flxed 
 at tlie oiMiiing of his niirii The nsolution 
 Willi »lii( It III' liiul fnniied IliispTiriKweejpn'iw'd 
 itself ill Ills Ki.rn reply to llie HniliaMiidors of llie 
 Kiiiptr r •■iTirihi; him triliule if he woiild 
 nnMUhie the pr.jiit "f In Idinif a f.rt on the 
 Kiir'>|H.'iii «liiire uf ihe |li»|Kirtii4. wliiih. nt the 
 lllnlall.e of ..iil\ live mili'<> fri.lti llie <!i|^llnl. 
 woiilii |.'i\. Iiliii llie lomtiiniel «t the ltln< k S< .1 
 Me urdeoii llie tiiviiy«li. r ure !iiic| ilir<'»teiiei| 
 %i fliiy alive any whosfaoiiM iare t<i bring him a 
 
 CONBTANTINOPLE, 14(»-148t 
 
 ilmflar meaafe a^aln. Tlie fort was ani.ili«1 la 
 three montha and ganiioned witli 4UU Jimii^- 
 • tribute waa eiacted of all vesseU that i««c<l, 
 and war was formally declared hy the SiUtu 
 Cooataotiiie [Cooatantine Palieoliigus, the lut 
 Orwk Emperor] made the best preparnilDiu Ig 
 hia power fur defence ; but he coiilil nmsiir uoir 
 600 Greek soldiers. " In onler to secure aid froi-i 
 the P<>pe and the Itallana, Constaniine uniiti; 
 himself with the Roman Church. A few hiindtnl 
 trr.<. lis were tlien sent to bis aasistaiiee: hut, it 
 the moat, he had only succee<led in manning; thi 
 many miles of the city wall with H.iiiNi vtn, 
 wbeu. In April, 14.t3, the Siiltiui inviFin] \x. 
 The Turkish army was said to iiuniUr 'J.VI.O(iO 
 men, and 430 vesMls were counti'il in the mixsm- 
 panying fleet. A summons to fitirmulir wu 
 answered with Indigiuuit refusal by Cimsiantiiic, 
 " who had calmlr resolved not tii survive tlw 
 fall of the dty, and the final a>wHi,li u( the 
 furious Turks was made on the 'jvth nf Muv, \VA. 
 The heroic Emperor waa slain among the lut 
 defemlen of the gate of 8t. Komamw. sinl Uio 
 janizaries mde over his dead IkmIv m thrr 
 cliarged Into the streets of the f^illen Itomu 
 capital. "The despairing ixiiple — nenabin. 
 prlcsta, monks, nuns, huslatmls, whta tnd 
 children — sought safety in the rliunh nf !i|. 
 Sophia. A prophecy but been einulatni ilia; 
 here the Turks would be am'steii liv an an«ti 
 from heaven, with a drawn swoni; ami hllbtr 
 the inberable multitude cniwdeil. in liii' eipK. 
 tatlon of supernatural help. The ihiki loron 
 fuUowed, sword In hand, siaiittliteriii); thute 
 whom they encountered In llie Bin-et. T'ler 
 broke down the doom of the ciiiin h niihsii't. 
 and, rushing In. committed every art >A ninicitr 
 tliat a frantic thirst for bliKiil aiui the ii:risiiji'tt 
 passions of demons could Kii^rvevt. .\ll iIk 
 unhappy victims were divldeil as •.\»\i-» smnni; 
 the soullera, without regard to M.>>l .ir ranlt. 
 and hurrioi off to the camp; and iIh' niiiihty 
 catheilml, so long the glory of tin Climiiiiii 
 world, soon presented only rrueis uf llu' iritiu 
 of hell. The oilier (piariers nf 'he riiy were 
 pluntleTcd by other divisions of Ilie ani;y. . . . 
 About noon tlie Sultan made liix Irii.in|i|i>lrnt7 
 by the gate of St. IlomaiiiM, pawini; In ihi' lnnly 
 of the Emperor, which lay coiuiuIkI :iii.<'iii;'.li't' 
 slain. Entering the church, he or.u n-l u iiu>iU!i 
 to aacend the liema and announce lo iln- .MumuI- 
 mans that Ht. Sophia was now a iui>v|iii. c>>ii' 
 aecrated to the prayers of tlie Inn- 1» lii v.rs. tie 
 onlered the iHxIy of the Kniix mr ii I* wiuelii. 
 Ilia head to be expoaeil to the pr. ';<l.'. ami <f' r 
 wsnis 'o bi' aeut aa a trophy, to Ik mmi by tlw 
 Greekii, !u the principal cil'iea r.f iii, iMtoman 
 Empire. For three days the riiy v. ..i clunup 
 to the Indeacrlbalile horrors of piili.-t- an^l tlif 
 license of th" Mussulnir.n iml.liry F.iny 
 ihoiiaand tierislietl during tlu- !>.i> k • ' '\if ci:, 
 and fifty tliousand were ri'<lii.'-<l ! • -imry - 
 C. V. FelUin, l)rtt*i, Anrunt .n.! H'ltri: 
 fimrlh amnf, Int t. 
 
 Aiwiii; <1 Pinl.v, Hill .if!h, lh:,i'.u-v --A 
 O'nk Kmrnrafmrn "Tie to 14.'.). ! k 4. '« ■; E 
 OiblMin. Drtlin,! and t'lM ./ (V li-n . ,■,-,11. 
 M. (IH 
 
 A. D. 1^3-litl.— The city resopuiat*!. •'«' 
 rebuilt.— Creation of the Tiirkiin Stsmboal.- 
 " Il was nec.-i-wry fnr .Mi.lmiiiii' -II I'.r.ivvrk- 
 Consl.tnlinopie. in .■■der 1.1 n n I r ;i hi r»i'iul 
 of the v/Jionuut Empltv. Tli< in-i illiii.c of « 
 
 J24 
 
CONSTAIITINOPLE, 14S8-148L 
 
 nrthodnx Pstifarch calmed tb« mlnda of the 
 Otwlu. and many who had emigTBted before the 
 •ieite gnduallf returned, and were allowed to 
 riaim » portion of their propertr. But the alow 
 Increue of population, cauaed by a lenae of 
 HCuritT and the hope nf min, did not latlafy the 
 Sultan,' who waa determined to aee hia capital 
 one of the greateat cities of the Eaat, and who 
 kMW thHt it bad formerly exceeded Damaicua, 
 Budail and Cairo, in wealth, extent and popu- 
 htioD. Krom most of his subsequent conquests 
 Moharomed compelled the wealthiest of the in- 
 htbitanu to emifrrate to Constantinople, where 
 be granied tlicm plots of land to build their 
 hmun. ■ ■ ■ Turks, Orreka, Serriana, Bulgarl- 
 tiu, Alhssiana, and Laaea, followed one another 
 in quirk succession, and long before the end of 
 hU reign Constantinople was crowded by a num- 
 miuADit artlTe popiilatinn, and presented a more 
 flnuriahui); aspect than it had done during the pre- 
 ceding rrntury. The embrlllshment of his capital 
 wu also tlic ohjii't nf the Hultan's attention. 
 . . M>w|ucs. minarets, fuuntains and tomba, 
 the (rmit "liji'cts of architectural magniflrencp 
 tooDg the Milisiilmani, were oonstructeti in 
 
 coxsnTcnoN: AROEirnin: repitbuc. 
 
 erery quarter of tl>e Hty. ... The picturesnne 
 lieauiy of the Sumboul of the present day owes 
 most of lu artiflrUI features to the Othoman con- 
 quest, and wean a Turkish aspect The Con- 
 Btttfitlnople of the Hyiuintlne Empire disappeared 
 with Ust relics of the Greek Empire. The 
 trav who now desires to view the Tcstlges of 
 a B\ . hotlne capltel and examine the hM relics 
 or Bvxantlne arehltecture, must continue his 
 travels eastward to Tn'bizond."—O.FInlay Hitl 
 
 'ili^ ,^"*i~ "** ^'*'* ^^Pirm, /hm'nt to 
 14.18, A*. 4, «*. 8, f«t. 7. 
 
 A. D. iao7.-Threat«n«d bja Britidi iMt. 
 
 See Tl'«M: A. D. 180«-I»(»7. 
 
 CONSTANTINOPLE, Conftrtnc* ol 
 
 (1877). He<! TlRBs: A. D. 1M«1-1877. 
 
 CONSTANTIUS I., Ronuui Empwer. A. D 
 30.V-306 Conataatins II., A. D. 887-Ml 
 
 CONSTITUTION, The battlaa of tha Mm- 
 at*. Hee I'.nitkd Statics or Am. : A. D. 181»- 
 1813. and 1H14. 
 
 ,.fP.?.?I''^yT'°'' OP ARAGON AND 
 CASTILE (the old monarchy), bee Cortcs. 
 Tub Eaki.y Spamuh. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 
 
 Thenibjoincd text of the Coostitutiog of the 
 Argpuilno itcpubllc la a translation "from the 
 offlrial nlltino of 1M8." taken tmm II Napps 
 woili on "The Argentine Republic," prepan^il 
 (or the Central Argentine Commission on tlie Cen 
 tentry Eiblbltlon at Philadelphia, tH76. AccoM 
 Isj! to the "8tatesman'a Year-Book " of liflKi, 
 there bare been no modUlcations since 1840: 
 
 Parti. 
 
 Article I, The Argentine Nation adopta the 
 (edertl republican, and representative form of 
 Gorrratnent, as established by the present Con- 
 ■tltutkio 
 
 Art. a. The Federal Oovemment shall maln- 
 tsig the Annstolic Roman Catliolic Faith. 
 
 Art. J. The authorities of the Federal Oovem- 
 ment ahull reside in the city which a special law 
 i.( t'nnirrfss may declare the caplul of the Re- 
 [uMk. iubaequently 10 the cession by one or 
 ranre of the I'roYtndal Leglstotures, of the tcrri- 
 I >nr nimiit to be federalixcd. 
 
 Art. 4. The Federal Oovemment shall arl- 
 mlnlatertheeiDenses of the Nation out of tho 
 rivcnue In the National Treasury, derlve<l from 
 impiirt an(le>|>ortdi.lk<a, from tho sale and leane 
 of Ike public lands, from postsf^; and frxim 
 such other uxes as the Uencral OonRress may 
 iquitaW) anil pm|>nrtlonahlv l»v ti|>on the p.-<i 
 nil ai also, fn>m such loans and crediu as may 
 t« ■Irrnvd !.y it in limes of national necessity or 
 Ijr I til, rj.rta's of national utility. 
 
 Art. 5. f^ach Province shall moke a Const It u 
 i"r. !, r iiv If. Rccwdlng U) the republican .i-iire- 
 -nlatlri. t)>tem. and the prin< li,|,.s. d.-cUratlons ; 
 "?„'■'*""'**"'' "''• t;«nsfltutl<in; and whi<h 1 
 ■ti!> I pf'VKic for (ie<ure) MuoHpal (Jovcrtinieiit ' 
 I ri»i«i! .-.lucation sn.! the « Imlnlslmti.ui „f |u,! ! 
 «« I iHlMth.'si.c.mdilio'u the F«ler.il Govern- ' 
 nw! mall guaranlni to e u-j Ppivineo tho exercise 
 nv; i-njoymenl of lu InW. tlnni-. 
 
 f^l'^nL'''& ^f*^"*- '■*'"""•'>« •'>•» Inter- 
 TOt ta UK Provl«»au.£ i..-uii«e tUe rapublloui 
 
 I form of Oovemment, or to repel foreign Invasion, 
 i und nl«o, on application of ihelr constituted au- 
 ' tlidriilea, should they Imvt; Ijeen deposed by 
 sedition or by invasion fn)m another Province, 
 for the purpose of sustiiinini; or re-csublishlng 
 : them. 
 
 j Art. 7. Full faith shall be frivcn in each Prov. 
 ! ince to the public acU, and judlcUl pmccedingt 
 j of every other I'rovlnce : and Congresa may by 
 I general laws, prescrilie the manner In which such 
 • nets and proceedings shall be proved, and the 
 j clleet thereof. 
 
 j Art. S. The citizens of each Province shall be 
 I enlltlMl to all the risrhts, privileges and imniuni- 
 ! tiea. Inherent to tli>' t itizens of all the several 
 Provinces. The reclproeal extradition of crimi- 
 nals between all the Pp)vlnces, is obligatory. 
 
 Art. 9. Throughout the territory of the Nation, 
 no other than the National Cuntnin Mouses shall 
 lie Allowed, ani' they ahull be regulated by 'do 
 tariffs sanetlone<l by Conitress. 
 
 Art. la Tho drculatloii of all givida pnxluecd 
 or manufactureil In the Republic. Is free within 
 Its iHinlers, as also, that of all st)ecl,-» of mer- 
 1 hanillw whieh may be dispatched b^- the Cus- 
 tom Houses of entry. 
 
 Art. II. Such articles of native nr foreign pro- 
 duction, us well as cattl.- of every kind, which 
 p.iM from one Provinc to anoihei, simll bf free 
 from ull transit-duiies. no<t nlxi the vehicles, 
 venaeN or aiiimaU. which triniij..irl them; ami no 
 tax. Ii I it Ir- what I'- may. eau be lieneeforward 
 fnitiii^id up<m Ihiru on account of auch transit. 
 Art. 12. V(«itls iKmni! from om; I'Mvlncc to 
 nnoth.-r. sliall not Iw compelled to enter, anebor, 
 I't pay iranjildiitieit, nor in any caae ean pntfer- 
 etiifii lie irrantnl to one p<n over auoth-r, by 
 any conimeri'ial litwsor regiila:lona 
 
 Art. 13. N< T Pnivi ,,<•« may l,e admitted Into 
 ihe N'liti.iu. hill no I'rovlnce sliall U- erected 
 within til • territory ,,f any other IVivliice, or 
 Provinces, nor say Pnivinco Ite formed by iha 
 junctlou of various Pruvlucva, without the coa- 
 
 626 
 
COKSnTUnOK : ARGKinTNB RIPUBUC. CONSTITUTIOX: AROSMTIin: RIPCBUc 
 
 I 
 
 !*, 
 
 ■;i:- 
 
 ■eat of the teglsktum of tlM ProitfiioM eon- 
 cenwd, h well u of Coogma. 
 
 Art. 14. All the InUliltanU of the Nation ihall 
 enjoy the foUowing right*, acoonling to the law* 
 which renUate their exerciae: rii., to labor ami 
 to nractice all lawful ioduatry; to trwia ami 
 naTlnte; to petition the autboritiea; to enter, 
 remain in, travel over and kaTe. Argentine terri- 
 tory: to publish their ideaa In the public- pnti 
 without prcTioua cenaure; to enloy ami iliapoac 
 of their property; to aaaociate for uaeful pur- 
 po«c«; to profeaa freely their religioQ; to teach 
 and to learn. 
 
 Art. IS. In the Argentine Nation there are no 
 tlnvea: the few which now exiat shall be tree 
 from the date of (he adoption of this Constitu- 
 tiuD, and a special tew shall regulate the imlcin- 
 nity acknowledged as duo by this dcctei-atioD. 
 All contracts for the purchase ami sale of persons 
 Is a crime, for which those who make them. a« 
 well as the noUry or functionary which author- 
 Izcs lliem, shall be responsible, and the slaves 
 wbn in any manner whatever may be intmducmi. 
 shall be free from the sole fact that they ticad 
 the ti-rritory of the Republic. 
 
 Art. 16. The Argentine Nation does not ail- 
 mit tlic prerogatives of blooil nor of birth; in it, 
 there are no personal privileges or titles of no- 
 bilitv. All its Inhabitanu are equal in presence 
 of the law, and admissible to ufflcc without other 
 condition than that of aincss. Enuaiity Is the 
 basis of taxatioa as well aa of nubile- piata. 
 
 Art. 17. Property is inviolalilo.snd no inhalilt- 
 ant of tlio Nation can be deprived of it, save by 
 virtue of a sentence based on law. The exproiiri 
 slion for public utility must be authorized by Intv 
 sod previously imiemnllled. Congress alone shall 
 iinpoiiu ilie ctmlributions mentioned in Art. -4. 
 No personal service sbsll be cxacteil save by 
 virtue of law, or of a sentence founded on law. 
 Every author or inventor Is the exclusive pro- 
 prietor of his work, invention or liiscovery. for 
 the term which the lawocconis to bim. The con- 
 flsriilion of property it hem-eforward and forever, 
 stricken from the Argentine penal-coile. No 
 anne<l l>o<ly can make requiaitloiu, ixw exact as- 
 sistance of any kind. 
 
 Art. 18. No inhabitant of the Nation shall 
 suffer piinisliment without a previous Judgment 
 foundtil on a liiw poMol previounly to tiie cause of 
 Juiltfmi-nt. nor be Juddiil by upecial commiaslonji. 
 or withdrawn fmiu the JudKes designated l>r 
 law before llie o|N'ning of the cause. No («ie 
 shall beohllKeil U) U-sllfyairalDst himself; nor lie 
 arrented. save bv virtue of a written oriler fnmi 
 a compt tent authority. The defense at law both 
 of the |H'rw>n ami his rigfau, Is inviolable. The 
 "loniicll, pnvste papers and epistolary com- 
 s|Hindenei-. are inviolable; and a law shall ddir 
 mine III what coses, and under wliat Imputationii, 
 tt M-arch nurrunt ran nnKt-ed SKainiitanil occupy 
 them. Capital piini>>iinieiit for |iolill(sl causes 
 as wi-11 as ev.-ry upecicsof torture and whippings! 
 are nliolisliMl forever. The prisons of the Natliiii 
 »h.>ill Ih- heallhy ami clciui, for the security, ami 
 not for the puninliiiient. of the criminals deUiiied 
 ill them, ami every measure which under pretext 
 of precaution may mortify them more than such 
 security requires. Hhall render responsible the 
 Judge whoauthoriu-s it. 
 
 Art. 19. Those private actions of men that In 
 nowise offend public onier and morality, or In 
 jurs a third party, betong alone to Uod, and are 
 
 bernod the authority of the maghtrates Xo !» 
 habluntof the Nation shall be c<im|>cil< I muo 
 what the bw docs not ordain, nor be ilepnreii ol 
 anything which It does not prohibit 
 
 Art. JO. Within the tcnitory of the Niiin. 
 foreigner* shall enjoy all the civil rights „f clil! 
 sens; they can exercise Uieir industri<-<. con 
 merceor profeaslona, in accordance with ib< Uwi 
 own, buy and sell rvaU-statc ; nnvigato tlK< riv«j 
 and coasU; freely jinifess llieir religion, mnl u... 
 Ute and marry. They shall not be obii)f.-<i i« be- 
 come citizens, nor to nay force<l contrihuiioitt 
 Two year* previous residence iu the Nstiou aluli 
 hereoutred for naturalizatiou, but the suthoritlcs 
 cmn shorten this tcnn iu favour of bim vtw au 
 desires It. under the allegation and piwif of ler 
 vice* rendeml to the Kepubllc. 
 
 Alt. at. EveiTT Argentine citizen U ohllgnl to 
 arm himself In defense of bis country ami of tlUi 
 Constltutioa, acooidlng to the laws whidi Cna- 
 gras shall oidaln for the piirpuse. ami the ile- 
 crue* of the National Executive. For die perial 
 of ten years from the day ou which thiv nmy 
 have obtained tiieir citizeuship, this MTviee sksU 
 be voluntary on the part of the natunlinil. 
 
 Art. sj. The |K>i>ple sliuli not dellUnitc dot 
 govern savo by means of their Heim-*iitstiTef 
 and Autltorilh'S. creatnl by this (■oustiiutioo. 
 Kvery armetl force or meeting of pemous whicli 
 shall arrogate to itself the rights of th.- [wihli. 
 uud petition In tlieir name, is guilty of «<<litW 
 Art. aj. In the event of lulerual conimmionof 
 foreign attack wiilch miiflit place in jii)psrjf 
 tlio practice of thia C>'ii4tltutlon, ami tlie fn-e 
 action of llie Authorities created liy ii, the Pn,». 
 inco or U-rriUiry where such dlsturli-im-.- eiiiu 
 shall be decUre<l In a state of sieKe, nil conttitu- 
 tiouol giiarant<-es being mesmliiie iiii.<|ien(lc<l 
 there. Hut during such suapeiuion iht- Vrnt 
 ilent of the Itepublic cannot condemn uor spply 
 any punishment |icr se. In tfs|K-ct to iienooi, 
 his power shall lie limited to arrestlun ssd tr- 
 nioviug them frimi one ptace to suotlur Id tlw 
 Nation, should they not prefer to leave .\rgt'n- 
 tine territory. 
 
 Art. af. Congrrss shall esUblUh the nfonnol 
 existing laws in all branches, as also tin- trial by 
 Jury. 
 
 Art. as. The Federal Oovemment nliall fi>m«iit 
 Ettnipean Immigration; and it esnmii n-slrict, 
 limit, nor lay itay iui|«iat upon, the eutry upon 
 Argentine territory, of sucli foreiijner^ lu come 
 for the pur[HMeof cultivating the anil, iiiiprorin^ 
 inanufuctun-s, ami Introducing and teuclilD); tlw 
 arts luitl sclencim. 
 
 Art. a6. TIm! navigation of the Interior riven 
 of the Nation ia fnv to all tlaga. auhjri t cmly 1.1 
 such reguhoioua as the National Autli'tiiv nuy 
 ilicUle. 
 
 Art. a?. The Feilcml Oovemiiieni UMMignliD 
 atnnetlien the iMinila of (x-aie ami 1 iiiinrrt* 
 with fonijtn powers, liy meananf in-iiii. •! wliicli 
 sliall In in conformity witli tlie primipii'. uf pub- 
 lic law laid drwn in thIa Con*titiiti<in. 
 
 Art. aS. The principles, riglits nml ).'u irartiti 
 laid down iu the foregoing artiilfi. chiiuo' '« 
 allere<l by any laws luteudol li> n-Kuln'r Ibrlr 
 practicv. 
 
 Art. 19. Congrrss cannot grant to ilir Eiwu- 
 tlve, nor the provincial hglsliiluivs to ilii- t>fl»; 
 ernorof I'nivlnoes, any "extraonliiiary faniliU'a, ' 
 nor the " suiu of the pulilic p<iwer, nor ' te- 
 nuncUtions or supremacies" by which the llvo, 
 
 520 
 
 m- 
 
COSBnTCnON: AKGEimnK RIPDBUC. CONSTTTUTIOW: AROKNTINE RBPUBUC. 
 
 tnonror fartWM of tite ArfeaUiMt shall be at 
 Uw mercy of ur GoTenniKot or perm what- 
 em. Acu of tliii nature ihall be Irremedlabtr 
 lull iiihI Toid, and ahall subject those who fnme, 
 
 Totr. or iln them, to the nUos ami penaltligs in- 
 cumil by tboie who are infamous trsiton to their 
 
 country 
 
 Art. 30. This Constitution can be rvfonaed In 
 vIk'Ic or in part. Tbo necearity for the reform 
 ilull lie ilrclarcd by Coofreas by at least a two- 
 tliinN rnif : but it can only be accomplished by 
 1 onffDlloo called sd hoc. 
 
 Art 31. This Coostitutloa. and the laws of the 
 >'aliiiii which shall be maile in pursuance there- 
 of, mill ill treaties made or which shall be made 
 wiih Foreign Powera, shall be llio supremo law 
 of the lnniT; and the authoritiea of every ProT- 
 iscc shall be boiiml thereby, any thio)( in tlie Coo- 
 nltuilon nr liwi of any ProvlDcc to tiie contrary 
 Dutwitlutantling, excepting in the case of Buenoa- 
 Alm. iu the trealies rallllod after the compact of 
 Nor. mil. IU9. 
 
 Alt. 31. The Federal Congress shall not dictate 
 bwa nstrietlDi; the liberty of tlie presa, nor ea- 
 Ubliih my fetleml Jurisdiction over it 
 
 Art 33. The enumeration in this Constitution 
 of certain r<KliU and guarantees, sliall not be 
 cootirued to ileny or disparage other rights and 
 fiianntecs. not enumerated; but which spring 
 fmin the principle of popular sovereignty, suu 
 tlM rcpuliliriiii form of OoTemment 
 
 Alt, 34. The Judges of the Federal courta 
 ihall nnt lie Juilies of ProTiocial tribunals at tlie 
 ume lime: nor tliall tlte feileiai scnrice, ciril as 
 veil an military, constitute a domlcil in the 
 Prorince where it may be cxerclied, If It be not 
 habitually that of the employ^; it being uniler- 
 iioal by this, that all IVuvfnciai public'servlce 
 Uoptlnntil in the Province where such employ^ 
 may cantially reside. 
 
 Art, 35. The names which have been siic- 
 rcHJvcly i<l<>ple<l for the Nation, since the year 
 l»IU up to the present time; viz., the United 
 Pmvlaiva of the Hlo de la Plau, Argentine lie- 
 public auil .Vrgentinc Confederation, shall henoe- 
 (irwanl wrvc without distinction, (iHlcially U) 
 dcsigiwie the Oflvemroent and tcrribiry of tlie 
 I'rovinrea, whilat the words Argentine Nslion 
 ihall lie employed in the making and sanction of 
 Uk lawi. 
 
 Part II.— Sactioo I. 
 Article 3«. All legiilative powen herein 
 jnnii-.! »lia;l lie veated in a CoogreM composed 
 "1 i«'i llmnilHTi, one of Nitional Depiitie* and 
 ihf oilier of Ueoaton of the Provinces and of the 
 capiuL 
 
 Chapter I. 
 
 Article 37. The Chamber of Depiitiei shall 
 be c<)in|H«e<i of representatives elccutt clire<-tly 
 I; Ihf [leople of the Provinces, for which imr- 
 |«»« wh on? ahall be c<>aaidere<l ai a sinirlv 
 tlwloral ilUtrict, and by a simple plurality of 
 TilM In the ratio of one for each 3().0UO inliabit- 
 uiu, or for a fraction not less than 10,000. 
 
 Art 38. The depuii.a for the flmt Ix-gisla 
 turcflmll I,, nominated In the following pniiw 
 tl.>n f„r III,. I'nivinceof Huenn Aires, twelve 
 f.;r thai of (onlohs. six; for CaUmarca. thrte; 
 l"rr1.nt.i. f„i,r, Entre-Kloa, two; Jujul, two; 
 MewloM, three; Uioja. two; Salta. thrto; 8an- 
 Bsf'. f ur, 8«r Juan, two; 8anta-F6, two; San 
 LUM, Iwo; -- -■ 
 
 ; aiK. .or that of Tucunin, tbna. 
 
 Art. 39. For the second Legislature a general 
 census shall be Ulten, and the number of Depu- 
 ■ .."f •*«"'•«•<• by it; thereafter, this census 
 shall he <iecennlaL 
 
 Art. 4a No person shall b« a Deputy who 
 shall not liuve altainol tha age of twenty Ave 
 years, have been four years in the exercise of cili 
 icnship. siul bo a native of the Proviucv which 
 elfcu liiin, or a resident of it for the two years 
 lmme<liulely preceding. t 
 
 Art. 41. For the flrat election, the provincial 
 legislature shall reguUte the methoil for a 
 direct election of the National Deputies. Con- 
 gress siiali pua a general law for the future. 
 
 Art. 43. The Deputies shsll hold their place 
 for four years, and sre re-eiigib'-i; but the House 
 shall be nneweil each biennial, by halves; for 
 I'hich purpose tlioae elected to the first Legisla- 
 ture, as s<ion la the session opens, shall <lecide by 
 lot who slwll leave at the end of the first period. 
 Art. S3. In case of vacancy, the Oovemment 
 of the Province or of the capital, shall call an 
 election for a new member. 
 
 Art. 44. The origination of the Ux biws and 
 those for the recruiting of troops, belongs exclu- 
 sively lo tlie House of Deputies. 
 
 Art. 45. n has the sole right of impeaching 
 before the Senate, the Preaident Vice Prcsiden' 
 their Ministers, and the members of the Hiiprcme 
 Court ami other inferior Tribunals of the .Nation, 
 in suits which may be unileruken sir.iinst Hieiu 
 for tiic improper diacliarge of. or tlelleiency in, 
 the exercise of their functions; or for common 
 crimes, sfter having heard them, and declared by 
 a vote of Iwo thirds of the members present 
 that there is cause for proceeding sgainst them. 
 
 Chapter II. 
 
 Article 46. The Senate shall be composed of 
 two Senators from each Province, chosen by the 
 Legislatures tliereof by plurality of vote, sml two 
 fsDin tlic capital elected in the form preacribeil 
 for the election of the Pri'sident of the Nation. 
 Esch Senator shall have one vote. 
 
 Art. 47. No person sliall be a Senator who 
 shall mil have attained tlie age of thirty years, 
 been six years a citizen of the Nation, enjoy an 
 annual rent or Income of twi thoUHsnil hanl 
 dollars, and be a native of the Province «•' ich 
 clecu him, or a resident of tlie same for the two 
 years inimedistely precedinir 
 
 Art, 48. The Senat4irs shall enjoy their trust 
 for nine years, and are indefinitely n- eligible; 
 but the Senate aliall be renewed by thinis each 
 three years, and shall decide by lot. as amm as 
 they Ik- nil re-iinitiHi. who ahall leave at the end 
 of the Unit and aectmd triennial periiHia 
 
 Art. 49. The Viccl'resiilent of the Nation ahall 
 lie I'resiiient of the Senate; but shall have 00 
 vote, < xcept in a case of a tie. 
 
 Art. 5a The Senate shall choose a IVaident 
 pft) lemporv who aiiall preside during the nliaence 
 of tlie \ ice President, or wlien he ahall exercise 
 the ortlce of Pn-siilent of the Nation. 
 
 Art. 51. The S«-iiate shall have sole power to 
 try nil irii|««rhmeut« prcsenleil by the llouac of 
 Depiilleit. When sitting for that ptir|MMe they 
 shall Ik' iiniler rath. \Vhen the President of tlie 
 Nation ia tried, the Chief Justice shall preside. 
 No iK'raon shall be convicted without the ttm- 
 currence of two thinis of the members present 
 
 Art. 5a. .ludgment in caae of im|ieai'hiiient 
 shall not eiuud farther than to removal (rum 
 
 627 
 
coNSTirtrrioN: aroentinb republic, constitution: argentine repubuc. 
 
 nfflce, and disqualtflcstion to hold and enjoy any 
 _oi /v . .. , ■ gallon 
 
 U" 
 
 U 
 
 'fV 
 
 office of honor, truBt, or profit under the 
 But the party convicted shall, nererthefeM, be 
 liable to indictment, trial, judgment and punish- 
 ment according to taw, before the onlinarv tribu- 
 nals 
 
 Art. S3. It belongs, moreover, to the Senate, 
 to authorize the President to declare martial taw 
 In one or more poinU of the Republic, In case of 
 fon'ign aggression. 
 
 Aft. 54. When any seat of a Senator be va- 
 cant by death, resignation or other reason, the 
 Oovenimont to whlcTi the vacancy belongs, shall 
 lmme<ilatcly proceed to the election of a new 
 member. 
 
 Chapter III. 
 Article 55. Both Chambers shall meet to oidl- 
 nary wssion, every year from the 1st May until 
 the 3(ltli September. They can be extraordi- 
 narily convoked, or their session be prolooired by 
 the President of the Nation. 
 
 Art. 56. Each House shall be the judge of 
 the fieri inns, returns, and qualiflcatloca of lu 
 own members. Neither of them shall enter Into 
 session without an absolute majority of Its mem- 
 l)ers ; but a smaller number may compel absent 
 memlH'nt to attend the sessions, in such terms 
 and under such penalties as each House may es- 
 tablish. 
 
 Art. 57. Both Houses shall begin and close 
 their wsHions simultaneously. Neither of them 
 whilst in sessions can suspend iti meetings for 
 more than three days, without the consent of the 
 other 
 
 Art. 58. Each Rouse mav make lu rules of 
 pHM-eeding. and with the iimcurrence of two- 
 tlilnls punish its members for disorderly behavior 
 in the exiTrlse of their functions, or remove, and 
 even ex|Ml ihem from the House, for physical or 
 moral innipiwity occurring »ft<'r their Incorpora- 
 tlt.ii ; 1)111 II majority of one almvo one half of 
 the niemln'm present, almll suHlce to decide ques- 
 tions of vcilunlary nnignatlon. 
 
 Art. 59. In the act of their incorporation the 
 Senators and Deputies shall take an oath to 
 properly fulfil tli.-ir chnrp', and to act In all 
 thinifs in conformity to the prescriptirns of this 
 ConHtiiulion. 
 
 Art. 60. No member of Congress can be In- 
 alct<il. ludlrially Intermgatetl, or molesteil for 
 any (>|iiiiion or discoume wlilrh he may have 
 utKrni In fiilfllment of bis IxKislatlve duties. 
 
 Art. 61. No Henator or IJeputy during the 
 term fi.r which he may have been elected, shall 
 bearnste.!, except when taken 'in flagrante' com- 
 mlMloii (if some crime which merits capital pun- 
 ishment or other drgrailinK sentence; an account 
 thereof sliiill lie rendin^l to the Chamber ho be- 
 lonifM 1.1, with a verluil process of the facta 
 . Art. 6a. When a complaint In writing b«! maile 
 liefopi- the onlinary court* against any Hj-nator 
 or IVpiity each Chamlier can by a two thinia 
 vote, sii.|M.rid the accu».il In hi* fimctions and 
 Placi- him at the dispoajtioo of the competent 
 Juilge for trial 
 
 Art. 63, Kach of the Chamhera cao cause the 
 Minlsli<rs of the Gxerutlve 10 come to their Hall 
 to gii. siirh eiplaoations or Infonnatloo ■• nu 
 be ciiii-tdererl movenlent. 
 
 Art. «4. No member of CoognM can neelve 
 any pom or eommlsalon from the Executive with- 
 out the previous consent of bla rapactlTt Cham- 
 
 628 
 
 ber, excepting such as are to the line of promo- 
 
 Art. 65. The regular ecclesiastics cannot be 
 members of Congress, nor can the Governors of 
 Provinces represent the Province wliicU thev 
 govern. " 
 
 Art. M. The Senators and Deputies shall he 
 reinunerated for their services, by a compensation 
 to be ascertained by law. 
 
 Ch«pt«r IV. 
 . ^'f'* *7* "^^ Congress shall have power _ 
 
 '•■7^°.. ,*'''■•* "P"" "'<' Custom- Hoiws and ej. 
 tabllsh Import duties; which, as well as all an 
 pralsemento for their rollecllon, slmll Ix- unifomi 
 throughout the Nation, it U'ingclcarlv unilirstdod 
 that these, as well as all other natioiial oontrihu- 
 liofis can be paid In any money at the just value 
 which may be current In the respective Provinns 
 Also, to establish export duties. 8. Tolaydirvct 
 taxes for determinate pcriixis, whenever the com- 
 mon defense and general welfare requir. it 
 which shall be uniform throughout tlie teminrv 
 of the Natl<m, 8. To Iwrrow money on the 
 credit of the Nation. 4. To determine the use 
 and sale of the National lands. S. To estahllsh 
 and regutate a National Bank In the capital with 
 branches In the IVovlnces, and with power to 
 emit bills. 6. To regulate the payment of the 
 home and foreign debts of the Nation. 7 T.i 
 annually determine the estimates of the is'ational 
 .Administration, and approve or rejeet the ao- 
 couiits of exp«nscs. 8. To grant sulisiilies fmm 
 the National Treasury to those l*rovinces whose 
 revenues, according to their budgets, ilo not ml. 
 flee to cover the ordinary expenses. 9. To ft>"i 
 late the free navigation of tlie Interior rivit?, 
 open such porta as may lie consldcre<l niressary 
 cn-ate and suppri'sa Custom Houses. Imt without 
 suppressing those which existed in each Province 
 at the time of ita Incorporation. 10 To coin 
 money, regulate tha value thereof ami of fonipi 
 coin, and adopt a uniform system of « eights and 
 measures for the wlx c Nation. II. To <lemt 
 civil, commercial, pe-al and mining Co-lcs. but 
 such Ccxles shall have no power to ilmnife loc.il 
 iurisdlction ; their applicatCin shall Islonif to the 
 Federal or Provincial courta, in Hceonlmice with 
 such things or persona as may come umhr ihdr 
 respective jurisdiction ; es|Ki'liillv. jreneml laws 
 embniciiig the whole Nation, slialf N' |iii,s»eil upon 
 naturalization and citizenship, suhj^rt to the 
 principle of native citizenship; also ,iii.m bank- 
 ruptcy, the counU'rfeiting of ciirniii momv mv\ 
 liublic HtatedcH'umenta; anil siieli Uwi ii« nmy 
 be rel|llir(^l for the estnlilMinunl of lri;il by 
 Jury. 13. To regulate conmieriv bv buifl :iiid 
 sen with foreign nations, ami lietwit 11 lii.' I'mv 
 Inces. 18. To establish and rnruhil.' ib. ci mrsl 
 IMisloffleesand lusit nmdsof the NhiImii H To 
 llnally settle the National iKiiiniliiriii. (1.x ih.M 
 of the Provinci's, cn-ate new Piovim . «, ami ili'- 
 
 Icrmine by a B|iecial legislntlon, tl ri;ani«nt|nn 
 
 and gorcmmenta, which such Nallonul iirritorlii 
 as are liryond tlie limits aaslgneil to the I'rovluiY, 
 should have. IS. To provide for tlir «.< iirilv "t 
 the frontiers; preserve peaiefiil riliiibmi with 
 the Indians, and pntinoie thilr ouivi n-lou u 
 Calhollelsm. 16 To pMvlde all lliinirs eondu- 
 cive to the pmspcrlty of the cinmtrv. to the kI- 
 vancement and happlnesB of the l*ri>viMii>s. sad 
 to the locreiie of enlightenment, ilecreelnif plsni 
 for geiMnl aad uatvtnily lastrucUon. pn»uuUa| 
 
CONBTITUTION: ARGBNTmB RKPCBUC. CONSTmJTlON: AROENTINE REPCBLIC. 
 
 taiduitiy, ImmlgntioD, the construction of niil- 
 wiys, and navigable canab, the peopling of the 
 Kattonal lands, the introduction and establish- 
 ment of new industries, the importation of for- 
 eign capital and the exploration of the interior 
 riven, by protection laws to these ends, and by 
 temporary concessions and stimulating recom- 
 penaes. 17. To constitute tribunals inferior to 
 the Supreme Court, create and suppress public 
 ofScei, fix their attributes, grant pensions, decree 
 honors and gencnl amnesties. 18. To accept or 
 reject the resignation of the President or Vice- 
 President of the Republic, and declare new elec- 
 tions: to make the scrutiny and rectification of 
 the same. 19. To ratify or reject the treaties 
 made with other Nations and the Concordats with 
 the Apostolic See, and regulate the patronage of 
 advowsona throughout the Nation. 20. To admit 
 religious orders within the Nation, other than 
 tho9e already existing. 21. To authorize the 
 Executive to declare war and make peace. 22. 
 To grant letters of marque and reprisal, and to 
 make rules concerning prizes. 23. To fix the 
 laul and sea forces in time of peace and war : and 
 to make rules and regulations for the government 
 of Mid forces. 24. To provide for calling forth 
 the roilltia of all, or a part of, the Provinces, to 
 ciecuto the laws of the Nation, suppress inaur- 
 rectlons or repel invasions. To provide for or- 
 ganizing, arming, and disciplining said militia, 
 and for governing such part of them as may be 
 empkivcd in the service of the Nation, reserving 
 to tlicl*rovlnces respectively, the appointment of 
 the cdrriKponding chiefs and otHcers, and tliv au- 
 thority ij( tndning the militia according to the 
 diiicl|)llue prescribed by Cinign-iis. 2!i. To p«T- 
 mit Ibe introduction of foreign troops witliln lb" 
 terriuiry of the Nation, and tlie goiuif iH'ymid It 
 of tlie National forces. 2S. To declare mnrtlul 
 law In any or various points of the Nation in 
 csK of domestic commotion, and ratify or sus- 
 pend the declaration of iuartial law made by the 
 executive during the recess. 27. Tn exerriae ex- 
 cluilve legislation over Oie territory of the Na- 
 tional laprtal. and over such other plarri* acmiired 
 I))' pun hase or cession In any of the I'rovinci'S, 
 for llie i)ur|H)Sc of establishing forts, iiPM'nals, 
 wan-Uouws. or otlier ntixiful national buildings. 
 W. To make all laws and regulatious which slmli 
 be m-o'iisary for carrying intu execution tlie fore- 
 going powers, and all others vested by the pres- 
 ent Cuui<titutltiu tn the Qovemment of the Ar- 
 gentine Nation. 
 
 Chapter V. 
 
 Article M. Laws may originate In either of 
 ilio lltiuMS of Congress, by hiiia presented by 
 llitir luiinbers or by the Exwutlve, excepting 
 those n-lmlve to the objecU treated of in Art. 441 
 
 Art. tf. A bill being apnrovetl by the House 
 wbcniii It originateil, shall pass for diwussiDii 
 I" the Dilur House. Being appniviil liy Inrth. it 
 •hull iiHsH to tlie Exeetilivu of tlie Nation for his 
 eiiuniimilon, and should it receive his approba- 
 tion be xball publUh It as law. 
 
 Art. 70. tvery bill not relume<l within ten 
 workliiK It.vs by the Executive, shall bo ukeuas 
 apiiniv,,! liy him. 
 
 Art. 71, No bill entirely rejected by one 
 Houw, can be presented again during that year. 
 Bui ulii.uld it be only ampintrd or corrected by Uie 
 retWng House. It shall return tn that wherein 
 K'.:f:£trat;:d, and if limit) Um aJUlliuus ur cur- 
 
 '* 629 
 
 rcctions be approved by an absolute majority, 
 it shall pass to the Executive. If the additions 
 or corrections be reiected, it shall return to the 
 revising House, and if here they be again sanc- 
 tioned DT a majority of two-thirds of its mem- 
 bers, it iball pass to the other House, and It shall 
 not be understood that the said additions and 
 correctioiu are rejected, unless two-thirds of the 
 membera present should so vote. 
 
 Art. 7a. A bin being rejected in whole or In 
 part by the Executive, he shall return it with his 
 objections to the House in which it originated; 
 here it shall be debated again ; and if it be con- 
 firmed by a majority of two-thirds, it shall pass 
 again to the revising House. If both Houses 
 should pass tt by the same majority, it Kcomea 
 a law, and shall be sent to the Executn-e for 
 promulgation. In such case the votes of both 
 H luses shall be by yeas and nays, aad the names 
 of the persons so voting shall be recorded, as 
 well as the objections of the Executive, and shall 
 be immediately published in the daily-press. If 
 the House* dufer upon the objections, the bill 
 cannot be renewed during that year. 
 
 Art. 73. The following formula shall be used 
 in the passage of the laws: "The Senate and 
 Chamber of Deputies of the Argentine Nation in 
 Congress assembled, etc.. decree, or sanction, 
 with the force of law." 
 
 Section II.— Chapter I. 
 
 Article 74. The Executive power of the Na- 
 tion shall be exerclscii by a citizen, with the title 
 of "President of the Argentine Nation." 
 
 Art. 75. In case of the sickness, abNcncc from 
 the capital, death, resignation or dismlssnl of the 
 President, the Executive power shall l)e exer- 
 cised by tlie Vice-President of the Nation. In 
 case of the removal, death, resignation, or in- 
 ability of the President and Vicc-ftesldentof the 
 Nation, Congress will determine which public 
 functionary shall then fill the Presidency, until 
 the disability be removed or a new President be 
 elected. 
 
 Art. 76. No person except a natural-bom citi- 
 zen or a son of a naturai-lxim citizen brought 
 forth abroad, shall lie eligible as President or 
 Vice-President of the Naliiin ; he is reiiuiriKl to 
 liclong to the Apostoliciioman-Catliollc 00m- 
 munion, and posxess tlie otlier qualifications re- 
 quired to be elected Senator 
 
 Art. 77. The IVsident and Vice Pnaldrnt 
 shall hold office during the term of six years; 
 and cannot be re-electetl except after an iuttrval 
 of an equal period. 
 
 Art. 71. The President of the Nation "hall 
 cease in hi* functions the very day on whicli his 
 period of six years expires, and no event what- 
 ever which may have iut«rrupted It, can lie a 
 mntlve for complelliig it at a later time. 
 
 Art. 70. The Prcsl.ieiit and Vice-President 
 shall receive a compeiinatlon from the Nntloual 
 Treasury, which cannot Ik> altered during the 
 
 Feriod for which they shall have been elected, 
 luring the same peri<id they cannot exirelse any 
 other office nor receive any other eimilument 
 from the Nation, or aor of its Provinces. 
 
 Aft. lo. Tlie Presldint and Vice I'naident be 
 fore entering upon tlie execution of thiir ollires, 
 shall take the following oath administered bv the 
 Prtvident of the Senate (the first time by the 
 President of the Constituent Congress) in Con- 
 gress aasembiixi; "i tsuch an use; swuar ij 
 
CONSTirUTION : ABQENTINE REPUBLIC. CONSTITUTION : ABOKNTINE REPUBUfl 
 
 Art. 8s. The election of the President aai 
 'reside-' -*"■--" " • ■■ ■ 
 
 W i I 
 
 God our Lord, and by these Holy Evangelists, 
 that I will faithfully and patriotically execute 
 the office of President (or Vice-President) of the 
 Nation, and observe and cause to lie faithfully 
 obBcrve<I, the Constitution of the Argentine Na- 
 tion. If I should not do so, let Ood and the 
 Nation indict me." 
 
 Chapter II. 
 Article St. The election of the President and 
 Vice-President of the Nation, shall be made in 
 the following manner: — The capital and each of 
 the Provinces shall by direct vote nominate a 
 board of electors, double the number of Depu- 
 ties and Senators which they send to Congress, 
 with the same qualifications and under the same 
 form as those prescribed for the election of Depu- 
 ties. Deputies or Senators, or olflcers in the pay 
 of the Federal Oovemment cannot be electors. 
 The electors being met in the National-caplul 
 and in that of their respective Provinces, four 
 months prior to the conclusion of the term of 
 the out-going President, they shall proceed by 
 signed ballow, to elact a President, and Vice- 
 President, one of which shall state the person as 
 President, and the other the person as Vice-Presi- 
 dent, for whom they vote. Two lisU shall be 
 made of all the individuals elected as President, 
 and other two also, of those elected as Vice- 
 Pri'siilent, with the number of votes which each 
 may have received. These lists shall be signed 
 by till- electors, and shall be remitted closed and 
 scaled, two of them (one of each kind) to the 
 President of the Provincial Legislature, and to 
 the President of the Municipality in the capital, 
 among whose reconls they shall remain deposited 
 and closed ; the other two shall be sent to the 
 Presiilent of the Senate (the first time to the 
 President of th j Constituent Congress). 
 
 Art. 83. Thj President of the Henate (the 
 first tinii' that of the Constituent Congress) all 
 the li»t« lieiug received, shall open them in the 
 presi'iice of both Uouses. Four members of 
 Congress taken by lot and associated to the Secre- 
 taries, sliall Immediately proceed to count tlio 
 votes, and to announce the number which may 
 result in favor of oath cjindlilate for the Pn-gf- 
 deniy and Vice-Presidency i,f the Nation. Those 
 who have received an alwolute majority of all 
 the votes in both cases, shall be immediately pro- 
 claimed I>resident and Vice-President. 
 
 Art. 83. In case there be no absolute ma- 
 jority, on account of a division of the votes. Con- 
 fTvM shall elect one of the two persons who shall 
 iuve received the highest numlmrof votes. If 
 the flrst majority should have fallen to a single 
 penuin. and the soomd to two or more, Congresa 
 shall elect among all the persons who may hav 
 olitJiini'd the first and second majorities. 
 
 Art. 84. This eh'Ction sball lie made by abso- 
 luU> piurullly of votes, and voting liy name. If. 
 on ciiumliig the first vote, no alisolutc majority 
 shall have Tieen oblaine)!, a second trial slull be 
 maiii', limiting the voting to the two |H'rsons 
 who shall have olitainiil the greatest numlier of 
 sultrages ut the Bret trial. lu casa- of an eiiuul 
 number of votes, the operation shall lie repealetl, 
 and hIhiuIiI tlie result lie It:.; same, then the Presl- 
 drnl of the .Senate (the flrat time that of the Con- 
 slitiiint ( iingreas) nhall decide It, No scrutiny 
 or netilliaHiiu of these elections can he maile, 
 unlcMi three-fourth parts of all the members of 
 the L'uiigreaa hv priJKBt. 
 
 Vice-President of the Nation, shall be concluae, 
 in a single meeting of the Congress, and there 
 after, the result and the electoral lists shall h 
 published in the daily-preaa. 
 
 Chapter III. 
 Article 8& The President of the Nation hai 
 the foUowhig attributes;—!. He is the supremf 
 chief of the Nation, and la charged with tlit 
 general administration of the countrj-. 2. Ht 
 tsaues such instructions and regulations as mat 
 be necessary for the execution of the laws of thj 
 Nation, taking care not to alter their spirit with 
 regulative exceptions. 8. He is the immediate 
 and local chief of the National capital. 4. Ue 
 partlcipatea in making the laws acconliug to tlie 
 Constitution; and sanctions and promulgates 
 them. S. He nominates the Judges of tlie Su. 
 preme Court and of the Inferior FiHlcral tri- 
 bunals, and appointa them by and with tlie con- 
 sent and advice of the Senate. 8. He lias power 
 to pardon or commute penalties against (iflccrs 
 subject to Federal Jurisdiction, preceded by a 
 report of the proper Tribunal, eiceptlnir in case 
 of Impeachment by the House of Depu' ■». 7 
 He granU retiring-penaions, leaves of jljsence 
 and pawnbrokers' licences, in conformity to tlie 
 laws of the Nation. 8. He exere'ises the rigliu 
 of National Patronage in the preseniutinn o( 
 Bishops for the cathedrals, choosing from a ter- 
 nary nomination of the Senate. 9. He granU 
 letters- patent or reiains the decrees of the Coun- 
 cils, the bulls, briefs and re'scripta of ilie Holy 
 Romap Pontiff, by and with the consent of the 
 Supreme Court, and mtut require a law for tlie 
 same when they contain general and |Hrinaiieot 
 dlspoaitlons. 10. He appotnU and removes llin- 
 Istem Plenipotentiary and Charge d'AlTaires, b/ 
 and with f'vj consent and advice of tin Senate; 
 and himself alone appointa and lemuves tUe Min- 
 isters of hia Cabinet, the officers of the ISicretary- 
 ships. Consular Agents, and the ri'st of tlie em- 
 ployes of the Administration vliow- numiiiation 
 Is not otherwise ordained by this Coiuiiiuiioa 
 11. He annually opens the Sessions of t'oiiKreM, 
 both Houses being united for this pur|».se lu tlie 
 Senate Chamber, giving an account to t'ougreaa 
 00 this occasion of the state of the Nittiun. of 
 the reforms provided by the Constitution, and 
 recommending to ita consideration such ineaauiei 
 as may lie Judgwl necessary and convcnic nt. 12, 
 He prolongs the onlinary meetings of Cungreii 
 or convokes It in extra session, wluii a (|iie»lkia 
 of progress or an imixirtant Intenst mi ri'iulres, 
 18. He collects the renta of the Nation iiml de- 
 crees their expenditun' in conformity to tin- law 
 or estimates of tlie Public exixnsi's 14. He 
 negotiate! and signs thoae trpatle,<< u( [x-aee, a( 
 commerce, of navigation, of alliance, ut Imunda- 
 ries and of neutrality, requisite to nutiuuua 
 g(«id nlallons with foreign Iwiwers; lie nceives 
 their .MinisU'n and adniltii their I'lmxiils. I'i lie 
 Is commander in chief of all the sen unit laotl 
 forees of the Nation. 18. He i"n(ip<. I'V aiiJ 
 with the consent of the Si'nate. tlie bliili ii'llltsrjr 
 gnulea in the army and navy of the Nation; and 
 by himself on the field of liattle. 17. He dia- 
 poaes of the land and S(« fnrce*, and lakes 
 charge of their organization and diairilnition tc- 
 coniiug to the requirements of the Niiiioii. ID. 
 Hy tlie authority and approval of Conttreas. Its 
 ik-i-lanm «.»r and gnwts letters of Biiir'jMi: aa4 
 
 630 
 
CONSTITUTION : AHQBNTIKE REPUBLIC. CONSTITUTION : ARGENTINE REPUBUC. 
 
 reprlnl. 18. B" and with the conient of tlie 
 Senate, in case oiF foreign aggression and for a 
 limited time, he declares martial law in one or 
 more points of the Nation. In case of internal 
 commotion he has this power only when Congress 
 to in recess, because it is an attribute which be- 
 longs to this body. The President exercises it 
 under the limitations mentioned in Art 23. 20. 
 He may require from the chiefs of all the 
 branches and aepartments of the Administration, 
 and tliruugli them from all other employ^, such 
 reports RS he may believe necessary, and they 
 arc compelled to give them. 21. He cannot ab- 
 sent himself from the capital of the Nation with- 
 out permission of Congress. During the recess 
 be can only do so without permission on account 
 of important objects of public service. 22. The 
 President sliall have power to fill all vacancies 
 that may happen during the recess of the Senate, 
 by granting commissions, which shall expire at 
 the end of their next session. 
 
 Chapter IV. 
 
 Article 87. Five Minister-Secretaries; to wit, 
 of the Interior; of Foreign Affairs; of Finance: 
 til Justice, Worslilp and Public Instruction ; and 
 of War and the Navjr; shall have under their 
 charge the dispatch of National affairs, and they 
 ihall counter-sign and legalize tlic acts of the 
 President liy means of their signatures, without 
 which requisite they shall not \k etScacious. A 
 law shall determine the respective duties of the 
 Ministei's. 
 
 Art 88. Each Minister Is responsible for the 
 sets wliicli he legalizes, and collectively, for 
 those which he agrees to with his colleagues. 
 
 Art. 89. The Ministers cannot determine any- 
 thing whatever, by themselves, except what ciin- 
 cems the economical and admlnistra*ivc r<ginien 
 of their respective Departme:ils. 
 
 Art. 90. As soon as C'oujr'ess peuS. 'he Min- 
 isters shall present to It a detudLif repoif of the 
 State »f the Nation. In all that relates to tiicir 
 respective Departments. 
 
 Art. 91. They cannot be Senators or Deputies 
 wlthnut realitning their places as Ministers. 
 
 Art. 93, The Ministc-s can assist at the meet- 
 lni.'4 of Congress and take part in iu debates, 
 bu' ii.y cannot vote. 
 
 Art 93. They shall receive for their services a 
 cnmpeusaiion estalillshed bylaw, which shall not 
 be Increamil or diminished, iu favor or against, 
 the actual Incumbents. 
 
 Section III.— Chapter I. 
 
 Article 94. The Judicial Power of the Nation 
 ihall lie exenlsed by a Supreme Court of Justin', 
 ami liy >uih other inferior Tribunals as Congress - 
 m»v estiilillsh wllliin the dominion of the Nation. 
 
 Art. 95. The President of the Nation cannot 
 In any ease whatever, exercise Judicial powers, i 
 arrogate to himself any knowKilge of pending 
 causes, or reopen those which Imve terminatetf 
 
 Art. 06. The Judges of tin .'Supreme Court 
 sad nf the lower Nallonal-Triliunals, shall ket'p , 
 their pliiees quamdiu ae bene gesserit, and shall 
 »K»lvi fur their servUcs • ctinipensation deter- ' 
 mine.! l.y law, which shall not Iw diminished In 
 snv Manner whatever during their continuance i 
 " 'ilice, 1 
 
 Art. 97. No one con be a memlK-r of the 8u- 1 
 prime Court of Justice, imleaa he shall have h«.n I 
 •a .Uuruey at law of the Watlon for eight years, j 
 
 and shall possess the qualifications required for a 
 Senator. 
 
 Art. 98. At the first installation of the Supreme 
 Court, the individuals appointed shall take an 
 oath administered by the President of tlie Nation, 
 to discharge their functions, by the good and legal 
 administration of Justice according to the pre- 
 scriptions ot this Constitution. Thereafter, tlie 
 oath shall be taken before the President of the 
 Court itself. 
 
 Art. 09. The Supreme Court shall establish 
 its own Internal an(f economical regulations, and 
 shall appoint its subaltern employ^. 
 
 Chapter II. 
 Article 100. The Judicial power of the Su- 
 preme Court and the lower National-Tribunals, 
 shall extend to all cases arising under this Con- 
 stitution, the laws of the Nation with the reserve 
 made In clause 11 of Art. 67, and by treaties with 
 foreign nations; to all cases affecting ambassa- 
 dors, public Ministers and foreign Consuls; to 
 all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; 
 to controversies to which the Nation shall be 
 
 Party; to controversies between two or more 
 rovinces; between a Province and the citizens 
 of another; between the citizens of dilTerent 
 Provinces; and between a Province or ito citi- 
 zens, against a foreign State or citizen. 
 
 Art. tot. In these cases the Supreme Court 
 shall exercise an appelate jurisdiction according 
 to such rules and exceptions as Congress may 
 prescribe; but In all cases affecting amba-ssadors, 
 ministers and foreign consuls, or those in which 
 a Province shall bo a party, it shall exercise 
 original and exclusive jurisiiiction. 
 
 Art. 102. The trial of all ordinary crimes ex- 
 cept in cases of Impeachment, shall tenninate by 
 jury, so soon as this institution be established in 
 the Uepublic. These trials sliall be held in the 
 same Province where the crimes shall have been 
 committed, but when not committal within the 
 frontiers of the Nation, but against International 
 Law, Congress shall determine by a special law 
 the place where the trial shall take effect. 
 
 Art. 103. Treason against the Nation shall 
 only consist In levying war against it, or In ad- 
 hering to Its enemies, giving them aid and com- 
 fort. Congress sliall fix by a special law the 
 punishment of trea.s<)n ; but it cannot go b<>vond 
 the iierson of the criminal, and r.' attainder of 
 treason shall work corruption of blood to relatives 
 of any grade whatever. 
 
 Art. 104. The Provlno's keep all the powers 
 not delegated liy this Constitution to the Federal 
 Government, and those which were expressly re- 
 served by special compacu at the time of their 
 iuei rporation. 
 
 Art. 105. They create the'r own local Inatttu- 
 lliins and are governed by these. They elect 
 their own Governors, theirliegislators and other 
 Pnivlnilal functionaries, without iutcrveutioD 
 from the Federal Government. 
 
 Art. 106, Kach Pn>vince shall make its own 
 Constitution in conformity with the dispositions 
 of Art 5. 
 
 Art. 107. The Provinces with the consent of 
 ('(ingress can celebrate contracts among thcm- 
 wlves for the purposes of administering ju.stlce 
 and promoting economical interests and worksof 
 cimimim utility, and also, can pass protective 
 |.iw« fnr the pur«M»e with their own n-snuTm 
 of promoting manufactures, Immlgntion, the 
 
 dSl 
 
m 
 
 l'< »! 
 
 CONSTITUTION : ABGENTLNE RBPUBUtt CONSTITUTION : AUSTRU-HUNQARy. 
 
 building of railways and canals, the peopling of 
 their lands, the introduction and establishment 
 of new industries, the import of foreign-capital 
 and the exploration of their rivers. 
 
 Art. io8. The Provincea cannot exercise any 
 powers delegated to the NaUon. They cannot 
 celebrate compacU of a political character, nor 
 maltc laws on commerce or internal or external 
 navigation; nor establish Provincial Custom- 
 Houses, nor coin monev. nor establish Banks of 
 emission, without authority of Congress; nor 
 make civil, commercial, penal or mining Codes 
 after Congress shall have sanctioned those pro- 
 vided for in this Constitution; nor pass laws 
 upon citizenship or naturalization ; bankruptcy 
 counterfeiting money or public Statedocumenta '; 
 nor u»y tonnage dues; nor arm vessels of war or 
 
 m 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE AUSTRH. 
 HUNGARIAN EMPIRE.-l".7a g™!K 
 couut of the Ausgleioh or airreement uiul.-r 
 which the duality of Uie Austro Hungarian Em- 
 pire was arranged In lmi7, sec Austiua : A 1) 
 lS86-lSUr, and 1866-18S7. The following de- 
 scribes the principal featuresof the constitutiouui 
 orgiiiuzation of the empire: "The emperor has 
 an absolute veto on all measuiea in all of the 
 three parliaments after named. He can also 
 •Iis»)lve any of them. The legisUtivo and a<l- 
 ■.ini.<trali;c assemblies of the empire are four 
 in number, viz. : (I). The Delegatlonen, whi( h 
 is ilie imperial parliament (8). The Belchsratli 
 and the Ik-ichstag, which are the parliaments 
 for Austria pn)p<'r and Hungary respectively 
 (3). The Landtag, which is the parliament for 
 the prci mees of the empire of Austria. (4), Tlie 
 Oemeinilerath or thi' Oemeindeausschuss, which 
 are the coimriLs of the communes, but they have 
 no legislative fuiietions proper." The Delega- 
 tlonen. or imperial parliament of the d lal em- 
 pire, "acts a.s one House, but meets In two 
 cliamliers or bmiies, one for Austria and one for 
 Hungary Kacli chamber lias 60 members, com- 
 posed of 20 iiieiiiU.rs elected from Uie upper 
 house of each part of the united empire, and 40 
 from the lower. It is electiil for one vcar only 
 The chambers of the ini[wrial parliament niel't 
 at the same time and In the same place alter- 
 nately in Austria and Hungary, and. as a rule 
 in file cities of Vienna and Buda-Pcsth They 
 legislate for the united empire on (1) ''s foreign 
 policy (2) its finances, (») lu army and navy 
 and (4) for the affairs of Bosnia and Ilerzel 
 govliia as they have no Landtag of tlieir own 
 A luiiilsler of state for each of the first three of 
 these niatU'rs controls Its departments, while the 
 fourth Is under the management of th.' common 
 finance minister. The ministers arc apis.lnted 
 bv tJie emperor after consultation with leailers 
 of partl(|s. The presidents of the Delegatlonen 
 as also the vie presidenw, must be members of 
 tlie 1 lumlK-rs, butlhev n-celve no ip.'clal salarv 
 They are il,.,i.sl by tile members. Each chaiii 
 bir meets siparaielv. and discusses the measures 
 4ud bills sulimltusl to it by the ministers of 
 •h te, or by any i.ix of its memben. If both 
 cbambers aitree upon il«. matter iubmitted to 
 tlieni the emperors auiietion is obtained to it 
 an.l It becomes law. If the chambers cannoi 
 agree, after each of them has discussed the mat- 
 ter tline times, upon writu-u communication 
 from the olli.r, a session of both chambers Is 
 convened, and the question i« decided by a 
 
 raise •rmies, save In the case of foreign invadirm 
 or of a danger so imminent tliat It admits of m 
 delay, and tlien an account thereof must be im 
 mediately given to the Federal Oovernnient- or 
 name or receive foreign agenta ; or admit ww-I. 
 ligious orders. " 
 
 Art. 109. No Province can declare or makf 
 war to another Province. Ita complaints must be 
 
 be setUed by it. Hostilities de facto are acts oj 
 civil-war and qualifiefl as seditious and tumultu' 
 ouB, which the General Government must reoreis 
 and suffocate according to law. 
 
 Art. 110. The Provincial Governors ore th« 
 natural agents of the Federal Ooverntmnt to 
 cause the fulHIment of the laws of the Na-ioa: 
 See AbokntinkUkpublic; A D. IStJO-lSDl 
 
 632 
 
 majority of those present, lu,, tliinis of tlie 
 liiembers of the house must, liowevir, in i',,-, 
 case be in atteiidunee. In the ordinary case tiio 
 quorum of each chamber is 30 members. Tlic 
 sittings of the chambers are public, but tliev 
 may be private on the proposition of the prisi 
 ileiit or of five members, and voted upon The 
 chambers are convened by the writ of the em- 
 peror. . . Kach chamber appoints 24 liulEes 
 to hear and determine any et«ai-.s wlilch mav be 
 brought against the ministers of tlie er„«n for 
 breach of power. . . . Two p.r cent, being first 
 •*'** jf """Sary. the balance of the ininiria 
 expenditure is liorne in the proportion of TO mr 
 cent by Austria and 80 per c, nt. by lluiiKaSr 
 tlio former being the wealthier eomilrv 
 1 he Keichsrath [the Austrian purliaineutl 
 consists of two hoiisis — one eall.^l tl,e irerr™ 
 House, or VpiKT House ; the other .all, .1 tl,e 
 Abgeordneten Hoii.se. I. e. the lIoi:se of l),.pu. 
 ties, or the Lower Ilousiv It is ele. ted for m.x 
 years. Tl> ilerren House is compose,! of a) 
 1 rimes of ilie imperial houac, wh,) are majors 
 (2) Chiefs of noble houws, owning larire i^iLes 
 nominated by the cmiM'ror, who, Isim; iiiice 
 uomlnatal, are members for life, uinl their suc- 
 cessors after them, and so tliis class, to some 
 extent. Is one of hcretlitarv legislat,,rs. (:|i \rch. 
 Iiishops and bishops with" the dinnltv of prjua. 
 (4) Men who have distingiiislutl tliems, 1v,m In 
 science, art, commerce, law, ,)r ni(Hli<in,', who 
 are .lominiited by the enineror for life ,111 the 
 advice of the ministers of slate. The'numlicr 
 of members of the Upper Hous.' Is not Hxnl, 
 but it Is aliout 21K). . . . Tl„. Lnw,.r or .\b- 
 Kconineteii House is that of tli,,l, pull, » ilattd 
 by the people, and cinsists of «.-,:) ni, iiLliers. It 
 is elccUxl for six years. The p ,)pl,. vol,, for its 
 members in four classes in tliei,- various prov 
 Inces. The first class are the owners of l«rp? 
 estates, who elect H!i members. . . , The sietmil 
 class arc those who pay five ll,>rins of dlr,i t tsi- 
 atlon in towns, and Iticliules all do, tors of the 
 universities, whi'ther they pay taxi-s ,ir not 
 The towns are gn>U|)ed so an to' give one mem- 
 ber for each group. The groups iiee,l ii,.t be of 
 eqiial size. Thiselass elecU 1 \h memls im The 
 third class Is the chambers of commerte ami in. 
 dustry, which eliTt 9^i inemt«Ts . . The 
 fourth chtss an' the menilurs of llii' inimirv 
 communi-s who pay five rtoriiis of ,lir,,t inxa- 
 tlon. T' ey elect nil memliers. Tli,r,iiiinuiii,» 
 for this purpose atv dlvidisl into groups of .Vki 
 voters, anil a certain number ,)f coinmiiuisniske 
 an ete-jtoral district. . . . The cfcctiuos aa- sat 
 
 
CONSTITDTIOK: AU8TRU-HUN0ART. 
 
 all held on o^e day, and each class votes by 
 itsdf in each province on a particular day. The 
 communes vole first, then the citizens, then the 
 chambers, and then the landowners, all on dif- 
 ferent days. The election takes place in a pub- 
 lic ball, where the voters gather ; and their names 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF BELGIUM. 
 
 being called over, if present, they go up to the 
 presiding officer, and vote orally, or by a cai-d 
 placwl by them in a box. If not present when 
 "'"ed upon, thty can attend and vote later on " 
 --J. P. Coldstream, The Inttitutioni of AuUria, 
 
 On page 2804 of tbii work, under Ksthsb- 
 U5D8 (BsLOiuu): A. D. 1882-1893, there U 
 given some account of the revision of the con- 
 ititution of the kingdom, in 1898, and the pecu- 
 liar new features introduced in its provisions, 
 relative to the elective franchise. The follow- 
 ing ii a translation of the text of the revised 
 conititution: 
 
 Title I. 
 Of the Territory and of iti DiTisient. 
 
 Article I. Belgium Is divided Into provinces, 
 there provinces are: Antwerp, Brabant, West- 
 em Flanders, Eastern Flanders, Huinaut, Liige, 
 Limburg, Luxemburg, Namur. It it the pn- 
 rogative of law, if there is any reason, to divide 
 the territory into a larger number of provinces. 
 Colonies, possessions beyond the seas or pro- 
 tectorates which Belgium miiv acquire, are gov- 
 erned by particular laws. The Belgian forces 
 appointed for their defense car only be recruited 
 by voluntary enlistment. 
 
 Article a. The subdivisions of the provinces 
 can be established only by law. 
 
 Article 3. The boundaries of the SUte. of the 
 provinces and of the communes can be changed 
 or rectified only by a law. 
 
 Title II. 
 Of the BelKiaas and their Rights. 
 
 Article 4. The title Belgian is acquired, pre- 
 served and lost according to the regulations de- 
 termined by civil law. The present Constitution, 
 and otber laws relating t:i political rights, de- 
 termine what are, in addition to such title, the con- 
 ditloDi necensiiry for the exercise of these rights. 
 
 Articles. Naturalization Is granted by the 
 legiilatlve power. The great naturalisation, 
 alone, aasimllates the foreigner to the Belgian 
 for the exercise of political rights. 
 
 Article 6. Tliere is uc distinctloD of orders in 
 th« SUte. Belgians ars equal before the law; 
 they alone are admisslMe to civil and military 
 offices, with surh excepti ms as may be established 
 by law in particular cases. 
 
 Article 7. Individual iilierty is guaranteed. 
 No persnn can be prosecuted except In the cases 
 provided for by law and in the form which the 
 law prescribes. Except in the case of flagrant 
 miidernisnor, no person can be arresteil witliout 
 the onler of a Judge, which must be served at 
 the time of ilie arrest, or, at the latest, within 
 twenty-four hours. 
 
 k.*".!?'* ?• •"*" Pe"<"> am be deprived, against 
 hu will of the judge assigned to him by law. 
 
 Article 9. No punishment can be esubllshsd 
 or sppMi'd exrent by provision of law. 
 
 Article 10. The domicile is inviolable; no 
 (lonilclli,ir>- visit can be made otherwise than In 
 U« cases pr,iv..led for by Uw and in ths form 
 which it prescribes. 
 
 Aide II. No u>rson can be deprived of bis 
 pperty except for public use, in the cases and 
 "planner esUbllshed by law. sad with prior 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF BELGIUM. 
 
 ol 
 
 Article la. The penalty of confiscation 
 goods cannot be imposed. 
 
 Article 13. Civil death U abolished: it cannot 
 be revived. 
 
 Article 14. Religious liberty, public worship, 
 and freedom of expressed opinion in all matters aia 
 guaran teeil, with a reserve for the repression of of • 
 fenses committed in the exercise of these liberties. 
 Article 15. No person can be compelled to 
 Join, in any manner whatsoever, in the acts and 
 ceremonies of any worship, nor to observe Ita 
 days of rest. 
 
 Article 16. The State has no right to interf' re 
 In lie appointment nor in the instellation c' the 
 ministers of any religion, nor to forbid them to 
 correspond with their superiors and to publish 
 their acts under the ordinary responsibility of 
 publication. Civil marriage shall always pre- 
 cede the nuptial benediction, with the exceptions 
 to be prescribed by law in case of need. 
 
 Article 17. Teaching is free; all preventive 
 measures are forbidden: the repression of 
 offenses is regulated only by law. Public in- 
 struction given at the expense of the State is also 
 regul.ited by liiw. 
 
 Article 18. The press Is free; censorship can 
 never be reestablished: caution-money from 
 writers, editors or printers cannot be required 
 When the autlior is known and Is a resident of 
 Belgium, the editor, tlie printer or the distributor 
 cannot be prosecuted. 
 
 Article 19. Belgians have the right to meet 
 peaceably and without arms, in conformity with 
 such laws as may regulate the use of their right 
 but without the requirement of a previous 
 authorization. This stipulation dees not apply 
 to open air meetings, which remahi entirely sub- 
 ject to police regulations. 
 
 Article 20. Belgians have the right of associa- 
 tion; this right cannot be subject to any pre- 
 ventive measure. 
 
 Article ai. It Is the right of every person to 
 address to the public authorities petitions signed 
 bv one or several. The ciUMtltuted authorities 
 alone have the right to aJdross pe.ltions in a 
 collective name. 
 
 Article aa. The secrecy of correspondence is 
 inviolable. The law determines who ara the 
 agenw responsible for violation of the secrecy of 
 letters cont^ded to the |«>st. 
 
 Article ai. The use of the languages spoken 
 In Belgium fa opilonal ; it can 1m? prcscHbed only 
 
 by law, and only for acts of public auth- rity 
 and for judicial traiisiwtions. 
 
 Article 34. Noprevi<iusaiithorizatlonisneces- 
 sary for the umlertakliig of proceei.ings against 
 
 fiubllc officials, on arcount of acts in their admln- 
 stratiun, except that which laeLactedcoacerninc 
 ministers. 
 
 Title III. 
 O' Powers. 
 Article 15. All pon-e.-s are derived frjm tba 
 naiiim. They an- i-xcrHwd In the laauter pro- 
 I scribed by the Constitution. 
 
 633 
 
i 
 
 m- ' 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF BELGIUM. 
 
 Article at. Legtslatire power ii exercised col- 
 lectively by ttie King, tbe Ctuunber of Represen- 
 tatives sad ttie Senate. 
 
 Article 37. Ttie initiative lielongs to eacli one 
 of tlie three branches of the legislative power. 
 Nevertheless, all laws relating to the revenue or 
 to the expenditures of the State, or to the con- 
 tingent of the army must be voted first by the 
 Chamber of Representatives. 
 
 Article 38. The interpretation of laws by 
 authority beloui;3 only to tbe legislative power. 
 
 Article 39. The executive power, as regulated 
 by the Constitution, belongs to the King. 
 
 Article 30. The iudicial power is exercised 
 by the courts and tribunals. Decrees and judg- 
 ments are executed in the name of the King. 
 
 Article 31. Interests exclusively communal or 
 provincial, are regulated by tbe communal or 
 provincial councils, according to the principles 
 established by the Constitution. 
 
 Chapter First.— Of The Chamber*. 
 Article 3a. Members of both Chambers repre- 
 sent the nation, and not merely the province or 
 the subdivision of province which has elected 
 them. 
 
 Article 33. The sittings of the Chambers are 
 public. Nevertheless, each Chamber forms itself 
 Into a secret committee on the demand of Ita 
 president or of ten members. It then decides by 
 absolute majority whether the sitting on the same 
 subject shall bt' resumed publicly. 
 
 Article 34. Each Chamber veriflcs the powers 
 of iu inumbera and decides all contests on the 
 subject that may arise. 
 
 Article 35. No person can be at the same time 
 a meml)er of both Chambers. 
 
 Article 36. A memlwr of one of the two 
 Chambers who is appointed "jy the government 
 to any salaried olltcs, except that of minister, 
 and who accepts the same, ceases immediately 
 to sit, and resumes his functions only by virtue 
 of a new election. 
 
 Article 37. At every session, each Chamber 
 elects itji president and its vice-presidents and 
 forma its bureau. 
 
 Article 38. Every resolution is adopted by 
 the absolute majority of the votes, excepting as 
 may be directed by the rules of the Chambers in 
 regard to elections and presentations. In case 
 of an equal division of votes, the proposition 
 brought under ddilwration is rejecteif Neither 
 of the twoChanilwrs can adopt a resolution un- 
 less the majority of its members is present 
 
 Article 39. Votes are given by the voice or 
 by sitting and rising; on "I'ensemble deslois" 
 the vote is always Uken by the call of the roll 
 of names. Elections and presentations of can- 
 diilittes arc mode by ballot 
 
 Article 4a E'ir>: Chamber has the rl^ht of In. 
 quiry [nr investigalion]. 
 
 Article 41. A mil can be passed by one of the 
 ChsinlKTs only after having been voted article 
 by Hrtiole. 
 
 Article 4J. The Chambers have the right to 
 amend ami to divide the articles and the amend- 
 ments propoM'il. 
 
 Article 43. The presenting of petitions In per- 
 son to the Chamlwrs Is forbidden. Eiicli Cham- 
 ber has ihi' right u> refer to ministers the (letitions 
 that are aiidrtuscd to it Ministers are required 
 to give explauatioQS wbeneTer the Chamber 
 requires them. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF BELGIUM. 
 
 neraber of either Chamber esq 
 
 'ImI to account for opinions 
 
 en by him in the perform- 
 
 Article 44. y 
 be prosecuted o 
 expressed or vo' 
 ance of his dutii ». 
 
 Article 45. No member of either Chamber cao 
 be prosecuted or arrested in affaini of reiiri'Mion. 
 during the session, without the authorization of 
 the Chamber of which he is a menilwr eiceot 
 the case be "de flagrant Jelit." No hiHlily con- 
 straint can be exercised against a member of 
 either Chamber during the session, except with 
 the same authorization. The detention or tlie 
 prosecution of a member of either (."Imralier li 
 suspended during the whole session if tlie Cliam- 
 ber so requires. 
 
 Article 46. Each Chamber determines bv Iti 
 rules the motle la which it will exercise Itt 
 powers. 
 
 Section L— Of the Chamber of Represents- 
 tivet. 
 
 Article 47. Deputies to the Chamber of Rep. 
 resentati.es are elected directly umicr the fol- 
 lowing conditions: A vote is conferred on 
 citizens who have complete<l their 25ih year 
 who have resided for at least one year in the 
 same commune, and who are not witliin one of 
 the cases of exclusion provided for by law. A 
 supplementary vote is conferred on each citizen 
 who fulfills one of the following conditions: 1 
 To have completed 35 years of age, to he married 
 or to be a widower having legitimate offspring' 
 and to pay to the State a tax of not less than 5 
 francs on account of dwelling-houses or build- 
 ings occupied, unless exempted by reason of lili 
 Srofession. 2. To have completed the age oj 
 5 vears and to be owner : Either of real property, 
 valued at not less than 2,000 franca to be rated 
 on the basis of the " revenu eudBstral,"orof a 
 " revenu cadastral " proportioniil to that value' 
 Or of an inscription in the great boolt of il.c pub- 
 lic debt, or of a "carnet de rente IM^' " at the 
 aavings bank of at least lOO fmncs of "rente." 
 The inscriptions and bank books must have be. 
 longed to the incumbent for at least two years 
 and a half The property of the wife is assigned 
 to the husband; that of children under age, to 
 the 'ither. Two supplementarv votes are 
 assigned to citizens fully 25 years' of age who 
 are included in one of the following mws: A. 
 To be the holder of a iliploma of liiglur instruc- 
 tion or of a similar certifleatc of attenilniiie an t 
 complete course of medium instnieliun of the 
 higher degree, without distinction iKiwieii pub. 
 lie and private establishments. II. Totillurto 
 have filled a public ofBco. to oecu|iv or to have 
 occupied a position, to practise or "to Imvc prac- 
 tised a private profession, whieli iniplies the sup- 
 position that the titulary has at least m average 
 education of the higher degree The law ilc- 
 terminoa these functions, posiiioiis ami profes- 
 sions, as well OS, In given cases, llu- time during 
 which Uiey shall have been oerii|ile(l or prac- 
 tised. No person can accuniulaiu more than 
 three votes. 
 
 Article 48. The constitution of the electonl 
 colleges Is regulated by law for eaeli piovince. 
 The vote is obligatory and takes place In th« 
 commune with exceptions to he determined by 
 law. 
 
 Article 49. The electoral law flics tbe nun- 
 ber of deputies acconling to the popiilstloi;; 
 Uiis uumher cannot exceed the propurtiun of s 
 
 a- 
 
 684 
 
CONBirnTTIOIT OF BELGIUM. 
 
 deputy for 40,000 InhtbituU. It detennfaiM 
 tita the qualiflcations of an elector and the mode 
 o( the electoral operations. 
 
 Article 50. To be eligible, it li necemty: 1. 
 To be a Belgian by birth or to have receWed the 
 "mod naturalization"; 9. To enjoy civil and 
 poHticsl righU; 8. To have completed 3S yean 
 of age; 4. To reside in Belgium. No other con- 
 dition of eligibility can lie required. 
 
 Article 51. The members of the Chamber of 
 RepreseatatlTes are elected for four years. Half 
 of tbem are changed every two years, according 
 to the Older of the series determined br the 
 electoral law. In case of dissolution, the Cham- 
 tier Is entirely renewed. 
 
 Article 53. Each member of the Chamber of 
 BepresentatiTes receives a yearly indemnity of 
 4,000 franca. He is, besides, entitled to free 
 travel on the State railways and on the " con- 
 ceded " railways, from his residence to the city 
 where the session is held. 
 
 Section II.— Of the Stoat*. 
 
 Article 53- The Senate Is composed: 1. Of 
 memtjera elected in proportion to the population 
 of each province, conformably to Art. 47; though 
 the law may require that the electors shall be 
 30 years of age, the provisions of Art. 48 are 
 ipplicable to the election of these senators. 
 8. Of members elc ed by the provincial coun- 
 cils, to the number of two from each province 
 baring less than 600, 000 Inhabitants, of three from 
 each province having from 500,000 to 1,000,000 
 of Inhaliltants, and of four from each province 
 hivini; more than one million of Inhabitants. 
 
 Article 54. The number of senators elected 
 directly by the electoral body Is equal to half 
 the numlwr of the members of the Chamber of 
 Represi'ntattves. 
 
 Article <$• Senators are elected for eight 
 years; half of them are changed every four 
 years, according to the order of the aeries deter- 
 mined by the electoral law. In case of dissolu- 
 tion, the Senate is entirely renewed. 
 
 Article 56. To be eligible for ekctlon and to 
 rtmain a senator, it is necessary - 1. To be 1 
 Belgian by birth or to have received the " grande 
 natumllMtlon"; 8. To enjoy civf ani rilitiral 
 rlghU; 8. To resldein Belglu . • I.j8t 
 
 40 years of age; 8. To pay 1' » of 
 
 the State at leaat l.aOO fran. xes. 
 
 patents included ; Or to be 'o • or 
 
 usufructuary of real proper Be! 
 
 Kium. the cadastral revenue . |a at 
 
 feast 12.000 francs. In the pr> .fhere th. 
 
 numlKT of those eligible does not attain the pn 
 portion of one In 8,000 Inhabltanta. the list is 
 Mmplpu-d by adding the heavleat tax-payers of 
 the pniviuce to the extent of that proportion. 
 Utizens whose names are Inscribed on the com- 
 plementary Mat are eUgtble only In the province 
 where tlicy reside. 
 
 Article sfl bla. Senators elected by the provin- 
 cial couucils are exempted from all conditions of 
 census; they cannot belong to the assembly 
 wlilch elects them, nor can they have been a 
 member of It during the year of the election, nor 
 ilunn)t the two previous yean. 
 Indem i'* *'' *°'^" receive neltlMr laltry nor 
 
 -.*"'u'*v!'; 7^ ^'°f'i sons, or in their ab- 
 "nc. the &lgf«n Princes of the branch of the 
 tioysl family called to reign, ar« b/ rifht lena- 
 
 CONSTITUnOlT OF BELOIUM. 
 
 tor* at 18 years of age. They have a delibera- 
 tive voice only at 25 years of age. 
 
 Article S9. Any aasembly of the Senate which 
 may be held outalde the time of .he session of 
 the Chamber of RepreaentaMves is null and 
 void. 
 
 Chapttr II.-Of th* King and hia Miaiatera. 
 Section II.— Of the Kins. 
 Artlcl* 60. The constitutional powers of the 
 King are hereditary in the direct, natural and 
 legitimate descent from His Majesty Leopold- 
 Qeorge-Christian-Prederick of Saxe-Coburg from 
 male to male, by order of prinicgeniture, and to 
 the perpetual exclualon of the females of their 
 line. The prince who marries without the con- 
 sent of the King or of those who, in his absence, 
 exercise his powers, in the cases provided for by 
 the Constitution, shall forfeit his rights. Never- 
 theless he can be restore<l to his righto by the 
 King or bv those who. In his absence, exercise 
 his authority in the cases provided for by the 
 Constitution, with the consent of both Chambers. 
 
 ..'''' *'• ^^ <l*''>ult of male descendanto of 
 his Majesty Leopold-OeorgeChristian Frederick 
 of Saxe-Coburg, the King can name bis succes- 
 sor, with the assent of the Chambers, expressed 
 In the manner prescribed by the following 
 article. If no nomination has been made ac- 
 cording to the proceeding here stated, the throne 
 will be vacant. 
 
 Article 63. The King cannot be, at the same 
 time, the chief of another State, without the 
 consent of both Chambers. Neither of the two 
 Chambers can deliberate on this subject if two- 
 thirds at least of the members who compose It 
 are not present, and the resolution la adopted 
 only if It receives two-thirds at least of the votes 
 cast. 
 
 Article 63. The person of the King is Invio- 
 lable : his ministers are responsible. 
 
 Article 64. No act of the King can have effect 
 If It Is not countersigned by a minister, who 
 thereby, makes himself reapiiuslble. 
 
 Article 65. The King appoints and dismisses 
 his ministers. 
 
 Article M. He confers the grades In the army 
 He appolnto to the offlces of general administra- 
 tion and of foreign relations, with tlic exceptions 
 determined by law. He appoints to other ofHces 
 only by virtue of express provisions of a law. 
 
 Article 67. Ho makes the ruL'ulations and de- 
 crees necessary to the execution of the laws, 
 without power to suspend the laws themselves, 
 nor to exempt from their execution. 
 
 Article 68. The King commiimls the land and 
 naval forces, declares war, makes treaties of 
 peace, of alliance, and of conimerra. He an- 
 nounces them to the Chambers as soon as the In- 
 terest and the safety of the Stote admit of It. 
 adding to them appropriate communications. 
 Treaties of commerce and those wlilcli might 
 burden the State or bind Helgiims imlivlilually 
 become effective only after having rcceivtil the 
 approval of the Chambers. No cession, nor ex- 
 change, nor addition of territory can take place 
 without authority of a law. In no case can the 
 secret articles of a treaty be destructive to the 
 open articles. 
 
 Article 69. The King sanctions and promul- 
 gates the laws. 
 
 Article 70. The Chambers meet by right every 
 year, on the id Tuesday In November, unleM 
 
 iti 
 
 535 
 
OONSTTTUTIOK 07 BSLOIUX. 
 
 prevlouily lummoned by ths Kins. The Chtm- 
 ben must remain in seHion tt MMt 40 dayi in 
 eadi year. Tlie King declares tlie cloeing of tbe 
 eeuion. Tlie King hai the right to call extra 
 leuions of tbe CbsmlKn. 
 
 Article 71. The King hai the right to dlMolve 
 the Chambers, either simuitaDeou.Jy or sepa- 
 rately ; the act of dissolution to contain a convo- 
 cation of the electors withiu forty days and of 
 tbe Chambers within two months. 
 
 Article 73. The King may adjourn tbe Cham- 
 bers. Tbe adjournment, however, cannot ex- 
 ceed the term of one month, nor be renewed in 
 tbe same session, without the consent of the 
 Cbamt>ers. 
 
 Article 73. He has the right to remit or to re- 
 duce penalties prououcced by the judges, except 
 those which are enacted concerning the min- 
 isters. 
 
 Article 74. he has the right to coin money, in 
 execution of the law. 
 
 Article 75. Ho has the right to confer titles of 
 nobility, without power to attach any privi- 
 lege to them. 
 
 Article 76. He confers the military orders, 
 observing in that regard what the Uw pre- 
 scriljes. 
 
 Article 77. The law Axes the civil list for the 
 duration of each reign. 
 
 Article 78. The King has no other powers 
 than those formally conferred on him by the 
 Constitution, and by laws enacted pursuant to 
 the Constitution. 
 
 Aiticle79. On tbe death of the King, the 
 Chamlx^rs meet without convocation, not later 
 than the tenth day after that of his decease. If 
 tbe Chambirs bad been previously dissolved, and 
 if the eonvoi'atlou had been fixed in the act of 
 dissolution for a later date than tbe tenth day, 
 the old Chambers resume their functions until 
 the meeting of those which are to take their 
 place. If one Chamber only had been dissolved, 
 the same rule is followed with regard to that 
 Charalier. From the death of the King and 
 until his successor on the throne or the i«gent 
 has takun tbe oatli. tbe constitutional powers of 
 the King are exercised, in the name of the Bel- 
 gian nation, by tbe ministers assembled in council 
 kod under tlicir responsibility. 
 
 Article 80. Tbe King is of age when he has 
 completed his IStli year. He takes possession 
 of tbe throne only after having solemnly taken, 
 In the midst of the Chambers assembled together, 
 the following oath: "I swear to observe the 
 Constitution and the laws of the Belgian people, 
 to miiiutain tbe national independence and to 
 preserve tbe Integrity of the territory." 
 
 Article 81. If, on the death of the King, his 
 succe.ssor Is a minor, both Chambers meet in 
 one bixl) for tbe purpose of providing for tbe 
 regency and the guardianship. 
 
 Article 8>. If It is Impossible for tbe King to 
 reign, tlie niinlsttTs, after having caused that 
 Inability to Iw established, convoke the Cham- 
 bers Inimeiliately. Guardianship and regency 
 are to he provided for by tbe Chambers con- 
 vened. 
 
 Article 83. The regency can be conferred on 
 one person only. The regent enters upon his 
 duties only after he has taken the oath pre- 
 scribed by Article 80. 
 
 Article 84. N.) change can be made in the 
 Constitution during a regency. 
 
 ooxroirruTioN op Belgium. 
 
 ... ^^J!^* •* In case of » vacancy on tbe throne. 
 the Chambers deliberating together, arrange pS 
 vislonally for tae regency untU the meeting of 
 nt-» Chambers, that meeting to Uke place withta 
 two months, at the latest. The new Chainben 
 deliberating together provide definitely for Uu 
 vacancy. 
 
 Section II.— Of the Ministers. 
 
 Artid* 86. No person can be a minister who 
 is not a Belgian by birth, or who has not re- 
 ceived the "grande naturalization." 
 
 Article 87. No member of the royal f»mll» 
 can be a uilnlster. ' 
 
 Article 88. Ministers have a deliberative voice 
 In either Chamber only when they are memben 
 of it They have free admission Into each 
 Chamber and must have a hearing when tbey 
 ask for it. The Chambers may require the pret- 
 ence of minlsten. 
 
 Article 89. In no case, can the order of the 
 King, verbal or written, relieve a minister of 
 responsibility. 
 
 Article 9a The Chamber of Representatives 
 has the right to accuse ministers n"d to r'\\m 
 them before the Court of Cassation [.^iiicjl 
 which alone has tbe right to judge tin m, the 
 united Chambers reserving wh»t may be enacted 
 by law concerning civil action by a psrty 
 wronged, and as to crimes and miaderaeanoti 
 which ministers may have committcii outside of 
 th" performance of their duties. A luw absll 
 dt. < mine tbe cases of responslbilltv, the penal. 
 ties to be inflicted on V- ministers, iij the 
 manner of proceeding against them, either upon 
 the accusation admlttedl)y the Chamber of Rep. 
 resentatlves, or upon prosecution by partlet 
 wronged. 
 
 ArticJe 01. The King may pardon a minister 
 sentenced by the Court of Cassation only upon 
 the request of one of the two Chaml)ers. 
 
 Chapter III.— Of the Judiciary Power. 
 
 Article ga. Contests concerning civil rights 
 are exclusively within the jurisdiction of tbe 
 tribunals 
 
 Article 93. Contests concerning political rights 
 are within the jurisdiction of the tribunals, with 
 exceptions determined by law. 
 
 Article 94. No tribunal can be established 
 otherwise than by law. Neither conimlsilons 
 nor extraordinary tribunals, under any denomi- 
 nation wtutever, can be created. 
 
 Article 95. There la for tlie whole of Belgium 
 one Court of Cassation. This Court d.iei not 
 consider the ground of causes, except In tha 
 judgment of ministers. 
 
 Article 96. Sittings of tbe tribuunls are puh 
 lie, unless such publicity be dangerous m order 
 or morals, and in that case the triliurmi dccltret 
 it by a judgment. In the matter of political or 
 press offenses, the exclusion of the |iulilic mutt 
 be voted unanimously. 
 
 Article 97. The ground of every juileraent It 
 t~ be stated. It Is pronounctd in puhlic Mttlng. 
 
 Article 98. The jury is estubli.'^lic'ii in ullctim. 
 IdsI cases, and for political and pnsM olTensei. 
 
 Article 99. The judges uf the pcuce and 
 judTOS of the tribunals are appoiniiMi dinitly by 
 the King. Councillors of tbe Courts of appeal 
 sud presidents and vice-presidents of tlie (»urti 
 of original jurisdiction are appninteil by the 
 King, from two double lists, prcsi nua, r.nc bf 
 thoM court* and the other by the provUicUl 
 
 6S6 
 
CONSTITUTION OP BKLQIUlt 
 
 Ooundlt. Councillon of the Court of CuMtlon 
 in appointed bv the King from two double lUta, 
 one presented by the Senate and the other by 
 the Court of Cassation. In these wo cases the 
 cudMstes whose names are on one list may also 
 be Inscribed on the other. All presentations are 
 nude public at least fifteen days before the ap- 
 pointment. The courts choose their presider'* 
 uid Tice-pre!idents from among their members. 
 
 Article loa Judges are appointed for life. 
 No judge can be deprived of bis position or sus- 
 pended, except by a judgment. The displace- 
 ment of a judge can take place only through a 
 new appointment and with his consent 
 
 Article loi. The King appoints and dismissea 
 the public prosecutors to the courts and tribunals. 
 
 Article loa. The salaries of the members of 
 the Judicial order are fixed by law. 
 
 Article 103. No judge may accept salaried 
 olBies from the government unless he exercises 
 tbem gratuitously, and excluding the cases of 
 incompatibility defined by law. 
 
 Article 104. There are three courts cf appeal 
 in Belgium. The law determines their jurisdic- 
 tion and the places in wiilch they shall be estab- 
 lished. 
 
 Article 105. Special enactments regulate the 
 organizntion of military courts, their powers, the 
 lights and obligations of the member] of such 
 courts, and the duration of their functions. 
 There are tribunals of commerce in the places 
 determined by kw, which regulate their organ- 
 iiatlon. their powers, the mmle of appointment 
 of their membiers and the term of the Utters' 
 duties. 
 
 Article io4. ConCicts of jurisdiction are set- 
 tled by the Court of Cassation, according to 
 proceediL.gs regulated by law. 
 
 Article 107. Courts and tribunals shall apply 
 
 emeral, proTliiclal and local decisions and regu- 
 lions only so far as they are conformable to 
 tbelawa 
 
 Chapter IV.— Of ProTiodal and Communal 
 Institutiona. 
 
 Article 108. Provincial and coirmunal instl- 
 tutlohs are regulated by the laws. These law4 
 sanction the application of the following r -"nc;. 
 •'"■>: 1. Direct election, with the ei is 
 
 the law may establish in regard .e 
 
 chle. of rninmunal administration and tl v- 
 erament commissioners to the provincial umn- 
 cils: 2. The assigning to provincial and com- 
 munal councils of all which is of provincial and 
 communal interest without prejudice to the ap- 
 proval of their acts in the cases and according to 
 the proceedings which law determines; 8 The 
 publicity of the sittings of tlie provincial and 
 Kimmunal councils within the limits established 
 07 law; 4. The publicity of budgeU and ac- 
 eounts; 5. The intervention of the King or of 
 the iepislative power to prevent the provincial 
 uu communal councils from going beyond their 
 powers and injuring the general welfare. 
 
 Article 109. The drawing up of certificates of 
 Mrth, marriage and death, and the keeping of 
 the r-gisters, are the exclusive pntogativM of 
 eoBuauaal authorities. 
 
 Title IV, 
 Of the FtiiancM, 
 Artie!* no. No tax for the profit of the State 
 •abe impoNd otherwiM Uu4 bj • Uw. No 
 
 CONSTrrCTION OP BELOIUM. 
 
 charge or proTinnlal assessment can be imposed 
 without the consent of the provincial council. 
 No charge or communal assessment can be im- 
 posed, without the consent of the communal 
 (muncll. The law must determine those excep- 
 tions of which experience will show the necessity 
 in the matter of provincial and communal impo- 
 sitions. 
 
 Article »i». Taxes for the profit of the State 
 are voted annually. The laws which impose 
 them are valid for one year only, unless renewed. 
 
 Article iia. There can be no creation of privi- 
 lege ir the matter of taxes. No exemption from 
 nor diminut'"n of taxes can be established other- 
 wise than b a 1a<.'. 
 
 Article 113. Btyond the cases expressly ex- 
 cepted by law, no payment can be exacted from 
 citizens, otherwise than in taxes levied f3r the 
 profit of the State, of the province, or of the 
 commune. No innovation is made on the actu- 
 ally existing system of the polders and the 
 wateringen, which remain subject to the ordi- 
 nary legislation. 
 
 Article 114. No pension, nor gratuity at the 
 expense of the public treasury can be granted 
 without authority of law. 
 
 Article 115. Each year, the Chambers deter- 
 mine the law of accounts and vote the budget 
 All the receipts and expenditures of the State 
 must be entered in the budget and In the ac- 
 counts. 
 
 Article 116. The members of the court of 
 accounts are appointed by the Chamber of Rep- 
 resentatives and for the term fl.ied by law. That 
 court is intrubted with the examination nnd the 
 settlement of the accounts of the general admin- 
 istration and of all the accountants for the pub- 
 lic treasury. It sees that no article of the ex- 
 penses of the budget has been exceeded and that 
 no transfer has taken place. It determines the 
 accounts of the different administrations of the 
 State and is required for that purpose to gather 
 all information, and all documents that may Iw 
 I ;cessary. The general account of the State li 
 submitted to the Chambers with the observa- 
 tions of the court of accounts. This court Is 
 organized by law. 
 
 Article 117. The salaries and pensions of the 
 ministers of religion are paid by the State; the 
 sums required to meet these expenses are entered 
 annually In the budget 
 
 Title V. 
 Of the Army. 
 
 Article 118. The mode of recruiting the army 
 is determined by law. The law also regulates 
 promotions, and the rights and obligations of 
 the military. 
 
 Article no. The coptingent of the army is 
 voted annually. The law that fixes It is of force 
 for one vear onlv. unless renewed. 
 
 Article 130. The organization and the power* 
 of the gendarmerie are the subject of a law. 
 
 Article lat. No foreign troops can 00 admitted 
 to the service of the State, nor to occupy or past 
 through iu territory, except by provision of law. 
 
 Art e 123. There Is a civic guard ; itaorganl- 
 latiou I regulated by law. The ofilcers of all 
 ranks, up to that of captain at least, are ap- 
 pointed by the g ards witi exceptions judged 
 necessary for the countant*. 
 
 Article 133. lue mobilization of the dvtc 
 fuard can occur only by direction of Uw. 
 
 537 
 
CONSTITUTION OP BELGIUM, 
 
 Article 134. Military men can be deprived of 
 tneir gnules, honors, and peniiona only in the 
 manner determined by law. 
 
 Title VI. 
 General Prorisioni. 
 
 Article 135. The Belrian nation adopts the 
 colors khI, yellow and black, and for the arms 
 of the kingdom the Belglc Hon with the motto- 
 " L' Union fait l« Force " [•■ Union is Strength " ]. 
 
 Article 138. The city of Bruss-ls is the 
 capital of Belgium and the seat of ite Kovem- 
 ment. ° 
 
 Article 137. No on: U can be imposed except 
 by law. The law also determines iu formula. 
 
 Article 138. Any foreigner who Is within the 
 tcrritiry of Belgium enjoys the protection ac- 
 cor.ieo to persona and goods, with the exceptions 
 donned by law. 
 
 Article 139. No law, decree, or administrative 
 regulation, general, provincial, or communal is 
 obligatory until it has been published in the form 
 prescribed by law. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF BRAZIL. 
 
 Article 13a The Constitution cannot be aui. 
 pended, either wholly or In part. 
 
 Title VII. 
 Of the Rerition of the Conititution 
 ^ ^r*.''!f «3«- The legislative power ha, th, 
 right to declare that there Is occasion for revisin. 
 such constitutional prr '-ion a. It .le,ii;„„ta? 
 After such declaration, me two Chainl., rs m 
 dissolved. Two new Chamber., slmll then h^ 
 convoked, in conformity with Artie !,• 71 Thi » 
 Chambers act, in concurrence with tlie kinj on 
 the pointa »ubmitt«l for revision. In 8u,l, Ja» 
 the Chambers cannot deliberate unless twcMliinli 
 at least of the members composing each one of 
 them are present, and no change which dies not 
 receive at least twothlrds of the votes in iti 
 favor shall be adopted. ^ 
 
 [TheremainlngArticles— 132-1:19— are "Tem- 
 porary Provisions" and "Supplementarv Pro- 
 visions, the latter speclfving certiiin suhjecU 
 on which it is declared to be " neceaaary to nro- 
 vlde by separate laws and with the Ijast noasi!, f 
 delay. ] i-^^'iz 
 
 m ! 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF BRAZIL 
 
 The following text of the Constitution of the 
 United States of Brazil, adopted February 24, 
 1891, Is taken from a translation published in 
 Bulletin No. 7 of the Bureau of American Re- 
 publics, Wasliington : 
 
 Wc, the rcpreaiiitatives of 'Brazilian peo- 
 ple, united in constitutional cot.j,. iS, to organize 
 a free and democratic regime, do establish, de- 
 cree and pn)mulgate the following constitution 
 of the Republic ot the United Sta'es of Brazil : 
 
 Article i. The Brazilian nation, adopting as 
 a form of government the Federal Republic pro- 
 claimed November 15. 1889, constitutes itself, by 
 the perpetual and indissoluble union of Its for- 
 mer provinces, the United States of Brazil. 
 
 Art. 3. Each of the former provinces shail con- 
 stitute a State, and the former municipal district 
 shall forin the Federal District, continuing to be 
 the capitjd of the Union until the following arti- 
 cle shall be carried iuto effect. 
 
 Art. 3. In the center there is allotted as the 
 property of the Union a zone of U.-tOO square 
 kilometres, which In due time shall be laid off 
 for the establinument of the future federal capi- 
 tal. Sole p<trnyriii)/i.—\(teT the change of site 
 of the capital, the present Federal District shall 
 constitute a State. 
 
 Art. 4. The States shall have the right to In- 
 corporate themselves, one with another, sub- 
 divide themselves, dismember themselves to join 
 with others or form m. w Slates, with the consent 
 of the respective local legislatures In two succes- 
 sive annual sessions and the ajiproval of the 
 national Congress. 
 
 Art. S, It shall be the duty of each State to 
 
 firovide. at its own e.tpensp, for the necessities of 
 is government and administration ; but the Union 
 shall extend asslstanre to any State which in 
 cas<' of public calamity, shall demand it. 
 
 Art. 6. The Federal (lovcmmentiall not inter- 
 fere in matters pertaining peculiarly to the States, 
 save: (1| To repel foreign invasion, or the Inva- 
 sion of one State by another. (2) To maintain the 
 federative republican form of government (3) 
 To reestablish order and tranqulllltv In the States 
 at the retiuebt ul the respective governments 
 
 (4) To assure the execution of the laws and fed- 
 eral decrees. 
 
 Art. 7. It is the exclusive prerogative of the 
 Ijnion to decree: (1) Duties on Imports from for. 
 eign countries. (2) Duties of entry, .lepurture 
 and Stay of vessels ; the coasting traife for nntionai 
 articles being free of duties, as well as f.ir for- 
 eign merchandise that has already pnid lui hu. 
 port duty. (3) Stamp duties, save the nsiric- 
 tlons itnposed by article 9, j- 1, No. 1. (Ji p,«tal 
 and federal telegraphic taxes, tj 1, The Union 
 alone shall have the power : (1) To establish 
 banks of emission. (2) To create uiiil maintain 
 custom-houses. S 2. The taxes decrewl liy the 
 L nion shall be uniform for all the Statjs. i :i" The 
 laws of the Union and the acts and ileeisinns of 
 Its authorities shall be execuu-d throiigh.uit the 
 country by federal officials, except that tlie en- 
 forcement of the former may be coniniiti.d to 
 the governments of the States, with the cnsent 
 of the said States. 
 
 Art. 8. The Federal Government is forl)iiiden 
 to make distinctions and prefennces in favor of 
 the porU of any of the States against tliosc of 
 oiners. 
 
 Art. 9. The States alone are coniju-tent to de- 
 cree taxes: (1) On the exportation of nnrihan- 
 dlse of their own pnxiuction. cii On hmiled 
 property. (3) On the transmissioifof iiroji, rir. 
 (4) On industries and professions, s- 1 The 
 States also have the exclusive ri),'ht tiMleerec- 
 (1) Stamp duties on Inslrumentserauniiiin;; from 
 their respective governments and lui.sii.ss of 
 their Internal economy. (2) Contrihiitiii,'. i.iiich- 
 ing the'' own telegraph and iH.stul wrvicr. 
 
 638 
 
 Tlie - ,. -ts of the other States are e.\enipt 
 from Ir... in the State whence tlicv are e.t- 
 
 poiced. S ,1 It Is lawful for a Slat.- to levy 
 duties on Importa of foreign giHxis orilv when 
 intended for consumption In its own territory; 
 but It shall. In such case, cover Into the federal 
 treasury theamount of dutie8C(dleeted. S 4. The 
 right is reserved to the States of est;ililishin(t 
 telegraph lines between the different points of 
 their own territory, and ! • (-.vren lln-a- x-.-.i tlinse 
 of other States no"t served by federal lines ; but 
 
CONSTITUTION OF BRAZIL. 
 
 the Tnlon may take posienlon of them when the 
 general welfare shall require. 
 
 Art. 10. The leveral States are prohibited from 
 taxing the federal property or reveaue, or any- 
 thioK In the service of the Union, and vice versa. 
 Art. II. It is forbidden to th-- States, as well 
 M to the Unions: (1) To Impose duties on the 
 produc <■ of the other States, or of foreign coun- 
 tries, i-. transit through the territory of any 
 State, or from one State to another, as also on 
 the vehicles, whether by land or water, by which 
 thev are transported. (2) To establish, aid, or 
 embarrass the exercise of religious worship. (3) 
 To enact ex post facto Inws. 
 
 Art. 13. In addition to the sources of revenue 
 Kt forth in articles 7 and 9, it shall be lawful for 
 the Union, as well as for the States, cumulatively 
 or otherwise, to create any others whatsoever 
 which may not be in contrsTention of the terms 
 ofsrtick'sT, 9, and U, g 1. 
 
 Art. 13. The rlcht of the Union and of the 
 Stales to legislate in regard to railways and navl- 
 Mtion of internal vriitcrs shall be regulated by 
 fwltral law. Sole jxtraaraph.— The coastwise 
 Uaile shall be carried on in national vessels. 
 
 Art lA. The land and naval forces are perma- 
 nent national institutions. Intended for the de- 
 fense of the country from foreign attack ind the 
 maintenance of the laws of the land. Within 
 the limits of the law, the armed forces are from 
 their nature held to obedience, each rank to lu 
 superior, and bound to support all constitutional 
 Institutions. 
 
 Art. 15. The legislative, cvecutlve, an-' judi- 
 cial powers are organs of the national sover- 
 eignty, harmonious and Independent amons 
 themselves. ° 
 
 Art. 16. The legislative power is vested In the 
 national Congress, with the sanction of the Presi- 
 dent of the Itipublic. g 1. The national Con- 
 gress is compowd of two branches, the Chamber 
 of Deputies and the Senate. § 8. The elections 
 for senators and for deputies shall be held slmul- 
 Uneously throughout the country. §8 No per- 
 son shall be senator and deputy at the same tiiiie 
 Art. 17. The Congress shall assemble In the 
 federal capital oc the 8d day of May of each 
 year, unless some other day shall be fixed bv 
 law, without being convoked, and shall continue 
 m session 4 months from the date of the openinu 
 and may he prorogued, at'Joumed, or convoked 
 m extr:„,r,l nary session. § 1. The Congress 
 alone shall have the power to deliberate on the 
 prornpition or extension of ita session. 6 3 Each 
 legislature shall last for S years. S 8. The gov- 
 ernor of any State in which there shall be a va- 
 S M ' ^P"-'«'';'atlon, Including the case of 
 Se ° ' "*" '^'"^"on to ^ held 
 
 Ioh","! '?• ''"'"'. Chamber and the Senate shall 
 S ';::'' ^'l":"' 'port and in public, uXss 
 ddirr^. '"*?'''"'. "y ? '°"J°'''y ^-"e, aid shall 
 deliberat, only when. In each of the chambers 
 there shall be present an absolute majority of Us 
 
 nfr^fhnL "-,'.'"-' ''b'" to verify and recog- 
 Silrm'"''' "* ■»*">'«". to ch-bosc Ita own 
 C ?o^ ^*T' to organize Ita Internal govern- 
 ment, to regulate the service of Ita own Dollcc 
 Art"!. ";^""?*' "" ""•° «<;retaries? ^ 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP BRAZIL. 
 
 * *■• *»• Piputles and senators, from the time 
 ot ceivlng their certificate of election until a 
 
 r*ri„ ."^L°°'. '*,'? °°' "^ arrested or proceeded 
 against criminally without the permission of 
 their respective chambers, except In the case of a 
 flagrant crime, in which ball is Inad- issible. In 
 such case, the prosecution being cai . r^ to exclu- 
 sive decision, the prosecuting authority shall 
 T^rl,}^ ?!'" "'^"^ to the respective chamber 
 for ita decision on the prosecution of the -barge 
 unless the accused shall prefer Immediate Judg- 
 ment. ^ * 
 
 „..^!t'i "•.?"!* ■"=«*>«" 0' the two chambers, 
 on taking their seata. shall take a formal obllga' 
 
 fa"thfuV" "' '° P^^°™ "Je'' du«es 
 
 AJt!^l '\^^"^. ""^ "essions the senatore a- 1 
 deputies shall receive an equal pecuniary sf / 
 and mileage which shall Ic fixed by Con , sj 
 at the end of each session for the following 
 .1. .1 • 'h I*," "'embe'" of the Congress, . .n 
 tJie time of hla election, can make contracts ,*ith 
 the e.\erutlve power or receive from it anv paid 
 t\r'n;?;,rLTP!°'-r^.'l,l»:,Exceptfon''sto 
 
 039 
 
 All — ---- -^- .-."K.vj uitiii. g 1. Hixcepiions to 
 this prohibition are: (1) Diplomatic missions (2) 
 Commissions or military commands. (3) Ad- 
 vancement In rank and legal promotion. S 2 
 ISO deputy or senator, however, can accent an 
 appomtnr .it or any mission, commission, or 
 command u ntloned in Nos. 1 and 3 of the pre- 
 ceding paragraph, without the consent of the 
 chamber to which he belongs, when such acrept-l 
 ance would prevent the exercise of his legUla-' 
 tive duties, except In case of war or such as 
 Involve the honor or integrity of the nation. 
 
 Art. 24. No deputy or senator can be presi- 
 dent or form part of a directory of anv bank 
 company, or enterprise which enjoys the favoii 
 of the Federal Government defined In and br 
 law. *ofo;joro^o;)A.— Xonobservanceof the pro- 
 visions of the foregoing article bv any deputy or 
 senator shall involve the loss of his seat. 
 
 Art. 25. The legislative commission shall be 
 Incompatible with the exercise of any other func- 
 tions during the sessions. 
 
 Art. 36. The conditions for eli-'bility to the 
 national Congress are: (1) To be OMse.ssion 
 of the righta of Brazilian citizenship md t j be 
 registered as a voter, d) For the Chamber, to 
 have been for more than 4 veara a Brazilian • 
 zcn; and for the Senate, for more than 6 vi , 
 1 bis provision does not include thos ci' 
 referred to In No. 4, article 60. 
 1 ^'*'j'7; The Congress slm!) bv special • ,s. 
 lation declare the cases of el i , 1 Im ompetw. . 
 
 Art. 38. The Chamber o' ,). luties shall J ■ 
 composed of the representa . of the peo-Mc 
 elected by the States aud the Federal District by 
 direct suffrage, the n'presentation of the mlii- 
 ority being g.--,ntle(f. § 1. The number of 
 the deputies shad be fixed bv law in such a way 
 as not to exceed one for each 70,000 Inliabltants 
 and that there shall not be less than four for 
 each State. 8 2. To this end the Fetieral Gov- 
 ernment shall at once order a census to be t <Ken 
 of the population of the Republic, which shall 
 be rcviik'il every 10 yeara. 
 
 Art. 29 To the Chamber belongs the Initiative 
 in the adioiirnment of the legislative sewions 
 and in all legislation In regard to taxation, to the 
 determination of the size of the armv .ind nsvy 
 m the discussion of propositions from the cxcul 
 uve po ver, and in the dedslon to proceed or not 
 
 ir.i. 
 
 'ID 
 
CONSTTrmON OF BRAZIL. 
 
 coNSTmrrioN of buazxl. 
 
 ;»1 
 
 II - f: 
 
 In chnrces against the Preaidcnt of the Republic 
 undpr the terms of article 58, and against the 
 ministers of state in crimes connected with those 
 of the said President 
 
 Art. 30. The Senate shall be composed of citt- 
 ccns eligible under the terms of article 26 and 
 more than 85 years of age, to the number of 
 three senators for each State and three for the 
 Federal District, choaen la the same manner as 
 tlie deputies. 
 
 Art. 31. The mandate of a senator shall con- 
 tinue for 9 years, and one-third of the Senate 
 sliall be renewed every 8 years. SoU paragraph. 
 — A senator elected in place of another shall 
 cxerrise his mandate during the remainder of the 
 term of the latter. 
 
 Art. 3a. The Vice President of the Republic 
 shall lie the pn^ident of the Senate, where he 
 shall vote only in case of tie, and shall be re- 
 plarrd in case of absenre or Impediment by the 
 vice president of that body. 
 
 Art. 33. The Senate alone shall have ths power 
 to try and sentence the President of the Repub- 
 lic and the other federal officers designated by 
 the constitution, under the conditions and in the 
 manner which it prescribes, g 1. The Senate, 
 when sitting as a tribunal of justice, sliall be 
 presided over by the president of the federal su- 
 preme court, g a. It shall not pasa sentence of 
 condemnation unless two-thirds of its membej 
 be present S 3. It shall not impose other penal- 
 ties than the loss of office and prohibition from 
 holiling any otiier, without prejudire to tlie 
 action (if onllnary justice against the condemned. 
 Art. 34. The national Congress shall have ex- 
 clusive power: (1) To estimate the revenue, and 
 lix the expenditures of the Federal Government 
 anmi.illy, and take account of the receipts and 
 expindltures of each flnancia' budget. (2) To 
 autliorizc the executive to contract loans and 
 make otiRT operations of credit (3) To legislate 
 in ncanl to tlie public debt and furnish meuas 
 for its payment. (4) To control the collection 
 ami (ilspositlon of the national revenue. (5) To 
 regnliite Intematlon.'il commerce, as well aa that 
 of the States with each other and with the Feil- 
 cral District; to establish and regulate the c«l- 
 letilon of customs duties in the porta, create or 
 alKili»h wartUiouses of deposit (8) To legislate 
 In reirurii to navijrntion of rivers running through 
 more fhnn one .State, or through foreign terri- 
 tory (7) To dctcniiine tlie weight value, iu- 
 scrihtion, ty|>c, imd denomination of the currency. 
 (») To create banks of emission, legislate in re- 
 gunl to iliis eminslon and to tax it (B) To fix 
 the Kiandani of weigliU and measures. (10) To 
 deti rniine defliiiU'ly the boundaries of the Stales 
 iH'twiTn each otlier, those of ths Federal District, 
 and those of th? national territory with the ad- 
 joining natio . (II) To authorise the Oovern- 
 ment to declare war, if there be no recourw! to 
 arbitmtion or in case of failure of Ihlx. ami to 
 maki' pi'are. (I;') To decide definitively in reitani 
 to tnnlles and conventions with fori'lgn Uutliiiis 
 (l:ii To remove the capital of the I'nlon. (U) To 
 exl.tid aid I" the Slates in the case referred to In 
 artli I.- .1 (I.-.) To legislate in regani to fiilcntl 
 pontiil and Uliirmph service. (18) To adopt tho 
 niKi ssarv measiina for the protection of the fron 
 tiers. (17) To llx every year the numlier of the 
 land and naval forces. (IM) To maks laws for 
 the crgaoizatioQ i,i the army and navy, ng) To 
 fTut or refuse to forclf n foroat pumf tlirouf b 
 
 the territory of the country to cnrry on mllltarr 
 operations. (20) To mobilize and mske use of 
 the national guard or local militia in tlie cosm 
 designated bv the Constitution. (21) To declare 
 a state of siege at one or more points in the 
 national territory, in the emergency of an attjick 
 by foreign forces, or internal disturhance, nnd to 
 approve or suspend the state of siei;p pniclHlmed 
 by the executive power or its rcspousilile nifena 
 in the absence of the Congress. (22) To rcpiilate 
 the conditions and methods of elections for fed- 
 eral offices throughout the country. (2.1) To jej. 
 islate upon the civil, criminal, and commercial 
 laws and legal procedures of the federal Judi- 
 ciary. (24) To esublish uniform niiturnlizati.m 
 laws. (2.5) To create and almlish federal pub. 
 He offices, to fix the duties of tlie same nuil 
 designate their salaries. (26) To organize tlie 
 federal judiciary according to tlie terms of ani- 
 cle 55 and the succeeding, section H. (27) To 
 grant amnesty. (28) To coimnute and pardon 
 penalties imposed upon federal oBicers for of- 
 fenses arising from their resimnsiliility. (29) Xo 
 make laws regarding Government lands and 
 mines. (30) To legislate in reg.inl to the miinici. 
 pal organization of the Fedeml District, as well 
 as to the police, the superior instruction and 
 other services which in tlio ciipitiil may be re- 
 served for the Government of tlie Vnion. (31) 
 To govern by special legisintion tlios.' points of 
 the territory of the Republic needeii f„r tlie 
 esttiblishment of arsenals, other estnlilislimenn 
 or institutions for federal uses. (H2) To settle 
 cas«'S of extradition between tlie States. (;t3) Ti) 
 enact such laws and resolutions as may lie nee.'i. 
 snry for the exercise of the powi'rs In'tonning lo 
 the I'nlon. (34) To enact the ornunle laws neeis- 
 sary for the complete execution of the niniiri'- 
 ments of the Constitution. (3.5) To pruMgucaud 
 adjourn its own sessions. 
 
 Art. 35. It shall belong likewise to the Con- 
 gress, but not exclusively: (1) Towniihovenhc 
 Constitution and the l:iws, and provide for neees- 
 slties of a federal character. (2) To pnimote 
 in the country the development of literature, 
 the arts, and sciences, together with iinnilsra- 
 tlon, agriculture, manufactures, nnd romiiien-e, 
 without privileges sucli as would olwtniet the 
 action of the local governments. (:i) To enate 
 institutions of higher instniition and of liivh 
 schisd education in the States, (ti r.i provide 
 for high school instruction in the K.dmil Dii- 
 triet. 
 
 Art, 36. Save the exceptions named in article 
 27, all bills may originate. iiidHTertntly, in the 
 Chiimlier or In ific S<'iiate, and may W iiilnsiiicwl 
 by any of tlieir menilN-ni. 
 
 Art. 37. A bill, after N inir pasmd in one n( 
 the ch.imbera, shall lie suliiiillli.i 1.1 the other, 
 and, if the latter shall n|ipniye tin- kumi', Ii slhill 
 send It to the exeiulive, »lio, If he iippnne It, 
 shall sanction and pMniiilifate il. {: 1 If, linw- 
 ever, the President of the Itcpulilie ^hnll consider 
 It unconstitutional, or contrary to the i.'i««lidlhe 
 nation, he shall nfuse his HHiirlioii to the same 
 williin 10 working days, coiuitoi fri'iii that »n 
 which he recidved It (llie biill. and slmll nlurn 
 It. within the same periisl. to the eiiiinlar In 
 which it originated, with his r-asms Tt liiin- 
 fusal. S 3. The failure of the exeeiiilve 10 «!.•■ 
 nify bis dlsappnivftl within the uUive imined li) 
 days siiaii lie cunsidcnti as an apimivai, and iu 
 case bl« suictioo be refused afU'r Uu close of ths 
 
 C40 
 
OONBITI'UTION OF BRAZIL. 
 
 leMlnn of the Congmt, the Prctldent ihall make 
 public hU reaioni therefor. 8 8. The bill sent 
 back to the chamber where ft originated shall 
 be dlKuaaed and voted upon by call of names, 
 ind iball be considered as passed if It obtain 
 two-thirds of the votes of the membeis present ; 
 ud, Id this case, it shall be sent to the other 
 dumber, whence, if it receive the same majoritv, 
 it ibaU return, as a law, to the executive to be 
 formally promulgated, g 4. The sanction and 
 promulgation shall be effected in the following 
 fomis: (1) "The national Congress enacts and I 
 nnctioD the following law (or resolution)." (2) 
 "The national Congress enacts and I promul- 
 gate the following law (or resolution)." 
 
 Art. 38. If the law be not promulgated by the 
 President of the Republic within 48 hours, in the 
 cases provided for in g § 8 and 8 of the preced- 
 ing article, the president of the Senate, or the 
 rice president, if the former shall not do so in 
 the lame space of time, shall promulgate it, 
 making; use of the following formula: " I, presi- 
 dent (or vice president) of the Senate, make 
 known to whomsoever these presents may come, 
 that the national Congress enacts and promul- 
 gates the following law (or resolution)." 
 
 Art. 39. A bill nnm one chamber, amended in 
 the other, shall return to the former, which, if It 
 accept the amendments, shall send it, changed to 
 conform with the same, to the executive, g 1. In 
 the contrary case, it shall go back to the amend- 
 ing chamber, where the alterations shall be con 
 »i.lcreil as approved, if they receive the vote of 
 uro'tliinis of the members present; in the latter 
 caie, Mie bill shall return to the chamber where 
 it nriginnutl. and there the amendments can bo 
 rejerled only by a two-thlnls vote, g 8. If the 
 «Ii.r -i ns be rejected by such vote, the bill shall 
 he s 1 iiiitted without them to the approval of 
 the executive. 
 
 Art. 40. Dills flnallv rejected or not approved, 
 •Inll not l>e presented again in tlie same Icgisla- 
 Uvr KMion. 
 
 Art. 41. The executive power shall be exer- 
 d«ed by the President of the United States of 
 Bioiil. aa elective chief of the nation, g 1. The 
 Vice President, elected simultaneously with the 
 Preti.lont, shall serve In place of the latter In 
 csae of impediment and succeed him in cose of 
 tacaniy in the Presidency. ^ 8. In cose of im- 
 PMllnirat or vscancv in the Vice Presidency, the 
 (■llniring offli-ers, in the onler named, shall be 
 nlW to tlie IVsldency ; The vice president of 
 the S-niite. the president of the Chamber of 
 IVpiiiie«, the preaident of the feiieral supreme 
 'H'LI:,,, ^ * ''"''* '""owlnif «>« the conditions of 
 eligibilliy to the Presidenry or Vice Prrsldenry 
 of the U,piibllc: (I) Must be a native <>' Hraill 
 (J) Mii«t Iw in the exercise ,.f pnllticul rights. 
 (S) .Mini be more than tH yesra of age. 
 
 Art. ^a. In caae of vacancy from any cause in 
 the Prisiiiency or Vl<» Presidency before tlie ex 
 piralinu of the flrst 8 year* of the Presidential 
 terra, a new election aliall be held. 
 . **<• 43- """he Preslilent shall hold his offli>. 
 S'lrln,. 4 yi'ars, and is not eligible for fe«lertl<>n 
 lor th. m«t aueceedinic tenn 8 1. The Vice 
 Prewienl who .ball (111 the l>rpsldency during 
 thpjMl year of the Prwidential term shall not U' 
 ellftihle 10 tlie Presidency for the next term of 
 
 ttij I 'T . ' ' "" ^^ •*'"'■ "'"/ "» which hu 
 I^Mclenilal term shall cease the Pnwldent shall, 
 without fall, ccoae to exerGise the fuoctloos of 
 
 641 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP BRAZIL. 
 
 his ofBoe, and the newly elected President shall 
 at once succeed him. | 3. If the latter should 
 be hindered or should fail to do so, the succes- 
 sion shall be effected in accordance with 88 1 
 and a of article 41. § 4. The first Presidential 
 terni shall expire on the 15th of November, 1894. 
 A^- 44- On taking possession of his ofl3ce, tho 
 President, in a session of the Congress, or, if it 
 be not assembled, before the federal supreme 
 court, shall pronounce the following ofBrmatlon : 
 " I promise to maintein the federal Constitution 
 and comply with iu provisions with perfect loy- 
 alty, to promote the general welfare of the Re- 
 public, to observe its laws, and support the 
 union, integrity, and independence of the na- 
 tion. 
 
 Art. 45. The President and Vice President 
 shall not leave the national territory without the 
 permission of the Congress, under penalty of loss 
 of office. 
 
 .Art. 4«. The President and Vice President 
 shall receive the salary fixed by the Congress in 
 the preceding Presidential term. 
 ^Art. 47. The President and Vice President 
 shall be chosen by direct suffrage of the nation 
 and an absolute majority of the votes. 6 1. The 
 election shall Uke place on the first day of March 
 in the Ust year of the Presidential term, and the 
 counting of tho votes cast at the different pre- 
 , cincts shall at once be mode in the respective 
 I capitals of the States and in the federal capital 
 The Cooness shall make the count at iU first 
 session of the same year, with any number of 
 memliers present g 2. If none of those voted 
 for shall have received an absolute majority, the 
 Congress shall elect, by a majority of votes of 
 those present, one of the tw^o who, in the direct 
 election, shall have received the highest number 
 of votes. In case of a tie the older shall Iw con- 
 sidered elected, g 8. The manner of the election 
 and of the counting of the votes shall lie regu- 
 IoUkI by ordinary Icgislotion. g 4. The relatives, 
 lioth by consanguinity and by marriage, in the 
 flrst and second degrees, of the IV'sident and 
 Vice President shall bo Ineligible for the offices 
 of President and Vice President, provided the 
 said offldals are in office at the time of the elec- 
 tion or have left the oHlcc even 6 months Iwfore. 
 Art. 48. To the President of the Republic 
 ■hall belong the exclusive right to— (1) Sanction, 
 nmmulgste, and make puliTio the laws and reso- 
 lutions of the Congress; issue (i<tn>e8. iuatruc- 
 lions, htiil regulations for their faithful execu- 
 tion. (8) Choose and dismiss at will the cabinet 
 officers. (8) Exercise or appoint some (me to 
 exercise supreme command over the land and 
 naval forces of the rnltwi States of Hrajll, as 
 well as over the lix-nl police, when callni to arms 
 for the internal or exti'mal defense of the Union. 
 
 (4) Oovem and (llnlrihutc under the laws of the 
 Congress, acconling U> the neopssltlcs of the Na- 
 tional Oovemmcnt, the land and naval forces. 
 
 (5) Dispose of the offices, both military and civil, 
 of a federal character, with the excep"llon« sperl- 
 fled in the Constitution. ((I) I'anlon crimes and 
 commute penalties for offenses subject to feiieral 
 Jurisiilction. save in the coses mentlomtl In artl- 
 cle 84, No. 9«, and article M. g 3. (7) Declsre 
 war and make peace, under the pMvisJons of 
 article H4, No 11 im n»c!«n' war at imrt- In 
 case of foreign invasion or aggression. (») (Jive 
 an annual statement to the national Congress of 
 the conditlutt u( the country, with a reoommendo- 
 
;/ *■' 
 
 coNSTmrnoN op brazil. 
 
 tlon of preaslDff provisions and refonn*, through 
 a n-essnge, wli'.cU he ihall send to the secretary 
 of the Stnatc on the day of the opening of the 
 Icgiiliitive session. (10) Convoke the Congress 
 In extra session. (11) Appoint the federal judges 
 when proposed by the supreme court (18) Ap- 
 point tlie meml)ers of the federal supreme court 
 and miuiaUrs of the diplomatic corps, with the 
 Bppn)vul of the senate ; and, in the absence of the 
 C'linereas, appoint them in commlsatoo until con- 
 Bidind by the senate. (18) Appohit the other 
 incnil)ers of the diplomatic corps and consular 
 airentii. (14) Maintain relations with foreign 
 states. (15) Declare, directly, or through his 
 responsible agents, a state of siege at any point 
 of the natloual territory, in case of foreign ag- 
 gnssiiin or serious internal disturbance. (Article 
 «, No. 3 ; article 34, No. 81 ; and article 80.) (16) 
 Set on foot international negotiations, celebrate 
 nsn-ements, conventions, and treaties, always ad 
 referendum to the Congress, and approve those 
 niado by the States in conformity with article 63, 
 Biibniitiing them when neoeaaary to the authority 
 of the Congress. 
 
 Art. 49. The President of the Republic shall 
 be assisted by the ministers of state (cabinet offi- 
 cers), agenu of his confidence, who sign the acu 
 and pri'side over their respective departments 
 into which the fe<leral administration is divideil. 
 Art. 50. The cabinet minister* shall not exer- 
 cise any other emnloyment or function of a pub- 
 He nature, l)e ellgilile to the Presidency or Vice 
 Presidency of the I'nion, or be electe<l deputy or 
 senaUir. S>lt namgroph.— Any deputy or Sina- 
 tor, who sliall accept the position of cabinet 
 minister, shall lose his seat in the respective 
 chiiiutpor, and a new election shall at once be 
 held, in which he sliall not be voted for. 
 
 Art. SI. The cabinet ministers shall not appear 
 at the sissious of the Congress, and shall coni- 
 nmiiicate with that body in writing only or by 
 p<'r».itiul coiifirencc with the committees of the 
 chambers. The aunual report of the ministers 
 shall lie addresseil to the President of the Itcpub- 
 lie, and distributed to all the memben of the 
 Congress. 
 
 Art. sa. The cabinet ministers shall not be 
 TcspoHsihle to the Congress or to the courU for 
 advice given to the President of the Kepulillr, 
 y 1. They shall lie responsible, nevertheless, with 
 respect to their acu, for crimes deOned In the 
 law. ^ a. For common crimes snd those for 
 whieh they are responsible tliey shall be prose- 
 culi-il and tried by the fe<leral supremo court 
 and for lh(w committed iolnlly with the Presi- 
 dent of the lUpuWic, by the authority competent 
 t«ludge this latter 
 
 Art. 53. Tlie Ihtialdent of the United Sutes of 
 Hraiil sliall Iw brought to trial and judgment 
 after the Chamber of I)eputlcs shall have (Teeldcci 
 that he should lie tried ou the charges made 
 Bgalnst him, In the federal supreme c«urt, lu (he 
 ease of romiiion crimes, snd In those of responsi 
 blllty. ill the S<'nale. SUt paragrapH.— At amm 
 as it shall lie dieiclod to try him on the cb«rg<-s 
 hromflit. till- Pr.sldeiit shall Ih' suspended In the 
 Meniw of the duties of his olBre. 
 
 Art. 54. CriiiHs of res|Minsililllty on the part 
 of the Preslihnt of the Itrpublic are such as are 
 dlniUil against — (1) Tlie political existence of 
 the I nloii. {••) The Conititutlun ani| th« r,.rm ■'! 
 the Ffieral t»ovrnimeut. (8) The fr»>o exerrlse 
 uf the (Miililcal jHjwers. (4) The legal snJoyiuGot 
 
 ooNSTrrmoN op brazil. 
 
 ^l^^nS^'V^ °! poittioa or Individual riihts 
 (5) The Internal security of the country mi ti^ 
 puritv of the administration. (7) Theeo,, titi! 
 Uonal keeping and use of the public funds. 8) 
 The flnancialTegisUtion enactej by the Cmztm 
 8 1. These offenses shall be defined In a sGecS 
 law. § 8 Another law shall provide foTtSe 
 charges, the trial, and the Judgment. 133 Both 
 these laws shall be enacted in the first ksslon of 
 the first Conness. 
 
 H„^^' ?S .Tne Judicial power of the Union riisU 
 be lodged in a federal supreme court, sittinir la 
 the capltol of the Republic, and as many lS« 
 federal courta and tribunals, distributed throuirh 
 the country, as the Congress shall c!«ate, 
 
 Art. sj. The federal supreme court sUali be 
 composed of fifteen Justices, appointed unJer ths 
 provisions of article 48, No. 12, from amomrtte 
 oldest thirty citizens of well-known knowredm 
 and repuutlon who may bo eligible to the S^Mte 
 . i^' 5?*, "°* '«l*™' Justices shai. hold offlcs 
 for life, being removable solely by iuclltlal sen- 
 fence. 8 1. ^helr «ilaries shafl !«? L-A Z u", 
 of the Congress, and can not be diminished S i 
 The Senate sliall try the members of the fedeisl 
 supreme court for crimes of responsibility sad 
 this latter the lower federal judges 
 
 Art. 58. The federal couru shall cluHMe their 
 presidents from sm<mg their owu members and 
 shall organise their res|)ectlvc elerieal cnrpi 
 S 1. In these corps the appoinlnieut and ilii- 
 missal of the respective clerks, as will as the fill- 
 lug of the judicial oBlces in the t\-speilive juJ|. 
 cial districts, shall belong to the presl.Uuts of the 
 respective .oiirta. S 3. The Presidiiit cif the 
 Uepublic shall apiwint from amount Hie iiierabeu 
 of the federal supreme court the iittortiiy general 
 ! of the Republic, whose duties shall be dedned by 
 law. 
 
 Art. 59. To the federal supreme court tbsll 
 liehing the duty of — (1) Trying snd judirinitby 
 original and exclusive juriailk-tion — (.ii Thi 
 President of the Uepublic for eonmi.in crimes, 
 and the cabinet minisU'ra In the ea»- < specifiea 
 In article 58. (A) The ministers of ili,. dlplumatlc 
 corps for common crimes ami tliosi' .■! ii»|m)mI- 
 billty. (<■) Cases and disputes iH-iweiu the Sutes 
 and the Union, or between the 8tul<s one with 
 another. ((/) Disiiutes and claims lieiweru (of. 
 eign states and the Union, or iHtwi-eii frireln 
 nations ami the Suites. (<) ConHiels Istwefo the 
 federal courts one with snollier, or l»lw,rn these 
 anil those of tlie SlaU-s, as well as tliow lielween 
 the courts of one 8ut* and those of amiUier 
 ('.') Dci'tdlng. on appeal, i|Uesiloiis pMiiimuad 
 upon by the lower federal courts iin.l irihunsls, 
 as well as those nientioued in is I of tin- nrneiit 
 article and In article fl(» (11) llevi.« lii;< iL,. pro- 
 cmllngs of Hulshed trials, undir tlif proyiJuas 
 of article 81. ^ 1. Deilnoiia of .•<i,iti- icurts la 
 last app-al can b<' carried to tin fi-dentl supreoe 
 court — (11) When the validity t Hpplhaif.in of 
 the federal laws or treaties i« ■ illiil in i|m»tloa 
 and ttiB derishm of the Sim. cinirl sliull be 
 against the same. (A) When the viilililv "fiswi 
 or acu of the govpnimenu.>r theSlalitdin^peCt 
 t« tlie Constitution or of the fidiral hi«« Ucon- 
 li'ste<l and the Stale court kliiill lia\i- .Iciiaeii In 
 favor of the validity of the sets or I«wh In ques- 
 tion. t( 3. In tlie canes w lileli Involve thi' sppll- 
 ealinn v.t the laws of the Ht^i^i ?!,« ?«',»«! .-.-.tirt 
 sliall cimsult the jurisprudence of the l<H'ai Iriba- 
 nala, aod vice vena, tliu State court shall itiniltltt 
 
 642 
 
OOMBTITUTION OF BRAZIL. 
 
 (b*t of the fedeni tribunab when the interpreU- 
 tion of the laws of the Union U involred. 
 
 Art. 6a It ihall belong to the federal courts to 
 decide— (o) Cues In which the plaintiff or the 
 defendant shall rest the case on some provision of 
 the federal C:k>nstltution. (f) All suits brought 
 igiiiiit the Ooveniment of ibe Union or tlie na- 
 tion*! treasury based on constitutional provisions, 
 OD the laws and regulations of the executive 
 pover, or on contracts made with the said Oov- 
 einmeDt {e) Suits arising from compensations, 
 cltims, indemnification of damages, or any others 
 wliatsoever brought by the Qovemment of the 
 tnioD against private individuals, and vice versa, 
 (if) LiiiKations between a State and the dtizcns 
 of snotiier, or between citizens of different States 
 hariog differences in their laws, (e) Suits be- 
 tweea foreign sutes and Brazilian citizens. (/) 
 Actions begun by foreigners, and baaed either on 
 contracts with the Federal Qovemment or ol 
 conventions or treaties of the Union with other 
 mil"'.: ig) Questions of maritime law and 
 nsricatlon, whether on the sea or on the rivers 
 snd lakes of the country. (A) Questions of inter- 
 nstioDsl l«w, whether criminal or civil, (i) Po- 
 litics! crimes. % 1. Congress Is forbidden to 
 commit any part of the federal Jurisdiction to 
 tlie Swto court*, g 8. Sentences and orders of 
 the fciieral Judges will be executed by federal 
 court olflcers, and the local police ahall assist 
 tliem wlien called upon by the same. 
 
 Art. 6i. The decisions of the State courts or 
 lriliiinal.H in matters within their comprttncu 
 ilisll put an end to the suiu and qurstiouo ex- 
 cept as to (1) hatieas corpus, or (2) effpofs of a 
 foniirmr dcccssed in cusca not proviiii-d for by 
 conieiiiinii or tn-aty. In such cases there shall 
 be voluntary recouno to the federal supreme 
 court. 
 
 Alt ti. The State courts shall not have the 
 riowcr to inu-rvcnc in questions sulimltted to the 
 federal tril)uua!», or to annui, alter, or siiniicDd 
 the sentences or orders of these latur ; and retip- 
 rwallv. the federal Judiciary can not inU^rfere In 
 quostidiis submitted to the State cuurU, or annul 
 titer, or suspend their decisions or oniers except 
 to the cases jimTldr<l in this Constitution. 
 
 Art. 63. Each Stote shall Im- governed by the 
 [■..Mtiluiion and laws which it shall adopt, respect 
 Wlnjrutwrvol for the couatitullonal prlnciiilesof 
 the I nil in. 
 
 Art. 64. The unexplored mines and wild lands 
 IvlDK wltliln the Stau-s shall belong to these 
 ^Uten r.HT,rttively ; and to the Union only as 
 much tirrliory as may be necessary for the de- 
 /inNM.f the fnmtlcrs, for fortiflcatlons, military 
 Jiirk.. and fttleral railwaya SuU ,»r„gr„ph.- 
 Tbe nutinnal nropertlea, not neccs«iry for the 
 
 Zt' ; '^ '^ ?'""• ••*" P»" *° *^'- "''""••" of 
 the Mai, , In whose territory they may be sltu- 
 
 „ *^- *?• ,1"l'e States shall have the right to — 
 I . ..n. lurl,. agrromenu ami conventions among 
 
 (Aftld" i-^. No 18.) (2) Exrreiw In general any 
 
 ^f^ilii (onsiltutlon. or Implicitly in its I'xprei 
 
 Art. M. It Is forbidden to the 8uu-s to_(|) 
 Kedi,. i„ rHi.gniie public do.iim.mt. of th? 
 .i„i" '^'1 ""> "' '"* sutes, of a leirlsiatlvc 
 ..lml,.,.,r,.iive. or Judicial character. <f) He m 
 ta cumii. y or noi« issued by builu. wfil^ 
 
 643 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF BRAZIL. 
 
 «rM.'i' ''^..'^ °' *•■* ''e<^«"l Oovemment 
 (3) Make or declare war, one with another or 
 
 S'ifn»7''r*'''-..<:}1^'"" «"« extradition of 
 or ^f .hi P^r''?^,*'^.'^ J"^"* "' otJ"" States, 
 or of the Federal District, in conformity with thi 
 
 !rnicte4tr^.r'"='' "■"* "^ "^ •"'^j**^'- 
 
 ro^lV.*f?l" ^"^jht r^frictions specified in the 
 n?.?iL. l°^i J?""* ^'•« '*^''™' '»''». the Federal 
 ™f ^..h^n", ' •* »1?""^ '"'^«="y by the munici- 
 KJu-ttr in^the^^pr oTfepVb!.? 
 pruteilL'-^ forexcl£..velyby5.e^Pul5!i^ 
 
 ln^,fJh"" 1'''« States Shall organize themselves 
 n such a inanner as to assure the autonomy of 
 the municipal ties in everything that coucirns 
 their peculiar hiterests. "^nu 
 
 ,j!f^;f?-iJ}l^ following shall be Brazilian citi- 
 zens: (1) Natives of Brazil, though of foreign 
 parentage (father), provided he be not in the sfr- 
 
 Ji^tn ^J.'"*'"''- <*l^'" "' • BrazilUn father, 
 and illegitimate sons of a Brazilian mother, born 
 in foreign part*, if thev take up their residence 
 domiciFe) in the republic. (8) Sons of a Brazil- 
 Ian father who may be in another country in the 
 service of the Republic, although they do not 
 make their domicile In Brazil. (4) Foreigners. 
 
 T^ k'^P ^, f™,*" °'' '•'« "th of November 
 1889, shall not declare, within 6 month* from the 
 time when the Con*titutlon enters into force 
 their de»iro to preserve their original nationality! 
 5) Jore gners who possess riroperty (real estate) 
 a Hrazil and are married to Brazilian women, or 
 have Braz Han childitn, provided they reside in 
 Brazil, unless they shall declare theif intention 
 of not changing their nationality. (6) Foreiirn- 
 crs naturalized In any other way. 
 
 Art. 70. Citizens of more than 21 years of aire 
 and "Igistered according to law, shall be elector*. 
 Ss 1. The following *hall not tie regi*tered a* 
 electora for federal or Stote elections: (1) Beg- 
 gars (2) Persons ignorant of the alphaU't 18) 
 Soldiera on pay, except alumni of the mllltarT 
 schiwU of higlier instruction. (4) .MemUrs of 
 monastic orders, companies, congregations or 
 communities of wbataoevMr denomination, who 
 are subject to vowaof oh.-<llencc. rule, or statute. 
 which linplle* the surrender of indiviihml lilvrty 
 be li il S^"* *'"' °^ ""' ** regUlend shall not 
 Art. 71. The right* of the Brazilian citizen 
 can be BU«peiided or lost only In the following 
 cases: ? 1. The rights may tie suspended — (J) 
 for physical or moral Incapacity. (4) Koreriml- 
 nal conviction, during the ojieration of the sen- 
 tence. « 2. They may In. lost-(,i) By naturali- 
 zation in a foreign country. (A) By accetitanc* 
 of employment or peti.lon from a foreign power 
 witlioul iwmiission of the federal executive t} 8* 
 The m.>aim of naruuiring l.wt rights of the Bral 
 zllian citizen sliall Iw s|M',iil,d liv federal law. 
 
 Art. M. Tlie I'onstitutlnn secures to Brazil- 
 tans and foreljneni resliling In the country tb« 
 nvlolalillltv of their righu touching individual 
 llierty, arl wcurity and prop«-rtv. in the fol- 
 lowing teriun: SI. No [lemon slmll lie forced 
 to do. or leave undone, anything whatever ex- 
 cept by virtu.' of Uw. i ». Before the law aU 
 prm.r^ ,r.= ^.j.is!. Thr Republic docs nol fe«,« 
 nlie privileg. a of birth, or titles of nobility, aiid 
 anollshes all .listing honorary orders, with all 
 tiMOr prerogative* and decontloas, as well as all 
 
fW* 
 
 mm. 
 lip 
 
 CWNSTITDTION OF BRAZIL. 
 
 heredlta^ and condllar titles. § 8. All persons 
 and rellKtous professions may exercise, publiclr 
 and freely, the right of worahip, and may asso- 
 ciate themselves for that purpose, acquire prop- 
 erty, observance being had to the prurisions of 
 the common law. §4. The Republic recognizes 
 only the cWII marriage, the celebration of which 
 shall be gratuitous. §8. Thecemetcries shall be 
 secular In character, and be manapoil by the 
 numldpal authorities, being free to all religious 
 nets for the exercise of their respective rites as 
 reprds their members, provided they do not 
 offend public morals or the laws. 8 6. The In- 
 struction given in the public Institutions shall be 
 secular. 8 7. No sect or church shall receive 
 offlrittl aid. nor be dependent on, nor connected 
 with, the Oovemment of the Union, or of the 
 States. § 8. All persons have the right of free 
 assoi-iatlon and assembly, without arms ; and the 
 police force shall not Intervene, except to main- 
 tain the public order, g 9. Any person whatso- 
 ever shall have the right to address, by petition, 
 the public powers, denounce abuses of the authori- 
 ties, and appeal to the responsibility of the 
 accused. § 10. In time of peace any person 
 may, without passport, enter or leave the terri- 
 tory of the Kepubllc,wlth his fortune and goods, 
 whenever an(l however he may choose. §11. 
 The house Is the inviolable asylum of the person ; 
 no one can enter It at night without I he consent 
 of the Inhabitant, except to aid the victims of a 
 crime or disaster; nor by day, unless In the cases 
 and in the form prescribed by law. g 12. The 
 exi ri'sslon of opinion shall be free, in respect to 
 whatever subject, through the press or through 
 the tribune, without subjection to censorship, 
 ■■aih one being responsible for the abuses he mi-y 
 r.iininlt, in the cases and In the form prescribei; 
 by law. Anonymous publications are forbidden. 
 S in Cases of flagrante delicto alone excepte<l, 
 no arrest shall bo matle, unless after declara- 
 tion of the charge (save In cases determined by 
 law), and by writU'n order of the competent 
 authorities, p 14. No person shall be kept in 
 prison without charge formally made, save the 
 exceptions mentioned in the law, or taken to 
 prison, or detained there. If be give ball, In cases 
 where such is lawful. § 15. No person shall be 
 conilcinned, except ''v competent authority, and 
 in virtue of law already existing an<l In the form 
 pre«rih«>d by It. g 18. The law shall secure to 
 the airuneil the fullest defense bv all the re- 
 courses and means essential to the same. Includ- 
 ing the notice of the charge, delivered to the 
 prisoner within Si houn anilsigiied by the pD- 
 per authority along with the names of the accu- 
 sers and witnesses. 8 17. The rights of proi>erty 
 are maintained In all their plenitude, and no 
 disanpmpriatlon shall be ma<le, except from nc- 
 cetsltv „f public utility, and Imlemnlty shall, in 
 such cases, be made beforehand. .Mines belong 
 to the owners of the soil, under the limitations 
 to lie ('Stslilislied by the law to encourage the 
 devi'|i>pmi'iit of this branch of Industry, g 18. 
 ('orn'»|x>nilencc underset is iuvioli-ble. g 10. No 
 
 Senaliy shall extend beyond the person of the 
 eliiKiuent. g m The penaltr of the galleys Is 
 abolished, as also judicial tmnishmeut. g SI. 
 The death |>rnalty Is abolished, except In the 
 can i under military law in time of war. i 22 
 The babeiu oirpiu shall always lie granted when 
 the individual suffera violence or compulsion, 
 through Illegality or abuse of |iower, or considers 
 
 coNSTTnrnoN op brazil. 
 
 himself in Imminent danger of the same S 91 
 There shall be no privileged tribunal, exceot in 
 such cases as, from their nature, belonir to sirnn.! 
 rourts. § 24. The free exercise of any pfS 
 slon, moral. Intellectual, or Industrial li ™»n 
 tied. §25. Industrial Inventions Mong to Uinir 
 authors, to whom the law will grant a InnnniMr 
 privilege, or to whom the Congiv.ss wi!l>ivet 
 rcasjmablc premium, when It Is desirahle u'malis 
 the invention public property. § 36. To authois 
 of literary and artistic works Is guarantied tiie 
 exclusive right of reproducing them through the 
 press or by any other mechanical process, and 
 their helra shall enjoy the same right durini: the 
 space of time determined by the law. § 27 ti^ 
 law shall also secure the righte of prooertv in 
 trade-marks. § 28. No Brazilian can be iWved 
 of his dvll and political righto on accouot of 
 religious belief or duty, nor be exenipuil from 
 theperformanceof any civic duty, g 29 Those 
 who shall claim exemption from any bunlcn Im. 
 posed by the laws of the Republic on its ritlions 
 on account of religious belief, or who shall occtpt 
 any foreign decoration or title of nohilitv slull 
 lose all their political rights. § 30, No tax of 
 any kind shall be collected except in virtue of t 
 hiw authorizing the same. § 81. The instituUon 
 of trial by Jury Is maintained. 
 
 Art. 73. Public offices, civil or mllltarv, ti« 
 accessible to all Brazilian citizens, alwavsoWrr- 
 Ing the conditions of particular cap.i.'ity fixed 
 by the law : but tlio accumulation of remuners- 
 tlonp is forbidden. 
 
 Art, 74. Commissions, offices, ami poslt'oni 
 not subject to removal are guarantied In all their 
 plenitude. 
 
 Art. 75. Only such public ofllciaU n» Iwvc be- 
 come inllrm in the service of the nation sUsU be 
 rctire<i on pay. 
 
 Art. 76. Olflcera of the army and navy «h»ll 
 lose their commissions only in ca.se nf oimitemo«- 
 tion to more than 3 years in |)riHon, prdiiounccd 
 in ludgment by the competent tribunals. 
 
 Art. 77. There shall be a special murt for the 
 trial of military offenses committiHl by suldierj 
 or marines. § 1. This court shall be 'n>mp«m4 
 of a supremo military tribunal, whip« ,mberj 
 shall hold their seata for life, and of lli. .iindU 
 necessary for the formulation of the < Imrgc snd 
 the Judgment of the crimes, g 3. Tlu' crCTnlis 
 tion andi>owera of the supreme military iribumil 
 shall he aetermlne<l by law. 
 
 Art. 78. The enimieratiim of the riirhls and 
 guaranties expressed in theConslilutininliicsnot 
 excluile other guaranllcs i>n<l ri^tlilH. imI cnumtr- 
 ateil, but ri'suitlng from the form of /jnviTiimcnt 
 established and principles settleil by 8al<l t'unsll- 
 tutom. 
 
 Art. 79. The citizen ve«te<i with the funcliniu 
 of either of tliese three federal p.)w.r> shall ncit 
 exercis<> those of anothiT 
 
 Art. to. Any part of the territory «( i\u- Union 
 may bi- declared in state of siege aii.l ihicoBBtl 
 tutlonal guaranties suipendiHl for a ib !. rrainiHl 
 perloil, whenever the security of the lb'|iiibiic 
 so demands in case of fonign sitgn'»>i"n or In- 
 testine diaturbance. (Article S^i, Nn '.Ml ill 
 The power to execute the alioye pnw i«iiiii mar, 
 if the Congress be not In session ami tli<' (n iiiirr 
 !"-• In Imminent peril. 1» !!m-.! h\- •.'.::■ ft-ifrs! 
 executive. (Article 48, No. l.rj ^ •.'. in tlic 
 exorcise of this [lower, durini; the state of sieire, 
 tho executive shall be restricted lo tlie following 
 
 644 
 
OOySTITXTTION OF BRAZIL. 
 
 meuure* of repreMioii against penons: (1) To 
 their detention m a place not allotted to penons 
 accused of common crimes. (3) To bonisiiment 
 to other parts of tlie national territory. S 8. As 
 ■nn as the Congress shall have assembled, the 
 President of the Republic shall make a report to 
 that body of the exceptional measures which 
 may bare been taken. §4. The authorities who 
 (hall have ordered such measures shall be re- 
 iponsible for any abuses that may have been com- 
 mitted. 
 
 Art. 8i. In criminal cases, trials concluded 
 may be reviewed at any time, in favor of the 
 condemned parties, by the federal supreme court, 
 for the purpose of correetinff or of confirming the 
 sentence, g 1. The law shall determine the cases 
 ud the form of such revision, which may he 
 Mked for by the condemned, by any one of the 
 people, or by the attorney-general of the Repub- 
 lic, ex olBcio. § 3. In such revision the penalties 
 Imposed by the sentence reviewed can not be in- 
 creased. I 3. The provisions of the present ar- 
 tick' are applicable to military trials. 
 
 Art. 83. Public officers shall be strictly re- 
 sponsible for the abuses and omissions that occur 
 In tbc exercise of the duties of their offices, as 
 well as for the indulgences and negligences for 
 which they do not bold their suburdinates re- 
 «pon.<ible. Suit paragraph. — They shall all bo 
 bounil by formal obligation, on taking possession 
 of till ir offices, to discharge the lawful duties of 
 the same 
 
 Art. 83. Until revoked, the laws of the ancien 
 regime shall remain in force, in as far as they 
 sre not. explicitly or implicitly, Cf>ntriiry to the 
 lyslem of government established bv nhe Con- 
 ■titutinn, iiud to the principles laid dowi in the 
 same. 
 
 Art. 84. The federal government guaranties 
 the payment of the public debt, both Internal 
 and lurt'ign. 
 
 Art. 85. The officers of the line and of the sn- 
 Beteil cliisses of tbc navy shall have the same 
 cumniis.siiins and advantage as those of the army 
 of enmiipordlng rank. 
 
 Art. 86. L. -v Brazi«Kn shall be bound to 
 military service in defense of the country s J 
 the t'linititiitlon, as provided by the federal laws. 
 Art. 87. The federal army shall be made up 
 of ei.ntinifcnU which the states and the Federal 
 District are bound to fumisli, constituted in con- 
 f<irnilty with the annual law regulating the num- 
 Ikt ot the forces. $ 1. Tlie general orgaiiization 
 of tlie army shall be detcnnineil by a federal law, 
 in seciiniiiiice with No. 18 of article 34. ^ 8. 
 The rnli.n shall have charge of me militarv in- 
 •trudioti of the troops and of thn biglur military 
 Instruiti.in. §3. Compulsory recruiting for mili- 
 tary purpcises la abolishcil. |J 4. The army and 
 navy shall lie made up by voluut"ering wlibout 
 •iiiniieH. or, if this means be not sii»lcleut by 
 I'll previiiusly detiTmlncd. The civwa for the 
 luvy Khali lie made up from the rnvvs; scliooi, 
 tile H-hiKila of marine apprentices, an 1 the mn- 
 caanl nmrine, by means of lot. 
 
 Art, 88. In no case, either directly or indi- 
 rect y. iilnnc ..r in allUncc with another nation, 
 •hall ilie I iiiu.d SUtea of Brazil engage in a war 
 of con.|iiiT(i. 
 
 . ^w**' * 'ribunal of accounu shall be Insti- 
 "■'•' ■■•"""- auditing of the receipt lUuI iiufuiie 
 Kcouiits and esaminlng into their legality before 
 their preaentatloB to tbe ConctvM. The mem- 
 
 U 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF BRAZIL. 
 
 hers of this tribunal shall be appointed by the 
 President of the Republic, with the approval of 
 the Senate, and can lose their seats only by sen- 
 tence. 
 
 .Art. 90. The Constitution may be amended, at 
 the initiative of the national Congress, or of the 
 
 l^M "v""** °' "'^ S"***- § 1- -in amendment 
 sball be considered as proposed, when, having 
 been presenud by one-fourth, at least, of the 
 members of either house of the Congress, it shall 
 have been accepted in three readings (discussions) 
 by two-thirds of the votes in both houses of the 
 Congress, or when it shall have been asked for 
 by two-thirds of the States presented, each one 
 by a majority of the votes of ita legishiturc, said 
 votes to be taken in the course of 1 year. 8 2 
 The proposed amendment shall be considered 
 approved, if, in the following year, after three 
 discussions, it shall have been adof -.cd by a ma- 
 jority ot two-thirds of the votes in the two 
 houses of the Congress. § 8. The amendment 
 adopted shall be published with the signutiircs 
 of the prcsidenu and clerks of the two chambers 
 and be incorporate<l into the Constitution ih a 
 part of the same, g 4. No project having a t<.'n- 
 dency to abolish . 1 federative republican form 
 or the equal representation of the States in the 
 Senate, shall be admitted for considcratio the 
 Congress. 
 
 Art. 91. This Constitution, after ap] -1 
 shall be promulgated by the president .1 the 
 Congress and signed by the members of the 
 same. 
 
 Temporary ProTiaioni. 
 Article 1. After the promulgation of thi.s Con- 
 stitution, the Congress, in joint assemlil;. shall 
 choose consecutively, by an absolute miijnrilv of 
 votes in >he first balloting, and. if no ciitidiilati' 
 shall rerelvp such, by a pluralitv In the second 
 Imlloting, the President and Vice "President of the 
 Lniti-l States of Brazil, g 1. This election shall 
 beiu two distinct ballotings, for the President 
 and Vice President respectively, the ballots for 
 I'residcnt being uken and counte.|, in the first 
 place, and afterwanis for Vice President. S 3. 
 The l^esident and Vice President, thus elected 
 shall occi:py the Presidency and Vice I'residencv 
 of the Republic during the first Presidential 
 term, g 3. For said election there shall 1h; no 
 ineompatibiliiies admitu.'d. g 4. As six; n as said 
 election shall be cnncludetl, the Congress shall 
 consider as terminated iU mission in joint sc.s.si(in 
 and, si^parating into Chamlwr ami Senate, shall 
 enter upon the exercise of its functions us de- 
 final bv law, on the 15th of June of the prt.s<'nt 
 year, ai.d can not in any case be dis*i|ve(f ^ 5. 
 In the rtrst year of the first legislature, among its 
 prcpaiatory mi-asures, tlie Senate shall deslgi.atc 
 the flrit and second tliini of its niemlirrs. wliose 
 term of office shall reasi' at the end of the first 
 and Bi\Hinil Syear terms. ^ fl The discrinilna- 
 tion shall be made in lhre< ;i.sts. corresponiling 
 to the three eiasw's, alli.tl;.g to them the senutors 
 of each State and of the Federal District lUfonl. 
 Ing to the nuinlier of votes received hv them 
 respectively, so as to allot ta the thlnl fn llie 
 lastayenrs the one receiving the highest liiinilier 
 of votes In the Federal District and in e»i h StaU', 
 and to till- other two-thirds the remaining two 
 names in the order of the number of voioa re- 
 ceiveii iiy tliem respectively. ^ 7. In ease of tic, 
 the oldest shal'. be preferre'd, and if the ages are 
 equal, the choice shall bo made by lot 
 
 545 
 
CONSTlTCnON OF BRAZIL. 
 
 Art. s. The State which, by tJ •> end of the 
 tear 1893, shall not have adopteu Ita constttu- 
 Hon. shall, by act of the federal legislative power, 
 be placed under that of oae of the other States, 
 which it shall Judge most suitable, until the 
 State thus subjected to said oonstitatioD shall 
 •mend it in the manner provided in the same. 
 
 Art. 3. As fast as the States shall be organized, 
 the Federal Oovenmient shall deliver to them 
 Uie administration of the service* which belong 
 to them, and shall settle the responsibility of the 
 f>.'derei u J ministration in all that rcKtea to said 
 •ervices and to the payment of the respective 
 offlclals. 
 
 Art. 4. While, during the period of organiza- 
 tion of their services, theStates shall be engaged in 
 regulating their expenses, the Federal Goveniment 
 shall.forthis purpose, open special creditotothem, 
 tmder conditions determhied by the Congress. 
 
 Art. 5. In the Stetes which shall become or- 
 
 Snlwd the classification of the revenues estab- 
 heii in the Constitution shall enter into foree. 
 Art. 6. In the first appointments for the federal 
 magistrac/ and for that of the States, the pre- 
 ference shall be given to the Justices and magis- 
 trates of the higher courts of the greatest note. 
 Such 88 are not admitted Into the new organiza- 
 tion of the Judiciary, and have served 80 years 
 shall l>c retired on full pay. Those who have 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF CALIFORNIA.- 
 
 For an account of the maht features of this 
 
 roNSTmrnoN of Canada. 
 
 served for less than 80 years shall continue ta 
 receive their salaries until they shall be em 
 
 ?l°I'f' 2ru'*l*'*i.'''"'™P»J' corresponding u, 
 their leugth of service The payment of 8aliri« 
 of magistrates retired or set aside shall be nud. 
 by the Federal Government ^^ 
 
 «#^ I' To D. Pedro de Alcantara. ex-Emperor 
 
 18th of November, 1889, sufficient to guarantr 
 him a decent subsistence during his lifetin,/ 
 "The Congress, at ito first session, s>wU fli th. 
 imiountof saldL.:nsion. 
 
 Art 8. The Federal Qovemirsnt shall acoulm 
 tor the nation the house in which Dr. Be liamS 
 Constant Botelho de HagalhSes died, and shaH 
 have placed on it a memorial slab in mcmorv of 
 that great patriot, the founder of the Ucpublic. 
 Sols paragraph.— The vidow jf th. said Dr Ben- 
 Jamin Constant sl,all Imve. du-!ng her lifetime. 
 the usufruct of the said house. We oniir tlien 
 ail the authoritius U> whom the recocnition and 
 execution of this C.-natitution btlouijs, to exe- 
 cute it aud have it executed and observed faith- 
 fully and fully in all its provisions. Let the 
 same be published and observed tliroughout the 
 territory of the nation. Hall of tlic sessions of 
 the National Constitutional Congnss in the city 
 
 third of the Republic. See Bbazii,- lt)8»-i(j9i. 
 
 singular constitution, see CauroaNU: 
 1877— looO. 
 
 AD. 
 
 a A\ P-4P!'::;:''''" Q"«>>«c Act. See Canada: 
 CAt!?;'i"D-?;'»!^~'"'""'"^A^- See 
 A.'^V°-8l?,V"'''°^'*- S-Cakaoa: 
 
 a.^- T. '"'7-The British North America 
 
 Act.— The history of the Confederation of the 
 
 grov n<i.» of British North America, forming the 
 jominion of Canada, Is given brieflv under 
 Canada A I). 18«7. The following is the text 
 of tilt- Act of the Parilament of Great Britain by 
 which the Confederation was fonned and Its 
 constitution established: 
 
 An Act for the Union of Canada. Nova Scotia, 
 and New Brunswick, and the Oovemment 
 tbenof : and for purposes connected therewith. 
 WTii March. 1867. 
 
 WiiKiiKArt the Provinces of Canada, Nova 
 Scolbi Hiul New Brunswick have expressed 
 their .l.sire to he federally united into one 
 Domiiiloii under the Crown of the United I ae- 
 dom of (In at Britain and Ireland, with a cofi 
 rtltulion similar in principle to that of the United 
 Kinjfdi.iii: And whereas such a Union would 
 coniiiuy Ui 111,, welfare of the Provinces and pro- 
 mote the int. rests of the British Empire ■ And 
 Whenas on the .•sUli.ishr :it of the Union by 
 aut lority of 'arliainent it u expedient, not only 
 that tlie ( oiisiltiition of the I^egislatlve Authority 
 In the Dominion lie provided for, but also that 
 the nature of the Executive Government therein 
 be deelHred: And whereas it is expedient that 
 provision lie made for the eventual .iilm!=i!.^n 
 inui liic L nion of other parU of Britlsli North 
 Amertua. Be it tlietefors eOMted and decUied 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. 
 
 646 
 
 by the Queen's most Excellent Majesty, hv and 
 with the advice and consent of ihf lonlj 
 Spiritual and Temporal, and Con'nions iu iliis 
 present Parilament Bsscmblt.ii. and by the 
 authority of the same, as follows : 
 
 1. This Act may be cited as The British North 
 America Act, 1807. 
 
 2. The provisions of this Act referring In Hit 
 Majesty the Queen extend also to th,. h,.jrs an I 
 successors of Her Majesty, Kinirs and ()ii, ,.n» of 
 the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ir, land 
 
 J. It shall be lawful for th, Oun-n byanfl 
 with the advice of Her Majesty's M.wt ilim.iur- 
 able Privy Co-_ncil, to declare by rrmlaniati.u 
 that, on aud after a day thendn aiiiKiiniid, not 
 being more than six n-onths after tin. Ilil^.inl; nt 
 this Act, the Provinces of Cnnaila. .N.na S.iiia, 
 and New Brunswick shall form and tie one 
 Dominion under the name of C'anadu: aiid on 
 and after that da^ those three I'mvinc,.!! shall 
 form and be one Dominion umicr that name 
 acconlingly. 
 
 4. The subsequent provisions of tliU .Vrt 
 shall, unless It is otherwise expressed ,ir iiiipli,..!, 
 commence and have effect on ami aft, r tlie 
 Union, that is to say, on and after tlu' ,lav ap- 
 
 Pilntod for the Union taklngelleri in ihi.QiiWns 
 rocliimntlon ; ami in the same pr-'vi^iims. «nli« 
 It Is otherwise expn-sscil or Implloil, the name 
 Canada shaM be taken to mean Canada as con- 
 stituted under this Act. 
 
 8. Canada shall be diviile,! into four Prov- 
 inces, name<l Ontario, Quebec, Nova -Niilia, and 
 NrW BfiiiiSwick. 
 
 6. The psrU of the Province of Canada (as it 
 exists at the passbigof this Act) which formerl; 
 
ooNSTmmoMr op cakada. 
 
 XncMvtand 
 
 I^ir'iament, 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. 
 
 omstltuted reapectlTeiy the Provincei of Upper 
 Caiuds and Lower Canada shall be deemed to be 
 levered, and shall form two separate Provinces. 
 The part which formerly coratituted the Prov- 
 ince of Upper Canada shall constitute the Prov- 
 ince of Ontario ; and the part which formerly 
 constituted the Province of Lower Canada shall 
 constitute the Province of Quebec. 
 
 7, The Provinces of Nova Scotia and New 
 Bnmsvick sUall ha^e the same limits as at the 
 pi ~ineof this \ct 
 
 .. In the geiicral census of the population of 
 Canada, which is hereby required to be taken in 
 the year one thousand .u-ht hiinilrei and 
 leventyonc, and in every tenth year thereafter, 
 the mpcctive populations of the four Provinces 
 shall be distinguished. 
 
 9. The Executive Government and authority 
 of and over Canada is hereby declared to con- 
 tinue and be vested In the Queen. 
 
 10. The pr isions of this Act referring to 
 the Governor i '.iieral extend and apply to the 
 Governor General for the time being of Canada, 
 or other the Chief Executive Oracer or Ad- 
 mlnintrator, for the time being carrying on the 
 Oovemmcnt of Canada on behalf and in the 
 name of tlie Queen, by whatever title he Is 
 desiirnatrtl. 
 
 1 1. There shall be a Council to aid end advise 
 in the Government of Canada, to be styled the 
 Queen's Privy Council for Canada: and the 
 persons who arc to be members of tlut Coimcll 
 shall be from time to time chosen and summone<l 
 hy the Governor General and sworn in as Privy 
 Councillors, and membe.-s thereof may be from 
 dme to time removed by the Governor General. 
 
 J 2. All powers, authorities, and functions 
 Thich under any Act of the Parliament of Great 
 Britain, or of the Parliament of the United 
 Kinjfdoni of Great Britain and Ireland, or of the 
 Legislature of Upivcr Canada, Lower Canada 
 Canada, Nova Scotia, or New Brunswick, are at 
 the I'nion vested in or exerciseable by the re- 
 spective Governors or Lieutenant Governors of 
 thiMe Provinces, with tlic advice, or with the 
 odvioe and consent, of the respective Executive 
 Councils thereof, or in conjunction with those 
 Councils, or with any numlwr of members 
 tliercof. or bv those Oovernors or Lieutenant 
 Oovemotu individually, shall, as fur as the same 
 continue in extstenre and capable of being 
 fserciscd after the Union in relation to the Gov- 
 ornment of Cr.nnda, be veste<l in and exercise- 
 olilc by the Governor General, with the nlvlce 
 m with the advice and consent of or in conjunc- 
 tion with the Queen's Privy Council for Canada 
 or any incmlH'ra thenof. or bv the Governor 
 (•eninil Indivi.luully, as the case fequiret, subject 
 nrvenlicliss (except with ri'spect to such as exist 
 uiidcr .\cis i,f the Parliament of Great Britain or 
 nf Uie l'.-.rl hunent of the United Kingdom of 
 Oneat Britain and Indand) to be aboQshed or 
 •lUred liy ihc Parliament of Canada. 
 
 1 J. 1 hi' provisions of this Act referring to the 
 tjovcrn,,r (..nenil in Council shall be construed 
 asirfirrinff to the Governor Oenrrnl actine bv 
 »nd»,th the advice of the Queen's Privy Council 
 
 14. It shall l>e lawful for the Queen, if Her 
 MsJiMv thinks lit, to suthoriie Oic {kivrranr 
 l^ucrnl from time lo time to appoint any person 
 jr.";" I"'";"'''. Jointly or severally, to bo hU 
 ueputy or Deputies within any pah or p«ru of 
 
 547 
 
 Canada, and In that capacity to exercise during 
 the pleasure of the Governor General such of the 
 powers, authorities, and functions of the Gov- 
 ernor General as the Governor General de r.» 't 
 necessary and expedient to assign to him or 
 them, subject to any limitations or directions ex- 
 pressed or given by the Queen; but the appoint- 
 ment of such a Deputy or Deputies shall not 
 affect the exercise by the Governor General him- 
 l m *m? P^wef- authority or function. 
 
 15. The Command-In-Chief of the Land and 
 Naval Malltia, sud of all Naval and Slilitory 
 *orces, of and in Canada, is hereby declared U> 
 contmue and be vested in the Queen. 
 
 16. Until the Queen otherwise directs, the 
 **V» Go- mment of Canada shall be f»tawa 
 
 1 ;• There shall be one Pariiament for Canads 
 conslsiing of the Queen, an Upper Fouse style' 
 the Senate, and the House of Commons. 
 . \ I Tl'* P'''''"*'ge8. Immunitie- and powet» 
 to be held, eni, ed, and exercised jy the Senate 
 and by the House of Commons, and by the 
 members thereof respectively, shnll be such as 
 are from time to time dcflni'd by Act of the 
 Parliament of Canada, but so that Jie same shall 
 never exceed those at the passi..; of this Act 
 held, enjoyed, and exercised by the Commons 
 House of Parliament of the United Kingdom 
 of Gnat Britata and Ireland and by the members 
 thereof. 
 
 ll». The Pariiament of Canada shall be called 
 together not Uter than six months after the 
 Lulon. 
 
 20. There shall be a Session of 'he "arilament 
 of Canada once at least In evei> year, so that 
 twelve months shall not intervene Iwtween the 
 last sittipj, of the Parliament in one Session and 
 iU flrsf sitting In the next Session. 
 
 at. The Senate shall, subject to the pro- 
 visK.nso' this Act, consist of seventy two mem- 
 bers, wh. Bhai; be styled Senators. 
 
 22. In relation to the constitution of the 
 Senate, Canada s' '1 be deemed to consist of 
 threedlvisiras — 1. ntario; 8. Quel)ec; 3. Tiie 
 Maritime Provinces, Nova Scotia and New 
 Brunswick; which three divisions shall (subject 
 to the provisions of this Act) be equally repre- 
 sented in the Senate ms follows: Ontario by 
 twcnt.--four Semtors: Quebec by twentv-four 
 SenatoiL ; and the Maritime Provinces by twenty- 
 four Senators, twelve thereof representing Nova 
 Scotia, and twelve thereof representing Now 
 Brunswick. In the case of QucIh-c eai Ii of the 
 twenty-four Senators repres ..tiling that Province 
 s^iali be appointed for one of the twonty-four 
 Electoral Divisions of Lower Canada spcel'tliMl In 
 Schedule A. to chapter one of the Consolidated 
 Statutes of Canada. 
 
 23. The qualification of n Senator shall be a* 
 follows:— <1) He shall W of the ful". age of 
 thirty years: (2) He simll be eltlicr a natural 
 bon. subject of the Quwn, or a subject of iho 
 Qu(rn naturalizci by iin Act of the Parliament 
 of Great Britain, or of the Pnrilamcnt of the 
 United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, or 
 of the I.eglslature of one of the Provinces of 
 Upper Canada, Lower Canada, Canada, Nova 
 Scotia, or New Brunswick, l)efon> the Union or 
 of the Parliament of Canada after the Union- 
 m If.-, shfill l>e \i-gnHy vt rtiuitabiv seised as of 
 ffehohi for his own use and Iwnelft of lamls or 
 
 nements held In free and common socage, or 
 ■elied or ponesied for bis own luo and benedt of 
 
CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. 
 
 and Ctoiuwiu. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF CANADA 
 
 if*'" }'■ 
 
 r^*-f 
 
 lands or tenement* held in franc-alleu or in 
 roture, within the Province for which he is ap- 
 pointed, of the value of four thousand dollan, 
 over and above all rents, dues, debts, charges,' 
 mortgages, ami incumbrances due or payable out 
 of or charged on or affecting the same: (4) His 
 real and personal property shall bo together 
 worth $4,000 over and above his debts and 
 liabilities: (5) He shall be resident in the Prov- 
 ince for which he is appointed : (6) In the case 
 of (Quebec he shall have his real property 
 qualification in the Electoral Division for which 
 he is appointed, or shall be resident in that 
 Division. 
 
 24. The Governor General shall from time to 
 time, in the Queen's name, by instrument under 
 tlie Great Seal of Canada, summon qualified 
 persons to the Senate ; and, subject to the pro- 
 visions of this Act, every person so summoned 
 shall become and be a member of the Senate and 
 a Senator. 
 
 25. Such persons shall be first uairmoncd to 
 the Senate as the Queen by warrant under Her 
 Majcst -s Royal Sign Manual thinks fit to ap- 
 prove, _nd their names shall be inserted in the 
 Queen's Proclamation of Union. 
 
 26. If at any time on the recommendation of 
 the Governor Gencrul the Queen thinks fit to 
 direct tliat three or six members be added to the 
 Senate, the Governor Oencral may by summons 
 to three or six qualified persons (as trie case may 
 be), representing equally the three divisions o"f 
 Ciiniida, add to the Sinate accordingly. 
 
 27. In case of such addition being at any 
 time made the Governor General shall n()t 
 summon any person to the Senate, except on a 
 further like direction bv the Queen on tlic like 
 rcpommendntion, until each of the three divisions 
 of Canada is represented by twenty-four Senators 
 and no more. 
 
 28. The number of Senators shall not at any 
 time exceeii seventy-eight. 
 
 29. A Senator shall, subject to the provisions 
 of this Act, hold his place m the Senate for life. 
 
 30. A S«-nator may by writing under his hand 
 addressed to the Governor General resign bis 
 place in the Senate, and thereupon the same 
 shall be vacant. 
 
 31. The place of a Senator shall become 
 vaaint in any of the following cases: (1) If for 
 two consecutive Sessions of the Parliament he 
 fails to give his attendance in the Senate: (8) If 
 ho takes an oath or makes a declaration or 
 acknowledgment of allegiance, obedience, or ad- 
 herence to a for(^gn power, or does an act 
 whereby he becomes a subject or citizen, or 
 entitled to the righu or privileges of a subject or 
 citizen of a foreign power: (3) If In is adjudged 
 bankrunt or insolvent, or applies lur the benefit 
 of any law relating to insolvent debtors, or Iw- 
 comi'S a public defaulter: (4) If he Is attainted 
 of treiison or convicted of felony or of any in- 
 famous crime: (.'5) If he ceases to bo qualified iu 
 respiTt of property or of residence; provided, 
 that a Senator shall not be deenie<l to have ceasetl 
 to be mialilliii in respect of residence by reason 
 only of his reoiding at the seat of the Govern- 
 ment of t'liuiula while holding an olfice under 
 "•at Government nquiring his presence there. 
 
 32. When a vaoancy liappins in the Senate 
 by re«lgnati"U. death, or i.thirwisi'. the Goverrn'r 
 tJeneral shall by summons to a fit and qualified 
 ptrwD mi the vacancy. 
 
 548 
 
 3^ If any question arises respecting the 
 qualification of a Senator or a vacancy la the 
 Senate the same shall be heard and detcrmiuirt 
 by the Senate. ^^ 
 
 34. The Governor General may from time to 
 time, by Instrument under the Great Seal of 
 Canada, appoint a Senator to be Speaker of the 
 Senate, and may remove him and appoint another 
 in his stead. 
 
 36. Until the Parliament of Canada otherwUe 
 provides, the presence of at least fifteen -Sastors 
 including the Speaker, shall be necessiiry to coo' 
 stitute a meeting of the Senate for the exeieiw 
 of its powers. 
 
 J 39'j9"**''°°* '"^»*°5 tn ^e Senate sliall be 
 decided by a majority of voices, and the .Speaker 
 shall in all cases have a vote, and wliin the 
 voices are equal the decision shall be deiracd to 
 be in the negative. 
 
 37. The House of Commons shall, subject to 
 the provisions of this Act, consist of one Immlred 
 and eighty-one members, of whom <ii;lity two 
 shall be elected for Ontario, sixty-flve forOutboc 
 nineteen for Nova Scotia, and fifteen for New 
 Brunswick. 
 
 38. The Governor General shall from time to 
 time, in the Queen's name, by instrumiut under 
 the Great Seal of Canada, sun.mou and call 
 together the House of Commons. 
 
 SO. A Senator shall not be capable of beinr 
 elected or of sitting or voting .« a nienilxrof th« 
 House of Commons. 
 
 40. Until the Parliament of Canada otherwise 
 provides, Ontario, Quebec. Nova S<otia and 
 New Brunswick shall, for the purpo.-. , o.' the 
 election of members to serve in the House of 
 Commons, be divided into Electoral l)i,tricu as 
 follows:— (1) Ontario shall be dividi,! into the 
 Counties, Ridings of Counties, Citle.i. parts of 
 Cities, and Towns enumerated in the first 
 Schedule to this Act, each wher«ir sh.ill be an 
 Electoral District, each such I)istri<t m num- 
 bered in that Schedule being entitled to ntura 
 one member. (2) Quebec shall be divi.lci Into 
 sixty-five Electoral DlstricU, compowil of the 
 sixty-five Electoral Divisions into whirh Lower 
 Canada is at the passing of this Ait divided 
 under chapter two of the Consolidated Statutes 
 of Canada, chapter seventy-live of the Con- 
 solidated Statutes for Lower Canada, and the 
 Act of the Province of Canaita of tlic twenty- 
 third year of the Queen, clmptir on.-, or any 
 other Act amending the .same in font' at the 
 Union, so that each such Electoral Division sliall 
 be for the purposes of this Act an Elciioril Dis- 
 trict entitled to return one inember. (:!> Eachof 
 the eighteen Counties of Nova Scoti i .^hall be 
 an Electoral District. The County of ICalifai 
 shall Ik) entitled to return two niVinlxrs. and 
 each of the other Counties one meralMT ( 1 1 Each 
 of the fourteen Counties Into which Xiw Bruns- 
 wick is <livided, including the City iiml County 
 of St. John, shall be an Electoral Disirict; the 
 City of St John shall also lie a septiralc Klictoril 
 District. Each of those fifteen El.ri. ml Dis- 
 tricts sliall bo entitled to return one ni.inlier. 
 
 41. Until the Parliament of Canada other- 
 wise provides, all laws in force in tin; several 
 Provinces at tlie Union relative to thi' following 
 matters or an^ of them, namely,— the qualiflca 
 liotis iuid disquatitli Hti.iiis of iKmoii.-- to t* 
 elected or to sit or vote as members of the Uouie 
 of Assombly or Lefislatlve Aiivmbly la U>e 
 
CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. 
 
 Bcmtt of 
 
 CtMMKMU. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. 
 
 MTeral ProTinces, the Totera at electiona of such 
 members, the oaths to be taken bv voters, the 
 returning officers, their powers and duties, the 
 proceedings at elections, the periods during 
 which elections may be continued, the trial oi 
 controverted elections, and proceedings incident 
 thereto, the vacating of seats of members, and 
 the execution of new write in case of seats 
 vacated otherwise than by dissolution,— shall re- 
 gpectlvely apply to electiona of members to servo 
 in tL. House of Commons for the same several 
 Provinces. Provided that, until the Parliament 
 of Canada otherwise provides, at any election 
 for a Member of the House of Commons for the 
 District of Algoma, in addition to persons 
 qualified by the law of the Province of Canada 
 to vote, every male British subject aged twenty- 
 one years or upwards, being a householder, shall 
 have a vote. 
 
 42. For the first election of members to serve 
 in the House of Commons the Governor General 
 iIiaU cause writs to he issued by such person, in 
 tuch form, and addressed to such returning 
 officers as ho thinks fit. The person issuing 
 writs under this section shall have the like 
 powers as arc possessed at the Union by the 
 officers charged with the issuing of writs for the 
 election of members tj serve in the respective 
 House of Assembly or Legislative Assembly of 
 the Province of Canada, Nova Scotia, or New 
 Brunswick; and the Iletuming GlHccrs to whom 
 writs ure directed undtr this section shall have 
 the lik(! powers as are possessed at tlie Union by 
 the oi^cers charged with the returning of writs 
 for thi; election of members to serve in the same 
 rtspiTtive House of Assembly or Legislative 
 Assembly. 
 
 43. In case a vacancy in the representation in 
 the House of Commons of any Electoral Dis- 
 trict happens before the meeting of the Parlia- 
 ment, or after the meeting of the Parliament be- 
 fore provision is made by the Parliament in this 
 behiilf, tlie provisions of the lost foregoing 
 section of this Act shall extend and apply to the 
 issuing and returning of a writ in respect of such 
 vacant District. 
 
 44. The House of Commons on its first as- 
 scmlilinij after a general election shall proceed 
 with ,all practicable speed to elect one of its 
 members to be Speaker. 
 
 4<}. In case of a vacancy happening In the 
 office of Sptaker by death, resignation or other- 
 wise, the House of Commons sliall with all 
 practicable speed proceed to elect another of iu 
 memlKTi to be Speaker. 
 
 40. The Speaker shall preside at all meetings 
 of the House of Commons. 
 
 47. Until the Parliament of Canada other- 
 wise provides, in case of the absence for any 
 reason of the Speaker from the chair of the 
 House of Commons for a period of forty-eight 
 coMecutive hours, the House may elect another 
 of its nieniliers to act as 8|>eaker, and the mem- 
 fer »o electwi shall during the continuance of 
 iiich absence of the S|>cakcr have and execute 
 
 i« 'i',"'"' privileges, and duties of Speaker. 
 ♦ I IT I""*^^*''"" of «t le<«t twenty members 
 01 the House of Commons sliall be necessary to 
 consiituie a meeting of the House for the exercise 
 or is powers, and for Uwt purpose the Speaker 
 •nail !»■ n tkomMl as a member, 
 ml ,Q''™t'ons arising in the House of Com- 
 now shall be decided by a majority of voice* 
 
 other than that of the Speaker, and when the 
 voices are equal, but not otherwise, the Speaker 
 aiiall have a vote. 
 
 OO. Every House of Commons shall continue 
 for five years from the day of the return of the 
 Write for choosing the House (subject to be 
 sooner dissolved by the Governor General), and 
 no longer. " 
 
 51. On the completion of the census in the 
 year one thousand eight hundred and seventy- 
 one, and of each subsequent decennial census 
 the representation of the four Provinces aball be 
 re-adjusted by such authority, in such ni,-.nner 
 and from such time as the Parliament of Canada 
 from time to time provides, subject and accord- 
 ing to the following rules: — (1) Quebec shall 
 ra^Thil! ^»«l,''>'™f f of sixty-five members: 
 g) There sliall be assigned tc each of the other 
 l^vinces such a uuml)cr of members as will 
 Dear the same proportion to the number of its 
 population (ascertained at such census) as the 
 number sixtv-flve bears to the number of the 
 population of Quebec (so ascertained): (3) In the 
 computation of the number of members for a 
 ttovince a fractional part not exceeding one-half 
 of the whole number requisite for entitling the 
 Province to a member shall be disregarded but 
 a fractional part exceeding ore-lia!f of that 
 number shall be equivalent to the whole num- 
 ber: (4) On any such readjustment the number 
 of members for a Province shall not be reduced 
 unless the proportion which the number of the 
 population of the Province bor« to the number 
 of the aggregate population of Canada at the 
 then last preceding re-adjustment of the number 
 of members for the Province is ascertained at the 
 then latest census to be diminished by one- 
 twentieth part or upwards: (.5) Such readjust- 
 ment shall not take effect until the termination 
 01 the then existing Pariiament. 
 
 52. The number of riembcrs of the House of 
 Commons may be from t.me to time increased by 
 the Parliament of Canada, provided the propor- 
 tionate represenUtion of the Provinces prescribed 
 by this Act is not thereby disturbed. 
 
 53. Bills for appropriating any part of the 
 public revenue, or for imposing any tax or im- 
 pMt sliall oriiflnate in the House of Commons 
 
 04. It sliall not be lawful for the House of 
 Commons to adopt or pass any vote, resolution 
 address, or bill for the appropriation of anj part 
 of the public revenue, or of any tax or impost 
 to any -jurpose that has not been first recom- 
 mended to that House bv message of Uie Gov- 
 ernor General in the Session in which such vote 
 resolution, addri'ss, or bill is proposed. ' 
 
 65. Where a bill passed by the Houses of the 
 Pariiament is presented to the Governor General 
 for the Queen's assent, he shall declare according 
 to his discretion, but subject to the provisions of 
 this Act and to Her Majesty's instructions, either 
 that he ossente thereto in the Queen's name or 
 that he withholds the Queen's assent, or that he 
 reserves the bill for the signilication of the 
 Queen's pleasure. 
 
 60. Where the Governor General assents to a 
 bil! in the Queen's name, he shall by the first 
 convenient opportunity send au authentir copy 
 of the Act to one of Her Majesty's Prin.iniil 
 Seerctarius of State, and if the Quieu iu Council 
 within two years after receipt thereof by the 
 Secretary of State thinks fit to disallow the Act 
 such UiMlluwaucc (with a certillcutu uf the Secie- 
 
 649 
 
ooNSTmmoN op cakada. 
 
 OownuMnti, 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. 
 
 ■iV 
 
 tuy of State of the day on which the Act whi 
 re(xived by him) being signified bj the Oovernor 
 GeBeral, by speech or message to each of the 
 Houses of the Parliament, or by proclamation, 
 shall annul the Act from and after the day of 
 such signification. 
 
 07. A bill reserved for the signification of the 
 Queen's pleasure shall not have any force unless 
 and until within two yean from the day on 
 which it was presented to the Governor General 
 for the Queen's assent, the Governor General 
 signifies, by speech or message to each of the 
 Houses of the Parliament or by proclamation, 
 that It has received the assent of the Queen In 
 Council. An entry of every such speech, mes- 
 sage, or proclnmation shall be made in the Journal 
 of each House, and a duplicate thereof duly at- 
 tested shall be delivered to the proper officer to be 
 kept among the Records of Canada. 
 
 08. For each Province there shall be an 
 officer, styled the Lieutenant Governor, ap- 
 pointed by the Governor General in Cnuncll by 
 Instrument under the Great Seal of Cai. ia. 
 
 00. A Lieutenant Governor shall hold office 
 during the pleasure of the Governor General; 
 but any Lieutenant Governor appointed after the 
 commencement of the first Session of the Parlia- 
 ment of Canada shall not be removable within 
 five years from his appointment, except for cause 
 assigned, which shall be communicated to him 
 in writing within one month after the order for 
 hig removal Is mode, and shall be communicated 
 by message to the Senate and to the House of 
 Commons within one week thereafter If the 
 Parliament Is then sitting, and if not then within 
 one week after the commencement of the next 
 Session of the Parliament. 
 
 60. The salaries of the Lieutenant Governors 
 shall be fixed and provided by the Parliament of 
 Cannda. 
 
 61. Every Lieutenant Governor shall, before 
 assuming the duties of his office, make and sub- 
 scribe before the Governor General, or some 
 person authorized by him, oaths of allegiance 
 and office similar to those taken by the Governor 
 General. 
 
 62. The provisions of this Act referring to 
 the Lieutenant Governor extend and apply to the 
 Lieutenant Governor for tlie time being of each 
 Province or other the cMt» executive officer or 
 administrator for the time being carrying on the 
 government of the Province, by whatever title 
 Ub Is designated. 
 
 63. The Executive Council of Ontario and of 
 Quebec shall be composed of such persons as the 
 Lieutenant Governor from to time thinks fit, and 
 in the first InsUnce of the following officers, 
 namely:— The Attorney-General, the Secretary 
 and Registrar of the I'rovince, the Treasurer of 
 the Province, the Commissionerof Crown Lands, 
 and the Commissioner of Agriculture and 1' 'blic 
 Works, with in Quebec the Speaker of the Legis- 
 lative Council and the Solicitor General. 
 
 64. The Constitution of the Executive 
 Autliorlty in each nf the Provinces of Xova 
 8coti» and New Brunswick shall, subject to the 
 
 trovlslons of this Act, continue as It exists at the 
 nion until altered under the authority of this 
 Act. ' 
 
 60. All powers, authorities, and fiinctinns 
 whioh under any Act of the Parliament of Great 
 Britain, or of the Parilament of the United 
 Kingdom of Great Britain and Irelaod, or of the 
 
 Legislature of Upper Canada, Lower Canada 01 
 Canada, were or are before or at tlic I'n'loB 
 vesf<!d in or exerciseable by the respective Gov. 
 emoii or Lieutenant Governors of those Pro». 
 inces, with the advice, or with the advice and 
 consent, of the respective Executive Councila 
 thereof, or in conjunction with those Councils, 
 or with any number of -nembers thereof, or bj 
 those Oovemora or Lieutenant Oovernora in. 
 dividually, shall, aa far as the same are capable 
 of being exercised after the Union In relation tt 
 the Government of Ontario and Quebec, rrapco 
 tlvely, be vested in, and shall or may he ex- 
 ercised by the Lieutenant Governor of Ontario 
 and Quebec respectively, with the advice or 
 with the advice and coui«'nt of or In cmijunciion 
 with the respective Executive Councils, cir anv 
 members thereof, or by the Lieutenant (iovermir 
 individually, as the case reijulres, Bubitct never- 
 thelesa (except with rp»p«'ct to such as exist 
 under Acts of the Parilament of Great Britain 
 or of the Parliament of the United Kiimiiom of 
 Great Britain and Ireland), to be aliolislied or 
 altered by the respective Legislatures of Ontario 
 and Quebec. 
 
 66. The provisions of this Act, referrinr to 
 the Lieutenant Governor In Council shall l>e lun- 
 strued as referring to the Lieutenant Governor 
 of the Province acting by and with the advice of 
 the Executive Council thereof. 
 
 67. The Govcnior General in Council may 
 from time to time appoint an admiiiistmtor to 
 execute the office and functions of Lieuteiunt 
 Governor during his absence. Illness, or other 
 inability. 
 
 68. Unless and until the Executive Govern- 
 ment of any Province otherwise directs with re- 
 spect to that Province, the seats of Goveniment 
 of the Provinces shall be as follows, niiinelv - 
 of Ontario, the City of Toronto; of Qiiiliec,"llic 
 CItv of Quebec: of Nova Scotia, the Citv of 
 Halifax; and of New Brunswick, the Citvof 
 Fredericton. 
 
 69. "^here shall be a Legislature for Ontario 
 consisting of the Lieutenant Oovernor and of i^ne 
 House, styled the Legislative Attsembly uf On- 
 tario. 
 
 70. The Legislative Assembly of Ontario 
 shall be composed of elghtv-two mcnilxrs, to lie 
 elected to represent the eighty-two Electoral 
 Districts set forth in the first Schedule to thij 
 Act. 
 
 71. There shall be a Legislature for Qiieliec 
 consisting of the Lieutenant Governor and of t«o 
 Houses, 8tyle<l the Legislative Council of Quebec 
 and the Legislative A8senil)lv of QiietHc. 
 
 72. The Legislative Council of Quelicc shall 
 bo composed of twenty-four nicmlnrs, to lie ap- 
 pointed by the Lieutenant Governor in the 
 Queen's name, by instrument under the Gnat 
 Seal of Quebec, one being a|ipointcil to n pres<nt 
 each of the twenty-four Electoral I)ivi>iom of 
 Lower Canada In this Act rcfi mil to, nn.l each 
 holding office for the term of his life, m\W<< t!ie 
 Legislature of Quebec otherwise provides under 
 the provisions of this Act. 
 
 73. The quallflaitions of the I^ojrislaiire 
 Councillors nf Quebec shall be the same as those 
 of the Senators for Quebec. 
 
 74. The place of a Lr;:!slalivr- Co-j::!i;!.'f -f 
 Quebec shall become vacjint In the cases, ■ mulatii 
 mutandis' in which the place of Senator be- 
 come* vacaot 
 
 550 
 
coNSTmmoN of cakasa. 
 
 ProDlneiat 
 ( hu mrmmm U . 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP CANADA. 
 
 T5. When k Tseancy happeni In the Legli- 
 Ittire Council of Quebec, by realgnation, death, 
 or otherwise, the Xieutenant Oovernor, in the 
 Queen's name, by Instrument under the Great 
 Seal of Quebec, shall appoint a fit and qualified 
 person to fill the vacancy. 
 
 76. If any question arises respecting the 
 qualitlration of a Legislative Councillor of 
 Quebec, or a vacancy in the Legislative Council 
 of Quebec, the same shall be heard and de- 
 termined by the Legislative Council. 
 
 77. The Lieutenant Governor may from Hme 
 to time, by instrument under the Great Seal of 
 Quebec, appoint a member of the Legislative 
 Council of Quebec to be Speaker thereof, and 
 msv remove him and appoint another in his stead. 
 
 78. Uutll the Legislature of Quebec other- 
 wiie provides, the presence of at least ten mem- 
 bers I if the Legislative Council, including the 
 Speaker, shall be necessary to constitute a meet- 
 lag for the exercise of its powers. 
 
 70. Questions arising in the Legislative 
 Council of QucVc shall be decided by a majority 
 of voices, and tlie Speaker shall in all cases have 
 s vole, and when the voices are equal the decision 
 ihtll be deemed to be in the negative. 
 
 80. The Legislative Assembly of Quebec 
 iball lie composed of sixty -five members, to be 
 elected to represent the sixty-Sve Electoral 
 Dlvisiims or Districte of Lower Canada in this 
 Act referred to, subject to alteration thereof by 
 the Legislature of Quebec: Provided that it 
 shall not be lawful to present to the Lieutenant 
 Governor of Quebec for assent any bill for alter- 
 tag the limlu of any of the Electoral Divisions 
 or Districts mentioned in the second Schedule to 
 this Act. unless the second and third readings of 
 tuch bill have been passed in the LegisUtive 
 Assemlily with the concurrence of the majority 
 of the members representing all those Electoral 
 Divisions or Dlntritts, and the assent ^11 not be 
 given to such bills unless an address has been 
 
 E resented by the Legislative Assembly to the 
 ieutenont Governor stating tha it has been so 
 passed. 
 
 81. The Legislatures of Ontario and Quebec 
 rtspeetively shall be called together not later 
 than six months after the Union. 
 
 82. The Lieutenant Governor of Ontario and 
 of Queliec shall from time to time, in the Queen's 
 name, by instrument under the Great Seal of the 
 Province, summon and call together the Legis- 
 lative .\s.sembly of the Province. 
 
 83. Until the Legislature of Ontario or of 
 Queluc otherwise provides, a person accepting 
 or hcilding in Ontario or in Quebec any office, 
 commission, or employmeut, perma. it or 
 tempiirary, at the nomination of the Lieuuoant 
 Governor, to which an annual salary, or an" fee, 
 allowiiucc, emolument, or ( -oflt of any kin-i or 
 amount whatever from the l^rovlnco is attached, 
 uiall nut be eligible as a member of the LegUla- 
 "" -"tiiembly of the respective Province, nor 
 ihsll he sit or vote as such; but nothing in this 
 section shall make ineligible any person being a 
 mcmlHT of the Executive Council of the respec- 
 tive I Mvince, or holding any of the following 
 ^ces, tliat Is to say. the offices of Attorney- 
 OeneMl. becretary and Rejristrarof the Provtaee 
 masurT of the Province, Commissioner of 
 .^"S >'?,;„*'"' Commissioner of Agriculture 
 ud Public Works and, in Quebec, Solicitor- 
 Utneral, or shall dlaqualify him to eit or vote In 
 
 the House for which he Is elected, provided he li 
 elected while holdli such office. 
 
 84. Until the J. gislaturea of Ontario and 
 Quebec respectively otherwise provide, all laws 
 which at the Union are in force in those Prov- 
 inces respectively, relative to the following 
 matters, or any of thtm, namely.— the qualifica- 
 tions and disauallflcations of persons to be 
 elected or to sit or vote as members of the As- 
 '*'",,/ "' Canada, the qualifications or dls- 
 qualiflcations of voters, the oaths to be taken by 
 voters, the Returning Officers, their powers and 
 duUes, the proceedings at elections, the perioda 
 during which such elections may be continued, 
 and the trial of controverted elections and the 
 proceedings incident thereto, the vacating of the 
 seats of members and the issuing and execution 
 of new wriu in case of seats vacated otherwise 
 than by dissolution, shall respectively apply to 
 elections of members to serve in the respective 
 legislative Assemblies of Ontario and Quebec 
 Provided that until the Legislature of Ontario 
 otherwise provides, at any election for a member 
 of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario for the 
 District of Algoma, in addition to persons quali- 
 fied by the law of the Province of Canada to 
 vote, every male British subject, aged twcuiy- 
 onc years or upwards, being a householder, shall 
 have a vote. 
 
 85. Every Legisbtive Assembly of Ontario 
 and every Legislative Assembly of Quebec shall 
 continue for four vcars from the day of the re- 
 turn of the writs for choosing the same (subject 
 nevertheless to either the Legislative AssemUy 
 of Ontario or the Legislative Assembly of Quel>ec 
 being soonc' dissolved by tlic Lieutenant Gov- 
 ernor of the Province), and no longer. 
 
 80. There shall be a session of the Legislature 
 of Ontario and of that of Quebec once at least in 
 every year, so that twelve months shall not 
 intervene between the last sitting of the I . gisla- 
 ture in each Province in one session and in first 
 sitting in the next session. 
 
 87. The following provisions of this Act re- 
 specting the House of Commons of Canada, shall 
 extend and apply to the Legislative Assemblies 
 of Ontario and Quebec, that is to say,— the pro- 
 visions relating to the election of a Speaker 
 originally and on vacancies, the duties of the 
 Speaker, the absence of the Speaker, the quorum, 
 and the mode of voting, as if those provisions 
 were here re-enacted and made applicable in 
 terms to each such Legislative Assemlily 
 
 88. The constitution of the Lecislature of 
 of the Provinces of Nova Scotia and New 
 
 each 
 
 Brunswick shall, subject to the pmvisions of 
 this Act, continue as it e.\ists at the V .don until 
 altered under the authority of this Act ; and the 
 House of Assembly of New Brunswick exi.<ting 
 at the passing of this Act shall, unless sooner 
 dissolved, continue for the period for which it 
 was elected. 
 
 80. Each of the Lieutenant Governors of 
 Ontario, Quebec, and Nova Scotia shall cause 
 writs to be issued for the first election of mem- 
 bers of the Legislative Assembly thereof in such 
 form and by such person as he thinks fit, and at 
 such time and addressed to such Keturning 
 Officer as the Governor General directs, and «o 
 that the first election of member of Assembly for 
 any Electoral District or any sutxiivision thereof 
 shall be held at the same time and at the same 
 place* a* the election for a member to serve in th« 
 
 651 
 
CONSTITCTION OP CANADA. 
 
 at Pootn. 
 
 coNsrmjTioK of canaoa. 
 
 i >'•■ 
 
 
 ] (- 
 
 lu- 
 
 lit; 
 
 '3 ' 
 
 Houte of Commoiu of Canada for that Electoral 
 District 
 
 00. The fullowing proTlilont of this Act re- 
 specting tlio I'lirliament of Canada, oumely,— 
 toe provisions rt'lutioK to appropriation and tax 
 bills, the recoinmcndation of money votes, the 
 assent to biiis, the disallowance of Acts, and the 
 signification of ilcaaure on bills reserved,— shall 
 extend and apply to the Legislatures of the 
 several I'rovinies as if those provisions were 
 here reenacti'd and made applicable in terms to 
 the respective Provinces and the Legislatures 
 thent-f, with the sul>stitution of the Lieutenant 
 Oo-i mor of tlie Province for the Governor 
 G< .-al, of the Governor General for the Queen 
 anu for a Sicretjiry of State, of one year for two 
 years, and of the Province for Canada. 
 
 01. It simll be lawful for the Queen, by and 
 with the advice and consent of the Senate and 
 House of Commons, to m.alie laws for the peace, 
 order, and good government of Canada, in rela- 
 tion to all matters not con'-'ng within the classes 
 of subjects by this Act .assigned exclusively to 
 the Legislnturi's of the Provinces; and for 
 greater certainty, but not so as to restrict the 
 
 f generality of the foregoing terms of this section, 
 t U hereby diclared that (notwithstanding any- 
 thing in this Act) tlie exclusive legislative 
 authority of the ParlUment of Canada extends 
 to all matters ,ming within the classes of sub- 
 jects next hereinafter eoumerattd, tliat is to 
 say,— 1. Tlie Public Debt and Property. 2. The 
 regulation of Trade and Commerce. 8. The 
 rafsinjf of money by any mode or system of 
 Taxation. 4. Tlie borrow^ing of money on the 
 putdic credit. 5. Postal service. S. The Census 
 and St«ti»tics. 7 Militia, MlUtaiy and Naval 
 Servia', and Defence. 8. The fixing of and pro- 
 viding for tlie salaries and allowances of civil 
 and otlier ofiiccrs of the Government of Canada. 
 9. Beacons, Buoys, Lighthouses, and Sable 
 Island. 10. Xuvigatiou and Shipping. 11. 
 Quaniutiuc ami the establishment and mahi- 
 tenancc of JI:irine Hospitals. 13. Sea coast am. 
 inland Fislicri( s. 13. Ferries between a Prov- 
 ince and any itritisli or Foreign country, or be- 
 tween two Proviucc's. 14. Currency and Coin- 
 age. 1.1. Hanliiiiir, incorporation of banks, and 
 the issue of papir money. 16. Savings Banks. 
 17. Weights and teasurcs. 18. Bills of Ex- 
 change and Promissory Notes. 10. Interest. 
 20. Legal Under. 21. Bankruptcy and In- 
 solvency. 22. PatenU of invention and dis- 
 covery. 23, Copyrights. 24. Indiana, and 
 lauds reserved for the Indians. 25. Naturaliza- 
 tion and Aliens. 26. Marriage and Divorce. 
 27, The Criminal Law, except the Constitution 
 of Courts of Criminal Jurisdiction, but includ- 
 ing the Procedure in Criminal Matters. 28. The 
 Eatablislinuut, Maintenance, and Management 
 of Penitentiaries, 29. Such classes of subjects 
 as arc exprcwly exapU'd in the enumeration of 
 the classes of sjbjecta by this Act assigned ex- 
 clusively to the Legislatures of the Provinces. 
 And any matter coming within any of the classes 
 of subjecU enumerated in this section shall not 
 be deemed to come within the ciosa of matters ut 
 a local or private nature comprised in the 
 enumeration of the classes of subjects by this 
 Act assigned exclusively to the Legislatures of 
 the Provinces. 
 
 92. In each Province the Legislature may ex- 
 clustvely make laws in relation to matters coming 
 
 within the datset of lubjecto next heriimfi 
 enumerated; that Is to say,— 1. The ain.mlmei 
 from tUne to time, notwithstanding anythloi: ' 
 this Act, of the Constitution of the I'rovino 
 except as regards the olBee of Lieutenant G<)> 
 emor. 9. Direct Taxation within tlie I'ruviD( 
 In order to the raising of a Revenue fur Pn 
 vinclal purposes. 3. The borrowing of mont 
 on the sole credit of the Province, 4. Tl 
 establishment ond tenure of I^vinclal otBa 
 and the appointment and payment of I'mvincii 
 olUcers. S. The n.auagenient and siile of tli 
 Public Lands belonging to the Province ami c 
 the timber and wood thereon. 6. The cstablisl 
 ment, maintenance, and management of puiiU 
 and reformaU)ry prisons in and for the I'rovincf 
 7. The establishmjiit, maiuUnance, and niaium 
 ment of hopuitala asylums, chariiUs am 
 eleemoavnarv Institutions hi and for the Pmv 
 Incc, other than marine hospitals. 8. .Murikina 
 tastitutions in the Province. 9. Shop, s-iKml 
 tavern, auctioneer, and other licenses iu uriiert 
 the raising of a revenue for Provincial, loi.,il o 
 municipar purposes. 10. Local vmU im 
 undertakings other than such as are of Ui, 
 following classes,- a. Lines of sU^am !ir (>tbii 
 ships, railways, canals, telegraphs, ami othei 
 wor'as and undertakings connecting tliu I'rovina 
 with any other or others of the Proviuci* or ti 
 tending beyond the limits of the l'r.n-ince 
 ft. Lines of steamships between the Province and 
 any British or foreign country, c. Such worki 
 as, although wholly situate within tlic lYjvince 
 are before or after their execution dedurcj lij 
 the Parliament of Canada to be for tlie iiLnerd 
 advantage of Canada or for the adviuitai;" 
 of two or more o.' the Provinces. 11. TheS- 
 corporation of companies with Provincial objects. 
 12. The solemnization of marriage in ilie Kiv- 
 ince. 18. Property and civil rights in tbe 
 Province. 14. The administration of jiwice in 
 the Province, including the constituiinn, ui:ua. 
 tenance, and organization of Provimial (jurts, 
 both of civil acd of criminal jurisdicticm. and in- 
 eluding procedure In Civil matters in tbose 
 Courts. 15. The imposition of puiiLshnunt bv 
 li..<, penalty, or Imprisonment for enforcing any 
 law of the Province miuie in relation to any 
 matter coming within any of tiic chisw s of sub- 
 jects enumerated in this section. 10. OnetiUy 
 all matters of a merely local or private nature iii 
 the Province. 
 
 93. In and for each Province the Lc),'i>lature 
 may exclusively make laws in a'laiidn to niuca- 
 tion, subject and according to the following 
 provisions: (1) Nothing in any such law 6h,,|| 
 prejudicially affect any riglit or privilege with 
 respect tc denominational schools which a-iv 
 class of persons have by law in the Province at lb'; 
 UnioiL (2) All the powers, privibx'' ■■, anJ 
 duties at the Union bylaw eonfcrn if and im- 
 posed in Upper Canada on the wjianitc scbooU 
 and school trustees of the Queens itoman '. atboiic 
 subiects shall be and the same are lnnbyci. 
 tended to Uie dissentient schinils of tin (Queens 
 Protestant and Koman Catholic sii ; (ts in 
 Quebec (3) Where in any Province a sv-iim of 
 separate or dissentient bcIiooIs exists b'v law al 
 the Union or is thereafter establi.-.licil bv the 
 Legislature of the Pnivinci-. an Htip-^il «ball bv 
 to the Governor General in Council fmm any 
 Act or decision of any Provincial authority 
 affecting any right or privilege of the Prutestut 
 
 552 
 
coKsnTcnoN op cakada. 
 
 JwtMart 
 ami Unooet. 
 
 CONSTTnmON OP CANADA. 
 
 gr Roman Catholic mlnoritr of Uo Queen's lub- 
 ]ect« in relation to education: (4) In case any 
 lucli Proviacial law as from time to time seems 
 to the Uoremor Ocneral In Council requisite for 
 the due execution of the provisioi i of this section 
 li not made, or in case any decision of the Oot- 
 emor Ge'.'''Til in Council on any appeal under 
 Ibis acctiuo is not duly executed by the proper 
 Pn)vinclal authority in that behalf, then and in 
 oven' such case, and as far only as the circum- 
 ttanops of each case require, the Parliament of 
 Canada may make remedial laws for the due 
 execution of the provisions of this section and of 
 any decision of the Governor General in Council 
 under this section. 
 
 94. Xotwithstanding anything in this Act, 
 the Parliament of Canada may make provision 
 for the uniformity of all or any of the laws 
 relative to property and civil rights in Ontario, 
 Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, and of the 
 proanlure of all or any of the Courts in those 
 three I'rovlnces; and from and after the pascing 
 of any Act in tlmt behalf the power of the Farlia- 
 ment'uf Can-oda to make laws in relation to any 
 matter comprised in any such Act shall, notwith- 
 standing anything in this Act, be unrestricted; 
 but uuy Act of the Parliament of Canada mak- 
 iog pnirlsion for such uniformity shall not have 
 em'Ct in any Province unless and until it is 
 adopted and enacted as Uw by the Legislature 
 thereof. 
 
 95. In each Province the Legislature may 
 malte laws in relation to Agriculture in the 
 ProviniT, and to Immignitiun into the Province; 
 and it is hereby dcclan^d that the Parliament of 
 Canadii may from ti'iiu to time make laws in re- 
 lation » ' ^ ifriculturc in all or any of the Prov- 
 hices, an., to Immigration into all or any of tlie 
 Provinics; and any law of the Legislature of a 
 Province relative to Agriculture or to Immigra- 
 tion shiil! have effect in and for the Province as 
 long ami as far only as it is not repugnant to any 
 Act of the Parliament of Canada. 
 
 90. 1 ill. Governor Ocneral slvall appoint the 
 Judges of the Superior, District, and County 
 Courts in ciirh Pit)vincc, except those of the 
 Courts of Probate in Nova Scotia and New 
 Bninswii'k. 
 
 97. Until the laws relative to property and 
 civil riiihu In Ontario, Nova Scotia, and New 
 Brunswick, and tl.c procedure of the Courts in 
 those Pnjvince.s, are made uniform, the Judges 
 of the l'ourt.s of those Provinces appointed by 
 the Governor General shall be selected from the 
 resnective Bars of those I*rovinces. 
 
 98. The Judges of the Courts of Quebec 
 shull I.e selected from the Bar of that Province. 
 
 99. The Judges of the Superior Courts shall 
 hold ollice during good behaviour, but shall be 
 rem.-vi;ilile by tlie Governor General on address 
 of the Stniite and House of Commons. 
 
 100. I'he salaries, allowances, and perisions 
 cf the Juil«es of the Superior, District, and 
 County Courts (except the Court ,)f Probate in 
 Xov;i Scotia and New Brunswick), and of the 
 Adtnirilty Courts in cast's where the Judges 
 therinr lire for the time being paid by salary, 
 shall !ic tixi'd and provided by the I^liament of 
 Canad;i. 
 
 101. The Parliament of Canada may, not- 
 withst Hiding anything in this Act, from time to 
 time, provide for the constitution, maintenance, 
 •M organization of s general Court of Appeal 
 
 for Canada, and for the eatablishment of any 
 additional Courts for the oetter admiuistratiou 
 of the Laws of Canada. 
 
 102. All duties and revenues over which 
 the respective Legislatures of Canada, Nova 
 Scotia, and New Brunswick before and at the 
 Union had and have power of appropriation, 
 except such portions thereof as are by this Act 
 reserved to the respective Ixgisiuturcs of the 
 Provinces, or are raised by them in accordance 
 with the special powers conferred on them by 
 this Act, shall form one Consolidated Revenue 
 Fund, to be appropriated for the public service 
 of Canada in the manner and subject to the 
 charges in this Act provided. 
 
 103. The Consolidated Revenue Fund of 
 Canada shall be permanently cliarged with the 
 cosU, charges, and expenses iuciilent to the 
 collection, management, ajd receipt thereof, and 
 •iio same shall form the first cliarge tlier on, sub- 
 j'lct to be reviewed and audited in sucli manner 
 as shall be ordered by the Governor General in 
 Council until the l^arlfament otherwise provides. 
 
 104. The annual interest of tlie public debts 
 of the several Provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, 
 anil New Brunswick at the Union sliiill form the 
 second charge on the Consolidated Revenue 
 Fund of Canada. 
 
 lOo. Unless altered by the Parliament of 
 Canada, the salary of the Governor General shall 
 be ten thousand pounds sterling money of the 
 United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, 
 payable out of the Consolidated Revenue Fund 
 of Canada, and the same shall form the third 
 charge thereon. 
 
 lOO. Subject to the several pavments bv this 
 Act charged on the Consolidated f{<'venue "'und 
 fif Canada, the same shall be npjiropriateil by 
 the Parliament of Canada for the public service. 
 
 107. All stocks, cash, bankers balances, and 
 securities for money belonging to each P- .incc 
 at the time of the Union, except as in this Act 
 mentioned, shall be the property of Canada, and 
 shall be taken in reduction of the amount of the 
 respective debts of the Provinces at tl:c Union. 
 
 108. The public works and propcrtv of each 
 Province, enumerated in the third scl'iedule to 
 this .\ct, shall be the property of C'Miada. 
 
 lOO. All lands, mines, minenil*. ami royal- 
 ties belonging to the several Provinces" of 
 ()>nadtt, No"'a Scotia and New Bninsv ic k -t the 
 Union, and all sums thenduc or payntilc for such 
 lands, mines, minerals, or royalties, sluill Ik loi^' to 
 the several Provinces of Ontario. i^iicIh.c. X ,-a 
 Scotia and New Brunswick in whicli tlie same 
 are situate or arise, subject to any trusts existing 
 in respect thereof, and to any interest oilier than 
 that of the Province in the slitiie. 
 
 1 lO. All assets Co :.ected with such portions 
 of tlie public debt of each Province as are 
 assumed by that Province shall lielong to that 
 Province. 
 
 111. Canada shall be liable for the debts and 
 liabilities of each Provi.ice existing at the Union. 
 
 112. Ontario and Quebec conjointly shall be 
 liable to Canada for the amount (if anv) by 
 which the debt of the Province of Canaila ex- 
 ceeds at the Union sixty-two iiiilli< n tivi- hun- 
 (Inil t!in!!s::nd (inlh-rs, and sliull lu' cliarged with 
 interest at the rate of live per centum per annum 
 thereon, 
 
 1 i:i. The assets enumerated in the fourth 
 Schedule to this Act belonging at the Union to 
 
 553 
 
r H 
 
 % 
 
 «« 
 
 ll-i 
 
 coNSTmmoN of Canada. 
 
 DMtamt 
 
 the Province of Canada ihall be the propertv of 
 Ontario and Quebec conjointly. 
 
 1 14. Nova Scotia gfiall be liable to Canada 
 for tbf amount (If any) by wliich iu public debt 
 cxciils at the Union eight million dollars, and 
 ■Imll bf cliurged with interest at the rale o( five 
 per centum per annum thereon. 
 
 1 15. New Brun«wlclc diall be liable to 
 Canada for the amount (if any) by whiili iti 
 pulilic debt ex<-eeila at the Union seven million 
 diilliiw, and shall >«• charged with interest at the 
 rate of live per centum per annum thereon. 
 
 1 lO. In case the public debt of Nova Scotia 
 and .New lirunswick do not at the Union amount 
 to elKht million dollars and seven million ilollara 
 jCTiH.tiv.ly, they stiiilt respi-ctively receive by 
 half-yeiirly payments In advauce from the Uov- 
 emment of Canada interest at five per centum 
 per annum on the dllTerence between the actual 
 amounts of tlielr respective debts and such 
 •timilaicd amimnts. 
 
 117. The several provinces shall retain all 
 their respeclive public property not olhirwise 
 dispipwil of in this Act, subject to the right of 
 Canailii to lissume any lands or public pni|)erty 
 reciiilnd for furtitlcations or for the defeuct of 
 the counlry. 
 
 IIH. The following sums shall be paid 
 yearly by Ciinailti ti, the several Provinces for 
 the »u|i|«irt of their Oovemmeuts and I-i^rlsla- 
 tures: Onurio, el^'hty thousand dollars; Qu.Ih-c, 
 seventy thou.sand (i.illars; Nova Scotia, sixty 
 thousand dollars; New Rrunswick, lifty thou- 
 Mild diilliirs: [toliill two hundred ami sixty 
 thuusiiriil ilolliirs; iiml an annual grant in aid of 
 each I'riiviiHi' hIihII Ih) made, e-jual to eighty 
 cents per liiad. cif the population as asiTrtiiined 
 by Ihr I iiisiis of one thousand eight himdn d and 
 sixty cifie, and in the case of Nova Seolia uud 
 New ItriiiHwi.k, by eiich subsequent di'ienniid 
 cen.HiH until lli.' p.'pulalionof each of tliosi' two 
 I'ninn.'.s aniounls to four hundred thousand 
 souls, lit which rail- such gnuit shall thereafter 
 remiiiu. «uiligMht sliiilllic in full .Siiil.ni.nt 
 of all futnr.' ilciiiHiids on Canada, and shall Ik; 
 paid li:Uryiiirly in lulvniiiv to eaih I'rovince; 
 but llii<ioMiiimintof fiiniuliinlnill thduct fn,m 
 sncli irriiiils, as ngiiiiist any Mrcivlnce, all sums 
 chnrjinilil.. ns inler<«t on the I'ubllc Debt of that 
 I''oviiirc Inemessof the several amounts stlim. 
 l>.e.l 111 tills .Vet. 
 
 1 ll». .\iw llrunswick shall reciivi' bv half- 
 yearly lull nil Ills ill Bilvance from CimaiVi, f.ir 
 lhip.ri..,| of tin yi-ars from the Union, iin ud 
 dilioiml !illo»j,ii.c of sixty thret! thousand dol- 
 Kirs III rniirmm, biil ns long as the I'ublii liiM 
 <if lliat rrovlini. rt-iimlns under B<'Vin inillioii 
 iloll.irs M d.du.lion i <,un| tu the Interest ni tin. 
 I'lr riritiiiii iHrHiinum on such dellclcii.y slmll 
 !"■ Ill 1.1. fr..ni that allow»» j) of slxty-thrve 
 Ihoiivo.il .|..lliirs. 
 
 I2». All priynunlii to »» maile under this 
 All, ..rill iliv, hiirge of linbillth-s crealid un.li r 
 any Ail ..( ili. I'mviims of Canada, NovaSotla 
 and .\.« Itrii.i.tti.k n.»|HKtlvi Iv. and nssuniid 
 by fiiiiiii:., sii.ii, iiniil the IWIlamenl of 1 iiimd« 
 oth.THi-s din lis, Is. made In such form and 
 niiimi. r us nmy (rom llnie to lime Ih' onhnsi by 
 the «...v, rn..r til II. ml in (ounell 
 
 lUI. All nrll. lis of till. gn)Wth, prisliice. or 
 
 lli.'iMiifiii't iifi' i.f M'-V :;*■!■ ::f thi- l*r;±v:!;- - I t* 
 
 ff.m iin.l iilK r Hi.- Union, \k admitted }r«t- i'nll'i 
 rai h of the otlii r I'rovlnces, 
 
 COOTTmjTION OF CANADA 
 
 128. The Customs and Eiclie Laws of ~c 
 Prortnoe shall, subject to the provisions of til 
 Act, continue In force until altered by tlic P«i 
 Uwnentof Canada. 
 
 1 28. Where Customs duties are, at the Unlet 
 evUble on any goods, wares or nienlwiid|« 
 In any two Provrnccs, those goods, wans an. 
 merchandises may, from and after the Inion b 
 Imported from onu of those Puvinees inio'th 
 other of them on proof of payment of tin. Cuj 
 tonu duty leviable thensm In the I'm; iiu-e o 
 exportation, and on payment of su , hn\u! 
 amount (if any) of Customs duly as is livi«bli 
 thereon in the Province of importation 
 
 124. Nothing In this Act shull ulTiit tlu 
 right of New Hninswiek to levy the lumb,., 
 dues provided In chapter fifteen, of tilh- Dm,. 
 of the Revlsoil Statutes of New Itniiih«i,k oi 
 in any Act anu'iiding that act Ufore or uliir'tlK 
 tnion, and not inen-asing the an'oiim i.f mui, 
 dues; but the lumlK-r of any of ilie I'rnvim-ij 
 other than New Uruuswick shall not Is- Mil.k-cuJ 
 to such dues. ' 
 
 120. No lands or property In loin;inir to 
 Canada or any Province sliall li^. li,il,|,. i„ J;,,.. 
 tlon. 
 
 126. Such iwrtlons of the diitlis imd rt- 
 enues over « liiih the n-siieiiive hci-luiiirM nf 
 Canada, Nova Sioiiii, hiiiI New i;imi-.«i, k InJ 
 JH'fore the Union power of npproiiriiiii..ii ;l, i^. 
 by this Act reservid to the i.^pmiM- (i..viro 
 incntsor Irfglsliitiires of the l'ro\iiii,, ,i,i,| iH 
 dutlw and revenues ndsed bv tin m in m ,„hlan',T 
 with the s|H'ciiil powers confirn d ii|i..ii ihnu i,.- 
 
 this act. shad Iu each Proviiiie f..i-iii ( ..iwill 
 
 dated venue Kund to Ih' appnipriati.l f,,r the 
 public 8»'rvlce o» the Provim i-. 
 
 127. If luiy person iMiiig at llie ['a^^iiie .if 
 this Act a menilu-r of the UegislaliM- ( ..iimij „( 
 Canada, Nova Scolin, or New ItriiiiMii.k M 
 whomaplaieln the Senate is olTiriil il.,s'ii,.| 
 within thirty days Iheriufter, b\ uriiiiii: iimlir 
 his land, addrrsm-d to the (Jovi-rnor (J. mml .if 
 the Provim-e of Canadii. or to the l.-uiinitnt 
 Governor of NovaSi-oiii, ,>r New ltniiis«i,ki»ii 
 the case may Is), aceipt the Niim . In >ii,ill W 
 deemed to have decliiiisl the same, aii.l :.in inr- 
 son who, iK-ing at the passingof tlii. An ii'iium- 
 iH'r of the I.«.gihlative Couiiiil of Nova N ..lis.r 
 New Brunswhk, luiipts a plare in ili. Miaii- 
 sliall then-by viwate his s<at Insmh l.i tii-lativi; 
 Council. 
 
 12H. Kvery inendK'r of the Sin.ii. .r Ili.mir 
 of Coninioiis of t'annda shall ls-f..i,- i.,kjiii; lii, 
 Biat then In, take and sulisi rils- Is l,.ri- Ih. ti..v- 
 ennir Oemml or some |Mrson aiilli..ii/. .1 l.v lilra, 
 and every member of » LegMaiii.- i . .ni.il i* 
 l.ejflslatiw- Assiiiilily of Hiiv |'r,,M,i,,. ,|uJl 
 lie on- taking bis seat ilien-in, lake iiii.l -:il.sril« 
 Ih' ore the l.ii nteiianl (ioM-rnorof ll.i l'i..ili.(r, 
 or some iH.rsoii aiiiliorl/id bv liiiii, li,. ...iili of 
 alleglaine eonialiinl In Ihe'liltli ;<. I,.,i.ili. tn 
 this Act, and e\iry nii-nils-r of lli. .s.iuii. if 
 Canada and every nirniln r of Hi. |. i'Uti<l 
 • •oiim-ll of yihiiiv sliall ,il»o. !., |,.r, t..,iiiil,i 
 si-al Ihenln. take and snlisi rlls- I., t.i. ih. (!..\. 
 ernorOinend. or soiiie |Krs..!i uulli..ii/. I l.i lilm, 
 tlie di'diirnlion of ipmliliralioii n.ii: ...i. ,1 in tliC 
 same Sriii dide 
 
 121>, Kxn-pl ss othir«ls.. proiil 
 Art, uil l.ii*. In r..ii.- ill ( aiiiiiia, N. 
 
 or New Kriinswlek al tin I iii..n, aii.l 
 of civil end rrlinlnal Jiirlwlhlinn, ui 
 
 .1 lir tliU 
 
 1 I .Sfltiis 
 
 niurti 
 1 .ill kj-al 
 
 C54 
 
OOKSnTUTION OF CANADA. 
 
 Ootarte 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. 
 
 eommtailoin, powen and authoriUei, and all 
 aStixn. judicial, adminiatrative, and mlniitcrial, 
 cxiDtiug theruin at tlie UniuD, shall continue in 
 Onlarlo, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New liruns- 
 wick respectively, as if the Union had not been 
 maili', subject ncvcrthclcM (except with respect 
 to such as are enacted by or exist under Acts of 
 the rarlismcnt of Oreat Dritniu or of the i'urlia- 
 mont o( tlie UniU-d Kingdom of Oreat Britain 
 ud Inlniul), to Iw reimiletl, abolished or altered 
 by tlie I'arliiuncnt of (.'anala, or by the Legisla- 
 ture of the respietive I'roviuce, according to the 
 authority of the Parliament or of that Legisla- 
 ture iniiler this Act. 
 
 lilO. Tntil the Parliament of Canada other- 
 n i>e provides, all ollleers of the several IVoviuces 
 luviiii; (lutieH to tiisclmrf^e in relation to matters 
 ntbiT than those condn^ within the classes of 
 sulijiHls liy this Ai' . aiuiigned exclusively to the 
 U'cisliitures of the Pr,;vince8 shall Iw ollleers of 
 Ciuiwln, and shall coutiuuc to discliarge the 
 duliis of their respctive otlices under the same 
 liiiliilitii'S, respouitiliilitics and penalties aa if the 
 Union Iwd nut been made. 
 
 131. I'ntil the Parliament of Canada other- 
 wise provides, tile (lovernor General in Council 
 nmy (nun lime to time ap|H>int such officers as 
 thi'OovirHorOeiiend In Council deems necessary 
 or nropir for the elTectiud execution of this Act. 
 
 I:t2. Tim I'lirliunu'iil and Oovenimeut of 
 r.Hn;iila hIihII have all p<iwers iieo'ssary or propir 
 fur |» rformiii){ the ol>lij;ailon.t of Canada or of 
 nuy l'ro\iii(e thereof, 'is part of the Urilish 
 Ijiipirc towards forelffn countries, arising uucUr 
 iniiiirs iHtween the Knipire and such foreign 
 countries. 
 
 liM. Kilher the Kuglish or the French lati- 
 fuaci Miuv Im> uhcI by any iH'rsou in the debates 
 (if till' lloious of Parliament of Caimda and 
 cjf the llousesof the lj'>[islatur(3 of CJueU-c; and 
 Uiili th.jw liiii^mi>:iHsh'ill Ihi ust-d in the re«|H(t- 
 Ive riH >nU ami Jiuirimls of those House's; and 
 lillur "f tlios<' luodininis may \<v usihI bv nnv 
 iHr>on or in uny ph udlnK or prmt'ss in or Issuing 
 from loiy ( oiirt of Canada estnlillslied unchT this 
 Ad. HMil ill or from all or any of the Courts of 
 t^iii l«r The Ai Is of the I'urllmmtit of Canailii 
 uu'lof liie l.eirisliilureof QueUr kIiuH be printed 
 sti'l i^iliii'liiil ill IkiiIi thiiHe louKUages. 
 
 I<'i4. I iilil the l,<'):islaturu of OntJirlo or of 
 
 SUelHc i.llicrwiM' provhles, Ihi' I.h'Uteimiit 
 juriii.rsof (liilurio and yuelsc iioiy eai li up- 
 point iiiiihr the (inut Seal of the Province the 
 lolloHMo; i.tlUen.. lo hold olllce durlnif phusure, 
 tlmtistoxiv.- ilie ,\iior»ey (Jenerul, the Sei n ■ 
 Uiry mil ltrti^l^:lr of the Provinec, the Tniw 
 unrof ihel'mvinir, llu'Commisahmer of Crown 
 IjimU mil the t oniiiil»,hiiier of Agriculture and 
 I'uhlie Work*, mid. ill the caw of yuela-c. the 
 Solieiinr (Hiienil. Slid may, bv order of the 
 Liriih iiiiiii (tinernor In Coumll from lime to 
 linn- prmrilie ths iliiths of thow ollleers and 
 uf the w i.nil de|.urtmeiils over wlilrli they shiill 
 fmu\, or to whieh they sliull belong, and of 
 the e!!!,, r-t uml . i, ik« tli.reof , uiid iiiav aUi ho- 
 poiiil oih. r ao.l uililitioiml onirers lo imhl ollhe 
 
 (luriiiiT ] I, ,.M,ri , nnil iiniv fnuii lime to II 
 
 prii" rill the .liiiieiof tliiHH' ollleers, ami of the 
 venil ihpiirliiii iiln over wlileli thev shall pre- 
 je or 1. »l,i, h they Hliall bilong."anil of the 
 
 iiM.,, (. itii'I . i, tR-, liiereot. 
 
 l;W, I mil tlu' l,,tUlBlure of Ontiirlo or 
 (JutUi iiherwlK' provldos, all right*. |mwers. 
 
 ■iili 
 
 duties, functloni, rciponsibilitlcs or authori- 
 ties at the passing of this Act vested in or im- 
 posed on the Attorney General, Solicitor General, 
 Secretary and Itegistrar of the Province of Can- 
 ada, Minister of Finance, CommiHsioner of Crown 
 Lauds, Commisaionerof Public Works, and Minia- 
 ter of Agriculture and Heceiver General, by any 
 law, statute or onlinauce of Upper Canada, 
 Lower Canada, or Canatia, and not repugnant to 
 this Act, sliali bo vested in or imposed on any 
 ollicer to be appointed by the Lieutenant Gov- 
 ernor for the discharge of the siime or any of them ; 
 and tlie Commissioner of Agriculture and Public 
 Works shall iierfonn the duties and functions 
 of the olllce of Minister of Agriculture at the 
 passing of this Act inipos<'d by the law of the 
 Province of Ciinaila as well as those of the Com- 
 missioner of Public Works. 
 
 laO. Until altered by the Lieutenant Gov- 
 ernor in Council, the Great Seals of Ontario and 
 Quebec respectively, shall U' the same or of the 
 same design, as tlioae uwil In the Provinces cf 
 Upper Canada and Lower Canada respectively 
 bi'fon- their Union as the Province of Ciiniidii. 
 
 137. The words "and fnim thenci! to the 
 end of the then next ensuing Session of the Ix'g- 
 islature," or words to the same elfect, usihI in any 
 te'mnorary Act of the Province of Canada not 
 explnil liefort! the Union, hliall be coiistrueil to 
 extcn<l and apply to the next Session of Par- 
 liament of Canada, if the subject matter of the 
 Act is within the |)owers of the simie as defined 
 by this Act, or to the next Sessions of the Legis- 
 latures of Ontario and QinU-c nspectively, if 
 the subject matter of the Act is within the ixiwers 
 of the Kunie as defined by Mn .\et. 
 
 i;W, From and after the Uidou, the use of 
 the words" Upper Cuimila.'iiisleiid of "Ontario," 
 or "Lower Canada" insUiid of "Qinlwr," in 
 any de<il, writ, process, pleading. diKiiimut, 
 matter or thing, shall not invalidate tlie sumi'. 
 
 1;M>. Any l*roclainathiii under the Great Seal 
 of the I'nivliKT of Caioida. Usued liefore the Union 
 to take ellect at a time wliii li is siibseiiuent to 
 the Union, whether nialing to that Provlnee or 
 to Uplier Canada, or to l/iwi-r Caiiaih, uiiii the 
 scvenU nmltcra and tliliiL's Ihenlii proeliiimeil 
 shall Is- and continue of like foiie aiul elfei t us 
 if the Union had not Is-en iiiioli'. 
 
 140. Any priM'lamullon which Is autliorizetl 
 by Biiv Aet of the Ix'gUhilure of the Pnivin, e of 
 Caiimla lo Is' Issued under the Great Seal of tin. 
 Province of Cuniida. wlnllor rehiiiiig to ihat 
 Pniviiiieor to Upper Ciiiiiida, or to I.oHirCan- 
 lula, and whiih Is not isxiieil Isfore the Uioon, 
 may Ih' Issued by the l.ic iileiiaiit tiovi riior of 
 Oiiljtrhi or of Qiiels'i'. ax iu Milijivt nialirr re 
 Hulres, undir the (iiiai Sml ihereof; and from 
 and .ifler llie Issue cif ^tn h I'lm laiiiiiHoii the 
 same and Hie several iiialier^ and llilims therein 
 pns lalined shall Is' and eiuiiliiiie of the like 
 lone and elli-et in Ontario or Qinlsc as If the 
 Uiihiii hud not Iweii iiiailr 
 
 141. The Peiiiteiiliarv of the Pnivlnir of 
 iHiiiola fhnll. until Ihe I'ailoiiiieiil of Caiuula 
 olherwiie pri>vii|es. 1k' and lontliiiie the PenileU' 
 llarv i'f < liilnrhi and id Qii< Ihi . 
 
 142. The dl\i>ion and adjuslmeiit of the 
 delils, iri'ililt. Ilabllilh't. pro|H'rties and asm'ts 
 iif rppiT Ciitiuila atiil |.i>uer i'liiijitltt !^h!i!l Ih* !%- 
 ferml In the arlillninienl of iliree urliilrutors, 
 
 lii>!«ii by the Govi riiiiieiii nf Ontario, one 
 
 by the Uuvcrument of tjiiilHc, luid oue by the 
 
 u55 
 
\m 
 
 i 
 
 t!^^:/ 
 
 :li' 
 
 CONSTmmON OF CANADA. «iw«j»«l»r» CONBTmmON OF CANADA. 
 
 OoTcrament of Caoadn; and tlie selection of the 
 Arbitratura shall not 1k' made until the Parlia- 
 ment of Canada and the Logisluttires of Ontario 
 and Quebec have met ; and the arbitrator chosen 
 by the Oovemmcnt of Canada shall not be s 
 resident cither in Ontarii) or in Quebec. 
 
 143. The Governor General in Council may 
 from time to time onler tlmt sucli and so many 
 of the records, iKmks, and documents of the 
 Province of Canada ns lie thinks lit sliall be ap- 
 propriated and di'livere<l either to Ontario or to 
 Quebec, and the same sliall henceforth he the 
 property of that Province: and anv copy thereof 
 or extract tlieri'from. duly certilied by the officer 
 having cliarKe of the original thereof shall be 
 admitted as evidence. 
 
 1-M. The Lieutenant Governor of Quebec 
 may from time to time, by I>roclamation under 
 the Great Seal of the Province, to take effect 
 from a day to In- appointed therein, constitute 
 townsliins in tliiwe parts of the Province of 
 Quelicc in which townships are not then already 
 constituted, and fix the ineU's and iMunds thereof. 
 _ 140. Iimsinuch as the Provinces of Canada, 
 Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick have jolnej 
 lu a declaration that the construction of the In- 
 tcrcoliinial Itailway is es.sential to the consolida- 
 tion of thi^ I'niiin of British North America, and 
 to the asai-nt tiiireto of -ova Scotia and New 
 Brunswiik, and have conseiiuently agn^cil tliat 
 provision should lie made for its immediate con- 
 struction 1)V the Government of Canada: There- 
 fore, in onfer to give efft-et to that agreement, 
 It sliall 1m' the iluly of the Government and Par- 
 liament of (':iiinila to provide for tile coinnieiice- 
 ment. within six months ofler the Union, of a 
 railwiiy (■■iniie<ling tlie Hiver St. Ijiwrence witli 
 the City (if Halifax in Nova Scotia, and for the 
 conslriiclinri tliinof witliout intermission, and 
 theeoinphtiuii tliereof withal! practlcal)le s|H'ed 
 m\. ll >.liall Ik' lawful for tlie Queen, by and 
 wltli till- adviie of Her Majesty's Most Honour- 
 able Privy fiiiiiii il. on .\diln'»sesfrom the Houses 
 of the I'arliaiiienl of Canaila. and fnini tlie Houses 
 of the re»perlive Ugisialiires of the Colonies or 
 Provineea of .Ni'wfoun.lliind. Prince EdwanI 
 Island, ami lliitish Coluiiilila, to admit those 
 Colonies i>r PniviiieeH, or any nf them. Into the 
 Union, ami on .\ddre»s fMin'the Hmises of the 
 Parliament of Canada to adinil ltii|H'rt's Ijiud 
 and the North western Terriiorv, or either of 
 them, into the I'lilim, on siieh terms nml cDndi- 
 tions in each < a»e as arc in the .Vdilnsses ex- 
 pn'SMil ami as the Quiin thhik.H lit to approve 
 subJiK't to the pnivislons of this .Aet, niid the 
 pnivjshin^iif any (Inhr in Cnuneil in thai la'half 
 shall haveelTeet as If they had liei'n enacted liy 
 the Parllumeul of the UiiitMl Kingdom of Onnl 
 Uriliiin niiii In luml. 
 
 147. liie:i!Mof the admlaslim of Newround- 
 land ami Prime Kdwaril Uliuid. ortltliernf them, 
 eittli hIiuII 111' eiiiiih'd to u npnxntatliin in tlie 
 »<-nule iif ( aiiiiila of four memlnrs. and (not- 
 wltli«tHiii|iriv' iiiiyihiiig ill lliin Act) in ra.HM)f tlie 
 ■wlniiHoiiiii ,,f Ni wfiiuiidhinil tlw normal num- 
 t»r of .s, ,i,,i.,rs shall !»■ wveiity six and their 
 niaxiiiiiMii niiiiilHr shall ]»• eighty two; but 
 I'rinee lvl«;iii| Ishinil wiien admllteil shall lie 
 deemed In In- enmpriiM'd In the tiilnl of the three 
 
 diviiitrlis illlii wliich Cmiifilji {» fn ft>Uil..t; *.-: ii-r. 
 
 con-iiiiiiiiui of ihe Siiale. divined by this" Act 
 and Hcdiriliiiu'lv, afu-r the ailmlssion of Prince 
 Uwanl Inliuid, whether NcwfouiHlUud is wl- 
 
 6o0 
 
 mittcd or not, the representation of Nova Scoti 
 and New Brunswick in the Senate slnill, as v, 
 canciei occur, be reduced from twelve to u 
 members retpectlvely, and the representation o 
 each of those Provinces shall not lie inen used a 
 any time beyond ten, except under tin- pmi-l 
 slons of this Act for the appointment of thre, 
 or six additional Senators under the direetlono 
 the Queen. 
 
 A. D. i89i.— British North America Art 
 Jo?'-— An Act respecting the Esialilishmcnt o 
 Provinces in the Dominion of Canaihi. rjOrt 
 Jtok, 1871.] ^^' 
 
 WiiKREAS doubts have Ikwu entertained re 
 spccting the powers of the Parliament nf Caosilj 
 to establish Provinces In territories :i,i,iiiiui| oi 
 which may hereafter be nilmitted. in,, tlw Do- 
 minion of Canada, and to provide fur tin- rvprc- 
 aentatlon of such Provinces in tlie s:ii.l I>arli«. 
 ment, and It Is expedient to remove such dimhti 
 and to vest such powers in the said I'lirliami-iii 
 Be It enacted by the Queen's .Most Exolltnt 
 Majesty, by and with the ailvlw ami ( onsent of 
 the Loids, i -Irltual and Tempoml. am! Com- 
 mons In this present Parliament assemliliil aaj 
 by the authority of the same, as fiillows-' 
 
 1. This Act may lie cited for all imriiiisct u 
 The Bri'Mi North America Act. ls:i. 
 
 iS. 'l.j IMrllament of Canada niiiv fmni time 
 to time establish new I'^)viIll•e» In uiiv iirriK.rin 
 forming for the time lieing part of il,,". D.niini.in 
 of Caniula, but not Incluiii-d in my I'mvim-e 
 thereof, and may, at the time of sm li i>tiililisli- 
 ment, make provision for the cnii^titiilinn m\ 
 administration of any such Pnivlmv, mid f,,r 
 tlie passing of laws for tile peace, nnh r lunl f;nn! 
 (jovemment of such Province, and fur its n-pre- 
 sentation in the said Parliainc-iit. 
 
 3. The Parliament of Caiiiiil;i in:iv fn.m lime 
 to time, with tlie consent of the Li'-i-luinn- n( 
 any I>rovince of the sidd Itdmini.m. iiirrense. 
 diminish, or otherwise alter the limits ..f stuii 
 Province, uiwin such terms and (..ii,liii,iris a. 
 may be agn-ed to by the said l,<-i.|;iiun-, aul 
 may, with tiie like consent, niaki- |in,visi,iii n 
 specting the elTe<t and opemlimi of nrr, surli in 
 crease or diminution or allenilliin nf ii rrilory in 
 rt'latiim to any IVovlnce alTeeinl tlnn In 
 
 4. The I'lirilament of Caiiaihi iu;iv frun llnif 
 to lime make provision fur tin- iiilmiMi-irilimi. 
 IH-are, onler, and giKni governim-n! .f :i!:v iiri 
 lory not tor the time U-iiig imiihii.l lu sny 
 Province. 
 
 n. The following Acts p.isseil l.v ih,. uid 
 Parllamentof Canwla, and intiiiili d n"«|Ki livtly: 
 " .Vn Act for the tem|K)r:irv civirMiniit ill 
 liupert's Ijuid and the Nnrtli \Vi sti rii i, rrilory 
 when united with Canada.' mid .\ii .\it to 
 amend anil continue the All Ihlrlv twnaiililiirlv 
 llm'e Victoria, chapter Ihn-e. iiml to isuMiJi 
 nml provide for the goveriiimiTl uf tln' IVivlnoj 
 nf Manltolia," shall Ui and In- ili. mil i.i liav« 
 liirn valid and elfectuul fur all |iiir|i,.s. , »lni»» 
 ever fnim the dale at whli h ih, v h«i«.iiiily 
 h-e<-lve<l the asuent, in the l^iiii ii -. n im'. .if tiw 
 (fovemor Uenenil of the said iinmiiiiin of 
 Canada. 
 
 O. Kxo-pt as provldtil liv the iliird Miilmiof 
 this Act, it shall not 1h' eoiii"|Hieiil tiriln I'srlls- 
 }r,:-t;t ,.f CiihrKlrx in aitrr tlir pnivi;: •:.. : :::r iwi 
 nieiitliiiH<<l Act of the said Purliinunl inmhr 
 as it relau-s t4i the Pnivliiee nf Mitiitilii. iT"! 
 any other Act itctiikftcr esubUshiiig in w Prur- 
 
CONBTITTJTION OP CANADA. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF ENGLAND. 
 
 beei in the uid Domtnion, subject always to 
 tbe right of the Legislature of the Province of 
 Xinit'iba to alter from time to time tbe pro- 
 ritiuns of any law respecting the qualification 
 of electors and members of the Legislative 
 Anembly. and to make laws respecting elections 
 in the said Province. 
 
 A D. 1875.— Parliament of Canada Act, 
 1I75.— An Act to remove certain doubts with 
 respect to the powers of the Parliament of 
 CaDiula. under Section 18 of the British North 
 imericu Act. 1867. [19th July, 1875.] 
 
 Whereas by section 18 of The British North 
 .America Act, 1867, it is pmvide»l as follows :— 
 "The privileges, immuuities, and i«)wers to be 
 held, cnjoywl, and exercised by the Senate and 
 by the lioiiae of Commons, and by the memliers 
 thereof respectively, shall l)e such as are fn)m 
 time to time ileflncd by Act of the Purllament of 
 Caiuida. hut so that the same shall never exceed 
 thiise at the passing of this Act held, enjoyed, 
 and excnisecl by the (Commons House of PaVlia- 
 ment of the L'liiteii Kingdom of Great Britain 
 sod Inland, and by the memlK-rs thereof. " And 
 whrniis iloubts have arisen with rejjiinl to the 
 pciviTof defining by an Act of thi' I'lirliament 
 uf Cauaila. in pursuance of the said section, the 
 said privileges, powers or immunities: and it is 
 ripedient to remove such doubt . Be it there- 
 fore iiiactcii by the Queen's .i!oht Kxccllent 
 )!»]•-• V. Iiy ami with the lulvice and consent of 
 l!if i rils .'ipiritiinl and Temponii. and dim- 
 niHDv ill tills pn'M'iit Parliament mownilileil, and 
 In tlie iiuiliorlty of the sanu-, iw follnws: — 
 
 1, Si lion IS iif The BrilUli Nurtli Anu'rica 
 \i\ !-ilT. Is hereby ie|M'ale<l, witliout prijudice 
 tu iiinlliini,' ilone" under 'hat section. lUiil the 
 (lul.miii:; section .shall lie sulisliiuied for the 
 jiitiMii -1 re|HaliHl ; — The privilev''s. iinniiiiiiticH, 
 ;ind |«)»i r> to Ik> held, enjoyi'ii mid ixcnl'oil liy 
 
 l.i' tknste and by the House of ('oiiinKiiis, anil 
 
 J the mdiilum lliiriof ns|M(tivcly. shall Im' 
 
 Mi. li :i< !irf friiiii time to time ilctinnl liy Act of 
 
 .' I'^rli mil III of Ciuinda, but so that any Ai t 
 
 : '.:,'■ I'ailiainiiil of taiiada ditinlnir "such 
 
 [irivih x'r^. Iiiiniiinllies and powers shall not 
 
 I'liifi-r :iiiy privilctfi'H. Imniiiiiities, or jwiwcrs ex- 
 
 tiidiiii- iii.i»<' at the piiKsliii; nf such Act lield, 
 
 'iij 'Viil, anil ixirri-uil by the I'liiiinions House 
 
 'f I'iirlwniiiit of the Tnltcil Kliigdimi of (Jrent 
 
 Hriuin ami Inland, and by (In- im niUrsthr n>of. 
 
 2. The .V(t (if ilie Parllaniiiii .if ('ainula 
 I'.--.c| in the thinytlrst year of the niiin of her 
 I'Pivnl Majesty, thaptcr twenty f-r iiilimled 
 ■V.I .\i[ t.i nroviile for oathn to' \. ,« Udng 
 a.liniiiMi ri'il in certain cases for tin- puipiisi's uf 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF (OR FOR) THE~ 
 
 CAROLINAS (Locke's), tne NoiiTii I aiio- 
 .iN> A II IrtHIl- ltiu:|, 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF CHILE. S,^Cmi.K 
 .\ IP I«:l;t-1SM, anil INH.'i-lsui 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF CLEISTHENES. 
 See Athivs I) (■ .MU_.VI7 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF COLOMBIA. S..e 
 (oi.oiimAS Statks: A. I>. l»3(l-lK«itl and 18M- 
 l«ll 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE CONFED- 
 ERATE STATES OF AMERICA, ikf 
 ' 'iffi' fcTAti-.3 or Aa. : A. Ii isdi (t-^bm - 
 
 AST I 
 
 C0H8TITUTIOH OF CONNICTICUT 
 litJt-ibt Psadaaaatal Agmaaal of N«w 
 
 either Rouse of Parliament, shall be deemed to be 
 valid, and to have been valid as frcmi the date at 
 which the royal assent was given thereto by the 
 Oovemor General of the Dominion of Canada. 
 
 3. 1 his Act may be cited as The ParliameDt 
 of Canada Act. 1875. 
 
 A. O. 18M.— British North America Act, 
 1886.— An Act respecting the Representatiim 
 in the Parliament of Canada of Territories which 
 for tlie time being form part of the Dominion 
 of Canada, but are not included in anj- Province. 
 [25TII .IisE, 1886.] 
 
 WiiEKKAs it is expedient to empower the 
 Parliament of Canada to provide for the repre- 
 sentation in the Senate and House of Common* 
 of Canaila, or either of them, of anv territory 
 which for the time Ix-ing forms part of the Do- 
 minion of Canada, but is not included in any 
 Province : Be it therefore enacteil by the Queen's 
 Most Kxccllent Maiesty, by and with the advice 
 and consent of the Lords Spiritual i\w\ Tem|)oral, 
 and Commons, in the present Parliament as- 
 sembled, and by the authority of the same, as 
 foHows: — 
 
 1. The Parliament of Canada may fnmi time 
 to time mike provision for the ri'pn'sentation in 
 the Senate and Hoiw of Common., of Canada, or 
 in cither of them, of any territories nhicli for the 
 time ladng form part of the Dominion of Canada, 
 bill are not iiicludisl in any Pnivlnce thereiif. 
 
 2. Any .\ct pa.s«cil by the Parliainciit of 
 Canadii liefore the passing of this Act fur tho 
 purpose mentioneii In this .\ct shall, if not ills- 
 allowed by the Qinvn, Ik-, anil sliail tie decineil 
 to have \nvo, valid and elfcctiial fniiii Ilic ilatu 
 at which it receivisi the assent, in Her .Majisiy* 
 name, of the Govcrnor-Ocnenil of Caiiada It" is 
 hcri'by ileclan'd that any Act passisl by the 
 Parliament of Canada, wlictlier iK'fore or after 
 the passing of this Act, for the purpose niin- 
 tioned ill this Act. or in The Uriiisli XurtU 
 .\iiicrica Act. I^^TI. has ellect, iiotw itlisiaiiiling 
 aiiythinv' In The HHtlsli Nnitli .Vinerica Act. 1N17. 
 and tlic nunilMT nf .Senators or the nuiiiUr of 
 -MeiiilM'rs nf the House of Cmiimnus spcriliid in 
 the liLst nientiontsl Ait is incnasiil by the inini- 
 Iht of .Snators or nf Miiiilsrs, as the ciim may 
 Im', pmvided by any such -Vet nf the I'arliaiiiiiit 
 nf Canada fnr llie n'pnsentalinn nf any pmvliii es 
 nr lerrilnries nf Canada. 
 
 H. Tliis.\(t mavlsTitiil as Tin Itriiish Xnrili 
 America Ad. l.HNt\ Tin, An and Tlic Uiiii-li 
 Nnrth .Vmerica Ail, l^T. ami The llriiisli Xorih 
 Aiiierica .Vet. I^Tl, shall Is- cniistriiiil touillier, 
 and may Ih' cited tnk'i Hier as Tl.<' liritisli Nnrtli 
 Anieriia Aits. lKrt7 In 1s.n(1 
 
 Haveni, .S-c Connkcticit; A. !> I«;m-lfl,')9, 
 and lii;l!l 
 CONSTITUTION OF DENMARK, Sic 
 
 SlAMllSAVIAN .HlAlhs iDl-XM \«K — ll KI.AMU): 
 AD IS tit 1><TI 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE DUTCH 
 REPUBLIC, or the United Netherlandi. See 
 Nktiikhi.amis a |i I.V«4-|.Vi.'\ 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF ENGLAND.--t)ur 
 Knglish Constitution was never maiie, in tlie 
 sense in which the Constitutions of many other 
 countries have Invn made. There never was 
 ttiiv Ihonit-iit MiH-ii EiigiUliiiK'ii iliew nut iiieir 
 political system in the shH|K' of n fomul dmu- 
 nH'nI. wliether as the carrying nut of anv 
 •helmet |N<litical theories or as the iniitatiuu tif 
 
 567 
 
I I 
 
 CONSTITUTIOIT OF ENOLAND 
 
 ttw past or present lyitem of any other nation. 
 There are indeed certain great political docu- 
 ment*, each of which fomu a landmarit in our 
 political history. There is the Great Charter 
 Jjee Esolaxd: A. D. 12151, the Petition of 
 Mght»[9ame: A. D. 1885-1628, and 1628], the 
 Bin of Righu [aame: A. D. 1689 (October)]. 
 But not one of these gare itself out as the 
 enactment of anything new. All claimed to set 
 forth, with new strength, it might Iw, and with 
 new clearness, those rights of Englishmen which 
 were already old ... The life and soul of 
 English law has i ver been precedent ; we have 
 always held thxt whatever our fathers once did 
 UJeir sons Iiave a right to do again."— E A 
 Freeman, The Onieth of the EnglM Conttitu- 
 Hon, eh. a.— "It is, in the first place, necessary 
 to have a clear understanding of what we mean 
 when we talk about 'the English Constitution.' 
 Few terms in our language have been more laxl . 
 employed. . . Still, the term, 'the English 
 Constitution is susceptible of full and accurate 
 explanation: though it may not be easy to set it 
 lucidly forth, without first ir.vestigating the 
 archaeology of our history, rather more deeply 
 ttan may suit hasty talkers and superficial 
 thiiiki-rs. . . . Some furious Jucobins. at the 
 close of the last centurv, used to clamour that 
 there was no such thing as the English Constitu- 
 tion, bei'auso it could not be produced in full 
 written form. like that of the United SUtes. 
 But an impartial aud earnest investigator may 
 Mill satisfy himself tliat England has a constitu- 
 tion, and that there Is ample cause why .she 
 should cherish it. And by this it is meant that 
 he will recognise ami admire, in the history the i 
 laws and the institutions of England, certain i 
 great leadiUK principles, which have existed 
 from the earliest period of our nationality down : 
 to tlie present lime; expanding und adapting ! 
 themselves I ilie progress of society and civlf. '■ 
 iiation, aiivM ing and varying in (fevelopment ' 
 but still ess. iially the same in substance and 
 ipint Til M- gn-at primeval and enduring 
 princip! If the principles of the English 
 Consti' n. .\nd we are not obllge<l to learn 
 them (rum imperfect evideures or pre<'arious 
 •pe<ulati(m; for they are imperishablv n-coitled 
 In the Great Charter, and In Charters" and Stat- 
 utes connecteii with and confirmatory of Mairna 
 Chart* [i«« Esoi ksx>: A. D. K'I5]. ". . . These 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF FRANCE. 
 
 great primeval and enduring principlts of 
 Constitution are aa follows: The govenu 
 of the countnr hy an hereditary sovereign 
 ing with limited powers, and bound to sum 
 and consult a parliament of the whole it, 
 comprising hereditary peers and elertive re 
 •entatives of the commons. That without 
 sanction of pariiament m tax of any kind ca 
 imposed ; and no Uw can be made, repeal« 
 altered. That no man be arbitrarily nm 
 imprisoned, that no man's property or libei 
 be impaired, and that no man be" in anv ' 
 
 {lunishcd, except after a lawful trial Tfiil 
 ury. That justice shall not be solil or d, lai 
 hesc great constitutional principles can al 
 proved, either by express terms or by fair ini 
 cation, from Magna CarU, and its ." s„r, 
 ment [the statute 'Confirmatio Cariarun 
 Their vigorous development was ai.lnl 
 attested in many subsequent statulen. tsimP 
 in the Petition of Righu and the Hill of Rii;i 
 I . . . Lord Chatham called these tlirw ■' 
 Bible of the English Constitution,' to wh 
 appeal is to be made on every gmvi. politi 
 question."— E. 8. Creasy. liiie and lYmn 
 the Eng. Contt. ch. 1.— "The fact thatourc 
 stitution has to be collectetl from statute fr 
 legal decisions, from observation of the coum 
 conduct of tlie business of politics; tluit much 
 what is written is of a negative w.rt, stati 
 what vuo Crown and its mlnlstiTs cannot i 
 that there la no part of it which an ..ninirh.t, 
 Parliament may not change at will ; all iliis i 
 puzzle not only to foreign jurists wlio are p 
 pared to say, with Di Toc.;ueville, ihal i 
 English constitution does not exist. liutt....i 
 selves who are prepared to niaiiuuin that it i. 
 monument, if only we can find it. of i„,|iti, 
 sagacity. Those who prais.- it call It ti.iilil 
 those who criticise it unstable "—.Sir W, 
 Anson, The Laie and CuHotn af tht C„nii., pi. 
 
 Also W: W. Stubbs, ContI Hi,t ,.f £„ 
 in iU Origin and Derelopmrnt — II ilaHa, 
 Chtul. Iluitof Eng.: Utnry Vll l<. H,o //_ 
 E. May, Contt. llitt. <^ Enij., i:«()-lH«ii_l 
 Gnelst, ni»t. of the Eng. C'oiuil — K Fi«t, 
 The Eng. ,ntt.—yf. Bagehot, Thr h:„.,. C.nM- 
 h. Boutmy, The Kng. C'oM<,_StT, also P,i 
 i.i.\inc.<«T, Ta« E«ouia, and Cabwkt, Ta 
 Enolish. 
 
 rr 
 
 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF FRANCE 
 t ^•. Ri,'Z''r'^!i* Conititution accepted by 
 
 17»1 (.Irtr— Sk.ptkmukb) 
 
 A. p. 1793 (or the Year One),-The Jacjbin 
 Lonititution See Kranck: A. P. r!« (Jt nk 
 
 — CkTOllEHI. 
 
 ^uP ''?lu""J','" ^**' Three>.-The Con- 
 •Wtution of the Directory. See Fran, r ; A I) 
 iTvri (.l;>F.— Septkmmkk*. 
 
 A. D. i-99._Th« Constitution of the Con- 
 sulate. f=.-e Fka-Nck: a. t> 17l«(NovKMn|.:n- 
 1)K(KMBRH> 
 
 A. D. 1851.— The Constitution of the Secot 
 Empire. SeeFHANcK: .\. I). IN.TI-ls-, 
 
 A D. iSia^^-The Constitution ofthe Rcstor- 
 
 •tion SeefR.4Nrij: A U 1NI4 1 APHIi.-.It nk, 
 
 A. D iS48._The CoBStittttian ofthe Second 
 
 Republic, See FiuacK: A. U. 1848 (Apkil- 
 
 _ A.p. I»75.i889.— The Constitution of tk 
 Third Republic— The clniinntaiun of tli 
 framing and ailoption In 1H7.1 of tli<' ('.mslituti.i 
 of til). Third |{<.nubllc will 1h. foun.l narrsto 
 under Kka.xck: A. I). lS*l-lM7rt TIim follt 
 ing Is the text of the organic law of Isn. «iil 
 the laUT amendatory and i.up|ili im mal ponct 
 ments, down to July"l7, 1889. «< iriin«la!"l a.-*! 
 edited, with an historical InlnKluc ti.m l>v Mr 
 Charles P. A. Currier, and puliliKh,.! in Ihi 
 AnmiU vf the Amen'ran AMttmii/ .f IWIi'.!! 
 nnd HieitU »ienet. March. 1N93 ' li u nw- 
 ilui-<-<i here with the kind pernilmion .f ttij 
 President of tile AcademT, Profeaaur Edmuni 
 J. James: 
 
 rM 
 
CONSTITUTION OF FRANCE. 
 
 1875. Law on the Orguiizatioii of the Pol>- 
 lie Power*. February »S. 
 
 Article 1. The legislative power ig exer- 
 dssd by two auemblies: the Chamber of Depu- 
 ties and the Senata. The Chamber of Deputies ig 
 elected by universal guffrage, under the condi- 
 tioM determined by the electoral law,' The 
 Mmpoeition, the method of election, and the 
 powers of the Senate shall be regulated by a 
 special law.' 
 
 Art. 2. The President of the Republic is 
 chosen by an absolute majority of votes of the 
 Senate and Chamber of Deputies uniteii in 
 Sational Assembly. He is elected for seven 
 years. He is re-eligible. 
 
 ■ Art. 3. The President of the Republic hag 
 the initiative of the laws, concurrently with the 
 members of the two Chambers. He promul- 
 gates the laws when they have been votetl by 
 the two Chamlwrs; he looks after and secures 
 their execution. Ho has the right of pardon; 
 amnesty can be granted by law only. He dis- 
 poses of the armed force. He appDinis to all 
 civil and military positions. He pre.si<les over 
 national festivals; envoys and ambaiisaiiors of 
 foreiirn powers are accrediteil to him. Every 
 set of the President of the Republic must be 
 countei>igned by a Minister, 
 
 Art. 4 As vac.-mcies occur on and after the 
 ppimuliriiliimof the present law, the President of 
 the Kcimblie appoint in the Council of Minis- 
 ters, •' "ouncilors (It state in ordinary service. 
 Thet^ . Oors of Stnti' thus chosen may he dis- 
 missed 'ly bv ilecree rinderi'd in the Council iif 
 Ministe-., The Councilors of State chosen by 
 vinue uf the law of .May H, 1872. canndt, iK'fore 
 tlieixpinition iif their powers, lie dismissed ex- 
 cept in the manner <leteriiiiii<(l liv that law. 
 Atltr the dissolution iif the National Assembly! 
 revnati.m iiiav be pronminced oidy bv resolu- ' 
 tion of the Senate, 
 
 AiiT j The IVsideiit of the Republic may. 
 with till' advice of the senate, dissolve the 
 Cli.imbir of Deputies In-fore the legal expiration 
 of its t. nil, [In that ca«e tlio eleclonil colleges 
 are suiiiinoned for new elections within the space 
 of thrir moiilbs,]' 
 
 Akt II. The Ministers are jointly and »ev. 
 erally ( wilidaln-m. ) n'»i>onsible to" the Cham- 
 bers fur the genei . policv of the government 
 wl imlividually for thiir 1.. rsonal acts The 
 Pnslilent of the Republic is ri'sponsible In case 
 of hi«h treasion only,' 
 
 Art T In ease of vacaiicv bv deatli or for 
 »ii,v other reas..n, the two Chamlxrs assembled 
 to.'fthcr imweed at once to the election of a new 
 PreMilint. In the meantime the Council of .Min- 
 liters Is invested with the executive |>ower.' 
 
 Akt. n The Chaml)ers shall have the right 
 br wpaniie resolutions, taken In each by an ab- 
 to lite nmjority of votes, either tipim tlieir own i 
 Initiative „r upon the request of the I'^sldent of ' 
 the Kepublle. to <|pclare a revision of the Consti- 
 tutional Laws necessary. After each of the two 
 Ihamliers slmll Imv,. lome to this di-cl«ioii tliev 
 "hall iios I ti.gilher ill National Aiwemblv to pn'i- , 
 ^■"••t with the rivlsi.m. The acts .■•iTectinir ' 
 nuslnn i.f the constitutional laws. In whole o- , 
 
 I S.-'- Illw ,if V.»v»nil>f* 5(1. t*^?*. :r.fr.i ! 
 
 ■ T,T„!n7"r'i '■"''"'•'■V ''*■ ""■' Auinwt J, is;s, ,„f„, I 
 wfr., • '"""'""'I"""! law "f .Vuiniat U, ISM, j 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF /RANGE. 
 
 in part, must be bv an absolute majority of the 
 members composmg the National Assembly. 
 IDunng the continuance, however, of the pow- 
 ers conferred by the law of November 20 1878 
 upon Marshal di MacMshon, this revision can 
 take place only upon the initiative of the Presi- 
 dent of the Republic,]' 
 
 [Art. 9, The seat of the Executive Power 
 and of the two Chambers is at Versailles.]' 
 
 1875. Law on the Organization of the 
 Senate. February 34. 
 
 [.Article 1,' The Senate consists of three hun- 
 dred members; Two hundred and twenty-flve 
 elected by the departmenu and colonies and 
 seventy -Ave elected by the National Assembly,] 
 [Art, 2, The departments of the Seine and 
 £iorU elect each five senators. The following 
 departments elect four senators each- Seine- 
 Infen, ure. Pas-de-Calais, Gironde. RhSne Finis- 
 lere, Cotes-du-Nord. The following depart- 
 lints elect three senatoffl each; Loire-fnferieure 
 loneet-Loire, Ille-et-VilalDe, Seineet-Oise' 
 Isen-, Puy-de-D6me, Somme, Uouches-ilu-Rhone' 
 Aisiie, Loire, Blanche, Malneet-Loire. .Morliihan' 
 Doniogne, Haute-Garonne. Charente-Iiiferieure' 
 Calvados, Sarthe, Herault. Basses-Pvrenees' 
 Oaril. Avevron, Vendee, Onie, Oise', "Vosgcs! 
 Allier, All the other denanmcnts elect twu 
 senators each. The followmg elect one senator 
 each: The Territory of Belfort, the three de- 
 partments of Algeria, the four colonics Marti- 
 iiiiiuc, Guadeloupe, Reunion and the Krench 
 Indies,] 
 
 [Art, 3, No one can be senator unless he is 
 a French citizen, forty years of age at least, and 
 enjoying civil and political rights] 
 
 [.\RT. 4, The senators of the departments 
 and colonies are elected bv an absolute majoritv 
 and by • scrutin de liste', fiy a college meeting at 
 the capital of the department or colony and 
 composed: (1) of the deputies; (2) of the gViiernl 
 councilors; (3) of the arrondissement councihirs; 
 (•I) of ilelegaleg elected, one by each municipal 
 council, from among the voters of the com- 
 mune. In the French Indies the memliers of 
 the colonial council or of the local councils are 
 substituted for the general councilors, arrondisse- 
 ment councilors and delegates from the niun'i i- 
 pal councils. They vote at the capital of each 
 district] 
 
 [Art, 5. Thi' senators chosen bv the .\>sitn- 
 hly are electeil l)y 'scrutin de li-'i ' luid bv an 
 absolute majority of votes ] 
 
 [Akt, 6, The' senators of tli 
 and colonies are elected fur t 
 uewiiblo by thinis everv llir 
 U'glnning "of the rtrst sessioii 
 shall 1h' divided into three sen. 
 eijual number of senators iiid, ., ,.„„„ „. 
 determined by lot wlii< li wries shall 1k' renewed 
 at the expiration of the lir.tt and ae'cond triennial 
 |)erli»ls. ] 
 
 [.\«t 7 The senators elected by the .Vsseni- 
 bly an' irremovable Vacancies by death, by 
 n-slgnatlon, or for any other reason, shall, within 
 the spiHV of two months, bo tilled by the Senate 
 itself J 
 ' Amended by roBslllullniuU law of Augmi 14 |nm 
 
 • partments 
 
 "S and re- 
 
 At the 
 
 jiartments 
 
 ::iining an 
 
 It shall b' 
 
 •iw,Vrt.. 3«ii(lll,l«wor ■ 
 
 r of July la, iw», infra. 
 
 > KrpHalpd hf ciniitltutlonal law of June Jl, tSTD, oi/m 
 
 ' Bv tli- isiimiliu .„n*l law of AustKi 14, ti»q. 11 mu 
 
 pmrM^I that Arlli les I 10 r nf thia law nhmilil n<. hniii-r 
 
 h»re«,..,ii.Mliil|..n»l eharai'ter; wd they w«c» r«>(«led 
 
 by Uw law u( Iwvraibw V, IHM, mfru. 
 
 569 
 
CONSTITUTION OP FRANCE. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP PRANCE 
 
 
 r\: 
 
 1%' 
 
 Art. 8. The Senate has, coocurrently with 
 the Chamber of Deputies, the initiative and 
 r^asing of l?ws. Money bills, however, must 
 llist be introduced in, and passed by tlie Cham- 
 ber of Deputies. 
 
 Art. 9. The Senate may l)c constituted a 
 Court of Justice to jud^e either the President of 
 the Republic or the Mmisters, and to talie cog- 
 nizance of attacks made upon the safety of tue 
 State. 
 
 Art. 10. Elections to the Senate simll take 
 
 5 lace one month before the time fixeil l)y the 
 National Assembly for its own dissulutiou. 
 The 8<'nate sliull organize and enter u|>on its 
 duties the same day that the National Asse'ubly 
 is dis.siil red. 
 
 Art U. The present law shall be promul- 
 gated only after the passage of the law on the 
 public powers.' 
 
 1875. Law on the Relations of the Public 
 Powers. July >6. 
 
 Article 1. The Senate and iLc Chamber of 
 Deputies shall assemble eaci' year the second 
 Tuesday of .lanuary. unless convened earlier by 
 the President of the Republic. The two Chani- 
 bers coutinue in sessicui at least tlve months 
 each year. The sessions of each Itegiu and end 
 at the Siime time. [On the Sumlay following 
 the opening of the session, public prayers shall 
 he a(lilres.seil to 0(h1 in the churches and tem- 
 ples, to invoke His aid in the labors of the 
 Chanil)ers. )' 
 
 Akt. ■.' Tiie President of the Republic pro- 
 nounces the closure of the session. He may con- 
 vene the t'li.imbers in extra sesoion. He must 
 convene them if, di', mg the nrcss. an absolute 
 majority of the nienilH'rs of euili ChamlKT re- 
 ijuest it Tlu' President may adjcmru the C'liani- 
 bt'rs. The adjournment, liowi-ver, must not 
 exceed one month, nor taki; |>]:u.'e more than 
 twire in llic same session. 
 
 AiiT. ;t < )ne month at least Ixfon? the legal 
 expiration of the jniwers of tlie Presiileut of ll 
 Renulilir. the (hanilHTs must l>e called togctlii 1 
 in National Assi'mbly anil priKwd to the election 
 of a new President. In default of a summons, 
 this meetini; shall take place, as of riirht. the 
 tifteenlli ilay l«fur>' the expiration of thosi' 
 powei"s. In case u' tlu' iliatli or nsignation of 
 tlie President of ilie Uepnlilie. the two (liam- 
 Ixrs shall n^at-si'mlile iiiuneiliately, as of right. 
 Ill eav the Ch.iinlier of Deputies. In eanse- 
 c|Meiiee of Artieir . uf the law of Keliruary 'J.*!. 
 IsT.'i, is dissolved at the lime when tlii' |m«i- 
 cleui >• of the lieplllilie Iweonies vaealll. the 
 elei'tural colleges shall 1h* convened at unee, and 
 the Senate shall reii.s.s4'niltle as of right. 
 
 All! 4. Every meeting of either of the two 
 '. Iiambers whhh shall be lulil at a tiiiieotlur 
 than the common session of Imih is illegal and 
 void, except the case provided for ill the pre- 
 ceding article, anil that when the Senate meets 
 ■B a court of justice; and in this last case, Juili- 
 clal duties alone shall l)e performed 
 
 Art. ,5. The sittings of the SenaU^ and of the 
 Chamber of Deputies are public Nevertheh'ss 
 each ChamlN'r may meet in secret session, upon 
 the requrat of a Ilxe<l number of its memliers, 
 detemiliictl hv the ruli* U dwldr* !>v absnlutji 
 majority whether the sitting sltsll b« returned in 
 public upon the same subject. 
 
 ■ < > , lh« law of rebruarr «. lira, fMpra 
 
 • IHii iali il bjr »« ol Au«iK 14. IIM. tn/m. 
 
 Akt. 6. The President of the Republic coo 
 mimicstes with the Chambers by message 
 which are read from the tribune by a Minisie 
 The Ministers have entrance to both ClumlKr 
 and must be heard when they ret^uest it The 
 may be represented, foi' the discussiuri of 
 specific bill, by commissioners desiguainl h 
 decree of the President of the Republic. 
 
 Art. T. The President of the Republic pn 
 mulgates the laws within the month fnll.iwiu 
 the transmission to the Government of tlie la 
 finally passed. He must promulgate, with! 
 three days, laws whose promulgaii • siiuH liav 
 tieen declared urgent by an expre> ' ' in cac 
 Chamber. Within the time fixed 1 iirniiiiilB 
 tion the President of the Republic may. by 
 message with reasons assigned, reipii'st'iif tli 
 two Chambers a new discussion, whieli laniif 
 be refused. 
 
 Art. 8. The President of the Repulilie hcik 
 tiates and ratifies tn-aties. He couiniuuiciti 
 tliem to the Chamliers as so<m as the interests an 
 siifety of the State permit. Tnalies el in-m 
 and of commerce, treaties which involve n 
 finances of the State, those relating to tia' pt-i 
 sous and property of French citizens in fnni^ 
 countries, shall become definitivi' only afti 
 having bw-n voted by the two I'liainln in X 
 cession, no exchange, no annexation of ti iritor 
 shall take place excejit by virtue of a law 
 
 Art. ». The Presideiit of the Hipulilii lai 
 not declare war except by the previous awut 
 the two ChanilK'rs. 
 
 Art. 10. Each Chamber is the juiIl'o uf th 
 eligibility of its memlx'rs, and of ilie leitality.i 
 their election: it alone can receive tlifir resii 
 iiatiim. 
 
 Art. 11. The bureau of eaili ('liariilur i 
 electeil each year for tlu' entire .sissimi. muI f.i 
 every extra ses.sioii which iiiuy be hell 1m (or 
 the ordinary sessiim of tin' folluuin,- jiar 
 When the two ChumlM'rs meet tu;;.!li.r as 
 National Assembly, their biinaii eiiii-i-t>ei t!i 
 President, Vice-Presidents and .Seereto i. s i,f tli 
 ^^^'nate. 
 
 Akt. 12. The President of the liepiiWIi nu] 
 lie impeached by llie CiianilxT of Itepmii - niily 
 and tried by the Senate only. The Mmisiir 
 may Ik' impeached by the (haiiilHr nf 1), initii- 
 for olfeiicc's conuiiilted in the peril iriiiaiiic n 
 their iliilies In this ease tliey are In.il \<\ Ihi 
 Snate. Tin' Snate may be <on>iiiiiinl an'ur 
 of ,liistiee. by a dieree uf the l're^ir|l ni ,if tin 
 Hepnblie. ixinil in tin' t '.nineii "f .^IilJl-Il■r^ i 
 try all per>ons aeeumd of attenipt^ ii|">m tli. 
 safi'ty of the State. If priK'eiliire i» l.i :.'uii b; 
 the ordinary ciairts, the deeni' eoiiveiiiiu' tb 
 .Senate ma'. !»• issued anv time In'furr the t'raiii 
 iug of a ilisebarge. A law shall ileitnniuc tl.' 
 iiietliiMl iif proci'dure for the uceusalinii. ira 
 auil judgment.' 
 
 Art. 13 No member of either I'luinilMrniial 
 Ik* prosecutefl or held n'S|>i»nsible on ;ireuuiiti' 
 any opinions expressed or votes eu'.t lo liimi: 
 the (lerformauct' of his duties. 
 
 Art. 14 No memlier of either (liamlie 
 shall, during the st-ssion, Ih' pro* 1 uleil er ar 
 ri'sted for anv olTence or mlsileme^iaer. cscfp 
 ofi the iiitthiirfly iif the ('hunils nif »ljiih lie it 1 
 
 ' The iHlfMu of the 8«lutt<> >i>ulitii <if « |>r»Hii.lMil. t<m 
 Ttce-prMltlf^Dts. Ill aecivtarlfs wid tlire*- .luwtl.'ii. t" 
 bunwinf thKOuunbm' nt I>v|>uUk U iIm' mIUc. rinF 
 that tht>n« an dxht acvrstartM liist«ad uf sui 
 
 > riud bj law at iipril tu. imt. 
 
