CIHM Microfiche Series (l\Aonographs) ICMH Collection de microfiches (monographies) Canadian Institute for Historical Microraproductiont / Institut Canadian da microraproductions historiquas 9*- Technical and Bibliographic Notes / Notes techniques et bibliographiques The Institute has attempted to obtain the best original copy available for filming. Features of this copy which may be bibliographically unique, which may alter any of the images in the reproduction, or which may significantly change the usual method of filming are checked below. D D n 7 Q D D D D D D Coloured covers / Couverture de couleur Covers damaged / Couverture endommag^e Covers restored and/or laminated / Couverture restaur^e et/ou pellicui^e Cover title missing / Le titre de couverture manque Coloured maps / Cartes gdographiques en couleur Coloured ink (i.e. other than blue or black) / Encre de couleur (i.e. autre que bleue ou noire) Coloured plates and/or illustrations / Planches et/ou illustrations en couleur Bound with other material / Relid avec d'autres documents Only edition available / Seule Edition disponible Tight binding may cause shadows or distortion along interioi .-riargin / La reliure serr^e peut causer de I'ombre ou de la distorsion le long de la marge int^rieure. Blank leaves added during restorations may appear within the text. 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I I Coloured pages / Pages de couleur I I Pages damaged / Pages endommag§es D Pages restored and/or laminated / Pages restaur^es et/ou pellicul^es r~~j^ Pages discoloured, stained or foxed / ULi Pages d^color^es, tachet^es ou piqu^es rn Pages detached / Pages d^tach^es [y/j Showthrough / Transparence r~X Quality of print varies / D D D Qualite in^gale de I'impression Includes supplementary material / Conprend du materiel suppl^mentaire Pages wholly or partially obscured by errata slips, tissues, etc., have been refilmed to ensure the best possible image / Les pages totalement ou partiellement obscurcies par un feuillet d'errata, une pelure, etc., ont 6\6 film^es ^ nouveau de fa^on A obtenir la meilleure image possible. Opposing pages with varying colouration or discolourations are filmed twice to ensure the best possible image / Les pages s'opposant ayant des colorations variables ou des decolorations sont film^es deux fois afin d'obtenir la meilleure image possible. This Ham It (llmad at Iha raducllon ratio checkad btlow / Ce deeument eat fiim^ au taux de r<duetlen Indiqu4 ei'dataev lOx 14x 18x *. 22x 26x 30x • / 12x 16x 20x 24x 28x 32x Th« copy film«d h«r« hu b««n r«produc»d thanka to th« 9«n«ro»ity of: National Library of Canada L'«x«mpl«ir« film* fut roproduit graco k t« ginirositA do: Bibliothequo nationals du Canada Th« imago* appoaring horo aro iho »»o.t qual.tv poMiblo coniidoring iho condition ard logibility of tho original copy and in kaoping ¥¥ith tho filming contract •pacification*. One.nal copia* in prmtad papar covar. ar. fllmad t>.o.nning with th. front covar and •"<<";a o" th. last paga v..th a pr.ni.d or .llu.traiad impraa- s.on. or tha back covar wh.n ■PP'«»P"*»" *"' .. othar original copia. ara filmad bag.nning on tha first paga vi^ith a printad or illu.tratad impraa- or illwatratad impr»a»ion. Tha last racordad frama on aach microficha shall contain tha symool — - «'"••'""■ ^S?.?," TINUEO'l. or tha symbol V Imaaning ENO I. whichavor applias. Mapa. Plata*, charts, ate. may ba ♦••"»•<'•« SiSrint raduction ratio. fha»a too larga to ba antiroly includad in ona a.posura ara filmad ;.g.nn!ng in tha uppar l.ft hand c-'H-'J-;' « right and top to bottom, a. many •^•; " raquirad. Tha following diagrams illustrata tha mathod: Las imaga* suivantas ont ota raproduitat avac la plus grand soin. compt* tonu da la condition at da la nattat* da Taaamplaira filma. at mn conforiftito avac loa conditions du eontrat da filmaga. Las aaamplaira* originaux dont la couvanura an papiar a*t imprimaa »ont filmas an commancant par la pramiar plat at an tarminant soit par la darniAra paga qui compona una amprainta d'imprassion ou d'illustration. soit par la sacond plat, salon la cas. Toua las autras axamplairas originaux sont film** an commancant par la pramiAra paga qui comporta una amprainta d'impraasion ou d'illustration at an tarntinant par la darnidro pago qui comporta una talla •mproioM. Un doa symbola* suivants apparaitra sur la darnidra imaga do chaqua '"'C'<»«'f.';« *•'»" '• cas: la symbola -^ signifia "A SUIVRE . la symbolo ▼ aignifio "FIN". Las carta*, planchas. tablaaua. ate. pauvant atra film** d do* uua do rdduction diffarants. Lorsquo Id documont oat trop grand pour atra raprodutt an un soul elich*. il act filma « partir da I'angla aupdriaur gaucha. da gaucha a aroita. •t da haut an baa. an pranant la nomora d'imagaa noca**aira. La* diagrammaa suivants Ulustront la mdthoda. ETHM0L06ICAL MAP or MODERN EUROPE PSKAHYAX PEOPLES BASVUCS I I AKVAJr PEORLKS CELT* Pgij ruMCH LZjjwmiARos dj WHITUaHsr f" [ ITALIANS f HAETIAN - - , rouMA H80W>LAC)lS - - p=J ALBANIANS - GERMANIC BRANCH CCRU/VMS- - SCANDINAVIAN3- AN6LOSAX0NS ' SLAVIC BRANCH [GREAT HUSSIANS I \LITTLC RUSSIANS WHITE iruSSlANS rOLES ^CZeCK5,SL0VAKSANC Wt>4DS fbULGANIANS 3 (SERVIANS Ere. ^SL0VINC» HISTORY FOR READY REFERENCE FROM THE BEST mSTORlANS. BIOGRAPHERS, AND SPECIAUSTS TinaB OWN WOBDS IN A COMPLETE SYSTEM OF HISTORY FOB ALL USES, EXTENDING TO ALL C0UNTEIE8 AND SUBJECTS AND BEPBESENTINO FOB BOTH BEADI^S AND STUDENTS THE BE^^ ^ NEWEB LITEEATUBE OF HISTOBY IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE BT J. N. LARNED WITH KUMEB0U8 HISTORICAL MAPS FROM ORIGINAL STUDIES AND DRAWINGS BT ALAN C. REILEY SBVISBD AND ENLARGED EDITION v-llN VOLUMES VOLUME I— A TO ELECTORS SPBINOPIELD, MASS. THE C. A. NICHOLS CO, PUBLISHERS D^ L3-f n .^ ^di 1 CsmuKT, 1893, BY J. X. LARXEIi. Copnuonr. lOfil, Br J. K. LARKED. CAMBRIDGE . MASSACHUSETTS L' . S ■ A ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. ^ S^nr^.;t":rXtt^Zr::^'::ZI'^^^^^^^^ HberaHt^o. author, ana know proper to make t^e.ci^o^lX^: Z^Zttc T^""' T"^ In thia work. I think hou«,. to Whom I am in debt for such 'kind peZsi':: TheyTaf ml^""" "' P"'"^'"* e.- Be,aut, Prof. Alher- S. Boll«; Juhu ti. Bou^l .„t fT?. Hen^ Bi»,,r"' vVT **' ''• ^^- "'"J*'"!"^ Sir Wal- 1.. D. , Daulel G. Brlnton, M. D. : ITot. William S Browne ProTV^^^ i" •'■ ^- ' ""■ •'"°«» F™""" Bright, l-rot J. B. Bury; Mr. Luci,;n Carr; Uea HtuliKcZ^^Z, Mr ? > "." '^'J'*' *''• '""'• •'«'"" B^™. MP-. Coffln, Hon. Thomas -M.Cooley; Prof. He7r??oppie . Ref s, oeorl^f W *" '^'^"''» •^••'""'>» Mrs. Cox (for -Three Decades of Federal Legislation" by the late 73 s^' f' •"*"■' «™- J''™'- 1>''1»<'" C".x; Kt Bev Mandell Crelghton. Bishop of Petefb,,?, u°h- UoTjlIIc^T'''J *• V."'' ''■■"'• T"<"^» F.Cra,,., K.,l>ert K. Douglas; J. A. Doyle, M. A., Mr. Siuiue Adan., Ihakp 1 m '•.*^"''^' '^'''^"'" ''"""i '■""■ Charles Gavan Duffy; Mr. Claries Henry Eden r.MHenrX,herh^.^i pi I" ^- '^'■'""-1'"''^ Hon. Sir L..yallFarragut; The Ven. Fruderlc Wl^am Farr r Se^cofof wlf-^^^'' ' ^"'" '^""' *:'"""• '""• »' Mr. J.bn Fiske; Mr. W„l E. Foster; William Ward^Fowtl " ProT^^,"" P'"' thonyFroude; Mr. James Gairdner ; Arthur GilmaMMT Mr p'.rk. Jf.^ I, freeman; Pro?. James Au- t..ry of the Campaigns of the Army „J Va. und^Gen Pm. - M^ht i»,!^""' V""' ^'^ ''• '""•'"'" "" •"' " Hl»- Barn,g.GouW ; Mr. UIyss*s S. Grant, Jr. (for the ' Conai Tien , .rs ', , th.'^'l'- ?.*""^' "' ''"'•"""> ^ «"• **"'""» Gr.^,. (for her own writings and for those of the Tt^j^u r I.pI, '"'^ w'-,,?"''''*' "rs. J.,hn Richard Arllnir Griffiths; Frederic Harrison. M. A. , Prof iihert B.istlf H ^^ « f.V, i ^^""""' «'-"»ell, M. B. ; ^U]. worth HlKglnson ; Prof. B. A. Hlnsdile; M sf M„Karet I h'kii^^^^ ^r,l •'"■■."""""" "™""' • ^ol. Thomas Weni Kev. Robert F. Norton ; Prof. James K Uosnfer o 1 r e,^ m H , r""','?? "' "'« ""'^ "'• «''"'-ee Hooper) i H..nter; Prof. Edn.und .lames; Mr. Kossl,erj;h u..^" ^r John F,?, J, r^ t:""'."'"'*^ Sir William WUsou KItehin, Dean of Winchester; Col Thos W Knox Mr' t« . ,'" '''''''• ^'"^ ^"'^^^ ""• '-^W Wiiliair U.. D.. D. c. I..; Mrs. Marg;,r;t Levi (f^r .lie "Hls't.^-f t^i'^c" """• '^""""' '"■"'•'""■ ^■'"'•■"" *^ «. Lecky, (l..,.lton T. Lewis; The Very Rev Henry Oe«rJeI?p,?>i,i ^^.''T"' ''' ""' ""« l>r. Leone Levi); Prof l..".,e; Prof. Kictard L.^ge Rev. W J Tome \,rs M. ' s L.'n^rf'-rT "iT^ '^^""'' """■ "-'O Cabot til,- late Gen. A. L. Long); Mrs. Helen Loss m i , r i.'l ,2 . ". "^"^ "'" ^"^ "' '^^""''^ «'>''>•" K. Lee," by M. -v.; Charles P. Luc;.s:b. a ; Jus M McCarthy m r,,'"!-", , ,!", '''''%"''""' J- l-''i»«)i Charles Lo«e. Prof, .fobn P. Sfahaffy; Capt. Alfred T. Mahan' I sv c'',, "' I ^V*,*""' """• •="""" M'-l'""son ; F. R. S. : Prof. David Masson ; The Very Rev ( hkri;, Me-iv "e n. ^ «•"»"""» • Sir Clements R. Marklan,. J. G. Cotton Min.hln; William K. .Morm, Mi-RHofo mMi. x, ^"■;,»^'-"/ •'""n Henry Middle,,,,,: Mr H.iir; M,. Harold MnrUock; Rev. Arthm- Ho»ari Noll.' MUs K *v •'^•' '""•■'""" ^- ^'I""- J^-i SirWilli.n, C. Palfrey (for "History of New England" "r he L J h„'''^orh»™*'p',V'-- T'SJ'""""' ''•^' »"■ J-"»' t.l«;,r,l James Payne, M. A. ; Charles Henry Pear,,,,, m T ?ir , Pa«rey)i Francis Parkmt,u, LL. D.; (fur the "History Of Tennessee," by the bte Jane" " "' V" ' , ""'" ^-'''^'' ^"'""'' *'"• ^'"^ "^^ J-"-""' Mr. Staule. .«.Po.„. ; willia,^, F. Pol LL DM \^ t ^^'H^'J- ^"'"^ ' '*'=^"'»'"' '^ P"<"*- Pl^- « ■ Kidpath; H.. .Ills H. Roberts; H^rT .eLre'l^ s «. ^-J^" ;,«■■• J""" W. Probyn, Prof. John Clark Joslah Royce; ilev. Philip Sehaff; James sSer,, ^i' r "^ •^'l:'""" """*" "'• "' «'"'«■ M- A.; Prof. J. U. Seeley; Prof. Nathm.iel iSouthg^e Siller Mr ^lw»r .m ^'":', '*'^'"'" ^ Mr. Eben Greenough Scott; Sir sonal Memoirs- of the late Gen. Sheridan ".Mr' P T She^a, for",f "M ' ?'• "• ^^ St^'-'an (for the " Per. Sa,unel S.niles, LL. D. ; Prof. GoldWn Smith Prof jLesX,e, SoiL^ J Tf" , "' "'* '*'" "'"''• »"""»"" ^ M. A.; Prof. H.Morse Stephens; Mr. Simon Stern^ Ctar ef^s ,lf/ir n \m^ "^'"^ *">''"'"'• StiiW.s, Bishop of Oxford; Prof William Cr«i,.„!'« ;. C;'"^"' Sir John Strachey; Rt. Rev William Th;.yer; Prof. Robert H Thurs J 'wr To WhtfT iTmaH? / ^^T'"' ''''"""•'^ ^"- ^^■""»»> K""'-^ ai.d; Mr. B..yard Tuckerman; Samuel Ews^urner Ph n' » ',".^"7 "' ^""'' "• '^^ ''•■ ««"• «• "' Trobri. .ustin wmsor. LL. a, BevVd^rl^ek^cr'SlSL^rS' .^i^v^rZu^^^^ ^^!:'c^^T^^-^"^^^^ A.^'^.lT4k?JZi7/c;^;Xpm?„\^^^i'.t-,^^^^ f^rran* Co.; W. Helnema^n; ISd^r /s iug^tlt Jnt^^^^^^^^ H. Grevel * Co.Torf^'h,' M.iemillan*Co.; Methuen Jt Co.; John Murrav johw- v IT" * *^°' Sampson L„w, .Marston Jt r„ milp*8on;TheKellgi„u.TractlS;lVTmMg^*SonsT^^^^ ''"■•. f"-"-''' T'"''"" * Ca,°Oe, r^e l-roraotlon of Christian Knowledge ; EdwMd Stanford sn-ve;. t h ^ ' ^"""'' *^'"" * ^o. ; Society fur the Cmra^rn^a;:,* ^- ^^^-^ - -^^^^'^^'^o:^^2P:-^^^^ -f JWnfewpk: Xaon. WUUun Blaekweod * Boa*; W. A R. Cbamban; SkvliI OoafUi; Tbotnat NtlioB * (eu; W. P. Rtnuno: Rmj A MUcbdl: Tha Boottiib Baformatloa Bodetj. /MiiKU^Md; Mean. L.H.BT«rU A Co.; J. B. Upplncott Oompuj; OldadiikOo.; Farter ACoMM. Sortoit: Hfmn-fUaA Lwutot; Houchton, Miffllii * Co.; UtUe, Brown ft Ca: D.UthropOcopuri Vobwtt DHtUa: ttan-JuMsDuajpftOo.; Hoil«M,FlntoftCo.:J. J. Liriar. Chicago ; MaMr*. OUaf'UiB ft Oo. ; A. C. Mcaurg ft Co. CTncinnoH ; Mtara. Bobeit Clwka ft Oo. ; Jonn Brothcn FubUiUnc Co. Hart/ord, Conn. ; MeHn. O. D. Cu» ft Co. ; 8. 8. Scrutoo ft Oo. Albany: Mms*. Joel Mnnwll't 8oai. Camliridgt. tng.: The Unlienitjr Frees. Saraich, Conn.: Tbe Heorj Bill PttbUehlBt Oo. Ox/ord ; The Clarendoa Preee. Providnet, K. I.: Meeera. J. A. ft R. A. ReM. A lilt of bx)ka <^<ioted from will be given in the final Tolume. I am greatly indebted to the remarkable kindnes* of a number of eminent hI«torical gcholan, who have critically examined the proof aheeU of important article! and improved them by their suggestion* My debt to Kls* Ellen M. Chandler, for aaristance given me in many way*, it more than I can describe. In my publishing arrangements I have been most fortunate, and I owe the good fortune very largely to a number of friends, among whom it is just that I should aame Mr. Henry A. Richmond, Mr. George E. Matthews, and Mr. John O. Mllbum. ' There i» no feature of these arrangement* lo satisfactory to me as that which places the publication of my book in the hand* of the Company of wuich Mr Charles A. Nichols, of Springfield, Massachusetts, is the head. I think nyself fortunate, too, in the association of my work with that of Mr. Alan 0. Relley, from whose original studies and drawing* the greater part of the historical map* In these volume* have been produced. J. N. Labhbd. LIST OF MAPS AND PLANS. Ethnocnphle map of Modem Enrope, o_ Mip of American Dtacoveiy and Settlement "seeding the title page. Man of Athena, and Harboti of Athena To follow page 53 Plan of Athenian home ^° P"8e 158 Four deTelopment mape of Austria On page 169 Ethnographic map of Auatria-Hungary To follow page 808 Four derelopment map. of Aria Minor indiheBalkinPe^uk. t„Vi.^°'***^ '1^^ "' ^.•""" ''^' ^^^tt^, th; p«em "" ''"' "*' Map of Bur^dyuiider Charles' the Bold ;> ■. „^° P'«* *" D.TeIopmentmap.howi„gthedah„ionofChri.^t,. i l ; ; L^Sr^'f:!:* "•^^^'^^^ OUTLINES, IN COLORS Athenian and Oieek Uitorj w%,w«a. Auitrlan falttoij, To follow page lo; To follow page 305 HISTOEY FOR EEADT EEFEEENCE. A, C. Aat* Chrittnin; used sometimes instead of the more familiar abbreviation, B. C —Before Christ. A. D. Anno Domini ; The Tear of Our Lord. SeeEsA, Chbistian. A. E. I. O. U.— "The famous device of Aus- tria, A. E. L 0. U., was flrat used by Frederic IIL [1440-1493], who adopted it on hU plate, books, and buildings. These Initials stand for 'Austriae Est Impenre Orbl Unlverso'; or, in German, 'Alles Erdreich Ist Osterreich Unter- tlian': » bold assumption for a man who was not Me In an inch of Ills dominions."— H. Hallam. Th4 MidMt Aget, «. 9, p. 80, foot-note, A. H. Anno Hejira. 8ce Eba, Haboks- TAH. A. M. "Anno Mnndl;" the Tear of the World, or the year from the beginning of the wcwld, according to the formerly accepted chro- nologieal reckoning of ArchbUhop Usher and others. A. U. C., OR U. C. "Ab nrbe condlta," from the founding of the city; or "Anno urbis ComliUB," the year from the founding of the cut; the Year of Home. 8ceRoiCE:B. C. 753. AACHEN. See Aix-la-Chapelle. ABiC. Oracle of. See Oraclei of tri OUEKB. ABBAS I. fc^ed TTie Crwit), Shall of Per- •iai A. D. 1583-1827.... Abbas II.. A D ABBASSIDES, The rise, decline and fall of the. 8ce Mahombtak CoKoresT, 4c, : A. D 715-750; 788; and 815-945; also Bagdad: A. X). 1258. ABBBT.-ABBOT.-ABBESS. See Mow- Amur. ABD-BL-KADBR. The War of tli« French in Algiers with. See BARnABT Statm: A. D. 1830-1 ir46. ABDICATIONS. Alexander, Prince of Bulgaria. 8eo BiLOAniA: A. 1). 1878-1888. Amadeo of Spain. See Wpais; A, D 188^1873 Charles IV. and Ferdinand VII. of Spain. See Spaiw: A. D. 18.)7-1803 Charles V. EmpAror. See Oeiimany; A D. 1852-1581, and Netiikrlanus: A. D. ISS.! T^V'*fo.'5*.'""« •' France. See FnA.Nci": A. I). 18t.V1880 . . .Charlee Albert. King of Sardinia. See iTttr; A. D. lti4H-1840 1883-1848... ^rhriatiniTQueen of Sweden: S?i ^Si?"'"*!'*^ States (SwKnBN): A. U. i"fr'S?T Dloeletlan. Emperor. ^ Row. A. I). 284-805 . Perdinand, Kperof of W trie. See Avutria . A. D. f«48-lsf49 Louis Bonapirte, King of Holland. »«i ^KTMK.(I.A.M..; A. 1>. IW.8-l(.l.. . . . LoUiS Ml. ft. ^''•' *»*"',"; A. 1). ISU-IIWS Milan, King of Serria. Mcc Hfrvja \ l> lUSXISW. Napoleon I. ,««, FKAHtKi A- U- 1814 (MAiitu-ArBiL) and 181S (Junk- Auon»T) Pedro L, Emperor of Brasil and King of Portugal. See Portccal A. a 182^1889, and Brazil: A. D. 1825-1883; ....PtolemTl of Egypt. See MACKDONrA. &c.: B. 0. 297-880..... Victor Emmanuel I Se.- iTAtT: A. p. 1830-1821 William L, King of Holland. See Nbthbrlasds : A. D. 183 ^-1SH4. ,a^^.?ii'-*^'^' Torkiah Snitan. A. D. ABOUL-HAMID, TurWah Snitan, A. D "74-1789 Abdnl-Hamid 11., 1878"' 1 jgABDUL-MEDJID, Turkish Sultin, A. D. ABELARD, PETBR. See Educatioji, la^iIJi'^^??^??.?!.'"'* 8eeSPAiN:A.D. 1288-1373, and 1478-1403. A. D. 1809 (Jasuakt-Junk). AMlR?r**°^°i?'S CAMPAIGN IN Dr-)8 SeeCAKADA (Nkw FuAscE): A. ABERaiBBM MINISTRY, The. See ^'!?^S?;„^i'-J^l-18«8, and i855. ABIP0NES,The. See Amricak Aaowoi. KKs: Pampas TninKa .=^iu«» ABJURATION OP HENRY IV. Bee Frahcb: A. D. 1591-1608. ABNAKIS, The. See AinBicAir AnoBiof »BS: Aloonkw Familt. nicM^ai'""'*' <>'(«743). See Hcssia: A. D. oABO^'I'ONISM IN AMERICA, The 18§?;:SdM^?"' """"""^^ ^- '««»- ca5°a2o"rS!^^''"''=*''- «*-^««- .i.^^K'''?' ^Sa^ "■"'• »' (or Battle of ths Nile). See Fbakcb: A. D. 1708 (JIat- AcGii8T).....Land.battle of (itm). 8-e .1,. M?!.^*?^"' Vii '^'•'»» »'• Tl"" part of the high plateau ^Quebec on which the mom. ?™ • ^'n.'f7,°/ ^°''« *•!, 'i""' September 13. M.rtln ^^F.'f V ""^ *° "'i'"? "^"n Abraham had owned a piece of land hero In the early times WM>, e. 2, p 289.--For an a.rountof f.io battle which gave distinction to th,- Plains of Aliraliamu see Canada (Xbw Fbakcb): A. D. 1739, (JrSi — Sbptembeb). ". wi.-«» Un^'S?h'''^"*'®¥ \^ WBLAND-Inlre. tand "the owners of about one-haU the land do not live on or near their esUtcs, while fheowneis of about one fourth do not live in the country . . . Almnteeism l« an old evil, and in vcrr early times nveived attention from the govern- ment. . . . Some of the di»advanu«-s to fm community arising frem the absence o" "jm nsore wcaltii}- i.i,a luleliigent classes are appan-nt to every one Unless the landlord Is uttSrly i,?! sny-stricken or Tsfjr uoeatmprlsiag, •tbeili Is ABSENTEEISM IN IRELAND. AnVSSIXIA. • grrat deal more going on ' when he I3 in (lie country. ... I am convinced tliut absenteeism is a gtvat disadvantage to tlie country iiud tlic people. ... It is too mucli to attribute to it nil the evils that have been set down to its cluirpe. It is, liowever, an important consid?nition tlmt the people ri'gard it as a grievance: and tliinU the twenty-live or thirty niiilion.'* of dollars paid every year to these landlonis, who are ranly or never in Inland, is a tax grievous to 1h' borne." — 1). H. King, The Irhh QiieHti;ii, pp. 5-11. ABSOROKOS, OR CROWS, The. Sec Amf.uhax AnoKKiiNKs: Siocan FA>rTi.T. ABU-BEKR, Caliph, \. D. C;!3-<!34. ABU KLEA, Battle of (1885). SccEqtit: A. I). t»<H-l-lHH5. ABUL ABBAS, Caliph, A. D. ToO-TM. ABUNA OF ABYSSINIA.— "Since the daysof Krumenlins l« bo intro<luced Christianity into Abyssinia in the 4tli century] every ortho- dox Primate of Abyssinia has Ixen eoursecrated by the Coptic Patriarch of the clmnli of Alex- andria, and has l)ome the title of Abuna " — or Abuna Salama, "Father of Peace." — H. M. Ilozier, The llritiiJi Krpulition to Af>ymnia, p.*. ABURY, OR AVEBURY.— STONE- HENCE.— CARNAC.—" The numenms cir- cles of stone or of eiirlh in nritain and Ireland, varying in diameter from 30 or 40 feel up to 1,200. are to 1h' viewed as temples standing in the closi'st possible relation to tlie burial places of the (lead. The most imposing group of n - mains of this liinil in this country [Kngland] is tha". of Avebnry [.\burv], near l>ivize», in Wiltshire, refcrnil by ISir .loiin Lubls>elv to a late stagi' in the N"olithic or to tlie iHglnning of the bronzi' pi rioil. It consists of a largo circle of unworkrcl upright stones l.?00 feet in diame- ter, surrounded by n fosse, which in turn is also surrounddl by aiiimpartof earih. Insi<h'an' tin' renntins of two concentric circles of stone, and from I lie two eiitranies in the mnipurt proii edcd long iivi'iiues llankeil liy stones, one leading to Ik'ckhampton, and the otiier to West Keiiiielt, where it formerly ended in another iloi'bleelrele. Hetweeii tliem rises Sllbuiy lllll, llii' largest artllicial mound in (ireat Itritain, nolesstluin 1110 feit in heiijht. This group of remains was at one lime se((md to none, 'but unfortiiiialely for us |sa\» Sir .lohii l.ubliiHk] the pretty little vlllii:e of .Vvebury [.\bury], like mini' I" aniiful para»ili', lias grown up at the expense and in the midst of the aneiiiit lemplr, and out •'( I'M ^rri at stones, not almve Iwenly are still .laiplitii.'. In spite I. f this ll is slill u, \v iImsm-.I aincn.- ihi' llnest ruins in Kurope. 'I'he f.inuHis irio|ili' of StiiiiclK iige on Salisiiury I'lain Is piuliablv of a later dati' llian Avehury! sliue imt only are h.imi' of till' stones usici In Its eonstrin lien wurkc d, Iml the surroiindini! liurrows an' mure elalmralf (han tlio.si' In the III iL'hlMiurliomi of the latti r. It i.in sisle I of a ciiJe lINI fei t in diaiintir. of l:iri,'e iljiri^lit lilis'ks of sarsrn stone, \'i fnt 7 Inchis hlgli, iK'aring Imposts dovrlailid into laeli othiT, so lis to form a eontinnous aniiitravc. Niije flit within Ibis was a 1 irele uf small fi reign s''ines . . . and within this li\e >.rial trilillii'iis I'f sirsiM stone, fcirming a hi>rse sins'; tliin a horve shoe of fureicn stones, eijjlil fiil IiIl'Ii. and ill lie- 1 iiitre a slali of mieaeeoiis sandsliaie ealli d till ui;,ir si..i,,. \T ,i ,i^;,,ij,, ,,f i;»< r.. 1 from I lie outer line a i>inHll rump, with n ditrh outside, formed the outer circle, 3l,» feet in diameter, which cuts a low barrow and iiieliides another, and therefore is evidently of later dale tlian someof the barrows of the distrlit." — \V. li. Dawkins, Kuril). Van in liriUiiii, eh. ID. — '■ Sione- lienge . . . may, I think, be regarded as a inonii- ment of the llronzc Age. tliougli apparently it was not all erected at one time, the inner circle of small, unwroiiglit, blue stones being probably older than the rest ; as reganls Abury, since the stones are all in their natural condition, while those of Stonehengc arc roughly hewn, it seems reasonable to conclude that Abury is the older of the two, and belongs cither to the close of the Stone Age, or to the commencement of that of Bronze. Both Abury and Stonehenge were, I believe, used as temples. Slany of the stonn circles, however, have been proved to be burial places. In fact, a complete burial place may be descrilied as s dolmen, covered by a tumulus, iind surrounded by a stone circle. Often, how- ever, we have only the tumulus, sometimes only the dolmen, and sometimes again only the stone circle. The celebrated monument of Carnae, iu Brittany, consists of eleven rows of unhewn stones, which differ greatly lioth in size and height, the largest Iieing Hi feet atmve ground, while some are quite small. It appears that the avenues originally e.vtended for si'veral milis, but at present they are very imperfeit, the Ktonesliav- ing been cleared away in places for agrieultural improvements. At present, Ihenfore, there an' several detached portions, wliieh, liowi ver. have the same general direilion, and appear to have btrn connected together. . . . .Most ol the great tumuli ill Brittany pnibably belong to the Slone Age, and 1 am thenfon' disposed to nirard Car- nae as having Ixi'n en'cted during I lie same perioil. "— Sir .1. i.ubliock, I'nhittuiie JimiK, eh. r>. ABYDOS.— .\n ancient city on the Asiatie sidcof llie Hellespont, mentioned iu the ilhid ui one of the towns that were in allianie with the Trojans. Oriirinally Tlinii Ian. as is supposid, it bieame a colony of Miletus, and passed nt dilTin'nt times under IVrsian, Athenian, l.aee- divmonian and Macedonian rule, lis site was at tlicnarmwest |ioliit i.f the Hellespont - tin' mI'Iic of the ancient roinaiitie story of Ibni and I.eander — marly opposite to Ih'itiiwnof Si-sliis. It was ill the near neiglibi>rhiKnl of Abyih s that .Xerxes built his bridi.'i' of Inials; at .Mivilos, Aieibiailes and the .\tlitiiians won an iiiiportant vliiorv over the IMopoiinesians. Sn' (iuKKiK: B. C 4x0. and 411-407. ABYOOS, Tablet of.— One of the most vnlu- abli' riennis of Kgyptian history, fi'iiiid i:i the ruins i.f .Miydos and now pnsi:rM'l In the British Musemn. It ^rivn a list of kiiiL's wlioii Baiiist's II SI lected fr >ni aiiioiiL; his anresicrs to pay liiiniage to. The lal ' t was iiiiieh iimtil.ileil nhin foiiitil, but nniithireopy mure pi rt'i 1 1 lii- bei'ii lllll irlhi'ij liy .M Marii ite, wlili li siipplh nearly all the Maims laekliii; in the lir^i — V Leiioriiiaiil, .WiiHiiiil •/ Anriiiil Jlml. fj' the Kii-t, r. I, H. :l. ABYSSINIA : Embraced in ancient Ethio- pia. Sic Ivniiorn. Fourth Century. — Converiion to Christi- anity. —" WhateMr may have Ihi n the itleet proifiiied ill his native loiinlry by the i.invir- ■•i'MI I'f t^iiiell Cdiiiidi e's jliitslini. Iimfiii-ii ill the Acta of the A|ioi,tle« (ch. VIII J, it would ABYSSINIA, FOUUrn CEXTURY. nppear to Iiavc been trnnsitory ; and the Ethio- piau or Abyssinian churcli owes its origin to an rxpcfiition made early in tiie fourth century by ABYSSINIA, 15TII-19Trf CENTURIES. Mcroplus a philosopher of Tyre.' foVlhe pur- pose of scientillc inquiry. On Lis voyage homc- wurds, he and his companions were attu-kcd at :i |)lacc where they had landed in search of water, and all were massacred except two youths, ^desius and Frumentius, the relatives Nii.l pupils of Jleropius. These were carried to llic kiiiL' of the country, who advanced ^dcsius to be his ciip-beorer, and Frumentius to be his scrntary and tn-asurer. On the death of the lang, who left a boy as his heir, tlic two strjiii,V'rs, at the request of the widowed queen acted as regents of the kingdom until the prince came of age. ^desius then returned to Tvrc where he became a presbyter. Frumentius! who, wi h the help of such Christian traders as visi ,.,1 tiie country, had already introduced the ( lirlslian doctrine and worship into Abyssinia repair,! to Alexandria, related his storv to Atlmnasius, and . . . Athanasius . . con- seenitiHl him to the bishoprick of Axum ftbc < apital of the Abyssinain kingdom]. The church llius founded continues to this day subject to the s.;e (.f Alexandria. "-J. C. Hobertson, iJut. n/tlie 6th to i6th Centuriei.-W«rt in Ar»bi«.- hnZ^fil ^i'^.^"' M^hon-""".- Isolation .77 .1* ""ft'*" world.-" The fate of the ( hrisllan ehureli among the Itomerites in Arabia J.lix aff„nie.i an opportunity for the Abvssi,,- uins. under the reigns of the Emp.rors Ju.sliu and Justinian, to show their zeal in U'half of tlie cans., of the Christians. The prince of that Arabian populaijon, Dunaan, or Dsunovas, was 1 Z( .ilims adherent of Judaism ; and, under pre- f'lV ', r''''B'"f •'"•■ oppressions which his MInw tK-lie»;rs wen; obli'ge.1 to suffer in the I mnan empir.., be eausetf the Christian nier rhams who came from that quarter and vislK-d .Ualiia for the pur|>osi8 of trade, or pas.sed lhr.M,g|, , „, eountry to Abyssinia, to be mur >l' ncl. Llesbaan, tlie Christian king of Abys- sinia, made this a cause for declaring war on the Aral.iaii prinr... lu, co„,„ur,d Usunova, de- prn^, d him of ||,e governm. nt, and set up a ,:'':""?• '7, ""• "I""" "f Abraham, as kini in bH M, a.l iJut a, the death of the latt. r, which » pp. lad soon after Dsimovai again made him- MI iniisler (.r the throne: mid it was a natural |nns..|m„,e of «h„t he had siilT. nd. that he "» l.cainea Dercer aii.l more eriiel pcrwculoi ban i... was before. . . . I'lH.n this! Klesblum i.iiirl.i.tl ome more, under the nlirnof the ; rm,er„r Jusllnian, who stimulated him t . lie o Arabia helix, and was again vhi^.rious ls..Movas lost bis life i„ ,|„. „.„; the j(^. -• .e. dent empire of the H,m„ riles, and ,.\,uu. i'ri«ia'ns'''\*'v''T''"' f"*-">'f"l'l'' to llie Jr"-'"..{"''ir" "*' """■■■'''• -"-'""I Vn,.,f ." r. I" ""' J'"'' ■'■''■•-. "« "early as can !«• wrih «"■'/"'.':' '!"■ ''"'■" >^'"" ''>•"»• '^'1 ■ wnlen., the I'ersians, whose poH Vr wem, to mplre. sent n gnat for<r aitaliist lhi. .Al.v.si,,. i.t.71. possissrd ib.inmhesome niowof .\nibia M'lirMl the principal |K.rt. on either side of It. .„! i".Tr"'" ''9"^ 'o"* "Jcsc conquerors re- tained their acquisition; but, in all probability Uieir ascendancy gave way to the rising great- ness of the Sfahomctan 'power; whieii s on afterwards overwhelmed nil the nations eon tlguous to Amb a. spread to the remotest parts or tlie Last, and even penetmted the African deserts from Egypt to llie Congo. .Meanwhile H^.f'r.'"' 5''««'' '■'''''■> '"■» '"mdn.,1 miles .f t\i?. .'i. .1° , */''"'?• "'S'"''"'"* uncon,,iien,l and tnie to the Christian faith; presenting a i.ior tifying and ga ling object to the more zealotis folowersof the Prophet. On this .i,e,„„„. implacable and incessant wars ravaged her terri' tones. . . . Mielosthercommeree.sawlKTconsc- quenccanuihilated, hercapital thnatene.l. and the richest of her provinces laid waste. There 18 reason to apprehend that she must shortly ivc gunk under the pressure of n peatid in- .asions, hod not the Portuguese annved I in the luth century] at a seasonable m.mient lo aid her endenyoiirs against the Moslem chiefs '—M Kussell, ,y,W,r and Ahjmiwt, eh. 3.— •'When >.ubia which intervenes between Egypt and Abyssinia, ,,as,.d to be a Christian .mmlrv owing to tlie destnietlon of its eliiir. n by the Mahometans, the Abyssinian cluinh was cMit off from comnmnKalhm witli th,. n st of Christen- ilom. . .They [ihe Abyssinian^] nniain nn alm.«t unique specimen of a seihibarbarous Hirisian iK'ople. Their worship is sirauirely m i.\ed with J.wish ci.sloms. '-11 K To/^r Tli i/'iirrhnnilt/ie J:,iKt,n, hm/iirf ,/i f, • ■• " Fifteenth-Nineteenth Centurie».-Europe«n r.n-'S'' I !* 'ntereourae— Intruaion of the GUlM -Intettine con«icti.-"AlH)ut the niid- Uct with W estern Europe. An Abyssinian eoii- \ent was cn(h>we<l at Itome, and l.-itm wen- sent from the Abyssinian cmvent at'j,Tus,,|,.,n o the couiiei .,1' Florence. These adli.n.l to Chureh of Home maile an impress upon Ethiopia . . . I'rinee Henry of Portugal . . . ne.Mo,„.m.,i up eommiinualion willi Eunme, II,. h„„,.,i ,„ ojx.n up a route from the West to the East coast of Afrin» [see PoKTf.i.u.: A. 1). 141.Vl)(tOI by which be East Indies ndgbt iH.rea.lnd wltl 1 out toiK hing JIahometan territory, nnririir his elfnrn to diseuv.T su< h a pas.sage to lu.iiu, and o .hstn.y the nvenues derived I.y III,. .\|,„,rH from the spie,. tmile. he .^nt an" ambassa,|„r nam..,! Covillan to 111,. C„urt of .Sh>,a (■,)\ill.iii W...S not sumn-,| I,, return by Al,.x,.ii,|, r. |'|„. nil .Neg,K.s l„r Negus, or Xugash - tl„. ijii,. „f the .\b\s.inian s,,v,.nignl. lb; niarri.-.l nuMy an,lar.,|um.,l rich p,.ssi.««ionsiiitlie,ouiitrv H,'. k,jl np,„ri. spoil, ,n.,. » III, Portugal, Mn,|un:.,l 1 rin.e ll.nry I,) dlligenlly eonliuu,. hi ., iTorts to il ,s,.,iy,.r the .Suithern pu,ssage to lb,. Ka«t In I Wtl„. Porlugu.se , ir..,.i,.,| tl,,, ,.ir,.„i, .,f _^,y 1 he 1 urkshli,,rily afi, rwanUexiemh.i ih, Ir con- qins si„war,ls ln,lia,wl„ re th,y w, n.baul',,d by b,. Porlu^-u, s.., but th, V ,.stal.li.l„.| a n,,-, ,„„|i oil n ^yia, ,m 1!,,. African .„asi, h'r, m here th,y h,impiT(,l aii,l thnateiaii |,> ijcsiroy ih,. lra,l,. of Abyssinia," ami wsui, h, alii,,,,,-,. « in, tin. .^Iiihometan trllns of th,' i,ia,l hna,|,.,l il,.. ■onnlrv. ■•Tli.y «ere defeate,! by ll„. .N,.pM.s ,V ,••• ^ -'"ie !;iiirthc Tiiri.1,1, I..»i,or /eyla wa» sl,.rn,e,l ai„l bumcil bv a P,>rtucue»c llct. • Consblirable intima<y ,if fri. i„llv"r(la- tions was mainiaimd for mmie time l.,i«;en the ABY8SINU, 15TH-19Tn CENTURIES. ▲BVSSINU, 18S4-1889. I ■ , ! t" I Abygsintaiu and the Portuguese, wiio Rssisted in defendioff them ugainst the Turks. " In the middle of the 16th century ... a mignition of Oailos came from tlie 8>'uthand swept up to and over tlie confines of Abyssinia. Men of ligliter compiezioD and fnirer sliin than most Africans, tliey were Pagan in religion and savages in cus- toms. Kotwitlistanding frequent efforts to di*- lixlgc them, they have Brmly established them- selves. A large colony lins planted itaelf on *he banks of the \ ;■. . r Takkazic, the Jidda and the Baahilo. Slutu their establishment here they have for the most part embraced the creed of Maliomet. The province of Shoa is but an out- lier of Christian Al)ysf)inia, separated completely from co-religionist districts by these Galia bands. About the same time the Turks took a firm hold of Massowah and of the lowland by the coast, which had hitherto been ruled by the Abyssinian Bahar Nagash. Islamism and heath- enism surrounded Al)yBslnia, where the lamp of Christianity faintly glimmen'd amidst dark ■upentition in the deep neesses of rugged val- leys." In ISSSaJesuit mi»ai(>n arrived iu the country and establislied itself at Fremona. ' ' For nearly a century Fremona existed, and iu super- iors were the trusted advisors of the £thi< gdan throne. . . . But the same fate which fell upon the company of Jesus in more civilize<l lands, pursued it in the wilds of Africa. The Jesuit missionaries were universally popular with the Negoos, but the prejudice of the people rufusi'd to recognise the ln'nelits which flowed from Fre- mona. Persecutioi befell the fathers, and two of them won the crown of martyrdom. The Negoos, Fiicllldas, "sent for a Coptic Abuna [ecclesiastical primate] from Alexandria, and con- cluded a treaty with the Turkish governors of Massowah and Souakin to prevent the passage of Europeans into his dominions. Some Capuchin preachers, who atti-mpted to evade this tn'aty and enter Abyssinia, met with cruel deaths. Facillda* thus completed the work of the Turks and the Galliis, and shut Abyssinia out from European inlluence and civilization. . . . After the expulsion of the Jesuits, Al)yBslnla "as torn by Internal feuds and constantly haraswd by the encroachments of and wars with the (liillas. Anarchy and confu«ion ruled supn me. Towns and villages were burnt down, lu ! the Inhalil- tants sold Into slavery. . . . Towanla llic mi Idle of the 18th century the Oallas upniHr fo have incn-aied eonsiden'bly in rxiwer. In llie Intes- tine quarrels of .\liys.slnla Ihilr iilllancc was courted liy each sldr, and In their country politi- cal refugiTS oluained a si'din- asylimi." r)uring the early years of the present ci'-nturv, the cam- I palgns In Kgypt attmcted Knt'lish iIitiiiilo:i to the Ifcii Sea. "In l-^oj l,„nl Valciitia, the Viceroy of India, mii- Ids SeiU'tary, Mr. .''alt, Into Aliyssinia:" l>ut .Mr Halt was uiii;hle to penetrate iK'yond Tlgnt. In IHIO he uiiinipfe<i a Second mission and again failiil. It hh» not until 1H48 that Kmtllsli nttcinpls to ojk n ijiiiln. Imatic and etuninenlal nlatiouH Willi .\liy><inia bcntme suetiiuirul. .Mr I'lowden wat h| |H>ini<'d cunsuhr agent, and negotiated a tnaty of (oia mcroe with lias All. the riditig Galla'cl.lef "— It ^1 Hozier, TAt' JliitM l^jntlitii'U !■• .14v»- (I 'I Intnxl. A. O. lB$4-l8Bp.— Advent of King Theodora — Hit EBglith c'aptiTCt and the Expedition which r«ltM«d tiitm,— "( iiiiiimI riowilen lia>l been residing six yeaiB at Massowah when h* heard that the Prince to whom he had been ac- credited, Ras AH, had been defeated and de- throned by an adventurer, whose name, a few vears before, had been unknown outside the boundaries of bis native province. This was Llj K&sa, better known by bis adopted name of Theodore. He was bom of an old family, la the mountainoiu region of Kwara, where the land begins to slope downwards towards the Blue Nile, and educated in a convent, where he learned to read, and acquired a considerable knowl- edge of the Scriptures. ESsa's convent life wa« suddenly put an end to, when one of those ma- rauding Oalla bands, whose ravages are the curse of Abyssinia, attacked and plundered the monaateiT. From that time he himself took to the life of a freelMoter. . . . Adventurers flocked to his standard : his power continually increased ; and in 1834 he defeated Ras All in a pitched bat- tle, and made himself master of central Abys- sinia." In 1855 he overthrew the ruler of Tlgrfi. " He now resolved to assume a title commen- surate with the wide extent of his dondnion. In the church of Derezgye he bad himself crowned by the Abuna as King of the Kings of Ethiopia, taking the name of Theodore, liecanse an ancient tradition declared that a great monarch would some day arise in Abyssinia." Mr. Plowdennow visl'.d the new monarch, was impressed with adiiiimtion of his tJilents and character, and be- came his counsellor and friend. But in 1860 the English consul lost his life, wldle on a joumev, Bncl Theodore, emiilttered by several mfs- fortunes, iiegan to give rein to a S4i»agc temper. "The British Government, on hearing of the death of Plowden, Immediately renlaceil him at Massowah .■.• the appointment of Captain Cam- enm." The new Consul was well retx'ived, and was entrusted by the Abyasinian King with a letter addressiil to theQueen of England, solicit- ing her friendship. The letter, duly despatched to Its destination, was nigcoii hokd In the Foreign Offlce at London, and uo reply to It was ever made. Insulted and enraginl by tills treatment, and by other evidenies of the IndlfTerence of the British OoveruiiH nt to Ids overtims. King Theo- dore, In January, 1H(J4, seizeil and imprisoned Consul Cameron with all his suite. About the same time he was still further olTendeil by eirtain passages In a hook on Aby9.sinla that had ixtn publUhiil by a missionary imnud ."^tern. Stern and a fellow misslonarv, Uosenthal with the hitter's wife, were lodged in prison, and sub- jected to flogging and torture. The Hrst step taken by the Hritish Government, when news of Consul Cameron's Iniprisunment reached Eng- land, was to si'iid out a n-giilar mission to Abys- sinia, liearliig n letter signed bv the (^iieen, de- manillug the n'h'ase of tlie Captives. The mission heiuliHl by a Syrian name<l Raiwain, made Its way to the King's presence In January. lH6fi. Theo- dore seemed to Im- placated by the ijiieen's epistle and prointstil freetlom to his prisoners. But soon his moody mlmt lieeame tlllni with suspicions as to the genuineness of liaMwm's cmlentlals from the (jiietn. ami as M the designs and int^'ntions of all the foH'Igners who were In his power. He was drinking heavily at the time, and the result of his "drunken cogitations was a determination to detain tlie Mii»..ioi!— g| gnv rate until bv their nieiins he shoul.t have obtained asupply of skilled artisans ami machlnrry from England." Mr. ABYSSINIA. 186t-188». Baaam and his compaolons were accortHncIy put Into confinement, us Captain Cameron ImU iK'pn. But tliiy were allowed to send a mes- sender to England, niakini; their situation known and conveying flic demand of King Tlii'oilore that a man be sent to him "wlio can make cim- nims and muskets." The demand wag actuallv complied with. Six skilled artisans and a civil engiiieiT were sent out, together with a quantity of machinery and other pn-scnts, in the hoiie that they woulil procure the release of the unfortunate captives at Jiagdala. Almost a year was wasud in these fjtile proceedings, and it was not until September, 1867, that nr expediticmconsistinffof *.mt British ami 8.000 native tniops. under An- eral Sir I{.>bert Xapier, was sent from India to bring the insensate barbarian to terms. It landed ro,'^","!'''''^ .•?*>'• ""''• "wrcoming enormous difficulties with n^gard to wau-r, food-supplies and tnmsportation, was ready, about the middle of January 1888, to start urnm its march to the rortres.s of Magdala, where Theodore's prisoner.^ were confined. The distance was 400 niiles, and sever .1 high ranges of mountains had to be passed to reach the interior table-land. The invadina army met »-lth no resistance until it reached the X""*:,*' "f ""^ ,Be8hilo, when it was attacked f April 10) on the plain of Aroge or Aroiri bv the whole force which Theodore was able to muster, numU-ring a few thousonds, only, of poory armiKl men. The battle was simply a rapid s aughtering of fh.' barbaric assailants, and when hey fled, leaving 700 orSOO.leu.l and l,.VIO wounded on the field, the Abvsslnlan King had no power of resistanc,. h.ft. Ife „ffered at on.e t.i make pi,,re. surrendering nil the captives in his hands: b„t .Sir IJolnrt Xapirr reniiired an nnc.,...liii,,„al submission, with a view todispluc- ng him from the thnair. In ercordancc with tlie wish and expectation which he had found to be general iu the country. Th.cMlore refiis,.d lus,_ terms, and when (April U) Magdala was b.,rnh:.r.>i.,l and stormed by the British tr.«ps_ s iirl.t resistance iH'lng inadc-heshot himself at the m.iniint of tlieii ntraiiee to the plate The soverrigmy he had successf.lly cncentrate.l In hiiuM.lf for a time was again d!vlde<). Betne.Mi A[.riland.Iuue the English army wa« entirely wlth.1 lawn. and " Abyssinia wasiealed up agu n f';)!" '""'T'"""'' with the ouur world."-?!,, *// » I!l>„tr„l.,l IH,t. of Eng.. r. 0. eh. 28.-" The task of permanently uniting Abyssinia, in which I, hn J,*" '• J'"'y''<',<''l'"'ll.v Impracticable to \^^h iaam"! «''T<"*'«'".v. By his fall (lOih March 1881)) In the unhappy war against the DtrvlshesorMoslemzialntsof the Soudan, the foved".?,'/''''*""'-''"'/,''",""'' "' S'"'". *'•» "" i? „ l/u''P"'* '''."'''7- I"*"' csiaMishment of the Italiani on the fled .Sa litti rai promises a now era for Abyssinia. "-T. Naldeke' M,fr/if»fr,m Rittfrn m.f rh 9 ' Ai.so IN H. A. Stern, 7'V r„,7,„. Mim.nary. —U. M. StaiUey, Coonuumtt „ml Ma-jdaU, /jt. 2. ACH^Al^ CITIEa. and adorned with temples and sriitucs, a gentla w!,""/ pi'-7^ '"•■'""ff'l '^"-"- "• Le'^es. a4 (f"'„"f ^'''^P"!/. 0th £-.,W..-The masters of the great schools of philosopy at Athens ■'choso h?,li, i "■ ,"'!''''' ■''"•' <l'-<^U8s'on8 the public buildings which were.alkcl gymnasia, of which Here were several in different ipiartiTS of the city tlie State, which had biiilt tliem chiefly for bodily exercises and athletic fiats. . . . Before long several of the schools drew themselves I apart in special buildings, and even t<x.k their «,^\/T'"" /"""■?■ ^'"^'' "^ "« L^feumand m,?i„ .I '""^■^'■'"" ".'«»>■"'"'" ' i" which they made themselves at home. Gradually we fin 1 f '? Jr'.''''*4 2' ^""^ """"iai rirovisions. whirli helped to dehne and to perpetuate the different sects Plato had a little garden, close by he sacred Eleiisinlan Way, in'the shady groves of he Academy. . . irfstotle, as we'inow In later life had taught in the Lveeiim. in the ri. h grounds near the Illsans."— \V. W. Capes (hi ttrnty Life in, Ancient Ath'n; pp. 3I-ai — For a description of the Academy, Lyceum, etc see OvMSAsiA, OBKicK.-'>n the suppression of the Academy, see Atbkss. A. T>. 529. ACADEMY, The French. — Foundeil l Can inal Kichelieu. in mr,, for the reflninr the language and the literary taste of Frai; Its forty members are styled "the Immortals Election toasi'at among them is a high object of ambition among French writers. ACADIA. See \ov\ Scorn *?*?.l^?'^' ^''•- »"'' 'he aritith Go»em- ment.— Their expulsion. See N'ova Scotia • ACADEMY. The Athenian.-" The Ara- Atrn;''r.''' h*r'''" ';■ ""• '«'<«''»^>'rl.o.<l . f AMI. IIS, was the fuvmirlie r<>""r! nf I't-ttn h, i rhLsgar.lenw«« planted with Jofty plane trees. ACAWOIOS. The. S.e Ami;i,ican Abobi. "'i'iJi.P*""''' *^° TRKtn KiNDHri). ACCAD.-ACCADIANS. See Ba btloma. PkiMITIV;,; andSEMlTNS 1 ACCOLADE.-" The concluding sign of kniu'hthoo.! was a aliirht blow given by the lord P irt of the body, the neck, whereon It was ^ rurk. .,Iany writers have Imagined timt the ii.eolade was the T.st blo,v whldi tho so], dirrmi^.l.trei-eivewith imnunlly; but this ia- -rnretation is not correct, {or th'e squire was as Jea mis of his honour as the kniiilit The on -In of the accolade it Is lmp,.ssli,le to trace but it - 13 clearly consldend sy mlK.lical of the rellgioui and moraf duties of knlglith,K,l, and w ., i ' only een.m. y used when knl-hts were made In places (the ffeld of battle, for lnsf^ncer«here time and ■■ re.imstnnces <li,! not allow of ii.uny c.T,monles"-C. Mills, ;/i-,r ,/ «:,7„>„.V», r f ACHiEAN CITIES, League of the.-Tld, vlii.h Isnot to beconrom,de,l?viti. „„, " \,.| . ,!; I.ea,:ue of I'elopmmes.is. wa.. an eariy L, ...';'.o .. the flreek ».-IthM.Knts in .southern" Ita'vot tZ,t' J, -'"'If i^. MelalMis or MetapoiK,.:," ; r, . r 'I " "^*''* '•"•''■''""I'k Hnd I.a,.,. *-r(,toii (a.d.mia, Tem,»a. T. rina and Pvx,is . . . The language of I'olyliius regarding t!io Acha-an symmucliy in the IVl ,p„nm»,.s may io .;•;!- 11. 1 also to these Itai:.m .Vchaans: •noi o„'y l;;, 'i?'"'"' ■',' '"'<■'"' ""'i lri'ndlvr..minu;l ,n. but they neulo use of the ,:■■„.. law,. «„d iho same wilghis. measure's an 1 lo,:.,. «, well as of m' H ACIIJJAN CITIES. the same magistrates, coiiiidllors and judges.'" — T. Jlomiiisiti, Jlint. of Home, Ik. 1, eh. 10. ACH^AN LEAGUE. SicOheeck: B. C. 280-146. ACHiEMENIDS, The.— The family or dy- nastic name (ia its Greek form) of the "kinc3 of the I'ersian Empire founiie<l by Cvrus, deriveil fniir. an aiiecstor, Acha-nienes, who "was probably 1 1 liicf iif the Persian trilie of the Pasargada;. "hi the iuscription of Behistim, King Darius s:i_vs: 'From old tiinn ve were kings; eiglit of my family have been Kings, I am the ninth; from very ancient times we have been kings." He enumerates his anc«!Stors: 'My father was Vistafpa, the father of A'ista^pa was Arsama; the father of Arsama was Ariyaramna, the father of Ariyaramna was Khai8pis,'thc father of Khais- pis was Hakhamanis; hence we are called Hak- hamanisiya(AcIiiemenids).' Inthesewords Darius gives the tree uf bis own family up to Khaispis; this was the younger branch of the Acha;- meuids. Tcispes, the son of Achaemenes, had t>vo sons; the elder was Cambyses (Kambujiya) the younger Ariamnes; tlie iM>n of Cambvses was Cvrus (Kurus), the son of Cyrus was Cambyses It Hence Darius could indeed maintain that eight princes of his family had preceded him; but it was not correct to maintain that they had been kings before him and that he was the ninth king." — M. Duuclicr, lU»t. of Antiquilu. t. 5. bk. 8, eh. 3. At™) IN O. Hawllnson, Fumili/ of the Aeh/r- maiitUi. iipp. I,) hk. 7 of Ilcrodot'ua.— Stx, also, Pkksiv. AN(ri;NT. ACHAIA.— •Cnisslng the river Tjirlssufi, and purMiing tlie northern coast of Peloponnesus south of the Coriniliiaii Gulf, the traveller would pass into Acliaia — a name whicli designated tlic narrow strip of level land, and the projecting spurs ami diclivities In'tween that gulf and the northernmost mountains of the peninsula. . . . Achaean cities — twelve in numlier a' Ic'ust, if not more — divided this limg strip of land amongst them, from the mouth of the Larissus and the northwestern Ciipc Amxus on one side, to the western boundary of the .sikyon territory on tlie other. According to the ai'counts of the ancient legends and the b<lief of IIer.Klotus, this terri- tory had been once (Hcupied by Ionian inhabit- ants, whom the Aclmcans haa cxik'HihI." O. Orote, Jlinl. of Oi;,w, ],t. 2, e.'i. 4 (r. 2). After the Komnn conquest and the suppression of the A-'iaian League, llie name Aehuia was given to :' " lioman province then organizetl, which embraced ill Greece south of Macedonia and Epirus.— See Giii;f.ce: B. C. 280140.— "In the llonirrlc pi>ems, where . . . the 'Hellenes' only appear in one district of Southern Thessaly, the name Ai leeaiis is employed by preference as a general appelati..n for the whofe race. But the Acha'iins we may term, without hesitatlim, a Pclusgian people. In so far, thai is, as we use this name merely as the opposite of tlio term ■HeMenes,' wliiih pn'Viiilcd nt a \:\l'T V le, although It Is true that the Hellenes tliems es .were nothing more than a l):irlicular bninch of the Pelasgian stock. . . . [The name of the] Acha'aiis, after it had dropped its earlier and more universal application, wus preserved as the speiial name of a population dwelling In the norlh of the Pcloponne.se and the south of Tiu.^saiy.' — ij. 1\ S Iiuiiiann, Anti'j. of (}rrcer'. ^ht Utitte, lnt.~"tUe ancient! regarded them 6 ACURIDA. [•■.•) Achetansl as a brsnch oi the .£olians, with w.iom they afterwards reunited into one national body, i. e. , not as an originally distinct nationality or independent branch of the Greek people. Accordingly, wc hear neither of an Achaean kn- guage nor of Aeheean art. A manifest and deci.led Influence of tlie maritime Greeks, wherever the Acha-ans appear, is common to the latter with the ^Eolians. Achieans are everywhere settled on the coast, and are always reganled as par- ticularly near relat'ons of the loniitns. . . . The Acl^ans appear scattered about 1- localities on the coast of the .lEgean so remote from one another, that it is impossible to consider all bear- ing this name as fragments of a people originally united in one stnial community; nor do they in fact anywhere appeal, properly speaking, as a popular btnly, as the main stock of tl:i population, but rather as eminent fa.-nilies, from which spring heroes ; henco the use of the expres- sion ' Sons of the Acha'ans ' to Indicate ncble de- scent."— E. Curtius, JIM. of Oreeet, bk. 1, eh. 8 Also iw M. Dunckcr, Hut. of Greece, bk. 1, eh 2, and bk. 2, eh. 2.— See, also, Achau, and Greece: Tue Migrations. A. D, 1305-1387. — Medixval Principality. —Among the conquests of the French and I.ombard Crusaders in Gretce, after the taking of Conatantinopio, was that of a major part of the Peloponnesus- then beginning to be called the Morea— by William de Champlitte, a French knight, assisted by Geffrey dc Villehardouin, the younger- nephew and namesake of the Marshal of Chaini)agne, wlio was clironicler of the conquest of theEmplreof the East. William de Cliamplitto was invested with this Principality of Achaia, or of the Morea, as it is variously styled. Geffrey Vlllehanlouin represented him in the povenimcnt, as his "bnilly," for a time and linally succwded In supplanting him. Half a century hiter the Greck.s, who had recovered Constantinople, reduced the territory of the Principality of Achaia to about half the penin- sula, and a destructive war was wagi'd between the tv7o nces. 8ub.sequently the Wncipality became a lief of the crown of Naples and Sicily, and underwent many changes of possession until the title was In confusion and dispute between the houses of Anjou, Aragon and Savoy. Before it was engulfed finally in the Empire of tlie Turks, it was iuined by their piracies and ravages.— G. Finlav, Iliat. of Greece from itt Conquctt by the C'nimilt'r; eh. 8. ♦- — - ACHMET I., Turkish Sultan, A. D. IflOJ- 1017. . . .Achmet II., IBl'l-lOUj. . . .Achmet III.. 170:1-1 7.'!0. ACHRADINA. — A part of the ancient citv of Byracu. :■, H'eilj , known as the " outer city,'' iKcupying the ,ieiiinsula north of Ortygia, the island, which was tlic " inner city." ACHRIDA, Kingdom of.— After the death of John ZImisces who had reunited Bulgaria to the Byzantine Empire, the Bulgarians were roused to a struggle for the recovery of their independ. eiice, under the lead of four brothers of a noble family, all of whom aoon ;^rishcd save one, named Samuel. Samuel proved to be so vigor- ous and able a soldier and had so much success that he assumeil pri'sently the title of king. Ills p.uthority was establlshefl over the greater part of Bulgaria, and extended Into tlacedimla^ Eptnis and Illyrla. Ue eaUbllahed his capital ACHRIDA. nt Acbiida (modem Ochrida, In Albania), wlilcli gave it3 name to his kingdom. Tlie suppression of this new Bulgarian monarchy occupied the Byzantine Emperor, Basil II., in wars from flSl until 1018, when Its last strop;;liolds, including the <ity of Achrida, were surrendered to him.— O. Finlay, llitt. of the Byzantine Empire from 710 to 10.-,7, bk. 2, ch. a, teit. 2. ACKERMAN', Convention of (1836). See TiiiKs: A. D. lPl"8-lb29. AroLAHUS, The. See Me.xico, A.vciext: Till. I (iLTEC EjirrRE. ACOLYTH, The. See Va anoian or Wab- CJO OlWllD. > ^?'*A?^' °»"'« "»'• A. D. 633.-Aftcr the death of Mahomet, his successor, Aljii Belir had to deal with several serious revolt':, the most llircatening of which was raised by one Mosei- l^ma whohad pretended, even in the lifetime of t.ic l*rophet, to p. rival mission of religion Tlie decisive battle (■ ween the followers of Jlosci- laina and those ot .Mahomet was fought nt Acril).i near Yemama. The pretender was slain and few of his army escaped.— Sir W. Muir, AnnaU of t;ie J:.rrlu Caliphate, ch. 7 ACRABATTENE, Battle of.-A sanguinary (leleat of the Idiimeans or Edomites In- the Jews under Judas JIaccabsus, B. C. 104.— Josephus Antiri. ofthfJeict, Ik. 13, ch. 8. ACRAGAS. See AomoENTrM. ACRE (St. Jean d'Acre, or Ptoleir^is): A. p. ii04.-Conquest, Pillage and Massacre by V"-,*^r!f,?'',"»,'"'" Genoese, bee Ciusades: A. p. Ii87.-Taken from the Christians by »?,'"• i"^''J'Kt'*»i'iM: A. I). lHU-n87 r„^:f kJ '8''J.'9'--:'^''« K'"' siege and recon- 1"K*-111|i"'*' '*'^'-' '^''"•"i^AI'ES: A. 1>. A. D. I256-I257.-Quarrels ani battles be- •T:m?k:'a. ^i'n^x,:^^ ^"'"•'"- «- m^JLi °" "j>'--T»ie Final triumph of the Moslems. See Jeius.xi.em: A. I). IJUl ACT OF SETTLEMENT. ci-'^l n'Jl'"''-"'*.*""'"'' to Importance by Shei* Daher-"Acre, or St. Jean d'.VcrJ celeljmted under this name in the history of the ( rusades and in antl<,uity Ivnown by the name of Ptolemais, had, by ttle middle of e whenhheiklMher. the Arab rebel, 'restored ili commerce and navifratlon. Inis al.le prince whoso sway comprehended the wliDle of iinel nt Oalilee, was succeeded by the Inf.inu.us tvninf )jez7ar.p«,ha, whoforthi,.d Acre, and adorned „.J^- D- '7W.-Uniuec*itful Siege by Bona- -Atot-nn '"' '■ '^ '*■ '""'-'''"' '^""-^ M^i;.™:.4'l?,'''l,''°~2''5» •""' Capture by WeVt2;'nVob^".^-\'1-'l;^^^^^^^^^^ S.fK^/'*"'"^'' PROMONTORY. ACROPOLIS OF ATHENS The _■• A road which, by running zigzag up the slop., w,„ reatlmd practuubiv r..r . harlots, led from the platform of which stood tlie IV.pylai; erected by the architect Mnesicles in flre years durine the administration of Pericles. . . . Oncutcrin'- through the gates of the Propylxa a sec:,o of unparaHcd grandeur and beauty buret up, 1 tit eye. >io trace of human dwellings anywhere appeared, but on all sides temples of more rrlcss elevation, of Pentclic marble, beautiful in dc^i"'! and exquisitely delicate in execution, sparhh I like piles of alabaster in the sun. On the Kft stood the Erectheion, or fane of Athena Polia=- to the right, that matchless edifice known as the llecatompedon of old, but to later ages as the Parthenon, Other buildings, all holy to tlie eve or an Atlienian, lay grouped around these master structures, .1.1, in the open spaces between, in whatever di, , tion thj spectator might )%ok, ap- peared ,tatuc3, some remarkable fortl-.'irdimen- sious, others for their beautv. and all for the Kgemlary sanctity which surrounded them No city of the ancier* or modern world ;ver rivalled Athens in the ritnes of art. Our best filled mu- seums, though teeming with her spc ils, are poor collectious of fragments coniparet with tluit assemblage of g,.ds and heroes whicl peopled the Acropolis, the genuine Olympos the arts "— J. A. t>t. John, The IMUna,. bk. \, ch 4- •>cthing in ancient Greece or Italy coul.l bo compare.1 with the Acropolis of Alliens, in its combin-itionof l.cauty and grandeur, surrounded as It was by temples and theatres among its rocks, and encircled bv a city abounding with nioniiments, some of which rivalled those of the Acropolis. Its platform formed o;io great Sjini'tuary, partitioned only bv the ' .-uudaries of tlie . . satrcd portions. \Vc cannot, tlicrc- fore, admit |i;c suggestion of Chandler, that in addition t . tlie temples and other momimenn on tlie sum.nit, fliere were houses divided into rcu- l.-ir str. cts. This would not have been cousonSnt eitlier \suu •.lie customs or the goo<l taste <l the Athenians. Vs hen the people of Attica crowde,' into Alliens at the 1' finning of the Pclopi nnc- slan war, and religion, prejudices gave v.ay ia every piws.ble case, to the necessities of the occa- sion even then the Acropolis renvincd uuin- hahited . The western end of the Acrojiolis, which furnished the only access to the summit of tMe lull, was one hundred and sixtv eight fei t ia lireaillh ■ ^pcning so narrow thilt it aiii)earej practu'abletothe artlsU of PeriMes to fill up the space with a single building wl.ich fchoiild i.rve the purpase of a gateway to tie citadel, as well as of a suitable entran.e to tiiat glorii.us dis- |.lav (if nrcliiiecture and sculpture whiih was wit iin the Imlosurc. This work [the Propv- a'a], the greatest production of civil artlii- teeliire in Athens, which rivillcl the Parthcnoa in felieity of execution, surpassed it in bald- ness and originality of design. ... It n->v be dellne,! as a wall pierced rtith flvo doors,' be- fore w loch on both sides were Doric li.xastylc IZ T \ ~^\- '"^'J^"'"'. Topography, fAt!,cr.,, met. N.— Sec, also, Attica ACT OF ABJURATION, The. See Xi.rn EHLVxiis: A. U. 1577-1,W1 ACT OF MEDIATION, The. See Swit zehland: a. I). 1803-1848. v^ I i: ACT RESCISSORY. ACT RESCISSORY. See Scotland. A. D. 1060-1686. ACTIUM : B. C. 434.— Naval Battle of the Creeks. — A defeat inuicted upon thu Coriuthiuos by the Corcyrians, in the contest over Epidnmnus whicli was the prelude to the Peloponncsian War.— E. Curtius, Jlitt. of Greece, bk. 4. eh. I. B. C. 31.— The Victory of Octa.vius. See Rome: B. C. 81. ACTS OF SUPREMACY. See Suphe- MACY, Acts op; and tsoLA^•D: A. D. 1527- 1531 ; and 1659. ACTS OF UNIFORMITY. Sec Ekolasd: A. D. 1559 and 1663-'665. ACULCO, Battle of (1810). See Mexico: A. D. 1810-1819. ACZ, Battle of (1840). See Acstria, A. D. 1848-1849. ADALOALDUS, Kinf of the Lombards, A. D. 616-626. ADAMS, John, In the American Revolu- tion. See Unite,, States of Am.: K. D. 1774 (Mat — June); 1774(8eptembek); 1775 (.Mat — AcocsT); 1776 (Januaet -June), 1778 (.Iclt). In diplomatic aervicc. See United States OF Am.: a. D. 1782 (April); 17»2(SEi>TKMitKK— KuvEMDEit) Presidential administration. Sec United States of Am.: A. U. 17«8-1«01. Death. See the same : A. D. 1N28. ADAMS, John Quiocy. — The Treaty of Ghent. See United States of Am. : A. D. 1814 (Decemher) As President. Sec same : A. D. 1H24-1829 Defending right of Peti- tion. See same : 1842. ADAMS, Samuel, in and after the American Revolution. See United States ok Am. : A.I). 1772-1773; 1774(Septkmiiee); 177.>(Mat); 1787-1 7ti9. ADDA, Battle of the (A. D. 490). See Rome: A. I). 4«8-n20. AD DECIMUS, Battie of (A. D. 533). See Vaspats: a. 1>. .W;t-034. ADEL. — ADALING. — ATHEL. — "The honi'-s!;:! of tlic origiuttl Bottler, bis house, farni-liiiil(tini,'S and enclosure, ' llie toft and i ruft,' T'itli tlie share of arable and appurtenant conunon rights, bore among the northern nalioii.s [early Teutonic] the name of Odal, or Edliel ; the primi- tive motlier village was an Athclby, or Athcl- ham; tlio owner was an Atlielbqndo: the s.ima word Adel or Athel signilled also nobility of ilescint, and an Adallng was a nobleman."— W. Mubbs Vfitttt. Ili't. iij Kny., eh. 8, Jkif. 24.— See, also, .Vi,<>i>, and Kthi;!.. ADELAIDE, The founding ard naming ol. See AiMKAi.lA : A. I). 1MKI-1H4<I. ADELANTADOS.— An early title given to tlie gdveiiiors In Spanish Amerieu. ADELBERT COLLEGE. See EnucA- TMs, Mi'DKKn: Hi'EoiiMB : a. D. 1WH-1X91. ADEN.— A port on the southern loast of Arabia, talten by Great Britain from tlie ."^ultan of Aden in IWlit. Adjaeeiit territory, with I'eriin and otiier neighliorimr islands, lias been ae()uin-d since. afTonlIng a naval and ciudlng station Important to the domination of the lied Se:. and the Siii'Z Canal. ADIABENE. — .\name whlclienme to be np plied aneieritly to the tmct of eountiy east uf the middle Tigris, emhraeing what wa.H originally Ihi- I'li'ih-r terrlioFj of As-yriti. t'.fjf'lier «liii Arbelitis, Under the Parthian nioriarihy it turmcd a tributary kingdom, much disputed ADCLLAMTES. between Parthia and Armenia. It was seized several times by the Romans, but never perma- nently held. — Q. liawlinson. Sixth Ortat OrttntcU Monarchy, p. 140. ADIRONDACKS, The. Bee AMimcui Aborigines: Adironoaces. ADIS, Battle of (B. C. 356). SeePuiiia War, Tue Fihbt. ADITES, The.— "The Cushltes, the first In- habitants of Arabia, are known in the national traditions by the name of Adites, from their progenitor, who is called Ad, the grandson of Ilam." — F. Lenormant, Manual of Ancient Uiit., bk. 7, eh. 2.- .See Akauia. ADJUTATORS. See England : A. D, 10,7 (ApUII. — .Vt.'liUST). ADLIYAH, The. Sec Islam, ADMIRALTY ISLES. See Meiankbia. ADOLPH (of Nassau), King of Germaay, A. D. 1291-1298. «noLPHUS FREDERICK, King of Sweden, A. D. 1751-1771. ADOPTIONISM. — A doctrine, condenmed as heretical in the eighth century, which taught that "Christ, as to his human nature, was not truly the Son of Ood, but only His sen by adop- tion. " The dogma is also known as the Kelician heresy, from a Spanish bishop, Felix, who was prominent among its supporters, Charlemacne took active measures to su ppress the heresy .—J. I. Mombert, Uitt. of Charlea the Great, bk. 2, cA. 18. ADRIA, Proposed Kingdom of, See Italt: A. D. 1348-1889, ADRIAN VI., Pope, A. D. 1522^-1.523. ADRIANOPLE.— HADRIANOPLE.— A city in Thrace founded by the Emperor Hadrian and designated by his name. It was the scene of Constantine's victory over Liciuius in A.. D. 828 (see Home: A. U. 805-323). ami of the de- feat and death of Vaieiis in battle with the Ooths (see GoTns (VlsiooTHs) : A. L). 37b), In 13U1 it became for some years tlie capital of the Turks in Europe (see TtRKs: A, D. l;i()0-18«9). It was occupied bv the Kussiuns in 1829, and again In 1878 (see Turks: A. D, 182U-1829, and A. D, 1877-1878), und gave Its name to the Treaty negotiated in 1829 between Kussia and the Porte (see OUEECE: A, V 1821-1829), ADRIATIC, The Wedding of the. See Venice: A 1). 1177, and 14m Cknturv. ADRUMETUM. See Cartu.\ue, Tub Do- minion OF, ADUATUCI, The. See Bei.o.e, ADULLAM, Cave of.— When David had been cast out by the I'hill.stines, among whom he sought refuge from the enmity of Saul, "his flrst retreat was the Cave of Adullani. probably the large cavern not far from Bethlehem, now called Khureitiin, From its vieinitv to Bethle- hem, he was joined there by his wlide family, now feeling themselves insecure from Saul's fury. . . . Besides tliesc were outlaws from every part, including doubtless some of the original (.'annanites — of whom the name of (me at le:ist has been preserved, Ahiiiielich the Ilittite In the vast columnar haiNauil birched chamlH'rs of this sublcrnuiean pahix'. nil who had any grudge against the exist 1114.' ystem fathen'd rouml the hero of the con, 111 ie."— U'Mn Stuidev, iMCl't on tli* IJiiit. •! ' Jtvitk ADULL AMITES, The. See E.nol.v xd: A. D. 1805-1808, ADWALTON MOOR. ADWALTON MOOR, Battle of (A. D. «643)— This wu a battle fought near Bradford June 89, 1643, in the great Euglish Civil War" The Parliamentary forces, under Lord Fairfax were routed by the Royalists, under Newcastle' — C. K. Markham, Life of the Great Lord Fair- jux, eh. 11. iGAKIOS (,««dd»).— The supposed de- scendants of the demi-god ^akus, whose grand- son was Ach'lles. (See Myrmidons.) Miltiades tlio hero of marathon, and Pyrrhus, the warrior Kinsf of Epirus, were amouL' those claiming to belling to ;he royal race of -Eakids. iEOHILING. See Etbel. VOILES, Roman. See Rosre : B. C. 494-492 iEDUI.-ARVERNI.-ALLOBROGES.- The two most powerful nations in Gallia were the ^dui [or Hsedul] and the Arverui. The .iEdul occupied that part which lies between the upper Talluy of the Loire and the Saone, which river was part of the boundary between them and the Sequani. The Loire separaU'd the ^dui from the Bitunges, whose chief town was Avaricum on the site of Bourges. At this time [B. C 1811 the ArvemI, the rivals of the .Edui, were seek- ing tlie supremacy in Gallia. The Arvemi occu- pied the mounUinous country of Auvergne in tlie centre of France and the fertile valley of the 1, aver (Allier) nearly as far as the j unction of the Allior and the Loire. . . . They were on friendly /TT>> theAllobroges, a powerful nation east of the lUione, who occupied the country between the Kh.me and the Isara (Isfre). . . . fn order to break the for idable combination of the Arvemi and the Allobroges, the Koiiuins made use of the A.(lui, who were the enemies both of the AIIo- brog.s an<l the Arverni. . . . A treaty was made eithcT at this time or somewhat earlier between the .-tilui and the Roman .s.-nate, who conferred on tlici. new Gallic friends the honourable title of brothers and kinsmen. Tiiis fraternizing was a piece of political cant which the liomans prac- ticed when it was useful. "-0. Long, Deeliw of tht Ko'nan JiepMtc. ». 1, eh. 21.— See, also ^G^ See Edessa (M.^cbdo.vu). <*• C- IViv ^ P^""^ ^^*«' T"t- First. nJT • I.f~"- P" -Egean, or White ^ \- i^ distinguished fr<m the Euxine." 71^' *• *jeeman, Hittorieal Geog. of Europt, r. 413, and footnote. t^' i- iEGIALEA.-iEGIALEANS.-The orig- inal name of the northern coast of Peloponnesus, and its inhabitants. See Greece: The Mioba- ^GIKOREIS. 8eePiivL.«. onlc gulf, between Attica and Argolls First colonized by Ach«ans it wa.s afterwa^s icu- pu.Hl by Dorians (seeOnEECK: The Mioratioks) and was unfriendly to Athens. During the sixth centurv B. C. It rose to great power and c«Tnin..rcial Importance, and became for a time ^ri.^'^'f'T^""'?.' "="'" »f 0'^<^k art. At the period of the Persian war, .Eclua was "tin Srst maritime power In 'Grec^ce " But he AgineUns were at tliat timn engaged in war with Athena, as the allies of Thebes, and rather than f,;n.go their enmitv. they nir..rcd submission «.n.:.V ',"■»""''""»<■ fie Athenians thereupon appealjHl to Sparta „ the hea,l of Greece.'^ to Interfere, and the ^glnetans were compeUed to «. 4, JSOUANl rive hostages to Athens for their fidelity to the Hellenic cause. (See Grmck: B. C. 498-491 ) They purged themselves to a great extent of their intended treason by the extraordinary valor with which they fought at Salamls. But the sudden preeminence to which Athens rose cast a b ighting shadow upon ^glna, and in 429 B. it lost its independence, the Athenians takini possession of their discomfited rival.— C Thirl, wall, HiH. of Greece e. 1, eA. 14 .Also ui G. Grote, Hi»t. of Greece, pt. 3 ""•88. — See, also, Athens: B. C. 4S9-480' _ 9- .458-456.— Alliance with Corinth In war with Athens and Me»ra.— Defeat and »nb|ugation. See Greece: B. C. 4.W-158 B. C. 431.— Expulsion of the iEginetana from their island by the Athenians?- Their !rS^"A?'"' •* Thyrea. See Greece: B. C. Ti?'«^\'"'"~°**°'»!'"»° ^7 ">« Romani.— The first appearance of the llomans in Greece when they entered the country as the allies of the Atolians, was signalized bv the barbarous destruction of .Egina. The ci'ty having been taken, B. C. 810, ite entire population was reduced to slavery by the Romans and the land and buildings of the city were sold to Attalus, king of Perg»mus.— E. A. Freeman, Uiet. cf Pedk-roL 9 ^?ItF,7,^''JALENT. See Talent. iEGITIUM, Battie of (B. C. 436) — i. re- verse experienced bv the Athenian General Demosthenes, in his Invasion of ^tolia, durinir the Peloponnesian War.— Thucydidcs, /lislor^ ok. 8, leet. 97. ' ^OSPOTAMI (Aigoipotamoi), Battle ot See Obeece: B. C. 405. •ALFRED. .See Alfred. .«LIA CAPITOLINA.-The new name i 'd 130-134"^ ^^ ""''' '"■ ^™ "'''"■*• JULIAN AND FUFIAN LAWS. The.- Thc^hanand Fuflan laws (loses yElia and t ufla) the age of which unfortunatelv we can- not accurately determine . . . enacted that a popular assembly [at Rome] might be dissolved or, in other words, the acoept.-mce of any pro^ posed law prevented, if a ma.Kistrate aunounced to the president of the -"ssemblv that It was hU lutcntfon to choose the same time for wuteliing the heavens. Such an announcement (obnuntl- atio) was held .0 be a sufficient cause for i.iter- rupting an assembly. "—W. lline, J/M. of llomt UK. 6, eh. 10, r.f f*'H5AN WAY. The.-".M. .Emillu. Lepldus, Consul for the year 180 B. C con- structwl the great road which bore his' name. The JImilian W ay led from Arimiuuin throuirh the new colony of Bononia to Placontia, beinit a continuation of the Flamlnian Wav, or great north road, made by C. Flamiiiius la 220 B C from Rome to Arimlnum. At tlie same epeich! !• laminius the son, being the colloagin! of Leoi! dus, made a branch road from Bououla acroiis the Appenines to Arretlum,"- 11. G LIddell Uist. ^- a,,.:': bk. 6. eh. il. "uaeu, •Sn.'H «5"J; Roman Emperor, A. D. 233. iEOLIANS, The.-" The collective stoik of |.rwk natoimhtics fails, according 1,, the view of those ancient writers who labimri I ino^t to obtain an exact knowledge of ethnographic relationships, kto three main divisions, .Eoliani ^OLIANS. iETOLIAN LEAGUE. Dorians and lonlans. ... All the other inhabit- ants of Greece [nut Dorians and lonians] and of the islands included in it, are compri6ed under the common name of vEoIians — a name unknown as .vet to Uonier, and wliicli was incontestubly applied to a great divcrsitj' of peoples, aninri^ nliicii it is certain that no such homogeneity of race is to hv assumed as existed among the loni- ans and Dorians. Among tlie two former races, though even these were scarcely in any quarter completely unmixed, there was incontestably to be found a single original stock, to wliich others had merely been attached, and as it were engrafted, whereas, among the peoples assigned to the /Eolians. no such original stock is recog- nizable, but on tlic contrary, as great a differ- ence is found between the several members of this race as between Dorians and lonians, and of the so-called .Eolians, some stood nearer to the former, others to the latter. ... A thorough and careful investigation might well lead to the conclusion that the Greek people was divided not into three, but into two main races, one of which we may call Ionian, the other Dorian, while of the so-called ..Eolians some, and probably the greater number, belonged to the former, the rest to the latter. " — O. F. Schii- man, Antiq. of Ctrctcc : The State, pt. 1, c/t. 2. — In Greek myth., ..Eolus, the fancied progenitor of the ^Eolians, appears as one of the three sons of Ilcllen. ".Eolus is represented as having ri^igned in Thessaly: his seven sons were Kre- theus, Sisyphus, Athamas, Salmoneus, Ucion, Magnes anil Pericres : his five daughters, Canacc, Alcyone, Peisidike, Calyce and Permedc. The fables of this race seem to be distinguished by a constant introduction of the God Poseidon, as well as by i 'i itnusual prevalence of haughty and presuuipt'unus attributes among the yEolid heroes, leading them to affront the gods by pre- tences of equality, and sometimes even by defl ancc." — G. Grote, Ilitt. of Orcece, pt. 1, eh. 0. — See, also, Tiiessaly, Doriass AJfD Io^'IA^s, and Asi.\ JIinor: Tiie Greek Colonies. .£QUIANS,The. SeeOsCASS; alsoLATiUM; and Home ; B. C. 458. .£RARIANS.— Roman citizens who had no political rights. See Censobb, Uoman, ^RARIUM, The. SceFiscus. .£SOPUS INDIANS. Sec Amekic a^: Abo- RioixEs: .\i.ii«NQriAN Family. iESTII, or .«STYI, The.—" At this point [beyond the Suiones] the Suevic Sea [the Baltic], on its eastern shore, washes the tribes of tlio .£stii, whose rites and fashions and styles of dress are tliosc of the Suevi, while their language ia more lilco the British. They worship the mother of the gods and wear as a religious sym- bol the device of a wild boar. . . . They often use clubs, iron weapons but seldom. They are more patic nt In cultivating corn and other pro- duce than might be expected from the genenil indolence of the Germans. But they also searcli the deep and are the only people who gather ambiT, uliicli they call glesum. '—"The ^Eslli occupied that part of ftiissia which is to the nortli east of tlie Vistula. . . . The name still survives in the form Estonia." — Tacitus, Ocr- mauii, triiia. by Church and lirodrihb, irith no^.— See, also, Prussiam Lanqijaof., The 0L1>. £SYMNET£, An.— Among the Greeks, an expedient "which seems to have been tried not unfrequently in early times, for preserving or restoring tranquility, was to invest an indi- vidual witii absoVitc power, under a peculiar title, which soou became obsolete: that of a's^mnctae. At Cuma, Indeed, and in other cities, this was the title of an ordinary magistracy, prob- ably of that which succeeded the hereditary mon- archy; but when applied to an exf ordinary olTice, it was equivalent to tlie title of protector or dictator."- C. Thirlwall, Jlut. of Oreeee, eh. 10. iCTHEL.— .CTHELING. See Ethel, and Adcl. iETHELBERT, iETHELFRITH, ETC. See ETiUiLiiicRT, etc. iCTOLIA.— iCTOLIANS.- "^tolia, the country of Dionied, though famous in the early times, fell back during the migratory period almost into a savage condition, probablv through the influx into it of an Illyrian population which became only partially Hellenized. The nation WHS divided Into numerous tribes, among which ti. most iinportant were the Apodoti, the Ophl- oneis, the Eurytanes and the Agnrana. There were scarcely any cities, village life l>eing pre- ferred universally. ... It was not till the wars which arose among Alexander's successors that the .(Etolians formed a real political union, and became an important power in Greece."— O, Rawlinson, Manual of Ancient Hint., bk. 3. — See also, Akarn-amanb, and Greece: The Mioba- TI0N3. iCTOLIAN LEAGUE, The.— "The Acha- ian and the ..Etolian Leagues, had their constitu- tions been written down in the shape of a formal document, would have presented but few vari- eties of importance. The same general form of government prevailed in both ; each w as federal, each was deniocr.itic; each had its popular as- sembly, its smaller Senate, its general with large powers at the head of all. The differences be- tv.cen the two arc meri'ly those dilleronces of detail which will alwavs arise between any two political sy.stems of wliich neither is slavidily copied from the othei. ... If therefore federal states or democratic stotes, or aristocratic states, were necessarily weak or strong, peaceful or aggressive, honest or dishonest, we should sec Aeliaia and ..Etolia both exhibiting the same moral characteristics. But history tells another tale. The political conduct of the Achaian Ix'ague, with some mistakes and some faults, is, on the whole, highly houourable. The political conduct of the ..Etolian League is, throughout the century in which we know it best |last half of third and first li.alf of s<}Cond century B. C.j almost always simply infamous. . . . The coun- sels of the /Etolian League were thrmigliout di- rected to mere plunder, or, at most, to selfish political aggrandisement. "— E. A. Freeman, Jlitt. of /lJ»rai Gort., eh. 6. — The plundering aggres- sions of the ..Etolians involved them in continual war with their Gre'ck kindred and neighbours, and they did not sirniple to seek fon'ign aid. It was through their ajrcney that the Homiins were first brought into Greece, and it was by their instruimnt4ility that Antiochus fought his battle with Home on the sneredest of all lldleRic Koil. In the end, B. C. lHi», the League was strijiped by the Romans of even its nominal inile|)en(lencc and sank into a eonleniptllile servitude. — E. A. Freeman, The nimr, ch. 7-0. Also in C. Thiriwall, Jlut. of Greece, ch. 03-60. 10 AFOIUNISTAN. B. C. 880. l^^FP^^F^J^^'- °- C- 330.-Coaqne.t 8..a-323; and I.ndia: B. C. 327-313 B. C. 301-346.— In the Syrian Empire. Sep MjLEUciD^; and Macedonia, &c.: 310-Soi atid A. D. 99>-tl83.-Tlie Ghaznevide Empire. ifr-Par^' 000-1183; and I.ndia: Z D. Ki^n°' yth Centurjr.-Conquests of Jinghis- s™ T °o.i^*^'3'"'-*='""""* "' Timour. Sc.fi.°D.ArT'i^''c-^f.??5""' '''''"'''' ^''"'• • nu Pii.''^'."'l*i-;'^''« Empire of the Door- ?i?i!: ^SfS** *'>''•""— Hi5 Conquests in India. See India. A. i>, ITIT-ITCI. Mf's^ *803-i838 -Shah Soojah and Dost Mahomed.-6ngli,hintcrf2rence.-'vSl,al"?" ^x I, Qh'?"'' •" e™"''""" of the illustrious ,, I ? .■ ■."'? y^i'."' •""' ''"■'' full of trouble h^vorJ^"^'^^ ncLa,llH.,n a wanderer on I e ^ergc of starvation, a pedlar, and a l.a„. 1 . who raised n.o,„.j. by plun.l.T nR earav s IH courage was lightly reputed, and \t was , Tu T'"""* "f cireuiastaiice tl,at he mid in 180« he was a f.ijriavc and an e\ile Kuujeet Singh, the Sikh ruler of t Ic 'uiii- ilV 'Tlw'.^ '"•" "' ""? '""""» IvoI,-i-n,«r? ! ie ; fa now he most nreeious of the crown jo v, 1» of England, and pluudered ami l:„pnsine,l the' f.illen man. Sliah Soejah at len'nh escai 1 from Lahore. After further nii^fortune^'h ut length reached the British frontier sta ion ,f ^ , .tl?' ',"?'* f '"■'P'"'y- After the .lowiif "1 of ^ ah hoojah, Afghanistan for manv years w, a prey to anarchy. At length iu isL'O D<rst Jh < al.ul, and this masterful man thenceforwar I held sway until his death In 1H03, unimerrut,t e<lly save during the three years of tl e IJri k h' kin",'o'\h"".- ^' M'»'"'>ne</wasneitlie kUh n ^ Uu to the legitimatedynastv whi<;l, hc.'.isplaec lli.s father Poyndah Khau was au al I^Jl S^^^^ ".Id gallant soldier, lie left twen"v.onc ^n" of whom Kutteh Khan was the eldest? and IVost Mahomed oiieof the vwiingest. . . . ThrouX ' his long reign Dost .\lah.m.e<l was a s rong ana •iis.'.iiute. Ills eilucat on was de'ertivs nn.i i.„ h.Hl lK.en addicte.! to wine. \CoXd o^t I'e tlu-oiie the reforiimtion of our llenrv V was .mf more thorough than was that of DoTt Malomed «u al^"^™"^ scrupulously abstemious, ass du" T^priV" '""§''■■ "■""''™t, but courteous. ■ . . ihere was a fine ruggei: honi>sii- In ut, '^^ZLna±\'^"^} "'■ KSine cld;l^rv:\ ' lad hi. ^^.^ ^ "■*'' "S*"^ f"'' «'« English »mt 1 IS loyally to us was broken onlv \,v iL AFGHANISTAN, 1803-1888. 11 \Zr^},' '" L*^'"."''' '^•M continually intrigu. g for his restoratio: His schemes were long »'I.emtive.„„ditwa.,„ot until im that ce* .|m arran-ements were entered into between hun and the Jiahamja Hunjeet S iigh To an application on .s;,aU-'.s.K,j.,|/g part for count'" uaiiee and pecuniary aid, the Anf:Io-Indian Gov- vSt'?"". )'-h ".','"^""1 l..-.n assistance i'v InvT, ;'™'';"*""' ^i'l' the poli.y of neutral- bMt w t;.o Government Imd iinpo..<.d on itself- s imh'rnr'^ contributed linai'eially t.iward ptnsion in advance. KLvteen thousand runecs formed a scant war fund with whi.h o attempt he recovery of a throne, but the f^hal star teloa his errand in February, IKi). After a success" fulcontest with the A.neers,,f.Seinde'hem relied m Candahar. an.l besieged that fortress, ('.mda- har was in cvtrcmity when I),.st .Mahomed lurrying from Cabul. relieved it, am oining forces with Its defenders he defeated and rou ef H.ahS,K,jah, who fled preeipitatelv, I. avintr be hind him his artillery an,l camp cj, ipa^e ^) r- mg he post's absence in the so ,tl., ^iu, J Jt bi.ighs troops crossed the Attoc^k, oeeu .'d^the Afghan province of Peshawur. and drove ho Afghans into the Ivhyber Pas.s. Xo sul,se,,uent Jt^'filkU^r' ''»''{l«'r''' ""' availed ,of."pe he bikhs from Peshawur, and susiueious of fu aggression ho took into c.insi leratioi, the wi h'-Pei - r'"\ '"f ^''"r^^^y « ™">'ter alii., iieo ^^lt 1 1 e sia. As lor Shah Soojah, he liid i rent back to I, s refuge at L«„lianal . Lord .V ,el 1 ,^d Mieceeded Lord William IJentinck as Governor p."'''™'"; I"'li' in March, 18;!li. In re-^l" to Dost Jlahomeds letter of eonu'ratulaii,m his ordship wrote: 'You arc awarc^ tha ,' no? ferewth heallairsof other in.lepend.nt ^Stat• v?,Me '"Vl" V'k'' ^-""^ AueuLnd was ««,.•„ uflf- i"*-' ^■"' ^'-'i-'fe'l'tfrom Lnu-land tlie feel .ig of disquietude in regard to the desi -ns of I'ersia and Hussia which the conimuuieat „ 's of our envoy in Persia had fostered in tl e ilonio Governnu.nt, but it would app,.ar that he was ^diolly umlecided what line of action to pursue •bway«l,' saysDurand, • by the va:r,e m.rt hensions of a remote danger cnterta ned ' by others rather than himself he desp:itehed to Afu'hanist,an Captain Curnes on a noi nallv eo:nmereial mission, which, hi f.at wis one o^ p,.litical discovery, Imt without .le.'h.r.e hi'^^ruJ tions. Burnes, an able but rash and ambi ious man reached Cabul in SeptemlKT, lT'7 two months before the Pe^ian a'rmy began ti,;- M^ge ?. I. •,-,•. ^''« I'""*' ">ade no e(,neealm<^t to liiirues of his approaches to P.rsia ,1 1 us hu;i.r?fo?r.i^."""H' e<«^oi;iec,s, and bc^g 11 ingry for assistance from any source to meet the encroachmeuts of the Sikl.s, he pr fS hmself ready to abandon his nel-otiat .,1 s\tith the western powers if he we.e given re In M expect counten.fuee and a.ssislanee u tlu- hfmU of the Anglo-Indian Government The si „ ent'lv cL""!-"? '"r'"""" to the Dos w .s , el tntly complicated by the arrival at Cabul of t Uussian olflcer claimim: to be an envoy ,„,|,^ Czar, wh.«e.cre. entials. however, wer-. re." n i.l Mm. lei ".T-. T:^ "''"• " """ cireuru..,, ,;.; 1 a, I 1. least w,dght, was on his return lo Hussa it! D^{ ,";'PudiHled by Count Nes.seli,« e The Dost took small account of this e.iiissarir, con! ■ ^^ i 1! AFGHANISTAN, 1803-1888. tlnulng to auura Burnea that he carcU for no connection except with tbe English, and Burncg professed to his Oovemmeat his fullest con tidence in the sincerity of those dcclamttoos. But the tone of Lord Auckland's reply, addreised to the Dost, was so dictatorial and supercilious as to indicate the writer's intention that it should give offence. It had that effect, and Bumcs' mission at once became hopeless. . . . The Hus- sinn envoy, who was profuse in his promises of everything which the Dost was most anxious to obtam, was received into favour and treated with distinction, and on his rr.,um journey he clfected a treaty with the O daliar chiefs wliich was presently ratified by e liussian minister at the Persian Court. Bumes, fallen into discredit nt Cabul. quitted that place iu August 1838. lie liad ni)t been discreet, but it was not his indis- cretion that brought aboi t the failure of his mission. A nefarious transaction, which Kaye denounces with tlie jmssion of a just indignation, connects itself with Bumes' negotiations '• Hli the Dost ; Ids ofticial correspondence was ui.jcru- nulously mutilated and garbled in the published Blue Book with deliberate purpose to deceive the British public. Bumes had failed because, since lie had quitte<l India for Cabul, Lord Auckland's policy hail gradually altered. Lord Auckland had landed in India in the character oi a .nan of peace. That, so la>, as April 1S37, he !ia ! no design of obstructing the existing situation in Afghanistan is proved by his writ- ten stateuunt of that date, that 'tlie British Governrient had resolved decidedly to discourage the prosecution by the ex-king Sliah Soojah-ool- Jloolk, so long as" he may nniain under our pro- tection, of further schemes of hostility against the chiefs now in power in Cabid and Candaliar.' ■y.'t, in tlie following June, heconcluded a treaty which sent Shall Soojah to Cabul, escorU-d by Briti!<li liayoc'ts. Of this inconsistency no ex- planation prefi'iits itself. It was a far cry from our frontier !jn the Sutlei to Herat in the con- fines of Cei'trai Asia — a distance of more than 1,200 mile , over some of tlie most arduous marching ground in the known world. . . . Lord William Bentinck, I.onl Auckland's prede- cessor, denounced the project as iiii act of in- credible folly. Marquis Wellcsli regardeil 'this wild expedition into a dista. region of rocks and disirts. of sands and ice and snow," ns an Oct of infatuation. Tlie Duke of Wellington pronimiK. .1 witli prophetic sagacity, that tlie consequeM 1 iif iince cn>s.Mng the Indus to sctile a govemiii. nt in Afghanistan would be a peren- nial march into that country." — A. Forbes, T/ic Afghan U'lim, ch. 1. Also in: J. I'. Ferrier, Ilift. of tht Afljtiant, eh. 10-20.— Mohan ImX, Life of Amir Dott Mo- hammed Khou, T. 1. A. D. 1838-1843. — English invasion, knd reitoration of Soojah Dowlah.— The revolt at Cabul. — Horrors of tbe British retreat. — Destruction of the entire army, save one man, only.— Sale's defence of Jellalabad.— "To ap- proach Afghanistan it was necessary to secure the friendship of the Sikhs, who were, -indeed, r !idy enough to join against their old enemies; nnd a threefnhl treaty wag contracted between liunjeet Singh, tlie English, and Shah Stxnah f.->r the rrstnnitiiin of the hanisluHl hnuso. The expedition — which according to the original intention was to have been carried out chiefly AFGHANISTAN. 1838-1843. of Shah In the pay the SlUu— rapldlv grew into by mcani of troops Soojah and an English invasion of Afglianrstan. A conslderible force was gathered on the Sikb frontier from Bengal; a second army, under General Keane, was to come up from Kurrachee through Sindh. Both of these armies, and the troops of Shah Soojah, were to enter the high- lands of Afghanistan by the Bolan Pass. As the Sildis would not willingly allow the free passage of our troops through their country, an additional burden was laid upon the armies, — the independent Ameers of Sindh had to be coerced. At length, with mucli trouble from the difficulties of the country and the loss of the commissariat animals, the forces were all col- lected under the command of Keane beyond the passes. Tlie want of food permiti..>d of no delay ; the army pushed on to Candahar. Shah Soojah was declared Monarch of the southern Princi- pality. Thence the troops moved rapidiv on- wards towards the more important and ditlicult conquest of Cabul. Ghuznee, a fortress of great strength, lay in the wav. In their hasty movements the English had left their battering train behind, but the gates of the fortress were blown in witli gunpowder, and by a brilliant feat of arms the iortress was stormed. Nor did the English army encounter any important resistance subsequently. Dost Mohamed found his followers deserting him, and withdrew north- wanls into the mountains of the Ilindcx) Koosh. With all the splendour that could be collected. Shall Soojah was brought back to his throne in the Bnla Ilissar, the fortress Palace of Cabul. . . . For the moment the policy sesnied thor- oughly successful. The English Ministry could feel that a fresh check had been placed upon its liussian rival, and no one dreamt of the terrible retribution that was in store for the unjust vio lencc done to the feelings of a people. . . . Dost Moliamcd thought it prudent to surrender himself to the English envoy. Sir William Mac- nagliten, and ,0 withdraw with his family to the English pnivinces of Hiudostan [Novemlier, 1840J. lie was there well received and treated with liberality; t r, as both the Governor General and his chief adviser Macnaghten felt, he had not in fact in any way offended us, but had fallen a victim to our policy. It -.vas in tlie full belief that their policy in India had liecn crowned with permanent success that the Whig Ministers withdrew from office, leaving their successors to encounter the terrible results to which it led. For w hilc the English officials were blindly con- gratulating themselves upon the happy comple- tion of tiieir enterprise, to an observant eye signs of aiipniaching difficulty were on all sides visible. . . . The removal of" the strong rule of the Barrukzyes opened a door for undefined hopes to many of th-3 other families and tribes. Tlie whole country was full of intrigues and of diplomatic bargaining, carried on by the Eni- lish political agents with the various chiefs ami leaders. But they soon found that the hopes excitc<l by these negotiations were illu- sory. The allowances for which they had bar- gained were reduced, for tlie English envoy U'gan to be disquieted at the vast expenses of tlie Government. They did not find that they dirived any advantaces from the establishment of the new' puppet King, Soojah Dowlah; and every Mahomedau, even tbe very king himself, 12 If AFGHANISTAN, 1888-1849L (bit dlimced at the predotnHsnce of the Eng- U«h Inddeli. But u no actual iniurrection broke out, Macoaghtcn, • man ot ■anguioe temperament and anxioua to believe TPhat he wUhed, In iplte of unmlatakable war Ingg ai to the real feeUng of the people, clung with •Imott angry Tebemcnce to the persuasion that all was going weh, -ad that tLe new King had a real hold upon the people's affection. Ho completely- bad he deceived himself on this point, that he had decided to send back a portion of the Eng- lish army, under General Sale, Into HlndosUn He even Intended to accompany it himself to enjoy the peaceful post of Governor of Bombay with which his successful policy had been rewarded. His pluce was to bo taken by Sir Alexander Burnes, whose view of the troubled condition of the country underlying the com- parative calm of the surface was much truer than that of Macnaghten, but who, perhaps from that very fact, was far less popular among the chiefs. The army which was to remain at Candahar was under the command of General Nott, an able and decided if somewhat Irascible inan But Oeneml Elphinstone, the commander of the troops at Cabul, was of quite a different stamp. He was much respecte<l and liked for bis honoun-ble character and social qualities but was advanced in years, a contirined invalid! "1. r.?"y wanting in tlio vigour and decision which his critical position was likclv to reciuire The fools paradise with which the Enclisli Envoy had surrounded himself was rudelv destroyed. He had persuaded himself that the fr(i:cntly recurring disturbances, and especially t le las jrrection of the GbfL/cs between Cabul and Jcllalabad, :rere mere local outbreaks. But ;i '"k. ^ ^V"- .--^P'racy was on foot in which the -Hefs of nearly every important tribe In the COL' 7 were implicated. On the evening of the . , of November [1841] a meeting of the chie. was held, and h was decided that an Immeumte attack should be made on the house of Sir Alexander Burnes. The following morn- ing an angry crowd of assailants stormed the houses of bir Alexander Burnes and Captain Johnson, munlcnng the Inmates, and rifline tho treasure-chests belonging to Soojah Do^lh's r'^L ^1? ""'• >"''"'*. "^"y '"" '° '■"d iosur- I u ?i^ A-- «'''<l'"i'* Is nearly Irresistible that Li , .K ""•^? """^ raj.; lity of action on the part of the iniiitary would have at once crushed n;?m«"'^'*''''■ ^"\ although the attack on Burnes s hou.se was known, no troops were sent to his assistance. Indeed, that unbroken coursa or folly and nusmanagement which marked tlie conduct of our military affairs througnout this "'f ', ^«d aIroa,lv begun. Instead of Occupying would hf/^'^' ^1'» "'*^'- '^''^'^ 'he annf would have been in comparative securitv Elphinstone hm ti1n,-n,i »,i.' . - =<->.ui uj , AFGHANISTAN, 188»-18a Elphinstone had placed his tr™ 3 In^c'aS' IZ^^^'f .? """« unresisting prey to tS mentsfartooex.cilsivetobrproZlvdeW^'' n^nf '.,°i i"„^ r""'^'"^": CpP^t^nt com •«»,,,*»/ - I--1-V1 atia iMnjjM in cantor. mcnts far tw exirnsivc to be properly defended .urrounded by an entrenchilient of the S tosigmflcant chamcter. commanded on Imo Snfltne« .^f If '"•'"' ^'?'!'"*- To complete the «fnnH„f '^"-" P"'"'^". the commissariat ITn^l IT"" "'", "tort'd witliiu the canton- ^Z\,T,^T '''"T'' '° «" ''°'»tcd fort at ^Iu^J'^^'a""- *■" •''"'"tained and futile Msault was made upon tlie town on the ."M of Bri«T^ *"!' ''■"■" "'at time onwarfs the S^ awSlSKt'l!; ^'"; '"^'""P'«'h"«lble supine' neis awaiting their fate in their defenceless 13 podUon. The commlmriat fort soon feU iota the hands of the enemy and rendered their situ- atlon still more deplorable. Borne Sashes of bravery now and then lighted up the sombw! jcene of helpless misfortune, and served to show that destruction might even yet have been ^I'^^'k^^ ",""',« S™""*- • • • But the ^ mander had already begun to despair, and before many days had passed he was thinking of mak- ing terms with the enemy. Macnaghtcn had no course open to him under such circumstances but to adopt the suggestion of the general, and atteinpt as well as he could by bribes, caiolerv and Intrigue, to divide the chiefs and secure » ^n''„J'n"'\^''l""' f-^J'^h. Akbar Khan, the son of Dost Mohamed, though not present at the beginning of the Insurrection, had arrived from tne northern mountains, and at onco a.sserted a fv'^i??!"*'" Influence in the ii.^urgent councils. V, Ith h;m and with the other Insurgent chi fa Maciiashten entered Into an arrrangemcnt or wh c!i ho promised to withdraw tiie EngluL entirely from the country If a safe passage wci» secured for the army through the passes. While ostensibly treating with the PirrukzVe ti 1 ■ he .'"'■•'gued on all sides with the rival ^f ?1 1 1,1° il"'''* ^f?""S was taken advantage of by Akbar Khaa He sent messengers to Mac- naglitcn proposing that the English should make a separate treaty with himself and support him vl'..li 'heir troops in an assault upon some of his mals. The proposition was a mere trap, and L., r""?^ fell Into it. Ordering troops to be got readv, he burned to a meeting with Akbar Mm.!!.?/, f^""" arrangement. There he found himself in the presence of the brot:.er and rela- tives of the very men against whom he was plotting, and was seized and murdered bv Akbar 8 own hand [December 231. Still thi General thought of nothing but surrend r The negotiations were entrusted to Jlalor Pottineer iT^Lk'^^^"' "■! '='''<''' gradually rose, an.Tat length with much confusion the wretched armr marched out of the cantonmenU [Januair i. l^IL"""^''^^^^"^ nearly all the cannon and superfluous military stores. An Afghan escort to secure the safety of the troops on their peS- ous journey had been promised, but the prunise l^nT^^T^^^" '"'"»"' °"he retreat fo™ one of the darkest paasages in English military historv. In bitter cold and snow, which took 111" ?1l:°' *'•<' wretched Sepoys, without proper clothing or shelter, and hampered by » disorderly mass of thousands of camp-followers the army entered the terrible defiles which lie Khr ? ^r,"",' ""dJellalabad. Whether Akba? khan could had he wish, ,1 it, have reatrained lis fanatical followers is un-rtaiu. As a iact the retiring crowd-It can scarcely be called an army— was a mere unresisting prey to the assail ta r,t tl.o .........t.i "r-r y . ""' n,.,„i„».i ■■■"""■-.-i.ucfra. i^onsiant com- munication was kept up with Akbar; on the third day all thb ladles and children With the S'.H.'Ji^''^ ""'^K ^""^ P''«=«'^ '" his hands, and flna ly even the two generals gave themselves up ^.,^ .f .f '• '■'^"''f L" 'he hope that the rem- ? p p < L"?/ "''ght be aliowe.1 to escape."- Then the march of 'he armv, without a Gen- eral, went on Hgain. Soon it 'became the story ThnJ^''™'.!!"''""' »n,«nny; before very long lengthen a tale of mere horrors. The strajr AFGHANISTAN, 1838-1848. AFGHANISTAN, 1842-1869. sling remnant of an army entered the Jugdulluk Puss — a dark, steep, narrow, ascending path between cra;;j. The miserable toilers found that the fanatical, implacable tribes had barri- caded the pass. All was over. The army of Cabul was tinally extinguished in that barri- caded pass. It was a trap; the British were taken in it. A few mere fugitives escaped from the seine of actual slaughter, and were on the road to Ji'llalabad, where Sale and his little army wi-re holding their own. When ihey were within sixteen miles of Jcllalabad the number was reduced to six. Of these six five were killed by straggling marauders on the way. One man alone reached Jellalabad to tell the tale. Literally one man, Dr. lirydon, came to Jella!al>a>l [.lanuary 13] out of a moving host whicn had nundiered in all some 16,000 when it set out ou its march. The curious eye will search through history or fiction in vain for any pl.ture more thrilling with the suggestions of an a«f 111 catastrophe than that of this solitary survivi,,-, faint and reeling on his Jailed horse, as he appeared under the walls of Jellalabad, to bear the tidings of our Thermopylae of pain and shame. This is the crisis of tlio story. AVith this at li.'tst the worst of the pain and ahamo were deslinid to end. The rest is all, so far as we are concerned, reaction and recovery. Our siiccisii'S are conmion enough; we may tell their t:ilc' liritlly in tliis instance. The garrison at J llilaliiid ha. I reieivi'd licfore Pr. Itrydon's ar- rivid 101 iiilini itinii tliat they were to go out and march lo«,ird India in accordance with the terms '.if llielri aty cx.i rtiil from KlphiustoticatC'abwI. Tliey VI rv prop-riy di-clined to lie bound by a inMtv wiiiili, as (ienir.'d Hale rightly conjee- lurid, h.'id I'lcn 'foriid from our envoy and 'nililiry I'liniiriii li r with tlie knives at tin ir iliri'.'it'i.' (JinerLl i-iiilc'sdc'crmination was clear and !-imp!e. ' i pr ipose to lioltl this place on the part lit (lovernmint until I receive its order to the cnntmry.' Tiiis resolve of Sale's was really the tuniinir point of the history. Halo held Jellalal'id; Nott was at Candahar. Akbar Khan lusiriied .Jellula'ud. Nature seemed to ha\o diilan d herself eniplialically on lils side, for a piiciesslon iif eiirlhu'iike shocks sliatlered the wills of the r'ace, and priHlucil more lerrllile destruiiicMi .han die most forM.ldalle guns of iiicHiim wiirfaro ciMild have dune, lint the r irri-ou In 11 mit fiarlcssly ; they restored the jiaraiiets, recstalilishid cMry battery, re- trcn'hid the whule of the g:ites alid built tip all the lireachi's. 'i'hry risi^lid cmtv attempt of Akiiar Klnn to ailvame upMii their works, and at IiiD.'lli, wh.n it bee ime (I riain Hint (ieneral I'oljni k w;is fiinliiir tin' lihvlier I'uss to come to Ihiir rrlirf. till V ih tiTiiiinid to attack Akbar Khan's joniv; tiny imiird Imldiv out of their forts, f.ir. .-d n b-iMle on the Afiihan eliiif, an.l coni|i|ili>ly dif<rii..| him. JM..re I'Mllock, hav- ing f'dl.iiillv fii.ii'ht his wav thrinigh the Kli>l"r I'a'.s lind n acliid .IilhiUbacl (April 1«] the iKli-aaui ring army hiid ben entirely ilef^atrd ami ilispi r-i I. , , Miinwliilc lln- uiifort mate Shall ^.lOJ■lll, whom wc had rcstcired with sn mm h pump uf niin.ninniiniit In the throne of his nMislurs, was ihad. lie was nsias-iinitid in ('a!"d. ^" "i iiftcr the -h'tiariMr!' of 'hv Itrii'r'.h . . . M!hl 111- bcHly, stripped of ilsrnyal roliesaiid Its miiiiy Jewels', was tlung Into u dlldi" — I, llcCnrtliy. //o>r /i.i.roirn Tinifn, r 1, cA 11 14 Also in J. W. Kayo, Iliit. of the War in AfiiluiHittan. — G. R. Gleig, Salei Brigade in Afghanittan, — Lady Sale, Journal tf the Vital- ten in Afghanistan. — Mohaa Lai, Life of Doit Mohammed, eh. 15-18 (c. 2). A. D. 1843-1869.— The British return to Cabul. — Restoration of Dost Mahomed.— It was not till 8e'pteinl)er that General Polliwk "could obtain permission from the Governor-Gen- eral, Lord EllenlKirough, to advance against Calml, though both he and Xott were buniing to ilo so. When Polliwk ilid advance, he found the enemy posted at .lugdidbick, the scene of the nia.s.sacre. 'Here, 'saysone writer, ' the skeletons lav so thick that they had to be cleared away to allow the guns to iiasa. The savage grandeur of the scene rendered it a fitting place nir the deed of bliNxl which had Ix'cn enacted under its horrid Bh.ade, never yet pierced in b. rme places by sun- li^lit. The roail was strewn for two miles with moulderitig skeletons like a charnel house.' Now the enemy found they had to deal with other men, under other leaders, for, putting their whole energy into the work, the Britisli troops sealed the heights and steep ascents, and defeated the enemy in their stronglmlds on all sides. After one more severe fight with Akbar Khan, and all the force he could collect, the enemy were beaten, and driven from their mountains, and the force marched quietly into Cabul. Nott. on Ills side, started from I'und.ahar on the 7lh of Aiiu'ii>t, and, after ligliting several small battles with the enemy, he captured Ohuznl, where Palmer and his garrisnr. had Ixen ile- slroycd. From Ohiiznl (''ncral Nott brought away, by comiiiand of Loni KIlenlKirongh, the gales of Honinanlli f-ald to have Ihtu tuken from the Hindu temple of Sonuiunth by Mah- nniiid of (Whiznl, the first .Mohammeihin In- \ailerof India, in 10241, which formed the sub- jut of the celebrateii 'Proclamation of the (i.ites.' as it was called. This proclamation. Issued by Lord Ellenboroiigh, brought upon him endless ridicule, and it was indeed at first cun- eidi'red to Ik! a satire of his enemies, in Imitnilon of N'apoleon's address from the Pjrandds; the Duke of Welllnjxtiin called It 'The Bonir of Triumph.' . . . 'i'his pniclanmtlon, put {nrlh wilh so much nourishing of trumpets and ado. was really an Insult to those whom It professed to praise. It was an insult to the Mohan, uedaiis under our rule, fur Ihiir power '.vps gone. It was also an insiill lo the Hindi»>s. for thdr temple of Soninanlh was In nilns. Tin se celebrateii gales, wliic hare U'lii veil to Ik' imitations of the original gull s, lire now lyliiii negleiled and worm eiilen. In the liai k pari oif a sm:;ll iiinsciiin at .Vura, Hut to riinrii, (leiical .Non having captured (ihiirnl and difealei Siillan .Ian. iiiished on lo Cabul, will n' he iirrlMil on the I Till of Seplein tier, and met PolloiU. 'I'lie Liiglish prisoners (iinoiic-t whom were Itrlt'adier Hhellon and L.ily Side), who had been 1 iplurisl at the lime of the riiissacre. wen' broiii.'lit, or found their own wi\, lo ()i neral Pollis k's camp, (iimrid I'.lphin-ioni' had dud d'lrini.' his eapliiily It was not now eoin^i'lensl nenssarylo lake any fiiriliir steps; the liaraar In Cabul was ile stroved, and on the I'.'th of OilolKr I'oIIihU and V,.'! .,:r!ii:i -h.-lr f,-ei =i>i:;!:lv:;riU, v,:\ !:i :-:;n llnir nwirih into India by the KhylHT route. The Al»;lians in eiipilvlly were wnt back, and the ttoveriior 'Jeiieral r«e|vwl the tnwpa at AFGHANISTAN, 1842-1869. f"2^':^°°'- '?;i''" «"''«'• U'o Afghan war of ISA'*-!.. . . Ihe war being over, wc witli- drcw our forces Into India, leaving the son of Htiah boojah, lathi Jung, wlio Iiad escaped from tabul wlicn his father was murdered, an king of l.ho country, a position that ho was unable to maiiil,iln long, being very sliortly afterward i as.sa^snlat.■;l. In 1842 I)(»t Jlahomed, the ruler w horn we had deposed, and wlin Iiad b<'en living at our expense In India, returnid to Cabul and resumed his former position as king of the coun- try, still bearing Ill-will towards us, which he 1 liov.ed on several occasions, notably durine the to light fur the bikhs, and he Iiima If mar(hed an army lliroiigh the Klivber to Peshawtir to lisist our enemies. lloweVer, the occupation of tae Punjab forced upon J>ost Mahomed the necessity of k' ng on frlct.lly terms with his powerful ne ghbour; ho thertforo conclude,! a. friendly treaty with us in 18.-,4, hoping thereby hat our ixiwer would tw used to prbvcBt the In- trigu,,, of Persia arjainst his kingdom. This hope was shortly after renlizc.1, for In 1850 we declared war against Persia, an cv.'nt which wis greatly to tho a.lvantagc of Dost Mahomed, as 'rJ^r^'i'" T, • ''•""°, ''""o«'l'">cms upon his territ. ry Thu war lasted but a short ti:ne f„r c;:irly in 18,7 an agreement was si -ne,l between l-ngland and Persia, by which the latter re- nouuced all claims oyer Herat an.l Af^-lmnlstan. Hemt, however, still n'malned in<iei,endent of Aghanistan until 1803, when l),-st' Mahomed at aeke, and took the town, thus uniting the wh.'lo Ijlngdom, Including Candahar nn<l Afghan Turkestan, und.r his rule. Tlii,^ was almost I c last act of tho Ameer's life, for a few davs after that .Sl.ero All, one of his wras, should sucecd hira as Anieer of Afghanistan. The new Ameer l^U, i^^^T tV"-'" '." "'« 'i'-vcnor-tlencral of Imlii U,r,\ I,|,nn, In a friendly tone, a.sklng r'l' *"9r''«'"" "'i^'I't l>o acknowledge/ ih.',' ' I ■■ ~ "l ^"*''.7"- '" 11"' commencement of tho l.iiieral policy of 'masterly Inaetlvitv' c.inr nt but be deeply n^-rett. d, as Nhero All « •» nd v":.7"l V";'" 'V" ""'•'"■' '"™™' "T" for the thnme. ,t would have UVn time en m.d to aeknowledce that rival as s,«,n as he was cally ruler of the cmintry. Wl,,.,, »l, momlil loiter a cold a<kn„wl,.dg,.„',ent of the letter w« I'l- St tlut th.. Ameer mad.' for 0,000 muskets m ar.Is him wn, not tlut of a frj. „,|; p.,r,i,,, a ly MS. when later on. two of his brol lers re- w.ll d against him, ca, I, .,f ll.eni was t..ld I v tho ...vernment that he would !«• acknowi,., .-e.l und r V:""."' "'" «-"',""0-wl.l,h he bmud, unihr hs t,oW(r. However, aft. r viri, us rliange. In /ortune. In IMffl. si.er,. All fif •• lefea ,,l I, s tv o brothers Afz„„I „,, | v^ ,' Waiu' r": A^"-:'" """• AlKlnrrahm,m."-p; r. i>alker, .\Ji;h<iniiit,ti>, vii 4.">-.'',| Also IN 3. \S\ Kay... J!i,t. .f th. Vr.riii thttR ,,'8«9-«Mi.-The lecond war with II ! ^"K"»'' •"'1 «• cau»et.~-Tlie T.erlod Vf il.turb,ace in Af(iha„lsta„, during the' Itruggl' | AFGHANISTAN, 1869-188L of Shcre All with his brothers, coincided with Th„^r'"^"'^^"^^"'^ Lawrence in Indi^ Ihc polcy of Lord Lawrence, •'sometimci Elighl.nglv spoken of as masterly in^tivkv ic quarrels of the Afghans . . . andin attJni.T mg to cultivate the friendship of tlio ?Vmeer i^y ^ifts of money and arms, while carefully nvoij. ng topics of oiTence Lord La«rtmc„waa himself unable to meet the Ameer, hut his .>^c cessor Lord Mayo, had an interview with h^ a atLmballuh In 1809 u>rd MavoaJhcrcS ■nt M,","'"^' °V''' irF'l^^'^^-'r- IIo"refu.se 1 to nUT nto any close alliance, he refused to pledge h m.self to 8up,,ort any dynasty. But in he "';",'"'"'• '',« .P-l^^^-J "'at he would not T'esi leM '* "•'">,"^'?" of "i.V K'm-Hsh oniccrs as uesidei its in Afghanistan. The nturn expected by Lngland for this uttitmlo of frien.lly non-in- terference was that every other forei.m state and especially IJussia, slfould be or iUhlen ti m..x cither directly or Indirectly with the alTair^ of the country in which our Interests were so beTl hV"'" r'- -K- -.H".' "•"iff'-'^-t view was held by another school of Imlian politicians and wassunp„rte,l by men of such einlnenee ai Sir Bartlc I rere and Sir Il.nry Hawlinson, Their Mi'w was known ns the Sin.lh Policy as con- rasted>»1tli that of tho Punjab. It aowa^d to them desirable that Englisl, agents Sl^ not at ( abu Itself, to keep the Imlian Govern- AfghanLstan. and to maintain Knglish Inllu.neo n the country. In isn. upon tho accession o? to ( ons,.rvative Ministry. Sir Bartle Fr, to pri duce<l a memorandum In which tills policv w.as aMy maintained A Viceroy whos^ -view' were more In accordance with tlicwo of the Oovemment, and who was likely to be am re readv ins rument in [its] handsf was f.a.ml in LmLytton. who went to Imlia Intrustcl with the duty of giving effect to the new policy 1 „ ^>as Instructed ... to continue pivinents of money, to rec.gnlso the perman^n^o o ,ho existing dynasty, and to give a pled -e of materia support In case of unprovoke.l fiiVeien JS'T 'iT • n" !" '"-''' "" "'" '"■'■'•I'tance of an Lngllsh Hesldent at e,rtain,<l,»,.s In Afghani itan In exch.ange for these a.fvantag.s T 'm Lawrence aud thr.e who thought with him In Lng and prnphoied fn.„, the lirst the disas "„« lie Atghaiis. . . . The siigirestOn of ( mpH .ytt.m that an Knglish fnnu{-,|ssion should go ,' ,i,'I"',„ ,"^"'' '"""'" "f<;-»"">™ Interest lo iiie t«o (■uvernmc Ills, was calculate 1 to excite feelings already snmewhat unfrien.lly to Lngland Me lsi„.re AllJ reject.^ tho ni«on, and forniulatid his grievances. l.or,l Lvtton waned for a time the despateli 'of 1. iidsslo,,, and consented to a meeting between the Minister of tho Ameer and Sir Lewis P, ||y at Pes|,„«„r . . The Knglish (•..mmissloner was nstrueled to .leelare tiiat the one l„!li "„ o an r,,"^ ';■" "^ "'" ' ".■^"•^' ""■" ""• »'!"'l-ior \frl in' ■'; "IIV*"!""" «-l"'l'' Ilie limit, o, .\igii.iiiWan. The alino't pite 15 the part of ihn-iv,.;;;.v,7ti''/;:'!";r:"r""; llii< demand pn.ved unavailing, and the "suii'd", hvith of the Ameer's envoy f„rm,.,| » g„^i eve ISO for lm.aklng olT the nrg,.llatlnn. f"rd L)lton treati-.! theA.nccras Incorrijlble, gaT* t;' ^ 1 » 1 15 1 t i ; ; AFGHANISTAN. 188».1881. him to understand that the English would pro- ceed to secure their {rentier without further refer- ence to him, Bnd withdrew his native agent from Ciibul. While the relations between the two countries were In this uncomfortable con- dition, information reached India that a Russian mission bad been received at Cabul. It was just at this time that the action of the Home Gkircm- mcnt seemed to be tending tnpidlj towards a war with Russia. ... As the despatch of a mission from Russia was contrary to the encagements of that country, and its reception undir existing circumstances wore an unfriendly aspect. Lord Lyttoa saw his way with some plausible justification to demand the reception at Cabul of an English embassy. He notified his intention to the Ameer, but without waiting for an answer aclccted Sir NcTille Chamberlain as his envoy, and sent him forward with an escort of more than 1,000 men, too large, as It was observed, for peace, too small for war. As a matter of course the missinnwus not admitted. . . . An outcry was raised lH)th in England and In Inilia. . . . Troops were hastily collected upon tlio Indian frontier; and a curious light was thrown on what had been done by the assertion of the Premier at the Guiiilhnll banquet that the object In view was the formation of a ' scien- tiflc frontier;' In other words, turowlng n ile all former pretences, he declared that the policy of England was to make use of the opportunity otTcred for direct territorial agcrcsslon. ... As had been foreseen by all parties from the flr»t, the English armies were entirely succesnful in their first advance rXovenibor, \f*'t*]. ... By the close of DecemiMT Jcllaiuliiid was In the hands of Urown<', tlic Slmtarganlan Pass had been sumioiintid by Ri.lii ris, and in January Stewart estalilishcd I'llmsi If in Caudaliar. AVlien the reslstanic of his ar!ny provi'il inilTectual, Slierc All had talicn to tlii-lit, only to ilic. Ills rrfnictory son Yalioob Klian was drawn from his prison and assumed the reins of govi nimcnt as regent. . . . Yakoob readily granted the EngUsli demands, consenting to place his foriign relations under British control, and to acropt British agencies. With conslderaMv more reluctance, h" allowed wliat was requlnil for the rcctiUcatlon of the frontier to pass Into En,!;llsli bands. Ho received In exi hangc a promise of support bv the British Oovommeni, ami an annual sulisldyof £60,000. On tlie loiicliislon of the treaty trie troops In the Jellalatwul Valley withdrew within the new (ronticr, and Yakixili Klian was left to establish his authority as best he could at (^ahul, whither In July ( avagnaii with an escort of twenty-six troopers and eljhty Infantry iMlook liimsilf. Then was enactell again the 8o<l story wliich pri'lu(le<i the first Afghan war. All the parts and scenes In the drama repeatid themselvi'S with curious uniformity — the Englisli Resident with his little garrison trtistlrg MInilly to his capacity for Inllurniing tlio Afghan mind, the puppet king, without the powir to u\aVr himself rt's|M'rled, Irrilateil bv the constant pn-unie I't the Resilient, the chleN mutually illstnislful ami atone In nothing save tluir hitredof English Intirference, the people seithlai; ^^llh anirir 2^,(|»i.( t!ie Itifl'.l'.'l f'.>re!^!!i'r. 'i wild otithr^'iik which the Ameer, even l.ad he wishi d it, coiiM not control, an attack upon the Residency and Um complete destruction [^pt., ItiTSJ after » AFGHANISTAN. 186>-188t gallant but futile resistance of the Resident and his entire escort. Fortunately the extreme disaster of the previous war was avoided. The English troops which were withdrawn from the country were still within reach. . . . About the i34th of September, three weeks after the out- break, the Cabul field force under General Roberts was able to move. On the Sth of Octo- ber it forced its way into the Logar Valley at Charaisiab, and on the 12th General Roberta was able to make his formal entry into the city of CabuL . . . The Ameer was deposed, martial law was established, the disarmament of the peo- ple required under pain of death, and the country scoured to bring In for punishment tliose chiefly implicated in the late outbreak. While thus engaged in carrying out his work of retribution, the wave of " Insurrection closed behind the English general, communication through the Kuram Valley was cut off, and he was left to pass the winter with an army of some 8,000 men connected with India onlv by the Kybur Pass. ... A new and formidable personage . . . now mode h's appearance on the scene. This was Abdura ap ., the nephew and rival of the late Sliere All, who upon the defeat of his pretensions bad sought refuge in Turkestan, ami was supposed to be supported by the friendsliip of iuissia. The expected attack di<l not take ).iace, constant reinforce- ments had raised the Cahid army to 20,000, and rendered it too strong to l>c assalleil. ... It was thought desirable to break up Afghanistan Into a nortliern and southern province. . . . The policy thus declared was carrie<l out. A cer tain Shere All, a cousin of the late Ameer of the same name, was appointed Wall or Gover- nor of Candahar. In the north signs were \ isible that the only possible successor to the throneof Cabul would lie Al»lurahman. . . , The Bengal army under General Stewart waa to mareft northwards, and. suppn'ssing on the way tlie Ohuznee Insurgents, was to j<iln the Cabul army in a sort of triumphant n'tum to Peshawur. The f Pit part of the jirogramnie was carrie<l out. . . . The second part of the plan was fated to be Interrupted by a serious disaster whieli rendiTed It for a while uncertain whether the withdrawal of the tnKips from Afghanistan was possible. . . . Ayixib had always expressed his disapproval of Ins brother's friendship for the English, and had constantly refused to accept their overtures. Though little was known about him, rumours were afloat tliat he intended to advance upon Ohuznee, and join the Insur- gents there. At length about the midille of June ri!*W)l his armv starteil . . . But before the end of June Faran had been reached and it seemed plain thnt Candahar would be assaulted. . . . Qenend Burrows foiuid it necessary to fall bark to a ridge some fortvflve miles from Ciindshar called Kush-yNnkliud. There U a pass called .Maiwand to the north of the high- rond to Candahar. by whiih un army avoidlug llie position on the ridire nilglit advance upim the city. On the 'JTlli of July the Afglin.i triMips were seen moving In tlie din-ction of tills pass. In his att4-nipt to stop tliem with his small fi>re, niimlM-ring about 2..VHI men. Gen er:'.! Biirrowa was disa-ifro'.isly dt?t:ate-.!. With ilitnciilty ai.d with the loss of seven guns, almul half the English tni<i|>s returned t.11 Candahar. General I'rim.'oM, who was In cuninwiid. bad do 10 ■4 "1 f AFGHANISTAN, 1869-1881. choice but to gtrengthcn the place, submit to an Invcstmeat, and wait till he should be rescued • .'.uj , "^Pf "' <^*''"' '^e'e 00 the point of withdrawing when the news of the disaster reached them " General Roberts at once pushed forwari to the beleaguered city, and disperse.! AFRICA, 1816-1818. I''?! K™.y °L '■''.« ^""eef- Candnhar waa then held by the British until the fall of IWl whi-n they with, rew, Abdurahman having apparently estublished himself in po«er. and the Zmtry being .„ a quiettnl state. -J. F. Bright, Z/io/ £'iS; itnod 4, pp. 634-S44. ■' Ancient. See Eotpt ; Ethiopia : Libyans • Cii""A';«J.Cv^RBNAiCA; Nljiidians. * A."!?' "l','^" ^"'- «^'« «-«»*«»SrATKs: KWt?'* fl "°'>»'«t«n<l Moalem Statet in the North. See Mahometan Conquest Ac ■ A n 840-646 ; 647-709 ; and 90H-1171 • al^ Bakbarv STAT.S ; EOVPT : A. D. 1200-15lV, XCT^ Th«inh«bitinjr race*. -The Indigenous race, of Africa are ™n8i,lered to be four in numbe" namely : the Negr,ies proper, who occupy a cen- ; •n>'?"'''«"r"''''"t' f""" ">« Atlantic- to the l.}?.vpiiiia Sudan, ami who conmrise an enormous number of diverse tribes ; the ffulahs (« itl whom «v..^ ilr'n^.^'^T'''*'''"' »«"l«-''l mainly be- t«.en Ukc Chad and the Niger; the Bimtus. who occupy the whole south, except ' s exTrem- ity; and the Hottentots, who are in t;..vt "treme sou liern ri'ffl.m. Some anthropologists include Th, 'k'»« " ""(T't 'heBosjcsmansSr nurmen 1 ill h.atlrs and Uwhuanas arc llantu tribes Tim north and northeast are occupied bv Semitic and Hamitic races, the latter Including Ahvssinians .ml Ml as. -A. H. Keane, Th, '\fH,l7Zl, A. D. I4IS-IS84.— A chronological record .lL."„';°'i5f E,p oration. Mi.Sonar, Set- tlement, Colomxation and Occupation If I5"~i"""''','r' "' ^■'•'"''» '^y '''« Hortueuese .i„!1..*','* •","«"""' exnloratloiia ^lown '.,,.."• '" ^'.''*".'"'*J ""■''■■■ "'« direction of I nnce Henry, called the Navigator. t (It.— First African slaves brought into Eu- rup.' by one of the ships of J'rincc ifenry tH'Mmd the Guinea Const, and to the Onid Coast wlKTe the first settlement was establishe.! AFRICA. -—-■-- -...^...vuv y,am I'^uiuiisneil. , (^ ,?Tir ^K^^n '' "' ""' ""'""' "' <•"■ Zaire r I uiigo by the Portugutw explorer. Dingo Can M8S-«S9«.-EstablUhment of Itonian Catholic mis»',,!is on the western eoiist <i '<f*- -l'n''""»<''>''i< rounding of th. i.o of OimkI llupe l)y Bttrtholomew Kiar. Vii' ■ v" ^"'"'""V ""•^'-'""trucse explofr. t ape of Ooo,! |r„p,. to India. (1, ',51S;.«508.-i',.rtuguese wttlemeuts and fortl- tngue?;,~ "^' "' ^''"'«»"'«''»'- l>y the Por- .,'.?,^Vi'?*^-~"! *■''""'"" "f Kngllsh vovsge. to the Oiilnriiiind lf(ild(oii»is "."•»>'• 1560. --Kren,!, trailing |„ the Senegal and II.'? L*'".'''''^' "'"'"''"'""» '■"VBge of Sir John Maw kin« to the (Ininra Coast " "■founj Liff?/!:""^',".'",'''"*-','" •■" ''""I lo Loando, Por- lugihsi' ei.piral on ilii. Hcut e..B«t i5»»(.iliouti-P,„„„|lng of the French Doit Nt Louis, at the mouth of the Seoejal '^ ' 17 by'SM-^pcning of trade on the western coast l6l8-l62l.-ExpIoration of the River Oani- land ^^ ^''*''" <-""'"l""'y "f Kng. .„ 'f**.-7^j '■','i?"P''''' f""nd«l by the French m the island of Madagascar. Hoil?'"~^""^'' *^'"''-'""''" a' tbe Cape of GockI '*M-«7i»4— Exploration of the Rive. Siueiral for the lloyai Senegal Company. ^ „ i7a3--Exp!oraiion of the Gambia for the English Royal African Company JZ5S'~«"'''"''"' ^'i"'"" "" ""^ <3n><l Coast, a f737.— Moravian Mission planted hi George Schmidt among the Hottentots "t-orgt. ti„?Sf"wi'^"''""'"""','";s'°!'J"» "f ""^ domina- tion in Madagascar of the Hovas I76i-i7«a---l)utch expedition from Cape Colony l).y<in<l the Orange l{iver. "^ 1768-1773.— Journey of James Bruce to the fountains ofthe Blue Slle In Ahvs.,lnia '774;-F|mniling of a French colony la Mada- ga.siar by Count Benvowsky. tJ'ii'r,''!5;~'''TJ'i'''**- ^ Vaillant am.)iig theHotteiit-itsand Kaflri. *" f,r ff'Tf """""?,. °' "'^ English settlement for freni slaves at Sierra I.eone in'J"i~5"T"'""" "' ""^ African Ass,)clation in England, for systematic expl,.raiion by't'lfe'iljmh^'""' ^■"'""^ """-*" ^""" "'^' "'""' «795-i797.-The first exploring lournev of Mungo ifark, in the service of the AtrS \" 8(«iallon, fr..m the Gambia -"ruan .\, .v,'l9*;r ",'""'"," ?' '*•'• •'ol'n Van.lerk.mp to th. kaHrs for the r.on.lon Missi.marv So-l.tV ^IP, "\""7"^ ''"-' l'o>-ti'>;'i'"* Dr. 'La. cena from the Lower Zambesi to the kingdom of ( azimlie. on Lake Moero. il,n^i!^'i*°*T.""'"™""" "' f'T" Colony to the Dutrh and its recon.i.,cst by the EnpliM. I80a-I8ll.--Joiirney of the Pomb.ims (w gr.K>-<ta<-r.«H the lontinent from Angola t.. T.te xfi f^'7''",""'''"« "' "■« t-'hureh of 1. .jUu,1 Mis.»lon In SiiTHi Liime. th,!??*"Tf*"'""'"'. ''»£!:'"•'•"' "' M""fo •'"'•k from [etiirn,"i ' *''''• ''""^ *''''''' '''' ""'" j,_J[j^5--TraveN of Dr. LIchtcnsteIn in Be.l.u- i8io.-MI«lnns In Great Namarualand and Danmrnlan,! K.gun by the London MI«lon»ry «B>i— Exploration of the Oranire lliver and the Limpopo l,y Campbell, the ml«ionarv Mi.;au.ni,T,of ||„. African A»«,«lafio,i. „,, ,|„. H,.';;. ''7.'"-''' •^"'''*' ^■" ''<rlHr«, .-.hendv. and Suakin; th.'nce through Jidda to .Me.ra.in the charaei.r ..f a Mussulman. ..I.fitl.''^"'''*'*' »'"' '"'H''-'" nitemp-i to explore th.) lower course of the Niger. t. AFRICA, 181& 1818.— Mission In Hadsnscar undertaken by the London Missionary Society. 1818.— Beginning, on tlie Orange River, of the missionary labors of Robert Moffat in South Africa. , , 1818.— Exploration of the sources of tlie Gambia hj Gaspard Mollien, from Fort St. I«ui3, at tlic nioutli of the Senegal. 1818-1820.— Exploration of Fczzan to iu southern limit, from Tripoli, ly Captiiin Lyon. 1830.— First Wesleyan Mission founded in Eafirlaad. x830.— Treaty abolishing the slave-trade Ir Madagascar 1831.— Mission orkin Raffraria undcrtakci by the Glasgow M.isionary Society. 1833.— FDUiidinK of the rt-publio of J.iberia. See Slavkuv, Neiiho: A. I). 1S16-1W7. 1833.— OlOcial journey of Lieutenant Lalng from Sierra Leone in the "Timannee, Kooranko and Soolinia " countries. 1833-1835.— Expedition of Captain (,'lupper- ton. Dr. Oudney.and Colonel Denham,frora Trlp- oll to Lake Tchad and beyond. 1835-1836.— Expedition of Major Lalng, In the service of the British Oovorument, from Tripoli, through the desert, to Timl)uctoo, which he reached, and where he remaiutd for a month. Two days after leaving the city he was murdi'ted. 1825-1837. — Expedition of Captain Clapper- ton from the Bight of Benin to Sokoto. 1837. — Moravian Mission settled in the Tam- bookie territory, South Africa. 1837.— . Journey of Linant de Bellefonds, for the African Associatiou, up the White Nile to 13' 6' nortli latitude. l837-i8a8. — Journey of Caillfi from a point on the west coast, between Sierra Leone and the Gambia, to Jemic and Tlmbuctoo; tlicnci' to Fez ■mi Tu'-.gier. 1838.— Undertakings of the Basle Ml»- inary Bociilv on the Gold Coast. 1830-1831.— Exploration of the N' to the lea hy Hidutrd and John Lender lug the question as to its mouth. 1830-1846.— French conquest and subjugation of Alders, 1831.— Portuguese mission of Major Montciro and faptiiin Gamitto to the court of Muau CazrinlH'. 1831.— Ahuorption of the African Assoclalion by the Rnyiil ( ieograplilcal Stwlety of Loudon. 1833-1834.— First commercial exploration of the lower Niner, from its mouth, by Mucgregor Laird, with two steamers. 1833.— Mission In lliisiitoland estaMiHlied by the ICvancillriil Missionary Soi'Icty ol riiiis. 1834.— Ueginning of missionary lalmrs under the Anierlcan Board of Missions In South Africa. 1834.— Mission founded at Cape I'alinus od the «(sterii const, by the American Board for ForclL'n Missions. 1834,— The Great Tre't of the Dutch Boers tmm I iipc Colony and their founding of tlie re- •■ulilir of Niilal. .135. — MisKliin amonij the Zulus established by tlir AincrUiin Hoard of Foreign MUkIoiis. 1835-1849.- i'ersecution if Christians In MailiiL'asrnr. 1836-1837. — Kxploralioni of Captain Sir Jnm>-s K. Altxander In the countries of the Great NunaquM, the Uushmeo and tiM UlU Uaniarai. AFRICA. ISSl. 1839 -1841. — Egyptian expeditions sent by Mehemet All up the White Nile to latitude 6° 35' N. ; accompanied and narrated in part by Ferdinand Wcrne. 1839-1843.— Missionary residence of Dr. Krapf in the kingdom of Shoa, in the Ethiopian high- lands. 1840. — Arrival of Dr. Livingstone In South Africa as a missionary. 1841. — Expedition of Captains Trotter and Allen, sent by the British Government to treat with tribes on tlie Niger for the opening of com- merce and the suppression of the slave trade. 1843. — Travels of Dr. Charles Johnston In Southern Abvssinia. 1843.- Galloon Mission, on the western coast near the equator, founded by the American Board of Foreign Missions. 184a.— The Rhenish Mission establlshe<l by German missionaries at Bethanien in Nama- qualand. 1843. — Wesleyan and Norwegian Slissiona opened In Natal. 1843-1863. — French occupation of territory on the Galloon and the Ogowe. 1843. — British annexation of Natal, and ml- f ration of tlie Boers to found the Orange ree State. 1843. — Exploration of the Senegal and the Falenie by Uuanl-Bes.siniirts and ItnSenel. 1843-1845.- Travels and reshlc .'e of Mr. Parkyns in Abyssinia. 1843-1848. — Hunting journeys of Gordon Cumming in South Africa. 1844.— Mission founded by Dr. Krapf at Mom- bassa. on the Zanzibar const. 1845. — Duncan's journi'V for the Royal Geo- graphical Society from Wliydah, via Aboine, to Adofuclla. 1845.— Mission to the Camcnions pslnlilished by the Baptist Missionary .Siciety of Eiuihind. 1846. — Unsuccessful attempt of Rallenel to cross Africa from Senegal to the Nile, through the Sudan. 1846. — Mission of Samuel Crowther (after- wanls Bishop of the Niger), a native and a lllwriited slave, to the Yoruba country. 1846.— Mission on Old Calabar River luunded by the Unitiil Presbyterian Church in Jamaica. 1847-1849. — Interior explorations of the Qrr- nian missionaries Dr. Krapf and Mr. Rebmani.. from Monilmivsa on the Zanzibar coast. 1848.— Founding of the Transvaal Repubih. by tlie BtH'rs. 1849.— Missionary journey of David Living- st<ine norlliwnril fniin the country of the Bechu- anas. and his ilisrovcry of Lake N'gnml. 1849-1851.— Journey of Ladlsliius. Magyar from Beugucia to I lie kiuisiloms of BIhe and Moluwa on the interior table land, and across the upper end of the Zir.lMsl valley. 1850.— Sale of Danish forts at Qiietta, Adda, and FIngo, on t'lc western coast, to Great Britain. 1850-1851.— Travels of Andersson and Gallon fri>m Wulllsh Bay to Ovam|Hiland and Lake Nguinl. • 1850-1855.— Travels of Dr. Barth from Trip<ill to Lake Tchad. Sokoto and the Upper Niger to TImliuctoo, where he was detained for uloe I months. 1851.- Discovery o( the Zambesi by Dr. I Livingstone. 18 AFRICA. 1853-1863. 1853-1863.— HuDtine and tradiog journeyi of Mr. Chapman io South Africa, between Natal and Waldsh Bay and to Lake NgamI and the Zambesi. * '853.— Founding of the Diocese of Natal by the English Church and appointment of Dr. Colenso to be its bishop. 1853-1856.— Journey of Dr. LlTlngstone from Linyunti, the Makololo capital, up the Zambesi and across to the western coast, at St. Paul de Loando, thence returning entirely across the continent, down the Zambesi to Quillmane at its month, discovering the Victoria Falls on his way. 1853-1858.- Ivory-seeking expeditions of John PcthiTlck, up tlie Bahr-el-Ghazel. 1853-1859.— liomsn Catholic mission estab- lisheil at Uoiiilnkoro, on the Upper Nile. 1854.— Ex, "oration of the Somali country — the "eastern .lon of Africa"— by Captains Burton and Speke. 1855— Beginning of attempU by the French governor of Senegal, General Faldherbe, to curry the Hag of France Into the Western Suditn. 1856-1859.— Journeys of Du Challlu in the western equatorial regions, on the Gaboon and the Ogobai. 1857-1858.— Expedition of Captains Burton and Speke, from Zanzibar, throuj,'li Czaramo, UsaKara, Ugogo, and Unvamwezi. to Ujljl, on Lake Tanganyika- making the lii i European discovery of the lak< ^turning t.. Kaz«, and tlKiice continued by oj ke alone, during Bur- I'lii's illness, to the di^overy of Lake Victoria Nyanza. 1858. — Journey of Andersson from Walflsh B.I.V to the Okavango River. 1858.— English mission station founded at \ iii.iria on the Camcroons coast. 1858-1863.— Expedition of Dr. Livingstone, m tliu service of the British Governmcr.l,, explor- luK tlic Shire and the liovuma, and discoverins on. I ..»..1.v_J»~ I_l._ X' •■ ■ and exploring Uke Nvassa- said, however, to havi! iM'en known previously to the Port iguese. 1860-1^ ji.— Journey of Baron von Decken from f'ombassa on the Zanzibar coast, to Kili- manjaro mountain 1860-186J.— lietum of Speke, with Captain Grant, from Zanzibar to Lake Vi ria Nyanza, visiting Karagwe, and Uganda, an . reaching the outlet of the Nile; thence through Unyoro to Gondokoro, and homeward by the Nile. 1861 — Establishment of the Universities Mis- sion by Bishop Mackenzie on the Upper Shirfi. 1861-1S6S.— English acquisitUm of the town and kingdom of Lagos on the Bight of Benin by cession from the native ruler i86|.i86».— Sir Samuel Baker's exploration of tlie Abvasinian tributaries of the Nile. 1861-iMa.— Journey of Captain Burton from Lajtoi, on the western coast, to Aljcoloita, the capital of the Akui, in Yoruba, and U> the Cum- ariNins Mountains. i86i-i86a.— Journey of Mr. Balnea from Wal- flsli Hay to I.«ke NgamI and Virtoria Kiilln. I86j.— Resumption of the Christian Mission in Mil liigascar, long suppresscHl. i86>-i867.— Travels of Dr. Rohlfsin Momcco, Alyiriji and Tunis, ami eiplnrinij jmtrr,<y frmn the Oulf of the Syrtes to the Gulf of Guinea i>63<— TraTeb of Win wood Iteade un the WMteroeoML AFRICA, 1873-1878. 1863.— Incorporation of a large part of Kaf fraria with Cape Colony. 1863.— Second visit of Du Chaillu to the west- em equatorial region and journey to Asfaango- land. 1863-1864.- OfBcia] mission of Captain Bur- ton to the King of Dahomey. «863-i864.— Exploration cf the Bahr-el-Ohazel from Khartoum by the wealthy Dutch heiress. Miss Tinne, and her party. 1863-1865.- Expedition by Sir Samuel Baker and his wife up the White Nile from Khartoum, resulting in the discovery of Lake Albert Ny- anza, as one of its sources. 1864.— Mission of Lieutenant Mage and Dr Qulnthi, sent by General Faldherbe from Sene- ga! to the king of Segou, in the Sudan. 1866.— Founding of a Norwegian mission in Madagascar. 1866-1873.— Last journey of Dr. Livingstone, from the Kovuma River, on the eastern coast, to Lake Nyassa ; ' lence to Lake Tanganyika, Lake Moero, Lake IS., ^weolo, and the Lualaba River, which he suspit t^d of flowing into tlie Albert Nyanza. and being the ultimate fountain head of the Nile. In November, 1871, Livingstone was found at Ujljl, on Lake Tanganyika, by Henry M. Stanley, leader of an expedition sent in search of him. Declining to quit the country with Stanlev, and pursuing his exploration of the Lualaba, Livingstone died May 1, 1873, ou Lake Bangweolo. 1867.- Mission founded In Madagascar by the Society of Friends. 1867-1868.— British expedition to AbyssinI* for the rescue of captives; overthrow and death of King Theodore. 1868.— British annexation of Basutoland In South Africa. 1869.— Christianity established as the state religion in Madagascar. i860.— Fatal expedition of Miss TinnS from Tripoli Into the desert, where she was murdered by her own escort 1869-1871.— Explorations of Dr. Schwelnfurth between the Bahr el Ghazcl and the Upper Coniio, discovering the Wello River. 1860-1873.— Expedition of Dr. Nttchtlgnl from Tripoli through Kuka, Tiliesti. Burku, Wadal Dsrfur, and Kordofan, to the Nile. 1870-1873.— Offleial expedition of Sir San-.uel Baiter, in the service of the Kliedive of Egypt, Isniall Paslia, to annex Gondokoro, then named Isniiilia, and to suppress the slave-trade in the Egyptian Sudan, or Equatorla. 1871,— Transfer of the rights of Holland the Gold C;o«st to Great Britain. 1871.— Annexation of Griciualnnd West Cape Colony. i87i.— Scientific tour of Sir Joseph D. Hooker and .Mr. Ball In MoriKco and the Great Atlas, 1871.— .Missionary Journey of Mr. CHarlei N'lw in the .Masai country and ascent of .Mount Kilinianjaro 1871-1880.— rinntlng journevs of Mr. Selous In Soutli .Vfiica. la-vond the Zainliesi. J'7»-I875.— Travels of tlie naturalist. Rein hold Hiirliliolz. on liie Guinea coast I _ «87J.i879.— Travels of Dr. Iloliib htwifn ; ill-' Suulh .\fricsn diainoa.i C> id. 1 lid Uiu Zuiii- , bisi ; 1873.1875.- Expedition of Captain V L I Cameron, from Zanzibar to Lake Tanganyika, lit n i I I I'i AFRICA. 1878-1875. and cxplorntlon of the Lake; thence to Nyan- JWe on the Lualaba, and thence across the con- &rthro,igh Ulunda. lo the Porf.gnese set- Uemeut at Benguela. on the Atlantic coast r873-i875.-^ravelsof the naturalist Frank Oa.:I.^rom cane Colony to the Victoria FaUs 187V1876.— Kxplorationg of OttsfeWt, fai- kenste^in «nd PechuelLocsche, under the aus- pkes of the German African Association. from the Wniro coast, north of the Congo. i874.-British expedition against the Ashan- twV .Sstroviug their principal town Coomassie. * .874.-M'sSiou of £olonelChaill6-Longfrom General Gordon, at Gondokoro, »? tll« ^''f/ "^ ITtese kinir of Uganda, discovering Uke Ibra- hmrnhis*eturn,\nd completing the work of Bneke and B..ker, in the continuous tracing of 5i:rc^u.^eof the Nile from the Vlctona N^^an.a. i87A-i875.— Expt'di""" o' Colonel t.- J-"""* I«ng to Lake Vhtoria Nyanxa and the Makraka l,*am Ninn. country, in the Egypti«n "jprvu-e^ 1874-1876 -First ailniinistnition of General Gonlll., cHussioned by the Khedive as Gov- "T874^l76.-Occupation and exploration of Darfur ani KorJnfan by the Egyptians, under .I'routaudt CoioneU Pni>iy. Mason, Trout and <-ol8t»": l874-i877.-Expt.dition of Henry M Stiinley mi"out bv the proprietors of the ^ew -lofk Herald an.rihe L-Indon Daily Telegraph, whch crossed the continent from Zanzibar to the n omt^ of the Congo Uivtr; making a prolonged Juv in the empire of Ug.in.ia and acquiring much knowledge of It; circumuavigat ng Ukes Victoria and Tanganyika, and exploring the ton m?.t^rious great ^Congo Hiver throP^hout "'l87«-J877.-Exploratlon. of Pr. Junker in Upp?r Nubia and In the basin of the Buhrel- ° isVs.-Expeditir.n of Dr. Pogprc, for the Ger- man ^African .\ssoci,ition, from the west coast. Mutli of the Conu'o, in the Congo basin, pene- I«ver!' capital of the >fuaU Yanvo, who rules a kinprdom as large as Oirmany. ni-i„„™ "§75, -Expediti.m of Colonel ChaiUe Long Into tile country of the Makraka MamNiams. I87S. -Founding by 8<'ottisli »ubscril)er» of the mfsslon staliou c.dled Llvi»K;"''f • ^'^, Maclear, on tlie soutlum shores of Uke >>"»»«. headquarters of the mission removed in ISSl to Bandawe, on the same lake. l87S.-Mis8!on f...,iuled at Blantvrt-, in the higiilauds above th. Shire, by the LsUblished Church of Scotland , _, , i87*-l87«.-t<<'izure of Berbcra and the region of tilt? Juki lllver. on the Somali Cou»t, by Colonel Chaille-Lour, for the Khedive of Kgypt, and tlieir spe.Jy evacuation, on the remonstrance "'1^876 -Conference at Brussels and forma- tion of the Inlematlonai African Assot-iatlon, under the presi.eucy of the king o ti.e Bel- gians, for the .xploratiou aud cTviliiallon of ^'1876.- Voyage of Komolo Oessl around Lake ^'l^B-ft^- MM^.n In I'canda e,.,l.ll.he<l by th. Cbur'eh" Missionary Society of England. l876-l87B.— Siienllflc cxnioratlons of Ur. Hchwelnfurth in the Arabhui Uwert between the MIe and the l(*.'d Sua. APBJCA, 1880-1881. i»»6-x«8o.— Explorattone and Ftendiannexa- tlo^V SvorgnanSe Braxxa between the Ogowi ■"■^Sw.-Tr-LWlng.tone InUnd Ml»lon foj ChriJtkn work in the Congo valley, ^toblUhed bv "lie East London Institute for Home and *^,ll?!.87t- Second admlnUtratlon of ^n.r.1 Go"'on.« Governor-General of the Sudan. Darfur and the Equatorial Provincei. 1877-1879.— War of the British In South Afriawitiithe Zulu^ and practical aubjugatlon °^%^°879°-J''"™<^y "' ^"^l P,'°^K!'i"" the continent from Benguela via the Z?™bes 1877-1880.— Explorations of the Portugueee officer^, Capello and Ivens, In western and cen- tral Africa, from Benguela to the territory of Yacca. for the survey of the river Cuanjo in i J relktlons to the hydrographtc baalni of the Congo and the Zambesi. i,^^„ 187I.- Founding tn Glasgow of the African Lakes Company, or "The Livingstone Central Africa Company." for trade on Lakes NyMsa and Tanganyika; by which company the Ste- venson Boa.1" Was aubseouently built between the two lakes above named. . 1878"--Walrtsh Bay and fifteen miles around It (on tha western coast. In Namaqualand) de- "X'!!!jour'^:?rPaul Solelllet from Saint "-TsJ^lMr-Royal Geographical Society'. East Central African eipecVltlon, under JoMph T^mson, to the Central African lakes Tangan- yika, Nyassa and U'opold from Zanxibar. 1870.- Establishment, by tl.c Belgian Inter- nati.mal Society, of a .tatioc at Karema, on the eastern shore of Lake Tanganyika. 1 shore 01 Liaae 1 BUB""; •""• , r.»_»,. 1870- Formation of tlie Internationa! Congo AssoJfatlon and the engagement of Mr. Stanley '"Isy^- Missionary expedition, to the Upper Congo region by i.e Livingstone Inland MUslon and the Baptist Missionary Society. .... i879.-Joumey of Mr. Stewart, of the Ll» ng^ stonia Mission, on Uke Nya«a. from that la6« to Ijike Tanganyika. mi„., 1870.- DiscoVerv of the wurce. of the Niger In the hills alH.ut 200 miles east of Freetown, the capital of Sierra I^one. by the French explorer.. Zwelfel and Moustier. 1879-1880.- Journey of Dr, 0«»" fo- under U>e auspice, of the German African Socletr fmm Morocco U> Timbuctoo, and thence to the ATlantlc c.«st In Senegambia. The fact that the Sahara Is generally alwve the "fa-'e'el. and can- not therefore be flooded, was determined by Dr. ^i879-l88i.-Expedltlon of Dr. Buchner from LoanSk tfTKawendo and the kingdom of the Muata Yanvo, where .ix ""»'t''. were .pentin vain efforu to procure permlMlon to proceea further Into Uie interior Am.rlcan 1880. -Mission esublished by the American Board of Foreign Mission. In "the region of BIhl and the" Sanx.,' or Quanxa, wuth of the I ^7£te-i8li.-War of the British with the Boer. i "S^i^JiMt-Omclal ml«lon of the German explorer. Gerhard IloUM.. accmpMUd by Dr. I Hlecker, to Abyulnla. 20 AFRICA., 1880-1884. AFRICA, 1884-1891. I08o-t884.— Campal^s In Upper Senegal, exttniling French supreniiicy to the Nlgur. 1880-1884. — German Eas. African Expedition ) explore, in tlie Congo busin, the region lx.'tweeD mv Lualuba and the Luapula. 1880-1886.— Exploiationa of Dr. Junker in the country of the Niam-Niam, and hia journey from the Equatorial Province, through Unyoro and Uganda, to Zanzibar. i88»-i889. — Joumer of Captain Casati, as cor- respondent of the Italian gcograpliical review, " L' Exploratore," from Sualdn. on tlie Red Sea, into the district of the Mombuttu. west of Lalie Albert, and the country of the Niam-Niiim ; in which travels he was arresteii by the revolt uf the Miihdi and forced to remain with Emin Pasha until rescued with the latter by Stanley, in isau. l88t. — French protectorate over Tuiiis. 1881. — Portuguese cxpe<iitiou of Captain An- drad I from Senna on the Zambesi River to the old gold jiiucs of Slanica. iSdi. — Journey of F. L. and W. D. James from Suakin. on the Rol Sea. through the Rase country, in the Egyptian Sudan. 1881. — Founiling of a mis.sion on (he Congo, at Stanley Pool, by the Baptist Missionary So- ciety of England. 1881-1884.— E.tpodition of Dr. Pogge and Lieutenant Wissmann to Nyangwc on tin; Lua- laba, from which point Lieutenant Wissniann ti-irsucil the journey to Zanzibar crossing the .'iintiiient. 1*81-1885.— Revnlt of the Mahdi in tlie Su- ti;in ; Hie mission of tlcnenil Uonlon ; tlic unsuc- ccssi il expedition from England to rescue him; th.' full of the city and his death. I33i-i?87.— French pnitectorate established oil 111.' UpiHT Nigt'r and Up|Mr Senegal. l88a. — Itidian incupatiou of Abyssinian terri- tory oil tlie Hay of .Vssab. 1882-1883.— Girman scicntlHc expedition. iinler Dr. Hi^lim and Herr Reichanl, to Lakes T.iin;:invika and Mcxto. 1 8(!2- 1 883.— Journey of Mr. II. II. Johnston on till' Colli;!). 1883.— 'ierman acquisition of territory on An- pru Peipiefia Hay. in Great Xanmiiualaiid. 1883. — Exploration of Masailand by Dr. Fisclier. under the auspices of the Hamburg Ueiii;rapliieal Soi'it-ty. 1883.— Kxplunitiona of Lieutenant Giraud in East Central Africa, descending for some dis- t.iiiii' the Liiapiila. 1883. — Seientirte Investigation of the basins of Ijikes Xyassa and Tanganyika, bv Mr. Henry Dniinmond, for the African Uikes Company. 1883.— Journey of M. Revoil in llie South Somali country to tin- Upper Jub. 1883-1884.— Explorations of Mr Joseph Thom- v'ln from Momliiissa. through Masailand. to tlie I iirtheiist corner of the Victoria Nyaiiza. uiidi r tlie auspices of the Royal (leogniphieal Sinietv. I883-I88S.— War of the French with the ll'iv T;.* of Madagascar, ri'-mlling In the establish- liictil of a French pnitectonite over tlie island. 1883-1885, — Exploratiim of Lieutenant Giraud in till- lake ri'giou. 1883-1886.— .Vustrian expeiliilon. under Dr. Ilohib, from Cape Colony, thniiiuh ilio Ui«r s'atei, Rechiianalanil and MatiilH-hland to the 1834. — .Annexation bv Germany of the whole vriitern coast (except \ValAsh liiiy) between the j 21 Portuguese poasessiona and those of the British In South Africa. 1884.— German occupation of territory on the Kameruns River, under treaties with the nati\e chiefs. English treaties securing contiguous territory to and including the delta of the Niger. 1884. — German protectorate over Togolaud on the Gold Coast declared. 1884.— Expedition of Vr. Peters. rcprcs< nling the Society of German Colonization, to the coast region of Zanzibar, and his negotiation of treaties with ten native chiefs, ceding the sover- eignty of their dominions. 1884.— Crown colony ot British Bechuanalaud acciuired from the South African Republic. 1884.— Portuguese Government expedition, under Major Carvalho, from Loant'.a to the Cen- tnU African potentate colled the Muiita Yaiivo. 1884.— Exj iomtion of the Bcnue uud the Adamawa, by Herr Flegel. 1884 .—Scientific exp«lition of Mr. 11. IL Johnston to Kilimanjaro Mountain. 1884.— Discovery of the M'bHngi or Ubangi River (afterwards identified with the AVelii). by Caiitjiin Ilansens and Lieutenant Van Gtle. 1884. — Exploration of Reiehard in the south- eastern part of the Congo Str.te. A. D. 1884-1891.— Partition of the interior between European Powers. — " The partition of Africa may be said to date from tlie Berlin Conference of 18t<4-(»5 ^see Com o Fhke Statf.). Prior to that Conference the ((uosiicn of inland liouiidaries was scarcely coiisidend. . . . The founding of the Congo Independent State was probably the most Important result of Ihe Ci n- feri'nce. . . . Two months after Ilie Conference had concluded its labours. Great Britain and Ger- many hod a sirioiLs dispute in regard to their re- spective spheres of influence on the Gulf of Guinea. . . . The eoinproniise . . . iirriMii at placed the Mission Station of Viitnria witiiin the German sphere of intliience," Tlie fiontiir be- tween the two spheres of influence on tlie Itiulit of Biafra was subsequer.tly defined by a line drawn, in 1HH6, from the coast to Yola. on liie Benue. The Royal Niger Company, constituted by a royal charter, "was given iidministnitivc powers over territories covere<l by its treaties. The regions thereby iiIuckI undir British pro- tection . . . apart from the Oil Rivers I )istriit. which Is directly administered bv the Crown, emi race the coastal lands betwei n t-at'o* anil the northern frinitler of Ciiinarons, the Lower Niger (including territories of Sokolo. Gandu and Rorgo), and the Benue from Yola to it.s (in- tluence." By a protixol signed Decenilier 24. IHH.'i. Germany and France "defined their re- spective splierca of influence nnii mtiun on the Biglit of Biafra. and also on tlie Slave I oast 111. d In Senecanibia." This " fixed tlie inland exten- sion of the (terman spliereof iiilbu ne<'(CaniHn>i:si Ht l.'i° E. longitude, Greenwieh \1 present it allows the Fn'tieh Congo territories to expand iiloiig the western bank of till- Mliaiigi . , pro- vided no other tributary of the M'bangi Conuo is found to the west, in wliiili case, nceonlinir to the Berlin Treaty of iwt^.'i, the conventional basin of the Congo would gain an exiinsion ' (In the 12th of .May, IWd. Fiance and Portugal siirned a convention bv wliieh Fnuiee "seiuiel !)j.. .-x.-lMsiv.. r<-.]itr-.! M Imtli »-Jir,k<: e.f tl-,e I'-.i^:;- iniinza (in Senei;ambial. and the P.>rtiii'iiese frontier in the south was advanced approximuti iy AFMCA, 1884-1891. ht il to the southern limit of the basin of the Citfini. On tlie Congo, Portugal retained tlie Massabi .lis- triot to which France had laid claim, but botli banltaof the Loango were Uft to trance In 1884 tlircc ripresi'Dtatives of the J'«-'<;«y „'"' German Colonization — Dr. Peters, Dr. JQIilki, and Count Pftil - quietly concluded treaties with the chiefs of I'seguha, tisanii, Nguru, and Lsa- eara bv wldeli tliose territories were conveyed to the"Societv in question. "Dr. Peters . . . arme.1 with his treaties, ittur..cd to Berlin in February, \m. On tlie 27th February the day following the signature of tae General Act of the Berlin Conference, an Imperial ts.hutzbnef, or Cliarter of Protection, secured to the hociety tor Gtrman Colonization the territories . . . ac- quired for tliem through Dr. Peters treaties: in otlier words, a German Protectorate was i)ro- clai .led Wlien it became known tliat Germany hiu' .--izcd upon the Zanzibar mainland, tlic in- dignation in eolmiial circles knew no bounds. Prior to 1884, tiie continental lands facing Zanzibar were almost exclusively under Rritis i inlUienec. The principal traders were Bntisli subjects, and the Sultans Government was a, - ministered under tlie advice of the British Kesi- dent The entire region between tlie C oast and | ;iie Lakes was regardeilas lieing under tlie nonu- nal suzerainty of the Sultan. . . . t'tili. Great B'itain had no territorial chums on tlie dominions of the Sultan." Tlic Sultan formally protested and Gn^at Britain championed his cause ; but to no effect In tlie end tlie Sultan of Zanzibar yielded tlie German Protietomteoverthefourinlandprov- Incs and over Vitu, and the ^ritisli and German Governments arraiigeil questions between them, provisionallv. by the Anglo-Oennan ( onvention of 1886 wliieh was afterwards super«>ded by the mori detiiiite Cimventionof July 1800. whieli will be spoken of below. In April 188., tlie rielits of tlie Smietv for German Colonization were transferred to tlie German Last Africa As- sociation, whh Dr. Peters at Its liead The Brit- ish East Africa Company t.^ok over concessions tli.it liad iKen grunted by tile Sultan of Zanzibar to Sir William Miukiiinon. and received a royal cliarter in SeptemlKT, 1888. In Smtliwest Af- rii-i "an enterprising Bremen imreliant. llerr I U'lVritz anil suIm quently the German Consul- (, .11. nil, l>r. Naelitiiral, eoncludeil a sines of po- litirul and commir.ial treaties witli native cbiifs, wliereby a claim was instituted over Angra P.ipiefta, and ov.r vast districts in tlie Interior lietwccu tlie (Iraugc Uiver ami Cape Fno. . . . It w lis useless for the Cape eol. mists to protest. On tlie 13th October 18*1 Germany formally nolili.-d to the Powers her I'nitectorate over Si.Mlli. West Africa. . . . On ^rd August ISC, the GiTiiian Colonial Company fur NiuthWest At- Ilea was founded, and . . . ncelvid the liii- l«-rlMl sanction for its ineorporalion. But in Aujiist 1880 a new A.s.sociai ion was fnrmed-- the German West- Africa Company — and the aii- ministration of its territories wiis placid under an Imperial Coiiinilssiomr. . . . T'.- intrusion of Germany into South-\V est Afrha >:c till as a (heels upon no hss than a spur to, the extension of British influence nortliwards to the /ainbe/l. .\no!lier obstacle to thi« extension arose frmn the Boer lusurrectlo'i." The Traii'vnal, villi in- creawd indepenaencc liad adopted the title of South African Hepublic. "Zulu-land, haviiii; lost Its independence, was partitioned: a third of Its AFBICA. 1884-1891. territories, over which a republic bjid been pro- claimed, was absorbed (^^'"•'er 188TJ by the Transvaal: the remainder was added (14th May 1887) to the British possessions. Amatonga-lami was n 1888 also taken under Britisl. protection. By a convention with the Soutli African Bepab- lie, Britain acquired in 1884 the Crown colony of Bechuana-land; and in the early part of 18«j a Brilisli Protectorate was proclaimeil over ">« remaining portion of Bechuana-land. f u"""; more "a British Protectorate was it^tituted (18851 over the country boimded by the iiambezt In the' north, the British possessions in the south, ■ the Portuguese province of Sofala in the east, and the 20tli degn^of east longitude in lie wes^ It was at this juncture that Mr. Cecil Kliodes came forward, and, having obtained "'ri"'" J-""; cesshms from Loliengula, founded the BritisU South Africa Company On the 29th Oc- S 1889, tlic British South Africa Company was granted a royal charter. It was declared m this charter that ■the principal flel. of the optra.- tionsof liie British South African Companv shil be She region of South Africa lying inimediatel) to the nortli of British Beehuaiialand, and to the north and west of the South African Uepub- llc and to the west of the Portuguese dciniin loiis •" No northcru limit was given, and the other boundaries were vaguely detlned. Hie position of Swazi-laml was dehnite^y ^Jt ^J! 1890 by an arrangement Ix'twcen Great Bntam and the Soutli African Uenuulic wliich provides for the continued independence of Swaziland an. 1 a joint control over the white settlers A Briiisli Protectorate was proclaimed over Nyassa-huvl and the Shire Iliglilands in 1889-00. To ret.ini now to the prweedings of other Po^C" 'n Af f," ; i "Itiilv took formal possession, in July 188., <)t the bay and territory of Assab. The Ita laii coast-line on tlie Bed Sea was extended fnim Kas Kasar (18' 2' N. Lat.) to the southern Ixiundary of lUheita, towards < .iK.k. During 1880, sliort ly after the death of King Joiiannes, Keren and Asmara were occupied by Italian trmips .Mi iie_ lik of Slioa, who succeeded to the throne «i Abvs,sinia after subjugating ail the Abyssinian provinces, except Tigre, .llspatehed an embassy o King Humbert, the nsult of wlueli was that the new Negus acknowledged (29tli September. 1S80) the Protectorate of Italy over Abyssinia, and its sovereignty over tlie territories of Mas- sawa Keren and Asmara." By tlie Protocols Tf 24111 Marcli and l.-.th Ap.ll. l-'Ol. Ili'l.v "'» (ireat BritJiin detine their respective Spheres ,.t Intluence in Kast Africa. " But since then Italy has practiially withdrawn from her position She has absolutely no hold over Abyssinia . . _ Italy has also succeeded in establishing hersell on the Soimil Coast." By treaties eoncludeil m 1880 ••iheeoaslaiiamlsbet-veenCapeWarsheikh (ahoi'it 2^^ iilt' N. lit.), and Cape Bedwiii (- I,, n; 1,1, )_ a, listance of 4r>() miles — were plan. 1 under Italian prntection. Italy Bubs..quently r\ tended (I81H)) 'ler Pmlectorate over the Soiuul (•oast to the Jul. river The Brllish IT.. ' leeli.rate on the Somal Coast facing Aden ly.w cMcnils fniin the Italian fr.mtier at lias llafmi toItasJllmle(i;lM.VK. long.). . . . The act iv ilyof I'ninie in lier Senegainbian province . . iluiiiitf Ihe l,i.st limi.irril years . '■■f '■;'•'';,' resulted iu a considerable expansion of her ttrn t.iry . The French have established a claiin over tiie eonntry intervening between our Gold «»<> AFRICA, 1884-1891. AFRICA, 188S. roast Colony and Liberia. A more precise de- limitation of the frontier between Sierra I,eoDe and Liberia resulted from tiie treaties signeci at .Monrovia on the Utli of November, 1887. In 188« I'ortugal withdrew ail riglits over Dehome. . . . Itecently, a French sphere of influence has been instituted over the whole of tlie Suharan regions lietween Algeria and Senegambia. . . . Declara- lions were exchanged (.'5th August 1890) between I France and Great Britain] with the following results; France became a consenting party to the Anglo-German Convention of 1st July 1800. (3.) Great Britain recognised a French sphere of in- lluencc over Madagascar. . . . And (3) Great Brit- .'liu recognised the sphere of influence of France to tlic-iouthof her Mediterranean possessions, up to a line from Say on the Niger to Harrua on Lake Tsiil, drawn in such a manner as to comprise in the sphere of action of the British Niger Com- pany all that fairly lielongs to the Icingdom of Sokuto." The Anglo-German Convention of .luly. 1890, already referred to, established by its main provisions the following deflnitiuns of ter- ritory: "The Anglo-German frontier in East Africa, which, by the Convention of 18S6, ended at a point on the eastern shore of the Victoria Nyaiiza was continued on the same latitude across the lake to the confines of the Congo Independent State; but, on the western side of the lake, this frontier was, if necessary, to lie ilelli'cted to the so\itli, in orderto include Mount M'fumbiro within I lie Hrilish sphere. . . . Treaties in that district were made on behalf of the BritiNli Kast Afriea Company bv Mr. Stanley, on his return (May 18X«) from the relief of "Kiiiin Pasha. . . . (2.) 'I'lie southern boundary of the German sphere of iiilliiencc in East Afriea was recognised as that origiiiallv drawn to a point on the eastern shore • if Like Nyassa, whence it was continued by the I a>tiTn, northern, and western shores of the lake 111 the northern bank of the nicutli of the Uivor Siiiigwe. From this point the AngloOerman Iroiitier was continued to Lake Tanganika, in UK li a manner as to leave the Stevenson Hoad wiihiii the British sphere. (3.) The Northern Irutilier of British Last Afriea was ilellned by tile .Iiib Uiverandthe eonterminois boundary of the Italian sphere of inlluence in Galla-land and .\liyssinia up to the coulines of Egypt; in the «i~t, liy the Conco State and the Congo-Nile watershed. (4.) Germany withdrew, in favor of liiiluin. her Protectorate over Vitu and her claims til all territories on the mainland to the north of the Hiver Tana, as also over tl": islamls of Pati« anil .Manila. (5.) In South-West Afriea. the .\iij;lo-German frontier, originally fixed up to i'i south hititude. was eontirmed: but from this p'liiit the boundary-line was drawn in sueli a man- in r eastward and northward as to give Germany frie access to the ZamlKzi by the c'liobe Hiver |it ) 'I'he Anglo-Gi'rman froiitier betwein Ti'l'o ami (iold (nast Colony was fixed, anil that lie iiveiii the Camarons and the Briti.sh Niger Ti r- ritories was provLsionally adjusteil, (7.) The Free Iraile zone, defineil by the Art of Ihrlin (1^8.")) was recognised as applicable to the present arniiigement between Britain and Germany. (8 ) A British Protectorate was recognised over the iloniinions of the Sultan of Zanzibar within the British coastal zone and over the islands of Zan- jihar and Prmba nritain, h -•'"c-.cr, itmicriiKiU to use her influence to secure (what have since been acquired) corregpouding advantages for Germany within the German coastal rone and over the island of Mafia. Finally (9), the island of Heligoland, in the North Sea, was ceded by Britain to Germany." By a treaty cont^luded in June, 1891, lietween Great Britain and Port;igal, " Great Britain acquired a broad central sphere of influence for the expansion of her possessions in South Africa northward to and lieyond the Zambezi, along a path which provides for the un- interrupted passage of British goods and British enterprise, up to the confines of the Congo In- dependent State and German Ea.st Africa. . . . Portugal, on the East Coast secured the Lower Zambezi from Zumbo, and the Lower Shire from the Huo Confluence, the entire Hinterland of Mosambique up to Lake Nyassa and the Hinter- land of Sofala to the confines of the South African Itepublic and the Matabclc kingdom. On the West Coast, Portugal received the entire Hinter- land iH'hind her provinces in Lower Guinea, up to the confines of the Congo Independent State, and the upper course of the Zambezi. . . . On May ■J.'ith 1891 a Convention was signed at Lis- bon, whicli has put an end to the dispute between Portugal and the Congo Independent State as to the possession of Lunda. Houghly speaking, the country was equally divided Ix-tween the itispu- tants. . . . Lord Salisbury, in his negotiations with Germany and Portugal, very wisely upheld the principle of free-trade which was laid down by the Act of Berlin, ISS.'i, in regard to the free transit of goods through territories in whidi tuo or more powers are indirectly interestiil," '"Thus, by the Anglo-German compact, the con- tracting powers reserved for their respective siibjccLs a ' right of way,' so to speak, along the main channels or routes of coniniunicatiiui. Through tlie applii^ation of the same principle in the recent Anglo-Portuguese t'ouvcntiun. I'lirtiigal obtjiins not only a 'right of wav' across the British Zaniliesi zone, but also tiie privili nccif constructing railways and telegniphs. >he thereby secures free and uninterrupted cmi- iiectii/ii between her pos.sessions on the East ( cia>t am', those on the West Coast. A similar ci luissiin is made to Britain in the Znuibisi I iiMii. within the Portuguese sphere. Finally, till /anibisi itself has been declareil free to the HaL's (if all nations. Britain has stipulated for the right of preemption in the event of Por- liigal wishing to dispose of territories .si uih of the Zambesi." — A. S. White, j'/tt Ui ii I,] ii,i lit 'J .\fiini. nnmil ill., rcr., 1892. — See, also, Sot'TU Akiik A, and Uganda. A. D. i884-if95. — Chronology of European Exploration. Missionary Settlement, Coloni- zation and Occupation. 1684-1885.— The B< rliii Conference of Powers, 111 III to ihtermiiie the limitsof territory cuiiculed til the International Congo Asso<'iation, to estab- lish fn iiloni of trade within that territory, and til furinulate rules 'or regulating in future the acquisition of African territory. 1884-1885.— Journey of Mr. Walter M. Kerr from Cape Colony, across the Zambesi, to Lake Nyassa. and down the Shire Kivcr to the con.-t. 1884-1885. — Travels of Sir. F. L. James and party in the Somali country. 1884-1887.— Exploration by Dr. Sthinz of the IM wlv uc(|Uired German tirritories in Afriea. lE^s— Tninsfcr of the rt-lits of the H:-.r!rty of tiirnian CoUmization to the German East .Vliicu Company, and cxteusioQ of imperial 23 li I APIUCA, 1885. protection to the territories clsimed by the Com- pany. German acquisition of AVltu, north of Zauzibar. 1885. — Affreement between Germany nmJ Fnince, dcfliiiiig their respective spheres of in- fliiincc on the Bight of Blafra, on the sliivo coast and in Scncgambla. 1885.— Transformation of the Congo Associa- tion into the Independent State of the Congo, Willi King Leopold of Belgium as its sover- eign. 1885.— British Protectorate "Xtcnded to the Zamlnsi, over the country west of the Portu^ gui'Sf province of Sofala, to the JOtfi degree of east longiliiile. 1885.— British Protectorate extended over the reniiiiudir of Bechuanaland. 1885.— Italian occupation of Massowa, on the Red Sea. 1885.— Mission of Mr. Joseph Thomson, for the National African Company, up the Niuer. to Sokoto and Oando, securing treaties with the sultans under which the company acijulred para- mount rigiits. _ 1885-1888. — .Mission of M. Borclll to the kingdom of Shoa (Southern Ethiopia) nnd south of it. , „, 1885-1889.— When, after the fall of Khar- tmini and the death of General Gorilon, in 18S5, the Sudan was abandoned to the Malidi and the fanatical Moliammcdi is of the interinr, Dr. Ed- Wiird Schnitzcr, better known as Eniiu Pasha, wlio ha<l been in command, under Gordon, of the province of the Equator, extending up to Lake Albert, was cut olT for six years from conimuni- ration with the civilizeil world. In WST an ex- pedition to rescue him and his coininaiid was sent out under Henry M. Stanley. It entered the continent from the west, made its way up tlie Congo and the Aruwimi to Yambuya ; thence through the unexplored region to Luke Albert Nyunza and into communication witli Emm Pasha; then returning to Yambuya for tin- rear- guard wliich had been left there; again travers- ing the savage land to Lake Albert, and passing from there, with Emin and his companions, by way of Lake Albert Edward N. sn/.n Chen ascertained to be the ultimate reservoir of the Nile system) around the southern extn'niity of the Viitoria Nyanza, to Zanzibar, which was reached at the end of 1889. l886.— Settlement lictween Great Britain ami Germany of the coast territory to be left under the sovereignty of the Sultan of Zanzibar, and of the "sphercsof influence" to be appropriated respectively by themselves, between tlie lakes and the eastern coast, north of the Portuguese posiicssions. 1886.— .\grceinent between Fnnre nivl Portu- gal delluiiig limits of territory in Senegiiiiiliia and ut the mouth of the Congo. 1886.— Tniusformathm of the National African Conipany into the British Koyal Niger ("in paiiy, witli a tharter giving iK)wers of administration over a large domain on the Hiver Niger. 1886.— Mission station foundeil by Mr. Arnot at Bunkeya, in the southeastern part of tlie Congo State. 1886-1887.— Journey of Lieutenant Wis^mann aeross the continent, from Lulualiurg, u stiitioii i)f liie Congo A.^soc!fttion, in the ilHiiiinin:i nf Mimia Yanvo, to Nyangwe, on the Liialaba, uu<l thence to Zanzibar. AFRICA, 1889-1890. l88«.l889.— ExpeditionK of Dr. Zintgraff in the Cameroon* Intenor and to the Beuue, for the bringing of the country under German inlluenre. 1887.— Annexation of Zululand, partly to the Transvaal, or South African Republic, and the remainder to the British possessions. 1887.— French gunboats launched on the tp- per Niger, making a reconnolssanco nearly to Timbuctoo. 1887.— Indentity of the Well6 River with the Mbangl or Ubangl established by Captain Van Qi\e and Lieutenant Lienart i887.— First ascent of Kilimanjaro by Dr. Ilans Sleyer. _ , „. 1887-1889.— Exploration by Captain Binger of the region between the great bend of the Niger and the countries of the Gold Co tst. 1887-1800.— Expedition of Count Tcleki through JIasailand, having for lU moit impor- tant result the discovery of the Basso-Narok or Black Lake, to which the discoverer gave t^o name of Lake Rudolf, and Lake Stefr.nie. 1888.— Chartering of the Imperial British East Africa Company, under concessions granted by the sultan of Zanzibar and by native chiefs, with powers of administration over a n",'ion de- fined ultimately as extending from the river Umba northward to the river Jub, and inland to and across Lake Victoria near its middle to the eastern boundary of the Congo Free State. 1888.— British 8uprem->cv over Matabeleland .secured by treaty with its King Lobengula. 1888. — British Protectorate extended over AmatoBgaland. _ .^ „ 1888.— Ascent of Mt. Kilimanjaro by Mr. Fillers and Dr. Abbott; also by Dr. Hans Meyer. , , , 1888.— Travels of Joseph Thomson in the At- las and southern Morocco. 1889.— Royal charter granted to the British South Africa Company, witli rights and powers in the region called ilamliesia north of British BeehuBiialand and the South African Itepiiblic, and between the Portuguese territory on the east and the German territory on the west. 1889.— Will of King Leopold, making Bel- gium heir to the sovereign rights of the Congo Free State. , , . 1889.— Protectorate of Italy over Abyssinia acknowledged by the Negus. 1889.— Portuguese Roman Catholic Mission established on the south shore of Lake Nyassa. Portuguese exploration under Serpa Pinto in the Lake Nvassa region, with designs of occupancy frustrated by the British. 1889.— Jotimev of M. Crampel from the Ogowe to the Likuala tributary of the Congo, and return directly westward to the coast. 1889.— Dr. Wolf's exploration of the southcnst Niger basin, where he met his death. 1889.— Major Macdonald's exploration of the Benue, sometimes called the Tehadda (a branch of the Niger), and of its tributary the Keblii. 1889.— .lourney of Mr, H. H. Johnston north nf Laki^ Nvassa and to Lake Leopold. 1889.— Journey of Mr. Sharpe through the country lying between the Shire and Loangwa Rivers. , „ 1889.— Mr. Pigott's journey to the Upper Tiina, ill the service of the Iinp-irial British East Afrit:;! Ciitiitmuv. 1889-1890.— British Protectorate lieclarcd over Nyussidand and the Shire Higiilauds. 24 t 'I AFRICA, 1889-1890. AFRICA, 1891-1893. explomtlons ia Mada- and MX. Mahtre and i889-i890.— Italian Protectorate established over territory on the eastern (oceanic) Somali coast, from tL ^ Oulf of Aden to tiie Jiib River. 1889-1890. — Imperial Britisti East Africa Com- pany'n expedition, under Jackson and OlkIkc, for tlie exploring of a new road to tlie Victoria Ny- anzaLnd Uganda. i889-i89<>. — Captain Lugard's exploration of the river babaklii for the Imperial British East Africa Company. 1889-1800.— Journey of Lieutenant Morgcn from the Cameroons, on the western coast to the Bcnue. 1889-1890.— French gsscar by Dr. Catat Foucart. 1890. — Anglo -German Convention, di lioundnries of t,ic territories and " spheres .)i iu- 6 lencc " respectively claimed by the two powers ; Q'rmany withdrawing from Vitu, and from all th? rAstcm mainland coast north of the river Tana, and conceding a British Protectorate over Zanzibar, in exchange fur the island of Hcligo- tund in the North Sea. 1890. — French "sphere of influence" extcml- Ing over the Sahara and the Sudan, from Alperiu to Lake Tchad and to Say on tlic Niger, recog- nizeii by Oreat Britain. 189a— Exploration of ' , river Sanglia, an important northern tribub / of Hij Congo, by M. Cliolet. 1890. — Exploring Journey of M. Ilodistor, spent of the Upper Congo Company, up tlit ijonmmi river and across country to the Lua- liiba, at Nvangwe. 1890.— .Tourney of Mr. Garrett in the Interior of Sierra Leone to the upper waters of tlio Nljrtr. 1890.— Journey of I)r. Fleck from the west- ern CdHst across the Kalibnri to Lake Ngauii. 1890-1891.— Italian possessions in tlie lied Sea united in the colony of Eritrea. 1890-1891. — Mission of Captain Lugard to Uganda and signature of a treaty bv its king iioknowU'ilging the supremacy of the British East Africa Company. l890--'59i.- -Exploration by M. Paul Crampel of the ceutra. region between the French ter ritiiries on tlie Congo and Lake Tchad, ending in the murder of 51. Crampel and several of his companions. 1890-1891. — .loumer of Mr. Sharpe from Mandala. in tlie Shire Highlands, to Garonganze, the empire founded by an African adventurer, M^hidi. In tlie Katanga copper country, be- tween Lake Moero and the Luapula river on the east, and tlic Lualaba on the west. 1890-1891.— Journey of Lieutenant Mizon from the Niger to the Congo. 1890-1891.— Journey of Captain Becker from Yaniliuva, on the Aruwimi, nortliuorthwest to the W.lle. 1890-1892.— Italian explorations in the So- mali countries by SIgnor Kobeeclii, Lieutenant Biuiili di V'esme, Prince Ruspoli, an i Captalus Boltego and Grixoni. 1890-1893.— Expedition of Dr. F uhlmann, with Eniiii Pasha, from Bagamoyo, via the Victoria Nyanza and the Albert Edward, to the plateau west of ♦he Albert Nranza. From tills point Dr Sluhimann n'turnci!, while Emln pur- sued his way, intending it is said, to reach Klb- onge, on the right bank of the Congo, south of Stanley Falls. He wa* murdered at Kinena, 150 miles northeast of KlboDge, by the order of an Arab chief. 1891.— Extension of the British Protectorate of Lagos over the neighboring districts of Addo, Igliessa, and Ilaro, which form the western boundary of Yoruba. 1891.- Treaty between Great Britain and Portugal defining their possessions; conceding to the former an interior extension of her South African dominion up to the bouthern boundary of the Congo Free State, and securing to the latter defined territories on the Lower Zambesi, the Lower Shire, and the Nyassa, as well as the large block of her possessions on the western coast 1891. — Convention between Portugal and the Congo Free State for the division of the dis- puted district of Lunda. 1891. — Convention of the Congo Free State with the Katanga Company, an international syndicate, giving the Company preferential rights over reputed mines in Katanga and Uriia, with a third of the public domain, provided it established an elTectlve occupation within three years. 1891. — French annexation of the Gold Coast between Lil":ria and the Grand Bassam, 1891.— Opening of tlie Koyal Trans-African Railway, in West Africa, from Loanda to Am- baca, 140 miles. 1801. — Survey of a railway route from the eastern coast to Victoria Lake by the Imperial British East Africa Company. 1891.— Exploration of the Jub River, in the Somali country, by Commander Duiidns. 1891. — Exploration by Captain Duudas. from the eastern coast, up the river Tana to Mount Kcnio. 1891. — Mr. Bent'8 exploration of the ruined cities of Mashonaland. 1891. — Journey of M. Maistrc from the Congo to tlie Shari. 1891. — Journeys of Captain Qallwey in the Benin country. West Africa. 1891. — Mission established by the Berlin Mis- sionary Society in the Konde country, at the northern end of Lake Nyassa. 1891-1893. — Incorporation of the African Lakes Company with the British South Africa Company. Organization of the administration of Northern Zamliesia and Nyassaland. 1891-1893,— Expedition of the Katanga Company, under Captain Stairs, from Bagamoyo to I^ke Tanganyika, thence through the coun- try at the head of the most southern affluents of the Congo, the Lualaba and the Luapula. 1801-1892.- Belgian expeditions under Cap- tain Bla and others to explore the southeastern portion of the Congo Basin, on behalf of the Katanga Company, resulting in the determina- tion of the fact that the Lukuga River is an outlet of Lake Tanganyika. 1891-1893. — Journey of Dr. James Johnston across the continent, from Benguela to tlie mouth of the Zambesi, through Bihe, Gangiiela, Barotse, the Kallhari Desert, Mashonaland, Manica, Gorongoza, Nyassa, and the Shire High- lands. 1891-1893.- Expedition of Mr. Joseph Thorn- =--.n, for ihf British South Africa Company, fn.m Kllimane or Qulllimane on the eastern coast tu Lake Bangweolo, I ! AFRICA. 1881-1889. 1891-1892.— Journey of Captain Montdl frcm the NigiT to Ijikf Tiliad aod to Tripoli. 1801-1802.— Kxploration liy Lieutenant Clial- tin of the river Lulu, anil the country betwi en the Aruwimi and the Mellc Makua Rivera, in the Coniro State. _ „ „ 1801-1893.— Joumcv of Pr. Oacar Baumnnn from Tanpt, on the eastern coast: passiiie to the south of Kilimanjaro, discovering two lakes l>e tween that mountain and the Victoria ^yan7.8. 1801-1804.— Kxpeiiition under the command ol Captain Van Kerckhoven and M. dc la Kethulle de Kvhove, fitted out by the Coneo Fne btaU', for tiie subjURation of the Arabs, the suppression of the slave trade, and the exploration of the country, throughout the region of the Welle or Ubanel Telle and to the Nile. up., i802.-Pecision of the Imperial British East Africa Company to withdraw from tganda. 189a.— Practical conquest of Dahomey by e ^^Soai-Joumev of M. Mer- in the Snlmri. i the sTnith of Wargla. ri'sultlnj, in a report favor- able to the construction of a railway to tap tne Ccntnd Sudan. . _, l8ga— French expedition under Captain Ulu- eer to explon' the south.Tn Sudan, and to act con- tointlv with British officials in determining the boundary between French and English poss<s- ^"'I'^j Journey of Mr. Pharpe from ihe Shlrfi River 10 Lake Moero and the T pper Luiipula. 1892-1893.— Construction of a line of tele- graph by the British South African Company, from Cape Colonv. through Mashonaland, to Fort Salisbury, with projected extension across the Zambesi and by the side of Lakes Nyassa and Tanganyika to Uijanda.— and ultimately down the valley of the Mle. 1802-1893.- French scientific mission, under M Dficle, from Cape Town to the sources of the 1892-1893.— Italian explorations, under Cap- tain &5ttego and Prince Ruspoli, In tiie upper basin of tiie River Jub. lg93._Brus8els Anilslavery Conference, rati- fied in its aetlim by tlie Powers. ,853._Ollldal mission of Sir Gerald Porter to Uganda, sent by the British Government to re- Bort as to the expediency of tlic withdrawal of •ritish authority from tliat countiy. l853._Scientiflc expedition of Mr. Scott-El- liot to Uganda. . „ „ ,853._Scientlflr expedition of Dr. Gregory, of the British Museum, from Mombassa, on tlie east- ern coast, througli Masailand to Mount Kcnia. j893._Joiiruey of Mr Biut to Aksii'- ' * bvs- siniii, the ancient capital and sacrei' Ethiopians. 1893-1894. — fiernein srientiflc Mouni Kilinian.i^ini, urder Drs.Lent and 1893-1894. — Expedition of Mr. Astor v... »nd Lieutenant von IlOlinel from Witu, on i. eastern coast, to the Jonibini Range and among the Rendilc. 1893-189* —Explorations of Baron von Uech- tritz and I)i. Pnss,irge on the Benue. 1893-1894.— Journey of Baron von Scheie from tlie eastern coast to Lake Nyassa, and thenec by a direct route to Kihsa. 1893-1894. — Journey of Count von GOtzen across the continent, from Dares-Salaam, on the Mstera coast, to the Loner Congo. AGELA. 1894.— Treaty between Great Britain and the Congo Free State, securing to the former a strip of land on the west side of the Nile between the Albert Nyanza and 10° north latitude, and to the latter the large Bahr-el-Ghazel region, west ward. This convention gave oflense to France, and that country Immediately exacted from the Congo Free State a treaty stipulating that the latter shall not occupy or exercise political influ- ence In a region which covers most of the terri- tory assigned to it by the treaty with Great Britain. . , , .^ 1894.— Franco-German Treaty.determlnlng the boundary line of tlie Camcroons, or Kamerun. ,894.— Treaty concluded by Captain Liigard, November 10, at Nikki, in Borgii, confirming the rights claimed by tlic lloyal Niger Company over Borgu, and placing that country under British protection. 1894.— Agreement between the British South Africa Company and the Government of Great Britain, signed November 24, 1894. transferring to the direct administration of the Company the Protectorate of Nyassaland, thereby extending Its domain to the south end of Lake Tangan- 1894.— Renewed war of France with thj Hovasof Madagascar. 1894.— Expedition of Dr. Donaldson Smith from the Somali coast, stoiijied and turned baek 1 by the Abvssinians, in December. 1894.— t'oiupleted cono.uest of Dahomey by the French; capture of the deposeil king. Janu- ary 2.) and his deportation to exili' in Martin- iiiue. Dec'ree of tlie French Government. June 2'2 directing the administrative organization of the "colonv of Dahonu'V and Dependencies." 1894.— (iccupation of Timbuctoo by a French force. 1894.— Journey of Count von OiUzen across the continent, from the eastern coast, through Ruanda and the Great Forest to and along the Lowa. an eastern trilmtary of the Congo. 1894.— Exploration of ihe Upper Congo and the LukuL'a l)v .Mr. R. Dorsey Mohun, American A"ent on Ihe Congo, and Dr. Hinde, 1894.— "<eientilic expedition of Mr. .oryndon from the Cape to the Zambesi and Lake Tan- ganyika. ,. , ., , 1894-1895.— War of the Italians in their colony of Eritrea with botli the Aliyssinians and tlie .Niahdists. Italian oeenpation of Kassala. 1895.— Franco-British a^'reement. signed Jan- uary 21. I'^y.'i. respecting the "Hinteriand" of Siena I.' (Mie, which secures to France the Upper Niser liusin. _ , . ■ i895.— Cimvention between Belgium and France signed Felirunry .'), recngnizipga right of irePmption on the part of the latter, with re ■rd to tiie Congo State, in case Belgium slioiilii 'ny time renounce the sovereignty which Leopold desires to transfer to iu AGADE. See Baiivi.om.v: The EariT (ClIAI,I)K.\N) MoNARrllT. AGAS. See Srr.i.iMF. Pokte. AGATHOCLES, The tyranny of. Sec SviiAdsF.: B. C. 317-SH9. AGE OF STONE. — AGE OF BRONZE, ic. Sir Stonk AiiK. AGELA.-AGELATAS.— The youths and young men of ancient Crete were publicly 26 AOELA. AGRI DECUMATES. trained and dtaciplloed In divisioni or rompanies, each of which was railed an Agcia, and its leader or director the Agelatas.— O. BchOmann, Antiq. of Oreeee : The State, pt. 3, eh. 2. ACEMA, The.— The royal escort of Alex- ander the Qreat. AGEN, Oriffin ot See Nitiobhioes. AGENDICOM OR AGEDINCUM. See Bekoweh. ACER PUBLICUS.— " Rome was always making fresh acquisitions of territory in her early history. . . . Large tracts of country be- came Roman land, the property of the Roman state, or public domain (ager publicus), as the Roniiins called it. The condition of this land, the use to which it was applied, and the dis- putes which it caused between the two orders at {{ome, are among the most curious and perplex- ing questions in Roman history. . , . That part of newly-acquired territory which was neither sold nor given remained public property, and it was occupied, according to the Roman term, by private persons, in whose hands it was a Pos- seaslo. Hyginus and Siculus Fh.ccus represent this occupation m being made without any order. Every Roman took what he could, and more than he could use profitably. . . . We should he more inclined to believe that this public land was occupied under some regula- tions, in order to prevent disputes; but if such regulations existed we know nothing about them. There was no survey made of the public land which was from time to time acquired, but llicrj were certainly general boundaries fixed for llie purpose of dcterndning wliat had become public property. The lands which w^cre sold and given were of necessity surveyed and fixed by boundaries. . . . There is no direct evidence that any payments to the state were originally made by the Possessors. It is certain, however, that at some early time such piiyments were made, or, at least, were due to tlio state." — G. Lon?, Decline of the Roman Ilepublie, eh. 11. AGGER. See C.^stra. AGGRAVIADOS, The. See Spain: A. D. 1814-1827. AGHA MOHAMMED KHAN, Shah of Pe.-sia, A. 1>. lT»."i-17'.»7. AGHLABITE DYNASTY. Sec >Lvu..me- TA.N ( o.NtjiEST AND Kmpire : A. I>. 715-7.M. AGHRIM, OR AUGHRIM, Battle of (A. D. i6gi). t<eolHEi.ANi>: A. 1). ICHO-lCOl. AGILULPHUS, King of the Lombards. A. 1). ."iOO-flie, AGINCOURT, Battle of (1415). See FiiAMK; A. D. Ul."!. AGINNUM.— Modern Agen. See Nitio- BniiiLs. AGNADEL, Battle of (1509). Sec Venice: » I). l.jOH-l.lOH. ^.ONATI.-AGNATIC, See Oens. Romas. AGNIERS, The. See Ameiucan Abobiui- NE8: Aoniers AGOGE, The.— The public discipline en- forced in ancient Sjmrta; the ordinances attri- buted to Lycurgus, for the training of the young and for the regulating of the lives of citizens. — O. SchOmann,~.4n(iy. of Greece : The State, pt. 3, ek. I. AGORA, The. — The market-place of an ancient Greek flly vas. also, llie centre of its puliiical life. " Like the gymnasium, and even earlier than this, it grew into architectural splendour with the l>>creasing culture of the Greeks. la maritime cities it generally lay near the sea ; in inland places at the foot of the hill which carried !he old feudal castle. Being the oldest part of the city, it naturally became the focus not only of commercial, but also of religious and political life. Here even in Homer's time the citizen* assembled in consultation, for which purpose it was supplied with seats; here were the oldest sanctuaries; hero wn.-i celebrated the first fes- tive games; here cen'.-"d the roads on which the intercommunication, both religious and commer- cial, with neighbouring cities and states was car- ried on; from here started the processions which continually passed between holy places of kin- dred origin, though locally separated. Although originally all public transactions were carried on in these market-places, special local arrange- ments for contracting public business soon became necessary In large cities. At Athens, for instance, the gently rising ground of the Philo- pappos hill, called Pnyx, touching the Agora, was used for political consultations, while most likely, about the time of the Pisistratides, the market of Kerameikos, the oldest seat of Attic industry (lying between tt-e foot of the Akropo- lis, the Areopagos anr" 'le hill of Theseus), became the agora pro '.. e., the centre of Athenian commerce. . The description by Vitruvius of an agora evidently refers to the splendid structures of post-Alexandrine times. According to him it was quadrangular in size [? shape] and surrounded by wide double colon- ades. The numerous columns carried architraves of common stone or of marble, and on the roofs of the porticoes were galleries for walking purposes. This, of course, does not apply to all market- places, even of later date ; but, upon the whole, the remaining specimens agree with the descrip- tion of Vitruvius."- E. Guhl and W. Koner, Life of the Oreekt and liomant, tr. by Iluefftr, pt. 1, »eet. 26. — In the Homeric time, the general assembly of freemen was called the Agora. — O. Grote, IIi»t. of Greece, pt. 1, eh. 20. AGR.£I, The. 8<?e Akahnwnians. AGRARIAN LAWS, Roman.—" Great mis- takes formerly prevailed on the nature of the Roman laws familiarly termed Agrarian. It w.is supposed that by these laws all land was declared common property, mid thai at certain intervals of time the state resumed possession and made a fresh distribution to all citizens, rich and poor. It is needless to make any remarks on the nature and cc isequences of such a law ; suireicnt it will be to say, what is now known to u 1, that at Rome such laws never existed, never were thought of. The lands whieli were to be distributed by Agrarian laws were not private property, but the property of the state. They were, originally, those public lands which had been the domain of the kings, and which were increased whenever any city or people was conquered by the Romans ; because it was an Italian practice to confiscate the lands of the conquered, in whole or in part." -II. G. Liddell, Hilt, of Rome. bk. 2, ch. 8.— See Ro.mk- B. 0. 376, and 3. C. 133-121. AGRI DECUMATES, The.—" Betwe. i the Rhine and the Upper Danube there intervtt.es a triangular tract of land, the apex of which ttHiclies the confines of Swii/.erlanii at Bas.. liiiis separating, as with an enormous wedge, the provinces of Gaul and Vindclicia, and pre- AGKI DECUMATE8. AIX-LA-CHAPELLE. tenting at its base no natural line of ilefcnce from one river to tlie oilier. Tliia tmrt was, however, occtipicd, for the most part, hy forests, and if it lirolie t!'c line of theUoniaa defeiires, it mi^lit at least lie con:,lJcreii impenotmlile to an enemy. Almniiimeil by tiie warlilic and preda- tory tribes of tiermanv, it was seized liy wander- Init imnilKnuits froniCJaul, many of lliem Uaman adventurers, lieforc wlioin tlic original inliablt- ants, the Jtareomanni, or men of the f rentier, seem to have retreated custwanl beyond the Ilercynian forest. Tlio intruders claimed or solieiled Ronmn protection, and ofTereil in return a triliule fri>m the pnxluee of the soil, whence tlie district itself came to be known by the title of tlie .\L'ri Dccuniates, or Titlicd I-and. It was not, however, otlicially connected witli any province of the Empire, nor was any attempt made to provide for its permanent security, till a period much later than tliat on whicli we are now engaged [the period of Augustua]." — C. Merivale, Jliiit. of the Rman*, rh. 38.— "AVur- tembiirg, Baden and Ilolienzollern coincide with the Agri llecuniatesof tlie Uoman writers." — R O. Latliam, Elhtuihou "f Euro}>c, eh. 8.— See, also. Al.KMAS.M, and SiEVi. AGRICOLA'S CAMPAIGNS IN BRI- TAIN. Sec HiitTALN: A. I). 78-84. AGRIGENTUM.— Acragas. or Agrigentum. one of the youngest of tlic lireclt colonies in Sicily, founded about B. C. 582 by tlic older col- cnv of Oela, Ix'cniiie one of tlie largest and most splcjiilid cities of tlie are, in the liflh century B ('., as is testilled bv Its ruins to this day. It was the scene of tlie notoric -anny of I'lialaiis, as well as that of '\'h igcn- tuui was destroyed In- the Carl' B. C. 4ll.'i, and rebuilt liy Tiiiioleun, b'. .vered its former Inipoflanee and gran .1 Cur- tins, llift. of (Iriiee, Ik. 4, eh. .. .•ee. also, rilAT.viiis, Bk.\7.kn Bri.I, of.— Agrigenti.m was destioyed bv the Carthagenians in 40(i B. ('. See Sicii.Y :' B. C. 4il9-4o.).— Hebnilt by Tinin- Icon, it was the scene of u gn.it deb at of tlio Cartliag) nians by the Itanaus, In UW B. C. S e Pl'.VK W.vn. TiiK Kiu«T. AGRIPPINA AND HER SON NERO. See lioMi;. A. II 47 .VI. wv\ -M <U AHMEO KHEL, Battle of (i88o\ f^ee Ari.iisxisTVN: A. 11 I><fl;i-1HM1. AIGINA. See.i;,;iN\, AIGOSPOTAMOI, Battle of. Sc fiiiiixi:; B C 40-> AIGUILLON, Siege of.— .\ notalile si' f e in the "Iluhdnd V.iirs' War," .V. I> UIH An English irarrisi-n under the faiiioiis kiiiL'lit. M' Walter ManiiT, held the gr.'at foilre-.s ,if Aiguil hin, near the conlbn'nee nf the (»;ironne anti the Lot, against a fiirmiilalile Kn la li army. — J. F-rolssart. ClirKtiirl,; r. I. Ik 1, '•/i. I'.'O. AIX, Origin of. SecSvivKs. AIX-LA-CHAPELLE: The Capital of Cha.lemagiie. — The favnrite nsidmee ainl I'tie of the two capitals iif ( harliinagne wus the i itv which the (!i rmaiis call .\arlii n and the I'ninli have named Alxla-rhapeUe " lie ravished the nuns of the ancient worM to restore the monu- mental arts. A new Home arose in the depllis of the forrsta of AuBtrasia — palaces, gates, bridges, baths, galleries, thi'aln-s. churches.— for Uie ereciion t>r Hiikh Uw tmthAUH lUid liii»rbh s >•! Italy were laid imder tribute, and workmen lum •WBcd trom all part* u( Eunipe. It wai ihcm that an extensive library was gathered, there that tlio school of the palace was made perma- nent, there that foreign envoys were pompouslv welcomed, there that the monarch perfecteil ha plans for the intrcHluction of Roman letters and tiie improvement of music." — P. Gmifi-'n, Uitt. of Friincf : Aurimt diinl. bk. 4, cA. 17. AIX-LA-CHAPELLE. Treaty of (A. D. 803). Sec Vkmce: a. 1). 697-810. AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, Treaty of (A. .O. 1668). Bee Netherlands (Uglland): A. I). 1008. AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, The Congreaa and Treaty which ended the War of the Austrian Succeision (1^48).— The War of tlie Austrian Succession, which ragid in Europe, and on the ocean, and in India and America, from 1710 to 1718 (see AfSTKn; A. D. 1718-1738, 1740- 1741, and after), was brought to an end in the latter year by a Conirrcss of all the belligerents which met at Ai.Kla-Cliatielle, in April, and which concluded its labors on the 18th of Octo- ber following. " The inlluencc of England and Holland . . . forceil the peace upon Austria and Sardinia, thougli both were bitterly aggrievcil by Its conditions. Frame agreed to restore every conquest she hail maile during tlio war, to oban- don the c;iusc of the Stuarts, and expel the Pre- tender from her soil ; to dinioliah. in accordance with earlier treaties, the fortiflcationsof Hunkirk on the side of the sea, while retaining tlio.s(? oa the side of the land, and to retire from tlic eon- quest witliciut uc luirihg any fresh territory or any )ieciiiiiary cunipensitinii. England in like manner restored the few cuiiiiuests she had made, and sulanltted to the somewhat hiiinilialing con- dition of sending hostages to Paris us a security fur the restoration of t.ii<eBret(m. . . . The dis- puted boundary lietween Canada and Nova Scutia, which had lacn a siiurce of constant difll- culty with prance, was left altogether undi lined. The .\ssiento treaty f<r traile with th(^ Spanish col. mica was conlifnied for the four years it bad s'ill to run; but no red compensation was I I't.iined for a war expenditure wliich la said 1 1 Iiave c.\cicded sixty fiair inillioiis, and which hid raised the funded and unfunded debt to inorc than seventy-i ight n.illiona. Of the other Powers, llolhiiid. IJenoa. and the little state of .Modena retained tin ir territory aalMfore the war, iinil lieiioa remained mistress of the Duchy of riii:ile, whiih had Isen cled to the king of Sardinia by the Treaty of Worms, and wlili h It had been a main oliject of bis later policy to secure. Austria olituincd a niognilion of the election of the Emperor, a crieral guarantee of tlie Pragmatic .Samtion. smI the restoration of everything she had lo^t In llic Xetlicflauds, but she gained no ailditlonal li rrltory. She was compelled to conlirm the cession of Bllesia and (ilatz to Prussia, to abandon her Italian con- i|iiests, and evi n to cide a eonsi.lerable part of her former Italian dominions. To the bitter indiuniilion of Maria Theresa, the DiicliUs of I'arnia. Plaeentia and Dua^iiUa pass».il to Don i'liillp of Spain, to revert, howe\er, to their f..rnicr possessors if Don Philip mounted tl.o Spnnlsh throne, or died will tniale Issue. The King (if Sa^lillla also obtained from Austria the territorial cessions enumi rated In the Tri«ly .f W.rii.i is.i iri!.-.: .\ D. \'i~X wiiri thft Imporlant enceptionsof I'lsii-ntla, wlilch pasanl I to Dun Phil!;, and of Piuale, wbicii nmalMd AIXLA-CHAPELLE ALABAMA with the Genoese. For the lost of thcie he otitatoed do cumpensatiuD. Fredcrirk [the Great, of Prussia] ol)tainril a general cuaraulee for the {lossi'ssion of his nuwly acqutren territory, aud a oiig list of old treaties was furiiially coufirmed. Thus small were the changts effected in Europe by BO much bloodshed and treachery, by nearly nine years of wasteful and desolating war. Tlio dcsi)rn of the dismemberment of Austria hiid failed, but no vexed questions had bten get at rest. . . . Of all the ambitious projects that had been conceived during the war. that of Frederick alone was sulistantially realized." — W. E. II. liCcUy', Ilitt. iifEng. 18<A Century, ch. 8.— "Thus ended the War of the Austrian succession. In Its origin and its motives one of the most wicked of all the many conflicts wliich ambition and perfidy have provoked in Europe, it excites a peculiarly mournful interest by the gross in- equality in the rewards and penalties which for- tune assigned to tiie leading aclors. Prussia, Spain and Sardinia were all endowed out of the estates of the house of llapsburg. But the electoral house of IJavaria, tlie most sincere and the most deserving of all the claimants to tliat vast inheritance, not only reiiived no increase of territory, but even nearly lost its own patrl- moni.tl possessions. . . . The most trying jirob- 1cm is still that offered by the misfortunes of the Queen of Hungary [Maria Tlicnsa]. . . . Tlie verdict of history, as expressed by the public opinion, and by the vast majority of writers, in everv country except Prussia, upholds the justfce of the queen's cause and condemns the coalillon that was formed against her." — II. Tuttle, nut. ofPnima, l"4.V17.")n. rh. 3. Also in W. Ilussell, Ilitt. of Mitlrrn Kurojif. It. 2, l(tltr SO.— \V. I'oxe, Iliit. of the Ihunt. of Au$lna, eh. 108 (r. 3V— See, also, New Eno- land: a. D. 1745-1TI'< AIZNADIN, BMtle of (A. D. 634). Sec Maiiiimi'.tan t'osiji est : A. 1). 6:tL'-fla». AKARNANIAN LEAGUE, The.— "Uf tlic Akurnanian Leugm'. formed by one of the hast important, but ut the same time one of tlie most estimable peoples In Greece . . . our knowl- edge Is only fruginintary. The 1m iindariis I'f Akarnuidu Huetualed, but we always find the people snoken of as • politii al whole. . . . Thui'vdiiles speaks, by Implleatii'n nt hast, of the Akarnaniun League as an institution of old staniling in his time. The Akarnanians hud, in earlv times, (sTupied the hill of (Hpui as a place for judicial pr.wiediiigs eommrm to the whole na*; n. Thus ilie HU|irenie court of the Akar- nanian I'ninn held its sittings, not in a town, but In a mountain fortress Hut In Thurydlilcs' own time Stratos had attained Its position as the griatcst city of Akarnania, and probably the federal assemlilies were already hehl there. . . . Of the constitution of the League we know but little. Ambassadors were sint by the federal Ixsly, and prolmbly. ]nst as in' the Aihaian I^'atue. it wo\ild brive b«'en held to l>e a bn'ach of the frdeml lie if any single city had entered on diplomatic Inlenourse with other powers As in Al hala, too. then' stooil al the liend of the I^'ague a Genernl with high aiilbo'lly. . . , The existence of eolli-s lifurltitf tbi* nanie* of tha whole Akarnanlan nallon shows that then- was unity enough to ailnill of a federal ei.limge, though coins of particular cities also (Hciir."— E. A. Freeman, But. of Federal Gout., eh. •-, trt. \. AKARNANIANS ( AumaaiM*).-The Akarnanians formed "a link of transition" between tlie ancient Greeks aud their barbarous or non-Hellenic neighbours in the Epirus aud beyond. " Tliev occupied 'b erritory between the river AcheloQs, the Ionian sea and the Ambrakiau gulf: they were Greeks and ailniitted as such to contend at the Panllellenic games, yet thejr were alao closely connected with the Amuhilocht and Agra:!, who were not Greeks. In :"!iners, sentiments and intelli- gence, f' • w.. ; )i;-.;." Hellenic and half-Epiidtic. — liki ' ' .Kloliaiis !iiul >' e Ozolian Lokrians. Even .Mvn tt) the time 1 rhncydides, these nation wer .vjbdi\ iiied ' o numerous petty coiinu lii" .. lived in unf .titieii villages, were freque '' .' .1 Mie habit of 1 undering each other, and ne , -i li; <•■' tiiin selves to be unarmeii. . . . Notwithstamiuis !< s statu of disunion and Insecurilv, however, the Akarnanians main- tained a loose political league among themselves. . , . The Akarnanians appear to have pmduced many prophets. They traced up their mythical ancestrv, us well as that of their neighbours the Amphilochians, to the nio.st renowned prophetic familv among the Gret ian heroes, — Amphiaraiis, with his sons Alkmu'on and Ampiloehus: Akar- nan, the eponymous hero of the nation, and otiier eponymous heroes of the separate towns, w ere suppost-d to be the sons of Alliinu'on. They are spokeu of, together with the -Etolians, as mere rude shepherds, by the lyric piH't Alkiiian. and so they seem to liave Continued with lit'le alleration until the beginning of the Pelopon- nesian war, when we hear of them, for the first tline, as allies of Atliens and as bitter enemici of tlio Corinthian colonies on their coast. The co;.laet of thost- cohmies, however, and the large spread of Akurnanian accessible ci>ast, could not fail to priKluce some effect in soeiall/.ini; and Im- pmving the people. And it is prolialile that tliis effect would have Iwen more smsibly fell, had not the Akarnanians been kept back by the fatal neigbbuurhiMHlof the .Etollans, with whom they were in perpetual feud, — a people the most unprini ipled and unimprovable of all who Imre the Hellenic name, and whose habitual fnilhless- ness stiHsl in marked contrast wiili the rectitude and steadfastness of the Akarnanian character." — (!, Grote, Jlitl. ofUrffV. ;i(. 1>. eh. U, AKBAR (called The Create Moghul Emperor or Padiichah of India, A. I). IbM- lOo.'i AKHALZIKH, Sieg:e and capture of (iSaS). SeeTl llks; A. I >. l^Jl! ISJK AKKAD.-AKKADIANS. S.-e IUiiyi.oria. PnlMlllvl'; also, SkMITKS. AKKARON. bee Piiilistinm. AKROKERAUNIAN PROMONTOkY. See KollKVIl\. ALABAMA : The Aboriginal Inhabitant!. See Amkhican Auoiiioinks: ArALACUKa; Ml SKIKMIKK FaMII.V: t'llKHOKKFS. A. D. 1539-1543.— Traveried by Hernaudo de Soto. See ri.iuiiiu; A D, IV,'"* VAl A. D. ttaq. Embraced in the Carolina frant to Sir Robert Heath, Sii- AMKnuA: II. liiao A. O. 1M3.— Embraced In the Carolina Srant to Monk, Shaftesbury, and otheri. ^e« OHTII ( Alioi.l.w: A 1). lIHii^Itt;). 2J) ALABAMA. ALABAMA CLAIMS. P A. D. 1702-1711.— French occupation and first lettlcmeat.— The founding of Mobile. lS<rI,.>risiAX\; A. 1>. l(i9S-171\;. A. D. 1732.— Mostly embraced in the new province of Georgia. SivC'iE<iH(Ma: A. 1'. 17;!-- 173'J. A. D. 1763.— Cession and delivery to Great Britain.— Partly embraced in West Florida. Si' Sim :n Yi-.aus' Wau; iiiiil Fiiiuiiia: \. I>. Klilt; iin.l NiHiTiiWKsT Tkhkitohv: A. 1>. 17t!!. A. D. 1779-1781.— Reconquest of West Florida by the Spaniards. So Fi .iuida: .V. 1>. 177!I-17H1. A. D. 1783.— Mostly covered by the English cession to the United States. Sc IMted States OK Am. : .\. 1>. 178;! (Si i-tkmhkh). A. D. 1783-1787.— Partly in dispute with Spain. Scr Ki.okida: A. 1). 17f;)-17«7. A. D. 1798-1804.— All but the West Florida District embraced in Mississippi Territory. SioMiswissiiTi: A. I). 179H-1K(I». A. D. 1803.— Portion acquired by the Louis- iana purchase. Sci'LdllsIANA: A. r>. 171M-1WW. A. D. 1813.— Possession of Mobile and West Florida taken from the Spaniards. Set- Fu>iiiii\: A. 1). 1H10-Isi;f. A. D. 1813-1814.— The Creek War. So I'.MTKU Statkh or Am.: A. I). lS13-lvSU (.Vnii ST— Afuii.V A. D. 1817-1819.— Organized as a Territory. —Constituted a State, and admitted to the Union.—" Ity iiti m t nf ('luicnss iImIciI Mim li 1, 1X17, Sli.ssissi'|i]ii'i"iTntiirv wa.srliviilcd. Aix'ilicr art. iHMriiiK llu' ilatc MiiiVli it, IliiriiiftiT, nrpui- izcil till' wcsti 111 Ifi'aslini) purlinii into 11 Tini tiirv. til !»' kiic'«ii Its Aliiliuiiui, uiul with ilic bDi'indiirii'S lis tliiV imw exist. . . . lly 11:1 nrt «p|iinvnl .Man li 'J,' 1><1!), ciinpnss aiitlKiriziil tin' Inliahittiiils <if till' TirriKiry of Alahaiiiii to form a stall' I'liiisliluliiiii. 'mill that said TiTTilnry, wlii'ii fiirincil Into 11 Stair, shall W uilmitlnl Into llic I'liioii upon till' siiiiii,' fiKitiii'.' us llir oriiriiial Btnlrs.' . . . Till" joint rcsolulion of €oii:;n>.s ailinitthiK Alaliaiim into the rnioii was approvi il by I'n'siili'iit Monns', DiTiniUr 11, isll*."— \V. B'ri'wir, Alii!"!'!!!!, cA. .^. A. D. i86x (January).— Seer on from the Union. S <• I'NiTKii St.vtks ok .\ >i. : A. D. INUl (Jamaiiv— Vkuihahvi. A. D. i86a.— General Mitchell's Expedition. 8<'c Tnitki) Statks OK Am. : A. 1». INOa (AlMiii. — May: Ai.aham^). A. D. 1864 ( August 1.— The Battle of Mobile Bay.— Capture ofConfederste forts and flert. 8pi' iNITKIiSiATESoKAM. : A. I). ls()l(.\i i.rsT; Al.AIUMA). A. D. 1865 (March— April. .-The Fall of If obile.— Wilson's Raid,— End of the Rebel- lion, tti'i' Initkh Htaiks ok Am.: A. 1). IXOrt (Ai'llll.— Mavi A. D. 1865-1868. — Reconstruction. Sv Unitkii Stvtes ok Am.: A. D. IS05 (May— Jui-Y), to 1»«.'*-1M70. ALABAMA CLAIMS. The: A. D. i86i- It6a. — In their Origin,— The Earlier Con- (idcrate cruisers.— Precursors of the Ala- bama.— The riiniinlHsioiiiii^ of privati'crs, himI of iiiori' otilriully coiniiiiimUHl rriiist'rs. In llii' Amcricnn ilvil war. by the gmirniiK'nt of ihr BiMiftii'iu CouFitifim >, *ii*i» i«mili I'rtiiy ill tin pM^ri'M of tli» inovi'im'iil of nlnll|on. piir •tuuit to a priM'liiiimlioii intiird liy J> tTirwiu Davis on the 17th of April. tSfit, "Ikfim'thc ilosi' of July, IMlll, more than 20 of those ilejire ilalors were" .illoat. anil hail eaptiireil iiiillioiiu of property lielongini; to Anieriianeilizens. 'The most fornii<liil>le ami notorious of tlie se;i-(.'()ing slii|isof this clianuter, were the Nashville, (up- lain U. 11. I'eKrim, a Virginian, who liuil nliuii- iloueil Ills tlaj;. uiiil the Sumter [a regularly eommissiimeil war ves.s<l]. Captain Haph.ul Semines, The former was a fiiilewlieel steamer, eurrieil a rri'w of elKlitv ineii, anil was armed with two long 12pouniler rilleil caiinon. Her eareer was short, but quite siii le.ssful. She was liimlly ilesiniycil bv the Monlank, Captain Wor- den, "in the Ugeeeliee Uiver, The e:iner of the Sumter, wliieli had Ihiii a New Orleans and Havana paekel sti':iiiier naiiieil Muri|iiis de IIu- liana, was also short, lint ininh inoixMietive and destruelive. She li:iil a eiew of sivtyllvc men and Iwenly-flve iii:iriiii's, and w:is heavily aniiiil. She Mn lli'e liloi kade at the inoiiih of the Mi.sais- sippl Uiver on theaiMh of .Iiine, ami was pur- sued some di.stanec liy the Hnsiklyn. She rau amoii); the West India islands and on the .Sp:iiiish Slain, and soon made prizes of many vessi'la lieirinj; the .\meriean Haft. She was every- when- rieeived in Hriti.sh Colonial ports with preat f;ivor, and wiis allonled every faeilily for her piratieal openitiims. She lieeame llie terror of tlie Ameriian mereliunt wrviir, and every- wlieri' eluded National vessels of war sint nut III pursuit of her. At Uiitsth she eroswd the iH-eaii, and at llieelose of IWUl was eoiiipilled to si'i'k shelter miller Itritish gunsatCJiliraltar. wlieri' she w:is w;ili lied liy the Tiise:iroia. F.aily in the year tSdJ she w:is sol'l, and thus ended her piniiieal eareer. Fneouraj,'i'il by the pniitieal frii ml.shiji of the Hiilidi eviiiiid" for llii^e cor- sairs, Hiiil the Biilistautial aid liny Were n 1 living from llrilish siilijiets in various ways. e«pi 1 ially tade riiiini rs. onspiratoi^ de- ' fTiiiids s.ime tliMuvh Idmkaih' riiiini rs, the termiiieil to piisure from tlio powerful pir.ilieal eraft, and ni:idi arraiiL'inn uts for the pureliase and eonsirm li'iii of vessil.for that piir|Mise. Mr. Ijiird. a .'•1 laiildi'r at Liver- pisil iiiid memlK'r of the ltiiu>n I'arliaiiieii!. was the larpst eonlraelor in the Imsiness. ami, in de- flaiiee of every obstacle, succieded in gelling pirate ships to'sea. The first of these ships that went to wa was the Uretii. osteimibly built for a houw in Palermo. Sicily, Mr. Adams, the Amirieau minister In I,<)iiilon, was so well satis- tied from information n'celTeil that she was de- signed for the t'onfederntes, that he called tlie attention of the Itrilishgovenunent to the matter Ml early as the IHth of Kehruary. 1n(12. Hut nothing" elTeetive was done, anil she wiw com pleteil and allowisl to depart from British waters. She went tlrsl to Niuwau, and ou the 4ih of S'p- temlier siidileiily ap|M'areil off Molille harlwr, llyiiii; the tlritisii Hag and pennants. The liliK'k- adiiig si|iimlrou there was iu charge of Com- nuinderlii-orge II. Pr<'lile, whohad lieenspiTially Inslrneted not to give ottense to fori'ign Dalious xvliile ( nfoning the bhskade. lie believed the Onto to Ih> a British vessel, and while delilsTat- iiig a few minutes as t«i what he should do, she imssiHl out of range of his gius, and enlensi the Lirlsir with a rich fn'ight. For his M-eniing reiiiissni'M Commander I'nhle was suiiiiiiarlly lii-lllinneli frulll lliu M>rtl'" WUtloiil B 1,1 lir- ing — an act which siihM'<|uent rTrnIs Mriiu'd to show was cruel Injiistkt', lutein Di-ienibtC SO i .iij ALABAMA CLAIMS. ALABAMA CLAIMS. the Oreto cscapcfl from Jlobilc, fully armed for fi plrntlciil rniise, uidcr the coininuii<l •>! John Newliiml Mafl";!. . . . The name of lln' Onion as rhaiiired to tli;it of Floriihi." — B. J. Lossiii);, J-tilrl lUiok of the Cii-il Will; r. 2, ch. 21. —The fate of the Florida is rclaleil below— A. I). 1882- l'<6">. — U. Semines, Mmu/irt of Sen irt Afloat, ch. i)-:n. Also TN J. Davis, liiw ami Full of the Con- fulfrttte (roll rnmf lit. ch. ;j<>-;U (r. 2). A. D. 1862-1864. — The Alabama, her career and her fate. — "The A!abaniit [\\u: Mcmid cruisiT built in Knpland for the C oiifedemtes) ... is thus deserilx (1 liy Semmes, h( r eom- mander; " '10 was of alK)Ut 9<M) tons liiirden, 2:10 fcit in .rijyth, !i2 feet in breadth, 2(1 feet in d(|>lli, and drew, when provisioned nnil roaUd fir cruiM', 13 fiet of water. She was barken- line ii;.'Ked, with lonjf lower musts, whieh enableil hir to earry larfro fon^ and oft sails, as jibs and try-siiils. . . . ller engine was of 3(iO hnr.«e power, and she had attached an agiparutus for ro^den^ing from the va]M)r of sia-water all the fresh w.iter that her crew might require. . .. Ilerarnianienttonsi.itedof eight guns.'. . . The Alabama was built and, from the outset, »ns 'inleniled for a Confederate vessel of war.' The eontract for her eonstruetion was 'signed by ("apt.iin Ilullock on the one part and Mes-srs. Laird on the other'. . . On the l.")lli of May fll ■■ 'J ! hew.is launched under the name of the ilK). 'ill r odleers were in Lngland nwuitiug her foinplilion, and were paid their salaries ■ monthly, aliout the first of the month, at Fraser, Trenliolm A Co.'s cilfiee in l.iverpiKil.' The pur- pose for which this vessel was Ixing eonstruetiKl was notorious in Liverpool. Before sln! was hun< lied she became an object of suspicion with i:ie Consul of the I'niteil htales at that port, and the was the subject of constant com>sponclenec nn his part with his (toverinnent and with Mr. Adams. . . Early In thi' history of tliis cniiscr the point was taken by the liritish authorities — a point maintained throughout the struggle — that they would originate nothing themselves fur the maintenance and performance of their International duties, and that they would listen to no representations from the ottlcials of the United (states which did not furnish technical CTld<ucc f' r a criminal prosecution under the Funigu Lnlistmcnt Act. ... At last Mr. I)u<l- ley Ithe Cimsul of the Vnllt'd States at L1v<t- pool I succei'ded In finding the desired proof. On the 21st day of July, he laiil it la the form of aflldaiits lAfore the Collector at MveriKxil In compliance with the lutlmatlons which .Mr. Adams hiul received frrim Earl Itussell. These affidavits were on tlie same day iransmiltpil by the Coll' .'tor to the Ikiardof Customs at London, with a re(|ueBt for liistruelions by telegraph, as the ship apiieared tu be ready for' sea and might leave any hour. . , . It . . . appears that not- withstanding this official Information from the Colledor. the pa|>ers were nut considered by the law advisers until the 2Htli, and that the cose appeared to Ihein to be so clear that they gave their advice upon It that evening. Under these cireuiustaucei, the delay of fight days after the Slst in the order for the ilrtentloo of the vessel was. in the opinion of tlie Unlte<l Htnli'S, grots ceg!U-urrf-f> oti the jart vf !frf Majrtiy'a Guvrre- ment On the SSth the HwreUry of the Com- mission of the Cuitonu recalvetl • telegram from Livcrpwd saying that ' the vessel 290 came out of (Ux'k Inst night, and left the |M)rt this morn inc." . . . After leaving the dock she 'pro- ceeded slowly down the Mersey.' Both the Ijiinls were on board and also "BuIIiK^k. . . . The 290 slowly steamed on to Mwlfni Hay, on the coast of Anglesey, where she renialned 'all that night, all the next day, and the next iiiKlit.' No elTort w lis made to seize her. . . . When the Alabama left Moelfra Hay her crew nuinbi nd about IK) men. She ran part way down the Iri-.li Clianncl, then round the north coast of Ireland, only stopping near tlie Giant's Causeway. She then made for Terccira, one of the Azores, which she reached on the lOtb of August. On 18th of August, while she was at Terceira, a sail was observeil making for the am borage. It proved to be the 'Agrippinu of Lonilon, Cap- tain Met^ueen, having on iKiunl six guns, with ammunition, coals, stores. Ac, for the Alubamu.' Preparations were immeiliately made to transfer this important cargo. On theaftimoon of the 20th, while employed discharging the bark, the screw-steamer Bahama, Captain Tessier (the same that had taken the annament to the Florida, whose insurgent ownership and character were well known in Liverpool), arrived, 'having on board Commander Raphael beinmes and olncen of the Confederate States steamer Sumter.' There were also taken from this steamer two 38- pounders and some stores, whieh (Miiipied al.' the remainder of that day and a part of the next The 22d and 23<1 of August were taken up in transferring coal from the Agrippina to the Alabama. It was not until Sunduy (the 24th) that the Insurgents' Hag was hoisteil. HulliKk and thu.se who were not going in the 290 went back to the Bahama, and the Alabama, now first kuown under that name, went olf with '2flolll- ccrsand H.'imen.'" — The Cwf oftht I'hitrd Sl.,te* ttfore the Tribunal of Arbitration tit Otttern (42rf Omij.. H Sta., Senate i>. //..<•.. AV-. ai, pp. 14{J-ri).— The Alabama "arrived at I'orto I'raya on the 19tb August. Shortly thereafter Capt. Ituphael Semmes assumed commund. Hoisting the Confederate flag, she crui.sed and cai>' everal vessels ill the vl<'inity of Flons. C. the westwaiil, and making several "a- approached viihln 2(X)inlles of Ne lence going soutliwanl, arrlveil, on the) ember, at I'ort Royal, .Martiiiii|iie. On ti.u night ofthelOtli she es"rapi'd from the bi'Tliour and the Federal steamer Sun Jacinto, and on the 20th November was at Blani|uilla. On the 7th Decemlier she ciipl'iii'd the steamer Ariel In the passage between Cuba and St. Domingo. On January llth. IHtM. she sunk the Kederii! giinlwat Hatte'nis oIT (ialveston, and on the Slitli arrived at Jamaica. Cruising to the eastward, and making many captures, she arrived on the 10th April, 11 1 Fernando de Noi-onha, and on the llth .Muv at Biilila, wherv, on the lUth, she was Joineil Vy ihi' Confitlerata steam r (ieorgia. Cruising near the line, tlirnce southKud lowanis the Cape of noi«| Hope, numerous capture* were made On the '20tb July she anchored in Saldanha Bay, Kouib Africa, and near there on the •tth August, was Joined by the Confederate bark Tuscaloosa, Com mander Low. In BepteinlHr, IN418, she was at ^i. J^iinon'a Bay, aiiu in ih;t::ln-r wx'* in the Straits of Sunda, ami up to January SO, 18M, cruised In tJio Bay of Bengal an<l tIcIuUjt, tUV J 31 jiMi ALABAMA. CLAIMS. log Singapore, and making a number of very valuable captun^s, including the Ilishlandcr, Sonora, etc. Fr»m tUis point she cniisod on her homcwiird tmek via Caiie of G'«iJ Hope, cap- turing the bark Tycoon and ship Uoi'kingliam. and arrived nt Cherbourg, Fn»ncc, in Juue, 1B04, where -he repaired. A Federal steamer, the Kiiin.';rge, was lying off tlie harbour. Capt. Scnines might eiisily have cvmled this enemy; the business of his ves.sel was tliat of a privateer; an'l her value to the Confederacy wa.s out of all comparison with a single vessel of the enemy. . . . Uut Capt. Semmcs had been twitted with the name of 'pinite;' and he was easily per- suadeil to attempt an fclat for the Southern Confcderaov by a naval fight within sight of the French con'st, Vliich contest, it wns cilculated, would prove the Alal>ama a lugitimiito war vcs- •cl, and give such an exliibitioii of Confederate Ijelllgerency as possibly to revive the question of ' recognition in i'liris and London. These were the Bicret motives of the gratuitous fight with which Capt. Semmes obliged the enemy off the port of Cherbourg. The Alabama car- ried one 7-inch Blakily rifled gun, one 8-Inch amooth-lM're pivot gun, and f.i.\ Sipoumlirs, amoothbore. in broadside; the Kears;ir;;e carried four broadside Si-pounders, two Ulnch and one 88 pound ritte. The two veascls were thus about opml in match and armament; and their tonnage wai about the same." — K. A. I'ollar.l, Thf. Lout C.iim; p. 549.— Captain Winslow, com- manding the I'nited States Steamer Kearsirf^e, in a report to tlie Seiretary of the Navv written on the afternoon of the day of his battle with the Alabniii.i, June 19, 1«64, saiil: "I have the honor to inbrm the department that the dnv iubseipicnt to tlie arrival of the Kearsarge oil this pnri, on the 24th [I4th] Instant, I received • note from Caplalu Semmes, begging that the Keursiiri;e wmiM not depart, as he inleucled to fight h( r, and would delay her but a day or two. Adoriling to this notice, the \lal)ania left the i>ort nf I lierbourg this met : t atwut half pa.st iiin.' ocl k k. At twenty nntiutis past ten A. M.. we iliseovered her stiirlng towards ui. Kenritig tin- (pieKlhrn of iurlsilluion might •rise, we steatmd to sia until adUiatieeof si.x or seven mills M IS attained fotu the Cherbourg break-«iitcT. win a we rounded lo and com- menied si.aniing fur the Alabama. As we •ppnmcli' d b. r, within about l.'Jtl yanls, she •penid lir.', \M' niching t'vo or tliicc br'ad- »f<li-H liefure a slmt was n'tiirnril. 'riui action continucil, the n spirtivo Btcaniirs making a cir- cle loiind aiul round at a distance of abiMit 9 yards from each other. At the evplratlon of an Lour the Ahibama struck, going down In abotit twenty miiiiiti H afterward, carrying many per. inns with liir." In a njiort two days later, Catitain Win-low gave tlie following particulars: "Toward the < lose of the acti.in bitwecn the Alabama an I IliU vessel, all av.iilitje sail was made on tlic former for the purpose of .ii;aln reach- ing Chirli.'UiL'. When the olijeet w,,s ajipariiit, the Ki ar>ari'e was steered aero».s t'le liow of the AlHbania for a raking Hre; Imt 1 1 fore nai hliig this point ilie Alabama ktnnU. rticerlala whether ( iiptain Semmes was not u big some rus'-. tile i\e.ilr.<o Lli' WrtW hloj.lMii. ii W iS S^-cn, iJiortly afterward, that the Alaliama "as lowir- Ing htr lii>ats. an. I an ollb er I'liii' nl di -si Ic in one of tliciii to say that liny had » irrenderod, ALABAMA CLAQU and were fast sinking, and begging tliat kMl^ would be despatehi'd immediately for saving life. The two boats not disableil were at once lowered, and as ii was apparent the Alaliama was si-ttling, tliis olfleer was permitU'd to leave in his boat to aIT,)rd assistance. An English y.acht, tlie Deerli lund, had approached near the Kcarsarpo at t lis time, when I hailed and begged tl",- commander to run down to the Alabama, as she was fast sinking, and we had but two boats, and assist in picking up tiio men. He answered afBrmativcly, and steamed toward the Alabama, but the latter sank almost immediately. Tlie Deerhound, however, sent her boats and was actively engaged, aided ' y several others wlilch had come from sin,re. Thesi! boats were busy in bringing tlie woumlcd and others to the Kearsarge; whom we were trying to make as comfortai>lc as possible, when it was reported to me that the Deerhound was moving olT. I could not believe (hat the com- mander of that vessel could be guilty of so dis- graceful an at't as taking our priscmers off, and therefore t<xik no means to prevent it, but con- tinued to keep our boats at work rescuing the men in the water. I am sorry to sav that I was nii-staken. The Dierhoiind made olT with Captain Semmes anil others, and also the very olllcer who had come on board to siirrender."— In a still later report Captain V'i"sl"w gave the following facts: "The lire of the Ahibama, although it is stated she discharged 3Ttl or more shell and shot, was not of serious ilain:ise to the Kearsarge. Some i:) or 14 of these hail t:iken effect in and abont the hull, and 10 or 17 alwrnt the masts and ri;,'!,'lng. The e;isiialtlcs were small, only three persons having been wounded. . , . The tire uf the Kearsarge, although only 173 proiectlles had Ix en discharged, according to t'l iirlsonera' accounts, was lerrillc. One shot Bione had killed and wounihd 18 men, and di.sablcd a gun. Another had entered the coal- bunkers, exploding, and completely blixkiug up the engine room; and Capt;ilu Scmniis states that shot and bIicII had taken efTeet in the sidei of his vessel, tearing large holes by explosion, and his men were everywiiere knocked down."— IkMlinn tttwnl, r. 9, ;>;). a21-22.V Ai.KO IN J. It. Soley, The IVK-kmU and tht ■iiiirrt (Tfitt J\'<'i-y III l/ii- Ciril ll'nr, r. I), ch. 7. —,1. a. S ilev, J Mel. Kell and J. .M. Hrowne, T/ie I'y/iili'niti! CniiiuTi lUiittUt and Lrmlerr, T. 3). -U. Semmes, .V, nwim of S rrict Ajloat, e\. iD-IJ— ,1. 1) IlnllH-k. .SirriJ Sirrict of t}l» I'onfi'liTiili' ,<t,it,ii in h'lirojif, r. 1, cA. 5. A. D. 1862-1865.— Other Confederate crui*- en.— "A B<-ori' of othiT Confederate . nilsjT* riameii the was, to prey upon I'nltcd Slate* commerce, but none of them beeame unite so famous as till' Siiinti rand the Alabama. 1 liey In- cluded tlie Slicnaniloah. wlili h made :W ea| it iires, tlie Florl la. whii li mail.- 'M, the Taliah:is.see, wlileli inaili 27. the T;ii onv, whieh male l."i, and the Ceorgia, wliiih niade'lO. Tile Florid:, waa ci;itnrid In the hailior of Balila, llr:i/il, in OiiiilKr. INill, by a I'liiied Stales man of war |tlie \Vbi liusitt. I'l .mun.liT Collins], in violation of tlie niMitr.llly of thi' port. For this tlio rnited States (lovenmiiiit apologized to llmill a;id r.nirnii the r t.iri::-n > f the Ki-iri-ia in the li:irl)or when' she w:is e;ip;iirid. lint In Hamp- ton Uoads she met with an iici Idciit and xaiik. If was generally bilie veil that the ; ppamit iicci- ALABAMA CLAIHa dent was contrived with the connivance, If not by direct order, of the QovemmenL Stost of these cruisers were built in Britir'i shipyards."— R Johnson, SImrt Ilitt. of tlie ]i tr of Seeemon eh. 24.— Tno last of the destroyers of Amcriran commerce, the Shenandoah, was a British mrrcliant ship- the 8ca King- built for the Bombay trade, but purchased by the Confederate agent, Captahi Bullock, armed with six guns, and com- missioned (October, 1865) under her new name. In June, 1865, tiie Shenandoah, after a voyage to Australia, in the course of which she destroycil a dozen merchant ships, made her appearance in the Northern Sea, near Behrine Strait, where she fell in with the New Bedford whaling fleet. "In the course of one week, from the 21st to the 28th, twenty-flve whalers were captured, of which four were ransomed, a-d the remaining 21 were burned. T loss on these 21 whalers was estimated at up isof $3,000,000, and con- sidering that it occurred . . . two months after the Confederacy had virtually passed out of ex- istence, it may be characterized as the most use- less act of hostility that occurred during the whole war." The captain of the Shenundoali destroyed IS veaseli even after he had news of ;!ip fall of Richmond. In August he surrendered his vessel to the British government, wliieh delivered her to the United States.— J. K. Soley, The C'liiftihrate Cniiiier» (Bntlkii uml lyi'lerii. r 4) Fur st«tlstic8 of the totjil lossc.i iiitlieted liv Ilie eliven Confcileratc cruisers for which (Jreiit Britain was held responsible, see L'vited Statfs of Am. : 1865 (Mav). A. D. 1862-1860.— Definition of the indemnity claims of the United States against Great Britain.— First stages of the Negotiation. — The rejected Johnson-Clarendon Treaty. —"A review of the history of ilio negotiutions between the two Oovemments prior to the turre- spondenee lietwwn Sir Edward Thomson and Mr Fish, will show . . . what was Intended by these wonis, -gencrically known as the Alaliiinia ( laims, use<i on each side In that cnrrespoii.lenee The correfinondencc between the two Oovernients was opened by .Mr. Adams on the 20th of Xovein- ber,18fl'J (less thanfoiirmorthsiiftertlicoseapi'of the Alabama), in a note to Earl Itiussell, written under instrurtlons from the Oovernnien' of tlie Lnltcd States. In this note Mr. Adams suli- mitted evidence of the acts of <:.e Alabauii and stated; 'I have the honor to Inform Your I.cird- ship of the directions which I have rioeived from my (Jovernment to solicit rtilress fi.r the national and private In'uries thus «ii8laine<I ' I^in. Uiissdl met ihis notice on the l»th of i)eceTiber, 1862, by a denial of any liability for any injuries g' wing out of the acts of the Ala- hama. ... As new losses from time to time were sufle.ed bv Indlvl.luals during the war Uiey were brought to the notice of Her Malestyi UovermiH nt and were l.xlged with the n.itidmil and in.livuliml claims already pn-fernnl- but arguineiilalive discussion on the is.iue« involved was by ei.tmiion coiis.iit deferred. . . . The fact that the first claim prefero'd grew out of the a<'is of il,e Alabama explains how it was tliat all the claims growing out of the acts <>t all Uie vessds ,ume to Ui •gemrlcallv .^pril. isfl,,, iim „.