 56U 
 
coNBTmrnoN of prance. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP PRANCE. 
 
 member, unless he be caught in the reir set. 
 The detection or proeecution of a member of 
 eitber Chamber is suspended for the session, and 
 (or its [tlie Chamber's] entire term, if it de- 
 mands it 
 
 1879. Law RerisinK Article o of the Con* 
 ititutional Law of February 25, 1875. Juneai. 
 
 Article 9 of the constitutional law of February 
 25, 18715, is repealed. 
 
 1884. Law Partially Revising the Con- 
 ititutional Laws, August 14. 
 
 Article 1. Paragraph 2 of Article 5 of the 
 constitutional law of February 25, 1875, on the 
 OrganiZiition of the Public Powers, is amended 
 as follows: " In that case the electoral colleges 
 mfct (or new elections within two months, and 
 tbc Chamber within the ten days following the 
 close of the elections." 
 
 Art. 2. To Paragraph 3 of Article 8 of the 
 aunc law of February 25, 1875. is added the fol- 
 lowing: " The Republican form of the Oovem- 
 m»nt cannot be made the bubject of a proposed 
 revision. Members of families that have reizned 
 in France are ineligible to the presidency of the 
 Rcpiilillc." 
 
 .Vht. 3. Articles 1 to 7 of tlie constitutional 
 law (if February 24, 1875, on the Organization 
 of till- .Si'nate. shall no longer have a constitu- 
 'iouiil character.' 
 
 AuT 4. P:iragraph 3 of Article 1 of the con- 
 
 itituti il ■ !«■ of July 18, 187.'>, on the Relation 
 
 of the I'.ililic Powers, is repealed. 
 
 1875. Law on the Election of Senators. 
 August 2. 
 
 •Vhticle 1. .\ decree of the President of the 
 Rcpiililic, isKiied at least six weeks in advance, 
 determines the day for the elections to the 
 ienate, and at the same time that for [the choice 
 of ilelcgates of the municipal councils. There 
 must 1m' an interval of at least one month be- 
 twiin the choice of delegates and the election of 
 senatnrs. 
 
 Art. 2. Kacli municipal council elects one 
 ilelepite. Tlie election L without debate, by 
 tetret liiillot, and by an alisolute majority of 
 Tiites .\ft< r two ballots a plurality is sulllcu'ut. 
 anil in ease of au e(|Ualitr uf votes, the oldest is 
 Jrcliired ile( ted. If tlie Mayor is not a nienilH'r 
 of tlie municipal council, he presides, hut shall 
 not vote ' Hu the same ilay imd in the same 
 way iin iiltemale is elected, who takes the place 
 oltliedi leciite in case of refusal or inability to 
 •erve ' The choice of the municipal councils slmll 
 Dot extend to a deputy, a general councilor, or 
 u amiiidi'isi'nicnt councilor' .\11 communal 
 fleetiirs. Irii liidinit the municipal councilom. are 
 flijrihle nillinut illstinction. 
 
 .\rt. :1. In the communes when' a municipal 
 fdnniiillee exists, the delegate and alternate 
 •hill! 1k' eiioscu by the old council." 
 
 Akt 4 If the delegate was not present at 
 the ele<'!i(in, tile .Mayor shall wr to it that he is 
 notilied within twenty-four hours. He must 
 transmit to the Prefcc't, within Hve days, notice 
 lit Ills III I cptaiue. Ill case of refusal or silence, 
 lie is n [iliMiil by thi^ alternate, who is then 
 |il.iiid upon the list as the delegate of the < 1- 
 
 iuu;:i- ' 
 
 ' VdiI ni«r thrrrfnrv hr amrnilnl hy onllnarr l(>Kiilii. 
 Unn SwIllfl«l»Mf Il»,-Miil»T!l. 1*1, 1../™ 
 ' Anii-ncli^ liy Art », law ,,r Divrmlur 11. I(M, infra 
 
 Jw An. f l«w uj Frlipuar.v a<. 1K7». «|,ru. 
 
 ■ »«» Art. «, law of llvcembrr », ISm, in/ra 
 
 3( 
 
 Akt. 5. The official report of the election of 
 the delegate ard alternate is transmitted at once 
 to the I^refect ; it states the acceptance or refusal 
 of the delegates and alternates, as well as the pro- 
 tests raised, by one or more members of the 
 municipal council, against the legality of the 
 election. A copy of this offlcial report is posted 
 on the door of the town hall.' 
 
 Art. 6. A statement of the results of the 
 election of delegates and alternates is drawn up 
 within a week by the Prefect; this is given to all 
 requesting it, and may be copied and published. 
 Every elector may, at the bureaux of the prefec- 
 ture, obtain information and a copy of the list, 
 by communes, of the municipal councilors of the 
 department, and, at the bureaux of the sub- 
 prefectures a copy of the list, by communes, 
 of the municipal councilors of the arrondisse- 
 ment. 
 
 Art. 7. Every communal elector may, within 
 three days, address directly to the Prefect a pro- 
 test against the legality of the election. If the 
 Prefect doems the proceedings illegal, he may 
 request thi.t they be set aside. 
 
 Art. 8. Protests concerning the election of 
 the delegate or alternate arc decided, subject to 
 an appeal to the Council of State, by the council 
 of the prefecture, and, in the colonies, by the 
 privy council. A delegate whose election is an- 
 nulled because he docs not satisfy the conditlon.s 
 demanded by law, or on account of informality, 
 is replaced by the alternate. In case the elec- 
 tion of the delegate and alternate is rendered 
 void, as by the ri'fusal or death of lioth after 
 their acceptance, new elections are held by the 
 municipal council on a day fixed by au onler of 
 the Prefect.' 
 
 Akt. 9. Eight days, at the latest, tiefore the 
 election of senators, the Prefect, and, in the colo- 
 nies, the Director of the Interior, arranges the 
 list of the electors of the department in alplia- 
 iK'tical order. The list is communicated to all 
 demanding it, and may lie copied and published. 
 No elect^ir has more than one vote. 
 
 -Vrt. 10. The deputies, the memliers of the 
 general council, or of the arrondissemcnt < oun- 
 cils, who have been announced by the rcturniiij; 
 committees, but whose powers have nut Imcu 
 verified, an' enrolled upon the list of electors 
 and are allowed to vote. 
 
 \m. 11. In each of the three departments of 
 Algeria the electoral college is compose,!: (1) of 
 the deputies; (2) of the members of the neneral 
 councils, of French citizenship; (it) of <li legates 
 ( leeteil by the French memliers of each muni- 
 cipal council from among the communal (lectors 
 of French citizenship. 
 
 Art, 12. The tiectoral college is presided 
 over by the President of the civil tribunal of the 
 capital of the deiiartmint or colony. The Presi- 
 dent is luwistecl by the two oldest and two 
 youngest electors present at the opcuing of the 
 meeting. The bureau thus constituted chmwes 
 a secretary from among the electors. If the 
 l*resident is pri'veuted [fnim presiding] his place 
 is taken by the Vice-Preslilent [of the civil 
 tribunal], and, in his alisence, by the oldest 
 jiittic: 
 
 .\iiT 1:1, The bureau ilivides the electors in 
 alphalietical order into sections of at leitst one 
 hundreil voters each. It aptHiints the President 
 
 I He* Art s. l«i» of Dminbrr », ism, in/ra. 
 
 501 
 
CONSTITUTION OP PRANCE. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF FRANCE. 
 
 >} 
 
 i ' 
 
 and Inipectora of each of these sections. It 
 decides all questions and contests which may 
 arise in the course of the election, without, 
 however, power to depart from the decisions 
 rendered by virtue of Article 8 of the present 
 law. 
 
 Art. 14. The first ballot begins at eight 
 o'clock ia the morning and closes at noon. The 
 second begins at two o'clock and closes at four 
 o'clock. The third, if it takes place. l)egins at 
 six o'clr.rk and closes at eight o'clock. The 
 results i>f the biillotings are determined by the 
 bun an and announced the same day by the 
 President of the electoral college.' 
 
 Abt. 15. No one is elected senator on either 
 of the first two ballot.s unless he rtccives: (1) an 
 absolute majority of the voU'S cast ; and <i) a 
 number of votes ('([ual to one-fourtli of the total 
 number of electors registered. On the third bal- 
 lot a plurality is sulticient, and, in case of an 
 equality of votes, the oldest is elected. 
 
 AuT. 16. Political meetings for the nomina- 
 tion of senators may take place confonnahlv to 
 tlie rules laid down" by the law of June 0, 18tl»' 
 8ul)ject to the following conditions: I. Th'se 
 meetings may Ik- held from the date of the elec- 
 tion of delegates up to the <Iay of the election [of 
 senators] inclusive; II. They must be preceded 
 by a declaration made, at latest, the evening 
 iK'fore, by seven senatorial electors of the arron- 
 tlissement, and indicating the place, tlie day and 
 the hour the meeting is to take place, and the 
 names, occupation and n-sidence of the candi- 
 dates to be presented; III. The muniiipal 
 authorises will see to it that no one is admitted 
 to the niei'ting unless he is a deputy, gem-ral 
 ciiun( ilor, arr(indis.<U'Mu'nt councilor, delegate or 
 cauiliilnte. The di'legiile will present, as a 
 means of idintitirutinn, a certificate from tlie 
 Mayor of bis ccminiune. the candidate a certifi- 
 cate from the otlicial who shall liave received the 
 deilaratiiin mentioned in the preceding para- 
 graph.' 
 
 Aht. 17. Delegates who take part in all the 
 ballotings sliall. if llicy dcniiind it, receive from 
 tlie State, upon tlie preseiilalion of tlirlr lellir iif 
 summons, countersigned In the President of the 
 elecloral college, a remuneration for traveling 
 e.viKUses. which shall be' paid to them upon the 
 Kinie basis and ill the siune manner as that given 
 til jurors bv Articles 3."), DO anil iolloninL'. of lln' 
 diirie of .lune 1*<, IHU, A pulilic administra- 
 tive regulation shall ilelermini' the mithiiil of 
 li.vin^ the amount and the metlio<l of pavment 
 of lliis reniuniratiiin.' 
 
 \UT. 18. Eviry ihlegate who. without law- 
 ful reason, shall not laki' iiart in all llie hal- 
 Icllii-s. or, having beei. hindeicd, sli.ili ml have 
 given notice to the alteniate in siitllricnl season, 
 sliall. upon the deinand i.f the puhli.- prcisrciilnr. 
 I'l' imnlshed by a fiiii' of fifty Irani s by the civil 
 IrilMinal of the capilal.' The same pc'nally may 
 lu- inipiisi'd upon the atternate h ho. aflir liaviuir 
 
 bi- tilii'd by Ii'Iter. telegram, or milici per- 
 
 sniially ih livend in due st'ason, shall not have 
 takrn part in the elntion. 
 
 Am. III. Kvery altinipt at corruptiim by th.' 
 enip|iiyni( nt I'f means enunienited in Articles 
 177 ami fiilliiuini.-, nf iln. I'l naj C.Kle. to infiu- 
 
 I* ' 
 
 • S... .\rt ". t'..v..f Iit.i'.riil.fr It. IsKi 
 » 'IliiH Ui« Uah 1h...|i Mii.«'i-s^lt.il U\ A I 
 
 l«si , 
 ' I>«>n.' I.y iLvDH- i.f Ittn-fuitier 'J»I. isr5. 
 
 • t*f thi' Ut'iiartiuui^t 
 
 II r'r,7 
 
 i law uf June Sn, 
 
 >Ia 
 
 ence the vote of an elector, or to keep him ft 
 voting, shall be punished by imprisonmeot 
 from three months to two years, and a fine 
 from fifty to five hundred francs, or hv one 
 these two penalties alone. Article 4a^ of 
 Penal C<xlc shall apply to the penalties impo 
 by the present article.' 
 
 Aht. so. It is incompatible for a spn.itnr 
 be: I. Councilor of State, Maitre de licmSi 
 Prefect or Sub-Prefect, except Prefect of 
 Seine and Prefect of Police; II Menilierofi 
 couru of appeal ("apiH-l,")' or of the tribuo 
 of first instance, except public prosi'cut.ir at ! 
 court of Paris; III. General Pavniast< r. Sp^ 
 Receiver, official or employe of the ivnirali 
 ministration of the ministries. 
 
 Art. 21. The following shall not lie tlwi 
 by the department or the colony ineludiil who 
 or partially in their jurisdiction, during tin- n 
 else of their duties and during the six inoni 
 following the cessation of their duties Iir n-s 
 nation, dismissal, change of residenei-. uV jtl 
 cause; I. The First Presidents, PreM.liuts, a 
 members of the courts of appeal Capiiel 
 The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, E.vaniinini; 
 istrates. and members of the tribunals , f tii 
 instance; III. The Prefect of Polid-; I'r.fH 
 and Sub-Prefects, and Prefectorial (Jiik ral St 
 retaries ; the Governors, Directors of ilu- Innrii 
 and General Secretaries of the (uloniis; I 
 The Clilef Arrondissement Engineers ami (.'hi 
 Arrondissement Hoad-Surveyors; V. Tin s,i« 
 Iteetors and Inspectors; VI. The PriniarvNh 
 Inspectors; VII. The Archbisho|K. lii-lnp, ai 
 Vicars General; VIII. The ollieers of all >rr;«l 
 of the land and naval force; IX. Tin- Ilivi-i, 
 Commissaries and the Military Depiitv (..iim,! 
 saries; X. The General Paynlastirs aiii ^|<•^i 
 Heceive-s of Money; XI." The Su|i.iviv,r« 
 Direct and Indirect Ta.xes, of Hi iri^tniiion 
 Lands and of Posts; XII. The Guariliaus ai 
 Inspecttirs of Forests. 
 
 Art. 22. A si'iiator j'lected in sivi ral ili|iai 
 nients, must ht his choice beknimii i. iln Pro 
 dent of the senate within ten ilavs f..lln\iiiii; tl 
 verifleathin of the elections. If a il,..i,v i,ii, 
 maile in this time, tlie quisiiun is seitliil la I 
 in open session. The vac;inrv sh.ill !«• tlj 
 within one month and by the .sinie elwi.r 
 Ixxly. The .same holds true in cav if an ii 
 validated election. 
 
 Art. 23. If by death or resignalimi llu' iiuu 
 Ix'r of si'uators o"f a departnanl i» riiliini! 1' 
 one half, the vacancies shall In lillnl within ll 
 space of three months. unli-.s> lla- vuanrii 
 occur within the twelve ni.uitlis pn niliu; 111 
 triennial elections. At the liriu- li\i.l f-r it 
 triennial elections, all vacamii s >\iM Ik t;:ii 
 which have (xcurred. whatcvir tluir iiuiiilii 
 and date ' 
 
 fAuT, 24. Theelection of >ciiat.'r-ilii'>.i;!i 
 the National .\ss..|iililv takes plan in puhli 
 hitting, by •'scrutjn de'll-ii ." ami bv .■m al'viut 
 majority of votes, «h.-ilever tin nuialii-r ■•! W 
 lotings. 
 
 AiiT. 2.'5. When it is nice^-:in i" ilnt >u( 
 cessors of senators chosen by \iriiii ol .\m]t 
 of the law of Keliniary 24, 1x71. Ilie N imtt pTC 
 
 ' S*-»- .^Hh-ir- ^. law ■■: i i'i,'(-nihi.r ■.-. i-'-i --: 
 • Krane*. is illvldnl luui tneiilvntx ju.li.ml .Iwlrii-IM' 
 Maeli ill w lileh th"r»* Is h iiiiir il''Mt>ti**t Tlt.-r.. nrr •ii'.ilii 
 
 e.iurti* ill ,\lKeha nnil tln» eo(iiiiii«» Tli ir -tf i a^w 
 
 (I'lll IN the Hlllirel! lurt lit apiieal ! i .lU t'nux 
 
 Algeria oud llie culuules. 
 
 f)Cl 
 
coNSTrnmoN of france. 
 
 CONSTITCTION OF FRANCE. 
 
 fiti. In the iuuuier indicated In the preceding 
 
 Art. 26. Members of tlie Senate receive the 
 nme salary as members of the Cliamber of 
 Deputies.' 
 
 Art. 37. There are applicable to elections to 
 the Senate all the provisions of the electoral law 
 lelatin/r: I. to cases of unworthiness and in- 
 capiicitv ; 11. to offences, prosecutions, and pen- 
 slties ; ill- to election proceedings, in all respects 
 not lontrar)' to the provisions of the present law. 
 
 TemporaiT Proriaioni. 
 ; Art. '2S. For the first election of members of 
 the Senate, the law which shall determine the 
 date of the dissolution of the National Assembly 
 shall flu. without regard to the intervals estab- 
 lishiil bv Article 1, the date on which the 
 Biunicijiil councils shall meet for the election of 
 delegati-s and the day for the election of Sena- 
 tots. Before the meeting of the mimicipal 
 councils, the National Assembly shall proceed to 
 the election of those Senators whom it is to 
 
 Art. 29. The provisions of Article 21. by 
 vhu'h an interval of six montus must elapse 
 tetwoen the cessation of duties and election, 
 shall not apply to otUcials. except Prefects and 
 Sub-Prefects, whose duties shall have ceased 
 either before the promulgation of the present 
 law or within twenty days following. 
 
 1875. ^*^ °° *'" Election of Deputies.' 
 November 3a 
 
 Article 1. The deputies shall \>e chosen by the 
 voters registered ; I. upon the lists drawn up in 
 acconlancf with the law of July T, 1874; II. 
 upon the supplementary list including those who 
 have lived in the commune six niontlis. Regis- 
 tration upon tlic supplementary list shall take 
 place eonfomiablv to the laws "and regulations 
 now governing the political electoral lists, by 
 the committees and acconling to the forms 
 established by Articles 1, 2 and 3 of the law of 
 July 7. 1!<T4. " Appeals relating to the formation 
 and revision of either list shall l)e carried 
 directly Infore the I'lvil Chamber of the Court of 
 Appeal (" Cussalion"). The electoral lists drawn 
 up March 31, Wl^, shall serve until March 31, 
 
 .\rt. 2. The soldiers of' all ranks and grades, 
 of Ikith the land and naval fonea. shall not vote 
 whin Iliey are with their regiment, at laeir post 
 or on duty. Those wao, on election day. arc in 
 private resilience, in non-activity or in possi'ssion 
 of a n'lrular leave of absence, may vote in tiie 
 commune on llie lists of which tliev are duly 
 ivilistereil. This last pmvislon applies equnlly 
 to ortleers on the unattachc.l list or nn tuc re- 
 siTve list, 
 
 -Vm 3 During the electoral peril"!, cinnilars 
 hiA (ilatfonns ( ' ■ pn)f ession.s do fid "1 signed by 
 ihi eandidales, placards and nmnifcstiH-s signed 
 by one or more voters, may, after iH'iug deposited 
 ^itli the public p.Tiseculor, be posted antl dis- 
 triliuiiil without previoup authorization. Tin' 
 di.strilniiii.ii of ballots is not subjected to this 
 diln■^it ' Kvery publicor municipiilotlicinlisfor- 
 l'ilu. 11 1.1 distribute ballots, platfonns and circii- 
 
 ' Anti-Im '.'Ituid JS reiii'alml by law of Deceuitjer 9, 
 
 ' N- -Vrii.l,- :r. law of Novenilier *>. IWS. infrn 
 
 • V- r„rr„. til.- laws c.f June lU, 1*5, and Fiibnmrj- IS, 
 !■*■ ' .Tifii.lMiir till- t.!f<'l4>rftl law. 
 
 * Si. [i,.«,.vt>r. a UiM of lH>ceuber 80, It*Ttt, bjr which 
 
 Ian of candidates. The proTisions of Article 1( 
 of the organic law of August 3, 18TS, on the 
 elections of Senators, shall apply to the elections 
 of deputies. 
 
 Art. 4. Balloting shall continue one day 
 only. The voting occurs at the chief place of 
 the commune ; each commune may nevertheless 
 be divided, by order of the Prefect, into as many 
 sections as may be demanded by local cir- 
 cumstances and the number of voters. The 
 second ballot shall take place the second Sunday 
 following the announcement of the first ballot, 
 according to the provisions of Article 65, of the 
 law of March 15, 1840. 
 
 Art. 5. The method of voting shall be ac- 
 cording to the provisions of the organic and 
 regulating decrees of February 2, 1852. The 
 ballot is secret. The voting lists used at the 
 elections in each section, signed jy the President 
 and Secretarv, shall remain deposited for eight 
 days at the Secretary's otlice at the town hall, 
 wliere they shall be communicated to every 
 voter requesting them. 
 
 Art. 6. Every voter is eligible, without any 
 tax qualiflcation,"at the age of twenty-five years. 
 
 Art. 7. No soldier or sailor forming part of 
 the active forees of land or sea may, whatever 
 his rank or position, be elected a member of the 
 ChamlK'r of Deputies. This provision applies to 
 soldiers and sailors on the unattached list or in 
 non-activity, but does not extend to ofticers of 
 the second Wt ion of the list of the general staff, 
 "or to those who, kept in the first section for 
 having been commander-in-chief in tlie field, 
 have ceaseil to be employed actively, nor to offi- 
 cers who, having privileges acquiii>d on the re- 
 tireil list, are sent to or maintained at their homes 
 while awaiting the settlement of their pension. 
 The liccision by which the olticer shall have been 
 permitted to establish his rights on the retired 
 list shall t)ecome, in this case, irrevocable. The 
 rule laid down in the first paragraph of the 
 present Article shall not apply to the reserve of 
 the active army nor to the territorial army. 
 
 Art. 8. Tlie exercise of public duties paid 
 out of the treasury of the State is incompatible 
 with the ollice of deputy. Consequentlv evetj 
 ollieiul elected lieputy shall be superstnle^ in his 
 duties if, within the eight days following the 
 veritlcatiou of powers, he has not signified that 
 be diM's not accept the oltiie of deputy. There 
 are excepti'il from the |preci'iling provisions the 
 duties of Minister. Tncier Secretary of State, 
 Amlmssador. Minister l*leni|>ot('iitiary. Prefect of 
 the Seine, Pre fed of Police. First Pnsident of 
 the Court of Appeal t "cassation.") First Presi- 
 dent of the Court of .\icouiil». First Pnsident of 
 the Court of Appeal i'a|ipel ") of Paris, .\ttorney 
 tJencml at the Court of .^|i|ieal (" c:i.ssation.") Xt- 
 tornev (tei, ral at llie Court of .Vocounts, .\ttomey 
 General lit tlii'Cipurt of .VppeaU "appid")of Paris, 
 .\relibisliop ai\d ^i^llllp. Consistorial Presiding 
 Pastor ill consisiorial di>lrii'ts whose capital has 
 two iir more paMors. ( hiif liabbi of the Central 
 icuisistorv. Cliiifliahlii of the Consistory of Paris. 
 .\iiT !• Till re are also excepted fmni the 
 prnvi>i.iiis of .\rticK' 8: I. titular professors of 
 eliairs wliieli are tilled bv competition or upon the 
 uotuiniitif'U 'if tiio IwmIIc.* whi-ro the vaejincy oc- 
 curs; II. persons who have been charged with a 
 teinpor.iry mission. All missions continuing 
 more tliuii six nionllis ci-ase lo lie temporary sna 
 a-e governed by Article 8 above. 
 
 503 
 
•I 
 
 I. i 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF FRANCE. 
 
 Art. 10. The official prewrrpg the rights 
 which he hu acquired to a retiring prngidn, and 
 may, after the expiration of his term of office, be 
 restored to active service. The civil official who, 
 having had twenty years of service at the date of 
 the acceptance of the office of denutv, and shall 
 be fifty years of age at the time of the expiration 
 of this term of office, may establish his righu to 
 an exceptional retiring pension. This pension 
 shall he regulated acconline to the thini Para- 
 graph of .\rticle 12 of the law of June 9. 18.W. 
 If the official is restored to active s<rvice aft-r 
 the expiration of his term of office, the provisions 
 of Article 3, Paragraph 2. an<i Article 28 of the 
 law of June 9. 1853. eliall apply to him. In 
 duties where the ninlt is distinct from the em- 
 ployment, the official, by the acceptance of the 
 office of deputy, loaeg the emplovment and pre'- 
 serves the rank only. 
 
 Akt. 11. Every deputy appointed or pro- 
 moted to a salaried public position ceases to 
 belong to the Chamber by the very fact or" his 
 acieptancc; but he may lie re-elccteil. if the office 
 which he occupies is compatible with the ollicc 
 of deputy. Deputies who become Ministers or 
 Under Secretaries of State arc not subjected to a 
 re-election. 
 
 Akt. 13. There shall not be elected bv the 
 arrondissement or the colony included wiiolly or 
 partially in their jurisdiction, during the exercise 
 of their duties or for six months follnwing the 
 expiration of their duties due to resignation, dis- 
 mis.s.il, change of resilience, or anv other cause: 
 I. The First-Presidents, Presidents, anil mem- 
 bers of the Courts of .Vppeal (•appil '): II. The 
 Presidents, Vice- Presidents, Titiii;ir ,T(i(li:es, Ex- 
 amining .Miigi.sirates, imd memlHTs of the tribu- 
 nals of first instance; III. The Prefect of Police; 
 I lie Prefects and General Secretaries of the 
 I'rifeituris; the Govemrrs, DInctors of the In- 
 tiTiiir. and (TeikTuI Si eretaries of the Colonies; 
 IV. The Cliiif .\rronillssenieiit Engineers and 
 Chief .Vrronilissenient Uoai I Surveyors; V 
 The SehiHil Heiinrs iuid Inspectors; VI Tlie 
 Primary Sihiml Inspectors; VII. The .Vnh- 
 bishops, Risli, ,,s.iui.l Vicars General; VIII. The 
 General Priymasters and Special Uecelvirs of 
 -Moriev; I.X. The Supervisors of Hireet aud Indi- 
 rect Taxes, of Kegistnition of Lands, and of 
 Posts; X. The Guardians and Inspectors of For- 
 ests. The Sub-Prefects shall not Ir> elected in 
 any of the arrondissenients nf the department 
 when- they perform their duties. 
 
 .\HT. 13. Every imperative ni;iniiiite is null 
 and Void. 
 
 .\nT. 14. .Memt)ers of the Chamlxr of Deputies 
 are elected by sinirlc illstriits. Each administra- 
 tive arrondissem.iit shall elect one ileputv. Ar- 
 ronilisMinents having more than KKl.iioo i'nliaMf- 
 ants shall elect one deputy in addition for everv 
 additional lUU.tKK) inhabitants or fnutlon of 
 KXI.IHKI. .\mm(liss»'meni8of this kind shall Ih" 
 divided into districts whose iHiundaries shall 1h' es- 
 tablished liy law and mav Ixehiuiired nniv by law. 
 Art. 1.5, Deputies shall Ik- chosen for four 
 years. The ClianilKr is renewable integrally. 
 
 AllT. 16. In ease of vacancy by death resig- 
 nation, or otherwisi'. a new election shall U- held 
 within three months of the date when the 
 VaeaiKV imurriil. In e;iM. „f option,' the 
 T»caacy shall be fllUd within one month. 
 ■tore diitTicu * ''''""^ '^ ■*"■ el«t«<l from two <.r 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP FRANCE. 
 
 Akt. 17. The deputiei shall receive a soj. 
 This salanr is regulated by Articles 96 ami a 
 the law of March 15, 1849, and by the .m.vi.i 
 of the law of February 16. 1872. 
 
 Art. 18. No one ia elected on the first ha 
 unless he receives: (1) an absolute maii.riiv 
 the votes cast; (8) a number of votes cm,;, 
 one-fourth of the number of voters rcfi.itci 
 On the second ballot a plurality is sufflelent 
 case of an equality of votes, the oldest is 
 clared elected. 
 
 Art. 19. Each department of Algeria eli 
 one deputy. 
 
 Art. 20" The voters living in Almria ii 
 place not yet Made a commune, shall lien'. 
 tered on the e ectoral list of the nearest ce 
 mune. When ii is necessary to esubllsb elMio 
 districta, either for the purpose of grnupi 
 mixed commutes in each of which the niim' 
 of voters sha!i lie insufficient, or to bring toL-pil 
 voters living in places not formed into commui 
 the decrees for fixing the scat of tliese liistri 
 shall be issued by the Oovemor-General ur 
 the report of the Prefect or of the General co 
 manding the division. 
 
 Art. 21. The four colonies to which km 
 h.-ive been assigned by the law of Kebnian- : 
 1875, on the organization of the Senate, Vh 
 choose one deputy each. 
 
 Art. 22. Every violation of the proliiliti 
 provisions of Article 3, Paragraph 3, cif i 
 present law shall be punished tiv a tine of fn 
 sixteen francs to three hundred frines. Xfvc 
 theless the criminal courts mav ajiply .\rtit 
 483 of the Penal CchIc. The provisii.ns nf \r 
 cle 6 of the law of July 7, 1874, shall anpi,- 
 the political electoral lists. The deene nf .Ia"n 
 ary 29, 1871, and the laws of April 10 i^: 
 Jlay 2, 1871. and February J8, 1873 arr r 
 pealed. Paragraph U of Article 1,5 ,.f ii 
 organic decree of February 2, 18.5;'. is alsn r 
 pealed, in so far as it refers to the law nf .May ■-' 
 1836, on lotteries, reserving, linwevcr. to' tl 
 courts the right to apply to conviiiiil p,ri,i 
 Article 42 of the Penal Ctnle. The prnvlsioc- , 
 the laws and decrees now in foree, viith »lm 
 the present law does not conflict, shall inntici: 
 to tie applied. 
 
 Art. 23. The provision of Article Ii if ;t 
 present law by which an interval of six m. :i!l 
 must elapw lietween the expiration of ilutiis m 
 chrtion, sliall not apply to officials, cvnpt lYi 
 fects and Sub-Prefects." whose duties .shall liav 
 ceasc'd either before the promiilgatinn if t 
 present law or within the twenty ilavs M; •« 
 Ing it. 
 
 1879, Law Relating to the Seat of th 
 Executive Power and of the Chambers a 
 Paris, July 2». 
 
 AiiTict.E 1. The seat of the Exerullve r.wf 
 and of the two Chambers is at Paris. 
 
 Art. 2. The Palace of the I.u.vi mhuri- an. 
 the Palais-Bourbon are assigned, the first t.i ila 
 use of the Senate, the eeciuid to that of tl;i 
 Cliamberof Deputies. Nevertheless eaih if tlii 
 ChamlK'rs is authorl/.ed to choose, in llu' eiivil 
 Paris, the palace which it wishes tniKiiipr ' 
 
 Art. 3. The variousparfsof the palani'ifVif 
 sallies now occupied by the Si.nali' iitiil Chanilii 
 of Deputies preserve theirarrangenienis \Vii.:i 
 ever, according to Articles 7 and H nf the law I 
 February 2.j, 1875, on the orgnni/niinn nf ik 
 public iiowers, a meeting of the National Asmih- 
 
 GG4 
 
CONSTITUTION OP FRANCE. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF nUNCE. 
 
 blj Ui es place, it «ball sit at Venailles, in the 
 nretent ball of the Chamber of Deputies. 
 Wbenever, according to Article 9 of the law of 
 February 24, 1875, on the organization of the 
 Senate, and Article 12 of the constitutional law 
 of July 16, 187.5, on the relations of the public 
 powers, the Senate shall be called upon to con- 
 stitute itself a Court of Justice, it shall indicate 
 the town and place where it proposes to sit. 
 
 Art. 4. The Senate and Chamber of Deputies 
 will sit at Paris on and after November 3 next. 
 
 Art. a. The Presidents of the Senate and 
 Chamber of Deputies are charged with the duty 
 of securing the external and inter 'oty of 
 
 the Chambers over which thev pres o this 
 
 end the/ have the right to call upon the armed 
 force arid every authority whose assistance thev 
 judge necessary. The demands may be ad- 
 dreswd directly to all officers, commanders, or 
 officials, who are bound to oliey immediately, 
 onder the penalties established by the law's. 
 The Presidents of th; Senate and Chamber of 
 Deputies may delegate to the questors or to one 
 of them their ri^ht of demanding aid. 
 
 Art. 6. Petitions 'o either of the Chambers 
 c«D be made and prf ^ted in writing only. It is 
 forbidden to presen nem in person or at the bar. 
 
 .\RT. 7. Every lolatioi; of the preceding 
 srtiile. every provocation, by spc'cches uttered 
 publicly, or by writings, or printed matter, 
 p<«t<.'d or distributed, to a crowd upon thi iiiblic 
 »ay9, hanug for an object the discussion, drr.w- 
 ing' up, or carrying to the Chambers or either of 
 them, of petitions, declnrations, or addressi's — 
 whether or not any results follow such action — 
 shall be puni8he<l by the penalties enumerate<l 
 in Paragraph 1 of Article 5 of the law of June 
 7,184s. 
 
 Art. 8. The preceding provisions do not 
 diminish the force of the law of June 7, 1848, on 
 riotous assemblies. 
 
 Art !*. Article 463 of the Penal Code applies 
 to thi' cffences mentioned in the pn'sent l,»w. 
 
 18&4. Law Amending; the Organic Law* 
 )n th- Organization of the Senate and the 
 Elect.jns of Senators. December 9. 
 
 Artk i.K 1. The t*enate consists of three hun- 
 dred meniliers. elected by the departments and 
 the ocilnnies. The present memlHrs. without 
 iny dii-Iinction U'twcen senators elected by the 
 Natimial Assembly or the Si'nate and "those 
 elfttiii by the departments and colonies, main- 
 tain their term of office during the time for 
 whiili tluy have t)een chose'U. 
 
 •UiT. e. The department of the Seine elects 
 ten wnalors. The department of the Xord elects 
 ?iEht senators. The following departments elect 
 liie Hiiators each: C6te»-du-Nord. Finistt-re'. 
 Gimnile, llle-et-Vilaine. I^iire-, Liiiri'-Inferieure. 
 Pii.< lie lalais, Rhone, daone-et-Loire, Seine-lu- 
 feriiiire. The following departments elect four 
 lenatcrseach: Aisne. liouches-du-Rhone, Char- 
 ente • Inferieiire. Dordogne, Haute - GaMnne, 
 Isere, -Maine-et-Loire. Manche, Morbihan, Puy- 
 de Dome, Sine-et-Oise, Somme, The following 
 depannunts elect three senators each: Ain, 
 Allitr, .^rdeche, Ardennes, Aube, Aude, Avev- 
 ron. Calvados, Charente, Cher, Corrize, Corse, 
 (■""■ d'Or. Creusi-. Dnuhs, DrAme, Eure. E-ir--- 
 ft L<iir, Oanl, Gers, Herault. Indre. Imireet- 
 piire. Jura. Undes. Loiret-Cher, Haute Loin, 
 I^iret. Ix)t, Lot et- Garonne. Manie. Haute-Mame, 
 Mayenne, Meurthe-et-Moselle, Meuse, Niivre, 
 
 Oise,Ome,Baaie»-Pyr«n&g, Haute-8a6ne, Sarthe, 
 Savole, Haute-Savoie, Seine-et-Mame, Deux- 
 Sivres, Tarn, Var, Vendfe, Viennc. Haute- 
 Vienne, Vosges, Yonne. The following depart- 
 ments elect two senators each: Basses- Alpes, 
 Hautes-Alpes, Alpes-Maritimes, Aiiige, Cantal, 
 Lozire, Hautes-Pyren^es, Prr^nees-Orientoles, 
 Tam-et-Oaronne, Vancluse. "The following elect 
 one senator each : the Territory of Belfort, the 
 three departments of Algeria, the four colonies: 
 Martinique, Guadeloupe, Reunion and French 
 Indies. 
 
 Art. 3. In the depariments where the num- 
 ber of senators is increased by the present law, 
 the increase shall take effect aa vacancies occur 
 among the life senators. To this end, within 
 eight days after the vacancy occurs, it shall be 
 determined by lot what department shall be 
 called upon to elect a senator. This election 
 shall take place within three months of the de- 
 termination by lot. Furthermore, if the vacancy 
 occurs within six months preceding the triennial 
 election, the vacancy shall be tilled at that 
 election. The term of office in this case shall 
 expire at the same time as that of the other 
 senat'.fs belonging to the same department. 
 
 art. 4. No one shall be a senator unless he 
 is a French citizen, forty years of age, at least, 
 and enjoying civi! and political rights. Mem- 
 bers of families that have reigned m France are 
 ineligible to the Senate. 
 
 Art. 5. The soldiers of the land and naval 
 forces cannot be elected senators. There are 
 excepted from this provision: I. The Marshals 
 and Admindsof Fmnee; II. The general officers 
 maintained without limit of age in the first sec- 
 tion of the list of the general staff and not pro- 
 vide)! wit h a command ; III. The general olflcers 
 placed in the second section of the list of the 
 general staff; IV. Soldiers of the land and naval 
 forces who belong either to the reserve of the 
 active .irmy or to the territorial army. 
 
 Art. 6. Senators are elected l)y'"scnitin de 
 liste." by a college meeting at tlie capital of the 
 department or colony, and composed: (Dof the 
 Deputies; (2) of the General Councilors: (3) of 
 the Arrondissement Coimiilors; (4) of delegates 
 elected from among the voters of the conmuine. 
 by each Mimicipal Council. Councils c<iniposeil 
 of ten nienilHrs shall elect one delegate. Coun- 
 cils composeil of twelve members shall elect two 
 delegates. Councils composed of si.xteen mem- 
 bers shall elect three delegates. Councils com- 
 posed of twenty-one members shall elect six 
 delegates. Councils composed of twenty-three 
 memliers shall elect nine delegates. Councils 
 composeil of twenty-seven menilwrs shall elect 
 twelve delegates. Councils ciimposed of thirty 
 memlwrs shall elect fifteen delegates. C^nmcil8 
 composed of thirty-two members shall elect 
 eighteen delegates. Councils composed of 
 thirty-four members shall elect twenty one dele- 
 gates. (Vumeils composed of thirty-six memliers 
 or more shall el;'ct twenty-four delegates. The 
 Municipal Council of Paris shall elect thirty 
 delegates. In the French Indies the members o'f 
 the IcKal councils take the place of Arron<lisse- 
 ment Councilors. The Municipal Council of 
 Pfiitliohi-ry shall cit-ct five dcU-gatcs. The 
 Municipal' Council of Karikal shall elect three 
 delegates. All the other communes shall elect 
 two delegates each. The balloting takes place 
 at the capital of each district. 
 
 r 
 
 565 
 
CXJNSTITUTION OP FRANCE. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP PRANCE. 
 
 I i 
 
 ;1 : 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 ■ ■ -f . 
 
 Abt. 7. Membon of the Senate arc elected 
 for nine yean. Tbe Senate Is renewed every 
 three years according to the onlcr of the present 
 series of departments and colonies. 
 
 Art. 8. Articles 3 (paragraphs 1 and 2), 8. 4, 
 S, 8, U. 16. 19 and 23 of the organic law of 
 August 3, 1875, on the Elections of Senators are 
 amended as follows: "Art. 2(|>amgraph8 1 and 
 S). In each Municipal Council the election of 
 delegates takes place without debate and by 
 secret ballot, by ' ' scrutin de llste " and by an abso- 
 lute majority of votes cast. After two balloU a 
 plurality is sutticieut, and in case of an equality 
 of votes the oldest is elected. The procedure 
 and method is the same for the election of alter- 
 nates. Councils having one, two, or thri'c dele- 
 gates to choose shall elect one alternate. Those 
 choosing six or nine delegates elect two alter- 
 nates. Those choosii twelve or fifteen dele- 
 gates elect three « es. Those choosing 
 eightee- or twenty-one u gates elect four alter- 
 nates. Those choosuig t entr-four delegates 
 elect five altcmute.s. The Municipal Council of 
 Paris elects eight alternates. The alternates 
 take the place of delegates in case of refusal or 
 inability to serve, in the order deU'nuined by the 
 number of votes received by each of them. 
 Art. 3. In communes where the duties of a Munici- 
 pal Council are performed by a special delegation 
 organized by virtue of Article 44 of the law of 
 April 5, 1884, the senatorial delegates and alter- 
 nates shall be cluraen by the old council. Art. 4. 
 If the delegates were riot prest'Ut at the election, 
 notice is given them by the Mavor within 
 twenty-four hours. They must within Ave davs 
 notify the Prefect of their acceptance. In cim' 
 of declination or silence tliey sliall be re- 
 placed by the alternat s. who are tlien placed 
 upon the list as the delegates of the cmnniune. 
 Art. .5. The offlcial report of tlie elietiou of 
 delegates and alternates is transinitttii at once 
 lo the Prefect. It indicates the ae<-eptanee or 
 deilinatimi of tlie delegates and alternates, as 
 well as tlie protests made bv one or more meni- 
 iK'i^of the Municipal Council against tlie legality 
 of flic ilectiiiii. A i-opv of this oltieial report is 
 posted on the di«ir of" tlie town hall. Art. 8. 
 Protests concerning the election of dcleirates or 
 alternates are <ifeided, subject to an ajipeal to 
 the Council of Suite, by the founcil of tlie 
 Prefecture, and, in tlie colonies, by the I'rivy 
 Council. Delegates whose I'liTtion is set 
 aside because tliey do not satisfy the conditions 
 drnianded by law, or because ofiiifoniialitv, are 
 replaced liy the alternates. Incase tlie election 
 of a (hlegate a- ' ' an alternate is niiihred ■ 
 
 ihof bothaft<'r their 
 
 Id liy the Munici- 
 
 '•ree of the Pre- 
 
 •gins at eight 
 
 noon. The 
 
 loses at four 
 
 Si,- 
 
 void, as by the 
 acceptance, n; 
 pal Council on u 
 feet. Art. 14. Tl 
 o'clock in the mornii.f, 
 seeoihi begins at two o'l 
 
 o'clock. The lliird Ingiiis at seven o'clink and 
 closis at ten oel.K k. The results of the l>al- 
 lotings are determined by the bunau ami an- 
 nounced iininediatelv bv' the Prtsiilcnt of the 
 electoral colli'ge. Art. 'ifl. Political nii'etings 
 for ilie nomination of .si nators iiiav lie held from 
 the date of tile promuliration of tfie ileene kuiii- 
 moiiiiig the electors up to the day of the election 
 inclusive. The declaration prescrilied bv Article 
 2 of the law of June »), 1881, shall be "made bv 
 two voters, at least. The forms and regulatioiis 
 
 of this Article, h well as those of ArtI 
 shall be observed. The members of Parlii 
 elected or electors in the department, the 
 torial electors, delegates and alternates, an 
 candidates, or their representatives, niav 
 be present at these meetings. The niiin 
 authorities will see to it that no other p 
 is admitted. Delegates and alteriiutt's 
 present as a means of identification a iirti 
 from the Mayor of tbe commune; can<!iil;r 
 their representatives a certificate from tin- ,, 
 who shall have received the declaniiimi 
 tioned in Paragraph 2. Art. 19. Everv ntt 
 at corruption or constraint by the einplnv 
 of means enumerated in Articles 177 and f'u 
 ing of the Penal Code, to influiiice the vu 
 an elector or to keep him from Mitinjr, sin 
 punished by imprisonment of from time m( 
 to two years, and by a fine of from fifty !: 
 to five himdred francs, or by one of these p 
 ties alone. Article 483 of the Penal ( .ule i; 
 plicable to the penalties provideii f,,r hv 
 present article. Art. 23. Vacancies c:iiis,', 
 the death or resignation of st'iiators shall lit 
 within three months; moreover, if the vai 
 occurs within the six months pnreiinii; 
 triennial elections, it shall be fliled ut tliosi 
 tions. " 
 
 Art. 9. There arc repealed: (1) .Vrtielis 
 7 of the law of February 24. 1875. on the ,,ri 
 zati.m of the Senate: (2)" Articles 24 and 2.MI 
 law of August 2, 1875, on the eleetiuus of , 
 tors. 
 
 Temporary Proviiioo. 
 
 In case a special law on parlinment.irv iui 
 patibililies shall not have been puss.".l at 
 date of the next s»>uatorial elections. .Vrlidi- 
 the law of Xovemlxr 3(1. 187'i, sliall appl 
 those elections. Every olficial aireitnl hv 
 provision, who has had tweutv vi urs (.f sir 
 and is fifty years of age at tiie'ihile uf hi: 
 ccpta'ice of the office [of senator), niav e«tal 
 his r.ght to a proportional ri'iirinL' i»ii- 
 which sliall be governed bv the ihinl parjti 
 of Article 12, of the law of'juiie !» \-y-i 
 
 1885. Law Amending the iiiecto.. ' . 
 June 16. 
 
 [Article 1.' The members of the (ban 
 of Ih'puties are elected by ■ scniliii ih li.^Il. 
 
 Art. 2. Each depiartment elects the nun 
 of deputies assigned to it in the table' imuvxv 
 the present law, on the basis of one (li|iiitv 
 seventy thousand inhabitants. forei;;n rvsiih 
 not included. Account shall be taken. 111 
 theless, of every fraction smaller tlj.in nvi 
 thou.sand.' Each department ihits at t 
 three deputies. Two deputies .ire a>sii:urt 
 the territory of Belfort, 8i.\ to .Vlu'eria, aud 
 to the colonies, as is indicated by the taMi . 1 
 table can be changed by law only. 
 
 Art. 3. The department forms a sinirle t 
 toral district. 1 
 
 AUT. 4. Members of families that have ri'ii.' 
 in Fnince are ineligible to the t'lianihef 
 Deputies. 
 
 Art. a. No one is elected on tlic lir-t ha 
 unless he receives: (1) mi absoltiie niajnriiy 
 
 ' .\nlcle« l.a outl A reiM'uled In- (lie law ,'f »lir^ 
 J 3. l^j, in/m, 
 
 " ThiH table may lie f.nin'i in the PuU*ti>i 'W I 
 twelfth aerini. No. I5.51S ; Ulul in the Journal ' •pctfl 
 
 June ir. iMhfi. p. !»r:i. 
 
 ' I. f., fractions of leas tliau TO.OiO are entitled t 
 dsput}'. 
 
 oGG 
 
CONSTITUTION OP FRANCE. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP OEIUIANT. 
 
 UieTotes cut; (3) a number of votes equal to 
 one-fourth of the total number of voters regis- 
 teied. On the second ballot a plurality Is suf- 
 drient. In case of an equality of votes, the 
 oldest of the candidates is declared elected. 
 
 Art. 6. Subject to the case of a dissolution 
 foreseen and regulated by the Constitution, the 
 general elections take place within sixty davs 
 preceding the expiration of the powers of the 
 Clumber of Deputies. 
 
 Art. 7. Vacancies shall not be filled which 
 occur in the six months preceding the renewal of 
 the Chamber. 
 
 18S7. Law on Parliamentary Incompati- 
 bilities. December 26. 
 
 Until the passage of a special law on parlia- 
 mentary incompatibilities, ^Articles 8 and 9 of 
 the law of November 80, 1875, shall apply to 
 senatorial elections. Every offlcial affectod by 
 this pnivision who has had twenty years of sef- 
 Tjcc ami is tifty years of ape at the time of his 
 acceptance of the office [of senator], may estab- 
 lish bis riiihts to a proportional retiring pension, 
 which sliall be governed by the third paragraph 
 of .\rti( ie 13 of the law of June 9, 1853. 
 
 1889. Law Re-establishing Sinrie Districts 
 {or the Election of Deputies. February 13, 
 
 Article 1. Articles 1, 2 and 3 of the law of 
 June 16. 18.85. are repealed. 
 
 Art. i. Members of the Chamber of Depu- 
 ties are tltcted by single districts. Each ad- 
 miuislnitive arrondissement in the departments. 
 aij.l eu( li municipal arrondissement at Paris and 
 at Lyuus. ele<ts one deputy. Arrondissements 
 uliiise population exceeds one htmdred thousand 
 iiihaliitauts elect an additional deputy for every 
 fine liuiulred thousand or fraction of one hun- 
 dn:d tkiiusand iiilmbitauts. The arrondissements 
 are in this case divided into districts, a tabic' of 
 vbicli is annexed to the present law and can be 
 chanseii by a law only. 
 
 ' TliiN tal>te nuy tie found tn the Journal Offlcirl fnr 
 F'linian' 14. VVi. pp. r» and foUowtng ; and In the Bulle- 
 tin d€t Lots, twelfth aertea, Xu. :M,479. 
 
 Abt. 3. One deputy Is assigned to the terri- 
 tory of Belfort, six to Algeria, and ten to the 
 colonies, as is indicated by the table. 
 
 Akt. 4. On and after the promulgation of 
 the present law, until the renewal of the Cham- 
 ber of Deputies, vacancies occurring in the Cham- 
 ber of Deputies shall not be filled. 
 
 1889. Law 0.1 Multiple Candidaturei. July 
 '7- 
 
 Article 1. No one may be a candidate in 
 more than one district. 
 
 Art. 8. Every citizen who offers himself or 
 is offered at the general or partial elections must, 
 by a declaration signed or countersigned by him- 
 self, and duly legalized, make known in what 
 district he means to be a candidate. This de- 
 claration is deposited, and a provisional receipt 
 obtained therefor, at the Prefecture of the 
 department concerned, the fifth day, at latest, 
 before the day of election. A definitive receipt 
 bliall Iw delivered within twenty-four hours. 
 
 Art. 3. Every declaration maile in violation 
 of Article 1 of the present law is void and not to 
 lie received. If i' larations are deposited by 
 the same citizen ' nore tlian one district, the 
 earliest in date is le va.id. If they bear the 
 same ilate, all are 
 
 Art. 4. It is fcirluciclen to .sign or post pla- 
 cartis, to carry or ilistrilmte ballots, circulars, or 
 platforms in tlie iiiii-nst of a candidate who has 
 not conformed to the renuireinents of the present 
 law. 
 
 Art. 5. Ballots Ixaring the name of a citizen 
 whose c.indiiiucy is put forward in violation of 
 the present law" shall not tie included in the re- 
 turn of votes. Posters, placards, platforms, and 
 ballots posted or distributed tti support a candi- 
 dacy in a district where sucli camiidacy is con- 
 trary to the law, sliall be removed or seized. 
 
 AiiT. t>. A fine of t<n tliousand francs shall 
 be imposeii on the candidate violating the pro- 
 vinious of the present l.iw, anil one of five thou- 
 sajid francs cm all persons actiug in Tioiatiou of 
 Article 4 of the present law. 
 
 no an- ("utitled to t 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF GERMANY. 
 
 t3th-i7th Centuries.— The' Old (Holy Ro- 
 Dini Empire, — The Golden Bull. See Gek- 
 >HNv: A 1). I12.i-I152; 1347-14»3- and Diet, 
 
 TmK liKUMAMC. 
 
 A. D, 1815.— The Confederation. See Oek- 
 
 SANV: A. 1). 1814-1820. 
 
 A. D. 1871.— The New Empire.— On the 18th 
 day .if .lanuary. 1871 ; at Versailles, Kinir 
 William <jf Prussia assumed the title of German 
 EmptMr. On the 18th of April following the 
 Empinr issued a proclamation, by and with the 
 ciuwut cif the Council of the Gorman Confeder- 
 a!i"ti. ami of the Imperial Diet, decreeing the 
 al'liticin (f a constitution for the Empire. See 
 Gkumvnv; a. I). 1871 (J.vxL-.vRY) and (April). 
 Tli> filli>vvinjr is a translation of the text of the 
 Oiistiiiiti.iii, as transmitted bv tlic American 
 Miiii-ii r at licriin to his Oovemment : 
 
 Hi- Majesty the King of Prussia, in the 
 i..ihi' • f liu- Xiirth German Union, His Majestv 
 tlir Kiiii: af Bavaria, His Majestv the King of 
 » ttrtcinlHrir, His Hoyal Highness the Grand 
 liiikr iif Ilailcn, and 'His Uiiyal Highness the 
 brauj Duke of Ilesse, and by Rhine for those 
 
 part.s of the Graml Duchy of Hes.se which are 
 situated south of the .Main, conehule an eternal 
 allianci' for the pn.teetii.uof the territory of the 
 confi 'cniiiiin. and of tlif laws of tlie same, as 
 well a fur the iiromotion of the welfare of the 
 CJennan peoplf. Tiiis eonfederation sliall bear 
 the name of the German Empire, and shall have 
 the followinir cnustitution. 
 
 I. — Territory. 
 
 Article 1. The territory of the confederation 
 shall eonsisi of thr States of Prus.sia. with Lauen- 
 burg. Bavaria. .Slxiiuv, WUrtemlierg. Biiilen, 
 Hesse. Miekli nliurft-.Siliwerin. Saxe- Weimar, 
 Meekleiiliuii:-.Si relit/.. lUdenlmrg, Brunswieli, 
 Saxi -Meininjten, Sa.\e-Alteuburg, Saxe l^r.'jvri 
 Goiha, Aiihalt. 8ehwarzl>urir - IJudoNli. , 
 SehwarzliiirL' Saiilersliausen. \Valil( ek, Heus . 1 1 
 the elder I'r.mili. iieu» of the youni;er branch, 
 Miaunilmrt Lijipe. LipiK". Liibeck, "- len, 
 and lianitiurtr. 
 
 II. — Legislation of the Empire. 
 
 Article 2. Wiiliin this lirritory the Empire 
 shall have the right of legislation according to 
 the provisions of this coustitution, and the laum 
 
 5G7 
 
 L 
 
* !i 
 
 if 
 
 if 
 I i< 
 
 i ! 
 
 '■■ 1 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP GERMANY. 
 
 of the Empire »hsll takp precedence of those of 
 ench individual «tatc. TUe laws of the Empire 
 shall be rendered binding by imperial pr.K-lama- 
 tion, such prnclaiiiation to lie piihlishrd in a 
 Journal devoted to the publication of the laws of 
 the Empire, (lleicbBgcsetzblatt.) If no other 
 p<ri<Hl shall be designated in the published law 
 for it to fake effect, it shall take effect on the 
 fourteenth day after the day of its publication 
 in the hiwjoumal at IJerlin. 
 
 Article 3, There is one citizenship for all 
 (Jernuiny, and the citizens or subjects of each 
 state of the federation sliall be treii'ed in every 
 other state thereof as natives, and shall have the 
 right of liecoming permanent residents, of carry- 
 ing c.n business, of tilling public olHces, and may 
 acijuire all civil rights on tue same conditions as 
 tliose lM>m in the state, and shall also have the 
 same usage as regards civil prosecutions anil the 
 protection of the laws. No German shall lie 
 limited, in the exercise of this privilege, liy thi- 
 authorities of his native state, or bv the authori- 
 ties of any other stale of the confedeniiion. 
 The regulations governing the care of piiu[)ers, 
 and iheir admiwion into the various parishes, 
 are not affected liy the principle enunciiiteil in 
 the first piiragraph. In liki' manner those treaties 
 shall nniain in force whii h have N^en concluded 
 bitwetu the various stalls i.f the fedemtion in 
 relatiou to the custiHly of persons who lire to be 
 banished the cure •")f sick, and Ihi' burial of 
 dCv-eaM il eiti/ens With n'giir.l to tlie n ndering 
 of military 'vice to the vi^rious states, the 
 neces.«,iry I M Iw passed hereafter. All 
 
 (}ernuiiis counlries shall have einml 
 
 claini'. ii| iiicn .,f the Kmpin'. 
 
 Article following miilters shall be 
 
 un<lir the siou of the Knipire ami its 
 
 legislature: 1. The privilege of carrying on 
 trade 111 iiii,re ilmn one plaie, doniolie alTairi 
 and matters n lating to the seiilenieni ..f natives 
 of niie stall' ill i!i<' territory of aiiutliiT; the right 
 
 of lilizi'nship. the issuing and ev inatioii' of 
 
 pa.ssports; «urveillauee of f.iniL'iHTs anil of 
 maiiufailiiri s. together with iiisiiraiiee business, 
 so far as tli.se matters are imt alrea.lv pnivided 
 for by anil 1.- :i .f this eonstitiiti..ii. lili Havana, 
 howevi-r. e\i liisive .if cl.imestir affairs and mat^ 
 ters relating ti. ilie wttlement i.f nativ.suf m,.. 
 etatii in the t. rrilory of another.! and likewise 
 mailers n laiingtoe.ilimizati.m aiiileiniu'nition to 
 fori'igu ciuiiitriis U. Ij'gislati.m eoiieeminir 
 custiiius duties ami e.itiinierce, and such iiii|nis|ii 
 as are to Ih' applied i.i the usis of tin Knipire 
 a. liegulalion of Wrights ami tin asiins i.f the 
 loiliagi', lo^'ilher with the iiiiissi..ii i.f fiiii.hd 
 
 ami unfunded p.iner 1111 v 4 Hatikinir regu- 
 
 lalii'hs in giiii ml. .-i. I'ulents fi.r itiventi..iis 
 tt. Till' prnteilion of literary prnperti' 7. Th- 
 orL':iiii/.iti.in of a general sysleni >•( pri.tntion 
 foriii rmaii trixlein foreign e'ounlries, of (iirnian 
 navig.itiiiii. and of the Gennan thig on the hiirh 
 seas, liki«i«e the organi/atlun of a gi tii ml 
 consular nprrsfutal inn of the Kinpire H Kail- 
 way iiLitters. i»iili),, t in llavarialn the pmvisions 
 of anil le -lit.) ami the (onslruction of nieans of 
 (ommuiiicalioM by land and water for the pur- 
 |M>»es of home d. Ii'iisi' and of general lommen-e 
 '.* Itaftiiig ami iiaviga'iod iiisin thosi^ Waleni 
 
 which are (oninintl tn Heverri) .Stittes. attd !!:e 
 
 condition lit suih Haters, as likewise river and 
 other water dues |ii l',,.ia| ami l<li graphic 
 but iu ItavnrU aud Hungary these shall 
 
 affairs, 
 
 coNSTmmoN of Germany. 
 
 be subject to the provisions of article .12 ] 
 Regulations concerning the execution i.f ju,lici. 
 sentences In civil mstterg, and the fiiltillnunil 
 requisitions iii g»neral. 12. Theautlieiiti,,ui„ 
 of public documei.t.8. 13. General !egi.slai,„ 
 regarding the law of obligations, criminal i-in 
 commercial law, and the law of exchange lit, 
 wise judicial proceefilngs. U. The inmr. 
 army and navy. 1,5. The surveillanee „f ,]] 
 meilical and veterinary professions. 16. Tl 
 press, trades' unions, Ac. 
 
 Article S. The legislative power nt it 
 Empire shall be exercised by the fedenil cudij 
 and the diet. A majority of the votes ..f boil 
 houses shall be necessary and suffleient f,ir ih, 
 liassage of a law. When a hiw is |ir..|,..Hil ii 
 relation to the army or navy, or to the imii,B,l 
 specified in article "ai, the vote of the iin'si'lin, 
 otticer shall decide; in case of a liilT. r.n.i' .. 
 opinion in the fedemi council, if sai.i v.iti- -l^ 
 lie in favor of the retention of tlie eiistin- 
 arrangements, ' ' 
 
 III.— Federal Council. 
 Article 6. The feileral council shall ivinsist 1 ! 
 the npresentatives of the states of tlieinnfcl,.,! 
 tion, among whom the votes shall he ilivi.1,,1 ij 
 such a manner that Prussia, includim; the f.inii'^ 
 votes of Hanover, the eh^ctorate of |li>s' \ii. 
 stein, Xas.saii, and Krankfort shall hav.' K v.,tn 
 Bavaria, 6 votes: .Saxony, 4 votes; WHrt.iiil»r' 
 4 votes; Baden, I! voles ;'ness<', a v.iti s; Mukiia- 
 burg-.Schwerin, J voles; Saxe- Weimar. 1 v. v 
 -Mecklenburg-Strelitz, I vote; Oldenl.ur- lt.,if' 
 lirunswick, i votes; Saxe..Meiiiiri^'i a. 1 v.itrj 
 Saxe-Altenburg, 1 vote; Saxe-t'olnir.- (i.ilw, i 
 vote; Anhalt, 1 vote; Schwarzlmrg l!ii.l..i,t.iiir 
 1 votcSchwarzhurg-Sondershaii-iii, 1 v..ii'.W,.;. 
 deck, Ivote; Keuss, ehlerbram li. 1 v.t. . l!,.;,... 
 younger brunch, 1 vole; Schaiiiiiliiir-li i.i|.|... i 
 vote; Lippe, 1 vole; Luls'ik, I v. it.-, Ilriniiii!l 
 vote; llambiirgh, 1 vote; total ."iSvi.tis Ejrh 
 memlsr of the lonfedemiioii shall aii|i..iiit m 
 many delegates lo the fedemi (..iiii.il :i< ii Im 
 voles; the total of the votes of eai li stale ijiiill. 
 however. Ih' east hv only one dele:; it. . 
 
 Article 7. The feilera"l eouneil shall lak.MOlin 
 upon— 1. The measiin-s t.> }<•■ |.r.i|i.i^.l t,.!li« 
 did and the resolutions iKisse.l by tli. sime, i. 
 The general pnivisions and n.gul.'iti.ins ii,,,,MrT 
 for the exiHUthmof the laws of the Km|ii^ si 
 fur as no other provishm is ma.i.' by vii.l l,-. 
 a. The defects wlihh may Is- ilisi u'n nil in m 
 exciiilion of the laws of "the Kiiipiri . .r .f ilie 
 pmvisi.ins and ngulations hen ti.fi.r. in. nii.im.l 
 Each memtH'r of the confeilenlioii slj.ill havelln 
 right III iiilrisluce inotions, ami ii shall lie iln 
 duty iif the prisiding olllcer l.i sul.mir !|]iml..r 
 delilHmlion. I cgishitive action shall l.ik.'|.U» 
 by siinph. majority, with the e\i. |.ti..iis ..f tt» 
 provisions in articles ,5, a*, aii.l > V .t.-« n.it 
 n.pnsi.nlid or instnictisl shall m.l Is ...uuinl 
 In the case of a tie. the vote of tin |insi.liiij 
 otilier shall d. eide When li L'islatin' sni'ii 
 upon a subjM't which diss not atTeet. lucopliiit 
 to the provisions of this const 11 lit i.m, Ilie wli.k 
 Knipiri' Is taken, the v.iies of ..iilv lh..«i' uLiik 
 of the ciinfiideraiion shall In'couiiIi.I nhiihulijU 
 Is' inleresUsI in the nwller In i|iie«ti.iii 
 
 Article 8. The fisleral eouneil sliull s|i|ii.iiil 
 fr-ti: :!x ::v:; nw.Hi!ii-r* in-f«haiivi;i :-.•:■;!■•■-—- 
 I Oil the army and the fiirlllleaiii.il- .' tta 
 naval alTalrs. !t On duties and ta\. « I Ot 
 comuirrce and trade. 9. Ou railr.ia.!< )>»! 
 
 f.8 
 
CONSTITUTION OF GERMANY. 
 
 C0N8TITUTI0N OF GERMANY. 
 
 i^cM, and telegraphs. «. On the judiciarj-. 
 7 On accounts. In each of these committees 
 thore shall be rcpiesentatives of ot least four 
 sutes of the confederation, beside the presiding 
 ottlrer, and each state shall Iw entitled to only 
 one vote in the same. In the committee on tlie 
 araiv and fortifications Bavaria shall have a per- 
 niauent seat ; the remaining members of It, as 
 well as the memlwrs of the committee on naval 
 iffairs, shall l)e appoint^'d by the Emperor ; the 
 mi'DilKTSof the other committees shall beelMtiil 
 by tlic fnlirai council. These eommitties shall 
 be newl.v formed at each session of the federal 
 oiumil, v. c, each year, when the retiring mem- 
 bers shall again Iw eligible. Resides, there shall 
 be appoiiileil in the federal council a conimittw 
 on fiin'iijn affairs, over which Bavaria siiall pre- 
 siile, til W composed of the plenipotentiaries of 
 the kiuiilomsof Bavaria, Saxony, and WUrtem- 
 berit. iiuil "f two plenipotentiaries of the other 
 gtstes "f the Empire, who shall l)e eleited 
 sunuallv by the federal council. Clerks sliall lie 
 pliKivl at tlie disposal of the committws to |>er- 
 forai the necessary work appertaining then-lo. 
 
 Article 9. Each member of tlie federal coun- 
 cil sliall have the right to appi'ar in the diet, and 
 Miall Ih' heanl there at any time when he shall so 
 wiuesl. to n pri'sent the views of his unviTii- 
 mrQt. even \vli< 11 the same shall not have l»i'n 
 jilopieil liy tlie majority of the council. Nobody 
 ihall !»■ at the same time a memlierof the federal 
 i.muiil anil of the diet. 
 
 Articlt 10, The Eini>eror shall allonl the 
 iiW'iniirv iliiilomatic protection to the meiulHTs 
 ,.f liiifi.'liTjii rouiicU. 
 
 IV.— Presidium. 
 
 Article II. The King of Prussia shall In' the 
 pn-^iiliiit of llie I oiifeiteration. and shall have 
 till- litle "f (ierni^iii Emperor. The Eiii|Mriir 
 shall nprcMiit the Kiii|)ire nmoni;imli<<ii'<. drclare 
 war. and rniicliiilt' {H'tice in the name -if the 
 Minr, I'lilir into alliances and other eniiveiiiiiiiis 
 Willi ft'n-iirii t ouhlries, accredit enil>a!*s:idi>rs. iitid 
 rinive thcni For a declaration nf war in ilie 
 naim 'if llie Knipln'. the coiisi ut of the federal 
 ixunii! sliall Is' n'i|uireil. exii'pt in ca.se of an 
 ait.ic k ii|inii the territory of thi' confederal i.ni nr 
 it<rii;ii.l.s Si far as treaties with turt iiiii coiiu 
 iriispfer 111 mailers which, lu'eordiiiit to article 
 4 .ri 111 Ih- reiiiiLiteil by the le^'lslaliire of the 
 tiiipii ■. Ilh- loiiseiit of the federal council shall 
 In iii(iiinil furtlieir ratillcation, and the approval 
 .it the iliit shall lie necessary to ri'lider them 
 vali.l 
 
 Article t2. The Emperor shall liave the right 
 luruiiviiii till federal council and the diet, and 
 t<ni|i.ii, ailjuiiru. and ch>se them. 
 
 Article 13. The convoeatliui of the fcderul 
 r iiiii il and llie diet shall take iilai e annually, and 
 tlir finliral council may !«• called together for the 
 Jiriparatliui uf business without the diet . the 
 Uttir. Ihiivever, shall not li«> eunvokitl without 
 till- fi-tli ral iiiuncil. 
 
 Article 14, The convueallon of the fislenil 
 ceuniil shall take platv u noon a* deiimndiNl by 
 onr tliinl uf its members. 
 
 Article 15. The ehauecllor of the Empire, who 
 •liaP lie spixiinltsi liy the Eu>|ienir, shall preside 
 In the federal council, uid •upervUr the conduct 
 n! !!i hutir„-.=! Thp rhanr»=!li-.r .-.f ?!-,<= Emr-!r*> 
 ■lull k*vt the right to deleratc the power to 
 nprrwnt Um to any mamSer of the tedual 
 eoiudl 
 
 bv 
 
 of 
 
 01; I 
 
 Article 16. The necessary bills shall ]>e laid 
 before the diet in the name of the Em|>eror, in 
 accordance with the resolutions of the federal 
 council, and they shall be represented in the diet 
 by niemlH'rs of the federal council or by special 
 commissioners appoiute<l said council. 
 
 Article 17. To the Emperor shall Ijelong the 
 right to pri'parc and publish the laws of the 
 Empire. The laws and regulations of the 
 Emperor shall be published in the name of the 
 Empire, i<ud niiuire for their validity the signa- 
 ture of " . ' 'nceHor of the Empire, who tliere- 
 '■'■^ r.-s,".i, Ible for their execution, 
 icle iS, ii.e i-;!! --ror shall appoint the 
 s I'f the Ei.i;ii.'e, 1 ■ uire them to take the 
 'f I'liijianie, iiid ,-iniss them when neces- 
 811 ■ uiiiciuU ai.poi; ted to an otHce of the 
 El .-,' '1 trimi ■.•11 )f tl states of the confedera- 
 tio.. ■:<'' e .> he rame rights to which they 
 were entitledir thci.- lative states by their ortlcial 
 position, provided no other leijislative provision 
 shall have been made previously to their entrance 
 into the service of the Empire. 
 
 Article 19, If states of the confederation 
 sliall not fullill their constitutional duties, pro- 
 ce<'iliui.'s may be instituted against them by mili- 
 tary execution. This execution shall lie onlered 
 by the federal council, and eiiforttd by the 
 Em|ieror. 
 
 V,-Diet. 
 
 Article 30. The meralH'rs of the diet shall be 
 elected by universal sutfrage. and byiiirect secret 
 ballot I'ntil regulated liv law, which is re-«rved 
 by section '> of the election law of .Mav 111, 1W19 
 (fluude-L'esi'tzlilatt, IStlU. .section 14").'l 4^ dele- 
 gates shall Is'electisl in Havana. 17 in Wuriein- 
 berg. 14 iu Haden. in Hesse, south of the river 
 Main, and the total ii'imlKTof delegates sliall be 
 -.is-i 
 
 Article ai. OlUciuls shall imt rei|tiin' a leave 
 iif aliv nee ill onUr to enter the dill When a 
 ini-iulier ot the diet accepts a salaried olliee ■>( 
 the Kiiipire, or a salaried olHn- in one of the 
 stales of the eunfeileration, nr aece|>ls any olliee 
 if the Knipire, or of a state, with whii li a IiIl'Ii 
 rank or salary is coinieeteil, he shall forfeit his 
 si-:it and vote in the diet, but may recover lii» 
 place ill the same by a new election. 
 
 Article 33, The"iiriKee.iiiigs of the dii t .-hall 
 Ih- imhlii'. Truthful reports of the procee.lings 
 of tile imlilic si-ssioiis of tile diet iliall subject 
 those making them to 110 respoiisiliility. 
 
 Article 33. The diet shall have the richt to 
 propose laws within the jiirisilictioii of the 
 Empire, and to refer pctilious addressid to it to 
 the federal council or the cliaucellor of the 
 Empire 
 
 Article 34. Each li k'Islallve periisl of the 
 diet shall last time years The diet may 1k' ills- 
 iioheil by a nsoliilli 11 of the federal council, 
 with thieiillMllt of tin ElupeMr 
 
 Article 3J. Ill the cus<> of a dissolution of the 
 diet. iie» elections shall take place within a 
 inriisl of IM) days, and the diet sliall reassemble 
 within a iH'riod of Ui) days after the dissolution. 
 
 Article at. I'nless by coiis< iit of the diet, an 
 adjournment of that Issly tlull not exceeil the 
 IH'riisl of UU days, and shall not be n'peated 
 during the same seiaion, without such cuiistnt 
 
 Article »7 Tlw -iict »h»U cn»i5!lr.e !:-,!:: ;h« 
 legality of the election of Ita members and drctda 
 tliereuii It ahall regulate the mode of traniact- 
 tog bm tm aa. and ha owa diadpUae. by eatabtlaii- 
 
 ^ 
 
 669 
 
 L 
 
i ■•■ 
 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF GERJIANY. 
 
 tog rules therefor, and elect its president, vice- 
 presidents, and secretaries. 
 
 Article 28. The diet shall pass laws 1<r 
 absolute majority. To render the passape .if 
 laws valid, the presence of the majority of the 
 legal numtier of members shall be required. 
 When passing laws which do not affect the whole 
 Empire, according to the provisions of this con- 
 stitution, the votes of only those members shall 
 be counted who shall have been elected in those 
 stales of ilii- confederation which the laws to be 
 passi-d shnll alTecf. 
 
 Article 29, The members of the diet shall be 
 the representjitives of the entire people, anti shall 
 not lie subject to orders and instructions from 
 their constituents. 
 
 Article 30. No memlwr of the diet shall at 
 any time suffer legal prosecution on account of 
 his vote, or (<n account of utterances made while 
 in the performance of his funilions, or lie held 
 resnonsible out.side of the diet for his actions. 
 
 Article 31. Without the conM'iit of the diet, 
 none of ils inemlHTs shall Ix' tried or puniKhed. 
 duriuit the session, for any offense committed, 
 except when arnsted in the act of ctmimitting 
 theoffeus*', or in the courw of the following day. 
 The same rule shall applv in the case of arrests 
 for debt. At the n'ciuest of tlu >.iet, all legal 
 proceedings instituted against one of its mem- 
 bers, and likewisi' imprisonment, shall be sus- 
 pended liuring its 8<-8sion. 
 
 Article 3a. The mi'mUrs of the diet shall 
 not lie allowed to draw any salarv, or be compen- 
 siitnl as such. 
 VI.— Cuitomi and Commerce. 
 Article 33. tienuaiiy >liall fonn a customs 
 anil conimcn ial union, having a common frontier 
 for ilie colliction of ilutics. Sudi territories as 
 cannot, liy nason of their situation. 1k' suitably 
 embraci-il within the said frontit r. shall In. 
 excluded It shall lie lawful to intn«luie all 
 anil lis of c.imniiTce of a state of the confe.lera- 
 tion into any othir stale of the confederation, 
 without paying any iliity thereon. ej(..|it so far 
 as suih artidis are'suliiiV; t.> taxation theniii. 
 
 Articif 4. Till' llansiatir towns, llnmen 
 and llanilMirg, shall remain free ports out.si.le of 
 the common boundary of the ciislonis union, 
 retnininif for that purpose a dlsiriit of tlii ir own! 
 or of the surroundiiiK tirritorv, until Ihev shali 
 ifiiuist to W aiimltted inlo the Niid union! 
 
 Article 35. The Kmpire shall have the exclu- 
 sive iniwer to legislate concirninif evcrvlhing 
 relating to Ihe customs, the taxation of salt and 
 tobacco manufariund or rais.1l in the territory 
 of the confedenillon : lonierning the taxation of 
 manufactund lirandv and N-er, and of suitar and 
 lirup prcpariil fnin (h-i'Is or other domi-slic pro- 
 ductions. It shall have CXI liisive powir lo hid,, 
 late conicrnin« the miilual proteition ..f taxes 
 uponartichsof n.nsumption leviid in lhcs.-vcral 
 
 sUtes of Ihe Empire ; nirainst emlM'^zlen t ; as 
 
 Well as <iincemln){ the measures which are 
 ri'nuired. in granllnjf inemplion from Ihe iMiy- 
 ment of duths, for llie wi .irilv of the cmmon 
 cusiomsfMntier In lUvaria. <VUrteml«Tg, and 
 Bwlin. Ihe matter of Imposing duties on domes. 
 lie hrinily and Ut-T is n «,rv.s| f,.r the hgislalure 
 of each country. The stales of the . onfeileration 
 •hall, however, endeavor to hrtiiir alsmt unif.inii 
 ii si»Uti.iii ri mihliiiu iiietniniionot tin M^artii lei. 
 Article 3*. Tl. im|««.init of dmies and 
 Kdies ua artlcUn uf luuauutpllon, and Iheiollec- 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP GERMANY. 
 
 tlon of the same (article 85,) Is left to earh si 
 of the confederation witliin iu own tiriiturt 
 far as this has been done by each state hiretoff 
 The Emperor afaall have the supervision nf 
 institution of legal proceedings by olIicinls(.f 
 empire, whom he shall designate as adjiimi. 
 the custom or excise ofBcei, and boards ef dj, 
 tors of the several states, after hearinj 1 
 committee of the Confederate Council on oust., 
 and revenue*. Notices given by these otiicial, 
 to defecu In the execution of the laws of i 
 Empire (article 85) shall be submitteil to i 
 confederate council for action. 
 
 Article 37. In taking action upon the ni 
 and regulations for the execution of the \„^ 
 the Empire, (article 35,) tlie vote of the pn«ii|. 
 officer shall decide, whenever he shall |ir.,ii,iun 
 for upholding the existing rule or ngnlati..ii 
 
 Article 38. The amounts accruing fmma 
 toms and other revenues designated in artii Ir 
 of the latter, so far as they are subjei t to leji 
 lation by the diet, shall go to the treasumf 11 
 Empire. This amount Is made up of the t .1 
 ri'ceipts from the customs and other revcnuf 
 after deducting thertfrom— 1. Tax iimiM, 
 lions and reductions In conformity wiiii exi«tit 
 laws or regulations. 2. Keimbursinii nl> ', 
 taxes unduly impos«Hl. 8. The costs fm (,,]],, 
 tion and administration, viz. ; ,1. In tin- iliiar 
 ment of customs, the costs which are n uuir. 
 for the protection and collection of cust.m,. . 
 the frontiers and in the frontier liistriit- '. I 
 the dejiartment of the duty on salt the o«! 
 which are used for the pay of Iheoillierseharj!. 
 with collecting and controllinK lhesi. .lurii » in ik 
 saltmines, c. In the departineni of iliiii,<,.| 
 b<.etsugar and tobacco, the com|ii riviii,.n »hid 
 is to 1m' allowed, according to the n vhiiiinii n 
 the confederate council, lo the sei.ril >t«li 
 governmenis for the costs of the cIIiiUmu 
 these duties r/. Fifteen \wr cent, of the i.t;, 
 receipts in ihe departments of tlie ntln r .luiin 
 The territories situated outside of the e.mrii.: 
 custoi frontier shall contribute to the u|ntisi 
 of the Kmpire liy paying an 'aversufn.'a «imin| 
 acquittance ) Bavaria, WOriemti.rir. nn.l l!«.l.i 
 •hall not share in the n'venius frni .liiiiis .n 
 liquors and lieer, which go inlo the tmisurv.l 
 the Empire, nor In the corresiHiniiing |«.rtioo •! 
 the aforesaid ' avenum. ' 
 
 Article 39. The quarterly statements t.i !« 
 regularly made by the n'venue olllnn. nf <\« 
 federal slates at the end of every .|Tiiirter, i.l 
 the Dual arttlemenU (to lie made lit the en,! f 
 the year, and after the chwing of the seci.iic! 
 b<»ik«)of the receipts from customs, wliiihluii' 
 lieiHime due In Ihe course of the quartrr it 
 during Ihe flacal year, and the n'veimn et Ik 
 treasury of the Empire, according lo srtli Ir :i- 
 sball be srrang«l by the Iswrds of ilimi.n 
 of the federal stales, alter a previoiHuamitisiin 
 in general summaries In which evirv liiiti i-. M 
 tie sliown sepaniU'ly ; these siimnmrii s «liiti ■• 
 transmitted in the federal committee on nrroun> 
 The latter provisionally Axes, everv three mwtlif. 
 taking as a basis these summaries, the smiiucl 
 due lo the treasury of the Empire fnni \\w \Tt^t^ 
 ury of each sUte, and It shall Inform tlie fi.lfrd 
 Council and the fetleral Hiates of this sit ; (u^tbl^ 
 
 inon*. U shall SUbRlit to the fe:!rrs! e-.^llSlil 
 
 annually, the final statement of lln «' :imeuiil>, 
 with its remarks. The fi-deral couuill tUU »(1 
 uiHiu the axiag of itieie MuvtuiU. 
 
 5711 
 
CONSTITUTIOK OF GERMANY. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF GEIIMANY. 
 
 Article 40. The terms of the ruHtoms-uDioa 
 tieatv "f July 8, 1867, remain in fcirce, so far as 
 thfv liave not been altered by the provisions of 
 this cnnstitution, and as long as the^ are not 
 ilterrd in the manner designated in articles 7 and 
 
 78. 
 
 VII. — Railway*. 
 
 Article 41. Railways, which are consi i red 
 necessarj- for the defense of Germany or for pur- 
 poses of freneral commerce, nmy Im' Imilt for the 
 iccount of the Empire by a law of the Empire, 
 even in opposiiion to the will of those members 
 of the confederation through whose territory the 
 nil'. >iil9 run, without detracting from the rights 
 of tlie sovereign of that country ; or private 
 perwms may be charged with their constniction 
 ud nwive rights of eipropriation. Every ex- 
 iitin^t railway company is bound to permit new 
 niln>ad lines to be connected with it, at the 
 eipensc of those latter. All laws granting 
 fiintinir railway companies the right of injunction 
 igaiDst till' building of parallel or competition 
 lines HD' liereby iiluilisbed tlmiilghout the Empire, 
 without ilctrirneut to rights alremlv iicquired. 
 Such riL'ht of injunction can hencefortli not be 
 granted in conccHwions to Ih* given hereafter. 
 
 Article 42. The govenuuents of the federal 
 «t»t<-» lilml themselves, in the inten^t of general 
 comnn-riT, to have the German railwiiys managed 
 waiinifinn network, and for this purpose to 
 ball' the lines constnu ted and e(|Uipped accord- 
 iii(r to 11 uniform system. 
 
 Article 43. Aeconlingly. as soon as possible, 
 unifonii urrangemeiitN as to maimi^enient. shall 
 bf niHili'. iiiidcBpecially shall ntiilMrin regulations 
 beiu-lituted for the police of tlu- niilronds. The 
 Empiri' sliiill taki- can' tlnit tlii' administrative 
 nllii. rs 'f tlir niilw ,iy Imes keep tlie Mad* iilwiivs 
 in Mil h .1 eonrlitiou hs is reijuiri'd for public 
 Iffir ty. and that they 1h' eiiuip|H(l with the 
 unwary rolling stink. 
 
 Article 44. Railway companies an' Isnind to 
 fft^lilish such pHH.senger tniiii.'i of suitable 
 tei.K'iiy as may 1h' n'<iiiired for onliiiury travel, 
 111(1 fir tl'e establishment of harmonizing sched- 
 ulcBiif travel : also, to make provision fc>r su' ' 
 frpii'l}! trains as may 1h' necessary forcommerci 
 piir]""«'9. anti to establish, without extra ren.u.. 
 rnij.in, ortlres for the dire<'t forwunling of pas 
 ttnL-iTHaiui fnight trains, tola- transferred, when 
 ni'ii'ssary. from one naid to another 
 
 Article 4S. The Enipiri' shall have ( "nttol 
 cavr the tarilT of fan's. The same shall ■ nleavor 
 tiiiaiiv— 1 lidform ngulalions to In- s|M'edily 
 intriHiucfil on all (German niilway lines, ',V The 
 I«n!l to lie nduied anil made unifonn as far as 
 Hissilili', mid partli'ularly to cause a nduitiou 
 of the tiirilT for the transport of ii>al. coke. 
 »'»»l. minirals. stone, salt, iriide iron, tnantin'. 
 M'l MMiiliir articles, for long dlstaiii'is, as de- 
 niaD'li i ly the inten'sts of agrii ultiin' and 
 ImliKlry, and to introduce a oiii' penny tariff u 
 »>'n »• iiriMticable. 
 
 Article 46. In case of distress, especially iu 
 cax uf an ■ ilrai>nllfiarv rise in llie priit- of "pni- 
 vi»l"ii» it shall Im' the iluty of the railway com- 
 puiii-slo ailuiit tem|>oraril"y a low special tarilT, 
 til t» tixid Iry the Emperor, on motion of the 
 nimiifteut niinmiltee, for the forward'ng of 
 fTsiu, Hi'ur. vegetables, and fKitatiH's. This 
 Uriil sii.iii, however, not be less than the lowest 
 ««■ f,,r raw pnsluce eiisting on the said line 
 The fureguiiig prurUluBs, and thoic of articles 4S 
 
 to 45, shall not apply to Bavaria. The imperial 
 government has, however, the power, also with 
 regard to Bavaria, to establish, bv way of 
 legislation, unifonn rules for the construction 
 and equipment of such tailwavs as may be of 
 importance for the defense of the country. 
 
 Article 47. The managers of all railways 
 shall be required to obey, without hesitation, 
 requisitions made bv the authorities of the 
 Enipirc for the use of their roads for the defense 
 of Germany. Particularly shall the mil- 'arv and 
 all niaU'rial of war be forwarded at uniform 
 reduced rates. 
 
 VIII. — Mails and TelcKraphs. 
 
 Article 48. The mails and telegraphs shall be 
 organized and managed as state institutions 
 throughout the German Empire. The legislation 
 of the empire in regard to postal and telegraphic 
 affairs, provided for in article 4, does not extend 
 to those matters whose regulation is left to the 
 managerial arrangement, according to the princi- 
 ples which have controlle<l the North German 
 administration of mails and telegraphs. 
 
 Article 49. The receipts of mails and tele- 
 graphs are u joint affair thmughout the Empin-. 
 The exfwnses shall Ix- paid from the general 
 n-ceiiits The surplus goes Into the treasury of 
 the tmpln-. (Section 12.) 
 
 Article 50. The Emperor has the supreme 
 supervision of the administration of mails and 
 teligniphs. The authoritii's appointed bv him 
 are in duty liouiid and aiithori/.ed to s<'e that 
 uniformity be established and maintainid in th» 
 organization of the adtiilnistmtion and in tne 
 trinsai'tion of business, as also in regani to the 
 qualitleations of employes. The Emperor shall 
 have the power to malic general administrative 
 rei;iilations. and also exclusively to regulate the 
 n-latious which an' to exist iHtween tlie iswt and 
 telegraph olHces of Oermanv and those of other 
 countries. It shall Ih' the duty of all olHiers of 
 the post ottlee and telegraph department to oliev 
 imperial onlers. This obligation shall he included 
 in their oath of olHce. The appomfment of 
 s'-'wrior olHcera (such as dln'ctors. counselors. 
 ' sup«'rintendents,) as they shall lie renuinil 
 •■ administration of the niails and telegraphs, 
 varii us districts ; also the appointment of 
 i of ihe posts am! telegmph ; (such as 
 ...siM'ctors or comptnillers.l acting for the afore- 
 said authorities iu the siveral dlstriits, iu the 
 capacity of sujiervisors, shall be maile by the 
 EmiK'ror for the whole i.rritory of the (JeVman 
 Empin', and these ollii ers shall take the oath of 
 fealty to him as 11 part of their oath of otiiie. 
 The govemnunts of the several states shall lie 
 informeil in due time, by means of im|>erial con 
 hrnialion and olHi iai publication, of the afore- 
 mentioned appointments, so far as they may 
 nlate to their territories. < liherotncers nMiuired 
 bv the de|>artiiient of mails and lelegniphs. as 
 also all olllcers to tie eniployisl at the various 
 St itions, and for technical purpiws, and heiico 
 olflclatiug at ithe actual cent«'r« of communica- 
 lion, i.Ve., shall lie apiHiluted by the n'a|H>ctivu 
 governments of the states. Wnen- then' is no 
 inde|M'ndent ailminislration of inland mails or 
 telegraphs, the terms of the various treaties arv 
 to la* enforceil. 
 
 Article 51. In aaslgoing the surplus of the 
 post olllce department to the tn-ssury of the 
 Empire for general nurisisei, (article 4tt.) the 
 following procvvding la tu bo observed iu cod- 
 
 u\ 
 
 L 
 
» 
 
 - K 
 
 ft 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF GERMANY 
 
 ■ideration of the difference which has heretofore 
 existed in the ^' ■« n-ceipts of the postotBce 
 department!! of the several fcrritorics, for tlie 
 purpose of securing a suitable equalization dur- 
 inif the iH'riiMl of transition below named, Of 
 tho post-olHce surplus, which accumulated in t'.e 
 several mail districU during the live years f-om 
 1801 to 1863, an average yearlv surplus shall be 
 ooinputed. ami the share which every w'pamte 
 mail district liiw had in the surplii, resulting 
 therefrom for the whole territorv of the Kmpire 
 sliall be lixcd upon by a iH'rcentiitfe. In acconl- 
 am-e with the proporlion thus made, the sevi'ral 
 states shall be creiiited on the account of their 
 otiier contributions to the cxpeuM's of the empire 
 with their quota accruing from the postal surplus 
 in the Empire, for a pf'ri.xi of eight years subse- 
 quent to their entr.ince into the post-oftice 
 departmeiit of the Empin\ At the end of the 
 said eight years this distinction shall cease, and 
 any surplus in the post-oiUce department shall 
 go, without division, into the treasury of the 
 Empire, according to the principle enunciated in 
 article 48. Of the ((uota of the postcitllce 
 department surplus ri'sulting during the afon'- 
 mentioned period of eight years in favor of the 
 llanseatie towns, one-half shall everv year 1)<> 
 placed at the disposal of the Emperor, "for the 
 purnose of proviiling for the establishment of 
 unifiirni post otiices iu the H.inseatic towns. 
 
 Article 52. The stipulations of the foregoing 
 articles 4S to .'.1 ilo net iippiv to Havana and 
 Wdrtenibirg In their st. ad the followingstipu- 
 lation sha!l Im' vali.l for Ihise two states of the 
 confederation. The Empire alone is anthori/i>d 
 to legislate upon the |>rivileges of the piwt-ol'ic e 
 and telegniph departments, on the let'al posiii.m 
 of lioili iiistilu ions Inward the public, upon the 
 f ninlving privilege an 1 rili's of iwwtage. ami uiwrn 
 the oialilishnicnt of rates fur tclii? . Iiic eorres- 
 poiidiiiee into Uan.«eatic town E.xrlusive, 
 
 hnwever. uf mauat'erial arningements. and Ihc 
 tlsiiig (.f tarilfs for internal ii>mmiini( ation 
 within Havana and Wilrtembenr. Inlliesanie 
 manner the Eiii|iire shall ngnlate pnsial and 
 telegraphic eomniuiiication with f.tn i:;ii couu- 
 trii'S, excepting the inimediate coiiirnuniialinn nf 
 Bavaria and Wiinenilierir with their iieiu-hboring 
 •tales, not belonging to the Empire, in regaril to 
 which reu'iilation the .Htipidati iis in articli 4» of 
 titr postal tn'aty of XoviiiiIm . JU, IxtlJ, ri.,,,,,; , 
 in force Uavaria anil Wilnetnlier:.' shall not 
 sliari' in the postal ami teleuriphic n , eipts which 
 Islongtoth. tnasuryof the Empire. 
 IX, — Marine and' NaTigation, 
 Article 53. The navy of ilii- Empire is a 
 united one, under the supreme <'omiiiatid of the 
 Emperor The Emperor Is chargi-d with its 
 organiialloH ami arrangement, and he shall 
 appoint thi' olll. .rs and otneials of (he naw ami 
 in his name these and the seami'n Arr to Ih' 
 ■worn iu Thi' harlnir of Kiel and the harlkpr of 
 the lade are imperial warharlKim. Theexpeudl- 
 luri's required for the esUibllshmcnt and main- 
 tenance of the navy and the institutions 
 i-onneeted therewith thall Ik< defmTe<l from the 
 treaaury of the Emplr«. All wa faring men of 
 the Empire, inclu<llng machinbt« and b'nds 
 employed in oliip buil.lliig, are exempt from 
 aervlce in the army, but obllgtsl to lervc In the 
 imperial na»y. The apportlunmrnt uf m^n ;•-. 
 •upply the wanU of the navy aliall he made 
 acconllas «o ««• •ctual leafariliv population. 
 
 67i 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP GERMANY. 
 
 and the quota furnished In acconlance herew 
 by each state shall be credited to the ar 
 account. 
 
 Article 54. The merchant ve8-...ls of all sta 
 of the confederation shall torm a imiirl ,„ 
 mercial marine. The Empire shall deterrain,. 1 
 process for ascertaining the toimageof sei •„! 
 vessels, sliall regulate the issuing of tomiv 
 certificates and sea-letters, and shall tix the !■' 
 ditions to which a permit for cotnni.imliu , 
 sea-going vessel shall be subject. Th.' inercua 
 ves-sels of all the states of the cor}f,.,l,.rjti 
 shall Ik." admitted on an equal footing to t 
 harbors, and to all natural and arfidiial wau 
 cours.-sof the sever , 'atesof theconfe.leratin 
 and shall receive the same usage theniu T 
 liuties which shall be collated from se^ oi, 
 vessels, or levied upon their freights, for tlif u 
 of naval ins'itutions in the harliors. shall n 
 exceed thi' amount reiiuinHl for the iiwintVnaii 
 and oniinar;- repair of these institutions 1 Iq a 
 natural water coursi's, duties are only to lie livi, 
 for the use of special establishment^ »,; 
 serve for facilitating eoniniercial i;,tirn)uri 
 These duties, as well as the duties for naviiratin 
 such artilicial chamiels, which are prop,.nvi 
 the state, are not to excivd the amount nenr, 
 for the maintenance and orilinary repair 1! it 
 institutions and establLslimenis. Tli>-. ruli 
 apply to rafting, so far as it is carri.'l ,ju „ 
 navigable water-cour.sts. The h-vvii;- „[ .,!!i, 
 or higher duties uiiou foreign ves'siU ,ir thri 
 frei^rhts tlian those which are paid In lii,' v,«^] 
 of the federsil slates or their fnigliis ,|,h, n, 
 U'long to the various states, but to tin .Knipin 
 Article 55. The Hag of the war an.l i.utiIuu 
 navv shall Im' black, wliiti:, am! red. 
 
 X. — Cooauiar Affairs. 
 
 Article 56. The EmpcMr shall hiv- t!i 
 supervitiou of all consular alfairs of tin'lJi-::!,:; 
 Enijiire, and he shall appoint ronsiils. aft.r In j 
 ing the committee of the t,;l,r.i\ c.nin.i; .; 
 commerci.' and t rathe. No new stall- roi.siilatwari 
 to l)e established within the jurisiliiiiuu nf th. 
 (Jerinan consuls. (.}erin.in consuls sliall iHrf-rii; 
 till' fuuclions of state consuls for tin- slat.* o! 
 thecoufeili'rjitioniiot represintril in Ih. ir.!i*;ri! 
 -Vll the now existiiii state (onsulali s slull l« 
 abolished, as so.ni us ilii. on;aui/aiion nf tk 
 
 German consul.iles shall Ik' i ipleii.,1, in ,11, In 
 
 manner that the lejiiesiiiiation of tlie s..|urau- 
 inleri'sisol all the l^i-dera: stati's shall 1k' mvi.- 
 niicd by the federal council as secunsl li\ iW 
 (SiTMUin consulates 
 
 XI. — Military Affairs of the Empire, 
 Article 57, KviTv (rerman is smI.j,,,! t.ituili 
 
 tary duly, and in the iIIm harire .1 •Iu. duivao 
 substitute can 1k' aiei'piiil. 
 
 Article 58. The costs and the liii,-.liu nf jil 
 the military system of the Empire an to I* 
 bonie e.iually by all the federal states mul tliiit 
 lubjiits, and no privileges or ni.jlestaii.ins to 
 the several states or cla.sses are a.liiiis,itil« 
 Where an equal distribution of the Inmleuji can- 
 not be effecmi "III nalura' without pnjuiiire tc 
 the public welfare, affnln shall lie equaiizid bv 
 legislation In accordance with the principles J( 
 justicv. 
 
 Ariicit 59. Every German capable of l»«riiif 
 anna shall serve for seven yi-ars in t le «t3uUiii| 
 8fr::y, ofrilnariiy fmm the ead..f ii.s iw<ii!i.;iiB 
 the beginning of bis twenty -elgiith vear, tin 
 first UtTN yeii-s in the army of the deKl, Nw UK 
 
CONSTrrUTION OF GERMAXY. 
 
 COXSTITUTION OF GERMANY. 
 
 (our yean in the reaerre ; during the next five 
 rears be sbftU belong to the militia. In those 
 itatesof theconfederati" in which heretofore a 
 longer term of service liian twelve years was 
 required by law, the gradual reduction of the 
 required time of service shall fake place in such 
 a manner as is compatible with the interests ami 
 the war-footing of the army of the Empire. As 
 reifitds the emigration of men belonging to the 
 fosiTrc ocly those provisions shall be Tu force 
 wliifli iipply to the emigration of members of 
 tlie militia 
 
 Article 60. The strength of the German 
 army <n time of peace shall be, until the 31.'«t 
 D«Traliir. 1871, one per cent, of the population 
 (if IS67. ami shall be lumished by the several 
 tedcral stalls in proportion to their population. 
 In futuR' the strength o' the army in time of 
 peace shall flx"! by legislation. 
 
 Article t». After the publicntion of this con- 
 stitution the full Prussian military system of 
 legislition shall Iw introiluoed without delay 
 tlmiut'liKUi the Empire, as well the statutes 
 tliemsi'lvi'S as the re?".lations, instructions, ami 
 onliuances issued fo' heir execution, explana- 
 tion iir completion; thus, in particular, the 
 military |>enal code of April 3, 1845: the military 
 onlrrsof the penal court of April 3, 184.); the 
 onlinanre cuneeniinB the couitsof honor of .luly 
 Jl, l!*4;i: the rcfiulutions with respect to recruit- 
 ini:. tinii' "f si'rvicf, mat'trs ri'lating to the 
 afTioe liiiil stilisistem-e, to the quartering of 
 tii»ip<. iluiins fur iiaina|.rc's. inobili/iiig, Jcc. , fur 
 tim«> <'t' piaee ami w.ir. Onh-rs for the attend- 
 anre 'if the military up»>:i religious .si-rviees is, 
 iiimivi r. « xrhidiil. When a unifonu uruMiii/a- 
 tiiin cif tile tlirinnii army slmll Lave Ihiu 1 .-itah- 
 Ijjhni, a cnriipr.lieiisive military law fut tlie 
 EinpiD' nliall tK' suhmitie<l to the diet and the 
 fiiliral niiinril for tliiir action iu aeeoniaiice with 
 tiii'('iii«iitution. 
 
 Article 62. For the purpose of ihfmyin:^ tlic 
 .ipiiws iif the whole (Jermiin army, ami tin- 
 iii*lil:iii'ins eniiiieiled ilMTi'witli, tlie sum of '2'2'> 
 !n ' liini'ln-d and twentytive) tlialcrs shall 1h> 
 pUtil at tl]i' cl,.p.iBal at' till' Emperor until the 
 ;)I»I nf IhciiiilKT. 1871, f.ir each man in tii" 
 arm V" 'in th'- piaie foi:tiiii.', i,i-i'inliinr to urtiele 
 6'i iNvMfti'ih r.'.) Aft-r till' ;llst of D.eein. 
 I»T, l-ri. tia' puymenl "f tln-M' eoritrilMiti'ins of 
 Ihr -iviral ^latrs tu tl"' iiiiprrial Ir .i-uiy must 
 li-i 'iitinwiil. Til.' slniij-lii of till' anny'iiiliini' 
 'if [I- lice, wliich luis lie, 11 tciuiM rarily tlxi'l iu 
 ■ini'lellii. shall iM'taki'Ti iisa basis f'Ti'iiliMihitiiiir 
 llii-x' ;ini' nts until it shall InmiMiT'iI bv a law 
 "t the Kni|Mre. Tlie expeiMlii lire "f I his 'sum l.«r 
 till' r i|olf :irniy of the Empire ami il'^ i-Malilish- 
 mi'UI* »hail hr di'termiiUMl liy a liii'li.'it Ian In 
 il'-iirniuiini:tli,'bnd;:i't of iiiiiiturvexiMii.llture,, 
 ±<- laivfiilly rstablished oriiaiiizali'in of the 
 iai|n'rlal iirniy. ii\ aeronlaiii-e with this euiistitii- 
 li"!i. r\\M he takrn as a lM«i-. 
 
 Article 63. The total land foree'if the Knipire 
 >lii!l f.'riii "lie army, xvhieli. iu war ami in peace, 
 -riul h uri.lir the iinniiiaml of tiie Ein[M'Mr. 
 Till n .liimrits. Ai , thMiiirli'iiil the whole Uer- 
 mm inny ^h ill Iv, ar eoi.tiiiU'ius numlH'rs Tlie 
 pniipil ,,.|,is 1,11,1 the cut of the gannents of 
 '!i' H.'yal I'ruwian army shall wrve as a paltrm 
 t'|rtliiri«t'if the army. ' It i> left to i'otnmH>|iii'r» 
 •1 I'liiiiur'nt limit to oht«»e Ihe external 
 • •Mii-i .'.kinleii, Ae It nhall 'le the dutv aU'l 
 lUf riih, .if the EmiKTor to take care 'that. 
 
 throughout the German army, all divisions be 
 kept full and well equipped, and that unity be 
 established and maintained in regard to organiza- 
 tion and formation, equipment, and command in 
 the training of the men, as well as in the qualifi- 
 cation of the offleers. For this purpose the 
 Emperor shall be authorized to satisfy himself at 
 any time of the condition of the several contin- 
 gents, and to provide remedies for existimr defecU. 
 The Emperor shall determine the stn-niftli, com- 
 position, and division of the contingents of the 
 ■niperial army, and also the organization of the 
 militia, and he shall have the riglit to designate 
 garrisons within the territory of ilie confedera- 
 tion, as also to call aiiv portion of the army into 
 active service. In order to maintain the iieces- 
 sary unity in the care, arming, and equipment • . 
 all triHips of the G^niiun armv, all orders here- 
 after to \>e issued for tlie Prussian armv shall be 
 communicated in due form to theconiniamlers of 
 tlie remaining contingents tiy the committee on 
 the armv and fortifications, provided for in article 
 8, No. 1. 
 
 Article 64. All German tnwps are bound 
 implicilly to otjey the orders of the Enijicror. 
 This olibgation sliall lie included in Uie uatli of 
 allegiance. Tlie commander-in-chief of a eon- 
 tin;Tint. as well asall ollicersconimamling tnn'iis 
 of more than oner.inlinirent, ami all eommamiers 
 of f'lrtresses. shall be appointed liv tlie Emperor. 
 The oltieers appointiil liy thi' EinpcT'.r shall take 
 the oath of fi'ally t" him. Tlie app'iintnient of 
 gi'iiera's, or of ulli'-ers perfurming the duties of 
 generals, in a eoutiiigeiit force, siiall lie in each 
 ease subject to tiie appr'ival uf the Emperor. 
 Tiie Emperor has the right witli nganl tu the 
 transfer of otiicers, witli or with'iut prumotion, 
 tu p'..;itiuns wliicli an' to lie rtlhil in t hi' service 
 'if till' Empiri', l>e it in the I'rii.s.-.ian army or in 
 iith'T euntinirenls, tu select fmni tlie "tlliirs 'if 
 al! til iiiliiii;'nts of tlie army uf the Kiiipiri- 
 
 Article 65. The rit'ht tu imild furiri's.s«-s 
 within the tirritury uf tiie Enipiri' shall lulong 
 to till- Eiiipiror. whu, aeor'Hii.' Iu seitiun 12. 
 shall .ask fur tin- apiirupriatiun uf th.' iieiissarv 
 111. aiLs r.''|iiir.'i fur that piirpuM', if nut already 
 im lu'l'-'i in Ilie ri'i.Milar a|>|>,.'|iriatiuti. 
 
 Article 66. If nut otiurwisi' siipiilalcl. the 
 prinei'suf the Empire ami tin- si-nat's shall a |ip"int 
 theotlicrs uf ihiir n-spi-itivi' euiitliiv'' nl». sub. 
 jeet tu the re-tririion 'if artieh- lit Tley an- tile 
 chiefs of all the truups In I'liiitiii:; tu their 
 respective territ'iries. aiel an' iiiiitli'I tu the 
 hum li-s connected tlienM itii, Tli'\ shall have 
 
 • 's| iaily tlie riiilil t.' Iiuhl iti>p"'ii"n-' at any 
 
 ti'ii'', aii'i reeciv. Insi'li.* the regular ri'iiona 
 .ami anmeiiH'eiii'iiis uf i haiices f,ir piililieali'in, 
 tine'ly iiil.'riii.iliuii "f all pruiiiuli'iiisaiii appuint- 
 1111 nts I'.ii.' rniiii: lliiii' n'-piTiive c-uiitingents. 
 Tiny shall aK'i have the rivrht t'l 1 iiipiuy. for 
 pulire piiipiisis, h"! uiily ilnir uwii truups but 
 all utlirr 1 'iniiiu'i lit-, "f [',if army uf tin' Empire 
 who af slatiiin''i ill tin ir n-speitivi' tiTrit'iri's 
 
 Article 67. Tin- urn \pimhi| p'lrti'.ii uf 'lie 
 militiiry a|iprupii itiuii siiill, umlcr no clniim- 
 staii'i s. fill t'l tlie siiar'' uf a sinclc guviriimi'iit. 
 but at all tinii s t'l Ilu' treasury uf ilu- Knipiri' 
 
 Article 68. The Em|ienir shall liav tlie 
 power, if the iiiiblic security of the Empire 
 demuielsit. t" 'leeiar" martin!" law in auv part 
 thereof tiutil theiiuhiicationof a law regulating 
 the gmumls. the form of announcement, and the 
 etiects of siieb a declaration, the provisions of the 
 
 57;i 
 
coNBTmrrioN op oermany. 
 
 PniiiUa Uw of June 4, 18S1. shall b« lubatitated 
 therefor. (L«wi of 18S1, page 431.) 
 Addition to wction XI. 
 
 Tlie proriaions contained in this section shall 
 go into effect in Bavaria as provided for in the 
 treaty of alliance of November 2a, 1870 (Bun- 
 desgesetzblatt, 187i, section 9,) under III. section 
 8, in Wttrtemberif , as provided for in the military 
 convention of November 81-25, 1870, (Bundes- 
 gesetiblatt. 1870, section 688.) 
 XII.— Finances of the Empire. 
 Article 69. All reciipu and expenditures of 
 the Empire shall be estimated yearly, and 
 included in the financial estinwte. The latter 
 shall be tiled by law before the beginning of the 
 fiscal year, according to the following princi- 
 ples: 
 
 Article 70. The surplus of the previous 
 year, as well as the customs duties, the com- 
 mon excise duties, and the revenues derived 
 from the posul and telegraph service, shall be 
 applied to the defrayal of all general expendi- 
 ture. In so far as these expenditures are not 
 covered by the receipts, they shall be raised, as 
 long as no taxes of the Empire shall have been 
 established, by assessing the several states of 
 the Empire according to thiir population, the 
 amount of the assessment 10 be fixed by the 
 Chancellor of the Empire in accordance with the 
 budget agreed upiin 
 
 Article 71. The general expenditure shall 
 oe, as a rule, grantid f(ir one vear; they may 
 however, in special eii,se». be granted for a 
 longer [jeriod. During the pi riiwl i>f transition 
 fixed in Article 80, the flnniuial estimate, prnp- 
 eriy classitied, (if the expenditun-s (if tl.i- armv 
 shall IH- laid iM'fore the federU council and the 
 diet f(ir their informatidn. 
 
 Article •ji. Xn annual report of the expen- 
 diture (if all the receipts (if the Empire shalllH' 
 rindcrcd lo tli.< federal oduucil and the diet 
 thniiiifh tile Clianiell.ir (if the Empire. 
 
 Article 73. In caws of extraonlinary re- 
 Hiurcments. a hian may Ih' contracted in aecdpl- 
 anie wi'h tlic laws nf iIr. Empiri'. such loan 
 to be granted liv tlie Emjiire. 
 Addition to iection XII. 
 .'rtiilcsrtO and Tl apply to the expenditures 
 for the Uiivarian arniv (mlvaecdnling to the pm- 
 vi.sidiis of 111,, addiliofi to sicii.m .\l of tlie treaty 
 of .NovcnilKT -a. IHVil; and article 7\i only so far 
 as is r((iiiire(l to inform the federal coiinVil and 
 the diet of the assignment to Havana of the 
 re(iiiired sum for the IJavarian arniv. 
 
 XI II. -Settlement of Disputes and Modes 
 of Punishment. 
 
 Article 74. Every attempt asainsi the exist- 
 ence, the integrity, the seeuritv, or tlic eoristiiu. 
 lidiidfthe Herman Empire; flnallv. aiiv of n«e 
 iiimmilteil ajrainsl the federal ■(mihk il the 
 (llcl. a rncnilLTof ihe federal ((.iin.il, orof ihe 
 diet, a niav'istrate or jiulillc dtll( i.il of the Km- 
 
 C0N8TITCTI0N OF ITALY. 
 
 pire. while In the execution of his duty or 
 reference to his olfleial position, by word 
 ing, printing, signs, or caricatur«8, aha 
 judiciallv investrgated, and upon convi 
 punished in the several states of the Kit 
 according to the laws therein existing, or v 
 shall hereafter ejiist in the same, sccordii 
 which laws a simiUr offense against any 
 the states of the Empire, ita constitutidn ] 
 Isture. memben of iu legislature, authoriti 
 otScials is to be judged. 
 
 Article 75. For those offenses, speciBf 
 
 Article 74, against the Qerman Empire w 
 
 if committed against one of the states of the 
 
 pire, would be deemed high treason, the sup 
 
 court of appeals of the three free Hang 
 
 towns at Lubeck shall be the competent d 
 
 Ing tribunal In the first and last resort 
 
 definite provisions as to the competency and 
 
 : proceedings of the superior court of api 
 
 I shall be adopted by the Legislature of 
 
 i Empire. Until the passage of a law of 
 
 I Empire, the existing competency of the o 
 
 In the nspective states of the Empire and 
 
 provisions relative to the proceedings of I 
 
 ; courts, shall remain in force. 
 
 I Article »6. Disputes between the diffe 
 
 i states of the confederation, so far as tliev 
 
 j not of a private nature, and thenfnre in 
 
 I decided by the competent authorities nhal 
 
 j settled by the fe<lera( council, at the re.iui- 
 
 I one of the parties. Disputes relating to cm 
 
 tutional matters in those of the states of 
 
 confederation vhose constitution c.iiiiaiiis 
 
 provision for the .settlement of such diircnn 
 
 shall be adjusted by the federal cduniil, at 
 
 re.juest of one of the parties, or, if tliis cann.ii 
 
 ddiie, they shall be settled by the leirislai 
 
 j jKiwer of the confederation. 
 
 j Article 77. If in one of the stat. s . f 
 
 confisleration justice shall be deTii(,l, and 
 
 sufficient relief can be procured by i( "il m( 
 
 I ures, it shall Ik- the duty of the federal (.mi 
 
 to n-ceive substantiated complaints c.nura 
 
 denial or restriction of justiw. wiiiih urc to 
 
 judged according to the constituiioa an.j 
 
 existing laws of the resiwctivt; stales (.1 
 
 confederation, and thenupon to obtain judi< 
 
 relief from the confederate gdvenmieni in ! 
 
 mallei which shall have given risi' t.i itn'.i 
 
 plaint 
 
 XIV.— General ProTition. 
 
 .Vinendnients (if the constitution kliall Iw ma 
 
 by legislative' enactment. They shall 1* n 
 
 sideted as rejected when 14 Vd. < m 11 
 
 against them lu the fwleral cuineil Tlif pi 
 
 visions of the constitutidn ..f li.e Kniplrc 
 
 which lived righ's of individual »i ,1 s .f t 
 
 (■(.nfedenii.in are eslHlilished in ih.ir r.lali 
 
 to tlie wliole. shall only Ik' nKKlith.l wlili [ 
 
 cdiisenl of iliat slate of "the confudcratiiinwU 
 
 is iiniiiediately concerned. 
 
 b^ia^ 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF ITALY. 
 
 The kingdom of Italy is governed under the 
 consiiuiiioii gi iiiol In imh, ),,• t harles Allirt, 
 tx> hU Sanliiiiuii siihlects. Tlie fcHn-.vi:!-- trm;-- 
 l.'itiim, by Drs. Mml-jiv and l^lWe, of ifi,. luj. 
 verslty of IVonsyhauia, is from the " Annals of 
 the Ameri(»u Academy of I'olltlciU and Social 
 
 tVienee,' Novemlier, li*M. Theconstilulionhi 
 no jirovision for its own amendmcni . Iml m.> 
 liHriiii Jiirisis hdid that it fan U ..1.,. li.i..! s 
 rarilanieiit. with the king's approval V«t.i 
 the translators nniark iu their hisi..rl.al ii 
 troiiuctiou, an immutable et.nsii.iin.u U a 
 
 
coNSTmrnoN of italt. 
 
 iMtniment "contrary to the true conception of 
 an or^nic law. As a matter of fact several 
 provi»i"Ms have been either abrogated or ren- 
 dered null and void through diange of con- 
 ditioiii. Thui the tecond ciauae of Article 28, 
 requiring the previous consent of the bishop for 
 the printing of Bibles, prayer books and cate- 
 diisms, baa been rendered of no effect through 
 lubaequent laws regulating the relations of 
 rhurch and State. Article 76, which provides 
 for the establishment of a communal militia, 
 has been abrogated by the military law of June 
 14. 1874. The fact that no French-speaking 
 provinces now form part of the kingdom has 
 mwie Article 62 a dead-letter. 8o also Articles 
 (3 and 5S are no longer strictly adhered to. At 
 all events their observance baa been suspended 
 (or the time being. " 
 
 The translated text of the Constitution is as 
 follows: 
 
 (Cbsries Albert, by the Grace of God, 
 Eing of Sardinia, Cyprus and Jerusalem, Duke 
 of savoy, Genoa, Monferrato, Aosta, of the 
 Chlablese, Oenovese and of Piacenza ; Prince of 
 Piedmont '.id Oneglia; Marquis of Italy, 
 Saluzzo, Ivrea, Susa, Ceva, of the Maro, of Oris- 
 tano, of Ccsaua and Savona ; Count of Moriana, 
 Geneva. Nice, Tenda, I{omonte, AstI, Alexandria, 
 Gofenno. Novsra, Tortona, Vigevami and of 
 Bobliio; llanin of Vaud and Faucieny; LonI of 
 Vercelll. I'iniTolo, Tarantasla, of the LonuUina 
 mil i>f till' Vallcv of Sesia, etc., etc., etc.) 
 With the liilellty of a king ami the affection of 
 > lutlier, we are alwut to-day to f ulllll all that 
 we promised our most Ix-lovcd subjects in our 
 procliimatlon of the eighth of last February, 
 »herel)y we desired to show, In the niiilst of the 
 eitriiiinlinary events then transpiring through- 
 out the cnuntry, how much our cuntidente in 
 our siilijiits intreawd with the gmvity of the 
 fituatioii, iiml how. oi^nsulting (inly tlieimpulse 
 (if our liciirt. Wf Imil fully determined to make 
 llirlr roiicliiioii ii.nforin to the spirit of the times 
 an.l to the Interests and dignity of the nation. 
 Wf, lielleving llmt the liroad ami permanent 
 representative luslltutiims established by tills 
 fumUmentttl statute an' the furest means of 
 ceminling the Uinds of Indissoluble affeetion 
 that bind toourrniwn a pwple that has so often 
 glrin us ample proof of their faithfulness. 
 oMlcnce iind love, have determined to simetlon 
 aoil promulgate this statute. We believe. 
 furtlur. thiit (itid will bless our grenl intentions! 
 •Oil that this free, strong and ha'ppv nation will 
 erer«hii\v itself nicre des<-rving of Us ancient 
 fame ami thus merit a glo.ious future. There- 
 .'ore, We, with our full knowledge and royal 
 authorllv ami with the advice of our Council, 
 have ..nliihied and do hereby onlalu and deelare 
 In tone the fuiiilamvntal perpetual and IrreviKa- 
 We siiilule ami law of tlie monarchy as follovs- 
 
 Article I. The Catholic, Apostolic ami Iloman 
 relliiloii is the only religion of the State [see 
 U«- of the Papal Guarantees, under P.tPACV 
 A I> INTO (p,ige 2478)1. Other cults now ex 
 IKlnii are tolerated conformably to the law. 
 
 Article a. The Stale is governed by a repre- 
 leniailve monarchical government, and the 
 thtom- 1> herHitarv :^ccfiM!ng t<i t!ir Si»ljr Uw 
 
 Articis J. The legislative power shall be exer- 
 cjjfd collectively by the King and the two 
 Uambert. the S«nat« and Uia Chamber of 
 Ufputles, 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF ITALY. 
 
 Article 4. The penon of the King If Mend 
 and inviolable. 
 
 Article 5. To the King alone Lelongt the 
 executive power. He is the supreme head of 
 the State; command* all land and naval force*; 
 declares war; makes treaties of peace, alliance, 
 commerce and other treaties, communicating 
 them to the Chambers as soon a« the interest and 
 security of the State permits, ic<<ompanying 
 such notice with opportune explanations; pro- 
 vided that treaties involving flnancUl obligations 
 or change of State territory shall not take effect 
 until they have received the consent of the 
 Chambers. 
 
 Article 6. The King appolnto to all the office* 
 of the St 'e and makes the necessary decree* 
 and regui -lon* for the execution of the law*, 
 provided i -at such decree* do not suspend or 
 modlfjr their observance. 
 
 Article 7. The King alone sanctions and pro- 
 mulgat 1 the lawa 
 
 Article 8. The King may grant pardon* and 
 commute sentences. 
 
 Article 9. The King convoke* the two Cham- 
 bers each year. He may prorogue their session* 
 and dissolve the Chamber of Deputies, in which 
 case he shall convoke a new Chamber within a 
 period of four months. 
 
 Article 10. The initiative in legislation be- 
 longs both to the King and the two Houses. All 
 bills, however, imposing taxes or relating to the 
 budget shall first be presented to the Chamber 
 of Deputies. 
 
 Article n. The King shall attain hi* majority 
 upon completion of his eighteenth year. 
 
 Article 13. During the King's minority, the 
 Prince who is his nearest relative in the order of 
 Burcession to the throne, shall be regent of the 
 realm, provided he lie twcnty-ono years of age. 
 Article 13. Should the Prince upon whom the 
 regency devolves be still in his minority and this 
 duty pass to a more distant relative, the regent 
 who actuallv takes offlce shall continue in the 
 same until the King becomes of age. 
 
 Article 14. In the absence of male relatives, 
 the regency devolves upon the Queen-Mother. 
 
 Article 15, In the event of the prior (leccasa 
 of the tJueen-Mother, the regent shall lie elected 
 by the legislative Chamliers, convoked within 
 ten days by the Ministers of the Crown. 
 
 Article 16. The preceding provisions In refer- 
 ence to the regency are also applicable In case 
 tlio King has attained his majority, but is phy*- 
 Ically iueii liable of reigning. Under such cir- 
 cumstau< . ■., If the heir presumptive to the throne 
 be eighteen years of age. he shall be regent of 
 full rijtht. 
 
 Article 17. The Queen-Mother has charge of 
 the education of the King until he has com- 
 pleted Ills seventh year; from this time on hi* 
 guardianship passes into the hands of the regent. 
 Article 18. All righu pertaining to the civil 
 power In matters of ecclesiastical benefices and 
 in the execution of all regulations whatsoever 
 coming from foreign countrie* shall bv exercised 
 by the King. 
 
 Article 19. The civil list of the Crown shall 
 remain, during the present reign, at an amount 
 ftjual !•) tiit? svrfftge vt the same for the past 
 ten years. The King shall continue to have the 
 use of the royal palaces, villas, gardens and 
 their appurtenances, and also of all chattels in- 
 tended for the use of the .^rown, of wbicb • 
 
 ii«< 
 
■JK 
 
 ii. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF ITALY. 
 
 ipeedy ioTentory ■hall be madr hy a respoosible 
 
 iture thi pre- 
 
 il be fixed for 
 
 t Legislature 
 
 lo the throne. 
 
 lie King pos- 
 
 n) his private 
 
 whicli he mav 
 
 tttion Mr gnuui- 
 
 The King may 
 
 y either by deed 
 
 ! * 
 
 ministerial department. In t 
 scribed dotation of the Cronr 
 tl»e duration of each reign by 
 sul)se()uent to the King s ac' 
 Article ao. The proper! ^ 
 sesses in his own right, si 
 patrimony, togetlier with 
 acquire title eitlier for a r 
 tously in the course of his 
 dispose of his private pati 
 or will exempt from the pr.v isions of tlie civil 
 law lis to the amount thus disposable. In all 
 oilier cases, the King's patrimony is subject to 
 the lawstliat govern other property. 
 
 Article 3i. The law shall provide an annual 
 civil list for V. heir apparent to the throne 
 when he hiis attained his niajority. and also 
 earlier on occasion of his marriage; for tlie 
 allowances of the Princes of the royal family 
 and royal 1)Ij<h1 within the speciUfd conditions; 
 for the dowries of the Princesses and for the 
 dowrit's of the Queens. 
 
 Article 33. Upon ascending the throne, the 
 Kiiij shall take an oath in the presence of the 
 two (hanilK'rs to observe faithfully tlie present 
 constitution. 
 
 Article 23. The regent before entering on 
 the duties of tliat otflce. -. ill swear tidelity to 
 the King and faithful ohsi tvaiice of this consti- 
 tution and of tile laws of tlic State. 
 
 Article 34. AH the iiilialiitaiits of the King- 
 dom, whatever their rank or title, shall enjoy 
 equality iK'fore the law. All shall e<iually enjov 
 civil and political riglits ami In- eligible to civil 
 and military otBce, except as otherwise provideil 
 by law 
 
 'Article 35. All shall coiitriliute without dis- 
 criniiiiaiion 1 . the bunlriis of the State, in pro- 
 p(.»rtlnn to tln'ir [)oss4'Ssioiis. 
 
 Article 36. liHliviilual lilierty is guaranteed. 
 No one shall be urnsted or brought to trial ex- 
 cept in rnsis iinivid.'d for and according to the 
 fortns I^rl■^(■riU■^l bv law 
 
 Articles?. I'liednniic il.> shall be Inviolable. 
 No lioiHe sean-h sli.ill takr place except in the 
 end .rcenient of law anti in 1 lie manner prescribeil 
 by law 
 
 Article 38. Tht! press sli.ill be free, but the 
 law may suppress abuses of this freedom. 
 Ni-vi-rlheless. IJibles. catechisms, liturgical and 
 pru.r books shall not be priiili-d without the 
 previous consent of the bishop 
 
 Article 29. I'roperty of all kinils wliats.M-ver 
 shall !»■ iuMolable. In all cases, bowever, where 
 the public Wflfarc. legally asccnaine.l, d< iiiaiids 
 it, property may lie iinideinriiil and tiansfc rml 
 in >vli.ilc or in part after a just iiiilemnily has 
 tieeu paid aei-ording to law. 
 
 Article 30. No tax shall lie levied or collected 
 without iln> eohseiit of the fhainbers anil the 
 samtioii of the King. 
 
 Article 31. The public debt is guaranteed. 
 All oiiii:r„|j,„„ i„.i «,.,.„ ii„. st^tp n,„| (^ credit- 
 ors shrill Ih> inviotui/l^ 
 
 Article 33. The h/tlii to peaceful assembh , 
 williou; arms, !;-. ,<eogiii/ed. subjict, however, 
 to the laws that may regulate the exin-iscof this 
 privileir,' iii tUt> jriterest of th-j 'lublic welfaj;^ 
 Ibis privileu' is not applicable, however, to 
 meetings in public places or places ojieii to the 
 public, which shall remain 
 
 police law and ri'gulntion 
 
 entirely siitiject to 
 
 CONSTITUTION uP ITALY 
 
 Article 33. The Senate aiuU be compote 
 members, having attained the age of 1 
 years, appointed for life by the King, wit 
 limit of numbers. Tbey shall be selected 
 the following categories of citizens: 1 j 
 bishops and BUhops of the State. 3. The F 
 dent of the Chamber of Deputies. 3. Depi 
 after having 8erve<i in three LeKialatutw 
 after six years of membership in the Chaml* 
 Deputies. 4. Ministers of State. .'5. tjecreu 
 to Ministers of State. 6. Ambassadors 7 
 voys Extraordinary after three vinr^ of . 
 service. 8. The First Presidents'.! t\K Cn 
 of Cassation and of the Chamber of Accou 
 
 9. The First Presidents of the Courts of Apt 
 
 10. The Attorncy-Oeneral of the Courts cif i 
 sation and the Prosecutor-General, after 
 years of service. 11. The Presidents of 
 Chambers of the Courts of Appeal after tl 
 years of service. 12. The Councillors of 
 Courts of Cassation and of the Chamber of 
 counts after five years of service. 13 The 
 Tocates-Ocneral and Fiscals-Oeneral of theCoi 
 of Appeal after five years of service 14. 
 military officers of tfie hind and imval foi 
 Willi title of general. Major-generals and n 
 admirals after five years of active service In 
 capacity. I,'). The Councillors of State s 
 five years of service. 16. Tlie menil)ers of 
 Councils of DIvishai after three elections toti 
 presiileney. 17. The Provincial Govirnoisi 
 tendenti generali) after seven years of strr 
 1^. Members of the Iloyal AcHilcmy of .S-ie 
 of seven years standing. "l9. Ordinnrv member 
 tlie Superior Council of Public InstVuclion ai 
 seven years of service. 20. Those who iiytl 
 services or eminent merit have doiu' honor 
 their country. 21. Persons who, for at le 
 three years, have paid diri'ct propirtvoroccu 
 tion taxes to the amount of 8,(KKI lire 
 
 Article 34. The Princes of tlie Itovul Fait 
 shall be memliers of the Si'iiale "riii v »1 
 take rank Inimeiiiately after the I'resiileni" Ti 
 shall en'er the Senate at the age of twemjH 
 and have a vote at twenty live. 
 
 Article 35. The President and Vice Preside 
 of the Senate shall lie appointed by the Kii 
 but the Senate chooses fnmi anioTii; ||» 
 inemt>ers it-s secretaries. 
 
 Article 36. The Senate mav be < iin«tituiivl 
 High Court of Justice bv decree of the Kl 
 for judging crime? ,f high treason aii.l i\iitni| 
 upon the safety of the State, also fur tryl 
 >liiMsters placed in accusation by \\w fliailil 
 of Deputies. When acting in this ciipndty, t 
 Senate is not a political IhmIv. It shall rot III 
 "iciiipy ilmdf with any other judiiial m«il( 
 I ban tlmsi" for which it was convened: anyrli 
 anion Is null and void. 
 
 Article ;7. No Senator shall be iirrested e 
 repi by virtue of an order of the S imte. iinle 
 Incases of Hagrant commission of rriine T; 
 Senate slutll lie the sole judge of the Impute 
 misdenx aiHirs of lljt inemlKrH. 
 
 Article 38. I.,<>gal doriiments ns 10 birtb 
 marriages awl deaths in the Koval Family «lu 
 be prest'iited to the Senate and deposiusl bj tti 
 Ixsiy aiixng its archives. 
 
 A'rticle 39. Th*" rhH-tiv- Chairi'-^ r i* •----tip^ 
 of deputies chosen by the ek'ctorul collegei 1 
 provided bylaw. ['The election law loDg I 
 force was that of Decemtier 17. Ifido. wbloli »i 
 subsequently modified in .Inly l^T') sod I 
 
 57ti 
 
 II 
 
CONSTITUTION OP ITALY. 
 
 MiT, 1877. Id January, 1889, a compreheniire 
 electorel reform wu inaugurated by which the 
 electoml age quallQcatioa was reduced from 
 twentyfive to twenty-one years, and the tax 
 
 riliDcatioD to an annual payment of nineteen 
 eigbty centesimi as a minimum of direct 
 nies. Tills law introduced a new provision re- 
 quiring of electors a Icnowledge of reading and 
 writing. It is an elaborate law of 107 articles. 
 The '-revisions relating to the elections by 
 genei ticltet were further revised by law of 
 Jl^v 1 .id deertc of June, 18b3. and the text of 
 tc; wliole law was co-ordinated " ilh the preced- 
 ing laws by Royal Decree of Septf inber 24, 1888. 
 it was again modidcd May Stb, 1891, by the 
 iboUti'.p of elections on general tickets and the 
 creation 'f a Commission for the territorial 
 dirisicin of the country into electoral colleges. 
 Tbe number of elect- •*] colleges is at present 
 fiieil «t 508, each electing one Deputy. Twelve 
 trticies of this law of 1882, as thus ameutl d, 
 lure li«en again amended by a law dated June 
 28, 1^193. prescribing further reforms in the cot- 
 '.rol and supervision of elections, and by law of 
 July 11. lfl)4, on the revision of electoral and 
 registration lists." — Footnote.) 
 
 Article 40. No person shall be a member of 
 the Clianiber who is not a subject of the King, 
 thirty vears of age, possessing all civil and 
 political rit'lits and the other qualifications re- 
 quireil by law. 
 
 Article 41. Deputies shall represent tbe nation 
 - large and not the several Provinces from 
 which they are chosen. No binding instructions 
 nav tlierefore Ik." given by the electors. 
 
 Article 42. Deputies shall be elected for a 
 ttrm of tivi- years; their power ceases ipso Jure 
 ut the t.xplraiiiin of this iwriiKi. 
 
 Article 43. The President. Vice presidents and 
 Si-"\iarii 9 of the Cliambir of Deputies shall be 
 ih(.a.|] frcini among its own nieniliers at the be- 
 i'iiiiiiiiir of each session fur the entire session. 
 
 Article 44. If a Deputy oeiises for any reason 
 JTliMsiK-vcr to perform his duties, the electoral 
 nilire tiiat cIhwc him shall Iw convened at once 
 »|r.>((il with a new election. 
 
 Article ^5. I>«>putles shall be privilecid from 
 irTKt ■Innni; the sessions, except in oases of 
 Ijitrant lonimission of crime; but uo Deputy 
 mu ■ III. oriHi^lit to trial in criminal nnitters with- 
 out till ]irevii>iis consent of the Chamber. 
 
 Article 46. No wammt of arrest for debts 
 may !»■ cxeeiited nfrainst 11 Deputy during the 
 lessionsof tlft. Cliainlier, nor within a period of 
 Iht\i' Weeks prei eiliiTg or following the same. 
 I ■Tliis article baa lieen pnictlcally abolished by 
 ihe Manrini law of Deeinilier 6. 1877, doing 
 «Kiiy with [H-rsonal arrest for debts. "— Foot- 
 null' ] 
 
 Article 47. The Chamlwr of Deputies shall 
 have |»nver to impeach Ministers of the Crown 
 snd t„ liring them to trial before the High Court 
 
 of .lusIilT. 
 
 Article 48: Tlie sessions of the Senate pnd 
 lliaiuthTof Deputies shall begin and end nt the 
 anie tlnie, and every meeting of one Cusmber, 
 «t a time when the other, is not In session, Is II- 
 •(tal and its acU wholly null and vokl. 
 
 A'*'''!* 49. Seiiaturs and Deputies befi.re en- 
 leflng upon tbe duties of their office shall take 
 uiosih of fideUty to tbe King and swear to ob- 
 •trve fsi jfully tie Constltutron and laws of tb« 
 BUI* tod to futam ttwir duties with tiia joint 
 
 ^ R- 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF ITALY, 
 
 welfare of King and country aa the sole end In 
 
 view. 
 
 Article 50. The ofBce of Senator or Deputy does 
 not entitle to any compensation or remuneration. 
 
 Article 51. Senators and Deputies shall not be 
 held responsible in any other place for opinions 
 expressed or votes given in the Chambers. 
 
 Article 52. The sessions of the Chambers shall 
 be public. Upon the written request of ten mem- 
 bers secret sessions may be held. 
 
 Article 53. No session or vote of either Cham- 
 ber shall be legal or valid unless an absolute 
 majority of iu members is present [This article 
 is not observed in actual parliamentarv practice. 
 —Foot-note.] 
 
 Article 54. The action of either Chamber on 
 any question shall be determined by a majority 
 of tlie votes cast. 
 
 Article 55. All bills shall be submitted to 
 committees elected by each House for pielimi- 
 naiy examination. Any proposition discussed 
 and approved by one Chamber shall be trana- 
 mitted to the other for iU consideration and ap- 
 proval ; after passing both Chambers it shall be 
 presented to the King for his sanction. Bills 
 shall be discussed article by article. 
 
 Article s*. Any bill rejected by one of the 
 three legislative powers cannot again be intro- 
 duced during the same session. 
 
 Article 57. Kvery person who shall have at- 
 tained his majority has the right to send peti- 
 tions to the Chambers, which in turn must order 
 tliem to be examined lyr a committee; on report 
 of the committee each House sliall decide whether 
 they are to be taken inU) consideration, and if 
 voU'd in the affirmative, they shall be referred to 
 the competent Minister or shall be deposited with 
 a Government Department for proper action. 
 
 Article jS. No petition may be presented in 
 person to ei.hcr Chamber. No persons except 
 the constituted authorities shall have the right 
 to submit petitions in their collective capacity. 
 
 Article 59. The Chambers shall not receive 
 any deputJition, nor give hearing to other than 
 their own members and the tlinlsters and Com- 
 missioners of the Government. 
 
 Article 60. Each Chamber shall be sole Judge 
 of the qualifications and elections of its own 
 members. 
 
 Article 61. The Senate as well as the Chamber 
 of Deputies shall make its own rules and regu- 
 lations respecting its methods of prooeilure in 
 he (.trforniauce of its respective duties. 
 
 Article 63. Italian shall lie the official lan- 
 guage of the Chambers. The use of French 
 shall, however, be perndttcd to those members 
 coming from French sneaking districts an ' to 
 other members in reiilying to the same. 
 
 Article 63. Votes sl'mll lie taken by risii by 
 division, and by secret ballot. The latter n^ uod, 
 however, shall always l)e employed for t; j final 
 vote on a law and In all cases of a personal 
 nature. 
 
 Article 64. No one shall bold the offlce of 
 Senator and Deputy at the same time. 
 
 Article 65. The King appoints and dlimlnes 
 bis ministers. 
 
 Article 66. The HInisten shall have no vote 
 iu ellher Chamber unless they are members 
 thereof. They shall bare entrance to both 
 Cbambeni and must be heard upon request. 
 
 Article 6f . The Miniiten shall be retpontible. 
 Law* and decreeaof tiM (OTMumtnt thall not 
 
 L 
 
I 
 
 ri.iii 
 
 ) ■ 
 
 m 
 
 V 
 
 '■< f 
 
 m^ 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF ITALY. 
 
 take effect until they shall have received the 
 
 signature of a Minister. 
 
 Article 68. Justice emanates from the King 
 ami shall be mlniiuistered in his name by the 
 Judges he apiMints. 
 
 Article 69. Judges apjiointed by the King 
 except Cantonal or District Judges (di manda- 
 Juento), shall not be removed after three years 
 of service 
 
 Artirl- 70. Courts, tribimals .nd judges are 
 retain. , at present existing, Xo modifica- 
 tion shiL.i be intrcHluced e.\ce|it by law. 
 
 Article 71. Xn one shall lie taktn from his 
 ordinary legal jurisdiction. It is thcrcfurc not 
 lawful to create e.\traordinary tribunals or com- 
 missions. 
 
 Article 72. The priH-i-edinirs of tribunals in 
 civil cases and the hcarings^iu criminal cases 
 shall l)e public as provided by law. 
 
 Article 73. The intcrpri'tation of the laws, in 
 the form obligatory upon all citizens, belongs 
 exclusively to the legislative power 
 
 Article 74. Conununal and provincial institu- 
 tions and till' Ixiunilarics of the coninmnes and 
 provincis shall lie regulated by law. 
 
 Article 75. The military conscriptions shall be 
 regulatiii by law. 
 
 Article 76. A commimal ndlitia shall be es- 
 tablished on a basis tixi^d by law. 
 
 Article 77. The State retains its flag, and the 
 blue ciH'kiide is the only national one. 
 
 Article 78, The knightly order now in exist- 
 ence shall U' maintained with their endowments, 
 whii li shall not be used for other purposes than 
 those specified in the acts bv whiiu thev were 
 
 CONSTITtlTI' . OF JAPAN 
 
 established. The King may create other ord 
 and prescribe their constitutions. 
 
 Article 79. Titles of the nobility are guar 
 teed to those who have a right to thenj 1 
 King may confer new titles. 
 
 Article 80. No one may receive orders tit 
 or i>ensioDS from a foreign iwwer without 1 
 King's consent. 
 
 Article 81. All laws contrary to the nroi 
 ions of the present constitution are hereliv ah 
 gated. 
 
 Given at Turin on the fourth day of Mardi 
 the year of Our Lord o le thousand ei-lit hi 
 dred and forty-eight, and of Our lid -a 1 
 eighteenth. 
 
 Traniitory Provisions. 
 
 Article 82. This statute shall go int„ ,.ff, 
 on the day of the first mwting of th.- Cliami,. 
 which shall take place Immediatelv alter t 
 elections. Until that time urgent pu'hli, «,rvi 
 shall be provide<l for by royal ordinaiK ,-* , 
 cording to the mode and form now in vnin 
 
 ex<-eptin^'. however, the ratifications I ri-c 
 
 trations in the courts which are froni nun- 
 abolished. 
 
 , *^t'.*'* *3- lo the execution of this slam 
 the King reseives to himself the Hdit to ma 
 the laws for the press, elections, conuuiinal mi 
 tia and organization of the Coiiiuil nf siai 
 I ntil the publication of the laws for the mr 
 the regulations now in force on this .1 hif 
 remain valid. ' 
 
 Article 84. The Ministers are cntrusiiil wit 
 and are responsible for the exi-cutini, ami li 
 observance of these transitory provisions. 
 
 This text of the Constitutioi . ailgatcd by 
 
 the Kniperor, February 11, "H:^!) „„ » p„ui. 
 
 idilet published jt Johns Kopk . .niversitv: 
 Chapter I. 
 
 Article I. Thi> Kinpire of Japan shall be 
 reia:ne<l overand governe.l bv a line of Emperors 
 unbroken for agj's eternal. 
 
 Article 11. The Imperial Throne shall Ik- suc- 
 ceeded to by Imperial male descendants, acconl. 
 ing tothe provisionsof the Imiicrial IIousi' Law 
 
 Article HI. The Emperor is sacred and in- 
 violalih-. 
 
 Article IV. The Emperor is the head of the 
 h- :>ire, combining in Himself the riithts of sov- 
 er. .^nty, and exercises them, according to the 
 pnivisiims of the present Constitution, 
 
 Article V. The Eiu|)eri>r exercisi-s the legis- 
 lative power with the consent of the Imperial Diet, 
 
 Article VI, The Emperor gives sam-tion to 
 laws, and orders them to be promulgateil and 
 executed. 
 
 Article VII. The Emperor convokes the Im- 
 IM-rial Diet, oiK-ns, closes, and prorogues it and 
 dissolves the House of Hepresentatives 
 
 Article VIII. The Emperor, in conseqiienco 
 of an urgent necessity to maintain public safety 
 or to avert public calamities, issues, when the 
 ImixTial Diet is not sitting. Imperial Onllnances 
 in the plaix- of law. Such Imperial Ordinances 
 are to b.- laid iwf.-^ro tl,^ luiptria! Diet at its 
 next session, and when the Diet drx's not approve 
 the said Ordinanci-s. the Government shall declare 
 them to be invalid for the future. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF JAPAN. 
 
 578 
 
 Article IX. The Emperor issues .ir cau* 
 to be issued, the Ordinances neces,sarv f.jr tl 
 carrying out of the laws, or for the iiiaiMi.-naii, 
 of the public peace anil order, and for tli,- up 
 motion of the welfare of the subjei-ts Dm t 
 < Inlinance sliall in any way alter anv of the i.\i. 
 Iiig laws 
 
 Article X. Thi Emperor determines the u 
 ganizatiou of the different branches of th.a. 
 ministration, ami the salaries of all civil an 
 military ofBcers. and appoints ami dismisses ili 
 s.-iine. Exceptions especially provi.hil |,,r inth 
 present Constitution or in otlier laws sliall lit i 
 iicconlance with the rt-spective provi^inusd^ai 
 ing thereon I, 
 
 Article XI. The Emperor has the siiim>m 
 command of the Army and Navy 
 
 Article XII. The EmiHror'determim-s th 
 organization and pea<T stjmding of th. .Vriiivam 
 Navy, 
 
 Article XIII. The Emperor declares war 
 makes peatv. and concludes treaties. 
 
 Article XIV. The Emperor proclaims !h( 
 law of siege. The conditions and elTi-.i^of ihi 
 law of sic)n- shall be determined by hi« 
 
 Article XV. The Emi>eror <o'nfi rs title 
 nobility, rank, onlers, and other marks of Imaor 
 
 Article XVI. The Emjieror onlers amni-str 
 pardon, commutation of punishment, and re 
 habilitation. 
 
 Article XVII. A Regency shall he institiit« 
 In conformity with the provisions of the lnii»rii 
 House Law, The Regent shall exercise the 
 powers appertaining to the Emperor in I lis nsme. 
 
COXSTITUTION OF JAPAN. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF JAPAN. 
 
 Chapter II. 
 
 Article XVIII. The conditloiu Decenary for 
 boin); a Japsneie subject shall be determineu by 
 law. 
 
 Article XIX. Japaoeie subjects may, ac- 
 cording 'M qualiflcadons detemuned in law or 
 ordinances, oe appointed to dvil or military 
 offices equally, and may fill any other public 
 
 Offi.TH, 
 
 Article XX. Japanese subjects are amenable 
 to MTvice in the Army or Navy, according to 
 the provisions of law. 
 
 Article XXI. Japanese subjects are amenable 
 to the (liity of paying taxes, according to the 
 provisions of law. 
 
 Article XXII. Japanese subjects shall bare 
 tlie liberty of aUxle and of changing the same 
 within tlie limits of law. 
 
 Article XXIII. No Japanese subject shall be 
 arasted. detained, trie<i, or punished, unless ac- 
 conliutr to law. 
 
 Article XXIV. No Japanese subject shall be 
 deprivolof his right of being tried by the judges 
 iletennincd by law. 
 
 Article XXV. Except in the cases provided 
 for in the law, the house of no Junauese subject 
 shall be entered or searched without his con- 
 scut. 
 
 Article XXVI. Except in the cases mentioned 
 ia the law, the sicreoy of the letters of every 
 Japaiii"*!- subject shall remain inviolate. 
 
 Article XXVII. The right of property of 
 fverj- Japanese subject shall remain inviolate. 
 .Measures necessary to be taken for the public 
 btnetit shall bi' provided for by law. 
 
 Article XXVIII. Japanese subjects shall, 
 within limits not prejudicial to peace and order. 
 auil II' t antiigonistic to their duties as subjects, 
 tuj'iy frcidutn of religious belief. 
 
 Article XXIX. Japaneiie subj ots shall. 
 within the limits of law, enjoy the liberty of 
 spiTih. writing, publication, public meetings, 
 auil a^soeiations. 
 
 Article XXX. Japanese subjects may present 
 petitiiins, by observing the proper forius of re- 
 sp«i. and by complying with the rules specially 
 pruviiliil for the same. 
 
 Article XXXI. The provisions contained in 
 thi' pnsint Chapter shall not affect the exercise 
 o( the powers appertaining to the Emperor in 
 timrs of war or in casi's of a national emergency. 
 
 Article XXXII. Each and every one of the 
 provisions eoiitained in the preceding Articles of 
 the present I'hapter, that are not in conHiet with 
 the laws or th ■ rules and discipline of the .\rmy 
 ami .Navy, shall appiv to the officers and men of 
 the .Vrmy and of the^avy. 
 
 Chapter III. 
 
 Article XXXIII. The ImperUl Diet shall 
 consist of two Iloutes, a House of Peers and a 
 Hnise of Representatives. 
 
 Article XXXIV. The House of Peers shall, 
 in an cmlancH; with the Onlinanee courerniiig the 
 lliiise of Peers, be composed of the memlH-rs of 
 the Imperial Family, of the ortlers of nobilitv, 
 and ot those persons who have been nominated 
 ;„t:rp:,-. ^,Y !}.(. Empcnir. 
 
 Article XXXV. The House of Representa- 
 tives shall be composed of members elected bv 
 the people according to the proTiaioni of the Law 
 of Election. 
 
 Article XXXVI. No one can at one and the 
 same time be a member of both Houses. 
 
 Article XXXVII. Ever)- Uw requires the 
 consent of the Imperial Diet. 
 
 Article XXXVIII. Both Houses shall vote 
 upon projects of law submitted to it by the 
 Government, and may respectively initiate pto- 
 i ects of law 
 
 Article XXXIX. A Bill, which has been re- 
 
 Iected by either the one or the other of the two 
 louses, shall not be again brought in during the 
 same sessioi 
 
 Article \i^. Both Houses can make repre- 
 sentations to the Government, as to laws or upon 
 any other subject. When, however, such repre- 
 sentations are not accejited, they cannot be made 
 u second time during the same session. 
 
 Article XLI. The Imperial Diet shall be con- 
 voked every year. 
 
 Article ^Lll. A session of the Imperial 
 Diet shall last during three mouths. In case of 
 necessity, the duration of a session may be pro- 
 lougetl by Imperial Order. 
 
 Article XLIII. When urgent necessity arises, 
 an extraordinary ii"!«.ion may be convoked, in 
 addition to the ordinary one. Tlie duration of 
 an extraordinary session s'.all be determined by 
 ImjKrial t)riler. 
 
 Article XLIV. Tt opening, closing, pro- 
 ioniration of session, and prorogation of the 
 Im[M'rial Diet, shall be effeeted simultaneously 
 for both Houses. In case the House of Heprc- 
 sentatives has lieen ordered to dissolvi-. the House 
 of Peers shall at the same time be prorogued. 
 
 Article XLV. When the House of Hepresen- 
 tatives has been ordered ti. dissolve, lueinbeta 
 shall Iw caused by Iniperiid < 'rder to Im.' newly 
 eleetetl. and the new House shall be eiinvcked 
 witliin tive months from the day of 'lis.s(iluii<)u. 
 
 Article XLVI. Nodebat"ean !» o|K'ned and 
 no vote can be 'aken in either House of the Im- 
 perial Diet, unless not less than one-third of the 
 whole number of the mcmbiTS thereof is present. 
 
 Article XLVII. Votes sliall be taken in both 
 Houses by absolute majority. In the case of a 
 tie vote, tlie President shall have the easting vote. 
 
 Article XLVIII. The delilierations of both 
 Houses shall be held in public. The deliberations 
 may.liowever.upoudemaiidof theGoveniment or 
 bvfesolutionof thellousi .bebeldiiiseenlsittini:. 
 'Article XLIX. Both House's of the Imperial 
 Diet may respectively present addresses to the 
 Empe'ror. 
 
 Article L. Both Houses may receive peti- 
 tions prewnted by subjects. 
 
 Article LI. Both Houses may enact, besides 
 what is provided for in the present Constitution 
 and in the Law of the Houses, rules neces.sary 
 for the management of their iutenial affairs. 
 
 Article Lll. Xo menibei of either House 
 shall be held res|xmsible outside the respective 
 Houses, for any opinion uttemi or for any vote 
 given in the House. When, however, a member 
 himself has given pidilicitj to his opinions by 
 nublic speecli. by docimients In printing or in 
 
 iting. or by any other similar niei.ns. he shall, 
 .:. the matter 'leamenable to the general law. 
 
 Article ulll. The memliers of both Houses 
 shall, durins the srswion, be free from aireiit, 
 unless with iIk' consent of the House, except in 
 cases of flagrant delict j. or of offences count cted 
 with a sta of internal commotion or with a 
 foreign trouble. 
 
 579 
 
 L 
 
I' 
 
 n 
 
 H 
 
 ? ■-■ 
 
 •^■^'! 
 
 
 mi 
 m 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF JAPAN. 
 
 Article LIV. The Mlniitem of Sute and the 
 Deli-gate« of the Guvernment may, at any time 
 talte scats and speak in either House. 
 
 Chapter IV. 
 
 Article LV. The respective Ministers of 
 State shall give their advice to th..' Emperor 
 and lie responsible for it. All Laws, Imperial 
 Orilinances, and Imperial Hescripts of whatever 
 kind, that relatr to the affairs of the state, re- 
 quire the couutersignuture of a Minister of 
 State. 
 
 Article LVI, The Privv Council shall, in 
 accordance with tlii' provisions for the orpaniza- 
 tton of the Privy Council, deliberate upon im- 
 portant matters of State, when they have been 
 consulted by the Emperor. 
 
 Chapter V. 
 
 Article LVII. The Judicature shall be exer- 
 ciswl by the Courts of Ijjw accordini; to l-,w in 
 the name of the Emperor. The ori;aiiizutiim of 
 the Courts of Law shall be determined bv l.iw 
 
 Article LVIII. The judj:.ssha!lbe»p"point..d 
 from among those who possess proper qualiti- 
 catious accorriinjr to law. No judjje shall be 
 deprived of his iH)sition, unliss liv wav of crimi- 
 nal senteme or disciplinarv punishment. Uulis 
 for disciplinary punishment shall be determine.1 
 by l;iw. 
 
 Article LIX. Trials and judjrments of a 
 Court sh.dl be conducted puliliiiv. When, liow- 
 ever, there exists any fear that such publieitv 
 niav be frcjudieial to pwice and unliT. it tii tli'e 
 niaintenanee ,if piiliji,- nioralitv, the publir trial 
 may be suspcndi-il liv provision of law or bv the 
 diiisiim or the C.iurt ..f l,;iw. 
 
 Article LX. All uiatt.rs tli;it f;,|! wi-hin the 
 competency of a spieial Court shall be siK-eiallv 
 providiil for by law. ^ 
 
 Article LXl. N'o suit at law. whiili relates 
 to n-liis all.L.'ed to have been infringed by the 
 lejal measures of the exeeiitiv,> aiitlioritic s" and 
 whh'h shall eoiiie within tin- e.nnpeteney of the 
 
 Court of -Vcliiiinisiralivc Litiirati 
 est.ahlisheil by law. shall be taken e 
 by a Court of i^iw. 
 
 Ml specially 
 'guiiauee o'f 
 
 Chapter VI, 
 
 Article LXII. The imposition of 
 
 or till- luchlirie.ition of the rates .of ai 
 
 one, shall lie .leierriiined bv law. Ho 
 
 sueh admiiiistraiive feesor oihen-eveniK 
 
 ni'W ta.x 
 exisliii:.' 
 ever, all 
 liaviiu: 
 
 the iialureof conipiMifjition shall not fall uitliin 
 the eatejr.iry of the above elausi-. The raisin ' of 
 national loans and the contracting- of oflierlii 
 bilitiestotheeharu'e of the N'atio;,;,| Treasiirv 
 exrept those that ar.> proviMnI in the H<ul",'t 
 shall rei|iiire tln^ consent of the Imperial Diet ' 
 Article LXIII. The taxes l.vi,,! at present 
 sli all, in S.1 far as thevar.' not rem.»lelle.| bv new 
 law. be co,,eet,sl aeconlini: t.. the ol,l svsteni. 
 
 Article LXIV. The,x,„.„,lit„reand revenue 
 of the >tate re,|ii,re the consent of the Imperial 
 1) et by imans of an annual Hudt'et. Any and 
 all expenditures ..verp.ussirm the appropriations 
 set f.irth in the Tilhs and I'ari!;raphs of the 
 «udi,'it.or that are not providctl for in the Bud- 
 get, shall subse(|uentlv reipiire the apnrobation 
 of the Imperial biet. 
 
 Article LXV, The Budget shall be first laid 
 before the House of Uepn-sentatives 
 Article LXVI. The expenditures of the Im- 
 
 580 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF JAI'A.V 
 
 perial House shall be dcfra-ed everv veir 
 the National Treasury, ace .-ding to the r 
 axed amount for the lame, and shall nut , 
 the consent thereto of the Imperial Di, i ,. 
 in case an increase thereof is found iicdssn 
 Article LXVII. Those already live.iT 
 dilutes based by the Constitution upon ||„. 
 ers appertaining to the Emperor, and «u( 
 pcndituri'S as may have arisen bv the c ff, 
 law or that appertain to the legal" oblieati, 
 the Government, shall be neither reje.ieil „ 
 duced by the Imperial Diet, without the c„ 
 rence of the Government. 
 
 Article LXVIIl. In order to meet speci 
 quirements. the Government niav ask the c„i 
 of the Imp«"rial Diet to a certain aiiH.iint 
 ( ontinuing E.vpeuditure Fund, for n mm, 
 fixed number of years. 
 
 Article LXIX. Inonlerlosupplvdilicin 
 which are unavoidable, in the Budm t ii, 
 meet reqiiin-ments unprovided for in the « ,, 
 Keserve Fund shall be provide<l in tl:. Biu'l, 
 Article LXX. When the Imperial Hiet 
 not be convokisl, owing to the external r ii 
 nal condition of the country, in case of ur 
 11(1^1 for the maintenance of public safctv 
 Government may take all neces.sarv tiiia' 
 mciisures, by means of an Imperial Onlini 
 In the case mentioned in the pri cedinL' (K 
 tne matter shall be submitted to the Inn, 
 Diet at its next si'ssion, and its approbations 
 be obtained thereto. 
 
 Article LXXI. When the Imperial Diet 
 not voted on the Budget, or when th ■ lii,) 
 has not been brought into actual existeim 
 Government shall carry out the Budiiet et 
 pn-cedini; vear. 
 
 Article LXXII. The final accoimi ,.' 
 cxiienditurcs and nn-enue of tin' .stale -li,i; 
 verified anil <-onfirnicd tiy thi Hoanl ,1 \;„ 
 I and it shall 1h' submitted"tiy the (ioveniniii' 
 ' the ImiM'rial Diet, together with the r. i,..rt 
 ' verification of the .said lioanl. The or-.mi/r 
 I and competency of the Board of Aiulft -l,;,l| 
 I determiui'd by law separately. 
 
 Chapter VIL 
 Article LXXI II. When it has l^-eonie mr 
 I sary in futiin.' to aim-nd the provlsi.ms .if • 
 pres.'ntC(mstitiition, a project toiliai etfrttsli 
 be submitt.-d to the Imperial Di< t by In, jut 
 Order. In the above , .,,se, iieiilier If iim- e 
 o|vn the debate, uiilcs m.t less ihau iH,.!liir 
 ot the whole numlK-r of members an' prisrt 
 and no amendnieiit can be passeil unless „ n 
 jontyof not lessthan two-thirds ,,'f th. iiemlK 
 lircsent is obtaiiie.1. 
 
 Article LXXIV. X., nio<liticaii..n ..f •! 
 Imperial Ibm.s.' I.a« shall !..■ rcjuind h>U-.:: 
 niittc-il to the delilieration of the Imperial fii, 
 No pr.ivisioii of the present Con.stituti.'ii ran 1 
 nnslifi.-d bv till. Imperial House Ijiw 
 
 Article LXXV. No m.»|itlcati..n can 1* i: 
 tri<lMce(l into the Constitution, or int.. thelniji 
 rial House Law. during the time of a Hix'en.T. 
 
 ArtK ie LXXVI. Existing legal . naetim-iit 
 such ii-s laws, n'gulations, orilinaiins, ur h 
 whatever names they mav be callnl. sleiil. so f. 
 ■A.t they do iK-l cinllict with thr pr, .,. hlC.i.itit; 
 tion, continue in force. All existing cntractsc 
 orders, that entail obligations ui>on the 0.}ven 
 inent, and that are connected with ex|«ri(litiii 
 shall come within the scope of Art. LXVIL 
 
CONSTITUTION OF JIEXICO. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO. 
 
 The following tnuiBlatcd text of the Constitu- 
 tionof Mexico i» from Bulletin No. 9of the Bureau 
 o( the American Republics, published in July, 
 
 1891: 
 
 Preamble. — In the name of God and with the 
 authority of the Mexican people. The reprewn- 
 lativfs of the different states, of the District 
 iinii Territories which compose the Republic of 
 Mexico, called by the Phin priK-lainied in Ayutla 
 the 1st of .March, 1H54, amended in Acapuico the 
 nth (lay of the same month ami year, and by 
 the summons issued the ITtli of October, 1B53. to 
 ivnstitute the nation under the form of a popular, 
 rfpriscntative, demi*'nitic rcjiublic, exercisin); 
 the powers with which they are invested, comply 
 witbllie n'(|Uirement8of their high office, decree- 
 iue the following political Constitution of the 
 .Mixicin Ripiitilic, on the indestructible basis of 
 its Itfiiiniate in<ie|>endence, proclaimed the 16th 
 of Stptfinlier. IflU, and completed the 2Tth of 
 Seplt'iulKT. IHJl. 
 
 Article i. The Mexican people recognize that 
 the rights of man are the basis and the object of 
 social iiisiimiinus. Consequently they dechire 
 that all llu- hiwsand all the auihoritiis of the 
 country iiiu>t r(•^|)ect and maintain the iriiarantecs 
 whiih iliv pnsint ('crn^tituti<l^ establislie 
 
 Art. 2. In the Republic all are Ixr 
 Sl;ivrs who s*-t f<M>t upon the national 
 iMfviT, tiv iliat act ahme, tluir lilnrty, ' 
 »ri:;ht to the protection of the laws. 
 
 Art. 3. lii-truction is free The law slinil 
 ilelirtiiiiu'what professions n -luiroa diph»niii f'T 
 Ibi irr\( riise, and with what recjuisites they must 
 bci-MUil. 
 
 Art. ^. Kvery man is free to adopt the pro- 
 ffs\i< II. iniliislriiil pursuit, or occitpatiou wiiicli 
 suissiiijii. the sinie Ikmiil' us. ful ami huunnililc. 
 au.l li I av;iil himself of iis |.i.»luit.s. Nor shall 
 any vur U' hindered in the e.\iToisi' of such pro- 
 ft'.i'>ij. iiKlustrial pursuit, or oci-upation, unless 
 I'V ju'li( ial siutence winu such e.\ercise atiaiks 
 the ri;:litsof a third parly, or bv i;overnmenial 
 n'solulion. die talcd in terms w hi. Ii tlie law marks 
 out, whin it oll.iiils the rit'hts of s<.iiety. 
 
 Art. 5. No line ~hall !«■ olili::iv| to give per- 
 s.iii;u -ervices nithout just compensation, and 
 with iiit liis full consent. Tlie si.ite sliaH '-it jm r- 
 mit any efinlr.ac'. pait. oraL'reement !•. '.learrii d 
 int.nllVit HJiich has for its object theuiinimilion. 
 li'ss. (ir ii revocable sjicriliie of the liUTiy of man. 
 whi'lier it lie for the sake of lalior, education, or 
 a rt iiiritMis V4,^v. Tlie law, ctni.s«.ijm-ntly, mav 
 U"' rn'iriize monastic orders, nor may it larmit 
 th. ir istahli.shment, whativer may bo liie lie- 
 ii'iiiiiuaticn or c.lij.vt with which they 1 laim to 
 !«' f"nneil.* Xciilier may an agreement !»• per- 
 iiiitt.il in which anyone stipulates for liis pro- 
 strii.iiiin or liauishin'ent. 
 
 Art, 6. The expression of ideas slndl not be 
 theelije.t of any judicial or adniin'sirative in- 
 <liii>iiii 11, except in case it attacks morality, the 
 riirlita i,f a third party, provokes some crime or 
 misiltuuaiior, or di.stiirlw ^.tblic onler. 
 
 Art. 7. The lilnrty to write and to publish 
 writinirs on any subject whatsoever is inviolable. 
 >••! !:iw cr sDThority sImH tr-tabii=h previous ccn- 
 ^"re, uiir reijuire security from authors or printt rs, 
 
 * Tlii« wntTOce » u Introduced Irto the original art k-le 
 »pt,.mbM aj, i>n, with other lew Important nueud- 
 
 melit«. 
 
 nor restrict the liberty of the preee, which has n« 
 other limiu than respect of privati; life, morality, 
 and the public peace. The crimes which are 
 committed by means of the press sliall be judged 
 by the competent tribunals of the Federation, or 
 by those of the SUtes, those of the Fe<IerBl Dis- 
 trict and the Territory of Lower California, in 
 accordance with their penal laws.* 
 
 Art. 8. The right of petition, exercised in 
 writing in a peaceful and respectful manner, is 
 inviolable; but in political matters only citizens 
 of the liepublic may exercise it. To every peti- 
 tion must be returned a written opinion by the 
 authority to whom it may have been addressed, 
 and the latter is obliged to make the result known 
 to the petitioner. 
 
 Art. o. No one may be deprived of the right 
 peacefully to assemble or unite with others for 
 any lawful object whatsoever, but only citizens 
 of the Republic may do this in order to' take part 
 in the political affairs of the country. No armed 
 asM mbly 1ms a right to delilterate. 
 
 Art. 10. Every man has a right to possess and 
 carry arms for his security and legitimate de- 
 fence. The law shall designate what arms are 
 jirobibited and the punishment which those shall 
 incur who carry them. 
 
 Art, II. Every man has a right to enter and 
 to go out of the "Republic, to inivel thro.'irh its 
 territory and change his residemc. without the 
 niiessityof a letter of security, passpi'rt, safe- 
 condiici. or other similar rctpiisitc. Thi exercise 
 of this riiilit slial! not prejudice he legitimate 
 faculties of the judicial or udmiiiislrative au- 
 thority in cases of criminal or civil responsi- 
 bility. 
 
 Art. 12. There are not, nor shall then' be 
 recognized in the Hepublic, titles of nobility, or 
 |ircrogatives. or hereilitary honors. Only" the 
 
 I pie. legitimately represented, may decree 
 
 reconiiienses in lionor of those who may have 
 rcnilcpd or may render einiueut services to llie 
 country or to hiimaiiily. 
 
 Art. 13. In the .Mexican Republic no one m.iy 
 be ju.lcedby spe( ial law nor by special tribnnaN. 
 No p< isou i>r corporatioti may have privih 1:1 s. 
 > '■ enjoy emoluments, which are not conipt ii^a- 
 Ii- .11 for a public service and ari- establish. -I by 
 law. .Martial hiw may e.\ist only for crim.-s auil 
 olTences which jiave a ilclinite connecti. 111 with 
 military discipline. The law shall determine 
 with all clearness the cases include.l in this ex- 
 leption. 
 
 Art. 14. No niroaciive law shall be enacted. 
 No one may Ik- jinU'id or sentenced e.\ccpt In- 
 laws made prior to the a.'t, and esactiv applica- 
 ble to it, and by a tribunal w hicU shall Lave been 
 previously estalilislieil by law. 
 
 Art, 15. Treaties shall never be made for the 
 . .vtra.litiou of political offen.lers. nor for the ex- 
 tra.iili'iEt of those violators of the public order 
 who may leivu held in the country where they 
 committed the olTitice the position of slaves; n.ir 
 airnt-ments or tnati.s iu virtue of which may be 
 altered the guarantees and rights which "this 
 Constitution grants to the man and U> the citizen. 
 
 * This article was amended May IS, 1S3S. by Introducing 
 the last Kfnleiiee as a subfiUtuTe for the foUowinic : " The 
 erimes .>f the pretM shAll b« judsed by one jury wbicfi at- 
 XvstM the fact and by another which appUas thd law and 
 dtial^sattis tho punlHUneBl." 
 
 581 
 
I i 
 
 It 
 
 I 
 
 r 
 
 I 
 
 1 ' -; 
 
 CONBTITTTION OF MEXICO. 
 
 Art. l6. No rne may be im.leited in Us pcr- 
 •on, family, dumictle, papc rs and poaaessions, 
 except in virtue of an order written l,y tlie com- 
 petent autliorily, wliicli sliiill eaUblisli and as- 
 siirii tlie legal ( i ise for the pnx-eedings. In the 
 cane of in flagrunie delicto any person may ap- 
 prehend the offender and his accomplices, placing 
 them without delay at the disposal of the nearest 
 authtirities. 
 
 Art. 17. No one may be arrestc<l for delrts of 
 a purely civil character. No one may exercise 
 violence in order to ri'claim his rights. The tri- 
 bunals shall always Iw prompt to ailmiuisUr 
 justice. This shall lie Rratuitous, judicial costs 
 beiu»5 conseiiucnlly alH)lished. 
 
 Art. 18. Imprisonment shall take place only 
 for crimes wliiili deserve corporal punishment. 
 In any state of the process Ju which it shall ap- 
 p<!ir that such a pimishment mJKht not \k im- 
 pcis< cl up.)M the accused, he shall be s<a at lil>t'rty 
 uiiiler bail. In no case shall the imprisonment 
 or ilitentiou 1k' prolonged for default of payment 
 of fees, or of any furnishing of money "what- 
 ever. 
 
 Art. 10. No detention shall exceed the timi 
 of three days, unless justified by a writ showing 
 cau.se of imprisonment and other reiiuisites whieh 
 the law establishes. The mere lap»e of this term 
 shall reniler responsible the authority that orders 
 or consents to It. and the agents, ministers, war- 
 liens, or jailers who exi-cute it. Auv nudtreat- 
 ment in the appri'hension or in the confinement 
 of the prisoners, any injury which may !«• in- 
 ttlcUHj without Ileal gnmnd, any tax or cnrilri- 
 bution in the prl.~.»<, is an abuse which the laws 
 mu.st correct aud th. authorities severallv punish. 
 Art. JO. In every 1 riininal trial the accused 
 shall have the folliiwini; guarantees: I That the 
 griiiinds of the proci ediiigs and the name of the 
 ariusir, if there slialllK'ime, shall lie made known 
 111 him. II. That his pn^paratorv declaration 
 shall Ih' taken within forty-eight hours, counting 
 from the linu' he mav W placed at the ilisiMBal 
 of ilie judge. III. That he shall !»• ci.nfnmted 
 with the wllnesses who testify against him. IV. 
 Tliat he shall lie furnished with the data which 
 he nnuins and which appiar In the pMi-t'sg In 
 onler to prepare for his defence. V. Tliat he 
 shall be heard In defence by himself or by coun- 
 sel, or by lx)lh, as he may desire In i'as<' he 
 should have no one todefen Ihini, a list nf tiilldal 
 defenders shall U' presented to him. in order thai 
 he may choose one or more who mav suit him. 
 
 Art. ai. The application rf penalties pMiHTly 
 so called Ixliings exiluslvely to the jiidieial an 
 thorily The piililiialor.ulndnlstralive aulhori 
 lies may only im|H>sr fines, at e.irr>clion. tu the 
 extent of live hundriHl dollars, nr imprisonment 
 to the extent of one month, In the caws and man 
 ner which the law shall expresslv delermiui' 
 
 Art. aa. I'unishmcnU by mutilation sml In 
 faray, bv branding, flogging, the tmstluado, 
 tortun- of whatever kiml, excesalve Hues confis- 
 caiion of pMperty, or any other unusual orextra- 
 onlinary |>eiutlties, shall lie forever pMhIMteil 
 
 Art. aj. In onler to abolish the |H-naltv of 
 lii'iilh, the ailminlslretive power laeharKinl loei- 
 t iblish, as BiK.n as |»wsible, a |>enltentiary system 
 In the meantime the ju nalty of death shall Iw 
 alsilisbed for |>olitieal oltinees, and ihall not lie 
 e>ti-iu|eii to other eases thsa lrt-*s.--i! d'irlrtg fi>f 
 Jlgn war, highway n.bUry. armin. parricide 
 bomlcWe with trcach«Ty, preiuedlutiou or ad' 
 
 n ' 
 
 581 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP MEXICO. 
 
 vantage, to grave oilencea of the milltarv 01 
 and piracy, which the law shall define 
 
 Art. 34. No criminal proceeding mav 1 
 more than three instances. No one shall [« t 
 twice for the same offence, whether by the ii 
 mcnt he be absolved or condemned. Tin- n 
 tice of absolving from the instance is ahulisl 
 Art. 25. Seafed correspondence wlii,h cii 
 lates by the mails U free from all registr%- ■ 
 violation of this guarantee is an offence wl 
 the law shall pun^^h severely. 
 
 Alt. a6. In time of peace no soldier nmv 
 mand quariers, supplies, or other n'aliirpif« 
 service without the consent of the prupriri,,r 
 time of war he shall do this only in the man 
 prescribed by the law. 
 Art. 37. Private property shall not In- 
 
 propriau-d without the consent of tl nmr 
 
 cept for the sake of public use. and wiih pri-vii 
 imlenmlflcatlon. The law shall delirmiu, ih,. 
 thority which may make the apiiroprinlion » 
 the conditions under which it may !»■ chit 
 out. Xocorporation, clvilorecclesia'Mi,,il wl, 
 ever may be its character, denominMiun. .ir 1 
 ject. shall have legal capacity to aiiniin^ in i. 
 prietorship or admiid.^ier for itsilf n -il i-«t, 
 with the single exception of edifices di «tiuiii'i 
 meiliately and din-ctly to the si-rviee nu.l olii( 
 of the institution.* ' 
 
 Art. at. There shall lie no nioncip,,|i,.s 1 
 places of any kind for the sale of privileirid t... 
 nor prohibitions under titles of pruli. ti.,ri to i 
 dustry. There shall be i xeepteil imlv i' ,,, .i. 
 live to the coining of money. t„ ihu ii"iiiil.». ai'd 
 the privileges which, for a limited tiin, . iln- l,i 
 niay concede to inventors or perfectnrs .rf >.* 
 inipMvemeul 
 
 Art. 39, In eases of invasion, grave ilismr 
 anceof the imlilie jieace, oranv other i,im-««Ii;i 
 siK^ver which mav pliu^e siK-ietv in gn mI i1:u. • 
 or eonlliil, only the President of ili,- U, piilili, 
 ciiiicurrenee with the t'ouiicil iif .Miiii>i,n) at 
 withthcapproliationof theCongressi.filieliitu 
 and. in the recess theriKif, of the |k rmum nt ili in 
 tation. may susiHnd the guaraiitns i-iaMi.li. 
 by this Constltuthin, with the cxiepliuii cif iIub 
 which assure the life of man; but surh susi»i 
 Sinn shall be made only for a liiniieil tirm li 
 means of general nrovlsiims, and wiiliciit tmo 
 Umlteil to a determined penon I f t lie «ii«|ieusj<i 
 should take place during the M-ssimi ..f ( ■,mim 
 (his iHsly shall cnnceile the »ulhori7jiti..u« »lilc, 
 it may eslerin necessary In onlir lluii iIm- Kutu 
 tivc may meet pro|K'rly the sltuati.in If 11, 
 susiHiisiiin should take place ilurin>: tin- nrw 
 the iMTinanent deputation shall iouvnk.ilii(i.ii 
 gress without ilelay In onler that ii iimv nuki 
 the authorizations. 
 
 Art, 30. Mexicans are— I. All 'li'w Nra 
 within or without the Hi'publle, nf M. »lian |«ir 
 ents. II, Kori'lgnera whoari'naMirali/iil Innm 
 formily with the laws of the Kediniii.,ii III 
 Foreigners whoacouire real estate In Ih.' l[i|iulJn 
 or have Mexiimn cliildren; providiil ilu-v Ai W 
 manifest their molutinn to preserve ilairnslitni 
 allty 
 Art. Jl. It Is an obligation of everj-.Mixlinii- 
 
 I To defend the indetN-niienre. III. i' rnt.irr, Ihf 
 himor. the rights and InteniiU u' i.i- i..iintrv 
 
 II ToiimlHImtvforthe public ts!^.;:=5 -sKfl! 
 ofUeFVdCTatlon aaof the t«Ute sud iiiuiilil|itlity 
 
 •Im Arttcl* I of AddlUoM lu Um (.XwUtuUga 
 
CONSTITXrnON OF MEXICO. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO. 
 
 in which he reside*, in the proportional and equi- 
 Ubie manner wliich the laws may proTitle. 
 
 Art. 33. Hezicans sliall be prelerred to (or- 
 cignera in equal circumstances, for all employ- 
 menu, charges, or commissions of appointment by 
 tlw suthoriues, in whicii the condition of citizen- 
 ibip may not be indispensable. Laws shall be is- 
 (uedti' improve the condition of Mexican la borers, 
 icwanling those who distinguish thtmselves in 
 toy science or art, stimulating labor, ami found- 
 ing practical colleges and schools of uru and 
 tnuU's. 
 
 Art. 33. Foreigners arc those who do nut 
 po88i'98 llic qualifications detemiim'<l in Article 
 SO. Thi'y have a right to the guarantees estab- 
 liiiiwl liy . . . [Articles 1-2BJ of the present Con- 
 stitution, except that in all cases the Guvenimeut 
 hutbe right to expel pernicious foreigners. They 
 tK under obligation to coutributv to the public 
 eilwDM'!! iu the manner which the luws may pro- 
 Tiile, and to obey and respect the institutions, 
 Isws, und authorities of the country, subjecting 
 tbemst'lves to the Judgments and sentences of the 
 tribunals, without power to seek other protection 
 than tbut which the laws concede to Mexican 
 citiU'ua. 
 
 will!, 
 
 Art. 34. Citizens of the Republic arc all those 
 lianng the quality of Mexicans, have uImi 
 
 tlif following qualitications: I. Eighteen yinrs 
 of «>:i' if married, or twenty -one if not murriid. 
 II. .\tt houcKt means of livelihcHHi. 
 
 Art. 35. The prewgatives of the <ilizen are 
 —I. Tu vote St popular elections. II. Tlie privi- 
 lege of iH'ing Toted for for any ofHre sulijtct to 
 popular election, and of lieiug selected for any 
 oUier employment or coinmission, having the 
 quaiiticationiicstaliliiihcd liy law. III. To asso- 
 tiate to dinciiits the political aSalrsof the country. 
 IV. To lalie up arms in the army or iu tlie u'a- 
 tioual guard for the defence of the liepublic and 
 iuin!itiluti(ms V. Tu exercise iu all coses the 
 riglit of [it'tiiinn. 
 
 Art. 36. Everv citizen of the liepublic la under 
 the following obligations: I. To be inMribed (m 
 tlie niuiiiciiml roll, stating the property whi> li 
 Iw has. or the Industry, profession, or labor by 
 vliich be Kiilmisls. II. To enlint in the national 
 (uani. IU. To vote at popular elertiuns iu the 
 (li«lriit to which he belongs. IV. To discharge 
 llie tlullia of the olHces of |>opularelectiou of the 
 Fnli-ration, which In noease shall be gratuitous. 
 
 Art. 37 The character of citizen is lost— I. 
 Br iiatunili/atlon In a foreign country. II. Uy 
 KTving ollltially the government of another couii- 
 trToramiiiing its drcoratiims, lilies, oreinplov- 
 mmiH nitiiout previous pemiiiuion from ifie 
 IVIcral t'ongnss; excepting literary, scliutiUi , 
 sni! huinaiiitariau titles, which may Vie acceptol 
 fnrlr. 
 
 Art. 38. The law shall prescrilie the casi>a and 
 tlw form In which may lie lost or sus|ieuiieil the 
 riitliu of cliiicnsldp and tiie manm'r in whicli 
 thfV iiuy Ik' regaim'd. 
 
 Art. jg. Tlie national sovereignlT n-aidi'a fa- 
 Mtially ami originally in the |MH>plc ' All public 
 powfrimaimli'sfnim thi' (x'ople. and iainntitiitnl 
 for iliiir Ih iM'Ilt. The pvople have at all times 
 tlw iiuiliiual)!). right to alter or modify the for • 
 "f Ihdr government. 
 
 Art 4a T M?jlrari propk Vulualarilr cun 
 Mliute ihemK.es a demortmtic, fedemt. repre- 
 irnutive r< t>ubllc, compuied of Hlstes fit* and 
 •ownigu iu all that cooMnH their latvnuU (or- 
 
 emment, but imited in a fedetation established 
 according to the principles of this fiudamental 
 law. 
 
 Art. 41. The p<~ople exercise their sovereignty 
 by nieanii of Federal olticers iu cases lielonging to 
 the Federation, and through those of the States 
 iu all that relates to the Internal affaire of the 
 States within the limits resjiectiyely established 
 by this Federal Constitution, and by the special 
 Constitutions of the .States, which latter shall in 
 no case contravene the stipulations of the Fed- 
 eral Coni|>act. 
 
 Art. 4a. TheXationalTerritorycomprisesthat 
 of the integral parts of the Fedenition and that 
 of the uiljtttvut islands iu both oceans. 
 
 Art. 43. The integral parts of tlie Federitlon 
 are: the States of Aguascalientes, Colinm, Clda- 
 piis, Chihuahua, Durango, Guanajuato, Uuerrero, 
 Juliscti, Mexico, Michoacan, Xuevo Leon and 
 Coabuila, Oajaca, Puebia, ()ueretan>, San Luis 
 I'otosl. Sinoloa, 8<Juora, Tafiasco, Tumaiilipas, 
 TIa.seala, Valle de ilexico, Veracruz. Yucatan, 
 Zueatecaa, and the Territory <if Lower California. 
 
 Art. 44. The StJites of Aguascalientes, Chia- 
 pas, Chihuahua, Durango, GuerriTo, Mexico, 
 Puebia, IJuereiaro Sinaloa, Sonor.i. Tamaulipits, 
 and the Territory of Lower California shall pre- 
 serve the limits wliich they now have. 
 
 Art. 45. The States of Colinm and Tliiscala 
 shall pre8«TVe in their new character of States the 
 limits which they have had as Territories of the 
 Federation. 
 
 Art.'46. The State of the Vulley of Me.\lco 
 shall lie fomietl of the territory uctmillv <om|i.i8- 
 iiig the Federal Uistriet, but tiii' eri'ctlon inin a 
 State shall only have effect when the supreme 
 Federal authonties are removed toamitlier place. 
 
 Art. 47. The State of Nuevo Leon ami Ciai- 
 huila sliall comprise the territory which has lie- 
 longed to the two distinct States of whicli it is 
 now fomieil. exo'pf the part of tlie hacieiiila of 
 lionaiiza. which shall be reiucorp<inited in Zaeate- 
 CHS. on the same tenns in which it was liefore its 
 iui'or|Hiration iu Coaliuila. 
 
 Art. 4>. The States of Guanajiialo, .lulisco, 
 Michoacan, t)ajaca, San Luis Potosi, Talinsco. 
 Veracnii. Yucatan, and Zacatecos slitill neover 
 the extension and limits which tliev h:i<i on the 
 •Slst of IXiimlHT, \H.\i, with the alterations the 
 following Article establishes. 
 
 Art, 49. The town of Contepec. whi< h has lie- 
 longed to Guanajuato, shall be incoriionited in 
 Michoacan The municipality of Aliualulco, 
 which Inis Is'longeil to Zacutecas. shall lie iueor- 
 IMirated in San Luis I'oliwi. The municipalities 
 of llJo'Cnllenleand San Francisco du los Adanies, 
 which have Is-longi'il to San Luis, as well as the 
 towns of Nueva Tlttsciila and San Amin-s del 
 Teiil, whicli have Islougeil to .lalisiii, shall Ik' Iu- 
 corpomtetl in Zaeali-cas. Tlie itepartinetit of 
 Tuxpan shall continue to form a part of Vcm- 
 cruz. The eanton of lIuinianKnlllo, whleh has 
 Is'longed to Vi-racruz, shall lie iuoor|M>ralitl Iu 
 Taisiseo. • 
 
 •llmliln ilw twriitjf tour Hiatn whk'li af» mentiumal 
 In tills «*<elion tlii-n' usth \w**u crMUtsl subMsiiitHitlx, »'■ 
 ennliiiK to xxts-utivt* (Ircrw* lasum) ta atvomiiae*. wltli 
 tin- ruuatiiiition. tliv r"ur fiiUowinit : 
 
 XXV Tttst of t'smi»'4 Its, a^iaratwl from Yucatan 
 
 XXVI tim; ..r r.Mi.t.tU. M4«uatM] riuu, ^t*.-»« ij^^m. 
 
 XXVII TtislorHkUlcu, lnlMTlU<r)r'<ftlMa»-lnitHI«b> 
 at Metleo, whicli fonwHl ttM ssoond mllltanr dlatnri 
 
 XS VIII That <>r MneMos, In Mttton oho of the aaelMI 
 ■ut« irf M«Uv, wUok turtM* Ito IkMBlliUirr dMtnst. 
 
 683 
 
!! 
 if 
 
 i * 
 
 •I 
 
 CONSTITtrnON OF MEXICO. 
 
 . ^:. 59- The supreme power of the Federation 
 It diTlde<i for iu exerciie into legislative, execu- 
 tive, and judicial. Two or more of these p<>wen 
 shall never be united In one person or corporation 
 nor the legislative power be deposited in one in- 
 dividual. 
 
 I ^'*' f'.T''* legislative power of the nation 
 UdcjKwited in a general CongresK, which shall Ik; 
 dlvlilnl Into two houses, one of Deputies and the 
 other of Senators.* 
 
 Art. 52. The House of Deputies shall be com- 
 pose.! of represcnutives of the nation, eleited in 
 their entire number every two years bv Mexican 
 citizens. 
 
 Art. S3. One deputy shall I>e elected for each 
 forty t huusand InhabitauU, or for a f riicticm which 
 exctcls twenty thousand. The territory In which 
 the population is less than that detennined in this 
 article shall, nevertheless, elect one deputy. 
 
 Art. 54. Foreuch deputy there shall be elected 
 one alternate. 
 
 Art. 55. The election for deputies shall be in- 
 diri'Ct 111 the lirst lleg^M•. ami bv secret ballot in 
 the manner which the law Bhslfpri^rib*'. 
 
 Art. s6. In onhr to he clljtilile to the position 
 
 of :i deputy it is re<|Uire<l that the camliilate be 
 
 a Mexinin citizen In the enjormentof Ms riglitit- 
 
 that he k' fully twenty. rtve years of age on the 
 
 day iif the opening of the se»»iun; that he lie a 
 
 re»i.|eut of the State or Territory which makes 
 
 the ilerilon, uikI that he lie not an ecclesiastic. 
 
 HoidfiH'c is not loot bv absence In the dlwhargij 
 
 i>f any public truiit iH's'towi.l by (xipular cle<iion. 
 
 Art. 57. The positions of Dipnty and of Slim- 
 
 tor lire iiicompatilile » iih anv Federal commission 
 
 or ollice whatnoevcr for which u salary h received. 
 
 Art. 58. The IVpiiilcs and the Siimtors fnim 
 
 \Ur clay of their election to the duv on which 
 
 th. ir trust isconcliiihil, may iiotaccejit anv com- 
 
 mi»»i..ii..rolllc.. olfcr.d by the Federal fcxecu- 
 
 tlve, for whhh a s.ilary ls"rcciived. except with 
 
 the previous licenscof the r< >i|Hrtlve house. TIh- 
 
 Mill.' re.|uifite» arc nee. s.Kary for the alteniat.'n 
 
 of l>e|uiiiesan.l Siiai.irs when in the excniseof 
 
 thiir fum lions A. The .Seual.' is coinpo*d .if 
 
 two .Senators for each .Siale ami two for the Kisl- 
 
 eral l»i.slrl.t. Th.' elecli.m of .Senators shall Ik- 
 
 indirect In the tlrst decn. The U'trishiture of 
 
 ea. 1 Mate shall il.< laiv , le.tcd the (KTHon who 
 
 shall li ive .iliiaiiicil the alisoluii- majority of the 
 
 Vnt.sia-t. or shall eliit from unioiii; thoM- who 
 
 shall luive olitulmd Ihc relative majority in the 
 
 manner which the . I.etoral law shall p'riwrllie 
 
 for c»< h Senator there simll U- eli-cte<l an all.rn- 
 
 ate, H. Vbf .Senate shall lie renewed one half 
 
 every two v. ar- Th<' .S. milors iiam.d In th.' 
 
 wcoud place sh.iil >;„ out at III.' . n.l of the Ami 
 
 iwo )car«. and ihin-aftertlie hail who have held 
 
 I'lnger, (', The shiii.' i|UuliIlcalionsiire niiiiired 
 
 fora Senator as for a Ik i.iity, excpt that .if a;;.- 
 
 whh h iiiiut lie at host thirty years on the day of 
 
 the .tHiilinr 'if the sewiou. 
 
 5». The l»i.putii-sand Si-iiatorsare privi 
 ' r..m arrest for their oplnhiin manlfMt.il 
 
 in I-. rformaiice of their iluth's, «n.| shall never 
 be Malile to !h- callnl to ac. auit for them 
 
 Art. «o. Each house W A lu,|gi. of lUe eke 
 tion of its meiiilH'ra, ami -liall solve 1 
 Willi h may arise regarding them 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO. 
 
 Art. 61. The houses may not open their sm- 
 slons nor perform their functions without vS 
 presence in the Senate of at least tw., thirds ,»! 
 fn the Hou« of Deputle. of more than Z-^, 
 of the whole numhr of their members, hutth«P 
 presentof oneor the other body must mw™ 
 the day indicted by the tow and ..imHt^ 
 attendance of abwnt members under r^asZ 
 which the law shall designate. ** 
 
 Art. 6a. The Congress shall have ea.li vat 
 two periods of onllnary sessions: the first vM 
 may be pron.guiKl for thirty days, shal'l 1^; 
 on the l«th of September anj end oi nTm,") 
 December, and the second, which may |». ml 
 rogiied for fifteen days, shall biggin the Isf „f 
 April and end the hist day of May 
 
 Art. 63. At the opening of the sessions ,.f tU 
 Congn« the President of the Vnio,, shall '* 
 present and shall piwnouncc a discourse iiiwl,i,'h 
 he shall set forth the state of the eounirv Tl,° 
 ^ms " ""^ ^""^^^ »'"" "^P'y '"'ginml 
 
 Art. 64. Every resolution of the Conjin-MfLall 
 have the character of a tow or .Iccrec. Tlie ht, 
 and drerees shall be communicated t.ithe E«.', / 
 tlve, signed by the Presi.lentsof IkhIi Imuy,.,,! 
 by a hecretary of each of them, «i„| shaii ,^ 
 promulgateil in this form : "The Conjr,s,„f ,1., 
 tnlted States of Mexico decrees:' (Text ,.t ,,', 
 law or ih-cree.) 
 
 Art. 65. The right U> inlttote laws or (Imt,,. 
 Moiigs: I. TothePn-sidcntoftlu-l-„i„„ n 
 To the Di'putles and fk-nators of the ir, i„ r ,1 ( „« 
 gress. III. To the UgUtotnns ,if il„. >,,,,,,. 
 
 the Hcipiil.llc, by the U-gislaluns of tl„ v,.<., 
 or by deputations from the Mini.', shall iiav. jm' 
 incdnit.ly to a committee. Tims, „l,i,h Ilw 
 I K-putns or the Senators limy pnsintshilll,-, ill. 
 J.'ct..l to the pnHvdure which tin- rules ,.f ,i,.|ov 
 may pres< rilM'. 
 
 Art. 67. Kvcry bill which shall W rei.,:,! a 
 the Iliiis.' where it originated. In fun- i,:„.iu>. -, 
 thclhcrhoiisi', shall n.il upiin lie pn„iiN.l fljr 
 lug the wsjii.ins of that year. 
 . Art. 6i. The second |«-ri<«l of s.ssi„u!i skj] 
 IH- <h-stiii,H|. in all pnf.r. n,-,.. to the . .viii.ii«ti,.!i 
 <if iiii.l a.lii.n U[>.in the estliumesof the i„||„i,i,. 
 tiscal year, to i>iu»liig ihc ii.veMarv a|i|ir<.|,n4 
 tlons to .-over the some, ami to tlie'iviiuliaiinj 
 
 the iloubts 
 
 .'_I!!l."IWf^ '""" "' "^ *nielm «■• as foU.»i •• Th. 
 tfmnMf. wkiek shaU be dfMMaslMiavl Ciin«re« o? tte 
 
 If the a.-, ounts of the past year, which the tv, j 
 tlvi- shall jin'M-nt. 
 
 Art. 69. Th.- lust day but on.- ..f tin dr-t 
 IHriisI of s,s,|,,nH the Kxcullvi- shall yp <nr u 
 th.' Il.ius,. of I), pull.-, the hill of a|.|,r.|riiiii.iia 
 f"r the ii.-»l y.-ar foHowing and li.e a...i lOts .f 
 Ih.. pn-r.-.liiig year Ifcith shall pass |„ , omi. 
 mltt,-,' of live Ib'pn-N-iilativcs »p(«.i„ie.| m, iL, 
 satin- day. whii h «liall Is- und.r ol.l:,-riii,,ii ion 
 iiinlm- mill chKuiiients, ami iiri sem a ^ imr) .a 
 Ih.^ni III the siuiin.l m-ssIoii of the weoml |»ri..| 
 
 Art. 70. The formatU.Hof the laws iii,|,.|!l» 
 .Icini-s may liegin ln.lls«riinlnately ia . iikr if 
 the two h.Mises, with the exception".. f lulls wind 
 tn-«t of loans, taxes, or linixiats. or i.f the b- 
 criililug iif tr.H)|)s, all of whi. h must Is- .liscuwl 
 Urst In the House of Deputies. 
 
 Art. 71. Every bill, theeimslderati..n..f»hiilj 
 vTw"' I**""* exclusively t.) one .if ili. Ii..u«> 
 shall liT iiiiM UmnhI sueueaairely iu t»iiii. me nn 
 •>f ih-liaU' bring obarvetl with ^fi r. mi. t.. iIk 
 form, the Intervals, and manner of pM.r<shB<ia 
 diwuMloMaiHt voting. A A Mil hadim Uti 
 
 684 
 
CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO. 
 
 ippiored to the bouM where It originated, *h>U 
 put for lt< diKiudon to tbe other house. If the 
 Utter body ihould spprove it, it will be remitted 
 to the Ezecutire, who, if he Bhali iiare no ob- 
 wrntiona to main, sfaaU publiih it immediately. 
 B. Every bill ihall be coniidered ai approved by 
 the Executive if not returned with obeerrationg 
 to the house where it originated within ten worl^. 
 iag liars, udIvh durins tiila term Congreai (ball 
 hare cloaed or suspended it* aesiiona, in which 
 case the n'tum must be made the flret wortcins 
 dav ou which it shall meet. C. A bill reiected 
 whollr or in part by the Executive must be re- 
 turiH-il with his obscrratlons to the house where 
 It originated. It shall be discussed again by this 
 body, ana if it should lie conHrmed by an absolute 
 majority of votes, it shall pass again to tbe other 
 bouw. ' 1 f by this house it should be sanctioned 
 with the same majority, tbe bill shall be a law 
 (ir iliTier, and shall be returned to the Executive 
 fur |irt>mulgatioa. Tbe voting on the law or de- 
 rnee shall be by name. D. If any bill should be 
 rtjeiteti wholly in the house in which it did not 
 oriinnate. it shall be returned to that in which it 
 oriiiinalc'l with the observatiiins which the former 
 tliall hari' inaiie upon it. If havlnir iiit'n examined 
 ani'w it «hould lie approved by the aliaohite ma- 
 jiiritr of the memliers present, it shall be naurned 
 111 the house which rejecte<l it, which shall UKuin 
 t:ik'' it intiiconaiileratidu, and if it ahixihl approve 
 it liy till' mime majority it shall pasa to the Execu- 
 tjviv ti) he treatol in acconiaiu^' with division A ; 
 tHit if it should reject it, it shall not be presented 
 u.M until the following sessions. E. If a bill 
 sh .iilil 1k' n^jicted only in part, or modideii, or 
 ^H^irl' aii'litions by the house of revision, tbe 
 ntn diw'ussion iu the house where it originated 
 shall treat only of the rejected part, or of the 
 umi'ndnients or additions, without being able to 
 slur in any manner the articles aiiiirovej. If the 
 al'liti'inAoranieiidnients made li> tlie house of 
 ri'ii«i"ti sliiiuM lie approval by the absolute ma- 
 J' rily "f llie voles presint iu the house where it 
 ortk'inali'il. the whole bill shall l>e pusseil to the 
 KmiuiIh', III lie treatvtl in aeconlunc-e with di 
 vl-i.in .V Hut if the adiiitions or nnieiidnients 
 lii.ilf liv till' housrof revision sboulil Ih' n-Ji-ctwl 
 In the niaji'rity of the votes Iu the I'liuae where 
 ii "tidnati d. they shall lie returmil In the former, 
 i" •l^l^r iliut tlif n'ssiins of the latter iimy !»• 
 '..vH into I'onsiileration: and if liy tlie alakilule 
 roaji>riiy of the votes present saiil additions or 
 aiiMiiiinnnts shall Ih- ri'jecteii in this second re 
 VIM >n ilii' liill, in so fur as it lias U-en aiiproriil 
 In Imlii hiMiM'B. sImII Im- passed toihe Kxerutivi'. 
 1.1 Is- in-niid In ncitmUiice with division A; but 
 it 111! Ikiuw of revision shouhl insist, by the ab 
 •■■liilf maj.irlly of the voU-s present, on said ad 
 diii.insnr aiiii'iitliniiiis. thi< whole bill shall not 
 Ik .u'alii iinaented until tlie following si'ssioiis. 
 uiiI'Mlspih lioiisesagn-e by the absadute majority 
 "I tin ir nitinlMTs presi'nt that the law or ilecrve 
 tliall (v i«Mie.l mililr With the arlirlrs spuroved. 
 iirt'l tliuf ilif |iaft» Mtlilisl tir anieiiiled siiall Im' n'- 
 • rMd t'l Isexainlned ami vnUil Iu the fidlowiug 
 »'»i"ii« K. In llie interpretalhm. ainriidment. 
 '<' n |» al of the Uws or decrees, the rules estali- 
 Iflu^l tor iluir formation shall be oliwrve<l 
 lV.!li Imiivs iliall reside in the same phiiiv ami 
 liii \ sliali not remove to anoUier without Brut 
 «<f<i-iiii( lo thv removal and on the time and 
 tmuu-t .if nuiking it. designating the same |iulnl 
 l>r ihe iiMvtIug of both. But If both boutes. 
 
 agreeing to the removal, should differ ai to time, 
 manner, or place, the Executive shall terminate 
 the difference by choosing one of the plate* in 
 
 Suestion. Neither house shall suspend its sea- 
 ons for more than three days without tbe con- 
 aent of the other. H. When tbe general Con- 
 gress meets in extra sessions, it shall occupv itself 
 exclusively with the objector objects designated 
 in the summons: and if the special business shall 
 not have been completed on the day on which the 
 regular session should open, the extra sessions 
 shall be closed nevertheless, le.iving the point* 
 pending to be treated of in the regular session*. 
 Tile Executive of the Union shall not make ob- 
 servations on the resolutions of the Congress when 
 this body prorogues its sessions or exereises func- 
 tions of an electoral body or a jury. 
 
 Art. 7*. The Congress has ixjwer — I. To ad- 
 mit new States or Territories into the Federal 
 Union, incorporating them in the nation. II. To 
 erect Territories into States when they shall have 
 a population of eighty thousand inhabitants and 
 tlie necessary elements to provide for their polit- 
 ical existence. III. To form new Mtaies within 
 the limiu of those existing, it being necessary to 
 this end — 1. That the fraction or fractions which 
 aslied lo tie encti-d into a State shall number a 
 population of at li'ust one lumdred and twenty 
 thousand inhabitants. 2. That it Himll be proved 
 liefore Cougri'.ss I hat they have elements sulticient 
 to provide for their piilitical existence. 3. That 
 the Li'gislatunsof the States, the territories of 
 which are l^' question, slmll have been heard on 
 tlie t'X|M'diency or biex|)<ilieiiiy of the es''>blish- 
 ment of the niw Slate, iiml tliey sliall be diged 
 to make tbi Ir n'pi.rt witliin six months, counted 
 fnini Ilii' d.iy on wlilili thi' <'ommunicaiion re- 
 lating to it shall Imvr iM-eu remitted to them. 4. 
 That llie Exi-cuiire of the Fi-denillon shall like- 
 wise lie heard, wlio shall siiid his report within 
 Bt^ri'ii days, couuii'd from the ilute ou which he 
 shall have Im'cu asiiisl fur it. Ji. That the estab- 
 lishiiunt of tlie new Slate shall have iK-in voted 
 for liy two thiriN of tho Deputies and Senators 
 im'stul iu thiir n vjiedive houses. B. Thai the 
 resolution of l'oiii;n»s shall h .vc be<'n ratillwl by 
 the luajority "f the U'gislalun's of the Slates, 
 afler examining' a copy of Iho priKwilincs, pro- 
 vided that the I,<'i:i'<latures of the .states whose 
 lerritorvis iu iiuisii.ui shall have given tlieircon- 
 s»'nt . If the Ucislaluns of the Slates whose 
 territory U In i|iii'»iiiiii sliall not have civen their 
 lonsini. the nil ill. alii. ii iiii iill.nieil in Ihepreced- 
 luir elaiisi' iiiosi Is- m.iiie liy t«ii thirds of the 
 l>ei;islatuns .if the .iihir Males .\ The exclu- 
 sive puwers.if il» lli.ii«iif |)i |>ulie»an— I To 
 eoiisiitute ilsi If all Kiel t.iral I idlege in onler to 
 exercise the |i.>«er> whiili tlie law may tissiitn 
 toil, in n'«|H'i I t.i Hie I III Ii. Ill of the I'onKliHi 
 tional Pnsidi 111 of the Itepiililic, .Magistrates of 
 the Siipnine t'..iiri, ami .NMialors for tile Federal 
 IHstrici 11 T'l judjie ami decide U|h)n the res- 
 iiCiittiiiHis which the i'resident of the Ih pulilic 
 or the .Mai!i«iraie« "f liie Supreme Court of Jus- 
 tlO' mar inalii Tin' »ame jmner Udongs to it 
 iu treatlnir of lii'i'lis.i .. In ited br the Hrst ill. 
 To watch over, by iinaiis uf an lns|iei'ting emu 
 mituv from lis own ls»lv. liie exact |Hrforniaiice 
 of the hllsitii.iuiif llie chief j^iiillUir«liin iv fn 
 ap|«<liit Ihe prineliHil olllcers and other euiployis 
 of the aanir v To conatttiite Itself a jury of 
 I functlouaries of whom 
 To 
 
 \ 
 
 acouaalhin, for the higli 
 
 Artl«'le ma uf this Coiiatltutiou trrau 
 
 686 
 
'I 
 
 coNSTmmoN of Mexico. 
 
 raamlne the accounU which the Executive mutt 
 prewDt annumlly, to tpproTe the annual estimate 
 of expeniet, and to IniUatethe taxea which in iu 
 Judgment ought to be decreed to cover thrte ex- 
 pense*. B, The excluiire poweri of the Senate 
 ••«—«■ To approve the treaties and diplomatic 
 conventions which the Executive may make with 
 fortien powers, ii. To ratify the appolntmenU 
 which the President of the Republic may malce 
 of niinisfers, diplomatic arents, consuls-general 
 superior employes of the Treasury, colonels and 
 otlier superior officers of the national array and 
 nnvT. on the terms which the law shall provide 
 III. To authorize tlie Executive to permit the de- 
 parture of national troops beyond the limiuof the 
 KtpiiWic. the passage of foreign troops through 
 thi- niitional territory, the sution of squadrons 
 of (ithir powers for more than a month in the 
 waters of the Republic, rv. To give its consent 
 In onlcr that the Executive may dispose of the 
 national ijuanl outside of their respective States 
 or Terrilnries, determining the necessary forre 
 V. rodeilare, when the Constitutional legislative 
 anil excrutive powers of a State shall have dis- 
 npiH-antl. that the case has arrived for appoint- 
 Init to it a provisional Governor, who shall call 
 ekTtii.ns in conformity with the ("onstitiitlimal 
 laws of the sai<l Slate. The appointment of Oov- 
 enior sliall U- made by the Fiwieral Executive 
 with the approval of the Senate, and in its re- i 
 cesses with the approval of the I'emianent Com- I 
 mission. )inU\ functionarv shall not t,e elected i 
 Constitutional Oovemor at the eleetlons which 
 are lm<l In virtue of the summons which he shall 
 l«ii,.. VI. To .leei.le political questions which 
 may arise lietween the powers of a State, when 
 any «S tliei-. may api^-ar with this purpow' in the 
 Niiate. IT vi. -n on aiwunt of said (|Ue»tiiiiis f(in- 
 BtituiiiitiH; <ier»liall have Iwen interrupteil diir- 
 llii: ,-1 iMiitl .1 „f arras. In this case the .Senate 
 shall iliiuile its ri'SdIuiion, Mng sulijeet to the 
 gineriil ConMitiiiion of the Repiil.li,- and to that 
 of iliiSi,iti', The law shall nifulalettieexenlse 
 of iliiH |M,«(r anil that of the preieillntr vit 
 Ti>r.iii»titiite itwlf a jury of tuilvment In acconl. 
 anie «itli Artiile 10.^ of this Cnnstitiition C 
 Eaih nl the hiMises may. withmit the interven. 
 tioii (f the oilier — I. nictate iiiinomie resulu- 
 tiimn relative to its Internal recinien ii Com- 
 muniiHte within Itself, ami with the Executive 
 of the I ni.in. hy means of ciimniliteeH fnim its 
 own l«Hty. III. Apiwilnt the empli.ves of its 
 wi niarvship. and make the internal ri'trulatlons 
 fi't ilie same IV Issue summons for extnior- 
 .lin.iry ilin-llons. with the nlijeet of Itllliiit the 
 v.ii .1111 Us iif their re»|M-ctlve inemlK'rs |V To 
 nvMl.u.. iletlnltely the limits ..f the Siaii-« ter- 
 iniiiiiiiiif till' ililTereni es whli h mav arise l»-twei n 
 thiiii n hitive til tlie demarcatlnnof their niiMii. 
 ivelirrttMr|e.,,X(ept wlien thew illffli uiti, .Imve 
 a n.iii, i,ilmi«rhameter V To ehanifc ilie rt»|. 
 •Iiii. ent Hie .iipri'me powers of the Fnlenitii.n. 
 M. r.M.tahlKlithe Internal onlerof the Feileral 
 IHstriit ami Territories, takinir as a liasts that 
 the eiii/eiis shall ehcsise liy pcipular election the 
 |H.I Heal nni ilelpal. and Judicial aiilhoritles. and 
 .le.tjtniitinir the taxes m-ci>«sary to cover tlieir 
 I..aIeMHnillture VII Toapprovethecimates 
 »f till- l-eileral exiiendlliire. which the Ex« utlve 
 mii.l «n„„s!!v pr,.s.nt to !• ,r..! <.. iminM- fhr 
 niysMry taxes In cover them. VIII To eive 
 rule, under whirh the Executive may make I.Vans 
 on the credit of the iiatlon , to approve siUd luaos 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF .13X100. 
 
 and to rea)gnlie and ordsr the payment of tin 
 national deK IX. To ettabUsh uriffs on fo? 
 clgn commerce, and to prevent, by means of 
 general laws, onerous rertrictlons from beinir n! 
 Ublished with reference to the commerce li 
 tween the States. X To issue codes, oblint„„ 
 throughout the Republic, of mines and commen? 
 Kwnprehending in this last banking institutioM.' 
 Al. To create and suppress public Feileral em 
 plovments and to esUbfish, augment, or rtiminii 
 the r salaries. XII. To ratify the appointmenu 
 which the Executive may make of ministers ilio! 
 lomatic agents, and consuls, of the hiirhir em 
 ployfe of the Treasury, of the colonels ami other 
 vff7*Z "*«■" »' 'he national army and narr 
 AIU. To approve the treaties, contracts, or din; 
 lomatic conventions which the Executive nar 
 
 ""HK PI To declare war in view „f the lUii 
 wnich the Executive may present to it JV 
 To regulate the manner in which letters of mamu. 
 may be issued ; to dictate laws accoittlnK to whici 
 must be declared good or bad the prizes „n »» 
 and land, and to Issue laws relating to maritime 
 rights in peace and war. XVI. To permii nr 
 deny the entrance of foreign troops into the ter- 
 ritory of the Republic, and to conmnt to tbe 
 station of squadrons of other powers for more ihin 
 a month In the waters of the Repiililir XVII 
 To permit thodepartureof national tri«u.s Wns\ 
 the limits of the Republic* XVllI Tn'raije 
 and maintain the army and navy of lii,. fnion 
 vVl-''V*''"'"'* "*'■'' '"■g»ni««tioii an,! wrvin.' 
 \l\. To establish regulations with the ii'iriviee 
 of organizing, arming, and dlseipliniiiL' tlir na- 
 tional guard, reserving n-»pectively tntl.iciiizeM 
 who compose it the app<ilntment of the ii,niraaii.l 
 ers and offlci'rs. and to the Slates the |ion,r nf 
 I instructing it in conformity with the ilisciiilirif 
 ; prescrilKiIby said regulations. XX Tirini-j 
 consi-iit in onler that the Executive vm\ loninj 
 the natiiinal guard outside of its riB|>ii live Slates 
 and Territories, determining the iiiiivsary force. 
 XXI. Todlrtale lawsonnatunillzaii.in. i.'.Ionira. 
 t on. and citizenship XXII. To ilii i„i,. ];,«, uj 
 the general means nf inmraiinicatioii :iii,| ,.ii tlie 
 post-offlreand mails XXIII. Tiiestahli.limlnl! 
 Hxing the conditions of their operation, to ,lri,r- 
 inlne the value of foreign monev. ami .lImp! t 
 ginenil system of wcighu and miiisun , X.XIV 
 111 fix nilea to which must lie suhiort iIh- .otu- 
 patliin nnil sale of nubile lands ami the |,riff .if 
 these lamis XXV'. To grant |ianlons for rrimn 
 cogni/alile by the tribunals of the Kiil. mti.in. 
 XX\ 1 Til grant rewanlanr recoiii|«ii«i> Tirimi- 
 'vv'.^r'''*'" "■"''''"■'''""'•■ <^""" " or Immanitv, 
 -X.WII To pMnigiie for thirty "uorkini; il«i< 
 llicllnit |«-rii«liif llsonlinarvs.'ssl.iiH X.WIIl 
 To form riih- f .r its Internal n»tulaiion. to take 
 the im-essary iiieasuo's to ciiin|N'l tin- iiiiiiiilaoiT 
 of alwiiit memlM'rs. and to correct the fiinlin ..r 
 omtasi.inB.ifthiMi- present. XXIX T.. «|.|«iiiit 
 and remove fnt-ly the employes of lt< m , n larv 
 ship and those of the chief auilitop.lilj., nhiih 
 shall lie ..rgauizMl in acr.-nlame «itli lln- p^► 
 vUiiins of the law. XXX. To make all Isw» 
 wlileh mav lie necessary and pmiMT to rrmlrr 
 effcflive the forrgoing ° powers ami ail olhen 
 graiitiil hv this Coualllution and the aiithorilin 
 of the I'nlon t 
 
 • AmeikW by Htnina 11. Ckuse HI . AHklf n. o< ito 
 law ,.f iiu. isth "f N.»railiw, IW4 
 
 • IW n«|>«iiiic this Artlrk- Uw mMiiIoim a n SKI !• « 
 Artk'l* ni ti( tb> law .if tW IMk <■( Mortakw. tintir atd. 
 
 580 
 
CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO. 
 
 C0N8TITXJTI0N OF MEXICO. 
 
 Art. 73. During the receu of CongreH there 
 ■lull be a Permanent Deputation compoied of 
 twenty-nine memben, of whom fifteen shall be 
 Deputie* and fourteen Senaton, appointed by 
 tlwir respective houiei the evening before the 
 clow of tlie sesaiona 
 
 Art 74. The attributes of the Permanent 
 Deputation are — I. To rfve its consent to f 
 lue of the national guard In the cases mentioned 
 in .Article 73. Clause XX. IL To determine by 
 itielf. or on the proposal of the Executive, after 
 bearing him in the first place, the summons of 
 ConjrrrM, or of one house alone, for extra sessions, 
 the vote of two-thirds of the memlK-rs present 
 beini necessary in both cases. The summons 
 ibalf ileslgnate the object or objects of the extra 
 iFWons. III. To approve the appointments 
 which are referred to in Article 85, Clause HI. 
 IV, To administer the oath of office to the Presi- 
 dent of the Republic, and to the Justices of the 
 Supreme Court, In the cases provided by this 
 Constitution. • V. To rept)rt upon all the busi- 
 new nut disposed of, in order that the l^^gislaturo 
 whirh follows may immediately take up such 
 nnllnished business. 
 
 Art. 75. The exercise of the supreme execu- 
 tive power of the Union is vested in a single 
 iiKl!vitl\ial. who shall be called " President of the 
 Vnited !<t»tes of Mexico." 
 
 Art. 76. The election of Pri'sident shall be 
 imlireot In the Urst degree, e'\i. '>y secret ballot, 
 in nuch iniuiner as may be |-rt:scribed by the 
 (lectiiml Inw. 
 
 Art. 77. To be eligible to the position of 
 President, the candidate must t>e a Mexii'iin cltl- 
 wn by liirth. in the exercise of his rights. U- 
 fully thirty-live years ohl at the time of the elt-c- 
 tiiiii. not iN'long to the ecclesiastical onier, and 
 mvU- in the country at the time the election is 
 hrU 
 
 Art. 78. The President shall enter upon the 
 ptrfciniiiince I if the duth-sof his ottire on the first 
 c>( iKrinilHr. mill shall ciuitinue in olllce four 
 Tnim. I»ing eliirible for the I'lmstltutiopul |>eriii<l 
 immi-ili;itely folhiwing; b,it he bIihII n-main in- 
 mpalilr tlureiifter to iKi-ujiy the imwiiiency by 
 i new I li rtiiiR until four years shall have passetl, 
 fiiwniiiig from the day on which he cciuhiI to 
 pert nil lii'< functions. 
 
 Art. 79. In the temporary default of the I'rcsi- 
 Hrtii "f till- Kepiiblic, and In the vacancy In-fore 
 till- iiiMiillntion of the newly-clMti-d Pfesiilent, 
 Iherili/in who may have m'rfornuil the Jiities 
 of IV-KMent or Vlce-I'tesiclent of the .Scniilc, or 
 III llie I'ermiiiHMt t'onimission in tlie perlodH of 
 rHi"»i, iliiriiig the month prior to that in which 
 Hill ilef;iiilt iHiiy have oceum'd, shall enter uinin 
 thii\ini.<- iif the cxenitive power of the Tnion. 
 k. The l're«hlcnt and Vlce-l'ninliient of the t*cn 
 iltaii.li.f the Permanent Commission shall not 
 he nfliriiil to those ofllces until a year after 
 Ininnir In M them. H. If the period of sessions 
 Kf Ihr Simte nr i.f the Permanent (.ommisslon 
 tliiill 1. i;in in tlie WKimii half of a month, the 
 ile!»ull .( tlie Pn-sident of the Krpubllc shall lie 
 roven-il I.; the l>n'si(ient or Vice-1'resldrnl who 
 msy luive »(HkI In the ttenate or in the Perma- 
 otiii ( iininiiMhin during the Hrst half of the said 
 ""•"" ' ThrHruatran.i Ihr Prrmiiiieiiil will- 
 miKii.ii ,hiill nnew. the last ilay of each month. 
 !*• ir l'n.iihni» and Vice-I*rBaldenu. Tor iIm-s* 
 
 > AawntesM of aopiwBtwr ». IRI, Art 4. 
 
 office* the Permanen. Commiision shall elect, 
 alternatively. In one mantb two Deputies and in 
 the following n-inth two Senators. D. When 
 the office of President of the Republic is vacant, 
 the functioii^ry who shall take i» constitutionally 
 as his substitute must issue, within the definite 
 term of fifteen days, the summons to proceed to 
 a new election, which shall be held within the 
 term of three months, and in accordance with 
 the provisions of Article 76 of this Constitution. 
 The provisional President shall not be eligible to 
 the presidency at the elections which are held to 
 put an end to his provisional term. E. If, on 
 account of death or any other reason, the func- 
 tionaries who, acconling to this Inv, should take 
 the place of the President of the liepublic, might 
 not be able in any absolute manner to do so, it 
 shall be taken, under prcfletemiined conditions, 
 b^ the citizen who may have been President or 
 \ ice-President of the Senate or the Permanent 
 Commission in the month prior to tliat in which 
 thev discharged those offices. F. When the office 
 of President of the Republic shall become vacant 
 witliin the last six months of the constitutional 
 period, the functionary wlio shall take the place 
 of the President slntll terminate this period. O. 
 To lie ellgilile to the position of President or 
 Vice-President of the Senate or of the Permanent 
 Commission, one must be a Mexican citizen hv 
 birth. H. If the vacancy in the office of Presi- 
 dent tif tlie liepublic sliouid occur whin the 
 Senate and Permanent Commission arc perform- 
 ing their functions in extra sessions, the Presi- 
 dent of the Commission shall fill the vacancy, 
 under conditions indicateil in this article. I. 
 The VicePn-siilent of the Senate or of the Per- 
 mamiit Coniniission shall enter upon the pcr- 
 fomiuiice of the functions which this Article 
 confers upon thciii, in the vacancies of the office 
 of Presiilent of the .S-nate or of the Permanent 
 Commission, and In the peri<Kls only while the 
 iniirtMlinient last.s. .1. The newly elected Presi- 
 dent shall enter U|)on the ilischarire of his liuties, 
 at the latest, sixty days aft -rtliiit of theeh'clion. 
 In case the llousi' of Deputies shall not Ik- in 
 session, it sliail lie convened in extra s<ssioii. In 
 onier to make the conipiitntion nf votes within 
 the term nientiuneii. 
 
 Art. 80. In the vacancy of tin- ulHcc of Presi- 
 dent, the iM-riiHl of the new ly elected President 
 shall Ik- coinpiitiil from the first of iMi enilxr of 
 the year prlur to lliiil nf his election, provhiiii 
 he may not have taki n pnsscssion of his office on 
 the ihite wl ■ h .Vrlirlc TS ililerniines. 
 
 Art. St. Thcoillciof Pnsiihiit of the Vnlon 
 may luit lie reslcmd. ixccpt for grivc caim-. ap- 
 proved by Ciinitri'vi, iN-fore whom flic resignation 
 shall !«■ pnsciili'il 
 
 Art. 82. If for any rias.111 t'le election of Presi- 
 dent sirill nut have iKin niiule .ind published by 
 the first of IHieiiilMT, m which the transfer of 
 the oflice slioulil 1" iniiih', or the President-elect 
 shall not have In en ready to enter upon the ills- 
 ( harireof his duties, the term of the former Presi- 
 dent shall (lid lie \ I rt lie less, and the supn iiii- 
 cxi-tulivi |iiiwi r sliiill Ik- depositeil provisionally 
 in the fiiiiiiliinarr to whom it belongs acconling 
 to the ;ir'ivi»liins' of the reformisl Article 71» of 
 thUC«!!M!!!!i!!i;!: 
 
 Art. S3, The Pt4>si(h'nt, on taking poaaessiim 
 of hU oftiie, shall lake an oath li<>fon< Congress, 
 and In Its recess lN>f<in> the IVmmncnt C< mniis- 
 sion. under the fulluwing formula; " I swear t« 
 
 587 
 
'.Hi 
 
 i 
 
 pi f 
 
 ?4'' 
 
 CONSTITCTION OF MEXICO. 
 
 perfonn loyally and patriotically the duties of 
 Piwildent of the United States of Mexico, accord- 
 ing to the Conatitution, and seek in everything 
 for the welfare and prosperity of the Union. " • 
 
 Art. 84. The President may not remove from 
 the place of the residence of the Federsl powers, 
 nor lay aside the exercise of his functions, with- 
 out grave cause, approved by the Congress, and 
 in iu recesses by the Permanent Commission. 
 
 Art. 85. The powers and obligations of the 
 President are the following : I. To promulgate 
 ami execute the laws passed by the Congress 
 of the Union, providing, in the administrative 
 splure, for their exs' observance. II. To ap- 
 point and remove freely the Secretaries of the 
 Colilnet. to remove the diplomatic agents and 
 sunerior employM of the Treasury, and to ap- 
 point and remove freely the other employes of 
 the Union whose appointment and removal are 
 not otherwise provided for in the Constitution or 
 in the laws. III. To appoint minisu-rs. diplo- 
 matic agents, consuls-general, with the approval 
 of Congress, and, in its recess, of the Permanent 
 Commission. IV. To appoint, with the aproval 
 of Cimgresa. the colonels and other superior offi- 
 cers of the national army and navy, and the su- 
 perior employes of the ta-asur)-. V. To appoint 
 the othiT officers of the national armv and navv, 
 ncconllnK to the laws. VI. To contn)! the pe'r- 
 m.ment armed force by sea and laud for the in- 
 t.-nml security and external defence of the Fed- 
 enition. VII. To control the natio.ial guard fcr 
 the same objects within the limits eslubliHliiii by 
 ArtUle 72. Clausi. XX. VIII. To deihiri' war 
 in the name of ilie United States of Mexico, after 
 the passuige of the necessary law by the Congn-ss 
 of the Union. IX. To gnmt letters of maniue. 
 Bubjiit to iMises flxi-d by the Coiii:res..4. X. To 
 iliriit iliplomatic iiegotintinns and make treaties 
 with fonign jxiwcrs. sulmiittiiig them for the 
 riiliticaliou of the Keileral Congress. XI. Tore 
 ci'ive ministers nnd otIiiT envoys from foreijiu 
 |M)wers XII. To convoke Congress in extra ms- 
 8ioii.< when till' IVrinanent ConiinU. ion shall con- 
 sent to It XIII. To furnish the judiiiul jxiwer 
 with that assistance whirh may Ik' iieeissary for 
 the priini|>t exercise of its functions. Xl\'. To 
 op<n all classi-s of ports, to e.stalpllsh niarilliiii> 
 and frontier custDm-houses and disl^rnale ihi ir 
 situation. XV. To grunt, iu nceurdamr with 
 the laws, pardons to criminals seutenceil for 
 <rimes within the Jurisill.tion of the Kcih ral tri 
 luinals. XVI. To grant exclusive iirivilit'is. fur 
 a lhnite<l lime ami aeconllnsr to the proper ia», 
 I" discovinrs. inventors, or perfceters of any 
 liranrh of iiulnstrv. 
 
 Art. 86. For the dispatch of the business of 
 till' adiiiiiiistmtive department of the Fe.lerillon 
 tliiff shall lie the number of Secretaries whii li 
 till Con cri'ss may establish by a law, wlii.li shall 
 pr..vl,lr for the distribution of business and pn ■ 
 scriU- what shall lie in charge of each .SH-relary. 
 Art. 87. To In- a Secretary of the Cabinet It 
 s n.|iilred that one shall U- a Mexican eitiien 
 by l.irtli. Ill III., ixercis.' of his rights, anil fully 
 twenty livr vi-ars old. 
 
 Art. 88. .Ul thr n'gulations. decrees, and orders 
 of the I'n slihnt must \w signeil by the h.'eretary 
 of the Caliiiiii wl„, Is In charge of the deiiart- 
 nirni i,i which the mhj.j-t ti..!..:.gi Wllhou! 
 this requlsiU' they shall not lie obeyed 
 
 ^Rw tbs Anmailnwtt ud Additlou of a^Mwiitar S, 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF JfEXICO 
 
 Art, 80. The Secretaries of the Cabinet u 
 soon as the sessions of the first peri™l shall h! 
 opened, shall render an account to the ConmM 
 of the state of their respective departments " 
 .1 ^?j'**- The exercise of the judicial [xmerof 
 the Federation is vested in a Supreme Omrt n 
 Justice and in the district nnd circuit ci.uns 
 
 Art. 91. The Supreme Court of Justici. ,,w 
 be compose.! of eleven judges, four su|« rniT 
 cranes, one fiscal, and one attomev-gemral 
 
 Art. oa. Each of the members of tli,. Sunivm, 
 Court of Justice shall remain in office six y.are -Z 
 his election sluill be indirect In the Hrit Av'-nr 
 under conditions esUblished by the eleiinMll,! 
 Art. 93. In order to Ik- electe.l a mimlierot 
 the Supreme Court of Justice it is necis.s.irv ilai 
 onelH" leariie.1 in the science of the law in the 
 judgment of the electors, moiv than tliirtv-Sve 
 years old, and a Mexican citizen by hinli in ,|„ 
 exercise of his rights. 
 
 Art. 94, Thememl)ers of the Supn ni. I ,,.« 
 
 of Justice, on entering up<m the exen ixuf tlir- 
 
 charge, shall Uke an oath iK'fore Coii-n** ani 
 
 in its reo'sses, before the PermaneniC.mmissiin 
 
 in the following form; " Do vou sw.ir 1.1 r,. 
 
 form loyally and patriotically the char •. ,.f M ,- 
 
 Lstrale of the Supn-me Court of JiiMi,,. ,i,i,"i, 
 
 the people have conferral upon vou iiiioni.iniiir 
 
 with the Coiistitutiiin, .s.-..kinit in eviTviliiiii:iiK 
 
 1 welfare .and prospi.rity of the liiioii ■• ' » 
 
 I Art, 95, A menilH'rof the Siipnim. Ciurt.it 
 
 i Justice niuy nsign his othce only lor i;r;in(ui„ 
 
 I approveil by the Congri'ss. to vi'lionuhc n-,i' la- 
 
 ! tlon shall lie presenteil. In tin- n.. ,■„,.< ,,f ,|^ 
 
 , Congri'ss the judgment shall Is. nn.l. n.l !,v iIk 
 
 j Peniianent Commission 
 
 Art, 96, The law shall istalilish and orcauift 
 j the rireuit and district courts 
 1 Art. 97. It Ix'lonL's to the Fi-il. r.il iriliuniiLito 
 I take .■.n.'iiizaiiei' of— I. .VII c"nir..v..r«i.v wiiicii 
 ; may ari..e in reganl to the tiiliilimiii .m,! m.'i. 
 cation of the Fediral laws, i xci pt :ii line,,' in 
 which the application airicts only privuir in- 
 
 len-sts: such a case falls wiiliin tin' 1 |.,i,Kt 
 
 of the liM'.'il judges and trilninals of !|„ ,,111.11 
 
 onliTof the States, of thr Ffihral Hisiri.l and 
 of the Territory of b.wer Califoni,, H .U! 
 cttsis tM'rtaiiiIng to niaritiiin- law 111 Tli.« 
 In whiili the KiHliration may Iw u pirty IV. 
 Tliosj' that may ariMlstwiiii'i woor iii'.ri' Slaw 
 V. Thox- that may arise Imiwciii i Mali' and 
 one or luori' citiiensof uiioilnr Si:ii. VI tivil 
 or criinin.il nist's that iii,iy arise iiiuli r in iiirt 
 wiih f.irei'.-n powirs. VII. Ciu-smrMirtiinj.-'lIp' 
 loiiialie am Ills ami consuls 
 
 Art. 98, it b. lolics to till' Supr.111. CliR.il 
 
 Jiistiif, in ihe llrsi instance, to t,ik. . ..i'liiciiu* 
 of coiitroyersiis whi,h may arisi' IstHni, .iiu 
 State and anolliir, and of' those iu nhi.li lie 
 Union niiiy 1h' a parly 
 
 Art. 99. It ImIoiiu's also to the Siipnun ( ..i,n 
 of Jiislii I' to deteniiiiie the ipii siioiis of jun«lii' 
 lion whii'h may arise Isiwisn Ihe K. i.nl !P.' 
 buiials. Isiwien thes«- ami ihox- ol iln sim™ 
 orls'iwiH'ii till' eiMirtsof oiii- Siati- ati'l n. s .'1 
 anoihir 
 
 Art. 100. Ill the otiicr rases coaipr. hcii'li'lio 
 Artirli- UT. th,' .Supri-nii' Court of .lii.ii..'sl,alll» 
 
 l| l-olirt of npp...i! ,'r, rrtliifr ::f la-:! r-.t^-.rt :i:~.".:rd- 
 
 Ing to the giadiiatiiin wliii h the law inav iimki'll 
 the jurisilii tioiiof Ihi' ilniiit and .lisirill miirti 
 
 .'.S.S 
 
 » AddltkHis Iu tli» l'>iul|iutk«. li)Tt<'ml>'r & l<n 
 
coNBimmoN OP mexico. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO. 
 
 Art loi. The tribunals of the Federation nhall 
 decide all que«tion> which arise — I. Under laws 
 or acta of whatever authority which violate in- 
 diridual guarantees. II. Under laws or acts of 
 tbc State authority which violate or restrain the 
 giircrelgnty of the States. III. Under laws or 
 aru of the State authority which invade the 
 ipliere of the Federal authority. 
 
 Art. 102. All the judgments which the pre- 
 rniini; article mentions shall be had on petition 
 lit the aggrieved party, by means of judicial 
 iiiucMiiings and forms which shall be prescribed 
 Iv law. The sentence shall be alwavs such as 
 111 affect private individuals only, limUing itself 
 tn ilifrtiil iind protect them in the speciiil case to 
 which the process refers, without making any 
 pL-niT..! <li'claration respecting the law or act 
 whiib pivc rise to it. 
 
 Art. 103. The Senators, the Deputies, the mem- 
 licre I'f the Supreme Court of Justice, and the 
 S^n'taries of the Cabinet are resiwnsible for 
 ihc cDminon crimes which they may commit dur- 
 ing' tlii'ir tinns of office, and for the crimes, mis- 
 iliWaiiiirs. and negligence into which they may 
 fill in Ihi' |>erformance of the duties of said olBce. 
 TIh' (Jiivirnors of the States are lilicwise respon- 
 hIiU- fiir the infraction of the Constitution and 
 Kiihnil Ihws The President of the Itepublic is 
 al*p r*p<>nsible ; but during the term of Ins office 
 he may 1h' accused only for the crimes of treason 
 ai.'aiii.-t the country, express violation of tlie 
 l.iustitution. attack on the freetlom of election. 
 anil er.m crimes "f the common onler. The liicli 
 fuiutii>naric'S of the Federation sluill not eiijov 
 any('"Usiitutiooi|i privilege for tlie official crimes. 
 miiaUnuaUMrs, or negligence int4i which they may 
 fall in tin- |Hr(iirmance of any employment, "office. 
 I r pMlilii' commission which they may have ac- 
 (r|iinl iluring the |K'rio<l for whicli, in conformity 
 niih the law, they shall have been elected. The 
 Mine shall hap(>en with respect to those common 
 I rimes which they may commit during the per- 
 fiirnianci' of said employment, office, or commis- 
 .M.m. In onlir that the cause may t)e initUted 
 whin the high functlonarj- shall have retumeil 
 imhe 1 xereise of his proiier functions, proceeding 
 should lie undertaken in accordance with the 
 pMvision of Article UH of this Constitution. 
 
 Art. 104. If the crime should Ih' a common 
 one, the llouse of Hepn^entalives, formi'd Into 
 I );raud jury, shall declare, by an almolute ma- 
 Jorily (if V(iti"s, whether there is or is not gMund 
 M proceed against the accused. In the negative 
 csM'. there shall be no ground for further pro- 
 ceedings, in the afflnnativi, the accumHl shall 
 lie, liy ihe .said act. deprived of his offiie, and 
 •uiijecteil to the action of the ordiuary tribunals. 
 
 Art. 105. The house* shall take cognizance of 
 ntfli ial erinies, the House of Deputies as a jury 
 iif aci iiaulion. the Senators as a jury of judgment. 
 Till Jury iif accusation shall have for its object 
 til ihilari', by an absolute majority of votes, 
 » hi till r the accused is or is not culpable. If 
 tlie ihi'larai Ion should be absolutory, the fuiic- 
 ti.narv shall continue in the exenrlae'of his office ; 
 if it ihiiiihl !»• condemnatory, he shall be imme- 
 (liatelr ill priveil of his ulBce, and shall be placed 
 ■I tile ilis|M»al of the Senate. The lalh'r, fonneil 
 intiia jury of judgment, and, with the pieaence 
 nf ih- ;r;tr,!!>ai Sir! of the socaser, if there should 
 t* one. shall proceed to apply, l>y an alMolute 
 nMinriir of Tot«a, tlM punlaUMnt which the law 
 ile«i|fuites. 
 
 Art. 106. A judgment of responsibility for 
 official crimes having been pronounced, no favor 
 of pardon mav be extended to the offender. 
 
 Art. 107. "fhe responsibility for official crimes 
 and misdet ^.eanora may be required only during 
 the period in which the functionary remains in 
 office, and one vear thereafter. 
 
 Art. 108. W'ith respect to demands of the civil 
 order, tliere shall be no privilege or Immunity 
 for any |>ublic functionary. 
 
 Art. 109. The States shall adopt for their In- 
 tenial regimen the popular, representative, re- 
 
 f)ublican form of government, and mav provide 
 n tlieir respective Constitutions for the reelection 
 of the Governors in accordance with what .\rticlc 
 78 provides for the Presiiicnt of the Republic, 
 
 Art. no. The States may regulate among 
 thenist'lves, bv friendly agreements, their re- 
 spective boundiiries; but those regulations shall 
 not lie carrieil into effect without the approval 
 of the Con,i,'ress of the Union. 
 
 Art. III. The States may not in any case — 
 I. Form alliunc>es. treaties," or coalitions with 
 nnolher State, or with foreign powers, excepting 
 the conlitiou which the frontier States may make 
 for offensive or defensive war against "the In- 
 dians, II. Grant letters of marque or reprisal. 
 Ill, Coin money, oremit paper money or stamped 
 paper 
 
 Art. 113. Neither may any State, without the 
 consent of the Congress of "the Union; I. Es- 
 tablish tormage duties, or any port duty, or 
 impose ta,\es or duties upou importations or ex- 
 portatious II, Have at anv time permanent 
 triKips or vessels of war. III. .Make war by 
 itself on any foreign power except in coses of 
 invasion or of such inmdnent peril as to admit 
 of no delay. In these cases the Statu sliull give 
 notice iinnieiliately to the President of the Re- 
 public. 
 
 \rt. 11^. Each State is under obllgattou to 
 
 .iver without delay the criminals of other 
 States to the authority that claims Iheni, 
 
 Art. 114. The Giivernors of the States are 
 obliged to publish and cause to be obeyed the 
 Federal laws. 
 
 Art. 115. In each State of the Fi'deration en- 
 tire faith and credit shall lie given to the public 
 ai'ts, reconis, and judicial proceedings of all the 
 other States, The Congri'ss may, by means of 
 general laws, prescriln' the mariner "of proving 
 said acts, ri-cords, and proceedings, and the effect 
 thenof 
 
 Art. 1 16. The powers of the Union are' liound 
 to protect the States agaii'st all invasion or ex- 
 ternal violence. In autv of insurrection or in- 
 ternal disturbann- thev shall give them like pro- 
 tection, pMvideil the l^'gislature of the State, or 
 the Executive, if the lA'gislature Is not in session, 
 shall reques' it. 
 
 Art. 117. The ptiwers which are notexpressly 
 grnntisl by this Constitution to the Federal 
 authorities are understood to be reserved to the 
 States. 
 
 Art. Its. No person may at the same time 
 hold two Fiileral elective offices: but If eli-cted 
 to two, he ma^' choose which of tliem he will till. 
 
 Art. 119. No payment shall be made which t* 
 not comprehended in the budget or determined 
 by a suljarqumt law. 
 
 Art. lao. The President of the Republic, the 
 meulieni of the Supreme Court of Justice, the 
 Deputies, and other public olUccn of the Fedcnt- 
 
 689 
 
 I 
 
CONSTITUTIOK OP MEXICO. 
 
 Hon, who an chown by popuUr election, shall 
 recelre a compeniation for their eerTice*, which 
 "»J' jMdetennlned by law and paid by the Fed- 
 eral Treaiury. Thia compeniation may not be 
 renounced, and any law which augments or di- 
 minishes it shall not have effect during the period 
 for which a functionary holds the office. 
 
 Art. lai. Every public officer, without any 
 exception, before Uking possession of his office, 
 shall take an oath to maintain this Constitution 
 and the laws which emanate from It.* 
 
 Art. laa. In time of peace no milltanr au- 
 thority may exercise more functions than 'those 
 which have close coimectlon with military disci- 
 pline. There shall be fixed and permanent mill- 
 taiT commamis only In the castles, fortresses, 
 and magazines which are immediately under the 
 government of the Union ; or in encampments, 
 barmcks, or depots which may be established 
 outside of towns for stationing troopa 
 
 Alt. laj. It belongs exclusively to the Federal 
 authorities to exercise, in matters of religious 
 worship and external discipline, the interrention 
 which the laws may designate. 
 
 Art. 114. The States shall not Impose any duty 
 for the simple passage of goods in the internal 
 commerce. The Oovemment of the Unir alone 
 mav decree transit duties, but only with respect 
 to foreign goods which cross the country by In- 
 ternational or Interoceanic lines, without being 
 on the national territory more time than is nec- 
 essary to traverse it and depart to the foreign 
 countrr. They shall not prohibit, either directly 
 or Indirectly, the entrance to their territory, or 
 the departure from It, of any merchandise, ex- 
 crpt on police grounds; nor burden the articles 
 of national production on their departure for a 
 fori'ign country or for another State. The ex- 
 emptions from duties which they concede shall 
 be general ; they may not be decreed In favor of 
 the producu of specified origin. The quota of 
 the import for a given amount of merchandise 
 shall 1)6 the same, whatever may have been its 
 origin, and no hrarler burden may be assigned 
 to It than that which the similar products of the 
 political entity in which the import Is decreed 
 bear. The national merehandlse shall not be sub- 
 mitted to definite route nor to Inspection or reg- 
 tatry on the ways, nor any fiscal document be 
 demanded for iu internal circulation. Nor shall 
 they bunlen foreign merchandise with a greater 
 quota than that which may have been permitted 
 them by the Federal law to receive. 
 
 Art. ta$. The fortt. military quarters, maga- 
 lines, ai-d other edifices necessary to the govern- 
 
 CONSTTnmON OF NORWAY. 
 
 ment of the Union shall be under the immedlu. 
 Insnection of the Federal authorities. ^ 
 
 Art. ia6. This Constitution, the laws of thi 
 Coagnuot the Union which emanate from''^ 
 and all the treaties made or which shall be „i. 
 by the President of the Republic, with tl- ^ 
 provalof Cpngrets shall be the supreme uw S 
 the whole Union. The judges of each Stale »l,,n 
 begiiided by sai.i Constitution, law, and treaiS 
 in spite of provisions to the contrary which uut 
 appear in the ConsUtutlona or laws of thl 
 States. "* 
 
 Art. ia7. The present Constitution mar t* 
 added to or reformed. In order that ad.litiou 
 or alterations mav become part of the Constim. 
 tlon. It is noulred that the Congiess of the Inion 
 by a vote of two-thirds of the members pivsem' 
 shall agree to the alterations or additions oA 
 that these shall be approved by the maioritvof 
 the Leglshitures of the States. The Congrei 
 the Union shall count the votes of the Lcifillatuia 
 and make the declaration that the reformj or 
 additions have been approved. 
 
 Art. 138. This Constituti .1 shall not lose ia 
 force and vigor even if IU observance be inter 
 nipted by a rebellion. In case that by nnv pub. 
 lie disturbance a government contrary "to the 
 principles which It sanctions shall be rstiblished 
 as soon as the people recover their litM-rty iuob^ 
 servaoce shall be reesUblished, and In accordance 
 with It and the laws which shall have been a- 
 sued In virtue of It, shall be judged not onlj 
 those who shall have figured in the govcrament 
 emanating from the rebellion, but also liiosewbo 
 shall have cooperated with it. 
 
 AddiUont. 
 
 Art. I. The State and the Church are iode- 
 pendent of one another. The Congress mar not 
 pass laws establishing or prohibiting anv reliiion. 
 
 Art. a. Marriage U a civil contrait. ' This snj 
 the other acU relating to the civil state of persons 
 belong to the exclusive jurisdiction of the func- 
 tionaries and authorities of the civil order, witlim 
 llmlW provided b- 'he laws, and thoy shall have 
 the force and vai ^^oh the some attribute 
 
 to them. 
 
 Art. 3. No religious institution mav scquirt 
 real estate or capital fixed upon It, with'the msk 
 exception established in Article 37 of thii Cm 
 stitution. 
 
 Art. 4. The simple promise to speak the tniil 
 and to comply with the obligations which have 
 been Incurred, shall be substituted for the re 
 llgious oath, with iU eilecU and penalties. 
 
 STAtF',F'^'°''.°'' "EW YORK 
 STATE,— Itt levcral rcTitioni. See Nkw 
 
 York: A. D. 1777, 1821, 1846. 1867-lwi. a,«i 
 1bv4. 
 
 °. ^W 1^' 1814, ... a constitution was 
 grante<l to Norway. The Fundamental Law of 
 the constitution (OrundlOv), which almost every 
 peasant farmer now a days has framed and huni 
 up In the chief rtom of his house, bears the date 
 the 4th of November 1814. "—C F Kearr V'«r- 
 ».(#..«</ <*« AVrtf^«M. cA. 18. -The following 
 M the text of the constitution as granted In 1814 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF NORWAY. 
 
 •as* tiw AddiUoM ot a*pi«BiMr M, lan. 
 
 690 
 
 Titit I. 
 
 Article 1. The kingdom of Norway It t tm. 
 Independent, undlvlslble, and Inalienable ita», 
 united to Sweden under the same kinR. The 
 form of Iu government U limited, hcredltsry, 
 ana monarcfaia',1. 
 
 S. The Lutheran evangelical religion thill 
 continue to iw the ruling religion of the kin; 
 dom; tboM of the inhaUtanU which profe« It 
 
coNSTiTxrrioii of norwat. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF NORWAY. 
 
 uv bound to bring up their children in its tenet*; 
 jMuita and monaitic orders shall not he pro- 
 bibited in the kingdom. The admission of Jews 
 into the kingdom shall always be, as formerly, 
 p^bibited. ^^^^^^ 
 
 Article 1. The executive power is declared to 
 
 be in I lie person of the king. 
 
 3. The king shall always profess the evan- 
 gelical Lutheran religion, which he shall main- 
 fain and protect. 
 
 3. The person of the king is sacred : be can 
 neither be blamed or accused. 
 
 4. The succession is lineal, and collateral, 
 «ucb as it is determine<l by the order of succes- 
 sion decreed by the general estates of Sweden, 
 and Mnclioned by the king in the Act of the a6th 
 ifleptemher 1810, of which a translation is an- 
 neii'd to this Constitution. Of the number of 
 legitimate heirs, is comprehe-Jed the child in 's 
 mother's womb, which, as soon as it shall l>e 
 bum. after the death of its father, takes the place 
 irbich is due to him in the line of succession. 
 When a Prince, heir of the re-united crowns of 
 Xorway and Sweden, shall lie bom, his name, 
 mill the (lay of his birth shall be announced at 
 the tirst Storthing, and inscribed in the registers. 
 
 5. Shcjiihl there not \>e found any prince, a 
 leritimale heir to the throne, the king can pro- 
 pose bis successor at the Storthing of Norway, 
 md at the same time to the states general of 
 Snellen. As soon as the king shall have made 
 the proposition, the representatives of the two 
 nations shall choose from among them a commit- 
 tee, invested with the right of determining the 
 t'lertion, in case the king's proposition should 
 not, by the plurality of voices, be approved of 
 iiep-,ir;itcly by the representatives of each of the 
 cciuntries. The number of members of this com- 
 mittee, shall be composed of an equal number of 
 Norwegians and Swedes, so that the step to fol- 
 low in the election shall be regulated by a law 
 Tthiih the king shall propose at the same time to 
 the next Storthing, and the states general of 
 jweilen. They shall draw by lot one out of the 
 committee for its member. 
 
 6. The Storthing* of Norway, and the states 
 general of Sweden shall concert to fix by a law 
 the king's majority ; if they cannot agree, a com- 
 mittee, taken from the representatives of the two 
 nations, shall decide it in the manner established 
 bT anirle 5th, title 2nd. As soon as the king 
 !h»ll have attained the vears of majoritv fixed 
 by the law, he simll publicly declare that iie is of 
 •get 
 
 7. When the king comes of age he shall take 
 into his hands the reins of government, and make 
 the following oath to the Storthing: " I swear, on 
 my soul ami conscience, to govern the kingdom 
 of Norwav conformably to ito constitution and 
 lairs. ' If the Storthing is not then ass«mble<l 
 Ibis oath shall be deposited In writing in the 
 OTinril, and solemnly repeated by the king at 
 the tirst Storthing, either vivi voce or by writing, 
 hy Ibe person whom be shall have appointed to 
 this effect. 
 
 B. 'The coronation of the king shall take pUce 
 whenbe i> of age, in the cathedra! of Dmnthcfm. 
 
 ^^ aulaaal sMsmbljr, or gaosral MtoMs of toe kinc- 
 
 h.*«,lfr,°' '^' "'"Ihlnif. ISth July IMS. and «uictlon«1 
 •I'S. i^'V'rft** tl»t th. UBf Is major on arr<Tiii( 
 « iM •« of ei(titno jraars. 
 
 at the time and with those ceremoniet that iball 
 be fixed by himself. 
 
 O. The king shall pass some time hi Norway 
 yearly, unless this is prevented by urgent cir- 
 cumstances. 
 
 , lO- The king shall exclusively choose a coun- 
 cil of Norwegians, citizens, who shall have at- 
 taine<l the seventieth year of their age. This 
 council shall be composed at least of a minister 
 of state, and seven of'-r members. In like 
 manner the king can create a viceroy or a eov- 
 emmcnt. The king shall arrange the affairs 
 between the members of the council, in such 
 manner as he sfc i consider expedient. Besides 
 these ordinary members of council, the king, or 
 in his absence the viceroy (or the government 
 jointly with the ordinary members of council) 
 may on particular occasions, call other Norwe- 
 gians, citizens, to sit there, provided they are not 
 members of the Storthing. The father and son, 
 or two brothers, shall not, at the same time, have 
 a seat in the council. 
 
 11. The king shall appoint a governor of the 
 kingdom in his absence, and on failure It shall 
 be governe<l by the viceroy or a governor, with 
 five at least of the members of council. They 
 shall govern the kingdom in the name and behalf 
 of the king; and tlioy shal' observe inviolably, 
 as much the principles cor .ained in this funda- 
 mental law as those relative precepts the king 
 shall lay down in his instructions. They shall 
 make a humble report to the king upon those 
 affairs they have decided. All matters shall be 
 decided by plurality of votes. If the votes 
 happen to be equal, the viceroy or governor, or 
 in their absence the first member of council, shall 
 have two, 
 
 12. The prince royal or his eldest son can be 
 viceroy ; but this can only occur when they have 
 attained the majority of the king. In the case 
 of a govenior, either a NorwegUn or a Swede 
 may be nominated. The viceroy shall remain in 
 the kingdom, and shall not be alloweid to reside 
 in a foreign one beyond three months each year. 
 When the king shall be present, the viceroy's 
 functions shall cease. If there is no viceroy, but 
 only a governor, the functions of the latter shall 
 also cease, in which event he is only the first 
 member of cotincil. 
 
 13. During the residence of the king in 
 SweiUn, he shall always have near him the 
 minister of state of Norway, and two of the 
 members of the Norwegian council, when they 
 shall Ik- annuallv changed. These are charged 
 with similar duties, and the same constitutional 
 responsibility attucbcs to them as to the sitting 
 council in Norway ; and It is only In their pres- 
 ence that state affairs shall be decided by the 
 king. All petitions addressed to the king by 
 Norwegian cltizeus ought, first, to be transmitted 
 to the Norwegian council, that they may be duly 
 considered previously to decisions being pro- 
 nounced. In general, no affairs ought to be 
 decided before the council has expressed an 
 opinion, in case it should be met with important 
 objections. The minister of state of Norway 
 ought to report the affairs, and he shall be re- 
 sponsible for expedition in the resolutions wbioh 
 snail have been taken. 
 
 14. The king shall regulate public worship 
 and ita rites, as well as all assemblies that have 
 religion for their object, so that ministers of re- 
 ligion may observe their forms prescribed to them. 
 
 5U1 
 
CONSTirUTION OF NORWAY. 
 
 in. The king can gire and sboUsh ordhumcet 
 which respect commeroe, the cu8tom-hoiue, 
 niunufncturei, and police. They shall not, how- 
 ever, be contrary to the constitution nor the laws 
 adopted by the Storthing. They shall have pro- 
 visional force until the next Storthing. 
 
 16. The king shall in general regulate the 
 taxes imposed by the Storthini. The public 
 treasurer of Norway shall remain in Norway, and 
 the revenues shall only be employed towards the 
 expenses of Norwxy. 
 
 17. The king shall superintend the manner 
 in which the domains and crown property of the 
 state are employed and governed, in the manner 
 fi.\c>l by the Storthing, and which shall be most 
 advantageous to the country. 
 
 1 8. The king in council has the right to par- 
 don rrimir-'s when the supreme tribunal has 
 prnimunced its opini m. The criminal has tlie 
 choiie of receiving pardon from the king or of 
 submitting to tlic punishment to which be is 
 condemned. In the causes wlilch the Odelsthing 
 would liave ordered to be carried to the Itigsret, 
 tliere erui be no other pardon but that which 
 simll liberate from a capital punishment. 
 
 lO. The king, after having heard his Norwe- 
 gian council, shall dispose of all the civil, eccle- 
 siastic, and military empl' .lents. Those who 
 assist in the functions shall swear olKii.ence au(l 
 tiilelity to the constitution and to the ki'ig. The 
 Iirinres of the royal family cannot be invested 
 with nuy civil employment; yet the prince royal, 
 or his eldest son, may Iw nominated viceroy. 
 
 m). The governor of the kingdom, the minis- 
 ter of state, other meml)ers of council, and those 
 eniiiloyed in tile functions connected with thi-se 
 oltlcis, the envoys and consuls, superior magis- 
 tnites, civil anil ecclesiastic commanders of regi- 
 nients. and othiT military bodies, governors of 
 firrtresses, and commanders-in-chief of sliips of 
 war, shall, without previous arrest, be dejiosed 
 by the king and his Norwegian council. As to 
 the iH'iislon to be granted to those emploved thev 
 shiill l)e deciiled by the first Storthing." In the 
 mean time, they shall enjoy two-third parts of 
 their former salary. The others employed can 
 only lie susix^nueii by the king, and thev shall 
 afterwards lie brouith't Ufore the tribunals, but 
 cannot lie deposed excepting by order of an 
 arrest, and the king enn:ii>t make them change 
 their situations contrary to their will. 
 
 21. The king can confer orders of knighthood 
 on whomsoever he chooses, in rewanl of dis- 
 tinguished services, which shall be published; 
 but he can confer no other rank, with the title, 
 than that which is attached to everv emplovment. 
 Anonlerof knlchthooii does not liberate the per- 
 son on nliom it is conferred f mm those duties 
 common to all citizens, and part'^ular titles are 
 not conferrc<I in order to obtain situations in the 
 state. Such persons shall preserve the title and 
 rank attache)! to those situations which thev 
 liave occupied. No person can, for the future, 
 obtain personal, mixed, or hereditary privileges. 
 
 22. The king elects and dismisses, whenever 
 he thinks proper, all the offlcent attached to bis 
 court. 
 
 23. The king is commandei -chief of all the 
 force*, by «s-s sn-l land, in ihr kifigjum, and 
 thete cannot be increased or diminished without 
 the consent of the Storthing. Tbey will not be 
 ceded to the service of any forei|tn power, and 
 troops belooging to » (oni(n power (except 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP NORWAY. 
 
 auxiliary troops In case of a hostile invuiog 
 caimot enter the country without the consent o 
 the Storthing. Durins peace, the Ni]rwcr|« 
 troops shall be stationed In Norway, ami not {, 
 Sweden. Notwithstanding this tlie kmi; nui 
 have in Sweden a Norwegian guard, eomp,«f; 
 of "volunteers, and may for a short time, nut n 
 CJtiiing six weeks In a year, assemble truops i, 
 tile envin of the two countries, for exercisioj 
 but in case there are more than 8,000 men. com 
 posing the army of one of the two countries, thu 
 cannot in time of peace enter the other.* Th, 
 Norwegian army and gun-boats shall not be mi 
 ployeil without the consent of the Stonhini; 
 The Norwegian fleet shall have drv (i(Hks, and 
 during jK-ace its stations and harlxnirs in X..r 
 way. hhips of war of both countries sliail 1* 
 supplied with the seamen of the other, m hanti 
 they shall voluntarily engage to serve. Tit 
 landwebr, and other Norwegian furci-s, vUci 
 are not etdculated among the nunilxruf tmopi 
 of the line, shall never be employed biyonj tit 
 frontiers of the kingdom of >orwav. 
 
 24. The king has the right o'f assemblin 
 troojis, commencing war. making peace, concluj- 
 ing and dissolving trtaties, sending ministers to 
 and receiviuK those of, foreign courts. Wlienht 
 begins war he ought to advise the council o! 
 Norway, consult it. and order it to jireparc u 
 adiln-ss on the state of the kingdom, nlntive ". 
 its flnantvs, and propi-r means of definif. On 
 this the king shall convoke the minister of state 
 of Norway, and those of the council of !S»-iilia, 
 at an extraordinary osst'inlily, when he »lall ri^ 
 l)lain all those relative circumstances tliat ou;li; 
 to lie taken into consideration ; witli a npresenu. 
 tion of the Norwegian council, and a similar ok 
 on the part of Sweden, upon the state of the king- 
 dom, shall then be pres»'nu-d. The kiut' sliiill ikii 
 require advice upon these objects; and eiicli slull 
 be inserted in a register, under the responsibilitr 
 iinposeil by the omstitution, when ilie kinjtsliail 
 then adopt that resolution which he juclces niusi 
 Iir<)|)er for the beueflt of the state. 
 
 2n. (In this occasion a'l the memliers of coun- 
 cil must lie presimt, if not prevented bv some law- 
 ful cause, and no resolution ought to'lx- .i(l"piri 
 unless one half of the members are n.c-sent. In 
 Norwegian affaiis, which, accordi' . the HI- 
 tcenth article, are decided in Sued > rwilu- 
 
 tion shall lie taken unless the iiiir.' .f state d 
 Norway and one of the member council, or 
 two nieinlwrs, arc present. 
 
 20. The representations resp<..ting employ- 
 ments, and other important acts, exee|itiu(; tiioit 
 of a diplomatic and military nature, |mi[wririo 
 calle<l, bIihII lie referred to the cnumil bv liim 
 who is one of the inemliers in the departmeni 
 charged with it, who shall acconlingly draw up 
 the resolution adopted in council. 
 
 27. If any member of council is prevemed 
 from appearing, and referring theaffain wliicli 
 belong to his peculiar department, he shall be rt- 
 placed in this otUce by one of the others sppointW 
 to this purpose, either by the king, if penoiially 
 present, and if not, by him who has precedence in 
 the muncil, iointlr w"ith the other memlier* com- 
 posing it. Should several of these be prcvcDtcil 
 
 • Tin law of the 8torUUii(, Uh Jul7 1*16. bwi. Hal 
 troopfl of tho lliw ■hall be «mplo]red bejrotul ttie rrunlMl 
 of the kln«dom, and tlw latarprautlon gtyu b; li u Uiii 
 lav la, that troon of tb* lias shaU b* amplureii btjiai 
 Um fruBllan of th* two "-f*™-! 
 
 592 
 
CONSTITCTION OF NORWAY. 
 
 CONSTITUTIOII OF NORWAY. 
 
 tmn appearing, M that only one half of the ordl- 
 jorr number ii present, the other employed in 
 tlw'offlcea ihall in like manner have right to dt 
 in council ; and in that event it itiall be after- 
 nrdf referred to the king, who decides if they 
 ouuht to continue to exerclae tliia office. 
 
 28. The council shall keep a register of all 
 iffain tbat may come tinder its consideration. 
 Every individual who sits in it shall be at liberty 
 to frive bis opinion freely, which the king is 
 obliged to hear: but it is reserved to bis majesty 
 to aitopt resolutions after he has consultea his 
 own mind. If a member of council finds that 
 tbe liinf^'s resolutinn is contrary to the form of 
 {OTeroment, the luws of the kingdom, or in- 
 jurious to the state, he shall consider it his duty 
 to oppose it, and record his opinion in the register 
 seconlingly ; but he who remains silent shall be 
 presumed to have agreed with the king, and 
 shall be responsible for it, even in the case of be- 
 Id; Inferred to at a future period -, and the Odels- 
 thine is empowered to bring him before the 
 Rlrs'ret. 
 
 29. All the ordera i88uc<l by the king (mlli- 
 tarr nffiiirs excepted) shall be countersigned by 
 the' Xcinvegian minister of state. 
 
 30. Krsolutions made in absence of the king, 
 br the council in Norway, shall be publicly pro- 
 rlaimcd and signed by the viceroy, or the gov- 
 jraor and council, and countersigncil by him who 
 shall h.ivo referred them, and he is further re- 
 spiinsihle for the accuracy and dispatch with the 
 red^ter in wliich the resolution is entere<l. 
 
 31. All representations relative to the affairs 
 of this country, as well as writings concerning 
 them, must lie in the Norwegian lai;^uage. 
 
 33. The heir-apparent to'tlie throne, if a son 
 of the reifcnini; king, shall have the title of prince 
 Mval. the other legitimate heirs to the crown 
 shiill be ealle<l princes, and the king's daughters 
 priufrssea. 
 
 33. As soon as the heir shall have attained 
 the age of eij^bteen, he shall have a right to sit 
 in council, without, however, having a vote, or 
 aar .. i»insil)ility. 
 
 in. No prince of the blood shall marry with- 
 out prnnis^iou of the king, and in case of con- 
 inivintion, be shall forfeit bis right to the crown 
 of Xiirwiiy. 
 
 3!i. Tlif princes and princesses of the royal 
 family, iilutll not. so far as respects their persons, 
 be biiunil to appear Ix-fore other Judges, but tie- 
 tore the kiiiir or whomsoever he shall have ap- 
 pointeil for that purpose. 
 
 'M\, Tlie minister of state of Norway, as well 
 ai the two members of council who are near the 
 kine. shall iiave a seat and deliberative voire in 
 the Swidisli council, where objects relative to 
 the two kinirdoms shall be treated of. In affairs 
 of this nature the advice of the council ought 
 al»i to In. underattxid. unless these require quick 
 dispatch. 8<i as not to allow time. 
 
 37. If llie king happens to die, and the heir 
 to the throne is under age, the council of Nor- 
 way, and tliat of Sweden, shall assemble, and 
 mutually call a convocation of the Storthing in 
 Xorway and Diet of Sweden. 
 
 38. Although the representatives of the two 
 iiii<i...iii» should liave assembled, and regulated 
 the admtaistration during the king's minority, a 
 miincil composed of an equal number of Nor- 
 ^i-^'ian and Swedish members shall govern the 
 (ugdoms, and follow their fundament^ reuipro- 
 
 ■Jt 
 
 eal laws. The minister of state of Norway whi 
 sits in this council, shall draw by ballot in order 
 to decide on which of its memben the preference 
 shall happen to fall. 
 
 39. The reguUtion* contained In the two lost 
 articles shall be always equally adopted after the 
 constitution of Sweden. It belongs to the Swed- 
 ish council, in this quality, to be at the head of 
 government. 
 
 40. With respect to more particular and neces- 
 sary affairs that might occur in cases under the 
 three former articles, the king shall propose to 
 the first Stortliing in Norway, and at the first 
 Diet in Sweden, a law having for its basis the 
 principle of a perfect equality existing between 
 the two kingdoms. 
 
 41. The election of guardians to be at the 
 head of government during the king's minority, 
 shall be made after the same rules and manner 
 formerly prescribed in the second title. Article 
 5th. concerning the election of an heir to the 
 throne. 
 
 42. The individuals who in the cases under 
 the JJHIh and 39th articles, are at the head of gov- 
 ernment, shall be. the Norwegians at the Storth- 
 ing of Norway, and shall take the following oath : 
 " I swear, on my soul and conscience, to govern 
 the kingdom conformably to its constitution and 
 laws;" and the Swe<les shall also make a similar 
 oath. If there is not a Storthing or Diet, it shall 
 be deposited in writing in the council, anil after- 
 wards repeateil at the first of these when they 
 happen to assemble. 
 
 43. As soon as the governments have ceased, 
 they shall be restored to the king, and the Storth- 
 ing. 
 
 44. If the Storthing is not convoked, agree- 
 alily to what is expressed in the 38th and 30th 
 articles, the ' 'iremc tribunal shall consider it as 
 an imperio' duty, at the expiration of four 
 we«'ks, to I a meeting. 
 
 45. The charge of the education of the king, 
 in case his fatlier may not have left in writing 
 instnictious reeanling it, shall be regulated in 
 the manner laid down under tlic 5tb and 41st 
 articles. It is held to be an invariable rule, that 
 the king during his minority shall learn the Nor- 
 wegian language. 
 
 46. If the masculine line of the royal family 
 is cxiiiict, and there lias not lieen elected a suc- 
 cessor to the throne, the election of a new 
 ilynasty shall be proceeded in, and afttrthe man- 
 iiir prescribed under the .'ith article. In the 
 meau titne the executive power shall be exercised 
 agreeably to the 41st article. 
 
 Title III. 
 Article 1. I.*gislative power Is exercised by 
 the Storthing, which is constituted of two houses, 
 namelv, tlie I.jiirthing and Ddelsthing. 
 
 2. S'one shall have a right to vote but Nor- 
 wegians, who have attained twenty-five years, 
 niul resided in the country during five years. 
 1. Th<i«e who are exercising, or who have exer- 
 cised functions. 2. Possess land in the country, 
 which has been let for more than five years. 3. 
 A'e buriresses of some city, or possess either in 
 it. or s<mie village, a house, or property of the 
 value oi at least tiiree hundred bank crowns in 
 silver. 
 
 3. There shall be drawn up in cities by the 
 magistretes, and in every parish by the p'ublto 
 authority and the priest, a register of all the in- 
 
 593 
 
Ill, 
 
 
 'i?[ 
 
 
 ■ijrii 
 
 3. 
 
 •igii 
 
 li:in 
 
 arc 
 
 't 
 .* 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF iVORWAY. 
 
 habitants who areTotere. T,>y xhall also note 
 in It without delay, tlioae chi.u) i which m*y 
 •ueoessivfly take place. Befcjic i- ing iugcrilH-d 
 in the register, every onu shall take an <iBth, be- 
 fore the tribunal, of fldelitv to 'lie -onstitution. 
 
 4. Hightof Totingi»sii«iH'n'i, t .■ the follow- 
 iag cases: 1. By the ac< ■isatiou . f iiime Iwfore 
 a tribunal: 2. By not attaining t'.ie propter age; 
 8. By insolvency or baiikruptc laiti'. creditors 
 have obtainetl their payment In ■ !i' I • aless it 
 can Ix' proved that the former h;is ' • n from 
 lire, or other unforeseen events, 
 
 rt. The right of voting Is forf ■;: .1 . ivelv: 
 
 1. By condemnation to the hi n- ■ of co.--, rtion, 
 slaviry, or punishment fordtfa . .lorv 1 uik lage: 
 
 2. By acceptance of the trv,.' i it 
 
 Bower, without the consent i.: •■ nun 
 y obtaining the right of i u -ii a :. ■ 
 country. 4. By conviction c! .>■, ;i.;-'uri 
 and sold votes, and having \j).ni in mut 
 one electoral 8s.sembly. 
 
 O. The electoral assembli^ iii, i,. . , 
 hild every three years, and si \ ':i, -I: ' ■ t, i 
 euil of tlie month of Dcc-^nil. r 
 
 7. Klectoral assemblies f'i ' l br LiM f(.ri. 
 country, at the manorhou.-' ' •!..■ ]y.,'.i<. •', 
 church, towuhull, or some ,'li • .i' (.'u i , 
 the country they shall 1h- il.re i i Dy . :; .• 
 minister and asiiintants; and in t rns, bv .,■ ti- 
 trates and sherilTs: election shiul w made ..: . • 
 order api>cinted I- the register>' Pisro'^s i i; 
 cemiui: Ilie right -f voting sliiill W decided h\ 
 the dir( tors of the assembly, inmi whose jud^'- 
 ment ■.n. apjn m1 may be made t.i -..le Worthing. 
 
 8. Before proceeding to the iliTtlon. the con- 
 stitution shall Ik' read with ;i loud voi(f in the 
 I ities, by the first magistrate, and in the country 
 i'>' Tlii- ( unte. 
 
 !». In lities. an elector shall he cliostn bv fifty 
 eli:;il>li' inhabitants. They shall aswinlile eight 
 iliivs after, in tlie plaei appointed by tlie niagis- 
 tnii . and eh. lose, either from umouastiliemselves, 
 or from oiliers who are eligible in the department 
 of tlicir lid tioi), a fourth of liiiir uumin-r to ^^it 
 at tin Slorlhiiig, that is after the manner of three 
 to si.v ill elioosing one; seven to ten in electing 
 two; ileven to fourtei-n in dioosing tiin-e, and 
 lifteen to eighteen In electing four; which is tlie 
 greatest nuinlH-r |K'rmitted to a citv to semi If 
 thesi eon.sist of less than l.W eligible inhabitants, 
 they shall send the electors to the nearest citv to 
 vote conjointly with the electors of the f<irlner, 
 ^» lien the two shall only be considen-d as fonning 
 one district.* 
 
 lO. In each parish in the eouutrv the, lii:ib|e 
 inhabitants shall choose in proportion u< tluir 
 nil :il)ir electors in the following iiianni r. iliat is 
 to say, a liundred may choose one; two to thri-i- 
 huiulred, three; and so on in the same prop, r 
 lion.t Klectorssliall assemble a month after in 
 the place appointe.1 by the bailiir. and .liiMise, 
 eitlier from amongst themselves .ir the others of 
 
 • .\ law loiweil Mil Ffhruary IKIB mnlalns this anifn.l- 
 lii.-Ml Tuwitv ttveeleeliirauKlmureslmll no: el«tiii..r<> 
 I laii Ihr.i- r.-|,r.^-ntalivrti. whieh Khali b-. a.l inl.nm 
 til- cival-sl n .niber which the Iwilml.-k can ivud .111,1' 
 omwiiueiilly rut ..f whlih the numlier ..f re|irv«.ntalire« 
 In the e..uiii> which an slity^ue, shall be .liniinuhisl 
 fn.Tii ftftv I dflylhrw ..u~.r-. 
 
 ♦ if full. f- .■■i..rtl.iiiini iiiaa- 'vrr thd nuiulier <.r n-pre- 
 ■enlallvn. ..f [..wns f r..m an lner«w of MmulaUtai (.h.niia 
 •m.Minl to thirty, Ih- name Rtorthlnu nfiafi liave rlirlil I.. 
 •lUnncnl ..f new tli- n.iniher of nfprewnlallnni „f tho 
 e.>UDtr>-. ID the mariwr Bie,l liy Ihf prlmiule. of the con- 
 rltuth«, whk-h •hall be hel.i aa a rule lu future 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF NORWAY 
 
 the bailiwick ellglMc, a tenth of their own nuir 
 Iwr to sit at the Storthing, so that five to foun» 
 may choose one; flftwn to twentv-fnu, „. 
 choose two of them; twenty-five w> iliinvf™ 
 three; thirty -five and beyond It, four. Tlii'stoh 
 greatest number. " 
 
 1 1. The powers contained In the 9th and 'iit 
 articles shall have their proper fot»e an.| Hff>' 
 until next Storthing. If it is found timt iCl 
 presentatlvcsof cities constitute mon'orle«,ii™ 
 one-third of those of the kingdom, the St<,rtlii7. 
 OS a rule for the future, shall have right t . 1 ,1," 
 these powers in sucli a manner that rii.h,,-' 
 fives of the cities may join with tli.ji ..f it, 
 country, as one to two; and the toful number,' 
 representatives ought not to be under swosr 
 five, nor alnive one hundred. 
 
 12. Those eligihie, who are in the c, .ntn 
 ami are prevented from attendinc bv si.-knei 
 mililarv service, or other propii -,:i.s„iu nr 
 transmit their votes in writing totli.,-- wlindiivc; 
 the elirtoral assimblies. before their •■rminati* 
 
 • ;? 1 person can \k chosen a n prfwntariTt 
 is thirty years of age, an 1 Imsrwiurf 
 . n .tars in flie country. 
 
 14. The memU-rs of council, tiivw omt- )t«! 
 in flu ir offices, ollleers of the court, ami it- in- 
 sioiiers, shall not !«■ chosen as repnseutativA 
 
 m. Individuals chosen to Is- ri p^•sentali^« 
 an- obliged to accept of the electi.in. unless [itv 
 ' eut.d by motives considereil lawful by fluflHi 
 • IS. wh.«e jiirlgnient may Ih' sulimit'le.1 lu th« 
 .lecisi.m of the Storthing. A pers..n wW hi, 
 apj>earetl more than once as represei lativi- a: i- 
 ordinury Storthing, is not obliired f.i am-ni .if rt- 
 electi.m for the next ordinary Si.irtliini'. Ifl. 'ji 
 reasons prevent a n-presitifative from ai)|..nnii; 
 at the Storthing, the person wh.i after bimlui 
 most votes shall take his place 
 
 HI. As so<m as npresenfatlvcs have i.ts 
 eleete.i. they shall n>ceive a writing in thtn.ui 
 try from the suiH'rior magi.>irate. iiinl ii. tivtitirt 
 fr..m the magistrate. als("> fr.nu all tli.fl..i„»i 
 a^a pr.Lif that they have Imih il.ite.l intli.-.niaii- 
 n.T prescrilK-i| by tl,.' constiiutioii. Tli.' St.irii- 
 ing sli.ill iu.lge of the h'L'ality f Ibis auil...riiy 
 
 17. .VII repres«'ir,alivrs liav, a rit'lit l..(laiit 
 an inilemiiitication in imvellini: i.i nml n-iuraioj 
 from the .^torihing; as w.-ll as Miii-isteii,r.l'^. 
 inu the peri.xl they shall have reiimiiii-.l tlien-. 
 
 18. During the journey, ami ntiirn .f n-pi*. 
 senfatiM-s, as well as llie tiiii.' th. v iiiav Lave 
 attended the Storthing, tli.y ar.' ixi-inpt"! fno 
 arrest; unless they ■;[-.■ -.i/.-.l in Mniie tij/nuii 
 anil publii iiet. and .nt .'f the Storiliinirtli. ; »y; 
 not ill- ns|...nsible f.,r the opinii.n^lh-y may In' 
 declared in if. K\iry one is iH'un.i t.i ninf'ts. 
 himself to file opl. r establisheii in ir 
 
 10. Heprewntafives, chosen in the manaT 
 alxive d. eland. iom|)os<.' the ."'tTtliiug of ■.in 
 klnirdoiii of Norway. 
 
 SO. The otHiiiiig of the ^"torthiug sta2 be 
 ina.h- the first lawful day in the m. .utli of f ■ ■-»■ 
 ary, every threi- \iars, iii the capit il nf fbi t;:j- 
 d.im, unless th"'kiiig, in extrai.r liiiiry rir.;'im- 
 Btanees. by fon'iirn invasion or iiini:ii.-i.«i»'li»'a«. 
 fixes on some <ilhercity of tl.,- Lintiinn, Sua 
 chanste ought tlien to lie ear!, ann.u.-: ..!. 
 
 m1. Ill e.Mnioriiiiiary -.-asi-s, '-n- M:^_iiasiijt 
 right ..f as.si-mbling the Storiliing witli-iuiB- 
 «|H-el to the or.ii'iary time. Tl.e king wilhhf!; 
 cause t.. be issu. d a pna-lamatinh. wliidi i- 1 '- 
 read in all the [Tiucipal rhuri i ■ - six w.-t«,- .. 
 
 594 
 
COXSTmJTION OF NORWAT. 
 
 least prevlou* to the d»y fixed (or the suem- 
 bliii; o( memben of the Storthing at the pUce 
 
 a'i. Such extnordlnuT Storthing may bedis- 
 lolveil by the king when he shall Judge fit. 
 
 S3, Members of the Storthing shall continue 
 in the exerctae of "heir office during three con- 
 KCUtiTe years, as much during an extraonilnary 
 a ADV oViitnary Storthiog that might be held 
 juriog this time. 
 
 24. If an extraordlnury Storthing is held at a 
 iimf when the ordlnar>- Storthmg ought to as- 
 stmble. the functions i>f the first will ceant, as 
 soon »» the second shall have met. 
 
 25. The extraordinary Storthing, no more 
 llmu the ordinary, can be held if two-thirds of 
 the members do not happen to be present. 
 
 20. As soon as tlie Storthing shall be organ- 
 ized, the king, t>r tlie person who shall be ap- 
 iminli'il by him for that purpose, shall open it by 
 »n lulcln'sia. In w liich he is to dt-scribe the (itate of 
 llje kingdom, anil those ob.j< its to which In- di- 
 ml« the attention of the Stor.hing. Xo iKliU-r- 
 atidnoujiht tc take I luce In tlie king's pres.!iie. 
 TheS'torthiag shall choose Iroin it«memlH'r» "ue- 
 (ourlb pan to form the Lagthing. and the other 
 tbiwfoiinh.sto constitute the Odelsthlng. Kiieh 
 of these li"ii»es shall have its private mietings, 
 ami rioniiiiiiU' its president and s< retary. 
 
 27. It liolongs to the Storthinir —1. To make 
 ami al«ilish laws, establish impc ■■ts. taxes, cu.-s- 
 tiini'liouses, and other piililir actK. which shnll. 
 however, only exist until the 1st ul .July of thut 
 year. ^ lien a new Storthini!- shall I"' ii.s.'«-inlili-il 
 iinliss this last Is expresi*!. rii.i'.».il li^- th.-m 
 2 To make loans. Iiy meaii.s of tli credit of the 
 slate. 3 Towaii i Viver the finaiu. -.of the state. 
 4 To grant sums iieressar/ for it» i .\pens«"s. H 
 T"!i^ 'he vearl> vrant for the ii intenar.ce of 
 !li>' kini! anil vici r .y, and also d i|m ages <if the 
 r ..il taimily; whicli oui;ht not. however, to con- 
 ► -: h Isiicied property. 8. To exhibit the regis- 
 tiTiif the ^lttin^' council in Xorwiiv. ami all the 
 re|Kins. ami public documents (tiie nffnirs of 
 luililary ronimaiul excepttHl;. andcfrtibr«: c^pii's, 
 iT extracts of liiv r(i:i«!vr8 kept by tin- ministers 
 ofttiiteand mcmlurs council neiir the king, or 
 tlie pullic di lunients. -i tiiili shall liai e lieeii pm- 
 iluu"! 7 To .ommiiiiiciie wliiittviT .n-aiii-s 
 ilie kmi: slivll have concludei! In the mime of tlie 
 M.itewith i Teigri powers, excepting secivt arti- 
 rlis. "iri'inli-i! these are not In coniri\dirr'.on >viih 
 
 lie tiiililii articles. H. To require all individuals 
 Il ap[)eiir ti fore the Storthing on aifairs of state. 
 the kills.' iml royal faniiiy excepteil. This is not. 
 howevt r. iippIicahU' to llie princes of tlie royiil 
 hinily. as tin y an- i.ivesteii with othrTollloestliuu 
 til if vici r. y. 9. To examine the lists of |m>- 
 v;-: >uh1 pi'tiMons; auo to niakr su li ultenitlous 
 ..- -hull be jiiilgiil net i-ssary. 10. Ta tiaim- five 
 ri-.wr-i, who an' annually to exniiiiiie Ihe ac- 
 iiiMiv< f tlie stall . and piihli-ih printitl i-xirae'.s 
 1 5 t;iist', which are to bi' n'Uiinn! in ttu- ri-vi-H-rs 
 di*Mvery year Ikfure the 1st of Jul U To 
 ^ ' mViw fi,r>:igiiers. 
 
 <. Ijiws ought first Ut Ix' propoBt-d to the 
 o -thing, either by its own nu-mlurs or llie 
 
 £.iv, I ijmt.n^^ IhrtlU uh 0!*.t' '. ? i *- lit: me JU t^* - ' f COU!!- 
 
 (ii If the proposition is accepti-d .iliall In 
 •<!:• • 'lie Ijigthing, who approve r reject ;■ 
 w: the last case return it Bcroinpani-d wi- 
 rks These shall be weighfi by the «)deis 
 wbich let* the pruiiowd law asiile, or 
 
 CONSTITCTION OF NOBWAT. 
 
 remits it to the Lagthing, with or without alter 
 ntions. When a law shall bare been twice pro- 
 poseil by the Odelstbing to the Lagthing, and 
 the hitter shall have rejected It a second time, 
 the Storthing shall assemble, when two-thirds of 
 the votes shall decide upon it. Tliree daya at 
 least ought to pass between each of those delib- 
 erations. 
 
 29." When a resolution proposed by the Odels- 
 thing shall be approved by tlie L,agthlng, or by 
 the Storthing alone, a depututlon of tiiese two 
 houses to the Storthing shall jiresent It to the 
 king If he is present, and If not, to the viceroy, or 
 Norwegian council, and req„; 3 It may receive 
 the royal sanction. 
 
 30. Should the king approve of the resolution, 
 he subiicribes to it, and from that period it is de- 
 clared to iJdss Into a public law. If he disap- 
 proves he returns it to the Odelsthing, declaring 
 tliat at this time he does m t give It his sauctiim. 
 
 31. In thise%'ent, the Morthing, then asi m- 
 bled, ouglit to S'lbmit the rtiiolution to the king, 
 who may proc-ee.i in it in the same manner if the 
 first onimarj- Storthing presents again to him the 
 sauw resolution. But if, after reconsideration, 
 it is still aii pted by the two houses of the third 
 ordinary St- "thinir. and afterwards submitted to 
 the king, wi •> shall have been intnateil not to 
 \ltlih'ld hi- Niuctiou to a resolution that the 
 Stortiiing, aft'-r the most mature deliberations, 
 belii ^' H to tx- ii> !ul: It slial' a. .^lire thestn'ngth 
 of a , >v, I'veu uld it nut ii i-ive the king's 
 sigiiaiiire liefnrt ,»■ dosing - the Storthing. 
 
 32. The Ston ling shall ^ as long as it shall 
 be jtidijud tieces-ary, but ' l>eyond three 
 mouths, without tlie king's i issiou. 'When 
 the businrss is finished, or after t has assembled 
 fur th- time fixed, .t is dis8olvt<i by the king. 
 His Majesty gives, at the same lime, his --luc- 
 tiiin to the ileerees not ain'ady decided, eltl" r In 
 (orrolKir.itingornjecting them. AH those not ex- 
 pressly siuictioneil are held to be n'jected bv him. 
 
 33I Ijiws are to be drawn up in the Norwe- 
 gian language, and (those mentioned li< Slr.i ar:l- 
 ele excepteil in name of the king, under the sea! 
 of the kiuu'doin, and in these terms -"Wc. lii 
 lie ^t known, that there has lieen sulmiitte' 
 us a decree of the Storthiu ' '<if such a uatei 
 thus expnsstHl (follows the r- lutton; »\"c have 
 areepted "nt sanctioned as \t^^ the - ■ decree, 
 in giving it our signature, and seal ( ' m kihg- 
 'ioin," 
 
 34. The kiuirs sanctiim is not nece»-.ry to the 
 resoluti'tiis uf 'lie Slorlhiiig. by wiiicli Uw h-i^i.'- 
 hitive l««ly,- Deelari ? itsidf"or.'ani/.r.l as ,a 
 nbini.-," <• . Mnling U' the coutituu n .'. 
 ,.^ulii! - - internal pi, ice. 3. .\iee| or re- 
 jects win^ if present in. 'nbers. 4 
 •-ejeels judgments relai; to disj 
 iiig eUwtums. .'1. Xatumiijes f 
 And in short, tin. resolution !>y wh: 
 
 tliirg »>nlers soiiif niemii--T • 
 '■. '.re ;h" ■ribunal- 
 
 ."15. Ti. stonlii-.g can r 
 lie siipieni.' tribunal in jiuli 
 
 ■Mi, TheStonhinL- -11 1. 
 01- n doo-«. and it" 
 l.-j.,:.ij, f.\-i-enting ■ 
 ure shall liave Ik. 
 VI lies. 
 
 37. Win. ever n 
 the .-'li.rtliing. reii. 
 h?.-li treason t.mM 
 
 cou 
 
 ', inrms ur 
 • » resjieet- 
 jn--n. 6. 
 u tjit iMels- 
 i to appeal 
 
 of 
 
 nan^: ihe a. 
 
 »l I Men 
 
 i Hs sittlnL's with 
 
 -hall lie prictiMl :.ii I pub- 
 
 wlu'ri . nmrrarv nieaa- 
 
 11 -i 1. 1 ill- l.irality of 
 
 le««» iite U:iertT anst safety of 
 > himactf ir'illty t>l an net of 
 , .h. iOun' V 
 
 y,*o 
 
CONSTITUTION OF NOBWAT. 
 
 Titl* IV. 
 Article 1. The memben of the T^ gtMwy toi 
 iupreme tribunal compodng the Rinrat, Judge 
 in the flnt and last Instance of the anin entered 
 
 ■■■ •>■■« uawv niaiA sown suvMBMW \ii UIV nil»irW CUiVIVU 
 
 upon bf the Odelsthing, either agalnat the mem- 
 bers of council or supreme tribunal for Crimea 
 committed in the exercise of their offlces, or 
 •ninst the members of Storthlnc for acts com- 
 mlttMi by them In a similar capacity. The presi- 
 dent of the Lagthing has the precedence in the 
 Hlirsn't. 
 
 2. The accused can, without declaring his mo- 
 tive for Ml doing, refuse, even a third part of the 
 members of the Rigsret, provided, however, that 
 the nunilierof persons who compose this tribunal 
 be in>( niluceti U> less than Ofteen. j the code concerning sedition shall li.ivf bt 
 
 3. Thf supreme tribunal shall judge In the ! f""' aloud three times by the civil auihoritiw 
 luipht not til hi* (viintuiai*il iif ft O. The libertv of thi* nrf,a« «huli k.. ..„.' 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF NORWAY. 
 
 have taken cognixanoe of the charges directri 
 •gainst them. Torture shall never talic place 
 6. Laws shall have no retro-active effect 
 T. Fees due to offlcers of Justice are nut to ba 
 combined with renta payable to the public ti»». 
 UFT. "■ 
 
 8. Arrest on^fht not to take place exceptine is 
 caaee and in the manner fixed by law. IHeni 
 arreata, and unlawful delays, render him who 
 occasions them responsible to the person anviinl 
 Qovemmcnt is not authorised to employ railli»rT 
 force against the members of the stale, Imt uo. 
 der the forms prescribed bv the law«, unim u 
 asacmbly which disturiK the public tt»ii,,uiiiitT 
 does not instantljr disperse after the articles ut 
 the code concerning sedition shall have been 
 
 mail nlikii/l tKawua •IsBvoa lk» »\t.^ _l_:l ■_ • • 
 
 O. The liberty of the press nhall he eiub- 
 lished. No person can be punished fur s wrii- 
 ln» he has ordered to b«: printeii or publljheil 
 whatever may be the contenu of It, unlew lie 
 has, by himself or others, wilfully dcdaml ur 
 prompted others to, disobedience nf the law, 
 contempt for religion, and constitutional lowers 
 and resistance to their operations: or Lai ad- 
 vanceil false and defamatory acrusalloriK ai:»ii«t 
 others. It is permitted to every one to apeak 
 frivly his opinion on the a>lminlstration ../ the 
 •tale, or on any other object whatever. 
 
 10. New and permanent mtrictlou „n tht 
 freedom of industry are not to be granieil in 
 future to any one. 
 
 1 1. Domiciliary viaiU are prohibited, eictpi- 
 ing in the cases of criminals. 
 
 la. Itefuge will not be granuii t«i thost wijo 
 shall Im' bankrupts. 
 
 13. No persim can in any ca«' forfeit Lit 
 lauiieii proiH'rty, and fortune. 
 
 14. If the Intereat of the suu- n'.|ulre« ibit 
 anv one should sacrifice hl»movealil.'..rlmmi.vf. 
 ahip pmiieny fur the public lienelit, In- .liall !« 
 fully Inifeniiiltliil by llie imlillr tti'naiii .. 
 
 15. The I'liplul.'as well as the reveiiinn „f tit 
 ilomalns of the rbun-h, can 1h- nppliiil ,mlv tvt 
 
 last inatance, and ought not U) be composed of a 
 IriWiT numU-r than the resident and six assesson. 
 
 4. In time of peace the supreme tribunal, 
 with two superior offlcers appointe<t by the king, 
 constitiiti'SH trilmnal of the second and last re- 
 sort in nil military alTairs which respect life, hon- 
 our, iuul loss of llberiy for a time beyond tlie 
 spine of three months. 
 
 a. The nrrests of the supreme tribunal shall 
 not ill liny case be calle<l upon to be submitted to 
 revisiil. 
 
 O. Xii person shall Iw uarae<l memU-r of the 
 supreme tribunal. If be has not attained at least 
 thiriy years of age. 
 
 Title V. 
 Article 1. Employmeuts in the states shall Iw 
 I'onferreil only on Norwegian citizens, who pro- 
 fess the Ev«ngelie»l I.ulhenin n^llglon — have 
 iwom fidelity to the conKtitutiou and king, spi-ak 
 the Isiitrunge of thi eoimtry, and an-,— I. Either 
 lK)m In the kingdom of ptireuts who were then 
 subjects of the sinle. 2. Or Uirn In a foreign 
 iiiuntry. their father tiiiil mother l»lng Norwe- 
 glims, rind at that |HriiKl not the siilijects of 
 another slati'. ;) Or. nhooii the ITth May, 1«U, 
 
 had a iMTiiiiiii.-nt nsidi nie In the klngdi'un, and i domains ot the church, can 1h- nnplied ,mlv U 
 dl. not nfus.- to take an oalh to nmluuilii the I the Intensta of the clergy, and the i.r.-.m-riiv ..f 
 
 '',"'•„'"■' ","'■"' •'>'"■"'')•• ■• Or wholu future i.uhlir Instrticli.m. The ph,p,.rty of !• nev,.Viit 
 
 shall remain len yi-ars In the kingdom. .V Or lniiltiit<.,n>.i,.iiiw.„.«.,i..'..ir.-i.. >. .,i.^ .:. 
 
 who have lieen iiaturallxed by the Stonhlng. 
 Foniirners, however, may Ik- nominatiHl to these 
 ottlclal iltunllons hi the university and colleges, 
 as well as til thinH- of physicians, and iiinsuls In 
 a f.inign country. In o^ler to succeed to an 
 office in the su|ierior tribuiml, the |H-non niukt 
 be Ihlrly years old; and to fill a place In the In- 
 ferior maifistracy,— a liiilge of the tribunal of 
 first Instaiire. or a public receiver, he must lie 
 twiiiiv five 
 
 91. Norway ■'.« not acknowleilge herself ow- 
 mg any other debt than that of her imii 
 
 8. .\ iHW general ei«|e, of a eiril and criminal 
 ■aiuh-. >liall first \v publisbetl. or. If that 's lin- 
 pracil.able. at the secMni onlinary Htorliiing 
 Meanlline. the laws of IIh- state, as at pmrnt ex- 
 tetlnu. '•hall pn-serve their etrerl, since they are 
 not eontrary to this fundamental law. or pMvl- 
 sional ordinances puliltslie<i in the Interval. IVr- 
 mam-nt taxes sliall continue ki be levie<l until 
 next MtiirihInK 
 
 4. No|>r>'<<'<'<lnKdisprnaallfln. Irtlercf respite, 
 or teiil!:;!!i-.n- i!j^;j ^ iffnaicd after the mw 
 (rnenil cob' shall lie publiahril. 
 
 a. No peraiiiis can be ludgml hut in conformliv 
 to Hm- law. or be puoUfiml until » tribunal shall 
 
 ■ •" j'i"p-.«j "I iw iKM'trui 
 
 nslitutionsshall beemployeil only forlle irppiSt. 
 
 to. The right of the (lower of ri'ilrmpiim 
 calliil (Nielsr«'t*, an'l tliat of iKniBi'ssi. .n. calW 
 AfiKlesret (fathers right), shall eiist I'lmini- 
 lar n-gulatlons, which will riinler thew ..f ulil' 
 ity to the stales and agriculture, shall !«• cletfT' 
 mini'il liy the first or a«'<'oiid Worthiuk'. 
 
 17. No county, Itanrnv, majorat or ■ tM 
 coniniis "t sliall la- created 'for the fuiuri' 
 
 IH. Every citlien of the slate, wiih.nit re- 
 >;ard to lilrih or fortune, shall U'eqiisllv > l.liM 
 during a partleiilar [M'riisl, to defeii.l 'hU ivun- 
 try } Till' a|ipllcallon of this pnnciiile awl iu 
 ri'st rid Ions, as will as the i|uestliin of uMirtain- 
 Ing to « hat iioint It Is of K-neflt to Ihi- (..iiiilrv. 
 that this obligation should ceaai' at the »»'!• 'f 
 Iwenty-Hve. — shall lie aliaiidomil to the c|.-,|.t.>ii 
 
 596 
 
 •la rinuroT ilv righl n» ■■olelsnt. iii-i,ii.«» •( • 
 lamlhr to «h<.in errlaui Imils nrldnaUjr i«ri«in<-l. i-m 
 r*r|a|ia aivl relskr |« mi 'ssIim irf ibv aaiu.'. ,->.-n sfi.^ Hi* 
 Ifm tit n-BlurW*. iini>l,le<l tktmr UirIs an- n-cfr.-n's. 
 Ilw lit iIm- ml,' ..f iiir rsmlljr: ihsi K. if f.r .•..m« 
 yn SHeeeMlvFlir ilwy .hall hsn- jiHlliisllr iii»l' rrwr 
 rmikm r4 Ihwrtr rljrhl Tfc{9 gugi^,a.. •slun-.n" '-«-i-*'* ia 
 liw pnwnw o( amnnnu*, Am. hoomi. allsrn IM 
 
 PP SSSI I IS !•• ItHltf uallT* KM. 
 
 •rauil 
 
 t B«srv iwrsnn is nhU««<i la sar** m>ia i«Mi;->asM 
 issMy-lkfw sMl aitf aAar 
 
OONSTITCTION 07 KORWAT. 
 
 coxsTrnmoN of Prussia. 
 
 (f the flnt orHoMTj Stoithiiif , After the j ihall 
 tare beep Utebargei by a oommittre; in the 
 ■eintli&e, rigorou* effort* thkll preterre their 
 effect. 
 
 10, Norwaj ihall retain her own language, 
 ber own finanoea and coin: inititutiont wblcli 
 itell be detennined upon by lawi. 
 
 90. Norway haa the right of baring her own 
 ttg of trade and war, which ilull be an union flag. 
 
 31, If experience abould ihow the neceiaity 
 of rhanjclng lonie part of thii fundamental law, 
 « proposition to thu purpoae shall be made to an 
 
 ordinary Storthing, published and printed; and 
 it only pertains to the next ordinary Storthing 
 to decide if the change proposed ought to be 
 effectual or not. Such alteration, bowerer, 
 ought never to be contrary to the principles of 
 this fundamental law ; and should only have for 
 its object those modifications in which particular 
 regulations do not alter the spirit of the consti- 
 tution. Two-thirds of the Storthing ought to 
 agree upon such a change. Christians, 4th No- 
 vember, 1814. See 8cAKDniaviA.\ Statxs (Nob-, 
 
 WAT): A. D. 1814-1815. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF PLYMOUTH 
 COLONY (Compact of the Pilgrim Fathers). 
 SeeMAaaACHCSBTTS: A. D. 1990. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF POLAND (The 
 old). See POLA.ND: A. U. I.i73, and LKS-lft-iS. 
 ... (of 1791). 8«e PoLAXD: A. D. ITtl-lTOa. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF PRUSSIA. 
 
 The following text of the ConatltuUon grants] 
 br Fmlrrick William, King of Pruasia, im the 
 silt of Januar}-. IMO, with aiibamiuent altcm- 
 Uima. i* a translation mailr by Mr. Charles 
 I/ivr. an<l puliliahcd in the appendix tn hia Life 
 of Prinre BUmarck, 18S5. 
 
 Wg. Frrderirk William. *c., hereby prticlaim 
 tail givv III know that, whereas the C'nnstitii- 
 tion of ilii- PniMian Slate, pnimtilgated bv us 
 
 Article 1 1. — Freedom of emigration can only 
 be llmiuni bv the State, with reference to military 
 si-rvire. .Migration fees may nut be levied. 
 
 Article 12.— Krcedom n{ religious confession, 
 of meeting in religious societies (Art. 80 anil 81), 
 and of the common exerrise of religion In private 
 and public. Is guaninleed. The enjoyment of 
 riril Hiiil nolilleul riglils is imiepenilent of re- 
 K'llef, yd Ihr duties of a citizen »r a sub- 
 
 ^ ___ llglims 
 
 t hi .Mil Deeemher, liii*. VuiVjVrt'to revision Jw-t nuiv not li- Impaired by tlie exercise of re- 
 lii' nrilinarv course of legislnllon. and recog- "g]<'»* lllierty. 
 
 Article 13.— Religious and clerical societies, 
 
 whitli have no corimraU' riglilK, can only acquire 
 thiwe riifhls by ajieelnl laws. 
 
 Article 14.— The Chrislinn religion Is taken as 
 the Iniois of Ihmie Suie inslilulions whirh are 
 coniiecletl "i'li the exercise of religiun — all re- 
 ligion* lll« ,• guaranteed by .\rt. 13 notwith- 
 staniling. 
 
 Article 15. '—The Protestant ami Itoman Caili- 
 "lie t'liuwhes, as well as every iilier religious 
 soclelv, regulaU- anil administer lb. ir own affairs 
 In an Independent manner, and renmin in posses- 
 sion anil enjoyment of llie institutions, founda- 
 tions, auil niiineys iiiiemiiMl for their purposes of 
 publir wiinhip (ilueallnn, ami charity. 
 
 Article 16.*— Inieniiurw Mween religious 
 socielii^s iind lliiir «U|M-ri<ir)< alinll li.' umilmtnirled. 
 The making publir of Cliiin li nnllnanrea is only 
 suhjeet to tlioae nutririiunt iniiHuvil i.ii all hIIiit 
 |>uliii('iitiMn<i. 
 
 Article 17. — .V ai^eclal law will U- pasaeil 
 wllh r««|i<Mt to ( liunh patronage, ami tu the 
 romlltiona on whirh it may lie aUilithnl. 
 
 Article il.»— .VN.Ii.lieil is tlie right of nom- 
 iiialing, pri>|M«|iig. elcitini! ami contlmiing. in 
 the mailer of iililKiliilmi'iin In enleslaslieal 
 (MMla, ill ao far n* il Inloiigii to the Mute, ami is 
 not baa<ii oil palroimge or special h'gal lilies. 
 
 Article 19.— Civil iiinrriage will lie inlnatureil 
 In areorttanri' with a •lorlat law whirh ahall alao 
 regnlalr ihi> killing of a 1 Ivll n-glsler. 
 
 Article ao. — Scletm' and iiadorlrim'S are free. 
 
 Article at.— The educalion of youth shiui lie 
 siifflrienily rated for by loilillc srhiNils. Par- 
 enis ami tlirir suballtuUM may mit leave llielr 
 
 ihlHr-..-. ..!■ 3::!f5t- 'll'tw.t >ftS? pillKTitkHi {rfr. 
 
 s('rih|.il for llie publir rnlk-sebiiuia 
 
 niinl liy iNith Chambers of our Kingdom, haa 
 bren MibniitUil to the piesrrtlieil revision; we 
 luvr finally e^tablisbiil that Coualiluliii in 
 sftiwment with both Chambers. Now, li.v'rf. 
 fi)^. we pmmtilgate. as a fundamental law of 
 tl» Stale, aa follows; — 
 
 Article I.— .VII parts of the Monarrhy In its 
 pruriit ( \lent form Ihe Prussian State Terrilorr. 
 
 Article a.— The limits of this Stale Territory 
 can only lie altered by law. 
 
 Article 3.— The ( onsliiulion and the laws de- 
 trraittio iiiiilir wimt eonilitions the quality and 
 rttil h.-li!« of a IVussian may be acquire*!, exer- 
 dinl. iin.l rorfrlted. 
 
 Article 4.— All Prussians are equal lieforp the 
 law ( liMi privileges there are none. Public 
 nfflorr subject to the nmditiona ini|i<>Mil br 
 hw, lire ri|uiillv accessible to all who are lom- 
 prtrnt to hold them. 
 
 Article 5.— Pi'Monal frei^dmii is giuranletMl. 
 TV (.imi« ami romlilkms umier whirh any llmi- 
 ttiloii iliin-of, esne<-lally arrest, is pi'rmiaaible. 
 »ill Ih' .litermlnnl by law 
 
 Article 6.— The domlrlle Is Inviolable Iniru- 
 lioi Slid tearrh therein, as well aa the seding of 
 lniir» mill papers, an' only allowe<l tn legallv 
 a'llli.iras.'a. • ' 
 
 Itlt'i rsM'a. 
 
 Article 7.— No one mar he deprived of hisUw. 
 ful Ju.li;. Kirepliooariribunals and exiraordl- 
 mt\ rotiiiiiiaaiiun aw inatimisaibie 
 
 Article S.— Piinislimentscaoonly be threalened 
 tlnflirtiHl aeoorllng to the law. 
 
 Article ».— IVopertv is inviolable, Itcan only 
 » Uij.n 01 rurtatled fMm reusnns of public weal 
 ••i i'»iiedienrv. ani| In retitm fnf atiiiybirT noffi- 
 pemaiion which. In urgent cases at lenM, shall 
 t» eieil hrfiirehand 
 
 uf 
 
 Article io.-( Iril death and n>«fleoalkin 
 H' >- ny, as pUDlshioeata, are not poMlMe. 
 
 • a«Mi«rt hf Ike ralklafra o( isn, a»l br Ike art o( 
 m wktek r«|i*aM than Ise lleaeiwi A. b. Itn 
 Iw. 
 
 697 
 
i'f'" 
 
 \t 
 
 coNSTmrnoN of prcssia. 
 
 Articit M.— Everr one ihaU be m libertr to 
 fire inttructioii, and etttbllih iiutitutioiu for 
 doing lo, providing he ihall hare Kiven proof of 
 hi* moral, KieDtiirc, and technical capacity to 
 the State authorities concerned. 
 
 Artida 33.— All public and private inatltu- 
 tions of an educational kind are under the super- 
 Tislnn of authorities appointed by the State. 
 Public teachers have the righta and duties of 
 State arrvants. 
 
 Article 14.— In the establishment of public 
 folk'Srhmils.* confessional differences shall re- 
 ceive the greatest possible consideration. Re- 
 ligious liistrurtlon in the folk-schools vlll be 
 superintended by the religious societies con- 
 cerned Charge of the other (external) affain of 
 the folk-schools Iwlonga to the Parish (Com- 
 mune). With the statutory conncratlon of the 
 Commune, the State shull appoint teachers in 
 the public folk-ichoiila from the numlier of th<i«v 
 quaflfleil (for surh posts). 
 
 Article 35.— The means for establishing, main- 
 taining, and enlarging the public fiilk-sch<Kjls 
 shall lie provided by the Communes, whirh nwy, 
 however. l)e assisted by the StaU- In provrn cases 
 of psMchlal Inability. The obligations of third 
 nersons — ^ased on special legal titles— remain 
 in force. The State, therefore, guaranttn's to 
 teachers In folk-schools a steady Income suitable 
 to local drrumsunces. In public folk-schiK)ls 
 education shall be Imparted free of charge. 
 
 Artida 36.— A spechl law will reguUte all 
 matters of cilucation. 
 
 Articit 37.— Every Prussian Is entitled to vx- 
 pn-ss his n|iinlim freely by word, wrillog, print, 
 or nrtUtli' n pn'srntat'ion. Censorslilp may not 
 lielntroiliiiiil; every other lestrlrtlim on fn'rdom 
 of llii' I'rcM will .inly lie lnip<Hieil by law. 
 
 Article 38.— I Mfences comniitte<l by WfirtI, 
 wriliiig. prim, or iirtlsllt rroresentation will lie 
 punUbiti iu Hci'onUnre with the general penal 
 cikIiv 
 
 Article 39.— All Prussians sre entltle<l to meet 
 in I'liwed riHiniB. ix'scefully anil unarmnt. with- 
 out previous iM'nnl>.4lon tnttn thi autboritle* 
 But thin provision iloes nut apply In o|ien-alr 
 inriltiurs. which are suhjiMt III till- 'inw with it-- 
 siNii 1.1 previous permission frum ih.' autbnrl' 
 
 Ill's 
 
 Article 30.— All Prussians have ihr right to 
 assemlili' (III sorlelles) for such piiriuitirs aailu imt 
 contrsvi'iie the |ienal Isws. The Ihw ivIII n-gu- 
 Ule, with s|iecUI regani to the preservallo'i nf 
 public siiiirlty, the exerrtw of tin. right guaraii 
 twil l)v tills mill till- pni'i-illiig article 
 
 Article 31. -The law shsUileliTiuliie the cou 
 iltlloiis iin which ciiriMirale rights may be granted 
 or refiiHiHt 
 
 Article 33.— The right of petitioning iMlonns 
 111 nil I'riiwlnna Petlliiins uinler a nilliTtlVf 
 name are iinly |H'nnllteil In auilmrillra ami mr 
 iHiralliiiK 
 
 Article 33.— The privacy of lellers Is InvlolH- 
 blr I'lic iMMTTWiry restrletliins of this right In 
 real's .it wnr and m rrimlnal Inv-vtlgallmi, will 
 lie ileiermlni'il liv law. 
 
 Article 34. —All Prussians are liound to In-nr 
 amiii The ixiinl and manner of tbia duly will 
 be Itxi'il by law 
 
 Artide «.— The armr r=-jr,pi1«Ri s!! s^-ft-rH 
 ^tbestauinug army ami the Lawlwebr llerri- 
 
 V n ies e t u .1 
 
 *We eaaeol iransisii 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF PRUSSIA 
 
 torial forces). In the event of war, the Kin* ru 
 call out the Landsturm In accordance with tb(U» 
 
 Artide 36 — The armed force (of the latiom 
 can only be employe*! for the supprewilon of jj. 
 temal troubles, and the execution nf iIr. ]„, ;. 
 the cases and manner speclfled by sislute an.irm 
 the requisition of the civil authorities ' In ih, 
 latter respect exceplmns will have In In. Hhm 
 mbied by law. " 
 
 Article 37.— Tin- military j iiiliclarv nf the srnir 
 is restricted to penal nisltiTK. uuil will u n-j,,' 
 Isteii by law. Provisions with regsr.l i„ niili 
 urv discipline will remahi the subject nf srHriil 
 ordiuani'es 
 
 Article 38.— The armed force (of ilic mtioiii 
 may not deliberate either when on nr off limv 
 nor mav It otherwise assemble than wlun i,>a. 
 manded to do so. Assemblies ami imi-tinirs of 
 the Landwehr for the purpose nf disciisaim; mjij. 
 tary institutions, commands and onliimuci-j at 
 forbidden even when It Is not cslleil mii 
 
 Artide 39.— The provisions of An- ,', j» 
 3", uiid Sa will only apply to the arniy In „ f„ 
 i>» Ihey do not conflict with inlllinrv laws tai 
 rules of disi'iplin" 
 
 Article 40.— The eBtal><lshmt'Qt nf fi luUl tm. 
 ures is forlili:.ien. The Feudal Ininii «iill nut. 
 lug with n-spiit to surviving flefs hIkiM t». ,|i,. 
 solveil by Uiw. 
 
 Artide 4t.— The provisions of .»n 4iii|oiio( 
 apply 111 {'Mwn llefs or to Iinu-Muti tiet. 
 
 Article 43.— AlmlUhed wllhniit iniiii«.|iMii,,^ 
 In acconlaui'e with siieila' laws psM..!, nr- 1, 
 Till" exercise or transfer of Juiliclal |i..w, 1 ,,«. 
 iiertiil with the imsseaslou nf iirtiiiii Iji^i< ici. 
 gi'iher with the diifs and exini|iiiciii« «,,riiiii|[ 
 fmm IhU nht; 2. TlM'iililliraiinii,iiri»iiiL-fr« 
 pstrinrclial jiirisilicllnn. va-ssnTiiiic. uml fumiirtu 
 mill inuling InstitutioUH. Anil nlih ihrs.. nzhii 
 »Tf nUialmllsheil the iimiitcritirvici naml luinliii, 
 hitherto therewith ciinniTted. 
 
 Artide 43.— The i«rsiiniif the Klugisln4.U- 
 We. 
 
 Article^.- The King's Ministers jin n»|i<iiiii 
 ble All Oiivemment ads nliMiimeiiiiin j .( ibt 
 King reiiulri' for their viilldiiy the iiiipn.val.f 1 
 Minlmer. who thereby assui.ien n •pniisiWIitr 1 « 
 them 
 
 Article 45.— The Klug alniie I* U:\,t\,4 villi 
 execullve |i.iwer He ap|Hiiiit> mil iii»Diiim 
 Minlnlew. He unlets the |'r..iimlgiiiii.ii ,.f L-.»», 
 anil issues the neo'ssary iinliii:iiiii'. f.r iln-lrrtf 
 
 CUtintl 
 
 Article 46.— The King Is ( .immiiiiii. r lis t'!i»( 
 nf I In- «rm\ 
 
 Artide '47.— The King tllla nil |w.i« In ilir 
 anuv, tts well as in nllii r bniiiilits ..f -he vii, 
 wriliT, III so fr as nm niherwin.' nrUiiwI H 
 lii\» 
 
 Article 48.— . lie King has the rinlil I'xlniur 
 war ami nuke |M-n<-<'. ami In cmilu'li' 'Hlwi 
 tri'Hlies with fnn'litn gnvrmnH'ntii The liitri 
 r<'i|iiire '.ir their validity IIm' snwtil •<( tin ! Iwm 
 Is-rs in sn far as |l,.y sri' 1 nninMn Ir.l !n'»U<« 1 
 Impiisi' hunleiis on tlie Ntale. nr nhllmiii'SH '« 
 itK iiiilividiial sulijei'in. 
 
 Article 49.— TTh' King hss iIh- ru'lii 1 ' \'U 
 dun, ami to mitigate puulshnu'Ri IImi 11, fai'iir 
 of a Minister cmHlemueil fur lii« 'ittii*! m-u. 
 ihhi light ran nnir t« iXiTaM-.i ..1. :;,. r....;:.; -f 
 thai Cnalblier whence his Indli'imrM einsiutei 
 Only by s|ierlal Uw i-an the KIuk ■u)ipR«ia 
 ijttillee tiresilv Inatltuteit 
 
 r.Ds 
 
CONSTITUTION OP PRUSSIA. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP PRUSSIA. 
 
 Artidt SO- — 1^* K^S ■»*7 confer orden and 
 other distinctioni, not ourring with them priTi- 
 legea. He ezerclMi the right of coinage in ac- 
 coidance with the law. 
 
 Article 51.— The King conrokee the Cham- 
 ben, and cloaei their leidoni. He may diMoWe 
 both at once, or only one at a time. In luch a 
 OK. however, the elector! muit be auembled 
 witblo a period of flO days, and the Chamben 
 lummoned within a period of 80 daya retpect- 
 >«lv after the diiaolution. 
 
 Article 5a.— The King can adjouin the Cham- 
 ben But without their aaaent thia ad]oum- 
 meDt may not exceed the ipacc of 80 dayi, nor 
 be repest'od during the lame ieaaion. 
 
 Article 53. — The Crown, uccunling to the 
 hwt iif the Royal Home, u hereditary in the 
 mile line of that Houie in accordance with the 
 Uw uf primngeniture and agnatic aucceaiiou. 
 
 Article M.— The King atulns hie majority on 
 completing his 18th year. In preaence of the 
 uDiit^l C'Uambere be will take the oath to nb- 
 lerre the Constitution of the Monarchy stead - 
 futir and inviolably, and to rule in accordance 
 vilb'il and the laws. 
 
 Article 55.— Without the consent of both 
 (hsmlien the King cannot also be ruler of for- 
 cifin n-alnis (Keiche). 
 
 Article 56.— If the King Is a minor, or is 
 oibrrwiar lastingly prevented tn>m ruling him- 
 ►If, the Kegenry will lie umlrruken by that 
 agnalt'lArt .V))whohasaltaine<l bis majority and 
 ttuiibi ni'srrst the Crown. He has immediately to 
 n>nvi>k>' the Chambers, which, iu uuiliii M-ssitiu. 
 will (leriile as to the neressity of the Kegency. 
 
 Article 57.— If there ttv no agnate of age, and 
 if DO li gal pruriaion has previously beeu made 
 (or«ii(li B r<intirgency, the Minlstrv of tState will 
 ciiDvciJH' the Chamljers, wblih shall then eh-rt a 
 Krifi'iil In uultitl sesiiiiin. And until thuassunip- 
 tiiiii "f llii' Iteifency by him. the Minbtrj' of Stale 
 will cniiiliict the Oovi-mment. 
 
 Article 58.— The Itegent will exercise the p»w 
 iT»inw»ii-<l In tlie King in !)'>' latter s name ^ and. 
 allir iiLitituficin iif the Iwirimy lie will take an 
 mill In lure the unitid ChamUra to ota-rve the 
 ( iistituiiiin of the Monarchy st4«4lfaslly and In 
 li^laMy. and to rule in acennlance with It and 
 ihi laHfi. Tnlll this oath is taken, the whole 
 Minijln- nf State for the time being will remain 
 ti«|iun>iili|(> for all arts iif thi' (Joveniment 
 
 Article S9 — To the Crown Trust Fund apper 
 'al:i»llii annuity drawn from the income o( the 
 I' h<liinndih>nuiliu. 
 
 Article to.— The MIniaters. as wrll as the Kiate 
 .'ffliiaU nppi>lnle<l to repnwnt them. hav<' ani>iu 
 I (Mik I ImmlH-r. and must at all linn's \» listemil 
 I" HI (ii|iiHil tjirh ChanilMT can deiimud llw 
 |.n«Mii ,,f the Minister*. The Minlnler* un' 
 <m\\ luiltliil til vote In one or otiwr of IIm' Chain 
 Ivn a bin members i>( it. 
 
 Article «!.— On the ivaolutlim of a I'hnmlii'r 
 Ihr MinUters may lie imiirarhiil fur the i-rlme uf 
 InMnelng the i tmstilulliin. nf brtUry. and nf 
 trrwm The defisioa of aueh a caae lies wlih 
 it» suprrnw Tribunal of the Mmiarrhy sitting In 
 luiif.1 hmates. Aa long as two rtupreror TrI- 
 buiuU I'ueitat, tl.ey ahall unite for tlir aUivi- 
 '"''"?!.. fuflw' •••••lla as u> matU'r* nf n- 
 :,. ssKiiliij , (( riiuiuaii pfuwdure (Uirrvu|>i>ui, and 
 puutslmirnu, ai« raarrved for a siiecial hiw 
 
 Article ••.—The leglaiaUve power will he ex 
 tn ImhI la rummuo by Uw IUb( aad by twu duuB- 
 
 hers. Every law requires the aaaent of the King 
 and the two Chambers. Honey bills and budget! 
 shall first be laid before the Second Chamber : 
 and the latter ti. e., budgets) shall either be wholly 
 approved by the Pint Chamber, or rejected alto- 
 gether. 
 
 Artidt 63.— In the event only of Its being 
 urgently necessary to maintain public security, 
 or deal with an imuaual state of distress when 
 the Chandlers are not in session, ordiuancea, 
 which do not contravene the Conatltution, may 
 be Issued with the force of law, on the reaponJ- 
 bility of the whole Ministry. But these must be 
 laid for approval liefore thu Chambers at their 
 next meeting. 
 
 Article 64.— The King, as well aa each Cham- 
 ber, lias the right of propoaing lawa Bills that 
 havu liein rejected by one of the Chambera, or 
 by the King, cannot be re-introduced in the 
 same aesslnn. 
 
 Article! 6s-M.— The First Chamber is formed 
 by royal onllnanci-. which can only lie altered 
 by a law to tw liisiied with the app'mval of the 
 Chambers. The First Chamber is composed of 
 uiembei^ appi>inte<l by the King, with heredit- 
 ary rights, or only for life. 
 
 Article 69.— The Se< oud Chamlier coiuists of 
 4-to tuemlx-rs • The elettoral districU are de- 
 tiniiined by law. They may consist of one or 
 umn' I'lrcles (Ammdissements), or of one or 
 more of the larger towns. 
 
 Article 70.— Kvery l*russian who has com- 
 plitdl hU 2.'5th year il. e . attained bis majority), 
 anil i» ca|ialiU' ipf luklni; imrt In the elections "of 
 the Coiiinmni' nlure he 1h domiciled. Is entitled 
 to net Hs a primary voter (l'r*tthleri. Anyone 
 who I.H rnliileil l.i lake part in the election of 
 several Communes, can only exercise his right aa 
 primarj' vntt-r ;.i otic ('omniiiue. 
 
 Article 71.— For every a.Vl souls of tlip popu- 
 lillon. one (se<'ondary) elector (W-ihlmanni ahall 
 lie choM'n The primary voters lall Into three 
 cliiHMK. in pM|xirtliin In the amount of direct 
 taxes Ihry pay— and iu such a manner as that 
 each claM will nprewnt a Ihlnl of the suinlolal 
 nf the taxes paid by the priinarv voters. TItlj 
 Kiiin-tiital l» nckiiniil — (a) by IVirishes, in caae 
 
 • (iinimuiie lines mil fiinn of itself aiirlmary 
 
 ictnrd district (In by (linvemmeuti IMstrlcta 
 lliextrkc), in i-niK' the primary- elvcliiral district ron- 
 sIstHiif sivi rail nmniiiiKi! The II ml cbjis consist! 
 nf lliiiiM- priniiiry vnters. hiirh.nt In the scale of 
 taxatinn. nlm imy u third nf the mial. The sec- 
 ninl class iiiii«l»i« nf thioH- priinsrr vntcrs. nelt 
 hii;hest In the ainlc. «liiw luxis t^irni a sci-ond 
 thinl of the n hnlc, and llii- thinl cliuw Is miule up 
 nf the nniuiniiii; tax piiytra ilnwint In llic m-ale) 
 whn cmirilmte the .tliir thini nf the whole. 
 Much iUt» xnli'K a|<nrt. and fnr a tlilnl nt lb* 
 set iinil:iry eli'ctnta. Thenc classes may lie diviiled 
 liilii si'vi ml vnting seclinus. none nf which, how- 
 ever, niii'-t Incluili mure than ,VN| iirimKry viitrrt. 
 Tile stiniiiliiry voters an elerteil in each cUat 
 fmni the uiiinlHT if the prtmorv voters iu their 
 district, mtluiul nimni to tlie classes. 
 
 Article 7».— Till ilcpiities atr elected by ib« 
 nwnilary vntcn Ihiallswlll be regulated by 
 all ehntn'r;!! Irw, which must siso make the iieevs- 
 snry |irnrl«lnn fur tlioae cities wlicre flour and 
 siniiiriiKT liuiira UT ievioi instead oi direct iaze& 
 
 • owtnallr wi nnir s niimhw »hlek. lb ISM. *aa 
 torrsMnl li) « (..r lb- IVIai'l|WlH< <>r Hu 
 !■ IWt bf m (uc Uir aa-waart iwuvians 
 
 699 
 
•'Mil 
 
 J; n 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF PRUSSIA. 
 
 Artielt 73.— The IcgUUdTe period of the Sec- 
 ond Ctuunbn- to fixed at three jmn. 
 
 Article 74.— KHsible ■• deputy to the Second 
 Chamber to ererj PruMton who hu completed 
 hto thirtUth year, haa forfeited none of hto drll 
 righta in oonie<menoe of ■ valid Judicial lentenre. 
 aad baa been aPruialan lubject for three yeart. 
 The president a.iil member* of the Supreme 
 Chamber of Accu'inta (-annot alt In either Houk 
 ol fbe Diet (LanJt.f;;. 
 
 Article 75.— Aftrr the lapae of a legUUtlTe 
 period the ClmmUTj will be elected anew, and 
 the Mine in t'le event of <li<aolution. In both 
 cBseg, prevloua members are re-eligible. 
 
 Article 76.— Both Houies of the Diet of the 
 Monarchy aball be regularly convened by the 
 Kini; in the period from the Iwginningof Novem- 
 Iwr in each year till the miilille of the following 
 January, and otherwiae aa often a< circumstances 
 riciuire. 
 
 Article 77.— The Chambers will be opened and 
 cIixkhI by the King in person, or by a Minister 
 appoinU'ii bv him to do ».>. ut a combined ait- 
 ting iif the Chambers. Both Chambers aball be 
 sim'ultaneoualy convened, openeti. adjourned, and 
 cluaril. If one Chamber is dissolvnl, the other 
 shall be ut the same time prorogued. 
 
 Article 78.— Each ChamlKT will examine the 
 crpfientlala of Its memhera, and tieciile then-iipon. 
 It will tTX>'late Its own onlemf liuabi'-asanil dls- 
 ciplinv liy ^(HKrial onliuances, and elect its prcjl- 
 dent, vici preaidcnta. and oBlce-bearers. Civil 
 servants require no leave of absence In ortln- 'o 
 enter the Chamber. If amemtierof theChan.i< • 
 acct |ita n salaried olBce of the State, or la pm- 
 motiil In the service nf the State to a post Involv- 
 ing hlK>ier p«nk or Incn'UKc of par. he shall lone 
 his seat ami vote in the Cliamlier. and can only 
 re<'tiver hia place In It hy re-election. No one 
 can lie memlK-r of Ixiih CliamlK-ra. 
 
 Article 79.— The aitllnga of iKith Chambers 
 are pul)llc. On the motion •<( lia prraMent. or 
 of ten menilMTs, each ChamlxT umy meet in 
 private sitting— at which this motion will then 
 nave to lie <lle<u<se<l. 
 
 Articla 80.— Neither of 'le Chamliers can pass 
 a nxiliitlon unless there he present ,1 majoritv 
 of thi' legal numlier of its memlM'm Encli 
 Clmmlx'r |»isar« lis reaolutlona by absolute ma- 
 jority of votes, subject to any exceptions that 
 may l)e determlnril by the onler of bualness for 
 elections. 
 
 Article ll.—Eat'h ChamlK-r has the bcparale 
 riirht of prrsa-nllng lolilrfwu-s to the King No 
 one may In |H'r*iin priM'nl to the Chnmlieni. or 
 to one of ihem, a peiliion or mMreia. Eiidi 
 Chamber can transmit the communlcaliona maib' 
 to li to the Ministers, and demand of them an 
 su»»ir to any grievani-es thus coM\eye<|. 
 
 Article Ir— Each Chsmber is rnlltlisl to ap- 
 point commlMlons of ini(uiry into facts — for tta 
 own Inronnation. 
 
 Article Ij.— The members of both ChainlH-rs 
 are nprew-n la lives of the whole people Tliiy 
 vote aii'oriltng lo their simple convictions, an<°l 
 aiv not iKiund In' commissioua or instructions. 
 
 Article 14.— Kiir their votes In the Chamber 
 they call nevi r lie callril to account, and for the 
 opinions they expn-ss therein they can onlv \m 
 rallnl (J, !K-<---..ir,? wl'hin i.iir Chambrr, in vfrtuc 
 of the order fif iMHineaa. No member of a 
 Cbamlier can. without Its aaarnt, lie had up for 
 examlnalliin, or lie am-sinl during the Harihi- 
 
 CONSTITIJTION OF PRCS8U. 
 
 mentai7 aewion for any penal offri:ce, unlesa b< 
 be taken In the act, or In the coarse of the fo|. 
 lowing day. A similar atient shall be necrsurr 
 in the case of arrest for debts. All criraini 
 proceedings against a member of the Chamber 
 and all arrests for preliminary examination, or 
 civil arrest, shall be siupended during the Pu. 
 liamcntarr session on demand from the Chsmbfr 
 concemea. 
 
 Article Sc — The members of the Seromi 
 Cbamlier shall receive out of the Stale Tn^urr 
 tia veiling expenses and daily fees, acconling t,u 
 statutory scale; sod renundation thereof thall 
 be inadmissible. 
 
 Article 86.— The Judicial power will be exrr- 
 ciseil in the name of the King, by Indepeoiimt 
 tribunals subject to no other authority but list 
 of the law. Judgiaent shall be exi>ciite<l in ibe 
 imnie of the King. 
 
 Article 87.— 'file judges will be appointeil f ,r 
 life hy the King, or In his name. Thev can railr 
 be removnl or temporarily suspended from olh.i 
 by JudlcUl sentence, and for resviis fowieen by 
 the law. Temporary siupension from ollioe m.'- 
 ensuing on the strength of a law), and Invuluntarr 
 transfer lo another place, or to the retired li-t 
 can only uke place from the causes ami In iW 
 form mentlnnc<l by law, and in virtue of a ju.liiiil 
 si'ntence. But ti. esc provisions do not applv to 
 cases of transfer, rtndered necessary by ihaiiL'fj 
 In the organisation of the courts or their .llsiriits 
 Article 88 (ili-litlua). 
 
 Article 89.— The organisation of the tribunaii 
 will onlv lie determined hy law. 
 
 Article 90,— To the Judicial offlce ..nly tb.w 
 can 1h' appolnleil who have qualified tin inii.h>! 
 for It an prescrilieil by law. 
 
 Article 91, —CourU for special kir. l.i..f nJair. 
 and in particular, tribunals for trade ami c 1;: 
 mi rce. shall lie eslablishe*l by itatuti- in tb.- 
 places where local neeils may requiri' ilii m. TL 
 organisation and Jurisdiction of auih (oims. ,i» 
 well as their procedure and the appointment f 
 their momliers, the special sta'us of ihi. laitir 
 and the duration of their ofllce, will b<' ilctermlQe'l 
 by law. 
 'Article 9a.— In Prussia there shall only Iv 'u 
 aiipn-ine tribunal. 
 
 Article 93.— The procee<iings of the civil m.I 
 criminal courts shall be public. But tlie piiMi. 
 may tie excluded liy an openly declan-tl n ...lull .0 
 of the court, when onler or goml ni..Ml» nuv 
 ««fm endangered (by their ailmlttancei. In oil; t 
 rnmn piilillcily of proceedbigs can I'uly In' liml'. i 
 by law 
 
 Article 94.— In criminal cases the guilt of th' 
 aci'uwil aliHll lie delcrmin<^l by jurMiHii. m •" 
 far aa esnpilons are not delerinliiiil I'V n ii" 
 iasue<l with the previous assent of tii.i n.im- 
 lars The formation of a Jury.coiirl »h4il It 
 n'giilateil by a law 
 
 Article 95. — By a law issueil with tin- prrri. 
 oua assent lif the Chambers, there may l» niab- 
 llshi^il a sp<Hia! court whereof the j':i- .viidia 
 •hall Include the crimes of high treawu. « wfU 
 as those crimes against the Interns! anl . tTrmt. 
 security of the Htate, which may he ;i!uiL-n<-.l ' 
 it by law. 
 
 Articla 96.— The rompetrnrvof the 1 urtauJ 
 of thr .'i^iluinUtrallVe aulliorilira aiino :» iit-r. 
 rainol by law Conflicts of aullioritv I«i»itb 
 the couru ami lite a<lmlnlslnitive autho'riiM kIisII 
 he sellkni by a triliunal appuintv<l li.v la<r 
 
 GOO 
 
CONSTITUTION OF PRC88IA. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP PRUSSIA. 
 
 Article 97. — A law ihall detennine the condi- 
 tioiu iiii vhich public, civil, and military officials 
 mar he aueil for wrongs committed by them in 
 eimtling tlieir functions. But tlie previous 
 assent of olBcial superiors need not be re- 
 uurttetl. 
 
 Article 9S. — The special legal status (Rechts- 
 rerbultuisst') of State ofllciaU (including advo- 
 CHi('4 anil Milicitors) not belonging tu the judicial 
 fki>. »lwll III' determined by aliiw. which, with- 
 out iv«lrii'iiug the Oovemmtnl in the choice of 
 its executive agents, will grant civil serrauts 
 pr>|ier pmtection against arbitrary dismissal 
 from their posts or diminution of their pay. 
 
 Article 99. — All income and expenditure of 
 the State must Iw pre-estimateil for every year. 
 suit I" prewntpii in the Uudget. which shall Ik 
 anuiiaily tixe<l by a law. 
 
 Article 100. — Taxes and ilues fur the 8late 
 Tn i«urv iiinv ""'y ''* raised in so far as they 
 fhall liave In-eu in'luded in the Budget or or- 
 (l:mn-'i l>y siM*cial laws. 
 
 Article lOi. — In the matter of taxes there 
 must Ih' no privilege of persons. Existing tax- 
 laws >lmll lie subjected to a revision, and ull 
 siii'li privileges al)olislied. 
 
 Article loa. — .Slute and Communal otHcers ran 
 oalv levy dues itn the 8tn>ngtli of u law. 
 
 Article 103. — The contracting of loans for the 
 J^tiieTnasury can only Iw effeeled on the streniclh 
 < f a Ian : anil the sanie holds giHxl of guanuilees 
 iQviiUiiic a Inirden to the State. 
 
 Article 104. — Budget tmiisgreiuioiM remiire 
 milixiiiient appnnal by the t liunilHrs. The Biiil- 
 p t will Im' examinetl and Hudile<i by the Supreme 
 tbaml«Tiif Accounts. The general Budget «i • 
 I. Hints of every year, including tabular statistics 
 if the Xatiiiuai Debt, shall, with the comments 
 iif tbe Supnnie Chamlier of Accounts, lie laid 
 Ik fiirv the Chambers for the purpose of exonerat- 
 in.' the (eivemment. .V special law will regulate 
 l:i"i«tnl<li''liiiirnt and functions of the Supreme 
 i irimluT t'f Accounts. 
 
 Article 105.— I iie npn-wnlation and ndminis- 
 t-iM 11 lit the ('iiniiniiiiiH .\rniiidiMM'nieulsHiid 
 I'ruvimis of the I'ruasian State, will lie deter- 
 nii:te>l ill lUtall by special laws. 
 
 Article 106. — Laws and onlinances becoiu> 
 linilini; after having lieen published in the fonn 
 [ rescrilsHl by law. The examination of the valid 
 i.y nf pM|H'rly promulgatiti Royal onlinances i- 
 niil within the competence of the authorities, but 
 of the t'liamliers. 
 
 Article 107.— The Constitution may he altered 
 )> <irlin»ry lefislatlvc means: and such altera- 
 li.iii slmll menly n-uiiire the usual absolute nia- 
 tihiy In laiih I'haiiiis'rs on two divisions (ot the 
 UmmM Is-twivu which there must elapse a (HTioil 
 et at Itiat twenty-one days 
 
 Article ie>.— The meinlN>rs ot both (^hamlirrs. 
 tinl ill Stut olHcials. shall take the oath of fealtv 
 snil iiliedience to the King, and swear conscieutl- 
 emiy to olnerve the Conslltullon. Tlie army 
 will nut take the oath to the Ci^iwtltutlou. 
 
 Article 109.— Existing Uxes and dues will 
 Continue to In' raised: and all pnivlaloDS of ex- 
 litiBn Matiile-bouks. single laws, and ordinances, 
 wlileli iln not contravene the pment Cuoalltutiou, 
 will remain In force until altrmd by law 
 
 Articie i IS,— Ail autburiliea huMiDK appoiui- 
 ni-nii In virtue of ailiUng laws wlu continue 
 tkeir activity pmdiag the laiM of urg Mic laws 
 iDNtluK them. 
 
 Article 1 1 1. — In tbe event of war or revolu- 
 tion, and pressing danger to public security 
 therefniin ensuing. Articles 5, 8, 7, 27, 28, 29, *), 
 and 36 of the Constitution may lie suspended for 
 a certain time, and in certain districts — the de- 
 tails to be determined by law. 
 
 Article i la.— Vutil issue of the law contem- 
 plated ill .Vrtieli' 26, educational matters will be 
 contriilliil In- the laws at present in force. 
 
 Article 113.— I'rior to the revision of the 
 criminal iinle. ;i spt-ciul law will deal with 
 ollences i-oiiiiiiiiied by word, writing, print, or 
 artistic r preM-iitiition' 
 
 Article 114 I'll'Jia/iii'). 
 
 Article 115-— lutil issue of the electoral law 
 conteinphiteilin .\rtiele7i. the onliimnce of 30th 
 May. 1M4». touiliinir tin- return of deputies to 
 the Seeimd ('liainlN>r. will remain in force; and 
 with this onliimuee is .iwociated the pnivisinnnl 
 cli-ctiinil liiw for elections to the Siioiid Cham- 
 lier in lie- lloheuzolleru Principalities of 3(nh 
 April. IV.i 
 
 Article 1 16. — The two supreme tribunals still 
 existing' ^hall lie conibiued into one — to be or- 
 gauivil liy a special law. 
 
 Article 117.— Till- claims of Slate olflclals ap- 
 poiutitl iH-fiiri' till promulgation uf the Constitii. 
 tion shall la- taken into s|H-ciul consideration by 
 till ( ivil S rvant Law. 
 
 Article 118.— Should changes in the present 
 Ciiiistiiiiiion !«• riihien-d iieivssnry by the Oer- 
 iiiaii Ki'di ral CnHsiiiiilion In lie drawn up on the 
 basis of the I>mft iif •-Htili Mav. isw, such altera- 
 tions will Ik- lit! neil I'., the Ring; and the onli- 
 uaiic.?. til this I iTict laiil Isfon- the ( hamliera. at 
 their first iiievtiiig. The CliaiiilH-rs «lll then 
 have to decide whether the chunges thus pro- 
 visionslly ordained harmonise with the Federal 
 Constitution of (teriiiany. 
 
 Article 119.— The Royiil oath nientloueil in 
 Artirle .'>4. as well m the" niilh pn'strilKii to Iw 
 taken by ls>th CliaiiilN-rs ami all State olHcials. 
 will have to Ih' tendered inimtsllHtely after the 
 leiilslative revisinn of the pri'scnt Constitution 
 (.Vrtlehs 6i and iKHi 
 
 In witness whereof we have hereunto set our 
 signature and seal. 
 
 Given at Cburlottenburg. the 31»t January, 
 ^.V) (Signed) Fhikphii il W1UHKI.JI ' 
 
 In loiinertion with .Vrtide 44 the cours<' of do. 
 iiiestic and parliamentary imlitics drew forth the 
 tollowimt m-eliimtorv liestript from the Uerinaa 
 Km|H<Mr uiiil King i">f I'russia. in IWJ;— -The 
 riKht iif till King to conduit the (ioverument and 
 |M>liev of I'russTa aiionlinkt to his own discre- 
 tion fs limited l>v the t onstltiition (of January 31, 
 l«,'W)i. but not alHilisheil The tiovernnmitact* 
 (documeutHryi of the Kiiiir riiiuin' the counter- 
 signature of a MinNler. nml, as was also the case 
 liefore the Cotistllutioii was issiieil. have to be 
 repn'stnted by the Kiiik's .Ministers: but they 
 Iievertlieli-SK remain Ooveriiiiieiit ai-ls of the King, 
 from wliixtdecisliiiis they nsiilt,and who thereby 
 constitutionallyexpn'SseshUwilland pleasure ft 
 Is therefore not admissible, and leads to obscura- 
 tion of the eonstltutional rights of tbe King, when 
 their exeri'lse is so s|>oken of as If they emanated 
 fnim the Ministen for the time being'respoiulhle 
 for iiieiii. auil not rioiii the Kiug hiiuself. The 
 Couslltii'lon of I'ruista Is the expreailua of th* 
 monanhlcal tradition of this country, whoee de- 
 velopment Is baaed on the living and actual re* 
 
 601 
 

 CONSTITUTION OF PRUSSIA. 
 
 latlotn of Ifi King* to the people. ThcMreUtlona, 
 moreover, do not admit of \ielnK tr«n»ferred to 
 the Mlntaterg appointed by the King, for they at- 
 tach to the per«on of the King. Their prewrva- 
 tlon. too. Is a political nece«8ity for Pniiaia It 
 is, therefore, my will that both In PruMia and In 
 the Legtalatlve Bodie» of the realm (or Reich), 
 there may be no doubt left as to mr own consti- 
 tutional right and that of my successors to per- 
 sonally conduct the policy of my Government; 
 ami that the theory shall always be gainsaid that 
 the [doctrine of the] invioUblllty of the person 
 of the King, which lias alwavs eilsto<l in Prus- 
 sia, and is enunciatetl by Article 48 of the Con- 
 stitution, or the uecessitv of a responsible counter- 
 signature of my (Jovemraent acU, deprives them 
 of the character of Royal and lndep«"n<lent deci- 
 sions. It is the duty of my Ministers to support 
 
 ^^^1^'^^'^}?^ OP THE ROMAN 
 
 BT?2,*'.?.'^'I"T'°'' ^^ "^HE ROMAN RE- 
 PUBLIC. See Home: B. C, .100, to B. C 2H6 
 
 also fOMITIA CE.NTrRIATA; CoJIITIA Cl RIATA ! 
 ( ONBILS, HoMA.\ ; Co.XBlLAB TlUBCSES ; SWJATE 
 ROMA.N; PutBKlAJCS. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF SWSDEN. 
 
 S.T,£?°**^"*!2?' '*5'"* »'y P'?'e«i''R them from 
 doubt and ob«:urstlon. and I expect Ih^ mZ 
 from all htate servanu (Beamten) who have tZn 
 to me the offleUl oath. I am far from wbiSJ ° 
 mpairthe freedom of elecUons, buin ih.ciJo? 
 those officials who are lntruste<l with the oxh- 
 tlon of my Government acta, and tn«r. i(,i.r,fo"' 
 In conformity with the disciplinary" law wjj; 
 he r situations, the duty solemnly i.n.Krtak™ by 
 their oath of service ateu applies to the nnre-.ni/ 
 tlonby then, of the polty of my 0.,S™, 
 during election times. The falthfGl ih rfcirman™ 
 of this duty I shall thankfully ackno'w"^,™ "n^ 
 I expect from all ofBcUls that, in view of thS 
 oath of allegiance, they will n-fraln from nil ari 
 tation against my Government also diirin« f W 
 '.'."■"■^T •'"'■"''• J»nu»"7 4. ISHU.-WiLiiELM 
 \o!< Bismarck. To the Ministry of Stau' 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF SOLON s» 
 Athekb: B. C TM. ^ 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF SPAIN (i8iai. Sr 
 Spain: A. I). 1H1+-1S27 (i«6o). ."..sp.rT 
 
 See ( oRTEs. ' 
 
 ■ Four fundamental laws account for the pres- 
 ent political constitution of Sweden: the law 
 concerning the form of govimment (legerinirs- 
 fomien) dsti^l .Iiine 8. IWW; the law on represen- 
 tation (riksdagsordnlngen), June 22. 1H68 the 
 order of s'.icoewion (successions-ontningen) Sep' 
 2«. IHIO; and the law on the liberty of the preai 
 (tryckfribcU'fnronlningen). July 16, l!*12 The 
 union with Xi.rway is regulate<l by the act of 
 union (riksaktenl, Aug 6. 1815. .'. The n- 
 primnlation of the nation, since the law of Jun^ 
 •— . 1«««, n'Bts not as foniurlv on the division of 
 Jtie n.iilon Into four onli-rs, but on election onlv 
 Two . Iianibers. having equal authority, coniixic 
 the ilii t The members of the flrst chamlier are 
 fltcte<l for nine years by the ■ landstingen ' (si*- 
 ne« of provin<-lal asM>mblles) and by the sta'ls- 
 fullmftkilge ■ (municipal counsellors) of cities 
 which do not sit in the landstlng .■—/..i/w', 
 ' ^"'^'^*"-:'f I'"'H*'nl Sfifitei, e, 8, fiji. H*i-M.11 
 — "The First Chamtjer consisu (IWii i,f 147 
 iiKiiitiers, or one deputy for every ;«l.(i>Ml .,f the 
 p.pulation. The ehrtlon of the memU rs takes 
 pla.-.- by the •Un<lstlngs,or proviiuikl nprr- 
 mniatlons. iH In number, awl the municiiml cor 
 liMmilonsof the towns, not already re|.r.«nt«l 
 in the; Undoings, Su.kliolm, OOt'eberg Malmn 
 and NorrkOping. All memb<r» of the Mmt 
 I hanit»-r must he above 85 years of ai-e, and 
 must have |H>»wsse<l for at least thrw yean n.,-. 
 vlous to the election .lth.T n-al pr..p..rtT to the 
 laXHl value ol mi.im kroner, or 4 444 1 or an ' 
 BHiMial iii.„me of 4.ll'lll kriuier, or 288 ' They 
 ar.. elc. ted f..r the irrm oi nineyears. and obtain 
 no [wyment for tlKlr services. The .Se.x«d Cham- ' 
 U-r .xmsisu (.\iitunin INt«» of t» inemln-rs <.f 
 whom 78 are elected b • the towns an<l 148 l.y the ! 
 rural .ll.trirt^ one reprr= , ..„)v^ Mi>s fri-Jrord ' 
 f..r every 10 OOO of the ,H,pu!atlon of lowu* one 
 Li'..«T. ' [^"""W' ;" f"™l Jl«rict, of under 
 «U.OW laliabltaiiu, and two fcr rural disiilcu of 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF SWEDEN. 
 
 over 40.000 inhabitants. All natives of Sw«ta 
 aged 21 P^wessing real property to ih,. ,,ae,i 
 yalue of i.Ono kroner, or 56 1., or fartninir ' r 
 a perioil of not less than Ave v.ars Inii.l.,! 
 propjrty tothj taxed value of 6,iiiHi kpin.r r 
 838 I . or paying im^me tax on an aiiuii:i; in 
 come of HOO kroner, or 45 1. , are elc.tor> :m\ nil 
 natives, agiKi M, possessing, an.l havini; iv* 
 sesmil at least one year | revious to the . lii-ii,,,, 
 the same <iuallflcatlons, may U- clc.te.l nuiul.N 
 of the Second thamber The niinilMT .f nujii 
 fl«l electors U> the Sec-ond C'hamher in 1-<B<I wm 
 2(*(<,0»8, or 6.0 of the population; onlv ll»'<li« 
 or 88.5 of the electors actually vnttnl In tie 
 smaller towns and country districts ihf clirtiun 
 may either be direct or Inillrect, aoconling !.■ tht 
 wish of the majority. The elwlion U f,.r the 
 term of three venrs, and the meniJMr. ..Innla 
 salarif^ for their services, at the rat.' nf l.-Jiw 
 kmner, or 87 I., for each session of f.uir iiionlli« 
 be.ides travelling expenses. . . Th,. nifniNn 
 of Ixith Chambers are electe<l by Iiali.t, tx.ih in 
 town anil countr)-."—.Sf,i/«,M,ini )"»vir.V.,/l, l««| 
 II. m'i — •■ Th.' Diet, or KIkadag. aawmlilti ev^^ 
 year, in i>r<llnary session, on the l.Mhurjanuatr 
 or the day following. If the IS'h it a h< ll.ls • It 
 may b«. convoknl in extraordinary seailim liv ihf 
 king In caM) of the decease, alisen' .■, ..r iftnr* 
 of the king, the Diet may lie convoke.1 .itMur 
 dinarily by tht Council of Sta-e. or ev.n, i\ lliU 
 Utter neglects Ui i|o so, by the tribunals .f ireona 
 instance. The king m»v dissolve the t»,. <h»n- 
 liers simultaneously, or one of then aloiii'. dur 
 Ing the onlinary seaai^ins. but Vie n< v Dii-t v- 
 teniWes after the three months of the dlssolut' in. 
 Mid can r.nly be. dls«>lved kgain f"iir m.-nthi 
 after resuming its sitting. Tlie kin;i (li*.|v,i 
 thi exirnurUiuary atsajon when be linnu iir^prr 
 _ . The Diet divides the right . f lnillsii»8 
 with the king: tbeenotent of the syn<«l is necn- 
 sary for rcclMiMUcal Uwi. . . . Every thrts 
 
 UU2 
 
CONSTITUTION OP SWBDEK. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF SWEDEN. 
 
 reiui the Diet name* a commiiiion of twraty- 
 lour memberi (twelvo from each chamber), 
 cburged with the dutv of electing liz penons 
 wIk) are coromiaioiied under the presidency of 
 the Procureur general of the Diet to watch over 
 the liberty of the preia."— O. Demombynes, Con- 
 gitiili'int Euroitiennes, t. 1, pp. 84-90.— The fol- 
 en'.Dg ii the text of the Conititutlon a< adopted 
 li IdSl). the lubiequent modificationi of which 
 ue indicated above: 
 
 Form of goTemment adopted by the King and 
 the Estaui of the Swedlih Realm, at Stoclcbolm, 
 on the 6th of June, 1809: together with the 
 Alteraiion* afterward* introduced. 
 
 We fharles, bv the Orece of God, King of the 
 8w«ie«. the Goths, and the Vandals, ic. ic. 4c. 
 Heir to Norway, Duke of Bleswick-Holstein. 
 £iu>rnMm. and Ditmarsen. Count of Oldenburg 
 uitl IH'Imenhorst, Jcc. &c. ic. make known, that 
 hSTing unllniitetl confidence iu the estate* of the 
 rtslni. rharged them with drawing up a new 
 form nf icovemnu-nt, as the perpetual ground- 
 work of the prosperity and independence of our 
 common native land. We do hereby perform a 
 dear nml |ilett»ing duty In promulgating the fun- 
 dsmcniiil law (which iiaa been) upon mature de- 
 lilnnition. framc<l and atiopted by the estates of 
 the O'ttlni, and presented unto 'I's this day, to- 
 jtrlliir with their free and unanimous otfer of 
 the Sweilish crown. Having with deep emotion 
 >n<l an atlcciionate interest in the pMsiierity of « 
 nation which has afforded Vs su striking a'pronf 
 of roDiiiience and attachment, complleil witii 
 llieir nM|iiest, We trust to our endeavors to pro- 
 mote its happiness, as the riH-iprocnl rights and 
 iluti"i> of the monarch and the subjects have 
 1»TD marked so distinctly, that, without en- 
 rnmliment on the sacre<i nature and power of 
 nwji.ty, the constitutional lilwrly of the [teople 
 in IIP iti'CtMl. We do therefore lien'by adopt, 
 ismlioa. and ratify this form of government, 
 larli as it follows here: — 
 
 We the underwritten representatives of the 
 SwclUh realm, counts, barons, biKho|)s, knights, 
 ix>lil<'4. ('lereymen, burghers, and p<'aaanta, as- 
 frmtilcil at a geneml Diet. In behalf of ourselves 
 tmliiiirlirethrenathome, IViherfhy make known. 
 tliai. having by the late change of government, to 
 •lliih we. the deputies of the Swedish p^'ople. 
 f«n- ..iir i.nanlmous assent, exercised our righU 
 iidlrawini! up a new and iniptuTe<l constitution, 
 wf have, in repealing those fundamenul law». 
 wbkh ilown to this day have Ix'en in force niort- 
 it km: viz., —The Form of Government of the 
 Jl«i . f .Vujtust 1772, the Ait of fnlon and Se- 
 .■uni\ . ..f the 2Ut of Febrtiary anil the Sil of 
 .Vpril I7S9. the l>nlinano> of Diet, of the 34th of 
 January 1«17, ai well as all th<*' laws, acta, 
 •utulm. ami resolutions ciinipn'heniled umler 
 i1k> ileiioiiilnation of fundanienttd laws ; — We 
 hsvi- Ki-iK.lvii) to adopt for the klngiiom of Swe- 
 den aoil lia lirpendencies the following cimstilu- 
 tion. wbii h fMm henceforth shall be the chief 
 fuiHianirnul hiw of the realm, rearrTing to t»ur- 
 Kiv«. I,ef„rr the expiration of the present IMet, 
 w nmsi.lir the other fumlamenul laws, men- 
 Uomil in the Mth article of this constitution. 
 
 Articia I. The kingdom of Sweden shall U- 
 fotrrtieil l.y « king, who shall be heivdiury In 
 that ..nJer of auPTMainr. whl<h «hp t^fv.f^ wl!! ' 
 tunhrr hereafter determine. I 
 
 ». TTh' king shall pmfeia the pure evangelical | 
 faith, such u U cuotolacd and declared In the I 
 
 Augiburgian Confesdon, and explained in fba 
 Decree of the Diet at Upaala in the year 1598. 
 
 3. The majesty of the king shall bo held 
 sacred and inviolable: and bis actlona shall not 
 be •ubtect to any censure. 
 
 4. The king shall govern the realm alone, in 
 the manner determined by this constitution. In 
 certain cases, however, (to be specified) he (hall 
 take the opinion of a council of sUfe, which shall 
 be constituted of well-informed, experienced, 
 honest, and generally-esteemed native Swedes, 
 noblemen and commoners, who profeaa the pure 
 evangelical faith. 
 
 5. The council of state shall consist of nine 
 members, vix., the minister of state and tustice, 
 who shall always be a member of the kiiig's su- 
 preme court of Judicature, the minister of state 
 for foreign affuirs, six counsellors of state, three 
 of whom at least must have held civil offices, and 
 the chancellor of the court, or aulic chancellor. 
 The secretaries of state shall have a seat and 
 vote in the council, when they have to report 
 matters there, and in cases that belong to their 
 respective departmenU. Father and son, or two 
 brothers, shall not be permitted to be constant 
 memliers of the council of state. 
 
 «. The secretaries of sUte shall be four, viz. 
 — line for military sfTaIrs; a second for public 
 economy, mining, and all other affairs connected 
 with the civil and Interior administration ; a third 
 for the finances of the realm. Inland and foreign 
 commerce, manufactures, &c. ; and the fourth, 
 for aflaira relating to religion, public educatioi., 
 and charities. 
 
 7. All affairs of government shall be laid 
 iH-fore the king, ami decideil in a council of 
 stale: those of a ministerial nature, however, ex- 
 cepted, concemlng the relations of the reahn 
 with foreign powers, and matters of military 
 command, which the king decides in his capacity 
 of commander-in-chief of the land and naval 
 forci'S. 
 
 8. The king can make no decision in matters 
 in wliiili the eouncil of state are to be beard, un- 
 less at least thn-e counsellors of state, and the 
 secretary of state whom it concerns, or his deputy- 
 8."crctary, are present — All the members of the 
 council shall, upon due notice, attend all deliber- 
 ations ileemeil of importance, and which concern 
 the general nilministration of the affairs of the 
 kingi'.om. sinh as iiuestions for adopting new 
 statutes, n-pealiiig or altering thos<> in existence, 
 intriHlucing new institutions in the different 
 branches of the ailiiiluistration, ijtc. 
 
 O. Minutes simll U' kept of all matters which 
 shall come U'foro the king in hia council of state. 
 The mlnisU'rs of stJite. the counsellors of sUte, 
 the aulic chanirllor, and the secretaries of state 
 or ilemityMtntarles. shall Ih> peremptorily bouiul 
 to deliver their opinions: it is, however, the pre- 
 rogative of the king to decide. Should It, how- 
 ever. unex|iectedly occur, that the decisions of 
 the kine are evidently contrary to tlie nmstitu- 
 tion and the common law of tne realm, it shall 
 in thai rase 1m- the duty of the members of the 
 council of state to nuke spirite<l remoDstrances 
 against such decision or resolution. Unless • 
 ilifferi'nt opinion has been recorded in the niin- 
 utes(for then the counsellors pnteot shall be con- 
 sttlrfT-r! ni ioving advised the king to the adcnicd 
 measun I the members of the council (hall be 
 n-spoitsible for tbcir advice*, i« enacted io th« 
 lUflth article. 
 
 COS 
 
CONSTITUTION OF 8WEDBN. 
 
 10. Necettary Inforniktiona haring been de- 
 manded and obtained from the proper boards, 
 nuthurtttei, and functionariea, the alhin for de- 
 lilicration shall lie prepared by the secretary of 
 state and eight sliilful and impartial men, con- 
 sisting of four nobles and four commoners, In 
 oriliT to their being laid before the king in the 
 iduiicll of state— The secreury. as well as all 
 tlic other memlK'rs of this committee (which are 
 Momlnatcd by the klnjr) for preparing the general 
 atTiilt* of the kinploni. shall upon ull moasions. 
 when so met. deli vur their opinions to the minutes, 
 "liich shall nftcrwartla be reported to the king 
 UD>I the council of state. 
 
 11. As to the management of the ministerial 
 nITiiirs. they may W prcparetl and conducteil in 
 the manner whiih apix-ars most suitable to the 
 kin^'. It oppertaius to the ndnister frtr foreign 
 affairs to lay Huch matters liefore him in the 
 presence of the aulic chancellor, or some other 
 meml)er of the council, if the chancellor caiuiot 
 nttenil. In llio absence of the minister of state 
 this duty ilexul.'es upon the aulic chancellor, or 
 any other memlier of the council of state, whom 
 his majisty may ap|H)int. After haviug ascer- 
 talutMl the opinions of these otflcial persons en- 
 tennl in the minutes, ami for which they shall 
 Ik- resiHmsilile. the king shall pronounce "his de- 
 cision in their prusenee. It shall l)e the duty 
 of the aulic chancellor to keep the minutes on 
 these o<-casiims. The king shall communicate to 
 the eouneil of state the information on these 
 topics as may lie necessary, in orilcr that tiny 
 may liavi' a general knowle<]geevenof thisbrandi 
 of the :t4lniiiiistratiim. 
 
 12. The king can enter into treaties anil alii- 
 anci'S with foreign powers, after haying ascer- 
 taiueil, OS enacleil in the pn>cefling article, the 
 opiiii.in of the minister of state for foreign af- 
 fairs, and of the aulic chancellor. 
 
 13. When the king is at lilwrty to commence 
 war, or conclude |M'ttce. he slioll conx'oke an ex- 
 tnuinlinary council of state: the ministers of 
 state, the counsellors of state, the aulic chancel- 
 lor, aiul the secretaries of state; and, after having 
 e.\|ilKhuHl to them the circumstances which re- 
 quiri' their consideration, he shall desire their 
 oninlons lhere<m, which each of them shall in- 
 dlyidually deliver, on the responsibility iletliH'<l 
 In the 107th article. The king shall thenafter 
 haye a right to adopt the resolutions, or make 
 sudi decision as may appear to him most bene- 
 ficial for the kingdom. 
 
 14. The king shall have the supreme com- 
 mand of the military forces by sea and land. 
 
 15. The king shall decide In all matters of 
 mitiury command, in the presence of that min- 
 ister or iiHlcer to whom lie has entrusted the 
 gi-niml management thereof It shall be the 
 duty of this iierson to give his opinion, under 
 reaponsli.llity, ujion the resolutions uken by the 
 klnu, and in case of these being contrary to his 
 advice, h. shall be bound to enter hisobjei'lions 
 aiKl 0'i,ns«-l In the minutes, which the kinitmust 
 nmlirni l>y his own signature. Should this min- 
 ister or oliiclul Iierson And the resolutions of the 
 kiuij to lie of a ilangerous tendency, or founiletl 
 ■"1 niisuken or erMneous principles, he shall ad- 
 \ !■«• his majesty to convoke two or more military 
 .1 Hi-er" of a superior rank Into a c<«;t>rl! of war 
 Till- klug shall, however, lie at lib . y to comply 
 « ith or to rvject this pMpoaillon (or a CDuncilof 
 Mar uud if approved of, luj may lak* what no- 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF SWEDEN. 
 
 tlce he pleases of the opinions of such coundl 
 which shall, however, be entered in the muiutet 
 
 16. The king shall promote the exercise r,( 
 justice and right, and prevent partiality and lo. 
 iustice. He sliall not deprive any suliject of 
 life, honour, liberty, and pn)pcrty.'witli(,ut pit 
 vious trial and sentence, and in tliat onlir which 
 the laws of the country prescribe. He shall not 
 disturb, or cause to be disturbed, the|iea(v.,f anr 
 individual in his house. He shall ncit banish any 
 from one place to another, nor constniiu. urcauw 
 to be constraine<l, the conscience of any Imi 
 shall protect every one in the fri-e ex. n ix'df hit 
 religii.n, pnivideii he dix-s not thin-hy disturb 
 the tmiii|Uillitv of six-lety, or occasi.'.ii public 
 iilliniv. The king shall cause eyirv i.ncio be 
 
 ; tried in that court to which he pmiHrlv Ulunn 
 
 17. The king's pn-Mgative of iusii<V»hall'be 
 iiiyestiKl in twelve mm. li-ame<l In tin- law. sii 
 iiolilis, and six conmioners. «lin Imvc shiiwn 
 kncovjedge. ex|>erience, and intt-L-rily in judicial 
 in.itlerK. They shall lie Btyle.1 ciMinssllors nf 
 justhc. and constitute the kings supnme coun 
 of justice. 
 
 18. The supreme court of Justin- slmll tab 
 coi:nizan<-e of |>etitiiins tothe king fi.r rancrllini 
 sinteuct-s which have obtaim-d leirnl f.ircr an5 
 granting extension of time in 1,-iwsuiis. wlicn it 
 has iH-en. through some cinumstances, f.irfiiitil 
 
 11K If information Ik- 8<Higlil hy jndci-s or 
 c'lurts of justice concerning the pri.JHr iiii,r|irf. 
 tatlcui of the law, the explaimtinn thus ri-ijuiml 
 shall lie given by the said supnim- mtm 
 
 20. In time of pt-oce, all ca.s.s n firrwl from 
 the niurts martfad shall liedeci(h-il in the supreme 
 (-iiurt of justice. Two military otlii-. rs nf » ju- 
 lNrlor<legrtT. to lie nominate<i by tin- kiiii:. shall. 
 >y|th the responsibility of judges. ;iiii-t:d anj 
 have a vote in such cases in the siipn nu: ("urt 
 Tlie nundar of judges may not. lio«i vi-r. uci-ed 
 eight. In time of war. all such raws shall be 
 tri(-d as i-iittcU-d by the articles of w.-ir 
 
 21. The king, shoulil he think tit to attend, 
 shall have right to two votis in eaus<s dwided 
 by the supreme court. All ipusiions c-i .miming 
 explanations of the law simll Ik- n |«.rt*il to hitn. 
 ami his suffrages counted, even tlmuirli In- should 
 not have attendinl the delilK-rations of ihi court. 
 
 22. Causes of minor importani i nuv U- di- 
 cliled in the supreme court by rtv.- ni.mUrs. or 
 even four. If they are all of one oiiiuiun, hut .'a 
 caus<-8 of gn-ater consciiiu-nce seven munsi-llors 
 at least, must atti-nd. Jlon- than lifht membetJ 
 <if the siipn-me i-ourt. or fotir noldeniiu and four 
 coinnionera. may not Ik- at one tin ■ in active 
 servii-i- 
 
 2.I. All the di-cn-es of tin- snpn'iue (smrt of 
 iu.stiii-shall issue in tin- kings imw. sod under 
 bis hand and seal. 
 
 24. The cases shall !«■ pniiareil In the " klngi 
 Inferior (iiurt for revision of jmliiiary affaln. ' 
 in order to la- iuld Iwfon-, or pnslucfd lu the 
 sut»n-me i-oun. 
 
 25. In criminal eaa<-« the kint; hna n ri{,-fat to 
 grant (lardon. to ndtigate capital punishment. 
 and to restore pro|H'rty forfeimi to tin crown 
 lu applications. howeVer. of this kind, the > 
 iin-me court shall U- heanl. and the kini! pvr 
 Lis decision in tlu- council of sute 
 
 30. Whcti matters of Justin- arc :ai:i brf.-fr 
 the (-ouni-il of state, the minister of aiair and 
 justliv. and. at h-asl. two counselton nf atste. 
 two members of the supreme court, and tiieckta- 
 
 604 
 
coirarrrcnoN of swbden. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP SWEDEN. 
 
 (dlorof lattice (hall attend, who mu«t all delirer 
 their opmioni to the mioutei, according to the 
 pneral instructinn for the memben of ue coun- 
 cU of itate, quoted in the 91st article. 
 
 27. The king ihall nominate, aa chancellor of 
 juitice, a ]uria-GODault, an able and impartial 
 mail, who haa prerioualr held the office of a 
 ludgt. Itihall be bia chief duty, aa the highest 
 iegu ofllcer or attorney eeneral of the king, to 
 prosecute, either personally or through the offl- 
 cm or flscals under him, in all such cases as con- 
 cern the public safe^ and the rights of the crown, 
 on the king's behalf, to superintend the adminia- 
 tntion of justice, and to take cognizance of, and 
 cortwt, errors committed by fudges or other 
 legsl ofBcers in the discharge of their official 
 dutiet. 
 
 28. The king, in his council of state, has a 
 light to appoint native Swedes to all such offices 
 and plscrs within the kingdom for which the 
 king'srommissions are granted. The proper au- 
 tborilirs shall, however, send In the names of 
 the candiilstes to be put in nomination for such 
 employments. The king may, likewise, apjraint 
 foreigners of eminent talents to military offices, 
 viihout. however, entrusting to them the com- 
 mand of the fortresses of the realm. In prefer- 
 ments the king shall only consider the merits 
 and the nbilities of the candidates, without any 
 rfinni to their birth. Ministers and counsellors 
 of Mall' and of justice, secretaries of state, judges, 
 and all i>tlier civil officers, must always be of the 
 putT. vvariiielical faith. 
 
 29. Th' archbiahop and bishops shall be 
 rlrfii-d a» formerly, and the king nominates one 
 o( tlir three candidates propostil to him. 
 
 30. The king appoinU. as formerly, the in. 
 cunilients of n?ctones in the gift of the crown. 
 A< to the ronsistorial beneflces. the parishioners 
 ahall be maintaineil in their usual right of election. 
 
 31. Citizens, who nrr free men of towns, shall 
 ny>\ tlielr privilege as heretofore, of proposing 
 to the kin){ three candidates for the office of bur- 
 gomaster or mayor, one of whom tlie king selwts. 
 The aldermen sod secretaries of the magistracy 
 of !^icK khcdiii shall be elect,'<l in the same manner 
 
 32. The king appoints envovs to foreign 
 couru and the timcers of the enilmssies, in the 
 piwem* of the minister of state for foreign af 
 fairs and the aulic chancellor 
 
 33. U'hen offices, for whiih candidates are 
 p^lIwl«<'i. are t) lie tilled iip, the members of tlie 
 coundl c.f <t«tc shall deliver their oiduions on the 
 Quajiili aiioiia ami merits of the applirants. They 
 Uiall il*' have right to make resiiei cful remon- 
 itrsnii 1 i.^aiiist the nomination of the king r>'- 
 llH*lln>' -.iher offlct-s. 
 
 34. Thi- new functionarier cnated 1)V this 
 cnn8tiiM!i,i:i, viz — the miniaters iird counndlora 
 of (tat. and counsellors of Juhtiie. shall Ix- paiil 
 bi lhi<mwn, and may not liidd am otlier civil 
 olfiocs 1 he two mlnistei* of stale are tlie liiirlieat 
 funitionanes of tli- realm. The counsellors of 
 »<.•». »h«ll hold the rank of generaia. nml the 
 fiiiiiw Il..r» of justice tlial of lieutenant generaia. 
 
 !W. The minister of slate for foreign affnits. 
 l!u- 1 ..unsillors of stale, the presiilenta of the 
 pul.li.- In.iinia, the grand governor of 8l<M'kholni, 
 tlit diniiiv voremor. and the eblef niairialraSi- 
 "t [...Hit ill tlie city, the aulic chancellor, the 
 cliauei-lliir iif justice, the sei'reuries of sUle, 
 tin liMVeriinri i.r lord. lieutenants of provinces, 
 fclJ nianOwia, generals and admlraU of all de 
 
 greea, adjutant generals, adjutant in chief, ad- 
 jutants of the staff, the governors of fortreiaea, 
 captain lieutenants, and officers of the king's lif« 
 guards, colonels of the regiments, and officcn 
 second in command in the foot and horse guards, 
 lieutenant-colonels in the brigade of the life regi- 
 ments, chiefs of the ariillery of the royal en- 
 gineers, ministers, envoys, ana commercial agent* 
 with foreign powers, and official persons em- 
 ployed in the king's cabinet for the foreign cor- 
 respondence, and at the embassies, as holding 
 places of trust, can be removed by the king, 
 when he considers it necessary for the benefit of 
 the realm. The king shall, however, signify his 
 determination in the council of state, the mem- 
 bers whereof shall be bound to make respectful 
 remonstrances, if they see it expedient. 
 
 36. .ludges, and a'll other official persons, not 
 included in the preceding anicle, cannot be sus- 
 pended from their situations without legal trial, 
 nor lie translatetl or removed to other places, 
 without having themselves applied for tliese. 
 
 37. The king has [Miwer to confer dignities on 
 those who have served their country with tldelity, 
 bravery, virtue, and zeal. He may also promote 
 to the order of counts and barons, (lersous, who 
 hyen.iiieiimerita have deserved such an honour. 
 Nobility and the dignity of a count and baron, 
 graniitf from tiiis time." shall no longer devolve 
 to Buy other tliau the individual himself thus 
 createil u noble, and after him, to the oldest of 
 his male iuue in a dirv<'t desceudiug line, and this 
 branch of tlie fiiniily licing extinct, to the nearest 
 male deaceudaut of the ancestor. 
 
 38. All despatches and orders emanating from 
 the king, excepting such as concern military af- 
 fairs, shall lie countersigned by the secri'lary who 
 has submitted Ihein to the council, and ia rea|)on- 
 silile for tlieir Udng conformable to the minutes. 
 Should the secretary find any of the decisions 
 made by the king to !»■ contrarv to the spirit of 
 the constitution, he shiill make his remonatrancet 
 resiHtting the same, iu tiie ouncil of state. 
 Hhould the king still persist iu his deh'miinatfon, 
 it shall then Ik- the duty of the si'cretarv to re- 
 fuse- his countersign, uiiil resign his place, which 
 he niav not reaiime until the eMatesof the realm 
 shall nave examined anil upproveil of Ids con- 
 duct He sliall, however, ill the mean time, re- 
 ceivi s salary, aud all the fi-es of hia olHce a* 
 foniiiTlv, 
 
 3U. If the king wialiea to t'o abroad, he shall 
 eoniiimnicateliisreaolutioii t.i the council of state, 
 in a full aaiH'iuldy. and take the opinion of all Its 
 inemlKTK, na eimitiii in the Iiiiilh article. Dur- 
 ing the almenie of the kiiit he iniiy not interfere 
 with the goveninieiit. or exeni.*' the regal iMJwer, 
 which aliall Ih- carrieil on. in Ida name, by the 
 council of alate; the council of atatecanuot, how- 
 ever, confer ditrnities or create ctiunla. liuroDS, 
 and knights: iiml nil olllcera appoint)')! bv the 
 coiiiu'ii aliall only Indd their places a)l interim. 
 
 40. 8liould th)> king be in such a state of 
 health n« '.. to' inrapable of attending Ui the af- 
 fairs I I III) kingdom, the council of state shall 
 coiidiu: til'- .I'imiiiistration, as enacted In the pre- 
 ciiiing .irtiiie 
 
 4 1 . Tlie kinic aliall lie of age after having com- 
 ii!.!i-d <!i.'h!.t!! y.-ara ShiiiiiiJ !!::■ ktr.g^ ilW bf- 
 foD' till' lii'ir of ilic irown has altaineil this aga, 
 llie gov) riiiiii'iit ahall In' cimducteil by the coun- 
 cil of aiHii'. ailing with regal (nm'er and au- 
 thority, iu the uamvuf the king, until the cstatM 
 
 605 
 
CONSTITUTION OF SWEDEN. 
 
 •f the raslm ilull bare tppoittted a provliional 
 
 riTenment or ngtacj: and the council of Mate 
 eoloined itrictly to confoim to the eiuctmeot* 
 of tUa conititution. 
 
 42. Should the melancholy erent take place, 
 that the whole royal family became extinct on 
 the male aide, the council of state ihall exerdia 
 the soTernment with regal power and authority, 
 until the esute* have choaen another royal bmue, 
 and the new king ha< taken upon bimielf the 
 government. All ocrurrenrea or thingi having 
 reference to the four but article*, shall be deter- 
 mined by the whole council of state and the sec- 
 retaries of state. 
 
 43. When the king takes the field of battle, 
 or r<>paire to distant porta of the kingdom, he 
 shall constitute four of the members of the coun- 
 cil of state to exercise the government in those 
 atrairs which he is pleased to prescribe. 
 
 44. No prince of the royal family shall be 
 permitted to marrv without having obtained the 
 consent of the king, and in the contrary case 
 shiill forfeit his right of inlicritiince to the king- 
 dom. lK>th for himself and descendants. 
 
 45. Neither the crown prince, or any other 
 prince of the royul family, shall have any appan- 
 age or civil place. The princes of the blood may, 
 however, liear titles of dukedoms and principali- 
 ties, a,t heretofore, but without any claims upon 
 those pn>vinces. 
 
 40. The kingilom shall remain divided, as 
 heretofore, into govemmenu, under the usual 
 provincial adminiHtrations. No governor-general 
 slinll. from this time, Ix." appointed within the 
 kiiigilom. 
 
 47. The courts of justice, superior as well as 
 inferior, shall administer Justiec scronling to the 
 laws nn<l statutes of the realm. The provincial 
 governors, anil nil other pulilic functionaries, 
 shall ixenlw the ofllres entrusted to them accord- 
 ing to existing regulations; tliev shall cbi'y the 
 orders of ili,- kiiij:. ,ind lie rrspiinsihle to him if 
 any not in doiie eontnirv to law. 
 
 48. The (ourt of tlie king is under his own 
 iniinHgoinent, ami hi' niiiv at his own pleasure ap- 
 p<«nt or distharge all his officers and attendanta 
 there. 
 
 4U. The estaiis of ilie nnlm shall meet every 
 fifth year. In tlie de<Tec of everv Diet the day 
 •h.ill Ih- lixeil for the next nuftlngof the estates. 
 The king niiiy. however, convoke the estates to 
 an fXtni.iriliimry Diet befipfc that time. 
 
 no. The IHets shall bo lield in the capital, ex- 
 cept Hlii'n the invasion of an enemy, or some 
 other iin|Nirtant impediment, may render it dan- 
 gerous for the safety of the representatives. 
 
 ftl. When the king or council convokes liie 
 estates, the |H'rio.l f.ir the commencement of the 
 l»i<t shall he suh«.<iuent to the thirtieth, and 
 williin the fiftieth dav, U> reckon fn)m that day 
 whin the summons has been pmclaimed in the 
 chiirclies of tlie capital. 
 
 rt2. The kiniT names th;' speakers c-f the nobles 
 the hnrirhers ami the peasanu the archbishop 
 
 '"^l^xinjnies. the constant kpetikernf the clergy, 
 realm «hal?, immetli- 
 
 rtJI. The (Slates of the 
 al.Jy after the o|K'ning of the Diet, elect the 
 different < ommittees. which are to prepare the af- 
 fairs inundel for Ihiir consideration. Such com- 
 
 - . 3 ..„3! — ^ ,n, — n •--nsttt'.:-r-::::t com 
 
 inittee, wlilch sliall take cognizance of uuestton* 
 conreming pr .pt«d alterations in the fundamen- 
 tal law* n port tliereuiion to the representatives. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF SWEDEN. 
 
 and ezamioe the minutet beU in the council ni 
 state ; — • committee of ilnaaeea, which shsH ,, 
 amtae and report upoo the Mate and managemat 
 of the rcTCDues : — a oommlttce of taxatSn f» 
 regulattof the taxes j — a committee of the W 
 fortoaulrtof into the administraUon of tbe^ 
 S&?. ^ ""!^ bank ; - a Uw committw l„ 
 
 fnfflXcffir^^aterir:: 
 
 a committee of public grievances and matten' of 
 economy, to attend to the defccte in public in 
 sUtuUons. suggest alterations, 4c. 
 
 54. Should the king desire a special conmit. 
 tee for deliberating with him on such m«tt«r> u 
 do not come within the cognizance of anv of th. 
 other committees, and are to be kept leciet th, 
 estates shall select It. This committee shall boiT 
 ever, have no ripht to adopt any resolutlonk. but 
 only to give their opinion on matters lefcrred to 
 them by the king. 
 
 55. The representatives of the realm shall not 
 discuss any subject in the presence of the kioir 
 nor can any other committee than the one men- 
 tioned in the above article hold their dellben. 
 tlon* before him. 
 
 56. General questions startetl at the meelinn 
 or the onlers of the estates, cannot be immelfi. 
 atelv discussed or decided, but shall be referred 
 to the proper committees, which are to give tbeir 
 opinion thereupon. The propositions or rennrt 
 of the committees shall, in the first Instsnce 
 witlumt any alteration or amendment, tie referred 
 to the estates at the general meetings of all tie 
 orders. If at these meetings, observations should 
 be made which may prevent the adiipii.u of tbe 
 proposed measure, these objections »li:ill beom- 
 municateil to the committee, in onler to its beinr 
 examine<l and revised. A proimsitlon thus pre 
 pared having been egain -eferreil to the estates, 
 it shall remain with them to ailopt It. with or 
 without alterations, or to reject it altogether 
 Questions concerning aiteraiions in the fundj^ 
 mental laws, shall !»:■ thus treated: — If the con- 
 stitutional committee approves of the sugpestion 
 of one of the representatives, or the rommitle* 
 reports in favour of or against a niea.*ure pw. 
 posed by the king, the opinion of the commifee 
 shall be referred to the estaU-s. who mav dincusj 
 the tonic, but not come to any resolutioii during 
 that Diet. — If at the general miTtinjrs of the 
 orders no observations are made against the 
 opinion of the committee, the iiui'stion lUisIl be 
 postpone<l till the Diet following, ami then be ile- 
 elded solelv by yes or no, as enactiil In the 7'ith 
 article of tlie onliiiance of Diet.— If, on the con- 
 trary, objections are urged at the general meet- 
 ings of the orders against the opinion of tbe 
 committee, the«»' shall be referretl bsik for its re- 
 consideration. If all the orders tie of one opinion, 
 the question shall be postponiil for final decision, 
 as enart<Hl above. Should again a particuUr 
 onler dilTer from the other onlera. twenty mrm- 
 liers shall lie electeil from amoni; everv onler. mi 
 added to tlie committee, for ailjiuting the dil!iT 
 ences. The qucation being thus prepared, shall 
 be dedde<l at the following Diet. 
 
 57. The ancient right of the Swedish peopk, 
 of Imposing taxes on themselves, shall be eier- 
 dan! by the estates only at a general Diet, 
 
 58. The king shall at every I>iri lay before 
 the committee of finances the state of the rer. 
 enues in all their branches Shoubl the crown 
 have obuincil subsidies through trcatici with for 
 
 OOG 
 
coNsnrcTioN op swxden. 
 
 (i|a powm, tbcM tball be vxptelmd in the luual 
 
 WW. 
 
 09. The king iball refer to the dcHaion of 
 tUi committee to determine what the (OTemment 
 mi7 require beyond the ordln«ry tuation, to be 
 niied by en eitraordinary grant 
 
 60. yo tazee of any deecrlption whaterer can 
 be increued without the expreie ooneent of the 
 (lUtes. The )dng may not farm or let on leaw 
 the revenues of lUte, for tlie lake of profit to 
 hinuflf and the crown ; nor graat monopoliei to 
 printe imllTiduals, or corporations. 
 
 61. All taze* ihall be paid to the end of that 
 ttnn for which they hare been impoeed. Should, 
 however, the estate* meet before the expiration 
 of that trrm, new regulations shall take place. 
 
 62. The funds required by goremmrnt hav- 
 tag been ascertained by the committee of finances, 
 it thai) rest with the estates whether to assign 
 propiinionate means, and also to determine how 
 the various sums granted shall bu appropriated. 
 
 63. Besides these means, two sdeuuate sums 
 shsll be Ti.iol and set apart for the disposal of 
 the king, after he has consulted the council of 
 Hate.— for the defence of the kingdom, or some 
 other important object; — the other sum to be 
 ilepo«ite<l in the national bank, in cose of war, 
 ifter the king has ascertained the opinion of the 
 council and convened the estates. The seal of 
 the onler for this latter sum may not be broken. 
 nor the money be paid by the commissioners of 
 the bank, till the summons to Diet shall have been 
 (lulv prixlaimed In the churches of the capital. 
 
 64. The onlinary revenues of the land, as veil 
 H the eitraordinarr grants which may be voted 
 by the esutes, shall be at the disposal of the king 
 for the civil list and other specified purposes. 
 
 65. Tlic above means may not be applied but 
 fur the iinsipicd purposes, and the council of 
 itsle shall lie responsible if they permit any 
 deviaticin in this respect, without entering their 
 rfmiinslraiKf s in the minutes, and pointing out 
 what tlic <iin»tltuti(>n in tliis case onlains. 
 
 66. The funds of amortissemeDl r national 
 debt, shall remain, as heretofore, under the suikt- 
 intendencc and dipectionof the estates, who have 
 puaraatwsl or come under a rcsptmsibility for 
 the national ilclit ; and after having received the 
 report of the committee of flnancrs on the affaire 
 of thill cstal>li8hment. the estates will provide 
 tliMiigh a »|H'clal grant, the reiiuisito means for 
 psvini! the capital as well as the interest of this 
 debt, in (inler that the credit of tlie kingdom may 
 be niaiDUinctl 
 
 67. The .l.nuty of the king sliall not attend 
 the meetinL'Siif the directors or commissjoiuni of 
 the funds of amortissement, on any other (Kcasion 
 tlian when the directors are disposed to take his 
 opinion. 
 
 68. The means assigned for paying off the 
 Mliounl debt shall not, under anv pretence or 
 concliiion. be appropriated to other" purposes. 
 
 TO. Minuld the estates, or any particular 
 order, entertain doubts either 'o allowing the 
 frsnt prop,»i,M by the committee of finances or 
 u to the participation In ths taxes, or the prin- 
 rtples of the management of the funds of amor- 
 tweraent, thi'se doubts shall be comraunlcated to 
 Ae committee for thHr f-.:rth^r comtdefatiun.- 
 U the committee cannot coincide in the opinions 
 »( lit esutt.«, or a single order. It shall depute 
 lome members to explain circumsuncea Should 
 IMsurdir still persist in It* opinion, the question 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF SWik. JN. 
 
 shall be decided by the tewlutlon of three oMen, 
 If two orders be of one, and the other two of a 
 different opinion, thirty new memben of eveir 
 orjli . Bhall be added to the committee— the com- 
 mi « shall then vote conjointly, and not by 
 ordets, with folded biUets, for adopting, or re- 
 jecting, unconditionally the propodtion of the 
 committee. 
 
 f O. The committee of taxation shall at every 
 Diet suggest general principles for divldfaig the 
 future taxes, and the amount having been fixed 
 the committee shall also propose how these are 
 to be paid, referring their propoeition to the con- 
 sideration and decision of the state*. 
 
 7i. Should a difference of opinion arise be- 
 tween the onlere, as to these principle* and the 
 mode of applving them, and dividing the taxes; 
 or, what hardly can be presumed, any order de- 
 cline participathig in the proposed taxation, the 
 order, which may thus desire some alteration, 
 shall communicate their views to the other repre- 
 senutives, and suggest in what mode this altera- 
 tion may be effected without frustrating the 
 general object. The committee of taxation hav- 
 ig again reportol thereon to the estates, they, 
 the estates, shall decide the question at issue. If 
 three orden obiect to the proposition of the com- 
 mittee, it shall l)e rejected. If, again, three 
 orders oppose the demands of a single order, or 
 if two be of an opinion contrary to that of the 
 other two, the question siiall be referred to the 
 committee of finances, with an additional num- 
 ber of members, as enacted in the above article. 
 If the majority of this committee assent to the 
 proposition of the committee of taxation, in those 
 points concerning which the representatives have 
 ! ilisagreed. the proposition shall be considered as 
 I the general resolution of the estates. Should it 
 I on the contrary, be negatived bv a majoritv of 
 votes, or be rejectcil by three orders, the com- 
 mittee of taxation shall propose other principle* 
 for levying ami dividing the taxes. 
 
 72. The national bank shall remain, as tor- 
 mi-riy, under the superintendence and guarantee 
 of the estates, and the management of directore 
 selected from among all the onlers, accordinv to 
 existing ri'gulations. The states alone can issue 
 bank-notes, which arc t. U- recognizeti as the 
 circulating medium of tin tvalm. 
 
 73. No tnmps, new tuxes or imposts, either 
 in mom y or kind, car lie levied without the vn|. 
 untary n.sent of the estates, in the usual onlsr, 
 as afore^.aid. 
 
 74. The king shall have no right to demand 
 or levy anv other aid for carrying on war, than 
 that contribution of pmvisioiis whicli may be 
 necessary for the loidntenunce of tiic tro..ps 'dur- 
 ing their march throii(:h a province. These con- 
 tributions shall. honever,lK' iiiuueiiiatelv paid out 
 of the trcasuri-, according to ilie fixed "price-cur- 
 rent of provisions, with an augmentation of a 
 moietv. according to this valuation. Such con- 
 tributions may not be demanded for troops which 
 have 1h-"ii ijuartered in a place, or are employed 
 in military openttions. in which case they shall 
 be Biipp'ii-ii w , it pMvisions from the magaiines. 
 
 73. Tlic ;in;mnl estimation of such n-ntes as 
 are paid in kin<t sliall be fixed by deputies elected 
 froni amr.nf ail the orders of iJie estates. 
 
 76. The ki'ie cannot, without the consent of 
 the estates, coutnut l.ia'is within or without the 
 kingdom, nor burthen the land with any new 
 debU. 
 
 007 
 
CONSTITUTION OF SWEDEN. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF SWEDEN. 
 
 Wi 
 
 77. He ciumot alto without the conaent of 
 the rauU'a, Tend, piedse, mortgage, or in any 
 otlitT way alienate aomain*, farma. foreau, narlis. 
 pri'SiTvi'* ;>f ffsmt'. ni*.«iows, paiture-lanu, li»h- 
 erif», snd other npptirtenancea of the crown. 
 Tlii«' shall lie managed according to the initruc- 
 tiiMis of the ettateo. 
 
 78. No (Mirt nf the hingdom can be alienated 
 tliniiijih side, murtgat^e, donation, or in any other 
 »av wluitever. 
 
 7i>. No alteration can he effected In the atand- 
 aril value of the coin, either for enhancing or 
 detirionitiug It, without the conwut of the 
 
 est:ltt'S. 
 
 tM. The land imd naval foroea of the realm 
 aliiill remain (>n the same fooling, till the king 
 ni. I the estates may think pro|)ei to Introduce 
 atMiii- other principles. No regular troops can lie 
 r:ii-..-.l. withitut the mutual consi-nt of the king 
 anil the estates. 
 
 81. This form of government and tlie other 
 fiiiiil:iinentiil laws cannot lie altereil or repealed, 
 wllliout the utmniinoua (:i>usi-nt of the king and 
 the estati s. Questions to this effect cannot lie 
 brought forwani at the mwtlngs of the orders, 
 hut must be referred to the constitutional cfim- 
 nilttei'. whose province it Is to suggest such alter- 
 atiiins In the fundamental laws, ^g may b<' d«vnie<l 
 iieies-Hjiry, useful, and practicable. The estates 
 may uot decide on such pronoaed alterations at 
 till- same Diet. If all the orders agree about the 
 aliiration, It ^hall Im- aubmitted to the king. 
 tliriMigh the KjH-akers, for obtaii:lng Ids n>val 
 sanction. After having ascemlned the npinion 
 of the rouncil. the king shall take his n-solution, 
 rind loininnnii.ile tu the eataU-s either his .tppro- 
 ba'ion or reasons lor refusing it. In the event of 
 till kinit lirii| (isiuvt any alteration in the fiuida- 
 nil iital laws, he slia)'," after having taken the 
 ii|ii;iicin of iiie iiiuii .i. deliver his proposi'lon tn 
 the estates, '.vliii shall, withnut discussing ii. 
 HKaiii refer It to the constitutional comiaittee. If 
 the I iimmlttee coincide In the pri>|K».itinn of tlie 
 king, the iniestlim shall renniin till nex' Diet If 
 again the euiumittee Is averse to the pru|i<'sitlon 
 of the king, the estates may either njeri 't im- 
 iiii'lialely or iiiljinirn It tn'the fallnwiug IMet. 
 Ill the ease of all the onh'rs appr.ivlng of the 
 pri'imsltiiMi. they shall reijue^t that a day be ap- 
 pointed to declare their consent lii the pri-senir 
 if Ids inajisty, or signify their disappniliation 
 tlirii:n;h their hiK-akers. 
 
 8!I. VVhiit the estates have thus unauinniuily 
 ri-Milvnl anil the king sauctiDned, conc-rning 
 iilteralmns in the fundamental laws, or the kini; 
 lias iiriipiised and the estates appniv.d of, shall 
 fir tlie futiiH' have the force and i ITecl nf a fun 
 dunii-ntal law. 
 
 8JI. Xii eiplanatliin of the funihimental laws 
 may lie eslalilisheil by any other nn-k' or onkr. 
 than that prescribed by tlie tan prreeiling art! 
 ('.'■<. Laws shall be applied acconllng to their 
 lili-r;il SI use. 
 
 84. \\ lien the constitutional committee find 
 nil ri asnii fur apprDVing of the propoaition, made 
 bv a ripn Mutative concerning alteratiuus or e.x- 
 planatjiins nf the fundamental lawa, It ahall Im- 
 til- duly nf Iheennimittee to communicate to him. 
 at lii»ni(Me«t, theirnpini.in. which the pfoposerof 
 till- resiilutinn may publish, with blaown motion, 
 unil under the usual n>i<|ionaibllitT of ■uthon. 
 
 8A. As fundamental lawa <if the preaent form 
 of jinvernment, tlu-re shall lie conaldeied the ordi- 
 
 luiu d' in In 
 
 •■ '■ shml Iw luV 
 
 ' 'e I 1?. »li". 
 
 I'f Ilieci.un 
 
 ii'ilan-eithrt 
 
 -s fur uitlilioU- 
 
 • 111 prii|«iii,- atv 
 
 •ifter hmingcen. 
 
 nance of iMet. the order of auccession, unj ^ 
 act cnuctmiiig univenaal lilierty of tlie |,re«i, 
 
 8H. By the liberty of tlie prt.w is iiiiilemtoiiii 
 the right of every 8wediab aubjeci in pnhli,), |^ 
 w ritings, without an; impediment from the mv 
 ernment, and witboui lelng responalble fortiien. 
 except before a court uf Juatlce, or lialile to pm. 
 ishment, unies* 'heir contents be ennirurr to i 
 clear law, maile for the preaervatiim of p„Mi( 
 peace. The uilnutea, or pnit<K-ols, or the pro. 
 ci-edings. may lie published In any cas.-, nr|.pt. 
 ing the U'inutea kept in the council nf nau- ,^ 
 liefore the king in ministerial affairs, an.l ting 
 matters of military cocmanil . nor ni.iv tlw 
 reeonla of the bank, and the oft.ii' nf tlu- 'fiimij 
 of amort issement. or national detn Im- iirinii-.l 
 
 87. The estates together with the kiuy luv, 
 the light Id make oew and repeal oM UWs. h 
 this view such <|Ui-siiiin8 must be pmpiseil a| iIk 
 general meetinu's nf the order? ' th" , .latiii and 
 sliall lie ilccliled by them, aff iviriL tjkia Ihi; 
 opinion of the law commit' 
 the 56th article The pror 
 ndttMJ, through the B|)ea' .-< 
 after having ascertuine ' • 
 cil (if state loid supreiia' > 
 his royal approbation, n 
 iiiL' It. Shnidd the kin 
 
 ulieration in the laws, hi .. ui^wu. 
 
 suited tie eniiin il of state ami supn me miirt, 
 rifcr his pnipin-rum. together with tlu!r.,;,inin 
 to the delilM-raii 11 nf the stales, whn. afiir lijt 
 Ing reci-i veil the ri jinrtnf the lawciiEiiinitiie,jh.i!I 
 I'lclde on the piiut. In all sm li . iKiinu^ Iht 
 r.solutinh (if three nrders shall Is- (.ii^iilern! as 
 the reaolutinnof ihee.-tatesnf the naini If iw 
 orders are opimsed to the oiher twn. tin- |iM|i.»i 
 lion is negatived, and the law i> i,, tiiiaiii i.- 
 loriiierly. 
 
 88. The same course, or niiKlt i f i-Mn-eiJici: 
 shall ln-.ilix r\(il inexplainingtlii (ivil.eriui:i.-i: 
 and t-( rh-siastieal laws, as in inakin;; tin -< F.\ 
 iilanatiiins (-nn(-erniin.' the prnpir ^ur. uf •■.■ 
 law given by the siiprtnie nmrt in ihe iiaiuc ,! 
 the king, in the Interval Iniwo n tin- Diiis. mt 
 \k rejected bv the stairs, and shall in t u'tfi 
 wanls !«.■ valid, or eit(sl by the cniirts "! jimim 
 tun' 
 
 8l>. At the general mtt tini;s nf tin iiriiit> • '. 
 the eslat(s. iiueslions may In priiiMiiiTl fnr:,'ii-r 
 in;:. e.\|ilaininu. repealini ami i-siiii.:; urls ni 
 cerning publir ecnnnii'V. and the priuii|ili> ■ 
 piiblii- iiistitiitinnsiif any kind wiay lie ilisu*,i 
 TIk-sc ijuestiniis shall aitirwanlsli. n fem^i • 
 the riiriiinittee nf iiulille L'riiVaiieis ai.'l nncn.: 
 eal :ilT;.irs, nnd then 'v siiliuiit ■•d In Ilw ilirisi' l 
 of till king, in a <.iuneil nt state. When '.U 
 kiiii; i^ pleased to invite the estates t" ililibn'i 
 wi;h liini nn iinestiniis cnni-i rniii.- tin yimrs! 
 adinini-itnitini,. the same nnirsi- shall !«■ .ii!it: -'. 
 as is prescrilHsl fur .(iieslieus eninerjini; iht 
 laws 
 
 1M>. During tin- di liUratiniis nf tin- urilirs. nr 
 till ir commitirt-s. im i|iiestinns shall K i n'pme! 
 but in the way t-xpri-ssiy pn-sdiUii liy iliisfur 
 ilanii iilal law. cnneemfnc < iilii r ap|>"iiiiins t 
 reinn\i:ig of ntll.-ers. dceisini.'i and ri ^' Inline*'! 
 the gnvi rnmcbt nnd enurts nf la", anil the oil 
 duet nf private indi-iduaU n:;;! i..rr-.;.r::!i;i!is, 
 
 Ol. When the king, in sm h ('i.-sh m tin*; 
 mentinii. -I i.i the 8Ctu "urtiele. is alis<-ai fmmtlif 
 kinirihiii. longer than twelve month-, tla oiunri; 
 shall convoke the e«i ites In a general l>iet ami 
 
 608 
 
COXSTITCTIOX or SWEDEN 
 
 CONSTITUTTOK OF SWEOKX. 
 
 ciiuf the Kiinimoni to be prnrlaimrd ni'tinflt- 
 M«n cia^ • f ">"> 'lie above time in the churchei 
 of the Vapitul, au4l speedily afterwitrd* it the 
 other parts of the kingdom. If the Ung. after 
 btin; ini'unned tLenof. duea not return Ui the 
 tiaitiloni. tlie estates shall adopt cuch meaaures 
 HI tiiey deem moat benefldal for the couotn' 
 
 92. 1'he same shall be enacted in case oi utj 
 distax' or 111 health ut the king, which might t>re- 
 v(Dt bitn from atteotllng to the afTaiia <>f the 
 kincdum for more thac twelre months. 
 
 t>;l. When the heir of the crown, at the i.<- 
 ct'iMMf the king, is under age, '.ho (nunclt of 
 slaii' (hall Issue summons to the reproaentatiTrs 
 til mirt. The estates of the realm anall hare tlu- 
 ni'lii. witliuut regard to the will of a deceased 
 tiof nmci-ming the a<lministrstic>], to appoint 
 (int'or several guardiaut. t<> rule in the klLg's 
 uune. arcording to this f undamvntal law, till the 
 kin^ Utiimes of age. 
 
 M. Should it ever happen that the royal 
 family beoomr extinct In the male line, the council 
 cf ^l,■ltl■ »h«ll convene the estates, m elect another 
 p'ja! family to rule comformably to 'his funda- 
 i;irrii!i| law. 
 
 iW. [Should, contmrr to expertatinn, the coun- 
 111 if stale fail to cnvoke the estate*. In the 
 .t-ni prescribed by the 91 »t, iJM. and U4th articles. 
 It 'ball he the positive duty of (he directors of 
 ;!.i' hdiiae of noblis. the chapters thit>ughcut the 
 kingdom, tlie iimgistra'es in the o-pitar rrn* the 
 fiiremorsin the pmviiices, to give pu. ! i.. "I's 
 'hen- if. in onier that election* of deputu " j the 
 'lii't niay forthwith take place, anil the estates 
 .-.mhle to pmltTt their privileges and rialits of 
 '111 iiiigdoiii Sii Ii a Diit nhall l>e op<'netl on 
 ■.111' r'tieth ilay fr in tliat iM-riod when (Jie coun- 
 lil'f v.ate hail pri«lairaeii the summua< i.i the 
 rlnrihisof the capital 
 
 Ott. The estatM shall at every Di< appoint in 
 ifflur, distinirui-beil for integrity and learning in 
 ■ill' law. to winh ^ V. r as their deputy, the con- 
 ilurt of the jiidife!* li other official" men, and 
 ■villi sliiiil, in !i):al .mltr and at the proper court, 
 .rnil.-R 'hose who in the performnnoe of their 
 •!in-«havi. U-tri'cil negliiinre and partialitv. 
 riliehavf.iiinmi iaiiy illegril act. Heshall. 
 Iwwivir t>flialilet«i ■ »ainen-»|><incilillitya»the 
 h"v tin-w r.ln-s for pui -ic (mmecutor* in seiicral 
 
 S»7. This ik|iuiy or a-tumey-giiieraf of the 
 fsia'fs shall tie chosen by twelve "lectors out of 
 evfr\- onier. 
 
 Od, The electors shall at the saiu- :lnie they 
 cbi me (he said attorney-general, eU-ot a ptrsm 
 !«»wiis»iiig equal or aimlliar ijualities to aucceetl 
 aim, in rase of his death Ix'fore the n<-xi Hiet. 
 
 ttW. The attorney-general may, win uever hi 
 pkasis. attend the aeaaio.ns of all tlie superior 
 uid infi-nor i-ourts, and 'he p'liilic olRies, and 
 ilull have free access to their reconls uid mln- 
 lilcs; ami the king's iilllcers shall be ".mund to 
 pre liiiii every aMistinn' 
 
 100. The attorney-general uhall at 'jvery Diet 
 pt<-6i-!it a n-port of the performani-e of his ortic e, 
 Ml.laining the state of the a<lminiatratliin of j is- 
 ** ill the land, noticing :( ■• (".i f ,ta in the eiist- 
 itf laws, and suggestlni' ii. «- Improvements. 
 Hpsliall also, at the end ' ewh '"ar. publish ;i 
 ftf^i '. 1 i»>ak'mt-ijt coueer: nr tin . 
 
 101. Should the supn . ■ . oun, or any of lis 
 mfmliirs, from interest, punWlity, or Drgllgenu-. 
 Judge so wrong that an indivlifual, contrary t.. 
 at and evidence, did lose or miirht have lost life. 
 
 lib" -ty, honour or i 
 sh.iil he bouml. ai 
 authorised, toarraii. 
 hiw» of the reain; 
 lOa, This CO 
 
 perty. iie attomsry-goietttl 
 the cham^»'!7or of justice 
 he guilty >'Cording to the 
 
 the court ii ' r mcnti'ined. 
 
 is to be (I minated the 
 
 court „f Justice for the reulm, and dl beformed 
 by president in t'i» suiwrior n jrt of Swea. 
 tlie iidents of all ■ piildic boar's, four neainr 
 memliers of the coum il of sute, the highest com- 
 mander of the troops within the capital, and the 
 r< mmander of the s<|uailron < ' he fleet statioiieft 
 at the capital, two of the senior raecibers of llu- 
 superior court of Swea, and the senior member 
 of all the public manis 8l-iuM any of the 
 officer* mentioned aNivt- decline attending this 
 court, he shall be le^alh resj .nsible for such a 
 ofglcct of duty After trial, the Judgnicnt shall 
 lie publicly •.:iiiounceil: no one can alier such a 
 sentence. Tie kinfi may, however, extend par- 
 ion to tlie guilty, ' .1 not admitting him any 
 more into the «-r\ in- of the kingdom. 
 
 10;i. The '-«t it.ssliill at every Hiet ni ininate 
 a jir oftweh ineralx r» from out ,f i ich order, 
 for li. ■ idingif .1,.- niemliersof thesui ; iiiecourt 
 of justici? hr.ve iltvrved Ui Ml their niportant 
 iilaces. or if any luimbcr, "iihoul ii .-inir been 
 legally convicted lor the tuiilu meniiinnd in the 
 aliovi- artides. yet oueht to be rennn.i! from 
 
 Ollllf 
 
 I04. The estiito* shall not resolve ih :i».!ve» 
 into a 1 o'irt of justice, nor enter into anv -iieclal 
 exami'.ati a of th-- ilii rec* Terdicts. ruW/)utton» 
 of t!i- ^ iprvme < ir'. 
 
 lOo. T!.,- con:,' i;tioti» .1 . mit'ivBhi.'lhave 
 right to ieiniind i) . iiiim,. . ' tlit coiini; if 
 state, eicipt tliose wlii.h couci rn m '.islerial • r 
 foreitn affairs, ur.i'.ii'Hr.rs of niilitory omairii.l. 
 wbicli may only be r ■• iraiinlratcil as far a* time 
 h.ivc » refirencc to giinerully l.i iwn evints 
 '1 ecifled by the coN.miute. 
 
 lOB. Siiould the committee End from these 
 minute* that any member if the council of state 
 has openly acte-1 against the clear dictate* of the 
 coiistitiition, or advised any ii friiiwmen'i either 
 .if the Mini- 'ir of the other la« ., of the realm, or 
 that he hiui uiittiii to n'r.ioii«tr«te against such 
 a violation, .r rauwfi and i -omoted It liv wilfuUv 
 cofKvaling any infonnation the committee shall 
 onier the attorney-general to Institute the proper 
 procwliiiirs Bcai:!.st the guilty. 
 
 107. If the mstitutioual committee should 
 llnil that any or ,'iil the members of the council 
 of state hftvc jot consulted the real Interest of 
 the kingdom, or that any of the secreMries of 
 mat" have not perfoniuil his or their otticial duties 
 with Impartiality, miivlty. and skill, the com- 
 niitui' ..l.ill reiMirt it to 'he estates. »ho, if they 
 deem It :u-ieii«ary, i.iay siKnify to tin king thefr 
 wish •■' !iavlng'tlio«e n-nioveil, who may tbtu 
 have given diasiiiisfactioii. QuesUoiu to this 
 effect may Ih> liruight forward at the general 
 meetings of tlie orders, and even be proi>o«eil by 
 any of thi- coiuiuitt«-«. Th'-»c caimot, however, 
 lie decideil un;i! the constitutioiuf committee 
 have delivend their opinion. 
 
 lOM. The estates shall at every Diet ippoint 
 six individuals, two of whom must be learned in 
 the law, besides the att' mey-general. to watch 
 over the liberty of the pr -ss. These deputies 
 sliall lie bound to give tit, \i -iplnion as to th>. 
 legality of publieatium, if -..h 'u •rquesteil by 
 the auUiora. 1: -< I'l [h.Ii -a shuil be choaen by 
 six electors out if evetj oiiltr. 
 
 60',' 
 
CONSTITCTION OF SWEDEN. 
 
 lOQ. DIeti may not l>it long>r than three 
 nionll» fmm the time that the king haa informed 
 the represn'titativei' o( the flatc of the tevenuea. 
 8lioiil<l. however, tlie eatatea at the expiration of 
 that lime not have concluded their delitieratioM. 
 thev may demand the Diet to be ,-imloDKe<< for 
 anotliiT month, which the kins nhiiil not refute. 
 If nffain. contrary to ex|)ecUtTon, the i-«t«H'« at 
 the exniraiion of lliia ti'rm have not regulateil the 
 civil lUt, the kins •hall diaMilve the Diet, and 
 taxation ctintinue in its former stati till the next 
 nieetinK of repreaentatlvea. 
 
 1 lO. No representative ahaM l>e re«ponai))le 
 for any opinion uttered at nieetinK* of the onlera, 
 or of the commilteea, iinleM liv the express per- 
 niiwi'Mi (if at least flvesixths of his own "nier: 
 nor run a renri'sentative !«• Imnislie<l from tlie 
 Dili Shoulil any indiviituiil or IkkIv, either civil 
 or inlliinry, endeavour to offer vliilrnce to the 
 esliiie'., iir to any indlviiliinl n'preo'iitatlve. nr 
 privtiMiie til Interrupt and ilUturli their dellU'ra 
 lioiiH. It sliiill Im! c<>nsider»<l as an act of ireawiu. 
 and It n>it« with the estates lo take leital ctiirni 
 ziiiMi- (f Hui'h nn olTeiice 
 
 lit. Slii.idil any reprpsenutlve. after Imvinir 
 announced hlniMlf as suih. W Insulteil. either at 
 the Milt or (111 hU way to or from the siiiiie. it 
 shall Ih- puiilslicti as a violation of the iwace of 
 th. kini! 
 
 1 Itf. N.) otflctal |>erson iiie^ exerclM' hia offl 
 ciulnuihurlty (his authority '.I thai caiHu-ity) In 
 
 CONBTmmON: SWrrZEhLAIfD. 
 
 Influence the electlona of deputies to the Dl«t 
 under pain of loalng his place. 
 
 1 13. Indiriduart elected for regulating tlw 
 taxation shall not be retponaible for their lawful 
 deeils In this their capacity. 
 
 1 14. The king ahall leave the estates In m 
 dIsturlNil possession of their lilM'rtles, privllfn, 
 and Immunities. Modifications which the pr,! 
 perlty of the ri'ttlm may demand can niiv be 
 done with tile general concurrence and cimwm of 
 the estates anil the sanction of the kinjt X.if 
 can any new privileges be granted to nne .irln 
 without the consent of the other, ami ih.' muc 
 tion of the soven-lgn. 
 
 This we have conflrmed by our ii.initu ui,[ 
 seals, on the sixth day of the month c.f .luni' in 
 the year after the birth of our L-ml one tln.imnd 
 eight hiindn'<l and iiini'. 
 
 On iM'httIf of the Nobles, M. Ankarsvar.1 (it 
 
 iM'lmlfof the Clergy, Jac. Ax. Lind" (in 
 
 hehalf of ihe Iturghert, H. N Hehwiui in, l» 
 half of the PeasHntry, Ijira Olssiin. ."«|Haliirs 
 
 The alKH-e form of governmeut «!■ Imv.. n..t 
 only acknowliHlireil Ourselves, hut i|.. hIn. (..id 
 innnd all ntir faithful subjects to ciUy it. i,,,,,,, 
 tlrniatiiin i^f which, we have thenici ttHl'j..| ,.« 
 iiiamial siunatun' and the seal of the rralm In 
 the ciiv i.f iiur royal n-sldence. StiKkhnlm, ,,u ti, 
 sixth ilay of the month of June, in tin- vnir iftfr 
 the birth of our Lord one thuuianil elidn liun 
 dreil and nine C'luiiLis 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE SWISS CONFEDERATION. 
 
 Aflir the S<inilerhund secession and war of 
 1H4: (,«,. SwtTZKIil.AMI: A I> INrt-t-IMNl. the 
 iHhk ..f drawing i<i> a Constitution for tlie Con 
 full nu y was xmlided In a fimmiltee of f.,urteen 
 nunilH-m, and tlie work wa« finished on the 14lh 
 of .\pril. \«iH 'The pmjiit wan submitted lo 
 the Caiiiiini, and accipteif at onc<' liv thirteen 
 ami a half, others Jnlmd diirinif Ihe" summer, 
 anil the new Constitution wm llnallv promiiliraled 
 with the assi'nt of all on the I'j'th Spteni'ier 
 llenif anw the stvinlh and l:i»t pliane of the 
 < ■•nfeilerallon. liv the adoption of a Fe<hral Con 
 stitulicin for the whole of Mviltj. .land, Ulnir the 
 lirM which waaelilinly the work of Muitii. with 
 out any foreign Inlliii'iice. although Its auiliom 
 had >.tudli-<l that of thi' Initinl Stales It 
 
 w».H natural thai, as In princess of time coniiiiirei' 
 and industry wen- devilo|»Hl. and as Ihi- dlfter 
 . nrei. lHtw.-.n the hglslsllon of the various ( an 
 tout iMiaiiie more appan'ni. a revision of ih.- 
 llr»i nally .Swiss Confeihratlon sli.Mild lie mits 
 wiry Thl« was pni|iiis>nl laiih In 1x71 and l"Ti 
 but till' partlians of a further rentralliatlon 
 Ihimifh •uii-eisful In the Chambers, were defeateil 
 Uj>..ii an appeal to the (mpular Voir on the IJth 
 of May |x,i by a majority of U tween «ve and 
 six lli.'iinaud. and by lhlne< ii Cantons lo nini 
 Thi i|iii'»il.in was. however bv n.i means si'tlh.i. 
 and III l-fTl « n< w pri>jeet of revls|..n more ae 
 ceplable to ||,|. parliwin^ of cantonal lnile|M'ud 
 eu.e, was adopt.. I \.y ii,,. |».,,p|p ||„. numlam 
 laing Wo.iw, to lUNdis Th. Canton, w.r.' i 
 al")ut two 111 oil.- In favour of the n-vlahm Hi '■ 
 •(.•claring for and Tj aitalnsl It ThIsConiiliu 
 tim bean dale the JIHl, May l'«74 and has alniv ' 
 Iwn a.iile.1 to snd allenii In cerlaln lianlcuUrs j 
 — !Ur r o Adam* and C U I'uuubighaiu Th- i 
 
 Siriu i'''nfr>lert%tiiiH, ek I — 'Hlnc.' IM". 
 SwIlteHand has U-en a feileral stale, i .nsiitioj 
 of a central authority, Ihe Huud. snd lU .niirt 
 ami hlx half states,' the ('anions, to f,.r.in 
 jiowers she pr»'S»'nis an united fmiii. «hli. jwi 
 Internal [Killry aUows to each Canl.ii » Utc 
 amount of Indeix-ndenc' The liaoU .f »!; 
 
 h'Blslaiive ill vision i« theCommune i.rliiiiieii,!. 
 corr.»|Kindlng in some slight deirnc to ilir Km; 
 li»h I'arish The Commune In Its liifUl.iiiv, j-i 
 aiimihlslratlve a.|i,it or ' Klnwohm r.;ini. ii>.l, 
 IscomiHwetl of all tin- iiihabltams of «('..niini.ii. 
 It is ».lf governing and has the loiitr.l of \\r 
 |iM-al iKilice. It also ailmlnUt.'rs all niatlir«c-.« 
 Ii'-t.il with |>auperi>in, .•dmallon .aninr. jc.l 
 fiitM'ral regulalhius, ih.- tin- lirlirn.li- ihf nmtil* 
 iiaiiir of pntillc |Mac. and trusl.-.'shlpi A! 
 
 till' head of th,. CommuiM' Is the Ii. m. in.lrmih 
 or < oniniuiiiil < oumll whose nn iiib. r» in 1 1.- i.'l 
 fMm Ihi Inhabitants for a Hied |ur1<»l h u 
 pnslili'il over by an Amnuinn. or .Ma\ r or Pri« 
 d.iit .VIkivc ilH'Commuiii'oii i In imi mlio^ 
 
 •isle lonw" Ih. Canton KsnU .f 'li. 1» 
 
 Cantons and H half Cantoim l» a tovini!.-!! >i>i<- 
 «hiBM- iirivlh Ki.« are neverhili-w llinli.-! I v •)»■ 
 K.iieral Coiislllutloii. iwrtl.ularlv a« nirsnli 
 li'tfal and military matters th< Consiii'i'i •« ii«' 
 diHn.-s Ih.' e»ti-nl of larh Canton and n" |i.nl « 
 of a ( aliton Is alloweil i.. si.i.li. and J'iii Krlf 
 to another Canton (.egislstlvi' |».wrr l«(ii 
 
 the hands of the V. . , In the polli|,sl ••iu» 
 of the Word 111. Volk consists of sll Hir S«l«i 
 livinir In llu l anion, wholmve pasad thilijii'li 
 vear and an- not undiT dlsaiillliv from ■ rirnr .f 
 imiikrupiry The mtlug on llu- pari .f ilx- 
 IHiipte deals miMlly with allerallo«« in llirisc 
 lonal coosiitullou. irvatlea. I«w» declsluns "! tbs 
 
 UlU 
 
CONBTmmON: SWITZERLAND. 
 
 C0N8TITCTI0N: SWITZERLAND. 
 
 flnt CooitcU inTolTiiig expendituiw of Fn. 
 100.000 isd upward, and other deciiioiia which 
 the Cooocil ooaaiden advteble to lubject to the 
 pablic TOte, which aJao detemiiiiei the adoption 
 of prapoiltkHU for the crestton of Dew Uwi, or 
 the alteration or ■bollttoo of old onn, whrn lurh 
 t pkUicite ii demanded br a petition ligned bj 
 SMO Toten . . The First Council (Gi 
 
 Ilith) it the bigbeat political and adminiatrative 
 powrr of the Canton. It corretpondi to the 
 -Clutinber ' of other countriea. Every 1,800 in- 
 haUtaotiof an electoral circuit tend one mi'm- 
 ber. . . The Kleine Hath or epeclal couoril 
 (oormpoDiling to the ' Minlaterium ' of other 
 (ogtioentiil countriet) it coni|Hiae<i uf three meni- 
 ben •ml bu three proxies. It is chiiaeu by the 
 Fini I'oiiiu'il for a period of two yean. It su 
 periDb'DcIa all cantonal inatitutiona end c<>ntn>la 
 tbe variiiua public boarda. . . . The |MipulatioQS 
 of lhi'22 sovereign L'an'iios ronstltute toiri'thcr 
 the folss ConfeJeration. " — I*, llauti, fHilrh »/ 
 llu C'liulitutum of Smturiand (in itrifklaiult 
 
 Tbt' following text of the Federal Constitution 
 of the ^>wias Cunfetleratlon is a translation from 
 panllt I FifDch anil Uemian texts, by Professor 
 jUlxTt Ilushnell Hart, of Harvard CollcKr. It 
 ippranil uriginally in " Old 8outli U-adeta, " No. 
 W. iii>l in niiw reprinted under |M>nni»«iou from 
 Piiifriai>r Han, who hat nuiat liiiiilly reviaed hia 
 inuulmiiiu tbroutfhout and lutriMluceti the Inter 
 uwuilciiriita, to July, IMM. 
 
 la the Namt of Almifhty Cod.— Tba Swiaa 
 Coafcdcratioa, desiring to rontlrni the alliani-e 
 uf ilir (Duft'ileratva, to maintain and to |iromot<' 
 tb( uuity. atrengib. and honor of the Swiaa 
 uii<'ii liaa adopted the Fifleral Couatltutlou 
 fi'll'miiii: 
 
 Ckapttr I. Central ProTiaioaa.— Amticle 1 
 Till- |»..,iU» of tlif Iwi-iity-lwo BiiviTi'lgn Can 
 i<<u>i>f SwIUerUiui, uulteil by tliia pr*-arut atli 
 anif. viz Zurirb, Hern, Luzem. I'ri. Si'hwyz, 
 I'Diirn allien (I'pper and Lower), (ilarua, Zug, 
 Fnilmri;. Solotbum. Basel (uriiau and rural), 
 NhatriuiiiM'ti, Alipeniell (the two lUiodeai, Ht 
 Uilliii Oriaona. Aargau, Thuriisii, Ticiuo, Vaud. 
 Valaii Ni'iirbltel, and (ieneva, form In their 
 ewinir the Swiaa Coufederetiou 
 
 Akt %. The purfHiaeof the ConfeileratloniB. 
 Ill aiuri' llii' indelM'udence of the eountry againat 
 (in^lmi iiailiina, to malnlain (m'mv ami order 
 «Hliii; 111 iimtert tlH< lllieny and the righU of 
 !br t'imfiili atea, and to fiister tbetr eonmuin 
 ai-IIirr 
 
 .\HT ■>■ The Cantons an' aoverelgn. so far aa 
 tbrir kiM n igiiiy la not liuiited liy the Fednl 
 (tisititunnii, and, aa aurh, they etenW all ilie 
 rtifbt* hIiIiIi are not ilelegaliil l>< the fnleral 
 ,riiv¥mnH!iii 
 
 .Vkt 4 All (Swiaa are r<|Ual liefnre tin- law 
 lnHwj|j,rlmiilUierralvne.;lHr IK lli-al ile|«ui| 
 rtiu iiiir privllpites of place, birth, iierwHia or 
 
 f«mil)r« 
 
 .Vkt % The Confetiereiioii guitraiiuie* to the 
 ' :iii!i.in ihnr terrtUiry. Ih-ir sovereignty, wiibUi 
 till \mm, iiti'il liy Article ii, their t'ouaiilutiona, 
 tbr lil« ri\ and rlihla of the |Mo|>le. the ronsij 
 \\kXM,x\ riifliia of diltena, ami thi- righu and 
 [«i»iTi kUIi'Ii the |>eople have i-onferre<i nn 
 ihi« m aiihorily 
 
 .Vnt •! Tlie'CaatoosaiT bounl Uiaali of Uh- 
 n^ffij, r»!i„ii i|„. (uMiuity of thelrC-ntlllulioua 
 Tlii» KiuuHiiiy |> acnintrd. provided ii' that tlie 
 
 Conatitutioni coutaUi nothing contrary to the 
 proTitlont of the Federal Conadtutlon. (6) That 
 they aature the exercite of political righU, ac- 
 cording to republican forms, repreaentative or 
 dcmotratic. (<■) That they have betn ratified by 
 the people, and may be amended whenever the 
 majority of all the citizens demand it. 
 
 Art. 7. All separate alliances and all treaties 
 of apolitical rhanirter liet ween the Canton: are 
 for'.fdden On the other hand the Cantooa have 
 the right to make conventiuna among themaelvea 
 upiu! legialative, adniiniatrtttive or judieUI sub- 
 jects; in all case* they aimll bring such conven- 
 tions to the attention of the federal oltlcials, who 
 are authorized to prevent their exwutioii. If they 
 coiiliiiu anything contrary to tlic Confederation, 
 or to the righU of iiilier Cantona. Should auch 
 not lie the caai-, t!ie covenanting Cantona are 
 autbi>ri>:e<| to reifuin' the co<%|K-retlon of the fed- 
 eral olUciala In carrying out tlw convention. 
 
 Aht. 8. Tile Confeileraliou haa the mile right 
 of ilechiring war, of making |>eiRe. au.l of con- 
 cluding allL i-v* and treiiliea with foreign pow- 
 en, purticuUrly tn-iitiea relating to tartlta and 
 commerce 
 
 A«T. I». By exi-eption tl>- Cantona preserve 
 the ri):ht of concliiiling treatiia with foreign 
 powers. naiHH'tinv the ailininistratioii of public 
 jiroiierty, ami iMinleriinil |K)lii-e Intcrcourae. but 
 auch tn-aiien shall contain nothiuk; contrary to the 
 Coufeileratiiiu or to the riirhlx of other Cantona. 
 
 Akt 10 Oltlcial Inlercounu- lietwet-nCantona 
 and fori'lgii govemnieuta. iirlheir reiireaeutatives. 
 aiiall take place thn.iiKh the K»ileral Council. 
 Nevenhelesa, the Clintons ni»v Correspond dl- 
 reetly Willi the inferior MtHnala anil olUrera uf 
 a fiinign Mate, in n'gani to tb. aubjecta enu- 
 inerntiil in the pivceding article. 
 
 Am 11 No military capiiu aiiona ahall be 
 niiiili' 
 
 ■Vht r.' Nil meralH'n of tin de|H>nments of 
 the feihral government, civil and military otH- 
 clalaof the Confeileration. m fiileral reptvaenla- 
 livea or commisalonem. sliall receive from any 
 fiinlgu giivernmenl any iMnaion. aalarr. title, 
 gift, or liiiiireiiou .Such |ieraons, already in 
 IHxaraalon of in-naiinia, titles, or iktonilona. 
 must rehouniv the cnjovnicnt of iHiiaiuna ami 
 the liearlutf of lltlia and ilecnrnli.iMa iliiriim their 
 term of olfliv Nevertheliaa. inferior oltlciula 
 may !»■ aiithoriziil liy ■!»• Ftilirul Cnuiicil to 
 colltinile in the Melpt lleuaiiilla Nn licco 
 
 ratliin or title coufirntl by a foniitn goveriiiiient 
 ahall Ih' Imnie ill tlif feili-ral army Nn olfli-er. 
 mm comniiaainniil nlHci r. or anldier ahall t 'fpt 
 auch illatiiictinn 
 
 .Vht U< Till' Cnufeiieretion liao no right to 
 klip up II aiHiiiliiiki army Nn Cituimi or Half 
 (anion ahall. willmiit ilie |H-mii«aiiin nf ibc 
 feilirul ginininiiiil kii p up ii atauiliiig fnrce of 
 niori' tliHii llini Inindrisl men. the iiiouu>m1 
 lailiii' |i;cnil»<'<»"''' I !■ <>oi iiii'liiile<l In this 
 nunilar 
 
 .\ki M III riuMorilitTeniicianrisinglK'tween 
 t^aiilniiK. Ilic Sliili'a fthidl alaitaln frnin violetii^ 
 and fi'iiiii nmiini! Iltenwlve*. they alinll aiilniilt 
 tn the ilii iaiiiii In U> takcii u|nin aiich iiHTen'tii-ea 
 
 by the CnllfederatioU 
 
 Akt 1.1 InioBiof aiidileii lUiik'er nf fnrrlgu 
 iiitaik till' authorities of ilie Csiiion* tbri-aieneii 
 aliall nipieal the aid of other members nf the 
 I onfiiUraiiou aihl ahall lmiue<llalely Dot If y the 
 fnieral gnvemnient the aiiliaciiueui action of 
 
 uu 
 
coif BTITUTION : 8W1TZIRLAND. 
 
 Armti 
 and Mint. 
 
 i 
 1 
 
 the utter ih*]! not thereby be precluded. The 
 Cantona summoned are bound to giTe aM The 
 expenaea ahall be bome by the Confederation. 
 •. ^"^ " ^° "*' "* '°«»™«1 diaturbance, or 
 If the danger is threatene<l by another Canton 
 the authoritiea of the Canton threatened ihall 
 ?lve immediate notice to the Fnlenil Council, in 
 order that that body may take the meaaure* 
 Moeaaary, within the limiu of Itx powpr (An. 
 » ' "I.*" *"• "'• *"■ ""y •iimm<in the Federal 
 Aaaembly. In extreme caaea the authoritiea of 
 the Canton are authorized, while giving Immedi 
 ate notice to the Federal Council, to aalc the aid 
 of other Cantons, which are bound to aiToril aurh 
 aid If the executive of the Canton la unable to 
 call for aid, the federal authority having the 
 power may, and if the aafety of Switzerland Is 
 endangered ahall. Intervene without reijuiaitlon. 
 In case of federal intervention, the federal 
 authorities shall take care that the pmvislons <if 
 Article 5 lie observed. The expenses shall be 
 borne bv the Canton asking aid or ucrasioning 
 federal faitervention, except when the PVderal 
 Aaaembly otherwise decides on account of special 
 clreumstances. 
 
 A«T. 17. In the cases mentione<i In Articles 
 15 and 19. every Canton la Iwunil to affoni undis- 
 turhe<l (HMMge for the trr«ips. The tmops slmll 
 immediately lie placni unler fe<leral command 
 Art. in. Every 8wiss is l»im<l to perfnrni 
 mlMTary service. Holdiers who lose their lives i>r 
 auf/erpermam-nt Injury to their h«-alth. in wu 
 aequem-e of fe.ler»l service, an- enlitle.1 to aid 
 fmm the Confoientiiin for themselves or their 
 families, in casi- of need. Each soldie' almll 
 ret-elve without expense his flr«t e<iulpmenl 
 clothing ami anns The wmpon remains in the 
 hanils of the soldier, under ronilitlons wlilcli shall 
 be prescrilM-.l l.y f.^leral lerislation. The Con- 
 frderatiiin hlinll enai'l uniform pruvisionsastoan 
 exemption tax 
 
 AliT. IS. The feilrral arm V Is comikMil (,<) 
 in the rantonal military corps (»» t»f all Hwl« 
 who ilii not lielonit to siiili military eoriis, but 
 are nevertlieleM IJalile to mllltNr\' service. ' The 
 Confiileration exenises iiHitnirnver the amiv 
 and the iiMterial of war pruvldeil by Uw In 
 cases of dangir. tlie Confe.leratl.in hu also the 
 exclusive ami direct control ..f men not In. Iu<te,l 
 In the fnleral army, ami of nil ,,i)iit niiliiarv 
 resimrces of the (ant.inH Tl..' ( snlom. have 
 authority over the nillltiiry for.'es ..f tin ir terri 
 torv. so far as Ibis ri^ht' is mit llnilt.'.l t.y the 
 Fcleml Cimatitution or laws 
 
 Anr !» The Uws „n the oriranixalion of 
 th.- army are paa«^| by th,- Confeilerallon TIm- 
 .nforcrment of military laws In the (Hiifvis is 
 lntni.i.Ml I., ibe .'anu.nal ..mcials. within limits 
 wh . h •hall lie Axe.1 by fe<|eral LgbUlioii .ml 
 un.l<'rihesu|iervislonofthe('onre<leratlMn .Mill 
 tary lii.tni.ii,«, „f ev.ry kimi |M-rtaln« to tl,e 
 I ..<.r.-|.ral|..n. The same applks to the smiInK 
 ..f lr..,|~ The lumishi i« ami malnl.iwmv of 
 clotl.lMif itml .>|ulpment is within llw power ..f 
 tbetaiil.Mi. iMit the ti,nt.M» shall Iw cre,lil.-.| 
 with th.- e«|»fiiM Ihenf.ir, ar<-..f,lli,g t„ » p.^,, 
 latlon t.i U- .'.i«l.li.|„H| bv f,.,|eral l<Ki»Utiou 
 
 Art ai <*,, f,r ». military rens-ms <l.i ii,.i 
 prevent Ik.lles „f ,n„,« ,|„|| >^ t„n,r.l .,„i „f 
 the Botfii.-rs of the same < anuma The .'.wiiii.i.l 
 
 ,?J, '^ .'"" ' "' '""'»"' "'- malnlename 
 of their elTectlve .inngfh llie *pt».|nttiient ami 
 promotion of .•iHi-.-m ..f these hialirs of troops, 
 
 COK8TITUTION: BWITZERLasd 
 
 belong to the Cantona, subject to genenJ nmn 
 .ion. which diall beeaubliJ^ by O^lZt^^Z 
 
 u^Il *?; 9^ payment of a ieaar.n»blt |„,i™ 
 nlty. the Oonfederarton ha. the right u.ZZ 
 acquire drUl-grouBd. and buildings inte„,|.7, * 
 miflUiT purpoae^ within the CaStnr,,. ^.IC, 
 with the appurtenanoe. thereof The teS, 
 ttaj^hidemiJty diaU be wttled by MenlhXu- 
 
 Aw. n. The Confederation may r.,iu,n,,- 
 at Ita own esMBse, or may ai.l by sul«i,lie, rab-' 
 He work, which concern Switxerlaml „r,„. 
 siderable part of the country. For thi, >>„,«.!. 
 it may expropriate property, on |w,ni,„t .*. 
 reMooable indemnity. Further ena.tm.iit. „„.„ 
 
 612 
 
 The Federal ASMmbly may f.irhi.1 ,,„hlio w„rk, 
 which endanger the military inten..!, „f ,|,e (• ,„ 
 federation. 
 
 Art. M. The Confederation has i he riifhi.f 
 superintendence over dike and foit-t .M.liee n 
 the upper mountain reriiina. It m»v.'j»ner,t, 
 in the straightening and embankm.-tit ..f t,.nvotI 
 
 which they riae. It may preacribe th.. reK»|„i„u 
 necessary to aasure the malntenan.v ,,f ih«. 
 works, and the nreaervation of existini; f„rr«t, 
 
 ':", ^. J"" ConfederatLin has p,.«er t„ 
 inake legislative enactmenta for tii.- r, ifulatl,* ,f 
 the right .if flahing ami hunting, |.,rtin.l.rlr 
 with aviewtoihe pmervationof the h.rire irsnif 
 ill the mountains, ss well aa for the i.r..i,rti,.ii .( 
 hlMs useful Ui agriculture ami fon^irj 
 
 Art. !89 Ix-gislatkin upon th.. .■..n.irurtim 
 ami ..{H-ratlon of railromis is In the i.M>in.T..f 
 the ('onr.Nierati>«. 
 
 ^.".T . '■'? ^"^ Confederati.in lias the ritflii . . 
 establish, bivides tbeexlating l'..lvt.-, hiii, S h..! 
 a Federal I nlverslty ami otlier in.iiimi..n. ..f 
 higher Inalructhm. or t.. sulmidire iii«iiiuii..n. , ( 
 such nature. The Cantons pr..vi.|,- f,.r ..nnun 
 nstnution, which shall be sulfl. i. nt xn.l ^ui 
 lie place.1 excluslvelv under the .|ir.-.ii..,i„f .hf 
 aecular aiithtirity. It b compiil».rv ,in.| in ih. 
 nubile schoils. free The piihlle „ h.«.|. sh,l| 
 be such that thev may tie frei|iii'tii.M Lv iIm' i.1 
 hirenii of all n'lliri.ius sects, wlihi.m „„• .(Ten.- 
 to th..|r fr<.eih>m .if cmsclence .>r ..f l«li,f 'ni. 
 C"nfe,lerali.m shall take tli.. m..t-.«n m.-w.,r.i 
 against such Canums as shall n..i fulfill i|„» 
 duties. 
 
 Art » Thecust.ims an. in th.. |.r..\iu.T ' 
 tlie r.inr«lerBti.in. It may levy .•».i..ri «i,t ic 
 |i.irt duties 
 
 Art 8» The cillecii.>n ..f th.. (. I.ml m. 
 tiims shall lip regiilale.! a.iM.nliiic i.. ih. f li.wimt 
 principli-s 1. I>uth-s o.i lmtH>rt> .n M»itftiiii 
 WH^ssary f..r llie manufailims s>i.| >.^n. uli.irr 
 ..f the diilitry shall U. t«»..,l «» !,.« „ |.„| 
 ble (*| It shall he the same with ih.' m.„«!m 
 •if life if\ |,uxurii.s shall lie siil.|iii.-,l i.. itr 
 highest duties I'nkwi tlii-r.. sr.- iiii|.er-iiivf 
 -i-aMins to tlie ...wtrarv. the*. pri«,i|.l.. Ji»ll !» 
 <iliaerv(.<l slao in the rom'lusl.in ..f irmiM .f 
 .'.immenv with foreign (Miweis. i Th.- ,luiw 
 on e>|iiirta shall ahai he aa low as |»««il.l.^ I 
 The .listoms legislatl'.M shall Imlii.le -nKiUr 
 pmvisiiins f..r the ...intiMiiaii.vi.f i..|iiiii>'ni>l!in.l 
 market inten.irtirM. acpwi the fr..iiti,r Tb» 
 sin. re provisions .to m4 prevent the i ..ntnlefs 
 ll.in from making teminirarv enrpii >inl [.r.rt 
 ahins, under extraordinary ilrrumslan. «» 
 
CONSimTION: SWITZERLAND. 
 
 CiMtoNU 
 and Exci»e. 
 
 CONSTITUTION: SWITZKRLAin). 
 
 A»T. 80. The proceeds of the ruMomi belong 
 10 the Confedermtloo. Tiie indemnity ceair- 
 which hitherto l.u been paid to the Cmnttrai for 
 the redcmptioD of cuttonu, for road and bridre 
 tollt, custom* duties and other lilw dues. By 
 (iraption. and on account of their interDational 
 alpine nnuls, the Cantons of L'ri, Orisms, TIcino, 
 tod Vslsis rrcciTe an annual indemnity, which, 
 couidcring all the circumstances, is tlxed as fol- 
 lom: L'ri, 80,000 franca QriHins, 200,000 
 ftucs. TIcino, 300,000 fnuir<. Valaia. ,'W,000 
 {noes. The Cantons of l'ri and Ticino slull re- 
 oelTe in sdditinn, fur rlearin;^- the snow from the 
 Ssint Ofltthard road, an annual indemnity of 
 W.IKMI francs, so long as that road shall nut be 
 Rplaied by a railrosid. 
 
 Aht 31. The freedom of trade and of industry 
 ii ):uaninleeii throuchout the whole extent of 
 the I'linfedrration. The folliiwinit suhjerts are 
 cKvptni: III) The salt and i;un|H>W(l<-r monopoly, 
 liir ffilrml customs, im|i<irt clii'ica on wines and 
 .iiIht »I'I'^«•"'"• li'iuors, siiil iplher taxes on om- 
 iamplii>a expressly pt-rmitti-il by tlw Confcilrra- 
 tloo, sceording to article 83. (t) [Added bg 
 AmntdMiU eflkf. 22, IHM] The manufacture 
 ■aJ iaie of alcohol, under Article 38 Ui). (c) 
 [.<<UirfAy AmendmeiitofVtf. 22, IteU. ] Driukiog 
 phcrs, and the ictail trade in spirituous liuuon; 
 hut nerertheleas the Cantons may by legislation 
 nbjet't the busioeaa of heepini; drinking places, 
 sad the retail trade in spirituous lii(Uors. to such 
 imrirtiiins ss are reuuited for the pulillc welfare. 
 \/t\ UirOjiMlIf iH)] Measures of saaitarr pollf^' 
 sploM epidemics and cattle diseases, (r) [ Itrigi 
 »Mii ifi| iVoTisioas in regani to the exercise of 
 tnirt sn'l manufactures, in ifganl to taxes iin 
 panl thiTpnn, and in regani to the police of the 
 ■mil. Tliese proTishins shall nut iimtaln snv 
 thiii[t rontrarr to the principle of fiMiioiu of tmiV 
 ml maoufacture. 
 
 Art .1-.' The Cantons are aulhorirj^l Xn ni|. 
 Vet till' im|Nirt duties on wines anil olliir spirit- 
 siiut liiiiiiira. proviilrtl in .Vrtiile III i.ii, slwavs 
 SBiit'r till' roltiiwing rentrit'tionK {■) The inlln-. 
 tl»n iif iluM- ImiMirt iluli<-« ahall iu mi Kim- ini 
 pnir iniiinpiirtslliin: i-iinmn'ne simll !»■ ob- 
 *rir!iil iia lltlli' »• (Mauiililv and slmll not lie 
 burlrmii with siiv Mthrr dues. {h\ If ihrsrlirli's 
 hBi«iniil fur conaiimplion are n'Cx|>ortni fMni 
 thf I .int..ri. tlir duties iitiiil i<n ini|Hinntii>n Khali 
 he n fiiiiiliil. wiiliuut fiirlliir ilmrifi" I'-i IVi 
 iluris i-f Swiss oriittn slmll In' U-m liunlcmit than 
 thmp of fiiiflKn I'liuntriiit. «./) Tlie exInlinK iui- 
 pirt iluii) ( on wines and otiii-r •plrltiinti* lii|iiiirs 
 of S»iM oriitiu shall nut U- Inrreawil by tlie 
 ('sniimi whii h slnaily levy ilicm Sm h iliitiis 
 ■lull n.>t li» I'stablitbrd U|>iiii >iii'b nrliila* by 
 l'»iiiim« which do not m pumiiI lolliii ilimi 
 III Thi Uk< ami ortlinamvs i>f ilie CiiiiiiinK mi 
 ih.' iilli iili n iif imiHin dmi<» >hall. iM'fun- iliclr 
 lfm\t Iniii iffiH't. U' submittal to llie fi-tti'ral 
 
 5 iiirmmnt fiir approval, in oniiT Hint It m«v, 
 iii-i^«i«rv. rauie the cnfonvmeut of llic prr 
 inliiiil |iruvMi«s All the Ininort iliities now 
 Irritnl liy ilir Cantons, as wrll si the •imilnr 
 dutiM k> itil by I hr Communes, shall cease, with- 
 iwl Inilemnliv. at llie emi of the year l-'tlii 
 
 Asi .IJ .Ih [Amttulmtnl nf thf «.!•«»«] 
 Tb. ( ..hriilrraliou is authoriint by Icicislalion to 
 •sill' nviiUtlims for Ihi- maniifai'tun' sni sale 
 i<f slnilial In this legtslatinii ihoM' pnidui'ts 
 »hlih sri' Inti-nded fur ei|Hirtalion. ur which 
 h»»f turn subjected to a prucrsa rxrludin( them 
 
 from use as a beverage, shall be subjected to na 
 Ux. Distillation of wine, fruit, and their by- 
 producta, of gentian root, juniper berries, and 
 simiUr pioducta, is not subject to federal iegishi- 
 tion as to manufacture or tax. After the cessa- 
 tion of the import duties on spirituous liquors, 
 provided for in Article S> of the Constitution, the 
 trade in liquors not distilled shall not be sub- 
 jected by the Cantons to any special taxes or to 
 other llmiutiona than those necessary for pro- 
 tection againat adulterated or noxious beverages. 
 Nevertheless, the powers of the Cantons, defined 
 in Article 81. are reuined over the keeping of 
 drinking places, and the sale at reUU of quanti- 
 ties less than two liters. The net proceeds re- 
 sulting from uxatlon on the sale of alcohol belong 
 to the Cantons in which the tax is levu .1. The 
 net proceeds to the Confederation from the in- 
 ternal manufacture of alcohol, and the correspond- 
 ing addition to the dutv on Imported alcohol, ate 
 divided among all the ('anions, in proponion to 
 the actual popuUtlon as ast-eruined from time 
 to lime by the next prrce<llnK federal census. 
 <)ut of the receipts therefrom the Cantons must 
 expend not less than one tenth in combating 
 drunkenness in its causes and elfecU. [For ad- 
 ihrii.iuil artiflf uf t\i» AmeiulmenI we Tempnrarj/ 
 /Vr.n»»V.iM. Artieie6. at iKe emi ajT (Aw Coiulitu- 
 ll;„] 
 
 \«T 83. The Cantons may require proofs of 
 ci>ni|M-iency frim those who desire to practice a 
 liU'iiil pnifrssion. Provision shall lie maile by 
 fiileml legiHlatlon by which such persons may 
 I btalii certltleates of c<im|M'icncy which shall be 
 Milid throughout tin- Confi'tierBtion. 
 
 Akt. S4. The Confeili-nition has power to 
 < .isct uniform provisions as to the lah<ir of rliil- 
 iln'u in factories, ami as lo the durstion of Islior 
 li-Xiil for mliilla tlierein. and as lo the pr<i|e<'tiiin 
 of workmen against the oiirralion of unbealthy 
 Slid dangerous manufactures The transaclimis 
 of emignilion stents ami of organliitllous fur 
 insiirani-e. not insliluml by the Stale, ntv «ub- 
 Jill lo federal su|>erviHion and legislslion. 
 
 .Vht aidl) lAmfiiilmriit ••/ Ikf. 17. 1M»|) ] 
 The Confetleratl.m sliall by law iiMviile for in- 
 »iir»iiii' airaimtt ulckneiw ami sccMenI, with due 
 rii;«nl for existing «lck Ihih Hi fiimln The Cun- 
 federatbin may n-quirr |ianicipation tber<-in. 
 either by all persons or by particular ciassen of 
 Ihe popuUtion. 
 
 .\bt iH. The o|>eiilin; I'f Bsming Iioums is 
 forbidden Thiw which nnw exist shall be 
 cIiis<hI IVt 31, IX7T The eoiiei asiuna which 
 m!iv have tavn icniiitMi ..r n iiewtii aini-e llie !»•• 
 j;iimlnit of the vesr Kl an- ile< Isriii Invalid. 
 Tlie Ciinfiib'mlion nisy «l«i take necessary 
 nH-asurea cominiinit lotteries 
 
 Akt *t The piists ami telegraphs in all 
 Sw llrerlsml *iv cniilMlltii by the Confeiierallou 
 The immiila uf Ihe |«»ls Slid tetegmplis iH'lonir 
 III the fi-iieral treasury. The rates shall, for all 
 parts of .SwitterUuiii, Ik- lileil stconling to Ihe 
 aanie prim iple ami as fairly as |i<«sible. Invio- 
 lalih' a-cn-iy uf leiu-rs and lelegmms Is gusrsn- 
 H-e.1 
 
 Anr M The Confederation rXertiaes general 
 overvliflil over those roads slid bridges In the 
 nisinteiisiice of whith it is inieri'stni The sums 
 due to the Cantons nienlionni In Article 8ll, on 
 airount of their International alpine mads, shall 
 lie h'taiiieil by the feileral Koveriiment if such 
 mads are not kept by them in suitable I'TilHiin 
 
 6i:t 
 
COKSTITUTION: SWITZERLAND OUmit^t,. CONSTITUTION: SWITZERLAND. 
 
 A*T. 88. The Confrdention nerdaet all the 
 cxcliuire righu pntainioK tu coinage. It hai 
 the iole right of coloiog niooer. It mtahjUhe* 
 the monetary tyatem, and may enact |in>rUi<)na 
 if Decenary, for the rate of exchange of foreign 
 coina 
 
 [A«T. SP. (Ahr^tgntid hf the artiele /nltoirinf 
 if). The Cn<\ff<Umlinn hae the /irnwr to nutke by 
 Inir yrneral iirariuaiu for the ueue itnd rrdem/ition 
 of hitni nnta. Hut it thiiU nnt create any monop- 
 '•la for thr imiif 4,f bank note; nor make iiieA 
 nitttie a Ufful trnttfr. ] 
 
 Art. 89. Ul'iUtil'itt far former Art. 89. aihpted 
 f)rt IS. isftl ] Thf Confeileratiou ha» the 
 exrlunlve power to Lssui- banii notes and other 
 lilte currency. The ConfiHlenilion mav exerriH- 
 tlie exclusive |>ower over the i»iie of Imok notes 
 through a NiitionHl liniili carried on under a s|N-cial 
 deiwrtiiieiit iif tidmiui.strutiou; or it may amign 
 the right !■> n ceiilnil joint Riock Imiik I'len-ufter 
 to tu. ireatnl, whirli sliull lie ailuiiiiiMtend un.l. r 
 tlie oHtperution ami iiuim rrisiou of ili,- Cn,. 
 feileration; Iml the privilege to uke over the 
 hank, hyiMyingacompennntlon, shall be retained 
 The liatik im»*<m.,1 ,,f ilie exclusive right to i<wue 
 noti* klinll liHve for in iliief function lon'KiilHte 
 the ciriulallon of mouev in Switierhu l and to 
 facilitate exchiiiiv.v to the Canl.vns sliiill U- 
 I>aiil at least !».. tliInU of the net pn.tlts of the 
 Iwuk lieyond a reasonalile interest i>r n n-ason- 
 Hlile ilivideixl l<i the stocklHilden. and tli.- oeces 
 sarv transfers to the nierve fun<l Thr laink 
 ami its lirau.hea shall D<>t }<i- suliji^eteii to t»x«- 
 tliin liy tlie < 'anion. The Confeileralioit <d«il 
 Hot make Uink imti-n au,| ,,il,er like lurrtaiv 
 |l>ifal lender, exi-. pi in urt-enl neeil in time nf 
 Iwar Tlie primi|wl oill,, ,.f ilw Iwuk an.l tl,, 
 details ■ if ilsorifani/alioii. »<• will as in general the 
 larryint inti. .tr..i thi. artitle. sluill lie deter- 
 mini'd liy fi^ili mI Inw 
 
 Aht 40 Thr ConftHlemtion tixe, the stand 
 unl of weighu iind nieii-.ure!< Tlie Canton., 
 iindir ItK »u|..rxi.ion of i|,,. Confi^.lerallon 
 euforre the law, ri l.iiioi: ih.nlo 
 
 Amt 41 The niantifaetiire anil the sale of ! 
 puii|«iwder IhMughoiii S«ili:erland iiertaiu ex 
 ilusively to the CoufeiUriiiioi, I'ow.ler. use.1 I 
 for hhi.iint' and iiol siitialile for slKaitiug am ' 
 Uol Inehided in the niono|io|y i 
 
 Aht 4-.' The e«|»'niliiur™of the ('..nfeilera- ' 
 lion ar.- met as f..llow, ,.., um of ii„ jm'.ime 
 from f...l.ral pr.i|»rtv I'o iliil of ||„ pn«.-.ds 
 of the fethral eii>toiiia le\i.-.| at tile ?«wls« 
 frontier i^i iMit of the pr<s-...-.ls of ibi- ihms 
 and telegraphs (,fi Out of the |.n.-.,.,|.of il,,. 
 IM.w.ler raono|n.ly i,, Uul of half of til.. t'MM 
 r..e«ipls from the tax on military etempiions 
 levil,! hy the Cautoiia ( <•( • Mil of the ■'.•nlhliu 
 li.'n. of the (anion, which shall la- deienniWHl 
 \'\- Uii,n[ leglMlatlon wilh s|h.< ial rrfen-im to 
 llieir wi'allh and laxalile rewiurces 
 
 Aht M Kvery eltljen of s (anion is a 
 f<wlas eiti«en As such lie may partieiiiate In 
 the plaii' when he I. donilrd.,! in all fettrr,! 
 eliiiions and |s.pular voles after having duly 
 proven hi, .pialiii.alioii as a voter No nrni,;, 
 >Mi e«en-l«' |H>liii.al rigbu In more than oi»- 
 ( .inloii TIh .Hwi». .ettl.-,! •. , . itl/en oui«|.|, 
 hi, n»ll»e (anion enjoy, in the p|»,., wlier. !»• 
 !• doinii llr.1, all tin. rights of the liiiiens of the 
 ( inton iiieliidlng ,11 the rights of the .■ommunal 
 ■ iilxrn l>artlel|>«ii..n in munhliial aiei .of 
 |H.r»U' pro|».ny. and tbe ri«bl u, vote uj.« 
 
 purely muoidpal aSain. are excepted from ludi 
 riehta. unless the Canton by legislation S 
 otherwije provided. In cantonal and conitnuMi 
 afTaln, he gains the right to vote after a Mi 
 dence of three montba. Canttmai laws relatin, 
 to the right of Swiaa citizens to settle outsi.lf iiw 
 Cantons in which they were bom, ami t(, vcii, 
 on communal questions, are submittal f,,r <Z 
 apnroval of the Federal Council. 
 
 Am. 44. No Canton sUll expel fn„„ j,, ,„. 
 rtUiry one of it* own citliens, nor deprive l,ua„t 
 his righU. whether acquired hv birili „r v,,u 
 
 shall fix the conditions u|Hin which f,,r,.i,.n,» 
 i may lie naturulixed, as well as thiw upon wluck 
 i a ^^wiss may give up his citizenship in „r,|,.r |,, 
 j obtain naturalization in a foreign eoimirv 
 
 A«T. 4.'i. Every 8wiss citizen ha, llii'ri^lit t ■ 
 settle any whert.- in Swiss territorv, on ,„u,iiii„n 
 ' of submiltiuga.frtiacaleof origin, ..ra.iraiUr 
 ' diHumeni By exception, seltlein.ni mar I* 
 nfuM-d to or withdrawn from, tlios,. «|",, ,j 
 eonaequenn- of a |)enal conviction, are ii..t ,.|iii 
 tle.1 to civil rights. In aildition. B.til, m. nt m.>r 
 la- withdrawn from those who hav«' Is-m ri|,a- 
 ■•illy punished for 8..riou» oltens..s, mid aU. fp.m 
 Ihiste who iM-nuaneutlv i-oiiie U|H>n tlie i lur-i . f 
 public charily, and to whom their (ommnii, .r 
 Cant.« of origin, as lb.- case mav l» m,,,, 
 BUIBeieni succor, after th.<v have ix i n ■!h. •a] v 
 asketl to grant it In tb.' ( ani..ii, «li,rv'il,- 
 p<»icar»- relieved in tlieir place of nM.|,u<, lU 
 |"Tinia»l.in to settle, if It n-lai.-. to . iii„„4 ' 
 the C'am.«. any !»• i-..u|*M wiih tU ,. nliii-i 
 tli,it lh.'y shall la- able to work, and that ;i,. 
 shall not. in their former d..niicil,. in tl„ i u: 
 of origin, have |>eniiaueul ly Isionie :i • liariv . ; 
 (iiililic charity Every exi.iilMon on u.i^.iitii , ' 
 poverty miisi !*• appMve<( lie i|„. i;. i,miiiri • 
 of the Canton of .lomi, ij,..' „„.| |.t>vi..u».. 
 aniiouiKf)! to th,. govemntrni ..( 111. ( .mi.ii ,• 
 origin A ( anion in whitli a .s<\i„ . .tul.li.b,., 
 , his domiiile may not reiiuin- ~iiiriti n "r m 
 1 !«««■ any s|Ki'ial oblimtions for .... h iMaLli^i 
 nient In like manner the ( ..ininnn.. .inu- 
 ri>)uire fMm Mwiss domiiil.-,! in lb ir i.rrit m 
 olli.r contnliuilons than tli.,«- nhi, h tb.v 
 n.piire friHn their own »iitijeeis A It I. nl l.is 
 shall ralahlisli thi iiiaximuni fee to I, paul i|«- 
 Clianrery for a i^rmit lo settle 
 
 Akt 4fl IVr,..ns s.tiled in iswii/.rlaiul atr 
 aa a niie siiliieete.1 1,. i|„. jurixlii iio,i :,i„| L-si, 
 latimi of their doiuliile ill all ilmi i-riaiii. t 
 their personal statu, ami pro|Mrn ri.'lii, Tlr 
 Confe.1. niii4.n shall li\ law iimk. tli. pr.vni^i, 
 ii.i-.-sN.ry for the applhaiion of i|,h priiHii* 
 awl for tile priveutioii of donlile |«» iti-n .f . 
 liiii.n 
 
 Aht 47 A ftsieral law sluill .«tal.li.li itir 
 distlBt'tiou latwi-en seltleiiieui ami i. in|«nri 
 resi<lenii- ami sImII if the same iini. iii..k. lUr 
 r»gul«ii>ins lo wtaK h .swis, len.i^.ran i.v„|Mit» 
 shall U Miliji-cted aa to tlMir jioliij.al tti-lit. ami 
 tlM'ir livil righu 
 
 Am 4« A fe,tml law shall pM. il. ( .f ik 
 n-gulall.« of Ihe e«|«'tHes ot iIm l! Ii,,, tftl 
 liiinal of ittiliireni lunaau uiiiensti. i ■ rnr 
 Canton who have r»lim III or di-: m iuoihet 
 Canton 
 
 Aht 48 rrewtom of r..n«i-ieii.. «o<l uliff li 
 invi.i|al«le Xo (a-ratn •nn Is- ronsirHiiK^I '•!•»» 
 part in h rrligioua »«-tH> lo alli ii<l n iurt-us in 
 structlun, lo iwrlunu a fttllgluut riti • r t.. incut 
 
 AH 
 
CONSTITUTION: SWITZERLAND. 
 
 CONSTITLTION: SWITZERLAND. 
 
 nmKiri«« of any kind whatever on account of re- 
 {fioui opinion. The penon wtiu exerciaes the 
 paRDt'i or guardian's authority luu the right, 
 coofonnably to tlie principle* above stated, to 
 RfuUle the religious education of children up 
 to llir age of fixt^en conipletetl years. The ex- 
 trdw ui civil or political rii;btii shall not be 
 ibridgnl by any provisiona or euDdillons wbat- 
 erer of an ecclesiaaticai or religious liind. N'o 
 pcriuo •ball, on account of a religious lielief. 
 itleiue himself from the arcomplUhiueut of « 
 civil duty. No person is bound to pay taxes of 
 wbicli the prorecds are specitlcally a|ipn>priate<i 
 totlH' actual expenses of the worship i>! a n-lig- 
 loia l««lv to which he does not IkIoU);. The 
 drtsilt <>/ the carrying out of this principle are 
 nwrred for federal legislation. 
 
 A«T 50 The free exercise of religious wor- 
 ■Up is ^'uaranteed within the limit.4 compatible 
 with |iul>li(' i>r<lcr and giMMl morals. Tlie (.'aiitnus 
 udtlirC iiiifedeniliou may take suitable nicasun'S 
 (i>r the pn«>rvalion of public onler and of (Maiv 
 between the members of dilTereut n-ligious Ixulies. 
 ud sliH) sgaiiist encrottcltiueuts of i-cclcsia»tical 
 lutborilics u|Min the rights of citizens uiiil of the 
 !>utr C'liitestsiu public anil private law. which 
 uiwoutiif the formaliiiu or the divisimi ii( n-- 
 lifiiiun iHidies. may be brought by a|j|M-Hl lH'fiir<' 
 tor i^xnpetent federal authorities. No bishopric 
 iliall U' errand upon Swiss territorj- without the 
 ootrnt of the C'onfeiteratiou. 
 
 AtT .M. The onler of the Jesuits, and the so 
 rirliri affiliated with them, shall not Is' rcceivet! 
 iotiisii.r part of Swit/erlniid . and all action in 
 cliunli uiil N'liiail Is forbidden to its nuinlsTs. 
 Tbiipniliiliition may Ik- extended also, by federal 
 iinliiuuiv. to other religious onlers, the a<'tioii 
 .if which i* itangenms to the state or illslurln 
 tlir pMUf lietwM-n si-i'ts 
 
 Akt VJ. The foundation of new <tinvent.ior 
 rrli|ri<>u» onieis, ami the reestablisliiuiut of tliiM- 
 which hare lieen suppreswd. are forbidden 
 
 Ait IU The civil status and the koping of 
 m>>rl< thereof is subject to the civil authority 
 TV C'lnfederntion shall by law enact ditailitl 
 pt<'Ti>iiinii upon this subject. The coutMl of 
 
 fitcn iif liurial is subject to the civil authority 
 I >b*II take care tliat every deceaseil |H'rM>u may 
 lir i!pn-tiilv ijitcrri'il 
 
 Aar M The right of marriage is plai.il 
 ^Sikt iIk- priiH-ctiou of the (onfedenitiou No 
 -unluiinii iipon marriage shall Ih base<l u|u>n 
 uvuiisii crouiuls, nor U|hvu the |»iverty of eitlH r 
 of the ii>utraitauls. nor on their coudU(t. nor on 
 •HI 'ihen iinaiilemtion of gi»«l onler .V iiuirriaire 
 <.«tr».te.i ilia Canton or In a fonign coimtrv. 
 r.wf"rra«l'!y to the law whli h !•< Ilnre In foni 
 ■Ml !«■ riHogiiiieda* valiil thMughout the I on 
 (n|.r»lion Ity marriage the wife acipiins llu- 
 rmuiM)ii|> of tier husband Chihlri'U Ismi Ik- 
 fiTf 111. marri«if<- are made legitimate be tlic 
 wlne.|ii.iit marriage of ihiir paniiis N'o tai 
 u|>i(i ii.lmi..iiin or siudlar tax shall lie hvled 
 upi« eiih. r |.»rty to a marriage 
 
 A»T .'>■ rile fre<Hloni of the pr<'M is guar- 
 eriicl \i ki rllicleaa tlie ( anions by law cim< t 
 »» raire.iiris ii<-<-eaMry for the suppression of 
 •ixttM Stiih laws are submllle<l for the ap- 
 pnni, f 111.- Krih-ml Coumil The (onfi-ibra 
 Iw iiisi mail iM-nallies for the »uppn'*.ion of 
 |4in> oR.'i.aei illni'inl against itorlt«aiitli..ritie» 
 
 AST M Ciutens hav.' the nght of f.irming 
 •""Uuoos, pruvUcd thai Hwr* be In the pur- 
 
 pose of such asscx'iations, or in the means which 
 they emplov. nothing unlawful or dangerous to 
 the state. The Cantons by law take the meaa- 
 ures necessary for the suppression of abuses. 
 
 Art. 67. The right of petition is guaranteed. 
 
 Aht. 5H. No person shall be deprived of hi* 
 constitutional Judge. Therefore no extnuirdinary 
 tribunal shall Ik- tratablished Ecclesiatical Juris- 
 diction is abolishetl. 
 
 Art. 51). Suits for |HTsonal claims against a 
 solvent debtor having a domicile in ^*witzerlaDd, 
 must be brought befon- the Judgi- of his dom- 
 icile: in conseuuence, bis pn.perty outside the 
 Canton in whii'h he is domiciliil n'lav not l)e at- 
 tarhi-d in suit.* for personal claims " Neverthe- 
 less, with refiniiii- to foreigners, tlie provision* 
 of inu^mational Inaties shall not thir.b\ lie 
 affected. Inipri»inui.'iit for debt Is alsilishtd. 
 
 -Vrt. 60. .VII the I'untons are Imunil to treat 
 the citizeus of the other confederated Mates like 
 those of their own fitate in legislation and in all 
 judical proceeiiings. 
 
 Akt. 61. Civil judgments dettnitely pro- 
 iiouiiceil in any Canton mav lie exi-eutt-tl any- 
 where in ."«witzirl:iiiil 
 
 .\mt. 62. The exit duly on pniperty ftralte 
 fiiraiiii ] is alsilisliiil in the interior of '!*wiizer- 
 latnl. as will as the right of ndi nipiion [limit 
 lie ntniit) by citizens of one Canton against 
 tlii»e of oilier confi'ilernliil States 
 
 -ViiT 6:1 The exit duty on |iri>|ierty Im aliol- 
 i.-hi-.l as rciHits fnnign countries, provided re- 
 cippicity Is' ol«M*rvi-ii, 
 
 -Vkt W. Till- Coufiiieration ha.« power to 
 make laws On k ^al competiiicy Ounll legal 
 questions relating to loniiiiene and to tniiis- 
 actions alTecllug chattels .l.uv of coiumin lal ol>- 
 liiralions. incliiiiini; loniniercial law and Ian of 
 exchangei I >ti literary and artistic co|iyright. 
 Ontlie protection of new patti rns and forms, and 
 of invention* which iin' represented in nioilels 
 and an' capable of industrial application. 
 (.1/11./.././,. ../ ..f A.- ■Jip issT ] 1)1, ti„. i,.,,ai 
 rolliition of ililin and on liaiikr»|>tcv Tlii- ad- 
 niiiiistratioii of luslice n iiiaius willi the Cant. ns. 
 Kin- as affei'teil In the powers of the Keileral 
 liiurt. 
 
 [^.\KT 6."!. (.V>r'iij,ilfl 'y Am, liilment nfJiituiQ, 
 l**.!! ) Thfilfilth liil,llljHnit'4liJinl i MKrDirltU 
 ih* pr'*rint>tun-f mittt'trjf l.i^r in titn* of ir.ir $fHiU 
 tr ontrrt'f ' .'r/*.r,i/ ;.....«/. ...eft/ l« /lA-'/(j//e«/ j 
 
 Ant 6.1 1 li'...,</(/.r'.f ■•f'.//.f.f SO. IxTtt ' No 
 deatl. iK'iuilty shall In pmiiounceil for a |hi!ltlcal 
 crime. Ci>r(H>ral puLiishment is ulHilinlii<l 
 
 Aht 6*i Tile ( oufideralion by 1»« tile* the 
 limits wiiliiii uhiih a >wi'ui citizen may Is .ie- 
 priviil of lii« iioliii. .il rik'hts 
 
 Akt tIT Till tihfr.li ration by law pnivides 
 for the cnlMililioii of ai nise't prrsou.i from one 
 Caiiloti lo niioilii r, m virlln hso. exlrailition shall 
 not Is- iiiailc ohlit-.iiory for political oHeiisa's and 
 olTeuM-K of till jir*-H.'« 
 
 .Vkt tV" Mia'iiri" are taken by federal law 
 for till iiiioris.ration of |i< rsniis without country 
 llli illiallll /.« Ill nliii for the prevention of new 
 ca.'oi if that imiure 
 
 Anr (IW l,egi>latii>u concerning luissures of 
 sanitary (Hilice sgainsi epidemic and cattle dis- 
 ISM'S i.tusing a coinnion danger, is included la 
 till ih.wirs of tlie Coufeileratlou 
 
 .Vht T'' The Confeiieratlou has power to 
 ei|Hl from its territory forvigoers who eiidaafer 
 the tulvmal or eitcmal safety of SwitierUnd 
 
 Cl(> 
 
 — t 
 
coNsxmrno.V: switzeulaxd. 
 
 Frdrml 
 
 ClMMCO. 
 
 |i 
 
 *. i 
 
 ■■::! 
 
 Chapter i I.-A«t. 71. With th* merT.tioa 
 
 , »i?*. ^^^ °\ ^ P*°P'* »"•' "' the CantoM 
 (Article* 80 ami 181), rhe ■uprrme authority of 
 the Coafederatlon la exerdaed by the FetlenU 
 Aaaembly [ AMemblfe fMinUe : Buodeavemmm- 
 lung] which mnaUu of two aectlona or councila. 
 to wH: (A) The Xatlooal Council (B) The 
 Council of SutM. 
 
 Art 75 The Xntlonal Council [Conaell 
 .■Sational; .Natloualrath] la compuaed of reoie. 
 aentotlvea of the Swlia people, choaen in the imtlo 
 of one nwmber for each 20.000 peraons of the 
 total populaU<m. Practiona of upwanla of 10 000 
 peraon* arc reckimril aa ao.OOO. Every Canton 
 and In the dlvldrtl Cantona every Half Canton' 
 cbtNMea at leaat one n'prparntative. 
 
 Akt 78. The eU-t'tiona for the Xatlonal 
 \?!f.'""",*'?, •","*'• ■'"»>«•? •» hehl In fe<lenil 
 eleoioijil dirtrlcta, which in no caae ahall be 
 formed out of jwru of dllTrRnt Canu>na. 
 
 Airr. 74. Every Swim who haa completed 
 twenty yea™ of age. and who in addition la not 
 excluded from the riphta of a voter bv the legia- 
 latlon of the Cnnton In which hi- la domiciled haa 
 the right to vote In election* and popular votea 
 Xeverthel,-**. the Confederation f>y law mav 
 establWi uniform regulation-, for the exerciae of 
 auch right. 
 
 AKT. 75. Everv l«v Swl.* citizen who ha* the 
 right to vote I* i-ligif,Ie for inenilierahlp in the 
 Aatlonal Council. 
 
 Akt. 78. The Xatlonal Council I* clio*,-n for 
 three yean, and entln-ly r.n,-w,-d at each general 
 elei-tlon. 
 
 Art 77 Ui-preiK-nlative* to the Council of 
 State* member* ..f the Fderal Council, an.l 
 offlriaUappointwl by tlmt Council. »halln..t at the 
 «ime time U- memU-nt of tin- Xatlonal Council 
 
 Akt 7X The Xatlonal Coi.ncllchooae* out of 
 il» o» „ numUr. for each n-guUr or extnu.nllnarv 
 wwloii. a l»r<-«i,l.nt nn<l a Vice Prt-sld.nt \ 
 
 menilH-r who ha* liehl || fflee of |'rt-»ident 
 
 during a n-gular «-«.i..n Is Im-llgible clth.-r at 
 lr.-.lden>or \ ice l'n-.|,l< nt at the next regular 
 r.'*","i' T'w "mt" ni< iiil«r m«v not Ik- Vli-e- 
 I r.»l.lent during lw„ cmwuiliM- n-gular «.•*- 
 ;."".■ " '"n tl'i- vole, .ir.. ,,|uiillv <llvld(-.l the 
 Iri-.ldeni h,» . nisling vol,, iu election, he 
 voles In ihe name manner a* oiher menilieni 
 
 I nllJii ™ 1 "*"'"' ""■"''"•'» '•' "«• Xatlonal 
 loom II n-<-elvea<-onnH-n«iiion out of thefwlernl 
 tn-aiury 
 
 fA''^J*,' The (o„„H| „f Slate* [Con«ll ,1,-* 
 
 Elat« SUnderaih) con.Ms of fortv four r.-i.r,-. 
 
 •.-ntatlv,.,,,f i|,eC:,i,i..(i,i Each<aiil,.DapiM)lnU 
 "; ,7r>p*'"'>">'V In IlK- dlvld^l Canton., 
 • HI b llntf State rb<>a«<< one 
 
 Art m| The iim nilK-r* of the Xatlonal Coun 
 ill and thine of ih,. |.„h.n,| c„„n,.|| n,ay not bi- 
 n-prewniative* In the C.Minetl of Sutra. 
 
 Art »i TlH-Comullof StaU-*chi»«e«outof 
 lUowii iitimlj.r for emh rig.ilarorexir»or.||n«rv 
 JW.IOII H |»ri.|,|eni an.1 a VI.-.- »*n-.i.bnl X. Ithir 
 the I'r.-.lilent n..r th.- VI.e l'n-»l.|enl can tw 
 chiwn fn.in anxm*; the n-im-aenialive. of the 
 ( «iii..n fft,m whi. h Ihe I'r.-.i.leni hai. h.-enc»«i«n 
 lor ihi- n-gular M-miou next pn-c-dlng Ifa-pn 
 *ntallv.Hi ,,f Ihe »anH- Canlou .n.iiii.t .Kcuny the 
 IK-ltion of VLelVsiden. during ^J,\^Z 
 --.Olive regular «^)..„, wi.,-,, ,he v„i,.. are 
 
 .(ually .||vlde.| Ibe IT.-,i,|enl l..,«.„i|i,rf vole 
 
 «b.r',!l;':ter""'* '" ""■ """ "'■"'»'""'«'« 
 
 CONSTITUTION: 8WIT2E!U..\.ND 
 
 B.^_^ Reprwentatlvea in the { ,„,n(-il 
 Statea i^tb • compenaatlon fmm the (■„„" 
 -Ji^ri*!_ ^^ ^•"°»»' Council an.l the 7 
 '^il.?*%!."?°^'»" ^ iubjecu which 
 pretent Comtitutiaii place* within tlw r, 
 petence of Xix, Coofedentioo. and which ai* 
 aadgned to suit oUter federal authority 
 „ff^'; ** -'"•••"•>J~U within the Amv*xn 
 
 ,'i .'• f**V»°»^»'«»n'««tlonofa„,|,k.rt 
 of fnleral authoritlea. 9. Uw* an.|-„nllM„,; 
 
 I'ihI'''!^'' 7ii'='',''y "•" fon.tltutlo„ areX 
 within the federal competence. 3 Th.- Li, 
 and corapeniatloa of member* of tl„. f„i, ' 
 governing bodle* and of Ihe Fcleral ( hano n 
 
 thecreatfooof federal offlcca an.l tl eiermr 
 
 atlon of ..lariea therefor. 4. The .1. , li.mTi 
 
 Fwleral Council, of the Federal Coun, ,...,1 „ " 
 
 Chancelkir. and alaoof the Comman.l.r in .ti 
 
 of the Meral army. TheConf.-<l,-n.ii,.n ni«v i 
 
 law aaalgn to the federal Aaaembly other p,,,,, 
 
 ofe rnhm or of conflrmatloo. 5. AIII^h!™ ,, 
 
 treatle* with foreign power*, ami .!», ;,, 
 
 approval of treatle* maile by the (ai,,„ 
 
 between them«-lv,-. or with foreign .>,«,r. 
 
 neverthele** the treatlea made by the (u,i„„ 
 
 shall be brought before the Fdeml .V^-ml,;, 
 
 only in caae the Federal Counclloraii.nhirlsn'.i- 
 
 proUsU. «. Meaaure* for external *ifetv , 
 
 alao for the maintenance of the ln,|, i»ii|,r.,. 
 
 and neutrality of 8wita-rlan.l ; the .WUw,., 
 
 of war and the concluakin of .»a.v : Th^ 
 
 guaianty of the Con»tltutl..n an.l of ih. tenjt„ri 
 
 of the Canton*; Intervention in ens., men,, i 
 
 •Vu ??^°*''.= nH**""-" forth.- li,iern»lttf,n 
 
 of Swltierland. for the malntenaii.-.- ,.f n-»cvM,\ 
 
 order: amnesty and panlon. M .M,.,.„r,.. f,., 
 
 the preiervathm of llie C..n«tltulloii, f.^rrmviu- 
 
 out the guaranty of the cantonal ...nsiiimU.' 
 
 an.l for fulfilling fe«ler»l ..bllg«ii„i„ -i t;,- 
 
 IH.wer of controlling the fcleral ariiiv M Tli- 
 
 determination of the annual hu.U'. i, ih,- amlit ( 
 
 l.iibllc account*. au.l fdend octllnaii.v* ..mh. ■ 
 
 lxlngl.»na. 11. The *u|M>rinteii.leii(e uf fr-l.rj 
 
 ailmliilairatlon and of f.-deral coiiriH li lY. 
 
 teaU again*t the ile<<l*lona ..f the K.-,l.ral I .uu, 1 
 
 up.in a.lmlnl*tratlve ('»nni(-ia , \rt 111 i M 
 
 C.mflicU ..f luriwllcthm lietw.-t-n f.-.lenl »iitli.n 
 
 li.;*- 14, The amendnu-nt of the fe-lirilln: 
 
 atitutl.m. 
 
 Art. 88. TbetwoC.>unelUBM.-ml'l.-«nnu.llr 
 In regular arMl.in upon a .lav !.. I«- flx,.| br th? 
 •tamllng order*. Tliev an- ...m.ii..| in W.n 
 iH-i«lon bv the FedenI C.mnell ii|.,ii ih.- re.|i...: 
 ellbi-r of one fourth of the iii.iiil>>r. u( ■!:? 
 Xatlonal Council. .)r .>f five Caiii.-m. 
 
 Art 87. In either Coum-il a ,ii..rura i. . 
 maj.irity of the U>Ul numU<r of it,. m.-mWrt 
 
 Art 88. In the Xalkmal C.ium 11 aa.l in it»- 
 f ouiicll of Blaleaa nial.irily of ih.«e vutioi; i. 
 n-.iulrr.l * 
 
 .\rt 89, Federal law*, ena<'tni.'nt«. iixl iw. 
 Iiitbin* ahall be naaae.1 .miy by ih- ijn.nwDi f 
 the two Council*. Feilerai law. .li.ill !»■ nil- 
 II11II.-.I (or aoi-eptance or rej.-<iioii Ih it,. |»-..|.|. 
 if Ihe ileman.1 i. ma.le by ;«p inf i >„i.r. r 
 by eight Canlona. The mn'i.- pitii. ,|.|,- »p|il»^ 
 to federal rnoiulhin. whi.h ha>. » i-enrr.. 
 application, an-' which an- ih.i t .iii uttta 
 iiatuh- 
 
 Art. 80 Tlie C-Mifeiler»Il,.ii ►lu.li t-v 1»» 
 eatablUh the f.irma aad Interrala l-- tn- utaenrd 
 Iu (nipuUr vote* 
 
 616 
 
CONSTITUTION: SWITZERLAND. 
 
 CvuncU. 
 
 CONSTITl'TION: 8WITZEHLAND. 
 
 AST. 91. Member* of cither Council vote 
 irttbout inftnictioiu. 
 
 Act. 93. Each Council Uket action wparatelr. 
 But in the cue of the electiona tpecifled In 
 Aitkle 89 g 4- "' pardon*, or of decining a con- 
 lUct of jurladiction (Art. 83, g 13), the two Coun- 
 dk meet in joint *e**ion, under ti>e direction of 
 tlie Preiident of the National Council, and a 
 dtciiioa i* made by the majority of the member* 
 of both Cuundl* preaent and voting. 
 
 Ait. 03. Meaiure* may originate in either 
 Council, and may be introduced oy any of their 
 mrmbers. The Canton* may by correapoodence 
 eurcite the aame right. 
 
 An.M. Aiarule, the aitting* of the Council* 
 ire public. 
 
 Ajit. 95. The supreme direction and executive 
 authority of the Confedrration is exerclaeti hr a 
 FedemI Council [Conaeil fC-denl; Buudearuili], 
 coiiipiMnI of seven mi'mbets. 
 
 Akt. »«. The memU'rs of the Pi-<leral Council 
 IR chiWD for three yean by the Councils in 
 Joint H'wion from among all the Swiss citizens 
 tllirible to the National Council. Rut not mure 
 Iban out' nu'Uibvr of the Peilcnil Council shall lie 
 cbmrn fmm tlie same Canton. The FcdemI 
 CiHiiK'H U I'luwn anew after each election of the 
 Nationiil Council. Vacancies wliteh MTurin tlie 
 Cdurm- (if the three years arc flllwl at the lirst 
 rnwini; M^'-ion of tlie Feiieral Assembly, for ttie 
 miwiuiliT ii( the term of oftice. 
 
 .Vrt 97. The memlMTs of the Federal Coun- 
 ril uluill not. during their term of oflli-e. iKX-upy 
 «iiv iithi r otflce. citlier In the wrvlo- of the Con- 
 (nlrration or in n Canton, or follow any otiier 
 pursuit. XT exirciae a nnifciaion. 
 
 Art W. Til.' Fi-iKrul Council is presided 
 onr liT the I"reiildeiit of the Contnleratiiin. 
 TlH-re i» II Vice I'ri'sident. The President of tile 
 Cimficliniliiiii mill Ilie Vlc<' l*niiiilent of the 
 Fiilmil t'ciuiieil uri' chowii fur ime year liy the 
 F'^lirul Amu-miily from auioni; llii' iiiemlx-n i>f 
 till C'luiii'il. The retiring l'n-i>iilent shall n<ii In- 
 ilico-ii an I'n-nldent or Viii- I'niiideiit fur the 
 rrur Hisiiiiii: The saiiir iiiemlKT nliiill iii>t hnUi 
 il«- I'ttlir tif Vice I*re»ldeiit during twti iimiieeu 
 tiif viars. 
 
 Akt W The Presldeiii of tlie Coeifrtlemtlmi 
 tn>l tilt' oilier memtien nf tile Keileral Ciiuiiril 
 hMivt !in aiiuual sulurr fmni the feiieral 
 Irt-nMirv 
 
 Akt 1011 A iiuorum of the FedemI Council 
 ^■l!lll»l»..f fc.iir nieinlK'nt. 
 
 AKt IiPi The iiienilii'n of the Fiili'ml Coun- 
 fil hair ihf rl),'!il to «|H'i«k liiit ii.t to vme In 
 filliiT liiiiiM- iif Ihe FetlemI Aweiiiliiy. anil »1»>> 
 tin rii'lil 1.1 nuke nuitintis on ilie subject under 
 
 l-'HtititTlIioll. 
 
 .\in \'r> The tu'wei* ami the ilulk'sor the 
 
 F.iliral t iiiiiicil, within the liiiilla of IhiaCiiii 
 ►litiiii .11, are |mrtieul»rly the f.illowlnii 1 ll 
 omliM t» f.'.li'ral iitluirH. eonfurmalilv to Ihe law » 
 «ii.| r.«..|iiii,,n, iif til,. i',m(e.li'raiioii i It 
 t ik . tun- that till' I iHisiiliiiiiiii. feiler.il lai«« 
 »ii.l ..r.liiiaiH-e^. anil aU. the |.riivi«iiiiii, iif fml 
 irji r.iiii'iin|,iis, Ih .iiMervi.t!. iiinni it» nwii 
 !:.i!uiivi .ir ti|mn complHlni il taken iiietuun's 
 i'..»«iir> I" laiiM. Jiem- inwrumenu !.. lie oli 
 >'?>"l. iiiiU'w. Ihe I'onsidenuiiin of nniniw He 
 
 ' "t! tilt' .iilijiMt" which slmulil tie tiriiu«ai 
 
 \r!,v- ttto l''.n|enl Ciiurt. n(i-.inllnfr t.. Annie 
 M s ll i«|i,i, isn- that tlie guaranty t.f the 
 muitmid uiuMltuttuas be ubwrvi^l. 4. tt Intiu- 
 
 duces bills or resolutions Into the FedemI 
 Assembly, and giyes its opinion u|K>n Ihe jiro- 
 piMal* submitted to it by the Council* or the 
 Cantons. 5. It execute* the laws and reaolu- 
 tions of the Confederation and the judgments of 
 the Federal Court, and also the compromises or 
 decision* in arbitration upon disputes lietween 
 Cantona 6. It makes those appointments which 
 are not asaigned to the Federal Assembly. Fed- 
 eral Court, or otiier authority. 7. It examines 
 the treaties made by Canton* with each otiier, or 
 with foreign power*, and npprove* them, if 
 pniper. (Art. 8.1, J H.) 8. It watche* over the 
 external interenta of the Confederation, parti, .i- 
 larly the maintenance of its iutemalional nla- 
 tlons, and is. in general, intnuted with foreign 
 reUtious. 9. It watches over the external safety 
 of Switzerland, over the maintenance of intle- 
 pendenif and neutrality. 10. It watches over 
 tile internal safety of the Confederation, over 
 the maiiilenance of peace »nd onli-r. II. In 
 case* of urgency, and when the Federal Aiiaem- 
 bly is not in session, the Fi^ieral Council haa 
 power to raise the neeeitiiary tr<H>ps and to 
 employ them, with the reM'r\-ation llmt il Khali 
 lniim.tlhitely summon the ('.aincils if theniimlier 
 of IriMiim e.\i'eitU two llumiMiud men. or if they 
 remain iu arms more than tlinM" weeks. U. ft 
 nilminiiitera Ihe military esiulilisliiiient of Ihe 
 Confitleration. ami all other liraurhes of aiimin- 
 tstraiion eommittetl I.) the Confetleratiou. 13. 
 It exauiiiuii mull laws ami onlinances of the 
 Cantiiiis as miisl lie kiilimittitl fi.r its approyal : 
 ll eveniM'S xiiiMrviviim >>ver Mich ilepiinnients 
 of the lanloiial a.liiiiniMlralinn ii« are plaitti 
 uniler it, ffinlMl. 14. Il ailmiiiim.ni the fiiiaiui's 
 of tlieCoiiffih'niIiiiii. iiitrotluie'i the liiiilk'el. ami 
 Kiiliiiiits nec<iunt.t i.f nt'eipis and eX|H'iiM'A. l."i. 
 It siipervi.'ies Ilie i ..iniiict of all Ihe iiWi ials anil 
 eiiipliiyees of ilio fiiler.il ailmiiiixiraiiiin HI. It 
 .■iilimiiii to the Federal Awinilily at each reufular 
 M'«»ii.ii an aiT.Miiit of its ailmini.siraf..ii aiui a 
 ri|"irt I.f the riiiiilitiiiii i.f the Conftili r.ilinn. 
 Internal a* well as external, ami calls iitteiiii.m 
 t" the mi'a"iin's « liieli it deems desirable fi.r the 
 pMiiiiiliiiti .it th.'ueiii ril wi'Ifan'. It als<i makes 
 siHi'ial ri'iuiris nlieii tlie Fiilenil Assembly or 
 ellh.r i'.iiiiieil ri'.|iiiri s it 
 
 .\iiT. lo:t Till' liii-iii.'x. of the Ft'.liral Coun- 
 cil is tlistriliiili.l III .i.'partiiients ani..nir its 
 memliers Tlii-. .Ii<iriliiiii..ii lias 'In iiiirp<n<«' 
 only of fai'iliiatinL' tin i xainiiiatinn aii.l il.'~pnli'li 
 of liiisiiiess. iltsisi.iiis imaual.' from Ihe FisKral 
 Couticii as iihiiiL'te aMth>.rit\ 
 
 AliT U>i Tit" Ktsln-al Couiuil miil its .le- 
 pnriiiit'tits |i:i\e [kiwer t" tall ill esiierts on 
 »|Hs'ial siil.jit t - 
 
 Ajrr Io"i A Ke.li'riH liiiMiry (('liant'ellerie 
 fi'slerale, lliiii.l. «kaii/lii! ;,i the tieii.l ..f wliieh 
 I- plai'. I till Cl.amt ll..r ..1 lli.' t'..!ife.h'ratiiiii, 
 . ..iiiltii l> th. si-.-ri'taiy s l.t|..iiirvs fi.r the Fed'-ral 
 .\«»<'lii!il\ an.l tin I'.il.'ral luiiluil Tile Cliall 
 isil.ir i- < li..»i'!i III thr I'ech'f .1 AiuMinlily f.ir !hi! 
 term ..I Ihn-i j.nrs, at the same lime as t!i.' F.'.l 
 i-ral t'.iiiii.il The I'Imiirerv is mi-lrr ihe spfrial 
 siilK ivisii'ii ..f tile I'Vileral r..iiii' ll A fi.lerul 
 isiH sliuil pnivbi)- fur tut- tirgauiuiioii of me 
 t 'hrtii-erv 
 
 AiiT imt Tten- shall lie a Fisleral four: 
 ■ Tril.ioii; fish>-ii. nuiiiliagerlcht I foi the lui 
 niiiii«Tniii..ii.it juniice iu fislerai conn nis There 
 Mmll I., murevver, a jurv for (rimtnal vmnt. 
 ,Arl Ui i 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 ♦ii; 
 
OONSnTCnON; 8WITZERLAKD. 
 
 Oaart. 
 
 '■'W 
 
 \ 
 
 
 m-^**-, i"- ^^ membew and slternatm of the 
 rtOunl Court ihall bechoMn bribe Fedenl A>- 
 jemblT. which ifaaU uke can Uut aU thrae m- 
 tiMMllaoiuanaarareprMeiitedthefeiiL A Uw 
 »«1 eMablbfi the orguUndoo of the Federml 
 i/ourtandof iunctioiu. the Dumber of ludcei 
 •iMl alteniMes. their term of olBce, and tlwir 
 ■alary. 
 
 w^i"- .*??• A?' ^''*" «'»•"'' eligible to the 
 Hatiooal Council may be cho«>n to the FedenU 
 
 ^'i •i.'^S.* J"^!?" "' the Federal Awmbly 
 and of the Federal Council, and offldali appointed 
 by thr«e authoritie*. ihall not at the aamV time 
 Wonu to the Federal Court. The memben of 
 the Fwlcral Court ahall not. during their term 
 of office occupy any other olBce, either In the 
 •ervlce of the Confederatiun or in a Canton nor 
 engage In any other punuit, nor practice a pro- 
 
 A"T- lO* The Federal Court organlies Its 
 own Chancery and appoint* the o(BcUl» theim>f. 
 
 Abt. 1 10. The Fwleral Court htu Juriwllction 
 In civil lulU: I Between the Confwleratlon 
 and the tantonn. i. Between the ('(mfnletn- 
 lion on one part and corpomtions or Indlviduali 
 on tJie other part, when inch oorporatlona or 
 ImlivlduaU are plaintiffi. anil when the amount 
 involved i» of a decree of lni|M.rt«nce to lie 
 determined liv fnlenil legiaintion. 8. IJetweeii 
 Cantona 4. Between CnnuuM on one part and 
 corp..nitloniiorindividuiilii..n the. .ther part when 
 one of the iwrties ilenmmU it. anil the amount in- 
 volvwi is of » degree of ImportaiK-e to be de. 
 termlpe<l by fe.ieral legislation. It further hut 
 Juriwlirtion In tultt concerning the stntut of 
 ixrwms not lubjern of nnv government (heimiilh- 
 l'»«t). and the contllem which arise U^twecnl'imi- 
 mtmeii of dilTen'nt (.'unions respecting the rlBlil 
 of local citiienshlp. [Dmit de cite 1 
 
 Aut hi. The F.ileral Court Is bound to 
 give juilguK'nl in other cases when both parties 
 ugrei- to nlii.le by its decision, and when th.' 
 uuK.i.ut mrnlv.d is of a degn-e of Importuncv to 
 iH' ileteniiined liy fisleml legislation. 
 
 Art. Hi. The Ke<ler»l Court, assisieil hv « 
 lurv to dwide u|«.n cjuestions of tai t lias i rfm- 
 inul Jurisilietion in: I. (««., „f |,i„|, tr.a«.n 
 agiiin«tthe( „nfeder»ti,.ii. of reliellionor violence 
 agaiii.t fed.nd uutli.iritiea. •.. Crimes und mis- 
 deiiieunon against tile law of nations. 3 politi- 
 cal crimes and nilstlemeanors which ar.-tliccini«« 
 or the n-siilt of dUmrl.iiiic<.8 whidi ,«-,.„,i,„i 
 «iTii.-.l f.-,leral inlervenlloii. 4 (•„«., „^,,,i;,«t 
 olH. iiils ai.|«.inte.l by a f.-.ler»l autti.iritv « liere 
 suili .luiliority rel.eal.^ tli.rn to th, ' Ki.lemI 
 
 Akt 1I:| TlicFederuU ourtfiirtlierlmsiuris 
 .l.ctioii 1 Ovcr.-onflict^of turts.llcli»nl»tw.en 
 fe.leri.luut!i.«1tle. ..done pun aii.l .,inton«i au 
 llic.ritieH,.ntheotl„riwrt • I li,|,ui,» (»..»,-,.„ 
 (auto,,,. w|„.n, U.I, ,|i., .re ,.l>..n iiu..^ .„ 
 
 of piil.lK- law .t (..m; Hunts ..f vlo|»ti... .,f 
 the ...ii»tilulional rii;hts .f citiiseiia «imI . 
 plaiiiK ..f iiidivLliial. f,.r .he vinUtl.m .,f . .'. 
 i-or.|.,l« ,.r treaties C.nlli.t, ,,f s-lmlnl.lraliv.' 
 iurt«ii.ii,.ii are r.s«-rv..d. and are to i« •.itl.d 
 111 a iimnmr prrs, rilstl l.y fderal le>[i»lali..n 
 In all the f,.B. menti.m.-.l .asesthe Fe.ieral Court 
 shall api.tythf !„»» |„uj»,| t,y „„, Pnipn,! j^,. 
 Niiil.lv nn.| tl,.,M, resoluilons of the AsM'mhIy 
 which liav.- a g, nerd lm|».rf It .hall In like 
 
 "■"""*',',' f"">' ""r. ati<-. »i,i,h shall have been 
 
 mlltl.^1 t.y tiw Kderal Asi^inl.ly 
 
 COirSTITPTlON: 8WITZERUND. 
 
 Amr. 114. Beddat the cam ipeclfleil i. ahi 
 clM 110. lU. «Kl 11«. tb. Coofel^li:SS.t?T 
 
 of the Federal Court; in particular. It m«^ 
 to that court powen intanded to Insure ^J^ 
 aSu^M.'* "■" '"'• P""W«J for iJ 
 
 A«T. 115. All that relatea to the locatlmi «» 
 the authoritiea of the Confederation uTVubU 
 for federal kgtelation. ""'**» 
 
 Art. 118 The thne principal langusn, 
 ■poken In 8*^r tend. German.'^ f^,>n 
 Moi *"' "**'~'' l»n»ua«ea of the Confedenl; 
 
 Art. 117. The ofHcUla of the Confe,ler,ti,« 
 are resp.mslble for their cond.ict In .,(«,-, ? 
 federal law shall enforce thU responsibiliiv 
 
 CtapUflll. UT%mfourarh^a/,r^ui, 
 
 Art. US. Ametulment it tturtii tkrmigh ik, 
 fnrm* nqHindfar ixunngftderal kiir. 
 
 Art ISO. When rilMrr Cuuitnl „f ih, fi*„( 
 A-rm/Jii nutrt .t rrmdiition /«• amrn.lmnt ..fih, 
 Fflrral lonililiitioH and tht other CmwiAn 
 m* agrtf; or vMen f^i/ thnutnrid Stri- r.,(,r$ J,. 
 maml ,tinfn<t>nfHl. tSt ifwMion vhetSer tk* AViinl 
 O'lutiliition oughi to ht amtmhd i,, in rilhr n» 
 tubrntllfil to a rote of tht SmMfeofAe. T,Mmui,..t 
 rvK If I a either cut tht rmyoritv of lluSnm 
 «fi«/« itho „,tt pronmnet in the .ijtrm,!,', 
 there nhnll be ,t neie eieetion of both Oiviu-iUf.,rtU 
 l>'in>"»'"fprei>iinngamen<t)nenlt. 
 
 Art l-.'l. The amended n<leml Cwmim,.. 
 nh.tll be ,n font vhtn it hu been lut.i.M l„,\, 
 rm^po^ly of y,rit, eilitent vho t.ile f»rt ., ,', 
 fitt thereon and bft ,« »Hy,'nVy of the ■'<l„t„ / 
 tiMiing ../. ,1 nufforilD of ihe Sl„i„ !/„ «,,, „/ , 
 HalfOinton .* cuntnl lu half ,i rote. Th, n.n ■ 
 of the i>oio,l„r fvrfc in r<ieh Canton u nomilertd ■■, 
 be Ihe t>-le of the Stm. ] 
 
 Art. 118. [Aitb^iulimrt of Jiili/r,, iHi.i,'! fv 
 Ki.lcral C.mstilution may at"any iiiiii- Is-snun.l.^i 
 as a whole or In part. 
 
 .Vkt. UB. [ Amendment of Jiiffi ^ \ii)\ ] (Vn 
 eral revision is sirured thmiigii ih.' fi.r'niii i* 
 .|uln>.| f..r passing the federal la«s 
 
 .\kt 1*1. When either Couiiiil.if the F"lrrtl 
 A»s.-iiilily |>asM-s a resolution for gemnii rvvi,i,ii 
 aii.l the ..tiier ('..iincil d.ss n..l 8»rr.T: ..r wh,a 
 flftv tl' laami 8wiaa v.rtcrs .lemaii.1 g.n. ml i- 
 vlsloii . .jue^Uon whether there shall hr smh 
 a ri'vlslon must, to either otte. b.' siibmiite.1 :o 
 the iK.iiular v..t«. ,.f ihe 8niss |-„|,K- If a 
 eith.r .,.«•, the niajorilv ..f ll»' S« i«) ritii,j 
 who Vote oil the .|<iestiou proiioiin.i- in th> vS' 
 mative. ther.' shall he a new i !.■, li. . • i-,t'j 
 ( .xincils for the purpose of prepariiijf a kf »i: 
 n-vlsion. • 
 
 Art. IJl. [.4m<n>(iiKnf ofj'ilti .'. isill ) .«[» 
 <l(lc amendments may U- brought f..r»nril HiLer 
 lhr..iii'h a Hr..p,».ltion i.f the I'.-opl.. | V,.lk«i!fr 
 gungl (Initiative) ..r bv Ke.|.-ul li-^.i-,aii„n i 
 """P"*'"™ c.f the People means a .lemsal ^u^ 
 |s.He<l by Ifiy thousand Swiss voters .f-'i. fof 
 sus|M-nslon. ri'peal. ,^■ all.rali.m o' i|h-.ui- i ir 
 tich-. ..f tlie Feileial (•.institution If !.v msw 
 of Ihe m.'thisl of Proi»«iltlon of ih- l'.p;' 
 "•'i''™! .lilTirrnt subjects are brought f..rw«rl 
 Hthcr f.ir iltcrathin or for lm-.>ipoiiii"n ini.^tbe 
 FnlernI Constitution, each .me of tli-u- m-^ntw 
 subjects must be presented In a lepars^ IchimJ 
 
 018 
 
COMtriTrU'liON: SWITZERLAND. 
 
 for t popular Tote [InitteUTbrgehren]. The de- 
 Btod for » popular Tota may >ake the form 
 dtlwr of a icqueat io gencTBl h-rmn, or of a 
 detnite draft If luch a demaitd be roaile lo 
 the form of a requcat in gaieral terma and the 
 Councils of the Federal Aieemblj agree thereto, 
 the Mid Council* ahall thereupon prepaiv a 
 medHc amendment of the purport indicated by 
 thoM tiking amendment: and such speciflc 
 unrndmeDt ahall be submitted to the people and 
 t« the itaK-B for their arceptanre or rejection. 
 Id due the Councils of the Federal Assembly do 
 DM »fnv tlier»t<). the question of speciflc amend- 
 oeDt sliall tlien be subjcctetl to tlie people for n 
 popular rote; and in case the majority of the 
 itwiis Totan vote therefor, an amendment of the 
 purport iuilloiu-tl liy tlic vote of the people sImM 
 then be prepaml by the Fiilenil Assembly. In 
 cue tlie request simll take the form of a speciAc 
 drift »n<l the Fe<leml Aaxemhly agree thereto, 
 the draft is then to be submittal to the people 
 iodllie States for arreptance or rejection. If 
 the Fwleml Assembly sliall not ajrree tliereto it 
 Dsj either prepare a substitute ilmft for itaelf, 
 or it may propose the rejection of the propo- 
 ■itioa. The proposition u> reject such substi- 
 tute draft or propoaitlon shall lie submitte<l to 
 the Tote of the people and of the States at the 
 ■me thne with the general Proposition of the 
 Pwple. 
 
 Abt IJJ. [Amfmlmtnlofjti'y W^tlA The 
 pmcnlure upon the Pniposition of tlie People 
 ■ml ihf |Hi|iular voles concerning amendment of 
 the FniiTsl Constitution, shall lie regulatetl lu 
 drtsii hv a Fnleral Ijiw. 
 
 AsTliS. [Amendment of Julg S,\H9l,] The 
 saitodcii Fwferal Constitution or the specific' 
 smeiidnients profHiaed. as the caae may lie. shall 
 ^.■ in fiinr wl»n atlopted by the nuijo'rity of the 
 .■iwiM iili/.<'ii« who take part in the vnte then-»n 
 sad liy a iiuijnrity of tlie Cantons. In niakinir 
 up Ibe iimjorlly of the 8taU-s the vote of h iiiilf 
 of csfli Caiit.in is rounted as half a vote. The 
 twult nf tlir iMiiiular vote in each Canton is 
 cuBiidrri'tl In lie the vut« of the stale. 
 
 Temporary Pro*iaioaa. Aurin.E 1. Tin- 
 |in«in.[- ..f ilif iMwu and cu-itdiiui uliall Ih' 
 cliniinl u|i..n llip (ireM-: t liiitiit. until suih time 
 Milir I "iifi.i, ration shall take ujkiu itself tlie 
 milit:ir> I xjHii'i.'s up to this lime liorne ')v liie 
 
 '*" Federal fe^'islatlon shnll provide tie- 
 
 iklr. that the loss which iiiav N- iKcaaloniil to 
 thr nnmici-* of certain Cantons bv the mini of the 
 chsfi,'!-. vililcU remilt fmiu Ar;i<li» Jil. 30. iJ6 
 iS^. an.l 4'J (i). shall fall upon nui h Cantons 
 i«j k-nuiiislly. and shall not attain iu full effiHt 
 Wl «!t.r a transition peri(»l of s.inie veam 
 Tkm' ( »ntons which, at tlie goinjf into effect of 
 Annie M uf the Constitution, have not fultllled 
 
 CONSTmrnON: united STATEa 
 
 the miUury obligations which are Impoaed upon 
 them bv the former Constitution, or by fedeiml 
 tows, shall be bound to carry them out at their 
 own expense. 
 
 .«f"T .? """ provisions of the federal kwa 
 ana or the cantonal concordata, consthutions or 
 <»>««nal laws, which are contrary to thia Con- 
 stitution, cease to have effect by the .•Mioplion of 
 the tonstliution or the pubUcation of the Uw* 
 for which it provtdea. 
 
 Art. 8 The new provisions ttlating to the 
 organiiation and Jurisdiction of the Federal 
 Court take effect only after the publication of 
 federal Uws thereon. 
 
 Aht. 4. A delay of five years Is allowed to 
 Cantons for the establlahment of free instruction 
 in primary public education. (Art. 27.) 
 
 Aht 5 Those persons who practice a liberal 
 profession and wlio, before the publication of 
 the fe<leral law provide<l for In Article 88, have 
 obtained a certiflcate of competence from a Can- 
 ton or a joint autliority representing sevend 
 Cantons insy pursue that profession throughout 
 the Confederation. 
 
 Art «. [Aiuendmenl of Jke. JS, 1885. For 
 the riin.umlee of thu ameiulmetU rte artiele 83 
 ',".'/• 'f*'"'''™' 'aw for carrying out Article 
 ii (li) lie passe<l Inforc tiie end of 1890. the im- 
 iKirt duties leviH on spirituous liquors bv the 
 Cantons an<i Communes, accunling to Article 32 
 <cas«' on tlie golnif into effect of such Uw. If' 
 in such case, tlii- Hlians of anv Canton or Com- 
 mune, out of tlie sums lo Iw divided, sif uot 
 'iifllcient to equal tliu avt^raire annual ret pro- 
 <wii< of tlie ta.\.-s lliey have levied on spirituous 
 liquom In the years ISHtl to Ii«4 inclusive, the 
 Cuiitoiis and Coiiiiniines affecteil shall, till the 
 i-nd of IHWt, receive the aintiunt of the defiriemy 
 out of 111,, amount which is to b<' divided amoni 
 the oilier Cantons according to noi>ulati<m' and 
 tlie reiiMinder only shall lie divliliHl among such 
 oilier Cantons and Communes. acc<inling lo popu- 
 lation. The Coiir(.<lersli(.n sliall further provide 
 liy law (hat for such Cantons or (Ninimunes us 
 msy suffer flnuncial loss liiniuKli the effect of this 
 Hniindnienl. kucIi Iimx Khali not come uium lliem 
 immediately in its full e.\tent. but gnuluallv up 
 lo tlie year IHM. The indemnities ilierehv liiaile 
 iiei-essary shall lie pn^vlouslv taken out of 'the net 
 pna-<H.<lsdei.ii.'iialrtl in Arii. leS.'iiii, |iHrak'raph4. 
 
 Thus res4>lveil by Ilie National Couniii lo be 
 subinilleil to the p.i|mlnr voir of the .Swiss 
 IMH.nle and of the Caiilous. ll.ni. ,Iaiiuary 81, 
 '"i: Zleitlir. i'n'siileiit .SIi(i-«k. .S'cn'ta'ry. 
 
 Thus n«.|v,d by the Council of States, to l)e 
 subinilleil to the iiopul.ir vote of ilie Sulk, 
 |)eople and of ilie Canloua. Hern, ,laniisry 81, 
 1H7. A. Kopp, I're,. lent. J.-L. Lutsiher! See', 
 retard'. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 
 
 A. D. I7«i.-Th« Articlaa of Coaftdaration. 
 !w I MTKi, Statks or An. : A. D. l777-t7Sl, 
 
 uil I , '<;i- 1 7«7, 
 
 A D. I7l7.i7l«. a«d 1791.1S70.-A sketch 
 »l 1.1.- liLiory of th.. framing and adoption of the 
 FrUrr,! ( msiiiuiion of the Vnite<l Suteswill N- 
 tOUD.! Mldrr ChitRD STATI.B OF Ah . A I). 
 l.V «„1 I7S7-!7H». The following test of the 
 ""rf-'i! nuirumeL I, with the subsequent siuvud 
 
 619 
 
 mcnts 1.1 ii, i<i otui prepare<l bv Profras<ir .Vlliert 
 Hunhni II Hart, ami is the result of n csrefi^ coni- 
 iiarison with tin- .riginal iiMnuscripts. preservixi 
 In the Si.itt ile|ianmeut al Wanhingtoi) ■ It ie 
 inlendi<l lo \v almoliilely e«scl In word spelling. 
 capitali<alloi! and puin iuation A few Readings 
 ami paragraph n uiIm rs. Insertetl for nmvenience 
 of n'fennce. »re indicated by brackctn " "Those 
 parts of tlie Cuustitutlon which weri' temporary in 
 
CONSTITUTION: UNITED STATES Omgnm. CONSTITUTION: INTTED ST \TES 
 
 u 
 
 their DSturv, or which h«Te been uperaeded or 1 
 kitemi by Ut«r amvoiiineDU. aiv Included witb'n I 
 the »ljfn» [ ]." This text, originally printed in 
 the ■■ American Hiatorr LeafleM." la rfpmdiictil 
 with Pr-feaaor Hart'BConaent. The paraifraph- i 
 tng liaa l>een altered, to ecooiiniiie apact but it 
 i« otherwise eiactlv pepnKlii' r<l 
 " We the PEoPLE'of the l'iiit<-.i 8iai<s. In Order 
 to form a more perfect riii.in. ininlillah Jua- 
 tice. insure donieatic Tramniility, provide for 
 the common defence, pmiix'li- tlie fritietal Wel- 
 fare, and urciire the Blr!l»ill^» of Liberty ii 
 ouraelvea and our Hc«lerity. do onlain and e«- 
 tabliah thia Conatltution for the United Slaten 
 of America. 
 
 Article I. StftioH 1. All Utrialatlv.- Powem 
 herein vranted ahall be Te»t«il in a fimif"'* <'f 
 theUiiite<l States, which uliail consist of » S»-iiale 
 and House of Ki'pn'sinlntivrs. snini 2 1;! 1.] 
 The House of K<i>res<ntatlvf» simll tw roni- 
 iMMiHi of MenilsTs rhiwii every se<on<l Year 
 by tlie People of the wvcral mates, and the 
 flectora In iiicli State shall have the (iualili- 
 cations reiiuliite for EU-ctorsof the most nmner- 
 oils Branch of the State U'(fi»latun>.» IS-'l 
 Nci Person shall lie a Kepreaentative who shall 
 ii.il have attained to the .Vije of twenly-Hve 
 Years, and U't'U seven Years ,> Citizen of the 
 Unlteil States, and who slinll not, when elei'twl, 
 lie nn InlmliitMiit of that State in whieli lie shall 
 lie chiiM'n. 1? » 1 Hepresentiitlves anil ilinrt 
 Tuxes shall Iw aplMirtinmit anionn the seviral 
 States which may lie iihluiiiil within this Union, 
 aceonling to tlieir n-spntive Numbers, [which 
 slmll U- delprniimil liy aililiUK to the whole 
 Nuinla-riif free l'ers<iiis. iueliiiling tliiise Isiund 
 to SiTviie fur II Tenii of Years, and i xcltiiling 
 liiiMiOis niil tiiMil. thni' fifths of all other Per- 
 Kc.ii«14 The actual Enuniemtiiin slmll lie liiinle 
 wiiliin ihne Yeiir* lifter the first Mi-etiiiir of the 
 Convress of the liiiteil ."States, and within every 
 sulivquent Tenu of ten Years, in such Manner 
 a* thev shall hy Ijiw ilinel The XuiuUr of 
 Uepn-sentatives" fhull nut excii-*! mie fur every 
 Ihirtv Thoiisiinil, but enih Slati' sluill liave at 
 I.i i.'t Hill- I!i iiriMiitatiM-; ['iiiil until such euu- 
 lieriliim sliuil !"• iii.nle. the State of New 
 Iluiiipihin-Kliiill Ihi niiiliiltoi hiise tiiri'f'. Masaa- 
 iliiwlls ei^thl KhiKle |sliii.,l atiil I'r.iviilence 
 Pi;imatioii« line, ('(iniiectii ut live Ni'vYork six. 
 >•■«■ .IirMV fi'ur. I'eiiiisvlviiniii eit'lit. INliovan- 
 one. M.iryfaiiil six. ViiL'iui:i tin. .Nnrih tamlina 
 five. .Soiiih t'anilina live, uiul (Jenriria iline J5 
 (;; 4.) When vii iini ii s liiipJM n in tin UeprtM-n- 
 f:iliori fmni anv State, the Kxeeutive Auihnrity 
 Ihen-of ■•hiM is«iie Writs uf Klerliim t.i fill sueli 
 Vmaiii i.» l-i •"> 1 The II. ms.- nf ItepreM-nta- 
 tive, sliall I hiiHi-ilitir S|M-aki-ruud iitlierOtfi<ers, 
 and shall luM' thi' ~ile PnHemf Imiaaehnient. 
 .Seri,,.'. ;t \i \ \ ThiS.-ualeiif theUnileilStates 
 shall Is- iiPiiiiiiTOil nf two Niiatora fnmi eai h 
 Slate. ih.™ii In llie Leifishiture thereiif. fur six 
 Yi-ars. ami laeh Senatnr shall have nne Vnte 
 U '.' I linitiKliatily after thev shallU aasenilileil 
 
 111 t ..iiMiiut 111 f the first fchctinn. they shall 
 
 Isilividiil MS ii(iially us may Is- into thni- 1 lasses 
 The S<-at-> nf Ihi- SiiHtiirsnf Jill first (lass shall 
 Is- vaiati'il al tlie KxpirLii ii nf the B«'c<in<i Year, 
 of tliesttnniK la«sal the Kxpirationof the fmirth 
 Y'ear. and >if tin ihinl (lass.it the Eipiraiimi nf 
 
 * Mi.iijitlsil I'V l''<nn><**titli .Xmcniliiit-nl 
 
 ♦ Hu|H rsfslisl lit Fiiiirlertith .Xmeetllticat. 
 
 X Twaisirary cfauae 
 
 the alilh Vear. so tluit niic thinl ni:iy Im- ilmw-a 
 
 every second \ ar; and if Vaiaiides liapinn hr 
 
 Realsnation. n; nth.rwiae, .turi;!*; the Kii.s, ,',f 
 
 the Legiahiture of any State, the F.x.n utiw 
 
 then>o( may make temporary Appointniinis until 
 
 the next lurting of the Legialature. whii || siisU 
 
 tbenfi'laucb Vacaneiea. [^8] No Persnn sliall 
 
 be a Senator who ahall nnt have attain -'I tii ihi- 
 
 Age of thirty Y'ears. and lieeu nine Years a Citi 
 
 len of the Tniteil States, ami who kIiuII nn. 
 
 when ekcttnl. lie an Inhabitant of that Mali- for 
 
 which he shall lie chown. (£ -1 ] The Yin 
 
 Prealdent of tlic Uniteil Statea shall Is- IV-siiloct 
 
 of the Senate, but shall ha>'e no Vote, uuli-sstlirv 
 
 be equally di' ided. [§ 5.) The S-niilc blall 
 
 chuse their oil r IXBcers, and aUi a ["ri-siili-ni 
 
 pro tcni|sin', in the Absence of the Vin ["rKi 
 
 ■lent, or when he abail exercise ihi- iifflit n! 
 
 Presid. ni nf the UJted States. l^ii| TL 
 
 ^' nnle sli:ill have the sole Power tn Iry all lui 
 
 pi achnients Wh.n sitting fur thai I'liri w, 
 
 they shall 1»- i ii < lath or AmrinBlinn Wh. n tls- 
 
 IVsldent nf tin liiited Suites is trinl tlii- ( liivf 
 
 Justice shall pnsidi-: And Di l'ir~m >li:.l'i bt 
 
 1 iinvicled witlnmt the Iniieiirieiieenf tm. ilirli 
 
 nt the Menilars pn-sent. J;; '..] .Iiili-niin; in 
 
 Caseaof inipeiK'iinii-nt sli:il] imi t-\iri:il fiintifr 
 
 than to removal from titilee. and ilisiiiialitiriiiinn 
 
 to hold and i i.joy any Olhi e nf h.ni r. Triw nt 
 
 Profit tiuilir the Un'ltiil States !i i: ilu |';mr 
 
 convicted shall nevertheleas Is- li;il '. iinl ^iihjirl 
 
 to Inilietnient. THal. Judj-'nieut a:i.l rii:i!.!i 
 
 ineiit, aceonling to Law. .Sii-ri../i 4. |? 1 ] Tlii- 
 
 limes, Plai-'-s and Manner i if hnlilhii: Kl. iii.ii. 
 
 fnrSiiatoi-. and Hi on-sentativi-s, sliili U pre 
 
 serils-d In ea<h Stan- by the L<v'i'>laliir- iliirnif 
 
 htit the Congn'ss may at any linn- I'v l.:nv nuilif 
 
 or alter such Kegulutinns. exis-pt a« t" iln I'lurt 
 
 of cbusingSeiiators. [i'i] Tin t niiL-ri">li:ili 
 
 insemlile at least onci' in i-M-rv \ i ar, :.iid mhIi 
 
 Mifting shall la' on the first .Mnii.|:i\ m Isn-ni- 
 
 Is-r. unless they shall by Ijiw app..i;ii a ilillinii; 
 
 I)av, .Sie/iV.« Vi Ul| l-jiih l|..ii., ,li:ill Ik 
 
 the Judge of the Eleitinns, IMiinw ai^l (iuslifi 
 
 catiniisi.f its own Minilsrs, ami a M ij-n!> -if 
 
 eat-h shall eniistitiile a (jiinrnm l<>il< liii-iai-H, 
 
 but a smaller NuiiiUi may ailj.'uni Iniu ila.v 
 
 to day, and mav Is- uiillinVi/eil 1" i.iii|"l its- 
 
 Atteiidanie nl ufisent Menilii r-, ill Me h Miniu-r 
 
 anil under .-'Ui h Penalties as e:ii ti Hmum iiwr 
 
 i.in- -ill , li'i \ Kiieh llnUM- ma. ■!. ti naiiirlls- 
 
 Uiii'. > "f its Pnstisliiii.'s. |.!iiii.li i't^ M' nJ-i r» f.ir 
 
 ilistirilerly lieliaviiiiir. uid wiili ilu ' 
 
 nf twii thirds, eX|Ml a ,Mi iiiUr | 
 
 liouse shall ki'tp a .Intiriial nf ii» 1 
 
 and fmni time In time piiMi^h ilu ni 
 
 ! ingsuih Parts as may ill till ir Jii-lji 
 
 I ^ecns■y ; iinil till- Vi-iU and Na.\> nt III- M- inlrn 
 
 nf eitlier l|nus<- on aiiV i|iie«iiMii -I, ,il ii !ls 
 
 I)i-sin'iif nlll fifth nf Ihns. 1'ris.llt 1-. •l.lil«l 
 
 nn the Ji.iirtial (j 4 1 Ni itlii r 11- u- a.innir 
 the Stssinii nf CnnKnss, shall, wiili-.iH il" ' 'B- 
 si-nt nf the iither, ailjiiiiru fnr iii' i' ilim iliiw 
 days, linrt.ian) nther Plan than liu! m »l*t 
 the twn llniisa-s shall Is- sittini: -Si'i ■> IS If 1 1 
 Till- .-s iiainrs and Uepn-M nlatlvi-^ sliail n.ii« 
 a Ci'mpensatlnn fnr their Sir\li.- i • l« ""^r^ 
 tainiil liv Uw, and iHiid mil • f il-' Tr.-a»ur; A 
 the UnitiHl Stall's. They shall in all i ixv il- 
 leptTreaaon, Kelnnv and Hnuili.l ili. I'liuv. 
 1.1 privileged fniin v-n-Kt iluriiii; il 
 anee ut the .S-asi -i; I 'heir n-nisit 
 and in going to ami nttirnliij; ?r..ii, liji 
 
 rr.[uv 
 
 Uli 
 
 .link's, 
 
 X.ipl 
 
 . .iuiir 
 
 ir .MiinJ 
 . Il.-uin, 
 
 6:i<> 
 
CONSrrnmOK: UNITED STATES. Congnm. CONSTITUTION: UNITED STATES. 
 
 tad for any Speech or Debate lu eitlier llouae, 
 tbrr iball not be questioned In any other PUce 
 [i 1] No Senator or liepreientative ahall, dur- 
 Ity the Tlnw for which h? \»a« elected, be ap- 
 poioU'd tu any civi! UAl<'e uudt-r the Authurilv 
 of the- United 8tates,whl<'hiilmll have been createtf. 
 p'lbe Emoluments whertofbhall h&re been in- 
 cn'a9»i diiriui; such time ; uud uo Perwin holding 
 tov iMiv under the United tflates. shall be a 
 Mrmber of either House during his (.'omiuuauce 
 InOtScT. .•iWi</« 7. [JS 1.] Ali Bills tor raising 
 Revinue shall originate in the Houw iif Itepre- 
 lenutives i but the tk-nate nwy proiHUie »r concur 
 with Aniendmenta as on other Bills, [i i.] 
 Ever}' Bill which shall liare parsed the Ilouse 
 n( l(rpn-seulatives and the Senate, shall, tiefore 
 It bfi'ome a Ijiw. l)e prcwuted to the President 
 .->f the I'niliil States: If he approve he shall si^n 
 it. hut if nut lie shall ntum it, with his (Ibjec- 
 tion.'i to that House iii which it sliall have urigi- 
 iMte<l. »lio slutll cuter the Olijectiims at large 
 on till ir Jiiunial, and pnKvwl In n'<'oU8idiT it. 
 If dftiT such Keconsideration two thirds «t iliat 
 iJouM .'•linll agnt' *o pass the Bill, it shall Uaciit, 
 luiritliirwith the Objections, to tlicotliir Hl>u•^e, 
 ))v whii'U it shall lii^cwise Ite recitUKitlt-rfd, mul 
 if ap|in>vc<l by two thinis of that House, it sliall 
 liniiima Ljtw. But in ull such CaM-s the Votes 
 if lutli Houses shall U ilctemdned l>r yeas and 
 Navs, ami tile Names of the Persoiis'volini: for 
 uiil a^taiiist the Bill shall Is- eut^'nil on I he Jour- 
 naiof cm h lloum- n-sjHHiivcly. If any Bill kIiuII 
 nal In' nluniiil liy tiie I'resiilinl williiiitcu l>ay» 
 lMiiiilay>iexa'pti*«l I after it shall have U-i-u pri-- 
 K'hIiiI to him, llie same shall )> a I.,aw. in liUc 
 Mauuir asif he had signed it, unless the ('oiign'u 
 liy 1 111 if Ailjouriiment prevent its Ketiini, iu 
 s'bii it t'a.se it sliall not Ilea Law. I> !i.] Every 
 iinicr I{e»i.lutiou. or Votr to which the Coii- 
 <-i:rn Ull- of tlu' >S'nate ami House of lU'pn-seiila- 
 rivi's nmy 1h' miTssiiry (cxi-ept on a ijuestion of 
 .Viljoiinmieull slwll Is' presented to the I'n-sident 
 I'f the liiileil Slates: luid Ivfore llie same shall 
 laki Klfn t, shall !»• upproveil l>y liim. or lieiug 
 >lix;p|<rovi.<| liy him, shall U' repasai'd by two 
 ilitnl'. of the Senali' and House of liepresenta- 
 livi.. ai'conling to the Uules and l.iiiiitationx 
 lin-M rilsil iu the Case of a Bill .Srrti^n n The 
 luii^'nss shall have Power [J 1.] To lay and col- 
 W't I'axes, Duties, Imposts and Exi ist's. to (wy 
 tls- IVMs and priivide for the common Ih-feuce 
 uit pueral Welfare of the I'nitetl States. Iiut all 
 DiiUK Iin|Kists and Excises shall lie uniform 
 tlmuiL'liout the United States. U- ) To txir- 
 r.» .Moiiiy on llie creilil of the I nited StaU-s 
 Ij :l I To regulate foninierce with foreign 
 Naii.iiis, and among the several States, and witli 
 ilie liiiliati Trilies: [i *\ To establish an uni 
 f.nu llule of NaluriilUation, ami uuilomi Laws 
 i>u ilii- sulijnt of Baukruptcies throughout the 
 Iniii'l Stall* H j 1 To coin .Money, regulate 
 till' \ alue thereof, and of foniifu C'oiu.'aud tix the 
 .siLmianl of WeightH and .Mea.sure», I ^ « 1 To 
 |r"U.lr for the I'uuishmeiii of .'ounlerfeitiiig llie 
 .Niuritii-a and current t oin ot the United Statm, 
 U T I To et'ablisb Post ( IIHces and immI Ihiads. 
 If") Til promote the Proitresa of Seiemr and 
 utrful Arts, by securing fiir liiiiiteil Times to 
 .'.uthiirs and Inventurs the :exciusive Uinht to 
 tliiir resistiive Writings and IMxHiveries. |^ 1) ] 
 T" I'liustituU! Tribunals inferior to the siipn'me 
 li'uit, 1^ 10 ) To jeflne and punish Piraeies 
 ml FiUuirs tHimmittctl on the high Seas, and 
 
 Offences against the Law of Nations: [^ U.I 
 To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and 
 lieprisal, and make Kules concerning Capture* 
 on Ijiml and Water: [^ 12. J To raise and aup- 
 |sirt Armies, but no Appropriation ot Money to 
 that Use shall be fur a longer Term than two 
 
 ^ears: |^ 13.] To provide and maintain a Nary; 
 [S 14.1 To make Uuh-s for tlie Itovernment and 
 tegulation of the land and naval Forces ; [S 15. J 
 
 I To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute 
 the Lawri of the Union, suppress Insurrections 
 I and n-iK-l Invasions: [S l*-] To provide for or- 
 ganizing, aniiing, and diseiplining the Militia, 
 and lor governing such Part of them as may lie 
 j emphiveil iu tlie Service of the United States, 
 I ri'servlug to the Slates resiKciivelv, the Appoint- 
 i nient of the Offlcers, and the" Authoritv of 
 I training the Militia aiturtliiig to tlie discipline 
 , pl-scrilieil by Congress: (S IT 1 To eiercisi! ex- 
 clusive Le(ii»lutioii in all Cases wliatsm-ver. over 
 i such District (not exceeiliiiL' ten Miles square) 
 as may. by I issiiin of panieolur States, and the 
 Aeeeptaiii-e of lonKrew. lieconie tlie Seat of the 
 I IJovemniint of tlie Uiiitnl States, and to cvercise 
 I like Authority over ull Places purchased by the 
 ( oumiit of the Legislature of the State in wliich 
 the same shall Is-, for the Krection of Forts, 
 I .Magazines. Arstuals, dm k-Yanls. and other ueed- 
 I fill Builduigs:— .Vud [■: 1"* ! To make all Laws 
 I which shall Ix' necessary .mil pM|ierfor carrving 
 into Execution the fofeitoinit Powers, ami all 
 I other Powers vestiil by thi:^ Coustiiiition in the 
 i tiovemment of the Unitiil States or in unv IK'- 
 I partmeut or Officer thereof S.-r,;n ». (^ 1 ] 
 I [The Migration or Im|iortalioii of siiili Persona 
 as any of tlie States uow existing sliall think 
 I pM|N'r to admit, shall not lie pmbibited liy tlie 
 I (ongn-ss prior bi the Year one thoiisand iight 
 I luiuiirisl and eight, liut a Tax or duty may Ih> 
 I iiii|His<Hl on siieii Importation, not exceeding leu 
 I dollars for eaih Persim.]' IS 2.1 The Privileug 
 I of I'-e Writ of Halieas Corjius slinll not !»■ siis- 
 I |K'i ed. unless when in Citsi-Kof Uelielliou or In- 
 I vasiiin the public Safety limy require it [S S ] 
 I No Bill of Attainder or ex pi«t fuito Ijiw shall 
 Is' passeil.f li-i] No Capitation, or other 
 ilirei't. Tax shall Ik' laid, unless in Pro|i<irtiou to 
 ! IlieCcnsusor Enumeration heniii ti«fon>ilin'ili'd 
 ' to b<' taken. [J.'i.] No Tax or Kuty shall !«• 
 laid on Articles exiMirtiil from any .•slaie [j ti ] 
 ^ No I'n'fen'iice shall lie given by auv liei;ulaiiou 
 ; of Commeric or Beveniie to tin Ports of one 
 State over those of another n.T shall Vi-sm-Ib 
 IniuiiiI to, or from, one Slate, la- oMigiil to enter, 
 clear, or pav Duties in uiiotlii r [;: T ] No 
 , Money shall fx- drawn from the Treasury, but iu 
 CoiLsequence of .\|ipropriations maiie by Ijiw ; 
 unit a regular Statement ami Aieoiiut of ilie Ih- 
 ceipts and Kx|M'nilitun's of ull pubMe Money 
 I sliull Ik' publisliiil from time to time [ji M ] 
 No Title of Nobilily siiull Is- grunted by the 
 United States .Viid uo IVrxm holding any Ottlce 
 of Prolit or Tni»t under them, shall, witliout 
 theConsi'iii of tlieCoiigrt'ss. aiveptof any present. 
 Emolument, oitlee, or Tith', of any kind what- 
 ever, from any King. IMuce, or fon'iirn Slate. { 
 Srrtini, W [■! 1 ] No Slate shall enter into any 
 Tnaly. .\IIUniv, or Confedenitiou . grant Let- 
 ters of Marque and ib'prisal: coin Money: emit 
 Hills of Credit : make any Thing but gold and 
 
 •TrtnpiirarT pmrlsioB 
 
 * Ef tiMMlisl hjr lti«> nm eltfbt ,Vnu*niliiieal«. 
 
 S CxteodMl by NUltli and TrDlta Aiueii4lu«lls. 
 
 021 
 
CONSTITXrnON: UNITED STATES. j^^JJf,^^ CONSTITUTION : UNITED STATES. 
 
 lilTer Coin a Tender in Payment of DebU: pass 
 any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law 
 impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant 
 any TiUe of Nobifity. [S2.] No State shall, 
 without the Consent of the Congress, lay any 
 Imposts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except 
 what may be absolutely necessary for executing 
 iU inspection Laws: and the net Produce of all 
 Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on Importa 
 or Exports, shall be for the Use of the Treasury 
 of the United States; and all such Laws shall be 
 subject to the Revision and L'ontroul of the Con- 
 gress. [^ 8.] No State shall, without the Con- 
 sent of Congress, lay any Duty of Tonnage, keep 
 Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter 
 into any Agreement or Compact with another 
 State, or with a foreign Power, or engage in 
 War, unless actually invaded, or in such Immi- 
 nent Danger as will not admit of delay.* 
 
 Article 11. SKtion 1. [g 1.] The executive 
 Power shall be vested in a President of the 
 United States of America. He shall hold his 
 Office during the Term of four Years, and, to- 
 gether with the Vice President, chosen for the 
 same Term, be elected, as follows (^ 2.] Each 
 State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legis- 
 lature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors. 
 equal to the whole Number of Senators and 
 Representatives to which be State may lie en- 
 titled In the Congress: but no Senator or Repre- 
 sentative, or Person holding an Office of Trust 
 or Profit under the l'nite<i Stales, sliall be ap- 
 pointed an Elector. [The Electors shall mwt In 
 their respective States, and vote by Ballot for 
 two Persuns, of whom nne at least shall not tie 
 an Inhabitant of the same State with tlieniM'Ives. 
 And they shall make a List of all the Persons 
 voteii for. and of the NumU'r of Votes for each ; 
 which List they shall sign and certify, and 
 transmit sealed to the Seat of the Oovemment of 
 the United States. dlrecU'd to the Pn-sldent of 
 the Senate. The President of the S<nate shall, 
 in the Pi 'sence of the Senate ami llnuse of Re- 
 presenti.'..vi's. open all the Certiftrati-H. and the 
 Votes shall then lie counted. The Prrson hav- 
 ing the greaU-st Numlier of Voles shall be the 
 President, if such Numlwr be a Majority cf the 
 whole Numlier of Electors appointed; and If 
 there be more Hum one who have such Majority, 
 and have an equal Numlier of Votes, then llie 
 House of Bepn'sentat'-.s shall Immediately 
 chuse by Ballot one of them for l*re«l(liiit , and 
 if no Person have a Majority, then fmm the live 
 highest on the List the said' House shall in like 
 Manner chuse the President But in cliusing 
 the Pn-sident. the Voles sliall be taken liv Slates, 
 the R<-presentalion from each Stale lia'ving one 
 Viiic; A quorum for this Purpose shall consist 
 iif a .Memlier or Memliera from two ihinls of the 
 States, and a Majority of all the Stales slinll be 
 iHTi'«»ary lo a Choice. In every Case, after Iho 
 CliMiceof Ihe l*resident. the Person having the 
 greatest NumluT of Voles of the Elect. irs shall 
 U- the Vice President. But if lhen> should re- 
 main two iir moH' who havi' equal Voles, Ihe 
 Senate shall I'liiise fnim Ihem Iit Ballot Ihe Vice 
 l-residentj* [i H ] The Congnss may deter 
 mine the Time of < hilling the Electors, and the 
 l»ay on which lliey xliall give llwlr Voles, which 
 l»ay shall b.- ilie name tlmiughoui the United 
 
 •EnemlMl by Thlncrnih. rniirtiwnib and nftomth 
 anradniMits. 
 
 « Ba p arSB fa d hy tSreifti; Aro«p.-lr.w«!, 
 
 Statea. [§ 4.1 No Person except a natural be 
 
 Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at t 
 
 time of the Adoption of this Constitution sh 
 
 be eligible to the Office of President; neitt 
 
 shall any Person be eligible to that Offlic »; 
 
 shall not have attainea to the Age of thirty i 
 
 Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident with 
 
 the United States. [8 5.] In Case of the H 
 
 moval of the President from Office, or of 1 
 
 Death, Resignation, oi Inability to <li8char(re t 
 
 Powers and Duties of the said Office, the Sar 
 
 shall devolve on the Vice President and t 
 
 Congress may by Law provide for the Case 
 
 Removal, Death, Resignation, or Inaliilitv W 
 
 of the President and Vice President. dtVlaiTi 
 
 what Officer shall then act as President, ami lui 
 
 Officer shall act accordingly, until the Disabilli 
 
 be removed, or a Preaklent shall be electe 
 
 [Si 6.] The President ahall. at suted Times r 
 
 ccive for his Services, a Comnensalion, whi( 
 
 shall neither be hicreaaed nor diminished durit 
 
 the Period for which he shall have liccn cIpckk 
 
 and he shall not receive within that IVriixl an 
 
 other Emolument from the United States nr ai 
 
 of them, [g 7J Before he enter on theExeci 
 
 tion of his Ofllce, he shall take the fi.llnwio 
 
 Oath or Affirmation:—" I do solemnly swear i. 
 
 "affirm) that I will faithfully execute the (iillc 
 
 "of President of the United States, and will i 
 
 "the best of my Ability, preserve, protect an 
 
 "defend the Constitution of Ihe United Statea 
 
 Htction 2. [ii 1.1 The President shall Ik- Cm 
 
 mander in C'hief of the Army and Naw of th 
 
 Unlte<l Slates, and <if the Militia of the severs 
 
 Slates, when called into the actual Service nf ih 
 
 United States; he may require the (iiilnion ' 
 
 writing, of tka principal Officer in . mi h nf ti 
 
 executive Departments, upon any Sulijeei nl.n 
 
 ing 10 Ihe Duties of their respecfive ditids, m 
 
 he shall have Power to grant Itipriive* ,iiii 
 
 Panlons for Offences against the rniidl State* 
 
 except in Cases of Im|>eachment. (ii) H 
 
 shall have Power, by and with the AdvieL an. 
 
 Consent of the Senate, to make Tn.iiies. pm 
 
 videil two thirds of the Senators prewnt cunur 
 
 and he shall nominate, and by and with the \i 
 
 vice and Consent of the Senate, shall appi.in 
 
 Ambassadors, other public Minisleni and I'nn 
 
 sills, Judges of the supreme Court, and all mlip 
 
 Officers of the United Suies. whose Appulut 
 
 ments are not herein otherwise provideil fur, an. 
 
 which shall be esUblUhed by Law: but tbi 
 
 Congress may by Law vest the Appiintmeni ol 
 
 such Inferior omcen, as they think proper, it 
 
 Ihe Pn-sldent alone, in the Courts of Uw. or li 
 
 the Heads of DepartmenU. (#8.] The Prrsi 
 
 dent shall have Power to (111 up all Vacaticiei 
 
 that may happen during the Recess «f the !<rn 
 
 ale, by grantlnit Commiaalons which shall riplr« 
 
 at the End of their next Session. .Sn-'ion 8. H( 
 
 shall from time to time give to the Conimt In. 
 
 formation of the State of the Union, ami reciira- 
 
 mend to Ihelr Conslderatlou such Mi'ssiires u be 
 
 shall Judge necessary and ex|ietllent. lie may, 
 
 on extraiinllnary Occasions, coovenrliotMIoiiwi, 
 
 or either of them, and in Case of DimKreemeDt 
 
 lielween them, with Hesnect In the Time ol 
 
 Adjournment, he may ailjoum them >n lucb 
 
 Time aa he sliall think pnip<-r: he shall rerelvg 
 
 Amtiasiadors and other public Minisirn: b« 
 
 shall take Care that the Laws be fsithfiilly fie- 
 
 cuted, and shall Commission ail the Offieen of 
 
 tbr l-ftilcd States. SccHm t Thu pfvjitirii. 
 
 C22 
 
CONSTITUTION: UNITED STATES. Judiciary. CONSTITUTION: UNITED SVATES. 
 
 Tlce Pre«ldent and all civil Offlccrs of the 
 United States, shall be removed from Offlce on 
 Impeachment for. and Conviction of, Treaaon, 
 Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdcmean- 
 on. 
 
 Article III. Section 1. The judicial Power 
 of the United States, shall be vested in one su- 
 preme Court, ami in such inferior Courts as the 
 Congress may (mm time to time ordain and 
 ntablish. The Judfes, both of the supreme and 
 Inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during 
 good Behaviour, and shall, at stated Times, re- 
 ceive for their Services, a Comp.'ns«ti<ni. which 
 ihall not be diminished during tin ir Continuance 
 in Offlce. Section 2. [§ 1.] The judicial Power 
 slall extend to all CWs, in Law and Equity, 
 •rising under this Constitution, th« Laws of tfie 
 rnitsd States, and Treaties ir.ad", or which shall 
 be made, under their Authority : — to all Cases 
 affecting .Vmbawadors. other public Ministers 
 ind Consuls : — to all Cases of admiralty and mari- 
 time Jurisdiction; — to Controversies' to which 
 the United SUtes shall be a Party ; — to Cottro- 
 lenlei between two or more States : — between 
 t Stale and Citizens of another State ; • — betwei-n 
 fiiizens <i( dilTerent States.— Iwtween Citizens 
 of tlie same State claiming Lands untler Grants 
 of different States, and between a State, or the 
 Citizens thereof, and foreiirn States, Citizens or 
 Subjects [^ a,] In all Cases affecting .Vmbassa- 
 don. oilier public Ministers and Consuls, and 
 thow in which a State shall !)<• Party, the supreme 
 Court shall have original Juris<llctl()n. In all 
 Uie other Cases before mentioned, the supreme 
 Court ihall have appellate Jiiris<licti.>n, Iwth a* 
 to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and 
 under »ii(h Itegiilations as the Congn«« shall 
 make. [^ 3.] The Trial of all Crimes, except 
 In Ca«-« of Impeachment, shall be bv Jury ; and 
 suih Trial shall be held in tlic State where the 
 said Crimea shall have N^eu committed; hut 
 wbfn not committed within any State, tlie Trial 
 shall lie at such Place or Places as the Congress 
 may liy Law have ilirecte*!. Strtion 3. [^ 1.] 
 Treason amlnst the Uniteil States, shall consist 
 nnly in 'vying War against them, or in adher- 
 iDf '.1 their Enemies, glvinv' them .Vlil and Com- 
 fort Xo IVrwm shall be convicted of Treason 
 unlfMon the Testimony of two \Vitne«8<'s to the 
 ■me overt Act, or on C'onfession in o|Hn Court. 
 [ii] The Congress shall have Power to ile- 
 clart the Punishment of Treason, but no .\tlniii- 
 (ter of Tnason shall work Corruption of niiH«l, 
 or Forfeiture excipt during the Life of tlie Per- 
 «on attainted. 
 
 Article IV, Sfelion 1. Full Faith and Credit 
 •hall be given in each Mtate to the public Acts, 
 liiwrdB. and judicial Proceedings of every 
 "ther State. And the Cnngrt-n may bv general 
 U»i nreacribe the Manner in willed siicli .Vela, 
 Rwxinla iiiHi IVoceeillngs shall Ik' proved, and 
 the Iff,., t thenuif. .Srefi„,i a Ul) The CHI- 
 KM of I seh t4tate shall be entltlol to all Privi- 
 kff* snil Immunities of CItlr.ena In the several 
 CUIitJI [i'l] A Permm charged in any stale 
 with Treiwin. Felony, or other Crime, wlio shall 
 rff from Justice, and he found in another State. 
 •hail on IVmand of the executive Authority of 
 ihrSuie from which he fled, he dellvewl up, to 
 ijrrmoveil to the State having Jiirisillction of 
 ihe^lrime [J 8.) [Xo Per son held lo StnicB 
 
 ■uliwM hj FjurlMetli AmMHlmeot 
 
 or Labour in one State, under the Laws thereof, 
 escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of 
 any Law or Regulation therein, be discharged 
 from such Service or Labour, but shall be de- 
 livered up on Claim of 'he Party to whom such 
 ^rvice or Labour may be due.]* SettionS. [S 1 ] 
 Aew States may be admitted by the Congresa 
 Into this L nion ; but no new State shall be formed 
 or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other 
 State; nor any State be formed by the Junction 
 of two or more States, or Parts of States, with- 
 out the Consent of the Legislatures of the States 
 concerned as well as f the Congress. [S 8 1 
 The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and 
 make all needful Rules and Regulations respect- 
 ing the Territory or other Property lielonging to 
 the Lnlted States; and nothing in this Constitu- 
 tion shall be so construed as to Prejudice any 
 Claims of the United States, or of any particular 
 Mate. Section 4. The United States shall guar- 
 antee to every State in this Union a Republican 
 Form of Government, and shall protect each of 
 them against Invasion; and on Application of 
 the Legislature, or of the Execuiive (when the 
 Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic 
 N iolence. 
 
 *"'«'• V. The Congress, whenever two 
 thirl i of both Houses shall deem it necessary 
 shall propose Amendments to this Constitution' 
 or. on the Application of the Legislatures of two 
 thirds of the several States, shall call n Conven- 
 tion for proposing Amendmenta, which, in eitlier 
 Case, shall be vali I to all Intents and Purpiws, 
 as Part of this Constitution, when ratified by the 
 Legislatures of three fourths of tlie sevenil 
 States, or by Conventions In three fourths thereof, 
 as the one or the other -Mole of Itatiflcation may 
 lie proposed by the Congress; Provided that 
 [no .\mendment which may be made prior to the 
 lear One thousand eight hundred and eight 
 shall in any Manner alfcct the first and fourth 
 Clauses In the Ninth Section of the first Article; 
 andlt that no State, without iU Consent, shall 
 tie deprive<l of its equal Suffrage In the Sen- 
 ate. 
 
 Article VI. [g 1.1 All Debta contracted and 
 Engagements entered Into, before the Adoption 
 of this Constitution, shall be as valid against 
 the United States under this Constitution, at 
 under the Confederation. t fS2.] This Consti- 
 tution, and the Uws of the t nit«l States which 
 shall lie made in Pursuance thereof: and all 
 Treaties made, or which shall lx> made, under 
 the Authority of the United Stales, shall lie the 
 supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in 
 every State shall In- Imund tliereliy, any Thing 
 In the Constitution or I.aws of any Stale to the 
 Conlmry notwIthslHmling. [^3.1 The Senator! 
 and Representatives before mentioned, and the 
 .Memliers of the several State Legislatures, and 
 all executive and judicial Officers, both of the 
 United States and of the several States, shall he 
 hiund by Oath or Afflrmation. to support thii 
 Constitution: b.il no religious Test shall ever lie 
 n>quireil as a Qualification to any Offlce or public 
 Trust under the United States. 
 
 Article VII, The Ratification of the Conven 
 tlons of nine States, shall be sufficient for the 
 Establishment of this Constitution between the 
 States so ratifying the Same. 
 
 'tuneneded to ThlrtMntli 
 * T«*iilnir«ry uruvMvli. 
 t BstMiM \t rmtnmmtk 
 
 ■•etioai. 
 
 C23 
 
mm 
 
 CONSTITUTION: UNITED STATES. AmmdmmU. CONSTITUTION: UNITED STATES 
 
 r' 
 
 SI ! 
 
 Done Id CoiiTention by the Unanimous Cou- 
 ■ent of the States present tbe Seventeenth Day 
 of September in the Year of our Lord one 
 thousand seven hundred and Eighty seven and 
 of the Independence of the United States of 
 America the Twelfth In Witness whereof We 
 have hereunto subscribed our names. 
 
 Go Washihotos — Presidt and deputy from 
 Virginia. 
 
 Delaware. 
 Geo: Read John Dicliinson 
 
 Ounning Bedford jun niclurd Bassett 
 
 Jaco: Broom 
 New IIampsuihe. 
 John Langdon Nicliolas Oilman 
 
 MABSACniSETTS. 
 
 Nathaniel Oorliam liatua King 
 
 Maryland. 
 
 James McHenry Dan of St. Thos. Jenifer 
 
 Danl Ciirroll 
 
 Connecticut. 
 
 Wm. Saml. Jolmson Roger Sherman 
 
 ViBOINIA. 
 
 John Blair — 3f les Madison Jr. 
 
 New Yo.iK. 
 Alexander Hamilton 
 NoHTH Cabolina. 
 Wm. Blount Kichd. Dobbs Spaigbt 
 
 IIu WilliuniNou 
 New Jkusky. 
 Wil; Livingston Wm: Palcrson. 
 
 David Brearlcy Jona: Dayton 
 
 Soi'TH Carolina. 
 J. Kutlrdee, Charles Piuckney 
 
 Chiirlcs t'otesworth Pierce Butler. 
 
 Pinikuey 
 
 Peskbvlvania. 
 B Fntnklln Thos. Fitz Simons 
 
 Thomas Mifflin Jared Iii^ersoll 
 
 Robt. Morris James \\ ilson. 
 
 Geo. Clymer Gouv Morris 
 
 Georuia. 
 William Few Abr Baldwin • 
 
 ARTICLES in addition to and Amendment of 
 the Constitution of tliel'nited States of America, 
 
 f)ropose<l l)y Congress, anil ratitled by the Legis- 
 atures of the several States, puninn't Ui the llfth 
 Article of tiie original Cunstitiitiiin.| 
 
 [ArticI* I.] Congress shall make no law re- 
 sp-^'ting an establislimeut of religion, or pn>- 
 liiliiting the fn-e exercise thereof; or abridging 
 the fri'i-dom of siieech, or of the press; or the 
 right of the people peaceably to assemble, and 
 to (H'tlliou the Government for a redress of 
 grievances. 
 
 [Article II.] A well regulaud MilltU, > Ing 
 necessary to the security of a free State, the 
 right of the people to keep and Itear Arms, shall 
 not be infringed. 
 
 [Articit 111.1 Ko Soldier shall, in time of 
 peace lie quartered in any house, witliout the 
 consent of the Owner, nor In time of war, but In 
 a manner to lie pn'MXlbed by law. 
 
 [ArticIt IV.] 1'he right of the people to be 
 ■ecuiv In their {lenont, houses, iwiwrs, and effects, 
 •gatost unreasonable soanbes and aelxures, shall 
 not be violated, and no Warrants shall Issue, hui 
 upon probable cause, supinirtcd by Uath or afllri. 
 ation, and particularly describiaf the place to 
 
 * llMn slfBatiina kar* bo olkar la(al tars* Ihaa Ikat 
 
 «Thla bMdlaf a|i|>Mra only la tho jatat mahillaa ittl>. 
 ulltUm th« am (M auMadniMts. 
 
 be searched, and the persons or things to 
 seized. 
 
 [Article V.] No person shall lie lui.l to ansi 
 for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unl 
 on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Ju 
 except in cases arising in the land or luvul fon 
 or in the Militia, when in actual .sirviie m ti 
 of War or public danger ; nor shall luiy |i. r 
 be subject for the same offence to Ih' twiir ] 
 in jeopardy of life or limb; nor sliuU Inn 
 pelled in any criiniual case to Ik' a wiio 
 against himself, nor hv deprived of life, liliei 
 or property, without due pnnrss of law, 
 shall private pro|)erty be taken l"r imljlici; 
 without just compensation. 
 
 [Article VI.] In all criminal iinisenitions 
 accused shall enjoy the right to a s|ii-.-.ly ; 
 public trial, by an impartiul jury >if '.ln^i 
 and district wherein the crime shall liave l* 
 comraittetl, which distriit sliuU have Uni | 
 viousiy ascertained by law, and to lie iufuni 
 of the nature and cause of the uccuf ation. to 
 confpontetl with the witnesses Hi;ain»t him; 
 have compulsory process for obtaiiiiuu' witnes 
 in his favor, and to have the Assistauee of Coi 
 sel for his defence. 
 
 [Article VII.] In suitsat comimm lav. «li 
 the value in controversy shall exeeeil t«ii 
 dollars, the right of trial bv jury shall In f 
 served, and no fact trieil \>y ujury shall 
 othcrwi.se re-examined in any I'mirt of 
 Vnite<l States, than according tu the rules of 
 common law. 
 
 [Article VIII.] Excessive bail shall not 
 require(i. nor excessive lines iinoosiil, uir it 
 and unusual punishments iiitlii ted 
 
 [Article IX.] The enumeration in tlie I 
 stitutlon, of certain rights, ..hull n ■■ i«- eoiistn 
 to deny or dispanigi o'.ner>; f luine.l hy 
 |H'o|ile. 
 
 [Article X.] The imwers not deleirateil to 
 United States by the Constitutiou. unr proUlx 
 by It to the States, are reserved to the ptutn 
 spectivelv, or to the people.* 
 
 [Article XI.] "^he Ju<li(ial power oi 
 Inited States shall not lie loiistriieil to extend 
 any suit in law or equity, comiiienieil or |ini 
 I ii'ti'd against one of the United Staler by Citin 
 of another Slate, or by Citizens or SiilijitU 
 any Foreign State.f 
 
 [Article XII.] The Electors tliull mnt 
 their respective states, and vote liy hallot 
 President ami Vic-ePresidert. one of ulioiu, 
 least, shall not be an inliiibilaiit of tie -ume«l 
 with themselves; they slmll luuiiein iheirliill 
 the person votinl for as Pnsideiil. anil in ilisti; 
 Imllots the perwm voleil for as Viee l'r<siJe 
 and they shall make distinct livis of all [kt* 
 voted for as President, and of all jursons vn 
 for as Viir President, ond of the iiuinlur 
 votes for each, which lists they shall siitn i 
 certify, and transmit wai. 1 to the si«t of i 
 government of the UniU'd States, liimteiltoi 
 President of the H«-uat4' ; — The I're.iiienl of 
 Senate shall. In the preteuir of the Stuatn 
 Houie of Repreeeotativrs, ojieu all the > t rtiti<;i 
 »ud the votes sliall then Ix' lounteil.-l 
 person having the greatest niiinl«'r "f votes 
 President, shall be the PresliUiil. if «»' li n"" 
 
 • AmradiDMiU First to Tenth sppxsr in h«' 
 l»hitonMJ«a.t,IW 
 
 A t> 17*1 I 
 t Ptwlalowdto 
 
 C24 
 
TED STATES 
 1 or things tobt 
 
 C0N8TITUT1OX: UNITED STATES. 
 
 be t majority of the whole number of Electon 
 ippointed; and if no perton haveiucb majoritj, 
 tiien from the penont having the highest 
 oomben not exceeding three on the list of tbose 
 TOt«d for aa Preaident, the Houae of Repreaenta- 
 tiret ihall chooae immediately, br ballot, the 
 Pretident. But in chooaing the President, the 
 Totei sl»ll be taken by states, the representation 
 from each state having one vote : a quorum for 
 thU purpose shall consist of a member or mem- 
 bers fnim two- thirds of the statea, and a majority 
 of til tlic statea aball be necessary to a choice, 
 jjid if tlic House of Representatives ahall not 
 choose a Tesident whenever the right of choice 
 sbill devolve upon them, before the fourth day 
 of March next following, then the Vice-Presi- 
 dent ihall act as President, as in the case of the 
 death or other constitutional disability of the 
 fttiident— The person having the greatest 
 Dumber of votes aa Vice-President, shall be the 
 ViaPresident, if such numl)er be a majority of 
 the whole number of Electors appointed, and if 
 DO person have a majority, then from the two 
 highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall 
 choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the 
 purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole 
 number of Senators, and a majority of the whole 
 number shall be necessary to a choice. But no 
 person constitutionally ineligible to the office of 
 President shall be eligible to that of Vice-Presi- 
 dent of the I'nitcd States.* 
 
 Article XIII. Section I. Neither slavery nor 
 involuntary servitude, except aa a ptmishment 
 fur crime when.'of the party shall have been duly 
 convicted, sliull exist within the United States, 
 or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 
 Uteliiin i. Congress shall have power to enforce 
 tbii article bv appropriate Irgislutiun. t 
 
 Article XtV, Seetion I. .-Vll p»T»ins bom or 
 Dtluralizeil in the Uuitpil States, anti subiic t to 
 the jurisdictinn thereof, are citizens of the Uiiii^l 
 States and of the State wherein tlioy reside. 
 Xo State shall make or enforce any liiw which 
 shall abridge the privileges or immunities of 
 citizens of the United States: nor shall any State 
 Jeprive any person of life, liberty, or pnipj'rty, 
 without line pnK'css of law : nor deny to any 
 person niihin n* jurisdiction the equal protec- 
 tion of ihf hiws. Hreliun 3. Uepn'-wntatives 
 ihall be apportioned amon^ the several States 
 
 CONSTITUTION JF VENEZUELA. 
 
 according to their respective numliers, countiij^ 
 the whole number of persons in each State, ex- 
 cluding Indians not taxed. But when the right 
 to vote at any election for the choice of e'-viors 
 for President and Vice President of the United 
 States, Representatives in Congress, the Execu- 
 tive and Judicial officers of a State, or the mem- 
 bers of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any 
 of the male Inhabitants of such State, being 
 twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the 
 United States, or in any way abridged, except 
 for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the 
 basis of representation therein shall be reduced 
 in the proportion which the number of such 
 male citizens shall bear to the whole number of 
 male citizens twenty -one years of age in such 
 State Section 8. No person shall be a Senator 
 or Representative in Congress, or elector of 
 Pi ;sident and Vice P-^sident, or hold any office, 
 civil or military, under tlic United States, or 
 under any State, who, having previously taken 
 an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an 
 officer of the United States, or as a member of 
 any State legislature, or aa an executive or 
 judicial officer of any State, to support the Con- 
 stitution of the United Statea, shallhave engaged 
 in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or 
 
 given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof, 
 ut C •Qgrcss may by a vote of two-thirds of 
 each House, remove such disability. Seetion 4. 
 The validity of the public debt of the United 
 States, Authorized by law, including debts in- 
 curre<l for payment of pensions and bounties for 
 services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, 
 shall not be questioned. But neither the United 
 States nor any State shall assume or pay any 
 debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection 
 or rebellion against the United States, or any 
 claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave ; 
 but all such de'its, obligations and claims shall 
 be lield Illegal ..nd void. Seetion 5. The Con- 
 gress shall have power to enforce, by appropri- 
 ate legislation, the provisions of this article.* 
 
 Article XV. Seetion 1. The right of citizens 
 of the United States to vote shall not be denied 
 or abridged by the United States or by any State 
 on account of race, color, or previous condition 
 ofaervitiide. — Seetion'i. TheC'ongrvssslmll have 
 miwer to enforce this article by appropriate 
 legislation. " — f 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA. 
 
 The following text is taken from Bulletin No. 
 Wof the Uureiiu of Ibe American Republics: 
 
 Article l. The States that the coustitution of 
 Marrh ». l!«M. declared independent and unlteil 
 10 form the Venezuelan Fe<leration, and that o:i 
 April 37, IH81, were denominated Apure, Boll- 
 »«r. B«r(|uisinieto, Barcelona, C'amliobo, Cn- 
 ]*<ln, Cunmiia, Falcon. Guzman Rlanro, Ouii 
 rlf", Oiuiyima. GuzmAn, Msturiu, NuevaEsparia, 
 Pmtuuuesa, Tichira, Trujilh), Yaracuy, Za- 
 Okira, ami Ziilia are constituted Into nine grand 
 polltlcsl liodles, viz : The State of Bermudez, com- 
 puted of Uarc<>iona. Cumani, and Maturin: the 
 litate of Minuxk, compoeed of Bolivar, Quzm&n 
 
 • PnrlalmMt to Iw In torn »rpt. «. 1NM. 
 fcarsi or A».: A. 1). i(« (JamjiaM.l 
 
 Blanco, Guiirico, and Xiieva Esrarin; the State 
 of Caraliolio. composed of t'liml'olio and Nirgua; 
 the State of Zainont, coiiiposeil of Cojetles, I'or- 
 tiigiiewi, and Ziunoni: the Slate of Larn, com- 
 ptuwd of Hiirquli-liiielo and Ynmcuy, except the 
 ilepnrtnient of Niriiua: the State of Ixis Andes, 
 composed iif Guzman, Trtijlllo, and TAchlraj the 
 State of Bolivar, composed of Ouayana and 
 .\purr: the Slate of Zulla, and also the State of 
 Falcon. And they are thusconstitutedtoeimtinue 
 one only nation, free, sovereign, and independent, 
 imder the title of the United States of Venezuela. 
 
 • Proclslnivd to h« In force July W, IMa [8m Vsmn 
 8TAT1S or Aa.: A. D. IHMt-lMI (DacnaEa— AniLJ; 
 laas (Jexti. and INas-IHCr (OrDiaaB-NAacnv] 
 
 * Pniciaimrti to be in forrti Mar. SB, I8fe. iSoe V*ma 
 BtAtn ur An,: ▲. D. 1M»-Iim).] 
 
 62(i 
 
CONSTITCTION OF VENEZUELA. 
 
 COXSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA 
 
 III- 
 
 li 
 
 :il 
 
 Art. 3. The boundaries of these great States 
 arc determined by those that the law of April 28, 
 18.56, that arranged the last territorial division, 
 designated for the ancient provinces until it shall 
 be re-formed. 
 
 Art. 3. The boundaries of the United States of 
 the Venezuelan Federation are the same that i' 
 1810 belonged to the old Captaincy-CJeneral of 
 Venezuela. 
 
 I Art. 4. The States that are eroupei' tc-rether 
 ito form the grand political biKiies will be called 
 Sections. These are equal among themselves ; the 
 !constitutions prescribed for their internal organ- 
 ism must be liarmonious with the fedeiative 
 principles . stal'.ished by the present compact, 
 and the sot iirnty not delegated resides in the 
 State withoi. any other limitations tlian those 
 that devolve from' the compromise of association. 
 
 Art. 5. These are V^enezuclans, viz; 1st, All 
 persons that may have been or may be bom on 
 V'enezuelan soil, whatever may be the nationality 
 of their parents; 3d, The cliildren of a Vene- 
 zuelan father or mother that may have been bom 
 on foreign soil, if they should come to take up 
 their domicile in the countrv' and express the 
 desire to become citizens; 3a, Foreigners that 
 may have obtained naturalization papers; and, 
 4th, Those bom or that shall be bom in any of 
 the Spanish- American republics or in the Spanish 
 Antilles, provided that they may have taken up 
 their residence in the territory of the Republic 
 and express a willingness to become citizens. 
 
 Art. 6. Those that take up their residence and 
 acquire nationality in a foreign country do not 
 lose the character of Venezuelans. 
 
 Art. 7. Males over twenty-one years of age 
 are quaiifled Venezuelan citizens, with only the 
 exceptions contain.-d in this "onstitution. 
 
 Art. 8. All Venezuelans are obliged to serve 
 the nation according t.> '.he prescriptions of the 
 laws, sacrificing his property and his life. If 
 necessary, to defend the country. 
 
 Art. 9. Venezuelans shall enjo; , in all the 
 Slates of the Union, the rights and Immunities 
 Inherent to their condition as citizens of the Fed- 
 enition, and they shall also have imposed upon 
 them there the same liuties that are required of 
 those that are natives or doniirile<i there. 
 
 Art. 10. Fon-ign. r» shall enjoy the same civil 
 rights as Venezuelans and the siime security in 
 tlieir iM-rsons and pniperty. They ran only take 
 advantage of diplomatic means In accofiiance 
 with public treaties and in cases when right |ier- 
 mits it. 
 
 Art. It. The law will determine the right ap- 
 nlicable to the conilltion of fonlirners, accord. 
 Ing as they may be domiciled or In transit. 
 
 Art. 13. The States that form the Venezuelan 
 Fedenitliin reeipriH^ally recognize thrlr n'spt'itlve 
 autonomies; they are iieelan'd ecjiuil in poliiical 
 entity, and pn'iervc, in all its ph'nitndi', tlie 
 sovereignty not expressly delegated in this con- 
 stitutiim. 
 
 Art. 13. The Sta'es of the Vi'nezui-lan F'-iler- 
 atlon oblige theiiiM'lves — 1st, To organize them- 
 selves in neconi wlfli the principles of popular, 
 eli-ctive. federal, representative, altemallvi-. and 
 responsible government; 2d, To establish thi 
 fundamental n'gulations of their Interior regu- 
 lation and Kovernmcnt in entin- ii)nformit) with 
 till' principles of this constitution; 81I, Todt'end 
 llivtiwlvt'M air»!n«t »i) rlniencB ths- »Jir»!stFne *!ip 
 iuiiloiial iudependence or the integrity of the | 
 
 Venezuelan Federation; 4th, To not allena 
 a foreign power any part of their terriiorv 
 to Implore its protection, nor to establish or 
 tivate political or diplomatic relations with t 
 nations, since this lost is reserved to tlie Fi< 
 power; 6th, To not combine or allv thems 
 with another nation, nor to separal'c thcms 
 to the prejudice of the nationalitv of Vme; 
 and her territory; 6th, To cede to tlie nutii.i 
 territory that may be necessary for thi' Fe 
 district ; 7th, To cede to the Govemraent ol 
 Federation the territory necessarv fur tlie 
 tion of forts, warehouses, shipyards, ami 1 
 tentiaries, and for the construction of 1 
 edifices indispensable to the geneml ndniini 
 tion ; 8th, To leave to the Govimmrai ol 
 Federation the administration of tlie Ania: 
 and Goajira territories and that of the itl 
 which pertain to the nation, until it may lie 
 venient to elevate them to another niuk ;" 9th 
 reserve to the powers of the Federation all 1 
 lative or executive jurisdiction conciTiilu); 1 
 time, coastwise, and fluvial navigation, and 
 national roads, considering as such those 
 exceed the limits of a State and lead to the 1 
 tiers of others and to the Federal district; 1 
 To not subject to co.tributions the pnxluci 
 articles upon which national taxes are irapi 
 or those that are by law exempt from tax Ix 
 they have been offered for consiin'ption; 1 
 To not impose contributions on cattle, effect 
 any class of merchandise in transit for auc 
 State, In order that tralflc may lie alisuli 
 free, and that in one section the consumpiin 
 others may not be taxed ; I'.'th, To not prol 
 the consumption of the products of other Si 
 nor to tax their productions with greater fn 
 or municipal taxes than those pulil on pnid 
 raised in the locality; 13th. To mil estiil 
 maritime or territorial custom-houses for tlie 
 lection of imports, since there will !»■ nati 
 ones only; 14th, To recognise the rielil of i 
 State to dispose of Its natural prNliictn: 1 
 To cede to the Oovemment of the Feilcrj 
 the administration of mines, pulilir lauds. 
 salt mines, in onier that tlie tirst m:iy In- n 
 lated by a system of uniform \v(.rkMii;auil 
 the latter may lie applied to tin Ntictitdf 
 I)eople; 16th. To respect the property, arvi 
 and forts of the nation; ITlli. To loinpiv' 
 and cause to be -omplled willi ;inil cxecuiiil 
 Constitution and I'tws of tlii' fnh 'iiionaod 
 decrees and oniers that the ficli nl powir 
 tribunals, and courts may i\|i<ilili' I'l ii» 
 their attributes and li'unl fuiiiltiis; ISih. 
 give entire faith to ami to cause to In- coni|i 
 with and executed thi' pulilii ai l" iiml jml 
 proceilures of the other States; IMlli. Toon 
 ize tlieir tribuimls and courts for tlie adinini' 
 tion of justice in the State and to Imve for al 
 tlii'in tlie siimi' siilislantive civil and rrini 
 legislation and the sanii' hiws of i ivil and cr 
 nal prcHcdiire; '.litli. To present jiidL'esfor 
 court of appeals and to siilinilt to tliedecWo 
 this siipn-me tribunal of the Stiitei; ','l«t, 
 incori'onite the extradition of i.-iniinals a 
 political principle in t'lelr nspniivi Const 
 tlous; i.'il. To establish 'lirei I anl pui'lif 
 frage in |.opulur ele tii.ns. iiuikiiii: it "Mipii 
 and endorsing It in the electoral nirislrj' 
 vote of the Buffiagist must lie east in 
 Bnd pu'-lle seSal.Hi of tlit- n'-j".*'' '■"-'■ '■-■-■'■'■ 
 will lie lusK'ribeil la tlic registry boots thai 
 
 626 
 
CONSTITXJTION OP VENEZUELA. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA. 
 
 b« prewiibea for electiani, which can not be 
 subintuted in any other form, and the elector, 
 for bimielf or by another at hU request in case 
 of impediment or tlirough ignorance, will sign 
 .the memorandum entry of his vote, and without 
 tbia requisite it can not be claimed that in reality 
 he has voted ; iiSd, To establish a system of pri- 
 mary education and that of arts and trades : Mtb, 
 To "eserre to the powers of the Federation the 
 Uwsand provisions necessary for the creation, 
 conserTBtion. and progress of general schools, 
 colleges, or universities designed for the teach- 
 ing of the sciences; 25th, To not impose duties 
 upon the national employes, except i:. «he q 'al- 
 itr of citizens of the State and insomuch as these 
 duties may not be incompatible with the national 
 public service ; iMth, To furnish the proportioual 
 contingent that pertains to them to compose 
 the nstional public forces in time of peace or 
 war; 27tb, To not permit in the States of the 
 Federation forced enlistments and levies that 
 have or may have for their oLjCct an attack on 
 liberty or independence or a disturbance of the 
 public order of the Nation, of other States, or of 
 another Nation ; 38tb, To preserve a strict neu- 
 trality in tiie contentions thai may arise in other 
 States; 2Sth, To not declare or carry on war in 
 any case, one State with anotuer ; aOtb, To de- 
 fer and submit to the decision of the Congress or 
 the High Federal Court in all the controversies 
 that may arise between two or more States wlien 
 they can not, between themselves and by pacific 
 measures, arrive at an agreement. If, for any 
 csuie, tbcy may not designate the arbiter to 
 whose decision they may submit, they leave it, 
 la fact, to the High Federal Court; Slst, To 
 recognize the competency of Congress and of the 
 court of appeals to take cognizance of the cr -< es 
 that, for treason to the country or for the ii i c 
 tion of the Constitution and laws of the Fe-.. ra- 
 tion, msy be instituted against those *'.at exer- 
 ciiie executive authority in the Str.ies, it being 
 their duty to incorporate this precept in their 
 constitutions. In the e trials the moties of pro- 
 ceiiure that the general laws prescribe will be 
 followed and they will be decidwi In consonance 
 with those laws ; '33d. To have as the just income 
 of 'lie States, tvo-thirds of tlie total product of 
 the impiist collected as transit tax in all tlic custom- 
 liouM'S nf the ]{epublic and two- thirds of that col- 
 kvtiii from mines, miljlic lands, and salt mines 
 administered by tlicFeiieral Power and to distrib- 
 ute this income among ull the States of the Frd- 
 eratlon In , n)portlon to t!ie pcipulHtion of eacf . 
 8;i<l, To H'serve to the FciUtsI Power the amount 
 of the .hinl part of Ibr income from transit tax. 
 the prixlurti in of mines, public Umls. and suit 
 mines, to Ix- invested in the iniprovenient of the 
 country ; 84th, To keep far away f nun the fron- 
 tier those individuals that, tlirougli piilitlrul 
 nujtivi's, take refuge in a S. ite, provided that 
 till' Stale interestetf requests it. 
 