|,r l,^,|n^, virtimllv over, .Mr AUanis n'newed the discussion. He transmitted to Uti HusitU an offlciitl report ihowiug the it 33 ALABAMA CLAUB. number and tonnage of American vessels trans- ferred to the_ British flag during the war. He said: 'The United States commerce is rapidly vanishing from Uie face of the ocean, and that of Ureat Britain is multiplying in nearly the same rat o. •This process is going on by reason of the action of British subjects la cooperation with emissaries of the insurgents, who have supplied from the ports of Her Slajesty's Kingdom all the materials, such as vessels, armament, supplies, and men, inJispensable to the effective prosecu- tion of thif result on the ocean.' . . . He stated that ho 'vas under the painful necessity of announctag that his Government cannot avoid entailing upon the Government of Great Britain the responsibility for this damage.' Lord Rus- sell . . . said in reply, "I can never admit that the duties of Great Britain toward the United htatcs are to be measured by the losses which the trade and commerce of the United States have BiisUlncd. . . . Referring to the offer of arliltratlon, made on the 26th day of October 1863 U)rd Russell, In the same note, said-' 'Her Majesty's Government must decline cither to make reparation and compensation for the cap- tures made by the Alabama, or to refer tue question to any foreign State.' This terminated llio Urst stage of the negotiations b»'tween the two Ooveinmeni.s. . . . In the' summer of 1868 » change of JImi.stry took i)Ia(e In England, and Lord Maidey became Secntarv i.f State for For- eign Airairs In the place ot' I,„rd Clarendon, lie took iin early opportunity to give an Intinia- lon to the House of Commons that, should the rejected claims be revived, the new Cabinet was not i)repared 1.. say what answer nilvlit be given them; ill other wonIs, that, should an oppor- tunity lie otfered, Lord RusseMs refusal might possibly l)c ncousldered. Mr. Sewanl met these overtures by Instructing .llr Adams, on the a7th of August, 1866, 'to call Lord Sianlev's attention in a respectful but earnest iiiaiiHer,'' to 'a sum- iiisry yf claims of ritizeiis of the United States, for damages which were .snllcred by them during the iH.Tiod of tlie eUil war ' nml to say tlLit the Governiii.iit of the Unili'd States, while it thus insi-,is up,,., these ii.ir- ticular clainn, Is neither desiroiLs nor willing to assume an attinnle unkind and unc<m- culatory towani Great Britain. . . . Lord Stan- ley met thij overture bv a < onimunieatlon to Sir irederiek iiriKe, in whieii he denieil the lliibllity of Great liriiain, and a'^sented to a nferincc ' provide! that a lltting ArLiiratorcan Ix; found' ami that an agiveiiieiit can he come to as to the lioinls to whieli the arliiiralinn (-hall apply ' As the first result of the-e negotiations, a ccin- ventlon known as the Slauley Johnson convemion was signid at Lon.lou on the inth of Novemlicr 1»«8. It proved to be uuai (eptable to the Gov' erument of the I'nite.l Slates, Negotiations wen' at oiiee resumed, and nsuUed ou Hi,. 14th of .lanuary, INim. ju the Treaty known as the Johnson fl.iniidou couveiilioa [having been'' ne!.',.tlate,| hy Mr, Revenlv Johnson, who had Hi;eeee,leil Mr, .Vdaliis as Unilid Males Minister to Great liriiain] This latter c.nveiith.ii pm- VI li'd for the or-anlzatlon of a ml.xed i iiUj.m Willi junsdielioii ever 'all elilmsc.n the part ..f <ili/.eus of liie I'niie.i Mates upon the Govern- ment of H.r Britannic Majesty. Iiieludliig the so lulled Alaliaina claims, and all claims on the part of subjects of IJer Urit.uiiilc Majesty upon ALABAMA CLADI8. the Government of the United States which may have txi'n pix'stiitfrt to either governini'nt for its interposition witli tlie other since tli<! 2«lh July, 1*)3, ami wliieh yet remain unsettled.'" Tlie Jolinson I'lariiidon treaty, wlien submitted to the Semite, wiis rejected by tliat body, in April, "because, although it made provision for the part of the Alabama claims which consisted of clixims for individual losses, the provision for the more extensive national losses was not satis- factory to the SvmiU:"— Tlie Argument of the United Statet lUHrtred tti the Tribunul of Arbt- tration at Genera, June 15, 1873, Ditinon 13, tect. 3. A. D. 1869-1871. — Renewed Negotiationt. — Appointment and meeting of the Joint High Commission.— The action of the Senate In rejictiii); the Johnson-Clarendon treaty was taken in April, 1S69, a few weeks after Presi- dent Grant entered upon his office. At this time •' the condition of Euroiie was such as to induce the British Ministers to take into consideration the forei^jn relations of Great Britain; and, as Lord Granville, the Hrltish Minister of Foreign Affairs, has himself stated in the House of Lords, they saw cause to look with solicitude on the uneasy relat'ons of the British Government with the United Slates, and the Inconvenience tliereof in case of possible complications in Europe. Thus impelleii, the Oovernment dispatched to Wash- in-tou a gentleman who enjoyed the conlidcnce of both Cabinets, Sir John Hose, to nsccnain whether overtures for reopening negotiations wouhl lie received bv the Pn-sident in splnt and terms acceptable to (iriat Britain. ... Sir John Rose found the United States disposed to meet with perfect com -;p'>m!encc of good-will the ad- vances of the British Goveniment. Accordingly, ontbe'Mlh of January, ISTl. the Britisli Onv- emment, through Sir Edwanl Thornton, finally proposed to the American Government the ,ip- pointment of a jnint llich Commission to hold its sessions at Wiishinirton, an I there devise means to settle the various pending iiuestions between the two Governments affecting ilie British pos- wssions In North America. To this overture Mr Fish replied that the Presl<lent would with pleasure appoint, as invited. Commissioners on the part of the UniO'd States, provided the deliberations of the Commissioners should lie extended to other dilTennces.— that is to say, to ln.lu(le the dillerenees growing out of incidents of the la'e Civil War. . . . The Briiish Gov- ernment proinptlv iiccepted tlMs prnposid for enlarging the sphere of the negotiation." The joint High Comni' "\m was speedily constituted. OS proposed, by npiinintmc nt of the two goveni- mcnts, and the pn>mptitMile of proceeding was such tliat the Hriti^li commissioners landed at New York intwiiilvsevendaysnftcr Sir Edward Thorntons suggesli'nti of January Sflth was made. They filled without waiting for their coinmls slons, which Were ferwarded to them by special messenger. The Hiu'h Commission was made up as follows; "On the part of the I nited States were live persons — Hamilton Fish, Hubert C Schenck. Samui ! Nel«on, Elxne/.er ICnkwonil Hoar, antl Geonre 11. Williams,— eminently fit reprewnliitlves of the diplomacy, the U-neli, the bar. and the leiiislalure ..f the Uniii i Ht.itcs: on tho part of Great llribdn, Eari De (irey and RlpoD, President of the Quoen's Couneil; Bir Bt«flord Northcote, ExMlDlsterand actual Mem- ALABAMA CLAIMS. ber of the House cf Commons; Sir Edward Thornton, the universally respected British Mln- isUT at Washington, Sir John [A.] Macdon^d, tlie able and eloquent Premier of the Canadian Dominion ; and. In revival of the good old time, when learning was equal to any other title of pubPc honor, -he UniveiBities in the person of Professor Montague Bernard. ... In the face of manv difficulties, the Commissioners, on the 8th of May, 1871, completed a treaty [known aa the Treaty of Washington], which received the prompt approval of their respective Govern- ments."— C. Cushlng. The Treaty of Wathing- ton, pp. 18-30, and 11-18. Also is A. Lang, Life, Uttert. and Dtane$ of Sir Stafford Northeote, Firet Earl of IddesUtgh, eh 13 (e. 2).— A. Badeau, Grant in Pe>iff,, fh. 25. A. D. 1871.— The Treaty of Waahington.— The treaty signed at Washington on tlie 8th day of May, 1871, and the ratifications of which were exchanged at London on the 17th day of the following June, set forth its principal agreement In the first two articles as follows: "Whereas differences have arisen between the Government of the United States and the Government of Her Brittanlc Majesty, and still exht, growing out of the acts committed by the several vessels which have given rise to the claims gencrically known us the 'Alabama Claims;' and whereas Her BriUinnIc Majesty has authorized Her High Com- missioners and Plenipotentiaries to express in a frieiidlv spirit, the regret felt by Her .Majesty's Government for the escape, uniler whatever cir- cumstances, of the Alabama and other vessils from British ports, and for the depredations com- mitted by tlioso vessels: Now, in order to remove and niljust all complaints and claims on the p;irt of the United States and to pnivlde for the siicedy settlement of such claims which are not admitted by Her Britannic .Majesty's Gov- emment, the high contracting parties agree that all the s;iid claims, growing out of acta com- mitted by the aforesaid vessels, and gencrically known as the ' Alabama Claims,' shall lie referred to a tribunal of arbitration to lie composetl of five .Vrbltrators, to be appointed in the following manner, that Is to say: One shall be named by the President of tho United States; one shall be named by 'ler Brit.annic Majesty; His Majesty the King of Italy shall !><■ requested to name one; the I'n'sident of the S«is« Confederation sh.'\ll be requested to name one; and His Majesty the Emperor of Brazil shall be requcsteil to name one. . . . The Arbitrators shall meet at Geneva, in Switzerland, at the earilest convenient d.ay after lliev shall liave been named, and shall pro- ceed inipartiallv and caretullv to examine and decide all questions that shall Ik' laid Ixfore them on the part of the Governments of the United States and Her Britannic Majesty resiwctlvely. All cnieM ions considered by the tribunal, incbid- In,' tlie ilnal award, shall be dechliil by a majority of all tie' Arbitrators. Each of the high cm- trading parties shall also name one per«on to attend the trilmnal as lu Agent to n|,rewnt It generall. \u all matters connected with the arlil tratirHi. ■' Articles 3, 4 and 8 of the tnaty spei ity the nimle In which each party shall Kubiiiil its case. .Vrtlcle6 declares that, "In dielding the m:itlef-i -'ib'nittr'l !-■' thp Arbltralorm. •>» y shal! lie governed by the following three ndes, which ore agreeil upon by the high contracting parties as niles to be taken as applicable to the case, and 84 J^^u. ALABAMA CIAIMB. Al-ABAMA CLAim by 8uch principles of inteinational law not incnn- ■istent therewith as the Arbitrators shall deter- mine to have been applicable to the case: A ocutral Government is bound — First, to use due dilifi:ence to prevent the flttine out, arming, or equipping, Tvithin its jurisdiction, "f any vessel which it has reasonable ground to believe is intended to cruise or to carry on war against a Power with which It is at peace ; and also to use like dill^nce to prevent the departure from its jurisdiction of any vessel intended to cruise or carry or war as above, such vessel having been specia ly adapted. In whole or in part, within such jurisdiction, to warlil<e use. Sec- ondly, not to permit or suffer either belligerent to make use of its ports or waters as the base of naval operations against the other, or for the purpose of the renewal or augmentation of mili- tary supplies or arms, or the recruitment of men. Thirdly to exercise due diligence in its own ports and waters, and, as to all persons within Its jurisdiction, to prevent any violation of the foregoing obligations and duties. Ilcr Britannic Majesty has commanded her High Commis- sioners and Plenipotentiarins to declare that Her Majesty's Government cannot assent to the fore- going rules as a statei ■. nt of principles of inter- national law which were in force at the time when the claims mentioned in Article 1 arose, hut that Her Majesty's Government, in order to evince its desire of strengthening the friendly relations iK'tween the two countries and of making satisfactory provision for the future, sgnrs that In deciding the questions between the two countries arising out of tliose claims, the Arliitrators should assume that Her Majesty's Government had undertaken to act upon the principles set forth in tiiese rules. And the high contracting parties agree to olwcrvc these rules as between themselves in future, and to bring them to the knowl«lgc of other maritime powers, and to invite them to ncceile to then.. " Articles 7 to 17, inclusive, relate to the i)r<x;ediire of the tribunal of arbitration, ami proviile for the determination of claims, by a<isessors and commissioners, in case tlie Arbitrators should find any liability on the part of Great Britain and should not award a sum in gross to be paid in wttlement thereof. Articles 18 to 35 relate to the Fisheries. By Article 18 it is agreed that in addition to the liberty secure<l to American fish- ermen by the convention of 1818, "of taking, curing and drying flsh on certain coasts of the British North American colonies therein defined, the inhabitants of the United HUitea shall have, in (iimmon with the subjects of Her Tiritannic Majesty, the liberty for [a period of Wn years, and two years further after notice given by either party if Its wish to terminate the arraugi-- mei..] ... to take flab of every kind, except shell fish, on the sea-coasts and shores, and in the bays, harbours and creeks, of the proviuces of Quebec, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, and the colony of Prince Edward's Ishud, and (if the several islands thereunto adjacent, with- out being restricted to any distance frr.m the slidH', with permission to land upon the said coasts and shores and islands, and also upon the Magdalen Islands, for the purpose of drying their nets and curing their fish; providei! that m tu cicing, they do not Interfen wltli the rights of private property, or with British fishermen, ui Utc peaceable ui« of soy part of the uld 8- coasts In their occupancy for the same purpota. It is understood that the above-me^ tioned liberty applies solely to the sea-fishery, and that the salmon and shad fisheries, and all other flsherie* in rivers and the mouths of rivers, are hereby reserved exclusively for British fishermen.''' Article 19 secures to British subjects the corre- sponding rights of fishing, &c., on the eastern sea-coasts and shores of the United States north of the 89th parallel of north latitude. Article 20 reserves from these stipulations the places thst were reserved from the common right of fishiug under the first article of the treaty of June 5, 1854. Article 21 provides for the reciprocal admission of fish and flsh oU into each country from the other, free of duty (excepting flsh of the inland lakes and flsh preserved in oil). Article 22 provides that, "Inasmuch as it is asserted by the Go. -nment of Her Britannic Ma' ity that the pi vilegea accorded to the citizens of the United States under Article XVIII of this treaty are of greater value than those accorded by ' rticles XIX and XXI of this treaty to the subjecU of Her Britannic Majesty, and this assertion is not admitted by the Gov- ernment of the United States, it is further agreed that Commissioners siisll be appointed to determine . . . the amount of any rompensa- tlon which in their opinion, ought to be paid by tlie Government of the United States to the Gov- ernment of Her Britannic Majesty." Article 2a provides for the appointment of such Commis- sioners, one by the President of the United States, one by Her Bdtannic Majesty, and the third by the IVsident and Her Majesty con- jointly; or, failing of agreement within three months, tlie third Commissioner to be named by the Austrian MinisU'r at London. The Commis- sionera to meet nt Halifax, and their pmcedure to be as prescribtnl and regulated by Articles 24 and 25. Articles 2fl to 81 define certain recipro- cal privileges accorded by each government to the subjects of the other, including the naviga- tion of the St. Lawrence, Yukon, Porcupine and Stiklne Rivers, Lake Michigan, and the Welland St. Lawrence and St. Clair Flats canals ; and the transportation of goods in bond through the territory of one country Into the other witliout payment of duties. Article 82 extends the pro- visions of Articles 18 to 25 of the treaty to New. foundland if all parties concerned enact tha necessary laws, but not otherwise, .\rticle 33 limiu the duration of Articles 18 to 25 and Arti- cle 80, to ten years from the date of their going into effect, and "further until the expiration of two years after eitlier of the two high contract- ing parties shall him- given notice to the other of its wish to termina:« the same." The remain- ing articles of the treaty provide for submitting to the arbitration of the Emperor of Germany the Northwestern water-boundary question (in tlie channel between Vancouver's Island and the continent)— to complete the settlement of North- wcsU'rn Iwundaty disputes.— ?>(«(<«< and Con- ttntivnt bftitnn the C. 8. and other I\>ieen («.'. of 1889), pp. 47»-»98. '' Axjo ra C, Cushing, TA* TYeatg of Wathing- ton, am. A. D. 1871-1879.— Tht TribawU of Arbi- tration at Geneva, and Itt Award.—" The sp- pointmeut of Arbitraton took place in due course, and with the readv goodwill of the thres neutral govemmenta. Tlw Ubited Butes ap- ALABAMA CLAIM8. Bilnted Mr. Charlea FntDcis Adams; Great rlt»in appointed Sir Alexander Cockbum ; tUe King of Italy named Count Frederic Sclopls; tlie President of the Swiss Confederation, Mr. Jacob Stsmpfii; and the Emperor of Brazil, the Baron d'ltaiubl Jlr. J. C. Buncroft Davis was appointed Agent of the United States, and Lonl Tentcrden of Great Britain. Tlie Tribunal was organized for the reception of the case of each party, and held its first conference [at Geneva, Switzerland] on the 15th of December, 1871," Count Sclopls being chosen to preside. "The printed Case of the United States, with accom- panying documents, was filed by Mr. Bancroft Davis, and the printed Case of Great Britain, with documents, by Lord Tccterden. The Tribunal made regulation for the filing of the respective Counter-Cnses on or before the 15th day of April next ensuing, as requireu '^y the Treaty ; and for the convening of a special meet- ing of the Tribunal, if occasion should require; and then, at a second meeting, on the next day, they adjourned until the 15th of June next ensu- ing, subject to a prior call by the Secretary, If there should be occasion." The sessions of the Tribunal were resumed on the 15th of June, 1873, according to the adjournment, and were continued until the 14th of Septemlwr following, when the decision and award were announced, and were signed by all the Arbitrators except the British renrcseQt.itivc, Sir Alexander Cock- burn, who dissented. It was found by the Tribunal that the British Government had '■ fvileil to use due diligence in the performance of its neutral obligations" with respect to the cruisers Alal)ama and Floriila, and the several tenders of those vessels: ami al.*> with respect to the Shenandoah after her departure from Mel- bourne, Feb. IS, 186."), but not l«f.ire that date. AVIth respect to the Georgia, the .Sumter, the Nashville, tiicTallali.isseeand tlie Clilekamauga, it w:\s the liiidiiiir of the Tribunal that Great Britain had not failed to perform the duties of a neutral power. So far a» relates to the vessels calleil the Sallle, the Jefferson Davis, the .Musir, the Boston, and the V. II. Joy, it was the deri- sion cf the Triliunal tliat they ought to be exclul.d from consideration for want of evi- deuee. "So far as ri'lates to the particulars of the indemnity rlai.ncd by the United States, the costs of pursuit of Confederate <Tuisers " are declarid to l)e "not. in the judirment of the Triijimal. propcrlv dlstlnjulHliaMe from the gen- eral cxpetisi's of the war carried on by the United States." and "there is no ground for awanlirir to tlie United Slates any stun by way of inili oinity under tills heail " A. similar deci- sion put asiile the wliole oonsiiieration of claims for " prospeetlve eiiruiiigs." Finally, the award was .1 iidenil in tlie folUnviiig" laneuape: " Whereas, in orlir to arrive at an e<|UitabIo compensation for tin il.images whidi have been sustaiiK il, it is necessary to set ii-i'lo all double claims for the same lo'^ves, and all claims for 'gro:>8 f rei u'lits ' S" far as they exeeeil ' net f rri^rlils ;' and wlicrias it is just ami rcasoiialile l'< i.llnw Interest at a reasonalili' rati", utnl whereas, m tie- Conlallee with llie «liirit lUl'l leltir of the Tre;;' y of \Vas|iiii,;|.Mi, It U iinferaliU' to :i,',„pt tliB form nf adjuilieation of a SMm in ltoss. rather than to refer tlie stibjict of iMinpensation for furtliiT discussion and deliberation to a Board of Assessors, h provided by Article X of the uld 36 ALAKa Treaty: The Tribunal, making use of the au- thority conferred upon It by Article VII of the said Treaty, by a majority of four voices to one, aw to the United States the sum of fifteen mi five bundretl thousand Dollars In gold as .lienmity to be paid by Great Britain to tl :ed States for the satisfaction of all the referred to the consideration of the Tri- conformably to the provisions contained icie VII of the aforesaid Treaty." It 1 be stated that the so-called "indirect ,9 " of the United Statea, for consequential' s and damages, growing out of the eucour- a^i ment of the Southern Rebellion, the prolong- ation of the war, &c., were dropped from con- sideration at the outset of the session of the Tri- bunal, in June, the Arbitrators agreeing then in a statement of opinion to the effect that " these claims do not constitute, upon the principles of international law applicable to such cases, good foundation for an awani of compensation or computation of damages between nations. " This declaration was accepted by the United States as decisive of the question, and the hearing pro- ceeded accordingly.— C. Cashing, The Treaty •/ W(i*hington. Also in F. Wharton, Digett of the Interna- tional Lavt of the U. 8., eh. 31 (t>. 8). ALACAB, or TOLOSO, Battle of (laia). See Ai.mohadf.8, and Spain: A. D. 1146-1532. ALADSHA, Battles of (1877). See Turks: A. D. 1877-1878. ALAMANCE, Battle of (1771). SeeNoRTa Carolina: A. D. 1766-1771. ALAMANNI. See Alemanni. ALAMO, The massacre of the (1836). See Texas: A. D. 1824-1836. ALAMOOT, or ALAMOUT, The castle of.— The stronghold of the "Old Man of the Mountain," or Sheikh of the terrible order of the Assassins. In northern Persia. Its name signifies "the Eagle's nest," or " the Vulture's nest. See ASSASPIXS. ALANS, OR ALANI, The.— "The Alanl are first mentioned by Dlonyslus the geographer (B. V. 3t>-10) who Joins them with tlie Dad and the Tauri, and again places them between the latter and the Agathyrsl. A similar position (In tlie south of Kussia in Europe, the modem Ukraine) Is assigned to them by Pliny and Joseplius. Seneca placesthemfurtherwcstupon the Ister. IHolemy has two bodies of Alani, one in the position above descrilied, the oti • in Soythla witliln the Imaus, north and partly east of the Caspian. It must have been from these last, the Rurccssors, and, according to some, the descendants of the anelent Massaget;r, that the Alani came who attacked Paconis and Tiridates jin MiHlia and Anuniia. A. D. 75]. . . . The result seems to have been that the Invaders, after ravaging and harrying Media and Armenia at tlioir pleasure, carried oil a vast n'.mber of prisoners and an enormous iKioty Into their own country." — O. Itawlinson, *'ufA fireitt Oriental M-minhy. eh. 17.— F,. II. Bunbury, Hint. </ Aufiriit lleiio., eh. 6, note If. — " The first of this [the Tartar] raee known to the Romans wen' the .\laiii In the fourth century they pitched ft^i.tp tents In the country between tlie V'-*W!i 'Uid the Tttiiais, at an equal distance from the Black Sea and the Caspian." — J. C. L. Slsmoudt, fail of the Roman Empire, ch. 8. ALA3X3. A. D. 376.— Conqnest by the Haas. See GoTBg (V18IOOTHB): A. D. 376. A. D. 406^409.— Final lovaston of Gaul. Bee Oaul: A. D. 400-409. A. D. 409-4I4.— Settlement in Spain. See Spain: A. D. 4o5-414. A. D. 429.— With the Vandali in Africa. Sec Vandai^: A. D. 429-439. A. D. 4Si.-At the Battle of Chalons. See Hukb: a. D. 451. » ALARCOS, P ttle of (A. D. 1195). See Almouaueii. ALARIC'S RAVAGES IN GREECE AND CONQUEST OF ROME. Sec Goths: A. D. 395; 400-403. and Home: A. D. 408-410 ALARODIANS. — IBERIANS. — COL- CHIANS.— "The ' larodians of Herodotus, joined with the Sa;,v.;re8 . . . are almost cer- tainly the inhabitauu of Armenia, whose Semitic name was Crania, or Ararat. ' Ai-iud,' indeed, is a mere variant form of 'Arari'd,' the 1 and r being undistinguishable in the old Persian, and 'Ararud' serves determlnately to connect the Ararat of Scripture with the L^rarda, or Urartha of the Inscriptions. . . . The name of Ararat is consUintly used in Scripture, but always to de- note a country mtliur tlinn a particular moun- tain. . . , The connexion ... of Vrarda with the Babylonian tribe of Akkad is proved by the application in the Inscriptions of tlie ethnic title of Burbur (?) to the Armenian king ... ; but there Is nothing to prove whether the Burbur or Akkiid of Bubvlonia descended in a very remote age from the .nountalus to colonize the plains or whether the Urardians were refugees of a later period driven northward by the growing power of the SemlU's. The former supposition, how- ever, is most In conformity with .Scrlnture and Incidentally with the tenor of the iuscrir>'- tionii."— H. C. Kawlinson, IltDt. of ll.rixMuii bk. 7, app. 8.— "The broad and rich valley of the Kur, which corresponds closely with the modern Russian province of Georgia, was rancicnily] In the possession of a people called by Herodotus Saspeires or Sapi-ircs, whom we may Identify with the Iberians of later writers Ad- loining upon them towards the south, probably in tlie counlrv ab<iut Erivan, and so in tlie neighbourhood of Ararat, were the Alarodians whose name must be connected with that of the groat mountain. On the other side of the ^api'inan country, In the tracts now known as MiuLTelia and luieritia. regions of u wonderful l«auty ami fertility, were the Coli hian-. — de- pin.l.nt.s, but not exactly subjects, of I'lrsls "— tJ. lUwIiuson, >•(■« Oreat Muiuire/iuM.- Pertia eh. 1, ' tt^}'^!'^^- ^ ^- «8«7.— Purchase by the United States.— As early as 1859 there wore uu- oranalcoinnmuicalions between tli.> Husslan and American govornmonts, on the subject of the siile of Wiuikw by the former to the latter Uus- slawas more than willing to part with a piece of tomtory which she found (lllflcullv In defondlug In war; and the InteresU connected with the flshories and the fur-tnide in the nonhwest wore disposed to promote the transfer. In -Ma.Tb. 1807, <leflnite negotiations on the subject ■-rvr--- ■■;-,::ii! by tile Ru».>lttu minister at Wash- ington, u„,| on the 2,1(1 of that month he recelve.l from .So, rotary .Sowsrd an olTer. subject to the I resident s approval, of 17,200.000. on condition 37 ALBA. that the cession be " free and unencumbeiett bj any reservations, privileges, franchises, grants or possessions by any associated companies' wiiether corporate or incorporate, Russian or any other." "Two days later an answer was returned, sUtmg that the minister believed him- self authoi1ze<l to accept these terms. On the ^atu final instructions were received by cable from St. Petereburg. On the same day a note was addressed by the minister to the aecretaryof state, informing him that the tsar consentc(f to the cession of Russian America for the stipu- lated sum of $7,200,000 in gold. At four o clock the next morning the treaty was slgnc<l by the two parties without further phrase or negotl- T Vv,^" *'"y '••* ""^^'y "*» ratified, and on June 20, 1867, the usual proclamation was issued by the president of the United States." On the 18th of Octolier, 1867, the formal transfer of the territory was made, at Sitka, General Rousseau taking possession in the name of the Govern- ment ->f the r lited States.— H. H. Bancroft. Ht*t. 0, Vie Pan fie State*, v. 28, cA. 28 Also i.v W. H, Dall, AUuka and its Ruoureet, pt. 2, eh. 2.— For some account of the aboriginal Inhabitants, see Amf.hican ABOBtoiKEs: E»- KiM.\iMji Family and .\tiiapa8can Family ALATOONA, Battle of. See Usitki) .States OP Am.: a. D. 1864 (SEPTKMBLn — October • Gkokoia). ALBA. — Alban Mount. — '■ Cantons having their ren<lezvous in some stronghold, and Including a cert.iin number of clanships, form the primitive political unities with which Italian history b-.gins. At what period, and to what extent, such cantons were formed in Latium cannot be determined with precision; nor is It a matter of special historical interest. The Isolated Alban range, that natural stronghold of Latium, which offered to settlere the most wholesome air, the fre.hest springs, and tlie most secure position, would doubtless be first occupied by the new comers. Here accord- ingly, along the narrow plateau almve Palaz- zuola, between the Alban lake (Lago di CastoUo) and the Alban mount (Monte Cavo) extended the town of Alba, which was universally reginied as the primitive seat of the Latin »ti«k, and the iiiother-clty of Home, as well as of all the othor Old Latin communities. Here too, on the slopes lay the very ancient Latin canum-ccutres of Lauuvium, Aricia. and Tus- culum. . . ,\1| these cantons were In primitive times po! ally overeign, and each of them was govon.L.I by its prince with the co-opera- tlim of the council of elders and the assembly of warriors. Nevertheless the feeling of fellow- ship based on community of descent uud o' language not only pervaded the whole of them" but maulfesioii iiscll In an Important religious and political Institution — the jwrpetual Kague of the collective Latin cantons. The pnsiileiicy belonged origiuallv, iiminiiiig to the universal Italian as well as Hellontc usage, to that canton within whose bounds lay the meeting-place of AH '''**"^: '" "''» <''>«• ft was the canton of Ai la. . . . The communities entitled to partici- pate In the league were in the beginning thirty. . . . The rcnib'zvous of this union was, likr the PambiPotIa ami the PaiiionIa among the slinilar confederacies of the Greeks, the • Ijitin festival' (feriiE Latina) at which, on the Mount of Alba, upon a day annually ap|iointed by the chief ALBA. msgtstrete foi the purpose, an ox was offered in ncrifice by the assembled Latin stocic to the 'Latin gud' (Jupiter Latiaris)." — T. Mommsen, Hitt. of Jim.!, bk. 1, cA. 8. Also in Sir W. Oell, Thpog. of Home, r. 1. ALBA DE TORMES, Buttle of. See Sfain: a. D. 1809 (AuousT — Novembek). ALBAIS, The. See American Aborioi- kkb: Pampab Tribes. ALBAN, Kingrdom of. See Albion; also, Scotland: 8Tn-9TH CKHTrKiEs ALBANI, The. See Brit Tribes of ALBANIANS: Ancient. Sec EriRua and Illtrianb. MedicTat. — ''From the settlement of tlie Servian Sclavonians within the tx>und9 of the empire [during the reign of Hcrarlius, Urst half of the seventh century], we may . , . venture to date the earliest encroachments of the Illyrian or Albanian race on the Hellenic population. The Albanians or Amauts, who are now called by themselves Skiptars, are supposed to be remains of the great Thracian race which, under various names, and more particularly as Paionians, Epirotsand Macedonians, take an important part in early Grecian history. Nodistinct traceof the period at which they began to lie co-proprietors of Greece with the Hellenic race ran be found in history. ... It seems very difficult to trace back the history of the Greek nation without suspecting that the germs of their modem con- dition, like those of their ncighl)<)urs, are to be Bouglit in the singular events which occurred in the reign of Heraclius. " — 0. Finlay, Greece Under the Homaiii. eh. 4, fret. 6. A. D. 1443-1467.— Scanderbe^i War with the Turks. — "John Castriot, Lord of Emal- tliia (the modem district of Moghlcne) [in Epinis or Albania] hail submitted, like the other pcttj' despots of tliose regions, to Amurath early in Ins ri'ign, and had placed his four sons in tlie .Sultan's hands a.^ hostages for his iidelity. Three of them died young. The f.iurth, whose name was George, pleased the Sultan by his beauty, strength and intelllgcneo. Amurath caused him to ne brought up in the Mahometan creed; and, when he was only eightccu, con- ferred on hira the government of one of the Sanjaks of the empire. The young Albanian proved his courage and skill in many exploits under Amurath's eye, and received from him the name of Isknnderlieg, the lord Alexander. When John Castriot died. Amunth took pos- session of his principalltie!' .' 1 kept the son con- stantly employed in distant wars. Seanderbeg broode<l over this injury ; ami when the Turkish armies were routed by Huiiyades in the cam- paign of 1443, ScanderV'g (ktermined to escape from their side and a8.sume forcible pos,session of his patrimony. He Bu<ldenly entered the tent of the Sultjiu's chief secretary, and forced that functionary, with the poniard at his throat, to write and si'al a formal order to the Turkish commander of the strong city of Croia, in Albania, to deliver that phiie and the adjacent territory to S<Mnderbeg. as the Sulljin's viceroy. He then stablMil the secretary and hastened to Croia, where his strategem gained him Instant sdmittnnop ami siibmlssi.>n. He now pul>!lc!y ahjure<l the Mahometan faith, and declared his intention of defending the creed of his fore- Uthen, uh'. nutoriiig the independence of his 88 ALBERONl native land. The Christian population flocked readily to his banner and the 'Turks were maa- sacreu without mercy. For nearly twenty-five years Seanderbeg contended against all the power of the Ottomans, though directed by the skill of Amurath and his successor Mahomet, the conqueror of Constantinople." — Sir E. S. Creasy, IlUt. of the Ottoman Turla, eh. 4. — "Seanderbeg died a fugitive at Lissus on the Venetian territory [A. D. 1467]. His sepulchre was si>"n violated by the Turkish conquerors; but th(. janizaries, who wor3 his bones enchased in a bracelet, aeclared by this superstitious amulet tteir involuntary reverence for hia valour . . . His infant son was saved from the national shipwreck; the Castriots were invested with a Neapolitan dukedom, and their blood continues to tlow in the noblest families of the realm."— E. Gibbon, Seetint and PiM of ths Soman Empire, cA. 67. Also in A. Lamartine, Hiit. of Turkey, bk. 11, Kct. 11-28. A. D. i6o4-i696.— Conqnests by the Vena- tiant. See Turks: A. O. 1684-1686. ALBANY, N. Y.: A. O. 1633.- The firet Settlement. — In 1614, the year after the first Dutch traders had established their operitions on Manhattan Island, they built a trading house, which tlicy called Fort Nassau, on Castle Island, in tile Hudson Uiver, a little lielow the site of the present city of Albany. "Three years later this sm. '1 fort was carried away by a Uood and the island abandoned. In 1623 a more impoitant fortification, named Fort Orange, was erected on the site afterwards covered by the business part of Albany. That year, " about eighteen families settled themselves ut Fort Orange, under Adriaen Jons, who 'staid with them all winter,' after Ecmi: Ms ship home to Holland in charge of bis son "oou as the colonists had built thcm- ^.ve' .no huts of bark' around the fort, the Jlahikunders or Itivcr Indians [Mohegans], the )Iohawks, the Uneidas, the Onondagas, the Cayugas, and the Scnecas, with the Mahawawa or Ottjvwawa Indians, 'camcand made covenants of friendship . . . and desired that they ir'ght come and have a constant free trade with them, which was coiicludeil upon.'" — J. K. Brodhead, Hilt, of the Slate of ^V. I'., v. 1, pp. 05 and 151. A. D. 1630.— Embraced in the land-purchase of Patroon Van Rensselaer. Seo Xew York : A. I). 1«;.'1-104«. A. D. 1664.— Occupied and named by the English, ^^e« New Yoiik: A. I). Itifi4. A. D. 1673. — Anin occupied by the Dutch. See Nkw Yokk: K. I). 1673. A. D. 1754.— The Colonial Congress and its plans of Union. See United States of Am. - A. a 1754. , ALBANY AND SCHENECTADY RAIL- ROAD OPENING. S<e 8TE.iM Locomotion ON Land. ALBANY REGENCY, The. See New Y'ouk; A. I), IHiS. ALBEMARLE, The Ram, and her de- struction. Seo United States of Am. : A. U. 1864 (April-— May: North Carolina), and (<><Toi!i:i;: N. Caiujlisa). ALBERONI, Cardinal, The Spanish Min- istry of. See Spain: A. D. 1713-1 72S; and Italy: A. U. 1T15-178S. m ALBERT. ALBERT, King ofSweden, A. D. 186.1-1888. . . . Albert, Elector of Brandenburg, A. D. 147a-14MU.... Albert I., Duke of Austria and Kingof Germany, A. D. 12US-1SUN Albert II., uuke of Austria, Kingr of Hungary and Bohemia, A. D. 14S7-t 44U ; King of Germanr, A D. 14tJ8-1440. ALBERTA, The District of. See Koktu- WE8T TKKKITOKIE8 OF CANADA. ALBERTINE LINE OF SAXONY. Sec Saxony: A. 1). 1180-1553. ALBICI, The.— A Gallic tribe which occu- pied the hills 11 live Musgilia (Marseilles) and who are dtscriU'd as a savage people even in the time of Cresar, when they helped the Masil- iots to defend their city against hiiu. — G. Long, Jkeliiu of the Bmnan Renublie, t. 5, ch 4 ALBIGENSES, OR ALBIGEOIS, The. —"Nothing is more curious in Christian history than the vitality of the Manlchean opinions. That wild, half poetic, half rationalistic theory of Christianity, . . . appears almost suddenly in the 12th century. In living, almost irresist- ible power, first in its intermediate settlement Ui Bulgaria, and on the borders of the Greek Emphre, then in Italy, In France, iu Ger- many, in the remoter West, at the foot of the Pyrenees. . . . The chief seat of these opinions was the south of France. Innocent III., on his accession, found not only these daring insur- gents seatte.ed in the cities of Itiilv, even, as it were, at his own gates (among iii.s first acta was to sulKlue the Paterines of Viterlio), he found a whole province, a realm, in some re- spects the richest and noblest of his spiritual do- main, absoIuU!ly dissevered from his limpire, in almost universal revolt from Latin Christian- ity. ... In no [other] European country had the clergy so entirely, or it should scem"so de- servedly, forfeiaKl iu authority. In none had the Church more absolutely ceased to perform its prui)er functions."— U. II. Milman, Jlitt. if Latin ChriHtinnity, bk. 9, eh. 8.— "By mere chance, tlie s*'<ts scattered In South France received the conunon name of Albigenscs, from one of the districts where the agcuts of the church wlio came to combat them found them mostly to abound,— the district arouud tlie town of Alba, or Alby; and by tliis conmion name they were well known from the ci nnieuce- ment of the thirteenth ceuturv. Cmler this geuenil denomination parties of different tenets were conijireheiidcd together, but the Catharists seem to liave constituted a predominant element among tiie iieopio thus designated. "—A. N'ean- der, Oen. Hist, of the Chrittian lift, and Ch SthptT., din. 2, fcrt. 4, pt. 8.— "Of the sectaries who shared the errors of Onosticism and Mani- chiEism and opposed the Catholic Church and her hierarchy, the Albigenscs were the most thorough and radical. Their errors were. In- deed, partly Gnostic and partly Mauiducan, hut the latter was the more prominent and fully developed. They recciv.-d their name from a district of Langucdoc, inliabitcd by the AlbigeoH and surrounding the town of Albi They arc called Cathari and PatarinI in the acts of the Couniil of Tours (A. D. 1163), and in those of the third Lateran, Publiciaui (i. c., Pauli- ciani). Like the Cathari. thev also htld th.-it thti evil spirit cn-ated all visible things."— J. Alzog Manual of Vnit. Ch. Hitt., period 3, f;>-c7. % pt- I, ch. 8, tct. 888.— " The imputations of 89 ALBIOENSEa irrellglon, heresy, and shameless debauchery, which have been cast with so niiicli bittterneai on the Albigenscs by their pi rsecutors, and which have been so zealously liciiied by tlieir apologists, are probably not ifl founded, if the word Albigenses be employed as synonymous with the words Provcuvaux or Lunguedocians ; for thev were apparently a race among whom the 'lallowed charities of domestic life, and the reverence due to divine ordinances and the hom- age due to divine truth, were often impaired, and not seldom extinguished, by ribald jests, by infidel scofflogs, and by heart-hardening impuri- t!' Like other volur''iaries, the Provenvaux ( their remaining liteiuturc attests) were ac- c;istomcd to find matter for merriment in vices which yvould have moved wise men to tears. But if by the word Albigenses be meant the Vaiidois, or those followers (or associates) of 1 eter Waldo who revived the doctrines against which the Church of Pome directed her censures, then the accusation of dissoluteness of manners mav be safely rejected as altogether calumnious, and the charge of heresy may be considered, If not as entirely unfounoed, yet as a cruel and injurious exaggeration. "— Sir .r. Stephen, ZecU. on the Ilist. of France, teet. 7 Also im L. MariottI, Prd DoMm and Mm Tiint*. — See, also, Pauliriant, and Cn hariatt. A. D. 1200.— The First Cru ade.— Pope "Innocent III, in organizing the rsecution of the Cathariiis [or Catharists], the Palarins, and the Pauvrcs de Lyons, exercised a spirit, and displayed a genius similar to those which had already elevated him to almost universal domin- ion; which had enabled him to dictate at once to Italy and to Germany; to control the kings of Fmncc, of Spain, and of England; to overthrow the Greek Empire, and to substitute in its stead a Latin dynast^v at Constantinople. In tlie zeal of the Cistercian Order, and of their Abbot Amaud Amalric; in the titrv and unwearied preaching of the first Inquisitor, the Spanish Missionary, Dcmiinic; in the remorseless activity of Foulquct, Bishop of Toulou.se; and above all, in the strong and unpitving arm of Simon do -Montfort, Earl of Leicester, Innocent found ready instruments for his purpose. Thus aided, he ex- communicated Raymond of Toiilouso [.V. D. 1207], as Chief of the Heretics, ai.d be proiniscd remission of sins, and all the iirivileges which had hitherto been exclusively conferred on ad- venturers iu Palestine, to llie champions who should enroll themselves as ( rusiulcrs iu the far more easy enterprise of a Holy War ai;:iinst the .\lbi;,aiises. In the first invasum of his territories [A. I). 1209], liaymond \I. gave way before the terrors excited by the 800.000 fanatics who pre- cipitated themselves on Liaigucdoc ; and loudly declaring his personal freedom from heresv, he surrendered his chief castles, underwent a humili- ating penance, and took the cross against his own subjects. The brave resisUmce of his nephew Itaymond Iloger, Viscount of Bcziircs. deserved but did not obtaia success. When the crusaders surrounded his capital, which was occupied by a mixed population of the two Heligions. a ques- tion was r ■ how, in the approaching sack, the Calhollcss... . i be distinB-'iislied from the Hcrc- tirs, ' Kill then: all," v.as the fcrori,.u4 n pty of Amalric; 'the Lord will easilj know His own." In compliance with this advice, not one human being within the walls was permitted to survive: ALBIOENSSa ALBI0EX8E& and the tale of »lau.i:liter hiu been yariously ettimatc'd, by those wlio have iKrhapi exagger- ated tlio nuiiilK'rs, at (KI,0O(), but even in tlio rx- tCDUatius duspalcli, wliidi llio Abbot liimsilf adilreased to tlii' I'opc, at not fiwtr tlmn 15,000. liayinoiid Houir was not iucludiil in tiiis fi-uifiil massacre, and he repulsed two altaclts upon Car- cassonne, iKifiire u Inaclierons breacli of failh placed liiin at tlic disiwsul of do Moutfort, by whom lie was poisoned after n short imprison- ment. Tlie re[ii(ival of tliat young and gallant Prince was indeed niu^t injportunt to the ulterior project of his captor, who aimed at pcrmi.nent establishment iu tlie South. The family of de Montfort bad ranked among the nobles of France for more than two centuries; and It is traced by some writers through an illegitimate channel even to the throne: but the possessions of iSimiia liimsjlf were scanty; necessity had compelled him to sell the County of EvVcux to Philippe Auguste; and tlie English Earldom of Leicester which lie inlii'riled maternally, and the I^ordshlp of a Castle alinut ten leagues distant from Paris, formed tlie whole of his revenues." — E. Smcdley, Uitt. of France, rh, 4. Also in J. C. L. de Sismondi, Hi'al. of the Crumilci lUjHt the Alii'/ensiii, eh. 1.— II. II. Mil- man, Ifiat. of iMtin Christianitij, bk. 9, eh. 8.— J. Alzog, yfiii. of I'niterml Church Hist., perimt 2, epoch i.pt. 1, eh. 3. — Sec, also, I.nqdisition : A. D. laOS-lMJ. A. D. I3I0-I3I3.— The Second Crusade.— " The tomiuest of the Viscounty of Beziers bad rather inllatncd than satiated the cupidity of De Jlontfort and the fanaticism of Amalric Peirale of the Pope] and of tlie monks of Citeaux. Raymond, (. ouut of Toulouse, still possesscil the fairest part of Langueiloc. and was still sus- pected or accused oif aflordiug shelter, if nut counteuanie, to his heretical subjects. . . . The unhappy Hayinond was . . . again excommur.i- catcd from tiie Cliristiaii Church, and his domin- ions olferid as a reward to the champiun^ who should execute her sentence against biiii. To earn that reward Do Jlontfort, at the head of a new host of Crusaders, attracted by the promise of earthly sjioils and of heavenly blessedness, once more marched through tUo devoted laud [A. D. I'JIO], and with him advanced Amaliic. At each successive conijuest, slaughter, rapine, and woes sueli as may not be desoribecl tracked and polluted their steps. Heretic s or those f iis- pected of here^v, wherever they were found, were compelled by the lc,::ate to ascend vast pil.s of burning fagots! . . . At length the Cru.saders reached and l.aiilsii'ge to the city of Toulouse. . . . Throwini: liiui.sc'lf into tlie place, Riymoud . . . lucceedeil in repuUing De .Montfort and Amal- ric. It was, however, but a temporary rcs|iitc, and the iirelmle to a fearful destruction. From beyond tiie I'yicmes, at the head of l,0(io knights, Pedro of Arragon had marched to tlio rescue of Itiyimmd, his kinsman, and of the counts of Foi.i[ and of Comminges, , nd of the Viscount of liuarn. Ids vassals; and their united forces came iiilo eominiiniealion with each oiIict at Muret, a little town whieli Is about three leagues distant from Toulouse. There, also, im the I2th of .September [A. D. lHH], at the head of the cham|)ions of the Cro.s.s, and attended by tcvcn bishopa, Hjii.,.rtr,.(l fJSmoii tie Monirurl in full military array. The battle which followed wiu lierce, bliorl and decisive. . . , Don Pedro 40 was numbered with the slain. HU army, de prived of his command, broke and dispcned, and the whole of the infantry of Kaymond and bis allies were either put to the sword, or swept away by the current ot the Oaronnc. Toulouse immediately surrendered, and the whole of the doininious of Raymond submitted to the cou- guerors. At a council luhsequemly held at Jbmlix'llier, comiMwed of five archbishops and twenty-eiglit bishops, De Montfort was unani- mously acknowledged as prince of the fief and city of Toulou.se, and of the other counties con- quered by the Crusaders under his command." — Sir J. Stephen, iMt'i on t/u Jlitl. of France. U,(. 7. Also in J. C. L. do Sismondi, nUt. of Cnuadt* ofj'nt the Albiijenaes, eh. 2. A. D. 1317-1229.— The Renewed Crusade*. — Dissolution of the County of Toulouae. — Pacification of Languedoc.—" The cruel spirit of DeJIonlfort would not allow him to rest quiet In bis new Empire. Violence and perse- cution marked his rule ; ho Bought to destroy the Provencal population by the S'Vord or the stake, nor could he bring himself to tolerate the lilicr- ties of tiic citizens of Toulouse, In 1217 the Toulousans again revolted, and war once more broke out betwi.vt Count Raymond and Simon de Montfort, Tiic latter formed the siege of the capital, and was engaged in repelling a sally, when a stone from one of the walls struck him anil put an end to his existence. . . . Amaury de Montfort, son of Simo.> offered to cede to the king all his rights In I-angucdoc, which ho was unable to defend against the old house of Tou- louse. Philip [Augustus] hesitated to accept the important cession, and left the rival houses to the continuance of a stni.gglc carrieid feebly on by eiilier side." King Philip died In 1223 and was succeeded by a son, Louis VIII., who had none of his father's reluctance to join In the grasping ixi'seeution of the unfortunate people of the south. Amaury de Montfort hail been fairly driven out of old Simon de Jlontfort's con- quests, and be now sold them to King Louis for the oi'iee of constable of France. "A new cru- sade was preached against the Alblgenses; and Louis marehed towards Languedoc at tlie head of a formidable army in the spring of tlie year \2X. The town of Avignon had proferred to the crus;i(lers the facilities of crossing tlie Rhone UMcler i.er walls, but refused entry within them to such a host. Louis having arrived at Avig- non, insisted on passing through the town: the Avignonais shut their gates, and defied the mon- arch, who iusianlly formed tiie siege. One of the rich municipalities of the south was almost a niati h for the king of France. He was kept three months under its walls; his armv a prey to fam- ine, to distii.se and to tlio assaultsof a brave garri- son. The crusjiders lost 20. 000 men. The people of Avignon at length submitted, but on no di». boriourablo terms. This was the onlv resistance that Louis exiM'iienccd in Langueiloi-, ... AD submitted. Louis retired from his facile con- quest; he hims<lf, and the c.'defs of his armj stricken by u:i eiiidemy which liad prcxailed In the conquere.! regions. The meriarcii's feeble frame could not resist it; he expii, ! at .Montpen- sier. in Aiivergne, in November, 1228." Louis \III. was succieded by his young Mm, Ixiuis IX. (Saint Louis), then a boy, under the regency of his energetic and capable mother, Dlauchc ot 4 'I I ALBIOENSES. CastUe. "Thetcrmlnationof the war with the Albigenses, auJ the pacification, or It might be tailed the acouisitlon, of Langucdoc, was tiic chief act of Queen Blanche '» regency. Louis ylll. had overrun the country without realstonce In his last campaign; still, at his departure Ray- inoud VI. again appeared, collected soldiers and continueil to strucgle against the royal lleuten- ant. For upward of two years he maintained himself; the attention of Blanche being occupied by the league of the barons against her The successes of Raymond VII., accompanied bv cruclUes, awakened the vindictive zeal of the pope. Langueiloc was thrcniened with another crusade; Raymond was willing to treat, and make considerable cessions, in order to avoid such extremities. In April. 1329, a treaty was signed: in It the rigliU of De Montfort were passed over. About two-thirds of the domains of the count of Toulouse were ceded to the king of France; tlic remainder was to fall after Raymond's death, to his daughter Jeanne who by the same treaty was to marry one of the 'royal princes: heirs failing them. It was to invert to the crown [which It did In 1271]. On these terms, with tlie Immiliating addition of a public penance, Itiiymoud VII. one more was allowed pettciabic pos,session of Toulouse, and of the part of his domains reserved to him. Alplionsc, brotlier of Louis IX., married Jeanne of Tou- louse soon afkr, and took the title of count of ioiiiers; that province being died to him In apanagj. H.ibcrt, aiiotlier brotlier, was made count of Arlois at the Kiiiie time. Louis himself Biam(dMarj:arct,tlioel(lestduughterofliavmoud Bereugcr count of I'roveiice."-E. E. Crowe, UM.of Fr,v,.-e, v. 1, eh. 2-3.- -"The stnigde ended in a vast increa.se of the power of the French crown, at the e.xiKiise alilie of the house of Tou- .Hise and of the house of Aragon. The domin- ions of tlie count of Toulouse were divided A number of ticfs, Beziers, Xarboniie, Nimcs Albi and some other districts were at once anne.x,,! to the crown. The capital itself and its coiintv p:issi'dtotlic croHu fifty years later. . . The name of Toulouse, cscept as the name of the cily itself, now pas.se(l away, and the new ac- quisitions oi mice eiime in the end to be known hy lie n,inie o the tongue whicli was common to them with V(iuitaine and Imperial BurKuiidv [Provence). Under the name of Languediw they became one of the greatest and most valu- able provinces of tlie Fnndi kingdom "— E A Jreeman, Hist. (hug. of Kurojv,ch. 9 ' ' The brutality and destructiveneM of the Crusades.-- The Cliurch of the Albigen«.8 had been drowned in blood. These s,.,fpS Pno .',' T "'". '",'■';' ".""y '■■""' "'e soil of France. The rest of the Lanciied.K'ian people had Ucn overwhelmed with calamity, slaughter and devastation. Tlie estimates tmnsmittlHl to OS of the numlHTs of the invaders and of the Biaiii are sucli as almost surpass belief. We can neither vcnfy nor correct them; but we ccr- tanly know that, during a long succession of jears, Unguedoc had been invaded bv armies more numerous than had ever before Wn tics, liosis ,ven. con,fv,3f.,^ of men inflamed bv bigotry and unrestrained by discipline; that thcv uiey provided for all their wanU by the swonJ, 41 ALCANTARA. llvjnff at the expense of the country, and lelzlns at their pleasure Ijoili the harvesU of the pea» ants and tlie merchandise of the cltirena. Sore than three-fourths of the lauded proprietors had been despoiled of their flefs an^ Castles In hundredj of villages, every Inhabitant had been v!^i"1,, ■ i • '''°™ "'" *^^ °f Rome by Uie Vandals, the European worid had never mobmed over a national disaster so wide In iU extent or so fearful In 1^ character. "-Sir J. Stephen. iMt: on tht Hut. of France, farf. 7. ALBION.— "The most ancient name known I? r VaV^'-" 8lven to this Island [Britain] la tliat of Albion There Is, however, another allusion to Britain which seem, to cany us much further back, though It haa usually been lU understood. It occurs In the story of the labours of Hercules, w-ho, after securing the cows of I. »i •i.'^T* ''''"° ^P"'" «° Liguria, where be t M "^ ^^ "^° e'"""- *'><'™ he kilU before ^^?^ .'"'* vT'^y '? ^^y- Now, according to PomiK>nlu8 Mela, the names of the giante were ^^o'H «"'\.B"gyon, wldch one may, without much hesitation, restore to the forms of Albion and llx'rion representing, undoubtedly, Britain and Ireland, the position of which in the wa is most appropriately symbolized by the gtorv making tlien sons of Septuno or the sea god ;„V ""■ ' , V'^ !'"'« .°f P"°y. Alblon, as the nam ., , island, had fallen out of use with J^' rs; but not so with the Greeks or wi, ,,.. ts themselves, at any rate those of the .c brand; ; for they are probably right WL oppose that we have but the samewSrd i'n,„l°.l"w""f' ^'•"•''' Ga.IicAlba, genitive .1 ??'iu* •''?,«'!""' of Alban or Scotland beyond KS,, Albion would be a form of the name according to tlie Brytlioulc pronunciation of it. . . . "would thus appear that the name Albion Is one that has relreaKd to a comer of the Island nK *y?',''"''^„"^ "''■'■'' '' once applied."— j' Rhys. Cellic Britain, ch. 6. Also i.n E. Guest, Orifjinet Celtieae, ch. \ — Bee ScoTi.AM>: 8tii-9tu cknturies. Elbe The.— The ancient name of the river g^^LBOIN, King of the Lombards. A. D. nOR*^'^N?^— A^9",^2:iL.-CORREGI. P.T 77. ...'','"' "''■"''*« " f""" tl'e Arabic ai i.iUl the juili,'e or governor. . . . Alcalde mayor signifies a judge, learned In the law, who exercises [m Spain] ordinary jurisdiction, civil and cnminal, in a t. «n or district." In the bpanlsh colonies the Alcalde mayor was the chief Judge. "Irving (Columbus, II. 831i writes er- roneously alguazil mayor, evidently confoumiing the two offlci's. ... An alguadl mayor, was i chief constable or high sheriff." "Corregldor a magistrate having civil and criminal jurisdic' tion in the first instance ( 'nisi prius ') and gub- ematorial Inspection in the political and eco- nomical govermmut in all the towns of the district T'?i"^'" '""'• "— H. 11. Bancroft, Hut. oftht ,J^^^^^' ^»"'' »f- See Spain: A. D. 1809 (Febkiiaky — .IiNR) ALCANTARA, Battle of the (1580). Sob PoKTUOAi,: A. 1>. ISTK-l.WO ALCANTARA, Knighta of. — "Towards the close of Alfonso's reiTrn [Alfonso VIII. of LastUe and Ix!on, who called himself 'the Em- ALCANTARA. ALEMANXI, A D. 259. peror,' A. D. U36-11S7], may be aaalgned the origlii of the military order of Alcantara. Two cavaliers of Salamanca, don Buero sud don Oomez, left tliat city with the design of choos- ing and fortifying some strong natural frontier, whenre thoy could not only arrest the rnntinual incurHions of the Moors, but maico hostil. irrup- tions themselves into the territories of tlie misbe- lievers. Proceeding along the banks of the Coales, they fell in with a hermit, Amando by name, who encouraged tliein in tlicir patriotic design and recommended the neighbouring her- mitage ot St. Julian as an excellent site for a fortress. Having examined and approved the situation, they applied to the bisliop of Sato- manca for permisHioa to occupy the place: that permisiiion was readily granted: with liis assist- ance, and that of the hermit Amando, the two cavaliers erected a castle around tlie hermitage. They were now Joined by other nobles and by more adventurers, all eager to acquire fame and wealth in this life, irlory in the next Hence the foundation of an unler which, under the name, llrst, of St Julian, and siiliseqiiently of Alcan- tara, rendered good service alike to king and church."— 8. A. Dunham, Jlitt. of Spain and I\>rtug(U, bk. 8, tKt. 8. eh. 1. dit. 9. ALCAZAR,OR " THE THREE KINGS," Battle of (1578 or 1579). See iUuocco: Th« .Vbab ConquKST akd Since. ALCIBIADES, The career ot See Okkbcb: B. C. 431-418, iin<i 411-407; and AtaBNH: B. C. 41S, and 413-111. ALCLYDE.— lihydderch, a Cumbrian prince iif the sixth century who was the victor In a civil coudict, " fixed his headquarters on n rock iu the Clyde, called in the Welsli .VIclud [pro- vioukly a lluman town known as Theodosia], whence it was known U) the English for a time as Alclyde; but the (Joidels called it Dunbret- tan, or the fortrejta of the Brvtiioiis, which hai prevailed in the slightly modliied fomi of Dura- barton. . . . Alclyde wan more than once de- stroyed bv the Northineu."— J. Rhya, CMie Britain, en. 4. — See, also, Ci'mbhia. ALCM/SONIDS, The curse and baaitli- mtot of the. See Atiienh: B t' 613-393. ALCOLEA, Battle of (1868). See Spaih: A. D. 1866-11478. ALOIE, Battle of. N'e UNmo States or Am.: A. D. IHOa (Jcnk-Jllt: Pkhhitl- ranu). ALDINE PRESS, The, See PBtuTiico AXV TUR PUESI: A. D. t461»-131.'). ALBMANNIA: The MediaTal Dnchr. SeeUBHMANT: A. D. 843-9fiJ ALEMANNI, OR ALAMANNI: A. O. •IS-— Orlgia and Brat appearance.— " Under Antoninus, the Son of Sevi run, n new and more severe war oiieo more (.V. D. ai;!i broke out In Raetia. This alto wiw wateil agiiinut the ChattI ; but by their side a m'i I |H>i>ple Is named, which we here meet for llio tint time — the AlamannL Wheeiec llx y fiiiue. we known not. According to a Ibmuii wViliiii; a little later, they were a contlux of mixed ili imnls; the sppclia- Uon also tm-im to point to u ii%gw of communi- ties, as well as ||,e furi th;it, iificrwanls, the diffcn-nt trllns compnliendid under this name stand forth — mure tlian Ik the easit among the other great (li'rmanic ixtiph'S — in their (eiiarate character, aud ihe Jiithiingi, the l^'ntlenaes, and otiier A tom a nnki peoples not srldom act Intle- pcndently. But that It is not the Qermons (A tills region who here emerge, allied under the nc w name and strtngtiicned by the alliance, is sliuwn as well by the naming of the Alainannl alrng side of the ChiittI, an by the mention of the unwonted skilfulnesa of the Aluniannl In equestrian combat. On the contrary, it waa certainly. In the main, hordes coming on from the East that lent new strength to the almost extinguished Oemian resistance on the Rhine; it is not improbable that the |H>werfiil Semnones, in earlier times dwelling on the miiidle Elbe, of whom there is no further mention after the end of the second century, funiislied a strong con- tingent to the Ahimauni."— T. .Mommscn, Uiit. of Homt, bk. 8, eA. 4.— " The standard quotation respecting the derivation of the name from ' al '^' all ' and m-n— ' man ', so that the word (somewhat exceptionably) denotes ' men of all sorts,' is from Agathlas, who quotes Asinluf Quadratus. . . . Notwithstunaing this, I think it la an open question, whether the name may not have been applied by the truer and mora unequivocal Germans of Buabia and Fnmconia, to certain less definitely Uenimnlc allies from Wurtcmberg and Baden, — part.s of the Decu- mates Agri — parts which may have supplied a Gallic, a Gallo-Roman, or even a Slavonic ele- ment to the confederacy ; in which case, a name so German as to have given tlie present French an<l Italian name for (ierinany, mav, originally, have applied to a pci|)ulatii)U other than Ger- manic. I know the apparently paradoxical ele- ments In this view; I)ut I also know that, in the way of etymology, it is (pilte as safe to trans- late ' all ■ by • alii ' as by ' oinnes": and I cannot htlp_ thUiking that the • al- ' in Ale-manni Is the ' al- ' in 'alir-arto '(a foreigner or man of another sort), 'cli-benzo' (an alieul. and 'allhind ' (cap- tivity in foreign land).— (.rimm. 11. 62m — Rcch- Sidterth, p. 839. And still more satistitni am I that the 'al-' in Al einmnd is the 'al-'inAl- satia—' cl-sass ■—• olisal z ■—' foreign settlement.' In other words, the pnllx In (luestion is more probably the 'al-'in 'els.'', than the 'al-'ln 'all.' Little, however, of importance turns on this. The locality of tlie .Vli'iuuiud was the parts about the Uiiie.t lioni.ums, a boundary which. In the time of Alcxunder So\eru8, Nlebuhr thinks they first bmke through. Hence they were the Marrhmen of the fMiitier, who- ever thorn Marchmeu wenv Other sueli Marrh- men were tlie Suevi; unless, indeed, we con- sider the two names ns svni'iiyiniiiis. Zi'iissail- mils that, bctwirn the ^iie\ 1 nf Hiiabia, and the Alemannl, no tangible dillennee can lie found." — R. O. Latlian, Tht (Itrminia of j'aeitut; Epilfgomtna, tft. 11. Al«> in T. Smith, Anniiiiu; pt. 8, eh. l._ See. also, SiEVi, and lUx AiiixN-". A. D. «S9-— loTasion of Caul and Italj, — The Alemannl, '•hovirlir.f mi the fnmliers of the Empire . . . Imreasiil tiie genenU dis- or.:er that ensued after the death of Doclus. They Inlllcted severe wounds on the rich pMvlnei-s of Oaul; they veri' the llrst who removed the veil tliiit covered the feeble majesty of Italy. A niimenius h.Hlv of the Aliinonui nenetrat4il aeroos the Oiuiulio and through the Ulr ■' - • '- ' 42 111! Ilan Alps Into tlio plains of Ixmiburly viinr«j a* far aa Itavrne.a s.-.i! diapUn^;! V;f toriotis lianners of I of Rome [A. U. 839], t and ttw Uaofer siglit ~ ALEMANm, A. D. 2S9. rekindled In the senate some sparks of their ancient virtue. Both tlie Kmperors were en- gaged in far distunt wiini — Valerian in the East and Galienua on the Itiiine. " The senators however, succeeded in coufrnntin/; the audacious invaders with a force which cliccked their ad- vance, and thcv "retired into Germany laden with spoil. "—E. Gibbon, Ikcliaeand t'(Uleft/i« Brnnan t-Jmpire, cA. 10. A. p. 370.— Invasion of Italy.— Ita'y was Invaded by tjie Alcmanui, for the second time in the reign of Aurclinn, A. D. 270. They rav'- agcd the provinces from the Danube to the Po and were retreating, laden with spoils, when the vigorous Emperor intercepted them, on the banks of the former river. Half the host was permitted to cross the Danube; the other half was surprised and surrounded. But these last, unable to regain their own country, broke through the Roman lines at their rear and sped into Italy again, spreading havoc as they went It was only after three great battles,— one near PIscentia, in which the Itomans were almost beaten, another on the Metaurus (where Ilas- drubal was defeated), and a third near Pavia — that the Germanic Invaders were destroyed — E. Gibbon, Dedint and fhU of tht Amtait Em- ptrf, eh. U. oii^.°A.^*-&il.'**''"'- "^ J""^ «- A. D. 365-^67.- Invasion of GauL-Tho Alenmnul invaded Oiiu! iiiJMIS, committing wide- spread ravages and carrying awav into Sie for- MU of Germany great siwil and liiauy captives. The next winter they cro««e<l the Hhine, again, in still greater numbers, def.tiled the Roman forces and capturcil the standattls of the Ileru- lian and Batavian auxiliaries. But Valentinlan was now Emix.ror, and he adopU-U energetic measures. II.s lieutenant Jovinus overcame the Inviiders in a great battle fought near Chalons and drove them bark to their own side of the river K.undary. Two years later, the Emperor himself passed the RliUio and Inflicted a inemo' niblc chastisement on the Alemannl. At the same lime hu strengtheni'd the frontier deft-nces and, by dipKmiatic arU, fonient«l quarrels Iw- tween the Alemaunl and th.lr nolghboni, the Burgundlans, which weakened U>lh. —E Gib- ^"is '"^ '''" "■'' '** ^'"*"' *»/»«. ^n^.l°; ^•~^''*^ ^f Gratian.-On learn- ing llmt the young EmiHMr Griitian was prc- parlng to Inid the mllilary force of (}«iil and the West to the help of his uncle and colleague Valens, aga nst the Goths, the Alemanul swarmed acn>|« the Rhine Into Gaul. Oratim Inslanlly re<all«i il,« \,.g\oa» that were marching to I'au- ooniaand ene,.untcr.-d the Genniiri iiiTSdera In a gnjat iKitile fought near Argenlnrla (mo<lern t olmar) In tlie ni..nth of .May, A. I) 878 The Alemanni were routed will, su< h slaughter that no more than S.OtH) out of 40,0.K| to 7l),O0(l, areWw to have esrapnl. Gralian afl. rwnr-U crossed the lihlne and humhlwl hi^ troul)!, some nelghbon ftiU .7 Mfl /J..imi» h.minrr. ch. 20 A- D-496-S04— Overthrow by tht Franks. u.ey ,oi,owr,i"p;,:^;,;^;; .;:,^^;i;\V^i';i until the .lean. ,.f ,l,eir rriJ king Tl» AleiaMiiii, oxteiMliog theinwlrrs from tbeir origl- 48 ALEMANNI, A. D. 547. nal scats on the right bank of the Rhine, betweea the Mam and the Danube, had pushed forward Into G.rnianica Prima, where they came into collision with the Fraukish subjects of King 8igebi-rt of Cologne. Clovis flew u. the assist- inceof his kinsman and deleated the Al.mannl m a grea battle In the uelghbourho<Kl of Zal- pichludle.1 commonly, the battle of TolbUcl. Ho then established a Cflnsiderable uumlier of his franks m the territory of tiie AUmanni, the traces of whoso resiik'nce are foun.l in the immet of Fmnconia and Frankfort."- W. C. Perry, The tyaukt eh. 2.-" Clovis liad Inen intending to cross the Rhine, but the hosts of the AlaiMnnl came upjm him, as It seems, unexpectedly and forced a battle on the left bank of the river He seeme-l to he overmatched, and the horror of an Impending defeat overshadowed the FrankUh i'll*^'. .. <?• ° i*'' despair, he bethought him- f '.?h ^"1"^ P^'^f"' °' ">« ortho,lox or said: Oh Jesus Christ, whom Clotilda decbret to be Uie Son of the living God, who art said to trust In Thee, I humbly beseech Thy succour! I have called on my gods and they are far from my help If Thou wilt deliver me fnm, mine euemies, I will believe in Thee, and Iw bupUsed In Thy name.' At this moment, a sudden ctanle was seen in the fortunes of the Franks. TB« 1 .■ '' j"^ "?'"«• «=conll»« to one account wu slain: and the nation seems to have accpU-d Clovis as iu over-lord." The following Christ- mas day tlovis was baptised at Reims and 8,000 of hU warriors followe<f the royal example. " In the early years of the new ctntury, probablv about 503 or 504, Clovis was again at w^ wl4 his old enemies, Uic Alainai.nl. . . Clovta movc<l his army Into their Urrit.>ries and won • victory inucli more decisive, though less famou. Uian that of 486. This time the aZry k^^ M.i ^*^ "It"'^''" ?'<"»««" dwellings by the Ma n and the Neckar. from all the valley of the ?.«. ^.H"''"••a^"'? f"^''"' Al»>»«"nl were f( «•(.. o flee. Tlieir place was Uken by Frank- . .1 w?Ji'°'".*'""'i •" ^''" '"strict Wived In tlie Mhldle Ages the name of the Duchy of Francia or, at a rather laur date, that of ih. t rcle of FranconU. The Alaniannl, with their wives and children, a broken and dispirited host. mov«l southward to the shons of the Lakeof Rhtt-lia. Hero tliev were on what was hehl lo Thcxlortc, as ruler of li„|y, „ „„,.e««or to tb. Emi»ror» of the WV.t, was .tr,.f hnl forth to protect t^«.m. . . . Eastern Swltierland West- S™ Ty'l. «""tl«-m Hadenand WQnemlUrSd Southwcsiem Bavarta prolwhly form.,1 thl?new Alanmnnls, which will figure in later hl.torv sa T ii"7'l.'r Alamanni*, or (he Circle of «wibla. — T. n.Hlgkln, lUilgand ll,-r Innulen. bk. 4 M 9 «*';"';.'•'','■ "'"'"In- "i't- "f Fniuft: AneirM 4flO-,VIII; and Fhakks: A. I). 4HI-311 A, D 5a>-7»9 -Struggles Anisist th» F««k Dominion, 8.^ 0««a«v7^. u 4«l! oA,°- 547.— f JwU MUtction t* th« FmnkA Bse BaVAHU: A. D. UT. '■""ma- li ALEPPO. ALEPPO : A. D. 638-969.— Taken by the Arab followers of Mahomet iii 638, this city wai recovered by the Byzantines iu 869. See Btza>- TINE Empire: A. U. 963-1025. A. D. ia6o.— Destruction by the MonKoli. — The Mongols, tmder Khulagu, or Houlavou, brother of Mangu Khan, hiivlng overrun Meso- potamia and extinguished the Caliphate at Bag- dad, crossed the Euphrates in the spring of law and advanced to Aleppo. The city was talcen after a siege of seven days and given up for five days to pillage and slaughter. "Syhen the carnage ceased, the streets were cuml)ered with corpses. ... It is said that 100,000 women and children were sold as slaves. The walls of Aleppo were razed, its mosques destroyed, and its gardens ravagetl." Damascus submitted and was spared. Khulagu was meditating, it is said, the conquest of Jerusalem, when news of the death of the Great Klian called him to the East — U. U. Uoworth, ITut. of (A« MonooU, pp. 80)^ 811. '^'^ A, D. 1401.— Sack and Maaaacre by Timonr. See TiMOVR. ALESIA, Sicce of, bj Catar. See Qaul: B. C. 6S-51. ALESSANDRIA: The creation of the city (ti68). See Itai.v: A, D. 1174-1188. ALEUTS, The. See American Aborioi- XEi: Eskimo. ALEXANDER the Great, B. C. 334-3a3. — Coaauetti and Empire. See Macedonia, Ic., B. C. 8.34-331), nnd after. . . .Alexander, Kins of Poland, A. U. I.ioi-ISOT. . . .Alexander, Prince of Bulgaria.— Abductionand Abdication. See BriAJAuiA: A I). 18*8-1886... Alexander I., Cxar of Russia, A. D. 1801-1833. . . .Alezan> der I., King of Scotland, A, D. 1107-1184. . . . Alexander II., Pope, A. D. 1061-1073 Alexander 11., C»ar of Russia, A. D. 185&- 1881 ...Alexander I!., Kinr of Scotland. A. I). 1214-1U4!) . . .Alexanderlll., Pope, A. D. 1159-1 181 .. . .Alexander III., Csar of^Russia. A. I). 1881-. . . .Alexander III., Klnr of Scot- land, A. I>. 1349-1386. . . . Alexander HT., Pope. A. I). 12.%4-1261 . . .Alexander V., Pope A. D. 1409-UIO (eleitiil by the Cuiincil of Pisa) Alexander VI., Pope, A. D. 1493 1503. . . .Alex- ander VII., Pope, A. D. 16.55-1007... Alex- ander VIII., Pope, A. D. 1689-1 fiOl... Alex- ander Severus, Roman Emperor, A. II. 33;.'-335. ALEXANDRIA: B. C. 33a. -The Found- in( of the City— "When AU \ ui.lcr Uiirlifd the Egypiliiii military statinu ut the little town or village of lUiakotIs, hii saw with the quick eye of a great coniniaiidi r how to turn thiit petty settlement iiilo n great citv, and to make Its rmidstntd. out of which ships could 1m' blown by a change of wind, into a double harbour nHituy enou^th to shelter the ihitIch of the world. All that was 0ee<li'il was to Join the inland liy a mole to the continent. The site was admlmlily secure and rnnvenli'nt. a narrow strip of laml between the Metllterraiiiiin anil the grent M imi Ijikc Mare- Otis. Thii wliole iiorthef f»ce<l the two harbours, which were bouii t and west by the mole, anl Uyond by the _, n«rrf)w rooky Island of I'hsroH, stretching parallel with the coast. On Ihr south was the inlsnd [lort of Uke Mareotis The litiirth of the rity wsj iQur,. t!ia» Uiree miles, the hreaillh muri' than thrpeiiunrten of a mile; the mole was above three-quarters of 44 ALEXANDRIA, B. C. 28S-S46. a mile long and six htudred feet broad; its breadth is now doubled, owing to the silting up of tl;e sand. Modem Alexandria until lately only occupied the mole, and was a great town in a comer of the space which Alexander, with large provision for the future, measured out. The form of the new city was raled by that of the site, but the fancy of Alexander designed it in the slupe of a Macedonian cloak or chlamys, such as a national hero wears on tlie coins of the kings of Hacedon, his ancestors. The situation Is excellent for commerce. Alexandria, with the best Egyptian harbour on the Mediterranean, and the inland port connected with the Nile streams and canals, whs the natural emporium of the Indian trade. Port Said is superior now, iKcause of its grand artiUcial port aud the advantage for steamships of an unbroken sea- route."— R. 8. Poole, Citia nf Bgyi>t, eh. 18.— See, also, Macedonia, &c. : B. C. 834-830; and Egypt: B. C. 882. Reign of Ptolemy Philadelpbns, B. C. aSa- a46.— Creatncas and splendor of the City. — Its Commerce.— Its Libraries.— Its Museum. — Its Schools.— Ptolemy Philadelpbus, sou of Ptolemy Soter, succeeiled to the throne of Egypt in 283 B. C. when his father retin-d from it In Ilia favor, and reigned until 846 B. C. "Alexandria, founded by the great conqueror, increased and beautified by Ptolemy Soter, was now far the greatest city of Alexander's Empire. It was the first of those new foundatl<ins which are a marked feature in Helleniaui; there were many others of gri'st size and impurtauce — above all, Antloch, then Selcucia on the Tigris, tlien Nicomedia, Nicti'a, Apamea, which Usted; besides such as Lysimacheia, Antiguueia, ami others, which early disappeared. . . . Alexan- drU was the model for all the rest. The inter- section of two great principal thorouehfares, adorned with colonnades for the frxit wavs, formed the <'eutre point, the omphalos of the city. The other streets were at right angh'S with these thonmghfares, so that the whiHe place was quite regular. Counting its old part, liiiakotis, \rtilch was Rtill the habitation of native Egyptians, Alexandria had five quarters, one at least 'devoted to Jews who had originally settled tli<Te in great numben. The mlxiil pop'ilation there of Mace- donians, Oreeks, Jews, aud Egyptians gave a p<'culiariy coiiii>lex ami variable character to the lK)pulation. Ut us nut forget the v»st number of strangers from all parts of the world whom trade and politics brought there. It was the great mart where the weallliofEunipe anil of Asia changed hands. Alexamler hud niieneil the sea- way by exploring lliecoaslHof .Meuia anil PersU. Caravans from the head of the Pemiun (iiilf, aud slilps on the HikI Sea, brought all the woiiilere of Ceylon and China, as well as of Portlier India, to Alexan.lrla. There. t.Ki, the wealth of Spain and Oatil, lite produce of Italy and Mait'dnnla, the amber of the Baltic and the salt fish of Pontus. the silver of Spain and the copper of Cyprus, the timber of Maceilnnia and ("nte, the pottery and oil of (Insert. — a IliiMiHund imports frnm all the Meiliterranean — came to lie exclmngiil for the splci's of Arabia, the Bph'iidid liinU and endmil il' >i.nof India and Ceylon, the giiiil a'd ivory of ■ tica, IlieanU'liip."*, the Bins, the leopards, the ■-■ptiap.tsr.f fr.ip!.H!, ||iiir<i IJrntx Ihr rn.irmous wealth of the Ugiilir, for In aildlllon to the mar- is fertility aud great (Hipulation — it is said ALBXASDRIA, B. 0. aS^SM. to have been »eTeii mlllloiu— of Egypt, they made all the proflts of this enormous cuTying trade. We gain a good idea of what tie splen- dours of the capital were by the very full account preserved to us b v Athensua of the great feast which Inaugurated the reign of PhlTadelphus. ... All Uils seems Idle pomp, and the doing of an Idle sybarite. Pbiladelphus was anything but that ... It was he who opened up the i&yp- tian trade with Italy, and made PuteoU the gr^t port for ships from Alexandria, which It remahied for centuries. It was he who explored Etiaopia and the southern pans of Africa, and brought back not only the curious fauna to his zoologteal fardens, but the first knowledge of the Troglo- ytes for men of science. The cultivation of science and of letters too was so remarkably one of his nursuitt that the progrsaa of the Alexan- dria of his day forms an epoch In the world's hUtory and we must soparate hU University and Its professors from this summary, and devote to them a separate secUon. ... The history of the organization of the University and lu staff Is covered with almost Impenetrable mist For the Museum and Library were in the strictest sense what we should now call an University, and one too of the Oxford type, where learned men were Invited to Uke Fellowships, and spend their learned leisure close to observatories In science, and a great library of books. Like the medieval universities, this endowment of research naturally turned Into an engine for teaching, as all who desired knowledge flocked to such a centre, and persuided the Fellow to bcconc a Tutor. The model came from Athens. There the schools beginflliig with the Academy of Plnto. hatl a fixed propcrtv — a home with iu surmuudiug gsrden, and in order to make this fnumlatlon sure, it was made a shrine where thj Muses were worshlppc<l, and where the bead of the school, or a priest sppolnted, performed sUted sacrifices. Thin thin, being held In trust by the successon of the donor, who bequeathed It to them, woa property which it would have Uen sacrilegious to Invaijc, and so the title Museum annc for a school of learning. Demetrius the Phslcrean, tlie rriond and protector of Thcopbrasius, brought this idea wllh him to Alexandria, when his name- sake drove him Into exile [see GnKECl- B C 2'^^'li^ "'' " "■• '>" ''oubt hU advice to the first Ptolemy which originated the great foun- lUllon, though Philadrfnhus. who again exiled Demetrius, gcu ilie credit of it. Tlie pupil of Aristotle moreover impressed on the king the nocewlty of storing up In one central repository all that the world knew or could pniduco In order to sscertain the Uws of things from a pri>. p<-r anslytis of detail. Hence was founded not only the great library, which in those davs had a thousand times the value a great lll)rarv lias now but also observatories, loologlcal gardens, col' lections of exotic plants, and of other new and strange things brought by exploring expeditions from tlie furthest regions of Arsl.la nnd Africa, ihls lllirary and muwum proved Imieed a home for the Muses, and aN it It a most brilliant group of students In literature and scienre was formcif I he sucrrssive lilirariiins were Zenodxtun the Krsmmarian or critic; Calllmarhus, to whose pnemi we shall prevntly return' Era!:Kthfr.ri the Mtrnncimer, who originated" the'pn.ceM by whieh the »Ue of the esrtS Is determined today : AppoUoBlui Um Rhodlaa, dUdpIs aad «BM>y o^ 45 ALBXAin)IUA. a 0. S83-34S. Oalllmachaa ; Aristophanes of By xantium, founder of a school of philological criticism ; and Aristar- chus of Samoa, reputed to have been the greatest CTltlc of ancient times. The study of the text of Homer was the chief labour of Zienodotiis, Aris- tophanes, and Aristarchus, and it was Arisur- chus who mainly fixed the form In which tlie Iliad and Odvssey remain to this day. . . . The vast collections of the library and museum actually determtoed the whole character of the literature f Alexandria. One word sums It all up — eruUiUon, whether In pUlosophy, in criti- cism, in science, even In poetry. Strange to say they neglected not only oratory, for which there was no scope, but history, and this we miiv attri- bute to the fact that history before Alexander had DO charms for Hellenbm. Mythlc<U lore, on the other hand, strange uses and curious words, were *>fP»"ioenU of research dear to them. In science they did great things, so did they in geography. • ■ But were they original in nothing? Did they add nothing of their own to the splendid record of Greek llteratureT In the next gener- ation came the art of criticism, which Aristar- chus developed Into a real science, and of that we may speak In its place; but even In thit SineretloD we may claim for them the credit of ree original, or nearly original, devclopmenu , literature — the pastoral Idyll, as we have it to Theocritus; the elegy, as we have It in the Roman Imltaton of Philetas and Callimachus; and the romance, or love story, the parent of our modem noveU. All these had earfv prototypes In the folk songs of Sicily, In the fove songs of Mimnermus and of Antlmachus, in the ules of Ml etus, but still the revival was fairly to be called original. Of these the pastoral idyll was far the most remarkable, and laid hold upon the world for ever."— J, P. Mahaffy, The Story of AUiandevK Empire, eh. 1»-14.—" There were two Libraries of Alexandria under the Ptolemies, the larger one In tlie quarter called the Bruehlum and the smaller one, named 'the daii.^hter,' In the Herspcum, which was situated in the quarter «IIed Rhacotis. The former was totally destroyed In the conflagration of the Bruehlum during Oaar's Alexandrian Wor [sec btlnw- B. C. 4«-47]: but the latter, which was of treat !["Hf a""™''"'''' ""Injured (see Matter, Jhtloirt at lEeoU d'AUrandrie, tol 1, p. 18aif7.,287 •se,) It Is not stated br any ancient writer where the collection of Pergamus [see Pkrga- IflM] was placed, which Antony gave to Cleo- patra (Plutorcb, Anton., c, 68); but It Is most probable that It was deposited in the Bruehlum as tlut quarter of the city was now without a llbmry. and the queen was anxious to repair tbe ravages occasioned by tbe civil war. If this supposition Is correct, two Alexandrian libraries continued to exist after the time of Osar, and this i» rendered still more probslilo bv tlio fact that during the first three ceuluries v( the Chris- tian era the Bruehlum was still the literary quarier of Alexandria. But a great i Imnge took place In the time of Aurellan. TliU Enipcit)r In supnresiiing the revolt of Firmus in Kirvpt. A D. 478 [aeii Ih'Iow: A. D. 873J h •al.l i.. have dewroynl the Bruehlum; aud tlioueli tlila male ment Is hardly to lie taken llterallv, the Uiuiliium PH»rr-i f^•r:-! tills iiioc to boiBd'i!,ii,i niii.iuii.B walls of Alexandria, and was reganlnl onh- n» a suburb of the city. Whether the gr.at Iflirary in Um Bruchluin with tba musaum and It* otlMr ALEXANDRIA, B. C. 283-346. nterary cstebllghmente, perished at this time, we do not know ; but the Serapeum for the next century takes its place as the literary quarter of Alexandria, and becomes the chief library in the city. Hence later writers erroneously speak of the Serapeum as if it had been from the be^nning the great Alexandrian library. . . . Gibboa seems to think that the whole of the Bcrapcum was destroyed [A. D. 389, l)y order of the Emperor Theodosius— see below]; but this was not the case. It would appear that it was only the sanctuary of the god that was levelled with the ground, and that the library, the halls and other buildings in the ci)nsccrate<l ground remainetl standing [ong afterwards. "—E. Gibbon, Dtfliw and Fntlcf the Woman Empire, «*. 88. y'nta by Dr. William S»i««A.— Concern- ing the reputed Unal destruction of the Library aj the Moslems, see below: A. D. 641-646 Also i.n : (). Uelepicrre. /littorieal DijIteuUiei, tA. 8.-8. Sharpe, Uiat. nf hJiypt, eh. 7, 8 and 12. —See, also, Nkoplato.nic«. 'and LniKARtKS. B. C. 48^7— C«t«r and Cleomitr«.-Th* Riunc aKsinst the Romuu.— The Siere.— DeetrucUon of the great Libranr.— Roman ▼letoty.— From the battle field of Pharsaliu (see Rome : B. C. 48) Pompeius fled to Alexandria in Egypt, and was treacherously murdered as ho stepped on shore. Ceesar arrived a few days afterwards, in close pursuit, and shed tears, it is said, on being shown his rival's mangled head. He had brought scarcely more than 3,000 of his soldiers with him, and he found Egypt in a tur- bulent state of civil war. The throne was in dispute between children of the late king PtoleraiEus Aulctcs. Ck-cpatra, the elder daugh- ter, and FtoleniKua, a son, were at war with one another, and Arsinol^, a younger daughter, waa ready to put forwanl claims (see Eoypr: B. C. 8<M8). Notwiihstandlng 'le insignifi- cance of his force, Ca-aar did not ^l•^ tatc to as- sume to occupy Alexandria and to u ! idlcatc the dispute. But the fascinations C Cleopatra (then twenty yeara of age) soon made him her partisan, and her scarcely disgulaed lover. This aggravated the IrriUtion which was caused in Alcxandrhi by the presence of Casar's troops ??".' ,'i''?'" '*'''°? "' ">« <^'ty "»» pMvoked. Ho fortified himself in the great palace, which he had taken possession of, and which com- manded the causeway to the island, Pliaros thenliy commanding the port Destroying a larsc iiart of the city In that nelghborhcKxl, he made Ills piwition exnt'dinxly stronp. At the same time he seized ami burmd the royal fleet and thus caused a conflagration in which the greater of the two priceless libraries of Alex- andria — the library of th" Museum — was, much of it, consumed. [Sec above: B. C. 283-240 1 By such measures Cwsar withstood, for several montl'j, a siege conducted on the purl of the Aloxaudrians with great determination and animosity. It wus not until March, B. C. 47 tjiat ho was relieved from his dangerous situa- tioo, by the arrival of a faithful ally, in the per. soil of -Mithridales, of Pcrgamus, who Iwl an army Into Egypt, reduced Pehuium, and crossed the Nile nt the bewl of the Delta. I'lole- iniMn ailvauced with his troops to meet this ■ew invader and was followed and ovoruken bv " •- '• battle • Esypliaii arMiy was ulitriy routed and Ptole- ■Mua perished in Um MUa Cleopatra was then M ALEXANDRIA. A. D. 378, married, after the Egyptian fashion, to • younger brother, and established on the throne, while ArainoC was sent a prisoner to Rome. — A. Uirtius, The Alexaiulriaa War. A. D. 100-312.— The EarlT Chriitiaa Church. — Its Influence. See Cbristianitt : A. D. 100-812. A. D. li<.— Oeitmction of the Jew*. 8e« Jews: A. D. 116. .,/A- "•„ a«S. — Maeaacre by Caracalliu— tanu'alla was the common enemy of mankind. He left the capital (and he never returned to it) about a vear after the murder of Geta [A. D 813). The rest of his reign [four years] was spent In the several provinces of the Empire, particularly those of the East, and every prov- iiK^e was, by turns, the scene of his rapine aud cruelty. ... In the midst of peace, and upon the slightest provocation, ho issued his commands at Alexandria. Egypt [A. D. 215], for a general massacre. From a secure post in the temple of Serapls, he viewed and directed the slaughter of many thousand citizens, as well as strangers, without distinguishing either the number or the crime of the sutTen-ni.^'— E. Gibbon, Declint and Fall of the Roinun Empire, ch. 6 A. D. 360-373.— Tumulta of the Third Cen- tufT- — "The people of Alexandria, a various mixture of nations, united the vanity and incon- stancy of the Greeks with the sufieretitlon and obstinacy of the Egyptians. The most trifling occasion, a transient scarcity of flesh or lentils, the neglect of an accustomed saluuitlon, a mis- tske of precedency In the public bulbs, or even a riligious dispute, were at any time sufflcient to kimlle a se<lltion among that vast multitude wlioeo resentments were furious and implacable Aflir the captivity of Valerian [the Roman Em- penir, made prisoner by Sapor, king of Persia A. D, 290] anil the in.solcnce of hU son bad re- hixiil the authority of the laws, the Alexandrians abandoned themselves to the ungovemed rage of their passions, and their unhappy country was the theatre of a civil war, which continued (with a few short and suspicious truces) above twelve yc.irs. All Intercourse was cut off between the several ouaru-ra of the afflicted city, every street was polluted with blood, every building of strength converted into a citadel; nor did the tumult subside till a considerable part of AIcx- amlria was Irretrievably ruined. The spacious and maguiflcent district of Bruchion, with Its pahucs and museum, the residence of the kings and pliilofwphera of Egypt. IsdescrilHd, above a century afterwards, as already rodureil to tU prcmiit state of dreary solitude."- E. Gibbon, J)t,\iiui and Fall o/ihe liman Empire, eh III A. p, 373.— Deitruction of the Bruchium by Aurehan. — After subduing Palmvra and lu yuc( 11 Zenobia, A. D. 278, the Eniperor Aure- Inn was called Info Eftypt to put .1 \a a re bel Ion there, hc.uled by one I^nniis, a friend still ally of the Palinyrene queeu. KIrnius had great wealth, dirivedfrom trade, and from the pilKrmanufai lure of Egypt, which was mostlv In Ins hands, lie was defeated and put t.. ili-nh "To Aurellans war against FIrmus, or to that of Prubusa little iH-forc In Egypt, may be re ftrred the distructlon of Uruihium, a gnut ■liiarter.if Al.xandrla, whlih «cc .nling to Am niianus M«rwl!jni|.. ^^g r!:!!:i;l i;:::!cr A'lreilaD acd remained deserted ever after. "—J. B. L. Cre- Uitl. <ffth4 Human Emptrort, Ue. 37, II ALEXAKDRIA, A. D. 298. ^,P-,»9«- -p'jy ^7 DJocletlM—A reneral revolt of tlie African provinces of the Homan tmpire occurred A. U. 2»«. The barbarous tribf» of Ethiopia and the desert were brought into alliance with the provincials of Envnt Cyrenaica, Carthage and Mauritania, ana the flame of war was universal. Both the emperors "^."',^H'?*^i^'*'*"'"' ""* Maximlan, were ca led to the African field. " Diocletian, on his s de, onenea the campaign in Egypt by the siege of Alexandria, cut off the aqueducU which conveveii the waters of the Nile Into every quar- ter of that immense city, and, rendering his camp Impregnable to the sallies of the besieired multitude, he pushed his reiterated attacks with caution and vieor. After a siege of eight months, Alexandria, wasted by the swoid and by fire, implored the clemency of the conqueror but it experienced the full extent of his severity' Many thousands of the citizens perished in a pro- miscuous slaughter, and there were few obnox- ious persoins In Egypt who escaped a sentence either of death or at least of exile. The fate of Busiris and of Coptos was still more melancholy than that of Alexandria; those proud cities were utterly destroyed. "-E. Gibbon, JOerfini and taUvftht Homan Empire, eh. la A. D. 365. -Great Earthquake. See Earth- (jr.\ltK IN THB liOHA.N WoKLD: A D 865 ^.P' 389.— Deatruction of the Se'rapeiim. — AfUT the edicts of Theodtwlus had severely priihiNiied the sacrifices of Uie pagans, tin y were Still tolerated in the city and temple of Hr'ipis ... I he archepiscopul throue of AIe»»plrla W!is filled by Thcophilus, the perpetual enemy of VvMv and virtue; a bold, bad man, whose hamls were altimately polluted with gold and with I1I0.HI. Uis pious indignation was excited by the honours of Sirupis. ... The votaries of fcerui.is, whose strength and numbers were much mfcnor to those of their antaitonisU, rose in arms [A. D. 38UJ at the iiistigiition of the philo- sopher Olympius, who exhorted them to die in the defence of the altars of the gods These pagan fanatics fortified thcniselvfs in the temple or rather fortress, of Weropis; ri'pelled tlie be'- tugew by daring sallies an<l a resolute defence; aim by the inhuman cruelties which they exer- useil on their Christian prisoners, obtained the !ust consolation of despair. The efforu of the pruc cut magistrate were usefully excned for the ( nalilishtuent of a truce till the answer of Thto- |.osius f!i<).il<l determine tlie fate of Kerapis " li.e jud.-nunt c.f the emperor condemned the j-riat temple to destruction and it was reduced loa heap of ruins "The valuable library of Alexsniiria was pillaged or destroyed ; and near Im!!';'^ Tf " ""•■'•.'"'r''". "'« 8pp..un.i,ce of the rmpli shelves excited the regret and indignation of every spectator wlu«e mind was not totally darken.^ by rthgious nrejudice."-E. Oibb<in VWi,«, ,,W /J,« ,/ </M kom„n Empin M. 88 - (.iblx.n » statement as to the dcsitruction of the great library in the aempeum is calle.1 in que,- ii'D by hi* learned uuuotalor, Dr. Omith bee II hove: B. (.', Wi-na hi.*M^h.'"^Vi?"T»'« patriarch Cyril and nis Mobi — Ills voice [ilnit of tynl, Putri- «I'penM.il the pauinns of the iniililtnit.- ^tu c tuiintlc paraboittni. familiari/,.1 In their dally ottic With scene, of death, aiM the pnefecU of ALEXANDRIA, A. D. 641-4M Egypt were awed or provoked by tb<! temooal power of these Christian pontics. Ard3 in the prosecution of heresy, Cyril auspiciously 2^™1. * "'^nhy oppressing the Novatlans, the most innocent and harmless of the sectaries ;k-"t to'c™'i''ii, and even the privileges of S'.'i^*"' '"''" '"^ rau:..plied to the num^,rof J;^ D.T*"i "^""l*' ^Y ^^ '«'■'> 0' f^e Cesam and Ptolem es and a long prescripUon of 700 years -'-oe the foundation of Alexandria. With- out anv legal sentence, without any royal man- date t£e patriareh, at the dawn of diy, led a seditious multitude to the attack of tlie syna- ^JiTt, U°'»""«:'l ■"«» unprepared, the Jews were incapable of resistance: their houses of prayer were levelled with the ground, and the eplVcoW plunder of their toods, expelled from the city the remnant of the misbelieving nation. Pef- haps he might plead the Insolence of their prosperity, and their deadly Utred of the Chris- tians, whose blood they had recently shed in a malicious or accidental tumult. Slich crimes wou d have deserved the animadvcislons of the magistrate: but in this promiscuous outraee the J°^"' "^""^ confounded with the guilty "— E. Gibbon V^rlinemut Fatt of the R^n Em- rtv. .■ *^~" "^'°.™ '""8 ^^ "dherents of the archbishop were guilty of a more atrocious and unprovoke<l crime, of the guilt of which a deei) !1^'J^2!1 ;"•«=''«*, "» .Cyril. All Alexandria respected, honoured, took pride in the celebrated Hypatla. 81ie was a woman of extraordinary learning; In her was centred the lingering knowl- edge of that Alexandrian Platonism cultivated by Plotinua aud his school. Her beauty was equal to her leaminit: her modesty commended bot.1. . . Ilypatia lived In great fntimacy with the pnefect Unates; the only charge whispered b^fl'll r .T" "'?i *^l encouraged him tn his hosti ity to the patriareh. . . . Some of Cyrils ferocious partisans seire<l this woman, draeeed her from her rlinriot, and with the most revolt tog indecency tore her clothes off and then rent her limb from limb.'-H. H. Milman, /A.f. „t Latin GhriMtianily. hk. 8, ek. 8 " Also IN C. Klngsley. nypaiia. A. D. «t6.-Tak«j 6r ChosroM. See Eoyrr: A. D, 610-828, Th^nSli**':*.''*-7 ■''''• "»•'•'» Conqu«it.- The precise date of eventa In the Moslem con n,"!;*'"."' *''?>'P'- ''.*' Am™, lieutenant of ilie lallph Omar, is uncertain. Sir Win. Mulr fl.xes 'a nT..'"'^;/"'''V''' Alexandria to Amr.i hi A. I>. (HI. After that It was reoccupied by tli» Jfyzantines either once o- twice, on occasions of neglect by the Aralis. as they pursued their eoi,- ciuesta elsewhere. The probaliility seems to be that this occurred only on««, In MB. It seems also probable, as remarked by Sir W. Mulr, that the two sieges on the taking and retaking of the city — 641 and 646- have been much confii8e<l In the ranty acci.unu which have come down to us Onihe firat occasion Alexandria would appear to have been generously treated; while, on the st^-ond It s.iffere<l pfllage and Ita fortifications were destroy..!. IIow fsr there is truth In the commonly acc.ptnl story of the deliberate bum- lii« of tlin great A lexamlrian Library— or so mu<h • f It as iiatl f:«Tjpcd drstniclioii «t ti,,. i,«,„i, of Homan generals and Olirisllan patriarchs— is a question still in dispute. Gibbon .llscredlted the story, ami BIr Wlllism Muir, the Utett of i • V4 r?l ALEXANDRIA, A. D. 641-646. ■tndenti In Mahometan blstoiy, declines even the mention of it In his narrative of the conquest of Egypt. But othor historians of repute maintain the probable accuracy of the tale told by Abul- pharagus— that Caliph Omar onlered the de- struction of the Library, on the ground that, if the books in it agreed with the Koran they were useless, if they disagreed with U they wew Permdous.— 8eeMABo;4BTA»Coit«niMT: A. D. iith-isth Centuries.— Trade. See TRAoa. A. D. 1798.— Captured ojr the French imder Bonaparte. See Fbadce: A. D. 1788 (Mat— ACOtJST). A. D. i8oi-i8oa. — Battle of French and EiiKlish.— Restoration to the Tnrka. See TtLAXcm: A. D. 1801-1802. _ A. p. 1807.— Surrendered to the Enrliah.— The brief occupation and humiliatinc capitif lation. See TuBBs: A. D. 1806-1807. a \P' >>40.— Bombardment br the BnKliah. See TiTBKs: A. D. 1881-1840 A. D. i88a.— Bombardment by the Bncllsh ■•**L— Massacre of Europeans.— Deatmaioa. SeeEoTW: A. D. 1876-1882, and 1888-1888. ALEXANDRIA, LA., The Bnminr oC Bee UKfTED States op Ah. : A. D. 1864 (Mabch —Mat: LodisianaX ALEXANDRIA, VA., A. D. i86t (May).- Occnpation hj Union troops.— Murder of Col- onel Ellsworth. See Csitkd States or Ax. : A. D. 1861 fMAT: ViBoraiA). ALEXANDRIAN TALENT. SeeTAiEsr. »i-|5l?.'J^f"J*' Russia, A. D. 1645-1676. ALEXIUS I. (Comacnus), Emperor la the »*•» (Bysantine, or Creek), A. D. 1081-1118. ....Alexins n. (Comncnus), Emperor la J^Jo^"!/^'^*"*'"*' "' C"*''). A. D. 1181- ."^ B^*5" '"• (Ancelus), Emperor ia the Bast (Byxantiae, or cfreek), A D. 119»- 1208 Alexius IV. (An«lus), Emperor In !S)?.^**l.<^T*"*'n«> O' Greek), A. 1). 1803- 1204 Alexius V, (Ducas), Emperor ia "'5?S!i»^li?^'i?*' •' Greek), A. iJ. 1204. ALFONSO I., Kiaarof Aragonand Navarre. A. D. 110*-1184. . . .Aftonso 1." Kingof Castili ^J?- "I'h"'*! •"•' '"• »' Leon, A. D. 1065^ 110».... Alfonso I., Kmr of Leon and the Asturiat, or Oriedo, A. U. 739-757. . . .Alfonso l-.i^iag ot PoTtMnl, A. D. IIIS-IIM.... Alfonso I., King of Sicily, A. D. 1416-U58 . . . Alfnnan If VIhm «./ A -. a rv •■«« ..«. ALLOBROOES. MO VI., Kiae of Portugal, A. D. 7. . . .Alfoaso VII., KinjF of Leoa, A. 1186. . . .Alfonso VIII., Ring of Leoa, Alfonso II., King of Aragoni .\ D. 1163-119ft " — orcastile, A. D. 1186- . .Alfonso 11., King t _ ^ 1157.... Alfonso II., ICing of Leon and"tha A*'»ri,V' " 9'1»,"*"»' ^ ^ 7l»l-84«. . . .Alfonso II., KioK of Naples, A. D. U94-14l>5.... tV,?"*** }}:• •^'"/f."' Portugal, A. D. 1811- Ifii. . . Alfonso ni.. King of Aragea. A D n** nV'!?.V,.V^"'r,V "'•. King of^JSilJ A ^■}}i9-\iH... Aitoaio III., King of Leon and the Asturias, or Oriedo, A. U. t<66-U10 Alfonso III., King of Portugal, A. I). 184+1 Alfonso III., Kinjr of Portugal, A. U. 184i 187U.... Alfonso l^.. King ofAragoa, A D 1887-1338 ...Alfonsi IV.."King oTUon anj r Aeturias, or Oriedo, AD. 9aj-(«0 ronso IV.. King of Portugal, A. D. 1323- I. . .Alfonso vr, King of Aragoa aad I. of '■&,\.^- ^ l.*'»-><1»: I.of iXoies. A. I» the Asturias, or Oriedo, Alfonso IV., Kin " 133:.. - Sicily. .. _ 1443- 1458... Alfonso Asturias Kitifi 01 Leon and Alfeato v., King of Portugal, A. D. 1438-1481 48 ...AlfiMM) VI., Kias 1856-1667....-- -• D. 1109-1186. ... A. D. 1186-1167. . . . AUoni o IX., King of Leon! A. D. 1188-1280. . . .Alfonso X., King of Leoa and Castile, A. D. 1253-1284 ...AlFonso XL, Kiag of Leoa and Castile, A. D. 1812-1850. . . . AUonao XIL, King of Spain, A. D. 1874- looa. ALFORD, Battle of (A. D. 1645). See ScoTumo: A. D. 1644-1645. ALFRED, caUed the Great, Kiag of Weaees, A. D. 871-901. ^^ ALFURUS. SeeC'KLsnES. ALGIERS AND ALCERIA.-The term Algiers literally signifles "tlie island," and was derived from the original construction of its harbor, one side of which was separated from the land. For history, see BABBAiiT States. ALCIHED, The.— The term by which a war is proclaimed among the Mahometans to be • Holy War. ALCONXINS, OR ALGONQUINS, The. Bee AiDEBiCAiiABOKioiirEs: Aloohedj Familt. ALGUAZIL. See Alcalde. ,^ALlMMA,Thetaklagot SceSPAW: A.D. ALHAMBRA, The boUdiag of the. See Spaih: a. D. isa8-1278. ' •• ow ALI, CaUph, A. D. 655 001. B.'C 890-M7 *' *''" ^°" ^' ^^^ ^' """"^ ALIBAMUS, OR ALlBAMONS, The. See AXEBICAK AbORIOIXES : McgKHOOEB FAMar. ALIEN AND SEDITION LAWS, The. See United States of Am: A. 1). 1798 A.^D:Km"5^"" " ^"^^'- ^ """^^• A^a'i^^lSio^"" "' <"^*'- ^ ^--= ALJUBAROTA, Battle of (1385). See Portcoal: a. D. 188313«o, and Spaxn: A. D 1368-14791 rAji,.A.u. ALKMAAR, Siege (1573). See Nether- la.ndb: A. D. 1.573-l,)7t. ALKMAR, Battle of. Sec Fra.\ce: A D 1799 (Septemuer— OcTonEui. "ALL THE TALENTS," Ministry of. See Exoi.and: A. 1). 180I-1H(M|, nnd IdWJ-lSli ALLATOONA, Battle of. Sue L'.vnto StaTESOfAm. a. D 1'<tH(Sppf.-nrt •Ooorirf I ALLBCHANS, The. See Amewcak Ajw RKitNKs: ALLE<i|fA.>-<< ALLEGHENY COLLEGE. See Edica tius Moi>krn: .Vmki.i,a; A. 1). 1789-1884, ALLEMAGNE.-Tlio Frin.li name f,ir (f<rmany, deriviHl from the conf.dfmt|.)u of the Alemannl, SceALEXUNNi: A. D. 818 ALLEN, Ethan, is-f Vehmost, A. D. 1719- Im4; ttud L.mteu States of Am.: A. 1) 177-, (May). -A'iy?""^"*'?""* "'""■ Second battle o^N6riUngen,-i645.) tke Ueumanv: A. U r,fJi'-^'*J"°»' '•*•*> •"'' "« Plymouth 1>. 1623-1629. and after. ALLIANCE, The Farmers'. See CviTtl' States ok Am. : A. D. 1877-1891 ALLOSROGES, Conqueit ef the.-Tli. Ailohr ^■« (»<•« ..Um-i ; hU) Omlk) havl shc'tere,! the chiefs of the Salye^ when the tat Uiit ALLOBROOia Itoman jrmyof 80,000 iS^ which tidnSSd iEmllUnua. On the 8th ofAururt B ?- fa^ the (Hultah horfe enoouSte^*X' S^j'^ii I^Th 'iV^^JT' "» Junction of tSeUe« and the Rhone, and were routed with tach enor! mouf lUaghter that 180,000 are ^d^to W f^-ofthLAII^r'^'^ K™" battiritUed tS Sm.^...^^''"'*^ ''''° «urrendered to Rome without further MTuggle; but the Areerai wSS SSl^^SS^ The final oonoueet of SI™S lAf^}^.'^*^ 8e.Rn«„.:A.D. «^h^^^^°^^ AJi° PIZARROS. Th« ' ALMANZA S*..^"/ A- » "33 1348 pL«'^e1fu;s.d^n*'s^^Sdrlr£vK Jury by a movement of g^.mcwbit slmUar n«,r~ n,e agitaUng cau«. of the revolutloS waS 1 « Briou. teacher named Mahomet H AW«nJh" '■giving himself out for tho person whnmW^r^ Mahometan, expect under ilMmc As be^T I Ai l" f™?'™- The new dynasty were c?m^ Almoha,l,.» from Al MchdI. aid by his ann, int .•^"'coZ:\ro?'rKfif^^^^^^^^ «!?r.«n7m£""V?^^^^^ "S ?""" '■> AS;'';:Ld°t'",r4e^r iL' ff^in»i«i .K ■"<«■'»"'. Jlahomit, lost In IBil ALOD. become lord of most pari or^^^™ ArJS!* wa. requested, orcauseaKlf to te^uiS^ over into Spain, like another T.tjiT'^r'^*®'' .i;„;# « l'"^ then converted the greater noS iiuu vu escape waa the kingdom of Zarnnvi^ -teS'SU"'-'^* "T •"e^SaraceMira slaw«««Vhm- • A ~''^^" cities of Andalu- lA. D 114,] before one whose oriirin wi. mhv is the lim-dltary estate deriv«l fmm Uj uJ*^ occupation; for which »l,nni„ "" Primitive uttomnt to^^^™h;'f. «'■''■''.'« »ere h,.pcl...,,lo »n<f a««i-;;^Su I: *^ A- f"^ 40 ment; or an estate created hv ln».T Sl^ °'" of public land. arthTlfm T«TJ,,SKJT°i'' tcr can produce the charter or be .khvwhi^i: It is rrcated. and Is caM -d ^.x^^ , ,. ''^'^'S5 primitive allotment. gn.duaira'\hHr' h£' .«„?fL'i™ "'■■•. *". ""■ primitive ni«ie. of ALOD. jotintfd for Is fclcland, or public land "— W. Btubbs, Crut. Hist, of Bng., M. 8, teet. 24. and fX 5, *-rt. 36.— "Alodial lands are commonlr opposed to beneficiary or feudal; tlic former bo- log strictly proprietary, while the latter depended upon a superior. In this sense the word is of continual recurrence in ancient histories, laws and Instruments. It someUmes, however, bears tbe sense of InhcrlUwce. . . . Hence, In the charters of the eleventh century, heredltanr fiefs are frequently tcrmcti alodla. "— H. Hallam, Mid- V€ Aga, eh. 2, pt. 1, note. Also w J. it Kemble, The Scuont in Sngktnd, »*. 1. ^ 11.— See, also, FoLCLAHD. ALP ARSLAN, Seljoak Turkish Saltan. A D. 10«3-107a »mtmu, ALPHpNSO. 8eeAL»o»»o. ALSACE.-ALSATIA: Th« Name, flee AUMAH.M: A. I). 218. A. D. 843.87o.-IncIuded In the KioEdom of Lorraine. See Lorraine: A. D. 84»-S(0. loth Century.— Joined to the Empire. Bee LORR.UNE: A. D. 911-980. loth Century.— Origin of the Houm «r H»P»hnrg;. See Acstru: A. D. ia4«-128a. A. D. isac— Revolt of the PuMaata. See Obxiiaht: a. D. 1324-1525. -i^i.P* «*"-«6aa— 'n»a«lona by llansfeld IMl^lS^?*'^"*'' ""'* ^ OSKMANT : A D. A. D. 1636-1639.— InTaiion and conquest by Diika Bomhard of Weimar.-Richeliiu'a ap- proprtation of the conouett for France. See OaiuCANT: A. D. 1634-1639. A. D. 164A— Cesaioa to Frrnce in the •"••e* «' weetphaUa. Sec OERMA^T: ^V. D. 164o. .^. A. 9. 1659.- Renunciation of the claims of ';« Kincof Spain. See France: A. I>. 1659- I60I. A. D. 1674-1678.— Ravaged in the Cam- paigns of Turenne and Conde. Sec Nether- fcXKDe(H0HASD): A. D. 1874-1678. A. D. 1679-1681.— Complete Absorbtion in France^— Assumption of entire Sorereignty by Lo«ds XIV.— Encroachments of tbe Chamber of Reanaexation.— Seisure of Strasburg.— OTerthrow of its indepeudence as an Imperial City. See France: A. D. 1679-1681. -A. "■ «744-InTasion by the Austrians. See Austria: A. D. 1743-1744. A. D. i87i.-Ceded to the German Empire -^M T**' ^^XAKca: A D. 1871 (Jajjcarv 1871-1879.— Organisation of gOTemment as A. o'w^l-W^ Province. See Oermasit: N r ALTA CALIFORNIA.-Upp«r California. SeeCAMFORitiA: A. D. 1543-178^ ALTENHEIM. Battle of (A. D. 1675). hee NBTHaatAKM (Uollaxd): A. D. 1674- 1078. ALTENHOVEM. Battle of (1793). See *^Vf ^^iAlP- iJ?* <^""''-*«v-April . ALTHING, The. bee Thi.no; ai.o. Nor- KAKs.-NoBTHinH<: A. D, 86O-11.0; and Scan. °^»^Yg*'' States (Denmabk-Iceiuxd): A. V. ALTi^AI^*li■ **£i««cp»«^«„ witllM BBAIfDEHBlTaoi A D. 60 AMALFL ALTONA: A. D. 1713.- Burned by tha Swedes. See ScAllDiitAViAM States (Swedeh) A. D. 1707-1718. A'aT8T*^'°'^*""''<'3aS). 8eelTAi.T ALVA IN THE NETHERLANDS. See Mbtherlanbs: A. D. 1566-1568 to 1573-1574 A JJ^SF,?'^?^."' ^«**°> A- ^ l'*71-187a AHAHUACA, The. beo American Abor- lOiNEs: Ardbsians. AMALA80NTHA, Qnsen of the Ostro- goths. See Rome: A. D. 535-553. AMALEKITES, The.— "The Amalekites were usual! v regarded as a branch of tbe Edomltes or • Bed-skins'. Amalelt, like Kenaj:, tbe fiither of the Kenlzzltea or ' Huntere ' was tiie grandson of Esau (Oen. 86: 12, 16). Ho thvt belonged to the group of nations,— F^omitea. Ammonites, and Moabites,- who stood in a relation of close kinship to Israel But they had precwled the Israelites in dispossessing the older Inhabitants of the land, and establishing them- selves in their place. The Edomltes had partly destroyed, partly amalgamated the Horites oY Mount Seir (Deut J: 12); the Moabltes had done the same to the Emlm, 'a people great and many. mdUll as the Anaklm'(beut 2: 10), while the Ammonites had extirpated and succeeded to the Kephaira or 'Pints,' who in that oart of the wuntry were teimed Zamzummim (Ucut 2- 20- Oen. 14: 6). Edom however stood in a closer relation to Israel than iu two more northerly neighbours. . . . Separate from the Edomltes or Amalekites were tbe Kenites or wanderinc smiths. They formed an Important Guild 15 an age when tbe art of metallurgy was confined to a few. In the Ume of Saul :ve hear of them as camping among the Amalekites (I. 8am. IS • 6 ) . . . The Kenites. . . did not constitute a race n flf" Va^I^J^PJ *^™' »» »n°*'- » <^^' But they had originally come, like the Israelites or the Edomltes, from those barren reirions of Nortiiem Arabia which were peopled by the McntI of the Egyptian inscriplfona. Racially therefore, we may regard them aa allied to the descenilanU of Abraham. While tlie Kenites and Amalekites were thus Semitic in their or' -Hn. the Ilivites or 'VilUgers' are spcciuliy Also in II. Ewald, Ilitt. of Imet, M. 1 met. 4. — !?ee, also, Arabia. AMALFI.— " It was the sInguUr fate of this city to have filled up the interval between two periods of civilization, in neither of which she was destined to be dUtingulshed. Scarcely known before the end of the sixth century Amalfl ran a brilltant career, as a free and trail- ing republic [see ItoME: A. D. 654 8001, which was checked by the arms of a conqueror in the middle of the twelfth. . . . There must be I suspect, some exaggeration about the commcree aud opulence of Amalfl, In the only age when she possessed any at all."_H. liallum, Tht .Vi,m Agt$, eh. 9. pt. 1, «,rt uoto.— "Amalfl and AtranI lie close together In two ravines, the mountains almost arehing over them and the sea washing their very Bouse- walla! A li' "J"".' *"7 ^ Imagine the time when Amaia and Atrenl were one town, with docks and aracials and harbourage for their asscwlated neets, and when these UtUe communities were asoood la tmportoios to no naval power of AKALFL Chrtottan Europe Tlie Byzantloe Empire lort Its hold on Italy during the eighth a;ntury; and after this time the history of Calabria is mainlv concerned with the republica of Naples and Amalfl, their conflict with the Lombard dukes of Benevento, their opposition to the Saracens. • .1 their final Btibjugation by the Norman couquerors of Sicily. Between Uie year 830 . . ; 5''*? ^'°^^^ ^"«'' 'tself from the con- trol of Naples and the yoke of Benevento. and the year 1181, wh<-n Roger of Huuteville incor- porated the republic In Lis kingdom ct the Two bicilies, this city was the foremost naval and eonimercial port of Italy. The burghers of Amalfl elected their own doge; founded the Hospital of Jerusalem, whence sprang the knightly order of 8. John; gave their namo to the richest quarter in Palermo; and owned trading establlshmenU or factories In all the chief cities of the Levant Their gold coinage of tan formed the standard of currency before the Florentines had »tamp^ the lily and s" John upon "■* T."?^ ^°'*°- Their shipping regiiatfona Their scholars. In the darkest depths of the dark ages, prized and conned • famous copy of the Pandecu of Justinian, and their seamen deserved the fame of having first used, if they did not actually invent thecompasa . . . The republic had pwn and flourished on the decay of the ureel Empire. When the hard-handed race of Hauteville absorbed the heritage of Greeks and Lombards and Saracens in 8outh"rn Italy fsee Italy (Southern): A. D. 10001090] these adventurers succeeded in annexing Amalfl But It was not their Interest to extinguish the state. rh.Jlir'"™7:K*'''y '?"«J f«"-'«sist«nceupon i?„„f.K ''V°'' 'he armies of the little commra- ttp l^Ui „»''i,^''*1 *^ meanwhile arisen in the iNorth of Italy, who were jealous of rivrlrr SJ^y!'^°n°*"' ?"•' '■'»•''' ««= Neapolitaii res^ted King Roger In 1135. they called^lsato their aid. anS sent her fleet to aestroy Amall The ships of Amalfl were on guard with Romr"; Tr^ 'uX^ of Naples. \be armed d^lfen! w hile the home of the republic lay defcnccleMon nto the harbour sacked the city and carri^S the famous Pandecu of Justing as .^h^ Two years later they returned, to complete the frl,i°'.'^r':L"""'<"i Amalfl never r^coverel I^r "il'-J?!".'..""^ 'he humiliation."- J. T AMAZONS RIVFR. , --<-■•" """ t"^ uiiiuuiaiion, -mJ a. AMALINGS, OR AMALS.-fhe rovi race of the ancient Ostrogoths, as the Balttf ot .Kttrro:.The°'gX'"^«'*'^ hothcUimln'g'i: A1«AT0NGALAND, or Ton»»l»nd.-On unu'^nH';?'?' "' ^- *''•'*• north ?fZulilan^ iM?'i'ij?.P™'«="o° •'nee 1888. ^ AMA InS/i ^^r^*? '^™»*"» A ^ J .V***-" The Amazons, daugbten of Ari-s and Harmonia, are both earlPcreXi^ aT,?