 Art. 14, The nation guarantees to Venezue- 
 lans: 1st. The inviolability of life, c,.^; al pun- 
 liliincnt Iwlng abolished In spite nf anv law that 
 estiililishcs it; 2d, I'rorerty .with all its attri- 
 butes, ritrlits and privileges, will onl. be suh- 
 Jeeieil Id ciintributions decreed by 'legishitlve 
 auth.rltv. to Juilicisl decihiim. and to be taken 
 for public works after ipdemnitv and condemna- 
 tion: !'•!, The Inviolabillt;' and si'crccy of cor- 
 r-.spr.n.i.Tiio and olittT priv.ile 1>»ih-i». '4lii. The 
 domrttlc hearth, that can ih>*. be approached ex- 
 
 cept to prevent the perpetration of crime, and 
 this itself must be done in accordance with law: 
 6th, Personal liberty, and consequently (1) forced 
 recruiting for armea service is almlished, (3) slav- 
 ery is forever proscribed, (3) slaves that tread 
 the soil of Venezuela are free, and (4) nobody ia 
 obliged to do that which the law does not com- 
 mand, nor is impeded from doing that which it 
 does not prohibit; 6th, The freedom of thought, 
 expressed by word or through the press, is with- 
 out any restriction to be submitted to previous 
 censu'». In cases of calumny or Injury or preju 
 dice J a third party, the aggrieved party shall 
 have every facility to have his complaints inves- 
 tigated before competent tribunau of justice in 
 accordance with the common laws; 7th, The lib- 
 erty of traveling without passport, to change 
 the domicil, observing the legal formalities, and 
 to depart from and return to the Republic, carry- 
 ing off and bringing back his or her property; 
 8th, The liberty of industry and consequently 
 the proprietorship of discoveries and produc- 
 tions. The law will assign to the proprietors a 
 temporary privilege or the mode of indemnity in 
 case that the author agrees to its publication; 
 «lh. The liberty of reunion and assembling with- 
 out arms, publicly or privately, the authorities 
 being prohibited from exercising auy act of in- 
 spection or coercion; 10th, The liberty of peti- 
 tion, with the right of obtaining action by reso- 
 lution ; petition can be made by any functionary, 
 authority or corporation. If 'the 'petition shall 
 be made in the name of various persons, the first 
 five will respond for the authenticity of the sig- 
 natures and ail for the truth of the assertions; 
 11th. The liberty of suffrage at popular elretious 
 without any restriction except to males under 
 eighteen years of age; 12tb. The liberty of in- 
 struction will be protected to every extent. The 
 f)ublic iMwer is obliged to establish gratuitous 
 nstructlon in primary schools, the arte and 
 trades; 13th, Relf^ouslilierty: 14tb. Individual 
 security, and. therefore (1) no" Venezuelan can be 
 imprisoned or arrested in punishment for debts 
 not founded In fraud or crime ; (2)nor to be obliged 
 to lodge or trier soldiers In his house; (3) nor 
 to be Judg. I by siH-cial commissions or tribu- 
 nals, but by his natumi judges and liv virtue of 
 laws dictated before the commissi.m ot tlii' crime 
 or act to be judged; (4) nor to l)e iiii| risoued nor 
 arrested withuut previous siuumary infonuution 
 that a crime meriting corpomi punishment has 
 been committed, iind a vtitten order from the 
 functionary tliut orders tin iinprlsouiiu'ut. stating 
 the cause of arrest, unli ;« the person ma; be 
 caught in the commission of the crime. (5) nor 
 to be placi'il in solitary confinement for any 
 cause; (6) unr to lie obllgeil to give evidence. In 
 criminal causes, against liimself nr his MikkI re- 
 lations within the lotirtli degree of consiuiguiuity 
 or against bis relations liy marriage within the 
 s«'('oii<l iligre or Hgaliisl busliaud or wife ; (7) 
 nor til it'inuin iu prlMiu wlun the reasons that 
 ca»s<-.l till' iniprisonniiiit Imve bi-en diasipatetl; 
 (S) nor I" lie seiitenciii to corporal punisliment 
 for more !li:in ten years; (9) nor to ri'niaiu de- 
 prived uf bis liberty for political reawms when 
 order is reSstatilishecl. 
 
 Art. 15. Kquulily : in virtue of which (1) all 
 must Ik' jiiiieed by ti:i' very same laws rinil sub- 
 ject to c'laal dutv, service and contriliutions: 
 i'i'i till lltlt'S of uoliiltiy heritlilaiy ti<'ni>i!>. uud 
 distiuctlutu will be conceded nor employmcLU 
 
 02 
 
! ' 
 
 M 
 
 rONSTITUTION OF VENEZTELA. 
 
 or "< the (aUries or emolumenti of which 
 
 ecu. >' after the termination of lerTice; (8) no 
 
 other olSdal ulutation than "citizen" and 
 " you " will be given to employ£« and corpora- 
 tions. The present enumeration does not im- 
 pose upon the States the obligation to accord 
 other guarantees to their inhabitants. 
 
 Art. i6. The laws in the Sutes will prescribe 
 penalties for the infractions of these guarantees, 
 establishing modes of procedure to make them 
 effective. 
 
 Art, 17, Those who may issue, sign, or exe- 
 cute, or order executed any decrees, orders, or 
 resolutions that violate or in" any manner infringe 
 upon the guarantees accorded to Venezuelans are 
 culpable and must be punished according to the 
 law. Every citizen is empowered to bring charges. 
 
 Art. t8. The National Legislature wiil be com- 
 posed of two chambers, one of Senators and 
 another of Deputies. 
 
 Art. 19. The States will determine the mode 
 of election of Deputies. 
 
 Art. ao. To form the Chamber of Deputies, 
 each State will name, by popultr election in ac- 
 cordance with paragraph 23 of Article 13 of this 
 Constitution, one Deputv for each thirty-five 
 thousand inhabitants and; another for an excess 
 not under fifteen thousand. In the same man- 
 ner it will elect alternates in equal number to 
 the principals. 
 
 Art. ai. The Deputies will hold office for four 
 years, wlien they will be renewed in their en- 
 tirety. 
 
 Art. 33. The prerogatives of the chamber of 
 Deputies are: First, to examine the annual ac- 
 count that the President of the I'nited States of 
 Veneztiila must render; second, to p.isa a vote 
 of ceiisun- of the Jlinistors of the Cabinet, in 
 wliiih event their posts wil' be vacant; third, to 
 lii'.ir fhartris ii;i;>inst the persons in charge of 
 the (illlce of the National E.^ecutive for treason 
 to the I'imntry, fur infrartion of tlie constitution, 
 or for ordinary crimes; niriilnst the ministers ami 
 other National employes for infraction of the 
 Constitution and laws" and for fault In the dis- 
 charge of their duties according to article ".> of 
 this constitution and of the geui^ral laws of the 
 Kepublic. This attril)Ute is pn'ventative and 
 neither contracts nor diminishes tliost' tliat other 
 autliorities have to judfre and punish. 
 
 Art. 33. When a charge is instituted by a 
 Deputy or by any corporation or individual the 
 follow uu; rules will be observc<l: (1; there will 
 be ap|Miint«(i, in s»'cret session, a commission of 
 three deputies; (i) the commission will, within 
 three days, remier an opinion, de'laring whethc r 
 or not there is foundation for Institutinff n cause ; 
 (3) the Chamber will consider the in'onnalion 
 and decide upon the cause by the vote of an ab- 
 solute majority of the membere pn'wnt, the 
 accusing Dtj)uty alistaining from voting. 
 
 Art. 34. The declaration that ihere is founda- 
 tion for the cause operates to suspend from olllec 
 the accused and incapacitates him for the dis- 
 cbarge of any public function during the trial. 
 
 Art. 15. To form this Chamber each State, 
 through lU respective legislature, will ele<t 
 three principal .Si^nators an(l an equal number of 
 alternates to supply the vacancies that may oc- 
 cur. 
 
 Art. 36. To be a Senator it is required that he 
 ■bail be a Vcuczuttaii i>y birth aiiti Ihtrly year* 
 of age. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA. 
 
 Aft. 37. The Senator* will occupy their posu 
 for four Veara and be renewed in their entiretv 
 
 Art. 38. It is the prerogative of the Senate to 
 aubatantiate and decide the cauaes initiated la 
 the Chamber of Deputies. 
 
 Art. 30. If the cause may not have been con- 
 cluded durine the leasiona, the Senate will con- 
 tinue assembled for this purpose only until the 
 cause ia finished. 
 
 Art. 30. The National Legislature will assem- 
 ble on the 20th day of February of each rear or 
 as soon thereafter aa potaible at the capital of 
 the United SUtes without the necessity of pre- 
 vious notice. The aeaaions will last fo"r seventj 
 days to be prolonged until ninety days at the 
 judgment of the majority. 
 
 Art. 31. The Chambers will open their m- 
 sions with two-thirds of their numlMr at least; 
 and, in default of this number, those prewnt 
 will assemble in preparatory commission and 
 adopt measurca for the concurrence of the ab- 
 sentees. 
 
 Art. 33. The sessions having been opened ther 
 may be continued by two-thirds of those tliat 
 may have Installed them, provided that the num- 
 ber be not less than half of all the momben 
 elected. 
 
 Art. 33. Although the Chambers delihcrate 
 separately, the* may assemble together in the 
 Congress when the constitution and laws proviile 
 for It or when one of the two Chamtiers may 
 deem it necessary. If the Chamber tliat Is in- 
 vited shall agree, it remains to it to fix tie day 
 and the hour of the joint session. 
 
 Art. 34. The sessions will be public ami secia 
 at the will of the Clumber. 
 
 Art. 35. The Chambers have the rif;ht: ilito 
 make rules to be observed in the sessions and to 
 regulate the debates; (2) to correct infractors; (3) 
 to establish the police force in the hall of ses- 
 sions; (4) to punish or correct spectators who cre- 
 ate disorder; (.5) to remove the obstacles to the 
 free exercise of their functions; (8) to command 
 the execution of their private ..solutions; (Tto 
 judge of the qualifications of their nieniliers ind 
 to consider their re.signotions. 
 
 Art. 36. One of the Clw ' < c.n -t su' pond 
 its sessions nor change its , < with- 
 
 out tlie eonsi'nt of the oth sacree- 
 
 nient they will reasaeml'' ■xecute 
 
 that which the majority 
 
 Art. 37. The exercise ic func- 
 
 tion, during the sessions, ..ulile v'' 
 
 those of a Senator or Dei..^. he lai 
 specify the remunerations tliat the nieniKi 1 
 tlie national Ix'gislature shall n'ceive for iliiir 
 B»'rvieea. And whenever an increase of s:ii(l n-- 
 niunerations is decreiKi, the law that samli.rsit 
 will not liegin to be In force until 'he folh^wiiig 
 pcTirni when the Chamtwrs that sanctionid it 
 shall have l)een renewed In their entirely. 
 
 Art. 38. The Senators and Deputies shall en- 
 joy immunity from the 20th day of Jaiiu.iry 
 of each vear until thirty days after the doM' of 
 the si'sslons and this consists in the suspix.^ien 
 of all civil or criminal proceeliug. wlmuvir 
 may be its origin or nature ; when any one ^l^ll 
 perpetrate an act that merits corpond piiii-h- 
 ment the investigation shall continue until ttie 
 en<l of the summing up ami shall remain ia '>.>> 
 state wliile the term of immunity coiiliiiuis. 
 
 Art. 39. The Congress will lie pn-siiifii cvtr 
 by the President of the Senate and the presiding 
 
 G28 
 
CONBTITUTION OF VI 
 
 UELA. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA. 
 
 ofllcer of the Chamber of Deputiei will act u 
 VIce-Preddent. 
 
 Art. 40. The memb't* of the Chambers are 
 not reipoiuible for the opiniona they ezpreaa or 
 the diacoune* they pronounce in session. 
 
 Art. 41. Senators and deputies that accept of- 
 tce or commission from the National Executive 
 thereby leave vacant the posts of legislators in 
 the Clumbers to which they were elected. 
 
 Art. 42. Nor can senatoia and deputies make 
 coitrafts with the general Government or con- 
 duct the prosecution of claims of others againsi. it 
 
 Art. 43. The National Legislature has the fol- 
 lowing prerogatives: (1) to dissolve the contro- 
 tcrsies that may arisie between two or more 
 States; (2) to locate the Federal District in an 
 unpopulated territory not exceeding three miles 
 iquare, where will be constructed the capital 
 citr of the Republic. This district will be ncu- 
 tnu tcrritorr. and no other elections will be 
 there held tban those that the law determines for 
 the locality. The district will be provisionally 
 that which the constituent assembly designated 
 or that which the National Legislature may 
 deaignate; (8) to organize everythmg relating to 
 the custom-houses, whose income will constitute 
 the treasure of the Union until these incomes are 
 lupplled from other sources; (4) to dispose in 
 eTervthing relating to the habitation and security 
 of ports and seaeoasts ; (5) to create and organize 
 the postal service and to fix the charges for 
 transportation of correspondence; (6) to form the 
 Sational Codes in accordance with paragraph 19, 
 article 13 of this Constitution ; (7) to flx the value, 
 type law, weight, and coinage of national money, 
 ud to regulate the admission and circulation of 
 foreign money ; (8) to designate the coat-of -arms 
 and the national Hag which will be the same for 
 all the States; (9) to create, abolish, and fix sala- 
 ries tor national offices; (10) to determine every- 
 thing in relation to the national debt; (11) to 
 contract loans upon ••'e credit of the nation; (lil 
 to dictate necessary measures to perfect the cen- 
 sus of the current population and the national 
 itttistics; (13) toannuallv flx the armed forces 
 by sea and land and to dictate the army regula- 
 tions; (14) to decree rules for the form»tionaud 
 •ubsiitution of the forces referred to in the pre- 
 ceding clause; (15) to declare war and to require 
 the >ati<)nal Executive to negotiate peace ; (1«) 
 toiatify or reject the contracts for national pub- 
 lic work.s made by the President with the ap- 
 proval of the Federal Council, without which 
 requisite thev will not be carried into effect; (18) 
 toannuallv flx the estimates for public expcnsj's; 
 1I81 to promote whatever conduces to the pros- 
 perity of the country and to its advancement in 
 the general knowle<lge of the arts and sciences ; 
 liti) ui fix and regulate the national weights and 
 measures; (41) to grant amnesties ; (22) to estab- 
 i»h, under the names of territories, special regu- 
 laiinns for the sovemment of regions inhabited 
 by uu. "Tuiuered and uncivilized Indians. Such 
 territorus will l>e under the immediate 8up«'r- 
 vision of the Executive of the Union; (23) to 
 eitabjisli tlie modes of procedure and to desig- 
 nate the p<naltles to be imposed by the Senate 
 in the trials originated in the Chamber of Depu- 
 tes; (24) to increase the basis of population for 
 the election of deputies; (25) to permit or refuse 
 'he sdmission of foreigners into the service of 
 uie Republic ; (2«) to make laws in respect to re- 
 uremeots from the military service and army 
 
 pensions; (87) to dictate the law of regpoiuibiUtT 
 on the part of all national employes and those 
 of the States for infraction of the constitution 
 and the general Uws of the Union; (88) to de- 
 termine tne mode of conceding miUtanr rank or 
 promotion ; (29) to elect the Federal Council pro- 
 vided for in this constitution and to convoke the 
 alternates of the senators and deputies who may 
 have been chosen for it 
 
 Art. 44. Besides the preceding enumeration the 
 ^atlonai LegisUture may pass such laws of gen- 
 eral character as may be necessary, but In no 
 case can they be promulgated, much less exe- 
 cuted, if they conflict with this constitution 
 which deflnes the prerogatives of the public 
 powers in Venezuela. 
 
 Art. 45. The laws and decrees of the National 
 Legislature may be proposed by the members of 
 either chamber, provided that the respective 
 projects are conformed to the rules esublished 
 for the Parliament of Venezuela. 
 
 Art. ^6. After a project may have been pre- 
 sented, it will be read and considered in order to 
 be admitted; and if it is, it must undergo three 
 discussions, with an interval of at least one day 
 between each, observing the rules established for 
 debate. 
 
 Art. 47. The projectsapproved in the chamber 
 in which they were originated will be passed to the 
 other for the purposes indicated in the preceding 
 article, and if they are not rejected they will be 
 returned to the chamber whence they originated, 
 with the amendments they may have under- 
 gone. 
 
 Art. 48. If the chamber of their origin does 
 not agree to the amendments, it may hisist and 
 s«ud Its written rensems to the other. Thev may 
 also assemble together in Congress and delib* r- 
 ate, in general commission, over the mode of 
 agreement, but if this can not be reached, tlie 
 project will be of no effect after the chamber of 
 its origin separately decides upon the ratification 
 of its insistei 
 
 Art. 49. U, •. le passing of the projecufriini 
 one to the othe. -hamber, the days on which 
 thev have been di usscd will be stated. 
 
 Art. so. The law reforming another law must 
 be fully engroosed and the former law, in all its 
 parts, will be annulled. 
 
 Art. 51. In the laws this form will he used: 
 "The Congress of the United States of Venezuela 
 decrees. " 
 
 Art. 5a. The projects defeated in one legisla- 
 ture cannot be reintroduced except in another. 
 
 Art. 53. The projects pending in a chamber at 
 the close of the sessions must undergo the same 
 three discussions iu succeceling legisiutun'S. 
 
 Art. 54. Laws are annulled with the same for- 
 malities established for their sanction 
 
 Art. 55. When the ministers of ibinet may 
 have sustained, in a chamber, the um onstitutiim- 
 ality of a project by word or In writing, and, 
 notwithstanding this, it ma;- have been sanctioned 
 as law, the National Executive, with the affirm:i- 
 tlve vote of the Federal Council, will suspend its 
 execution and apply to the legislatures of the 
 States, asking their vote in the matter. 
 
 Art. 56. In case of the foregoing article, each 
 State will represent one vote expressed by the 
 majoritv of the members of the legislature pres- 
 ent ami the remit will be sent <r> the Illgh Fed- 
 eral Court in this form: " I conlinu " or " I re- 
 ject" 
 
 629 
 
fel,'- 
 
 : ? 
 
 ,,,» 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA. 
 
 Alt. 57, If a majority of the leglilsture* of the 
 States agree with the Federal Executive, the 
 Hiffh Federal Court will coDfirm the auapension, 
 and the Federal Executive himielf will render an 
 account to the next Congreaa relative to all that 
 has been done in the matter. 
 
 Art. 58. The lawn will not be observed until 
 after being published in the solemn form estab- 
 lished. 
 
 Art. 59. The faculty conceded to sanction a 
 kw is not to be delegated. 
 , Art. 6a. No legislative disposition will have a 
 retroactive effect, except in matters of judicial 
 procedure and that which imposes a lighter nen- 
 alty. 
 
 Art. 61. There will be a Federal Council com- 
 posed of one senator and one deputy for each 
 State and of one more deputy for the Federal 
 District, who will be elected by the Congress 
 each two years from among the respctive repre- 
 sentations of the States composing the Federation 
 and from that of the Federal District. This 
 election will take pla-%in thi- first fifteen days of 
 the meeting of Congress, in the first and tliird 
 year of the constitutional period. 
 
 Art. 63. The Federal Council elects from its 
 members the President of the United States of 
 Venezuela, and in the same manner the person who 
 shall act in his stead in case of his temporal or per- 
 manent disability du'-ing his term. The election 
 of a person to be President of the United States of 
 Venezuela will is not a member of the Federal 
 Council, as n 1 .1 as of thost who may have to act 
 in his stead in case of bis temporal or permanent 
 disability, is null of right and void of efficacy. 
 
 Art. 63. The members of the F deral Council 
 hold office for two years, the same as the Presi- 
 dent of the United States of Venezuela, whose 
 term is of equal duration; and neither he uor 
 tUey can oc reClecte<l for the term immediately 
 succeeding, although they may return to ocoupy 
 their posts as legislators in the chambers to which 
 they belong. 
 
 Art. 64. The Federal Council resides in the 
 district and exercises the functions prescrilx.Nl in 
 this constitution. It cannot delil>erate with less 
 than an absolute majority of all its members; it 
 dictates tlie interior regulations to be observed 
 in its deliberations, and annually appoints the 
 person who shall preside over its sessions. 
 
 Art. 65. The prenigatives of the President of 
 Venezuela arc: (1) To appoint anil remove the 
 cabinet ministers ; (2) to preside over the cabinet, 
 in whose discussions he will have a vote, ou<i to 
 inform the Council of all the matters that refer 
 to the General Administration ; (8) to receive and 
 welcome public ministers; (4) to sign the official 
 letters to the Sovereigns or Presiileuts of other 
 countries; (5) to order the execution of the laws 
 and decrees of the National Legislature, and to 
 take care that they are complied with and exe- 
 cuted ; (6) to promulgate the resolutions and de- 
 crees that may have li'en pn>|)osed and received 
 the approl)ation of the Federal Council, in con- 
 formity with article 66 of tliis constitution; (T) 
 tu organize the Fe<leral District and to act there 
 in as the chief civil and political authority estab- 
 lislieil by this constitution ; (8) to issue registers 
 of navigatlcm to national vessels; (9) to render an 
 account to Congress, within tiic first eight days 
 of its annual session, of the eases in which, wlih 
 the approval of the Federal Council, he mav 
 have exercised all or any of the faculties accordetl 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUEU. 
 
 to him in article 66 of this compact; (10) todi 
 charge the other f unctiooa that tbe national lai 
 entruat to blm. 
 
 Art. M. Beddei tbe foregoing prerogstive 
 that are personal to the president of tlie I'Ditt 
 States of Venezuela, he can, with tbe delibeni 
 vote of the Federal Council, exercise the folloi 
 ing: (1) To protect the Nation from all eitetii 
 attack; (2) to administer the public lands, mine 
 and aalt mines of tbe States as their delegate : ( 
 to convoke the Nationa. Legislature iu its regi 
 !ar sessions, and In extraorainary session wIk 
 the gravity of any subject demands it; (4) 1 
 nominate persona for diplomatic positions, coi 
 suls- general, and consuls: those named for tb 
 first and second positions must be Venezi 
 elans by blnh; (5) to direct negotiations and celi 
 brnte all kinds of treaties with other nation 
 submitting these to the National Legislature; (i 
 to celebrate contracts of national interest i 
 accordance with the laws and to submit tbei 
 the legislatures for their approval : (7) to nomii 
 ate tbe employes of hacienda, whicli nominatiot 
 are not to be made by any other autkoritv. I 
 is required that these employes shall bcVem 
 zuelan hj birth; (8) to remove and suspemi tn 
 ployes of his own free motion, oniering tlif ni t 
 be tried if there should be cause for it; (9| I 
 declare war in the name of the Republic whe 
 Congress shall have decreed it; (10) in tlie cm 
 of foreign war he can, first, demand tnm tfa 
 States the assistance necessary for the nation! 
 defense ; second, require, in' anticipation, lli 
 contributions and negotiate the loans (lecninl b 
 the National Legislature; thin], arrest or exiK 
 persons who pertain to the nation with M^hic 
 war is carriea on and who may Ik? jpiHiseil t 
 the defense of the country; fourth, to siisik-b 
 the guaranties that may 'be iucompatihle wit 
 tlie defense of the country, except tliat of life 
 fifth, to select the place to which thi' (Jemra 
 Power of the Federation may be provisional! 
 translated when there may be grave rciisoas I) 
 It; sixth, to bring to trial for treason th 
 country those Venezuelans who inay be, in id 
 manner, hostile to tbe national defense : si'\ entli 
 fi) issue ragisters to corsairs and private! it 
 scribe the laws that they must ' ii 
 
 «,.. - of capture; (11) to employ the pu' 
 and the powers contained in nunilK'rs 1. 1 
 of the preceding clause with the oljjcct of ri*s 
 ta >lisliing constitutional order iu case of arum 
 insurrection against the institutions of tlic Nation 
 (12) to dispose of the public force for thf pur 
 pose of quelling every armed collision Ikiwwi 
 two or more States, requiring them to lay dowi 
 their arms and submit their controversies to il» 
 arbitration to which they are pliniireit by mini 
 ber 80, article 14 of this constitution; (I3i t. 
 direct the war and to appoint the |xrs<m wbi 
 shall command the armj ; (14) to organize <lii 
 national force in time of t>cace; (l.Ti to comvi 
 general or particular exeniptions; (10) toilff™ 
 the territory designate! for tlie Fciliral Distnc 
 when there mav he reasons to appnhcml that 1 
 will be invaded by liostile forces. 
 
 Art. 67. The President of the Vniliil Slates 
 Venezuela shall have the ministers for hiscabiut 
 tliat the law designates. It will deieniiint thel 
 functions and duties and will organize thei 
 bureaus 
 
 Art. 6S. To be a minister of the cabinet 11 1 
 required that the pcnon shall be twenty-liTi 
 
 G30 
 
coNSTrnmoN of Venezuela. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA. 
 
 nut of ue, kVenasuelan by birth or fire year* 
 of Dttun^tion. 
 
 Art 69. The mlidsten are the natural and 
 proper organa of the Preaident of the United 
 Statet of Venezuela. All hia acta must be tub- 
 ■cribed by them and without aucb requisite they 
 will not M complied with nor executed by the 
 tuthoritiea, employeea, or private pertona. 
 
 Art 70. All the acta of the miniaten must be 
 confonniedtothiaConatitutioDandtbelaws; their 
 penonal reaponaibiUty ia not saved, alth-jugL 
 tbey may have the written order of the President. 
 
 Art. 71. The settlement of all business, except 
 
 .efi»'U alfairtof the bureaus, will be deter 
 mined in the council of ministers, and their re- 
 ■ponsibiiity is collective and consolidated. 
 
 Art. 72. The ministers, within the five first 
 acMions of each year, will render an account to 
 tbe Chambers of what they may have done or 
 propose to do in their respective branches. Tbey 
 vill also render written or verlnl reports that 
 mar be requested of them, reserving only that 
 which, in diplomatic affairs, it may not be con- 
 venient to publish. 
 
 Art 73. Within the same period, thev will 
 present to the National Legislature the estimates 
 of public expenditures and the general account 
 of the past j^ar. 
 
 Art. 74. The ministers have the right to be 
 beard in the Chambers, and are obliged to attend 
 wben they may be called upon for information. 
 
 Art. 75. The ministers are responsible: (1) for 
 treason to the country; (2) for infraction of this 
 Constitution or the laws ; (3) for malversation ot 
 the public funds; (4) for exceeding the estimates 
 in their expenditures; (5) for subornation or 
 bribery in the affairs under their charge or in the 
 nominations for public employees; (6) for failure 
 in cumpliancc with the decisions of the Federal 
 Council. 
 
 Art. 76. The High Federal Court will be com- 
 posed of as many judges as there may be States 
 of the Federation and with the following quali- 
 ties: (1) A judge must be a Venezuelan by birth ; 
 (2) be must be thirty years of age. 
 
 Art. 77. For the nomination of judges of the 
 High Federal Court the Congress will convene 
 ou the fifteenth day of its regular sessions and 
 will proceed to group together the representation 
 of each State from which to form a list of as 
 many candidates for principal judges and an 
 equal number of alternates as there inav be States 
 of tbe Federation. The Congress, in tlie same or 
 following session, will elect one principal and 
 one alternate for each State, selecting them from 
 tbc respective lists. 
 
 Art. 78. The law will determine the different 
 functions of the judges and other officers of tue 
 HiRh Federal Court. 
 
 Art. 70. The judges and their respective alter- 
 nates will hold office for four years. The princi- 
 pals and their alternates in oftlre can not accept 
 during this period any o.rice in the gift of the 
 eiciutive without previous resignation and law- 
 ful siceptance. The infraction of this disposition 
 will be punished with four years of disability to 
 bold public office in Venezuela. 
 
 Art. 80. The matters within the competence of 
 the I.'Vh Fede al Court are: (1) to take cogni- 
 zancf f civil or criminal causes that may lie in- 
 stitu:. (I against diplomatic offi(<ers in thdse ca8<'S 
 l*riuiiied by the law of nations; (2) to talte cog- 
 nizuuce of cause* ordered by the President to be 
 
 Instituted against cabinet ministers when ther 
 may be accused according to the cases provldea 
 for in this Constitution. In the matter of the 
 necessity of suspension from office, they will re- 
 quest the President to that effect and be will com- 
 ply ; (4) to have jurisdiction of the causes of re- 
 sponsibility instituted against diplomatic agents 
 accredited to another nation for the wrong dia- 
 charge of their functions; (S) to have jurisdiction 
 in civil trials when the nation is defendant and 
 the law sanctio,. ■ it; (8) to diasipate the contro- 
 versies that may arise between the offlciaU of 
 different States in political order in the matter of 
 jurisdiction or competence; (7) to take cogni- 
 zance of all matters of political nature that the 
 States desire to submit for their coatideration ; 
 (8) to declare which may be the law in force when 
 the national and State laws may be found to con- 
 flict with each other; (9) to have jurisdiction in 
 the controversies that may result from contracta 
 or negotiations celebrated by tlie p- jsident of the 
 federation ; (10) to have jurisdiction in causes of 
 imprisonment ; (U) to exercise other prerogatives 
 provided for by law. 
 
 Art. 81. The Court of Appeals referred to in 
 paragraph 20, article lb of this Constitution, ia 
 the tribunal of the states; it will be composed of 
 as many judges as tliere are states of the federa- 
 tion, and their terms of office will last for four 
 years. 
 
 Art. 8a. A judge of the Court of Appeals 
 must have the following qualifications: (1) he 
 must be an attorney at kw In the exercise of bis 
 profession, and must have had at least six years 
 practice; (2) he must be a Venezuelan, thirty 
 years of age. 
 
 Art. 83. Every four years the legislature of 
 each State will form a list of as many attorneys, 
 with the qualifications expressed in tlie preceding 
 article, as there are States, and will remit it, duly 
 certified, to the Federal Council in order that this 
 body, from the resi)ectivc lists, may elect a 
 
 i'udge for each State in the organization j' this 
 igh tribunal. 
 
 Art. 84. After the Federal Council may have 
 received the lists from all the States, it will pro- 
 ceed, in public session, to verify the election; 
 forming thereafter a list of the attorneys not 
 elected, in order that from this general list, wliiob 
 will be put)lished in the official paper, tu er- 
 manent vacancies tliat may occur in the C i of 
 Appeals may be filled by lot. The ten jrarj- 
 vacancies will be fllied according to hi" 
 
 Art. 85. Tlic Court of Ai)|x>als will liave the 
 following priri gatives: (1) to take cognizance of 
 criminal causes or those of respousil'ility that 
 may be instituted against the high functionaries 
 of the different States, applying tlie laws of the 
 States themselves in matters of responsibility, 
 and in case of omission of the promulgation a 
 law of constitutional precept, it will apply to 
 tbc cause in question the general laws of the 
 land: Vi) to take cognizance and to decide in 
 cases of appeal in the form and terms directed 
 by law ; (3) to annually report to the National 
 Legislature the ditticulties that stand in the way 
 of uniformity in the matte of civil or criminal 
 legisln'c.ou; (4) to dispose of the rivalries that 
 mtiv arise between the officers or functionaries of 
 juJicinl order in the different States of the federa- 
 tion and amongst those of a single State, pro- 
 vided that the authority to settle them does not 
 exist in the State. 
 
 631 
 
coNSTmrnoN op Venezuela. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA. 
 
 Art. 96. The Ntdoiwl ExecutiTe U exerdied 
 br the Vedenl Council, the President of the 
 United States of VenezueU, or the person who 
 fills his TMsndes. in union with the cabinet min- 
 isters who are his organs. The President of 
 Venezuela must be a Venezuelan by birth. 
 
 Art. S7. T !uactioos of National Executive 
 can not be exercised outside of the federal district 
 except in the case provided for in numbers, para- 
 onph 10, article 66 of the Constitution. When 
 uie PresideDt, with the approval of the Council, 
 shall take command of the army or absent him- 
 self from the district on account of matten of 
 public interest that demand it, be can not exercise 
 any functions and will be replaced by the Federal 
 Ci>unc!l in accordance with article 63 of this Con- 
 stitution. 
 
 Art. 88. Everything that may not be expressly 
 assigned to the general administration of the na- 
 tion in this Constitution is reserved to the States. 
 
 Art. 89. The tribunals of justice iu the States 
 are Indepcndrnt; the cituses origuateil In them 
 will 111' cnnc'ludc<l in the same Slatos without any 
 otii- r review than thnt of the Court of Appeals 
 in tlic cases provided for by law. 
 
 Art. 00. Every act of Congress and of the 
 Nations! Executive that violates the rights guar- 
 anteed to the States in this Constitution, or tlmt 
 attacks their independence, must be declare<l of 
 no effect by tlic High Court, provided that a ma- 
 jority of the legislatures demands It. 
 
 Art. 91. The public national force is divided 
 into naval and land troops, and will be composed 
 of the citizen militia that the States may organize 
 according to law. 
 
 Art. 02. The force at the disposal of the federa- 
 tion will be organized from citizens of a contin- 
 gent furnished by each State in proportion to its 
 population, calling to service those citizens that 
 should render it according to their internal laws. 
 
 Art. 93. In case of war the contingent can be 
 augmented by bodies of citizen mflitia up to 
 the number of Eien necessary to All the draft of 
 tha National Government. 
 
 Art. 94, The National Government may change 
 the commanders of the public force supplied by 
 the States in the cases and with the formaliti("9 
 provided for in the national military law and then 
 their successors will be called for from the States. 
 
 Art. 95. The military and civil authority can 
 never be exercised by the same person or corpo- 
 ration. 
 
 Art. 96. The nation, being in possession of the 
 right of ecclesiastical patronage, will exercise it 
 as'tlie law upon the subject may direct. 
 
 Art. 97. The Government of the Fedemtion 
 will have no other resident employees with juris- 
 diction or authority in the States than tliose of 
 the States themselves. The otlicere of hacienda, 
 thvi-se of the forces that garrison national for- 
 scs, arsenals created by law, navy yariN, and 
 
 'iiiitiiU'd ports, that only have juriMirtion in 
 matters peculiar to their respective offices and 
 within the limits of the forts and (|uariera tl]:it 
 they command, are excepted; but even these 
 must l>e subject to the general laws of tliu State 
 in which they reside. All the elements of war 
 now existing belong to the National Government ; 
 nevertheless it is not to be understood that the 
 States are pn 'hibited from acquiring those that 
 they may need for domestic defense. 
 
 Art. 98. The National Government can not 
 lUtion troops nor militaiy otUcen with command 
 
 G32 
 
 in a State, although thejr mar be from that or 
 another State, without penniMon of the govern- 
 ment. of the State In which tha force is to b« 
 stationed. 
 
 Art. 09. Neither the National Executive nor 
 those of the States can resort to armed interven- 
 tion in t.!.e domestic contentions of a State: it ii 
 only pe.mitted to them to tender their good offi- 
 ces to bring about a pacific solution in the cate. 
 
 Art. loa In case of a permanent or temporary 
 vacancy in the office of President of the United 
 States of Venezuela, the States will be immedi- 
 ately informed as to who has supplied the va. 
 cancy. 
 
 Art. loi. Exportation in Venezuela is free and 
 no duty can be placed upon it. 
 
 Art. loa. All usurped authority is witbout 
 effect and its acts are null Every order granted 
 for a requisition, direct or indirect, bv armed 
 force or by an assemblage of people in su ) ' v ersive 
 attitude Is null of light and void of efficact'. 
 
 Art, 103. The exercise uf any function not con- 
 ferred by the constitution or laws is prohibited 
 to every corporation or authority. 
 
 Art. 104. Any citizen may accuse the em- 
 ployees of the nation or the States before the 
 chamber of deputies, before their respe* ive m- 
 periors in office, or before the authorities desig. 
 nated by law. 
 
 Art. 105, No payment shall be made from the 
 National Treasury for which Congress h.os not 
 expressly provided in the annual estimate, and 
 those that may Infringe this rule will bt "ivilly 
 responsible to the National Treasury for the sum'j 
 they have paid out. In every payment from the 
 pul)lic Treasury the ordinary expensis will he 
 preferred to the extraordinary charges. 
 
 Art. 106. The offlcesof collection and (lishurso- 
 ment of the national taxes shall be always » juir- 
 ate, and the officers of collection may disburse 
 only the salaries of cheir respective emiiloyets. 
 
 Art. 107. When, for any reason, the eiiiniate 
 of appropriations for a fiscal period have not li (n 
 made, that of the immediately preceding period 
 will continue in force. 
 
 Art. loS. In time of elections, the public na- 
 tional force or that of the States themselves will 
 remain closely quartered during the holding of 
 popular elections. 
 
 Art. 109. In intematiojal treaties of commerce 
 and frienifship this clause will l)e inserted, to wit , 
 "all the disagreements between the contracti.ng 
 pariies must be decided without an appeal to war, 
 by the decision of a power or friendly powers." 
 
 Art. no. No individual can hold more than 
 one office within Jie gift of Congress and the 
 National Executive. The acceptance of any 
 other is equivalent to resignation of the first. 
 Olllcials that arc removable will cease to hold 
 office upon accepting the charge of a Senator or 
 Deputy when they are dependents of the National 
 Executive. 
 
 Art, III. The law will create and designate 
 other national tribunals that may l)c neeessary. 
 
 Art. Iia. liational offlcera can nut aeei'pt gifts, 
 commissions, honors, or emoluments from a f(<r' 
 eign nation without permission from the National 
 Legislature. 
 
 Art. 113. Armed force can not deliberate; it is 
 passive and obedient. No armed body can make 
 requisitions nor demand assistance of any kind, 
 but from the civil authorities, and in the mode auu 
 form prescribed by law. 
 
CONSTITUTION OP VENEZUELA. 
 
 CONSUL. 
 
 Alt 114. The Nation and the States will pro- 
 mote foreign immigration and colonization in ac- 
 coniani'i' with their respective laws. 
 
 Art. 115. A law will regulate the manner in 
 which national ofncera, i>on taking charge of 
 tht'ir posts, shall take lue oath to comply with 
 their duties. 
 
 Art. 116. The National Executive will negoti- 
 ate with the Governments of America over treaties 
 of alliance or confederation. 
 
 Art, 117. The la w of Nations forms a part of 
 the Nations! Legislation; its dispositions will be 
 ipeciall^ in force in cases of civil war, which can 
 be terminated by treaties between the belligerents 
 wlio will have to rt8|x;ct the hum'uiturian cus- 
 toms of Christians and civilizet* cations, the 
 guarantee of life being, in every 0, inviolable. 
 
 Art. 118. This constitution cr c-pformedby 
 the National Legislature if ti) gislatures of 
 the States desire it, but there 1 ' never be any 
 reform except in the parts upoi. which the ma- 
 jority of the States coincide ; also a reform can 
 be made upon one or more points when two- 
 thirds of the members of the National Legisla- 
 ture, deliberating separately and by the proceed- 
 faigs established to sanction the law's, shall accord 
 ■•; but, iu this second case, the amendment voted 
 jail be submitted to the legislatures of the States, 
 ami it will stand sanctioned in the point or points 
 that Diay have been ratified by them. 
 
 Art. no. This constitution will take effect 
 from the day of its oRlcial promulgation in each 
 btittc, and In all public acts and olUdal docu- 
 ments till re will be cited tht date of the 
 Federatii to U-gin with Febrojiry 2U, IH.W, 
 and the .,,te of the law to b< .'in with March 
 
 Art. 130. The constitutional period (or ' 1 
 olHces of the General Administration of th, 
 pub'ic will continue to be computed from Feb. u- 
 ary 20, 1S82, the ilutc on which the reformed 
 constitution took effect. 
 
 Art. lai. For e-ery act of civil and political 
 life of the States of the Federation, its basis of 
 IKtpulation is that which is determined in the 
 lust census approved by the National Leitis- 
 lature. 
 
 Art. 122. The Federal Constitution of April 
 27, ISSl, is repealed. Done in Caracas, in the 
 Ptlace of the Fe- ■■ i^egislative Corps, and 
 sealed with the s< Jongress on the Uth day 
 
 of April. 1891. ' •,. „ year of the Law and 
 the 38rd year or' .;',■■ eration. 
 
 (Here follow tl.. atures of the Presidents, 
 
 Vice-Presidents, a^'d Second Vice-Presidents of 
 the Senate and Chamljer of Deputies, together 
 with those of the Senators and Deputies of the 
 various States, followinl by those of tlii Pioideut 
 and the ministers of his cabinet.) See VtNEZU- 
 EL.v; .\.. D. l»6a-lS92. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE WATAUGA 
 ASSOCIATION (the first Western An -^rican 
 Commonwealth). See Tkn.nesbee: A. D. nO'J- 
 
 ITTi. 
 CONSTITUTIONS OF CLARENDON.— 
 
 The "Constitutions of Clarendon" were a series 
 of declarations drawn up by a council which King 
 Henry 11. of Englantl convened at Clarendon. 
 Dear Winchester, in 1164, and which were in- 
 tended to determine the law on various points in 
 dispute between the Crown and the laitv, on one 
 siili. and the Church on the othe.. Tte issues 
 in question were those which brought Henry iulo 
 colli.sion with Thor- t Becket, Archbi.« ip of 
 I'anteibuiv. ThegeL. ' provisions emb ' lin 
 the Coustftutions of Clarendon ' ' would be 
 
 scarcely challenged in the most Catholic t ry 
 in the world. 1. During the va ai;cyofaL .. jli- 
 bishoprie, bishopric, abb^y. 01 prior;, of royal 
 foundation, the estates wc. e to '"■ in tiie'custody of 
 the Cniwn. Elections to these o.efnuients were 
 to be held in thr -oval chapel, r,:, the Lssent of 
 thekingandc lu!:. 2 Inevt. Sittowhicha 
 clerk was a pa- ; 'oceediugs » 1 •> to commence 
 before the kuifc ,„ jtices, and these justices were 
 to del iile whether the case was vo be tried before 
 a spi- lal or a civil court. If it was referred to 
 asl.iuuial court, a civil ofBcer was to attend to 
 waleh the trial, and if a clerk was found guilty 
 of felony the Church was to cease to protect him. 
 3. No tenantinchief of the king, or officer of 
 his household, was to be excommunicated, or his 
 lands laid under an interdict, imtil appli(..tion 
 had been tint made to the king, or, in his absence, 
 to the chief justice. 4. Laymen were not to be 
 indictcHl in a bishop's court, either for perjury or 
 other similar offence, except in the bishop s pres- 
 ence by a lawful prosecutor and with lawful 
 witnesses. If the accused was of so high rank 
 that r.n prosecutor wt/uld atpcnr, the bishop 
 might require the sherilf to call a Jury to inquu^ 
 into th" case. 9. Aicbbishop- jiahopa, and otiier 
 
 gnat persons were forbidiii n to have tin- realm 
 without the king's permissiou. 0. Ai)|>eals«ere 
 to be from the arcudeacon to the bishop, from 
 the bishop to the archbishop, from the arclibislinp 
 to the king, and no further; that, bj the niug s 
 mandate, the case might lie ended in the arch- 
 bLshops court. The last article the king after- 
 wards explained away. It wus one of the most 
 essi'ntial, but he wus unable lO maintain it : and 
 he was rash, or he was ill-advised, in raising u 
 second question, on which the pope would natu- 
 rally be sensitive, before he had disposed of the 
 first." — J. A. Froude. Life anil Titmnf Duktt 
 pp. 31-33.— Sec Enola>d; A. D. 1102-1170. 
 
 CONSTITUTIONS, Roman Imperial, t . 
 Couns Jtnis Civilis. 
 
 CONSTITUTIONAL UNION PARTY, 
 The. See Csited St.vte8 of Am. ; A. 1). ItJOO 
 (ApiiiL— November). 
 
 CONSUL, Roman.— ^Vhen t'le Romans had 
 rid themselves of thiir kings and establishtHl a 
 republic, or, rather, an aristocratic government, 
 "the civil duties of the king were given to two 
 magistrates, chosen for a year, who were at 
 first called 'pratores' or ge'nerals. 'judices" or 
 judges, or consules (cf. con ' together ' and salio 
 ■ to leap ') or ' colleagues. ' In the matter of their 
 
 f)ower, no violent deiiarture was made from the 
 mperiumof the king. The greatest lindtalion 
 on the consuls was the short period for which 
 they were at the head of the state; but even liere 
 the" were tli.mght of, by a fiction, as voluntarily 
 abdicating at the expiration of their term, and as 
 nominating their succes.sors, although they were 
 required to nominate the men who had already 
 been selected in the 'comitiacentuiiata. ' Another 
 limitation was the result of the dual character of 
 the magistracy. The imperium was not divided 
 between the consuls, but each possessed it a 
 full, as the king had before. When, thcrcf e, 
 they did not agree, the veto of the one prev <id 
 over the proposal of the other, and there w .. no 
 
 633 
 
CONSUL. 
 
 CONVOCATION. 
 
 ! 
 
 i 
 
 ! 
 
 •Ptlon."— A. Tighe, Detelopment of the Roman 
 (hint., eh. 4. — "A» Judges, the consulii occupied 
 altogether the place of the kings. They decided 
 the legal disputes of the citizens either personally 
 or by deputy. Their criminal Jurisdiction was 
 probably limited to the most important coses. 
 ... In the warlike state of the Romans tlie 
 military character of the consuls was no doubt 
 most prominent and most Important. When the 
 consul le<l the army into the field he possessed 
 the unlimited military power of the kings (the 
 i-nperium). He was entrusteil with the direction 
 of the war, the distribution of the booty, and the 
 first disposal of the conquered land. . . . The 
 oldest designation for the consids, therefore, was 
 derived from their military ()uality, for they were 
 (.ailed pnet^irs. that is, commanders. It was, how- 
 ever, precisely in war that the division of power 
 among two colleagues must often have proved 
 prejudicial . . . and tlie necessity of unity in the 
 direction of affairs was felt to lie indispensable. 
 The dictatorship served this purpose. By decree 
 of the senate one of the consuls could lie charged 
 with naming a dictator for six months, ana in 
 this offlcer the full power of the king was re- 
 vive<l for a limite<{ period. The dictatorship 
 was a formal suspension of the constitution of 
 the republic. . . . Military was substituted for 
 common law, and Rome, during the time of the 
 dictatorship, was in a state of siege." — W. Ihne, 
 Hint, of Kumf. At. 2, rh. 1, and bk. 6, 'A. S-5.— 
 In the later years of the Roman empire, "two 
 consuls were created by the sovereigns of Rome 
 and Constantinople for the sole purpose of giving 
 a date to the year and a festival to the people. 
 But the expenses of this festival, in which the 
 wealthy and the vaiu a»pire<i to surpass their 
 predecessors, insensibly anise lo the enornioiii 
 sum of four score thousand pounds; the wisest 
 Knators derlinol a useless honour which in- 
 volvetl the certain ruin of their families, and to 
 this ri'lurtance I should Impute the frequent 
 chasms in the last age of the consular Fasti. . . . 
 The succession of consuls finally ceas<Kl In the 
 lhirte«'nth year of Justinian [A.D. 5411 whose 
 destKitic temper miitlit lie gratified by the final 
 extinction of a title which admonisheil the 
 Romans >if theirancient freedom. Yet the annual 
 consulship still lived in the iiilmis of the people; 
 tliev fondly expe<'ted its speedy reslomtion , . . 
 an<l three centuries elapsed after tlie death of 
 Justinian before lliat olisolete dignity, which 
 had lieen suppressed by custom, cmild tie 
 alKilished by law. The imperfect moile of dls- 
 tinguisliing each year by the name of a magistrate 
 was usefully supplleil by the dale of a permanent 
 era. "— E. Uiblion, Ikrti'iif nnd hMUnflhr Itimuin 
 Unifrire. rh. 40.— "There were no consuls in Ml 
 and Xn. The Emperor held the oltlce alone In 
 ."MM, and with a colleague in SiU. Bt'lisarius was 
 sole iiiiisul In .W.T The two following years, hav. 
 ing no consuls of their own. were sItTikI the First 
 and .'v-cond after the Consulship of Ik'lisarius. 
 John of Cappadocia gave his name to the ytar 
 .1«H, and the years .■«» and MO had again consuls, 
 though one only for each year. In .%4l Albinus 
 Tiaslllus sat in the curiile chair, and lie was prac. 
 ticall) the last of the long list of warriors, oraton. 
 
 ilemairoguea, courthrs, which liegan (in the year 
 R. C. ) with the names of Lucius Junius 
 
 .VW 
 
 iirutus and Luciiii inriuiniUH (v.tiitttiius. Ail 
 the rest i.f tlic years of Justinian, twenty four in 
 number, wer« rvckuoed «« F»«t Cousulatum 
 
 BMllil."— T. Hodgkin, liali/ and Her lumikr, 
 bk. S, eh. 14.— See. alio, Rome: B. C. S09 
 
 CONSULAR TRIBUNES, Raman!- Tlie 
 plebeiani of Rome having demanded admissiciu 
 for their order to the coniulship, a compnimiw 
 wBi arranged, B. C. 444, which scttkil tlmt 
 thereafter, "the people ihould t)c free to eleoi 
 either consul* — that ii, patricians accunling tn 
 the old law — or in their place other officers under 
 the title of 'militarr tribunes with consular 
 power,' constating of patricians and plelielaiis. 
 . . . It l( not reported in what respect the iiffirmi 
 competency of the consular tribunes was to differ 
 from that of the consuls. Still, so muck is plain, 
 that the difference consisted not alone in name! 
 The number of the consular tribunes was in tlie 
 beginning fixed at three." — W. Ihne, Ilitt .Y 
 Rmu, bk. a, eh. 11. 
 
 CONSULATE GOVERNMENT OF 
 FRANCE, Th«. See France: A. D. 17W 
 (November— Dbckmbcb). 
 
 CONTINENTAL ARMY.-" The Con- 
 tinentals " of the American Rerolutioa, Se 
 UsrrBD States of Am. : A. D. 177.5 (M.»v- 
 
 AUOl'BT). 
 
 CONTINENTAL CURRENCY, The, $(e 
 Cnited States or Am. : A. D. t7S0 (JA.NtAKT— 
 April). 
 
 CONTINENTAL SYSTEM OF NAPO- 
 LEON, The. SeeFRAKCE: A. D. IWIl-IMK!, ami 
 1806-1810. 
 
 CONTIONES, OR CONCIONES.-The 
 contiones, or conciones, at liome. were nsseinhlics 
 of the people, "less formal than the lomiiia." 
 held for the mere purpose of discussini; pulilic 
 questinns. and incapable of passing nuv liindim; 
 resolui: 'I "They could not lie ciilleil tll^'l■tllrr 
 by any iKKly except the magistrates, mithirlud 
 every man the liberty of speaking in ihim, of 
 making proposals or of declaring his opininn; 
 . . . but even in this limited manner pulilic 
 questions could be di*cus*e<l ami the peciplc 
 could be enlightene<l. . . . The custom of dk. 
 cussing public questions in the contiomit Ucame 
 general after the cumltia of the triliea hai! 
 obtained full legislative competency "—W. lime. 
 //<■»<. (/ Rome.bk. 8, eh. 1.— See, also, CdsiiTU 
 
 CrRIATA. 
 
 CONTRABANDS.— In the early part of the 
 American civil war of 1861-4H, escaiml jlsvej 
 were called contrabands, fleiieral HuiIit havim 
 declared them to oe " coDtrahniui uf «iir. ' n^ 
 Cnitkii States or \h : \. D l^'il Mwi 
 
 CONTRACT-LABOR LAW. Sr Imhi 
 
 OHATION. 
 
 CONTRBRAS, BatUe of. See Mexico: 
 A. I). 1847 (March— SKrTEMiiKR). 
 
 CONVENT. See Monasti iiv. 
 
 CONVENTICLE ACT, The. Se Kn. 
 land: a. n. 1M3-1MV 
 
 CONVENTION, The French National, of 
 the freat Rerelution. See Fkanck a !• i:»J 
 (.VrorsT), and 1799 (SRPTEmiKii— Ncukmiikk . 
 
 to 17»S (OCTORIR— D(CRIinKII). 
 
 CONVOCATION.-Thr aasrmbllis of !be 
 clergy In the two rTclesiaallcal prnvimi* of 
 England are calle<l the ConviKatloii nf Csnler 
 bury and the Convocation of York. The forrair, 
 which is the superior Nidy, frequently nwlves 
 the name of Convocation, simply. Itis c<in«li 
 iuied uiMiu tile niiaiei of Parliaimni. uii'i is. iii 
 fact, the Parliament of tlie Church of Knitlaad 
 It has two Houses: the upper one cuiuistinK <>( 
 
 C34 
 
CONVOCATION. 
 
 CORINTH. 
 
 tbe Arcbbiabop and hii BUbopa; the lower OM 
 compoKd of deani, archdeacons and procton^ 
 representing the Inferior clergy. The Convoca- 
 tion of York has but one House. Since 1718 
 CooToration hasponeued slight powers. 
 
 CONWAY CABAL. The. See CnmB 
 States of Asi. : A. D. 1777-1778. 
 
 COOK'S ISLANDS. See Poltnksia. 
 
 COOMASSIE, BumioK ot, See England: 
 A D. IH-3-1880. 
 
 COOPERATION. See Social MovBxcim. 
 
 COPAIC REEDS. SeeBocoTiA. 
 
 COPAN, Ruins oC See American Abori- 
 8IXES : Mat AS ; and Mexico, Ancient. 
 
 COPEHAN FAMILY, The. See Ameri- 
 ca!! .Vborioises : Copkhan Family. 
 
 COPENHAGEN : A. D. 1363.— Taken and 
 pillsged by the Haasaatic Learne. See Scan- 
 DiXAViAS States: A. D. 1018-1897. 
 
 A. D. 1658-1660.— Swedish siecet. See 
 Scandinavian States (Swedbn) : A. D. 1644- 
 1W7. 
 
 A. 0. 1700.— SmrcjdcrtoCharles XII. See 
 StAMUNAViAN States: A. D. 1687-1 ;w. 
 
 A. D. 1801.— Bombardment by the EnKlith 
 Icet. 8« France : A. D. 1801-1802. 
 
 A. D. 1807.— Bombardment of the citj by 
 the English.— Seizure of the fleet. See Scah- 
 DiSAViAN States : A. D. 1807-1810. 
 
 COPPERHEADS.— Durini; the American 
 Civil Wsr. the Dprnocratic Party in the Xorth- 
 trn States "comprised two well-recognized 
 cl««»ii! The Ami' War (or Peacet Dcmucrsts, 
 commiiiilv called ' Copperbewls, ' who srmpa- 
 ihiiKl with the liebcllion, and opposed the War 
 for the I'nion ; and the War (or Union) Demo- 
 emu. who favored a vigorous pruaerution of the 
 War for the preservation of the Tnion." — J. A. 
 
 Logan, T>ie Ureal Ci>n*i>iraey, p. 674, foof-n<ite. 
 
 Sot, h1«), Udited States or Am.: A. D. 1864 
 (OrroBEii). 
 
 COPREDY BRIDGE, Battle of. SeeENo- 
 USD: .V D. 1644 (Jam-aht— Jri.T). 
 
 COPTOS.— DestroTcd by Dioclttlu. See 
 Alixaxdria : A. D. 896. 
 
 COPTS, The.— The descendanU of the an- 
 cient Eii.vptiau race, who form to this day the 
 larpT ivirt of the population of Egypt. See 
 EotfT: Oriain or THE Ancient People. 
 
 COPYRIGHT. See Law. Common: A. D. 
 IIKB: mill Law, E<jI'ity: A. D. 1875. 
 
 COR, The. See Ephah. 
 
 CORCYRA. See Koretra. 
 
 COR DAY, Charlotte, and tha assastina- 
 tiSB of Marat. See France : A. I). i;9«(,Tilv). 
 
 CORDELIERS. See .Mendicant (»ri.ek». 
 
 CORDELIERS, Club of tha. SeeFuAME: 
 K 1) ITHO, 
 
 CORDOVA (Spain): A.D. 7lt.-Snrrender 
 to tks Arab-Moors. SeeSPAiN: A l» Tll-Tl.l 
 
 A D. 756.1031.-The Caliphate at. sec 
 
 HAmi)lr.TANCoNV|DKSTANuEMPIIIK: A. I) 7.")6- 
 
 ll«l. 
 
 AD.ia]s.-CaptBrabytha KlnrefCastite. 
 
 ewJiPAiN; A. 1). I»ia-t488 
 
 CORDOVA (Mesico), Treaty of. S« .Mex- 
 l<" \ I) 1H3II-181KI, 
 
 CORDYENE. s.^ Qordtene. 
 COREA. «-!■ KottCA 
 
 COREISH, KORBISH. See .Mahometan 
 u>li((i tsT A.10 Empikb : A. O. SOIMIS'il. 
 
 COREY, Martha and Giles, The execution 
 for witchcraft oC See Massachusetts: A. D. 
 1692. 
 
 CORFINIUM, Catar'a Captnre of. See 
 Rome: B. C. 80-49. 
 
 CORFU, Ancient. See Kobetba. 
 
 A. D. i3i6-i88o.— Sine* the tall of the Greek 
 Empire.— Corfu was won bv the Venetians in 
 the early years of the Lat{n conquest of the 
 Greek empire (1216), but was presently lost, to 
 cumc back again into the poawssion of the re- 
 nublic 170 years Uter. " No part of Greece haa 
 been so often cutoff from the Greek body. Under 
 Prrrhos and Agathoklta, no less than under 
 Slichael Angelos and Roger, it obeyed an Epelrot 
 or Sicilian master. . . . At last, after yet another 
 tujnof Sicilian rule. It passed for 400 years [1886- 
 1797] to the great commonwealth [of Venice]. 
 In our own day Corfu was not added to free 
 Greece till long after the deliverance of Attica 
 and Peloponntsos. But, under so many changes 
 of foreign masters, the island has always re- 
 mained part of Europe and of Christendom 
 Alone among the Greek lands, Corfu has never 
 passed under barbarian rule. It has seen the 
 Turk only, for one moment, as an invader [see 
 TtTBKs: A. D. 1714-1718], for another moment 
 as a nominal overlord."— E. A. Freemau, //»'«- 
 torieai Otog. of Buropt. p. 408.— See Iohlan Isl- 
 ands: To 1814. 
 
 CORINIUM.— A Roman city in Britain, on 
 the site of which Is the modem city of Cirences- 
 ter. Some of the richest mosaic pavements found 
 in England have been uncovered there.- T. 
 Wrieht. Celt, Soman and Saxon, eh. 8. 
 
 CORINTH.— Corinth, the chief city and state, 
 in ancient times, of the narrow isthmus which 
 connects Peloponnesus with northern Greece, 
 ■ ' owed everything to her situation. The double 
 sea by the isthmus, the confluence of the high 
 road of the whole of Hellas, the rocky citadel 
 towering aloft over land and sea, through which 
 rushed — or around which flowed — an abundance 
 of springs; all these formed so extraordinary a 
 commixture of advantages, that, if the intercourse 
 with other countries remained undisturbed, they 
 could not but call forth an important city. As 
 In Argolis, so on the Isthmus also, other besides 
 Dorian families bad in the days of the migmtion 
 helped to found the new state. ... By the side 
 of the Darian, five non-Dorian tribes existe<l in 
 Corinth, attesting the multitude and variety of 
 population, which were kept together as one 
 slate by the royal power of the Hersclids. sup- 
 ported by the armed force of the Dorians. In 
 the ninth century [H. C.) the royal power passed 
 into the hands 01 a branch of the iJeracliilie de- 
 riving its descent from Bacchis [one of the earliest 
 of the kings] : and It was In the extraordinary 
 genius of this royal line that the greatness of the 
 city originated. The Bacchiads opened the city 
 to the immigration of the industrious settlers who 
 bopetl to make tlirtr fortunes more speedily than 
 elsewhere at this meeting pointof all Greek high- 
 romls of commerce. Tney cherished and ad- 
 vanced every Invention of importance. . . . They 
 tiHtk commerce into their own hands, and es- 
 talilished the tramway on the Isthmus, along 
 which ships were, on rollers, transported from 
 
 -t... g-.;'f ;.-. t»„= .-.shsr XhrJ f-'QVcrtcd the 
 
 gulf which had hitherto taken Its name from 
 Crisa Into tbc Corintfaiaa. and saeurad Its bhtow 
 
 635 
 
■It 
 
 COMNTH. 
 
 blet bv means of the foitifled place of Molycria. 
 . . . They continued their aarance along the 
 coaat and occupied the moat important points on 
 the Achclous."— E. Curtius, l/itt. of Grtfee, bk. 
 i. eh. 1 — Sfe, also, Traue- Ancik.nt. 
 
 CORINTH. 
 
 lation within and without the Peloponnet 
 conununicated with each other more in aom 
 times by land across the isthmus than by m 
 But when the Hellenes became mnre practued 
 
 navigation, the Corinthians with their sliips n 
 B.C. 745-735. — Cenatitntional RcTolutioo. j down piracy and establbhed marts outothsidi 
 —End of Monarchj. — The prjtancs.— Com- and tlirough this influx of riches tlieir city 
 
 mcrcial progress. — A violent contention whicii 
 Hrose between two branches of the Bacchiadie 
 " no doubt gave the nobles of Corintli power and 
 opportunity to end the struggle by a iliange in 
 the constitution, and by the discontinuance of the 
 monarchy; this occurred in the year 745 B. C, 
 lifter eig'lit generations of kings. . . . Yet the 
 place at the hend of the commonwealth wa:) not 
 to be entirely taken away from the ancient royal 
 linuse. A presiding chief (a prTtanis), newly 
 electeil each year by the whole nobilitv from tlie 
 memlK'rs of the royal rait-, washenceforwanl to 
 conduct the government 'see Prytakis]. It was 
 n peculiar arrangement which this chaiigi' iutro- 
 duceil into Corinth. We may assume that the 
 sovereignty was transferroii to the nolili.s col- 
 lectively, or to their rtpresi'ntative. Thi.s repre- 
 sentation seems to have been so regulated that 
 each of the eight tribes sent an equal nunilHT of 
 members to tlie Oerousia, i. e. the council of 
 elders. . . . But the Urst of these eight trilK's, 
 to which belonj^ed the royal family, was iirivi- 
 leged. From it was chosen the head of the 
 state, an otlice for which only a Bacchiad waH 
 eligible — that is, only a memU-r of the old myal 
 house, wliieh tiH>k the foremost place in the first 
 tribe. This rian of the BHCchladtt; is miid to 
 have contaluwi 800 men. 'They were numemin 
 and wealthy,' says Straljo. Accimlingly the 
 royal house (iid not exclusively retain the flrst 
 rank in tlie state, but only in conjjni-tion with 
 the families conneeted with it by kiiiiireti and 
 r.ivv. . . . The new constitution (if Corinth, the 
 government by nobles, under the dynastic presi- 
 dency of one "family, liecamc a tvpe for other 
 cantons. It was a Corinthian of tlie Bacchhids 
 who, twenty or thirty years after the intnxluc- 
 tiou of tiie prytanes, regulated the oligarehy of 
 the Thebaus and gave them laws (aliout 72,1 
 B. C. ) . . . The fall of the monarchy in Corinth 
 at Urst brought with it disastrous consequenri* 
 for the [Kiwer and pn-stigc of tlic rommonwealtli. 
 The communities of the Megarians — either lie- 
 cause the new government made inereaiM'd ile- 
 mauds u|)on them, or liecaiise they iimsidered 
 their allegiance hail ceased with the res.>utlon of 
 iimnarchy, and tliought the moment was favour- 
 able — desertnl Corinth and asserted their free- 
 dom. The five communities on the isthmus 
 unitdl together around the territory of Megara, 
 lying in the plain by the Saronic Gulf, when 
 the majority of the lioric tribes bad lettled; the 
 city of Megara. in the vicinity of two ancient 
 fortreaaca . . . became the chief centre f the 
 communities, ni'w associated in one c inon- 
 wealth. . , . The important progress of > rinth 
 under the prytany of the BaccbiailB w >'• not 
 due to successes up<m the mainland, hut in an- 
 other sphere For navigathm and commeree no 
 canton in Hellas was more favourably sltuatiil 
 I.yinT on tlie neck of the Isthmus, it extended 
 from sea to sea. an advantageous position which 
 hwi indeed first attracted the Phonlciana thither 
 in ancient times. . . . Corinth, aays Thucjr- 
 dkieii. was aiwayn from liir first a rrntrs of 
 coauwrtx, and abouutlwl In wmUUi : (ur Um popu- 
 
 came very powerful." — M. Duueker, Uitt 
 Ureref, bk. 3, eh. 3 (r. 8). 
 
 B. C. 509-506.— Opposition to the desire 
 Sparta to restore tyrannj at Athens. S 
 Athens: B. C. SOO-flOiS. 
 
 B. C. 481-479. — Conrreia and orgaoixi 
 Hellenic union against Persia. .See Ukeeci 
 n. C. •t.'<l-47H. 
 
 B. C. 458-456.— Alliance with iEgina in ui 
 successful war with Athens and Megara. S 
 Urkeie: li. C. 4.W-t56. 
 
 B. C. 440.— Opposition to Spartan interf« 
 ence with Athens in Samos. .s-c Atu£.\ 
 B. C. 440-4:17. 
 
 B. C. 435-432.— Quarrel with Korkyra.-li 
 terference of Athens. — Events leading to tl 
 Peloponnesian War. t$ee Queeck : 1! c 4;;: 
 43'J. 
 
 B. C. 43a.— Great sea-fi|^ht with the Ko 
 krrians and Athenians. tM'e GiitErE: li ( 
 432. 
 
 B. C. 439-^37.— The Peloponnesian Wsi 
 aea-fights and defeats. — Fruitless aid to tl 
 Mitylenseans. SecUiiF.ECE: II ( '. 4'^'.M'.>: 
 
 B. C. 431.— Opposition to the Peace of Nii 
 ias. See (Ihekck: B. C. 4il-llH. 
 
 B. C. 415-413.- Help to Syracuse agsiai 
 the Athenians. %w Syracisk: li. C 4i:>-41 
 
 B. C. 395-387. —Confederacy against Sptni 
 —The Corinthian War.— Battle on the Ni 
 mea.— The Peace of Antalcidas. N c (iiiEui 
 11. C. 399-JW7. 
 
 B. C. 368-365.- Attempt of Epaminondul 
 surprise the city. — Attempt of the Atbeniu 
 
 NeOltEKlK: B. C. 371-;l«J 
 
 B. C. 337.— Congress of Creek states ton 
 knowledge the hegemony of Philip of Mati 
 don. Se CtRKKCE : B. C. 3.".T-;WI1 
 
 B. C. 344.— Capture by Antigonus Gonaiu 
 king of Maccdon. See Ma> i.honu. .V> : B t 
 a77-'.'44 
 
 B. C. 343-146.— In the Achaian Lea|o 
 8«'.OnEF.CE; B. C. '.'NO-llB 
 
 B. C. 146.— Sack by the Romasi. S 
 OliEKiE: B. C. 2H(t 14fl 
 
 B. C. 44.— Restoration by Cesar.- "1 
 the desolate land of (JnciT. ('n'«.ir. l»'«idi'» dlbi 
 plans. . . . busied himself nlmvc all with II 
 restoration of Corinth. X"t only »»» s M 
 siilerablc burgess colony enniluclnl Ilcitliir, bi 
 a plan was projected for eultiiii; thnu^h ti 
 isthmus, so as to avolii the <l;oiK'>'rtiiiii cinui 
 navigation of the PelopimneMiit ami to mat 
 the whole traffic Iwtween luilv ami .^'Is P* 
 throtiirh the Corlntho Sanmle itulf."— T Momn 
 sen. Hill. </ /*<w, hk \th. 1 1 - " Ciesar ienl I 
 Corinth a large numlM'r of freedmen. nml oil" 
 settlers Were' afterwartls si-nl by .Vupntun. In 
 It is certain that many (Jrerks c.imv to ll<» I 
 the new t.'orluth, for "it became a (inik t"»i 
 Corinth was a mass of ruins wtirn the new tr 
 tiers came, and while they were n in..vliiy ll 
 rubblsli, they grubbed up llu' Iniri^il pl»i<' 
 where they found a great numtur of iMirtbi 
 Agurm and kruuiie urns, wiiiiii lii'V ►!■: : 
 a hifil price and filled Rome will then - 
 
 630 
 
 
CORmTH. 
 
 CORPUS JintlS CIVILI8. 
 
 0. Long, Dtilint (^tkt Raman StpuiUe, t. S, eh. 
 H.—" Corinth tapldly rote under these auipicei, 
 became a centre of commerce and art, and took 
 the lead amunc the cittea of European Hellas. 
 Here wu established the seat of the Roman 
 government of Achala, and its population, 
 though the representations we have recelTed of 
 it are extravagant, undoubtedly exceeded that 
 of any Grecian rival."— C. Merivale, Hit. oftht 
 Bmani. eh. 40. 
 
 A. D. 167.— Ravaftd by the Goths. See 
 Goths: A. D. 25S-287. 
 
 A. O. 39c— PInndtrcd by the Goths. See 
 GoTire: A. D. 895. 
 
 A. D. 1 146.— Sacked by the Nomans of 
 Sicily.— Abdnction of silk weavers. See 
 BiiA.NTi.NE Empirk: a. D. 1146. 
 
 A. D. 1445.— Destruction by the Tnrka.— 
 The fortifications of the isthmus of Corinth were 
 itoniu'd and the Pelopomiesus invaded by 
 Amunith 11. in 144JS. -Corinth itself, a city 
 laoctilied by its antiquity, by Its sods, by its 
 aU. by the beauty of iu women, bv Its foun- 
 tains, its cypreaaea, its very ruins themselves, 
 whence its unrivalled situation tiad always re- 
 iton'd it. fell anew, buried In its flames, by the 
 bands of Touraklian, that ancient and ambitious 
 rizier of Amurath. Its flames were seen from 
 Albt'Ds, from ..Cvina, from Lepanto, from Cy- 
 tbriva. from Piuilus. The Inhabitants, aa also 
 tliciM.' of Ptttras, were led Into slavery In Asia, to 
 tlie nunilM^r of 60,000."— A. Lamartine, But. of 
 Turk^, l>k. 11, tet. 10. 
 
 A. 0. 1463-1464.— Unsucctssful sieceby th« 
 Venetians.— Fortification of the Isthmus. See 
 Gbekik: a. D. 14,'»-U79. 
 
 A. D. 1687.— Taken by the Venetians. See 
 TlHKs: A. U. 16»4-1696, 
 
 A. D. iSaa.— Revolt, sicn and capture by 
 the Turks. SceaHCEcK: A. D. 1831-1H29. 
 
 CORINTH, Miss., Siere and Battle. See 
 
 TxiTKU Statkb or Am.; A. 1). 1883 (.\.pril — 
 May: Tennebske — Miniikkippi), and (Skptkm- 
 
 BtR— (hTOUKR: MlKSIMIPPI). 
 
 CORINTH CANAL, The.— "On Sunday 
 [Aut'iist «. ISBS) the canal acnms the Isthmus of 
 ("rin'li — (projected by Ciesar — see Rome: 
 B ('. ^^A^] begun by .\er<i, and completed. 
 mnrly S.IHW yciini laU'r, by a Orifk engineer. M. 
 Mat>as — WHS opt'nr<l by the King of Greece, 
 villi sUaniiHl through the canal In his vaciit. 
 HT'inipftniol by a pmoesslon consisting a\ four 
 timk lorpcilo- boats and other vessels. Including 
 ilirir Enirliah men-of-war and an Kngllsh i\n- 
 ['all lituwi. The canal . . . will Ik- prncticable 
 f'Tnll liiit the largest vessels."— TAn Hinttatur, 
 .4'.'; Vl is|m. 
 
 CORINTHIAN TALENT. S.-e Talent. 
 
 CORINTHIAN WAR. The, 8e« Greece: 
 B (' :imi ;in7. 
 
 CORIONDI, The. See Ireland. Trires or 
 
 CORITANI. OR CORITAVI.-A British 
 trill. «hirh <ic<Miplc<l the lower valley of the 
 Tmh Hiiil Its vicinity. See Britain, Celtic 
 TiiinK« 
 
 CORN LAWS (EocUsb) aad thalr repeal. 
 
 S' TmiKr I.WIIBLATIIIN (Enoland): a. I). 
 lM!-,.w.,w ..j:.fi_.H.»9; tH4»; ^y,.\ 5«4,viS4§ 
 
 CORNABII, OR CORNAVII, The.-An 
 
 uiiUul Urilish tribe which dwell near the mouths 
 
 63; 
 
 of the Dee and the Mersey. See Britain. C«li 
 TIC Tribes ^— *■ 
 
 CORNELL UNIVERSITY. See Educa 
 Tios^ Modern: America; A. D. 1868-1886. 
 
 CORNWALL, Duchy of.— M illiam the Con- 
 queror gave to his brother Robert almost the 
 whole shire of Cornwall, out of which, says Mr 
 Freeman, "arose that groat Earldom, and after 
 wards Duchy, of Cornwall, which was deemed 
 too poweriul to be trusted In the hands of any 
 but men closely akin to the royal house, and the 
 remains of which have for ages formed the 
 appanage of the heir-apparent to the Crown." — 
 See, also, Wales, Prince of. 
 ,.f °'*A^^^^'S, Chares. Lord.-In the 
 War of the American Revolution. See United 
 States or Am. : A. D. 1776 (Acoust), (Septem- 
 FSi"*^**^"""""' : 1**> (Pebruahv— AuocsT)- 
 1780-1781 : 1781 (Janiaby-Mat) ; 17»l (Mat- 
 October) Indian administration. See 
 
 India : A. D. 1785-1793 Irish administra- 
 
 tion. See Ireland: A. D. 1798-1800. 
 
 CORON, Battle of (B. C. aSi). See IUcb- 
 DONIA, &c. : B. C. 297-280. 
 
 CORONADO, Expedition of. See Ameri- 
 can Abobioines : PUEIII.OS. 
 
 CORONATION.— The royal consecration 
 in Its most perfect form included both corona- 
 tion and unction. The wearing of a crown was 
 a most ancient sipi of royalty. Into the origin of 
 which It is uscliss now to inquire: but the 
 wilemn rite of crowning was borrowcil from the 
 Old Testament liy the Byzantine Ca'sam; the 
 second Theodosius was the flrst emperor crownwl 
 with religious ceriMnoiiies In Christian times. 
 The introduction of the rite of anointing is lesa 
 certainly asrertaiiied. It did not always accom- 
 |j«ny coronation."— W. Stubbs. Comt. JJc^l. 0/ 
 Eng.. (h. 6, tet. 60. 
 
 CORONATION STONE. See Scotl.and : 
 8t« ^th CENTrRiEs ; also, Lia Fail. 
 
 CORONEIA, Battles of (B. C. 447 and B. C. 
 394). Kec Ghkkce : B. C. 449-445 ; and B. C. 
 
 CORONER. See Law, Criminal : A. D. 
 121S ami 1276. 
 
 CORPS DE BELGIQUE. See Unitu 
 
 States OK Am.: A. D 18H4 |0( tohkh). 
 
 CORPUS JURIS CIVILIS, The.— "The 
 Corpus Juris Civijis repn^wnis the Roman law in 
 the form which it assnnuil at the close of the 
 ancient |)eriod (a tliousiinil years after the 
 di'ceniviral legislation of the Twelve Tables), and 
 through which inaiulv it has acted upon nuxlem 
 times. It was coniplliil In the Kastcrn liiiman 
 Empire ithc Westirn ccasiil in 470 A. P.) under 
 the Em|H'ror Justinian. . . . who reigned 527- 
 565 \. I). The (ilan of tlie work, as Isid out by 
 [his gtcHt Inwnunlster] Trilwnian, included two 
 jirinclpHl parts, to Ik! made from the constitu- 
 tions of till' Koiiinn eniiH'mrs, and from the 
 In-allsis of the Koinaii lawyers. The 'iHinstltu- 
 lloms' ilaw iiiteranirs) of the emperors consisted 
 of— I. 'OMlli.ms.' proiwisiils of law, subiiitted 
 to anil lulopliil by the Si'imte : 2. 'Edicts,' laws 
 Issiii'il illn'clly liy the em|>eror as head of the 
 stale; 'i. 'MsmlnU,' Instructions aililressed by 
 the tiniieror to high orticvrs of law and justice; 
 
 4. ' IK'cri'ia.' de<'i«liins given by the emperor in 
 case, iimuf ht before him by gppeni of olherwiw ; 
 
 5. 'H.- 'ipta.' answers returned by the emperor 
 when t^ ..lultcd on i|ucstions of law by partlN la 
 
CORPUS JURIS CIVILIS. 
 
 • toit or by nagiitntat. . . . Three or four eol- 
 leettoni bad uStiAj been made. In which the 
 moat important conatitutiona were aelected from 
 the maaa, preaented in a condenied form, and 
 arranged according to their lubiecta. The laat 
 and moat elaborate of theie collections was the 
 Tlieodosian Code, compiled about a century 
 before the acceision of Juitinian; it ii still in 
 great part extant . . . The new Codex Con- 
 stitutlonem, prepared in little more than a year, 
 was published In April. 529. The next work 
 was to digest the treatises of the most eminent 
 law writers. Thirty-nine were selected, nearly 
 all of whom lived between 100 B. C. and 2S0 
 A. D. Their books (2.000 in number) were 
 divided among a body of collaborators (sixteen 
 besides Tribonlan), each of whom from the books 
 assigned to him extracted what he thought 
 proper . . . and putting the extracts (0,000 in 
 all) under an arranged series of heads. . . . The 
 Digest — or Pandects (all-receiving), as it is also 
 called from the multiplicity of its sources — was 
 issued with authority of law, in December. S33. 
 . . . While the Digest or Pandects forms much 
 the Urgest fraction of the Corpus Juris, its 
 relative value and importance arc far more than 
 pmportiunate to its extent The Digest is, in 
 fact, the soul of the Corpus. ... To bring the 
 Codex Constitutionem into better conformity 
 with the Digest, it was revise<l in 534 and issueil 
 as we now liave it in Novcmiier of tlmt year. 
 . . . The Corpus Juris includes also an elemen- 
 tary text-book, the Institutiones (foun<le<l on the 
 ' institutiones ' of Oaius, whn nourished about 
 150). . . . The Institutes, Digest and Cinlex 
 were given, as a t-oniplete Inxly of law. to the 
 law wIioiiIb at Constantinople. |{<>me. Berytus. 
 Alexandria. CnsareA, to Ik* stiiilieil in their' Ure 
 year*' ciirrtoulum. In the courts it was to super- 
 seile all carliur authorities. . . . Later statutes 
 of JuHtinian. arrnuKeti in onler of time, form the 
 Novels (novellae constitutlone," most of tlirm in 
 Greek), ttie last component of the Corpus Juris." 
 — .1. Ilmlley. Int. ^' Hixruin hiif, lift. 1. 
 
 Ai.sii IS :' J. E. (loudHinit. The PmiiltfU. 
 
 CORRECIDOR. l^tte .Vi.rALUE. 
 
 CORSICA: Early history.— " The original 
 inhabitants of Corsiea are ~iippo«i-il to Tiave 
 been Ligurians. but at a very early p< nml the 
 people luiil eoinmerrlKl Intercoiirsewitli Spain, 
 loniaaiiil Tu»'any. The Island wassulMiiiicntlv 
 Hcruplinl liy IIk ('artliaginiaiis. who. Ii.nvevef, 
 were eX|H'lled liy the Itomaiis iliirinir Hie Hrst 
 Puiilo war. A few years later Corsliii came 
 under the dominion of Itiine, and that sway whs 
 nominally mainiainiii until the ilownfall iif the 
 Empire. It tlien fell uniler the dominion of the 
 Vandals, and aft<-r their expul«i<in oniiril nuc- 
 ceasively the rule of the (iotlin. the Saracens 
 and the Pisans, and finally of the Oinoew. It 
 caim- into the ixisaession of the latter |H'ople In tin- 
 year 1120. I'Isa sulMHtiuently imule several 
 attempts to drive out lier rivals, but thev wen; 
 in the end void of results. Hut In \i*H, thnoa. 
 bavins '<ustainiKl great l(Mses in the constant 
 wars fn which she was engagcti, wa.s induuti to 
 surrender the ailminlstration of Corsica and uf 
 her colonliit In the Levant to a corporation known 
 as the liimk of St Oeorge. PVom that time the 
 Island was ailministennl hy governors appointml 
 by tlie liank of St (Jeorire. almost preclselv in 
 the manner in which, in l^nglancl. up to isav.'the 
 East Indies were ailministere<l by an 'imperlum 
 
 CORSICA. 
 
 to impeik).'"— O. B. Malleaon, «tirfi>. ft— 
 Otnom mioij, eA. S. 
 
 A. D. iS5t-tS59.— Rarelt aninat the Gtao- 
 •M rait, and rc-anbjtetiea. See Okroa: a D 
 lSa8-lSS»; and FlUIICC: A. D. 1547-1559 
 
 A. D. 1730-1769.— Th* Strarele for inde- 
 pmdenct.— ReouuiM of Kin^ Theodore — 
 Til* PaoIU.— CcMioo to Prance.— The revolt 
 of 1558 was renewed in 1584, but ended in IHT 
 upon the death of its leader, Sampiero. For the 
 next century and a half, Corsica remained in- 
 actiT<); " depressed and miserable under renewed 
 Genoese exactions and tyrannies, but too 
 exhausted to resume hostilities. In 1729. how- 
 ever, fighting again broke out, suddenly rouied 
 by one of the many private wrongs then pressing 
 upon the lower ordera, and the rebellion loon 
 spread over the whole island. It was well ori^n- 
 Ized under two leaders of energy and ability 
 and was more determined in its measures thu 
 ever. . . . Genoa had recourse to the emperor of 
 Germany, from whom she bought several thou- 
 fani. mercenaries, who were sent across the aea to 
 try their skill upon these unconquerable islanders. 
 . . . The courage and chivalry of his insular 
 foes . . . won for them the regard of the 
 opposing General Wachtendonk: and, ehieflr 
 through his mediation, a treaty, supposed to 
 be favourable to the islanders, was nmduilcd 
 Itetween Genoa and the Cortc Icfe-ialative ssserably 
 in 1732. Wachtcndonk remained in the island 
 another year to see the treaty carried nut, and in 
 June, 1734, the German general returned to tiig 
 own country. . . . But he had scarcely retited 
 before the treaty was broken. Oenoa be^ 
 anew her system of illegal arri'sts ami atlempied 
 assassinations ; and, once more, the pinpk' arine 
 under Hyacinth Paoli, an obscure nalivi' of the 
 little village of Morosaglia, hut a man <if spirit 
 and talent, and a scholar. Under the dimtion 
 of tids man, and of Oiaiferi, his ( cilUanue. a 
 democratic constitution, in tlie hiRhist ilmnt 
 prudent and practical, was framed for tb« 
 Coreican people. . . . Early in the next year 
 occurred a .'ranjte and n)nisntir iidventuiip in 
 this aiiveutureiul country. A man. h.ind«)r 
 anil welKlresseii, surrounded hv ohHiiuious 
 courtiera. and attended hy everv luxury. Ijiii.li'd 
 in the island fn>m a veswd well fiirni'<lji'd with 
 gold, ammunition, and arms Tliis ni;in whs > 
 German ativenturer, llan^n Tlninlori' vmi Ni-u- 
 hoff, who, after a romantie youth, hwl smldinly 
 ctmeeived a desire to iH-come kin;: uf (■-ir*ii.^ 
 He was a man of great talent and \« rv imI 
 fascination, of gooil judgment, and cntlMi^i.utic 
 disposition. He had fallen in hm- wiili the 
 hravi'ry and determination of the (ursicniis. iiud 
 longed ^) head smh a nation. He h:iil put him- 
 self into communii ation with t<'e lendini; i«l;iml 
 ers ; and. having really some llltu iulluriiivsi 
 the continental courts, penuadeil thei.i lliat lie 
 hml much more. He olTered to oliinin sutl^ 
 assistance from foreign ixdentales. liy lii» |"' 
 suasions, as shoiihl eneetiially oukI liie (ii-ii'ife. 
 and. In return. rei|iiest4sl ilie' crown of Corsii-a. 
 His geniuM and liisentliusissin wen- Mi;,'ri-.tl. afiil 
 his promiws *o ds«r.ljng. that, aftir some Invi- 
 tation, the jMior I'onii-ans, in tin Ir di»|'iir. 
 seiied up<m this last strawy and In M.in h. IMO. 
 Theodore was c^>wnl•d king. His cm rii»ns fnr 
 the good of this country were uiilirim: lie 
 •tiabllsbed manufactun's and pMinoted wiiti ail 
 hto power art and commerce, at ilie muic liaie 
 
 638 
 
CORSICA. 
 
 that, with all the force of hb genloi, he 
 endesTound to penuade foreign power* to lend 
 tbeir asitetaooe to his new lubjecta In the Beld. 
 Hii ityle of liTins meanwhile waa regal and 
 iumptuoui. . . . Towanla the concluaion of his 
 lint year of loTereigiitr, Theodore left Corsica 
 on 1 continental tour, with the avowed object of 
 hatteningtlie promiaed auccour. In two years be 
 returned, bringing with him three large and 
 several smaller war vesaels, handaomely laden 
 with ammunition, which had actually been raised 
 by means of his tclcnts and persuasive faculties, 
 chiefly amongst .e Dutch. But, mcanvliile, 
 tl.'; Corslcans had had ether affairs to which 
 to stteud. France had interfered at le re- 
 quest of Genoa; and negotiations were naively 
 going on, which the arrival of the pseudo-king 
 coulj only interrupt T'.teodore, althougli now 
 K well attended, found himself unheolcd ana 
 disregaifded; and after a few months was forced 
 to leave his new Icingdom to its fate, and to 
 return to the continent. Five years later, in 
 1743. he again returned, again well equipped, 
 thistim'- with English vessels, but with the same 
 ill succt- . Convmceci now that his chance was 
 over and his dream of royalty <li -troyed, Theo- 
 dore retnned to England wi' i sore heart, 
 •pendinjr liis remaining years ii, .s asylum for 
 dethmniil kings and ruined an irurers. His 
 tomb may be seen in Wcstminsttr Abbey, For 
 thenexi live and twenty years the war continued 
 between Corsica and Genoa, still fought out on the 
 blood deluged i)la ns of the unhappy little island. 
 But the republic of Genoa was now long past 
 her prime, and her energies T-ere fading Into 
 ienility ; and, bad it not been for the ever- 
 incn'asiiii; assistance of France, her intrepid foes 
 »ould loujt ere this have got the better of her 
 In M,iy. 176S. a treaty was signed between 
 Of noii unii France, by which the republic ceded 
 her ti.nv enfeebled claims on Corsica to her ally, 
 »nd left her long-oppressed victim to light the 
 contist nut with the French tnmps. During 
 thii liine. Ilrst Oaffori, then Pasfjualc Paoll, werv 
 the leaders cf the people. Gaffori, a man of 
 refinement, and a hero of skill and intrepidity, 
 was murdered in a vendetta in K.W, and in 1755 
 Pi*iuiile, youniest son of the old patriot 
 Hyaemih Paoll, left his position as officer in the 
 .Nf;i()«iiiiau service, and landed, bv the general 
 drtire of his own people, at Aleria' to underuke 
 thi' cimiraimd of the Corslcan ariny. . . . Fn)ni 
 li84 to 1798 a truce was concluded between the 
 ft** . . . In August, 17«S. the truce was to 
 ni>ln\ iMit. before the appointed day had 
 »mve,l, in army of 20,000 French sudUenly 
 iwiiop.-<| down upon the luckles" island. , ., ft 
 was a li.ip,l(SB struggle for forxica; but thi 
 benium of the undi unted people movi,l ai 
 Eun)pe to symimt'.j. , . , the Corslcans a. 
 nw ^(it il,e iH't-er of their fonnldalde fcH', at 
 the BrhU'e of Uolo, in the taking of llorgo, and 
 In utber leaser oitions, , . Meanwhile, the 
 cmintrv wm In-ing destroyed, and the troops 
 w^'mmi; ixUamted. . . . Th. Ulile of I'onte 
 Suor,,. ,m the 9th of May, 1789, at oiut- ami 
 Wrevrr .iiiiiil.lUieil the torsican cause, 
 Alter this victory, the French rapidly gained 
 P"*^""- "f the whole island, and shortly afUT- 
 wsnl«the»trii|fgle was atmndoned. . In tlu< 
 an., y,,o. iTr.S, Xapolein Ituonaparte was l«)m 
 tailH houij. <Hii of the Place du Man-he at 
 ajscdo 1 was Uirii,' he said himself iu a 
 
 CORTEa 
 
 letter to Paoli, 'the year my country died. ' "'— 
 O. Forde, A Ladi/'t Tour in Conica, r. 3 cA 18, 
 
 Al:<o is : P. Fitzgerald, Kingtand Queen* of 
 anllour, eh. l._ J. Boswell, Journal of a Tour 
 to Corniea. 
 
 A. D. i'rf4.-Conquett by the English. See 
 France : A. D. 1794 (March-July) 
 
 A. D. 1796.— Reoccupied by the French. 
 BeeFuASCE: A. D 1796 (September). 
 
 CORTENUOVA, Battle of (1236). See 
 
 Itai.v: a. D. llKJ-li'SO. V o / ^o 
 
 CORTEREALS, Voy.gei of the. See 
 Amkkua : A. I), irm. 
 
 aS?'?M.?^\?^'*''ANDO. See Mexico: 
 A. D. 1519 to 1521-15a4. 
 
 CORTES, The early Spanish.— The oli 
 monarchical constitutions of Castile and 
 Aragon.— "The earliest instance on record of 
 popular representation in Castile occurred at 
 Burgos, in 1189; nearly a century antecedent to 
 the celebrated Leicester parliament. Esich city 
 had but one vote, whatever might he the number 
 pt its representatives. A much greater irregu- 
 larity, in regard to the number of cities recuiFet. 
 to send d»puties to cortes [the name signfying 
 court ] on different occasions, prevailed n Cas- 
 Ule, than had ever existed in England ; i .ough 
 previously to the 15th century, this does not 
 seem to have procee'ied from any design of in- 
 fringing on the liL.rtics of the people The 
 nominatior .f these was originally vested in the 
 householders at Iprge, but was afterwanls con- 
 Oned to the municipalities.— a most mischievous 
 a teration. which f abjectcd theirelection eventu- 
 ally to the corrupt iutiuence of the crown They 
 assembled in the same che.mber with the higher 
 oruers of the nobility and clergy, but on (lues- 
 tions of moment, retired to deliberate by them- 
 selves. After the transaction of other busiiess 
 their own petitions were pre«-nted to the sover- 
 eign, ami his assent gave them the validity of 
 laws. The Castilion commons, by neglecting to 
 make their money granU depend on corri'spond- 
 ing concesshms from the crown, ' inuuisheii 
 that powerful check on its operations so bene- 
 flciolly cxertei! m the British parliam ,. but in 
 vain contended for even there till a i.nich later 
 iKTimI than that now under coiisi,|,.ratloH 
 Whatever may have Ik>iu the rijrht f the no- 
 bility ami eleri'v to attend in cortes, jieir sanc- 
 tion was i.of deemeii essential to the valiilitv of 
 legislative acts; for Mieir presence wa,< not e'ven 
 roiiulrcd in many assemblies of the natiim which 
 occurred in the 14ti. ami l.ltli crnturies. The 
 extraordinary power thusconimituil to the com- 
 mons mas. 11 the whole, uiifavoraldo to their 
 liberties. It deprived lliem of tlie sympathy and 
 cixiperalion of the gnat orders of the slate, whose 
 aiitliorily alone could he . nabled them to with- 
 stand thi' encroiK imentf 'litrary (lower, and 
 who. in fait, did event, esert them in their 
 utnuwi need . Tlie gonese cortes was 
 comiKwd of four Imimhi ,. or arms; the ricos 
 hoi ires, or tn at 'larons; the lesst-r nobles, com- 
 prt'liemlini,' iIh- knights; the clergy; and the 
 common- The nobility of every denomination 
 were eiiiitliil to a wat in the legislature. The 
 ricos honilTi » wi n- allowed to appear by proxy, 
 und s ^i!n!lar privi'.e'.'e n ax en (ovit! h^'h^rnni'si 
 heiri'sses. The niiin,«r of fhlslKKlv was very 
 limited, twelve of them constlliiting a quorum. 
 The arm of the ecclesiasllcs embraced an ample 
 
 C30 
 
CORTES. 
 
 COUTES. 
 
 
 delegation from the inferior as well u higher 
 clergy. It ii affirmed not to hare \^ven a con:- 
 ponunt of the national legislature until more il«>a 
 a century and a half after the udinissio-.. of the 
 commons. Indeed, the intluenoe of f.ie church 
 was much less sensible in Aragon )jan in the 
 other kingdoms of the Peninsula. . . . The com- 
 mons enjoyed higher consideration and civil 
 privileges. For this they were perhaps somt- 
 wh : indebted to the example of their Catalan 
 neighbors, the influ jnce of whose democra*'. in- 
 stitutions naturall)' extended to other parts of 
 the Aragonese monarchy. The charters of certain 
 cities accorded to the inhabitants privileges 
 of nobility, particularly that of immunity from 
 taxation; while the magistrates of others were 
 permitted to tak<' iheir seats in the order of 
 hidalgos. From i very early periixi we find 
 them e.nployeil in offices of public tr.ist, and on 
 important missions. The epoch of their ailmis- 
 sion into the national assembly is traced as far 
 back as 1133, several years earlier than the com- 
 mencement of popular representation in Custih. 
 Each city liitd the right of sending two or more 
 deputies selected from persons eligible to its 
 maf;istracy ; but with the privilege of only one 
 vote, whatever might be the numlMT of its depu- 
 ties. Any place wnicV lad been oniie represented 
 in cortes might alw,.js claim to 1m> s.. By a 
 statute of 13()7, the convcwation of the states, 
 which had iH-en annual, was declared biennial. 
 The kings, however, paid little regard to thi"! 
 pro\ision, rarely siiniinouine them e.\rept lor 
 some specilie ijecessity. The great <aiccrs of 
 the crown, whateviT might Ik- their pi'rsonal 
 rank, were jealously cxiluileil fr.>m their delib- 
 erations. ... It was in the ixiwer of any mem- 
 iK'r to defeat lln' p:i«.sage of ii bill, by opposing 
 ti> it his veto or dissent, formally regislerol to 
 that effect. He niiiilit even interpose his nega- 
 tive on the priiceediiiiis of the house, iiul thus 
 put a stop to the prosi'eutiou of all further busi- 
 ness during tlii' session. This anomalous privi- 
 lege, trnnsceiidlng even that elaime<i in the 
 Polish diet, must have iH'eii too invlilious in its 
 excreis<', and too i«Tnieious in its consi'ciuences, 
 to have lieen ofte: resorted to. This may be in- 
 ferred fn>ni the fuet that it was not formally ri'- 
 r.'aleil until the reign of Philip || . in l.TOJ, . . . 
 The cortes exereiwd the hii;li<'st functions, 
 whethe. of a delilK'rative, legislativr, or judieiid 
 nature. It had a right to !h' coiiNiiliecf on all 
 matters of importauee, espeeiallv on those of 
 peace and war. No law was viiliil. ni> tax eoiilil 
 be i,..l)osi li, without its ciui.wut ; and it earifully 
 ])n)\ided for the appliontion of tin- revenue to 
 its ilustined uses. It di terinined tlii' Murtssion 
 to the crown. remove<l obno.xious niinislirs, ri'- 
 fmmd the household and domestic exiH-nditure 
 <if the monarch, and exertisiil the iiower, in the 
 most unn^wrved manner, of witlilioldlng sup- 
 plies, as Will as of resisting what it ngardeti a* 
 an enepuiihinent on the lilHTIiis of the nation. 
 . . . The statute-book aHimls the most uiuHjuivo- 
 eal evlileiiiT of the tidelity with which the 
 guaniiansof the realm diM-harired theliich trust 
 ri'pivsed in them, in the niinienuiH enaetnients It 
 exhibits for the seeuritv l«nli of |H'rson and 
 liro|M'rty. Almost the llrst piiire which meets 
 the eye In this veiieMlile reeord eontjiios the 
 (ieneivl Privilege, the .Manila Charta. as it has 
 iH-en well deuomiimled. of .\ragon. It Wu 
 Kruuted by Peter the Ureat to the cortit tt Skrs- 
 
 goasa, in 1388. It embraces a variety of 
 visions for the fair and open administratlo 
 justice; for ascertaining tlie legitimate no' 
 intrusted to the cortes ; : or the security of p 
 erty against exactions of the crown; anil fm 
 coiiservation of their legal immunities to the 
 nicipal corporations and the different onier 
 nob'litv. . . . The Aragonese, who rijrlitlj 
 eurde»f th» General Piivilege as the broa 
 basis of their liberties, repeatedly pni;urei 
 eonflrmatiou by succeeding sovereigns. . . 
 judicial functions of H cortes iiave not 1 
 sufficiently noticed by writers. Tlay were 
 tensive in their operation, and gave it tlic d 
 of the General Court."— \V. if. Prcs<ott, i 
 of the litigii of Finlinarut ami .luilnlla, inti 
 If ft. 1-2. — " Castile Ixire acloseraualogvtol 
 land in its form of civil polity than t"ninr 
 even Aniiron. But the frequent disonlirs ol 
 governing and a tiarl)an>ns state of niau 
 rendere<l violations of law much nicmt ciiiitii 
 and flagrant than they were in Eii.L-l:in>l ui 
 the Plantagcnet dynasty. And be.M.l.s tl 
 practical mischiefs, there were two essential 
 fects in the constitution of Castile, Ilin iu:.'li b I 
 perhaps it was ultimately subverted. It \ ai 
 those two brilliants in the coronet of liritisli 
 erty, tlie representation of freehol.lers amone 
 commons, and trial by jury. The corns of ( 
 tile became a congress of deputies fruru a 
 cities, public 8pirit(Hl, indeed, and iiilnpi.l 
 we And them in Imd times, to an eiiiini iit di i; 
 but too much limited iu numlHr. iiiul l.m uiu 
 nected with the territorial aristiMTi(\ , to m: 
 tain a just balance against the crow ji' ... I 
 haps in no European monarchy exe> pt niir ( 
 was the form of goveniment" more intcnsl 
 than in Aragon, as a fortunate ti rnpeniiueui 
 law and justice with the 'oyal aiitlioiily. 
 Blaneas quotes a noble passage frcuii tlif art! 
 cortes in 14"il. 'We have always lu.iniuf 
 time, and it is found by exixTienii'. iliat mt 
 the great barrenness of "this land, umlliic |«ui 
 of the realm, if it were not for tin li!nr 
 thereof, tlie folk would go heme tci live ! 
 abide in otiier realms and lands m rr fniiif 
 This high spirit of freedom hud In.' aiiiiiu 
 the Aragonese. After several CllllIl-l^ with 
 crown in the reign of James I., nut t.. i;.. hail 
 earlier times, they c<mipelled IVter III in 1 
 to grant a law called tlie Genenil I'ruiliic. 
 Alau'iia C'lmrta of Aragon. and perli ii'> a in 
 full and satisfactory basis of civil iil" rty i 
 ourown." They further "eslalilislul « |i.)>il 
 rinlil of maintaining lli^ir liliirlii« I'V ar 
 Tills was contained in llie I'Hvilei;. of I'n 
 granted by Alfonso III. in 1'.'-<T. allc r a vi.il 
 eiiiilliet with his sulijeels; !i'il whiili wis af 
 wards so completely alKilislied. iiiid i veii iTi 
 cutiil from the ri-conlsof tlie kin.;'liiiii tli.it 
 iinvLse Words have never lien reinviinl . 
 That watchfulness over pulilie lilnrty wli 
 originally belonitiil to the arisi.Hruv of ri 
 hombres . , . and which was afierwiirls nii 
 tained by the dangenms Privilege of I uimi. 
 came the duty of u civil magistiati ulin«i ul 
 and functions an- the most plea-iiiL' fialim 
 the constitutional history of Arai-'n TlifJ 
 ti7.a or Justiciary of Aragon has Imn tpainl 
 Slime writers t)s a sort of l|^lln!■•l•'ll^ mai^istn 
 . . . But I do not iK'rceive lluit In* tuii.ii 
 were. In any essential n'»|H'el. i1iiT.mii I.' 
 tllUM ol tiu) Cill«{ Justice of Kuglaini. liiviil 
 
 640 
 
CORTES. 
 
 COSSACKa 
 
 fmm the time of Edward I., among the ju'^gcs 
 of the King's Bench. . . . All the royal as .veil 
 u trrritoiial judges were bouD<'. t:^ ."vplj for his 
 opinion in caae of legal difficulties arising in their 
 courts, which he was to certify within eight 
 days. By subsequent statutes of the same retga 
 ii vas made penal for any one to obtain letters 
 from the king, impeding the execution of the 
 Justiza's process, and they were declared null. 
 Inferior courts were forbidden to proceed in any 
 busia-'ss after bis prohibition. . . . There are 
 two parts of his remedial jurisdiction which de- 
 serrc special notice. These arc the processes of 
 juris firms, or flrma del derechio, antf of manifes- 
 itiiin. The former bears sorne analogr to the 
 writs of ' pone ' and ' certiorari ' in England, 
 through which the Court of King's Rench excr- 
 lises Its right of withdrr.wing a suit from the 
 jurisdiction of inferior tribunals. Bu:, the Ara- 
 jTon,...' juris flrma was cf more extensive opera- 
 lion. . . . The procesi. termed manifestation 
 •ffonied as ample security for personal liberty as 
 tiut of juris tirma did foi property. " — H. Hallara, 
 Tilt MiMU Aga, eA. 4 ' •. 2). — For some account 
 of the hns of the old . institutional liberties of 
 (■«8!ilc and Aragon, under Charles V. , see Spain : 
 .V. P. 131*-15i3. — " The councils or meetings of 
 iIk bishops after the reconcjuest, like the later 
 I'liumils of Toledo, were always ' jussu regis,' 
 Mil were attended by counts and magnates 'ad 
 Tiileniium sine ad audiendum verbura Domini.' 
 Bu*. when the ecclesiastical business was endetl, 
 it was natural that th>> la" part of the asst-m- 
 I'ly should discuss the affairs of the kingdom 
 311(1 uf tlie people: and insensibly this after- 
 part of the pr<K-ee(lings grew as the first part 
 •liminiiliiil in importance. The exact date when 
 ilii- Council merged Into the Curia or Cortes 
 is ilillicult to determine; Hefior Colmeiro takes 
 liio sousmcd Council of Leon in WHt s tlie 
 irue stnrting-point of the latter. 'Tli early 
 nimaR of Spain was eli'ctive, and the accla- 
 wtion ( the assembleil people (plelis) was at 
 least theoretically necessary to render the king's 
 iliYti II viilid. "The pusence of tlie citizens at 
 ill' I rtes or Zamora, though stated by Sando- 
 val and Monies, is impugned by Senor Col- 
 meini; but lit the Council of Oviedo in 1115 were 
 presenl bishops of Spain and Portugal 'cuin 
 principibiiH ft pli^be pnie<lirtae rcgionis,' ami 
 these biltir also suliscrilied the Acts. Still, 
 thouiih 1 n-»-ni a id making their influence more 
 and mori' fiit. tb re i« no rcrnnl of a true repre- 
 «entation of cities until .Vlfonso IX. convoked 
 tbe Cortes of Leon in IIHH, 'cum iirchiepisicopo, 
 ft epis<d|ii.s. et :nagnntiliu» regni mel et cum 
 fle<tis civihus t x singulis civitatlbus ' ; from this 
 time the three estates— clergy, nobles, citizens 
 -^weru always repreaente<l lu the Cortes of Leon, 
 Unfiirtuiwtely, the political development of Cas- 
 tiUedid not synclironlsc with that of Leon, In 
 pneial, that of CaitiUe was fullv half a century 
 later We pas* by as more tlian doubtful the 
 illeged imsence ol citizens at BiirgiH in llSIt; 
 the iimjores civitatum et villnruin ' at the 
 Cortes of Carrion in 1188 were not ilepiiiii-s, but 
 the jud(!es or governors of twentv-efght cilieM. 
 It li not till the united Cortes of biith kingdoms 
 met St Svillr In 1S50. that we find true repn>. 
 wntatii.n in Caslllli., CMtille was always nv.m- 
 lemial than Ijon. It is in this want of simul- 
 isneous development, and in the presence of 
 pri»lliged classes, that we llnd the germ of the 
 
 41 
 
 041 
 
 evils which eventually destroyed the liberties of 
 Spain. Neither the number of deputies nor of 
 the cities represented was ever fixed . at Burgos, 
 in 1315, we find 800 deputies (procutadores) from 
 100 cities; gradually the number sank till seven- 
 teen, and finally twenty-two, cities alone were 
 represented. The deputies were chosen from 
 the municipality either by lot, by rotation, or by 
 eection; they were the mere spokesmen of the 
 city councils, whose mandate was imperative. 
 Their payment was atu.it by the cities, but 
 after 1422, by the king; and there are constjint 
 complain'j thut the salary was insufflci(;nt. The 
 reign of Juan II. (1406-54) was fatal to the liber- 
 ties of iJastille; the answers to the demands end 
 petiti.>n8 of the deputies were deferred; and, in 
 
 act, if not in form, the hiw that no tax should 
 be levied without consent of the Cortes was con- 
 stantly violated. Still, but for the death of 
 Fnnce Juan, in 1497, and the advent of the 
 Austrian dynasty with the possession of the 
 Low Countries, the old liberties might yet have 
 been recovered. . . . With the Cortes of Toledo, 
 in 1538, ended the meeting of the three estates. 
 The nobility first, then the clergy, wcnj elimi- 
 nated from the Cortes, leaving only the proctors 
 of the cities to become servile instruments for 
 the purposes of taxation."— W. Webster, Hetieu) 
 of Culmtiro't " Cori . de lot Antiguot Reintf de 
 Leon y de dMilUi " Aeademy, Aug. 16, 1884) 
 
 CORUNNA, Battle of (1809). See Spaln: 
 .V. D. 1808-1809 (AcocsT-^AXi-ART). 
 
 CORUPEDION, Battle of.— A battle fought 
 in western Phrygia, B. C. 281, in which Lvsim- 
 machus, one of the disputarts for Alexander's 
 empire, was defeated by Seleucus. and slain.— 
 C. Thlrlwall, Ilitt. of Greeee, ch. 60. 
 
 CORVEE.— Oneof the feudal rights possessed 
 in France (under the eld regime, before the Revo- 
 lution) " by the lord of the manor over his sub- 
 jects, by means of which he could employ for 
 his own profit a certain number of their days of 
 lalM)iir, or of their oxen and horses. The ' Cor- 
 vee a volonte.' that is to cay, at the arbitrarr 
 will of the Seigneur, had been completely abol- 
 ished [before the Revolution] : forced labour had 
 lieeii for some time past confined to a certain 
 iiumlK-rot 'lays a-year. "— A. de Tocqueville, On 
 1,'ic Siite oj Sofietj/ in France before 1789 note 
 4 K. (/.. 400). 
 
 CORVUS, The Roman. See Pt.Nic AV*R, 
 The First 
 
 COS, OR KOS.— (^ .• of the islands In the 
 -Egean called the Sporades. uear the Carian 
 coiist of Asia .Minor. The isUnd was sacred to 
 Asclepius, or .E.sculipeiis. and was the birth- 
 place of thecelebrattHl phytician Hippocrates, as 
 well as of the painter .ijiefles. It was an .Colian 
 colonv, but joined the l)oH-u cimfeiU'iicv 
 
 CO'SIMO DE' MEDICI, The atce'nduicj 
 at Florence of. Se-e Florence: A. D ll"Jj- 
 1464 
 
 COSMOS, COSMIOS, COSMOPOLIS. 
 S«' Dr.Mti'Hoi. 
 
 COSSACKS, The.-" The origin of the cos- 
 sack tribes Is lost In the obscarity of ages; and 
 many celetirated historians are still divided in 
 ojiinion as to whence the term Cossack, or rather 
 Kosaiiiie, is properly to be derived. This woni. 
 Indeed, is amerptlhle nt «n muny rtymi>!.".ij!i id 
 explauations. a* scarcely to olTer'for'anv one of 
 them deciiled grounds of preference. " Every- 
 thing, however, would seem to favour the belief 
 
i^i; 
 
 a- 
 
 COSSACKS. 
 
 that the word Cowsck, or Eoaaque, wu In much 
 earUer uae in the vichiity of the Caucasus than 
 In the Ukraine. . . . Sherer, in his 'Annals of 
 Ruiria Minor,' (La Petite Russie,) trace* back 
 the origin of the Cossacks to the ninth ce. *ury ; 
 but he does not support his assertion by any 
 facta clothed with the dignity of historical truth. 
 It appears certain, however, that the vast pas- 
 ture lands between the Don and the Dnieper, the 
 country lying on the south of Klow, and trav- 
 ersed by the Dnieper up to the Black Sea, was 
 the p-incipal birthplace of the Cossacks. When, 
 in 1343, Batukhan came with 500,000 men to 
 take possession of the empire which fell to his 
 shr.re of the vast inheritance left by Tchingis 
 Khan [see Mongols: A. D. 1329-1394], he extir- 
 pated many nations and di8place<l many others. 
 One portion of the ivomans flying from the 
 horrors of this terrific storm, and arriving on the 
 borders of the Caspian Sea, on the banks of the 
 lalk, (now Ouralsek,) turned to the left, and took 
 refuge between the embouchures of that river, 
 where thev dwelt in small numbers, apart from 
 their brethren, in a less fertile climate. These 
 were, incontestably, the progenitors of the Cos- 
 sacks of the lalk, 'wh.> are, historically, scarcely 
 important enough for notice. ... At the 
 approach of this formidable invasion towards the 
 Don. that portion of the Kumnns located on the 
 left bank took refi ge in the marshes, and in the 
 numerous islands t jrmcd by that river near its 
 embouchure. Here they found a secure retreat ; 
 and from thence, having, from their new posi- 
 tion, acquired maritime hnbits and seafaring ex- 
 perience, they not only, themselves, resorted to 
 ftiracy as a means of existence, but likewise en- 
 isteif in a formidable confederacy, fur purposes 
 of rapine and pillage, all the roving and discon- 
 tented tribes in thru surrounding neighbour- 
 hood. Tliese latter were very numerous. The 
 Tartars, ever but indifferent seamen, I ad not the 
 courage to join them in these piratical expe- 
 ditions. This division of the Romans is in- 
 dubitably the parent stock of the modern Cos- 
 sacks of tlie Don, by far the most numerous of 
 the Cossack tribes: by amalganmtion, however, 
 with whole hosts of Tartar and Calmuck hordes, 
 lawless, desperate, and uomailic uii themselves, 
 thej lost, in some degree, the primitive and 
 deeply marked distinctive character of their race. 
 The Komatu of the Dnieper offireil no more 
 energetic resistance to the invading hortles of 
 Batukhan than had been sliown by their brethren 
 of the Don: they dispersed in various directions, 
 and from this people, flying at the advance of 
 the ferocious Tartars, dWended a variety of 
 honles. who occasionally figure in histor\' as 
 distinct and independent nations. . . . ITIiey] 
 ultljnately found a permanent resting-place in 
 the wild islet* of the Dnieper, lielow the cata- 
 racts, where dwelt already a small number of 
 their ancient compatriots, who had escu|H'd the 
 general destruction of their nation. This spot 
 became the cradle of the Coiaack* of tlie I'kraine. 
 or of the tribes known in after times as the I'ollsh 
 Cossacks. When Ouedynum, Orand Duke of 
 Lithuania, after having defeated twelve Kussian 
 princes on the banlu of the PiCma, conquereil 
 klow with its depeiidencies in 1820, the wander- 
 ing tri'jes scHttered ',>ver the steppes of the 
 Ukraine owned his allegiance. After the vic- 
 tories of Olgierd, of Vitold, and of Ladialaa 
 ImgeUun, over the Tartan and the Ri 
 
 COTARH. 
 
 larg« bodlM of Scythian militia, known tubie 
 quentlv by the comprehensive denominatioa o 
 CoaiacEi, or Koaaques, served under these con 
 querors: and after the union of the Grasc 
 Duchy of Lithuania with Poland, in 138A. thej 
 continued under the dominion of the grand duke 
 of Lithuania, forming, apparently, an iuternieili 
 ate tribe or caste, superior to the peasautn- am 
 infe-ior to the nobles. At a later perioii, whei 
 the Ukraine was annexed to the Polish crown 
 they passed under the protection of the kinns o 
 Poland. . . . Although there may, doubtless 
 exist several species or castes of Cossacks, andtc 
 whom Russia in order to impose on Europe, i 
 pleased to give as many different naiues, rei 
 there never have been, nor will there ever be 
 properly speaking, more than two principa 
 tribes of the Cossack nation, namely tlie Cos 
 sacks of the Don, or Don-Cossackt, and tlie Cot 
 sacks of the Black Sea, known in ancient timei 
 as the Polish Cossaclis, or Zaporowscy Kuzacr 
 . . . The Cossacks [of the Don] . . . Imve ren 
 dered signal service to Russia, which, ever sina 
 the year 1549, has taken them under her |irutec 
 tion, without, however, the existence of anj 
 official act, treaty, or stipulation, rnnfirmini 
 their submission to that power. . . The Don 
 Cossaclts enjoy a certain kind of lilnrty and 
 independence; they have a hetman, attuniiin, oi 
 chief, nominated by the Eniperor of Ru.s«ia: and 
 to this chief they yield an obedience more or less 
 willing and implicit ; in general, tlu y nre com 
 ma. '.cd only by Cossack officers, who take equal 
 rank in the Russian army. They Imve a sipa 
 rate war administration of their own ; ulllioiigh 
 they are compelled to furnish a stated nuiiilxrol 
 recruits who serve in a manner for life, iuasmucb 
 as they are rarely discharged before att:imiug 
 sixty years of age: on the whole, their (onditiuii 
 is happier than that of the rest of the lius.siaii 
 |K>pulation. They belong to the Greek Hussiui 
 church. The existence of this small npublic ol 
 the Don, in the very heart of the most despotic 
 and most extensive empire in the world, appean 
 to constitute a problem, the solution i]f whi'-li 
 is not as yet definitely known, and the ultimate 
 solution of which yet remains to U' asiertaiiied." 
 — H. Krasinski, The Otrnflc* of tht VknUut.ch. 
 1. —The Cossacks of the Ukraine transfcrreil theii 
 allegiance from the King of Poland to the I'zaroi 
 Russia in 1654, after a revolt led by tlieir hetman, 
 Bogdan Klimelnitski, in which they were assisted 
 by the nelgiiboriu;.' Tartars, and which was ac- 
 companied by terrible scenes of sluu)i;hter and 
 destruction. See Poland: A. I). llH»-lt)i4. 
 
 COSSiEANS, The, See Ko»».«am' 
 
 COSTA RICA: A, D. 150J.— Discovery b; 
 Columbui. See Amehic.v : A. 0. 14ilH-l.V)V 
 
 A. D, I8i3-l894.— Independence of Spiin.- 
 Brief anaexatioD to Mexico.— The failures of 
 federation, the warsandrevolutionsof Central 
 America. See Cknthai. Amkiiica : A. 1>. IS'.M- 
 1K71 ; 1»71-1885, ami 18S8-1894. 
 
 A. 
 and the [ 
 ABAOl-A: A.' I). ItifiU 
 
 D. 1850,— The Clayton Bulwer Treaty 
 the projected Nicaragua Canal, ^v Nic- 
 
 COSTANOAN FAMILY, The. Sec Amiw 
 CAN Aboriuines: Costanoan Family 
 
 COSTER, Laurent, and the inventioa of 
 printiur. See Pkintino: A. D. 14;ii>-l4«a, 
 
 COTARII. See Sl&vsbt, Meducvai i»ii 
 Mui< n: BuoLallD. 
 
 642 
 
COTHON OF CARTHAGE. 
 
 COTTON MANUFACTURE. 
 
 COTHON OF CARTHAGE, Th«.— • ' There 
 mn two Und-locked dock* or harboun, openir j 
 tlw one Into the other, and both, it would aeem, 
 the work of human bands. . . . The outer harbour 
 wu rectangular, about 1,400 feet long and 1,100 
 bioad, and wai appropriated to mercluuit venela ; 
 theinnerwai circular like a drinking cup, whence 
 it was called the Cotbon, and was reserved for 
 diips of war. It could not be approached except 
 tluuugh the merchant harbour, sod the entrance 
 to this last was only 70 feet wide, and could be 
 doled St any time by chains. The war liarbour 
 WIS entirely surrounded by quays, containing 
 ■epsrste docks for 280 ships. In front of each 
 dock were two Ionic pillars of marble, so that 
 the whole must have presented the appearance 
 of s splendid circular colonnade. Right in the 
 centre of the harbour was an isUnd, the head- 
 qusrtersof the admiral." — R. B. Smith, Carthage 
 ni th* Carlhaginiant, ch. 30. 
 
 COTSETI. See Slavebt, Heductal akd 
 
 MODIBN: EnOLAND. 
 
 COTTON, Rer. John, and the colony of 
 Massachusetts Bay. SeeMAaBAcm;aETT8:A.D. 
 1«31-1638. 
 
 COTTON FAMINE, The. See Ekoulkd: 
 A D. 1861-1865. 
 
 COTTON-GIN : '£li V'hitney's invention 
 and its effects. Sei.- Unit.kd Statks of Am. : 
 A D. 1793 and 181H-lttil. 
 
 COTTON MANUFACTURE: The great 
 iiTcntions in spinning; and weaving. — ' ' Cotton 
 bad bei'n used in the extreme East and in the ex- 
 treme West from the earliest periods of which 
 we bavc any record. The Spaniards, on their 
 dlscuvery of America, found the Mexicans clothed 
 in cotton. . . . But though the use of cotton had 
 been known from the earliest ages, both in India 
 and America, no cotton goods were imported 
 into Europe ; and in the ancient world both rich 
 and poor wei ^ clothed in silk, linen, and wool. 
 The induMrious Moors introduced cotton into 
 Spain. Many centuries afterwards cotton was 
 lm|xirted into Italy, Saxony and the Low Coun- 
 triw. Isolated from the rest of Europe, with 
 little wi^alth, little Industry, and no roads; rent 
 by civil cummutions ; the English were the last 
 people in Europe to introduce the manufacture 
 of cotton goods Into their own homes. Towards 
 thecloaeof the 16th century, indeed, cotton goods 
 *tre occasionally mentioniKl in the Statute Book, 
 and the manufacture of the cottons of Manches- 
 ter was rcgulatrd by Acta passed in the reigns 
 of Henry VIH., Edward VI., and Elizabeth. 
 But there seem to tie good reasons for conclud- 
 ing that Manchester cottons, in the time of the 
 Tudors, were woollen goods, and did not consist 
 of cotton at all. More than r. century elapsed 
 liefore any considerable trade in cotton attracted 
 the attention of the legislature. The woollen 
 manuf;icturiTS complaint that people were dress- 
 ing their children in printe 1 cottons ; and Par- 
 liament was actually persuiided to prohibit the 
 introduction of Indian pri ited calicoes. Even 
 an Act of Parliament, ho»;i ver, was unable to 
 eitluKuish the growing taste for Indian cottons. 
 ■ . . The taste for cotton led to the introduction 
 of calico-printing in London ; Parliament in order 
 to encourage the new trade, was induce<i to 
 •suction the importation of plain cotton clotha 
 from India under a duty. The demand, which 
 WIS thus created for calicoes, probably promotetl 
 their manufacture at borne. ... Up to the mid- 
 
 dle of the last century cotton goods were really 
 never made at all. The so-called cotton manu- 
 factures were a combination of wool or linen and 
 cotton. No Englishman had been able to pro- 
 duce a cotton thread strong enough for the warp. 
 . . . The superior skill of the IndUn manufac- 
 turers enabled them to use cotton for a warp ; 
 while clumsy workmanship made the use of cot- 
 ton as a warp unattainable at home. In the 
 middle of the 18th century, then, a piece of cot- 
 ton cloth in the true sense of the term, had never 
 been made in England. The so-called cotton 
 goods were all made in the cottages of the 
 weavers. The yam was carded by hind ; it waa 
 spun by hand ; it was worked Into cloth by a 
 hand loom. . . . The operation of weaving was, 
 however, much more rapid than that of spinning. 
 The weaver consumed more weft than his own 
 family could supply him with; and the weavers 
 gen rally experienced the greatest difficulty in 
 obtaining sutticient yam. About the middle of 
 the 18th century the ingenuity of two persons, 
 a father and a son, made this difference more 
 apparent. The shuttle had originally been thrown 
 by the hand from one end of the loom to the 
 other. John Kay, a native of Bury, bv his in- 
 vention of the dv-shuttle [patented in 1733], 
 saved the weaver from this labour. . . . Robert 
 Kay, John Kay's son, added the drop-box, by 
 means of which the weaver was able ' to use any 
 one of three shuttles, each containing a different 
 coloured weft, without the trouble of taking 
 them from and replacing them in the lathe. ' By 
 means of these inventions the productive power 
 of each weaver was doubled. . . . Carding and 
 roving were both slowly performed. . . . The 
 trade was in this humble and primitive state 
 when a series of extraordinary and unparalleled 
 inventions revolutionised the conditions on which 
 cotton had been hitherto prepared. A little 
 more than a century ago John Hiirgreaves. a poor 
 weaver in the neighbourho<xl of Blackburn, was 
 returning home from a long walk, in which he 
 hau been purchasing a furthur supply of yam 
 for his loom. As he entered his cottage, his wife 
 Jenny accidentally upset the spindle which she 
 was using. Uargreaves noticed that the spindles 
 which were now thrown into au upright position, 
 continued to revolve, and that the thread was 
 still spinning in his wife's hand. The idea im- 
 mediately occurred to him that it would be pos- 
 sible to connect a considerable numl)er of up- 
 right spindles with one wlieel. and thus multiply 
 the productive power of eiich spinster. . . . Har- 
 greaves succeeded in keeping his admirable in- 
 vention secret for n time ; but the powera of his 
 machine soon became known. His ignorant 
 neighboura hastily concluded that a machine, 
 which enabled one spinster to do the work of 
 eight, would throw multitudes of persons out of 
 employment. A >-' j broke into his house and 
 destroyed his machine. Hargreaves himself had 
 to retire to Nottingham, where, with the friendly 
 assistance of another person, he wua able to take 
 out a patent [17701 for the spinuingjenny, as the 
 machmc. in compliment to hi industrious wife, 
 was called. The invention of tlie spinning-jeimy 
 
 gave a new impulse to the cotton manufacture. 
 at the . . . yarn spun by the Jenny, like that 
 which had previously tieen spun by hand, wag 
 neither fine enough nor hard enough to be em- 
 ployed as warp, and linen or woollen threads had 
 conseiiuently to be used for this purpoee. In 
 
 643 
 
i 
 
 COTTON MANWACTUnE. 
 
 the TMT ye«r, bowcTer, in which Harfn^ave* 
 noTcd Rom BUckburn to NottlDEham. Richard 
 Arkwrigbt [who began life as a barber's anlatant] 
 took out a patent [1769] for hia itill more cele- 
 brated maraine. . . . ' After many yean intenae 
 and painful application,' he inTented hia mem- 
 orable machine for spinning by rollers; and laid 
 the foundatlona of the gigantic industry which 
 haa done more than any other trade to concen- 
 trate in thla country the wealth of the world. 
 ... He passed the thread over two pain of 
 rollera, one of which was made to revolve much 
 more rapidly than the other. The thread, after 
 paaaing the pair revolving slowlv, was drawn 
 into the requisite tenuitv by the rollen revolving 
 at a higher rapidity. By this simple but mem- 
 orable invention Arkwright succeeded in pro- 
 ducing thread capable of emplojrment aa warp. 
 From the circumstance that the mill at which 
 his machinery was flnt erected was driven by 
 water power, the machine received the somewhat 
 inappropriate name of the water frame; the 
 thread spun by it was usually called the water 
 twist. Invention of the spinning-lenny and the 
 water frame would have been UBefess if the old 
 system of hand-carding had not been superseded 
 by a more efficient and more rapid process. Just 
 as Arkwright applied rotatory motion to spin- 
 ning, so Lewis Paul introduced revolving cylin- 
 dera for carding cotton. . . . This extraonlinarv 
 series of inventions placed an almost uciniiletl 
 supply of yam at the dinposal of the weaver. But 
 the macbiniry, which had thus been introduced, 
 was still incapable of providing yam fit for the 
 finer qualities of cotton cloth. . . . This defect, 
 however, was removed by the ingenuity of Samuel 
 Crompton, a young weaver residing near Bolton. 
 Crompton succeeded in combining in one machine 
 the various excellences ' of Arkwright's water 
 frame and Hargreaves' Jenny." Like the former, 
 his machine, which from its nature is happily 
 called the mule, ' has a system of rollen to re- 
 duce the roving: and like the latter it haa spin- 
 dles without bobbins to give the twist . . . The 
 effects of Crompton's great invention may be 
 stated epigrammatically. . . . The natives of 
 India could spin a pound of cotton into a thread 
 111* miles long.' The English succeed in spin- 
 niLg the same thread to a length of 180 miles. 
 Yam of the finest quality was at once at the dis- 
 posal of the weaver. . . . The ingenuity of Har- 
 greaves. Arkwright and Crompton had been 
 exercised to provide the weaver with yam. . . 
 The spinster hod beaten the weaver. . . . Ed- 
 mund Cartwright, a clergyman njsiding in Kent, 
 happened to be staying at MatUxrk in the sum- 
 mer of 1784, and to be thrown Into the company 
 of some Manchester gentlemen. The conversa- 
 tion turned on Arkwright's machinery, and • one 
 of the company observed that, as soon as Ark- 
 wright's patent expired, so many mills would lie 
 erected and so much cotton spun that hands 
 would never be found to weave it' Cartwright 
 replied ' that Arkwright must then set bis wiu to 
 work to hivent a weaving mill. ' . . . Within 
 three yean he had himself proved that the in- 
 vention was practicable by producing the power- 
 loom. Subsequent inventon improved the Idea 
 which Cartwright had originated, ami within 
 fifty yean from the date of his memorable vi«it 
 to Matlock there were not less than 100, UOO power- 
 looms at work in Great Britain alone. . . . Other 
 Inventions, less generally rememlirred, were 
 
 COUNT AND DUES. 
 
 hardly less wonderful or leia beneflclal than thescL 
 . . . Scheele, the Swedish philoaopher, discovend 
 in 1774 the bleaching properties of chlorine or 
 oxymuriatic add. BerthoUet, the French chem- 
 ist, conceived the idea of applying the add to 
 bleachinc cloth. . . . In the same year in vliich 
 Watt aoa Henry were introducing the new acid 
 to the bleacher. Bell, a Scotchman, was larioir 
 the foundations of a trade in printed raliooe^ 
 ' The old method of printing was by bl.:olu o( 
 sycamore.' . . . Thia clumsy process wax super- 
 seded by cylinder printing. . . . Such are tie 
 leading inventions, which made Great Britaio in 
 less than a century the wealthiest country in the 
 world.'— 8. Walpole, Hi*t. of Eng. from 1815 
 r. 1, th. 1. 
 
 Also in: R W. C. Taylor, Intnd. to a But 
 of the Faetory SgUem, eh. 10.— E. Boines. Uitt 
 oftht Cotton Manvfaeture in Oreat Britain.— ii 
 Ure, Th« Cotton ManvfacturttfOrtat Britain 
 
 COULMIERS, Battle of (1870), See 
 France: A. D. 1870-1871. 
 
 COUNC4L BLUFFS, The Mormons at 
 See HoRMOHtsic: A. D. 184(^1848. 
 
 COUNCIL FOR NEW ENGLAND. Set 
 New Englamo: A. D. 1680-1628; 1621-1831 
 and 1685. 
 
 COUNCIL OF BLOOD, The. SeeNsTBui. 
 lands: a. D. 1567. 
 
 COUNCIL OF FIVE HUNDRED, Tie 
 Athenian. See Athens. B. C. SI 0-507. . . The 
 French. See Fbahcb: A. D. 1795 (Jckb-Sep- 
 
 TEMBEB). 
 
 COUNCIL OF TEN, The. SeeVtMcx 
 A. D. 108d-18I». 
 
 COUNCIL OF THE ANCIENTS, The. 
 See Prance: A. D. 1795 (June— September) 
 
 COUNCIL, THE PRIVY. See Privt 
 
 CoUNCtl-. 
 
 COUNCILS OF THE CHURCH, General 
 or EcumenicaL — There are seven coiinciU ad- 
 mitted by both the Greek and Latin churclifs as 
 cecumenlcal (or ecumenical) - that is general, or 
 universal. "1110 Roman Catholics recognize thir- 
 teen more, making twenty in all — as follows: 
 1. The synod of apoatles in Jemsalom. 2. The 
 firat Council of Nice, A. D. 825 (see Xicai, 
 The First CotTKca,). 8. 
 Constantinople, A. D. 881. 
 cil of Ephesus, A. D. 481. 
 Chalcedon, A. D. 451. 6. 
 of Constantinople, A. D. 
 Council of Coustaothiople, A. D. 681. 
 second Council of Nice, A. D. 787. 
 fourth Council of Constantinople. A. D, 
 10. The first Lateran Council, A. . 112!t. 
 The second Lateran Council, A. L. .^39. 
 The third Lateran Council, A. D. *17l). 
 The fourth Lateran Council, A. D. 1215. 
 The firat oecumenical sy^od of Lyon. A. D. 124iS. 
 15. The second cecumeniral synod of Lyon, 
 A. D. 1274. 16. The Synod of Vienne in Gaul. 
 A. D. 1811. 17. The Council of Coniitann, 
 A. D. 1414 (see Papacy: A. D. 1414-1418). 
 18. The Council of Basel, A. D. 1431 (M« 
 Papacy: A. D. 1481-1448). 19. The Counril of 
 Trent A. D. 1645 (see Papacy: A. I). 1537- 
 LVIS). 20. The Council of the Vatican. A. D. 
 1869 (see Papacy: A. P. 1869-1870). 
 
 COUNT AND DUKE, Romas.-Origia of 
 the titles.- "The defence of the Roman empire 
 was at length oommitted [under Constantine and 
 his succesaon] to eight masten-general of Uis 
 
 The first Council of 
 
 4. The first Coun- 
 
 5. The Council of 
 The second Council 
 653. 7. The thinl 
 
 8. The 
 
 9. The 
 
 11 
 12. 
 
 13. 
 14. 
 
 644 
 
COUNT AND DUKE. 
 
 COURTRAl. 
 
 etra! nod Infantry. Under tbeir orders thirtv- 
 Dtc i iury conunanden were stationed in tbe 
 pioTiiioes — three in Britain, six in Oau], one in 
 Bpsin, one in Italy, five on the Upper and four 
 on the Lower Danube, in Asia eight, three in 
 Egypt, and four in Africa. The titles of Counts 
 ind Dulles, by which they were properly dis- 
 tioguisbed, have obtained In modem languages 
 ■0 Tery different a sense that the use of them 
 may occasion some surprise. But it should be 
 ncollt'Cted that the second of those appellations 
 if only a corruption of the Latin word which 
 wu indiscriminately applied to any military 
 chief. All these provincial generals were there- 
 fore dukes ; but no more than ten among them 
 vei¥ dignified with the. rank of counts or com- 
 panions, a title of honour, or rather of favour, 
 which bad been recently invented in the court of 
 Constant ine. A gold belt was the ensign which 
 disiineui.'-la'd tiie office of the counts and dukes." 
 — E. (iibbon, Deelint and Fall of the Soman Em- 
 pin. -A. 17. — "The Duke and the Count of 
 modem Europe — what rje they but the Generals 
 and Companions (Duces and Comites)of a Roman 
 province ? Why or whjn they changed places, 
 the Duke climbing up into mich unquest' med 
 preeminence over his former superior the C ount, 
 I know not, nor yet by what process it was dis- 
 covered that the latter was the precise equiva- 
 lent of the Scandinavian Jarl." — T. Hodgkin, 
 Iluii/iiiid lf>r Inriidert, bk. 1. M. 8. 
 
 COUNT OF THE DOMESTICS.— In the 
 orgauization of the Imperial Household, during 
 the Liter period of the Roman empire, the 
 officers called Counts of the Domestics "com- 
 maniled the various divisions of the household 
 troops, known by the names of Domestic! and 
 Protectoros, and thus together replaced t. 
 Pnetorian Prefect of the earlier days of the 
 Empire. . . . Theoretically, their duties wo"ld 
 not greatly differ from tlioVt- of a Colonel in the 
 Guanls," — T. Hodgkin, Italy and Uer Intadert, 
 ik. 1. th. 3. 
 
 COUNT OF THE SACRED LARGES- 
 SES.— In the later lioman empire, "the Count 
 who bad charge of tlic Sacred (i. e. Imperial) 
 Bounty, should have been by his title simply 
 •he Grand Almoner of the Empire. ... In 
 practice, however, the minister who took charge 
 of the Imperial Largesses 1^ to find ways and 
 means for every other form or Imperial expendi- 
 ture. . . . The Count of the Sacred Largesses 
 was tberefore in fact the Chancellor of the 
 Exehei|iier of the Empire-. "—T. Hodgkin, Italy 
 t'ld Ikr Inrnderi, bk. 1, rh. 8. 
 
 COUNT OF THE SAXON SHORE. See 
 8axo.\ SnuRE. 
 
 COUNT PALATINE. See PAijkTiNE, 
 
 COIXTS. 
 
 COUNTER.REFORMATION, The. Sec 
 
 PAP.tfY A. D. 1534-1540; 1.537-1563; 1555-1603. 
 
 COUNTRY PARTY, The. See England: 
 
 A. i>. i8;ij-i67a 
 
 COUP D" ETAT OF LOUIS NAPO- 
 LEON, The. See Franck: A. D. 1851; and 
 
 W51-1M2. 
 
 COUREURS DE BOIS.-"Out of the 
 waver trade [in the 17th century] rose a huge 
 evil, baneful to the growth and the morals of 
 CssaiU. All that was most active and vigorous 
 m the colony took to the woenis, and esesped 
 from the control of intendanU, councils and 
 jirieits, to the savage freedom of the wilderness. 
 
 645 
 
 Not only were the possible profits great, but. In 
 the pursuit of them, there was a fascinating 
 element of adventure and danger. The busK 
 rangers, or coureura de bois, were to the king an 
 object of horror. They defeated his nlans for 
 the increase of the popnUtion, and shocked his 
 native instinct of discipline ami order. Edict 
 after edict was directed against them; and more 
 than once the colony presented the extraordinary 
 spectacle of the greater part of its young men 
 turned into forest outhiws. . . . We hear of 
 seigniories abandoned: farms turning again into 
 fwesU; wives and children left in destitution. 
 The exodus of the coureurs de bois would take 
 at times the character of an organized move- 
 ment. The famous Du Lhut is said to have 
 made a general combination of the young men 
 of Canada to follow him into the woods. Their 
 plan was to be absent four years, in order that 
 the edicts against them might have time to 
 relent. The intendant Duchesneau reported that 
 800 men out of a population of less than 10,000 
 souls had vanished from sl^t in the immensity 
 of a boundless wilderness. Whereupon the king 
 ordered that any person going into the wooi£ 
 without a license shotild be whipped and branded 
 for the first offence, and sent for life to the gal- 
 leys for the second. . . . Under such leaders as 
 DuLhut, the coureurs de bois built forts of 
 palisades at various points throughout the West 
 .ind Northwest. They had a post of this sort 
 at Detroit some time before its permanent settle- 
 ment, as well as others on Lake Superior and in 
 the Valley of the Mississippi. They occupied 
 them as long as it suited their purposes, and 
 then abandoned them to the next comer. Jlich- 
 illimackinac was, however, their chief resort." 
 — F. Parkman, The Old Regime in Canada, 
 eh. 17. 
 
 COURLANO, Christian conquest of. See 
 Ln'osiA; 12th-13th Centuries. 
 
 COURT BARON. See Manobs. 
 
 COURT CUSTOMARY See Manors. 
 
 COURT-LEET. See JIanors, and Sac and 
 
 COURT OF CHANCERY. See Chancki.. 
 
 I.OR. 
 
 COURT OF COMMON PLEAS. See 
 
 Curia Regis. 
 
 COURT OF HIGH COMMISSION. See 
 England: A. D. 1559; and A. I). 1686. 
 
 COURT OF KING'S BENCH. See CtnuA 
 Regis. 
 
 COURT, SUPREME, of the United State*. 
 See :irpREME t'ornx. 
 
 COURTRAl : A. O. 138a.— Pillaged and 
 burned by the French. See Flanders: A. D. 
 1382. 
 
 A. D. 1646.— Siege and capture by the 
 French. Sec Netherlands: A. D. 1645-1646. 
 
 A. D. 1648.— Taken by the Spaniards. See 
 Netherlands (Spanish Provinces): A. D. 
 J847-1648. 
 
 A. D. 1667.— Taken by the French. See 
 Netherlands (The Spanish Provinces): A. D. 
 1667. 
 
 A. D. 1668.— Ceded to France. SeeNETHiR- 
 L.vNDs (Holland): A. D. 1668. 
 
 A. D. 1670.— Restored to Spain. See Nm- 
 t:ii_\. The Peace ok. 
 
 COURTRAl, The Battle of.— The battle of 
 Courtrai (July 11. A. l>. 1802), In which the 
 
OOURTRAt 
 
 baroDt ud kolghti of Fnnce wen feufullj 
 slaughtered by the sturdy burghers of FUnders, 
 was loinetimes called the Day of the Spurs, on 
 account of the great number of gilt spurs which 
 WAS taken from the bodies of the dead. Hee 
 Flandrks : A. D. 1899-1804. 
 
 COURTS, English Crimmal. See Law, 
 CniMiNAt. : A. O. To««-187a, and 1383. 
 
 COURTS OF LOVE. See Pbovksce: 
 
 A. D. w^-iim. 
 
 COU'i HON, and the French RcTolutionary 
 Committee of Public Safety. See F^canck : 
 A. I) 1793 (JcNE — t)cTOBKiii. to lTl)4(.Iiiy|. 
 
 COUTRAS, Battle of (is87>. tivv Fka.vce : 
 A. D. 15«4-15W>. 
 
 COVAOONGA, CaTe of. Sec Si-ais : A. P. 
 713 -;87. 
 
 COVENANT, The Halfway. See Boston : 
 A. D. 16.')r-l«rt9. 
 
 COVENANT, The Solemn League and. 
 8c'f Enoland: A. D. 1643 (July— Septesiiikih. 
 
 COVENANTERS.— The naiiip civeii to the 
 signers and supporters of the Scottish X:itiimiil 
 Covenant (see Scotland : A. D. IXil, l.Wl hikI 
 163S). and afterwards to all who adhered to the 
 Kirk of Scotland. The warof Montrose with the 
 Covenanters will be found narrated under S< ot- 
 LAXD: A. D. 1644-1645. For the storv of the per- 
 secution which they suffered under tlie restored 
 Stuarts, see Scotland : A. D. 1660-1666 , 1069- 
 1679 ; 1679 ; and 1681-1680. 
 
 COVENANTS, The Scottish, Sec Scot- 
 land: A. 1). 1.5.57-1581 ; and 1638. 
 
 COVODE INVESTIGATION, See Ks."- 
 B.48 : A n. 1860. 
 
 COWBOYS.— During the War of the Ameri- 
 can Kevolution, " there was a venal and blo<i-Jy 
 Oct which hung on the skirts of the British army 
 Will known a.s Cowlx>)s. They . . . came 
 li.ive tliei, name from their cattle-stealir 
 — (' W. f;;iintt. nr Setr Eng. Jlitt., t. 2, p. b,. 
 — >ie. iilsD. United States of Am.: A. D. 17b\/ 
 (.\I (iI--iT— Septkmheb) 
 
 COWPENS, Battle of the (1781). See 
 United St\tes ok Am.: A. D. 1780-1781. 
 
 COXEY MOVEMENT. See SocialMotk- 
 MKNTS : A. I). 1894. 
 
 CRACOW: A. D. 1703.— Taken by Charles 
 XII. of Sweden. See ScOi'Dinavian States 
 (Sweden): A. D. 1701-1707. 
 
 A. D. 1793-1794.— Occupied by the Russians. 
 — Rising of the citizens.- Surrender and ces- 
 sion to Austria. See Poland: A. U. 1793- 
 1796. 
 
 A. D. 1815.- Creation of the Republic. See 
 Vienna, The Congress of. 
 
 A. D. 1831-1846.- Occupation by the Aus- 
 trians, Russians and Prussians. —Extinction 
 of the Republic— Annexation to Austria. See 
 Al-STRIA : A. D. 1815-1848. 
 
 CRADLE OF LIBERTY. See FANXtnL 
 Hall. 
 
 CRAFT-GUILOS. See Ocilm, Medieval. 
 
 CRAGIE TRACT, The. See New York; 
 A. D. 1786-1799. 
 
 CRAL.— KRALE.— "The princes of Servia 
 (Oucauge, Famil, Dalmatics, &c., c. i-i, 9) 
 were styled ' despots ' in Oreek, and <>al in their 
 niitive idiom (Ducange, Oloss. Onto., p. 751). 
 Tliat title, the equivalent uf king, appears to Iw 
 of Sclavonic origin, from whence it has been 
 borrowed by the Hungarians, the modem Greeks, 
 
 046 
 
 CREMONA. 
 
 and erea br the Turks (Leunclaviua. Pandea 
 Turc., p. 422), who reserve the name of Psduiui, 
 for the Emperor. "—£. Gibbon, Dtelint and FM 
 of tht Roman Empin, eh. 68, nott.—Six, alio 
 Balkan axd DainTauM States: A. D latil 
 1856 (Servia). 
 
 CR'-VNOCES. See Lake Dwelunos. 
 
 CRaNNON (KRANNON), Battle of (B. C. 
 333). See Greece: B. C. 828-822. 
 
 CRAONNE, Battle of. See France: A D 
 1814 (.Ianuary — March). 
 
 CRASSUS AND THE FIRST TRIUW. 
 VIRATE. See Home: B. C. 78-68, to5T-.52 
 
 CRATER, Battle of the Petersburg. $<« 
 t'Nn-ED States or Am. : A. D. 1864 (Jclt 
 
 VlRGINL\). 
 
 CRATERUS, AND THE WARS OP 
 THE DIADOCHL See Macedonia; B C 
 828-316. 
 
 CRANGALLID^, The. See Hii ruli : ' 
 
 CRAYFORD, Battle of (A. D, 4571. iv'e 
 Enoland: A D. 449-473 
 
 CRECY, Battle of (.346). Si- Fmsd- 
 A. D. ).S:J7-136(l. 
 
 CREDIT MOBILIER, French.-.\ ^m,u 
 banking corporation formed in France i:i \<,i, 
 which caused a disastrous indatiou uf cn-dits. 
 
 CREDIT MOBILIER SCANDAL. -On 
 the meeting of the Congress of the liiitt-il Stales 
 ill December, 1872, attention was calleil liv the 
 Speaker to charges matle in the pn'cediiig can- 
 ▼ass " that the Vice-President, the Viie.i'rcsi- 
 dent elect, the Secretary of the Treasury, several 
 Senators, the Speaker of the House, ani a large 
 number of Reprp'-«ntatives had In-eii bribed, 
 during the years 1867 and 1868, by pn-stuts of 
 stoc!" - ■ corporation known as the Credit Mobi- 
 lier [otganized to contract for building the I'nios 
 Pacific Railroad] to vote and act for the benefit 
 of the Union Pacific Railroad Company. On hii 
 motion, .^n Investigating committee was ap- 
 pointed, L. P. Poland, of Vermont, being cliair- 
 nian. The Poland Committee reported February 
 18th, 1873, recommendhig the expulsion of Oakei 
 Ames, of Massachusetts, for ' selling to membeis 
 of Congress shares of the stock of the Credit 
 Mobilier below their real value, with intent 
 thereby to influence the votes of such niembere,' 
 and of James Brooks, of New York, for receiving 
 such stock. The House modified the pniposed 
 expulsion into an ' absolute condemnation ' of 
 the conduct of both members." — A, Johnston. 
 Hitt. of Am. Potitiei, pp. 219-220.- /Jcp/. oflxUd 
 Com. (42(i Cong., 3rf km., //. R. rtpt. w>. 77). 
 
 Also in: J. B. Crawford, The Credit JiMlitr 
 of Am. 
 
 CREEKS,— Creek Wars. See Amirica.<( 
 Aborigines; Mcskhooean Family ; also I'NrrsD 
 States of Am.: A. D. 1813-1814 (.Uoisi- 
 April), and Florida: A. D. 1816-1811^ 
 
 CREES, The. See American AnonoiNia; 
 Algon<)uian Family. 
 
 CKEFELD, Battle of. See Germany; 
 A. D. 1758. 
 
 CREMA, Slcgt of (1150-1160). See Itaiy; 
 A. D. 1154-1183. 
 
 CREMONA; The Roman Colony.— Siegt 
 by the Cauli. See Rome; B C. 2t).5-l»l. 
 
 A. D. 69.— Deitmction by the Flavians. See 
 RoMS: A. D. 89. 
 
 A. D. t703.— Defeat of the French, See 
 It ALT (Savor axo PntDMoirr); A. D. 1701- 
 1718. 
 
CREOLE. 
 
 CRETE. 
 
 CREOLE.—" Id Eoiopa It li Terr common to 
 ttticli to the term Creole the ides of • particular 
 complexion. Tbia ia a miatake. The deaignatioo 
 Cnoie [in Spaniah American tesloni] properly 
 tielonga to all tbe natlres of America bom of 
 parcDt* wbo bave emigrated from tbe Old World, 
 be thoae paienta Europeana or Africana. Tbere 
 lie, therefore, white aa well aa bUck Creoles. 
 . . . Tbe term Creole is a corruption of the 
 SpiDish word 'criollo,' which is derived from 
 'criir,' to create or to foster. Tbe Spaniards 
 apply tbe term ' criollo ' not merely to tbe human 
 nee, but also to animals propagated in the colo- 
 niea, but of pure European blood : thus they have 
 Creole bones, bullocks, poultry, Jkc."— J. J. 
 VonTbcbudi, TVateb in Ptni, eh. a, andfoot-noU. 
 —"The term Creole is commonly applied in 
 Ixuks to tbe native of a Spanish colony deacended 
 from European ancestors, while often tbe popular 
 scceptation conveys the idet of an origin partly 
 African. In fact. Its meaning varies in different 
 times and tegions, and in Louisiana alone has, 
 ud has bad, Its broad and its close, its earlier 
 ind iu later, significance. For instance, it did 
 not here first oelonj to the descendants of 
 Spsnisb, but of French settlers. But such a 
 meaning implied a certain excellence of origin, 
 ud ao came early to include any native of 
 French or Spanish descent by either parent, 
 whose pure non-mixture witli tbe slave race 
 entitled him to social rank. Much later the 
 term was adopted by, not conceded to, the 
 natives of European-African, ur Creole-African 
 blood, and is still so used among themselves. At 
 length tbe spirit of commerce availed itself of 
 the money value of so honored a title, and 
 broadi'Dt'U its meaning to take in any creature or 
 thing of variety or manufacture pevuliar to 
 Louisiana, that might become an object of sale, 
 u Creole ponies, cb jkens, cows, shoes, eggs, 
 wsgons, baskets, cabbages, ei.. . . . There are 
 no English, Scotch, Irtah, Western, or Yankee 
 Creoles, these all being included under the dis- 
 tinctive term 'Americans.' . . . There seems to 
 he no more serviceable definition of tbe Creoles 
 of Louisiana or of New Orleans than to say they 
 ire the Freoch-speakinfr native, ruling class. 
 -0. E. Waring, Jr.. anu 0. W Cablo, Ut. and 
 Promt Condition of A'eu Orlearu (Ter ' Ceniut 
 cfthe r. .«., ». 19^. 218). 
 
 CREONES, The. See Lhitadi, Celtic 
 Tubes. 
 
 CRESCENT, The Order of ♦he.— A Turk- 
 iih Order instituted in 1799 by tbe reforming 
 lultan, Selim III. Lord >felson, after the vic- 
 tory of Aboukir, waa tbe first to receive this 
 decomiicn. 
 
 CRESr'' IN VALOIS, Treaty of (1544). 
 See Fkahce: A. D. 1832-1547. 
 
 CRETAN LABYRINTH. See Labtbdjths. 
 
 CRETE.— "The institutions of the Cretan 
 itste show in many poinU so great a similarity 
 to these nf Sparte, that it ia not surprising if it 
 leemed to tbe ancients as though either Crete 
 were a copy of SparU or Sparta of Crete. 
 Meanwhile this similaritv may be explained, 
 apart from hitentional ImitatioD, by the commu- 
 nity of nationality, which, under like conditions, 
 mat produce like institutions. For in Crete, as 
 m Laninia, Porlans were the ruling people, who 
 had subdued the old inhabltanU of tbe island 
 ud placed them in a position of aubordination. 
 . . It is, howerer, beyood doubt that settle- 
 
 m'-nts were made in Crete by the Phoenlciani, 
 and that a large portion of the island waa sub- 
 ject to them. In the historical period, it is true, 
 we no longer find them here; we find, on the 
 contrary, only a number of Greek states, all 
 moreover Dorian. Fach of these consisted of • 
 city with its surrounding district, in which no 
 doubt also smaller cities m their turn were found 
 standing in a relation of subordination to the 
 principal city. For that each city of the 'ninety- 
 citied or ' hundred-citi d ' isle, as Homer calla ft, 
 formed also an indcpt ,<tent state, will probably 
 not be supposed. .., '^dependent states our 
 authorities give us reason to recognize about 
 seventeen. The most important of these were in 
 earlier times Cnossus, Gortyn and Cydonia."— 
 O. SchOmann, Antiq. ofOretee: The Stale, pt. 8, 
 eh. 2.— See Asia Minor: The Greek Colonies. 
 
 B. C. <S-M. — The Roman Conquest. --The 
 Romans came into collision with the Cretans 
 during their confiict with the Cilician pirates. 
 The Cretans, degenerate and half piratical them- 
 selves, had formed an alliance with the profes- 
 sional buccaneers, and defeated, off Cydonia, a 
 Roman fleet that had been sent against the latter, 
 B. C. 71. They soon repented of the provoca- 
 tion they had offered and sent envoys to Rome to 
 buy peace by bcavv bribes; but neither the 
 penitence nor tbe brlLes prevailed. Three years 
 passed, however, before the proconsul, Quintus 
 Metellus, appeared in Crete (B. C. 68) to exact 
 satisfaction, and two years more were spent in 
 overcoming tbe stubborn resistance of tbe island- 
 ers. The taking of Cydonia cost Metellus a 
 bloody battle ana a prolonged siege. Cnossua 
 and other towns held out with equal courage. 
 In the end, however, Crete was added to the 
 conquered dominions of Rome. At the last of 
 tbe struggle there occurred a conflict of jurisdic- 
 tion between Metellus and Pompey, and their 
 respective forees fought with one another on tbe 
 Cretan soil.— T. Mommsen, Hitt. of Burnt, bk. 5, 
 ch. 4. 
 
 A. O. 833.— Conqneat by tbe Saracens.— 
 "The reign of Al Hakem, the Ommiade Caliph 
 of Spain, was disturbed by continual troubles; 
 and some theological disputes having created a 
 violent insurrection in the suburbs of Cordova, 
 about 15,000 Spanisli Arabs were compelled to 
 emigrate in tbe year 815. The greater part of 
 these desperadoes established themselves at 
 Alexandria, where they soon took an active part 
 in the civil wars of Egypt. Tbe rebellion of 
 Thomas [an officer who disputed the Byzantine 
 throne with Michael II.], ond the absence of the 
 naval forces of the Byzantine Empire from the 
 Archipelago, left tbe island of Crete unpro- 
 tected. The Andalusian Arabs of Alexandria 
 availed themselves of this circumstance to 
 invade the island and establish a settlement on 
 it, in the year 823. Michael was unable to take 
 any measures for expelling tbe invaders, and an 
 event soon happened in Egypt which added 
 greatly to the strength of this Saracen colony. 
 The victories of tbe lieutenants of tbe Calipli 
 Almamum compelled the remainder of the 
 Andalusian Araba to quit Alexandria; so that 
 Abou Hafs, called by tbe Greeks Apocbaps, 
 joined his countrymen in Crete with forty ships 
 uctcni'lncd tu make tbe new settlement their 
 permanent home. It is said by the Byzantine 
 writers that they commenced tneir conquest of 
 the island by destroying their fleet, and oon- 
 
 647 
 
CRETE. 
 
 CROWN or INDU. 
 
 ■tructing a itronc fonifled camp, luirounded by 
 •n immenie ditcn, frnin which it reccired the 
 name of Chandak, now corrupted by the weiteni 
 nationi into Candla. . . . The Saraceni retained 
 powe«ionof Crete tor 18S veart. "— O. Finlny, 
 aM. of tht Bgtantine Bnptre.Jhm 714 to 10S7, 
 »*. 1, e». 8.— During the rtay of these piratical 
 Andaluiian Arabs at Alexandria, "they cut 
 In pieces both friends and foes, pillaged the 
 churches and mosques, sold ttho^'. 0,000 Christian 
 captives, and maintained their siatioD in the cap- 
 ital of Egypt till they were oppressed by the 
 forces and presence of .Mmamon himself. —£. 
 Qibbon, Deelim and Fall of t/i» Boman Empire, 
 ch. 52. 
 
 Also in: S. A. Dunham, nitt. of Sbain and 
 Portugal, J*. 8, eh. 1. 
 
 A. D. 061-063.— RtcoTtrj from the Sara- 
 ccas.— "In tbe subordinate station of great 
 domestic, or general of the East, he [Nicephorus 
 Phocas, afterwards emperor, on the Byzantine 
 throne], reduced the island of Crete, and extir- 
 pated the nest of pirates who had ao long defied, 
 with impunity, the majesty of the Empire. . . . 
 Seven months were consumed In the siege of 
 Candia; the despair of the natire Cretans was 
 stimulated by the frequent aid of their brethren 
 of Africa and Spain; and, after the massy wall 
 and doutile ditch ha.l been stormed by the 
 Oieeks, a hop<'le8s coallict was still maintained 
 in the streets and houses of the city. The whole 
 island was siibiiunl in the capital, and a sub- 
 missive people accepted, without resistance, the 
 'aptism of the conqueror "—E. Oibbon, Dtelins 
 iintt Fallfftht Human Empire, cA. 52, 
 
 A, D. IS04-1305.— Acquirad by the Vanf 
 tiaoa. See Btxantinc Empiiuc : A. I). 1301-1209. 
 
 A. D. 1645-1669.— Tht long aicra of CaD- 
 dia.- - Surrender to the Turks. »ee Tcua: 
 A. D. 1645-imW. 
 
 A. D. 1715.— Complete Expulsion of the 
 Venetians by the Turks. S«-r Tvrks: ,\ n. 
 1714-171S. 
 
 A. D. 1S66-1868.— Unsuccessful revolt.— 
 Stmnle for independence.— Turkish conces- 
 ■ion ofthe Ornnic Regulation. 8ec Greece: 
 A. D. IWIi-KJtri. 
 
 CRETE, Party of tbe.-Cr«toia. See 
 rRAJtra A. .) 17«^(ArRn.) 
 CRIMEA. OR CRIM TARTARY: Early 
 
 bistorf. *r Tacrica; al»<i Bospdri'i. Citt 
 
 AND Kl.-VllIkiM. 
 
 7th Century.— Conquest and occupation by 
 the Kbaaars. Str Khazahd 
 
 iath-i]th Centuries.- Genoese commercial 
 colonies. SeeGKMoA: A. I). 126I-121M> 
 
 i]th-i4th Centuries.— The khanate to Krim. 
 SeeMoNunLS: A. D. t2.'iH.|3U|. 
 
 A. D. 147].— Cooqueat by the Ottoraan 
 Turks. »«• TtTiEs (The ()tto»ia.\») A I) 
 1491-14^1 
 
 A. D. ini.-Bspcditloa of the Khan to 
 Moscow. —The city stormed and sacked. See 
 Krwu: A. D I9«»-I571 
 
 A, O. 1735-1731.— Russian invaaioas and 
 fruitless conquests. Sve Hihsia: A I> 173.5- 
 I7:t9 
 
 A. D. 1774.— The khanate declared inde- 
 pendent 01 th- ~^ • - ■ ■- 
 
 r74 
 
 •endtat oftht Portt. St%TriiKi A I) l7nH- 
 
 
 A. p. I776-I7«4.-Thc process of acouiaitieo 
 by Ruasi*.— Pi4Ml recognitioa of RhmIwi 
 
 soTcrcinty by th* Soltaa. BeeTiniii:^] 
 177^17¥8. 
 
 A. D. 1853.1t5s.-War of RnaaU with Tb 
 key aad her alUea.— Sierc of ScbaatopoL Si 
 Bcsau: A. D. 18««-18a4, to 1884-1856 
 o 
 
 CRISIS OP il37, The. See Uhtted Stati 
 OF A¥. : A. D. 1^1887. " 
 
 CRISIS OP 1857. See TaBirr Uoisuno 
 (UnrrED Statbs): A. D. 1846-1861. 
 
 CRISSA.— CrisaMta or Sacred War Se 
 Dblpbi. 
 
 CRITTENDEN COMPROMISE, Thi 
 See UmTSO STATBSor Am. : A. D. i860 (Dicxn 
 BER). 
 
 CROAT ANS, The. See Amsrica: A D 
 1587-1590. 
 
 CROATIA : Tta Ceatory.- ScIaTonic m 
 cnpatioa and aettltmcat. See Balka.n axi 
 DAirtTBiAjf StATia, 7th Cbmttjrt (Sxrvu 
 Croatia, Boawu, rrc.) 
 
 A. D. tioa.— Stttjectien aad aanexatioa ti 
 Hnncary. See Huhoart: A. D. 973-1114 
 
 A. O. i<76.— Traasfsrred to the Dukt 
 Styria — Military coloaisatioa. SeeUraaAXT 
 A. D. 1587-1801 
 
 CROIA, Turkish maaaacre at. SeeORxirx 
 A. D, l«4-147l>. 
 
 CROMLECHS. — Rude stone monumenu 
 found in many pans of the British IsUml* 
 France, and elsewhere, usuallr formed bv tlirw 
 or more huge, rough, upright stones. Wlia 1 
 still Urger stone lying flatly upon them. In 
 France these are calltd Dolmens, Tiny were 
 formerly thought to be " Druids nltan, " to wUich 
 notion they owe the name Cronilutlii : Imt it ii 
 now very generally concluded by iircliitoldpsu 
 that they were constructed for Imrial iIiaiuIkr. 
 and tlmt originally, iu most cases, ihiv vm 
 covered with mounds of earth, fonnhiK '''<^ "f'l 
 known barrows, or grave mounds, ur tumuli - 
 L. Jcwett, Orat* JImndi. 
 
 Also in: T. Wright, T^e Celt, tlu. liMn<inmd 
 th4 Saxon. — Sir J. Lubbock, I'rehutoric Tina. 
 eh. 5— See, also, AMORrrsa 
 
 CROMPTON'S MULE, The inveotioa of. 
 See Cotton MANCFACTUREa 
 
 CROMWELL, Oliver.— Campaigns ssil 
 Protectorate. See Enoi,anu: K I) 11144 u 
 16.'>8-lfl«0: and Ireland: A. D. ltl4U-Iir.ii 
 
 CROMWELL, Thomaa, aad the supprts- 
 aion of the Monasteries. Sec Knoi.v.m> .\ Ii 
 1535-1989. 
 
 CROMWELLIAN SETTLEMENT OF 
 IRELAND. HeelHELANIi \ U Km;) 
 
 CROMWELL'S IRONSIDES. S^t Eiia- 
 i.ask: a 1) 1648 (Mat). 
 
 CROSS, The "True."— Its capture by tht 
 Perslaaa aad rscoreiy by Heraclius. !^ 
 KoMR: A. D 869-628; anil Jerisaueh: K. D 
 615 
 
 CROSS KEYS, Battle of. t«<<t' Ixrrtn 
 .SiATtis or Am, : A D, 1869 (Mat-Jisk Vis 
 
 (IISIA) 
 
 CROTON.-KROTON. See Stbakio 
 CROTONA, Battle of (A. D. 983). Sw 
 
 lTALT(S<>ITnRRN): A D, 800-1016 
 
 CROWN, The irea. See LoMHiaor, Tn 
 iRiijf Crown or. 
 
 CROWN OF INDIA, The Order of Iks- 
 An order, for women, instltutr<l lijr (jureo Vic- 
 toria In 1870. 
 
 C48 
 
 --^ 
 
CROWN POINT. 
 
 CRUSADES, Vm. 
 
 CROWN POINT|: A. D. im.— Fort bnUt 
 brth* Frmcb. See Cuhadjl (New Fbaxck): 
 I D. 1700-17M. 
 
 A. D. 1755.— Ea|li*h Expedition m«ui»t. 
 gee Cahasa (Nbw Fbaxce): A. D. 17SS (Sep- 
 
 TIMBU). 
 
 A. D. 1759. — Abandoned to the EncUtli by 
 the FrcncB. See Cakada (New Fbahce) : A. D. 
 
 1759 (JULT— ACOOTT). 
 
 A. D. 1775' — Sorprise and capture by the 
 Americaaa. See UnrrEo States or Am. : A. D. 
 1775 (Mat). 
 
 CROWS, OR UPSAROKAS, The. See 
 AVERICAH Aborioimbs: Siodan Pamilt. 
 CRUITHNICH.— CRUITHNIANS.-The 
 
 Irish name of the Plcti and Scot* of ancient Ire- 
 UnJ and Scotland. See Scotland: Tm Picn 
 
 CRUSADES: Causes and introductory 
 
 c*(ott.— " Lilce all the great movements uf man- 
 kind, the Crusades must be tracinl to the coiuci. 
 di'Dce >if many causes which inlluencetl men of 
 Tiriuud nations and discordant feelinga, at the 
 lanii' pvTiitd of time, to pursue one common enil 
 with their whole heart. Religious zeal, the 
 fashion of pilgrimages, the spirit of social de- 
 Telopment, the energies that lead to colonisation 
 or r<mi|m-!it, and commercial rvlationit. only lately 
 eitcndcd so widely as to tntlucnce public opinion, 
 all sudilculy received a deep wound. Ever}- 
 class i>f ixK'iety felt injured and iusull«<l, and 
 unity of ni'tiou was cn'al«il as if by a divine im- 
 piilst' The movement was fucilltatcd by tlie 
 rinunistuurc that Europe Iwgan to adopt habits 
 of onltr just at the time when Asia was thrown 
 inio a state of anarchy by the invasions of th» 
 hiljouk Turlia. Oreat numlM-rs of pilgrinn huil 
 aln.HVS piuiMHl tlirough the Ryzantine empire to 
 visit the holy phices in I'alestiue. We still pos. 
 sewi an itinerary of the road from Bonleaux to 
 Jerusalem, bv the way of Constantinople, written 
 in the fourtii centurv for the use of iiil^rims. 
 Tliouirh tlie disturbed and inipoverislinl stjite of 
 Kiiropi'. after the fall of the Western Empire, 
 (liiniiii«heil the number of pilgrims, still, iven in 
 timi'sof the greatest anarcliv. ninny passed an- 
 mislly through the Eastt-rn finipire to Palestine. 
 Till' iinpniveiiient which liawned on the western 
 nations during the eleventh century, and the 
 aucim iiti'il I'limmerce of the Ilalluns,°gave aiidi- 
 li"i;al iiii|n>rlance to the pilgrimage to the East 
 AImui the year lIHVl. during the reign of Con. 
 »t.intiiii' X , an army or camvan cif siven thou- 
 K\ii\ pil.-riiiispasm'd through Conslnntinople. led 
 I'v tlie .Vri hbishop of Mentr. and four bi«hops 
 I'lii y made their way through Asia Minor. « hlih 
 WIS tliei under the Ilyzantlne goveriiineni ; but 
 in till' iiilghtkiurhood of Jerusalem tho\ were »l 
 tiukul hy the liedouina, olid only siivcit fMm 
 ilr-iniition by the Saraivn emir of Idindit, wli.i 
 li««!. iml to their assistance. Thes.^ pilgrims an- 
 ^pirl..i I., 'lave lost 3.(KM) of their nunilH-r. 
 without tielng able to visit either the Jonlan or 
 III.. Iiriel Sea The Invasions of the Seljouks 
 l*r Tt ims (The ^*KUn•K»): A. D 1073- liKh!] 
 in. n ;iwi| the disorders in Palestine In the 
 
 tiar loTU tlie Seljoult Turks look |)os«.-ssh>ii of I 
 JiTiiwli 111. and immediately commenoHl lianiss \ 
 Ici- the pilgrims with unheanl-of esaotiotis Tho j 
 .~r.ra,^ir.i U*i\ la gnterHl vieHwI tilt- iMigrinis w iiii [ 
 hv.'ur, as men engaged in fuiniling a pious 
 duty, or pursuing lawful fain with pralsewurthy { 
 
 industry, and they had leried only a reasonable 
 toll on the pil^ritns, and a moderate duty on 
 their merchandise; while in consideration of 
 these imposu, they had established guards to 
 
 protect them on the roads by which they ap- 
 
 ly places. The Turks, on the 
 
 contrary, acting like mere nomads, uncertain of 
 
 proached the holy places. 
 
 retaining possession of the city, thought only of 
 gratifying their avarice. They plundered the 
 rich pilgrims, and insulted the poor. The relig- 
 ious feelings of the Christians were irritated, 
 and their commerce ruined; a crv for vengeance 
 arose throughout all Europe, and men's minds 
 were fully prepared for an attempt to conquer 
 Palestine, when Peu-r the Hermit liegan to 
 preach that it was a sacred duty to deliver the 
 tomb of Christ from the hands of the Infidels." 
 — O. Finlay, Hut of the Bytantint arid Orttk 
 Emjnrei, bk. 8, ch. 2, ttt. 1. 
 
 A. D. 1094.— The Council of Clermont.— 
 Pope I'rlian II., one of two rival pontiffs then 
 contending for recognition by the Church, en- 
 tered with great eagerness into the movement 
 stirred by Peter the Hermit, and gave It a 
 powerful impulse through his support, while 
 obtaining for himself, at the snn,.- time, a de- 
 cisive advantage over his competitor, by the 
 popularity of the agitation. A gnat Council 
 was c<mvcned at Ilneenza, A. U. l(Ht4. and a 
 s<'Cond at Clermont, in the aiitiiinn of tlie same 
 year, to deliberate ujion the action to be taken. 
 The city of Clermont could not contain the vast 
 multitude of bishops, clergy and laity which 
 ossomliled, and an army of liiany thousands was 
 tented in the summndlng eounti-y. To that ex- 
 cited congregation, at a meeting in the gnat 
 sijuare of Clermont, Poih' Urban addressiil a 
 speech which is one of the notable uttemiices of 
 history. "He lugan by detailing tlie mi8«'ries 
 eiidund by their bretlifen in tlie Ilolv Land; 
 how the plains of Palestine were desoWnl by 
 the outnigeous heathen, who with the sword 
 and the tln-bnuid carried wailing into the dwel- 
 ling's and Haines Into the possessions of tlie 
 faithful; how Christian wives and daughters 
 Were deflU'd by pagan lust; how the altars of 
 the true GihI wen' ileseeratiil. ami the relics of 
 the saints trmM. 11 iiudi r f.N)t. • You,' continued 
 the eliM|uent p..iiliir land I'rban 11. was one of 
 tile ni.«t elo.iiiciit iiii'ii of the ilayl. voii. who 
 hear me. and who have neiived the true faith, 
 and Imoii endowed by iJ.hl with power and 
 stn-iigtii. and gn-atin-ss of .soul. — whom- uiires- 
 tors have Ihiii the prop of Christendom, and 
 wli.w kings li.ivo put a barriir ai,'ain..it the prog- 
 ress of the iiitiili I. — I rail upon you t.. wipe otT 
 these linpiiritii -, fn>ni tlie face of the earth, and 
 lift your oppnsv.l fi How Christiana fmm the 
 depths into wliiili liny have laen tmiiipled.' 
 The warmth of tlie pontilT eoniniunleated 
 ilHi'lf to the crowil. and the inthusiasni of the 
 peiiple lir.ike out sivi ml limes ere he concluded 
 Ills iiddns" lie went on to portray, not only 
 the spiritual but tlii' tein|<iinil advaiitagea that 
 would ai 1 rue to tliosc who tisik up amis in the 
 »4'rviii. lit the eni«< P.ilestine was. he siii.i. a 
 Inii.l ll.iwing with milk and honey, ami pniLuis 
 in the sight of 0«d, as the ^lene of the grand 
 events whiili luid saved mankind. That laud, 
 Ih' pmnilsed. should \»- divldeil ainouv them. 
 Mon-..nr, liiej slinulii have t'liii panloii lor ail 
 their offences, eitlier against O.nI or man. '(io, 
 then,' he added. ' in expiation of your slus; and 
 
 04 <J 
 
/;h 
 
 CRVBADES, 1O04. 
 
 Ptttr 
 th* BTmft. 
 
 CRU8ADI8. lOte-lON. 
 
 go Mnucd, that after thii world ihall have 
 PMMrt awar, Imperithable glory shall be youn 
 m the woiid which it to come. ' The enthuiiann 
 waa no longer to be reetrained, and loud ihouta 
 fattemipted the speaker; the people exclaiming 
 a* if with one voice, 'Dieu le veult! DIeu le 
 Teult*' . . . The newi of this council spread to 
 the remotest parts of Europe in an incredibly 
 short space of time. Long before the fleetest 
 horseman could have brought the intelligence. It 
 was known by the people in distant proTtnces ; a 
 fact which was considered as nothing less than 
 supernatural. But the subject was in every- 
 body's mouth, and the minds of men were pre- 
 pared for the result. The enthusiastic mere'y 
 asserted what they wished, »iiil llie event tallied 
 with their prediction. "—C. Mackay, Mtmtnrtvf 
 Extraordinary Popular Dtluttont; Th* Crumda, 
 (e. 3). 
 
 Also IN: H. H. Mllman, Ilitt. nf Latin Chrit- 
 tianity^ bk, 7, ch. A. 
 
 A. D. 1094-1095. — Peter the Hermit and his 
 appt ' — "About twenty veHni after the • 11- 
 
 aueat of Jerusalem by the Turks, the holy sepul- 
 Ire was visited by an" hermit of the name of Peter, 
 a native of Amiens, in the province of Pieanly 
 !-> Franre. His resentment and sympathy were 
 v'XCittHi by his own Injuries, and the oppression 
 of the CbVistiiin nnine : he mingled his tears with 
 those nf the pHtriiinh, and earnestly imiuirt-il. if 
 no hopes of relief oould he entertjilmtl from the 
 Greek einpen)r8 of the Ea.*t. The patriarch e.x- 
 pose<l the vices and weakness nf the siircessors 
 of Constantine. 'I will muse," exrlnimeil the 
 hermit, the martial natlnns nf Eumpe in rour 
 cause ; ' ami Europe was oliedient to the call of 
 the hermit. The astonlsheii patriarch dismisseii 
 him with epistles nf cnillt and eninplaint, and 
 no s<H>ner did he land at Il<irl. than i'eter has- 
 teiieil t(i kiss the feel nf the Knman jinntiff. His 
 Btiittip' wnssniiill. Ills appenninee ccinlemptilple; 
 but Ills eye was keen iiinl lively, anil he inm- 
 sessiil timt veliemenee nf »|Heeh whieli seli|nn> 
 fails tn Impart the (Hrsuaslnn nf the sniil. He 
 was Isirn nf a );intlenians family ifnr we must 
 now ailnpt a niiMlern lilinnil. and his niilitarr 
 BC'rviee was under the neii;lilHMirin>r eniints tif 
 linuln^riie, the heroes nf the ttrit erusiide. In- 
 vignrated liy the apprnluitinn nf the |HmtifT. tills 
 Zealnus mlsslnnary tnivenM^I, witli xiMid and 
 sueeess. the prnvinees nf Italy and Frame. Ills 
 diet was absteniiniis, his prayers Inni^ and fer- 
 vent, and the alms whli h he received with nne 
 hand, he distrilnited with the other, his liead 
 was liari'. his feit nakiil. hi* meHnre Isxly was 
 wrapt In a enarsr Karnient : he Tinri' and dl« 
 i)!iiyic| n weiithly <riieillx; and the ass on wliii li 
 lie rn.|i- was sani'IIHe<l ill the iniMie eve liy the 
 s< r\iii' nf the man nf ()i»| lie pn'iielied in in- 
 niiinenilile emwds lu the elnm lies, the «tnil«. 
 and the hinhways When he palhtil the 
 
 Siiireriiii;s nf the native* anil pllirrinis nf Pales- 
 tine, t very heart was melted tn l'<impasslnn ; 
 every lin-H«l ulnwcil with liidiitnatlnii, when he 
 challeiiceil the wnrrinrs nf thi- a^r tn defend 
 their lirethn^n and nseiie their !*avliiiir: his 
 i^nnrance nf art and langiiaKe was enm|N'nsutis| 
 by sIkIis and tears, and ejiu ulallniis; and I'eter 
 stipprieil the defleleuer nf nasim hy Intid and 
 freipient appeals tn ( hrist and hia'Mother. tn 
 Uie NiiiiU and HiiMels )»f imraiiine, isiih wiioni iie 
 bad (>era«nallr rnnversed The ninst |Hrfei t 
 orator uf Atluuia luight have envied the lucceaa 
 
 of hi* eloquence; the rustic enthusiast inipin 
 the passions which he felt, and Christendom ei 
 pectcd with tmpatieooe the oouosels and decree 
 of the supreme pontiff."— £. Oibbon, Decline an, 
 FcM of th* Raman Empir*, eh. 08. 
 
 Also IK: J. C. Robertson, IStt. of the Chritliai 
 Churth, bk. 6, eh. 4 (v. 4). 
 
 A. D. 1096-1099.— The First Great More 
 mcnt. — The first army of Crusaderti to §tt ou 
 on the long march to Jerusalem was a mob 
 men, women and children which had no 
 patience to wait for the organized movemeoto 
 the military leaders. They gathered in v«j 
 numbers on the banks of the Moselle and thi 
 Meuse, in the spring of 1096, with Peter thi 
 Hermit for their chosen chief. There were nim 
 knights, only, in the swarm, and but few win 
 had horses to ride, or efficient arms to bear. 
 provisions to feed upon. Knowing nothing 
 and therefore fearing nothing, they marchii 
 away, through France, Germany, Hungary m 
 beyond, begging food where they cotilil am 
 ■ubsiating by pillage when it neoleil. A linigli 
 called Walter the Penniless led the van, am 
 Peter followed, with his second division, liv 1 
 somewhat dilTerent route. Wa'ter escapetl ieri 
 ou» trouble until he reached t'\c country of tin 
 savage Bulgarians. Peter's nseless niob pm 
 yoked the just wrath of il.e Hungarians In 
 stiirniing the small city of Semlin ami sluyini 
 4.(i<s) of its inhaldtanta. The route of lic.ili »ai 
 lined with the bones of thoiisamls who p< ri»hN 
 of hunger, of exposure, of disease, and tiy ihi 
 swords of Hungarians and Bulgarians .v'thin! 
 ami a fourth host of like kind fnllnwiii in llirii 
 wake, led by a monk, Gotschalk. a nrii st niin'.ni 
 Volkmsr, and a Count Emieon. 'rlicse ttiT.r 
 ized even more all the countries thmugli whiili 
 they pawHHl, — especially where Jews win i. 
 be hunt<'<t and killed. — and »en> ilesinivil ir 
 Hungary to almost tlic last man. I'lit'r !itil 
 Walter reached Cnnstantlnnple with IiHiumf,.! 
 Inwers, It is said, even vet, after all «li" I™1 
 fallen by the way. Still nfiisliig tn wiiii 11 
 the lielter appolntetl expeditiniis tli.it «rn- ic 
 progress, and still appalling eastern ('liri>t>'n 
 dnm liy tlnlr lawless barharille». tliev |in»M'i 
 Intn Asia Minor, and their mlsiralile earn rsi* 11 
 eaine to an end. Attacking the Turks in tli( 
 city of Nleiea, — which had Is'innie tlic capital 
 nf'the Seljouk sultan nf Hoiini.— tluy vm 
 beaten, muted, srattered, slaUL'hterid. uniil 
 liandv 8.000 nf the great ho-' iped (i| 
 the llrst Cnisailers," says Uihi am.iKH) hi.l 
 
 alnady perished befnri' a single city »:nri"minl 
 frnni tlie InHdels, — la'fnre their gnivir nnd iiirr 
 nnlde bn'thren had cnmpleted tin' pn|'iM!i":n 
 nf their enter|)rise" Meantime the kiiii:lil«an.l 
 princes nf the crusade hai, gatlieri.l ili> ir arniici 
 and Wen- nnw (in the suininernf imal' 1* k'iimini; 
 In mnve eastwaril, by dilTi'rent ^lul■•« N.tinf 
 nf the gwater sovereigns nf Kiini|M Imd 1 iili«tnl 
 In the iinderiaklng. The ihlefs nf nne »rm« 
 ment were Oislfrey de tUmiliin, diik.' of tbf 
 l^iwer birrnlne, or Brabant ; hii bpihirs. 
 Eii>tac(>, count nf Ikiulogne, and llaldwin hi) 
 cnusin, Baldwin de Ihmrg, with Baldwin, omnl 
 nf Halnaut, Ihiilon de Cnnlx, and nihir knlfbu 
 eilebrated In the "Jerusalem IKdlvenil ' "( 
 Tasso This expeditinn followed nesrljr tb« 
 Piilir nf I'l iir (he lieriilli, ilirmmii iiUniiTT 
 
 and Bulgaria, giving hostages fnr iu imlrri; 
 iniiduitaud wUwtngthe guud-willnf tliosrcoua 
 
 f.r,n 
 
CBIT8ADE8, 1000-lOM. 
 
 JtnuaUm 
 DtUvtnd. 
 
 CRUSADES, 1101-1101. 
 
 Iriti, even mmddened u they wen by the fore- 
 •oiiig mobt. Another larger following from 
 fnaet wu led by Hugh, count of Vermandoii, 
 brother of the king of Fiimce ; Robert, duke of 
 Konnandy, eldect ion of William the Conqueror; 
 ^pben, coiut of Bloii, the Conqueror's lon-in- 
 hw, and Robert, count of Flanders. These took 
 the road into Italy, and to Bari, whence, after 
 ■pending the winter, waiting for favorable 
 weather, they were transported by ships to 
 Greece, and pursued their march to Constanti- 
 nople. They were followed by a contingent 
 from touthem Italy, under Bobemond, the Nor- 
 nun prince of Tarentum, son of Robert Ouiscard, 
 ■nd bis knightly cousin, Tancred. A fourth 
 amy, gathered in southern France by count 
 Raymond of Toulouse ami Bishop Adhemer, the 
 tppointed legate and represenutlve of the pope, 
 chose still another route, through Lombardy, 
 Dslmatia and Macedoiii:!. into Thrace. On 
 patting through the terriiuries of the Byzantine 
 •mperor (Alexius I.), all the crusaders experi- 
 tnnd bis distrust, his duplicity, and his cau- 
 tious ill-will — which, undiT the circumstances 
 *cre natunil enough. Alexius managed so well 
 tbst be extorted iron each of the princes an 
 tcknowledgment nf his rights of soTereignty 
 OTer the region of their expected conquests, with 
 u oath of fealty and homa/fe, anil lie pushed 
 them across the Bospliorus so adroitly that no 
 two had the opportunity to unite their forces 
 under the walls of Constantinople. Their tirst 
 undertaking in Asia [May and June, A. D. 109*] 
 wt8 the sic'^e of Nicica. and they brieaguen-d it 
 with an army which UililK)n Im'IIi'Vcs to have 
 b«n never exceeded within the compass of a 
 ■ingle rump. Here, again, they were mastered 
 by thecimning diplomacy of the Greek enii>er(ir. 
 Wh<n the aultan of Roiim yielded his capital, 
 be wa» |iirsu«de<l to surrender It to Alexius, ami 
 the iniiHriiil lianner pnitectetl It from the rage of 
 the Jiiuoinrtled crusaders. But they revungeti 
 Ihrniwlvts (>u the Turk at Dorylietiui. where he 
 ittafkcil tliim during their auliwquent miircli. 
 ud wlun' he sufTertHl a defeat which cmli'd all 
 Sghtin).' in .\-iia Minor Baldwin, limtluT of 
 Ondfri'v. now iniprovnl his opiKirtuiiilits by 
 itralinc awny from the iirniy, witliii fi» Imu- 
 dml knik'hls and men, to make roni|ii. <> n his 
 ownaiTount^ with such suiiiss that , , m tlie 
 fitynf Eili'ssa, with a sweep uf coHutry mound It. 
 u»l fimndiil a iirincipality which nultaiMi .1 f<.r 
 hsif a milury. The nut fared on. nmiiiijj no 
 oprxwlidM fnifn infidel swi.nls, but nickcniuK' and 
 dTlni; liy IlKiimands, fnm. heat and fmm want 
 of ««iir and fmnl. until iliey came to .\ntiocli. 
 Thiw, llir Turkinh emir In commaml. with n 
 •tout trarrlxm of honie niid fiml, had pripariil 
 forsjiiililKirn defencr. anil he liilil the iH'xiitfvrs 
 SI bay ( T «ven immtlis, while thev Rtarvrd In 
 thfir ill Kupiilieil cnnipM The citv was diliv- 
 mdlolliini liy a tmltur. at Irugtii. hut prince 
 Biilii'mnnil ihc <r«fty Nonnan. seciircd the liene- 
 8t<if the truiwintii liiuiself, and fiirced hiscciin- 
 P«IH"!s to (DUittle til liini the siivcniitntv uf 
 .intiiH-h. The »ulTeriiig« uf the criisnilera' did 
 not (nd with the takiiiv of the citv They 
 b^'ll)tlll faniine anil iH-stilenre upon tliienisel vi"s 
 upw liy their greedy and sensual tniiulgence, 
 lad Ihry were soon under siege In their own 
 :=.„, :,y li ^reat army which the Turks iiiui 
 l«'U)tlit aitsinst them. Death and deserHi.n 
 •fff in fl»«lry to thin tbeir wMted ranks The 
 
 ■urrlTora ■wen in gloom and detpair, when u 
 opportune miimcle occurred to excite them 
 ureah. A lance, which viaiona and apparition* 
 Mitifled to be the rery spear that pierced the 
 Redeemer'! aide, was found burled in a church 
 at Antioch. Under the atimulut of this amaz- 
 ing discovery they saUied from the town and 
 dispersed the great army of the Turks in utter 
 rout. Still the quarrels of the leaden went oo, 
 and ten months more were consumed before the 
 remains of the Latin army advanced to Jerui»- 
 '«•"•„ I' was June, A. D. lOW, when they saw 
 the Holy City and assailed its formidable walla. 
 Their number was now reduced to 40,000, but 
 their devotion and their ardor rose to freniy, and 
 after a siege of little more than a month they 
 forced an entrance by storm. Then they spared 
 neither a«e nor sex until they had killed all who 
 denied the Savior of mankind — the Prince of 
 Peace.— E. Gibbon, Decline and Fail of the 
 Rmaan Empire, eh. 68. 
 
 Also in: J. F. MIchaud, Hiet. oftht Cntmdee 
 Mr. 1.— W. Besant and E. H. Palmer, JenitnUm, 
 th. 6.— C. Mills, //»»(. of the Cnuada, eh. 8-8. 
 — See. also, Jercbalem: A. D. 1089 
 
 A. D. I0M-Ii44.-The Latin conauetta in 
 the eaat.— The Kingdom of Jcni*<Uem. .See 
 Jercsaleu: a. I). 1(199-1144. 
 
 A. D. II0I-II03.— The aiter-waTc of the 
 firat mowement. — "The tales of victory brought 
 home by tlie pilgrims excited the most extrava- 
 gant expectations In the minds of their auditors, 
 and nothing was deemed capable of resisting 
 EiiroiH'au valour. The fxiix' called uponall who 
 had taken the cross to perform their vow, the 
 em[H'riir Henry IV. had the crusade prearheil. 
 In iiriler to gain favour with the clergy and laity. 
 Many primes now resolved to visit in" person the 
 new empire' foumlcd In the East. Three great 
 armies iis-sembleil : the first in Italy under the 
 arclil.i«liiip i.f Milan, and tlie two counts of 
 Hlamlnite; the second in France under Hujtli tlio 
 (Jreat and Stephen of Blois [who had deserted 
 their commdes of the first exiHHlitiim at Aiiliiu h, 
 and] whom shanu'and remorse urged to perform 
 their vow, William, duke of Ouienni- and count 
 of Poitou, who mortgaged his territory to 
 William Uufus of England to nroeiire funds, 
 the count of Nevers, the duke of Hiircimilv. the 
 bishops of Laon and Soissons; the thinl in (Jer- 
 niany. luiiler tlie bishop of Sall/lmrg. the atied 
 duke Welf of Bavaria. Conruil ilie niusti r of Hie 
 horse to the emperor, and many oilier knights 
 and nobles. Mu also, ilie margravine of .tnstria, 
 ileclariil her resolution to share the toils and 
 iliuiirers of the way. ami pay her vows ai the 
 to,.,li of Christ Vast numbers of women of all 
 ranks aecom|ianle<l all these armies, — nav, In 
 that of the iliike of Ouienne. » ho was inferior to 
 none In valour, but united to it the qualities of a 
 troubiuloiir and glet man. there apwared whole 
 t^^lps of young women. The Italian pilsrims 
 Were the ftpit to arrive at Constantinople. They 
 set out early in the aiiring, and took their way 
 throu^'h Carinlhia, Hungary, and Bulgaria. 
 Though the evcesws commltiiil by them were 
 great, the emperor gave them a kind recvplion, 
 and the most prudent and friendly mlvlce re 
 «I>ectlng llieir future progress. While they 
 niHMie at Constantinople, Conrad and the cniint 
 ot iJlois, snd the duke of Hurgimdy, arrived, 
 and St Whitsuntide they all passed over, and 
 en<-amptd at Nicouedia. With Ignorant fatu- 
 
 651 
 
CRUSADES, UOl-1103. 
 
 St. Btmard't 
 Pnachinii. 
 
 CRUSADES, 1147-1149 
 
 It/, and agaiiiit all cxperiencsd adrice, the new 
 Crusaders reiolred to direct their march to Bag- 
 dad and to overthrow the calipliate. The flnt 
 body which adranced wai cut to pieces by the 
 Turks on the banks of the Hslys, and only a few 
 thousands, out of more than one hundred thou- 
 sand, are said to have made their escape by des- 
 perate 8lght. The second and third armies were 
 met successively by the victorious Moslems, 
 before they had advanced so far, and were even 
 more completely annihilate<l. The latter body 
 contained, according to the clironiclurs of the 
 time, 150,000 pilgrims, of whom scarcely one 
 thousand were saved from slavery or ueatli 
 The men fell under the swonis of tlic Turks ; tlio 
 women and girls, in great numbers, flnislit'd out 
 their days in the Iiarems of the East. Out of 
 the wreck of the three vast armaments a slcna, ■ 
 column of 10,000 men was got together after 
 some weeks at Antiooh and led to Jenisnlem 
 (A. D. 1 103). Most of these perished in subse- 
 quent battles, and very few ever saw Europe 
 again. "Sucliwitsthc fruitless termination of 
 this second griut movement of the West, in 
 which perhaps a third of a million of pilgrims 
 left their homes, never to revisit them. — T. 
 Keightley, The Oumdtrt, eh. 2. 
 
 Also is: J. F. Michaud, Iliit. nf tht CnMnlct, 
 bk. 4. 
 
 A. D. It04-ltli.— Conquest of maritime 
 cities of Syria and Palestine.— Destruction of 
 the Library of Tripoli. — " The prosperity iiud the 
 safety of Jerusalem appeared closely connected 
 with the conr{ucst ot the mnritinie cities of Syria 
 and Palestine: it Ix-ing by tlirm nione that 
 it could receive succour, or estiilillsh prompt 
 and I'lisy commuuirnlions with the West The 
 maritime nations of EurojM' were liitirrsti'd in 
 siroiiiling, in this instance, the enterprims of the 
 kinii of Jerusalem. . . From the iwrioil of the 
 first crusades, the Pimns and the (ttiiiH-sc had 
 constantly sent vessils to the seas of the East ; 
 and their lleets had aided the Christians in several 
 eipeilitioiis u.i;aiiist the .Mussulmans .\ (' niH-se 
 fl«t had ju.«t arrived in the seas of S<- ,a when 
 "t •:ildwin undertook the siege of I'toleiimlis ^.Ven-) 
 file Genoese wen- invited to assist in tins con- 
 quest: I ut as religion was not the prinriple to 
 bring tin m into action, they reiiulnil. in return 
 for their iissistanee and llii'lr labour, that they 
 sliould Inite a third of the liooty : they lilicwise 
 stipulated to have a »< parale ehiinh for ilinn 
 s< Ives, and a national factory and triliunal in the 
 eonijuereil city. ItolcmaVs "wasbesictfcil liy land 
 ami sea. and after n lilomly nsist.inic' of tiventy 
 d.iys, the iiihaliitants and the gurrisiai pMposell 
 to'surrender, ami iniploreil tlie ilen\eri<y nf ||||, 
 r iniiueMrs. The elty i)|M'ne<l its gates to tin- 
 (hri.stians, ami the ilihaliilnnts pn'panii to dc 
 part, taking with them whatever they deeineil 
 most valuable: but the GeniH'se. at the sl^'ht of 
 suili riiii Ixmty, palci no respiK't to the capitula- 
 tion, and iniusaered without pity a disarmed and 
 defiMd'less people In conseiiueiiri' of tlds 
 
 victory, si'veral places which the KL'vptians still 
 hrlil on the coasts of Syria feil into the lisnds of 
 the Christians." Amoiiir thos<< was the citv of 
 Tripoli. •■ Itaymond. Count de Si Oilles aiiii of 
 Thoulousc, one of the companions of (liHlfrey. 
 aflir having wsndenil for a Iohl' time aliotii 
 AM. ha>i died tn-folt- Itiis plix c. oF nhiih he lind 
 cumnience<l tlir siege. In inemorv of his exploits 
 In the Unit crusade, the rich territory of Tripoli 
 
 652 
 
 was created a county, and became the inhrritance 
 of his family. This territory was celebrateii for 
 its productions. . . . A library estalilislicj in thii 
 city, and celebrated through all the East, con- 
 tained the monuments of the ancient literature of 
 the PersUns, the Arabians, the Egyptians, and 
 the Greelts. A hundred copyists were there con- 
 stantly employed in transcribing inaniiscripti. 
 . . . After the taking of the city, a priest at- 
 tached to Count Bernard de St. Oilles. entered 
 the room in which were collected a vast miinlKTof 
 copies of the Koran, and as he declared tla- lilimrr 
 of Tripoli contained only the impious Inioks of 
 Mahomet, it was given up to the flames 
 Biblies, situated on the smiling ami fertile shorei 
 of Phoenicia, Sarepta, where St. Jerome saw still 
 in his day the tower of Isaiah: ami iitryius. 
 farao IS in the early days of the elmreli f.ir iti 
 school of eloquence, shared the fate of Tripoli, 
 and became baronies bestowed upou (hristiao 
 knights. After these conquests, tlie Pisins. tlie 
 Genoese, and several warriors wlio hail f.illij\\iij 
 Baldwin in his expeditions, returneil into Kumpe: 
 and the king of Jerusalem, abaminii'l l>r ihew 
 useful allies, was obliged to employ the fin^ 
 which remaineil in n^puising the invasi.iiis .f the 
 Saracens." — J. F. Michaud, Ilitl. of the Cmudtt 
 r. 1. hk. !i. 
 
 A. D. 1147-1149.— The Second Great Mort- 
 ment.— Duriu); 'lie reign of Fiilk, the f.iurtii 
 ki'' - of Jerusali !^ the Latin power in Palestine 
 at 1 iH'igliboriiiir territories Ix^-an to be ix-ri- 
 ousn siiaken by a vigorous Turki>li |irimt 
 naii'i'd Zenghi. on whom the sultiin Mahmeud 
 had conferred the govomineiit of all tli, 1 'UMrv 
 west of the Tigris. It was the lir-t lini,' >iri« 
 the coming of the Cbristiaiis .if ih. W.-t tint 
 the wliole stri'ugth of Islam in tb:il rei-iuii had 
 iK-en so nearlv gathered into oni' -.trmiL' liaiid, to 
 lie us«(l auralnst them, and they Mt the ellrd 
 speedily, lieiiig tlieinsejves weakene^l by mint 
 iiuarrefs. In U4:i Kiiiir Fiilk ilieil, Uavin,: ibc 
 CMwn to a voung son, IJalihvir III .— a Imy of 
 llilrtwn, whose mother goverinil in hi> lume 
 The next year Zentilii eapturiil lie ini|i"rtant 
 city of Edess.!, ami const irnat ion \\:i-, luclmiii 
 by his suci'essi s Europe was lie 11 :i|i;ir:i!nl to 
 for help aura ' i the advaiieiii:; Turk, uinl the 
 call fnmi .ji alem was taken up by m ikr 
 uaril of Clairvau.v. th.' irresistilile I'niliii.iiut. 
 whose influenei' aecompli^hed. in bi« 'ine . what- 
 ever he willed to have done. .Iii»l li I'l . mitury 
 after PeliT the Hermit. St liernanl pniileilt 
 Second Crusade, and with almost ei|ii;il iiTirt. 
 notwitlislanilini: the Ixtti r knonlnl^i n iw |»«- 
 sessed of all ibe hardships ami piriis n! the 
 expi'ditton. This time, royalty lo'.k tl;e iijii 
 King Conrad of Germany eoiTirnanili'l a I'real 
 army from that eoiiniry. ami unotler ImsI ful- 
 loweil King l.oiiis VII' from Frame lietli 
 armies nnmheil down the Daniilu i.i ( Hiistanti- 
 iiople, in the sumimr of 1147 .Vi the -ame 
 inoini lit King linger [of Na|ih»|. «itli liii ll'it. 
 ntta1k.1l, not the Turks, Imt tin (;r..k wi|"rt 
 tinvin of llie MoD-a Manuel ['le- lly/a!;'inf 
 emperor] thereupon, eonvineeil tliii ilie lirirt 
 annji-s wen' designed f ir the ili'Stnn le ri el hil 
 empire in tlie flrst plaiv. with the irii ;i|e«i 1 jer 
 tioiis. got together Insips frinn iili l.i- pnoiiiert. 
 and intered lutoa half alllaiiee wilb tin Turku of 
 Asia Minor. Tile lllistiiii-r aiei iii t< . i.i>^ i^a 
 Increased by the lawless conduct of tie liirtiiM 
 hordes, the Greek truups attacked tiuiii mon 
 
CRUSADES, 1U7-1U9. 
 
 Kidtard 
 aeaintt Saladin. 
 
 CRUSADES, nSS-llW. 
 
 thu oDce; whereupon Duin;roui voices were 
 niied in V>uii'i bexlqiurten to demand open 
 wir tgiimt the faittueu Greeks. The kings 
 were mlly agreed not tv, permit this, but on 
 uriTing in Constantinople they completely fell 
 nut, for, while Louis made no secret of his warm 
 friendship for Roger, Conrad promised the 
 Emperor of Constantinople to attack the Nor- 
 mans as soon as the Crusade should be ended. 
 ThU was a bad beginning for a united campaign 
 in the East, and moreover, at every step east- 
 wani, new difficulties arose. The Oerman army, 
 broken up into several detachments, md led 
 without ability or prudence, wa« attacked in 
 Asia Minor by the Emir of Iconium. and cut to 
 pieces, all but a few hundred men. The French, 
 though better appointed, also suffered severe 
 kuKS In that country, but contrived nevertheless, 
 to reach Antioch with a very considerable force, 
 and from thence might have carried the project 
 »liicli the second Baldwin had conceived in v -in, 
 namely, the defence of the northiastcru frontier, 
 upon which, especUlly since Zenki [Zenghi] had 
 made liis appearance, the life or death of the 
 Christian states depended. But in vain did 
 Prince itaymond of Antioch try to prevail upon 
 King Louis to take this view, and to attack with- 
 out di'lay the most formidable of all iheir aiiver- 
 jaries. Xoureddin [son of Zenghi, now dead]. 
 Louis would not hear or do anything till he had 
 tea Jerusalem and praye<i at the Holy Sepul- 
 chre. ... In Jerusalem he [King Louis] was 
 weloomi'ii by Queen Meliaendc (now regent, 
 during !»'r son's minority, after Fulco's death), 
 vith praise and gratitude, because he liinl not 
 taken part in the distant wars of the Priuc-e of 
 Anilcich, but had reserved his forces for the 
 detincc of the holy city of Jerusalem. It was 
 now nsolved to lead the army against Daroasrus. 
 Ihi' cinly Turkish town whose Emir had always 
 ^fuaed to submit to either Zenki or NoumlJin. 
 Xer.^rthelcss Noureddin instantly coUectt 1 all 
 bis available forces, to succour the besieged 
 town." But he was spared further exertii.ri by 
 the ji;ilciu« disagreement of the Christians, who 
 lipinwi to take thought as to what should lie done 
 wiih I)iiraa»cu» when they took it. The Syrian 
 bamim conclujed that they woiiM prefer to leave 
 the ritv Id Turki8li lianils, and iiy f <chcrous 
 manciiivres they forced king Louis to ,aise the 
 liejTt "The Oerman king, long since tired of 
 his ixiwiTiess position rt'tumeif home in the 
 sutunin of 1148, and L i». after much pressing. 
 slaved a few months !• r. and reached Eun>po 
 in the following spr he whole expe<iition 
 
 hud been wn ithout honour and 
 
 without ri'sult, by i ,t wretched personal 
 
 r»sinns. and the most nw and selllsli poll(;y. '" 
 -II Von .Sybel, Uitl. » ,d Literature of llu Cru- 
 «<(«. ch. "• "So ended in utter ahame and 
 liiniimlny the Second Crusade. The event 
 SH-meil to give the lie to the glowing promises 
 ami pr..pliecles of 8t. Bernal^. 80 vast hail 
 been the ilnin of population to feed this holy 
 var that, In the phrase of an eye-witnem, the 
 cities and i-astles were empty, and scan-ely one 
 man was left to seven women , and now It was 
 known that the fathers, the Husbands, tlie sona. 
 or the brothers of these miserable women would 
 see '".eir earthly hnmea no more The crv of 
 Miuiah charged Bernard with the crime of 
 •rmllng them forth on an emnii In which tliey 
 "' ' ' absolutely nrthlBC and had rcapeil only 
 
 kadUoi 
 
 wretchedneai and disgrace. For a time Bernard 
 himself was struck dumb: but he soon remem- 
 bered that he had spoken with the authority of 
 Ood and his vicegerent, and that the guUt or 
 failure must lie at the door of the pilgrims. "—O. 
 W. Cox, The Cnuadei. eh. 6. 
 
 A. O. 1187.— Tht lou of Jertualem. See 
 Jbbubalui: a. D. lUi>-n8T. 
 
 A. D. itS8- 119a. -The Third Great Mort- 
 ment. — When tba news reached Europe that 
 S'^ladin, the redoubtable new champion of Islam 
 had expelled tne ChristUns and thri Cross from 
 Jerusalem, polluting once more the precincts of 
 the Hoij Repulchre, the effect produced was 
 something not easily understood at the present 
 day. If we may believe historians of the time, 
 the pope (Urban III.) died of grief; "Christians 
 frrgot all th? ills of their own country to weep 
 over Jerusalem. . . . Luxury was banished from 
 cities; injuries were forgotten and alms were 
 given abundantly. Christians slept upon ashes, 
 clothe<i themselves in haircloth, and expiated 
 their disorderly lives by fasting and mortiflca- 
 'ion. The clergy set the example ; the morals 01 
 the cloister were reformed, and cardinals, con- 
 demning themselves to poverty, promised to re- 
 pair to the Holy Land, supported on charity by 
 the way. These [lious reformations did noi last 
 long , but men's minds were not the less prepared 
 for a new crusade by them, and all Europe was 
 soon roused by the voice of Gregory VIII., who 
 exhorted the faithful to assume the cross and 
 take up arms.""— J. F. MIchaud, Hitt. of the 
 Crumiie; it. 7.—"" The empenir Frederic Barba- 
 rossa and the kings of France and England 
 assumed the crosj : and the tardy magnitude of 
 their armaments was anticipateii by the maritime 
 states of the Mediterranean and the iKcan. "The 
 skilful ai?d provident Italians first eri'uarke<l in 
 the ships of Genoa, Pisa, and Venice. TUev 
 were speedily followed by the most eager pil- 
 
 f;rim8 of France, Normandy and the Western 
 sles. The p werful si,ccour of Flanders, Frise. 
 and Deuniarlt Slled near a hundred vessils; and 
 the northern warriors were distinguished in the 
 field by a lofty stature and a ponderous buttle- 
 a.Te. Their increasing multitudes coulii no longer 
 be confined within the walls of Tyre [which the 
 Latins still held], or remain olK'dlent to tlic \oke 
 of Conrad [Marquis of Montferrat. who had 
 taken command of the place and repelled the 
 attacks of Saladin]. Thev pitied the niisfortiiues 
 and revered the dignity of Luslgnan [the nominal 
 king of Jerusalem, lately captive in Saladin's 
 hands], who was ndeased from pri.sou. |MTliaps 
 to divide the amiv of the Franks. He proposed 
 111" recovery of ftolemals, or Acre, thirty miles 
 1 1 the south of Tvre : and the place was first in- 
 vesU-d (July. lis»] by iJ.tXM) horse and 80,000 
 fiKit under his nominal command. I shall not 
 expatiate on the story of this memorable siege, 
 wl.. 'istiil neur two years, and consumed, in a 
 narrow space, the forces of Europe and Asia. 
 . . At the «)iind of the holj trumpet the 
 Moslems of Egypt, Syria. Arabia, and the Ori- 
 ental provincx'S asaembied uniter the siTvant of 
 the prophet: his camp was pitche<t and removed 
 within a few miles of Acre: and be lalxmred, 
 night ami day, for the relief of his brethren and 
 the annoyance of the Pranks. . . In the sprine 
 of the B<'Cond year, the royal fleets of France and 
 Kniilaud cast anchor in the bay of Acre, and the 
 liege was mure vigorously ptutecuted by tht 
 
 C53 
 
CRUSADES, 1188-ll»a. 
 
 
 CRUSADES, lSOl-1203. 
 
 »1 
 
 jonthful emulatton of the two i ig«, Philip 
 Augiutui and Richard Plantagenet. After everjr 
 resource bad been tried, and every hope wa« ex- 
 haiuted, the (hfeodera of Acre lubmltted to their 
 fate. ... By the conquest of Acre the Latin 
 
 Eowen acquired a strong town and a convenient 
 arbour ; but the advantage was most dearly pur- 
 chased. The minister and historian of Saladin 
 computes, from the report of the enemy, that 
 their numbers, at diiferent periods, amounted to 
 600,000 or 600,000 : that m.ire than 100,000 Chris- 
 tians were slain ; that » r greater number was 
 lost by disease or shi; ,t''k." On the reduc- 
 tion of Acre, king Philip Augustus returned to 
 France, leaving only 500 knighu and 10,000 men 
 behind him. Meantime, the old emperor, Fred- 
 erick Barbaroasa, coming by the landward route, 
 through the country of the Greeks and i^sia 
 Minor, with a well-trained army of 80,000 knighU 
 and 50,000 men on foot, had perished by the way, 
 drowned in a little Ciliclan torrent, and only 
 5,000 of his troops had reached the camp at Acre. 
 Old as be was, (he was seventy when he took 
 the cross) Barbarossa might have changed the 
 event of the Crusaile If he had reached the scene 
 of conflict ; for he had brains with his valor and 
 character with his ferocity, which Richard Ctrur 
 de Lion had not. The latter remained another 
 
 J ear in the Holy Land ; recovered C'lesarea and 
 affa ; threatened Saladin in Jerusalem seriously, 
 but to no avail: and stirred up mure and fiercer 
 quarrels among the Christians than had been 
 customary, even on the soil which was sacred to 
 them. In the end, a treaty was arranged which 
 displease<l the more devout on both sides. 'It 
 was stipulated that .lerusalem and the holy sepul- 
 chre should be open, without tribute or vexa- 
 tion, to the pilgrimage of the Latin Christians; 
 that, after the demoliliun of Ascalon, they should 
 Inclusively possess the sea-coast from Jaffa to 
 Tyre; that the count of Tripoli and the prince of 
 Aotioch should be comprised In the truce ; and that, 
 during three years and three months, all hostilities 
 should cease. . . . Richard embarked for Europe, 
 to seek a long captivity and a premature grave ; 
 and the space of a fi'w"montlis concluded the life 
 and glories of Saladin."— E. aihlH)n, Dftliiu and 
 Full uf the Hi»iu\n Kmptrf. M. 59.—" A halo of 
 false glory surrr>unds the Third Crusade from the 
 associations which connect it with the llon-liearied 
 king of England. TheexplnitKcrf Kklianl I. have 
 stirred to enthusiasm the dullest of chronicUTs, 
 have furnished themes for jubilant eulogies, and 
 have shed over his life that glamour which clieats 
 even solH'r-minded men when they read the story 
 of hispnitotype Achilleusinthe taleof Troy. . . . 
 When we tirm from the picture to the reiilliy, we 
 nhull see in this Third Crusade an enterprise in 
 wliich the flery zeal which does something to- 
 wanls reilc-eming the savage brutalities of ()o<l- 
 frev ami the lint crusaders is displaced by base 
 anci sonlld greed, by Intrigues utterly of the earth 
 earthy, by wanton crimes fMni which we might 
 well suppose that the sun would hiile away its 
 face; and in the leaders uf this enterprise we shall 
 see men in whom morall.v there is scanrly a single 
 <iualilr to nlleve the monot4)ni>'iH lilackness of 
 their infamy; in whom, strategicnily. a very 
 little generalship loim-s to tlie aiil of a bllnil 
 
 \:r.iU: f.-.rrs ■•_<; W (V.I, T'rr O'^-vifS. ffr. T. 
 
 Also m; .Mrs. W. Busk, JinJiaeral flipM, 
 Em/iefy>ri, Kingt and Vnuader$, bk. i, ch. 18, and 
 M. a, eA. 1-8. 
 
 A. D. 1196-1197.— Tha Feuth Espeditit 
 — A enuading expedition of German batvna a 
 their loUowen, which went to the Holy Lsi 
 by way of Italy, In 119«, is generally counted 
 the Fourth Crusade, though some writers lo 
 upon it as a movement supplementary to t 
 Third Crusade. The Germans, who number 
 some 40,000, do not seem to have been wclcom 
 by the Christians of Palestine. The latter ni 
 ferred to maintain the state of peace then pi 
 vailing; but the new cnisaden force<l hwiiliti 
 at once. SaUdin was dead; his brother Saphad 
 accepted the challenge to war with prompt vig 
 and struck the flnt hard blow, taking JafTa. «^ 
 great slaughter, and demolishing its furiific 
 tions. But Saphadhi was presently defeated 
 a battle fought between Tyre and Sidon. ai 
 Jaffa was recovered, together with other tow 
 and most of the coast But, a little later, ti 
 Germans suffered. In their turn, a most demon 
 izing reverse at the castle of Thoron, which thi 
 besieged, and were further disturb-d, m tl 
 midst of their depression, by news of the dea 
 of their emperor, Henry Vl. A great part 
 them, thereupon, returned home. Those who t 
 remained, or many of them, occupied JiiSa. wbe 
 they were attacked, a few months later, and ci 
 to piecea— G. W. Cox, T/te Crumtt,; ch. 8. 
 
 A. D. IM1-1303.— The Fifth Movement.. 
 TretchetT of the Venetians.— Conquest 1 
 Constantinople. — "Every travelh-r rviuraii 
 from Syria brought a prayer for immediate hel 
 from the survivora of the Third Crusaile. 
 was necessary to act at once if any iMirtion cvt 
 of the wreck of the kingdom of Jerusalem wei 
 to be saved. Innocent the Third, and siime, 1 
 least, of the statesmen of the West were ful! 
 alive to the progress which Islam had mac 
 shice the departure of the Western kings. 1 
 1197, however, after Ave yearsof weary waitici 
 the time seemed opportune for striking a ne 
 blow for Christendom. Saladin, the gnat Sultai 
 had died in 1193, and his two sons were alixiJ 
 quarreling about the partition of his cnipin 
 The contending divisions of the Anili .Mojin 
 were at this moment each biddim; for the lU] 
 port of the Christians of Syria. The othi r grw 
 race of Mahometans which had threatent 
 Europe, the Seljukian Turks, had maile a bi 
 in their progress through Asia .Minor . 
 Otlier special circumstances which rendered tb 
 moment favourable for a new crusade, eon 
 bined with the profound conviction of the lUtei 
 men of the West of the danger to Chrislenilm 
 fMm the progress of Islam, urged W.'«t« 
 Eunipe to take part In the new enteriirise. Ti 
 reigning Pone. Innocent III., was ilje gret 
 moving spirit of the Fourth Crusade. ' 'Th 
 pipular preacher of the Crusade was found in > 
 ignorant priest nameil Fulk, of Neuiily, whoi 
 success in kindling public enthusiasm wi 
 almost equal to that of Peter the Hermit. Vu 
 numbers Umk the cross, with Tlieolisld. com 
 of Champagne, Louis, count of Ulois and ( hai 
 tres. Simon de Montfort, Walter of Brienni 
 Baldwin, count of Flandera. Hugh of St. Pa 
 Geoffrey de ViUehaidouin. manhal of C'hanipagii 
 anil future historian of the Crusade, ami man 
 other prominent knights and princes anmng ih 
 IradrfS. The yming count of ChaiiiMiSr -'^ 
 the chosen chief; but he sickeneil and died an 
 his place was taken by Ekmlfsce. marciuis r 
 MoDtferrat, It was the decision uf the Icailei 
 
 054 
 
CRrSADES, 1201-1903. 
 
 Taking of 
 Cont\.nUHO/ilt. 
 
 CRUSADES, 1213. 
 
 thit the expedition should be directed in tiie flret 
 initance sgainit the Moslem power in Egypt, and 
 tbst it should be coQveye<l to the attack of 
 Egypt by sea. Venice, alone, seemed to be able 
 to lurnish ships, sailors and supplies for so great 
 s movement, and a contract with Venice for the 
 lerrice was concluded in the spring of 1201. 
 But Venice was mercenary, unscrupulous and 
 treacherous, caring for nothing but commercial 
 gains. Before the crusaders could gather at her 
 port for embarkation, she had betrayed them to 
 the Moslems. By a secret treaty with the sultan 
 of Egypt, the fact of which is coming more and 
 more conclusively to light, she had undertaken 
 to frustrate the Crusade, and to receive import- 
 sot commercial privileges at Alexandria as com- 
 pensation for her treacherr. When, therefore, 
 in the early summer of 1202. the army of the 
 Crusade was collected at Venice to take ship, it 
 encountered difficulties, discouragements and ill- 
 treatments which thickened daily. The numl)er 
 SMembk'd was not equal to expectation Some 
 hsd gone by sea from Flanders; some ;iv other 
 routes. But Venice hnd provided tran.Hport for 
 the whole, and inflexibly demanded pay for the 
 whole. The money in hand was not equal to 
 this claim. Tl:e summer was lost in disputes 
 lad attempted compnimises. Munv of the cru- 
 isdrra withdrew in disgust and went home. At 
 length, in defiance of the censures of the pope 
 sod of the bitter opposition of many leaders and 
 followers of the expedition, there was a bargain 
 •truck, by the terms of which the crusaders were 
 to assist the Venetians in taking and plundering 
 the Christian city of Zani, a dreaded commercial 
 rival ou the DalmHtlan coast of the Adriatic, be- 
 loniriiig to the klug of Hungary, bimaelf one of 
 the iiromoters of the very crusade which was 
 now to be tume<l against him. The infamous 
 compact was carried out. Ziira was taken, and ic 
 the end it was totally destMycd by the Venetians. 
 In the meantime, the diHinied citV was occupied 
 by the crusading army through the winter, while 
 s ilill more perfidious niot was Iwing formed. 
 Old Dandolo, the blind doge of \'euice. was the 
 BMter spirit of it. He wn« hel|,,.a by the in- 
 fluence of Philip, one of the two rivals then 
 fighting for the imperial crown in Oerinany and 
 Italy. Philip had niarriol a daughter of Isaac 
 II. lAngelos), made emperor at Constantinople 
 on the fall of the dynasty of Comuenus, and that 
 feeble prince ha<l laU'Iy Iietn <lethrooed liy his 
 bmlher The son anil heir of Isaac, nanieil 
 Alexius, had escaped fniin Constantinople and 
 h«d made bis way to Philip imploring help. 
 Either Philip conceived the idea, or it was sug- 
 gmted to him, that the armament of the Crusade 
 raighl be employed to place the young Alexius 
 ou the throne of his father. To the Venetians 
 the sihenie was more than acceptable. It would 
 fmstrsle the Crusade, which they hiul pledgetl 
 ihemsrives to the sultan of Egypt Ui accomplish ; 
 It would satisfy their Ill-will Uiwards the Bv- 
 tantiucs, and, more imfHirUut than all else, "it 
 »<'uld (jive them an opi>onunity to wcure im- 
 mmuralde advanUges over tiieir rivals in tlie 
 ?riat traiie which Constantinople held at com- 
 mand. The marquis of Montferrat, commander 
 "I the Crusade, hud some grievances of hin own 
 Y"'' "'iiie umipitioiis of his own, wlilcl. miule him 
 lavnralilc to the new project, ami he was easily 
 »"u to it. The three influences tbuscomldiieil — 
 *«« of Philip, of Ihwdolo, and of Montferrat — 
 
 overcame all oppodtlon. Some who oppoied 
 were bribed, tome were intimidated, lome were 
 deluded 'jy promisee, acme deserted the ranks. 
 Pope ^nn JcentremonstTBted, appealed and threat- 
 ened in vain. The pilgrim host, " changed from 
 a crusading army into a flUbustering exi^dition, " 
 set sail from Zara in the spring of the year 1208 
 and was Unded, the following June, not on the 
 shores of Egypt or Syria, but under the walls 
 of Constantinople. lu conquest, pillage and 
 hrutally destructive treatment of the great city 
 are described in another place.— E. Pears, Th$ 
 fall of Cojutnntinoph, eh. 8-18. 
 
 Also nj : Q. Flnlay, Hut. of the Bymntine and 
 Orttk Emptrtt, 716-1458, 4*, 8, eh. 8.— E. Gibbon 
 Dfthru and Fall of the Roman Empire, eh. .W — 
 bee, also, BTZAKTisit Ekpou:: A. D. 1208-1204 
 
 A. D. iaoi.i283,-AKainst the heathen Selal 
 vomans on the Baltic. See Livonia: 12TH-18Ta 
 Cehtctwes; and Prussia: ISxHCENruKT 
 
 8ee*-A?B "^k"*'-*'""' *"• *""«^""- 
 A. D. laia.— The Children's Crusade,— "The 
 religious wars fostered and promoted vice- and 
 the failure of amy after army was l<H>kea on as 
 a clear manifestation of God's wrath against the 
 sins of the camp. This feeling was n)use<l to lu 
 highest pitch when, in the year 1212, certain 
 priests— Nicolas was the name of one of these 
 mischievous madmen — went almut France and 
 Germany calling on the children to perform 
 what the fathers, through their wickedness had 
 been unable to effect, promising that the dea 
 should be dry to enable them to march arross: 
 that the Saracens would be miraculoi.sly stiicken 
 with a panic at the sight of thet.i; that G(xl 
 would, through the hands of children only 
 whose lives were yet pure, work the recovery of 
 the Cross ani the Sepulchre. Thousands— it is 
 said fifty lliousand — children of both sexes re- 
 sponded to the call. They listened to the im 
 iiassioned preaching of the monks, believed their 
 lying miracles, their visions, their portents, their 
 references to the Scriptures, and. In spite of ail 
 that their parents could do, rushed to take the 
 Cross, boys and girls together, and streamed 
 along the roads which led to Marseilles and 
 Genoa, singing hymns, waving branches, reply- 
 ing to those who asked whither they were going 
 • We go to Jerusalem to deliver the Holy Sepul- 
 chre,' and shouting their ndlving cry, ' Lonl 
 Jesus, give us hack thy Holy f'ross.' 'They ad- 
 mitted whoever came. ptMvlded he took the 
 Cross; the infection s|ii.ad, and the children 
 could not lie restrained from joining them in the 
 towns iioil villages along their mi Their 
 
 miserable parents put them in prison, they es- 
 caped: they forbade them to go; the children 
 went in spite of prohibition. They ha<l no 
 money, no provisions, no leadere; but the charity 
 of the towns they pas»<'d through supported 
 them. At their reiir streamed the usual tail of 
 camp followers. . . . There were two main bodies. 
 One of these directed its way through Germany, 
 acroas the Alps, to Genoa. Ou the road they 
 were robbed of all the gifts which had \kvu pre- 
 sented them; they were exposed to heat and 
 want, and very many cither di«l on the mareh 
 or wsndered away from the road and «n '.s rajno 
 lost to sight ; when they reached Italy they dis- 
 persi'd about the country, seeking 'food, were 
 strip|ie<l by the villagers, and in some cases were 
 reduced to slavery. Only seven thousand out of 
 
 Mtii^«^l 
 
 OOU 
 
^m 
 
 CRUSADES. 1313. 
 
 ^iv^jg^ CRUSADES, 1818-1839. 
 
 it:i 
 
 their number arrired at Genoa. Here they stayed 
 for aome days. They looked down upon the 
 Mediterranean, hoping that its bright waves 
 would divide to let them pass. But they did 
 not: there was no miracle wrought in their 
 favour; a few of noble birth were received among 
 the Genoese families, and have given rise to dis- 
 tinguished houses of Genoa: among them is the 
 house of Vivaldi. The rest, disappointed and 
 disheartened, made their way back again, and 
 
 Sit home at length, the girls with the loss of 
 eir virtue, the boys with the loss of their l)e- 
 lief, all barefooted and in rags, laughed at by 
 the towns they went through, and wondering 
 why they had ever gone at all. This was the 
 ena of the German army. That of the French was 
 not so fortunate, for none of them ever got back 
 again at all. When they arrived at Marseilles, 
 thinned probably by the same causes as those 
 which had dispersed the Germans, they found, 
 like their brethren, that the sea did not open a 
 path for them, as had been promised. Perhaps 
 some were disheartenetl and went home again. 
 But fortune appeared to favour them. There 
 were two worthy merchants at Marseilles, named 
 Hugh Ferreus, and William Porcus, Iron Hugh 
 and Pig William, who traded with the East, and 
 had in port seven ships, in which they proposed 
 to convey the children to Palestine. With a 
 noble generosity they ofTeretl to take them for 
 nothing, all for love of religion, and out of the 
 pure kindness of their hearts. Of course this 
 offer was accepted with Joy. and the seven ves- 
 sels laiien with the happy "little Crusailers, sing- 
 ing their livmns and dying their banners, sail^ 
 out from Marseilles, bound for the East, accom- 
 
 fianied by William the Good and Hueh the Pious, 
 t was not known to the children, of course, that 
 the chief trade of these merchants was the lucra- 
 tive business of kidnapping Christian children 
 for the Alexandrian market. It was so, however, 
 and these respectable tradesmen bad never be- 
 fore mode so splendid a coup. Unfortunately, 
 olT the Island of St. Peter, they encountered bad 
 weatlier, and two ships went down with all on 
 board. What must have been the feelings of 
 the philanthropists. Pig William and Iron Hugh, 
 at this misfortune f Thev got. however, five 
 ships safely to Alexandria, und sold all their 
 cargo, the Sultan of fairo buying forty of the 
 boys, whom he brought up carefully and aiiurl, 
 intending them, doubtless, for bis best soldiers. 
 A dozen refusing to change their faith were 
 martyred. None of the rest ever came back. 
 Nobody in Europe seems to have taken much 
 notice of this extraoniinary episode."— W. B<'. 
 sant and E. H. Palmer, Jeriimltm. eh. 18. 
 
 Also in: J. H. Micliaud, Hut. nttht Cnu,uU*. 
 app. no. 88.— O. Z. Gray, The Children f Cn- 
 tade. 
 
 A. D. 1113.— Afaintt the Moors in Spain. 
 See Spain: A O 114«-1382 
 
 A. D. Iii6-iaa9.— Tht Sixth MoTimcnt — 
 Frederic II, in Jerusalem.— For six years after 
 the betrayal of the vows of the crusaders of 1303- 
 1204 — who sacked Constanllnoplc instead of 
 reacuing Jerusalem — the Christians of Palestine 
 were protected by a truce with Saphadin, the 
 brother of Saladin. who had succe<'ded the latter 
 in power. Itustililies were llieu rosiily provoki'd 
 by the always fcwilsh Ijitlns. and they soon 
 found theniselvps reibued to sore straits, calling 
 Bpoa Europe fur fresh help. Pope Innocent III. 
 
 did not icruple to second their appeal. A ni 
 crusade was preached with great earnestness, t 
 a general Council of the Church — the Fourth 
 Lateran — was convened for the stimulation 
 it. "The Fifth Crusade [or the Sixth, as mc 
 commonly numbered], the result of this i«9ol 
 tion, was divided in the sequel into three ma 
 time expeditions: the first [A. D. 1316] consi 
 ing principally of Hungarians under their kin 
 Andrew: the second [A. D. 1818] composed 
 Germans, Italians, French and English oobi 
 and their followers; and the third [A. D. 123 
 led by the Emperor Frederic II. in person. 
 Thoi^h the King of Hungary was attended i 
 the flower of a nation which, before its co 
 version to Christianity, had been the scour 
 and terror of Western Europe, the arms of th 
 monarch, even aided by the junction of numi 
 ous German crusaders under the dukes of Ac 
 tria and Bavaria, performed nothing worthy 
 notice: and after a single campaign in I'alesiio 
 in which the Mussulman territories were ineffw 
 ually ravaged, the fickle ALdrew dcsene<l ti 
 cause and returned with his forces to Europ 
 His defection did not prevent the duke of .\i) 
 tria, with the German crusaders, from remainin 
 in concert with the King of Jerusalem, liis barot 
 and the knights of the three religious order 
 for the defence of Palestine; and, Tntliefolloi 
 ing year, the constancy of these faithful clisi 
 pions of the Cross was rewarded by the arriv 
 of numerous reinforcements from Germany. . . 
 It was resolved to change the scene of inrti 
 from the narrow limits of the Syrian shore 
 the coast of Egypt, . . . and the situation i 
 Damietta, at the mouth of the Nile, pointed oi 
 that city as the first object of attack." After 
 siege of seventeen months, during wliioh boi 
 the liesieged and the liesiegers suffi'reil horribl 
 from faimne and from pestilence, Damietta wi 
 taken (A. D. 1319). Nine-tenths of Us iwpul 
 tion of 80,000 had perishe<l. " Both ilunnit tl 
 siege and after tlie capture of Damietta. the ii 
 vasion of Egypt had nlled the inUiiels witli eoi 
 sternation : and the alarm which was hetrayed : 
 their counsels proveii that the eru.saderi. ; 
 choosing that country for the tlieatn' of oner 
 tions, had assailed the Mussulman power m i 
 most vital and vulnerable point. Of the t« 
 sons of Saphadin, Conullnus and • amel. wt 
 were now uneasily seated on the tlinvnesof D; 
 inascus and Cairo, the former, in despair of pn 
 serving Jerusalem, had alreaily demolishtil i 
 fortifications; and the brotliefs scri'i'il in n 
 peatedly offering the cession of tlie lioly city m 
 of all Palestine to the Chri.itians. upou the sing 
 condition of their evacuating Eirypt. Evei 
 object whicli had been ineffectually'pnipo9e<i i 
 repeated Crusades, since the fatal battle < 
 Tiberias, might now have been gloriou.sly ol 
 tained by the acceptance of these terms, and tl 
 King of Jerusalem, the French and Knitlis 
 leaders, and the Teutonic knight.'i. all eagerl 
 desired to embrace tlie offer of theSultuns. Bi 
 the obstinate ambition and cupidity i>f the sui 
 viving papal legate. Cardinal Pelairius. of tt 
 Italian chieftains, and of the knights of theothi 
 two religious orders, by hoUlliig out llie ric 
 prospect of the conquest and plunder of Egyp' 
 overruled every wise and temperate arj!uui<ul i 
 the Christian councils, and produced a rejectio 
 of all compromise with the infidels After 
 winter of luxurious InacUoo, the legate led tii 
 
 056 
 
CRUSADES, 1S16-132S. 
 
 SLLouitM 
 
 CRUSADES, 1248-1254. 
 
 eroMding boat from Dunietto towud Cairo 
 (A D. ISSO)." The ezpediUoo waa aa diaaa- 
 tiDua in iu nault aa it waa imbecile in iu leader- 
 lUp. The whole anny, caught by the riaing of 
 the Kile, waa placed in so helpleaa • aituation that 
 Itwugladto purehaaeeacapeby theaurrender of 
 Dtmiettt and the evacuation of Egjrpt The 
 letnat of the greater part of theae cruaaden did 
 not end until they had reached home. Pope 
 Honorius IIL (who had aucceeded Innocent 111 
 in 1218) itTOTe to ahift reaponsibility for the 
 Mure from hia wretched legate to the Emperor 
 Frederic 11., who had thus far evaded the ful- 
 llment of his cruaading promises and vows 
 twiog occupied in atrugglea with the papacy 
 At length, in 1228, Frederic embarlied for 
 Palestine with a an';ill force, pursued ly the 
 maledictions of the pope, who denounced him 
 for daring to assume the Crosa while under the 
 litn of the church, aa much as he had denounced 
 him before for neglecting it. But the free- 
 tUnking Hohenstsuffen cared little, apparently, 
 tad went his way, ahunned scrupulously by all 
 pious souls, including the knights of Palestine, 
 eicept those of the Teutonic order. With the 
 help of the latter he occupied and refortifled 
 JsSa «nd succeeded in concluding a treaty with 
 the Sultan which restoretl Jerusalem to the 
 Christians, reserving certain rights to the Ma- 
 hometans; giving up likewise Bethlehem. Naz- 
 areth and some other places to the Christians, 
 ud securing peace for ten years. Frederic 
 had married, a few years before, for his second 
 empress, lolante, daughter and heiress of the 
 titular king of Jerusalem, John de Brienne. 
 With the hand of this princess, he received from 
 her father a solemn transfer of all his rights to 
 that shadowy throne. He now claimed those 
 tights, and, entering Jerusalem, with the Teu- 
 tonic knighu (A D. 1229), he crowned himself 
 ittkins. The patriarch, the Templars and the 
 Hospitallers refused to Uke part in the ceremony ■ 
 the pope denounced Frederic's advantageous 
 treaty aa soon as he had news of it. and all that 
 it gained for the Christians of Palestine was 
 thrown away by them as speedily as possible — 
 Major Procter, Ilitt. nf ttie Vnimdeii. eh. 5, tert 
 2.-'Xo Crusader, since Gcxlfri'v de Bouillon 
 W effwted so much as Frederick the Second! 
 what would he not have obtained, hail the 
 Pope, the Patriarch and the Orders given him 
 ^ir huirty cooperation ? "-T. L. Kington, 
 
 *•„"• "38-ia«o.— Againat the Bogomilea. 
 we Bai.k.\.n AjiD Dani'hi.v.n 8t.\te»: 1>tu-1«tu 
 Ce.\tikies (Bosnia, etc ) 
 ,.*•_"• }'*'■— The Invasion of Palestine by 
 the Carismians. See .Iercsai.em: \. I), vui 
 
 A. D. i248-iac4._ The Seventh Movement, 
 -tipedition of Saint Louis to Egypt.— Tlie 
 Seventh Crusade was undertaken, with little aid 
 
 ..........v ...,a ,iu,i,.iiuKrfi, wiiu mile aid 
 
 irora other countries, hy the devout and wonder- 
 fully Christian-like young kinu; of France, Louis 
 v'*! T'"''' atuonl*ed. and known in historv 
 u »t. Louis. "He carriiHl It out with a nicked 
 fj?^' ,!"r"'»''ed by the feudal cliivalrv and hv 
 «e reliRious and military onlcrs dedicated to 
 Uie service of the Holy Lanrl. The Isle of 
 ^-yprus was the trrstinir-place app<itnt/>d f..i- all 
 |W r.ira-s of the expedition. Louis arrived 
 Were on the 12th of September. 1248. and reck- 
 «W upon remainhig there only a few davs; for 
 It was Egypt that he waa in a hurry to reach. 
 43 
 
 Tlie Chri^ world waa at that time of oplnioa 
 that, to deliver the Holy Land, it waa necesaarr 
 flnt of aU to atrike a blow ..t blamism in Egypt 
 wtereta lu chief strength .edded. ButaoiiSy 
 had tile cniaadera formed a Junction In Cyprus 
 when Uie vicea of Uie expedition xdA tiie weak- 
 nesses of iu chief benn to be manifeat. LotJa. 
 unshakable hi hU reflgioua zeal, was wanting to 
 «'«" '<!"«« «nd fixed resolves as to tiie caring 
 otitof Ua deaipL ... He did not suroS iS 
 winnhig a naajority hi tiie council of chiefs over 
 to hU opinion aa to tiie neceaaity for a speedy 
 departtire for Egypt; it waa dedded to paastSe 
 winter hi Cyprus . . At Uat a start wST^ade 
 from Cyprus in May. 1249, and, in spite of vio- 
 knt gales of wind which dUpersed a large num- 
 ber of vessels, they arrived on the 4tii 5f June 
 before Damietta. . . Havtag become mas- 
 ters of mmietta, St LouU and tiie crusaden 
 committed tiie same fault there as hi Uie Isle of 
 Cyprus: they halted there for an indefinite time. 
 They were expecting fresh crusaders; and tiiey 
 spent the time of expectation in quarreling over 
 the partition of tiie booty taken hi the city 
 They made away witii it, they wasted it blindly. 
 . . . Ijmis saw and deplored these irreguhui- 
 ties without being In a condition to stop them 
 At length, on the 20th of November, 1249 after 
 more than five months' taactivity at Dainietto 
 the crusaders put themselves once more in 
 motion, with the determtoation of marching 
 upon Babylon, that outskirt of Cairo, now called 
 OW Cairo, which tiie greater part of them, m 
 their ignorance, mistook for the real Babylon 
 and where they flattered themselves they would 
 find immense riches, and avenge the olden suffer- 
 ings of the Hebrew captives. The Mussulmans 
 had found time to recover from their first fright 
 and to organize, at all pointa, a vigorous resist- 
 ance. On tiie 8th of February, 1250, a battle 
 took place twenty leagues from Damietta at 
 Mansourah ('the city of victory'), on the right 
 bank of the Nile. ... The battle-field was feft 
 that day to the crusaders; but they were not 
 allowed to occupy it as conquerors, for, three 
 days afterwards, on the 11th of February 1250 
 the camp of St. Louis w,>s assailed by clouds 
 of Saracens, horse and foot. JIameliikes and 
 Bedouins. All surprise had vanishe<l, the JIus- 
 sulmans measured at a glance the numbers of 
 the Christians, and attacked them in full assur- 
 ance of success, whatever heroism tliey might 
 display: and the crusaders themselves indulged 
 in no more self-illusion, and thouitlit only of 
 defending themselves. Lack of proVisions and 
 sickness soon rendered defence almost aa impos- 
 sible as attack; every day saw the Christian 
 camp more and more encumbered with the 
 famine-strieken. the dvinc, and the dead: and 
 the necessity for retreating became evident." 
 An attempt to negotiate with the enemy failed, 
 because they insisted on the surrender of the 
 king as hostage,— which none would concede 
 "On the 5th of April, 1250, the crusaders 
 decided upon retreating. This was the most 
 deplonible scene of a deplorable drama ; and at 
 the same time it was, for the king, an occasion 
 for displaying, in their most sublime and 
 attracttvo traits, »1! the virtues of the Chri.s:i:m. 
 Whilst sickness and famine were devastating the 
 camp, Louis made himself visitor, physician 
 and comforter; and his presence and his words 
 ezereise<i upon the worst cases a searehing influ- 
 
 657 
 
CRCSADES, 1348-1254. 
 
 St. UmU 
 at Turn. ■ 
 
 CRUSADES, 1270-1271. 
 
 li.='.S: 
 
 ence. . . . Whan the Sth of April, the dar fixed 
 for the retremt, had come, LouU hinuelf waa 
 ill and much enfcibled. He was urged to go 
 aboard one of the venelt which were to descend 
 the Kile, carrying the wounded and the most 
 luSering; but he refused absolutely, saying. 'I 
 don't separate from my people in the hour of 
 danger.' He remained on land, and when he 
 had to move forward he fainted away. When 
 he came to hinuelf, he was amongst the last to 
 leave the camp. ... At four leagues distance 
 from the camp it had just left, the rear-guard of 
 the .-rusaders, harassed by clouds of Saracens, 
 was obliged to lialt. Louis could ro longer 
 keep on his horse ' He was put up at .i house,' 
 ■ays ioinviUe, ' and laid, almost dead, upor the 
 lar of a tradeswoman from Paris; and it was 
 b.'lieved that he would not last till evening. 
 The king, in this condition, with the whole 
 wreck of his army,— only 10,000 in number 
 remaining to him, — were taken prisoners. Their 
 releas" from captivity was purchased a mouth 
 later by the surrender of Damietta and a ran- 
 som-payment of 500,000 livres. They made 
 their way to St. Jean d' Acre, in Palestine, 
 whence many of them returned home. But 
 King Louis, with some of his knights and men- 
 at-arms — how many is not known — stayed yet 
 In the Holy Land for four years, striving and 
 hoping against hope to accomplish something 
 for the deliverance of Jerusalem, and expending 
 "in small works of piety, sympathy, protection, 
 and care for the future of the Chnstian popula- 
 tion in Asia, his time, his strength, his pecun- 
 iary resources, and the ardor of a soul which 
 could not remain idly abandoned to sorrowing 
 ever great desires iinsntisfle<l." Thu good and 
 
 f)i()us l)ut ill-guided king returned to France 
 n tlie summer of Vi'A. and was received with 
 preiii j'>v.— F. P. Ouizot, P^piilirllitt. of France, 
 eh. IT. 
 
 -Vlso IN: Sire De Joinville. .Vemoirf of Sunt 
 L"uii, pt. •,' — .1. F. .Mielmud, //i»f. ofl'/.e Vr. 
 tad,,. hU ia-14. 
 
 A. D. lasa.— The moTement of "the Pat- 
 tors." — On tlie arrival in Fnmee of the news of 
 the disastrous failun' of Aiiiit Louis's e.x ['edition 
 to Egypt, there (H-eurred hii mitlMiak nt fiiimti- 
 cisina.1 inaeasate ns tliat of tlieeliildnn's eniviide 
 of forty years before. It wiis siiid in li.ive 
 originated with a Ilungariaii nunied Jiiiolp. "ho 
 began to proclaim thatC'hrist n^jeeteil tin' icreat 
 ones of the earth from His serviei, and tluil the 
 deliverance of the Holy City must l>e iKe.mi- 
 plislied by the poor and humble. •Slieph. n's 
 left tlieir flocks, labourers laid down tin' ii|..iii.'ii, 
 to follow his footst<'ps. . . . The mime cifi'ar-lDrs 
 was given to these village cnisadirs. ... At 
 length, assembled to the numlier of niori' than 
 ll».<KH). these n-<iouhtable pilgrims lift l':iiisniid 
 divided themsi'lves into several tronp.s, tn n pair 
 to the ci»«t, wlieni'O they were toenilmrk lyr tlie 
 East, The city of Orleans, which lii\|i|Hiieil to 
 1m' in their passage, became the tlieiitre I'f fright- 
 ful disl)^lers. 'The progress of tlieir eii(irinities 
 at length cn-atwi seriouif alarm in the gnvem- 
 ment ami the magistracy; orders were sent to 
 tin,' pnivinces to puraue and dis|H'rse tlies<' turbu- 
 lent and seditious bands. The ni"si iMimi'mus 
 assemblage of tlie Pastors was H.xed to take place 
 at Bourges, where the 'muster of Hungary' 
 [■Jacob] was to perform miracles ami iiiinmuni- 
 cate the will of Heaven. Their arrival in ttiU 
 
 city was the signal for muiJer, fire and pUlai 
 The irritated people took up arms and imrcL 
 against tliese disturbers of the public pea 
 thev OTertook them between Mortrmer a 
 VilleneuTe-»ur-le-Cher, where, in spite of th 
 numbers, they were routed, and received i 
 punishment due to their brigandages. Jacob I: 
 his head cut off by the blow of an axe ; maDv 
 his companions and disciples met with death 
 the field of battle, or were consigne<l to piini 
 ment; the remainder took to flight. "--J 
 Michaud, But. of the Cnuada • U. 
 
 A. D. 1356-1159. — Aga. celino 
 
 Rcmano. SeeVEBOKA: A. 1 . •.Jb.j-l>,")i». 
 
 A. D. I3;ra-i37i.— The iaat undertakings 
 Saint Louis at Tuoia. — Prince Edward 
 Paleatine.- "For seven years after his return 
 France, from 1254 to 1261, Louis sienied tothi 
 no more about them [the crusades], anil tlierc 
 nothing to show Ihat ne spoke of them ercD 
 his most intimate confidants; but, iu spite of 
 apparent calmness, he was living. h.> far as tli 
 were concerned in a continual ferment 
 imagination a' internal fever, even flatten 
 himself that s ae favorable circumstance woi 
 call him back j his ii ierrupted work. . . 
 1261, Louis held, at Paris, a Parliament, atwhii 
 without any talk of a new crusade, nieasu 
 were taken which revealed an ideao' it. . . . 
 
 1263 the crusade was openly prcaclieu 
 
 objections, all warnings, all anxieties came 
 nothing in the face of Louis's flxed iiha a 
 pious passion. He started from Paris i>u the V 
 of March, 1270, a sick man almost alnaily, t 
 with soul content, and probably tlie imh < 
 without mis.i^ving in the midst of all his co 
 rades. It was once more at Aigues-Mortes tl 
 he went to embark. All was as yet dark a 
 undecided as to the plan of the expeditiuti. 
 Steps were taken at hap-hazani with full tr 
 in Provuience and utter forgetfulm isthat Pm 
 (iencc does not absolve men fnuii furesii-ht . 
 I' was onlv iu Saniinia, after four cl:iv> halt 
 ( igliari. ttiat L,oui8 announced tn the diii-fs 
 the crusiade. assembled alKianl his ship, • 
 'Mount joy. that he was makiiii,' fur Tunis, a 
 that ttieirChristian work woiihl coiiiuKiiri' the 
 The king nf Tunis (as he was tlieu lallnli. > 
 liaimned Mostjinaer. liad for some time lieen ta 
 ill'.' of his desire to iK'come a Christian, if 
 (ivuhl lie etEcientIv protected ugaiiist thesi'litii 
 of his subjects. Louis welcomed with iraasp 
 till' prospect of Mussulman coiiversi.ni- 
 Ihit im the 17th of Julv. when the tlei t arriv 
 Icfore Tunis, tlie adniinil. Klorent ih- Varenn 
 prcrl>al)Iy without tlie kiiivr's nnler-, .iml w 
 that want of reflection which was cuu-pifu.'us 
 each step of the enterprise, imincliali Iv t^^ 
 possession of the harlmr and of some Tunisi 
 ves-si'ls as prize, and si'iit wonl te the kiiii' ll 
 he had imly to support him ami tint tin- il 
 eiuliarkationof the lroo| < ndght !»• etTeitc'! w 
 perfect safety,' Thus w ir was comimui . .1 
 the very first moment against tlie .Mu»«u!iii 
 prince whom there had been pnuiiix "f -'•>i 
 iM'fore long a Christian, At the enl "1 if; 
 night, after some fight Ix'tweeu the Tuiiisii 
 and the crusaders, so much political aiil niiUti 
 blindness produced it^ nutiinil ((.ii>niiiini' 
 The re-enforcements proniisi'd l' i.oiiis li.r 
 brother Charles of Anjou. kin.u' "f (''icil.»- " 
 not arrived; provisions were fallini: short. £ 
 the heats of an African summer were worki 
 
 658 
 
CRUSADES. l>7a-1971. 
 
 TUMKt. 
 
 CRCSAOES. 
 
 hkToe amoant the umy with luch npidtty that 
 before long tnen wu no time to burr the dead ; 
 but ther were cast pell-mell into the ditch which 
 iunounded the camp, and the air wai tainted 
 thereby. On the 8d of August Louis was 
 ttticked by the epidemic fever." On the 25th 
 of August be died. His son and successor, 
 Philip III., held his ground before Tunis until 
 Korember, when he gladly accepted a payment 
 of money from the Tunisian prince for with- 
 dnwing bis army. Disaster followed him. A 
 itorm destroyed part of his fleet, with 1,000 or 
 5,0(X) men, and sunk all the treasure be bad 
 received from the Moslems. On the Journey 
 home through Italy his wife met with ^i. acci- 
 dent which ended her life and that of her prema- 
 turely bom child. The young king arriVed at 
 Paris. Hay, 1271, bringing the remains of Ave of 
 Us familv for burial at St Denis : his wife, hif> 
 iOD, his father, bis brother, and his brother-in- 
 Uw,— sU victims of the fatal crusade. While 
 Fiance was thus burying tlie last of her crusad- 
 ers, Prince Edward (afterwards King Edward I.) 
 of England, landed in Syria at the head of a few 
 hundred knights and men at arms. Joined by 
 the Templars and Hospitallers, he had an army 
 of 6.000 or 7,000 men, with which he took Naza- 
 letli and made there a bloody sacrifice to the 
 memory of the gentle Xazarene. He did nothing 
 more. ' Being wounded by an assassin, be ar- 
 ranged a truce with the Sultan of Egypt and 
 returned home. His expedition was the last 
 from Europe which strove with the Moslems for 
 the Holy Land. The rhristiaos of Palestine, 
 who still held Acre and Tyre, Sidon and a few 
 other coast cities, were soon afterwards over- 
 whelmed, and the dominion of the C'escent in 
 Syria wai; undisputed any more by force of arms, 
 though niauy voices cried vainly against it. The 
 spirit of the Crusades had expired. — F. P. 
 Guizot, Fibular Ilitt. of Frnnct, en. 17. 
 
 Also ih : J. F. Michaud, Hut. of the Crtuade; 
 bk. IS. 
 
 A. D. 1191.— The end of the Christian King- 
 dom of Jeruaslem. Sen Jekus^lem: A. 0. 
 Ii91. 
 
 A. D. 1399.— The last campaign of the 
 Templars.— " After the fall of Acre [A. D. 
 1291) the headquarters of the Templars were 
 established at Limisso in the island of Cyprus, 
 snil urgent lctt€-s were sent to Europ<> for 
 succour." In 1295, James de Molay, the head of 
 theEnelish province, became Orand Master, and 
 sonn after his arrival in Palestine he enterci iiiti) 
 tn nlliance with Ohazan Khan, the Mongol ruler 
 of I'c rsia, who hail marrietl a Christian princess 
 of .Vrincnin and was not uufricmlly to the 
 Cliristians, as against the Mamelukes of Egypt. 
 with wlioiii he was at war The Mongol Khan 
 invited the Templars to join him iu au expeditiou 
 ag;iinst the Sultan of Egypt, and tlicv did so in 
 the spring of 1299, at Antiwh. "An army of 
 *J,i>«J men was placed by the Mogul emiwmr 
 umicr the command uf the Qraud Master, and 
 the ccimbined forces moved up the "alley of the 
 Onintis towards Damascus. In a great hattle 
 fnu.'iit at Hems, the troops of the sultana of 
 I>aniu.««u8 and Egypt were entirely defcauti and 
 pursuni with great slaughter until uiirlitfall. 
 Aiipp.1. Hems, llsmaECUs, and all the principal 
 cities, surrendered to the victorious arms of the 
 Mhl'uIs, and the Templars once aeain entered 
 Jerusalem iu triumph, visited the Uoly Sepulchre 
 
 and celebrated Easter on Mount Zion." Tha 
 khan sent ambassadors to Europe, offering ths 
 possession of Palestine to the Christian powers 
 If they would give him their alliance and sup- 
 port, out none responded to the call. Ohazan 
 Khan fell ill and withdrew from Syria; the 
 Templars retreated to Cyprua once more and 
 their military career, as the champions of the 
 Cross, was at an end.— C. G. Addison, JVk* 
 Knightt Temj^n, eh. 6. 
 
 Also ik: H. H. Howarth, Hitt. of the MmooU, 
 pt. 3, eh. 8. 
 
 Effect! and coiuequencet of the Crusade* 
 in Europe.— "The principle of the crusades 
 waa a savage fanaticism ; and the most import- 
 ant effects were analogous to the cause. Each 
 pilgrim was ambitious to return with his sacred 
 spoils, the relics of Greece and Palestine; and 
 each relic waa preceded and followed by a train 
 of miracles and visions. The belief of the 
 Catholics was corrupted by new legends, their 
 practice by new superstitions; and the establish- 
 ment of the inquisition, the mendicant orders 
 of monks and friars, the la^t abuse of indulgences, 
 and the final progress of idolatry, flowed from 
 the baleful fountain of the holy war. The 
 active spirit of the Latins preyed on the vitals of 
 their reason and religion; and if the ninth and 
 tcLtU centuries were the times of darkness, the 
 thirteenth and fourteenth were the age of 
 absurdity and fable. . . . Some philosophers 
 have applauded the propitious influence of these 
 holy wars, whicu appear to me to have checked 
 rather than forwarded the maturity of Europe." 
 — E. Gibbon. Decline and Pall of the Runaa 
 Empire, eh. 61. — "The crusades may be con- 
 sidered as material pilgrimages on an enormou* 
 scale, and their influence upon general morality 
 seems to have been altogether pernicious. Those 
 who served under the cross would not indeed 
 have lived very virtuously at home; but the 
 confidence in tneir own merits which the prin- 
 ciple of such ejipeditions inspired must nave 
 aggravated the ferocity and dissoluteness of 
 their ancient liabits. Several historians attest 
 the depravation of morals which existed, both 
 among the crusaders and in the states formed 
 out of their conquests. "—II. Hallam, The MiddU 
 Aget, '■h. 9. pt. 1. — ■' It was not possible for the 
 crusaders to travel through so many cotiuiries, 
 and to behold their various customs and insti- 
 tutions, without acquiring information and im- 
 provement. Their views enlarge<l; their pre- 
 judices wore off; new ideas cnmdeil into their 
 minds; Hiiil tliiy must have been sensible, on 
 many occasions, of the rusticity of their own 
 manners when compared with those of a more 
 polisheil people. . . . Accordingly, we discover, 
 soon after the commencement of the crusades, 
 greater splendour in the courts of princes, greater 
 pomp in public ceremonies, a more refined taste 
 in pleasun- and amusements, together with a 
 more romantic spirit of enterprise spreading 
 pradnally over Europe; and to these wild expe- 
 ditions, the effect of supen<tition and follv, we 
 owe the first gleams of light which tended to 
 dispel l)arl>arism and ignorance. But the bene- 
 ficial consequences of the crusades t<x)k place 
 slowly ; ihcir infiiii'nco upon the state of property, 
 and. consequently, of power, in the different 
 kingdoms of Europe, was more immediate as 
 Well as discernible. '— W. Robertson, iexeofths 
 Prwjrttt of Soe. in Europt, $eet. 1.—' The cru- 
 
 659 
 
CBUBADE8. 
 
 CfMiiaml 
 
 
 MdM an not, in my mind, either the popular 
 ddiulona that oar cheap llteratuie bai determined 
 them to be, nor papal oooipiraciet againat kinga 
 and peoplea, u they appear to the Proteatant 
 controTerdaliat; nor the aarage outbreaka ot 
 expiring barbariam, thirating for blood and 
 
 Blunder, nor volcanic ezploaiona of religioua 
 itolerance. I believe them to have been, in 
 their deep aourcea, and in the minda of their beat 
 champions, and in the muin tendency of their 
 resulta, capable of ample justification. They 
 were the flrtt great effort of medieval life to go 
 beyond the pursuit of (elflah and laolated 
 ambitiona; they were the trial-feat of the young 
 world, easaying to uae, to the glory of Ood 
 and the benefit of man, the arma of ita new 
 knighthood. . . . That in the end tbey were a 
 benefit to the wurUl no one who rrads can doubt; 
 and that in their coune they brought out a lore 
 for all that ii heroic in human nature, the love 
 of freoiom, the honour of prowess, sympathy 
 with sorrow, perseverance to the last and 
 patient endurance without hope, the chronicles 
 of the age abundantly prove; proving, more- 
 over, that it was by the experience of those 
 times that the forms of those virtues were 
 realized and presented to posterity. "— W. Stubbs, 
 StTtntetn LeeU. on the Study of Medimal and 
 Modern Hint., leet. 8.— "Though begun under 
 the name and influence of religious belief, the 
 crusades deprived religious ideas, I shall not 
 say of their legitimate share of influence, but of 
 their exclusive and despotic possession of the 
 human mind. This result, though undoubtedly 
 unforeseen, arose from various causes. The flrst 
 was evidently the novelty, extent, and variety of 
 the scene which displayed itself to the crusaders: 
 what generally happens to travellers happened 
 to them. It is mere common-place to say, that 
 travelling gives frce<l<>m to the mind; that the 
 habit of observing different nations, different 
 manners and different opinions, enlarges the 
 ideas, and disengajfes the judgment from old 
 prejudices. The same thinsr happened to those 
 nations of travellrri vm,, " ,\ been cslini ;! e 
 crusaders; their minds were „peued and rai8e<l 
 by having seen a multitude of different things, 
 by having become Bcquainte<l with oilier 
 manners than their own. They found them- 
 selves also placed in connexion with two stales 
 of civilization, not only different from their own, 
 but more advanced— the Greek state of »<x;ietv 
 on the one hand, and the Mussulman on the 
 other. ... It is curious to observe in tlie 
 chronicles the impression made by ;be crusjulers 
 on the Mussulmans, who regarde<l them at first 
 as the most brutal, ferocious, and si.. -id bar 
 barians they had ever sf-en. The crusaiK . ■ on 
 their part, were struck with the riches and 
 elegance of manners which they observed among 
 the .Mussulmans. These first impressions were 
 succeeded by frequent relations between the 
 Mussulmans and Christiana. These became more 
 extensive and important than ia commonly 
 believeil. . . . There is another circumstance 
 wliich is worthy of notice. Down to the time of 
 the crusades, the court of Rome, the centre of 
 the Church, had iK'en very little in communi- 
 cation with the laitv, unless through the medium 
 of ecclesiastics; either leeal-." sent bv the court 
 of Home, or the whole body of the hishops and 
 clergy. There were always some laymen In 
 direct relation with Rome;' but upon the whole, 
 
 CRCBADE8. 
 
 It waa by meana of charchuMB that Rome 
 
 any communtcatkn with the people of diSei 
 
 oountriea. During the cmiadea, on the contn 
 
 Rome became a haltinf -place for a great pon 
 
 of the cruaadera, either In going or retumi 
 
 A multitude of laymen were spectators of 
 
 polii^ and ita manneit, and were able to disco 
 
 the ahare which peraonal interest had in reliiH 
 
 diaputea. There is no doubt that thisnei 
 
 acquired knowledge inapired many minds a 
 
 a boldneaa hitherto unknown. When we c 
 
 aider the state of the general mind at the fern 
 
 ation of the cruaadea, eapecially In regard 
 
 eccleaiastical matters, we cannot fail to be stn 
 
 with a singular fact : religioua notions undcrv 
 
 no change, and were not replaced by contrsrj 
 
 even different opinlona Thought, notwithsta 
 
 ing, had become more free; religious crp 
 
 were not the only subject on which tlie bun 
 
 mind exercised iufacultiea; without abandon! 
 
 them. It began occaaionally to wander from the 
 
 and to 'ake other directiona. . . . The sm 
 
 state of aociety had undergone an analngc 
 
 change. . . . Without entering Into thediu 
 
 ... we may collect Into a few general fa 
 
 the influence of the cruaadea on the social sti 
 
 of Europe. They greatly diminished i 
 
 number of petty fiefs, petty dc nains, and pel 
 
 proprietors; they concentrated propertv a 
 
 power in a amaller number of hancfs. It fs fn 
 
 the time of the crusadea that we may observe! 
 
 formation and growth of great fiefs— the eii 
 
 ence of feudal power on a Targe scale. . . Tl 
 
 waa one of the most important results of t 
 
 crusades. Even in tboae cases where sm 
 
 proprietors preserved their fiefs, thev did t 
 
 live upon them in such an insulated state 
 
 formerly. The posaessors of great flefs beciti 
 
 so many centrea around which the smaller oi 
 
 were gathered, and near which they came 
 
 live. During the crusades, small propriiu 
 
 found it necessary to phice themselves in i 
 
 train of some rich and powerful chief, fn)m kIk 
 
 they received assistance and support. Tli 
 
 lived with him, shared hia fortune, ami pa-w 
 
 through the same fadventures tba* tv did Wh 
 
 the crusaders returned home, this social spir 
 
 this habit of living in intercourse witli siiperi( 
 
 continued to subsist, and had its influence on t: 
 
 manners of the age. . . . The extension of tl 
 
 great flefs. and the creation of a iiumlHT 
 
 central points In society, in plaoe of the gent r 
 
 dispersion which previously existed, were tl 
 
 two principal effects of the crusades, eoiisidin 
 
 with respect to their influence upon fruilalisr 
 
 As to the inhabitants of the towns, a result 
 
 the same nature may easily be peneived. Tl 
 
 crusadi's created great civic communities. Piti 
 
 commerce and petty Industry were not stiffii in 
 
 to give ri.se to communities sucli as the irre; 
 
 cities of Italy and Flanders. It was coninKn 
 
 on a great scale — maritime commerce, iim 
 
 especially, the commerce of the Ea.«l and Wi» 
 
 which gave them birth; now it was tlie crusadi 
 
 which gave to the maritime commerce tt 
 
 greatest impulse it had yet tvceive.1. On tt 
 
 whole, when we survey the state of s<Kiety i 
 
 t^>c end of the crusades, we find that the nior( 
 
 meut tending to diasolution and dis|K'rsion. tl 
 
 movement of tinivcnwl localiiati.-.n (if I msy !; 
 
 allowed such an expression), had ceased, and ha 
 
 been succeeded by a movement in tlie i-ontrar 
 
 direction, a movement of centralizatiuu. 1 
 
 it; 
 
 660 
 
CRUSADX8. 
 
 dUngt tended to mutual approsiiiution; mukll 
 tbingt were sbeorbed in great one*, or gatberad 
 lottod them. Such wai the direction then 
 taken by the progreia of loclety."— F. Quizot, 
 But. 0/ Oitiluation, itet. 8 (v. 1). 
 
 A. D. ijSj.— Th* Bishop of NonHdi's 
 Cmiadt is FUndtra. See Flandbrs: A. D. 
 iM. 
 
 A. D. 1430-1431.— Cmaadc anliut th« Hno* 
 titei. See Bohemia: A. D. 1419-1484. 
 
 A. D. I44>i444-— Chriatian Europe agaiut 
 tbe Turka. See Turks (Thb OrroifAxa): 
 A. D. 1403-1431. 
 
 A. 0. I467-I47I — Cruaade Inatintcd by 
 tht Pope akainat Goorce Podicbrad, kinc of 
 Bohemia. See Bohemia : A. O. 1438-1471. 
 
 « 
 
 CRYPTEIA, The. See Ertptua. 
 CTBSIPHON.— "The Parthian monarch*, 
 Ute the Mogul lovereigns of Htndoetan, delighted 
 is tbe putoral life of their ScythUn ancestors, 
 ud the imperial camp was frequently pitched in 
 tbe plain of Cteaiphon, on tbe eastern banks of 
 the T ris, at the distance of only three miles 
 fiDC .'ucia. The innumerable attendants on 
 lull- jd despotism resorted to the court, and 
 tbeh... vilUre of Ctesiphon insensibly swelled 
 into a great city. Under the reign of Marcus, 
 the Roman generals penetrated as far as Ctesiphon 
 ud Seleuda. They were received as friends by 
 the Greek colony; they attacked as enemies the 
 Mtof the Parthian kings; yet both cities ex- 
 perienced the same treatment. The sack and 
 conflagration of Seleucia, with the massacre of 
 300,000 of the inhabitants, tarnished the glory of 
 the Roman triumph. Seleucia, already exhausted 
 by the neighborhood of a too powerful rival, sunk 
 under the fatal blow; but Ctesiphon, in about 
 thirty-three years, had sufficiently recovered lu 
 itrength to maintain an obstinate siege against 
 the emperor Severus. The city was, however 
 tsken by assault ; the king, who defended it in 
 pereon, escaped with precipitation: 100,000 cap- 
 tives and a rich booty rewarded the fatigues of 
 the Roman soldiers. Notwithstanding these mis- 
 fu::anis, Ctesiphon succeeded U) Babvlon and to 
 Seleudu an one of tbe great capitals 0? the East " 
 -E. Gibbon, Deeline and Fall of the Rinnan Em- 
 pin, fh. 8— In 637 A. D. Ctesiphon pa8se<i into 
 the possession of the Saracens. See Mahomet uj 
 Cos(jfE.sT .»SD Empire: A. D. 633-651. 
 
 Also ix: O. Rawlinson, Sizth Great Oriental 
 Momrrhy. fh. 6— See. also, Medain. 
 
 CUATOS, The. See Americ.\n Aborioixes : 
 P.»)ii'As Thibes. 
 
 CUBA: A. D. 1492-1493.— Diacovery by 
 Columbus. Sec America: A. I). 1493; and 
 ItJw-ltUO. 
 
 •*■ 9- '5"-— Spanish conquest and occupv 
 tion of the island.— "Of the islands, Cuba was 
 the seoiimi discovered ; but no atU-mpt had been 
 iMifc to plant a colony there during the lifeUme 
 or Columbus; who, indeed after s'lirtlng the 
 whole extent of its southern 00, -■ -tied in the 
 conriction that it was pa. t .,f t:,,- ,., utment. At 
 tength in l.Ml, Diego, tl- .<on ai.d successor of 
 the admiral,' who still maintRine.: ?iie seat of 
 government in Hispaniola, fir ; , the tnlnes much 
 eihauBied there, proposed to occupy the neieh- 
 bour.D.. ...hml of Cuba, ur Fcraandina. a« it is 
 «lled. in compliment to the Spanish monareh. 
 ne prepared a small force for the conquest, which 
 he placed under the command of Don Diego 
 
 CUBA. 
 
 Velaaquei. . . . Velasquez, or rather hla lieuten- 
 ant Manraex, who took the office on himself of 
 scouring the oountir. met with no serious oppo- 
 sition from the inhabitants, who were of the asms 
 lamUy with the effeminate natives of HIapaniola. " 
 After the conquest, Velasquez waa appofaited 
 governor, and esubUshed his seat of government 
 Sf" ,V°;^° "" southeast comer of the island. 
 — W. H. Preicott, CtmquM e/ Itnieo, bk. 2, 
 
 A^%.f. ^ ^"^^ *«»** <*»»^ •■» 
 
 1 i^?" »5M-i«S«.— Slow dtrelopracot of tht 
 lsl«Bd.-Capture of Hsvans by ths EntU™ 
 -Discontent with Sosnish rie.-CoMpira; 
 ciesof rerolntion.— -VeUsquez founded many 
 of the towns of the islandrtfe first of whichTM 
 Baracoa, then Bayamo, and in J314 Trinidad, 
 Santo Espiritu, Puerto Principe; next, in 1615 
 SantUgo de Cuba, as alao, in the same year. th4 
 town of Habana. . . . This period (1511-1607)18 
 particularly interesting to the general reader 
 from the fact that in it the explorations of Her- 
 nandez de Cadoba and Griialva to Darien Yuca- 
 tan, etc were inaugurated, — evenU which had 
 so much to do with the spread of SpanUh rule 
 and discovery, paving the way as they did for 
 the exploration of Mexico under Hernando 
 tortes, who, in the eariy history of Cuba, tic- 
 ures largely as the lieutenant of the Governor 
 Velasquez. . In 1524, Diego Velasquez died, 
 — his death hastened, it is said, by the troubles 
 brought upon him by his disputes with his 
 insubordinate lieutenant, Cortes. ... In the 
 history of the Improvement of the island his 
 government will bear favoi^ble comparison with 
 many of the later governments; and while that 
 great evil, slavery, was introduced into the 
 •aland in his time, so also was the sugar cane 
 ■ • \ \P '" ''^' """^ seems to be nothinit 
 specially striking in the general history of the 
 Island, If we except the constant attacks with 
 Are and sword of the ' fllibusteros, ' or pirates of 
 all nations, from which most all the sea-const 
 towns suffered more or less; but in that vear 
 there arrived at Santiago de Cuba a man 
 destined to play an important part in the 
 historv and discovery of the new world, and 
 named as Provincial Governor of Florida as 
 well as of Cuba,— I allude to Hernando 
 de hoto, who brought with liiin lu large 
 vessels, prepared and titted out e.xpre.islv for the 
 conquest of the new Spanish territory of'Florida 
 After much care and preparation, this e.xpe 
 dition started out from the city of Habana 
 the 13th of May [see Florida: A. D. ISSS-l.VtSl' 
 ... In this perimi, also, wm promulgated that 
 order, secund, it is believed, by the uoble efforts 
 of Padre Las Casas, prohibiting the enslaving of 
 the aborigiues; while, also, such had become its 
 importance as a town, all vessels directed to and 
 from Mexico were ordered to sU)p at Havana. 
 In the periwl of years that elapsed from 1007 to 
 1763, the island seems to have been in a perfect 
 sute of lethargy, except the usual changes of 
 its many Governors, and the raids made upon it 
 by pirates, or by more legalized enemies m the 
 form of French and Engl'sh men-of-war. la 
 this latter year, however, occurred an event of 
 much import, from the fact that after It, or 
 upon its occurrence, the Government of Spain 
 Was led to see the great imporUncc of Cuba, nnd 
 particularly Havana, as the 'Key to the ^ew 
 
 m 
 
 
 661 
 
CUBA. 
 
 World,' — thla event wu the tMogot Hsvans 
 bj the Engliah. On the 6th of June, 1702, there 
 arrived off the port of Havana an English 
 ■quadron of 33 ships and frigates, with some 200 
 transports, bringing with them a force of nearly 
 80,000 men of all arms, under command of the 
 Duke of Albemarle. This fonnidable arma- 
 ment, the largest that America had ever seen, 
 laid siege to the city of Havana, whose garrison 
 consisted at that time of only alwut 2,700 regu- 
 lars and the volunteers that took up arms imme- 
 diately for the defense of the place . . . The 
 garrison, however, made a very gallant and pro- 
 longed defense, notwithstanding the smallness 
 of their numbers, and finally, surrendering, 
 were permitted to march out with the honors of 
 war, the English thus coming into |)os8e8s!on of 
 the most important defences on the coast, and. 
 subsequently, taking possession of the town of 
 ttatimzas. Remainmg in possession of this por- 
 tion of the Island of Cuba for many months 
 (until July 6, 1783). the English, by importing 
 negro labor to cultivate the large tracts 4)f wild 
 land, and by shipping large quantities of 
 Eun>pean merchandize, gave a start to the trade 
 and tmlllc of the island tliat pushed it far on its 
 way to the state of prosperity it has now 
 reachejl ; but by the treaty of peace, at Purls, in 
 February, 1763 [see Seven lears Warj. was 
 restored to Spain tlie portion of the island 
 wrested from her by the English. ... In this 
 [H'riiKi (1762-1801) the island made rapid ad- 
 viitires in imprrvveinent and civilization, nmiiy of 
 tlir I'aptainsOemTBl of this period dohig much 
 to Improve the towns and the people, iH'Uiitifv- 
 liiir the slnt'tn. ertrting buildings. et<- In l7(i:i. 
 a large einigratliin tixik plaie fn)m Kloridu. und in 
 170.') the French emigrants fMin Santo Ikimlngo 
 came on to the island in large iiuinlnTN. . . . From 
 W>\. rapid inrreaM' in the pMs|Mrlty of the 
 islauil has taken place. .At various tlnie» 
 
 insurrections, some of thini quite serious in their 
 nature, have shown what the natural desin- of 
 the native population is for greater privileges 
 anil fri'edom. ... In 1"<2;1. there was a wxiety 
 of 'soles. ' as It was lalled. formed for the pur- 
 pos<' of fneing llie island, having at its head 
 youug I) Francisco Lenius. and having for its 
 preteit thai the island was alu'iit to Ik' sold to 
 England. In IM'.II. there wa- lisiovered the 
 conspiracy of tlie Hluik Eagle. a> it was ealli-ii 
 (.\gulla Ni'gnil, an alliinpl on the pjirt of the 
 tHjpulation to obtain their fn riloni, some of the 
 Mexican M'tthn in the island iHlng prominent 
 in it The Insurrection, or attempt at one. by 
 the blacks in 1H44, was n-markable for Its wide- 
 spni' 1 ramitlcalions among the slaves „( the 
 Island, as well as its tliorough organi/ailon.— ■ 
 tlie intention Iwlng to niunlir all the w liitis on 
 the Island Other minor in«urn-eiiiui» tliiTe 
 were, l.irl it remained for Narciso I,ii|m/., with a 
 fonc- of some WKI men. to make the most ini 
 (•orlant nitemiit [\>V)\\. in which he hist his life, 
 to friT the island "—S llarani, Cufci viiK/Hh 
 anil friiril, ,,,, .V47 .VIO 
 
 Ai.Ko IS M M liallou. tlt'l nfCKi, fh. 1-3 
 — I.ord .Mahon iKarl StanlmiM). " //i»r ,.f fr,„. 
 1:1:1 17N3. .-A ;|M ir 41 -.1 F.nlicl,. //iW ,.f iU 
 hit, ir.ir, r X ,,,< .MW-BHrt — |) Turnl.ull. Tk/m. 
 th ti-'H 
 
 A. D. il4S-iSte. — Acquisition co*tttd b^ 
 the ilaTC-power in the United Stkttt.— At- 
 ttapttd purcfcMc.— FiUbuMcring tchaoMS.— 
 
 CUBA. 
 
 The Ostcnd Manifesto.—" When the !«n 
 colonies in America became independent. 
 abolished slavery. Apprehensive that tii 
 publics of Mexico ana Columbia woulc 
 anxious to wrest Cuba and Porto UicD 
 Spain, secure their independence, and iiitni 
 into those islands the idea, if they did not t 
 lish the fact, of freedom, the slave-masters [0 
 United States] at once sought to guard aj; 
 what they deemed so calamitous an eviin ' 
 But after the annexation of Texas, there n 
 change of feeling and purpose, and Cuba. 
 being an object of dread, became an ohj,, 
 vehement desire. The propagandist.s. .stni 
 ened and emlnddened by that signal triui 
 now turned their ey^ towards this Uau 
 ' isle of the sea,' as the theatre of new ex|i| 
 and they determined to secure the ■ gi ui ol 
 Antilles ' for the coronet of their great and i; 
 hig power. During Mr. Polk's adniini.^tn 
 an attempt was made to purchase it, and th,' 
 of $100,000,000 was offered thi^refor IJm 
 offer was promptly declineil. What, linw, 
 could not lie liought It was detemdncil i<> 1, 
 and filibustering movements and expecliiion, 
 came the order of the day. For no s.H,iiir 
 President Taylor inaugiirated than lit f, 
 movements on foot in that direction ; am 
 August, 1N49. be Issued a prcK'lamalion. all 
 Ing his Ix'llef that an 'armed eX|MHiiii,.u 
 Mng fitted out 'against tuba or fune ,.( 
 provinces of Mexico,' and calling upon all ; 
 citizens ' to discountenance and prevt n' any 
 enterprise.' In 18.11 an exiHiliticm, ciin«i.tiii 
 some ,V»0 men. saileti fmm New (Irli uis u 
 Lopez, a Cuban adventurer. Hut tlmunl 
 effected a lamling. it was easily di (i;ii. li, au 
 leader and a few of his followers wi ri' c xic u 
 SiKin afterward, a scent a»s<Miati 11, ^n 
 lts«'lf the Oriler of the Lone Star. w:i^ f,.ni,i- 
 several of the Seiuthem cities, hiiviuj; a >iii 
 objcHt In view; but it attnictecl liiile- notiir 
 Hceoniplishi \ nothing. ... In Aui.'ii^t. 1 
 Pri'slelenl P.eree Instructicl Mr, Marc\ liUS 
 tiiry of State, to direct H'lchanan. .Mawii 
 Soule''. ministers n'siMctlvely at llii' e^iiirf 
 London, Paris and Mailrid. to ronvnK' In s 
 Europitin city and confer with eac h other lu 
 ganl to the matter of gaining (iiha toth< I'd 
 States. They mil aci'onlinglv, in u. icls 
 (Mend. The results of their efi Ills rail us i 
 pnblislied in a manifesto, in wliii h tjji rei: 
 are set forth for the acquisition; aiicliheilnl 
 tion was made that the Union lonhi 111 vcrct 
 re|">se and security as long as I'uIki i> licit 
 liraeecl within Its iHiundaries. ' Hut iIii- f 
 source of anxiety, the rontrolliug nioiivi. 
 the aiiprehension that, unless so unnexol 
 wdulil ' Im' Africanized and IxHomr a mihuiI 
 iKiiningo,' thus 'seriously to eniiaiiLir' 
 Union "This painr attracted gnat iitn iill'ii 
 caused niiieli astonlsliinent It was a! tirvt 
 eelnsl with incn'dulity. as If tin re had !• • 11 • 
 nilstak* or linpewllion praetlseil lini ll 
 
 was no mistake . . It was ihcchlilii nn u! 
 ami' of the I'onfen'iice. and ii mciiid the 
 dorsemeul uf Mr Plene and hi- ailminwnit 
 The IVmcMTatie natioiMl nmvi iiiiun» if Is.V) 
 of 1M*J were quite as explicit as were- iliesutl 
 ..• tJM. (fctf^nd msr.lf*~t- ' tii f>i?"T -f ;'■- ~-i- 
 lion of Cul*"— H Wilson, lliH .'/ lU , 
 einif t'alt of lAt Slatt J\»etr in Amtrita. t 
 M. 47. 
 
 cr.L' 
 
When thf Spanish 
 luiicpendem. the? 
 naive that iln> re. 
 lumliia Would be 
 
 Porti. liioi. from 
 Dvv, aud ininHluce 
 hoy did not isiab- 
 ave-niiiateR [of iije 
 ; to (juurd acaliat 
 Dus an ivcrit 
 Pcxas. thiTe wa« i 
 e, and t'lilia. fn.m 
 came an olijirt of 
 gandist.s, stnni'ih. 
 It signal iriuni|ili. 
 nh this iH-autitui 
 ! of new ei|.|i)iis; 
 e the • pvm of the 
 fir gri'at aud irriM. 
 !k'« Hdiniiii.'.tratioa 
 laselt, and 111,, sum 
 ther.-for, liiii the 
 What, howivcr, 
 •temihiiil lo Mial, 
 nd ex|niliii,,ns hf. 
 ■'or no s»M,iiir waj 
 1 than li. f„nnJ 
 dinnioi!; mul. in 
 K'lanialioii. atlinii. 
 1 expcdiii.'U vat 
 tia or Hinu' of tlie 
 llnv upon all pkd 
 I liri'Vi lit any <uoli 
 ition, roM«ist'iiii of 
 ew ((rlriii« uitler 
 Hut thouiih ii 
 y il.fi-ai.d, iiu.l hi 
 em u.ri' ixiiiii,.! 
 swH'iaiO'ii, >uliije 
 ur. w;i^ forti.nl in 
 i. hiivjiic a >iim!ar 
 d little iioii.v and 
 In Aiis.Mi-1. 1«.>J, 
 •, Many, liL^S-irf- 
 laiiaii. Mason aui 
 
 at I lie eourts of 
 I convi no in s'lne 
 I I'ai h oihor iu ff- 
 Culia totliol'nitij 
 Iv, ill H, toirr, tt 
 ffilil« rail. 'IIS «!■!<• 
 w hit li till' n-aM'Ui 
 a; and llieiiiuin- 
 eoiild ni'Vi r lujor 
 .» Culia is not tm- 
 
 1. ' lllil till' (TMll 
 
 dliug iiioiivi. UK 
 i t(o uiii)*'\ii! httr 
 'onif a siTonit >«a 
 lo enilankiir tlir 
 ^n'lit iiiiiiili.'iiiiml 
 ft \>a!> at HM If' 
 ii're liad Ixiisonie 
 •d . . Hmi llnre 
 lie delil« rite utiir 
 
 t M'l in.l till' ID- 
 li« aiilllllilslnittoll- 
 •iiiloiis'if iNVtund 
 M Were (lieautlion 
 tr-T .-f ;!» v-i'iis 
 lliit if iU ft* 
 IH Amtrva. t t. 
 