°' "/"^""lon". of the anSen™ pr*. women "SCS?"*"""- ''"dy "« Wc?atigable Tn^^! 'k**'*'""* »P"* ''o™ men. permftting Tl nfl"" temporary intercourse foVthe Z! P^,°' renovating their numbers, and burilnj out their right brrsrt with a view of enaUuf the poet, » general tyoe stimuUUng ti'the fanc7 of wt, ud • UMme emiaeotly popular with 61 f 'f.?*?^- y^'" ""» •' "' »" repugnant to the Wlitvl fi .K™' """! "" °^" standard of credl- fi;5.1?'°'^ P««»"cept such poetical narra- A^,^^'^^^^^-^ """*'"« communities of Amaions as hav ng actually existed in anterior timt Accordingly we find these warlike fenalM constantly reappearing in the ancient polms^lnd universally accepted as past realltiS^ In X ^W-thJr f""" "■'^'=V" illustrate emphato ally the most numerous host In which he era found himself included, he tells us -Lt It »« a«embledin Phrygia,! VebLk!ou\l'S^ garius, for the purpose of insisting the f^^ be Amazon^ When Bellerophon U to l»^. ployed on a deadly and peril- -s undert^gT; h»T7''° "^"r^iy «''"' to procure htac^S he is despatched against the Amazons. T The Thf^'"' ^"T- "•"* "•* Amazons on the rive? Thermddon in their expedition along the somh- m~iT' "' ""^ ^""'"e- To thi same snot Herakles po<^ to attack them, in the pcrformSra theus, lor the purpose of procWing the xM^ot toat thLv r'n" ""''-' HIPPolyte; £id we*^ toUl i!^!, V^!5 1"'*.°'" >"■' «<»vered from thelosscs sustained in Uiis severe aggression whenThSiS also assaulted a^d defeated them, aurrin^off «ielr queen AnUopfl. This injury t^ri^eni^ by invading Attica ... and ^netrate^ ef!n Into Athens itself: where the final bauL- W° fought and at one time doubtful, by which^ •eus crushed them, was fought-ln the veir n^f^i/ ""^ ^I'y- Attic antiquaries confldeluT pointed out the exact nosition of the two con^ S*.^'*'- • • • -"^.Potionof theante-C I^ ?L*P''^ appeare to have been more deenh? worked into the mitional mind of GreecolhaJ this invasion and defeat of the Amaz^ . ™r proper territory was asserted to be the toW^ and plain of Themlskyra, near the Grecian cololj- A..rS^"*S°° *K "^" ThermOdon [nmhem^ R^.^W'.? '*«'°". «»"^ «*ter their^name by Boman historians and geograDhera. liS.™^ •utho,, placed them ifLfTyf or-EUiiopiS??! G. Orote. mn. of Gnece.pt. i. <* n """P* — £*.? .*"*-:rT''e mouth of the great riverS South America was discovered in IsSo by PiS* ion. or Pin9on (see Ajuhica: A. D. UW^ism Tft?.,""^^ it -Santa Maria de to mSduiS^' (Satat Mary of the Fresh-Water Sea). "This was the firet name given to the river, except that older and better one of the India^ • iSrani?' Uie Sea; afterwaMs It was Marafiona^dSts t'^i^^' ',?■" *''* '«■"«'<• "arriora ttat were supposed to live near Its banks. . . . After Pin! 9on'. time, there were othera who saw the fi«h water sea. but no one wu hardy enotS^ venture into it. The honor of iwikl dSlve^ was reserved for Francisco de OwltonTSd 2 explored it, not from the east. bTftom tS west, in one of the most daring voyage.^ ™ dedgn that led him to it After . . Piurra had conquered Peru, he sent bis brother Goi f whJ^'.il' "P'"** "I" «"•' '"rest east of Qu^ where there were cinnamon tiw*- Thelsw- Jition started tote in 1588. and It was two vi^ to uulto. In the coune <9 the> waoderinn f hw had .truck the river Coco; b.iwiKS?w/ li i i AXAZOVSRIVKR h tber foOowvd down the eun«nt, • part of them in tne t w m I , • pan on thore. After a iriiUa they met lome Indiana, who toM them of a rfcdi ooontrr t«n dan' Joomej berond— a oouBtTT of gold, and with plenty of prorlaiooi. Gouaio plaoediOieUana in command of the brig- antlne, and oraeied him, with SO loldlen, to go on to thia gold-land, and letum with a load of proTlitona. OieUana arrived at the month of the Coco in three daya, but found no provlilons; 'and he considered that if he should return with this news to Pixano, he would not reach him In • year, on account of the strong current, and that if he remained where he was, he wovjd be of no use to the on^ or to the other. Not know- ing how long Ooazalo Plzarro would take to reach the place, without consulting any one be set sail and prosecuted his Toyage onward, intending to ignore Gonzalo, to reach Spain, and obtain that government for himselt' Down the Napo and the Amazons, for seven months, these Spaniards floated to the Atlantic. Atuinesthey suffered terribly from hunger: "There was nothing to est but the sUns which formed their girdles, and the leather of their shoes, boiled with a few herbs.' When they did get food they were often obliged to flgbt hard for It; and agdn they were attacked by thousands of naked Indians, who came in canoes against the Spanish ▼easeL At some Indian villages, however, they were kindly received and well fed, so they could rest while building a new and stronger vessel. . . . OntbeZetbof August, 1541, Orellanaandhls men sailed out to the blue water ' without either pilot, compass, or anything useful for naviga- tion; nor did thev know what direction they should take.' Following the coast, they passed inside of the island of Trinidad, and so at length reached Cubasua in September. From the k&g of Spain Orellana received a grant of the land he had discovered; but he diea while returning to it, and his company was dispersed. It was not a very reliable account of the river that was given by Orellana and his chronicler, Padre Car- bajal. 80 Herrera tells their story of the warrior females, and very properly adds: 'Every reader may believe as much as he likes.'"— H. H. Smith, BnuU, the AmaioTU, and the Coatt, ck. 1. —In ch. 18 of this same work "The Amazon Myth " is discussed at length, with the reports and opinions of numerous trarellers, both early and recent, concerning it — Mr. Soutbey had so much respect for the memory of Orellana that he made an effort to restore that bold but unprin- cipled discoverer's name to the great river. " He discarded Moranon, as having too much resem- blance to Maranbam, and Amazon, as being founded upon Action and at the same time incon- venient. Accordingly, in his map, and in all his references to the great river he denominates it Orellana. Thia decision of the poet-laureate of Great Britain lias not proved authoritative in Brazil. O Amazonaa is the uni versal appellation of the great river among those who float upon its waters ami who live upon Its banks. . . . Pari, the ahoriKin.il name of this river, was more appropriate th.an any other. It signifies 'the father of waters." . . . The ori«hi of the name and mystery concerning the female warriors, I think, has been solved within the last few years hy tlifi intrepid Mr. Wallsro, . . . Mr. W Jlao;, ■ I think, shows conclusively that Friar Oaspar I [CarlMkJal] and his companions saw Indian male AUCNDXEin'S. warriors who were attired in habUimenti mdi m Kuropeans would attribnte to women. ... I am stnmgly of the opinion that the stoiy of the Amazons hsa arisen from these feminbie-looking warriors encountered by the early voyagers. "— 3. C. Fletcher and D. P. Kidder, Bnma md M« Bnmliani, eh. 37. Also ik A. R Wsllaoe^ Thmb m M« Ama- KnandBie Ntgn, <h. 17.— R Soathey, BUt. qt AMAZULUS. OR ZULUS.— Tha Znla War. See Soqth Avaica: Thb >- OBiontai. InBABrrARTs; and the same: A. D. ttf77-1879. AMBACTI.— "The Celtlo aristocracy [of Oaul] . . . developed the system of retdners, that 18, the privilege of the nobility to surround themselves with a number of hired mounted ser- vantt— the ambacti aathey were called— and thereby to form a state within ft state; and, resting on the support of these troops of their own, thev defied the legal antboritiea and the common levy and practically broke up the com- monwealth. . . . "rhis remarkable word [am- bacti] must have been In use as early aa the sixth century of Bome among the Ctilte in the valley of the Po. ... It is not merely Celtic, however, but abo Oerman, the root of our 'Amt,' aa indeed the retainer-system itself is common to the Celts and the Germans. It would be of great historical importance to ascertain whether the word — and therefore the thing — came to the Celta from the Germans or to the Germans from the Celts. If, aa is usually sup- posed, the ward Is originally German and pri- marily signified the servant standbg in battle 'against the back' ('and'— agahist, <bak'— back) of his master, this is not wholly irrecon- cilable with the slngukrly early occurrence of the word among the Celta. . . . Itis . . . prob- able that the Celts, In Italy aa fai Gaul, em- ployed Germana chiefly aa those hired servanta- at-arma. The ' Swiss guard ' would therefore in tlut case be some thousands of years older than people suppose."— T. Mommsen. .fiM. tf Borne, Ut. 6, eh. 7, and foot-note. AMBARRI, The.— A smaU Mbe in Gaul which occupied anciently a district between the Saone, the Rhone and the Ain. — Napoleon III., Hitt. of Caear, bk. 8, eh. i, noU. ANfBIANI. The. See Bkuul AMBITUS.— Bribery at elections was termed ambitus among the Romans, snd many unavail- ing laws were enacted to check it— W. Ramsay, Manual of Soman Antiq., eh. 9. AMBIVARETI, The.— A tribe in ancient Gaul which occupied the left bank of the Meuse. to the south of the marsh of PeeL— Napolecn III., BiM. of C<nnr, bk. 8. eh. 3, noU. AMBOISE, Conspiracy or Tnmnlt oL Bee Fkancr: A. D. 1559-l.Ml. AMBOISE, Edict oL SeeFitaiioa: A. D. 1560-1568. AMBO /NA. See Molcccas, and Malay ARCniPELAOO. AMBOYNA, Massacre oC 8eeI»DiA:A D. 1600-1703. AMBRACIA (Ambrakia). SeeKoRKiRA. AMBRONES, The. See Cimbri .AMBROSIAN CHURCH.-AMBRO- SIAN '•HANT. See Mii.ak: A. D. 874-«97. and M , EAhr.Y Cuuihtian. AMt..KAL, OR ESTREMOS, Battle of (>o63). tk'c PouTuaAl. : A. D. 1687-1868. 62 . . I f the Mag Ama- M.<tf Znla WAI, 1870. [of Den, rand tier- -and •nd, their I the com- [am- I the 1 the iltic, our If it ould rtaln «r the ■up- pri- ittle S'— BOD- e of rob- em- nta- via iiaa tme, kul the ned 'aU- »7. lent ise. ecn 8e« O. LAY A. to- 87. I of il AMERICA. fn km uf . AMERICA. IHi"""*- Soc below:A. D. 1S00-15U ... IT . S"S — " ^'<'«'y "CiXtered throughout the United Statcn, from oca to sea, artiflciaj moumi* an diacovtred, which may be enumer- ated by the thouunds or hundred* of thousands. "if',75''y ^""y '" «'" : "ome are so small that a half-dozen laborers with shovels mieht con- struct one of them in a day, while others cover acres and are scores of feet in height These mounds were observed by the earliest explorers and pioneers of tlie country. They lid not attract amt attention, however, imiil the science of arriwology demanded their inveatiira. tion. Then they were assumed to furnish evi- dence of a race of people older than the Indian Wbes Pseud-archffiologisu descanted on the Mound-builders tliat once inhabited the land and they told of swarming populations who had n-achi-d a high condition of culture erecting templiB, practicing arts in the metals, and using hieroglyphs. So the Mound-builders formed the theme of tswy an essay on the wonders of ancient civuization. The research of the i.iuit ten or fifteen years has put this subject in a proper light. First, the annals of the Coliiii.- bi&n epoch have been carefully studied, and it U ,ound that some of the mounds have been con- strricted in historical time, while early explorers and settlers found many actually used bv tribes of North American Indiana; so wc know that many of them were builders of mounds Again, hundreds and thousauds of these mounds have bi-en carefully examined, and the works of art found thercm have been collected aiid assem- bled In museums. At the same time, the works Of art of the Indian tribes, as thcv were pro- duced before modification byEuminan culture have been assembled in the same -..usuems, and ■ the two classes of coUections have been carefully compared. All this has been d me with the greatest painstaking, and the Muundbuilder's SJtii and the Indians arU are found to be sub- stunt ally identical. No fragment of evidence remilEs to support the figment of theorv that there was an ancient race of Mound-buildetB superior In culture to the North American i.^^- i ■ • J*^ *""« °f "•«■« '""""■'■' were Dullt and used m modern times is i, v.-d in anoherway They often coutain artici, , ,„.-ini. fcslly made by white men, such »s glass l«-,-ids and copper ornaments. ... So it chances that tu day unskilled archsEologisU are collecting luiny beautiful tl.ings in copper, stone, anS shell w nch were ..de by whit^ men and traded to the Indians. ow, some . .f these things are n.und n the m<, ...,l»; and bird pip.-,, el.^t Kunes, iud machine-made wampum are col- lecte<l m quantUK's and sold at high prices to wealthy amateurs , . The study of these mounds historically and arehajologically. proves that ti„ V w,.re usid for a variety of punmses Some w, re for sepulture, and suih ..re the .nosi commo,, and widely scattered. Others were u«- .^ts ;minoial hUls on which to build eom- nmnal l.ous.-s . . . «ome of the very larce mounds «;ere sites „i ge communal hous.-, in rl^i retire tnbes .i „ , I. There U still a third Class . constnieud as pla<'e8 for nublir thZ^' ■ M^"' '"."P'"'" "'« niound' and their xm. would cip«,d ttis article into a book. AMERICA. It to enough to i«y that the Mound -builders wer« the Indian tribes iiscovered by white men It may well be that some of the mound* were erected by tribes extinct when Columbus first saw these shores, but they were kindred in cul- ture to the peoples that still exUted. In the southwestern portion of the United States, con- ditions of aridity prevail. Forests are few and fivi"."°!l°'''f?'8reat heights The tribes lived in the plains and valleys below, while the high ands were their hunting grounds. The and lands below were often nakedof vegetation • and the ledgra and cliffs that stand athwart the lands, and the canyon waUs that inclose --e streams, were every where quarries of loose roclt. lying In blocks ready to the builder's hand Hence these people learned to build their dwellings of Stone; and they had large com- munal houses, even larger than the structures of wood made by the tribes of the east and north. jWany of these stone pueblos are still occupied but the ruins are scattered wide over a region of ajuntry embracing a little of Californ& and ^"fi"' ""ch of Utah, most of Colorado, the whole of New Mexico and Arizona, and far southward toward the Isthmus. ... No ruin has been discovered where e idcnccs of a hicher culture are found than exists in modem timra at ^ufii, Oraibi, or Laguna. Tte earliest may have been built thousands of years a-o, but they were built by the ancestors of cxisiuig tribes au.l heir congeners A ( ;, nful stu. ■■ .f these ruins, made during the last twenty m ; s, abundar 53 lemonstrates that the pueblo culture begun » \ rude structures of stone and brush, and grad aiy developed, until at tlie time of the explors 'i^ . i^.A*^"."".'^ ^y "'*' Spaniards, beginning y^^T,}^- "J***! ^"^'"^ "« highest phase /uM [in New Mexico] has been built since, and 13 among the largest and best villages ever i_MabIished within the territory of the United htates without the aid of ideas derived from civilized men." With regard to the ruins of d wellings found sheltered in the craters of extinct volcanoes, or on the shelves of cliffs, or other- wise inntrived, the conclusion to which all recent areha.ilogical study tends is the same. "All tJje stone pueblo ruUis, all the clay ruins, all th cliff dwellings, all the crater villages, all tL cavate chambers, and all t! ■ tufa-block houses are fully accounted for without resort to hypothet- ual peoples inhabiting the country anterior to the Indian tribes. . . . Pre-Columbian culture was indigenous; it began at the lowest sta-e of savagery and developed to the : nhest, and was in niany places p,i ng into harh.irism when the good qu^n sol.i ,ir jew- -Major J. W. IJiwell, PrehuConr Man :., .imeriea; in The For-um," January, iSW.— "The writer bii.. ves • . . that the majority of American anha'ol - gists now sees no suttlcient reason for «upp<«iii» that any mysterious superior race has ever iivc<' m any portion of our continent. Th. v Bud t- aroli.iological evid, ace provn.,; that a: the Un of II.. discov ry .,ny tribe hud rearheti a stat of culture ttat can properly be called ■ illjT Uon. Even if wos.-.^r.t tbrtr.\aggtr:- --v. meninof the Spanish ionquerors, the ■ cUI pent ^d advanced people*, fouml ,en we?- only « im-bariiiirians. in the stage o: trsifa ti-^,- from the stone lo the bronze age, po^ -sstii* no ||. AMERICA. written Unciis^, or what caa JhrmP imn trt. AMERICA •tyled sn nTphabct, and not vet hav^ even be mmed the use of beiuts of ^irien'"— H W Haynca, PrtJiitoric Airhavlngy^ y. Am. (v. 1. «». 6. of yarratia and Cnlical mtt. of Am ") — •• It may be premlaed ... that the Spanish adTenturera who thronged to the New World after Ito dlacover? found the aame raoe of Red Indiana In the vfat India Islaada, in CentS and South Amcricn. In Ploridaand In Mexico. In tlHir mode of life and meana of aubaiateoce in their weiijwns, arU. uiaxea and customa, In their instltutiom, ami in their mental and phyai. cal chiiracteristics, they were the aame oeopto In different atapes of advancement . . . "nierewaa neither a political a.H.iely. nor a aUtc. nor any dvlliiation In America wlien it waa diacoTcred- and cxcliidinR the Eskimoa, but one nee of Indiana, tlie Itei Kace."— L H. Morgan, UoutM tnd Ilmuelife „f the Ameriean Aboriginu : (Con- tniutvinttuj,. A BXhnologf, ». 8.), M. 10.— "We lia»e In tlii« country the conclusive evidence of the existence of man before the time of the jt^aclira, and from the primiUve condiUona of that time, lie bus lived here and developed through singes which correspond In many par- Ucuiara to the Muim-rlc age of Greece."— PW I^itnam, Bept. I'MlxKlf Jtumum of Arehaoiom', I BOO. ALao IK L. Carr. Tht MoumU tf Iht Mi-imppi r«««.— C. Thomas, Burial JfountU of iL Ai>rM«r» 8«ti„m„f tht U. 8.: Annual B$pt. of vi^n'*"'rir,*^^ ""''»*• J883-«4.-MarquU de Madaiilac, Prtlnttoric Amtriea J. FIslie Th* Dueorerji of Anitrin,, th. l— Hee, also. MKTiro; «B(': and Aukhiiam Ab»iiiui.<<es: Ai.lbuhv.vs Chkiuikkki, iin'l MwAa ' I *'*■' '"t Centuriea.- Suppoaed DiacoTar- l«a by the Northmen.— Tlio fad Unit the Nnrth- men Icm-iv of the existence of the Wesu-ru Coii- tineiit prior to tlie iigc of Cohinibun. waa promi- nently brought lieforo tlie people of IhU countrv in llie year I*)7, when the Uov,il S«;i,.tv of Korthem Anilouurles at ropenliii>n pul.llihcl their worli on the Antl.iultlea of Noil), America under tlie c<llU)rittl suiwrvlslon of the great Ice- Undic scholar. l>r)feMor Hufa. But we are not to suppose that the llrat general account of these voyages was then ({Iven. for it has alwiiys Uen known i i„t tlie hUuiry of ccrtNlii early voyages to America l.y ili,. Noril,„ien were preaervwi In i the llhmries of IVnniarIc and Ireland Vh owing to the f«t that the Iirliitnlic language] though simple In eonsiru.tion nn<l easy of «e.|Vi|. aitlon, KH1 n longn,. i„,t umlentool liy wholir* the »iiblwt lias uulil OTint veiirs In-en suffer.^ tii ne lu the limkgriiuiKl, and p.-rmllle.|. thnmifli • want of interest. Ui share In a nieasim. the tmument meted out to vague awl uiUTrtain tv- P^>n» ... I now nmalns to give the r<-a<ler •oine geneml aee.,uijt of tlie oontents o» the niir- f»IJve« n hic'h r. lute n.orc or less to Uie discovery oftliewe»iern.-o,iihient . . . Tlic first rxlmeU f^ven «r,. very brief They are ukrn fmin the LaniLjimnw U<«.k • ami rel«i« to tlw reiiort in piieml elr<ul,iit„n. whUi lii.lleate<l one Ounni- Uirn ,1, ,|,r ,ll.«„verer of Orttnlaml. an event Wlilrh ha4 iK-eii |tii„| »t the year N7n The Jw. .""'T"'''''. "•'••«•« t" "■• r«lis.>oVen of OrrenlaiKl l.y the outlaw, Eric the lied In (Hit Who Km re |humhI tlin.. years In exiki a'lKl »f.e'' tJ»l.''' L'." '":' ''' '•^'•"•' Abcmt tlie year iw*, ti brought out to Oreenlanil , ooo,id«,4 floiun> 64 of settlers, who fixed their abode at Btsttahlid In Ericsflord. Then follow two Teniona of the voyage of Blame Heriulfaon, who. In th* same year, KM, when sailing for Greenland, waa driven away during a storm, and saw a new tand at the southward, which he did not visit J«ext Is given tliree accounts of the voyage of Le f, son of Eric the Red, who in the year lOOO ttlled from Brattahlid to find the Und which Blame saw. Two of these sccounU _re hardly more than notices of the voyage, but the thiid b of considerable length, and deUila the aucceMM of Lei f, who found and explored this new land where he spent the winter, returning to Oreen^ land the following spring [having named differ- ent regions which he visited HelluUnd, Marit- laud and \ Inland, th« latter name IndlcaUve of the finding of grapeal After this follows the voyage of Thorvald Ericson, brother of Leif who sailed to Vinland from GreenUnd, which waa the point of departure In all theae voyagei. This expedition waa begun in 1008, and It cost li in bU life, as an arrow from one of the natlvea piermi hU side, causing death. Thorstein, hU brotlier went to seek Vinland, with the inten- tion of bringing home his bodv, but failed In the attempt. The moat distinguished explorer waa T liortinn Karlsefne, the Hopeful, an IceUnder wh(«e geiicalogv runa back In the old Northern annals, thmugh Danish, Swcdtah, and even 8i-otoh and Irish ancestors, some of whom wen of royul blexxl. In the year 1008 be went to On-enliind, where be met Oudricl. widow of I liorstein, whom he married. Accompanied by M^"5' ?; '". "■■?"' •"'•" *» "«> undertaking, he sailed to \ Inland in Uie spring of 1007 with throe vessels and 160 men, where he remained three years. Here his son Snorre waa bora. Be nfterw mis became the founder of a great famllr In Ireh.iid, which gave the island s«verBl of lU first hiMhops. Tliorflnn finally loft Vinland be- cause he found It difflcult to auaUin himaelf against the attacka of the natlvea. The next to uiMleruike a voyage was a wicked woman named J inland in 101 1, where she lived for • time with I her two ships. In the same placea wcupled by I I-elf and Tliorilnn. Bifore ahe n-tunicd, aiie ! rau«e.l the crew of one ship to be cruelly mur- I denni. ai.Hl«ilng In the butchery with her own ; hunds. After lliia we have what are called the I Minor NarrHtlves, whl( hare not essential. "—B I t. !)<•<. «la, I'irCulvmbanltun-tieryifAm, Qtit. [ tml li,li-il—\\y those who aerept fully the cluiins made for the Northmen, as .llwoveivre of III" Am. ri.aii rontlnent lu the voyages Ixlleved to w a.ilh.ntl<>»lly narrat^il In tli. w sagas, the ll.lluhui.l of lx.|f Is OHiiinonlv hlentillVHl with >ewf.,iiii,|li,i„|. Markland with \ova Hi-otia and Vlnhind whh various parts of X,w England M.'hT t-I" ""V •■•r"' •'■"•■ •>>•■«»•"• kel Inland; ..." " J '"••)'»!:''■ »"'«»"l'« «»y. .Narmgan- *' '!:'*• *'^1""' ""f* "•■». l-'ng M«n.l Mound, an.l .>ew lork ftiy are among the l<M-alltiaB Biip|i.>.u'd to h.. rtM-ogntcKl In the N»r». nam- ,*Tx- '",.',''"''"■•' ''y •"""' '""■'•« "f the presence of the \ Iklug eiplurera. IV.f GuhUv Miorm. the III.WI rf.-.nt of Uie Scandinavian InveMlga! tor. of this s.ll.l.H-t, fliuls the ||..|lul«li,| of S, pMig«s_ In Ul.rn.lor or Northern N.wfoui..|land Nova M...lia and Cajie Breton lsl,n.l -G. Hi<wm. «i«/i«./l*« Vintland fsr^ss -"Theonl/dS AHERIOA. CWwuMmi wrfit which hM been thrown upon the ttory of the VlnlMd voyage, iu the eye. either of icholar. or of Uie gener.! public huorlKD from theeagercre- dulity with which tngenioiu antiquarianTh^e BOW and then tried to prove more than faeU will warrant . . . Arehsloglcal remain, of the North- men abound in Greenland, aU the vay from Im- S^lnek to "^ Cape Farewell; the eiUtenoi erf one .uch relic on the North American con- Onent ha. never yet been proved. Not a ainirle ve.tlg. of the /orthmenl pre«nce hVr^ /« 1^^ worthy of credence, ha. ever been found The most oinvinclni proof that the North'misn never founded a coTouy in America, louth of Davl. Strait, U furnished by the total abMnra of ?il'"**ii**'i''w'"*, °'''*' domcUc anlmab from the »ll of North America untU they were brought hither by the SpanlslT R*Mh iSd EugBih Kttleri"_J. FiiUci, tL xS^w*^ knew the^ experienced," write. ProtJu/tln VfinMOT. ''and what the Mgu teU i. the? anderwent^muit have Ju.raie dUTerence rfl twjen a crUp narrative of penonal adventure •nd Uie oft-repeated and embeUUhed itoryof" fliwlde narrator, tince the ttadlUon. df the Norie voynie. were not put in the ahaoe of reocmU tifl .'lout two ceutu^rie. h«J eto Wand S!n^„- !? S*'"" V'"""'^'^P'°' •uchTSconl thM one n-de nearly two hundred year, later Sr.:,- Vi* WenJiug of hiitoi7 •«) myth pmmpt. Ilom to aay that 'wme of tb* aarai wwe doubtlew orislnally haMd on facta, but the toUlng «i,,- reu-lling Uve changed them iSS pure inytht- The un.ympathetfcrtranOTr ■»» thU i. Btori... tlu.1 th.>'triotlc 8aInd£,vuS are ovpr-anilou. to male appear a. m- dn« chronld,* . Thewd^fhto'rprobihllRliln Ijvorof a Northman de^^nt upbn the cSut of the AiiHric-an iiwinland at lofne point or at S!.?JJl' ""fne^'w^to the »uth o/oi^iland- but the evl<leiioe *■ hardly that which attSiaito weU «,uibll.h..l hiMorioi rfcordTT. . ^ro U notaringle item of all the evidence thuaid- •ancfd from Ume to time which can b^iSd to "m^ct by arch«olopical tr«^ thV^^tSof the Nortlim..ti on the .oil of North Amerin «ulh of IMvl.' StralU." Of SSct liJ^SS i^MKRICA, 1484-14M. WeUh bv the Aml«. by the Bawue. J^' th^ cu« ,1 1 y I rof W ln«.r in Uie Mme connection. th* Xirthntn.—K. ) A I. A. D. I484-I49« u., and " Wel«e, Dimuttrimitf Am., or beta If..*"-'^? "' )■*• execution of the project He was not In advance of hia age, enterta^ m i^lL}^ predecessor, or To(Kanelll, Ua^ SSI^^'n?"' "r? •'«»?• fl«t to ftSceive tt^ POMlblllty of reaching the eart by niUng wo? r^ii.!!'^'"? •*"*^»-. Th« Northmen In^^ ^y*S* ^ entertained no idea, of a iSw 2°:" "r of an A.U to the We.t To kn^iT SfLwii"'r"*'''*' f^Jf^Phy. Columbu. added the .kill of a practTcaf mtyijator, and thaboi win to overcome obstacles. He nUed wa? ««ched Aria a. he believed. i^dTr^ed^ toeoriea correct There aeem tobetwo^^ dded pointa In that matter, neither of whIchSS Portu™"""*^- ''"".didU.exnerienSinS; fuST^ ."i^lifl' "•• P«™«> of «.me Sm auuor, or a hint from one of the few man •CQUainted with old timdiUon^ flm Vig^HS Sf™|S»»»^ project t . . . 8eiond,to^5fSe? !f,^l?ii '■'• r"y»«« »o the north [mLle in 1477 BrirtoLlnwhch voyage he i. believed to bive J^^J^}^^ influence hi. plan t There b m fn^Sf • •"" • ••i"".* Pro'-bllity, that hrheard ta that voyage of the existence of Und in oS r4T7 ii:.-?""' '•'' /*•" .to the north wa. In hi. ni^ .^ ''"7 .'"•'■ "" «•»* formation of ^.& Sli^l^ "■' Information gained at the time ASfflr* . ~"-. "• Bancroft m*t. of tht f!r^ «<Km », 1. tummaiyapp. taek.1 —"Of W. fcJsi^^ Co umbus, had mott weight wItE AJIi^ rT ',•" Ccmopraphla ' of ^Cardinal tS^.4 .^o'"™''"* "«», •I»o confirmed In .Js Tiew..,f the existence of a western paHan |a the Ix^ ',a by Paulo Tn«^»nelll, the 9ta«ttaJ phUowpiicr. to whom much credit I. due frr tte ■raat the notice., howevt; / weatem landa wmi not .uch ..to have much welghr^'JSS which Columbua had (n contending with Xenb f;^Dh.« and men of «:l,no. 1i.^S.^"5 Whom be My. he never wa. able to coSvlnoTaaT one. After a new world had been diKovanZ S.«'f^2!Jr^ lndi«tlons w«rtSe2ft3to o^ M- I.?''"!!?'"" *• ."•« fi> worked out U« owxi Idee hinwrif ... He flnt applied Wmsdf Siii.'fn^l'"'''""''";."^ O*-"""- '^ would Uv. EjTif.^U'!;'';'.""''""' to what he had to ■ly. ^rfi^'T* '"'"' *.'"«'" to entidpat. him^ SSi h!.°^i""™"l *'"" 'netructlon. foundS npoo hi. plan. . . . (o unibu., diuustad at iS tre.lmenthel«,l rrceWed froii thf ftSumtir .u ..f tiM. I-.V wrt ;; u7ThrZi,ril'.i». 55 «««'» "Si" ^'P"'"' "frivtng at Pake In the veer itvL rJ*^ '['"J! "' ••»• 'onf "ult of Columbia dtaoourapmi-nt and departure, with intent lo «° to I^raniv; „f hi, V^cmll by commTiSl e( WDo re<|ulrp<l "Ui he ma<le an admiral at oom •oh. apMnW vlre„,y of the ooJiSiT^ praAteof tber«p«iiUoo;" of kiaMMwd nritii? AlBRICA. 14S4-148S. Ua neoad dcpwtais for Fnnce, and wcond re- call by iMbella, who flully put her heut iato the enterpriie and penusded her more akeptical coniort to hmd to it — the story of thoae MTen yean of the itruggle of Columbui to obtaia mean! for hi* Toyage ia familiar to all raaden. "The agreement between Cultimbus and their Catholic highneaaei waa signed at Santa Fi on the 17th of April, 1493; and Columbiu went to Palo* to make preparation for iiis voyage, bear- rag with him an order tliat the two veMcIs which that city fumi^iheil aiiDuaily to the crown for three months sliould be placc<l at his disposal. . . . The Ilnzons, rich men and siliilful marinera of Paloa, joined in the uodertal(ing, subscribing an eifhth of the expenses; and thus, by these united exertions, tliree vessels were manned with 90 mariners, and provisioned for a year. At length all the preparations were complete, and on a Friday (not inauspicious in Ibis case), the Bd of August, 1493, after they bad all confessed and received the sacrament, they set sail from the bar of Suites, making for the Canary Islands."— Sir A. Helps, Tht tIpanM Oongutst in Amfriea, bk. i, eh. 1. Also m J. Winsor, Ckrittapher Chlumbu*, tk. 6-9. and 20. A. O. 1493.— The First Voyare of Colna- bna.— OiacoTery o the Bahamaa, Cuba and Hajti. — The three vessels ol Colrmbus were called the Santa Maria, the FinU and the Nifia. "All had forecastles and liigh poopa, but the 'Santa Maria' was the only on* that waadecked amidships, and nhe was called a 'uao' or ship. The other two were caravelaa, a class of small veasels built for •|>eed. 'The 'Santa Maria,' as I gather from scattered notices In the letters of Columbus, was of 120 to 180 tons, like a mcxlern coasting schooner, and she carried 70 men, much crowded. Her sails were a foresail and a foretop-sail, a sprit-wil, a nialn- ■ail with two bonnets, and maintop sail, a mixiea, and a boat's sail were occasionally hoisted on Um poop. The 'Pinta' and 'NIBa' only had square sails on the foremost and lataen Mils on the main and mixzea The former waa 80 tons, the latter 40 tona, with crews of 90 men each. On Pridar, the 8d of August, the three Uttle TesseU left the haven of Palos, and thia memor- able voyage was cummen<'cd. . . . The expedi- tion pnx-reded to the Canary Islands, whera the rig of the ' PinU ' waa altered. Her lateen satla were not adaptoi for running hefuru the wind, and she was tliervfoie fitte<l with s(|iura aallai like the ' Sanu Maria. " iti'pairs were completed the vessels were filled up with wood and water at Uomera. ami the «i(M-<lltl(m took iu Snal de- parture fnim the island of Oiimera, one of tha ('ansrii's, on SepiemtHT «ili. I4»a. . . . Colum- bus had chosen his mute tiiimt happily, and with that fortunate prevision whlih often waits upon geniua Fn>m Uomera, liy a rourae a little south of west, he would run down the trades to the Bahama Islands. Kn.m tlm parallel of about ;W N. nearly to ili,. r<|uator there la a /iioe of |M'rnetual wimla — nnmely. tha north eiMt trade winds — alway- moving in the same dlreetlon, as sUadily as tlie . urrent 01 a river, exivpt where they are turnwl asMa by local rsiues, sn that the •Ii';m of Columbus weN st*adily carried tn thi'ir ilnaiiiititioa hr a law of nature which. In duo time, revealed Itself to tut ohiw ohierver of her svcreta. TJie AMERICA, 1492. C6 conataoeT of the wind waa one cause of alam among the crewi, for they began to murmur that the provlsons would all be exhausted if they had to beat against tliesc unceasing winds on the return voyage. The next event which excited alarm among the pilots was the discovery that the compasses bad more than a point of easterly variation. . . . This was observed on the 17ca of September, and about 300 miles westward of the meridian of the Azores, wlieu the ships had been eleven days at sea. Soon af terwanls tlie voy- agers fotmd themselves surrounded by masses of seaweed, in what is called the Sargasso Sea, and this again aroused their fears. They thought that the ships would get entangled in tlie beda of weed and become immovabre, and that the beds marked the limit of navigation. The cause of this accumulation is well known now. If biu of cork are put iuto a basin of water, and a circuUr motion given to it, all the corks will be found crowding U)gether towards the centre of the pool where there is the leiwt motion. The Atlantic Ocean is lust such a ba!<ln, tlie Oulf Stream la the whirl, and the Sargo-sso Sea is in th. centre. There Columbus found it and there it has remained to tiiis day, moving up and down and changing its positiim according to seasons, storms and winds, but never altering its mean position. ... As day after day ->a8sed, and there waa no sign of lami, the crews ticcame ttirbulcnt and mutinous. Columbus encouraged them with hopes of reward, while he uM them pisinly that he had conic to discover India, and tl "it, with the help of Ood, he would persevera until he found it. At length, on the Uth of Oc- tober, towards ten at night, Columbus waa on the poop and law a liglit. ... At two next morning, land waa disiinctir seen. . . . The island, called bv the natives (juanaliunl, and by ColumbuaSan Salvailor, has now been ii-uertalned tn he Watltng Island, one of the Uahamaa, 14 miles long by 6 broad, with a brackish lake In the centre, in 94° 10' 80" north Utitude. . . . The difference of Utitude between Oomera and Watling Island la 383 miles. Course, W. (PH.; distance 3,114 miles; average disunce made rwd daily. 8S'; voyage 8S days. . . . After dia- covering tiveral smaller blauds the fleet came in sight of Cuba on the 97th Ocu.bir, and ex- £lon-d part of the northern coojiI. Columbus illeved it to be Cipan™, the inland placisl on the chart of Toicanelll. between Eurojie and Asia . . . Crnaaini the channel between Culm and St. Domingo [or Havii], they amliored In the harbour of St Nicholas .Mole on I).-<-,intier 4th The natives came with prewnU and the coun- try was enchanUng. Columbus.. nsniKl the Inland 'KxpaBoU' [or llis(Niniola]. Hut with all thin peaceful beauty an>iind him lie was on the eve of dlsosUT" The Hanui Maria was drifted by a strong current U|>onuiiar)i| hank and hop aisily wrecked. "It was now iicri'Mury to ' e a iniall colony on the i»lanil . . .\ fort was built and namnl 'La -N'uvi.iail,' iW men remain- ing bthind supplied with «i..r.-. n„,\ provision. " aiMl •« KrWav, Jan 4. Ul^i, ( c.|,i,„|,us began hU homawanl voyaue Wi-Hilieririg a lionger- ous gale, which lasud seviml days Ills littia vessels reached the A/.on.s Keh. 17.«n.| ,rrive.l at Palos March I-l. Icarinn tlieir marvellous Jf"— " " Maftiham. 7"V 'i.i rar^.rj, .-.-. 3 — The same, IMtfiUuml-n,. rh 3 — Tliesutemrnt abova thM tto Ukad u( Iho Uabamas on which AMERICA. 14n. AvolOrmt AUEBICA, 1483-1406. Columbiu first landed, and which be called San Hal vador, ■ ■ lias now been awertaincd to be Watii Dr Island ■ seems hanlly jurtitted. The question be- tween Wat ling faland, San Salvaiior or Cat Island Uamana n«> A *» waa^I'b #1— _ «r t .\ r. ! Banuwa, or Attwood a Ca/, Alariguana, the Grand Turk, and other* is atifl in disputo. Profes- sor JusUn Winaor says "the weight of modem testimony seems to favor Watllng'a Island" but at the same time be thinlu it •' probable that men will never quite agree which of the Baha- mas it was upon which these startled and exul- tant Europeans first stepped. "—J. Winsor Chrif toplxr OAuinbuM, ch. 9.— The some, yarratioe and Cnliait Uiit. of Am., r. 8, eh. 1, nott B — Professor Jolm Fiskc, says: "All that can be positively asserted of Guriiiuhuui ia that it was uoe -he Bahamas ; there has boen endless discus- sii 1 as to which one, and the question ia not eisy to settle. Perhaps the theory of Captain Oustavua Fox, of the United States Navy, is on the whole best supported. Captain Fox maintains that the true Guanahanl was the little IsUnd now Known asSnmauaor Attwood't Cay." J Fiske Tht Dueotery of Anuriea, A. 6 (e. \) ' ' Also in f , « Cuatland OtodUie Suntti. Bevt 18H0, ami. 18. *. '"!»•. u/^iA »493--P«P«l gimnt of th« New World to Spain.— " tipuiii was at this time c-uinected with the Po|w about a most nioincn- tcus iimiter. The Gi'n.»«., Cristoforo C.ilomho arrivwi at the Spanish court in March. 14:);l Kiih the astounding news of the discovery of a Ufw continent. , . . Finlinantl and Isabella tjought it wise to secure a lille to all thatmliiht ensue from their new dis<overy. The Pope, aa \ liar of Christ, was held to hii\ e authority to ill'ilK.H- of luiiils Inhubltcd by the heathen- and Iv paiml Bulls tlio distoveries of Portugal alonK llie African coast had been securwl. The I ortuL'iiesc showed tl;fns of urplns claims to the ^ew W orlil, a» bilng already conveyed to them by the papal grants previously issued to tlieir favour To remove all otuso of dUpute, the Bpaulsh monarchs at once had recourse to Alex- moQi ) h *''° i""*^ '*" """' O" May * ""Ml » 114JJI to determine thertupectlverighUdf Himln and I'ortuml. In the first, the Pope g.unu- 1 to the Spanish monarchs and their heirs all laiuls (Ilsrovcnd or hereafur to be discovered In the western ixean. In the sei-ond, he defined his jrnint to m.an all lands that nilrhtljo dlacovrred west an.l south of an Imuj-lnary line, drawn from the North u> llie South Pule, at tli- dIsUnce of a humlred leagm-s w.-ntwanl of tlu- Aiores and Ti ''" \' ?' '»'*'"'•■ In the light of our pres- ent knowledge we are aniaz.d at thU simple means of di-<|i, ,„lni{ of a va»t eAlinl of tho earth's siirfac, I u,I.T II... po|H.s stop, ndoua patent, Jtpaln wasable to claim ev.ry part of the AnierUun I ontliirnt rx, ,.|,t tl„. ||i,„j|f„n coast.— il. Oldi- n.»a, 4*. 5, e*. S (c 3). /Jtv .1irr.|»,fcr M ,1„/.. /ft^_ J|/„„ 1892,.^/' rXitr. Vit Ihiymrf, „f .i„unnt.r\. tit. 11 _J "•^1 v/ ■ '• <'—'*<'«'. "l*'. IhIow: \. D. un r»T K '<«t«49«.-Tlie Second Voyac* of C4f!h!«=s,_3ii&;uB.ti0B Of ili*i|««i„la.- Jr. . Tn""' "' <■">'">'••"• on hiirs.M.nd t^^ <'f 'll'y.v.ry prewntwl a brilliant cm- *n>at 10 ^ glomay amIiarkalloB at Paka. ttai 67 the 28th of September [1493], at the daw of day tlie bay of Cadiz was whitened by his fleet! JnH '?„."';" ""™ '"je" *^'P» °f '''"^T burden whole fleet was under way." ArriviKl at the Canaries on the Ist of October. Columbus purchased there calves, gouu, sheep, hogs, and Hlspaniola; also "seeds of oranges, lemons. UTgamoU. melon*, and various orchard fruitj which were thus first intro«iuced Into the IsUnd* of the west from the Hespcrides or Fortunate nth""*! rl."'L"'i^^''";''^- I' «"* not untU thi 13th of October that the fleet left the Canaries and it arrived among the Islands since called the fe^a'^ii'.? O' Caribbees, on the evening of Nov. 3 Sailing through thU archipelago, dis- oiveringUie larger Island of Porto &ico on the W Columbu. reached the eastern extremity of llispanioU or Ilayti on the 22(1 of November and arrived on the 27th at La Xavldad, wheri he had left s garrison Un months bi-fore. He found nothing but ruin, silence and the mark* of death, and Iearne<I, after much inquiry, that h s unfortunate men, losing all dlwlpllne after his (leparture, had provok,-,! the natives by rapa- city and llccutiousnes* until the latter r.«e against them and destrnved them Ahaii.loning the •ceno of this disaster, Columbus found an excellent harlK)r ten leagues cast of .Monte Crist and Ihvre ho began the foun.ih.g of a city which he named IsalKlla. " IsalH.llu at the present day Isoulte oveign.wn with forests, in the mlilst of wfilch are still to bo 8<...n, partly standiug, the pillars of the chunh. m„„e n'nmlns of the kings storehouses, and part ..f tl.e resi- w?'.? "/, <-»''""'''"., «" »"iilt o'f hewn stone." While the fouuihii ions of the new city were b< ing laid, Columbus sent back part of his ships to .Spain, and undertook an exploration of the Inuriorof the Island — the mountains of Cibao — where abundance of gold was promised. Home gold washings were found— far to-j scanty to satisfy the expecUtlon* of the Spanlanls; and ■■ r."f ^S'l' •*J'>°«"»«>n nwlo their app.»raice •t Isabella, discontent was rife and mutfny afoot before the year had ended. In April 14»4. Columbus Bci sail with three caravels to revisit the I?!^V /V ?; '""»«""■', "'""'I"! exploration tluinhchadatte ed on tlio first discovery "Ho c ap|)o«e.l It to be . continent, and the extn'mc end of Asia, anil if so, by following lu shores in the propiwHl direction ho must eventually arrive at Catluiy and those other rii h and eoiiimercUl though semi-barbarous countries, .lescribe.! by Mum ivlllo and .Man-o Polo." Il,..,„ru of gold 111 hirn «.utll^yan from Cuba untlllie discovered the Ixland whi> h hn oallwl Santiago, but which i"\* . ''I }* ?""*■' """"■• J»">«'<ii. signifying the I Jjihd of .Springs. I>l».ipi«.lnled In t lie «,.anTi for gold, he «.«.n ntumeil fMni Jamaica to Culia and salltd along lu southern cinisI to very near the Western ex in-mlty. canllrmlng hlinmlf and bis followeni in the Ullef ihat tliev skirl".! (lie show-s of .\sla and might follow theiii to tl., IW B»a, If tlulr ships and sions were equal to so long a vovage. "Two or thn-e davs' furtlier sail would have carried Columbus roiiiid tl e cxlreiiiity of Piilu,: w,h.M h..,,=. .lUp..,,! ,jj, llluHon. and n'ight have ^iven ai. eiitin ly ililTer enl eounw to his subsequent ill-.-overiia In his prewnt conviction he lived n. I .ll,,!; hell, i ing to fala last hour tbM Cuba wiu the extremity of AUXRICA. 14M-liM. Cbtor* AHEBICA. 140T. the Aabtie ooDtincnt" Returnlrff cMtmrd, he TUted Jamaica again and purpo*^ tome further exnioration of the Caribbee lalanda, wlien his toili and anxieties overcame him. " He fell into a deep lethargy, resembling death Itself. His crew, aUrmcd at this profound torpor, feired that death waa really at hand. They abandoned, therefore, all further prosecution of the vcagfl; and spreading their sails to the east w;i.d (o praTaicnt in those seas, bore Columbus S iclc, in • state of complete inseogibflfty, to the harbor of Isabella,"— Sept. 4. HccoverinR cumdjus- neas, the admirul wm rejoiced to tind bin brother Banholomaw, from wliora hu ha.l lieon separated for years, and who had becu tent out to him from Hpain, in command of three sliipn. Otherwise there was little to give pleasure to Columbus when ho returned to laabelU. His followers w^re again disorganized, again at war with the natives, whom they plundered and Ucentiouslr abused, and a mischief-making prieat had gone back to Spain, along with oertain Intriguing officers, to make complaints and set enmities astir at the court. InvolTed in war, Columbus prosecuted It relentlessly, reduced the island to submission and the natives to servitude and misery by heavy exactions. In March UIM he returned to Spain, to defend himself agshist the machinations of his enemies, transferring the government of Hispaniolik to his brother Bartholomew. W Irving, lift and rot/ag- ^ Cblumlmt, M. »4 (•• 1-S). Also a n. H. Bancroft, Bitt. of tht Jhidjh Slatf. e. 1, eh. 3. -J. Whisor/ CAru(Mii(«r CWumAiM, eh. ia-14. A. D. I494-— TheTrtatfof Terdcaillaa.— Amended Partition ofthc New World b«tw*en Spidn and PortOKal.—" When speaking or writ- ing of the ronijuest of America, it Is generally believed that the onlv title upon wlilrh were haaed the conquests nf Spain and Portugal was the famous Pa|>al Bull of partition of the Ocean, of 1498. Few nuHirm auUiora take Into consid- eration Uiat this Bull wss amended, upon tlie pe- tition of the King of Portugal, by the [Treaty of Tordesillas], signed by botli powers in 14B4, augmenting the imrtioD assigned to tlie Portu- guese in the iiartitlan ade between them of the Continent of America. The arc of meridian Died by this treaty as a dividing line, which gave rise, owing to the ignorance of the age, to so msny diplomatic congp-sses and hiterminsble rontlxv Tenies, may now he traced by any student of elementary msthemHtlca This line . . . mas along the mrriilUn nf 47= 89' 56" west of On-.n- wlcli. . . . The name Brasil, or ' tlerm del Bra. ««,• at that time {the middle of the 18th century] referred only to the part of the continent pro. duclng thr lye wood so-callwl. Nearly two cent uricB Int. r the Portuguese advanceil towaAl the South, anil the name Hrazll then rnvered tlie new ixmiesslons tliey were aciiulring."— L. L. Domlngiiv*, hlrid tu '• Th* dnmtuHoflht Kmr Plait ■ aiiMuyl ,Sr. I\h». Sa. Nl). A. D. 1497. - Discovery of tht North Araeri- e»B Contiaeat by John Cakot.— "Tlie achieve- meut nf Columbus, revealing the wonderful truth of which tlie germ may have etisted In tlie iliisiriiiation of every thnuehtful mstriser, wtm (In KnglttiHl] the mlnilntlon which belon)^ to genius lliat *i-i inni more dlvtne than human i and ' there was ^resi talk of It in all the court of 68 Henij Vn.' A feelhig of diaappoliitiiient i» malned, that a series of dlsaatera had defeated the wish of the illustrious Qenoese to make hia voyage of essay under the flag of Knghind. It waa, therefore, not difficult for John Cabot, a denizen of Venice, residhig at Bristol, to Interest that politic king in phuis for discovery. Oo the Sth of Mareh, filM, he obtained under the great seal a commission empowering himself and hia three sons, or either of them, their helra, or their deputies, to sail Into the eastern, western, or northern sea with a fleet of five ships, at their own expense, in search of islands, provinces, or regions hitherto unseen by Christian people; to affix the bannere of EngUnd on city, IsUnd, or continent; and, as vassals of the English crown, to poesess and occupy the territoriea that might be found. It waa further stipuUted In this ' moat ancient American State paper of EngUnd. ' that the patentees should be otrictlr boud, on overy return, to land at the port of Bristol, and to pay to the kbig ooe-flfth part of their gains; while the excliuTve right of frequenting ^11 the coun- tries that might be found was reserved to them »"<1 to their assigns, without limit of time. I nUer tWs patent, which, at the fl st direction of Baiglish enterprise toward America, embodied the worat features of monopoly and commerelal reatriction, John Cabot, Uking with him his son Sebastian, embarked in quest of new islands and a passage to Asia by the nnrth-west. Aft.r sail- ing prosnerously, as he reported, for 700 leujues. <Mi the «4th day of June fU97] In the morning, almost fourteen months before Columbus 00 bis third voyage can- in sight of the main, and more than two y n before Amerigo Vespucci sailed west of the Canaries, he dlscoverecl the western continent, probably in the latitude of about S«o degrees, among the dismal cliffs of Labrador. Ho mn along the coast for many leagues, it is said even for 300, and landed on what he considered to bi- the territory of the Orand Cham. But he encountered no human being, although there were marks thst the region waa lnhabite<I. He planted on the hnd a large cnas with the flag of England, and, from affec- tion for the republic of Venice, he added the ban- ner of 8t Mark, which bad never been borne ao far before. On his homeward voyage ho saw on hia right hand two islands, which for want of provialona he could nut stop to explore. After an absence of three months the great discoverer re-entered Bristol harlmr, where due honora awaltwt him. The king gave him money, and •neouraged iilm to coutlnue Ills can-er. The peo- ple called him the great ailmirel; be dressed In silk; and the English, and even Venetians who chanced to lie at Bristol, ran after him with such leal that he could enlist for a new voyage as many as he nieased. ... On the third day of the month of February next after his return, •John KahiiUi. Venetian,' arronllngly obtainf« a power to take up ships for another voyage, at t.he rates flxiil fur those emplnved In the service of the king, and once more to set sail with as many companions on would go with lilm of their own will. With this llixnsa every Xnuv of John Cabot dlsappewra. He may have illid before the summer, but no one knows rertalnly Um' tlroe iir !!» ph'" --f hl:i fnt!. and it has r.r.t cvfin been aarerulne<l lu h liai country this fln<ler of a continent flrst saw the light. "-O Bancmft. aw. iiflht V. A^Am. (Author's Ust Iteviaion), AlfSRICA. 1407. pt. I, A. 1. -. Id hla eritlial woric on the dliinr. «y of Amerk», pobUihed in 1888. Mr. Hennr H»rri«e»t»te8Uioonclu«lon»MtoHieC«botvo7 ami, aod on the queation whether the Americui d&coTeri* were made by John Cabot or hia md Sebaatlan^ aa foUowa: "l.-The dlaooTery of the continent of North America and thelfim landing oo lu eaat ooaat were acoompllahed ^ brSeSutian Cabot, but by hi. fathSr John, in U97, under the auipicea of King Henry " 8. -The arst landfall waa not *Cape hreton AMKBICA, ltt7-MS8. , -^u"**? ""^ auapicea of King Henry VII I -The arst landfall waa not 'cSre breton Wand^ a. I. Mated in the pUniapheii made b? f'^"' S?'^' '"J'**- •"" «•«•>»" ten degreea further north^n the coaat of'Ubrador: W^ waa then ranged by John Cabot, probably aa far - Cape Chudley. 8 -This flit wm t^th? acknowledged bj aU pilot, and ooamografSere throughout the Jrst half of the l«th Sntury ?u^ r'^^Z^^. "' [' originated with Bcbi,: w.^^'^'k?'™'" wbaterer may hare been afterwards his contrary statements In that re. '?f^'^ *• T^*"' ""l^f »' 1«W. also »com. plished under the British flag waa llkewiH carried out by John Cabot penm^y. Theland. fall on that occasion must be placed south of the first : and the exploration embracwl the north- east coast of the present United Sutes. aa far m Florida. 5. -In the yicinity of the FloriduJ cast coast, John Cabot, or one of his lleutenanUL uSi i'*^K^5°'°.^ ^P"** "«"»•. fn 1«8 or iS! .n^~». *5«"«'> continued in ISOl, 1808, li^' „"1 »"",'"^'- •" "•"* "^'P* to Newfound! land c ilefly for the purpose offlsheriea. •— H »""».*; .r ^""^ "-^"^^ ^'»^. p'- »; "^3. «*. 1. Cnneal Assy (C. Deane) — R filddW Jf.^.r «/ *i^„ (^^ ctTX-^'l^ A. p. I407i49«.-Th« tnt Venn of ^Ti'"". VeapuciBfc - Ml.underm25l«n i? .^"°*'" nj»l»*tor.-HI. t«plor»tlou of 4,ooo milea of cootinental co—i.--o'r fc!™'I',""",™"""I"«[ Araerirus Vcspucius from l«carl.v part of Sie year 1486 uutfl aft« his return from the Portuiucse to the BpaulS scrTice In the latter part ofVMt, resU priSlX upon hi, two famous letters; tl.i one ^"^^ to his old patron Lorcnro .11 Pier r™2c«S?^ wr7 'I' u'v" V ^r"'" ">« MagnmSnOMd writirn In March or April, 1803, riving an ac- to his old sch«>l.fplfow Piero Soderinl TSm Oonfalonlersof Florence) and dated from Lliboo Septembers 1804, giving a brief account of rZ'J.7?'^*."''?'' ^' hnS mml. un,Krio,°. Xt T^^'letti™ "'*'J2.°' """"omcr oJ ul . ,' "•"'•""*". . . becamcspeo<lllvponu. e«[>ef iHliy In France, (Icniiany, and Italv The Iruer to Bo,lerinl gives an amount of four f^m rl'i.^"*?"*?'^ ^^' «"' expedition sailed i^ 1488. after having explored a coast so loiia win psrts <,f Am.rica am vWfejJ ^jrsia 1*,!; «i'; ?";'■""', It dls.orere,l noSog t «t^« »pal«. though It by »o «««, pMaSVlS u J!?'!?.,'''^'* "^ "t*^ baen wrongly aMertad. tin^,."! ^P^ J' •»■»• to attrS^i'^rSS?. tlon. but in an unfortunate way, for a slight but the most taporUntoTthe UUnTSrslona, c.^ .{.« ifL'j""'* ^ •* P'»ctlcally MentMed wjS the second Toyage. made two yW. Uter 5w« confudon eventually led to moat i5S^,i>uI ^hdth'S"hi:r.'l"/<«' name of A^JSt^ Zm^l '^'**° '•? ^' ""> PX^nt century to (u?^ln wh^r"""* '°y'?- »' Vespuclu. WM that In whldi be accompaiaed Alonso de OJada ^ '^ *'"JL» ^'***- '™"' May 80, mW to nfT'..J^' ?"y,"P»ore<i the northern^ of South America from soma potat on whatwe wotdd now can the north coasTof fiitU, m 7» Mthe Pearl Co«it visited by Columbus in tl" i!!fm?, 1.°' M»racalho. Here the squadron seems to have become divided. Oieda goTng ow to Illspanlola In Septeml«r, wille VesSuduI wmatoed cruUing tlfl February. . . U taS-r tainly much to be regrette.1 that'ln the narntSTve to me„,?n„'^Er""°°' Vespuchmdld nothaJpeS to mention the name of the chief cominaijer U.'.". .T'l'.'' • ,• • he was writing not for us but for his friemJ, an.l he told SodeHnI onlv-wlai he thought would Interest him. . gf JJo ^1 m™,^''*'" *^^ ^'■"'''"' "'lehhispayid the most Important part In history U Uie litln i^^tfe.^l^-^i-e3 ^^K^utf^K^i^^d Petrdrtj;.ran e«x'c^ve^7";^"t:^.';.; ^nVve„f *""•' ^"'™ »'''^" the^amous w" raine version was ultimately derived If llrin'^Jn""?'""'."''' primitive text with tit. Latin of he I^rrjlne version of 1807, we observe that. In the latter, one uroper name - the iSdllS ""• °' •, P'«c«J-'»lte/b/An>ericu. on his flm ^ririfh" '".^•"t''V'"^ In Uie original It I, TM. L '»!.""' f""" " »"" become -Parias ■ Jn he r,„«"nf".'.° '?"*."'"* °' '"Judicious edlt% ™„™ K ',"'" I^"" tran.l«lor, although, of ?°."J!t' , ""y •* • '^^ "' •^"'li'is proof remllug 69 of L«r^l„. ?-i'''' t'"^' f!'"""* ""« ■"oonUlns or lx>rralne ■ ould make noth iig of It. If he had Slfff.-.l!!' '* '«:i"»'"'«l *it1. the langu.^ of the Huastccas. who dwelt at Uiat time aloT the southern nciahbours the Aztecs- he would w-^ .^?''.'' "'*i ?""?" °' P'""» '" 'hat region 3r!J^ .' '"■y"'"' o"' worthy tran.lst..rs ken, we cannot much bUme him If he felt tUt sue region on he western shore, of the AtlantU ui.l f"?f:'''^'^'"- »■»"-. As the Uisl-M.,. f^n «nH ml ''*"..'? "if "J*^' '• ""f* "■»" t"" thou IJ.n.?» .K- *'''• ""'* '""""'"'ion shlfte.1 the 1^?!.^..^'.'' ""' ';"y»»* beyond nil recgnitlon, !!i ^* the whole subject In n outer .lark! MS. where there has been much gronning and ?«^'^'^ "' '^-'^ ^'T'^" <=>"tou«rir,um«1.n« came In lo confirm this error On hi* fir?! v-t- rf,^: "'^'"^ M""' -"iving at l.ari«b. Vespu- •I. V-."." '.""tl" '*•*" '•""t '»'f the water, iiouMS, like baiTMka,' supported on huge tiw- I ill AHBRICA, 1487-1498. AmtrleuM Vmpmeitu. AMKHICA, 1407-1498. i ir H trunks and communicating with each other by bridges that could be drawn up In case of danger This may well h.ive been a village of communal houses of the Chontals on the const of Tabasco- but such villages were afterwards HCen on the Uulf of Maracaibo, and one of them was called Venezuela, or 'Little Venice.' a name since M)read over a territory nearly twirc as large as France. 80 the ampliibious town descriU-d by V espiieius wnsincontjn ntly move<l to Maracaibo as if there could Iw only one such place, as if that style of defensive building had not l>ern common enough In many ages and In many partt of the earth, from ancient Switzerland to modem blam. . . . Thus in spite of the latitudes and longitu.lcs distinctly staUKl by Vespuclus in his letter, did Lariab and the little wooden Venice get shifteil from the Gulf of Mexico to the northern coast of South America. . . . We are told that he falnely pretended to have visited Paria and .Manicaibo in 1497, in order U) claim priority over Ciilumbus In the discovery of ' the continent.' What continent? When Vespuciu* wrote that letter to Soderini, neither he nor any- boily else suspected that what we now call Amer- ica had iH-en discovered. The only continent of which tliere coidd l)e any <|ucstion, so far as sup- planting Columbus was concerned, wiis Asia. But in I.V14 Columbus was generallT supposi-d to have disi-oveml the continent of Asia, bv his new route, in Ud'i. ... It was M. Vamha'gen who first turu«i iiiiiuiry on this subject in the right direction. . . . Having taken a correct start by simply following the words of Vespuclus him- self, from II primitive text, without reference to any pn.-cnceiviHl theories or traditions, M. Varn- hagcn find.-t" that Ameritus In his first voyage made lamt on the northern const of Honduras; "Ihut he sailed around Yucatan, and found his aquatic village of communal houses, his little wooden \ iniee, on the shore of Tabasco Thence after a fight with the natives in which a few tawnv prisoners were captured and carried on x«nl the caravels. Vespuclus seems to have i.ken a straight course to the lluasleca country by lampico, without touchl-.g at points in the region siil.ject or tribuUry to the Aztec cufrd erncy. This Tampico country was what Vespu- clus underit,io<l to be called Uriah. He ng'dn givn the latitude definitely and correctly as ZS" >., and he mentions a few interesting cireum stances, lie saw the natives roasting a dresd- fully ugly animal," of which he gives what seems to be "an excellent de^-ription of the Iguana, the flesh of which is to this day an im- p'lrtnnt article of foo<l in tropical America. After leaving thU country of Lariab the ships K>pt still to the northwest for a short distance, and then followed the windings of tlic c.«st lor (<,o 1( iigucs. . . . After traversing the «7(i kagiu-, of creaked (xul. the thlps found Hum S(f ves 111 the finest harbour Id the worl.l ' [which M. \ar.dmgen suppoaed, at first, to have Ikhh in ( iHsajH-ake Bay. but afterwards reaclii'd (vm elusions iKjinting to the neighbourhood of Cape , luu"*'.?'- "" "'« •■''ori'lsc'W'tJ It was In June, im. thirteen months since they had started from ,f\ :, • ;. J .!'y 'P*""' seven anil-thirty days in tills unrivalled harbotir. preparing for the liomc V. ynge. and found Uie naUrcs very hospitable ew ri d men court«l t|,, M of the whlt.-^ ! oJ." K^ I^!^ snirers. in iin aiiju-k »l.lrh ii..,. ».i.i...i ,. I ••'. ^ . /^i™5! ilrsng n attack which they wished u Ited certain islands lomo distance out to sea. The Spaniards agreed to the expedition, and sailed late in August, taking seven of the friendly Indians for gufdes. "After a weeks voyage they fell In with the islands, some peopled, otliera uninhabited, evidently the Bermudas. 600 miles from Cape Hatteras as the crow flics. The Spaniards landed on an Island callc<l Iti, and had a brisk fight," resulting In the capture of more than 200 prisoners. Seven of these were given to the Indian guides, who paddled home with them. "'We also [wrote Vespuclus] set sail for Spain, with 2'« prisoners, slaves ; and arrived In the port of Cadiz on the ISth day of October. 149S, where we were well received and sold our slaves. •. . . The obscurity hi which this voy- age has so long been enveloped Is due cliiefly to tlic fact that ft was not followed up till many vears had elapsed, and the reason for this neglect Impre8.ses upon ua forcibly the Impossibility of understanding the history of the Discovery of America unless we bear In mind all the attend- ant circumstances. One might at flrst suppose that a voyage which revealed some 4,000 mUes of the coast of North America would have attracted much attention In Spain and have become alto- gether too famous to be soon forgotten. Such ■n ^argument, however, loses sight of the fact that these early voyagera were not trving to 'dis- cover America.' There was nothing to astonish them in the existence of 4,000 miles of coast line on this side of the Atlantic. To their minds It was simply the coast of Asia, about which they knew nothing except from Marco Polo, and the nat'iral effect of such a voyage as this would be slaipiv to throw discredit upon that traveller." — .1. Fiske. The Diteutery of Aiwriea, eh. T (V 2) The arguments against this view are set fortli by .Mr. Clements It. Markham. in a paper read before the Royal Geographical Societv, In 181)2 as follows: "Vespucci was at Seville or San Luear, .is a provision merchant, from the mid- dle of April, 1497, to the end of Mav. U9M as Is shown by the offlcisl records, examined by Mufioi of expenses incurred in fitting out the ships for western expeilitlons. Moreover, no expedition for (llseover>- was despatched by order of King Ferdinand Iti 1487; and there Is no allusioD to any such exiwlitlon in any contemp<irarv reconl The internal evidence against the truth of the story is even stronger. Vespucci says that he sailed W. 8 W. for nearly 1000 league* from Grniid ( annnr This would have uken him to the Gulf of Paria, which Is rather more than 900 li«gues W 9. W. from Grand Canary. . . No actual navigator would have made siich a blun- der He evidently quoted the dead reckoning from Ole<la s voyage, and Invented the Utitude at random . Rli statement that he went , ^) \"'}^l leagues (!!,6I» miles) from a poal- tlon In latitude 83» N. is still more pivpoateiWs Such a course and distance would hare token him righl across the continent to somewhere in British Columbia. The chief incidents In the Tovage are those of the OJe<la vovage In 1489 There is the village built on piles calW Little Venice There was the encounter with na tlvcs. in which one Spaniard was killed and '« were wounded. These numbers are convincing evidence — c. R .Markham. rMumbui (Hepai maka upon a fierce roc* of caimibala, who Inhab | M. 6U - iingi, Sij,!., \sa3 1 ALS.J i!«: J, WlBsor. CkritltpHtr OUumhu. ' 19. AMERICA. ,«a JU, C^ ^RjcA. 14«^,M8. A. D. X498. -Second Voyan of John Cabot, ■ometimei ascribed tohU .on s" ?!!Ll"LTr."^5' J""" »"" ""ta ««»»«. John Csbot petitioned Henry VII. for new letteii ^ Ti'l*? '"' ""^ !"■' dlKoTer^. The Kioc granted bis request on the 3rd of February. 14W^ There is no itroiind whiit«v»r t^, >i i'-Jz:' P S-i.„~T. „ ■"H""' "nine am or February. 149C There is no gro.nd whaterer for the aiirtton frequently repeau.l that John CabotTd not command this second expedition, or that It was undertaken after hi. death. On tbe^ntr^ Pasqualigo and Soneino mention him by n^e exclusivefy as the partr to whom Henry Vli Intended to entrust the fleet. Besides, this time John Cabot is the only grantee, and the new °t: ten patent omit altogether the names of SebasUan and of his brothera. Moreover. John ex^ned in person to Soneino his plans for the Wond voyage; and July as, 141)4. PuebU Mrf AvS. rtT.'^v""?'"'.!^"' the'SpanlA ^re^J^ that the vessels had actuaUy sailed out 'Zm otm ginoves comj Colon.' which dacriptlro ^.Tn ,"•" ^PP'' 'Y*"'"'y '» Sebastiarbut to John Cabot as we know from corroborative cvi nf ^i^'Ti"^* n"?^- "f "^ f"*'' '• "»t the name of .Sebastian Cabot appnirs in connection wUh those voyugcs, for the first time, in Peter Mar tyr-s account, printcl twenty years after tte even , and tak-n from SobaJtiiTs own li^ which . I, not a recommendation In zZ'- land, his name reveals itself aa regards the dil .ovcry of the New World at a stilflater wriod In John Stow', Chronicle, published In'^l'wS' And although both that historian a^ H.kluvt ■luotc a, their authority for tlw rtatement a IT^^m"^ f"''7 °' '*"^" PablanVchronicle ThT„,.Lii.. ' '' * *''^'" fn«<^rpol8tiou. . . The expedition wa^ composed orflve vesi.- u' ^X^7.&^]^^i.urn.:fBrii"e^' ,?th. '"'L^?' '^''^' """ new^lS^liJea rSS '■.''•. "Mition, which was obliged to lel^ «v ;s\';Li:^""^' °'"'°' '"• '"Wwing'to" ^^vX7Xw7„rttnV:e:?rv""V " """ thT.'v'lJr-.-A'-! '-^o™.t?^ ^k'^.i.'^'".'''L?»?^ conmendng at the south taSL?',^'"V'«'*^ de*«:ublS-ta^ %D?2f ES^-nH™*^**"'." 'J"' north wiS fZHr ™ *'''8'?n<l : — Cauo de ynglatena.' Iln. relatively the SVlT^^S^^X'^ a.s'«'nl?^;i'^, ■co.nl^'i^^ffisrJ p*5of8 account, as reported by Peter M^lr A. fci^?*^ "" ""•'^^-orthK™ dte: gpc frLr-^-:;;i:^« H Hamss.., Ih^rertf ^- Ameria,. pt. 1, it « •• r„^ii^"'".'"''".» r*'^*"^ Spain In Ju" hm g.ve"h rlrl '->*"« •^'cc've.l hlrklnd^: futflta vX..^""",,""* P~"n'««« him olh« ddnv, took n "^"'"^J""*^'"' ^<iM out and 3?lnfM^ p."' ^^' npart* of the returning «arco lolo, and the newfound world was ,7fl?J'"* 5" "^ N*-" World ui atlantP; ,1? "'"'P'''*. therefore. ilY the Btiantic discoveries mwie bv C^hitt !>.««[. rear t.Vm n... „.i.rj.. "'>•'*». Wloie uiw L. .J ■ '?""■» "PeaiUons of 14BT and Jiriiian nag, and romnria^ >i._r .« !r' Irnnsatlantrc d ritremitr of tlu^ m!^ In .?' ■*•**••« to the tho„yhrt^.:;v^~^^^^^^^^^ peopli 01 riv~.'\Ii7i. '■ "J'''^'' •■" "»•«"<> either from lu ^ree peaks, ot from the Hoir TrtnltT.^.ir f^^'l^e'^SrUri^.^iL^'lJrioL'i'hV.'S: tlfl^^^.«H f**^ ""i^ esubllshed a'for DominS^'iii u'"?'^*d "»• town of 8anto M^-I^iii".' ^""t Bwtholomew had ruM StS !^"^ ^"^°« **» Admimls atwcnce I, t hi tt?ij"°* ?'•"•»« • nroH. which wi« h^, «| w«ut 10 noomU* thm. tad be even succMded amuuca, i4te-Mi». £at< Vogatu c/OOtimbtm. AMERICA, 1499-lSOO. .'i to •ttaehlng Roldan wumlr to hb IntentU. O^umbua' stmence from BpiOii, however, left hb cood nsme without iponaon; and to latiafy detncton, a new commiaaioner waa lent OTer with enlarged power*, even with authority to •upenede Columbua in general command, if Beoeaary. Thia emliaary was Frandaco de Bo- badilla, who arrived at Santo Domingo with two wavela on the 88d of August, iSJO, finding •piego in command, hia brother, the AdmliBl weing absent An Issue was at once mad*. Jnego refused to accede to the commissioner's (orders till Columbus returned to judge the case Ihimself; so BobadiUa assumed charge of the wown property violently, took possession of the Admiral s house, sod when Columbus returned, he with his brother was arrested and put In irons. In this condition the prisoners were placed on shipboard, and sailed for Spain, The capUln of the sliip offered to remove the manacles: but Columbus would not permit It. being determined to land in Spahi bound as he was ; and so he did. The effect of his degradation was to his advant- age; soverelKns and people were sboiked at the sight; and Fenlinund and Isabella hastened to make amends by receiving Urn with njnewed favor. It was soon apparent that everything reasonable would be granted him by the mon- archs, and that he could have all he might wish short of receiving a new lease of power in the islands, which the Bovorolgns wore determined to SI* iiaoitieil at least In-forc Columbus should agniu ii88uine government of them. The Admiral had not forgotten his vow to wrest the Holy Sepulchre from the Infidel; but the monarchs dill not accede to his wish to underuke It. DIs- appointeil in this, he propoaeil a new voyage; and getting the royal countenance for this schtiiic. he was supplliil with four vessels of from tlttv to seventy tons each. ... He sailed from Cadiz. May 9, l.vra, accompanied by his brother Bartholumiw and hi* son Fernando The vessels reaclieii San Dnmingo June 20 BobadillB. whuiH! rule of a year ami a half had been an unlmppy one. had given place to Nicho- las lie Uvanilo; and the fleet which brought the new governor — with Maldonado, Las Caaas and o Hf 1,T7 ""* '*y '" "'* '»■'■*>"' waiting to receive Bobadilla for the return voyii)fp. Columbus had been Instructi'd to avoid llispaniola; but now that one of his vessels leiikiil. and he nceiicd to make repairs, he sent a Umt ashore, asking per. pilssion to enter the harbor. Hu was refuseil though a Sturm was impc-mlini?. He shcltercii his ve«jt-l, as best he could, ami rode out the *".*• „"''* ''*^*' *'■'•■'' ''*<' ■"> '""""l Bobadilla and Roldon. with their 111 gotten gains, was wrecked, and these enemies of folumbus were drowned. The Admiral found a small harbor where he could make his repairs; and then, July U, sailnl westwanl to flnil, as he supposed the richer portions of Imlls. . . . A landing was made on the ciim.t of Honduras, August 14 Three (Ihts Liter the explorers landed again nrteen leai^ues fiirtliiT east, and t^xik possession of tiM) country for S|ittin, Still i-ast tiiey went and, in gratitu.i.' for aarav after a long storm thi'y named a ca|ie which tliey roumlid. Oracios » Uiu«--a name still prescrveil at the point whi-re the coast of Honduras liegins to trend s"Hihwsril. Columbus was now ivlug ill on his lied, placeil on deck, and was half the tims lu tvvery. UUII the vessels coasted south" •long and beyond the shores of CoeU Rica; then turned with the bend of the coast to the north- east, until they reached Porto Bello, as we call It, where they found houses and orchards, aiid passed on "to the farthest spot of Bastidas' exploring, who had. In 1301, saUed weetwaid along the northern coast of South America." There turning back, Columbus attempted to found a oolonv at Veragua, on the Costa Rica coast, where slgni of gold were tempting. But toe gold proved scanty, the natives hostile, and. the Admiral, withdrawing hia colony, sailed away. " He abandoned one worm-eaten caravel at Porto BeUo, and, reaching Jamaica, beached two other*. A year of disappointment, grief, and want followed. Columbus clung to his wrecked vessels. His crew alternately mutinied at his side, and roved about the island Ovando, at HispanloU, heard of his stnits, but only tardily and scantily relieved him. The dis- contented were finally humbled; and some ships despatohed by the Admirals agent in Santo Domingo, at test reached him and brought him and his companions to that place, whero Ovando received him with ostenutious kindnea, lodging hhn in his house till Columbus departed for Spain, Sept 18, 1604." Arriving in Spain in November, disheartened, broken with disease neglected, it was not until the following May tliat he had strength enough to go to the court at Segovia, and then only to be coldly received by King Ferdinand — Isabella being di-ad. " While still hope was deferred, the intlrmiliea of ago and a life of hardships brought Columbus to his end ■ and on Ascension Day. the 20th of May, l.we, he ilieil, with his son Diego and a few devoted friends by his bedside."-^. Winsor, A'amUite and Orilieal Hut. of Am., t.i, eh. 1 Also ijt: II. H. Bancroft ttitt. of the I^Meilk Stalet, t. 1, eh. 8 and 4.— W. Irving, XtA and Voyage* of (Mumbut, bk. 10-18 (». 8) p. laMh-iOM.— The Voyagea and Di*. tea of OJcda and Pinion.— The Second 62 cereric* _, Voyan of Amerifo Vespucci.— One of tlie most daring and resolute of the adventurer* who accompanied Columbus on his second voyairc (in 1408) was Alonso de Ojeiia. Ojeda quarrel Iwi with the Admiral and returned to Spain in 14»8 Soon afterwards, "he was provldcil by the Bishop Fonseca, Columbus' enemy, with a fragment of the map which the Admiral had sent to Penlinand and Isabella, showing the dis- coveries which he had maile in his lost voyaire With this assistance Ojeila set sail for Soutii America, accompanied by the pilot. Juan de la Costt. who hiul accompanied Columbus in his first great voyage in 1492. and of whom Coluni bus coinplalne«I Uiat. 'bilug a clever man, hi- went aljout saying that he knew more than he illil, onil also by Amerigo V.-spiiccl. They set snll on the 20lh of May. 1489. with four veiweN and after a passage of 27 ikvs c»niu in sight of the continent, 200 leagues east of the Oronnco At the unci of Jiini . they lamleil on the •';! .res of Surinam, in six ilejtni-s of north latlvude. nnii Iiroreeiiinij west saw the mouths of the Rsseiiuilxi nnil Ommieo. Passing the Uoca del I)ra«.. of Trinliiail. they coasted wi-stwani till they reachi'.l the Capo de la Vela in Granaiia. It was in thii voyage that waa dlsmvprn) iji* Gulf to whicU Ojeda gave the name of Veneiuila, or Little Venice, on account of the cabins Imllt on piles over the < »(er, a uudit of life which brought to #' AMERICA, 1499 -ISOa hta mind luc wattr-city of the Adriatic. From tbp Amcriraa coast OJcda went to the Caribbce blands, and on the 6th of September WciS ^aguimo in Hiapanlola. whbre he raSSi » revolt against the authority of ColumbuT^^llU Ci. however were fru.trated by Roldan and bar. the delesatea of Columbua, and fcS t« conipclle.1 to withdraw from the Ulind. OnTlw Bth of February, 1500. ho returned, caVrylnK with him to Cwliz an extraordinary iumbt-r o? •Iave8, from which he realUed an enonnous aum fhJ"^"*^- *'• ""' .•^S'""'"? of December. 1490^ Toyage. another companion of Columbus, in hta flrit voyage. Vicente Yafiez Pinion, saHed from P»lo. w«i the first to ctos. the line on h" American ride of the Atlantic, and on the aoth of Januarv, 1500, diacoveied cipe 8t. Augusttoe ' to whjch fie gave the mune of fiTbo SinTMaria deU Consolacion, whence returning northVard bt followe<l the wentcrlv trending 5)a8t.Tnd w d^eriHl U.e mouth of the AmfzoTwhich he named Paricunu Within a month after hUdc parture from Palo., he waa followed fro„, al -me port and on the same route by Die™ , c ^•S;. ?," ""* "*? ^"' todlacover. at the nmuth wm!5. ","""*"■ ':y P'f«n» of a closcl vlw wWch only opj ne.1 when it ra.che.1 the bc.utmi of thewa er, thut, at a depth of eight fSZ wl? h"'/.''". '"" ''"'^•'' f-thonn were M? water but all alwve w.u. fresh. Upc alsomalle the obs,.rvall..n that l^yond Cape St^uTusTlne wind, he d.mhl,d. as \v,.l| „s finz „ the c«.ift Ci^X'r.alM'rr'' ''^' """ '•*'^" "f teafj^-Ui^^JiaKl^rnSL;!^.!^ dUc..v,.n. ,, ,o the s<,.,tl.. Two veii^.ls. Zl«b v D the spring uf Km. were «.nt ., t uu t 0«M>»r f,>rt<r.„l. X„ j„u„,.l or cl,.- t "f „ vm, Ko .s now ,„ cxisretu-e. hence little is known "f Its obj«t or resulLs. Still in.ire dim iLa prevous vnyag,. astTilHHl by Conldro to J, a^ VazC-rienal. fullurofOas^ar. . tZ-. *"^ lie talK.i a cliart.,. struck the c.«i8t of N.w found- Of rnptKitu. AMEMCA. 1500-1514. t,ame<I there ha<i the greatest influence on the plorationof aeBruai.li cout for the k£ c.me curiou^y co^X'Sid.- K^l^mTrei'^f I ortugal intrusted to I'edro Alvarez dTcuhiS ip tr 'rk of 'oir '" «"«""'^^ ^ f-'now ujj lue worK or Uama and establish a Pnn.i met X frem iT''' ^T'^Jl'"* "t^ut i^ mi a, saiiea rrom Lisbon March » 1500 AVt»» passing the Cape Venie Islands. MaVdi 2^ for some reason not clcariy known whe*hcr driven by stormy weather or ^king to avJd the c^lms "'.;^t'*Cal,r;i','\'" ""<" :'-»me on the Guinea coast, labrul t<K)k a sonio-vliat more wp«ti.ri^ course than he realizcl. and on A^Jil ^o^af^r^ weary progrc^uverging less than W mile; %;? :^.'r, "-^d- '.'«-"' of Brazil S'ot ( «< iz 111 Stpt.nilH.r, I,VCJ. Tliix U.'i . ,K '"J'"' I •? . ^„.i,""n"/'" '«^'^«"' "'".after. •-. .lm1..> ".■"r" '-"» ^•!»»»»» »'lthorilv fMriiyl '^'''—i^r'foir^irjsi^^z'tj'tt 61 far U^yoml the limit readied bv Uno Approaching it in su.^h » way I'abnil /dt s.ire liiat Ills coast must fall to the east "f the n« m\ T^:^'^{ Accordingly „„ .May day, at ' or," S«guro in latitude 16° a/ S he took f,!J.^ . p.«sesslon of the country for Pom.ga7 and^ LiSn witb^ir '" ""* "' "is r,;i"£ik 'o i^isiKin with the news. On M.iu •» <■ i i weighed anchor and sto«| hr the ^ape of &C V.Tfv • • ^'»''™'™""Hhelandl*ha. IfouTd Cmz iut'when'r;!"'^'' ""■*"."?^ bec«ni..S v^^ruz, out When Lenios arrivwi in Lisbon with the new, he liad with him some gorg'^us inr,7 o'f"'i^l^' "h J "'.','""'f ""^ ••"'"^•^' ..antes ^old 1 ; of the Bmzilian c.«ist we find • Land of I'um Jiuets' and 'Land of the IIolv C^«^• The |an 1 lay obviously so far U. the cist thr.Spa „ c, « ...t deny that at last thrre was somei In f i I'urtugal out in the -o, „ sia ' M i I bCnsf was fdt at Lisbon. K,„^^ Emai ud bt^i?,'; wre acwptcl. for what reason we X , mt k n Oj^-ila, probably in the autumn of iVm \..,.V^, cu. pass.., fronuhe «.rv,e. of Sj^'i.,' ii:;^ iViT o'f ? ;:rif£!n wKe::-^r'ir£?:;i dear who wa.s.l.ief captal,,. Iml Y. VarnI • ', , 1 -w ound n.«*«.s ^.rl,el evin. ^U,,{\i ^^^^^J^ 11,; KfT -^'"""'■'- "'« "■^» '"'It wa.s iiia,!,. m he African coast at Cniie V,r.le ihc llrs «•,. b '"June. . After«7,l!.yH,l. i;evi|,:,^,',.,rtl i-r nraiil lu latitude about 5' S.. on the evening AMERICA, 180&-1S14. tTamii ttamina of AMERICA, ISOO-ISIA ■ I 1 •1 of the 16th of August, the feiUral-day of San Roque, whom name wu accordingly given to the cape before which they dropped anchor. From thli point they slowly followed the coait to the southward, stopping now and then to exam- toe the country. . . . It was not until All SainU day, the first of November, that they reached the bay in latitude 18° 8,, which is still known by the name which they gave It, Bahiade Todos Santos. On New Year's day, 1508, they arrived at the noble bay where 54 years later the cLlef city of Brazil was founded. They would seem to have mistaken it for the mouth of auotlier huge river, like some that had already been seen In this strange world ; for they called it Rio de Janeiro (River of January). Thence by February 15 they had passed Cape Santa Maria, when they left the coast and took a southeasterly course out Into tlic ocean. Americus gives no satisfactory reason for this change of direction. . . . Kt- hapslic may have looked into the mouth of the river La Plata, which is a bay more than a liuu- dred miles wide; and the sudden westward trend of the shore may have led him to suppose that lie had reached the end of tlie continent. At any rate, he was now in longitude more tliaii twenty degrees west of the meridian of Cape San Roque, and tlierefore unquestionably out of Portuguese waUTS. Cleariy there was no use in going on and discovering lands wliich could belong onlv to Spain. This may account. I think, for the cliange of direction." Tlie voyage southuiistwardly was pursued until the little fleet hud ri'aclied the icy and rocky coast of the Island of South Georgia, in latitude M" S. It was then decided to turn homeward. "Ves- pucius . . . headed straight N. N. E. throuah the huge ocean, for Sierra Leone, and the dis- tance of more tlian 4,000 miles was made— witli wonderful accuracy, though Yespucius says notliing about that — In 83 days. . . . Thence, after some further delay, to Lisbon, where they arrived on the 7th of September, 1503. Among uU tlie voyages made during that eventful period tliere was none that as a feat of navi- gation surpasseil this third of Vespucius, and there was none, except the first of Columbus, that outranked it in historical importance. For it was not only a voyage Into the remotest stretches of the Sea of Darkness, but it was preeminently an incursion into the antipodal world of llic Southirn hemispiierp. ... A coast of continental extent, bcglculnir so near the meridian of the Cttfie Vcnie islimiis ami run nlng Bouthwesteriv to latitude 3.1' S. nnd per- haps lieyond, diil not fit into anvlKKlys scheme of things. ... It was land unknown to the ancients, and Yespucius was right in savinjr that be had lieh<hl there things by the thousand wlilrli Pliny hitd never mentioned. It was not Btrange that he should cull it a • New Worid ' and in meeting wlih this phrase, on this first occasion In whieh it appears in unv document with reference to any part of what we now rail Amcrien. tlie readir must lie careful not to clothe it with the meanini; which it wears in our mxl em eyes In using the expression ' New Worid ' Vespucius was not thinking of the Florida coast which he had visited on a former voyage, nor of the 'island* of [nOii ' .i!.;,-,-.vtir-,l b)- Ct.lunibi;-. nor even of the Peart (oust wliicli he had fol IowihI after the Admiral in exploring. Tlie txprecsioQ occurs in his letter to Lorenzo 64 de' Medici, written from Lisbon In Much or April, 1503, relating solely to this thlnl voyage. The let- ter begins as follows : ' I have formerly written to you at sufficient length about my return from those new countries which In the ships and at the expense and command of the most gracious King of Portugal we have sought and found. It M {jroper to call them a new world.' Observe that It soulr the new countries visited on thU third voy- age, the countries from Cape San Roque south- wanl. that Yespucius thinks it proper to call anew world, and here Is fcls reason for so calling them : ' Since among our ancestors there waa no know- leitge of them, and to all who hear of the affair It Is most novel. For it transcends the Ideas of the ancients, since most of them gay that bevond the equator to the south there Is no continent,'liut only the st-a which they call the Atlnnttc, and if any of them asserted the existence of a continent theie, tliey found many reasons for refusing to consider It a habitable country. But this last vovage of mine has proved that this opinion of theirs was erroneous and In every way contrarv to the facta.' . . . This expression ' Noviis Mumliis [New World], thus occurring In a £rivate letter, had a remarkable career. Early 1 June, 1908, about the time when Americus was starting on his fourth voyage, Lorenzo died. By the beginning of 1504, a Latin venloD of the letter [translated by Giovanni Oiocondo] waa printed and published, with the title 'Mundus Notus.' . . . The little four- leaved tract, 'Mundus Novus,' turned out to be the great literary success of tlie day. M. Harisse Tias described at least eleven Latin edi- tions probably published in the course of 1504 and by 1506 uot less than eight editions of Ger- man versions liad been Issued. Intense curiosity was amused by this announcement of the exis- tence of a populous land beyond the equator and unknown (could such a thing be possible) to the ancients,"— who did know something, at least, alKiut tlie eastern parts of the Ashitic continent which Columbus was supposed to liavc reached. The "Novus Mundus," so named, began soon to be ri'presentwl on maps and glolies, generally as n greut island or quasi-continent Ijing on and Ik'Iow tho equator. "Europe, Asia and Africa were tiio three parts of the eartli Ipreviously known], and so this opposite region, hitherto unknown, but mentioned by Mela and Indicated by l*tolemy, was the Fourth Part. We can now iH'gin to understand the Intense and wildly absorbing InUrest with which pi'ople read the brief story of tho third voyage of Yespucius and we can si'C that in the nature of that interest there was nothing calcuUtcd to bring it into com- parison witli tho work of Columbus. The two navigators were not regarded as rivals in doing the same thing, but as men who had done two very different things ; and to give credit to one was by no means equivalent to withholding credit from the other." In 1807, Martin Waldsee- mOller. professor of geography at Saint-Die, published a small treatise entllleil "Coamo- gruphie Introductlo," with that second of the two known hiiers of Yespucius — the one addressed to Soderiiii. of which an account Is given above (A D. 14»7-149e)— appended to it. "In this rare book occurs the firnt suggestion of the name America. Afier having treated of the division of the earth's inliabitcd surface into three parts —Europe, Asia, and Africa — WoldieemaUtr ' 'I AUBIOA, lS0O-m4 •»y». Wbenfore I do not lee what U ri«htlv t. e, the land of Americua, after Its dl&LVverer EZ^"!'n5°n »'"«**»" mind, aince both Europe and AiU hare got their name* froia for which, aa M Hariaae remlnda 5a, the weatem bemiaphere might have come to be known m Atlantia. or Heaperidea. or SanU Cruz or New IndUj. or perhap. ColumbU In atout 1 opment of the naming of America had been completed That aUg. oonaiated of five diatlTct u'^\J- ■*;™ri<:"» cSled the regions virited bv Wm beyond the equator 'a new\orId ' b^u^ they were unknown to the ancients; 3. Oiocondo maae this striking phrase ' Mundui NovuT^Tn o a title for hia tranaiaUon of the letter a era mapa aa an equivalent for Terra Sancta Crucis, or what we call Brazil; 4. the sugeJ, UonwM made that Mundu. Novus wm the Fourth Part of the earth, an.l might prop"v b^ named America after iu discoverer; S. tKm^ America thua got pUced upon several maps fthc first, so far aa known, being a map ascribed to Leonardo da Vinci and pu'llisllS'^aZut'^ii'' and the wcond a globe made in 1515 by Johann wha^t we^f TrS^'f^H" "" 'i'J"'v«l«nt f,^ wuat we call Brazil, and sometimes came to stand alone aa an equivalent for what we caU South Ameriai, but still signified only a part of he dry land beyond thi Atlantic^to which Columbus bad led the way. . . This wider meanins of South Ameriw] became alT he was usurped by the name Brazil. Three cen T,Z V"^,4« "™« «' Columbus l^e 7cm1 dye-wood called brazil-wood was an article of Spain It was one of the valuable thinm brought from the East, and when the F^rtS K.lt'*.^ ?■"? dye-^ood "bundant ^n those Impical forests that L8<1 seemed so beauti f»«t^.V'''"'''""v*''« °"™« Brazil soon became fL ;~ . . "• '" ""*• "nd bv slow <i.i.recs the gK^t fact was learned, tlit nil the li^^U found beyond the Atlantic by Coluinbus «,^ ? hU sucec^rs, formed part of one conti^enta !».„,„, "*" ^'"'•^- ""c name which had become synonymous with New Worid was tl^en naturally extended to the whole. The "volu ™ary proces. of the miming of the wdirn hemUphereaa. whole was thus made d, Tec Amerio^ i^'i *';"ir^'- "'"' «P""'' 'he rlarne «A 7(r •>) *"•"• ■"" ^'*<xterf of Amtnat, ^ I^«*»OD»DL4jp,; A. D. 1501-1578 60 AMXItlCA, iso»-mi. tA ^.,»5?»»— T1>« S«eoBd Verart of Oltda. wM^h ^""* 7°y»5« °' AlonzoT^jSaTftSS which he returned to Spain in June 1500 ™ fn'3 en^'^H !""^'°« """"* ~PuiS'on 2?i Zu and enterprising er.f -rer. By way of reward wh! likewise the government of Coquibaco^ S^n?i;!.#"M*''^- H«*"»uUiorizedtofltouU number of ships ac hia own expense and to Dmsl ecuf dtaooverie. on the coast^f^T^ICT 0^?P.rf.^ and thence proceeded to the «v to t^'.,^"" *'''ct'°<»"tT he found hia T^J2 J-oqufbacoa. Not liking this noor country he sailed on to the Sv XLSdS where he determined to found Wa^ „,tlfment du,^tlr"'pi''T?"- '**»»'°«» to bfo ™ort duration. Provisions very soon became acarr*; and one of his partners, who hadteTn t^Tti »t iif V„, H? "*'i". "" ""' "»• ^hole colony ■et sail for Hispaniola, taking the governor with "•em In chains All that OJeda SinS bv^ " T'liws''uiT'"'.,""" "? "* '*4^c^e off ^^0^ hi™ "*'»•"»• the costs of Wh ch. however left f™mi:irhL°„"'»?,'K '««8;," Amerigo sai Jagato irom LUbon, with six sliips. The obiect of thI. vX^f "!^ .'° dl«»verrcertain isdlkd cw i^l I''^'' "f '"PP"*^ '^ "« w<»?of Call! cut and to be as famous a mart in the commerce Th.vl.^2'''!? '^r^'^ "' ^'"11'= "■« In Euro^ S^,^' ."T ^"P^ '^'^ ^'^"'». "nd then X; slJJk W ""?S°'^r P*"'««'^,ln 'tonding for oerra iveoa. The Commander's ship was lost and Vespucci, with one vessel onlv V^li«i m,- ooa.t of the New World, finding "I' J^''wh 'h Is thought to have been Bahi* iJere "thev wait.^ abo, ,. two months fn Vain exm^tation o'? oat all hope of this tliev coasted on for 280 1^ II , ^^ ^ of the meridian of LU- bon^ Here they remained five months .,mn good term. wi,h the natives, with whZ hZ, of the party penetrau.,| forty leagues into thS iney leit <!4 men who had been saved from th« SST.'^.Y" ""'P "^"7 f»^« '"em '"gun",! oealdea other arms, and nravliiinn. fn» .i. ™°°'^i th^n loadeJ with b£^ ( wSSdl „i id homeward and returaed in saflty ' T^ honour, therefore, of having form«l ' the flra? vZ^' 'IT """"■•y l» dueTAmeri"o veapucci. It does not app<ar that anv furthpr attention was as this tim; paid to i "' uZ the cargo of brazil which V?apucci had' brought home tempted private adventurers, who were ontent with peaceful gains, to tra.!,^ thither fo" well known, tlmt in conaequeniu the coast anrf •he whole o.imtry .^btaisrf^thc nMm« .!mh™,?i ""'"'"••tanding^he holter ap^ultlon fS^u AJCERICii, lS0»-19n. Dmrin. ▲UERICA. 1B0»-1811. '!! tiMBtat at D«ri*n. — " For sevenl yeut •fter hU ruinowi, though auccnsful lawsuit, we low •11 'ntcM of Alouzu (le OJeds, exi-epting that we •re told he nude auothrr Toyige to INKiuibacoa [Yenezuela], In 1508. No record nmaiuii of thii expedition, which aeenu to have Iwcn equally unproflUble with the prece<llne, for we find him, in 1508, in the Uland of HiM|>uniola ai poor In pune, though as proud In spirit, as ever. . . . About this time the cupidity of King Ferdinand was greatly exciteu by tlie accounts by Colum- bus of the gold mines of Venigua, In which tlie admiral fancied he had discovered the Aurea Chenonesus of the ancients, whence King Solo- mon procured the gold used In building tiie tem- ple of Jerusalem. Subsequent voyagers hail corroborated the opinion of Ccluml)us as to the general riches of the coast of Terra Firma; King Ferdinand resolved, therefore, to found regular colonies along that coast, and to place the whole under some capable commander. " Ojeda wa» recommended for this post, but found a competi- tor in one of the gentlimea of the Spanish court, Diego de Nicuesa. "King Fenliuaud avoided the dilemma by favoring both ; not indeed by fumiahtng them with sliTps and inuoey, but by f [ranting patenu and dignities, which cost noth- ng, and might bring rich returns. He divided that part of „ho continent which lies along the Isthmua of Darien into two pMvinccs, the boundary line running through the Gulf of Uraba. Tlie rastcrn part, extending to Cape de la Vela, wascallcd Xew Andalusia, and the gov- ernment of it Kivtn to <_)jcda. The oilier to the west [called Castilln del ( )ro], including Veragua, and reaching to Cape Omeios i Dios, was as- signed to Nicuesa. The island of Jamaica was given to the two governors in ronimor as a place whence to draw supplies of provision.^." Slender means for the ('(|uipinent of OJeda's expedition were supplied by the veteran pilot, Juan de la Cosa, who accnnipaiiled him as his lieutenant. Nicuesa was more amply providnl. The rival armamenu nrrivod at San Domingo about the same time (in 15(>9), and much quarreling be- tween the two eommuuders ensued. Oieda found a notary in San Domingo, Martin Fer- nandez de Enciso, who hud money which he con- ientel to invest in the enterprise, and who prom- ised to follow him with an addiiionai s!iip-load of recruits and suppliea Under this arrangement OJ<tla made ri'ndy to sail in advance of hts com- petitor, enilmrliiug Nov. 10. 1509. Among those who Sidled «itU him was Ft;!nri«co I'izarro, the future coni|Uen>r of I'eru. Ojeda, l>v liis energy, gained lime enough lo iieaiiy ruin hii expedition before Nicuesa naelied llie scene; for, having hkndedat Cariha).'<na, he made wariipon llie na- tives, pursunl Hum rccklesslv into tlie interior rvf the country, with TO men, nn'il was overwlnlmcd by tiie de.-perate sivages, es<:i|iiiig wMi only one compaiHon from their poisoned arrows. Ills faithful frienii. I lie pilot, Juan de la Cosa, was among the slain. uiKlUjeiUhiniseif, hiding in the forest, was iii.irly (i( ad of hiaigeriuid exixisurc when foiiiid and nxiieil liy a searclilng party from his shijis. At this Jul cture llie lieet of Nl- tucsa made its iipp<>nr;inrc. Jealousies were for- gotten In a on union rage agninst tlie natives and le IwoexiHillliona mr- joineil in an atlaelc on Uie Indian viilai;es whicij span-d notlilii^. Niru- Ma then prixeiiltil to Verafua, while Ojeda louiidcd a town, which he caUed tian bebaatiun. 66 I at the east end of the Qulf of Uraba. Incessantly harassed by tlie uauvea, terrified bv the cITecta of the iH)i8<m which llieae used in tbe'ir warfare, and threatened with starvation by the rapidexhaustloo of its supplies, liie settlement lost courage and hope. Enciso and his promised ship were waited for In vain. At length there came a vessel which certain piratical adventurers at Hlsponlola bad stolen, and which brought some welcome pny visions, eagerly bought at an exorbiuut price. Okda, half recovered from a poisoned wound, which he had treated heroically with i^Hl-hot plaU's of iron, engaged the pbvtes to convey him to Uispaniola, for the procuring of aunpliea. The voyage was a disastrous one, resulting in shipwreck on the coast of Cuba and a month of desperate wandering in the morasses of the island. Ojeda survived all these perila and aulTcringa, made his way to Jamaica, and from Jamaica to San Domingo, found that his partner Enciso had sailed for the colony long before, with abundant ■upnlies, but could learn nothing more. Nor could he obtain for himself any means of ivtum- ing to San Sebastian, or of dispatching relief to the place. Sick, penniless and disheartened, be went Into a convent and died. Meantime the despairing colonists at San Sebastian waited until death haa made them fewenough to be all takec on board of the two little brigautines which wei» left to them; tlien tiiey sailed away, Pizarro in command. One o? tlie bfigantiiies soon went down in a squul!; the other made its way to the harlxir of Carth.i>:en», where It found th- tardy Enciso. searching for his colony. Enciso, under his commission, now took command, and insisted U|Kin going to Sun Sebastian. Th^ru the old ex- periences were soon renewed, and even Encisc was ready to abandon tlie deadly place. The latter had brouj;ht with him a needy cavalier, Vasco Xuilez do Balboa — so nce<ly that he smuggled himself on board Enciso's ship in a cask to esi'ape his creditors. Vosco Nuflez, who bad coasted this region with Bastidas, in 1500, now advi.s) il a roi.ioval of tha colonv to Darien, on the opposiie roost of llie Qulf of "fralia. Ills advice, which w.i>i followed, proved good, and the hopes of the settle™ were raised; butKnciso'a modes of povernnient proved Irkaomn to them. Then RillKia called attention to tlie fart that, when liiev enissed the Uuif of Uraba, they passed out of the territory covered by the patent to Ojeda, uiiclcT wliirh Enciso was commis,sioned, and into tli.it gmnted to Nicuesa. On this sug- gestion Eiii Iso was promptly deposed and two alcaldes were eiecteif, Dallxia being one. While events in one corner of Nicuesa's domain were thus esUililisliing a colony for that ambitious gov- tmor. he himself, at the other extremity of it was faring liaiily. Ho had sullered hardslilps, separation fruiii most of his command and lung aliaiiiloriui. Ill on a desolate roast; luul rejoined his follow, li alter great sufferini;, only to su!Icr yet more ill th. ir coiii[ianv. until <i ss tlian om- Iiiiiidre.1 liiniiiiieil of tlie"700 who Siiilid with him a few iiionilis licforc. The seltlijiient at Veniirua li.iil Inen deserteil, and another, uanu'd Nonilire di- Dios undertaken, Willi no linpfovc- mint of ciri iiinslanc-es. In this situation he was rejoireil, at last, by the arrival of on-; of his lieii- leimii's. I{..!ri^-,ii!e Co!men.trr», who ramn with snpiilics. Colmenareahiouglit tidings, inonwer, nf the prosperous cohmy at Darien, which he had discovered un his way, with an tuvitalion to # AMBMCA, 1500-1511. ^^T^ "' (f icum to come and awiine the goTernment of It. He accepted the Inviutlon with deliijlif but slMl the community at Darlcn had n pent«d of n before he reached them, and tlicv refused to receive him when he arrived. Permitied finally to land, he waa leUed bjr a treaihiroua party among the ooloniau— to whom Balboa la aaid to have oppoaed all the reaistaore in bin power— waa put on board of ao old and crazy l.rliraulinc w th aeventeen of bia frienda, and comnelled to !?it "l*^,"l!'?' "* *°"''* "" "ra'Kl't to Hpaln. The fniU bark let aail on the first of Slarch 151 1 and steered acroaa the Caribbean .Va for the island of Illapanlola, but waa never neen or heard of more.-— W. Irvlng,Z(^«on<< IVya^a ofColum- Inu and hu Companion; t.i. Alk) im H. jl. Bancroft, nut. of th« FiKifle Slalet. c 1, <A. A. •' *•.?• '5"-— Th« Spmlah conqneat and oe- cupatioa of CoIm. See Cuiia : A. U 1511 A. D. ISI3.— The Vqjage of Ponce de Leon fn queit of tb« Foaataia of Youth, and hia DiacoTerr of Florida.- " Whatever may have been the Southcmmoat point reached by Cahot in coaating America on hia return, it la certain that he did not land In Florida, and that the lonour of first eiploringthat country Is due to Juan Ponce de Leon. This cavalier, u ho waa governor of Piicrto Rico, Induced by tl... vaeuc traditions circulated by the natlvea of tlw West Indies, that there was a country In the north pows-^liig a fouDUiin whose w.iieni restored tlic f *^ fL ^'S""'-. ""i?'" " *" "''J'" "f ''■« ambition to be the first to discover this marvellous reeion iJ V" *'«^v''« ««»'gned the governorehii., t ^'..?o" ""h three caravels on the 8d vt March 1512. Steering N. i N., he came upon a country covered with flowers and vrrdiire • and M the day of his discovery han,, „ed to be Palm Sunday, cabled by the 8p»ni„r is -Pasqua Florida, be gave it the name of Flori ; ^ from this circumstance. He landed on the 2d of April and took nossesslon of the country in the name of Iht kW of Castile. The warlike peonlo of the coast of Cautio (a name given bv tue IrKlUns to all the country lying between lupc ,„veral and the soul hem point of Florida) •>.,„. how- ever, comrie led him to retreat, an^i he pursued his explorati.'n of the coast as far a> ti)' 8' north alitude, and on the Hth of Mav dou. ' 1 CaM itT','"^l J"'" rifling hi' course 1 r'uer^ lili^'i,? """^"Peo' finding the i.dand of i„miDi. Xiirii 1 ?*".7'1 '5> ""' *^'"' °' Youth, and descnUMl by the Indians as opposlto to Florida, he diHcovercd the Bahamas, and some other islands, nrcvloualy unknown. Bad wearhorcom- repair dmnagea, he desnaiched one of his cara- andof the pilot Anton de Alaminoa, to gain In- forinallon respecting the desireil land. wT.ich he bad as yet been totillv unable to .lis^over lie retura,Kl to Puerto nfco on the 21,t of Septcm wi h nnlT frT. "'^"r'V^'' OrtuWa arrived al.s.. with news of Bimicl. He reported that ho had hrlll"'^ ,'.'"' '''i^d. -which he descriK large, well wooded, and watered by numerous CnTi'r "1?'.^ ^ '""<;!? '" dIscWring"- l-^'^l'^heara'nt^te.n-ifst?! llfc'^ vantages which Ponce do L^n promts^' wL •/ froai tUs Torage turned i , -he profit of AMEIUCA, 1518-1517. FlofWa which waa conferred upon him, wat purely .oiiomry;b,ii, the route uV' by him in ?^^ "•'.'">'" P-rtoUico, show, tliadv tagecr making the h. meward vovag^ ., Spain oy the Baha!i,» Channel."— W. B. Ily, ij^ l AtaoiN «;. R FHlrba-k,, W of ^ loJida cA t Pacific by Vasco Nu ... de Baibo* -PednZ riM Da,da on the I.thmu..-Wi?r.,ncferd? vasco ^ufle^ .U: Balboa seems to have earilr held the lend ,„ affair, at Darien. thoughTI without much . i'Ppsitlon; for facUon and turb^ ence were rife. fencUo wa» permit, 'to ^ hU grievance:* and compUiints to Spain, but Bat boos colleague Zamudio. went vi^ hl«i, and n??^*"" ''°n'?^* .^"^'«ed«^ to Hfapanlok li^ nJ ^"m ,'"*''-^''"'''*i'd with goUI. W Z quert of gold had sucr. -ded at hist. The I>ari^ i3 venturer, had f. .nd conside^ble qu '^tl?, ta the possession of the sun,>undin!r ,.,.', and had the pruden.o to e...a1,llah'fn*r„!!y reiTltoSJ with one of the most .mportan^ f Uie ieteh! b...ring caciques, whose coi^ly daugh-.^, he ^. ded -according to the eaay cu»t. n. of S. country-and whowially he licame ;., waw with ^Z 1 7 P'"."der. 1... h»rv, sted more; gold than any Ufore him ha<l ! • • ' ■ * ■ ing of the New World I- obtair •: s. ->yd little tor , urea i • r. i to them ;. c near m()i...,iiins and tow :- ; ellan youth, son of a fri....i:r .ici,,, arlyexciled Iheirimaginal \ by the i he told of another great sea, nut f.ir t„ -i,, „,«,, on the southward-strctcliing shore, of \vhich we.^.h'^T'.'n';;" T'"'"'^'"' "-ry Kind of r,l; . ".1 .^ "'"'"• •'O'ev.r, that Ihcy would nee,l a thousand men to fight their war to tLu ,1, . . """^"» eavc such credence to the storv the kirfor'.r','" Spain to*,li<.lt forces Zl the king for an adeiiuate cxne<iirion across the raountarns. They sailed In October, 1518 but did not arrive i- Spain until th following May The^ found Bai:H.a In much disl.. ,rat thfcouru tnciso and the friends of the unfortunate N-. i'i? ^ ;;?"*'^.'y r''"'^' him by their complain^ J^tH.^.*""? ""' •*"*^^ "'">'"»' Proceeding, against him to Ivc-ommeneed. M. .n.ime Mi5e nkling of thes.. ...utilities had r™. h.nl BslbS! « T.!^ ^'■™'.7''' ''y •^'^'-"el which bore tohto; at the same time, a commission as capUin-itcn- tral from the authoritieain Hispanlol^'^ lie ISw ^irn"'t'l^"'"J ll.e discoverer of the oc«w ^.K 1^ '" ^■"'."'5 ''^.''■«'» de-cribed, and ofSe ^^?,i ';.''' ^k".^?"*"*, 'v'*''"^ J''» ^''emies could interfer.. w th him. "Accordingly, early In Sei^ tembcr 1513, he set out on hisyiownil expS^ diUon f..r finding 'the other sea," ac,orapii& uiiudkinccthoraniwrk. --.n. But what tljey I .ir<d with the tri>aa- li'Ming ' .vend -j*- tLesoutI: One i . vartJ 1 "■ which ..._ .„.. .>r,Ms lurnca i , -ne profit of geoe ■■ phy. the tfUeof -Adehuitado of Btaiini L^ 67 IV^^Z''»^\^"°^' "■"* ^-rdogs, whIcEwere of more avail than men, and by Indian alavJ tocarry Uie bnrdens. llcwent bysea o thete^ ri w^.l" ? ^ ' ■ ''Vf-'?l«w, King Cireta, by whom he wa. well ix. . ived, and accompanied by whoS I (liana he moved on Into Pnnriw's teirfiorv' .i iieling the fear, of thi. cadaue, he paaaed Via r 'l"='„:::i^°"; ."«"'"«■ Thenextchl?f1SS,?a^ U ,d named Ouarequa. attempted reslstar-cv but waa routed, with a gtcat Jauglver of <}^ AHERICA. 151S-1517. finding tf AXxiucA, isn-isia ii*' it If peonia, and BtlbM piuhed on. "On tha 35th of cepteraber, ISIS, be came near to the top of a mouotaln from whence the South 8«a wai visi- ble. The distance from Poncha's chief town to thia pobit waa forty leaipiea, reckoned then lis days' journey ; but Vaaco Nufie* and his men took twanty-llTe daya to accomplish it, aa they suifeted much from the roughneas of the waya and from the want of proTislons. A little befora Vsaco NuHes reached the height, Quaiequa'a In- diana Informed him of hla near approach to the iea. It waa a sight ia beholding which, for the fliat time, any man would wish to be alone. Vaaco Nufiea bade hia men sit down while he ascended, and then. In solitude, looked down upon the vast Paclflc — the flrat man of the Old World, so far aa we know, who bad done aa Falling OP his knees, he gare thanks to God for the favour shown to him la hb being permitted to dtsooTcr the Sea of the South. Then with hia hand be beckoned to hla men to come up When they had come, both ha and they knelt down and Soured forth their thanka to God. He then ad- resaed them. , . . Haring . . . addnaaed his men. Vaaco XuBe* proceeded to Uke formal possession, on behalf of the kioga of Caatlle, of the sea and of all that waa in it ; and in order to "...I-e memorials of the event, he cut down trees, fomed cmatea, and heaped up stones. He slso iuacr.hed the nsmes of the mooarchs of Cas'ila upon jtnt trees In the vicinity." Afterwarda, when he hail descended the western slope and found the shore, " he entered tlio sea up to hla thigha, having his aword on. and with hla ahlekl In Ua hand; then he called the by-staoders to witness how he tourhed with his person anil took poasesslon of this sea for the kiui^s of Castile, and derlaml that he would defend the possession of It snlnst sll rDincra. AfU-r this, Vasco NuRra made friemls la the usual mannrr, first ronq\irr- ing and then nei^iitlatlng with " tiie several chiefs or csciiiues whiMe territories came in his way. He explored the Oulf of San .Mlnuol, finding r.'^ch wealth of ixarls in the reirion, ami re- turned to Darien hy a route whiih cmased the Isthmus considerably fnrther t<> tha north, reach- ing bis r.p|<>ny on the auth of Jsnuary, I.IU, hav- Ing lieen ntwnt nearly five monlhs. " Ills men St Ihirien reo'lviii h'm with ekullallon, and he Imt no lime In sending his mws, 'surh nlgnul snd new news,* ... to the Kliix of Hpain, ac- rompanylng It with rirh presriii*. Ills letter, whlih irave a ili miled account of his Joiircey, I nd wtilrh, for its length, waa rDnipaniJ by i"rt«'r >i«rtyr to the cp|el)rateil Ictirr that came to the wimie from Tlberiua, rnntaimil in every pare thanks to Uixl tint he hwi est aped fmm •uih (fn-at ih>n<{i'ni and Ulmun. Hoth the letliT avl the pre-^'DH were iutriislr<l to a man namnl ArlK>lanrhe. whnih'|iartr<l from Uarten about the beittnntnif of .\Unli, 1/114. . , . Vhw-o Nuflis's mrwiiifir, .Vrlxilstirhe, reaihf.l the rourt of t*|isln loi liiie for hU mantrr's IntiTi-sts." The hitiT h(ul Hirimly tnen su|>rr<M-i|iMl in the Oov- rrniir>hl|i. :iii<l :ii< •ncri'saor wm <>n the way to take 'il* «iith..riiv fn)in him. The new gover- n.ir WM ..!..• I'. IniriM De Avlla, or IMvlls, ss tbiimnii- U * .tint linen writtiii;— nn enHirUsand msllKnaiit nlil man. under wh<m<> rule on the lalhuiiis thii ileiitninlve i iierifv i.f M|isii)sh con- quest nw u> lu ■■■•'om'st ami in .,1 hi»rtl<<Hi ami hrslnlew develi.pment, ('oii.i.l, uoiuly esixwi *a ha waa to the Jealousy ami Ualre«! of iVdni riaa, Vaaco NuBei waa probably doomed to ruin. In son.i form, from the first At one time, in 1516, th»re seemed to be a promlae for him of allUuce vrith hia all-powerful enemy, by a mar- riage witl one of the govemor'a daughters, and he received the command of an expedition which again croaaed the iathmua, carrying ahipa,aod began the exploration of the Pacific. But cir- cumatancea aoon aroae which gave Ptdrariaa ar opportunity to accuae the explorer of treaaonablc designs and to accompliah hla arrest — Franclaco Pizarro being tha officer fitly charged with the execution of the govemor'a wanant Brought In chalna to AcU, Vasoo NuBei waa aummarilr tried, found guUty and led forth to awift death, hying hU head npoo the block (A. D. ISin "Thua periahed Vaaco Nufiei de Balboa. In tha forty-arcood year of hla age, the man who, since the time of Columboa, hadahownthe moatstatea- manlike and warriorlika powers fai that part of the world, but whoae career only too much re- sembles that of OJeda, Nicueaa, and the other un- fortunate commanders who devaatated thoae beautiful regiona of tha earth."— Bit A. Helpa, SpanM Ommiat in Am., bk. 6 («. 1\— " It 1 have applied strong terma of denunciation to Pedrariaa Utfvih.it la beruuse be unquestionably deaervea It He ia by far the worst man who came offlrlally.to the New World during lu «»rl V government In this all authoritlea agree Ami all ar.ee tim , Vasro Nuflex was not dewrv ins of d<..th. ••—!.'. 11. llsmroft llitl. t^ tht t\>n- fie iHii.t; t. 1, cA. 8-18 (/«)<-*.</!, o, 4.W). A so IW AV. Irving. Zi/« and Vo^ge* «< Cul- umlmi and Ui Cwmjnninn: ». 8. . ^ ?• iS.'>~P'**2'*'y "^ "-• >•••*• by lu*B da SoUa. See Paiiadiat: A. D- 131 T- l.>57. A. D. isi7->SiS.-Th« Spviiuds find Meslco.— " An hlUalEO of Cuhtt. nsineil H< r nanilez de Cord' va, sulled with three vessels on sn PYpi'ilitlnn to one of the neiKhlMmrlnii nahninit IiilnniU, In quest of Iniliiin slaves (Kili, 8, 1.117). He eiicoiintered a suiivsulon of heaw gales which drove him far out of his course, anil at the enii of ihn-e weeks he foumi hlm«.'lr ou s strange and unknown cosst. On Ismllng sn<J Bsking tlie nsnieof the cimntrv, he was aiinweri'i; by the nsllvis • Tirtclan,* nicaii'-ig 'I do d"i unihmtami juti,' but which the Hpaohriis, nils- Interpri'linu Into the name of the pi.iii', eaully corrupu i Into Yucatan. Some writers give s dilTerent elynii>lofy. . . . B«nial IHai saya the wiinl came from tin- vegetable 'yiica' snd "tale," the nanio for a hill.a k In wntih It ia planinl . . . M. WsliliM k finds a much more plouniht. diriviitlon In the IiulUn word 'Ouvoiickstun MUtin to what they say.*, . . Conlova ha.l Ismlid on the north etistern end of the peninsula at ( ;i|w Cnt.K he. lie wns ai.loiii.hc(l at the size ami ii..ll(l nmti rials of the lHillillni.'scon<trii< ti.| of Hone nnil lime, so dlfTircnt from the fniil ti niinints of n'l .|s and rushes which fomie<l the hiiliil«ll..ns I.f llie isln.nhn. He «»« utiuik III-", nl!h the hlL'her cultlMitlon of the soil. hiiI with the ilrllcnte tciliire of the n.lttm (rnrininl. ami (.'"M oriiiimcnls of the natives. Kv.rvlhliii.' IniliiHlitl nclvlll/ailon far tiiiHTlor loanvihlti' he h.sil l»fori. kIhi.-iw^ In the New WoH.l ||i "»■ It vlilinceof s illlTen-nt raw, iii..riov,r ill the warlike spirit iif the ;>ei>ple. . . . Wh.r. cvir they landed they were met with the ni.-i deadly husllllty. Ciinlova btuiavlf, in OM of hU AMERICA. 1S1T-M1& •drmidMi with the IndtaM, no«lv«i more than » doxM wouDdi, end nae only of his part? rtcprd unhurt At length, when hi> h«5 c«ut«l the peniniuU u f.rii tCLT .r he returned to Cub^ which he reachodTtUT in S!? .''^.«" """^ "'i*" T"""y- «•"'• """ more. the««imen. of curiouely wrou,rht ^Id, cnl ESIi^ S' thit -ahMMvery. aod he prepared wtth all despatch to aTalf hlm«clf of It lie S'"foJ ?^„°"'. * !!."'• *>"'«'"« »' ' "' WMeto for the newly diicovercd Undii. and DUced it under the command of hU nophcw Juan de Grilalva. • m«, on wh<« prK" prudence, and attachment to hlmwlf ho knew "><»"" "t The acet left the p..rtof8t Jaw ^'Sa**- "'^ h "'8. . . . (Grijulva Z2 pu-rf orer to the continent and c.««u^ the pen^nnula. touching at the aame pl«,x-, as his E^'i^L.^';!,'^'"''.'" *" •'"'<k. Hke «Si.Wlr t^,tl^"^ "' • •"'«•'" «^lvlll«itlon. especially In the archltectursi as he »cll niij;ht be, since this was the legion of tho«> ejtiZnII. nsry remains which have become rvc-uily the •ubjtt of so much speculation. He was atto™ erUcnlly objecu of worship, whirl. Ii« m.i « i,| If.nT""/.','''^'* Hemin-fe,! by th«« , irn.m- .t.nce,of bi» own country, he ^ve the ih i In- proprlatcl toa much wi.lw ext.-nt of t.rritnrV ^VhPr,■v..r Gr^Jalva land.tl, be exiMri.n..a tL Mme.„.frl,n.i1y reception as ConLva. i ,o,,..h he .ulT,.r.,l h.« U,|„g better pr..p«„,l , J' „» Jl • frirmlly conf, nice and tmflic with one of tbi cblrfs, on tho U,o de Tal««x,, and"'. 1 the i«ti«fa,tlon of nwlvlng. for a few *T,mJ^ fy- .mi trinkets, a ri. lAn^surS of Im* , "^ ornsmont. ai.,1 vem-i^ of fl„ J„t f»,;,a, c f"r.„. „M workm«.i,hir Orijalv. nowVl b| ? pli»h..l the chief oJl,rt of bis ml&Xi ■ iTu U.ii., u. V.ta«iiiM, with the trensun »..|ulre.i ;« II..- pr..vlme of |'am„-o. n-tuminK to « ,.l« " l... .n.! of »l«,ui .Ix nionlbs fn.in l.i part.m. ■>.. n-«hinK the Uian.1. I>„ W8« m.rpriN.l to l<«nj that another ami more f..nnl.ial,l.. „m.a. m.'nt had l«.|, (1,^1 out l« follow ,.,, |.i, "«„ i .|i«rov..rie., ami u. And «nl..r., ,t the «..,„. tl„,.. fr...n the g.,vemor. omrbci In no very c..irl.,>.„ IsntruaiTP. to repair at once to At. Jaim II,. «•-» ! rmlv„| l,y thai |K.,«H^r t menTv with .nlo- ■..•« t...t with re|.r,«l«H,, for h.vlni „..«|., , ,| SSa*? AMERICA. lilt-lSM. «• Ulr an op||ort.inlt>- of ,.i»l,|i^,„„ » r„|„„v ,„ 1 ..• ...,i.,.rT 1... b«<i vlsite.l."_W, II I'TvJot Ai... iN_ ( St 4 K«i;«.urt; HiH nf nfutan 'I }. •,,'- "'"'"I '"« ''"■" »«<ill". J//m..,r, I,' M«l?o ''i'''<l'*— ■'■''? S.?«"'*'» Conquest of J Pv'S'?-'5»4.-Tht Voran of Magellan •nd Sebastfan del Cano. YSV New ^ "rM PssMd and th. Earth circumnawiatTd. fh, Uagr,,, at Ba<laJo..-P..n., .^|.„" |a„ ,* M.^«ll.«. ,va. a .||MHr.,.,„| Hortuffu.* ge. ^. ..«.. «... h.,1 «.rr„i hi. i-o„„iry f,., rtv„ yf^A ». ti-.. Indies under Albuquerque, and unUen^ (JO w«n the secreU of the Eastern trade, fn mi* Sffcen'f JJ"" v''7 2-8»Ph™-' "d"-«,t™n*„',L': CTl friend, Huy Faleri... another unre,,uited For- ^ n^t^f f"* "«e H«*.- two frienrp^ posed not only to pitjve that the Moluccas wen: within the Spanish lines of demarkatl<mbut to u^'hv fh'^i' thither diffen.ntT:mi,i? uTt^r^, '/"H^'^V- Their schemes we" i? w to, adopted Md carried out The Stnilta of Msgellan were d.«»vered, tho b>t»d ftoutn Sea was cn«ed. the Ud^ie, and ihe PhS Iplne. wew inspe. ted, the Jloluccwwere d^ inThS"-.."'" ^»PS °' <5""^ Hopew^"oW on the homeward voyage, auo the irlol» wm circumnavigated, all In^l^s, than thn* veS^ only oiw of hl» five ships rBtum.-.l f .in.Ur sihu- tian del Canoj to tell trie marveloui itoiT The magnitude of" the enterpri* wa. e,uA ^y iSd rise to th^fHrJ" ■r"""' "• 5™* *'"'"«^'«' "W sue In the minds of mm, sm the mind, of men begM soon to gnup and utilise the nwulu trade and commerce, ami f.,r the bcneflt of wig niphy, astronomy, maii.ematic, an.i the o«h?r Bcfonces. This wooUerf .i 1 story is It not u" I In snd he Splrcrlc.. a. well m at bonfe. now se'C the ineviuble conflict spproa.hinp w.tb thor Z "?i'.S;rVr "" ""^'"■"'"•''?n.«inuin'lng tii< ir right*. Thoy oiKuly aMcrti-.! them, and pn,nouncwl this tru-ie with the M..luco» by'he bpauidi an encr.«^hment on their prio?dtt erl.., ,n,l poMe».lon. .. well a. a vi..Y«tion ..The Papal (oinnact of im. an.i pr.p,ir,W tben.«.Ir„ e,..rgetlo,ly for d.-f..,.* si,| irtfcnj."' ','„ ,, ,' Tl .rM"*"' i "!'■ ^""'i''f-'» " op- nly d.."ar." tVh «"■'.'"'"• "'r' ""■"«! "'oWmtChriMlan. . the Molu. .-a, aiKl by fri,.n.lly int.rrourie iSih <e king, of tho*^^ i«|„„,|,. r,,,,.;..,, ,,„.,„ toCbri, Ian suLKtlon au.l l,^.„ght b«, k Liter, am' lr.l... e to t>«.r. Il.,..t. th™- klnJ,, "t"^ {«•.. p le came ui;.|..r the prot«tion nfvhj". y ll.-(,li., ,(,u, ,h,. Spanlar.!. clali„„| thaT the M..lu<ra.. w,.rj. within the SpaniKl. half. ,„,' wIm^ ii;g hot. King John of Porf,i.fal Imb^,,! char" V t,. .I,.|;.y .ii«pat.l.ln^ hi. ,.,•» fl, ,a until the l^un rt. I,. .„.,...|,t,.,|, „„| ,h.. „hl|., w..r, „M T.a*.. t.volhn,tlan..rime». wh„'„wn.,l u the .■wly ,|U....v..rp.i an.r to l.r di.«<overr.| partsof tl... who, w„rl,l lH.».,,, ,h,,,. hv ,|..,|'^f" ; .^11..- lo,..v a-n-l I:, „„.,.t I,-, CoagreM at Badajoj, 1,- ,h,.,r r..|.t>„„,ailv,.,, „, ,11.,^" ml Ir |.airl„.,.„y an.i i., ,|..,i„„ „,„| „„fc.. „„ ill..; .1 ■"". 7'""^" '•■;"' I"'"''- »«r.rlng to al.hl.' h) II ,• ,|,.,|,| f ihc c-..i.Br..,*, .\,.,.oni. ...i« l.tll,. l.,r.|,.r |.,w„ foura,..|.w ,.tv ,v|Ij T1...V ,..„,|,ri*M ,1... ,|r,l J,.,|,.,... lawv-r,, [..ailM- ..all. .a iH .„iro„o„„.r. ,„ g,^,h„,, „,,v|,». t..r, .,,,1 p.loHof th,. la.„l. aii.„n« wh.«. ,.«,,,, ()..m.«. I>i...t.. HMx'r .. .1, Tl... , ,.h,..! . ...T Slartyr, OvlH,.. au,i Uonura, a.«' v "ry ariuilni. AUXRICA. 181M8M. ▲nsRiCA, isn-iasi. n but no rci^ular Joint (l«:l»ion cmiM be nMchrd the Piirtiiv-urN. dirllning to nulwcrlbp to the ver- dict (if llic tJimnlanU, Inssmiicli lu it denrivcl them of Die Mc.luiian. »o e» li party piibllali.<l und priKlalmeil ^u^ own derision after the Con ?r™l'r^'f ".P '" "'"f""'"" «n the l»«td«yof May 1(J24 It w«». however, tacitly undersUxMl that the Moluccas fill tu Spain, while Brar.ll to th« Mteiit of two hundred leaKiiea from Cane M. Augustine, fell to the Portiiguew, . However. nm<h poiKl resulted fnmi this first gj-ograiihlrHl Congress. The extent and hreailth of the PiiclHc were !ippr«lat«l, and the InlJ'ience ol the I ongn aa was soon after seen In the greatly Improved maps, globei, and charta."— 11 Hte- Vens, //mi, and Qtog. Kmc. 1453-1890.— " For thri-e monius and twenty <lays lie [Magellan] •nlled on the Pnciflc and never saw lnhablie.1 laud. He was cninpelled by fandne to atrip olT tlie pieces of skin and leatlier wherewith hU rigging was here and there bound, to aouk them Id the sea ami then soften lliem with warm water, so as lo make a wretchisl food ; to eat tlie •weepings of the ship ami other loathsome mat- ter; to drink water Kone putrid by keeping; and yet he resolutely held on bis coutk. though his men were dying daily. ... In the whole his- tory of human uiidi rukingt there is nothing that excewis. if Indeed there is anything that equals, this vov.igc of Mag.llan-s. That of Columbus dwindles away In comparison. It Is a display of superhuman ourage, superhuman persever- ance -J. W. Oraper. IhM. of tht r»UtUft,i.,l Vmtnpment of Eur,>i>e. eh. 19.- "The voyage [of Mage' an] ... was doubtless the grvatesl feat of narlgatioii that has ever lieen performed and nothing can be imagined that would lurpass It excet>t a Journey to s<mie other planet. It has uot the unique historic position of tlic first V(vv. i ■ age of Coliiinlius, whiili brought together two streams of human life that had \mn dUJolneil since the Ohu ial I'cri.Kl. But a) an achieve- ment in ocean navigation that voyage of Colum bua sinks Inuj inslgniUcana- by the aide of It ami when the earth was • sect'.nd time encom- r>«pl by the greatest English a:illor of lii^ aire the advance lu km.wledge, aa well as the diir.r' ent route chosen, bad much reduced the diffl- cuItT of the performance. Whan we consider the frailness of the ships, tlie Immeasurable rx tent of the unknown, the mutinies that wfrf prevented or quelled, ami the hardships thil were emiurcd. we can have no besitntlon 1 1 speaking of Magellan as the prince of navlga fra ~ '*' ^•*"*'* "f-^'otnca. ek. 7 Also vt I^^| Stanley of Alderlcy, Tht Firtt iiffOfmund »V ir.-r/J (llikluft Huf., 1874) — R Kvrr, ('Mfrli„i, r I'-yir^s. e. 10 ..^r'".i'5'»"A'*5 -''"''• VojagM of CAra, aad r ' Ion. -D.aco»ery of the moiitli of the MIM. laippi.-Exploralion of the Carolina C*Mt.-ln ni'J, f>,.r,.iMu da Oarav, governor of Jail ska, who had Uen ime of theiiimpanlnns of (jilMiibus on Ids s,.,-„„d voyage, havliiff beard of the rl< hnesj ard beauty of Viiiitan at bis own charge m lit out tour shins ». li equipped, ami with g,w.| pl|„i,, under the com. maud of Alvarei Alonso d« Ilne-la. His pr.> . J?'^^'** ' .**" '" """■'> '"' •""" "'mit. w, ,t of Horida. which was not yet certainly known 10 form a part of the continent The iiralt kaviaf baeo toufht for lo vain, his iblps turned 70 toward the west, attentively examining the poru, rivera, InliablUnU, an<l everytliliig else that seenieil worthy of rvniark ; and especially noticing the »ast volume of water brought down by one very large stream. At last they came irpon the track of Cortes near Vera Cru7 The carefully drawn map of the piloU showed distinctly the Mississippi, which, In this earliest autlientic trace of lu outlet. Inars the name of the Esplritu Santo. . . . But Oaniv thought not of the MIsalsalppi and lu valley: he i-oveted access to the wealth of Mexico; and, In 1828 lost fortune and life Inglorlously In a dispute with Cort<-s for the government of the country on the river Panuo. A vovage for slavn brought the Spaniards In 1590 still farther to the north. A cimipany of seven, of whom the moat distinguished waa Liica* Vasquex de Ayllon fitted out two slave ahlpa from St. Doinluiro in quest of Inlmrers for their plantations and mines. From the Bahama lalamls they passed to ;hc coast of South Carolina, which was calle<i Chicora Tlie Combabee river received the name of Jordan; the name of St. Helena, whow day is the 18th of August, waa given to a cape, hut now belongs to the sound." Luring a large number of the conlidlng native* on lioard their •hips the adventurers treacherously set sail with them; but one of the Teasels founder.'.l at sea and moat of the captives on the other sickened and died. Vasquex de Ayllon was rewardcrd for his treacherouB exploit by being autliorizid and appointed to make the coni)uest of Chicora. '• For this bolder enterprise the undertakei wasted his fortune In preparations; in l.VM his largest ship was stramld In the river Jordan many of his men were kill.Kl by the natives; and he himself escaped only to suffer fn.m the con- aciousnesa of having done nothing worthy of homir. ^ et U may be that ships, sailing under his authority, mailc the diH< very ol the Chesa- pcakc and name.1 It the bnv of St. Mary and pirhapseven entere.1 the linyof IVIaware, which ill SpanUh geography, was calleil St. Christo^ pher s '—(J. Bancrtift. llitl. «f thi V. ,<? n( 1 eA. 2, ' ' Also iM 11. II. Bancroft. //,,/ „/ tu /Vi|i- Stutrt. t. 4. e*. 11, ,iml t. S, M. 0-7 —W O Slniiiis. Iliit.nf S Cinilimi, hk \ eK V A. D. ya3.15a4.-The Voyani of Vorra- N«wil!?* »,°*«f*»»'i»t«of Prance ia tho Piew world. — It Is consutnily a<lmiite<l in our history thai our kings paid no all.iit|„n to Amcr -a Ufore the year 1523. Then Fran, is 1 , wi.h Ing to exiite the emulaUon of his subjecu in regani to navigation and commeri-e. as he ha<t alijaily so successfully in regahi to the silencis and Rne arts. onlere<l John Verm.iiil, who was in his service, to go and explore the NVw Ijinh which began to lie much talked of in Fnimi' ■ . ><raianlwasacconlinitlvs.nt, lnl.V.U, wish four ships lo discover Ni.rth Anwri.a; but our hWoriaos have not spoken of his first ex|Hdltinn and we sliouhi he In Ignorance of it now h*! not lUmiisio pp'serviil in his great coll, , iloii » letter of \ .rai-ni hims..:f. a.ldrrsse<l lo Kraml-. 1 and dited iH-ppe, July 8. l.'.J4. In it U sup p.«es the kio| already inforim-d of the succU and drtuils of the voyage, •<> that he coni.nu himself with Stating that he sailcl fr.mi IHeppe n fouryes«-la, which lie lia<l saf, ly b^..ll(l,t ba<k o that port In January, 1,'iUl, he s.iihd with two thi|is, th« UaupliliM and Uiv Normande, to AMBRICA. im-int «««y^ ^HB^cA. lM4-,Ma milie»gtln«ttlie8pMU.(U Towards the ckiw of llioiaineyfaror carlyin tlio next, be .gnio mteu out the D«uph ne. on which. emb.rfli.g w.tUSOmenuidpmvl»ion«f„r,iKht month!., hi flr»t i.ilcd to the hiiml of Ma<relra."-Fa her W««). M. l._ "Oo the :7thof Jauuarv, mj he [Vcrraiano] parted from the''i»laa"dCT!r',S •„ r-elknownflttle group of iilsnds near Jtadei'ia an<t Mlled at tM wmtwani, ruonlnit In 85 davi BOO iMiriiM with . Il.k. .1.1 ^. ' *> '. *« "•^» -«,. ^.,vu «• ura» wvsvwani, ruonlnff in So dav trade --- — e-.™, „..^ • iiKui, wHi pieaaaui ei breere along the northern border of the „„,, winds In «lK)ut 80« N. III., smck waa t^Z- quently nearly like that of Cohnnbui on bU tzi vojaje On the 14th of February he met 'with " T^1\ • ""Tfow* " "ny'ihlp erer en. counlere.1.' But be weathered X ai& punu^ lilt royage 10 the west, 'with • little d?"utl^ end 400 leagues, he descried a new country whirh a. he auppoaed. had never before b<4n teta either by modem or ancient narliratora. Th« rouniry wa. rery low. From thS\to»e d«! cnwi.m It I, erfdent that Verraiuw came" sight of the east coast of the United Btatn!llv».t the lothof M,,reb. 1584. He puS wJ'Srf^a" Me amt Ml led southwari, for about fttflcaeucs he ..j,,e, |.K,klng f,^ a harbor and flndlnT* "0*; llf then turned northward. " I Infer that Vern. i:.no ..•,w ll„te of the coast of Zth Car^Htai and nothing of that of Georgia, and that lnX« rvcl..ii, 1.0 ran, at most, be called the discoverer -nly of the c™«t of North Carolina l7I r..»mle.l ( ape ll„teraa, and at a dUunce of about hor,.,l nnd spent several davs. . . . This Was Ik- s<c,..„1 prl.„lpal landing-place of Vernuano f«err.-k.,n ,V) league, fro,',, Cape n,a?" It «..,.1.| fall s.,inewl,ere upon theea.tco««t of I i|. '«_a"-. In latl.u.le Ssl N., where, by s-.me "'Ihnr., it U thought to have Nrn But If Tn ' "J hen., a., he dl,l In olh.rca«.,, fr„,„ hi. l„,t • K i,.r biSKCond lauding wimewhero south of he eutrauce to rheMp«-,k? Bay, and nTar "en •r^.n<e to Albemarle *,und. ' And th's Utu; ^UHT. with 11,0 'sail of too league,- wl Ich W ..■ U.O uy» he rnyle from his s^ond to his thW I iii. ing.pl,,,^.. In Npw York Bay Il.V.m!^ .t. hi, tLird Undlngsutlon an' excellent £:^'i' "e Hn';?,"""' '." f»i'""- "<:" p"'u*t.Hi f;;S^ io tn,n, ami from wh <h ha aacendcd .'« r'v'T In his boat Into the InUTlor. llTfS he ^ ..ores very thickly settled, a„d as b. t»Z{ Z,o" '?,'?«<•• '""her. ha dl«^.vemla tJS « i7h ".'',"■• ™°" "»■> «> ""•*• ca,i.e to m fri 'div'""''''"T',';,."'Hrr''.- *"" -"■iJ^ »"v npn.ii). . This dew rlption contains sevrnil I'L ■ "; v'"''C.'' r*" " '"'' '"'"' rlear tl«t the l„;^'>\vJ^'f "" "•o'cen.of theJ'SJcur f. " .'i^"»«"n"»«"ehoragehavln«h»»n ., Ora.;P.cnd Bay. the riv.rwhleR he eZ*r,.d being ■• L'i.c*:?ndt' RKw ; .r^'w &i' nllk t . J ^^Wilfanwii Ray and Newiwri mouth. "l«ooMtUi<,»oyai«WMptt«n«|„f,r n fat 11 '", >*"^"' I'leppe «-arlv In Ju^ >UdeiJ.n.'^'"t "P"ring expedition. froS Sl. *"? "."'' ''«'!<. had aceonilnSy lasti>d but flveandauttif „,onthii."_J.o. k5iI /jSticiAi (A«rr„h« a„dCnti^ Uirt. «[ AmZTi^ U e-/'::",^!'! -TTT^Vv^- ^- ^•• ^Ifl, I .£^ '""''» ir" «»quered and P«-IIkJ. the Oovemor Pedrarias de AviU founded and «^tle.l the dtle. of ftTnatna and of Nsta, an,! the town of Nombre de EHoa At ,Wa ""■. «''"„f^»l'<«l'' Frandsco Ptiarrolon of the Tru'il 10^°^';; T"'!"- ' •"■'(pf "e d y of iruxlllo, was living in the city of Panam.' IK»«.Mlnghls hou«, hfai farm and his iSStaZ' "de!Mt!,tP'''^'P^.P*°P'*°''hel.nd»^^^^^ Mf h^ ^.r'*"*' *"• ''■!'"« '"'•'ogul.hid him. Krvl^olhi^M''?!? ""i «»""■>«. "nd In the ^'« bu( full oVT'i .^'"« »♦ ■*« ""1 •» « pow but full of Eeal to cont nue his labours ?.^ t fe^:*:!™ "»"" """"llwlngulsbed i^rvw" P«lrirl«'S^ •■«*"• *"' ?""»'" Pfoni-lor. from r-etirarlas to dlneover that coast of »h» Hn..ti. Sea .o tho ea^twar,!. He s^» Ur« pa^^o^ '''•'!"""« «"•«;;«! ship which he^uK,and on iK^essary supplle, for the voyage, and he Kt out from the city of Panama on tfc I'oTday^f heinonthof November, In the year 1924 'n. i«d 113 8panlar,l. |„ his company.Xs d^ somJ Im liar. jervanM lie commenced aVoraw^n which they suffered many hardship.. tl?e ^S UIng wl,,u;r and unpropitio,,. ■ ' Prnn, thl^ m.n ,|i,.d of hung,, ,„^ ^, ,„,/." ,,,' cour*. of Which he found no cou„ rv that ur",'«i'^a'ft"'i:'f ^ "' 1.1. a.nbitiou. Pl!,7m! ^! luriie.! after Home months to "the land of Panama landing at an Imllan village „e", ,."' 'Ti"' .'!"''•• ™""^' Ch-x-hama " hen" he ^a"wmhva*;i' """","• .'"' """ '""' «H-">m?un r .?!.?.''' •*""" "' •'"• '"*•"; ami all that had befallen waa re,H,r„.d to IVIraria, wlflle the Captain remained l«.hlml to fef""h him*. If KnamaTi"'"?"" . '*'"-" "■<■ '"'P «rt i'^Ut fanama It was found that a few •)•.'. , .tLl the Captain Olego de AI,,.a/,7hiVL. wTn •enrrh of the (nptain Piiam,. hi. coiJ^p«, on with snofber shin ,ml 70 „H-n." AlnZro ,lj hi. party followed the crnst untfl Vhex f„^- To a great river, whi.l, they calle.! »knjZ^]Thw orHiMi;;?" "' 'Kr^.f B"<-»ventur;" .', v:; h,H,i 1'k:,' • ^^'''.v tl'ere fou,Ml ,ign. of gohl lie ( :m.^„'"1,"" '"""" "' "•« l-apealn Ilirro.' uie la|>ialn Alin«K-ro rcturnet to Chucha,na where he found hi. .H.mrnde. They agrml thai entirpnuo, and defray the ein,'iiM's whi. k ..-,o.,n,..l to .nore .l.«,i lo.two cXelUn,* A^ Panama ,„u.b obstruction wa. ,Z^,i bv Pe.lrana, ami .Hhers, who ..hi ||„, ,h"^ v«« •^lould not Ik. p,r.l.te,l l„, „n.\ that I, , .M7le.f J w, uld not be w-rved by it The r\,"»,n\\ml ro^wl.h the authority give,! hh,,T"';\!,'JJ: rad., WM very «H,iMant In p«»eeutlng the ,Zi I I I 1 AJORIOA, 1SM-1S88. CbrMtrlK tU W. Lawraim. AMERICA, 1SS4-1S8S. he had oommenoad, mad . . . Pednrlai wu forced to allow him to engage men. He wt out from Puiuna with UO men: and went to the place where Plcarro waited with another BO of the Ont no who sailed with him, and of the 70 who accompanied Almagru when be went in March. The other 180 were dead. The two captains. In their two ships, sailed with 160 men, and coasted along the laml. When they thought they saw signs of habltatlnns, they went on abore In three canoes they had with them, rowed by «0 men, and so they sought for provisions. They conUnued to sail In thU way for three years, suffering great hardships from hunger and cold. The greater part of the crews dledof hunger. Insomuch that there were not 80 turrlv- Ing. and during all thu«- thrre years they dls- corered no good land. All was swamp and In- undated country, without inbubltanta. The good country they discovered was as far as the river Sao Juan, where the Captain Plzarro re- mained with the few swrvivont, nomliug a cap- tain with the smaller ship to illRniviT nemo good land further along the coast, lie seut the other ship, with the Captiiln Diego de Almagro to Panama to get more men." At the end of 70 days, the exploring ship came back with goml reportii. and wltli specimens of gold, silver and cloths, found In a country fiirlhir south. "As soon iM the Captain Almairri) arrived from Panama with a ship laden wiih men and horses, the two ships, with their comnmnders and all their people, set out from the river Siiu .luan, to go to that newly. discuveml land. But the navigation was dfHlcuit ; they were detained so long that the provisions wen' exhiiuste<l, and tlic people were obllgtd U) go on shore in search of supplies. The ships renrhed tlie bay of 8aa MaU'o, and some villa^.,.s to which the .Spanlahis gave tlie name of .•<unlia«<>. Next tUey came U) the villages of Tacamez [.\tlU'unle^ on iIh- coast of mo<leni Ecuador], ou the wu coast further on. These villages were seen l.y the Christians to be large and we 11 neoplci: iiu.1 when 80 Hpanlanis had advanced ii leuitui' licyond the vilUgps of Tacamci. niori' tlmu !il,(HK» Indian warriors encounlemi them ; hut sMini; that the Christians inU'nditl no v\i\. and iliil not wish to take their gcKids, but nillier to treat lliein ix-acx-- fully, with much love, tlie liidiuns ihitistetl from war. Ill this lan<l there weri' aliiindum Hiipplies and the people le.1 well (irrlere.1 liver, the vll'. Ittges having th<'ir streets niiil miuares. One village hs>l more than 3,mtll limis<.>s. und others were smaller It scemni to the captains and to the other Hpunianis that nothinif ( ould be done in that land hy ri-aaon of tlie smailneas of their numbers, which n-ndere<l iheni iinuble to cope with the ludlans. !*o thev agreeii to load the ships with the supplies to lie found in Ilio villages, and to return to an islaml called Oallo where tliey would be safe until the ships arrive<i at I'lmanm with the news of wli.it hail lieeu dlv covered, and to apply to llie lioverrior for more men. In onkr that tiie Caiuain* niiirlit Ik; able t-) continue their undertiililiiK, aml'ioniiuer the land, laptain Almaijro went in the ships Many iiersons had written |., the (^vcruor entreating him to onler tlie i rews to return to 1 anama. saving that it was iiii|H>asil>le to endure more iianlshlps tlmu thev liad siilTered during the la>l three years The Ooveinor onlered thai all tluise who wUhed to gu to Panama might do so, while those who desired to continue the dis- coveries were at liberty to remain. Sixteen men stayed with Plzarro, and all the rest went back in the ships to Panama. Tlie Captain Pizsrro was on that isUnd fur Ave months, when one of the ships returnetl, in which ho continued the discoveriet for a hundred leagues further down the coast They found many villages and great riches: and they brought away more specimens of gold, silver, and cloths than had Iieen found before, which were presented by the natives. The Captain returned because the time granted bv the governor had expired, and the Ust day of the period had been reached when he entered the port of Panama. The two Captains were so ruined that they could no longer prosecute their undertaking . . . The Captain Francisco llzarro was only able to born)w a little more than 1,00() castellanos among his friends, with which sum he went to Castile, and gave an account to his -Majesty of the great and signal services he bad ixrformed."— f; de Xeres (Sec. of Piiarro), Ar count of tht PniTinet of Cuzeo; tr. and rd. by V It. MarkhamUlitkbiyt Sof., 1872). .\iJO IN: W. II. Prescott, llut. o/lht Conquut of nrn, bk. 2, ek. 2-4 (r. I). A. D. iw.— The Voyage of Gomex. See C ANAiiA (New Franck): Thk Names A. D. 15*6-1531. — Voyage of Sebutian Cabot and at'emnted colonisation of La Plata. See Paraquat: .\ P. l.ll.VI.ViT A. D. lsa«-i54J.-The Florida Expeditions of Narvsasand Hernando de Soto,— Oiscovary of the Mississippi. Sec Fiahuua: A. D. 13SH- = ^- °o '53«-i5»— P"»»«io's Cea^Mtt of Peru. See Peri jl 1>. l.jSi-l.Wi m»i I.Vll- l.VKI. A. O.IS33— SpMiah Conquest of the King- dom ofQaito. See El 1 AIMiit. A. D. 1534-1535-- Exploration of the St. ^->wrencc to llontreal by Jacques Cartier.— 72 '•^', IS',,'*'" ^■™" ""•''■ I""' *"V'»»>'™ "f Verra zano], PhllinC'habot. Admiral of France. Inducerl the kiii,t [Francis 1] to resume the project of founding a Fninli colony in the .New Wortd whence the SiutDlanls dailv drew such great wealth: and lie presented to him a Captain of St .>lalo. hy iLiiiie Jaci|iies Cartier, whose merit lie knew, and whom that prime accriited. Cartir r having recvlveil his instriictious. left St. Malo the Al of April, 1584, with two ships of au tons and l'« men. lie steered west. Inclining slightly north, and had such fair winds that, on the lOtli of .May. he made Cape IKinavinta. in Ni'wfoun.i land, at 46^ north. Cariler found the laad ther.- still covered wiUi snow, aud the shore fringe,l with ice, so that he could not or ilareil not stop He ran down six degnvs ».mlh iioutheaat. aud entcreii a port to which he gave Ihn name of St Catharine Theme he mm. .1 l.a. k iionli .Vfter making almost ilie tin nit of .Newfound land, though without lieing a hie 10 satisfy him K'lf that it was an inland, li. i.».k :\ souther! v course, croasfil the gulf, apiimaclied the oait. ucnt. and eulen-d u virv diip liay, whefr hi- «MltenHl greatly fruni hi-at. wliew* he iitll. I i! Chaleurs Bay He was rliarmeil with Ih U-uiity of the countrv, and well plritstHl with t.. Indians that he met snd with whom he e» iliangcil some goods f^r furs On leavli,. this liay, Cartier visit. I 1 good pit- .f the ...... . around the guif, au 1 iwk poascssiou of the cou- AXBRICA. 1884-1S8S. Omodo. AMERICA. ItMl-1608. try in the same of the matt Cbrlftian ktnc u VermMnl J»d done In aJI the pUcei wbeii'he Jaoded. He let Mil again on the ISth of Augtut to return to IVance, and reached 8t Malo laTeir on the 5th of Beptember. ... On the report whlcli he made of hi« roTage, the court con- cluded that it would be uaefulto Prance to have a «eltlement in that part of America; but no one fS"'."'.'*^^'" r""" ^ •"«»" ">an the Vice- Admiral Charles de Mony. Sieur dt la Haillerave ThU noble obtained a new commiaaion for Car', tier, more ample than the flrw, and gave him three ships well equipped. This fleet waa ready about the middle of Hay, and Cartler eni- barke<I on Wednesday the l»th." rils' three vesse 8 were separated by violent storms, but found one another, near the close of July In the gulf which was thel' appointed place of rendes- vous. "On the 1st of August bad weather drove him to uke refuge In the port of SL Nicholas, at till' mouth of the river on the north. Here Car- tier planted a cross, with the arms of France and remained until the 7th. This |)ort is almost the only »ixit in Canada that has kept the name given by Cartler. ... On the lOth the throe vessels re-entered the gulf, and In honor of the sjiint whose feast is celcbmted on that dav Car- tier gave the gulf the name of St. Uwi«^: or rather he gave it to a bay lying between Antl- eostl Island ami the north shore, wlience it ex- tended to the whole gulf of which this bay Is i«rt; and because the river, before that called lUvcr of Cnnada, empties into the same gulf it iusenslMy acquired the name of St. Lawrence, which li still (»Kn. . . . The three vessels uscimUil the river, and on the 1st of Septeiiiber tl«T enteri.1 the river Haguenav. Cartiefmerely rerouMoiiered the mouth of this river and hastenwl t.i jeek a port where his vessels might rr^ZT'l''^ , Eight leagues above Islo a..x (. oudres he found another much larger and hand- »omer slaud. Hll cvered with tnit and vines. He cal.-d „ Bacchus Island, but the name h» fc"-;",'.'"^ *".'?'• ''"''<•»>» The author of name nf t artier, prelen.ls that only here the cmntry begins to lie calUtl Canada. But he is «iirelv mistaken; f-H- It is c<rf»ln that from the .mliest time, t «• Indians gave this name to ti ^ »h,.|e country along the riv.r „u lK,lhsid.^, from l» mouth o the Saguenay. From Bai^hus UlMud. Cartler unn-ceded to a little river which i.i.T, i,„- !;•>■>"■■"■ iu» nine nver which i.n .;Rr.> "*•.*'"' '■™'*"' f"""'!'* north: he c«ll..,l It R vtfre dt ste Cttilx. t»., «u«. he enterwl o*;,", Ti. *H f i'^ '"'""^'^fF'-^t of the Exalw nlM Itivttre de Jacques Cnriier. The day after h amvHl he re(elve.l a vi.it fn.m an Indian dilef .,«m„| I),.nn««,m,, whom the author of he ria ,„n of Um v„y«^.r styles Lord of J.niida a kr treated wi,|, ,|,i, ol.jef l.v means nfTvo n.ll»ii»«li,m. he had taken to France U.e year nf'n.,. r; *'"' •"""* » '""•^^ Fn^ncl, Ae" lnf<.nm,| iLnnacna that the strangers wlsliwl II *■".' i' '" '"Bn "lilrh seemc.l K. trouble him . u .iKiM non known „ii, er llic name of Island <.f »molli I.. ,,.„„, ,„ yf^„^ wiihout scelnii It > i^ii'"' I «• I'Topi,. „f l|,„ i„.u,,s wore of a dif- imT """1 '?"" '''• •'"' "'« he wished in I"""' «el"*nly by iJw a,lvanta«« which he 78 rlfc- £^"SL».^^°?*1*°» "'^h "no ''««• to IMS Bt nen«, and tbenco in two boats. Car- tt«ri.«hedHocheUg»OcLa. "Theship^of the town WM round, and three rows of paliUdcs Inclosed in it about SO tunnel shaped cab^^h over 80 paces h»g u>d 14 or l.-Hvide. It m» entered bv a single gate, above which, as well ^^^ T 'rHJ^*'^; "" • kl-'l of gallei^ reached by Udders, and well provided with E^ "Jr^'i and pebbles for the defence of tlie &,^" 1 '"'"'''"SS'* o' the town spoke tlie wrJ^^i^"'"***,; I*^L r*^''"^ ihc'^Prench .1*^ . ■,• •.; Cartier visited the mountain at thefoot of which the town lay, and gave it the the whole Island TMontreal]. From it he dis- -hi!.ni.''*^'ui"*'" "' country, the sight of »T5 «^"*V^ Wm. . He left'llochelaga on Bainte Croix. Wintering at thU place, where hU crews suffered tcrribry from tJ.c cold and from •curvy, he retume<l to France the following •Pring. Some authors . . . pretend that Car tier, tllsgusted with Canada, dhi^ua<le<l the king hto master, from further thoughu of It; anil R„??i.'i i" ■*"™ '" '""'*' **•■> "' ""at opinion. But this does not agrw! with what Cartler hlm- !7i.lEf'.K° ^ inemolrs. . . . Cartler in vain extollwl the country which he ha.1 discovered. ^S^, '«"""»• ■'"I tlie wretche<l condition to which hU men ha<l Ijeen reduced by cold au<l •curvy, persuaded most that It would never be n?f„^ ^\t" nowhere saw any app,»rancc of mines; and then, even more than now, a strange tond wh ch produced neltlier gold nor silver was reckonol as nothing. "—Father Cliarlevolx. Hut. qTAeu /Vrinrt ((raw. ig J. u. Slu,i), bk 1 o lif"-"-. •*■ ^""^ OtiurtU Coll. of Voyant n» Vaniian, e. 1, M. 3. nO» HHDtTINO, Ac. : A I>. X^iOS^ A. D. iSM-»5SO.-8wuilsh Conqussts in ee Cim-E: A. D. 14.10-1:^4 Chila. See". _ A. p. I53«-I53« _.,. wsw Craiuda. Sec Colomuian St ai>,» : |8.— Spanish Conquests of is8«-n3i "^'* ^'°'^'""*-'' iSTATKi, A n. V«.£' '}1i"i^3.~J«cqnss Cartlsr's last »u!?Sl";*^'*'*^ atUmptsat Frsnch Colo- aisatfra In C*n«la.--J^,n Fnuivols ,le la Hmiuc. loBl of RolK-rvsl, a gentleman of Pir-snly was the most earnest a:. I energetic of tl»*e wl.o ileslre«l to colonlic t lu Unds dlscovert^l by Jacmies Cartler. , Tlie title and authority or llcutcnantgeiienil was ronfeneil iipfm liliii; hl» nile to extend over Canada. H.Kliehiira. rtagiieniiy. Newfoundland. Belle I.le. Cirimn Labrwlor. L« Omn.l Baye, an.l Biir«nl«„!,. w|,|, This patent was dated the 15th of Jnmwrv IMO. Jijciiucs Cartler was named meond In 8Ai of May, l.Vll having provision., I hi, fleet for two renm. He rtiiialned on the ti; Uw. rince umii the following Jnm, s,rkiii^. v.ihily for he fal.l«l wealth of tie land of Sa.ru, i,,,/ nn.Itiig the Indiana strongly In. Iln, d |„ » IrenrlHrous h,«illltv, and ■sullnln.f sivere hunlshlps during the winter KiiUnlv ,li,. couragcd ami disgusted, lie aband,jue,l hl« uu,ler AMERICA. lMl-1601 nmHiuaiiil AMERICA. 15<3-1S<7. I* -i taking early In the rammrr of 1542, and mfl«l for home. In the road of 8t. John*, Newfound- laod. Cartier met his tardy chief, KoberTal Just coming to join him ; but no peraiuulon could 'oducc the disappointed explorer to turn bacli. "To avoid the chance of nn open rupture with Rohcrval. the lieutenant silently weighed anchor during the night, and made all nil for France. This inglorious withdrawal from the enterpriie paralyied HolnrTals power, and deferred the permanent settlement of Canada for genentions then unborn. Jacques Cartier died soon after Ua return to Europe." Roberral proceeded to Canada, built a fort at Ste Croix, four leagues west of Orleans, sent l.uclt two of his thi«e ships to France, and rcmnincd through the winter with his colony, having a troubled time. There IS no certain account of the ending of the enter- prise, but it ended In failure. R)r half a cen- tury aftorwards there was little attempt made DV the French to colonize any part of New France, though the French fisheries on the New- foundland Bank and in the Gulf of 8t Lawrence were BUwIlly gMwjni In activity and Import- ance. • • W hen. af Ur fifty viars of civil strife, the strong and wise sway of Hcnrv IV. restored rest to troubled France, the spirit of discoveiT again arose. The Marquis de 1« Roche, a Breton gcntlemn.i, olrtained from the king, in 1S00 a patent gnintlne the same |x>wers that Roberval had powwssnl. • But U Roche's underuking proved more disastrous than RolKrval's had been. Yet, tJiere Imd been enough of successful fur- trading ii|i( uod to stimulate enterprise, despite these misfortunes. "IVivateadventurers.unpro- tectc<l by siiy special privilege, licgau to barter for the riih peltries of tlie Canadian, hunters. A wealthy nicrtluint of St. Malo, named Punt- gravc. was tliv iMildcst and most successful of these tniilirs; lie made a<'vcml voyages to Ta- doussnc, at the mouth of the Saguenav, bringing back earh time a ricli cargo of rare and valuable furs." In IflOO, Pontgruve effectetl a partner- ship with rair CImuvin, a naval captnin who obuineii u iiniint from the king giving him a mouo|Mily of the trmle; but Chauvlndlcl in l«« without Having «.ii reeded In establisliing even a trailing |imt at Indomwic De Challe, or De Chastes. goMrnor of Dleii|M>. succeeiled to the privili lies of I'liauvin. and fc.unded a compunr of meriliMiiu at Rouen (IBO:!) to undertake tlic devil.ipiiHiit of the rrsoum-s of Canada It was uiidir Ihi aUHpici's of this company that Samuel Chami.lHiii, lire f(.und.r of New "France, came upon tilt «rnc.—E Warburton, T/i4 Conmal „f tiiiuuVi. r. 1, (f, iZ ' •' AlJMi IN F. Pnrkman. nnnerni nf Fninet in theX.r Wmt,): fhnmiiliiin. rH I-« A. D. i<6»-M67.-Th» Slav* trading Vot- ■gaaof John Hawkini.-Btginniags o? Enc- lish Enterprise in the New World.— ■ The liistory of i;nKll»li Aniiri.a begins will, the three slave trailing vovauis of John Hawkins ma.|r In llic viari IMj, rm. and I,VI7 Noih'- Iriit tlint Knglitlimrn had ilotie in ronmrllon with .ViiH riiH. pri'Viousiv to those vovagc's had any r.'siilt worth nconllng. England lin<| known llir N, w World iiiMrty si-vcntv years for .John ( al».t nachcd it shorilv afur it's Illmovry l.y C.lninliu,; and, as tin' tidings of the .lis covery s|irearl inimy English advenlurera hsd erosseil tin .\ilaulli to the American o«ist Hut H ymn passwi. and the cxcltenMot of noTclly 74 subsided, the English voyages to America had become fewer and fewer, and at length ceased altogether. It is easy to account for this. There was no opening for conquest or plunder, for the Tudon were at peace with the Spanish sovereigns: and there could be no territorial occupation, for the Papal tlUe of Spain and Portugal to the whole of the new continent could not be ditputed by Catholic England. No trade worth having existed with the natives: and Spain and Portugal kept the trade with their own settlera in their own hands. ... As the planutlons in America grew and multiplied, the demand for negroes rapidly Increased. The Spanlarda had no African settlements, but the Portuguese had many. and. with the aid of Prench and English adventuren. they procured from these settlements slaves enough to supply both themselves and the Spanhirds. But the Brazilian plantations grew so fast, about the mkldle of the century, that they absorbed the entire supply, and the Spanish colonists knew not where to look for negroes. This penury of aUves in the Spanish Indies became known to the English anil French captains who frequente<l the OuTnea coast ; and John Hawkins, who had been engaged from boyhood In tlie trade with Spain and the Canaries, resolved In 1469 to take a cargo of negro slaves to Hispanlola. The little sqoivdron with which he executed this project was the first English squadron which navigated the West Indian seas. This voyage opened those sens to the English. England hud not yet broken with Spain, and the law excluding English vessels from trading with the Spanisli colonists was not strictly enforced. The trade was profitable, and Hawkins found no difficulty In disposing of his cargo to great advantage. A meagre note . . . from the pen of llakluyt con- tains all that is known of ilie first American voyage of Hawkina In its deUlls it must have closely resembled the second voyage. In the flrat voyage, however, Hawkins had no occasion to carry Ids wares further tlun thn^e ports on the northern side of Hisnaniola. These ports far away fn.m San Domingo, the capital, win already well known to the French smugglers. Hv dill not venture Into the CariMiean Hea; au.l having loailed bis ships with their return cargo he made the best of his wav back. In l.i» second voyage .he entereil the CaribNan Sea. still keeping, however, at a safe diatsuo from San Domingo, and soM his slaves on thf mainland. This voyage was on a much larffi r scale. Having sol.i his slavw lu the conii nental |>ort8 ISouth American), and loaded hi- vessi'ls with hides and other gixxis bought with the pr»liice. Hawkins determrned to strike out s new path and sail home with tlie Oulfstream which Mould carry him nnrthwa^ls {MSt tho shores of Florida. Sparke's narrative . lirovrs that at every point In these ex|H'dltloDsthi' Englishman was following In the track of Hi.- Frenrh. He hail Fri'nch pilots and seamen . i Ismril, and there Is little doulit that one at li-.i-t oflhiM hail already been with ijiudonnitn r. Florida The French seamen guided hlin i < Uiidonniere s settlement, where liU arrival « ;- most oppi.rtune Thiy then pointed him <<., way liy tlie coast of North Auierka. then im versally know In the mass as New France :.. Newfoundland and IheniT, with the prevsJi ing westerly winds, to Europs. This was tli« Mi. Ism^i I AMZRICA, 1S6S-1S67. pioneer Toytge made by EoKlUhmcD klonc couU afterwards fumou* in liistnry throiigb EngUah colonization. . . . The extremely inter- esting namUTe . . . given . . . from tLc pen r.f John !$parke, one of lUwkina' gentlemen companions . . . cootainii the first information concerning America and its natives which was publisbctl in England bv an En^'lisli eye-wit- ness." Hawkins pUnned a third voyage In 1588, but the remonstrances of the Spaulsli king caused him to be stopped by the English court. He sent out his slilps, however, iin<l they came home in due time ricldy freight«'d, — from what source is not known. "In niiother year's time the aspect of things had changed.'' England wits venturing into war with Spnin. "and Ilaw- liins was now able to execuU; his pUns without restraint. He founditl a iH-rmanent fortified factory on the Guinea coast, where negroes might Iw collecU'd all the year round Thcnco he sailed for the West Indies a thinl time \ouug Fiancia Orakc sailed with him in com- mand of the 'Judith,' a small vessel of fifty loiw. " The voyage ha<l a pnispepous l)eglnnlng and a disustniua ending. After dismning ol imwt of their slaves, thev were driven by storms In take nfuge in the Mexican iM)rt of Vera I'ruz, and there tluy win' attui IikI by a I-ipauUli tieit. JJrake in tlie "Judith " ami ftawkins in anirther Mnall veswl escaped. Hm the latter was o\ercrowde<l with men and olilijriHl to put half of tli.m ashore on the Mexican coast. The majority of those left on txinril, us well as a iiiajurity of Urake's crew, diinl on the voyage lionie. and it was a niiseiMble nniuant that lauded m Lnglund, in Januarv, IMU _K J I'ayue, I'.jf'ijw. „/ t/u EUmbeihan .Stamm to Am., ell. 1. Aljui IN: The llnirlnm Vugaiitt; td. by C. K. Mi,i/,„i„ (llnilu^l .%«■.. X,. 57|.— U. Siutliev hrrtvfOi. /InIM AitmimU. r !! A. D. i57»-i58o.-The Piratical Advcaturei of Drake and his Encompaasing of the World. —■ tram 11 Drake, tlic lirst nf tin English Buc- caneers, was one iif tin- twelve i liil.lnn of Ed- ward Dmke .,f TavistcK-k, in Divoushire a Btaunch Pnilestant, who had tliil Ids nat'ive plaiv tn avoiil ixrset utioli, and had llieu iHnina- a slilps chaplain. Dndi.-, lili,. ( „l,inibus lia<l Isvii a Manian liy pMfesoiou fniiii Uiyliixsl . awl , lii«l mriiii as a yming man. hi TOmnianil "t the Juiliih, umler Ilawknis. . . . Haw- kins hail ninliiied himsi'ir lt> simigirling Krake advaudd Inmi this |,> pin., y ri,i.< pracliee wii.^ aiilluirij'.ed by law in lla- middle ages fur til. purp.«- of reeoveriuif dilits or lUmuges fr..m ili.-siilij..ilsof aiHiihir naliiiii. The Eng- li>li. ispmalli tlww i.f til,. H,»i .,iiit;try were IlHnio>t lormidahle pinil.s in il„. K„rl,i HUd ■ Ihf wlh.lr iiaiiiai was liy this ti r.nw ,1 against ' .•<!»iin. in <iiiis.-.ni,.|i, .■ ■if til,' ruilili s, «ur wagiil ' ..iPiin.t l'r,.t,,ia,ii..,n, in t|„. .N. i|,..rlamls bv llulipll Unik,- liail aiTiiunts ..f liii ,>wn t<) -•III,- «iili the >p;.iii«rtl,. Tli..iit'l, Elitalwih '""' hilar,,! t,.r ili,- n-,,,lt. I Stairs a„,| piirsu,-,! ,, sliifim^r |,„ii,.y. ii, r i„„.r,.iM, »,„| th.ir. u.r,' lilinii.al, au.l i| «.„ wi,i, „ view ■■f (Ultlllk. „ir t|H„. Mippli.., „f ,,,1,1 „,„, ,i,,.,,, fnim .Vni,n.a whi.h ,iml.l,-.| |'|,i|,|, ,„ i,rii,, I"' rii.iai,. niiil pa> ».,i,li,.r.. in piirsiiu „f |,u |s>n,i „| aitifressi,,!! ilmi ||„. f.u,,,,,,, vovaif,- «». auiL,.rt*,s| |,v Ei,«ll.h sUfM,.,!, Drak,. Hail recently made more than one succeaaful Votmgu. AMERICA, lOTS-lSM. vovage of plunder to the American coast." In July. 1573. he surprised the SpanUh town of 75 I. -"t ,' ;;? ••"Fr'»e" "le opanwn town of Aombre de Dios. which was the shipping port on the northern side of the Isthmtis for the treasures of Peru. His men made their way nto the royal treasure-house, where they laid hands on a heap of bar-silver. 70 feet long. 10 wide and 10 high; but Drake himself had re- ceived a wound which comiH.lled the pirate's to retreat with no very large part of thr splendid booty. In the winter of 1573, with the help of the runaway slaves on the Isthmus, known M Umarroncs, he crowed the Isthmus, looked on t ic raciflc ocean, approached within sight of the city of Panama, and waylaid a transportation party conveying gold to N,>mlire de Di,« but was disappolnte.! of hU prey by the exciUil' con- duet of some of his men. When be saw, on thia (KHaision. the great ocean beyon.l the Isthmus. Urake then and there resolved to be the pioneer of hngUnd hi the I»acific: and on this resolution lie solemnly besought the blessing of C.<«l. Nearly four years ela|>se.l Uf„re it was executed: for it was not until XovenilK'r, 1577 that Drake embarked on hU famous voyage In the course of which he propo«e,| t„ pl,iii,l,.r Peru Uself -The Peruvian p<irts w.re unfortitied. Ihe SpanhinU knew them to be In nature abso- lutely si-cureil from attack <m the north; and lliey never dreamed that the English pirates wouhl Iw daring enough to [Mtss III,- t,rril>lc straiu of Magellan au<l attaik llii-m from the south. Suth wag the |dau ,if Dnk, ; ami it was executed with complete sikusk " 1 1,- »^x\v<.\ fnim Plymouth, Dec. la, l.'iT7, with a H,-,t of four vessels, and a pinnace, hut l,.M on.. „f i|,i. shins after ho had entere,l th.. Pa, ili, . in a storm which drove him souihwanl, ami wlii, h made dm the discoverer of Cape II„rn. Another of his ships. sepaniU-,1 from the s.iua,lri.ii, n tum«l home, and a Uiinl. while attempting to ,io the Kline, was lost In the river Plate Drake in hij own vessel, the (J.dden Hind. prm-...-,l,^|' i„ tl,u I leriiviauamsu, where lie rrui.s.duniil he liad I Uikeii and plunderi.d a sc..re of .Spanish ships • l.a,li-n with a rich liooly of Peruvian lr.;isun) he il.H.m,il it unsafe to riturn by th,. way tiiat he canK% He thi-reforo res<dve.l t.. strike aenwa the 1 acilic, an.1 for thU purpose m»,le ilie latilmlo in which this voyage was usually |»rfoniit.d bv the Siwulsli govemnient v.smIs whl.h 8:tll.4l annually fn.m Aeapulco t,. the Pl,ilippiu«t Drake thus reached the cuist „f faliforuhi »h.re the Indkiis, delightwl b.y„ii,i measure by (iresenta of clothing and trinket.,. iiivit„| him to remain and rule our th.ni Drake |,sik ixw. si-ssi.m of the country in the tiaiiie of the Uuwn and retittwl his v..«l m preparation for the unknown i)erihi of the Pa. ill.' Th.' plmv where he liUMliil must have bo-n eilh.r the gnat Iwy iif »an Francisco (ptT contra., s... Caiifihima- •.., 1 ''*<*-"**"l "f "'e small Ikiv of Ikslega' which lies a f.w i.-aguea further north Tlio irnat nt.amau ha<i alreiuiv i-,m4|,,| liy.. .legnu more to th,. m.rihward U-foie tlii.linif a .-iiital.l., harbimr He Islieved himsilf m tn. the tinii KumiH-an who ha,l eoasicl ll„ «,. ►hor.s but it IS now well kmiwn llwt tipanish , viphireni liad precile,! him. Iln,k.-s , in iii„„».|gali„n uf th. Kh«b.. was thus no ilelilsniie I.m of «.«inan- slilp. Imt tlie umnnMry result of . miinwianres the v,.yage omit- in mon. tUan .«>. ^ay a ervnX, efwih hi smfHiiL uautiuil huu.rv" Drake 43 :l, AKERIOA, 187>-1S80. letched Plymouth on hii return Bept 26 1S80 ~^.i, ^X"'- ^"IKV 'ftSt mmtbtiLn Siamet^ pp. l4l-l4o. . ^J^'i *" Fletcher. The World Bneompamd iuHr F. Orakt (IlaUuft Sot.. 1884). -J. B^rnw. Me of Dralu.—K Soutbey, Utee of Brititk Aamtniu, ». 8. A. D. 1580 —The flnal fonnding; of th« City V n^Ji. .m*- ** Abowitis b Rep dbuc : A. D. 1580-1777. u^- °;.f5'3-~T?« EKoedltlon of Sir Hnn- phrey Gilbert.— FormafpoMCMion taken of Newfoandland.-In 1578, Sir Humphrey Gilbert. »n Fnirlisli gentlemmn, of DeTonihire, whoee T^ungir half brother wu the more famoui Sir Walter lUIeIgh, obtained from Queen Elizabeth ■ charter empowering bim, for the next ilx years, to diirorer "tuch remote heathen and barbarous lands, not actually poiieaied by any Christian prince or people," as be might to •brewd or fortunate enough to And. and to oc- cupy the same as their proprietor. Oilbert'i lint expedition wo* attempted the next year, with Sir n niter Raleigh asKxdated in It; but misfor- tunes droTe back the adventurers to port, and Branlsh intrigue preTented their sailing again. "In June. 15*. Gilbert sailed from CawsSiiyBay with a»e vessels, with the general Intentkm of dlsc».»erlng and colonizing the northern parU of Amerii». It was the lint colonizing expwIIUon Which left the shores of Great Britain; and the narrative of the expedition by Hayes, who com- mandcil one of Gilbert's vessels, forms the flnt fSS^S&it. AMERICA. 18M-18N. R?l!* '"..i"'® '•'•'o'T "t English colonizaUon. Olibcrt did no more than go thruugh the empty form of taking possession of the Island of New- foumiland, to which the English name formerly applleil to the coutinent in general wu now rcstrici..!. . . . Gilbert dallied here too long. W hen he set sail to cross the Gulf of 8t Lawrence and Uka possession of Cape Breton and Nova Scotia tue senson was too far advanced • one of ills largest shijis went down with all on N>Hrd, itidudrng the Hungarian scholar Par- nieni;i8, who had romo out as the historian of the exiicdillon; the stores were exiiaustetl and the crews dispirited; and Gilbert rc.s»lve,l on sslling home, intending to return and |ir.Mecnte bU dl9<ov»rics the next sprins. On the home Toysjte the little vessel In which he was salliiiir foundered ; and the pioneer of English cnl.uiiza- tion f<mnd a watery grave. . . . OilNrt was a man of counge, pfety. and learnln); He was, however, an IndliTerent seaman, ami (luite In- competriit for the task of colonl/iiii..n f. which he hail set his hand. The miRfortuij<"i i.f bis ex- peiiltiim induced Amsdas and Bariuw, who fol- lowwl In his steps, to almndon the n.irtliward voyage and sail to tlie shores intemleil bi U iw- cupied by the easier but more circuitous Mute of the Canaries and the West Indies "— K j Pavne. I»jf.«{vs y rA« BUiahethan S.tmfu'np 173-174 — "On Monday, the Uth of t<ept«ml>i-r In the afternoon, the frigate {the •Siiuirrel '] vtti, Dear caat aws.", oppressed by wsvct, vet at that time rec..ver«\!;and giilng forth aigns of Joy the gimral, sitting atjaft with a Tkn.Ii In hu hand, crie.l out to us in the • Hind • (so oft as we did approach within hearing). ■ We arc as near to heaven l>v sea a« l.y land.' Ksiteratlng the same speech, well beseeming a soldier resolute in Jesus Christ, as I no testify he was On the tame .Monday olght. about twelve iu-\,»-k or not Ions after, the frigate being ahead of i:s In th« 'Golden Hind,' suddenly her llghu were out, whereof ai It were in a moment we lost the sight, and withal our watch cried the Genera! was cast awar, which was too true; for In that moment the frigate was devoured and swalloweil up by the sea. Yet still we looked out all tliat night and ever after, until we arrived upon tiie coast of England. ... In great torment of weather and peril of drowning it pleased God to ■end safe home the • Golden Hlml.'^ which arrived In Falmouth on the 2ad of September, bebig Sunday."— E. Hayes. .1 Jkport of the Vomffebg Sir Bumphnt Oiliert (reprinted is Pimm/$ Vofaf*). Also m E. Edwards, l^e of Raleigh, t. 1. eh. o-— R- Hakluyt. J^neipat Sanoationt: ed. hg K. OoUimid. ». 13. i^ . V A. D. 1584-1586.— Raleif^'a Firat Coloni*- iw attampta suid failnrca. — " The task in which Gilbert had failed was to be undertaken by one better qualified to carry it out. If any Englishman in tiiat age seemed to be marked out as the founder of a colonial empire. It was Raleigh. Like Gilbert, be had studied books; like Drake he coulj rule men. . . . The asaoda- tion;i of bli youth, and the training of hia early Bunhood, fitted him to sympathize with the aims of hta half-brother Gilbert, and there la Uttle reason to doubt that Raleigh iiad a share In hia undertaking and his fndure. In 1 584 he obtained a patent precisely similar to Gilbert h. His first step •bowed the thoughtful and weli-nlanned systeni on which he began his task. Two ships were ••11 — . ..„ ... ^».. u,« M«M, A WU Hiina were sent out, not with any idea of settlement, but to examine and report upon the country. "Tieir commandere wer« Arthur Barlow and Philip Amidos. To tlie former we owe the extant record of the voyage: the name of the latter would suggest that he waa a foreigner. W hether by chance or design, they took a ino'e southeriy course than any of their pmlecessors. On the %1 of July the preseiK* of shallow wai^r. and a smell of sweet flowen. warned them that Und 7^,?T'- '^^^, I'"""'"* ••»» gfven was amply fulfilled upon thilr apprcjach. The slflit befoi^ them was far illll.rent fn>m that which lia<l met the eyes of llore and GlllK-rt. Instead of the nli-ak co«»t of Newfoundland. Barlow an^l Anililas loolted upon a scene wlilch might rwall tliesoftness of the Mediterranean. . . . Coaslinn along for about !»• niil.-«, the voyajfen reached an tolet and with siune diffleully e'ntered. They tlien sidcmnly ixjok iHawexsion of tiie land in th'. Queens name, and then dellven-d It over t.. Rakigh ant.nllnit to his pat<>nt. They soou dia covered that the l.ind ujion whi.h tliey b«,l l-urhed was an l»l>uid about 20 mil.s long ami n.t Bliovewj liriKiil, named, as tli.y aflerwartU li-anit. Itoauoki-. H. you,i, separating tliem from the mamland, lay an enclomtl s<a, studded with more than a hmi.lrwl fertile and wsll-woode^l , The liidiaB. ,.r,.v„| friewlly, and were .1 , ;(>ed by lUrloH . i^-inj ■■ m.Mt ,rentle, lov- litK Kud failliful, \..in .,f all giiile sihI '.reason and such as live afi. r .e manner of the golden age "The r.,H.ri «hi.h the vovagen to.* Lome spoke as f.vourahly of tlw Un<) Itself as . f lu InliahlUnts . Win, them iho, bioughl •-wo of tlie savages, name<l WaiirlHse and Man. teo. A proUl.le tra<lltl..n tella us Uiat Uii qu.'. hei|self name.i tlie country Virginia, an<l th»l lUleighs knighthood was the reward and sc- lii ■■' 'K AMERICA. 1S84-1S86. knowled/nctnt cf his lucceii. On the ftrenrth vf thii report Raleiirh at once m«de prr-parmtioni for » «f ttlement. A flwt of sev^n »hlp« wm pm- Tlded for the conveyuncc of 108 settlers. The fleet wu under the r««mmand of Sir Ricbk.ij Grenville. who w«s to establlkh the setUemenl UHl Ie«Te ft under 'he chjirge of Ralph Lane ■ • • ^''..''S •"" °' *P'" I '585] the emigrants •et sail. For mnie reason not well explained the fleet made a circuit to the West Indies and loitertd for five weeks at the island of 6l John's and St Hispaniola, reaohing Virginia In the last days of June, Qiiaml.s I* iwecn the two com- mander!, Qrennlle and Ijuie, ha 1 alr-vdr begun and bolb seemc<l equUIjr ready to provoke the cnmltj of the natives. In August, after explor- ing son.e sixty miles of the const, OrenTiite re- turned to Knglend, proniiaing to coine back the next spring with new col.misu snd stcrea. The •eitlfinenl thu-i left to the care of Lane, was esUblUhed "at the north-cast comer of the UUiid of R(«uoke, whence the lelilers could command the strait. There, even now, choked by vines and underwoorl, and here and there broken by the crumtdiiig remains of an earthen bastion mav t)e tntced the outlines of the ditch which enclos*-.: the camp, some fortv yard* .uuare the home of the Hr-t English sjttlers la the X-w H orM. Of the doings of the settlers du.lig the wmter nothing Is recorded, but by the ccxt spring their piospecu looked glooms. The In- dians were no longer friends. . . . the settlers unable to make Ashing weirs, and without sceii corn were entirely dew-ndent on the Indians for their dailv f,H.|. tndor these circumstances one woulil have suppostni that Unc would have iK-«t emnlnyed himself In guarding the s.ttle- ment and improving its ct)n<rition. He, however thought otherwise, and aoplied himself to thi task of exploring the nefghbouring tcrrftorv." Buta«„ie combination of hostile fndiar tritx-s ?]m.r"/'*""'"'',*'^':'»' "'* ^"g^'-h. andthrir PirilMlll t?) tM'f-utnai f «vi>» .1.. « ■_. -1 a i[^t£Sff AMERICA, ia87-18W. ^to uie to EngUnd. an<l gradually in other turopcan countries. The authorities are not en- tlre V ,gr*ed ur«m thi, ,„,i„t. Joaselyn s«vs; Tobacro Hnit br..u^'i,t i.it.. KngUnd by Sir Jjhn Waiter Uwlcigh mnnv years after.' Amin he seys: • >ow (say »j,me i TmIwcco was first brought n.K ^"^'.If^ ^"^ *ir- " ''P'' I^w-- »"« "' Virginia. Others will have Tol,..,,otot.e first brought Into England from Peni. by Sir Francis Ijrake-. vH ,1\. V»'n'''"n ««» Its Introduction into W?!?l?h K^. "?'"■? '"',T "^ "•« men brought b«:k w th bim in th.- si.ip* of Drake. He savf And thete men whi.l. were brought back »w the first that I kn.w ,,f. which bn>ug!,t Into England tliat Indwn plant which they call To- bacco and Mcotta, an.l u« It against crudltlei being uiight It by the Indians, ■"ceruinly from lJ^i>l^'°! ' k'TI'"' '" '* '° f"^"' request, and to Wt Inthecolonv with It.lph Lane in 1585 was Mr. Thomas Hanoi, a man of a strongly mathe- matical and Miemitlc turn, whose ser^-fces In thU connection were greatly valiie.1. He remained f„ 1^ 't"/'" ^'■'"■' "'"' *'■'" '««'' «o England In 15M. He wrote out a full account of hfs ob- servations In the Xew World."— I N Tarbox Also n» T. Hariot, line/ and tnt R-part (Be. pnntsrf in adovenam^ Prt ,tf» fbe. PuNi^.on).— F. L. Hawks. HiM. of X. Carolina, t. 1 {f,.ntain- !£f ^1" orLay'iA^nnl. llanof, Report. *«.— Original DiKsed. by E. E. Hale (Artha- fi uati.m N. ,me from day t«day mott; Imin'rill.^l At the H-gmning of June. l,Vt6, Une fl.ught a K, Id battle wjth the savages and routed tt-m butno»i,-„of Gri.nvilIeapiM.,rf.l and the pras-' pert lo.,ked h..p..|esa. Just at this junctur,. a j:n.at tngli.h fleet, sailing homewanls frort a •iratiral exi)e..iii.m to the Spanisli Main, under Uie famous CBoiain Pnike, 'came to anchor at iZlliu""?*-?.- '^' »•".••'"»•' the .iishearfac.l r«t „ . r "'''.'»'« voire they p..tltioncd to he taken to KniilniKl, and Drake receiv,^ the whole ||any on l.«,rd his ship.. " The help of w iVl. the oKminl, h*i despair,,! was In i*.li y e ^ at hand. Sn,r,-elr had Drake's fleet lef'the c.«« Lif ,n ' 'i' ■^""'•'•^ ^ ';«!»'». and after search- A . Ml .1 t„r .U-ht later (ir,r,v|lle himself .rriv.,1 .-.Minuj ,. . , , _ .f',,,,. «.,^m f,„ ,he settlenK and « I I'^l . " '' •" ^'"••'"l. ""y c,rri«l with r »l,iih they piv«er,i,-,f t„ tjaklgh as the l>!«.t.r..f ,he ■ ,|o.,y, and I y Uim It w„ bi^ught Moma Amerifana. r. 4). A. D. 1587-1590. — The Lost Colonr of RoMoka -fintf of the Virginia Undertak- taa of sir Walter Raleigh.-'- It.lei^h. undil mayed by losses, deiermiii.-.l.to plant si agricul- tural state: to send emiitrants with .heir wives and families, who slioull make their homes in ??lV ^ "''''• »'"'• "'«» lif" "nd property might be secur-d, in January. 1,W7. he granted 'a charter for the s«ttleii.. nt, and a municipal gijvernment for the city of •Raleigh.' J.lhn White was ap|><.lnt..<l its governor; and to him Willi eleven aisi.tants. the a<iniinistratlon of the ctilony was intrusted. Traii.p..rt ships were prepared at the exr>ense of the proprietary : •Queen EliMlx-lb. the g.Mn.other of Virginia- declined contributing •I,, it, etiuealion.' Em- harking ir April, in July ihev arrived on tha c«ast o? North (anilina: they were sav«l from the dangers of (hik- Fear: and, passing Cape Halteras they haste,„.,l f. the Isle of Rwnoke to »e|irch for the h.u..lful of men whom Oren^ vllle had left there an a K^rris.'.n. Thev found .Lj 'i!"'"'* ''■'*'■'"•"' '""• overgrown with weeds; human Ik'Ui... lay M-altered on the field Where wlW di-er were niKoiiig T'le f rt was ^rulna. No vesti^'e of nurviving life apptared. "The Imtruciions ..f HaleiKli hail designated the plate for the new sinhmenl on the bay of Chesapeake But Fernando, the naval offlcer eager to renew a prortt.ihle iralll, In the West Indies, wfuseil his iMi.«t«me in exploring the c>«t. and While wa,, ,.,iM|H.||e,l to remain on R.«noke. . . h »», ih,,e that In J. , ihe found»tl<Mii of (lie city ..f l{«high were laid ' But the colooy was d.»,>ir.| 1.. ,ii.«ister from the beginning, being qui, kh involved In warfare with the surn.i.pdlnit n.ilve, ■With the r»- tuming ship While euilmtkixl for Ei gland un- AMERICA, lS87-iaM. Stm i ; ' ^U dtr th* •xeuM of interceding for n-«nforc«inenU and (uppUet. Yet, on the l8th of Auguit, nine d«7i prerioiu to hia departure, bU daughter Eleanor Dare, t' a wife of one of the aasisUnts gave l)irth to a female child, the first offaprinir 2 *'"8"*t parenU on the auil of the Cult*.! ,}f\, T"" i?'"" *" onmei from the place or lU birth. The colony, now conipo«>d of 89 men, 17 women, and two chlldn-n, whose namca ■nail pre?, rved, might rruaoiiiii ly hojw for the JP"*"y ™'''" of the Kovemor, ^i he Irft with tbem hia daughter and bis grandchild, Virirlnia Dare. The farther history of this pUntation h inrolred In gloomy uuix-ruinty. The inhabit- anu of 'the city of Raleigh,' the emigranu from £ngland and the firat-lwrn of America, awaited death In the land of tbeir adoption. For, when White reached Enghind, he fouml its attentiou absorbed by the threaU of an invasion from '•^i?- ; ; u !)^*' R«'<'Ik»», «boM) patriotism did not diminish his generosity, round means, in April 1588, U- despatch White with supplies in two ves- leU. But the company, dciiiring a gainful roy. age rather than a safe one, ran In chase of prizes, tUl one of them fell in with men of war from Rochelle. and, after a bUxxly fight, was boarded and rifled. Both ships were compelled to return to England. The dcky was fatal; the English kingdom and the Protestant reformation were in danger; nor could the poor colonials of Roanoke be again remembered till after the discomfiture of the Invincible Armada. Even then Sir Walter Raleigh, who had already incurred a fruitless expense of £40,000, found bis impaired fortuno InsutHcient for further atleuipls at colonizing Virginia. He therefore used the privilew of his patent to endow a eompiiny of merchants and ad- renturera with large concessions. Among the men who thus obtained an assiirnnicnt of the pro- prietarv's righu in Virginia is found the name of Ricburd Hakhiyt; It connecU the tint efforU of England in North Carolina with the final coloniza- tion of Virginia. The colonists at Roanoke had emigrated with a clmrter; tlie Instrument of Uarch, 1588, was not an assignment of Raleigh's patent, but the extension of a grant, already held under iu lanction bv Increasing the number to whom the righu of that (barter belonged More than another vear elapwd lieforc White could return to search for his ailony and bis daughter; and then the isUnd of Itonnoke was a desert' Ad inscription on the luirit ,il a tree pointed to CroaUn; but the season of tlie )eiir and the dan AMERICA. 180»-1«0B. Axraob ( tw. BiM. Au'n /1i/»t», ». ^, p/. 4).^ "This last expedition [of Wliile, aean bing for bis lost colony] was not despatdieil by Kalelgb but by bis suu^saoni in the American patent' Andoii- hbitory is now to take leave of thai llluslri.us nan, with who«»> «lii.ines and enter- prises it ceases to have any fiirtbe.- ( iiexlon. The ardour of his mini! was n.it exIiMuMiij, Imt diverted by a multiplii iiy of m >v ami not' less arduous undertakings. . . . Ihsjnms. at the same time, that a project wbi< h he bad carried so far should not lie entirely alxindoned, and hoping th«t the spirit of coninierre w<iuld pre- serve an IntefcotinH! with Virt-inia that might terminate iu a colonial cstalilisbnient. bo cim »» nted to assign his p.i'ent to Sir Tboni.-i8 Suilth ami a company of iuercbants In Ix)n.^^u, wbo undertfwk to esublisb and mainUiu •.\ trall.r between England anl Virginia. ... It ap- l)ean><l very so<m that Raleigh \\v\ tr. -ferred his patent to bands very dilTennt from i.is own . . . batisfied with a rultry iralllc carried oii by a few small vessi'ls, tlicv iiui.ie no attempt 'o Uke |Visscs.>;ion of the country: an I nt llip iwri.nl of Elizahrtli's death, jot i .sini;lf Kn^jlisbnitu waSBettle<l In Ameriia."-J. <Jr:ibauir, Ihrt ,t Ihe RiM andPrograt ,/lh C S. 0/ X Am. t,a 1688, M. 1. AUiOiN W. Stith, Ifht. of \a., W-. t — P L Hawks, J/iil. of .V. C. , r. 1 . A'.* 7-8 A. D. i<03-i6o5.-The Voyages of Gosnold, Prini;, and We7mouth.-The First English- men 111 New England.— ItartboloiiMw Uosnol.l was a Westof-Eii^'lami niariirer »lio 1, „l servtM ill the exiwlltlous of Sir Walter ffcibigh to the Mrginhi coast, liider bis coinmanil, In tbe spring of 1002, " with tbe consint of Kir Walter Ualeigh, and at the cost, among others, of Henry Wriothcalcy, Biirl of Souibaiiipton, tin- aci-om- plislied patron of Sliakespiare, a sniull vess. i called the Concord, was e.iuipiHtl forexplonilioii in "the north part of Virginia.' with a view 1 . the esUiblisbment of a colony. At this time in tbe last vear of the Tudor dvnasty, and niuetkn ye.irs after the fatal tcriiilnation of Oill>ert'.< ,>nt„pnpiaA (li.iPA ,. ».. L- > . , .. gers from storms were plea.b-tras an excuxe'for an iminedlate return. The eonjeeturc has been hazarded that the deserted colony, neglected by their own countrymen, w.re bospit^ibly adopted ^to the tribe [the I'roatans) of llatteras Indians. Haleigh limg cherislied t;,. bo|ic of iliseovering some vesUges of their existence, and sent at his own charge, and, it la saiil, at five »..verai timca, to search for bis liege men. Ilul Imagination received no help in its attempts to trace the fate of the colony of Itmnoke ■— C llancroft, IIU 0/ f**/ ■''■;{''• '■.'''' ■"' "■ '•-■■■''■e Croauns of today claim ilc»ient from tin lost colony Their habits, disposition and mental cbaracteri.<' tics show traces liotli of sjivug.' and civilized aDcesiora. Tbeir language is tlie English of 300 years ago, and their nuiiies are In many cases (he same as those iH.rne liy the original cojonlsU Ao other theory of tbeir origin lias lieen ad tBnced."-8, B. Weeks, TU Lot Colony of 78 * . — — " " ,»,,,,§ ,,j uiiiien .■! enterprise, there was no European Inhabitnnt of North America, except tbiw „f S|miiiNli birth iu Florida, and some twentv or ihirty FVncb the miserable relics of two frustinieif attempts to Bi'ttle what they callinl Xew Kraiiei-. (iosnoM sailed from Falinoutb with a coni|paiiy of ibirtv- two pereons, of whom eight Men- wainen aiid twentv were to la^'nmie plnnnrs. Taking' ^i straight Course aercLxs llie Atlanli. , instead of tin iiiilirect course by the C;,tiiifi. , and the W. -' Indies which had Ix-en liilii n.. piirsunl r. voyages to Virginia, at the eii.i of stvin we. !» hi' saw land In Masaaebusilts Itnv. pn.liablv u.ar what is now Salem llarisir II. re a Isiai euim- oIT, of Basijiie biiibi, iiuiiiie.1 dv . i,;ht natlv,-. of whom two or three wen- .lr. si.. I in Enron, ut! clothes. Indicating the preseiu.- .,f .arlier f.n, ifi voyagers iu these waters. N.m h.' sI.kkI to lu s.i«ihwaril. and blseri'w took irr.' it iin.inliii, » , f cisifish by a head land, call., I t.v bimforil,.i reasim rape C.mI. tbe name «i,i,h it ntai.is U.sinold, Rrerelon, ami thn^.. oili.m. went ,.a shore, the lirst Englishmen .vh.. .re kii..»n t,i have set f<«.t uimii the soil of Masvu huseiis . . . Soumling ilia way (■aiiti...|-lv along, tirvt In a southerly, and then in a ■*■ i.'riy .lin. li..; ail.! probaMy passing to ib«. s.m.;Ii of Nautu. k. 1 (Kanold next lauded on a small Ishtud, u. » AMERICA. laot-iaoL c«Ued No Mao't Land. To thia h» nra tha lum. „f Martli.-, Vinryard. •ioc« tnuu^rmj to the lar^'T Uliuid furtliar nortli. . . . Soulh of BuiarJ . Bav, and aeparatad on the aouth by the \ inev»nl Sound from Martlia'a Vlncyanl i« the Elixabetb lalanda. The »utliwe»ternmost of Cutivhunk, waa denominated by Goan<,Id EUubetL I, and. Here Oo«,oia foumi a pond two mile* in circumference, teparated fr..m the lea on one aide bv a beach thirty yardi wide •ndencloaing -a rockv blet, containing near nn acre of ground, fuU of wood and rubbiSi • Thii blet waa flied upon for > aettlement In three week., while a part of the company were absent oo a 1 Hiding eiDeditioo to tlie mainland, the rrst bum a bousi lich they fortlrfed with palisad, s. and tJi».,bed ^»ith .rfge. Proceeding to make an lav. „u,ry „f their provWona. they (?.und that after supplying the reaael, which waa to take be a .ufflclency for onlr af» "weeka for the twenty men who would remain. A dUpule left^hlnd woufd receire a ihare In the pfoc.-r.li >.f the cargo of cedar, aaanfraa. fur«. a£d otb, r commodmes which bad been collected A amall ^iJ'i"^ °"' in^_queat of ahell-flsh, wa, attacked by »me Indiana With men havine ^J^J' " '» "k'ly. lltUe .tomach for .u?I cheerle« work, theie cireumatancea eaillv led to the decision to abandon for the preslnt the m nth the a.lvemurer. sailcl for Enxlaud. an/ aftcr« voyageof flTe week., arrived at Exn outh ... The expedition of Ooanold waa pregnant ;«ri2''"*r°**^ ^""iK *^^ developmen waa dow The accounU of the hitherto unknown countrv wh.ch were circulated by hi. compTn? The mv ,..ar (April. 1808), Martin Pring or Bristol, With two smalt TeMels. Peking cargoe. of «ssafr,,, which had acquired a high v^uf^n account .,f ,upoo«^ medicinal WrtStV PrinS ^^, l-""". ^'"'"« "> Martha's Vin.vanl* jecun.. h,. de,ir,.d cargoea. and gave .vli twH!"' : !'':,'■":'''">•• Two jtarafater ^^!X 1805), I...rd Niuiliainnton and Lord \Var,|,„,r sent a v.sv, I con.manjed by George W.y .,,, u h U> r«-o.,n,.itr« t he uime c.W with an \ ye to Kennel.-, .r the I'enobiicot river some WorW m l« and k.d.T;.pp„l five nativea '■ Eicepi for ;.••,?': '"'«"'"■■ "dJItiun to the knowl"fgeof U..lo.;al p..„.r,.,,l,v, the x-oyaye was fruitless ■ -J 1. l'ulfr.y, //i««. „/ X ff„f r 1 M " I1S4.) — J Ml kiin. On iltt \;«Kuie of dm W.^ AD. i6o3-i<5o«. -The FJrat French Settle ment.tn Acadia .See Caxa.k i\gw I ,uV, i^ A. D. 1607 -The founding of the Eneliah ^i MiiMMA: A I) li^H!-UJ"7, auil nlt.r «»l Maink a i) ItKt7-lti<IN .""inn.r. ,i.„i HMr.°H'5**'"*°'-;rJ''« ^"*^ Voyage, of Henry Hudaon.-- The flrat rernnie,! ?,„ ..JL for the Muscovy o, Ku*rf« Company [of Eugi j AMERICA, iaO0. M«' la^'^h.'^.'L'r"" 0'»'"«'»1 the tm of Jiay, i(W7, with the intention of sailinir simiirht flntllng a pa«Mjfe In the latter vioinltvh,„„X: Lore attempted the entranc- of Davis Strfli^hS the north of Greenland. This design i«.£j frustrated ami he apparently renew" 1,^ J?* ^„°jP' " • '""er latitude anrf nearer Grt^nlaSd "ifJ,"^' .• '"<''*'• ^•■K"' "f latitude than Mr 79 return on;.h. jith Septemterof'- hTy'^ [l*!.] On the aad of April, 1808 Vn^ H.nlson commenced his »cond reci.rded vovaZ for the Muscovy or Russia Company with* tie K? f" "' fl""""?*?^?* to the tist ndkS bv the north cast.'. . . On the 3<l of June 1«« Ifud*>u had reached the most northern j^inVof b;.^w«;:-R"',^ ?° "" "•'» '»» '■» i«titude^°24' between Ppitzbergen and XovaZembIa" P.il' fug to p«« to Ihe n..rh ea,t™nd Xoia M It^.H''*i'*'",7^*?^''K'«'"1 '» Augusts i*-*!? Wl^rand^.lA'fJl;,* '''^•- ''-«) A"^- Dtxc?';^Tr'?a&or/w°o'v;;^7 tions daunted the enterpriv, of HudL"'^^ ployer. fthe Muscovy Company. In E^gu/d? they could not daunt the cimra'ie of the t?e.t "?«*?'?''• *''<>*'>» de'tined to hl^me the^ of Smith and of Champlaln. He long™! o temct once more the dangers of the northera «m .T ,^?*r',''!'l*^ "° '"!"*• ''* "ff'"^. i" the""vice of the putcT. East India Company, toeiplore the fc ' wastes in search of the covete,! paisage The rh77^i'''j^""'5 '"Virginia stimulatoa d.v re Jectcd; but, by the Induence of B.ln,«",r Xloucheron, the directors for Am.t.rdai re *)lvid on equipping a .m.ill t«.«.| „f ,ii!H.o Lv ?,?; •• H.5?w""'?^"^-^''^' '«•'» «'»■ <re«.'n{' Ir „, !~ !^ '■• ." ""•■ °'"n«'"f •'»■ little sl>ip Is more commonly tninslatinll. r.,t.iiiian.l.,l bv Hudson, and manne.1 by a n.fxr.i cr.w of En/ lishinen and H..!l«nd<.rs. hi, s<m In-ing of the numl«r. set uil far the northw.-s,,.™ p.«age Mawes of ire lin,.e,le,l the navigation l,,™f^Is NovaZembla; H,„ls„„. ,,,0 had evamiLTthe maps of John .Smith of Virginia, turne,! To he west and passing beyond Greenland and New fuu„. land, and running down ,|,e r.«st of ;h. I "■ .•■ ■■"^'•o^'' Pr<>l>ttl>ly, In the ttioutli of the IVn.,* ot. Then, following thr track of ( ■«!. and Iwiieving l,lm.,.|f I-, tir,i (f|«-„v,.rer CSV.. „ ,|,e naijie ..f .N.-w ||,.||„n,l iT.n,- aft,": «sni, it wa« < laime.1 Hs the n,.rth east. r„ >h" nC r?n. r^l'h •"•'"'"lands Frr-m the san.l, of I ape Cod he steered a «.Mii|„.rlv rourw till he gbla. where Hudson rememhere,! thathls coun- trymen were plwited. Then turning again W AMERICA, 1600. Cafitoi'n AMERICA, 1614-1615. • i the north, he dlscoveroJ the Delaware Bay, ex- amined lu currents and Its soumliiigs, and, with- out iroinB on sliorc, took note of the aspect of the country. On the 3il day of September, almost at the time when Champlain was invad- ing New York from the north, less than five months after the truce with Spain, which gave the Netherlands a diplomatic existence as a sUte, the 'Crescent' anchored within Sandy Hook, and fr^m the neighboring shores, that were crowned with 'goodly onkcs, attracted frequent visiu fmm the natives. After a week s deky, Hudson sailed through the Narrows, and at the mouth of the river anchored In a harbor which was pronounced to bo very good for all winds. . . . Ttn davs were employed in explor- ing the river; the first of Europeans, Iludsiin went sounding his way above the Highlands, till at last the 'Crescent' had sailed some miles beyond the citv of Hudson, and a boat luul ad- vanced a little beyond Albany. Frequent inter- course was held with the astonished natives [and two battles fought with them]. . . . "a»l"6 completed his discovcrv, Hudson descended the stream to which time has given his nime, and on the 4tli day of October, about the season of tlie return of Jolin Smith to England, he set saU for Europe. ... A liapny return voyage brought tba 'Crescent' Into Dartmouth. Hudsim for- warded U> his Dutch employers a bnlliant ac- count of hisdIscovcrli'S; but he never revisited the lands which he eulogized; and the Dutch EastlndU Company refused to search further for the north- western passage."— O. Bancroft, //<«• of the r. S., eh. 15 (orpl. 2, cA. Vi of •• Author t Liut Rtciti'in"). , .^ , „ Also in H. R. CLEVEUtJiD. L\fe of Uenry Budtun (Lib. of Am. m«g., r. 10), eA. S-4. -R. Juet, Joumil of Iludmnt Voyatt {X J. Il'tt. Soe C'U., ,Sir»j,<f ,*nV*, t. 1).— J. >. N. >atcs ami J. W. Moulton, IIM. of the State of A. 1., pt. 1. A. D. 1610-1614.— Th« Dutch occupation of New Netherland, and Block', coa.tinjf txploration. See New \okk: A. D. 1010- A.' D. i6i4-i6is.-The VoyaMS of Capt. John Smith to North Virginia.— The Naming of tha country New England.--' Iroin tlie lime of Capt. Smilh'a departure from \ IrKlnla [s.fl ViRoiMv: A. I). IWiT-ieiOl, till the year 1511 there Is a chasm In his biography. . . . In 16U pn>lmlilv by his nilvire and at Ills su-j- gcstion, an exp.HlUion w.« fltud out I'J »;"j'« Lmdun nurchants. In the expense of wlilrh he al«> sharr-l, for the purposes of traile ami dis- covery in Niw England, or, as It was thenculUd, North Vir-lniii. ... In March, ICU, ho set sal fMin I.ondon with two ships, one rommandid by hlnwlf. and the other by Captain TlM.m.w Hunt TImv arrlvrd, April »Mh, at the island of Manlit ;.'iii'. "n the coast of Maine, where they built SI *' n iHiats. The purpoaes for which tlii'jr were s. iit «c if to rapture whales and to scarth for mims of ^old or Clipper, whiih were sold to be lliere .iiid, if ihi'se failed, to nmke up a carco of fl«h and (urs. (If mini's, they found no Imli- cations and they f..und whale-llshlng a 'costly jmlHslou,' for, althounh they saw many, and chased lliiin loo. thiv sui-ceeiled In Uking none. They Ihiis lost Ihe lust part of the flsliing seas«m; bul,afur Kisii-K 1.1. th.ir 8'?;\="'"'^ Pj''^' "^^j diligently empUiyeil the montlis of July ami August in taking and curing codfish, an humble, but more certain prey. While the «:rew were thus employed. Captain Smith, with eight men in a small' boat, surveyed and examined the whole coast, from Penobscot to Cape Cod, tral- ficking with the Indians for furs, and twice flshlmg with them, and taking such observa- tions of the prominent points as enabled him to construct a map of the country. He then sallM for England, where he arrived In August, within six months after his departure. He left Captain Hunt behind him, with orders todlspoee of his cargo of fish In Spain. L-nfortunstcly, Hunt was a sortlld and unprincipled mtscreant, who resolved to make his countrymen tslious to the Indians, and thus prevent the establishment of a permanent colony, which would diminish tlie large gains he and a few others derived by monopolizing a lucrative traffic. For this pur- pose, having decoyed 24 of the natives on board his ship, he carried them off and aold them as slaves In the port of Malign. . . . Captain Smith, upon his return, presented his niap ol il.c country between Penobsiot and Cape Cod to IMiiicc Charles (afterwards diaries 1), with a n-Qiiest that he would substitute others. Instead of the 'barbarous names' which had been given to particular places. Smith himself gave to the country the name of New England aa he expressly states, and not Prince Cliarles. aa is commonly supposed. ... The first port into commonly suiiiirj^cu •■- — -- «^ . r-» which Captain Smith put on his return to Eng land was Plymouth. There he related _ his adventures to some of his friends, 'who, he says ' as I supposed, were interested In the dead pa'tc'nt of this unreganlcd country. TJhe Fl^- ginia, by Haltering hopes and large promlaea, Fnduieil him to engage his services »» them. AiTordlngly In March, 1615, he sailed from Aivoniingiy in j»i»«w», .«.%», ■— - . Plviuouth, with two vessels under his command, iHvii ing 16 settlers, besides their crew A storm illsmiisud Smith's ship and drove her back to Plviuouth. "His consort, commanded by Tliomas Derratr, meanwhile proceettcd on her vov^ice, and returned with a profitable cargo In Am -'ist; but the object, which was to cifect a pirmunenl Hilllemenl, was frustrated. CapUiln .«»miih'» v.ssel was pMl«My found to be so miuh shaiund aa to ren.li r It inexpedient to npuir hi-r; for we find that he si-t sail a second time fn>m Plymouth, on the 21th of June, in a small bark of 60 tons, manned by 80 men, am cirrving with him the same 16 sittlers he hail tiUi"ii 1" foriv Rut an evil distlny seemed to hung ovi r this enterprise, and to make the voy S'e a sufiesslon of disastin and dlsjippolnl n«nts." It ended In Smltirs capture bv a pirat lial Kreiiih lliit and his deteiilion for some months, until ho made a daring fsiapo in a smal lK>at " While he hail U'en dcUdned on board the Kn-nili pirate, In order, aa he says, ' to kii'p mv mrplexiil tlioughU from tiw much misllti tl.".u of mv mlsi'nible I'slate,' he einployeil him silf In writing a narrative of his two voyages t.. New England, and an aceoimt of tlie muntry This was publlsliiHl In a quarto form In Jiini min . . Caplrtin Smith's work on New England was the first to msimmend «•'«•<''"'"' 7 " ", plii-e of s.ttlenM-nt."-tl. ». Hlllanl, life of r^pt. J'lhn Smith {fh. \*-lS). . . _^ „ \i «. ;w CajiL John Smith, paenplion if A K113 8U AHXRIOA, 1619. 7\9 Bue e a n aa n , AHEBICA, 108»-17Oa A. D. 1619.— latradactioa of acKre tUTery iato Vifgiaia. See VnujiNiA: A. D. 1619. A. D. 163a— The PlantioK of the Pilgrim Calooy at PlnDonth, and the Chartering of the Conacil for New EncUad. See Hassa- cncBBTTS (PlTMOCTH CoiiONT): A. D. 1630; and NewEnolabd: A. D. 1630-1628. A. D. 16M.— Formatioa of the Goremment of Rio de La Plata. See ABaEimirB Re- public: A. D. 1580-1777. A. D. 1631.— Coaflictiag ctaimi of England and France on the North-eastern coast. — Naming and granting of NoTa Scotia. See NkwEnolakd: a. D. 1621-1681. A. D. 1639.— The Carolina grant to Sir Robert Heath.— "Sir Robert Heath, attomcv- f;enrral to Charles I., obtained a grant of the iinilj between the 88th [S6th t] degree of north latitude to the river St. Matheo. His ch^trter bcara date of October S, 1629. . . . The tenure is declared to be as ample as any bishop of Duiiism [Palsiine], in the kingdom of Ecgland, ever held and enjored, or ought or could of right have held and enjoyed. Sir Robert, his heirs and assigns, are constituted the true and absolute lunls and proprietors, and the country is ercct«d into a province by the name of CaiMlina [or Osiolanal. and the islands are to be called the Camllna islands. Sir Robert conveyed his right some time after to the earl of Arundel. This nobleman, it is said, planted several parts of his acquisition, but his attempt to colonize was cb(Tkr<t by the war with Scotland, and after- wards the civil war. Ijord Maltravers. who soon sftiT, on his father's death, became earl of Arundel and Sussex . . . made no attempt to avail himself of the grant ... Sir Robert Heath's grant of Und, to the southward of Virginia, perhaps the most extensive posscMiion ever owned by an individual, remained for a lon^ time almost absolutely waste and uniulti- vnied. This vast extent of territory occupied all the ciiuotry between the 80th and 36th degnx'S (if northern latitude, which embraces the pres- ent Hiati's of North and South Carolina, Oeorgiu, [.Vlabama], Tennessee, Mississippi, and, with viry little exceptions, the whole state of lAiuiniiina, aud the territory of East and West F'lriiln, a cnnalderable part of the state of Mi.>i.»iiuri, the Mexican provinces of Texas, Chiuhahi., <fec. The grantee had Uken posses- sion of the country, soon after he had obuineil his title, which he afterwards had conveyed to till' larl of Artindel. Henry lord Maltravers sp- lo'nn to have obtained some aid from the pMv- inee of Virginia in 1689, at the desire of Clutrles I , fur the settlement of Carolana, and the coun- try had since become the property of a Dr Cox ; yit, at ihis time, there were two poinU only in whirh Incipient English scttlemenU couKI be dimirned ; the one on the northern shore of All«>niarle Hound and the streams that flow into It 1 he |i<)|iulation of It was very thin, and the gn-ntist portion of It was on the north-east liank iif CliowM river. Tlie settlers bad come from llmt part of Virginia now known as tlie County "f .Nanwmond. . . . They bad been joined by a niimtn'r of Quakers and other sectaries, whom till' ^|lirlt of intokrance had driven from New tuRlanil, and some eralgranu from Rermudas. . . The other settlement of the English was at the niiiiiihof Cape Fear river: . . . thoae who luuipuKti it bad come ttaitiier from New Koglaod « in 1659. Their attention was conflDed to rearing cattle. It cannot now be ascertained whether the assignees of Carolana ever surrendered the charter under which it was held, nor whether it was considered as having become vacated or obsolete by non-uaer, or by any other means." — F. X Martin, ffitt. ef N. OanUna, e. 1, eh. S and!. A. D. 16*9.— Tha Rojal Chw^'tt to the Gor- emor and Compaajr of MaaMbcbuetta Bay. See Massachusetts: A. D. 1628-1629, The Dorchester Compant. A. D. 1639-1631.— Th« Dntch occnpation of the Delaware. See Delaware: A. D. 1699- 1631. A. D. 1630-1633.— Enrlisb Conqneit and brief occnpation of New Prance. See Canada (New France): A. D. 1628-1632. A. D. 1633.— The Charter to Lord Balti- more and the founding of Maryland. See Martuikd: A. D. 1682, and A. D. 1638-1637. A. D. 1638.— The piaatiag of a Swedish Colony on the Delaware. See Delaware: A. D. 1638-1640 A. D. i639-i7aa— The BnccaaMra aad their piratical warfare with Spain. — "The 17th century gave birth to a class of rovers wholly distinct from any of their predecessors in the annala of the world, differing as widely in their plans, organization and exploits as in the princi- ples that govctned iheir actions. . . . After the native inba)u':tnU of Haiti had been extermi- nated, and tilt Spaniards had sailed farther west, a few adventurous men from Normandy settled on the shores of the island, for the purpose of hunting tlie wild bulls and hogs which roamed at will through the forests The smsll island of Tortugas was their market . thither they repaired with their salted and smoked meat, their hides, Ac, and disposed of them in exchange for pow- der, lead, and other necessaries. The places where these semi-wild hunters prepared the slaughtered carcases were called 'boucans,' and tlicy themselves Iterame known as Buccaneera. Probably the world has never before or since wit- nessed such an extraordinary associaticm as tlieiis. Unburdenetl by women-folk or children, these men lived in couples, reciprocally rendering each other services, and having entire commuiuty of property — a condition termed by them matelot- age, from the word ' matelot,' by which they aadresaed one another. ... A man on joining the fraternity completely merged his identity. Each member received a nickname, and no at- tempt was ever made to inquire Into his antece- dents When one of their number marrie<l, he ceased to bu » buccaneer, having forfeited his membership by so civilized a proceeding. He might continue to dwell en the coast, and to hunt cattle, hut he was no longer a 'mstelot' — as a Benedick he ha<l degenvr»t4-d to a ' colonist.' . . . Uncouth anil lawleaa tliough the bucr«- neers were, the sinister signlflcatlon now attach- ing to their name woiihl never have iK'en nirriled had It not been for the unreasoning jealousy of the Spaniards. The hunters were actually a source of protit to tlut nation, yet fnmi an in- sane antipathy to Btrai,i;era the dominant race resolved on exterminating the settlers. Attacked whilst dispersed In pursuance of their avocations, the latter fell easy victims; many of them were wantimly maivirrMJ, othert drseeed Into •lavery, . . , Breathing hatred and vengeance, 'to* 81 t ii 1 i 1 . M !■ li'l AMERICA, MW-1700. brethren of the coast' uolted their scattered force*, aod a war of horrible reprisals com- menced. Fresh troops arrived from Spain, whilst the ranks of the buccaneers were filled by adven- turers of all nations, allured by love of plunder, and fired with indignation at the cruelties of the aggressors. . . . The Spanlunls, utterly failing to oust their opponents, hit upon a new ex- pedient, so short-sighted that it reflects but little credit on their sUtesmanship. This waa the extermination of the homed cattle, by which the buccaneer* derived their means of subsistence ; a general slaughter took place, and the breed waa almost extirpated. . . . The puffed up arrogance of the Spaniard was curbed by no prudential consideration; calling upon every saint io his calendar, and raining curses on the heretical buccaneers, he deprived them of their legitimate occupation, and created wilfully a set of desper- ate enemiea, who harassed the coloninl trade of an empire already betraying signs of feebleness with the pertinacity of wolves, and who only desisted when her commerce had been reduced to insignificance. . . . Devoured by an undying hatred of their assaihuits, the buccaneers de- veloped Into a new association — the freebooters. " — C. H. Eden. Tlu Witt India, eh. 8.— "The monarchs both of England and France, but especially the former, connived at and even en couraged the freebooters [a name which tlid {ironuuciation of French sailors transformed nto 'flibustiera,' while that corruption became Anglicized in iu turn and produced the word filibusters], whose services could be obtained in time of war, and whose actions could be dis- avowed In time of peace. Thus buccaneer, filibuster, and sea-rover, were for the most part at leisure to hunt wild cuttle, and to pillage and massacre the Spanlartls wherever they found an opportunity. When not on some marauding ex- pedition, they followed the chase. " The piratical bucriir.eers were first organized under a leailer in l«:t9, the islet of Tortuita beiug their favorite rendezvous. " 8o rapid was the growth of their settlemcnU that in 184t we find govemore ap- polnli-d, and at San Christobal a governor-general named De Polncy, in charire of the French flilbiiaten In the Indies. During that year Tortuga was garrisoned by French troops, and the English were driven out, both front that tslt't and from Santo Domingo, securing harboroee elsewhere in the islands. Nevertheless conain of iMilh nations often made .-Simmon cause. . . . In [1«54J Torlutfu waa aftiiln recaptured by the SpanianU, but in IMO foil once m.ire Into the haniUof the French; and in their conquest of Janinica In 1655 the British troops were reen- forred by a large party of buncaneera." The first of the more famous buccaneers, and ap- pA'tntly the most ferocious among them all, waa f. Frenchman railed Franv'iis L'Olonnols, who harried the coast of Central .\m«>rica between isau-tnofi with six ships ami 7U*) men. At the lame time another buccaneer name<i Mansvelt, waa rising in fame, and with him, as second In command, a \Vi luliman, Henry Morgan, who be- came the moot niil"rimi»"f all In 1868, Morgan attacked and caplurtxl Uie stnmg town of Porto- bello, oo the Isthmus, cununltting Indescribable at^'<ltiea. In 107 1 he onMsett the Isthmus, defi'titnl the Spaniards in battle and gained Heiwlon of tha great an.l wealthy clt^^ of >ama— iUo largest and richest In the i.^tw possi rasa AMERICA. 1718. World, containing at the time 80,000 Inhabitanta The city was pillaged, fired and toUlly destroyed. The exploits of this ruffian and the stolen riches which be carried home to England soon after- ward gained the honors of knighthood for him, from the worthy hands of Charles IL In 1680, the buccaneen under one Coxon again crossed the Isthmus, seized Panama, which had been considerably rebuilt, and captured there a Spanish fleet of four riiips, In which they launched themselves upon the Pacific. From that time their plundering operations were chiefly directed against the Pacific cnaat. Towards the close of the 17th century, the war between Eng- land and France, and the Bourbon alliance of Spain with France, brought about the discour- agement, the decline and finally the extinction of the buccaneer organization. — H. H. Bancroft, Hint, oftht PaciJUs Stattt: Central Am., e. 3, ch. 86-80. Also n» W. Thombury, The Butearutn.—k. O. Exquemelin, HM. of th$ Bueeaneeri.—J Bumey, Jlitt. of the Buceantert nf Am. — See, also, Jamaica: A. D. 1665-1796. A. D. 1655.— Submission of the Swedes on the Delaware to the Dutch. See Dclawakk: A. D. 1640-1656. A. D. 1663.— The grant of the Carolinas to Monk, Clarendon, Shaftesbury, and others. See North Carolin*: A. D. 1668-1670. A. n. 1664.— EoKlish conquest of New Nether'and. See New York: A. D. 1664. A. D. 1673.— The Dutch reconquett of New Nethetland. See Nbw Tokz: A. D. 167& A. 'O. i673-i68a.— Discoreiy and explora- tion of the Mississippi, by Marquette and La Salle.— Louisiana named and possessed by the French. See Canada (New Framck): A. D. 1684-1678. and iefi»-1687. A. D. 1674.— Final surrender of New Nethp erland to the EnjrUsh. Bee Nbthiiilamiis (Holland): A. D. 1674. A. D. 168;.— The proprictaiy Krant to Wil- liam Pcnn. See Pkrnstlvakia: A. D. IIHI. A. D. i689-i6o7.— The first Inter-Colon it War: Kiu WiUiam's War (The war of the Leane ofTAnnburc). See Canada (New Fhanck): a. d: 1686-1600: 1693-16in: also, NBwr<)l^DLAND: A. D. 1694-1697. A. D. 1690.— The first Colonial Concress. Sec United States or Am. : A. D. 1690; also, Canada (New France): A. D. 1689-16»<t. A. D. 1698-1712.— The French colonitatica of Louisiana.— Broad claims of France to the whole Valley of the Mississippi. See Loi isi ana: A. D. I69(J-1712. A. D. 1700-1735.— The Spread of French occujtation in the Mississippi VaUey and on the Lakea. Se« Canada (New Feanck): A. D. 170«)-I7n5, A. D. 17'' \— Union af the two Jeraevs as a royal province. See New Jerset : A. U. 16)<t«- 1788. A. D. 170t.1713.-The Second InterAlo- lonlal War : Queen Anne'a War (The War of the Spanish Succesalen).— Final acouisition of Nova Scotia by the BngUsh. See New Kn LAND: A. U. 170S-1710; CakaDA (New Fkancek A. I). 1711-1718. A. D. 17]}.— Division of territory between England and France by the Traaty of Utrecht. See Canada (New FaaiiOK) : A. D. 1711- 1718. ill AMERICA, 1729. A, D. 1799.— Bad of tb* proprietarr mw- emment in Nortli CaroUiw. See North Carolina: A. D. 1688-1729. A. D. 1733.— The colonization of Ceornn by General Oglctiirope. See Okoroia: A. D. 178^1789. *•„?• «744-«74«:-The Third Inter-Coion- uU War: King; George'* War (The W«r of the Auitnan Succeieion). See Nb w Ekouuid • A n 1744; 1745; and 1745-1748 ^ °; «74»-«7<o.— Unsettled bonndair dia- putet of England and France— The fourth and i*V. "Vlf-ewonial war, called the French and Indian War (The Seren Years War of Europe). -Engliah Coaqueat of Canada. See Cawada (New Frakcb): A. D. 1750-1758; 1760; Nova ScoTU: A. D. 1749-1756; 1755; Ohio(Vau*t)- A. D. 1748-1V6': 1764; 1756; Cape Br»ton IiiLA.vD: A. D. 17SS-1760. . ^ ?• '749-— Introdnction of nesro alaTcry into Gcorpa. See Oborou: A. D. 1735-1749. - *•..*?• i75'*"',7S3-— Diaaeniiona amonr the Engksb Coloniee on the eve of the mat French War. See Umiteo States of Am.: A. D 1754.— Tha Colonial Congress at Albany.— Franklin's Plan of Union. See L N;rti) States of Am. : A. D. 1754. A. D. 1763.— The Peace of Paris.— Canada. Cape Breton, Newfoundland, and Louisiana east of the Misaissippi (except New Orleans) AMERICAN ABORIGINEa ceded by France to Great Britain.— West of the Miasissmpi and New Oreans to Spain.— Florida by SJMun to Great Britain. See ' JBVMi X BARS War. ^•, °^'763-«764.-Pontiac's War. See Pen- »h^R?;iI'.l*?•"i7*^ "~°4'!7'°S dlacontent of !?• E'«||»n Colonies.— The question of taxa- tion.— The Stamp Act and its repeal. See Ukitbd States of Am.: A D. 1760-1775.101766. „•*• P\ '7o*-i7*9-— Spaniah occupation of New Orieana and Weatem LonisianiTandthe n5?.'*aXm'*' «-^'^««--A.D.176(^ ,. ^ O- i;f7s-i78»._iadependence of tbeEne> lish colonies achieved. See United States or » • ^ ^- i"' (Apru.) to 1783 (September). A. p. 1776.— Erection of the Spanish Vice- reyalty of Buenos Ayres. See AROENTras Repubuo' a. D. 1580-1777 A. D. i8io.i8i6.—ReTolt, independence and Confederation of the Arfentini ProTinees. Bee Aroi stinb Republic; A. D. 1806-1820 A.D. 1818.— ChUean independence achieved. See Chile: A. D. 1810-1818. kA.'*: »•»•:'«"•— Indepeodence Acquired by Mexico and the Central American Statea. See .Mexico: A. D. 1830-1826, and Central America: A. D. 1821-1871. A. D. 1824.- PsruTian independence woo at Ayacttcbo. See Pkbc: A. D. 1820-1836. Linruistic Clasti«eation.- In the Seventh Annual Report of ibf Bun-nu of Ethnolocv ffor mr.m. publi,h,..l l„ imx .Major J. W.?oVea !.• DircTtorof the Bureau, has ^iven aclagsiflca- tiun of lie languages of the \orth Americnn abo- rigini-s msed upon the most n-cent Investigations. The following Is a list of famllii's of speech orlln- guistic stocks which ar.. (Icflued and namc.1- ihJ^'?'f"'J''*"°i'"'''* ''"™ •'"' publication of thi, list as bring but part of the Caddoan stockl. - A gonqulm - Atliapascan. - Attacapan.- B«.tlmkan.-Cad(loan.-rhlinakusn.-C-hlmari- ^sn -t hlmmesyan.-rhin™,kan.-Chitiinachan. -(.humashan.— Coahulltcran— Cowlmn.-Cos- ^m«in.-hgklmauan.-Esselcnlan.-Tro.iuol8n.- Kal»n<*,l,n-karankav.„n.-Keresnn.-'Kiowan. - Kituanahan. -- Kolusclmn. - Kulanniwii. - Ausan -Lutuamlan.-Mariposan- M,.,,u..lum- naa-Mu.khogean.-N«l,l„san.-PHlait.nil,an - 1 iman.-PuJunan.-Ouoniti.an.- Salinan,- MWmn.-S»,t*an.-8h5i«ntlan.-81i,,slumean. -W<.U8n.-8kltUgetan.-l altllman.-Tnlloan _ Timumianan.-TonlkaD.-Tonkawun.-rrhoan -W «inatpuan.-WakMh8n.-W8»lK).in -Welt '^r, -y"""«k»n- - Vokonan - Yunan 11 ' '"'l"» — ^ uman. — Zufilan. "— These families are severally defined In the sum , "ry „7 n formation given below, and the Sons to .t!"e 1" r'""V*'"'"« »"/ hi'torical Impor «i»e, but many other groupings and aiaocU- "ns, «n.l many tribal names'^ not sclenU^lly ^irff; T "^'l-^xhlblted here, for the ZtlitL^.'L^:" » /'Snlflowce In history "mture ^~^ "' frequent allusion in Ahipoast, Bee below ; PAKPAi Tauuts. AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 83 .,^i.°V',*' *' Abenaques, or Taranteens.— Tlie Abnakis were L-alleti Taranteens by the Engli^, and Owenuguugas by the Now Yorkers. v" ■ u ? ""if* ■""''' """ ' '"8« portion of the ijortti American Indiana were called Abnakis. if not by themselves, at least by others. ThU word Abnski U found spelt Abenaques, Abenaki Wapanachkl, and Wab> oakies by different writ- en. of varioua naUons, each adopting the manner of spelling according to the rules of pronunci- ation of their reSMctive native languages. . . . The word geoenUly received Is spelled thus AbnakI but It should be ' Wtobftnaghl,' from the Indian word 'wanbanban,' designating the peop.e of the Aurora Borealis, or In general, of the place where the sky commences to appear white at the breaking of the day. . . . ft has been difficult for different writers to determine the number of nations or tribes comprehended under this word AbnakI It being a genersi word, by itself designates the people of tbc east or northeast. . . . Wo dnd that the word AbnakI was applied in genersi. more or leas, to all the Indians of the East, by persons who were not much acquainted with the atioriglnes of the country. On the contrary, the eariy writers and others well acquainted with the natives of Now Jrancu and Acadia, and the Indians themselves by Abnakis always pointed out a particular nation existing north west and south of the Ken- neber river, and they never designated any oth.t people of the Atlantic shore, from Cap* Hatteras to Newfoundland. . The Ahnakia had five great villages, two amongst the French ctilonies, which must be the village of St. J.^ph or finery, ao<! that -f «!. PmnHj do Sttlus, both In Canada, three on thu head waten, AHEBICAK ABORIGINEa br •long three riven, between Acadia and New ^glua. These laree rivers are the Kennebec, the AndroMoggin, and the Saco. . . . The nv tion of the Abnalds bear evident marla of hav- ing been an original people in their name, man- nen, and language. They show a liind of ctvil- ^tion which must be the effect of antiquity, and of a past flourisliing age."— E. Vetromile, ThtAbnaJklndianiiifaineUut. Boe. CM., ». «).— Bee, also, below: ALoonitciAN FAMn.T.— For some account of the wars of the Abnakls, with the Kew England colonies, see Canada (New Frahck); a. D. 1680-1690, and 16»3-16»7i New Eholaht; A. D. 1678 (Jclt— SbptO; 1703-1710, 1711-1713; and Nova Scotia: A. D. 1713-1730. Absarokas, Upsarokaa, or Crowa. See below : Sioi-,\s F.tMiLV. Acawoios. See below: Caribs akd thkib AcolbuM. See IIkzioo, A. u. 1825-1503. Adais.*— These lodiuii!) were a 'tribe who, ac cording tn Dr. Sibley lived about the year 1800 near tlic old Spanish fort or mission of Adaize, ' about 40 miles from Natchitoches, below the Yattassees, on a lalte called Lac Macdon, which communicates with the division of Red Kiver tlint passes by Bavou Pierre ' [Lewis and Clarke]. A vocabulary of about 250 words is all that re- mains to us of their ianKuage, which according to the collector, Dr. Sibley, ' differs from all others, ami is so difficult to spealc or understand that no nation can spealt ten words of it. ... A recent comparison of this vocabulary by Mr. Oatschet, with several Caddoan dialects, has led to the discovery that a considerable percentage of the Adai words havn a more or less remote affinity with Caddoan, and he regards it as a Cmliliian dialect."— J. W. Powell. Setenth An. ReiM-t, Bureau of Ethnology, PP- 45-46.— See preceding page. Adirondf ■••.—"This ii a term bestowed by the iroquij.j, in derision, on the tribes who appear, at an early day, to have dcscendc' tho Ltawas river, and occupied the left baniu of the St. Lawrence, above the present site of Qucliec. about the close of the 15th century. It Is said to signify niea who eat trees, in allusion to their using the Imrk of certain trees for food, when reduced to straits. In their war excursions. The French, who entered the St. Lawrence from the o'lilf. culled the same people Algonquins— a generic appellation, which has been long empldvcd and come into universal use, among historians and philologists. According to early accounts, the Adirondaciis had preceded the Iriiquiiis in arts and attainments."— H. R. SclKMilcrafl. y-'lrt on the Iruqwit, eh. 5. — Sec, also. iK'low; IliutjL'OIS CONFKUEllACT: THEIR CoNql EKTS. Ac. jEsopus Indians. See below: AlAOMnfiAN Family. Agniers.— ..miing several names which tiic Mi'liaivUs IMC IkIcw; iKotjfoih) Imro in cariy culimi;il liistiiry was tliat of tlio Agniers.— F. Hirldnan, fhe Con^iirafj/ qf I\>iitint, ». 1. p 0, fiMit-noff. Albaiaa. iM>e lirlow : Pampas TRtt;Ba Aleuts. ><>' Ih'I<i\v. Ehkimaia.n Family. Algonquiam Algonkini Family.—" AImiuI the p«'riiHi l.*i(iii-l(MK). ilicisc ri'laUKi lril>es wlmm wo now !tu!!w 1(V !!!•■ nsnie "f AlK<>nkin« wen- iit tlie height of their proeiK'rity. They occupl AHERICAN ABOBIGINEa Atlantlccoast from the SavaiiwUi river on the •oulli to Oie strait of Belle Isle on tbe north. . . . The dialecte of all these were related, and evMently at some distant day bad been derived from the same primitive tongue. Whkh of them bad preserveil the ancient forms moat closely, It may be prema ture to decide podtively, but tbe tendency of modem studies baa been to assign that place tu the Cree — the nortbemmoM of aU. We cannot erect a genealogiral tree of these dialects. . . . We may, howev , group them in such a manner as roughly to indicate their lelatUMobip. This I do'— in the following Hst: "Cree.— Old Algonkln.— Montagnato. — Chlpeway. Ottawa. Potuwattomie, Miami, Peoria, Pea, Piankiahaw. Easkaskia, Menominee, Sac, Fox, Kikanoo — Slieshatapoosh, Secoffee, MIcmac, Mellsceet, Etchemin, Abnakl— Mohegan, Massachusetts. Siiavtoee, Mlnsl, Unaml, Unatechtigo [tbe last three named forming, together, the nation of the Lenape or Dekiwaresi, Nanticoke, Powhatan, Pampticoke. — Bhickfoot, Oroa Ventre, Shey- enne. ... All tlie Algonkln nations who dwelt north of tiie Potomac, on the east shore of Chesapeake Bay, and in the basins of the Dela- ware and Hudson rivers, claimed near kinship and an identical origfai, and were at times unite<l into a loose, defensive confederacy. By the western and southern tribes they were col- lectively known as Wapanachkik— • those of the eastern region' — which In the form AI>tuU(l is now confined to the remnant of a tribe in Maine, . . . The members of the confederacy were the Mohegans (Mahicanni) of the Hudson, who occu pied the valley of that river to the falls above the site of Albany, the various New Jersey tribes, the Dclawares proper on the Delaware river and its branches, including the Minbi or Honseys, among the mountains, the Nanticokes. between Chesapeake Bay and the Atlantic, and the small tribe called Canal, Kanawbas or Oanawese, whose towns were on tributaries of the Potomac and Patuxent. . . . LInguistkiaUy, the Mohegans were more closely allied to the tribes of New England than to these of the Delaware Valley. Evidently, most of the tribes of MassachusetU and Connecticut were compara- tively recent oflshoow of the parent stem on the Hudson, supposing tbe course of migration had been eastward. . . . The Nartlcokes occupied the territory between Chesapeake Bay and the ocean, except its southern extiemit/, which ap- Pears to have been under the control of the towhatun tribe of Virginia."— D. O. Brinton, The Lenape and their Lfgend*. eh. 1-2.—" Mohe- gan", Munsees, Manliattins, MetOac>r and ollur afllhated tribes and Imnds of Algonquin linca»ri . inliabited the l)ank8 of the Hudsor an<l ilie islands, bay ttnds«'aboardof New York.ineimlinu Long Island, during the early periods of the ii.h' of the Irixiuois Confederacy. . . . The Moheuaiis nnaily retired over tlic Ilighlands east oi' llii in into the valley of the Ilousatonic. Tlie Muii.-<i4 and Nantii.'kcsretlriHl to llic Delaware river mA reunited with their kindred, the LenaiK'es, or modern Deiuwares. Tlic Manlutttons, mJ numerous otlicr bands ami subtril>cs, rndtiJ away under the influence of liquor ami dti^l in their tracks."— H K. Sclioolcraft, Xotetou lU Iroquit: eh. 8 — •' On the basis of a differ. «e in dialect, that portion ol the AlRimqiiin IikIiuiw which dwelt in New England haslRin clniiwilm two divisions, one cousistiKb of Ihum who is • Sci' N tr, A|i|i«nillx E, vol. I, 84 AMERICAN ^BORIOmEa habited what is now the State of Maine, nearly up to its western border, the other conglsting of tlic rest of the native popuhtiun. The Jfelne Indians may liave been some 15,000 in number, or somewhat less than a third of the native popu- lation of New England. That portion of them who dwelt furthest towards the east were known by the name of Etetchemins. The Abenaquis, including the Tarratines, hunted on both sides of the Penobscot, and westward as far as the Saco if not quite to the Piscataqua. Tlie tribeafound in the rest of New England were designated by a greater variety of names. The home of the Penacook or Pawtucket Indians was in the southeast comer of what is now New Hampshire and the contiguous region of Massachusetts. Next dwelt the Alassachusetts tribe, along the bay of that name. Then were found suceessi vel i- the Pokanoketa, or Wampanoags, in the south- easterly region of MassachusetU, and by Buz- zard's and Nanagansett Bays: the Narragansetta, with a tribuUry race called Nyantics in what is now the western part of the Statu of lUiode Island; the Pequiits, between the NarragansctU and Uie river formerlv called the Pequol Kivcr, now the Thames ; and tlie Mohegans, »r ending themselves beyond the River Connec.icut. In the central region of Massachusetts were the Nipmucks, or N'ipncts; and along Cape Cod were the Niiusef who appeared to have owed some fealty to tlie Pokunokets. The New Enirland Indians exhibit^-d an inferior typo of hui.ianity. . . . Though fleet and agile when excited to some nccasiomil effort, they were found to be in- capable of continuous labor. Heavy and phlegmatic, they scarcely wept or smiled "— J. G. Palfrey, Comjiendiout Ui$t. of N. Enq., bic. 1, eh. i (p. 1).— "The valley of the ' Cahohatatea,' or Mauritius River [i. e., the Hudson Kivcr, as now named] at the timi» ilu<l- »on first ascended ita waters, was inhabited chleHy, by two aboriginal races of Alirnnquiii lineage, afterwards known among the Euglish colonists by the generic names of Mohegans and Mincces. The Dutcu generally called the Mohegans, Mahicans; and the Mincces Sanhlkans. These two tribes were sulKjivided into numerous minor bands, each of wlilcli had a distinctive name. The tril)es on the east side of the river were generally .Mohe- gans; those on the west side, Mincees. They were hcre<litar^ enemies. . . . Long Island, or • Si'wanhackv, was occupied by th3savai;e tribe "f Metowacks, which wassubdividcd intovurioug (Inns. . , . Stalen Island, on the opposite side "f the bay, was inhabited by the Monatons Inliinil, to the west, llv-d the R; -Itans and the llackmsacks; while the regions in the vicinity of the well-known ' Hisnlands,' south of Sandy ll.)<)k were inhabited by a band or sub trilK! called the Nevesiucks or Navlsinks. . , . To the N>iitli and west, covering the c«!ntro of New Jcrwy. were the Aquamachukesand the (Stanke- kaiis; while the valley of the IK'laware, north- ward from the Schuylkill, was inhabited bv larioii, tribes of the Lenapc race. . . . The .■^1 in.| of the .Miinhattans " was occupied ov the iribc which received that name (see Manhattan). On the shores of the river, above, dwelt the r..ppan», the Weckquaeige"ks, the Sint Sings, I whose thief village was rameii Ossln-Sing, ,t ' the Place of Stones,' " the Pachami, (he Waorin- I »tka, the Vi appiagerg, auU the Warouawaukongs AMERICAN ABORIOINSa "Further north, and occupying the pmejt counticsof Lister and Greene, wettj the Minqua clans of MInnesincks, Nanticokes, Mincces, and Uelawares. These clans had pressed onward from the upper valley of the Delaware. . . . They were generally known among the Dutch as the ^sopus Indians."— J. K. Brodhcad, Uut. of t/ui (state of X r., ». 1, eh. 8— "The area for- merly occupied by the Algonquian family was more extensive than that of any other linguistic stock in North America, their territory reaching fiom Labrador to the Rocky Mountains, and from Churchill River of Hudson Bay as far south at least as Pamlico Sound of North Carolina. In the eastern part of this territory was an area occupied by Iroquoian tribes, surrounded on almost all sides- ty their Algonquian neighbors. O. the south che Algonquian tribes were bor- dered by those of Iroquoian and Siouan (Cata .. oa) stock, on the southwest and west by the Musk- hogi^an and Siouan tribes, and on the northwest oy the Kitunahan and the great Athapascan fan- Mies, while along the coast of Labrador and the eastern shore or Hudson Bay they came in contact with the Eskimo, who were gradually retreating before them to the nortli. In New- foundland they encountered the Bcothukan family, consisting of but a single tribe. A portiou of the Shawnee at some early period had sep- arated from the main body of the tribe in central Tennessee and pushed their wav down to the Savannah River in South Carolina; where, known OS Savannahs, they carried on destructive wars with the surrounding tribes until about the be- ginning of the Idth century they were finally dri en out and join. ,i the Deliware in the north. Soon aftcrwanis tlie r?stof tae tribe was expelled by the Cherokee and Chicasa, who thencefor- ward claimed all the country stretching north to the Ohio River. The Cheyenne and Arapaho two allie<i tribes of this stock, had become Sep- araiei'. from their kindred ou the north and had fo- i 'heir way through hostile tribes across the M. « u.. to the Black Hills country of South -.iKota. and more recently into Wyoming and Colorado, thus fomiing the advance guard of the Algonquian stock in that direction, having the Siouan trilies behind them and those of the Shoshonean family in front. [The following are the] principal tribes: • -.nakl, Algonquin, Ara- im ho. Chcvenne. Conr , Cree, Delaware. Fox, Illinois, Kickapx), JIahican, Massachuset, Me- nominee, .Miami, Micniac, Stohegan, Montagnais Montauk, Munsee, Xanticokc, Narraganset ^auset, Xipmuc, Ojibwa. Otuwa, Pamlicc. Pen- nacook, Pequot, Piankisliaw, I'oltawotomi. Pow- hatai!. Sac. Sliawn.'c, Siksika, V'ampanoag, " appi-ger. The present number of '.no Algon- quian stuck isab<iut ».\«00, of whom o'mut 60,000 are in Canada and th • remainder in the United StaU'S."— .1. W. i'uwell, SKiilh Annual Ikpori, Bureau of Ethnot'uiy, pj} 47-4S. Also i.n J. W. be Forest. Hut. of Iht huUant of lonnecliftU.—S.. Oallaliu, t>ynoimH of tht Indian Trifna ( Aifhitobigia Ainerieana, t. 2) tHlro.. Krt. 2. —A G. Dnike, Aboriginal liaetn of A. Am., hk. ;>-:(. —Sec. also, ijclow: Delawauks; HoKIKANs; SrtAWAVKSE: SlsqiEa.tNNAS; UJIii- "As; iLLlNois. — I..r liie Indian wars of Xcw Eagland. see New E.voi.ANUr A. U. 1837 (Tin Pehiot Hak): a. D 1074-1675 to 1676-1678 (M.VO PllILIP'g Witt!_.S,H-, also, PoKTUe'8 War. 85 AMEmCAK ABORIQINE& . ' Jl Alibamai, or AlabamM. nooKAN Family. Alleghant, or . "Till! oldest tribe I there U a distinct t- The term is perpetu... Bee below: MC8K- 'egewi, or TalHcewi.— ■' United States, oi which n, were the Aliegliaos. . . I u the principal cliain of muuntiiins traversing tlie country. This tribe, at ■in nntiquc period, Iind the seat of their power In tlic Oliio Valley !ind its confluent streams, whicli Were the sites of their numerous towns and villages. They appear originally to have borne the name of Alii, or Alleg, and hence the names of Tulligcwt ami Allegewi. (Trans. Am. Pill. 8oc., vol. 1.) By adding to the radical of this word the particle ' liany ' or ' ghany,' meaning river, they described the principal scene of their residence — namely, the Alleghany, or Iliver of the Alieghans, now called Ohio. The word Ohio Is of Iroquois origin, and of a far later period; having been bestowed by them after their conquest of the country. In alliance with the Lenanees, or ancient Delawares. (Phi. Trans.) The term was applied to the entire river, from Its confluence with the Mississippi, to its origlb in the broad spurs of the Alle- ghanies, in Xew York and Pennsvlvanla. . . . There are evidences of antique labors In the alluvial plains and valleys of the Scioto, Mhiml, and Muskingum, the \Vsba8h,Kaska8kia.Cahok!n, and Illinois, denoting that the ancient Alleghans, and their allies and confederates, cultivated the soil, and were semi-agriculturists. These evi- dences have been traced, at late periods, to the fertile table-lands ot Indiana and Michigan. The tribes lived In fixed towns, cultivating extensive fields of the zea-maize; and also, as denoted by recent discoveries, ... of some species of beans, vines, and esculents. Tliey were, in truth, the mound builders." — H It Sclioolcnift, Iiif'irmdti'iii retfecling the Indian Tribft, pt. 5, p. 133.— This conclusion, to wliich Mr.Mchoolcniit had arrived, that the ancient Alleghans or Tallcgwi were the mound bui' ilers of the Ohio Valley is being sustained by later investigators, and seems to have become an accepted opinion amimg those of liighcst authority. Tlie Alleghans, moreover, arc being Identified with the Clierokees of later times. In whom their nice, once supposed to be extinct, has app'rently survived; while the fact, long suspected, that the Cherokee language is of tlie Iroquois family is lieing proved by the latest studies. According to Indian tradition, tlie Alleghans were driven from their ancient seiits. long ago, by a combination against them of the Lenape (Delawares) and the Mengwc (Iroquois). The route of tlieir migrations is Mug trared by the cliaracter of the mounds which they built, and of the remains gatliereil from the mounds. "The general movement [of retreat U-fore the IriH|Uois and Leniipi] . . . must have iH'en txuithwiinl, . . . and tlie exit of tlie Ohio mound- builders was, In nil prolmbiiity, up the Kananah Vttiley on the suiiie line that the Clierokees appear to liuve followed In reaeliing their historical locality. ... If the hypothesis here advanced be correct, It is apparent that tlie Clierokees enteri'il the immediate valley of the tlississippi from the nonliwest, striking it In the region of Iowa. "— C. Thomas. The PniNtin of tht Ohio Mounds (Bureau of Ethtwiogu, 1889) Aljio fx Thr sami'. B'lrinl ,Vw>irf» of the UttrtUn SictivM <(f t*4 U. a (f\fUi An. Oept. AMERICAN AOORIQINEa. of the Bureau qf Sthnology, 1883-84).— J. Hecke- welder, Actt. of Vie Indian tfationt, eh. 1. — See, lielow : Cberokebs, and iRoquols CoiirKD- EHAcv ; also America, PREaisTORic. Amahuacma. See below : Amdesiams. Andutes. See below: SusqvEnANNAS. AndeiiUK.