 CUBA. 
 
 A. D. 1850.— The Case of the Black War- 
 
 figr,_One of the irritations that excited feeling 
 in the United States against the Spanish author- 
 ities In Cuiit. aa cauied, in 1850, by the seizure, 
 at HsTana, on purely technical grounds, of the 
 steamer "Black Warrior," which touehed at 
 the port for panengers and mall Her cargo 
 was confiscated and a heavy fine levied on the 
 ship. Indemnity for the wrong to the owners 
 vM only obtained after live years of controversy. 
 
 A D. 1863-1895.— In his book, "The West 
 lufliir"-"! ■■.•' Spanish Main," published in 1859, 
 Mr. Aiitlii i" Trollope descrilxMl the situation of 
 the C iba . under Spanish rule by saying: "At 
 pr(>s(it tl T have no national privilege except 
 tl lit of I.' dergoing taxation. Every ofHce is 
 ' ■ t)v 8 Spaniard. " Of course, there was deep- 
 Mat«<i v' ^content, and many insurrectionary at- 
 teiiipts; but "it was not till the end of 1N6.5, and 
 after protracted efforts on the part of the colo- 
 nists, that they succeeded la obtaining the ap- 
 pointment of a commlasloo to ini|uire Into the 
 cauK's of their discontent." Nothing came of 
 it: and the Cubans then "set themselves to 
 deriiH' plans for freeing their Island fmni the 
 crushing dominion of Spain. ... In the month 
 of August, 1868, it was determined that an 
 rtnimary should be sent through the various 
 districts of the Island, with the ostensible pur- 
 po« of arranging agencies for a Journal newly- 
 establishnl at llavannah, but in reality to 
 ^itiiie the state of public opinion, and see upon 
 what assistance an Insurrectionary movement 
 iniilit rely, , , , The revolutlou in" the niutlier- 
 C'liinlry In September, IHH8. which drove the 
 llourluMi dynasty from the throne. s<rms to have 
 |iriii|ilt«t<il tlieinsurreetiiin In I'ulia. . . . The 
 llrtit liop<' seems t4) have been that the new Gov- 
 irimiiut would aniellorati' the coinlition of tlie 
 I'liniy. In which still a not unini|>ortanl party 
 tiuac to the desire for suih reforms ai* woultl 
 malile them to remain connected with the coun- 
 try of which they ha<l so long formed a part. 
 Thi« hope was (ll4ap|Hiinte<l. and the insurgents 
 ilid not wait hing Iwfore they took action The 
 s! imlanl of revolt was at length raiseii by Carlos 
 Manuel de I'espedcs, on his estate of DeniajaguH, 
 lit a short distance from the town of Yani, in the 
 lastorn di'fiartiiient. t'esjx'des was known as an 
 iilili lawyer and wealthy planter , iitnl he was not 
 >! iw in ulliaetiiig III himself a res|H'i talile fol. 
 liwiiii: .\t rtrsi lie found lilmstdf at the hemi of 
 Itiil a small iiiunber of pairiots. and all Ills more 
 trtisiworiliy slaves, the latter of whom he iilier- 
 atisi on ilie spot. He was soon Jnilleil liv his 
 rriiml .Xirullera, and ttie two then decided that 
 lliov wiiulil never abAiidoii tlie i-ause till thev 
 liaii fris'ii th.- Island from K|miilsh ride ninl n ii. 
 iIitihI It iiide|M"ndent." — A1/i>iAk»v/A UirinF ll>l. 
 W-\. — The struggle for Cuban liiile|»iidenee 
 lliiis iM'iriin was umlntalneil for ten years, with 
 I 'lis. i|iiiiin'» terribly destructive Iii the pron- 
 1» ritv of the Islaml. The contest had Utile of 
 111' I haraeter of civilized warfare, on either side. 
 .\tii.iiig lis incidents was one that causini great 
 ■ M iteinenl In the Tnlted States. An .Vmerlean 
 •taniir. tile Virglnius, Captain .losenh Fry, t.Kik 
 ' !i a earKo of war material for the CuImii Insur 
 t iiu. ai I'lirt ail l*rlnce. in Octotier. l^TH She 
 
 IS .Mrtaken on her voyage to the island tiy the 
 Spanish gun boat Tornado, eaplurisi ami taken 
 ' ' Ninliago de Cuba Then' Captain l-'rv and 
 liii! irt'w wcrt trk.>d by court martial auil cuu- 
 
 CULDEES, 
 
 demned to death. The Captain and flfty-two of 
 his men, with four insurgent chiefs who had 
 taken passage on the Virglnius, were summarily 
 shot. Ninety -thret! more, under sentence, were 
 saved by the vigorous protests of the captain of 
 the British steamer Niobe, which arrived from 
 Jamaica in time to interfere. Much as Ameri- 
 cans were horritieil and e.\cited by the deed, the 
 American government could not call the Snan- 
 ianls to account, since the Virglnius was unlaw- 
 fully engaued, and her < aptors had a technical 
 riirht to the savage pt'naity they exacted. The 
 Rniiie savagery of spirit appears to hiive been 
 exhibited throughout the war. In 1878 it was 
 practically terminated, by an agreement cuUeil 
 the Treatvof El Zanjon,' under which Maximo 
 Ooniej, the Cuban military leader, abandoned 
 the struggle and n'tireil to San Domingo, The 
 treaty gave representation to Cuba in the Span- 
 ish Cortiw, and i(rovidi<l for various apparent 
 reforms Ui llie government of the island. Accord- 
 ing to the Cubans, litth' has been realized from 
 them. Thev are said to have simply given new 
 iiiinira to o(d evil- nIhvitv, however, which 
 had been praclii ally dislroyed by the war. was 
 formally alioUshed by a decree of Octi ilar 7, 1H86, 
 after having bt'cn, in" |8m(i, ri-duced to a prepara- 
 tory system of " patrt>nai.'e. " Discontent has 
 tieen stitadily spreadlne anew, since the pnieti- 
 cal outcome of the treaty of El Zaniou iH-gan to 
 be uiulerstiMMl, and the standard of revolt was 
 aiiain raisid by .Maximo Gomez, In February, 
 \x\)'^. The war thus ri"pened seems likelv to 
 be more determined and ciestructlvi; than before. 
 
 lf%lti' 
 
 CUBIT. The,— "The length of the Egvptiun 
 fi>>t is . . . shown to be e(|ual to l.oi.s I'iliiiliBli 
 foot, or 12.16 Inches (USONtl metre! aud the cubit 
 lo IX 34 English Inches, or u.4«3 metre. This 
 cubit was Identical wiih the I'linniciau or Klym- 
 pie eiiliit, afterwanls adopted in Gret-ce. , , . 
 The second of the two Egyptian cubits was the 
 royal cubit, or cubit of Menijihis, of seven palms 
 or twenty-eight diirits, . . , The mean length of 
 the Egyptian roval cubit Is . . . nseertaiueil to 
 be 2tl.fl"7 English inches, or 5J5 uiiii. . . . The 
 fact that Moses nhvavs nnntions the Egyptia.i 
 measures ... us well as the Kiryplian uelghta 
 provesthiit the llilin WM.riL'iiially brought 
 I lii'ir ueiulits and iiiea-iiris from Egypt . . . Iu 
 hisdlsserlalioii on eiiliiis, Sir Isiiiie Newton slate* 
 grounds for his opinion that the siii nsl eiildi of 
 the, lews na«i'i|ii:il lo 'J4. 7 ol our iiii lies, and that 
 the royal ciiliil of Memphia was equivalent to 
 tlvr-aiktlis of iliix xaerni ,lew ish iiibil, or 30 6 
 Inches"— II. \V Chlsholni, »<« tht Srifiiet of 
 HV/.;'"".','"'"' Mion'irh.ij. ,-h 3 
 
 CUCUTA, The Convention of SecCuLOM- 
 
 IIIAN STATts .\ |l l'<IH-l«!ll» 
 
 CUFA S.I ilrssoH*!! Hill Kir.\ 
 CUICIDH. The See Tr \tii. The. 
 CULOEES. The -It usid to beset forth bjr 
 rrlit: lolls hi-loriiiiis that the t iiUltss were an an- 
 cleiii ri.liL''nus fraternity in Scotland, iirobably 
 foiiiidi d liv Coliiinba tliesnintly Irish nilsnionary 
 of the sixth ceiilu iinil hstrlog lis nriii.ipal 
 s<.at ill loiia : that they "w.e the liitlns of 
 Scotland in a dark and superstitious age" ; that 
 they •tnigiiiisi tor •evernl ceiitiirits airninsi lb* 
 error* aiidthe opitriMwIve priiensloiis of Home 
 The facts galherisl by Dei.n l<ei\es niul pub- 
 lished iu 1H04. Iu hia work on the "Cukleesof 
 
 CC3 
 
 It c,3 
 
t- ^; 
 
 CUMBRIA. 
 
 the British blaoda," supported by the more 
 recent studies of Mr. W. F. Skene, are now iren- 
 eraily accepted. Says Mr. Skene, {Celtic Seat- 
 land, bk. 3, cA. A) : " It is not till after tlie ez- 
 
 Suision of Uie Columban monks from tlie king- 
 om of the Picts, in the beginning of the eighth 
 century, that the name of Culdee appears." Mr. 
 Skene's conclusion is that the Culdevs sprang 
 from an ascetic order called Delcolc or Oo<l-wor- 
 shippersi that in Irish the name l>ecame Ceile De, 
 thence comipted into Culdee; that they were 
 hermits, who became in time aasnrlated In com- 
 munities, and were Anally brought under the 
 canonical rule of the Roman church, along with 
 th€' secular clergy. 
 
 CULEUS, The. Bee Amphora. 
 
 CULHUACAN. See Mexico, AsctxnT: 
 The Toltec Empire. 
 
 CULLODEN, Battle of (1746). See Scot- 
 land: A. D. 174V1746. 
 
 CULM, OR KULM, Battle of See Qer- 
 MAKT: A. D. 1«13 (Al-orsT). 
 
 GULP'S HILL. See United States or 
 Am.; a. D. 1863 (.TrsE-Ji'LT: Pessstlvania). 
 
 CULTURKAMPF, The. See Qermant; 
 A. D. 1873-1887. 
 
 CUMiE.-CUMiEAN SIBYL, — "Earlier 
 
 than Tin B. C though we do not know 
 
 the precise era of Its commencement .there eilsteii 
 one solitary Orecian estahliitbment in the Tyrrhe- 
 nian Sea, — the Campaninn Cumie, near Caix' 
 Misenum ; which the more common opinion of 
 chronologlsts supposed tu have been founded in 
 1090 B. C. and which has even been carried bark 
 by some authors to 1139 B. C". . . . Cuma>. situ- 
 ated on the neck of the peninsula which termi- 
 nates in Cap<- Misenum, occupied a lofty and 
 rocky bill overhanging the sea and dilllcull of 
 srcpw on the land »)de ... In the hollow nxk 
 umlir the very wnIIk of the town was sItuHli-d 
 the cnvcm of the prophetic Sibyl, — a parallel 
 iiid reproiluctlon of the Oergithlan Sibyl, ne.ir 
 Kyme In .Kolis: in the linnimlate neighUirhiH^I, 
 tiv), stood the wild womb iind dark l«ke of .\Ter- 
 niiH, ronwrrated to the nulitiTmnean goiU, and 
 oflirini: nn establishment of priests, with cere- 
 monii-x evoking the dead, for purposes of pr<v 
 phiTV or for solving doubts nnd inysteric« It 
 wii» tiiTi' that Ctrtviiin iniHgination liK'aliiwI ths 
 CimmeriHris and the futile of Odysseus " — O. 
 (Jrote. Iliit iff iimrt, }il. 2, rh 'ii —See, also. 
 
 SlRTI.S 
 
 CUMANS OR KOMANS, The. See IIiN- 
 
 OAHY .\. I> Ill4-l;l(ll. 
 
 CUMBERLAND COLLEGE, SeeKincA- 
 Ttos, Moii|.:hn Amkkii a .V. D 17(I1»-1hi»4. 
 CUMBERLAND GAP, The capture oC 
 
 — .Sk^ikmukr : Tb.nnksskei. 
 CUMBERLAND ROAD. Sec Cmted 
 
 SUTKS OK \H. A. I) l-MW-^ldia 
 
 CUMBRIA: The Britithkincdora.— ' The 
 
 llritons of Cumbria iiciiipy a tolerably large 
 spoei' on the map, but a very sinall <me in history : 
 — ihiir annal'J have entirely perishiil . — and 
 nothing 'luuientic remains coucerning them, 
 eiiept afew paNsages. . . . itonuiiiie would fur- 
 nish mort' , for It was In Cumbria that Khyderc, 
 or Kuderic the magnlflcent. is therein represented 
 |j> have n-lun'-Ml. h'm! Merllti to hav** propbesie?!. 
 Arthur held Ills roiirt in merry Carlisle, and 
 Perf«liir, tht* I'rinif of Smisliine. whtwe name 
 we find amongst thf primes of Stralhclyde, it 
 
 864 
 
 CLTrailFORH WRITING. 
 
 one of the great heroea of the ' Hablnoglon,' 
 Ules of youth, long preterred by traditloi 
 amongst the Cymri. These fantastic persona»« 
 however, are of importance in one point "f rg, 
 because they show, what we might o; rvi» 
 forget — that from the Ribble in Lanca ire „ 
 thereabouts, up to the Clyde, there mst.l , 
 dense population composed of Britons, who pre 
 served their national language ami cusuinis 
 agreeing hi all respecU with the Welsh of tb 
 present day. So that even in the tenth centun- 
 thr ancient Britons still Inhabited the greail- 
 par! of the western coast of the island, howect- 
 much they had been compelled to yield to thi 
 political supremacy of the Saxon invaders. Thi 
 ' Regnum Cumbrense ' comprehended many dis 
 tricta, probably governed by petty princei o' 
 Regull, in subordination to a chief monarch ( 1 
 Pendragon. Reged appears to have been snme 
 where in the vicinltv of Annandale. 8traihclvil( 
 is of course the district or vale of Cly<lesd'al<' 
 In this district, or state, was situated Alcluril 
 or Dunbritton, now Dumbarton, where tbt 
 British kings usually resided ; and the vbolt 
 Cumbrian kingdom was not infrequently calleii 
 Stratliclvde, from the ruling or principttlstst) 
 — F. Palgrave, Hittoty of the An;/l<i-S,ixoa: rS 
 11.— Cumbria and Cambria {Wales i. tlie tw. 
 states long maintained by the Britons, nirairisi 
 the Ancles and Saxons, bore. In n'slity. thi' same 
 name. Cumbria being the more com-ot forni "f it 
 The earliest development of the so^ralliil Welsh 
 puetrv seems to have been in Ciindiriii ralliir 
 than (n Wales. Talieaen and Aniiirin nrrrCun', 
 iirian barrls. and Arthur, If any historirnl pirviii 
 age stands liehind his kinglv shadow, una ppj|, 
 ably a Cumbrian hero — J. Rhys, <i^^> llrilniii 
 
 A'so l!»: W. F. Skene, The Four Aufif.t 
 Hn ,» iif Watee. — See. also. Ktmht. Aultde, 
 and Scotland: l(>TH-llTn Cektiuiks 
 
 CUNARD LINE, The founding of the, »v^e 
 Stkam Navkiation: On the (Hi- an 
 
 CUNAXA, Battle of (B. C. 401 1, See Ptn 
 BIA » C 4(il-«(S> 
 
 CUNEIFORM WRITING.-Tli,<li«p.ft. 
 eniplovf-d for the written languages if nn ir 
 Uiiiirlonia aild Assyria have hi-i-n lullnl (uor 
 form, from the Latin cuneus. a WHipc, heosu* 
 the marks compiiKlng them are wnlgi- »hap,Al 
 .Ml knowledge of those ehararters an.l ■ f tV 
 Inngnagcs expressi'd in them hati l».i' 1 '«t f"r 
 many renturies. and its riocnt re<"v, n nunc if 
 thii most marvelous aehie'etninti' nf our ni}- 
 "Travtlers had discovered inwripli"iiHrm:nir„| 
 'n cuneiform, or. ns they were also lernii-"!. ;irrit 
 leailed i liaraiters. on the riiiii"! nioiiiiiiiciiu if 
 I'ersefiolis and other aneient sites in I'iNii 
 The ins< riptions were in tliris- ililTeniil synlinH 
 of ciiiielform writing; and sinee llie IhrtikimU 
 of Inscription wen' always planii side l.y »iiii- 
 It was evident that they repri-»<nt<d dilTimil 
 versions of the same teit, , , . The ilue to thr 
 derlpherment of the Inscriptions was Hrst ili* 
 ^over^^l bv the successful guess of a (lemmn 
 scholar. tJnitefenil. OMtefemi noticed that tbo 
 Inscriptions generallr began with thn-e or U\j 
 wonls. one of whiih varietl. while the olhin 
 remained unthaiigej. The variable wonl biul 
 three forma though the snme form alwsy« sp 
 peare'-i on the same n>'«U!nent nr<\\rtfm. 
 theri'fore, ronjeetiireil that this woni rrpr<'ieiitf<l 
 the name of n king, the wonls whirh fKllowt^i 
 it being royal titlea" Working on this 1 "ujeit 
 
 i 
 
CUNEIFORM WRITINO. 
 
 CCWA. 
 
 are, be Identified the three names with Dariiu, 
 Xerx-'» »nd Artsxerxes, and one of the suppoised 
 tltlei with a Zend word for " king," which gave 
 him a coneideraWe part of the cuneiform alpha- 
 het. He waa followed In the work by Bumouf, 
 Laaarn and Sir Henry Rawlinson, until, finally, 
 Aiayrian inacriptions were read with " almost as 
 much certainty as a page of the Old Testament. " 
 —A. H. Sayce, Frtth Light from t/ie ancient 
 nonnrwntt, eh. 1. 
 
 CUNIBERTUS, Kiog of the Lombards, 
 A. I). 691-700. . 
 
 CUNIMARE, The. See Amibicam Abomo- 
 isEs: OiCK OR Coco Group. 
 
 CURDS. OR KURDS, The. See Cardcchi. 
 
 CURFEW-BELL, The.—" Except from its 
 inSuence upon the imagination, It would be 
 lurdly worth while to notice the legend of the 
 curfi'wbcll, so commonly supposed to have been 
 imiioawl by William fthe Conqueror] upon the 
 English, as a token of degradation and shivery ; 
 but tbi' ' squllla dl lontano, cbe paja 11 giomo 
 planger die si muore,' waa a universal custom of 
 police throughout the whole of mediaeval Europe. 
 
 not unconnected with devotional feellLj." Sir 
 
 F. Palgrave, llitt. of Xormanily and Bng., r. 3 
 f. 637.—" In the year [1061] after King Henry s 
 deatli [Henry I, of France], in a Synod helil at 
 Caen by tile Duke's authority [Duke William of 
 Ximnanily. who Iiecame In 1086 the Contiuiror 
 and Klnit of England], and attcndoil by Bishops, 
 .\l)t»ils, ttuil Barous, u was ordered that a bell 
 ihiiulil lie rung every evening, at hearing of 
 wliiih prayer should be olIere<r and all people 
 •hould get within their houses and shut their 
 doors. This odd mixture of piety and police 
 weras 1,1 lie the origin of ihe famous and mis- 
 rcpniieiited Curfew. Whatever was Us objert. 
 i! waa al It ist not ordained as any special hani- 
 (liip III! William's English subjects. "—E. .V. Free- 
 mm. Ilitl.iiffheyurmanConquul of Erui eh 12 
 KTt :lir. 3). 
 
 CURIA, Ancient Roaum. Set; CoifiTiA 
 
 OlRI M « 
 
 CURIA, Mnaidpal, of the later Roman em- 
 pire.— Oecurionei.—" It is only necessary In 
 this work to describe the seneral type of the 
 municipal organization wblcli existed In the prov- 
 Incps nf the iloman Empire after the time of 
 Constautine. . . The proprietors of lanil in the 
 Koinan provinces generally dwelt in towns and 
 dlics. aa a pmtectlon agabLit brigands and man- 
 •teal.™ tvery town Imil an aKri<'ultural dis- 
 trill which formed its territory, and the Uinded 
 propil.'li.rs constltuteil the municipality The 
 whiili' liK-al authority was vesu-d In nn oligarch- 
 ical *Miate called the Curia, consisting pnSiMlily 
 of one liundred of Ihe wealthiest landed proprie 
 tors ill the city or township This body elinted 
 tbe municipal authorities and offlcers, anil Hlleil 
 up Tacancles In lu own hodr. It was thrrefori' 
 Independent of the proprietors fnim among 
 whom It waa Uken, and who» interests It ought 
 to hare represented The Curia— not the Nilv 
 of landeil iiMprietors — formed therefore the 
 ft'man municipality. The Curia was usetl by 
 itf mperial government ai an instrument M 
 WtX pitortlon."— O. Flnlar, Ortte* t/»,frr th, 
 *>wiw.jA. 2, ««•<. 1— "When the proijrewi of 
 Ssa. tynr.r.j fi^.^ aiistost Sapprd the Tig.",r ..f 
 •nclelj-. the decuriooea [roemben of the mi.'nici 
 Psl niriir, called, alto, rurUlcc] . . bring held 
 JotaUy rcspuulble (or tiie taution, became the 
 
 005 
 
 jeriest ilaves of the empire. nesponslMs jclntlr 
 for the taxes, they were, by the sar.ie token, re- 
 sponsible for their colleagues and tueir succcseors ; 
 their estates were made the securities of the im- 
 lierial dues; and If any estate was abandoned by 
 Its proprietor, they were compelled to occupy ft 
 and ineet the imposu exigible from it. Yet they 
 could not rcllnijulsh their offices; they could not 
 leave the city except by stealth ; they could not 
 enter the army, or the prir 'hood, or any office 
 which might relieve them ,m municipal func- 
 tions. . . . Even the children of the Curial were 
 ndscnbed to his functions, and could engage in 
 no course of life Inconsistent with the onerous 
 and Intolerable duty. In short, this dignity waa 
 so much abhorred thai the lowest plebeian 
 shunned admission to It. the members of it made 
 themselves bondmen, married slave-women or 
 Joined the barbaric hordes In orucr to escape It- 
 and malefactors, Jews and heretics were some- 
 times condemned to It, as an appropriate penalty 
 for their olTenaes "— P. Godwin, ifitt. ofhancf 
 Ancient Gaul, bk. 2. eh. 8. 
 
 Also i.N: T. Hodgkin. Italy and her InmiUrt 
 hk. 3, eh. 9— F. Guizot. Uitt. of Citilinuion r 8 
 (r. 1, Fra)iCt),leet. 2.— See, also Rome: A. D 
 36.1-879. 
 
 CURIA, Papal.— Collese of Cardinal*.- 
 Consistory.—" The Court of Rome, commonly 
 ciilleil the Roman Curia, conslsteil of a numlier 
 of dignified ecclesiastics who a»slste<l the I'ope 
 In the executive ailmlnistratlou. The I'ontirf's 
 mor>' intimate advisers, or. as we should say his 
 privy council, were the College of Cardinals [see 
 PapacV: a. D. 10,W]. consistinit of a cx-rtain 
 numlier nf cardinal bish<i|is, cardinal prlents, ami 
 canlinal deacons. The i .irdinal deacons, at first 
 -I yen and afterwanis foiirt»H'n in nunilsr, wen' 
 originally ecclesiastics appointed as overseers and 
 guardian.^ of the sick and poor in the ilitT.rent 
 districts of Riinie. Equal to them in rank were 
 Ihe fifty cardinal priests, us the chief priests of 
 Ihe principal Roman churches were calltKl; who, 
 with the cardinal deacons, formed, in verj- early 
 tiiii.s, the presbytery, or s<niite of the Bi.shop 
 "I Rome . . According In some authorities, 
 I iinlinal bishops were Instituted In the Ulh cen- 
 tury; according to others not till the lltb. when 
 seven bishops of the diiKews nearest to Rome 
 — Ostla. Porto. Velitrae, Tusculum. I'neneste, 
 Tibur. and the Subinea — wire adnpliil by the 
 Popi' partly iis Ills ossistant.s in the service of the 
 Laleran. and partly In Ihe general ailiiiinlslration 
 of Ihe Church In priness of time, the appoiul- 
 iiient of such eanliiiiil bialiopa was exteniled not 
 only 111 the n-»t of Italy but also to foreign 
 countries Though the youngest of the canllnals 
 In ixilut of time, canllnnl bishops were the liigli 
 est In rank, and enjoyed iIh- preeminence In the 
 Ciillege. Their Iltli-s were derived from their 
 iliiKeses . But they were alto called bv 
 their own names. Thi' nuinU'r of the cardlimfi 
 was iiiileflnlle and varying. The Council of 
 Hash' endeavoiirtil to restrict It to 24. But thia 
 was not carried out. and Pope .SIxtut V at 
 lenifth fixed the number at 70 The Council 
 called the Consistory, which aiivlard with the 
 Po|)e Nith In temporal and ecclesiastical niatlera. 
 Was onllnarily pnvale, and confined to the car- 
 diliaii- »iuiie . lliuugii oil rairaoniinary occatioua, 
 and for lolemn purpiiaet of itate. at In the 
 tudlrncei of (ofclgii anitiamadon, Ac, othw 
 pri'latet, and eveo dittluguitbed laymen, mlgbl 
 
 I'd 
 
CVNA. 
 
 CYN08CEPHALE. 
 
 ■ppesr In It."— T. H. Prer, Bitt. of Modern 
 E'irom. V. 1, p. 88. 
 
 CURIA REGIS OP THE NORMAN 
 KINGS.— "The Curia Rerts [under the Nor- 
 mmi Kiogt of England], the giiprcme tribunal 
 of judicature, of which the Exchi'i|uer was the 
 flnaorial department or aeaaion. wa« ... the 
 ctiurt of the king sitting to admlniiter juatice 
 with the advice of his counsellors; those coun- 
 sellnts being, in the widest acceptation, tlie 
 whole body of tcnants-ln-chief. l)<:t in the more 
 limited usag" t'\c gnat officers of the household 
 and speclttT ; api>ointed judges. The great 
 gatherings of the national council may be re- 
 
 fnnled as full sessions of the Curia Regis, or the 
 uri:t Regis as a perpetual committee of the 
 uatiiiniil council." — W. Stiibbs. Omtl. Hint, of 
 Eii;i.. <■>!■ 11, teet. 187.— "Not long after the 
 granting of Magna Charta, the Curia Rt gis was 
 perinaiiently (lividc<l into three committees or 
 ciiurts, cacli taking a certain imrtion of the busi- 
 ness: (1) Fiscal matters were conflneil to the 
 Exchequer: (3) cirll disputes, where neltlier the 
 king's interest nor anv matter savouring of a 
 criminal nature were involve*!, were decided in 
 the (•mimon Pleas: and (3) the court of Kings 
 Bench retaine<l all the remaining business and 
 soon »c(iuired the exclusivi- denomination of the 
 ancient Curia Regis. But the same staff of 
 judges was still retained for all thrt-e courts, 
 with the chief justiciar at their head. Towanis 
 the end of Henry III.'s reign, the three courts 
 received each a distinct staff, and on thealKilition 
 by Edward I. of the office of chief justiciar, the 
 only remaining bond of union Mag severeil, 
 they l)ecame completely separBtp<l. Is<>me trace 
 of their ancient unity' of organization always 
 survived, however, in the court of Exchei|u'er 
 I hiunlHT: until at length after six centuries of 
 independent existence they were again united by 
 the Juilieature Act. 1(*TU. Together with the 
 Court "f Chancery and the Protmte, Divorce and 
 Ailmlnilty courts, Ihcv now form divisions of 
 a ciinHiilidaliil High t'ourt of Justice, itsi'lf a 
 branch of the Supreme Court of Judicature." — 
 T P. Taswell Langmead, Knj. CmM. Hint., p. 
 IM— ■The Aula Regia, or Curia Regis . . . 
 has lieen descrilHtl in various and at tlrst sight 
 coatrailictory terms. Thus it has l)een ealle<l 
 the highest Law I'ourt, the Ministry of the King, 
 a Legislative Assembly. 4c. The apparent In- 
 consistency of these descriptions vanishes on 
 closer inspection, and throws great light on me- 
 dieval history. For the Curia Regis ,>o8sesaed 
 every attribuU' whiih hai I vn ascribe<i to it ' — 
 A V. Ulcev, Tfii' I'riry Onu, U, i,t. I. !<ee, al*i. 
 Law, Common: A I). HWd-U.'H, and Law, 
 Ckiminai. A I). lii«(l-ia:s, 
 CURIALBS. See CfHlA, MtrwiciPAt,, 
 CURtOSOLITiB, Tha. See Vbnkti or 
 
 Wt.nTKItN (IaII.. 
 
 CURTIS, CtOfK* W., sad CiTil-Strric* 
 Reform, See Civil SkRvicr Hbform li tii« 
 
 I'siiKO Statics. 
 
 CURULE JEDILES. See Romk: B. C. 
 404—492 
 
 CURULE CHAIR, -!n ancient Rome, 
 'certain high offices of state conferred upon 
 the holiler the right of using, upon punllc 
 i« < ii^iiiiin, oil iviiry i liair of petiiliar form. Tliis 
 cimit was termed Sella Curulls. . . . This was 
 somewhat in the form of a miNlem camp-stunl. "— 
 W. lUiuiay, Manual of RmnanAhUg.. eh. iaikdi. 
 
 CURZOLA, Bktti. of (laoS). See Oi^toi 
 A. D. 1261-1299. 
 
 CUSCO : The Capital of the locas of Pen 
 See Peru: A. D. 1538-1548. 
 
 CUSH.— CUSHITES.-" Genesis, like tiie 
 Hebrews of later date, includes under the name 
 of Cush the nations dwelling t« the Sf)uth. the 
 Nubi.ins. Ethiopians and tribes of South .\rabia. " 
 — .M. Duncker, Ilitt. of Antiquity, bk. 2, th. 1.— 
 See, also. HAMrrES, and Arabia. 
 
 CUSHING, Lieutenant William B.-De- 
 ■truction of the ram Albemarle. See Untted 
 Statksop Am.: A. D. 1864 (Octoueu: N'ortb 
 CaholixaI. 
 
 CUSTER'S LAST BATTLE, SeeUxiTED 
 Statk« - Am.: A. D. IMTIl. 
 
 CU£ MS DUTIES. SeeTAiiiKF 
 
 CUSTOMS UNION, The German (Zoll- 
 Terein). SeeTARiKf : A. I). WAi. 
 
 CUSTOZZA, Battle* of (1848 and 18M1. 
 Sec iTAi.v: A. I). 1848-1849; and I8«a-1M««. 
 
 CUTLER, Manatieh, and the Ordinance of 
 1787. See S'oKTnwEBT Tkriutoky dp iue 
 v. S. : A. 0. 1787. 
 
 CUYRIRI, The. See Amkiucan Auobkii.nes 
 OiTK iiK CiKo Urocp. 
 
 CYCLADES, The.— SPORADES, The,- 
 " Among the Ionic portion of Hellas are to lie 
 reckoned (l>esides Athens) Eulxea, and the nu- 
 merous gn>up of islands ineluiled between Ihe 
 southernmost EulKean pnmiontory, tin easiirn 
 coast of Peloponnesus, and the niirthwtsitrn 
 coast of KHite. Of these islands some are lu lie 
 considered as outlying prolongations, in a siiuth 
 easterly direction, of the mountain system u( 
 Attica; others of that of EulKea; while" a certain 
 numlK'r of them lie apart fmm aither system, aui 
 8<'ein referable to a volcanic origin. 1*ii the Urst 
 class iK-long Keos, Kytlmus, Seriphus. I'lmleiMn 
 ilrus, Sikinus, Oyarus, Syra, Parns, ami AntipH- 
 ros: u> tile secon<l class Androa, T^nns. M\ kiiin.i, 
 Dflos, Naxos. Ainorgos; to the thinl class Kimo- 
 lus, >If los, ThCra. These lslan<ls piLs.se<l aniiini.'!>l 
 the ancients by the general name of the ( yc Imlii 
 and the Sporades; the former denoininntiub \w\in 
 ctmimonly understo<Ml to C(>mpri8(> Ihiise wUith 
 immediately surroundisl the sacred islauil 'if 
 IKilos,— the latter oelng given lo those which lay 
 more scattered and apart. Rut the names m 
 not appliol with unlfomdty o' steailines«evonin 
 ancient times: at present, the whole grniiii >re 
 usually known by the title of Cyelailes — (J 
 (>rote."//Mr (/ (Irttft, pi. 3, fli. M 
 
 ''YDONIA, Battlet and liege of iB. C. 7>- 
 68). Se Cretk: H. C. 88-6« 
 
 CYLON, Coatpiracy of. S<-e Atmkns: B C 
 
 CYMBELINB, Klafdem of. S< e roLcnu 
 
 TRR, llHIOtN OF. 
 
 CYMRY. The. See Ktmrt. Thk. 
 
 CYNOSARGES AT ATHENS, The. S<« 
 Gymnasia, UnKKK. 
 
 CYNOSCEPHALiE, Battle of (B, C, 3«4'. 
 —The t'«itle In which I'elopldas. the Thebiui 
 patriot, friend and colleague of KpninlmmilM, 
 was slain It waa fought R. C. .W4. In ThMnsIt, 
 near Pharsalus. on the heights ealleil CyiiiKcep 
 halw, or the Dog's Heads, and dellvenil the 
 Thes'wiian rities from the e cnsMiimciii-i "F iim 
 tyrant of Phcr» — C Thirlwall, //u( ./ Ormi, 
 (X 4(1 
 
 (B. C. 197). 8«« Quaes : a C, ati-14t. 
 
 ma 
 
t^^ 
 
 CYN0S8EMA. 
 
 CTNOSSEMA, NanU battle of.— Two suc- 
 eeMlTe naval battles fought, one in July and the 
 wcood in October, B. C. 411, between the Athe- 
 nians and the Peloponnesian allies, in the Helles- 
 pont, are jointly called the Battle of Cynossema. 
 Tbe name was taken from the headland called 
 Cynossema, or tbe ' ' Dog's Tomb, " " ennobled by 
 the legend and the chapel of the Trojan queen 
 necuba." The Athenians bad the advantage in 
 both encounters, especially in the latter one. 
 when they were Joined by Alcibiades, with re- 
 enforcements. Just in time to decide the doubtful 
 iiirtunesof the day.— E. Curtius, Iliit. of Greece, 
 ilc 4, ffi. n. See Oreecb : B. C. 411-407. 
 
 CYNURIANS.The. See Kt. ;rian«. 
 
 CYPRES DOCTRINE. Seet,AW,EoiiTT- 
 
 A. 1). l««l. 
 
 CYPRUS: Oririn of the name. — "Tht 
 Oreek name of the island was derived from the 
 tbuDilAnce in which it proiliiced the beautiful 
 plant (' Coplicr ' ) which furnishes the ' al-benna,' 
 coveted throughout the East for the vellow dve 
 wblch it communicates to the nails. It was rich 
 In mines of copper, which has obtainer'. for it the 
 nsme by which it is known in the raodem Ian- 
 guajresoftheWeat."— J. Kenrlck. /"flffniWa, cA. 4. 
 
 Early Histoiy.—" The flrsi, authentic record 
 with regard to Cyprus is an inscription on an 
 Egyptian tomlwtone of the 17th century U. C, 
 imin which it appears that the island was 
 cimciuered by Tliothmes III. of Egypt, in whose 
 reign the cvmlus of the Chililren of Israel is 
 iuppi>s<'d to Imve taken place. This was no doubt 
 interiiir to the establishment of any Oreek c<il<i- 
 nits, nnd nrnlialily. also, before the Pha-nici.ins 
 hul W'ttliil in the island. ... As appears from 
 Tari.mn inscriptions and other reconls, Cyprus 
 became subject successivilv to Egypt, as Just 
 mentioneil. to Assyria, to tgvpt again in .168 
 
 B. C. when It was'ctiniitH-red fiy Amasis. and in 
 M5 B. ('. to Persia. .Meanwliife the power of 
 the Greeks had been Increasing. , . . "i.iecivili- 
 rati.in of tlie West was «b lut to assert itself at 
 .Marathon and Salamis: and Cyprus, In-ing mid- 
 way tietween i~jt and West, could not 'ail to lie 
 Inrolvwl in the coming contilct. (>ii the occasion 
 of the Imilr revolt (see Pkhsia: H. C. 531-49,1] 
 tlic (ircik clement in Cyprus showeil its strenglii : 
 KDd ill Wi II. C. the whole island, with the single 
 nrf|ii|c)n of the t'luenician town of .\niathus. 
 t(»ik part with the lonians in renouncing the 
 sullmriiy of the IVrsian king." But in the war 
 whldi fiillowi'd, the Persisns, aided by the Ph(e- 
 nlfians of the mainland, rc-conquered Cyprus, 
 ami Ihi" Cyprian Greeks wen- long disheartened. 
 Tliev rer<ivered their courage, lioweyir. almut 
 4111 n C. when Evagoras. ,» Oreek of the royal 
 house of Teucer, matle himself master of Salamis. 
 and linnlly established a general sovereignty over 
 the island — oven extending his power to the 
 mainland and iubjugating Tyre. "The reign 
 of Evngnras is perhaps the miist brilliant period 
 in I lie history of Cyprus. Before his death. 
 whirh twk place In 8i4 B. C, he had rals«i the 
 lilsnil from the position of a mere <lependency of 
 imp nr other of the great Eastern monarchies, had 
 wined for it a place among the leading sutes of 
 Oreeee, and hail solvc<l the i|uestion as to which 
 division of the ancient world the Cyprian people 
 K'Ji.i U aMiijueil. ruuaei|iientiy when, some 
 forty yesrs laUT. tbe power of Persia was shal 
 •fri'i • V Aleiander the Great at the battle "f 
 iiiut, Un klags of iJm UlaiMl hMtcned lu offer 
 
 CYPRUS. 
 
 him their tubmistion ai the leader of the Oreek 
 race, and sent 120 ships to assist him in the siege 
 of Tyre." After Alexander's death, Cyprus 
 was disputed between Antlgonus and Ptolemy. 
 (See HACEDoifiA: B. C. 810-801.) The king of 
 Egypt secured the prlxe, aud the Uland remained 
 under the Greek-Egyptian crown, until It passed, 
 with the rest of the heriUge of the Ptolemys to 
 OaRomana " When the [Roman] empire was 
 alTldec" on the death of Constantine the Great, 
 Cyprus, like MalU, passed Into the bands of the 
 Byzantine Emperors. Like Malta, also. It was 
 exposed to frequent attacks from the Arabs; btit, 
 although they several time* occupied the Island 
 and once held it for no less than 180 vears, they 
 were always expelled again by the' Byzantine 
 Emperors, and never established themselves there 
 as flrmly as they did In Malta. The crusadet 
 arst brought Cyprus into contact with the western 
 nations of modem Europe."— C. P. Lucas, Ilitt. 
 Oeog. of Brititi'i Colonia, teet. 1, eh. 8. 
 
 Also in: R H. Lang, Q/pnu, eh. 1-8.— P 
 v^on Loher, Cgpriu, eh. 12 and 80.— L. P. Dl 
 Cesnola, Cmnu ; if ancient eitiet, dU. 
 
 B. C. 58.— Annexed to the Roman Do- 
 minions. — "The annexation of Cyprus was 
 decreed In 696 [B. C. 58] by the people [of 
 Rome], that Is, by the leaders of the democr-cy, 
 the support given to piracy by the Cyprio'ts 
 '.King allege<l as the offlclal reason whv that 
 course should now be adopted. Marcus" Cato, 
 intrusted by his opponenU with the execution of 
 this measure, came to the island without an 
 anii.\ tint he ha<i no need of one. The king [a 
 linilliir of the kingof Egypt] took poison; the 
 Inhiibltants submitted without om-ring resist- 
 ance to their IneviUble fate, and were placed 
 under the governor of Cillcia."— T. Mommsen. 
 Ilitt. of Romf. bk. 5, eh. 4. 
 
 A. D. 117.— Jewish insurrection.— "This 
 rich and pleasant territory [the Island of Cyprus] 
 had clTordetl a refuge to the Jews of the contin- 
 ent through three generations of disturbance and 
 alarm, ana the Helirew race was now [K. I). 117] 
 probably not inferior there in number to the 
 native Syrians or Oreeka On the Brst outburst 
 of a Jewish revolt [against the Roman domination, 
 in the last year of the reign of Trajan] the whole 
 island fell into the hands of the Insurgents, and 
 liecame an arsenal and rallying point for the 
 Insurrection, which soon spread over Egypt, 
 Cynnc and Mesopotamia. The leader of' the 
 n-volt In Cyprus bore the name of .\rteinlon, 
 but we know no particulars o5 the war in this 
 (|usrter, except that SMO.ttOOof the native popu. 
 latii-i is said to have fallen victims to the exter- 
 minating fury of the Insurgents. When the 
 rebellion was at last extinguished in blood, the 
 Jews were forbidden thenceforth to set foot on 
 the island; and even If driven thither by stress 
 of weather, the penalty of dealli wiw mercilessly 
 enforced. . . . 'The Jewlsli jxipulailon of Cvre- 
 naicaoutnuml)ered the natives. . . . The hostility 
 of the Jews lu these paru was lesa directed 
 against the central government and the Roman 
 residents than the native race. ... Of tl'es* 
 S'Jd.iHSi arc said to have perished. "—€. Merivale. 
 //i«r. of the Himone. eh. 69. 
 
 A. 5. iioi.— Coaqntst br Richard Ciaur da 
 Lton.— FoundiUK 01 tha Latin Ktlofdon. — 
 During tlie civil strife and confusion of the last 
 years »t the C^omuenlan dynasty of emperors at 
 CoDstautlDople, oo« of tbe members of Um (aalljr, 
 
 667 
 
 ?■* 
 
 fr 
 
CYPRUS. 
 
 CYRENAICA. 
 
 the ■OTereigntr of 
 emperor, With 
 
 ! 
 
 Iiaoc Comnenoi, lecured 
 Cypnu and awumed the title of emperor 
 the alliance of the king of Sicily, he defeated the 
 Byzantine forces aent against him, and was 
 planted securely, to all appearance, on his newly 
 built throne at the time of the Third Crusade. 
 Circumstances at that time (A. D. 1191) gave him 
 a fatal opportunity to provoke the English cru- 
 saders. First, he seized the property and Im- 
 prisoned the crews of three English ships that 
 were wrecked on the Cyprian coast. Not satisfied 
 with that violence, he refused shelter from the 
 storm to a vessel which bore Berengaria of Na- 
 varre, the intended wife of King liichard. ' ' The 
 king of England immediately sailed to Cyprus; 
 iind when Isaac refused to deliver up the ship- 
 wrecked crusaders, and to restore their property, 
 Richard landed his army ami commenced a series 
 of operations, whi<h ended in bis conquering the 
 whole island, in ^vhich he abolishe<i the adminis- 
 trative institutions of the Eastern Empire, en- 
 sl.iving the Oreek race, introducing the feudal 
 system, by which he riveted the chains of a 
 foreign domination, and then gave it as a present 
 to Quy of Lusignan, the titular king of Jerusalem, 
 who became the founder of a dynasty of Frank 
 kings in Cyprus."— O. Finlsy, lliit. of the Bytan- 
 tine and Qreik Empire*, fnm 718 to 1453. ft*. 8, 
 e/>. 3, teet. 1.— Before giving Cyprus to Ouy of 
 Lusignan, Richanl had sold the island to the 
 Templars, and Ouy had to pay the knights 
 heavily for the extinguishment of their rights. 
 Uiehanl, therefore, was rather a negotiator than 
 a giver in the transaction. — W. Stubbs, iSewnltm 
 Ijtett. on the Study of MeriimiU and Modern Hit- 
 ton, left. 8. 
 
 A. D. 1193-1489.— The kingdom under the 
 house of Luiinian. — "The house of Lusignan 
 maintained itself in Cyprus fnr nearly three cen- 
 turies, during which, altliougli fallen somewhat 
 from the blessedness wliicli h;iil iHi'n broken up 
 by Isaac Comnenus, the island seems to have re- 
 tained so much fertility and prosperity as to 
 make its later history very dark by contrast. 
 . . . Ouy, we are told, recelvHl Cyprus for life 
 only, and did homage for the island to Uichard. 
 Ashe already bore the title of king, the inn'stlon 
 whether he should hold Cyprus as a kingdom 
 does not seem to have arisen. . . . On his ileath. 
 in April, 11B4, Richanl putting in no claim for 
 the reversion, his brother. Amalric of Lusignan, 
 constable of Palestine, entered on the posst'ssiim 
 as his heir . . . Anmlric succeeded to the crown 
 of Jerusalem; the crown of Jerusalem, which, 
 after the year 1260. iMM-amc permanently united 
 with that of Cyprus, was an Independent "rown, 
 and the king of Jerusalem an anointed king : the 
 union of the crowns therefore seems to have pre- 
 cludiKl any (juestlon as to the tenure bv which 
 the kingdom of Cyprus should be held. . . . 
 The homage then due ui Richanl, or to the crown 
 of England, ceased at the death of Ouy."— W. 
 Stubbs, Sntnteen Ijeett. un tht Study of Mtdiatal 
 and Vodern Ilitt., leet. 8.— See. also, Jkbubalcu : 
 A. D 1391. 
 
 A. D. 1191-1310.- The Kaichta Hoepitallert 
 of St. John. Hec HoarrrALucM or St. John : 
 A. 1) 111»-13I0 
 
 A. D. I4l9>is70.— A Vcaetiaa dcpeBdency. 
 — The laal nigulug kiuv of Cyprus was James 
 II . a bastard brother of Queen Charlotte, whom 
 he drove fmm the Cypriot throne in 1464. This 
 king married a Vcueliau lady, Caterina Coniaro, 
 
 in 1471 and w«» declared to be " the sonin-li 
 of the Republic." The unscrupulous republic 
 said to have poisoned its son-in-law in order 
 secure the succession. He died in 1473. and 
 son, bom after his death, lived but two yeai 
 Cyprus was then ruled by the Venetians f 
 fifteen years in the name of Caterina. who tiiul 
 renounced her rights wholly in favor of the r 
 public. After 1489, until its conquest by tl 
 Turks, Cyprus was a Venetian depeudoncy, 
 form as well as in fact, but tributary to tl 
 Sultan of Egypt.— W. Stubbs, Sttentren Urtt. i 
 the ^udy of Mediatal and Modem Hint , krt % 
 
 A. D. 1570-1571.— Conqucot by the Turk 
 See Turks: A. D. 1566-1571. 
 
 A. D. i8ai.— TurkiiA ouuaacre of Chri 
 tiant. SveUllEECE: A. D. 1831-1820. 
 
 A. 0. 1878. — Control turrendered.by Turki 
 to England. See TrnKs; A. I). Imth, Xt 
 
 TREATIES or 8aH STEFANO AND BkIII-IN. 
 
 CYREANS, The. Sic Persia: B. f 4111 
 
 400. 
 CYR ';NAICA. — CYRENE.— KVRENI 
 
 —A city, growing into a kingdom, whicb wi 
 founded at an early day by the Greeks, im ili: 
 projecting part of the coast of Libya, or nurtlni 
 Africa, which lies opposite to Gnnce. The tlr 
 settlers were said to have been fmm llji' litt 
 island of Them, whose people wen' U\A m 
 enterprising. The site they chose "was of a 
 unusual nature, especially for Islanders, anil la 
 several miles away from the stM, the sli.ircs i 
 which were devoid of natural boys for anchoi 
 age. But, with this exception, every adwiritaj 
 was at hand: instead of the narcow smny ni 
 of their native land, they found the nio^t firtil 
 com-flelds, a broad table-land with a Iji -ilthy gi 
 mosphere and watered by fresh spriiii;^; :i ncl 
 wooded I'oast-land, unusually will :iiiu|iicil h 
 all the natural products which tlit- llillfuf 
 deemed essential ; while in the backgniuuil spA* 
 mysteriously the desert, a world pas,sinir tin- com 
 prehensionoftheHellenes, out of which the Libya 
 tribes came to the shore with horses and ram'ilf 
 with black slaves, with apes, parrots ami otbr 
 wonderful animals, with dates and niri' fruiti 
 . . . An abundant spring of wiilir ulxirr tb 
 shore was the natural point at whlili tlu' Iimwi 
 men of the deserts and the mariucrs a-w mlilni 
 Here regular nieetinits iMt'amc custiuiiarv Th 
 bazaar became a permanen' markit. uml lb 
 market a city which arose on a gmml unit 
 bniad and lofty, on two rocky hiitthts, whid 
 Jut out towards the sea fn)m the pliiuaii of tin 
 desert. This city wascalliil Cyrcne. . . . Ijirifi 
 numbers of pupi'datlon 'nimigfatiHl from I'ntf 
 the islands and Peloponnesus, k lar>.'i' ainoiiu 
 of new land was pan-elled out, the Libyans wen 
 driven back, the landing-place Wcaiiie tbe |»r 
 of Apollonhi, and the territory occupicil bv tbi 
 city itself was largely extended. Cyretie I* 
 come, like Massalia, tbe starting point <>f a i:n>u| 
 of Bcttleuients, the centre of a small Unta' 
 Barca and Hcsperides (afterwanis inlltii Ik'rr 
 nice] were her daughters. Gradually a nstioi 
 grew up, which extended Itself and its agricul 
 lure, and contri«<d to cover a large liivislon 
 African land vlth Hellenic culture Thi« w» 
 the new eiB which commenceii for Cyriiu- »ill 
 the relgo of the tbint king, the Battus »bu. or 
 accour of the marvellously rapid riie if ht 
 klofdom, waa oatebrated a* ' the fortunate in si 
 
 668 
 
CYRENAICA. 
 
 DACIA. 
 
 Bellu. The Battiada [the family or dynasty of 
 Battus] were aoon regara»d as a great power. " — 
 E. C'urtius, Hi4t. ofGretct, bk. 2, M. 8. — Cyreualca 
 became subject to Egypt under the Ptolem\< 
 »nd was then usually called Pentapolis, from t 
 fire cities of Cyrene, Apollonia, Arsinoe (foi 
 merly Teuchira), Berenice (formerly Uesperis, or 
 Hesperides) and Ptolemals (the port of Barca). 
 Later it became a pro .uce of the Roman Em- 
 pin-, and Anally, passing under Mahometan rule, 
 tank to its present state, as a district, called 
 Burca, of the kingdom of Tripoli. — Cyrene was 
 esiK-cially famous for the prtxluction of a plant 
 called silphium — supposed to be assafortida — 
 OD which the ancients seem to have set an extra- 
 ordinary value. This was one cf the principal 
 sources of the wealth of Cyrene. — E. H. Bun- 
 burv. llitt. of Ancient Gf*/., eh. 8, teet. 1, and 
 eh. 12. »<•<. 2. 
 
 B. C. sas-— Tributary to Persia. Sec Egypt : 
 B C. 52J5-:»2. 
 
 B. C. 332.— Absorbed in the Kingdom of 
 Egypt by Ptolemy Lagus. See Eovpt : B. C. 
 
 B. C. 07.— Transferred to the Romans by 
 
 will.— "In till- middle of this reiirn [of Ptolemy, 
 called Latliyrus. king of Egypt] died Ptolemy 
 Api"n, king of Cvrene. He was the half-brother 
 of Latliyrus anil Alexander, and having been 
 raaile kiug of Cyrene by his father Euergetes IL, 
 he had there reigned quietly for twenty years. 
 Biing Ixtween Egypt and Carthage, then calle<l 
 the Kdiiian province of Africa, and having no 
 anny which he could lead against the Koman 
 lii;ion.«, he hail placed himself under the guar- 
 <li:in.>hip of Home ; he had bought u truce during 
 hi.- lifetime, by making the Roman |H'ople his 
 heirs ill his n ill, so that on his death they were 
 to Imve his kingdom. Cyrene had Ixvu part of 
 Eirypt for above two hundred years, and wa.s 
 usually govrued by a younger son or bnither of 
 the kiiig. Butontlie death of Ptolemy Apiou, 
 
 the Roman senate, who had latterly been grasp- 
 ing at everything within their reach, claimed hi* 
 khiKdom as their inheritance, and in the flatter- 
 ing language of their decree by which the coun- 
 try was enslaved, they declared Cyrene free."- 
 8. Sharpe, Hut. uf Egypt, eh. 11. 
 
 A. D. 117.— Jewish inturrection. See Ct- 
 PBia: A. D. 117. 
 
 A. D. 616.— Destroyed by Chosroes. See 
 Eovpt; A. D. 616-«28. 
 
 7th Century.— Mahometan conquest. See 
 M.vnoMETAX CoN<jiE8T: A. D. 647-709. 
 
 CYRUS. See Peiish : B. C. 54a^21, aud 
 Jews : B. C. 604-oy«. and .iST. 
 
 CYRUS THE YOUNGER, The expedi- 
 tion of. See Persia; B. C. 4ni-40o 
 
 CYZICUS: B. C. 411-410, Battles at. See 
 Greece: B. C. 411-41)7. 
 
 B. C. 74.— Siege by Mithridates.— Cyzicus. 
 which had tlieu become one of the laritest and 
 wealthiest cities of Asia Minor, was besieged for 
 an entire year |B. C. 74-73) bv Mithridates in the 
 tliird Jlithridatic war. The Roman Consul 
 Lucullus came to the relief of the city and suc- 
 ceeded in gaining a position which blwkaded the 
 Iwsiegers and cut olT tiieir supplies. In the end, 
 Jlilliridates retreated w ith a small renmant only', 
 of his great armament, and never recovered from 
 tile disitster — G. Long, IkeliiK uf the limian 
 Itii'itbUr, e.'i.ch.\. 
 
 A. D. 267.— Capture by the Goths. See 
 Goths: A. I) 25S-267. 
 
 CZAR, OR TZAR See Hissi.v: A. D 
 1547. 
 
 CZARTORISKYS, The, and the fall of 
 Poland. Si'c 1'oi.am): A I) 17ii:t-1773 
 
 CZASLAU, OR CHOTUSITZ, Battle of 
 (A. D. I742>. See Austria : A. I). 1742 (Jaxu- 
 ahv — Mxv). 
 
 CZEKHS, The. See Bohemia : Its peopls. 
 
 D. 
 
 DACHTELFIELD, The. See Saxoss; 
 .V. 1) 772-!<il4. 
 
 OACIA, The Dacians.— .\nrlint Dacia em 
 hniiii the ilist.ict north of thi' Danube iMtwcen 
 tlie Tlieiss aud the Dneister. " Tin- Dacians [at 
 tlie time of .Vugustiis, in the lost half cciiturv 
 B (' ] ixiiipietl the whole of what now forms 
 the wiutlieru part of llungiry, the Hanat and 
 Trannylvania. . . . Tlie more pniminent part 
 which iliey tiencefortli assumed in Roman history 
 was prohalily owing principally to tlie immediate 
 pr"\lmily in which they now found tliem.selves 
 I" the Koman frontier "The (jiiesthm of the re- 
 Uil.in ill which the Dacians stood to the tJetie, 
 •*\\m »e tlnd in possi'ssiim of these same couii- 
 tri.sat an earlier [mtIoiI. was one on which there 
 i\i»ie.| cniisidi'rabic dillcrence of opinion among 
 amiiut wriirrs: but the prevailing coucliishm 
 was that ihey verv only different names applied 
 to tlie same p<i>plc. Even Strulni, who descrilies 
 ilieni as liistiiut. though cognate trilx-s. states 
 Unit they spoke the H«me language. Ac""r!i"g 
 In his distinction the Uetje occupied the more 
 • •4.1;; tedious, ad joining tlie Kuxinc. and tlie 
 l>aeiiiii8 the western, bonli'rinit on the Oer- 
 null's _E. H. ■'anbury, llitt. vf Ancient Ocvij., 
 <'■ •:■>. Hd. 1. 
 
 A. D. i02-io6.—Trajan's conquest.— At the 
 
 lieginning of the serond tenliiry. wlunTnijan 
 connuen'd the Dacians and added tin ir country 
 to the Roman £iii|iire. "lliey may be loii-ideri'd 
 as lacupying tiie br.iad l)|.«k of land iKiiiiidcd 
 by the Theiss. tlie C:ir|iMtliiaii.«, llie lower 
 Danube or Ister. and tin I'ruili. ' In his Hrst 
 campaiL'n. A. D Io2. Trijan pinilraliil the 
 country to the li.ari of iiuMlirn Triiisyhaula. 
 and forced the Dacians to give him liaillc at a 
 lihice cailid Tap;c. the site of whieli is not 
 known, lie nmted them with miiiii slaughter, 
 as tliey had been routed at the siinie place, Tapip, 
 sixteen years before, in one of the inelTectual 
 campaigns diricteil by Domitian Tliev Sub- 
 milled, anil Tiajan istablished strong Uomon 
 iicwis In the country ; Init he liails<iircely ri'ttched 
 Itiiiiie and cehbnueil his iriiiiiiph tliefe. K'fore 
 the Daiians were lU'ain in arms In tlie spring 
 of the year IIM. Trajan repaired to the lower 
 Daiiiilie in jHTson, onie inori', and entered the 
 Iiarian country wiili an overwhelming force. 
 Tliis time tlie subjugation was ctmiplete, and tb« 
 Romans cstahllshcil tliclrwciipation of the coun- 
 tn' by the founding of colonies and th" building 
 of roads. Dacia was now made a Roman prov- 
 ince, and ' ' the language of the Empire became. 
 
 CG9 
 
 ill 
 
 •■•i; 
 
PACIA. 
 
 DALRIADA. 
 
 and to tUi day lubttantUlIy tenuklni, the luk- 
 tional toD^e of the inhabitant*. ... Of the 
 Dadan province, the laat acquired and the flnt 
 to be Runendered of the Roman poneaions, if 
 we except lome transient occupationi, aoon to be 
 commemorated, in the East, not many traces 
 DOW exist: but even these may suffice to maric 
 the moulding power of Roman civilization. . . . 
 The accents of the Roman tongue still echo In 
 the valleys of Hungary and Wallachia: the de- 
 scendants of the Daclans at the present day 
 repudiate the appellation of Wftllachs, or stran- 
 
 Sers. ami still claim the Danu- of Romdni. — C. 
 lerivale. Hint, of tlu Roman*, eh. 63, 
 A. D. 270.— Given up to the Gothi. See 
 O0T118: A. D, 268-270. 
 
 4th Century.— Conquest by the Hunt. See 
 Goths (Visiooths): A. D. 876, and Huns: A. D. 
 433-4.'i3. 
 6th Century.— Occupied by the Avars. See 
 
 AVAKS. 
 
 Modern history. See Balkan asd Danubian 
 
 STATEa 
 
 DACOITS. See Dakoits. 
 
 DACOTAS. See Amehica!« Aborigines: 
 8ioi'.\.N Family, and Pawnee (Caddoan) 
 Family. 
 
 DiECSASTAN, Battle of.— Fought, A. D. 
 603, twtween the Northumbrians iinii the Scots 
 of Dalriada, the army of the latter Iwlng almost 
 wholly de8tr(>ytd. 
 
 DAGOBERT I., King of the Franks (Neus- 
 trU), A. D. «2»MW!*; (Austrasiai, 622-633: 
 
 (Burarundy), 63iM{:W Dagobert II., King of 
 
 the Franks (Austrasia), A. I>. 673-678 
 
 Dagobert II!,, King of the Franks (Neustria 
 andSurgTindy), A. I). 711-715. 
 
 OAHIS, The, See Balkan and D.kncbian 
 Stai-ks. 14t»-1»tii Centi'Uies (Servia). 
 
 DAHLGREN, Admiral John A.— Siege of 
 Charleston. See I'NiTEn States ok Am. : A. I). 
 
 IWW (.IlLY, ilUll .\l"(lU8T— DECKMBKH: S. t'ARO- 
 LISA). 
 
 DAHLGREN, Ulric— Raid to Richmond. 
 See Uniteo States of Am.: A. D. IStW (I'eii- 
 RCAKY— March : Virginia). 
 
 DAHOMEY. Tin- African kingdom of Da- 
 hoiuiv was siilijuu'iilcd liy tlic Fn-mh in l'<l(2-t, 
 the king o.xilid tii .Martii'iiiiuc. ami the country 
 ori?anl/.c<l milcr tin- name of "the Colony lif 
 PalKMiifV .111(1 l>ei>enticnci<*M." 
 
 DAKOITS. - DAKOITEE, - The I>ak lits 
 of Imiia. wliii were suppresscil siMin after the 
 Tliuv'i. were ■ niljlicrs by profewidn. ami even 
 by liirlli " Dakuitee "was eslabli^ahiil npon a 
 liriiiul liasis of lienMlltnry ea.Hle, and was for the 
 must p;irt an organic slate of siH'iety. I have 
 always folliiwwl the trade of mv ani'esturs, 
 l>akiiit^e.' said Luklia. a notnl f>akiiit. who 
 8iil)'u'(|iiently iH'came approver." The hunting 
 d'lwii of tile Dakoits was begim in lM.'|x. under 
 th<' I lirectii m of Colonel Sleeman. who had alreaily 
 hunted dnnn the Th\ig8.—.I \V. Kaye, The Ail- 
 minintr.itin)! nf the Kmt IniUn (\>., pt. 3. ek. 8. 
 
 DAKOTA, North and South : A. D. 1803.— 
 Embraced in the Louisiana Purchase. See 
 Lori-iANA A r» i:»H-lHii8. 
 
 A 
 sion, to SSi-zSiga.., .. ,..vwu..u. 
 Territories. Ser Wisconsin : K. D. iNitvi^m^. 
 
 A. D. 1889.— Admission to tb* Union. See 
 Uniteu States OF Am A I> lH8V-lMUtl. 
 
 \.. D. 1814-18^8.— Partly joined, in succea- 
 
 ■n, to Mi-:*Tigan, Wistoaiin, and Iowa 
 
 670 
 
 OAKOTAS. See Axebicah ABoaiam 
 610DA11 Family and Pawxxk (Caddoan) Faiiii 
 
 DALAI LAMA. See LaitAa 
 
 OALCASSIANS. — The people of Nor 
 Munster figure prominently under that name 
 early Irish history.— T. Moore, Hiit. of InUin 
 V. 2. 
 
 DALHOUSIE, Lord, The India admini 
 tration of^ See India: A. D. 184&-1849' im 
 ri6; and 1852. 
 
 JALMATIA — "The nai row strip of land ( 
 the eastern side of the Hadriatic on whirh tl 
 name of Dalmatla lias settled down has a bistoi 
 which is strikingly analogous to Its scener\-. 
 As the cultivation and civilization of the lai 
 lit.. patches, as harbours and cities alterna 
 witii oarren hills, so Dalmatla has plaved a pa 
 in history only bv flu and starts. This litfi 
 kind of history goes on from the days of Gre« 
 colonies and IlTyrian piracy to the lit vi 
 between Italv and Austria. But of conunuoi 
 history, steadily influencing the coutae of tb 
 world 8 progress, Dalmatia has none to show. "- 
 E. A. Freeman. Sulgeet and Neighbour Lamlt, 
 Venice, pp. 85-S7. 
 
 Also in : T. O. Jackson, Dalmatia. the ^imi 
 nero and htria, ek. 1-2.— Sec. also. iLLYKicr 
 op the Romans: Salona: and Balkan ax 
 Dancbian Stated 
 
 6th-7th Centuries : Slavonic occupation. S« 
 Slavonic Peoples: 6th and 7th Ckntihie! 
 also, Balkan and D.anubian States: 7tii Ce.\ 
 
 TVHV. 
 
 A. D. 944.— Beginning of Venetian Coo 
 quest. See Venice: A. D. 810-961. 
 
 A. D. II03.— Conquest by the king of Has 
 gary. See Hinoary: A. 1). 972-1114 
 
 lAth Century,— Conquest from the Venetian 
 by Louis the Great of Hungary, SMe Hex 
 GARY: A. D. 1301-1442. 
 
 i6th Century.— The Uscocka. See I'mdcKi 
 
 A. D. 1604-1696.- Conquests by the Vent 
 tians. See Tihkb: A. D. 16(i4-ltt»! 
 
 A. D. 1699.— Ceasionin great part toVenici 
 by the Turks. Si'c Hinoary : Iftsl !iii)9. 
 
 A. D. 1797.— Acquisition by Auv;ria. S(i 
 France: A. I). 1797 (May— Octohkui 
 
 A. D. 1805.— Ceded by Austria to the kinr 
 dor., of Italy. S<'e Germany: A. D Isii.VlS!* 
 
 A. D. 1809.— Incorporated in the Illyriai 
 Provinces of Napoleon. SecOKUMAXV A I» 
 1809 (.liLY— September). 
 
 A. D. 1814.— Restored to Austria.— Ausir.i 
 recovered iM>sses8ion of Dalmatia niuhr lliear 
 nmgements of the (Ungreas of Vienna. 
 -♦ 
 
 DALRIADA.— "Adl8trlrtforniin>rllieti"nh 
 oast corner of Ireland and comprising llie iinrit 
 half of tlie county of Antrim, was called Hal 
 riada. It appears to have Ix-en one of the carlicsl 
 Si'ttlrmcnts of the Scots among the Piets of I Isiei 
 and to have derived Its name from Its supiHued 
 founder Calrbre. siimametl Hlghfli«<la <ir Hiaila. 
 It lay exactly opposite the peninsula nf Kinty-f: 
 and from this Irish district the coir y ■•( sinis, 
 which was already Christian [flftli iintury] 
 pussMl over and settle<l In Kintyre iiml in liie 
 Island of Isla" — estnlilishlng a Sioii h Piilriiula. 
 — W. F. Skene. I'tltir Seotl.iml. Iii 1, M -i- 
 Fur suuie tti'i'tiunl uf (he Scotch Dalrituia, Ht) 
 Sco'ii.AM); 7th Cknti RV. 
 
 DAMARALAND. See QEKMtN 8UITH 
 "F.ST Al nil A. 
 
DAMASCUS. 
 
 DAMASCUS, Kingdom of.— The kingdom 
 ofDunaicut, or " Armm of DunMcui" as it wm 
 entitled, waf formed loon after that Syrian region 
 thiew off the yoke of dependence which David 
 ■nd Solomon had impoaixl upon it. "Rezon, 
 the outlaw, waa ita founder. Hader, or Had"^, 
 ud Rimmon, were the chief divinities of the - ace, 
 ud from them the line of iu kii^gs derived their 
 names,— Hadad, Ben-hadad, Hadad-czer, Tab- 
 rimmon."— Dean Stanley, LeeU. on the Hut. of 
 ihiJeveuh CAiiiTA,fcc<. 83.— "Though frequently 
 captured and plundered in succeeding centuries 
 tif Egypt >i>d Assyria, neither of those nations 
 WW able to hold it long in subjection because of 
 the other. It was probably a temporary repulse 
 of the Assyrians, under Shalmaneaer II., by the 
 Dtmasceoe general Naaman to which reference 
 U made in 2 Kings v. 1 : 'by him the Lord had 
 giren deliverance unto Syria.' . . . After the 
 
 Seat conquerors of Egypt and Asia, each in his 
 y, bad captured ana plundered Damascus, it 
 was taken without resistance by Parmenio for 
 Aleiuider the Great [B. C. 3331. In it Pompey 
 ipent the proudest year of his life, 64 B. C, dis- 
 tributiDg at his pleasure the thrones of the East 
 to the vassals of Rome. Cleopatra had received 
 the city as a love-gift from Mark Antony, and 
 Tilxrius had bestowed It upon Herod tlit Great, 
 hcfiire Aretiis of Petra, the father of the princess 
 whom HcrtMl Antlpas divorced for Ilerodias' sake, 
 uid the ruler whose officers watched the city to 
 prevent the escape of Paul, made it, we know 
 not how, a part of his dominions." — W. B. 
 Wright, Ancient Citiei, eh. 7, 
 
 A. D, 634.— Conquest by the Arabs. See 
 .Mahometan Cokcjuest: A. D. 6;J3-83«. 
 
 A. D. 661.— Becomes the seat of the Cali- 
 phate. See Mahometan CoxQiEST: A I> 661 
 
 A. D. 763,— The Caliphate transferred to 
 Bagdad. See Mahometan Conoiest; A V) 
 
 :83. 
 
 A. D. 1148-1317.— Capital of the Ataber 
 and the Ayoubite sultana. Sec Saladin, Tub 
 EiiriKE or. 
 
 A. D, 1401.— Sack and massacre by Timour. 
 S»e TiMotK. 
 
 A D. 183a.— Capture by Mehemed Ali. 
 SeeTvuKs: A. D. 1831-lHlO. 
 
 DAMASUS 11,, Pope, A. D. 1W8. July to 
 August. 
 
 DAMIETTA: A. D. iaio-i320,-SieKe, 
 uptute and surrender by the Crusaders. See 
 CRfSADES; A. D. 1216-1229. 
 
 A D. 1249-1250.— Capture and loss by Saint 
 Louis. 8<'e ("RtdAPEK: A. D. ! 'i>'-12.'i4. 
 
 A. 0. 1353.— Destruction by ■ e Mamelukes. 
 -■'Two years after llie delivi ice of the kiug 
 [Stint Louis], and whilst he >s still in Pales- 
 tine, the Mamelukes, fearing iresh invasion of 
 the Franks, in order U) previ^nt their enemies 
 from taking Damietta and fortifying themselves 
 In that city, entirely destroyed It. Some years 
 »ft«f, iw iheir fears were not yet removed, and 
 tie lecond crusade of Louis IX spread fresh 
 «l»nn« throughout the East, Me Egyptians 
 Miued immense heaps of stone to be cast into 
 the mouth of the Nile, in order tlmt the Christian 
 flffU might not be able to sail up •!»• riv?r 
 since that period a new DamietU has been built 
 •t • unall dUtance from the site of the former 
 
 t.;:LL?!'P'»»»"'' J**' "/**« 0"*i*». a*. i4. 
 
 DAMNONIA. See Bkitaoi ; flra Cbmtcbt. 
 
 DANTZIC. 
 
 DAMNONII. OR DAMNII, The. See 
 
 Dumoini. 
 
 -PAMOISEL. — DAMOISELLB. - DON- 
 ZELLO.— "In medisval Latin 'domicella' is 
 used for the unmarried d jghtcr of a prince or 
 noble, and 'domlcellus,' contracted from dom- 
 nicellus, the diminutive of 'dominus,' for the 
 ^' Thf« words are the forerunners of the old 
 French 'dimoisel ' in the masculine, and 'damoi- 
 relle in the feminine gender. Froissart calls 
 Richard, prince of Wales, son of Edward: Me 
 ietine damoUil Richart.' In Romance the word 
 is todiflerently damoisel' and 'danzel,' in Ital- 
 ton donzello. All of these are evidently titles 
 under the same notion as that of child and 
 
 enfant, of which the idea belongs to the knighu 
 of an eariier period."— R T. Hampson, Oriainei 
 Putneia, p. 328. 
 
 S^S^iS^' '^''•- 8eeAKooa.-AROOLi8. 
 ,0?-**'^'*'° PLAGUE. See Plaoce, A. D. 
 1374. 
 
 DANDRlDGE.EnKarementat. See United 
 States of Am. : A. D. 1863-1864 (Decembeb- 
 APRn, : Tennessee— Mississippi). 
 
 DANEGELD, The,— "A tax of two shillings 
 on the hide of land, originally levied as tribute to 
 the Danes under Ethelred, but continued [even 
 under the Plantagenete], like the income tax. as 
 a convenient ordinary resource."- W. Stubbs 
 Tht Ekirly PlanUigent' ,, p. 53.— See England- 
 A. D. »79-1016. 
 
 T^?d^Ahf^°^' °^ danelaga, or 
 
 DANELAU.— The district in England held by 
 the Danes after their treaty with Alfred the 
 Great, extending south Ui the Thames, the Lea 
 and the Ousc ; north to the Tyne : W" st of the 
 mountain district of Yorkshire, Westmorelaml 
 and Cumberland. "Over all this n-gion the 
 traces of their colonization abound in the vil- 
 lages whose names end in by, the Scandinavian 
 equivalent of the English tun or ham."— \V 
 Stubbs, Cnut. HiH.ijfing., ch. 7, »ect. 77.— See 
 also, England: A. D. 853-880. 
 
 DANES AS VIKINGS. 
 mans.— Northmen. 
 
 In England. See England: A. D. 85,'>-880 
 97»-10l6. and 1016-1042; also Normans A D 
 787-880. 
 
 In Ireland. Sec Ireland: 9th-10tii Cen- 
 turies. 
 
 See, also, Nor- 
 
 DANITES, The, See Mohmoni9.m: A. D 
 1830-1846. 
 
 DANTE AND THE FACTIONS OF 
 FLORENCE. See Florence: A. I). 1'>«.5- 
 1300: and 1301-131:1. 
 
 DANTON AND THE FRENCH REVO- 
 LUTION. SeeFiiAXrE: A. D. 1791 (Octoiieh), 
 to 1793-1794 (November— JtsE). 
 
 DANTZIC: In the Hanteatic League. See 
 Hansa TowNf. 
 
 A. D. 1577.— Submission to the king; of Po- 
 land. SeePoLA.ND; .v. D H74-l,'(P'l. 
 
 A. D. 1793.— Acquisition by Prutaio. See 
 Poland: A. U. 1793-1796. 
 
 A. D. i8a6'i8o7.— Siege and capture by the 
 French. See Obkuany: A. D. 1807 (Febkuaut 
 
 — JCSK). 
 
 A D. 1807.— Declared a free state. See 
 Germany: A. D. 1807 (June- Jclt). 
 
 A. D, 1813.— Siege and capture by the At- 
 liea. See Germany: .\ I) 1813 (Octobkr— 
 Decimiier). 
 
 C71 
 
DAKA. 
 
 DEBT. 
 
 DARA.— One of the capitals of the Parthian 
 klnits, the site of which has not been identified. 
 
 DARA, Battle of (A. D. 529). See Pe^isia: 
 A. D. 228-827. 
 
 DARDANIANS OF THE TROAD. Soe 
 Tiioja: and Asia Minor: The Oreee Coloxies; 
 also, Amohites. 
 
 DARIEN, The lathmui of. See Panama. 
 
 The Scottish colony. Sec Scotland: A. D. 
 169.'V-lflO». 
 
 DARINI, The. See Ireland, Trides of 
 KARi.Y Celtic iNnABiTANTs. 
 
 DARIUS, King of Persia, B C. .521-4X6 
 
 Darius II., n r. 4>.V4(r) Darius III. 
 
 (Codomannus), B. C. 3:i(i-:!:)l. 
 
 DARK AGES, The. The historical period, 
 sooalled, is neiirly iilriitical with that named the 
 Middle Ai:is, Imt sliorlcr in dtirutiim. perhaps, 
 by a century or two. .Sc Middlk AiiEs. 
 'DARNL'EY, Lord, The murder of. See 
 Scotland: A D. l.Wl-l.W^ 
 
 DARTMOUTH COLLEGE and the Dart- 
 mouth College Case. See Ediiation, iloo- 
 EitN : Amkuil'a: A. I). 1754-1769. 
 
 DAR-UL-ISLAM AND DAR-UL-HARB. 
 — "Tlie Korin diyide.i the world into two 
 portions, the House of Islam, Par-ullslam. and 
 the House of War, Dnr-ul-harh. It has jienorally 
 been represented by Western writers on the ill- 
 stitutes of Jlaliomc'tanism and on the habits of 
 Maliometan nations, that the Darul-harb, the 
 House of War, comprises all lands of the nds- 
 beliercrs. . , . There is even a widely-sprciid 
 idea among supertieiiil talkers and writers that 
 the holy hostility, the Jehad [or Dhihad] of 
 Mussulmans aeanist mm-Mussulmaus is not 
 limited to warfare l>etween nation and nation; 
 but that ' it is a part of the religion of ,viry 
 Maliometan to kill as many Christians :is pos- 
 sible, and that by roimting up a certain num- 
 Ixr killed, they think themselves seiure of 
 heaven.' But careful historicul investigators, 
 :ind statesnu II long practically conversant with 
 Mahometan popuhitiims have exposed the fallacy 
 of su"h charges against those who hold the 
 creed of Isliim. ... A country which is under 
 Christian rulers, but in which" Mahometans .are 
 idloHcd free pnifessiou of tluir faith, and peace- 
 aide e.\ercise of their ritu:d, is not a portion of 
 the Housi'of War, of the Dar-ulharb; and there 
 is no religious duty of warfare, no .Iihad. 011 the 
 jiart of true Mussulmans against such a stativ 
 'i'his has lieen of late years fcirnially lietennini'd 
 liy tlie chief authorities in Mahonu'tan law with 
 rrsiiect to British India." — f<ir E. S. Creasy, 
 ///»r. ofthf Otr>m,in Turku, eh. C. 
 
 DASTAGERD.— The favorite residi' of 
 
 tlie last great Persian king ancl concpnror. Clios- 
 rois (A. I). 5lK)-fl28), was fi.xed at Dastagenl, 
 ■ r .Vrtemita, sixty miles nortli of Ctcsiphon, 
 : ml east of the Tigris. His palaces and pleiLsure 
 grounds were of extraordinarj- magnitleenee. — 
 E. (lililioiL Dfclinf and Fall nf the Roman Km- 
 }»■;. ,-h. 46. 
 
 DASYUS. See India: The aroriuinal in- 
 
 HAIUTANTS. 
 
 DAUPHINS OF FRANCE.— DAU- 
 
 PHINE.— In 1340, Philip VI., or Philip de 
 Valois, of Prance, nei|Uired by punhase from 
 IIuiiiIm'iI II , rount of Vienne, iiiu sovereignty 
 of the pn>vince of Daupbine. TIds principalily 
 Incniue from that time the appanage of the 
 eldest sons of the kings of France and gave them 
 
 their nMuIlar name or title nf the Daii] 
 The title in question had been borne b 
 courts of Vienne (in Dauphin^), "on ac 
 of ihe dolphin which they carried uiion 
 helmets and on their armorial liearin^s. 
 De Bonnechose, Iliit. of France, bk. 2, eh. 2 
 note. 
 
 Also in; E. Smedley, ITitt. of Fraim, 
 eh. 9. — See, also, Bl'ro'chdt: A. D 1127- 
 
 DAVENPORT, John, and the foundii 
 New Haren Colony. See CoNNt ■ tc ct 
 16»<, and 1639. 
 
 DAVID, King of Israel and Judah, 
 Jews: The Kingdoms of I8R.\el A.sn Ji 
 and Jeri'salem: Con<jl'E8T. ic. . D«Ti 
 King of Scotland, A. D. 1124-11.'>:1 I 
 II., 1329-1370. 
 
 DAVIS, Jefferson.— Election to the F 
 dency of the rebellious " Confederate Sta 
 S<"e United States of Am.: .\. I). l(«!i 1 
 
 RCART) Flight and capture. Sr In 
 
 St.\tes OP .\M. : A. I). 186.5 (Apuii.— Mwi 
 
 DAVOUT, Marshal, Campaigns of 
 Germany: A D. 1806 (OcronKni: isikj. 
 18<>7 (Feiiriakv — JfNEl; also 1!ism.\ a 
 1812; and Germany: A. D. 1812-1X13; 
 (.\fnfST), (October— December). 
 
 DAY OF BARRICADES, The. 
 France: A. D. 1.V4-1.5S9. 
 
 DAY OF DUPES, The, .S . Ftiance: . 
 1630-1632. 
 
 DAY OF THE SECTIONS, The, 
 Fr\sce: a. I). 179.') (OiTor.KU— Df.i tMiif 
 
 DAY OF THE SPURS, ^ee I..1 in 
 Battle ok. 
 
 DAYAKS, The. Ssce Boicmo 
 
 DEAK, Francis, and Hungarian nat 
 ality. iS'e .\i iTiiiA : A. D. IWiil-lMir. 
 
 DEAN FOREST.— Tlie •■H.y;il Fore; 
 Di^an," situated in the so«th\ ,«tini iiTiL-Iio 
 county of Gloucester, Eiiglaiid. I«i««u 
 Severn and the Wye, Is still so .xteiisivi' ili 
 covers some 23, (HK) acres, though iiiinli nil 
 from its original dimensions Its o.iks ;ei 
 Iron mines have played important parts in Bi 
 history. The latter were worked hy tli. Hni 
 and still give emph rment to a lar^'e i;iimiIi 
 miners. The fonner wen' thnuglit to It- w 
 si'niial to the naval power of Euirlan I tl1.11 
 destruction of the Forest is s;iifi to iLive Imi 
 of tlie special duties ]irescrilieil to ilii. Sp: 
 Armada. — J. C. Brown. Fini'tA •■/ Hi.i'. 
 
 DEANE, Silas, and the American trai 
 tions with Beaumarchais in France. 
 Unite.) St.\tes OF -Vm. : .\. D 177ii-I7Ts 
 
 DEARBORN, General Henry, and the' 
 of i8i>. See United St atis ok .\m : .\ 
 1812 (.it'NE — OcTonER). (Sei'Tkmiii k— No 
 
 IIERI; .V. I>, 1813 (OlTOUER— XOVKMIIKR) 
 
 DEBRECZIN, Battle of ii849>. S.i' 
 thia: A. I). 1848-1M49 
 
 DEBT, Laws concerning: Ancient Gi 
 
 — At Athens, in the time of Solon (ilili nnl 
 B. C.) the Thetes— "the cultivating' tea 
 metayers and small proprietoiN of tlie ci" 
 . . . are exhibiteil as weii:lied down In 
 and dependence, and driven in lar.i' iiin 
 out of a state of freedom into slavery - 
 whole mass of them iwe are toMi h. in.' in 
 to the rich, who were proprietor- oi \'w sr- 
 part of the soil. They li:id litlier liorr 
 money for their own neii'ssltii>, 1 r tley I 
 the lauds of the rich as di |n udeiil u niiuts. 
 
 672 
 
 ■ _ 
 
Sr.' Ftiante: ad 
 
 DEBT. 
 
 big a stipulated portion of the produce, and in 
 thb capacity th^r were largely in arrear. All 
 the calamitoua effects were here seen of the old 
 binh law of debtor and creditor — once prevalent 
 In Greece, Italy, Asia, and a large portfcn of tlie 
 worfd— combined with the recognition of slavery 
 u a legitimate status, and of the right of one man 
 10 sell himself as well as that of another man to 
 buy him. Every debtor unable to fulfil his con- 
 iract was liable to bo adjudged as the slave of his 
 creditor, untilhecouldflndmcanseitherof paying 
 it or worlting it out ; and uot only he himself, 
 but his minor sons and unmarried daughters and 
 sisters also, whom the law gave him the power 
 of selling. The poor man thus borrowed upon 
 the security of his body (to translate literally the 
 Greek phrase) and upon that of the persons in 
 bU family. So severely had these oppressive con- 
 tracts been enforced, that many debtors had 
 been reduced from freedom to sfavery in Attica 
 itself.— many others had been sold for expor- 
 tation, — and some had only hitherto preserved 
 their own fi-eedom by sefling their children. 
 . . . T" their relief Solon's first measure, the 
 memoraMe Seisachtheia, shaking off of burthens, 
 was (liri'Cte'" The relief whicli it alTorded was 
 compltti' r d immediate. It cancelled at once 
 all those .-ontracts in which the debtor had 
 bomiwi'<l on the security either of lii>: person or 
 of his land: it forlmde all future loanj or con- 
 tracts in which the person of the debtor was 
 pledged as security : it deprived the creditor in 
 future of all power to imprison, or enslave, or 
 extort work from, his debtor, and c inflned him 
 tonn (ffcctive judgment at law authorizing the 
 siizun' I pf tlie pniperty of the latter. It swept off 
 all ihc numerous mortgage pillars from the landed 
 pnijiirtiis in Attica. Icivinc the laud free from 
 all p;ist claims. It liberated and restored to their 
 full ritrhts all debtors actually in slavery imder 
 previous li^'al adjudication: and it even provided 
 the means (we do not know hnw) of re-purchas- 
 ins in foreign lands, and bringine back to a 
 rene'ved life of liberty in Attica, maiiy insolvents 
 who had l)een sold for expt)rtatiiin. " \nd while 
 S.i|on for'oad every Athenian to pledge or sell 
 his own [HTson into slavery, he tcnik a step 
 farther in the same direction by forbidding him 
 to pKil^re (ir sell his son, his "d .ughter, or an 
 luira.irrifu sister under his tutel,i;,'e — cxceptini; 
 only ihi' case in which either of tlie latter might be 
 detected in unchastity. . . . One thing is never to 
 be forgotten in ri'gurd to this ineaiiure, combined 
 with Ilic concurrent amendments introduced by 
 •Solon in the law — it settled finally the question 
 10 which it referred. Never again do we hear 
 of the law of debtor and creditor as disturbing 
 .Athenian tranquility. The general sentiment 
 which grew up at Athens, under the Solonian 
 monej- law and under the democratical govern- 
 ment, was one of high respect for the simctity of 
 contnuts. . . . There can be little doubt tha 
 ■andrr the Solonian law, which enabled th. 
 creditor to seize the property of his debtor, but 
 g»vehim no power ovjr the person, the sysU'm 
 jf money-lending assumed a more beneficial 
 character'— O. Grote, Uitt. of Oretet, pt. 2 eh 
 
 Anciea: Rom*n.— ' The hold of the cre<iitor 
 »M on the person of the debtor. The obliga- 
 Uon of a debt was a tying up or binding, or bond- 
 «ge, of the person: the payment was a solu- 
 Uoo, a loosing or release of the person from that 
 « ^_ 
 
 01 
 
 DEBT. 
 
 bondage. The property of the debtor was not a 
 ple^Vre for the debt. It could be made so by 
 »ri'- ■' agreement, though in the earliest law 
 .11 ly oy transferring It at once to the ownersliip 
 (■ * le creditor. Without such special agree- 
 mciit, the creditor whose debtor failed to pay 
 could not touch his property. Even when the 
 debtor had been prosecuted and condemned to 
 pay, if he still fai'od, the creditor could not 
 touch his property. He could seize his person — 
 I speak now of the early law, in the first cen- 
 turies of the republic— and after holding him 
 in rigorous confinement for sixty days with 
 opportunities, however, either to pay himself or 
 get somebody to pay for him. if payment still 
 failed, he could sell him as a T-ve, or put 
 him to death; if there were several creditors, 
 they could cut his body into pieces and divide 
 It among them. This extreme severity was 
 afterward softened; but the principle remained 
 long unchanged, that the hold of the creditor 
 was on the (lerson of the debtor. If the debtor 
 obstinately and to the last refuseil to surren- 
 der his property, the creditor could not touch 
 It. —J. Hadley, Introd. to Roman Late, Uet 10 
 
 ™"J?"^^„'^* *"' ■"" "' ""« Samn'te war 
 IB. L. d26-304J, but in what year is unceriain 
 there was passed that famous law which prol 
 hihited personal slavery for debt. >'o creditor 
 might for the future attach the person of his 
 debtor, but he might only seize his property 
 and all those whose pe"rsonal freedom was 
 pledged for their debts (nexi), were released 
 from their liability, if they could swear tlmt they 
 had propertj- enough to meet their creditor's 
 i-emands. It does not appear that this great 
 alteration in the law was the work of any tribune 
 or that it arose out of any general or deliberate 
 desire to soften the severity of the ancient prac- 
 tice. It was occasioned, we are told, by one 
 scvndnlous instance of abuse of power on the 
 pa-c of a creditor. ... But although personal 
 slavery ft.r debt was thus done away with, yet 
 the cooseouences of insolvency were much more 
 serious at Rome than they arc in modem Europe. 
 He whose property had once lieen made over to 
 his crcditore by the prstor's sentence, liecame 
 ipso facto, infamous; he lost his trilie. and with 
 it all his political rights; and the forfeiture was 
 irrevocable, even though he might afterwards 
 pay his debts to the full; nor was it even in the 
 power of the cen.sors to replace him on the ndlof 
 citizens. So sacred a thing did credit appear in 
 the eyes of the Romans."— T. Arnold, Ilut of 
 Hume. eh. 83 (r. 2). ' 
 
 In England.—" Debt has Iieen regarded as a 
 crime by primitive society in every part of the 
 world. In Palestine, as fn l^lme, the creditor 
 had power over the person of he debtor, and mis- 
 fortune was commonly treated with a severity 
 which was not always awarded to crime [Levit 
 XXV., 89-11, and 2 Kings iv., 1]. In this 
 country [England] the same system was grad- 
 ually intnxiuceil in Plantagenet time*. The 
 creditor, who had been previously entitled to 
 seize the goods, or even the land of the debtor, 
 was at last authorised to seize his person. In 
 one sense, indeed, the Enelish law waa. in this 
 respect, more irrational tlian the cruel code of 
 the Jews, or the awful punishment [death and 
 dismemberment or slavery — Oibbon, ch. 44] 
 which the law of the Twelve Tables reserved 
 for debtors. In Palestine the creditor was, at 
 
 
 ^i 
 
 ■.\ 
 
 •-■ 
 
 .t. 
 
 
 Jfl 
 
 gj 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 if 
 
 Pi 
 
 tr. 
 
 4^ 
 
 f 
 
 & 
 
 * 
 
 m 
 
DEBT. 
 
 DEBT. 
 
 leatt, entitled to tue Mrrlce of the debtor or of 
 bU children, and the slave had the prospect of 
 an Insolvent Debtor's Relief Act in the 8ab- 
 1>atical year. Even the law of the Twelve 
 Tables allowed the creditors to sell the debtor 
 into slavery, instead of resorting to the horrible 
 alternative of partitioning his body. But in 
 England the creditors had nn such choice. They 
 had nothing to do but to throw the debtor into 
 prison ; ancf by his imprisonment deprive them- 
 selves of the only chance of his earning money 
 to pay their debts. A law of this kind was 
 intolerable to a commercUl people. The debtor 
 languished in gaol, the creditor failed to obtain 
 payment of his debt. When traiie increased in 
 Tudor times, the wits of legislators were exer- 
 cised in devising some expedient tor satisfying 
 the creditor without imprisoning tlie debtor. 
 The Chancellor was authorised to appoint com- 
 missioners enipowercil to lilvide the debtor's 
 property among the creiiitors. By an Act of 
 Anne the debtor who compile \ with the law was 
 releaseti from further liabll. /, and was prac- 
 tically enabled to commence life anew. In 1826, 
 a debtor was allowed to procure his own bank- 
 ruptcy; while in 1831, commissioners were ap- 
 pointed to carry out the arrangements which 
 had l)een previously conducted under the Court 
 of Chancery. The law of bankruptcy which 
 was thus gradually developed by the legislation 
 of three centuries only applie<l to persons in 
 trade. No one who was not a trader could 
 become a bankrupt ; the onlinary debtor became 
 as a matter of course an insolvent, and p.<i8sed 
 under the insolvent laws. The statutes, more- 
 over, omitted to give any very plain definition 
 of a trailer. The distinction tx-twetn trader and 
 Don trader which had been gradually drawn by 
 the Courts was not hosed on any very clear prin- 
 ciple. A person who made bricks on his own 
 estate of his own clay was not a trailer; but a 
 person who bought the clay and then made 
 the bricks was a trader. Famurs, again, were 
 exempt from the Imnkrupti y law ; but f-;;- erg 
 who purchased cattle fur .sale at a profit ■ re 
 liable to it. The possibility, moreover, of a 
 trader iM'ing maile a bankrupt depended 0:1 the 
 sire of his nusiness. A petitioning crediior in 
 bankruptcy wa.s reijuireil ti> hv a jwrson to whom 
 at least £100 was due; if two (lersons petitionetl, 
 their debts were required to aniount to £150; if 
 more tlian two persons [wtltioneil, to S'HW). A 
 small shopkeeper, therefore, who could not hope 
 to obtain credit for £800, £150, or £100. could 
 not lieiome a bankrupt: he was forceil to iM'come 
 su insolvent. The treatment of the ins<>lvent 
 was wlinlly dllTsTent from tliat of the bankrupt. 
 The liiiukruptcy law was founded on the prin- 
 ciple tlukt the goods and not the person of the 
 dibtor should be liable for the debt; the insol- 
 vency law enabled the person of the debtor to be 
 seized, but provided no machinery for obtaining 
 his gooda. ... Up to 1838 the first step in insol- 
 vency was the arrest of the debtor. Any person 
 who nude a deposition on oath that some other 
 person was in debt to him, could obtain his 
 arrest on what was known as ' mesne process. ' 
 The oath might possibly be untrue; the debt 
 .'itight nut *;c d-ac; tiic warmnt issued on the 
 sworn deposition as « matter of course. But, in 
 addition to the impriionnient nn mesne process, 
 the insolvent could be imprisoned for a further 
 period on what wu known as ' final process. ' 
 
 il ]mn 
 
 ImprlKnunent (» meme prooeia was the cou 
 which the creditor took to prevent the Highi 
 the debtor: imprisonment on final prooi'ss 1 
 the punishment which the Court awaniwi to 
 crime of debt. Such a system would have U 
 bad enough if the debtors' prisons had Wn « 
 managed. The actual condition of these prin 
 almost exceeds belief. Dickens, imleeil. I 
 made the story of a debtor's Imnri.si inrocnt 
 the Marshalsea familiar to a world of nwk 
 . . . The Act of 1818 had done somethlni; III m 
 gate the misery which the Uw occaslouiil 1 
 Court which was constituted by li nleiu 
 50,000 debtors in 18 years. But large numb 
 of persons were still detained in prisi^u forde 
 In 1827 nearly 6,000 persons were committeil 
 London alone for debt. The Common I.aw Co 
 missioners, reporting in 1830, decland that 1 
 loud and general complaints of the luw of ioj 
 veney were well foundeii; and CmtiTilium, 
 1838, introduced a bill to abolish iriipriM>nmi 
 for debt in all cases. The Lonls win nut p 
 pared for so complete a remedy ; thiy ilccliii 
 to aboluh imprisonment on final pruoesit. or 
 exempt from imprisonment on mesne prnce 
 persons who owed more than £20. iinii who i\ 
 almut to leave the country. Cottenhnm. ilis. 
 pointed at these amendments, decide' 
 enln^ his own hands by Institii -t 
 
 inquiry. He appointed a coinmi 
 which reported in 1840, and whiil 
 the abolition of imprisonment ou 
 and the union of bankruptcy iinil iiitil 
 In 1841, in 1843, in 1843, and m 1K44 (Otii'i.lu 
 introduced bills to carry out this ri pnrt T 
 bills of 1841. 1842, and 1843 were Inst. Tin t 
 of 1844 was not much more successful lirouc 
 am declared that debtors who refisiil t" J 
 close their property, who refusiil tu un*>« 
 questions about it, who refused to give it up. 
 who fraudulently made away with it, ;is will 
 debtors who hail been guilty of gniss t-xtnn 
 gance, deserved imprisimment. 11' intr»lui 
 an alternative bill giving tlir Court iIim riti"iia 
 power to imprison them. The Lnnls. In wilde: 
 by the contrary counsels of two .such gtvM la 
 yers as Cottenham and Brougham, iltiiiled 
 referring both bills to one Selii • {'cimmitti 
 The Committee preferred Br ,, sham's bi 
 amended it. and returned it to the ilousi- Tl 
 bill liecame ultimately law. It enaWwl !«i 
 private debtors and traders whose tlel 
 amounted to less than the sums named in t 
 Bankruptcy Acts to become l)ankrupls; «nd 
 abolished imprisonment in all cases wucri' t 
 debt did not exceed £20, '--S. Walpole, Htit 
 Bnq.from 1HI,5, th. 17 (c. 4). 
 
 In the United Stktet.— "In New York. I 
 the act of April 26, 1831, c. 300, ami which we 
 into operation on March 1st, 1832, arrest ai 
 imprisonment on civil prweas at law, and on ei 
 cution in equity founde<l upon contract, wi- 
 abolished. The provisio.] tmder the act was n 
 to apply to any perr-^n who should have lieen 
 non-resident of the state for a month prcoedii 
 (and even this exception was abolished by ti 
 act of April 25th, 1840); nor to pnMwdings 
 for a contempt to enforce civil remeiliis; nor 
 actions for fines and pcmiUies; t:-r '•'• -'■"' 
 founded in torts . . . nor on promises to marr 
 or for moneys collected by any public officer; 
 for misr';uduct or neglect in offlce, or in any pt 
 feuionai employment. The plaintiff, howe?« 
 
 074 
 
« 
 
 DEBT. 
 
 to tDj tult, or upon any judgment or decree, 
 m«T «pply to a ]udi;e for a warrant to arrest the 
 defendant, upon atlldavit stating a del)t or de- 
 mand due, to more than |30; and that the de- 
 fendant is about to remove property out of the 
 jurisdiction of the court, with intent to defraud 
 hia creditors ; or that he has property or rights 
 Id sction which he fraudulently conceals; or 
 public or corporate stock, money, or evidences of 
 
 to assign or dispose of his property, with Intent 
 to defraud his creditors ; or has fraudulently oon- 
 tracteil the debt, or incurre<l the obligation rc- 
 ipecting which the suit is brought. If the judge 
 (hall be satisfled, on due examination, of the 
 truth of the charge, he is to commit the debtor to 
 jail, unless he complies with certain prescribed 
 cnnilitlons or some one of them, and which arc 
 calculatcil for the security of the phiintilT's claim. 
 Xor is any execution against the Inxiy to l)e is- 
 «ue<l on justices' juilgments. except In cases 
 essentially the same with those above stated. 
 ... By the New York act of 1S46, c. l.'iO, the 
 defendant is liable for imprisonment as in actions 
 for wrong, if he Iw sued and judgment pass 
 against him in actions on contracts for moneys 
 leceivol liy him (and It (.pulies to all male per- 
 sons) in a fiduciary characti. The leirislature of 
 Masicicliusetts, in l^U anil lS4i. essentially nlxil- 
 Ishol arrest and imi'.risonmint for debt, unless on 
 pn«if that the debtor was alH)ut to abM-ond. As 
 early as 1790, the c institution of Pennsylvania 
 establUheil, as a fundament4il principle, that 
 debtors should not be continuiKl in prison after 
 •urreniler of their estates in the mixie to be pre- 
 scrilvd by law, unless in cases of a strong pre- 
 «iira|iii()ii of fmud. In February. 1819, the leg- 
 isbiure of that state exempted women from 
 arrest and imprisonment for debt : and this pro- 
 vision as to women was afterwards applied in 
 Xew York to all civil actions founded u|)on con- 
 tract. . . Fenialis were first exempted from 
 imprisonment for debt in Louisiana and Jlissis- 
 sippl ; and imprisonment for debt, in all cases fri'e 
 from fraud, is now abolisheil in each of those 
 states The commissioners in Pennsylvania, In 
 their report on the Civil Code, in January, 183.5, 
 reeommendeil that there l)e no arrest of the Inxiy 
 o( the debtor on mesne process, without an atll- 
 davit of the debt, and that the defendant was a 
 non-resident, or about to depart without leaving 
 sufficient property, except In cases of forve, 
 fraud, or deceit, vcrifletl by affidavit. This sug- 
 Mtion was carried Into effwt bv the act of the 
 leitislature of Pennsylvanlaof July 12th, 1842, en- 
 titini • An Act to abolish imprisonment for debt, 
 and to punish fraudulent debtors.' In Xew 
 Hanipshin'. imprisonment on mesne pnwess and 
 eiecuiion for debt existed under certain ciualirt- 
 catinris. until December 23, 1840, when it was 
 abolished hy statute, in cases of contract and 
 debts .lecrulng after the Brst of March, t*Jl. In 
 VennoHt, impriaonment ^)r debt, on contracts 
 made after first January, 1839. Is aboli.slied, as to 
 resident citizens, unless there be evidence that 
 they are about to abacond with their property: 
 so a!i>, !hp eiceptloa Iti Mississippi applies to 
 cases of torto, frsudi, and meditated conceal- 
 ment, or fraudulent disposition of property." 
 —J. Kent, Chmmetitaria on Amfrictm Lnir; 
 tt-h 0. W. Htlfim, Jr., ». 3 {Jovt-/iok).~-ln 
 
 lei 
 
 DECLARATION OF PARIS. 
 
 many (tate* the Constitution provides (A) that 
 there shall be no imprisonment for debt: Ind 
 C. 1. 22: Minn. C. 1, 12: Kan. C. B. Ru. !«• 
 Md. C. 3, 38; N.C. C. 1, 16; Mo. C. 2, 16; Tex. 
 C. 1, 18; Ore. C. 1, 19; Nev. C. 1. 14; 8. C. C 
 1, 20: Oa. C. 1, 1, 21; Ala. C. 1,21; Bliss. C. 1, 
 11 : Fla. C. Decln Rts. 15. (B) That there shall 
 be no imprisonment for debt (1) in any civil action 
 on mesne or final process, in seven states- C 
 1, 15: lo. C. 1, 19; Neb. C. 1, 20; Tenn. C. 1, 18: 
 Ark C. 2, 16; Cal. C. 1, 15; Ore. C. 1, 15; Ari*. 
 
 B. Rts 18. (2) In any action or judgment 
 founded upon contract, In three states: N. J C 
 1. 17: Mich. C. 6. 83; Wis. C. 1, 16. (C) In six, 
 that there shall be no Person imprisoned for debt 
 In any civil action when he has deli ered up 
 his property for the benefit of his creditore in the 
 manner prescribed by law: Vt. C. 2, 83; R I 
 
 C. 1, 11; Pa, C. 1, 16; III. C. a, 12; Ky. C. 13 
 19; Col, C, 2. 12, , , . But the above principles 
 are subject to the following exceptions in the 
 several states respectively: (1) a debtor may be 
 imprisoned in crimiunl actions: Tenn, So (2) for 
 the non-payment of fines or penalties imposed by 
 law: Mo. So (3) generally, In civil or criminal 
 actions, for fraud ; Vt, , R. I, , N. J. , Pa, , O. , Ind 
 111., Mich,, lo,. Mlim., Kan., Neb.. N, C Kv 
 Ark. Cal.. Ore, Nev.. C(d,, 8. C, Fla., Ariz! 
 And so. in two. the legislature bus power to pro- 
 vide for the puidshment of fraud ami for reueh- 
 iug property of the debtor concealed from his 
 creditors: Ga C. 1.2, 6; La. C, 223. So (4) ab- 
 sconding debtors iniiy l)e imprisoned : Ore. Or 
 del)toi-s ,',) 1:; cases of lilxd or slander: Nev. (6) 
 In civil cas.s of tort generally: Cal,, Col. (7) 
 In cases of malicious mischief": Cul. (8) Or of 
 breach of trust: Mich,, Ariz, (9) Or of moneys 
 collected by public officers, or in any professional 
 employment: Mich, Ariz,"— F. J, Stimson, Am. 
 Sl,itiite Lair : Digest of Const » anil Ciril PuUie 
 Statutes of all the States and Territories relating 
 to Persons and Proiierty, in force Jan. 1. 18x6 
 art. 8, 
 
 DECADI OF THE FRENCH REPUB- 
 LICAN CALENDAR. See Fh.\ncb. A D. 
 1793 COctobeh), The new republican calendar 
 
 DECAMISADOS, The. Sie Spaln: A D 
 1814-18'27, 
 
 DECATUR, Commodore Stephen.— Burn- 
 ing of the "Philadelphia." Sec B,m!ii.\rt 
 8t.\te8: a. D 1.80:1-180.5, , .In the War of 
 l8ia. Sec I'siTED States of Am. : A. D. 1812- 
 1813: 1814 
 
 DECCAN, The. See Lndia: The Name; 
 and Immiobatios and coNijrESTS or thb 
 Arvas 
 
 DECELIAN WAR, The, See Greece: 
 B, C, 413, 
 
 DECEMVIRS, The. See Rome: B. C. 431- 
 449. 
 
 DECIUS: Roman Emperor. A. D. 249-2.M 
 
 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 
 (American). See I'sited States of Am, : A, D. 
 1776 (Jancary— Juke), and (Jilt): also, Inde- 
 
 PENDKNTK IIaI.I., 
 
 DECLARATION OF PARIS, The.— "At 
 
 the Congress of Paris in 1856. subsequently to 
 the conclusiion of the treaty, which eudtdlhe 
 Crimean war [see RrssiA: "A. D, 18.%4-1856]. s 
 declantlon of principles was signed on April 
 16th, by the plenipotentiaries of all the powers 
 represented there, wliich contained four articlaa. 
 
 IrtlP 
 
 ■t j»l 
 
 W' 
 
 
 •#i 
 
 675 
 
 t 
 
^§ 
 
 V:i 
 
 DSCLARATION OF PARIS. 
 
 'Vint. PriTsteerinc li uid remain* aboliahed. 
 BecoDd, The neutnl Sag ooren enemiea' soodi, 
 with the exception of cootmband of war. Thiid, 
 Neutral KOodi, except of contraband of war, are 
 not liable to capture under an enemy's flas. 
 Fburth, Blockades, to be binding, must be 
 effective — that is to say, maintained by a force 
 really sufflcient to prevent access to the coast of 
 the enemv. ' The adherence of other powers was 
 requested to these principles," and all joined in 
 signing It except the United States. Spain, and 
 Mexico. The objection on the part of the United 
 States was stated in a circular letter bv Mr. 
 Marcy, then Secretary of State, w'-'> •' maintained 
 that the right to reaort to privateers la as incon- 
 testable as any other riebt appertaining to bel- 
 ligerents: and reasoned that the effect of the 
 decbration would be to increase the maritime 
 preponderance of Oreat Britain and France, with- 
 out even lieneflting the general cause of civiliza- 
 tion; while, if public ships retained the right of 
 capturing private property, the United Sutes, 
 which had nt that time a large mercantile marine 
 and a comparatively small navy, would be ile- 
 
 Srivedof allmeansofreUlUtion' . . . The Presl- 
 ent proposes, therefore [wrote .Mr. Marcv] to 
 add to the Drst pro{ioaltinn oontainiil In the di-rla- 
 ration of the Congress of Paris the following 
 words: 'and that the private property of the 
 subjects and citizens of a belligerent on the high 
 aeas shall be exempted from seii .r. by public 
 armed vessels of the other belligerent, except It 
 be contraban<l. ' . . . Among the minor stati-s of 
 Europe there was complete unanimity ami a 
 gem>ral readiness to aceept our ameniimrnt to 
 the nilo ': but England 'ippiKKsl. and the of- 
 fered smrndraent «•«« sulme<|uently withdrawn. 
 "Events . . . have Khown that . . . imrnfusal 
 to acrept the Derlnrntinn of Paris has brought 
 the world nearer to the principle* which we pro- 
 poseti, which lieoime known as the ' .Marey 
 amendment for the Hlmlitlon of war ag«ln»t pri- 
 vate property on the seas.'"— E. Schuyler, 
 AmertMn IHnnmnfg, eh. T. 
 
 Also tn : F. Wharton, Digttl nf llu- Interna- 
 tinnal Mw nf Iht {' .S., eh. 17, ifel »42 (r 8).— 
 H. Adams. llUtorieal K—ay; eh. 6. — See. also, 
 
 PlUVATBIIUI. 
 
 DECLARATION 0<' RIGHTS. See Enq. 
 l.AMi; A. I>. HW»(.Iani AHV — Fkiiki AKVi. al*) 
 Viiikima: .K. I> ITTtl. 
 
 DECLARATION OF THE RIGHTS OF 
 MAN. S<-<- Khamk: A. D. ITW (Ai<i.-0«t I. 
 
 DECLARATORY ACT, Tht. See UiirrxD 
 BTA-moF Am : A. Ii rwj 
 
 DECRSTA, Romu imptrial. See Corpi s 
 Ji-Ms Civii.ia. 
 
 DECRETALS, Tha Falsa. See Papacy: 
 A. n H3H-H47. 
 
 DECUMiB. See VftmoAi. 
 
 DBCUMATBS LAND. He* Aohi Dxct-. 
 MATE*, also Al.RMANNf; and Sprvi. 
 
 DECURIONES. Sei' Cihia. MixiriPAi 'ir 
 
 THK LAIKR KoMAN EmpIHP. 
 
 DEDITtTIUS.-COLONUS.-SERVUS. 
 
 — •'The iKwir Provincial (i>( th.' pnivim'c* of thr 
 Roman empire at the time nf itie hreaklnic up In 
 the (Iflh ifnturyl who coiild not Hv to the (Ji.iha 
 because his whole property was lii land, hiinicl 
 to deapalr by tlie Ui gsUierer. W'>u)<l transfer 
 Uiat lanl to some wealthy neighbour, appar- 
 «itly on condition of rpoHvIng a small life 
 •aauity out uf it. IK was then called tbs DcdlU- 
 
 DEIRA. 
 
 tius (or Surrendenr) of the new owner, towinli 
 whom he stood in a poaition of a certain denn 
 of dependence. Not yet, however, were his inr 
 rows or those of hia family at an end, for the 
 tax-gatherer still regarded him as responsible for 
 his land. ... On bis death his sons, who had 
 utterly lost their paternal inheritance, and ttill 
 found themaelve* confronted with the claim for 
 taxes, were obviously without resource. The 
 next stage of the process aocordlnglv was that 
 they abdicated the poaition of free citizens and 
 Implored the great man to accept them aa C'oluoi 
 a class of labourers, half-free, balf-rDalsved' 
 who may perhaps with sufflcient accurarv be 
 compared to the serfs ' adscripti glebie ' o{ the 
 middle ages. . . . Before long they liecame 
 mere slaves (Servi) without a shadow of riKbt or 
 claim against their new lords."— T. Holgkin 
 Itnly and htr Invaden, hk. 1, eh. 10 —With the 
 "Increase of great estates and simultaneous in. 
 crease in the numlier of slaves (ao manv l!<>thi 
 were made slaves by Claudius [A. D. 26(<-270] 
 to give one instance, that there was not a ili«trirt 
 without them), the small proprietors could go 
 longer maintain the fruitless struggle, and. aa a 
 cUss, wholly disappeared. Some, no doulit, be- 
 came soldiers: othere crowded into the alresdr 
 overflowing towns; while otbera viduntarily re' 
 aign<><i their freedom, attached themwivestothe 
 land of some rich proprietor, and hecume bi< 
 villeins, or coloni. But this was not the chief 
 means by which this class was formal an.l in- 
 creaaed. . . . After a successful war ihcie nerfi 
 were given ... to landed proprietors withnut 
 payment: and in this way not only was the clan 
 of free peasants dlminislie<i or altoireiher At 
 stroye<l — a happier result — the slave avatem w«i 
 directly attackni. The coloni thematdves were 
 not slaves. The codes dinrtly distinguish them 
 from slaves, and In several imrx-rlal ronstittitinni 
 they «re called 'ingenul.' They couM contrart 
 a legal marriage and could hold pmnertv. 
 On the other hand, the coloni wer>- like sfavet in 
 that they were liable to personal punishment 
 ... A colonus was Indlssoluhly atlarhiil lo the 
 land, and could not get quit of the tie. even hr 
 enlisting as a soldier. The pmprielor eould »ll 
 him with the estate, but had no power whstevrr 
 of selling him without It: and if he sold the 
 estate, be was compelled to sell the cidoni al'ni; 
 with it. . . . The position nf these villeins »M 
 a very miserable one. . . . These cidonl in (Jsul 
 combined together, were Jidnol liv the free 
 iieaaanta still left [A. I>. 387]. whose l.it wu net 
 less wrrlrheil than their own. and fonninir into 
 numenius lianda, aprea<l llirmsilves iiver Ihe 
 rountrv to plllsge anil ilealmy TIm y wri» 
 called )iagnuilir, frnm a Celtic wonl niesnint a 
 mob or riol4ius aasemhiy; and iiniirr tliis iisnir 
 recur often In the course of the neat irnlurf 
 both In (laul and Spain "—W T .\nioM. V» 
 Rnman t^yttm ^ Pronneinl Adminulriilii'ii. 
 eh. 4. 
 DEEMSTERS. See Manx Kt!<oi>oH Tm 
 DEFENDERS. See Ihklano .\ H I7«4 
 DEFENESTRATION AT PRAGUE, 
 Tha. See BoHismA A. I). 1(111-1(11'* 
 DEFTERP'RS. See St blimi Poara. 
 DEICOL>. , Tba. See Cildees 
 OEIRA, Th» k{ss4«ffi of — i>n» .-? !!« k!ar 
 doms of the Angles, covering what la now lalM 
 the East RIdInf of Yorkahlre. with snnir trrri 
 tory ba/oKt It. ■mhImis It was ualted wlik 
 
 678 
 
DEIRA. 
 
 DELAWARE, 1838-1640. 
 
 the Ungdom of BernicU, north of it, to form the 
 cmter kingdom of Mortbumbrt*. See Eso- 
 Lkb: a. D. S47-488. 
 
 DEKARCHIES. See Sfakta: B. C. 404- 
 403 
 
 DEKELEIA.— DBKELEIANWAR. See 
 Oriece: B. C. 418. 
 
 DELATION.— DELATORS. — Under the 
 empire, there was loon bred at Rome u infa- 
 mous clau of men who bore a certain reiemblance 
 — with signiflcant coatrasts likewise — to the 
 •Tcophants of Athens. They were Itnown a* 
 iMlators. and their occupation was delation. 
 "Tbe delator was properly one who gave notice 
 to the fiscal offlcers of moneys that had become 
 due to the treasury of the state, or more strictly 
 to the emperor's flscus." But the title was ex- 
 tended to informers generally, who dragged their 
 fellow citizens before the tribunals for alleged 
 TioUtinns of law. Augustus made delation a 
 profewion by attaching rewB«l« to tlie informa- 
 tioD given against transgressors of his marriage 
 laws. Under the successor of Augustus, the 
 nillen .ind suspicious Tiberius, delation n-celved 
 its greatest encouragement and development. 
 "According to the spirit of Roman criminal pro- 
 cedure, the informer and the pleader were one 
 snil the same person. There was no public ac- 
 cuMT. . . . but the spy who discovered the 
 dfllmiuency was himself the man to demand of 
 the iiiuite, the pnetor or the judge, an oppor- 
 tunity of proving it by bis own HtHiuence and 
 iigtrriuity. The odium of pnisa-cution was thus 
 remiiveil from the government to the private 
 dflstor."— C. Merivale, lli»t. I'f thr Riimant. fh 
 44 -See. iilso, Rome: A. I). 14-87. 
 
 DELAWARE BAY: A. D. 1609.— Dit- 
 nvtrtd bjr Henry Hudcon. S<t< .\MERir*: 
 A I) IWW. 
 
 Tht error ptrpctnated in its name.— "Al- 
 m<*l cviry writer on American hi.Htory that I 
 luvi' met with appears to have taken pains to 
 perpetuate the »tereotv|)e<l emir that ' Lord l>ela- 
 warr tourheil at this bay in bis passage to Vlr- 
 finln iu 1810.'. . . Lo'nl I>elawarT himself, in 
 U( Ititrr of the 7th of J\ilv, 1610. giving an 
 KHiiiiul of his voyage to Virginia, not only 
 mskiM 110 mention of that I«y, or of his ap- 
 pMwdiing It, but expressly spi-aks of his first 
 wu hing the American coast on the ' 6th 'f .Tune. 
 St what Iline we mailr Innil to tlie wuilb" nl of 
 our hart>or. the ( 'liesiopiock Hay ' The first 
 Eunip.an who is really known to have entefwl 
 llu' Iwv. after Hudson, was Cant. Samuel Argall 
 [July 16I0J. The name of I^.nl IH-Iawarr, 
 
 n(>»i\(r. seenu to have t)een given to the Iwv 
 ««in«ft anls bv the Virginians "—,1 U BttMi- 
 lies.1, //»( ./ Me ititU of X Y , r 1 . ,1/71. , ,u^, I) 
 
 DELAWARE: A.' D. l6jo.i6]i,-Th« 
 
 patch occapaacj «nd Brit lettlement.— The 
 
 Up" <tli nipt at M'ttletnent on the mijiwan- was 
 n».li' In the Dutch, who rlnime<l the country In 
 Tight III lluilsiin's dianivery ami Mev'« explora- 
 tion iif ilie Bay, mHwithalanding the'hroail Eng- 
 lljh ilslni. which covered the wlioie of it as part 
 nf an in.li tliiile Virginia. In l«a«, pumuanl to 
 Uie patroni onltiuuin< of the Outrh West India 
 *';]^'P«ny, which opened New Netherianil terri 
 |f*T -• r-iivntr jturrhaami. -Samtic! OinitTi Ami 
 »an)ii(.| nhimmaprt, both diirctfimof the .\msler 
 Mm Chamber, latrgalmxl with tlie natlven for 
 u* soil frwn Calx llraiopeo to tbe muutli uf 
 
 DeUware river; in July, 1680, this purchase of 
 an estate more than thirty miles long was ratified 
 at Port Amsterdam by ifinuit [then Governor of 
 New Netherland] and his council. It Is the 
 oldest deed for land in DeUware, and comprises 
 the water-line of the two southern counties of 
 that state. ... A company was soon formed to 
 colonize the tract acquh^ by Qodyn and Blom- 
 maert. The flm settlement in Delaware, older 
 than any in Pennsvlvania, was undertaken by 
 a company, of which Oodyn, Van Rensselaer, 
 Blommaert, the historian De Laet, and a new 
 partner, David Petersen de Vries, were members. 
 By joint enterprise, in December, 1630, a ship of 
 18 guns, commanded br Pleter Heyes, and laden 
 with emigranta, store of seeds, cattle and agricul- 
 tural implementa, embarked from the Texel, 
 Mrtly to cover the southern shore of Delaware 
 Bay with fields of wheat and tobacco, and partly 
 for a whale fishery on the coast. . . . Early in 
 the spring of 1681, the . . . vessel reached its 
 destination, and Just withto Cape Henlopen, on 
 Lewes Creek, planted a colony of more than 
 thirty souls. The superintendence of the settle- 
 ment was Intrusted to Glllls Hoeset. A little fort 
 was built and well beset with palisades: the arms 
 of Holland were afflxed to a pillar; the country 
 n'celve<l the name Swaanendael ; the water that 
 of Oodyn's Bay. The voyage of Heyes was the 
 cradling of a state. That Delaware exists as a 
 separate commonwealth is due to this i-olony. 
 .\cconiing to English rule, occupancy was neces- 
 sary to complete a title to the wilderness ; ami the 
 Dutch now occupleti Delaware. On the Sih of 
 May, Heyes and llosaet. In behalf of Gtxivn md 
 Blommaert, made a further purchase fnim'ltulian 
 chiefs of the opposite coast of Cape May, for 
 twelve miles on the bay, on the sea, and in the 
 interior; and, in June, this sale of a tract twelve 
 miles square was formally atlesteil at Manhat- 
 tan. Animated by the counii;e of Oodyn, the 
 patnioiui of Mwaanenilael fltt«tl out a second ex- 
 p-dltlon under the command of De Vries. But, 
 fiefore he s«'t sail, news was received of the de- 
 struction of the fort, and the murtler of ita people. 
 Haaaet, the commandant, had caused the death 
 of an Indian chief; and the revenge of the sav- 
 ages was not ap(ieaaed till not one of the eml- 
 grants remnlnHl alive. De Vries, on liiH arrival, 
 found only the nilns of the house and lis imli- 
 sades, half consum»l by fire, and here and Ihera 
 the bones of the colonists." — G. Bancnift, //•«< 
 "flht r. S.pt. 8. M. 18 (r. 1). 
 
 AlJlO IN: J. R. 
 .Y r, r. 1. M 
 
 A, D. i6jt.— Embraced in the Marylaad 
 
 ruit to Lord Baltimore, (tee .Mamtla.io: 
 D 1683. 
 
 A, D. i6m— Embrsctdlathe Pklalioe grmnt 
 of New Albloa. t*ee New Ai.nioN. 
 
 A. D. i63*-i64o. — Tht pUutting of tbo 
 Swedish colonr, — " William Uaaelinx, a dis 
 tingulshed merchant In Stockholm, was the first 
 to propose to the Swedish eovernmenl a arhen.e 
 fur planting a n<k>ny in America. He was a 
 nstlve of Antwerp, snd had rr«lde<l in Spain. 
 I'lirtiiiral and the ,\iore«. at a time when the 
 spirit of foreign adventure pervaded every cl«i« 
 of aocietjr ... In the year 1634 be pro|N«ini 
 I.I Ih.' ,sw»1t>h liHHwrv'L. Ouaiavua Adoiphua, 
 u pliiii for tbe ornoliation of a trading com- 
 pany, to extewi II* operatinni U) Asia. Africa, 
 Aiuerlctt tad Ttm MafeUuila. . . . Whetbef 
 
 Brodheail. Ilitl. of t/u Hhitt of 
 
 (J77 
 
DELAWARE. 1618-1640. 
 
 CHelinx had ever been In America is uncertain, 
 but lie liad, loon after the trganization of the 
 Dutch West India CompanT, some connection 
 with it, and by this and other means was able 
 to give ample information In relation to the 
 country bordering on the Delaware, its soil, 
 climate, and productions. . . . His plan and 
 contract were translated into the Swniish Ian- 
 puaifc by Schrader, the royal intt-rprettr, and 
 published to the nation, with an aiidress strongly 
 appealing both to their piety and their love of 
 gain. The king recommended it to the 8tet«s, 
 and an edict dated at Stockholm. Julv 3d, 1636, 
 was issued by royal authority, in which people 
 of all ranks were invited to Vncouraire the pro- 
 ject and support the Company. Books were 
 openrti for subscription to the etoik . . . and 
 Oustavus pledged the royal trvasurc for its sup- 
 port to the uiiiount of 4im\u()0 dollars. . . . The 
 work was ripe for execulion, when the German 
 war [the Thirty Years War], and afterwards the 
 king s death, prvveuted it, and rendered the fair 
 prospect fruitless. . . . The next attempt on the 
 part of the Hwedes to plant a colony in America 
 was more successful. Dut there has lieen much 
 difference among hbtorians in relation to the 
 period when that settlement was made. ... It 
 a owing to the preservation, among the Dutch 
 recnnls at Albany, of an official protest issuetl 
 by Kieft, the Governor at New Amstenlam, that 
 we do <-ert»inlv know the h«pde« were here in 
 thespringof ltf38. I'eter Minult. wliocfinducttil 
 to our sliorc the first Mwtiljsh colony, had been 
 Commercial Ag«-nt, and Diret^tor General of the 
 Dutch West India Company, an<i Governor of 
 tlie New Netherlands. . . . At this time Christina, 
 the infant daughter of Gustavus Adolphus, had 
 atcendcti tlie thntne of 8we<len. . . . C'luler the 
 direction of Oxenstiem, the celebrate<l chancellor 
 of Sweden, wliose wisiiom oud virtue have shed 
 a glory on the a^e in which he livt'<i, the pat4-nt 
 which luui been grnuteii in the relKn of Uustnvus 
 to the company furnn'*! under the influence of 
 I wvlinx was renewed, and its privileges extendeil 
 t» the citizi'us of Germany. Minuit. being now 
 out of cniplovment, and prol«l)ly deeming him- 
 self injunil by the conduct of the Dutch Com- 
 pany [which hail diaplaceil him fnmi the gov 
 eruorstilp of the New Netherlands, through the 
 iutiuenre of the (Mtrooiu, and ap|Niinte<i Wouter 
 Van Twiller, a clerk, to sucinil hini], Imil 
 detemdned to offer his services to the cMwn 
 of Sweden. . . . Minult lahi U'furc the cliun 
 cellor a plan of proreiiun', urntl « settlement 
 on the Delaware, and offen-d to conduct the 
 enter|irise. Uxenstiem npreaen'ed the caM' to 
 the queen . . . and Minuit was co.-nmlMlnnnl to 
 <-<>mmand and direct the expetiition."— II Ferris, 
 Jlul i>/' Iht Urigtmil Stlllrmtnti on tht /W.iwurr. 
 pi I. rk. a-a, — ■' With two ships laden with pM- 
 vlaioiui and other supplies reijulsile for the Mtlle 
 nieul of einlgrsnis In a new country, and with 
 tifiy eohmlsu, Minult sailed from Sweden late in 
 1607, anil entered IV'Uwarr Bay In April. 183H 
 II" fiiuml ilic coiiutrv as Iw ha<f left it. kjiIkmii 
 wliite luhaliitanis Minqua Kill, now Wilinlng 
 ti.n. was seleetMl as the phu-c for th«' flrst settle- 
 incnl, when' he iNiught a few acres of land of 
 (lie natives, landiir his eoliHiiats ami stores. 
 eri'ct<Hl a fort. uihI U-gan a small nlauinilun H" 
 JiHii cowlucieit Ills cnterpriM' wlili some m^-tvi\\ 
 tliiit he might avoid eo|llal<in with the Dutch; 
 but the watchful eyes of tlieir sfenu suuu dU 
 
 DELAWARE, 1640-1656. 
 
 covered him, and reported his presence to \ 
 director at New Amsterdam. Kieft [succeasoi 
 Van Twiller] had just arrived, ana it lieca 
 one of his first duties to notify a man whn h 
 precede)] him in office that he was u trcspaa 
 and warn him off. Minuit, knowing timt K{ 
 was powerless to enforce his protest, Ixingwi 
 out tnmpa or money, paid no attentiua to 1 
 missive, and kept on with his work. . . . | 
 erected a fort of considerable strength, nam 
 Christina, for the Swedish queen, and ^arriwm 
 it w'.th 34 soldiers. Cnilerstanding the i harac 
 of ihe Indians, he conciliated their sacliems 
 liberal presents ami seeuntl the trade. In a fi 
 months he was enableii to loed his ships wi 
 peltries and despatch them to his pntronA. 
 The colony hail to till appearance a pniralsi 
 future. . . . Within two years, however, th 
 prospects were clouded. The (.'onipanv h 
 fuileii to send out another ship with sui>|>lfi'9 a 
 merclundise fur the Indian trade, t'rovisin 
 failed, trade fell off, and sickness began to pi 
 vail. . . . They resolved to remove to Manhaiia 
 where they could at teast have 'emiU)!li ima 
 On the eve of ' breaking up' to carry tliiir n 
 olution into effect, succor came frimi au ii 
 expected quarwr. The fame of New S«icl,. 
 B» the colony was called, of its firtilc- Ian 
 and profitable trade, hail reached iitliir iiaiic 
 of Europe. In Holland itwlf a cnnipaiiv w 
 formeil to establish a settlement unili r ilrV pa 
 ronageof the Swedish Com|ianv." Tlii> |)ui( 
 company "freighted a ship with ci>I.Mii<t« ai 
 supplies, which fortunately arriviil wliiii il 
 Swedish colony was ab<mt to lie lirokiii upai 
 the ii)untry abandoned. The «pirii« of n 
 Swedes were revived. . . , Tiiclr projiiliil t 
 moval was indefinitely deferred and llnv m 
 tinueil their work with fresh viifor. Tlu'llm, 
 colonists werv locateil in a s<ttienicut by ilm 
 wlvm, only a few miles from Furt ( lirinin 
 They were loysl to the S»-e«h's. . . In il 
 autumn of the same year, 1840, I'etcr Ij.illifn. 
 are. who had Im-n ap|Hilnte<l depiilr f»tim 
 of the colony, aud Jfix'ns Kllng. »rrivi'.| (m 
 Sweilen with thn-e ships laden with pnivisim 
 and merchanillse for the stntitiMiil in|nni«t 
 They alwi brought out a considcrabli' c»nipu 
 (if new emigrants. New Sweden wb« uhw w« 
 established and proapenius Mun- lawlt «ri 
 Uiught, and new settlements were niiuli' PrU 
 Minult dieil the fiill«wlug year "— «!. \V. ScLu; 
 ler, lM»nitil Xeif York, r I, inlroil , ttft l! 
 
 Also IN: I. Acrelius, Ilitt of Xni St«li 
 (/Van. Ifitl. S>e. Mrm , r 11) M 1 — /»w nl. 
 lirt fc. (U. Hilt, of S. r, r IJ— (! R Km 
 A»i» Svnirn iXiirnilitt aiut Critii-fil lliit of Am 
 t. 4. M. •). — J ¥ Jameson. WilUm ruihi 
 (hiinrtof Ihf Am. Hint Amm . r '.' .„. Hi 
 
 A. D. 1640-164).— Intruiioos of thtEnfiii 
 from Now Havoo. Siv Ni.w jF.Hr>Kr .\ I 
 ltH(>-'i».V 
 
 A. U. I640>l6s6.— Thcitmnl^hctwttntb 
 Swodoo OM tht Dutch and Iht Snal vicler7< 
 
 the lotlor. — ■■ The lS«e.h»ll| ciiliMi\ frin 1 
 such im|M)rtance that John I'riut/. » lii iiiiiuni 
 cokioel of cavalry, was sent oul in KM'.' »» f"^ 
 emor. with onlers fi>r developing indiixrv ao 
 trade lie took pains to itminiaiiil ilic iii">itli' 
 t!H> river, aitlioui'h ih;- Duicti hs;! •'!tsi'!!*l!*' 
 Fort Nassau on itseasu-ni Iwuk, anil the .''wiili* 
 settlements were on the wealeni hank eiclii^irrl) 
 CulUaimia aruae betwtwji tlw Duli:h sad 11 
 
 678 
 
DELAWABE, 1640-16M. 
 
 DELAWAKE, imi-170t. 
 
 gwedei, and when the former put up the arms 
 of the Statcf OenenU on the completion of a pur- 
 cbtae of landa from the Indiana, Printz in a 
 puiioD ordered them to be torn down. The 
 Swedes gained in atrength while the Dutch lost 
 (round in the rlcinitr. ^ 1<M8 tlie Dutch 
 attempted to build a trading post on the Schuyl- 
 kill, when they were repulaed by force by the 
 Bwedes. Individuals seeking to erect houses 
 were treated in the same way. The Swedes in 
 turn set up a stockade on the disputed ground. 
 Director Stuyvesant found it necessary in 16.51 
 to go to conli-r with Printj; with a view to hold- 
 ing the country a.i;aiDst the aggressive English. 
 The Indians were called into council and con- 
 tirmed the Dutch title, allowing the Swedes 
 little more than the site of Fort Christina. Fort 
 Cusimlr was erected lower down the river, to 
 protect Dutch interests. The two rulers agreed 
 to be friends and allies, and so continued for 
 three yean. The distress of the Swedish colony 
 led to sppeala for aid from the home country 
 whither Qovemor Printz had returned In 16,M 
 help was given, and a new governor, John 
 CUude Kyslngb, marked his coining by the cap- 
 ture of Fort Caaimir, pretending that the Dutch 
 ^Vest India Company authorized the act. The 
 ODJy revenge the Dutch could take was the 
 seizure of a Swedish vessel which by mistake 
 rsn into Manliattan Bay. But the next year 
 onlrni rame from Holland etposlug the fraud of 
 Rysiugh, and directing the expulsion of the 
 Swedes from the South Riv A tlii't was 
 
 oriiiuiizeii and Director Stuyveaant nitiventi 
 Fnrt Caaimir without flring a gun. After somi' 
 psrliy Fort Christina waa also surreudert-il. 
 Such .Swr<les as would not take the oath of alle- 
 iriuii'e to the Dutch authorities were sent to the 
 Lome country. Only twenty persons accepted 
 tlMM«th, ancl of three clergymen two were ex- 
 priliil. and the thini escapt-d like treatment by 
 till' nuihien outbreak of IndlaD tn>ubles. In 
 ICM till' iitates Oeneral and Sweden made these 
 trsDKiu'ttons matter of international discussion. 
 The Swedes preaent»Ml s prnk-st against the action 
 of the Dutch, and it was talknl over, but the 
 msttrr was Anally dropped. In the same year 
 tbr Wiwt India (ompany sold iu Interests on the 
 S.mth Hiver to the city of AmsU'rdani, and the 
 colmy of New Amstel was erect«-d, so that the 
 tuthiiritv of New Netherland waa extinguished. " 
 -E. II lioberu, AVw Tork. e. 1, rA. ; 
 
 AlM> IN : E. Armstrong. Inlrod. t» tk* Rttord 
 tf Vj^Utmi (Ihst. Sue. of Ana. Memoir; r. *),— 
 B. Firrtt, Uitt. of Iht Original StttlmuiiU on tht 
 Mimn. pi. 1, cA. 8-7.-8. Hazard, AntuUi ../ 
 PniH,i>p. ti-99».—liepl. of ;Kt Amieniim 
 Ch.iiiilkTu/ Iht W. I. tJi, (Ones. rtUttir* to (\M 
 Uul .f.Y r. f. \.pp JW7-«4fl) 
 
 A. D. 1664.— CoaquMt by tha Bnfliih, and 
 aaaeaation to New York,— "Five days after 
 the < spiiulathm of New Anulerdani [surrendered 
 liy the Dutch to the Eagllab, Aug M. IflM— 
 •fi :<£W Yowi: A. D. 1664] Niwfis. with Cart 
 •riftht and Maverick . . . commiMiooetl llwir 
 eoileainie, Sir Robert Carr, to «o,' with three 
 •hips and an odequate military fonv. "and n-- 
 du<T the Debware ietUemuita. Carr Whs in- 
 •irui'lril to promise the Dutch thu pommmIiui of 
 sii iiM-ir property and all their preaeot privileges. 
 _"b1v that they change their maatera.' To the 
 Bwnlr. |h> was to ' rpmoostratc their hapjiv 
 ictura uader ■ mooarabioal guverMBeat, aad Us 
 
 majeatr's good inclination to that lutlon.' To 
 Lord Baltimore's officers in Maryland, he waa to 
 declare that their proprietor's pretended right 
 to the Delaware being 'a doubtful caae,' nnaaci 
 sion would be kept for the king 'till his majesty 
 is informed and satisfied otherwise.'. . . The 
 Swedes «-r>> soon made friends," but the Dutch 
 attemptea LOctober] some resistance, and yielded 
 onlv after a couple of broadsides from the ahipa 
 had killed three and wounded ten of their garri- 
 son. "Carr now landed , . and claimed the 
 pillage for himself as 'won by the sword.' 
 Assuming an authority independent of Nicolls, 
 he claimed to be the ' sole and chief commander 
 and disposer' of all affairs on the Delaware." 
 His acts of rapacity and violence, when reported 
 to his fellow commissioners, at New York, were 
 condemned ami n-pudiatetl, and Nicolls, the 
 presiding commissioner, went to the Delaware in 
 persim to displace him. " Carr was severely re- 
 buked, and obliged to give up much of bis ill- 
 gotten spoil. Nevertheless, he could not be pe» 
 suadt-d to leave the place for some time. The 
 name of New AmsU>I was now changed to New 
 Castle, and an infantry garrison established 
 there. . . Captain John Carr was appointed 
 commaD<ier of the Delaware, In subonlination to 
 the government of New York, to which it waa 
 annexni ' as an appendage ' ; and thus affairs re- 
 niaine<i for several years."— J. H. Brodhead 
 Jliil. oftlu Sf.itt «/ A r , r. 8, cA. 2. 
 
 A. D. 1673.— The Dutch rccooqncat. See 
 Nkw Vobk: A. D. 1678. 
 
 A. D. 1674.— Final recovery by the English. 
 Se«- Nktberi.a.nds (Holland): A. 1> 16T4 
 
 A. D. 1674-1740.- In diapute between tbo 
 Dukt of York and the Proprietary of Maryland. 
 —Grant by the Dnka to WUUam Pcna. See 
 Pesnsvlv.«nia: a. D. 1882; 1BS5; and 1760-1787. 
 
 A. D. 1691-1703.— The practical independ- 
 ence of Pent 'a " lower coantica " acquired. 
 —"In .\pril, 18»1, with the reluctant consent of 
 William Pfun. the ' territories. ' or ' h>wer coun- 
 ties,' now known as the State of Delaware, be- 
 came for two yean a government by themselves 
 under Mnrkhani. . . . The dIsturlNtniv by Keith 
 [see Pes>bvlvakia: A. D 18»«-18i>6] creating 
 questions as to tlie administration of Justice, 
 condnui'd the disposition of the English govern- 
 ment to subject Pennsylvania to a royal com- 
 mission ; ami In .\pril irtW). itenjanilii Fletcher, 
 ap|>olnte<i governor by William anil M.irv, once 
 more unlt«il IKIaware to Peniuylvania.''' But 
 Penn. restori'd to his authority 'in 16M, could 
 not resist the lealounies which tended s« strongly 
 to divide the Itelawari' territories from Pennsyl- 
 vania pro|ter. " In 17IHI. PennsylvanU convened 
 Its leglsla ire apart, anil the two colonies were 
 never again unltitl. The kiwer counties became 
 almost an liidi'io'Oiient republic: for. as they 
 were not inrludiii iu the ch^.ter. the authority 
 of the pMprieUry over them waa by sutrerani-e 
 only, ami the exet'ullvr power Intnisted to the 
 govenior of Pennsylvanlit was lot) feeble to re- 
 strain III!' |Miwer of their |M-ople. The leglsla- 
 liiri'. the tribunals, the sulKmlinale executive 
 offlii n of Delaware knew little of external ocw- 
 IMl — O Bancroft, //irt. of tht V. S. {autker'i 
 
 Lutt rfrimnn)^ ut M /-A 'i ip %\ — The question of 
 
 jurisilicliouover Di'lawaiv was involved thrungh- 
 out In the boumtarr dispute between the pro- 
 prietaries of Penusvlvaoia and Maryland. Sw 
 PKlitiaTi.vAiiu A D. lIMi aMi ITW-ITCT. 
 
 f '-m 
 
 iuJi 
 
 079 
 
DBIAWARE. 1760-17M. 
 
 DEL08. 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 '".i 
 
 A. D. iTte-tTM.— The qnettion of t«sktion 
 hj Parluuncnt.— Th* Stamp Act and it* re- 
 pcaL— The Dadantoiy Act.— The First Con- 
 iittental Cooktcm. See United States op Am. : 
 A. D. n«0-1775; 1763-1764: 1765; and 1766. 
 
 A. D. 1766-1771.— Opening event* of the 
 RevelBtioo. SeelNiTEDSTATEBor Am. : AD. 
 1766-1767 to 1774; and BovroM: A. D. 1768 to 
 1778. 
 
 A. O. 1775.— The bcfinniDK of the war of 
 the Amencan ReTolntion.— Lexington.— Con- 
 cord.— Action taken on the new*.— Ticon- 
 ^•rp»a.— The lien of Boeton.— Bunker Hill. 
 — The Second Continental Coop-eaa. See 
 CsiTED States OF Am. ; A. O. 1775. 
 
 A. O. 1776.— Further introduction of *la*e* 
 
 rrohibitcd. See Slavery. Nkoro: A. D. 1776- 
 ms. 
 
 A. D. I776.1783.— The War of Independ- 
 cnce.— Peace with Great Britain. See United 
 States of A.». : A. I). 1776 to 17»8. 
 
 A. D. 1777-1779.— Withholding; ratiScatioB 
 from the Article* of Confederation. See 
 United States of Am. : A. D. 17«l-17Mfl. 
 
 A. D. 1787.— The adoption and ratiCcation 
 of the Federal Conititution. See United 
 State* of Am. : A. D. 1787. and 1787-1789. 
 
 A. O. 1861 (April).— Refueal of troop* on the 
 call of President Lincoln. See United States 
 oF.\M : A. D. IMl (.Vpkil). 
 
 DELAWARE RIVER. Washinrtoa's pas- 
 •an of the. St'e United States of Am. : A. D. 
 17'(H777. 
 
 DELA WARES, The. See American Abo- 
 lUiiiNKS: Delawahes. 
 
 DELFT: Assassination of the Prince of 
 Orange (15841. See N etherlandh : A. L>. 1581- 
 1584. 
 
 DELHI: nth Century.— Captnre by Mah- 
 moud of Gasna. St Ti'RK!i: A. I). UW-1188. 
 
 A. D. ii9a-iS90.— The capital of the Mame- 
 luke or Slave dynasty. S«' India : A D. 977- 
 1290. 
 
 A. D. 1399.— Sack and massacre by Timour. 
 See TlMoi-R. 
 
 A. D. 15*6-1605.- The founding of the Mo- 
 gul Empire by Babar and Akbar. S<f India: 
 
 A. I>. I899-1<H)5. 
 
 A. D. 1730.— Sack and ma**acre by Nadir 
 Shah. S.ffNi>i\: A l> lrtrt-.'-174H 
 
 A. D. 1760-1761.— Taken and plundered by 
 the Mahrattas.-Thcn by the Afrhans.— Col- 
 lapse of the Mogul Empire. See India: A. I). 
 1747-1761 
 
 A. D. i857.-The Sepoy Mutiay.-Massacre 
 of > ropean*.— Explosion of the magaaine.— 
 English siege and capture of the city. !S4i> 
 India: A U. 1857 (.Mat— AiousT) and (Sine— 
 
 SErTKMBr.K). 
 
 DELIAN CONFEDERACY. H<'eURU(E 
 
 B. (• 47N-i:7. and Atiienk U C 466-454, and 
 after 
 
 DELIAN FESTIVAL. See I>eu>«. 
 
 DELIUM, Battle of (B. C. 4*4i.-.\ Mriout 
 defiat •iiffenil liv the Atlu'iiiaim in llw l*i>l.>ii.>n- 
 neolan War, H V 4S4. at the hamU (if the The- 
 ban* and other Ihpotiaa*. It wai i-nnnmiiirnt 
 'ty--^ fhrf' irrlliifr tjr ihc Athmiana of ih.- o.i-.. 
 tian lemplriir IVIIiim — a temple of Apollo — im 
 the MS (i.ait, alniiit live miles fr.mi Tauacnt 
 •U;h they furtUsil and toKnded 10 hold. After 
 
 the defeat of the army which was returning from 
 this exploit, the nrrlaon lefi at Delium vu be- 
 sieged and mostly captured. Among the hon. 
 Iltes who fought at Delium was the philosopher 
 Socrates. Tne commander Hippocrates «u 
 sUin.— Thucydides, Hitloiy. bic. 4, leet. 89- "vi 
 
 Auo »: O. Grote,irM(. 0/ Oretu, pt. 2 ch Si 
 —See Orbmb: B. C. 434-421. 
 
 DELOS.— Delo*. the smallest Uland of the 
 group called the CychKle*, but the most import- 
 ant In the eye* of the Ionian Greeks, being their 
 sacred Isle, the fabled birthplace of .\p„iro and 
 long the chief seat and center of his wnrsliip 
 "The Homeric Hymn to Apollo prewnts to ui 
 the island of DJIos as the centre of a gnat peri- 
 odical festival in honour of Apollo, celebrated lij 
 all the cities, insular and contlnentnl, of the 
 Ionic name. What the date of this hvmn Ih, ve 
 have no means of determining: thucvdidfi 
 quotes it, without hesitation, as the pniduction 
 of Homer, and, doubtless, it was in his time 
 universally accepted as such,— though in(«iini 
 critics concur In regarding both that and the 
 other hymn* as much later than the Iliad aod 
 Odyssey, tt cannot probably ite later than m 
 B. C. The description of Uie Ionic visitors prp. 
 sented to us in this hymn Is splendid and imp,«. 
 ing; the number of their ships, the displav of 
 their flnery, the beautv f their wmnc n.' ilie 
 athletic eihibltlons as v,''i as tho m»t<>ifs ot 
 song and dance,-- all these are repn-wnuil u 
 making an ineffaceable impression on ilie vpn- 
 talor: "the assembled lontans l<H>k iw if ihiT 
 were beyond the resch of old airi- or diath!' 
 Such was the magniflcence of which Iii^lo-i «ii 
 the peritxllcal theatre, and which ciIUhI forth ilie 
 voices snd poetical genius not merely of iiim-nmt 
 bards, but also of the Delian mafdcn.. iu Ihe 
 temple of Apollo, during the century iircicdini 
 560 B. C. At tliat time it was Ihe ijrrat (i-i}tr»l 
 festival of the lonians In Asia and Europe _ 
 O. Orote, Ifitt. of iirttft, pt. i, eh. I',' — liurini! 
 the war with Penis, I)elos was mwW \\v rora- 
 mon treasury of the Greeks; hut Athens subsf. 
 uueotly took the custody and manapnunt •■'. 
 the trraaury to henelf and reduced Dij.w to t 
 dependency. The laland was long lhi> wnt of iin 
 extensive commerce, snd Delian lironie ku ci( 
 note In the arts. 
 
 B. C. 400.— Spared by the Persians. 
 Oref.cE: ft. C. 49(1 
 
 B. C. 477.— The Delian Confederacy. 
 Okkeck: M C. 478-477; sndATiiK.vv II ( 
 VA, and after. 
 
 B. C. 4A<-4S4 (')■— Removal of the Conlcil- 
 eratc treaaory to Athens. See Atiik.nh: B c. 
 46e-4.>4 
 
 B.C. 4«S-4*'-— PuriScations.-." Inthemid«t 
 (if the loases and turmoil of the ri'(lo|>onni»iHn] 
 war It had lieen detennined [at Allien"] loolTir 
 a solemn testimony of homage to Apollo nn IMi<i, 
 [B r. 4W] — a homage doulitleMctinnci till « ill) 
 the complete cessation of the prstllin.i-. which 
 had lasted as long as the flfth }'rar of ilic *sr. 
 The solemnity consisted In the renewed coinecrs 
 tlon of the entire island to the divim- (ilver nf 
 irrare ; all the cotllns nmtaining hiim.'iii renisini 
 Mng removetl from Dcloa, and l{hiniiiiip|i"inl«d 
 U> be henceforth the sole Imriul nlm. Tlii« 
 noiemnity auppiementrtl the an l.'rnKrIy pir 
 formed by the onlem of Pislstratus, snd it w«i 
 do' !itle*a In the present Instniire also IntimH, 
 by /tieans of a brilliaut renewal u( the Ikllsa 
 
 Sw 
 
 See 
 4(i*- 
 
 G80 
 
DELOS. 
 
 DEMICKGI. 
 
 oclebntfcin, to (trengthen the power of Athens 
 In the ishuul aea, to give a festive centre to the 
 Ionic world. . . . But the main purpose was 
 clearly one of mo- Jitv and religion. It was in- 
 tended to calm and edify the minds of the citi- 
 icns."— E. Curtius, Hiit. of Oreete. bk. 4, eh. 2. 
 —Three yeara later (B. C. 422) the Athenians 
 found some reason for another purlttcatinn of 
 Delos which was more radical, consisting in the 
 (xpuUioQ of all the inhabitants from the island. 
 The unfortunate Delians founil an asylum at 
 Adramyttium in Asia, until they were restnred 
 to their homes next year, through the influence of 
 the Delphic oracle. — Thucydides, History, bk. 5, 
 leet 1. 
 
 B. C. 88.— Pontic Muaacre.— Early in the 
 irst war of Mitbridates with the Romans (B. C. 
 i»). Drios, which had been made a free poit and 
 had become the emporium of Konian commerce 
 in the east, was seized by a Pontic fleet, and 
 pillnged, 80,000 Italians being massacred on the 
 Island. The treasures of Delos were sent to 
 Athens and the Island restored to the Athenian 
 contnil.— W. Ihne, Uitt. o/Jiome, bk. 7, r/.. 17, 
 
 B. C. 69.— Ravaced bj Pirates.—" Almost 
 under the eyes of the fleet of Lucullus, the pirate 
 AtliincHlorus surprised in eat [B.C. UU] the island 
 of Di'los. destroyed iU far-famed shrines and 
 ti'raples, and carried off the whole population 
 luto nUvcrv. " — T. Mommscr, Hut. of Rome. bk. 
 
 5, th. a. 
 
 Slave Trade under the Romans.— " Thrace 
 and .Sammtia wen: the Guinea (.'oast of the 
 Itimans. The entrepAt of this trade was IHO.w. 
 • Iiirh had been made a free ix)rt by Home after 
 the nmquest of Macedonia. Stralio tells us that 
 in one day 10.000 slaves were wdil then' in open 
 nisrkel. "Such were the vile uses to which was 
 put the Sacretl Island, once the treasury of 
 Ort^Ki','— H. a. Llddcll. Hut. of Ronte, bk. .'5, 
 eh. 4». 
 
 DELPKI.— KRISSA (CRISSA).- 
 XIRRHA(CIRRHA).— "In tliosi' early times 
 « hi n llie IIiiMieric Hymn to A|k>II(i was eomposeil 
 Iht'iiiwu (if Krisaa [Jn PhiN-is, near Delphi] ap- 
 liears to have been gri'at and powerful, poaseiw- 
 injr all the broad plain iM'tween PamassuH, Kir- 
 plus, and the gulf, tu whli-h latter It gave Its name. 
 — and |Kis»es.Hing also, what was a pmperty not 
 li«« VHluable. the adjuining sanctuary nf iVthii 
 itielf, whlrh the Hynui identines with Krissa. 
 niit indicating iHdphi as a separale place The 
 Krisi.a'nns, duulitless, deriveil gri'at pniHts from 
 till numlKT of visitors who came In visit Ih'Iplii, 
 l«'ih liv liiiid and by sea, ami KIrrha was nrlgin- 
 iily only the name for their seaisyrl. (Jraduiilly, 
 h"»rvir. the |»>rt ap|H>ars to have grown In liii- 
 I.naii.e at the expense of the town; . while 
 at llie siune time the saiictuarv of I'ytho with Its 
 aimlni.iraliirs expandiil into ihe town nf Delphi. 
 anil laine In claim an Independent exlsleni'e nf 
 it«i'»n . In addilhm to the aWive facts, al- 
 
 n-adv Miffl.leiil In tliemst'lves as seeds nf ijuarrel. 
 »!• «rc tnhl that the Klrrhwans abustsl their piwi- 
 ti 'n as mastera of the nvenue to the temple by 
 w.->. and levied exorbitant Inlls on the visitors 
 «hH liiniled then-. . . . Besides such offence 
 uwlnsl the general Qrrrlan public, they ha.' also 
 •^r'Mff>n: the rnmiiy nf tii,lr Hin* Uii neigliUMin 
 111 n.iirages u|)on woineii. Pluslan as well as 
 Artiliin who were nluriiing fMm the temple. 
 Thus stood the ca«v. apparvolty, about 589 B. C, 
 
 when the Amphiktyonic meeting interfered . . . 
 to punish the Kirrhieans. After a war of tea 
 years, the first Bacred War in Greece, this object 
 was completely accomplished, by a joint force 
 of Thessalians under Eurylochus, Sikyonlana 
 under Kleisthenes, and Athenians under Alk- 
 mieon ; the Athenian Solon Iieing the person who 
 originated and enforced, in the Amphiktyonic 
 council, the proposition of lnt»rference. KIrrha 
 . . . was destroyed, or left to subsist merely as 
 a landing place; and the whole adjotolng plain 
 was consecrated to the rielphian god. whose do- 
 mains thus touched the sea. . . . The fate of 
 KIrrha in this war Is ascertained: that of Krissa 
 is not so clear, nor do we know whether it waa 
 destroyed, or left sulmisting in a position of ta- 
 feriority with regarrl to Delphi. From this 
 time forward, the DelphUn community appears 
 as substantive and autonomous, exercismg in 
 their own light the maiugementof the temple; 
 though we shall find, on more than one o<t:asion, 
 that the Phocians contest this right. . . . The 
 spoils of KIrrha were employed bv the victorious 
 allies In founding the Pytliiiin Games. The oc- 
 tennial festival hitherto" celebrared at Delphi in 
 honour of the god, iiiiluding no other competi- 
 tion except in the harp and the pwan, was ex- 
 panded into compn>liensiyn games on the model 
 nf the Olympic, with matches n<it only of music, 
 but also nf gymnastics ami chariots,— "i-ilebrated, 
 unt at Delplii itttelf. but on the maritime plain 
 near the ruined Kirrha.— and under the din-ct 
 su|>erinU'ndeneeof the Aniphiktvons themstdves, 
 
 . . They were celebrated in the latter half of 
 ^ulnmer, or flmt half nf every third Olympic 
 year. . . . Nothing was coufernil but wreaths 
 of laun I. '•— G. (irnte, /lift, of lirftct. i>t. 2. eh. 
 2X._See, also, Atiikni.: U. 0. 6I0-V>«1: PvTHO; 
 Okacles ok the Ukeeks; and Ami'iiiktyom( 
 CorNciL. 
 
 B. C. 357-338.— Seiaure by the Phociani.— 
 The Sacred Warr —Deliverance by Philip of 
 Macedon.— Warwith Amphissa. SeeliHEECK: 
 H. V. s-ir-sw. 
 
 B. C. 979.- Diacomature of the Gault. See 
 Gails: U, C. •.'WU27H. 
 
 DELPHIC ORACLE. The. See Oracles 
 
 OF TMK ItllKKKS 
 
 DELf HlC SIBYL, The, Sie Siuvu.. 
 
 DEMES.— DEMI. Sn l'iivi..E; alsn. Atii- 
 knh: H C Mo-IoT, 
 
 DEMETES, The.— One nf the irll. s of an- 
 cient Wlllit >ii' DlltTAIN. t Kl.TIl TliniKS. 
 
 DEMETRIUS, the Impostor. Se Kissia: 
 A. D l.'):);!-!!))*.- Demetrius Poliorcetea, 
 and the wars of the Diadochi. See .Mack- 
 Iminia: H C ;n.V:llo. :iln-;ioi; Blsn (iKKKCE: 
 H. (' .HOT- lit; : ami l(niinK«: 11. C !to,-i-;t(i4. 
 
 DEMiURCI. -COSMOS. — TAGOS OR 
 TAOUS.— Of the less n.nunnn titles applied 
 aninii;: I 111 amiiiit (in'eks tn their supreme 
 majrlMli iir«, ao' "(nsmos. or Insmios, and 
 Tak'iis i-ianifying ,\rninirir ami tnuimamUr), 
 llie fnrmer nf which »■ timi In Vtvie. the latter 
 III the Tliessalhiii cities With the fnrnur we 
 ■my cnmparr' the title nf Cosmiipolls, » hkli waa 
 iu u.^e amnnif the Kpineplivriaii I.<HTlans. A 
 mnp' fri'ipient title Is thai n^ Demlurgl. a name 
 HJiicii Mt-iiis tn jii.|iiy a eniistitiitinii no innger 
 idlicarrhical, but Ahlcli liestnHed certain rignia 
 nn the Demos. In the tiim' nf the Pelonon- 
 uesian war magistrates nf this kind cxIatM In 
 
 G81 
 
DIlOUBOl 
 
 nil and in tba Arcadian Mantinma. . . . The 
 title ia declared bjr Grnnmariane to bare been 
 commonly uied among the Doriani. ... A 
 rimilar title la that of Donuchua, which the 
 ■npiema magiatratea of Theapia in Boeotia aeem 
 to have bona. . . . The Aitjmi at Epidaurua 
 and Argoa we hare already mentioned."— O. 
 SchOmann, Antiq. of OrttM: Th» 8taU, ft. %, 
 tk. 5. 
 
 DEMOCRATIC, OR DEMOCRATIC 
 REPUBLICAN PARTY OP THE UNITED 
 STATES. See Uxited Statbb of Am. : A. D. 
 17S0-1T93: 188S-1888-. 1849-1848. 
 
 DEMOSTHENES, the reneral at SphM- 
 teria aod at Syracoa*. See Orebcb: R C. 4S9, 
 and Straccw: B. C. 415-418; and ATRBiia: 
 
 a C. 415-418 Decdoathcnea the ernter. 
 
 The Phillipica, and the Death of. See Orbbcb : 
 B. C. 857-388. 851-848, and 8a3-«a3; and Ath- 
 na: a C. 85IM88. and 8S6-833. 
 
 DEMOTIC WRITING. See Hiebo- 
 
 OLTPRICe. 
 
 DEMUCHUS. BeeDcinuBOL 
 
 DENAIN. Battle of (171a). See Xsthkr- 
 Lunw: A D. 1710-1718. 
 
 DENARIUS, The. See Ae. 
 
 DENDERMONDE.— Surrender to the 
 Spaniarda (15S4). See NETUiRLANDa: A. D. 
 1884-1.5^. 
 
 DENIS, Kincof Portugal. A. D. 1379-1888. 
 
 DENMARK. See 8cAKDtNAVT.\!« Statu. 
 
 DENNEWITZ, OR lOTERBOGK, Battle 
 oL See Qernaxt: A. D. 1818 (SErrBXBER— 
 October). 
 
 DENNIKON, Peace of (1531). See Swrr- 
 zcrland: .V r>. l.V<l-1«4M. 
 
 DENVER, The foundinr of. SeeCoLORAOO: 
 A. I) 1H<J6-1878, 
 
 DEORHAM, Battle ol.— Fought A. D. .177, 
 nnar n»tli. Knt'lHiiil. Mween the iDvadiiiK West 
 Sa.\on8 mid Ilic Britons— ,1. R. Qreeo Vir Viik- 
 
 Dfe PAUW UNIVERSITY. See Emj. 
 CATios, MuuEK.s ; Amerk A : A. I). 1768- 
 
 INRJ 
 
 DERBEND, Paa* of. See .IrHoiPACH. 
 
 DERBY-DISRAELI MINISTRIES The. 
 See EN<ir.AHD: A. D. 1M1-18.W: 1858-18.W; and 
 188H- 1H70. 
 
 DERRY. See Lojuhikderbt. 
 
 DE RUSSY, Fort, Capture of. See Uicited 
 States or An.: A. I). 1M64 (Mahch— Mat: 
 
 LOIIMAXA). 
 
 DESERET, The propoaed atate of. See 
 
 Utah A P. 184I>-1S.'10, 
 DESMONDS, The. «<■<■ CtERAi ntxEK 
 DBSMOULINS, Camille, and the French 
 Revolution. See Khanie A. I), 17m» (Jii.t)- 
 17WI, l7l«(Aluc»T), to 1798-17IM (Noveii»EH— 
 
 DESPOT OF EPIRUS.-'The tiile of 
 desiH.l, by which they (the medlievnl prinrei 
 of EpIriM] are Kenerallv dlattni;\iiKlir<l, waa a 
 Byzanlinr honorary diallnction. never iHime by 
 the t-nrlirr nipinm-'n of the family until 11 had 
 been r.mferre,! on them by the Qreek Emperor." 
 —(J Fliilay. llitt. of Orrttt fr-m if ronovft bf 
 the Cnitatlen. ck. 8, mtt. 1.— See Erta(;i: A. D 
 1904-18.10 
 
 DESPOTS, Creek. H»i Tnuirw. !tal- 
 iaa. ^^-e Itai.t: A 1). ia.*lO-15»0 
 
 DESSAU, BatUa of (i«a4). See Oumairr. 
 
 DETROIT. 
 
 DBSTRIBR&- PALFREYS.-" A cart. 
 liere or man-at-arma waa accompanied by on* 
 ' Deatriero ' or itrong war-borae, and one or two 
 aometimea three, mounted aquirea who led thi 
 animal fullv capariaoned; or carried the helmet 
 lance and ahieldof their maater: theie ■ Deatiini' 
 ('rich and great boTMa' aa Villani calla tbemL 
 were ao named becauie they were led on ih« 
 right band without any rider, and all ready for 
 mounting: theiqulre'i horaea were of an in^rior 
 kind called ' Ronzini,' and on the ' Palafreni ' or 
 palfreyi the knight rode when not in battle" 
 — H. E. Napier, tlortntint BMory, ». 1 1 
 68& »■•'.?. 
 
 DESTROYING ANGELS, OR DAN- 
 ITES. See MoRXOimM: A. D. 1880-1846 
 
 DETROIT : Firat occnpicd by the Coureui 
 de Boia. See CoiTRBCRa db Boia 
 
 A. D, 1686-1701.— The «rat French fottt.- 
 Cadillac'a fonndiuK of the city.— At tbe 
 beginning of the war called "Queen Anne'i 
 War "(1708) "Detroit had already been esub- 
 liahed. In June, 1701, la Mothe Cadillac, with 
 a Jetuit father and 100 men, was aent tu con- 
 •truct a fort and occupy the country; Uence he 
 la spoken of as the founder of the city. In im 
 a fort Icalled Fort St. Joseph] had been con- 
 structed to the south of the present city, where 
 Fort Oratiot now standa, but It soon fell into 
 decay and was abandoned. It waa not the tit< 
 selected by Cadillac. "—W. Klngaford. llut rf 
 Canatla, r. 8, p. 408.— "Fort St. Joseph wu 
 abandoned in the year 1888. The eaulilishment 
 of Cadillac waa destined to a better fate iind soon 
 rose tfl distinguished Importance anidnR the 
 westert. outposts of Canada."— F. Pttrkman. TA* 
 Corupirofg nf Pnntint, », 1, p. 818. 
 
 A. D. I70I-I7SS.— Importance to the Freach. 
 See Canada: A. I). 1700-1785. 
 
 A. D. 1713.— Siecc by the Foxes and Mas- 
 aacrv of that tribe. See Canada: A. I) i;il- 
 1713. 
 
 A. D. 1780.- The French stttlement whni 
 aarrendered to the Enrliah.— "Tlio Krcncli ii. 
 habitants here are settled on lioili sides. )f the 
 river for about eight miles. When I tixiii pot- 
 session of the country soon afUT tlio surren- 
 der of Canada [see Canada : A. D. 17(to]. they 
 were atiout 8,500 in number, there iK'Introeir 
 500 that bore arm* (to whom I adininittcred 
 oaths of alleiilance) and near 300 dwi'llini; Imum. 
 Our fort here ia built of stookadcx's, is «lKiut 2J 
 feet high, and LSOOyardalncircumfen'mr. . . 
 The Inlmblunia raise wheat and other itrain In 
 abundance, and have plenty of cattle, Iml they 
 enrich themsadves chiefly by their trmie with the 
 Indians, which Is here very larKvand luenitive." 
 —Major 11 Rogers, Conntt A«t. of S. Am., p. 
 188. J y 
 
 A. D. 1763.— Peatiac'a Siege. See Pontiac'i 
 War. 
 
 A. D. I775-I7I3,— Held by the Britiik 
 throughout the war of Independence, sm 
 UiirrED States or A¥. : A. D. 1778-1T7*, 
 Clare's coNqrEsr. 
 
 A. D. tlot.- Made the iMt of foreraatat 
 of the Territory of MicUna. Bee Imdiaxa: 
 A. D. 18UO-1818. 
 
 A. D. llts.—Th«Bwrea4af ef General HsU. 
 See I'srrcD »«tatiu or Am A P I»1?-;J'^ 
 October). 
 
 A. D 1113.— Americaa recercry. 
 Unrnu) Htatm o» Am. : A. D. IB1»-1B1I. 
 
 682 
 
DKTTmOEN. 
 
 DBTTINGBN, B«ttl* of (1743). See Aue- 
 Ru: A. D. 1748. 
 
 DEUSDBDIT, Pf», A. O. «1S-«18. 
 
 OBUTSCH. Oriiia of the iwine. See 
 Oukaut : Thb matiokal maio. 
 
 DEUTSCHBROO, B«tUe of (XAaa). See 
 Bohhoa: a. D. 1419-1484. 
 
 DEVA.— One of the Roman gurffon towni in 
 Britain, on the dte of which it modem Cheiter, 
 liking iu name from the caatra or fortified 
 itatioL of the legiona. It waa the station of 
 tlie 20th legion.— T. Mommaen, BM. of Rome 
 M. 8, M. 5. 
 
 DEVB-BOYUN, BatUa of (187S). See 
 Tnuu: A D. 18n-1878. 
 
 DEVIL'S CAUSEWAY, The—The popu- 
 Ur name of an old Roman road in England which 
 nio-i from Sllcbester to London. 
 
 DEVIL'S HOLE, The ambnacade and 
 ■attacre at.— On the 18th of September, 1783, 
 during the progreia of Pontiac'a War, a train of 
 wigoni and packhones, travening the Niagara 
 portage between Lewiston and Fort Schloaaer, 
 giitrded by an escort of 34 soldiers, waa ambus- 
 caded by a party of Seneca warriors st the place 
 called the Devlrs Hole, three miles below the 
 Niagara caUract Seventy of the whites were 
 ilain, and only three escaped.— F. Parkman, The 
 Cmmratv cf J\>rUitie, eh. 81 (r. 8). 
 
 DEVON COMMISSION, The See Iu- 
 lasd: a. D. 1848-1848. 
 
 DEVONSHIRE, in th« Britiah ace. See 
 
 DciUiOKII. 
 
 DE WITT, John, the adminittration and 
 tktmnrderoC SeeNrrBKBLAsos: A. D. 1851- 
 1««0. to 1673-1674. 
 
 DHIHAD. See Dab rL-IsLAM. 
 
 DIACRII, The. See Atbens: B. C. 594. 
 
 DIADOCHI, The.— The Imrawllate successors 
 of Al.xaniler the Great, who divldiil his empire 
 •re Mmetimes so-called. "The word clmilochi 
 mesM 'successors,' and Is used to include Aa- 
 llgonus, Ptolemy, Seleucus, Lvsimachus, etc — 
 ■be sctual companions of Alexamler."- J. P. 
 Xahaffv, Story of AlfMiuttfi Empire, eh. S — 
 SeeMACF-noNiA: B. C. 83.'(-316. 
 
 DIAMOND, Battle of the (1795). See Ire- 
 USD: a. I). 179.VI7W1. 
 
 DIAMOND DISCOVERY IN SOUTH 
 AFRICA (ia67). SeeORKjCAs. 
 
 DIAMOND NECKLACE, The aifair of 
 tit. .Sr Fra)«c«: A. 1). 17(»4-17«5. 
 
 DIASPORA, The.— A name spplle<l to the 
 Jew* scattered tlmiutfhout the Ruinan world 
 
 DIAZ, Porfirio, The Mexican pratidancr 
 d Nf Mexico: A. I>. 1867-1888. 
 
 DICASTBRIA.— The great popular court 
 r iury, In ancient Athens cnlknl the Hrlliea, or 
 Hfli»«t« consistlnK at one time of six thousand 
 cbiwii ritiiens, was divided Info ten sections, 
 ctllcj Dicasteria. Their places of meeting als<i 
 ow the Bame name — O. F. SchOmann. Anlio. 
 itlrr'^r,: The State, ,4. 8, eh. 3. -See Atbcn* 
 
 B (• \ i-jai. 
 
 DICKINSON, John, in the Amtricaa Rtro- 
 wtioa. Si^ rNiTED-SxATasor Am. ; K I> 1767- 
 
 17W; n74(.SKPTgMBKK); 1778 (JcLT). 
 
 DICKINSON COLLEGE. Koe Ei.rrA- 
 Tins. Muiinix .\uitu|i4: A. D. ITflB IRMi, 
 DICIAIOR, Roman. HteCovsi-m Rum.k 
 BIDIAN LAW. The, (*ee Ottm, " Fan! 
 m», UiiiiAx Law». 
 
 Drar 
 
 OIDYM.SUM, Th« oraal* o£ SeeORACua 
 
 OFTH* OBBBKa 
 
 OIBDBNHOFEN, Battle of (1639). See 
 Oebmaht: a. D. 1684-1689. "' 
 
 °'^**PE— Bombardment and deatnictiea 
 - an EncUah fleet. See Frakce: A. D. 
 
 683 
 
 .K °'^? ATRL— The day* on which the Romana 
 thought it unlucky to undertake busineat of 
 taportance-for example, the day after the 
 Calends^ Nones and Idea of each month — were 
 railed Dies Atri.- W. Ramaay, itanwU of Soman 
 
 8ee°fcffd\'^°'" "•'^'•-D'- F.^ 
 
 DIET.— 'VAn assembly, council, . . . Parlla- 
 ?*°k: J,- ■ ^* peculiar sense of the word un- 
 doubtedly arose from a popular etymology that 
 connected It with the Ut. 'die* ' a day esp a 
 set day, a day appointed for public businoa- 
 whence by exteiision, a meeting for business, an 
 assembly. "-W. W. Skeat. Et^notofical diet! 
 
 The Germanic— • The annual general coun- 
 cils and special councils of Charles the Great did 
 not long survive him, and neither his descend- 
 ants nor their succeasors revived them. Ther 
 were com|)elle<i, to be sure, both by custom and 
 by policy to advise with the chief men of the 
 kingdom before taking any important step or 
 doing anything that depended for success on 
 their consent and cooperation, but they varied 
 the number of their counsellors and the time 
 ptace, and manner of consulting them to suit 
 their own convenience. Great formal aasembliea 
 of counsiellors summoned from all parts of the 
 realm were termed Imperial Diets (Reicustage): 
 sma I, or local, or informal asaemhlles of a sfmi- 
 lar kind were known as Court DieU (Hoftage) 
 Princes ind other royal vassals, margraves, pals- 
 graves, finive-i. Iwrons, and even royal Dlenst- 
 mannen were indiscriminately suminoned, but 
 the Diets were in no sense representative bodies 
 until the Great Interregnum [aecOEBMA.NY: A D 
 ISTMHaral when certrtln cities acquliwi such 
 Influence in public affairs that thev were Invited 
 to «<n(l dilegates. The tirst Diet "in which they 
 participated was held at Worms in Februarv 
 li.M. b.v King William of Holland. .Most of tte 
 cities of the Rhenish League were there repre- 
 sent.ll, and tliey constituteil an important factor 
 of the amrinbly. The affairs (A the church 
 shannl attention with temporal affairs In the 
 Diets until the Popes sueceeilwi in making good 
 tlieir claims to supremacy in spiritual matters. 
 Thereafter they were altogether left to synods 
 and church councils. . . . Iniiterial DIeU and 
 Court Diets continued to Xk held at irregular 
 intervals, whenever and wlienver It pleased the 
 king to convene tlii-in, but Imperial Diets were 
 usually held in ImiHrial cities. These were not 
 such lietemirenouB H^s<>mblies as formerly, for 
 few rovnl vassals. ..m, pt princes, and no royal 
 Dienstnmnnen whatever were now invited 'to 
 atten'l linives :uid barons, and prelates who 
 Were ill I princes, continued to lie summoned. 
 but the miinlKT iiml InllueLce of the Graves and 
 barons in the Diets steadily waned. Imperial 
 eltlts were for many years only occasionally 
 a«ke<l to participate, that is to say, only when 
 the kins had ciiioowl need of their g«o<I offices, 
 but in the latter half of the 14th century tliev 
 began to be regularly summoned. Imperial 
 DIeu were so frequently held during the Huialte 
 
DIET. 
 
 DINAN. 
 
 War ud themfter, that It became pretty well 
 lettled vhat persons aod what citiea should take 
 part in them, and only those pern' jS and those 
 cities that were entitled to tak? part in them 
 were regarded as Estates of tho realm. In the 
 ISth century thty developed Into three chamliers 
 or CDllc^ris, viz., the College of Electors [see 
 Oer)i.\.vy: a. D. 1125-1152], the College of 
 Princes. Oraves, and Barons, usually call«l the 
 Council of Princes of the Empire (Relchsfnrs- 
 tenratb), and the College of Imperial Cities. 
 The Archbishop of Hentz presided in the Col- 
 lege of Electors, and the Archliishop of Salzburg 
 and the Duke of Austria presided alternately In 
 the Council of Princes of the Empire. The office 
 of presiding In the College of Imperial Cities 
 devolved upon the Imperial city in which the 
 Diet sat. The king and members of both the 
 upper Colleges sometimeit sent deputies to repre- 
 sent them, instead of attending In person. In 
 1474 the citiea adopted a raethixT of voting which 
 resulted in a divis'-n of their College Into two 
 Benches, called the Rhenish Bench and the 
 Swabian Bench, because the Rhenish cities were 
 conspicuous members of the one. and the Swabian 
 cities conspicuous members of the other. In the 
 Council of Princes, at least, no regard was had 
 to the number of votes cast, but only to the 
 power and influence of the voters, whence a 
 measure might pass the Diet bv less than a 
 majority of the votes present Having passed. 
 It was proclaimed as the lav of the realm, upon 
 receiving the king's assent, but was only effective 
 law in so far as tlie members of the Diet, present 
 or absent, assented to It. . . . Xot a single 
 Im|K>rial Diet was summoned between 1613 and 
 1840. The king held a few Court Diets dur- 
 ing that long interval, consisting either of the 
 Electors alone, or of the Electors and such other 
 Princes of tlie Empire as he clio8<> to summon. 
 The ccmilitions of memlM>rsliip, and the manner 
 of voting In the College of Electors and the Col- 
 lege o' Imperial Cities n'mained unchangetl. 
 . . 1 '■"< limg »tn)ve In vain to have 
 
 their voies i i;nized ns of equal weight with 
 the others, but the two up|ier Colleges insisted 
 en iegardiog them as sumnioni'd fur consultation 
 only, until the Peace of Westphalia s»'ttled the 
 matter by declaring that 'a di'ilaive vol4' (votum 
 ilecisivum) shall belong to the Kree Imperial 
 Cities not less than to the rest of the Estates <if 
 the Empire.' Generally, but not always, the 
 tense of each College was c.xpnsseil bv tile 
 mujiirity of votes east. The IVare nf ^Vcst- 
 phslia prcivideil that 'in relipuus mattirs ami 
 all iilher business, when tlie ^stuti'S cannot Ik' 
 considered one IkhIv (<'orpus), as also when the 
 Calholic Estates and those of the Augsburg Con- 
 feasion go Into two parts (in duas partes eun- 
 tibus), a mere amicafile agn'ement shall settle 
 the dilleri'uces without regard to majority of 
 votes' When the 'going into parts, (itio in 
 partes) t(M)k place each ('i)llego dililierateil in 
 two bixUes, the Ciirpus CathiiHi-tinim aii<l the 
 Corpus Evangelirorum. Th.- king no hingiT 
 attendetl the Imperial Diets In (lenon, but sent 
 ciiinniisKioiiers insteatl. and It was now tlie e<>ni 
 mon practice of members of both the upiier C<il- 
 leges to send deputies to represent them. — SH. E. 
 T'jfticf, i^ltk tf the licrmitnic Cotatitiitwu, cA. 
 4, 5, ami 6. — "The establishment of a perma- 
 nent <llet, attendeil. nut by the electors In person, 
 but by tlusir ivpnwuutlvet, ii one of the mott 
 
 itilklDg pecuIUritiei of Leopold's reign" (Leopold 
 I., 195'7-1706). Thii came about rather accidnt- 
 ally than with IntentloD, as a consequence of the 
 unusual piDlonntion of the session of a genetil 
 diet which Rudolph convoked at Ratisboo, gnoo 
 after his acoeMlon to the throne. "'Soduht 
 new and important objects . . . occurred in tlw 
 course of the deliberations that the diet vu 
 unusually prolonged, and at last renilind per. 
 petual, as it exisu at present, and distinjjulslwt 
 the Oermanic constitution aa the onlv one of iti 
 kind — not only for a certain length "of time, u 
 was formerly, and as diets are generally helil la 
 other countries, where there are national stata; 
 but the diet of the Oermanic empire was estsb- 
 lished by this event lor ever. The diet acquired 
 by this circumstance an entirely difTeri'iu funi. 
 So long as It was only of short durati< n. it vu 
 always expected that the emperor, :>- will ii 
 the electors, princes, counts and pn i *, if not 
 all, yet the greatest part of them, sh. aid aiicnd 
 in person. ... It is true, it had long lieeu cut- 
 toinary at the diets of Qermany, for tlie sum 
 to deliver their votes occasionally tiv moans of 
 plenipotentiaries; but it was then consiilind only 
 as an exception, when'os it wiu« mm eMahlLshed 
 as a general rule, that all the staus slmulil stni 
 their plenipotentiaries, and never apjicir tiiem- 
 selves, . . . The whole diet, tliercfcin-. Im|«r- 
 ceptibly acquired the form of a icin).Tes.i, con- 
 sisting solely of ministers, similar in a irreat 
 degree to a congress where ?"veral pnwirs .>«Dii 
 their envoys to treat of pi'ace. In otlu •• n siwta, 
 It may be comparetl to a congress hiM ir ilit 
 name of several states In per|>i'tu:il Mma 
 with each other, as In .Switzerlanil, the Inited 
 Pn>vinci.-s, and as some A'liat of a similur nature 
 exists at present In North Amerie^i: luit wiib 
 this difference, — that In Germany the uswraWj 
 is held under the authority of' (ini- tiimnui 
 supreme heail, and that the meinlxTH ijn out 
 appear merely as deputies, or n'lmwnlaiivei 
 Invested witli full power »iy tlair priniipalf. 
 which Is only tlic case with the iiii|«ri:il riiia; 
 but so tliat every member of the t»i> .Minrinr 
 colleges of the empire Is himself un m timl »i\a- 
 eign of a state, who permits liis niiuisier to 
 diOiver his vote in his name ami ciiilr :iccimi' 
 Ing to his prescription.'" — S. A. Diinliam. /W 
 *'f thr (rrmuinif hmpire, bk. 3. rh. 11 c :li — iy^4- 
 ing Pnttrr'g Hiit'Tiail l)ml"imuiil if tht Oer 
 viiinir ('"Mf. )— Of the later Diet, of Ih. (nniwnic 
 Confederation, something inav l>e K :>rniil umlrr 
 Or.IIM.\.NV: A. D. 1814-IWO. iind lH4f< (Makcb- 
 Septkmugiii. 
 
 • 
 
 D 1 F F I DAT ION, The Right of. S.>e Laxiv 
 
 rRIKUK. 
 
 DIGITI. Si'e Fotrr, TiiK Roman. 
 
 DIjON, Battle at. See Bi'Hui'miu.\8: A. D 
 5U«i. 
 
 DIJON, Oricin of,— Dijon, the old rapital of 
 the Dukes of Burgundy, was originally u <tn>ii| 
 camp city — an " urbs quadrita' — nf Ihi' Ro- 
 mans, known aa the Castrum DivimiinM-. In 
 walls were 30 fe<'t high, 1.1 fiit thick. asJ 
 atrengthene<l with 33 towers. — T. IhKljllua, 
 lUUii iiiiil Her Innulm, bk. 4. fh It. 
 
 DILEMITES, The. tne Ma'Iouictax Coi 
 qttoT. A IJ. StLVW.") 
 
 DIIIETIA. See Bhitaim : 6tb Cixti-ht 
 
 DINAN, Battle of (1597). S'e Fhaxcs 
 A. D. 1S93-1SIW. 
 
 G84 
 
DINAHT. 
 
 DISCIPLES OF CHRIST. 
 
 DINANT, Dettnictiun of.— Some young 
 men of Dinant bavinff caricatured Duke Charles 
 the Bold, of BuTcundy, in the coune of hU war 
 with Li^ge (to the bishopric of which Dinant 
 iKlooged), he took the town, in 1466, sacked it, 
 tied WM of the citizens In pairs and drowned 
 tliem, hanged many more, and made slaves of 
 the surTiTlng men. Then ho burned the city 
 suil removed the materials of which it had been 
 built.— J. ^ Kirk, CharUtthtBM, bk. 1, eh. 8-9. 
 
 Also m: E. de Honstrelet (Jobnes). Chroniela, 
 ik. S, eh. 188-189.— Philip de Commines, Me- 
 
 ■■ir; bk. 8, eh. 1. 
 
 DINWIDOIE COURT HOUSE, Action at. 
 Sn' United States or Am.: A. D. 1863 (Uabcb 
 — Aphii. : ViRoiRiA). 
 
 DIOBOLY, The. Pericles "was the pro- 
 poser of the law [at Athens] which instituted the 
 'Dioboly,' or free gift of two obols to each poor 
 citl:eD, to enable bim to pav the entrance-money 
 at the theatre during the Dionyaia."— C. W. C. 
 Oman, Ui»l. of Great, p. 871.^— See Athknb : 
 B C. 435-481. 
 
 DIOCESES OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 
 —•The civil government of the empire was dis- 
 tributed [under Constantine and his successors] 
 iDtothirtcen givat dioceses, each of which equalled 
 tbeju.itme! ire of a powerful kingdom. The 
 first of tbeke dioceses was subject to the juris- 
 diction of the Count of the East. The place 
 of Augustal Pnefect of Egypt was no longer 
 fillwl l)T a Roman knight, but the name was 
 rctaimtf. . . . The eleven remaining dioceses — 
 of Asians, Pontica, and Thrace ; of Macedonia, 
 Daciii and Pannonia. or Western lllyricum: of 
 Ituly and Africa : of Gaul, Spain, and Britain 
 — were ^overnitl by twelve vicars or vicc- 
 pnifiits.' — E. Gibbon, Dteline and Fall of the 
 Rmiiiii Empire, eh. 17. — Sec Pbjetoriak Pb.e- 
 
 rElTB. 
 
 DIOCLETIAN, Roman Emperor. See 
 
 Kcime; a. D. 2»4-30.'5 Abdication.— "The 
 
 certniiiiiy of his abdication was performed in a 
 •natious plain ahoutthrre milc» from N'iconinlia 
 [Slay 1, k. D. !«W]. The Empiror ascended a 
 lofty tlirone, and, in a speech full of n-ason and | 
 iliiriiity, declared bis intention, both to the people 
 ami to the soldiers who were assembled on this I 
 fitraonlinary occasion. As soon as be had j 
 ilivcstcd himself of the purple, he withdrew ' 
 fnmi the gazing multitude, and. traversing the j 
 cily in a covere<l chariot, proceeded without | 
 lielay to the favourite retirement [Sal(>na]^whirli 
 \iv liaii chosen In his native country of PttlmH- 
 tiii. — E. (jibbon, Deeline nnd Falli'ifthi Ilomnn 
 F.ihiurt, eh. I.S. — See, also, Salona. 
 
 DIOKLES, Laws ot.—K code of laws frameil 
 at MvracuHe, inunrtliatelv after the Athenian 
 •iiili', by a eoniniiwion of ten citizens the chief 
 of wliom was one Diiiklra. Tliese laws were 
 fxlinituislied in a fi-w ymrs by the Dvonisisn 
 I; ninny, but reviviil after n liipseof siztv veam. 
 Till code is "also said to have been copied in 
 Viiri-iH other Sicilian cities, and to have re- 
 iiiiiiiiitl in fiirce until the absorption of all Sicily 
 mull r the dominion of the Komans."— O Orote. i 
 11, -t ..fDrrree. pt 2, eh. HI. \ 
 
 DIONYSIA AT ATHENS.-' The four I 
 I" '!|"il Attik Dionvslak festivals were (I) the j 
 r V-..4 Mikrit. the Lraner or Rural DiiiuvHia ; 
 (■.'' 'ill- Diunysia I..enaia: '3) the Anthesteria' and 
 i4i ihc Diiinvsia Megala. the Greater or City 
 Diouraio. The Hural Dionysia, celebrated yearty 
 
 in the month Posideon (Dec. — Jan.) throughout 
 the various tonnships of Attike, was presided 
 over by the demarch or mayor. The celebration 
 occasioned a kind of rustic carnival, distinguislied 
 like almost Bakchik festivals, by gross intem- 
 perance anu licentiousness, and during wbicb 
 slaves enjoyed a temporary freedom, with licence 
 to insult their supenors and behave in a boister- 
 ous and disorderly manner. It is brought vividly 
 before us In the 'Acharnes' of Aristophanes. 
 . . . The 'Anthesteria. or Feust of Flowers, cele- 
 brated yearly in the month Anthesterion (Feb.— 
 March), . . . lasU'd for three days, the first of 
 which was called Pithoigia, or Tapbarrel-day, 
 on which they opened the casks and tried the 
 wine of the previous year. . . . The DionysU 
 Megala, the Greater or Citv Dionysia, celebrated 
 yearly in the month ElapheboHon (March— April) 
 was presided over by the Arehon Eponymos, so- 
 called because the vear was registered In his 
 name, and who was first of the nine. The order 
 of the solemnities was as follows : I. The great 
 
 Fublic procession. ... II. The chorus of Youths. 
 II. The Komoa, or band of Dionvsiak revellers, 
 whose ritual is best illustrate<l in 'ililton's exqui- 
 site poem. IV. The representation of Comedy 
 and Tragedy ; for at Athenai the stage was re- 
 ligion and the theatre a temple. At the time of 
 this great festival the capital was fill -d with 
 rustics from the countrv townships, and ..irangers 
 from all parts of llelfas and the outer world." 
 — R. Brown, TTie llreat Dioniitiuk Myth, eh. 6. 
 
 DIONYSIAN TYRANNY, The. SeeSvRA- 
 f USE : B. C. 3»7-3««, and 344. 
 DIPHTHERIA, Appearance of. See 
 
 Pl.AllfK: l.STH CKXTIBT. 
 
 DIPLAX, The. See I>eplim. 
 DIPYLUM,The. 8eeCEii.\Micus ok Athens. 
 DIRECTORY, The French. See France : 
 
 \. D. 179.'5 (Jl'NE- SEPTKMIIE") ; (OCTOHER- 
 DECEMnEH) ; 17»7 (SEI'TEMBKH). 
 
 DISCIPLES OF CHRIST.-" This body, 
 often called alsii Christians, was one of the re- 
 sults of the great revival movement which began 
 in Tennessee and Kentucky in the earlv part of 
 t!:e present century. Rev. 'Barton W. 'Stone, a 
 Presbyterian minister who was prominent in the 
 n'vlval movement, withilrew from the Presby- 
 terian Church, and in 1(<04 organized a church 
 with no other crtcil than the Uilile and with no 
 uunii- but that of rhristiiiu. One of his objects 
 was to find a basis for the union of all Christian 
 believers A little later Thomas and Alexander 
 Catnplx'll father ami son. who came from In-- 
 lunii. where llie fmnier bail been a Presbyterian 
 minister, orpiniiciil union s<icictles in Pennsvl- 
 vania {'Imncinv- their views as to liaptishi, 
 they joined the Riilstoiie .\s,so<iationof Baptists. 
 Shortly after, when .\le\aiider I'ampbell was 
 eharicMl with not being in harmony with the 
 creeil. lie followed the Burch Run 'Church, of 
 which he was pastor, into the Malioning Baptist 
 AssiH'iation. which, leavened with his teachings, 
 Booii ccaseil to lie known as a Baptist aaaocia- 
 tion In IN'.'7. after some com>s|)oiiilenee with 
 Rev H \V. Stone ami his followers of the 
 Christian Connection, then' was a union with a 
 larite nunilii r of congregations In Ohio. Ken- 
 tucky, and Tcniiessn'. luid the orcaiiixiition vari- 
 oiislv known as ■ Piseipies of riirist and 
 ' Chrisimns' [also, popularly ilesiirnnteil Camp- 
 billites'l is the result."— H.'K, Carroll, lieligiimt 
 of tht " •' ■ '■' 
 
 Foreiiof tht V. S., eh. 18. 
 
 685 
 
DIcUNHERITKD BARON& 
 
 DISINHERITED BARONS, Tht. Sca 
 Boonjuro: A. D. 1883-1888. 
 
 DISRABLI-DBRBY AND BEACONS- 
 FIELD MINISTRIES. See Emoland: A. I. 
 18S1-1883; 18S8-1880: 1868-1870; and I8T8-I881). 
 
 DISRUPTION OF THE CHURCH OF 
 SCOTLAND. See Scotland: A. D. 1848. 
 
 '"SSBNTERS, OR NONCONFORM- 
 ISi'S, Enclith: Fint bodies orruiued.— 
 Penccotioiu under Charle* II. and Anne.— 
 Remotral of DiMbilitici. S<-e Etioland: A. D. 
 1650-1586; 1663-1665; 1672-1673; 1711-1714: 
 1827-1828 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE SURPLUS, 
 The. See United States or Am. : A. D. 1835- 
 1837. 
 
 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, The. See 
 C01.UM111A, The District of. 
 
 DIVAN, The. See Scbi.ime Porte. 
 
 DIVODURUM.— The Gallic nnme of the 
 city afterwards calle<l Mediomatrlci — now Metz. 
 
 DiVONA.— Modem Cahors. See Cadirci. 
 
 DIWANI. Sec India: A. D. 1757-1772. 
 
 DIX, General John A.: Meuaee to New 
 Orleans. See Unfted Statf* or Am. : A. D. 
 1860-1861 (Df.cember— Fkbri-aby). 
 
 DIEM, OR JEM, Prince, The Story of. 
 SeeTiRKR: A. D. 14l:tl-l.')30. 
 
 DOAB, The English acquisition of the. See 
 India: A, D. I79t<-1«0.'>, 
 
 DOBRIN, Knirhts of the Order of the 
 Brethren of. S<t' I'hissia : 13Tn C'ENTrRv. 
 
 DOBRUDJA, The.— The peninsula formed 
 brtwwn the Ditnube, near its mouth, and the 
 Black Sea. 
 
 DOBUNI, The.— A trilte of ancient Britons 
 who lii'lil a region In-twcen the two Avons. See 
 Britain. C'ki.tii- Thiiies. 
 
 DOCETISM.— • We note another phase of 
 gnosticism in tlie diM-trine so directly and warmly 
 comhatMl in the epistles o^ .John:" we refer to 
 docetism— tliat is, the theory which refuse<i to 
 recojriiize the reality of the liunmu IkhIv of 
 Christ."— E. Ueu»s, 'Ifint. „/ Chritlian ThitiUigy 
 in the A/i-MtuUe .V/f. p. 323. 
 
 OODONA. See Hellas. 
 
 DOGE. See Vknuk: A. T1. 6B7-S10. 
 
 DOGGER BANKS, N M Battle of the 
 (1781). S^T Netiikhl.inu ill.vxu>: .v. 1). 
 1746-17M7. 
 
 DOKIMASIA.— " Ail istmtes [in nnrient 
 Athens] whether electei' ■ eheirotoniu or hv 
 lot. wen- e( in|H<lleil. lief(. enlerine U|Mm their 
 ofllie, to suhject thenisi'lveH to a l>o|vimasin. or 
 scrutiny into their tllnev. for the iMmt "— (). K. 
 Schumann, Anliu.'ifdn.ft: The Sl.itr nl 3 ch 3 
 
 DOLICHOCEI^HALIC MEN.- a term 
 used in ethnolotry. signifyinif " ioni: hinded." 
 as distinf^uishini; one clii>s'or skulls nnioni; the 
 it'nmins of primitive men. from ano'.lier elnss 
 called linichvei'phalic. or "hmadheinl" " 
 
 DOLLINGER, Doctor, and the dogma of 
 Papal tnfallibilitT. See Papaiv: A. U ICfiU- 
 1870 
 
 DOLMENS. S<'0 CitoMi K) IIS. 
 
 DOMESDAY, OR DOOMSDAY BOOK. 
 See ICmii.a.nii: .\. 1) KKVKWH, 
 
 DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, The. St 
 Hayti: a. I). 1*»4-1KM(I. 
 
 DOMINICANS. Srt- Mfnmi A.NT Oiior.i::.; 
 also. Inui isitio.n: A. I). U'o:t-|.VJ.">. 
 
 DOMINION OF CANADA-DOMINION 
 DAY. Se Ca.Naua: a. 1). 1867. 
 
 DONEL80N. 
 
 DOMINUS. See iMmtATOK, Final Sig!!i 
 ncATiON or m Roman Trnjc 
 
 DOMITIAN, Roman Emperor, A. D. 8|.M 
 
 DOMITZ, BatU* of (1435). See Oermaxv' 
 A. D. 1684-1639. 
 
 DON JOHN OF AUSTRIA. Set .Ions 
 (Dt>N) or Austria. 
 
 DON PACIFICO AFFAIR, The. Se, 
 England: A. D. 1849-1850; and Greece: A D 
 1846-1850 
 
 DONALD BANE, King of Scotland, A D 
 1098-1098 (expelled during part of the period 
 by Duncan If.) 
 
 DONATI, The. See Florencb: A. 0, 1385- 
 1800. and 1801-1313. 
 
 DONATION OF CONSTANTINE. See 
 Papacy: A. D. 774 (T). 
 
 DONATION OF THE COUNTESS MA- 
 TILDA. See Papact: A. D. 1077-1 Kli 
 
 DONATIONS OF PEPIN AND CHAR- 
 LEMAGNE. See Papact: A. D. 75,v::4 
 
 DONATISTS, The.—" The Donatist contro. 
 versy was not one of doctrine, but of evrlesiaj. 
 tical discipline; the contested election fir tlie 
 archbishopric of Carthage. Two competitors, 
 Cecllius and Donatus, £td been coneurrcntly 
 elected while the church was yet in a deiire^sd 
 state, and Africa subject to the tyrant .Ma.\i'a- 
 this [A. D. 806-312]. Scarcely had CoiiMuutine 
 subdue<l that province, when the two rivals 
 referred their dispute to him. Constantine. who 
 still publicly professed paganism, but Imil shown 
 himself very favourable to the Christians, insti 
 tuted a careful examination of their resiwotive 
 claims, which lasted from the year 31-.' to 31.5, 
 and Anally decideil in favour of t'eciliu-. Fimr 
 hundred African bishops protested H^t.iinst this 
 decision: from that timn they were ilesitrtuiltd 
 by the name of nonatUta. ... In eoiii|iliiince 
 with an order of the empenir, solicited liv I wi- 
 lius, the property of the Donatisis « .is' siizol 
 and transferred to tiic anla»:<mist IhsIv of the 
 clergy. They revengefl themselves by p'riniouiiv 
 niit sentence uf excommunication ajrainst nil ihi- 
 nA of the ChristUn world. . . . Persecution in 
 one side and fanaticism on the other were ptr- 
 IK'tuatcd through thn-e cei;turies, up to tlic |icri.>l 
 of the extinction of Christianity in Afrini. The 
 wandering preachers of the Doniitic! Uk\v>h 
 had no other means of living than lln' iilnis of 
 their tliK-ks. ... As might \v cxpn inl. ihiv 
 outdid each other in extniviigance, nini smin i:;;\i. 
 intothemost frantic ravings: lhoiisiiiil>.if |ii:u 
 aiit.s, drunk with the efliKt <if these iXnrt.iiioiH, 
 fonMHik tlieir jiloughs and thd to tlje cIim .'-!.< if 
 lietulin. Their bishops, a,s»iiiiiingtlie lit liifiii|i- 
 tuins of tlie saints, put themselves at tlieir ln^fl 
 Hiid thcv rushed on«anl, carrying ilcalli :iimI ■!■ il- 
 lation into the adjacent proviueii.. tliev wire 
 ilistingiiishcd by the name of (in unmlii ritk: 
 -Vfrlca was ilevastated liv their ravnircs. — 1. 1 
 I., de Sismoiidi, Fall iif die liimni' Kn.j.ire. ■* 4. 
 
 Ai.s«> i.\: V. Schaff, llitt. of (/„ rhr-,i„ii 
 fhuirl,. 1: •> .-//. 0. 
 
 DONAUWORTri : A. D. 1632.- Taken by 
 Gustavus Adolphus. See Uekmanv a 1' 
 ItWI-l&W. 
 
 A. D. 1704.— Taken by Marlborough. >■•■ 
 Uerma.w: a. I). i;u4. 
 
 OONELSON, Fort, Capture of v iMitn 
 States OF Am. : \. I). INliJ (.Iani ah\ J:.!!!!! 
 ART: KKNTt'CKY— TENKEStiEK.. 
 
 r.86 
 
DONGAN CHARTER. 
 
 DONGAN CHARTER, Thi. See New 
 Tom (Cm): A. D. 1886. 
 
 DONUM. See Tallage, 
 
 DONUS 1., Pope, A. D. 67«-«78 Donna 
 
 II, Popt, A. D. lft4-»76. 
 
 DONZELLO. See DXmoibel. 
 
 DOOMS OF INE, The.-" These laws were 
 lepubliabed by King Alfred aa 'The Doonia of 
 Ine ' who fine] came to the throne In A. D. 088 
 Id their flnt clause they claim to have been 
 teconletl bv King Ine w 1th the counsel and teach- 
 ing of Ills father Cenred and of Ilrdde, his bishop 
 (who was Bishop of Winchester from A. D. 676 
 to 705) and of Eorcenweld, his bishop (who 
 obtsinrd the see of London In 675): and so, if 
 pnaine, they seem to represent what was settled 
 customary Itw In Wesaex during the last half of 
 tho seventh century. "—F. Seelwhm, EnglM 
 Vitlaiie Cummnnity, eh, 4. 
 
 DOOMSDAY, OR DOMESDAY BOOK. 
 gte Enuland: A. D. 1085-1006. 
 
 DOORANEES, OR DURANEES, The. 
 See India: A. D. 1747-1761. 
 
 DORDRECHT, OR DORT, Synod of. See 
 DoRT: also, Nethebla.nds: A. D, 1608-1619 
 
 DORIA, Andrew, The deliTcrance of Genoa 
 by. S'e Italy: A. D. 1527-1529 
 
 DORIANS AND lONIANS, The.-" Out 
 of ilie jrrt lit PeloDginn population [see Pelasgi- 
 AS«], wliic-li covcrwl Anterior Asia Minor and 
 the wlioli' European peninsular land, a younger 
 Hopli- hail issuetl forth separately, which »e 
 find from the first divided into two races. These 
 nuin raees we may call, according u> the two 
 dialects of the Greek lanifiiage, the Dorian and 
 tlif Ionian, although the«' names ure not Ketier- 
 
 ■ llf (iLiiiil until B ln*..« . t- 1 . 1 f . 
 
 «Jlr ii«<l until a laur p«-rio<i to desfgnafe rii'c 
 : nation. No dM:"'in of 
 
 livisiiiii (if the Hellenic nation, .^i, iin;- 
 10 tliomugh a bearing could have taken -e 
 unU-ns »c<oinpani«l by au early Unal separau. 
 We aiwiinie that the two races parted company 
 will].' yet ill Asia Minor. Due of them settles in 
 the niuiintaincantons of Xorllicrn Hellas the 
 oilier alniijt the Asiatic coast. In the latter the 
 hiit.mc mnvement b«-ginE. Willi the aid of the 
 in of iiavi)fation, leanit from the Phonieiaiia the 
 Asiatic (Jreeks at an early jicritxl spread over the 
 «ea; (lonicsticating tliiniklves in low.r Egypt 
 in ciiintnis colonized by the Phienieians, in the 
 whole .Xnhipelago, fn.m Crete to Thrace : and 
 Inmi their origiual as well as from their subse- 
 quint M-als m-i.il out numerous settlements I.. the 
 cwsi of Kimipean Grceee, first from the Ei.st 
 side. imM. iifler coiKjuering their tiniiditv, also 
 uliMijr in ilie (..initry, beyond Capo Malei fmni 
 the Wesi. At tlrst they land as pirates ami 
 iii.-n:ip. ihcn proceed to permanent settlements 
 apM- :ii„l straits of the wa, and by the mouths 
 efnv.r>, wli.re thiv unite with tl'ie I'elasitiim 
 Pjipula^ioii, The (lilTereLt ixrimls of tliis col... 
 BiMtioii „,.Hy be jmlge.1 of by the forms of 
 aiviiie uor>lMp, and by the names umlcr «lii<U 
 lite mnntinie trit«» were called l,v the iialiv, s 
 • h.irru.i,>t appearance is as Cariaus; as Leli-cs 
 tOeir iiilliunee is more iH-neliceut and ihtiiui 
 oral -l>r. E. Curtius, :iM.,.f (hw,. U. 1 ,', 
 ».-I)i ihe view of Dr, Cunois, the later nili:ni 
 Km of Ionian trilies from S.'ithern tin-.ee to ' 
 her«,u:,f .\-4n MlQ..f,-- whic.i i...in .a„i..ui.ie.i 
 totoric fact.- was really a ntuni -into the i 
 oome „f ,in,ir ancestors '■_" the nmient home ' 
 M the irreat Ionic race, " Whether that lie the I 
 iret vitw or not, the movement in question «a« 
 
 DORIANS AND lONUNS. 
 
 connected, apparently, with Important moTo. 
 mente among the Dorian Greeks in Greece itself. 
 These latter, according to all accounts, and the 
 JJjpeement of aU historians, were long setUed fai 
 Thessaly. at the foot of Olympui (s^ Greece: 
 
 : ^' ii?.**,*?"'*i- " "" *'^'« »*»«» "»e»r moral 
 and pollUcal development began ; there that they 
 learned to look at Olympus as the home of the 
 gods, which all Greeks afterwards learned to do 
 from them. ■• The service rendered by the 
 Dorian tribe,' says Dr. Curtlus. "lay in havlnir 
 wried the germs of national culture out of 
 Thessaly where the Invasion of ruder peoples 
 disturbed and hindered their farther growth, into 
 the and towards the south, where these irerms 
 rt«eived an unexpectedly new and grand de- 
 velopment. . A race claiming descent from 
 Heracles united itself In this Thessalian coast-dis- 
 trict with the Dorians and established a royal 
 dominion among them. Ever afterwards Heme- 
 lidiB and Dorians remained together, but with- 
 out ever forgetting the original distinction be- 
 tween them. In their seau by Olympus the 
 foundations were laid of the peculiarity of the 
 IJorians Injjolltical oi-der and social customs; at 
 the foot of Olympus was their real home."— 
 Themme, bk. 1, ek. 4 —From the neighborhood 
 of Olvmpus the Dorian;^ moved souUiwards and 
 found another home in 'the fertile mountain- 
 recess between Pamaiisus and OJta, the 
 most ancient Doris known to us by name " 
 Their final movement was into Peloponnesus 
 which was "the most important and the most 
 fi'rtile in consequences of all the migrations of 
 Grecian raws, and which continued, even to tlie 
 late^t periods to exert its infiuence upon the Greek 
 character. " Thenccforwanls the Dorians were the 
 dominant race in Peloponnesus, and to their chiefl 
 state, Lacediemonia, or Sparta, was generally con- 
 ceded the headship of the Hellenic family. This 
 Doric occupation of Peloponnesus, the periiKlof 
 which is supposed to have been aliout 1100 B. C 
 no doubt caused the Ionic migration from that part 
 of Gn-ece and colonization of Asia Minor.— C. O. 
 Mnller, Hint, unit AnUquitiet of the Vort'e nice 
 bk I. eh. 3.— Tiie subsequent division of the 
 Hellenic world between lonlans and Dorians is 
 thus defined by Schomaiin: 'To the Iiuiiaua 
 belong the inhabitants of .\ttica, tlie most im- 
 portant piirt of the population of Eiibivii, and 
 I the islands of the Jjgean included under tho 
 common name of Cyclailes. as well as the colo- 
 nists Ixith on the Lydian and Carian coasts of 
 Asm .Minor and in the two larger islands of Chios 
 ami Tamils which lie op|>o.sile. To tlie Dorians 
 witliin tlie I'eloponiies<> lulonjr the S|ianans. as 
 well us the dominant poiitihilions of Argos 
 Sieyon, Philn-, Corinth TnKZciie and Epiifau- 
 riis, tov'etlur » ith the islanil of .-Ejrina: outside 
 till' PiliiiHiiiiKsc, but nearest to it. were tlie 
 Megariil. and the small 1/orian Tetniiolis [also 
 called IVntapoiis and Tripolis] near .Mount Par- 
 nassii.i; at a ifrcatir distance were the majority 
 of the scattered islands and a large portion 
 of the Ciiri.in coasts of Asia Minor and tlie 
 ncithliourinir islands, of whi.li Cos and HIiimIcs 
 were the most important. Filially, the ruling 
 I'ortion of the Cntan populution'waa of Itor- 
 iim .Icseeni — G. F. t^chOmann, Anlirpiiti.M nf 
 ',r„,; . r/ir St.llf. pi. 1. rf. l.—Mj.,., „],,;, 
 
 (iKKtcE: The MiottATioNs; Asia Mi.vou: Tub 
 Gkeek Culomes; UKHACLlUik : bPAKTA; and 
 J^uUA.ve. 
 
 68/ 
 
DORIS AND DRTOPIS. 
 
 DRESDEN. 
 
 DORIS AND DRYOPIS.— ■■ The little terri- 
 tor7 [tn ancient Qieece] called Doris and Dryo- 
 ^ occupied the KUtoiTn declivity of Mount 
 u!t>, diTiding Fhokls on tlie north and northwest 
 from the .£tolians, .fnianes and MalianK. That 
 which wa» called Doria in the hiatorioal times, 
 and which reached in the tlmtM ot Herodotus 
 nearly as far eastward as the Muliac gulf, is said 
 to have formed a part of what had been once 
 called Dryopls; a territory which had coi-iprised 
 the summit of (Eta ai far hs the Sp« rrhius, 
 northward, and which had been inhabiteil bv an 
 old Hellenic tribe called Dryopes. The Dorians 
 acquired their settlement in Diyopisby gift from 
 H^raklSs, who. along with the Maliaos (s» ran 
 the legend), had expelled the Orvopes anil com- 
 pelled them to flnd for themsi ■, . •« new seats at 
 Hermione, and AsinS, In the Argolio iH-ulnHula of 
 Peloponnesus, — at Stym viid Karystus in Euboea. 
 — and in the island of Kythnus; it ia mly in 
 these five last-mentiom'd" places tha; history 
 rocognlies them. The territory of Doris was 
 distributol into four little townships, — Pindus, 
 crAkvphas, Boeon, Kyrinion and Erineon. . . . 
 In itself tills tetrapolia fc> so invigniflcant that we 
 shall rarely find occasion to mention it; but it 
 acquired "a factitious consequence by being 
 regarded as the metropolis of the great Dorian 
 cities in Peloponnesus, and receiving on that 
 
 S-ound special protection from Sparta." — G. 
 rote. Hill, of Orttee. pt. 2, eh. 8. 
 Also m: CO. Mailer, llitt. and Antiq. of the 
 Doric Race. bk. 1, eh. 2.— See also, Dobiaxs awd 
 
 lOJttANS. 
 
 DORMANS, Battle of (1575). See Fbabcb : 
 A. I). l.'iTS-l.'iTe. 
 
 DORNACH, Battle of (1499). Bee Swttzeb- 
 lASD: A. 1> 1396-1499. 
 
 DORR REBELLION, The. See Rhode 
 Island . A. I). 1841-1843. 
 
 DORT, OR DORDRECHT, The Synod of. 
 — "In the |ii« I'liiintries the aupr» ne govtni- 
 ment. the states-general, interfercii [in the Cal- 
 rlnisti'" iimtrovrrsy], and in the year 1618 
 convoki l till' lirsl and only synod iH-arinj; some- 
 thing of iIk' I'li^inu'tir of a general council that 
 has been ■onvincd by protestants It as-scmbled 
 at Don. anil <nntinue<l its sittings from Novem- 
 ber till May following. Its business was to decide 
 the qiiiiitions at Lssue betwii n tlie Calvinists and 
 Armiiiians; tlie latter pany wire also termed 
 rcinonstranta. James [I.] wa'? ri'nuestid to -"nd 
 over ri insinlatives for the Knglish C'hurih and 
 chose four i!i vines: — Carlton liishop of Llaniaff, 
 Hall ii> in of Worcester, afterniir is bishop suc- 
 cess! v. ly of Exeter and Noru li. Uavinant 
 aftirwii'riis bishop of Salisbury, an I I'.. S Wiinl 
 of Cambridge. They were nieii o( leariiinir iim! 
 miNlenition. . . . The history ■ ? tliis famous 
 syuoil ia lolil in varioiLs ways !'> deeisions wen' 
 In favour of IheiliM-trines termi-.l 1 alvinislir, and 
 the nmonstraiitu were exp<ll ■■! from llollaml 
 . . Tlie majority Kin- rv ;. 1 li.irgiil bv the 
 otlier INirty with linviiig IkiuihI tlifiiiM-ivtii ii\' an 
 0;itli iH'foi* tbry tuli-nil up<in busini-ss. to 1' 
 deinii the retnonstrants "— .1 IJ Marsden, Hi- 
 of Ktrlii Pnnl'iin. p 329 —See NETnEHUkSlw-: 
 A. I) l'«(i:i-16Ut 
 
 DORVLAEUH, Battle of lioo? See Cnr 
 8.MUS A. 1) 1IIW1-1IW9, 
 
 DOUAI: A. D. 1667.— Taken by the French 
 8"^ Nethbblakds (The Sr.v.vuu I'hovtkcec 
 A i> 1667 
 
 A. D. ti68.— Ceded to Frmacc. See Nrren. 
 LAi(M(HoLLAin>): A. D. 1668. 
 
 A. D. 1710.— Siege and captore by Marlbor- 
 ot^[h. See NBTHXaLAKUS: A. D. ITlO-iTi; 
 
 > 
 
 DOUAI, The Catholic Seminary at. See 
 EnoLAKD: A. D. 1573-1608. 
 
 DOUBLOON. - DOBLON. See SPANin 
 Conta 
 
 DOUGHFACES.— The "Missouri Compro- 
 mise," of 1880. in the United .States, -wm 4 
 Northern measure, carried by Northern yot««. 
 With some the threats of disunion wrri' a suf- 
 ficient influence ; some, whom in the drlmti' Ran- 
 dolph [John Randolph, of Virginia] called 
 doughfacee, did not n^ even that. . Tlim 
 haa been always a singular servility in the cliar. 
 acter of a portion of the American people In 
 that class the slaveholder has always fnimd hii 
 Northern servitor. Randolph flnit gave it 1 
 name to live by in the term doughface. "—W C. 
 Brvant and 8. H. Gay. Popular Uitt. .ifthe V. .-" 
 V. I. pp. 271 and 294. 
 
 DOUGLAS, Stephen A., and the doctriie 
 of Squatter Sovereignty. See Vmthd St.mk 
 
 or Am. : A. D. 1854 Defeat in Presidentiil 
 
 election. See United States or Am : A D 
 1860 'April — November • 
 
 DOURO, Battle of the (15801. Sec Pon- 
 tloal: a. D 1.'57»-1580 . .Wellington's p«»- 
 ■age of the. See Spain ; A. D. 1809 (Febrciei 
 
 — JCLTj. 
 
 DOVER, Roman Origin of. ScePrniui 
 
 DOVER, Tenn . Battle at. s. xttid 
 States OF .Vm. : .\ 1> i^'-'- Fkbbiauv-.m'ril 
 Tennessj : 
 
 DOVER, Treaty of. N-e Esoland: .v D 
 1668-1670 
 
 DOWLAH. Surajah, •: J the English in 
 India. S,i- India: A D. lT55-i:.", auil 175: 
 
 DRACHMA. 8e<' Talent 
 
 DRACONIAN LAWS See Athenv li C 
 624 
 
 DRAFT RIOTS, The. Seo New Yoki 
 (Crrvi: .\. D 1^63. 
 
 DRAGON. -PENDRAGON.- .\ title » me 
 times givi-ii ih Wi Ish poetry to a kiiii: "r W'st 
 military leader Supposed to Ix' iliriMil frn 
 the tigiin' of a dragon on their flags, n liidi ibn 
 borniweil from the Romans See CimisKH 
 
 DRAGONNADES, The. ^iv Kha.v.e 
 A. 1) 16.H1-1698 
 
 DRAKE, Sir Francis. Sr. AMf :uii i .\ I' 
 l,5:-'-l.'i«<l: anil Kmh, AMI A 1> 1.>M.>- 
 
 DRANGIANS, The. See Saua.m.hx- 
 
 DRAPIER-S LETTERS, The. See If 
 Lanm .\ 1>. 17->J-1724 
 
 DRAVIDIAN RACES. Sec Triu.MA> 
 Raik'. also, India: The AnoNioiNALisnAiin 
 
 DRED SCOTT CASE, The. Si. Isird 
 States ok Am. : .\ I> IH.*!? 
 
 DREPANA, Naval battle at, 3 C :« 
 6«i I'l .VI. Wab. Tuk Fihpi 
 
 DRESDEN: A. D. I750.-C»pturr aadiK- 
 cupation by Frederick the Great. >.i. OtK 
 
 MANY A. 1) 17.')B 
 
 A. D. 1759-1760.— Capture >t the Austriasi 
 —Bombardment by Frederick N-t (-i RXiSC 
 A 1». 17.W (Jllv — .NovKHiii.Ki. ;ii"i i" 
 
 A. D. 1813.— Oectipied by the Pnissismtiri 
 Ruattaai.— Taken by the French. -Invests 
 by the Allies.— Great battii- before the atr 
 
 fi88 
 
DRESDEN. 
 
 udTicteiyfor Napoleon.— French rereraei.— 
 St Cyr*! rarrendcr. SeeOERMAST: A. D 1813- 
 1813; 1818 (Aprii^Mat): (ArocsT); (Skptbh- 
 
 BB— OCTOBBB); aud (OCTOBEB— DeCBMBGII). 
 
 DREXBL INSTITUTE. See Education, 
 MoDEsa : Amxrica : A. D. 1824-1898. 
 
 DREUX, Battle of (1563). See France: 
 A. D. 1560-1568. 
 
 DROGHEDA, OR TREDAM, Cromwell's 
 mawacre at. See Ireland: A. D. 1649-1650. 
 
 DROITWICH, Origin of. S«* Saus.«. 
 
 DROMONE.'.— A name given to the li;-ht 
 Mlleys of the Byzantine empire.— E fiibtron, 
 icdineiind Fall of the Homan Empire, eh. 53 
 
 DRUIDS.— The priesthood of a religion wiiich 
 eiistcd among the Celts of Gaul am! Britain be- 
 fore they wf-re Christianized. " Greek and Ro- 
 man writer* give us very little information on 
 this subject »nd the eariy \\. sh records and 
 pixtry none at all. Modem Wel^h writers have, 
 L.wever, made up for this want in their genuine 
 litirature by inventing an elaborate Druidical 
 lystem of religion and philosophy wl)':h, they 
 fretend. survived the introduction of Christianitv 
 and was secretly upheld h^ the Welsh liards in 
 the .Middle Ages. This ><-.. Druidi. imncisture 
 lias found numerous adherents." — V K SuUi- 
 
 ■sm. Artielt. " O'fii- Literaturf," En- ,■-. lint. 
 
 "':iy, alludint m the Druids' pmliUction for 
 .mif oak. mlds the words: "ut iii<; ppellatl 
 q, lue InterPfMtione Gneca possint hruidie 
 via i'. . . H» lie possessed knowledge enough 
 of tlie Gaulish la. "lagc, he woulii have seen that 
 it supplied an i » lanation which rendered it 
 neeillissto have m urse to Greek, namelv in the 
 native word ' dru, ' which we hav e in ' Pr ineme- 
 ion.' or the sacred Oak-grove, iriven bv Strabo 
 as the name of the place of a»s< mbly of the Oa- 
 latiaos. In fact, one has, if I am not mistaken, 
 been .skeptic "vith regard to this etymology, not 
 so niuili on phonological grounds as from failing 
 exactly to see how the oak could have given its 
 name t" such a famous- rganizat ion <lhedriiidic 
 one inu>,t be admittea !•> have li- But the 
 
 parallels just indicated, u.s showing he impiirt- 
 sicecif the saer- I tree !n the worvi -.f Zeus 
 and the gmls rej 'sentini.- him am g nations 
 other than the Ga*k 011 help 10 throw 
 light on this point. Ac<-. lingi • theetv- 
 bete alluded to, the Drui. - would he tli'i 
 of the god assoeiateil or 1(1 .tided -vith ! 
 
 at is, as -^e are toM, thi 
 ..ine who Were famtlinr wii 
 ' ihe Greeks, to gtaml In 
 liHulish the< iogy that Xf 
 This harmi' Izcg thor 
 
 Ih. 
 
 •me 
 
 •gy 
 
 su 
 .ik; 
 : to 
 
 ,gy 
 , in 
 
 ■ of th. 
 
 i-Jved 
 
 known alKni- the Dr 
 Ufr:.\'m. on Hie 11 
 
 Our traditions 
 ai» evi lentiy dt 
 tianitv ,id lonj; 
 I>nii(l< .ire repr- 
 crjjuriirs, tod ; 
 i>be<l i 
 
 of « 
 ton' 
 Str.!- 
 lirocii 
 but • 
 
 MUl' 
 
 DUBRI3. 
 
 the Loire. . . . After the conTenion of Irelaiul 
 W8» accomplished the Druidi disappear from 
 history. Their mystical powers were trsnsferred 
 without much alteration to the abboM and bishops 
 who ruled the 'families of the salnU.'"- C 
 Elton, Orieint of Englith Hitt., eh. 10. 
 
 Also IN : Julius Ciesar, Oallie War. bk. 6 eh. 
 18-18.— Strabo. Geog.. bk. i.eh.i,teet. 4-6— For 
 an account of the final destruction of the Druids 
 see BRiTAnt : A. D. 61. 
 
 DRUIDS, Order ot See iKstJKASCE. 
 
 DRUMCLOG, The Coveoanters at. See 
 Scotland; A. D. 1679 (May— June). 
 
 DRURVS BLUFF, Battle of. See Unitkd 
 States or Am.: A. D. 1864 (Mat: Virgikia) 
 The Armt or the Jamxs. 
 
 DRUSUS, Germanic campains of. See 
 Germany: B. C. 12-9. 
 
 DRYOPIANS, Thj.— One of the aboriginal 
 nations of ancient Greece, whose territory was in 
 ^s valley of the Spercheus and exu-nded as far as 
 Parnassus and Thermopvte ; but who were after- 
 wanls widely dispersed In many colonies. It is, 
 »«ys C. O. MilUer. "historically certain that a 
 great part of the D'Tophins wereconsecnitcd ass 
 subject peopV be P)-thian Apollo (an usage 
 of ancient tlijcs, of which there are many 
 instances; and that for a long time tliev mt- d 
 as such."— //i>r. and Antiq. of the iMrie Ract, l,k. 
 1. eh. 2— See. also, DoRis; and P , 'toDCLL 
 
 DUBARRY, Countess, Ascen^l-ncy of. See 
 FntNc A. D. 1723-1774. 
 
 See Ireland: Oth-Ioth 
 
 See Poland: 
 
 "7«7). 
 
 iio set 
 igan ti 
 ' lie posi! 
 ul iu tiie fo-nier. 
 V with II that is 
 - -.1. Rh -. //,w.. .' 
 ' m. Ue(. 3, pt. 2 - 
 .iui:,h and Irish Dnii.ls 
 im a time when Chriij- 
 ■en- ..blish.i!. These insuliir 
 ■nt< ^ as Im i j little lietfer than 
 ir ignity is as much dimiii- 
 
 {Kiv> . r (if the king is exaggerated, 
 •har* h or Belshazzar with a trxH>p 
 his c ■nan : but his Druids are 
 ^;i.: 1 n,i.5. ...t, - . . . The Druids of 
 
 •'?■ ^'-;— - - w=ik; : ir. %.-.-.rirt .ind i;,.iii 
 
 *i»i wori golden collar- and bracelets: 
 '!»trin<-k may have lieen much the 
 iiKnrof V »4»ith8avers bv the Severn, 
 il>clri-bmt^;ieloe Mi k- rustic wizards by 
 
 689 
 
 DUBH CALLS. 
 
 Cs;XTI KIES. 
 
 DUBIENKA, Battle ofdT 
 A i> i 791-1792. 
 
 DUBITZA: Taken by the » -strians 
 See 'RKS: A. D. 1776-1792. 
 
 E BLIN: The Danish Kingdom. S<>e 
 
 TrE. >ND; 9TH-10THCENTt7RrES; also >•' 'KMANM 
 — XoBTHMEN: 8TH-9rjI Cl STIRIK" 
 
 A. D. 1014.— The battle of Clontarf and the 
 
 5 real ^•feat of the Danes, ^.c Ireland: 
 . D. 4 
 
 A. D ; 170.— Taken by the Normao-Enrlish. 
 Seclm ^D: A. D. 1169-117- 
 
 A. D 1646-1640.— Sieges m the Civi War. 
 See Ireland: A. D. 1646-1649. 
 
 A. D. 1750. — The importance of the city. 
 — •' In the middle of tin- 18th century it was in 
 dimensions and populai 'he second "citv in the 
 empire, containing, accor.i ,ig to the most trust- 
 worthy accounts, between 100.000 and 120.000 
 inhabitants. Like most ihin^s in Ireland, it 
 presented vivid contrast anil strangers were 
 eijually struck with the ' mwds of beggars, the 
 inferiority of the inns, the sii»alld wretchedness 
 of the streets of the old town, and with the 
 noble proportions of the now quarter, and the 
 brilliant aiid hospitable so< ty that inhabited it. 
 The Liffey was spanned hy "four bridges, and 
 another on a grander scale was undertaken in 
 !7j3. St. Stephen's Green .■« considered the 
 liirgest square in Kurope. T quays of Dublin 
 w ire widely cclebr»te<l. " — W II. Lecky, Bitt 
 of Eng.. IMA Ctnttiry. th. 7 ir. i). 
 
 DUBRIS, OR OUBRiG.— The Roman port 
 
 oil ir.c ca^i coast of uril&tu >«iiloh is uow knuwu 
 a- Dover. In Roman times, as now. it wa.s 
 tl.' principal Isndlng-plsce on the British sid 
 of she channel.— T. Wright, (Mt, Roman a< 
 btiion, eh. 8. 
 
 ■f^i 
 
 TWUm 
 
DUCAT. 
 
 DCRHAX. 
 
 DUCAT, Spaaith. B«r SPAimR Conn. 
 
 DUCES. See Cockt ako Dukb. 
 
 DUDLEY, Thomai, aod the colony of Mat- 
 •achuMttt Bay. 8«e Mamacbcutts - A. D. 
 l(i2b-tflW), ud after. 
 
 DbFFERIN, Lord.— The Indian admiaic 
 trationof. Sra India: A. 1>. 1HNU-I8M8. 
 
 DU GUESCLIN'S CAMPAIGNS. See 
 Franck: a. I>. l.S«U-tS80. 
 
 DUKE, The Roman.— Origin of the Title. 
 8ei' CofN r A^D OrKS. 
 
 DUKE'S LAWS, Tht. 8ee New York: 
 A. D llMU. 
 
 DULGIBINI AND CHASAURI, Tbc- 
 " These people ftril>eii of tlie anrient (Jemiann) 
 first resiiletl near tlie liewl of the Llp|w. and tlien 
 removetl to the at'ttlemi'iits of the t'baniavi and 
 the Anirrerarii who bad I'ipelled tlie Bnicterl" 
 — Tacitus, Urrmanji, rk. 84. Orford Iniiu., note. — 
 Bee, iilwi. Saxons 
 
 DUMBARTON, Oririo of. 8ee Ai.ri.TDK, 
 
 DUMNONIA,OR DAMNONIA, Tht 
 kinr dom of. See Knola-id : A, U. 477-A37. 
 
 OUMNONII, Tht.-" It is ... a remark- 
 al>le elniiiiKiance that the Diimnnnil. wbum we 
 fliKl in tlie tlnir of Ptolemy ixx-iipvlnit the whole 
 of tbesoiiihwi-itern extremity of (Britain. Inrliid- 
 ing lioth IK'Ton.ibin' and Cornwall, and wboiuunt 
 therefore have iMvn one of the modi powerful na- 
 tiona in the islaiHl. are nerer once nientionetl in 
 the hixory of the eonqueat of the country by tlie 
 l<<>man<: nor it their name found in any writer 
 Ix'f.in' l*toleiny. . . . The ronjerture "of Mr 
 Hiiili' I'lwte . . I lint they were left in nominal 
 iiide|«ii'lince nniler a native kinff . . . appear* 
 to nie liliflilv pniliiihle ■ — K II Miinliury. //i»f. 
 <'f AuriiHl ».'.<»/ , c*. a.H, wit II — Then' appear* 
 lo liiivi- lierii n northern liranrh of tin' Diimnonii 
 or liiininonil, whii li lii'ld an ext<'M«ivi' lernlory 
 im III!' I'ly.le ami ilii- Korth. See Hiiitain. fKi'- 
 Tn Tiinif." 
 
 DUMOURIEZ, Campaicnt and trtatoa of. 
 
 8>iKn»Mh- .\ l> 1792 iSH'TK.MHf.K— 1>K( KU 
 
 iimi. Kti-,'-i:i):i ; niid ITlcliKh HHiAHv— .\pnii i. 
 
 DUNBAR, A. D. 1196.— Battlt. .^ee s<ot 
 i.AM> .V II r,M«i lHl^.^ 
 
 A. D. 1339.— Siere.— The fortrewof Dunlnr. 
 jM'^iiiti^l In ilie KnffliKh imilir the Km' of Salia 
 hiiry in 1*W. was «ucci"t"fiillv defrniliil in the 
 iiliH4'nr<- of the irovi'mor. tlii- f".rtrl of ^1 irch Ity 
 liM wife, known aftrrwiinU in S-titrh hi^tury and 
 inelitlxii w " Itliirk .Vuiiio iif Miinliar ' 
 
 A. D. 1650.— Battit, s.i' ,H<im.AM> .\ |i 
 lrt.'>ii i^iii-iKMnkh) 
 
 DUNCAN I., King of Scotland. .K D vm 
 Ji>t» . ... Duncan II., .\ l> HHM liH« 
 
 DUNDALK. Battle of li3it>. .Sr Ikki.a.mi 
 .\ II laii 111" 
 
 DUNDEE iCLAVERHOUSB) AND THE 
 COVENANTERS, n., s,oti «-«ii A l> mTU 
 iM«v .liMi; Irt-'l IIIW, an.t H«Nlt(.li I VI 
 
 DUNDEE : A. U. 164J. Pillaftd by Moo- 
 troae "v.. s.„T, ,M, \ I) iml IMS 
 
 A. D. 1651. — Storm and Maaaacrc by Monk. 
 
 ^•^■ fMoIl.ASIl. A ll lUI (Al'l't'xl— Sikl-TKM. 
 IlKR). 
 
 DUNES. Battle of the ti6it\. Hm Kau. i ',ttu. 
 1 \Mi A. 11 ia%-i in.v> 
 
 DUNKARDS, The "Tlie PunkanU. or 
 ti' ni.tu lluptiMn, ur Uri'tluvu, are of Uerman 
 
 origin, rnd trace their beginninc back toAlrtia 
 der Mack, of SchwartMnau, (Mrmany . . Ig 
 1719 moet of them got together and camr i<i 
 the United State*, eettling in PtnnsvhimiA, 
 where their drat church waa organi/.i'<i i:l>.,ut 
 1738." — H. K. Carroll, Beliaimu t'l/rrm ..( /L 
 L.S..rh.\9. 
 
 DUNKELD, Battle of. 8ee S<oti<vd 
 A. U. 16H9 (Ai<aKT). 
 
 DUNKIRK: A. D. idai.-Untuccesifn! 
 aitrt by tht Dntch. 8ee Metherla.nu'- : A li 
 16aT-I688. 
 
 A. D. 1646.— Sicfe and Capture by the 
 Frtnch.—Impoftance of the port.— It* harbor- 
 ace of piratei. Sec NKTiiKRi.AMm : A l> 1M>- 
 
 A. D. 165a.— Recovered by the Spaniirdt. 
 See Frame: A I). 1(B8. 
 
 A.D. 165S.— Acquired by Cromwell for Ear- 
 land See K.NULA.ND : A. I). lfl.V)-lil.> aud 
 FRASrE : A. I) ltt.W-l«.W 
 
 A. D. iMa.— Sold byCharlet II. to Frtact. 
 SeeEiioi.AND: A I). IHAS 
 
 A. D. 1713.- Fortitcatioat and harbor dc- 
 ttreytd. Seel'THMBr A. I). I71'J-ITl:t 
 
 A. D. I7a>.— Dtmolition of fortificatioai 
 aiain atipulattd. See Aix-la I'iiai-m.ik The 
 
 CoMIHKXll. 
 
 A. D. 1763.— The demolition of fortilSct- 
 tiont pledged once more. .See Skvln Vi:a» 
 War : The Tkeatie«. 
 
 A. D. 1793.— Untucceaaful eiege br tht 
 Englith. See Frame: A. I>. 17».'l i.Ih.t- 
 
 1)E(EIIUERI: I>RIHtHKl>« f:. THE WaH 
 
 » 
 
 DUNMORE, Lord, and the end <■' royal 
 roeemment in Virginia. Stf Vik<.im<. .a I) 
 "77.%: and I77.V177fl 
 
 DUNMORE'S WAR. S.^ iiitio ,Vaiu:t. 
 A l» 1774 
 
 DUNNICHEN. Battle of (A. D. 685 h.^ 
 
 SlOTI.ASIl 7tI1 t'KNTlRT. 
 
 DUPLEIX AND THE FRENCH IN 
 INDIA. Se<' Imma a I> 174:i i;v.' 
 
 DUPONT, Admiral Samuel f. Niral 
 attack on Charleiton. See Initium Aiixir 
 Am.; a. I» 1h«!I (.Vphii — S<ii th i iko: i\»> 
 
 DUPPEL, SiegeBndcapturcor'1864 <vr 
 Okrmant : A II l>«ll I'-'ltl 
 
 DUPPELN. Battle of ( 184I1. s . v ,m,<. 
 
 KAVIAN SUTEB lIlKNMAIllil .V I> i"l> I"".' 
 
 DUPPLIN MOOR. Battle of 1331 vr 
 S<..Ti,\M. A ll i:w.J-i:i:n 
 
 DUQUESNE, Fort, .-v • I'itt-hi 11. 11 
 
 DURA, Treaty of.— The hiiiiiiliiitink; tMij 
 of iieai'i' iniii'luili'il «ilh lln' rir«;,iii- A |) 
 Hit.), nflir tlie defial and dinlli Mf ihi lliiian 
 eiiiixror .lulian, liy hU micieiwir .1 >il»ii -<1 
 lUwIiiiMiu. SitHlh linal UniKlnl If ■.iir'*j, 
 fA 111 
 
 DURANEES, OR DOORANEES, Th<. 
 He.. Imih a 11 1:4; Will 
 
 DURAZZO, Neapolitan dynatty of. ^'t 
 Itai.ycs.ithhisi A H l.MIi litw, l;l«rt UU 
 aiHl Itaiv : A li I4ti! 144; 
 
 DURBAR OR DARBAR.-An «n.|in.r 
 n»>m in lh>' imIhh of hii Ij«iil IihIIhii priiio 
 llrtiri- Hpplif.fl to n f-trrnai aiulif'iH''' "t I'-o-* 
 given liv tl»' uoviTiior i'l nernl of Imlii "t b' 
 
 f till liHtil-e Iiriiii-i-« ~ t\nluru th.-fi mC^ 
 
 DURHAM, OR NEVILLE'S CROSS, 
 BAltle of 'A. D. 13461. See Sioll AM< \ 1> 
 llDi8-t87U. 
 
 890 
 
DUROBRIV^. 
 
 DUROBRIVA.— A name given to two Ru- 
 nun towns in Britain, one of wliich lis« been 
 Uentiflcd witli modem Rochetter, tlie other with 
 the town of Caitor, near Peterborough. 
 
 OUROBRIVIAN WARE. 8ee Caitok 
 
 OUROCOBRIV^.— An imporunt marltet- 
 town in Roman Britain, suppowd to have been 
 iltuated at or near modem Dunstable. — T. 
 Wright. Vflt, JbmuiH. and timon, eh ft. 
 
 DuROTRIGBS. See BKiTAtx, Celtic. 
 
 DUROVERNUM.— AKnmantowninBritiOn. 
 Idenllfled with the modem Cautcrburr. 
 
 DUTCH COMMERCE, .see tiuDB; and 
 Ea»t Irdia Compakt, The Dvtch. 
 
 DUTCH EAST INDIES. See Mai.ay 
 Akihipblaoo. 
 
 DUTCH GAP CANAL. See Uhitkd 
 »TA m or Am. : A. D. 1HA4 (Avourt : Viruinia). 
 
 DUTCH REFORMED CHURCH. See 
 REroRMED CHCmrii. 
 
 DUTCH REPUBLIC. Tha Conatito- 
 doo aad dtcisrtd indtp«Mtact of tha. See 
 
 EARTHQUAKE. 
 NETBOWLAKoa: A. D. 1577-1581, and ISSi* 
 
 DUTCH WEST INDIA COMPANY. Sea 
 N ew Yi >RK : A. D. 1821-1640 ; and Brazil : A. D. 
 liliHWl. 
 
 DUTCH WEST INDIES. See Waar 
 
 I.MIIKX. 
 
 DUTLINCEN, OR TUTTLINGEN, Bat- 
 th of ( 1643). See Okrii aht ; A. D. 1«43-1)M4 
 
 OYAKS; The. See Mai.avas Ka. e. 
 
 DYRRHACHIUM. See Koretra 
 
 ProTokiag caaaa of tha Paloponncaian War. 
 See Oreeck : B C\ 4S.'(-i32 
 
 B. C. 48. — Caaar'a Revaraa. See Rome: 
 B. C. 48. 
 
 A. D io«i- loSa.— Sicfe by Robert Gniacard. 
 See Btzantine Empire : A. U. 10W1-108.V 
 
 A. D. 1304.— Acquired by the dcapot of 
 Epirus. Sec Ei-iRis : A. D. 1204-1350. 
 
 DYRRHACHIUM, Peace of. 8eeGBEEC«: 
 B. C. 214-14« -*»».■. 
 
 DYVEO. See Brit air . «th Centcrt. 
 
 EADMUND, EADWINB, ETC. Sec Kd 
 
 m sn. ETT. 
 
 EALDORMAN. — "The rhleftaln* of the 
 tnl mttlt'n In our own iiiUnd Imre no higher 
 titli' ih»n Ealdonnan or Heretoga . . . The 
 naiiK' i>f Ealiliirman is one of a Urge claw: 
 •innriir II primtlivr pmpjp tfe Implies rommaml 
 ami riiinniand implicii age; benre In a somewhat 
 Uirr «U(«' i>f liuiiftiaiti- the riden are simpiv the 
 riilrrn and tin' rhlent arc the highest in rank. 
 wiihout »ujr lliouglit of tlie number of year. 
 «liii h ihi'y niiiy n-nlly have llviil It la not |Hr- 
 ftiilv dear in what the «utli»rit> >r dignilT of 
 III. King eiietnleil iti.ii nf \\w Knhliimian 
 Km 11 the Kmallrst Kit l.im w«« prolwlily fomieil 
 li> ilw uiikin of the .ii«iricl« of M-vrnl Kaldor- 
 nun ■— K. A. Frtvnwii. .V<>rm<in (xnywraf. eh H, 
 »••' 1 —-The organlutliin of the xhln- wan of 
 niMi li till' same rhararter h> lliat of tlH' hiimlml 
 '.11 h "hire ointainlni;. Imwi-ver. a numlnT of 
 liMi"ln'<lii]. hut It waa rnlil by an ealdornian aa 
 «. II ii« by a gerefa. and In a<ime mliiT n-«|H'<'t» 
 U.n ■ viiWrn-e <>f lt» previno. I'lialrnn- aa an In 
 i|i|"ii.liiil unity. Its giin.ii was ii.>i .,nl\ ihr 
 » ir iri "ii>l but the folrgrniot alao. the aaiM''tiil)ly 
 i.f ilii- jniiplr; Its ealilomuih ciimiiMndiHl mlt ' 
 till r. Iv iIm' mllilary Umv of the huudmU. Iiiil 
 111.' I..nl« nf thr franrlilai's and tlie rhiirih v«««al« 
 unh ili.jr mill Ita grrrfa or ahi-rilT iiiII.m n-.! 
 111.' tlMnl an Millaa tlie liiml lni|>.wtH ll> i-al 
 .I'niiiii naa one of the king'a witan The i-al 
 il'.riiiNn. the prilli-ep* of Tafltux. ami prihi'e|m, 
 i-r ».itrap«, or aulireguliis of |h.(|i'. tji,. ,Ui\ of 
 til. I alin I hninli'Ifni and the rnmi's of ihi' Nor 
 timn«. ».« .iriifinallv eIrrttHi In IIm' ifinenil a» 
 wiiil.ly of the nation! Th<' liemliurv prin 
 
 ii|'li' .ippeam hoirrrer In thf r-rly (Iava'..f ilir 
 kini."l..m aa w. II aa in Ibone of t^lwanl'llii' Cm 
 (•■"■T. in ih«. laite of an iiwlir klngilom lirinit 
 •iiiHXiil lo a grralir Ihi' old mval dvnaalv 
 "I iiK ti. hare ronitniinl lo hand down liii deli' 
 (:»ii-.l aiilliority from father I" i..n The iindiT 
 '"■«- "f llwiiiia thiia iiintuni|.ii to ail a* eal 
 il.'fimn uwler Merria for a i-eiiliirv atnl lli.- 
 Ml.l.rm«n«hlp of the tiyrwaa or fen ii.iinirvim 11 
 a^iu. Ilkcwiai! la have bv«u htn-dltarT ' Th.' 
 
 title of ealdormar <• -iius much older than the 
 I'Siiaiing division of alores, nor was It ever the 
 nil.' for everv shin- lo have an ealdormnn to It 
 M'lf aa it had Ita alii-rilT. . . . But each iihire 
 waa under an ealilornian. who sat with the 
 "li'riir and liUliop in Ihr folkmoot. received a 
 llilnl part of the proHla of ihe jurisdiction, and 
 mimiianiii<'il the niiliury fonr of the whole ii,- 
 viainn. Kn.m the latter I'hantcter be lieriveil the 
 name of hentoga. leader of ilii. h<mt ('here '). or 
 iliu. which Ih occaaioiullv fc'lvin him in cliar- 
 I.Ts ■_«• Sliihlia. OiHtl'. Ili.t of Knn rh S 
 t,,l, 4H-4» ... 
 
 EARL. —"Tlie title of earl hail U-gun to 
 •iijiplaiit that of I'liMorman in ihi-rilKn of Kth«'l- 
 ri'.l . and the L>ani«li jarl. fmm whom ll« uae in 
 IhU wiiw waa Imrrowed. aeeina to hnve lieen 
 more certainly conuM'teil bv the tie of lomilntus 
 with hia king than the Anglo Saxon lalilumian 
 iiMii lie aupiHMiil III have Ui.n "— W. Siuliln. 
 '■'ii«f llinf nf Kh.i . i-h B. „fi_ fl« _(*!•.'. hI».. 
 Komi, and Kai.i>iihm«n 
 
 EARLDOMS, English: Canute's creation. 
 Sii- Kmii »mi .\ |> T011I-I04J 
 
 Th* Norman change. .*tii' Palatine. The 
 KMoi.taii ( oiNTiKa 
 
 EARLY. General Jubal, Caapaifaa ia the 
 Shenandoah. Si.' I mtkii Statu* or .\«i 
 
 .\ l> I-WM |M»V— .llNK ViRolNIAl. (,llLV 
 ViKoINU — MaHVI.a.NIiI. I.Vl'oroT — IKTonKN 
 
 Vi M«i. ami l'<fl.5iKEnRiAH\ — March Vir 
 
 olMti 
 
 EARTHQUAKE: B.C. 4«4.-Sparta. S.v 
 
 MtwfAiAN WiH. Thk Thirii 
 
 A.D. Ii5.-At Aatloch. See Antioth a I» 
 ti* 
 
 A. D. 3«s — In the Roman world.— In the 
 
 ail. mil i.ar of Ihe nlun ..f Valinliiiiaii aiul 
 Valina[A II a(W|. on the momiiu of the ^lat 
 day of July. Ihe greater |iart of the lioninu 
 w.irlil was shaken In a vlnk'tit •nij ij.wini.ilve 
 larth.piake The lmp^'•■l..n « an lonimiiiiiialnl 
 I.. I 111' water*; thi- alHinii of ilie Miillli'miniiin 
 wen' left ilry by ilie aiiildiit ninal of IIh' aia. 
 But the tkle suou relumed with Uw weight 
 
 GUI 
 
SARTHQCAKE. 
 
 EBIONISM. 
 
 of u ImnMiMB lud biMiidble delnge, whirb 
 WM mtcrIt felt oo the comU of Sidlr, of Dal- 
 matia, of Cmec« aDd of Egypt . . . Tba city 
 of Alexandria annually oommeoiorated the fatal 
 day on which SO.OOO prnon* had loat their lirn 
 In the inundation."— E. Oibbon, Dtdiiu and 
 /hA tiflMt Roman Empire. eA. 9t. 
 
 A. D. 5«6.— la th* niga of Jvatiaian. See 
 AimocB: A. D. 536: altu, BERTTva 
 
 A. O. iA9«.— In Jaoaiea. See Jamaica : A. D. 
 10M. 
 
 A. D. I7SS-— At Liaboo. See Lhboh: A. D. 
 1753. 
 
 A. O. Ilia.— In Venesoala. See Co'x>iibia3I 
 BTATia: A. D. 1810-tt<l». 
 
 EAST AFRICA, Britiah and German. 
 Sre Afhica: A. D. 1(»4-18»1. ISW, and I81« ; 
 aim, Ire.i. 
 
 EAST ANCLIA — Thr kincdom formnl in 
 Britain by the Angle*. Norfolk and ttuffolk 
 (North-folk and S*outhfolk). 
 
 EAST INDIA COMPANY, The Oateh : 
 A. O. i6o>.— Ita formation and Srat eotcr- 
 priaea. .4<« Nethkrlakds: a. I) 1SI»4-I)I«I. 
 
 A. O. 165a.— Settlement at Cape of Coed 
 Hop*. See Si.iTH AmifA A. D. fw«-lN(i«. 
 
 A. D. 1799.— Ita diaaolntioa. See FnANrs: 
 A. D. l<W(Si:n'CMBKR— Otober). 
 
 EAST INDIA COMPANY, The Enflieh: 
 A. D. 1600-170*.— Ita rlio and early nnder- 
 Ukinra. See |!<i>ia: A. I>. 16iii)-irira. 
 
 A. D. 177].— Conatitutien of the Company 
 changed. S.* IsniA : A. I» KTn-iTTH. 
 
 A. U. ili3-it33.— Deprived of ita monopoly 
 •f trade. Sec India: A. I). IM-jainaa. 
 
 A. D. il56.— The end of ita rule. See In- 
 DIA A. D 1M3H 
 
 EAST INDIA COMPANY, Th« Fr«wb. 
 
 See ImiIa: a 18«.Vi;48 
 
 EAST INOIES.-llintliMtan. Farther India. 
 an<l (he Malar Ar<'lilt>'lA|f<>wpre va^uelr known 
 in nie<ti«ral tlmefi a* the ImiHii. After theearly 
 * ••ierican dltroTerien, then ■iippdned to lie pirt 
 of the lamF regiiin, Iher were lilntiniruiibed aa 
 the Raat Iiidh-ii. anil the'nnme hix laiit«-<i. 
 
 EAST INDIES, The Dutch. See Maijit 
 
 Ah< HIPBLAilO : DlT«H Ka«T InIIIE* 
 
 EAST INDIES, The Porttineae la the. 
 
 8e«- India A l». 14B«-I.V«. 
 EASTER ISLAND. Hee Poltkb^ia 
 EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO. Hee Malat 
 
 AnrHipRI.Aiin. 
 
 EASTERN CHURCH. The. See ( bris- 
 TIAMTV A l> a!«i-l(t,VI 
 
 EASl. AN EMPIRE, The. See lioME; 
 TIT •»«•. anil Hrr<!<iifNR EMriRC. 
 
 EASTERN QUESTION, Tb«.-The flnt 
 OniMion iin whi<-h the pniblenii of the Otttiman 
 •ni|>ir<- re<rlr,'<l the name of tlie Kaatem Hw^ 
 tkm mn-m* Ui hare Uvn that ronnerli-,1 with the 
 re»"il -if Mehemrt All in liWI (are Ttrri : A. D. 
 imi |i««i, M <liiii!.>t. Inhia • Mrmiiira," when 
 ref,rTin< In that rnnipllratlon. etnplora the term. 
 *i»l ninarku ' I wr tlie Kaatem giieatinn. for 
 thi> wa* In fmi the niune riven hv all tlie WiirM 
 t<> *he quarrel between the Mulian Mahmoud. 
 a~! h!« subl!-! !be Psrha ;;• JtsTpt Mrh«Bet 
 All Whr naa thin Kninillnr tllle applied to 
 a I'w-nl r.mlent ? KifTiii in i«-t the whole (MIo- 
 ■urn empire The nttoman empire I* b<H the 
 
 entire Eaat The nbellkm, eren the dlamemher. 
 ment of a proTiDoe, caaaot compriw the h\e 
 of a aoTerelgnty. The neat aUtea of Wcsuth 
 Europe haTe alternately Mat or arouired. eiibrr 
 by internal diaaenafcm or war. conaiderabic terri- 
 toriea: yet under the oapect of thew cimim- 
 atancea no one haa apoken of the Vinten 
 
 auettion. Why then haa a term never iihiI ig 
 le territorial criaea of Christian Eumpr, lirrn 
 considered and admitted to be perfectly naiuni! 
 and legitimata when the Ottoman empiie is in 
 argument T It la that there la at present in the 
 Ottoman empire no local or partial question, ir 
 a shock la felt In a comer of the edilire. if a 
 single stone la detached. :ae entire biiildinf 
 appears to be, and is In fact, rendr to fall. . 
 The Egyptian question waa in 18)W the qiirstion 
 of the Ottoman empire Itself. And the iiuratinn 
 of the Ottoman empire ia Ui reality thr Knstrni 
 question, not only of the European but nf tbe 
 .Vaiatic Eaat: for Asia ia now the theatre i)f the 
 leading ambitions and riTalries of ihe grtM 
 powers of Europe: and the Ottoman ein|>iiT i^ 
 the highway, the gate, and the krv nf A»ia "- 
 F. P. Ouiiot, Mtmoin to lUuMnU'ih- lli,i„ry ,,f 
 .Vf (hen Timt, t. 4. p. SSS.— The nevenl woj. 
 sions since IS40 on which the Eask-m (^miiii.iii 
 haa troubled Europe may be found lumtnl 
 under the following captions: Ri'mia A D 
 IM.'iS-tS.'M, to 1854-1856; TlRKS: A I> IMI- 
 1877. 1877-1878. and 1878; alao Bai.k.*!« axd 
 UAXt-aiA!! Statbsl — Among Englikh wriirn. 
 the term " the Eastern Question " ha* *<i|,iini| > 
 larger meaning, which takes In queaiimn cm- 
 nect-d with tlie advance of Kuasia u|>i>n ilir 
 Afghan and Persian froatiera— Dukeof Arnvll. 
 n* Eiutrm Oumtion. — See AraHAiiiKTAX : X'l) 
 186»-188l. 
 
 BATON, Dormui B., aad CiTil-Serrict 
 Reiiana. See Citil-Srbvicb Kepohb id tu 
 I'NrrBit Statbb, 
 
 EBBSDORF, OR LUNBBURG HEATH, 
 Battle oC— A great and ^Mstmu* Iwtile of thr 
 Germana with the Danea, or Nortlinu-n, (oatM 
 Feb. S, 880. The Qcrraana were terrihlr beairr.. 
 anil nearly all who surriTed the flght were ixi-pi 
 away into captlTity aad slaTerr. Tlie nUm tv- 
 celved " martyrs ' hooours : ami theln oniineiiHin. 
 tiim waa celebrated In the Hachaen IhikI <-himlir< 
 till comparatively recent times. An unciaiiip J 
 anrmw wasctcated throughout Saxunv by lliix'*. 
 lamity, which, for a time, eihausted llie i imntrv . 
 — Srandinaria aad Jutland and tlie liiiliir i^U 
 reanufided with exultation."— (*ir K IMimvc, 
 Hut of Sormamhi ami Knfhntl. M 1. i-A 4 
 
 EBBSFLBBT.— The supiioactl llrot lan'llii(. 
 pla<<e III Britain of the Jtile*. umirr li>niri->i. 
 A. I>. 44Bur 450, when English hUtnrv. w i.i<: 
 llsh, beyina It waa also the lamlint pUi^ . \ D 
 507, of Augtistiac and hia fellow nilwii>tt«Hr* 
 when they entered the Wand l» un<lrn»ke ilw 
 I nnversioo nf Its new inhnbitania toChri'tmtiitv 
 See KM»l,AKti 44t»-47» ami WT-IKV 
 
 BBENEZER AND AMANA COMMUNI- 
 TIES. S«r IkM lAl. MovBaENTii IMl ("M 
 
 BBBRSBURC Battle of. fee iiitNM«n 
 
 A. U IMW (jARt ARV-Jl XE). 
 
 BBIONISM.-The heresy («. |.nn<lnl> >( > 
 aert of Jewlab Chrtatlan*. whirh aprinul umir- 
 
 =*h=Tt -«<«t=4'^r!¥ in ifrr ^rifftti. ih;^:. -:"-' "--fH 
 
 rrnturiea ■ Tne rhanuteriatli m»rK« nl Khi..ii. 
 i>m In all its forms are dritnwinilini nf 1 hn> 
 liaolly tothsleeelof Judakni; llir prnmiV •>( 
 
 G02 
 
EBiomsM. 
 
 BCUADOR 
 
 Ibe uaireiwl and perpetumi Tallditr of the 
 MiimIcUw: and enmItT to the apostle Paul." 
 The name of the Ebiooitea came from a Hebrew 
 wonl ligniiVlDg "poor."— P. Schaff, Hitt. oftht 
 CkriMiaH Chunk, tuond period, eh. 4, tfl. VS. 
 EBLANI, Th*. See Ixuisd, Tbibes or 
 
 UkRLY ClLTIC nfaABIT\2mu 
 
 EBORACUM, OR BBURACUM. — The 
 miUiary capiul of Roman Briuin. and after- 
 wania nf the Anglian klncdomt of Ddra and 
 Norihumbria. Id Old Engliah ita name became 
 Eorfurwick, whence, bjr further corruption, re- 
 iultr<l the modem Enslkh name York. Tlie city 
 wta one of conaiderable splendor In Roman timet, 
 coouining the imperial palace with manv t«mplea 
 and otJier impotlng buildinga. Bee Emglakd: 
 A. D. 4S7-48S. 
 
 EBURONES. Daatnictien of tht.— The 
 Ebttninei were a strong Oermanic tribe, wlio 
 ocriipicd in Cvaar'a time the count rr between 
 Ui-fv and Cologne, and whose ancetton were 
 ■hi to hare formed part of the great migmnt 
 hnrcle of the Cimliri and Teutones. Under a 
 Tuung cliicf, Ambiorix, tliev had taken >he lead 
 Id till' formidable revolt which occurred among 
 the Ik'lgic trilie*. B. C. M-SS. Ciesar. when he 
 had nuppreaseil the revolt, determinetj to bring 
 dniructlon on tlie Ebunmri, and lie executed 
 hia purpose in a ainguUr ninnner. He rirruliite<l 
 spnii'lamHtlun through all the neighlH>r1ng part* 
 of Oaul and OenuHny, ilerlnring the Ebiinnes 
 to be traiton to Konie and outlaws, and ottering 
 tbrm and their goods as common prey to any 
 who would fall on them. This drew the sur- 
 rouniling barbarians like vultures to a feast, and 
 tiir wretched Eburones were ai»n hunted out of 
 eil«<:)re. Their name diaappeare<l fn)m tho 
 aamlaof Qaul.— C. Merivale, IIul. iiflhtHomam, 
 tk. W. 
 
 A I JO IK: Ciwar, Gnllit Wan. Nt. 5, M. aV-W; 
 U. t. rh. 1-84.-0. Long, liflinf nf Iht Homaa 
 gemiNir, r 4, i"*. IS-U — ^S■^•. al»<>. Bki.(I.C 
 
 ECBATANA.— "TIm- Moutlum Ert>ataaa or 
 Af listJtiia.— which the Mniet an<l Persians them- 
 »lvr« knew aa Hagmalin. — was situated, as 
 we Ictm from Polyblus and r>li>iloru>, on a plain 
 at till' fiKil of Mount Unwiea, a little to the enst 
 of the ZagToa range. The notices of tliew 
 aullmra . . . and othera, render it as nearly iir. 
 tain 114 possible that the site wu that of tho 
 mi>l.m town of Hamatlan. . . . Tlie Meomn 
 npiial has never yet sttrarted a scientillr ex- 
 pfliiii.n. . . . The chief citr of northern Media, 
 whii h liiin> In later Umes tlie names of Gau, 
 OaiwB. nr Canxaca, ia thought to hate Ihyh also 
 cslliil l>balana, ami to have betm iHcasioaally 
 ml»i»kin by the Oreeks for the soutliem or niil 
 capital —O. Rawlinsuo, Krt Urtiit Monarrhif.- 
 
 Mm,,,, fh. X. 
 
 KCCBLINO, OR IZZILINO DI RO- 
 MANO, Tk* '.jmaay of, Mtf the cniMrfe 
 
 aniBtl. !tee Vbmixa: A. I> l'ja«V-l3.'W 
 
 BCCLESIA.— The grnrral Irgl latlve assen 
 % iif .Itliena in anrlrnt Athrn* and 8paita. — 
 0. F. HchaoMaa, AtUia. </U.-m«v. Th* Slotf. pt. S. 
 , kCLLBSIASTICAL LAW. Hee Law, 
 
 ECCLBSIASTICALTITLRI BILL.TlM. 
 Kf l'«P«rT A. I». IMO. 
 
 cCEHI, OR iCENI, TiM. i<ee BRiTam : 
 .V l> Si 
 
 CCCBERHT. Ktaff af WtMM, A. (WO- 
 
 ECKMOHL, B«ttl« o£ See OsxiuiiTr 
 A. D. 1809 (JaxcAitT-JiniB). 
 
 ECNOMUS, NanU tattte of (B. C. acA. 
 See Pumc War, Thb Fikw. '^ 
 
 ECORCHEURS, Lea.— In the Uter period 
 of the Hundred Veaia War. after the death of 
 the Maid of Orleana, when the Engliah were 
 being driven from France and the authority of 
 the king was not yet eaUbliahed, lawless violence 
 prevailed widely. "Adventuren spread them- 
 selves over the provinces under a Dime, 'the 
 Skinners,' Lea Ecorcheura, which sufflciently be- 
 tokens the savage nature of their outrages. If we 
 trace it to even lU mildest derivation, strip 
 shirts, not skina."— E. Smedley, Hitt. of r 
 pt. 1. th. 14. 3< J 
 
 BCTHESIS OF HBRACLIUS. SeeMoHO- 
 nRLiTB CotrrxovnuT. 
 
 ECU, The order of the. See Botnmoit. Tub 
 ■orsB or. 
 
 BCUADOR: Aboriffiaal inhaMtaats, See 
 American AnoBionEa: Akdesians. 
 
 The BboiisriaBl Unrdom of Quito aad it* 
 cooooeat bjr tho Pemviaas aad th* Snaaiardi. 
 —'■Of the old Quitu nation which inhabited the 
 highlands to the north an>*. south of the present 
 capital, nothing is known to tradition but the 
 name of its bist king, Quitu, after whom hia siib- 
 tii t» were probably called. His domains wtre 
 liivsde<l and conquered by the nation of the Cama, 
 or Csrana. who haii come by aea in balsas (mfts) 
 from narts unknown. These Caras. or Cnrans, 
 eatnblialieil the dynasty of the Scvria at Quito. 
 aiHl exu-o<led their cimquests to the north and 
 south, uutil checked by the wariike nation of the 
 Pundias, who inhabited the present district of 
 Kiolmniba. ... In the reign of Hualcopo Duchi- 
 ctla, the 18th Scyri, the I'enivisn Incas com- 
 menced to extend their conquests to the north. 
 . . . About the mMdle of tlie ISth centiirv the 
 Inca Tupac YupanquI, father of Huaynacapac, 
 Invaded the dominions of the Scyris. and after 
 many bloo<ly battles ard sieges, conquered the 
 kingdom of Puniha and returned in triumph to 
 Ciiiro. Hualcopo survived his loss but a few 
 years. He is said to hsve died of grief, and was 
 kUiTceded by his sim C'acha. the 15th and last of 
 the Scyria Cacha Duchirela at once set out to 
 rcrover hia paternal dominions. Altlioiigh of 
 ftthle health, he (Kims to have been a man of 
 great enercy and Inlrrpiilitv. He fell upon the 
 garrison which the Inca had left at Mix-ha. put it 
 to the sword, and rnieriipied the kingdom of 
 Puruha, where he wan re<'elre<l with open arms. 
 He even carri«il hia l"«in"r» further south, until 
 chirked by the (aftan-s. Ilii nhaliltanla of what 
 IS now th,- diatrii't nf Cm-ma. who bad vnlun- 
 urily aulimitteil tn the Inca. and nx'- drtalneil 
 the net ri until lliiaynacapar. the grveuvl of the 
 Inca dynasty, came to their rescue ' On the 
 
 Jilain of Tiocajaa. and a/ain on the plain of 
 iatuntaqui. griMt battles were fought, In lioth 
 of whkh the Scyrt was beaten, and la the hut of 
 « liirh he fell. ' " On the very flekl of hattle the 
 faithful Caranquis pmclaimnl Pacha, the daugh- 
 ter of the falh-n king, as their Scyri Huarna- 
 raniii- now n'gulateahls conduct by p«>Bcy. ' He 
 nnli ml Itie deail king to be hurieif with all the 
 liciimrs due to royally, and maile olTers of mar- 
 riaire Ui y"Ui<g Parha, bv whom iie was not re- 
 fiiMil . . . Tlie Issue of the marriage was Ala> 
 huall|>a, the last of the native rulers of Pent. 
 . . A* pnidMit aod highly poUtk aa tka oa» 
 
 6M 
 
M '■! '.'« 
 
 111 
 
 ECUADOR 
 
 duct of Husynacapac h genenllj reputed to 
 hare bren, ao imprudent aod unpolitiv wu tlie 
 divUion of the rnipire which In- nude on his 
 death bed. bequrathloK bin paternal dominion! to 
 bis flrst-bom ami undoubtedly le^timatf son. 
 Huaacar, and to Aubuallpa' tbi' liinKiloin of 
 Quito. He might have foreseen llio evil conse- 
 qiiencea of such a partitiou. His death tooit 
 pliKf about the year I53S. For 6vt or seven 
 Jcars the brothen llvol In |>eare. " Then ()uarn-ls 
 anw. leadl'ti; to civil war, reaultinv in the de- 
 feat and dentil of Huaacar. Atahuallpa luul just 
 become niaiit< r of the wenkenetl and shaken em- 
 pin- of the Incas. when the invadinf; Spanianls, 
 under Hjiarm, fell on the d<H>me<l htud and nuule 
 Its riches their own. The cominest of the Span- 
 lards dia not include I lie lilnKdom of (juilo at 
 flnit, hut was extended to the latter in 1538 bv 
 Ki'iMstian ile Bt'nulcH/nr, wlumi I'izarro had put 
 in command of the Port of San Miguel. Kxcited 
 by stories of the ricbe« ..f Quito, and invited liv 
 ambassadors from the • uBares, the old enemies 
 of the t^uitii trilws, Ik-uuleazar, " without orlers 
 or |N-nniMiion fnmi i*izarro . . . left San Miguel, 
 at the head of ulH>ut 150 men. His si-iiinii iii 
 command was the monster Juan de Ampudia." 
 The fate of Quito was ajniin decide<l on the plain 
 of Tiiicnfas, when- Uuminagui. a tldef who luul 
 seized tlu- vataut throne, mwh' a desperate hut 
 val resistance. He iralned time, however, to 
 remove wlutever treasures lUert- may have be«'n 
 at Quito lN>yoiid the reach of lu nipaiious con- 
 uuenirs.nml " where lie hiil Ihi'in is » secret to 
 the present day. . . . Trnilitlium of the (fp'irt 
 tri'iuures hidden in the mountidu!. hv Kuiniftaitui 
 HTf eajierly repeated anil lielieveil iit (Juito. ... 
 Hiiviii): n'moved tlie jtol.l and killeil the Vir^cins 
 of the Sun. and thus plaiid I wo i>lijeet« mi eam'rly 
 coviteil liy the iiivuders U'Viiud tlieir ri-iMli. 
 UiiiiiiAaKui wl •!"■ to the town, and ev;i. iiutid 
 It with III! his tmops and folhiwers. It u.nilij 
 Im- illtBcull til ili-M rilM- ilie raire. mortilicaiion uml 
 tle»pair uf the Spnnlanls. iin finding smoking 
 ruins lustiiul ..f tin- tre»sun>s which they ha<l ej 
 |Hct«il. . ThiiusaiiilsiifiiiriiH'ent Indians wen- 
 saeridml to tlieir di>ap|uiiul<tl cupidity. . 
 Kverv niKik ai'd riiriier nf the pn.vlmv «»« 
 scarcheil. Iiul only lu the sipulchriM Mime little 
 l!>i|il was found . . . Of the niicieiii liuildinftsof 
 
 <iulli stiiiH' was left uiKin Ilie titln-r nnddeep 
 
 exi-nVBii.ins wen- made under tlieiii tu «« urth for 
 hidden tmisun'ii llemv then- is im veHliai- left 
 at Quito nf Its I'lirmercivilJiMtion. nut ii ruin, imt 
 a wall, not u slnne to w liit h the IrudilinHs nf the 
 pant mlirht elinit . . <hi the 'iHth nf AiiKUst 
 l-VK tin- Spaiiisli village of tJuito [>„u F'niiiei«-n 
 de Quito) was fmindiil "— P llasaaun-k. /■'mr 
 Venn iiiiuiiu/ Siuinim/i Aiitrrifiiiis, M 18. 
 
 .Vl.so I.N \V II I'n-aeiitt. Hint iifCmu of 
 Ih-ri, U ;l, M. ■.» I, h. iiwIeA. 1» (r »).' 
 In the empire of the lacu. Se.> I'tnt Tiik 
 
 r.MI-IKK or TMK 1m as 
 
 A. D. 154a.— The Attdicncw of Qaite etub- 
 
 llthed. Se .'tl IIIKM IAS 
 
 A. O. i*ai-i8s4. -EmaacipAtioa of ilaTtt, 
 
 S.I- Coi.dMnn^i >r»rK» A I> iw.'l \-*M 
 
 A. D. Ilia-|888. -Confederated with New 
 Granada and Veneiuela in the Colombiaa 
 Republic. -Diteolution of the Coafederac*.— 
 
 The rule of Flaras,— In im-j-j - ii.,. i>rT!vi!:t-t- s^r 
 «^iii.i«»« Itienrp. ruti-il Into Ihi t'olnuiliian He 
 puiilir Isw' ('i.l.iil||||(!( r^TArKs A I) IHIIJ- 
 
 IMtJJ It was now divided Into thn* de|>art 
 
 EODAS. 
 
 menu on the French STitem : and the snntheni 
 misttof tiiese receive<l its oamefnim tin Kiiuator 
 (Ecua(h)r) which passes thruufth ii Sl,„nlv 
 after Venezuela had declared itself ,n.l, |»uil 
 ent of the Colombian liepubiic [IH'.'ii — J,. 
 almvel, the old province of Quito did Ilie wmi- 
 and placeil lu fortuaet in the hands nf „w i,f 
 Bolivars lieutenanu, named Klores. The imnu 
 of Ecuador was now exu-nde<l to all ihn-i-il, iian 
 menu. Flim-s exenised the chief HUtlmriiv f„r 
 IS years. The ci jsiitution limiteii ti„. |Vm. 
 dency to four: but Flores nuule an ttmiiii:iiii,iit 
 with one uf his lieuU'nanls called li.Ka Ku, rt, 
 by which they sucoeedetl each nllii r. tl,.- ..ii; 
 (foing President liecoming gnviriinr ..f Hutu 
 qiiil In IMS Finn's foum! liini.s.|f ,ir,;„|, 
 enough to Inipnive u|h>ii this system. Ih- ,allnl 
 
 a < vention. which n-formiHl 'the iimMiiuti,.iiiii 
 
 a n-uctionary sense, and named him dii i,ii..r f,.r 
 ten years. In im.T the lilM-nil n-iiiiinn Im.) m^. 
 in all over Cnlombhi; anil it sism lur.-iin,- |.,. 
 I simng for Flnn-s. Even his nwii ■.upimrtirs 
 I Is'gan to full him. and he agniil t.i .|iiii ii„. 
 ! inuntry on la'iug paid an indenuiiiv nf ^^hiimi 
 i During the next 15 years Eciiaihir'wiis imuM,,! 
 , liy the plots and attempts of Flon-» In n ciiii liu 
 I liwt power. Ill l.N6(l. with Periiviiui |„li. h 
 ! sucifediil in pUcinic ow nf hi, |,:,riy |(r 
 Mnn-no. in liie pn>sidency. and lie. luin-Mlf I,. 
 came goveninr of Ouayao'uil. In Aucn-l. lx;v 
 .Mon-iiii uiiK UMassinaleJ.— K J I'jnu. //„( 
 </ A'«r../».j/. (;,l4,Hir: /./p. '.Jol-'.'.V.' — Afi, r llif 
 assasaintiiinii nf President .Mon-iin. ■ iln ,u-tst 
 Biuei-etli-d in x-aling Dr .Vntnnin lt,i-r,rn la 
 till- pnsi.lential chair liy a |K'ueefiil uin! ..ur- 
 wlielining election. .' Against hi^ ^.inrii 
 
 meiil tlie lils-ral party made a nvi.liiti.,ii su,! 
 S'litemlM-r yi. IHTtl, siie^-eeili-tj in liriMi.i liim 
 fmiii |Hiwer. seatinu in Ids iilan-iii m ril V^n^i. 
 I lie Veinteniilia, wlio was oiienf ll«rrern,,.il)i.c!,. 
 j IniuiuI In him 'y many tie, lli 111II.-.I ui 
 
 i nluilient conveiii'nn at' Anilwln, in !••> -.Uiitli 
 j named Idni Pn-sident ttd inli-riiii. ami fr:iiiir<i > 
 cniistitutiiin. the n-pulilicaniMH nl w In. Ii 11 i. ^lif 
 tlrull to (liid I'niler Iliii. he w:i, , I, , i.-,| |'ri,i 
 dent f r fnur ye«->, lirminaiintf ^loili .Vuiru-) 
 
 1W<',', wllhout right of r> elieti \..|.| aliir 
 
 an interval of fnur venr^ — (! K. { Ininii. /i/( 
 
 ■•». lil'",ul;rlSrluttr'/-:j- /)..■ 6(1. I' •> Cft ■ . I.j 
 
 •Ji( .*«. , r :ii ~ Ph«lileiit Vi iiiti inilli «i»il 
 |Miwer as a Dii Inlnr, liy a pmnun. iiimi in.-, A|iril 
 Ii. IH".'. Iiul mil \»iir"eii,iii-i| and In «ii, i.nr 
 lliriiwn in IhkI S..n..r .Ihm- M 1' ( ,wiiiiifl.i 
 was tlien ehnsen ISix i^innal PriM.I. nl, uml in 
 Fi liruarv. 1hh4, he waselnled I'riii.l. m l-j lis 
 
 ■ .•'gislative luslv Hi- »iW i.llenr.li'1 III I** 
 
 liv linn .VntonioFUin-s — .v,!/..,,,,.., « l',,ir.i..< 
 
 1*0.1 
 
 ECUMENICAL. OR (ECUMENICAL 
 COUNCIL. — ,V general nr unlu r-il i nmi .1 
 lilt t'lirislian < hunh See (oimii, ..» riu 
 
 (ill HI II 
 
 BDOA8, Thc.-'The rhiif d. |i..-ii ti,, .f 
 tlM- Nnrsi- iiiythnlnKy an the fjiiernr >.i. iiiiin.l* 
 Eiidai|Hstr;i and ihi Ymiuger ir Sn.-it. . l..l.la 
 (priis< I In lielundii Kdiia iiii an, ti-.ii liniiiil 
 mother and snnie think this apiH llmi-.n nfm 
 to Ihi- aneieni origin nl IIm' niulu 1, 1 ■iiUn» 
 tui.i!^ <--^,(iw| ii »!Hi ihr ilnliaii Xnh id 
 Ilie Norse >lile' (Swedish ' m li ' I.- l,ni»' - 
 Ii II Aiidertsiu, A"". Vjilh.U.^^, ,h T - Tl«- 
 Word bhla is wver found at all lu am of Ult 
 
 Gl)4 
 
EODAS. 
 
 dit.'ectt of the Old Northern toDgue, nor imlitil 
 in toy other tongue known to us. The Unit 
 time it if met with i* in the La; of lUgh, wherr 
 it i« Uied as a title for gre-t-gmndmothcr, and 
 from this poem the won! ia cited (with other 
 termn from the same aourcc) in tliu collection at 
 Iheendof Scaldacaparmal. How or why Snorri's 
 book on the Poetic Art came to he called Edda 
 «elmTe no actual teatimony. . . . Snorri'swork, 
 fSji'iially the lecond part of it, Scaldw-aparnial. 
 handed down in copieaand abridgmenu through 
 the Middle Age*, waa looked on aa aetting tbe 
 ttaoilani and ideal of poetry. It seems to have 
 kept up in<teed the very remembrance of court- 
 piietrv, tliu memory of which, but for it, would 
 otherwise have peruhed. But though the medi- 
 KTsl i>oeU ilo not copy Edda (i. e. , Snorri's rules) 
 tbev coiutautly allude to it, and we liave an un- 
 bn>ken series of phrase* from 1340 to 1<MU in which 
 Edda is used as a synonym for the technical 
 laws of the court-metre (a use, it nwy be observed, 
 eniin ly contrary to that of our own days)." — 0. 
 Vigfiiason and F. Y. Powell, Corptu Awftnim 
 BmnU, r. 1. introd., tvt. 4. 
 
 EDESSA (Macedonim).— Edesaa, or ^ga!, 
 tbf ancient Macedonian capital, "a place of 
 primitln- antiquity, aeccr.ling to u I'hrygUu 
 I.>,'iii.l the site of the gardens of Midax, at the 
 nnrtUem extremity of Mount Benntua, when> 
 the Lydius comes forth ft«m the niouutaius. . . . 
 .tpe was the natural capiul of the land. With 
 in f.iimilali>)n the history of Macedonia IumI its 
 luirinniiiif ; .£gic ia the germ out of whioh the 
 Ma. I'doiiian enijiire grew."— E. Curtius, Hint. „/ 
 Urnff, bk 7, ck. 1. — ttee. also, M.\CKI>oxi.\. 
 
 EOESSA (MMopotamiai. 8e<-(>*Biiu:NE. 
 
 The Church. Sec C'hriitianitt: A. U. 33- 
 lUI and IINt-ai'J 
 
 Tbe Thcolo^cat School. Hi-e Nkstokianh. 
 
 A. D. a«o.— Battle of. See Peiui.\: A. 1) 
 
 A. D. 1097-iiM.— Th« Frank principality.— 
 
 Ou the man h of the srmiesof the First I'rusade. 
 M thi y apiirnaiht^tl .Syria, lialdwin. tliealile self, 
 ikhaiid aelf'Willi.d lin>lher of OiHlfri'V of liouii- 
 l"n. li'ft the main lH«ly of the crusaders, with a 
 l«ud of foUowers, aiiil moved off eastwanln, 
 •"king the priies of a very worldiv amhitiun' 
 •mi leaving his devouter i-onmules to ri'siiic tiie 
 It'ily M'pulchre without his aid (>i»ii fortune 
 nwpinliii hisent<'r)>ri!u*anciheae('iin'<l |>iiMeMi..ii 
 "( tl»' important city of Edeasa. It wax goveriii^il 
 tiy ■ tiirek prince, who ownl allegiance to the 
 lUi.ii.liiH' rm|M<n)r. but who iwlil tribute to Hie 
 Turk. Ii adsiirremlenHlt.ii'oii/.uii.oiicofthc 
 piuriiUof Mairk miah. In the year lOMT, but diir 
 iiiK til.- i-iiiittiiia ,f the Turks and Marmriw in 
 !l« iionh of hyria it had recf>vere<t lu inde|» ml 
 II. 1 lUlilwlu now sullied the honour of (lie 
 Kmiiks, by exclllngihe iM-ople to munler their 
 pivenii.r The<i<lon>. and relxl ugiiinnt the llv/aii 
 tiw nuiliority (other historiaus say tluit he wn» 
 piilty of no more than a passive |HTiiii««l.>ii of 
 lliew seta] , he then U«ik |K<sapssion of ihe pla<t- 
 In hi', own iiame ami founded the F'rauk |irin- 
 ei|.«lilv of Jjiettsa, whith lantetl aUmt 4T veam 
 -<• Unlay, Ihtl ,<( Ityftnltiu .tntl (Irnk Km- 
 lor-. A D T19-141W. At 8. M 3. »<•/ \ -f*^. 
 at, ■•B!-x»r*s A- !>. t-WS-KtSB. aadHiT lliS; 
 tlSi'.jKHl SALEM: A. I> lUIW-1144 
 
 EDGAR, Kiag of Scotland, A D tii»N-llUT 
 Edcw, King of WttMS. A. U. »aei-»T3 
 
 095 
 
 EDIXBLKGH 
 
 EOGECOTE, Battle of. See Hakbcbt, 
 Battle ok. 
 
 EDGEHILL OR KEYNTON, Battle ot 
 (»ee t.\OL.\KD; A. D. 1642 (UcTUBEU— Decbm- 
 BEK). 
 
 EOHEL SeeADEL. 
 
 EDHILING, OR ADHILING, The. See 
 Ethelino. 
 EDICT OF NANTES, and ita reTocmtioa. 
 
 S>e« Fhance: A. I). 1.5»»-1,599, and 18W1-16JW 
 EDICT OF RESTITUTION, The. See 
 
 Oekmanv: a. n. 1627-1621). 
 EDICTS, Roman imperial. See C'orpiti 
 
 Jl'HIH ClVILIB. 
 
 EDINBURGH : Oririn of the city See 
 Enula.nu : A. D. 547-633. 
 
 iith Century.— Made the capiul of Scot- 
 land. be<>.S(iyrL.tSD; A. I). IJA^IWS 
 
 A. D. 1544.— Destroyed by the EnKliah. 
 
 Secbci)TL.vM): A D. 1544-154S. 
 
 A. D. 1559-1560.— Seized by the Lorda of 
 the CongreKation.— The Treaty of July, is6o. 
 See ScoTLA.NO: A. D. l.'ijO-I.^tO. 
 
 A. D. i57»-«573-— In the ciWI war. See 
 tHoTLAM): .\. I). 1.170-1573. 
 
 A. D. 1637.— Laud'* Liturgy and the 
 tumult at St. Gile*'. See StoTLA.tD: A. D. 
 Iti^l7. 
 
 A. D. 1638.— The aiKninK of the National 
 Covenant. .See .StoT'.AM): A. 1). lil:t>*. 
 
 A. D. 1650. — Surrender to Cromwell.— 
 Siege and reduction of the Caatle. ^iee 
 S<i>tl.*kd a. I> llkV) (SeptemukhI; and 1631 
 
 (AllilHTI. 
 
 A. D. 1688.— Rioting; and revolution. See 
 Son A.M>: \. 1). lOMtt-inud 
 
 ^- "■ 'W— Th« city at the time of the 
 
 union.— ■hiiuiburgh. thoUKli »iill but a small 
 U)wii, i-xcited the adminiiion of tn;vellers who 
 weh- acijuainteil with the greatest cities of 
 EuKluiid Hiiil tlie ( ontineut : nor was their adnd- 
 ration entin Iv due to the singular U-aiitv of its 
 situation Thi- ijtiaint architecture of the older 
 lii>use»— which Minietlnies nwe to the lieiulii of 
 nine, ten or eleven BUiries — iiideeil, carrieil b.ick 
 the mind to verv l«rl>aroiis times; for it was 
 ascriUil to tlie tfesire of 1! |Hip»lmion to live 
 as near as possilile to ii„ protidion of the 
 castle. The tilth of tlw strifts in the earlv 
 years of the l^•lll ceulurv was indesirilialije. 
 
 The new i|iu>rter. «h!cl w strikes cviry 
 
 slniiiger by its spacious svninictrv. was not 
 Uguh till 111. liilt.r halt of tlie l><tli century, but 
 as earlv i TW m, KhKlisli IraMlhr de8< rilail 
 the llh net as the MateliesI siriit in the 
 
 World t nder the Intluence of the Kirk the 
 
 pillillc I, 11 rs of tlie town Were nuirkcd by 
 mm li dn'iiiii, and even austerity, but the 
 |si|iuhnf Mill iniisually sus<vptili'lc of tierce 
 poiiiicul 1 nlhuiiiisni. anil when ladteil they 
 
 Win c.\lri iiiely loniililalili V city guartl. 
 
 coiii|H.s<d chiitiv III llin-c Highlanders, ariiuti 
 anil lilsi ipliii.nl like rigiilar soldiers, and pUvd 
 under the control of the magistrates, was es- 
 tublishid in ItllXI. and It »:» not tiiially aliul- 
 ishcil till the pri'Miii ci-ntury. Edinlmrgh, at 
 till Isginning of th>' l"<ili lintury. mis nwie 
 than twill' as large as any other 'scmch town. 
 I:^ iini-iiiation ,it thr tinu '..f the uiiioh siiniiliy 
 csciciliil llo.iHMt, Willie thai of lilaagow was nut 
 qiiile I.I.IHNI. that of l>unde<- not ijnilc III.INM), 
 Hiid that of Perth aUiut 7.(IIN) — \V. E || L('<>ky 
 //I'f i<f AV )'< (Ac im liHturf, ik. 3(r, «), 
 
KDINBCRGH. 
 
 A. D. 1736.— The Portcens Riot— "The dr- 
 cumMancc* of the Purtrou* Riot are familiar 
 wht'fever the Engliah tongue i« spoken, becauie 
 they were made the dramatic opening of one of 
 hi* flne*t storie* by tliat admiimble geniui who, 
 like Sbakespvarc in his plays, hat conveyed to 
 plain men more of the spirit and action of the 
 past in noble fiction, than they would find in 
 moat profea«e<l chronicles of fact. The early 
 scenes of the ' Heart of Midlothian ' are an accu- 
 rate account of the transaction which gave so 
 much trouble to Queen Caroline and the min- 
 ister [Walpole]. A smuggler who had excited 
 the popular imagination by his daring and bis 
 chivalry was sentenced to be hann-d : after his 
 execution the mob pressed forward to cut down 
 his iKxIy: Porteous, the captain of the City 
 OuanI, onlcrcd his men to Are. and several per- 
 sons were shot dead ; he was trieil for murder, 
 convicted, and sentenced, but at the last moment 
 a reprieve arrived from London, to the intense 
 indignation of a crowd athirat for vengeance: 
 four days later, under mysterious rin,{lea(ters 
 who could never afterwards be discovered, fierce 
 throngs suddenly gathcreti together at nightfall 
 to the beat of drum, broke into the prison, 
 ilraggnl nut the unhappy Porteous, and sternly 
 banged him on a dyer's pole close by the com- 
 miiD place of public execution. "—J. Morley, 
 H'.iZ/x^, <•*. ». 
 
 .ViJ» m: J. McCarthy, But. of tht fhur 
 (irorgf*. rh. U (r. 8). 
 
 A. D. 1745.— The Yoanc Prtttadcr ia tht 
 citjr. See Scotlasu: A. I>. I74a-17«. 
 
 A. D. 1779.— No-PoMiy riot*. Bee Eholakd : 
 A. D 1778-1780. 
 
 • 
 
 EDISON'S INVENTIONS. S«e Ei.bc- 
 Tiili AL DlSLOVtKT : A. D. lMl-1880; 187S-18M. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 BDMUNO IRONSIDE. See Englaso 
 
 A. O. »7»-101«. 
 BOMUNDS ACT. See Utah: 1882-1sb3 
 BDOaUTBS, OR IDUMEANS, The.- 
 "From a Terr early period the Edomitcs wen 
 the chief of the naUons of Arabia I'ctrsa. 
 Amongst the branches sprung, acconilDg; to 
 Arab tradition, from the primitive Amalika, they 
 correspond to the Araun, and the poatoritj Jf 
 Esau, after settling amoogat them as we Ii«t« 
 seen, became the dominant family from which 
 the chiefs were chosen. The original hiihitation 
 of the Ednmites was Mount 8e1r, whenrc ihrr 
 spreatl over all the country called by the (ireeki 
 Qebalene, that Is the prolongation of the mnuD- 
 tains Joining on the north the land of .M<iab, 
 into the Valfey of Arabah, and the surr«iiu<liiij 
 heights. . . . Saul successfully fought the 
 Edomites; under David, Joab and Abi^luii. hii 
 generals, completely defeated them, and David 
 place<l garriM>ns in their towna. In their |Kini 
 of Elath and Eziongelwr were built Ike Reeit 
 seut to India by Hiram and Solomon. . . . .\fier 
 the schism of the ten tribes, the Edomitrs re. 
 mained depenilent on the King of Judah."— F. 
 Lennrmant, Munualof Anritnt JIM. of the Rut, 
 M. 7, fK 4. — See, also, Nabatbbans; J'kwk: Tax 
 Eablt Hebrew HitroKV; and Amalekites 
 EDRED, Kiof of Weucx, A. D. IM7-9.'>.) 
 BDRI8ITES, The.— .\fter the n-voli of 
 Moorish or Mahometan Spain from the calliihste 
 of Bagdad, the African provinces of the Mot- 
 lems assumetl independence, and several livuu. 
 ties became seated — among tbem that n\ the 
 Edrisites. which f(>und('<l the citr ami kini;<iiim 
 of Fes. anil which reigned from \. I). f.MI t,i 
 IW7.— E. Gibbon, Xkclint niul F\iU ofth, ll,„mn 
 Rmp.fh. S3. — See, also, Mabohktam CoMuitn: 
 A. D. 715-750. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 Ancient. 
 
 EcTpt.— "In the eduiatioD of youth [the 
 Egyptians] were panlciilarlv strict; and 'they 
 knew,' says Plato, 'that children ought to lie 
 earlv ucustoinett to such gesturen, looks, and 
 motluns as are deo'nt and pr>|<er; and not to be 
 suffered either to hear or learn any vrnaea and 
 wmgs otluT than those which are calciilati^l to 
 inspire them with virtue; ami Ihey ronai-c|Urnlly 
 took rare tlmt every daufv and iNle Introiiureil at 
 their feasts or sacrillces should l>e subject to eer 
 tain regulations. '—Sir J. O Wilkinson. Tht 
 .Viinnrrt tii>4l Cvlonu "f Iht Anritnt Egj/Jitians, 
 r. 1, /). «31,— "Tlie chlldri'n were educated ar 
 conling to their slall>'n nod their future poaitlim 
 in life Tlwy were kept In strict sulijecllon by 
 their parents, and respect to old age was par- 
 llruhirlr Inculcated , the chlldn-n of the priests 
 were ealucatttl verr thoruugbly in writing of all 
 kinds, hlrn>)tlyphfr, hieratic, and demotic, and 
 in llie sclrnii-s of astronomy, matliematics, etc. 
 Th»' Jewish deliverer Moses was educated after 
 the manner of the priesta, awl the 'wisdom of 
 the Kgrptians' became a proverbial expression 
 ainoiiir the outside naticma, aa Indicating the 
 utmost limit of human koowletlge "— K A. W. 
 Hudge. Tht IhttUtn on Ih4 Silt, eh 10— "fm 
 the e<iucatl<in of tlw Egyptians, Utodonu make* 
 the followiog mutfks:— 'The cblMrea of the 
 
 priesu are taught tw3 different kinds of writlnir. 
 — what is called the sacred, and the mon- (••m ml . 
 and they pay great attention to geoinciry unJ 
 arithmetic. For the river, changing the a|iprar 
 ance of the country very materially every ym. 
 is the cause of many and various iliaruwiuDt 
 among neighbouring proprietors alwtil the 11 
 tent of therr property; an<l it would \v diiflrult 
 for any person to decide up<in their claims with- 
 out geometrical reasoning, founded on m tiial ol> 
 servation. t)f arithmetic they have alsn fn <|iirDi 
 nee<l, both In their domestic economy, aii'l in the 
 applicatiiii) of geometrical theorems. Ixal'lin In 
 utility in the cultlvatloo of aatMnomlcni utiiiiin. 
 fur the iinlenaod motiona of the star* iirr ob- 
 served at least as industriously by the Kk'.vpiiani 
 aa by any iieople whatever; and thev kii']' "•■■•ifil 
 of the motiona of each for an Inemlihli- iiumhrr 
 of yean, the study of this science haviin: Iim-d. 
 from the remotest times, an object «f naiiiHul 
 ambition with them. . . . But the generalitr nf 
 the common people learn only from thiir pait'Dti 
 or relatiooa that which is required for the rirr- 
 else of their peculiar profeasiona. :i f>-« 
 
 nely b?iBg t«ijch( urtiiiog "f Mtenit""' anJ 
 those principally the better class of arttlirrn.' 
 Hence it appran they were n»tconllii<<l inaar 
 pnrUculat rule* in the mode of c<lucstlui; their 
 chlldna, and It depeaiisd upon ■ iMftDt tu ch«t«s 
 
 696 
 
BDUCATION. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 the degree of inatniction he deemed most lult- 
 tble to their mode of life and occupMtoiu, u 
 imoosotbeTdTillndiiatioiu."— SirJ. O. WUkio- 
 ■OD. Tki Maimtn and Cuttcmi of the BgypHnnt 
 t. I, pp. ITO-lTt.—" -There U nothing like being 
 >icribe,'the wiMny; ' the ecribe gets all that is 
 upon eaitli. ' . . . The tcrlbe to limply » man who 
 know! bow to read and write, to draw up 
 adminiattatlTe formuUi, and to calculate inter- 
 est. The instruction which be baa leoeived to a 
 Decenary complement of bto position if he be- 
 ionm to a good family, whilst if he be poor it 
 enables him to obtain a lucrative situation in the 
 administntion or at the house of a wealthy per- 
 ioiuge. There ia, therefore, no sacrifice which 
 tlR> smaller folk deem too great, if it enables 
 them to giTe their sons the acquirements which 
 ma.r raise them above the common people, or at 
 least insure a less miserable fate. If one of 
 tJiem, in hia infancy, dtoplays any intelligence, 
 tbey send bim, when about six or eight yean 
 old. to the district school, where an old peda- 
 gogue teaches him the rudiments of reading, 
 wntiag. and arithmetic. Towards ten or twelve 
 years old, they withdraw him from the care of 
 this first teacher and apprentice him to a scribe 
 in some offlcc, who undertakes to make bim 
 a 'learned scribe.' The child accompanies his 
 muter to hto ofllce or work-yaid, and there pusses 
 entire months in copying letters, circulars, legal 
 dix-unienu, or accounts, which Le does not at 
 finit uuderetand, but which he faithfully remem- 
 bers. There are books for his use full of copies 
 taken from weliknuwo authura, which he studies 
 perpetually. If be requires a brief, precise re- 
 l><>rt. tbto is how Ennana worded one of hto: — 
 ' 1 reached Elephantine anil accomplished my 
 mi»«i(in. I reviewed the infantrv ami tliv cbariot 
 fildiers from the temples, ta well as the servants 
 BD(I subordinates who are in the houses of Phsr- 
 ai:h s . . . olflciato. Aa my journey to fur the 
 miriMise of making a report in the presence of 
 Lis Majesty, . . . the course of my business is aa 
 rapiil Hs that of the Nile ; you need not, there- 
 (on>, feel anxious about me.' There is not a 
 »ii|>rrtluous word. If, on the other hand, a pe- 
 titit>D in a nnrtical style be requiiiHl, see how 
 Pintotrit asked for a holiday. ' My heart has 
 Itft me. it is traveling and does not know how 
 to return, it sees thmphis and hastens there. 
 W.iiilil that I were in its place. I remain here, 
 Imiv fiillowing mv heart, which endeavours to 
 driw me tuwanis Memphis. I have no work in 
 haiKl. mv heart to tormented. May It please the 
 fr»l l*tah to lead me to Memplils, ami do thou 
 Kr«nt that I may be seen walking there. I am 
 at leisure, my heart to watching, my heart Is no 
 liiuiier in my bosom, languor has seizeit my 
 lliiilw; my eye to dim, my ear hanleue<l. my 
 v.ilif fwble. It Is a failure of all my strength. 
 I pmy thee remedy all this.' The pupil copies 
 SDil rt'cople*. the msster inserts forgotten wonis, 
 ri>m>cu the faulU of spelling, ami draws on the 
 in^ririn the signs or groups unskilfully tractil. 
 Wli.n the book to duly finished and the appren 
 tiie can write all tlie formulas from memory, 
 IH'Hinns of phriaes are detached from them, 
 «l>i<h he must Join together, so as to combine 
 new fnrmulas: the master tlien entrusu him 
 *:!:i ihr mmpositioil „t a few telten. greiiualir 
 Itx-nasing the number and adding to tlie ilitll 
 (u ties As soon aa ha baa fairly raastensi the 
 orlttiary daUjr IOuUm hto aduoUon to ended. 
 
 and an unimportant post to sought for. He ob- 
 tains it and then marries, becoming the head of 
 a family, sometimes before he to twenty yean 
 old; he has no further ambition, but to content 
 to vegetate quietly In the obscure circle where 
 fate has thrown him."— G. Maspiro, life in 
 Aneient Egypt and Auyria, eh. 1. — "In the 
 schooto, where the poor scribe's child sat on the 
 same bench beside the offspring of the rich, to be 
 trained in discipline and wise Teaming, the raaa- 
 ters knew how by timelv words to goad on the 
 lagging diligence of the ambitious scholan, by 
 holding out to them the future reward which 
 awaited youths skilled in knowledge and letters. 
 Thus the slumbering spark of self-esteem waa 
 stirred to a flame in the youthful breast, and 
 emulation was stimulated among the boya The 
 clever son of the pjwr man, too, might hope by 
 hU knowledge to climb the ladder of the higher 
 offices, for neither his birth nor position nused 
 any barrier, if only the youth's menul power 
 justified fair hopes for the future. In this sense, 
 the restremu of caste did not exist, and neither 
 descent nor family hampered the rising career of 
 the clever. Many a nmnument consecrated to 
 the memory of some nobleman gone to hto long 
 home, who during life had held high rank at the 
 court of Pharaoh, to decuratetl with the simple 
 but laudatory inscription, 'Hto ancestors were 
 unknown people. ' It is a sattofaction to avow 
 that the training and instruction of the young 
 interested the Egyptians in the highest degiw. 
 For they fully recognised in thto the sole niV«ns 
 of cultivating their uatinnal life, and of fulfilling 
 the high civiliilug misbion which Providence 
 seemeil to have i)lacvd in their hands. But 
 alHive all things they reganled justice, and virtue 
 bad the highest price in their eyes. "—U. Brugsch- 
 Boy. Hiet. of Kiiupt under the Pharaoh; t. 1, p. 
 i2. 
 
 Babylonia and Assyria. — "The primitive 
 I'lialileans were pre-eminently a literarv people, 
 and it is by their literary relics, by the scattered 
 (X)ntcuts of their libraries, that we can know and 
 judge them. As iH'fitted the inventors of a sys- 
 tem of writing, like the Chinese they set the 
 highest value (m education, even mgh exam- 
 luationH mav have Iweu unknown miong them. 
 E>lucHtliin. liDWever. was widely diffused. . . . 
 AssurlMtni-pal's lilirnrv was o|K'n to the use and 
 enjoyment of all lii.t siilijects. auil the syltoluries, 
 grammar!*, lexii-ous, and reatliug-lxxAs that it 
 conlaim-il. show the extent to which not only 
 their own languuijc wan studied by the .issyrians. 
 but the dealt lauifiiage •>( ancient .\ccaii as well. 
 It became as fashiimalilc to (i>ni|KMi- In this ex- 
 tinct tongue iM it is niiwa-ilays to display one's 
 pMflcieucy in Latin prose, aiid ' ili)g-.\cn«li«u ' 
 was |H'r|M'tmtiHl with as little reniowe as 'dog- 
 Ijitin ' at till' iinwnt time. Dnc of the Babylon- 
 ian cylimlent fnunit by Ueneral di Ccsnola in tba 
 temple ircasuri' of Kiirium. which probably be- 
 long* |M the iK'ri'nl of Nebiichaiinezzar's dynasty, 
 has a li'Ki'Oil nlilcb endeavours to imitate the 
 inscnptiiins of the early Accadian princes; but 
 the Very finl wonl, by an unhappy error, be- 
 trays the insuHtcient khowle<lgr of the old Ian- 
 image iMWnesseil by Its composiT. Besides a 
 knowliilge of A(-caillan, the iilucated Assyrian 
 «»!« n-iiiiinii to have also a kiiiiwinigv ot Ara- 
 maic, wliich had now U-come the ' l.ugua franca' 
 of trade and iliiiliimacr ; and we find tlie Rab- 
 shakeh (liab-sakki), or prime mintotcr, who was 
 
 697 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 imtaninitHeteUah by Srnnscherib, acquainted 
 with Hebrew a< well. The Knunmatical and 
 leiicsi works In the library of Nineveh are r«- 
 pecially intereitins. as being the earliest attempts 
 of the kind of whfrh we know, and it is curious 
 to find the Hamiltonian method of leaminj; 
 bngusses forestalled by the scribes of Assur- 
 bam-pal. In this rase, as In all others, the fltst 
 enquiries Into the nature of speech, and the first 
 grammars and dk-tlonaries, were due to the nv- 
 ceasit V of comparing two languages together : It 
 was the ArradUn which forml the Semitic As- 
 syrian or Babylonian to study his own tongue. 
 And already in these flrat efforts the main princi- 
 ples of Semitic grammar are laid down clearly 
 and definitely." — A. H. Sayee, Hih^loni-iii Lihrii- 
 tun. ftp. 71-72. — "The Babvlonlans were the 
 Chinese of the ancient worfd. They were es- 
 sentially a reading and writing people. . . . The 
 books were for the most pnrt written ui>on clay 
 with a wooden rwil or mctnl stylus, for day wiis 
 
 cheap and plentiful, luid easily impre8.>ie<l with 
 
 ;e-»liaiH' " "' 
 were compostil. But besides clay, papyrus und 
 
 the wpdge-sliaiHMl lines of which the characters 
 
 possibly also (mivhmcnt were employt-d'as writ- 
 ing materials. . . . The u»e of ciavfor writing 
 purposes exten<le<l. along with Bal>y!<inlun cul- 
 turr, to the ni'iglilNiuriiig populations of the 
 East. ... It is aatoniiliing how much matter 
 can lie comprewe<l into the compass of a siugle 
 tablet. The cuneiform sviitem of writing allowi-il 
 the use of many abbreviations — thanks to its 
 • ideographic ' nature — and the characters wcr- 
 fn'nuc-ntly of a very minute size. Indee<l. »o 
 minute is the writing on nuny of the Assyrian 
 (as distluguishcd from the Babylonian) tablets 
 tliat it Is clear not only that the Assvrian srrilM-s 
 iind reailers mint hiive licen dcifdeillv short- 
 siicliled. but also that tlier must have uiaile use of 
 m.ik'oifying gliMw'H. We mtsi not U' surpriseil, 
 tli<nfiire. to Iftirn that Sir A. H. I.,nyanl ilis- 
 cipvinnl a crystal lens, which had Nr'n tumcil 
 on a liitlie. U|Kin tlii- site of llie gr<-at lilirary of 
 Xin**veh. . . Tt» Irarn tlie cumlform svllatmry 
 WHS a task of much time iind lnN>ur Tlu' stii- 
 diiit was acconlingly pmvidiil with vuriou.* 
 means of nwistancc. Tlic >'liiir»< li rs of tin- syl- 
 laliiiry 1 were classitled iiml niuiitsl. tiny were 
 further iirranged ai-c>)nliMi to a uriiiiri onler. 
 whii'li jHirtly <li'[K*ndfd oti tlu- nunilHTof wedges 
 or lines iif n hicli cHcli nuscumiiovd. .Mon'over. 
 wliat wi- may term diclioUiiries were iimipileil. 
 To liaru the signs. !n. vever. with llieir mul- 
 titiKlliioiis phoni'lic values ami idtsiirmpliie sii; 
 nitiiatiniis, was not the wlioleof the lalsHir wliieli 
 the llalivloiiian Isiy liail to ncc-nniplish The 
 cum ilMrin s\ >leui of wrilinir, along with the ciil- 
 tiiii' Willi li )iail pnsluod it. liml In-en tlie inveii- 
 lioh nf the lion St'iuilie .VieHilo Siinierian niii. 
 froir .I'umi it Imd Ins'n iKirrowisI by the S<>miles 
 In N jiiitii Imiiiistbesvlluliary unili'meut further 
 miHlitleaiioiis and adAiiions. but it Isire U|ioii it 
 to the l.i-.t till' stamp of its alien origin. On this 
 account alone, therefon-, the llabyloi ' . studenl 
 who wished to acquire a kliowleu, reaaling 
 
 niid writing was otiliBe.1 to lean the .ni lau- 
 jiiiaife of the older )K>piiliition of ||„ aintry 
 Then- was. Iiowever. Hnolher reason w i.. 'i even 
 inon- im|M>rativelv obllgisl him to sti,dy the 
 rtflief limswr. .\ iarjrr pninnrtion of tiir in 
 ch'ni Ittenitim'. mon' esiwially that whiih «•■ 
 lalcsl to n'lliiiiiussiilije<'t'<. was written In Viiado 
 Hunu'rian Kveu the law cases of earljir times, 
 
 which formed precedents for the Uw of a later 
 age, were In the same language. In fact, Accaili). 
 Sumerian stood in much the same relation tci ilu> 
 Semitic Babylonians that Latin has stood to the 
 modem inhabitanta of Europe. . . . Ib'siiU.) 
 learning the syllabary, theivfore, the BahylnDian 
 boy had to leara the extinct language of Arnd 
 and Sumer. . . . The study of foreign timeim 
 naturally brought with It an inqulaitlveneKs ulmut 
 the Unguages of other people, as well hs a ium- 
 sion for etymology. . , . But there wen- nihtT 
 things besides languages which the Toiimr stu- 
 dent in tlie schools of Babylonia and Aiisyriavaa 
 called upon to leam. Oeography, hist'orv. the 
 name* and nature of planta, blnls' animals, and 
 stones, as well as the elements of law awl n-. 
 Ilgion, were all objects of inatruction. The Ilrit- 
 lab Museum pos se ss es what nuy be callcl the 
 historical exercise of some Babylonian 1a<l in 
 the age of Nebuchadnezzar or Cyrus, iiinsi!,! 
 
 ing of a list of the kings behinging In if 
 
 the early dynaaties, which he hailbeen rii|iiinil 
 to leam by heart. ... A considerable iiM|sir 
 tion of the inhabitants of Babylonia coiilil n-nil 
 and write. The contract tablets are written in 
 a variety of running hands, some of nhii h an- 
 as Imd as the worst that passes through the ni >i 
 em |K>st. Every legal d(X!ument reipiin.l ilir 
 signatures of a numlier of witnesses, and imttt 
 (if these were able to write their own namfs. 
 . . In Assyria, howerer, c<lucatiiin wiis by n i 
 means so widely spreatl. A;iart from the iifiptr 
 and professional classes, including the nun I'f 
 busiiieHS, it was confined to a "P*''''»l '""l.t' "' 
 men — the nubile scribes. . . . Tlien' was nom- 
 of that ieaioiis excliuion of women In aiiriitit 
 Babylonia which characterizes the Fjihi nf t.: 
 day. and it is imiliable that iHiya and ifirls pur 
 s>ie<l their stiiiiirs at the same schools I'lie i-il)|. 
 cation of a cliilil must hare begun earl\ — X 
 II. Havce, Siaal Lift amnng the /t;'-»/.//ii.ii.«. 
 ch. 8 ■ 
 
 Chinm. — "It is not, perhaps, generally known 
 that Peking contains an .iM-ient iinivi r-.iiv : f >r 
 though certain buihiings i-oniR-<'te<l with ii luv- 
 lieen fn-i|uciitly descrflied, the instiliition ilM-lf 
 has lN'4'n Imt little notlcisl. It gives, iiiilei.i|.>aif)ti: 
 signs of life that It Is not surprising it slmulil hi- 
 overlisikeil. . . If alocal sltiialinii IsileeiiiiiUn 
 essi>ntl»l eleiTii-nt of iileiitlty, this iilil iiiiiveroity 
 must yielil the palm of age to iiianv In Kunin, 
 for In its pri'M-iit site It dates, al n.ost, only fr-iu 
 the Yuen, or Mongol, ilynaMv. in iii<- iH-iriniiiui; 
 of tilt- iourteenth ei-ntiiry. Ibit a-, an ini|« ri,il 
 institution, having a Hxisl organi/Mtiim ami lif 
 inite (li.jct ts. it carries its history, or at li i-t its 
 m-di^n-o, Imck to a pertisl far iiiti-ri-ir t-- tlw 
 foiiniling of the (ireat Wall .Vni -iiirlhe lli';:u 
 latiiiiis of the Mouse of ('how, wliii li tlouri-he-i :i 
 llioiisnii'l yeai'i liefin- the (. hristlnii en. v\- nii»-t 
 witli ii alrcHily in 'nil blown vigor, aii'l iinli riln- 
 idi-iitiral name 'vhi h I', now iM'ari.. that of K-i"l» 
 /ekien. or ■,Hehi«i| f..r t'le Sons.if tin- Kmnm- ' 
 It was in 'Is glory Is fore the liclil "f -lew'' 
 i!awnis| on (lnv<v, '»ni| when l'ytliairori« and 
 Plain were pumping :heir sjiri-is from tin- i>rii-«i» 
 of IIeli.i|Hilis And It still exists, but it i« «i>ly 
 an emtssliinent of life in det.:h:' Us halls an- 
 tairolM, aiHl its officers living mummies In ihi- 
 
 j:tth liis.kof :;,. t 'ii.,wtei>r<- Tutes li. T. i :i -n 
 
 diiction par (-/loiiar<l lilni). we find (In- fumtmni 
 of thelleitila nf (he Kwntsrekien lai'l .l.'»ll»ith« 
 gi«»l deal of inluuleonui The presldriits wertW 
 
 0U8 
 
KDCCATION. 
 
 AneitHt 
 
 KDUCATIOy. 
 
 ■dmoabh the Emperor of that whkb la good and 
 jiut, and to inatruct the Sona of the State In the 
 •three conatant virtuea' and the ' three pnctlcal 
 duties '—in other worda. to siTe a ooune of lee- 
 turai on moral philoaophy. TTie rice-presidenta 
 were to reprove the Emperor for hi* faiilu (L e., 
 to perform the dutj of official cenion) and to dia- 
 dpline the Sona of the State in the Kiences and 
 irti— >ii., in arithmetic, writing, music, arch- 
 nr, horsemanship and ritual ceremonies. . . . 
 The old curriculum is religiously adhered to, but 
 greater latitude is given, as we shall have occa- 
 don to obserre, to the term 'Sons of the State.' In 
 the lUvs of Chow, this meant the beir-appat«nt, 
 
 Erinces of the binod, and children of the nobility 
 niltr the Tataing dynasty it signifles men of 
 drfectire wholarship throughout the prorinces, 
 who purchase literary degrees, and more speciflc- 
 illy certain indigent studeuts of Peking, who 
 sreaiile<t by the imperial Iniunty. The Kwotsze- 
 kien a located in the ni)rtlieiiiiu-m angle of the 
 Tsrurrity, with a temple of Confucius attached 
 which is one of the flnest in the Empire. The 
 Diain riMnre (tiiat of the temple) comiists of a sin- 
 gle Mnry of imposing height, w ith a porcebtin tiof 
 of tent like curvature. ... It contains do seats 
 usil comers are ex|>ecte<l to stiuiii or kneel in 
 pTMcniT! of the Great Teacher. Neither rtoj-s it 
 biisst annhing in the way of artistic decoration, 
 nor eibiblt any trace of tliiit neatness anil taste 
 which we look for in a sncnii iiliup. Perhaiis ita 
 Tsit area is liesigoetily left to Jiiiit and emptiness, 
 hi cnlir that nothing may intervene to disturb 
 the mind In the contemplation of a great lume 
 whii h ri-ci'ives the homage of a nation. ... In 
 ill n.lja<rnt block or s(|iiare stands a pavilion 
 known »s tht- 'Imperial Lecturen«ini." Iiecaime 
 ItiiimumlM'nt on each occupant of the Draeon 
 throni- to go tbcrt- at least once in hin lirrtiini- to 
 bttr » ilisc.urse on the nature ami nsiMinsihiliiies 
 of his ortlce. ... A canal spanwii by marlile 
 briiliri's imirclcs the paviHon. ami arches of glit- 
 leriiic |>.)nelain. in rMillent r.pair, ailorn the 
 pomi.ls. Hut peither Ihi'te nor the pavilion it- 
 <elfr..n«Iitiite8 the chief attraction of the place 
 IwliT,! hinitcorrichir which eniloncs the entire 
 »piirr limy lie B«'n as many ns one humlreil and 
 riithiv iuoct>luinnsof iimwive granite each In- 
 <crilie.| with a portion of the cam.nicnl iHH.ks 
 Tli<«f nri'the '»<lone Claitsicii'— the entire 'Thir- 
 twii. whi.li foniK .| the staple of » Chinese oiii- 
 iiiii.n tuinKhcriMiiiihrimtlina iimtirialsiipposiil 
 ti)l« iniiHTlBbal.le. Amoiiii all llic rniversities 
 imli.' «,,rhl. tlie Kwiitazekien is iinii|iic in the 
 pi»«.*,it,n nf »ii< li a litirarv. This |h n.il im\nt\ 
 the. .Illy sl.me lihrarv extant — Bii..||i.r of eiiiiai 
 Mtiiil Uin,' foiiiKl at ,>»ini.'anf«. tl.i' ancient capi 
 isi.if ih.. Titnt!*. Hut, thut t.Ki. was the proiiertv 
 01 Ih" Kwotsiekh'n ten centuries aifo. wliin .>4iii 
 pn wi. the m-at of empire. The • ScIhhiI for 
 Ih. s..ns of the Umpire ' must nintls foUow the 
 mi.TTitionsof tlieniiirt; ami tliat library, costiv 
 >iii KAs. iH-ingt.si heavy for transiiorirtilun (t 
 vwih...ii.-ht beat t.. «upplv its place by the new 
 ftfiii-.i, «hich weliave l)f.n dewribing In 
 
 iMii! "f Die temple stamis a fort-st of •iilumin ,>f 
 «m K inferior intere»t Tliev «irthn-e hiimirt'.l 
 soil i«. my in numU r ami contain the univer. 
 It^rull „, hom«.. a com|ilele list of all wlio simr 
 ■- ■■ ■.■••!:!i-- If the inslitiiiiou Uv.- Hilaimti lo 
 Ihe 'i.-nitv ..f thed(K-l..rate AUow to each an 
 «irrHi;,M,( two hundred iiaines, ami we have nn 
 a-aiv , .f .|<ict4irs siity tbtmaaud st rong ! , Bv t he 
 
 6t)0 
 
 doctorate I mean the third or hlgheat degree.) AU 
 toe«i received their investiture at the KwoUie- 
 Uen, and, throwing themaelvea at the feet of iu 
 prerident, enrolled themaelvea among the • Sona 
 of the Lmpire.' They were not. however — at 
 least the most of them were not— in any tiroper 
 sense alumni of the Kwotsaekien, having pirsued 
 their studies in private, and won their honors by 
 public competition In the halls of the Civil-serv- 
 
 i~. ^"'. .^ ^'^ There b an immense 
 
 arro occupied by lecture-rooms, examination-haila 
 and kxlKing-apanmenU. But the visitor is liable 
 to unagine that these, too. are consecrated to a 
 monumental use -so rarely is a student or a pro- 
 lessor to be seen among them. Otdinarilv thcv 
 are as desolate as the lialls of Baalbec or Pal- 
 ■"/rS- J° f«it this great schcx.l for the 'Sona 
 ot tbe Empire has long ceased to be a seat of 
 instniction. ami degenerated into a mere append- 
 age of the civil mrvice competitive examinatlona 
 on which It hangs as a dead weight, corruptinir 
 and delwsing instead of a<ivancing the standard 
 of national .Klucation. — W. A. P. .Martin Tht 
 tAin». Ihfir tkiuentitm. Philomphy and Ittlert, 
 
 Peraia — "All the best authorities are aKree<i 
 tiiat gr.ttt pains were taken by the Persians — 
 or, at any rate, bv those of the leading clans — in 
 the ediuation of their s.ins. During the drat 
 Ave yeara of lii. life the boy nmaininl wholly 
 with the women, ami was 8<-arcelv, if at M seen 
 by his father. After that time bis training com- 
 memvd. He was exiiected to rise l-fore dawn 
 and to appear at a i-ertain spot, where he was 
 exercised with other Ixiys of Ids age in runninir 
 slinirinir stones, sh.Hiting with the Uiw. ami 
 throwing the javelin. At seven lie was taught 
 to rtdc, and soon afu'rward he was aHoweil to 
 begin to hunt. The riding included, not <inlv 
 the <inlinary manairenient of the horse, but the 
 power of jiimpinit on and oir his l>a<k wlieu lie 
 was at »p<iil, and of 8li<M)tin« with the liow ami 
 throwing the javelin with unerring aim while 
 the horse w.is still at full galh.p. The huntinir 
 was conducted by sUte-olticers, wIid aimed at 
 fonning by its means in the youths iDinmitted to 
 lliiir charge all the ijualiths m-etlwl in wjr 
 The lioys wen- made lo iMvir <\trenii's i.f h,„t 
 ami cold, to (Mrforni long marches, to en >s» rivers 
 without wettinK their weapons, to sl.np in llie 
 o|H'ii air at niirhl. to W content with a nincle 
 meal In two davs, ami to supjiort tlieinsilves 
 oivasiiinally on thf wil,| pn«liict«of the country, 
 acnnis, wild |«ars ami the fruit of the ten>liinth- 
 tnr (In days »li. n thir.- was no hunting they 
 paiiiM.ll ihrir inoniiMi.'» in allihlic ixircises and 
 cont.-sts with the Ix.w or Hit- javtlin. after which 
 they diiinl simply on the plain f.KHl inenthmed 
 alHive as ihiit .>r (In- niin in the earlv times, and 
 thi'n employ. d l!iini«.lves duriiii: llie afternoon 
 in (a'inpnii..iis nitanhil as not illilH'ral — for in- 
 stance, in till' pursuits of a^rriciilturi', plttnting 
 iliu'iriiiL' for r.«.i», and the like, or iu ilie eon- 
 striiition ,.f arms and hunlini; implemenu, suih 
 as mis .Old spriutf.-s. Ilanlv and teiiiiwrate 
 habits Ising M-ciiriHl by this training, the in.lnt 
 of morals on wliiili their pniTplora mainly In- 
 Msliil wiis the rigid olmervan<.|' of truth, (if ii|. 
 lellei'tiial education they bail but iliili. Jt m- !•.•« 
 lo tiave iH-eu no |ian of the n-guiar training of a 
 I'lTsiaii yoiiib that he shoiilii leani to read. He 
 w^as irlv.n ri'liiioiisnothiiuiand a ivrtain iimoiin: 
 of moral knowledge by means of legeudary 
 
IDUCATION. 
 
 EDCCATION. 
 
 poems, iu which the dcedi of goda >ad heroM 
 were let before him by hii teachen, who recited 
 or sung them In hli preeenoe, and afterwuda re- 
 quired him to repeat wtiat Ite luul lieard, or, at 
 any 'rate, to gire aome account of it This educa- 
 tioo continued for fifteen years, commencing 
 when tlie boy waa fire, and terminating when lie 
 readied the age of twenty. The effect of tills 
 training wss to render tlie Persian an excellent 
 soldier and a most accomplished horseman. . . . 
 At fifteen years of sge the Persian wss con- 
 sidered to MTe attaiiMd to manhood, and wss 
 enrolled in the ranks of the army, continuing 
 liable to military service from that time till be 
 reached the age of fifty. Those of the highest 
 tank became the body-guard of the king, and 
 these formed the garrison of the cspltsl . . . 
 Others, though liable to military serrice, did not 
 adopt arms ss their profession, but attached 
 themselves to the Court and looked to cirll em- 
 ployment, as satraps, aecretarlea, attendants, 
 ushers. Judges, inspectors, messengers. . . . For 
 trade and commerce the Perslana were wont to 
 express extreme contempt. "— O. RawUnson, l%t 
 /Vw Orsof JfonartUf of tke Aneunt Eatttm 
 Warld, e. », pp. 3aB-M3.— After the death of 
 Cyrus, according to Xenophon, the Peislans de- 
 generated, in tM education of their youth and 
 otherwise. "To educate the youth at the gates 
 of the palace Is still the custom," he says: "but 
 the attainment and practice of tiorsemsinship are 
 extinct, because they do not go where they can 
 
 (ain applause by exhibiting skill in that exercise. 
 V'licreas, too, in former times, the boys, hearing 
 rausfs Jiatly decided there, were considered by 
 timt means to learn Justice, that custom is alto- 
 gcllier nkrred . for they now see those gain their 
 causes wito offer tlie highest bribes. Formerly, 
 also, boys were taught the virtues of the various 
 prtMluctionsof the i-arth, hi order that they might 
 use the fierviceat)le, and avoid the noxiiAis ; but 
 now they wvui to be taught those particulars 
 that they may <lo as much liarra as nissible ; at 
 least tlH-rc are nowhere ao many killeu or iiijiirvd 
 by poison as in tliat country." — Xenonlion. l)/m- 
 podia and IMknif; tram, by J. S. n'atmn and 
 U. VaU. i>i>. art-atM 
 
 Jndssa. — "Aroirding to the stalrnirnt uf Jo- 
 sephus. Muses luul already preMTilHil ' that buys 
 should learn tlie nxwt important lawn. IxKsuse 
 that U the best knowlctlgi- aud the ruuiu' of pros- 
 |M-rity.' ' He comnuniltil tu instruct childn'n in 
 tlic elements of Ituuwled^e (n.-a<linK ami writ- 
 ing), to teach them to walk accnrcliug to tlie 
 laws, and to know the dee<ls of their fiinfutlifn. 
 The Utter, that they might imlute them, the 
 fonm'r, tlut growing up with tiie laws they 
 might not transgress them, cor have the excuse 
 of ignorance.' Joaephus repeatedly cnmmeniis 
 the zeal with which the instruction of the voung 
 was carried on. ' We take moat pains of afl witL 
 tlif instruction of children, anil esteem the ob- 
 servance of tiie laws ami tlH- piety oorrespMuiiing 
 with them tlie moat important affair of our whole 
 llfi' ' 'If anv line shouki oucstiun one of us uin- 
 nrnhig the Uws, he would mote easily repeat 
 all than his own name. Since we iram llicm 
 from our lirM iiiust'iouiiness, we havi* tliuiii, ss It 
 were, eugravt'u on our souls; and a traiiatfression 
 1= rare, twit the averting of pUiil-itiiin-Hl mij?-)*il 
 bir ' In like cianner does Pnllo pxpniw himself : 
 ' Since the Jews esteem llieir laws as divine revc- 
 lathwa, and are instructed in the knowledge uf 
 
 them from their earlieM youtl^ they bear the 
 Image of the Uw in their souls.' ... In vhw of 
 all this testimony it cannot be doubtt^l, tlut is 
 the drdea of genuine Judaism ooys win- iraa 
 tlieir tenderest childhood made acquaiuttil with 
 the demands of the law. That this education is 
 the law was, in tiie first pUce, the duty and 
 taak of parents is self-evidenL But it appcara. 
 that even In the age of Christ, can- was alw 
 taken for the Instruction ol youth by ilu- tnc- 
 tion uf schools on the part of the comiiiuiii' v 
 The later tradition that Joahiu ben Uanila'iJititt 
 the son of Oamallel) enacted that teachcn, of Imn 
 . . . should be appointed in eveiy proviwi' ami 
 in every town, and that chlMren of I lie anv uf sii 
 or seven should be brought to them, is l>v m 
 meana incredible. The only Jesus ilie «.« of 
 Gamaliel known to hiatory U the hi^h pritst uf 
 that name, about 68-49 after Christ. . . . Ii niun 
 therefore be he who Is Intended in the alaivr mv 
 tice. As his measures presuputise a M^nitKliat 
 longer rxistence of boys schools, we inav «iili. 
 out hesitation transfer them to the see iif'riiri< 
 even though not as a general and esiubli.shiil m- 
 atltution. The aubject of instruction, us ainaj; 
 appean from the above passage:) of J.Mpljua 
 and Phllo, waaaa good as exclusively ilic law 
 For only its inculcation In the yiiutl'iful miuii 
 and not the meana of geurnti e<luctiti<iu. via 
 tht. aim of all this zeal for the iiistrui ii«D of 
 youth. And indeed the earliest iiistruciion «u 
 in the reading and inculcation of ihc lot of 
 scripture. . . . Habitual practice ni:H baiul in 
 hand with theoretical Instruction. For ilii>ui;ii 
 children were not actually Imund to fultil tW 
 law, they were yet acrustonied to it from thrir 
 youth up."— E. 8chQn-r, Hittwy ./ tl„ Jt^ruk 
 nopU in tht time of Jttut Chritt, r. i. ;<ji. i'Jd. 
 —In the fourth century B. C. the {"iuk il i.f M- 
 enty Elden "instituted rrgiilurly npiu'inied 
 readings from the Law ; i« every stibbaih ami on 
 every week day a portion from' tlic I'lniaiiucli 
 was to be read to the assembli'l con^ < caiiua 
 Twice a wi-ek, when the coinitri. |nc.|.i. (an» 
 up from the villages to market lii'thi m i^-lilaiur- 
 ing towns, or to appeal at the courtn <'( j mm. 
 some verses of the Pentateuch. bo«i\,r tr« 
 were reail publicly. At first onlv th.' I.ani«t 
 were allowed to read, but at last ft u:ih Imilieil 
 upon as so great an honour to Ik lom; in thr 
 reaiiera, tliut every one attrniptid nrdi^jriil in 
 do so. Unfortunately tlie cbunu |< r> in uhiili 
 the Tonh was written wen' luinllv nail.il<lr 
 Until that date the text of the Tomh In.l lurn 
 written In the ancient style wiih I'limiiiian 
 or old Babylonian charaflers, wbiili iMiililuoIr 
 be decipbennl by piuctisetl M-riUv.. . Fnim 
 the constant eadiug of the Ijiw, llnn- ar<« 
 amimg the JuiheaDS an intellectual ariivily and 
 vigour, which at last gave a aiM-cial ciiaractfr 
 to the whole nation. The Tomb !«< ;iim ilirir 
 spiritual and intellectual property, uiui ilKtruan 
 inner sanctuary. At this lime "tl»rf spninu up 
 other important institutionji. num. !y •« In**. 
 where the young men could stiun.Iiilr liuirat 
 dour snd increase their knowb'<lk!i 'f tin I.aa 
 and its teachings. The iutellectiial InuUm uf 
 tile |)eoplc continually enjoiixd mi il" fi»i«!! 
 generation, 'Bring u|i s great nuiiiy di^ipln' 
 AntI what tl«ry cajulord 3t> sin :;i".-'y '!»■? 
 themselves must have asslsteil I" an'oniplali 
 One of these ndlitlous scIhs.U ill. Ih \Va«llwa« 
 piubaUy csUbliabcd iu Jerusalem rUc tcadi' 
 
 700 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Plata and ArUtolU. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 en were oiled KtibM (lopheriin) or wbe men 
 tbe ditdplea. puptla of the «i«e (Talmude Cha- 
 eturnim). Tbe wlae men or mibei had a two- 
 fold work; on the one hand they had to explain 
 the Torah, and on the other, to make the laws 
 tppUcable to each individual and to the commu- 
 nity at larae. This lupulementary ioterpreU- 
 tim wa» called 'explanation' (Midrash); it was 
 mrt altogether arbitrary, but rested upon ceruin 
 rult-s laid down for the proper interpretntion of 
 iIht law. Tbe supreme council and tbe liouscs of 
 Inmittg worked together, and one completed the 
 othir A hardly perceptible, but must import 
 sst morement was tbe result : for tbe descend 
 tnu uf the Judmns of that age were endowed 
 with a chancteristic, which thcv might other- 
 wine have claimed a* inborn, the taleut for rc- 
 vsrch and the intellectual penetration, neede<l 
 for tumbig and returning wonis and daU, Ui 
 onlcr to dbcover some new and hidden mean- 
 ing."— H. Oraetz, UM. nf the Jtin, r 1 cA 20 
 -ScbooU of the Prophets.—'- In hia ISBmuel'si 
 time we first hear of what in modem phraseology 
 at called the Schools of the PropheU. What- 
 f ter be the precise meanio,; of the wculiar word, 
 wiiich now cnme first into use as the designation 
 of tlii-se companies. It U evident that their im 
 meiliute mission cunsiiiti^l in uttering religious 
 hymns or sougs, acconipnnled by musical instru- 
 ments—psaltery, ubret. pijie ajiil harp, and cym- 
 lisls lu tliem, as in the few solitary instanres 
 of their predecesson, the characteristic element 
 wss lUiit the silent seer of visions found an articu- 
 l»l<- vokv, gushing forth in a rhythmical flow, 
 wliii h St once riveted the attention of the hearer 
 The*-, or such as these, were the gifu whicli 
 umler Samuel were now organized. If one may 
 •sy so, into a system. "—Dean Stanlev, Ltet: on 
 tin llift. of the Jtvith Churrh, leet. IH.' 
 
 Greece.- A description of the Athenian educa- 
 ti..n of tlie young is given by Plato In one of his 
 .imloirues: "Education," he says, "and a<imoni- 
 11.11 nimmence in the first years of childhood 
 «n.l l;i»t to the very end of life. Mother ami 
 miiv Hiid father and tuUir are quarrelling almut 
 ih. Iiiiiinivement of the chihl as soon as ever he 
 i» uliU- to uiKleiatand them : he cannot say or do 
 •n.Mliinif wiihout their setting forth to him that 
 t lis IS juHt and that U unjust; this is hoiKiunible 
 tliat la dishonourable; this is holv. tliat in unholy 
 d» this and abstain fmm that. And if he obeys' 
 well and giMid; If not, he is straightened by 
 thnats and blows, like a piece of warpetl wood 
 At a later stage they send him to teacher*, and 
 fiij"m them to see to his manners even more than 
 to 111. nading and music; and the teachers do as 
 llii\ uri' desired. And when the Ixiv has leameti 
 Ills I. Iters and is beginning to underitand what is 
 wniti'n, as before he understood only what was 
 •pokin, they put into hia hands the works of great 
 p<|«t» which ht reads at s«hool ; in these ar« con 
 tainol many admonitions, and many tales and 
 [iraises and encomia of ancient famous men, 
 «biih he Is required to learn by heart, in order 
 hat be may imiute or emuhte them and desire 
 !.■ iKwrne like them. Then, again, the tea. hers 
 of the lyre take simifau' care that their voung dis- 
 ciple Is temperate and geu into no mischief; and 
 wben they have tMight him the use of the lyre, 
 "*>' '•'=«''=»lu«r him lo the pociM of oUier e»«l- , 
 rk!.'^^ *•«;"•»»» lyric poeu; and these ! 
 ifj*» •" ?"^' *^ ""k* *^r harmonies and ! 
 riiythiia itiUte foailkr to the chiUieD. in order j 
 
 701 
 
 that they mar learn to be more gentle, and har- 
 monious, and rhythmical, and so moie fitted tor 
 speech and action; for the life of men in erirv 
 part has need of harmony a. id rhythm Then 
 they send thein to the master .' gymnastic, in order 
 that their bodies may better minister to the vir- 
 tuous mind, and that the weakness of their bodies 
 may not forci- them to play the coward In war or 
 on any other occasion. This U what is done by 
 tnose who haVB the means, and those who have 
 the means are the rich ; their children begin edu- 
 cation (Mwnest and leave off latest. When they 
 have done with ma.sters, the state again compels 
 them to learn the laws, and live after tlie pattern 
 which they furnish, ami not after their own fan- 
 ciei, ; anil just a^ in learning to write, the writing- 
 master flrst dniws lines with a style for the use 
 or the .voung Uginner, and gives "him the tablet 
 «id makes him follow the lines, so the city draws 
 till- Uws, which Win" the invention of good hiw- 
 givers who were of old times; these are given to 
 the young man, in onler to guide him in his cm- 
 duct whether as ruler or niled ; and he who trans- 
 gresses tlii-ni is to be corrw tid, or. In other words 
 culleil to account, which is a term usi-d not only 
 in your country, but ahm in many others. Now 
 when tliere is all thU care alxiut virtue private 
 and public, why, Socrates, do you still wonder and 
 doulit whether virtue can be taught ? "—Plato 
 Pntaijonu {Diiilogtia ; tmu: hj/ Jovtll, r 1) — 
 The iileas of Aristotle on the subject are in the 
 following ; • • There ran ln' no doubt tliat children 
 slioiild be taught those useful things which are 
 rvally n.'cessary. but not all things; for occuiia- 
 tions are divided into liberal and illilieral ; and to 
 young children should be lniparte<l only such 
 kinds of knowledge as will U' useful to them 
 w ithout viilgariring them. And any occupation 
 art, or scienci-, which makes the Uxly or s«)ul or 
 mmd of the freeman less fit for the practice or 
 exercise of virtue, is vulgar; whervfore we call 
 those arts vulgar wliKli tend to deform the UkIv 
 and likewise all paid employmenU, for they ab- 
 «<>rb and degrade the mind. There are aUiaoine 
 lilH'ral arta quite proper for a freenutn to ai'iiuire 
 but only in a certain degn-e. and if he attend 
 to them t(Hj cUisely. In onler to olitain p<Tfe<il,>u 
 in them, the same evil effects will follow The 
 object also which a man sets tn'fore liim makes a 
 gn-at dUTen-nce: if he does or learns anything 
 for his own sake or for the sake of his friebcN or 
 with a view to excellence, the action will not ap- 
 pear illiberal ; but if done for the sake of others, 
 the very same action will lie thought menial and 
 servile. The reivived subjecu of instruction, as 
 I have alreaily ninarkiil. art partly of a liU'ral 
 and partly of an lllilierHl character " Thi' custom, 
 ary branches of iiluoatioii an- In number four; 
 they are — (1) reading and writing, (J) gymiuutlc 
 exercises. (3) music, lo which is sometimes addetl 
 (4) drawing. Of these, reailing and writing and 
 drawing are regarded as useful for the purposes 
 of life in a variety of ways, and gyiiinaatic exer- 
 cises are thought to infuse cmiragc. Conci'ming 
 music a doubt may lie ralse<i— in our own dav 
 moat men cultivate it for tlie sake of pletuurv 
 but ,)riginally It was Included in education, bc- 
 causi' nature herself, as has been often said, re- 
 quires that we should be able, not onlv to work 
 well, but to use leisure well: tor. as f must re- 
 prat once «nd again, the first principle of all 
 action Is kisutv. Bo<'. arc required, but lelaut« 
 i* betU'r than occupation ; and tlwivfoiti the que*- 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 antk 
 SdkooUif. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 ItoD muft be Mk(d in good eunett, what ought 
 we to do when >t leisure t C1e«rI.T we oug^it 
 not to be >mu*ing ounelvet, for then unuiement 
 would be tlH- end of life. But If this is in- 
 cnnrriTftble, ind yrt smld aerious occupations 
 •muwmrnt i!< Dfedi-d mon- than at other timet 
 (for bf » ho is hard at work has need of relax- 
 ation, an<t amusement gix's n'laxatioD, whereat 
 ocrupatiim is always at 0(>m|>aaie<l with exertion 
 and rffort ). at suitable times we should introdure 
 amusements, and they should lie our meilicinet, 
 for the i-motion which they create in the soul is a 
 relaxation, and from lli'' pleasure we obtain rest. 
 ... If is clear then lliat there are blanches of 
 learning and nlucation which we must study 
 with a vi«-w to the enjorment of leisure, and 
 thewarr i-ibevaluett for tWir own sake; whereas 
 thow kiniis nf knowled^ which are useful in 
 busiiK •.« »rf to be d«»-m«l ni'cessary. and exist 
 
 for the sake of othe- 
 fathrrs admitted mi 
 
 round cither of f 
 ncit necessary. >t 
 manner as n'wl'' i 
 in money-mak,. 
 hold, in the m 
 politicHi life, nc 
 correct iudgmi 
 lib 
 
 ngi. And therefore our 
 >lo p-liieation. not iin the 
 
 V salt/ or utility, for it 
 ed ''seful in the same 
 
 1 >.iDf, which are >i.->efiil 
 inaitement of a honse- 
 of knowledge ami in 
 
 .rawing, useful for a more 
 
 the works of artists, nor 
 • ■^ain like gymnastic, which gives health and 
 tfrengih: for neither of these is to be gained 
 from music. There remains, then, the use nf 
 music for intellectual enjoyment In leisure; 
 which api)ear» to have been the reason of Its in- 
 tmluction. this being one of the ways in which It 
 is tliought that a freeman sliould pain his leisure. 
 . , . We are now in a position to say that the 
 ancli-nts witness to us: for their opinion mar )>e 
 gathcreil from the fact that music is one of the 
 rec<-ive<l and traditional branches of e<lucation. 
 Further, it is clear that children should be in- 
 Mnirti'il in some useful things. — for example, in 
 reading itnd writing. — not only for their useful- 
 ness, but also because mnnr other sons of knowl- 
 e<lge are acqulrett through them. With a like 
 view thev may he taught drawing, not to pre- 
 vent their making mistakes In their own piir- 
 ch»se«. or in onier that Ihey may not he lni|i<ise<l 
 uium in the Imying or selling of articles, but 
 rather t)ecause it makes them judgesof the beauty 
 of the human form. To be always seeking after 
 the useful does not become free and exalted <<<>uls. 
 . . , We reject the professional instruments ami 
 also the pnifessional mode of education in music — 
 ami by professional we mean that which is itdopted 
 In cont»-sts, for in this the |wrforroer practises the 
 art. not for the sake of bit own iniproTcment. but 
 in onier to give pleasure, and that of a vidgar 
 tort, to hit hearere. For thit reason the execu- 
 tion of such music is not the part of a freeman 
 but of a paid performer, and the result is tliat the 
 performers are vulgarized, for the end at which 
 they aim it bad. "— Arittotle, l\)lttie* (Jmrtllg 
 TrivisMinn}, hk. 8.— "The most tttlking differ- 
 euce U'tween early Oreek educatioa and ourt wat 
 unilouliledly this: that the physical development 
 of boys was attended to in a special place and by 
 a sp<-eia] master. It was not thought tufflcient 
 for them to play the chance cames of chlldhoud : 
 tlM-y underweot careful bodUy tntining under a 
 verv flxed lyitem. which was detenniiMd by the 
 athletic rontetu of after life. . . . When we com- 
 
 Cre what the Oreekt afTorded to their boTs, we 
 d It divided into two cuntnMd kinds of exer- 
 
 cise: hunting, which was practised bv the Spar- 
 tans very luenly, and no doubt also ■ y the 
 Eleaos and Arcadians, as msy be se i. (n)ni 
 Xenophon's •Tract on (Hare) Ilimiink-'. snd 
 gymnastics, whiili in the case of boys ». -,• ru- 
 ried on in the to-called paUettra, a tort .i ..peg. 
 air armnasium (in our sense) kept by |,n\ nti. in. 
 divtdtuls aa a tpeculation, and to which tin Iwiyi 
 were sent, as thev were to their ordinan - 1)..,' 
 matter. We find that the Spartans, w,<> I, 
 ample icope for hunting with dogt in iIh' t! . 
 and coverts of Mount Taygetus, rather il'-^,- . 
 mere exercises of dexterity in the paUestrii jii-r 
 as our sportsmen would think very little of ^l. ..| 
 ing houn in s gymnasium. But those lirerk^ ;i.> 
 lived in towns like Athens, and in the mid^i nf i 
 thickly populated and well-cultivatiMl ciiunir)-, 
 could not possibly obtain hunting, and tlien-fn'ri' 
 found the most efficient aubttitute. Still no Hn<! 
 them very fsr behind the English in their kirns i 
 edge or "taste for out-of-door games. ... The 
 Greeks ha<t no playgMunds Iwyond the nslsstrs 
 or gymnasium: thiey had no piaygroiiDils in i>ui 
 sense, and though » few proverlm spi-sk of swim. 
 ming as a universnl accomplltliiiu-nt which Imvi 
 leamnl. the tileix-r of Oreek literature on tbe 
 subject makes one very suspicious aa to the ki-n- 
 erelity of such training. . . . lu one point, cer- 
 tainly, the Oreekt agreed more with the nvulrni 
 Engfith than with any other civilised iistion. 
 They regarded tport at a really s— ' ■"« thinit. 
 . . . The namea applied to the ex« • ,.Iii«« 
 
 indicate their principal uses. Pal«^. , means i 
 wrestling phfv ; gymmwium originally a plan' fnr 
 naked exercise but the word early lo"t this ecu- 
 notation and i ime to mean mere pbyaital train, 
 ini: . . . Inirder to leave home aiid ri-:u h ih( 
 paiiestra safely at well as to return, (Sr. . k hnij 
 were putundir the charge of a jinKlagoKiii- iniio 
 way to be ideniifled (as it now is) k ith asilioimiu 
 ter. . . . I think we may be Justified ill a«srniB|: 
 that thesiiidv i f '!«• epic poets, espt-ciallv if ibf 
 Iliad and (JiIvsk y was the earliest intrlii-itiu: 
 exereise of scn<Hil)>i>yt, and, in the case of (airly 
 educated parents, even anticipateil the learri j<i( 
 letters. For ilie Utter is never spoken of »• ; sn 
 of emother'sor ' liome educatkm. Kemlinewu 
 not so universal - so necessary as it now l« 
 We may assume mat ts>oks of Homer wire nml 
 or reciteii to gmwing boys, and that tlnvw. rr 
 encourage<l or requirml to "learn thcni off liy In . • 
 This is (juite certain to all who cttinmli- ju.-iiv 
 the enormous Influence ascribed o Honnr. soil 
 the principles assumed by the Greeks to hate 
 underlain his work. He was universiiliy cnn- 
 si<lered to lie a moral teacher, wh'^ae cbaracten 
 wereiirawn with a moral intent, aud for the pur- 
 pose of exsmple or avoidance. . . .\i-<'oi'lingly 
 the Iliad and Odyssey were suppoixd !<• contain 
 all that was us<'ful. not only for (;.«lliniia. but 
 for life. All the arts and sciences were to heifc- 
 rive«l (by InterpretatitHit from these sacn^l triu. 
 ... In early days, and in poor towns thi- piste 
 of teaching was not well appointed, nn-. v«nin 
 many phicea. teachluc in the open air ) : 'a!M. 
 . . . This wat . . . ;i.<e .,n "M hedge »iioi lis nf 
 Ireland, and no iloiii ■ .' frcotland too They 
 slso took advantage . ipeciai' • In hot wesili-r >}l 
 to.onnades, or shady >meri .uiong public ^lild- 
 Inga. as at Wincbeaiei :<.c ummertcrmwas'silfd 
 ddatcr-time, fmm a simiiar pracliix?, even i" iu«; 
 wealthy fouodatioD, of instructing in theclointrn 
 On the other haod, pmperly apprmtcd iclioub is 
 
 702 
 
EWTATION. 
 
 n>* Onek 
 ackooi-room. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 ciDK iWe to* m werr f ui Disked » iui Home taate, 
 and . ordiog to -faditlonal notiou. . . We 
 BUT K tUK that lere werr no tablet or dtsl>- 
 Birt tirniture beiii • <'.nuiual in Greek liouw» 
 it » i* the univer- ruitom. while n-i; log or 
 wriiiiiif. to hold ti look or roll on the knee 
 — to • iin lnc<>nvii.,^nt thiiiif to do. but still 
 oimDt' . In ihe Eaat. There are some inteieatlii ,• 
 lenience*, civen for exerciae in Greek and Latin, 
 in the littU' known ' InterpreMnwnta ' of Dosi- 
 tbeus. now e<i •<•! and explaiiii<l by German 
 H-bolara. The i rurv of the boy in ; bus ile»rrib<'d, 
 in imrallel Umk and Latin: ' Fir»t I salute the 
 rn«m. r. who returns my salute: G<>(xl morning. 
 martrr; tf'xl morning, school fellowa. Give me 
 my plai-<- my luat, my stool. Sit eli«er. Move 
 ii| iliai way^ Tliia is my place, I took It lir^t.' 
 This mixture of iMiliteni-xiand wrangling it an us- 
 in.:, an 1 no iloubt to lie found in .ill agea. It 
 «.-rni» <mt the seats were moTable. . . . The 
 u.u.ii "UinliTislon of edur:ttion was into three 
 i rt-i, litters. . iiHliiiling reading, writinjr. 
 li.injr. and leamiu); <ii rhe p<K-l»: music in the 
 . ^irsunse, imludin); iii:in>j and playing on 
 •i ri'. and lastly g.v ..luiKtic. which iuHiided 
 <U.i. it . . It is saiil ilmt at .-parta the e<lu- 
 (:iii..:i lu reading and writing wa» ni>t thought 
 ueiesvirj-. and iberc have I'-en lonif discussions 
 .tmon,: till' li-iriiiil whetL the ■ rdinirv Spar- 
 111, in . la»i.i< 1, .lays wm :■. .■ to read NVe t\nd 
 tint Aristotle adds a foiir-;, -ubjcct to the thiee 
 al. I lamei! — (Ir'iMiu- m itich lie thinltii requi- 
 >i!. \" mu^' !i e:mlile the educateti inan to 
 ju.i^ .iiihtl' .1 worWaof irt But there is no 
 iHi i. : I ■ of a w id. diffusion of > r vwing or paint- 
 \uf ipr. .1.- the f)ri •!;.«. ts amon^; ii», . . . Later 
 ID ,:i, I ■; the kumi.! i. rlueni-es of Alexandria, 
 bikI tir. ,,;ii,l profesMiriaie of Roman days, sub- 
 Jiil- imiltlplie<l witJi the deilii.e of mental 
 vig.Hir .-iiHl spontaneity of the ag, ami children 
 \Kti:m lo lie pestered, as they now are, with a 
 c|uantily of Kubjecto. all tljought necessary to a 
 Iir..iMr«iuiaiioii. and awordingly all imperfectly 
 a..(uire<l. Thix wiw called the encvclinil edii- 
 cation, which is preserved in our Encvclopnnlia 
 (knowledge It included. (II grammar.|2)rbeto- 
 nc. .:)i dialccnc, (4) arithmetic. ,3) mu^ic, (8) ge- 
 "ineirv, (7) astnmomv. and these were dlTideil 
 ini.. the earli. r Trivium, and the later Quadrl- 
 .1,;,,, —J. p. Mahaffy, Old Orttk m^catiun. cA 
 ; . - 'Reading was taught with the greatest 
 pniii.i. the utmost care was Uheu with the In- 
 toiwllon of the voice, and the articulation of the 
 tliroBt. We have lost the jiower of dUtinguish- 
 iDi; lietween accent and quantitv. The Greeks 
 di.1 not ai'ijUire it without long anil anxious train- 
 ing .f the ear and the vocal organs. This was 
 the limy of :he phonascus. Homer wa« the com- 
 mon study of all Greeks. The IlUd and ().lv». 
 ipt » ere at once the Bible, the Shakespean- <iie 
 R'i'inson Crus<»'. and the Arabian! XighUof liie 
 He Uenic race. Ixjng paataget and indeed wl. le 
 t>*ik.s were learnt by heart. The Greek, a-s a 
 rule, learnt no language* but hit own. Next to 
 nrwling and repetition came writing, which was 
 canfiilly taught Compoaiti.'u naturally fol- 
 lowed, and the burden of correcting exercises 
 whieh still vei^hs down the backs of schoolmas" 
 
 tem. dau-o -r,,, . U.aM early timet Closely con- 
 nect-,; -Aith --4 Ues an-i — rftin? t-Hr art of 
 ^e<•t•l^lll;^^ «, i ;h,. itcienoe of numbers leads us 
 «ki .- i>: miinc Plato coniidere<l arithmetic as 
 Uif Le,i spur to • ilMpjt and uniiutructm] spirit : 
 
 we see from the Platonic dialogues how mathe- 
 mati.nl problems employed the mind and thoughU 
 of ji.ijug Athenians. Many of the nioredirticult 
 aritiimetical operations were solved by geomet- 
 riciii methods, but the Greeks carried the art 
 of teaching numbers to considemble refinement. 
 Thev used the abacus, and had an elaborate 
 method of flnger reckoning, which waa service- 
 able up to 10,000. Drawing wna tiie crowning 
 accomplishment to this vestibule of training. By 
 the time the fourteenth year wns completed, the 
 Greek Ixiy would have begun to devote himself 
 seriously to the pre. tice of athletics. "—O.Bniwn- 
 ing, An I„tra,i„eti.,„ t.,the Ilitti.rg „f K(lur„u„nnl 
 Th(r>nt: eh. 1.—" It hus sometimes N-en imagineil 
 •hat in Greece ai'pMrate oliflces were not erected 
 as witf, us expressly for s( limilhouses, but that 
 both the didaskalos and the philosopher tought 
 their pupils in field*, ganlens or shadv groves. 
 But this "IS not the ciminioii pnci' " though 
 many who. Imasters appear to liav ■ j, , lo other 
 place wherein to assemble their jn., : . than the 
 portico of a temple or son ■ she'ured . orner to 
 the street, where in e,\K ■ of the diu .if businesa 
 and the throng of paswmiers the worsh ip of learn- 
 ing w;ls publicly pi-rfonticd. . . . Butthesewere 
 the «' !)(M)ls of the hiimliler classts. For the chil- 
 dren of the noble ..iii.! the opulent Bpucious 
 structures « .re raised, and f umishi-d with tallies, 
 desks.— for tliat pec-ilkr species of grammat. ion 
 which n-smlil<d the plate cuplioanl. can have 
 be<'n v. bing but :i desk,— forms, mil whatsoever 
 els.- th. ir studies required, Meniion |g made of a 
 school at Chios which contaiiui one hundred and 
 twenty l»iy«. nil of whom sav, .me wen- kilhil br 
 the falling in of the ri«.r . . The apparatus o'f 
 an ancient school was s.imewhat complicated: 
 there w-re niiitliematicul iniitrunieut.s, glol>. 
 maps, and charts of the heavens, together witii 
 lioards whereon to trace geometrical tigures, tab- 
 let*, large and small, of box wikxI, fir, or ivory, 
 triangular in form, some folding with two, and 
 others with il ny leaves. Ixxjks loo and paper, 
 skins of ii.-»rchment, wax for coverinir the 'ablets] 
 which, if XV nuiy believe Aristophanes, people 
 s<inietime« fiti wher tliey were hungry. To tha 
 " I mlera, ree<I-pens. (len-cuses, 
 ' and last, though not least, the 
 ■ 1 J the steady use of all theso 
 iie-e schools were not pro- 
 n.ey were private specu- 
 lati.ns. and each :iiaster was regulated in his 
 char^en by the ripntaiion he had acquired and 
 the f'liiu les o," !:U pupils. Some appear to have 
 Iieeii . xtiemeiy moderuie in 'heir demands. . . . 
 The earliest task 'o lie performed at school was to 
 gain a knowiedte of the Greek characters, large 
 and small, to -jmII iex». next to reail. ... In 
 teaching the art of writing their practice nearly 
 resembled ourown. . . . These things were neces- 
 sarily the first step in the first claaa of studies, 
 whieh were denominated music, and compre- 
 hended everything connected with the develope- 
 meut of I he mind: and they were carried to a 
 cerr.iin extent before the second division called 
 gymnastica was commencoi They reverted the 
 plan commonly adopted among ourselves, for 
 with them poetry preceded prose, a practice which, 
 (oOperating with their susceptible temperameot, 
 {-.r.jcsif.-) i!p--.n th? Haff-r-na! mioti that !ui«gin«- 
 tive character for which It was preeminently dis- 
 tinguislied. And the poets in wboae works ther 
 were first initiated were of all Um most poettou. 
 
 ab-. 
 
 v». 
 
 i\. 
 
 :« 
 
 ■■'(i. 
 
 p.n 
 
 k' 
 
 U 
 
 > 
 
 ■< 
 
 r.l 
 
 1' 
 
 
 
 f ■ 
 
 tbn 
 
 
 
 
 Vtl 
 
 vie 
 
 
 
 
 ■ St 
 
 70S 
 
IDCCATIOX. 
 
 Tninimg. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 the tutbon of lyTtcal »ad dithTTMiibic piece*, 
 •elertioiu from whoM renei tbej committed to 
 memory, tbu* >rqutrlog early a rich etoie of 
 •enlrDcee umI imaKery ready to be adduced in 
 argumi-Dt or illiutration. to fumiah familiar allu- 
 ainiu ur to be wuveD into tb« texture of tbeir 
 •tyle. . . . Among tbe otber brancbe* of knowl- 
 edirr moat nfc«*aary to be atudiod. a^d to which 
 thi'V applied tbemaeWea nearly from the outlet. 
 «ai arithmetic, without aome inkling of which, a 
 num. in I'Uto't opinion, could icarcely be a citi- 
 ten at all. . . . The Importance attached to this 
 brunch of education, nowhere more apparent than 
 ill the dialogue* of Plato, f uriiUhe* one pn»f that 
 till' Atlii'iiian* were preSmin. otiv men of bu*lne«*. 
 who lu all their ailmlnMion for the good and 
 Iniiiitirul never lo»t »igbt of those thing* which 
 promote the comfort of life, and enable a man 
 effectually to perform hi* onlinary .lutle*. With 
 the laine view* were geometry and antronomy 
 piiniietl . . . Thrfrnportam-e of miulc, In the I 
 education of the tireelu. I* generally under»to<xl. 
 It was einplovcd to effect neveral purpoae*. FInt. 
 to KMrtb and'nMillIfy the Hercene** of tlie national 
 character, and im'pan- the way for the leiaon* of 
 the iMK-t*. which, d.llveml amid the aoundlng of 
 nielodiou* atriugn, when the toiil wa» rapt and 
 el-ratnl by harmony, by the eicitement of iium- 
 iH-ni. by the magic of the »we<te*t anaocialion*, 
 took n'tlrui bold ui>on the mind, and generally 
 n liiiueil it during life, S.i-ondlv. It enabled the 
 clllieu* gracefully U) perform their part In the 
 amuaenieuU of fcx-lal life, every |)er»>n lieing in 
 bin turn callwl upon at enUrtalnmeiit* to alng or 
 plav upon the .yre. Thirdly. It »a» uece«*ary to 
 iiKilile them to join in the aacnil choruie*. ren- 
 il< rh^\ fr»H|Uinl fiy the piety of the nUte. rnd for 
 til. ■Iiie |»Tfonim'ii<r In old itge of many offlceaof 
 r> liirion, the MM-rrdotnl ilunwter txlouglng nion> 
 or U-»» to 111! till litiieu* of Atbenx Fourthly. 
 a< much of tlie li-arning of a Oreek »a> martial 
 and <li'»lgn<'<l to At him for ilefending hi* country, 
 he niiurnil Home knowltKlge of mimic that on 
 till' rteVi of liatile hU voice might barmonloiuly 
 mingle wi;>i iIkiw of bin countryim'O. in chaunt 
 lug t!»*e atirrlnii, lm|Mtuou». abil terrible nie'.o- 
 ilim, called p«aii». wlili h im'citliHl tlie tlrnl tbock 
 <>( tight F<ir Home, or all of tlietie rea»on«. the 
 »< lime of inuaic U'giin to !»• iultlvaHil among 
 till' Ilellenea. at a jiertml nlmiint U-voiid the reach 
 even of tradition —J A f*t John. Thr Urll"u: 
 U 2, r* 4 —•■In thinking of tJreek eilucatlona* 
 fi.niUbing a |>oMilih- nii«tel for uannalerns. there 
 !• one |x>lnt wliii'h It I* Important to bear In mimi 
 Or<ek iHiuii.tt.'ii w»« InU'nileil only for the few. 
 f..r the wealthy and well Imrii I |ion al' oth> r*. 
 uix'U ulavea. Inirlwrlauii. the working and trailing 
 I liiuu * ami geiM'rally U|Min all |ierw>us «|ieiiditig 
 tlii'ir live* In puraultiif wealth or any private enda 
 wlialaoever. It woulil have ipemeil loin thrown 
 away Kven well Imm women wen' gem-rally 
 e>i ludeil fMin iiii*t of It* Ixurfltii Tin «u!iliiU 
 of iilutatlon were the aona of full rlllieiiii, tlieni 
 aelvi-* preparlor ••• Iw full rttllen*. and to e»er 
 ri« alllhe fun< tof aucb The dutle* of iuch 
 
 C-rwinii were conipletrlv •iimiiuil up under two 
 'aili. ilutie* to the famllr and <liitl>-« to tbe 
 Htate, or, a* tbeOn-t-kaaald, ■e'luionih' ami (miIIi 
 b al dutte* The free citlten not only acknowl 
 edgni DO oUwr dutle* lieahie* th'-ae, hut be looked 
 down u|«>ti |N'r«on> who kiugbt wH'upatlon In 
 any otlwr aphere iKii'iiomr an<l I'olltlca, huw- 
 ever, weie very couprelMiiMlve tcima Tbe tut- 
 
 mer Included tbe three reUtkma of hushud to 
 wife, father to children, and maater to alavrtaod 
 
 Eropert J ; tbe latter, three public function*, legU- 
 itire, admlnUtratlve, and Judiciary, .\ll ix-cu- 
 pationi not included under these *ix hiailithe 
 nee citizen left to ilave* or resident fonl^ners 
 Honey-making, In the modem aenae, he di'iiiiMil, 
 and. If he devoted himaelf to art or pbiKisophv, 
 be dhl *o only for tbe beneBt of tbe State -t 
 Itavidaon. Aritt-ttt, M. 1. (A. 4.— Spartan Trais- 
 ia(.— "From hi* birth every Spartan l»l"iii.'f,l 
 to the ataU". which decided , , . whether In wu 
 likely to prove a UMful member of the com 
 muulty, and extlngulRbeil the life of the oiillr 
 or defomted Infant, To tbe age of «i-vi n |ii.«, 
 ever the care of the child waa dulegatiil in In 
 natural guardian*, yet mil «o a* to \w left nli'illv 
 to their diwretlon. but aublect to certain ■ «t,ili 
 lUhnI rub's of treatment, .'hlch guanltti ai:ain«t 
 every miac-hievou* indulgeni-e of pari'ntnl iimli-r 
 nes* At the end of seven year* tiegaii a I.hik 
 coune of public discipline, which grew i . .ii>iaiitlt 
 mori' and more ai-ven- a* tbe iKiy a|ipr<>a>lutl 
 towant manbooil The education of tin- v.iunii 
 wan in some degree the business of all Ihi il.ier 
 citizens; for there was none who illil noi iiia. 
 tribute to it. If not by his a»-t!ve Interfi nui-^, at 
 least by bin presence and iiwiieetioii Bui It wa> 
 placeil under the e«pe<ial aiilK-rlnti'iuleiu . . ( sii 
 offli-er selei till from the men of moi.1 a|'|iniri-.l 
 worth: and he again chose a niimlar of \'<iilh«. 
 Just past the age of twenty, and who in.nt enil 
 neti'ly united courage witb'dlscretion, i.m xini*- 
 a more imnieiilate iiimiiiauil over the i laiw- iiii" 
 which the liova were illvideil. Tbe leaili r .if imh 
 claaa dln'cte>l tlie simrts and '.osIlh of liii .V"unii 
 tn«'p. and punlslieil their offiiicen wiih iiiilitanr 
 rigour, be' was himself responsible I.. lii-.rlilin 
 for llie lii.Kle In « hlch he di9i'hargi'.l hi. .ifflc-r 
 Tlie S|iartau iilucation was simple In l'« "lijiii> 
 it was hot tlie result of any general view if Iniinao 
 nature, or of any attempt to unfold li-im.ui 
 i-apaclttea It aiineil nt trainlnii men olin mn i. 
 live In tlie midst of diltieulty and ilaiiiiir, ami «lii< 
 could only lie safe themw'lves while tiny hrM 
 rule over others The citizen wan to l» al»«i» 
 really forllH' defence of himself ami hU ■ouuIrT 
 at home and aliroail. and he was then f.r.- i.'l* 
 eijuallv fliteil to conimatid and toiiln) Ili-lxK 
 bis inliiil, and bis i hanuter were formi.l fir tliia 
 pur|iose, ami for no other and heme tin Spaftaa 
 system, makli.g illn'<-lly for Its main en.l awl n 
 j'ei ting all that was fonlgn to |i. atiaim '1. "Ulna 
 ; Its i-.wn spheri' to a iierfecllon whii li it l» Im 
 possible 11"! to ailmire The yoiuiK ^|«rt*i 
 was |M'rliap> unable either to rewl or wnii W 
 i M-rcil) piMiai'aiM'.l the elements "f am "f lln 
 ; arts or Mfaiiees by which smlelv i« i urii bnl iit 
 ' a-lorniil but he could run h-ap «r.»ll>-, kutl 
 the dUk, or the Javelin, a.i.l wh-1, •\,r\ .tbfr 
 weaiHin, with a vigour and aglMti, ami gnn 
 ' which Wet*' no when- •lirjiHS-^l These hiwurtr 
 ' wen- aiMompllahimnts to U- li-snil lu nm 
 \ Orwk palirstra he nilittit lii'l many rt'tW inaii 
 I that he could do, but frw i-oiild appr.wi h him la 
 : the flmineaa with which he was la'iKlit i •■ »ii!T.-r 
 ' From the tender age at which he hf: hit imnhrti 
 lap for thi' public si-hools his life wm ..iiroiii 
 llnueil trial of i>atb-n«T f.sirse am! » anU far. 
 and this iKiaslonalW withlield, s lUlil -I'M* 
 without any ilianie In the depth of m'nirt sM 
 of re.il», which Tie himself gsllien.. f" m lb» 
 KurulM. Wows rlcbatt(«d with hU > mrkh*. 
 
 704 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 >W»ae»oo < M«rM. 
 
 ZDUCATIOV. 
 
 ilripe* inflicted bj bit goTeraM*, mon by way 
 of rxercite tban of puuiihrneat, inund htm to 
 crrryfonnof paintnahardihip. . . . TbeMuiM 
 wire upproprUtcly hoooured kt Spiuu with » 
 arriflce on tlie ere of > battle, and the unioo of 
 the tpear and the lyre waa a favourite theme with 
 the Laconian poeta. and thoae who aaog of Spar- 
 tan ruitoma. Though bred in the diaeipline of 
 ihr ramp, the young Spaitan^lUu the hero of the 
 I liwi , wa* not a itranger to muiic and poetry. He 
 vM taught to iing, and to play on the flute and 
 the lyre: hut tile ttraloa with which hia memoiT 
 vu irtnml, and to which hia roioe waa formed, 
 win- riibrr lacnHl hymna. or breathed a martial 
 •liiiil ; and it waa becauae thry rhrriabed luch 
 ■rniimenta that the Homeric layt. If not intni- 
 iluml by Lycuraut, were early welcomed at 
 Sparta . . . Aa toeae muaioal etercine* were ile- 
 ■ignnt to cultirate. not •» much an IntellM-tual, 
 u » moral taatv : ao it waa proliahly lew for the 
 laiK' '>( aharpenlng their ingenuity' lbi>n of pn>. 
 moling preaence of mind, and promptneaa of 
 dni»lon. that ll»e biiya were led into the liabit of 
 iiMwrrinK all i|Ue<itlona propoMil to tbeni. with 
 > n .-lily. iKiiiilfii, lei. rntioua Im'Vlty, which wm 
 ■ [irovirMal rlianu'lcriatir of Spariaa convrrsa- 
 lion Kilt th< le««in« which were inont •tiiiii 
 .iu»ly liKiilcaleil. more inileiil Iiy example Ilmn 
 bv pnii-pt were thoae of inodeatr. olieiliemv. 
 aoil ri'viniice for »gr mui rank , for thcti' wen' .be 
 .(iialilii'i oil which, aliove all utlien. Ilie ataliililv 
 .■( 'Ill I'oiiiinonwialth reptaieil. The gait nnil 
 I<a4 of llie Spnrtaii voutha, aa they named aloiii; 
 till »intii<, olxervi'il \.-nopboD. breathiil modtiity 
 iml riMMTVi- In tlie preae-jir of their elder* they 
 >\<n' IniKlifiil aa Tiri(ini and tilent aa •lalueii. 
 MM n lull a <|iii->tion wa I put to them. . . tn 
 irtiili tin- n-»i«Ht for lli< fawa. which ^•ll^len1i 
 til. r>|i«rt«n nvirw to irnovation at hoiiu', wii* 
 
 liiili- "■ tban tnotlu- form of tliat awe with 
 
 Hliiih liitrarly li«i.i'> itianirol him for tin- miiKia- 
 tni.'. ami the hiiimI With lhl» InUng wan in 
 liuiii. Iv rLtinwItil thai <|Uirk ami ilii p m'tiw <if 
 <bMiu . whk li •hrank fmiii illalionoiir n» the in<ni 
 Innlful of evila, and rtmliliil him to nicit death 
 -■ lainily, when he >aw In it the «i|| ,,( hi< 
 ' iiiilrv — (' Thirlwall, IlitI „flin,<;, r 1. M N 
 - Frtc-School Idcu in Greece— It taa pri'va 
 iriii <'|>tiiiiin that loniniou wtuaiU. aa we now 
 luvt ilwiii, win Vimriran invinti'iii N..|iu 
 (■.Uii. M. it ia aawnol taxini; all in i.nler Ihit all 
 rii»> 1.- i:iiiKlit can Ulnireil lauk fiirllier limn In 
 Iii.nrl\ l;i\»aof MaaNM'hilM'tta TI'o*- who ,1, ny 
 tin* a•^« rl li n an- Ci .ntent w iih nhow lui; w innlhini; 
 "f till- »in in .Si'>landnnit()<'niiaii\ ;■ );t'ii>'r:iti.in 
 
 • r t».i liefnre iIm- laiidini: of iIm- ('1\ nioiitli |.il 
 Irini« TIb' iniih l«. lumever. that. a« iiiiii h .if 
 'ijir filial nit ia now < retliteil I,, the aii< ii lit 
 lin-il.,, xiinelhini; of oiir itlurall. ■.»! wixi.nii 
 " iiKli! t.i l«- Two I iniurlaa a(o liMiii !..« kc ■.« 
 •lul.li (I. litlial wrilir wa« Invllnl I.. .Imw ii|i 
 
 • ■■■li ••! fiiiiilanHnlal l.i»« f..r lUe imw i.il..iiy 
 .(I .^^'lmu. anil in like iiianinr iisnrr ibnii S.:i<»i 
 ir.r. ;i^,; Charoiiilaa, a iiia«iir .if » •iinilur ivix 
 It. M.ii.-tia iinrrU. waa i'alle.1 t.. a >iiiillnr liiak 
 Till. «.i, I.I frame ««»rieaof alaiiiiis f..r llw »(..> 
 ifiinHii, .if a Oreek colon; foiiiiiltil alu.iit 4W 
 H I 111 the fiait of llafy Tliia iiilmii »4, 
 Tliitn. ami ronapiriioua among the •iia.iiiu iii< 
 »f I lla^.mlaa waa the following 1 haMmlii. 
 •M-i a law tinllke IhiaH. of lawifivrra liefon 
 ktm f .r be enatb'd that the MMia of ihi till 
 fm •!, ,nh| all leam Irttera (or whtluir. 
 
 the city making payment to the teachan. H« 
 thought that the poor, not able to pay wages 
 themaelTea, would utberwiae fall of the beat trdn- 
 ing. He counted writing the most important 
 atudy, aud with reaann. Through wriilng. most 
 thiaga In life, and those the most useful, are ac- 
 compllahed — aa ballota, epiatlea, lawa, corenanta. 
 Who can sufficiently pralae the learning of let- 
 ters ? . . . Writing alune preaerrea the moat bril- 
 11?5' "«»«'"'"•» ot wiae men and the oraclea of 
 goda. nay pbiloanphy and all culture. All these 
 things It alone bauds down to all future genera- 
 tlona. Wherefore nature ahould be viewed aa 
 the aource of Ife. but the source of living well 
 we should consider the culture deriveil from writ- 
 ing. Inasmuch, then, aa Illiterates are deptlved 
 *_?"*•'*'""'• ''I'SfJudaa came Ui their help, 
 
 Judging them worthy of public care and outhiy. 
 ormer legisUum hail caused the sick Ui be at- 
 j tendwl by phvaiciana at the public exnense, think- 
 ing their laaliea worthy of cure, lie did more, 
 for he cureil souls afflicted with ignorance. The 
 iliK-tore ( f the Ixaly we iiray that we nuiy never 
 iH-tni. while we would fain aliiib- for ever with 
 tliiaM- who minister to the mind dlaeasetl. '— Thia 
 extract la fmm the • Biblloihcca lliatoricaof 
 OiialoruaSiculusdlook x. ;i lai. who was Houriah- 
 iiig at the birth of fbriat and waa the most 
 paiualaking chronicler of the Augustaii age. 
 The legislation Is worth uotii* for mon- ibun 
 .me reason. It rebukes the aelfconceit of thoae 
 who hold that th^- eiliication of all at the < Imrge 
 of all ia an i.lea lami in our own time or coun- 
 try It hna aUi lict-n ntningelv unnoliceil !iy 
 hiatoriant who ought to have li'pl It Iwfore the 
 |i,...|.l,. —r*,. Xition. M,in-h U. l»»i. III. jai*- 
 •iM — Socratsaand the Philosophical Schools. 
 — ■ liefore tlie ri»>: of phil.atophy, the teiiclurof 
 llie (Hiiple had Iwn the rhaiiao'le. or piitilic 
 nriliT; after that event he grailiiullv givia place 
 lo the aophiat I one who niakia wlaei. or, im 
 
 he later with more nualetty lalla himxlf the 
 philoaopher ( lover of Wiailoni) The hi>lory 
 
 111 <tn-.-.T for .rnturiea i«, on ila inner ai.l.-. a 
 hiatory of the alruggle U'tw.in whiit the rlmp 
 aiale reprewnla and what the phil.Htopher n |in- 
 ai'Ula. Iietwi-in |i..[iiiliir tni<li'l..ii an.l c.iniii.in 
 aeiiae .in the .me Iminl. ami inili%iliii ' .pinion 
 Hii.l philiMO|ihy on the oili.r Tlii' Irui-iii n 
 from tin- llr.t to tii.- •■■..iiil ..f tlieae niuilal ciui- 
 liili.iua Wiia aii'oinplialii<.| for llie w.irl.l .nice for 
 all. Iiy thi<;r»-.k» — T Haviilxm .\ii,l.,iu .U 1. 
 fh .V— Tliiri i» ii.i iiniaiiie ..ii mnnl ..f a 
 philinoiilirr wh.iw iuiih.rtiiiice na a tliiiikiT l< mi 
 < loxly iK.iiii.l lip with the laraoiialilv of Hie man 
 aait waaiii llmiiiai. .if •fcH-ratea )li» teaching 
 
 »a« n..| .if a kiii.l t.i !«■ .lin-ctlv imparlcil and 
 faithftillt Imii.li.l .i..wii. Iiiii (.iiifil.inly la- left to 
 I'Mj.ak'al. it~ It fm ly I'V ..tirriiig up oihern to a 
 •Imilar ".If ciiliunv ' . . The v.nith ami eariv 
 iiianh.ioi ..I '..«mli« fall In Hie .mait lirilliant 
 |«rt.<|..li- ..in hi»li.ry Itom itiirlug the lam 
 ytart of ilic I'miaii war In- waa a mar nm- 
 i.-iuprary of all tli.na' gnat men who ii.l.iniid 
 
 the aij.of IVri. le. .\a «clti( f .\tlHti« be 
 
 i.iiil.i inj.'V the opiairiuoitlea altonliil liy aiily. 
 wliiih unii.il every iiieaua of culture liy lt« un- 
 rtvallci fertility .1 tlmiight l*o\erty ami |..w 
 lilrili «. n tint •letiiler olwlHcii" in ihc'.Vlliena of 
 |Sni I. . !*aniti« ii.i .l.iubt, la-gali life liy 
 
 iiiniiiiiC Ilia falliir • tr.. '. . . which he prob- 
 
 alily m >i r pruiiival. ami la rtainly «ain gave up. 
 He ivuai^tert-d it to lie lii« K|M'ctal calling Xa labour 
 
 ',»') 
 
IDCCATION 
 
 l%t FkiUfOfhiml 
 SduioU. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 for thr morsl and intellectiul impntTement of 
 binurif tod othen — ■ cunviction which h« fril 
 (n atninsly that it appearwl to him in tlir liirl't 
 of a liivlde nveUtion. Mom>viT bv wu con- 
 tinni'il in it by a Delphic uracic, which, of 
 coiirw. miut D«t bp reganivii aa tlie cauae uf. 
 >>iil rnthvr as an atlditmnal tupiHirt to hit rr- 
 fonninfi leal. . . To lie in<ir|M>n<lent, he Irieil. 
 Ill«- the (tods, to rise <u|M'rfor ti> bia wants; ami 
 liy mrefully prartisini; self-denial and aldtenii- 
 niiiuieits, he was really able to lioast that hit life 
 WM more pleasant and more free from tnmblcs 
 tlun that of tlie rest of maiikiml. Thus be was 
 nlile to devote his whole |>ower» to the service of 
 olliers. without askini; or tuliing rewani: ami 
 tbiM Ilk lierame so eDKRHyKHl by his laliours for 
 his lutive city, that be ran'ly |>ssse<l its iKiuud 
 ariea or even went outside its frutes. He ilid not, 
 h,i\vever, fwl himsi'lf calk-d u|>on to tal(i' iwrl in 
 tlie iiffslni of llie state. . . . .ny one convince"! 
 Ha he was. that care for oni-'a own culture iiiunt 
 pn'i'i'de cnre for public liiisiuess, and that a 
 IborouKb knowliilfre of wlf. to^tether with a 
 divpiind ninny alileiiexpt'rienif, whs a neeesaary 
 comllticm of pulilic activity, must have tbouirlit 
 IImI. to iihunle iiuiividuala liy lutluence. was 
 Ilie mon- pn-aainit neetl, and have held that be 
 wait doiuK his country a lietter service by eilii 
 ratiiii; slile staU-smen for it, than by actually 
 diacliarKing a statesiiun's duties. AcrordinKly. 
 Nocnites never aimeti at lielnit anythinit but a 
 priviile citizen. Jiiat as little was be desir 
 
 oiii of lM>inK a pulilic tcHclier like the Sipbists 
 III' not only look no piiv, but lie itave no me- 
 tbiKlii'iil co'uriH' He did not nrofesa lo teach, 
 but lo li arn in ci>mnion wltli olbers. not to force 
 bi'<<'>>nvb'tion*u|ion liietn. but lo examine theirs; 
 not iM piiKs liie Iriitli tlial came to Iwnd like a 
 coin fn oil from tlic mint, but to stir up a desire 
 for iriiib mill virtue, lo |i<iinl out tlie way lo It. 
 tooMrlliniw what wiu spurious, and to seek out 
 n-ul kii'iMlitlKc Nevir weary of talklnK. he 
 »»« on Ibe liDik out Tor every op|M>rtunlty of 
 ([Ivlm; nn inainictlve and moral turn to the 'con 
 verwilli'ii Day liy diiy lie whs alKXit in the 
 markit and pulilic proiiiciiadia in Bclmols iinil 
 work>bo|M. cier nwly to converw with friends 
 or alriitiiffTa. with < ili/iiis and foniiEUers. but 
 alws>» iinpariHl to biid Ibrin to biitbi rsubjci ta. 
 ami wliiUt thus 111 biobixbcr callinK MTvini; (iol. 
 Ih' whs |H'rsuaibii lliat he was alxi > ivIuk bia 
 country In a way that no on«* t-lae cnuii] do 
 I>i'< ply aa lie deplon-d the ibiline of lilmipllni' 
 awl iVluintioii in Ilia nallvi' ritv, be Ml Iliat hi- 
 <oultl <lr|N'tid but llille on ibe Soplilata ilii- 
 moral liaibrn .'f bis day Tin- atinullve |hiw 
 era <>( hit dlM-ourar won for him a lirtle of 
 adfulrerv for tlie in<>«i part con»iatini{ of vouiin 
 men <<< family ilravtii to him bv Ibe m M \ariiil 
 Ittotivii. aisniltu^ lo lilm iu vaWousrelalitiiia. and 
 oHHiut; to lilni. Boiiii' for a loii)ii r. olli ra dr a 
 abortiT lime K'>r his own part, Ih* maile it Ida 
 li(laliii'«i not only to educate tbeae friends but 
 to advla«- iIh'Ui In evi rvtiiint!, even iu w, rhily 
 iniiler* Hut out of ibis cbaniiinv. ami in |iart 
 |.«m'lv rixuiet'led. toclely a no ieiia was i(ntdu 
 iilly foriniil of de<'ide<f admirers. — a ,"<<Hralb' 
 s* teh'l Htiiiii He niuat itiiialiler unlteii far b*as 
 l<> 1 t 'iiimou •■ I i'f ilia iriiiea than by a common 
 l"vi- f,,r iIh- iiiTSiai of S.»T»lea ■ E Zeller 
 S ■' ilrt in.l l\, .Srr,ilif .VAr»W« i* X — So 
 Hlufv I'tcrpi In Alliens do «e bear of a pbilo 
 •••I'liii Ualy wllb I'lubiwiiieios, k(at tucCMliua, 
 
 and the other rights of a coi^poratloo. This Met. 
 which has never since died out of tlie w.irld. 
 was due to I'lato, who bequeathed liia L'.inlrD 
 .mil aiipointmenu in the place calleil sdir the 
 hero Hekademut. to his followers. But \u- was 
 obliKeil Iu do it iu the oulv form |K's.'<il>|i. xt 
 Athens. He made it a relighms foiiml.-iiioti og 
 the basU of a fixed wuiship to the Mu~ s 
 The head or t>resident of Plato's 'Aasociaticin nf 
 the Muaes.' was the treasurer a d manaitir ,>f Hk 
 common fund, who inviteil )('lests totlitir fisala. 
 to which each nu'mlxT coniriliiiteil lii> shair 
 . . . The memliers had. moreovir. a rii'hi i.. 
 attend lectures and use the library .ir stiiutidc 
 ap|>oiiitiiieuts. such as iiiaiia, which iMliriL-ni to 
 the SI biail. It wastbis emlowinenl on a n'lii:iiiiu 
 liasik which savt><l the income and i><niiii>ii uf 
 I'lato a school for centuries . . . Tlii> iliin it 
 tlie tint Academy, so often imitateii in mi miwt 
 lamia, and of which our collekea an- tin- .llm^ 
 deaia'ndaul.s. . . The aihiail of Plato, tiiiu gyv 
 emeil by Xema-mtea, beini; the lN-i|Urst <tf as 
 Athenian citizen who understaMal the law anma 
 never to have Iwen assailed Tin aili'«,U ,,( 
 Epicurus and Zem> were |<erhapa not mi nt-nf 
 niM^I. But that of TlHiipbmatu.^, |h rliaps the 
 niiNti crowdtil, certainly the mimt iliatniriiv t.hiio 
 Maceilonian, this was tlie schiail uhii h vrai 
 
 exiliil. and which oweil its rebabiliiaiinn Qot 
 only to the lejfal di-cision of the courta, luit >till 
 luorv to Ibe larvi' views uf King Deiiiitriiin. wU<> 
 would not loiirrte the perseeullon of <>pinii« 
 Hut it was the other Ih'inetrius. the phil<~>|>lirr, 
 the pupil of Ariatotle, the friend of Tlii'i'lirnvut. 
 U) whom the BchiHil owihI iiii«t, and to mIkiiu 
 Ibe world owes most in the matter of iiiiivumt 
 and acaiiemiea. next after I'lato Kor ll.i^ wat 
 the man who tiaik care, durlUK lii< I'Mieitonte 
 of Athens in the interi'St of (.'aaiuelir i" i <tal> 
 liab a gnnlen and ' |N'r1|>atos' for tin I'l rliiattiic 
 schiail. now under Tlieophrastua It i> n 
 
 markable that Ibe Stoic s<-iiiail — It tia> ilu xlvxl 
 of sliena — did nol eatabliab a Imal r'iiin'laii.« 
 or Biicci'sslon. Imt lauKht in pubU< pl.i>"> onk 
 aa the l*alntiil I'onico In Ibia iln- I > iit< >I i « 
 of the I'onb cniinsout llenci' llir »iii ivwing 
 de|>ended Ujam Ibe Keniua ,if tin- li-.uli r -.1 P 
 MalMlTy. I'l-nk l.ifr iii„t Thfu.jhi. ,', 7 -.\n 
 account of Ibe Academy, tlie l.ynuni . '■ aill 
 lie fiiiiiiil under the caption <iTM>.vai \ UaiTtr- 
 •itjrof Atbtat.— "Somescholan iiiii> •i'>uU 
 If then' was anvthinK at Albeiin nlii>li roiilil 
 answer to the (olk'Ke l.ife of niiabni linn" la 
 ili-ed It niiiat lie owmai tlul lomial ii|.i,irv i" 
 niarlv aiUnt on the sul>]e<'t. thai am ii m orltrr* 
 take little iiotiia' of it. and aiicb cvi.li n. i h u *t 
 liiive an' drawn nimia't enliri'ly fnaii i ■" ri^-a "f 
 biix ripti^ma on the tnarbje talilrl". alu. h »i-r» 
 covend with the rulna ami the i|ii"l ol itr* illi 
 one after anoibrr came lo jitihl In r<< i in ilaii. 
 t" ».|d fnab paifea In Ilii' ator* "I iliv ym 
 Happily tbi'V are Uilb nun»'r<iii'< tint It n,;llir 
 and iiiliy !»' aln-adv pleia-.! IokiIIu r iii m -rVt 
 wbbli exieiiila for ivnlurlia Tiny af liti,«» 
 lo Kpiurapbli aliidenia sallie ni-mli «l'i. I. 'iial 
 wllb 111.- ■"■ciilli-il Kpbil.l. »ilb III. . ■!.- 'Iial 
 
 la. lual paaoliiK liilo itmnlioial firnl , < •!»•• 
 
 rial dU'itilllle «». pMt tiled li.V iIm >UW !■• 
 fit llH'ni for tlw rea|ailialbillll<'a of ,ii,i. llfc 
 It xaa a Nallonal «yaieni «itli i ii'ii'> W'W 
 tralnliiir. tin- leaibera were meiiil«r».! iH. i iril 
 Hirvbv, Ibe renlalera Were pul'lu .|.» imiBla. 
 
 and, aa sucU, Ulougeil Ui Ihe Anhli. • il il» 
 
 7(Wi 
 
XDCCATION. 
 
 n« UniiMrttty 
 o/AIUm. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 Bute. The earUer imerlptlona o( tbe mte* d*te 
 fmm the period of lUcedooUm uoeiMleiicy, but 
 io much euiier timei there had been fomu of 
 public drill pmcribed for the EpbebL . . . We 
 tad from a aeoee, which, if genuine, dater eveu 
 fmm the dajn of Periclea, that the jroung men 
 of Coa were allowed br special favour to (lure 
 tb« diicipline of tlie Athenian Epbebi. titxin 
 ifltTwartln other* were admitted on all (ides. 
 Tbe aliens who bad gained a competence a* mer- 
 chanu or as banliers, found their khu welcomed 
 in tbe rank* of tbe oldest families of Athens ; 
 ■trangers floclud tbither from distant countries. 
 Dot only from the isles of Oreeoe. and from tbii 
 coMt* of the .Cgean, but, as Ilrllrnic rullure 
 nude iu way tbrougb the far East, studeou eTeu 
 ot the Semitic race were glad i» enrol their namra 
 upon tbe College registers, where we may ctill 
 uv ibem with the marks of their several naiidu 
 aliiii-a affixed. The young men were no longer, 
 like aoldier* upon actual service, begiuniug 
 tln'sdy the real work of life, and on that account, 
 perhaiw, tbe term was shortened fn)ni the two 
 vrar^ to onei but the old asMxialions lasted 
 on for agea, even in realistic Athens, which in 
 rarlv politics at least bad matle so clean a sweep 
 The oiitwanl form* were still prwerveil, the 
 •oltlier's drill was still enforced, and though 
 many aootlier feature bail lieen added, tbe whole 
 innliiutioa lM>re upon Iu face tbe look ralliiT of 
 • Miliury College than of a tnilnbig iK'lii>>l for a 
 M'bolar or a statesman. The College year began 
 ktimwhat Uter than the opening of tlie cTvii 
 Tear, and it was usual for all the students to 
 nuiriiMilate together; that is. to enter fonnallv 
 their names upon the registers, wblrh wen' 
 mpiitl afterwards upon the marble ubieu. of 
 n lilch large fragments have surrired. . ' To 
 put Ihe gown on," or, as we should say, ■ to be a 
 'ununao,' was the phrase which 'stniHl for 
 Inic a member of the College: and tbe gown. 
 ti>>, nuof black, as oonmiunly among ourselvra 
 Dili I'bllostratua tells us. Iiy tbe wav. that a 
 lUange was maile from black to white at tbe 
 pr..iiipilng of llemdes Altlcus. the munitlceut 
 au'l learue<i sublect of llie Antonlnes. who was 
 It iiwuy years the prrsliiing g>-nlii» of the Inl- 
 iir»ity of Atheiu The fragninit of an inacrip- 
 li.ai latily found curiously rontlrnm and supple- 
 iiients the writer's sUlement Tlw niemhen 
 
 I'f the College are spoken of an ' frieuil*' and 
 nii'Mmates'. ami It is prolmble iImi nxmv form 
 (•f lonventual life prevailed among tlirni. with- 
 I'lil Khirlt tbe drill ami suiM-rvialon. wbiib are 
 r..ii.i*nlly implied In the inai-ripliona. ti.iild 
 x-nriTly have lieen enforced by llie olllrlaU Itiit 
 «■' kiiow mitbing of any pulillc liuildlng* for 
 tilt it UM- nave Ihe gymnaaia, whirli in all tlretk 
 t.mii. wire th«' centres of eilmalioiial routliii'. 
 mi. I of Khiib \hrn- were aeverNl well known ut 
 Ailu'us . Tlie Collegedid not try to nionoim. 
 Ii»' the education of its ■tudenlri It liml 
 iftlnnl Iu own lulors or inatnirtor*. Imt tin v 
 "•It k.pt for humliler drill , it di.l not evin f.^r 
 > i>>ii< time keep an organUt or itioiriimsti't of 
 luimn. It Bint ila •ludenU out for leacblnii In 
 phihw.phy ami rlu-toric and grammar or. In it 
 »"r,l for all iltp larger and mote lllxml uliidie* 
 N'T .liij it favour any •(N'l'lal x't of icmia I., ili.' 
 f»i lii.ioii of tbe reiii ■ li em-ouraged Inipanlnlh 
 xlltlH xlM.ilaof blglierlbotight Tlie lli'wl 
 
 'I 111' CoUegr liehr the lltir of Coamrteii. or of 
 hitor ^Thc lirctof, ap|iututvd only for a 
 
 t 
 
 year by popular election, was no merely hononiy 
 head, out took an important part u the real 
 work of education. He was sometimes clothed 
 with priestly functions. . . . The system of edu- 
 cation thus deacrilietl was under the control of 
 the government throughout. ... It may sur- 
 prise us that our information comes almost en- 
 tirely fnini the Inscriptions, and that ancient 
 ' writer* are till nearly silent on the subject. . . . 
 Hut there was little to attract the llterarv circles 
 I in arrangemenu so niecbanical and formal ; there 
 was tiHi much of outwani pageantry, and too 
 little of real character evolveti. — W. W. Capea, 
 CmterHlj/ Lifr in Aufient Athrm. eh. 1.— J. H. 
 Newman. Uiuturinit Sktifha. ch 4.— The reign 
 I of the Emperor Jiutiuian "may be signaliwil as 
 tbe fatal epoch at which several of the noblest 
 I iiutitutloiis of aiitii|uity were alxilisiietl. He 
 ; shut tliif M'liixiU of Athens (A. 1). .ViUi. in which 
 ; an uninlemipteil aurceialon of pbiloMiphers. sup- 
 I |iorte<l by II public stijiend, had taught the d<«- 
 j trine* of Plato, Aristotle, Zeno, and Epicurus, 
 I ever slure tbe lime of the AnUininen They 
 
 ■ wen', it ia true, mill attachetl to paganism, and 
 even to the art* of magic." — J. C. iL Jc Ejiamondl, 
 
 , K:M i>f Ihr liiimin A'liiinrr. r. 1. eh. tU — See 
 
 ' Athexh: a ,V» 
 
 Alexandria. — " Itohiuy. upon whom, on 
 Alexanders death, <leVolve<l the kingdom of 
 Egypt, supplii-* ua with the lir»t great instance 
 of what may !»' calli-d the i-*tal>lishment of Let- 
 ters. He and Eumeni>s may lie consideml the 
 lint founder* of puhlir lilirnrir<.. . A library, 
 
 ' however, was only one of two great coun-ptions 
 bnitiglit into etei-utiou by the Unit Ptolemy; 
 
 ; and a* the tlr»t wnn the' emlmliuing of dead 
 
 f renin*, »o the M'Cond was the endowment of 
 Iving Ptolemy. . . pmnipted. oratleaul, 
 
 encouraged, by tlu' n'lebrateil IVuietriu* of Pha- 
 
 i leriiK. put into execution n iihin for the formal 
 endowment of llteraliin' anil »<-ienre. The fact 
 luilittl of the poKM-saion of an ininieuse library 
 M't'mwl aulHclent to nnder Alexandria a I'nlver- 
 •ily. for what could U' a gn-aler attraction to 
 the atudent.1 oi all lands, than Ihe opportunity 
 alT'inled them of inielle<-tuul coiivenx'. not only 
 with the living, but with the deaii. with all who 
 hail anrwiien' at any time thrown litfht U|Kin 
 any subject of lui|Uiry? But Piolemv ileier- 
 mined that hi* teaiben of knoaleilge aLould be 
 
 i a* stationary iilid a* |H'rnianent as hi> laaik*; so, 
 
 ■ n-solvlng t'l make .Vlexaiulria the »enl of a 't^l'i 
 
 i ilium tJemrah',' be fiMiiided a College for i:» 
 ilomlcile. and emlowed llial College with ample 
 nveuue* Hen'. I < onaiiler. he iliil more than 
 ha* lat-n commonly il"iie till mmlern time*. It 
 n'tpllria iiMlaiilernMe knonle'liii of metlieval 
 l'ni%erailies to In- entitle*! io tfive All opinion, as 
 n'gnnla (leriimtit I'r liialauee, or Poland, or 
 r«pnin I'lil, n» far ris I linve a right to sfteak. 
 Bill b an enilowiiieni lia> U'tn ran' down to ttw 
 aixtiiiiili ieiitur\ an well ua lirfore i't<i|emy, 
 T'lretuni to tin- .Alexandrian College It 
 waa inlliil the MiMiim, — a name Blnce appnv 
 pri:<ie,| I'l Hiii'iher iiiatituiion eoiiniH'teii with the 
 Biata'tMieiHi' There was a i|uarter of the 
 
 em «.! iliaiimi fnnn tin n-at Ih .\lexaiidria, 
 Ihiit li l> BoiiU'timea BIKiken of aa a auliurli ll 
 w,i« pleiiBHnllv •iliMiteil on tbe water aeilge awl 
 hii'l la^ n M't aalili lor omanienial bulliiiuga. anal 
 »ii« Innraeil liv itrove* of trees Hen' stiaal 
 tlie rota! pnlao'. Inn the theatre and araphl- 
 tbtatrv. lurv iIh.' (>iuuasia and stadium , ban 
 
 I 
 
 707 
 
BDVCATIOM. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 the fuBona Sermpaum. And hen it was, ckae 
 npon tbe Port, that Ploleiny placed bia Ubnur 
 aod CoUece. Aa might be auppoaed, the build- 
 ing waa wmthy of ita purpoae; a noble portico 
 stretched along ita front, for exerdae or conver- 
 aation. and opened upon the public rooma de- 
 voted to diaputationi aod lerturea. A certain 
 number of Profruora were lodged within tbe 
 preriorta, and a bnndiome ball, or refectonr, waa 
 pniTlded (or the common meal. The Prefect of 
 tbe bouae waa a priest, whose appointment lay 
 with the govemnifiit. Over the Llbrarj a dig- 
 nified pvrsDn presided. ... As to the Pmfes- 
 sort, sc> liberal was their maintenance, that a 
 philosopher of the very age of the flnt founda- 
 tion ralir<l the place a ' bread baaket,' or a ' bird 
 cnop ' ■ yet. In spite of accidental exceptions, so 
 careful on the whole was their selection, that 
 eri'n six bumlrril years aftrrwartls. Ammlanus 
 (lewrlties the Muaru'm under the title of ' the laat- 
 Idk itlxMie of illstingulshrd men.' Philostratua, 
 tiH. "Ixuit s crntury before, calls It 'a table 
 pilliiriiiK '"iretber n-lebrateii men.' ... As 
 timi- wi'iil "ii new Collrirrs were addeil to the 
 oriitiniil .Muarum: of whii-h one waa a founda- 
 lioii of the Emperor Claudius, and calleil after 
 his nuiiir . A itiTerslty of teachers secumi 
 
 an iilmnilaixt of stutlrnts 'IIItlM-r, wyii C'hvo, 
 u to a public emporium of polite litirntiirc 
 ion(r»«'P«led. fn^n cTery part of the world, 
 yoiiihful students, and at waili d the lertiiri'ii in 
 Grammar. Khelori<-. l*oetrT. I*hil<imi|>iiT, Astmn- 
 omv. Munir. Molk-int'. anil other nrti nihI arj. 
 en<T«\ sihI hi-ner pro<-e«lv<l. ns It woiiM ap- 
 |>e«r. tlir invHl I hriMian writcn nnil diMtor'), 
 ('linient. oricin. AnnioHuit hih) Atlmnn- 
 
 •ilia Si (fO'Cory Tliaiini»tiiriru«, in tlw tlilnl 
 ivniiiry iiihv I»- aililnl; hr i-nitu- arrow .\«» 
 Miimr ttiiil Syriti fntni Ponltw, a>4 to a placf. ^«*ii 
 
 lli^ ti;llrH-'«»kf nf Nv^Wrt. "to Wllil'll VOUhi: lllrn 
 
 from »ll piirts hhiIhtmI logi-llifr. wlio wm- sp- 
 
 ll|>illl.' til. IllMhl'H to IllliiOHipliy ' .\» III tin- 
 
 Hiilijii t« laiinlil in till' MuM'uni. Cave hitknlrrnily 
 tniiiiii nitol till' priiiri|ml hut lit' liiin not i lour 
 Jii«tiri' to till' {Hriiliiir i Iwinu ti-r "f thf .\ii'\aii- 
 ilriiiii 'uliiK'l Kpiii till' tiiiH ilmt hIi'Ihi- (JoI 
 out of till' linniii* of thi' pun* <«n-«lii4. into tlioae 
 of « iKivvi r wliii-li lm<l II talent f.tr ailiiiiiitMrti- 
 lloM, 11 U-iaiiu' li'»» tliiiiri'lii'ul. ntiil liori' mori' 
 ilialiii'ih it|H>ii ilHIniti- iiiiil lanirllili' ohjwtn 
 Kutptlitii .\ntii|iiitii'» Wirt' Invrntimttil at 
 l«-nat li\ III.- illiu ipli'H of till' Kityplain MHrn-tho, 
 friiuni.-nl.. of hIiimk* liintor) an' i-oiiatitenil to r.'- 
 maiii. wliil. ('.iitlmifinlaii' niHl Ktriiwan liml :i 
 phi.'.' in till- «tiiilini of till' (Iniiillnn ('.'ll<'k.'i 
 Till' Miw iim waa oililinit.il, moniivi r. for ii« 
 irrainiimriaiiii. il«' w.irit of ilrpliH>Hlioii ' ilr Mr 
 tris -till nlTopI^ matter of thoiitclil <o i Ihini; 
 Priti»«i.r .'f i'\foril. ami .\rlHtarrhiia. lUi- tlif 
 Atlii'iihin tViM lan. ban aliiiont iM-ronie tlii' iii' k 
 ■»■>•' I >r I 1 rttir Yit. cniincnt as is tli>> \U \ 
 ar»lri.iii iM liiiol in Hh'w •lepaniiii'nlii of mii'iii. 
 U« l:iMit' r'*i« •till nioft' wi-iin ly u|Min its pr» 
 nrii'iit y III iiii-ilti-tm- anil mathimati<-« Ani-iii;: 
 tia pliy-trtariM m tlH> ii-li'liratiil tiitli-ii. w*Hi WKM 
 atlrw-li'l iIiIIIhi fnan I'lrmaiu* anil we are 
 liilil t,y a »rH-r .f thi' foiMtli n-ntiiry ilial in 
 I4U 111114- till- >.r\ fa<« o( a pbya^-tan ImTtsc 
 •lihli.'il .11 ,Vti'ii.iii'ltia. mum an i-»liien«T of hat 
 •11.1111- Hhlili iiiana-il.il fiirtlirr trstlmiinlal 
 .V> lo Maltwmali.a It la aDinrlpnl to nay tlurt. 
 of four lirt-Hl am iriil uaim-a oil wlMini Ihr m<al- 
 em wlfuii' is fiHiii,ti-il ttirti- taaw fruai Akaaa- 
 
 drfa. Aichlmedea hidced waa a SyrMusan; but 
 the Muaeum may boaat of Apothmlua of Pern, 
 Diophantua, a natiTe Alexandrian, and Euclid. 
 wlKMe country la unknown. To these illustri- 
 ous namea, may be added, Eratoatlienea of ( 'y reat, 
 to whom aatronomy baa obligationa so coiiiuiler' 
 able: Pappua; Tlieao; and Ptolemy, saiil to be 
 of PeluHum, whoaa celebrated system, railed 
 after him the Ptolemaic, reigned m the Hlumlt 
 till the time of Copernicus, and whose Oeng. 
 rapby, dealing with facta, not theories, is ia 
 repute atill. Such waa the celebrated ' Sluilium ' 
 or Unleeraity of Alexandria: for a whlli> in the 
 coutae of the thini and fourth centurim. It wu 
 subject to reverses, principally from war. The 
 whole of the Bruchion. tbe quarter of tin- liiy in 
 which It waa aituated, waa given to tbr tlmiu'ii: 
 and. when tlllarioo came to Alexandria, the 
 holy hermit, whose rule of life did not sulTi-r him 
 to lodge In cities, took up bis lodfcmi-nt with s 
 few solitaries among the ruins of its iiliflii-s. 
 The schools, howerer, and the library i-ontiiiin-ij; 
 the library was reserved for the Caliph Oniari 
 famous Jiiilirnient ; as to the schixils. I'vin m Ute 
 as the twi'lflh ci-ntury, the Jew, K<>njainiu nf 
 Tuilrla. givn us a surprising re|H>rt of vliat be 
 found iu .\K'xandrin." — J. H. Newman, //..(..r- 
 if)il Sl-rt'-lirt : Hifinil Piyignmof I'nirrrnlh'.'h. 
 H. — "In the thrfecenturit.s which Intrrvi-mil he- 
 twe<>n .Vlexanili-r and Augustus, Atlii-na wu 
 I>re«niim-ntly the training schtail for plill.»..i.hT, 
 IUkhIi's. on tbi- other band, as tlir only (Irnli 
 state nf polillrni imiHirtanrc in wliirh a rapi r nf 
 Kraiiil and diirnltlcil Rctivity was o|m'ii fcirihc 
 orator. dlalini;iiiahed Itself In the study i.f i-lo. 
 (Itn-iKt-, wliili' .\lfxandria resttsl Ita fam'i- ilii.-i!y 
 on the i-xii'lli-ncv of its instruction In I'hll'.l.'i'y 
 and Mrdli'ine. At a subM'i|urnt (H'riol thf last 
 iiii-ntioniil Inlverally olitaiiuil even ttrrait-ri. Iili- 
 nty as havinif ^ivi-ii birih to n wIiimiI of phil "»• 
 phi-rs » (ill I'lidi-avontl t*i ronililni' Into » «|i(iin 
 of tluiMi.iihIr diH-trini- tin- nirntal w ii-iuv 'f 
 KuroiH- with till- niori- •plrilii.-il nilndnl ;iii.l pni 
 foniHlly human n-lluiona of ihr Ka»t In llj.- 
 Ihird iiMitury Ali-x.indria lai-ami' ion»|ii. uchkh 
 till' luailiiiiarlint of the Ei-lii-tirs and \i-.i I'lii.i 
 niiitK. "— E Kirkpatriik. Hitft I>,n)"fm,:i ./ 
 S'lfirri-- Itt»ti 'trti"H ttdirttiirt's Am. J"ttr:i,t! f 
 hjl-r.>t,..„, r i4. /'/. ■»«tl~-tfl7>. 
 
 Home. — ' If we raat a Unal itlanre at tin -lUn 
 tioii of iiliiriiilon. we hIiuII tIniT liiit llltli- to wy 
 of it, aa fur aa n-irnnU till' ihtIimI U'f.'r. <i'.r> 
 In the h'puliliran tiniea tin- alnte di.i not tr-uhle 
 llailf ^ilu.iii tlielraininiiof voulh afi w priiiMt- 
 ■ry n-i-iibiiion. ». re laid ilown, and the r. .1 lift 
 I., pntale individuals Thii* no iiiiMir iii-.!™- 
 lion \i;i« iriviii, piilillr HrlnNtU tlien- wir> I'ut 
 oiiK ii« priviiie iiiii|ertalilni{4 f. r the "ike ..f tin- 
 ihihii.iii'f ilieriili All deia'ndnlon lli.-fiiliif, 
 hiM iH-r^. mil i-liariu'li'r atid till- Hire laUi 11 !'« tin- 
 niotlii r ill i-ilurntiou dwiileil lie- iIi-m lopni. n! "( 
 the 1 hilil - dl>|Hwllh.n ll<«ik« tin n- w.n- h -ti-. 
 and then f. .re they i-oidd not Im- put iniotht li.iii-U 
 of rliildnn .V few riig>rtil In inua, iiurh -ii ^wm> 
 of tlH- Kiilii and Arval lirolliirs. with the . iik'» 
 in Keweiinine verae. siinic on feativuU aii'l .it '■•ei 
 <|u<'ts. tornieil the pia-iieal lileralur. .V i\'M 
 would hear, lattiles. Ilie illrKeii. 'f tii. niinil 
 versMi I'omiaaH-illiy women In honour "ftl»'<l> el, 
 and Munetiinrs. ti>i. the Iiulille pHnei-\ n- • pr.' 
 nounceil on tin ir ile|iartiHl relatiiris. a ilt>lii»n"a 
 ammlml to women rIm> from the time of < ninil 
 Ilia Wbatcvi-r was laiiitht a l« v I v I tile 1 •« 
 
 708 
 
lOCCATIOM. 
 
 Biother, or seqolnd extonullr to the houw, wm 
 calculated to make the RomaD ' Tlrtiu ' appear 
 In bli eye* the bigheat aim of Ua ambition ; the 
 trrm iDcludinf •elf-maitei7, an nnbendtng flrm- 
 mta of win, with pMieoce, aod an iron tenacity 
 of purpoae in canjins through whatever wa* 
 oaix acknowledged to be right. The Oreek pa- 
 Intra and lt« netted combatanta always leemed 
 •trange and offeniiTe to lioman eyec. In the 
 repiibliran times the ezecciaesof the symnaaium 
 vrro but little in fashion; though riding, awim- 
 ming. and other warlike ezerciaes were Indus- 
 triouily pmctlaed, as pn-paratlons for the cam- 
 paign. The stare ptedagogus, aasignetl to young 
 proplr to take chargp of them, tud a higher poal- 
 tiun uitli the Komans than tiie Oreeks; and was 
 not alliiwnl to let his pupils out of bis sight till 
 their twentieth year. The Latin Odyssey of LItIus 
 Aoilniniriu was the srbool-book first in use: and 
 thia and Ennius were the only two works to create 
 ami foster a literary tnMe before the ileatruction 
 of Carthage. The freetlinan Up. Cnrvilius waa 
 the flrst to oiien a school for hlKber e<liication. 
 After tills the Oreek language and literature i-anie 
 into the circle of studies, and in couwiiuence of 
 the vara in ^ilcily, Maredon, and Asia, families 
 of ilistinctioii kept slaves who knew Ureek. 
 Teschers quickly multiplied, and were either 
 liberti. or their descendauls. Xo freebom Itonian 
 would consent to lie a paid teacher, for that 
 was held to iw a de)nsdation. The Ureek Ian- 
 pmitf remalneil throughout the classical one for 
 Bimiaii.»: they even made their children liegin 
 Kith Homer A«. by the wveiith century of the 
 repulilic, Ennlua, I'la'utiis, I'acuvlus.aud Terence, 
 bail alreaily becoRie ol<l poets, dicutiotu were 
 ([iveip to «cbohnt from tlieir writlii)fa. The inter- 
 nri't.ition of Virgil began under Augualun. and 
 iij tlii» time the younifir Koniaiis weri- renortliiif 
 to Aili'iiH. KIiihIcs. Apollonia. nml .Milvliiie. in 
 oriir 1.1 make pri>greu in tireek rhetoric niid 
 pliil'~opli,\. As Konmn notions were IiumiI en 
 lire!) oil lb)' practical and the uaefid. uiii«ic was 
 iirvlii lid as a imrt of iilucation. while, an a ion- 
 lni.1. I«.y« were cuni|H'lliHl to Irani tile la»» of 
 111.- iiiilii- tallies by heart. I'lceni, who bail 
 ■(.'lit iliroiiL-b this iliM-lnlinc with otiier I i>vi> of 
 bi< liim-. I'ifniphtinaof the practice bavim; lieKun 
 to Ih- ml ai.iib -, and Meipio .fimilianiiH lieiiloreil. 
 a» nil evil omen of degeneracy, the mndini; of 
 \i-'\» iiiid Kirl^t 111 the acailemies of arton. where 
 tlHv I. ami ilaminx and alnKinit. iiiconipaiiv with 
 yi'tiiu' women of plea-oire. In one of thiiH'ac'hooU 
 •en- to lie fouml Hi many as hve hundnil yoimi; 
 perxiii-. all lieing iiwlrui>i<-<l in |i.wtiiri"» and 
 oi"li..inof the most shandoiied kind i >n the 
 
 iillii T hanil. the gymnaslic e»trci»e«. which had 
 ..nil « rvi-d the younK men ana iraiuini.' for war. 
 f.ll ml., illsuae. having naturally Uhiuh. olijcct 
 li-M loiil liiirilenMime. now Ihat.'umb r Anituniua. 
 n.. ni..re Koman citi/eii.« cb.iae to enlial in the 
 it III in still slavery was. and continui.l t.i In . 
 till f..n>m.«i i-auM' of the depravation of voiitli. 
 •n.t ..f iHi .vil eilucallon . . It was no longer 
 the Mi..||iera who eilucaled their own chllilren 
 thi y li.id iiilther liiillnation nor raiiacilv for mn li 
 iliity. I..r niotbera of the utamp of ( ornella ha.l 
 iliwi.) eared Imnu.<lialelv on its birth, the child 
 •n-iiitnisteil toa tJreeh female slave, with si.uie 
 mall »lave often of the worst description, to help 
 ker The young Itoman waa not e<|iicate.l 
 
 in I hi- constant ci.inpanlonshlp of ymithi of hit 
 t>wu «({«, under rt(ual illscipllnr surrounded by 
 
 EDCCATtON. 
 
 his father's aUret and parasites, and alwan 
 accompanied by a alave when be went out, 
 he hardly received any other impressions than 
 such aa were calculated to foater conceit, in- 
 dolence, and pride ta him."— J. J. I. DOllfaiger. 
 Th* OentiU and th4 Jev, ». 8, pp. 970-881.— 
 HiKher BdncaUoa nader the Bmpirt.— "Be- 
 sides schools of high eminence in My tilene, Ephe- 
 sua, Smyrna, SIdon. etc.. we read that Apollonia 
 enioyed so high a repuution for eloquence and 
 I political science aa to be entrusted with the educa- 
 tion of the heir apparent of the Roman Empire. 
 Antiocb was noted for a Museum modellnl after 
 that of the Egyptian metropolis, and Tarsus 
 boastetl of Oymnasla and a University which 
 BtralK) does not hesitate to describe as mote than 
 rivaling those of Athens and Alexandria. There 
 can lie little doubt that the pbilosophere, rheto- 
 ricians, ami grammarians wlui swarmed In the 
 princelv retinues of the great Koman arishK-racy, 
 and whose schools nbuuniled in all the most 
 wealthy and iKipulous cities of the empire east 
 and west, were preparr<l for their several call- 
 ings in some one or other of these institutions. 
 Straljo tells us . . . that Home was overrun 
 with .Vle.\andrian and Syrian grammarians, and 
 .luvenal descrities one of the (julrites of the 
 ancient stamp as emigrating in slieer disgust 
 fMm a city whicli from thesis caum-s ha<l U'come 
 thoroughly and utterly Ureek. . . . That exter- 
 nal indiici'meiitu wire held out amply siilHcieut 
 to |iri'\ail u|Kin [Mmr and ambitious tnen to 
 iiualify tiieniM-lvcs at some cost for vocations of 
 thi.4 descriplion i» evident from the wealth to 
 which, a* we are told, ninny of them nine from 
 extreme indiifeiuv an.l olisciirity. Siietoniu*. in 
 llie still e\taiit frau-meiit of his essay ile cliiris 
 rliitiiriliim.' after alliiiiing to the imnienst- nuin- 
 In r of pn.fessorx ami ihntors met with in Itonie, 
 ilniwit iittenliiin to the frei|(ieucy with which in- 
 ilivi.liialH who had dLstingiiished thcniM-lveH as 
 till, liim of rhetoric liiul been elevateil into ibe 
 M null', and ailvaii<-ed to the hi^ihcM ilii,'nitii'>i of 
 tile ►tate That the Iir.ife»sion of a |iliili.logist 
 wa« .«-<!i»ionallv at least will rx inniiiratini is 
 e\iilcnt (niin tlie facts ni-onled liy ihe wime 
 author In bis w..rk '.le cinriii >:miiiiiiaiiii9 ' met. 
 II lie thire mi'iitioiiii that liiire wire iit one 
 time upwani* ..f tw.-nly «i II attni.ii.l -^h.n.ls 
 lievoieil to thiit niil.Jiirat K.mie. aii.i tliat one 
 fiirtuniite iuiiiviiliial. H Hiiiimiin* I'alainioii. ile- 
 rivinl four huii.lre.l iIioiikiihI i«.>i.neH, or con- 
 si. hralily alhiVf thr.-e Ihoii-uind a y. ar. fnuu 
 in<,tnuii..n in |'liilol..i.'y ah.n. .IiiUik Caesitr 
 i-oiifem.l the 1 iiiii iisliip. toir.ihcr wiih large 
 l>oiiiiiir4 ill III..I1I \ . uiiil iiiiniunity from piilillo 
 liiirilii ns. on ili«iini:ui«lii'<l riiitoricianA ami phi. 
 I.i|.ii:i*l*, in orii.T to cin'ounu'c their preseii.e at 
 Uonii Tliiit liuii\iiiiial» wli.' thim •iij.iyi'd 
 
 an inronii'n.'l iin.iily IkI.iw the n vi uui'« of au 
 Knitii^ii lli»lioprlr win- n.it. as the name might 
 l.ii.l ii« I., iiiiiiiriiii'. iinp|..y.'il in tiuchiug Ihe 
 itri i.li'iiu of k'l'iniiiiar. but possenw-d mnsiileralile 
 pr. 1. 11^1.11. 1.. thai liik'lii r and nmri' thoughtful 
 Hiar.ii I. r of iln- w liolar which it has Unn re- 
 MTv.il t..r ni.nl. rti Kiin.pe to exblliit In iHrfer- 
 Hon i-. n..t iiiK in ii«ilf highly prolmble, but 
 «iip|Hirteil by t)ie ilUtlmieHt olid iii.ml iiniin- 
 |ieaihal'le evidence. H«-m-<a tell» u> ilial history 
 Hiu aniongiit the subjriia profeua.i bv gram- 
 MmnaiiK. aii.i I'ici TO rt garil-- iln- nioal l)i.in>ngh 
 an.l nrtiiiil |Mrnpii..|i ..f all il.:.l pi rlain« I., ilie 
 •pirit dud ludivliliiality ..f llu author aa an la- 
 
 ru'j 
 
 ^m 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 MiMk Age: 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 diapranble requtiite In tbow who undertake to 
 give inatnirtinn In thl« iubject . . . The ginni- 
 matirl a|>|M-ar to h»ve occuplfKl a pocitiim very 
 cUwely aualugou* Ui that of the teachera of colle- 
 giate Khooto In England, and the grmnaalal pro- 
 feMori in Germany. "—E. KIrkpatrick, lUU'l Ik- 
 rrlopneHt of Ifiipefitir Intlnietion {B*nutrd'i Am. 
 Journal of Eiwatioo, t. 34. pp. MIM70. 
 
 McdiaTsl. 
 The Chaos of Barbaric CoBqnctt.— "The 
 utter confuaion aubattjuent upon the downfall 
 of the Kiiinao Empit« and the irruption of the 
 (Jtrnianlc race* waa caualng, by the mere bnitc 
 foni- of I'lrt'umataniv, a gtadual extim-tion of 
 MlioUrHliip l(«i iK)werful to lie arrcated. The 
 ti-arhiiig i>( gramnmr for eccle»ii»»tli-iil purpiws 
 »•«« iiiaulilrlent to check the InHueuir of many 
 <'au«-8 leading to thia overthrow of leamiug 
 It waa inipoaaible to communicate more lliau 
 a mere tini'turv of knowlitlge to atudeuU aepa- 
 ratwl fnini the rlasaii-al trndilion. for whom tho 
 antcci-'lent hiatory of Home waa a dead letter. 
 The nieaniuK of Latin wonla ilerlve<l from the 
 Ureek wa* Tost. . . . Theological notlona. gro- 
 ti'Miue and clilliliah iM'yontl deacription. found 
 their way into etymolojfy ami grammar. The 
 tlm-f iMTKiua of the Trinity wen- dis<i>vi-ml in 
 tile virli, and mvulie nuimiera In tin' parts of 
 ain-ith. Thua aiialytlcal atudlea like that of Ian- 
 >;uai:e came to lie regarded a» an ojien lleld for 
 the exeniae of the mythologlalug faiuT ; ami ely 
 nuilogy waa reilu- I'd to a avMem of ingiliinU!! 
 punning; . . Virgil. Ilie only clajMlc who re 
 tuiniil dii>tinrt and living |K'nioiiality, pa»i(e<l 
 fnmi |niel to iihlloaopher. fMm philowipher ti> 
 Mliyl. fniiii siliyl t<i inagiiian. by aucivK^ive 
 hi.'ik'i'sof tranamutalion. aa the truth nlN>ut him 
 ri « iiiiin- dim ami tlie faculty to apiirelicml 
 III) wiukeiietl. Kiirmliig the ataple of nlucnlion 
 In the M'liiiola of the i:mniiiiarian», and meia- 
 m'lrplioM'd by the viilirar conMiouaneu Itiio a 
 wizard, he w'aititl ou the cxireme verge of tln' 
 dark agea to take Diinli- l<y the liaml. anil liail 
 him. aa the tvpe of human nwiMin, IhMuiih the 
 realiiu of Hell and I'urgalory —.1 A WymomU. 
 lit lull— linn' in llnljt : ll>r Uinmlnf I ••irnimj.t'h i 
 Caul: ath-5th Ctoturita.— " If lii>iiiutiou> 
 rould ilo all, if lawa aupplitil an<l the iiuann fur- 
 lit^heil to MK'iety I'liuld do everything, the in 
 lellntual atale iif Oaullah civil MK'iely at thia 
 c|"icli |4lli ">lh cinluri™) would have Intn far 
 aiilnrior tn that of the nligioiM wniily The 
 Urol, in fuel, aloni' |ioMeM<il all the in!<iituti4in>i 
 pnipiT tti M'l'ond the ili'Veloptneiit of iiiind. the 
 prni;rt"i)i and empire of IdeaA I^tl1lll^ t«aui ua<t 
 iciMfi-)! with large a<lioolii The pnuiijiul wer> 
 thiHi' irf Trivea. Uonliaim. Aiilun. lonlmiM- 
 I'liiiiiTH. l.jiina. NarlmniK. .\rlii«. .Murmilli" 
 Vi* niie, ll4'Minv*)fi. Ac Suiie were very aiieienl . 
 tliiMi' cif Mar-Milieu and <<f .Viiltin, fur itanipli', 
 dalfl from tin- tlmt nnlnrv Tlii y win- taunlil 
 philinophy. nii'iliiine. jnrUpnuliMii llirraliin. 
 
 friiniiiiiir. atlnilogy. all lite m ii-mi-ii of the atfe 
 II ll» irn Mttr |i«rt of iIh-m- m IhmiIn. lutie«-il. they 
 »l ttr->l laoglit oiilv rhrlorii and ifraiiimnr Imii 
 t iunr<N till- fiuirtii ntiiiir) p^.lt••»..r» of phi- 
 liniiphy and liiw Mtn- it>i\Hlitrt !nir<Mi(Mt.tt 
 N'll iMitv were llteM- mIuh'U llunuftMi.. iili'l pT" 
 vldinl with many eliuir*. but ilie em|i<rr(i (on- 
 Ihiiiall)' look Hie pnifcMiora I't new iiieaoiirf* 
 Ini" l:i>iir Till Ir InlereiU iir< . fMiu t miaHin 
 Um to Tlieo>l<a>iua Ike youu^er. the aubjeit of 
 
 r; 
 
 fnN|uent imperial conatltutiona, which aonuiinm 
 extemled, aunietimea coadrmed their privilem'a. 
 . . . After the Empire was divided amoui: luaiiy 
 masten, each of them concerned hiniHelf i:iilk'r 
 more about the proaperity of bia atatvs aul ilw 
 public eatabliahmenu which were in tliitn. 
 Thence aroae a momentary amelioration, of n hieli 
 the achoola felt the effecta, particularly tli<«e of 
 Oaul, unih'r the adminlatration of ('oii>i.'iiitiiu 
 (iorus. of JiilUn. and of Uratiati. By Ilii- >.\,W 
 of the ai'liiMila were, iu general, pla'inl ..iher 
 analogous exiabliahmeuta. Thua, at Tn' v< ■. i ln.rr 
 waa a gniiul library of the lm|ierial palm < . i .la- 
 cvmingwliiehnospecial information ha> riuiluti 
 ua, but of which we may Judge by tin .litaijj 
 which have reaclie<l ua contvrning that of ( im. 
 atantinople. ThU last had a Mlirurian aii'l m ..'i 
 acrilK'a couatnntly ca'ciipied — four fur i in i k lii.i 
 thn-e for Latiu. They «-opie<l In-Ill ;iiiri- iii ami 
 new worka. It la prolmlile tliat tlu -unii- iiiMiiu- 
 tion exiatnl at TrJvea, and in the gri-:ii iuui,v of 
 Gaul, t'lvll aoclety, thiMi, waa pnoiili-l «i;|i 
 nieaiia of inatruetlon and iutellei<iim| ili vi|.i|i. 
 iiieut. It waa not the aaoie with n liciuui mi. 
 clety. It liad at thia e|HKh no ln.-titii1iuni»iH-,i. 
 ally devoted to teaching; a itiil not retiivi tmiu 
 the atate any aid to thia piirticiilar aim i l.rit 
 tiana. aa well aa othera. could fn-ipienl tin pi-lilic 
 fclioola: but most of the profenwini «•!• ^liil 
 pagana. ... It waa fur a long 'iiiie in iln in- 
 K'lnor claaaea. amoni; the p<'op!i' tli;il i lira- 
 tiaulty waa propagateil. eaiM'cially In tin- limili. 
 aud it waa the KU|"riur claiwea wlii. h |..'l"»iil 
 tlH' great aiiiiHiln. .Muni-ver. it v.iin h ir llnnilil 
 tile commeneeiinul of the fuurlh ciniun Hut 
 the Chrialiaiia ap|H-an-<l there, ami the m t.ui tiw 
 in numlier Nu otlar tou i-e oi minlj mi>.[«ii 
 to thi'in The entalilisliiiienLs Hlii'h .1 little 
 afterwanla. iMtaiiie, in the I'brisiiiia rliun !i. ili» 
 refuge and aaoetiiary of inatriiiliun. Iii< ni-iua- 
 terlia. were hunily commemiHi iu tln' 1. i-il. h 
 waa only after the year ■W» thai llu i« . lirit 
 were fonn-htl by St Martin — urn 11' l.ik-uiif. 
 Hear l'uitier!<. tlie other at .Nlunnuiiii, r> ii-ir 
 T-air*. and they wen' lii vutitl rather t" r. lifi^m 
 eunteniplati<in than lu teaehiuK .\i>> iinit 
 .vhool. anr >|HK'ial i;iKlituti<in <livnir.| 1.. lUt 
 ■ervire and to the pmun-iw uf lnilli-i «:i« at 
 that time. Iheri'fore. « anting !•> Ilif < liri-luia 
 . .VII iliinga In the tlflli ivninry aiiiM iW 
 decay uf the civil xhooln rii'i^'nleni|..ir4iie.iua 
 writiTi. .•'idunlua A|iolliiiari» and Mawi nlua 
 ClaudlanUK. fur example, depl.-re ii ii. . v, r\ piifc 
 Mving lliat Hie young iinu iiu Lmuit ^t.ilml. 
 tlmt prul.iuMir* wen- wllhuul pnpil-, 1I1.1I « auor 
 litnirui^liKl aii'l »a» U'lui: l-"t li » ■• '•• 
 
 peiiaiiy till \uiiiig men uf Hie !iiii«ri.r . I ii»r« 
 » liu trti|iit uinl ill. »« Ini-ilf. I'lil 111. ~ 
 »i h' In rapid iliM>iliiliun The w li ' 
 
 Hlth lllelti llle ll-nlltlltiuIlN Mill e»l^li<t I' 
 
 «. n »-iiu — llle auiil hail i|;iiiiiHl ilii l"«!'. 
 iniiiiiTliiui aap>Ht of t'hrialinn -"»i'l.» » 
 ditfen 111 InatitiitioiiH Ut'in I" r'v 
 
 I* r-nulated am-ai.; IU« ('hri»ii»«»u' '>.'» 
 I.iiiriilaiiun uf tlie i-riaier |i--rii..ti .1 'i- 
 iiiuniulerii* uf iIh- > ullum pT-mi" ■ > 
 tin ttn.1 half uf 111. tilili ..111.11. 
 iiiuna»terie«u; tl»' •..illl|..r lialll «if> I 111 
 inil t. li.Nil< ..f I lin»li.ui'!x ii « 1^ 111' 
 illtt 1I.'<'IiimI men nitililalt-.l. .Ilm ii«m-.l i tu 
 
 ii ili.r 
 
 Tii 
 
 .. ».ry 
 
 ami to 
 
 Tlw 
 
 l.irm 
 
 .:• Ill 
 
 rbt 
 
 - Mai 
 .■hi 4 
 »a» fiuni llume Ihii tii » iilea». liarini ti.' mfh'*. 
 beri'Mii. «.r<i«Bi lorth !'■.» ni- lii. 'Uii 
 
 .f Ihi' alilh ivulm. cvel^lhlu^ l» .Ujut"!- 
 
 Tin 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 IrUk SdiooU at tite 
 ilk and KM* CnihirMa. 
 
 EDUCATIOX. 
 
 there an do kMicer civil kImmIs; eccleiiastlcal 
 MliooU alone suMlit Thow great municipal 
 Kboula of TriTct, of Poitiers, of Vienne. of Bur- 
 ilcaux. Ac, have diaappeared ; In their plan- 
 |i:>\ r ariwn arhoola called cathmlral or eplacopal 
 lu'liiioU. becauae each epiicupal see had lU own. 
 Tilt' cathedral acfaool waa not alwara alone : wc 
 liiiil In certain dioceaes other achoola, of an un- 
 irrtnin nature and origin, wrecka, perhaps, uf 
 h<iiu' undent civil school, «hich, in becoming 
 ■111 t:iiiiiirplioacd, had perpetuated iticlf. . . .The 
 iMi'-l rtouriaiilng of the eplacopn! schools fmni 
 tia' nixth to tlie middle of the cif^hth century 
 »ir»- Ihoae of: 1. Poittera. There were manv 
 mIkxIs In the monaateriea of the dioceae at Pol 
 liin Itself, at LiiUKe. at Analon, dec. 2. Paris. 
 :! Ij-Mana. 4. Bourgea. 3. Clermont. There 
 nu another school in the town where they 
 t:iui.'ht the Tbeodosian code; a remarkalile cir- 
 
 < iiiiistance. which I do not find elsewhere. H. 
 V'ii'une. 7. CliAlona-surSaoiu'. M. Arkn. 0. Uap. 
 The moat tlouriahing of the monastic schools of 
 till' wHK' epcx'h were those of: 1. Luxeuil. in 
 Fniiiilii'-l'Diiile. 2. Fontcnolle. or 8aint Van- 
 ilriili'. iu NoniuUMlyi In which were aNiut HiNl 
 stiiili'Uta 3. Hlthiu, iu Xormandv. 4. Saint 
 MittanI, at S<>iaaona. i. Lerens. It were eany 
 to I xteud this list : liut the pniaperlty of monastic 
 Mlicxla waa aubject tu j^reat viriiiiiltudeti; tliey 
 III ari»hi'd unier a diatiuguialieti abUil, and do- 
 (liiii^l under his sun'eaaiir. Even In nunoerieit. 
 Hilly was nut neglef-tetl ; that whii'li Suint 
 ( t'xiire fiiunded at Arlea contained, at the eiini- 
 iiuuirment of the sixth cvntur}-. two huudreil 
 Dun». for the niimt part occupies! in copylui; 
 l>>>ks. sometimes n'ligioua Ixjuks, sometimes. 
 |ir.il«lily, even the works of the ancients. The 
 nil laiiior|>lHnis of civil schools into ecclesiastUa! 
 MiKKila waa compl-'te. Let us see what was 
 laiiL'lit in them. We aliall often dud In them 
 she iiaiiiraof si^'-m-ea formerly profe<ae<l in the 
 mil mliiails, rhetoric, IukIc, frrammar, )r<'ome' 
 !rv aatrology, Jtc , but theni' wen- evliliiilly no 
 I iii:rr taiiirht except iu their relullonn In the 
 I'l Pk'> This ia the foundation of the Ihoiniriinu 
 :ill WHS turned into commentary of the .Srip- 
 I in J. hittorical, philoaophical. allefrorical. moral. 
 I iiiiiientary. They deoired only to form iirie>tit. 
 
 > ! -iiiilH">. H halwiever their nature. «ere ilinn tetl 
 ! " inis this result. Simellmes tlity weut even 
 '■irlliir they n>je<'ted the prufaui M'.e lid's tlieiii- 
 x:»n. ■< iialvver miKht U the lue nuileof them.' 
 — K (iiii/iil. UiBli'm "f CirilitiitioH In thf FrtHfh 
 I ■iti-H. - '.'. I,rl 4 iinil 16. 
 
 Ireland.— Scotland.— Schools of tona.~l'op 
 I.; If iin.Minu n-pr-w at .St Patrirk as fnuiHl. 
 1 .. lit least a liuiulntl monasteries, slid ivrii 
 lii M who ttiiiaiiler Ibut lite Kreuti'r oiimlK-r of 
 '■■■ Iri^li i-oIIik™ •vn- tainfif h\ M» fiillnwem 
 :>: ' r Ilia di-alb admit the fact of his haviiii; ■■* 
 
 < : il^lll1l all epiMCo|ial tlionaatery and wIiiniI al 
 .Xnn.nih, where lie aoil hU i lerity •■«rTli'>l out the 
 vii... rule of life that he hiwl si^'ii foilimiil In the 
 • i ifiiesofUauI Tlu'scliool. ul'leli foriiu'il 
 I i --ion of »b«' Cathinlral evlalilialihieiit »«»mi 
 I - I iin|Nirtaiier Uildaa taU|{ht here for i«>iiii' 
 
 > Ufore Joining »l t'ailia- at l.luiuarviin , 
 [leiMfs* of time tlie nuinlwr of aiiitti'iii-., 
 
 iiatt'.e autl fori'Ign, a» iuereaaiil that ilie 
 1. mi. rally, as we may justly call It, wa« .lixlilco 
 ii'i lliree |wrta. one of '.r|i|t<h waa tle^oteil en 
 ii?>i\ losliHlentaof the Anglo Sasonraie Oraiii" 
 t f Um- suppurt uf the acbuula were iiuide by tiie 
 
 IrUli kings in the eighth centurr ; and all through 
 the tn>ul>loua times of the ninth and tenth centu- 
 ries, when Ireland was overrun by the Osnea, 
 and so many of her sauctwariea were given to tha 
 Haines, the succession of divinity professors at 
 ArmaKb remained unbroken, and has been care- 
 fully tnu'eil by Usher. We need not atop to de- 
 tennlne how many other establlahmenta aimiUr 
 to those of Armagh were really founded in the 
 lifetime of 8t. Patrick. In anv case the rapkl 
 extension of the monastic institute in Ireland, 
 and the extraordinar}' unlour with which the 
 Irish oenobites appHiHl themselves to the culti- 
 vation of letten remnin umliapuletl facta. ' Within 
 a century after the death of St. Patrick.' saya 
 Bishop Nii'iiolson. 'the Irish acmiiukries bad ao 
 i inen-aaiil that most parts of Euro|>e sent their 
 ' eliililnn to N' e<lucated here, and drew thence 
 ; their lilsho|>s and teachers.' The whole country 
 i for miles round Ijiglilln waa deuominatetl the 
 ' land of sidula and m-holars.' Bv the tinth cen- 
 tury Amwgh could lawsl of 7,001) students, and 
 llii- scbiails of Cashel, Dlnilaleathglius. and Lis- 
 more vhsl with It In ri'iiowu Thisextruordinary 
 niulilplicntion of monastic seminaries and schol- 
 ars limy Ix' ex plained partly by the constant Imml- 
 gnilion of British refugn-s 'wlio bniught with 
 them the learning and nligious observances of 
 their native cloisters, and partly by that aacred 
 ; and Irresistible Impulse which animates a newly 
 converted |H'ojilt' to heroic aciii of sacritice. In 
 In-)und the infant chiirth was not. as elsewhere, 
 ' watensl with the liltaxi of martyrs. . . . "The 
 j Imnls. who were to !«• found in great numliers 
 aiiiDiig the early converts of St Patrick, had also 
 I a loiisiiliralile shari' in diniting the energies of 
 I tlii'ir eoiinlryinen to hilelleetual lalxiur. "They 
 I forineil the leamisl class, and on their ctiiiverwiou 
 I to Clirisiianity were readily disposed to devote 
 I tlieiiiailves to the culture of sacred letters. . . 
 ^ ll would Im' iiii|>oiwilile. within the limits of a 
 ! single chapter, to notiee even the names of all 
 I the Irish Mala of liiiming. or of their most cele- 
 j liraliil teachers, e.ery one of whom has his own 
 leKi'iiil ill wliieh siiinsl and immmIc ta'auties an' to 
 N' foiinii bhndiil together One of the earliest 
 { monaaiii sehisila was that en-cteil by Ends, prince 
 I of nrgiel. In thai uisiern Manii calliil fnim the 
 I Willi tlowers Willi h I'veii still cover lis nskv soil, 
 j Aran of the-Klowi rs. a name it afteru arils ex- 
 I clianv'iil for that of Ar.n iia luomh, or .'irauof- 
 I the Saints. . A little later St Kiuian founded 
 
 lii-s ^real siinN'l of ('lonanl. whence, says I'slier, 
 , issiii'il forlli a sirnini of Niints ami distors. like 
 i the tini k wiirri'Ts from tlie wisalen horse. 
 ■ Tills ilrs-ilaii' wiidrniess WHS siwii |HMiple<l bv his 
 (list iplrs. « ho ah' said i.i have numliensi 8,0<k), of 
 wlioin the iwelie iii.wi eniipeiit an- often termed 
 till- 'TwiIm' .\|>os||is ..f Inland. . . . Among 
 lliriii iii'iie Win' mon' fiiiioiis iliaii St Culumlm, 
 .■>! Kieriii uiiil SI llniiilaii The tlrat of theae 
 is Itiiuwii I.. iMTV Kiiiiiish nadir as the foiindrr 
 of l.iim anil Kier.iii. tin rar|M'iitet s sou. aa he ia 
 iiilliil, Ismiinely li'sa reiiowiiiil among lilaown 
 itiiiiiirviiii n , ll W'ts ill the year .Vl>'t that .St. 
 
 ( . iliiiiiUi. after foiiiiilini; the niiiuisterii's of iNiire- 
 ( iiUait'h Hihl Itaiitiia^rh in hi: native ianti. and 
 im iirring tie' eumiiy ><f one of the Irish kh:gs, 
 iliii riiiiiieil on innslnn over into Stoiland in 
 oiili r I" |>ni" h Itie faiwi to the .Northern Ilcta 
 .Xni'inpanii'it I'v twelve i niiipunions. Ii" passed 
 the ( liaiiiii I ill -i null' wiiki r Unit covensi with 
 skins :iiid laudid at Port ua t urrachan. un a s(>ot 
 
 Til 
 
BDUCATIOIf. 
 
 dbarlMMaiM'f 
 ac'Mt of A« Palaet. 
 
 KDCCATION. 
 
 BOW naikad by • Imm> of hun eoaiol ftooea. 
 OouUl, kiof of the Albanlu Soota, fimntcd bim 
 the Wud of t Hi. or Al, httkcrto occupied by 
 tlie Druida, and thm ba cfcctod the mooaitery 
 which. In time, became the mother of three hun- 
 dred reli^oui bouaea . . . lona. or I-Colum-kil, 
 aa It waa called by the Irlah, came to be looked on 
 aa the chief aeat of learning, not only In Britain, 
 but in the whole Weatera world. ' Thither, aa 
 tf'm a imt,' aaya OdoneUua, playing on the 
 Latin na-ne of the founder, ' theae lacicd dovea 
 tiiok thrir flight to every quarter. ' They atudied 
 tlie clHMlra, the mechanical arta. law, hiatory, 
 ami pliraic. They improved the arte of hui- 
 lian<irr and horticulture, aupplied the rude peo- 
 ple wrfiom Ibry had undertaken to ciTlllae with 
 pl<Mii;lislian>s and othrr utenalla of labour, and 
 taiiL'lil them the iiae of the forge. In the myalerie* 
 of wliloh every Iriah monk waa InHlructnl from 
 his U>>'h(><al. Tbrv lnu»(i'm'<l to their new 
 horora all the Ipaming of Armagh i>r C'lonanl. 
 In everj- rollece of Iriah origin, l>y whom- 
 iiirvrr they wi-re munded or on whatever aoil 
 they flouriiihiil, nrp thua aee itudy bleD<le<l with 
 thc''<lutit:a of the miwiionary and the ciruobite. 
 Tliey were rrlijrioua tiouaeo, no doulit. in which 
 tbo-elebratioaiif the Chuirh office waa often kept 
 up without intenniiiainn by dav ami niglit ; but 
 they wet* als>> leminarien of learning, wherein 
 aarrt'il iind profane atuilien wen* eiiltivatni with 
 e<|iinl siirn'M. Not only theirown nioiiaaterien but 
 thoM' of every Enrttin-an etmntry were enrirhe<l 
 witJi tiieir itianiiM-nptH, ami the reaeanhi-a of 
 niolern lilliliopoliKt* arc eontiniialiv diiiin:-rring 
 fMh) Oeriniin or itulinn lilimrie* a ilorBee. or an 
 OvI.I, orn f<»i'riil C"o<hx wlii»u lri»h ghwabetrava 
 the hiin.l whleli Iracetl ila (ielicateletters. "— .V. f, 
 Pranr. ''hrixliitn S'ftii*U 'iiiit Sth<ttitrM, rh. *2. 
 
 Charlemagne.— " If tiiere ever wua a man 
 »lio liy lii» r .TV niitiinti enilowmenta noared 
 alxive otlicr nidi, it hii« t liarleniu itiie. Ilia life, 
 like Ills hiiiliiri'. wiif ii'loxMil Time never Mvnie<l 
 waiiliMif li> liiin f"r nnylhiiiic that lie villeil to 
 areoihplihh. Hiitl liiiHnif lii^ im wnn cHmpaiun 
 agniiiHt the Siixoiia nnit l.onilninU. he ituilriviil 
 to get ielMiire eiiotiirh to Htuiiy gniinnmr. niiil 
 render hlinaelf toleralily prolli lent aa ii l.»tln 
 wrili-r In yrtims awl vefw lie foiiml hia tutor 
 in Ilie <llli-!i that he n<Ui|Uere<l. Wllen lie U' 
 i»"ie iiiiikter of IMaa. he i;alne<l the nrvirei of 
 r r of I1»«, whom be let over the rulaline 
 M h<nil. wnlch hnii exi»le<i even under tlie .Me 
 ro\iiii;itin ktn^s. thoui(h aa yet it waa f.tr fi.itii 
 eiij"viiu.' the fame to whleti it ««a aft> rwunla 
 mI».| tiv the leaehinjf of .\hiihi He |x'«-«— «.i 
 the lift of liiraluK eiMiiiiea inl'i 'rien.la. ami 'li-ia 
 (Inn to hia rourt the famoua hia.orian, faiil 
 VVariH Trill, ileai-on of tlie Chnreh of l<>>nii , uho 
 bii'l pre\iMii«|y acted aa Mtntary to IMilier. king 
 of thr I.,>nil>«r<la. . . Another Italian aeholar. 
 Ht I'ioillniia. of .\iiiiileja, wna <>>n\ei| Into the 
 wrilie of the Fralikiall aovenlKn nfter Ilia run 
 ijiKai <if Khiill. I Wi.l not <utv that he una 
 l>oiii-hl. Iiut III- »«« iirtaialy |>aii1 (•<T by it lurue 
 grniil of eonltMaled lerrilorv niinl' >ver hv ill 
 plnliia 111 I'le Vinenilite I'ltnliliiia, li -vsUrMr llie 
 art i'f L'ratitiii;ir ' Hut intuenf tlii'n- lear!.."*! ;i»-r- 
 aoiiiii:!^ »rii ih >;iiii<l to tA|>e ao Urjji r. part In 
 thm ri \i\n\ ..f li.tniini; whlrh maile 'hi- glory f 
 (Imrienw^iie D rt ign. aa our own eountrynmii 
 Ah iiiii It waa in 7K1, on oe<'a«ion of the lting'« 
 aiKMi.l vUit to llalv, that the meeting tuk pliu-r 
 at I'amm. the irault of which waa lo fli the 
 
 Engliah aehofaw at the Ftankiik court. HaTiDg 
 obtained the oonaent of hIa own Mahrp and ioTrr- 
 eign to thia arrangement. Alcuin came over to 
 Pmnoe in 788. bringlnf with htm aeveral of th« 
 beat adiolan of York, amoag whom were Wim, 
 Fradegia, and ^gulf. Charlemagne reiHlved 
 him with Joy, aM aaaigned hha three ahlieyi 
 for the mawtenanoe of hunaelf and fala diaiiplrt, 
 thoae namely, of Ferritrea. St. Lupua nf Tnaea. 
 and 8t Joiae in Ponthleu. From thia tinie'.\|. 
 cuin held the flrat place in the literary atnlrty 
 that aurrounded the Fnuikiah aovere'ii'ii. iii»j 
 filled an office the dutiea of which were a» vut 
 aa they were Tarioiu. Three great worku ai unce 
 chimed hia attention, the correction of the limr. 
 gical hooka, the direction of the court neaih niv. 
 and the eatabllahment of other public « lii>ili 
 thruugliout the empire, . . . But it waa iw hiMil 
 of tlie Palatine arhool that Alcuin'a iiilliiime 
 waa cbieHy to be felt in the restoration of Utii n. 
 Charlemagne preaente<i lilmaelf aa hia ltr<i pupil, 
 together with the lh~v' princes. I'eplii, Charlr*. 
 and I»ula, hia alalcr OlaU ami bla ilaiiiiliirr 
 Hiebtriide, his councillori AdaUnI ami .\ni;i|. 
 Iiert, nnil Eginhard hia secretary. Sueh IIIik 
 trii'us Bchoiars soon found plenty to iniitnte tlirlr 
 example, and .\lcuin saw himself ralle<i in lo 
 lecture daily to a goodly cMwd of hiiiliiipi, 
 iioblea, and coui tiers. The king wiaheil lotnni. 
 form his court into a new Athens pnfenihU' to 
 that of aneient Qreece, in so far as the ilxirliw 
 of Clirlat Is to lie preferreil to that of |>Ul» .Ml 
 the liU-ral arta were to be taught there, li it in 
 aiieh a way a« tliat each should liear rtfeniiie l<< 
 reliKion, for this waa reganletl lu the Itiul eml of 
 of all learning. Qrammar waa sliiiHeil in nnlrr 
 better tu iiiiilerstand the Holy 8cripture'i ami in 
 traiiacrilie them more correctly; muaie. to whiih 
 much attention was given, was chietly i-onlini'l 
 to the eeeleaiHalicul chant; and it wai priw i|>ally 
 to exphiin the Katliera and n fiitu erron i nnirirr 
 to the faith tiiat rhetoric and (lh«le<'tii'H viri; 
 Ktiiilie<i. 'In abort.' says Cti'vier. 'the lli.iiiL-ht 
 Iniih of the king ami of'the scholar who lalmur I 
 with liini WHS to H'fer all thinga to p Hiii< ii 
 nothing U-Int; ■'onaiilerinl aa truly noful v>!ii,|i 
 iliil not U'ltr Home reiali.in to tliat eml .\'. lirtt 
 .\hiiiii alloneil the atudy of tiie i hi»«ii' piult, 
 itiiii lit hia iMiyhiwal. as we know. In- hail I < ' !i a 
 gnaler ri'iuie'r of Virnil ih»n of the Si ripnma. 
 . . The autimrs wliiate atudy tharlenin,:rii Hiiii 
 .\h tiln (lealretl to promote, were iioi m, iiiiiili 
 Viruil mill Cieero, aa St. .lero;.ie aii.l >t .Vii.'iii. 
 line, iiiel Clmrh'iimifne, In hia exteMhue iiilniiri- 
 lion of lhi>M' KHtlura, gave utternuiv to iln »i>l> 
 liiat he limi a dozen such nxn at bin loiin Tin) 
 'llty of tiod' was read at the royiil la' !■ i:i'l 
 the ipiiatlona Kiiln'sai'ii hr the court -.lU'li ii!* i<i 
 their miater tiiroeii "liber on tlie oli»i viriM.« f 
 iioir Writ than the illlHcullirii of pro»>lv In 
 one thintf. however, they ln-traye«i n i l,i»*i' l.i-ir, 
 anil Itmt »ni In their lieleelloii of huniii Tbe 
 Itoiitl .Veaiieiiih iana all re]oii-e<i in wniu' Vtrrirjr 
 iioiilirli|int, .\l.uin w«a Flarins; .\ngii|Hrl. II" 
 nwr. hill (harlemaitne hlni««'lf aih.jileil ihe nute 
 n.-riiiiurnl npiH-IUilon of Ihiviil. The e»,'eniv«s 
 »ilh Hhh h tills exttnorimary man applieii hliS' 
 ailf to itri|iilre leaniiog foi himself, »iid to tl- 
 lend It throiii;hout his iloniinloiis. la truly ailinir' 
 able, Winn «e r>-ineiiilier the eiwirmoim la'outa 
 In wliieh be wa^ loiiatanlly enifsgeil - .'. T, 
 I • tne. ' ') •^tlMi, .r/K.«'a :iHtt .VA.*ir«. i-A 5 !««, 
 also, KCBUOI. or TUK I'aU^CB, CHAaLKUAUMa 
 
 :i-' 
 
IDUCATION. 
 
 at* ■ ' 
 
 EDl'CATION. 
 
 Kaffl*a4: Kiac Alfred.— King Alfred "nUi- ! 
 (Rd round him M U« own court thv ions M bU < 
 U'lillity to rereiTc, in coniunctkn with hii own 
 I'bililren, a lietter education than tlifir piuenu 
 viiukl he able or wUlinc to fire them in their 
 ,,wn hi'inehoWa To thh aaaemblafe of pupils 
 AsM-r lias attached the name of ichoul, and a 
 Uolrnt controTei»jr ouc» illatnrted the llterarj- 
 n orlil concerning the tone in which the woril 
 nan to be undentmal, anil whi^Uier it wa« nut 
 iln- licfrinning or origin of a learned Inatilution 
 Mill I'llMlng. In •iM'iiking of till* aubji-rt, Am<t 
 li^i> taken (Hcasion to rnumemte nnil dew-rilw ibv 
 ihililn-n wlio wrn- liorn t4> Alfred fn>ni hii wlfi- I 
 KNnitlia. daiightrr of Ktlirln-il the ' UIk.' alilcr- | 
 ii:aii of the Uuni. and a uohlv of gnvt «i-alili j 
 uiil Intluenc-e In Mrrcia. The Mm! auil dsuirli 
 tir" Mivii Aiwr, ' uliirh briiail by bl< wifraUit)' ! 
 uii iiiioiii'il. wirr El!."ll1<'«l tbeilifcki, aftrr wbiuii 
 ciiiii' l^lwiinl. then Klhelgiva. then Etlu'liwiibu. 
 •ikI Kthvlwenl. beiiiilcii tbiMe who died in tbtir 
 lufmirr, one of nboin wm Kilmuiul. Etbi'Idttl. 
 viirn •ill' arrived «t a niarrbiKi'alib' aire, wax i 
 iiniird l<>Elbeln-<l. <'irl uf Mirciii; Ktbrl^lvu was | 
 il-'<lii-.iir<l til tiixl. ami ■uliiiiitte<l to the rulra uf j 
 a mi'Oiwtic life: Etlirlwi nl the youogeiit, by the | 
 IMviiie ctiuiiM-l* and admirable prudence of the \ 
 iiiiiir. « aa ivuaigneil to the aeboola of leandni(, 
 «lii'rv, with the tbildreii of aliiiimt nil tie u<i i 
 liiliit of the country, and inanr ulwi hbi' »er<' j 
 Dot iiolile. be pnM|ien-d under the dllii;ent can- 
 niliMeaehers. IhNikitinlMnhUDguagiii, uanitlr. | 
 in Ijilin and Saxon, were rea<l iii the xlxail [ 
 Tliiy alw leanM-<l to write; to that, liefore ihev ; 
 am'' o! an age to practite maoly una, uanirlv 
 liuiitiug and aurh other puraulu'ai befit noble 
 imn. tiiey bei'ame (tudloua and clever in tlK lib- 
 rnil arta KtlwanI and Etbelawitlia were lireil 
 up iu the king a court, aiui rvceiviHl gn-at alien 
 lion from their MTvaiita and nuraea: nar, thev 
 toiiilnue to tbla day, with the love of alf aUiul 
 llina and abew altability, and even gentleiieaa, 
 toaarda all. both forrigiiera anil nativea, and are 
 in I iHuplete aubiection to their father i nor. nmoni; 
 till ir other atudiea which ap|ieruin to Ibia life 
 and are dt for noble youtba, are tbev auffemi !■> 
 JAM tlitir time blly and uiiprotltaViv, wllbmit 
 iianiing the llbenrarta, for they have carefully 
 linriied the I*ialma and ttezon l>iH>ka, ea|Mi'ially 
 lUi' Saion Hoeina, and are continually iu the 
 Uliil of making uae of liia>lu.' The arluMila of 
 karninii. to which Aaarr alludea in thia paaaum-. 
 a« |..rnied for the uae of the king'a cbildr-n and 
 till' »ina of bla noblra, are again mtniioiHil elae- 
 Kluri' by the aanie author, aa 'th^< a. bi«d which 
 111 liad aliiilioualy colliiU'd togettHi, conaiatiUK 
 ■ fiiuni > 'i|h> iirbillty of hia own nation and 
 ill 9 iliiid iMUaagr, Aaarr ajieaki of the aona of 
 till iioliiliiv who Were bre«l up In llw royal hoUM' 
 lii'lil It Uilear, tlien, from theae ex|in-««lonti 
 Hal ilie kiiig'aexertiooaloapread leaniing anioiii; 
 bit iiohU a and to educate hia own children, m re 
 • I a nil*! active and penoiutl nalun'. uni-oimecte.' 
 a nil any inalltuiiona of a mon- iiublu clmradi r 
 till xlioiil was kept In hia ohu houaebold and 
 till 111 « iiulillc aeat of b^amhig. We may iH-r 
 lia|i» alduce theae rxprrMl.ma of Aaaer i* n'lillli': 
 iiiK uualnat the iiotinn, that an I iiiTcraitv or 
 I'.ililir .Seniiunry if l/e*ni> g eilst4it in il>e il»y» 
 if Alfml T'jiiugli it la luoat pr<>)>able that iJi. 
 ai'it.jl nionaalerira, and other aix-ii "a of mouka 
 rihi 1 liiirebnun. « nuld employ a portion of t^^■ir 
 l-ti> lime in teaching yiv it. anil ppaecuting tiwh 
 
 own atudiea ; j'et there la no proof that an author' 
 lied aeat of learning, auch a« the Vnitrrnltiea of 
 
 Oxforii or Caniliridge, exlal«t! In England, until 
 many hundred yeara r.(ter tlie tfmeofAlfred." — 
 J. A Gilea, HjhimI Tiiuuia Alfnd Iht Great, 
 M. II. 
 
 Saracaoic and Mooriib Icammr.— "Erenaa 
 earlv aa the tenth irntiry, pewiua having a taata 
 (or learning and (or elegant amenitiea found tiieil' 
 way into ^pain froin nil adjoining counlriea: a 
 limctii-e in Miiliix-ijuent years still niori' indulged 
 In, when It U-came niuairattil bv the brilliant suc- 
 c.a»o( Uilliirt, will. . . |<aaa<Ml from the Inddel 
 Inlvemitv of lonlo>tt to the iMipacv of Home. 
 Tlie kimlif.i of the \\e»t carrieil out the prt'ci pu 
 of All. the fourth fcuceMuirof Moliainnnil, in the 
 patronage of liiemiure. Tbey eaiBblialicl libra- 
 riea ill ull till ii chief tow!i.H;"it ia aald timt uot 
 fewer thnn mvinty wiTi' iu exiatelicr To everv 
 nioMiue vtnautluclied a public aciioil, in wbicb 
 the children of tlii- |Hior were taught to read and 
 write, mill lu»lniciii| intlie preceptaof the Koran. 
 For tboM' in eaaiircirriiniataiicTa there were acad- 
 emic, usually amiiniil in t»i nty-tive or thirty 
 apunmcniii, cui h cuUulated (or iiccommoiluting 
 four aliideutK; the lU-uiU'liiy 1« iiiB pniiidiHl o»-er 
 liy a rector In Ciirdovii. (imi'mda, and other 
 L'reat cities, there «<re uiiiieraitiea (riouently 
 uiiiler the au|N'rintendence ii( Jews, the .Moiiam- 
 unslun muxin. iM-iug Ihui the real h.iniiu)[ of a 
 man la of more public <iuiiortance than iiuy par- 
 ticular ni||gioiia opinions be may entertain Iu 
 tbla this- followid the exaii.ple of the iVslutii; 
 klialif. llaMiin .\lmacbiil. « lio i.i iuhIIv coiiferrrti 
 tliesii|K'rinleiii|en(S'iif hisM'hoolaon John Maaue, 
 u Neaioriun t'briatian Tlie .Mohammedau lilar- 
 alltv was in atriking > ontnisi wiib the intoleriuice 
 of Eur<i|»- . . Ill the iinivi rsitiea aoiiie of the 
 profi-aaon of |Milite llterulure gave leiturea on 
 Arabic classical works; ollnnt tau,:hl rlieloric 
 or coni|NMitiiin, or matbemuiic^. or uslniimmy. 
 Kmui these inalitutioua many if the pnictii.Taob- 
 stTVisi in our colleges »• n derlvcil Tli-y held 
 t'uninHnceu.ents. at whhb isHina wen- nad and 
 orations dilivensl In pres»'iice of the public. 
 Tlicy iind also, in addition to tliiae scbiMilsof gen- 
 eral learning, profeaaioual ones, purtiiularly for 
 mnliclne AVIIb a pride |H'rliaps not ulioKitber 
 lurxi'Uaable. the .\ml>ians Ismsti'd of Ilieir lan- 
 guage as laluif the niiwt |»rfict a|><ikeii by mau. 
 It ia iioi ilieii stirprisinit Ihal. in the .Vrobhtn 
 MbiNila, gttnl nllention was paid to tlic atudy of 
 language. Slid that so ni.;iiy islebnil.il grainmur- 
 iana Were priHluctsl lly ibi-si' ai liolnrs. dliilon- 
 aries. aimifar totbiM' now in list', werecompoaeti; 
 tlieir coplousut ss is indicated iiy the circuiiulancc 
 that one uf tlicin iiiusisiid of sixty volumes, the 
 deliniiion of each noni Ihilii illiiairatisl or sua- 
 tainid iiy iin lalions imm Anili nutbora of ac- 
 kill w I- .iirnl 1' 1 ;;ti nicy had alao lexieous of 
 tinsk. I.iiii llclinw . and cvcbiiH-difta such a* 
 tin lli-i •rji :il lliitimwry lY f^k'mfs of .M... 
 Iiaiiiiiiiil lliii .VIslullah. of tiranada " — J W 
 I>ia|Hi //iW .." '. Inl'" i-liiiil O'tii-pii.ri.t -f 
 Kiir.,ii,,r i .' . - TbcSarai-enIr kinirsfiTiiu-d 
 libr:irii- .■( iiii(.^ ,i''- l<s| sUe and nutnlsr Tliat 
 of Ilaki i>> anioiin |o liiai laa) voltiiiiea. oi nldch 
 ■H wen- ciiiploynl in the men- calabiitue I'p- 
 waniaiii To publii liorarira wer- esiahilslusl In 
 hiA domiuiona IIMI.INIO vuluniea were ciniU-ivd 
 in the library of s'aiM. and were fnsi lei i to 
 the aiiidloiia citizen. The laate of the » ui i< Ign 
 communicitcd itaeif to tbu aobject. and i, prieat* 
 
 ^10 
 
KDCCATION. 
 
 flehoohmtn Mtd 
 ackolatMettm. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 loctnr decUrrtl that hli books w«ic Mlffleirnt to 
 kwl xn raineU. Nor weie the Sumcena k-u at- 
 t4Dtl^ •* to the fouDilntloD of irboftliaod collews. 
 Eighty of tlw latter Inatitutiniu adorned Conk)Ta 
 In the rrlipi of Hakem : in the flfteeoth prntury 
 flftv were wattmcd over the dty and plain of 
 Oranatla. 200.000 dinara (about £100.000 tter- 
 Ung) were Mp«'niled on the foundation of a lingle 
 colTeee nt Baishilail It wiu endnwetl with an 
 anniiiil n'rrntir of lS.(i>iOdlnan. ami waa attended 
 by (I.IHMI dliiilinU. The prince* of ilie liouae of 
 o'meyn li<aioure<l the SpanlUi aeadeinii* liy their 
 pirm-iu'e and •ludiea, and t'onipele<l, i- i without 
 •ufe«>s for llir prize* of learning. Niimrroua 
 nolic"!-! for the purpose of elementary instrur'i.n 
 wi-n iindeti by a long aerietnf monnnliR. . 
 Id this manner tne .Vrnhlana, within twi . < i ntiin «, 
 eonrtnitied an apparatua for mental imiirorp- 
 nwnt whieh hlther«o Imd not been eiitialleii wve 
 in .Vit'Xnmlrin. ami to which the ( iiireh. after 
 rulirif tlie IntelU-ct of Eun>pe for uiorr than Hve 
 huii.ln •! VI ura, could offer no parallel." — Thr In- 
 tfllffl-i.it'llrriml </ thf MiiMlf Ai^f ( Wrutmiiultr 
 
 Jirru 'r Jilitvmy, 18*tfl). 
 
 Scholasticiam. — Schoelman. — In the later 
 tlnK-i if the Kiiinnn i mpire. "the Ioh of the dig- 
 .lily of piiliticnl fri't'ili'in. the want of the iheer- 
 fuliieiui of ailviiui in^ pr»K|M'rity, anl the aubstltu- 
 lion if the leMpliilcMopliicaUtructureof the Latin 
 luntituige for the delicHli- intellectual mechanism 
 of the Greek, fixed and avi^nnented the prevalent 
 feebleness nnd bartenneas t>f intrlli ct. Men for- 
 got, or feared, to consult nature, to wek for new 
 truths, to do what the great liisunvrnT* of other 
 fli..i'» had iliine; they were content to consult 
 libmrits. to study and defend old opinionn. to 
 talk of what great geniuses had snid. They 
 Hougbl tlieir pnlloaopny In accn'dited Ireiilisea, 
 and dared not question such doctrines at they 
 there founil. . . . In the mean time the I liristian 
 nliglon had liecome the l<>ading subject of men's 
 thoughts, and divines liaii putforwanl its claims 
 to Ih'. not merely the guiile of men's lives, and 
 the means of n-conciling them to their heavenly 
 Master, but also to be a Iliiloanphy in the widest 
 seiiM' in which the term had been umiI , — a con- 
 siotent specuUtivc view of man's condition and 
 nature, and of the world in which he is plnce<l. 
 ... It was held, without any n-gulating prin- 
 ciple, that the philonopliy which ha<l Ixrn l>e- 
 i|Ueallied to the world by the great gi i'iii»«-s of 
 hriitlH'n antiii'.iily. nnd the philosophy « Iiich was 
 dciluceil from, nml Implied hv. the'Ri'velations 
 made by Oixt i<i man, must W identical; and, 
 then-fore, that Theology is the only true philosn- 
 phT. . . . Tills view was c<inlfrme<l by the 
 ontnion whiih prevailed, concerning the liature 
 of philosophical tnith: a view supported by the 
 Ihwry of Plato, the practice of Aristotle, and the 
 general propensities of the human mind : I mean 
 the opinion tliat all science mav be obtained by 
 till- line of n-asoning alone;— tliat by analyzing 
 and combining the notions which common Un- 
 giiage brings liefore us, we may learn all that we 
 can know. Thus Logic came tn Incluile tb<' 
 wlioleof Science: and acconllngly this AlielanI 
 esiiresaly nuintained. . . . Thus a Universal 
 Hclence waa eatablishetl, with the authority of a 
 Religious Creed. Its universality restetl on er- 
 rimeoiis viem-iof the relation of w.irdsami truth, 
 its pretensi./F.j as a science were admlttetl by the 
 servile teM;.<i of men's intellects; and its re 
 ■flaua autliuiitjr was assifced it, by makio^ all 
 
 truth part of rellfion. And •■ Religion claimed 
 aiaent wtthln her own Juriadictloa under the must 
 solemn and Impentnre auiction*, Philnsophr 
 shared in her imperial power, and disw-nt fMm 
 tlH-ir doctrinea waa no loager blameless or allow- 
 able. Error became wfcked, dlsaent Unmt 
 heresy; to reject the received human doctrinn. 
 was nearly the same aa to doubt the Divlm- 
 dechiratlons. The Bcholaatic Philosophy clainMl 
 the assent of all belleTer*. The exterasl form, 
 the details, anl the text of this Philosopliy. wire 
 taken, in a great measure, from Aristotle . tlii>ii|;li, 
 in the spirit, the pixril notions, and the atvl; 
 of interpretation, Plato and the Platoni^in linl 
 no inconsiderable share. ... It does not Ixlnni: 
 to our purptise to consider either the theolnuii-,! 
 or tlie metaphysical doctrines which form so lnr|,'r 
 a portion of the tn-atisesof the schoolmen IVr- 
 haps It may hereafter appear, that some liclit ia 
 thrown on some of the questions which Imvi- iie- 
 cupietl metaphysicUns in all agi-s. by thai I'mm- 
 Inatlonof the history of the I>r(igre.Jiive .><i imo-i 
 In which we are now engaged; but till »>- nrc 
 able to analyze the leading contn>venle» of ilii, 
 kimi. It would be of little service to niKak of 
 them in detail. It may be noticed, however, iliat 
 many of the most prominent of them refir tn ilie 
 great question, 'What is the relation lietwira 
 actual thing* and general terms T' t'erliupn is 
 modem times, the actual things would Im> m<n 
 commonly taken aa the point to start from hii'I 
 men would begin by conaidering how cI»im'<i and 
 universal* are ubtainni from imlividimls But 
 the sclioolmen, founding tlieir s|ieeiilnli>iii« mq 
 the received modes of considering such siiliji-rK. 
 to which Imth Aristotle and Plato Im.l i,n 
 tributeil, travelled in the oppoaite direclin'i. aii.l 
 enileavore<l to discover how iwlividuaU «i n- ili - 
 duce<l from genera and species;- what ».-» the 
 I*riiicinle of Individuation.' This whs v:irioii»lr 
 statetl W different leasoners. ThusUoniiviniuii 
 solves the dlfflculty by the ahl of tlie Ari>i<<ii'liao 
 distinction of Matter and Form. Tlie imliviiiual 
 derive* from the Form the pni|H>rty of luinit 
 something, and frt>m the Matter the proix-rty of 
 being that particular thing. Dunn S-oiii^. tlir 
 
 gri'st ntiversary of Thomas .\iiiiiniu< in il Ii'cr. 
 
 pUctii the principle of Individuation in sirr 
 tain determining positive entity,' whiili hioM III »l 
 calle<l llRK-c-eity or 'thisnes*.' Tliiiii nn in 
 dividual man U Peter, because hU liiuii.iiiitr is 
 eombiniil with Petreity.' The forii- of nlistrnit 
 terms la A curious uiiestion. and some n iimrlial>l« 
 experiments in their use bad been nin>le bv thr 
 Latin Aristotelians before this time. In ilie nam' 
 way In which we talk of the quantit^v ami i^mli'r 
 of It tiling, they spoke of its 'i|uiiliiity. ^^'r 
 mav conuder the reign of nu're liispuliiii'Hi a« 
 fully established at the time of whicii we sn- ii"if 
 speaking {the Middle Ages]; andtheonlv i>iriil"f 
 philosopliy henceforth studied waa one In hIiuIi 
 no sound jihvsical sc'ence had or eoulil li;ivi- i 
 p:*!*."— W. ' Whrwill, //(•»«. of Ihf lu'li'llH 
 Srirnfft, hk. *. ■'>! 4 (t. 1) --••Scholaslii i»ni wis 
 philosophy In tlie service ot established uml a< 
 i-eptiii thiHihigiral doctrines. . . . M.r. par 
 ticularly, SehoMsticisni was the rrprmiuciion "t 
 ancient pfaihaophy under the coutMl of n " li-fi 
 astiral doctrine. . . The name of S li"l.o'ii''« 
 (doctfires srholsstlel) which was givin t.' lli<- 
 teachers of the septeinliberalessrtea[wvcii lil«nl 
 arts] (grammar, dialectic, rhetoric, in iIm- Tr. 
 vium, arithmetic, geometry, music and uiros 
 
 714 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 HI— of 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 ,iiny, in the QuadriTlum), or at leaat mme of 
 tbem, in the Cl<>i«ler8clinoto (inuided bjr Ciuirle- 
 uMKne, M klto to teachen of tbcolugy, wm >f ter- 
 w«nU giren to all who occupied theiiiwWea with 
 tbv irirncn. Mid eapcclallr with |riiila*ophy. 
 . . JohannnHratu*, or Erlgeoa (ninth coituiT] 
 hi tlir earllvtt noteworthy philaaoplier of tbe 
 Ifk'hiilaitic period. He waa of Sootttah nation- 
 alitr, but waa probably bnm and brought up in 
 Irrlami. At the call of Charlea the Bald he «mi- 
 cntrd to France."— F. Ueberweg, IIul. of PM- 
 Imiphp. r. 1. pp. 855-484.— "Scholaatlcltm. at the 
 la«t. from tlie pnidlgioua mental actirity which 
 it kept up. lircane a tacit unireml insurrection 
 iipiiiut authority: it waa the iwelling of the 
 (Htan lirfore the itorm. ... It waa a dgn uf a 
 crrst awalivnin); nf the human miiHl when theo- 
 luirinnii lhout;ht It both their iuty and their 
 prIvik-KP to philoaonhize. There "waa a viiat 
 waale of Intelk-ctiial labor, but Mill It wni Intel- 
 Irrtiial labor, ami. aa we ahall tee, it waa not In the 
 fD«l unfniltful. "— C. J. Still*, Stuitir* in Mnlit- 
 ml IlitliTji, eh. 13.— ■■8cholaatirUm hati Its hour 
 of (tlory. its enuille doctors. Its elo<|iirnt pro- 
 fnaors, chief amonx whom was AlielanI (107^ 
 11431. ... At « time when priming did not ex- 
 ist, when mauiiM-ript copies wrre rare, .■» ti>achi-r 
 Till) combined kruwlnljte with the (rift of speech 
 was a phenomenon of incomparable interest. aiMi 
 •tiidrnts flocke<l from all partaof Europe to take 
 Sllvanut^' of his liH-liin-s. AbelanI is the most 
 brilliant reprenentntivr of the schoUatic peda 
 fogy, with an oripinal and personal tewlencv 
 townnis the emancj{Mtion of the mind. ' It (a 
 riili<'uloiis.' he said, 'to preach to others nlmt 
 we can neither make them understand nor under 
 •tsuil ourselves." With mi>n> bokineas than Saint 
 AnM'Im. he applinl ilialectics to theology, and 
 sttrnipte<l to rraaon out the grouodaof his faith. 
 Till- seven liberal arta conatTtuted what may lie 
 fsllnl the secondary Inatructlon of the Miilille 
 Ap-, such aa was given in the rlaiistml or con- 
 Tt-ntual schools, and later. In the unWenities. 
 The lilieral arts were ilistribiite<l into two courses 
 of »tuiiy, known aa the ' trivium " and the ' (juad- 
 rivium.' The 'trivium' comprlse<l grammar 
 (Utin giamitur, of course), dialectlc-s, or logic, 
 •nil rhetoric : aiwl the ' (|uattrlvium. ' music, arlth. 
 metii'. geometry, and aatronomy. It is im|Mirtnnt 
 lo tmte the fact that thia programme roiiiains 
 only nlwtnu't ami formal studies, — ih) n-ul an<i 
 nmrn-ie studies. The sciences which teach us 
 to know man and the world, such aa history, 
 eiliiiii, the phyaicnl and natural sciences, were 
 oiniittil and unknown. »Mve perhaps in a few con- 
 vi-n!«of the Benedlctiiiea. Nothing which can 
 tnilt i-iiucate man, ami devekip his faculties ass 
 «h..lf. inlisu the sttention of the Middle Age. 
 From A course of stuily thus limltisl there might 
 come tkillful rvasoner* ami men formiilnblc in 
 sririiment, but never fully ileveloped men. The 
 nn-iliinU employed in the'ecclesiaalicai sclioolsiif 
 iht- Middle Age were In accord with the spirit of 
 tin- iliiu-a, when men were m>t concemiil aNxil 
 lllx-rty ami intelk>ctual freedom: ami when they 
 thi>ii|iht more about the teaching of dogmas than 
 aliout the training of the Intelligence. The 
 teachers n-clted or read their lectures, ami the 
 piipilt k-amed by heart. The diadpline waa 
 harsh Corrupt human nature waadlatrusti-<l. In 
 l-WI. puplla were forbiddra the uae of benches 
 •nit rhsirs, on the pretext that such high seats 
 were an encuurafcmmit to prfcle. For securing 
 
 obedlenoe, corporal chaatiaements were used ud 
 abuaed. The rod la in faahion in the flfteenth aa 
 It waa in the fourteenth century. ' There la no 
 other difference, 'wya an historian, 'except that 
 the roda in the fifteenth century are twice aa k»f 
 as those in the fourteenth. ' "— O. Ccmpayr^, Tin 
 llif. of ndagajii: IntHM. bf W. U. A»a«, ek. 4. 
 UaiTMsiti«a.Tli«ir RIm.- Abcliwd.— " Up to 
 the end of the eleTenth century the Inatruction 
 was, speaking generally, and allowing for tranai- 
 tory periods of revival, and for a few excep- 
 tional schools, a shrunken survival of the old 
 ' trivium et quadrivlum. ' The lessons, when not 
 dicuted ami learnt by heart from notes, were got 
 up from bald epitomes. All that wasuught, more- 
 over, waa Uught tolc'ly with a view to ' pToiis uses. ' 
 Criticism dill not exist . the free spirit of specu- 
 lation could not. of course, exist. ... As we 
 approach liie periixl which saw the birth of those 
 institutions known aa !Studi.i Ihiblica or Oenrr- 
 alU, and ere long to be known aa ' universities,' 
 we have to extend our vision and recognize the 
 circumaUncea of the time, and those changes in 
 the tocial conilition of Eimipe which made great 
 central achoaila poaaible— achiKila to be freqiienUil 
 not merely by the young ecciiiiiastic, but liy lay- 
 men. Among other caiiaes which led to the ilff 
 fusion of a demand for education among the laity, 
 was, I think, the institution or n-firganiration of 
 municlnalities. It was about the en.l of the 
 elrvcntli century that the civic Communes (Com- 
 munittl liegan to w-vk ami obuin, from royal and 
 otiier authorities, charters cf incorpointion con- 
 stituting their internal government and confer- 
 ring o-rtiiiii freedoms and privilegi-s as against 
 the cncMiichmeiit of lay and et'clealastical h-iidal 
 baroiia. . . . ANiut the same time, an(l some- 
 what prior to this, trade guilds had Uf n formol 
 In many cities for mutual protection, the advi>nc<'- 
 ment of commerce, and the internal n-gulatloii of 
 the various crafts. There Immediately followetl 
 a draire for schools in the more important com- 
 mercial towns. In Italy such schools afvv la 
 R4il(igna, MiUn. Brescia, and Florence; and in 
 Germany they arose in I.Qbeck, Hamburg. Bres- 
 laii. Nonlhauaen, Stettin, Ijeipaic. ami Mlm- 
 lierg. The <listinclive charact<-ristic of tlieso 
 city schools was, that they do not seem to have 
 been under the direct control of the Church, 
 or to have been always taught by priests; fur- 
 ther, that tiM' native tiingue (tjlerriutu or Italian, 
 as the caite might lie) was Uught. Reading, 
 writing, and a little arithmetic seem to have 
 fomiiiT the staple of the instruction. The cua- 
 timi of <lictnting. writing down, and then learn- 
 ing by lu-art what was written — universal in 
 tlie schools of the preceding centuries — waa, 
 of course, still followed in tlieae burgh ichoola. 
 Thia niaiom was alinoat Inevitable. . . . The in- 
 crcascil communication with Africa uml the Eaat 
 through the Crusades hail Introduced men to a 
 aundard of learning among the Arabs, unknown 
 In Euni|H'. Outside the school, the onler of chlv- 
 airy had Introduced a new ami higher ethical 
 apirit than had lieen known In the previoua cen- 
 turies Civic communities and trade guilda were 
 forming themselves and seeking charters of In- 
 c«rp<iration. Above all. the Crusades, by atlmu- 
 Istlng the aniour and exciting the intellecu of 
 men, hail iinai-ttkHi oM oonventhio by bringing 
 men of all ranks within the sacred circle of a com- 
 mon enthusiasm, ami Into contact with foreig-,; 
 civilliatluoa. The deaire for a higher eduokUon, 
 
 s: ^\. 
 
 71o 
 
 ss.* 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 The influ«nc€ 
 of Aboard. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 and the impulae to more profound InTestigation, 
 that characterized the beginning and courae of 
 the twelftli century, was thus only a part of a 
 widespread movement, political and moral. . . . 
 While the Romano- Hellenic achoolshad Ion; dis- 
 appeared, there still existed, in many towns, 
 ipisropal schools of a high class, many of which 
 might l)e regarded as continuations of the old 
 imperial proriucial institutions. ... In Bologna 
 and Paris, Ilheims and Naples, it was so. The 
 iirt ) curriculum professed in these centres was, for 
 the time and state of knowledge, g(X)d. These 
 schools, indeed, had never quite lost the fresh 
 impulse given liy Charlemagne and his successors. 
 . . . Acuirding to my view of educational history, 
 the great ' studia publica ' or ' generalia ' arose out 
 of them. They wen- themselves, in anarrowsensc, 
 already 'stuclla publica.'. . . Looking, first, to 
 the germ out of which the universities grew, I 
 think we must siiy that the universities may be 
 regarded as a natural development of the cathe- 
 dral und monastery schools ; but if we seek for an 
 citernal motive force urging men to undertake 
 the more profound and independent study of the 
 lil'inil art.s, we ciiu Und it only in the Saracenic 
 M'liixils of Biigdud, Babylon, Alexandria, and 
 {'orilova. ... To fix precisely the da«e of the 
 rise of the first specialized schools or universities 
 is impossible, for the simple reason that they 
 were not founded. . . . The simplest account of 
 the new university origins is the most c<)mK?t. 
 It would appear that ci'rtain active-minded men 
 of marked eminence began to give instruction in 
 medioal subjects at Salerno, and in law at Bo- 
 logna, in a spirit and manner not previously 
 attempted, to youths who had left the monastery 
 and cathi'dnil scIimiIs. and who desiretl to equip 
 themselves for professional life. Pupils Hocked 
 to them: and the more able of thesi' 'tudents, 
 tiridiiig that there was a public demand for this 
 higher speelallzed instruction, remained at heaii- 
 (oiarters, an<l tlieiiiselves became teachers or 
 (liK'tors. The Church did not found universities 
 any more than it founded the order of chivalry. 
 They were founde<i by a concurrence (not wholly 
 fortuitous) of able men who bad something they 
 wished to t( ach, and of youths who desired to 
 leani. None the less were the acquiescence and 
 protirtliin of I'hurch and Stale necessary in those 
 (lays fi>r the fostering ol these infant semiuaries. 
 . . . Of the three great schools which we have 
 named, there is ■ufHcient ground for believing 
 that the lirst to reach such a dex "opment as to 
 iniiileitto the name of a studium generate or 
 luilverMlty was the ' Sehola Salernitaua,' although 
 it never was a university, t<>chnlcally speaking." 
 — S. S. Laurie, Hint imiitiirln Gimtitution of I iii- 
 r.r»i7i'.«. Uct. 6-7.— "Ideas, till this time seat- 
 tend, or watched over in the various ecclesiastical 
 seliools. iH'gan to converge to a common centre. 
 Till' great name of Vnivenity was recogniBe<l in 
 till' cHpilal of France, it the moment that the 
 Kh'neh tongue had iH'come almost uulveraal. 
 The' ecinquests of the Normans, and the first cru- 
 sade, ha<l spreiul its powerfully phllosophle idiom 
 ill every direction, to England, to Sicily, and to 
 JiriiKuleni. This rlrttimstancc alone 'loves' d 
 FraiH-e, central Pram*. I>»ris, with an immen' at- 
 tractive power, lly decrees, Parisian Kreiu-ii be- 
 came a proverb. Keiidalism had found it* political 
 centre in the Myal city ; and this city was alxiut to 
 Is'come the capital of hunwii thought. The be- 
 giuuef ul Ihis revuiultoii was not a pricat, but a 
 
 handsome young man of briUUnt talents, ami- 
 able and of noble family. None wrote love 
 verses, like Lis, in the vulgar tongue ; be sang 
 them, too. Besides, his erudition was extmordi- 
 nary for that day. He alone, of his time, knew 
 both Oreek and Hebrew. May be, he had studied 
 at the Jewish schools (there were many in the 
 Sout'.), or under the rabbins of Troyes, Vitry, 
 or of Orleans. There were then in Paris two 
 leading scliools: the old Episcopal sciiool nf the 
 parvis Notre Dame, and that of St. Oeneviivc, 
 on the hill, where shone William of Champiaux! 
 Abelanl joined his pupils, submitted to hi'ii his 
 doubts, puzzled him. laughed at him. and iliised 
 his mouth. He would have serveil Aiiselm of 
 Laon the same, had not the professor, biini; a 
 bishop, expelled him from his diocese, lu iliia 
 fashion this knight-errant of logic went on. un- 
 horsing the most celebrated champions. He him- 
 self declared that he had only reuounceil tilt and 
 tourney through his passion for intellectui' . .,n\- 
 bats. Henceforwanl. victorious and win. it a 
 rival, he taughtat Paris and Melun, the ri'>iili'iici' 
 nf Louis-le-()ros, and the lords flocked to lu-ar 
 him; anxious to encourage one of theiiiMlvrs, 
 who hud discomfited the priests on their iiwu 
 ground, ami had silenced the ablest ch'rks. Alxl 
 ard's wonderful success is easily exphiineil. All 
 the lore and learning which had Iti'eu Biiinihircil 
 under the heavy, dognnuical forms of ilirictil 
 instruction, and hidden in the rude Latin nf the 
 middle age, suddenly appeared arniviil in the 
 simple elegance of anti(|uity, so that men sii mini 
 for the first time to hear and recognise a liiimaii 
 vrice. The daring youth slmpUfled and explaiiinl 
 everything; pn^sentiug pbiUisophy in a familiar 
 form, and bringing it home to mens busnms. 
 He hardly suffered the obscure or su|ieniatii- 
 ral to rest' on the hardest mysteries of faith. It 
 s<'emed as if till then the Church had lis|.i'il ami 
 stammereil; while Abelard spoke. All«a>niaiie 
 smooth and easy. He treati-d ri'ligiim iniirti'- 
 ously and handled ler gently, but she niiltiil 
 away in his hanilr Nothing embarras-seil the 
 fluent S|ieaker: he re<luce<t religion to pliilimi. 
 phy, and morality to humanity. •C'riiin',' ho 
 said, ' con.si.sts not in the act, but in the intm. 
 tion.' It followed, that there was mi sm li tliiug 
 OS sins of habit or of ignorance— 'Tiny who 
 crucifitKl Jesus, not knowing him to have been 
 the Saviour, were guilty of no sin ' What is 
 original sin f — 'Less a sin, than a punishnunt.' 
 But then, wherefore the redemption and the pa» 
 sion, if there was no siuT — 'It was an ai tof \\nK 
 love. Ood deslntl to substitute the law of Inve 
 for that of fear.'" — J. Michelet. J/itloryf thmrt. 
 r. 1, A*. 4. eh. 4 — " It Is dlHIcull, by a im ri' luru- 
 sal of Altelnnl's works, to uudentaiid the rlTirt 
 he prixluiitl ujKm his hearers bv the fnne of hit 
 argumentation, whether sludleil or liii|iroviv<il, 
 and by the anlor and animatluu of his elmiurnre. 
 and the gracv and attractiveness of his inrson. 
 But the testimony of his contem|M>raries is iiiiani. 
 moui; even his adversaries theiiiselvcs reiiilir 
 Justice to his high oratorleni qualities Nnutw 
 ever reasoned with more subtlety, or handlnl the 
 dialectic tool with more athlreas; and assurnlly. 
 something of these qualities is t<- be found In llie 
 writings be has left us. But the intense lifi . tin- 
 enthusiastic arthir which enlivened hisdisCKirsi'i, 
 the beauty of his face, and the chann of hii 
 voice cannot Iw Imparted by cold mttnu«i rti'in 
 U«i(4ie, wiiuK name is inieparabiy linKi'i "uii 
 
 71G 
 
BDUCATION. 
 
 Latin Languagt and 
 Ltaming. 
 
 BDCCATION. 
 
 that of her unfortunate huiband, and whom 
 Charles de Rfmusat does not hesitate to call ' the 
 first of women ' ; who. in any case, was a superior 
 person of her time; Heloise. who loved Abelard 
 with 'an immoderate love,' and who, under the 
 veil of a ' religieuse ' and throughout the practice 
 of devotional duties, remained faithful to him 
 until death ; Heloise said to him in her famous 
 Utter of 1136: ' Thou hast two things especially 
 which could instantly win thee the hearts of all 
 women : the charm thou knowest how to impart 
 to thy voice in speaking and singing.' External 
 (rifts combined with intellectual qu^ities to make 
 of Abelard an incomparable seducer of minds 
 nud hearts. Add to this an astonishing memory, 
 11 knowledge as profound as was compatible with 
 the resources of his time, and a vast erudition 
 which caused his contemporaries to consider him 
 a master of universal knowledge. . . . How can 
 one be astonished that with such qualities Abel- 
 ard gained an extraordinary ascendency over his 
 UL'i'; that, having become the intellectual ruler 
 iinil, as it were, the dictator of the thought of the 
 twelfth century, ho should have succeeded in 
 attracting to his chair and in retaining around it 
 thousands of young men; the first germ of Uu«v 
 assemblages of students who were to constitute 
 the universities several years later ? ... It is 
 not alone by the outward success of his scholastic 
 apostolate that AbelanI merits consideration as 
 tlie precursor of the modem spirit and the pM- 
 iiioter of the foundation of the universities; it is 
 also by his doctrine, or at least by his method. 
 . . . Ao one claims that Abelard was the first 
 who. In the Middle Ages, had hitttxluced dialect- 
 lc« into theology, reascm into authority. Ir the 
 iiinlh eenturv, Scotus Erigena had already said: 
 •.\utiioritv is derived from reason." Stholustl- 
 cisni, which is nothing but logic enlightening 
 theology, an effort of reason to demonstrate 
 donnia, had begun before Abelard ; but it was lie 
 who gave movemeut ami life to the metlKnl hv 
 linding it his power and his renown.'"— G. Coni- 
 I'lvre, AM)iril, pt. 1, eh. "i-S. 
 
 Latin Laoguace.— "Oreek was an unknown 
 ti'iiKue: only a very .'ew of the Latin classics re- 
 iilved a perfunctory attention: Boethius was 
 pr. ferred to Cicero, and the Moral Sentences 
 iivrilH'd to Cato to either. Htiles couched in 
 liiirlmrous Latin verse were committed to mem- 
 iry. Aristotle was known only in ineorrect 
 Latin translations, which manv of the taught. 
 imd some of the teachers probalily, supp.wed to 
 !h' ihi' originals. Matters were not mended 
 wlii'U the student, having passed through the 
 pnlimlnary course of arts, ailvanceil to the study 
 of the sciences. Theologv meant an acciimlni- 
 niK e with the • Sentenci's" of IVter I^mlmnl <.r 
 lu other cases, with the "Summa" of Thoniu!* 
 A'lUlnas; in medlelne, Oalen was nn auihoriiv 
 fnnu which there was ni> np|HMd. t)n everv hUiv 
 the student was fenenl round bv InidllioiiM un.l 
 prejudices, through which It wiis Impossible to 
 break. In truth, he had no means of knowing 
 timt there was a wider and falnr world Ivi vond. 
 Till the classical revival eanie. every die:i.le 
 made the yoke of prewriptlon heavier, "and each 
 t'l iH'ratlon of students, thenlore, a fwbler <(.pv 
 f the last. "—C. MeanI, Marlin l.ullur nmt the 
 i:.i„rmnli,m. th. 8.— "What at flmt lia<l lui-n 
 ' >i rvwiiere a Greek became In Western Euro|«' 
 ' - "in rs'llgttm. Thr discipiinc of Unma liiuin- 
 ' lined the hotly of doctrine which the thought of 
 
 Greece had defined. A new Latin version, super- 
 seding alike the venerable Greek translation of 
 the Old Testament and the original words of 
 Evangelists and Apostles, became the received 
 text of Holy Scripture. The Latin Fathers ac- 
 quired an authority scarcely less binding. The 
 ritual, lessons, and hymns of the Church were 
 Latin Ecclesiastics transacted the business of 
 civil dei>artments -eciuiring education. Libraries 
 »_ere armories of ti.e Church : grammar was part 
 of her drill. The humblest sch.jlar was enlisted 
 in her service: she recruited her ranks by found- 
 ing Latin schools. • Education in the rudiments 
 of Latin,' says Hallam, "was imparu-d to a 
 grt'ater uuml)cr of individuals than at present;* 
 and, as they liad more use for it than a^ present, 
 it was longer retained. If a boy of humble birth 
 had a taste for letters, or if a bov of high birth 
 had a distaste for arms, the first step was to learn 
 Latin. His foot was then on the ladder He 
 might rise by the go<xl oftices of his family to a 
 bishopric, or to the papacy itself by merit and 
 tlie grace of Grxl. Latin enabled a Greek from 
 Tarsus (Theodore) to become the founder of 
 learning in the English church ; and a Yorkshire- 
 man (Alcuin) to organize the schools of Charle- 
 magne. Without Latin, our English Winfrid 
 (St. Boniface) could not have been apostle of 
 Gernmuy and reformer of the Prankish Church; 
 or the German All)ert, master at Paris of Tiiomas 
 Aquinas; or Nicholas Bn-akspeare, Pope of 
 Home. With it. Western Christi'ndom was one 
 vast field of labor: calls for wlfsacriflce, or 
 offers of pMniotion. might come fn)m north or 
 south, fnim east or west. Thus In the Middle 
 Ages Latin was mailc the groundwork of educa- 
 tion; not for the beauty of Its classlcul litera- 
 ture, norliecause the study of a dead language 
 was the Ih^si mental gymnastic, or the only 
 means of acqidring a masteriy freedom In the 
 use of living tongues, but because it was the 
 langiiago of e<lucateil men throughout West- 
 ern EunijH'. employed for public business, litera- 
 ture, phihisophy, and selen.e; alK)vc all. In 
 G'«r« pMvidence, essential to the uidty. and 
 therefore enforced bv the authority of. the West- 
 ern Chunh.'— C. S. Parker, Umiy ,„, tht Hit- 
 torj/ of t'liim,;it EilnMti,m {quulrd 'in Dr. llenty 
 Biniitnlt •• l,ithi: tjuui^t and Tlmnghtt on 
 Stiiifiiniiiiil Ciniihii-t," p. 407). 
 
 France,— "The countries of western Europe, 
 
 leaveniHl, all of them, by the one spirit of the 
 
 feudal and eutholii- Middl.> Al-c, formed in some 
 
 seUBi' one community, ami wire more assiK-iated 
 
 than they have thin slme the feudal and catholic 
 
 unity of the .Middle A«e bus ilLsappeaad and 
 
 given pl.ue to the divliled ami various life of 
 
 inixlirii Europe. In the iiiiillieval community 
 
 Knuice helil the tirst place. It is now well known 
 
 that to pl.iiv In till' I'lth irnturv the revival of 
 
 liitilli. iiial lite and the reestalilishment of civ- 
 
 ilisulioii. and to tnat tlie periiKl between the 
 
 .'nh iiuiiiry. w hen iineient elvlllsation was ruined 
 
 , by the liailiarlaiit. and the l.lth. when the life 
 
 and liilelliit of llila elvillsation reappeanil aiut 
 
 tniusf.iriiiiil ilii> worid. as one chaos, isamislake. 
 
 I The (liaos ends alKiut the loth century: In the 
 
 j mil there truly comes the first reestalilishment 
 
 I of elvillsiilion. the first n'vlval of intellectual life; 
 
 1 Uie prinilpal cintri' of this n-vival Is France, ita 
 
 I eldef monuments of literature ntv In the French 
 
 j i.iiiguu^e. iis liiii T iiiouunieuts of art are the 
 
 i French catbedrals. This revival fill* the Itlth and 
 
 
 ■flJ 
 
 il7 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 The rniirrwYy 
 of Pari: 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 1 3th centuries with its activity and with ita works : 
 all thi-] time Ftance has the lead ; in the 14th cen- 
 tury the lead passes to Italy; but now comes 
 the commencement of a wholly new period, the 
 period of the Renaissance properly so called, the 
 beginning of modern European life, the ceasing 
 of the life of the feudal and catholic Middle Age. 
 The anterior and less glorious Renaissance, the 
 Renaissance n-itliin the limits of the Middle Age 
 itself, n revival whirh came to a stop and could 
 not successftdly develope itself, Init which has 
 yet left profound traces in our spirit and our liter- 
 atun'. — lliis revival belongs chiefly to France. 
 France, then, may well serve as a typical countir 
 wherein to trace "the mediieval growth of intel- 
 lect and learning ; above all she may so stand for 
 us, whose connection with her ia the Middle Age. 
 owing to our Norman kings and the currency of 
 her language among our cultivated class, was so 
 peculiarly close; so close that the literary and 
 intellectual development of the two coimtries at 
 that time interndngles, and no important event 
 can hapi>en in tliat of ihe one witho\it straight- 
 way affecting and interesting that of the other. 
 . . . With the hostility of the long French Wars 
 of Edward the Third comes the estrangement, 
 never afterwards diminishing but always increas 
 ing. '■ — M. Arnold, Schools and Cnireriiitie* on the 
 Contiiifiit. eh. 1. — University of Paris. — "The 
 name of Aljelard recalls the European celebrity 
 and immense intellectual ferment of this school 
 [of Paris] In the 12th centnrj-. But it was in the 
 nrst year of the following century, the 13th, that 
 it received a charter fn>m Philip Augustus, and 
 thenceforth the name of University of Paris takes 
 Ihe place of that of 8<'liool of Pans. Forty-nine 
 veiirs later was founded University College, t)x- 
 ford. the oldest lollege of the oldest English Uni- 
 versity. Four iiations coniposed the tniversity 
 of I'aris— the nation of France, the nation of 
 I'icanix the nation of Normandy, and (signal 
 mark of the close interi'ourse which then citisteil 
 iKtween Frame and usi ) tlie nation of England. 
 The fiMir naliims united formed the faculty of 
 arts. Tlie fiicultv of theologv was creaU'd In 
 li.*>7. that of law in 1271. that of medicine in 1ST4. 
 Thiiilogy, law. and medicine had each their Than ; 
 arts had four Pncuralors, one for each of the 
 four nations composing tids faculty. Arts elected 
 the nctor of the University, and had possession 
 of the University chest and anhlvis. The pre 
 emimnie of the Vacuity of Arts indicates, as in- 
 deed liiHS the virv di'Velopmciit of the Univer- 
 sity, all Idia. grailually Rtreiicilicnlnu itself, of a 
 lay instnictlon to he no longer absorlied in llie- 
 oloKv. but separable from it. The growth of a 
 lay and niislern spirit in society, the prepcm 
 dirarice of the cmwn over the papacy, of tiie 
 civil over the ecclesiastiral [Hiwer. is the gnat 
 fealim' of Frenrli history in the 14th century, 
 and to this cc ntiiry iH'limgs the highest ilevilnp- 
 meiii of ilie Iniverslly. . . The Imixirtance of 
 Ihi' I'nivirslly In the IXthand 14th <'eMluries\vfis 
 exiraiitilinary. Mi ns minds were ixisseswil with 
 a wciiidirful real brr kuowleilgc, or what was 
 then tliouirltl kniinlitlge, ami the University of 
 Paris Was the gnal fnunt fMin which this kni>w!- 
 edge issueil. The Iniverslly and those de|K'nd- 
 lug nn It nnide at this time, (t is said, actually a 
 third of the iBipulalInn iif I'arls; when llie Uni- 
 versity went on a stilenin imm a^ion in pnMession 
 fu Sdnt Lk'td". the he'id "f the !-r"»eess!on. it Is 
 •■id. had reached ^i. Denis before the cnt' f It 
 
 had left its starting place In Paris. It had im- 
 munities from taxation, it had Jurisdiction of its 
 own, and its members claimed to be exempt from 
 that of the provost of Paris : the kings of France 
 strongly favoured the University, and leaned 
 to its side when the municipal and acaileniical 
 authorities were in conflict; if at any time the 
 University thought itself seriously aggrievicl, it 
 had recourse to a measure which threw Paris 
 into dismay, — it shut up its schools and sus- 
 pended its lectures. In a body of this kind the 
 discipline could not be strict, and the colli .,•(.) 
 were created to supply centres of discipline w hii li 
 the University in itself, — an apparatus merely nf 
 teachers and lecture-rooms, — did not prmiile. 
 The 14th century is the time when, one after 
 another, with wonderful rapidity, the French col- 
 leges appeared. Navarre, Montaigu, Harcinirt, 
 names so familiar in the school annals of Fninre, 
 date from the first quarter of the 14tli century. 
 The Colhge of Navarre was founded liv the 
 queen of Philip the Fair, in 1304; the C'olli'iie of 
 Montaigu, where Erasmus, Rabelais, and Igna- 
 tius Loyola were in their time students. »»$ 
 founded in 1314 by two members of the 'aniily 
 of Montaigu. one of them Archbishop of .iomn. 
 The majority of these colleges were fou.iiUil liy 
 magnates of the church, and designed to niaiii- 
 tain a certain number of bursara, or scholars, 
 during their university course. . . . Along with 
 the University of Paris there existed in Kraaie. 
 in the 14th century, the Universities of Orltanii, 
 Angers, Toulouse, and Montpcllier. Orleans was 
 the grei ♦ French school for the studv of the ( nil 
 law. . . . The civil law was studiously kipt 
 away from the Unlveraity of Paris, forfiar it 
 shotdd drive out otiier studies, and especially the 
 stuily of theology ; so late as the year IfiTl* ihi 'e 
 was no chair of Roman or even of Fniii li law 
 in the University of Paris. The strength nf this 
 University was concentrated on tUeoIoL'v and 
 arts, and its celebrity arose from the multituilcnf 
 students which in these branches of iustruiiina 
 It attracted." — M. Arnold, S-hm-U unit I'nmr- 
 rilumm the Continent, eh. 1. — The Sorbonne.— 
 The University of Paris acquired the ii.itin- nf 
 "the Sorbonne" "from Rolwrt of SorlKni. aiilic 
 chaplain of St. I»ui9, who established oin' of the 
 03 colleges of the University. . . . The iiaiin' nf 
 Sirlsmne was first applleil to the tliii'l"airal 
 faculty onlv ; but at length the whole I'liivc r>ity 
 n-ceivisi this dc -dgnation. ' — J. Alzog. .U.in«.i{./ 
 I'liirernil Church Ilirtory, r. 8, p. 'ii.f'"t ""l>. 
 —The Nations.— "The "pri'clse date o( liu- "t- 
 L'anization at Paris of the four Nations uhiih 
 midntidntsi themselves there until llie late -I 'lay« 
 of the university esinilH'S the most niiimii' re- 
 searrli. Neither" for the Nations nor fur iln Ku- 
 ulties was then' any sudden lilosaiaMiiiL'. tint 
 rather a slow evolnllon, an Inwnslbli' |mp;ii iiion 
 for a detlnlte cundltion. Already at llie el -i uf 
 the twelfth o'niiiry there is mention in luiili la- 
 piirary iIim iiiucnts of the varlcms proviiii i - "f 
 thes(inKiliif I'aris. The Nations are iiniitii'iied 
 In Ihe bulls of Ori'gory IX. (1231) and .if tiiii"- 
 cenl IV. (I24.">). In 1245, they already eliit liu Ir 
 altendanls, the U'lidles. In 1241>. Ihe <\i>o mtj 
 of the four Nations — France, Picardy. N"f- 
 mandy. and England — is proved by their ciuar- 
 rels over the election of a rector. . " . Inlii ilie 
 definitive conslliulion of the Fscultiis. Ihit n. 
 until !37<> I'r I'J'i'O. the f<>ur Niiiions Inilu'liil 
 the totality of students and masU'rs. .Vlt< r tne 
 
 •18 
 
'Hi 
 
 KDCCATION. 
 
 " ml 
 
 study 0/ 
 Roman Lata. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 formation of the Facultiet, the four Nations 
 comprised only the members of the Faculty of 
 Arts and those students of other Faculties who 
 had not yet obtained the grade of Bachelor of 
 Arts. The three superior Faculties, Theology, 
 Medicine, and Law, had nothing in common 
 thenceforward with the Nations. ... At Bo- 
 logna, as nt Paris, the Nations were constituted 
 in the early years of the thirteenth century, 
 but under a slightly different form. There 
 the students were grouped In two distinct associa- 
 tiims. the Ultramuntanes and the Citramontanes, 
 the foreigners and the Italians, who formed two 
 universities, the Transalpine and the Cisalpine, 
 each with it« chiefs, who were not styled pi jcu- 
 nilors but counsellors; the first was composed of 
 eighteen Nations and the second of seventeen. 
 At Piiilua twenty-two Nations were enumerated. 
 Montpellier had onlv three in 1339,— the Cata- 
 lans, the Burgundians, the ^rovenpals; each 
 subdivided, however, into numerous groups. 
 Orleans had ten: France, Germany, Lorraine, 
 Burgundy, Champagne, Picardy, Normandy, 
 Touraine, Quyanne, and Scotland; Poitiers had 
 four: France, Aquitaine, Touraine, and Berry; 
 Pniiiue had four also, in imitation of Paris; 
 Urida had twelve, in imitation of Bologna, etc. 
 Bui whether more or less numerous, and what- 
 ever their special organization, the Nations in all 
 tlie universities bore witness to that need of asso- 
 ciation which is one of the characteristics of the 
 Miil'lle Ages. . . One of the consequences of 
 tliiir orjfanization waa to prevent the blending 
 and fusion of races, and to maintain the distinc- 
 tion of provinces and nationalities among the 
 pupils of the same university. "—0. Comuavre 
 .I'W.in/, ;)?. 8, M. 2. ^ 
 
 Italy : ReviTcd Study of Roman Law.— " It 
 Is known that .lustiuian eojiblir.l e i in Rome a 
 8<li(H)l of law, similar t. tlios" .if Consuntinople 
 and Berytus. When Komi ci .ised tt. V subject 
 
 10 ByzHutine rule, this lawschool seems lo have 
 Ui n tnmsferred to lilavenua. where it continued 
 to keep alive the knowle<lge of the Justinian svs- 
 t< ni. Thai system continued to be known and 
 11-1,1, from century to century, in a tradition 
 n. V er wholly Interrupted, especially In the tnc 
 
 ■lis of Xoriheru Italy. It seems even to have 
 j» III trilled lieyond Italy into Southern France. 
 Bui .t was dentlued to have, at the beginning of 
 Mie twi Ifth century, a very extraordinary revival. 
 Tills n vival was part of a general movement of 
 il" Kuni|M.'an mind which inukes Its appcanince 
 »t Hint epoch. The darkness which si'ttled down 
 111 lie world, iit the time of the Imrlmrian inva- 
 ■iiiK. had its midnight in the ninth and tenth 
 
 11 iitiirii ». In the eleventh, signs of progres.s itiicl 
 liiipruvenient 1m tfiu to show themwlveii. Ik'coiu- 
 iii< iiioie (llsllii.t towimli its close, when the 
 IK rioil uf the I'rusiules was o(H'iilng upon Europe 
 
 Jii-l lit this time we find a fu u* s*hiKil of law 
 
 < Mihlishctl In BoUigim. ami fn-quentcl by luulti- 
 tiiilis of pupils, not only fr, i all parts of Italy. 
 Iiiit froiii Uermany. France, and other countrii"». 
 
 Ill basis of all Its instruction was the Corpus 
 .liirl« fivllls [w,. (owis JiHls I'lviLls], li< 
 ti ; 111 rs, who conslitutc a series of distini.'ui,shiil 
 ) I ^U extending over a ci'uturv and a h.ilf. ili-. 
 I'd thein»*'lve» to the work of expounding the 
 ■lAt and elucidating the nrinciples of the Corpus 
 Jiin«. and especially the Digest. Fmm the form 
 ■"•■■• Tiita Ihrv rrconicd aDiiTisndeil iii.»ii ilie n- 
 suits of their studies, they have obtahied the 
 
 name of glossators. On their copies of the Cor- 
 pus Juris they were accustomed to write glosses, 
 i. e., brief marginal explanations and remarks. 
 These glosses came at length to be an immens3 
 literature. . . . Here, then, in this school of the 
 glossators, at Bologna, in the twelfth and thir- 
 teenth centuries, tlie awakened mind of Europe 
 was brought to recognize the value of the Corpus 
 Juris, the almost inexhaustible treasure of jur- 
 istic pnnciples, precepts, conceptions, reasonings, 
 stored up in it.''— Jas. Hadley, Inlrod. to Uoi.uin 
 L,iw Uct. 2. -University of Bologna.-' In the 
 twelfth century the law school of the University 
 of Bologna -lipsed all others in Europe The 
 two gaat brunches of legal study in the middle 
 ages, the Roman law and the canon law began 
 in the teaching of Imerius and Gratian at Bologna 
 in the first half of the twelfth century At the 
 begmning of this century the name of university 
 first replaces that of school ; and it is said that 
 the great university degree, that of doctor waa 
 first in.5tituted at Bologna, and that the ceremony 
 for conferring it was devised there. From Bo- 
 logna the degree and ita ceremonial travelled to 
 Pans. A bull of Pope Honorius, in 1220 saya 
 that the study of • bima; litene ' had at that time 
 made the city of Bologna famous throughout the 
 '■0£}<i- Twelve thousand students from all parts 
 of Europe are said to have been congregated there 
 at once. The different nations had their colleges 
 and of colleges at Bologna there were fourteen 
 These were founded and endoweil by the liberal- 
 ity of private persons; the university professors 
 the source of attraction to this multitude of stu- 
 denu. were paid by the municipality, who found 
 their reward in the fame, business, and import- 
 mice brought to their town by the university 
 The municipalities of the great cities of northern 
 ami central Italy were not slow In following the 
 example of Bologna; in the tliirteenth century 
 Padua, .MiKlena, Piacenza, Parma, Fcrrara had 
 each its university. Frederick II. founded that 
 of Naples in 1224 ; in the fourteenth century were 
 addwi thosi' of Pa via, Perugia, Pisa, and Turin. 
 Colleges of examiners, or, as we should say 
 boards, were created by Papal bull to e.vamiue 
 in theologv, and by imi)erial decree to examine 
 n law and meiliciiie. It was iu these studies of 
 law and medicine that the Italian universities 
 were chiefly distinguisheil."—>t Aruolil, S/„>,.la 
 mill Cnicrsituii uii tin I'unliiuiit, cli. 9.- '■The 
 Bologna schiHil of jurisprudeiau was several 
 times Ihreuteueil with total extinction, In the 
 repeated dittkiilties with the lily the students 
 wouhl march out of the town, liouuil by a solemn 
 oath not to nturn; and if a compromise' was to 
 111- elleeteil, a papal ilispensatiou from that oath 
 must first lie ublaineil Gemrallv on such oc- 
 casions, the |irivll|.>;i, ,,f ilii. universitv wen' re- 
 alHrmeil ami often inlargeil. In other eases, a 
 iiuarnl 111 twiiii ihc' pope and the city, and the 
 ban plaieil over the latter, obliged the stuileiils 
 to leave; and then tile elty often planned and 
 furtlieix'd the removal of the universitv. King 
 KriiLric II.. iu 1220, iluriiig the war against 
 llulogna. dissolved th.. sehoolof jurisprudence, 
 which seems to havi' been not at all affected 
 tlienbv. and he formallv recallnl that ordinance 
 in the following year. Originally the only schixjl 
 Iu Bologua was the scIhhiI of jurisprudence, and 
 ill counectiou with it ahiue a universitv nuild >m 
 fiiriiieii. . . puiiseijuently eminent teachers of 
 medicine and the liberal arts ap|>eared, and their 
 
 II 
 
 5, 
 
 »ll 
 
 ria 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 JTedtevol ttaUcn 
 UnivenitiM* 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 m 
 
 r' 
 111 
 
 pupils, too, sought to form a untvenity and to 
 choose their own rector. As late as 1295 this in- 
 novution was disputed by the jurists and tnter- 
 dictwl by the city, so that they had to connect 
 tlivmsclves with the university of jurisprudence. 
 But a few years later we find them already in 
 possession again of a few rectors, and in 1816 
 tlicir right was formally recognized in a com- 
 promise between the university of jurisprudenie 
 and the city. The students called themselves 
 • pliilosophi et medici ' or ' physicl ' ; also by the 
 common name of 'arttstJE.' Finally a school of 
 theology, founded by pope Innocent VI., was 
 ■>'Me<l in the second half of the 14th century; it 
 was placed under the bishop, and organized in 
 imitation of the school at Paris, so that it was a 
 ' universitas magistrorum,' not ' scholarium. ' 
 As, however, by this arrangement the students 
 of theology in the theological university had 
 no civil privileges of tlieir own, they were con- 
 sidered individually as belonging to the ' artistte.' 
 From this time Bologna had four universities, 
 two of jurispruilence, the one of medicine and 
 philosophy, and the theological, the first two 
 jiaving no" connection with the others, forming a 
 unit, and therefore frequently designated as one 
 university. "—F. C. Savigny, Tfie L'niTenitiet of 
 tlie Midtite Aget (Uirnnrd'i Am. Journal of Edu- 
 cation, r. 23. pp. 278-279).— Other UniTertitiet. 
 —"The oldest and most frcijuunted university 
 In Italy, that of Bologna, is ri'presentcd as hav- 
 ing flourished in the twelfth century. Its pros- 
 pe"'y in early times depended greatly on the 
 perw)nal conduct of tlie pnneipal professors, who, 
 when they were not satlstied with their entertain- 
 ment, were in the habit of seceding with their 
 pupiU to other cities. Thus high schools were 
 omncd fmm time to time in Modena, Reggio, and 
 cWwliire by teachers who broke the oaths that 
 IniuimI them to ri'side in Bologna, and fixed their 
 centre of education in a rival town. To make 
 such temporary changes was not ditflcult in an 
 age when what we have to call an university, 
 consisted of masters and scholars, without col- 
 lege buildings, without libraries, without endow- 
 ments, and without scientific apparatus. The 
 technical name for such institutions seems to 
 have Imm 'studium scliolariuni,' Italianised into 
 ' studio ' or ' studio pulibllco.' / mong the more 
 permanent results of these secessions may l)c 
 mentioned theestal)llshment of tlie high school at 
 \ henza by translation from Bologna in 1204, 
 anil the opening of a school at Arezzo under 
 similar circumstances in lai."!; the great Univer- 
 sity of Padua first saw llie light in conse(iuence 
 of nolltical discords forcing the professors to quit 
 Bologna for a season. The first half of tht tlilr- 
 teeutli century witnessi'd tlie foundation of tlicBe 
 'stiiill'in coiislderable numliers. That of Ver- 
 celli was opened In 122«. the municipulily pro- 
 viding two certified copyists for the convenience 
 of students who mlglil wish to purchase text. 
 books. In 1224 the Emperor Fn-<lerick II., to 
 whom the south of Italy owid u precocious em 
 Imiice in literature, establishiil the University of 
 Niiples by an Ini|H'rial diploniii. With a view 
 to n>niliring It the chief seat of learning in his 
 ilominlons, he forbaile the subjects of tlie Regno 
 to fri'ijuent other schools, and RMppresscnl the 
 University of Bologna by letters general. There- 
 upon BoUiirna joined the Loinlmrd Leaffuo. de- 
 lii il the Emperor, and ri'fuBid toelose the schools, 
 will 1 numbered at tli;it pcrinil alu.ut ten thou- 
 
 sand students of various nationalities. In 13!!7 
 Frederick revokwl his edict, and Bologna n- 
 mained thenccfoi ward unmolested. Political and 
 internal vicissitudes, affecting all the Italiau uni- 
 versities at this period, interrupted the pros 
 pcrity of that of Naples. In the middle of tlit 
 thirteenth century Salerno proved a damjirous 
 rival. ... An important group of ' stmli pub 
 blici ' owed their origin to Papal or Imperial char 
 ters In the first half of the fourteenth eiuturv. 
 That of Perugia was founded In i:W7 by a Biill 
 of Clement \ . That of Rome dated from VM, 
 in which year Boniface VIII. gave it a c.jnstl 
 tution by a special edict; but the trauslaiimi ul 
 the Papal See to Avignon canoed it to fall intc 
 
 Iiremature decadence. T' • University . f I'isa 
 lad already existed Tor soi years, when it re 
 celved a charter in 1348 from Clement VI. Thai 
 of Florence was first founded in 1321. . , . Tbi 
 subjects taught In the high schools were Canoii 
 and Civil Law, Medicine, and Theology. Tliest 
 faculties, important for the professional ciluca 
 Hon of the public, formed the staple ..f thf 
 academical curriculum. Chairs of Rhetoric. Phi 
 losophy, and Astronomy were added acconling tc 
 occasion, the last sometimes Including the Ktuilj 
 of judicial astrology. If we enquire liow tbi 
 humanists or profissors of classic literature wers 
 related to the universities, we find that, at flrsi 
 at any rate, they always occupied asecuml nink 
 The permanent teaching remained in the liumh 
 of jurists, wlio enjoyed life engagements at a 
 high rate of pav, while the Latlnistsand Ore lam 
 could only aspire to the temporary occupaticmol 
 the Chair of Uhctoric, with salaries consiilemlilj 
 lower than those of lawyers or phyiilcian> "— J, 
 A. Syraonds, Renaimince in Italy : tin Hi ri ml o^ 
 Lenrn ;, (It. 8. — "Few of the Italian ui'-ersi 
 ties show themsi'lves in tlieir full vigour .ill tlu 
 thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, wlicii tlie In 
 creasi- of wealth rendered a more systematic rati 
 for education possible. At first tliere Here gen 
 crallythreesortsof professorships — oue fnr eivi 
 law, another fi t canonical law, the third f >r me<li 
 cine; in coupm of time professorships of rlieturio 
 of phiiosopliv, and of astronomy were aiMeil. tin 
 last commonjy, though not always, iihiitiialwhl 
 astrology. The salaries varied greatly in ilillir 
 ent cases. Sometimes a capital sum was iiai'. 
 down. With the spread of cultun- cunipctliiui 
 became so active that tlie dllTereut unhersitlei 
 tried to entice away distinguished teaclu r» frn 
 one another, under" which circiimstamen Iinl..i;n: 
 is said to have sometimes devoteii the half of Iti 
 public income (20,IHK) ducats) to Hie uuiversitv 
 The appointments were as a rule niaile only fm 
 a certain time, sometimes for only liiilf a year, §• 
 that the leiwhers we.t! forieil to leail ii wander 
 lug life, ' ke actors. Appointments fcr life m n 
 lioweviT, not unknown. . . , Of the chairs nhkl 
 have iH'en meiitioueil, that of rhetoric was is 
 peclally sought by the humanist ; yet It ilepi nile( 
 only oii his familiarity with Hie malterof aiiciiu 
 learning whellier or no lie could aspire M tin* 
 of law, mciliciiie, philoBopliy. oraslrMiioiiiy, Ti* 
 inward conilitions of the seiciici' of tlie ilay lur 
 as variable as the outwanl conilili'iis "f Ih 
 teacher. Certain jurists and physicians n(civui 
 by far the largest salaries of nil. llie f'lrmc 
 cliietly IIS coiisultinir lawyers for llie suits am 
 rliilliipt iif Ijie male uhlcll'l'lliployed tllein . 
 Persoimi liitercoiirsi' iKtwwii the teailn r« am 
 the taught, public dispiitatloua, the toustanl u» 
 
 r^o 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Utdiaval Oerman 
 Vnivertitiet. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 of Latin and often of Greek, the frequent changes 
 of lecturers and the scarcity of books, gave the 
 studies of that time a colour which we cannot 
 represent to ourselves without effort. There were 
 Latin schools in every town of the least import- 
 ance, not by any means merely as preparatory to 
 higher education, but because, next to reading, 
 writing, anil arithmetic, the knowledge of Latin 
 wiis a necessity; and after Latin came logic. It 
 is to Ixj noted particularlv that these schools did 
 not depend on the Church, but on the municipal- 
 ity; some of them, too, were merely private en- 
 terprises. This school sysU'm, directed by a few 
 distinguished humanists, not only attained a re- 
 markable perfection of organisation, but became 
 an instrument of higher education in the modem 
 sense of the phrase.^'— J. Burckhardt, T/u Citili- 
 mttiun of the Period of the lienaiuance in Italy. 
 r. 1, ft. 3, eh. 5. 
 
 Cermanjr.— Prague and its Offspring.—" The 
 earliest university in Germany was that of 
 IViguc. It was in 1348, under the Emperor 
 Charles IV., when the taste for letters had re- 
 viled so signally in Euroiie, when England may 
 be said to have poasi'sscti her two old universi- 
 ties already for three centuries, Paris her Sor- 
 twiine ain-ady for four that this university was 
 erected as tlie first of German Universities. The 
 idea oripinuted in the mind of the Emperor, who 
 was educated in Paris, at the university of that 
 town, and was eagerly taken up by the towns- 
 people of that ancient and wealthy city, for ttiey 
 foresaw that afliuence would shower upon them 
 If they could induce a numerous crowd of stu- 
 ilt-nts to flock togetlier within their walls. But 
 the Pope and the Emperor took an active part 
 in favouring and authorizing the institution; 
 thoy willinglv granted to it wide privileges, and 
 niiidu it entirely iii<lenendent of Church and 
 Stale. The teaching of tlie professors, and the 
 sttulies of the studc.its, were submitted to no 
 ciuitrol whatever. After the model of the Uni- 
 vir!.ity (if Paris, they divitled themselves into 
 .lilleriMit faculties, and made four such divisions 
 — one for divinity, another for medical science, 
 :i tliiril for lew, and a fourth for philosophy. 
 Tliu last order comprised those who taught and 
 Ifuriied the flnc ar.s and the sciences, which two 
 clipartmcnts were separate at Sorbonne. All the 
 German universiti :^s have preserved this outward 
 constitution, and 'a this, as in many other cir- 
 cumstances, the prt.-v-dent of Pragun has had a 
 liK'vailing influence on her younger sister insti- 
 tutions. The same thing may be said particu- 
 larly of the disciplinary tone of the university 
 III other countries, universities sprang from rigUi 
 clirical and monastic institutions, orkire a more 
 or leas ecclesiastical characUT which imposed 
 upon them certain more retired habits, and a 
 •evcrir kind of discipline. Prague took from 
 the lieginning a course widely differi'nt. The 
 stuilents, who were partly Germans, partly of 
 Slavonian blood. enioye<l a boundless liberty. 
 Tliiy lodged in the houses of the townspeople 
 and by their riches, their mental superiority, 
 and their number (they are recorde<l to have 
 tfin as many as twenty thousand 'u the year 
 Uiitf), liecame the undisputetl masteri of the city. 
 The professors and tbo inhabitanU of Prague, 
 far from checking them, rather protectol thj 
 pnrogatives of ilie st ii|ent«. for thev found oui 
 luat ail their prosperity depended on them. . . . 
 >ot two generations had passed since the erec- 
 
 tion of an Institution thus constituted, before 
 Hubs and Jerome of Prague began to teach the 
 necessity of an entire reformation of the Church 
 The phenomenon is characteristic of the bold 
 spirit of inquiry that must have grown up at the 
 new Iniversity. However, the political consc- 
 ciuences that attended the promulgation of such 
 doctrines led almost to the dissolution of the 
 Lniversity itself. For, the German part of the 
 students broke up, in consequence of repeated 
 ". if ^°"' quaTels that had taken place with 
 the Bohemian and Slavonic party, and went to 
 Leipzig, where straightway a new and purely 
 Ueriiian Lniversity was erected. While Pras.-e 
 became the seat of a protracted and sanguinary 
 ■war, a great number of Universities rose into 
 existence around it, and attracted the crowds 
 that had formerly flocked to the Bohemian capi- 
 tal. It appeared as if Germany, though it had 
 received the impulse from abroad, would leave 
 all other countries behind itself in the erection 
 and promotion of these learned insti.jtions for 
 all the districts of the land vied wiih each other 
 in creating universities. Thus arose those of 
 Rostock, Ingolstadt, Vienna, Heidelberg Co- 
 logne, Erfurt, Tubingen, Greifswalde, Treves, 
 Mayence and Bales — scliools which have partly 
 disappeared again during the political storms of 
 subsequent ages. The beginning of tlie six- 
 teenth century added to them one at Frankfort 
 on the Oder, and another, tlie most illustrious of 
 all, Wittenberg. Everyone who is acquainted 
 with the history and origin of the Reformation, 
 knows what an importunt part the latter of these 
 universities took in the weighty transactions of 
 those times. . . . Wittenberg remained by no 
 means the only champion of Protestantism At 
 Marburg, Jena, KOnigsberg, and Helmstadt, 
 universities of a professedly Protestant character 
 were erected. These schools became the cradle 
 and nurseries of the Reformation."— TAe rnirc-. 
 ntUtofOfrmaiiji (Dublin Unirxrrity Mngati.,e t 
 48, pp. 83-«5).— "The German universities of the 
 fourteenth and fifteenth centiries were founded 
 in the following order: Prague, 1848; Vienna 
 1388; Erfurt, 1893; Leipsic, 1409; Rostock, 1419; 
 Grelfswald, 1456; Freiburg, 1437; Ingolstadt 
 1472;Tabingen, 1477; andSlayence, 1477. Thus, 
 it will be seen that they were established in 
 quick succession — an unmistakable proof of the 
 growing scientific interest of the age."— F. V. 
 >'. Painter, IIii>t. of Kiumtion, eh. 3, uet. 5 (k). 
 Nethtrlands.—" 1 raditioQ n^Kirte tliat a school 
 had . . . lieen fo.^ded at Utrecht, by somi- zeal- 
 ous missionary, in the time of Charles Martel, at 
 which his sou Pepin received 'his education. 
 Ilowi ver tills may Lave been, the renown of the 
 Utrecht SchiKil of St. Martin is of very ancient 
 date. . . . During tlie i.ivasion by the Normans, 
 this scIkkiI at Utrecht was suppressed, but was 
 reestablished In 917, and regained itf former re- 
 nown. The Emperor, Henry the Fowler, placed 
 Iierc his three sons, Otto, Henry and Bruno, to 
 lie eilucated, of whom the lasi, became afterwi..u 
 archbishop of Cologne and archduke of Lottring- 
 en, nnd was noted for hit extraordinitry learn- 
 ing and friendship for the poet Prudi'nfius. .it 
 the lieginning of the 12th century, Utrecht pos- 
 M'ssed DO lesc than five flourishing schools, sev 
 eral of which hod each a ' rector ' in addition to 
 the prip«t« who hs.i thp gpnrra! or-ntrol. At 
 aliout the same time, several convents bocam* 
 distinguished as educational institutions, esped- 
 
 |i|^ 
 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Uediavat EnglWi 
 Uniwrtitiet. 
 
 KDUCATIOX. 
 
 ally those of Egmond, Nymwegen, Mlddleburg, 
 in Zealand, and Aduwert, near OrOningen. In 
 Holland, as in Belgium, in addition to the schools 
 that were attached to the cathedrals, convents, 
 and chapters, there were established in the course 
 of the twelfth century, hy the more wealthy 
 communities, public schools especially designed 
 for the instruction of the citizens and laity. 
 It is also worthy of notice that the authority to 
 open such scliools was always derived from the 
 counts — by whom it was conferred, sometimes 
 upon the cities as an especial privilege, and 
 sometimes upon merely private persons as a 
 mark of particular favor. The jurisdiction of 
 the feudal lords was the same here as in Bel- 
 gium; but while in the latter country, with the 
 exception perhaps of the elementary schools in 
 some of the cities, the rinht of supervision everj-- 
 where devolved upon the chapters, instruction 
 in these public schools of Holland was wholly 
 withdrawn from the clergy, and they were made 
 essentially secular in their character. The privi- 
 lege of tlius establishing schools was conferred 
 upon some of the cities at the following dates ; 
 Dort, bv Count Floris V., A. D. 13iX); the Hague, 
 1322 — "Levden, 1324 — and Rottenlam in 1328, 
 by William III. ; I>clft and Amsterdam, in 1334, 
 bv William IV. ; Levden again, 1357 — Haarlem, 
 1389 — Alltmar. 1398 — Hoom, 1358 and 1390 — 
 the Hague, 1393— Schiedam and Ondewater, 
 1394 — and Uotteriiam, in 1402, by Albert of 
 Bavaria. These schcxils, adds Stallaert, on the 
 authority of Buddinjrh, were generally stvleil 
 'School en Schryfambarht,' 'Schoole en Kos- 
 tern,' (school and writing offices, schools and 
 clerks' houses,) and the • Schoolmijsters ' (school- 
 mastirs) were looked upon . s professional men or 
 (raftsmen — as wus the case also in Belirium, 
 where tlu y formi'd distinct guilds and frater- 
 nitiis. Tlli'sc public schools of Holland were 
 divi.lid into 'largo' and 'small' sc' xils, (groote 
 en bijsclioiilen,) Latin being taught in the first 
 division. The institution at Zwolle. attaineii spe- 
 cial notoriety in the fourteenth century, under 
 tile direction of the iel( lirated .lohau t'ele. Ac- 
 cording to Tlionias & Kiiniiis and Tin Bussche. 
 its piiiills iiumlH'red about a thousand, gathered 
 from lloUauil, Belgium, and the principal pro- 
 vim-.-s of Germany." — I'liHir Iu'lr'n-ti'm in Jlnl- 
 l.iml i,lt<iriiiird'i .ill). J'liirmi! "f K'l'initi'iii. r. 14). 
 England. — Early Oxford.— "The ruivirsity 
 of Oxford did not spring in'" biingin any par- 
 tiewlur year, or at the bidding of any particular 
 foundei-: it was not establislii'd by any fiprinal 
 charter of incorporation. Taking its rise in a 
 small anil obscnie association ol tiarhers and 
 liarners, it developed spontaneously into a large 
 and important bcxiy, long lieforelts existence 
 was reeogiiiscd by pVinee or by prelate. There 
 were certainly si lioiils at Oxford in the reign of 
 lliiirv I, but the previous hi.storv of the place 
 dots "not throw much light on tlieir origin, or 
 explain the causes of their popularity. The 
 town seems to have gri>\vu up under the shadow 
 of a hinini-rv, which is said to have Imtu founded 
 by St Frideswyde us far buck as tin.' eighth 
 ciiiturv. Its authentic annals, however, Ingln 
 with the year 912, when it was (Hcuplc^i aiul 
 aimexed by E<lward the Folder, King of the West 
 Saxons. . . . Oxfonl was consideri'd a place of 
 gnat strategical itnpurlatit-v hi the cleVeiHli Orii- 
 lury. Its position on the Ininlers of Mi'rdaaml 
 Wcbsex ri'udered It also particularly touveuieul 
 
 for parleys betv Kngliahmen and Danes, and 
 for great nation: mblies. . . . Retaining for 
 
 a while its rank as one of the chief centres of 
 political life in the south of England, ami as 
 a suitable meeting-place for parliaments and 
 synods. Oxford became thenceforward more ami 
 more distinctively known as a seat of leaniiiig 
 and a nurserv of' clerks. The schools which ex- 
 isted at Oxford before the reign of King ,lohn, 
 are so seldom and so briefly noticed in contem- 
 
 Eorary records, that it would be diUlcult to show 
 ow tliey developed into a great university, if it 
 were not for the analogy of kindred institutions 
 in other countries. Tliere can be little diaibt, 
 however, that the idea of a university, the sys- 
 tems of degrees and faculties, and the nomen- 
 clature of the chief academical oHleers, were 
 alike imported into England from abroad. . . . 
 In the earliest and broadest sense of the term, a 
 university had no necessary connexion with 
 schocds or literature, being merely a comintniitv 
 of individuals bound together by some more or 
 less acknowledged tie. Kegarded collectively in 
 this light, the inhabitants of any particular lun-n 
 might 1k' said to constitute a university, and iu 
 point of fact the Commonalty of the town nun 
 of Oxford wa.^ sometimes descrilK-d as a univer- 
 sity in formal documents of the midiUe aijes. 
 The term was, however, specially applinl to 
 the whole 1k«1/ of piTSons frequeiuiae the 
 schools of a large studium. Ultimately it came 
 to be employed in a technical sense as synnny- 
 mous with studium, todenote the institution itjitf. 
 Tills last use of the term seems to Ih' of Kni;Ii5h 
 origin, for the Uinversitvof Oxfonl ismeniiimeJ 
 as such in writs and ordfnances of the years l',':}"*, 
 1240, and 1253. whereas the greater scat of learn- 
 ing cm the bauks of the Seine was. until the year 
 1-203, styh'd 'the University of the Masters'' ur 
 'the University of the Scliolars,' of I'aris Tht 
 svstem of academical degrees dates fniin tlit 
 si'cond half of the twelfth century '—II (' M. 
 Lyte. .1 Jlittori/ -if till- I'metrnitii iff Off^'nl. r],_ I 
 —" In the early Oxford . . . of the tweltili ;iiid 
 most of the tliirteenth centuries, colle.'c * witli 
 t'leir statutes wire unknown. The Vnivi r^iiy 
 was the only corporation of the learned. mii'I -he 
 struggled into existence after hani tii-liis with 
 the town, the .lews, the Friars, thi' I'apal mart-. 
 The history of the University iH'gins »iih the 
 ! thirtiinth century. She may \k sidd tn have 
 come into iK'iug as .soon as she possessi'd inmnwn 
 funds and rents, as siMjn as thies were as-iL-iail. 
 or lieiu'factions contributed to the niainli n nici-of 
 scholars. Now the first reconled fine i- ih. i«y- 
 inent of fiftv-two shillings by the t.iwii-iiicn "f 
 ( Ixfonl as p"art of the coinpei'isiition for the Ikiuit- 
 ing of certain clerks. In the year 1-14 the 
 I'apal Legate, in a letter to his 'iH'l.ive.l s.^iis in 
 Christ, the burffcs-ses of Oxford.' bade the ni ei- 
 cusethe 'scholars studving in Oxfonl' h;ilt the 
 rent of their halls, or liospitia. for tin' spaei' of 
 ten years. The buru'hers were also to ilo piu- 
 ' aiiei'. an 1 to feastthi' poorerstudentsomea year. 
 but the important point is, that they Inid I" pay 
 that large yearly fine • propter suspendiuni i Uri- 
 i coram— all for the hanging I'f tin- ihrks, 
 ; Twentj-six years after this decision of the le- 
 gate, HolK'rt Orossteste, the gnat liishop of 
 Lincoln, organized the pavmeni aiul di-trilmtinn 
 i.f Hi,, fine, and foimdci! the first of <!-.■ '!"-'«■ 
 the chest of St. Frideswvde. These clasis were 
 a kind of Mont de Hutu, and to found tUtiB 
 
 mdmMk 
 
 . ' MIWbiB 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Oxford in 
 M« ItulMt Aget. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 va* at flnt the favourite form of benefaction. 
 Money wa« left in this or that chest, from which 
 students and masters would borrow, on the se- 
 curity of pledges, which were generally books, 
 cups, daggers, and so forth. Now, in this affair 
 of 1214 we have a strange passage of history, 
 which happily illustrates the growth of the Uni- 
 versity. The beginning of the whole affair was 
 the quarrel with the town, which in 1309, had 
 banged two clerks, ' in contempt of clerical lib- 
 erty.' The matter was taken up by the Legate 
 — in those bad years cf King John, tlic Pope's 
 viceroy in England — and out of tlie humiliation 
 of the town the University gained money, privi- 
 leges, and halls at low rental. These were pre- 
 cisely the things that the University wanted. 
 About these matters there was a constant strife, 
 in which the Kings as a rule, took part with the 
 University. . . . Thus gradually the University 
 got the command of the police, obtained privi- 
 leges which enslaved the city, and became mas- 
 ters where they liad once been despised, starve- 
 ling scholars. . . . The result, in the long run. 
 was that the University received from Edward 
 III. 'a most large charter, containing many lib- 
 erties, some that they had before, and others 
 that he had taken away from the town." Thus 
 E<lward granted to the University ' the custody 
 of the assize > bread, wine, and ale,' the super- 
 vising of measures and weights, the sole power 
 of clearing the streets of the town and suburbs. 
 M.ircover, the Mayor and the oliiof Burghers 
 were condemned yearly to asort of public pen:ince 
 and humiliation on St. Scliolostica's Day. Thus, 
 by the middle of the fourteenth century,' the 'trife 
 of Town and Gown had ended in tlie complete 
 virlory of the latter." — A Lang. Oxford, ch. 3.— 
 "To mark off the Middle Age from the M<«UTn 
 Pcriixi of the University is certainly very ditfl- 
 eult. Indeed the earlier times do not form a 
 linniogeneous whole, but appear perpetually 
 sliifting and preparing for a new stale. The 
 main transition however was undoubtedly ab<iut 
 till- middle of the fourteeut'- centurv ; ."ind the 
 Hiforniation, a remarkable vrisis. did but con- 
 liiiii what had bi-en iu progress for mori than a 
 <i'nlnry aii<l a half: so tlr ' tiv VkUWt Aw of 
 till' Vnlversltv conlaiiie ' -t)., century, 
 
 nuil barely the former lurteeutli. 
 
 There is no (|ui ,riug this 
 
 Miildle Age the Engi > w^re dis- 
 
 tiu!:in.shed far more \ w»rt!» by 
 
 em TL'v and variety o. i,ater '..les 
 
 ( iniiot prwluco a concen. i men i leiit 
 
 in all the learning and science of the ai. such 
 as Oxford and Cambridge then poured lorth, 
 niiirlitilv influencing the intellectual developc- 
 111! Ill of all Western Ohristeudoin. Tlicir nanus 
 itiilicil may warn us against an undlseriiiiiiiatiuir 
 ili-Ii'inigement of the Monasteries, as 'hotbeds of 
 ii'iioraiice and stupidity'; when soniauv of those 
 worthies were monks of the Beiiediiiiiie. Fran- 
 fisian. Dominican, Carmelite, or reformi'il Aii- 
 puslinian order. But in consequence of this sur- 
 passing celebrity, Oxford became the fix-us of a 
 prodigious congregation of students, to which 
 nothing afterwards Iwre comparison. "The siune 
 was jirobably true of Cambridge in relative pro- 
 portion. ... A tolerably well aiitlientieated 
 ai(ount, attacked of late by undue scepticism. 
 tUr.« [Dip number of] those of Oxfohl at ihirty 
 tliiaisand, in the middle of the thirteenth century. 
 The want indeed of contemporary evidence 
 
 inust make us cautious of yielding absolute be- 
 lief to this: in fact we have no document on this 
 matter even as old as the Refcmation. . . . Not 
 only did the Church and the new orders of Monks 
 draw great numbers thither, but the Universities 
 themselves were vast High Schools, comprising 
 boys ami even children. It is not extravagant, 
 if Cambridge was not yet in great repute, to 
 imagine rtfteen thousand students of all ages at 
 0.vford. and as many more attendants. Nor was 
 it at all difficult to accommodate them in the 
 town, when Oxford contained three hundred 
 Halls and Inns: and as several students dwelt In 
 one room, and were not careful for luxurv, each 
 building on an average might easily ho"ld one 
 hundred persons. The style of Architecture was 
 of the simplest and cheapest kind, and might 
 have been easily run up on a sudden demand: 
 and a rich flat country, with abundant water 
 carriage, needed not to want provisions. That 
 the numtiers were • ist, is implied by the highly 
 respectable evideme which we have, that as 
 many as three thousand migrated from Oxford 
 on the riots of 1209; althougli the Chronicler ex- 
 pR'ssly states that not all joined in the secession. 
 Ill the reign of Henry IIL the reduced numbers 
 are reckimed at fifteen thousand. After the 
 middle of the fourteenth century, they were still 
 as many as from three to four thousand; and 
 after tlie Reformation they mount airaiu to five 
 tliousjinil. On the whole therefore the computa- 
 tion of thirly thousand, as the maximum, mav 
 seem, if not positively true, yet the nearest 
 approximation which we can ex'pect. Of Cam- 
 bridge we know im more than that the numbers 
 were miieli lower than at Oxford, . . , While in 
 the general, then' was a substiuitial identity be- 
 nveeu the scholastic learning of Oxfonl and of 
 Paris, yet Oxford was more eager in following 
 po>itiveseieiiee: — and this, although such stu<lie8 
 were disparaged by the Ciiuroh, and therefore by 
 the public. lnde<d originally the Church had 
 been on the opposite side, biit the speculative 
 li-mUncy of the times had carried her over, so 
 that speculation and theology went hand iu hand. 
 In the middle of the thirteeiilh centurv we mav 
 name Koberl Grossetcste and John Basingstocli, 
 lis cultivating physical science, and (more re- 
 markable still) the Franciscan Uo);cr Bacon: a 
 man whom the vulgar held to be ei|ual to >Ier- 
 lin and Miiliael Scott as a niaL'ician, ami wIkuu 
 posterity ranks by t lie iiolilest spirits of the lif- 
 teeiilli and sixtceiilh centuries, in all branches of 
 positive science. — e.vecpt theology. AbioL'raphy 
 of Hogcr B.ieon should surely be written ! \'ufor- 
 tiinately. we know- notliiiiir .is to the influence of 
 tliese men on their tiiiies, u<ir Ciiii we e\rii learn 
 wlieilier tile University itself w.isatall intereslud 
 ill tlieir siiiilies. . . . We ii.'ivc ... a strange 
 testimony to llu- iiitenst wiiich in tlie begiuuing 
 of till' foiirieeiith eeiitiiry llic mass of the stu- 
 dents look ill the speculation of their elders; for 
 tlie street nws were carried on under the banners 
 of Noiiiiinilists and Healists. . . . The coarse 
 and ferocious manners prevalent in llie Univer- 
 sities of the Midille Aires are every where in 
 siuLMilar contrast to their intellectual pretensions; 
 but the Universities of the Continent were peace- 
 ful, decorous, dignitied, — compared with those 
 of Kiiglaiid. The stonns which were elsewhere 
 tn-caskfUal. wefeat O.\ford the perniaucul attnus- 
 
 iiliere. For nearly two centuries our 'Foster 
 iluther ' of Oxford lived iu a diu of uninterrupted 
 
 ' I. 
 
 
 23 
 
 M 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Cttmtridge m 
 Me lliddlt Aga. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 (urioiu warfare; nation againit nation, cchool 
 againat idiool, faculty agalnat faculty. Halls, and 
 ilnally Colleeea, came forward as combatants ; and 
 the ITnlvenity, as a whole, against the Town; or 
 against the Bishop of Lincoln; or against the 
 Archbishop of Canterbury. Nor was Cambridge 
 much less pu^acious."— V. A. Huber, TheEng- 
 lith Vnittrtitiet, v. 1, eh. 8. — Cambridge. — 
 " Various facts and circumstances . . . lend 
 probability to the belief that, long before the 
 time when we have certain evidence of the exist- 
 ence of Cambridge as a university, the work of 
 instruction was there going on. The Cambori- 
 turn of the Roman piTiiKi, the Grantebrycgr of 
 the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the Grentebrige of 
 Domesday, must always have been a place of 
 some importance. It was the meeting-place of 
 two great Roman roads, — Akeman Street, running 
 east and west, ard the Via Devana, traversing 
 the north and the south. . . . Confined at first to 
 the rising ground on the left bank of the river. 
 It numbercil at tnc time of the Norman Conquest 
 as many as four hundred houses, of which twenty- 
 seven were pulled down to make way for the 
 castle erected by William the Conqueror. . . . 
 Under the castle walls, with the view, it would 
 seem, of making some atonement for many a 
 deed of violence and wrong, the Norman sheriff, 
 Picot by name, founded the Church of St. Giles, 
 and instituted in connection with it a small body 
 of secular canons. . . . The year 1112 was 
 marked by the occurrence of an event of consid- 
 erable importance in connection with the subse- 
 guent history of the university. The canons of 
 t. Giles, attended by a large concouree of the 
 clergy and laity, crossed the river, and took up 
 their abode in a new and spacious priory at Bam- 
 well. . . . The priory at Barnwell, which always 
 ranked among the wealthiest of the Cambridge 
 foundations, seems from the first to have been 
 closely associated with the university; and the 
 earliest university exhibitions were those founded 
 by William de Kilkenny, bishop of Elv from 
 1354 to 1257, for two students of divinify, who 
 were to receive annually the sum of two'marks 
 from the priory. In the year 1133 was founded 
 the nunnery of St. Rhadegund, which, in the 
 reign of Henry VII., was converted into Jesus 
 College; and in 1135 a hospital of Augustinian 
 canons, dedicated to St. John the Evangelist, 
 was founded by Henry Frost, a burgess of the 
 town. ... It was ... a very important foun- 
 dation, inasmuch as it not only became by con- 
 version in the sixteenth century the College of 
 St. John the Evangelist, but was also . . . the 
 foundation of which Peterhouse, the earliest 
 Cambridge college, may be said to have been in 
 a certain sense the offshoot. ... In the year 
 1229 there oroke out at Paris a feud of more 
 than onlinary gravity between the students and 
 the citizens. Large numbers of the former mi- 
 grated to the English shores; and Cambridge, 
 from its proximity to the eastern coast, and as 
 the centre where Prince Louln. but a few years 
 before, had raised the royal standard, seeins to 
 have attracted the great majoritv. . . . The 
 university of Cambridge, like tliat" of Oxford, 
 was modelled mainly on the university of Paris. 
 Its constitution was consequently oligarchic 
 rather than democratic, the government being 
 entirely in the hands of the teaching boiiy, while 
 the buchelurs miJ uudergraduates had no share 
 in the passing of new laws and regulations. "—J 
 
 B. MulUnger, A EUtorn ef the Vniterntt^ of Cam- 
 bridge, «A. 1-2.— "The earliest existing college 
 at Cambridge is St. Peter's, generally called 
 Peterhouse, historically founded A. D. 12,57. in 
 the reign of Henry lU. The Universities are 
 known merely by their situation; as Oxfonl, 
 Cdinbridge, Durham, St Andrews'; but caili 
 college has a name, accordiiig to the taste of itt 
 founder or first members. These names may be 
 divided into two classes, those named from the 
 founder, as Pembroke, Clare, Oonville and Caiua 
 (this had two founders, the restorer l>eing Dr. 
 Kaye, who Latinized his name into Caius,u1<vavs 
 pronounced Keys), King's (from King Henry 
 VI.), — Queens' (from the queens both of Henry 
 VI. and Edward IV.), Sidney Sussex, and Down- 
 ing; — and those named for beatified persons and 
 objects of worship,— St. Peter's, St. John's, St. 
 Catharine's, St. Mary Magdalene, Corpus Christii 
 Emmanuel, Jesus Chrisvs, Trinity and Trinity 
 Hall. The apparent impiety of these names, 
 which in one case of an ancient name now chanced, 
 was absolutely revolting, entirely passes oil with 
 a few dsTs' use. St. Catharine's soon bee niej 
 Cats, and St. Mary Magdalene U always i Llled 
 Maudlin. You readily admit the superiority of 
 Trinity over Corpus ale ; go to see a friend who 
 lives on Christ's piece; and hear with regret, that 
 in the boat races Emmanuel has been bumpeil by 
 Jesus; an epithet being probably pretiied to the 
 last name. These names of course were plven in 
 mon. oh times,— Trinity oy Henry VIII., but 
 all the colleges except one were founded 'lefire 
 the reign of James I. . . . The seventeen col. 
 leges . . . are distinct corporations. Their foun- 
 dations, resources, buildings, governing autliori- 
 ties and students, are entirely separate from each 
 other. Nor has any one college the least eontrol 
 in any other. The plan, however, is mueli the 
 same in all. The presiding authority is in most 
 cases called the Master, or speaking more ucner- 
 ally, the Head; while the net proceeds of iill the 
 college funds — for the vast wealth supposed to 
 belong to the University really is in the hands of 
 the separate colleges — are distributed among 
 certain of the gr^uates, called Fellows, who 
 with the Head constitute the corporation. Tliese 
 corporations give board and lodging on various 
 terms to such students as choose to enter the eo|. 
 lege and comply with its rules, in order to re- 
 ceive its assistance in obtaining the honors of the 
 University; and each college offers Its own pe. 
 culiar inducements to students. . . . The whole 
 body of the colleges, taken together, constitutes 
 the University. All those who after residing 
 seven rears at some college, have taken the de- 
 gree of Master of Arts, or a higher one. ami keep 
 their name on the college lists by a .small pay- 
 ment, vote at the University elections for mem- 
 bers of Parliament and all other ollleers. and 
 manage its affairs. . . . The colleges, at certain 
 intervals, present such students as comply with 
 their conditions to University authorities for ma- 
 tritulatlon, for certain examinations, ami fur liie 
 reception of degrees; and until one receives the 
 degree of Master of Arts, he must renmiii u mem- 
 ber of some college, not necessarilv one and the 
 same, to hold any University privileges. .Vfter 
 this stage, he may, under certain conditions, break 
 up all his college connections, and yet remain la 
 the University.' —W. Everett, Onths Cam., led. 1. 
 Spain and'PortnpU. — "Salamanca was found- 
 eil in the tSth centuiy, and received Its statute* 
 
 724 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Idtat 0/ Kaielait, 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 In the year 1432, out of which wag developed the 
 (oUowiot; coDMitution. The rector, with eight 
 'conilUarii,' all students, who could appoint their 
 ■uccesaors, administered the ul versity. The 
 doctors render the oath of obedience to the rector. 
 The 'domscholaster' is the proper Judge of the 
 ■ohool; but he swears obedience to the rector. 
 A bachelor of law must have studied six yt„.s, 
 and after five years more he could become licen- 
 tiate. In filling a paid teachership, the doctor was 
 chosen next in age of those holdmg the diploma, 
 unless a great majority of the scholars objected, 
 'a which case the rector and council decided. This 
 liberal constitution for the scholars is in harmony 
 with the code of Alphonzo X., soon after 1250, 
 in which the liberty of instruction was made a 
 general principle of law. This constitution con- 
 tinued in Salamanca into the 17th century, for 
 Retes speaks of a disputation which the rector 
 held at that time under his presidency. Alcala 
 university was established by cardinal Ximenes, 
 in 1510, for the promotion of the study of the- 
 ology and philosophy, for which reason it con- 
 tained a faculty of canon, but not of civil law. 
 The center of the university was the college of St. 
 IWefous. consisting of thirty-three prebendaries, 
 who could be teachers or scholars, since for ad- 
 mission were required only poverty, the age of 
 twenty, and the completion of the course ol the 
 preparatory colleges. These thirty-three mem- 
 bers elected annually a rector and three council- 
 ors, who controlled the entire university. Sala- 
 ried teachers were elected, not by the rector and 
 council alone, but by all the student*. It had 
 wide reputation. When visited by Piancis I., 
 while a prisoner of Spain, he was welcomed by 
 11,000 students. The Coimbra university, in 
 Portugal, received statutes in 1309, from king 
 Dionysius, with a constitution similar to those 
 just mentioned."— F. C. Savigny, T/ie Unicern- 
 lift of tht Middte Ago {Barnard't Am. Jourmil of 
 Education, t. 22, p. 824). 
 
 Renaisiuice. 
 
 "Modem education begins with the Itenais- 
 sance. The educational methods that we then 
 begin to discern will doubtless not be develooed 
 anil perfected till n later period; the ' doe- 
 's will pass into practice only grad . and 
 V he jreneral progress of the times. ' rom 
 the sixteenth century education is in p>. sion 
 of its essential principles. . . . The men of the 
 sixteenth century having renewed with classical 
 aniiijuity an intercourse that had been too long 
 intirrupted, it was natural that they should pro- 
 rose to the young the study of the Greeks and 
 the Uomang. What is called secondary instruc- 
 ticm really dates from the sixteenth century. 
 The crude works of the Middle Age are suc- 
 c«cltd by the elegant compositions of Athens 
 anil Rome, henceforth made accessible to all 
 thruuKh the art of printing; and, with the read- 
 liii.' of the ancient authors.there ri'appear through 
 till' fruitful effect of imitation, their qualities of 
 lomctness in thought, of literarv taste, and of 
 tligauce in form. In France, as in Italy, the 
 nivtional tongues, moulded, and, as it were, con- 
 sirrated by writers of genius, become the instru- 
 ments of an intellectual propaganda. Artistic 
 fciste. revived by the rich prodtir'ts of a race of 
 incomparable artists, gives an extension to the 
 imrizon of Ufe, and creates a new class of emo- 
 lions. Finally, the Protestant Reform develops 
 
 Individual thought and free inquiry, and at th« 
 same time, by iu success, it imposes still greater 
 efforts on the Catholic Church. This is not say- 
 ing thatevervthing is faultless in the educational 
 efforu of tlie sixteenth century. First, as it 
 natural for innovators, the thought of the teach- 
 ers of this period is marked by enthusiasm rather 
 than by precisioa They are more zealous in 
 pomting out the end to be attained, than exact 
 in determining the means to be employed. Be- 
 sides, some of them are content to emancipate 
 the mind, but forget to give it proper direction. 
 Finally, others make a wrong use of the ancientt; 
 thev are 1 > much preoccupied with the form 
 and the p ity c' language; they fall into Cice- 
 romania, and it is not tneir fault if a new super- 
 stition, that of rhetoric, does not succetd the old 
 superstition, that of the Syllogism."— G. Com- 
 pavre, Tht Hi*t. of Pedagogy, eh. 6 {.ttet. 92-93). 
 
 Rabelai«'Gar«uitu«.—Kabelai8' description of 
 the imaginary education of Gargantua gives ua 
 the educational Ideas of a man of genius in the 
 16th century: "Gargantua," he writes, "awaked, 
 then, about four o'clock in the morning. Whilst 
 they were rubbing him, there wes read unto him 
 some chapter of the Holy Scripture aloud and 
 clearly, with a pronunciation fit for the matter, 
 and hereunto was appointed a young page bom 
 in Basche, named Anagnostes. According to the 
 purpose and argument of that lesson, he often- 
 times gave himself to revere, adore, pray, and 
 send up his supplications to that go<Hl God "whose 
 word did show His majesty and marvellous judg- 
 ments. Then his master repeated what had Iwen 
 read, expounding unto him the most obscure and 
 difficult points. They then considered the face 
 of the sky, if It was such as they had observed it 
 the night before, and Into what signs the sun 
 was entering, as also the moon for that day. 
 This done, he was appareled, combed, curled, 
 trimmed and perfumed, during which time they 
 repsated to him the lessons of the day before. 
 He himself said them by heart, and upon them 
 grounded practical cases concerning the estate of 
 man, which he would prosecute sometimes two 
 or three hours, but ordin.j11y they ceased as soon 
 as he was fully clothcil. Then for three good 
 hours there was reading. This done, thcv went 
 forth, still conferrine of the substance "of the 
 reading, and disported themselves at ball, tennis, 
 or the 'pile trigone,' gallantly exerci.sing their 
 bodies, as before thev hail done their minds. All 
 their play was but In liberty, for they left off 
 when they pleased, and that was commonly when 
 they did sweat, or were otherwise wearv. Then 
 were they very well dried ana rubbed, siiifted 
 their shirts, and walking soberly, went to see if 
 dinner was ready. Whilst they stayed for that, 
 they did clearly and eloquently recite some sen- 
 tences that they had retained of the lecture. In 
 the mean time JIaster Appetite came, and then 
 very orderly sat they down at table. At the be- 
 ginning of the meal there was read lome pleasant 
 history of ancient prowess, until he had taken his 
 wine. Then, If they thought good, they eon- 
 tinu'>d rcajling, or l>egan to discourse merrilv to- 
 getl ; speaking first of the virtue, propriety, 
 elBca..y, and nature of all that was served Ui at 
 that table ; of bread, of wine, of water, of salt, 
 of flesh, fish, f liu, her.'s, roots, and of their 
 dressine. By leans whereof, he Iramcd in a 
 little time all'the passages that on tl.ese subject* 
 are to be found in Pliny, Atheuteui, DtoKondeik 
 
 
 :'^. 
 
 
 1''-, ? 
 
 1 .1 
 
 if 
 
 *^* 
 
 'J 
 

 iFMv 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 Btnaiuance in 
 Qermany. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 I 
 
 Juliut, Pollux, Oalen, Porphyrius, Oppian, Poly- 
 bitu, Hellodoros, Aristotle, (Elian, and otbora. 
 Whilst they talked of these things, many times, 
 to be the mope certain, thev caused the very 
 bf>oks to be brouglit to the table, nnd so well anil 
 perfectly did he in his memory remin the things 
 above said, that in that time there was not a 
 physician that knew half so much as be did. 
 Afterwards they conferred of the lessons read in 
 the morning, and ending their repast with some 
 conserve of quince, he washed his hands and 
 eves with fair fresh water, and gave thanks unto 
 dod in some tine canticle, made in praise of the 
 divine bounty and mimiticencc. Thisdone, 'hey 
 brought in cards, not to play, but to learn a 
 tliousand pretty tricks and new inventions, which 
 were all grounded upon arithmetic. By this 
 means 'le fell in love with that numerical science, 
 and every diy after dinner and supper he passed 
 his time in it as pleasantly as he was wont to do 
 at cards and dice. . . . After this they recreated 
 themselves with singing musically, in four or 
 five parts, or upon a set theme, as it best pleased 
 them. In matter of musical insiniments, he 
 learned to play the lute, the fpinet, the harp, the 
 German Hute, the flute with nine holes, the violin, 
 and the sackbut. This hour thus spent, be be- 
 took himself to bis principal study for three 
 hours together, or more, as well to repeat bis 
 matiitiuttT lectures as to proceed in the book 
 wherein he was, as also to vr'" handsomely, to 
 draw and form the antique i ' Koman letters. 
 This being done, tliey went o f their bouse, 
 and with tliem a young gcntlenmu of Touraiue, 
 named Gynmast, who taught the art of ridiii;;. 
 Changing then his clothes, he mounted on nuy 
 kind of horse, wliieh be made to bound in tlie 
 air, to jump the ditoli, to leap the palisade, and 
 to turn short in a ring both to the right ami left 
 hiiiid. . . . Tlie time being thus Ix'stowed, and 
 himself rublK'd, cleansed, and refreshed with 
 other clothes, tliey returned fair and softly; and 
 passing through certain meadows, or other grassy 
 pliues, Nehelii the trees and plants, comparing 
 them with what is written of them in the btKiks 
 of the ancients, such as Theoplimstus, Uioscori- 
 <U's, Marinus, I'liny, Nicamler, Jlacer, and Galen, 
 and carrieii home to the house great handfuls of 
 them, whereof a young page called Hhizotomos 
 bill charge — together with hiH'S, picks, spuds. 
 pruniug-Univcs, and other instruments reijuisite 
 for lierlKirising. Being come to their li«lgiiig. 
 whilst supiH'r was making ready, tiny repeat! cl 
 certain pas.sagcs of that which had been rend, 
 and then sat down at tal)lc. . . . During that 
 n'past was continued the lesson rea'i at dinner as 
 long as they thouglit good: the rest was spent in 
 go'xl discourse, learned and profitable. After 
 tluit they had given thanks, thi y set themselves 
 to sing musically, and play uixmi harnxaiious in 
 struments, or at thost' pretty sjHirts made with 
 cards, dice or cups. — thus niade merry till it was 
 time to go Ui bed ; aial sometimes they would go 
 make visits tmto learned men, or to such as had 
 been tnvellers in stninge countries. At full 
 night they went into the most (i|K'n place of the 
 house to sec the face of the sky, and there iKheld 
 the comets, if any were, as likewisi! the figures, 
 situaticms. aspeets, oppositions, and coniunetions 
 of the .stars. Then with ! i.smasterdid lie liriefiy 
 reeapituUte, after the manner of the Pytbagof- 
 tans, thiit which he had read, seen, learned, done, 
 and understood in the whole course of that day. 
 
 Then ther prayed unto God the Creator, fallin? 
 down before Him, and strengthening their faith 
 towards Him, and glorifying Him for His bound- 
 less Imunty ; and, giving thanks unto Him for the 
 time that was past, they recommemled them. 
 si'lves to His divine clemency for the future. 
 Which being done, they entered upon their rc- 
 po.se "—W. Beaant, B 'innt in linbetain, in, 
 30-23. 
 
 Germaoy. — "The schools of France and Italy 
 owed little to the great modem movement of tliV 
 Renaissance. In both these countries that niovi- 
 ment operated, in both it produced mighty re- 
 suits; but of the otScial establishments fur iu. 
 struction it did not get hold. In Italy the 
 mediteval routine In those establishment; n't first 
 opposed a passive resistance to it; presently 
 came the Catholic reaction, and sedulou.sly slnit 
 it out from them. In France the Henaissiiice 
 did not become a power in the State, ami \\w 
 routine of the scbfwls sufficed to c.\eluile the 
 new influence till it took for itself othiTclian 
 nels than the schools. But in Germany ilie 
 Renaissance lucamc a power in the State;"iilli(il 
 with the Ref rinatlon, where the Reformntion 
 triumphed in t Jerman countries the Renaissince 
 triumphed with it, and entered with it, into the 
 public schools. Melancthon and Erasmus wi re 
 not merely enemies and subverters of the iloniiu- 
 ion of the Church of Rome, tliey were einim lit 
 humanists; and with the great but single <X(i p 
 tiim of Luther, the chief German refonuers wire 
 all of them distinguished friends of the iiiw 
 classical learning, as well as of I'rotestaiiti-Mi. 
 The Romish party was in German couiitrii > ilie 
 ignorant party also, the party untouched by tin- 
 humanities and by culture. Perhaps oiu' naMin 
 why in England our schools have not li.el tin 
 life and gniwth of the schools of GerniMiiv and 
 Ilollanil is to lie found in the separation. \\\'.\\ 
 us, of the power of the Reformation aiil tin- 
 power of tlie Renaissance- Witli us. too, iht 
 Reformation triumphed and gtit possis>ioii u( 
 our r.chools; but our leading reformers wi-rc not 
 at the same »ime, like those of Germany, the na- 
 tion's leading spirits in intellect and euiinri-. lu 
 Germany the best spirits of the nation wen- tin u 
 the reformers; in England our best .■•iiiiii-.— 
 IShaks[)eare, Bacon. Spenser, — were men ot tlie 
 Renaissance, not men of the Reformation, and 
 ur reformers were men of the second onhr. 
 The Reformation, tlierifore, getting Indd of the 
 schools in Englanil was a very dilTerent forci-. a 
 forie far inferior in light, resources, and prov 
 peets, to tlie Reformation getting hold of the 
 schools in Germany. Hut in Germany, m vir- 
 theless, as Protestant orthodo.vy gn w ]iiliili<d 
 like Catholic orthtnioxy, and as, in eonsi-niifnee. 
 Protestantism flagged and lost the powirfcil im- 
 pulse with which it started, the selend llai'Vid 
 also, and in the middle of the last c iiitin.v the 
 classir.il t>. 'ing of Germany, in spile of a fe'v 
 honou mnies like Gesiier's, Erm sii's. and 
 
 r yne's, ..cems to have lost all the .'■pirit and 
 power of the lOth century humanists, to h.ive 
 lieen sinking into a mere church appendiL-i . and 
 fast becoming torpid. A theological slinliiit, 
 making his livelihood bv teaching till he could 
 get appointed to a parish, was the usual sdioi I- 
 master. 'The schools will never \k better.' said 
 their great renovator, Friedrich August Wolf, the 
 willkiiuv.ucrllii; of lloo.i r, • b<)loug a.s tin ^. h-»ii 
 masters an theologians by profession. A theolug- 
 
 720 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Re/ormatiirx 
 and iCducotion. 
 