— " The term Andeslans or An- tesians, is used with geographical rather than ethnological limits, and embraces a numlicr of tribes. First of these are the Cofan In Eqiiador, east of Clilmborazo. They fought valiantly against the Spaniards, and In times past killed many of tlie missionaries sent among them. Now they are greatly reduced and have become more gentle. The Huamaboya arc their near neighbors. Tlic Jivnra, west of the river Pa«- taca. are a warlike tribe, who, possibly throiigli a mixture of Spanish blood, have a European cast of countenance and a beard. The half Christian Napo or Qui jo and their peaceful neigh- bors, the Zaporo, live on the Rio Napo. The Yamco, living on the lower Chamblva and cross- ing the Marailon, wandering as far as Saryacu, have a clearer complexion. The Pacamora and the Yuguarzongo live on the Manfion, where It leaves its northerly course and bends toward the cast. The Cochlquima live on tlie lower Yavari ; the Mayoruna, or Barbudo, on the middle Ucayall beside the Campo and Cochlbo, tlie most terrible of South American Indians; they dwell In the woods between the Tapiche and the MaroBon. and like the Jivaro have a beard. The Pano, who formerly dwelt in the territory of LaUguna, but who now live In villages on the upper Ucayall. are Christians. . . . Their language is the prin- cipal one on the river, and It is shared by seven otlier tribes called collectively by the mission aries Manioto or Mayno. . . . Within the woo<U on tiic right bank live the Amahuaca and Shu cava. On the north they Join the Remo, a pow crful tribe who are distinguished from all the others by tlie custom of tattooing. Ouisiile this P,ino linguistic group stand the Campa, Campo, or Antis on the east slope of the Peruvian Cor- dillera at the source of the Rio BenI and Its tribu- taries. The Clinntaquiros, or Piru. now occupy almost entirely the bank of the Ucayall below the Piu'hilia. The Mojos or Moxos llv e in the Bk>liviaL province of Moxos with the small tribes of the Baure. Itonama, Pacaguaro. A number of smaller tribes belonging to the Antesian f^ need not be enumerated. The late Pn, • - JaiiK-8 Orton described the Indian tribes • territory between Quito and the river A-r Thc Xapo approach the type of the Qi . . . Among all the Indians of the ProvTn Orleme, the tribe of Jivani is one of the h These people are divided Into a great numlx sub-tribes. All of these siM'nk the clear musicid Jivaro language. They arc musciihir, aetivi- men. . . . Tlie Morona are cannibuls in the full sens; of the word. . . . The Campo, still verv little known, is perhaps the liirgcst Indian tribe in Eastern Peru, and, acconllng to some i!< related to the Incn race, or at least witli iluir auccessiors They are said to lie cannibiiN. tliough James Ort<m does not think thl.s possible . . . The nearest neighbors of the CaniiK) are llie Ciiout:ikin>. or Cliontaiiiilro, or Chonquiro, calUii also I'iru who, acconllng to Paul Mareoy, are said (o lie of tlie same origin with tlic Campo. J 86 but the language is wholly tlHTefeat the Pano people are liie wikl Coaibo; they are A iiii.'iis iJIERICAK ABORIOINEa AMERICAN ABORIGINES. the most interesting, but are patstng Int ' vtinc- lion." — The Statidard Xatural iStt s Kingtley, td.), e 6, pp. 237-231. Apaclie Grouj).*-Under the general name of the Apaches "I include all the savage tribes mamiug through New Mexico, the north-western iK>rtinn of Texas, a small part of northern Mexico, and Aiizona. , . , Uwing to their rov- ing proclivities and ince!<.,ant raids they are led first in one direction and then in another. In general terms they may be said to range about as follows: The Comanchea, Jrtans, or Nauni, consisting of three tribes, the Comanches proper] the Yamparaclu, and Tenawas, inhabiting northern Texas, eastern Chihuahua, Nuevo Leon, Coabuila, Uurango, and portions of south- western New Mexico, hv Isnguage allied to the Shoshone family; the Apaches, who call them- selves Shis Inday, or 'men of the woods," and whose tribal divisions are the Cbiricaeuis, Coyoteros, Faraones, Oilefioe, Lipanes, flan- eros, Hescaleros, MimbreRos, Natages, Pelones, Pinalefios, Tejuas, Tontoa, and Vaqucros, roaming over New Mexico, Arizona, North- western Texas, Cliiliuahua and Sonora, and who are allied by language to the great Tinneh family; the Navaios, or Tenual, 'men,' as they designate themselves, having linguistic affinities with the Apache nation, with which they are sometimps classed, living in and around the Sierra dc los Mimbres; the Slaves, occupy, ing both banks of the Colorado in Mojave Valley ; the Hualapais, near the head-waters of Bill Williams Fork ; the Yumas, on the east bank of the Colorado, near its junction with the Rio Olla; the Cosninos, who, like the Hualapais. are sometimes included in the Apache nation, rang- ing tlirough the Mogollon Mounuina; and the Yampais, between Bill Williams Fork and the Kio Ilasaayampa. . . . The Apache country is probnblv the most desert of all. ... In both mountam and desert the fierce, rapacious Apache, inured from childhixxl to hunger and thirst, and heat and cold, finds safe retreat. . . The Pueblos . . . are nothing but t/artially reclaimed Apaches or Comanches." — H. H. Bancroft, -\<j<«'m Rncc of the Paeifie ^taUt, v. t, eh. 5~ Dr. Brinton prefers the name Yuma for the whole of the Apache Group, confining the name Apache (that being the Yuma wold for "fight- ing men ") to the one tribe so called. " It has ulso iK'cn called the Katchan or Cuchan stock. " ■^I). O Brinton, The Amrrican liiw, p. 109.— ■See, also, IkIow: Athapascan Family. Apalacbei.—" Among the aboriginal tribes of the United States perhaps mme is more enig- matical than the Apalachos. They arc mentioned us an Important nation by many of the early French and Spanish travellers and historians their name Is preservetl by a bay and river on the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, and by the great eastern coast range of mountains, and has been applied by ethnologists to a family of cog- nate nations that found their hunting grounds from the Mississippi to the Atlantic and from the t)hio river to the Florida Keys, ypt, strange to wy, their own race and place have been but »:u(s(«c(l at " The derivation of the name of the Apiilaches "has been a questio vcxata' among liiclisnologists." We must "consider It an in- iliratiiin of ancient connections with the southern -""'L'if "';,'""• 'n i***" a pure Caiib wonl Apihch* in the Tamanaca dialect of the *8m Mote, Apptodix E, vol. I. hi Ouaranay stem on the Orinoco signifies 'man,' and the earliest application of the n-me in the northern continent was as the titlj of the chief of a country, 'I'hommc par excellence,' and hence, like very many other Indian tribes (Apaches, Lenni Lenape, Illinois), his subjecto assumed by eminence the proud appellation of 'The Men.' ... We have .. . found that though no general migration took place from the continent southwanl, nor from the islands north- ward, yet there was a considerable intercourse in both direc;ions; that not only the natives of the greater and lesser Antilles and Yucatan, but also numbers of the Guaranay stem of the southern continent, the Caribs proper, crossed the Straits of Florida and founded colonies on the shores of the Gulf of Mexico; that their customs and language became to a certain extent grafted upon those of the early possessors of the soil; and to this foreign language the name Apalache belongs. As previously stated, it waa used as a generic title, applied to a confederation of many nations at one time under the domina- tion of one chief, whose power prolnbly ex- tended from the Alleghany mountains on the north to the shore of the Gulf; that it included tribes speakinL' a tongue cloaely akin to the Choktah is evident from the fragments we have remaining. . . . The location of the tribe in after yean is very uncertain Dumont placed them In the northern part of what is now Ala- bama and Georgia, near the mountains that b^r their name. That a portion of them did live in this vicinity is corroborated by the historians of South Carolina, who say that Colonel Moore, in 1703, found them 'between the head-watera of the Savannah and Altamaha. ' . . . According to all the Spanish authorities, on the other hand, they dwelt in the region of country between the buwannee and Appalachicola rivere — yet must not be confounded with the Apalachicolos. . . They certainly had a large and prosperous town in this vicinity, said to contain 1,000 warriors. ... I am Inclined to believe that these were different branches of the same confederacy. . . In the beginning of the 18th century they suffered much from f vastations of the Eng- lish, French and Cr . ... About the time Spain regained possess ■x of the soil, they migrated to the West an jettled on the Bayou Rapide of Red River, here they had a village numbering about 50 souls."— D. G. Brinton, Nottt on the Floridian Penineuh, eh. 2.— See, also, below : Mcskrooean Family. Apclouaai. See Texas: Toe Aboriginai, ih- habitants. Araicu. See below: Gcck on Coco Gkoup. Arapahoet. See above : Aloonquias Famblt. Araucanians. Si c Chile. Arawaks, or Arauacat. See below ; CAKiaa AND THEIR KiNDKEU. Arecunas. See below: Caribs and triib Kindred Arikarai. See below. Pawnee (Cadi>.ian) Family. Arkansas. See Mow : Siocan Family. Aaainiboins. See below: Siof.\s Family. Athapascan Famihr.— Chippewyani.— fin- nah. — Sarcees*— " This name f.\thapascans i-r Athabascans] has been applied to a class of tribes who are situated north of the great Churchill rtvir. and uorlli of the source of the fork of the Saskatcbawine. extending wettwani AMERICAN ABORIGINEa AMERICAN ABORIOINEa i: tni within about ISO miles of tiie Fkciflo OoMO. . . . The name ii derived, arbitrarily, from Lake Athabasca, which is now more generally called the Lake of the Hills. Surrounding this lake extends the tribe of the Chippewyans, • people so-called by the Kcnistenos and Chip- pewas, because they' were found to be clothed, In some primary encounter, in the scanty garb of the fisher's skin. . . . We ace informed by Mackenzie that the territory occupied by the Chippi'wyans extends between the parallels «f 6U^ and 65° north and longitudes from 100° to 110° west" — H. R. Schoolcraft, In- ftrmation Bttptcting tKt Indian Triba, pt. 5, p. 172.— "The Tinneh may be divided into four great families of nations . namely, the Chippe- wyans, or Alliabascas, living between Hudson Bay and the Rocky Mountains; the TacuUies, or Carriers, of New Caledonia or North-western British America; the Kutchins, occupying both banks of the Upper Yukon and its tributaries, from near its mouth to the Mackenzie River, and the Keiul, inhabitingthe interior from the lower Yukon to Copper River." — H. H. Bancroft, The Amative Saeet of the POeifie Statet, A. 3.— " The Indian tribes of Alaska and the adjacent region may be divided Into two groups . . . : 1. Tinneh — ChippewyaLS of authors. . . , Fathi r Fetitot discusses the terms Athabaskans, Chip- pewayans, Montagnais, and Tinneh as applied to this group of Indians. . , . This great family includes a large number of American tribes ex- tending from near the mouth of the Mackenzie south to the borders of Mexico. The Apaches and Na"<jos lielong to it, and the family seems to Intel !>^ct the continent of North America in a northerly and southerly direc m, principally along the Hanks of the Rocky Mountains. The designation [Tinneh] proposed by Messrs. Ross and Gibbs has been accepted by most modem ethnologists. ... 3. T'iinkets," which family includes thu Yakutats and other groups. — W.'n. Doll, Tribe* of the Extreme A'orthaett {Omtritnitiont to N. Am. Ethnology, v. 1). — "Wherever found, the members of this group present a certain family resemblance. In ap- pearance they are tall and tstrong, the forehead low with prominent superciliary ridges, the eyes slightlv oblique, the nose prominent but wide toward the base, the mouth large, the bands and feet small. Their strength ami endurance are often phenomenal, but in the North, at least, their longevity is slight, few living beyond fifty. Intellectually they rank bclnw most of tlicir neighbors, and nowhere do they appear as fos- terera of the germs of civilizutidn. Where, as among the Navajos, we find tliiiii having some repute for the mechanical arts, it turns out that this is owing to having captured and adopted the memben of more gif ted tribes. . . , Agriculture was not practised either in the north or south, the onlv exception being the Nuvajos, and with them the inspiration came from other stocks. . . . The most cultured of their bands were the Navajos, whose name is said to signify 'largo cornfields,' from their extensive agriculture. When the Spaniards first met them In 1541 they were tillers of the soil, erected large granaries for their crops, irrigated their fields by artificial water courses or acequias, and lived In substan- tial dwellings, partly underground ; but they bad not then learned the art of weaving the cele- brated 'Itavajo blankeu,' that being a later acqnlaltkm of their a.nlsana.'—D. O. Brinton The Ameriean Baee, pp. 09- 73, — Bee, aboT« Apachi Oboup, and Blackfeet. Attinaa (Caddoea).* Sec below: Blacxfbbt. Attacapan Pamilj — " I>erivation: From a Choctaw word meaning ' man eater.' Little is known of the tribe, the laLguage of which forms the lusis of the present family. The sole know- ledge posaeaaed by Oallatin was derived from a vocabulary and some scanty information fur- nished by Dr. John Sibley, who collected his ma- terial In the vcrr 1805. Oallatm states that the tribe was reauccd to 50 men. . . . Mr. Oatscbet collected some 3,000 wonis and a considerable body of text Ills vocabulary diffen consider- ably from the one fumislied by Dr. Sibley and published by Gallatin . . . ITie above material seems to show tlmt the Attanipa language is dis- tinct from ill others, except possibly the Chiti- macban." — J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Bipart, Bureau of Ethnolom, p 57. Aymaras. See Fbbu. Astcca. See belcw: Matas; also Mbxico: A. D. 183S-1603 ; and Aztec and Mata Pictcbb Wbitiso. Bakairi. See below: CABraa, Balehitaa. See l>elow: Pampas Tribb8. Ban n a cka . See below : SHoenoNBANFAini.T. Barbndo. See above: Amdesians. Bar^ See below Oitk or Coco Gbodp. Banre. See above: Anoebians. Beothnkan Family.— The Beothuk were a tribe, now extinct, which is believed to have occupied the whole of Newfoundland at the time of its discovery. What is known of the language of the Beothuk Indicates no relationship to anv other American tongue — J. W. Powell, Setenih Annual Bept. of the Bureau of Ethnology, p. 67. Bilozia. See below : Sioi'an Family. Blackfeet, or Siksikas.—' The tribe that wan- C 'red the furthest fn>m tbe primitive home of the stock [the Algonquian] were the Blackfeet, or Sisika, which word bAS this signification. It is derived from their earlier habitat In the valley of the Red river of the north, where the soil was dark and blackened their moccasins. Thoir bands include the Blood or Kenai and the Piegau Indians. Half a century apo they were at the head of a confederacy wLich embraced these ami also the Sarceo (Tinnc) and the Atsina (CadiUi* nations, and numbered about 30.000 souls. They have an interestim- mythology and on unusiiaj knowledge of the ■ tellat ions "— D. G. Brin- ton, The Amerieai. ,taei. p. 79 — See above: ALOONquiAN Family; and, below: Flatueadh. Blood, or Kenai Indians. See above: Buuk- feet. Botocudoa. See below: Tupi — Oumiasi.— TUPUYAS. Brule'. 8<T l)olow; SiorAX Family. Caddoan Family. Sec below. I'awmee (Cah doan) Family; see, also, Tex.vs: Tiie Anohiu- inal Iniiabitahts. Cakchiquela. See below: Quicmcs, and Mayas. Caluaa. See below: TcMfQu.-.sA.N Family. Cambaa, or Campo, cr Campa. See iib,<vu: Andesians; also, Bolivia: Aboktoinal In- habit arts. CaHaret. See Ecdaoob. Canaa. See Peru. Canichanaa. See Bolivia: ABcnianiy^L lit- BABITAHTS *Sct Note, Appendix E, vol. I, £8 AMERICAN ABORIGINES AHERICAN ABORIGINES. CaaiencM. See below: Iroquois CoKno- ■BACT. CarUy. See below: Guck or Coco Grocp. CarilM and their Kindred. — "The warlike and unyielding character of thewi people, lo different from that of. the pniiUanimoug natlona around them, and the wide acope of their enter- prise! and ^^ andcrincs, like those of the nomad tribe* of the Old World, entitle them to dis- tinguished attention. . . . The traditional ac- .counta of their origin, though of course extremely i vague, are yet capable of being verifled to a great degree by geographical fact^ and open one of the rich veins of curious inquiry and specula- tion which abound in the New World. They are wid (o have migrated from the remote valleys cmbosomr-'i in the Apalachian mountains. The earliest u mntc we oave of them represent them with wea,)ons >n their bands, continually en- gaged in warn, winning their way and shift- ing their abode, until, in the course of time, they found themselves at the extremity of Florida. Hete, aljandonlng the northern continent, they passed over to uie Lucayos [Bahamas], end thence gradually, in the process of years, from island to island of that vast verdant chain, which linlcs, as it were, the end of Florida to the coast of Paria, on the southern continent The archi- pelago extending from Porto Hico to Tobago was their stronghold, and the island of Guada- loupe in a manner their citadel. Hence they made their expeditions, and spread the terror of their name through all the surrounding countries. Swarms of them landed upon the southern con- tinent, and overran some parts of terra flrma. Traces of them have been discovered far in the interior of that vast country through which flows ithe OrooBoko. The Dutch found colonies of them on the banks of the Ikouteka, which emp- ties into the Surinam; along the Esquibi, the Haroni, and other rivers of Ouayana; and in the country watered by the windings of the Cay- enne "— W Irving, Life and Voyage* of Ootum- but, bk t, e/f. 8(5 1).— "To this account [sub- stantially as given above] of the origin of the Insular Charaibes, the generality of historians have given their assent; but there are doubts attcndmg it that ar^ not easilv solved. If they migrated from Florida, the imperfect state and natural course of their navagation induce a be- lief that traces of them would have been found on those islands which arc near to the Florida shore; yet the natives of the Baliamas, when dis- covered by Columbus, were evidently a simiUr people to those of Higpaniolo. Besides, it is suMcientiy known that there existed anciently many numerous and powerful tribes of Charaibes on the southern peninsula, extending from the river Oronoko to Esaequebe, and throughout the whole province of Surinam, even to Brazil, some of which still maintain their independency. . , . I incline therefore to the opinion of Martyr, and conclude that the islanders were rather a colony from the Charaibes of South America, than from any nation of the North. Rochcfort admits that their own traditions referred constantly to Gui- ana."— B Edwards, Jlitt. ofBrit. OaUmietin the W.IiuHtt.bk. 1, eh. 2.— "The Carabisce, Cara- oeeal, Charaibes, Caribs, or GoUbls, originally occ ^led [In Ouianal the principal riverj, but as th" Jutch encroached upon their possessions they r.nired Inlftnci, and arp now dally dwind- ling away Aceordtng to Mr BiUhoute, they 89 could formerly muster nearly 1,000 lighting men, but are now [1885] scarcely able to raise a tenth part of that number. . . . The smaller islands of the Caribbean Sea were formerly thickly populated by this tribe, but now not a trace of them remalna"— H. G. Dalton, Iliet. of Britith Ouiarta, e. 1, eh. 1. — E. F. im Thiiru, Among ths Jndiant of Guiana, eh. 6. — "Recent re- searches have shown that the original home of the stock was south of the Amazon, and prob- ably in the highlands at the head of the Tapajoi river. A tribe, the Bakairi, is still residsnt there, whose language is a purs and archaic form of the Carib tongue."— D. G. Brinton, So- eee ami IVopkt, p. 888. ' Related to the Cariha sund a long list of small tribes ... all inhabit- ants of the great primeval forest In and near Guiara. They may have characteristic differen- ces, but none worthy of mention are known. In bodily appearance, according to ah accounts these relatives of the Caribs are beautiful In Georgetown the Arauacas [or Arawaks] are cele- brated for their beauty. They are slender and graceful, and their features handsome and regu- lar, the face havine a Grecian profile, aD," the skin being of a reddish cast. A little farther in- land we find the Macusbi [or MacusisJ, with a lighter complexion and a Roman nose. These two types are repeated In other tribes, except in the Tarumi, who a.-e decidedly ugly. In mental characteristics great similarity prevails. "— TA* Standard Natural Hittory (J. 8. Kingtley, ed.),p. 837. — " The Arawaks occupied on the continent the area of the modem Guiana, between the Corentyn and the .?omeroon rivers, and at one time all the West Indian Islands. From some of them they were eariy driven by the Caribs, and withia 40 years of the date of Columbus' first voyage the Spanish had exterminated nearly all on the Islands. Their course of migration had been from the Interior of Brazil northward ; their distant relations are still to be found between the headwaters of the Paraguay and Schingu rivers." — D. G. Brinton, Saeee and Peopla, p. 268-269.— "The Kipohn (Acawoios, Waikas, &c.) claim kindred with the Caribs. . . . The Acawolos, though resolute and determined, are less hasty and impetuous than the Caribs. . . According to their tradition, one of their hordes removed [to the Upper Demerera] . . . from the Masa- runi. The Parawianas, who originally dwelt on the Demerera, having been exterminated by the continual Incursions of the Caribs, the Waika- Acawoios occupied their vacant territory. . . . The Macusis ... are supposed by some "to have formerly inhabited the banks of the Orinoco. . . . As they are industrious ..ndunwarlike, thev have been the prey of every savage tribe arounil them. The Wapisiana? are supposed to have driven them northwanl and taken possession of their country. The Brazilians, as well as the Cari.is, Acaivoios, &c., have long beeti in the habit tt enslaving them. . . . The Arecunas have oeen accustomed to descend from the higher lands and atUck the Macusis. . . . This tribe is said to have formerly dw;lt on the banks of the Uaupes or Ucayari. a tributary of the Hio Negro . The Waraus appear to have been the most ancient inhabitants of the land Very little, however, can be gleaned from them re- specting their early history. . . . TbjTivitivoi mentioned by R Icigh, were prcbab./ a branch of the Waraua, whom he calls Quarawetea,"— «# AMERICAN ABORIGINES. AMERICAN ABORIQINEa \f. (I. Brett, Indian TrOet of Ouiana, pt. 2, eh. 13. Caripuna. S«! below: OrrK or Coco Oiiorp. Cat Nation, or Eriei. S«e below: Hurons, &c., ami lHo<ji-oi8 Cokteoeract: Tbrih Con- qi:est». iSc. Catawbat, or Kataba. See below: Siocak Family; also, Timi'iil-asaii. Cayusai. See below: iRoqcoiB CoiirEDEE- act. Chancat. See Perc. Chapas, or Chapaaeca. dee below: Zapo- TEC«, KTC. Cherokeet.— "The Cherokee tribe hu long been a puzzling factor to studenti of ethnolosy and North American languages. Whether tobe considered an abnormal olbhoot from one of the well-known Indian Btocks or families of North America, or the remnant of some undetermined or almost extinct family which has merged into another, appear to be questions yet unsettled. " — C. Thomas, Bttrial ifoundi <^ IA» Northern See- tiont of the U. 8. {f\/th Annual Sept. of the Bnreau of Bthnotogy, 1883-4).— FacU which tend to identify the Clierokees with the ancient "mound-builders" of the Ohio Valley— the Al- leghans or Talligewl of Indian traaition — are set forth by Prof. Thomas In a later paper, on the Problem of th' Ohio Mounds, publisiied by the Bureau of Etbnologi' in 1889 [see above: AlleqiunsI and in a Ifttle book published in 1890, entitled "The Cherokees in Pre-Columbian Times." "The Cherokee nation has probably occupied a more prominent place In the affain and history of what is now the United States of America, since the date of the early European settlement!), than any other tribe, nation, or con- federacy of Indians, unless it be possible to ex- cept the powerful and warlike league of the Iroquois or Six Nations of New York. It is al- most certain tliat they were visited at a very early period [1510] following the discovery of the American continent by that daring and enthusi- astic Spaniard, Fernando de Soto. , . . At the time of the English settlement of the Carolinas the Cherokees occupied a diversified and well- watered region of country of large extent upon the waters of the Catawba, Broul, Saluda, Keo- wee, Tugalco, Savannah, and Coosa rivers on the east and south, and several tributaries o'. the Tennessee ou the north and west. ... In sub- sequent years, through frequent and long con- tinued cuntlicts with the ever advancing white settlements, and the successive treaties whereby the Cheroliccs gradually yielded portions of the?r domain, the location and names of their towns were coDtiuually changing until the llnal removal of the nation [r836-1839] west of the Mississippi. . . . This removal turned the Cherokees back in the calendar of progress and civilization at least a quarter of a century. The hardships and ex- posures of the journey, coupled with the fevers and malaria of a radically different climate, cost the lives of perhaps 10 per cent, of their total populalior T'"! animosities and turbulence born of i:i<> ' of 1835 not only occasioned the loM of . ll\es, but rendered property in- secure, and in consequence diminished the zeal and industry of tlic entire community in its ac- cumuluiion A brief period of comparative quiet, however, was again characterized by an advance towanl a higher civilization. Five years after tlieir removal wa find from the re- port of their agent that they are again on the increase in population. . . . With the exception of occasional drawbacks — the n^sult of civil feuds — the proeresfc of the nation In education, industry and civilization continued until the outbreak of the rebellioiv At this period, from the l>est attainaole information, the Cherokees nu.nbered 21,000 souls. The events of the war brought to them more of desolation and ruin than 'perhr.ps to any other community. Raided and sacked altematel;*. not only by the Confed- erates and t'nion forces, but by the vindictiv* ferocity and hate of their own factional divis- ions, their country became a blackened and deso- kkte waste. . . . The war over, and the \ ork of reconstruction commenced, found them number- ing 14,000 impoverished, heart-broken, aud revengeful people. . . . To-day their country is more prosperous than ever. They number 22,000, a greater population thaii they have had at any previous period, except perhaps Just prior to the date of the treaty of 1880, when those east added to those west of the Mississippi are stated to have aggregated nearly 28,000 peo- ple. To-day they have 8,800 scholars attend- ing 75 schools, established and supported by themselves at an annual expense to the nation of nearly *100,000. To-day, 18,000 of their people can read and 18,000 can speak the Eng- lish language. To-day, 5,000 brick, frame and log-houses are occupied by them, and they have 64 churches with a membership of several thou- sand. They cultivate 100,000 acres of land and have an additional 180,000 fenced. . . . They have a constitutional form of government predl cated upon that of the United States. As a rule their laws are wise and beneficent and arc en- forced with strictness and iustice. . . . The present Cherokee population is of a composite character. Remnants of other nations or trilies [Delawares, Shawnees, Creeks, Natchez] have from time to time been absorbed and admitted to full participation in the bemflts of Cherokee citi- zenship." — C. C. Boyce, The Cherokee Nation iff Indian* (Fifth Annual Kept, of 'he Bureau if Ethnology, 1883-84).— This eUborate paper by Mr. Boyce is a narrative in detail of the official relations of the Cherokees with the colonial and federal governments, from their first treaty with South Carolina, in 1721, down to the treaty of April 27, 1868 — " As eariy as 1798 Barton com- fiared the Cheroki language with that of the roquois and stated his belief that there was a connection between tliom. . . . Mr. Pale was the first to give formal expression to his belief in the atflnity of the Cheroki to Iroquois. Recently extensive Cheroki vocabularies nave come into possession of the Bureau of Ethnology, and a careful comparison of them with ample Iroquois material has been made by Mr Hewitt 'ihe re- sult is convincing proof of the relationship of the two langu-ges.^ — J. W. Powell, Seunth An- nual Sept. of the Bureau of Sthnotogg, p. 77.* Also ik S. O. Drake, The Aboriginal Bout of N. Am., bk. 4, eh. 13-16 — See, above : Alle ubans. — See, also, for an accoimt of the Che rokee War of 1759-1*61, Soctk Carolina: A. D 1759-1761; and for "Lord iiinmores War," Ohio iVai LET). A D 1774. Cheyennes, or Sheyennct. See above- At- ooNqiiAN Familt Chibchaa.— The moat northerly group of the tribes of tb« Andes "are the CundinamsKa of •8«* Note, Appendix E, vol. t. 90 AMERICAN ABOKIQIHEa AMERICAN ABOMGINES. the table lands of Bogota. At the time of the conquest the watershed of the Magdalena was occupied by the Chlbcha, or, as they were called T the S'Ntniards, Muyscas. At that time the vhlbcha were the most powerful of all the autochthonous tribes, hod a long historr behind them, were well advanced toward civilization, to which numerous antiquities txiar witness. The Chibcha of to-day no longer ^Kik the well- developed and musical htnguat: uf their fore- fathers. It became extinct about 1780, and It can now only be inferred from existing dialects of it; these are the languages of the Turiero, a tribe dwelling north of Bogota, and of the Itoco Indians who live in the neighborhood of the celebrated Emerald mines of Muzo." — Tht Stan- dard Natural HMory (J. 8. Kingtky, ed.) e. 6, p. 215.— "As potters acd goldsmiths they [the Chibchalranlied among the finest on the conti- nent"— D. O. Brlnton, Jiaea and Ptaplu, p 172. —See, also, CouMfBiAK States: A. D i36- 1781. Chicaaaa. See below :Hc8kbooea». ult; also, LodisiAHA: A. D. 1719-1750. Chichimecs. See Mexico: A. D. l).^:.-160a. Cbimakuan Family. — "The Chimakum are said to have been formerly one of the largest and most powerful tribes of Puget Sound. Their warlilie habits early tended to diminish their num- bers, and when visited by Uibbs in 1854 they counte' only about 70 individuals. This sniiili remnti i ' cupied some 15 small lodges on Port Townsi.TiBay."— J. W. Powell, SextUh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethndogy, p. 62. Chimarikao Family.— "According to Powers, this family was represented, so far as linown, by two tribes In California, one the Chi-m&l-a-kwe, lirtng on New Kiver, a branch of the Trinity, the other the Cliimariko, residing upon the Trin- ity Itself from Burnt Ranch up to the muuth of North Fork, California. The two tribes are said to have been as numerous formerly as tlie Uupa, by whom they were overcome and nearly exter- minated. Upon the arrival of the Americans only 25 of the Chimalakwe were left."— J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Seport, Bureau of Eth- notugy. p. 63. Chioantecs. See below: Z.vpotkcs, etc. Chinookan Family.—" The banks of the Col- um )iH, from the Oi -.nd Dalles . •■' mouth, belong to the two branches of the Tsiuai, [or Chinook] nation, which meet in the neighborhood of the Kowlitz River, and of which an almost nominal remnant is left. . . . Tlie position of 'hi Tsinrk previous to their depopulation w.a, ijs at >,ui'e appears, most important, occupying bo. i. . id";i of the great artery of Oregon for a dista.. ■ f 200 miles, they possessed t' -^ncip!*! then :.i.'irt between tlie interior %.< i e ofean, boii'.lless resources of provisions c juskinds, and iacil- itics for trade almost unequalled on tht Paci- fic."— G. Oilibs, Tribe* of Wett Waahington and y. W. OreqimiCmtrib. to .V. A. EthruAogy, v. 1), p. 164.— See, also, below; Platbeads. Chippewas. See Ixlow: Ujihwas; and alwvc: ALiioNijt'iAN Family. Chippewyans, See below : Atrapascam Family. Choctaws. See below; Mi-skhooeak Pahilt. Chontals and Popolocas.—" According to the ccn»ua r)f 1880 there were 31. (MK) Indians in Mexico Iwlonxlug to IU« iamilia Cbontal. No •uch family ezista. The word cbonulll ' in the NahuatI language means simply 'stranger,' ano was applied by the Nahuas to any people other than their own. According to the .Mexican statistics, the Chontals are found in the states of Mexico, Puebia, Oaxaca, Guerrero, Tabasco, Guatemala and Nicarasua. A siniiliar terra is 'popoloca,' which in NahuatI means a coarse fellow, one speaking badly, that is, broken NahuatI. The P' poiocas have also been • rected Into an ethnic c :ity by some ethnog' iphers, with as little lustice us the Chontaliis. They are stated to have lived in the provincea of Puebia, Oaxaca, Vera Cruz, Mechoacan and Guatemala."— D. G. Brinton, Tht American Saee. pp. 14i 1-158. Cbontaqntro*. See above: Andesians. Chumasnaii Family. — "Derivation: From Chumash, the name of the danta Rosa Islanders. The several dialects of this family have long been known under the group or family name, 'Santa Barbara,' which seems first to have been used in a comprehensive sense by Lat^iam in 1856. who Included under it three languages, viz. : Santa Barbara, Santa Inez, > n ' uj Liuis Obispo. The term has no special r -jce as a family designation, except from ^- lut the Santa Barbara Mission, arounc •' o one of the dia- lects of the family was sj. .s perhaps more widely known than any o. ..tie others. "— J. W. Powell, Seventh AnnucU Bepoit, Bureau of Bth- nology. p. 67. ClifMweller*. SecAxEKicA: Prehistoric. Coahuiltecjui Family.— " Derivation: From the name of the Mexican State Coahuila. This family appears to have inclu Jed numerous tribes in southwestern Texas and in Mexico. ... A few Indians still survive who speak one of the dialecto of thii family, and in 1886 Mr. Oatschet collected vocabularies of two tribes, the Come- crudo and Cotoname, who live on the Rio Grande, at Las Prietas, State of Tamaulipas."- J. W. Powell, SetetUh Annual JSept., Bureau tf Eth- nology, p. 68. Coujiro, or Giuijira "An exceptional posi- tion is taken, in many respects, by the Coajiro, or Guajira, who live on the peninsula of the same name on the northwestern boundary of Venezuela. Bounded on all sides by so-called ivilized peoples, this Indian xribe is known to ■ ve .aiutained its independcpce, and acquired Well-deserved reputation for cruelty, a tribe ich, in many respects, can be classed with the . iclies and Comanches of New Mexico, the Araucanians of Chili, and the Quaycara and Guarani on the Parana. The Coajiro are nostly large, with chestnut-brown comp.ezion and black, sleek hair. While all the other coast tribes have adopted the Spanish language, the Coajiro have preserved their own speech. "They are the especial foes of the other peoples. No one is given entrance into their land, and they live with their neighbors, the Venezuelans, in constant hostilities. They have fine horses^ which they know how to ride excellently. . . . They have numerous herds of cattle. . . . "They follow agriculture a little."— TAc Standard A'at- ural Hitlory (J. S. KingiUy, ed.), t. 8, p. 843. Cochibo. See above; Andesians. Cochiquima. See above; Andesians. Coco Group. See below; Guck oh Coco Gbocp. Coconoons. See below : Mariposam Famili Co£ui. See abore: AHDBaiANa 91 AMERICAK ABOKIOINES. AMKRICAN ABORIGdEa CoUm. See Pmv. Comuiehes. See below: Shosbohkak Fak- n.T, and KioWAK Familt; and above: Apachb Groui. Conestogu. See below: ScxjincHAiniAS. Conibo. See above; ANDESiAiiit. ConoT*. See above: ALOONqiiiAN Family. Copenan Familj.— ' ' The territory of the Copfl- ban familv Is bounded on the north by Mount SbasU and the territory of the Saateon and Lutu- amian familici, on the east by thi> *:.rritory of the PalaihnihsD, Yanan, and F^u' ^unan families, ami on the south by the bays of San Pablo and Suisun and tlie lower waters of the Sacramento." — J. W. Powell. Seeenth Annual Bept, Burma ef Ethitotngy. p. 69. Coatanoan Family. — "Derivation: From the Spanish costano, ' coast-men. ' Under this group name Latham included five tribes . . . which were under the supcrrision of the Blission Dolores. . . . The terriu.ry of the Costanoan family ex- tends from the Golden Gate to a point near the southern end of Monterey Bay. . . . The surviv- ing Indians of the once populous tribes of this family are now scattered over several counties and probably do not number, all told, over 80 indivjduaU. as was ascertained by Mr. Henshaw in 1H88. Must of these arc to be found near the towns of 8anta Cruz and Monterey."— J. W. Powell, Setxnih Annual Sept., Bureau of Eth- not'xjy. p. 71 . v'.reek CoBfcderacy,— Crack War*. See below: McsKHOoEAif Familt: also United States op Am. : A. D. 1818-1814 (AcoutT— April): and Florida: A. D. 181S-1818. Creea. t^ee above: Aloonqi'Iam Family. Croatana. See America: A. D. lS87-tBiW. Crowa (Upsarokaa, or Abaarokaa). See below : Siocan Family. Cuatoa. See below : Pampas Tribes. Cunimare. Bee below: GccK ou Coco Group. Cuyriri or Kiriri. Bee below : GucK or Coco Ghoi p Dakotaa, or Dacotaht, or Dahcolaa. See beluw : HiotiAN Family and Pawnee (Caddoan) Family. Oaiawaraa, or Lciuipt.— "The pn)p<'r name of thu Delaware Indians waa and is l>eii&pi (ft as In futliiT, 6 as a in mate). . . . The licnape wcn^ divliled into three sub-tribes: — 1. Tlie MinnI, Monseys. Montheya, Muhmi's, or Mini- sinks. 2. The Unami or Woname.vs. 3. The UiiiiliU'litlgn. No explanation of tlicse desiKna- tioiLS will Ih' found in Hvckcwelder nr tlin older writiTH. From Inwatlgatlons amoiiK living D<'la- warts. carrictl out ot my retjuost by Mr. llorutlo Hale. It in evident that they art- wlmlly gt-o- gnipliii 111, and refer to the location of these sub- trilH'9 (in the Delaware river. . . The MInsI lived ill the m<»iiituin<ius region at the bead w»ur>< of the Di'laware, above the Forks or Junelioii iif llie U'hIgli river . . . The I'namis' terril'iry on tlie right iMiik of the Delaware river extimli'il fniiii the I^ehlnh Valley aoiithwanl. It was with lliini and their snuthern nelghlxirs. the UnaUrlitigiM. that Penn dealt for the land ei'dinl to him ill the Indian iIimhI «f 1883. The MInsis did not taki' imrt in the transaction, anil it was not until 1 7.17 that the t'oh)nial authorities treated dimtlv with >be latter (or the ceaaton of their h-rrltiirv The Unalacbtlirp or Turkey totem had lis iirliM Ipnl seat on the aflliMDtsof the Delaware near where Wilmington now standi. "--D. Q. Brinton, The Zenape and Their Legmdr, eh. 8. — "At the. . . time when William Penn landed in Pennaylvanta, the Delawarea hod been subjju- gated and mode women by the Five Mationa. It 18 well known that, acccrdlng to that Indian mode ot expreaaion, the Delawsres wero henceforth prohibited from ip\king war, and placed under the sovereignty oi the conquerors, who did not even allow sales of land, in the actual possewion of the Delawans, to be valid without their appit>- batioa Willlum Penn, bis descendants, and the State of Pennsylvania, accordingly, always pur- chased the right of possesnion from the Delawarea, and that of Sovereignty from the Five Nationa. . . . The use of arms, though from vety differ- ent causes, waa equally prohibited to the Dela- ware! and to thn Quakers. Thus the coloniza- tion of Pennsylvania and of West New Jersey by the British, commenced under the most favorable auspices. Peace and tho utmost harmony pre- valleii for more than sixty years between the whites and the Indians; for these were for the first time treated, not only justly, but kindly, by the colonists. But, however gradually and peaceably their lands might have been purchased, the Dela wares found themsi'lves at last in the same situation as all the other Indians, without lands of their own, and therefore without means of subsistence. They were compelled to seek refuge on the waters of the Susquehanna, us tenants at will, on lands belonging to their hated conquerors, the Five Nations. Even there and on the Juniata they were encroached upon. . . . Under those circumstances, many of the Dela- warea determined to remove weat of the Allo- gliany Mountains, and, almut the year 1740-JH), obtained from their ancient allies and uncles, the Wyandots, the grant of a derelict tract of land lying principally on the Muskingum. The great body of the nation wii* ->ill attached to Pennayl- vanta. But the grouuiis of complaint Increased. The Delawares were encouraged by the westeni tribes, and by the French, to shake off the yoke of the Six Nations, and tojoin In the war against their allies, the British. Tlie frontier settlemenU of Pennsylvania were accordingly attacked both bv the Delawares and the Shawnoes. And, although peace was made with them at Easton In In 1798, and the conquest of ('anada put an end to the general war, both the Shawnoea and Dela- wares nmoveil altogether In 17S8 beyond the Alleghany Mowiilaiim. . . . The yean 17eiV-1703 are tlic true period nf the power and Important)' of tho Delawares. Uuitetl with the hlliawnoes. who were settliHl on the SeioUi. thev sustuiiiiil during the Seven Veiirs' Wurthcdetllniiig power of France, and arn'iited for some years the pro gress of the Hrltish anil American arm*. Although a iMirtlon of the nation atlli<-retl to tlie Amerleaiis during the War of Inih'penileiii'e, the main iKxIy, togitlier with all the weHtem uatinnii niatlc common euiiiie with the Itritish. Ai I, after the short triite whh h followed the treaty of 1783, they were a^niii at the heail of the westeni confederacy in llirir last struggle for Indrpeu dence. Placed by their geogrHpliltal situation in the front nf liiit'lti'. they were, during thoiu three wars, the aggresaiini. antl. to the last moment, the imwl at live and fomildalilc enemies of Amerini. Tlii' ileeisivo victory of Uenerni Wayne (17M). dlawilvetl the confederacy ; and the Delawarea were the greatest suffenin hj the 02 AMERICAN ABORIOraSS. treaty of Greenville of 1795." After thb, the greater part of the Delawaiet were settled on White River, Indiana, "till the year 1810, when tbey anallr ceded their claim to the United States. Those residing there were then reduced to about 800 souls. A number . . , had pre- Tiously removed to Canada ; and it la dilflcult to ascertain the situation or numbers of the residue at this time [1836]. Those who have lately removed west of the Miaslasippl are, In an esti- mate of the War Department, computed at 400 souls. Former emigrations to that quarter had however taken place, and several small dispersed bands are, it is believed, united with the Senecas and some other tribes."— A. Gallatin, Sgnopiu of ttu Indian Tribet {Aithaologia Ameritana, t. 8), inlrod., lect. 2.— See, above: ALooHi)tiiAn Fam- ily; below: Shawanese, and Pawnkb (Cad- DOAS) Fahilt.— Also, PoNTiAc's War; United STATBrt OF Am. : A. D. 1765-1768; and Moravum Bkethren; and, for an nccount of "Lord Dun- morr's War," see Onio (Valley): A. D. 1774. Eriet. See below: Huro.vs, Ac., and Iro- qcoia C'oNrKDERAcv : Their CoMttCEsrs, Jtc. Etkimauan Family.—" gave a slight Inter- mixture of European settlers, the Eskimo are the unlyinlukbitanuof the shores of Arctic Amer- ica, and of lK>th sides of Davis Strait and Baf- fin Bay, iucludioK Greenland, as well as a tract of abuut 4UU miles on the Bvliring Strait coast of Asia. Southward they extend as far as about 5tP N. L. on the eastern side, 60* on the west- ern slilc of Aim'ricu, and from Sy to 00° on the slKirt'S of Hudson Bay. Only on the west ihc EMklmi) near their frontier are interrupted on two small spou of the coast' by the Indians, named Kenmtyuns and UgalenMS, who have there adviintx'U to the sea-shore for the sake of flshinif. These coiuiU of Arctic America, of course, also conipriae alt the surrounding isUnds. Of these, the Aleutian Islands form an excep- tional group ; the InhabitanU of Ihcso on the one hand distinitly dilTeriuB from the coast people here mentlriued, while on the other they show a cIosiT relationship to the Eskimo than any other nation. The Aleutians, therefore, may be con- sidered as only an abnormal branch of the Eskimo nation. ... As reganls their northern limits, the Eskimo people, or at least remains of their habitailous, have been found Dearly as far north as any Arctic explorers have hitherto advanced; anil very possibly bands of them may live still fartlier U) the north, as yet quito uiikHown to us. ... On comparing the Eskimo with the neighbouring nations, their physical e.iiTiplcxl.m certainly seems to point at an Asiatic origin; but, as far as we know, the litest liivesiigations have also shown a tnin- Mtional link to exist lietween the Eskimo and t.ie oiher American nations, which would suf- 'Jiienliy IikIIi ato the i>os8lblllty of • common origin from the same continent As to their iiMie of life, the Esklhi.. decidedly resemble I i« r Amerlcjw iiclghlwurs. . . . WIthregardto I icir Luitfuage, the Eskimo also appear akin to tlie American nations In regard to Us dcride<lly Cllysyntlietie structure, ifore, however, on tlie otiier hand, we meet with some very remarkable timilanilis Mween the Eskimo Idiom and the language of SIlnTia. bcl.mirlnif tn th« Altaic or !• M.Mi,i, group. . . Aecoidlng to the Sagas of he lolandeh., they were already met wfth on Uie rant niast of Grwnland alioul the year 1000, • Sff .Nuif , Apiwndls r. v«I. I, 93 AMERICAN ABORIGINES. and almost at the same time on the east coast of the American csntinent. . . . Between the yean 1000 and 1300 they do not seem to have occupied the land south of 65° N. L. on the west coast of Greenland, where the Scaadinavian colonies were then situated. But the colonists seem to have been aware of their existence la higher latitudes, and to have lived In fear of on attack by them, since, in the year 1866, on expedition was .wnt out for the purpose of exploring tlie abodes of the Skisllngs, as they were colled bv the colonlsU. . . . About the year 1480, the last accounts were received from the colonies, and the way to Greenland WM entirely forgotten in the mother country. . . The features of the natives in the Southern port of Greenland indicate a mixed descent from the Scandinavians and Eskimo, the former, how- ever, not having left the slightest sign of any influence on the nationality or culture of the present natives. In the year 1589, Greenland woa discovered anew by John Davis, and found inhabited exclusively by Eskimo."— H Rink, Tola and Traditions of tht Okimo, introd. and «*. 6.— The same, The SiUmo tribm.—" In 1868, I proposed for the AleuU and people of Innult stock collectively the term Ororians, a* Indicative of their coastwise distribution, and as supplying the need of a general term to designate a very well-defined race. . . . The Orarions are divided into two well-marked groups, namely the InnuiU. comprising all the so-called Eskimo and Taskis, and the AleuU."— W. H. Dall, TWiMof tke Extrtmt A'urthmtt (Oontrib. to N. A. BA- nolon, t. 1), pt. 1. Eaaelenian Family.— " The present family was included by Utham In the heterogcneoui group called by him Salinas. ... The term SoUnon [is now] rcstrictvil to the San Antonki and San Miguel languages, leaving the present family . . [to be] called Esselenian, from the name of the single trilie Essclen, of which it is composed. . . The tribe or tribes composing this family occupied a narrow strip of the Cali- fornia coast from Monterey Bay south to the vicinity of the Santa Luela MounUin. a distaiice of about 50 miles. "—J. W. Powell. SnenIK An- nual Btpt., Iliirniu of Ethm>l)tgy, pp. 75-76. Btchcmins. Sec above; Aloonquian Fahilt Buroct, or Yuroks. See below : Modocs, 4c. Fire Nations. St-e lielow: lRoqi;ois Cow- nCOERACY. Flatheodt (Salishan Family).^" The name Flathead whs commoiily given to the Choctaws though, saVB l)u I'ral/., he saw no reason why they should l>c so distinguished, when the prac- tice of (bttcning the heml was so general And lotheenumerotiou iiist cited [DocumenUry Hist. "L?!;-" '-P '^^1 tlie next paragraph ... Is: 'The riatheads, I'herakis. Chlcachas. and Totlris ore iDcluded umltr the name of Flathoads by the IroquoU."— M, K. Force, Hirnt Rirtg Aotioes <rf tht Indiant of mi,>. p. 83.— "Tho Salish . . are distinctively known as Flathesds. though the custom of deforiiiiiig the cranium Is nut conflnedtothem. '— I). O. Brinton, Th* Amm- tan Haet. p. 107. - •■ In . . . early times the bunten and trappers mild not discover why the Blackfect and Flatheads [of MonUiuil re- crlrt-!) Ihrfr p^p-H'ttve dniisnaiinns, for liM feet of the former are no more inclined to sable than any other part of the body, while the beodt of the latter possess their fair proportlan of AMERICAN ABORIGINES. AMERICAN AB0UI0INE8. * .»:<: rotunditT. Indeed it ii only below the falls snd npida that real Flatbeadi appear, and at the mouth of the Columbia that they flourish most supematurally. The tribes who practice the custom of flatteoiug the bead, and who lived at the mouth of the Columbia, differed little from each other in laws, manners or customs, and were composed of the Catlilumahs, Killmucks, Clat- sops, Chinoolis and Cliilts. The abominable custom of flattening tbvir lieads prevails among them all."— P. Ronan, Jliit. Skttehoftht Flat- head Indian Nation, p. 17. — In Major Powell's linguistic classification, the "Salislian Family" (Flathead) is given a distinct place.— J. W. Powell, Smnth Annuai Sept. of the Bureau (if Btknoiogy, p. 103. Fos Indiana. See above: Aloon^itiax Family, and below, 8acb, <&c.— For an account of the massacre of Fox ludiuns at Detroit Id 1713, see Canada (New Fhance): A. D. 1711-1718. —For an account of the Black Hawk War, see nilnoto: A. D. 1833. Fntfians. See below: PATAooMiAxa Gauiarapo* or Cuuchica. See below: Pam- pas Tribes. GCa Tribes. Bee below: Tupl—Odabaxl— TCPCTAS. Cros Ventres (Minnetarec ; Hidatas).* See below: HiOATaA; aku, above: ALOONquiAM Familt. Gnaicams. See below : Paxtas Tribes. Guiyira. See above : Coajiro. Guanas. See below: Pampas Tribes. Guarani. See b<!low : TiFi. Guaranas. See U'Idw : Pampas TRiBua Guck or Coco Group.— An pxtonsive linguistic group of tribes in Bruzil, on and north of the Ama- zon, extending as for iis the Orinoco, has been called the Ouck, or Coco Rroup. "There is no common name for the trruup, that here used meaning a father's bn)ther, » very important per- sonage in thviiu tribeii. The Ouck group em- braces a large number of trilioii. . . . We need enumerate but few. Tim Cuyriri or Klrirl (also known as Sabaja, PimenieinM, etc.), number about 8,000. Some of tliiin iirv half civilised, some arc wild, and, witliout re.strulut, wander about, especially in the mountHins in the Prov- ince of Pemambuco. The Aruieu live on the lower Amaion and the Tocanliiis. Next come the Manaos, who have a pms|H-et of maintaining themselves longer tlian most trtlxs. With them Is connected the legetHi of tlie golden lord who washed the gold dust from liU limbs in a lake fsce El Doraixi]. . . . The liriim. Bart, and Cariay live on the Itio Negni, tlm Cunimarion the Juriia. the Maraiilia <in the Jutny. Whether the ClmmictK-o on the right Imnk of the Paraguay, belong to the Ouck is uueertaiu. Among the tribes which, though very niueh mixed, are still to be enumerated with the Ouck, arc the Tecuna and tlie Piisni. In language the Te<-unas show many similarities to the {it»; they live on the western buidem of Hreill, and exti ii<l In Equador to the Pasta^a. Among tlietn Kcur peculiar masques which strongly recall 'liuae found on Um northwest coast of North Aiiieric«. ... In Ibe same district belong the rauiN-, who are no- ticeable from the fai-t that they live In bamcks, Indeed the only tribe In Houlli America In which this custom appear). Tli. > .iir.mwuiitic bouses of the Uaupe ate call, d ' malliMa.'tlwy are build- ings of about 130 feet lung. 7.^ feet wide, and M high. In which live a band of about 100 persona In 13 families, each of the latter, however, in its own room. . . . Finally, complex trilws of the most different nationality are compreliended under names which indicate only a common way of life, but are also incorrectly used us ethno- Sapblciuunea. These are Ciinpiiuu, Mimi, and Iranha, all of whom live in the ueiglilH)rhood of the Madeira River. Of tlie Caripii.ia or JaQn-Av6 (both terms signify ' wnterinen '>. who are mixed with Quichua bUxMl. it is related that they not only ate human fleeib, but even cured it for preservation. . . . Formerly the Mora . . . w>'re greatly feared; this once powerful and Sopulous tnbe, however, nas almost entirely estroyed at the end of the lust century by the Mundruco; the remnant is scattered. . . . The Mura are the gypsi;.-s among the Indians on the Amazon; and by all the other trilws they are regarded with a certain degree of contempt as puiahs. . . . Much to be feared, even among the Indians, are also the Miranha (i. e. , rovers, vaga- bonds), a still populous tribe on the right bimk of theJapura, who seem to know nothing but war, robbery, muHer, and man-hunting."— The Standard Natuntl Uiitury (J. 8. Kiu(nley, ed.).e.«,m^ 846-348. Also im F. Keller, The Amnion and Madeira Biter; eh. Sand 6.— H. W. Rates, A IfaturaUet on the Bittr Amaeone, eh. 7-13. Gnnchics. See below : Pampas Tribes. HacUnsncks. See above : ALuuNqcun FAMU.T. Hsidat. See below: Seittaoktak Family. Hidstsa, or Minnetarec, or Grosrentrcs?— "The Hidatsa, Minnetaree, or Urosventre In- dhtns, are one of the thn'e tril>es wliicb at pres- ent inhabit the |M'rmanent vllluge nt Fort Ber- thold, Dakota Territory, and hunt on the waters of the Upper Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers, in Northwestern Dakota uud Eastern .>Iontana. The history of this tribe is . . . intimately con- ui I ted with that of the p>litieally allied trilies of the Aricarees and Manduns. " 'The name, Oros- ventres, was given to the |<eonle of this tribe " by the early French and CunHilian adventun-rs. The same name was applied also to n tribe, totally distinct from these In iangimce snd origin, which lives some liiiiulD'ds of miles west of Fort Bcrthold ; and the two nations are now distinguished from one unothir its tinwventres of the Missouri mid Orosventns of tlie Prairie. . , . Edwanl L'mfreville. who tnuliil onthe.Saxkatebe wan River from liM to 1Tn7. . . . ninarks: . . . "They [tlie Caimdian Kreiieh) cull them Qrusventres, or Big Ihllies: ami Kilhout uny reason, as they are us conn ly iiiid as well made as any tribe whatever.'. . . In the w<irk» of many travellers they are called iMIniietarces, s name which is smfled in various wavs. . . . This, although a llidalsa won!, is the name sp- Blied to them, not liy tluniMlves, liiil liy the landans; it signities ' lo cross the water.' or 'thiy crussvu the water. '. . Ilidntisii wsn the I !ie of the vllluge on Knife Kivir farthi from the Missouri, llie viilsge of thmie horn Lewis and Clarke lonsidend the Minneurees pro|M'r. " It is the naim- " now geu> erally used uy Uits (leople to deslgiiaie tkem- selves." — W. Matthews, KlhiuigrafJiii niul Vh\t- oiogy of the Ilidatiu ir.ui.i:s, y.i. I i {V. A OxuLg. and Oeug. f^'imit. A'. I . //>iyi'rn, .Vii. Pub., A'a. 7).— See also, iielow: Slut an K.\mut. •■m Msts, ApptBdia E, vol, •. M AMERICAN ABORIOmEa Hitchitia. See below: Hcskbooean Famlt. Horikuu.— North of the Mohcgans, who oc- cupied the eut bank of the Hudson River opijoslte Albany, and covcrinjt the preaeot coun- ties of Columbia and Rensselaer, dwelt the Al- gooldn tribe of Horikans, "whose hunting grounds appear to have extended from the waters of the Connecticut, across the Qroen Slountains, to the borders of that beautiful lake [named Lake George by the too loyal Sir Wil- liam Johnson] wliTch might now well bear their sonorous name." — J. R Brodhead Hitt of thf State of N. Y., p. n. Huamaboya. See above: AHDKauRB. Huancaa. See Pebd. Huattect. See below: Matab. Huecot, or Wacot. See below: Pawuxb iCaddoan) Familt. Humas, or Onnaa. See below: McaxBo- OEAN Familt. Hupaa.* See below: Modocs, Ac Hurona, or Wyandota.— Neutral Nation Eriea.— "The peninsula between the Lake* Huron. Erie, and OnUrio was occupied by two distmct peoples, speaking dialecU of the Iro- quois tongue. The Hurona or WyandoU. includ- ing the tribe called by the French the Diononda- dlcs, or Tobacco Nation, dwelt among the forests which bordered the eastern shores of the fresh water sea to which they have left their name; while the Neutral Nation, so called from their ueutrality in the war between the llurons Biui the Five Nations, inhal)ited the n<irthem si ores of Lake Erie, and even extended their e> stern Hank across the strait of Niagara. The |'4>ul»lion of the llurons has been variously stated lit from lO.tXX) to 80,000 souls, but proba- bly did not exceed the former estimate. The Irancwsns and the JcsuiU were early among tbein, iind from their descriptions it is apparent that m legends, and superstitions, nuinners and haliiu, religious observances and social customs they vera closely asaimlUted to their brethren of tlieHve Nations. . . . Like the Five Nations, the H yandoU wore in some measure an agricul- lunil iMople; they bartered the surplus products of their maize fields to surrounding tribes usually receiving fish in exchange; and this tralllc wiis so considerable that tlio Jesuits styled tlieir country the Orunary of the Algonciuins. Their |.n»neritv was rudely broken by the bos- lilies „f the Jlvo Nations: for though the con- tlieting parties were not ill mnt<he<l in point of imiulKT*, yet the united counsels and fcnxiious energies of the confederacy swept all before K m. In the vcar 184B. in the .ieptli of winter, tlielr wiirrion Invaded the country of the Wvan- '. n'tiH','"^"'. «hflr largest villages, and Involved ..I Kiihln m indiscriminate slaughter. The sur- vivcr. iliHl lu panic tern)r, ami the whole nation "ii!* hn.ken aii.i disi«,rscd. Home found refuge «iimn« the French ..f Canada, where, at tl7e vilhjie „f I^,r,.tic, ne„rQuelwc, their descendants Hill nniain; othera were incorporated with their 'M ond Lake Huperior, and sought an asylum "iMong he waste, which b.,r,lc.,«t on the uorth- *»lerii land, of the Dahaitah. Driven back l)y m-H. Hirre blsonhunter^ they next establtshwl lli.uiHelves about the outlet of Uk" «u!>eri'-r *" -l'...es.iid Islands In the northern parts of fc»teu.led to Detroit, where they formed a per- • Ikt Mulf, Apiwndla E, vol. I. gg AMERICAN ABORIGINES. manent settlement, and where, by their superior valor, capacity and address, they soon acquired an ascendancy over the surrounding Algonquin* The ruin of the Neutral Nation followed close on that of the Wyandots, to whom, according to Jesuit authority, they bore an exact rescmbiunco In character and manners. The Senecas soon found means to pick a quarrel with them: thev were assailed by aU the strength of the Insatlabfe confederacy, and within a few years their destruction as a nation was complete."— F Parkman, Th4 Contpiraeu of Pimtiac, ch. 1.— The ?'S?' i^ •ff'it* in Aorlh Amerien, ch. 1 _ The first in this locality [namely, the western extremity of the State of New York, on and around the site of the city of Buffalo], of whom history makes mention, were*ie Attiouandar- onk, or Neutral Nation, called Kah-kwas by the Scnecaa. They had their council-fires along . the Niagara, but principally on iu western side! melr hunting grounds extended from the Gen- esee nearly to the eastern shores of Lake Huron embracing a wide and important territory. They are first mentioned by Champlain during hta winter visit to the Hurons'n 1615 . . but he was unable to visit their territory. . . The peace which this peculiar people had so long maintained with the Iroquois was destined to be broken. Some jealousies and collisions occurred In 1W7, which culminated in open war In 1650 One of the villagcsof the Neutral Nation, nearest the Senecas and not far from the site of our city IButralo], was captured in the autumn of the latter year, and another the ensuing spring. So well-dlreetcd and energetic were the blows of the Iroquois, that the total destruction of the Neutral Nation was speedily accomplished. . The survivors were adopted by their conquerors. ... A long periiMl intervened Iwtwcen the destruction of the Neutral Nation aud the per- manent occupation of their country by the Sen- ecas, -- which latter event occurred after the expulsion of the Seneca* from the Genesee V alley, by the expedition under General Sulii- 7»"; In 1'7», during the Revolutionary War They never, as a nation, resumed tliulr ancient seata along the Genesee, but sought and fouml a new homo on the secluded banks and among tha basswood forests of the IMsyo-wJ, or Buffalo treek, whence they bad driven the Neutral Nation 130 yearn before. ... It h.-M been as- sumed by many writers that the Kali kwas and tries were Identical. This is not so. The latter acconling to tlie nost reliable authorities, lived south of the we»tem extremity of Like Eria Vi".'. ^}S7 "J!:'"' '''■'"f'yt'J by the IrtHiuois in iwa. The kah kwas were exterminatiMl by them as early as 18S1. On Coronelii's map. pul.llslied in 1(W8. one of tho villages of tha latu-r, ca leil ' Kahouagoga, a destroyed nation,' is hicated at or near tho site of Buffalo."— O. 11. Marshall, Tht .\i,i0jnt frontier, pp. 6-<J, and foatn,:tf.— - Wntwanl of the Neutrals, along the Southeastern shores of Uke Erie, and stretch- ing as far vsM as tho Oeiicseo river, lav tha country of tho Erics, or, as Uiey were de'uomi- naUHl by the Jesuits, 'U Nation Chat.' or Cat Nation, who were also a member of the Ilim.n- IrjMjuois family. The name of the iHautlful lake OR Trfc»» m-iTgia our city [Buifai.i] w«* cradhMl is their most enduring monumcul m lAku Huron is that of the generic stock. They want caUed lite Cat Nation oithar becauaa thai ,1 ASfERICAN ABORIOrNCS. -lotereiting but miicbtevous animal, the raccoon, which the holy fathers erroneously classed in the feline gens, was the totem of their leading clan, or sept, or in consequence of the abundance of that mammal within their territory. " — W. C. Bryant, Intending Archofological Studia in and about Buffalo, p. 12.— Mr. Schoolcraft cither identifies or confuses the Eries and the Neutral Nntion.— H. R. Schoolcraft, Sketch of the HM. of the Aneient Brif (Information Seipeeting tht Indian Tribet, pt. 4. p. 197). Also in J. O. Shea, Inquiria Rapeeting the lott Neutral Nation (»ame, pt. 4, p. 204).— D. Wilson, The Huron-Iroguoii of Canada (rrani. Royal Soe. of Canada, 1884).— P. D. Clarke, Origin and Traditional IIi»t. of the VTyandottei. — W. Ketchum, ift»r. of Buffalo, t. 1, th. 1-2.— N. B. Craig, The Olden Time, v. 1, p. 225.— See below: iRoquois Confedekact ; also, Canada (New Frasck): A. D. 160*-1611; 16U-1618; 1634-1652; 1640-1700.— Sec, also, Postiac's Wah, and for an account of "Lord Dunmorc'a War," see Ohio (Vallet): A. D. 1774. Illiooitaiid Miami*.-" Passing the countrv of the Lcnape and the Shawanocs, and descend- Ing the Ohio, the tniTellcr would bare found its vdley chiefly occupied by two nations, the Hiamis or iSrightwees, on the Wabash and tta branches, and the Illinois, who dwelt in the neighborhood of the river to which they have given their name, while portions of them ex- tendi'd beyond the Mississippi. Though never subjugated, as were the Lcnape, both the Miamis and the Illinois were reduced to the lost extremity by the repeated attaclta of the Five Natiors; and the Illinois, in particular, suffered so much by these and other wars, that the popu- lation of ten or twelve thousand, a.scribc'd to them by the early French writers, had dwindled, during the first quarter of the eighteenth cen- tury, to a few small villages. "—P. I'arkman, Conapiraey of Pontine, eh. 1, — See, also, above: ALOoNqiUM Familt; and below: Sacs, Ac; also Canada (New France): A. D. 166»-ie87. Incma, or Yncaa. See Peru. Innuita. Sco above: Eskim.\la!(. lowaa. See below : Siocan Fak ilt, and Paw- MEE (Cadddan) Family. Iroquoia Confedcrecr. — !ro<|uoian FamilT. — " Attheo-jtsctof the 16th Century, wlicn the five tribes or nations of the Iroquois coiil 'Icracy first became known to European explorers, they were fuumi occupying the valleys and uplani's (if nortliom New York, in that plrtun'sciue and fruitful region which stri'tilii'S wi-stwanl from the hi'ad-witters of the Hu<lwin to the Ucncsce. The Moluiwks, or Canii-ngns — hs they sliould pMpiTly 1k> called — poa sc n e il the Mohawk Uiver, ami covcnii l<nke (Scorge and Lake Champlain with tlii'ir tidtilliu of large canoes, managed with tlie liolilncss anil skill «lilch, heriHlliary in their desctnilants. make them still thelH'St Ixiatmen of the North American rivers. West of the Canien- ttastlieOiH-iiiaalH'IdtheBnallrivprand lake which )<.>ar their name. . . . West of tlie Oneiilas, the tm|H'rious Unondagas, the central and, in some rc- siiccls, tlie ruling nation of the League, [Kissesseil the two lakes of Onondaga and SkniHutclcs, to- gether with the common outlet of this inland lake gyijli/rn. the Oswego HIver tii lis lasiu* (nlii Lake Oniarlo Still pn>ceedlng westwnni, the lines of trail anil river led to the long and wlmling stn-tch of Lakv Cayu(«, about wUch w«n: tlu*t«icd tits 96 AMERICAN ABORIGINES. towns of the people who gave their name to the lake ; and beyond them, over the wide expansi' of hills and dales surrounding Lakes Seneca and Canandaigua, were scattered tlie populous vil lagcsof the Benccas, more correctly calietl Sonon- towanos, or Mountaineers. Such were the names and abodes of the allied nations, members of the far-famed Kanonsionni, or League of Uniteil Households, who were destined to become for a time the most notable and powerful community among the native tribes of North America. Tlie region which has been described was not, however, the original seat of those nations. They belonged to that linguistic family which is known to ethnol- ogists as Uie Huron-Iroquois stock. Tliis stock comprised the Hurona or Wyandots, the Atti- wandaronks or Neutral Nation, the Iroquois, the Eries, the Andastcs or Conestogas, the Tuscaroras and some smaller bands. The tribes of this family occupied a long irregular area of inland terri- tory, stretching from Canada to North Carolina. The northern nations were all clustered about the great hikes ; the southern bands held the fer- tile valleys bordering the head-waters of the rivers which flowed from the Allegheny moun- tains. The lan^ iages of all these tribes showed a close affinity. . . . The evidence of language, so far aa it has yet been examined, seems to show that the Huron clans were the older members of the group; and the clear and positive traditions of all the surviving tribes, Hurons, Iroquois, and Tuscarora, point to the lower St. Lawrence as the earliest known abode of their stock. Here the first explorer, Cartier, found Indians of this stock at Ilochelaga aud Stadacon£, now the sites of Montreal and Quebec. ... As their numt)ers increased, dissensions arose. The hive swarmed, and band after band moved off to the west aud south. As they spread they encountered ixHipla of other stocka, with whom they had fn>quiDt wars. Their most constant and most dreailed CQcmies were the tribes of the Aigonkin family, a fierce and rcsUess people, of northern origin, who everywhere surrounded them. At one period, however. It the concurrent traditions of both Iroquois and Algonkina can be believed, these contending races 'or a time stayed thtir strife, and united their 'irces in an alliance against a commou and formidable loe. This foe was the nation, or perhaps the confederniv. i^f the Alllgewi or Talligewi, the semiclvilizii ■ Mound-builders' of the Ohio Valley, who Imvo left their name to the Allegheny river and nimiii- tains, and whoso vast eariliworks are hiIII. iifiir half-a-century of study, the jH-rplexily of an l:a^- ologUts. A dcs|)er»te warfare ensued, whiih lasted almut a hundred years, and endinl in the complete overthrow ami destruction, or f pul- sion, of tlie Aliigewl. The survlvon of tlu- ( on- quen'd p«'ople tied southwanl. . . . Tin time which has elapsed since the overthrow of the Alligewi is variously estimatiKl. The nios> |>nib- able conjecture places it at n pvrioii ulonit s thousand years before the present day. It v a* apparently soon after their expulsion that t,i« trinea of the Huron-Iroquois and the Algimkl.i stix-ks RoatlcTfd tliemst'lves over the wide n krinn south of the Great Lakes, thus left op^n t" ilnir ot'cupancy." — H. Hale. Introd. to Imv"">' '""* of H>lr' — AftT th« i-riinin( of Ihs Kiiniiniins Into the New World, llic Frvncb were Uie riM to 6t' iiivolviHl In hoalilltiea with the lnii|Uiil« und their early wan with .ibem produced a hatred AUERICAir ABORiaiNES. which could never be extinguished. Hence the English were able to win the alliance r<f the Five Nations, when they struggled with France for the mastery of the North AmeHeaji continent, and they owed their victory to that alliance, prob- ably, more than to any other single cause. Eng- land still retained the faithful friendship and alliance of the Iroquois when she came to a struggle with her own colonies, and all the tribes except the Oneidas were In arms against the Ami'ricaos in the Revolutionary War. "With the restoration of peace, the political transactions of the League were substantlallv closed. This was, in effect, the termination of their political existence. The Jurisdiction of the United States was cxtendetl over their -"nient territories, and from that time forth tL / became dependent nations. During the proffresa of the Revolution, the Mohawks abandoned their country and re- moved to Canada, finally establishing themselves partly upon Orand River, In the Niagara penin- sula, and partly near Kingston, i.here they now reside upin two reservations secured to them by the British government . . . The policy of ihe State of Ne-.v York [toward the Iroquois nations] was ever j ust and humane. Although their coun- try, with the exception of that of the Oncidaa, might have bei" considered aa forfeited by the event of the lU. .'olution, yet the government lever tnforced the rights of conque»t, iMit ex- Unguished the 1 .liun title to the coi; ■.- by purchase, and tn aly stipulations. A i, .n of the Oneida nation [who had sold their . ...» to the State, from time to time, excepting one small i¥serv;ation] emigrated to a reservation on the river Thames In Canada, where about 400 of them now [IS51] reside. Anot^ier and a larger band rcmovfd to Green Bay, in Wisconsin, where they •till make their homes to the number of 700. But a ». tall part of the nation have n'malned around the seat of their ancient council-flro near Oj.cida Castle, In the county of Oneida." The Onoiiiiagas " still retain their beautiful and serladcd valley of Onondaga, with suflicient ter- ritory for Ihclr comfortable maintenance. About 150 Onondagas now reside with the Seneras- another party are established on Grand River, In Canada, and a few have removed to the west. ... In the brief spare of twelve years after the first house of the white man was erected in Cay- UK» county (178t») the whole nation [of Uie Cay- ugMl WAS uprooted ami gone. In 1793, they ccileil, by Irenty. all their lauds to the htate, with the exrrptlon o( one rewrvation, which they fin- ally ahandonoi aU.ut the year 1800. A p.)rtIou or them n moved f« Green Bay, another U) Grand Klvtr, Bi.(l still another, and a much larger band •I'ttlf r.t Sandusky, In Ohio, from whence they • r^ ■emoviti by government, a few years nince into 'ho Indinn territory, west of the Missisxippl. Aboil 1208till rj'slde aninngthe Svnecas, 'n west- ern New \ ork. ... The Tuscarorss, after re- moving from the Oneida terrlti rv. flnallv located Dtar ilie Niagara river, in tl' vicinity of Ia-wIs- ' '^i * "?^' ^"''^ "' ''"'"' ^y "'" Hcnecaa. Li.. , V "'"'•''"■ "' "'e Senecas are now shut up witliiii thrtf Hmall n'servatlous. the Tonnwanda till- (attaraugus and the Allegany, whiili. united, woiii, u,H cover the area of one of the kiiaer c.„,„,to. of the Sf,.<-"_t... U MofRn,.. Th, U.„,nt nf ih, Iniqum*, ft*. 1, M. l._ "The In- f.WO, and occupy .aadi to th« nUmiitcd extent 1 97 AMERICAN ABORIGINES. of 87,«77 acres. With few exceptions, theas people are the direct descendanto of the native Indians, who once possessed and controlled the soil of the entire State." —ij«)(. of Special Uom tolntuttgatt the Indian Problem of the gtate of y. Y., im— In 17J5 the Five Nations of Uie Iroquois Confederacy became Six Nations by Oe admission of the Tuscaroras, from N Carolina. — See bel',w : Iroqiois Tbibes of THE SotJTH.— On the relationship between the Iroquois and the Cherokees, see above : Cuero- KBES. Iroquois Cot fcder»cy. _ The Legend o( Hiawatha, the Founder. Sec Inoocoia Co\- rSDERACT. IrMuois Confederacj.— Their Name.—" The origin and proper meaning of the word Iroquois are doubtful. All that can be said with cer- tainty la that the explanation given by Charlevoix cannot possibly be correct. The name of Iroquois, he savs. Is purely French, and has beer formed from the term hiro,' 'I have spoken,' a word by which these Indians close all Uieir speeches, and 'kou4,' which, when long drawn out, la a cry of sorrow, and when brieSy uttered Is an exclamation of joy. . . . But . Champlain had learned the name from his Indian allies before he or any other Fienchman so far as is known, had ever seen an Iroquois! It is probable th»'. the origin of the word is to bcsoueht in the Huron language; yet, as this is similar to the Irofjuuis tongue, an attempt may be made to find a solution in the latter According toBruyas, the wo " ' garokwa ' meant a pipe, and also a piece of touacco, — and, in ita verbal form, to -,i..uKe. This word is found wmewhat disguised by asr'rates, in the Book of Rite"i, — denighroghkvvaycn.— • let us two smoke together.'. . . In the iiid.;terminat« form the verb becomes 'ierokwa.' which is certainly very near to Iroouols. It might be rendered • they who smoke,' or 'they who use tobacco,' or, briefiy 'the Tobacco People." This name, tlie Tobacco Nation (' Nation du Petun ') was given by the French, and probably also by the Ai -^nkins, to one of the Ilurtm tribes, the Tionontates, noted for the excellent tobacco which they raised and sold. The Iroquois were equally well kno<vn for their cultivation of this plant, of which t' y had a choice variety."— U. Hale. Iro>juoi<i Boo> of RtUt. <t pp. note A. Iroquois Confederacy. — Their conquests and wide dominion. — "The projiit of a League [among the 'Five Nations' of the Iro- quois] originnU>'l with the Oiioudagas, among whom it nils flrs^ suggesu-d. as a nicans to enable them more cffcrtuall} to resist tlie pres- sure of contiguous nations. The epo<h of Its fcslabhshnunt cannot now be decisively nsccr- taintnl; although the clrcumstames allcmling Its forniatlcm are still r-ewrved bv tradili.ii with great minutepess. These trniiltious nil refer to iho I jrthem shore of the Onondaga lake, as the plact where the Iroquois chit* . «iiili|.,| |a general congress, to agm upo- criiis and priiiclnlesof the compact. . . . he forma- tion of the League, the Iroquois rapidly la rx>wer and influence. . . . With me first con- »<lousniii» I rising power, they turned their von^ viiirUiiwl rt'iieuiiiiem upoii llie Aitiron- daiks, who had oppresscil them in tlieir lufancy as a nation, and had expelhtl tlicm from tliefr country. In the Orst struggte for tlie ascendancy. AMERICAN ABORIGINES. AMERICAN ABORIGINES. ■■11 '. . . At the t Tt of French discovery (153S), the latter nation [>*>€ AdirondacliB] appear to have beien dispossesseu of their original country, and driven down the St. Lawrence as far as Quebec. ... A ntTv era commenceti with the Iroquois upon the establishment of the Dutch trading- post at Orange, now Albany, In 1615. . . . Friendly relations were establislied between the Iroquois and the Dutch, which continued with- out interruption until the latter surrendered 'their possessions upon the Hudson to the Eng- lish in 16M. During this period a trade sprang up 1). tween them in furs, which the Iroqvols ex- chan iwl for Euroiie^n fabrics, bu', Tiore es- pecially for fire-arms, in the use of which they w^ afterwards destined to become so expert. The English, in turn, cultivated the same rela- tions of friendship. . . . With the possession of flre-urms commenced not only the mpid eleva- tion, but absolute supremacy O- the Iroquois over other Indian nat'ons. In If iO, they ex- pelled the Neuter Nation from the Niagara pen- Innulit and established a ^wrmanent settlement at the moutli of '.hat liver. They nearly extermin- ated, in 1653, the Erics, who occupied the south Bide of Lake Erie, and from thence east to the Genesee, and thus possessed themselves of the whole area of western New York, and the north- ern part of Ohio. About the year 1670, after thev had finally completed the dtspereion and subjugation of the Adirondncks and Hurons, they acquired possession of the whr ' country between lakes Huron, Erie and Ontario, and of the nortli bank of the St. Lawrence, to the mouth of the Ottawa river, near Montreal. . . . Thev also made constant inroads upon the New England Indians. ... In 16«0, the Senecas with 60O warriors invaded the country of the Illinois, upon the borders of the Mississippi, while La Bolle w.is among the latter. ... At various times, bolh bcfiire and after this period, the Iro- quois turned their warfare against the Cherokces uprn the Tenuessee, snd the Catawbas in South Canilina. . . . For about a century, from the year 1000 to the year 1700, the Iro<;uois were In- volved in an almost uninterrupted warfare. At the close of this period, they had subdued and held In nominal subjection all the principal Indian na- tions occupying the territories which arc now embraced in the states of New York, Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, Pennsylvauia, the north- em and wistirn Darts of Virginia, Ohio, Ken- tuckv. Norlliem Tennessee, Illinois, Indiana, Micliigan, a purtion of the New England States, and the principal part of Upper Canaila. Over these liuliims, tlie haughty and imperious Iro- quois excrcistil a constant supervision. If any of them iKiame invulv-l in domestic difflculties, a delegalinu of dilefs went among them and re- storiHl tnin(|iilllily, prescribing at the same time tieir fn'uri' ii'iiiluct."— L. H. Morgan, Ltagutof the In»iii"i'. M 1, ch. 1.—" Their [the Irofjuois's] war-partii s mamed over lialf America, and their name wus a t. rror from the Atlantic to the Mis- ■Issippi ; but when we ask the numerical strength of the dri'aded confederacy, when we discover that, in the days of their greatest triumphs, their united catitons could not have mustered 4. out) warrior.-., we stand amazed at the folly and dissension wiildi left so vast a region the prey of a liandful of bold marauders. Of the cities and villages now so thickly scattered over the kMt domain of the Iroquoit, a single one might * Sec Notr, Appendix E, vol. I. boaat a more numerous population than all Uie five united tribes."— F.Plirkman, Ths Oompir- (m -f Pantiae, eh. 1. Iroquois Confederacy: A. O. 1608-1700. —Their wart with the French. See Canada (New Pbakcb): A. D. 1608-1611; 16H-1616; 1634-165i»; 1340-1700; 1696. Iroquois Confederacy: A. D. t64S-i^9.— Thnr destruction of the Htirons and the Je- ait Missions. See Canada (New France): A. D. 1684-1652: also, above, Huroks. Iroquois Confederacy: A. O. 168^1744.— Surrenders and cbnreyancr, j to the EnKluh. See New Yoni A. D. 1684, and 1726; Vir- ginia: A O. 1744; Ohio (Vaijj;t): A. D. 1748- 1754; United States op Am. : A. D. 17fl' 1768. Iroquois Confederacy: A. D. I778-I779-— Their part in the War of the American Revo- lution. SeeUNITEDSTATESOr AlfERICA: A. D. 1778 (June— November) and (Jult); and 1779 (ArocsT— September). Iroquois Tribes of the South.*- "The southern Iroquois tribes ocr-'riied Chowan River and its tributary streams, i bey were bounded on the east by the most southerly Lenape tribes, who were In possession of the low country along the sea shores, and those of Albemarle and l^miico Sounds. Towards the south and the west they extended beyond the river Neuse. They appear to have been known in Virginia, iu early times, under the name of Monacans, as fnr north as James Kiver. . . . Lawson, in his accouut of the North Carolina Indians, enumer- ates the Chowans, the Meherrins, and the Not- toways, as having together 95 warriors in the year 1708. But t!ie Melierrins or Tuteloes and the Nottow"._,s inhabited respectively the two rivers of tliat name, and were principally seated In Virginia. We have but Indistinct notices of the Tuteloes. . . . Ii appears by Beverly that the Nottoways had preserved their Inaependence and their numbers later than the Powhatans, and that, at the end of the 17th century, they had still 130 warriors. They do not appear to have mignited from their original seats in a body. In the year 1820, they are said to have been reduced to 27 souls, and were still in possession of 7.000 acres In Southampton county, Virginia, which had been at an early date reserved for them. . . . The Tuscaroras were by far the must Dowcrful nation in North Carolina, and occuiiicd , . the residue of the territory In that colony, which has been described as Inhabited tiy Irocjuois tribes. Their principal seats in 1708 were on the Neuse and the Taw or Tar rivers, • nd according to Lawson they had 1,200 warriors in fifteen towns." In 1711 the Tuscnroms attacked tlie English colonisU, massacring 130 In a single day, and a fierce war ensued. "In the autumn of 1712, all the iuhabitanU south and southwest of Chowan River were obliged to live in forts; and the Tuscaroras expected assi^I,l:»■e from the Five Nations. This could not Inive l)ecn given without Involving the confetUniiy In a war with Gn-at Britain: and the Tusjiironu were left to their own resources. A torxv, nin- sisting chiefly of southern Indians undir the command of Colonel Moore, was again si lit liy the government of South Carolina to a».sist tiie uiirlliiru Cul<)iile». He besieged and took 3 f-rt of the Tuscaroras. ... Of 800 prisomrs WW wen- given up to the Southern Indians, wlio carried them to South Carolioa to sell them u 98 AMERICAN ABORIomsa AHSRICAN ABORiamES. dsTM. The Eutern Tuscaroru, whose principal town was on the Taw, twenty miles above Washington, immediately made peaf;e, and a portion was settled a few years after north of tbe Roanolce, near Windsor, where they con- tinued till the year 1808. But the great body of tlie nation removed in 1714-lS to th« ri-e Nations, was received as the 8ixth, and has since shared their fate." — A. Oaliatin, Sgnapnt oftht Indian Tribti (Arehaologia Ammatna, «. 3), introd., leet. 3. Also in J. W. Mooie, JStt. «< iK Carolina, e. 1, eh. 8. — See, also, above: iBoquou CoN- FKOERACT. Itocos. Seeebove: CmacBASw Itonamos, or Itonomot. Bee above: Akdb- tUNS; also BoLtVIA: AbOBIQIKAL iMBABITAllTa. livara, or Jivaro. See above: ANDssujia Kah-kwas, Sec above: Hcroks, /■■;. KaUpooiaa Familr. — " Under t'lis family name Scouier places two tril>es, the Kalapoola'., Inhabiting ' the fertile WilUmat plr.ins ' and the Tamkallie, who live 'more in the interior, towards the so^.cesof the Willamit River.' . . . The tribes of the Kalapooian fanily inhabited the valley of Willamette River, Oregon, above the falls. ''—J. W. Powell, SetientA Annual Bept., Bureau of Etknologjf, p. 81. Kanawhas, or Ganawete. See above: AUKIM<irLAN Familt. Kansas, or Kaws. Sec below : Siocan. Kapohn. See above: Cakibs and treib KlNDKEO. Karankawan FamilT.— "The Karankawa for- merly dwelt upon the Texan coast, according to ISiblcv, upon an island or peninsula in the Bay of St. Bcninrd (Matagonia Bay). . . 7n 1884 Mr. Gtttschet fr.uud a Tonkawe at Poi i OritUn, Texas, who claimi'd to liave formerly lived among the Kuraukii-.,a. From him a vocabulury of twenty- five t< .-ms was obtained, which was all of the language he remembered. The vocabulary . . . 8U(T »« •• In. rcnrenvnts all of the language that is e.xtant. „udgi-,' by this vocabulary the language •eema to be distlrn't not only from the Attiikapa b".t from all ot;. »."— J. W. Powell, HexntX Annii'il lit,tort, Bu an of Bthiuilogy, p. 82. Karoks, or Cahroca. See below: Modocs. Kaskaskias. Sec above: Aluunuuun Fam- «LV. Kaus, or Kwokwooi. See below: Kcsan F.\Mi'.y Kan., or Kansas. Sec lielow : Siouan. Kenai, or Blood Indians.* Sccabove: Black- rKET. Keresan Family.— "Th! . . . pueblos of Kiresau sUKk . . . uro situited in New Mcxiit) ou tbe u|i|M'r lUo Orande, on ecveriil of its smiill wes'irn alliuenU, and on the Jemez and San ime. which also are trih.ilaries of the Hio OMiide.'— J. W. Powell, tSerrnlh Annual Bept Uur„vt of Ethnology, p. 83. —See PcBBLO. Kikapoot. See aliove: Al.«oNyi:iAN Famii.t and IhIuw : Sai-s, Ac. , and Pawnee (Caddoas) i >MII.T Kiowan Family.— "Dcrirall<m: From the hi"WH word K6i, plural Kii-igu, meaning 'K«yow«man.' The Comakche term kiyowl iiiijiiM 'rat.' The author who first formally svpsntp.) this f.iiiiily appears to have bci'a liirmr. . . . Turner, upon the strength of a v,«:ilnilary furnlsh.il by Lieut Whipple, dla- » iiiH from tbe opinion expressed by IMke and • Sy Xote, Apiwndix K, v.il. 5. 99 othen to the effect that the language b of tha same stock as tbe Comanche, and, while admitting that its relationship to Comanche is greater than to any other family, thuUu that the likeness is m':iely the result of long intercommunication. His opinion that it is entirely distinct from any other language has been indorsed bv Busch- mann and other authorities. The family is rep- resented by the Kiowa tribe. So intimately assochited with the Comanches have the Kiowa been since known to history that it is not easy to determine their pristine home. . . . Pope defl- nitely locates the Kiowa in the valley of the Upper Arkansas, and of its tributary, the Purga- tory (Laa Animaa) River. This is i. substenSal accord with the statements of other writers of about the same period. Schermerhom (1818) places the Kiowa on the heads of the Arkansas .nd Platte. Esviier still they appear upon the headwaters of the Platte."— X W. Powell, Seventh A .nual Beport, Bureau of Ethnology, p. KIrirl, Cayriil See above: Ouck ob Coco Okuiip. KitDnahan Punily.— 'This family waj based upon a tribe variously termed Kitunaha, Kutenay, Cootenal, or Flatbow, living on the Kootenay River, a branch of the ColumbU in Oregon."— J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Sept., Bureau ot Ethnology, p. 85. KUmathi. See below: Modocs. Kolnachon Family.- "Derivation: From the Aleut word koiosb, or more roperly, kaluga, meaning 'dish,' the allusion dng to the dish- shaped lip ornaments. This family was based hy Oaliatin upon the Koluschcn tribe (the TshinkiUni of Marchand), 'who inhabit the islands and the [Pacific] coast from the 60th to the 55th degree of north latitude.'" -J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Bept., Bureau of Eth- wrlugy, p. 88. Knlanapan Family.— "The main territory of the Kulanapan family is bounded on the ost by the Pacific Ocean, on the east bv the 1 ukian and Copehan territories, on the north by tlio watershed of the Russian River, and on the south by a line drawn from Bodega Head to the southwest comer of the Yukian terrlU)ry, near •Santji Rosa, Sononw Count v, California. "--J. W. Powell, l^reiUh Arnual Bept., Bureau of Eth- nology, p. 88. Kuaan Family.*-' The ' Kaus or Kwokwoos ' tribe is merely mentioi "d by Hale as living on a river of the siime name etwcen the Uiuquu and the Clamet."— J. W. Pi well. HeteiUh Annual Jiept.. Bureau of Ethn^iyy, p. 89. Kwokwoos. See above: Kusa.. Family. Lenape. See above: Diilawaueb. Machicuis, See below: Pampas Thibes. Mscuabi, See above: Cakibs aud theib KiNDBED. Mansos. See above; Gees ob Coco C Roin*. Maodans, or Mandanes. See belov. : Siouam Fauilv. Manhattans. See above: Aloohqpian Fam- ily, ami, piso, Manhattan Isl.and. Manioto, or Mayno, See above : Andesians, Mapochins. See Chile: A. D. 1480-1724. MaranluL See above: Ouck ob Coco (iKol i'. Maricopsa. See N-low : PrKBLos. Maripoaan Family.— " Derivation: A Spanish word meaning ' butterfly,' applied to a county in AMERICAN ABORIGINES. AMERICAN ABORIOINSa ,';i California and subsequently taken for the family name. Iiatham mentions the remnants of three distinct bands of the C'oconoon, each with its own language, in the north of Mariposa County. These are classed together under the above name. More recently the tribes speaking languages allied to the CoconQn have been trcnted of under the family name Yokut. As, however, the stock was estublishfd by Latham on a sound basis, his name is here restored. " — J. W. Powell, AlcMiUA Annual Sept., Bureau of Eth- tuloSH, p. 90. Matcoutina, or Matcontena, See below: Sacs, &c. Maaaachosetts. See above: ALooRqinAn Familt. Matagnayaa. See Bolivia: Abobioo'al ih- HADITANTg. Mayaa. — "In his second voyage, Columbus heard vague rumors of a mainland westward from Jamaica and Cuba, at a distance of ten days' Journey in a canoe. . . . During his fourth voy- age (1803-4), when be waa exploring the Oulf southwest from Cuba, he picked up a canoe laden with cotton clothing variously dyed. The natives in it gave him to understand that they were merchants, and came from a land called Maia. This is the first mention in history of the territory now called Yucatan, and of the race of the Mayas; for although a province of similar name was found in the western extremity of the island o( Cuba, the similarity was accidental, as the evidence is conclusive that no colony of the Meyas was found on the Antillts. . . . Maya was the patriai name of the nativen of Yucatan. It WHS the proper name of the northern portion of the peninsula. No single province bore it st the date of the Conquest, and prol)ably it had been bunded down as a generic term from the period, about a century before, when this whole district was united under one government. . . . Whatever the primitive meaning and first appli- cation of the name Maya, it is now used to signify specitlcally the aborigmes of Yucatr.n. In a more extended sense, in the expression 'the Mara family,' it is underst>xKl to embrace all tribes, wherever found, who speak related dialects pre- sumably derive<l from the same ancient stock as the Maya proper. . . . The total numlier of Indians of pure blood speaking the Maya proper may be estinutted as nearly or quitc2U<),U0U, most of them in the political limits of the department of Yucatan; to these should be added nearly 100,1100 of mixed blood, or of European descent, who use the tongue in daily life. For it forms one of the rare examples of American languages fiossessing vitality enough not only to muiutuin ts ground, but actually to force itself on Euro- pean settlers and supplant their native speech. . . . The Mayas did not claim to be autoch- thones. Their legends referred to their arrival by tlie sea from the East, in remote times, under the leadership of Itzumna, their hero-god, and also to a less numerous immigration from the West, which was connected with the history of another henigtHl, Kukul (.'in. The first of these appears to he wholly mythical. . . . The second tradition deserves mure atfntlon from the his- torian. ... It cannot he denied that the Mayas, the Kiehes [or Quiiiien] Hud the Cukrhlqueis, in their most venerable traditions, claimed to hbve migrated from the north or west from some part •f the present country of Meska 'TiMe tia- dittons receive additional Importance from the presence on the shores of the Mexican Gulf, oa the waters of the river Panuco, north of Vera Cruz, of a prominent branch of the Maya family, the Uuasteca. The idea suggests itself that these were the rear-guard of a great migration of the Maya family from the north toward the south. Support is given to this by their dUlect, which ' most closely akin to that of the Tzendala of Tabasco, the nearest Maya race to the south of them, and also by very ancient traditions of the Aztecs. It is noteworthy that these two partially civilized races, tt Mayas and the Aztecs, though differing radically in language, had legends which claimed a community of origin in some indefinitely remote past We find these on the Maya side narrated in the sacred book of the Kiehes, the Popol Vub, In the Cakchiquel 'Records of Tecpan Atillan,' and in various pure Maya sources. . . . The annals of the Aztecs contain frequent allusions to the Huastecs." — D. G. BrintoD, T?u Maya ChronieUt, introd.— "Closely enveloped in the dense forests of Chia- pas, Oautemaht, Yucatan, and Honduras, the ruins of several ancient cities have been discov- ered, which are far superior in extent and mag- nificence to any seen In Aztec territory, and of which a detailed description may be found in the fourth volume of this work. Most of these cities were abandoned and more or less unknown at the time of the [Spanish] Conquest. They bear hieroglyphic inscriptions apparently Identical in character; in other respects they resemble eaeh other more than they resemble the Aztec ruins — or even other and apparently later works in Guatemala and Honduras. All these remains bear evident marks of great antiquity. ... I deem the groiuids suflldent . . . for accepting this Central American civilization of the past nsa fact, referring it not to an extinct ancient nice, but to the direct ancestora of the peoples still occupying tho country with the Spaniards. »iij applying to it the name Slaya as that of the hui- gtrige which has claims as strong as any to l>e ccnsldcred the mother tongue of tlie linguistic family mentioned. . . . There are no data liy which to fix the period of the original Maya empire, or its downfall or breaking up into riviil factions by civil and foreign ware. 'The cities (i( Yucatan, as is tleiirl/ shown by Mr. Stephens, were, many of them! occupied by the desceiui- ants of the builders down to the con(|uest, uiid contain some remuantsof woodwork still in gmai pn>servtttion, although some of the structuns appear to be built on the ruins of otiiers nf a soinewhut different type. Palenque and t'o|'nn, on the contrary, have no traces of wchmI or otlii-r |H>rishable material, and were uninhabited ami nmbably unknown in the 16th centurv. Tlie loss of the key to what must have Wn iin advanced system of hieroglyphics, while tlie spoken Innguu^e survivtKl, is also an indicati'>u of ^«'at ttnti<iuity, cimlirined by the fact that the (Juich^ structuas of Guatemala dilfeted maltri ally from those of the more ancient epociL It is not likely that the Maya empire In its integrity continued later than the 3(1 or 4th century, although Its cities may have been inliabite<l iiiui h laK'r. and I should llx the eixK-h of Its hinli.st power at a date ureeeding rather liuin foliou iiii; the Christian era. — H. H. Bancroft, A'nftiw Wiivi of the I'iieiHe State4, t. 2, cA. 2; «. 4, cA 8-6/ a 5, eh. U-18. 100 AMERICAN ABORIOntEa Alm a Msrquli de KadsllUc, Prehittorie Anuriea, eh. 6-7.— J. L. Stephens, Inddenlt of Tratdin Tueatan; aud Tratd in Central America, <te.—B. M. Nonnao, RanMei in Tueatan.— D. Charnsy, Aneitnt Cititt </ the Ifew World.— See, also, Mexico: Ancuutt, and Aztec axd IIata Pictube-Writino. Majoruna, or Barbndo. See aboTe: Andb- ■UNR. Menomineet. See above: ALOoxquuK Fax- ILT, and Sacs, &c. Hetbacs. See above: ALoonqciAK Family. ' Miamis,orTwightweea. See above: Alqox- qcuN Family, iLLmois, and Sacs, &c. Micmaci. See above: A loonquian Family. Minp^ocs.— " The name c' Mingo, or Itlengwe, by which the Iroquoia weri linown to the Dcla- rtre* and the other louthe. n Algonlcins, is said to be a contraction of the l- -pe word 'Ma- hongwi,' meaning the 'People >. the Springs.' The Iroquoia poeseued the head- <ter8 of the riven which flowed through the cou try of the Delawares."— H. Hale, The Iroquou Book of Bitet, app., note A. Minneconjou. See below: Siouam Family. Minaetarect.* See above: Uidatsa; and below: SiocAX Family. Miaquaa. See below: ScBcjcEBASirAg; and above: ALnoxquiAX Family. Minsis, Manseea, or Miniainkt See above : Delawares, and ALOoni^nAN '.'"amiiy. Hiranba. See above: Gick on Cov-o Group. , Missourif. See below: Siouan Family. I Mixes. See below: Zapotecs, etc. Mixtecs. See below : Zapotecs, etc. Mocovis. Sec below: Pampas TRinES. Hodocs (Klamatha) and their California and Oregon neighbora.S-" The principal tribes occupying this region [of Northern California from liogue Ilivcr on the north to the Eel Kivcr. south] nrc the Klamaths, who live on the licaii waters of the river and on the shores of the lake oftlmt name; the Modocs. on Lower Klamalh Lake ami along Lost I,'ver; the Shastas, to the (outh-wost of the Ijikes; the Pitt River Indi.ins- the Eurocs, on the Klamath River between WeiUpek and the coast; the Cahrocs, on the Klamath River from a short distance above the junction of the Trinity to the Klamath Moun- tains; the Hoopahs rr)r llupas, a tribe of the Athanascnn Familv] in Uoopah Valley on the Tnnity near its junction with the Klamath- mimprous trilws on the coast from Eel River and llmiil)()ldt Bay north, Euch as the VVeovots Wallics, Tolewahs, etc., and the Rogue ftivcr Indian_ . on and alwut the river of that name. The >orilicm Califomians are in every way superior to the central and southern tribes "— li. H. Bancroft, T/if Natire Jiaea of the Fiinfie «a<M, r. 1. M. 4.— "On the Kkmath there live three distmct tril)c», called the Yvirok, K^-rok. anil Mo^lok, which names are said to mean MDfiiively, -down the river," 'up the rivir" aud 'hcMl of the river.' ... The Karok ai^ prolmhly the finest tribe in California. HiKipa Valley, on the Ix)uer Trinitv, Is the home of .the Ilii-pS], Next after the' Ka-rok they are the finest race in nil that region, and AMERICAN ABORIOINEa thev are the French in the extended dUTusion of their language." The'Modoks, "on the whoto ... are rather a cloddish, indolent, ordinarilr good-natured race, but treacherous at bottom. Bulle-. when angered, notorious for keeping Punic faith. But their bravery nobody can Impeach or deny; their heroic and long defense of their stronghold against the appliancea of modem civilized warfare, including that arm so awful to savages— the artillery — was almost the only feature that lent respectability to their wretched tragedy of the Lava Beds [1873]."— 8 Powers, Tribee of California (Contributiont f N. A. Ethnology, e. 8), eh. 1, 7, and 27.— "The home of the Klamath tribe of southwestern Oregon lies upon the eastern slope of the south- em extremitv of the Cascade Range, and very nearly coincides with what we may call the head watere of the Klamath River, the main course of which lies in Morthem California. • '..■ "^^ '"*'° **■' °' "'^ Jlodoc peonle was the J»"ey of Lost River, the shores of Tule and of Little Klamafi Lake. .*. . The two main bodiea forming the Klamath people are (1) the Klamath Lake Indians; (2) the Modoc Indians. The Klamath Lake Indiana number more than twice as many as the Modoc Indiana. They speak the northern dialect and form th« northern chief- taincy. . . . The Klamath people possess no historic traditions going further back in time than a century, for the simple reason that tliere was a strict law prohibiting the mention of the person or acts of a deceased individual by using his name. . . . Our present knowledge docs not allow us to connect the Khtmath language genealogically with any of the other language* compared, but . . . it stands aa a linguistic family for Itself."— .\. 8. Oatschet, The Klamath Indiane (Contributiont to N. A. Ethnolngy, v. 8, pt. 1).— In Major Powell's linguistic classifica- tion, the Klamath and Modoc dialects are em- braced in a family called the Lutuamian Family derived from a Pit River word signifying "lake;" the Yuroks In a family called the Weltspekan; and the Pit River Indian dialectl ftm nrnvi linnnllir ant. ar\af* tn » Alctt^^t. t II.- theVev.„ex<T themin th< r .t»terr.?r.;.Hil V ""'*' 'T '"olu-nne from Scli.x>Icraft. the 1 v. — "- —- - ■• *»..v» Aiiuinu uinii:\:u are provuionallv set apart in a distinct family named the Pa.alhnihan Family.— J. \f. Powell, Setenih Annual Heport, Bureau of Ethnoloau no 89 and n. "^ "^n-yf- Mohares (MojaTes). See above: Apacbob Qhocp. Mohawks. See above: Iroquois Coh- FEDEIUCY. Mohegans, or Mahicans. See above: Al- ooN(juiAN Family; and below: Stockbiiidoe I.n- dlvnb; also, New £.\aLAND: A. U. Itl37. Montagnais. See nlwvc : ALooMiiiAS Fam- ily; and Atilapabcan Family. Montauks. See above: Alookquiam Family. Moquelumnaa FamUy.-" Derivation: From the river and hill of the same name in Calaveras County, California. ... It was not until 18.58 that the distinctness of the linguistic family was fully set forth by Latham. '^ ,,ier the h.ad of Moquelumne, this author gathers several vi«abu- laries representing different languages an.l dia- lecU of the same stock. These are the TuhituI of Hale, the Tuolumne from SclKwIcnift the . - . , - — ...... — --.^.-inii. nii-i It l...Mii(!iilar imiuence, or perhaps brute force, w ile.i lliov exeniso over the vicinal trihta. I hey are ilie Romans of Northcm Callfomi.i in Bielr valor and their wide-ri'aching dominions ; • .Sic Noll', .Vpiwiidix i;_ y„|. j_ 2Q J yem vocabulary, theChocuyem and Youliiousme patemostera, and the Olaraeutke of Kostro- mitonov in BUers Beitrtlge. . . . The Moque- lumnan family occupies the territory bounded 1 ! iwif sii 'IM' ;l AMERICAN ABORIOnnEa •D the north hy the Coaumne River, on the eoath by the Fresno River, on the east hr the Siem Nevada, and on the west br the San Joaquin Kiver, with the exception of a atrip on the east banli occupied by the Cholovone. A part o( this h r ily occiipfcs also a territory bounded on the south by San Francisco Bay. "—J. W. Powell, Smnth Annual Sept., Bureau of Ethnology, PP- •3-93. Moquit. See below: Pueblos. I Moron*. See above: Ai^uesians. ' Moxos, or Mojoi. See above: Ahdbhaxb; also. Bolivia: Aboriginal Inhabitaiits. Mundrucu. See below: TcPL Munsees. See above: DELA.rAREi^, and Al,- ooNQi'iAN Family; also Maniiattas Island. Mura. See above: GucK or Coco Group. Muskhogean, or Matkoki FamilT.— "Among the various nationalities of the Gulf territories the Maskoki family of tribes occupied a central and commanding position. Not only the large extent of territory held by them, but also their numbers, their prowess In war, and a certain degree of mental culture and self-esteem made of the Masliokl one of the most important groups In Indian history. From their ethnologic con- dition of later times, we infer that these tribes have extended for many centuries back in time from the Atlantic to the Mississippi and beyond that river, and from the ApaUchian ridge to the Gulf of Mexico. With short Intermissions they kept up warfare with all the circumjacent Indian communities, and also among each other. . . . The irresolute and egotistic policy of these tribes often caused serious difficulties to the govern- ment of the English and French colonics, and lome of them constantly wavered In their adhe- ■Ion between the French and the English cause. The American government overcame tlieir oppo- sition easily whenever a conflict presented itself (the S«'minoIe War forms an exception), because, like all the Indians, they never knew how to unite against a common foe. The two main branches of the stock, the Creek and the Cha'hta [or Choctaw] Indians, were constantly at war, and the remembrance of their deadly conflicts has now i ..ssed to their descendants in the foira of folk lore. . . . Tho only characteristic by which a subdivision of the family can be at- tempted, is that of hinguage. Following their ancient topograpliic location from ea.it to west, we obtain the following synopsis: First branch, or Maskoki proper: The Creek, Maskokalgl or Maskoki proper, settled on Coosa, Tallapoosa, ITpper and Middle Chatahuchl rivers. From these brnnclii'd oti by si'gnientation the Creek portion of the Seniinoles, of the Y&massI and of the little YaMacraw community. Second, or Apalachian b-ancli: This southeastern division, whioh may be called also ' a parte potior! ' the nitcliitl connfition, anciently comprised tho trilws on the Lower Clmfiihuelil river, anil, east from there, the extinct Apalachi, tho MikasukI, anil tliu llitchlli portion of the Seniinoles, Yd- massi and Yaninemws. Third, or Alibamu bmnch. compriw'd tho Alibamu villages on tho liver of that name ; to them belonged the Koas- iiti and Witumka nn Coosa river, its northern atflueiit Fourth, Westi'm or Cha'hta [Choctaw] braucii: From tlie main people, liie Clia'hlu, lettleil l\ the middle portions of the State of Mis- sissippi, the Cliicasa, Pascagoula. Bilnxi, Hums, lad other trilws onee became separated through •Srv Note, Appeuiiix E, vul. S, 10 AXKRIOAN ABORIOINE& •egmentatlon. The strongest evidence for s com- munity of origin of the Maskoki tribes is fur- nished by the fact that their dialects belong to one linguistic family. . . . Hask6ki, Maskogi, Istl Maak6kl, designates a single person of the Greek tribe, sad forms, as a collective plural, Maskokilgl, the Creek community, the Creek people, the Creek Indians. English authors write this name Muscogee, Muskhogee, and its plural Muscogulgeo. 'nie first syllable, as pronounced by the Creek Indians, contains a clear short a. . , . The accent is usually laid on the mid- dle sylUble: Mask6kl, Ma8k6gL None of the tribes are able to explain the name from their own language. . . . Why did tho English colo- nists caU them Creek Indians T Because, when the EngUsb traders entered the Maskoki counti; from Charleston or Savannah, they bad to cross a number of streams or creeks, especially between the Chatahuchl and Savannah rivers. Gallatin thought it probable that the Inhabitants of the country adjacent to Savannah river were called Creeks from an early time. ... In the southern part of the Cha'hta territory several tribes, repre- sented to be of Cha'hta lineage, appear as dis- tinct from the main body, «n<f are always men- tioned separately. The !irench colonists. In whose annals they figure extensively, call them Mobilians, Tohomes, Pascogoulas, B'iloxls, Mou- goulach.-», Bayogoulas and Humas (Oumas). They have all disappeared in our epoch, with the exception of the Biloxi {Major Powell, In the Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnol- ogy, pliwes the Biloxi in the Siouan Family),*of wiiom scattered remnants li%'e in the forests of Louisiana, south of the Ked River." — A. 8. Gats- chet, .4 Migration lyegendofthe Cretklndianf, 1. 1, pt. 1. — " 'The Uchees and the Natclies, who are both incorporated in tlic [Muskliogee or Creek] confederacy, speak two distinct languages alt* gether different from the Sluskhogee. "rhe Nat- clies, a residue of the well-known nation of that name, came from the banks of the Mississippi, and joined the Creeks less than one hundred years ago. The original scats of the Uchees were east of the Coosa and probably of the Chatahooehee ; and thev consi<ler themselves as the most ancier*, in- habitants of the country. They may have been the same nation which Is called Apalaclies in the accounts of Do Soto's expedition. . . . The four great Southern nations, according to the estimate j of the War Department . . . consist now [t8:(8] of 67,000 souls, viz.: The Cherokees. 1.5,000; the Choctaws (18,500), the Chicasas (5,600). 24.0(K)j the Muskhogees, Seminoles, and Hitehittees, 28,000; the Uchees, Allbamons, Co08a<la8, and Natclies, 8,000. The territory west of the Mis- sissippi, given or offere<l to them by the United States in exchange for their land.t east of that river, contains 40,000,000 acres, exclusively of what may be allotted to the C'liioasas." — A. Gal- latin, Stfnoprii of th« Indinn Trihte (Arehniliiyia Amrrimrui, t. 2), nert. 8. — S«'e below: S MINOI Ei Musquito, or Mosquito Indians. — ' That po^ tlon of llomiuras known as the Musquito Coast derived its name, not from the abunilume of those troublesome insects, but fnim h native trilie who at the discovery occupieil tlie shore near Blewfleld Lagoon. They are an iiiti llicint people, sliorl tu etaliire, uiiiibUhIIv (I„rk in <-' i'r, with finely cut features, and small straiglit noses — not at all negrot<l, except where there has been an admixture of blood. They uumlier o AMERICAN ABORIomEa ibont 6,000, manr of whom hare been p^rQj civilized by the efforts of missionaries, who hj>7: reduced the language to writing and published In it a numlierof works. TlieTunglasareone of the sub-tril < of the Musquitos."— D. Q. Brinton, ITu .-. riean Haee, p. 163.— See, also, Nicaraoua: A. D., 1850. NahiuM. See Mexico, ADcneirr: Tmc Hata AND Nadca Peoples. Nanticoke*. See above : Aloonqcias Fax- ILT. Napo. See above: Asdesiaxs. Narragansetts. See above: Alookqitiah Family; also KaoDK Island: A. D. 1636; and New England: A D. 1637; 1674-1875; 1675: and 1076-1678. Natchesan FamilT.— When the French first entered the lower Mfssissippi valley, they found the Natchez [Na'btchi] occupying; a region of country that now surrounds the city which bears their name. "By the persever- ing curiosity of Gallatin, it is established that the Natchez were distinguished from the tribes around tliem less by their customs and the degree 1 1 their civilization than by their language, which, as far as comparisons have been instituted, has no etymologlci.1 affinity with any other whatever. Here again the imagina- tion too readily invents tlieories; and the tradi- tion has been widely received th.it the rtfminion of the Natchez once extended even to the Wabash. Historr knows them only as a feeble and inconsiderable nation, who in the 18th century attached themselves to the confederacy of the Creeks. "— G. Bancroft, nM. qf tht IT. 8. (Authnr't Uitt rtc), «. 2, p. 97 "Chateaubriand, in his charming romances, and some of the early French ivritcrs, who often drew upon their fancy for their facts, have thrown an interest around the Natchez, as a scmi-civil'zed and noble race, that has passed into history. We find no traces of civilization in their architecture, or In their social life and customs. Their religion was brutal and bloodv, indicting an Aztic origin. They were perfidious and cruel, and If they were stall s\ipcrior to the neighboring tribes It was probably due to the district they occupied— the most beautiful, healthy and productive In the valley of the Jllssisslppt- and the influence of its attractions in substituting permanent for temporary occupation The residence of the grand chief was merely s sjiacious cabin, of one apartment, with a mat of basket work for his bed and a log for his pillow. . . . Their govern- ment w.as an absolute despotism. The supreme chief was miistcr of their labor, their property, and their lives. ... The Natchez consisted ex- clusively of two classes — the Blood Royal and its connexions, and the common people, the MIch-i-mioki-quIpe, or Stiukaris. The two classes understood each other, but spoke a dif- ferent diulecL Their customs of war, their treat nicnt of prisoners, their ceremonies of marriap', their fea.sts and fasU, their sorceries and witchcraft, differed very little from other savages. Father Charlevoix, who visited Nat- chez in 1721, saw no evidences of civilization. Their villa>;e» consisted of a few cabins, or rather ovccs, without windows and roofed with mat- K"a- "^"C liiiiiw uf the Suu was larger, piaKtpre<i with mud, Knd a narrow bench for a icat Biiil l«,l. No other furniture In the mansion If tins grand dignitary, who has been described •S« .N'l.t,. A 'I'viiilix K, v„l. i. 103 AMERICAN ABORIGINEa by imaginative writer* m the peer of Mont» lumal"— J. F. H. Claiborne, Mi„uKppi, 1. 1, eK 4.— In 1729, the Natchez, maddened by Insolent oppressions, planned and executed a general massacre of the French within their territory. As a consequence, the tribe was virtually ex- terminated within the following two years. — 0. Gayarre, Louitiana, iU Colonial Hitt. and Bomana, 2d mriet, Uet. 8 and 5.— •• The Na'btchi, according to Gallatin, a residue of the wel]-i known nation of that name, came fiom the! banks of the Mississippi, and joined the CreS less than one hundred years ago. The seashora' from Mobile to the Mississippi was then in- habited by several small tribes, of which the Nalitchi was the principal Before 1730 the tribe Uved in the vicinity of Natchez, Miss., along St Catherine Creek. After their disper- sion by the French in 1730 most of the remainder Joined the Chicasa and afterwards the Upper Creek. They are now in Creek and Cherokee Nations, Indian Territory. The linguistic rela- tions of the language spoken by the Taensa tribe have long been in doubt, and it is possible they will ever remain so."— J. W. Powell, iktenth Annual Sept., Bureau of Ethnoh^y, p. 96 —See Locislaxa: A D. 171»-1750.— Sec, also, above: MnSKROOEAN Fawlt. NatcUtocbea.* See Texas: The Abobioinai, Ihhabitants. Nansett. See above: Aloonqctiait Family. Narajot. See above: Atuap.isc.vn Familt, and APAcnE Orocp. Neutral Nation. See above: Htnioss, &c.i and iKoquois Confederacy : Tiieir Con- <)CE8T8, &c. , Nes Perces, orSahaptins.— "The Sahaptins or Nez Perces [the Shahaptian Family in Major Powell's classitlcatlon], with theiralliliated tribes, occupied the middle and upper valley of tlM Columbia and its affluents, and also the passos of the ii -mtains. They were in contiguity with the Sho!!honcs and the Algonkin Blackfeet, thus hold'ng an important position, intermediate be- tween the eastern and the Pacific tribes. Hav- ing the commercial instinct of the latter, they made good use of it"— D. G. Brinton, Tht Ameriean Baee.p. 107. Also is J. W. Powell, Setenth Annual Bept, of the Bureau of Ethnotog)/, p. lot). Niniquiquilat. See below : Pampas Tkibes. Nipmncs, or Nipnets. Sec above: Aloon- qciAN Family; also. New Enolaxd: A. D. 1674- 1675; 1675; and 1676-1678 (Ki.no PniLiP's Wak). Nootkas. See below: Wakasu.vn Family. Nottoways. See above: Ii{o<)cou 'TiuBEa OF THE SOUTB. Nyantics. See above: ALooxqciAif Familt. O^alas. bee below: Siouan Family. Ojtbwaa, or Cbippewas.— "The Ojibways, with their kindred, the Pottawattamies, and their friends the Ottawas,— tlie latter of whom were fugitives from the eastward, whence they liad fled from the wrath of the Iroquois, were bonded into a sort of confederacy. They were closely allied in blood, language, Lumncrsand character. The Ojibways, by far the most numerous of the three, occupied the basin ot Lake Superior, and extensive a<ljacent rcirioos. In their boundaries, the career of Iroquoia conquest found at length a check. The fugitive Wyandots sought refuge in the Ojibway hunt- ing grounds; and tradition relates that, at the AUERICAK ABORtantsa AXBRICAK ABORIQINBa I ,t- ,« mtlet of Lake Superior, an Iroquott ws^p«tr onco encouotered ■ diaoitrout rrpulie. In their mode of life, they were far more rude than the Iroquoii, or even the louthera Algonquin tribes." — F. pRfkman, Contpiraq/ <^ J^mtiae, A. 1. — "The name of the tribe appeara to be recent It Is not met with In the oKicr wrltem The French, who were the earliest to meet them. In their tribal seat at the falls or Sault de 8ta Marie, named them Suulteur, from this circum- Itance. M'Kenzie uses the term ' Jibway,' as the equivalent of this term, in bis voyages. They •re referred to, with little difference in the orthographr, in General 'Vaabington's report. In 1754, of hfs trip to Le Bccuf, on Lake Erie; but are first recognized, among our treaty-tribes, In the general treaty of Oreenville, of 1794, In which, with the Ottawas they ceded the island of MIchilimackinac, and certain dependencies, conceded by them at former periods to the IVeoch. . . . The Chippewas are conceded, bv writers on American philidoKy ... to speak one of the purest forms of the Algonquin." — H. R. Schoolcraft, Information ritpteting tht Hi*t., Condition and Protfteti cf tht Indian Tribet, pt. 6,p. 142. Also at O. Copway, 27t< Cgibwaf Sation. — J. O. Kohl, Kitchi-gami. — See, also, Pontlic's Wxn; ami above: ALOoaqciAN Family. Omahas. See below: Siouas Familt, and Pawnee (Caddoax) Fahilt. Oneidaa. Bee above: iBoqcon Cosfxdbb- ACT. Onondaga*. See above: Inoquois Cokro- bbact. . Orejones. See below; Pampas Tiubes. ' Osages. See below: Siocam Familt, and Pawnee (Caodoan) Familt. OtoesiorOttoes. Seo bi-low: Siocas Familt, •nd Pawnee (Caddoan) Familt. Otomis. — "According to Aztec tradition, the Otomis were the earliest owners of the soil of Central Mexico. Tbcir language was at the conquest one of the most widely distributed of any in this portion of the continent Its central rc-gions were the States of Queretaro and Guan- ajuata . . . The Otomis are below the average ■taturi<. of dark color, the skull markedly dolicho- cephai: , the nose short and flattene<l, the eyes slightly oblique."— D. Q. Brinton, Tht Amtri- tan Rut, p. 185. Ottawas. See above: ALOonquiAK Fajolt, and Ojibwas. — See, also, Pontiac's Wab. Pacaguara. See above: Andesiaks. Pacamora. See above: Andebians. Pamlicoes. See above : ALooNqciAN Familt. Pampas Tribea. —"The chief tribe of the Pampas Indians was entitled Ouerandis by the Spaniards, although they callea themselves Pe- huclches [or Puclts — that is, the Eastern]. Vari- ous segments of these, under different names, occupied the immense tract of ground, between the nver Parana and the republic of Chili. The Querandia . . . were the great opponents to settlement of the Spaniards in Buenos Ayres. . . . The Ancas or Aracauoos Indians [see Chile] resideti on the west of the Pampas'near Chili, and from time to time assisted the Q.icran- dis in transporting stolen cattle across the Cor- diiieruM. Tlit' mmtheru part uf the PauipuS was occupied by the Batchitas, Uhilches. Telmel- ches. and others, all of whom were liranehes of the original Quelches horde. The Guaroni In- '104 dlaos were the most famous of the South Ameri- can race*. . . . Of tlieQuayanas horde there were several tribes — independent of each other, and speaking different tdioms, although having the same title of race. Their territory extended from the river Guaral, one of the amuents into the Uruguay, for many league* northwards, and stretched over to the Parana opposite t^'s city of Corpus ChristL They were some of thi most vigorous opponentii of the Spanish invader& . . . The Nalicurgua i^Uians, who lived up to near 21° S. lat were reputed to dwell in caves, to be very limited in number, and to go entirely naked. The Gausarapos, orUuuchiesdweltintM marshy districts near where the river Gausarapi^ or Guuchie, has its source. This stream enten from the east into the Paraguay at 19° le* 80" a lat . . . The Cuato* lived inside of a lake to the west of the river Paraguay, and constituted a very small tribe. . . . The Orejones dwelt on the eastern brows of the mountains of Santa Lucia or San Fernando — close to the western side of Paraguay river. . . . Another tribe, the Niniquiquilaa, had likewise the names of Potie- ros, Simanos, Barcenos, and Lathanos. Thev occupied a forest which began at about \V B. lat, some leagues backward (rom the river Para- guay, and separated the Gran Chaco from the province of Los Chiquitos in Peni. . . . The Guanas Indians were divided into eight separate segments, for each of which there was a particu. lar and different name. They lived between 20° and 23° of S. lat in the Gran Chaco to the west of Paraguay, and they were not known to the Span- lards till the latter crossed the last-named rivet in 1673. . . . The Albaias and Puvagiias Indians ... in former times, were the chief tribes of the Paraguay territory. . . . The Allwias were styled ^iM'hicjis and Enimgas by . her authors. At the time of the Sn^oiards' arrival here, the Albaias occupied thu mn Chaco siile of the river Para" \ey from 20° to 22° 8. lat Here they entc' 'nto a treaty offensive and defen- sive with ^^ Payaguas. . . . Tlie joined forces of Albaias a Payiiguas had managed to extend their territory m 167d down to 24° T 8. on the eastern side of Paraguay river. . . . The Al- baias were a very U\\\ and muscular race of people. . . . The Payagua Indians, before and up to, as well as after, the periixi of the con- quest, were sailors, and domineered over the river Paraguay. . . .The Guaicurus live<l on the Chaco side of Paraguay river and subsisted en- tirely by hunting. From the 1 .rl>arous custom whJch tneir women had of iadiic ing abortion to avoid the pain or trouble of child-oeuriug, they became exterminated soon after the conquest. . . . The Tobas, who have also the titles of Natec<Et and Yncanaboite, were among the beat fighter* of the Indians. They occupj the Gi-un Chaco, chiefly on the banks of the river Virmejo, and between that and the Pilcomayo. Ol these there are some rec lins in the present dnv. . . . The Mocovis are likewise stilt to be founti in tl-.e Chaco. . . . The Abipoiies, who were also styltil Ecusgina and Quiabenabaite, liveii in the Cbiucu, so low down as 29° south. This was the tri' -> with whom the Jesuits incorporated, when thiy erected the city of ban Geronimo, in the Gnm Chaco, and nearly oppuoile Goya, iu 174ti." — T. J. Hutchin»on, The Parana, eA »-7.— "The AM pones inhabit [In the 18th century] the provides Clisco, the centre of all Paraguay! they have no AMERICAN ABORIOINSa AMERICAN ABORIOINEa filed abodes, nor mj boundarie*, except what fear of their nelghboun baa establiahed. Tbejr toam extemlvely in every dirrction, wheneT>!r the opportunity of attadt'"^ their enemies, or the necessity of avoiding thtm rei-^ers a Journey advisable. The northern shore of the Rio Orande or Bermejo, which the Indians call Iflati, was their native land in th? hist century [the 17th]. Thence they removed, to avoid the war carried on against Chaco by the Spaniards . . . and, migrating towards the south, toolc possession of a valley formerly held by the Calchaquis. . . . From what region their ancestors came there is no room for conjecture. " — M. Dobrlzhoffer, Aect. of the Abiponrt, t. 2, ch. 1. — "The Abipones are In general above the middle stature, and of a robust constitution. In summer they go quite naked; but in winter cover themselves with skir.5. . . . They paint themselves all over with different colours."— Father Charlevoix, Hitt. of Paraguay, bk. 7 (r. 1). Also a The SUncard Natural Butorg (J. S. Kingly, ed.), r. «,pp. 296-2C3.— 8e<; also, below: Tl'PI.— GCARAJtl Pampticoket. See above: Ai/joitquuN Family. Pano. See above: Andesiani. Papacot. See below: Ptman Fault, and PtJEBLOS. Parawianai. See above: Cabibs asd TBKm KiSDRKD. Pascogoulaa. See above: Mcskbooeak Family. Pass<. See above: OccK OR Coco Qrocp. Patagoniant and Fueffians. — " The Patago- nians call themselves Chonek or Tzoueca, or liiaken (men, people), and by their Pampean neighlxirs are referred to as Tehuel-Che, southern- ers. Tlicy do not, however, belong to the Au- canian stock, nor do they resemble the I'ampeans physically. They are celebrated for their staturr, many of them reaching from six to six feet four Inches In height, and built 'n proportioa In color they are a rediiUIi brown, and UL j aquiline noses and giKid foreheads. They care little for a sedentary life, and roam the coast as far north as the Rio N'egro. ... On the inhoepiuble shores of Tierra del Fuego there dwell thr-5 nations of diverse stock, but on almut the same plan . of culture. One of those is the Yahgans, or Yapoos, on the Beagle Canal ; the seconcT is the Onaa o' Aonik, to the north and east of these; and tl third the Aliculufs. to the north and west . . The opinion has been advanceil by Dr Oeniker of Paris, that the Fuegians represent the oldest tvpe or variety of the American race. He be- lieves that at one time this type occupied the whole of South America south of the Amazon, and that the Tapuyasof Brazil and the Fuegians are its surviving members. This interesting theory demands sHIi further eviaence before it can be accepted. "- O. O. Brinton, The Ameriean HMe, pp. 327-832. Pawnee Family (named "Caddoan" by Major Powell).— '•Th'( Pawnee Family, though 6<mie of its branches have long been known, is perhaps in history and language one of the least umlcrstood of the important tribes of the «est. !n Isiith rpsprcts it seema to eonitltulu a distinct group. During recent years its extreme northern and southern branches have fvlnce»l a tendency to blend with surrounding Itocks; but the central branch, constituting the Pawnee proper, maintains still in ita advanced decadence a bold line of demarcation between itself and all adjacent trilies. The members of the famllv are: The Pawnees the Arikaras, the Caddos, the Uuecos or Wacos, the Kecchies, tbe Tawaconies, and tbe Pawnee PIcW or Wichltaa. The laat five may be designated as the Southern or Red River branches. At the date of tlie Louis- iana purchase the Caddos were living about 40 miles northwest of where Shreveport now standi. Five years earlier their residence was upon Clear Lake, in what is now Caddo Parish. This spot they claimed was the place of their nativity, and their residence from time immemorial. . . . They have a tradition that they ar the parent stock, from which all the southern br, '^es nave sprung, and to some extent this claioi has been recog- nized. . . . The five [southern] Innds are now all gathered upon a reserve secured for them in the Indian Territory by the Oovenunent. . . . In many respects, their method of building lodges, their equestrianism, and certain social ana tribal usages, they quite closely resemble the Pawnees. Their connection, however, with the Pawnee family, not till recently if ever mentioned, is mainly a matter of vague conjecture. . . . The name Pawnee is most probably derived from ' p&- rlk-I,' a horn; and seems to have been once used by the Pawnees themselves to designate their peculiar scalp-lock. . From the fact that this waa the moet noticeable feature in their costume, the name came naturally to be tbe denominative term of the tribe. The word in this use once prolmbly embraced the Wichitas (I. e.. Pawnee Pictf) and the Arikaras. . . . The true Pawnee territory till as late as 1838 may be described as extending from the Niobrara south to the Arkan.sas. They frequently hunted considerably U'vond the Ax- kansas; tradition says as far as the Canadian. ... On the east they claimed to the Missouri, though in eastern Nebraska, by a sort of tacit permit, the Otoes, Poncas, and Omahas along that stream occupied lands extending as far west as tbe Elkhom. In Kansas, also, east of the Big Blue, they had ceased to exercise any direct con- trol, as several remnants of tribes, the Wyandots, Delawares, Kickapoos, and lowas, had been set- tled there and were living under the guardian- ship of the United States. ... On the west their grounds were marked by no natural boundary, but may perhaps be described by a line drawn from the mouth of Snake liiver on the Niobram southwest to the North Platte, thence south to the Arkansas. . . . It is not to be supposed, how- ever, that they held altogether undisturbed pos- session of this territory. On the north they wei« incessantly harassed by various bands of tiie Da- kotas, while upon the south the Osages, Coman- ches, Cheyenncs, Arapuhoes and Kiowas (the last three originally northern tribes) were equally re- lentless in their hostility. ... In 1833 the Paw- nees surrendered to the United States their claim upon all the above descrilxid territorr Iving south of the Platte. In 1838 all their reniaitiing terri- tory was ceded, except a reserve 30 miles long and 15 wide upon the Loup Fork of the Platte, It* esstaru limit beginning at Beaver Creek. In 1874 they sold this tract and removed to a reserve srrured for thcra by the (iuveruuieut in the In- dian Territory, between the Arkansas and Cimar- ron at their junction."— J. B. Uunbar, Th4 I'avnee Indiane {Mag. of Am. Uitt., April, 188% 105 pffl i M ^ AMERICAN ABORIOINE& Atao IN O. B. GrinncII, Paunee Hero Stone*. — D. O. Brinton, The American Race, pp. 95-97. — .1. W. Powell, SereiM An. liept. of the Bureau of EthnoUigy, p. 59. — Sec, iilso, above: ADAiHmul BLArKFEET. Payaguas. See nbovo: Pampas Thibeb. Penuelchei, or Puelti. See aboru : Pampas Triiiks. Penacooks, or Pawtucket Indians. See above: Aloonijiian Family. Peoriaa. BtM'alMivi': Aloonqcian FAMtLT. Pequots. See above: Aloonquian Family; and below: Suawanksk; also. New Enouaku: A. D. J637. Piankishawt. See above : ALoo!n)Cl an Faji- ILT, and Hai'h. >!cr. Piegana. Heo above : Blackfeet. Piman Family. — " Only a small portion of the territory oceupii'd by tliis family is incliuled witliin the Vuited States, the greater portion being in Mexico, where it extends to the Uulf of California. The familv is represented in the United States by three tribes, Pima alta, Bobaipuri, and Piipapi. The former have lived for at least two centuries with the Mariropa on the tiila KirerabiMit lOU miles from the mouth. The Sobaipuri occupied the Santa Cruz and San Pedro Kivers, triliularies of the Gila, but are no longer known. The Papago territory is much more exten.sive and extends to the south icross the bonh'r." — J. W. Powell, Serenth Annual Kept., Bureau of la/ino^jgy, pp. 98-99. — See below: Pi EHI.08. Pimenteiras. See above: Qcca OB Coco Ohoi r. Piru. Seentiove: AM>KSfAS«. Pit River Indian >. See above : Moixx» (Ela- ^ATIIS), Ac. Piutes. See lulow : Siio«HO!(F.AS Family. Pokanokets, or W mpanoa^s. See alnive : ALoo.Mii IAN Family; also. New E.N<ii.ANi): A. I>. 1874-1673; 1075; 1870-1678 (Kuiu PuiLir » Wah). Pcnkaa, or Puncat. Bee below: Sioian Family: and above: l'AWNEE(CAI)IH>A.N)FA.MtLY. Popolocas. .SvalKive: Ciiontals. Pottawatomiet. See aliove: Aluoniji'IaM Family, (Ijihha^ and Mais, 4c. Powhatan Confederacy. — "At llie time of the tlr^t hellli'iiiint by the Euro|H'anH, it has been eHtiniatrd that there were nut more than 3U,(MN) IniiiaiiK within the limits of the Sute of Virginia. Within a ciriiiit of 60 miles from Jamestown. Ciiiilaln Snii.'i says then; were about JS.tttMl wiida, and of tliese scarce L.^tK) were warriors. The whole territory U'tween the moiintaitiM and the wa was tHciipled by more than 4" lrilif<, :W of wlioni were uuilcil In a con- fi-ilerHcy iiiMhr I'lmhalan, whiwu domliiionn, hereditary an I :u ijiilnd by conquest, compriMct Ui« whol" iiiiin i> iH'twii'ii the rivers James and Potoniai and > Meiiiled into tlie interior as far as the fall:< of (he principal rivers. t'Hnipbell, in bis History "( Mr^'iriia, slates the number of Powlwlans Mi'ijicls til have lieen 8,000. Povi . halan was a riiiiarkalile man ; a sort of savage NHpoleoii, who, liy the fun i' of his character and the miperiiiriiy oi bin taleiiis, had raided hiniMlf from llic rank of a ihIIv eliieftnin lo something of liniM'Hal dik'iiity and pnwir. He had twn nUi,., .,f It!.. .:< . oiK •<<Ur,i i'i.ahitUii, v-UiiA- nlehiiioiid now Mands. and the other at Wrrowo. eontuvo, on thu uurtli side of York iUver, wilhlu ]()0 AMERICAN ABORIGINES. the present county of Gloucester. . . , Besides the largo confederacy of which Powhatan was the chief, there were two others, with which that was often at war. One of these, called the Mannahoacs, consisted of eight tril)cs, ami occu- pied the country between the liappahannoc and York rivers; the other, consisting of five tribes, was called the Monacaus, and was settled iH'tween York and James rivers above the Falls. There were also, in addition to these, many scat- tering and independent tribes." — Q. S. Ilillard, Life of Citpt. John Smith {Library of Am. Biog.), eh. 4. — "The English invested savage life with all the dignity of European courts. Powhatan was styled 'King,' or 'Emperor,' bis principal warriors were lords of the kingdom, his wives were queens, his daughter was a ' princess,' and bis cabins were his various seats of resi- dence. ... In bis younger days Powhatan fasd been a great warrior. Ilcreilitarily, he was the chief or werowance of eight tribes; through con- questhisdomlnionshadlKcnextend.-i'. . . , The name of his nation and the Indian appellation of the James Itiver was Powhatan. He himself possessed several names." — E. Egglestou and L. E. Seelye, I'ueahmta*, eh. 8. Also in Capt John Smith, Deteription of Tir- finia, and General Ilintorie of Va. {Arher'i reprint of Woria, pp. Wi and MO). — See, also, above: AxooN«jfi.\!( Family-. Puans. See U'low : Siot.'AN Family. Pueblos. — "The nonuomadic semi-civilized town and agricultural peoples of New Mexico and Arizona ... I call the Pueblos, or Towns- pc'ople, from pueblo, town, population, people, a name given by the Spanianis lo sui h inhabi- tants of this region as were found, when first discovered, permanently liK'ateil in comparatively well-built towns. Strictly siM'aking. the term Pueblos applies only to the' villagers s«-ttled along the banks of the liio Urande del Norte and its tributaries between latitudes W K' and W 30', und although the name is einplovcd as a general appellation for this division, it will be used, for tlie most part, otdv in its narrower and popular Nense. In this iliviKJoii, besiiles the before im nlloueil Pueblos pM|sr, are embraced the Moquis, or villagers of eastern .Vrizoua, and the mm iKunadic agnculturtdnal ions of the lower (iiU river,— the Pimas, .Mari<-oim8, Papsgus, and cognate tril)es. The conntry of the "Towiis. people, If we may credit I.ieuieimiit Simi>s<in, Is one of ' almost universal barrenness.' yet inter- BjHrsi'd with fertile s|>ols; thai of the agrii ultural nations, though dry, is more generally pro- ductive. The fame of this so called civilizatinn reached •Mexico at an early ilay . . . iiiixaggir aled rumors of great cltiis to the north, whii li prom I ted the expeditions of .Mario de .M/a in I.ViW. of Coronailo in l.%40. and of 1;»|h jo lo !■>« |1.'>h;>j. These adventurers vWteil llie north >ii quest of the fabuh>us kingdoms of Oulvlrn, 'Tontontj'ac, Manita and others, in whii li griul riches wen: said lo exist. The iianii' of cjtdvint was aftcrwanis applied In tliriii to one or mi ro of the pueblo cities. The imini' (ilsila. from Cilsilo. Mexican hull. 'Ih>s l>i»oii. ' orwikt ox cf New Mexico, wher- the Spanianis tirst encoun- tenil bullalo, was given to seven of the lowni which Were aflerwanis known as the ,s<!»in t ilies ..f (iU.ia. itill lli.».l ot Ihe kiiiailln kii.<»u at the pr M'ht day were mentioned in the n port* u( Um ear(jr •xpeilitions by their pn sent uauiea P. H % AilERICAK ABORIGINES. AMEMCAV ^BOMGINEa . . . The towns of the Pueblos are eascntially unique, and arc the dominant feature of these aboriginala Some of them are situated in valleys, others on mesas; sometimes they arc planted on elevations almost inaccessible, reached onlv by artificial grades, or by steps cut in the solfd rock. Some of the towns are of an elli[>ti- cal shape, while others are square, a town being frequently but a block of buildings. Thus a Pueblo consists of one or more squares, each enclosed by thrt'C or four buildings of from 800 to 400 feet in length, and about 150 feet in width at the base, and from two to seven stories of from eight to nine feet each In height. , . . The stories are built in a scries of gradations or re- treating surfaces, decreasing in size as they rise, thus forming a succession of terraces. In lome of the towns these terraces are on both sides of the building ; in others they face only towards the outside ; while again in others they are on the inside. These terraces are about six feet wide, and extend around the three or four sides of the wiuarc, forming a walk for the occupants of the story resting upon It, and a roof for the story liencath; so with the storiea above. As there is no iimer communication with one another, the only means of mounting to them is by ladders which stand at convenient distances along the scvenU rows of terraces, and they may be drawn up at pleasure, thus cutting off all unwelcome Intrusinn. The outside walls of one or more of tlie lower stories are entirely solid, having no openinirs of any kind, with the c-vcention of, in some tiiwns, a few l<H)pholes. ... To enter the nMtmson the ground HiHir fMm the outside, one must mount the loilder to the first balcony or tcrnKc, then descend through a trap door in the tlocir liv another Imider on the inside. . . . The sevcnif stories of these huge structure* are dividt'd iiuo multltuilinous compartments of greater or less si/.i', which are apportioned to the scvirsd fumilk'S of the tribe " — H. H. BancMft, X'ltirf tiiifetof the J'anJIe f^<itet, r. 1, eh. 5 — "Tliire can be no doubt that Cibola Is to t)e IcHiki'l for in New Mexico. . . . We cannot . . . ri'fiisc ti) adopt the views of Oenerat Simpson and '<! Mr W. \V. II. Davis, and to look at the puebhiof Ziifilas occupying. If not the actuni site, lit leant one of tile "sites within the tribal area of the Sivrn ("Itles of I'lbola. Xor can wc refuse to id.ntify Tuxjiyan with the Moqui dis- trict, .mil Aeiico with Aeoma."— .V. F. Ban- deller, Hint. Inlnnt. to Stiidia umitngth4 Stdentnry Jiuli,ii,i of \. .tfcTiVw {l^ipfrt of the Airhavlog. Init. '/Am.: Am. Srie*. r. I). Alwi in ,I. H. Himpson, Th)i Itarrh nf Cony- luulii —\^ II, .Morgan, Ihutet and Ilaiue-life nf l^t Am. A^riffines ((hntributioni in A'. ,.l«i mw-t'-m. T. 4), M. 6— F. 11. Cu.ihing, My Ailniilnrctin Xufli(<'rtiliirg. t. 8-4). — The same, fourl'i Annwl liriit. nfth* Hurrau of lilhn,'{.>qy (I»W'.'-n:|i.;V..478-IW).-F, W. Hlackmar, «;m',iVA Ihttitnlifiia nf Ihr SiHlhifett. eh. 10 — See. also. Amkhica, Prriiintohic. and above: PiM.\!< F.\jiii.v and Krrksan Family. Pujunan Family. — ■ The following trilws Win' |iliiied ill thi' group by Ijitlmm: Pujuni, Si.iimiie. Tsaiimk of Hole, and the Cusliim of H< hcMili mft. The name adopted for the funiily i* the 11. Lino of n tfilw given ov Hale. This v.:U "111' "f llie two races into which, upon the Infor- matliin of Captain Sutter as derived by Mr Dana, all the Sacramento tribei wets believed to Pawnee (Caodoah) CniLE: A. D. 1490- PiocAX Family. Pampas Tribes. See be divided. ' These races resembled one another in every respect but language. ' . . . The tribes of this family have Ix-en carefully studied by Powers, to whom we are indebted for most all we know of their distributiou. They occupied the eastern bonk of the Sacramento in California, beginning some 80 or 100 miles from Its mouth, and extended northwani to within a short dis- tance of Pit River."—,!. W. Powell, Serenth Annual Sept., Bureau of Ethml'tgy, pp. 99-100. Puncai, or Ponka*. See below: Siovan Family; and above: Family. Puninuuidaii*. See 1724. Quapawt. See below Quelchet. Sec above Querandis, or Pehuelchei, or Puelta. above: Pampas Tribes. Quiches.— Cakchiquels.— " Of the ancient races of America, those which approached the nearest to a civilized condition spoke related dia- lects of a tongue, which from its principal mem- bers has been called the Maya-Quiche lingidstio stock. Even to-day, It is estimated that half a million persons use these dialects. They are scattered over Yucatan, Guatemala, and the adja- cent territory, and one branch formerly occupied the hot lowlands on the Gulf of Mexico, north of Vera Cruz. The so-called ' metnipi'litan 'dia- lects are those spoken relatively near the city of Guatemala, anil include the" (akcliiiiuel, the tjiilclie, the PokonchI and the Tzutuhill. They arL- quite closely allied, and are miitiiully intelli- gilile, resembling each otliiT alxiiit as much as did in ancient Greece the Attic, Ionic and Doric dia- lects. . . . The clvillztttloii of these people waa such that they uscil viirious mnemonic signs, approaching our alphalwt, to riinrd and recill their mytliology and hL^tnry. Fragments, more or less complete, of these traditions have been preserved. The most notalile of them is the national legend of the Quiihes of Guatemala, the so-called I'opol Vuh. It was written at an un- known date In the Quiche dialect, by a native who was familiar with the ancient n'conls."— D. O. Brinton, Uta j/t of an Amerininiat, p. 104. Also in The some, .lri/i<i/» <)^M« Cai-eMmelt. — H. 11. Bancroft, Xntire HaWt of the l\ieijie State*, eh. 11. — See, also, above; MAYAa Qulchnu. Sec I'KRr. Quijo, Sec above ; Andesiass. Quonttcan Family.— " The tribes occupy both batiks of the lower Klamath from a raiige of hills a little above Happy Camp to the jutirtlon of the Trinity, and the Salmon Ulver from its mouth to its sources. On the north. Quoratean triliea extcndeil to the .\tliapaM'an territflry near theOn-gonllne." — ,1. W, Powell. .SrivnM Annual Rtpt, liiirrau of Kthni)l<xj<i, p. 101, Rapid Indiant.~A luiine applied by varioua writers til the ArapalnM'.'i, and ullier triln-s. Raritant. See alnive; AinnxqiiAX Family. Remo. See alHive: Amiksiws, Rogue River lodiaoa.* See alxive: Modocs, ETC. Rucanai. See Perc, Sabaja. Si-o above ; GfCK or Coto Groit. Saci (Saukii, Foset, etc.— 'The Sauks or H.-.i!kii» iWhitr. CUy'., anil Y'^%-=.~.T OntBgsm'r?. Bocnilwl by the Europeans and .Vleoiikins, but whose true name is Miuquakkiiik (Kid Clay), are In fact but one natlun. The French miHtunarie* •8«« Note, AcimnJia E, vul. t. 107 ' i . tit •l AMERICAN ABORIQINEa on coming flnt in contact with them, in the year 1863, at once found that they apolce the same lan- guage, and that It differeu from the Algonkin, though belonging to the same stock ; and also that this language was common to the Kickapoos, and to those Indians thev called Maskootens. This lost nation, if it ever bad an existence as a dis- tinct trll)e, has entirely disappeareil. But we arc informed by Charlevoix, and Mr. Schoolcraft cor- roborates the fact, that the word ' Hasrcmlenck ' means a country without wikkIs, a prairie. The name Maacontens was therefore used to designate ■prairie Indians.' And it appears that they con- sisted principally of Sauks and Kickapoos, with an occasional mixture of Potowotamies and Miamis, who probably came there to hunt the BuiTalo. The country' assigned to those Slascon- tcns lay south of the Fox River of Lake Michi- San and west of Illinois River. . . . When first iscovered, the Sauksand Foxes had their si ii» toward the southeru extremity of Green Bay, on Fox River, and generally farther east than the country which they lately occijplcd. ... By the treaty of 1804, the Sauks and Foxes ceded to the United States all their lands east of . . . the Mississippi. . . . The Kickapoo* by various treaties, 1S09 to 1819, hiive also cedi'd all their lands to the United t tc -. They claimed all the country U'tween the Illinois River and the Wubash, north of the pamllel of latitude passing b^' tlie mouth of the Illinois and south of the Kankakee Riv. . . . . The territory claimed by the .^Ilaiiii» ni. > Pianlvisliaws may be generally stated us lia\ inglxin Iwuniledeastwattlly by the Maunwu River of Ijike Erie, and to have In- clude<l all the country drained by the Wabash. The Pianklsliaws occupied the country twrder- ing on the Ohio."— A. Uallatin, Sf/nopni of tKe Jrutiiin Trihet {Ai:-h,r.il,iyi,i Aiiuriaitui, r. 2), ititrml, ttef. 2.— Tlie Mo-icontins, or Mascoutlns, "w'Idiim ttp|H>ar alone, but almost always in contiictiiin » itli their kindretl, the Uttagamies or Foxi » and the Kick.ipoos, and like them bear a cUanicter fur tnaclury and dect'lt. The thn-c trllxs may have in earlier days formed the Fire- Natiiiii [iif the early Kn'Ueli writers], but, as Giillatln oliwrves in the Archn'oloiia Americana, it is very doulitful wlutliir the ItUscoutins were ever a (llslinet tribe. If this lie so, and there is no ri'asiin to reject It, the disappearance of the name nill nut lie strange," — J. G. Shea, liri^ U<i>iirfhf% li'iijirf linn thr Miitf'tuliru (.SrhaUeritfVt Iiif"rm.ilioH /{ftikrlii.y ImUnn Trihtt, }it. 4, p. 24."ii.— iSie alMive. Al.diivijii an Family.— For an aci"iint of the Uluck Hawk War tux Illinois, A. u i«a-,' Sahaptmt. 8<t above: Xf.z Percics. Salinan Family —This iianic is given by Mal..r I'liwill til till' SiiM Antonio and San Miguel dUliilK >4|iiikcn by twd trilK's on the Sniiiiiui Rivir, .M.iiit.r.y C.Mmty. Califoniia. — J. W. I'liwill, Snnth .'.ni,',.il 'lUi'irt. Ihin.tu vf Klh- ««/.»/», V I"' — ^>|' I^-II.KNIAN Faiiii.v. Saliihan Family. Sealmve: Flatiieads, Sanhikans, or Minceet. tSee above: Aixum- «JfHN FvMII.V. Sans Arcs. S<h1h1(iw: Sioian Familt. Santeei.* Si'e iH'liuv Mm am Family, Sarcee iTinnehi.* SiealKn.-: BLACKtcer Sastcan Famdy.— The single tribe upon the L.....I, r ...i.j,.i. II..I.. i.-.-^.-i 1.1. .- - - liKiiiid by him t.i ilie Miutliweslof tile l.utuanil or Klamath tribts. . The former ttrrlUiry of • Uit Nott, ApiwiiJiA K, v.,1. ft. log AMERICAN ABORIOIXES. the Sasteaa family Is the region drained by the Klamath River and ita tributaries from the western base of the Cascade range to the point where the KUmath flows througii the ridge of hills east of Happy Camp, which forms the boundary between the Sastean and the Quoratean families. In addition Ui this region of the Kht- math, the Shasta extended over the Siskiyou range northward as far as Ashland, Oregon.""— J. W. Powell, Settnth Annual Jiepl., Bureau of Ethndon, p. 106. SaTmaiuUis. See above : AixjONqut an Familt. Seminolet. — "The t»'rm 'senunole,' or 'IsU Siman61e,' signifies 'separatish' or 'runaway,' and as a tribal name points to the Indians who left the Creek, especially the Lower Creek settle- menU, for Florida, to live, hunt, anil fish there in independence. The term does not mean ' wild,' 'savage,' as frequently stated ; if applied now in this sense to animals, it is because of its original meaning, ' what has become a runaway. ' . . . The Seminoles of modem times arc a people compounded of the following elements : separa- tisU from the Lower Creek and Ilitcbiti towns; remnants of_^ tribes partly civilized by the Spaniards; Yamasst Indians, and some negroes. . . . The Seminoles were always regarded as a sort of outcaiu by the Creek tribes from which they bad aecedea, and no doubt there were reasons for this. . . . These Indians showed, like the Creeks, hostile intentiuus towaMs the tliirteen states during and after the Reyolullon, and cr jointly with the Upper Crei'ks on Tall.ii-- .,1 river concluded a treaty of friemlship with the Spanianis at Pensni la in May, 1784. Although under Spanish contml, the Seminoles entereil into hiwtilities with the Americans in 1703 and 1813. In the latter year Payne miko [' King Payne' j was killeil in a liattle at Alarhua, and his brother, the influential Bowlegs, died sikiii after 'These unruly triliea surpriseii and maannered American settlers on the Satilla river. Georgia, in 1817, and another conflict tx'gan. which terminated in tli« destruction of the Mika.suki and Suwanec river towns of the Seminoles by General Jackmin. in Atiril, 1818. [See Flouiua: A. D. 1816-1818.) After the ceasiim of Florida, and itslnrtiriHiretiim Intothe American Unliin(l810). the Seminiiies gave up all their l4'rrilory by tlie In'aty of Fort Mimltrle, Sept. 18th, 18'i3, ri'celvinglne.xVhangegiHiiUaiiii annuities. When tlic guvemmeut conrliiileil to m<n-e these Indians west of the Mississippi river, a tn'aty of a conditional charactir was con eluded with them at Poyne's landing, in 1832 The larger portion were ri'iniiveil. but the more stulilmm part dlssenletl. and thus gave origin to one of the gravest confiiits wlilih ever isiurrrl iH'tween Indians and whites. The Semituile \> iH-gan with the niassaen' of Major Datlen ri>r. mand near Wahoo swamp, IVcTmlier 2«lh. \xXt, and ciintinueil with unabated fury for five .Man. entailing an immense expenditure of mone'v uinl lives, l,S,« Fl,i>Kll)A A. I», 1HI«V-I84!r) A numliei of Creek warriors jiiln«l the hoatlh' 8emlii"li-< In 18;w. A census iif the Heniimln taken in IMSi gave a population of 8.8W9. with MtHI negroids lieloiiKliig to them The population of tlw Seminoles In IIm- Indian Territory ainotinli H U) 8,667 ill 1881. . . . TlH-n- are some Siniinoli- now in Mexico, who went there with their negM slivrs. ■ .\. S. Qathiul, .i ifii/rMi,.,, L:/,.„i ./ IhtCrtrkJndiant.r. I. pi 1. s«<, a — " Ever ulnie the am wttlemeut of Utesv ludlaui In Florida i AMERICAN ABORIOntj!^. they h»ve been engaged ta % itrife with the whites. ... In the unaoimous judgment of unprejudiced writers, the whites have ever been in the wrong."— D. O. Brinton, Ab«e» on the Floridian Penintula, p. 148.— "There were in Florida, October 1, 1880, of tl>e Indians com- monly known as Heminole, 208. They consti- tuted 37 families, living In 23 camps, which were gathered into five widely separated groups or settlements. . . . This people our Ouvemment has never been able to conciliate or to conquer. . . . The Beminole have always lived within our borders as aliens. It is only of late Tears, and through natural necessities, that anj- friendly intercourse of white man and Indian has lieen secured. . . . The Indians have appropriated for their service some of the products of European civilization, such as weapons, implements, domestic utensils, fabrics for clothing, &c. Mentally, excepting a few religious ideas which they received long ago fn)m the teaching of Spanish missionaries, anil, in tho southern settle- ments, excepting some few Spanish words, the deminole have accepted and Appropriated prac- tically nothing from tho whito man."--C. Mac- Cauley, Tht SeminoU Indian* of Florida {Fifth An. Rept. of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1883-84), introd. and cK. 4. Also ra J. T. Sprague, The Floriila War — 8. O. Drake, The Aiortffin-rl RaeaofX Am.. Ik. 4. eh. 6-21. — See, also, above: Muskboobas Familt. SenecMj their oame. — "IIow this name ori>[inutrd Is a 'vcxata qusstio' among Indo- antiijuarians and etymologists. The least plausi- ble supposition is, that the name has any refen-nce to the moralist Hencca. Some have supposed it to be a corruption o' the Dutch term for Vermillion, cincbar, or cinnabar, under the assumption that the Henecas, being the most warliltc of the Five Nations, used tliat pigment more than the others, and thus gave origin to the name. This hypothesis is supported Dy no authority. . . . The name 'Scnnecas' first appiiirs on a Dutch map of 1616, and again on Jeiin (Ic Laet's map of 1633. ... It is claimed by some that tho word may be derived from 'Sinnckox,' tho Algonquin name of a tribe of Indians spoken of in Wassenaer's Histoty of Europe, on the authority of Peter Barenti, who lrad«i with them aljout tho year 1626. . Without assuming to solve the mystery the writer contents himself with giving some ' u. which may possibly aid others in arriving • ti'WMe coneluslnn. [Here follows a discussion of the various forms of name by which tho Henecas designated themselves and were known t" the Hunins, fnmi whrm tho JesulU first lieardof them.) Hy d^ol)pin^• the neuter pre- liJt O, the national title became 'Nnn-do-wah- Kiuih. ' or • The grvat hill people, ' as now used by tlie Heneoas. ... If the name 8en«a can legitl nmtely Ih- derive,! fn)m tlic Henera w,.nl • Nan ilo- wuhgaah' . . . It ran only be done hv prefixing '.Son.' as Has tho cuKtom of the Jesuits, «n<i iln.pplng all unnecessary letters. It would then I'lrr.i the word 'Ron non-iio-waga.' the first two snd Isst syllables „f which. If the French soun.ls of the letters ar»; given, arc almost identical In I'riinunclation with Henera Tl'" 'h'"' d'lBcu'tv i"|«ever, wonkl he In the disposal of the two i"i;*rll.ious »yllabhMi. They may hare been uroppcd ha the procesa of coutractiun so common 109 AMERICAN ABORIGINES. In the compoaltloD of Indian words— a result which would be quite likely to occur to a Seneca name, in its transmission through two other languages, the Mohawk and the Dutch. The foregoing queries and suggestions are thrown out for what they are worth, in the absence of any^ more reliable theory."— O. H. JIarshall, HutoriealWntinge.p.m.-%tea.hove. Iroquou ConrsDKRACY, andHuRONs, Ac. —See, also PoN- TiAc'8 War, and for an account of Sullivan's ex- pedition against the Senecas, see United States o' Am. : A. D. 1779 (AfousT — Septembbh). Slucaya. See above: An desians. ShahaptiM Family. Sec above: Niz PEBc£a Shaataa. See above : Sabtkan Faxilt Shawantae, Shawneci, or Shawanoea. — Adjacent to the Lenape [or Dclawares — see above], and associated with them in some of the most notable passages of their history, dwelt the Shawanoea, the Chaouanons of the French, a trfbo of bold, roving, and adventurous spirit. Their eccentric wanderings, their sudden appear- ance! and disappearances, perplex the antiquary, and defy research; but from various scattered notices, we may gather that at an early period they occupied the valley of the Ohio; that be- coming embroiled with the Five Nations, they shared tho defeat of the Andastes, and about the year 1672 fled to escape destruction. Some found an asvlum in the country of the Ix-napc, where they lived ttnanta at will of the Five Nations; otuers soujjht refuge in the Carollnas and norida, where, true to their native Inatincta they soon came to blows with the oTvners of the soil. Again, turning northwards, they formed new settlements in tho valley of the Ohio, where they were now suffered to dwell in peace, and where, at a later period, they were joined by such of their brethren as bad found refuge among the Lenape."— F. Parkman, The cJn-^ epiraey of I^ntiaf. ch. l._"The Sluiwnees were not found originally in Ohio, but mlgnitoil there after 17S0. They were called Chaouanons by the French snd Shawanoes by the English. The English name Shawano changed to Shawanee and recently to Shawnee. Chaouanou an<i Shawano are obviously attempts to reiireseut the same sound by tho orthography of the t«u re- spective languages. . . . Much imlustry haa been used by rei-rnt wriUTs, e«|)ecially bv Dr Brinton, to trace this nomadic tribe to its original home; but I think without sucicM. . . We first find the Shawano in actual history about the year 1660, anil living almig the runilwrlanil river or the tiimlwrland and Tennessee. Among the coniecluri'sastothelrcarlierhliitorv. the grc«n»t probability lies for tho present wi'th the earliest account — tho account given by Perrot. and ap- parenllv obulneil by him from the Slmwanoes thenutel.^s, alxiut tho year 1«H0 — that they formeriy lived by the lower lakes, aiul were driven thence by tho Five Nations "— M p Force, S>nu Kitrlv \oliff* ofthf Iiuli'ifin pf Ohio —"Their [the Shawnee's] dialect U nmre akin to the Mohegan than to the Deluwar,'. and when, In 16BJ, they first apjieanil in the area of tho Eastern Algonkin I'onfeilerarv they came as the friends and relatives of the" former Tl>:y w<m ^(vi,!r,i Istr, f:„ir hxauU "- - 1*1, ,u» proneriy Plkoweu, Mequachake, Kiscapokoke' ChUicolhe. "Of these, that which setthil in Fenaaylvaoia was the Plkoweu, who occupied if , i' m ii AMERICAN ABORIOINES. •nd gave their name to the Pequa Taller In Lan- caster county. According to ancient Mohcgan tradition, the New England Pequods were mem- bers of this band. " — D. O. Brinton, Tht Lenape and their LegeruU, eh. 2. — The same, The 8ha\t- neet and their Migralionii (Uitt. Stag., t. 10, 1886), — "The Shawanese, whose villages were on the western bank [of the Susquehanna] came Into the valley [of Wyominc] from their former localities, at the 'forks of the Delaware' (the junctinn of the Delaware and Lehigh, at Eostun), to which point they hnd been induced at some remote periotl to emigrate from their earlier home, near the mouth of the river Waliasb, in the 'Ohio region,' upon the Invitation of the Delawares. 'This was Indhm diplomacy, for the Delawarcs were desirous (not being upon the most friendly terms with the Hlngos, or Six Nations) to accumulate a force against those powerful neighbors. But, as might be expected, they did not long live in peace with their new alllf. . . . The Shawanese [about 1*55, or soon after] were driven out of the valley by their more powerful neighbors, the Delawares, and the condict which resulted in their leaving it grew out of, or was precipitated by, a very trifling incident. While the warriors of the Delawares were engaged upon the mountains in a hunting expedition, a number of S(iuan's or female Indians from ilaughwauwame were gather- ing wild fruits along the margin of tlie river below the town, where they found a number of Shawanese sq' ws and tlii'ir children, who hud crosiieil the river in their canoi-s upon the same busini'Sii. A child belonging to the Shawaiiise having taken a large grasshopper, a quarrel arose among the children fur the possession of it, in which tlirir mothers soon took part. . . . 'The quarrel became general. . . . Upon the return of the warriors Ixjtli tribes prepared for batHe. . . . The Shawanese . . . were not able to sus- tain the conflict, and, after tlie loss of atM)Ut half their tril)e, the rcmainiler were forced to flw lo their own side of the river, shortly after whiih Ihev ahiindiiued their town and removitl to the Ohfo." This war betwwn the Delawares und Bliawanese ha-s been calletl the flrasshopper War. — L. H. Miner, The Yalltn of Wyimiiig. p. 82.— See. also, above, Ai"'mqciA» Family, and Dela- ware*.— See, alw, PoKTiAC's Wah; I'mtkd States or Am. : A. D. ITeS-HeS; and (fur an account of " L<ml Dunmnre's War") see Ohio (Valley): A. I). 1774. Shcepcatcrt (Tukuariki), Sec below: Siio- RUoNKAN Family. Sheyenne*. Sec al>ove . AixiongriAN Family. Shosliooean Family, — "This iiiiiiiirtaut family iMciipled a large part of the great Intiriur basin of the United States. Upon the mirth 8h(»lii>nean tribes extendetl far into On'gnn. meeting hhnliapllan territory <in about the Itth parnlU 1 or along the Dlue Mountains. Upon the DortlK'i^t the lastirn limits of the pristine Imlii- tat of the Shuiiliiiuean tribes are unknown. Tlic narrative of I^wis and Clarke contains the cxplirit stnt< mint Unit the Shoshotd liands tu- countiTed upi'n tlie .Ii'lTenum Uiver. wlmsi' nuni- mer home was upon the head waters of the Columbia, formerly lived within tlulr own recolliitlon In the plains to the east of the lli«iy Uotinlnms, wiience thiy were liriven I" liuir mountain retri'ats l>y the Miunetaree (.\tslna), who hiul obtained Ilreanus. , . . Luter a divl- •:>»•• X"|p, A|>|H'ii.li« K, vi.l. }, 1 ^HERICAK ABORIOIXES. sion of the Bannock held the finest portion of Southwestern Montana, whence apparently they were being pushed westward across the moun- tains by Blackfeet. Upon the east the Tukuarika or Sheepcatera held the Yellowstone Park country, where they were bordered by the Siouan territory, while the Washaki occupied south- western Wyoming. Nearly the entire moun- tainous part of Colorado was held by the several bands of tho Ute, tlie eastern and southeastern parts of the State being held respectively bv the Arapaho and Cheyenne (Algonquian), anu the Kaiowe (Kiowan). To the southeast the Ute country included the northern drainage of the San Juan, extending farther east a short dis- tance into New Mexico. The Comanche divi- sion of the family extended farther east than any other. . . . BouVgcmoiit found ■ Comanche tribe on the ui'iHT Kansas River in 1734. Accord- ing to Pike Ilie Comanche territory bordered the Kaiowe on the north, the former occupying the head wai s of the Tpper Ited River, Arkan- sas and Rio Oranoe. How far to the southward Shoshonean tribes extended at this early period Is not linown, though the evidence tends to show that they raided far down intoTexaa, to the terri- tory they have occupietl in more recent years, viz., the extensive |ilains fnmi the Rocky Moun- tains eastward into Indian Territory and Texas to about 97°. Upon the south Shoshonean terri- tory was limited generally by the Colorado River . . . while the Tusayan (Moki) hod es- tabllslied tlieir seven pueblos ... to tlie east of the Colorwlo Chi(|uito. In the s ithwest Slio- shonean tribes liad poshed across i ilifornia, w- cupying a wide ban. country t< the Paciflc." — J. W. Powell. .St ...,, Anninil Htpl., Hiireuu of Ethnology, pp. 109-110.— "The Pah Utes oc- cupy the greatiT paa of Nevada, and extend southward. . . . The Pi Utes or Piutes inhabit Western Utah, from Oregon to New Mexico. . . . The Uosh Utes lUosuites] inhabit the coun. try west of Great Salt Lake, and extend to the Pah Utes." — II. II. Bancroft, Xatit* Hat f of tht Paeijle Statu, t. 1, eh. 4. Siktiua, or Sisikas. See above: Blackfeet. Sionui Family. — Sioux,* — "The nations which Break the Sioux language may be con- sidcrc' In rttennco both to their reBwcllve dialecu and to their gi-ogniphiejil position, as consisting of fmir sulMllvislons, viz., tlie Winne bagoes: the Sioux proper and t! !• AstiinllHiiiH. the Mineture group: and the • iges and oilier southern kindnil triU-s. The u innebagiHS, so culled bv the .Mguiikins, but ealltnl Piiai!^ and also Otcuagnis by the Friueli, and lloroje i Ilith- eaters') by Hie Onuihaws and other soutliirn tribes, call theniMives lltH'hungorab, or the "Trout' nation. Tlie Ureen Hay of Lake .Mii lil- gao derives its French name from theirs illiiyi' lies Puans). . . . Acconiing to tlie War Depart ment they amount [IKW] to 4.IXHI souls, ami up pear to cultivate the soil to a coiiaiderabledi grti' Their principal stnta are on the Fox lllvir i( I^ke Michigan, und towards the bends of iIk R«Kk River of the Mississippi. . . . The M.'.x proper, or Niiudownuiiis, names given to ilum by tile Algonkliis aiHl tlie Fri'nrh, callHieniwhcs Dahcotas, aii<i sometimes 'Oihente Shakiwns or the Seven Fires, and are divided Into wym bands or tritirs. clowly connei ti^d togrliur. iui apparently IndeiK'iident of each other. Thi y do Dut appear tu hav« b««ii known to the FreuJi AXEBICAK ABORIOINES. AM.?RICAK ABORIOINES. before the year 1660. . . . The four moat eastern tribes of the Dahcotas are known by the uam; of the Hendewahkaiitoan, or 'Oens du Lar,' Wabkpstoon and Wahk pakotoon, u' 'People of the Leaves,' and Hisitoans. . . Ihe three westerly tribes, the Yanktons, the Yanktonans, and the Tetons, \.andcr between the Mississippi and the Slissouri. . . . The Asslaiboins (Stune Indians), as ( hey are called by the Algonkins, are a Dalicota tribe separated from the rest oif the natiim, and on that account called Hoha or 'Rebels,' by the other Sioux. Tliey arc said to have made part originally of the Yainktons. . . . Another tribe, called Sheyennes or Cheyennes, were at no very remote period seated on the left bank of the Red River of Lake Winnipek. . . . Carver reckons them as one of the Sioux tribes; and Mackenzie inform* us that they were drivru uway by the Sioux. They now [1886] live on the heailwaters of the river Sheyenne, a south- western tributary of the Missouri. ... I have bcin, however, assured by a well-informed person wLu trades with them that they speak a distinct language, for which there is no European inter- preter. . . . The Minetares(MiuetarceandMinc- taries) consist of three tribes, speaking three diSerent languages, which belong to a common stock. Its affinities with the Dahcota arc but remote, but have a[ipearcd sufficient to entitle tliem to be considered as of the same family. Two of those tribes, the Mnndanvs, whose num- ber d(H'S not exceed l.SOO, and the statiorary Minetiires. amounting to 3,0(10 souls, including those r.'illi'il Annahawas, cultivaU) the soil, and live in villages situated on or near the Missouri, between 47^ and 48" north latitude. . . . The 'thinl Minetare tribe, is tliat known by the nume of the Crow or irpsaroka [or Absarokaj nution, probalily the Kceheetsiis of Lewis and Clarke. They iir'c an erratic tril>e, who hunt south of the Missouri, between the Little Missouri and the southeastern brunches of the Yellowstone River. . . Tlie southern Sioux co.isist of eight tril>c8, speaking four, or at most five, kindred dhilecta. Tlicir territory originally extended along the Mississippi, from oelow the mouth of tlio Arkansas to the forty -Ant degree of north lati- tude. . . . Their hunting grounds extend as far west as the Stony Mountains: but they nil culti- vate the soil, and the must westerly village on the Missouri is in about 100* west longitude. The three most westerly tribes are the Qua[>pas nr ArkauHns. at the nmutb of the river of that name, and tlie Umges and Kansas, who tnhabi tlie eiiiiiiiry south of the Missouri and of tue river K«ii!%ii«. , . . The Osages, properly Wau- saslie, Wire more numerous •■' >l powerful than any of llie neighbouring tribi ind per|K'tua!ly at war with all the other It i, without ex- npiing the KaiuMS, who « unie diuh'ct with themselves. TheyW' iially divided Into (Inat and Little ().<ui>; : aNiut furty vears iii;ci ulmoNt one half ot nation, known liy the name of Chaueera, or i iermont's bund, *|i.irilr<l from tue r"ht, and removetl u> the rinr .VrkansH. The villages of th<ise several siiMi visions are now [IHSe] on the healnuters of the river Osage, and of the Venllgri.s, a iiorthiTn tributary stream of the Arkansa. They amount toalHiut ".'i.tHIO souls, and have ceded a jMriiiiii of liiiir ininis t<i the L'nitetl Mates, re- nrvlug to themM'lvrs a territory on the Arkansa, south of ^' north latlttuW, oxtsiMUng (rum 9V 11 to I00» west longitude, on a breadth of 4{> to SO miles. Tlie territory allotted to the Cherokeea, the Creeks and the Choctaws lies south of that of the Osajj'c. . . . The Kansas, who have always lived on the river of that name, have been at peace with the Osage for the last thirty years, and intermarry with them. They amount to 1,500 souls, and occupy a tract of tbout 8,000,000 acres. . . . The five other tribes of this sub- division are the lownys, or Pahoja (Grey Snow), the Missouris or Neojehe, the Ottoes, or Wah- tootahtah, the Omahaws, or M^ias, and the Puncaa. . . . All the nations speaking languages belcUi^ing to the Qrca* Sirux jfamily may . . . be computed at more than 50,000 souls." — A. Gallatin, Sj/nnptig of t'^ Indian Trihtt (AreTtao- logia Amei'cina, t. ':), net. 1. — "Owing to the fact that 'Sioux' 1<, a word of reproach and means snake tr enemy, the term has been dis- carded by many later writers as a family designa- tion, and ' Dakota, ' which signifies friend or ally, has been employed in its stead. The two worus arc, however, by no means prop- erly synonymous. The term ' Sloui ' was used by Galktin in a comprehensive or family ».nse and was applied to all the tribes collec- tively known to him to speak kindred dialects of a widespread language. It is in this sense onljr, as applied to the linguistic family, that the term is here employed. "The term ' Dahcota ' (Dukota) was correctly applied by Gallatin to the Dakota tribes proper as distinguished from the other members of the linguistic, family who are not Dakotas in a tribal sense. The use of the term with this signification should be perpetuated. It Is only recently that a definite decision hai been reached respecting the relationship of the Catawba and Woccon. the latter an extinct tribe known to have lieen liniruistically niated to the Catawba. Gallatin thought that he was able to discern some affinities of th: Catawbau language with 'Muskhogce and even with Choctaw,' though these were not sufficient to liidui-e him tn class them togetU' r. Mr. Gatschet was the lirst ♦o call attention to the presence in the Catawba language of a considerable numlx>r of words having a Siouan afflrity. Recently Mr. Dorsey has mailc a criticu examination of all the Catawba linguistic material available, which has been materially increased by the labors of Mr. Gatschet, and the result seems to justify its in- clusion as one of the dialects of the widespread Slojan family." The principal trilH's in the Siouan Family named by Major Powi'U arc tlio Dakota (Including Santoe, Slsseton, Walipeton, Yankton, Yanktonnais, Teton, — the latter em- bracing Hrule. Sans Arcs, Blackfi-et, Minnecon- jou, Two Kettles, Ogu!ala, Uncpapa), AssiiialKilu, Umaha, Ponca, Kaw, Osage, tjuapaw, Iowa, Otoe, Missouri. Winnebago, .Mandaii, Oros Ven- tres, Crow, Tutelo, lliloxi (see MfBKIIooK.vX Famh.v). Catawba and W.iccon. — J. W. I'.. well, a tenth Annual Hept. of the Bureau of Ethnulogy, p. 113. Aljio i!« J. O. Dorwy, \Hgrationt nf Simian Trihrl {Af nnin A'lilu'riilint, r. iO. ifarrh). — The same, i... «n' Itiili^nis -if I/t<iitiitn,t iV.P. adilnuA.A.A S, 1898).— See. nliovr: HlIurSA. Sitietobs. See aU.ve Sioian K.tMii.v. Six Natlona. See above: Iiukjiuis Coh- r«DBn,\cT. SkittaKctan Family.— "A family design*- tiou . . . retained (or the tribes of the tjueea 1 ' i.i'M. mi' AKSPTCAN ABOniOINES. Charlotte Archipelago 'which hare usually been called Ilaida. From a comparison of the vocabu- laries of tlie Haida language with others of the neighboring Koluschan family, Dr. Franz Boas is incHned to consider that the two are g''uetically related. The two languages possess a consider- able number of words in common, but a more thorough investigation is reqnisi'e for the settlc- ,ment of the question." — J. '■»'. Powell, tvxnth {Annual Itrpt., Bureau of Ethm4ogy,p. 120. ' Snakes. See alwve : SBOsnuxEAN Family. I Stockbrid^e Indiana.—' ' The Stockbridgc In- dians wen' originally a part of the Ilousiitaimuck Tribe [Molicgans]. to whom the Ix'gislature of JL-tesatlmsetts granted or secured a township jafterward called Stockbridge] in the vnnr ITSi Their numlxT was increased by Wapp! m and Moliikanders, and perhaps also by lu au be- longing to several other tribes, both of New England and New York. Since their removal to New Stockbridge and Brotherton, in the western Sarts of New York, they have been joined by [ohcgans and other Indians from East Connecti- cut, and even from Rhode Island and Long Island."— A. GalUtin, Sl/nopti* of Indian Tribei [Arrhavlogta Amrriea.ia. t. 2), p. 85. Also is A. Holmes, AnnaUofAm., 1/36 (t. 2). — 8. O. Drake, Aboriginal Bacct, p. 15. Susquehanna*, or Andastes, or Conestogat. — " Dutch and Swedish writers speak of a tribe called Minquas; . . . the French in Canada . . . make frequent allusions to the Oandostoguis (more brieHv Andast&i), a tribe frieu<lly to tliclr allies, the Hiirons, and sturdy enemies of the Iroquois ; later still Pennsylvania writers speak of the Cipncstiigas, the tribe to which Logan be- longed, and the tribe which perished at the hands of the Pnxton boys. Although Gallatin in his map, fullowed by Bancnjft, placed the Andiistis n( • Ijxke Erie, my researcln-s led mo to correct uds, and Identify "the Hu»(iMehannas, 3Iinqua, Ando^t^s or Oundastogiies, and Cones- to^as as iK'ing all the same tribt', the firf.t name bemjj apparently an appellation given them by the \ irgiiiia triln-s; the second that given them It the Algonquins on the Delaware; while Oan- ilai.iiigue as the French, or Conestoga as the English wrote It, wos tlieir own tril)al name, meaning cablnpole men, Natio Perticarum, from 'Andusta,' a cabin-pole. . . . Prior to 1000 the Sus(iuehaunas and the Mohawks . . . came Into collisliin, and'tlio 8iis(|uehttnuas nearly ex- terminated the Mohawks in a war whitli lasted ten years." In 1847 they offeml their aid to the llurons against the IriMiuols, having 1,'MiO war- riors trained to the use of flreanns by thri'e Swedish soliliirs; but the proposed alliance fallid. During the third quarter of the 17th century tiny wem to have been in almost con- tinuous war with the Five Nations, imtil, in 1675, tliey wire completely overthrown. A parly of almut 1(K) relnat<\l into .Maryland oixt biianii' invi'lvdl there in a war with the coloni^i.H mill Were de»ln>ye<l. '■'riie rent of the trilK-, utii r making (jveVtutfs to l»nl Balti- more, Kiitiniiitcd to the Kive Nations, and were alliiwid to retain their ancient grounds. When l'enii.sylvaiiia was settled, llii'y iH'canie known as Coiieslogos, and were always friindly to the r"l"ii!«!« "f Penn. ss thev had !;!■!■!! Ui the Dutch and tSwedes. In 1701 CauixHlaniili, their king, inaile a treaty with Penn, anil in the docu- Blent they are stj'led MinquaS; Cdueatogoa, or '.v. .\..lc, AplH n.h.x K, v„|.5. 112 AHERICAIT ABORIGINES. Susquehantiaf. They appear as • tribe In a treaty in 1748, but were dwindling away. lu 1763 the feeble remnant of the triSe became iu- vlved in the general suspicion entertained by -c colonists against the led men. arising out of lassaeres on the borders. To escape danger the poor creatures took re'uge in Lancaster jail, and here they were all butchered by the Paxton boys, who burst into the place. Parkman, in his Con- spiracy of Pontiac, p. 414, details the sad story. The lost interest of this unfortunate tribe centra in Logan, the friend of the white man. whose speech is so familiar to all, that we must regret that it has not sustained the historical scrutiny of Brantz ISajbt {Tafiga/{fuU ; or Logan and Cant. Michael Crttap, Maryland Hitt. Soe., May. 1051 ; an<f 8r). Albany, 1867). Logan was a Cones- toga, in other words a Susquehanna."- >J. U. Shea, yote 46 to Oeorge Altop't Character of the Province of Maryland (Oowan'i Bibtiotheea Ameri- tana, 6). — See, also, above : IiuMil'Ois CoNrco- BRACT. Tacbie*. See Texas: Thk abobioinal m- DABITANT8 AKD TnG NAMI. Tacullie*. Bee below: Athapascan Faxilt. Taenaaa, See Natcheban Family. Takilman Family.*— " This name was pro- posed by Mr. Gatschet for a distinct language spoken on the coast of Oregon about the lower Itogue lUver."— J. W. Powell, SecentA Annual ^pf-, Bufau of Ethnology, p. 121. Talligewi. See above : Alleorans. TaSoan Family. -"The tribes of this family in the United States resided exclusively upon the lUo Grande and its tributary valleys from about 33' to about 86°. "—J. W.Powclf, t^ixnth An- nual liept.. Bureau of Ethnttlittry, p. 122. Tappant. See above: ALnoKiiriAK Family. Taranteena or Tarratinci. See above : Ab- NAKls ; also, ALOONqi'i AN Family. Tarascans.- " The Tarascaus, so called from Tama, the name of a tribal goil, had tlie reputa- tion of being the tallest and handsomest people of SIcxico. They were the inhabitants of the present State of .Mlehoacan. west of the valley of Mexico. According to their oldest traditions, or |)erhu|>s those of their neighlmrs, they had nii- grattHi from the north In company w'th, or about the same time as, the Aztecs. For some 300 years liefore the conipiest they had been a seden- tar)-, Bemi-civiliired people, maintaining their in- dependence, and progressing steadll> in culture. When first encountered by the Spaniards they wcri' quite equal and in some respects ahead of the Nuhuas. . . . In their costume the Taraiicos dlllered considerably from their neighbors. The feather garments which they manufactured sur- passed all others In durability and lieauty. C<it- ton was, however, the usual material. " —D. (). llrlnton, The Amrrimn Han, ;/. 136, Tarumi, Sec above: CAKiua and their KiK- DRICl). Tecuna. See above : Oitk or Coco Ohoit. Tebuel Che. See aliove: PATArio.NiANa Telmelchei. See aliove: Pami'ah Tkiiie*. Tcquestaa. SeelH'low: Timi'vi'ana.n Family. Tctont. See above: Bioian Fa; ilv. Ttntecai, or Tcnez. See lielow : Zapotccs, ETC. Timntjuanar Family, — The Tetjuestas. — " Beginning at the southeast, we first mei't the hisiiiric Timucua family, the tribes of which are extinct at the present time. ... In the Itlth , — — - —---J. » Mw Av/uikttT*a were n niipratory mople and a colluries gentium, whose eirliist liabitat is unknown. Their flrat men- ti»n occurs In 1719; at that time and ever since they roamed In the western and southern parts of what Is now Texas. "—J. W. Powell, Sntnlh Anri'ial li-pt.. Bureau of Ethnology, p. 126. Tontoi. See above: APACHBGnorp. Toromonoi. See BoLniA: Aborioikal w- nAllITANTB. Totooacos. — "The first natives whom Cortes mot on landing In Mexico were the Totonacos. Till y occupii'd the territory of Totonlcapan, now inclu(!c<l In tin- State of Vera Cruz. According to traditions of their own, they had resided there (<U0 vcars, moat of which time they were Inde- ixndcnt, though a few generations before the arrival of the .Spaniards tliev had been subjected liy tlic arms of the JJonteiumaa . . . ftjiagun diMTibes tliem as almost white in color, their hfwk nrtilicially deformed, but their features rpeulor and handsome. Robes of cotton lieaull- fully (ly.-d Bcrved them for gannents, and Iheir ii t Were covered with sandals. . These peop],. were hijrhly civilized. Cempoalla, their capital city, was situate about five miles fr^m the S.-1, at t^he Junctirm of two streams. Its houses v::f.- r., hrW'A asd mnrtar, and each Was cur- rMinilcd by a small garden, at the toot of which a Htnam of fresh wiiler was conductetl. . . Thn ntllnitles of the Totonacos are ilifflcult to m«t«'out, , . . Their language h»i many words 1 AlfERICATT ABORIOmsa t oentuiT the Ttmucua inhabited the northern and middle portion of the peninsula of Florida, and although their exact Umits to the north are unknown, they held a pirtion of Florida bordering on Georgia, and some of the coast islands in the Atlantic ocean. , . , The people ri'ceived its name from one of their TilUges called Timagoa. . . , The name means 'lord,' 'ruler,' 'master' ('atimuca,' waited upon, 'muca,' by servants, ' ati '), and the people's name is writ- ten Atimuca early in the l»th century. . . , The languages spoken by the Calusa and by the peo- ple next in onier, the Tequesta, are unknown to us. . . . llie Calusa held the southwestern ex- tremity of Florida, and their tribal name is left recorded in CalusahatchI, a river south of Tampa bay. ... Of the T?questa people on the south- eastern end of the jwninsula we know still less than of the Calusa Indums. There was a tradi- tion that they were the same people which held the Bahama or Lucayo Islands."— A. 8. Oat- schet, A Migration Legend of tAe Creek Indiant t. 1, pt. 1. Tinneh. See above : Athapascah FAim,T. TiTitint*. See abore; CABisa ahd thbib K»:dbed. Tlascalani. Bee Mexico: A. D. 1519 (Junb — October). T'linketi. See above : Athapascan Pamilt. Tobacco Nation. See above: Hcromb; and iBoqidis Confederacy : Their name. Tobat, See above: Pamp.vs TitiBEa Toltect. Sec Mexico. Ancient. Tonikan Family.— "The Tonika are known to have occupied throe localities: First, on the Lower Yaioo Uiver (1700) ; second, east shore of Mississippi Kiver (about 1704); third, in Avoy- elles Parish, I/)ui8iaua(1817). Near Marksville, the countv seat of that parish, about twenty-flve are now living."—.!. W. Powell, Seventh Annui:l "'£!■ ^""'^^ of Ethmlo^,p. 12.5. Tonkawan Family.- •'• The T6nkawa were a AHERICAK ABORI'^mES. from Maya rooto, but it has also many mora from the Nahuatl."—D. G. Brinton, The Amtri- can 'jtcf, p. 139. Tukuarika. See above : 8HOiHONiiANFAirn.T. Tupi.— Guarwii.— Tupnyaa.— "The first In- dians with whom the Portuguese came in con- Uct, on the discos ery of Brazil, called themselves Tupinama, a u-rn derived by Bamhagcn from Tupi and Mba, -^mething like warrior or noble- man; by Slartiu. from Ti'pi and Anamba (rela- Hve) with the signification 'belonging to the Tupi tribe. ' These Tupi dwell on the east coast of Brazil, and with their language the Portuguese were soon familiar. It waa found especially ser- viceable as a means of communication with other tribes, and this led the Jesuiu hiter to develop it aa much as possible, and introduce it as a universal language of intercourse with the Savages. Thus the ' lingua geral Brasilica ' arose, which must be regarded aa a Tupi with a Portuguese pronun- ciation. The result was a surprising one, for it really succeeded in forming, for the tribes of Brazil, divided in language, a universal mcani of communication. Wthout doubt the wide ex * -— -— — •™" ,-'■ " .v-wui, uvuuv but; wiue ex- tent of the Tupi was very favorable, especiallr rince on this side of the Andes, as far as th« Caribbean Sea, the continent of South America was overrun with Tupi hordes. . . . Von Mar- tins has endeavored to trace their various migra- tions and abodes, by which thev have acquh^ s sort of ubiquity in tropical "South America. ... This history . . . leads to the supposi- tion that, had the discovery been delayed a few centuries, the Tupi might have become the lord* of eastern South America, and have spread a higher culture over that region. The Tupi family may be divided, according to their fixed abodes, into the southern, nonhem,! eastern, western, and central Tupi ; all these an ngain divided into a number of smaller tribes. The southern Tupi are usually called Ouarani (warriors*, a name which the Jesuits first in- troduced. It cann< t be determined from which direction they cam. . The greatest number are m Paraguay and the Argentine province of Cor- rientes. The Jesuits brought them to a very high degree of civilization. The eastern Tupi, the real Tupinamba, arc scattered along the At- lantic coast from St. Catherina Island to the mouth of the Amazon. They are a verv weak tribe. They snv thev came frotn the south and west. The northern Tupi are a weak and widely scattered remnant of a large tribe, and are now in the p^>vlnco of Para, on the island of Maraio and along both banks of the Amazon. . , , It is somewhat doubtful if this peaceable tribe are really Tupi. . . . The central Tupi live in several irw hordes Iwtween the Tocantins and Madeira. . . . Cutting off the heads of enemii< is in vogue among them. , , . The Mundrucu , . o esfH'cially the headhunting tribe. The western Tupi all live in Bolivia. They are the onlv ouet who came in contact « itli llio Inca empire, and their character and manners show the iiilliienco of this. Some are a picture of iilvllic ».Mvety and patrianlial mildness."— rA* Sl'.indanl 'Xnt- unit Ilti^l. i.r. S. Kingtie//, ed.) p. «, ;i/. 24S-349 —"In fre(|iient contlguitv with the Tiiiii< wai uuoihcr su)«k, also widely rtlspera<'d I'l.rough Brazil, callwi the Tupuyas. of whom the lloto- cu'los in eastern Biazll are the mo.st promiuent tribe. To them also belong the Oes nations, south of the lower Amazon, and others. They 3 AMEBICAN ABORIOINE& AMERICAN ABORIOIXEa ■re on a low grade of culture, going quite naked, not cultiTating tiie soil, Ignorant of pot- tery, and Willi poorly made cauoes. They are doiichnccphalic, and must have inhabiteti the country along time." — D. O. Brinton, Haetiand Ptoplet, pp. 269-270. Turiero, See above: Crtjchab. Tttscaroraa. See above: lBu<)noia Cohtbd- SRAcv, and Iboqcois Tribes or the Soctb. Tntelocs. See above: Siouah Familt. Twightwees, or Miamis. See above: Iixi- IK>I8. I Two Kettle*. See above : Siou an Fahilt. I Uaupe. See above: OucK on Coco Oropp. Uchean Family. — "The pristine homes of the Tucbi are not now traceable with any degree of certainty. The Yuehi are supposed to have been visited by De Soto during his memorable march, and the town of Cofltachiqul chronicled by him, Is believed by many investigators to have stood at Silver Bluff, on the left bank of the Savannah, about 23 miles below Augusta. If, as is supposed by some authorities, Coflta- chiqui was a Yuchi town, this would locate the Yuchi in a section which, when first known to the whites, was occupied by the Shawnee. Later the Y'ucbi appear to have lived somewhat farther down the Savannah. "—J. W. Powell, Setmth AnniuU Sept., Bureau cf Bthnotogy, p. 120. Uhitchet. See above: Pampas TRiBBa. IJirina. See above: Occk or Coco Qrodp. Uncpapaa. See above: Siouan Family. Upsarokat or Abiarokai, or Crowa. 8m above: Siouam Family. Utahs. See above: Sbosbonsan Family. Wabenakiea, or Abnakia. See above : Abna- ES. Wacos, or Hnecoa. See above: Pawksb (Cadi>ua>) Family. Wahpetons. Sec above: Sioc an Family. Waiilatpuan Family. — "Hale established this f»mily and plueiHl under it the CaiUoux or Cayuse or Willetpoos, and the Molule. Their headquarters as indicated by Hale are the upper part (if the Walla Walla Itfver and the country about Mounts Hood and Vancouver."— J. W. Powell, Sectnth Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, p. 127. Waikaa. See above: Carib8 and thkib EiNIIKED. Wakashan Family. — "The above family name wiu baiivti upon a vocabular}- of the Waku^ih Indians, who, according to Qallatin, ' inlintiit the island on which Nootlia Sound Is situated. "... The term ' Wakash ' for this group of languages has since been generally Ignurinl, and in Us place Xootka or Nootka- Columbian has been adopted. . . . Though by no means as appropriate a designation as could be found, it seems clear that for the so-called Wakahh, Newitt^'e. and other allied languages lUsuallv assemuleii under the Kootka family, the jterm Wakash of I!<<6 has priority and must be retained. "—J. W. Powell, tktrnlh Annual Be- fort, Uurtati of Ethnoln<iy.pp. 120-130. Wampanoafs, or Pokaaoketa. See above: PoKANOKETS. Wapiiianaa. See above: Caribs and their KiSDIlED. Wappinfcra. See above : ALOosqinAii Fam- aY. Waraua. See above : CAJUBa and tbxibKik- DBSO. lU Waabakia. See above: SRoaHONBAN Family. Waahoan Family.— " This family is repre- sented by a single well known tribe, whose range extendea from Keno, on the line of the Central PsQ^fic Railroad, to the lower end of Carson Valley."— J. W. Powell, Seventh AnnuiU Be- port. Bureau of Ethnology, p. 181. Wichita*, or Pawnee Picta. See above: Pawnee (Caodoan) Family. Winnebagoe*. See above : Sioc an Family. Wishoakan Family.-" This is a small and obscure linguistic family and little is known con- cerning the dialects composing it or of the tribes which speak it. . . . The area occupied by the tribes speaking dialects of this kuguage was the coast from a Uttle below the mouth of Eel River to a little north of Had River, including par- ticularly the country about Humboldt Bay." — J. W. Powell, SetetUh Annual Beport, Bureau of Ethnology, p. 188. Witnmka*. See above: Mubsboukan Fam- ily. Woccon*. Bee above: Siouan Family. Wyandot*. See above: UuRONa Yamasia and Yamacrawa. See above: HCBKUOOEAN FAMILY. Yamco. See above: ANOBSlANa Yanan Family. — "The eastern boundary of the Yanan territory Is formed by a nuiice of mountains a little west of Lassen Butto and terminating near Pit River; the northern boundary by a line running from northeast to southwest, passing near the northern side of Round Mountain, three miles from Pit River. The western boundary from Redding southward is on an average 10 miles to the east of the Sacramento. North of Redding it averages double that distance or about 20 miles, " — J. W. Powell, tiertnth Annual Beport, Bureau of Ethnology, p. 135. Yankton* and Yanktonnaia. See above: SioCAN Family. Yncas, or Incaa. See Pebc. Yuchi. See atmve: Uchean Family. Yuy^uanongo. Sec above : ANDESiANa Yukian Family. — " Round Valley, California, subsequently made a reservation to receive the Yuki and other tribes, was formerly the cliit f seat of the tribes of the family, but they also extended across the mountaius to the coast "— .! W. Powell. ,Sf«n<A Annual Btpvrt, Bureau if Ethnology, p. 138. Yuman Family.—" The center of distribution of the tribes of this family is generally emi- sideri'd to be the lower t'olorudo ani'i tiiU Valleys." — J. W. Powell, Secenth Annual /.'»■ port. Bureau of Ethnology, p. 137.— See alxivp: Afache Qrocp. Yuncaa. See Perc. Yurok* or Euroc*. See above: Hoooca,<£c. Zaporo. See above: ANDtsiANs. Zapotecs, Mixtecs, Zoquea, Mixe*, etc — "The greater jmrt of Usxaca IMexittij and llie neiglil><>riug regions arc still occupied bv the Ziipjtees, who call themselves Didja za. There arc now alK>ut 2«.'5,OUO of tliem, aliout SO.OtJU uf whom speak nothing but their native tongue. la ancient times they constituted a power'al independent state, the citizens of which si"-'!!! !0 liave been quite as highly civilized as any meiu- ber of the Aztec family. They were agritul- turol and sedentary, living in viUages uuj constructing buUdiugt uf stone and mortar. TIm, ^'k k i^^i AMERICAN ABORIGINES. AMHON. moit renurkable, but bj no means the only, ■pecimeni of these still remaining are the ruins of Mitla. . . . The MIztecs adjoined the Zapocecs to the west, extending along the coast of the Pacific to about the present port of Acapuloa In culture they were equal to the Zapotecs. . . . The mountain regions of the isthmus of Tehuantepec and the adjacent portions of the states of Chiapas and Oaiaca are the habitats of the Zoques, Mixes, and allied tribes. The early historians drew a terrible picture of their ralor, savagery and cannibalism, which reads more lilce tales to deter the Spaniards from approaching their domains than truthful accounts. However this may be, they have been for hundreds of yean a peaceful, ignorant, timid part of the population, homely, lazy and drunken. . . . The faint traditions of these peoples pointed to the South for their origia . . . The Chinantecs inhabited Cbinantla, which is a part of the state of Oaxaca. . . . The Chinantecs bad been reduced by the Aztecs and severely oppressed by them. Hence they welcomed the Spaniards as deliverers. . . . Other names by which they are mentioned are Tenez and Teutecas. ... In speaking of the province of Chiapas the historian Herrera informs us that it derived its name from the pueblo so-called, ' whose inhabitants were the most remarkable in New Spain for their traits and inclinations.' Ther bad early actjuired the art of horsemanship, they were skillful m all kinds of music, excellent painters, carried on a variety of arts, and were withal very courteous to each other. One tra- dition was that they had reached Chiapas from Nicaragua. . . . Biit the more authentic legend of the Chapas or Chapanecs, as they were pro- perly called from their totemic bird' the Chapa, the red macaw, recite<l that the whole stock moved down from a northern latitude, following down the Pacific coast until they came to Soconusco, where they divided, one part enter- ing the mountains of Chiapas, the other pro- reeding on to Nicaragua. ' — D. O. Brinton, The Aintriean Raet, pp. 140-146. Also ix A. Bandelier, Rept. of Anhaological Tour in Maico. Zoqnts. — See above: Zapotecs, etc. ZuBian Family.— " Derivation: From the Cochiii term Suinyi, said to mean 'the people of the long nails,' referring to the surgeons of Zulil whii always wear some of their nails very long (fushing)."— J. W. Powell, Setenth Annual R(pi>rt, Bureau of Ethnotogy, p. 138. — See, above, PriBLos; also, America- Preqibtoiuc. AMERICAN CIVIL WAR. See Csited Statks op Am. : a. D. 1860 (Novbmbeb— De- CEMnERX and after.— Statistic* ol See same- A. n 1H6.5 (Mat). AMERICAN KNIGHTS, Order oC See United States or Am. ; A. D. 1864 (October). AMERICAN PARTY, The. See U.tiTED Statf.s or Am. : A. D. 1*52 AMERICAN SYSTEM. Tha. See Tabiw Leoislatios (Ukiteo States): A. D. 1816- 1 •*■,'». AMHERST COLLEGE, Th« foundinr of. hee hm'rATi4)N, MoDKR.s .AMHERST'S CAMPAIGNS IN AMER- ICA. See Canada (New Frasce): A. D. 1T58 lo 1760. AMICITIJE. AMIDA, Sicm oC— The ancient city of Amida, now Diarbekr, on the right bank of the Upper Tigris was thrice taken by the Persians from the liomans, in the course of the long wars between the two nations. In the first instance, A. D. 3.59. it fell after a terrible siege of seventy- three days, conducted by the Persian king Sapor in person, and was given up lo pillage and slaughter, the Roman commandt.-s crucified and the few surviving inhabitants dragged to Persia as slaves. The town was then abandonel by the Persians, repeopled by the Romans and recovered its nrisperity and strength, only to p!i.s.-i through a similar experience again in .503 A. D.. when it was besieged for eighty days by the Persian king Kobad, carried by storm, and most of its inhabit- ants slaughtered or ensUved. A century later, K. D. 603, Cbosroes took Amida once more, but with less violence.— O. Rawlinson, Seatnth Great Oriental Monarthy. eh. 9, 19 and 24.— See, also, Persia: A. D. 226-637. AMIENS. — Ori^n of lume. See Beloje. A. D. 1507.— Sorpriie by the Spaniardi.— Rccorenr by Henry IV. See Fbasce: A- D. 159»-159t! A. D. 1870.— Taken by the Germans. See PkaSCE: a. D. 1870-1871. See OuiLoa or Flakdibi. AMIENS, The Misc ot See Oxford, Pro- TISIOSS OF. AMIENS, Treaty of ( i say 1.— Negotiated by Cardinal W olsey, between llenry VIII. of Eng- Und and Francis I. of France, cstabliibing an alliance against the Emperor. Charles V. The treaty was scaled and sworn to in the cathedral church at Amiens. Aug. IS, 1.527. — J. S Brewer, Heijn of Il'nry VIIL, t. 2, eh. 26 ami 38 AMIENS, Treaty of (tSoi). See Fraxoc: A. D. 1801-1802. AMIN AL, Caliph, A. D. !m-%\Z AMIR. — An Arabian title, sijrnifviug chief or ruler. ' AMIRANTES. See M.iscarese Is- LANDS. AMISUS, Sieje of.— The siege of Amisus by LuculliJa was one of the important operations of the Third Mithridatic war. The city was on the coast of the Black Sea, between the rivers Halys and Lycu.'i: it is repre- sented in site by the mollem town of Sam- soon. Amisus. which was besi-ged in 73 B. C. held out until the following yi ar. Tyrannio the grammarian was among the'prisoners taken and sent to Rome.— G. Long, Dtdii,* of tU lijman ReixMie. r. 3, (h. 1 and 2. AMMANN.— TIUs is the title of the Mayor or President of the Swiss Communal Council or Gemeindcrath. Sec SwrnERLASD : A. U 1848- 1890. AMMON, The Temple and Oracle oC— The Ammonium or Oasis of Ammon. in the Libyan desert, which was visited by .\lex:»ndi'r the Great, has been identified with the oasis now^ known as the Oasis of Siwah. "The Oa»is <,i Siwah was first visited and described bv Brown.' in 1792; and i» identi;y with that of Ammon fully estab- lisheil by Major Rennell (' Oeog. of Herodotus," pp. .577-591). . . . The site of the celebrated temple and oracle of Ammon was first discovered by Jlr. HamiituD in 1868. " 'Its laraous oracle was frequently visited by Greeks fn)m Gyrene, aa well as from other pans of the Hellenic worid, and it vied in reputation with those of Delphi 115 AMMON. AMPHIKTTONIC COCKCIL. * i and Dfxlona."— E. H. Bunbuiy, IIul. nf Ana'fnt Qeog., ch «. ntet. 1, andth. 12, $ect. 1, and ru>te E. — An rxjM .lition of SO.OOO men gent by Cninbyses tc Amnion. B. C. BS5, is said to have perished in tli3 desert, to tlie last man. See Eotpt: B. C. 835-3:tt. AMMONITES, The.— According to the nnr- rative in Genesis zlx: 80-89, ttie Ammonites were descended from Ben-Ammi, aon of Lot's ''lecond duuijliter, as the Moabites came from Moab, the eldest daughter's son. The two people are inucli assix'iatc*! in Biblical history. "It it 'hard to avoid the conclusion that, while Moab was the settled and civilized half of the nation of Lot, the Bene Ammon formed its predatory and Bedouin scetion." — G. Grove, Diet, of the Bible. — See Jews: Tue Eablt Hebbew History ; also, AMMONITI. 8c( Florencr : A. D. laW. AMNESTY PR'SCLAMATION. See United St.\tks OP Am. A. D. 1868 (DECRMnER). AMOOR, OR AMUR, The. Sec SinEHi.i. AMORIAN DYNASTY, The. See Btzah- inre Empire: A. U 820-1057. AMORIAN WAR, The. — The Byzantine Emperor, Theopliilus, in war with the Saracens, took and destroyed, with peculiar animosity, the town of Zapetra or Sozopetra, in Syria, which happened to be the birthplace of tho reigning caliph, Motassem, son of Uaroun Alraschid. The caliph had condescended to intercede for the place, and his enemy's conduct was personally insult- ing to him, as well as attxiciously inhumane. To avenge tlic outrage he invaded Asia Minor, A. D. 838, at the head of an enormous army, with the speciiil purpose of destroying the birthplace of Thcophilus. The unfortunate town which suf- fered that distinction was Amoriuni in Phrygia, , — wlieni'fc the ensuing war was called the Amorian I War. Attempting to defend Amorium in the 'field, the Byznntines were hopelessly defeated, and the doomed city was left to its fate. It made an Iicn)ic resistance for flfty-flve days, and tho siege is said to have ost the caliph 70,000 men. But 111' entered the place at last with a merciless sword, and left a heap of ruins for the monument of his revenue— E. Gibbon, Decline ami t'aU of the liatntin Empire, eh. 53. AMORITES, The. — "The Hittites and Amorites were . . . mingled together In the mountiiiis of Palesti.".e iilte the two races wliirh ethnologists tell us go to fora the modem Kelt. But the Egyptian monuments teach us that they were of very different origin and character. The Hittites were a people with yellow skins and 'Mongoloid ' features, whose receding foreheads, obliciue eyes, und protruding upper jaws, arc rep- resenteii ns faithfully on their own monuments as they .'ir>' on those of Egypt, so that we cannot accuse the Egpytiiin artists of caricaturing their enemies. If tlie Egyptians have made the Hit- tites ugly, it was lieeause they were so in rr'ality. The Anuirites, on the contrary, were a tall and hand.some people. They arc depicted with white skins. Iihie eyes, and reddish hair, all the characteristics, in Met, of the white race. Mr. Petrie p<jiiit8 out their resemblance to the Dar- danians of Asia Minor, who form an inter- mediate link between the white-skinned tribes of theOrw'k !■-■•:;« and the fairmmpieTtionwi I,thy;in= of Nortlieni Africa. The latter are still found in largo numbers in the mountainous regions wiiieh Kretcb eastward from Morocco, and are usually known unong the French under the name of Ksbyle*. The traveller who first meets with them in Algeria cannot fail to be struck by their likeness to a certaii. part of the population in the British Isles. Their clear-white freckled skins. their blue eyes, their golden-red hair and tail stature, remind him of the fair Kelts of an Irish village ; am' when we find that their skulls, which are of the so-called dolichocephalic or 'long- headed ' type, are the same as the skulls discov- ered In the prehistoric cromlechs of the country they still inhabit, we may conclude that they represent the modem descendants of the white- skinned Libyans of tlie Egyptian monuments. In Palestine also we still come across representa- tives of a faircomplexioned bliie-eyc(f race, iu whom we may see the descendants of the ancient Amorites, just as we see in the Kabyles the des cendants of the ancleat Libyans. We know that the Amorite type continued to exist in Judah long after tlie Israclitisb conquest of Canaan. The captlvei ti< ken from the southern cities of Judah by Shidwk in the time of Kehoboam, and de- picted by him upon the walls of the great temple of Kamak, are people of Amorite i ngin. Their 'regular profile of sub-aquiline cast,' as Mr. Tomkins describes it, their high cheek-bones and martial expression, are the features of the Amor- ites, and not of tho Jews. Tail- s of statuni hasalways been a distinguishing —■acteristic of the white race. Hence it was tl *, the .. .lakiin, the An-orito inhabitants of Hebron, seemetl to the Hebrew spies to be as giants, while they themselves were but 'as grasshoppers' by tlie side of them (Num. xiii : W). After the Israei- itish invasion remnants of the Anakim were left in Gaza and Gath and Ashkelon (Josh, xi: 2'2). and in the time of David, Goliath of Gath and his gigantic family were objects of dread to their neighbors (2 Sam. xxi: 15-22). It is clear, then, that the Amorites of Canaan belonged to tho same white nice as the Liliyans of Northern Af- rica, and like them preferred the mountains to the hot plains and valleys below. The Libyans themselves belonged to a race which can Iw traced through the peninsula of Spain and tLe westem side of France into the British Isles. Now it iscnri>us tliat wherever this particular branch of the white iice has extended it has bem accompanied by a particular form of cromlech, or sepulchral chamber built of large uncut stones. . . . It has been necesaiiiy to enter at this len(;tli Into wliat has been discovered concerning \\w Amorites by recent research, in order to show how carefully they should be distinguishc<l from the Hittites with whom they afterwards inter- mingled. They must liave been In possession of Palestine long before t he Hittites arriveil there. They extended over a much wider area."— A. II. Sayce. The Jlif'ilft. rh 1. AMPHIKTVONIC COUNCIL. — ".Vn Amphiktyonic, or, more correctly, an Am phi k- tionlc, body was an assembly of liit tribes who dwelt around any famous temple, gathered t.i- f ether to manage the affairs of that tiniple. here wen- other Anijiliiktyonic Assembli s in Greece [besides that of Uelplii], amongst » liih that of the isle of Kalaureia, off the coas "f Argcilis, was a b<Kiy of some celebrity. Tho .•\iiij-hiktytin3of IVIphl nht.-iinri! grmief imp- ft- anee than any other Amphiktyons only tieeiiuse of the greater ImiKirtance of the Deljihic sanctuary, and because it Incidentally bap- 6 AMPHIKTYOinC COUNCIL AMSTERDAM. pened that the gmter part of the Greek na- tion had some kind of n>presentation among them. But tliat bodj could not be looked upon as a perfect representation of the Oreek nation wfaich, to postpione other objcctioni to its constitution, found no place for so large a frac- tion of the Hellenic body as the Arkadians. Still the Amphiktyons of Delphi undoubtedly came nearer than any other existing body to the chancier of a general representation of all Greece. It is therefore easy to understand how the relig- ious functions of such a body might tnctdentairy assume a political character. . . . Once or twice then, in 'he course of Grecian history, we do find the Amphiktyonic body acting with real dignity in the name of united Greece. . . . Though the list of members of the Council is given with some slight Tariationa by different authors, all agree In making the constituent members of the union tribes and not cities. The representatives of the Ionic and Doric races sat and voted as single members, Me by side with the representatives of petty peoples like the Hagn^sians and PhthiOtic Achaiana. When the Council was first formed, Dorians and lonians were doubtless mere tribes of northern Greece, and the prodigious development of the Doric and Ionic races in after times made no difference in us constitution. . . . The Amphiktyonic Coun- cil was not eiaetlv a diplomatic congress, but it was muc"" more like a diplomatic congress than it was like tho governing asat^mbly of any com- monwealth, kingdom, or federation. The Pyla- goroi and Hleromn^ones were not exactly Ambassadors, but they were much more like Ambassadors than they were like members of a British Parliament or even an American Congress. . . . The nearest approach to the Amphik- tvonic Council in modem times would be if the Ciillege of Cardinals were to consist of members chosen by the several Roman Catholic nations of Europe and America. " — E. A. Freeman, Ilut of Fidernl (fort.. t>. 1, eh. 8. AMPHILOCHIANS, The. See Akarha- KIANS. AMPHIPOLIS.— This town in Macedonia, occupying an Important situation on the eastern bank of the river Strymon, just below a small lake into which it widens near Its mouth, was oriRinall v called • ' The Nine Ways. " and was the soene of a horrible human sacrifice made by Xerxes on bis march into Greece.— Thlrlwall, //(»(. nf Oneff, eh. 15.— It was subsequently taken by the Athenians, B. C. 437, and made a capital city by them ["ee Athens: B. C. 44i)-437], dominating the surrounding district. Its name being changeilto Amphipolis. During the I'oioponncsian War (B. C. 424», the able Lacedie- monian general, Brasidas, led a small army Into .Maccdotiia and succeeded in capturing Amphl- |iolis, which caused great dismay and dlacoutage- niiiit at Athens. Thucydides, the historian, was "lie of the generals held responsible for the dis- a.<tcrand be was driven as a consequence into the tirtimalc exile which pro<luced the composition c'f his liistory. Two years later the Athenian denmgoffue-lcader, Cleon, took command of an cxpeiiiticn sent to recover Amphipolis and otlicr poinu in Macedonli and Thraw, It was ilististrously beaten and Cleon was killed, but linisKias fell likewise in the battle. Whetlier Atli'.'ns suffered more from her defeat than bparu from her victory is a quesUon. — Thucy- 11 dldei, JIutoiy. **. 4, leet. 108-185. bk. n, leet. 1-11. —See, also, Atiie.vs: B. C. 466-i.M, and Greece: B. C. 424-431.- Amphipolis was taken by Philip of Macedon, B. C. 8S8.— See Ouece: B. C 359-858. AMPHISSA, Sieee uid Csptore by Philip u -5';S?'?« *^- C. 33»-33»). See Oribce: IS. C ooi-ooo. AMPHITHEATRES, Roman "There was hardly a town in the [Roman] empire which had not an amphitheatre large enough to contain vast multitudes of spectators. The savage ex- citement of gladiatorial combats seems to have been almost recessary to the Roman legionaries in their short intervals of inaction, and was the first recreation for which they provided in the places where they were stationed. . . . Gladia- torial combats were held from early times in the Forum, aud wild beasU hunted in tlie Circus; but until Curio built his celebrated double theatre of wood, which could be made Into an amphitheatre by turning the two semicircular portions face to face, we b&ve no record of any special building in the peculiar form afterwards adopted. It may have been, therefore, that Cuno's mechanical contrivance first suggested the elliptical shape. . . . As specimens of archi- tecture, the amphitheatres are more remarkable for the mechanical skill and admirable adaptation to their purpose displayed in them, than for any beauty of shape or decoration. The hugest of all, the Coliseum, was ill-proportioned and unpieasing ia its lines when entire."— R Bum, Some and the Campngna, introd. AMPHORA.— MODIUS. — " The fRoman] unit of capacity was th*- Amphora or Qua- drantal, which contained a tublc foot . . . equal to 5.687 imperial gallons, or 5 gallons, 3 quarts, 1 pint, a gills, nearly. Tlie Amphora was the unit for both liquid and dry measures, but the hitter was generally referred to the Modius, which conuined one-third of an Amphora. . . . The Culeus was equal to 20 Amphorae. "—W. Ramsay, Manual of Roman ArUia., eh. 13. AMRITSAR. SeeSiKUB. AMSTERDAM: The rite of the city.— " In 1205 a low and profitless marsh upon the coast of Holhind, not far from the confines of Utrecht, had been partially drained by a dam raised upon the hitherto squandered stream of the Amstel. Near this dam a few huta were tenanted by poor men who earned a scanty live- lihood by fishing In the Zuyder Sea; but so uninviting seemed that barren and desolate spot, that a century later Amstel-dam was still an obscure seafaring town, or rather hamlet. Its subsequent progress was more rapid. The spirit of the land was stirring within it, and every por- tion of it thrilled with new energy and Ufe. Some of the fugitive artizans from Flanders saw in the thriving village safety and peace, and added what wealth they had, and, what was better, their manufacturing intelligence and skill, to the humlilc hamlet's store. Amsteldara was early admitted to the fellowship of the Hanse League; and. In 1842, having outgrown its primary limits, required to be enlarged. For this an expensive process, that of driving piles into tlie swampy pkin, was necessary; and to this circumstance, no doubt. It is owing that the date of each successive enUrgcnient has been so accurately reconled. "— W. T. McCullagh, Indut- trial UMory of Thrtt Natioru, vol. 2, M. ». I AXT. ANABAPTISTS. AMT.— AMTER. See Scasdwatian Statm (DB!OiAn« — Icklasd): a. D. 1849- 1874; and the aame (Nobwat). A. D. 1814-1815. AMUR, Rntiian Acquisition of the batia of the. See Siberia. AMURATH I. and II., Conqneete ot Bee TUBBS : A. D. 18(10-1389, and 1402-1451. MnCLM, The Silence ot— Amrcls waa the chief city of Laconia while that district ot Peloponnesus was occupied by the Aclupans, before the Doric invasion and before the rise of Sparta. It maintained its Independence against the Doric Spartans for a long period, but suc- cumbed at length under circumstames which gave rise to a proverbial saying among the Ureeks concerning "the silence of Amyds." " The peace of A inycls, we are told, had been so often disturbed by false alarms of the enemy's approach, that at length a law was passed forbidding such reports, and the silent city was taken by surprise. " — C. Thirlwall, Birt. ofOreeee, eh. 7. AMYTHAONIDAC, The. See Arckw.— Ab- OOLIB. AN, The City of. See On. ANABAPTISTS OF MONSTER.— "MQnster is a town in Westphalia, the seat of a bishop, walled round, with a noble cathedral and many churches; but there is one peculiaritv about MQnster that distinguishes it from all other old Ocrman towns; it has nut one old church spire in it. Once it had a great many. How comes it that It now bos none? In MQnster lived a draper, Knipperdolling by name, who was much excited over the doctrines of Luther, and he gathered many people in his bouse, and 8[)oke to them bitter wonls against the Pope, the bishops, and the clej^. The bishop at this time was Francis of Waldeck, a man much in- clined himself to Lutheranism ; indeed, later, be proposed to suppress Catholicism in the diocese, as he wanted to seize on it and appropriate it as a possession to his family. Moreover, in 1544, he joiueii the Protestant princes in a league agamst the Catholics ; but he did not want things to move too fast, lest he should not be able to se- cure the wealthy See as personal property. Knipperdolling got a young priest, na'ned '^•-•t- mann, to preach in one of the chutiacsaj, > .^t the errors of Catholicism, and he was a man of such fiery eloquence that he stirred up a mob which rushed through the town, wrecking the churches. The mob became daily more daring and threatening. They drove the priests out of the town, and some of the wealthy citizens fled, not knowing what would follow. The bijhop would have yielded to all the religious Innova- tions if the rioters hod not threatened his tem- poral position and revenue. In lUSi the pastor, Rottmann, began to preach against the baptism of infants. Luther wrote to him remonstrating, but in vain. The bishop was not in the town ; he waa at Mindcn. of which Sec he was bishop as well. Finding that the town was In the hands of Knippenlolling and Rottmann. who were con- fiscating the goods of the churches, and exclud- ing those who would not agn>e with their opin- ions, the tiitihnp a<lvanced to the place at the hcaci of anme soldiers. Mnnstvr cIowhI Its gates against him. Negotiations were entered into; the Landgrave of Hesse was called in as pacifica- tor, and articles of agreement wore drawn up and signed. Some of tlie churches were given to the Lutherans, but the Cathedral wis reserved for the Catholics, and the Lutherans weie for- bidden to molest the latter, and disturb their re- ligious services. The news of the conveislon of the city of Monster to the gospel spread, and strangers came to it from all parts. Among these was a tailor of Leyden, called John Becker son. Rottmann now threw up bis Lutheranism and proclaimed himself oppowd to many of the doctrines «Mch Luther still retained. Amongst other things be rejected was infant baotisin. This creat^ a split among the reformed in MQns- ter, and the disorders broke out afresh. The mob now fell on the cathedral and drove the Catholics from it, and would not permit them to worship in It. They also Invaded the Luthenin churches, and filled them with uproar. On the evening of January 28, 1534, the Anabaptists stretched chains across the streets, assembled in armed bands, closed thegates and phkced senti- nels in all directions. When day dawned there appeared suddenly two men dressed like Proph- ets, with long ragged beards and flowing man- tles, staff In hand, who paced through tlie streets solemnly in the midst of the crowd, wlio bowed before them and saluted them as Enoch and Ellas. These men were John Bockelson, the tailor, and one John Mattheson, head of the Ana- baptists of Holland. Knipperdolling at once as- sociated himself with them, and shortly the place was a scene of the wildest ecstacies. Mm and women ran about the streets screaming ana leaping, and crying out that they saw visions of angels with swords drawn urging them on to the extermination of Lutherans and Catholics alike. . . . A great number of citizens were driven out, on a bitter day, when the land waa covered with snow. Those who lagged were beaten; those who were sick were carried to the market- place and re-baptized by Rottmann. . . . This was t<x> much to be borne. The bishop raised an army and marclied against the city. Thus began a siege which was to last sixteen months, during which a multitude of untrained fanatics, com- manded by a Dutch tailor, held out against a numerous and well-armed force. Thenceforth the city was ruled by divine revelations, or rathet. bv tlie crazes of the diseased brains ot the prophets. One day tliey declared that all the otScers and magistrates were to be turncJ out of their offices, and men nominated by them- selves were to take their places; another day Mattheson said it was revealed to him that every book in the town except the Bible was to be destroyed ; accordingly all the archives sd'I libraries wire collected in the marketplace nnct burnt. Then it was revealed to him that all the spires Were to be pulle<l down; so the church towers were reduced to stumps, from which the enemy could be watched and whence canima cou..' nlay on them. One day he declared be had bet., ordered by Heaven to go forth, with Sromise of victory, against the besiegers. He ashed forth at the head of a hirge banil. but nu surrounded and he and his band slain. The death of Matthes<m struck dismay into the hearts of the Anabaptists, but John Biickel»>a took advantage of the moment to establish him- self as head. He declared that It was revc?!.-d to him that Mattheson had been killed because be bad dlsoI)eyed the heavenly command, ^vhich was to go furtli :v|th few. Instead of lli»t be had gone with many. Bockelson said he had 118 1 ♦! ■ n m ANABAPTISTa been ordered In vbion to marry Mtttheion'i widow and auume his place. It waa further re- vealed to him that MQnster waa to be the beaTenlr Zion, the capital of the earth, and be was to be king over it. . . . Then he had an- other revelation that every man was to have as many wives as he lilied, and he gave himself sixteen wives. This was too outrageous for some to endure, and a plot waa formed against him by a blaclcsmith and about 800 of the more reiipecteMi' citizens, but it was frustrated and led to tli<- siezure of the conspirators and the execution of a number of them. ... At last, on midsummer eve, 1536, after a siege of sixteen months, the city was taken. Several of the citizens, unable longer to endure the tyranny, cruelty and abominations committed by the king, helped the soldiers of the prince-bishop to cliinb the walls, open the gates, and surprise the city. A desperate hand-to-hand fight ensued: the streets ran with blood. John ^kelson, instead of leading his people, hid himself, but was CRUglit. So was Knipperdolling. When the place was in his hands the prince-bishop entered. John of Leyden and Knippierdolling were cruelly tortured, their flesh plucked off with red-hot Einccrs, and *''en a dagger waa thrust into their earts. Fir . their Dodies were hung in iron cages to the vof athurch in MOnstcr. Thus ended this ; ous drama, which produced an indesorib.ible effect throughout Germany. Mons- ter, after this, in spite of the desire of the prince- bishop to establUh LutheranUm, revened to Catholicism, and remains Catholic to this day." — S. Baring-Qould, Tht Stury of Oermany, eh. 86. Also rs : L. von Ranke, Hint, of the Beforma- tinti in Orrmany, bk. 6, eh. 9 (s. 3). —C. Beard The Uiformatim (Ilihbert Ijert»., 1883) ' AN/ESTHETICS, The diicoTerr of. See Medical 8cik>xe: 19th Century. ANAHUAC— '• The word Anahuac signifies ■ near the water ' It was, probably, first applied to the country around the lakes in the Mexican Valley, and gradually extended to the remoter regions occupied by the Aztecs, and the other senncivilized races. Or, possibly, the name may have been intended, as Veytia suggests (Hist. Antio , lib. 1, cap. 1), to denote the land betwotn the waters of x\\v Atlantic and Pacific." — \V. H. I'rescott, Vonquntuf Mexico, bk. 1, eh. 1 noU 11— 8ee Mexico: A. D. 1325-1503. ANAKIM, The. See Hohites, and Amob- rrEa ANAKTOaiUU. SeeKoRKTBA. ANAPA: A. D. iSaS.— Siege and Capture. - Cession to Russia. See Tirks: A. D. 1886- 18i9. ANARCHISTS.— "The anarehUU are . . a small but determined band. . . . Although their programme may bo found almost word for won! in Proudhon, they profess to follow more closelv Bakounine, the Russian nihilist, who sep- araUMi himself from Marx and the Internationals anil formed secret societies in Spain, Switzerland Fnincc, and elsewhere, and thus piopao-ated nihilistic views; for anarohy and n!U!'i« i are pn^tt/ much one and the sane thbt ■ en nihilism is undrrstoo.} in t! :- !dei.:i .icier WDse, which does not incluue. as it does In a larger and more mo<'<- . sense tli<)9e who are simply poUtical and Cu....itutlonBl reformers. Like prince Krapotkine, Bakounine 119 ANCHORITES. OMM of an old and prominent Russian famflr: like him, he revolted against the cruelties anj Injiistices he saw about h'm; like him, be de- spaired of peaceful reform, and concluded that no great improvement could be expected until all our present political, economic, and social insti- tutions were so thoroughly demolished that of the old structure not one stone should be left on another. Out of the ruins a regenerated world might arise. We must be purged as by fire. Uke all anarehiaU and true nihilists, he waa a thorough pessimist, as far as our present manner of life waa concerned. Reaction against conser vrtisna carried him very far. He wished to abolish private property, state, and inheritance. Equality is to be carried so far that all must wear the same kind of clothing, no difference beUig made even for sex. Religion is an aberration of the brain, and should be abolished. Fire, dyna- mite, and assassination are approved of by at least a large number of the party. T^ -y are brave men, and fight for their faith with the devotion of martyrs. Imprisonment and death are counted but as rewards. . . . Forty-seven anarchisu signed a declaration of principles, which was read by one of their number at their trial at Lyons. ... "We wfah liberty [they declared] and we believe its existence incom- patible with the existence of any power what- soever, whatever ite origin and form — \rhether It be selected or imposed, monarchical or repub- lican — whether inspired by divine right or by popular right, by anointment or universal surf- rage. . . . The best governments are the worst. The substitution, in a word, in human relations of free contract iwrpctuall v rcvisable and dissoluble is our ideal. •'•-U T. £ly, Prtneh mui Oemutn Soeialum in Modern Timet, eh. 8.— "In anarchism we have the extreme antithesis of socialism and communism. The socialist desires so to extend the sphere of the state that it shall embrace all the more important concerns of life. The com- munist, at least of the older school, would make the sway of authority and the routine which fol- lows 1 herefrom universal. The anarchist, on the other hand, would banish all forms of authority and have only a system of the most perfect lib- erty. The anarchist is an extreme individual- ist .. . Anarchism, as a social theory, was first elaborately formulated bv Proudhon. In the first part of his work, nVhat is Proprrty V he briefly stated the doctrine and gave it the name 'anarchy, ' absence of a master or sovereign. . . About 13 years before Proudhon published his views, Josiah Warren reached similar conclusions In America."— II. L. Osgood, Seientifle Anareh- itm (Pil. Set. Quart., M,ir., 1SN9), ;,;,. 1-8.— See, also. Nihilism, and Social Movements ANARCHISTS, The Chicago. See Cm- CAOO: A. D. 1886-1887. ANASTASIUS I., Roman Emperor (East- em.) A. D. 491-518. . . .Anastasius II.. A. D 71&-716. • ANASTASIUS III., Pope, A. P. 911-918 • • i ^S^SSSP'."? 'V-' •*"?«•> ^- D. 1153-1154. ANATOLIA. See Asia Minor. ANCALITES, The.— A tribe of ancient Britons whose home was near the Thames ANCASTER, Origin of. See Cac8E!«n.b. ANCHORITfiS.-HER»SlTS.