 EDUCATIOX. 
 
 leal coune In s uniTerslty, with its smattering of 
 classics, Is about as good a preparation for a classi- 
 cal master as a course of feudal law would be ' 
 AVolfs coming to Halle In 1783, invited by Von 
 Zodlltz, the minister for public wnrskip undi-r 
 Frederlclt the Great, a sovereign whose civil pro- 
 ject, and labours were not less active and remark- 
 able than his militarj-, marks au era from which 
 the classical schools of Germany, reviving the dor- 
 mant sparlt planted in them by the Renaissance, 
 awoke to a new life."— M. Arnold, SehaoU ami 
 Vnitertitiet on the Continent, ch. 14. — It is sur- 
 prising to learn " how much was left untaught, 
 in the sixteenth century, in the schools. Geog- 
 rapliy and history were entirely omitted in every 
 SI heme of instruction, mathematics played but a 
 subordinate part, while not a thought was be- 
 stowed either upon natural philosophy or nutunil 
 history. Every moment and every iffort were 
 
 £iven to the classical languages, chittiv to the 
 atin. But we should be overhasty, should we 
 conclude, without further inquirv. that these 
 branches, thus neglected in the solio()ls. were there- 
 fore every where untaught. Perhaps they were' 
 reserved for the university alone, and there, too, 
 for the professors of the philosophical faculty, 
 as is the case even at the present daj with nutu- 
 nil philosophy and natural historv; nav, logic, 
 wliich was a regular school study in "the si.\- 
 titiith centurj-, is, in our day, widely cultivated 
 .11 the university. We must, therefore, in order 
 t" form a just judgment upon the range of .sub- 
 jilts taught in the sixteenth centurv, as well as 
 upon the methods of instruction, "first cast a 
 irliince at the state of the universities of that 
 period, especially in the philosophical faculties. 
 .V prominent source of information on this point 
 i« to be found in the statutes of the I'niversity 
 of Wittenberg, revised by .^lelanethon. in the 
 yiiir 1545. The theological facultv appears, by 
 these statutes, to have consisteil o"f four profes- 
 sors, who read lectures on the (>ld and Xew 
 Testaments,— chieliy on the Psalms, (Jenesis, 
 Isaiah, the Gospel of John, and the Epistle to 
 the Romans. They also taught dogmatics, coni- 
 niinting upon the Xicene creed and Aut'ustine's 
 IxKik, 'De spiritu et litera.' The Wittenberg 
 lecture schedule for the year l.'ifll, is to the siuiie 
 elli I • ; only we have here, Ix'sides e.\egesis ami 
 ilogi:.,>tics, catechetics likewisi'. According to 
 tlie .•^latutes, the philosophlenl facultv was com- 
 1>..M(1 of ten professors. Tlie tirst \Vns to read 
 npoii logic and rhetoric; the .second, ujion pliys- 
 i<>. and the second biKik of Pliny's natural liis- 
 ti'iA ; the third, upon anthniitic and the ' Sphere ' 
 uf .lohn de .Sacro Husto \ the fourth, upon Euclid. 
 till' 'TlieoriiB Planetarum' of IJurbiich, and 
 I'tolcniv's • Almagest ' ; the fifth and si.\th, upon 
 til" L:itui pix'tsand Cicero; the seventh, who was 
 till- • Pedagogus," explained to the younger class. 
 I.:itin Gnunmar, Linacer 'de eniendata structuni 
 I.atini siTmonis,' Terence, and some of Plautus; 
 till eighth, who was the 'Physicus,' explaimd i 
 Aristotle'3 ' Plijsics and Diosc'orides ' ; the ninth ' 
 gave instruction in Hebrew; and the tenth re- 
 viiwed the Greek Gnunmar, read lectures on 
 tireek Classics at intervals, also on one of St. j 
 Paul's Epistles, and, at the same time, on ethics. 
 ■ ■ . Thus the philosophical facultv apjuars to 
 h.ivp ix-en the most fullv repn'wntcd at Wit- ' 
 teuherg, aa it included" ten professors, wliile 
 till- theological had but four, the medical but 
 three. ... We have a . . . criterion by which 
 
 o judge of the limited nature of the studies of 
 that period, as compared with the wide field 
 •which they cover at the present day, in the then 
 almost total lack of academical apparatus and 
 eiiuipments. Tlie only exccp' n was to be 
 found in the case of libraries; out, how meager 
 and insufltclent all collections of books must have 
 lieen at that time, when books were few in num- 
 ber and very costly, will appear fror.. the fund, 
 for example, which was a.'-signed to the Witten- 
 berg library; it yielded annually but one hun- 
 dred gulden, (about 803,) with which, ' for the 
 profit of the university and chieflv of the poorer 
 students therein, the library mav \)t adorned and 
 enriched with Inxiks in all the" faculties r d in 
 every art, as well in the Hebrew anc' teek 
 tongues.' Of other apparatus, such a dlec- 
 tions in natural historv, anatomical n. -i .as 
 botanical gardens, and the like, we find jien- 
 tion; and the less, inasmuch as thei as no 
 need of them in elucidation of such lectures as 
 the professors ordinarily gave. When Paul 
 Eber, the theologian, read lectures upon anat- 
 omy, he made no use of dissection.'— K. von 
 Hiiumer, Viiinnitut in the t^ixteeuth Ctuturi) 
 Uliintiird'e Am. Jutinuil uf Editeution, r. 5, /iji 
 .■;;)5-54 -Luther and the Schools.—" Luther 
 ■ ■ . !■ h l:at, to strengthen the Reformation, it 
 was reij.isite to work on tlie young, to improve 
 the schools, and to propagate 'througliout Chris- 
 tendom tlie knowledge necessarv for a profound 
 study of the holy Scriptures, "fliis, accordint'lv 
 was one of the objects of his life. He Sfiw it in 
 particular at tli< period which we have reached 
 and wrote to thi councillors of all the cities of 
 Germany, callinir upon them to found Christian 
 scliools. 'Dear sirs,' siud he, 'we aunuallv e.\- 
 piud so mucli money on arquebuses, roads', and 
 dikes; why sliould we not spend a little to give 
 one or two schoolmasters to our poor children? 
 GckI stands at the door, and knocks; l/ussed are 
 we if we open to him. Xow the word of Gmi 
 abounds. O my dear Germans, buv. buv. while 
 tlie market is ojien before vour'hou.sls 
 Buy yoursi'lves witli the ' Idren.' iciuinues 
 Luiiier, still addressing tlie maj,. lis; 'for many 
 parents are lilie ostriches; thiv aie har.lened to- 
 wards their little oms, and sarisiii d with li;ivlng 
 hiid the egg, they care nntliing lor it af, ;-.,aids. 
 The prosperity of a city docs ii^it cc-i<i.,t iic. n \\ .a 
 heaping up great treasures, in build! str ug 
 walls, in erecting splendid mansions, iu 1ios.m'ss- 
 ing glitlering arms, V admen fall u, a r its 
 ruin will only be the , i ■■. The' trui ,\ .ilth 
 of a cilv. its s,ifcty, am' tp nu'tli, is tc have 
 
 many learned, serious. .oftliy,"well-i;!ueated 
 citizens. Am! «liom must we blame bi-cause 
 there are so U\\ at jireseiit, except you magis- 
 trates, who have allowed our youth to trow up 
 like trees in a forest';' Luther jiarlicularly iu- 
 sistcil on the necessity of studving lilemturt'and 
 languages: ' Wliat use is !liiie, it may be asked, 
 in Icarniug Latin. Greek, and Hebrew; We caii 
 read the Bible very well in German, AVithout 
 languages,' replies lie, 'we couhl not have re- 
 ceived tlie gos|K'l. . , . Languages are the scab- 
 bard that coulains the sword of the Spirit ; they 
 are the casket that guards tlie jewels; they are 
 the vessi'l that holds the wine ; and as the gospel 
 pays, ih.-.y are the baskets iu « hieli the loaves 
 and fishes are kept to feed the multitudi. It we 
 neglect the hinguages, we sliall not on'" eventu- 
 ally lose the gospel, but be unable t ipeak or 
 
 I' 2! 
 
 i'f~* 
 
 k\^ 
 
 ^Ij 
 
 
 727 
 
'^'^W 
 
 v<m 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 Brethren of 
 fke Common Lot. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 write in Latin or in German. No sooner did men 
 ceaie to cultivate them than Cbriitendom de- 
 clined, even until it (ell under the power of the 
 pope. But now that Ungiiages are again honored, 
 they ihed auch light that afi the world ia aaton- 
 tahed, and every one is forced to acknowledge that 
 our goapcl ia almost as pure as that of the apos- 
 tles themselves. In former times the holy fathers 
 were frequently mistaken, because they were 
 ignorant of languages. ... If the languages 
 lud not made me positive at to the meaning of 
 the word, I might have been a pious monk, and 
 quietly preached the truth in the obscurity of the 
 clDistcr; but I should have left the pope, the 
 sophists, and their antichristian emoirc still un- 
 shaken. "—J. H. Merle d'Aubigne, Iliit. of (he 
 Reformation of the 18rt Century,bk. 10, eh. 9(r. 8). 
 — Luther, in his appeal to the municipal magis- 
 trates of Germany, calls for the organization of 
 common schools to be supported at public cost. 
 "Finally, he gives his thought to the means of re- 
 cruiting the teaching service. ' Since the greatest 
 evil in every place is the lack of teachers, we must 
 not wait till tliey come forward of themaelves ; we 
 must take the trouble to educate them and pre- 
 pare them.' To this end Luther keeps the best 
 of the pupils, boys and girls, for a longer time 
 in school ; gives them special instructors, ar ', 
 opens libraries for their use. In his thought no 
 never distinguishes women teachers from men 
 teachers: he wants schools for girls as well as 
 for boys. Only, not to bunlen parents and 
 divert 'children from their daily labor, he re- 
 quires but little time for school duties. . . . 
 ' .My opinion ia [he says] that we must send the 
 boys to school one or two hours a day, and have 
 them learn a trade at home f >r the rest of the 
 time. It is desirable that these two occupations 
 march side by side.'. . . Luther gives the first 
 place to the teaching of religion : ' Is it not reaaou- 
 able that every Christian should know the IK-spel 
 at the age of nine or ten?' Then come the lan- 
 guages, not, as might lie hoped, the mother 
 tongue, but the leame<l languages, Latin, Oreek, 
 and Hebrew. Luther had not yet been sufScicntly 
 rid of the old spirit to comprehend that the 
 language of the people ought to be the basts of 
 universal instruction. He left to Conientua the 
 glory of making the final aepamtlon of the 
 primary school from the Latin achool. . . . 
 Plirslcal eieicites are not forgotten in Luther's 
 pedagogicHl regulations. But he attaches an 
 eapeclul importance to singing. ' Unless a schml- 
 mastiT know how to sing, I think him of no ac- 
 count. ' ' Muaic' he says again, ' is a half disci- 
 pline which make* men more indulgent and 
 more mild.' A' the same time that he cxteoda 
 the programi-.- of studies, Luther intriKluces a 
 new spirit Into methmls. He wishes more lib- 
 erty and more Joy in the school. ' Solomon,' lie 
 says, 'is a fnily royal schoolmaster. He dws 
 nut. like the monks, forbid the young to go Into 
 the worid and t)e happy Even as Antrim said ; 
 "A young man turned aside from the worlil It 
 like n young tree made to grow in a vasi-." "The 
 monks have imprisoned young men like binis in 
 tht'lr rage. It Is dangerous to isolate the young. ' 
 . . . l>o not let oiirsclvea imagine, however, that 
 Lulher nt once exercise<l a decisive influence on 
 the carrKnt «hira!l;-.n "f hiadsiy. \ fear !«^Jkio!9 
 wire founiletl, called writing schools; but the 
 Thirty Years' War. and other events, interrupted 
 Um uuvement of whlcli Lutber bat the honor of 
 
 having been the originator. , . , In the first half 
 of the leventeentb centurj , Ratich, a Germun, 
 and' Comeniua, a Slave, were, with very differ'- 
 ent degreet of merit, the beirt of the educational 
 thought of Luther. With tomething of the 
 charutan and the demagogue, Ratich devoted 
 hit life to propagating a novel art of teacbioi;. 
 which he called didacttct, and to which he at- 
 tributed marvels. He pretended, by his method 
 of languages, to teach Hebrew, Oreek, and 
 Latin, in six months. But nevertheless, out of 
 many stmnge performances and lofty promises, 
 there issue some thoughts of practical value. 
 The first merit of Ratich was to give the inothtr 
 tongue, the Oerman language, the precriUnie 
 over the ancient languages. "—O. Compayre 
 The But of Pedagogy, eh. 6 (teet. 130-134). 
 
 Nethcrlaada, — " When learning began to re- 
 vive after the long sleep of the Middle Ages, 
 Italy experienced tne first impulse. Next came 
 Germany and the contiguous pro vlncesof the Low 
 Countries. The force of the movement in thtse 
 regions is shown by an event of great imiwrt- 
 ance, not always noticed by historians. In 14(H), 
 there was established at Deventer, in the north- 
 eastern province of the Xetherlands, an associa- 
 tion or brotherhood, usually called Bretlireu of 
 the Life in Common [see Brbturen of the 
 Common Lot]. In their strict lives, partial com- 
 munity of goods, industry in manual lalH)r, fvr- 
 vent ifevotlon, and tendency to mystiiiam, tlif-y 
 bore some resemblance to the modern Moravians. 
 But they were strikingly distinguished from the 
 members of this se<:t by their canu'st cultivation of 
 knowledge, which was encouraged among ihim. 
 selves and promoted among others by sclii»>l8. 
 both for primary and advanced (Hliicallon. In 
 1430, the Brethren had established fortytive 
 branches, and by 1460 more than thricr that 
 number. They were scattered through iliHinut 
 parts of Germany and the Low Countrits, rwh 
 with its ichool lubordlnate to the heaii cullece 
 at Deventer It wat in these schools, in tM 
 middle of the fifteenth century, that a few (ler- 
 mans and Netherlanders were, as Hallain sayi, 
 routed to acquire that extenaive knowledge of 
 the ancient languages which Italy as vet delu- 
 sively nostetseu. Their names should never be 
 omitted In any remembrance of the revival of 
 letters; for great wat their Influence iipua tub- 
 sequent timea Chief among these men wei« 
 Weiacis, of Oronlnven, 'one of those who con- 
 tributed most steadily to the puriflcatinn of re- 
 ligion ' ; Hegius of Deventer, under whom Eras- 
 mus obtained his early e<lucatlon, ami who 
 probaoly was the flrtt man to print Qnek north 
 of the Alpi; Dringeberg, who foun(le<l a f,<xA 
 school in Alsace; and Longius, who prenlded 
 over one at Munster. Thanks to the inlluiiire of 
 these pioneers in learning, education had iiisile 
 great progress smong the Netherlanders by the 
 middle of the sixteenth century. . . . We have 
 the testimony of the Italian Ouiccianiini to the 
 fact that before the outbreak of the war with 
 Spain even the peasant* in Holland cmild rtwl 
 and write well. At the war went on, the people 
 thoweii their determination that in this niiiur 
 there should be no retrogression. In tin nr>.t 
 Synod of Dort, held In l.'S74, the clergy expn ^mJ 
 
 thrlr Opinion upon ilit- Stiiijn-t ItV p4*,!-!s ft ■■-- 
 
 lution or ordinanrf which, among oIIh r iliiniii, 
 directed 'the se.vanu of the Church' to ritia 
 froB Um mailttiatet la every locality s penult' 
 
 728 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 TKe VnivtTMitt 
 0/ Ltyden. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 ■ion for the •ppointment of acboolmMten, and 
 an order for tbetr compenaation as in the pait. 
 Before many yean lisd elapied the civil authori- 
 ties began to establish a general school Bystem 
 for the country. In 1583, the Estates of Fries- 
 land decreed that the inhabitants of towns and 
 Tillages should, within the space of six weelcs, 
 provide good and able Reformed schoolmasters, 
 and those who neglected so to do would be com- 
 pelled to accept the instructors appointed fur 
 them. This seems to have been the beginning of 
 the supervision of education by the State, a 
 system which soon spread over the whole repub- 
 lic. In these schools, however, although tboy 
 were fostered by the State, the teachers seem, in 
 the main, to have been paid by their pupiU. 
 But as years went on, a cliange came about in 
 ibis part of the system. It probably waa aided 
 bv the noteworthy letter wUch John of Nassau, 
 the oldest brother of WillUm the Silent, the 
 Diible veteran who lived until 1606, wrote to hU 
 tim Lewis William, Stadtholder of Frieslaud. 
 lu this letter, which is worthy of a place on the 
 walls of every schoolhouse in America, the gal- 
 lant young stadt-holder is instructed to urge on 
 the States-General 'that they, according to the 
 example of the pope and Jesuits, should establish 
 free schools, where children of quality as well as 
 of poor families, for a very small sum, could be 
 well and christianly educated and brought up. 
 This would be the greatest and most u«fiil 
 work, and the highest service that you otmld 
 ever accomplish fur God and Christianity, and 
 r8|ieclally for the Netherlands themselves. . . . 
 lu summa, one may jeer at this as popish trick- 
 cry, and undervalue it as one will: there still 
 1 iialns in the work an inexpressible benefit. 
 .^ Hers and patriots thus educated, with a true 
 knowledge of G<xi and a Christian conscience, 
 Item, churches and schools, good llliraries, IxKiks, 
 ami prhiting-presses, are Ix'lter tlian all armies, 
 arsenals, armories, munitions, alliances, and trea- 
 tii'S that can bo had or imagined lu the world.' 
 .Such were the words In which the I'atriarch of 
 tlie Nasaaus urged upon his countrymen a com- 
 mou-school system. In 1609, when the I^ilgrim 
 Fathers took up their residence In Leydon, the 
 ncliiiol had become the common ph)|K'rty of the 
 l«'"|ile, and was paiil for among other municipal 
 cj|>cu»es. It was a land of schools suimorted 
 liy the State — a land, according to JiDtley, 
 •wliere every child went to school, where almost 
 cvt ry liiilivldual Inhabitant could write and reail. 
 w lure even the middle classes were pn)flrient In 
 iii:tlliematlcs anil the classics, and cnuld sixuk 
 twii .ir more moilcrn languages.' Dm s anv reader 
 li.iw ask whence the settlers of I'l' iiouth. wlio 
 came directly from llnlliiiid, and ihe other sit- 
 lliTH of New England ohow! I'urilun bnthreii 
 wi n- to lie founil In Ihoiisanda timiugliout tlie 
 I'm. U Itepublir, derlvetl their Ideas of schools 
 fir-t directed, and then suppurted by lln' Stall?" 
 — Leyden University.— 'To comiiietiiumte tliede- 
 liviranreof l^'yden from the !<piinl»li sleire in 
 l'>;i IXC Nktiiehi.ands: A. 1). 1,'5T3-1.17-1). ''anil 
 a- a nwanl for the heroism of the citizens, tlie 
 I'linie i.f Orange, with the consent of the E» 
 I 111 1 I.f the province, founded the University uf 
 I'Vd.ti. Still, the figment of allegiance' n- 
 
 !!;::!!:i:!, tln' l-.r.ij-.!.-. WFr? only Sglii!;!;; f f Ilr-if 
 crii.t ii III iiMial rights, and so wen' doing their dot V 
 ti' Ihe wivercign. Hence the chsrier of the um(- 
 rir>iiy rau In the name of Philip, who was 
 
 credited with It* foundation, as a reward to hil 
 subjects for their rebellion against his evil coun- 
 sellors and servants, 'especially lu consideration 
 of the differences of religion, and the great bur- 
 dens and hardships borne by the citizens of our 
 city of Leyden during the war with such faith- 
 fulness.' Motley calls this 'ponderoiu irony," 
 but the Hollanders were able lawyers and in- 
 tended to build on a legal basis. This event 
 marks an epoch in the Utellectual history of 
 Holland and of the world. . . . The new univer- 
 sity was opened in 1575. and from the outset 
 took the highest rank. Speaking, a few veara 
 ago, of its famous senate chamber, Nie'buhr 
 called it 'the most memorable room of Europe 
 In the history of learning.' The first curator 
 was John Van der Does, who had been militarv 
 commandant of the city during the siege. Hfe 
 was of a distinguisheil family, but was still 
 more distinguished for his learning, bis poetical 
 genius, and his valor. Endowed with ample 
 funds, the university largely owed its marked 
 pre-eminence to the intelligent foresight and wise 
 muniticenee of its curato'ra. They sought out 
 and obtained the most distinguished scholars of 
 all nations, and to this end spared neither pains 
 nor expense. Diplomatic negotiation and even 
 princely mediation were often called in for the 
 acquisition of a professor Hence it was said 
 that It surpassed all the universities of Europe 
 lu the uunilier <if its scholars of renown. These 
 scholars were trciteil with prineelv honors. . . . 
 The 'mechanicals 'of Holland, as Elizabeth called 
 tlii'm, may not have paid the accustomed wor- 
 ship to nmk. but to genius and learning they 
 were always willing to do homage. Space would 
 fall for even a brief account of the great men, 
 foreign ami native, who illuminated Leyden with 
 their presence. . . . But it was not alone in 
 scholarship and In scieutlHc researeh that the 
 University of Leyden gave an lra|)etus to modem 
 thought. Tlieological disputes were developed 
 there at times, little tempesU which thre>atened 
 destruction to the institution, but they were of 
 short durathm. The right of conscleuci; was 
 always resiKKJled, and In the main the right of 
 full and public discussion. . . . When It was 
 settled that diwtentcrs could not Iw educated In 
 the English universities, tliey Hocked to Leyden 
 in great numlKTs, niakiuir tliat city, next to 
 Edinburgh, tlieir chief nsort. Eleven years 
 after the o|>eidii>r of the Uulversity of Leyden, 
 the Estates of dciiuM iriiic Kriesiaml. amiil the 
 ■lin of war, foiiiidc.i llie Lidversity of Francker, 
 an iiistltiiii.M wliiili Has to U'ccmie famous as 
 
 till' lion f .Vriiiiiiiiis. . , . Both of these uni- 
 
 versiliis Were |ur|i.tiiiilly cndowe<l with the 
 iiriHtrds of till' erilixi isiical property which had 
 Ihiu roMti»(ait.| iliiii ,' the proirn»s"of the war" 
 —1) Caiui'li. II, 7'/r. I'lirit'in in UMiml, Eng- 
 I lit.'l. ,n„l Aii,ii'i';i, eh. S. 'Jn. „/„/ 3, 
 j En|r|and.— " 111 ronti'mplatiiig the events of 
 ; tlie tjlie.nili and sixtiiMith centuries. In their in- 
 ' tlueiicc on KiiL-liili civilisation, we are reminded 
 once more of the fiitiliiy of certain inislem 
 n'tpiralions No amount of Universjtv Conimla- 
 sions. not of wellnieaiit reforms, will clmiige 
 t lie iiatUH' of Englishmen It Is lin|HHuilile, by 
 dislriliiitionsof Uidversitr prizes and pMfessiir- 
 ruS\". !■• atintct int" ti:c carrcr .;f icttcri that 
 pn.|i.irilon of Indiis'ry ami ingi'iiuity which, in 
 Oi rinany for ixaiiiple. Is devoted to the scho- 
 lastic life. Politics trade, law, sport, religion 
 
 .'It 
 
 # -'ii 
 
 *•■ 
 
§{ 
 
 m 
 
 ■■'*!ti 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 CoUt and 
 ai. Plaul'l School. 
 
 EDCCATION. 
 
 will claim their own in Ihigland, lust a* they did 
 St the Revival of Letters. The illustrious cen- 
 tury which Italy employed in unburying, appro- 
 {)riating, and enjoying the treasures of Greek 
 iterature and art, our fathers gave, in England, 
 to dynastic and constitutional squabbles, and to 
 religious broils. The lienaissance in Englani'. 
 and chiefly in Oxford, was like a bitter and 
 cliangpful spring. There was an hour of genial 
 warmth, there breathed a wind from the south, 
 in the lifetime of Chaucer; then came frosts and 
 storms: again the brief sunshine of court favour 
 shone un literature for a while, when Henry 
 Vni. encouraged study, and Wolsey and Fox 
 fcmiiiled Christ Church and Corpus Christi Col- 
 lo^'f, once more the bad days of religious strife 
 returned, and the promise of learning was de- 
 stniyed. Thus the chief result of the awakening 
 tlioiight of the fourteenth century in England 
 was not a lively delight in literature, but the ap- 
 pearance of the Lolliirds. The intensely prac- 
 tical genius of our race turned, not to "letters, 
 but to questions about the soul and its future, 
 about property and its distribution. The Lol- 
 lanis were put down in Oxford : ' the tares were 
 weeded out' by the House of Lancaster, and in 
 the process the germs of free thought, of origin- 
 ality, and of a ratiocrj e<lucation, were de- 
 stroyed. 'Wyclcvism did domineer among us,' 
 ■ays Wood; and, in fact, the intellect of the Uni- 
 versity was absorbed, like the intellect of France 
 during tlie heat of the Jnnsenist controversy, in 
 defending or assailing ' 367 damned conclusions,' 
 drawn from the Inrnks of Wyclife. The Univer- 
 sity ' lost many of her children through the pro- 
 fession of Wvclevism."'— A. Lang, Oxford, en. 3. 
 — Colet and 'St. Paul'* School.— Dr. John Colet, 
 appointed Dean of St. Paul's in l.%5, " resolved, 
 whilst living and in health, to devote his patri- 
 mony to the foundation of a school lu St. Paul's 
 Churcliyard, wherein 153 children, without any 
 restriction as to nation or country, who coidil 
 already ri'ad and write, and were of 'giiod piirts 
 and capacities,' should receive a sound Christian 
 education. The ' Latin adulterate, which Igno- 
 rant blind fools brought into this world,' poison- 
 ing thereby ' the old Latin speech, ami the very 
 Roman tongue use<l in tlie time of Tully and 
 Salhist, and Virgil and Terence, and learned liy 
 8t. .lerome, St. AmbMse. and St. Augustine.' — 
 all that 'abusion which the later blind worlil 
 lirnimlit In, and which may rather lie culle<t 
 Ulutlimture than Literature,' — should Ik- ' iitter- 
 Iv iiliaid^hed and excluded' out of this mli>Hi|. 
 The ( liililren shoulil he taught goixl litenilim'. 
 IkiIIi Laihi and Greek, 'such authors that have 
 with wlmliim loinvd JMire chaste elmiuince' — 
 •»|Hi hilly Christian autlinrs who wrnle tlnlr 
 wlwhiin In clean and chaste l^itln. whether In 
 pMse fir verw', fur,' said Colet, 'my Intent is liy 
 this'<ihiHil specially to ineri'ase knonledge. and 
 worshipiiini; nf UimI and Our Lord .lesus Christ, 
 and gtssl Christian life and manners in the chil- 
 dren.'. . . The building nmsisted of one large 
 room, ilivided into an upwr and lower sc^hool l)y 
 a curtain, which could in' ilniwn at pleasure; 
 and the ehariie of the two scIiihiIs devolvwl u|«m 
 a hlirh master and a sub-master respectively 
 Till' fiirnis were arrangoi so as each to scat six- 
 V*!'*! tstya. tinit Wert* prfivliliH) f*ach w|Ui h ni{w><l 
 desk, at which the head-lioy sat as presldwit 
 The tiiiildlni; also enilinKrd an entninee-iinrch 
 iud a li te chapel for divine servirt, Uwelllug- 
 
 houses were erected, adjoining the school, for 
 the residence of the two masters ; and for their 
 support, Colet obtained, in the spring of isiii, ^ 
 royal license to transfer to the Wardens and 
 Guild of Mercers in London, real property to the 
 value of £33 per annum (equivalent to at least 
 £580 of present money). Of this the headmuiiler 
 was to receive as his salary £35 (say £3.'>(i) and 
 the under-master £18 (say £180) per annum. 
 Three or four years after, Colet made provision 
 for a chaplain to conduct divine service in the 
 chapel, and to instruct the children in the Cate- 
 chism, the Articles of the faith, and the 'Ten 
 Commandments, — in English; and ultimately, 
 before his death, he appears to have inereused 
 the amount of the whole endowment to t'123 
 (say £1,300) per annum. So that it may lie inn- 
 sidered, roughly, that the whole endowmeut. in- 
 cluding the buildings, cannot have represented 
 a less sum than £30,000 or £40,00t nf presint 
 money. And if Colet thus sacriUced bo iiiiKh 
 of his private fortune to secure a liberal (an 1 it 
 I must be concoled his was a liberal) proviiticin for 
 I the remimeration of the masters wboshoiiM e<lu- 
 I cate his 153 boys, he must surely have had deiply 
 at iieart the welfare of the boys themselves. 
 I And. in truth, it was so. Colet was like a 
 father to his schoolboya ... It was imt t« 
 I be expected that he should find the ^eliinil- 
 lxK>ks of the old grammarians in any way ailapt- 
 ' ed to his purpose. So at once he set his learned 
 friends to work to provide him with new ones. 
 ; The first thing wanted was a Latin Granimai 
 for beginners. LInacre undertook to pniviile 
 \ this want, and wrote with great pains and 
 j labour, a work in six books, which afterwards 
 came into general use. But when Cnlet «iw 
 it, at the risk of displeasing his friend, he ; ; 
 it altogether aside. It was too loni; anil li<> 
 learned fnr his 'little beginners.' So lie ii>n- 
 I dense<i within the compass of a few pugtn two 
 little treatises, an 'Accidence' and a Syntax.' 
 in the preface to the first of which nei'nr the 
 '. gentle words (luoted above. These little iMi.ks, 
 after receiving additions from the hands uf Km»- 
 mils. Lilly, and others, finally becami' ^lencrillv 
 I adopted and known as Lilly a Grammar Tlid 
 rejection of his Grammar seems to have \mn a 
 sore (Hiint with LInacre, but Enisniiis t"ld Cnlet 
 not to Ik' too much concerned alsiul it. . . . 
 Erasmus, in the same letter in which lu' spoke (if 
 Llnaere's rejected Grammar . . . put on pa|*r 
 his niitlons nf what a scli(M>ltiiaster oiii|;lit in In', 
 and the iH'st methisl of leochlni; Ihivs, wliii h lie 
 fancied Cnlet might not alUigether appmve. a* 
 he was wiint wimewhat mure to despise rlido- 
 rie tliin Erasmus did He staled his "piiiioa 
 that — • In nnhr that the teacher iiililit In tlior- 
 iiu^hly up to his work, he slunild not merely )ie 
 a mas er of one particular brum li of stmly lie 
 should himself have traveUeii liiniiigh tlie wliule 
 circle of kniiwledge. In philnsophv lie slemlil 
 liii\e studliHi I'hitoand Arlsiotle. I'lieophraslus 
 and Plotinus; In Theohigy the Sacred Siriiiiiin s 
 and after them Origen. Chrvsoatoiii. mul ll.Ml 
 among the Gri-ek fatlwrs. and Ainlin*' aiiJ h- 
 i mine among the Latin fathers. aiiuinK lit |'"<ti, 
 . Ilomei and Ovi,; ; in geography, whiili i« ^ry 
 ; ImiMirtant in the study nf history, I'lMnimnim 
 I Melji. Ptolemy. Pllny, Htrnlio He sholll I kllotV 
 I what ancient names nf rivers, mountains, . oun- 
 I tries, cities, answer to the inislern ones, and the 
 { lauie of lrv«s, aulinalt, lustruuienu, clutbei, sail 
 
 ;}() 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 n< Jautt Ttadien. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 genu, with regard to which It la Incredible how 
 ignorant even educated men are. He should take 
 note of little facts about agriculture, architect- 
 ure, military and culinary arts, mentioned by 
 different authors. He f,houId be able to trace 
 the origin of words, th'ir gradu'<I corruption in 
 the languages of Condtantinoplc, Italy, Spain, 
 and France. Nothing should be beneath his ob- 
 serration which can illustrate history or the 
 meaning of the poets. But you will say wha 
 :» load you are putting on the back of the 
 poor teacher! It is so; but I burden the one to 
 relietre the many. I want the teacher to have 
 iraversejl the whole ranee of knowledge, that it 
 m.iy spare each of his scholars doing it. A dill- 
 gent and thoroughly competent master might 
 give boys a fair proficiency in both Latin and 
 Greek, in a shorter time and with less labour 
 thiin the common run of pedagogues tc' ■ to 
 teach their babble. ' On receipt of this . olet 
 
 wrote to Erasmus: . . . ' " What! I shall not ap- 
 prove I" So you say! What is there of Eras- 
 muss that I do not approve?'"— P. Seebohm 
 Th* Orford Hfformerii. ch. 6. — Ascham and 
 "The Seholemaater." — Roger Ascham. the 
 friend of Lady Jane Grey and the tutor of Queen 
 Elizabeth, was bom in l.'ilS, and died in l.'!S8 
 "It was partly with the view to the Instruction 
 of his own children, that ho commenced the 
 ' !l<rhole-master, ' the work by which he is most and 
 Iwst known, to which he did not live to set the 
 l«»t hand. He communicated the design and 
 impiirt of the book in a letter to Sturmius. In 
 width he states, that not being able to leave his 
 sons a large fortune, he was res<jlve«l to provide 
 them with a preceptor, not one to be hired for a 
 great sum of money, but marked out at home 
 Willi a homely pen. In the same letter he gives 
 his reasons for employing the English language 
 the capabilities of whioh he clearlv perceived 
 anil candidly ackuowle<lgcd, a high virtue for a 
 mm of that age. who perhaps could have writ- 
 ten Latin to his own satisfaction much more 
 easily than his native tongue. But though the 
 benillt of his own offspring might be his ulti- 
 miile object, the imnmliate (K-caslim of the work 
 WH« a conversation at ("cell's, at which Sir Rich- 
 snl .Sickville expresstnl great ln<ilgnation at the 
 •everlties prncticwl at EU)n and other great 
 Mli.mls, HO that l>oys actually ran away for fear 
 of inerclli-ss flagellation. This led to the general 
 sul.JKt of schiNil discipline, and the deft'cts in 
 the then fHtalilished modes of tuition. Aiicham 
 n.im iiling with the seiitimenu of the companv, 
 iinl iimeeeding to explain his own views of lih- 
 prnvriiient, Sackvllle requestetl him to eoiiiinlt 
 lii* "pillions to p«p,.r and the ' SoholemaHt.r ' 
 »i» the result It was not published till 1(170 
 J;!; ■ ■ . quote a few passaws. which 
 throw light upon the author's gcnxl sens<' and giK«| 
 uaiure To all violent ct*reion. and exin'nie 
 liuiiMiment, he was derldediv opposed: — • I i|,i 
 «:r>,;.,iy»he. ■Willi all goil s<fnM,l.mai.ler« In 
 all ihi .,■ points, to have children brought to go.><| 
 l>trf..in.ss iu leiimliig, to all honestv in man- 
 HIT, i„ iiuve all faults righllv amend.Hl. and 
 evirv \kv wverely correcU'd, but for the order 
 sii'l way that leadelh rightly to thew points, we 
 •oinrnhat differ.' 'Love is Mter than fear. 
 KinileiieM than beatiui. to lirinj up s child 
 iini.iiy in learning. ■ 1 do Mture you there Is 
 D" »m h wheUtoiw to sharpen » )H«»1 wit, anil 
 •ocourage % will to learning, ai ii praite ' 
 
 The scholar is commonly beat for the making 
 when the master were more worthy to be beat 
 for the mending, or rather marring, of the same- 
 
 In?"?^'' '"'"'J' *'■"«» '^'•'K a* ignorant as the 
 cmid what to say property and fitly to the mat- 
 ter. ... ' This will I say, that even the wisest 
 of your great beaters do as oft punish nature aa 
 they do correct faults. Yea many times the bet- 
 ter nature Is the sorer punished. For If one by 
 quickness of wit take his lesson readilv, another 
 by hardness of wit taketh It not so speedily the 
 nrst is always commended, the other is com- 
 monly punished, when a wise school-master 
 should mther discreetly consider the right dispo- 
 sition of both their natures, and not so much 
 wdgh what either of them is able to do, as what 
 either of them is likely to do hereafter. For thl» 
 I know-, not only by reading of iKwks in my 
 study, but also by experience of life abroad in 
 the wor d, that those which be commonly the 
 wisest the best learned, and best men also, when 
 they be old, were never commonly the quickest 
 of wit wlicn they were young. Quick wiu 
 commonly be apt to take, unapt to keep. Some 
 are more quick to enter speedily than be able 
 to pierce far. even like unto oversharp tools 
 whose edges be very soon turned. ' "— H. Cole- 
 ridge, lii-H/ntpliiii Bnrnilii, pp. 328-380 
 
 Jeauit Teaching and Schoola.— '■ 'The educa- 
 lion of youth Is set forth In the Formula of Ad- 
 priival granted by Paul lU. in 1540," to the plana 
 of Ignatius Loyola for the foundation of the So- 
 ciety of Jesus, "as the first duty embraced by 
 the new Institute. . . . Although the new re- 
 ligious were not at once able to begin the es- 
 tablishment of colleges, yet the plan of those 
 afterwards founded, was gradually ripening in 
 the sagacious mind of St. Ignatius, who liMiked 
 to these Institutions as calculated to oppose the 
 surest bulwarks against the jirogress of heresy 
 The first regular college of the Society was 
 that establisheil at Oandia in 1546, tliroiigh the 
 zeal of St. Francis Borgia, thini General of the 
 StHiely; and the regulations by which it wat 
 governed, and which were emlHHiie<| in the con- 
 stitutions, were extended to all the Jesuit col. 
 leges afterwards fouiideil. The studies were to 
 include theology, both positive and sclinla-itic a* 
 well as grammiir, piK-trv, rlntoric. and philoso- 
 phy. The lourse of philosophv was to lust three 
 years, that of theology four: and the rrofrssora 
 of Philosophy were eiijoine.1 to tn-at their sub- 
 ject iu sueli a way as to dispose the mind for the 
 study of Iheolotfy, Instead of setting up faith 
 and reiisoii in opposition to one anoiher The 
 theology of St, Thomas, and the philosophv of 
 Aristotle, Wire to lie followed, except on those 
 points where llie teaching of the latter was op. 
 poM'iltotliel'.iil.ilIc faith. "—AT. Drane r/irii- 
 ^,(/, .Sr-,',,,. ./,,„„/ v-A,.A„.,y,, 7i(H,_"ABearlvnsthe 
 mlddleof the sixteenth century . . . [theScH-lety 
 of Jesus] had several colleges In France, partiru- 
 liirly those of liillom. .Mauriac, Kodez. Tournon 
 and Piinilers In l.WI it secured a fimting lii 
 Paris, notwithstanding the niilstan.-e of the Par- 
 lliiiii. lit. of the university, and of the bishops 
 theniwlvi-s. A hundriKl years later it counted 
 nearly fourteen thouMiid pupils in the pMvince 
 of Paris alone. The eoltege of Clermont, in 1«.->1 
 e'lroUeil mi-.Tv !h.iii iw:. th-->iiisnd }-.tiii» tnrn. 
 Tlie middle anil higher elaases assureil to Oir col- 
 leges of the s<K-U-ty an everinereaslnir memlivr- 
 shlp. At the emi of the seventeenth century, 
 
 731 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 SducU <n modem 
 JBurope. 
 
 EDCCATION. 
 
 the Jeauits could inicribe on the roll of honor of 
 tiieir classes a hundred illustrious names, among 
 others those of Condi and Luzemboure, Flichier 
 and Bossuet, Lamoignon and Siguier, Descartes, 
 ComeiUe, and Moliire. In 1710 they controlled 
 six hundred and twelve college* ^d a large 
 number of universities. They were the real 
 masters of education, and they maintained this 
 e<lueational supremacy till the "nd of the eigh- 
 t< ' ill century. Voltaire said of these teachers: 
 ' Tlie Fathers taught me nothing but Latin and 
 nonsense.' But from the leTentcenth century, 
 opinions are divided, and the encomiums of 
 Bncon and Descartes must be offset by the severe 
 judgment of Leibnitz. ' In the matter of educa- 
 tion,' says this great philosopher, ' the Jesuits 
 have remained below mediocrity." Directly to 
 the contrary. Bacon had written: ' As to what- 
 ever relates to the instruction of the young, we 
 muHt consult the schools of the Jesuits, for there 
 can be nothing tliut is better done. ' . . . A per- 
 manent and characteristic feature of the educa- 
 tional policy of the Jesuits is, that, during the 
 whole course of their history, they have delib- 
 erately neglected and disdained primary instruc- 
 tion. The earth is covered with their Latin col- 
 leges; and wherever they have been able, they 
 have put their hands on the institutions for uni- 
 versity education; but in no instance hnvo they 
 founded a primary school. Even in tbilr estab- 
 lislimcnt for secondary instruction, the) entrust 
 the lower classes to teachers who do not belong 
 to their order, and reserve to themselves the 
 dlreciion of the higher classes. " — Q. Compayri, 
 Ilitt. of Pedtigixiy, pp. 141-U3.— See, also, Jesu- 
 its; A. D. l.'UU-l.l.'HJ.— "The Jesuits owed their 
 fcuccess partly to the very narrow task which the; 
 set themselves, little beyond the teaching of 
 Latin style, and partly to the careful training 
 which they gave their students, a training which 
 often degenerated into mere mechanical exercise. 
 But the mainspring of their induence was the 
 manner in which they worked the dangerous 
 force of emulation. Thiw pupils who were most 
 distinguished at the end > f each month received 
 the rank of pnctor, consi>r, and deciirion. The 
 class was divided into two parts, called Romans 
 anil Carthaginians. Hrtiks and Trojans. The 
 students sat oppcMi. lacb other, the master in 
 the middle, the walls were hung with swords, 
 speaM and shields which the contending parties 
 carried off in triumph as the prize of victory. 
 These pupils' contests wasted a ^reat deal of 
 time. The Jesuits establisheil public school fes- 
 tivals, at which the pupils might lie exhibited, 
 aii<i the parents flattered. They made their own 
 rcIkmiI lHK)ks, in which the requirements of good 
 t< aching were not so important as the religious 
 oljjictH ! the order. "They preferred extracts 
 to whole authors; if they could not prune the 
 dawics to tlii'ir fancy tiny would not read them 
 nt all. What judgment are we to pass on the 
 Jrniiit tea> liing as a whole ? It deserve* tiraiw 
 oil twiiaccoiiiits. Klnt. ii mainlaiwd the dignity 
 of lilrralure in an age which wo* too liable to lie 
 lulliK'iu'iil liy consiiTerattoua of practical utility. 
 It nialiitaini'd the study uf Greek in France at a 
 higher level than the I nivenily, anil resisted the 
 asxa' It* of ignorant parent* on the fortress of 
 Ilellcntun. Secondly, It seriously ut Itiu'lf to 
 liiidi'.-stand the nature and character of tlie Indi- 
 vidual pupil, ami to suit the manner of etiucatiou 
 to tlu) mlod that wa* V) receive it. Whatever 
 
 I may have been the motive* of Jesuits in gainiog 
 the affections, and securing the devotion of tlie 
 children under their charge; whether thiir de- 
 sire wa* to develop the individuality whi( h tbty 
 prolKd, or to destroy it in its germ, and plant a 
 new nature in its place ; it must \k admitted that 
 the loving care which they spent upon their 
 charge was a new departure in education, and 
 has become a part of every reasonable system 
 since their time. Here our praise must end 
 . . . They amused the mind Instead of strtnirth. 
 ening it. They occupied in frivolities siuhaj 
 Latin verae* the year* which they feared misht 
 otherwise be given to reasoning and the arc|uj. 
 sition of solid knowledge. . . . Cehthniiiil as 
 the Jesuit schools have oeen, they have mvid 
 much more to the fashion which tilled theiu with 
 promising scholars, than to their own cMilli'tice 
 in dealing with their material. . . . They hare 
 never stiKid the test of modem criticism. ' Thty 
 have no place in a rational system of mmlcni 
 education." — O. Browning, Introd. to tin Uiti, 
 of Educational Theoriet, eh. 8. 
 
 Modem : European Countries. 
 
 Auatria. — " The annual appropriatious passed 
 by Parliament allow the minister of puUic in 
 structton 88,807,774 for all kinds of piililic cdu. 
 cational institutions, elementary and siinnJaiy 
 schools, universities, technical and art s('hc«)l8, 
 museums, anil philanthropic institution*. Gen- 
 erally, this principle is adhered to by the staii'. to 
 subsidize the highest institutions of lianiin;,' moat 
 liberally, to share the cost of muintuluiug woinj. 
 ary schools with church and coninuinily, uml to 
 leave the burden of maintaining elinuntaiy 
 schools almost entirely to the local or roiunnnal 
 authorities. ... In the Austrian pulilic s< hmili 
 no distinctions are made with tlie pupils as re- 
 gards tlii'ir religious confessions. The si lim)U 
 are open to all, and are therefore coninmn t.i\mM 
 in the sense in which that term is eiupli'Mil with 
 us. In Prussia it Is the policy of tlietinveni. 
 ment to separate the pupils of differiMit reli);iiiu» 
 confessions in . . . elementary, but not ti>»t pa- 
 rate them in secondary schools. In Austria and 
 Hungary, special teacher* of religim f.ir the 
 elementary and secondary schwils are 1 1, i i'lyed; 
 in Prussia this is done onlv In si'comhiry selnKiU. 
 while religion Is taught by the sei uliiV ten hen 
 lu elementary schixils. This Is a very vi; il (lit- 
 fm'nce. and shows how miieli iicari riln Au-lrian 
 schools have come to our Ideal of a (ciiiMKin 
 schiKil."— L'. 8. Comm'r of Education, lin'^rt, 
 1881»-0t). pp. 4fl.5-46e. 
 
 Belgium.— " The treaty of Paris, of Mnn h31), 
 1814. lixed the iKiundarlfs of the XetherlamU, 
 and united Holland and Beltrluni. In ihi se new 
 circumslunces. thesysleiii of pulilic iiislrnelloD 
 
 iH-cBiue the siilijeit of much dllHcultj lutweeo 
 llie t'alvlnists of the norllieru provinces iiii'l the 
 Calliolics of the southern. The !.'• 'veruinent 
 
 therefore underti«)k llwlf to manage the orirani- 
 xation of the system of iustructlou in its thn-e 
 grades. . . . \VlllliUii I. disirtil to five the lUl- 
 giuns from French liilluence. and with tliisilijcol 
 Hiloptid till' injiiiliiioua measure of aitiinpling 
 to forie the I)utch language upon lliein llealw 
 endeavond to familiarize them with PnlisUint 
 ideas, and to this end determined to gel the lare 
 of religious Instruction exclusively into liie i>au>i> 
 of tlie state. Hut the clergy were eiieri;' tie hi 
 asKrting their rights ; the beildnes* of the IklgiiS 
 
 732 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Bngtand. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 deputies to the SUtes-General increased daily ; 
 and the project for a system of public and pri- 
 vale instruction which was laid before the second 
 chamber on the 26th November, 1829, was very 
 unfavorably received by the Catholics. The 
 government very honorably confessed its error by 
 repealing the obnoxious ordinances of 1825. But 
 it was too late, and the Belgian provinces were 
 lost to Holland. On the 12th October, 1830, the 
 provisory government repealed all laws restrict- 
 ing the free<lom of instruction." (For some 
 particulars of the later history of the educational 
 luntlict in Belgium, see Xktiibklands: A. D 
 ls:iii-1884]. —/•«//.•(> ImtmetiuH in Iklgium 
 \liimanli) Aiiurirun Journal of Educatiun. v. 8 
 
 Denmark.—" Denmark has long hem noted for 
 the excellence of her schools. . . . The perfection 
 ;ii:d extension of the system of popular instruction 
 (late from the beginning of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury, when Bishop Thestrup, of Aalberg, caused 
 6 parish schools to be established in Copenhagen 
 p 1 when King Frederick IV. (1899-1730) had 
 24(1 schoolhousi's built . . . Christian VI. (1730- 
 1740), . . . ordained in 1739 the establishment of 
 ciminion or parish sch(Kjls is every town and in 
 evury larger village. The branches of instruction 
 were to be religion, reading, writing, and arith- 
 initic. No one was to be allowed to teach unless 
 111- !iad shown himself qualilicd to the satisfaction 
 1.1 the clergyman of the parish. . . . Many dilli- 
 culties, however (especially the objections oi' 
 Uie landed proprietors, who had their own schw.ls 
 on their estates), hinJen^d the free development 
 of tlie common school system, and it was not 
 until 1814 that a new and more favorable t ra was 
 inaugurated by tlic hiw of July 29 of that year 
 According to this law the general control of tl ,■ 
 schools is In the hands of a minister of public in 
 stniction and subonlinatc su|,erintvndents for the 
 several departments of the kingdom."— £(/«/-<i. 
 tiun in Denmark (C. S. Bureau of Ediiealivn, 
 "irciiUir$ of Infvrniiitiun, 1877, no. 2), pp. 40-4l' 
 — "Withapopuhition in 1890 of 2,18.5,1.'>7, the 
 pupils en. 'led In city and rural schools in l>en- 
 murk numbt.. _d 231,9^0, or about 10 per cct. of 
 the population receivInK the foundation U au 
 iducatfon. In 1881 the llliteratct to 100 recruits 
 numbered 0.36; In Sweden at that date, ll'e per 
 itut. was 0.39."— C. S. Comm'r of Education 
 /i;»'rf, 1889-90, n. 523. 
 
 England: Oxford and Cambrida;e.— "Oxford 
 iiiiil Cambridge, as establishments for educat;„n 
 KMisistof two parts — of the I'niversitv proper 
 and of the Colleges. The fc-nier. original ami 
 IS.* iitlal. Is founded, controlled, an>I privileged by 
 piililie authority, fortheadvanUge of the nation. 
 Til.- lalU'r, accessory and contingent, are cri'ated 
 renulaled, and endowed by i-rivute munlllcen(\e 
 ]»' lUe InU'rest of certain favc ud Individuals 
 Tune was, when the Colleges dil no' exist and 
 tlie Lnlverslty was there; ami wi re tlie Coli^t'is 
 iiKiin ahollsliiNl, the I'niversity vould rei-.aln 
 euiire. The former, founded sole.'y fur ediu-i- 
 tioii. exists only as It acccmpllslies the ,tid of its 
 insiitution: the latter, founded prlneipallv for 
 ahuHiit ai..l habiuilon, would still exist, 'wire 
 nil education abandoned within their walls. The 
 I ni\ersity, tn a national establishment. Is ueces- 
 »arily o|H'n to the lieges in general; the Colleges, 
 =■- i-.ivatc institulioUi^ might uuivenutily do, us 
 some have actually dime — close their gau's ui«>n 
 •U. except their fouudatiuo members. The L nl 
 
 versities and Colleges are tlius neither identical 
 nor vicarious of each other. If the University 
 ceases to perform Its functions, it ceases to exist; 
 and the privileges accorded by the nation to the 
 system of public education legally organized in 
 the L niversity, can not, without the consent of 
 the nation— far less without the consent of the 
 academical legislature — be lawfully transferred 
 to the system of private education precariously 
 organized in the Colleges, and over which neither 
 Uie htate nor the IJniversity have any control 
 They have, however, been unlawfully usurped, 
 through the suspensioi f the University, and 
 u """■'P'*"'"' of its functions and privileges by 
 the Collegial bodies, there has arisen the second 
 of two systems, diametrically opposite to eacl 
 other. —The one, in which the University was 
 paramount, is ancient and statutory; the other in 
 which the Colleges have the asfviidant, is recent 
 and illegal.— In the former, all was subservient 
 to public utility, and the interests of scieui u ; in 
 the latter, all Is sacrificed to private monopoly 
 and to the convenience of the teacher. . In 
 the original constitution of Oxford, as in tiiat of 
 all the older U iversities of the Parisian model 
 the business of .nstruetion was not confided to a 
 special bixlyof )irivllege<i professors. T',|. Uni- 
 versity was go\ . rued, the I niv( rsity w lught 
 by the gmduates at large. I'tofessoi hister, 
 Uoctor, were oriirinallv synonvnious. l^verv 
 praduute had an equal right of teaching publicly 
 in the 1, niversity the subjects competent to h{s 
 faculty, and to the rank of his degree; nay every 
 graduate ineurnd tlie obligation of teaching 
 publicly, for a certain period, the subjects of hU 
 faculty, for such was the condition involved In 
 the gr-.nt of the degn-e itself."— Sir Wm. Ham 
 lllou, /JitdimiDiit on PJdIiiuiphy and Literature, 
 etc.: t:i»nition, ch. 4. 
 
 England: The "Great Public School*."— 
 \ .lat is a public school In England? "The 
 question is one of considerable dlfllculty. To 
 some extent, however, the answer has been fur- 
 nished by the Koyal Commission appointed in 
 1861 to hKiuIrr; Into the nature and application of 
 the eii<lo»mentsaiid revenues, aiul Into the ad- 
 ministration and management of certjiin si)eeitled 
 colleges and 8<:1khi18 commouiy known as the 
 I'ublic Schools CommUsiou. Nine are named in 
 the Queens letter of appointment, viz., Eton, 
 \\ Inchester, Westminster, the Cliurterhouse, St. 
 Paul's. Merchant Taylors', Harrow, Kugby, aud 
 Shrewsbury. The reasunj pmliablv which sug- 
 gesU'd this seleciion wire, that the nine named 
 fou latiotishadinlluidursi of einiuries emerged 
 fiom till- nm».s of enilnwed grtiminarseliool'-;. and 
 hail niiiile f,ir tliinisi Ives a piwilion wliiih justl- 
 tiei' their being plaeid iu a distinct <-ate ,ipry, and 
 cla^sw-d as • public schools.' It will be seen" as wo 
 priKeeil thai nil tlie.se nine he ,e certain fi-atures 
 In niimni.ii, distinguisliini' iliein from the ordi- 
 nary graiimmi si-liiHilsv iiiche.xi.st In almost every 
 loimtry t.iwn in England. .Many of tin.* latter 
 an- now waking up to the ri-iiulrenu-nts of the 
 new time and folluwing the example of their 
 mure illii.strious sisic-rs The most notalili- exam- 
 ples of this revival are smh si limils as lliiise at 
 .Slii-rborne. Oiggk-sw lek, and Tiinnridge Wells, 
 whii-h, while reinoih-lling tlii-nm:lve8on the lines 
 laid down by the Public ScIkhiIh CimiiiiMnncrs. 
 an- to some extent providing a tralwlng more 
 ttilaptiKl to the means and reiiulremeiits of our 
 middle cluwt la the nineteenth century than cm 
 
 733 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 71u p*vj( Engiitk 
 Pultic SdlooU. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 15 
 
 j;4' 
 
 liiWl 
 
 be found at nnj of the nine public icuooli. But 
 twenty years ago tlie movement which has since 
 made such astonishing progress was scarcely felt 
 in qiiiet country places like these, and the old 
 enilowments were allowed to run to waste in a 
 fashion which is now scarcely credible. The 
 same impulse which has put new life into the 
 endowed grammar-schools throughout England 
 has worked even more remarkably in another 
 direction The Victorian age bids fair to rival 
 the Eliza betiian in the number and importance of 
 the new schools which it has founded and will 
 hand on to the coming generation. Marlborough, 
 Halleybury, Uppingham, Hossall, Clifton, Chel- 
 tenham, liadley, Malvern, and Wellington Col- 
 lege, are nine schools which have taken their 
 place in the first rank. ... In order, then, to 
 get clear ideas on the general question, we must 
 keep these three clas-ses of schools in mind — the 
 nine old foundations recoiinized in the first in- 
 stance by the Royal Commission of 1861 ; the old 
 foundation!) which have remained local grammar- 
 schools until within the last few years, but are 
 now enlarging their Ixiunds, conforming more or 
 less to the public-school 8y.stem, and becoming 
 national institutions; and, lastly, the modern 
 foundations which started f-om the first as public 
 schools, professing to adapt themselves to the 
 new circumstances and requirements of modem 
 English life. The public schools of England full 
 under one or other of these categories. . . . We 
 may now turn to the historic side of the ques- 
 tion, dealing first, as is due to their importance, 
 witli the nine schools of our first category. The 
 oldest, and in some respects iiiost famous of 
 these, is Winchester School, or, as it was named 
 by its founder William of Wykclmm, the College 
 of St. Mary nf Winchester, founded in iSSii. Its 
 constitution still retains nuich of the impress left 
 on It i)y the great Bishop of the greatest Plan- 
 tagenet King, live centuries ago. Toward the 
 enil of the fuurtiTnth century Oxford was already 
 the center of English e<lucation, but from the 
 want of gmniniar-schools Imys went up by I-un- 
 dreds untaught in the simplest rudiments of 
 learning, and when there lived in private hostels 
 or lodging-houses, in a vast throng, under no 
 discipline, and exposed to many hardships and 
 temptations. In view of this state of things, Wil- 
 liam of Wykeham foimded his grammar-school 
 at Winchester and his college at Oxford, binding 
 the two together, so that the school might send 
 up properly traine<l scholars to the university, 
 when' they would Iw received at New College, 
 in a suitable acmiemlcal home, which should in 
 its turn furnish governors and masters for the 
 school, . . . Next in date comes the n>yal fiun- 
 dation of Eton, or 'Tlie College of the Bli sed 
 Maiy of Eton, near Winiisor. ' It was foiin<led 
 bv Henry VI., A. I). 1446, upon tlie model of 
 Winchester, witli a collegiate establishment of a 
 pn)Vost, ten fellows (roluced to seven in the reign 
 of Edwanl IV.), sevc.ty » " olars, and ten chap- 
 Uins (now reduced to two, ,ho are calliHl ' con- 
 ducts '), and a head and lower master, ten lay 
 clerks, and twelve choristers. Tlie provost and 
 fellows are the governing body, who appoint the 
 head master. . . . Around this center the great 
 ■chool, numl)ering now a tliousand iHiys, has 
 fsthered. the cdjleee. however, stil! T<'t*|nlne lt» 
 own separate organization and traditions. Be- 
 (liles the splendid btiildin^ and playins-flelds at 
 Eton, the college holds real property of Hie yearly 
 
 value of upward of £20,000, and fortv livinge 
 ranging from £100 to £1,200 of yearly value. . . . 
 The school next in date stands out in sharp con- 
 trast to Winchester and Eton. It is St. Paul'! 
 School, founded by Dean Colet. . . . Shrews 
 bury School, which follows next in order ol 
 seniority, claims a royal foundation, but is Ic 
 reality the true child of the town's folk. The 
 dissolution of the monasteries destroyed also th( 
 ser^inaries attached to many of them, to the great 
 in] try of popular ^ucation. This was spe 
 cla ly the case in Shropshire, so in 1 Wl the bailiffs, 
 burgesses, and Inhabitants of 8l;rewsbury and 
 the neighborhood petitioned Edward VI. for a 
 grant of some portion of the estates of the rtis 
 solved collegiate churches for the purpose n\ 
 founding a free school. The Kiii,<r conscntid 
 and granted to the petitioners the apprnpriiiii d 
 tithes of several livings and a c.larter, but di.i: 
 before the school ivas trga'nized. It was in abiv 
 hnce during Mary's rMgo, but opened in the 
 fourth year of Elizabeth, 1562, by Thomas .Aston 
 , . . We have now reached the great group ni 
 Elizabethan schools, to which indeed Shnws 
 bury may also be said to belong, ns it was noi 
 opened until the Queen had been three years or 
 the throne. The two metropolitan sch'iols oi 
 Westminster and Merchant Taylors' were in fari 
 foimded in l-IBO, two years before It opening ol 
 Shrewsbury. Westminster as a roj„i ."onndatiot 
 must take precedence. It is a grammar srhno 
 attached by the Queen to the i'ollc?iitf chiirol 
 of St. Peter, commonly called Westniinstor .\b 
 bey, and founded f,>r the free education of fortj 
 scholars in Latin, Oreck, and Helmw Tin 
 Queen, with characteristic thriftiness, proviili< 
 no emiowment for her school, leaving the cost ol 
 maintenance as a charge on the gemnd nv. nucs 
 of the dean and chapter, which indei-d were ili<> a 
 as now, fully competent to sustain the Imrilcn. 
 . . . Merchant Taylors', the other metropolitan 
 school founded in l.')60, owes its ori^rin to Sii 
 Thomas White, a memlier of the Court of .\ssist- 
 ants of the company, and founder of St. .John's 
 College, Oxford. It was probablv his promise to 
 connect the school with his college whidi in- 
 duced the Company to undertake the task. . . . 
 Sir Thomas White redeemed his , roinise liy en- 
 dowing the school with thirty-seven fellowsliips 
 at St. John's ( i>llege. . . . Kugby. or tlie fret 
 sch(K)l of Lawrence SherifT, follows next in order, 
 having Ix'en founded i.. 15tl7 by Ijinrenee SlurilT, 
 grocer, and citizen of London, His ' iiiien'' (us 
 the <locuinint expressing his wishes isealleillile- 
 dares tliat his lands in Kugby and lirownsovir, 
 and his 'third of a ,>asture-grounil in (iniy's Inn 
 Fields, caMeii Conduit Close,' shall 1m' applied tn 
 inaintain a free grammar scliool for the ( liildrcn 
 of Uugt)y and Hrown8<iver, and the places adjoin- 
 ing, and four p(H>r almsniin of the same jiarislies. 
 These estates, after providing a fair solioolhony' 
 and residences for tlie master and alinsinf n, at 
 first prcHluced a rental of <mly CU lUs 4i| In 
 due time, however. Conduit Close Ueanie a |i:ir( 
 of eentnil l,<>ndon, and Unghy Sc Inxil (lie oi\nri 
 of eight aer-s of houses in and about tlie present 
 I,jtmb's Conduit Stn'et. The income of the whole 
 trust property amounts now to about I'tl.tKW, ol 
 which £2.M Is expendeil on the maintenance ol 
 the twelve slmsmi'U, . . Harrow School wai 
 founde<l In I.")7I, f<mr yean latter than Uugby, bj 
 John Lynn, a yeoman of the parish. Ho wsi 
 owner of certain (null esUkte* In and about Uir 
 
 73-1 
 
EDUCATION. ih«,^^ir,<rf« EDUCATION. 
 
 row and Barnet and of others at Paddtagton and 
 Kilbura. All these he devoted to public nur- 
 poses, but unfortunately gave the former forthe 
 perpetual education of the children and youth of 
 the parish and the latt -r for the maintenance and 
 repair of the highwa-rs from Harrow and Edee- 
 ware to London. The present yearly revenue 
 of the school estates is barely over £1 000 while 
 that of the highway trust is nearly £4.'0OO.' But 
 taough th " poort St in endowments, Harrow, f roni 
 lU nramess to London, and consequent attrac- 
 tions for the classes who spend a targe portion of 
 their year in the metro, lis either In attendance 
 !? V''''?,™e°t. Of for pleasure, has become the 
 rival of Eton as a fashionable school. Last 
 
 on the list of the nine schools comes the Charter- 
 house (the Whitcfriars of TLoCKeray's novels) 
 It may be fairly classed with the Elizabethan 
 schools, though actually founded In 1609 after 
 the accessi-n of James I. In that year a substan- 
 tial yeomi; .. Thomas Sutton by name, purchased 
 from Lord Suffolk the lately dissolved Charter- 
 house, by SinithJield, and obtained letters patent 
 empowering him to found a hospital and school 
 on t,he old site. "-T Hughes, 7%? PuUie &hool» 
 ofbnglandiA. Am. Itev., April. 1879).— Faeginr 
 -"In rougher days it was found, that iu TarKi- 
 schtmls the stronger and targer boys reduced the 
 smaller and wealitr to the condition of IleloU 
 Here the authorities stepped in, and despairinir of 
 eradicating the evil, took the po-er which mere 
 strength had won, and conferred It upon the 
 seniors of the school — the members, that Is of 
 the highest form or forms. As in those du'v.s 
 promotion was pretty much a matter of rotation' 
 every one wlio remained his full time at tin' 
 •chooi, was pretty sun- to reach in time the <iomin- 
 ant class, and the humblest fag looked forward 
 to tlic day when he would join the ranks of the 
 ruling aristocracy. Sleanti.ne he was no longer 
 at the beck of any stronger or ruder classfellow 
 Hi.s ■ niiister ' was in theory, and often in practice' 
 lis bi'st protector: he imposed upon him very 
 ik( ly what may l)e called menial olBces — miidV 
 liim carry home his 'Musie'- field for him at 
 -d.krt- brush his coat; If we are to believe 
 s.Ikk.1 myths and traditions, black his shoes, anil 
 < V, 11 lake the chill off his sheets. The boy, how- 
 i v.r, s;.w the son of a Howard or a Percy simi- 
 larly (inployi-d by his side, and In cheerfully 
 siiliiiiilliiig to an ancient custom, he was but fol- 
 low lii«„„t the tendencies of the age and •la.ss 
 
 o whi,. , he lH.|on|^ed The mere "bolitioii of 
 
 the riL'ht of fagging, vague and undefiu.d as 
 were tlie duties attacheil to l(, would have been 
 a loss rather than a gain to the oppressed as a 
 clxss It would merely have substituted for Ihe 
 Misting law, imiM'rfect and anomalous as tli.it 
 law might be, the licence of i.rute force and iIr. 
 iloniinion of Iwylsh trueulence. . , . Such wis 
 more or less the state of things when he i,', 
 w horn Lnglish education owes so Incalculable a 
 Ucbt. was placed at the head of Kugby School 
 . . It was hoped that he who braved the anci r 
 of his order by his pamphlet on Cliunh Keform 
 — at whose bold and uncompromising laiiuuiiKe 
 bishops stood aghast and ourtly nobles nnioii- 
 strated in vain — would make short work of 
 sncient saws and medisvsl traditions- that a 
 ftvoluUnn In wbool life was at hand. And lluv , 
 were not miiUken. . . . What he did was I 
 •eiJc on the really valuable part of the e»lslin« 
 lyitem — to inipln it with that new Ufe. and 
 
 those lofJer purposes, without which mere In- 
 St tiitions, great or small, must, sooner or later 
 witlier away and perish. His first ,U=p was U> 
 fj'' »!? '""?<"*»'>' c'lange in the actual mtchln- 
 .'ry of the school — one wlich, in itself, amounted 
 to a revolution. The hisrhest form In the sch^ 
 was no longer open to all whom a routine pro- 
 motion miglit raise in course of time to its level. 
 
 m L^^- *" '■*'"''''".' '""•''«")• "ere the only 
 
 ■'sixth for? J"=''.«';r''u ■^■"^ °ew-modelli 
 si-xth form were told, that the privilcirea and 
 
 powir, ^.,neh their predecessors hJETenof^d for 
 
 tl^y ^ ;.«. ?o'/° ^M 'f '^'l'""" '^^ but thTt 
 t cj ^^, re to Iw held for the cojimon good as 
 
 s hilhl^"'" "l'^ '"''"'"■ents of .-utiesandiTpoS! 
 sibihties such as any one with less confidence ta 
 those whom he addressed womd have hesitated 
 
 mitTf '^"^^' ^:*^« ""'1 Pi»inrthat wiS 
 out tlu-ir co-operation then was no hope of 
 keeping ,n check the evils inherent in al^ie°y 
 of boys. Tyranny, fals,.h.Hx , drinking Tny^ 
 spirit, coarsi-iiess, seltishne'. -the evil spirilts 
 that infest schools -these -aey heard Sunday 
 after Sunduv put in their true light by a maiei- 
 tic voice ana a manly pre.s.„,.e, with words ac- 
 icnts ami manner which would live in their mem- 
 ory lor y.i.rs; but they were warned that, to 
 
 l^J^'Z u" l.r?";""' *'r "''"8 more was needed 
 than the M.tehfulncss ot masters and theeuerKV 
 of their chief. They tliemselves must use tS 
 
 arge po^yers, entrusted to tli»m .'-i n^eognitlon of 
 the principle, or rath.rof th. fact, thatlnalarge 
 wc ety of boys some must of necessity hold sway 
 
 o ke,,, down in tliemselves and those aboit 
 'I .'in, prineiples and practices wliKh are ever 
 
 of all that is fair and noble in such institutions 
 iJr. Ai.old i)ers<.v,.red in spite of opposition 
 obloquy, and mi.srepresentatlon. . . But I, 
 firmly establ: •d his system, and his success.,rs. 
 leii d' fenng i training and tempcram.nt fnmi 
 I ill self and from each other, have agn^d in cor- 
 dially suslaining it. His pup.ls and theirs, men 
 in very different walks of life, filling honourable 
 posts at the iimve.>ities and public s.hools, or 
 r Mug the millions of India, or working amonir 
 th. blind and toiling multitudes of our great 
 towns, leel diiily how n ueh of their Usefulness 
 and power they owe to the s<.nse ot high trust 
 
 1 powir 
 I hii.'li di 
 
 and hi,.-li duty ■\ hicli ti' .y lmliilH.d at school 
 Our r>,hl,c.\-h..„h—-ll„ii. J)i,a/,l-iiie „mi In- 
 strnri, ,1 ( hntx r, .\[ai,azii„<. r. 1, jip. 407-409) 
 
 England: A. D. 1699-1870. -The rite of 
 
 tlementary Schools.- •The recognition by tlic 
 
 hnu'lisli Stale of its pi.ramount duty in aiding tlie 
 
 work of national education is scarcely more than 
 
 a generation old, Tlie recognition of the further 
 
 ■md far more extensive work of supplementinir 
 
 i.y state aid, oj by State agency, all deficiencies 
 
 m the supply of scIkh.Is, dates only thirteen vean 
 
 buck [to isfoj; while the equally pitssing duty 
 
 of iiiforcing, by a universil law, the use of the 
 
 o|ip(>rtuiiiliea of education tlius supplied is a 
 
 inatler almost of yestenlay. The State has only 
 
 slowly stepiH'd into Its pn.pcr place : more slowly 
 
 In the case of England than in the case of any 
 
 other of the leadinir European ns'i"u« In 
 
 ir.B9 the SjKiety lor the Propagation of Chris- 
 
 tlan Knowledge was founded, and by it Ttrioiu 
 
 •chools were established throughout the country 
 
 In 1782 Robert Itaikes eiubllshed bis lltit Bus- 
 
 7J5 
 
 !»•!■ 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Education. 
 
 KDUCATION. 
 
 d*7 ichool, and in a few yean the Union, of 
 wUcli be was the founder, had under its contToI 
 schools scattered all over the country. But the 
 most extensive efforts made for popular educa- 
 tion were those of Andrew Bell and Joseph Lan- 
 caster towards the close of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury. . . . They misconceived and misjudged 
 the extent of the work that had to be accom- 
 plished. They became slaves to their system — 
 that which was called the Monitorial system . . . 
 and by elevating it to undue importance they 
 did much to diwredit the very work in which 
 tbev were engaged. . . . Amongst the Noncon- 
 formist followers of Lancaster there arose the 
 British and Foreign School Society; while by 
 those of Bell there was established, on the side 
 representing the Church, the National Society. 
 The former became the recognised agency of the 
 Dissenters, the latu-r of the Church ; and through 
 one or other of these channels Stat" "'d, when it 
 ^rst began to flow, was obliged to take itu course. 
 ... In 1803 the first Sir Robert Peel passed a 
 Bill whi 'a restricted children's labour in factories, 
 and required that reading, writing, and arith- 
 metic should be taught to them during a part of 
 each day. This was the beginning of the factory 
 legislation. . . . In 1807 Mr. Whitcbread intro- 
 duced a Bill for the establishment of parochial 
 schools through the agency of local vestries, who 
 were empowered to draw on the rates for tlie 
 purpose. The House of Commons accepted the 
 Bill, but it was thrown out in the House of 
 Lords. . . . The movement for a State recogni- 
 tion of education was pressed more vigorously 
 when the fears and troubles of European war were 
 clearing away. It was in 1816 that Brougham 
 obtained his Select Committee for Inquiring 
 Into the Education of the Poor in the Metropolis. 
 ... In 1820 Brougham introduced, on the basis 
 of his p;°cvious inquiries, an iMucation Bill. . . . 
 By thfa Bill the issue between tlic contending 
 
 Sarties in tlie State, which was henceforward 
 esUned to be the chief stumbling-block in the 
 way of a State education, was placed on a clear 
 and well-defiued basis. . . . The Church was 
 alarmed at anything which seemed to trench upon 
 what she naturally thought to be her appointed 
 task. The Dissenters dreaded what might add 
 to the impregnability of the Cliurob's strong- 
 holds. . . . When the beginning was actually 
 made it came ... as an almost unnoticed pro- 
 posal of the Executive. In 1833 the sum of 
 £20,000 for public education was placed In the 
 estimates ; it was passed by the Committee of Sup- 
 ply ; and the first step was taken on that course 
 from which the Stiite has never since drawn back. 
 No Icgislution was necessary, . . . The next 
 great step was taken in 183S, when the annual 
 vote was increased from £20,000 to £30,000, and 
 when a spicial department was creoted to super- 
 vise the work. Hitherto grants had been a<l- 
 ministered by the Treasury to meet a certain 
 amount of local exertion, and in general reliuueo 
 upon vague assurances as to maintenance (if tlie 
 schools by hx^al promoters. . . . The ciuiilitions 
 which were soon found to be necessary as secu- 
 rities, either for continuance or for elliciency, 
 were not yet insisted upon. To do this it was 
 necessary to have a Oepartmeut specially devoted 
 !. . this work ; ami the nieanH adoptiil for creating 
 such a Department was one which bad the ad- 
 vantage of requiring no .\(t of Parliament. By 
 an Order In Oouncila Special Committee of the 
 
 Privy Council was established, and, in connec- 
 tion with tUs Committee, a special staff of ofli- 
 cers was engaged. The same year saw the ap- 
 pointment of uie first inspectors of schools. It 
 was thus that the Education Department was 
 constituted. The plan which the advisers of the 
 Oovemment in this new attempt had most at 
 heart was that of a Normal Training College fur 
 teachers. . . . But it was surrounded with so 
 much matter for dispute, gathered during a 
 generation of contention, that the proposal all but 
 wrecked the Government of Lord Melbourne. 
 The Church object-id to the scheme. . . . lu tlie 
 year 1844, after five years of the new adminstra- 
 tion, it was possible to form some estimate, not 
 only of the solid work accomplished, but of tlie 
 prospects of the immediate future. . . . Between 
 1839 and 1844, under the action of the Committee 
 of Council, £170,000 of Imperial fuuds had been 
 distributed to meet £480,000 from local resources. 
 In all, therefore, about one million had lieen 
 spent in little more than ten years. What solid 
 good had this accomplished ? . . . According to 
 a careful and elaborate report in the year 1>H5, 
 only about one in six, even of the children st 
 school, was found able to read the Scriptures 
 with any ease. Even for these "ho power of 
 reading often left them when they tried u secular 
 book. Of reading with intelligence there wus 
 hardly any ; and about one-half of the children 
 who came to school left, it was caleuLited, un- 
 able to read. Only about one ci'ild in four liad 
 mastered, even in the most mechanical way, the 
 art of writing. As regards arithmetic, not two 
 per cent, of the children had advanced as far as the 
 rule of three. . . . The teaching of the sclnmls 
 was In the hands of men who had scarcely any 
 training, and who had often turned to the work 
 because all other work had turned away from 
 them. Under them it was coudu;;ied upmi Hut 
 monitorial system which was the inheritauie 
 from Dr. Bell, the rival of Lancaster The pupils 
 were set to teach ore another. . . . The iu<iuiries 
 of the Committee of Council thus gave the iKath- 
 blow, in public estimation, to the once highly- 
 vaunted monitorial system. But how was it to 
 be replaced? The model of a better state of 
 things was found in the Dutch schools. Tlit't« 
 a selected number of the older pupils, who in- 
 tended to enter upon the profession of teailuiii, 
 were apprenticed, when they had reaclu'd the 
 age of thirteen, to the teacher. . . . After thiir 
 apprenticeship they passed to a Training t'olUue. 
 . . . Accordingly, a new and important start was 
 maile by the Department on the 2.5tli of August 
 1848. . . . In 1851 twenty-tlve Training Cdlhs'is 
 had been established ; and these hud a suri' sup- 
 ply of qualified recruits in the «,000 pupil liaih- 
 ers who were by that time being trained t.i the 
 work. . . . The U'n years between 1»4J ami 1W3 
 saw the Parliamentary grant raised frmu £40, tM) 
 to £100,000 a year, with the certainty of a still 
 further increaa<! as the augmentation gniiiis W 
 teachers and the stipends to pupil teacliers gnw 
 In numlier. Nearly 3,800 schools had biH ii liiiilt 
 with Parliamentary aid, providing acconinu"!*- 
 tion for no less than 540,000 children. Thi' State 
 had contributed towards this more than £4(K),iH)0; 
 and a total expenditure had been incurred in pro- 
 viding schoolsof more than Sl.OOO.OOO . But 
 the system wasas yet only tentative; aiiilainassnf 
 thorny religious Questions had to be faced Ixtfore 
 a really national system could be esuiblibhcJ. 
 
 (30 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Xngliik tklltcatton Act 
 
 of tS70. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 ... All partie* became convinced that the first 
 ftep was to inquire into the merits and defects of 
 the existing system, and on the basis of sound 
 Infonnation to plan some method of advance. 
 Under this impression it was that the Commis- 
 sion on Public Education, of which the Duke of 
 Newcastle was chairman, was appointed in 1858. " 
 The result of the Commission of IS-W was a re- 
 vision of the educational Code which the Com- 
 ■nittee of the Privy Council had formulated. 
 I'he New Code proved unsatisfactory in its worli- 
 tog, and every vear showed more plainly the ne- 
 cessity of a fully organized system of national 
 education. " Out of the discussions there arose 
 two pocieties, which fairly expressed two different 
 views. . . . The first of these was the Education 
 League, started at Birmingham in 1869. . . . lu 
 basis, shortly stated, was that of a compulsory 
 system of school provision, by local authorities 
 through means of local rates ; the schools so pro- 
 vided to be at once free and unsectarian. . . . 
 In this programme the point which raised most 
 opposition was the unsectarian teaching. It was 
 chiefly to counteract this part of the League's 
 objecto that there was formed the Education 
 Union, which urged a universal system based 
 upon the old lines. ... By common consent the 
 time for a settlement was now come. Some 
 guarantee must be taken that the wliolc edifice 
 should not crumble to pieces ; that for local agen- 
 cies there should be substituted local authorities; 
 and that the State should be supplied with some 
 mschinery whereby the gaps in tlie work might 
 ■e supplied. It was in this position of opinion 
 that Mr. Forstcr, as Vice-President, introduced 
 his Education Bill in 1870. . . . The measure 
 passed the House of Lords without any material 
 alteration ; and finally became Law on the 9th of 
 August 1870."— H. Craik, The tHaU in iit HeUi- 
 tion to EdHcatioii.— T\ie schools to whicK the 
 provisions of the Act of 1870 extends, and the 
 regulations under which such schools are to be 
 conducted, are definnl in the Act as follows: 
 "Every elemcntarv school whicli is conducted 
 hi accordance with the following regulations 
 shall be a public elementary school within the 
 m.aning of this Act; and every public element- 
 ary school shall be copducted in accordance with 
 the following regulations (a copy of which regu- 
 lations shall be tonspicuously put up in every 
 such school); namely (1.) It shall not Ik- re- 
 quired, as a condition of any child being admitted 
 Into or continuing In the school, that he shall at- 
 tend or abstain from attending any Sunday 
 school, or any place of religious worship, or that 
 he shall attend any religious observance or any 
 instruction in religious subjecu in tlie school or 
 elsewhere, from which observance or instruction 
 he may be withdrawn by his parent, or that he 
 shall, if withdrawn by his parent, attend the 
 school on any day exclusively set apart for re- 
 ligious observance by the religious body to wluch 
 his parent belongs: (3.) The time or times dur- 
 ing which any religious observance is prac- 
 ti-scd or instruction in religious subjects is given 
 at any meeting of the school shall lie eitlii r at 
 the iK'ginning or at the end or at the begiimiiiin 
 and the end of such meeting, and shall 1* in- i 
 serted in a time-table to be approved by the I 
 Education Department, and to he kppt pi'miii- ! 
 nently and conspicuously affixed in every school- I 
 room; and any scholar may be withdrawn by his j 
 pirent from such observance or instruction with- I 
 47 
 
 out forfeiting any of the other benefits of th« 
 school: (8.) The school shall be open at all 
 times to the inspection of any of Her Majesty's 
 inspectors, so, however, that it shall be no part 
 of the duties of such Inspector to inquire fato 
 any instruction in religious subjects given at 
 such school, or to examine any scholar therein 
 in religious knowledge or in any religious sub 
 ject or book: (4.) 'The school shall be con- 
 ducted in accordance with the conditions required 
 to be fulfilled by an elementary school in order 
 to obtain an annual parliamentary grant."— J. 
 H. Rigg, National Bdumtion, app. A.—" The 
 new Act retained existing inspected schools, . . . 
 it also did away with all denominational classifi- 
 cations of schools and with denominational in- 
 spection, treating all inspected schools as equally 
 belonging to a national system of schools and 
 under national inspection, the distinctions as to 
 inspectors and their provinces being henceforth 
 purely geographical. But the new Act no longer 
 required that public elementary schools estab- 
 lished by volunury agency and under voluntary 
 management should have in tliem any religious 
 character or element whatever, whether as be- 
 longing to a Christian Church or denomination 
 or as connected with a Christian philanthropic 
 society, or as providing for tiie reading of the 
 Scriptures in the school. It was left open to any 
 party or any prson to establish purely volun- 
 tary schools if they tliought fit. But, furtlier- 
 more, the Act made provision for an entirely 
 new class of schools, to be established and (in 
 part) supported out of local rates, to be governed 
 by Iwally-elected School Boards, and to have 
 just such and so much religious instruction given 
 in them as the governing boards might think 
 proper, at times preceding or following the pre- 
 scrilwd secular school hours, and under the pro- 
 tection of a time-table Conscience Clause, as in 
 the case of voluL'ary schools, with this restric- 
 tion only, that in tiiesc schools no catechism or 
 denominational religious formulary of any sort 
 was to be taught. The mode of electing mem- 
 bers to the Scliool Boards was to lie by what is 
 called the cumulative vote — that is, each elector 
 was to have as many votes as there were candi- 
 dates, and these votes he couhl give nil to one, 
 or else liistribute among the candidates as he 
 liked: and all ratopayere were to be electors. 
 . . . The new law . . , made a cliar 8<'paration, 
 in one respect, beiwcen voliintarv and Board 
 f hiiols. Ikitli wore to stand cciually in relation 
 to the National Education Department, under 
 the Privy Council; but the voluntary schools 
 were to have nothing to do with local rates or 
 rate aid, nor Local Uoarcis to have any control 
 over voluntary schools. '—.J. I{. Rig<T, National 
 Kiliifiitioii, rh. 10.— "To sum up ... in few 
 words what may be set down a.% tlie chief char- 
 artcristics of our English systoin of Elementary 
 Kducation, I should say (1) tirst, that whilst about 
 30 per cent, of our school accommodation is 
 under tlie control of school Ixiards, the cost of 
 maintenance being home in part by local rates as 
 well as by the Parliamentary grant, fully 70 per 
 cent, is still in the hands of voluntary school- 
 managers, whose subscriptions take the place of 
 the raU's levied by school boards. (2) In case a 
 deficiency in school aocommudation is rcponcd 
 in any school district, the Education Department 
 liave the power to require that due provision 
 shall be made for the same within a limited time; 
 
 73: 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 #Vm Sdioolt tn 
 Aviaiid. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 m 
 
 ^i : 
 
 "trrr- 
 
 the ' leicw ' to be Bpplled to wtlful defaulten in 
 • TolUDtarT BCbool district being the threat of a 
 board, and in a school board dutrict the auper- 
 cewion of the existing board by a new board, 
 nominated by the Department, and remunerated 
 out of the local rates. (3) Attendance is enforced 
 eirerywhere by bye-laws, worked either by the 
 school board or by the School Attendance Com- 
 mittee: and although these local authorities are 
 often very remiss in discharging their duties, and 
 the magistrates not seldom culpably lenient in 
 dealing with cases brought before them, there 
 are plenty of districts in which regularity of 
 school attendance has been improved fully 10 
 per cent, in the past two or three years. ... (4) 
 The present provision for teachers, and the means 
 in existence for keeping up the supply, are emi- 
 nently satisfactory. Ksides a large but some- 
 what diminishing body of apprenticed pupil 
 teachers, there is a very considerable and rapidly 
 Increasing number of duly qualified assistants, 
 and at their head a large array of certifi'-nted 
 teachers, whose ranks are being repleni. ned, 
 chiefly from the Training Colleges, at the rate of 
 about 2,000 a year. (5) The whole of the work 
 done is examined and Judged every year by in- 
 spectors and inspectors' assistants organised in 
 districts each superintended by a senior inspector 
 — the total cost of this inspection for the present 
 year being estimated at about fl.W.OOO.'— Rev. 
 H. Roe, The Kng. Syttem of Elementary Edtiea- 
 tion {International Health Exhibition, London, 
 1884: Conference on Education, tect. A). — "The 
 result of the work of the Education Department 
 is causing a social revolution in KnglancL If the 
 character of the teaching is too mechanical, if 
 the chief aim of the teacher is to earn as much 
 [-•oney as possible for his managers, it must be 
 remembered that this cannot be done without at 
 least giving the pupil the ability to read and 
 write. Of course the schools are not nearly so 
 good as the friends of true education wish. Much 
 remains to be done. . . Free education will 
 shortly be an accomplished fact ; tb" partial ab- 
 sorption of the voluntary schools by the School 
 Boards will necessarily follow, and further facili- 
 tate the abolition of what have been the cause of 
 so much evil — result examinations, and 'grant 
 payments.' 'Write "Grant fiiftory" on three- 
 fourths of our schools,' said .iii educator to mc. 
 . . . The schools are known as (1) Voluntary 
 Schools, which have been built, and are partly 
 supported by voluntary subscriptions. These 
 arc under denominational control. (2) Boanl 
 Schools: viz., schools built and supported by 
 money raisiHl bv local taxation, and controlled by 
 elected School boards. Out of 4,688,000 pupils 
 in the elementary schools. 2,154.000 arc in the 
 schools known as Voluntary, provided by, and 
 under the control of the Church of England; 
 1,780,000 are In Board Schools; 830,000 attcu.l 
 schools under the British School Society, or 
 other undenominational control; 'i48,000 arc in 
 Roman Catholic schools; and 174.000 belong 
 to Wcsleyan schools. The schools here spoken 
 of correspond more nearly than any other in 
 England to the Public School of the United 
 States and Australia ; but are in many respects 
 very different, chiefly from the fact that they 
 are provided expressly for the poor, and in 
 many cases are attended by no other class." 
 — w. C. Oratby, Teaching in Three Continentt, 
 •A. 2. 
 
 Bnf land ; A. D. 1891.— Attainment of Pne 
 Edncation.— In 1891, a bill passed Parliament 
 which i'ms at making the elementary schools of 
 the country free from the payment of fees. The 
 bill as explained in the House of Commons, 
 "proposed to give a grant of 10s. per head to 
 each scholar in average attendance between five 
 and fourteen years of age, a >J as regarded such 
 children schools would either become wholly 
 free, or would continue to charge a fee reduced 
 by the amount of the grant, according as the fee 
 at present charged did or did uot erceed IO9. 
 When a school bad become free it would remain 
 free, or when a fee was charged, the fee would 
 remain unaltered unless a change was required 
 for the educational benefit of tie locality; and 
 under this arrangement he believed that two- 
 thirds of the elementary schools in England and 
 Wales would become free. There would be no 
 standard limitations, but the grant would be re- 
 stricteii to schools where the compulsory power 
 came in, and as to the younger children, it was 
 proposed that in no case should the fee charged 
 exceed 2d." In a speech made at Birmingham on 
 the free education bill, Mr. Chamberlain dis- 
 cussed the opposition to it made by those who 
 wished to destroy the denominational schools, 
 and who objected to their participation in the 
 proposed extension of public support. "To de- 
 stroy denominational schools," he said, "was now 
 an impossibility, and nothing was more astonish- 
 ing than the progress they had made since tlie 
 Education Act of 1870. He had thought, he 
 said, they would die out with the establishment 
 of Board schools, but he had been mistaken, for 
 in the lost twenty-three years they had doubled 
 their accommodation, and more than doubled 
 their subscription list. At the present time they 
 supplied accommodation for two-thirds of the 
 children of England and Wales. That belns the 
 case, to destroy voluntary schools — to supply 
 their places witli Board schools, as the Daily 
 News cheerfully suggested — would be to in- 
 volve a cai ;ial expenditure of £50,000,000, and 
 £5,000,000 extra yeariy in rates. But whither 
 voluntary or denominational schools were good 
 or bad, tlicir continued existence had nothing to 
 do with the question of free cduca'ion, and 
 ought to be kept quite distinct from it. To 
 make schools free was not to give one penny 
 extra to any denominational endowment. At 
 the present time the fee was a tax, and if the 
 parents did not pay fees they were brought be- 
 fore the magistrates, and if they still did not pay 
 they might be s-nt to gaol. The only thiu.i; the 
 Government proposed to do was not to altir the 
 tax but to alter the incidence. The same amount 
 would be collected; it would be paid by the 
 same people, but it would be collected from 
 the whole nation out of the general taxation." 
 The bill was passed by the Commons July S, 
 and by the Lonls on the 24th of the same month. 
 The free education proposals of the Oovernnunt 
 are said to have been generally accepted thnuiKh- 
 out the country by both Board and Voluntary 
 schools.— .InnwaJ Jiegitter, 1891, pp. 128<ij/'/97", 
 and pt. 2, p. 51. 
 
 France: A. D. 1565-1802.— The Jesuits.— 
 Port Royal.— The Revolotion.— Napoleoa.— 
 "The .Jesuits invadeti the province lonsr r'lled 
 by the University alone. By that adroit man- 
 agement of men' for which they have nlways 
 been eminent, and by the more liberal spirit ot 
 
 738 
 
EDUCATION. F, 
 
 thdr metboda, they outdid in popularit; their 
 Buperuinusted rival. Their flnt school at Paris 
 was established in 1S6S, and in 1762, two years 
 before their dissolution, they had eighty-six col- 
 leges in France. They were followed by the 
 Port Royalists, the Benedictines, the Oratorians 
 The Port Royal schools [see Port Royal], from 
 which perhaps a powerful influence upon educa- 
 tion might have been looked for, restricted this 
 influence bv limiting verjr closely the number of 
 their pupils. Meanwhile the main funds and 
 endowments for public education in France were 
 in the University's hands, and its administration 
 of these was as InelTectiT'e as its teaching. . 
 The University had originally, as sources of 
 revenue, the Post Office and the Messageries, or 
 Office of Public Conveyance: it had lone since 
 been obliged to abandon the Post Office to 
 Qovemment, when in 1719 it gave up to tlie 
 same authority the privilege of Uie Messageries 
 receiving io return from the State a yearly 
 revenue of 150,000 livres. For this payment, 
 moreover, it undertoolc the obligation of mailing 
 thcinstruiticn in all its principal colleges gra- 
 tuitous. Paid or gratuitous, however, its in- 
 struction was quite inadequate to the wants of 
 the time, and when the Jesuits were expelled 
 from France in 1764, their establishments cWd, 
 and their services as teachers lost, the void that 
 was left was strikingly apparent, and public 
 attention began to be drawn to it. It is well 
 known how Rousseau among writers, and Tur- 
 got among statesmen, busied themselves with 
 schemes of education: but the interest in the 
 subject must have reached the whole bod? of the 
 community, for the instructions of all three 
 orders of the States General in 1789 are unani- 
 mous in demanding the reform of education, and 
 its establishment on a proper footing. Then 
 came the Revolution, and the work of reform 
 soon went swimmingly enough, so far as the 
 abolition of the old schools was concerned. In 
 1791 the colleges were all placed under the con- 
 trol of the administratis authorities ; in 1792 
 the jurisdiction of the University vas abolished : 
 in 1793 the property of the colleges was ordered 
 to be sold, the proceeds to be taken by the State : 
 in September of the same year the suppression 
 of all ihe great public schools and of all the Uni- 
 versity faculties was pronounced. For the work 
 of reconstruction Condorcet's memorable plan 
 had in 1793 been submitted to the Committee of 
 Public Instruction appointed by the Legislative 
 Assembly. This plan proposed a secondary school 
 for everv 4,000 inhabitanU; for each depart- 
 ment, a uepartmenul institute, or higher school ; 
 nine lyce s, schools c.irrying th t studies yet 
 liigher than the departmental int.. ite, for the 
 whole of France; and to crown the edifice, a 
 National Society of Sciences and Arts, corre- 
 sponding in the main with the present institute 
 of France. The whole expense of national in- 
 struction was to be borne by the State, and this 
 expense was estimated at 29,000,000 of francs 
 But 1793 and 1798 were years of furious agita- 
 tion, when it was easier to destroy than to build. 
 Condorcet perished -Arith the Girondists, and the 
 reconstruction of public education did not begin 
 till after the fall of Robespierre. The decrees 
 of the Convention for establishing the Normal ! 
 School, the Polytechnic, the School of Mines, 
 and the icoles centrales, and then Daunou's law 
 in 1795, bore, however, many traces of Condor- 
 
 "• EDUCATION. 
 
 cet's design. Daunou's law established primair 
 schools, centr ' schools, special schools, and at 
 the Iliad of u lie Institute of France, this last 
 a memorable mid enduring creation, with which 
 the old French Academy became incorporated. 
 By Daunou's taw, also, freedom was given to 
 private persons to open schools. The new legis- 
 lation had many defects. . . . The country, too, 
 was not yet settled enough for its education to 
 organise itself successfully. The Normal School 
 speedily broke down: the central schools were 
 established slowly and with difficulty; in the 
 course of tlie four years of the Directory there 
 were nominally instituted ninety-one of these 
 schools, but they never really worked. More 
 was accomplished by private schools, to which 
 full freedom was given by the new legislation, 
 at the same time that an ample and open field 
 lay before them. They could not, however, suf- 
 fice for the work, and eilucation was one of the 
 matters for which Napoleon, when he became 
 Consul, had !■ > provide. Fnurcroy's law, in 1803, 
 took as the ba.sis of its school-system secondary 
 schools, whether established by tlie communes 
 or by private individuals; the Government un- 
 dertook to aid these schools by „rants for build- 
 ings, for scholarships, and for gratuitifs to the 
 masters; it prescribed Latin, French, geography, 
 history, and mathematics as the instruction to be 
 given in them. They were placed under the 
 superintendence of the prefects. To continue 
 and complete the secondary schools were insti- 
 tuted the lyeeums; here the instruction was to 
 be On'ek and Latin, rhetoric, logic, literature, 
 moral philosophy, and the elements of the matb- 
 ematicai and physical sciences. The pupils 
 were to be of four kimls : boursiers nationaux, 
 scholars nominated to scholarships by the State; 
 pupils from the secondary schools, admitted as 
 free scholars by competition: paying boarders 
 and paying day-8cho!ars."— M. Arnold, Sehoolt 
 ami Unirertitieii on the Cimtinent. <•/■ 1. 
 
 France : A. D. 1833-1889.— The present Sy»- 
 tem of Public Instruction.— " The question of 
 the education of youth is one of those in which 
 the struggle between the Catholic Church and 
 the civil power has been, and still is, hottest. It 
 is also one of those in which BVance, wliich for a 
 long time had remained far in the rear, has made 
 most efforts, and achieved most progress in these 
 latter years. . . . Napoleon I. conceived educa- 
 tion aa a means of disciplining minds and wills 
 and moulding them into conformity with the po- 
 litical system which he had put in force: accord- 
 ingly he gave the University the monopoly of 
 public education. Apart from the official system 
 of teaching, no competition wa' allowed except 
 that specially authorised, regulated, and con- 
 trolled by the State itself. Religious instruction 
 found a place in the olflcial programmes, and 
 members of the clergy were even called on to 
 supply it. but this instruction itself, and these 
 priests themselves, were under the authority of 
 the State. Hence two results; on the one hand 
 the speedy impoverishment of University eauca- 
 tion, . . . on the otlier hand, the incessant agita- 
 tion of all those wiio were prevented by the 
 special organisation given to the University from 
 expounding their ideas or the faith that was in 
 them from the profesanri.i! ch.iir This agita- 
 tion was begun and carried on by the Catholic 
 Church itself, as soon as it felt more at liberty to 
 let its ambitions be discerned. On this point the 
 
 
 :iii;i' 
 
 !* '!l 1,1 
 
 (39 
 
;k''>j 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 IVyWMft 
 adkool Sifitm. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 Oburch met with the lupport of a good number 
 of Llbenli, and it ii In a crest measure to its in- 
 itlatire that an due the three important lawa of 
 1883, 1800, and 1875, which have reapectirely 
 given to Prance freedom of primary education, 
 of secondary education, and Anally tliat of liigher 
 education ; which have given, that ia to say, the 
 right to every one, under certain conditions of 
 capacity and character, to open private schools 
 in competition with the three orders of public 
 schools. But the Church did not stop there. 
 Hardly had it insured liberty to its educational 
 institutior.it — a liberty by which all citizens 
 might r fit alike, but of which its own strong 
 organisi .inn and powerful resources enabled it 
 more easily to take advantage — hardly was this 
 result obtained than the Church tried to lay 
 hands on the University itself, and to make its 
 doctrines pai amount there. . . . Thence arose 
 a movement hostile to the enterprises of the 
 Church, which has found expression since 1880 
 in a series of laws which ezc Jed her little by 
 little from the positions she had won, and only 
 left to her, as to all other citizens, the liberty to 
 teach apart from, and concurrently with, the 
 State. The right to confer degrees has been 
 given back to the State alone ; the privilege of 
 the ' letter of obedience ' has been abolished ; re- 
 ligious teaching *•••^ been excluded from the 
 primary schools; and after having 'laicized,' as 
 the French phrase is, the curriculum, the effort 
 was persistently made to ' laicize ' the staff. . . . 
 From the University point of view, the territory 
 of France is divided into seventeen academies, 
 the chief towns of which are Paris, Douai, Caen, 
 Rennes, Poitiers, Bordeaux, Toulouse, Mont- 
 pellier, Alx, Grenoble, Chamb£ry, Lyons, Besan- 
 con, Nancy, Dijon, Clermont, and Algiers. 
 Each academy has a rector at its head, who, 
 under the authority of the Minister of Public 
 Tnstruction, is charged with the material admin- 
 '.stration of higher and secondary education, and 
 with the methods of primary instruction in his 
 district. The administration of this last belongs 
 to the prefect of each department, assisted by an 
 academy-inspector. In each of these three suc- 
 cessive stages — department, academy, and central 
 administration — is pit) cd a council, possessing 
 administrative and c' cipliimiT powers. The 
 Departmental Councl. of Public Instruction, 
 which comprises six oiflclala . . . forms a disci- 
 plinary council for primary education, either 
 public or free (i. e. , State or private). This coun- 
 cil sees to the application of programmes, lays 
 down rules, and appoints one or more delegates 
 in each canton to superintend primary schools. 
 llie Academic Council . . . performs similar 
 functions with regard to secondary and higher 
 e<1ucation. The Higher Council of Public In- 
 struction sits at Pans. It comprises forty-four 
 electe<l representatives of the three educational 
 orders, nine University otncials, and four 'free' 
 schoolmasters appointe<l by the Minister, and is 
 the disciplinary court of appeal for the two pre- 
 ceding councils. . . . Such is the framework, 
 ailministrative as well as Judicial, in which edu- 
 cation, whether public or free, lives and moves. 
 . . . Since 1883 Primary Education has been 
 compulsory for all children of both sexes, f-om 
 tlip age of six to the end of the thirteenth year, 
 unless before reaching the latter age they have 
 bci'n able to pass an examination, and to gain the 
 certificate of primary studies. To saosfy the 
 
 law, the child's name must be entered at a pob- 
 lie or private school ; he may, however, continua 
 to receive Instruction at home, but in this rase, 
 after he has reached the age of eight, he must bs 
 examined every year before a State board. . . . 
 At the age of thirteen the child is set free from 
 further teaching, whatever may be the results of 
 the education he has received. ... In piihllc 
 schools the course of instruction does not include, 
 as we have said, religious teaching ; but one day 
 in the week the school niust take a holiday, to 
 allow parents to provide such teaching for tlicir 
 children, if they wish to do so. 'The schral 
 building cannot be used for that purpose. In 
 private schools religious instruction may lie 
 given, but this is optional. The programme of 
 primary education Includes: moral and civic In- 
 struction; raading, writing, French, geography 
 and history (particularly those of France); gea- 
 eral notions of law and science ; the elements of 
 drawing, modelling, and music ; and gymnastics. 
 No person of either sex can become a teacher, 
 either public or private, unless he possesses the 
 'certlflcate of capacity for primary instruction' 
 given by a State lx>ara. For the future — put- 
 ting aside certain temporary arrangements — no 
 meml>er of a religious community will be eligible 
 for the post of master in a public school. . . . 
 As a general rule, every commune is compilled 
 to maintain a public school, and, if it has more 
 than 500 inhabitants, a second school for girls 
 only. . . . The sum total of the State's expeiL^es 
 for primary education in 1887 is as high as eiglitj'- 
 flve million francs (£3,400,000), and that without 
 mentioning grants for school buildings, whereas 
 in 1877 the sum total was only twelve millions 
 (£480,000). . . . From 1877 to 1886, the number 
 of public schools rose from 61,000 to 6(i,.'iOO; 
 that of the pupils from 4,300,000 to 4,riW,l)nn, 
 with 96,600 masters and mistresses ; that of train- 
 ing schools for male teachers from 79 to H9, o( 
 training schools for female teachers from IH to 
 '?7, with 5,400 pupils (3,500 of them womrn). and 
 1,200 masters As to the results a single fact 
 will sufllce. In these ten years, before the gen- 
 erati ns newly called to military service have 
 Ijeeu iible to profit fully by the new state of 
 things, the proportion of llliterato recruits (which 
 is annually made out directly after the lots are 
 drawn) has already fallen from 15 to 1 1 per cent. " 
 — A. Lebon and P. Pelet, Franeeat it in, eh. .I.— 
 " In 1873, after the dreadful disaster of the war, 
 Monsieur Thiers, President of the Oouvemcment 
 de la Defense Nationale, and Monsieur .lules 
 Simon, Minister of Public Instruction, felt that 
 what was most important for the nation was a 
 new system of public instruction, and they set 
 themselves the task of determining the basis on 
 which this new system was to be established. In 
 September, 1883, Monsieur Jules Simon issued a 
 memorable circular calling the attention of all 
 the most distinguished leaders of thought to 
 some proposed plans. He did not long remain in 
 power, but in his retirement he wrote a Ixwik en- 
 titled: ' Refornie ill! rEnseignement S<!CiiTiii:iire.' 
 Monsieur Breal, who was commissioned to visit 
 the schools of Germany, soon after published 
 another book which aroused new enthusiasm in 
 France. . . . From that day a complete i-duoa- 
 tional reform was decided on. In 1873 we had 
 at the Minister^ de I'lnstructlon Publique tlirp.e 
 distinguished men: Monsieur Dumont for the 
 Enaeignement Supirieur, one from whom we 
 
 740 
 
EDCCATION. 
 
 IrUh 
 tfalUmat aduoU. 
 
 BDCCATION. 
 
 ^n^j^VSL'^ whoae airly death we had to 
 mourn in 1884 ; Momieur Zevort for the Enseiirne- 
 ment Secondaire. who al«odied ere the good feed 
 
 rrult (1887); and Monsieui Bulsson to whose wis- 
 dom zeal, and energy we owe most of the wort 
 of the Enseignement Primalre. At their side 
 of ^turer years than they, stood Monsieur Ore- 
 sid, Recteur de I'Acadtoie de Paris. All 
 
 «ie educationists of the first French Revolution 
 hwiinsisted on the solidarity of the three orders 
 of education; maintaining that it was not pes- 
 slWe to separate one from another, and thatthore 
 ought to be a close correspondence between them 
 P"^'P'e lies at the root of the whole svs- 
 ^„°1 ^rench national Instruction. Having es- 
 tablUhed this principle, the four leaders called 
 upon all chuses of teachers to work with them 
 and professors who had devoted their life tr the 
 promotion of superior hutructlon brough* thpu- 
 experience and their powers of organization lo 
 bear upon schools for all classes, from the richett 
 to the poorest. . . Brt to reform and w recon- 
 struct a system of instruction U not a small task 
 It to not easy to change at once the old methods 
 to give a new spirit to the masters, to teach those 
 who think that what had been sufficient for them 
 need not be altered and is sufficient forever 
 However, we must say that as soon as the French 
 tMChers heard of the great changes which were 
 about to take place, they were alf anxious to rise 
 to the demands made on them, and were eager 
 for advice and help. Lectures on pedagogy and 
 psychology were given to them by the highest 
 professors of philosophy, and these lessons were 
 so much apprecated that the attention of the 
 pni^".r8ity of France was called to the necessity 
 foi .eatmg at the Sorbonne a special course of 
 lectures on pedagogy. Eleven hundred masters 
 and mistresses attended them the first year that 
 thev were inaugurated; from that time till now 
 their number has always been increasing Now 
 we have at the Sorbonne a Chaire Magistrale and 
 Conferences for the training of masters and pro- 
 fessors; and the faculties at Lyons. Bordeaux 
 Nancy, and Montpellier have followed the ex- 
 ?SE'*.u'^',*,° ?' ''"' Sorbonne, Paris. ... In 
 iSS' I, ""JS* Pfdagogique was fo.inde<l; in 
 1883, began the publication of the Revue Peda- 
 gogique and the Kevue Internationale de I'En- 
 selgnement Four large volumes of the Diction- 
 nalre de Fedagogie, each containing about S 000 
 
 ^i JI.*"^?^*** P"?*"' ^^"^ "''«' <=o™« out under 
 the editorship of Monsieur Bulsson, all the work 
 of zealous teachers and educationists. In 1879 
 normal schools were ocenod. Then in 1880 ari- 
 mary 8oh.«ls. and in 188S we may gay that the 
 tcoles Matcmellcs and the Ecotos Enfaatines 
 were created so different are they from the infant 
 -chools or the Salles d'Asilc; iu 1883 a new ex- 
 amination was established for the Profcssorat and 
 the Direction des Ecoles Normalcs, as well as for 
 
 Ini. ?Lm"'.'? °f P''™*'? '"'"-"rtion; and In 
 July, 1889, the law about ^ablic and private 
 teaching was promulgated, perhaps one of the 
 most Important that has ever been passed by the 
 Republic. '-Mme. Th. Armagnac. The dtuea- 
 twnal Senawance of France (Bdueation. Sept., 
 
 wh 1 "•,*• °: '*9»-l«9i.-Statiitici.-The 
 whole number of pupils regtatered in the pri- 
 mary, elementary and superior schools, public and 
 pnvate, of France and Algiers (excluding the 
 
 741 
 
 «cole« matarnelles") for the school-yeir 18«H 
 
 n .•r.iT" W'?f^-.°' ^'''='' 4,884,9i55 wereln 
 public schools (3,760,801, "laluue," and 624 804 
 congrSganiste ■'), and 1,2.)8,«78 in orivata 
 ^"°\ (J',»;«3 ''!a-ques,"'and l,Oi57 866 "co^ 
 greguiUte '2. Of 36,484 communes, 35,508 pSS- 
 sessed a public school, and 875 weri join^i for 
 school purposes with another commune. The 
 «,^rf^."*'''lw ""P'''?"^ '" '•"« elementary and 
 ??i^ 8!?yiS"''°°'» numbered 28,657; female 
 sl^Scfln^ **' hi? = "'^r|.''2-''^-Minlst^re de rin 
 
 1890^1891 P"'Mtre pour Vannie uolaire 
 
 F<'nciTfnnTi"'?"' P'^'^"' ^yfeni of National 
 E'lucation ic Ireland was founded in 1831 In this 
 year grants of public money for the education of 
 wd/rThHrfr""";"!""* '°'''« lord-lieutenant?n 
 tlnn nf^l"**^ might be applle.1 to the educa 
 
 given to children of every religious belief and 
 to be superintended by commissTone™ ap^'in^ 
 
 fhP^lf"^"*- 7^" «««' principle on «S 
 the system was founded was that of Mmi ed 
 
 secular and separate rellgic IS instruction.' No 
 child should be required to attend any religious 
 ^struction which should be contmry t^^ th^ 
 
 T^.f J" •" S' ■■" P""^"'* Of guardians 
 Times were to be set apart during w-hlch chill 
 dren were to have such religious instruction as 
 their parenta might think proper. It was to be 
 the dutv of the bommissioLrT to s/e that the^ 
 Principles were earned out and not infringed on 
 fn any way. They had also power to giveo? 
 refuse money to those who applied for aid to 
 
 ^»i i^\°?''- .,^'""'' "« '^«s'«'l' and 'non 
 vested.' Vested schools are those built by the 
 
 ^^t "^ ^'."'""" E-i^^'ion ; non-vested scWo s 
 are the ordinary schools, and are managed by 
 those who built them If , commltne of pe/. 
 sons build a school it is looked on ..,• the B.!ard 
 if ,f?^"^K " » landowner or private per- 
 son builds a school, he is regarded as the patron 
 if he has no committee. The patron, wluther 
 landlord or committee, has pownr .o appoint or 
 dismiss a manager, wfco corresponds wit., tlie 
 Board. The manager is also responsible for tlip 
 due or thorough observance of the laws s ■ 
 rules Teachers are paid by him after he C(- • 
 lies that the laws have been kept, and gives .ue 
 attendance for each quarto'. \v heu an indi- 
 vidual Is putron he may appoint himself mana- 
 ger, and thus fill both offices. ... The -.achera 
 are paid by salaries and by results fees. The 
 Boards of (Juardians have power to contribute 
 to these results fees. Some unions do so and are 
 called contnl.iitory.' School managers in Ire- 
 and are nearly .'•-ays clerics of some denomina- 
 tion. 1 here are sometimes, but very rarely lav 
 managers, . . , From the census returns of 1881 
 It appear that but fifty-nine per cent, of the 
 people of Ireland are able to read and write 
 1 lie greater numlier of national schools through- 
 out Ireland are what are called 'unmixed,' that 
 is, attended by chlhlreu of one denomination 
 only. The rest of the schools are called ' mixed ' 
 that is attended by children of diflfcrent forms 
 of religion The percentage of schools that show 
 a mixed attendance U'nds tn hwome amaller 
 each year. . There ue also twenty-nine 
 model schools in different parta of Ireland 
 I hese schools are managed directly by the Board 
 of National EducaUon. . . . According to the 
 
 III 
 
 ttm 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Prumia. 
 
 BDCCATION. 
 
 r 
 
 report of the Commiasionen o( Katlonal Educa- 
 tion for 1890, the ' percentage of average attend- 
 ance to the average number of children on the 
 rolls of the schools waa but 59.0,' and the per- 
 centage of school attendance to the estimated 
 population of school age in Ireland would be 
 ess than 50. Different reasons might be given 
 for tills small percentage of attendance. The 
 chief reasons are, first, attendance at school not 
 being compulsory, and next, education not being 
 free. . . . The pence paid for school fees in Ire- 
 laml may seem, to many people, a small matter. 
 But in a country like Ireland, where little money 
 cireulttU'S, and a number of the people are very 
 poor, school pence arc often not easily found every 
 week. In 1890. £104,.'»0 4a. and 8d. was paid 
 in school fees, being an average of 4s. 3Jd. per 
 unit of average attendance. " — The Irith Peasant ; 
 by a (hiiiniiaiiofthe Px'r, eh. 8. 
 
 Norway. — "In 1739 the schools throughout 
 the country were regulated by a royal ordinance, 
 but this paid so little regard to the economical 
 and physical condition of Norway that it had to l)e 
 alteri'd and modified as early as 1741. Compul- 
 sory instruction, however, had thus been !idopt*Ht, 
 securing to every child in the country instruction 
 in the Christian doctrine and in reading, and this 
 C(MTei(>n was retained in all later laws. . . . 
 Many portions of the country are intersected bv 
 higli mountains and di-ep fiords, so that a small 
 population is scattered over a surface of several 
 miles. In such localities the law has established 
 ' ninliulatory schools,' whose teachers travel 
 fniiii one farm to another, livine with the dilTer- 
 inl piMisants. Although this kind of instruction 
 has often In^eu most incomplete and the teachers 
 very meiliiKre, still eilucatlonal coercion has 
 everywhere iM'en in force, and Christian instruc- 
 tion even-where provided for the children. 
 These ' iinibulatory scIichiIs ' formerly ixistetl in 
 larpe numbers, but witli the Inrtease of wealth 
 ana population, ai.d the growing inU'ri'st taken 
 in eduralion. tlieir number has gradually dimin- 
 ished, and tiiat of fixed circle-schools augmented 
 in the same pn)pi)rtion " — O. Oaite, Ilen't en the 
 Ulunitioiuil Sj/Klemof Xorviiy (('. .S. liureiiu of 
 Riiinitinn, Cireulart of Informatiiin, July, 1871). 
 — •' He'iool attendance is d mpulsory for at least 
 13 wet .ji each year for all ' lilldren in the coun- 
 try districts from 8 years of age to conflrniafion, 
 anil from 7 years to confirmation in the towns 
 Aeronliiig to the law of 1889, which In a meas- 
 ure only empha»l.:e« pri'cedlng laws, eaili school 
 la to have the necessary furnishinis ami all 
 indispeiisiible phool material. The Norwegians 
 are so intent upon giving Inatrucllon to all cliil- 
 dren Miat in case of poverty of the parents the 
 autliiirllles furnish text liooaa an<! ''le necessary 
 clothing, so tliHt sehiM)! privileges may Ih' ac- 
 conled to all of sehisil age,"—" 8 Comra'r of 
 K.Im.-.i(I..ii, /4;►./•^ 18H9-90, n. 913 
 
 Pruttta: A. D. 1809.— Educktion and the 
 liberation moTemcnt.— ' ' The most linmirtant era 
 In the history of p\ibUc Instruction in rnisBla, as 
 well as in nther parts of Germany. o|«'ns with the 
 olTorIa put forth by the king and (K'ople. to rcM'ue 
 thi' kingdom from the yoke of NHi>oleon In 1^109 
 In that year the army was if modeleil and every 
 citizen converted Into a soldier, lamled properly 
 w^ i{i''.-!!ire'J free of feiiiltti Mervlee n>MtrlrtioriH 
 onfreethiniof trade werealHillslied. and the whole 
 itate was n'orgntilwd Oreni nlliini'r wa« placed 
 on Infusing a Oerinnn spirit liiin the jKople by 
 
 giving them freer access to Improvcil institutions 
 of e<liicatlon from the common school to the uni- 
 versity. Under the councils of llardenberg. 
 Humboldt, Stein, Altenstein, these reforms and 
 improvements were projectied, carried on, and 
 perfected in less than a single generation. The 
 movement in liehalf of popular schools com- 
 mence<l by inviting C. A. Zeller, of Wirtemberg, 
 to Prussia. Zeller was a young theologian, who 
 had studied under Pestalozzi in Switzerland, and 
 was tlioroughly imbued with the method ■■ i 
 spirit of his master. On his return be had con- 
 vened the school teachers of WIrtemberg in bams, 
 for want of better accommodations being allowed 
 him, and inspired them with a zeal for I'esta- 
 lozzi's methods, and for a better education of the 
 whole people. On removing to Prussia he firet 
 took charge of the seminary at KoenigstxTc, soon 
 after founded the seminary at Karalene, and went 
 about into different provinces meeting with 
 teachers, hoMlng conferences, visiting scliools, 
 and inspiring school oflicers with the right spirit. 
 The next step taken was to send a number of 
 young men, mostly theologians, to Pestalozzi'a 
 institution at Ifferten, to acquire his metlnHl. and 
 on their return to place them in new, or reorgan- 
 ized teachers' seminaries. To these new igents 
 in school Improvement were joined a large liody 
 of zealous teachers, and patriotic ami enlightened 
 citizens, who, in ways and metluHls nf their own, 
 lalKin-d Incessantly to I'onlirm the lYussian state, 
 by forming new organs for its internal life, and 
 new means of protection from foreign foes. 'They 
 proved themselves truly educators of the people. 
 .Although the government thus not only encour- 
 aged, but directly ai'"tKl in the Introduction of 
 the methods of PestaU.zzl into tlie public 8<hoola 
 of Prussia, still the school board In the different 
 provinces sustained and encouraged those who 
 approved and tauglit on different systems . . . 
 Music, which was one of Pestalozzi's gnat In- 
 struments of culture, waa maile the vehicle of 
 patriotic songs, and through them the hear! of 
 all Germany wi« moved to bitu>r hatred n( the 
 concjucror who hail desolated her flilils an<l 
 homes, and humbleil the pride of her monarrhy. 
 All tlies<> efforts for the Improvement of element- 
 ary I'ducation, accompanied by expensive iiiihII- 
 ficatlons In the establUhments of seconilary and 
 suiM'rioreilucatlon, were made when the treasury 
 was impoverished, ami taxes the mo-t ex.irl.itant 
 in amount were levied on every iiMvini' ami 
 eommune of the kingdom. " — 11. Itariiar'l. .Vi- 
 tiiiiml fiiiiie.ition in Kiirime. /i;i W.V*\ — Kortliia 
 iiotHlile educational work iHgun in Prussia In 
 1S09. and which gave a new cimracUT In llie na- 
 tion, "the Pr.vldentUl man apiM^and In Hum- 
 ixildt. . i gri'at a muster of the science and art i>f 
 educati m as Scharuhorst was a master of the 
 organlsatlnii of war. Not only was he liliii«lf, 
 as a scholar and an InTcstlgator, on a level with 
 the very first of his age, not only had he lived 
 with pneisely those maaters of literatun'. S<hil- 
 ler and tJiwlhe. who wiTC most deliberate in Ihtlr 
 self culluri', ami have therefore left Uhiml mwt 
 lustnictioii on llie hlglier parts of education. Imt 
 he had iM'eii »|ieclally intimate with K A Wdf 
 It is not generally known In England tint \V"lf 
 was not menly the gnatest phllologer Imt also 
 the gr<>ateBt U'aeher and ediicathmlst of Ills linw. 
 . . h'ormeti liy such tea<'liers, and supportiti by 
 a more intenar Ix-lief In culture than almost any 
 man of his time, Humboldt liegan his work la 
 
 743 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Uumboldti 
 "ork in Pnutta. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 April. 1809. In primur education Fichte had 
 already pointed to PeBtalozzi as tlie best guide 
 Oi.e of that reformer's disciples, C. A. Zeller. 
 was summoned to KOnigsberg to found a normal 
 school, while the reformer himself, in his weekly 
 eduaitional journal, cheered fallen Prussia by his 
 panegyric, and wrote enthusiastically to Nicolo- 
 Tius pronouncing him and hia friends the salt 
 and leaven of the earth that would soon leaven 
 the whole mass. It is related that in the many 
 difficulties which Zeller not unnaturally had to 
 contend with, the King's genuine benevolence, 
 interest in practical improvement, and strong 
 fsmily feeling, were of decisive use. . . . The 
 reform of the Oymnasia was also highly success- 
 ful. 8Qvem here was among the most active of 
 those who worked under Humboldt's direction 
 In deference to h-! authority of Wolf the classics 
 preserved their tra<titlonaI position of honour, 
 and particular importance was attached to Greek! 
 . . . But it was on the highest department of 
 education that Humboldt left his mark most 
 visibly. He founded the University of Berlin; 
 he gave to Europe a new seat of learning, which 
 httH ever since stood on an equality with the very 
 greatest of those of which Europe boastcil before. 
 We are not indeed to suppose that the idea of 
 such a University sprang up for the first time 
 at thi.s moment, or in the brain of Humlmldt. 
 Among all the losses which befell Prussia by the 
 Peace of Tilsit none was felt more bitterly than 
 the loss of the University of Halle, where Wolf 
 himself had made his fame. Immediately after 
 the blow fell, two of the Professors of Halle 
 made their way to Memel and laid before the 
 KInif a proposal to establish a High School at 
 Berlin. This was on August aSud. 1807 
 On Siptcmber 4th came an Order of Cabinet, iu 
 which it was <leclared to be one of the most im- 
 portjint objects to c ompensate the loss of Halle 
 U «iis iMl.led that neither of the two Universities 
 which remained to PrussU, those of KOnlgsberg 
 and Frankfurt onthe-tWer, could be made to 
 supply the pla<-« of Halle. KOnlgsberg being too 
 remote from the seat of Government anil Frank- 
 furt not aiilliclcnily provided with means At 
 B. rlin a University could best, and at least ex- 
 l« mi; be esUblisb<Hl. Accordingly all funits 
 whl( h had hitherto gone to Halle were to go for 
 the future to Berlin, and assurances were to lie 
 givi'H to the expelled Pnifeiwors which might 
 prevent their talenu bi'ing lost to the country. 
 A tnlversity Is not founded in a day, ;md accord 
 Innly while SU'in held olBce the design did not 
 i):wii lieyond the stage of discussion. . . Hum- 
 lH>lilt H'M In his lii'port on May 18, 1H09 and on 
 August 16th followed the Oriler of Cabinet iis- 
 si^'ning to the new University, along with the 
 Acad, niies of Science and Art, an annual iloia 
 tl-n i)f IM.OOO thalers. and the Palace of Prime 
 III nry as Its residence During the rest of bin 
 l<'rm of ofljce iiumboldt was mcupled in negnliu- 
 li.>ns with eminent men nf science all over tier 
 many, whose services he hoped to prixuri' Hi' 
 was rerUinly not unsuccessful. He s<cure.l 
 FichU' for I'hilosophy , Hchlelermacher, I)e Wille 
 •nd Marheineke for Theology; Savi^'iiy ,,„.\ 
 *li'niil/ for Jurisprudence, FrieillUndi r" K.ilil- 
 r;iii».h Ihifeland, and Hell for Mwlidnc . Wolf, 
 !l!!!!!;,ane. !ti\r!=h. Hriih'mff. nnii Hi.:ihii!,i.- f,;r 
 til. .Study of Antl(|ulty; .Nlebuhr ami lltili« for 
 History ; Tralles for Mathi'malh-s (Gnuwi rcfum'd 
 Uw ioviuUuo). The University was c.|H.ned at 
 
 Michaelmas of 1810, and as the first tesult of it 
 the first volume of Niebuhr's lioman Histjrr 
 opening so vast a field of historical speculation 
 was published in 1811. . . . Altogetlier in that 
 period of German history the relations of litera- 
 ture, or rather culture in general, to politics are 
 remarkable and exceptional. There had been a 
 mostextraordinary intellectual movement a great 
 outpouring of genius, and yet this had taken 
 place not, as according to some current theories 
 It ought to have done. In the bosom of political 
 liberty, but in a country where liberty was un- 
 known, And as it was not the effect, so the new 
 literature did not seem disposed to become the 
 cause of liberty. Not only was it careless of In- 
 ternal liberty, but it was actually indifferent to 
 national independence. The golden age of Oer- 
 man literature is the very period when Germany 
 was conquered by France. ... So far literature 
 ami culture seemed a doubtful benefit, and might 
 almost be compared to some pernicious drug 
 which should have the power to make men for- 
 get their country and their dutks. Not un- 
 reasonably did Friedrich Perth-s conso himself 
 for the dlsastera of Germany by retitctlng that 
 at least they had brought to an end ' the paper 
 time,' the fool's paradUe of a life made up of 
 nothing more substantial than literature In 
 tlumboldt's reform we have the coraiiensatlon for 
 all this. Here while on the one hand we see the 
 grand spectai le of a nation In the last extremity 
 refusing to part with the treasun's of lu higher 
 life, on the other hand that higher life is no longer 
 unnaturally divorced from political life. It is 
 prizeil as one of the bulwarks of the Stale, as a 
 kind of spiritual weapon by which the enemy may 
 be resisted. And In the new and public-spirited 
 generation of thinkers, of which Fichte and 
 Bchlelermacher were the principal representa- 
 tives, culture returns to politics th<^ honour that 
 has bi-en done to It. . . . In Humboldt and his 
 great aebievements of 1809, 1810, meet and are 
 reconciled the two views of life which found 
 their most extri'iue repn'senhitives in Goethe and 
 Stein. "—,T. H. Sueley, Life and Titntt of Stan. 
 ;.f. «. M. 3 (r. a). J '<•. 
 
 Pruisia : A. D, 1874.— The Educational Ad- 
 ministration.— "There is no organic BcluKil-law in 
 I'russia, . . . though sketches and projects of 
 
 such a law have more thau once been prepared. 
 But at present the public cimlri.l of the higher 
 schools Isexereised through administrative orders 
 
 and in.Ht ructions, like the minutes of our Com- 
 
 ">''<! f Council on Kducatioii. But theadmin- 
 
 Istralivi' authority li.is in I'russia a verv different 
 ba.sis for Its openitions from that wlilcli It has in 
 England, and a mueli limicrone. It has for its 
 basis these articles of the Allgemclne Undrecht, 
 or eoinnum law of I'russia, which was drawn up 
 in writing In Frederick the Greats reign and 
 pronuiljtated In 1794, In the reign of his suc- 
 cessor :—' Schools ami universities are State In- 
 stitutions, having for their object the Instruction 
 of youth In useful and siieiillHc knowletlge. 
 Sucli establishments are to Ik' instituted only 
 wlilitlii' State's previous knowh-dgeand consent. 
 .\M public mhisils and public esuihlishments of 
 eilucaiioii are under the Stale's supervision, and 
 iiiusl ut nil limes submit thenuH'lves to Its exam. 
 iri.uioii.. .>ii,| liinpecliuiis. Whriiever liie ap- 
 poliitmeiit of tciulicrs Is not l)y virtue of the 
 fouihlailon or of n specini privlleire vesuti In 
 certain perwuu or corporations. It belongs to tha 
 
 Wli; 
 
 H 
 
 743 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 The PnuHan 
 Moot Suttem. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 Hi 
 
 ir 
 
 State. Even where the immediate (upervision 
 of Bticli Khools and tlie appnintment of tlieir 
 teachers is committed to certain private persons 
 or corporations, new teacliers cannot be appointed, 
 and important clianges in the constitution and 
 teaching of the school cannot be adopted with- 
 out the previous luowiedge or consent of the 
 provincial school authorities. The teachers in 
 the gymnasiums and other higher schools have 
 the character of State functionaries.'. . . It 
 would be a mistake to suppose that the State in 
 Prussia shows a grasping and centralising spirit 
 in dealing with education; on the contrary, it 
 makes the a<lministration of it as local as it possibly 
 can ; but it takes care that education shall not be 
 left to the chapter of accidents. . . . Prussia is 
 now divided into eight provinces, and these eight 
 provinces are again divided into twenty -six gov- 
 ernmental districts, or Ilcgierungen. There is 
 a Provincial School Board (Provinzial-Schulcol- 
 legium) in the chief town of each of the eight 
 provinces, and a Qovemmentai District Board in 
 that of each of the twenty-six Regierungcn. In 
 general, the State's relations with the higher 
 class of secondary schools are exercised through 
 the Provincial Board ; its relations with the lower 
 class of them, and with tin' primary schools, 
 through the District Board. In Berlin, the re- 
 lations with these also are managed by the Pro- 
 vincial Boiinl. A Provinzial-Schulcolfegium has 
 for its president the High President of the pro- 
 Tince; for Its director the vice-president of that 
 rovernmontal district which happens to have for 
 ns centre the provincial capital. The Board has 
 two or three other members, of whom. In general, 
 one is a Catholic and one is a Protestant: and 
 one Is always a man practically conversant with 
 school matters. The District Board has in the 
 pn ivincial capitals the same president and director 
 as the ProvinciHl Hoard ; in the other centres of 
 Hegieriuigcn it has for its president the Presi- 
 dent of the IV'glcrung, and three or four mem- 
 bers selected im the same principle as the mem- 
 bers of the Provincial Boanl. The provincial 
 State authority, therefore. Is, In general, for 
 gynmnsiunis, the larger protjymnasiums, and 
 Kealschulrn of the flnit rank, the Provincial 
 School Boanli for the smaller progymnaaiums, 
 Kcalschulen of the second r.ink, tlie higher 
 Burgher Schools, and the primary schools of all 
 kin(lii, the (]ovrrnmental Oistrirt Boarii. Both 
 Ninrils are in continual communication with the 
 Eilucationul Minister at lierlin. . . . Besides the 
 central and provincial administration there is a 
 tiH'al or nuinicipal admlnlptratlon for schix)ls that 
 •re not Crown patronage schools. ... In most 
 towns the liwal authority forschoolsof municipal 
 patroniige is the town muglstracy, aasiNtcd by ii 
 BtaiilKi hulrath i sometimes the hJcal authority is 
 k Curalorium or Schulicitnmlsslon."— M. Ariinid, 
 Ui'jhtr Srtiii-J» nml I'nirrrtilirt in OrrnMnfi. eh. 
 8 -l-"The wi-ondary sclioul differs from the ele- 
 mentary mliools by a counteof iiiatrucllon going 
 beyond the lmni<-illate demands of everyday 
 life, fp>m the sixiial schiH)!, by the more gen- 
 eral character of the courses of instruction: fiom 
 the unlvi-rslty, liv its pri-paratory character. It 
 ha* the •peclal aim l<i give that sound basis of 
 sclent illc and literary iwlucatlon which enables a 
 ms:i ?.•• f-nrtlfifrStp In --'ving >h>= hfgh'T prr.b- 
 Vms nf life in church, state, ami society. In 
 accordance with their historical development, 
 two diractioiia can be cleariy tracnl, via., the 
 
 gymnasium and the real-school: the former com. 
 prising gymnasia and pro-gymnasia; and the lat- 
 ter real-schoolsof the first class, real-schools of the 
 second class, and higher burgher-schools. "—Ilitt. 
 of Seeondary Irutruetiim in Oermany {If. S. Ilii- 
 nau of Education. Oireulanoflnfor.iation, 1KT4. 
 no. 3), p. 41. — "The name gymnasium came into 
 use as early as the sixteenth century. "The 
 ministerial decree of the 12th of November, 1812, 
 ordered that all learned school institutions, surh 
 as lyceums, pedagogiums, collegiums, I.atin 
 schools, etc., ihould biear the name gymna.sium. 
 A gymnasium is and has long been a classical 
 school." — U. 8. Comm'r of Education, Kejxtrt, 
 1889-90, p. 818. 
 
 Also m: V. Cousin, Report on the >>■!',■ nf 
 ptiMie irutruetion in I'muia. 
 
 Pruuia: A. D. l885-t8to.— The Elemental; 
 School-Syitem.— " "The New Yorker, luiximis 
 for a high degree of perfection in the elenicntury 
 schools of his State, must be struck forcibly liy 
 the following merits of the Elementary Schixil 
 System of Prussir ... 1. Compulsory educHtion 
 laws, necessitatiLg a .ull and n-giilar attcmlunce 
 of the children of school age. 3. Othciuhnurses 
 of study fixing the work to be accoinplNhiil In 
 each of thfl different grades of schiM)ls. I'ni- 
 formlty is '.fas secured in the work doin' in all 
 schools of the same class. 3. Definite (iu»lji1i'.'t- 
 tions and experience in teaching for elijjihility 
 to the office of scliool commissioner. 4. I'riivl- 
 slons elevating teaching to the dignitv of :\ pro- 
 fession and mnking the tenure of olflrc secure. 
 6. Trained teachers in niral as well ih dty 
 districts and a schix)! year of at least fnrty 
 weeks. 6. 0<'neml supervision of instru<i ion for 
 children of school age In private scIuhiIs .iiid 
 families, including the qualifications of instriKt- 
 ors. . . . Every Prussian chilillK'tween t|]i' iii;!* 
 of 6 and 14 must, except in cases of scvrn' ill- 
 ness or other extraordinary cause, l«! pn sent at 
 every session of the school he atlrnils Tin' lists 
 of the children of school age, in cliHrjri' nf the 
 local police (In rural districts the Burgcnmi.slfrt, 
 are kept so carefully that It is impossitilc toes- 
 cap*! the provisions of the compulsory eilucntiim 
 laws, as much so as it is to evade the Miilii»ry 
 service Dispensations amounting to nn ri> thin 
 four weeks In the school year are never L'iven lo 
 children under 13 years of Hge. ami In lliein "iily 
 when sickness in the family nr nilier iiiiMsn.il 
 cause make it advisable. . . . Inonler iiiindi r 
 stanil the qualifications required of schonl i nm- 
 mlssloners(KreiHschullnspeKtoren)lii I'nissi.i, Id 
 us review briefly the reqidn'miiiis ,.f mule 
 tt'achers. 1. Elci'nentary schiniN It imy lie 
 stated at the outset that almost nil the luile elc- 
 meutarv school teachers are noi nml si li(«il ltuIu- 
 ntcs. To Insun- similarity In triinini; :inil a 
 thoMU(;h knowledge of cluiracter. few fori ii'iun 
 nml few iK'slde nonnal scIumiI (Hihullelin r N »il- 
 tiar) graduates are admitted to the mule ti u liiiiij 
 fonc. From 6 to 14 the wouhllie ten her li is it 
 tendeil, let usstippose. an elementary w hi«>l Me 
 must then absolve the three veiirs' cmipii hiid 
 down for the preparatory schoofs. . . . llrlsnmf 
 ready for the normal bcIumiI At the i lose "f a 
 three yeara' course at the normal school lie Is :\'\- 
 milted to the first teachers' cxamlnatliiti 11 «iie 
 
 ,-.-.ssf:i! h.' mi:=f ncit pr.M!i!-.- ss i:l!!;!!i!;Lte or 
 
 assistant teacher not less than two years >in I imt 
 more than five years U-fon' his adnii»>iliin ti lbs 
 flnal teat. . . . U a leMber (ails to |mm> the ex 
 
 44 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 iVuMten 
 Sdkool AoMiKct. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 aminttlon within flre yean, he is dropped. 
 Middle KhooU. For teachers of lower cIl 
 the same lequirements with the addition of 
 ability to teach a foreign tongue, or natural 
 history in its broadest sense, and the attainment 
 of the mark ' good ' in all subjecU at the final 
 examination. . . . For higher classes, a special 
 examination provided for middle school teachers. 
 . . . There is really no gradation between ele- 
 mentary and middle schools. The latter merely 
 go on somewhat further with elementary school 
 work, introducing French, Latin and English. 
 3. High schools (Rcalscbulen, Realgrmnasien, 
 I^rogymnasien and Oymnaaien). All high school 
 teachers, except those engaged in technical de- 
 partments, must first absolve the nine years' 
 gymnasia! course, which commences at the close 
 of the third school year. Next comes the uni- 
 versity course of three or four years. The can- 
 didate is now ready for the State examination. 
 The subjects for this State examination ... are 
 divided into four classes: 1. The ancient lan- 
 guages and German ; 2. Mathematics and uutuml 
 sciences; 8. History and geography ; 4. lieligion 
 and Hebrew. At the close of one year's practice 
 to test teaching capacity he receives a second 
 certificate and is thercupotj engaged proviition- 
 ally. . . . The school c nmissioners ... are 
 either former regular hi., school teachers, gen- 
 eral doctors of phikwophv or more rarely theo- 
 logians, or former normal school teachers. All 
 must have had practical eX[)erience in teaching, 
 . . . The work to Ite accomplished in each Prus- 
 sian elementarv sch(M>l is definitely laid down by 
 law. Each school is not a law unto itself as to 
 what shall be done and when and how this is 
 to be done. I have learned by practical ex- 
 perience that the work in ungraded schools com- 
 psres most favorably with that of graded 
 wliools."— J. H. Parsons. Jr., Prutinn tirhoala 
 t/iruugh Ameriean eye*, eh. 1, tet. ft-10 — Prus- 
 siiui elementary schools are now free. " lu this 
 ns|Hia Prussia has passed through three stages. 
 I iHler the first elementary schools were entirely 
 Klf supporting; under the second they received 
 Smteald, but wore still largely self-Hup|H)rtlng ; 
 iiniler the IhirtI, Laws of 1888 and 188tf, element- 
 iiry schools were iiiiulv frvc and the State pays 
 a liircer proiHirtion of the cost of maintenance. 
 Districts must pay for repairs, new buildings 
 ami cost of heating. If unwilling to provide 
 lirciper accumniodatlons for the children of school 
 «»ie, they can be forcetl by the govermnent to do 
 *>< Poor districts may n i , B|Kcittl govern- 
 imnt Hill to meet such exlnll.■>l.^ . . The direct 
 aim cif the laws of June 14, IN»». and .March 31, 
 1M», was to lighten the burden of local Uxatloii 
 fur mIhkiIs for children of scIuhiI Hgc These 
 ia'VH have had a Umptlclal effect lu Increasing 
 slightly the wages of teachers. Teacher..' wila- 
 riis are still quite Hinnll In i'ruiwia, |«rtii ularly 
 in llie i^aae of females. Allowanis'sare giiierallv 
 11111,1,. for hous<' n^nt and fuel. Teiich<-r« in runil 
 ilislriets arv pMvidtnl with a house and ganli it. 
 I heir salaries arc ofu-n not much more than Imlf 
 tlDse paid city teachers of the same graile, and 
 .vel. as rcganls pMli^ssional training and char 
 niter of work, they an' fully eiiual lo clly 
 t<»rlier». . . . Tlie average annual salary re 
 ■ .•ivuil ij. tsacbers m Pnisiiain !•'<-•*« a-sif'^,; .v> 
 The averave fur the same year in New York was 
 fliW.87. The Prussian ieauher, however, re- 
 •elvod fuel kud dwelling free, in addiUtn to iiii 
 
 regular laUry. ... In 1885 the population of 
 Prussia was 28,318,470, and the total cost of 
 public education per caput was |1.7717. Drs. 
 Schneider and Pelersilie of Berlin, in ' Preussische 
 Statistik 101, 'published in 1889, reckon the total 
 cost for 1888, excluding army and navy schools 
 at 150.192.857. ... In Prussia, elementa-y in- 
 struction is the first consideration. The resolu- 
 tion adopted by the national assembly (Landtae) 
 December 22. 1870, is a gcxxi Illustration of thfi. 
 It was at the very crisis of the Franco-German 
 war, yet the Landtag called on the government 
 to increase the number of normal schools and the 
 capacity of those already existing, and ' thus to 
 put an end to the practice of filling up u>achen' 
 
 vacancies bv annnlmimr iin....„11«„l :-.i:..ij 
 
 vacancies by appointing unquallfil^ "indi'vid- 
 — J- "•. Parsons, Jr., Pnutian Sehoolt 
 
 uals . . _.. „,„^ 
 
 through Ameriean eye*, eh. 1, tect 15-17 _ 
 ••Throughout Prussia there is now one school- 
 room and one teacher to 44fi itiliabitants and 78.8 
 children actually attending' ,s, Ii,k)1. This showi 
 that there arc far too few teachers. But the gov- 
 ernment and the cities have recently devoted con- 
 siderable sums to the establishment of new places 
 for Uachers, so that, in thuvear 1881, there were 
 10,000 more teachers working in the public 
 schools than In 1878. The salaries of the teachers 
 were also raised. The average payment in the 
 country is 854 marks. In the cities 1,430 marks. 
 . , , The expense of maintaining the Prussian 
 national schools amounU annually to about 102 - 
 000.000 of marks, 43,000.000 of which are paid 
 by the cities. One hundred and ten colleges for 
 the training of teachers are now engaged in 
 the education of male and female instructors 
 with an attendance of 9,893 pupils ; that is, there 
 U one pupil to every 2,758 inhabilants. In the 
 case of the female teachers only, a considerable 
 degree of assistance is rendered by private Insti- 
 tutions. . . . The intcrmediaty scIiikiIs esUb- 
 lished in 1872, and n-cently eonverteii Into the 
 higher citizen schools, form a transition from 
 the national schools to the higher schools. These 
 tench religion. German, Frencli, Kn»:llsli, history 
 and geography, arithmetic and mathenitttlcs, 
 natural history and physics, writing, lirawing 
 singing, and gymnastics. The course cinliracts 
 sin years without Latin, with the privilege of 
 one year's service in the arm v lusteiul of ■',, .. 
 CoinplenienUry to the natii'mal s<liool , ic 
 finUhing wins,! There are a l.irge ni,mi,w in 
 I»russiii. nuniely. 1,2«1 with fl8,7«« pupiN 617 
 with lo.au.") lu the country, iiu,l (144 with 5«< 371 
 in the cities. < »f these 644.34J an' oliliguiory by 
 local statutes, 302 are optioii,! Hlnei- the law 
 of 1(^78 ap,'i liil care h.isl)eeu ,i, voted lo the cora- 
 Jiulsory educatiiiu of orphaned children, . , . 
 file pnpariitory instruellon of femiile teaehera 
 leav.smurli to be dmired"— F. Kirehner, r'ua- 
 temfnifu /.lumliMuU Tlwuyht in I'ruuia («/«• 
 eatiMMl 11,1., .Way, 1891). — ■■ About 25 per cent, 
 of all the teachers In pi. .c middle sthools are 
 women, hence . . . »„ .,n hold positions in 
 llie«' BihiHila III. .re frequently than in the lower, 
 the iMirely elementary, schiMils of the kingdom. 
 The cn'aU'St ratio of women teaehern in I'rissia li 
 found In privaU! uiiildle »<'hools, where 8,422 of 
 3, 1'.>«(ornearlyHO |)ereent.)ar<' wcmien, .'. . In 
 all the public schools of Prussia (ek-nientory, mld- 
 ,llf. iilh! srCrrBdrtf j i only 10,300 wonitU («Mviieti 
 were employed |18«7). or 14^ per cent, of all the 
 tcacliers In the kingdom . . . Before tlie nubile 
 •diuols u( Dm kiogdum bad the core and doM 
 
 745 
 
im 
 
 I 
 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 m' 
 
 [; 
 
 Scottith Schoolt 
 and Cnivenitiet. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 supervision on the part of the state which they 
 have now, many more private schools were in 
 existence than at present. During the last 2S 
 years the private scliools have not Increased In 
 numbers, but perceptibly decreased." — U. 8. 
 Commr of E<iucation, Beport, 1888-90. pp. 887- 
 289. 
 
 Ri-Mia. — "After serfdom had been abolished, 
 the Lmperor Alexander TI. saw that the Indis- 
 pnsablc consequence of this great reform must 
 \k a thorough rcorganiz .tion of public instruc- 
 tion. In 18B1 a comr.ittee was appointed to 
 drnv up tlie plan of * 1 iw. In 1882 M. Taneef 
 submitted to the Empcior a 'General plan for 
 the organization of popular education,' which 
 contained some very excellent points. The re- 
 sult wa.1 tlip Oencral Regulations of 1864, which 
 are still in force. . . . The difflculties which a 
 compli'te norgaiii/.ation of popular education 
 meets in Hussia uie enormous. They are prin- 
 cipally eiiused by the manner in which the in- 
 habitants live, seattercd over a large extent of 
 country, and by their extreme poverty. . . . 
 The density of population is so small that there 
 an." only 13.6 inli»l>itunts to one square kilometer 
 (2| sqiiare kilometers to 1 square mile), instead 
 of t!U as in France. Under these circumstances 
 only the children from the center hamlet and 
 tlinse living ncan-st to it could attend school 
 reirularly. especially during the winter-months. 
 Tlie rctnainder of the inhabitants would pay 
 their dues without having any benefit, which 
 would neees.sarily foster discontent. As Prince 
 Uagarin siiys. ' It has, therefore, not been pos- 
 sil)li; to make education in Russia compulsory, 
 as in (Jerniany, nor even to enforce the establish- 
 ment of a s(h(Mil in each community.' It Is 
 doubtless impossible at present to intrmluee into 
 Russia llie eduritional systems of the western 
 countrirs " — i), lU ' aveliye, ProrfriM of Kihicit- 
 tion in ll'imtiiiiC. - Itnrntu of f-jhtrtition, fir- 
 euliirK of /nforrii'r o, 1H7,1, „o'. ii), ;,/). 'M-'.Vi. 
 
 Scotland. he existiii:; system of e<lucation 
 
 In Seollan! .;i (mteome iif causes deeply in- 
 Vdlved in till pcilitiealund reliitious history of tlie 
 country. . . . This system was pni eded by a 
 complieateil varlet}' of ecturalional agencies, of 
 which till' cliief wen' Jiarisli .schools, founded upon 
 a statute of ItMfl, which was revived and niaile 
 operative In ItHM). I'arish and burgh schools, 
 BUpporteil by local funds and by tuition fees, 
 made up tliepiiblic provision for education. In 
 addition ilii n? wen' schools partly maintained by 
 parllainehiary u'rants. mission and sessional 
 schools innintained by tlie Established C'hureli and 
 llie Kri e Chun li, and other paniclilal anil private 
 KcliKols I'arish and burgh schools carried In- 
 stnietlon to the level of the universities, wlilc' 
 were easily accessible to all classes. The (i'\te of 
 the passage of the ' Hcolch Education Act (1872) 
 was oppiirtiine for the organization of the.se vari- 
 ous agencies into a system maintained by t'.ie 
 romliineii action of the Oovemment and local 
 aiitliorities In framing the Mcotch act care was 
 taken, as in framing tlie English ai t two years 
 Ihfon'. to guard the rights of tlie (lovemment 
 with r. >|H'et to funds appropriated fnmi the 
 piiblii tressury. At the same time equal caf« 
 was siiiiwn for the preservation of the Scotch 
 Ifls'ii! 'I'his v.-:!^ a !ir:«(! ntiti rniuprehenaivr 
 I'leal. embracing the different gnuics of seho. 
 laslic «iirk . This ideal (liffcrenliales the 
 
 (W'olch act fMin the Ku{[lisb act iMWtsI two 
 
 years before. The latter related to elententary 
 schools exclusively; the former has a wider 
 scope, providing the foundations of a system of 
 gradeil schools correlated to the universities 
 whicli lie Iieyond its province. Witli respect to 
 the interestsof the Government, the two acts are 
 substantially the same. . . . For the general 
 direction of the system a Scotch educational de- 
 partment was created, composed, like the Eng- 
 lish department, of lords of the privy council, 
 and having the same president. . . . Tlic act 
 ordcre<i every parent to secure the Instruction of 
 his children bctwecen the ages of 5 and 13, or 
 until a certificate of exemption should be se. 
 cured. Parents failing in this obligation are siiii. 
 jeit to prosecution and penalty by fine or imprisun- 
 meut. The compulsory provision extends to 
 blind children. Parochial or burglial authori- 
 ties were authorized to pay the tuition fees of 
 those children whose parents could not meet the 
 expenditure, a provision rendered unnecessary 
 by the recent remission of all fees. The Scoicli 
 act, by n sweeping clause, made compulsory at- 
 tendance universuT; the Englisli act left the mat- 
 ter of compulsion to Uwal managers. A subse- 
 quent act (1878) fixed the standard of exeniptiim 
 in Scotland at the fifth [grade, or year of study], 
 which pupils should pass at U years of age. 
 In 1883, the 'ipjicr limit of compulsory attend. 
 ance in ''iiitiand was raised to U years . . . 
 The universities of S<'otland have iK-cn more in- 
 timately nlati'd to the life of the common people 
 than those of any other country. In this re- 
 sp»"ct, even mon' if possible than ic. their cnii>tl- 
 tution, they pnsent a marked contrast i.i the 
 Englisli universities. To their (hmocralic spirit 
 may 1k' traeiil many of the cliariieteristies whii h 
 dirfenntlate tlie Scotch people and policies fnun 
 those of England. To their widespnail inllii- 
 encc, to tiic amiiitions whiih they awukinnl, 
 and the opportunities which tliev brought within 
 the riacli of the whole liody of Scottish ynulli is 
 due, in large measuri', the independent and liun- 
 ortilile part that Scotland hasplaycilin thehiMnry 
 of the United Kingdom. Tliis popular eliamitiT 
 of the universiH"S has Ih'cii foslercii by tlu' eiirric- 
 ulum of the cc .itnon scIkmiIs, by the easy imssiije 
 fmmlhesclKxils to Ihebigher institutimis; liy iju! 
 inexpensive misle of sirdent life in the uninri-ily 
 towns, and bv the gn'iit niimlHr of si hulir^liip 
 funds available for the ) isir. These iii'iililimis, 
 however, have not iH'er. witliout their dismlvan- 
 tacis. Of these, tile chief are the Ion- i ntrauie 
 slanilanls and the consi'iiuent forcing nf pri para- 
 liiry Instruiiioii upon tlie university prfe'^scrs. 
 . ,". .^s a risull of liingenntinueil ilTurts n 
 Scotch universities act was passed in l^-"'.! This 
 act jiriivliled for the reorganization of I lie fmir 
 universities; for tlie elevation of their stainlunls; 
 the enriihnient of their curricula, and the in- 
 crease iif their n'sources. . . The Smtrli mil' 
 versities have taken part in the jiopiilar nuive- 
 ments of tlie last ilecaih'. They inaliiliiin l"r:d 
 examinations for seeondary scIumiW ami simlints. 
 St .Vndn'ws bus lieen particularly ai live in pro- 
 moting the higher education of "»..itien. having 
 institulecl the s|H'iial degree of I. I. .\. (lailv 
 literate In arts). Edinburgh also gnuils a . erliti- 
 c«(i In arts to women Alxnleeii has reeeiitly 
 appjiluti'd a lecturer on c.luciti.'n foHowinff 
 thus the pn'ciilent set by Edinburgh ami St. 
 Andrews. The four iinlversltiea are unitati in a 
 ■chenui of university exleusiun."— U. 8. Cum- 
 
 746 
 
BDUCATION. 
 
 AwdM 
 cmd atHu School: 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 mlMiODer of EducatloD, Beport, 1880-80, t.l.pp. 
 188—207. 
 
 Sweden. — "Sweden has two ancient and fa- 
 moui universitieB— Upsala and Lund. That of 
 Lund is In the Bouth part of the kingdom and 
 when founded was on Danish territory. The in- 
 '^l^'^J""" "* esutea is about 178,000 rix-dollarB 
 (•46,815) per annum. It also receives yearly aid 
 from the state. In 1867 it had 75 professors and 
 tutors, and 400 students. Upsala is the larircr 
 university, located at the old town of that name 
 — the ancient capital of Sweden — an hour and a 
 half by rail north of Stockholm. It has 100 pro- 
 fessors ttud tutors, and 1,449 studenta, an increase 
 of 131 over the year 186B. . . . This university 
 had iu begmning as an institution of learning as 
 far back as 1250. In 1488 it had one academic 
 professorship, and was dedicated as an univer- 
 sity in 1477. Its principal endowment ivas by 
 Gustavus Adolphus in 1684, when he donated to 
 it all of the estate in lands that he po-wiv-.d 
 amounting in all to 300 farms."— C. C. Auilr vs, 
 Kept, on ths Bduciitional Syttem of Sweden ( ( .s' 
 Bureau of Bducativn, dreulart of Tnformativn 
 Ju^, 1871). 
 
 Switxerland.— "The influence of the Refor- 
 mation, and, in the following age, of the Jesuit 
 reaction, gave to Switzerland, as to Germany, its 
 original and fundamental means and agencies of 
 national education, and impressed also upon the 
 population H !il>it of dutiful regani for schools 
 -d learning It was not, however, till forty 
 . rs ago thai the modem education of Swit- 
 '•rland was organized. 'The great develop- 
 r.cnt of public (•ducatlon in Switzeriand ' to 
 quiite Mr. Kay, •dates from 1832, after the over- 
 throw of tin- old oli,{,,rthical forms of cantonal 
 EovcTiiiiieut and thi- cstablislmient of the present 
 deni()<ratic forms.' Zurich. Ijiusanne, and Ge- 
 neva take the lead In t^witzerland as centres of 
 ediKMlional influence. Thi' cuntiin in which the 
 work of ediinitioiial reform began was Zttriih 
 The inKlrument of the nfomi. rather thi' 
 rivolution, was Sclierr, a trained school-teacher 
 fnim WUrtemlxTL'. a teacher, in particular, of 
 deaf mutes to speak articulately. This man in- 
 itiated in Ztirlcli the new scheme and work of 
 education, aii.l founded the flm Tminiiig Col- 
 lege lie s I.H)ked upon l)y the oligarchs, 
 partly feu.i ..i.sts, and partly manufactun'r!). as 
 a dangerous revolutiotiist, and was .-xlled from 
 Zllriili. Hut now a monument to his iiiemory 
 adorns the rity. The work which he began 
 could not be suppressed or arrested. Zurich lias 
 ever since taken the lead in education among the 
 t^nlons of Switzerland. Derived originally from 
 0<'rmany, \\w system is substanttafiv identical 
 with that r)f Germany. . . . The principles and 
 melhiKis an' substantially alike throughout 
 There are, tlrst, the communal schools— these of 
 cours<' in largest number— one to every village 
 even for every small hamlet, provided and main- 
 tained, wholly or chiefly, by the commune: then' 
 are burgher schools In towns. Including eli'ment- 
 itry. real, and superior schiH)ls, supported by 
 Ihe towns; there an' cantonal schools — gymns- 
 Ma and Indu.strlal or U'chnical schools — sun. 
 Bortid by the btate, that Is, by the canton Then' 
 Is often a t'untonal University, Then' Is of 
 ewursc a Cantonal Trajnini; skhoo! or C!!!!!-:.'!' 
 and there are InstltuU'S of'various'kinds. I'li. 
 ttntonal Universlllet, however, are cjn a small 
 •no eoooomical Male; at yet there ia no Ted. ml 
 
 University. School life in Switzerland is ■my 
 long, from six to fourteen or fifteen, and for all 
 who are to f jliow a profession, from fifteen to 
 twenty -two. "-J. H. Rigg, National EdwxUvm. 
 en, 4. 
 
 Hodem: Asiatic Couatrifs. 
 China.— -" Every step in the process of teach- 
 ing is fixed by unalterable usage. So much Is 
 this the case, that in describing one school I de- 
 scnbe all, and in tracing the steps of one student 
 I point out the course of all ; for in China there 
 are no new methods or short roads. In other 
 countnes, a teacher, even in the primary course, 
 finds r.>om for tact and originality. In those 
 who dislike study, a love of it is to be inspired by 
 making -knowledge pleasant to the taste'; and 
 the dull apprehension is to be awakened by 
 striking and apt illustrations. ... In China 
 there is nothing of this. The land of uniformity 
 all processes in crtsond letters are as much fixed 
 by universal custom as is the cut of their gar- 
 ments or the mcxie of wearing their hair. The 
 pupils all tread the path tnnlden by their an- 
 cestors of a thousand years ago, nor bus it 
 grown smoother by the attrition of so many feet 
 1 he undergraduate course mav be divideil into 
 thne stages, in ea<liof which tliereare t-o lead- 
 ing studies: In the first the occupations of the 
 student are committing to nieiiiorv (not reading) 
 the canonical Ixioks and writing in infinitude of 
 diversely formed characters, as a manual exer- 
 cise. In the sciond, they are the translation of 
 his text books (I, e., nading), and lessons in com- 
 position. In the third, they an' Ullcs lettres and 
 the composition of essays. Nothing could Ih; 
 more <lrear)- than the labors of th,. ilrst stage 
 [ , . . tvinthestiinulusofcompanionsliip In study 
 is usually denied, the adviuitagis n'sulting from 
 the formation of classes Ik ing as little apprecialed 
 i.s lhos«' of other labor K,'iviiig machinery. Each 
 pupil reads and writes alone, the penaltv for fat'- 
 ure iK'ingBomany blows with the ferule'or kneel- 
 ing for so nniny minutes on the mugh brick pave- 
 ment which serves for a ficHir At this pericul 
 fear is the stniiigesi motive addnsscd to the mind 
 of the scholar. . . This arctic winter of mo- 
 notonous toll once passed, a nion aus|iicjiius sea- 
 son dawns on the ynnthful iindcrst.imlinc The 
 key of the cabala w huh he h.'is U'l'ii s<i |o. and 
 so lilimlly acquiring is put into his harid.s He Is 
 Initiated m the translation nnd eximsilioii of thosn 
 sacred b.niks whit h he I I previously storeil 
 away in his meiiinry. . i,,. light however is 
 
 let in but spariu.L'ly, as through chinks 
 
 and nils in the loni; sige. A simple 
 
 chanu Icr hen' u:'(l thci lined, and then 
 
 It may be afli r tlie lajis. year or two, the 
 
 teai her pron cds to the e.x, ,tion of entire sen- 
 tence s .Now for the first time the mind of the 
 stiiili lit begins lo tnKe In the thoughts of those 
 hi' has been taught to regani us tile oracles of 
 wisdom. The value of this exenise can 
 
 hardly Im- overestimated. When Judldously em- 
 ployed It diM'S for the Chinese what translation 
 into and out of the dead languages of the west 
 does for ua It calls into play memory, judg- 
 menl. taste, and gives him a command of his own 
 virnacular which. It Is safe to assert, he would 
 ;:ever se-foin. in ^ny vl!,-f whv. ... The finit 
 step In 1 .iniiMisition Is the yoking together of 
 iliiiible chsraeters The xcoiid Is the reduplica- 
 tion of these binary compounds and ttMOOBStruo 
 
 '111 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 HCkltt. 
 
 BDDCATION. 
 
 tioD of parallels — an idea which runs lo com- 
 pletely through the whole of Chineie literature 
 that th° miiKTof the student requires to be im- 
 bued with it at the very outset. This is the way 
 he begins: The teacher writes, ' wind blows,' the 
 pupil adds, ' rR'n falls ' ; the teacher writes, ' rivers 
 are long,' the pupil adds, 'seas are deep,' or 
 ' mountains are high, ' &c. From the simple sub- 
 ject and pnHiicate, which in their rude grammar 
 they describe as ' dead ' and ' living ' characters, 
 the teacher conducts his pupil to more complex 
 forms, in which qualifying wotds and phrases 
 are introduced. lie gives as a model some such 
 phrase as ' The Emperor's grace is vast as heaven 
 anu earth,' and the lad matches it by 'The Sov- 
 ereign's fa vol' is profound as lake and sea. ' These 
 couplets often contain two propositions in each 
 member, accompanied by all the usual modifying 
 terms; and so exact is the symmetry required 
 by the rules of the art tlmt not onlj must noun, 
 verb, adjective, and particle respond to each 
 other with scrupulous exactness, but '.le very 
 tones of tlie characters are adjusted to each 
 other with the precision of mu.sic. Begun with 
 the first strokes of his untaught pencil, the stu- 
 dent, whiitever his proficiency, never gets beyond 
 the construction of parallels When he becomes 
 a member of the institute or a minister of the 
 imperial cabinet, at classic festivals and siKial 
 entertainments, the composition of impromptu 
 couplets, formed on the old model, constitutes a 
 favorite pastime. Iteficcting a poetic image from 
 every syllable, or concealini; the keen point of a 
 cutting epigram, they alTord a tine vehicle for 
 sallies of wit ; and poetical contests suc'i as that 
 of Mi'libceus and Mennlca" are in China matters 
 of il'iily occurrence. If a pre.sent is to be given, 
 on the occasion of a marriage, a birih-day, or any 
 other remarkable occasion, nothing is deemed so 
 •ilegant or acceptable as a pair of scrolls inscribed 
 with a complimentary distich. When the novice 
 is sulflciently exercised In the ' parallels ' for the 
 Idea of symmetry to have become an instinct, he 
 Is permitted to advance to other species of com- 
 position which atTord freer scope for his facul- 
 ties. Huch are the 'shutiah.' in which a single 
 thought is expanded in siniple language, the 
 'lun, the formal (liseussi in of a subject more or 
 less extended, and epistlt!- luldressed to imaghiary 
 persons and adapted to all conceivable circum- 
 gtaucis. In these liust, the forms of the 'com- 
 plete lettiT writer ' are copied with t(K> much 
 servility ; but in the otii' r two, substance being 
 det'innf of more eoiis4M|iH nee titan form, the new 
 fledu'nl thought is peiniitted to essay its powers 
 and t'j exp.aiate witli but little restraint. In the 
 thiril stage, composition is the leading object, 
 reading being wholly subsidiary. It taki'S fur 
 the iiK .St part the artificial form of verse, and of 
 a kind of prose called ' wenchaiig.' which is, if 
 possible, still mon^ artificial. The reading ri'- 
 quired emliraees iiiainlv rhetorical miHtels and 
 sundry aiitliologies llfstory iHitiidied, but only 
 tha of China, and that only in coui|ieuds; not 
 for iu luiwiiiis of wisdom, but for the sake of the 
 allusions with uliieh it enables a writer to ein- 
 Ik'IIIsIi cla.ssie essays. The same may lie said of 
 other stiidiei, ; knowledge and mental dUcipline 
 are at a disco^int and style at a premium. The 
 eoal uf the lonsr cottrse. the dower and fruit of 
 til" whole system, is the 'wen-cluing': for this 
 iiloue can Insure success in the public examina- 
 tions (or the civil service, in which itudeota be- 
 
 gin to tdTentttie soon after entering on the thhd 
 stage of their preparatory course. . . We hear 
 it asserted that ' education is universal in Chiii:i: 
 even coolies are taught to read and write. ' In 
 one sense this is true, but not as we imderstaiid 
 the terms 'reading and writing. In the alpha- 
 betical vernaculars of the west, the ability to 
 read and write implies the ability to express one's 
 thoughts by the pen and to grasp the thoughts 
 of others when so expressed. In Chinese, and 
 especially in the classical or book language, it 
 implies nothing of the sort. A shopkeeper may 
 be able to write the numbers and keep tn unts 
 without being able to write anything el p'd 
 a lad who has attended school for severa \ i irs 
 will pronounce the characters of an ordinary 
 book with faultless precision, yet not compre- 
 hend the meaning of a single sentence. Of those 
 who can read understandingly (and nothing else 
 ought to be called reailing), the proportion is 
 greater in towns than in rural districts. But 
 striking an average, it does nut, according to my 
 observation, exceed one in twenty for the niHlV 
 sex and one in ten thousand for the female. " The 
 literary examinations, "coming down from the 
 past, with the accretions of many centuries. . . . 
 have expanded into a system whose mat liinery 
 is as complex as its proportions are enuniKius. 
 Its ramifications extend to every district of tlic 
 empire; and it comnuiuds the services of district 
 magistrates, pref"Ct8, and other civil function- 
 aries up to governors and viceroys. These are 
 all auxiliary to the regular officers' of the literary 
 corporation. In each district there are two resi- 
 dent examiners, with the title of professor, whose 
 duty it is to keep a register of all competing 
 students and ' ^ exercise them from tim<> to time 
 in order to stimulate their efforts and keep iliem 
 in preparation for the higher exanunatiuns in 
 which degrees are conferred. In eacli province 
 there is one chancellor or superintendent of iu. 
 struction, who holds office for three years, and is 
 ri ioired to visit every district and hold tlie cus- 
 Itiiiury examinations within that time, conferring 
 the first degree on a certain percentage of lije 
 camlidates. There are, moreover, two Bpeei:il ex- 
 aminen for each province, generally meinUrs of 
 the Ilanlin, deputed from the capital to eomiuet 
 the great triennial examination and c<iu[> r tlie 
 second degree. The regtdar degri'es are three: 
 1st. 'hiutsai' or ' Uiidding talent.' Uil. ' Kn- 
 jin' or 'Deserving of promotion.' 8d 'Tsiu 
 shi ' or ■ Fit for office. ' 'To which may be ad.li .i, 
 as a fourth degree, the Uaulin, or memlnrof the 
 ' Forest of Pencils ' . . . The first degne only is 
 conferred by the provincial chancellor, and tlie 
 happy nciplenls. fifteen or twenty in each de 
 partmeni, or 1 t-er cent, of the candidates, are 
 dworated with the insignia of rank and admitted 
 to the ground Ihsir of the nine storiid piig'Hia. 
 The trial for tlie M^cond degree is helil in the capi- 
 tal of each province, by special commissinners, 
 onc<- in tliree years. It consists of thri'e sessions 
 of three days each, making nine days of almost 
 continuous exertion — a strain to the nieutal and 
 physiejil iHiwers, to which the infinii and ai;ed 
 irequently succumb. In addition to (oniposltioa 
 in prose and verse, the candidate is nipiireil to 
 show bis acijuaintance with history, iilie history 
 of China.) philosophy, criticism, wnd various 
 branches of arclueology. Again 1 per cent is 
 decorated; but it Is not until the more foriiumie 
 among them succeed in paaiiug the metropollinn 
 
 748 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 CoOtoe of 
 Wittiam amniarr. 
 
 EDUCATIOK. 
 
 ttiennial that the meed of civil office Is certainly 
 bestowed. They are not, howeTer, auigned to 
 their respective offices until they have eone 
 through two special examinations within the 
 palace and in the presence of the emperor. On this 
 bceasion the highest on the list is honored with 
 theMtleof 'chuang yuen' or 'laureate,' a dis- 
 tinction so great that in the last reign it was not 
 thought unbefitting the daughter of a 'chuang 
 yuen to be raised to the position of consort of 
 the Son of Heaven. A score of the best are ad- 
 mitted to membership in the Academy, two or 
 three score are attached to it as pupils or proba- 
 tioners, and the rest drafted off to official posts 
 in the capital or in the provinces, the humblest 
 of which is supposed to compensate the occupant 
 for a life of penury and toil."— Rev. W. A P 
 Martin, Jkpt on tke Syttem of Pabtie Imtruetion 
 l» Clana ([T. S. Bureau of Edueation, Oireulari 
 of Information, 18T7, no. 1) 
 
 Also III: W. A. ? Martin, TKe ChiM»e: their 
 Bdueatton, <fe. 
 
 Jap«n.---From the fourth to the eighth cen- 
 turies of the Christian era, ' ' after tiie conquest of 
 Corea by the Japanese emperor Jlgo Kogo, came 
 laters. writing, books, literature, religion, eUiics 
 politics, medicine, arts, science, agriculture, manu- 
 factures, and the varied appliances of civiliza- 
 tion; and with these entered thousands of 
 imm grants from Corea and China. Under the 
 intelli-ctual Influence of Buddhism — the power- 
 ful and aggressive faith that had already led 
 captive the half of Asia -o the Coiifucian ethics 
 and philosophy, and Chinew literature, Uie hori- 
 zon of the Japanese mind was immensely broad- 
 ened. . In the time of «ie European 'dark 
 ages the Japanese were enjoying what, in com- 
 parison, was a high sute of civilization. . . 
 I mier the old regime of the Sho-guns, all foreign 
 Ideas and Influences were systematically excluded 
 and the Isolation of Japan from the rest of the 
 world was made the supreme policy of the govern- 
 ment. Profound peace Listed from the begin- 
 ning of the seventeei.th century to 1868. During 
 
 l.!L.„ *«''5'^''."'^ colleges, literature ana 
 earning, flourished. It was the period of scho- 
 tastlc, not of creative. Intellectual activity. The 
 baaU of education « hs Chinese. What we con- 
 ttder the means of education, reading and writing 
 were to them the ends. Of classlfled science 
 there was littie or none. Matiiematics was con 
 sidered as fit only for merehanU and shop-keep. 
 Jf , "° /"reign languages were studied, and 
 tliclr acquisition was forbidden. . There was 
 ni> department of education, though unive.'sltles 
 were established at Kioto and Yedo, large schools 
 in Ibe da mloB capitals, and innumerable private 
 scIkkjI, all over tne rountry. Nine Umths of the 
 reoplc could read and write. Books were verv 
 [mmen.usandcheap. ClrculatlngllbrarlesexisteJi 
 In every citv ancj to»n. Literary clubs and 
 associations for mutual improvement were com 
 mon even In country villages. Nevertheless, iu 
 eymp8ri«)n with the Ideal systems and practice 
 o the progress ve men of 5Jew Japan, the old 
 «ljle was as different from the present as the 
 
 ir*™ .?^ 1" ^f *"?'' y""" '" >n«llw»«l times Is 
 ; I!^ .^ "' • JiOnJon or Oxford student of the 
 llfTh^^^ A!lhn:,gh sr, attt-i,»>i h, mcctsomo 
 . J w'u^tioiMl necessities aiHsIng from ti.e 
 a lered conditions of the national life were made 
 ui«l,r the 8ho-gun s r«gime, yet Uie first attempt 
 »t "yslematic work in the large cities was made 
 
 under the Mikado's government, and the idea of 
 i„°f^,°?K™« P''S °' education te Uielnonly. 
 In 187J the Mom Bu 8ho, or department of edjl 
 cat on, was formed, of which tiie high counselor 
 Uki, a man of indomitable vigor and oersever. 
 Mce, was made head. . . . AccoMfaf to Se 
 scheme of national education promulgated in 
 
 In;,ih i?S"''?J «"f* educational dlvlsiomi. 
 m.f H,°', ""^f *?*" is to be a university, nor- 
 mal school schools of foreign languages high 
 schools, and primary schools. The totafniimlSr 
 Onw < ll^'l'! ""™l*''. 't '9 expected, over 88,000. 
 Only in the higher rehools is a foreign language 
 
 IT^^.""^ elementary science translated or 
 adopted from European or American text-book. 
 Son J^,^^**"*.;. ^".^ ^^''eral system of instruc- 
 i^h'i, ^""^*' 'l'«<='P"''e. school-aids, furniture, 
 
 fo^ll^mS',"* ^ ^ '"K^'y "dopted from 
 foreign models, and are now to a great extent in 
 ^gue throughout &e country."-fw E Griflir 
 Bdv.nlwn xn Japan (U. 8. Bureau of Bduoation 
 areular, of Information, 1878, no. 2). "***^' 
 
 Modern : America. 
 
 wmi?" '^'fc'*''"-^''^?'"'*-- College of 
 
 ?y wT^'^S. ~in^— " 1° IfflO- one year fefore 
 the Pilgrim Fathers came to the land named New 
 England by Captain John Smith - Sir Edwin 
 niH fI'iP^'*''''" i"' "•« V'^e'"'" Company in 
 rilff '."'"'.• T""^ "*e ?"«" «f ten tUouMud 
 acres o?land for the establishment of a univer 
 
 fl^\^T^r\ Jh' P^^P"'*'' 8"«. which was 
 duly made included one thousand acres for an 
 Indian college; Uie remainder was to be 'tiie 
 V„"„°h1 ^''t'^' " seminary of learning for the 
 Fnf l„,i . .T """^ •"?" y^^ *« bishops of 
 i.iigland, at the suggestion of the King, raised 
 the sum of fifteen Tiundred pounds for tiie en- 
 couragement of Indian Education. . TenanU 
 
 TnTiSli.'"/^'' *°^"Py the university lands, 
 and Mr ^rge Thorpe, a gentleman of HU 
 Majesty's Privy Chamber, came over to be tiie 
 superintendent of the university itself This first 
 beginning of philanthropy toward the Indiana 
 and of educational foundations for the Indians in 
 America was suspended by reason of the Indian 
 massacre. In the spring of l832, when Mr. Thorpe 
 and three hundred and forty settlers. Including 
 tenants of the university, were cut off by an In- 
 surrection of savages. It was only two year, 
 after this terrible catastrophe that the Idea of a 
 university in \ irrinia was revived. Experience 
 with treacherous Indians suggested that the insti- 
 tution should be erected upon a secluded shel- 
 tered site— an Island 111 the Susciuelianna River 
 , , , Tliu plan was broken off by the death of Its 
 chief advocate and promoter, Mr Edward Palmer 
 But the Idea of a UDlverslty for Virginia was not 
 hwt. In 1660, the colonial Assembly of 
 
 Virginia took Into their own hands the projwtof 
 f.iunilliig educational institutions within their 
 tionlers The motive of the VirglnUns was pre- 
 cisi-ly tiie same as that of the great and general 
 Court of MassachusetU, when It established 
 Harvard College, and grammar schools to fit 
 youth ■ for ye university" The VirirlnUn« vnted 
 ttml r..t the advance of learning, education of 
 youth, supply of the ministry, and promotion a 
 
 llll'tv. then* h» UnH >.lr._ ..V. _..C.i. . 
 
 749 
 
 ■' .—— "-ffj "• •."= uiiuiairy, ana promotion ^l 
 puty, there be land taken upon purchases for a 
 t-ollege and free ichoole, ami that there be, wlUl 
 as much speedc as may be convenient, houselng 
 
KDCCATION. 
 
 Btxton LoMn Sokool. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 erected thereon for entertainment of student! and 
 •choUen. ' It was also voted tn 1660 that the vari- 
 ous commissioners of county courts talce subscrip- 
 tions on court days for the benefit of the college, 
 and that the commissioners send orders through- 
 out ttielr respective counties to the vestrymen of 
 all the parishes for the purpose of raising money 
 from such inhabitants as ' have not already sub- 
 scribed. ' It appears from the record of this legis- 
 lation In Henlog's Statutes of Virginia that 
 already in 1660, ■ His Maleatic'sQovemour, Council 
 of Bute, and Burgesses of the present grand 
 Assembly have severally subscribed several! con- 
 siderable sumes of money and quantltyes of to- 
 bacco,' to be paid upon demand after a place had 
 been provided and built upon for educational 
 purposes. A petition was also recommended to 
 Sir William Berkeley, then governor of Virginia, 
 that the King oe petitioned for letters patent 
 authorizing collections from ' well disposed peo- 
 ple in England for the erecting of colledges and 
 schooles in this countrye.' This action of the 
 Virginians in 1660 ought to be taken as much 
 better evidence of an early regard for education 
 in that colony than the well-known saying of 
 Governor Berkeley would seem to indicate. In 
 reply to an inquiry by the lords commissioners 
 of trades and plantations respecting the progress 
 of learning in the colony of Virginia, Berkeley 
 said, ' I thank God there are no free schools nor 
 
 Srtntlng, and I hope we shall not have these hun- 
 red years. ' This answer by a crusty old governor 
 has been quoted perhaps too often as an index of 
 the real sentiments of colonial Virginia toward 
 the cause of education. Not only Is the tone of 
 popular Itgislatlon entirely opposed to the cur- 
 rent view, but Berkeley's own acts should modify 
 our judgment of his words. He actually sub- 
 scribed, with other gentlemen of the colony, for 
 'aCoUcdge of students of the liberal arU and 
 sciences. ' Undoubtedly Sir William did not be- 
 lieve in popular education as it is now under- 
 stiKxl. If he had done so, he would have been 
 much in advance of Ills time. . . . Some writers 
 would have us believe that the college was 
 actually planted as early as 1661, but this is 
 highly Improbable. Early educational enact- 
 ments In Virginia were like many of those early 
 towns— on paper only. And yet the Virginians 
 really meant to have both towns au<l a college. 
 In 1688-'89, twenty-flve hundred pounds were 
 subscribed by a few wealthy gentlemen in the 
 colony and by their merchant friends In England 
 toward the endowment of the higher education. 
 In 1691 the colonial Assembly sent the Rev, James 
 Blair, the commissary or representative of the 
 Bishop of London, back to r^ngland to secure a 
 charter for the proposed college. Virginia's 
 agent went straight to Queen Mary and explained 
 the cducatiimal ambition of her colony in America. 
 The Queen favored the Idea of a colle^, and 
 William wisely concurred. The royal pair agreed 
 to allow two thousand pounds out of the quit- 
 renu of Virginia toward building the college. 
 . . The English Oovtrnment concluded to give 
 not only £2,000 la money, but also 20,000 acres 
 of land, with a tax of one penny on every pound 
 of toliacco exported from Maryland and Virginia, 
 t.^;-..(|i,.r wfth all ■<•<■« and proflu arising from 
 the olHre of surveyor-general, which were to be 
 controlled bv the president and faculty of the 
 rollege. They were authorized to appoint special 
 surveyors for the cotuili ■. whenever the governor 
 
 and his council thought It necessary. These 
 privileges, granted by charter in 1698, were of 
 great signiflcance in the cconomlo history of 
 Virginia. They brought the entire laud system 
 of tne colony Into the hands of a collegiate land 
 office. Even after the Revolution, oneslxth of 
 the fees to all public surveyors continued to ha 
 paid into the college treasu^ down to the year 
 1819, when this custom was abolished."— 11. B. 
 Adams, Tlu Cotttge of WiUiam and Maryifiirat- 
 Ian of Information of (Ke Bureau of Education, 
 1887, no. 1). 
 
 A. D. 1635.— Musachusctti.— Boston Latia 
 School.— "The Public I^atln School of Boston 
 enjoys the distinction of being the oldest exist- 
 ing school within the bounds of the United Sutes. 
 It wns founded in the spring of 163S, thus ante- 
 dating Harvard College, and has been in continu- 
 ous existence ever since, with the Interruption 
 of a few months, during the siege of Boston, 
 1775-1776." The two hundred and fiftieth an- 
 niversary of the founding of the school wa.s cele- 
 brated Xpril 23, 188.5, on which occasion the 
 Rev. Phillips Brooks, D. D., delivered an address 
 from which the following passages are taken: 
 "The colony under Winthrop arrived in the Ara- 
 bella and founded Boston in 1680. On the 4th 
 of September, 1683, the Griffin brought John 
 Cotton from the Lincolnshire Boston, full of 
 pious spirit and wise plans for the new colony 
 with V7hlch he had cast tn his lot. It has been 
 suggested that possibly we owe to John Cotton 
 the first suggestion of the first town-school. . . 
 However this may be, here is the town record of 
 the 18th of the second month, 1685. It is for- 
 ever memorable, for it is the first chapter of our 
 Book of Genesis, the very cradle of all our race: 
 'At a general meeting upon publique notice . . . 
 it was then generaUy agreed upon that our 
 brother Philemon Pormort shall be entreated to 
 become scholemsater, for the teaching and nour- 
 tering of children among us.' It was two hun- 
 dred and fifty years ago to-day [April '^3, 1885] 
 lust nineteen years after the day when William 
 Shakespeare died, just seventy-one years after 
 the day when he was bom. How simple that 
 short record is, and how unconscious that short 
 view is of the future which Is w-apped up la it! 
 Fifty-nine thousand children who crowd the Bos- 
 ton public schools to-day — and who can count 
 what thousands yet unborn 1 — are to be heard 
 crying out for life in the dry, quaint words of 
 that old voU'. By It the first educational Insti- 
 tution, which was to have continuous existence 
 in America, and in it the public school system ol 
 the land, came into being. Philemon Pormort, 
 the first teacher of the Latin School, la hardly 
 more than a mere shadow of a name. It is not 
 even clear that he ever actually taught the school 
 at all. A few years later, with Mr. Wheel. 
 Wright, after the Ilulchlnson excitement, he dis- 
 appears Into the northern woods, and Is <me ol 
 the founders of ExeU'r, in New Hampshire 
 There are rumors that he e*me back to Boston 
 and died here, but It is all very uncertain. 
 The name ' free school ' In those days seems tc 
 have been used to characterize an Instil utloi 
 which should not be restricted to any ilassol 
 childP'O. and which should not be de|K'niiint or 
 the fluctuating attendance of scholars for iui «up 
 port. It looked forward to ultimaU- endowment 
 like the schools of England. The town 8i!t span 
 the rent of Deer Island, and some of the otbei 
 
 750 
 
BDUCATION. 
 
 Barvcmi CoUege. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 UUndi In the harbor, for ite help. All the great 
 citizeni, GoTemor Winthrop, Oovemor Vane, 
 Mr. Bellingham, and the rest, made generous 
 contributions to it. But it caUed, also, for sup- 
 port from those who sent their children to it, and 
 who were able to pay something ; and it was only 
 of the Indian children that it was distinctly pro- 
 yided that they should be 'taught gratis.' It 
 was older than any of the schools which, in a 
 few years, grew up thick around it The same 
 power which made it spring out of the soil was 
 In all the rich ground on which these coloniste, 
 unlike any other colonists which the worid has 
 ever seen, had set their feet. Roxbury had ite 
 school under the Apostle Eliot in 164S. Cam- 
 bridge was alreadv provided before 1648. Charles- 
 town did not wait later than 1636. Salem and 
 Ipswich were, both of them, ready in 1637. Ply- 
 mouth did not begin its system of public instruc- 
 tion till 1663. It was in 1647 that the General 
 Court enacted that resolve which is the great 
 charter of free education In our Commonwealth, 
 in whose preamble and ordinance stand the im- 
 mortal words; ' That learning may not be buried 
 in the grave of our fathers, in church and Com- 
 monwealth, the Lord assisting our endeavors, it 
 is therefore ordered that every township in this 
 jurisdiction, after the Lord hath increased them 
 to the number of afty householders, shall then 
 forthwith appoint one within their town to teach 
 all such children as shall resort to him to write 
 and read.' There can be no doubt, then, of our 
 priority. But mere priority is no great thing. 
 The real interest of the beginning of the school 
 Is the large idea and scale on which it started 
 It Uught the children, little Indians and all. to 
 read and write. But there seems every reason 
 to suppose that it taught also the Latin tongue, 
 and all that then was deemed the higher knowl- 
 edge. It was the town's only school till 1683 " 
 —Tlu OUeit School in America, pp. 5-24. 
 
 A. D. 1636.— MuiachuMtt*.— Hanrard Col- 
 '•Se.— " The first settlers In New England, recog- 
 nizing the importance of a higher education than 
 could bo given in the common schools, began at 
 once the founding of a university. The avowed 
 object of this university was the training of 
 young men for the ministry. Nothing could 
 show clean-r the spirit of these early colonists 
 Though less than four thousand In number and 
 .icattercd along t^e shores of Mashochusetts Bay 
 in sixteen hamlets, they were, nevertheless, able 
 U) engage in such an enterprise before adequate 
 provision hart Ix'en made for food, raiment, shel- 
 ter, a civil government, or divine worship ; at a 
 time when soil and climate had disappointed 
 them, and their affairs were in a most critical 
 condition; for, not only were they called to face 
 [amine, disease, and death, but the mother coun- 
 try and the surrounding savage tribes were 
 threatening them with war. ... It was near the 
 close of 1836, a little more than six years after 
 the landing of the Puritans, when this first step 
 was taken by the General Court of the Massa- 
 chusetts Colony. At this assembly, presided 
 over by Sir Henry Vane, governor of the colony, 
 the General Court agreed to give £400 (a raunili- 
 cent sum for the time) towards the founding of 
 a school or cnllrgr, hut left the question of its 
 location and building to be determined by the 
 Court that was to sit in September of the follow- 
 tag year This, it is said, was the first assembly 
 In which the people by their represenutlvea 
 
 751 
 
 ever gave their own money to found a place ol 
 education. ' At the next Court it was decided to 
 locate the college at Newtown, or 'the New 
 Towne, and twelve of the principal maglstntea 
 and ministers were chosen to carry out this de- 
 sign. A few months later, they changed the 
 name of the town to Cambridge, not only to tell 
 their posterity whence they came, but alao ai 
 Quincy aptly says, to indicate ' the high destiny 
 to which they intended the institution should 
 S*" V? ., Another year, however, passed before 
 the College was organized. The impulse given 
 to It then was due to aid which came from so un- 
 expected a quarter that it must have seemed to 
 the devout men of New England as a clear indi- 
 cation of the divine favor The Rev. John Har- 
 .'"■iloS ^"nconformist minister, was graduated. 
 In 16i?.5, from the Puritan college of Emmanuel, 
 at tambndgp, England, and came, two yean 
 later, to America and settled in Charieatown. 
 where he immediately took a prominent part in 
 town affairs. His contemporaries gave him the 
 title of reverend, and he is said to have ofBcisted 
 occasionally in Chariestown as ' minister of God's 
 word. One has recently said of him that he 
 was 'beloved and honored, a well-trained and 
 accomplished scholar of the type then esteemed,' 
 and that in the brief period of his life in America 
 — scarcely more than a year— he cemented more 
 closely friendships that had been begun in earlier 
 years. The project of a college was then en- 
 grossing the thought of these eariy friends and 
 doubtless he also became greatly Interested in it 
 Thus It happened that, when his health failed 
 through his own love of learning and through 
 sympathy with the project of his dally asso- 
 ciates, he determined to bequeath one-half of his 
 estate, probably about £800, besides his excellent 
 library of three hundred and twenty volumes 
 towards the endowment of the college. This be- 
 quest rendered possible the immediate organiza- 
 tion of the college, which went into operation 
 •on the footing of the ancient Institutions of 
 fcurope, and, out of gratitude to Harvard, the 
 General Court voted that the new institution 
 should bear his name."— Q. G. Bush, Hartard 
 in'- 12-15. 
 
 Also in: J. Quincy, Ilitl. of Harvard Uni- 
 remity.—S. A. Eliot, SUleh of the Uutory of 
 Uarvartt CoUeye. 
 
 A. D. i«4a-i73a.— New England and New 
 York.— EariT Common Schoola.— "New Eng- 
 land early adopted, and has, with a single ex- 
 ception, constantly maintained the principle that 
 the public should provide for the Instruction of 
 all the youth. That which elsewhere, as will be 
 found, was left to local provision, as in New 
 York; or to charity, as In Pennsylvania; or to 
 parental Interest, as In Virginia, was in most 
 parts of New England early secured by law 
 The act of 1642 in Massachusetts, whose pro- 
 visions were adopted in most of the adjacent 
 rolonies. wasadinirablea.ialirst legislative school 
 law. It was watchful of the neglect of parenU 
 and kmked well after the ignorant and the in- 
 digent. But it neither made schooling free, nor 
 lmpo!*-d a penalty for its neglect. . . . Schoola 
 were largely maintained by rates, were free only 
 t,T th( necessitous, iiiid lu not a few of tiie less 
 populous districts closed altogether or never 
 opened. This led, five years later, U) more strin- 
 gent legiilation. . . . As suggesting the general 
 scope and tenor of the law, the following extract 
 
 fit! 
 
 Ill 
 
 ti 
 
BDUCATION. 
 
 frntufltanUi. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 ta made. ... 'It U theietore orderad by thU 
 Court ud authority thereof that every township 
 within tbli Juriidiction, after the Lord hath In- 
 crcaied them to the number of fifty houiebolden, 
 ■hall then forthwith appoint one within their 
 town to teach all (uch children as shall re~ort to 
 him, to write and read ; whose wages shall be 
 paid, either by the parents or masters of such 
 children, or by the inhabitanU in general, by 
 way of supply, as the major part of those who 
 order the prudentials of the town shall appoint; 
 provided that those who send their children be 
 not oppressed by paying much more than they 
 can have them taught for in the adjoining towns. 
 And it is further ordered that where any town 
 shall increase to the number of one hundred 
 families, or house-holders, they shall set up a 
 grammar-school, the master thereof being able to 
 fiistruct youths so far as they may be fitted for 
 the university ; and if any town neglect the per- 
 formance hereof, above one year, then every such 
 town shall pay five pounds per annum to the next 
 such school, till they shall perform this order.' 
 . . . Three years after the law just cited Con- 
 necticut passed a very similar one. ... In 
 Rhode Island there was no attempt at a school 
 system prior to the efforts of John Howland about 
 179C There were schools in both Providence 
 and Newport; but the colony was small (with a 
 population of less than ten thousand in 1700), 
 brolien into feeble settlements, and offering little 
 opportunity for organization. ... It is claimed 
 that, at the surrender of the Dutch in New York 
 (1664), so general was the educational spirit, 
 almost eery town in the colony had its regular 
 school and more or less permanent teachers. 
 After the occupation of the province by the Eng- 
 lish, little attention was given to education. . . 
 Tliirtttn years after the sum nder, a Latin school 
 was opened in the city ; but the first serious at- 
 tempt to provide regular schooling was in the 
 work of the ' Society for the Propagation of the 
 Gospel ' (1704) in the founding of Trinity School. 
 The society kept "p an efilcient organization, for 
 many years, and at the opening of the Revolu- 
 tion had established and chiefly supported more 
 than twenty schools in llie colony. About 1732, 
 also, there was established in New York city a 
 Khool after the plan of the Boston Latin School, 
 free as that was free, and which became, accord- 
 ing to eminent authority, the germ of the later 
 King's (now Columbia) College."— R. 0. Boone, 
 Bdueation in the United Statti, eh. 8. 
 
 A. D. 1683-1770.— P«iu«ylT«ol« — Origin of 
 the UniTcruty of PennsTlTania.-" Education 
 had not been overlooked in the policy of Penn. 
 In his Frame of Government we read: 'The 
 governor and provincial council shall erect and 
 order all public schools, and encourage and re- 
 ward the authors of useful sciences and laudable 
 Inventions, in the said province. . . . And . . . 
 a committee of manners, education and arts, that 
 all wicked and scandalous living nuy be pre- 
 vented, and that youth may be successively 
 trained up in virtue and useful knowledge and 
 arts.' The first movement to establish an educa- 
 tional institution of a high grade was in the 
 acUon of t!ie Executive CouncU which proposed, 
 Novem!.tr 17. 168-3. 'That Care be Taken about 
 the Learning and Instruction of Youth, to wit: 
 A School of Arts snd Sciences.' It was not un- 
 til 1689, however, that the 'Public Orammar 
 School ' was set up in Philtdelphia. This insti- 
 
 tution, founded upon the English idea of a ' free 
 school,' was fornully chartered in 1697 as the 
 ■William Penn Charter School.' It was intended 
 as the head of a system of schools for all, rather 
 than a single school for a select Tew, an idea 
 which the founders of the Chariuble School, 
 fifty years later, had also in mind — an idea 
 which was never carried out in the history of 
 either institution. The failure of Penn's scheme 
 of government, and the turmoil during the early 
 part of the eighteenth century arising from tlis 
 conflicts between different political parties, for a 
 time influenced very decidedly educational zeal 
 in the province. Th > government, which at the 
 outset had taken su<;h high ground on the sub- 
 ject, ceased to exert itself in behalf of educa- 
 tion, and the several leligious denominations and 
 the people themselvj in neighborhood organiza- 
 tions took up the burden and planted schools ss 
 best they could throughout the growing colony. 
 . . . Feeling the importance for some provision 
 to supplement the education then given in the 
 established schools, Benjamin Franklin as early 
 as 1748 drew up a proposal for establishing an 
 academy. ... He secured the assistance of a 
 number of friends, many of them members ut 
 the famous Junto, and then published bis psm- 
 ))hlet entitled ' Proposals Relating to the Educs- 
 Uon of Youth in Pennsylvania.'. . . On all sides 
 the paper met with great favor and generous 
 support. The result was the organization of a 
 board of trustees, consisting of 24 of those who 
 had subscribed to the scheme of the Academr, 
 with Franklin as president. This body immedi- 
 ately set about to realize the object of the 
 pamphlet, and nourished by subscriptions, lot- 
 teries, and gifts the Academy was placed is a 
 fiourishing condition. . . . Trie Academy am- 
 prised three schools, the Latin, the English, and 
 the mathematical, over each of which was placed a 
 master, one of whom was the rector of the iusd- 
 tution. . . . The tr.nglUh School was neglected. 
 The other schools were favored, especially the 
 Latin School. In the eyes of Franklin aud many 
 of the supporters of the Academy, the EoglUh 
 School was the one of chief importance. What 
 we would call a ' starving out ' process was be- 
 gun by which the English School was kept in a 
 weak condition, most of the funds going to the 
 Latin School. . . . The success of the Academy 
 was so gratifying to all interested in it that it 
 was determined to apply for a charter. This 
 was granted to the trustees by Thomas and 
 Richard Penn, the proprietors, on July 13, 1753. 
 I)esirous at the same time of enlarging the course 
 of instruction, the trustees elected Mr. William 
 Smith teacher of logic, rhetoric, natural and 
 moral philosophy. Hr. Smith accepted the posi- 
 tion and entered upon his duties at the Academy 
 in May, 1754. The history of the institution 
 from tills date, whether known as the Academy 
 to 1779 is the history of the life 
 
 or the College, 
 
 of William Smith. "-J.L. Stewart, Uitt 
 
 Sketch 
 
 of thd Univernty 0/ PennigltiaMii (U. S. Sii.xju 
 of Education, Oinular of Information, ISH'J, iw. 
 i: Beta. FrarJcUn and the Univ., eh. 4). 
 
 A. D. 1701-1717.— Connecticut.— Yale Col- 
 lege. — "For sixty years the only school for 
 higher education in New England bad bceu Har- 
 vard College, at Cambridge. The people, ami 
 especially the clergy, of Connecticut naturally 
 desired the benefit of a similar esteblisUment 
 nearer home. The three ministers of New Haven, 
 
 752 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Yalt, Prineeton, 
 dclmmHa. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 UlKord, (ud Branford first moved In tho enter- 
 prise. Ten ministers, nine of them being iPTadu- 
 atcs of Harvard College, met at Branford [17011 
 and made a contribution from tlieir libraries of 
 about forty volumes in folio ' for the founding 
 of a college.' Other donations presently came 
 In. An Act of Incorporation was granted by the 
 General Court. It created a body of trustees, 
 not to be more than eleven in number nor fewer 
 than seven, all to be clergymen and at least forty 
 years of age. The Court endowed the College 
 with an annual grant, subject to be discontinued 
 at pleasure, of one hundred ' wenty pounds 
 in 'country pay,'— eiiuival, jlxty pounds 
 
 i terllne. The College migh„ tola property ' not 
 exceeding the value of five hundred pounds per 
 annum ' ; its students were exempted from the 
 payment of taxes and from militai7 service • and 
 the Governor and bis Council gave a formal ap- 
 proval of its application to the citizens for pecu- 
 niary aid. . . The first Pres;dent was Abraham 
 Plerson, minister of Killingworth, at which place 
 he continued to reside, though ihe designated 
 seat of the Col'»ge was at 8aybrook. Kight stu- 
 dents were > littcd, and arranged in classes. 
 At each of 1 j hr»t two annual commcncemen'.s 
 one person, . the iii.rd three persons, received 
 the degree of Bachelor of Arts. President Pier- 
 ■iou was succeeded, at his death, by Mr. Andrew 
 minister at Mllford, to which placi the elder pu- 
 pils were accordingly transferred, wnile the rest 
 went to Saybrook, where two tutora had been 
 provided to assist their studies. . . . For nearly 
 twenty years the College of Connecticut . . 
 eomimied to l)e an unsatisfactory experiment. 
 . . . Notwithstamlingthegeneral agreement that 
 wliuU-ver fcclllties for tlie higher education could 
 be commanded should be brought together and 
 combined, the choice of the place was embar- 
 ni.<s('(l by viirloua considerations. . . . Saybrook 
 WcthcrsfleUi, Hurtfortl, and New Haven com- 
 peted with each other for the preference, offering 
 such contributions as thev were able towards the 
 -rection of a college building. The offer from 
 lew Havci, larger than that of anv other town 
 Wiis seven hiindr«l pounds sterling. The plan 
 of tlxing the College there, promoted by the 
 gn'iit intlucnce of Governor Saltonstall, was 
 adopted by the tru.stees; and with money ob- 
 taiiieil by private gifts, and two hundrecf and 
 tifty pounds aciruliig from a sale of land given 
 by the General A3.sembly, a build!ng was begun 
 [1717), which finally cost a thousand pounds 
 «terl iig . . . The Assembly gave the College a 
 hundred pounds. Jeremiah Dummer sent from 
 Eiit;lttnd a substantial present of books Gov- 
 ernor .Saltonstall contributed fifty pounds ster. 
 ling, and the same sum was presenti^d by .Tahlecl 
 Breutou, of Newport, In Rhode Island. But the 
 chief patronage came from Elihu Yale —a 
 native of New Haven, but long resident in the 
 Kant Indies, where Iw ha I been Governor of Port 
 8t George. He was nox' a citizen of London, 
 and Governor of the East India Company. His 
 contributions, continued through seven vears, 
 ainminted to some four hundred' pounds sterling '• 
 and he was understood to have made arrange- 
 iiiciiU for a further bounty of five hundred 
 pounds, whirh, however, through tinfi^rtunate 
 accidents, never came to its destination. The 
 
 province made a grant of forty pounds annually 
 for seven years. '^-J. O. Palfrey, Jlitt. of Avi 
 hnglaad. 4*. 4, M. 11, and bk. 6, ch. 4 (v. 4). 
 48 
 
 1«; Thl* r-T,^"' Jerfey—Princeton Col- 
 
 mSfiT 11 J^^*" °' New Jersey, more com- 
 monly called Princeton College, •■originated in 
 the plan of Jonathan Dickln^n, JohS Pieraon. 
 l-benezerPembcrton, Aaron Burr, with others to 
 T^^aV^ institution 'in which ample provis on 
 should be made^for the Intellectual knd religious 
 culture of youth desirous to obtain a liberal edu- 
 cation, and more especially for the thorough 
 trainlns; of such as were candidates for the holy 
 ^i ,f ^ii '•? ^."^ "^^^^ *»» granted in 174« 
 STo*^? ?°^- ^°^^ Hamilton, President of His 
 Majesty s Council A second and more ample 
 charter was granted September 14th, 174«. After 
 the war of the Revolution, the charter was cou- 
 firmed and renewed by the Legislature of New 
 n"t?i ^P'" ■•^*"'' ''''^' ""^ Trustees made 
 
 „ »..uii ■ — »i-«i, uju irusieesmaae 
 
 a puWIc announcement that they haii ■ appointed 
 X.", .r "','?■'»'•'"' I>'ekinson, President,' and 
 that the college would be opened in the fourth 
 week of May next at Ellzabethtown. President 
 Dickinson having died on the 7th of October fol- 
 . .."^'ri^^".?'-'''- ^"°° Burr assumed the duties 
 of the Presidency and the college was removed 
 from Ellzabethtown to Newark Soon after it 
 was removed from Newark to Princeton, where 
 in l,...l-5o the first college building was erected " 
 —College 0. New Jersey, OitaUtgue, 181)»-4, pp. 
 
 A. D. I746-I787.-New York.-King's Col- 
 lege, now Columbia College.-" The establish- 
 ment of a college in the city of New York was 
 many years in agitation liefore the design was 
 carried into effret. At length, under an act of 
 Assjmbly passed in December, 1746, and oth.r 
 similar acts whlili followed, moneys were raised 
 by public lottery 'for the encouragement of 
 learning and towards the founding a college' 
 within the colony. These moneys were, in No- 
 vember, 17,il, vested in trustees. . . . The trus- 
 tees, m November, K.-iS, invited Dr. Samuel 
 Johnson of Connecticut, to be president of the 
 intended college. Dr. Johnson consequently re- 
 moved to New York in the month of April fol- 
 lowing, and in July, MM. commenced the in- 
 struction of a class of students in a room of tlie 
 schoo -house belonging to Trinity Church : but he 
 would not absolutely accept the presidency until 
 after the passing of the charter. This took place 
 on the .list of October in the same year. 17,54- 
 from which iK'riod the ixistence of the college 
 IS properly to be dateil. The governors of the 
 college, named in the charter, are the Archbishop 
 of Canterbury and the first Lord Commissioner 
 for Trade and Plantations, both empowered to act 
 by proxies: the Lieutonant-govemorof the prov- 
 ince, and several ntlicr public officers; to>;ether 
 with the ri'ctor of Trinitv Church, the senior min- 
 ister of the Reformed Protestant Dutch Church 
 the mini.st..Ts of the German Lutheran Church of 
 the French Church, of the Presbyterian Congrc- 
 giiticm, and the President of the college all ex 
 oflicio, ami twenty-four of the principal gentle- 
 nien of the city. The college was to be known 
 by the name of King's College. PrevlousI" to 
 the passing of the charter, a parcel of grouiul to 
 the westward of Broadway, bounded by Barcluv 
 Church, and JIurray streets and the Hiul«.".n 
 Mver. had been destined by tilt vestry of Trinity 
 Church as a site for the colleg? edifice; and ac- 
 cordingly, after the charter was granted, a grant 
 of the land was made on ihe 13th of Mav, 17.').5 
 I . . . The pai t of the land thus granted by^'Trinity 
 
 753 
 
 Ml 
 
'% 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 Oarimmlk. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 w 
 
 Church, not occupied for coU«g« purpowt, wm 
 leued, and becwne a very valuable endowment 
 to the college. The source! whence the fundi 
 of the Institution were derived, besides the pro- 
 ceeds of the lotteries above mentioned, were the 
 Toluntary contributtona of private individuals 
 tai this country, and sums obtained by agents 
 who were subsequently sent to England and 
 Franco. In May, 1760, the college buTldings be- 
 gan to be occupied. In 1763 a grammar school 
 was established. ... On the breaking out of 
 the Revolutionary War the business of the col- 
 lege was almost entirely broken up, and it was 
 not until after the return of peace that its affairs 
 were again regularly attended to. In May, 
 1784, the college, upon its own application, 
 was erected into a university ; its corporate title 
 was changed from King's C •ge to Columbia 
 College, and It was placed r the control of 
 
 a bawd termc' Regents of tte Jversity. . . . 
 The college i ntinued under ta '. government 
 until Apnl, 1787, when the Legislature of the 
 State reatored it to its original position under the 
 present name of Columbia College. ... At the 
 same time a new body was created, called by the 
 same name, 'The Regents of the University,' 
 under which all the seminaries of learning men- 
 tioned in the net creating It were placed by the 
 Li-sislature. This body still exists under ito 
 orii;lnal name."— (WumMn ColUge Handbook, pp. 
 6-!t. 
 
 A D. I7S4-I7«9.— New Hampshire.— Dart- 
 mouth College, and the •• Dartmouth College 
 Case."— " Dartmouth College . . . was origi- 
 nally a charity school for the instruction of 
 Indians in the Christian religion, founded by the 
 Rev. Eleazer Wheelock. D. n.. about the year 
 17.'54, at Lebanon, in Connecticut. Its success 
 led Dr. Wheelock to solicit private subscriptions 
 in England, for the purpose of enlarging It, and 
 of extending its b<'neBts to English colonists. 
 Funds having been obtained for this purpose 
 from various contributors, among whom the 
 Earl of Dartmouth. Secretary for the Colonies, 
 was a large donor. Dr. Wheelock constituted 
 that nobleman and other persons trustees, with 
 a\ithority to fix the site of the College. The 
 place selected was on the Connecticut River, at 
 what is now tht town of Hanover, in New 
 Hampshire, where large donations of land were 
 made by the neighboring proprietors. A char- 
 UT for the college was obtained from the crown. 
 In 1789, creating it a perpetual corporation. The 
 charter recognized Dr. Wheelock as founder, ap- 
 pointed him to be the r -Ment, and empowereii 
 
 rothe approval 
 
 Iso imparted 
 
 own body, 
 
 ■ for the 
 
 't to the 
 
 ce, and 
 
 hi m to name his surer 
 of the trustees; t- 
 till' power of filling \. 
 a-id of making laws . 
 g ivernment of the col leg , 
 
 Irvs of Great Britain or ot —, 
 
 nut excluding any person on accourn ot his re 
 liirinus belief Under this charter, Dartmouth 
 Ciilli'ge had always existed, un<|UPStioned and 
 nnilisturhed in Its rights as a corporation, down 
 t 1 the Revolution, and subsequently until the 
 \.ar 181.5, Whether from political or personal 
 inotives sprinijine up outside of the board of 
 trustees of that period, or from some collisions 
 arising within the bodv itself, it appears that 
 . legislative interference with the chartered 
 rji'hts of this college wia threatened. ... In 
 Ihi' following year (1816), the dlfflcultiei, which 
 
 had become mixed with political Interests, cuV 
 minated in a direct interference by the Legisla- 
 ture. In that year an act was passed, changing 
 the corporate name from 'The Trustees of Dart 
 mouth College ' to ' The Trustees of Dartmouth 
 University ; enlarging the number of trustees, 
 vesting the appointment of some of them in the 
 political bodies of the Htate, and otherwise modi- 
 lying the ancient rights of the corporation as 
 they existed under its charter derived from the 
 crown of England. A majority of the exist 
 ing trustees refused to accept or to be bound by 
 this act, and brought an action of trover in the 
 Supreme Court of the State, in the name ot 
 the old corporation, against a gentleman. Mr. 
 W. U. Woodward, who was in possession of the 
 college seal and other effects, and who claimed 
 to hold them as one ot the olHiira of tlie 
 newly-created 'university.' The argument in 
 this case was made in the 8tet<' court, for the 
 college, by Mr. Mason and Mr. .leremiah Smith, 
 assisted by Mr. Webster. The decision was 
 against the claim of the college. It was then de 
 termined to remove the cauue, by writ of error, to 
 the Supreme Court of the United States, under 
 the provisions of the Federal Constitution and 
 laws creating in that trihimal an appelliite 
 jurisdiction in cases which, although original- 
 ing in a State court, involved the construct ion 
 and operation of the Federal Constitution. Tliia 
 was supposed to be such a case, because it was 
 claimed by the college that the act of the Lejiis- 
 lature, modifying its charter, impaired the nMi- 
 gation of a contract ; an exercise of power which 
 the Constitution of the United States prohibits 
 to the Legislature of a State. As soon as it was 
 known in New Hampshire that this very inter- 
 esting cause was to come before the Supreme 
 Court of the United States, the friends of the 
 college, including their other counsel in the Stjite 
 court, unanimously desired to have it committed 
 to the hands of Mr. Webster. He consented tn 
 take charge of it in the autumn of 1817 ; but the 
 cause was not argued at Washington until Feb- 
 ruary, 1818. . . . Before the case of Dartmoi"h 
 College vs. Woodward occurred, then h,»i ■ 
 no judicial decisions respecting the meaning ana 
 scope of the restraint in regard to contracts, ex- 
 cepting that it had more than once been deter- 
 mined by the Supreme Court of the United 
 States that a grant of lands made by a State is a 
 contract within the protection of this provision, 
 and is, therefore, irrevocable. These decisio is. 
 however, could go but little way towanl the 
 solution of the questions involved in the case of 
 the college. . . . Was the State of New Hsmp- 
 ghirc — a sovereign in all respects after the Rev- 
 olution, and remaining one after the Federal 
 Constitution, excepting in those respe<ts in 
 which it had subjected its sovereignty to the 
 restraints of that instrument — iKiund by the 
 contracts of the English crown 1 Is the prant ot 
 a charter of incorpomtion a contract between the 
 sovereign power and those on whom the charter 
 is bestowed 1 If an act of incorporation is a con- 
 tract, is it so In nnv case but that of a private 
 corporation 1 Was "this college, which was an 
 institution of learning, establishcti for the pro- 
 motion of education, a private corporation, or 
 was it one of those instruments of g-.iveniiF-'^t 
 which are at all times under the control and sub- 
 ject to the direction of the Ugislative power? 
 All these quettiona were involved in the imiuiry 
 
 764 
 
XDUCATIOM. 
 
 Dmominalioital Imtilutieiu. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 wtnther the legislative power of the State liad 
 been 10 rettraineil by the CoDstitutioQ of the 
 Uuited State* that it could uot alter tiie charter 
 of thii inititutiou, against the will of the trustees, 
 without impairing the obligation of a contract. 
 ... On the conclusion of the argument, the 
 Chief Justice intimated that a decision was not to 
 be expected until the next term. It was made 
 in Februarr, 1819, fully conttrming the grounds 
 on which Mr. Webster bad placed the cause. 
 From this decision, the principle in our constitu- 
 tional jurisprudence, which regards a charter of 
 11 private corporation as a contract, and places it 
 under the protection of the Constitution of the 
 Uuited States, takes ite date."— 0. T. Curtis, 
 life of Daniel Webiter. «. 1, cA. 8. 
 
 A. D. 1763-1769.— Rhode Island.— Brown 
 UniTcriity.— "Brown University, the oldest 
 and best endowed institution of learning con- 
 nected with the Baptist denomination, dates back 
 for its origin to a period anterior to the Amcriiiin 
 lievolution, when in all the thirteen colonies 
 there were less than 70 Baptist churches, with 
 ptrhaps 4,000 communicants. It is not surpris- 
 iri>r that, at the memorable meeting of the Phila- 
 ililpUia Association, held ou the 12th of October, 
 I70i, when the members were finally lal to re- 
 L'lird it, in the vonls of Uaokus, as • pra<'ticablc 
 unci expedient to erect a (.'olle;-e in the Colony of 
 Kliode Island, under the thief direction of "the 
 liaplists, in which e<iue«tion might be promoted 
 und superior learning obtaineil, free from any 
 sceUrian tests,' the mover in tlie matter should 
 lit first have been laughed at, the thing being 
 liMjked upon as, under the circumstances, an utter 
 impossibility. But leaders at that time, like 
 Morgan Edwanlsaiid Isaac Eaton, Samuel Jones. 
 Abel Morgan, Benjamin Orifiith, John Suttnn 
 and John Gano, were men of faith. ... At the 
 time of which I speak, there was graduated from 
 Princeton, with the second honors of his class, a 
 man of wonderful mental and physical endow- 
 menU, an early pupil of Isaac Eiiton at Hope- 
 well, James Mannini;, of Elizabethtown, New 
 Jersey. To him the enterprise of the college 
 was by common consiait intrusted. . . . The first 
 commencement of the college which \yi« held 
 in the then new Baptist meeting-house ui the 
 town of Warren, on tlie 7th of September, 178P, 
 has already been regarded as a Red Letter Day 
 in its history. Five years previous, the Oeneral 
 Assembly . . . had gVunted a charter for a ' Col- 
 lege or University in the English Colony of 
 Hliode Island and Providence Plantations, in 
 New England in America.'. . . Without funds, 
 without students, and with no present prospect 
 of support, a beginnir^' must be made where the 
 president could be the pastor of a chunh, and 
 thus obtain an adequate compensation for his 
 services. Warren, then as now a delightful 
 and flourishing inland toiyn, sitiiate<l 1(1 inilcs 
 from Providence, seemed to meet the reiiuisite 
 requirements; and thither, accordingly. Manning 
 reinoveil with his family in the spriiig of 17t)4. i 
 lie at once commenced" a Latin School, as the | 
 tirst step preparatory to the work of colli^ge in- I 
 struction. Before the I'lose of the year a church 
 was organized, over which he was ilnly inslalleii 
 as pastor. The following y»ar, at the second 
 Hnuual meeting of the rorpnratinn, held i- Xpw- 
 ]«>n. Wednesday, September 3d, he was formally 
 elected, in the language of the recortis, ' Presi- 
 dent of the College, Professor of Languages and 
 
 755 
 
 t)ther branches of learning, with full power t4 
 act in these capacities at Warren or elsewhere.' 
 On that same day, as appears from a paper now 
 on file in the archives of the Library, the presi- 
 dent matriculated his first student, William Ro- 
 gers, a lad of fourteen, the son of Captain William 
 Rogers, of Newport. Not only was this Ud the 
 first stufi-nt of the college, but he wa» also the 
 first fre.liman class."— R. A. Guild, The ft>»t 
 CmtmeiuttmrUof Khode Itiand College (Ji- 1- lliet 
 Soe Coll\ V. 7), pp. 269-271. — Six years after 
 the founding of the University it was remove<l 
 from Warren to Providence, and its name changed 
 from Rhode Island College to Brown University, 
 in honor of John Brown, of Providence, who was 
 its most liberal benefactor.— O. W. Greene Short 
 UittofRhiMe bland, p. 198.- Although founded 
 by the Baptist Church, the charter of the Uni- 
 versity "expressly forbids the use of religious 
 '*"^' rJ*"* '^ofPorat'on is divided into two Boards 
 —the Tnistecs, ;18 in number, of whom 22 must 
 be Baptists, 5 Quakers, 5 Episcopalians, and 4 
 Congregationalists. and the Fellows, 12 in num- 
 ber, of whom 8, including the President, must be 
 Baptists, an the remainder of otlier denomina- 
 tions. Tw Truptees and 5 Fellows form a 
 quorum. college estate, the students, and 
 the member!, i^: the faculty, with their families, 
 are exempt from taxation and from serving as 
 jurors."— S. G. Arnold, Uitt.ofthe Stateof H. I., 
 rli. IH (c. 2). -^ •' 
 
 A. D. I769-I884.-The United States.— 
 Sectarian Institutioni of Learning.— A large 
 pro[)<)rtion of the very great number of educa- 
 tional institutions in the United States which have 
 a collegiate or a university rank, in some high 
 or low degree, were created and are maintained 
 and governed by sectarian religious bodies. They 
 are too numerous to be named ; but the following 
 may be cited as being, perhaps, the most notable 
 in this class: under Baptist auspices, Brown Uni- 
 versity, Providence. B. I. .founded in 1769; Colby 
 Univeraitj-. at Waterville. Me., founded in 1820- 
 Colgate I niversity, at Hamilton, N. Y., founded 
 in 1816 ; Columbian University, at Washington, 
 founded in l82t ; Rochester University, at Itoch- 
 ester, N Y., founded in 18,'il. Under Congre- 
 gationr.list au.spices: Bowdoin College, at Bruns- 
 wick, Me., founded in 1794; Iowa College, at 
 Grinnell, la., founded in 1843. Under Episco 
 palian auspices ; Hobart College, at Geneva, 
 N. Y., founded (»8 a college) in 1822; Kenyon 
 College, at Gambler, O., founded in 1824; Le- 
 'dgh University, at South Bethleliem. Pa., 
 tounded in 1887 ; Trinity College, at Hartford, 
 Conn., founded in 1823 ; University of the South, 
 at Sewanee, Tenn., founded in" 1857. Under 
 Methixlist auspices: Allegheny College, at Mead- 
 ville. Pa., founded in 181.5; iBoston University, 
 at Boston, Mii,ss., founded in 1869 ; Tie Pauw 
 University, at Greencastle. Ind, . founded in 1837 ; 
 Dickinson Colleee, at Carlisle. Pa., founded in 
 1783: Northwestern University, at Evanston and 
 Chicago, 111., founded in 1855; Syracu,' Uni- 
 versity, at Syracuse, N. Y., founded 1 "871; 
 Vanderbilt University, at Nftchvi;)- lenn 
 founded in 1873; We"sleyan Uniersity i.t Mid- 
 dletown. Conn., founded in 1831. Tide; Pres- 
 byterian auspices : Belolt College, . ; ioit.Wis 
 ffimded in l«4:j ; Cumberland College, at Leba- 
 non. Tenn., founded in 1827 ; Lafayette College 
 at Easton, Pa., founded in 1832; Lake Forest 
 University, at Lake Forest and Chiiago. r.,\i.:deil 
 
 ^i 
 
 l:!it 
 
 m 
 
 H-'-i 
 
 r' if 
 
 III 
 
 '!ifi 
 
 a I 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Land Oraals 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 in 1857. Under Roman Catholic auspices: The 
 Catholic University of America, at Waahington, 
 founded in 1884 ; the Georgetown University, at 
 Waahington, founded In 1815; University of 
 Notre Dame, at Notre Dame, Ind., founded In 
 1842. Under Univernalist auspices : Tufts Col- 
 lege, at Boston, founded in 18.57. 
 
 A. D. 1770.— New Jersey.— Rutgers Col- 
 lege.—" Rutgers College, locatc<l at Nt'W Bruns- 
 wick, was chartered by George III. in 1770, and 
 was called tjuefn's College, in honour of his 
 consort. Tlif present name was substituted by 
 the Icglalaturi' of the State, In 1H25, at request 
 of the trustees, iu honour of Col. Ilenrjr Rutgers, 
 of New York, to whom the institution is in. 
 debte<l for liberal pectmiury beuefartions. The 
 charter was origiiuUly grunted to such Protes- 
 tants as bad adopted the constitution of the 
 reformetl churches in the Netlierlands, as revised 
 by the national synod of Dordrecht, in the years 
 IBIN ami 11(19. . . . The Theological College of 
 the Itcfcirined Dutch Church is established here 
 and intimately trended with the literary institu- 
 tion "—T. F. Goriion. Gazetteer nf the State nf 
 y. ./. ['«iu mi iHth '• IliHtoni if Xiu<Ji'rfey"),vM. 
 
 A. D. i776-l88o.— New Eng;laad and New 
 York.— State School Systems.— " It was not 
 until over thirty years after the close (jf the war 
 of ITTtl thiit II ri'iiular system of schtMils at the 
 public I'xpinsi' wiis c«ta^)lislKMl. New Kngland 
 boasted with pri'i ■ of being the first in cduca 
 tion, as shi' huil 
 closely follow 
 York, In IWI.- 
 a.ssociatcil fc; 
 RihiHil ill New 
 thc'iliildriiiof i„ 1 
 and who did not bii 
 for liv, any nliui 
 
 '•1 war. Her example was 
 
 itlier Suites, In New 
 
 itleiueii of prominence 
 
 SI? of establishing a free 
 
 ity for the education of 
 
 s in indi),'eiit circum.stiuices. 
 
 111; to, or were not provided 
 
 Ills siH'icty. These publii 
 
 spiritiii pnlieiiiMi pnsi'iited a memorial to the 
 Legislature, sitting forth thi' iHnetits that would 
 resiil! to s.»iety from eiliicatiiig such children, 
 and that it wmild c liable tliem iiion' elTectiialiy 
 to acconiplisli ilic olijccis of llieir institution If 
 the Rcbiiols Kin i. ' orpMral"! The bill of in- 
 corporatl'in was pas-ii| .\pril !l, lHil,"i This was 
 the nucleus fr-mi wliieli the ph'sint svstem of 
 iiiililii' w'licHils siarleil into ixisleiiee. Later on. 
 in llie year IwiN, we lliid from annual printed 
 reporls'tli.it two free schools wen- opeiieii and 
 were In workiiii.' order. .It was ibe liiten 
 tion of the founders of these si hoots — among 
 whom the names of De Witt Clinton. Kenlinaiid 
 lie I'eyster. .loliii Murray, and I/'onard Hleccker 
 stand prominent as otiiccrs — to avoid the teiich- 
 iniis of any reliu'ioii« society; but thiTc were 
 among thepeople many »ho thoiiirbl that siif 
 fieient care was not belni; In stowed ui>on relt- 
 L'iiitiR Instriiilion to please llice mnfeoiilents 
 the literary studies of tiie pupils wen- siimis'IiiIhI 
 one arierno'in In every week, and an nssm iuiion 
 of Hfty ladies of •dlsllntriiislied 1 oiisidcrallon In 
 siM'lety ' met on this day and exan.inisl the dill 
 drill in their nspeelive lateelilsms . To reail, 
 writ)', and kn<i» ariilimt li<' in Its llrst braui h< s 
 corn'ctly, was the extent of the islucatiimal ad 
 vantagt's wliii h the founders of the free sihisil 
 system deemed necessary for the accomplish- 
 menl (f their purposes ' — .V II Rhine. ThrRirly 
 I'ree Sfh'">l» </ Am il^iimlar Srinet M'/nthln. 
 M.irrh. l'«80i. 
 
 A. D. i7S5-lMo.-Tht Unittd Stat«t,- 
 Land-grantt for School!.— 'The ipiestlon of 
 
 766 
 
 the endowment of educational institutions by the 
 Government in aid of the cause of education seem.s 
 to have met no serious opposition In the Congri-sa 
 of the Confederation, and no membiT raised his 
 voice against this vital aiid essential provision 
 relating to it in the ordintnce of May 20, 178S, 
 ■ for ascertaining the mode of disposing of lands 
 in theWestem Territory.' Tais provided ; 'There 
 shall be reserved the lot No, 18 of every town 
 ship for the maintenance of public schools within 
 said township,' This was an endowment of tl40 
 acres of land (one section of land, one mile square) 
 In a township six miles square, for the support 
 and maintenance of public sidiiHils ' within wiid 
 township. ' The manner of esUiblishment of piili. 
 lie schools thereunder, or by whom, was not 
 mentioned. It was a reservation by the Iniiid 
 States, and advanced and established a principle 
 which finally dedicated one thirty-sixth pan nf 
 all public lands of the United States, with i-i-r- 
 tain exceptions as to minerals, &C., to the cause 
 of education by public schools. ... In the Con- 
 tinental Congress, July 13, 1787, aci-ordini; in 
 onier. the ordinance for the government of tlie 
 'Territory of the United States northwest of ilu- 
 river Ohio' came on, was ri-ad a third time. vm\ 
 
 Fassed [sis' Northwest Teiihitobt : A.I). 17.sT|. 
 t containeil the following: 'Art, !). IMii-inii, 
 morality, and knowledge being necessary to gmul 
 government and the happiness of niankimi, 
 schools and the means of cdiicatlim shall fori \it 
 be encouraged.' The provision of the imliiianif 
 of May 20, 1785. relating to the reservation of the 
 sixteenth section in every township of piililie 
 land, was the inception of the pn-sent rule of 
 n'servation of (crlain sections of land for -1 liool 
 purposes. The endowment was the subjeil nf 
 much U'gislatlon In the years following, 'I'lie 
 
 question was raisiil that there was no reason uliy 
 the I'nited Htati-s should not organize, conlrnl. 
 
 and manage tlicsi' public schools so cmloueil. 
 i'lie resi-rvuliotiH of land were made by surviy 
 ors and duly relurnisi. This policy at om i- \wi 
 with enthusiastic approval from the publii', unit 
 was tacitly iiiiorpomt<'d Into the American sis. 
 tcni as one ol Its fundamental organic lilms. 
 Whether the public scIhhiIs thiiseiiiiowed liy llii 
 I'liitiHl Htati s were to Im' under national or Siiiie 
 lontrol rrniained a question, and the hiiuismrr 
 held In res< rvatlon merely until after the uilnii 
 sioiiof the State of dliioln INtni. , . . T-iiail, 
 oriranl/.ed Territory, after imiH. «as and iin« i^ 
 ri MTVed the sixteenth section (until after llii 
 Oniroii Tcrritiiry .\cl reserved the thirty sixili 
 as well) for silittol purposi-s. wliii b reservalinii is 
 nirried Into irniiit and loiitlrniaiion by Ibe h mis 
 of the ail of adniixlon of ibe Territory nr Slnli- 
 Into till- I'liion ; the Stale then bei oiiiing a Iriis 
 tee for silesil purposes These grants nf land 
 were made from the publii' donmiii. and to Matis 
 only wlilili wen> kiioHii as public laial relates. 
 Twelve States, from March 8, IWi^l klmnn «* 
 public land States, received the allowanie ,|f thi' 
 slxtoenth section to August 14,184" (nn 
 
 gress. ,liH„ 111, 181-', and May !!«, '»«'.'), by tli. 
 acts onlering the siirvi'V of certain towns anil 
 villages in .Missmiri. resiTved for the support nf 
 schisils In thi' iHwiiH and villages nsnied pm 
 vldiil that the whole amount rewTvisI should imt 
 exieeil one twentieth part of the whole laiiiN in 
 rludeii in the gi'iiernl survey of such mw n or 
 village Thew lots were nservisl and sol'l fnr 
 the heneflt of the srhools. Saint Louis n 1 1 iml 
 
EDUCATION 
 
 8tat« Univtrtitiu. 
 
 KDUCATIOX. 
 
 a large fund from thu source. ... In the act 
 for the organization of the Territory of Oregon 
 August 14, 1848, Senator Stephen A. Douglas 
 inserted an additional grant for school purposes 
 of the thirtv-aixtb section in each township with 
 indemnity for all public-land States thereafter to 
 be admitted, making the reservation for school 
 purposes the sixteenth and thirtv-sizth sections, 
 or 1,280 acres in each township of six miles 
 Sfiuare reserTe<l In public-land States and Terri- 
 tories, aud contlrraed by grant in terms in ,■ 
 act of admission of such State or Territurj i < 
 the Union. From March 13, 1853, to Jun. :*i, 
 1880, seven States have been admitted inh li ■ 
 Union having a grant of the sixteenth aud th ty 
 sixth sections, and the same area lias Ijccd ,' 
 served in eight territories."— T. Donaldson, 1 ;. 
 Piihlie Donutin, eh. 13. 
 
 A. D. I789.-The United Statet.— "The 
 Constitution of the United States makes no pro- 
 vision for the education of the people ; and in the 
 Convention that framed it, I believe the subject 
 was not even mentioned. A motion to insert a 
 clause providing for the eatablishmeut of a na- 
 tional university was voted down. I U'lieve it 
 is also the fact, that the Constitutions of on'y 
 three of the thirteen original States made the 
 obligation to maintain a system of Free Sclioiils 
 a part of their fundamental law."— II, Miimi 
 Iff Kind Aniiiitil tirji'tt Hit Kliioition leel !i 
 
 A. D. I79i-I893.-State Univenitiei.-A 
 
 majority of the States In the Union have estab- 
 
 iishnl universities, each bearing the name of the 
 
 Suite, and more m less supporteil by endciwrni-nts 
 
 andappropriatintis provide.i bj leglHJHtive ,i,ts 
 
 In most ca.>ii's, llie founding of these Instil itions 
 
 was initiiii^l by the various land grants of the 
 
 United Stttt<'S (see iilM)ve : A. D 178.'J-1Hh(| and 
 
 Ih'Idw, 1883) The ,S|„le universities, distiiictly 
 
 charact< rizeii a.s such, are the f.>llowlng Ala- 
 
 liuniri, founded at TuscaliHMa, in 1H3I ' ('aij. 
 
 fiiriiiii, lit Herlteley, foundisl in 1H»W ,comii(ied 
 
 witli whi h is the Lick Observatory, on \tt 
 
 Hamilton, founded liy James IJik."ln 1M7,-,|- 
 
 Colorado, at Moulder, frmndeil in 18TB Oeorgiii" 
 
 lit Athens, foimded in Imoi ; Iihiho. at Mo«<.iw' 
 
 found.Kl in I«l«; Illinois, nt Cliampiiign ami 
 
 Irbana. found.sl in IHflfl; Indiinm, at Hl,i.iniing- 
 
 Um. founde.| In 18a<); Kansas, at Uwn.nce 
 
 f»unde<l In Mm-. Michigan, at Ann Arbor' 
 
 founded (orlirlnallv at Detrolti In Ih'Ji MInne 
 
 t<il.i It .Mlniii'apofis, in IWIM; Missouri at C.i 
 
 luniiiia ami Holla, founded in 18;t»: Mis'slssippl 
 
 \t (Hfonl, founileil in \>HH -. Nebraska at l.ln' 
 
 colli, founded In \n»» . North Oakotji. at (Jrand 
 
 fork, foundml in 1MS4 ; Ohio, at Athens, founded 
 
 in 1802; South Oakota. at Veniiilioii, f.iuiuhsl 
 
 In lM8a : Tennessee, at Knoxville, founded itlrst 
 
 «s Blount t'ollegei In 1794: Texas, at Austin 
 
 •ind Oalveston, foiinilisl In 187fl ; Vermont at 
 
 Hurllngton. founded In 17111 ; Virginia, at ciiar 
 
 ^iilesvllle. foundisl In 18I»; Washlnirion, at 
 
 Sealte founde<l In 18(HI; Wisconsin, iit Mailison 
 
 founiled In IKY) ; Wyoming, at Uramie, foundrd 
 
 A, D, I7M- - M«i»«chut«tti. - Williamt 
 Colle|[«, AViillams College, at Willlamstown, 
 llerksliin- founty. .Masa, was chartered In 17»i1. 
 I he town and the college were named in honor 
 ■■f Co! Kphr,!n> Wll!!sm=. w!i„ had n>mir.r.nd 
 of llie forts In the H<xmm< Valley, and was killed 
 n a battle with the French and Indians S. n 
 timber 8, 1753, By bis will bo eMablislied a 
 
 free school in the township which was to bear 
 his name. The most advanced students of thi» 
 free school became the first college class num- 
 bering 4, and .eceived the regular degree of 
 bachelor of arts in the autumn of 1795 The 
 small amount left by the will of Colonel Wil- 
 liams was carefully managed for 30 years by the 
 executors and they then obtained pcrmUsion 
 from the State legisiatun; to carry out the be- 
 I ^" »nt purposes of the testator. The fund for 
 I . ...iiu^ 7-.S increased by individual subscrio- 
 I tioiis, ;in.. by .. i avails of a lottery, which the 
 eenenil (,ouit .ranted for that purpose. The 
 , imiWfig Ah < J is now known as West Colleire 
 ■ was tl»i. eri- e.1 for the use of the free sch(5>l 
 I md ^ ,« fin. .led in 1790, , , . The free school 
 ..:':. .. ned m 1791, with Rev, Ebenezer Fitch 
 a grwfuatt of Yale College, as pn-ceptor, and 
 Mr Jolm Ix^ster as assistant. . , , The success 
 of the school was so great that the next year the 
 trust.es asked the legislature to incorporate the 
 sch.Hjl ,,,t« a college. This was done, and a 
 grant of H.im was made from the State treasury 
 for the punhiise of books and philosophical ap- 
 paratus. The college was put under thclcarf of 
 12 ti;ustees, who elected IVoptor Fitch the first 
 presidi.nt of the (ollege, "-E, B, Parsons, Hi,t. 
 of Iliyher ktlmitiim in M,tu (V. H Jiureau „i 
 t^hication, Cireular of Jn/ormalion, imi. no fl) 
 rn. \t. " 
 
 r^» °'7.93-'8i2.-New York, -Hamilton 
 College.- I his college, at Clinton. In Oneida 
 lounty N, \ Imd Its Ivginning in an acmieniv, 
 founded by the Hev. Samuel Kirkland, who hid 
 laboreil as a mis.sionary among the Oneida Indi 
 ans It was charter.'(l, as the Hamilton Oneida 
 Academy, in 17HI1: Ihecorn, rslon.' of a biiiliilnir 
 
 fi\r ttti iiuii ti'»i3 Ini.l 1... 11 .-. • ' * ^ r 
 
 191 
 
 for Its us.' was laid bv Baron SteuUn in thi' 
 lowing^ year; but the scho.,1 was not opened 
 until 1, its The acud.my became Hamilton ful- 
 legi! Ill IH12, 
 
 A. D. I794-M«ine,— Bowdoin College.— 
 
 'An act of tiie Legislature of the province of 
 .Maine, approved in 171»4, incorporal.'d the iilnive 
 named in.stitiition, . . . That thi> institution 
 might not want for proiH'r support, it was further 
 ciiiicti'd. Thiit the clear rents. Issue-., and iinitlts 
 of all the estate, real and personal, of win, li the 
 said corponitioii shall lie seized or possessed 
 shall be appropriateii to llie endowment ,.r the 
 said college, in such maniier as »il| niost etfict- 
 ually promole virtue, jiietv, and llie knowledge 
 of such of the lani.'iiai.'c,s and the us.'ful and 111), 
 eral arts and siiemes as .sIj.iII liireafter !«■ directed 
 fniin lime to linir by said cori«iration.' Five 
 townships of land, eai h six miles si|iiiire were 
 granted to th.- colLce for its endowment and 
 vestisi In the ir.isl,,.., provl,l,nl that fifteen 
 famillesbesellbsi in lach of llie snlil townships 
 within a |H>ri.«t of iwilve vears, and provldid 
 further that thrn- lots < ontjiining 32(1 aires eiuh 
 be resi'rved, one for the first s.'ttled minister one 
 for the use of the niinlstry, and one for the sup- 
 port of schools within ihe township when' it is 
 l.satisl These lownshl|w Were to be laid out 
 and assiened from anv of the unappropriated 
 lands iH'longing to the commonwealth of the ilia- 
 trlct of .Maine. The first money enilimnient wa« 
 instituted by a general law ("if Massachusetts, 
 .■irpn.-,.vi F.br.uiry «, iSI4, „i,j,|, ,Taits as fo|. 
 lows Be It enacted by the Senate and House of 
 Kepresentative* In lleneral Court now assembled 
 That the tfti which the pnsldent, dintlors, ami 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 BUlU 
 Sekoat Fmdt. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 company of the MasaschuaetU Bank are and 
 ■ball be liable to pay to the commonwealth, sball 
 be and hereby is granted to and appropriated as 
 follows, viz : tensixtefnths parts thereof to the 
 president and fellows of Harvard College ; and 
 tliree-sixceenths parts tliereof to the president 
 and trustees of Williams ColleRe ; and three- 
 sixteenths thereof to the president anil trustees 
 of Bowdoln College '"—F. W. Uliickinnr, llitt. 
 of Ftderal and Htnte Aid to Uighfr Ulufulioii in 
 ill* V. S. (Bureau of Edtieation. Cirrutar of 
 rnformation. 181», tw. 1). pp. 123-134. —The 
 college was named in honor of Governor James 
 Bowdoin, of Maasachusetts, whose son made 
 valuable gifts to it 
 
 A. D. 1795.— New York.— Union College. 
 —Union College, founded at Sehenectady. in 
 179.5. had a struggle for existence until the Rev. 
 Ur Eliplialet Nott was called to its presidency, 
 1H<)4 By the energy and intluence of Dr. Nott, 
 .State aid was obtained and funds were raised by 
 other means, until a fairly substantial endow- 
 ment was secured. Among tlit^ methods em- 
 ployed in creating this endowment was a series 
 of lottery drawings, which wen' not entirely 
 closed until IH*!.- C. F. Hichanlson and H. A. 
 Clark. The ColUge Iloolc. I'nioii College. 
 
 A. U. 1795-1867.— The United State!.— 
 State School Fundi. — '("(mnecticut t(¥ik the 
 lead in the creation of a iiermanent fund for the 
 support of schools. The liistrict known as the 
 Western Iteserve, in Northern Ohio, had bi'en 
 siriired to her in the aillustment of her cliiims 
 1.1 l«ii(ls conflrmiKl to Ikt uv the charter of King 
 Charles II. The Ugislature of the State, in 
 liB.5, passed an act directing the sale of all the 
 land embraced in the Iteserve, and setting spart 
 the avails as a perpetual funil for the niaiiite 
 ii.'ince of comniim »chix>ls. The amount real 
 izisl was atxiut »l. 120,(1(10. . . . New York was 
 the next State to estiiblish a ciinunon school fund 
 for the aid and maintenance of whoiils In the 
 several school (listriets of the Hlat<- The other 
 Northern Statin ■■ • ept New llainpshire, Ver- 
 mimt. PennsvlvH ,1 and one or two others, 
 have estalilisiied similar funds . . In all the 
 new Slates, the ."KHMKIO acres given by act nf 
 Congress, on their admission into the I'nion. for 
 the support of schools, have been saireillv set 
 apart for that purpose, and generally other iiinds 
 belonging to the States have twen mldeil to the 
 fund. . . . I'rlor to the war the Slave States luul 
 made attempts to establish plans for pupular 
 eilneatlon, but with results of an unsiitisfiu tory 
 character In Virginia a sibisU system was in 
 f.irie for the education of the liiiiiln'n of Imll 
 gent white pi-rsims In North Ciimllna a large 
 srlenil fund, exceistlng twii millions of ilnllars, 
 hiwl been sit apart for the mainU'niinis' of srhouls 
 111 111! of these States common schools hail bi'en 
 Imnnluiiil. but they dill not tloiirisli as in the 
 N'lrlli ami West . There was not the same 
 |"i|iMl»li<>ii of small and lnile|iendent farmers, 
 » Imihp faniilii'S could be iinlteil Into a schisil ills 
 trill A more serious obstacle was the slave 
 
 population, loiisiliutlng one tbini of the whole, 
 iiMil In siinie i>f the States mon< than half, whom 
 it \v;is llemiiht dangerous to islucate " — V M 
 Itii e, .'•'/ir.-iVrf /ir;»>rf on iKe I'retenI Stale of tCdu- 
 eatiim. IxHT, pji. 1H-2;I 
 
 A. D, 5796 — Vlrgiois _W»»!jlS£too asi! 
 Let UalTertity.— This tustitutioo, at Lciing 
 toD, Va., has grown from an aindemjr, ettkb 
 
 lished at an early day at Greenville, Va., but 
 moved to Lexington in l/S.'). In 171*6 It rcceivi il 
 a large gift of land from George Wa8hingU)ii. 
 and assumed a new character, taking the name 
 of Washington College. In 1H65, at the close of 
 the Civil War, Gen. Robert E. I.«e became its 
 president, and on his death, in 1S70, it was given 
 its present name. 
 
 A. D. i8oa.— United States.— Military Aca- 
 demy. See West Point. 
 
 A. D. 1804-1837.— Michigan.— The Univer- 
 aity.- " In IWW, when Michigan was nrLMn 
 Ized as a Territory, Congress granted a township 
 of laud for a seminary of learning, and the nui 
 versity to be establislied in 1817 was to be m 
 accordance with this grant. The territorial 
 government committiil the interests of hitler 
 edu(!ation to the care of the Governor anil the 
 Judges, and it is supp<»eit that through the es 
 ertions of Hon. A. U. WisHlward. then presiiliii!: 
 Judge of the Supreme Court of the Terril.ry 
 of Michigan, the act establishing a univir'^ity 
 was framed. A portion of this most lurions 
 document of the early history of Michigiiii will 
 be given. It is entitleil ' An act to establish tin- 
 Catholepistemiad or Vnlvcrsily MichiganiH,' Be 
 it enacttil bv the Governor and Judges of the 
 Terrilorv of Michigan, That there shall be in ihi) 
 said Territory a catholepistemiad or iinivir-ity 
 denominated "the Catholepistemiad or liiivi rsity 
 Michigania. The Catholepistemiad or Univ. rsity 
 of Michigania shall be composed of tliirtnn 
 didaxtim or professorships; first, a diduxia or 
 professorship catholepistemia, or (uiiversiil i: 
 ence, the dictator or professor of whii li slinll 
 be president of the institution ; seionil, a iliil.ixia 
 or pnifi-saorship of anthropoglassica. nr literature 
 embriiiing all of the epistemiun or sciences n la 
 live In language; lliinl. a ilidaxia or pnifessur 
 ship of mathematiia or nmlliemutiis; fourth, a 
 didaxia or professi irshli) of pliysiognustiiu nr 
 natural bistorv etc.' The act thus cimlinues 
 through the lole range of the ' thirteen ili 
 drtxum'; the remaining nine are as follows 
 Niitural philosophy, astronomy, chemistry, niiil 
 ical sciences, I'conoinieal sciences, etliiial M-i 
 ences, inilitarv sciences, historical sciences. iiikI 
 Intellectual. The university was to lie uniirr 
 the control of the professors and president, who 
 were Ui lie ap|H)lnt(sl bv the Oovernor. while the 
 Institution was to be llie center and eontrollihL' 
 power of the edtu'ational system of the Sliiii 
 It was to !« Bupporled by taxstlon by tin 111 
 cH'tise of the amount of taxes alnaily levied. Ii> 
 I'l per cent .\lso power was given to nii«.- 
 money for the supiMirt of tlie university \<\ 
 means of bitteries. This nmiirkable ilisiinient 
 was not without Its InHiienee In simpliii! the 
 public sihixil policy of Mlehlgan. but it wss 
 many years iH'fore "the Slate aiiiiroxinrnti il its 
 leariiisl provisions Impmctlciible lis tliw eilu 
 callonal plan apis'iirs for a handful of pe 't>Ii In 
 the wiKsIs of Mieblgan, It aervisl as 11 fonnilntion 
 upim whh h to build. The officers and prr«ii|eMi 
 wen- iltilv apiwilnti'd. and the work of lie m » 
 unlversttv tiegan at once. At drat the uniMr«ii> 
 appeared" as a schmil board, to eslsbll»li uml 
 malnUin primary schools which they held m 'hr 
 their charge Then foUowed a course of »i .'ly 
 for classlml academies, and flnally. In Oitolsr 
 lf.f7. an act VBB paaaed eBi^bltKlifnir a colliL'e in 
 the city of netrolt titWetX The Klfat Collep "i 
 MUblganla.' ... The people contributed lihi 1 
 
 768 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Ttekmeal amtaHtm. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 »lljr to theie early schooU. the sum of three 
 tboiuand dollars being subscribed at the begin- 
 n'ng- ■ • ■ An act was passed on the 30th of 
 April, H»l, by the Governor and Judges estab- 
 liahing a university in Detroit to tiike the place 
 of the catbolupistemiad and to b called the 
 ■University of Michigan.' In Its i i irter nearly 
 all the powers of tije former institution were 
 iubstantially conlirmed, except the provision for 
 taxes and lotteries. . . . The second corporation, 
 known as the ' University of Michigan,' carried 
 on the work of education already begun from 
 1821 to the third orkanization, in 1837. The 
 education was very limited, consisting in one 
 classical academv at Detroit, and part of the 
 time a Lancasterian school. The boards of edu- 
 cation kept up and transmitted the university 
 idea to such an extent that it may be said truly 
 ""1 le«r»"y that there was one University of 
 Michigan, which passed through three successive 
 stages of development marked by the dates 1H17, 
 1821, and 1837." at which time it was removed to 
 Ann Arl)or.-F. W. Blackmar, fiideral and 
 Stale Aid to Higher Education ( U. 8. Bureau of 
 Bdueation, Circular of Information, 18IW.no 1) 
 pp. 239-241. 
 
 Also in : E. M. Farrand, IKit. of the Unirer- 
 titg of Michigan— K. Ten Brook, American State 
 Uninerritiet. 
 
 A.D.i8iS-i8ai.-MaaMchuietti.-Amherst 
 Collen.—" Amherst College originated in a 
 strong desire on the part of the people of Massa- 
 chusetts to have a college mar the central part 
 of the Stale, where the stuili'iiU sboultl \m: free 
 from the temptations of a largi- city, where the 
 expenses of an education siiould not be beyond 
 the means of those who had but little money and 
 where the moral e.nd religious influences should 
 be of a decidedly Christian character. . . . The 
 ministers of Franklin County, at a meeting held 
 in 8helburne, May 18, 1815. expresse.! it as their 
 opinion that a literary institution of high onler 
 ought to be esublishe<l in Hampshire County 
 and that the town of Amherst appeared V- " '' 
 to be the must eligible place for it. Tl 
 .florts for a literary Institution in Hs 
 I'ounty resulted In the first place in the er 
 ment of an academy in Amherst, which v, 
 corporated in the year 1816. ... In tin ear 
 1818 a constitution was adopted bv the trustees 
 of Amherst Arailemy, for the mi^iiit' and man 
 ageiuent of a fund of at least tM.im for the 
 classical education of indigent young men of 
 piety and Ulents for the Christian ministry 
 This eharlty fund may be said to be tin' basis of 
 Amherst College, for though it wiw raised bv the 
 trustees of Amherst Acailemv It was really in- 
 taHinI to b<^ the foundation of a college and has 
 always been a part of the permanent funds of 
 Amheiat tollege, kept sai'nHllv from all other 
 funds for the specific object for which It was 
 given. This was for manv years the only 
 
 permanent fund of Amherst College, and wiihout 
 ilil» it would liave seemed impoaaVble at one time 
 to preserve the very existence of the colleit.' So 
 Aiiibirst College grew out of Amherst Ara.l.niv. 
 «iil was built permanently on the charity fuiid 
 iiiised by the trustees of tlial academy. Al 
 
 ili|>ugh the charity fund of t:*ym) had been re 
 'T'r*^ In ISIH. It waa not till I8«) that tlie re 
 cipimt fait Juitmed !b goinj fnrward tr- ^r- 1 
 building! for a colleite In Amherat. EiTortswere 
 made for Um mnoval of Williams College from 
 
 769 
 
 Williamatown to Hampshire County, and to have 
 the charity fund used In connection with that 
 college ; and, if that were done, itwaa not certain 
 tnat Amherst could be regarded as the best loca- 
 tion for the college. But the Legislature of Massa- 
 chusetu decide<rthat WilFIams College could not 
 be removed from Williamstown, and nothinir re- 
 mained but for the friends of the new institution 
 to go on witJh their plans for locating it at Am 
 herst. . . . This first college edifice was ready 
 for occupaUon and dedicated on the 18th of hen- 
 tember, 1821. In the month of May, 1821 Kev 
 Zephaniah Swift Moore, D. D., was unanimously 
 elected by the trustees of Amherst Academy 
 president of the new institution."— T P Field 
 Hut of Higher Education in Mate. (U. S. Bureau 
 of Educatwn, Circular of Information, 1891. 
 no. o), en. 11, 
 
 A. D i824-i893.-The United State!.- 
 Tecbnical Education.— Schools specialized for 
 different branches of a technically scientific edu- 
 cation (specially in the department of engineer- 
 ing civil, mechanical, and electrical) ai? now 
 embraced in almost every university of consider- 
 able rank ; but many of that class have ris. ii In- 
 dnpendently. mostly within recent yeara The 
 oldest of importance is the Rcnssilaer Institute 
 at Troy, founded in 1824. The Massaehus.lti 
 Institute of Technology, at Boston, was ope.i.d 
 
 loii*'-..*^'*''*'"' '""''"'<'■'" Hobokun. N J , in 
 1867; Pratt Institute, at Brooklyn N Y 
 foundeii in 18«4: Drexei Institute, at' Philadei: 
 phia, in 1891, and Armour Instituu-, at ChicacD 
 n \mi. are younger schools for te<hni<al train' 
 ng, munificently equipped and endowed by the 
 liberality of private litizena. 
 A. p. 183a -Ohio -Oberiin C liege— 
 (berlm is a development from the missionsrv 
 and reform movemenU of the carlv (luarter o"f 
 our century. The founders wer'etLem«lves 
 
 home missionaries in tlie West and among the 
 Indians, and Oberlin has ever since been vital 
 with the missionary spirit. From the first, »l.-.>. 
 holic leverages have been excluiied. Altli.iugh 
 not atlopting the extreme doctrine of wonmns 
 rights, yet tHHTlin was the first ((.liege in the 
 world to admit young women to all its privileges 
 on equal terms with young men ; and as for its 
 snti-slavery leanings, if had r.cejved colored 
 students into its classes 28 years before emami- 
 pation. Such UM disregard of tiie old land- 
 marks was not atl rmtive to the power and wealth 
 of the country, and so for .Ki vears oberlin owed 
 lU life to the sacrifice and devotion of its foiind- 
 m and Instructors. ..In 1831 John .1 Ship- 
 herd, under commliaion from the Americuu 
 Home Missionary Sixietv. entered upon his 
 work as pastor of the church at Klyria Ohio 
 _ . _ In the summer of 1832 he was visited by 
 Philo I' Stewart, an old school friend in the 
 days when they both attended the academy at 
 1 awlet, Vt. Stewart, on account of the failing 
 health of his wife, had return.Kl from mission 
 work among the Choctaws in Mississippi, but 
 his heart was .fill burning with zeal for extend- 
 Inir Christian work in the Weaf The two men 
 after long eonsiittations and prayer, finally con' 
 eluded that the needs of 'he new rountrv could 
 liest be met by esubllshing a ( ommunlty of Chris- 
 tian families with » Christian school, . . . fh! 
 Stthrt! U' l-c inindurtid on Ihs inituiis! labor sys- 
 tem, ud to be open to both young men and 
 rouog woBMB. It WM not propoted tu csubliah 
 
 ♦ p 
 
 ■fi: 
 
 ■ill 
 
 Ii 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Ontari'i 
 Bckoul Sgltm. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 a college, but simplT an academy for iostriiction 
 In Englisih and useful languages, and, if Provi- 
 dence should favtir it, in 'practical theology.' 
 In accordance with this plan the corporate name 
 ' Oberlin Collegiate Institute ' was chosen. Not 
 until 1*51 was a new and broader charter ob- 
 tained, this time under the name of 'Oberlin 
 College." The name 'Oberlin' wa» chosen tj 
 signify the hope that the members of the new 
 enterprise might be moved by the spirit of the 
 si'IfsatTlflcing Swiss colporteur and pastor, John 
 Friederich Oberlin."— J. K. Commons, Oberlin 
 CoUfge (Hurmu of Kdntation, Circular of In- 
 foniuilion, 1S91, no. r>), pp. 5.')-,'i6. 
 
 A.D. 1837.— Maisachusetti.— Horace Mann 
 and the State Syitem.— " When Massachusctta, 
 in wn, created a Bourd of Eilucatlon, then were 
 first united into a M)mewhat related whole the 
 more or less excellent but varied ami independ- 
 ent organizations, and a l.eginning made for a 
 State system. It was this massing of torcet. and 
 the hearty co-operation he initiated. In which the 
 work n* Horace Mann showed its matchless 
 greatness. ' Rarely,' it has been said, ' have 
 great ability, unselfish devotion, and brilliant 
 success been so united in the cours<! of a single 
 life.' A successful lawyer, a member of the 
 State Legislature, and w'ltli but limttcil experi- 
 ence as a trarhcr, he has left his impress upon 
 the educational sentiments of, not only New 
 Kiiv'liiiKl, but the I'nited States."— K. O. Boone, 
 Ktl'ir.idiiii in th- V. S., )i. loa. 
 
 A. D 1840-1886.— The United States.- Pro- 
 portion of College Students.— " It isestimated 
 that in 1H40 the proportion of college students to 
 the entire pi>|>iilation in the I'nlt^Hl States was 1 
 to l..'v«l ; in \^W. 1 to 'l.Wi : In INTO, 1 to ■a,.546 ; 
 in IHHO, 1 to 1.H4II ; and In 1HH0, 1 to about ' "H). 
 K!4tiniating all our mnibined efforts in f. " of 
 higlur eilueation. we fall far short of some of the 
 countries of the Old World. "—K. W. Rlackmar, 
 f'uhriil anil Sliite Aid t» lli'/her Uliiealicn in the 
 I'. .V ((■ .S liiirtiiH ■'!' Kiiiir,itii>n. Virrulnrt of 
 lnf;rm<llinii. IHiKI. 1..1. 'll, ;). JW. 
 
 A. D. 1844-1876.— Canada.— Ontario School 
 
 System.— " From the earlii'^t sittleinint of On- 
 tario. si'liiMiU yen! (■Ntublislied as the wants of 
 the inhabitants reciuirnl. The Ueis'vliire HtKm 
 remitnized the nenis of the eounlrj. and made 
 grants of land ami money in aid of elenienta-y. 
 secondary, anil superior inliieatlon. Stjitules ■..ere 
 pa'ise'i from time to lime fur the piiriii*e of open- 
 iiii; schools to meet the demands of the people. 
 The s|mrw ly scltlitl etmilllion of the I'rovliuT 
 delayed for a while thi' orguiii/.KtIon of the sys 
 tem. It was not until 1*44 that the elementary 
 sclUKils wen' put on a comprehensive basis. In 
 that year the lt<'v. K«ertoh Uverson. \A.. I)., was 
 appointed Chief Superintendent of Ediienllon. 
 and the re|«prt which he prrsinted to tlie llinise 
 of .\sMrml>ly nketihiil in an able ninnner the main 
 fealuri'sof the system of which he was the dis- 
 liiinuisliid founder, and of which he ccmtinued 
 f.ir thirty three yiwrs to lie thi' HHcient ailmlnls- 
 trutiir in ISTtl the otflre of chief superintendent 
 was al)olislii'd, and the sihools of the Provln '« 
 pliic-e.1 under the eontn)lof a memlierof thedov- 
 . rmnent with the title of Minister of Education. 
 . . The system of eduiwtlon in Ontario may be 
 said to combine the best features of the systems 
 (^f ^rvrni! rmmtrira. To thr «>M Woftfi ft !« in- 
 dehted for a large measure of Its sli.'iillUy, \\n\- 
 formity and centralisation ; to the older settled 
 
 parts of the New World for its popular nature, 
 ItsHezlbility, and its democratic principles, which 
 have given, wherever <lesirable, local control and 
 individual responsibility. From the State of New 
 York we have borrowed the machinery of out 
 school : from Hussachusutts the principle of local 
 t»>ation ; from Ireland our first series of text- 
 books ; from Scotland the co-operation of parents 
 with the teacher, In upholding his authority; 
 from Germany the system of Normal Scho<ils and 
 the Kindergarten; and from the Unitol States 
 generally the non-denominational character of 
 elementary, secondary, and ur!"ersity education. 
 Ontario may claim to have sr i features of her 
 system that are largely her own. Among them 
 may be mentioned : a division of state and muni- 
 cipal authority on a judicious basis , clear lines 
 separating the function of the University from 
 that of the High Schools, and the function of the 
 High Schools from that of the I'ublic or elenieii- 
 tarv ■ chools : a uniform course of study ; all Iliuh 
 ami Public Schools in the hands of professioniiily 
 trained teachers : no person eligible to the imsi 
 tion of inspector who does not hold the highest 
 grade of a teacher's certificate, and who has nut 
 bad years of experience as a teacher; inspectors 
 removable If inefllcient, but not subject to re 
 moval by popular vote : the examinations of 
 tcache™ under Provincial Instead ol \oci\\ control; 
 the acceptance of a common matriculation ex- 
 amination for admission to the Universities and 
 to the learned professions; a uniform series of 
 text IxKiks for the whole Province; the almost en- 
 tin' absence of party politics in the inaiiner in 
 which school lioanis. Inspectors, and teachers dis- 
 charge their duties ; the system national iiisteiirt 
 of sectarian, hut alTonling under constitutional 
 guarante<'S and limitations protection tc liunein 
 Catholic and Protestant Separate School', iiuil 
 denominational Universities." — .1. Millar. /.'<//•<(- 
 tionnl Synlfm of thr I'mrinff of (hitnrin. 
 
 A. D.' 1845.— The United States.— The Na- 
 Tal Academy.— In im-'i. Mr (Jeorge Hioicri>fl. 
 then Secn'tary of the Naw. issued instnictiiins 
 to Commc^lore Franklin t)u<'hanan to upcn a 
 naval school at Fort Severn. Annapolis. I'n vi- 
 ous attempts to organi/.e tlie teaching and train- 
 ing of midshipmen In such a school insteiid of nii 
 sh ) lioanl hail faili'd; this one obtaini'd sucics- 
 In IN49 " the institution was reorganir.eil on the 
 giiieral plan of the Mllilary Academy at West 
 I'oiiit, and its name was changed from the Naval 
 School to the Unitiil States Naval .Xcaili my." 
 
 A D. 1845-1847.— Louisiana.— Tulane'Uni- 
 rersity. — "This institution had its oriirin in 
 certain land grants [IHOfl and IhU | niiiih I' ihe 
 Unlteil States 'fcr the use of a scniininj "f 
 learning.' The first movement lowanl the uiill 
 /.stion of these i;rants was niaile In IfM.'i, wlnn 
 the followinir clause was adopiid In the amencli il 
 t'onstllulimi: 'A university shall be eslHliliilnd 
 in th" city of New Orleans It shall be euri! 
 posed I'f four farultles, to wit: one of law, one 
 of medicine, one of natural selenees. and 'Hie ■ ' 
 lettc''.'. . The university was chartere.1 in 
 tH47. . . . For many years the university n 
 eelved but meagn' support from the State . . . 
 Hy the Constitution of 1H7» the institution was 
 endowed permanently by authoricing the sum 
 of not more than 110.000 payable annually jfnr 
 
 760 
 
 vc Tt>sr=! «--> iJic ur.! -^-rsity At the !•»;■ 
 of this period tbfl unirersity was nnlted with tin' 
 Tulans University (in IHM). Hince that (line v< 
 
, u.»« 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 Indiutrial Cotltgu 
 
 EDUCATIOH 
 
 appropriations h::<-n been made by the Legisla- 
 ture."— F. W. bluckmar. Hut. of Federal and 
 State Aid to Higher Eriueation in the C S. 
 {Bureau of Education, Circular of Ir\J'ormation, 
 1890, no. 1). pp. 272-273. 
 
 A. D. 1848.— PeonsjlTania.— Girard Col- 
 ICEC' — By the will of Stephen Oirard, a large 
 ' laowment of money was given for a college to 
 educate poor white male orphans, in the city o' 
 Philadelphia. Oirard died in 1881, but it wts 
 not until 184U that the college was opened, in t 
 splendid marble building, surrounded by extei ■ 
 sire grounds. 
 
 A. D. 1850.— Wisconsin, The UniTcrsity 
 of. See WiHtoNsiN Univkrsitt. 
 
 A. O. 1863.— The United States.— Land- 
 rrs for Industrial Colleges.-" Next to the 
 Ord . .- ^ce of 1787, the Congressional grant of 
 1862 is the most important educational enact- 
 ment iu America. ... By this gift forty-eight 
 colleges and universities have received aid, at 
 least to the extent of the Congressional grant : 
 thirty-three of these, at least, have been called 
 into existence by means nf this act In thirteen 
 States the proceeds of the land scrip were de- 
 voted to institutions already in existence. The 
 amount received from the sales of land scrip 
 from twenty-four of these States aggregates the 
 sum of >I3,U30,4.'>6. with land remaining unsold 
 estimatei) at nearly two millionsof dollars. Tliesi' 
 same institutions" have re<eived State endow, 
 ments amounting to over eight million dollars. 
 The origin of tlii3 gift must be sought In local 
 comm\iiiities. In this country all ideas of na- 
 tional education have arisen from those States 
 that have felt the jeed of local institutions for 
 the education of youth. In certain sections of 
 the Union, particularly the North and West, 
 where agriculture was one of the chief industries, 
 it was felt that the old cla>>8ical schools were not 
 broad enough to cover all the wants of educa- 
 tion n'presented by growing industries. There 
 wai consequently 11 revulsion from tliesi' sch(x)ls 
 towiirti Iheindustriiil iind practical side of educa- 
 tion. Evidences of this movement are seen in 
 the attempts in difTereut States to foimd agricul- 
 tural, technical, and industrial s<'hools. These 
 Ideas found their way Into Congress, and a bill 
 was intnxiuceil in \KiH, v. hich provided for the 
 endowment of colleges for the teaching of agri 
 culture and the mechauiral arts. The bill was 
 Introduced by Hon. Justin S. Morrill, of Ver- 
 ni( It : it was pa.<<sed by a small maluritv, and 
 wasvetix-d by President Bu<hanan. In IMH2 the 
 bill was again presenti'<l with slight changes, 
 pa.<ised and signed, and b<>came a law July 2, 
 1MI2. ... It stipidated to grant to each State 
 thirty thousand acres of land for each Senator 
 and Itepreaentative in Congress to which th(^ 
 Stati'S were respectively entitled by the census 
 of 189(1, for the purpose of endowing 'at least 
 one college where the leading object shall be. 
 without excluding other scirntiflc and classical 
 studies, ami including military tactics, to teach 
 sui'h l>rancbes of Innming as are related to agri- 
 cnltiire and the mechanic arts, in such manner as 
 the Legislatures of the States may re''pectlvely 
 prescribe. In order to promote tlie liberal anc't 
 pnu'tlcsl education of the initustrial classes in the 
 ^e'eral nurssdta and p •^ift-asion* t:'. life' . . 
 Fiom this proposition all sorts of scIukiIs sprang 
 up, according to tlie local 
 
 tod local demaoda 
 
 nci'ptlon of the law 
 It was tliought by tome that 
 
 boys were to be taught a^culture by working 
 on a farm, and purely agncultural schools were 
 founded with the mechanical arts attached. In 
 other States classical schools of the stereotyped 
 order were established, with more or less science ; 
 and, again, the endowment in others was devoted 
 to scientific departments. The instruction of 
 the farm and the teaching of pure agriculture 
 have liOt succeeded in general, while the schools 
 that have made prominent thoee studies relating 
 to agriculture and the mechanic arts, upon the 
 whole, have succeeded best. ... In several in- 
 stances the managers of the land scrip have un- 
 derstood that by this provision the State could 
 not locate the land within the borders o another 
 State, but its assignees could thus locate lands, 
 not more than one million acres In any one State. 
 By considering this iiuestion, the New York 
 land scrip was bought by Ezra Cornell, and lo- 
 cated by him for the college In valuable lands in 
 the State of Wisconsin, and thus the fund was 
 augmented. However, the majority of the States 
 sold their land at a sacrifice, frequently for less 
 than half its value. There was a lull in th', land 
 market during the Civil War, and this ca.ise, to- 
 gether with the lack of attention in mp!,y States, 
 sacriflcc-d the gift of the Federal Government. 
 The sales ranged all the way from fifty cents to 
 seven dollars per acre, as the average price for 
 each State. "—F. W. Blackmar, Federal and Stntt 
 Aid tu Higher Education (f. S. Svreau ojf Edu- 
 aitiim, Cireulart of Infvnnatiun, 18!K>, no. 1), w. 
 il-iV. ' "^ 
 
 A, D. 1863-1886.— New York.— Cornell Uni- 
 veraity.— "On the second of July, im'i, . . . 
 
 1 President Lincoln] signed the act of congress, 
 see the preceding article] donating public lands 
 (ir the establishment of colleges of Hjiriculture 
 and mechanic arta This act had b'.i-n intro- 
 duced into congress by tlie Hon. Justin S. Mor- 
 rill. . . . The Morrill act provideil for a donation 
 of public land to the several states, each stave to 
 receive thirty thousand acres for each senator 
 and representative it sent to congress. States 
 not containing wttmn their own bonlers pvblic 
 land subject to tale at private entry receiveil 
 land scrip instead. Hut this land sciip the re- 
 cipient states were not allowed to hxale willijn 
 the limits of any other state or of any territory of 
 the United States. The act laconically directed 
 'said scrip to be sold by said states. ' The pro- 
 ceeds of the sale, whether of land or scrip, in 
 each state were to form a ]>erpetual fund. . . . 
 In the execution of this trust the State of New 
 York was Immpcreil by (jreat and almost in- 
 superable obstacles. For its distributive share 
 It received land scrip to the amount of nine 
 humlr«l and ninety thounanii acres. The mu- 
 nificence of the endowment awakened the cupid- 
 ity of a mullitiidc of clainomus and strangely 
 unexpected claimants. ... If the princely do- 
 main granted to the State of New York by con- 
 gress WHS not divided and frittered away, wo 
 owe it in great measure to the foreslirht. the 
 energy, and the spli'nilld courage of a few gen- 
 eniusspiritsin the legislature, of whom none com- 
 manditl greater resp<'(t or exercised more Influ- 
 en(T than Senator Andrew Dickson White, tlie 
 gentleman who afterwards liecame first president 
 !!f ("omrl! Unlvrrsitr. K'-st the all-rf>n-,r.p!'.ir.g 
 
 force which preTented the dispersion and dissH 
 
 rf m of till Iwunty of congri'sswas the generous 
 art of Ezra Cornell. While rival iuslitiitiuus 
 
 ill I 
 
 1 
 li i ! 
 
 761 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Edueaium 
 ^ Ikt FrttJmtn. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 clamored (or s division of tlie ' spoils.' snd po- 
 litical tricksters played their base aad desperate 
 game, this man thuiigbt only of the highest good 
 of the State of New York, which he loved with 
 the ardor of a patriot and was yet to serve with 
 the heroism of a martyr. . . . When the legisla- 
 ture of the State of New Yorli was called upon 
 to make some disposition of the congressional 
 grant. Ezra Cornell sat in the senate. ... Of 
 his minor legislative achievements I shall not 
 speak. One act, however, has matle his name 
 as immortal as th-.' state it glurifled. By a gift 
 of half a million dollars (a vast sum in 1865, the 
 last year of the war !) he rescued for the higher 
 education of New York the undivided grant of 
 congress ; and with the united endowments he 
 induced the legislature to establish, nut merely a 
 college of applied science, but a great modern 
 university — 'an institution,' according ti his 
 own admirable definition, ' where any person can 
 find instruction in any s>tudy.' It was a high and 
 daring aspiration to crown the educational sys- 
 tem of our imperial state with an organ of uni- 
 versal knowledge, a nursery of every science 
 and of all scholarship, an instrument of liberal 
 culture and of practical utility to all classes of 
 our people. This was, however, the end ; and 
 to secure it Ezra Cornell added to his original 
 gift new donations of land, of buildings, and of 
 money. . . . But one danger threatened Ibis lat- 
 est birth of time. The act of congress donating 
 land scrip required the states to sellil. The mar- 
 kets were immediately glutted. Prices fell. New 
 York was seliicg at an average price of fifty 
 cents an acre. Her princely domain would bring 
 at this rate lesis than half a million dollars '. Was 
 the splendid donation to issue in such disaster? 
 If it could be held till the war was over, till im- 
 misration opened up the Northwest, it would be 
 worth five times five hundred thousand dollars ! 
 So at least thought one far-seeing man in the 
 State of New York. And this man of foresight 
 hail the heart to .'onceive. the wlwlom to devise, 
 and tlic courage to execute — he ali>ne in all the 
 states — a plan far saving to his state the future 
 value of the lands donated by congress. E/.n 
 Cornell made that wonderful and dramatic con- 
 tract with the State of New York ! He bound 
 himself to purchase at the rate of sixty cents per 
 acre the entire right of the comnuinweallh to the 
 ■crip, still unsolit , and with tlie scrip, thus pur 
 chased bv him as an individual, be agreetl to 
 •elect and locate the lands it represented! to pay 
 the taxes, to guanl airainst trespasses and difcnd 
 from fins, to the end that within twenty yeani, 
 when values liad appiircciatid, he might sell the 
 land and turn Into tlie tn'osiiry (if the State of 
 New York fur the sup|H>rt of Cornell University, 
 the entire net priHcitlsof theeuterpri!*-. Within 
 a few years K/ra Cornell hail lix'atiil over hplf 
 a million acn's nl' sii|ieriiir pine land in the 
 Northwestern sliilis. primlpally In Wisconsin 
 liidiT Iwnds to the Stutf of New York to do .'.i>- 
 Ktile's work. In- Imd »p<'nt about Ilioo.iKXl of his 
 own cash to carry out the trust committed to him 
 by the state, when, alas. In the crisis of 1H74, 
 fortune and credit m k exhausted, an<i death 
 came to fri'e the martyr patriot from his bonds. 
 T.ie seven years that followed were the dark- 
 rst in ntir historr. . . Ezra Corncil was our 
 founder ; Henry W. Sage followed him ta wise 
 masterbuildcr. The edlncea, chain, and librsriei 
 which ' our the name of ' 8a^ ' witnea to [bis] 
 
 762 
 
 later gifts; but though these now aggregate the 
 princely sum of $l.'J.'>U,000, [his] management uf 
 the university lands has been [hisf grtatest 
 achievement. From these lands, with which the 
 generosity and foresight of Kzra Cornell endowed 
 the university, there nave been netted under j Mr. 
 Sage's] administration, not far short of $4,ihki 
 000, with over 100,000 acres still to sell. Ezra 
 Cornell's contract with the state was for twenty 
 years. It expired August 4, 1888, when a ten 
 years' extension was granted by the state. The 
 trust will be closed in 1896."— J. G. Schnrman, 
 Addrett at Jnaugurition to tht Prttideney of ( ur- 
 neU Uniterrity, Nor. 11, 1892. 
 
 A. D. 1863-1881.— The United States.— 
 Education of the Freedmen. — Since the duse 
 of the Civil War, much has been done (and much 
 more needs to be done) for the education of the 
 colored people of the South. To that end, a 
 number of institutions, having aims beyond 
 those of the common school, have risi'n alreadv 
 in the South, or on the southern bonier. First 
 among them iu time was the Fisk University. 
 founded at Nashville, in 1865. The Hownfd 
 University, at Washington, was created in Ini;;. 
 Hampton Institute, a training school for negroes 
 and Indians, was established by Gen. S. C Arm 
 strong, at Hampton, Va., in 1868. Claflin I'ni 
 veraity, at Orangeburg. S. C, was founile.1 in 
 1878. Booker T. Washington, born a slave, 
 having obtained an education at Hampton Insii. 
 tute, and n-solved to devote his life to the up- 
 lifting of his race, opened a training Keliool itljp 
 Tuskegce Normal and IiMlustrial Institiiiii :it 
 Tuskegee, Alabama, which is growing with re 
 markable success, and which promises to liuve a 
 notable influence in the development of the riil 
 ored people. A large and important 'work in 
 this field of education is being carried on hy the 
 American Missionary Association, which is also 
 giving careful attention to the educational tieeils 
 of the interesting body of soiitliern whites knonn 
 as "the mountain people," in West Virt-iiiiii. 
 western North Carolina, eastern Tenness<e. s<iiitli 
 eastern Kentucky, and northern Georgia Fisk 
 University is one of the highei institutions of 
 learning which depend more or less on siip|inrt 
 from this Association. Others of the hipher ( liis> 
 are Talladega College, in Alabama; Toiiguhjo 
 University, in Mississippi; Straight University. 
 at New OHeans; Tlllotson Institute, at .\iistin. 
 Texas. It maintains normal and industrial 
 schools at Wilmington. N. C; at Charleiton, 
 S. C. ; at Savannah, Atlanta, Macon, ami .Mrin 
 tosh. Ga ; at Mobile, Athens, anil ^l liim. AIn ; 
 at Memphis, Tenn. ; at Lexington, Ky lis 
 primary and parochial sch(H>ls an' niinierims iiiul 
 widely' distributed. Industrial IrHinini.'. to u 
 gn'ater or less extent, is given in nearly all of its 
 sch(x)ls. On a less extensive scale, similar n .rk 
 Is twing done in the South by various chun hi » 
 and other bodies. 
 
 A. D. lS6«-i869.— The United States.- 
 Bureau of Education.— " Educators, poli<!i:il 
 economists, and statesmen felt the ne<'d of some 
 central agency by which the general eiiucationsl 
 ■tatlsties of the country coulil be (X)llei teil. pn 
 served, condensed, and properly arranp'l for 
 distribution. This need found expression tlniiliy 
 to the action takrn at a convention of ih- .-;;)., i 
 Intendence department of the National Xiliii.i 
 tlonal Association, held at Washington. Feliruury. 
 18M, when It wh resolved to petltloti Congress 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Johns HopHna 
 Uniwrnty. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 in favor of a National Bureau of Education. 
 . . . The memorial was presented in tlie House 
 of Representatives by General Garfield, February 
 14, 1866, with a bill for the establishment of a 
 National Bureau on essentially the basis the 
 school superintendents had proposed. Both bill 
 and memorial were referred to a committee of 
 seven members. . . . The bill was reported back 
 from the committee, with an amendment in the 
 nature of a substitute, providing for the creation 
 of a department of education instead of the 
 bureau originally proposed. Thus altered, it was 
 passed by a vote of nearly two to one. In the 
 Senate it was referred to the Committee on the 
 Judiciary . . . who the following winter re- 
 porti'd it without amendment and with a recom- 
 mendation that it pass, which it did ju the 1st of 
 March, 1867, receiving on the next day the ap- 
 proval of tl>e President. By the act of July 28, 
 1868, which took effect June 80, 1869, the De- 
 partment of Education was abolished, and an 
 Office of Education in the Department of the 
 Interior was established, with the same objects 
 am. duties. . . . The act of March 2, 1867, . . . 
 established an agency 'for the purpose of col- 
 lecting such statistics and facts as shall show the 
 condition and progress of education in the several 
 States and TcrriU)ries, and of diffusing such 
 information respecting the organization and 
 management of school systems ami methods of 
 teaching as shall aid the people of the United 
 States iu the establishment and maintenance of 
 efficient school systems and otherwise promote 
 the cause of education.' It will Ix' perceived 
 that the chief duty of the office under the law is 
 to act as an educational exchange. Exercising 
 and seeking to exercise no control whatever over 
 its thousands of correspondents, tlic otliee oieu 
 
 flies a position as the recipient of voluntary 
 nfiirmation which is unique."— C. Warren, An- 
 tvers to Inquiria about the F. S. Bureau of Kdii- 
 eatuiii, eh. 2-8. 
 
 A. D. 1867.— New York.— Public Schools 
 made entirely free.— The public .x^hools of l\w 
 State of New York were not entirely free until 
 1867. In his rc|M)rt to the Ix'gislature made in 
 February of that year, the State SuiH'rinlendent 
 of Public Instruction, Hon. Victor M. Hiee, sai I: 
 "The greatcxt defect in our si-hool system is, us 
 I have urgeil in previous reports, the continuance 
 of the rate bill system. Our common s<'lioiils ciui 
 never reach their hightst degn'e of uwfulness 
 until they shall have been made entirely free. 
 ... To meet this public demand, to eonfiT uivon 
 the children of the State the blessings of fnr 
 etlucatlon. a bill has already been intriHluwd Into 
 your hoiKimlile iKMly. . . . The main features of 
 the bill are the provisions to raise, by Stati' tax. 
 a sum alxiut ecjual to that raised in the ilLstriits 
 by rate bills, and to alxillsh the rate bill Rvstciii ; 
 to facilitate the erection and ri'pair of'siluKil 
 houses." The bill referred to was passed at the 
 same scation of the legislature, and in his next 
 succeeding report, Superintendent Hiee gave the 
 following account of the law and its immediate 
 effects: "While the general stniefure of the 
 i«;hix>l law was not ilisturl)e<l. a material nuKlltl- 
 cation was niade by the Act (chap. 406, Ijiws 
 of 1867), which took effect on the first day of 
 Otlobcr of the same year, ami whiih. iiiii,>iig 
 other thlDgs, proTided for the abolishment of rale- 
 III' a, and for incmued local and HtAte taxation 
 forietioolpurpoMS. Tbiiwu primarily a change 
 
 763 
 
 in the manner of raising the requisite funds; not 
 an absolute increase of the aggregate amount to 
 be raised. It involved and encouraged such In- 
 crease, so far as the inhabitants in the several 
 school districts should authorize it, by substitut- 
 ing taxation exclusively on property, for a mixed 
 assessment which, in part, was a tax on attend- 
 ance. Thus relieved of an ^M impediment, and 
 supplied with additional power and larger re- 
 sources, the cause of public instruction, during 
 the last fiscal year, has wrought results unequalea 
 in all the past. . . . The effect of this amend 
 ment has not been confined to the financial policy 
 thereby inaugurated. It is distinctly traceable 
 in 'engthened terms of school, in a Urger and 
 m -3 uniform attendance, and in more liberal ex 
 peLjitures for school buildings and appliances.' 
 — Supt. of Pub. Instruction of the State of N Y 
 Annual Report, 1869, pp. 5-6. 
 
 A. D. 1867.— Maryland.— Johns Hopkina 
 UniTeraity.— "By the will of .Idhns Hopkins, a 
 merchant of Baltimore, the sum . .f |7,000,000 was 
 devoted to the endowment of a university [char- 
 tered in 1867] and a hospital, |3.500,000 being 
 appropriated to each. ... To the bequest no 
 burdensome conditions were attached. . . . Just 
 what this new university was to be proved a 
 very serious question to the trustees. The con- 
 ditions of Mr. Hopkins's bequest left the deter- 
 mination of this matter open. ... A careful in. 
 vestigation led the trustees to believe that there 
 was a growing demand for opportunities to study 
 beyond the ordinary coursi'S of a college or a 
 scientific school, particularly in those branches 
 of learning not included in the scho<ds of law, 
 medicine and theology. Strong evidence of this 
 demand was aitonled by the increasing attend- 
 anie of American students upon the lectures of 
 the German universities, as well as by the num- 
 Iht of students who were enrolling themselves at 
 llarvunl and Yale for the post graduate courses. 
 It was therefore determined that the Johns Hop- 
 kins should be primarily a university, with uil- 
 vaucetl courses of lectures and fully equipped 
 laboratories; that the courses should lie voluii- 
 •ary. and the teaching not limited to class in- 
 struction. The foundation is both old and new. 
 In so far as each feature Is borrowed from .some 
 older university, w! ere it has been fairiv tried 
 and tested, it is old, but at the simie titiic this 
 particular combination of separate features has 
 here U'en made for the first time. ... In the 
 orlinary college cour.*'. if a youug man hap 
 I" ns to be deHtient in mathematics, for example, 
 lie is either forced to lose any advantage he may 
 pos«'ss ill (JrtTk or Latin, or else i» obiigei) to 
 take a position in mathematics for which he is 
 unprepiired. In the college department of the 
 Johns Hopkins, this dlsa<lvantage does not exist; 
 the classifying Is specific for each study. "The 
 student has also the privilege of pushing forward 
 in any one study us rapklly as he can with ad- 
 vantage; or, on the other hand, in case of illncs* 
 or of unavoidable interruptiuu, of prolonging 
 the time devoted to the course, so that no part of 
 it shall be omitted. As the studies arc elective, 
 it is imasible to follow the usual college course if 
 one desires. Seven different courses of study 
 are indicated, any of which leads to the Bacca- 
 lauteale tlegtee, llius eualiiiuK the student to 
 direct and specialize his work. 'The same standard 
 of matriculation am. the same severity of exam- 
 iutloM an matntained Id all these counes. A 
 
 un 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Ckautatiqua, 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 student hu the privilege of eztendins hi idy 
 beyoud the regular clius work, and he bid 
 
 cmlited with all such private and outsid y, 
 
 if bis examiners are satisfied of bis thor ss 
 
 and accuracy." — 8. B. Herrick, The J :vp- 
 
 kin* ITniKmity (Henl>ner$ MviUhly, 1) ]. 
 
 A.D.1867-1891.— The United Sta The 
 
 Peabody Education Fund. — "Tbe an- 
 
 nouncing and creatini]; tbe Peabody < ment 
 
 was datwl February 7, 1S67. In that 1 after 
 
 referring to the ravages of the lite war, the 
 founder of tbe Trust said : ' I feel most deeply 
 that it is the duty and privilege of tbe more 
 favoured and wealthy portions of our nation to 
 assist those who arc less fortunate.' He then 
 added : ' I give one millit. of dollars for tbe 
 encouragement and promotion of intellectual, 
 moral, and industrial education among the young 
 of the more destitute portions of tbe Southern 
 and Southwestern States of the Union.' On the 
 day following, ten of the Trustees selected by 
 him held a preliminary meeting in Washington. 
 Their flrst business meeting was held in the city 
 of New York, the l»th of March following, at 
 which a geneml plan was adopted and an agent 
 appointed. Mr. PealKxly returned to bis native 
 country aeain in l>*»ii', and on tbe first day of 
 July, lit ft special meeting of tbe Trusi 18 held at 
 Newport. a<i(te<l a second million to the cash 
 capital of the fund. . . . According to the do- 
 nor's {lirections. l\w principal must remain intact 
 for thirty years. The Trustees are not author- 
 ized to expend any part of it, nor yet to add to 
 It any part of the accruing interest. The man- 
 ner of using the interest, as well as the final dis- 
 triliuiion of tbe principal, was left entirely to 
 the iliscrction of a w If perpetuating body of 
 Trustees Those first apjiointed bad, however, 
 tbe rsre advantages of full inuBultation with Ibe 
 founder of tbe Trust while be still lived, and 
 their plans reeeivi'd bis contial and emphatic ap- 
 probation. . . The pressing need of tbe pres- 
 ent seemed to be in the depurtiiu'ut of primary 
 education for the masses, and «) they det4rmined 
 to make appropriations only for the i>si!<tBnee of 
 public free schools." — Am. Ednf'iti'iinl Cyrlo- 
 jxKiia, lH7!i, jip. 224-22.5. — Tbe report made by 
 the treasurer of the Fund, in IHW), showed a 
 principal sum invested to the amount of $2,07."),- 
 17.'5.22, yielding an income that year of t97,8t8 
 In the annual report of tbe U. 8. Commissioner 
 of Fyucation made Feb 1, 1H9I, he says: "It 
 wiMild appear to Ibe student of e<lucation in the 
 Houtbern States that the practical wisilom in the 
 ndininistration of the l'ealK»ly Fund and the 
 fruitful H'sults that have followecl it could not 
 !»• Mirpametl in the history of endowments" — 
 /'nffrrtiri'/ii iif thf TriitUe* of thf Pnilmiy Kiiufii- 
 fi-H F'lU'l 1MM7-1W2, 
 
 A. D. 1874.— New York.-The Chautauqua 
 Aitembly and Circle.— The Chautauqua Assem- 
 bly, holding sessions in July and August of each 
 year, on grounds extensively ami expensively 
 prepared for its use, on Ch<>'>tAur|ua I^ake, In 
 western New York, was in8titiit«rf in 1874, by 
 the Kev Dr. (afterwards K:./uop) John H. Vin 
 cent, of the M K. Church, and Mr. I.,rwi8 MilUr. 
 Its allied Chautaucjua Literary and Scientific 
 Circle was organized in 1H78. Tojtether, they 
 
 r;tn»titu!(' :l J?ri'at pripulfir •.;r!versltv f:v a::tn- 
 
 mer lectures and home ntudy, •yKiematically 
 
 Sursiietl. A n^w educational agency, "f v»»» in- 
 ueno), has thus been lotruduced ; and tbe idea 
 
 of its organiution is being fruitfully carried out 
 in many less notable assemblies, of like purpose, 
 both in America and abroad. 
 
 A. O.1884-1891.— California.— Leland Stan- 
 ford Junior UniT«r»ity.— "The founding at 
 Palo Alto of 'a university for both sexes, with 
 the colleges, schools, seminaries of learning, me 
 chanical institutes, museums, galleries of art, 
 and all other things necessary and appropriate lo 
 a university of Uigh degree,' was determined 
 upon by tbe Hon. Leland Stanford and Jam' 
 Latbrop Stanford in 1884. In March of tbe yeiir 
 following the Legislature of California passed an 
 Act providing for the admiuistration of trust 
 funiis in connection with institutions of learning. 
 November 14, 1885, the Orant of Endowment 
 was publicly made in accordance with this Act, 
 and on the same day, tbe Board of Trustees held 
 its first meeting in San Francisco. Tbe work uf 
 construction was at once begun, and the comer- 
 stone laid May 14, 1887 Tbe University was 
 formally opened to students October 1, 1891. 
 Tbe idea of tbe university, in tbe words of its 
 founders, 'came directly and largely from our 
 son and only child, Leland, and in tbe belief 
 that bad he been spared to advise as to the dis- 
 position of our estate, he would have desired tbe 
 devotion of a hirge portion thereof to this pur- 
 pose, we will that for all time to come the insti- 
 tution hereby founded shall bear his name, and 
 shall be known as The Leland Stanford Junior 
 University.' The object of the University, as 
 stated in its Charter, is ' to qualify student's for 
 personal success and direct usefulness in life'; 
 snd its purposes, 'to promote tbe public wel- 
 fare b^ exercising an influence In behalf of 
 humanity and civilization, teaching the blessings 
 of liberty regulate<l by law, and Inculeatiii); love 
 and reverence for the great principles of govern- 
 ment as derived from the inalienable rights of 
 man to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happi- 
 ness.' The University is located on the Palo 
 Alto estate in tbe Santa Clara valley, thirty- 
 three miles southeast of San Francisco, on the 
 Const Division of the Southern Pacific Knilway. 
 The estate consists of over eight tliousand acres, 
 partly lowland and partly rising into the foot 
 liills of tbe Santa Cruz range. On the grounds 
 is the residence of tbe Founders, and an exten- 
 sive and beautiful arboretum containing a very 
 great variety of shrubs and tr s. The property 
 conveyed to the University, in addition to the 
 I'hIo Alto estate, consists of tbe Vina estate, in 
 Tcliama County, of fifty-five tliousand acres, of 
 which about four thousand acres nre planted in 
 vines, and tlie Oridley estate, in Butte County, of 
 twentv-two thousana acres, devoted mainly to 
 the raising of wheat . . . Tbe founders of the 
 Ix'land Stanford Jun'or University say ; ' As a 
 fiirber assurance that t'.e endowment will lie 
 ample to establish and maintain a university <if 
 the highest groiie, we have, by last will and tes- 
 tament, devised to you ana your successors 
 additional property. We have done this as a 
 securi'y against the uncertainty of life and In the 
 hope that during our lives the full endowment 
 may go to you.' The aggregate of the domain 
 thus dedicatee) to the founding of the University, 
 is over eighty-flve thousand acres, or more than 
 ;..nr hundred nn(Hhirt.r-thr««!Wj«»rf: rr.\U^^ ^ni-"j^ 
 the best improved and mo*t valuable lands in 
 the State."— Leland Stanford Junior University, 
 Vtmlan of lt\formaHvn, not. 9 and l-'i. 
 
 764 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Uniled Slatet 
 Cemxu StatUtict. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 A. D. 1887-1889.— Massachusetts.— Clark 
 University.— " Clark University was foumled 
 [at Worcesterl by ... a native of Worccstur 
 County, MassacbusetU. It was 'not the outcome 
 of a freak of impulse, or of a sudden wave of gen- 
 erosity, or of the natural desire to perpetuate in a 
 worthy way one's ancestral name. To compre- 
 hend the genesis of the enterprise we must go 
 back along the track of Mr. Clark's personal his- 
 tory 20 years at least. For ns long ago as that, 
 t ' Idc.i came home with force to his mind that 
 a Hvilizcl communities are in the hands of ex- 
 perts. . . . Looking around 1. the facilities ob- 
 tainable in this country for the prosecution of 
 original research, he was struck with the meagcr- 
 nCiS and the inadequacy. Colleees anil pmfes- 
 sioi ' .sch(X)l9 we have in abundance, but there 
 iippeared to lie no one grand inclusive instituti.u, 
 unsaddled by a: naidemic department, where 
 students might pursue as far as possible the'r in- 
 vestigation of any and every branch of 'icn'c. 
 . . . Mr. Clark went abroad and soent eight 
 years vi.siting the institutions of learniig in 
 almost every country of Europe. He studied 
 into their history and observed their present 
 working.'. . It is his strong ami expressed de- 
 sire that the highest possible aca<lemic standards 
 bo here forever maintained ; that special oppor 
 timilies and inducements be olTered to researeh; 
 that to this end the instructors be not overbur- 
 dened witli teaching or examinations. ... A 
 eliiiriiT was gmnted eariy in 1HH7. Land and 
 olher [iroperty that had l)eon iK'fore secured by 
 the founder was tnmsferml to the Iwiard. and 
 tlie erec tinn of a central building was beu'Uii In 
 the spring of IS^H <}. Stanley Hall, then a pro- 
 fes.iiir at the .Inlins Hopkins L'niversitv, was in 
 vited to the presidency. . , . The plans of the 
 Miiiversity had so f;ir |irogressed that work was 
 In I'lin in Oetober. l»^i). in mathematics, physics 
 ihimislry, l)iology, ami psveholoL'y."- C. o' 
 Bush. llUt.''f llciliii- /■jlnml'inii in. [fust. {!'. S. 
 /I'irai'i of h'li/i-aliim, (UrcitUtr nf Intonuati'iii 
 IWM. «<-. (>|. '■h. IS. ... 
 
 A. D. 1889-1892.— Illinois.— Chicafro Univer- 
 sity.— '-.Vt its Annu.il .Meetin^^ in Mr. issy. the 
 Itnard of the .Vnieriean lta|)tKl K.luratii.n So- 
 eiily resolved to t.ike imniediati' sieps toward 
 Ilie 'oiindiiig of a wel|.e(|uippeil college in ilie 
 Illy of Chicago. At the same time .lolm |». 
 HoiliefelliT made a siilweription of ijiiiiMl.oiKI an.i j 
 this sum was iiureasi-ddiirim; the sueiiiiliii' '. 1 ' 
 by about i^iOil.oiH) more in suliscriptiuiis n, 
 writing 111. ire than two thcMismd persons, 'rin. . 
 iiinnlhs alter the eo!ii|iletion of this subseri|iliiiii 
 Mr Hnikeleller iiia.l.' an addiliimal prollVr oi' ' 
 
 ♦ UHHI.OIHI. The site of the l-|iiversitv eoiisisis ' 
 of three blocks of grouii.j — about twii'th.ius.iiu! 
 feet long and t line buinliid and sixty-two f<.,.| 
 wide, lying between tlie two .South" Parks of 
 <liieag.i, and fronting- 011 the .Midivav I'laisance 
 winch is itself 11 park crineetiiiir the otiier two' 
 One-half of this site is a gift of .Marsiiall Field 
 ■'I Chieago. and ilie other half lias bee-i pur- 
 ehased at a cost of .sr.f.'..->lMl. At the lilst liie.t- 
 li'ir of the Hoard after it had lieeome ..n ineoriio- 
 rated biHly. I'rofessor William U. Harper, of 
 
 J ale I niversity, was iiiianiiuously cleeted I'n si- 
 ilent of the Cniviirsily. . . . It has been deeided 
 
 • liat the University will bcein the work of in- . 
 =;rMel;i)n on tiic nr.st dav of Deiolier, ISfii. . 
 Iheuorkof the University shall be arranged j 
 •nider three general dlvjilons, viz.. The Univer- I 
 
 sity Proper, The I niversitvExtension Work. 
 J'S.^°""^™'y Publication Work. "— rHWrwrt 
 of Chicago. Official JJulktiii no. 1, Jan 1891 
 
 A. D. 1890.— United States.— Census Sta- 
 tistics.— The following statistics of education in 
 the Lmted States are from the returns gathered 
 for the Eleventh Census, 1890. In these statU- 
 tics the states and territories are classed in five 
 great geographical divisions, detined as follows- 
 .■Sorth Atlantic Division, embracing tlie New 
 England States, New York, New Jersey, and 
 lennsylTama; South Atlantic Division, embrac- 
 ing the States of the eastern coast, from Dela- 
 ware to Florida, together with the District of 
 Columbia; North Central Division, embracing 
 Ohio, Indiana, Illinois. .Michi-an. Wisconsin 
 Minnesota Iowa, Mis.souri, North and South 
 Dakota, Nebraska, and Kans:is; South Central 
 Division embracing Kentucky. Tennessee, Ala- 
 bama Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas 
 and (Oklahoma; Western Division, embracing all 
 the remaining States and Territories Tlie total 
 taxation for public schools in tlie United States 
 as reported by this census, was iWi IGl ~'M ■ of 
 whicii *y7,019,7»« was rai.sed in the' No'rth At- 
 lantic Division, $.'),678,474 in the South Atlantic 
 Division, $47,03:), 14'i in the North Central Divi- 
 sion. *.), «!(«., W3 in the South Central Division 
 and*0.i:il,H:i-2iu the Western Division. From 
 liiiids and rents there were raised for .seliool pur- 
 poses a total of !if.'.-,,0!»4.449 in the Uniled States 
 at large, of which ijM,',>7;l.l47 was raised in the 
 -North Atlantic Divisi.ai. f.'.;!b7.0.-)l iu the South 
 Atlantic Division, *.'^,4:i2,r,y3 in the North Cen- 
 tml Division. ;^{.720.1.-)S in tlie South Central 
 Division and i^.UOL.'iOO in theWestern Division. 
 Ihe total of all "ordinarv" receipts for school 
 support in the United Sta'tes was *i:!9 ((19 440 of 
 which $4il^'2ilU>l(i were in the North Atlantic 
 Division. #.H.(H-,.'."iJ in the S.iiiih Atlantic Divi- 
 sion, *«l,10M,-,>(l:(iiitlie North CVnlial Division 
 *10.','y4.«2l in th(. South Central Division and 
 lflO.:iao.I17 in the Western Division. The total 
 "ordinary expenditures" were ^i;W.7S(j :«):! ju 
 ; Ihe whole United Stati-s; lieinir fl7,(tt.-),.'il>i in 
 I the North Atlantic Division. A'^.tWuVl 1 in the 
 South Atlantic Division, ifili-'.fjl.',..-):)! in the Xoriii 
 Central Division. ;iill..Mii).o.-)!) in the Soiitli Central 
 l)ivision, and S«.M.-|4..-)4t in the \Ves|,.in Division 
 For teachers' waL'es there was a t.il il e.xiM.ndi- 
 tiire of *.SS.7il.-,,!.!l',>. f.N.iKJT s-J| l,..i„:,- i„ the 
 Aortli .\tlaiilie Division, ifd. loooil:! in ||„. South 
 .>;lantic DivisiiMi. *:«),,M(li.,s:ii i,, n,,. s<,rth Cen- 
 tral DiviHon. ,s,s,-,'0!i,.-,o!) ill th.. S.iuili (Vnlr.il 
 Division, and 80, llil.7tis in llie Wesiein Division. 
 '! i.e b'tal ex|ienditiirr r..r l.il.raiies ami \'iii,ira- 
 tiis was,'<l.(i(l7,7«;. tliive-l.iinilis of h1 . was 
 in Ilie Norih Atlanlie and N.irili f.ii Diyj. 
 
 sioiis. The ex|ieiidil lire ivpi.r;.-d f.ire. ruction 
 an.l care iif Imildiiii's, was .s,'l.J',i|.7',i | which 
 •';i|iMi'<7,lU wasiii the Noiili Allanti, Division, 
 .^'<'*l,'j;7 was in the Nmili Alhiiiiie Division' 
 ■■sti.si;!), |s;)i„ ,|„. \,,riu Ceiili-al Division. !J77i) - 
 ■^:>7 in tlie Smith Central Division, .iml .s-.'.ill':),(i,-i« 
 in ihe Wesiern Division. Ue|i,.rie.| esiiniatesof 
 the value of buildings ami otlier school p, .i,|.|-iy 
 are ineoiii|ilete, but t;','r..'^l»-,'.M01 are ,iri\.ii fJr 
 Massaehiisells. $ll.ti-.>(i.7:r. for New York !i:ir, . 
 |:;"i. H'.' for Uemisvlvania, ^^t-^.O-U.."!!!! for'tihlo 
 •«ll.til4.4.!iO for Illinois, and iluse i,re the S!;.l<-.i 
 that slaiid highest in til" column. The aiiparcnt 
 cnMllmcut iu Public Schmils for the census vear 
 ri'porled to July, 1801. was as follows: Sprtli 
 
 If:- 
 
 7C5 
 
w 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 Jokn AmMComtnhu. 
 
 BDrCATION. 
 
 Atlantic DlvWon, 8.1M.*"; South Atlantic 
 DlvlsJon, 1.758,285; North Central IMvlslon, 
 6 032 182- South Central Division, 2,334,894; 
 Western Diviaioa, 62li,286; Total for the Lnited 
 States, 12,769,864, being 20.39 per cent, of fte 
 population, against 19.84 per cent, in 1880. The 
 reported enrollment In Private Schools at the 
 same time was ; Nnrth Atlantic Division. 196, 173 ; 
 South Atlantic ' ision, 165,253; North 'cntral 
 Division, 187. ; South Central D. vision, 
 200 202; Western Division. 64,749; Total for the 
 United States, 804,204. The reported enroll- 
 ment in Parochial Schools was; North Atlantic 
 Division 811,684; South Atlantic Division, 
 80 869; North Central Division. 398.585; South 
 Central Division, 41.115; Western Division, 
 17 849; Total for the United Swus. 799,602. Of 
 this total, 626,496 were enrolled in Catholic and 
 151 651 in Lutheran Parochial Schools; leaving 
 only 21 Ar>r> in the schools of all other denomina- 
 tions. Total enrollment reported in all schools 
 14 373 670. The colored public school enroll- 
 ment in the Southern States was 1,288,229 in 
 1890, against 797,286 in 1880,— an Increase of 
 more than 61 per cent. The enrollment of whites 
 was 3,358,527, against 2,301,804.— an increase of 
 nearly 46 per cent. The approximate number 
 of Public Scliool -houses in the United States, for 
 the census year 1890 is given at 219,992, being 
 42 949 in the North Atlantic Division, 32,142 in 
 the South Atlantic Division, 97,166 in tt ' Nortli 
 Central Division, 38,962 in the South Central 
 Division, 8,773 in the Western Division. The 
 Urgest number reported is 14,214 in Pei.nsyl 
 vania Of 6,408 school-houses in Virginia 4,.)»W 
 are for white, and 1.840 for colored children; in 
 North Carolina, 8.973 white and 1,820 colored. 
 
 The above statistics arc taken in pu '-om the 
 Compendium of the Eleventh Census, • ished 
 in 1894, and partly fr< .i tables i- irt( fur- 
 
 nished from tlic Census Bureau in aavaace of 
 their publication. 
 
 Modern : Reforms and MoTements. 
 A. D. 1638-1671.— Comenius.— "To know 
 Comenius [born in Moravia, 1592] and the part 
 he played in the seventeenth century, to appre- 
 ciate this grand educational character, it would 
 be ncLcasary to begin by relating his life ; his mis- 
 fortunes; his journeys to England [1638], where 
 Parliament invoked his aid; to Sweden [1642], 
 where th" Chancellor Oxenstiem employed him 
 to write Jiuals of instruction ; egpccially his re- 
 lentless industry, his courage through exile, and 
 the long persecutions he suffered as a member of 
 the sect of dissenters, the Moravian Brethren; 
 and the schools he founded at Fulneck, in Bo- 
 hemia, at Lissa and at PaUk, in Poland."— O. 
 Compayre, The Bi$t. of Pedagogy, ch.6{»eet. 137). 
 — "Comeniuss Inspiring motive, like that of all 
 leading educationallsu, was social regeneration. 
 He believed that this could be accomplished 
 through the school. He lived under the hallucin- 
 ation that by a proper arrangement of the sub- 
 ject-matter of instruction, and by a sound method, 
 a certain community of thought and interests 
 would be established among the young, which 
 would result in social harmony and political 
 settlement. He believed that men could be manu- 
 factured. . . . The educational spirit of the Re- 
 formers, the conviction that all — even the hum- 
 blest—must be Uught to know Ood, and Jesus 
 Christ whom he has sent, was inherited by Come- 
 
 nius In its completeness. In thb way, and in 
 this way only, could the ills of Europe be reme- 
 died, and the progress of humanity assured. 
 While, therefore, he sums up the educational aim 
 under the threefold heads of Knowledge, Virtue, 
 and Piety or Godliness, he in truth has mainly 
 in view the last two. Knowledge is of value only 
 in so far as it forms the only sound basis, in thu 
 eyes of a Protestant theologian, of virtue and 
 godliness. We have to train for a hereafter. . . . 
 By knowledge Comenius meant knowledge of 
 nature and of man's relation to nature. It is this 
 important characteristic of Couenius's cduai- 
 tional system that reveals the direct influence of 
 Bacop and his school. . . . It is in the department 
 of Method, however, that we recognise the cliiif 
 contribution of Comenius to education. The 
 mere attempt to systematise was a great advance. 
 In seeking, however, for foundations on which to 
 erect a coherent system, he had to content him- 
 self with first principles which were vague and 
 unscientific. ... In the department of knowl- 
 edge, that is to say, knowledge of the outer 
 world, Comenius rested his method on tlie scho- 
 lastic maxim, ' Nihil est in intellectu quod non 
 prius fuerit in scnsu.' This maxim he enriolied 
 with the Baconian int^uction, comprehended by 
 him only in a general way. . . . From the sim- 
 ple to the complex, from the particular to the 
 general, the concrete before the abstract, and 
 all, step by step, and even by insensible degrees, 
 — these were among his leading principles of 
 method. But the most important 01 all his prin- 
 ciples was derived from the scholastic maxin; 
 quoted above. As all is from sense, let the 
 Uiing to be known be itself presented to the 
 si'uses, and let every sense be engaged in the 
 perception of it. When it is impossible, fniin 
 the nature of the case, to present the object 
 itself, place a vivid picture of it before the 
 pupil. The mere enumeration of these few prin- 
 ciples, even if we drop out of view all his other 
 contributions to method and school-management, 
 will satisfy any man familiar with ail the mure 
 recent treatises on Education, that Comenius, 
 even after giving his p. ^cursors their due, is 
 to be regarded as the true founder of mo.1- 
 em Method, and that he anticipates Pestnlnjzi 
 and all of the same school. . . . Finally, Come- 
 nius's views as to the Inner organisation of a 
 school were original, and have proved themselves 
 in all essential respecU correct. The sami' miy 
 be said of his scheme for the organisiUinn iif a 
 State-system— a scheme which is substantiiilly, 
 mutetis mutandis, at this moment embodicil m 
 the highly developed system of Germany. Wlien 
 we consider, then, that Comenius first formally 
 and fully developed educational metlio<l, thiit he 
 introduced important reforms into the teaching 
 of languages, that he introduced into schools the 
 study of Nature, that he advocated with intt 111- 
 gence, and not on purely sentimental groutulH, a 
 milder discipline, we are justified in assigning 
 to him a high, if not the highest, place aiming 
 modem educational writers."- S. 8. Laurie, .Mn 
 Amo» Cameniut, m. 217-226. 
 
 A. D. 1681-1878.— The Christian Brothers. 
 —"Any description of popular educatiim in 
 Europe would be hicomplete, which should not 
 give promhience to the Institute of the Christian 
 Brothers— or the Brothers of the Christian i)"i;- 
 trine— including in that term the earliest pro- 
 fessional school for the training of UacliemlB 
 
 766 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 T»« Ckritttan 
 Brotlun. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 Europe; one of the most remark»ble body of 
 teachera devoted exclusively and without pay to 
 the HucaUon of the children of the poor that the 
 world has ever seen. ... The Institute was 
 established as a professional school in 1681 and 
 to Abbe John Baptist de la Salle, belonirs the 
 high honor not only of founding it, but of so In- 
 fusing into ite early organization his own pro- 
 found conviction of the Christ-like character of 
 lU mission among the poor, that it has retoined 
 for nearly two centuries the form d spirit of 
 Its origin ThU devoted Uhristiau leacher was 
 Bom at Rhelms on the 30th of April 1651 
 He was early distinguished for his scholarly at- 
 tainments and maturity of character: and at the 
 age of seventeen, before he had completed his 
 full course of theological study, he was ap- 
 pointed Canon in the Cathedral church of Rhelms 
 From the first, he became interested in the edu- 
 cation of the young, and especially of the poor 
 M the most direct way of leading them to a 
 Christian life;— and with this view before he 
 was twenty-one years old, he assumed the direc- 
 tion of two charities, devoted to female educa- 
 tion. From watching the operation of tliese 
 schools, conducted by teachers without profes- 
 sional training, without plan and without mutual 
 sympathy and aid, he conceived the dcslirn of 
 bringing the teachers of this class of school" 
 from the neighboring parishes Into a community 
 for their moral and professional Improvement 
 tor this purpose, he invited them first to meet 
 and then to lodge at his uouse, and afterwanls' 
 about the year 1681, he purchased a house for 
 their special accommodation. Here, out of school 
 hours and during their holydays, they spent their 
 time In the practice of religious duties, and In 
 mutual conferences on the work in which tliov 
 were engaged. About this peric" a large number 
 01 free schools for the poor were established hi 
 the neighboring towns; and applications were 
 constantlv made to the Abbe for teachera formed 
 under his training, care, and influence. To 
 meet this demand, and make himself more di- 
 rectly useful In the field of Christian education 
 he resigned his benefice, that he might give his 
 whole attention to thu work. To close the dis- 
 tance between himself, having a high social posi- 
 tion and competence from his father's estate and 
 the poor schoolmasters to whom he was con- 
 stantly preaching an unreserved consecration of 
 themselves to their vocation — he not only re- 
 Blped his canonr-, with iu social and pecuniary 
 advanuges, but distributed his patrimony in a 
 period of scarcity, in relieving the necessities of 
 the poor, and in providing for the education of 
 their children. He thus placed himself on a 
 footing of equality— as to occupation, manner 
 01 life, and entire dependence on the '■harity of 
 others- with the schoolmasters of the poor 
 ihe annals of education or religion show but 
 few such examples of practical self-denial and 
 entire conLecration to a sense of duty. , Hav- 
 ing completed his act of resignation anil self 
 iniiH)»ed poverty, he assembled his teachers < 
 mimiccd to them what he had done, and sunx 
 with them a Te Deum. After a retreat -a 
 pericjl set apart to prayer and fasting — conUn- 
 ued for seventeen days, they devoted them«.ilv..« 
 'O ttie a>n»lderatiou of the best course to give 
 unity efficiency , and permanence to their plans of 
 J-Tiristlsn education for the poor. They assumed 
 the name of 'The Brother* of the Christian Doc- 
 
 trine, as expresssive of their vocation— which 
 by usage came to be abbreviated Into ' Christian 
 Brothers They took on themselves vows of pov- 
 erty, celibacy, and obedience for three years Thev 
 prescribed to themselves the moat frugal fare, to 
 be provided in turns by each other. They adopted 
 at that time some rules of behavior, which have 
 since been Incorporated Into the fundamental 
 rules of the order. ... In 1702 the first step 
 was taken to establish an Institute at Rome, un- 
 der t mission of one of the brothers, Gabriel 
 Uro in, who after years of poverty, was made 
 ^.^n^^^ of one of the charitable school! 
 founded by Pope Clement XI. This school be 
 »i^ I. .K"r''"i' ""= foundation of the house 
 ri^f-fl .* 'T'l'^w ba^'e had in Rome since the 
 poniflcate of Benedict XIII.. who conferml on 
 the institute the constitution of a religious order. 
 In 1703, under the pecuniary aid of %l. Chateau 
 Blanc, and the countenance of the archbishop, 
 M. de Gontery, a school was opened at Avignon. 
 v^„: . \. • '^" ?""'<'°al Assembly prohibited 
 vows to be made in communities; and in 1790 
 suppre^ed ail religious societies; and in 179l' 
 the lu.stitute was disr3rsed. At that date there 
 were one hundred .nd twenty houses, and over 
 
 duties of the sc.,ool room, flic continuity of 
 the society was secured by the houses establish-d 
 In Italy to wliich many of the brothers fled. 
 ... in 1801, on the conclusion of a Concordat 
 between the Pope and the government, the so- 
 ciety was revived m France by the opening of a 
 
 tlieir hab t, and opened a novitiate, the mem- 
 bers of which were exempt from military ser- 
 yS .1 ■""'. ofganii^tion of the university in 
 1808, the institute was legally reorganized, Ud 
 irom that time has iiicreiised in numl-ers and 
 usefulness . In 1842, there wore 390 houses 
 
 (of whioli ,"126 were in France), with 3.030 broth- 
 Si "?«Q '-?^ "I'.Vf '■ '^'"^'^ ^"^ 6-»2 schools 
 r'.r i^;A , ,''''^'''> '"•'siiles evening schools 
 nith .,800 adulu in attendance, and three re- 
 formatory schools with 2,000 convicts under in- 
 nstruction. -Henry Barnard, Aatioiuil Educa- 
 tion m Europe, p,,. 43.'>-t41.-"In 1878 their 
 numbers had increasi'd to 11,640; tlu-y had 1 249 
 establishmcnt.s, and the numlxr of ilidr Ejhnlars 
 was 390.607. '-.Mrs. R F, Wilson, The Chri,- 
 tian Brothers, their Oriijiii and W'lrk, ch. 21. 
 
 A. p. i76»-— Rouiseau.- " Rdi.'sseau, who 
 had tducated himself, anil very biiilly at that 
 was imprusscl with the dangers of the education 
 of his day A motlier having asked his advice 
 he took up the pen to write it ; and, little by little' 
 hi.s counsels grew into a bixik, a large work a 
 I><|lag.)gic romance [■Erailo']. This romance, 
 wlien it appeared in 1702, created a great noise 
 and a great scandal. The Arehbishop of Paris 
 t liristoplie de Beaumont, saw in it a dangerous 
 iiiisohievous work, and i;ave himself the trouble 
 of writinp a long encyclical letter in order to 
 point out the b<K)k to the reprobation of the faitli- 
 ful. This liwunient of twenty-seven chapters is 
 a Jorm-i .futation of the theories advanced in 
 • Emile.' . In those days, such a condemna- 
 tion was a serious matter; IU Loasequcnccs to an 
 'Olthor miffht be terrible. R.--:!55€.-.u h::-i barely 
 time to flee. His arrest wa* decreed by the par- 
 liameni of Paris, and his book was burned by 
 the executioner. ... As a fugitive, Rousseau 
 did not find a saf* retreat even in his own coim- 
 
 If I 
 
 s 
 
 
 767 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Rouueau 
 ord Patalozu. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 try. He wfts oWiRed to leave Geneva, where his 
 book was also (:onilcmiic<l, ami Berne, where ho 
 bad sought refuge, but whence he was driven by 
 Intolerance. Heowcd itto the protectionof Lord 
 Keith governor of NcufchStel, a principality 1..'- 
 longing to the King of Prussia, that he lived for 
 sonic time in pi'ace in the little town of Motiers 
 in tl.. Val de Travera. . . The renown of the 
 book condemned by so ;iigh an iuilhority, was 
 Immensi'. Scandal, liv attracting public atten- 
 tion to it, did it goml servici'. What was most 
 serious and most suirgestlve in it was not. per- 
 haps, scize<l upon ; but the ' craze ' of which it 
 was the object had, notwithsUmding, g.ioii re- 
 sults. >Inthcrs were won over, and resolved to 
 nurse their own infants ; great lords l)egan to learn 
 handicrafts, like Housseau's imaginary pupil; 
 pliysical exercises came into fashion ; the si)irit 
 of innovaiicin was forcing itself a way. . . . 
 Thn e men above all the rest are noted for hav- 
 ing jiopularizid tlie pedagogic method of Rous- 
 seau, and for having l)een inspired in their laoors 
 by 'Emilc' Thei-e were liasedow, Pestalozzi. 
 and Froebel. liasedow, a German theologian, had 
 devoted himself entirely toilogmatic controversy, 
 until the reading of ■ fiinile ' had the effect of en 
 largiug his mental liorizon, and of n-vealing to 
 him his true voci'tion. . . . Pestalozzi of ZQrich, 
 one of the fori'niost educators of mixlern times, 
 al.so found his whole life transformed by the 
 reading of 'femile,' which awoke in him the 
 genius of a reformer. . . . The most distiniijuished 
 among his disciples and continuators is Iroebel, 
 thefounderof thosepriraaryschools . . .known 
 by tlie name of •kindergartens,' and the author 
 of highly estiemed pedagogic w.irks. These 
 various attempts, these new and ingenious pro- 
 cesses which, step by step, have made their 
 way amom; us. and are beginning to make their 
 workings ielt. even in instituti(ms most stoutly 
 oppoMil to proiiress, are all traceable to Hi>us- 
 R;au's 'fimile.'. . . It is true that ■ Knnle ' 
 contains pages that have outlived their ila^-, 
 many wld iirecciit*, many false ideas, many dis- 
 putable and .Ir^lruetive theories; liut at the same 
 time wetinii in it so many sagacious obsi'rvations, 
 such upriuht counsels, suitalile even t(j nnslern 
 times, so lofty an ideal, that, in spite of every- 
 thing, we cannot read and study it williout 
 profit. . . . Then! is absolutely notliing practica- 
 ble in his (Housseau's] system' It consists in i.-io- 
 hxUn: a child from the r<'st of tlie world; in creal- 
 ini; [■xpre>slv for him a tutor, who is a jilHenix 
 an'iniiL' his "kind; in ilepriving liini of father, 
 mother, brothers, and sisters, his compan'ons in 
 studv; in surrounding him witli a perpelu.d 
 clmrlatanisni. under tlii^ prete.\t of following na- 
 ture; ami in sliowinir him only through tlie veil 
 of a factitious ■itmo>phere the society in which 
 he is to live. And, nevertlieless. at each step it 
 is sound reason by wliicli we are met ; by an tis 
 tonishing paradox, this wiiimsic;dily is full of 
 g(H>d si'Usi-; this dream overllows with realilies; 
 this improbable and chimerical romance contains 
 the substance and the marrow of a rational and 
 truly mo<lern treatise on pedagogy. ,S>metimes 
 wi' inuat read iM'tween the lines, add what ex 
 periiuee has tauL'ht us siii<e that day, transposi' 
 iii!'. an ■itn-..-.-i-.liiTi- of open democracy tlioie 
 pages, written under the oldorderof things, but 
 even then quivering with the new world whicli 
 they were bringing to liu'lit, and ftir which thi'y 
 prepared the way. Risding ' Emlle ' in the 
 
 li(:"it of modem prejudices, we can se in It more 
 than the author wittingly put int.) it; hut not 
 more ihan logic and the Instinct of genius set 
 dowki there. To unfold the powers of cliildnn 
 in due proportion to their sge; not to transcend 
 their ability; to arouse in them the sense of the 
 observer and of the pioneer; to make them dis- 
 coverers rather than imitators; to teach them ac- 
 countability to themselves and not slavish <li - 
 pendencc upon the words of others; to address 
 ourselves more to the will than to custom, tu tlie 
 ri'ason rather than to the memory; to substitute 
 for verbal recitations lessons aliout things; tu 
 lend to theory by way of art; to a.s8ign to physi- 
 cal movements lind cxircisea a pn>mlnent place. 
 from the earliest hours of life up to perfect nii- 
 turitv ; such are the principles scattered hroail- 
 cast in this bcMik, and forming a happy coun- 
 terpoise to the oddities of which Uousseau was 
 perhaps most proud."— .1. Steeg, Inirndiirtio,, Vi 
 
 A. D. 1798-1827.— Pestalozri.— In Switzir 
 land, up to the end of the eighteenth century, thi 
 stale of primary instruction was very bad ' ' Tlie 
 teachers were gathered up at liazani; their p:iy 
 was wretched ; in general they had no lislgiiigs 
 of their own, and they were obliged to hire tlieni- 
 selves out for domestic service among tlie well 
 oft inlii'.'iitants of the villages, in order to find 
 fcKxl and hslging among tliem. A mean spirit 
 of caste still (hiininated instruction, and tlie |«>er 
 remained sunk in ignorance. It was in tin- vi ry 
 midst of this wretched and unpropitious stuti .i( 
 affairs that there appeared, towanis the eml of 
 the eighteenth century, the most celeliratid nf 
 m(«lern educators. . . . B<ini at Zurich in 1716. 
 Pestalozzi died at Brugg in Argovia in IsJ7. 
 This unfortunate great man always felt tlieilbii-i 
 of the sentimental and unpractical ediieif, :i 
 given him by his mother, who was left a wiil'W 
 with three childnii in IT.M. He early birimil 
 the habit of fieling and of iK'ing toueliid Milh 
 emotion, rather than of reasoning and of ret!. n 
 ini:. The laughing-stock of his cnnip:ini"ns, m li.i 
 miide sport of his awkwardness, tlie little m li. br 
 of Zurich accustomed himself to live :il"iii- ;iiiii 
 to become a dreamer. Ijiter, towards ITii", ilif 
 student of the academy distinguished liiniM-lf I'V 
 bis politiial enthusiasm and his rev.iliiliiMMry 
 darinir. At that early period be had er'nciivej 
 a prolound feeliuL' for the nii-i rii s an.l tlie iiei ils 
 of the people, an<l he iilriMdy pnp]iii>.d a- tlw 
 purpo.si; of his life the lieuling of the ili-e;i-i s nf 
 I society. At the same time there wasdevelo|uil in 
 ' hiin an irresistible taste for a .simple, fru!.'al. "'I'j 
 .■ilniost as.'etie lifiv To restrain his desires had 
 heeonie the e-sential rule "f his londiut. iind, ti 
 put it in prai tice. lie foi. rd hini-i If to sN ip nii :i 
 plank ;ind i.isubsi.-t on brc'iid and veL'el!il'li->. — 
 t! ('ompa\re. 7'/" Ili't. .//'«/. WW. M. I^* -'la 
 spite . . .■ of I'e-ialrzzi's patent disipia!il'ie:i!i-'iH 
 inmanyn'speelsfortlietaskheundertonk; iii-i'ili' 
 "f his iVnorami' of even cmnniou subject.-, if "r li' 
 spoke, reiul. ■« role, and cyphered badly, ::ni! kii'« 
 next to u.'!- ,!ig of che.sics or seienni; in spili 
 (it his want ..f worldly wisihun, of any ceiii.r.- 
 hrnsive and exart knowledge of men .'omI "I 
 tl.iiiL's; in spite of his beinir merely an elenie'itan 
 (...uher.— throuuhlheforce of hisall ■■oM.iiiernia 
 l.ive. the notulity ot liis lieari. liie i.-i~;:;' 
 energy of his enthusiasm, his firm gra^p "I a l''« 
 first jirinciples. his eloiiuent exposition "i '"'" 
 in words, his resolute mauifcstation of tin m u 
 
 (08 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 PMtatozzi. 
 
 KDtCATION. 
 
 "f l):ir- 
 wlio 
 
 .lilt lie 
 
 • tf'M('lnr. 
 
 (Ipwls,— he staniia forth arnon^ educatinnni ro- 
 formersiis the man wlicwe inttufnce on education 
 is wider, deeper, more penetrating, than that of 
 all t lie rest — the prophet and the soverei™ of 
 the domain In wliich he lived and laboured 
 It was late in life— he was fifty-two years of aixe 
 — iM-fore Pestalo/.zi liecame a praciicul school- 
 master. He had even l)egun to despair of ever 
 finding the rarci-r iti whieh he mitdit attempt to 
 realize the theories over which his lovin^' heart 
 and teeming lirain had l)een brofnling fniuhis 
 earliest youth. ... At flftv-two years of age 
 then, we find Pestalozzi utterly unaequainteii 
 wiihthe seienceand the art of education and verv 
 scantily furnished even with elementary knowl- 
 edge, undertaking at Slanz, in tin? canton of 
 Interwalden, the charge of eighlv children 
 whom the events of war had rendered homeless 
 and destitute. . . . The house in which the 
 eighty children were as.sembled to lie l)oard(d 
 hKlgeil, and taught, was an old tumlile-dowil 
 I rsuline convent, scarcely habitable, and desii- 
 tute of all the eonv<niences of life The onlv 
 apartii'i'nt suitable for a schoolroom was abou't 
 twenty four feet sijuare, furnished with a fesv 
 desks and forms; ami into this were crow.icfl the 
 wretched children, noisy, dirtv. diseaseil and 
 ignorant, witli tlie manners and 1 
 hurians. Pcstalozzis onlv helper i 
 mcnt of the institution was an ol 
 cooked the food and swept the roo 
 was. as he tells us himself, not oi 
 but the paymaster, manservant, ami almo>,t tli,. 
 liousiTOaid of the clilldrcn. . . . ' Aly wivlns fh,. 
 \yri!es] were now accomplished. I feltconvinivd 
 1 hit my heart would change the condition of iiiv 
 dnldrcnas speedily as the springtide sun n-.uii- 
 inates the earth frozen bv the win'rr Xor ' lu- 
 ndils, 'was I mistake!,." Before the sprin-'ti.lc 
 sun melted away the s,i.,w from our mountuins 
 you could no longer recognise the same children ' 
 . . 'I w.as obliged,' 111. says, 'uneeasinirly to be 
 everything to my chihlren. I was mIohc with 
 them from niorninir to night. It « ,< from my 
 hand they received wliatevi r could l„. of MTvice 
 I'olh to their boflics and minds. All .sui'cour all 
 consolation, all instruction came to them ininicli- 
 ately from myself. Their Imnds were in ii. 
 Inui.l; my eyes wc-re li.Ved on t',:-\i-^ niv tear-- 
 imuL'led with theirs, my smil. s eiicounten-,1 
 theirs, my soup was their soup, inv drink was 
 their drink. 1 had anninil me nci'iher family 
 fninds, nor servants; I had only them I wlis 
 Willi them when thiv were in "health, bv tlnir 
 ;;i'le when they were ill, I slept in tiieir'midst 
 I was the last to go to lH>d, the lirst to rise in the 
 ni..rniiig. Winn we were in bcil I used to pnv 
 'yilh them ami talk to them till they went to 
 sleep. Tliey wished metochiso. ■ . . . "■ I knew,' 
 he s;iys, 'no system, no methisl, no art but that 
 "Inch resteil on llic simple c.mseiiuences of tie' 
 linn belief of the children in my love towards 
 llieni. Iwisheil toknownoother.'". . . (Jradu.illy 
 ■ ■ I'estalozzi advanced to the main principles o"f 
 UN system of moral . lucation. . . . H,-says — 
 -Nature develops all the human faciiliii'-s bv 
 I'ractice. and their growth depemls im their exer- 
 cise. • The cinle of knowledge commences close 
 around n man, and thence extends concentrically. ' 
 ■rofte lint the f:iriiltics ,.f children into I'iic 
 remote paths of knowle<lge, until thev have L-ained 
 strength by exercise on things that are near them. ' 
 ' riiere is in Nature an order and march of de- 
 4U 
 
 I': 
 
 velopment. If you illsturb or interfere with It, 
 you mar the peace and harmony of the mind 
 And this you do, if, before you have formed the 
 mind by the progressive knowledge of the reali- 
 ties of life, you fling it into the labyrinth of 
 "IT'*' ""'' '""■"-' ""'"' "'e l>«sisof developmect ' 
 • The artiflcial march of the onlinary school an- 
 ticipating the order of Nature, which pr<K'et.ds 
 without anxiety and without haste, inverts this 
 order by placing words first, and thus secures a 
 deceitful appearance of success at the expense of 
 natural and safe development.' In these few 
 sentences we recognis.; all that is most charac- 
 tenstic m the eihuational principles of Pesta- 
 lozzi. ... To set the intenectiial naehinerv in 
 motion — to make it work, and keep it working; 
 that was the sole object at whi< h he aimed; of 
 all the rest he toeik litth' account. ... lie re- 
 lied u|Kai a principle which must be insisted on 
 as cardinal and ess<'ntial in education He secured 
 Ihe thorough interest of ids pupils in the lesson, 
 and mainly through their own direct share in it 
 . . Observati..n, . . according to Pestalozzi 
 (and Bacon had said the .same thing iM'forc him) 
 IS the absolute basis of all knowledge, aii<l is 
 therefore the prinii' ai^c^nt in . lementarv educa- 
 tion. It IS ;:rouiid this theory, as a centre of 
 i.'mvity, that Pestalozzi's system revolves."— J 
 I'mviic, /.,rt\ ,,i, t/„i I/i,t. „f t:.:-ii;ttwu. Let. ft 
 — •■ Uuiiiig the short period, not ..'"re than a 
 year, which Pestalozzi sp. nt among the chil- 
 dren at Slanz. lie S(tilfd th- main features of 
 the Pestalozzian system. .-iickiM -.s broke out 
 ani'Mi; the children, and th( wear and tear was 
 t.M, great even for Pestalozzi. lie would probably 
 have sunk under his. iroits it tlie Kreiich. pres,sed 
 by the Austrians, luxl n.t enti're<l Stanz in 
 .laniiary. 17111), and taken part of the L" rsuline 
 ( onv.'iit for a miliiary hospital. Peslahizzi was 
 Ilierefnn-, ..lili-ud to break up the .school, and he 
 himself Willi to a medicinal spring' on theOurnl- 
 .gcl in the Canton Bern. . . . He came down 
 from the Giiniii:el. and bigan to leach in the 
 primary sclii«i|s li. e., schc.ls f,.r children from 
 f- If to eight viarsoliDof liurgdorf, the second 
 t.iwn in the (anion. Here the director was jeal- 
 ous of him, and he met witli much i.pposiiion. 
 . . . Inlessthana yca.-Pcsialozzi lrf( ll.is.schooi 
 in bad heahli, and joined Kriisi in opi nin.'anew 
 school in Biir-dorf Casilr. for which he after- 
 ward (I so-Ji ohiaincd (Jin.Tiimeiit aid. Here he 
 " isassislrd in carrying out his system by Krllsl, 
 Tolilcr, and Blu-s. He now eiiil,. idled" the re- 
 sults of his experience in a work wiiich has ob- 
 tained great cclelirily — • How (icrtriide Teaches 
 lier t'hil.lrcii ' [als,> published in Kiiirlaml under 
 the tiilc of •l.iuiiard and Gertrudc'J. In 1W)3 
 Pestalo/zi. tor once in his life a successful and 
 popular man. was elected a member of a deputa- 
 tion sent by tlic .Swiss people to Paris. (In the 
 rest.irali.in of the Cantons in 1S04, the Castle of 
 Burt'dorf was again oecu]iied by one of the chief 
 miiLi^lratcs, and Pestalozzi and'hisestjiblishment 
 were moved to ilu- .'\louasiery of Biichsee. Here 
 Hie teacliers gave the priniipal direction to an- 
 other, the since celebnited Kelleiibunr. ' not with- 
 out my consent,' says Pestalozzi, • but to my 
 profound mortification.' He therefore sixin ac- 
 <epted an invitjition from the inhahitaiita of 
 Yverdun lo open an insiitution tliere, .and within 
 a twelvemonth he was followed by his old assist- 
 ants, who had found government by Felleiiburg 
 less to their taste than uo-govemmenl bv Pesta- 
 
 l\% 
 
 roo 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 nuHtpMr 1 
 
 tion if Woman. 
 
 BDUCATIOK. 
 
 loui. The Treidun Institute had »oon a world- 
 wide reputation. PestalozizUn teachers went 
 from It to Madrid, to Nap), to St. Petereburg. 
 Elnn and phlloaophets Jolneil In doing It honor. 
 But, ai Pestalozzi hlnuelf has testified, these 
 praises were but as a laun-l-wreatb encircling a 
 skull. The life of the PestaloMlan Institutions 
 had been the love which the old nuin had Infused 
 Into all the members, teachers as well as chil- 
 dren; but this life was wanting at Yverdun. 
 The establishmont was much too Targe to be car- 
 ried on successfully without more method and 
 discipline than Pestalozzi, remarkable, as he 
 himself says, for uis ' uorivaUed Incapacity to 
 govern," was master of. The assistants began 
 each to take his own line, and even the outward 
 show of unity was soon at an end. . . . Thus 
 thf sun went down In clouds, and the old man, 
 when he died at the age of eighty. In 1827, had 
 seen the apparent failure of all his tolls. He had 
 not, however, falleil In reality. It has been said 
 of him that his true fortune was U) educate Ideas, 
 not children, and when twenty years later the 
 centenary of his birth was celebrated by school- 
 masters, not only In bis native country, but 
 throughout Germany, It was found that Pesta- 
 lozzlan Ideas had Iwen sown, and were bearing 
 fruit, over the greater part of central Europe. 
 — R H. Quick, S$mgt on Bdueational Brformen, 
 eh. S. ^ ^ 
 
 A. D. 1804-1B91.— Co-educatioa and the 
 Hirher Education of Women in the United 
 States.— " When to a few lUring minds the con- 
 viction came that education was a right of per- 
 sonality rather than of sex, and when there was 
 added to this growing sentiment the pressing de- 
 mand for educated women as teachers and as 
 leaders in philanthropy, the simplest means of 
 €'<i'iipplnK women with the needful preparation 
 was found in the existing schools and colleges. 
 ... In nearly every StaU- west of the Alli-gha- 
 nles, ' Universities had Uva founde<l by the 
 voluntary tax of the whole population. Con- 
 nectwl with all the more powerful religious de- 
 nominations were »clii«>U and colleges which 
 called upon their adherent* for glft-s and students. 
 These democratic institutions had the vigor of 
 youth. an<l were amliillou.H and struggling. 
 'Why.'asktil tlie practical men ol ailuirs who 
 controlled them, 'aliould not our daughters go 
 on with our sons from the public sch(M)l» U) the 
 university which wo are sarrificing to equip and 
 maintain t ' It is not strange that with this and 
 much more practical reasoning of a similar kinil, 
 CO e<tucation was established In some colleges at 
 their Iwglnnlng, in others after dclwte, and by a 
 railical change in p<illey. When once the chiv- 
 alrous desire was aroused to give girls as good 
 an eilucallim as their brothers. Western men car- 
 rieil out the principle unflinchingly. From the 
 kindergarten Ut thv preparation for the doctorate 
 of philosophy, e<liicatioimloii|)ortunitles are now 
 practtrally alike for men and women. The total 
 numlu'r of tuUeges of arts and sciences emp<iw- 
 ered by law to give degn«s, reporting to Wash- 
 ington In IHHri, was three hundred and eighty- 
 nine. Of these, twohundredand thirty -s<'ven. or 
 nearly two-ttdrds, were co etiucationsf. Among 
 them are nearly all the HtatA unlvenitles, and 
 nearly all the colleges under the patronage of 
 the ProU-aiaul aevU. ttillicrU) 1 havo gpi.kea as 
 If co-education were a Western movement ; and 
 In the West It oerUlnly has bait greater cumncy 
 
 than elsewhere. But it originated, at least so 
 far as concema superior secondary training, hi 
 Maaaachuietts. Bradford Academy, chartered In 
 1804, is the oldeat incorponted Institution in the 
 country to which boys and girls were from the 
 flnt admitted ; but It closed ita department for 
 boys in 1888. three yean after the foundation of 
 co-educational Oberlln, and in the very year 
 when Mount Holyoke was opened by Mary Lyon, 
 In the Urge hope of doing for young women what 
 Harvard ba<l been fcunded to do for young men 
 Just two hundred yeara before. Ipswich and 
 Abbot Academies in Hassachusetta had already 
 been chartered to educate girls alone. It has 
 been the dominant sentiment in the East thav 
 boys and giris should be educated separaU'ly. 
 The older, more generously endowed, more eon- 
 servative seata of learning, inheriting the rom- 
 plicatlonsof the dormitory system, have remained 
 closed to women. ... In the short period of the 
 twenty years after the war the four women's 
 colleges which are the richest In endowments and 
 studenta of any In the world were founded and 
 set In motion. These colleges — Vassar, o|H'ned 
 In 1885, Wellesley and Smith hi 1875, and Hryn 
 Mawr in 1885 — have received in gifta of every 
 kind about $6,000,000, and are educating nearly 
 two thousand students. For the whole country 
 the Commissioner of Education reporta two hun- 
 dred and seven institutions for the superior in- 
 struction of women, with more than twenty-flve 
 thouaand studenta. But these resources pn)vtil 
 inadequate. There came an Increasing demand, 
 especially from teachera, for e<lucation of all 
 sorU. ... In an attempt to meet a demand of 
 this sort the Harvard Annex began tw-lve years 
 ago [In 1879] to provide a few women with in- 
 struction from members of the HarvanI faculty. 
 . . . Barnard College In New York Is an annex 
 of Columbia only In' a sense, for not all her in 
 struction Is given by Columbia's tj^aching fonf. 
 though Columbia will confer degni'S uimmi her 
 graduates. The new woman's college at Clcvr- 
 land sustains temporarily the same relations to 
 Adelbert College, though to a still greater extent 
 she provides indepenilent Instruction,"— A. R 
 Palmer, Rmea of tht Higher Rtuailion nf 
 Wimun ( Woman and th* Higher BtuAiU.m. pp. 
 105-137).- "The Cleveland College f- • Women, 
 Cleveland, Ohio, was first oiiened for instruction 
 in 1888 as a department of Western Heserve lint- 
 veralty. At the same time the trustees of the 
 university dechled to receive no more women 
 into Adelbert College. That the success of the 
 new school might lie assured, the faculty of 
 Adelbert College genero\i«ly offered tliiir iiTvires 
 for a U'rm of years as instrurtora. Durinit the 
 flrat year twenty three young women wirr ml 
 mitu-<l, but two of whom were In the n'gulsr 
 courses. During 188»-90 the number of slmlinU 
 imreased to thirty eight. ... In 18H7 Kvilyn 
 College, an Institution for women, was .iixiied 
 at Princeton, N. J. lU location at this place 
 gives the institution very great advantagi'M. iiias^ 
 much as the use of the libraries and museums of 
 the College of New Jersey, popularly known as 
 I»rinceUm College, are granUtl Ui the sluilrnts.' 
 — U. H. Coram r of Education, /fejiwrf, ix^v W), 
 ». a, p. 744— 'The latest report of the IniiH 
 States Commissioner of Education contahis over 
 iwo hundred iastiluliuiia tvf thr 5'!p*=Hi-.r rs.uj-ii^ 
 tion of women. The list Includes colleges and 
 teminariei sntltled lu confer degrees, and a f«« 
 
 770 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 «ViMM<mdM< 
 KUuUrgarttH. 
 
 IDCCATIOIT. 
 
 ■emlnsriM, whote work is of equal merit, which 
 do not rive degreea. Of then more than two 
 bondred inititutions for the education of women 
 eicludveljr. onlv 47 are situated within [western 
 states]. ... Of these 47, but 80 are chartered 
 with autliority to confer degrees. . . . The ex- 
 tent to which the higher education of women is 
 in tite West identified with co-education, can be 
 seen by comparing the two statements above 
 given. Of the total 813 higher institutions re- 
 ceiving women, and of the total 198 such institu- 
 tions which confer the regular degrees in arts, 
 science, and letters, upon their graduates, 165 are 
 oo-educational. . . . Among colleges character- 
 ized from birth by a liberal and progressive 
 spirit may be mentioned 'The Cincinnati Wes- 
 leyan Woman's College.' This institution was 
 chartered in 1842, and claims to be ' the first lib- 
 eral collegiate institution in the world for the 
 exclusive education of women. ' . . . The West 
 is committed to coeducation, excepting only the 
 Roman Catholic, the Lutheran, and the Protest- 
 ant Episcopal sects,— which are not yet, as 
 sects, committed to the collegiate education of 
 women at all, — and the Presbyterian sect, whose 
 support, in the West, of 14 co-educational col- 
 leges against 4 for the separate education of 
 young men, almost commits it to the co-educa- 
 tional idea. ... In 1853, Antioch College was 
 opened at Yellow Springs, O. It was the first 
 endeavor In the West to found a college under 
 Christian but non-sectarian auspices. Its presi- 
 dent, Horace Mann, wrote of it: 'Antiorh Is 
 now the onlv first-class college In all the West 
 that is really an unneruriau institution. ' . . . 
 Antioch was from the first avowedly coeduca- 
 tionaL"— M. W. Sewall, Biiuation of Women 
 in the WetCern Statt§ {Woman'i Work in Am., 
 pp. 61-70)— "Most i)eople would probably be 
 ready to say that eici-nt for the newly fiiumled 
 Woman's College in Baltimore and Tulane Uni- 
 versity [Sute university of Louisiana], the col- 
 legiate txiucation of women does not exist in the 
 South. But ns matter of fact, there are no leas 
 than one hundred and fiftv institutions in the 
 South which are authorizeil by the Legislatures 
 of their respw'tlve 8taU'S to confer the regular 
 college degn-es upon women. Of tliese, forty- 
 one are co-etiueational, eighty -eight are for women 
 alone, and twenty-one are for colored persons of 
 both sexes. The bureau of education malies no 
 attempt to go buliiud the venitct of the Wtale 
 Legislatures. l)ut on looking over the catalogues 
 of all these institutions It is, as might have been 
 expected, easy to sec that the great majority of 
 them are not in any degree colleges, in the or- 
 dinary sense of the wonl Not a single one of 
 the so-called female colleges pn'sents a real col- 
 lege course, and many of the ro v<lui-allonal ecij. 
 Ieg<!s are colleges only in name. "—C. L, franklin. 
 Muialiun nf Wnmin in tlu SmttKern StiXU* 
 {Woman'* Work in Am., ftp. S3-iM). 
 
 A. D. lli«-il9a.-Fro<b«l and tha Kinder- 
 f«rttn.— "F^^brl (Krii-drich Wllhelm August) 
 was bom April 81, 1788. at OIierweissliaiTi, In 
 the prinrlpalltv of Srhwarsburg-lludolaUiit 
 Ills mother ilird when he was so young 'i»t he 
 never even rememlirrtil her; ami he was left to 
 the care ' an ignorant maid-of all-work, who 
 slinplv ^.ivided forhlslKxIlly wants. , . . Not 
 uotll h? was trn yrarr trf igr: tlhl be fctxirr the 
 •Ughtatt regular instruction. He was then sent to 
 tCBoij, lo ao uncle who llvtd la tb 
 
 the Ml(hbor- 
 
 hood. ... He pronounced the boy to be Idle 
 (which, from his point of view, was quite true) 
 and lazy (which certainly was not true) — a boy, 
 in short, that you could do nothing with. . . . 
 It was necessary for him to earn hb bread, aiid 
 we next find him a sort of apprentice to a wooda- 
 man in the great Thuringian forest. Here, as he 
 afterward tells us, he lived some years in cordial 
 intercourse with nature and mathematics, learn- 
 ing even then, though unconsciously, from the 
 teaching he received, how to teach others. . . . 
 In 1801 he went to the University of Jena, where 
 he attended lectures on natural history, physics, 
 and mathematics; but, as he tells us, gahied lit- 
 tle from them. . . . This . . , was put an end 
 to by the failure of means to sUy at the Univer- 
 sity, For the next few years he tried various 
 occupations, . . , While engaged in an arehl- 
 tecfs oBlce at Frankfort, he formed an acquaint- 
 ance witU the Rector of the Model School, a man 
 named Gruner, Uruner saw the capabilities of 
 Frteliel, and detected also his entire want of in- 
 ten-st in the work that he was doing ; and one 
 day suddenly said to him : ' Give up your archi- 
 tect 's business; you will do nothing at it. Be a 
 teacher, W e want one now In the school ; you 
 shall have the place, ' This was the turning point 
 in FrcEhcl's life. He accepted the engagement, 
 began work at once, and tells us that the first 
 time he found himself in the midst of a class of 
 30 or 40 boys, he felt that he was in the element 
 that he had iniaae<i so long— 'the fish was in the 
 water' He was inexpresisibly happy. ... In a 
 calmer mood he severely questioned himself as 
 to the means by which he was to satisfy the de- 
 mands of his new ptmition. About this time he 
 met Willi some of PeHtalo7.zi's writings, which 
 BO deeply impressed him that ho deU-rmincd to 
 
 fo to Vvcniun and study Pestalozzl on the spot. 
 Ic accomplished hi.s purpose, and lived and 
 worked for two years with PestalozzI, His ex- 
 p<-rience at Yveniun impresseti him with the 
 conviction that the science of e<lucation had still 
 to draw out fmm Pestalozzi'a system those fun- 
 danunul principles which Pestalozzi himself did 
 not comprehend. 'And therefore, ' savs Schmidt, 
 • this gi'nial disciple of Pestalozzi supplemented 
 lil,H sysu-m by advancing from the point which 
 Pestalozzi hail reached through pressure fnim 
 without, to the Innermost coiiceptidii of man, 
 and arriving at the tliouglit of the true devi l.p- 
 nienl and culture of mankind.', , . Ills cuu.;»- 
 tlonal career commence<l Novenilier 13th, 1816, 
 In Urelsheim. a little village near Stailtllm, in 
 Thuringia; but In 1817, when his PesUlozzlan 
 friend, Mlddemlorf, Joined him . . . the sch(M)l 
 was trannferriKl to the iH'autiful village of Kelt- 
 hail, near Kuilolstadt. which may lie consiilere<t 
 OS hU chief stjiriingplacv, , , , lisngenthal, an- 
 other IVstalozzian, aasoclate<l himself with them, 
 ami they comniemiHl building a house. "The 
 numlrr of pupils ros<' to twelve in 1818, Then 
 the daughter of wsr counselor lIolTman of Ber- 
 lin, from enthusiasm for Fneliel's educational 
 ideas, lieeame his wife. She had a considerable 
 dowry, which, together with the accession of 
 KnrlK'i's I'Ider brother. Increased the funds and 
 welfare of the M-hool, In 18;lt he was Invited 
 by the comiioser, Srhnyder von Wartenare. to 
 erect a similar garden on his estate, near the take 
 nf Scmpach, in the canton Lazcni. U was dons. 
 Frabel changed bis reatdence the next year, from 
 Ketlbau to Switiertand, In 18S4 the govemmenl 
 
 I 
 
 11 
 
 771 
 
BDUCATIOK. 
 
 tfu Xtodtrgarteit. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 of Bern invited him to untuige a training courae 
 for teachers in Burgdorf. In 1885 he became 
 
 Krincipal of the orphan asylum in Burgdorf, but 
 1 1R36 he and his wife wished to return to Ger- 
 many. There he was active in Berlin, Keilhau, 
 Blanlienburg. Dresden, Liebenstein in Thuringia, 
 Hamburg, (1849.) and Marienthal, near Lieben- 
 stein, where lie livni until his decease in 1892, 
 among the young ladies, whom he trained as 
 nurses for the kindergarten, and the little chil- 
 dren who attc,..dcd liia schcml." — 11. Barnard, «f. 
 PctjtfTton Froebel't KindergarUn: Memoir. — "The 
 child thinks only through symbols. In other 
 wonls, it explains all it sees not by the recorded 
 experience of others, as does an adult, but by 
 marehnline and comparing its own concept or 
 symbol of what It has itsilf seen. Ita sole ac- 
 tivity is play. 'The school begins with teach- 
 ing the conventionalities of intelligence. Froet)cl 
 would have the younger children receive a sym- 
 bolic education in plays, games, and occupations 
 which symlKilize the primitive arts of man.' For 
 this purpose, the child is led through a scries of 
 primitive occupations in plaiting, weaving, and 
 modeling, through games and dancea,whicli bring 
 into play all the social relations, and through 
 songs and the simple use of number, form and 
 language. The 'gifts' all play their manifold 
 purpose, inspiring the child, awakening Its in- 
 terest, leading the Individual along the path the 
 race has trod, and teaching social self-control. 
 The system has its palpable dangers. The bet- 
 ter and more Intricate the to<il, the more skill 
 needed 111 Its safe use. . . . The klmlercartcn 
 renuins triiined hands. With trivial teachers 
 its ni<ilioil» may easily degcnenite Into mere 
 nmustment, and thwart "all tendency to attention, 
 anplicatlon, or Industry. Vnhmblc as It Is In Its 
 hints for the ciiri' nn(l development of children, 
 it.i L'liy round iiiedH to be ballasted with the pur- 
 pose and theory upperniiwt in KhwIk'I's mind 
 when lie opened Ills first selnsil in a Oemian 
 p<iisnnl vllliiL'e. ilowii wliose nmln stri'et a brook 
 tuinlileil, and tliro>i).'h \vIioki> lanes the hnllierclier 
 still \viilk(sl liy nli;lit and sani; the hours. It is 
 Idle to suppose tliut FMelsi foundeil a iMTfeet 
 systi'ni. or to insist on all the di'lnils of the pro 
 feasloiml kiniliTrfartner s creed Here as else- 
 where, and m! Tetline, it has taken only forty 
 years from tlie founder's deatli for f.iith to de 
 generate into relluion and wet. Hut the icnlril 
 purpost' lie had in view must tn' stendllv main 
 tained. lie sou^'lit his ends thniiigh pluy. and 
 not llirouKh work It i^ as dangerous for this 
 metlioil to hanlen Ini" m appMiuh to the pri 
 niary seliisil as It Is fnr it to soften Into a riot of 
 mlsnile. and lax oliservanee iif nriler. . Swil 
 
 zerlaml. then tlie only npiihlii' In Kimipe. was 
 the tirsi eciiiiilry to' adopt Fnu'liel's liielliod, 
 thoiiilh in sniiie Swiss towns the kindergarten is 
 still »u' ■ r'.il !iy priviiti' as.siH'latlons Kmnee, 
 •nolle lilic, has more ililldren iH/iniilntr 
 
 srhool an nilaptation of hVis'lol \\\nn all 
 
 the rest I world put foi;ither It was Knie- 
 
 N'i's own ..pinion that 'the spirir of American 
 natioii.illty was tlie only one li lie worlil with 
 which his nietlioil was in coinp^ i' harmony, ami 
 to which its legiiininte inatitiilioiis would pnsent 
 no Imrriers. ' The ngun-s given Im'Iow of the 
 growth of the kinileritarta'n In \\\\* country nri' 
 the IrtTTri [n«-!li'ic jTf-.TTif nt lllr tfiiUi of Kr-rr-'n-i'-: 
 
 premHrnt assertion. . In 1M70 ihi're were in 
 this country only live kindergarten scliuoN, ami 
 
 In 1873 the National Education Association at its 
 Boston meeting appointed a committee whi'^h 
 reported a year later recommending the system. 
 Between 1870 and 1873, experimental kinder- 
 gartens were established in Boston, Cleveland, and 
 St. Louis, public attention was enlisted by the 
 efforts of Miss Elizabeth Palmer Pealiody, the 
 most important worker in the early history of 
 the kindergarten in this country, and the system 
 iH'gan a rapid growth. Taking private and piili- 
 11c kindergartens together, the advance of the 
 system hai displayed this most rapid progress, 
 isrs two ifws i«!)i-2 
 
 Schools 95 23-i 413 l.iiui 
 
 Teachers 216 B24 Wfi VHi 
 
 Pupils 2,809 8,871 18,781 !50,4-2;i 
 
 Down to 1880, these figures, outside of fit. Louis. 
 R'late almost altogether to private schools Hy 
 1883 the public kindergartens were ni.i ovira 
 fifth In number of the schools, and held nut over 
 a fourth of the pupils. In the figures last given 
 in this table there are 724 private kinderpiriiiis 
 with 1,517 teachers and 29.3.57 pupils, and T', 
 public kindergartens with 7'25 teachers and 'Jl.mW 
 pupils, so that the latter have now 27 per cent, of 
 the schools. 88 p<'r cent, of the teachers, and 42 
 IKT cent, of the pupils. . . . Vet great as is tliis 
 advance, the kimiergarti'n as yet plays but an 
 infinitesimal part in our educational systi'in as a 
 whole. ... Of the sixteen Anieriean cities with 
 a populatkmof over '2(N>.(HH) In 1890. only f.air- 
 Philadeliihia, Boston, Milwaukee, and St. Louis 
 — have incorponited the kindergarten on iiny 
 large scale in their pulillc-schisil systems. Fmir 
 more — New York, Clilciig<i, Bnsiklyn, and Hnl 
 falo — have kindergarten associations or;.'aiii7.ni 
 to introduce the new method as a part of free 
 public education."— T. Williams, Tlie h'in'l,r- 
 giirlen Man 1114' iit (The Cfiituri/, J,in., WW)). 
 
 A. D. 1865-1883.— The Higher Education of 
 Women in England. — The movement in V.m: 
 land to secure a higher isiucalion for wmiien 
 dates from 18H.';. "In that year a Koyal Coin 
 missiim was appointed to inquire Into and n pnrt 
 on the endowed gramnmr scIhmiIs of Kiil'1:oii1 
 and Wales, and on what Is calli'd 'see"ncl:o\ 
 educati(>n generally. S<'Veral ladles who wen- 
 alreadv alive to the defirleneit>H In the e'liiealioii 
 of their own si'X, inemoriall/.ed this ('oiiiniisNi,<a 
 to extend tlie scope of its imiiiiry lo ;;lih' 
 sclusils. and the t'oininlsslnii laklii),' n hat was 
 then thoiiKlit i|uite a Uild hle|>. eoiwiiie'l 
 to do so. . . One of the (loliits liroii.-lii <iui 
 was tile ahstiiee of any insliliitiuiis doiiu' ' 1 
 WMiiieii wliat the universities did fur men, tiii.l 
 the eoii«niieiil dillhiilly in whieli «<iin( 11 -Ilbi 
 of ohtaining the highest kind of i<l<i<:iiiun 
 -n dlllleiilty which told on iiirls' »ilii«'li hy 
 iiiakini; it b.'inl for them to prisnre tlii)ri'iiL;lily 
 coni|Htent nilstnsws. This led in tln' euiir-e if 
 the next year or two — the report nf 'he Ccnn 
 mission having iH'cn pulillshed In IWH -In ili'' 
 establishment of a rolleite for women, wliii h « i» 
 first placed 111 llitehhi. a town on tin' tit. a 
 Xorllieni llailway. Is'twien Lonilon ami t'on 
 bridge, and In a little while, wlnii neaiiv hil 
 Issn collected siitllrUnt fur tlie eni tloimf liiiilil 
 Ings. this college was tliially selthd at (lirtoii 1 
 s|iot about twii miles front CaniliridKe, whiri" 
 It takes the uaiiie of Olrton College. lu pur 
 t-~- Wri- !■• pr-'V',-!- f..r •*•--!;■,<-•! iSk' a^w^- -.^ -l-. 
 IIIK In the same aiilijeets as men reti-ive in I iiii 
 bridge I'ulversity, and tlie teachers wen' marly 
 
EDCCATION. 
 
 Education of Women 
 in fhgbind. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 kll of them profeaaon or tuton there, men in 
 some cages of high eminence. Meanwhile, in 
 Cambridge itself, a system of day classes for 
 women, taught by University teachers, had been 
 created, at first as an experiment for one year 
 only. When several years had passed, when" the 
 number attending had increased, and it was 
 found that women came to lodge in Cai. '■ridge 
 in order to profit by these lectures, a hou^c was 
 hired in which to receive them, ami ultimately a 
 company was formed and a building erected a 
 little way out of Cambridge, under the name of 
 Newnham Hall, to which the lectures, now 
 mainly designed for these students coming from 
 a distance, were attached. Tims, at about the 
 same time, though from somewhat different ori- 
 gins, Girton and Newnham came into Ix'ing and 
 began their cnursc of friendly rivalry. Uoth 
 have great ly developed since then. Their build- 
 ings have Immh reiteatedly enUtrged. Their num- 
 bers have ri.wn steadily, ... In Girton the 
 charge for lodging. iKinrdand instruction islllmi 
 per annum, in Newnham a little less. The life 
 in both is very similar, a laily being plaecil at 
 the head as resident principal, while the affairs 
 
 are managed bv a co littee including l>oth niin 
 
 ami women. The lectures are delivered partlv 
 by Cambriilge men. professors in the Universitv. 
 or tutors or lectun'rs in 8.>ine of the colleges, 
 partly by lailies. who, having once iM^en studiiiLs 
 them«'lves, have come bark as teachers. These 
 IfK'tures cover all the subjects reijidn'd in the 
 degree cxamiiialions of the University ; and ul 
 though students are not obliged to enter them 
 selves f(.r llitwe examinations, they are crKLiir- 
 ageil to do so. and do mostly set the examiii ui.ms 
 twfore them as their goal. Originally th.- Uni 
 Tcrsity t(M)k no ollleial ui>llee of the wonuii Mu 
 dents, and their being examineil by the n irular 
 decree examiners of the ^ 'versilv was a niallir 
 of pure favor on the part of tliixK' gentlemen. 
 ... At last, liowever, some examiiiirs came 
 Into otllce (for the examiners are cliauited every 
 two ye.irs) who (Ii8appn)vtil of this informal e\ 
 amiualion of the women eamlidales. and arionl 
 Ingly a iin)po»id was made to the I'Miversiiv that 
 it slio\dd formally authorize and imiMise on llii' 
 examiners the fiuietion heretofori' discharL'i d bv 
 them in llii-ir indiviclnal capacity. 'Iliis pni 
 posid. iifier some discussion and op|M)»iriiin, was 
 carried, so that now w.imen may enter li..tii for 
 the honor exaniiiiallons anil the pass i \amiiia 
 lions for the Inivirsliy ihgret- as a malt, r nf 
 right. Tlu ir mimes do not ap|K'sr in the ollli iai 
 lists among timsi' of the nun. but sepamiilv. 
 thiy are. liowever, testeil bv tlie same (piesiiun 
 paiKTS and jiidgnl hy the same stanilanl. . 
 Home Oxfopl graduates ami Heir frienils. stimu 
 mliil by the success of (iirloii and .Newnham. 
 haxe fouiideil two similar inslilulions In Oxfinl 
 
 one of whidi, Kplsiopallan and iiid I lliL'h 
 
 I'hureli in its proclivities, is called Ijidy .Xlur 
 imt Hall, while the other, in eompllnienl to 
 the lali' Mrs ,s..mervllle, has txiii given llie 
 title i.f S..inervllU Hal! Tbes.- establislimi nn 
 an' eoudnetisl on much the same lines as Hie t«.i 
 Cambridge ■■.■Ueges .In the Urge t.nvm 
 
 «l«re new ii.lleges linve lieen latelv founded or 
 courses of hclurm i-slablished. sueli as Mam he» 
 •"•r. I.iver|MNil, and Ussls, steps are iisiialU 
 
 (.iknii.-i prnviiif i,.iiire. f..i w eu. . . Wiiai 
 
 Is called among you the (piestlon of co-e<lu(aliun 
 has come up very little in Enirland All the 
 
 lectures given inside the walls of the four Eng- 
 lish colleges I have mentioned are, of course, 
 given to women only, the colleges being lust as 
 exclusively places for women as Trinity and St. 
 Johns are places for men. ... At this moment 
 the principal of one of the two halls of which 
 Newnham consists is a daughter of the Prime 
 Minister [Miss Helen Glatistone], while her pre- 
 deces.sor was a niece of the Marquis of Salisbury. 
 The principal of Girton is a niece of the late 
 Loni Lawrence, the famous Governor-General of 
 India. Of the students a fair proportion belong 
 to tlie wealthy c1bs8<>s, while a somewhat larger 
 proportion mean to take teaching as their profes- 
 sion."— f'/v-<//v/«inf/'f„„ife EdHoition in Eng {Xa- 
 tiuii, ,1'itnT,. isjs3)._Sh', also, above, 8<'oti,\m> 
 .xT;?: '8*5-1893— Induitrtal Education in 
 the United States.—- In IH6.5 .[ohn B<iyntonof 
 Templeton, .Mass.. gave * 100,000 for the endow- 
 ment and perpetual support of a Free Institute 
 for the yoiitli of Wor. ester Coimty, Mass He 
 thus explained his objwts: 'The aim of this 
 s<h(K)l shall ever l)e the instruction of youth in 
 those branches of education not usuallV taught 
 in the public schisils, which arc essential and 
 iM'st adapted to train tlie voung for practical 
 life'; es|K'eially such as were intending to be 
 mediaiiics, or manufacturers, or farmers. In 
 furtherance of this object, ten months later, in 
 18tifl. lelialHsl Washburn of Worci'ster gave $i.5.- 
 OIKI. and latcT lllo.OiHI niiire to erect, iM|Uip, and 
 endow a iniwhine shop which shoulil iieconi- 
 niiHlate twenty apprentices and a so'lalilenumUr 
 of skilled workmen to iiistriut tin ami to carrv 
 on the shop as a commercial eslablislimint. Thi- 
 a|>pnnlii( s wen' to be taught the use of tisils in 
 working wikhI anil metals, and to be otherwise 
 iiistrmted. much as was custJimarv tlfty years 
 ago for boys learning a trade. Tile Worcester 
 Krie Institute was o|M'neil for students in No- 
 \emlsr. isiw. as a technical sclii»)l of nls>ut col- 
 liiTe grade, and the usi' of the sliops and shop 
 iii«lriiiti(m was limited to those students in the 
 course of mechanical entrineerinir. Thus diil the 
 Worcester SehiHil uiidi r ilie hadership of I'nsf. 
 »'. O. Thompson incorporate toolinstructi.in ami 
 shop-practice into the traiiiiii!; of meihaiiiial 
 emrlneers, , , . In the Rime \iar, l'<(W, Viitur 
 Dilla-Vosinlrodine.l into the (iii|iirial Teehnieal 
 leii^ineerlng) .Sh.sil at .M.ise.ov the Kiisslan 
 metliisl of class-iiisinictioii in the uw- of tisils. 
 . , . The great value of the work of Deila-Vos 
 lay in Hie diseoverv of the true in, iImkI of tooi- 
 Instruction, lor wiiliuul his ilisioury the later 
 steps wiMild have Iseii iiiii«>ssil>|e. In ih;ii_ 
 under the diniiion of I'rof. hohin.son aiiil I'rest 
 J. .M On-irnry of the iMivirsiiy of llliimls. a 
 wisiil working shop was added id the appliances 
 for the ( ourse in areliltei lure, niel an iron-work- 
 liii.' shop to the eoiirsi' ill mechanical enginwring 
 in ihai institution. In IsTl, the ."Elevens Idstr 
 lute of llolsiken. N. .1.. miinlllcentlv endiiwe<l 
 by 1; Iwiii .\. Stevens, as a siIhhiI of niethanical 
 engiiKi riug. tilted up a series of shops for the 
 use of its (•tiidiiits. The next slen birwanl was 
 taken by Washington I niversiiy In .S| l.oids in 
 ppividing for all its enirineeriiig slmhnls tys- 
 teniMiic liistrui'ilon In Isitli wissi and melnis In 
 \'*Vi. a large shop in the I'olyti'chnic McIhsiI was 
 eiiuii.iM'd with Work liemiies'. two U'-hes. a fiirge, 
 a irear culler and ttiil B«ts ot cariK'nters', ma- 
 cliiiiisis', anil r.iri;lng tiH>ls . . . Tliiis far had 
 »e pMgressi-d when the riilladelpliia Exposition 
 
 r?.-] 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Iiid«t«riii< AliHsaMm. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 •f 187A wu opened. None of ug knew anything 
 of the MoKow school, or of the one in Bohemia 
 in which the Runian method bad been adopted 
 in 1874. . . . In hi« report of 1876, Prest. J. D. 
 RunUe, of the Maw. Inititute of Technology, 
 gare a full exposition of the theory and practice of 
 tool-instruction of Delia- Vos as exhibited at the 
 Philadelphia Exposition, and he recommended 
 that wiuiout delay the course in mechanical 
 engineering at the Institute be completed by the 
 addition of a series of Instruction Shops. The 
 suggestion was acted on, and in the spring of 
 1877 a class of mechanical engineering students 
 was given instruction in chipping and filing. 
 . . . The St. Louis Manual Training School was 
 established June 6, 1879. It embodied hopes 
 long cherished and plans long formed. For the 
 first time in America the age of admission to 
 school-shops was reduced to fourteen years as a 
 minimum, and a very general three-years' course 
 of study was organized. The ordinance by which 
 the school was established specified its objects 
 In very general terms: — 'Its objects shall b« In- 
 struction in mathematics, drawing, and the Eng- 
 lish branches of a high-school course, and In- 
 struction and practice in the use of tools. The 
 tool-instruction, as at present contemplated, shall 
 include carpentry, wood-turning, puttern-mak- 
 ing, iron clipping and filing, forge- work, brazing 
 and soldering, the use of machine-shop tools, and 
 such other instruction of a similar character, as 
 It may be deemed advisable to add to the fore- 
 going from time to time. The students will 
 divide their working hours, as nearly as possible, 
 equally Iwtwecn mental and manual exercises.' 
 . . . the Baltiino'-'' Manual Training School, a 
 public schiKil, oil I.' same footing as the high 
 school, wasopencd .n 1888. The Chicago Manual 
 Training School e: lablished as an incorporated 
 school by the (Commercial Club of that city, was 
 opt'ne<l in January, 1884. . . . Manual training 
 was intnxluced into the high school of Eau Claire, 
 Wisconsin, in 1884. The ' Scott Manual Train- 
 ing School ' was organized as a part of the high 
 school uf Toledo in 18H4. . . . Manual training 
 was introduced Into the College (high school) of 
 the City of New York in 1884. The Philadelphia 
 Manual Training School, a public high school, 
 wa» opened In 8epl»'inlM'r, XHHU. The Omaha 
 high school IntriMliiciHl manual training In 188A. 
 . , . Dr. Ailler's Worklngman's 8<'hiH>l for poor 
 children has for several years taught manual 
 training to the very lowest grailes. . . . The 
 Clevi'la id Manual Training School was Incorpo- 
 rated In IWt.t, and opeiie<i In connection with the 
 city high school. In 1884. New Haven, which bad 
 for some time encouraged the use of tools by the 
 pupils of several of lis grammar schools. In Sep- 
 tember, 1886. opened a regular shop and fur- 
 nished systematic Instruction In tool-work. The 
 school Ixwrd of Chicago added manual training 
 to the course of the ' West Side High ScbooP 
 In Biptemhcr, 1886 "—C. M. WiKxiward, TA* 
 Mnniuil Triiining %*«<<. ch. 1. — "Concerning 
 the manual'tnlnink school there are two widelv 
 different views. The one Insists that It shall 
 teach no trade, but the rudiments of all of them . 
 the other that the particular Industries mav 
 pr<i|)erly be held to maintain schools to recruit 
 their own ranks. The lint would teach the use 
 of the aid, tbfi saw, tfao plane, the iummrr, tho 
 square, the chisel, and the file; claiming that 
 ' the graduate from such a course at the end of 
 
 three yean is within from one to three months of 
 knowmg quite as thoroughly as an apprentice 
 who h^ served seven yeara anv one of the 
 twenty trades to which he may choose to turn.' 
 Of this class are, besides most of those already 
 named, the Halsh Ifanual Training School of 
 Denver; thatof Tulane University, New Orleiinsj 
 the Felix Adier's Worklngman's School, of New 
 York City ; and the School of Manual Technol- 
 ogy, Vanderbllt University, Nashville. Among 
 schools of the second class are some Interesting 
 institutions. They include the numerous gcnenu 
 and special trade-schools for boys, instruction in 
 the manifold phases of domestic economy for 
 girls, and the yet small but rapidly growing class 
 of industries open alike to both. Sewing Is 
 taught In public or private schools in Baltimore, 
 Boston, Cincinnati, Chicago, New York, Phila- 
 delphia, Providence, St. Louis, and atmut a dozen 
 other cities, besides in a number of special In- 
 stitutions. Cooking-schools are no longer a 
 novelty in half as many of the larger cities, since 
 their mtroductlon Into New Y'ork city in 1876. 
 Printing may be learned In the Kansas Agricul- 
 tural College; Cooper Union, New York; Olrard 
 College, I%lladelphia, and elsewhere. Teleg- 
 raphy, stenognpby, wooii-cngraving, varinm 
 kinds of smithing, and carpentry, have, especinlly 
 the last two, numerous representatives. The 
 New York Kitchen Garden, for the instruction 
 of children in the work of the household, is an in- 
 teresting modification of the Kindergarten along 
 the Industrial line. For young ladies, the Eliza- 
 beth Aull Seminary, Lexington, Missouri. Is a 
 school of home-work. In which 'are practically 
 taught the mysteries of the kitchen and laundry,' 
 and upon whose graduates is conferred the decree 
 of ' Mistress of 1 lome- Work. ' The Lasell Semin- 
 ary at Aubumdale, Massachusetts, also has 
 recently (1885) undertaken a similar but more 
 comprehensive experiment. Including lessons ami 
 lectures in anatomy and physiology, with hygiene 
 and sanitation, the principles of common law by 
 an eminent attorney. Instruct ion and practiie in 
 the arts of domestic life, the principles of dress, 
 artistic house-fumlshing, healthy homes, ami 
 ciNiklng. Of training schools for nurses there 
 are thirty-one. ... Of schools of a different 
 character still, there have been or are the Carris)^ 
 Builder's Apprenticeship School, New York; 
 those of Hoe A Co., printing-press manufsc- 
 turen; and Tiffany Jk Co., jewelers; ami the 
 Tailon' ' Trades School ' recently pst«l)ll»lie(l and 
 flourishing in llaltlmore, besides the PennKvlvania 
 Rallmad novitiate system, at Altoona : in which 
 particular trades or guilds or corporatiims have 
 sought to pn>vide then<M'lves with a dlHtitiet and 
 specially trained cli>,j of artisans. Tim laU'St 
 and In some n-s|)ects the most Interesting eiiM'ri 
 ment of the kind Is that uf the ' ilaltlniciri' ami 
 Ohio Kallroail service ' at Ml Clare, Ualllmnr.- 
 It was Inauguralitl In Ih.m'v, apprvntln-s IkIdi; 
 selected from aiiplUanta liv nimpelitive (•zaniiim 
 tlon." — R O. Ifcxine, Kilufition in the Vnilnl 
 Sloft'S, M. 18. 
 
 A. D. iS7J-iM9.— Uaivtraitw Eattnsion in 
 BaglMld.— " The Unlvenlty Extension Move 
 ment, which has now been before the nntnlry 
 eighteen yeara, has revMled the existence of a 
 ival need for larger opportunities of higher eilu- 
 CBtinn amongst uic middle and workinr rlx^srj. 
 From the time of Its inauguration in 1878 by ths 
 UnlTsntty of Cambridge, owing mainly tu th« 
 
 774 
 
KDUCATION. 
 
 Univntty E£ttn§ltm. 
 
 :!DUCATION. 
 
 enthuaiutic sdTocacv and (kill In practical af- 
 fain of Mr. James Stuart (at that time Fsllow 
 and Lecturer of Trinity College), down to the 
 preaent day, when the principle oaa been accepted 
 by all the Universities in Great BriUin and by 
 some in countries beyond the seas, the movement 
 has shown marvellous vitality and power of ad- 
 justment to changing conditions. 1 1 ^m a small 
 beginning in three towns in the Hidlands, it has 
 grown until the centres in connection with the 
 various branches are to be numbered by hundreds 
 and the students by tens of thousands. The suc- 
 cess attained by Cambridge in the flrat three years 
 led, in 1876, to the formation of the London 
 Society for the Extension of University Teach- 
 ing, for the express purpose of carrying on simi- 
 lar work within the metropolitan area. In 1878 
 the University of Oxford undertook to make 
 similar arrangements for Lectures, but aftor a 
 year or two, they were for the time abandoned. 
 Subsequently in 1885 the Oxford work was re- 
 vived and has since been carried on with vigour 
 and success. The University of Durham is as- 
 sociated with Cambridge in this work in the north- 
 east of England, while courses of Lectures on the 
 £xtep«ion plan have been given for several years 
 in connection with Victoria University in centres 
 around Manchester. Two or three years ago the 
 four Scottish Universities united in forming a 
 like scheme for Scot" ad, while at the close of 
 1889 a Society for ;'■»- Extension of University 
 Teaching was formed in the north of Ireland. 
 Finally the movement has spread toOreater Brit- 
 ain and the Unitc<l States, and there are signs 
 that work on similar tinea is about to be esub- 
 lished in various countries on the continent of 
 Europe."— R D. Rolwrts. BigkUen yean of Cni- 
 unity Extenrion, eh. 1. — " One of the chief char- 
 acteristics of the system is the method of teach- 
 ing adopted In connection with it. A working 
 man at one < if the centns in the north of England 
 who had attendpd the lectures for several tfrms, 
 described the metliiHi as follows In a paper ri'aj 
 by him at a meeting :— ' Any town or village 
 which is prepared to provide an audience, and 
 pay the necessary fees, can secure a i-ourae of 
 twelve lectures on any subject taught in the Uni- 
 versity, by a lecturer who has been educated at 
 the Liilverslty, and who is specially fitted for 
 lecturing work, A syllabus of the course is 
 printed and put Into the hands of students. This 
 sylUbus is a great help to persons not accustomed 
 to note-taking. Questions are given on each 
 lecture, and written answers can be soot in by 
 any one. Irrespective of age or sex. All the Icc- 
 turi'S, except the first, are preceded by a class, 
 which lasts about an hour. In this class the stu- 
 dents and the lecturer talk over the previous lec- 
 ture. The written anawers are retumett with 
 such corrections as the lecturer deems necessar}-. 
 At the end of the course an examination is held 
 and crrtiflcatea are awardetl to the successful can- 
 didates. These lectuivsare called Unlversitv Ex 
 tension Lectures.' Another definition whlcli has 
 been given la this:—' Advanced syslcmatlr li«ch> 
 lii( for the people, without distinction of rank, 
 »«. or age, given by means of lectures, classes, 
 and written papers during a connected course, 
 oooduclwl by man " who believa in their work, 
 •nd Intend to do It. " teachers who connect the 
 Cuunlry with tiie Univemty by manner, method, 
 MidinfonnatloD.'"— R D. RoUrts. Tht faissr- 
 mty gtUniian aiKim4, l>p. 9-1. 
 
 A. D. in7-i893.— UniTcrsitj EztMsion in 
 
 the United States "The Srat conscious at- 
 
 tempu to introduce English University Extension 
 mc-.ods into this count-y were made in 1887, by 
 individuals connected with the Johns Hopkins 
 University. The subject was first publicly pre- 
 sented to the American Library Association at 
 their meeting upon one of the tliousand Islands 
 in September, 1887. The idea was heartily ap- 
 proved," and the first result of the suggestion 
 was a course of lectures on economic questions 
 given in one of the lecture-rooms of the Buffalo 
 Library the following winter by Dr. Edward W. 
 Bemis. The next wint<'r "Dr. Bemls repeated 
 his course on ' Economic Questions of the Day ' 
 in Canton, Ohio. . . . The Canton experiment 
 was followed in February, 1889, by another 
 course, conducted by Dr. Bemis, Ui connection 
 with the Public Library at St. Louis. . . . About 
 the time when these various experiments were 
 being tried in St. Louis, Canton, and Buffalo, In- 
 dividual members of Johns Hopkins University 
 were attempting to introduce University Exten- 
 sion methods In connection with local lectures In 
 the city of Baltimore. . . . The idea of Univer- 
 sity Extension in connection with Chautauqua 
 was conceived by Dr. J. H. Vincent during a visit 
 to England, in 1886, when he saw the English 
 lecture system in practical operation and his own 
 methods of encouraging home reading In grow- 
 ing favor with university men. The first defin- 
 ite American plan, showing at once the aims, 
 methous, cost, and history, of University Exten- 
 sion lectures, was drawn up at Chautauqua by 
 the writer of this article in the early summer of 
 1888. . . . Contemporary wiih the development 
 of Chautauqua College and Unlveralty Extension 
 was the jilanol Mr. SethT. Stewart, of Brooklyn, 
 New York, for • Unlveralty and School Exten- 
 sion.' . . . Several public meetings were held in 
 New York In 1889-90 for the promotion of Uni- 
 versity and School Extension. . . . One of the 
 most gratifying recent expcrimenta in Unlveralty 
 Extension in America has been In the city of 
 Philadelphia under the auspices of the American 
 Society for the Extension of University Tiach- 
 lug. \t various local centres Mr, Hlihanl 0. 
 Moulton, one of the most experienced lecturer* 
 from Cambridge. England, lectured for ten week* 
 in the winter and spring of 1891 to large and en- 
 thusiastic audiences. All the essential features 
 of English Unlveralty Extension were method- 
 ically and p<T»i(iiently carried out. . . . The 
 American Held for Unlveralty Extension is too 
 vast for the missionary labora of any one society 
 or organization. . . . The most slKnificant sign 
 of the times with reganl to Unlverslly Extension 
 In America Is the recent appropriation of the sum 
 of ♦10,(KH) for this very oiiject by the New York 
 legislature. The money Is to be extx'nded under 
 the (llri'itlon of the Itegents of the Uuivenlty of 
 the State of New York. . . . The intention of 
 the New York act is •imply to provide the neces- 
 sary means for organlilng a State system of 
 Vnivcniily Kxt«'n»ii>n , . . and to render such 
 gi'iieral asslsUnce and co-operation aa localitie* 
 may require."— H. B. Adams, L'nirfrnty Bllen- 
 <i'"n in Anurita (fhnim, July. 1891). — On the 
 <i|>enlng. in 1899. of the Chicago Unlveralty, 
 munincently endowed bv Mr Johg T> Rocke- 
 (I'lliT, of Cleveland. Uufverslty Extension wae 
 matte one of the three grand dlvlilau of III 
 orfaniiation. 
 
 .1 i I 
 
 ill.! 
 
 776 
 
EDWARD. 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 EDWARD, King of PartnEal. A. D. 1433- 
 1438. . . . Edward, called the Confeiaor, King 
 
 of England, A. I>. im3-1U«.'> Edward, 
 
 called the Elder, King of Weiiex, A. I>. (M)l- 
 
 ffirt Edward, called the MartTr, King of 
 
 Weisex, A. U. 97r> Edward I., King of 
 
 England, A. I). r,>74-l:«i: Edward II., 
 
 King of England, A. I). 1307-1327 Edward 
 
 III., King of England, A. D. i:B7-1377 
 
 Edward IV., King of England (firit king of 
 
 the House of York), A. D. Uai-14(<y 
 
 Edward V , titular King of En 'and, A. I>. 
 HM3 (from April 9, when hisfuthcr. Etlwunl IV.. 
 iliiil, until Junt' 22. when he is beliovi'il to h:ivi' 
 bi'iMi munlori'it in the Tower bv eommiinil of his 
 
 unele. the iiiurper. Hielianl til.) Edward 
 
 VI., King of England, A. I). l.-)47-l.V.:i. 
 
 EDWARD, Fort: A. D. 1755.— Built by 
 the New England troopi. See C.4N.\n.v : A. 1). 
 1730 (Seitembeb). 
 
 A. D. 1777.— Abandoned to the British. 
 See Cnitkd States of Am.; A. D. 1777 (.It i.v— 
 October). 
 
 * 
 
 EDWIG, King of Wessez, A. D. 9.'>r>-9.'i7. 
 
 EDWIN, Kingof Northumbria, A.D.617-«:«I. 
 
 EGESTA. See Stuaci-se, B. C. 415-113 ; 
 and Sirii.T : B. C. 409-4(15. 
 
 EGIBI AND COMPANY. See Monet and 
 
 BaSKINII : ANflE.NT, 
 
 EGINA.-EGINETANS. See .«.;ina. 
 
 EGMONT, Count, and the struggle in the 
 Netherlands. See NEniERLAN'OS : A. I). I.'i<t2~ 
 1.5«tl. Rn.l 1.5li«-l,568. 
 
 EGNATIAN WAY, The.— A Roman roa.l 
 eonstriicted from Apollonia on the Aiirintic m 
 the shores of the Hellespont; Hniilly larricd |,> 
 Hvznntiuin. 
 
 °EGRA: A. D. 1647 —Siege and capture by 
 the Swedes. See Germany : A. I). l«4ti-l«4M. 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 Its Names. — " Eir.rpt is dcsiffnated in the oM 
 inscriptions, us well us in the books of the liitir 
 Christian Ei;ypti;ins. by a wonl which siitnities 
 the blaik lainl.' lui'l w'liidi is renil In the Eiryp 
 tian lanKUage Keni. or Kami.* The ancients had 
 early remarl«Hl that the enltivable • lami of 
 E!.'v"p' "'"* '"*'■'"!?"'"'"''' ''*' i's "lark anil almost 
 blaik colour. . . . The ni'[>:htMmring reffion of 
 the Arabian ilesiMt bore the name of Tesher, or 
 tlie reil land. . . . The E;;yptians dcsiirnated 
 thcmsilves simply as the people of the black 
 land,' and . . . the inscriptions, so far as we 
 krb>w, have hamied down to us no other appcl 
 lutiiin . . . .V re.'d eniiima is proposed to ns in 
 the dirivalion and meaning of the enrious proper 
 name by whii h the foreian peoples of .Vsia, 
 each in its own dialid. wire acciistoimil m 
 desiijnate Eirypt. The llelinws iravc> the land 
 the name of Mi.rr:iini ; llir .V'^syrians .Mu/.nr ; the 
 Persians. .Mudraya. We may fnl assiirr 1 that 
 at the basi» of all Wir-o- il. sicrnti.m^ ilnri' lli-s an 
 oriiiinal form which ron'.i'^ted of the three !ftt<-rs 
 SI-/-r. all explanations of whii li have iMin us 
 yel unsiiceessfnl, .Mthon>:li I intend hereafter 
 to consider more partleiil.irly the derivation of 
 this pn/zlini; name, whiih is still preserved 
 Ht the present day in the .Vrahic appellatioi 
 Slisr. I will heri' premise the n'mark that this 
 name was ori^rinally applied only to a certain 
 (letinite part of Kirypt, in the ea«l of the l>elta. 
 which, according' to the monuments, wascovcn'd 
 and di fendisl by m;niv '/or,' or fortresses, and 
 wa- hence calliil in l^ivplian .Ma/or (that is, 
 forlitiisli "- II. Hrmf«h Ibv, //i«/. i;fh:;illl>l "n 
 ih r Ih, I'li.ininli: rl, ■>. — ■■ (lruj>uh explains \\ir 
 name Etfvpl by ' ha ka ptali,' i e 'the preclint 
 of I'lab ' .\s I'l lb was li«irc r-peiiallv the vikI 
 of ,Miinplil'<, iIiIh nanu' wnuld have come from 
 Memphis"— M Huneker, IH^f "f Snt;,i<iiiii. U. 
 I. rh. 1, nnt,. Tie- l:e.t use of Kt ni dii-<l out 
 In till' form ("heini in Coptic, the di «(i'ndant of 
 the classical lanL.'uai:e. wliicht<'a''<sl to !»■ spoken 
 a leii'iiry au'o. It siirvlvi s ainouL' us in the 
 terms "ihemi.strv ' ami ahhemv,' wiinees 
 !!i.;.ii;ht!^-. !>r.i-.f f■1gyp!!^n origin '—» H |':«i!r, 
 I'ltim "f h^jniit. ill! 
 
 Its Historical Antiquity.— Tlie lists of Kirv p 
 tian kiuL'swldch have bei'n found »gTvc In pri' 
 
 • A'imif in th. lilitien i^f IWil. "J 
 
 senting the name of Mena or Menes as that of 
 the Hrst I'haraob of Eirypt. and as such he i» 
 unhisitatinu'ly acceptisl, although no cohiimi 
 pornrv monumental record of the fact has mi 
 Isen cliscovered. 'As to the era . . . when the 
 rtrst riiaraoh mounted the throne, the (iernian 
 Efryptoloffcrs have attempted to lix it at the fn| 
 towinc: ejwK'hs; IJcH'ckh. H. (.'. 5Tu2 ; I'nL'rr. 
 ."illi;) ; Urupsch. 44.'V> ; Lnntli. 41.'>7 ; l,cp<iu«, 
 Itstej; Hiuisen. HH'.'M, The dilTerencc bitwun 
 the two extreme points of the scries is aina/lri;;Iy 
 trreat. for its nundier of years amounts to 110 I. s, 
 than ".J'C!!. . . . The calculations in iinestioii:iie 
 Isisisl on the extracts already often mi ntium il 
 from a work bv the Evyptian priest Manelhi.Mii 
 the history i>( Efiypt," That learned man li:. I 
 then at hiseonunanil IheaimaNof his i ounin s 
 hiitory. which were prescrvi'd in the tinipl. ■<, 
 and from them, the Isst and most accurate 
 siiuicc. hi' derivisl the materials for his work, 
 mnipi'MHl in the (Jreek lancuap', on tin hi~i"ry 
 of the aiH'lent Eiiyptian Dvuastiev Hi.; tiM.,|<, 
 which is now li>st, containiil a p'ln ral review '<i 
 the kinps of the land, divided into Thirt\ l>y 
 ns'-ties. arranired in the onler of Ihcir ii:une«. 
 Willi the lenirllis of their n'ieiw, and the Inial 
 duration of each dynasty Tliouirh ibis iiiv.ili 
 able work wa« little known and certainly but 
 little rcL'ariled by the historians of llie nlii 1 la—i 
 cal a.'e. lartje extracts were made from it by 
 «ome of the ccclcslastlc.d writers. In pr.ses^ .,f 
 line the copyists, cither bv error or ilesiL'nully. 
 corrupted the names ami tfie numbers, and tliii< 
 weonlv po«se>« at llie present day the ruiii" in 
 stead of thccoinplete bnildiiu.' The truth .'f tic 
 oriu'inal and the authenticity of it» miiirce* Wire 
 tlr^l |irovcil by the di cipbetinir of the Ki;\pt 
 ian writings. ' And lhu< tlie Mancthonlaii li^t 
 served, and still serves, as a iruide for a^wiLoiitii: 
 to the royal iiamci read on the nionnnienW tin ir 
 places ill the |)vna«ti.« "--II HruL—cli lte\ , 
 
 lli'l -f h'f/l/lil ■lllihr Ihr /Vl.ini../).. i-h I - See, 
 
 also. M\NK'fiio. I.i^; OF — Hriii.-«<h Hevdate^tlii 
 Hrst twelve dvnasties as follows: The Kirvt 
 !>v:-.r.5!r of thbiis H (' !4«« !!'"!- The 
 St'^md'; of I'hlnis : 41*1 4(Kin — The ThinI ; of 
 Memphis :«tfin-H7fl« — The Poiirtb . of M. -n 
 phis; 37:t:MI»«li>. — The Fifth, of Elephantine 
 
 6 
 
EGYPT. 
 
 The Earif 
 Dynaltia. 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 B566-3333. —The Sixth ; of Memphis : 8300-3066. 
 —The Seventh to the Eleventh (a confused and 
 obscure period) ; 3033-2300. — The Twelfth ■ of 
 Thebes: 2466-2266. —H. Brugsch-Bey. lli$t. of 
 Egypt under the PharaoJu, app. A.—K later 
 reckoning from later discoveries of data, i» 
 given by tho explorer of Egyptian aniictuities, 
 Mr. Petrie. in the following: "We . . . have as 
 a starting-point for our backward reckoning the 
 accession of the XVIIIth dynasty about 1587 
 B. C. From this we can reckon in the dynastic 
 data given by Mimetho ; following this account 
 rather than the totals of reigns, as he appears to 
 have omitted periods when dynasties were con- 
 temporary, as in the 43 years for tlic Xlth after 
 the close of the Xth. Thus, from the above 
 startiug-point of l.MT B. C, we reach the fol- 
 lowing results, solely by using material which 
 has been discussed and settled in this history 
 on its own merits alone, and without any ulterior 
 reckoning in total periods. 
 
 B. C. 
 4777 
 4.5U 
 4212 
 3H98 
 372! 
 3.-)03 
 31)32 
 32.V2 
 31116 
 »MI6 
 2S2I 
 2778 
 
 ynasty I. ... 
 
 Ve»rs. 
 .... 26;} 
 
 
 302 
 
 • III 
 
 .... 214 
 
 " IV 
 
 277 
 
 " V 
 
 .... 218 
 
 •• VI 
 
 .... 181 (T. P ) 
 
 ■• VII 
 
 ... 70 
 
 ■' VIII 
 
 " IX 
 
 .... 146 
 
 .... 100 
 
 " X 
 
 " XI 
 
 XII. . 
 
 .... 18.1 
 .... 43 
 
 313 (T P ) 
 
 " XIII. . . . 
 
 . . 453 
 
 " XIV 
 
 • XVI 
 
 •• XVII 
 
 '• XVIII 
 
 184 
 
 190 
 
 1.51 
 
 .... 260 
 
 •' XIX 
 
 
 IfiJS 
 
 ir:t8 
 
 ... In the present rough state of the astronom- 
 ical data, and the doubts as to the MS, authori- 
 tii's. we have ri'a<li((l (|iiite as closi' an .(luivii 
 leiice as we may hop*' li>r: niid at least there is 
 <iiough to show us that we may trust to the 
 nearest century with fair grouiiils of belief 
 Thesi' dates, then, are what I have provisionally 
 uilopted in this history ; and thoucli tlnv itr'i- 
 stati'd to the nearest'vear. for the sikc of in 
 tirrompiirison. it must always be r< .nenilHrcsl 
 lliiit they only profrs^ to tfo within a rinturv 
 
 l!i II .irlier parls of the siale.' — \V M. Fliii 
 
 (lers Pi'trie, .1 lli>lnru nf K'/tfjil from the hMiHft 
 Tn„r,t„thi- Willi Ih/mitly. ■■h. 11. 
 
 Origin of the ancient people. -'The F.irvp 
 lians, ti>i;ethiT with some other nations, form.' as 
 it would seem, a tliiid hraneli of that |llie Can- 
 casianl raie. iiiunely, llif family ealUsI I'lisliilc. 
 which is distinirulsiii'd by special eliararters from 
 the IVlasgiau ami thi' (Semitic families . 
 The Kgyptimi liiiii;uai:i' . . . sliows in no way 
 ativ tmie of a deriv.iiion and di'scmt from the 
 .\meaii faiuilies of ^peceh l>ii i||,' vonlrarv. 
 till' iirimltive riMits and the essential .Irmi iils iif 
 thi' Kiryptian irranimar point to sui h an iniim.itr 
 ciiniuTtion with the Indo (iermanic and s.niiiir 
 •mtruagis that it is almost impossible to mistake 
 the close relations which formerly prevalleil be 
 tw.--h -Jif Ku-ypMa:::^ ."in: :iir mrr^ r.iili ii indn 
 (li'rmanlo anil Semi tla'*—H. BmcschHi v, tli't. 
 »f h^miil iimhr till I'liannilm. M 1 — It has 
 keen mainlainrd by it)me that the immigration 
 
 777 
 
 was from the south, the Egyptians having been 
 a colony from Ethiopia which gradually de- 
 sc nded the Nile and established itself in the 
 middle and lower portions of the valley. But 
 modern research has shown quite unmistakably 
 that the movement of the Egyptians was in the 
 opposite directiofi. . . . We must look, then, 
 rather to Syria or Arabia than to Ethiopia as the 
 cradle of the Egyptian nation."— O. Rawlinson, 
 Hint, of Ancient Egypt, rh. 3.—" So far as our 
 knowletlge reaches, the northern edge of Africa, 
 like the valley of the Nile as far as the marshes 
 at the foot of the Abyssinian hills, was inhabited 
 by nations who in colour, language, and customs 
 were sharply distinguished from the negro. 
 These nations belonged to the whites : their lan- 
 guages were most closclv allied to the Semitic. 
 From this, and from their physical peculiarities, 
 the conclusion has been drawn that these nations 
 at some time migrated from Asia to the soil of 
 Africa. They formed a vast family, whose dia- 
 lects still continue in the language of tlie Ber- 
 bers. Assisted by the favourable conditions of 
 their land, the tril)e which settled on the Lower 
 Nile quickly left their kinsmen far behind. In 
 deed the latter hardly rose above a pastoral life. 
 The descendants of tliese old inhabitants of the 
 valley of the Nile, in spite of the numerous 
 layers which the course of centuries has subse- 
 iiuently laid upon the soil of the land, .still form 
 the larger part of the populaticm of Egvpt. an<l 
 the ancient language is pn^served in the dialect 
 of the Copts."— M. Duncker, //iV. of Aiitiijuily, 
 Ilk. 1. ch. 1. 
 
 The Old Empire and the Middle Empire.— 
 "The ilireet descendants of Menes [or .Mriia] 
 form the First Dynasty, wliiih. areording to 
 Manetlio, reigned 2.Vi years. No n«)iuunirit eon- 
 teinponiry with these princes has come down to 
 us. . . . The Sirond Dynasty, to which Manitho 
 assigns nine kings, lasted 302 years. It was also 
 originally from This [or Thinis]. and probably 
 related to the First. . . . When this family had 
 become extinct, a Dynasty, oriijinallv from 
 Memphis, seiiwl the throne', "forming the" Thiid, 
 atid to it a duration of 2H years is attribiitefl. 
 . . . With the Fourth Dynasty. .Miiflpliite like 
 the Third, and which reigned ^^4 yiars, history 
 becomes clearer and monuments more niinuTous. 
 This was the ugi' of the three (iii'al Pyramids, 
 built by the three kinirs, Khiifu (the ciieops of 
 Herodotusi, Sliafra il'liefreiil, and .Mi'tikani (My- 
 ■■eriniis). . . . Tin Kiftli Dyna-ty eanie origi- 
 nally from Klephanliiie. at tlie soutliern exlr.in- 
 ity of I "pper Kcypt. and lliere po"ilily the kings 
 generally reside.'l, Ihouirh at the same time Mem- 
 phis was not diprived of its importaiH'e. . . . 
 On he death of the last kinir of the Fifth Dv- 
 nasty, a lU'w family, of Menipliiticorlgin aicoril- 
 iiiL' to Manetlio, came li- the throne, . . I'riiiu- 
 tivi'art atiainid its hiirhist point under the Sixth 
 Dynasty. . . . Hut, from the time tif the eivil 
 ioinmotii>ns In whiih Neit aker jilie NltixTiB of 
 IIen»|otu' ivrished. E,irypti:ui iivi!i.!ation under- 
 went a suiMen and unaccountable e(l||i,|. Fmm 
 the end of the Sixth Dynasty to the eomnience- 
 mentof the Klevenlh, .>(nmtlIo reckons 436 years, 
 and for this whole perl.xl the monuments are ab- 
 lobitely silent, Eirypt wm* then tolmvedisap 
 pi.irrd from tli. I.ilik of nations; and «Ii(ii ihis 
 long slumlx'r eiidi'd, civilization commineed a 
 new career, entirely iiidepi>ndent of the past 
 
 . Thus end* ttist peritxl of nineteen centuries. 
 
I 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 1%M Sktplkerd f f il0f . 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 m'- 
 
 whtch modern acholan know u the Old Empire. 
 . . . Thebes did not exiit In the days of the 
 
 Slory of the Old Empire. The holy city of 
 .men seems to have twen founded during the 
 period of anarchy and obscurity, succeeding, as 
 we have said, to the Sixth Dynasty. Here was 
 the birthplace of ttiat renewed civiUzation, that 
 new monarchy, we are accustomed to call the 
 Middle Empire, the middle age in fact of ancient 
 Egypt — a middle ugc anttrior to the earliest 
 ages of all other history. From Thebes came 
 the six kings of the Eleventh Dynasty. . . . We 
 again quote the excellent remarks of H. Mariette : 
 'When, with the Eleventh Dynasty, we see 
 Egypt awake from her long slumber, all old 
 traditions appear to be forgotten; the proper 
 names used in ancient families, the titles of func- 
 tionaries, the style of writing, and even the 
 religion — all sctm new. This, Elephantine, and 
 Memphis, are no longer the favourite capitals. 
 Thebes for the first time becomes the seat of 
 sovereign power. Egypt, moreover, has lost a 
 considerable portion of her territory, and the 
 authority of her legitimate kings liamly extends 
 beyond the limited district of the Thebaid. The 
 ■tiidy of the monuments confirms these general 
 views; they are rude, primitive, sometimes 
 nmrse ; and when we look at them we may well 
 believe that Egypt, under the Eleventh Dynasty, 
 again passed through a perio<i of infancy, as she 
 had already done under the Third Dynasty. ' A 
 dynasty probably relate<l to, and originally from 
 the same place as these first Theban princes suc- 
 ceeded them. . . . This Twelfth Dyna.ity reigned 
 for 213 years, and its epoch was one of pros- 
 perity, of [teacc at home and glorious acbicve- 
 menti abn>ad. . . . Although the history of the 
 Twelfth Dynasty is clear and well known, iUus- 
 trattil by numerous monuments, there is, never- 
 theless, no period in the annals of Egypt more 
 obscure than the one closing with the Thirteenth 
 Dynasty. It is one long series of revolutions, 
 troubles, rnd internal disseneions, closed by a 
 terrible camstrophe, the greatest and most last- 
 ing recordetl in Egyptian history, which a second 
 time interrupted the inarch of rivilization on the 
 banks of ttie Nile, and for a while struck Egypt 
 from the list of nations." — F. Lenormunt and fe. 
 Clievallier, Manual of Anrient Ilint. oftlte Hut, 
 bk. 8, eh. 1-8. 
 
 .\i.so IN: C. C. J. Bunsen, Egypt'i Phut in 
 I'liiiYrml Hint., t. 2. — See, also, Memphis, and 
 
 TlIKUES, EOVTT. 
 
 The Hjrkioi, or Shepherd-Kinn.— Accord- 
 ing to the Mauethonian account whicii the Jewish 
 historian Joaephus bus pn'served to us by tran- 
 scribing it, the Egyptian Netherlands were at a 
 certain time overspread by a wild and rough 
 people, which came from the countries of the 
 east, overcame the native kings who dwelt there, 
 and took possession of the whole country, with- 
 out finding any great opposition on the part of 
 the Egypli.'ins. They were called llyksos, which 
 Joaepli'ii.s Interpreted as meaning Shepherd-kings. 
 "Ilyk," he explained, meant King, 'u the holy 
 language, and "sos," in the dialect of the people, 
 signified Shepherd. But Dr. Brugsch ideutifie.H 
 "sos" with ttie name "Shasu," which the old 
 Egyptians gave to the Bedouins, whose yanie 
 became equivalent to Shepherds. Ilenee Dr. 
 Brugsch inclines to the ancient opinion transmit te<l 
 by Jusephus, that tlie llyksos were Arabs or Be<l- 
 tulns — the Shasu of the Egyptian records, who 
 
 t I 
 
 hung on the northeastern frontier of Egypt from 
 the most ancient timet and were always pressing 
 into the country, at every opportunity. But 
 many objections against thu view are raised and 
 the different theories advanced to account for the 
 Hyksos are quite numerous. Canon Rawlinson 
 says: " The Egyptians of the time of Herodotus 
 seem to have considered that they were Philis- 
 tines. Modems have regarded them as Canaan- 
 ites, Syrians, Hittites. It is an avoidance ratlier 
 than a solution of the difficulty to say that they 
 were ' a collection of all tlie nomad hordes of 
 Arabia and Syria ' [Lenormant], since there must 
 have been a directing hand. ... On the whole, 
 therefore, we lean to the belief that the so-called 
 Hyksos or Shepherds were Hittites." — G. Kaw- 
 linson, HM. of Antient K^ypt. eh. 19.—" It is 
 maintained on good authority that the Hyksos, 
 or Shepherd-Kings, had secured possession of the 
 eastern frontier of Lower Egypt immediately 
 after the close of the Twelftli Dvnasty ; that at 
 this time the Thirteenth and the Fourte<mtli Dy- 
 nasties ruleil contemporaneously, the former in 
 Upper, the latter in Lower Egypt ; one was tliu 
 iPTltimate, the other the illegitimate line; but 
 authors are not in accord as to their right of 
 priority. It is supposed that, while Egypt 
 claimed the Thirteenth Dynasty as her own, 
 the Hyksos usurped the mastery over the Four- 
 teenth Dynasty, and governed through the agency 
 of its kings, treating them meanwhile as viw- 
 sal chiefs. These local kings had cities fnmi 
 which they were unable to escape, and were de- 
 prived of an army of defence. Such was the 
 state of the country for 184 years, when the 
 Fourteenth Dynasty died out, and when the 
 Fifteenth Dynasty, constituted of six successive 
 Hyksos kings, took the reins of government 'nto 
 their own hands. Lieblein. whose views we are 
 now endeavouring to express, assigns as the dtite 
 of the invasion of the llyksos 2108 years H. t'. 
 ... It is not improbable that the well-known 
 journey of Abraham to Egypt was made during 
 the early period of the reif ' the Shepliinl- 
 Klngs; whilst the visit of Jot, irred near 
 
 the close of their power." — E. Wilsou. The Enypt 
 of the Piut, eh. 5. — " ' Tba Shepherds pussensed 
 themselvesof Egypt by violence,' writes Mariette- 
 Bey, 'but the civilization which they Imnudi- 
 atcly adopted on their conquest was rather 
 Egyptian than Asiatic, and the discoveries of 
 Avaris (San) prove that they did not even banish 
 from their temples the go<isof the ancient Egyp- 
 tian Pantheon. In fact the first shepherd-king, 
 Solatis himself, employed an Egyptian artist to 
 inscribe . . . his title on the stJitue of a former 
 legitimate Pharaoh. ' They did not disturb the 
 civilization more than the Persians or the (1 reeks, 
 but simply accepted the higher one they h:ul 
 e<mquere(l' So our revered scholur Dr. Binh 
 h»s summed up the matter; and Prof. Maspini 
 has very hapiiilv descrilxil it thus; 'The popu- 
 lar hatred loaded them with Ignominious epitliets, 
 and treated them as accursed, plague strirken, 
 leprous. Yet they allowed tiiemwlves very 
 quickly to I>e domesticAted. . . . Once admitted 
 to the school of Egypt, the barbarians progressed 
 (julek'y in the eivilizeil life. The Pharaonic 
 court reappeared around these shepherd-kinixs, 
 with all Ita pomp and all its following; of func- 
 tionaries great and small. The royal style »nd 
 title of Cheops and the Amenemhai were fitted 
 to the outlandish names of Jannes and ApapL 
 
 8 
 
EGYPT. 
 
 TUir^BKmpin. EGYPT, B. C. 170O-1400. 
 
 The EgyptUn religion, without being offlcUlly 
 adopted, was tolerated, and the reli^on of the 
 Canaanltea underwent lome modiacations to avoid 
 hurting beyond measure the Busceptibility of the 
 wonhippers of Osiris.' "— H. G. Tomklns. «wdiM 
 <m M« Tifiut of Abraham, eh. 8. — In a late Italian 
 work ("Gil HyksOs ") b> Dr. C. A. de Cara, ' • he 
 puU together all that la ascertained in regard to 
 them [the Hyksos]. criticises the theories that 
 have been propounded on their behalf, and sug- 
 gesU a theory of his own. Nothing that has 
 been published on the subject seems to have es- 
 raped his notice. ... His own view is that the 
 HyksAs represented a confederacy of various 
 Asiatic tribes, under the leadership of the north- 
 ern Syrians. That their ruling class came from 
 this part of the world seems to me clear from the 
 name of their supreme god Sutekh, who occupied 
 among them the position of the Semitic Baal "— 
 A. tt Sayce, TheHykmi»(Aeademy, * ' ao, 1890). 
 — "Historical research concerning i' history of 
 the Hyksos may he summed up as follows :— I A 
 certahi number of non-Egyptian kings of foreign 
 origin, belonging to the nation of the Mcntl, ruled 
 ;?' ?i,'°''* **'"* '° *''* «astem portion of the Delta. 
 II. These chose as their capitals the cities of 
 Zoan and Avaris, and provided them with strong 
 fortifications. III. They adopted not only the 
 manners and cu.>toma of the Egyptians, but also 
 their official language and writing, and the order 
 nr^^^l ™"" *** arranged on Egyptian models. 
 IV. They were mtrons of art, and Egyptian 
 artists erecte«l, after the a^ '^ient models, monu- 
 ments in honour of these usurpers, in whoso 
 sUtuea they were obliged to reproduce tho Hyk- 
 sos physiognomy, the peculiar arrangement of the 
 beard and bead -dress, as well as other variations 
 of their costume. V. They honored Sutekh, 
 the son of Nut, as the supreme god of their newly 
 acquired country, with the surname Nub 'the 
 goldea' He was the origin of all that is evil 
 and perverse in the visible and invisible world 
 the opponent of good and the enemy of light' 
 In the cities of Zoan and Aviris, splendid temples 
 were constructed in honour of this god, and other 
 monumenu raised, especially Sphinxes, carved 
 out of stone from Syene. VI. In all probability 
 one of them was the founder of a new era, which 
 most likely began with the first year of his reign 
 Down to the time of the second Ramses, four 
 hundred years had elapsed of this reckoning 
 which was acknowledged even by the Egyptians. 
 VII. The Egyptians were indebted to their con- 
 tact with them for much useful knowledge. In 
 particular their artistic views were expanded ami 
 new forms and shapes, notably that of the winged 
 sphinx, were introduced, the Semitic origin of 
 which is obvious at a glance. . . . The inscrip- 
 tiouson the monumenta designate that foreign 
 people who once ruled in Egypt b/ the name of 
 Men or Meuti. On the walls of the temple of 
 tdfQ it is stated that ' the inhabitants of the land 
 of Asher are called Menti.'. . . In the different 
 languages, ... and in the different periods of 
 history the following names are synonymous: 
 oy™. Rutennu of the East, Asher, aiiil Menti. "— 
 "Since, on the basis of the most recent ami bi'st in- 
 vestigations in the province of ancient Egyptian 
 chronology, we reckon the year 1350 B. C. aa u 
 mean computation for the reien of Ramiies the 
 reign of the Hyksos kmg. Nub"; and probably Its 
 beginning, falls in the year 1750 B C. , that is, 400 
 year* before Ramses 11. Although we are com- 
 
 pletely In the dark as to the place King Nub oc- 
 cupied in the succession of the kindred princes of 
 nis house, yet the number mentioned is important 
 as an approximate epoch for the stay of the foreign 
 fil^^M J?7P^ According to the statement In 
 the Bible, the Hebrews from the immigration of 
 Jacob into Egypt until the Exodus renwined 480 
 years in that land. Since the Exodus from Egypt 
 took place in the time of Meneptah II., the son 
 of KamsesII.- he Pharaoh of the oppression — 
 the year B. C. 1800 may be an approximate date. 
 
 JLT^'^1.'°'^>.*^y*»"-" "pressing the 
 total duration of the sojourn of the Hebrews in 
 Jigypt. ..e arrive at the year 1730 B. C. as the 
 approximate date for the immigration of Jacob 
 into tgypt, and for the time of the otHcial career 
 of J(«eph at the court of Pharaoh. In other 
 words, the time of Joseph (1730 B. C.) must have 
 .y^'i ? the period of the Hyksos domination, 
 ?ri".,'i'.*„ ?'8° °' "»« above-mentioned princi 
 Nub (1750 B. C)."-H. Bnigsch-Bey, Egypt "^ 
 \^t'^'^ («'.«<m<./189!, byM.'Br^ck), pp. 
 108-109, and 126— See Jkws: W CBiLDRra or 
 Israel in Eoypt. -^^imj" ur 
 
 fi'Y^ ™- *"■ •-"• ^- Mendel, Hist, of Egypt. 
 
 t£2"p°k^- »7«»-»40O.-The New Empire. 
 "^T u^?''*'^"*'' OynMtT.-'-The dominion 
 of the Hyksos by necessity gave rise to profound 
 interaal divisions, alike in the different princely 
 families and in the native population itself Fac- 
 tious iH^came rampant in various districts, and 
 reached the highest point in the hostile feeling of 
 the Inhabitante of Patoris or the South country 
 against the people of Patomlt or North country, 
 who were much mixed with foreign blood 
 iTom this condition of divided power and of 
 mutual jealousy the foreign rulers obtained their 
 advantage and their chief strength, until King 
 Aahmes ma»le himself supnmc."— H. Brugsch- 
 ^y.Effypt Hiiiirr the Pliarnnhn [eiUti„n of 1891 by 
 « .%'*''■"■*'•—■■ The duration of the rei^n of this 
 first Ph^oh of the New Empire was twenty-five 
 years He was succeeiknl l>y his son Amenholep 
 I. and the latter by his sou Tliothmes I. "The 
 reign of Thi>thme» I. . . . derives its chief dis- 
 tinction from the fact that, at this period of their 
 history, the Egyptians for the first time carried 
 their arms deep into Asia, overrunning Svria 
 and even invaiiing ilesopotamiu, or the tract 
 between the Tigris and the Euphrates. Hitherto 
 the furthest point reached in this direction had 
 been Shanihen in Southern Palestine. . . . Syria 
 was hitherto almost an undiscovered region to 
 li.e powerful people which nurturing iu strength 
 in the Nile valky. ha<l re'mained content with ita 
 own natural limits and scartsly grasped at any 
 coniiuesls. A time was now come when this 
 comparative iiuietudc and absence of ambition 
 were alniiit to ceasi-. Provoked by the attack 
 inaile upon her from the side of Asia, and smart- 
 ing from the wounds inflicted upon her pride 
 an<i prosperity by the Hyksos during the period 
 of their rule, Egypt now set herself to retaliate, 
 and for three centuries continued at intervals to 
 pour her armies Into the Eastern continent, and 
 to carry fire and swonl over the extensive and 
 ixipulous regions which lay between the Medi- 
 terninean and I he Zagros mountain range. There 
 Is some iiiw ertdinty as to the extent of hnr rnn- 
 questa; but no reasonable doubt can be enter- 
 t»ine<t that for a space of three hundred years 
 Egypt wu the most powerful and the most 
 
 779 
 
EGYPT, B. C. 1700-1400. 
 
 3V TeU Amamii 
 Tabkt: 
 
 EQYFT, B. C. 1500-1400. 
 
 aggrewive state that the wnrld contained, and 
 bem a dominion tliat lias as mucli riglit to be 
 called an ' Empire ' as tiie Assyrian, tlie Babylo- 
 nian 07 tlie Persian. While Babylonia, ruled by 
 Arab conquerors, declined in strength, and As- 
 syria proper was merely struggling into inde- 
 pendence, Egypt put forth her arm and grasped 
 the fairest regions of the earth's surface/' "The 
 immediate successor of Tliothmes I. was his son, 
 ■Thothmcs II., who reigned in association with a 
 sister of masculine cha.acter, queen Hatasu. 
 The strong-minded queen, moreover, prolonged 
 her reign after the death of this elder bnitlier, 
 until ft younger brother, ThothmcsIII. displaced 
 her. "file Third Tliothmes was the greatest of 
 Egyptian conquerors and kings. He carried his 
 arms beyond the Euphrates, winning a memo- 
 rable victory at Ji^jiddo ov.-thc confe<ierated 
 kings of the Syrian and Xlew.potamian coimtries. 
 He left to his son (Amenliotep II.) "n dominion 
 e.ttending about 1,100 miles from north to south, 
 and (in places) 450 miles from west to cist." He 
 was n great builder, likewise, and " has left the 
 imi)rcs3 of liis presence in Egvpt more widely 
 than almost any other of her kings, while at .he 
 same time he has supplied to the great capitals 
 of the mo<lem world their most striking; Egyp- 
 tian monuments. " The larger of the obelisks now 
 standing in Rome and Con.Htanlinople, as well as 
 those at London and Xew York were all of Ihtin 
 produced in the reign of this magnificent I'lia- 
 raoh. The two oiwlisks last named stood origin- 
 ally, and for fourteen centuries at the front of 
 the great temple of the sun, in Heliopolis. They 
 were removo<l by the lioman Emperor, Augus- 
 tus, R. C. 23, to Alexandria, where they took in 
 time the name of Cleopatra's Needles, — although 
 Cleopatra had no part in their long history. 
 After nineteen centuries more of rest, these 
 stningily lovctcd monuments were again dia- 
 turU'd. anil transported into lamls which their 
 builcliT knew not of. The later kings of the 
 Eighteenth Dynasty seem to have, none of them, 
 
 Finssessed the energy and chameter of Tliothmes 
 .II. The line enderi aliout 14(KI B. C. with llo- 
 remheb. wlui left no heirs. — G. Ifciwlinstm. JJiat. 
 nf Anritnt Kimpt, ch. •,'0. 
 
 Al.so IX: il. liruiisih 1!< y. Kiiyi<t niiilrr th» 
 I'/,iini<:liii, fh. i;t. — 11. 11. (iorringe, Kgyptian 
 Oik links. 
 
 About Bi C> I500*I400.— The Tell el-Amarna 
 Tablets.— Correspondence of the E^ptian 
 kings with Babylonia, Assyria, Armenia, Asia 
 Minor, Syria and Palestine.— "Tlii' disc I'viry 
 iiiiuli' in 1^^*» t»y '* ptiisiuii woman of Miilille 
 K:.'y]it Muiy be descrilK'd as the most important 
 (if 'ill roiit'ribulions to the early political history 
 iif \\ 1 stirii .Ksia. We have become pos.sessi'il of a 
 inrrespomli iic e. daliiiL' from the lifteentL .•ciitury 
 H. ("., wiiic li was r.'irricil on (luring thi' rciL'iis if 
 tlirie K/yptian kiiiL's. with the rul'Tsof Haiiylon. 
 .\ssyri:i, .\rminiM. Asia Aliiinr. Syria, and I'alis- 
 tiiu, during u piriod of irnat activity, when 
 revolutions \vlii( li alTnidl iliu wlioii' history of 
 the i-ast >lh.i,. lands uf the .Meilii. rraiuan wen; 
 in progress; juid we lind in tliesi* t;i'''e(s a con- 
 Ie!iip'<rary picture of tli<- eivilisatior the age. 
 . . . TlieTi 11 Aniarna tablets n•pre^ a lilera- 
 liiH' (m|iih1 in liiilli to alMiut half llie IVnialeiiih. 
 Mild concerned almost cxi Insivily with political 
 iill.iirs. They are day lablils, varying from two 
 Inehi's to a f()ot in leiiL'tli, with u few as large as 
 eighteen Inches, covensl with cuneiform writing 
 
 generally on both sides, and often on the edges 
 as well. The peasantry unearthed nearly the 
 complete collection, incfuding some 830 pieces in 
 all; and ezploren afterwards digging on the 
 site have added only a few additional fragments. 
 The greater numlx-r were bought for the Berlin 
 Museum, while eighty-two were acquired for 
 England, and the rest remain either in the Boulak 
 Museum at Cairo, , in a few instances, in the 
 hands of private collectors. . . . Tell Amama 
 (apparently ' the mound of the tumuli ') is an Im- 
 portant ruined site on the east bank of the Nile, 
 about a hundred and fifty miles in a straiglit line 
 south of Cairo. Its Egyptian name is said to have 
 been Khu-en-aten, 'Glory of the Hun-disk.'" — 
 The TeU Amarnn Tablett (Edinbtirgh Iter., July, 
 1893).—" The collection of Cuneiform TableU re- 
 cently found [1S87] at Tell elAmama in Upper 
 £gypt< consisted of about three hundred and 
 twenty documents, or portions of documents. 
 The British Museum possesses eighty-two . . . 
 the Berlin Museum has one hundred and sixty, 
 a large number lieing fragments ; the Gizeh Mu- 
 seum bos sixty ; and a few are in the hands of 
 private persons. ... In color the Tablets vary 
 from a light to a dark dust tint, and from a flesh- 
 color to dark brick-red. The nature of the clay 
 of which they are made sometimes indicates the 
 countries from which they come. The size of 
 the Tablets in the British Museum varies from 
 H\ inches x H in. to 2^ in. x \\\ in. ; the longest 
 text contains 9tt lines, the shortest 10. . . . The 
 gri'ater numlier arc rectangular, and a few are 
 oval ; and they dilTer in shape from any other 
 cuneiform documents known to u.s. . . . The 
 writing . . . resembles to a certain extent the 
 Nco- Babylonian, i. e., the simplification of the 
 writing of tlie first Babylonian Empire used com- 
 monly in Babylonia ami Assyria for alKiut seven 
 centuries II. C^. It possesses, however, eliaracter- 
 istles different from those of any other style of 
 cuneiform writing of any perhxl now kni.wn to 
 exist; and nearly every talilet contains forms of 
 characters wlilch have hitherto Iwen thought pe- 
 culiar to the Ninevite or Assyrian style of writing. 
 But, compared with the neat, careful hand ein- 
 ployeil in the offlcial (hwuments drawn up for the 
 kings of Assyria, It is somewhat coarse and >are- 
 less, and suggests the work of unskilled 8. , 'S. 
 t ):ie and the same hand, however, npiK'ar :■ '■ b- 
 Icts wliiili come from the same [lerson and *' .no 
 place. On some of the large tablets the V iig l.i 
 ls)l<l and free; on some of the small ones char- 
 aeters an> cunfusid and cramped, and ai groups 
 of strokes rather tlian wedges. Tlii' spelling 
 ... is oft<n cariless, and in some instances syl 
 tables have Ihcmi omitted. .\t present it is not 
 possible to say whithir the irnifiilar spelling is 
 due to the Ignorance of tlii> scribe or to dialectic 
 pecullurilles. . . . The Semitic illaliit in which 
 tliise lilti rs are written Is Assyrian, and is, in 
 some Important details, closely related to the 
 lleliri'W of \\\v I1M Testament. . . . 'I'lie diKii- 
 incuts wire nio-t probably written lietwcen the 
 years 15. ('. \'M) to 1 l.^iO. . . . They give an in 
 siL'lit into the imturi' of tlie |Militlcal nlallons 
 « liicli existed U'twecn the kings of Western Asi i 
 and the kings of Kgvpt. and prove that an Inipoi 
 \ lant traile existed lietween the two countries 
 ; from very early times. . . A large numjier of 
 ■ liic |ilv»<ill lalilct» ale Hil(lrei.s<<l to ' the ICuijIi.f 
 I Kgvpt,' either Ameiiophis HI. or Amenophis IV 
 j nearly all of them »-oii»i»t of n^ports of disasters 
 
 780 
 
EGYPT, B. C. 1500-1400. 
 
 Tlu Tell Amama 
 TabUtt. 
 
 EGYPT, B. C. 1500-1400. 
 
 to the Egyptian power and ofsuccegsf ul intrigues 
 against it, coupled by urgent entreaties for litlp, 
 pointing to a condition of distraction and wciik- 
 ness in Egypt. . . . The most graphic details of 
 the disorganized condition, and of the riv.il fac- 
 tions, of the EKVptiiin dependencies lying on the 
 coastline of Phoenicia and Northern Palestine, 
 are to lie gathered from a perusal of the dis- 
 patches of the governors of the cities of Byblos, 
 Beyrut and Tyre."— The Tell el- Amama Tablttt 
 in the Britiih Muteum, intrml. — " In the present 
 state of cuneiform research I believe it to be im- 
 possible to give a translation of the Tell el- 
 Amama te.rts which would entirely satisfy the 
 expert or genenU reader. No two scholars would 
 agree ns to any interpretation which might be 
 placed upon certain rare grammatical forms and 
 unknown words in the Babylonian text, and any 
 literal translation in a modem language wouli 
 not lie understood by the general re-ader on ac- 
 count of the involve*! style and endless repetition 
 of phrases common to at^mitic idiom and dialect. 
 About the general meaning of the contents of the 
 greater numlier of the letters there can lie no 
 doubt whatever, and it is there-fore possible to 
 make a summary of the contents of each letter, 
 which should, as a rule, satisfy the general reader, 
 and at t he same time form a guide to the l)eginncr 
 in cuneiform. Summaries of the contents of the 
 Tell elAmarna tablets in the British Museum 
 have been publisheil in 'TlicTellelAmama Tab- 
 lets in the British Museum, with autotype fac- 
 similes,' printed by orderof the Trustees, London, 
 ISiKJ, and it is hoped thi-t the transliteration, 
 given in the following pages may form a useful 
 supplement to that work. . . . No. 1. A Letter 
 from Egypt — Amenophis III. to Kallimma {•'.) 
 Bin, King of Karaduniyash, referring to Ids pro- 
 posed marriage with bukharti, the daughter of 
 Kallimma-Sin, and containing the draft of a com- 
 mereial treaty, and an allusion to the disap- 
 
 Ecarancc of certain chariots and horses. No. 2. 
 ctters from Bjiby Ionia — Burraburiyash, King 
 of Karaduniyash, to Amenophis IV., referring 
 to the friendship whicli had existe<l between their 
 resi)ective fathers, and the help whioh had been 
 rendered to the King of Egypt by Burralmrivash 
 himself; the receipt of two nuiiiahs of gold is 
 acknowledged and a iietiticm is made for more. 
 No. 3. Burraburiyash, King of Karaiiunlvash 
 to Amenophis IV., complaining timt the EL'vp- 
 tian messengers had visited his cuuntrv thrice 
 without bringing gifts, and that thev witldield 
 .sf)mc of the gold which bad been s<nt to lilm 
 from Egypt ; Burraburiyash announces the lies- 
 patch of a gift of lapis-iazuli for tlie Egyp 
 tian princess who was hisson's wife. . . . Nn.'llO. 
 Letter from Al>i-milki, governor of Tyre, to the 
 King of Egy|)l, reporting that he iK'lieves Zini- 
 rida will not Ih; al)je to stir up disalfretion in the 
 city of Sidon. although he has caused niucli hos- 
 tility against Tyre. lie asks for help to protect 
 the city, and for water to drink and wood iMimrn, 
 and he sends with his messenger Ilimiiki t've 
 talents of copper and other gifts (or the Kint' of 
 Egypt. He reports that the King of Danuna Is 
 deail and that his brother reigns in Ids stead ; oi.i' 
 half of the city of Ugarit lia.s iH-en destrov< a by 
 fire; the soldiers of the Khatti have ilijurted"; 
 Itagamipairi. sovemorof Kedesh. aiid A.-riri: ari- 
 Ughting against Namyawiza. If ti.e iving of 
 Egypt will but send a few troops, 'ill will be 
 well with Tyre . . . No. 43. L»-tter from the gov- 
 
 emor of a town in Syria to the King of Egypt, 
 reporting that the rebels have asserted their in-" 
 deiwndence; that Biridashwi has stirred up re- 
 bellion in the city of Inu-Amma: that its people 
 have captured chariots in the city of Ashtarti: 
 that the kings of the cities of Buzruna and Kha- 
 lunni have made a league with Biridashwi to 
 slay Namyawiza (who, having taken refuge in 
 Pamascus and being attacked by Arzawiya, de- 
 clared himsi'lf to i)e a vassal of Egypt); that 
 Arzawiya went to tlie citv of Gizza and after- 
 wards captured the city of Shaddu ; that Itak- 
 kama nivairerl the country of Gizza; and that 
 Arzawiya and Biridiishwi have wasted the couii- 
 try of Abitu. No. 44. Continuation (?)of a letter 
 to the King of Eirypt, report in e that, owins to 
 the hostilities of Abd-Ashirta, Khava. an official, 
 was unable to send ships U> tlie country of 
 Amurri. as, he had promised. The ships from 
 .Vrvail which the writer has in his charge, lack 
 their full complement of men for war service, 
 nn<i he urges the king to make u.se of the ships 
 ami crews wliieh he lias hml with him in Egypt 
 The writer of the letter also urges the King of 
 Egypt to appoint an Egyptian official over'the 
 naval affairs of Sidon. B»'yrut and Arvad, and to 
 seize AlKl-Asliirta and piit him under restraint 
 to prevent him obstructing the manning of the 
 ships of war . . . \o. .11^. Letter from the gov- 
 ernor of a district in Palestine (V) to the governors 
 of neigldHiiiring states in the land of Canaan, in- 
 forming tluni that he is al)Out to send his mc-s- 
 .senger Akiya on a mission to tlie King of Egypt, 
 and to place hinisi'lf and everv thing that lie has 
 at his disposal. Akiya will go to Egyjit by the 
 way of Canaan, and the writer of this letter" sug- 
 gests that any gifts they niav have to send to 
 Egyi)t should \k carried by hlni, for Akiva is a 
 thon lily trustworthy man."— C. Bezoi'd, Or.' 
 eii'- ii>li,ii,,iry ; Ikiur/ the tr,uu<lilrnit,il tiHof 
 the nirifiirm Iknixili-heii, pnl'iire. — Under the 
 title of "The .story of a 'Tell,'" Mr W. M. 
 Flinders Pilrie, the successful excavator and ex- 
 p!onr of Ejrvptian antiquities, cave a lecture in 
 Loudon, in .liine, ISOa, in wliicli he descrilK-d 
 the -nr.K, and the results of an excavation then 
 in progress under liis direction on the siipivisetl 
 site of LachLsh. at a point w here the maritime 
 plain of Phili.stiu rises to the nioiiiituins of .Fudiva, 
 on tlie route from p;gypt into Asia. The 
 ( hairman who IntrodTieedMr I'llric delined the 
 word "Tell" us follows: ".V Tell is a mound 
 of etirtli showing by tlie presence ol broken pot- 
 tery or worked stone that it is the site of a 
 niineil city orvilhiL'e. In England when a house 
 falls down or i>i pulled down the materiiils arc 
 usually worth the ixiniKe of removing for use 
 in some new luiililin:.'. But in Envpt common 
 houses have for thousands of years been built of 
 Mill dri«l bricks, in I'alesliiii' of rough rubble 
 walliii::, which, on falling. priKlueesriianv chips, 
 with thick Hat p«)fs of plaster. It is thiis often 
 less trouble to get new than to use old material, 
 the sites of towns grow in height, and depre's- 
 sions ari' tilled up," The mound excavated by 
 Mr. I'etrie is known as Tell el IIe>y. After he 
 left the wiirk it was carried on by Mr. Bliss, and 
 Mr I'etrie in his lecture says- 'The last news is 
 iliat .Mr liliss has found "the Ion'.' looked for 
 pri/i-, a euneifcrm talilit . Kr.-.m tiip rh.irar- 
 
 ter of the writiuif, which is the same as on tlie 
 tablets written iii Palestine in 14(X) B. C. to the 
 Egyptian king at Tel el Amarna, wehaveacloM 
 
 : 
 
 i: 
 
 rsi 
 
 ~il 
 
w^- 
 
 m: 
 
 ■OTPT, B. C. 15»0-1400. 
 
 Fknraohtwko 
 
 EGYPT, B. C. 1900-«70. 
 
 iii;': 
 
 •gTMment regarding the chronology of the toiv n. 
 nirtber, it menttons Zimrida ai a goremor, aii.l 
 thii same man appears aa governor of Lachisti 
 on the Ubleu found at Tel el Amama. We 
 bare thua at lait picked up the other end of th 
 broken chain of correspondence between Vulei- ■ 
 tine and Egypt, of whicli one part was »<) une.v 
 pectedly found in Egjpt a few years ago on thi | 
 tablets at Tel el Amama; and we may hope now | 
 to recover the Palestinian part of this intercourse , 
 and so establish the prelsraelite history of the i 
 land."— W. M. F. Petric, The Story of a" Tell" I 
 (Tht aty and tht Land, Uct. 8).— See, al«. , 
 PALasTimc. 1 
 
 Aiao ni: C. R. Conder, The Tell Aitwr-. , i 
 TabUtt, trarutcted. 
 
 About B. C. 1400-iaoo.— The first of th. 
 Ramesides.— The Pharaohs of the Op.-^r-- 
 sioo )uid the Exodus.— " Under the Xinetetr.'!, 
 Dynasty, which acquired the throne after ho 
 death of Har-em-Hebi lor Hor-em-beb] the 'or 
 tune of Egypt maintained to some extent '••-. 
 ascendancy ; but, though tlic reigns of some ai 
 like kings throw a bi-iglit light on this Pi-och, j 
 shade of approaching trouble already dai'tus 
 the horizon. " Kamses I. and his sun, or S' -i 
 law, 8ctl I., were involved In troublcsomi' ■•..i. - 
 with the rising power of the Hittites, in Syrie 
 and with the Shasu of the Arabian descn. 9«' 
 was alio at war with the Libyans, who thi ; 
 made their first appearanc; in E^-yptian history. 
 His son Ramses II.. tJii; Sesostrit' of the Greeks, 
 who reigned for siity seven years, in the four 
 teenth century B. C . has always been the riosi 
 famous of the Egyptian kings, and, oy niod.'m 
 discovery, ha? been made the most intcrpstini; uf 
 them to the ( liristiau world. He was a busy 
 and boastful warrior, who accomplished no im- 
 portant conquests; Init "among the Pharaohs 
 he Is the builder ' par excellence. ' It is almost 
 impossilile to flud in Egypt a ruin or an ancient 
 mound, without reading'his name.". . . It was 
 to these w rks, probalily, that the Urftilitcs 
 then in Egvpt were fori*-!! to contribute tlieir 
 labor; for the Pharaoh of the oppn-ssion is 
 Identified, by mcrst scholars of the present day, 
 with this building and boasting Sesostris.— F. 
 Lenormant and E. Chevallier, Manual vf the 
 Ancient Hut. of tU Ea»t, bk. 3. eh. 3.— "The 
 extreme length of the reign of Ramses was. as 
 hi other histories, the cause of subsequent weak- 
 nest and disaster. His successor was an aged 
 son, Menptah, who had to meet tlie diflicuUies 
 wliich were easily overcome by the youtli of 
 his energetic father. The Libyans and their 
 maritime allies broke the long tranquillity of 
 Egypt by a formidable invasion and temporary 
 conquest of the north-west. The power of the 
 monarchy was thus shaken, and the old king 
 was not tlie leader to restore it. His obscure 
 reign was followed by others even obscurer, and 
 the Nineteenth Dynasty ended in complete an- 
 archy, which rc^acned iu height when a Syrian 
 chic . in what manner we know not, gained the 
 rule of the whole country It is to the reign of 
 Hcnptali that Egyptian 'tradition assigned the 
 Exoilua, and modem rvsearch has come to a 
 
 general agreement th;.t this is its true place In 
 Igyptian history, . . . Unfortunately we do not 
 know the duration of the npprM«lnn of the Israel- 
 ites, nor the condition of Lower Egypt during 
 the Eighteenth Dynasty, which, according to 
 the hypothesis here adopted, corresponds to a 
 
 great part of the Hebrew aojoum It is, how- 
 -ver, dear from the Bible that the oppresdoD 
 did not begin till after the period of Joseph's 
 ccntemporarlss, and had lasted eighty years be- 
 ' -e the Exodua It seems abnost certain that 
 • ills was the actual besinning of the oppression, 
 for it Is very improbable that two separate 
 Pliaraohs are intended by the ' new king which 
 kr.'-w not Joseph ' and the builder of Rameses, 
 or ii other words, Ramses 11., and the time 
 U,'-. 'he accession of Ramses II. to the end of 
 ;>. : ■, ah's reign can have little exceeded the 
 ti^i.- years of Scripture between the birth of 
 Ilbecl md the Exodus. ... If the adjustment 
 "[ let- ew and Egyptian history for the oppres- 
 •. iL as stated above, be accepted, Ramses II. 
 J ( bably the first, ani certainly tlie great 
 
 pprcv jr. His character suits this theory ; he 
 WF 1 SL xmdouhted autocrat who . . . covered 
 ^.- - 1 1 A Lower Nubia with vast structures that 
 ( 0' . . ■ !y have been produced by slave-labor on 
 
 ui' iv.rr rt scale "— K. S. Poole, Ancient Egypt 
 ;,; ■.„^; r, - . . r ~»). 
 
 A.'.,.o V "■ !• ■ •■■^I; ^SyP* tender the 
 
 l\t.iriu-!t •'i It — tl. 0. Tomkins, Life ami 
 
 Tin.t I •■ ' /jA.— See, also: Jbws. Thb Chil 
 
 •.8« ■• JtL IS 'yJIPT. 
 
 AuJ'i i'. ^. l3ao.--Exodns of the Israelites. 
 SeeJ'-: s ', rs KoirrE or the ExoDCS. 
 Ab >Ji ?. C iaoo-*7o.— The decline of the 
 
 tTr.i.:.t rl the Phataoha.— Fiom the anarchy in 
 which the Ni-ii .eenth Dynasty came to iU cud, 
 order was presently restored by the seating !n 
 powe' of a new family, which claimed to be of 
 the Rameside eux^k. The second of lu kings, 
 who called himself Ramses III. and who is 
 believed to be the Rhampsinitus of the Greeks, 
 appears to have been one of the ablest of the 
 monarchs of his line. The security and prosper- 
 ity of Egypt were recovered under liis reign and 
 he left it in a state which does not setm to have 
 promised the rapid decay which ensued. " It is 
 difficult to understand and accouijt for the 
 suddenness anil completeness of the collapse. 
 . . . The hieratic chiefs, the high priests of the 
 god Ammon at Thebes, gradually increased in 
 power, usurped one after another tlie preroga- 
 tives of the Pharaohs, by degrees ri-duced their 
 authority to a shadow, and ended with an open 
 assumption not only of the functions, hut of the 
 very insignia of royalty. A space of nearly two 
 centuries elapsed, "however, before this change 
 was complete. Ten princes of the name of 
 Ramses, and one called Merl-Tuiu, all of them 
 connected by bUnid with the great liameside 
 house, bore the royal title and occupied the 
 royal palace, in the space between B. C. 1280 
 and B, C 1100, Egyptian history during this 
 period is alniost wholly a blank. No military 
 expetlit ions arc conducted — no great buildings 
 arc reared — art almost dhiappears — literatun^ 
 holds her tongue." Then came the dynasty of 
 the priest kings, founded by Her-Hor, which 
 held the throne for more than a century and was 
 contemporary in its latter years with David and 
 Solomon. The Twenty-Second Dynasty which 
 succeeded had its capital at Bubastis and is con- 
 cluded by Dr. Brugsch to have been a line of 
 Assyrian kings, representing an invasion and 
 conquest of Enypt by NlmrcKl, the great king of 
 Assyna. Other Egyptoiogisui disagree wiUi l)r. 
 Brugsch In this, and Prof. Kawlinsun. the his- 
 tOTlan of Assyria, finds objections to the hypotiie- 
 
 782 
 
Mam, B. C. ISeO-erO Ormlmat NmwrotU. 
 
 ri( from W« own Mint of view. The prominent 
 
 ^iSSf'ii'f'".?' *''" •haltered Jeroboam, In- 
 ^^.S^?""*" ""* plundered Jenualem. 
 Before this dyn«»ty came to an end It had lost 
 theroverelgnty of Egyptat large, and Ita Pha- 
 raohs contended with vafiouarivaUand invadere 
 
 race of Ethiopiaua who had rlaen to importance 
 at Napata, on the Upper NUe, and who extended 
 ^^J"l **.'"'; '"" the whole of Egypt. 
 ,» .Ki ."P'.*" 'l<"n»n»fon was realntalDed for 
 two-thirds of a century, untU the neat wave of 
 Assyrian conquest broke upon Egypt in 672 
 
 S;i ."^•'''P"'!*!"' '^''''''8 the Ethiopians 
 back to Napata and Meroe.-o'RawIinson, W 
 of Anamt Bgtmt, eh. 25. 
 Also m: H. Brugsch-Bev, I^mt under 0, 
 
 ^r^i<"'^^f-i '^^%ip* of ;L 
 
 B. C. 070-535.— Assyrian conquest and re- 
 stored independence.— The Twenty-sixth Dt- 
 
 S^*'•~Jp^*^'f'^r■»N"=~«••-AlthoS7h 
 
 Hyria and Palestine had then been Buffering for 
 more than a century from the conquering irmi, 
 of the Assyrians, it was not until 670 B C ac 
 cording to Prof. Kawlinson, that Esarhaddon 
 
 EGYPT, B. C. 670-M6. 
 
 much has been Inmed of the history of the dty 
 
 S. fil!f 'y '^'•J'oM between the E/yptlans ud 
 
 S Nl^^.ta^H*^'*"?""'"' thatth/JetTm^ 
 or Waucratls dates from about 660 B C — 
 
 P«m,SK. '„***'■ ""^gfo-Jng of the reign'of 
 ~^??K ,)i''-.»°'l "'»* "» Greek founden be- 
 came the allies of that monarch and his suoces- 
 
 i^iTf N ™'»° of /Mmmitlchus and Sie foimd- 
 •ng of Naucratis, Egypt was a aaileH hnnk b. 
 the Greek, It i. lEf^ IL« "thrpte^^^ 
 
 Pharaohs, were admr-od, where aliens like the 
 Greeks were excluded. We have indeed positive 
 
 coinS '?'","'* EKypHansdid notwSLSge 
 countries to learn the r art. for in a treat v li 
 tween them and the Hittltes' it ta L?ipuKe7t£jt" 
 
 from the other. But however the fact may be 
 accounted for It is an undoubted fa<!'hSYonz 
 before Psammitichus threw Egypt op. nto^f 
 I^rJL^l".';*-"'*' Phoenicians hal^ludiS in SS 
 
 ,° ,,•"•: ••""■""xiu, vuai £,sarnaddon 
 Pttsed the boundaries of Egypt and made him- 
 self master of that countrv. fais father Senna- 
 Sw .,fh"f'"f"^A."'^ "'"''"' thirty years 
 h!?^<i r ',^'"/ °^ *"* >*" ?« of Jerusalem, and 
 had recoiled before «,mo mysterious calamity 
 which impelled him w a sudden retreat The 
 son avenged his fathers failure. The EU.ioplan 
 masters of Egypt were exp. Ik^ and the A.^yVlan 
 took their place. H. -brok up the country into 
 twenty go- mmentE, app<,i„(ing in each town a 
 mierwho bore the title of king, but placing all 
 the others to a certainextect wler the authority 
 of the pnr: re who Kigt^i Mempnia. This 
 was Neco, the father of Psammetlchus (Psama- 
 
 ^„ ti^'i.'"^; ?8?J"»° of whom we have 
 
 some mention both iu Herodotus and In the frae- 
 mcnts of Manetho. The remaining rulets were 
 likewise, for the most part, native Egyptians " 
 These arrangements were soon br,.keu up by the 
 expelled tthio) m king. Tirhakah. who rallied 
 his forces and sw - pt the Assyrian kinglets out of 
 the countrv ; but A.^shurbani pal, son and suc- 
 cessor of hsarhaddon. made his appearance with 
 ?° »"'V, '» 8«8 or 687 B. C an.l 'Tirhakah fled 
 before him. Again and again this occurred, and 
 for twenty years Egypt was U>m between the 
 Assyrians and the Ethiopians, In their strucRJc 
 for the possession of her. At length, out of t! . 
 chaos produce,! by these conflicU there emero 
 a native ruler -the Psammetichus mention.-,! 
 '^TlT ^J'° »ubj "gated his fellow princes and 
 established a new Egyptian monarchy, which 
 defen-le.l itself with success against .Assyria and 
 Ethiopia, alike. The Twenty Sixth Uynasty. of 
 hals, found. ,i by Psammetichus, is suspect«l to 
 have t)een of Libyan descent It rule,! Egvr- 
 unlll the Persiiin conquest, and l"^ ught u • ^ 
 new loliuencc to bear on the countrrand iw.pu 
 ->y the introduction of (}r..ek soldierk and traders 
 it was under this dynasty that the Greek city of 
 Naucratis was fouu.ied, an the Ca bic branch of 
 the Nile.- O. Rawlinaon, Thf /•„* Ortat Mon- 
 nrchut: AMtt/riq, fh. 9 — Tlu- =~c ~.f 'Se,;-.. rssj., 
 near the Canobic branch of the Nile! w.« de! ] 
 termined by excavations which Mr. W M i 
 Hinders Petrie began hi 1884, sad from which ' 
 
 unrfo „» I. "Ji*^ — r • """ leainea to copy all 
 ^ru of handwork pr,Kured from the valley of 
 rinr.;! fi. ■ i ■ ■^'^'^''"''■'K to Herodotus and blu- 
 fc -i"*./"""' '^°*'' 'o «»>« Greeks by the 
 King was the cause of a great revolt . ,f the imtive 
 EgypTan troops, who left the fromi rfortn -es 
 fh.t'"^?'!!-"'* ""."'^ '^J'""' Elephantine. « re 
 nUtfe^. '^k"'''*"''^,^'' ''^' '••'"reaties of Ps.,m- 
 mitichu.s vho naturally deplored the loss of ■ ■ e 
 Miamstay f his doronuons. and developed n.:» 
 HeJ^lh * '\ t*''"^^^ Wiedemann. hWeve^ 
 fl^L !#'' whole story . unhlstorical. and cer^ 
 1^ , Jin, 1**' ''',°*t'.?, ^'"^ ■■'■ "■ " fontains great 
 Inherent Improbabilities. . Psammitichus died 
 K I v^'"' """^ "I" succeeded by hU son 
 
 rt^ou°r' TM. Vf '''' f?""' '° e-X^Kfi* and 
 vigour This King paid great attenti .n to the 
 fleet of Egypt and Greek shipwrights were 
 Mt to work on both the Mediterrinean and Red 
 Seas to build triremes for the State navy. A 
 fleet of his ships, we are told, succeeded In sall- 
 ^g round Africa, a very great feat for tb. age 
 Ibe King even attempted the .«k, of whi 5ie 
 completion was reserved for the Perslar I . lus. 
 the Ptolemies, and Trainn. of making i - itimi 
 from the Mediterranean . the Re,i Sea H. u 
 ?iU* 5?y* *''"'• ■"*' »..<:riflciri the liv.s of 
 180,^*110 men to the Ubour and I of the task, 
 he gave it up, In consequence of le wamlnTrf 
 M oracie that he was toiling only r the barba- 
 rians Necho. like his fathe must ne«la 
 try tne < .-e of his new weafmn. the " 
 cenaries ,.n Asia. At firet i.e wa^ 
 Josiai Kinp of Judah, came mt 
 bu: » ;. slain, and iiis army 
 Vtti.iur carried Necl as far 
 . . . But Nebuchadui- ;rar, k 
 Babylon, marched agaiKst the 
 feated them in a great hnttle 
 His fiitliers death recall hi- 
 
 Egy, • ivas for the mon ;t ?; 
 
 inva.si 1 liy the stubhor 
 
 Babylonian arms I" 
 
 a resistance fatir 
 
 lem was capliir 
 
 the Inhabitant an 
 
 mitlcbus n.. bo ^ 
 
 knc-ff but litti- »cr- 
 
 record. Heron '\ia 
 
 Ethiopia, anil ^ ^tvr 
 
 Rut of the ei^-tidmua thu 
 
 Ion 
 
 78c 
 
 t mer- 
 easfuL 
 lust him, 
 < cl. Or, k 
 Euphra- g. 
 ' the KlnK of 
 . .,!, rs. and de- 
 ar ( archemlsh. 
 Babylon, and 
 -,t from counter- 
 ace oilered tu the 
 lel, -.1^. 1, Kmg of Judah, 
 he d, wi«li race; for Jeruaa- 
 "r a lor ' siege, and most of 
 dintf. pti'. ity. Of Paam- 
 ' i Nt<ii<). we should 
 
 .or the Hrchaeotogical 
 ily aays that he attacked 
 reign of six yean. 
 ^Qunarily recorded 
 
EGYPT, B. C. «70-8»8. Pmian Ctmvml. KOYPT, B. C. 686-888. 
 
 we hare a lasting and memorable retult in the 
 well known inscriptions written by lUiodians 
 anil otlier Greek merccuariea on tlie legs of the 
 colossi at Abu Simbel in Nubia, which reconl 
 how certain of them came thither in tlic reign of 
 Psammitlclius, pushing up the river in Ixiatg as 
 fur as It W8» navigable, that is, perhaps, up to the 
 seronii cataract. . . . Aprica, the Hophra of the 
 llihlc, was the next king. The early part of his 
 rei>;n w«h marked by succcnful warfare against 
 the Phoenicians and the peoples of Syria ; but, 
 like his pr<ilecea8i>r, lie was unable to maintain 
 a fiKrtIng in Asia in the face of the powerful and 
 warlike Nebuchadnezzar. The hostility which 
 prevailed between Egvpt and Babylon at this 
 time caused King Aprles to open a refuge for 
 those .lews who fleil from the persecution of 
 Nebuihaiinczzar. He askigneil to their liadi'rs, 
 among whom were the ilaughtcrs of the King 
 of Juduh. a palace of his own at Daphnae, 
 •Pliaraiih's bouse at Tahpanhes.' as it Is calliil 
 by .leremiah. That pniphet was among the 
 fugitives, and uttend In the nahuv a notable 
 prophecy (iliil, 0) that King NebH<liailnezzar 
 should come and sprcail his <on<iueriiig tent over 
 the pavement Inforc it. Formerly It was sup- 
 posiKl that this prophecy renuilned unfulfilli'd, 
 hut this opinion has to lie altandomnl. Recently- 
 discovend Egvptlan and Uali;. Ionian insjriptions 
 prove that NcKuilmdiuiiar coiKpiered Kgypt as 
 far as Syene . . . The fall of Aprles was 
 brought aUiiit by his ingratitude to the tJreeks, 
 and his conteinp't for the lives of his own sub- 
 Jeits He had formnl the pMJect of tirliigiiig 
 unihr his swav the (Jrirk cities of tin' Cyn'imiia. 
 . , . April's ifespatclHii against ( yreiie a large 
 force; liut t he (yreneanslinively defended them- 
 nlves, and as the Kgyptiaiis on this iKcaslon 
 manhiil without tin Ir Gnek allies, they were 
 eiitlnlv defeated, and mcwt of them p«'rislied by 
 the sword, or In tin' diirts which separate Cy- 
 reue from K(:.vpt. Thr defialiil tnHips. and 
 their country niin who remalniil bi'hlnd in gar- 
 rison in Kgypt, iinputiHl thedinasler totnwiiery 
 on the part of Aprles. . . . They nvidted. ami 
 chiBW as Ihilr h ader .\ma»ls, anianof esp^•ri^■ncl^ 
 and daring Hut Apries. though diwrleil by his 
 sulijeets, lioiml still to maintain his llinmi' by 
 Qntk aid. At the heail of au.iNNi lonhins and 
 Carians he inareluil against Aiiiasls At Mo 
 meinphis a Iwttle tisik place lietwi-en the rlvid 
 khik's and iM'twiin the rival naliims; but the 
 nuniliers of the Kgypllans prevalhil over the 
 amis and dlwlpllne of the merc.naries, and 
 Apries was deflated iiim" laptunil by his rival. 
 Willi, himivir. allows! hliii for some years to 
 retain the name of joint king. It is the Is'st 
 piHMlhle prisif of the wilidily of Gn-ek InlliKiKi' 
 in Kgypt at ihU lime that Amasis, though si't on 
 the lliroiie by thr native army after a vlrlory 
 over till' GnVk mi riinaries, yet did not e«|«l 
 thesi' latter fMtn Kfvpt, but, on the contrary, 
 rnlM'd them to highif f.iv.uir than Is'fonv . . 
 In till- ih'llghtful dawn d eniinii tiil KiiM|i<'»u 
 hl<ti>ry we se" Amihi>h a* a wiiu- ami wiallhj 
 prltiie. ruling In Kifvpt at the lime wlini I'oly 
 eraliswas tvrtuit id' Hamo»; and nlun Cnssus 
 if I.vditt. thi- rli best king of his lime, w,i« !,.■■ 
 ginning to 1h' alaminl by the rapid e\pan-.ion of 
 III. }>..r.i|>n ;uiuir iiiidir CvniH In the 
 
 ihni if I'MmiMiilirhus III , iln- w f Amasts, 
 
 llie storm which hud overshadowi d Asia broke 
 Spun Kgypt t'ne of Ibelewlenof the Gn'ck 
 
 mercenaries In Egypt named PhaDe*. a native of 
 Halicamasaus. made his way to the Persian 
 Court, and persuadeil Cambvses, who, according 
 to the story, had received from Amasis one of 
 those affronu which haye so often produced wars 
 lict ween despots, to invai'.. Egvpt in full force."— 
 P Ganlncr, A««- Ouiiitrnin llrtfk llUtory. ch. 7 
 Kwo III ; W. M. F. Petric, Na»kratu. — See. 
 also, Naikr.\ti». 
 
 B. C. 535-333.— Persian conqnett and iot- 
 ereipitT.— The kings of the Twenty -Sixth or 
 Salle Dynasty malntaineil the Indenendenee of 
 Egypt fi'ir nearly a century and a half, and even 
 revived lU military glories brieliy, by Nechos 
 ephemeralconiiiiests in Syria and his overthrow 
 of Joaiah king of Juilah. In the meantime. A.h 
 Syria and lialivlonla had fallen and the Persian 
 iiower niised up by t'yrus had taken their place 
 In his own time, Cvnis did not finish a plan of 
 conquest w liieh included Egypt ; his son t'am 
 bvses tisik up the task. "It appears that four 
 veam wen' eonsumeil by the Persian monarrh In 
 lilsprepanitions for his Egyptian expedition It 
 was not until B. C. 52,5 that he entered Egypt at 
 till- iH-ad of his troops and fought the great battle 
 which decliUiI the fate of the country. The 
 struggle was long and blixsly [si'c I'kksia: B C. 
 .'>4»-Sai I Psammenltus, who hail succetMled hit 
 father Amasis, had the se'rvlivs, not only of his 
 Egyptian subjects, but of a large lioily of mer 
 cenaries liesldes, Greeks and Carians. ... In 
 spite of their courage and fanaticism, the E(tyi) 
 lian army was completely defeatwi. . . . The 
 conipiiHt'of Egvpt waa followeil by the sulmiis 
 slon of the neighlHiurIng tribes. . . Even the 
 tireiksof the more remote Bares and Cynne 
 sent gifts to the coniiuenir and consentiHl to lie 
 come his tributaries.'' But Camlivses wasleil 
 no.iMN) men In a ilLsastrims ex|i<'illt[on through 
 the Lllivan ilea«'rt to Ammoii, and he ntreali^ 
 fnmi h!thiopia with hiss and sliunie. An a 
 templed rising of the Egyptians. Ufon- I.e had 
 iiultltil thilr coTmtrv. was erualieil with nieni 
 less severity. The deities, the temples and the 
 priests of kgypt were tri'atitl with insult and 
 contempt Bnil" the spirit of the (s-ople seems to 
 have Isin entlnlv liroken. "Egypt U'caim- 
 now for a full geiierallon Ihi- olwriiulous slave ■.( 
 Pirsltt, and gave no more trouble to her suliju 
 gator than the wi-akest, or the most eonlinli-<l, 
 of the pMvlnci-s.' — tiisi. Uawllns'in. Thr /■'im 
 Cniil duuirfhi.t: I'lrnn, rh 7— 'The Persian 
 kings, from CamiiyM's to Darius II Nothus. are 
 enMlled as the Twenty Seventh D> nasty of Man 
 vthii The ensiiiiiif fivolts t«'e Atiikns II C 
 Wl 44111 are niognlnil In th.' Twenty Eighth 
 (Salti-l Dnia..ty. consisting only of Amyrl.ein. 
 » ho ^■s^o^^sl the Inileiwmlenir of Egypt (II t 
 414 4ii"i. and the Twiiily Ninth (MiiidisUiiiiind 
 Thirlieth iSelsnnylei llyiiasllis (alniiit II ( 4os 
 a.Vli, of wlew liitricatV history we mid •>iily 
 hi ri' say that thi v nihil with gri-at proi.|Mri(.v 
 and have left Is'aullfui numumenls of art Th. 
 last king of Indi'i" lull tit Egypt was NeitaiMli" 
 II , who s.uciiiml»'d lo tin- lnva.ilon of .\rta\it 
 xes Gihiis. and Ihil to Eildopia (B (' H^li 
 The last thni' kirn;, i.f Persia. (Khus. Ar^- 
 and Itarius Cislomannus. form the Thirty Eli»i 
 Dynasty of Mamtho, ending with the »uliml« 
 sion of Etf.Mii to Ak-xanih-r the Gri'sl (B < 
 .i;t-.'i — i' nmiili. Anntil liM ••fl!>» k-i-ti.r:.. 
 ilrnW). rh " 
 
 Al«>l!i: H Bbarpe. i/iW '^ Knt*. i-A-« 
 
 784 
 
EGYPT, B. C. 
 
 Kttmlom of tlie 
 Ptotemiet. 
 
 EGYPT, B. C. 32»-30. 
 
 B. C. 33a— Alexander'! conquest.—" In the 
 
 ofTyrj.— B«. PviiE: B. C. 33>. .md Macedosu 
 
 Ills manli towiinl Ejtypt. accmpmiinl l,v il„. 
 flcrt wliirli lie lind pl,i,-,.,l under tlic or-lors of 
 Ilciiha-stion. • But. iKiiig dctain.d on lli.. wiiv 
 w-v<ral moutlis l,y the sif^-e of G,iz,,. it was not 
 iKfore llfocmUr that he entere<l E^vpt •■ H„ 
 inii-ht mfely n-.>koii not men-lv on at"i easy ton- 
 ■luest but on an anient rewptlon. from a peopl,. 
 who Mirat to sliak.. .,IT the Persian tvnumy 
 . . Ma7.aees[ihe Persian eomman.!er| /liniself' 
 as »<«,n .ui l„ heard of the battle of Usus. herame 
 avian- that all nsistance to Alexander would 1h' 
 useless and met him with a vnhintarv sul.ml» 
 sion At I'elusium he found the fleet. "and hav 
 InK left a irarrison in the fortri'ds, ordert.l it to 
 |.r<K«.d up the Nile as far as Memphis, while he 
 manhed a.-ross ihe desert. Il.re lie e.melllaled 
 f-»-;vi>iians hy the honours wlii, I, he paid 
 o all their p,,. e.,H.dally to A|.is, who had 
 iKi-n so ( riielly insulted l,y the P. rsiaii invaders 
 He thin euiliarkeil, and dropi down the 
 western or Canoliie „nii of the rl%er to Cauo- 
 ms to Mirvev th,. extn-niily „f th. IKIta ,m 
 tla sde and havlni; s.ailed naiud the lak.. 
 Mareotis, landrd on il„. narmw Ult of |,„v .,n,und 
 which parts ,t from the stni, and U shelten.l 
 Iroiu Ilievlolenee of the northern pahs by 
 
 a iMij; ridce of PKk, then s-paraied fn.m the 
 nmlu lai.,1 by a elmnnel, nearly a mile (s< v.u 
 » a.hsi bn»id and fonninK <he Isle of Phar.« ( m 
 this site st.KKl ll,..vo,„ire of |{«,„i.,. „.i«.r,. „„, 
 a neient khii-sof Kcvpt had station, 1 a|Mnnamnt 
 ^uanl to jirotec t this entrance of ti , .r dominion, 
 (n.m adventur.Pi. Alexan.les s k«n eve 
 
 was Immediately «iruek by the advanlajfes of 
 this position for a .lly, v»hieh should Is.n.me a 
 jrnnt.niisirnim of •..miuerre, and a link lstw.,.n 
 the Ust and the \V,,I. . . II,. |„,me,llat,.|y 
 pave onhrs f„r the ,h ,;inninir -f the work him 
 wif tra.>-.|llieoutlin,', nhi, li was »uiri;,-st>d by 
 the naumil f.alures of il„. pn,uii,l li«|f „iid 
 
 mark.Hl ilM.,|i,.of ^,mf „f „„, nrincipaV'bu'lId! 
 iiiifs, s.|uan-», imlwes aii,| t.inr.U- (si^e \irx 
 AM.KIA B «• .W, Al,xa..d.r r,malne,| in 
 Kirypt until th.. .pH,,^. ..f itti, arranplni; the 
 "<_vui»ill,.n >ui,| a,lminMratl..n ,.f ||„. ,„umrv 
 rh.' system wlileli h,. ..»tabllsli.Ml « rv.il in some 
 ||ol.il. as a m..l. 1 f„r ll,e p,ili,v „f U,,„„. ue l.-r 
 I .■• hmiH.ror. " Ifc r.r. ,,ult,|„« ,i„. ,.„„„,ry h.- 
 m...I.. a Icilsom.- manh alonp th.. ckisi. «,■,! 
 wanl. an<l lli,n,,., far itiio the ,],■« ri lo visit the 
 famous ora.l,. of Amnion — C Tlilrlwall H,,/ 
 
 ff 't tf, »v, r't ."hi 
 
 o.^; C. 3»3-3a-The kingdom of the 
 
 Pol.m}..,.-ln llH ,IIM.l„u .Ttl,,. .m,.ir..?.' 
 
 i,.!i'i,""'l'i"' ,"'■'■'" !"■'"'■'■" '''^ '-"■"••"I" »ii"i 
 h. ,li,_,l, |M,,|, my l.a-.ti, .. n put.d to I.. „ 
 ti.iural son ..f Al. X iii.l.r s faih. r Philip . , |,„„, 
 h.-.vpt iMv M», n.,M» II , :,...:, ;,,„', „„,, 
 m,-l,;siy « 1,1.1, ,,r„v,..l i„ 1^. „),. |„ ,|| „ 
 pr..un.,.s of ||„ Ma. ..Ionian ...n-.u..,. |i «,„ 
 
 I..- .,.,,Btry m..M Vastly i„ )». |„./,| „, „ |, 
 
 I'y.l.nt slat.-, bv nas-.u .>f th.' ». n aii.l d.-xrl 
 »l.,.bs.pttra!..| i, fr,mi th,- r. ,t of ib,. w„rl,l 
 ni.»,ille,l f^m, II,,. prmhrneof Pi.-hnu il.al , 
 If fo,in,|,.d a k„,K,lom which lasb.l Urngtr nii.| 
 
 t itJcVrij iniitfi u.u*i;i>{»>; :5;;;l j-,r.u-; s^'i— .1 -- i 
 
 "liar amon„ ||„. m,-,„„re|il..s oril,,' i»i:;,'i„'|,Y j 
 
 V.Mr, r J'"' V' ^i?**'".' '" '*'■'■ '"f->'>i'e,n 
 ream hcfor.., In 80», U. f , fa, twninsl to 
 
 SO 
 
 78A 
 
 assume the name (see Macebosia: B. C. 310- 
 
 ^1 *„„■)■;'""","'• ''"''";' "''•''^' tohisilominion 
 t^,.' ittle (Jr,..k state of Cyn-ne, on the African 
 ejMst with Ph,e„ieia, Ju.W, C.ele Syria, and 
 tlelsla„,lof(.j.,r„. These latter bc-canie .lis 
 puted t.rniorT. rmriit over f,.r two centurie. 
 t?mes''."n'l''V';'7"'^'?'"«' ""-■ S'k-eicis, «W: 
 , o, ,"r ""i '■•*■ •'"■ '""■ ""■' »"n,etlmes by 
 "ll-is'',*T!' ■"''■■■''*''"•'■ "• f- -•Sl-224, ami 
 .'.fTh.. 'p, 1 •"" «"■;"'•'*' <"""■»'■ "le ilominion 
 « n of ,'.""■'""■'*: un.l,.r Ptolemv I'liila<l,.lphu9. 
 
 Asia Minor an,l many of the Or.-.k islands 
 
 an.c imtl }{,,„w absorlnd them. Notwith- 
 sl.-.n, ,mr |,i. y ,.« whi.h the family of Ptolemy 
 
 as bMorj can show. Epvpt iiii.h.r their ruin 
 apr«ars to have ls.,.n ..neof il,,. in. st pr ,Vm.mi« 
 '■'-""tries of ,he time. In Ah.xa«: r , ."^ .T,^^' 
 l..n n,ih/e,l the dream of its Ma-vdonhi,,";? 
 J.. tor Th,.v made it not only the wvaltlliest 
 city of heir .lay. b,it the gr,.atjst s.-at .1 era' 
 
 if'T"-' ■,'"'''r""'"f ^^""■"'' "« t'"^ -apitalof 
 «lr.'.k <ivjhi.all„n In the an.l.nt worl,l -8 
 
 ;'■•;"'>• ';'"li«.te.l In favor .,f his'son. P ..[."my 
 I hila. hli.hus. in JRJ B (■ „,„, u^, , ^^ 
 
 ^;r"ir" 'vl',';'""'r ,^" "">'--"':'' V 
 , f V" r •^'"""'-1' ""■ poMtl.al .onslituthm 
 
 fell let'. r'^'Vi" «•■'■"".*• "'"■■■'•■I «lien 11... lai.,1 
 f. II into (.r,.,k laials. v-.f in oil,,., r.s.K.ts preat 
 ehanir,.s t,.,U plae.. th,. m,.re fact that Kpypt 
 
 nalt.ns i,', r't"",""?' ■" ■'""'">■ "' "-"cniilic 
 nali.ns. tiiM.ad of elaimiup as of ol,l a i.roiul 
 solatl,.ii. must hav,. l,a,l „ pr,.,„ ,.ff,.,., }„\^^ 
 trad.-, the nunuf.-atuns. an.l lb,, cusb.n.s of the 
 ,' -n ^'''"■'■'"'. "'tl' trad... Iiui.r the 
 
 1.,.:. • kllL'S U.y|,t |„„| ^nu;]Y «n . xiemal 
 ra.l,.. an,l tnul,- ,„„l,l «.ar,.,.ly si'Tinp up ,lurinJ 
 
 nt,.n.,urM. s.|«,,.„ r.ay :,„,| hi.iiy, .Syri,, ,^ 
 
 iTn? "'i"''' """""<> ""'I »>-<-.'ss..ri!v n,'lvamt. 
 r.ipldly Kpypt pn,|u,.,M maniifa, tun.l p,H«|, 
 
 nh.ehw.r.. ev.rywlar,- In ,lenmn.l. I |i„, „ 
 
 lyory pon.lain. n.iably that pai.vru. whkli 
 l-.iryi.t al„n.. pr.»lu,..,l, an,l ubi, |', ,1;,, ,„,.,..^,nr 
 ., Ilie nn.wliK tri.le 111 ii,aiiii«ripN Ariill, lal 
 
 of' r '„.'n,r"'''i''r" """" ".'; '""n'risinp im.l.rs 
 .,f ( omilh and lanLtuin. Kpb. ,„> „„.| m„.|,.,. 
 wouM imturall* «. k ili,^. o«hI. i„ K.-ypt 
 ■riiiirinirm r,i,.ni »l,,t, v,r ot m,,,i atlruifv,. 
 
 probabl,. II, ,t ,1,.. Mil.j,.,. „, ,|„. Ptohmh.. 
 «M..ni or 11, «.r h.„l ib,. ,oura,., m ,«,il ,||r, n 
 ,"«„ lb,- U..1 N,. ,„ |„,1|„, |„ |i„u„.„,|„„, 
 lliH ^..,^aL^■ ts'i am. n..t unusual, but at an 
 .arll.r iiin,. ||,.. I,„|i,,„ ,r,„|.. „„, prln. Ipally in 
 be batMl. of th,. .\rab, „f V, m.n and of the 
 
 .'■^ ' "i'lf , N.-.r.h.l. ,.n,n,.r,e .,f 
 
 t-.-u-r un.hrtl,,. It,.l, uii, , .pr.a,| ,asl«ar,l. a» 
 «,|| as »..!« ml. 1 1,. Imporlam b,wi„ of 
 
 Ar.iiH^' „t,.l Ifchui,, at,™ ||„. |(„| H,.,, a, 
 
 en.i-ita ,1 lb. Arabia., Iia,l. .V„," ^^ „|«^v, 
 h.|.|Hn< »li,n Kif>f in i„ vl,..,n,„« baiHU. il„. 
 III,,,,-. ,.f Ktf>l''lau nil.- aii.l .,i.„m.r.-,. w.re 
 |",<b..| furth.r aihl furibtr u|> ih. Nile The 
 oillux Int., AU-v.n,|rla aii,l M, inphi. „f a .n.w.l 
 ,'1 IJr.ek anhli... Is. artists and arilun. .,..j!,J 
 ie.I rai, 1,, |,r..i„,eiiiMV,.m..ni In thai strt^im .if 
 art wbb h ha.l in Kxyi.t lotn; r, iiiain.sl all hut 
 siairimni If «.■ may trust the •.■mcwhat 
 
 ovrr-culuunsl an.1 rtUhlT iwneitrria wbtek have 
 
 i 
 
EQTTT. B. C. 828-80. 
 
 Jndmrttulbmaiit. EOYFT. A. D. 1380-15<f. 
 
 come down to ui, the material pmgnm of Egypt 
 under Ptolemv Philadelphiu wm matt wonder- 
 ful. We read, though we cannot (or a moment 
 trust the figure* of Appian, that In hi* reign 
 Egvpt poMMied an army of 900,000 foot aoldier* 
 and 40,000 horsemen, WW elepbanU and 8,000 
 chariot* of war. The fleet at the lame period is 
 ■aid to have included 1,900 large Te**els, soma 
 of them with twenty or thirty banks of oars. 
 Allowing for exaggeration, we must suppoie 
 that Egypt wai then more powerful than It had 
 been since the days of Rameses." — P. Gardner, 
 JVew Chapter! in Oreek Ilittory, eh. 7. — See, also, 
 Albxandria: B. C. 883-346; and Edccation, 
 Ancient: Alexandria. 
 
 B. C. 80-48. — Strife ameaK the Ptolamica. — 
 Roman pretenaiona.— The throne of Egypt 
 being disputed, B. C. 80, between Cleopatn Bere- 
 nice, who had seized it, and her step-son, Pto' .my 
 Alexander, then in Rome, the latter bribca the 
 Romans to xiipport bis claims by making a will in 
 whirh he nttnit-d the Roman lii'publlc ss his heir. 
 The nntv, thin-nt, s<'nt him to Alexandria with 
 onl< i-i that Ben-uice sliould marry him and that 
 they slinuld reign jointly, a* king and queen. 
 The order was obeyed. The foully mated pair 
 were weddc^i, and, nineteen day* afterwaida, the 
 young king procured the death of his queen. 
 The crime provoked an insurrection in which 
 Ptolemr Alexander wa* slain by liiit own guanl. 
 Thiscnditl I he legitimate line of the Fu>lrmiesi 
 but sn illcgitiumte prince, usually called Auletes, 
 or "the pTper." wa* put on the throne, and be 
 aucceedetl ill linlding It for twenty-four years. 
 The claim of the Romans, untter the will of 
 Ptolemy Alexandi-r. Be<-ms to have liecn kept in 
 alievancr bv the brilies which Auletes employed 
 with liberality among Hie senatorial leaden. In 
 08 B. ('. a riHing at Alexandria drove Auletea 
 from the thrDiic. in ,V( B. t'. he bought the *up- 
 port of (labiniuii. Roman nro-cimsul in 8vria, 
 who reinatnti'd lilm. He die<l in 51 B. ('. Icsv- 
 ing by will bis kingdom to his elder daugh< .T, 
 Cleopatra, and \\U elder son. Ptolemy, who, ac- 
 conling to the nlKiniinable custom of the Ptoleml<>s, 
 were to marry one kiioiIut anil n-Ign logi'lber. 
 The Roman li'ople, by the t4'rmsiif llie will wen- 
 nuule Its exiH'iiUirH When, therefore, Civsar, 
 coining to Alexandria, thn-e year* afterwards, 
 fiiiind the will of Auleti'S set at nought, Ploh-niy 
 iKM'iipyliig the throne, alone, and ('letipatra 
 struggling against hini, he bad some ground for 
 a pn?t«'n»l(in i>f right to Interfere. —8. Hharpe, 
 Hut. 'jf t^/iii'l. fh II. 
 
 B. C. a8-47.— CiTil war batwMO Ciaopatra 
 and Ptoltmy. - Inttrvention of Casar.— Tha 
 riaing acainst him.— Th* Romaot boaiagad In 
 AlaBandria. — Thtir ruthtata vlctaty. See 
 Ai.KXANimiA: R. (' 4)M7. 
 
 B, C. 30.— Orgaaitad at 4 Rouwa previaca. 
 —After lue iMitle of Acliiim aixi the death of 
 ('leo|iatra. Egypt was reduce)' 'ly Drtavlus t<> tlie 
 rank i>f a Itonian province ami the dynasty i/f the 
 Piiik-mii-s <'Xtlngiii»he<l But OcuViini "'h»il im 
 intention >if giving to the senate the rich domain 
 which he ton- fMm Its native rulers. Me would 
 not sow In a fonign soil tiie sewi* of independ- 
 ence which he waa Intmt upon cruahing nearer 
 home. ... In due time he ptftuaded the senate 
 and people to raisbiixb it is a pricripl^, that 
 Egypt anoukl never tie placed uncter the admlota- 
 tratlim of any man »( auperior rank to the aques- 
 tftaB, aad tiiat no asnator abouM be allowed even 
 
 to visit it, Whhout e«pie«a permiaalon ftMB the 
 aupreme aotfcority."— C. Merivale, BM. </ th* 
 Bamatu, th. tt. 
 
 A. D. loo-SOfc— Romaa and Christiaa. I>f« 
 AlexandkiaTB. C. 48-47 to A. D. 418-418, 
 and CHRnmABiTT! A. D. M-W). and 100-813. 
 
 A. D. 396.— RevaU cmahad tj Diocletian.' 
 See Albxakdria: A. D. 898. 
 
 A. D. 6i«-4s8.— CMneat bj Choorect, the 
 Pcraiaa. — The career M conqueat pursued by 
 Choaroea, the laat Peislaa conqueror, extended 
 even to Egypt, and bevoort it. " Egypt Itself, 
 the only province which hail been exempt since 
 the time of Diocletian from fneign and domeatic 
 war, waa again aubiiued by the luccesaors of 
 Cyrua, Pefusium, the key of that Impervious 
 country, waa aurprised by the cavalry of the 
 Persiana: they paned with impunity the innum- 
 erable clianiiels of the Delta, and exploml llie 
 long valley of the Nile from the pyramids of 
 Memphis to the confines of iGthiopia. Alcxatulrin 
 might have been relieve<l by a naval force, but 
 the arcbbiabop and the pnefrct embarknl for 
 Cyprus; and Choaroea entered the second city of 
 the empire, which still jin-si'rved a wealthy rem- 
 nant of industry and commerce. His wiiilcni 
 tmphy was erected, not on the wall* of Cartliai:i', 
 but in the neighlxwrhood of Tripoli: the Onik 
 colonies of ("jrene were finally extirpated. " Hy 
 tlie peace concluded in 888, afier the desth of 
 Chosroes, all of his conquests were restonil to 
 the empire and tlie cities of Syria and Egypt 
 evacuated by their Persiaogarriaons.—E. Oiblion, 
 Dfetine and fhtl of thr Rnman Bmpirt, eh. it.— 
 See Persia: A. D. 2-'" ««7. 
 
 A. D. 640446.— Moslam cooqacat. tV>' Ma- 
 hometan ('oN<jrE»T: A. D. •4t>-J846. 
 
 A. D. 967-1171.— Uader the Fatimite Ca- 
 liph*. See Mahometan CoHqcEsr: A. I> «•»- 
 1(71. 
 
 A. D. ii6S-iaso.— Ua4*r the Atabeg and 
 Ayoabit* aultaaa. See Saladin, Tbk kmimkk 
 or. 
 
 A. D. iai>-i*ao.— lawaioa by the Fifth 
 Cmaada. See CnuaADEs: A. I) ISK-lS-Jfl 
 
 A. O. ia49-itf)a. —The craaadiag invaaion 
 by Saiat Loui* of Franc*, t^v ('Hri>*i>Kii: 
 A. I). 1848-1354. 
 
 A. b. iaso>i5i7.— Th* Mamalakc Sultan*. - 
 Tlie Mamelukes were a mllltarv body cn-*tiil liy 
 Saladin. "The woni mi-ans ufave (literally ' Ibt- 
 iiosseiMieil ■). and . . . they were brought In youth 
 from nortliirn countries to serve Ui tlw Sniitli. 
 Saladin bimM-lf was a Kurd, and long lafori' liU 
 accession to power, Turkisli ami Kuniinh iinr 
 cenaries were cinploynl b' the t Bllphs of Bagdoii 
 and Cairo, OS the Pope en I'ys Swiss. . . Sub- 
 ■cquintlv, however, Clrci-^iia U'cunin tb<> coun 
 try wlilch nrnat I'lrgely furnlsheil this riots of 
 lnM>p» TiM'lr appn-ntlceship was a king sihI 
 laborious one : tliey were taught, first of all. t<l^'Hll 
 the Koran and to write . then followwi lance e»rr 
 lise. during which time nolMKly was silowcil lo 
 aiM-ak to ihem At first thev either resiiteil In 
 the csiitle, or were exerrinMl living umlrr ItuIk, 
 but after tlie time of SulUn Barkouk tliey wire 
 allowed to live in tlie Uiwn [Calni], and tbi- quar- 
 ter now occupied by the Jews was at that iIiik' 
 ilrvote.1 to (he Circassian Mamelukes. After 
 this pcrirni ihrj- nr^irrinl Ihrif fri:;;rHH^ V-^ 
 warlike exercises, ami Itecame degenerabt awl 
 corrupt. . The dynasty of Sahdio . waa 
 of BO dttiatk», aad rode<l in <M8 A. II., or ISH 
 
 788 
 
KOTPT, 1980-1517. 
 
 n« JCMMMtat. 
 
 
 LdYPT, 1808-18U. 
 
 |uk«of the sultan Nepn-ed-dto haring lod^ 
 IsUnd In the Nile (Bahr-en-Nll). 
 
 uo luKiwi, tne AdUBuu ut hue xiiie iDuir-en-x^ii) 
 The intriguer of the period wm Sheger-ed-dur 
 the widow of the monarch, who mmrried one of 
 the Mameluke., Moe« eddin-aibekel-TurcomanT 
 who became the flnt of thew Bahritc Sultaii' 
 and was himself murdered in the Castle of Cairtj 
 through thU woman. . . . Their subsequent hU- 
 torr, untU the conquest of Egypt by Sultan 
 Sellm in 1817, pre«into nothlng%St a «rie. of 
 acta of lust murder and rapine. 80 rapidly did 
 they expe! each other from power, that the 
 average rcign of ecch did not exceed fire or six 
 
 iSfl-hli. ' "« ^l^ I^P'™ '» 'he spectacle 
 whicli these .Mameluke Dynasties constantly ore- 
 
 iton^ V. 1, eh. t>-5. 
 
 A. D. i5i6-i5i7._OTeithrow of the Mame- 
 juke Snitans.— OttOfflaa conquest by Suitaa 
 S«J»m. Set- Turks: A. I). 14»?-1520. 
 
 A. D. i79».i7«9._The French conquMt and 
 occupation by Ktampartc. 8t^. Franc.: A. D 
 1788 (May— Aloi-BT), and ITOft-lTW (Aoacw— 
 AcarsT). 
 
 A. D. I798-I790.— Bonaparte's orffanisatloa 
 
 J!^" *'> P«nce. See Franck: A. D. 1788- 
 
 A (•);<■'" "—Ai'ousT), and \',Vi (NovajiBmR) 
 
 V . '••?•— D'»«ont««t and diacouran- 
 
 T5i »?•",? Pjeoch.-Tha rtpudiatad TrtTty 
 
 R«»oit crushed at Cairo.-Aaaaaaiiutien of 
 Ktbar. 8f« Jhakck: A. D. 1800 (Jakcaby- 
 
 JUnK). 
 
 ^ the En»il.h.-Restora«on of th« prorioco 
 to Turkey. h«t. Khan, k: A. D. IHOI-IWCJ. 
 
 'All;,?if'^'""."TT''« "•• •' Mohamaad 
 Aly (or Mchemet All) to power.— Hia traach- 
 •roua destruction of tha Mamelukea--It 
 wasiliirinB 111 },, mil, Pupation that Moham- 
 niad Aly for Mtheniil Ali| came on tho scent- 
 He was born in 1768 at the AlhanUn port of 
 Jiaballa, anci liy the patronage of the go- Tor 
 was sent lo Kgypt in imi with the rontln«, tof 
 tniops f»riil«li,M by Kaballa to the Ottoman 
 army lh.n o|wrating with the EnglUh against 
 the iVnch. lie rapidly n«, to the oomnuSliof 
 the Amaut or Allwnlan section of the Turkish 
 army, and scon found himsilf an important 
 facuir in th,. confusci political po.ition which 
 
 ti « i*'i* „'''•'"•."'!"' "' ""' British army. 
 The .M.mluk Ifcys ha<t mit been r<>st<>re,l to their 
 former posts as pMrlncial goTcrnors. and were 
 c.«s.|Hiently ri|H> for revolt against the Porte 
 but tiKir party was w.-akenwi by ih.. rivalry of 
 
 dlvi,l.il iMir followers Into two h.«tlle ramps. 
 On the other band, the Turkish I-aslut appolnt'd 
 by the Horte had not yet gained a flnii grip of 
 the cuntry. and was nerpetually appr..ft,n,lvo 1 
 
 at the hiMMl of his Albanians was an in.imnsnt 
 
 -J'/"'-/' 4"" *''*'' •" •«■•"'• "<' h' '"llv sp 
 Jiwtoted bis pasitt<». II. pUyed off on.- party 
 
 -!!tS,"lf "•^'- 't' P»^ "plnst the IJeys, I 
 WoOBsafully, that ha not ooW weakennl both 
 
 ■^ »>■•■.? matir the people or Ci,,,, »i,„ were 
 
 SKj?7j?.l!l5?^i "' *'••'"''"' •«» Turk 
 vu», kliflmfrtsadt; aad at itatnfbnd 
 
 him- 
 
 787 
 
 self, with becoming hesitation, to be persuaded 
 Zi. «P*™"y?' ™ popuhM» to become [1808] 
 their ruler and thus stepped to the supremi 
 power In the curious guise of the peoples fHend. 
 A fearful time followed Mohamiad 'Alys el™: 
 
 F^;;;'°VK'=^",.7;i';z'° "» govemo>»hipof 
 
 SS£V IJ'L^K *** f"^' KhSrshid, held the 
 citadel, and Mohammad "Aly, energetically aldad 
 by the people of Cairo, hlj siege to it. FroS 
 
 from the heighu of Mukattam, the besiegeia 
 poured their ifre into the citadel and KhurSld 
 th? dtv " Th " •■«««^ri'°l"«f cannonade S^n 
 
 2»^„!/r r'v'l^' » '""••'■g"- arrived from Con- 
 stantinople bringing the confirmation of the 
 pop..ar vote, in the form of a firman, appoint 
 '"?.*''*ammsd Aly governor of Egyp. '^^ur- 
 
 amusi-d themselv,, in the approved Turkish anS 
 (even worae) Allmnlan fashiol. bv making Lv^ 
 
 „..i^i!:illf^'''J'"','' '"'^'"- MohamnSd 'A^ 
 now possessed the title of Governor of Egypt 
 but Uyond the walls of Cairo his authorit/^w 
 everywhere disputed by the Beys. . An a? 
 tempt was made to ensnare certain of the Beva 
 ^n"iI;!;^'?.K'"■?°lP*** "o"'' ■•' «•■« metropolis 
 tanal of Caliw was Ui be cut, and some chiefs of 
 Mohammad Aly s imrty wn.te informing them 
 
 1:ImT \ "' ''.'" '""'P" '" *'""■»« «'"-' ceremony: 
 <l.-celv.. them, stipulating for a certain sum of 
 money as a itwanl. TKe dam, however wm 
 ™i.r'''' '".V'" l'«'«''"''*f night, witbou any 
 
 hT-^v' t!Ju ""■'■' -*•"''"''»• » »ery numerous 
 iKMly, broke open the gate of the suburb El- 
 Hjwey-niy.li and galniil mlmlttance inU) the 
 • ity . Tliey marched along the nrlncinal 
 . tt^t for «,me distance, wlU. ketth-dnnnX: 
 Hind each company, ami were n-ceived with an. 
 paretit ,.y by the dtizm. At the mo*,ue call.,1 
 
 I ^.1 ."".r"' ."'.'^ "■P^'W, one i«rty pro- 
 ceeding U) the Axliar ami the houwf of «rtain 
 sfteykhs and the other party conllniiiug along 
 the main stiwt, and through the gate calle3 
 Bab Zuwevleh where tliey turneii up towards 
 the elladel Hcrj. they were flml on by some 
 soldiers from the houses: and with thU /jnal a 
 terrilile niamaere coinmeuetHl. Falling bark 
 towani* their rompanionn, they found the by- 
 streets cl.*..!: and In tluti part of the main 
 thoroughfar.. called B.yn el K'«„eyn. they wen, 
 suililenly plat-e,! In-twetn two flrm Thus shut 
 up in a narMw street, some sought refuge in the 
 <-"ll.>[Ute ii..»,,.,e of the Barkukiyeh, while the 
 remamler fought their way through their 
 enemies, and es<-a|ird over the rity wall with 
 th. I<»s of their bor«e«, Two Memluks had in 
 the meantime su.e,-e.l„l. by great eiertlons, in 
 giving the alarm to their c.mni.ie« In Uie guar 
 i.r of Uie Ashar, who escaped by tlw rastem 
 gate wllrd Uabel-Ghureyyib, A horrible fate 
 awalte,! ilioK. who ha<l shut themselves up In 
 tl». Barkukiyeh lla.Ing l«.gg,.,i f„r quirier 
 an.l surr.fi.lere.1, they were luimr.llatelv stripiied 
 nearly nuke.1, ami sIhhu fifty were aUughlered 
 on the soot: and aboijt the sa^-M Eamher w=t? 
 .Iragge.laway The wretched oaptlvaa were 
 
 then ehaiaed ami left In the murt of Um Paaha'a 
 haom; aMioBilM foMowtaf aoimlM tk^l 
 
 i'i 
 
EGYPT, 1808-1811. 
 
 ir<kelM( AH, 
 
 ond after. 
 
 KGVPT, 184a-18«>. 
 
 of their comrade*, who hwl perUhed the d«y 
 before, were skinned and stuffed with gtraw be 
 fort- their eyes. One Bey and two other men 
 mid their ransom, and werp r-'leiifeed ; the rest, 
 without exception, were topi-reii. and put to 
 death in the course of the >•'. -^wini night. . . . 
 The Beys were dishearU-u -U by tills revolting 
 butchery, and most of th.ni : tin li to the upper 
 country. Vrgetl by Eii)t'.and, o.- more probably 
 bv thJ promise of a t.ribe from fcl-Elfy, the 
 r'ortc began a leisurely intcrftrmee In favour of 
 the Memluks; but tht failure of El-Elfys 
 treasury, and a handsome bribe from Mohammail 
 •Aly, soon changed the Sultan's views, and the 
 Turkish fleet salU-d awav. ... An attempt of 
 the English Oovemment to n-s.lorc the Memluks 
 by the aotitm of a fnrre of .l.tX)!* nun under 
 Ch'neral Fraser ended In disaster and huiniliallon, 
 and the titUena .if ChIm hiul the satisfaction of 
 seeing the lieails of Englishmen exposed on 
 stakes in the Kuliekiyeli. Mohammii.l Aly now 
 adopted a more eoiiciliBlory tMilley tow^irds the 
 Hemluks. gnintwl them land, and encouraged ^ 
 them tj ntum U) Cairo. The tlemency w^as ; 
 only assuniitl in onler to prepari' the way for ; 
 the act of consummate treachery which finally 
 upriM.ted the Menduk power. . Early in the j 
 year l(<tl, lhi> pn^parations for an expedition i 
 igaliwt the \Valdiiibi» in Arabia lielng complete, 
 all the MemlukBe . then In Cairo «en> inviled | 
 to the i-eremonv of lnvc*tini< Mohammad 'Aly » | 
 favourite son. 'Tusun, with a peli.sne and the I 
 tomniiwd of the armv. As on the fomier nm 
 •ion the unfortunate Menduks fell into the 
 snarl'. On the l«t <if Man-h. HImliln Ifcv and 
 tlH- otliirchief«(one only excepU-dt re painil with 
 their nMiniicH to the citadel, and wert' ciiurteously 
 ri'dlviil bv till' I'asha. Having taken colTee 
 they fornird in procession, and, pn^-eded and 
 followeil liy the I'ttsha's lri«)l>s, slowly descended 
 till- steep anil nnrrr)W road leading to Ihi.' gmit 
 gale of the citadel ; but as si»>n as the Memluks 
 arrivetl at the gate it wm suddenly clos»'d lafori' 
 them The last of those who made their exit 
 bi'fore -he gale was shut were All...idans uniler 
 Malih Rush, T.i tliow- tniops their chUf no» 
 madi' known the I'asha's onlern to massacn' all 
 thi' Ml mluks within the citadel; llienfon' li:iv- 
 Ing niuriiiil bv another way. they gained 'lie 
 ■ummlt of the walls and housi's. that hem in the 
 roful in which the .Memluks wen-, and si.nio 
 Btalionid themselves u|M>n tin- inilnemiK of tlie 
 rixk thn.uirh which that rtn'\ i» partly cut 
 Thus M'l iin Iv plmed. they eoiiiniiniiil a heavy 
 tin- MM iliiirilifeiirili««vlitimH, and immediatel; 
 the tMiips who I loMil till' pnsi-ssion, and who 
 bail the ndvanlngr <•! lilghiT gmuiid, followed 
 Ihiir i\:ini|>li- tTu Mi iiduks entenil the 
 
 elladel. iiiid of llic"' »'ry few. If any, ewnisil 
 
 O f iliise is said to ImvelsTn a Hey Acioni 
 
 ing to «ome. Ill- liiipid his horw from tin- ram 
 piirti and iillu'liliil iminjunil. tliough the hor*- 
 was killrd bv llie full (Mlier* Bsy tlinl lie w«« 
 pri'ventid from Joiiiint' his iiiinrailes. and di" 
 covend the Inai l..fv wliile wailing wilhi.ul the 
 gate 111. Il<.il and made hiswny to Svria This 
 iiiii-siirn- was the .-i^nal for iin liiill«<riminate 
 ^Inuiililir of the Memluks tlir.iugliout Egypt, 
 ..niirs to this effect lieing Iraiismilliil to every 
 «<iv.-mor and in Cain lt«lf, Uie housis of the 
 I»e,H wen> given over to the Hiidkr), vtlm 
 ilaiighlenil all their adlM-rents. tmit«l their 
 woDwn in the miml »ham*le»« mauner, and wrked 
 
 their dwellings. . . . The last of his rivaU btlng 
 now destroyed, Mohammad 'Aly was free to 
 organize the administration of the country, and 
 to engage In expeditions abroad "— S. Lane- 
 Poole. &vpt, eh. 8. 
 
 Ai*o is; a. a. Paton, Ili't. of tht Egyptutn, 
 BeniMiim. r, 2. .... 
 
 A D. 1807.— Occupation of Alexandria by 
 the Eneliih.— Ditaatrous failure of their ex- 
 pedition, tki' TiRKs; A. I). IWHUwiT. 
 
 A. D. i83i-i840.— Rebellion of MehemetAli. 
 — Succeaaea afaioat the Turks. —Intervention 
 of the Weatem Powera.— Egypt made an he- 
 reditary Paahalik. See Turks. A I>. IS:ll- 
 
 A D. 1840-1869.— Mehemet All and hia auc- 
 ceaaora.— 'The khedivea.— "? he opening of the 
 Suea Canal.— "By the treaty of lS4lt iHtwini 
 the I'oni' and the European Powers. . . . \\H 
 title to Egvpt having la'cn . . . alHrnuil . . . 
 Mehemel .\li devotwl himself during the next 
 seven years to the social and material iniiir .ve- 
 ment lif the coiintr) with an iiirgregate . ' re- 
 sulu which lias fixed his place in history as the 
 ■Peter the Oreaf of Egypt. IiuIwhI, except 
 some aildltions and further reforms made ihirinz 
 the reign of his reputed grandson. Ismail |•a^lul. 
 the whole administrative system, up till !'« 
 than ten years ago. was, in t!ie main, his work; 
 and notw'ithstanding many admitted defects. It 
 was lit Ills death liicimi|ianiblv the most clvilim-il 
 and . 'Hcient of tliin existing .Mussulman (iov, rii 
 nuii: In 1H4H, this great satrap, then ver.L'ing 
 i on his eightieth year, was attacked by a menial 
 I malmly, induceil, as It was said, by a potion ad 
 I ministereil in mistaken kindness by one of hii 
 own daughters, and the goviniment was tuki ii 
 over by his idoptiii son. Ibrahim I'aslm. ihe 
 hem of Koiimli and Nezlb. lie lingered till 
 .\ugust 1«4W. but Ibrahim had already ytv 
 deceased him; and Ablma, a son of tin' luit.r, 
 succtiiled to the vicin-gal throne. Thoiik'li liorn 
 and bnil In EgviU. Abtias was a Turk of tin' 
 worsttyiK' — Ignorant, cowanlly, sensual, faiiutii, 
 and op"pi»teil to refonns of every wirl. Thus 
 his feelile nign of less than six years was. ii; 
 almost cv.rvthing. a|HTiislof retMgnssion On 
 H night in .liilv, K>4. he was strangled in lu^ sin p 
 bv a couple of his own slaves. — arliiiL'. il wiis 
 viirloUKlv said, on a sicnt imler from Coiisiii.ti 
 nople or altlie Ishest of one of his wive> 1" 
 Alilias Kiieeiided ^nld, the thini son of Mi In im I 
 All. an andalile and lilsral niindi d |.rini. wl,.. 
 retrievisl miiih of the mlsihhf done by his prr 
 diiess.ir. bill linked the vigorous inlellii.- nre 
 and force. d rlianii Irr reiiuinsl to ( urry 011 Ilir 
 gn-iit work iHirun bv lil« fiitlier His riii:ii ""1 
 U- chietiv meuionilili- 'or the eoiieessioii and 1 om 
 mencemi'iil if Hie f'Ui v Canal, the roloss:d work 
 which while iKiiillliiig the tnide of th.' worll. 
 has lost so mm h to Kgyiit .'*iild dii il In •! i"u 
 iirv IWI. and was succeeded by hi» niplii" 
 Isiimil I'lislia, llii' second son of llmihlm S* 
 most of 111! Ic.ulinu' imidruls of Mils I'riin. ^ 
 fi.jgn |„ ,,',«, tin- 1 hii f fealuns of Ins ehaneur, 
 an' still fnsh in Hh' piil'lii memory. I n-d 
 nil H'lv niall a few of thr inon' siili. iit of Is'iM 
 \iiiorigstlhe fonner. history will une tin llr-i 
 plai-e to his creation of the huge pubhi di 1 1 
 whieli forms the main element of a jinihlem lli.il 
 
 Impartlsl Judge will at least e.iuallv blame llie 
 flnanclal panaen'rs who ministered to his ex- 
 
 788 
 
EGYPT, 1840-1869. 
 
 Soudai 
 
 •I of tht 
 
 EGYPT, 1870-188a 
 
 'ZTZuou^^'TtZ^'on^tT'^T- i "«'"«"«' '"to various convention, with Eng. 
 
 say tlmt Ismail ; Powers of the sincerity of lii« intentions, he con- 
 j sentcil to put the wiuiitorial provinces under 
 I tlie lulMiinistmtion of an Eun-jeun officer who 
 sliould be commissionid to carry on the work of 
 , repression, tomiuest and orjritnisation that liad 
 [ l>eincommen<T(I liy Balier. Ilischnic.. fell upon 
 :i man of <-xc-ptional ability, a brilliant officer 
 riiin.il at ttiM.hvidi, who had already gained 
 liijrli riiiown in China, not only for mililary 
 : taicm. but for hi.4 adroitness and skill in ne- 
 ).'Mliaii.m and diplomacy. This wasColonel Gor- 
 don, luindiiirly known as 'Chinese Gordon ' wlm 
 WMs n.iw to add fnsli lustn> to his name in 
 tjiypt as (.onion I'aslia. Gonlon was appointe<l 
 Oov.niourUenerul of the Siiudau in 1874 With 
 him wtriMissocialcd Cliaille Lim^. un Ameri<an 
 ..iHcr. wlm « as chief of hissLitt; the Gentian, 
 l>r. hiiiiii tllendi. mediral ,,nic,r to tlie exiMdi- 
 tioii; LuutcuiintsChippemlull and Watson Uessi 
 and hemp, enijineers. . , . Thenceforward the 
 temlones. .,f which so little had hitherto laen 
 kmmn, bicaine the continual stvne of military 
 movements and seientiric excursions. . . The 
 Soudan w.is mi far counuend as to lie lieid by 
 alMiut u,|,,/,,.ii military outpiwts stationed alone 
 the Nile fn.m Lake Xo to Ijik, ^ .Vllurt ami Ibni- 
 him. . In IN76 Gordon wi mi Imck to Cairo. 
 
 .>evenh<iiss. altlioutfii he was uiarieil with the 
 continual sirui,';;le of the past two years worn 
 down by tlie inci-ssant labours of internal organi- 
 sation and L'roL'rapliieal investit,'utioiis, disheart- 
 cmil. t.«.. by the Jialousies. rivalries, and in- 
 trl>:ues..| all around him. and bv the ill fcdini; 
 of the v.ry people wlioiii the Kheilives (ioveni- 
 meiit h.'id sent to «iip|H)rt him. he consented to 
 return airain to his post ; this time with the title 
 of (iovern.iiir (ieiieniinf the Niudaii. Darfur and 
 tlie^Kipiatorial l'r..\ iiics. .\t the lieirinniiJK of 
 ICi 1 he t.Hik iMwsession of the Government palace 
 at Khartoum. . . KKyiitian authorllv. allied 
 with Kiirti|).-aii civilisation, ap-winil" now at 
 leUL'th to U' lakiinr some holi! on the v:irious 
 districts, and tlu' Cairo Govenimeiil mijrlil li.>;iu 
 to liK.k lorwanl tn a time when It ei.uid ivi kon 
 on some rewanl f..r its laU.iirs and s^o rilieis. 
 I he area of the new Kjjypti^.if S.udaii had how 
 Income imm.nse InM^-raphiiallv. its ei nin- In- 
 cluded the entlri' valley of the .Ni'lf pn.|H r. from 
 Ih-risr to the great lakes; i.ii the ea-I were such 
 jiorili.ns .rf the valle.vs ..f ihe llliie Ml.' and At- 
 bara as l.iy oiitsi<le Aliy.s.Mi,ia. ami em ibc west 
 Wire the distrii tt watereil bv tin' Hahrel(;ha/al 
 and till- liiiiir elAnib. riglitaway to tin- e.iiilliies 
 of Wadiii . . ''iifiirfiimlrly 'ill 1n;i» I.Hhiail 
 I'aslia w.is depciinl, .nv]. in tile grievous I...,, (if 
 the Nmdaii. linnhic Viis recalh-d. As tin im- 
 mediate lonsi'iiiirnie. thr eiMiiiirv fell bill k into 
 Ihe hands iif Turkl.li oashas; apiithv. disi.rder. 
 eanles,iii«,. and ill feelini: n apiMan'd at Khar- 
 tiHini. and tlie Arab slave di-alirs. win. had fur a 
 piri.Kl Is. II kept undiT by llaki r. Gessi, and 
 Gnnlon. eaiiie once iiion' In tbe front. . It 
 WIS lia.Mif I'tohii wh.i, in l.«7u, -iieee.sb d ti.iidon 
 as(i,.vini<iiir-Gener.il lie li:i.| three Europeans 
 as his siibiinlinales— Kmin \U\. wlm In fnre (ior- 
 dm h'ft. had lieen jilai id in charge nf the province 
 of Iheeipiatnr. Liipion Ik'y, an Kiigllshman. who 
 III I billuwiil Gessi as (iiiNernour on the Itidinl. 
 «iim«ii. ami .siaiin Ikv. an Austrian. In com- 
 mand iif Darfur. lUouf had barely lain two 
 
 r , . ■."•"""- >^"»i "> r-gypi. un me otner 
 band, it is but historical justice to say that Ismail 
 did much for the material progress of the countrj- 
 He added more than I.WX) to the 200 miles of 
 railway in existence at the death of Said. He 
 greatly improved the irrigation, and so increaseil 
 the cultivable area of the country; multiplied 
 the primarv schools, and encouragcil native in- 
 dustries. For so much, at least, history will 
 pivr- him credit. As memorable, though less 
 meritorious, were the magnltlo-nt fetes with 
 wl.ah. in 1869, he oiH'ncsl the .Suez Canal, the 
 gnat work which England hiul so long opposeil 
 hut through which — as if bv the inmv of his- 
 tory —the first ship tlml passed llew the English 
 Hag. and to the present tralHc of whiih we con- 
 tribute more than eighty p<T cent. In wrsoiial 
 character. Ismail was of exceptional intelligenee, 
 but cruel, crafty-, and untrustworthy b<itii iii 
 politics and ii Ins private n-lations. ... It niav 
 be miiitioned that Ismail I'aslia was the «rst o'f 
 these Ottoman Viceroys who Isin' the title of 
 'Klieilive.' which is a"l'erso-Arabic designation 
 Bgnifyiiig nink a shade less than n^gal. This he 
 obtained in 1867 tiy heavv liriNs to the Sultan 
 and his chief ministers, as he had the year iH'fon' 
 by similar means ousted his bmther and uncle 
 from thesuecessiiiii. and secunnl it for his uwn 
 chlest son. — in virtue of which the latter now 
 1181HIJ nominally n-igus."— .1. C. MX'oan, A,V/y,,< 
 {Aiili.iiml Life <ii,'l ilumjlit. Irct. 18). -The siime. 
 K'jiijil under Iminiil, I'h. 1-4. 
 
 A. D. 1870-1883.— Conquest of the Soudu. 
 —Measures for the suppression of the slave- 
 trade.— The roTcrnmeat of General Gordon. 
 — Adrent of the Mabdi and beginning of bis 
 ftTOlt.— In 187(1. Ismail 1'a.slia 'iiiadi' an apinal 
 for European assistance tn stnngthen him in com- 
 pleting the enni|iie»t of Centnd Africa [Sir 
 Samuel I IJaker was acconlinglv plaied In com- 
 inand of \:iw men. supiilied with cannon and 
 •team-lsiai^. and riisivnl the title of Governour- 
 Geucral of the pmvinces which he was com- 
 missioned to sulslue. Having ehsted to make 
 (iondnkon) the si at of his i;nveniment. he 1 hanged 
 o- name to lb::iailia. He wiuinot long in ! nnging 
 thr Hari In submissinu. and then. a.|. uuiiig 
 •imihwanls. he came to the districts nf |lii::icanil 
 ratikn. a hialthy ngion eudnwed by iiatiir, with 
 fertile valhvB and irrigat.d by liinpid s>r. auis. 
 but for y -art past innvcrtisl inin a »<irl nf bell 
 upon earth by the slave hum. rs whn had made it 
 their headiiuartirs. Knun these pests llak.T de- 
 livensl the l.salily. and having by his i.i. t and 
 energy ovenoin.- ibe ilislriist nf Ihe iiallv.- rul.rs 
 
 JM' ( slablishid iiv.r th.ir lerriiorv a .< ri iln n ' 
 
 liernf small mililary s. It leiiients. . . llik. r n- 
 turn.. I to i:uii.|K' Haltering hiuis. If win, the 
 d.liisinn that hi ha.l put an .ml to the semirge 
 of Slav.' .haling. Ii was true that varimis shivi 
 d.alers .bus on ihe Ipinr Nile ha.l Is.ii 
 Ueslniyisl. a numlier nf .inlaws had Uin simi 
 an.l a few th.iusaii.l ini^mble slaves ha.l Ins 11 
 S.I at lilH'rtv: but li.^ni,.| t|,;,t nothing had 
 hisiiacnmiplishisl, no «,..ti.r ha.1 th.' lilsrat r 
 turii.sl his Iwik than the .Kliniis tmllli ri.niii 
 miiiiid with inim. vigour than ln'f.ir.' ihniui:h 
 till- ngion Kiulh of Oimdukor... This, h.iw.vi r 
 was only one of the sUvchunliiig .lisiri.ts. and 
 
 ny !h' iiirntij i.'ir worst. . . i |.d. l i; mail 
 
 cHnpulshui th.' Khe<lh.. UiiihII uiidertiH.k i 
 
 ^.niipu..! »i in,. ivu,.<i|ve IsiiiHll uiidertiH.k i mau.l nf Darfur. lUnuf had ban Iv Isen two 
 
 V> pnimote Buas.m.s to put a stop to the K-anUal. j year. »i Khartoum wla-n the .Mahdi applilU « 
 
 789 
 
EOTPT, 1870-1888. 
 
 n« jraM<. 
 
 EOTPT, 1878-1888. 
 
 theKcne. Prompted either by penonal ambition 
 or by reliKioui hatred, the idea of playing the part 
 of ' Mahal ' bad been acted upon by many an Arab 
 fanatic [see Mardi]. Such an idea, at an early 
 age, had taken poeaenion of a certain Soudanese 
 of low Mrth, a native of DongoU, by name Mo- 
 hammed Ahmed. Before openly aipiring to the 
 rOle of the regenerator of Islam be had filled 
 seTcral subordinate engagements, notably one 
 under Dr. Peney, the French surgeon-general in 
 ,the Soudan, who died in 18«1. Shortly after- 
 wards he received admittance into the powerful 
 order of the Ghtlani dervishea, and then com- 
 menced his schi'nics for stirring up a revolution in 
 defence of his creed. His proceedings did not 
 fail to attract the attention of Oeaai Pasha, who 
 had him arrested at Shekka and imprisoned for 
 five months. Under the government of Raouf 
 he took up bis sbiMie U|H)n the small island of 
 Abba, on tlie Nile almve Khartoum, where he 
 gained a cocslderablfl notoriety by the austerity 
 of his life and by the fervour of bis devotions, thus 
 gradually galnmg a high reputation for sanctity. 
 Sot only offerings but followers strvamoil in from 
 every quarter. He iH'came rich as well as power- 
 ful. . . . Waiting till May 1881, he then assumed 
 that a propitious time bad arrived for the realisa- 
 tion of his plans, and accordingly bad himself 
 publicly proclaimoil as • Mahdl,^ inviting every 
 fakir and every ri'ligious leader of Islam to come 
 and join him at Abba. . . . Convinced that it was 
 impolitic ui ti>lernte any longer the revolutionary 
 intrigues of such an adventurer at the very gates 
 of Khartoum, Kaouf Pasha resolved to rid the 
 country of Mohammed and to send him to Cairo 
 for trial, An expedition was accordingly des- 
 palcheii to the i»lan(i of Abbii. but unfortunately 
 the nwans employeii were inadeoiiaU' to the task. 
 Onlv a small body of black solilicrs were sent to 
 iirr(>st the agitator in his quarters, and they, in- 
 spired niidoubt liy » vague and superstitiousdread 
 of a man who repn'seiiled himself as the mes- 
 senger of Allah, wavered and acted with indi-- 
 cision. Before their oflieers could rally them to 
 energy, the Mahdi, with a fleree train of follow- 
 ers, knife in hand, rushed upon them, and killing 
 niauy, put the rest to flight, then, seeing that a 
 rene'weil assault was likely to tie made, he with- 
 dri'W the insurgent Imtid into a retreat of safety 
 amongst the mountains of Southern Konlofan. 
 Henceforth revolt wa» opi'niy declared. Siicli 
 was the conditiim of tilings in August l)Mt. 
 t'hase was given, but every effort to secure the 
 {HTHiin of the pretenileii pMpliet was haffletl. A 
 further ntteiiipt was maile to arrest him by the 
 .Miiillr of KaslKKla with 1..VK) men, only to \w at- 
 tended with a still more melancholy result. After 
 a ileit|M-r»te struggle tlie Mudtr lay stretched upon 
 the ground, his stildieramunlered all around him. 
 ( >ne olngle oHIeer, with a few siraggling cavalry, 
 ew'iilH'd the inassaire, and retiirneil to n'port the 
 fatal news. The reverse caused sn absolute panic 
 ill Khartoum, an int<>nse excitement sprea<Iing 
 throughout the Soudan. . . . Meantime the 
 Maliili's prestige was ever uu the increase, and 
 he RiHin fell sufficiently strong to assume the offen- 
 sive. His troops overran Konlofan and Sennar. 
 ailvaneing on the one liaod to the town of Sennar, 
 which tliey M>t f>n tire, and on the other to El- 
 ( )lieid. which they placed In a state of siege. In 
 tlie following July a fresh and more powerful ex- 
 pedition, this time numliering 4.000 men, under 
 the command of YuMuf Pasha, left Fuhoda and 
 
 made towards the Hahdi's headquarten. It met 
 with no better fato than the expeditions that had 
 gone before. . . . And then it was that the English 
 Government, discerning duiger for Egypt in this 
 insurrection of Islam, set to work to act for the 
 Khedive. It told off 11,000 men, and pUced them 
 under the command of Hicka Pasba. an officer in 
 the Egyptian service who bad made the Alivasin- 
 ian campaign. At the end of December 1882 this 
 expedition embarked at Suez for Suakin, creased 
 the desert, reached the Nile at Berber, and after 
 much endurance on the way, arrived at Khar- 
 touDL Before this, El-Obeid had fallen into the 
 Mahdi's power, and there he had taken up his 
 headquarters. Some trifling advantages were 
 gain«l by Hicks, but having entered Kordofan 
 with the design of retaking El-Obeld, he was, 
 on the 5lh of November 1883, hemmed In amongst 
 the Kasgil passes, and after three days' heroic 
 fighting, his army of about 10,000 men was 
 overpowered by a force five or six times their 
 superior in numbers, and completely extermin- 
 ated. Hicks Pasha himself, his European staff, 
 and many EgyptUn officers of high rank, were 
 among the deadl and forty-two guns fell Into the 
 hands of the enemy. Again, not a man was 
 left to carry the fatal tidings to KhartnuiiL 
 Kebellion conttoued to spread. After heiii); 
 agitated for months, the population of the 
 Astern Soudan also made a rising. Usman 
 Digna, the foremost of the Mahdi's lieutenants, 
 occupied the niad between Suakin and Berlicr, 
 and surrounded Sinkat and Tokar; then, having 
 destroyed, one after another, two Egyptian 
 columns that had been despatched for the nlief 
 of these towns, he flually cut off the conimiiiii- 
 cation between Khartoum and the Keii 8<>a. 
 The tide of Insurrection by this time had risen 
 so high that it threatened not only to over- 
 throw the Khedive's authority in the Sniuhin, 
 but to become the source of serious peril to 
 Egypt itself."— A. J. Wauters, mnnlfy'i Kmin 
 IhiiJui Krpnlition, fh. 1-3. 
 
 Kixo in: MaJ. R. F. WIngate, ilahdiimi and 
 tht Egyptian Sudan, bk. 1-4.— Col. Sir W P. 
 Butler, Charlfs Ontrge Gordon, eh. 5-(l,— .V. E. 
 Hake, rkfKtoryofCHntf (ionbin. rh. lO-ll. 
 
 A. D, 1S75-1MJ.— Bankruptcy of the state. 
 — EncUsh and French control of finances.— 
 Native hostility to the foreifnars. — Rebel- 
 lion, led by Arabi.— English bomb«rdia«nt of 
 Alexandria. — " The facilities given by foreign 
 money-lenders encouraged extravagance and i« 
 tentatlon on the part of the sovereign and the 
 ruling claasi'B, wliile mismanagement and cor- 
 rupt practices were common among officials, so 
 that the public debt rose In 1875 to ninety on-' 
 millions, and In January, 1881, to rinetyeiglit 
 millions. . . . The Euroix-an ispitalisla ofitiiueii 
 for their money noininally six to nine perfjent., 
 but really not less than eight to ten per cent, as 
 the bonds were Issued at low rates. . . . rheiiii.r- 
 eston tliesi- Isirro Ami millions was puncti'tllv (mid 
 up to the end of 1875, when the Khedi<e found 
 that he coulil not satisfy bis creditors, and the 
 Britlsli government interfered in his favour. Mr 
 Cave was sent to examine Into Egyptian Anann-a, 
 and he reported that loans at twelve and tlilrWen 
 |ier cent were beiag agreed to ami rene>ed at 
 Iwenty-flve per cent., mkJ that some measwrs of 
 umaiilidalion was oeveaaary. Tlie 1*0 wstcni 
 Powers now Uwk the matter In hand, bu* they 
 thereby recof nised the whole of these us«.-lvus 
 
 790 
 
lOTPT. 18TS-1883. 
 
 ArabCt BnoU. 
 
 SOTPT, 187»-188S. 
 
 denuodi. The debt, although under their con- 
 trol, and therefore aecurad, wa« not reduced by 
 toe amount already paid in piemiunu for rlik. 
 nor waa the rate of Interest dlminiahed to some- 
 thlnjt more nearly approaching the rate payable 
 on Engllah coniols, which wai three per cent 
 A tribunal under the Jurladietion of united 
 European and natlTe Judgei waa alio eetablished 
 in Egypt to decide complaints of foreigLers 
 Against natives, and vice vena. In May, 1876 
 this Mbunal gave judgment that the income of 
 the Khedive Ismail, from Vii private landed 
 property, could be appropriated to pay the cred- 
 itors of the state, ana an execution was put into 
 the Viceregal palace, Er Ramleh, near Alex- 
 andria. The Khedive pronounced the Judgment 
 invalid, and the tribunal ceased to act. Two 
 commimioners were now again sent to report on 
 Egyptian finances — H. Joubert, the director of 
 tiie Paris Back, for France, and Mr. Ooschen, a 
 former minister, for England. These gentlemen 
 proposed to hand over the control of the finances 
 to two Europeans, depriving the sUte of all 
 independence and governing power. The Khe- 
 dive, in order to resist these demands, convoked 
 a sort of Pariianipiit in order to make an appeal 
 •to the neople. From this Parliament was after- 
 wards developed the Assembly of Ni)tobles, and 
 the National party, now so often spoken of. In 
 1877 a European commission of control over 
 Egyptian finance was named. . . . Nubar Pasha 
 was made Prime minister in 1878; the control of 
 the finances was entrustt-d to Mr, Wilson, an 
 Englishman; and later, the French controller. M. 
 de Bligniires. entered the Cabinet. Better order 
 was thus restored to the finances. Rothschild's 
 new loan of eight and a half millions was Issued 
 at seventy three, and therefore brought in from 
 six to eight per cent. nitt. ... But to be able 
 to pay lliccrediturs their full interest, economy 
 had to be introduced into the national expendi- 
 ture. To do this, clumsy arrangemenu were 
 made, and the injustice khown in carrying tlicm 
 out embittemi many claitses of tlip plipulalion. 
 and laid tlie fouuilations of a fanatical hatred of 
 race against rare. ... In conwquence of all 
 this, tliL majority of the notables, many ulemas, 
 officers, and hlglipr officials aninnK the Ifgyptian-s. 
 formed tliemwlvrs into a National party, witli 
 the object of resisting the oppreiwive govern- 
 ment of the foni^ncr. They were Joined by the 
 great mass of the dischargrd soldiers and sub- 
 ordinate ofiU-ials, ii"t to mention many others 
 At the end of February, 1879, a revolt liroke out 
 In Cairo. Nubar. hated by the Natinnal party 
 was dismiiiaed by the Khedive Ismail, who In 
 stalled his son Tewflk as Wme minister. In 
 coDsequenre of this, the coupons due in April 
 were not paid till the beginning of May. and the 
 western Powers demanded the reinstatement of 
 Nubar That Tewflk on this occasion retired 
 and sided with the foreigners Is the chief cause 
 of his present [imi] unpopularity In Egypt. 
 Isnuil. however, n.,.v disnilNKnl Wilson and De 
 Bligni^res, and a Cabinet was formed, consisting 
 . chiefly of native Egyptians, with Sherif Pasha 
 at Prime minister. i4herif now raised for the 
 flnt time the cry of which we have since heard 
 JO much, and which wa« ioacribed bv Arabi on 
 nis b4afirfs. 'Egypt for the Egypifjuu.' The 
 weatem Powen retorted by a menacing naval 
 dcmnoatfitioD, and demanded of the SuIud the 
 dapoiltkm of ttaa Khadtv*. la June, 187t, this 
 
 demand was agreed to. Ismail went into exile, 
 and his place was filled by Mahomed Tewflk. 
 . . . Tlie new Khedive, with apathetic weak- 
 ness, yielded the reconstruction of his ministrr 
 and the organization of his finances to the western 
 Powers. Mr. Baring and M. de Bligniites, a« 
 commlaaionera of the control, aided by official* 
 named by Hothschild to watch over his private 
 intereau, now ruled the land. They devoted 
 forty-five millions (about sixteen shillings per 
 head on the entire population) to the payment of 
 interest. The people were embitterea by the 
 dibtrust shown towards them, and the further 
 reduction of the army from fifty to fifteen 
 thoiuand men threw a targe number out of 
 employment. . . . Many acta of military insub- 
 ordination occurred, and at last, on the 8th of 
 Aovember, 1881, the great military revolt broke 
 out In Cairo. . . . Ahmed Arabi, colonel of the 
 4th regiment, now first came into public notice, 
 aeveral regimenU, headed by their offlcen, 
 openly rebelled against the orders of the 
 Khedive, who was compelled to recall the 
 nationalist, Sherif Pasha, and to refer the further 
 demands of the rebels for the increase of the 
 army and for a cons'itution, to the Sultan. 
 Sherif Pasha, however, did not long enjoy the 
 confidence of the National Egyptian party, at 
 whose head Arabi now stixxl, winning every day 
 more .-eputatlon and influence. The army in 
 which he permitt«l great laxity ot discipline 
 was entirely devoted to him. , . , A pretended 
 plot of Circassian olflcers against his life he dex- 
 terously u«e<l to increase bis popularity. . 
 Twenty -six offlccTS were rondemned to death by 
 coartmartlal, but the Khedive, at the instance 
 of the western Powers, commuted the sentence 
 and they were Iwnished to Constantinople. Thia 
 leniency was stigmatiinl by the National party 
 as treachery to the country, and the ChambiT of 
 Notables n'torU-d by unmmg Arabi roniniander- 
 inchief of the anny and Prime minister without 
 asking the consent of the Khedive. The Cham- 
 lier soon afterwards came Into conflict with the 
 foreign coniptrollem. . . . Thin ended in De 
 BligniiV-s resigning his post, and In the May of 
 the pn-wnt year (1882) the cimsuls of the 
 Kiirojieiin Powers declared that a fleet of English 
 anil Frenth Ironclads would appear Iwfore Alex- 
 andria, to demand the disbanding of the army 
 and the punishment of its leaders The threat 
 was realized, nnd. In spite of protesU from the 
 Sultan, a fleet of EnglLsh and French ironclads 
 entered the liarliour of Alexandria. The Khe- 
 dive, at the advice of his minlsten and the 
 chiefs of the National party, nnpeale<l to the 
 Sultan. , . . The popular hatmt of foreigners 
 now liecame more and more apparent, and be- 
 gan to assume threateniiii; dimensions. ... On 
 the ."iiHli of May. Aratil announced that a des- 
 patch from the Sultan had reache<i him, prom- 
 ising the deposition of Tewflk in favour of hia 
 uncle Hallm Pasha. . . . On the 3rd of June, 
 Dervish Pasha, a man of energy uotwitbstandinf 
 his years, had sailed from Constantinople. . . . 
 His object was to pacify Egypt and to reconcile 
 Tewflk and Arab! ISsha. . . Since the publi- 
 cation of the despatch purporting to proclaim 
 Hallm Pasha as Khedive. Arabi had done noth- 
 ing lowanis dethroning liie artiial ruler. But 
 on the Snd of June he began to strengthen the 
 fortiflcations of Alexandria witk earthwork!. 
 . . . The Brittah admir»l proleMed. and the 
 
 791 
 
EGYPT, 187S-1882. 
 
 jiombardment of 
 Alnmulria. 
 
 EGYPT. 1888-1888. 
 
 Sultan, on the remonstrances of British diplo- 
 macy, forbad the continuation of the works. 
 . . . Sc-riouB disturbanceg took place in Alex- 
 andria on the 1 Itli. The native rabble invaded 
 the Eun)pean quarter, plundered the shops, and 
 slew many forelgnirs. . . . Though the disturb- 
 anies were not renewe<l, a gcneml eraigratiou of 
 foreigners was the result. ... On the 22n(l a 
 commisHion, consisling of nine natives and nine 
 Europeans . . . Ix-gan to try the ringleaders of 
 the riot. . . . But events were burning on 
 towiinls war. The works at Alcxamlria were 
 ncominenciHl, and the fortifications srmetl with 
 lifiivy guns. The English admiral reeeivwl in- 
 formation that tlieentranf-e to the harlH)ur would 
 l>e bl(Kked by simken sioreships, and this, he 
 dcclarod. would be an act of op«'n war. A com- 
 plete scheme for the destruction of the Suez 
 canal was also diseoven^d. . . . The English, on 
 tlicir side, now In-gan to make hostile ilemonstrn- 
 liiiiis: uiiil Arat)i, while repudiating warhke 
 inlditioiis. deeliireil himself ready for resistance. 
 . . . On the 2Tth the English vice-consul a<lvi»ed 
 his fellow-countrjnien to leave Alexandria, anil 
 on tiie 3nl of Jidy, according to the 'Times,' the 
 arningemenls for war were complete, . . . Finally, 
 as a reconnaissance on the 9th showed that the 
 forts were still Iieing stn^ngthenwl, he fllie 
 Enirlish admiral] informed the governor of Alex- 
 andria, Ziilficar Pasha, tliat unless the forts had 
 Ijeen previously evacuated and surrendered to 
 the English, he intended to commence the bom- 
 banlment at four the next morning. ... As the 
 French goveniment were unable to take part in 
 any lu'tive nii-asiires (a grant for that purpose' 
 having In-en refused by the National Assembly), 
 the gri-atir purt of their fleet, under Adndrnl 
 t'onrad. lift Alexandria for Port Said. The 
 ironclads of (■llier nations, mon- than fifty in 
 uundsT. anehcind outside the harlsmr of Alex- 
 andria. . . . (In the evening of the 10th of .luly 
 . . . and at dajlinak on the Ittli. the . , . iniii- 
 clads tiHik up' the |<<>sitioiis assigne<i to them. 
 There was a gitillc bree/.i- from the east, anil the 
 weather was i Ic Mr .\I ti;ti)a. m. all the ships 
 were clean-il for action. At seven the adminil 
 Bii;nalle<l to the Alexanilra to Are a sIk II into Fort 
 Ada . . . TIm' first shot flre<l fnmi the Alix- 
 Biulra was immediately replini to by the Eu'Vp- 
 tians; whereupon the ships of the whole fleet and 
 the Egyptian forts and batteries o[R'ned tin, ami 
 the enirairement Imaine genend. . . . At K :to 
 Fort SliirsacI Kanat was blown up by sliills 
 from the Invimilile and Monarch, and by nim- 
 oi'lcH-kllie Temerairi'. Miaumh.and Penelope hud 
 slhneed most of the guns in Fort .Meks. altiioutrli 
 lour lieiied c viry ilfort fnan tlieir prolecinl »il 
 nation. Hy 1 1 l"i Forts Mjinilsput and .Vdjend 
 hid t'( iwil llriutf. a'ld a landing' party of seanaii 
 and ntariiies was de-^patclie.l, uiitler c over of tln' 
 lliitems guns, to >i>ike and blow np llie gims in 
 till' forts At I .111 a shell fmin the .><ii|Krli burst 
 In the eliii f |i<iH lir niiu'azine of Fort Ada ami 
 l>lv* it up Uv four u . liH'k all the guns of Fort 
 IMiuKH, and half an hour later those of Fort Miks, 
 wire disahltsl. and at H.'M the ailmiral onlered 
 the firing to ceaM'. The ships were njx'ateilly 
 •I ruck anil. sustainisl some damage. . . . The Km.' 
 lish casualties were five killed an<l twenty it 
 w^MivlriV R ."iimp-;tr4tiv;-!y small losx Thr i^"-yp 
 tlan loss is not known . .'. .Vt 1 p. m. on tlir Vith 
 of Jtdy, the white flag was hoisttsi by tlw Egyp 
 Admiral SeyinourdriiMiMled, atapiellini 
 
 tlaiis 
 
 nary measure, the surrender of the forts com- 
 manding the entnioce to the hartmur, and the ne- 
 
 ?;otiBtiong on this point were fruitlessly protracted 
 or some hours. As night approached the city was 
 seen to be on fire in many places, and the (fames 
 were spreading in all directions. The English 
 now became aware that the white flag had merely 
 Iwen used as means to gain time for a hasty 
 evacuation of Alexandria by Arabi and his army. 
 Sailors and marines were now landed, and ships 
 of other nations sent detachments on shore to 
 protect their countrymen. But it was too late ; 
 Be<hiuins, convicts, and ilUlisciplined soldiers 
 had plundered and burnt the Eurojieatt quarter, 
 killed many foreigners, and a Keuter's telegram 
 of the 14th saul. 'Alexandria is completely di- 
 stroveil."— U. Vogt, The Egyptian Miir of \>m, 
 pp. UVi. 
 
 Also in: J. C. McCosm, ii^*;>« under Imuiil, 
 eh. 8-111.— C. Koyle, The Kyyjdian Cumjuiigm, 
 f. 1, eh. 1-20. — Khediret and I'luhat.—V.. ¥. 
 Goodrich, Rrjit. on BrilM Military aiul yurnl 
 OiHnitiuM in Egm't, l****-. Pt- '■ 
 
 A. D. 1883-1883.— The masikcre and de- 
 struction in Alezuidria.- Declared rebellion of 
 Arabi.— Its aupDreiaion by the Eacliih.— 
 Banishment of Arabi.— EnEtish occupation, 
 — The city of Alexandria liad become " suili a 
 scene of pillage, massacre, and wanton destruc- 
 tion as to make the world shudder. It was the 
 old talc of horrors. Houses were plundered and 
 bume<l: the Eunip<'an ouarter, including the 
 stately buildings 8urn>unding the Great Square 
 of .Mehemet .VII, was sacked and left a heap of 
 sinolilering ruins: and more than two thousand 
 Euro|ieans, for the most part I,<'viintiues. were 
 massacrjsi with all tlie cruelty of oriental fanati 
 cisni. This was on the afteni<K)n of the 12th. 
 It was the swond nuisHncn^ that hivl (K-cumd 
 undiT the very eyes of the British fleet. Tin- 
 admiral's failure to pn'veiit it has Ik'iii called 
 unfortunate by some and criminal by olliers. It 
 Btrms to have U'cn wholly without excUMv . . 
 The blue jackets were binded on the bitli, and 
 cleansl the way ta'forv them with a Galling gun. 
 The next day. nioO' ships having arrivi-,1, a 
 KUtllcient force was landed to take |Mi8sessinii of 
 the entire city. The kluilive was ese-ortid bacli 
 to Itasel Tin from llainlih. and given a slroim 
 guanl. Suinmarv justice was dealt out to al', 
 hostile Arabs wlio had Is'in captured in the 
 I ity. In short, English intervention was f"l 
 Inwid by English oc<iipalion ThelsanlNirrlmeet 
 of Alexandria Imd dilitud charly the rer|»'<i 
 ive po>itionsof .Vrabi and the kliiilive lownnl 
 Egypt and tlie Egyptian iMiqilc . . . The 
 khedivc was not oiilj weak in Ilie evi» of his 
 iHoiWe, but he »•:!'< rrganhsl as till- ti"'l of En; 
 laiiil . . . From tin' in"iiient tin- fliNt sliul was 
 tin. I upon .\h xandria, .\fiil was then.il ruli r 
 of till' |»i)|iliv . . . 'l;.i- ittiifirinie lit t'on- 
 slantiiii'pli' was slirnd by tin- new.', of the Ismi- 
 banlnieiit of Alexandria! it presttited a not" 
 to till' I'orle. ,luly l.y requesting lue di^|mt• U 
 of 'I'urklMli Iniops 111 nstore ilie -talus ipio in 
 Eirypt ihit tin sultan had no idea of lakiiii: 
 the purt of thr ( liri^tian in what all Ulain r< 
 ganliil as a conte.'.i ts'tween the Moslem and lie' 
 unlsllever. , . . In Egypt, the khiilive had Ixio 
 prevaile-.l u'l-.-u. after «i'«!ie demur, t" tmwhihii 
 .\rabl a rela-l and discharge him from his caliiiiet. 
 Aralil had issued a counter pnalamation. on the 
 same day, declaring Tewfikatrmiturtu his people 
 
 792 
 
EGYPT, 1888-1M8. 
 
 Campaign. 
 
 EGYPT, 1883-1888. 
 
 and his religion. Having receired the news of 
 Hie klie<livi.g proclamation. Lord DuJterin tlie 
 Britiali amliaasador at ConsUntinople. announced 
 U> the confennce that England was al»ut to 
 send an expedition to Egypt to suppress the 
 retie Hon and to restore the authority of the 
 khejiii-e. Tlienupon the sultan declareil tliat 
 he liajl dmdi-d to send a Turkish expedition. 
 l.<)nl DuiTerin feigned to accept the sultan's co- 
 operalion, liut demanded that the Porte as a 
 pri'liminary step, should declan- Arali; a rebel 
 Again the sultan was confronted with the dan- 
 gjr of incurring the wrath of the Moslem world 
 He could not decluri! Arabi a reln'l In 
 
 his desiK'ration he sent a force of 3,0(X) men 
 to Sudtt bay with orrlcrs to hol.l themselves in 
 rcadini-ss to enter Egypt at a moments notice. 
 ... In the meantime, however, the English 
 expedition had arrivwl la Egvpt and was pn>- 
 eeedlng to crush the nbcI!ion,'regar.llcs8 of tlie 
 diplomatic delays and bickerings at Constanti- 
 nople. ... It was not until the l.'Slh of August 
 that Sir Garnet Wolseley arrived with his force 
 in Egypt. The English at that time held only 
 two {wints, Alexandria and Suez, while the en- 
 tire Egyptian interior, as well as Port Said 
 and Ismailia. were hel.l by Arabi, whose force, 
 it was estimated, now amounte<) to aliout TO (KK) 
 men, of whom at least ,V),00<J were regulars 
 The objective point of General Wolselevs ex- 
 p<<iitiou to crush Arahl was, of course, tfie city 
 of ( airi>. Tliere we, .wo ways of approaching 
 that city, one from Alcxanclria, through the 
 IK'lta, and the other from the Suez canal There 
 were many objections to the former route 
 The Suez canal was supposed to lie neutral 
 water. . . But England felt no ol)llgatiun to 
 rc<-ognize any neutrality, . . . acting uix>n the 
 priniiple, which is doubtless sound, timt Mhe 
 neutrality of any canal joining the watera of the 
 Atlantic and Pacirtc <K^-ans will lie niainlaiiu-d 
 If at all. by tlio nation wl-lch ran place and keep 
 the stningest shins at each extremity.' In oilier 
 wonls. General VVols<-ley decided to enter Calm 
 by way of the Sue/ canal and Ismailia. Hut he 
 kept his plan n profound w-eret. AilniimI .Sv- 
 mour iiliiiie knew his purpose. . . . OntlielUtli 
 the transports mnved eastwani fn.iii Alexandria' 
 as f to attack Almklr; but under llie cover of 
 darkness that night, they were escorted on to 
 I ort Sidd, where they leanie<l that til.' entire 
 caii-il owing to the pri'ioncerted action of 
 Admiral Seymour, was in rhc hands of the 
 111.. I'n ""■-*'»• Ihe trrv ps met Sir Ilenrv 
 Mrl herson's Ind'i.n conllni-er.t at Isnwllia. Two 
 days wer<> now i .msiinied in n-st and prepara- 
 Uoii. The Egyptians cut ..If the water siipi.lv 
 wliirh came fnim tli.' !)<l;., by the Swwt Waii r 
 ranal, by .Uninii.i; t!i, canal. ' A sortie to wvim- 
 |h)s.s.w|on of tliM ilnm wn.-. tlien^fore d.fiii.-.| 
 niceK,san, mim) «•„, successfully made on the 
 •J'l' '•"'■I'"''' advances were miule, and on the 
 •Mh Kassawin. i stntion of some Importance on 
 the canal and mil w.iv. was .Kvupled. Hen' the 
 ISriti.sl, for<v wasobligeil to delay for two weeks 
 while .irganlzln,^ a hospital and a transiiort ser^ 
 vii-e. This gave Arabi opiwrtunltv to .on,-. n 
 trate his fonvs at Zagazig ami Tel el K.hir 
 Hut he knew it was for his interest to strike at 
 I'lice lief, re tlie nritish inm'tv'rt" i-.juUl r::".u- !::-. 
 "itfa th. advance He tlienfor«. iim.lc twii 
 Hii.mpis, one on August !W. and th. oiluron 
 ltept«t.ibcr », to KKaiu tho |xi»ltlou lost ul Kas 
 
 sasato But he failed in both, though inflictinc 
 «)mc loss upon his opponents. On the 12th of 
 September preparations were made by General 
 Wolsi'ley f.ir a decisive lialtle. He had become 
 convinced from dally rcconnoissBncc and from 
 the view obtainiHl in the engagement of Septem- 
 ber 9, that the fortitications at*Tel-el-Kebir were 
 both extensive and fonnidable. . . It was 
 therefore dwided to make the approach under 
 
 of the ISth General Wolsel.-y gave the order fo? 
 tlie advance, his force consisting of aiiout 11 000 
 Infantry. 2.00«) cavalrymen, and sixty Hel.l-gun.s. 
 They lu«l only the stars to guide them, liiit so 
 BcciiMt.-ly was the movement conducted that the 
 leading brigailes of each division n-ached the 
 inemy s out|).ists within two minutes of each 
 "llier. • -The enemy (says Gei.emI Wolsclev) 
 were completely surprised, and it was not until 
 one .ir two of their a.lv,ince.l i-entrics flnsl their 
 
 •!)3 
 
 rJHes Iliat they n-iilized our < l.«e proximity to 
 their works.'. . . The intrincbineiits were n.it 
 carrie.1 without a severe Rtru"gle. The Eirvn- 
 tiaus fought with a .lesp-niie courage and 
 hundtjeils of them were Imyoneteil at their iHWts 
 . . . Hut what could the rank and tile accom- 
 p.ibh when •,a<h .illicer knew that lie would run 
 bft lio|M.<l his neighlior would stay.' At the 
 first shot Arabi and his .s«-onil In coiiimand took 
 horse and gallopwl t.. Hellieis, where they caught 
 a train for I aim. JI„st of the oiIi.t olficers, as 
 t le n-p<irts of killed and wound.-.l show did 
 the same The Egyptians flred th.ir first shot 
 at 4..'5.i A M., ami at (I W the English had IXM- 
 s.-s8l,.n <>f Arabis li.-,i.|,|iiarters an.l th,. .-anal 
 bridge The British loss was .■>: kill.-.l ;t80 
 woun.l,.d. ami 2a mis.slng. The Egyptian aniiy 
 left al«.ut 2.(KI0.1ead in the f,.rtiHcati<.ns 
 A pOKif of the conipl.t.ii<-«,s of the success n-ai 
 the entire .lissipaiion of Arabis anny. Gmun* 
 of soUliers, it is Ini.'. were scatten-.! "t.i dilT.-n'nt 
 parts of Kgypt ; but the arinv organization was 
 completely Im.ken up with tlie Imitli- of T.l-el- 
 hebir. . . . Maj.ir (iencnil Low.. w», .mlered 
 to push on Willi all jMis.sibIe sp..<-il t,. Cairo 
 
 ■ , ..*,''"'!'■','' '•"*'■ I"'""'"'''! the gnat liarnoki 
 "f Ahlias.sieh, just oulsiil.. of Cairo, at 4 4."i l> M 
 ■n the. Uth instant. Th.. . avalry man li.-.l sixtyl 
 ive miles in tlii.se two .lavs. ' \ iii,.>aaie 
 
 was sent t.i Arabi Pasha IlirLuiili the pri-f.-ct iif 
 the cily. .ailing u|...ii hiiM M siirremler forth- 
 with, wlmli h.ili.l uncoii.lilionalli ■ Before 
 having Kni:lan.l. \Vols.l..v h.i.l pr. .Il.ti.i that he 
 woul.l .ni.r C.iiro on Ih.- Irtil, ,,f ,S<-pt,.nilH.r- 
 but with Mill a .lay 1.. spar.' th,. f.at was aci-.im- 
 plish.sl. an.l Anilii's r.ls llion was completely 
 criishe.1 Englaii.l ii..w si.ksI al.m... Victory 
 lia.i Iss'n won wiih.iut ihe aid ..f Prance .>r the 
 inl.Tyenti..ii .if Turk.-i. In C.instanllmipl.. nc- 
 g..tiall.ins n-irar.liiiv' Tiirki..|i ex|>eiliti.ins were 
 still iMii.ling wh.n I...r.| liulT.riii rweiv.sl the 
 n.ws ..f \V.,|sel.ys sii.-nss. an.l ann.iuncisl to 
 I't. I'.irli' that there was m.w no nis'.l .if a 
 TurklOi fonc in Et'vpt, as the war was emi.il 
 iMiii.at once pn.par.sl t.i risiinie her slian- in 
 !!..■ ..iiitml: but Eniriind. having iMirii.. the sole 
 biinhn iif the war, ili.l m.i pniiKis.. now to share 
 til.' liilliU'niT her suc.i'ss had giv.n liir. And it 
 was for the lnt..n.st .if Egyjil that she shouM 
 '■•'-' Eiisiar.i's first lijty. afi. r .i»l. I Mas 
 BssiinHl, was lo senil away al) the British tnsipe 
 .'X.-epI n f.irce of alsiut ll.lNK) men. which It 
 was deemed advisable to ntain in Egypt uutU 
 
lOTFT, 1888-1888. 
 
 Kk att oum. 
 
 BOTFT. 18M-1888. 
 
 the kbedire'i authority wm pboed on % mie 
 (ooting throughout the land. . . . What ihould 
 be done with Arab! waa the aueation of para- 
 mount intereit, when once the khedlTe'a author- 
 ity waa re-e«Ubliahed and recognized. Tewflk 
 and his miniaten, if left to thenuelTcs, would 
 unqiieationablr have taken bis life. . . . But 
 England waa determined that Arabi should have 
 a utir trial. ... It was decided that the rebel 
 leaden should appear before a militarv tribunal, 
 and they were given English counsel to plead 
 their cause. . . . The trial was a farce. Every- 
 thing was ' cut and dried ' beforehand. It waa 
 arranged that Arabi was to plead guiltv to re- 
 bellion, that he was forthwith to be condemned 
 to death by the court, sod that the khedive 
 was immediately to commute the sentence to 
 perpetual exile. In fact, the necesaarr papers 
 were drawn up and signed before the court 
 met for Arabi's trial on December 8. ... On 
 the a<th of December Arabi and his six com- 
 panions . . . upon wliom the same sentence lud 
 been passed, left Cairo for the IsUnd of Ceylon, 
 there to spend their life of perpetual exile. . . . 
 Lord Dufferin . . . had been sent from Con- 
 stantinople to Cairo, early In November, with 
 the special mission of bringing order out of 
 governmental chaos. In two months lie had 
 prepared a scheme of legislative reorganization. 
 This was, however, somewhat altered ; so that it 
 waa not until May, 1883, that the plan in its 
 Improved form was accepted by the decree of the 
 khedive. The new constitution provided for 
 three classes of assemblies: the 'Legislative 
 Council,' the ' General Assembly," and the ' Pro- 
 vincial Councils," of which there were to be 
 fourteen, one for each province. . . . Every 
 Egyptian man, over twenty years of age, was to 
 vote (by ballot) for an " elector-delegate " from 
 the village in the neighborhood of which he 
 lived, ancl the "electors-delegate" from all the 
 vlilagm in a province were to form the constitu- 
 ency that should elect the provincial council. 
 . . . "Tlif scheme for reorganization was carrie<i 
 forwani to tlie extent of electing the "electors- 
 delegate" in September; but by that time Egypt 
 was again in a state of such disquietude tliat the 
 British advisers of the khedive considered it un- 
 wise to put the new institiitionH Into <i|>eratlon. 
 In place of legislative council and general assem- 
 bly, the khi-dlve appointed a council of state, 
 consistine of eleven Eiryptians, two Armenians, 
 and ten Europeans. The reforma were set aside 
 for the time being in view of impending troubles 
 and dangem in the Sudan."— J. E. Bowen. Tht 
 Vonjtifl of Kul and West in Egn>t. eh. 5-«. 
 
 Also i.n : Cul, J. F. Msurice, Military /Bit. of 
 tht Vampiiign of 1883 in EnP*—^- Roy'«. ^*< 
 Sgmtiiin Campnign*. t. 1, fh. 22-44. 
 
 A. D. 1SB4-188J.— General Gordoa'a Mitsioa 
 to Khartoum.— "fba town balcacnarad by the 
 Mahdiats.— En(Uah rescue ezpoditioB.— 7 be 
 encrcj that was too late. - • Ttie abandonment 
 of the Soudan belnt dcciiini upon, the Uritioh 
 Oovemment confldftl to (ieneral tlordon the taak 
 of extricating the Egyptian garrisons scattemi 
 throughout iTie country. . . 0<)rdon"s original 
 Instnictlonii »i re dated the 18th January, 1884. 
 He waa to prix^ed at once to Ei(ypt. to report on 
 t!:.- military a!tua'.!t;D in the *judsn. BO'l "n »he 
 measures which it might he advisable to take for 
 the security of the Egyptian garrisons and fur 
 the safety of the Euiipcan population in Khar 
 
 toum. . . . He waa to be accompanied Iqr Colonel 
 Stewart. . . . Gordon's final instructions were 
 
 fiven him by the Egyptian Government in a 
 rman appointing him Governor-General. . . . 
 Ooidon arrived at Khartoum on the 18th Febru- 
 ary. . . . While Gordon was sending almost 
 daily expreaalons of his view aa to the only way 
 of carrying out the policy of eventual evacuation, 
 it was also becoming dear to him that he would 
 very soon be cut ofTfrom the rest of Egypt His 
 first remark on this subject waa to express ' the 
 conviction that I ahall be caught hi Khartoum "; 
 and he wrote,—' Even if I waa mean enough to 
 escape I have no power to do so." The accuracy 
 of this forecast waa speedily demonstrated. 
 Within a few days communicatlona with Khar- 
 toum- were interrupted, and although subse- 
 quently restored for a time, the rising of the 
 riparian tribes rendered the receipt and despatch 
 of messages exceedingly uncertain. . . . Long 
 before the summer of 1884, it waa evident that 
 the position of Gordon at Khartoum had become 
 so critical, that if he were to be rescued at all, it 
 could only be by the despatch of a British force. 
 . . . Early in May. war preparations were com- 
 menced in EnglsiM, and on the 10th of the month 
 the military authorities In Cairo received instruc- 
 tions to prepare for the despatch in October of an 
 expedition for the relief of the Soudanese capiul. 
 12.00U camels were ordered to be purchaaeil and 
 held in teadbiess for a forward march in the 
 autumn. On the 16th May a half-battalion of 
 English troops was moved up the Nile to Wady 
 Haifa. A few weeks Uu t some other positions 
 on the Nile were occupied by portions of tl,u 
 Army of Occupation. Naval officers were also 
 , sent up the river to examine and repori upon the 
 cataracts and other impedimenta to n..vigatiun. 
 Still it was not till the 5th August that Mr. <>lad- 
 stone rose in the House of Commons to move a 
 vote of credit of £300,000 to enable the Oovem- 
 ment to tmdertake operations fo.- the r-lief of 
 Gordon. ... It was agreed that there were but 
 two routes by which Kliartoum could be ap- 
 proached by an expedition. One by way of the 
 Nile, and tiic otiier via Souakim and Berber. . . . 
 The Nile route having been decided on, prepara- 
 tions on a large scale were begun. ... It was 
 St first arranged that not more than 5,000 men 
 shotild form the Expedition, but Uler on the 
 number was raised to 7,000. . . . The instruc- 
 tions given to Lord Wolseley sUted tliat the 
 primary object of the Expedition was to bring 
 away Gordon and Stewart from Khartoum ; and 
 when that purpow should be effected, no further 
 offensive operations of any kind were to be under- 
 Uken."— C Hovie, Tht Unptian Campaignt, 
 1882-188S, ». 2. 'eh. 1"*-18.— "Firet, it was said 
 that our troops would be before the gates "( 
 Khartoum on January 14th; next it wasthemiil- 
 die of February ; and then the time stretche<l out 
 to the middle of March. . . . Lord Wolseley 
 offered a hundred pounds to the regiment over- 
 ing the distance from Surras to Debbch most ex- 
 peditiously sud with least damage to boats. . . .4 
 Ho also <iispatched Sir Herbert Stcwaa on tlio. 
 immorUl march to Gakdul. Stewart's force,' 
 composcil principally of the Mounted Infant rr 
 and Camel Corps, and led by a troop uf the l»th 
 HuMars. acting as scouts — numbering about 
 1 lOOtn all — set out from Korti on itecenibtr 
 80th. lu destination was atmut 100 miles from 
 j headquarters, and about 80 from thi Nile at 
 
 794 
 
EGYPT, 1884-1886. 
 
 On the nth Jsiiuary Sir HerCrt Ste^Wtnau 
 the enemy on the roud to Metemnel^ and mfte??e 
 
 her Metemoeh. and Omdumun— piuhed for 
 
 Elte^ .nd thoM of the Mahdi'. men - ofitSck- 
 «t«^ ,h '?'"*"d fitijfueh«lweIl-nlghToS. 
 .^ i""* '°"=e-were at all poinu nlmilir to 
 thoae adopted againat Hlcka. OWl^ wTre flfl 
 non-commiaaloned offlceti and mm UuS wd 8? 
 r^H^r^u *lth » officer. kiuS^Snon/^m 
 Coloael Burnaby-and » wounded. Stew^S 
 
 teft the Wella on the 18th Jan. to occupy Metem 
 vn- "P<«"''e. but. failing that, to mite for^e 
 NUeanJentrenchhimKrlf. *Af te?a nlghtS iSrJh 
 jonw ave mUe. «uth of Metemneh.lhe ^K 
 
 S^alSSt ^ SJE"?" °' •" e°e»y »^d to have 
 Deen aoout 18.000 MronK. Stewart h«U<.^ ...a 
 
 J^sS^iilii"" *? S* Syi". and Mr. CanS^n^ 
 Ptoir t^TYSi^"^ ^r «e'-bert, of the Morning 
 rat. were killed. The zareba comDlet«l thl 
 
 >ng oy Abu Klea, mored forward In echelon 
 
 IFSi^fZ ^'^ ^^i? P"'P*-« of^rgi^g Ai 
 JliST ^"^ P' "^ '•'«/ '^ere brought to fiv „ 
 tertJc waa the Are frSm the iquail. uid 10.^^ 
 didly Mrved waa Nortona iSa^ For two 
 houi, the battle raged ; and then the7,ab^°moI2 
 
 T.o^N^K;^'' EDUCATION. See Edcc*. 
 
 i?lS2;iS§sl^h5T''hIae?S.?w^.. 
 
 the memben of the Swiaa Conf^eratlon - ■!« 
 
 writ,,^^^ ""* ""»Me°°«» l» believed by K,me 
 
 8ee^i°Tl?«?!Tc'"1o!|;&*"* " <"• «=• "W- 
 
 21^m,°*'^''"^' '*°°"" Empw.r, A. D. 
 
 the" Ljir-n^f "►!?.'*"• • ."*•* •«*«'"°« on 
 . ? ' . "•• between the river and th« 
 
 7"?^°' -'"• •!«' Elamltea, theolSat »n 
 
 K:!^"^^.sirysr"?bd?Ef£ 
 
 Elamite Inva^on - an invaaioq recorded bvfclnff 
 
 PiS. ^N^"'.^?*^ ""' de-icrated iu tern 
 
 queat Khulur-NanSS and hb aiS^™ 
 Jjmalned In Southern ChaMeT^ -SSirS; 
 «m time we meet authentic monumenul pmmS 
 
 ELBA. 
 
 St ^^'.T '•"" •"= ''•^ come to hU uSt 
 
 l«„J .S P '° 'gnorance ... and hoDcfiil S 
 Make. Tht Stcry of Chines Chmbm. t. 2 di 
 
 MmBmrn 
 
 ^sn ofth. CataZ^-^, m" RmWm ^rX^ 
 Story of the SouUttn War-Q^n Pnrtj^ 
 
 rear-book, 1893. 
 
 m 
 
 i of a country which was destined throueh the next 
 
 danapulus of tl.e Greeks, who reducKe tlml^ 
 fX^^aL';"^"''''"'*^} It^-^X^^waaSh^t 
 
 ^ ttT»u".^ra'Ld't3"^'''M^^^^^ 
 rroin thcBible and I .ter monuments i.< a TunT 
 
 I |d7he^L^;;;ii,v.rr°^sJrh.r,^7"f 
 
 Oeneais - which call, !.im Chedorli^Z - ,» the 
 waHike''lt."r *' ^''^" '''■''riptive of this kiug-2 
 5v«ofi^ • vl^f "V^ """'"K picture it 
 givt-sorit. KhudurUgamar . lived «c. 
 
 S'lf ^••"/'"T r''"'r »"="'•""'» «b"^t 
 
 tlm^TK .^ ""'"'« '*" discoveriei ofl^t 
 of Pul^' ^'■'■""■'"'.^"■•' "«" oriKirmllv king 
 of hlam, and acquired IVrala by conquest -,SeS 
 
 1 M&Vlf»*''J°''' '^'••'' "^ See Cuba : A. D. 
 
 A«hf/'a^- S- '735.-Ceded to Spain by 
 Auatria. .See Fram x - A O IT!!:! ITirT 
 A. O. 180a.— Annexation to Franca HiM 
 
 A D. l«M(JlARCH-Ai'aa),and(ApB.L-JcKB" 
 
EL DORADO. 
 
 ELECTRICAL DISCOVERT. 
 
 EL DORADO, The quett of.— "When the 
 SpanianLH buil coixiiu'ml am) pilUsed the civil- 
 ized cmpln-s iin the table land* of Mexico, Bo- 
 gota, ami Peril, they bi'gnn to l<iok round for 
 new tcencs of conquest, new Hiurces of wealth : 
 the wiidi-st rumour* were r«xivcd as facta, and 
 the foresta and savannas, exterJiny for thou- 
 sands of square miles to the eastwanl of the cor- 
 ilillirus of the Andes, were covered. In imagina- 
 tion, witli populous kinpioms, and cities filled 
 with gold. The story of El Dorado, of a priest 
 or king smcareii with oil ami then coatwi with 
 gold dust, probahlv orisinatcd in a custom which 
 prevailed among tlic livili/iil Indiana of the pla- 
 teau of Bogota; but Kl iMirado was placeii, by 
 the credulous sdventurers. in a golden city amidst 
 the lmpenetral)le foresU of the centre of t<outh 
 America, ami, iis search after warch failed, his 
 position was moved further and further vo the 
 eastwanl, in the direction of Ouiana. El Dorado, 
 the phantom god of gold and silver, tippeanil in 
 manv forms. . . . The sc-ttlers at Quito and In 
 Northern Peru talked of the golden empire of 
 the Omiiguas, while tliosi' in Cuico and Char- 
 cas dnamt of the wealthv cities (>f Paytiti and 
 Enini, on tlie banks of a lake far awav to the 
 eastwanl of the Andes. These lomantf fables. 
 BO linnly N'lievcd in those old days led to the 
 exploration of vast tracts of country, by the 
 fearli-ss aiiventurers of the sixteenth century, 
 portions of which have never U'cn traversed 
 since, ever, to this day. The most f;imous 
 .Ti'arches after El Dorado were undertaken fri)'U 
 the cHmst of Venezuela, and the most daring 
 leaders of these wild adventuves v.e-e German 
 knights."— C. H. JIarkliam, liitrml (•> Siinon't 
 Acorn nt of I he Krjirititioii nf I'nwi and Anuirre 
 (ll<iklii!/l' S,,<: IMiltt.— "Tliere were, along tiie 
 whole ci)ii.-t of tlie Hpiinish Main, rumours of an 
 inland cieuitry which abounded with gold. 
 These rumo\irs undoubtedly related to the king- 
 doms of Uoiiota and Tu'iju, n.n- the Niievo 
 Keyno de Unuiada. Helaleaznr. who was lo 
 quest of this country from Quito, Federman,wiio 
 came from Venezuela, and Donzalo Ximenez de 
 Quesada. who sought it by way of the Hiver 
 Maualeua. and wlio elTectiil its conquest, n.et 
 here. Hut in tl»«' countries also tlien- were 
 rumours of a ricli laiid at a ilistance; sirailiu: 
 accov;nts prevaikil in Peru; in Peru they nlat'-d 
 to the Xuivo lU-yno, tuen- they related to Peru; 
 an<i thus adventurers from Imth sides were ullup'd 
 to eo.'ilinue the pursuit after the game w as taken. 
 An iniagiii .ry kingdom was soon shapeii out as 
 tlie ol)ject of tlieir quest, and stories conci'niiiig 
 it wen' not more easily inventeii than iK-lieved. 
 Ii was said that a younger brother of AUdialipa 
 fled, after thi destruction of th<' Incas, t(M)k 
 with him the main part of their treasures, and 
 founileil a gn-ater empire than that of wliieli his 
 family had bei ii deprived. Sometimes the im- 
 aginary Kmneror was called the Great Pavtite, 
 son-.etlmi-s the Gnat Moxo, sometimes the Enim 
 or Great Paru. An imp.wtjir at Lima affirmed 
 tliat 111' had l«in in his capital, the i ity of Jla- 
 noa, when- iiot fewer timn 3,0(K) workmen wen> 
 employee! in the silversmiths' street; he even 
 pnslueed a map of the country. In whieli he had 
 iii.irked a hill of gold, aiiotiier of silver, uiid a 
 thinlofsalt. . . . This imaginary kinitdoin oh- 
 laineil the name of Kl Dorado from the liisiiiou 
 of its Loni, which has tiie merit of l»-iiig in 
 lavage costume. IHs body wa« aooloted every 
 
 7 
 
 morning with a certain fragrant gum of great 
 price, and gold dust was then blown upon niin, 
 through a tube, till he was covered with it : the 
 whole was wsabed off at night This the bar- 
 barian thought a more magnineent and costly 
 attire than could be afforded by any other potf n- 
 tatc in the world, ami hence the Spaniards called 
 him El Doraiio, or the Giiied One. A hi.-.tory 
 of all the expeditions which were undertaken for 
 the conquest of his kingdom would form a vol 
 time not less Interesting than extnioniinary." — 
 R. Soutliey, IfM. o/Bnuil r. 1, e/i. 13.— The most 
 tragical ami thrilling of tin' stories of the seekers 
 after El Dorado is thiit whi<h Mr. Marklium intro- 
 duces in the quotation alxivi-. and which h.ruthey 
 has tolil with full details in The ErHrditiowJ Or- 
 iiui; and thx Crinua of A;!'ii ^re. The most fam- 
 ous of the expeditions were those in whieli Sir 
 Walter Italeigh engage!, and two of which he 
 personally 1ml — in i.5«."t. and in 1«17 U< • 
 
 leased from his long imprisonment in ""owi r 
 
 to undertake the latter, he retunii i-. i I', 
 broken and shanii-d, to Ik' sent to tl' .-e .' 'da" 
 a victim sacrificed to the maliiru' i • leL. 
 of Spain. How far lialeigh sin: • .elu- 
 
 sion of his age respecting El Doi now 
 
 far he made use of it merely to p a great 
 
 scheme for the "expansion of .ad,' arc 
 
 questions that will probably leiuam finvcr In 
 dispute. — Sir W. lialeigh. Oitenrrrie of Ihf hirae. 
 Uieh ,ind Beautiful t'liii'ire of Ouiana {Uaktugt 
 Snf. 1848). 
 
 Awo HI : J. A. Van Heuvel, Kl Horailo — E. 
 E'lwanls, Lifr of liihiul. -. 1, cA. 10 .md i-y — 
 E. Gos«', HiUiigh, rh. iaod9.—X. F. Hamielier, 
 The i/itdrd man. 
 
 ELECTOR, The Great. See PnissiA : A. D. 
 H1H-17(K». 
 
 ELECTORAL COLLEGE.The Germanic. 
 See Gkuji.vnt: A. D 1 l-;.">-ia;2, ami l;^4T-l4«:l , 
 also, IMOl -1N(I3, and Isi).-|-1H0«, 
 
 ELECTORAL COMMISSION, The. See 
 Unitki) ST.*rKs OK .\m.: .v. D. IsTrt-I-<T7. 
 
 ELECTORAL COUNT ACT. ^ee I .mtei) 
 Statksok Am.: A. D. IMlT. 
 
 ELECTORS, Preaidential, of the United 
 States of Am.— "Then; was no ipiestion which 
 perplexed the Kiileral Convention (of lTf<7]iiiore 
 tlian tlieqiu-stion as to the In-st metliiKl of elect- 
 ing the pr.sideiit. ... At one time the Couven- 
 ,'tion decidiHl to have the prisidenl elected Ijy 
 i'ongresa but there was a grave objection to this ; 
 it would be likely to de.>lroy his jiideiK'ndeiice, 
 and make him tiie tool of Coiigres:i. Kinally the 
 device of aneleetond aillege was adopted. Each 
 Slide is entitleil to a numUT of electors equal to 
 the nunilsT of its represi'ntatives in «'ougn's.s, 
 plus two. the nunilHT of its senators. . . M 
 lirst the eleetr>r:il votes did not stat.' whether the 
 candidate, naiiiiil in them were candidal esf.ir the 
 presid'iu V or for the vice-presideney. Ka< h elec- 
 tor sinijilV wrote down two iiann's. only one of 
 
 wiiieh eonld lie the iiaine of a eiti/. f his own 
 
 state. . . . The iMiididati' who hud the lHri:i'<t 
 
 niinilwr of V)tes. provided tliev wen- a majority 
 
 of the whole number, was di'elartil president. . . . 
 
 Bv the twelfth amendment to the constitution. 
 
 I deeliirr''i in for.-e in IH114. the pnsi'nt method was 
 
 I adopted The electors make sep.inite ImlloNfor 
 
 I pnsiih'nt and for viiv pn'sidenl,"— .lohn Kiske. 
 
 i Ciiii li'o,i„o„iit ih rh, l':,it,.i Stiltc!'. jip. 'll'i 7 
 
 —See, also, PliKsiDKNT; and fossTtTLTloN vf 
 
 THE L'nITKU StaTK.S. 
 
 no 
 
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 J/irge, 
 
 Muyt 
 
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 ON O"