-" The fer- tile and peaceable lowlands of England offered few spots sufficiently wild and lonely for the habiution of a hermit; those, therefore. AKCHOKITES. ANGLES AND JUTES. who visaed to retire from the world Into a more strict and solitary life than that which the mon- astery afforded were in the habit of immuring tbemxelves, as anchorites, or in old English 'Ankers.' In little cells of stone, built usuallv against the wall of a church. "There is nothing new under the sun ; and similiir anchorites might have been seen in Egy pt, 5()0 years before the time of St. Antony, Immured in cells in the .'temples of Isis or Serapis. It is only recently ithnt .tntiiiuurics have discovered bow common (tills practice was in England, and how frequently ^Uie truces of these cells are to be found about our parish churches."— C. Kingsley, The Hermit*, p. 3i9. — The term anchorites is applied, gener- ally, to all n-ligious ascetics who lived in solitary cells. — J. Bingham, Antuf. oft/u Chrutian Ch., bk. 7, eh. 1, net. 4.— "The essential difference between an anker or anchorite and a hermit appears to have been that, whereas the former paiised his whole life shut up in a cell, the latter, although leading Indeed a solitary life, wandered about at liberty. '—R li Sharnc, Int. to "Ojfcn- dar of Willi in the Court of hutting, London," AifciENT REGIME.-The political and iooi;il system In Fniuce that was destroyed by the Kivoliitlon of 1T8B is commonly referred to osllie "nncien regime." Some writers translate t\i\* in the literal English form — "the ancient regime;" others render it more appropriately, perhaps, the "old regime." Its speciiii applica- tion is to the state of things described under Fhanck: .\. D. 17t<9. ANCIENTS, The Council of the. See FbaMK: A.I). ITftTMCNK — tSUTKUBEH). 1 ANCRUM, Battle of —A ciiccess obtahied by the .VmIs iivir UN English force making an Incursion into tlie ixinler dlsirict." of their country A. 1>. I."i44.— J. II. Hurton, lli»t. vf .ScvtUiml, ch. 85 (.-, 3). ANDALUSIA: The name.— "The Vandal.s, . . . tlioiigh they passetl altogether out of Spain, have left their name to this day In its soutliern part, under the form of Andalusia, a name wlii( h, under the Saricen comiuerors, eninsuliL' — E. A. 'trupe. ch. 4. ixfl. 3. — Se, also; V.IND.4LS; A. I). 4W. — Kouglily siK-aking, Aiulalusia represents tlie country known to the aniieuw, first, a» TartcMus, anil, latir. as Tiirdilani;i. ANDAMAN ISLANDERS, The. tke Ifii'H; Thk .ViionriiiNAL I.shabitants. ANDASTES, The. Heu Amkhic.v.-* Abohi OIMS: .-sc >*jrKnANNAA ANDECAVL— Tlie ancient name of the city of .\np rs. Knince, and of the tribe which oi^u- plicl that ngiou. Bee Vkmsti or \Vi!»Tliii.>J ANDERIDA.~ANDERIDA sylva.- ANDREDSWALD,— ,\ gnat forest which an- cleiiily sinidHil at nim Surri'v, iSunsi'X ami Into Kent (souliiiajiterii England) wascallinl Auderiila B>l»a by the lti>itmii.s and .Vmln'dawalil liy the Saxons. It coiiMi<hd nearly nitli the tract of country called in iii.nlerii limes the Weald of ijin lid ilwlf over the whole pel 1-reeniuii. IIi»t»ricitl {jtJty. of hnn against the Saxons. In the fifth centurr, and An. derida was only taken by .-Elle after a long siege. In tlie words of the Chronicle, the Salons "slew all that were therein, nor was there henceforth one Briton left."— J. R Oreen, The Making of Eng., ch. 1. Also ui T. Wright, Ceit, Rcmutn, and Saxon, ch. 5. ANDERSON, Major Robert.— Defenie of Fort Sumter. (See United States of Am., A. U. ISOiXOkckmbku); IHfll (.Mauch— April). ANDERSONVILLE PRISON-PENS. See Pbisoss and I'hison-Pkns, Conreuekatk. ANDES, OR ANDI, OR ANDECAVI, The. 8<'e Veneti of Webtebn Gai'L. ANDORRA.— A little semirepublic In the Spanish Pyrenees. Enjoying a certain self-gov. ernment since tlie French Kevolution. it is prac- tically a part of Spain. The inhabitants are exempt, however, from Spanish conscription. ANDRE, Major John. See United States OF Ah.: a. D. ITW* (AiouBT— Seitemheki. ANDREW I., II., and III., Kior* of Hua- fary, A. D. 1046-1000, 1204-12:15, 1290-1301. ANDRONICUS I., Emperor in the East (Byzantine or Greek), A. D. 1 183-1 IM Aodronicui II. i Palcolopit), Greek Emperor of Constantinople, A. D. 1282-1328. .. An- dronicus III, (Palcologui), A. D. 1328-1341. ANDROS, Governor, New England and New York under. See New E.xoi.a.nd: A.I) 1080; Mas8.^< in setts: A. D. I671-10H6; imd 1080-1689; New Yoke: \. D. 1088; and toN- NECTK it: a. U. 1(185-1687. ANDROS, Battle of (B. C. 407). See GUEECE: II, V. 411-107. ANGELIQUE, La Mtre. Sre Port Rotal and Tilt: Ja.nhi-.msts: A. D. 1602-i(i60 ANGE RS, Origin ot See Veneti of West- ern (iAII.. ANGEVIN KINGS AND ANGEVIN EM- PIRE. See Em.l.vnd; A. 1). 115i-ll8U. ANGHIARI, Battle of (1425). See Italv: A. n. 1412-1447. ANGLES AND JUTES, The,- The men- tion of the Angles by Tacitus is In the followiiij raSHiice: " Ne.vt [lo the I.angol)ardl| come (lie lleudjgni. the Aviones, the Anglil, the Variiii, the Eudoses. the Siianloues, and NultlioueM, wlio are fenceil In by rivers or forests. None of iness trilK's have any noteworthy feature, exci pt thiir eoninion wonthip of Ertha. or motherfjirtli. ami their lieliif ihat »lie Interposes in human alfairs. ami visil.s the iialloiis in her car In an islmui if the fH laii there is a nacnil gnive. andwithiu it a conseeraU'd chariot, eoTenil over with a irir meiit. (July one prie.sl la permilti'd to touch ii. He can |v rcelvo the prisence of the nc«l.|(»« in tills sacred recesn, and walks by her nlde with the utmost revirence as she Is drawn aloim liy heifers. It U a seiisim of rejoUiiig, and fi ^llvily nlgns wherever she deignsto go and lie nnmii. They do not go to battle or wear arm»,ii<iy wea|Miii Is under link; |ieace and i|iilet an' »i|- coined only at these times, till the godiU-M, « '-iry of Imnuiir inlenoiirse, is at length n>l. nl I'y the same priest 10 her temple. Aderwards ilw Kent, to whiih It gave lu imim' of iliu Wahl or ! car. llie vestments. aiMl, If you like lo In lii \ Weald, On llio wmtlH'm <-oast Imrder of the Anih'rida ."^vlva the Koinani eslalilUliid the Im. ixinaiit loriress and jxirt of .\iidiriiltt, which has Iwu iileiillllisl with Duxlerti Pevensi-y, jlere Itw KoiuaiiO'Urlluiw mode an obttiiufai stand 120 11, the divinily lierMlf. are puriliisl in a stint lik-. SlaVrM IMTfitftll I)li< ritf!. who f|rn iriKtiifitlv MU.kl. lowisl up liy lis »at*rs. Hence arises a my-iir- lous ternir and a iiinus ignorance toucen.iiik ttis uatUK v( that whkb ia maaa only by men duuuasl ANOLES AND JUTES. tn die. Thl« branch Indeed of the Suevi atretche* Into the remoter regions of Glermany." — Tacltua, Qermnny; trans, bg Church ami Brodribh. eh. 40. — "In close neiglibourhood with the Saxons in the middle of the fourth century were the Angll, a tribe whose origin Is more uncertain and the applicntionr of whose name is still more a matter oi question. If the name belongs, in the pages of the several geogra^ lers, to the same nation, it was situated Tn the time of Tacitus east of the Ellje ; in the time of Ptolemy It was found on the middle Kibe, between the Thuringians to the south and the VarinI to the north ; and at a later perio' it was forced, perhaps by the growth of S.'ir " ii i .Mna power, Into the neck of the CIm- t>fk ,., :: ..-ma. Tt may, however, be reasonably r; <u!.tnl whiihtr »!• i hypothesis Is sound, and It is !iy no nif.m!) < i ■• . ■ whether, If It be so, the An; i' were not "om .tted more closely with the Til ".Hijiaiisth.'iaT. h the Saxons. To the north . I'lo .VnL'l; iittcr i .ey had reached their Schles- .,!.- :..,.r , •!• -e tje Jutes, of whose early his- tory we know no„dng, except their claims to be reunrdi'il as kinsmen of the Ootbs and the close siniiliirity between their descendants and the neighbour Frisians."— W. Stubbe, VoiM. llitt. ofkiif/., T. 1. eh. 3. — " Important as are the An- li\i% it is nut too much to say that thev are only known tlirough their relations to us of England, tbcirilisoendanU; indcetl.wiclioutthi.spammount fuct, tlu'y would be liable to be confuawl with the FriMiina. with the Old .Saxons, and with even .>*liiviiniiin3. Tlds Is chieMy iK'causo there is no Biitlsfiirtory trace or fragment of the Angles of Ocrniiiny within tk^rmany ; whilst the notices of tliu oIImt writers of antiquity tell us as little as tlie (Jill' wc find in Tb( itus. And this notice Is not only liricf hut complicated. . . . I still think that till' Angll of Tacitus were— 1; Tlie Angles of Enirlimd; 2: Occupants of the nortliem parts of lliinovor; 8: At least In the time of Tacitus; 4: .\n.l that to the exclusion of any territory In Holsti ifi, wliieh was Friitian to the west, and Slavonic to tlie east Still the question is one of gn-Ht nuicnitude and numerous complications." — Ii. U. ijitham, ?"*< Oermaiiy of Tiuitiu; EM- t^mrii.i, Krt. 4H. Al.w) I.N J. .M. Ijippenhcrg, flint, of Kng. under Ihf A'r/lofiijon Kingn, t. \, pp. 81>-1).-). _ (St-e alio, .\VH)<«Ki«, aud S.woNS — Tlieconquestsand Bcttlcni.'nla of t|i(. Jutes and the Angles In Brit. nln a^ dtwritiiil under EnolakdiA U 440- 47:t. and .MT-n;i:t. ANGLESEA, Ancitnt. Sec Mona, Moif afi * an.! N.iiiMAN!!: htii-Otii Ck-nti-hiks. ANGLOSAXON.-A term which may be Ciin>l.lcni| as a comimuml of Angle and Saxon tlic iiainci. of the two principal Teutonic triliei whic- 1 t<«ik powsslon of Hrilain and formo.1 the hiifltsli nnti.>n liy their ultimate union. As thus riii.inl.il iin,| UM'd to (icaignalo the race, the iinirn,.L'.. and llielnstitiiiionMwhlchresulKHl fn)m lliat unlnn, it ia oulv objectionable, piThaps, as h<ine wiptrttuous. Wause KnglUh is the ar c<pl.|i name of the |H-ople of England and all jx ria nniB to them. TJut the term Anirlo-Saxon M* also Nen more jMirtlcularly employed to '•'■^iitnale the Karly fengll.h pe<.plc ami their anmiaife iK-foro the Norman Con.iuest. as i."-'h liier «. r» Anglo Saxon at th,u ptriM »'fl txcame Kiigli,b aflrrwanls. M(Kleni his ,,,,l,„. „ »■—•■•.<■- uniB. iqiKirni DIS j'reemaa (AormM Vanjmtt, ». tb« term. Mr. 121 ANJOU. 1, ru>t» A), says: "The name by which otH forefathers really knew themselves and by which thev were known to other nations was English and no other. 'Angll,' 'Engle,' 'Angelcyn,' ' Englisc, are the true names by which the Teu- tons of Britain knew themselves and their lan- guage. ... As a chronological term, Anglo- Saxon Is equally objectionable with Saxon. The 'Anglo-Saxon perio<l,' as far as there ever wa« one, is going on still. I speak therefore of our forefathers, not as ' Saxons," or even as 'Anglo- Saxons,' but as they spoke of themselves, as Englishmen— 'Angll,' 'Engle,'— 'Angel- cyn.'" — See, also, Saxoks, and Asoles asd J I'TES. . ^"P.t?"' ^■"'« »'• -Fought in Armenia. A. U. 543, between the Komans and the Persians. ANGOLA. — The name now given to the ter- ritory which the Portuguese have occupi«l on the western coast of South Africa since the 16th century, extending from the Congo Free State, on the north, to Uamamland, on the south with an interior boundary that Is somewhat indefinite. It is divided Into four districts, Congo. Louudo Benguela, and Mossanudes. ANGORA, Battle of (140a). See Timoib; also. TuHKS : A. I). ia'tU-14ua ANGOSTURA, OR BIJENA VISTA. Battle of. l^ee.MEXIio: A I). lMO-1847 ANGRJVARII, The. -The Angriv.iriwero one of the tribesof ancient Germany. "Their set- tlemeuls were to the west of the'Wcser See BRfCTKBl. ANI.— Storminr of the Turki (io6«). Seo TiHKS: A. 1). KKjif KCl. ANILLEROS, The. Seo Spain: A. D, 1814-1837. ANJOU : Creation of the County.— Origin of the Plontof eneti. — " It was tlie policy of tins unfairlv depreciated sovereign ll'liaries the Bald, grandson of Charlemagne, who received In llie dismemberment of the Carlovingiun Empire tlie Neustrian part.out of which wasdeveloped the miHlem kingdom of France.and who nigned from 840 to 877], to recruit the failing r\nk8 of llic false and degenerate Frankish arlatocracv, by cdliug up to his peetuge the wise, the able, tlie honest aud the bold of ignoble birth. ... He sought to surround himself with new men, the men without ancestry; ami the earliest historian of the llouso of Anjou ImiIIi de«rilas tliis system and affords the most uplendid exann>lo of the theory adoptetl by tin. king. Preeminent amongst these parveniLs wa.< Torquatus or Tor- tulfus, an Armorican peaaiiiit, a very ruatic, a biekwoixlsnmn. who livitl by hunling and such like occupations, almo't iii solitude, cultivating hU 'nuillcis,' his 'cucillettes,' of land, and driv- ing his own oxen, hamcssi'il to hia plough. Tor- qualus enter»'<l or was inviteil into the wrvico of Cliarlesle Chauve. anil rose higli in his sover- eigns contldence: a prudent, a lK)i(l, ami a good man. Cliarles apooinliHl him Fore»U!r of^the for.>at rallcl 'tlic Ilia, kbirds .Nest,' the 'nid du merle.' a pleasant name, not the le-ss pleasant for its familiarity. This happened during the con- rtiets with the Northmen. Torquaius sirveil Charles strenuously li. the wars, and olifciliuil gnat authority. Tertullus, sun of Torquutua. Hit., ijled hia raiiier's energies, quick anil acutei [lalii-nt of fatigue, ambitious mi.,| tt»plring; h» biraine the liegeman of Charlis; and his mar- riage with I'etnnlUa the Klng'i cuusta, Couol ANJOU. ANJOU. M Hugh tlie Abbot's daughter, introdnced him into the very circle of Uie royal family. Ch4- teau Landon and other benefices in the Qastinois were acquired by him, possibly as the lady's dowry. Seneschal nlso was TertuUus of the same ample Oasitinois territory. Ingclger, son of Tertullus ami Pctronllla, appears as the first hereditary Count of Aujou Outre-Maine,— Mar- Suis, Consul or Count of Anion, — for all these ties are assigned to him. \ et the ploughman Torqutttus must be reckoned as the primary Plantagenet : the nistic Torquatus foumled that brilliant fiimlly . "— Sir F. Palgrave. JUiit. of Nor- mamiynnd England, bk. 1, eh. 8. Ai.s<> IN K. Norgiite, England under tht An- geein Kingn, r. \, eh. 2. A. D. 987-1120.— The ereatett of the old Count!.- " Pule Ncrra, Fiilc the Black [A. D. 987-1040] is tlie gn-atest of the Angevins, the first in whom we can trace that marked type of character which their house was to preserve with a fatal consuincy through two hundred Tears. He was without natural affection. In bis youth he bunied a wife at the stake, and legend told how he led her to her doom decked out in his giiycst attire. In his old age he waged his bitterest war against his son, and exacted from him when vanquished a humilia- tion which men reserved for tlie deadliest of their f(X'S. ' You are cnnquere<l, you arc cou- aueri'd!' shouted the old man in fierce eiulta- nn. HS Oeoffry, liridlctl and saddled like a beast of bunlcn, criiwleil for pardon to his father's feet. . . . But ni'lllicr the wrath of Heaven nor the curses of men linike with a single mishap the fifty years of lil« success. At his accession Anjmi WttS the Inist important of the greater proviiKvs iif Friiiiii'. At his death it stood, if not In exU'Ut, at Uiist in ri'al power, first among them nil. . . . His overthrow of Brittany on the field of Conniirrcux was followed by the gradual absorption of Southern Touralne. . . . His great victory at rontlovol crushed the rival house of Blois; the sri^uro of Siiumur completed his con- quests in till' South, while Northern Touralne was wiMi Mt by bit till only Tours resisted the Anei'vli Tlie ':naclnrous »<Uure of its Count, Herlwrt Wiikc-doif, lift Slalne at his mercy ere the old m»n iHiiuiviilicd his unflnisheti work to his son. As a wiirrior, Oeoflry Martel was barilly Inferior to his father. A decisive over- thMw wresleii Tours from the Count of Blols; a .leei'nd left I'oitou at liis mercy; and the seizure of he .Msns brought him to the Norman lionler. Here . . . Ills nilviinic was checked by the Senilis of Williiim tin- Con<|iieror, and with his eath thi' krrinliiess of Anjou W'cined for the tlmi- to hiivc coinc to iin end. Slrlpixnl of Miiiiu- by the .Nornuitis. and weiikened by Internal di» si'iisloMs. till' wi':ik uiiil protllirate administration of Full' Idrliln li fl .\iiJou powerless against its rivals aloiitr till" Si iiiiv It woke to fresh energy Willi till' uccosion of Ills son, Fule of Jerusalem. . . . Full' «ii» till' one iiM-my whom Henry the first ri'iillv (liiri-.l ii was tii disarm his ri'-tless himtiliiy limt tin' Kiiii: yieldid to his son, (oof. ley till' IIiiiiiNonif. the hand of his daughter Mtalllilii.'— .1. It llri'.n, A »h«Tt lliitory 1/ «/w £ng!M /V.'///c. fh. i. »rt. 7. j^f Mil t«i K Niiri?i*te. ^M/f2f|i^ utu^ fJU ^M*. tin Kingi. r. I, eh )J-l A. D. 1154.— The Couatt beteint Kinpef BaiUuUl. bee Esuladu: A. U. 1 154-1 IHU. A. D. IM4. — Wrested from the Encliib King John. Bee France: A. D. 1180-1234. A. D. 1*0^1443. — English attempts to re- cover the county. — The Third and Fourth Houses of Anjou. — Creation of the Dnkedom. — King John, of England, did not voluntarily submit to the sentence of the peers of Frano which pronounced his forfeiture of the cefs ot Anjou and Maine, "since he invaded and hod possession of Angers again in 1206, when, Ootb- uke, he demolish^ its ancient walla He lost it Id the following year, and . . . made no further attempt upon It until 1213. In that vear, having collected apowerful army, he htndedat Itochclle, and actually occupied Angers, without striking a blow. But ... the year 1314 beheld hbn once more in retreat from Anjou, nevir to reap- pear there, since he died on the lOth of October, 1216. In the person of King John ended what is called the 'Second House of Anion.' In 12ii4, after the confiscations of John's Pleach inwik's. slons, Philip Augustus established beniiitary seneschals in that part of France, the fir<<t of whom was the tutor of the uufortunate Young Arthur [of Brittany], named William des Roches, who was in fact Count in all except the name, over Anjou, Maine, and Tourraine, owing allc- gUmce only to the crown of France. The S«'ne- schal, WlUiam des Itoches, died in 1222. lib son-in-law, Amaury de Craon, succeeded lilm," but was soon afterwanls taken prisoner during t war in Brittanv and lucarceraKHl. Henry III. of £nglan<l still clalmol the title of Count of Anion, and in 1330 he "disembarked a consiil. erable army at 8t. Malo, in the view of re-run. quering Anjou, and the other forfeited posM'.-vsluni of his crown. Louis IX., then only fifteen vtan old . . . advanced to the attack of the allli" . hut In the following year a peace was conciuili'd. ths province of Ouienne having been ceded to the English crown. In 1241, Louis gave the counties of Poltou and Auvcrgne to his brother Alplionso; and, in the y \i 1244, he invested his brotber Charles, Couut of Provence, with the counili s of Anjou and Maine, thereby annulling tlie rank and title of Seni'schal, and instituting the Tiiinl House of Anjou. Charles I., the founder of the proud fortunes of this Thlni House, was ainlii- tious in character, and events long favouml hii ambition. Count of l*rovence, throuih the is. heritance of bis consort, had not lonK been invested with Anjou and Maine, ere he hhs in- vitwl to the conquest of Picily [see Italy (SoiTnKBN): A. 1). 12.'iO-126.'<].'' The Third House of Anion endcsl In the [wrson of .|..|in. who became King of France In 1850. In lit'ifl he invest4'd his son Ijouls with Anjou ami .M liur. and in 1860 the latter was cn'aU'd the llrsi Piilie of Anjou. The Fourth llou«' of Anjou, wliirh began wl''. this (irst Duke, niiiio to an nul two generatiiuis later with Ifciiu, or Itcgiilir, — the "good King KenA" of history and story, mIiom kingdom was for the most part a nainc hikI who is bt'st known to Kiiglisb reailers, |)<'rli;i|>9, M the fiitliir of Marifsnt of Aiijou, tin- .-i.mt- lu'ortinl iiuitn of Henry VI. On the ilinih of liisfnilier, Louis, the second duke, itene l.iomt liv his father's will Count of Uuhw, his iliitf brother, Ixiuls, Inheriting the dukeilom In 1434 the brother diitl without Issue sii'l Ken* siicereileil lilin In Anjou, .Maine and I'mm-uit. He had already liecome Duke of Uai, n« tbt adopted heir of bis great-uncle, the csrOhwI- 122 l^i AKJOU. duke, and Duke of Lomlne (1430), by desinm- tion of the late Duke, whose daughter he lud married. In 1435 he rrceived from Queen Joanna of Naples the doubtful Icgary of that distracted kingdom, which she had previously bequeathed first, to Alphonso of Aragon, and afterwards — revoking that testament — to Kent's brother, Louis of Anjou. King Rene enjoyed tbo title during his lifetime, and the actual king- dom fur a brief period ; but in 1443 he was ex- pelled from Naples by his competitor Alphonso (see Italt: AD. 1412-1447). —M. A. Hook- ham, Life and Tina of Margaret of Aryou, iiitrod. and eh. 1-8. ♦ ANJOU, The Engliih HouM of. See Eko- LAND: A. D. 115«-nK». ANJOU, The Neapolitan HooM of: A. D. ilM.— Conquest of the Kinplom of th« Two Sicilies. See Italy: A. D. 1250-1268. A. D. laSa.— Loai of Sicilv.— Retention of Naples. See Italy: A. D. 1282-1300. A. D. 1310-1383.— PoMcition of the Hnn- garian throne. See Hunoaky: A. D. 1301-1442. A. O. 1370-1384.— Acquisition and lots of the crown of Poland. See Poland: A. D. lau-i.wi. A. D. 1381-1384.— Claims of Louii of Anjou. —His expedition to Italy and hit death. S% Italy: A. I). 134;i-i;W9. A. D. 1386-1399.— Renewed contest for Naples.— Defeat of Louis II. by Ladisla*. Set' Italy: A. I). i;)S«-1414. A. D. 1133-1443.— Renewed contest for the crown of Naples.— Defeat by Alfonso of Ara- gonand Sicily. Sci^ Italy: A. D. 1413-1447. ANKENDORFF, Battle of. See OEOicAirr : A. I> l^-oT (Fkbhiauv IlNK). ANKERS. S.M' .\n< Hi.niTits. ANNA, Ciarina of Rutaia, A. D. 1780- 174(1 ANNAM: A. D. 1883-1885. — War with France.— French protectorate accepted. See I HAS. k: ,V I). 1H7.'>-INH», „n,| Tonkim. ANNAPOLIS ACADEMY. .See Educa- TtoN. M.iiiKiiN : .\iiK»i( A : A. I). I*M ANNAPOLIS ROYAL. See New Eho- I AM' A l> 171)2-1710. ANNATES, OR FIRST-FRUITS.— "A Mti( (' liail existwl for mmw liundreds of years all ihe churches of Kumpc, that bishops and an lilii»hcip«. on prescnution to their seca, should tmiwmii to the pope, .m n-ciiving their bulls of invisini.'nt, one ye.ira iiiconio from their new pnfirinitiu. h win riilli'<l the payment of An- UHtcs, or (Irst fruit*, and had originaU'd In the lime of ilif (■r»»ailc», aa a means of nMvldIng a fuiul for (he holy wars, (inc.! establfshed It had wiilicl into curit4im, ami wm one of the chief rimitir. Ill of the papal revenue "—J. A. Kroude //M/..ry ,/ En,jl,i,ul. eh 4 —■• The claim [by the l"i|K I lo ihe flml fruits <if bishoprics and other rrt.tii.Mii.iiiiwa»»ppBrpiiilvftr»t made In Knghind l.y Alnan.lcr IV. in i2.Vl, for llvo years; it was r, IK W.--I hv flnnent V. In llliHl, to last for two vriirs. «ii,( It was in a meaauro succMsful. Ily . oliii \\n. It was claimeil llinnighout Christen- "loin for ihrrn years, and met with unlveiaal r.-,i.!,ow.,. . «!,,„,!,- r.-..n!..=f«l as it wia ia t II- ( iMin.il i.f CiHiHtance. ami fn^uently maile t «• ...lijirt of debrtU- in iwrliani.nt and eoum-il tUt dcuiauJ must bavu UivQ itigularly oompUea ANTILLES. I with."— W. Stubbs, Corut. Hitt. of Eiv/..eh. 19, ' uet. 718. — See, also. Queen Anse's Bounty. ANNE, Queen of England, A. D. 1702-1714. ANNE OF AUSTRIA, Queen-regent of France. See France: A. D. 1842-1(M3, to 1651- ANNE BOLEYN, Marriage, triM and execution oC See Esoland: A. D. 1S27-1534. and 1536-1543. ' ANSAR, The. See Mahometan Conquest : A. D. eo»-632. ^ ^Siii-J^ 5* England: A D. 1087-1185. ANSPACH, Creation of the MareraTate. See Oermany: 13th t'ENTunv Separation from the Electorate of Brar nbarg. See Bkamiknbiko: A. I). 1417-164" ANTALCIOAS, Peace of (B. C. 387). See Oueece: B. C. 899-387. ANTES, The. See Slavonic Peoples. ANTESIGNANI, The.-" In each cohort [of the lioman legion, in Ca-sar's time] a certain number of the best men, probably about one- fourth of the whole detachment, wan a«sii:ned as a guard to the standard, from whence they derive.! their name of Antcsignani. "— C. Meri- vale, Ilitt. of the Humiint, eh. K. ANTHEMIUS, Roman Emperor(Westcm), K. D. 487-473. ANTHESTERIA, The. Sec Dionysia at I A T il ICIffH ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE. S.'o Tar- IFK I,KOI8L.*TION(KN(iLASD): A. 1). 1H30-1839, and lH45-lWfl. ANTI-FEDERALISTS. See United States .)r Am. : A. I>. 17x9-1702 ANTI-MASONIC PARTY, American. See Nkw Y.mik: A. 1). lH2fl-lM;!2 ANTI-MASONIC PARTY, Mexican. See MkXICO: a. I). IHJ'.'-IM-.'H ANTI-RENTERS.-ANTI-RENT WAR. See LiviNoaToN M ».\on. ANTI-SEMITE MOVEMENT. See Jews: 19TII C'F STfRY. ANTI-SLAVERY MOVEMENTS. See Slavery, Neoiio. ANTIETAM, Battle of. Sie rMTKD Statkk OK Am. : A I). lHfl3 (Hkpt.; .Mxrvund). ANTIGONID KINGS, The. .Se Greece: B. ('. :I(I7-1!IT ANTIGONUS, and the wars of the Di^ dochl. S<f .Mai KiKj.MA : B. C. :)2a-^ll6: 315- 310; 310-301. ANTIGONUS CONATUS. The wars ot See Maceooma: B. C :.'T:-244 ANTILLES.-ANTILIA.-' Familiar as U the name.)f the Anillli's, few arc uware of the anti.|uity of the word: wlillc its po'ciw signitt- cancc seta etymology .'ii ilcllance. Common con- sent Identified the Antilia of legi'ml with the Isle .if the Seven Clllea. In th.' year 734, says till' sUiry, the Aralin having ciini|iirn'il most iif the SiMtnlsh peninnula. a numlHT of Christian iMiilgrunU, under the direction of ».viii holy l.i.ilior«i, among them the anliliishop of Dimrto, siiiliil wi'HtwanI with all that tlnv ha.1, and renched an Inland where they foii'nd.il wn-n towns. Arali KiogrH|ili.'n« »|K'ak of an Atlantic liilimd called In .\nilvic Kl tennvn. or Al tin (Isle .if SjTpenta), a uami' whi.h niay pi'ssililv have iTriiimc by rnmipti..i. Alitilla. . Tiic' «'Vru binhops wen' lM'lleve.1 In the I«!h ..iiturv to Iw still repn'seuted by ijiclr »uciv««iir«. iiml'lii pre- side over a nuncrvut and wvnitby people. Moat 123 vi^^ii- ANTILLEa ANTHC8TIONE8. I^grapbere of the 16th century believed In the I'Xistence of Antilia. It was represented as lying west of the Azores. ... As soon as It Iwciimo known in Europe that Columbus had di8covcre<l s larf;e island, Kspnflola was at once identified with Antilia. . . . and the name . . . Uas ever Jnce been 8|)pllefl (reneniliv to the West Indian islands." — E. ,1. Payne, Ilint. of tht Xeie Wovld mUtd AmeHcii, r. 1, p. 9S.— See, also, West iNniKs. ANTINOMIAN CONTROVERSY IN PURITAN MASSACHUSETTS. See Mah- baciubktth: A. U 18:1«-163H. ANTIOCH : Founding of the Citj. See 6elki'i'idj£; and M.\ckix>.m.\, 4c. : B. C. 310- 8U1. A. D. 36-400.— The C :'. itiu Church. Sec CnRIsTI.\SITT: A. I). Xi-uA. A. D. 115.— Great Earthquake.— "Early in tlie year 115, acconling to tlie most exact chron- ology, . . . the splendid capital of Syria was visited by an eartliquake, one of the most disas- trous apparently of all llie similar inflictions from whicli that luckless ilty has |>eriodically suffered. . . . The calamity was enhanced by the presence of unusual er»)wds from all tlie cities of the east, as.semt)led to i>«y homage to the Emperor [Trajiin], or to take part in his expe- dition [of conquest in tlie east]. Among the victims were many Itomans of diatinctioii. . . . Trajan, liimself. only est'iipc-d by creeping throucli a winclow." — C." Merivale, Ilut. of the Uunitin* ch. 0-^. A. D. 360.— Surpriae, maiaacre and'pillaKe bj Sapor, King of Persia. Sec Persia: A. U. 256-«27. A. D. 526.— Deitruction bT Earthquake.- During the niirn of .Tustinian (A. I). 61»-.'>65; the cities of the lioinan Empire "were overwhelmed by earthiiiiukes mon: fricjuent than at any other period of history. Antioi h, the metropolis of Asia, was eiilirily destniyed. on the 20tli of May, Wi6. at the very tiim when the inhabitants of the ftdjaci'nl country were asseinble<l to cele- brate the festival nf 'the Ascension; and it la atllnnitl that '.i.Vl.tHHl persons were crushed hv the fall of its >uni|ituous edillces."— J. C. L. i(e Sismoiidl, Full of the llumnn Kminre, eh. 10. Also IN: E. GihlHiu, DfcUnt and thU of tht Bi>tfuin K>ni»rf, '•h. 4IJ. A. O. 540.— Stormed, pillaged and burned by Choiroe*, the Persian King. Sec Peusia: A. I). '.".'B «2T. A. O. 638.— Surrender ti. the Arabs, See MAUoMfTAN t'oNylKST: \. D Bll'J-flSlt. A. D. 94)9.— Recapture by the Byxantines.— After hiiviin: rt iiiaiiM d H'.'H yiam in tlie |Kis»e»sion of tlieS;ir!i<rii» .ViiliiHli tv.id ritakeii in the winter of A, I) WWliy tli.HyzaiitliM EmiH'nir, .Meeplio- riis l'liiika'>. tiiil iieiaiiii- again a < 'irlKllan city. Three \iars l:it<r tlie .Moslems i.iade a freat elTort In re< over the 1 Ity, liiil weredefentnl lie IlyzHiiiine anus were at this time highly suecessf'il ill the never Hiding Saracen war, anil John Ziiniskes. sueo'^wir of Nieephorua Phokas, mantled triuinplmnilv to the Tigris and threat ene<l even llagd id Ilut most of the coni|Uests thus iniide in Svria and M'sopotaniia we.e not :. tinir.— '!. Fliilav. Ilnd.of th« Hfantint Km- f.i,,. ,i /; Tir.-Ii»i7, .'.A J. r/i. 3.— S««B»»A>- TINK KMnilK, \ It. IW) lOM A. D. 1097-1098 Siege and capturi by the CniMdert. See ChLsaUU; A. I). lUM-lWB. A. D. 1009-1144.- Principality. See Jeru- salem: A. D. 1009-1144. A. D. 1368.— Extinction of the Latin Prin- cipality,— Total destruction of the city.— An. tioch fell, before the arms of Bib:i - the Sultan of Egpyt and Syria, and the Ijitii. principality was bloodily extinguished, in 1268, "Tlie lirst seat of the Christian name was dispeopled by the slaughter of seventeen, and the captivity of one liundred. thousand of ber inhabitants." This fate befell Antioch only twenty three years before the last vc tige of the coni|Ue8ta of the crusaders was obliterated at Acre.— E. Gibbon, Drdiite and Fall of the Koman Umpire, eh. 59.— "The sultan halted for several weeks in the idain, and nennittcd his soldiers to hold a large market, or fair, for the sale of their Ixioty. This market was attended by Jews and pedlars from allpartsof the East. . . . ' It was, ' savs the Cadi Mohieddin, 'a fearful and heartrending sight. Even the hard 8tone» Te softeneti with griel.' He tells us that the i.., .Ives were so numerous tlmt a fine beartv boy might be purchased for twelve pieces of sliver, and a little girl for five. When the work of pillage bad been completetl, when all the ornaments awl decorations liad been cairied away from the churches, and the lead torn from the roofs, Antiwh was flre<l in dif- fert^nt places, amid the loud thrilling shouts uf 'Allah Acbar,' ' 0<kI is Victorious. ' The great churches of St. Paul and St. Peter burnt wltb terrllic fury for many daya"— C, G, Addison, T.'.c Knii/htt Temjil.irt, ch.'9. ♦ ANT'OCH COLLEGE. See Edltatios. MolilcilN : Kkkohms: A. I). ISt4 IHtfl. ANTIOCHUS SOTER, AND ANTIO- CHUS THE GREAT. S<e Sklelcid.*:, Tuk: B. C 2H1-224. and 221-187. ANTIPATER, and tha wars of the Oia- dochi. See Macehosia: B. C. 32;l-316. ANTIUM. — " Antlum, oneeallourishingcity of the V'olsci, and afterwanis of the Itmians. their conquerors, is at present niluced to a miiiill numlHT of inhabitant.'*. Originally it wan niib- out a port: the harbour of tlie Antiates liaviin; lieen the neiglitKiuriug indentation in theena.it uf Ceuo, now Kettuno, distant more than a mile to the eastwanl. . . . The piracies of the anciiut Antlat<'»all proceede<l from Ceno. orCerio. wliere they had 22 long ships. These Numiciii:, tii<>k: . . , some were taken to Home and their rojtra siis|H'nded in triumph In the forum . . It (.Vnllimi) was reckoned 260 slailia. or iilioiit Si miles, fMin Ostltt." — SIrW. Oell. 'Jojix/. nl' I'mnr. 1: I. AN'iIUM, NaT- 1 Battle of (i378>. .<'. 'k.mck: a. I). 1117K-1879. ANTIVESTiEUM. S<-e IIkitain, Tiudm OK < Kl.TIC. ANTOINE DE BOURBON, King of Ns- »arre, A. I, I.W.VI,M7. ANTONINES, The. See Uoke: A. I) las- 1811. ANTONINUS, Marcus Aurelius, Roman Emperor, A D IflllHii ANTONINUS PIUS, Roman Emperor, A l» LlH-lBi. ANTONY, Mark, and the Second Triumri- rale, .^-Romk: B i 44 to ,U ANTRUSTIONES.-In the Sali<' law of the Krsnka, there is no trace of any ni.':.-ni/«l order uf ooblUtjr, "W« uuict, Uuwvvii, will) 124 iMMM ANTRCSTIONES. terenl titles denoting temporary rank, derircd from offlces political and judicial, or from a position alKiut the person of tl>e king. Among tlic«c the Antrustiooes, who were tn constant attendance upon tlie king, played a conspicuous part. . . . Antrustiones ami Convivie Itegis [Rnmi\n9 who held the same position] are the prrdfcessors of the V'assi Dominici of later times, and like these were bound to the king by an cs- peciul oath of personal and perpetual service. Thev formed part, as it were, of the king's family, and were expected to reside In the palace, where they superintended the various depart- ments of the royal household." — W. C. Perrv Thf fhmkt.eh. 10. " ANTWERP : The name of the City.— Its commercial greatneai in the i6th ccnturr.— "The city was so ancient that Its genealogints, with ridiculous gravifv, ascended to a p lod two centuries before tlic Trojan war, snu dis- covered a giant, n-ioicing in the classic name of Antigonu.s, established on the Scheld. This patriarch exacted one half the merchandise of all navigators who paa'icd his castle, and was ac- customed to amputate and ctuii into the river the riglit liands of those who iufriiised this simple tariff. Thus 'Hand- werpen,' hand throwing, be- came Antwerp, and hence, two liands, in th.' escutcheon of the city, were ever held up m iicnililic attestation of the truth. The giant was, in his turn, thrown into tlie Scheld by a hero,' named BralK), from whose exploits Brabant de- rivwi it.-i name. . . . But for these antiquarian researches, a simpler derivaticm of the name wo"M seem 'Hut' werf,' 'on the wharf.' It had ' now [in the first half of the 16lh centurj-j be- j ojimc the principal entrep<1t and exchange of ' Europe . , . the commercial capital of the world. | . . . Venice, Nurembnrg, Augsburg, Bruges were sinking, but Antwerp, with Its deep and convenient river, stretched iu arm to the ocean snd anmht the golden prize, ns it fell from its sister eitien' grasp, ... No citv, except Paris, 8urpft.weil it in population, n,)ne approached it in conmierelal splendor."— J. L. Motley, Tfit Rii "fthi- Ihitrh lifpuhlif. Hint. IntnHt, tn-t 13 A. D. I3i3.-Mada the Staple for Bnrtieh trade. See supi.e. , AD. 1566.— Riot o. 'ae Ima|;e-brcakcrs la tue Churches. See Nkthkri,.\!«d8: A. D 150ft- l.Vi". A. D. 1576. -The Spmnith Fuiy. See Neth- i!RiAM>-> A 1). MT.vis;:. . \, °- .'577.-DeliTerance of the city from lis Spanish garrison.— Demolition of the Cita- del. See Nktiikhi,\n1)k: A I). I.ITT-I.WI. K^" D;,'5*3' -Treacherous attempt of the Duke of Aniou. -The French Fury. See Xbth- EllUMm: .V I). l,'i81-inM4. A. D. is84-i585.-Sie»e and redaction by AI»«ander Farnese. Ouke of P»rma.-Thi .K^ •?• ''<«-S«cri«ced to Amiterdam in sA.mI" J °S Mttneter—Cloilng of the acneldt. s,> Nktiikki.aniw: A. I) "(U6-ttHH .nH'.kA',7°*~^'"l?"''*''*<' *• Marlborough 'tot • " '^""'"LAKDe: A. D. ITlW- f-JlT-l-?" *".""»• "«'N''TilERLA«ne: A. H „;,^''"' »"' Aix LACBArttut; Tm Co.«c. V. APOLLONIA m ILLTRIA A. D. i83a.-Sieje of the Ciudel by the French.— Expulsion of the Dutch nrrison. SeeNETHEKLA-MW: A. D. 1830-1833. ♦ APACHES, The. See America;* Arorio- «*ii*rYiI?iBe"^' ■°'' Athapascan Family. AfALACHES, The. See Amkricak Auob- I0I.NE8: Apalacres. APAMEA — Apamea, a citv founded by Seleucus Nicator on the Euphrates, the site of which IS occupied by the modem town of Bir had become, in Strabo's time (near the beginning of the Christian Era) one of the principal ante™ 01 Asiatic trade second onK to Ephesus. Thap- sacus, the former customary crossing-place of the Euphrates, had ceased to be so, and the pas- sage was made at Apamea. A place on the opposite bank of the river was calleil Zeugma or "the bridge." Bir "is still the usual place at which travellers proceeding from Antiwh or Aleppo towards Bagdad cross the Euphrt-.tes "— E. H. Bunbury. /fut. of Andent Geog.,efi 22 leet. 1 (r 2, nn. 2W and 817). APANAGE. See App.v.tAGE. APATURIA, The.— An annual family festi- val of the Athenians. celebrat«i for three days in the e..riy part of the month of October (Py-inepsion). • This was the characteristic festival of the Ionic race; handed down from a period anterior to the c<mstitution of Kleisthenes and to the ten new tribes each containinif so many demcs. nnd brinitlng together the citizens la t.ieir primitive unions of familv, gens, pliratrv \ etc., the Bggri'cate of which had originallv con' ; BtltuU-il the four Ionic tribes, now supenmnii.ited. j At the Apaturia, the familv ceremonies were gone through : inarrlaecs were enrolliil, acts of adoption wer. promulgated and certified the names of voii!l,fwl citizens first entere<l on the gentile and phralricroll; sacrifices were j..iritly ctl^ebratetl by tliese familv as.semblagcs to Zeus Phratrius, AlhfnC. and otlier deities, accompanied with much festivity and enjoyment. "—O. Orote Uitt. of Hr„n.it. 3, eh. W (r. 7). APELLA, The. See Sparta: The Co»- •TITITIOS, A( APELOUSAS. The. See Texas: The ado- RK.IXAT. InIIAHTTANTS. APHEK, Battle of.— .\ great victory won by Ahah. king of Israel over Benhadad, klnir of IMmascus— II. Ewald, Ili,t. of Itratl bk 4 Kft. 1. .■ . , APODECTiE, The.- "When Aristotle speaks of the ..lllccra of govrrunient to whom the public revenuen were delivered, who kept them and dlstriliute<| them to the several admin- istrative departments, these are called, he adds apodectie and Invisurers. In Alhei.s the apodecta; wen- ten in number. In accordaiiie with the numlwr i.f the tritn-s. Thev were appointed by lot. . . . riiey hail In their p.is»emion the lists of the delitors of tlio state, received the money whicTi whs palil in. registered an aieounl of It and iioteii tlie amount in arn^ar. and in the council house in the im-sence of the Ciiiicll, erased the names of the debtora who had palii the deinancU apiinst them from the li^t and deposlte<l Ihi-; aiiain In the an-hlves. Finally they, toictisrr wll!-. the r.->!n,-f!. sj.jntHit.m;! the sums rei-eivcd "~A, Boeckh, Pubtie ICainumy <4 Athtnt[tr. h^ Uii.h). M 3. cA 4 APOLLONIA IN ILLYRIA, The Fonad. ing of. Htx KuuKViu. !5 AP08TA8ION. AQUITAINE. i i : I i APOSTASION. SeePoLRTA APOSTOLIC MAJESTY: Orirta of tbe Titlf. Sw Hcnoart: a. D. 978-1111 APPANAGE.—" Tbe tenn appanage denotes tuc provision maiie for the younger children of a king of Fnince. This always consisted of lands and feudal superiorities held of tbe crown by the tenure of pi'cmge. It is evident that this usage, as it prtxlticed a new class of powerful fcuduturies, was hostile to the interests and policy of the sovereign, and retarded tbe subjugation of tbe ancient aristocracy. But an usage coeval with the monarchy was not to be abrogated, and the scarcity of money rendered it imposaible to prcvide fur the younger branches of the royal family by any other means. It was restrained however as far as circumstances would permit" — H. Ilallam, Tht Middle Agt». ch. 1, pt. 2.— "From the wonis 'ad 'and 'panis,' meaning that It was to provide bread for the person who held it A portion of appanage was now given to each of the king's younger siins, which descended to his direct heirs, butln default of them reverted to tbe crown." — "t. Wright, Hut. of France, v. 1, p. 808, note. APPIAN WAY, The.— Appius CUudius, called the Blind, who was censor at Rome from 312 to 308 B. C. [see Rome; B. C. 812], con- structed during that time " the Appian road, the queen of roads, because the Latin road, passing by Tusculum, and through the country of tbe Hernicans. was .so much endangi'rrd, and had not yit iKva quite rt'coveretl by the Romans: the Appian road, passing by Terracina, Fundi and Mola, to Capua, was intended to be a shorter and safer one. . . . The Appian road, even if Appius did carry it as far as Capua, was not executed by him" with that splendour for which we !>tiU admire it in those parts which have not been destniyed intentionally: the closely joined polygons of bas.ilt, which thousands of years have not Ixrn able to displace, are of a some- what later origin. Appius commenceil the road because there was actual need for It; in the year A. r. 4.'37 I B. C. '297] peperlno, and some years later l)asalt (silcx) was first use<l for paving roads, and, at the beginning, only on the small distance from the Porta Capcna to the temple of Mars, as we are distinctly told by Livy. Roads constructed acconling to' artistic principles had previously existeil"— B. O. Nlebuhr, Letti. on the Ifii-t. of limf. leet. 45. Atjso in: Sir W. Oell, Topog. of Rime, v. 1. — U. (1. Mddell. llhl nf R,mu. r. 1. p. 2.51. APPOMATTOX COURT HOUSE, Lec't Surrender at. See I'mtkd Statks or An. ; A. I>. IKfi.'X.Veuii.: Vihoinia). APULEIAN LAW. Mee Majkst.^s. APULIA: A, O. I04>-Iia7.— Normao con- quest and Dukedom.— Union with Sicily. Bee It.\lv (Soitiiers): A. D. 1000-1090, and 1081-1191. ' APULIANS, The. Bee SAaiHET, also. Sam- BrrKd 1 kq^^X. SEXTIiC. 8ec Haltks. - AQUiG SEXTIiE, Battle oC See Cixbm aNi> Tkitosh^: H C. 118-103. AQU/E SOLI&— The Roman name of the long famous naiiTing place known In mfNiem Kn^Und M ihc iiiv ..f luth. Ii wiw gpU-udtdty adomol In Roman limes with temples and other editicea— T. Wright, tV», Hman and Saxm. «A 5. AQUIDAY, OR AQUETNET.-The native name of Rhode Island. See liooDB Iblahu; A. D. 1638-1640. AQUILA, Battle of (1434). See Italy: A. D. 1412-1447. AQUILEIA.— A<|uileia, at the time of the destruction of th:)i city by tbe Huns, A. D. 452, was, "both as a fortress and a commercial emporium, second to none in Northern Italy. It was situated at the northernmost point of the fulf of Hadria, about twenty miles northwest of tieste, and the place where it once stood is now in tbe Aust'ian dominions, just over the Iwrder which sepb ates them from the kingdom nt Italy. In tae year 181 B. C. a Rimian colony had been sent to this far comer of Italy to serve as an outpost against some intrusive tribes, called by the vague name of Oauls, . . , Possessing a good harbour, with which it was connectc<l by a navigable river, Aquileia gradually liccame the chief entrepdt for the commerce between Italy and what are now the Illyrian provinces «( Austria." — T. Uodgkin, Italy and tier Intadert, bk. 2, eh. 4. A. D. 338. — SicKe by Mazimin. Sec Rome: A. D. 238. A. D. 388.— Orerthrow of Mazimna by The- odosius. See Rome \. P. 879-89S. A. D. 45a. — Destiuctiob by the Han*. Sec HvKS; A. D. 4S2; also, Venice : A. D. 452. AQUITAINE: The ancient tribes.— The Roman conquest of A<iultania was achieved. B. ('. 66, by one of Caesar's lieutenants, the Youiicor Crassus, who first brought the people callcil the Sotlates to submission and then deflated their combined noighbors in a murderous buttle, where three-fourths of them are said to have been slain. The trib<'S which then subniittdl "were the Tarbelll, Bigerriones, Preclaui, Vo cates, Tarusatcs, Elusates, Oarites, Ausci, Oar- umnl, Bibuzates and C(ico8at>:a The Tarlulll were In tho lower Iwisln of the Adour. Thiir chief place was on tin' .site of the hot spriiii;9 «f Dax. The Btgerrlon.'S appear In the imme Bigorre. The chief place of the Elusates was Elusa, Eause; and the town of Auch on the rivir Gers preserves tho name of the Aus»l. Tlie names Oarites, If the name Is genuine, and li:ir umni contain tbe same element. Oar, as the river Oanimna [Garonne] and tho Oers. It ii stated by Walckcnaer that the inhabitants «f tlie southern part of Les Landes are still eulliil Cousiota. Cocosa, Canss^quc, is twenty four miles from Dax on the road from Dax t" llir- deaux." — O. Long, Dri-lint of (he linnan Rt- pubtie, v. 4, M. 6. — "Before tho arrival ft the nracbycephalic Llgurian race, the Hnriaiii rangcil over the greater part of France. ... If, as seems | robable, wo may Identify llieie with tl. Aquitani, one of the three races wliuh oc- cupied Gaul In the time of Cn'sar, they uiiisi have retreated to the nelghlHiurhiiod of the r>rtnir» before the beginning of tbe historic peri.ii"— I. Taylor, Origin of the Arynne, ch. 2. »«■'. G. In Casar** time. See Oaul debchiiieo it CiKSAR. Settlement of the Visigotha. Bee Ooni (ViBUMirns): A. P. 410-419 A. 0. 567.- Divided belwean the M«rdf is- gtaa Kinn. See Fhanks: A. I) nil-7v.> A. O. OSi-TM.-Th* independent Oukei aad tlMir lubjufatioa.— 'lliu old Ikjiuu 126 AQCITAINE, A. D. 681-768. Aquitanik, in the first division of the spoils of the Empire, had fallen to the Visigoths, who conquered it withoi.*. much trouble. In the struggle between them and the Merovingians, it of course passed to tlie victorious party. But the quarrels, so fiercely c<>nt<'st«! between the different members of the Frank monarchy, pre- vented them from retaining a distant possession within their grasp: and at thia period [6ai-718, when the Mayors of the Palace, Pepin and Carl, were gathering the reins of government over tlie three kingdoms — Austrasia, Neustria and Burgundy— into their hands], iudo, the duke of Aquitalne. was really an independent prince. The population had never lost its Roman char- acter; it was, in fact, by far the most liomanized in the whole of Gaul. But it had also received a new element in the Vaacones or Gascons [see B.tsqf s], a tribe of Pyrenean mountaineers, who descen. ..g from their mountains, advance^ to- wards ti. •" north until their progress was checked by tlie broad waters of the Garonne. At this time, however, thev obeyed Eudo, '■ This duke iif A uiuine, Eudo, allied himself with the Neustrians against the ambitious Austrasian Mayor. Carl .Martel, and shared with them the crushing defi-at at Soissons, A. D. 718, which established the Hammerer's power. Eudo s(knowltdgc<i allegianre and was allowed to retain hi.s dukedom. Hut, halfacenturv after- wards. Carl's son, Pepin, who had pushed the •faineant ' Merovingians from the Frank throne and seated himself upon it. fought a nine years' war Willi the then duke of Aquitalne. toestablish his Mjverciguty, "The war, which lasted nine ytara [TBO-TftH). was signalized by frightful rHvagi> and destruction of life upon Ixith sides, until, at la.st. the Franks became nuisters of IVrri, Auvergne. and the Limousin, with their priuripal cities. The able and gallant Guaifer ['IT Waiferj was as-iassinateil by his own sub- jects, and Pepin had the satisfaction of tlnally uniting the grand-durhy of Aquitalne to the ninnarchy of the Franks."— J. O. Shepoard Fdl nf liome. Irrl. 8, ^' Al.so i.\: P, 0<xlwin. Ifitt. nf Frani-f : Ancient Oaiil. rh. lt-15,-\V, H. Perry, The Franla.ch. 5-6. A. D. 732.-R«T»Ked by the Motiemi, Sie .MArioMKTAN ('iiNyiKKT: A. I), 71.VT32. A. |3. 781.— Erected into ■ separate king> dom by Charlemagne,— In the year TMl Cliarle- nmitne crerted Italy and Aquitalne into separate liingilimn. placing his l»-o infant sous, Pepin and l.uclwig or Louis on their nsiK'Otive thr^mes, " file kingdom of Afjuitalue enibratTii Vasconla lOascnn'), Sqillniania. Ac|iiiiaine pmtier (that IB. thi ..untry Iwtween the OaMuiu and the l/ilni :iiul the county. 8uli8<'quentlv the duchv, of roulouse. Niiuiinally a kingiloi'n. Aquitaliie wasinn'ality a p^)vince. entirely dependent on tlie central or personal government of Charles • I he nominal designations of king ami kiugduni might gratify the feelinns of th« Aijuitanians, but It was a »<lieme coutriviil for hdMini; iheiu in a stole of atisolule depc^nileuce sn.l sulionllmitlon,"— I I, MomU-rl, IIM. of I IfirltM Ihr llroil. A* a, rA 11 A. p. 843 _ln the dirition of Charle- "'^P'* Empire. S,e Fha.n. k: A l>. Wa. fc,n,:,4 "'VJS'.-The and of the nominal tangdom.- The disputed Ducal Titl«.-'('«r loman [who died 8WJ, ion of LuuU Ui« HUm- AQCTTAIIfE, A. D. 1137-1152. merer, was the last of the Carlovingians who bore the title of king of Aquitalne. This vast sute ceased from this time to constitute a kingdom It had for a lengthened period been divided between powerful families, the most illustrioua of which are those of the Counts of Toulouse founded in the ninth century by Fredclon, the Counts of Poitiers, the Counts of Auvergne, the Mar j>sof Septimania or Gothia, and the Dukes of Ga^. . .ny. King Eudes had given William the Pius, Count of Auvergne, the investiture of the duchy of Aquiuine. On the extinction of that family in 928, the Counts of Toulouse ami those of Poitou disputed the prerogatives and their quarrel stained the south with blood for a long time. At length the Counts of Poitou acquired tJie title of Dukes of Aquitalne or Guyenne [or Guienne, -supposed to be a corruption of the name of Aquitalne, which came into use during the Middle Ages], which remained in their house up to the marriage of Eleanor of Aqiiitaine with Henry Plantagenetl. [Henry II.), King of England (1151)."— E. De U<innecho«e, Ilirt. of fYance, bk. 2, eh. 3, fool iwte.—" The diichv Aqiiitaine, or Guyenne. as held bv Eleanor's predecessors, consisted, roughly speaking, of tlie territory between the Loire lind the Garonne More exactly, it was bounded on the north bv Anjou and Touraine. on the east by Berry anil .\iivergne. on the south east by the l^uercy or County of Cahors. anil on the south-west by Gascouy, which had been united with it for the last humlred years. The old Karolingian king- dom of A(juitania had been of far greater extent • it had, in fact, included the whole country iK'tween the Loire, the Pyrenees, the Khone and the ocean. Over all this vast territon- the Counts of Poitou as.serteil a theoretical cla'im of over- lordship by virtue of their ducal title; they had however, a formidable rival in the hou.se of the Counte of Toulouse. "—K. Xorgate, EngUmd 'initrr the Angetin King», r. 1. eh. 10— See, also TolXOlSE: lOrii AND llTll Ck.ntikiks A. p. 1 137-"52.— Transferred by mar- "■f« from the crown of France to the crown of England — In 1137, -the last of the old lineof the dukes of Aquitalne— William I.\., son of the gay crusader and troubadour whom the Ued King had ho|)e<l to succeed — died on a pilgrim- age at Compostella. His only .son WH.saliettdy dead, and before setting out for his nilgrimago he did what a greater personage hail done ten years before: with the consent of his barons he left the whole of his dominions to his daughter. Moreover, he iH'queathiil tlii' giri herself as wif« to the young king Ix>uis ( VII, ] of France. This marriage more than doubled the strength of the Ireiich crown. It gave to L.miIs absolute pos- 8»'ssion of all western Aqiiitaine, or Guvenne as it was now iH'ginning to h,' .ailed: that is the counties of Pi.liou and Gas< v, with the im- mediate overlonlsliip of the whole district Iviug between the I>.|re and the P\ renees, the Itliona and the oc-ean:- a territory five or six times as large as his own royal domain and over which his predecessors had never U-en able to assert more than the merest shadow of a nominal siiiHTi- "rity. " In \\\l I^.uls obtained a divorce from hn-.:fivt, sunrnafrin^ uji Hit- gr.al territory which she had adiliil to his dominions, ruher than maintain an unhappy union. 'The same ;■. ..r tl.e gay duchess was w'eddtil to Ileurv Plan- tagvnvt, then Duke of Nonuandy, aftorwania 27 AQUTTAINE, A. D. 1137-1152. ARABIA. nonry IT. King of England. By .is marriage Ai|uitiiinr txTunii' joini'ii to tlip crown of England and rcnmined ho for three hundred years. — K. Norgrite, Eiigtaiui under the AngetitiKingt, v. 1, cA. «. I3th Century.— The state of the ■outhem parts. See I'novENCE: A. 1), 1179-1207. A. D. 1360-1453.— Full sovereigfnty pot- aessed by the English Kings.— The final con- quest and union with France.— " By the Peace of Hntijtny [see Fkanck; A. D. 133.-1380] Ed- wanl III. nsigned his cliiinis on the crown of Fnnee; Init he was recognized in return as inde- pendent I'rinoe of Aiiuitnine. without any hom- age or superiority iH'ing reserved to the French monareli. When Aqiiitainc therefore ^n" inn- quered bv FViinee. partly in the 14th, fully in the l.Vh century [see Fr.\nce: A. D. 1431-1453], it was not the "reunion ' of a forfclte<l flcf, but the absorption of a ilistinct and sovereign state. The feelings of .\ciuitaine itself seem to have been divide<l. The nobles to a great extent, though far fnim universally, preferred the French connexion. It better felf in with their notions of chivalry, feudal deiK-ndency, and the like; the privileees too which French law conferred on noble birth would make their real interests lie that way. But the great cities and, we have reason to believe, the niiuss of the people, also, clave faithfully to their ancient Dukes; and they had go<Kl reason to do so. The English Kings, both by habit and by interest, naturally pro- tected the municipal li))erties of Bourdeaux and Bayonn<'. and ex]>osed no part of their subjects to the liormrs of Fn-ncli taxation and general oppression."— E. A. Freeman. 7'Ac t\nnk» and the (liiiih {,/li»ti>noil A.'»».f//». 1»< tierie*, .>'<>. 7). AQUITANI, The. Sic InEKiANS, The Westkun. ARABIA.— ARABS: The Name.-" There can be 110 doubt that the name of the .\rib.s Wiis . . . j.'iviii from their living at the westernmost part of .\sia;and their own word 'Qlmrh,' the ' West.' is another form of the original Semitic nami' .Vnib." — O. Hawlinson, Sotcj to llerodotui, T. 2. I'. 71. The ancient succession and Tusion of Races. — 'The population of .Vnbia, after limg cen- turii's. more especially after the propagation and triumph of Islamism' In-iame unifonn through- out the pininsida. . . . Hut it was not always thus. It W!is very slowly and gradually that the Inhabitants of the various parts of .\nibia were fused into one race. . . Several distinct races successively immigrated into the |K>ninsula and remained wparati' for many ages. Their dis- tinctive cliaracteristies, their manners and their civilisation pnive that these nations wen- not all of cric bliKxI. Vp to the time of .Mahimiet, sevi nil <lilTrrent languages were spoken In Ariliia, ami it was the intrixluctlun of Islamism alone tliut g:ive predotninence to that one ainonjrst ihi ni now callid Arabic. The few Arabi.tn hislciriaiis di'sirvirig of the name, who have used any discernment in coUecting the tnulili.ins of iheir lounlry, Ibn Khaldoun. for cxamiile. distinguish thn'C suecessive popula- tions in the ■H'nluinla. They divide ihea<- primi live, seeimdary, and terllnry Arabs Into three divisions, callfl .^riba, Motanba, anil Mostarebs. . . . The .Vrilia were the first and most ancient Inhabituutt uf Arabia. They cuusistod prln- cipsllr of two great nations, the Adites, gprung from Ham, and the Amallkaof the race of Aram, descendants of Sheir, mixed with nations <if Bcctmdary importance, the Thumudites of the race of Ham, and the people of the Taam, and Jadis, of the family of Aram. The Motarcba were tribes sprmig from Joktan, son of EImt, always In Arabian tradition calle<l Kahtan. The Mostareba of more mo<lcrn origin were Ismae'- itish tribes. . . . The Oushitcs, the first in- habitants of Anabla, arc known in the national traditions by tlie name of Adites, from their pn)- genitnr, who is called Ad, the grandson of Ham. All the account given of them by Arab his torians are but anclful legends. ... In the midst of all the fabulous traits with which th< ie legends abound, we may perceive the remem- brance of a powerful empire founded by the Cushites In very er.r'.Y ages, apparently including the whole of Araoi Felix, and not only Yemen proper. We also tnd traces of a wealthy nation, constnictors of grea* buildings, v"h an advanced civilisation analogous to that of Chaldtra, pro- fessing a religion similar to tiie Babylonian; a nation, in short, with whom material progress was allied to great moral depravity and obscene rites. ... It was alamt eighteen centuries be- fore our era that the Joktanites entered Southern Arabia. . . . According to all appearances, the invasion, like all events of a similar nature, whs accomplished only by force. , . . After this in vasion, the ("ushfte element of the jmpulation. Ix'ing still the most numenms, and possessini; great superiority in knowledge and civilisjitinn over the Ji>kta.iites, who wen' still almost in the nomadic st Te, soon recovered the moral and material supn'nia<'y, and political dominion, A new empire was formed in which the power still ladonged to the Satwans of the race of Cush. , . . Little by little the new nation of Ail waa formeil. The centre of Its power was the cinntry of Slieba proper, where, acconling to the teiith chapter of Ginesis. there Wiis no primitive ,1 ok tanite tribe, although In all the ni ighlmurinij provinces they were already settleil, . . . ll was during the first centuries of the si'iiind .\ liu- empire that Yemen was temporarily siibjic inl by the Egyptians, who callwl it the laml of I'lin, . . , Conquered during the minority of Thothnies III., and the regency of the Princess lliui-u. Yemen appt'ars to have been lost by the Ki.'\ p tians In the troub'ous times at the close of ilie eighteenth dvniusty. liamses II. recovered it almost immediately after he a.sccndi'd the tlinme. and it was not till the time of the elTeinii.ate kingsof the twentieth dytm,sly, that this siili mliil oniament of Egyptian jvower was tinully l.».t . . . The concjuest of the land of Pun nnilt-r llatasu Is related in the elegant lias nliefs ,,f ihe temph-of Deir el-Hahari, at ThelM's, oubli.-lnd ly M. Duemlchen. . . . The bus ifliefs of the t<'mpleof I)eir el-HidiarlaflonI undoubleil jiroefs of the cxistenee of commerce betwwn Imlii and Yemen at the time of the Egyptian cxpnliliim under Hatasu. It was this commene, much more than the fertility of its own soil iiii'l ill ni\tural priMluetlons, that made Southeni .\ralii« one of the richest countries in the world. . . V:'.r a long time It wa» carried on bv hir.d ::r;)v. by means of caravans cnissing Araliia, for tde navigation of the Red S»'tt, much more ilillicMlt and dangerous than that of the Imllan iKma, was not atlemptod till soom centuries later . . 128 ARABIA. ARABIA. Th« c«i«v«M of myrrh, incense, and balm crosa- in? .\nibia towanis the land of Canaan are men- tiunfil in the Bible, in the hist/iry of Joseph, which lielongs to a period very near to tlie first esUiblishmcnt of the Canaanites in Syria. As S(K)n as commercial towns arose in Phnpnioia, we find, as the prophet Ezekiel said, 'The mer- chants of Sheba and liaamah, tliey were thy merchants: they occupied in tliy fairs with chief of all spices, and with all precious stones and pnhl.'. . . A drreat number of Phfrnician mer- chants, attracted by this trade, established them- wlves in Yemen, Hadramaut, Oman, and Bnhrein. Phcenician factories were also estab- lished at several places on the Persian Gulf, amiinKst others in the islands of Tylos and Arvail. formerly occupied by their ancestors. . . . This commerce, extremely flourishing dur- ing the nineteenth dynasty, seems, together with thi- Egyptian dominion in Yemen, to have cea-sed under the feeble and inactive successors of Kamses III. . . . Nearly two centuries pa.ssed away, when Iliram and Solomon despatched > tsels down the Red Sea. . . . The vessels of the two monarchs were not content with doing merely what had once before Uvn done under the Egyptians of the nineteenth dynastv, namely, fetching from the ports of Yemen the" merchan- dise collected there from India. They were much bolder, and their enterprise was rewanled with suivess. Profiting by the regularity of the miinsKins, they fctclusi the products of India at first lwn<l, from the very place of their shipment in the ports of the land of Ophir, or Abhira. These distant voyages were repeated with suc- cess as long as .Solomon r<igne('. The vessels goinjr to Oiihir necessarily touched at the ports (if Vemin to take in provi.sious and await fiivmirable winds. Thus the renown of the two allied kings, particularly of the power of Silomcin. was sprea<l in the land of the Aditcs. This was ;he cause of the ii>urney made bv the quien of : 'icba to Jerusalem to see Solomon. . . The sea voyages to Opliir. and even to Yiiiicn. ceaM'd at the death of Solomon. The wpurritiim of the ten tribes, and the revolutions that simultaneously took plw'e at Tvre, rendered iiiiy su( h exp('ditii>ns impracticable. . . . The eni|iire of the second Adites lasted ten centuries, (luring which the Joktanite tribes, multiplving in cadi generation, lived amcrngst the C'lishite Halmans. . . . Thea-ssimilationof thcloktanites to the I'lisliites was so complete that the revolu- t:un whiih gave political supremacy to the ( escenilanLs of Joktan over those of ('usli pro- Mu d no sensible change in the civilisation of icm :ii. Kui although using thesame language, the two elements of the population of Southern Aniliia wire still i|uile distinct from each other, ami antag.inistic in their interests. . . . 1^ tli W(T.' .alicil Sabieans, but the Bible alwavs ,re- fiilli dislingiiishes them bv a different V ,«)g- r'i|'li\ . . . Tlie majority i.f the Salwai .ish- iti's, however, especiallv the superior istes rcf'is,,! 1,1 submit to tlie Joktanite voke. A isparatii.n. therefore, took pliU-e, giving rise to the .Vrab proverb, 'divided as the Saha'ans ' and tMc mass of the Adites emigrat«l to another c:".:T.!ry Acti^flli,^- i„ M. faussin de r,.r<e\ at, lie passage of the Saba'ans into Abvssinla ii to '»' alinliuted to the consequences of the revolu- li'ii that eslabllsliHi Joktanite supri'macy in » L'li, n. . . , The date of the paaaage of the •J Sabteans from Arabia into Abyssinia ismuch more difflcult to prove than the fact of their having done so. , . . Yarub, the con(iueror of the Adites, and founder of the new monarchy of Jok- tanite Arabs, was succeeded on the throne bv his son, Y'ashdjob, a weak and feeble prince, o"f whom nothing is recorded, but that he allowed the chiefs of the various provinces of his states to make .hemselves independent. A' J, Shems, surneiiied Sheba, son of Y'a.sh(ijob, recovered the power his predecessors had lost. . . . Abd Shems ha(' several children, the most celebrated being Ilimyer and Kahlan, who left a numerous pos- terity. From fhe.se two personages were de- scended the greater part of the Yemenite tribes, who still e.\isted at the time of the rise of Islam'- ism. The Himyarites seem to have settled in the towns, whilst the Kahlanites inhabited the countrv and the deserts of Y'emen. . . . This is the sulistance of all the information given by the Arab historians."— F. Lenormant and E. Chevalier, ifunual of Ancient Biit. nf the £att bk. 7, eh. 1-3 (r. 2). Sabaans, The.— "For some time past it has been known that the Himyaritic mscriptions fall info two groups, distinguLshed from one another by phonological and grammatical diflen nces. One of the dialects is philologically older than the other, containing fuller and more primitive gnim- matical forms. The inscriptions in this dialect iH'long to a kingdom the capital of which was at Main, and which represents the country of the .Minieans of the ancient-s. The inscriptions in the other dialect were engraved ■)v the princes and people of Saba, the Sheba of the t)ld Testa- ment, the Satxeans of classical geograpliv. The Salwan kingdom lasted to the time of Sioham- med. when it was destroyed bv the advancing forces of Islam. Its ruh"rs for several gcncra- lions had been converts to Judaism, luid had lieen engaged in almost constant warfare with the Efhiopic kingdom of Axum. which was backed by the influence and subsidies of Home and Byzantium. Dr. Gliiser seeks to show that the founders of this Ethiopic kingdom were the Habitsa, or Abyssinims, who migrated from Himyar to Africa in the second or flrst century B. C. ; « hen we flrst liearof them in the inscrip- tions they are still the inhabitants of Nortliem Yemen and .Mahrah. .More than once the Axum- ites made themselves masters of Siuthem .\mbia. AlHiut A. I). 3<)(), they occupied its ports and islands, and from il'iO to 3T« even the Sabaan kingdom wm tributary to them. Their last suc- cesses wen' gainiKl in .')■.;■".. when, with Bvzantine help, they eon(iuen(l the w hole of Yemen. But the Sabiean kingdom, in spite of its temporary subjection to Etiiiopia, had hmg been a formitl- able State. Jewish cohmics settled in it, and one of its prin(vs became a convert to the Jewish faith. Mis 8ucccs.sors gradually exu-nded their douiinion as far as Omiuz. and after the success- ful n volt from Xwim in 378, bn)ught not onlv the Hholc of the southern coast under tlici'r sway, but the western coast as well, as far north as Mekka. Jewish influence made itself felt in the future birthplace of .Mobamincd. and thus introduced those ideas and N'liefs which snlise- (|(uullv iiad so pnifoiind an effect up(m the hirtli of Islam. The Byzantines and Axumites en- deavouTd to counteract the influence of Judaism bv means of Christian eohinies and progelvtism. The rviult wan a conflict between SabA luid it* 129 ARABIA. ARAVISCt aamilants, which took the 'nnn of a conflict bvtwern the membere of *'. two religions. A violent peraerutinn was Qirected against the Chrisitians of Yemen, avenged by the Etiiiupian concpiest of the country and the removal of its capitnl to San 'a. Tlic intervention of Persia in the struggle was soon followed by the appear- ance of MohamnxHlunism upon the scene, and Jew, Christiiui, an<i I'arsi were alike overwhclme<l by tlie flowing tide of the new creed. The epi- g'raphic evidence makes it clear that the origin of the kingdom of SabA went back to a distant date. Dr. Glaser traces its history from the time when its princes were still hiit Makarib, or 'Priests,' like Jethro, the Priest of Midian, through the ages when they were 'kings of 8abS, and later still ' kings uf'SabA and liaidun,' to the days when thev claimed imperial suprem- »-y overall the princfpalilies of Southern Ariilila. It was in this later period that they dated their inscriptions by an era, which, as Ilalevy tlrst dis- covered, cnmsponds to 115 B. C. One of the kings of Saba is mentioned in an inscription of the Assyri.m king Sargon (B. C. 715), and Dr. Uliuier M-lieves that he has found Ids name In a ' Ilimvaritic ' text. When the la.st priest, Samah'ali f)arrahh. b«>came king of Sabft. we do not yet know, but the age must be sutflciently remote, if the kingdom of 8ab4 already existeil when the Queen of Sheba came fn)m "Ophir to visit .Solomon. 1 he visit need no longer cause ast(mishmi nt, notwithstanding the long journey by land which lay betwei'n Palestine and the soutli of Amhia. ... As we have seen, the in- scriptions of Ma'in set before tis a dialect of more priiiiiiive character than that of SabJ. Hitherto ft liad iHrn supposed, however, that the two dialo'Ls were 8[>oUen contemporaneously, and that the Mina-an and Salwan kingdoiiis existed side liy side. But i»eogn>pliy olTeri'd dilliculties in tlie way of siuh a Ix'lief. since the wats of Miiiaan power were emlK'ddiHl in the mi<lst of the Saliaan kingdom, much as the fragments of Cromarty are emlx'dded in the midst of otlur counties." Dr. Gla-sor has now made it clear that tlie old supposition was incorrect, and that the Slinaan kingdom pnceded the rise of .Sal>£. We can now understand why it is that neither in the Old Testament nor in the Assyrian in.scrip- tions do we hear of auy princes lif Ma'in, and that though the cl.as.siojil writers are acnuainled with the Mina^an people thev know nothing of a Mina>an kingdom. The ^liiKean kiiigilom. in fact, with its culture and monuments, tlie relies of which still survive, must have nourished in the grev dawn of histoi-y, at an epo<li at which, as we fiave hitherto iiiiagined, Arabia was the home only of nomad barbarism. And yet in this re'nioie age alphat)etie writing was already known and iiractisrd, the alphaliet iH'ing a iiKxliticatioii of tlie I'ha'iiieian written vertically and not horizon- tally. To what an curly date liri' we ri'fern'd for the origin of the Plio'iiician alphnbel itself! The Miiiaan Kingdom must have liait a long exi.>^t- enee. The names of thirty-three of its kings are alriady known to us. ... A power wliieh reached to the Ixjnlera of Palestine must neces- sarily have come into contact with the g; it monarehies of the ancient w>irld. Tiie army of .Julius Uallus wun doiilitiervs not tlie iint »iiieii had sought to gain possession of the cities ami (pice ganlens of the south. One such invasion is •Uuded to in an inacription which waa copied by 130 H. Halivj, . . . But the epigraphy of ancient Arabia is atill in its infancy. The inscription^) already known to us represent but a small pro- portion of those that are yet to bo discovered. . . . The dark past of the Arabian peninsula Ims been suddenly lighted up, and we And that loii^' before the days of Mohammed It was a land uf culture and llt<>ratuiv:, a seat of powerful kini.' doms and wealthy commerce, which cannot fail to have exercised an influence upon the general history of the world." — A. H. Sayce, Ancient Arnhia [ConUmp. I!ee., Ike., 1889). 6th Century.— Partial conquest by the Abys- tinians. Sec Vuys8INL\: 6tii to 16tb Cen- TCniES. A. O. 609-633. — Mahomet's conquest. See MAnoMETAN C'o.n<}I!K8T: a. D. 609-633. A. D. 1517.— Brought under the Turkish sovereignty. Sec Tukks: A. D. 1481-1520. » ARABS, Conqoesti. See Mahomctas CUN4UEST.— Medical Science. See Medical Science: 7-1 Itd Cbnturibs.— Trade, tjee TltADB, AHCIENT AKD MEDI.SVAL. ARACHOTI, The.— A people who dwelt an- ciently in the Valley of the Arghandab, or Ir- gundab, in eastern Afghanistan. Herodotus gave them the tribal name of "Pactyes," and the modem Afghans, who call theins«'lves " Pashtun " and "Pttkhtun," signifying " mountaineers," are prolmbly derived from them. — M. Duncker, Iliit, iif AntitfKiti/, bk. 7, ch. 1. ARAGON : A. D. I035-I358.— Rise of the kingdom. See Spain: A. D. 1035-1258. A. O. 1 133.— Beginning; of popular repre- sentation in the Cortes. — The Monarchical con- stitution. See Cohtks. The Kari.y Si'AMi-i!. A. D. 1318-1338,— The first oath of alle- f:iance to the king, — Conquest of Balearic stands.— Subjugation of Valencia. Sec .Simin: A. I). i2i2-ii;tM, A, D. 1410-1475.— The Castilian dynastj. —Marriage of Ferdinand with Isabella of Castile. See Si-ain: A. 1). 13(1H-14T'J. A. D. 1S16.— The crown united with that of Castile by Joanna, mother of Charles V. ^ Spai.n: A. D. 1490-1517. ARAICU, The. .See Amehicas Abouioixes; Gt CK OK ClKO GllOl I'. ARAM.— ARAM NAHARAIM. — APAM ZOBAH — ARAMiGANS. See Skmh» :il>o, Semitic l,A.Not:AoK«. ARAMBEC. Sie Xouimiieiia. ARAPAHOES, The. Se.' Amkuicax .Vim uuii.SEs: .\l.(iONniiAS FA.MII.V, and I'awm.k (I'ABiHiAN) Family. ARAR, The. — The ancient name of the river Saone. in Frame. ARARAT. — URARDA. See At.Anoi>us« ARATOS, and the Achaian League, ^e« GkekcE: M.V. 28i>-146. ARAUCANIANS, The. See Chilf. ARAUSIO. — A Ilontaii colony wus (ouniled by .\iigustus at Antiisio, which is repns<iiii-.i ia name and site by the m-Hlern town of Dniiui . in the department of Vaueliis*', Fnini-e. \x niilrt north of .Vvignon. — P. GiHxiwin, llitl.of Friiia: AiiC iliiul, bk. 'i. rh. 5. ARAUSIO, Battle of iB. C. 105). See Cat- BHi andTkutones: B. C. li;l-l(>3. ARAVISCI AND OSI, The. — " Wli.itier ... the Aiavisci migrated into Pannouia iron ARAVISCI the Ori. t Oermtn race, or whether the 0>< came from the Arariaci into Germany, aa both nations still retain the same languajre, institutions ami customs, is a doubtful matter." — "The locality of the Aravisci was the extreme north-eastern part of the province of PannonU, and would thus stretch from Vienna (Viodobona). eastwards to Itaab (Arrabo), taking in a ponion of the southwest of Hungary. . . . The Osi seem to have dwelt near the sources of the Oder and the Vistula. They would thus have occupied a jiiirt of Oallicia." — Tacitus, Otrmnny, trant. bg Chuirh and Brndrihb, irith nrog. ruttet. ARAWAKS, OR ARAUACAS, The See Americ*-* Aborioines : Caribs. ARA.. "S, The. — This name seems to have Ntr applietl to a number of Asiatic streams in anrii-nt times, but is connected most prominently with an Armenian river, now called the Aras, which flows into the Caspian. ARBAS, Battle of.— One of the battles of ihe Komiins with the Persians in which the for- mer suiTcrcii defeat. Foiipht A D. 1581 ARBELA, or GAUGAHELA, Battle of (B. C. 3311. See .Macedo.nia : B. C. 334-330 ARBITRATION, Intematioiul. See In- TF.R.VATIO.VAL ArBITRATIO.N. ARCADIA.— The central district of Pelo- ponnesus, the jieat southern peninsula of Greece -a district surrounded by a singular mountain circle. "From the '.cle of mountains which h.is been pointed ou' all the rivers of any note take their rise, and i.-om It all the mountainous ranges direree, which form the many headlands Md poinU of Peloponui'sus. The interior part of the country, however, has onlv one opening towards the western sea, through which all its waters How united in the AInheus. The pecu- liar character of this inhind tract is also i„- (Teased i)y the circumstauce of its bein? inter- sected by some lower secondary chains of hills, which compel the waters of the valleys nearest to the ?re«t chains either to foim lakes, or to »eek a vent by subterraneous passages. Hence it is that in the mountainous distnct in the northeast of Pel(ip<innesiis many streams disappear and again emerge from the earth. This region Is Arca.lia; a country consisting of ridges of hills and ele- vatiii plains, and of deep and narrow valleys With streams Ilowing through channels forme«i by precipitous rocks; a country so manifestly separatetl by nature from the rest of Pelopon- nesus that, although not politically united, it was always considered in the light of" a single i .im- munity. Its climate was extremely cold : the at- mosphere dense, particulariy In the mountains to the nnrth: the effect which thia had im the char- acter and dispositions of the inhatdtants has Ijeen <lis(ntH'd in a masterly manner by Polvbius liims<lf a native of Arcadia."— C. O. MdIUt' //ly. „nd Ahliq. of the Done Raft. bk. 1, eh. 4 — •Ihe later Koman poets were wont to speak of Are:ulia as a smiling land, where grassy vales w.Hi,T,il by gentle and pellucid streams, were tnhabited by a race of primitive and picturesque sliepl.enls and shenherdesses, who dividcil their time iHtween tending their flocks and making love to one another in the most tcniler and roman- tir fashion. This Mvllic conception nf x\v '"in'rv and the people is not to U traced in tbc HI llellen.' poj-u, who were better acquaint^ « itli tlie actus facu of the case. The ArcadUina we-e sufflcicmly primiUve, but there waa very ARE0PAGC8. little that was graceful or picturesque about (heir land or their lives. "-C. H. Hanaon, The Land tf (irteu, pp. 8HI-.382. B. C. 37i-362._The union of Arcadian towns. Restoration of M«ntinei«.— Buildin* of Megalopolis.— AUiance with Thebes'- y!f? ?"« ■^*^ »n<i Elis—Disunion— Battle of Mm,une»a. See Greece: B. C. 871 and 371-3u,^ B. C. 33». - rerriteries restored by Philip of Macedon. See Greece: B. f ;KT-a{6 B. C. 243-i46.-In the Achaiaa Leafne. See Gbeece: B. C. 280-14«. ^ See ARCHIPELAGO, The Oakes of the Maxos: The SIedl«vai, Dikedox. ARCHITECTURE. See Sities in Archi- TKCTimi. -,ARCHON. See Athens: From the Doriak MlORATIO!* TO B. C. 68.3. ARCIS-SUR-AUBE, Battle ot t 3 *^V=S.^A ^ ^ '^'* (Jani art-March). . ArTSr^' Battle of (17961 See Frasce: A. IX I79«-1797 (October-April). ARCOT: A. D. I7si.-Capture from the .'^ ,.,^°'' <**f«°e« oy Olive. See I.ndia : A. L>. l»43-17,'i'2. ARCTIC EXPLORATION. See Polak ElPLOBATIOX, ^'^S?*? • Po™»t of.-The largest forest In early BriUiin. which covered the itreater part of modem Warwickshire and "of which Shakes- peare's Arden became the dwindled representa- I'^'c- -J. Ft Green, The ilakinj of England, ARDENNES, Forest of. -"In Oesar'a t me there were in [Gaul] very exten.sivc forests, the hirgest of which was theArduenna (Arden- nes), which extended from tlie banks of the lower Uhine probably as far as the shores of the Xorth '^J-"— 0. Long. Ikdintofthe Komnn llep'thtir r 3, eh. 22.- "Ardennes is the name of one of the northern French departments which c-ontains a part of the forest .\rdenne8. Another part is in Luxemburg and Belgium. The old Celtic name exisU in England in the .Vrden of War- wtctshire."— y^«*im*. r. 4. cA 14 ^5S?.'{.9L'* ARDRIGH, The. See Tcath. , ARDSHIR, OR ARTAXERXES, Found- ing of the Sassanian monarchy by. See Per- sia: B. C. l,V)-.\.. D. 228. ARECOMICI, The. See Volcje. ARECUNAS, The. Sec America.v Abo- rigines: Caribs axd their Kindred AREIOS. See Aria. ARELATE: The ancient name of Aries. — The territory covered by the old kingdom of Aries is sometimes calledthe .\relate See BtrB- ol-ndt: a. D. 1127-1378, and Salves. ARENGO, The. See San Marino, Tm KEriBLrr iw. AREOPAGUS, The. -"Whoever [in an- cient Athens! was suspected, of havii q blood upon his hands had to abstain from app oaching the comniim alurs of the land. Aoco.-dingly for the purpose of judgments concerning the gjilt . Iilofxl, choice had been made of the barren. r.Kky height which lies opposite the ascent t.. thr clladci. It was detilcatiHi lo Ares who was said lo have been the first who was ever jiidgetl here for the guilt of blood ; and to the Ennyes, the dark powen of the guilt stained conscience. Here, instead of a single judge a ISl ARE0PAGU8. ARGENTINE REPUBUO. ' college of twelve men of proved liilogrlty con- ducUil the trial. If the accused h:iil an eiiual numlMT uf votes for and against him, he was acquitted. Tlie court on tlie hill of Arcs is one of the most ancient institutions f Athens, and Done achieve<l for the city an earlier or more widely-8^. ad recognition. — E. Curtius, Hint, oj Oretef, bk. i. r>i. 3. —"The Areopagus, or, as it was interpreted by an ancient legend. Mars' Hill, wa.s an eminence on the western side of the Acroiwlls, which from time Immemo- rial hud lieen the seat of a highly revered court of criminal justice. It toiik "cognizance of charges of wilful murder, maiming, poisoning and un«>n. Its forms and modes of pn«ec<ling were peculiarly rigid and solemn. It was held in the open air, perhaps that the judges might not be polluted by sitting under the same roof with the criminals. . . . The venerable character of the court seems to have detemiineil Solon to apply it to another purpose; and, without mak- ing any change in Its original jurisdiction, to erect it into a supreme council, mveMed with a sup<'rintending ami controlling authority, which extended over every part of the social system. He constituted it the guanlian of the "public morals and religion, to keep watch over tlie "iu- cation an<l conduct of the citizens, and topn ect tiic State from the liisgracc or pollution of wan- tonness and profaneness. He arme<l it with e.x- traoniinary powers of interfering in pn'ssing emcrgenciea. to avert any sudden and imminent dang< r which threatencilthe public safety. The na*i;'e of its functions rendered it scarcely pos- sible pncisily to detino their limits: and"Sol(>n probably tho"uglit it best to let them remain in that ol)seurity nhieli magnifies whatever is in- distinct. . . ' It WHS tilled with archons who had discharged their offlee with appn>veil liilelitv, and they held tlieir seats for life."— 0. Thirlwall. Jliiit. of Griece, r. 1, ch. It. — Tliesc enlargeil functions of the Areopagus were withdrawn from it in the time of Pericles, through the agency of Ephiultes. but were restoreii alMiut B. C. "4(KI, after the overthrow of the Tliirty.— "Some of the writers of antiquity ascribed" the first estulilishment of the 8<'nate of AreoiKicus to Solon. . . . But there can lie little doubt that this is a mistake, and that the senate of .Vre opagus is a primordial institution of imnuinnriul anti(|uity, though its constitution as w.li as its functions tmderwcnt many changes. It stcKul at tlrst alone as a permanent ana collegiate au- thority, iprik'inally bv the sidi- i^f the kings and ufterwunls hy the side of the :irihonai it would then of (ourse Iw known by the title of The Boole, — the senate, or council; its distinctive title •senate of Areopagus," Iwrrowed from the place where its sittings were held, would nut Iw bestowiHl until tlie formation by 'Solon of the second siniite, or eoiiiuil, from which there was neeii to diseriminate it. "— (• Oroti', Hint, nf Orwff, ]it. '.'. eh. 10 {' ;i).— Stx', also, Athens: B. C. 477 Wi. :ind 4rtti 4.'')4. ARETHUSA, FounUin of. See SvmcisE. ' AREVAC^, The.— One of the tribi-s of the CeltilHTians in uiieient Spain. Their cliief town, Kumantia. was the stronghold of Celtibcrian re- sistance 111 the Roman conquest See Xumau- TIAN W i.. ARGAOEIS, The. Sec Phtl*. ARGAUM, BsUle of (1803). See India: A. D. 179B-1S0'5. ARGENTARIA, B«tU«of(A. D. 37D. See Alemanni: a. I). 3TH. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: Aboricinal inbabitaot*. See American Aborioines: Ti cl — Ol'AKANI. A. D. 1515-1557.— DiKOTery, exploration and early aetttement on La Plata.— First fonndinK of Bucnot Arres. See Parauiav: A. I). i.M.i-i,'..-.:. A. D. 1580-1777.- The final foondinc of the City of Bueno. Ayrea.— Conflicts of Spain and Portugal on the Plata.— Creation of the Viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres. — "In the year 15WI the foundations of a lasting city were'luiil at Buenos Ayres liy Dc Garay on the samesitiiu- tion as liail twice previously been clioaen — namely, by Mendoza, and by Cabeza de Vara, respectively. The same leader had before tliis founded the settlement of Santc Fuonthe Hartimi. The si>e selecteii for the future capital of the Pampas is probably one of the worst ever chosen for a city . . . has probably the wcir«t harbour in the world for a large commerdal town. . . . Notwithstanding the inconveiiii me of its harbour. Buenoa Ayres soon became tin- chief coinmereial entrepot of the Valley of tin- Plata. The settlement was not effected wilhniit some severe llghling iH'twceii I)e Oaray's fnnv and tlie Querandies. The latter, however, wiri' effectually quelled. . . . The Spanianis Here now nominally masters of the Rio de La I'lati but they had still to apprehend hratilities on ili,' part of the natives tietween tlieir few and f.ir distant settlements [concerning which set; F.vii t Gf.w: A. n. l.'ib'i-l.-w;]. Of this Ihibility It,. Garay himself was to form a lamentable e.\iiiii|>li' On his passage back to Asuncion, having imau tioiisly landiil to siiip near the ruins of the ell fort of San Espiritu. he was surprised by a purtv of mttives and munien^tl, with all his conip;inl ons. The death of this brave Biscayaii wa* moiinied as a great loss by the entire colnnv The importance of the cities founde<l by him win soon apparent: and in tO'iO all the st'ltlenieiits south of the confluence of the rivers Paniiia aii'l Paraguay were formed into a separate, indipi :i dent govcniiiient, under tlic name of Riode l.i Plata, of which Buenos Ayres was declare. I the capite' This city likewise iK-came the seii of a bislio;! :. . . . The merchants of Seville wlui had olitjiiiieil a monopoly of the supply of .Mexico and P<';u, reganled with niucli jealousy the prospe. t of a new opening for the S<iiith .Viiieii- can trade by way of Iji Plata," and iircKiirnl re strictions upon it whiili were rela.iiHl in Itlis *. far as to permit the sending of two ves.si-lsof Iiiii tons each every year to Spain, but sulijeet t" a duty of ,50 per cent. " t'niler this misentlile coinmereial legislation Buenos Avres contiiiiutl to langui.sh for the first century of its exisn me. In 17i.'i, after the treaty of I'treclit, the KiiLrlisli . . . obtained the 'asiento' or contract for mi|>- |)lying Spanish colonies in America with .Vtrioan slaves, ill virtue of which tliey had permission to form an establishment at Buenixs Ayres. iinil 10 send thither annually four ships wiih 1 '.'OO negroes, the value of which they might e\i>ort in produce of the country. They were strieili for bidden to introiiuie other gooils than tlnw« iieiressary for their <iwn estabiisiiinenis: iiiu under the temptation of gain on the one siile and of demand on the other, the asiento ships natur- ally became the means of trausactiag a coiuider 132 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 1880-1777. able contraband tnde. . . . Tho English wore not the only amuKglerH In the rivt-r Plate. Uy tlic treaty of Utrecht, the PortiiKueite hail obtained llie important settlement of C'olonia [the first Nttlement of the Banda Oriental — or 'Eastern UorJer'— afterwards calleii Uni^juay] directly fiicini; Buenos Ayres. . . . The Portuguese, . . . not contented with the po«ses.,ion of Colonltt . . . <c>mmence<l a more important settlement near .Miiiite Video. From this plaie they were (li'tliMlired bv Zavala [Uovenior of Buenos Ayres], «Ihi. Iiy order of Ids government, proceeded to I'slalilish .settlements at that plai e anil at .Mnldo- iiiulo. I'nder the oIotvc detaileil circumstances iif lonlention . . . Wiis founded the healthy and airncahle city of Monte Video. . . . The incvi- talile consequence of this state of tilings was fresh antaironism between the two countries, wluch it « IS .sought to put an end to by a treaty tx'tween thf two nations conclude<l in li.V). One of the :irti( U'S stipulated that Portugal should cede to Spain all of her establishments on the eastern Ii-ink of the Plata; in return for which she wsa t" receive the seven missionary t<iwns [known as tlie ■ Sven Keductions '] on llie Iruiruay. But . . . the inhabitjints of tlie Missions natundlv n In Hell against the idea of l)«ing han<ied ovit to :i |ieo|ile known to them only by their slave deal- in:.' atrocities. . . . The result was that wlien a.iHKt natives had lieen slaughtered [in tlie war knnwii as the War of thi' l*;ven Keductions] and till ir ^ittlenients reduced to ruins, the Portuguese ri imdiiited tlie compact, as thev coiilil no Linger uiiiw their eiiuivalent. and they still tlierefore ri-T. lined Colonia. When hostilities were re- nrwisl in 1762, the governor of Buemw Avrcs Miceeeded in pos.sessing himse'f of Colonia; 'but inthi- fiilloning year it was resto.iil lo the Por- tuiu, «■, who continued in pos.-essiiin until 1777, wlaii it was definitely ceded to iSpain. Tlie con- tinual incroachnients of the Portuguese in the Kill lie I,a Plata, and the imputiity with wliich llie (iintniband trade was carried' on, together with llie questions to which it constantlv gave rise Hiih foreign governments, had long 'shown tlie iimssity for a change in ttie government of that n.l.iny; for it was still under the superinten- ilinie of the Viceroy of Peru, n'siiling at Lima, H.ooo miles distant. The Sjianish authorities nil rilingly resolveil to give Iresh force to their ri^pri sentatives in llic Rio de La Plata; and in ITTii ihey took tlie Important resolution to sever till- mnnection bctwe»'n the provincesof Li Plata mill the Viceroyalty of Peru. The former were iiiiw en I t«l into anew Viceroyaltv, tlie capital iif which was Buenos Ayres. ... To this Vice- r. • illy was appointeil Don Pedro Ccvallos. n ("riiiergoverniirof Buenos Ayres. . . . The ti ret act of Cevallos was to take possession of the island of St. Katherine. the most Important Portuguese possession on the coast of Brazil. Procveiiing till nie to tlie Plate, lie razed the fortifications of Coliinia to the ground, and drove the Portuguese from the mighlmurhiKKi. In October of the foi- l-wing year. 1777, a treaty of peace was signed ■; St. Ihlefonso, lietwecn Queen Maria of Portii- wul and Charles IIL of Spain, by virtue of which St K.;'lierine's was restored to the latter country wiiilst Portugal withdrew from the Banda Orien- '-' r Iniguay, r,iv\ reliiiquislied ull pretensions to ihc right of navigating the Kio de La Plata atiii itsHlfluenU beyond its own frontier line. The Vioiroyalty of Buenot Ayre* w ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, 1806-1820. Into the provinces of— <1.) Buenos Ayres, tho capital of which was the citv of that name, and which comprised the Spanish pisscsslons tlint now form the I{epiiblic of Uruguay, as well as the Argentine provinces of Buenos Avrc'S, Santa Fe, Entrc Uios. and Corrientes; (2.) Para- guay, the capital of wliich was Asuncion, and which comprised what is now the Republic of Paraguay; (.3.) Tuciiman, the capital of which was St. lago del Estero. and which included what are to-day the Argentine provinces of Cor- dova, Tucuman, St, lago, Salta, Catamarca, Kioja, and Jujuy; (4.) Las Cliarcas or PotosI, the capiul of which was Im Plata, and which now forms the Kepiiiilic of Bolivia; and (5) Chiquito or Ciiyo, the capital of wliich was Men- doza, and in wliich were comprehended the pre- sent Argentine provinces of St. Luiz, Jleiidoza, and St. Juan."— U. O. Watson, Spniiith atul Pt>r- turjiuK Suuth Ameriru, r. 2, i-h. 13-U. Auto IK; E. J. Payne, /filtiry of European. Oianit; ch. 17.— S. H. Wilcockc, Hut. uf Ifa i i«rmy«;/y nf liueiu^ Ai/rt: A. D. 1806-1830.— The Engltth ioTasion.— The Revolution.— Independence achieved.— Confederation of the Provinces of the Plate {*'»«» "d its dissolution.- •Tiielnideof the 1 late Kivir had enorniouslv increaseil since the substitution of register sliips for the annual flotilla, ami the erection of Buenos .Vyres into a viceroyalty in 177H; but it was not until the war of 1797 that the English iK-canie aware of its re.1l e.vtent. The British cruisers hiul enough to do to maintain the blockade: and when the'Knglish h'urniil that millions of hides were rotting in tho warehouses of .Monte Video and Buenos -Vyrcs, they concluded that the people would si«)n sec that their interests would be liest served by submis- sion t/i tlie great nival power. The peace put an end to these iili-is: but Pitt's favourite pro- ject for destroying Spanish influence In South America by the English arms was revived and put in e.xecution siHin after the opening of tlie second European war in 1803. In lHofl ... he sent a squadron to the Plate River, which offered the liest point of attack to the British Ueet. and the roail to tho most promising of tlie Sjianisli colonics. The English, under Gcniriil IkTes- ford, though few in numtwr, soon tisik Buenos Ayres, for the Spaniards, territied at the sight of British troops, surrendered without knowing liow insignilicant the invading force really was. When they found this out, tliey mustereil cour- age to attack lU-resford in the citadel; and the English commander was obliged to evacuate the place. The English soon afterwards tiMik pos- session of .Monte Video, on the other side of tlie river. Here they were joined by another s<iua- droii, wlio were under orders, after reducing Buenos .\yres. to sail round tlic Horn, to take Valparaiso, and establisli posts across the conti- nent connecting timt city with Buenos Avres thug executing tlie long-cherislied plan of Loni Anson. Buenos .Vyres was therefore Invcsteil a .second time. But the English land forces were too few for their task. The Spaniards spread all round the city strong breastworks of oxhides, and collecteil all their forees for its defence. Buenos Ayres was stormcf) by the Enslish a; two points on the .'ith of July, 1WJ7; but they were unable to hold their ground against the i. j._,j 1 >""-'e«»'n8 fire of tho Spaniards, who were sub-divided I greatly superior in numbers, and the next day 133 AROENTINE BEPCBLIC, 1806-1880. AROENTmE REPUBLIC, 181»-;874 pr I in Ihcy capitulated, and ngreed to evacuate the T)rovincp within two monllis. The EDKlish had inaKini-d that the colonists would readily flock to tlieir standard, and throw o(t the yoke of Spain. This was a great mistake ; anrl it needed the event* of tWW to lead the Spanish colonists to their iiuU'pendvnce. ... In 1810, when it came to he known that the French armies had croaaed the Sierra Morena, and that Spain was a conquered country, the colonista would no longer submit to the shadowy authority of the colonial olBoers, and elected a Junta of their own to carry on the Government. Moat of the troops in the colony went over to the cause of inde- pendence, and easily overcame the feeble resist- ance that was macic by those who remained faithful to the regency in tlie engagement of Las Piciiras. The leaders of the revolution were the advocate Castelli and General Belgrano; and under their guidance sj-arcely any obstacie stopped its progress. Thev even sent their armies at once into Upper Peru and the Banda Uriental, and their privateers carrie<l the Inde- pendent flag to the coasts of the Paciflc; but tliese successes were accompanietl by a total anarchy in the Argentine capital end provinces. The most intelligent and capable men had gone off to flght for litjcrty elsewhere; and even if they had remained it "would Imve been no easy task to establish a new government over the scatterc<l and half-civilized population of this vast country. . . . The flrst result of indepen- dence was the formation of a not very intelligent party of country proprietors, who knew nothing of the mysteries of politics, and were not ill- content with the existing onler of things. The huxiness of the old vireroyal government Wds dell-gated to a supreme Director; but this func- tionary was little more than titular. How limited the aspirations of the Argentines at flrst were may lie gathered from the instructions with wlilrh liclgrano and Uivadavia were sent to Europ<' In 1814. Thev were to go to England, and ask for an Englisli proleclomte; If possible under an English princi'. They were next to try the same plan in France. Austria, and Kus- sia. hikI lastly in Snaln ilself: and if Spain still rcfuseii, were to offer to renew the subjection of the colony, on condition of certain spedfltHl con- cessions lieing made. This » iis indeed a strange contrast to the lofty aspirations of the C'oloni- bians. On arriving'at Hio, the Argentine liele fates were assured by the English minlsU'r, xir.i StrangfonI, lliat. as things we", no Euro- p«'an power would do anything for them: nor did tliey Biicn-eil Im'IUt in Spain itself. Mean- while tlie governmi'nt of tlie Ouenoa Avres junta was |Kiwerh-aa outside the town, and' the country was fast lapsing Into the utmost dis- onler and confusion. At length, when Oovera- ment could lianlly he said to exist at all. a Kiieral ciingiTHs of the provinces of the I'late Iver luwmbled at Tiicuinan in 1N)8. It was n-siilvei| that all the states shoiilil unite In a con- finhriillon to be called the TnltiHl l>nivince» of the I'lale HIvir: and a musillulltiu was cWkt- aliil. In imitation of the famous one of the I'liilcd Swtes, providing for two legislative rliamiirraand a pn-sident. . . , The inniienee of the capital, of which all the other provinces were knnly jeakitis, predonilnstiii In the eon. i gn-m, auil Piiyrredon, an nctivi' Biienoa .\yni I poUticlau, wo* iumIv suprtiue Uiivclor ol tlM 134 Confederation. The people of Buenoa Ayres thought their city destined to exercise over the rural province* a similar influence to that which Atliens, under similar circumstances, had exer cised in Greece; and able Buenos Ayreans like Puyrrcdon, San Martin, and RIvadavla. now lic- carae the leaders of the unitary party. The powerful nrovincials, represented by such men aa Loner and Quiroga. soon found out that the Fed eral scheme meant the supremacy of Buenos Ayres. m.d a political change which would deprive them of nifist of their influence. The Federal sy» tem, therefore, could not be expected to last very long; ani it did in fact collapse after four years Artigas led the revolt in the Banda Orient.ii fnow Uruguay], and the Riverene Provinces soon followed the example. For a long time the provinces were practically under the authority of their lix-iil chiefs, the only semblance of poliii- chI life lieing conflued to Buenos Ayres itself"— E. J. Payne, HM. of Eunrptnn Colonia. M. 17 Also ix: M. O. Mulhall, TKe BnglM in fi Amerifa. eh. 10-13, iiiirf 16-18. -J. Miller, .Vrm- oiri nf General Hitter, eh. 8 (r. 1).— T. J. Patre, /yi Ptiita. the Argentine Gutfederation and Pnni'. guay, eh. ;!1. A. D. 1819-1874.— Anarchy, ciril w«r, deipot- Ism.— The Ions itranle for ordtr and Con- federation.— "A new Congress met in 1819 aiul ma<ie a CunstitutioD for tlie country, which wus never adopti-d by all the Provinces. Pueyrnnlon resigned, and on June 10th, 1819, Joai Rondeau was elected, who. however, waa In no conditlou to pacify the civil war which had broken out during the government of his pre<lecessors At the commencement of 1830, the last • Director General' was overthrown; the municipality uf the city of Ruenos- Aires seUwl the government; the Confedi'ralion was tieclared dls»<ilved, ainl each of its I'rovinces receivol lilierty to orKniii?e itself as it pleased. This was anarchy otfirially pn>claime<l. After the fall in the safiie yenr ..f some military chiefs who had seized tlie "power Gen. Martin Rodriguez was named Oovernur of Buenos- Aires, and he auccee<led In esubliiih- ing some little onler in this chaos. He dKwe M. J. Garcia ami Bernardo Rtvadavia — mie of the most enllghtenivl Argentines of h.stinus- as his Ministers. This administration did a un ;it (leal of goiKi by exchanging conventions ,.f friemlship and comment-, and ent.'ring Into diplomatic relations with fon-Ign natiims. At tin- end of his term General \jt» Heras — iHh May. 1824 — took charge of the government, siij called a Constituent Assembly of all the I'm vinces, which met at Buenns-Airps. DccciiclHr mth, and electeil Bemanio Kivailavia Pri>liic iii ,pf the newly Confiilerated Kepiibllc on the Ttli K-li- ruary, 18M. This excellent Argentine. hn». v, r. found no Bssislanee In the Congn>aa. No iimli r staniling muld la- come toon the form or IIh' tut of the Coiiailtiition, nor yet upon the pliici. nf B'sldence for the national Oovemnient WlilM Rivadavia di'sln'<l a centraiiziil Constitution — cHlle<l lien" ' uninlarian '— and that tlie ■ it v nf Buenos Ain's ahouhl Iw de<'laml capital nf llw Republic, the majority of Congress hel<l « ,|if fen-nt opininn. and this dlvergpiicc cuiiscij ihe nwigimtkin of the President on the 5th July. I«.!7. After (his event, the attempt to esUhlish a (nu- fixleratlim which would (ncliide a!! th« !"?:■_ vlncf* was considennl a* defeated, ami esili Plurlnoc went on lt« own way, whlUt Uueuuc AROKimNE REPUBUC. 1819-1874 Aires elected Manuel Dorrego, the chief of the fedenU party, for IM QovemoT. He was inaugarated on the 18th August, 1827, and at once undertook to organize a new Confederation of the Provinces, opening relations to this end with the Oovemment of Cordoba, the most imporUnt Province of the interior. He suc- ceeded in ntisUbiishing repose in the Interior, and was instrumental In nreservinir n general peace, even beyond the limits of "his young country. The Emperor of Brazil did not wish to acknowledge the righu of the United Pro- vinces over the Cisplutinc province, or Banda Oriental [now Uruguay!. He wishe.! to annex it to his empire, and declared war to the Argen- tine Kepublic on the 10th of December, 18a«. An army was soon organized by the latter, under the command of Oeneral Alvear, which on the 2iilh of February, 1827, gained a complete victory over the Brazilian forces — twice their numN-r — at the plains of Ituzaingd. in the Brazilian province of Hio Orande do 8ul The navy of the Argentines also triumphed on several ocr-uions, w) that when England otfered her intervention, Brazil renounced all claim to till- territory of Uriiiruiiy by the convention of the 27th August, 182M, and the two parties agreed to recognize and to maintain the neutralily and independence of that country. Dorrego however, had but few sympntliii'4 "in the army' ami a short time after his n-lurn from Brazil the «r)lilier!i uniler liavailc relielleil and forced him to fly to the country on tlie Ist December of the same year. There he found aid from the Com mander General of tlie country districts Juan Manuel Kosas, ami fornu'<l a snuill liattalio'n witli the intention of marrliing on the cily of liuenos- Alres. Hut Lavalle triumphed, took him friioner, and shot him without trial on the 13th l)eeemlier. . . . Not only did the whole interit)r of the province of Buenos Ain-s rise agiiliist Uvslle, under the direction of Kosas, but al*i ii Urge part of other Provinces consideml tlili event as a declaration of war. and the National tongresa, then assembled at Santa Fo, declare I Lavalles government illegal. The two parties fought with real fury, butin 1829, after an Inter | view Mween Kosas and Lavalle, a temporary ' reenncillation wa«e(Tect«l. . . . The legislature Kf Hiienos Aires, which had been convoked on mniunlof tile reiH.nHllatloo between Uvalleand K't«M, electiKl the lalt.r as (Jovemor of the I'n) V t.,r. on IVcemher 6th, 188U, and accor.le.1 to him ejtraordjnary p..*,™. . . . During this the ftrst iMriiHl of his government he di.l not app. .r m Ills true nature, and at its conclusion 1; nriisiM a n- election and retired to the counir\ Oenera .luan R. Bidearce was then-17tli l>e.ember, 18.13- name<l Oovernor, but could "Illy maintain hlnistir simie eleven months- \ uimont »uccee«le<l lilm. also for a short time "illy Now the moment hail come for liiMns "I sereple.! the almost unlimil.-.| IMcUtorshlp Ml. Hgnetlln a horrible nwii.ier like a ma,i man. until his fall .Several times the attempt valiant efrorta of p,>iieral Uvalle d.-serve to lie mentliwid; but all was in vain Kos.. n-mglaea rmni.fi-*^'''*"'''. **'■'''''"' •"""" J"** Do liLi J!r'.i^*'"™"rj''."" province of Enlr.- HkM, U> •UiuoD wltli tlM province of Corrlcnte. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 1880-1891. and the Empire of Brazil, rose against the Dictator. He first delivered the Republic of Uruguay and the city of Monte- Video — the asylum of the adversaries of Roaas- from the army which besieged it, and thereafter passing the great river Parani. with a relatlvelylarOT army, be completely defeated Rosas at Montt- Vo'lSf'^f,"'!?'' ""eno^-Alrcs, on the 3rd February, ieoi iJuring the same day, Roaas souirht arid received the protection of an English war- vessel which was In the road of Buenos Aires, In which he went to England, where he still 118761 resides. Meantime Urqulza took charge of the Government of the United Provinces, under the title of 'Provisional Director," and called a general meeting of the Governors at San Nicolis a frontier village on the north of the province of Buenos-Aires. This assemblage confirmed him in his temporary power, and called a National Congress which met at Santa Fe and ma<le a Watlonal Constitution under date of 2.'5th May 18.M. By virtue of this Constitution the Con- gress inet again the following year at Parani, a city of Entre-Hios. which hail lieen made the capital, and on the 5th Mav. elected Oeneral t rqulza the first President of the Argentine Con- federation ... The important province of Buenos-Alres, however, had taken no part in the dclibcrHtions of the Congress. Previously, on the 11th September 1832, a revoluthm against Irquiza, or rather against the Pnnlncial trovemment in alliance with him, had taken place and caused a temporary separation of the J rovlnce from the Republic. Several efforU to pacify the disputes utteriy failed, and a Imttle took place at Cepeda in Santa Fe, wherein I rciulia, who commandeil the provincial troops was victorious, although his success led to no <ieflnite result. A short time after, the two armies met again at Pavon — near the site of the former lialtie- and Buenos Aire* won the diiy. This secured the unity of the Republic of which the victorious General Bartolome Mitre was elected President for six years froin October, 1869. At the same time the >»tional Oovemment was transfemsl from InrntiA to Buenos- Aires, and the latter was <l.il8iT<l the temporary capital of the Nation, riie Kepublic owes much to the Oovernn.ent of .Mitre, and It is prolwhle that he woiil<l have done more good. If war had not liMken out with Pnraguav. In 1863 |s.y- ParaoiavI The Argen "" ■ '■ e of the 136 tines t.Kik iwrt In It as one of the three aijie.1 States against the Dictator of Paraguay Fran- cisco SoUno Ixipez. «)n the I2lli (hiober, 1868 Domingo Faustino .Snrmiento siicreeiled Oen' ?'''r',H'"l';, ''■?■"'''•■■"">■ The litlHMober; 1«74, Dr. Mcoliis .Vveilaneda surci'isled him in the Oovernment. '-ri Napp, Th* Ar^ntint Also IK: D F Sannicnto. L^fe in Ihf Arnfntint KriiHhlir in Ihe Ihiiit r,f ihf Turinh —A \ King I'rrHtjffiwri/nin in th, Arornlinf Hrp'Mir A. D, tUo-l89l.-Tht Constitution «nd its workinr. — Govcmmtntal comiption. — Tht R«*olutloB of 1890, and tha financial coUaps*. — 'The Argentine const It 111 Icihul svsiem In Us oMtwaril form corresponds c liwlv to that of the I iilte.1 Slates. . . But llw iriwiir.l arace of eu -hiraKl t»„hlt,-. "pfBl,* i, hrking, and political practice fails below the level of a self governing democracy. Congn-ss enacts lawa, but the Prusldvnt as coumanasr in chief of Uw ! -. AROENTINE REPCBUC, 1880-18»1. limy, and as the head of a civil service depend- ent upon his will and caprice. posHosws abso- lute authority in administration. The country is governed by executive decrees rather tlian by constitutional' laws. Ele«:tions are carried Iiv military pressun^ and manipulation of the civil service. . . . President Roca [who sun^eoicd Avellanetia in IHMI) virtuallv nondnnted, and elected his brother-in-law, Juarez Celman, as his successor. President Juarez set Ids heart upon controlling the succession in the interest of one of his ri'liitives. a prominent official ; but was forciil to retire before he could carry out his purpose. . . . Nothing in the Argentine sur- priseil me more than the boldness and freedom with which the press attaclicd the government of the day and exposed its corruption. . . . The government paid no heed to these attacks. Ministers di<l not trouble themselves to ri^pel charges atTecting their integrity. . . . This wholesome criticism from an indejiendent press had one important effect. It gave direction to public opinion in the capital, and involved the organization of the Union Civica. If the coun- try had not iH'en on the verge of a tinancial reviUnion. there might not have been the ri'volt against the Juarez lulministration in July, 1890; but wltli ruin and disaster confronting them, men turned agninst the President whose incom- petence and venality would have been conilone<l If the times had tieen good. The Union Civica was founded when the government was charge<l witli niiilailministration in sanctioning an illegal issue of #W,0(H».tHK)ofpapermoney. , . .The gov- ernment was suddenly confn>nte<l with an arinni coalition of the liest battalions of the anny. the entire navy, and the Union Civica. The manifesto ImhciI liy the l{«>vn|utionarv Junta was a terrililc arnilginiient of the I>i)liti(ik1 crimesof the Junn'Z Uoverninent. , . . The revolution onenetl with evi'ry prospect of suci'ess. It failed from the incapacity of tlic leaders to co-opcrati' liarino- nioiisly. On July 10. 1890, the defc-rtion of the army was discovered. On July M the n-volt briilie out. For four days there was blo<><Uhe<l without definite plan or purp<Me. No deter mined attack was made U|H>n the government p«l;ice. Till' Meet opj'ned a fantastic boinliard nient upon thi suhurlis. There was iiiexpliciible mlsmanagenii'iit of the insurgent forces, and on July '.ill an ignnmiiiioiis surrender to the govern nii'iit with It pnKiamation of general amnesty tiinrml KiH'a riinnlnetl la'hind tlie seines, apiwr enlly iiin^li r nf the situation, wliile Presiilent Jimri'j hiiil Heil to a plai-e of nfiiitc on the Ui>s;irii< niilwny. and twi> factions of the nrniy wiri' playiii)! nl cross pur|NM'S. and the (Hilii-e and tlie vnhintetn of tlie Union Clviia were shiHitIng wiiinin and chihln-i in the stnits. Anoihir week of h<i|H<|eas confusion p>iss<il, anl Uc'iiiml iliN'a aniiouiioMi the n-signitlinii nf Pri'siilint Jiisri'/. and the suecesslon nf vice Pnsiili'iit l*i'l|i'i;nni Then the city was illiiml IMti'd. and for threi> days there was a pitnile moniiini of popnliir njoiiing over a victory which DolNsiy exi'pl tli'mrai l(-H'a undersliMHi. . . In June, I-*!!! Ilir ili pl.iralile state of .Vrgentine flnance wim nvnileil In a luminous sta<einent made by Pnsiiliiit Pellegrini. All business Inti'n-sts wiTi' stagnant. Immignilion liad Inh'u llivcrtiil U> Hi'..i:ll . All Inijostrica wi<n< pMslraUsI exi-epl (Milltics, and the pernicious Mtlrlty displayed by factluni was an evil augury AKQONAUTIC EXPEDITION. for the return of prosperity. . . . During thirty years the country has trebliHl its populatiun, its Increase bein.i; relatively much more rapid than that of the United Htatesduring the same pcriixl. The estimate of the present popuUtion [1892] la 4.000,000 in place of 1,160,000 in 1857. . . . Disastrous as the results of political government and flmmeial disonicr have been in the Argeii tine, its ultimate recovery by slow stages U probable. It has a ningniocent railway system, an industrious working population recruited from Euro|K-. and nearly all the material appli- ances for progress. " — I. N. Ford, Trajnml Ameriea. eh. «.— See Cosstitutiow, Aroektink. A. D. 189a,— Pretidcntiml Election.— Dr. Luis Saenz- Pcna, former Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, and reputed to Ih' a man of 5reat integrity and ability, was cliosen Presi- ent, and inaugurated October 12, 1892. ARCINUSAE, Battle oL See Greece: B. C. 40«. ARCONAUTIC EXPEDITION, Tbe.- "The ship Argo was tlie theme of many songs during the oldest |H'riiids of the Un'cian Kpic, even earlier than the (Myssey. The king ..KCtCs, from whom she is diparttng, the lieru Jasdn, who commands her. and the gixidesa iltrf, who watches over him, enabling the Argo to traverse diatanc(« and to csca|i<> liangers which no aliip hail ever before encountereil, are all cln-iini stances briclly glanced at by Oilyaseus in his iiar rative to Alkinous. , . . Jasiin, eommnniieii liy Pelias to depart in quest of tile golden Hei'ce Ik>- longing to tlie speaking ram which had earriiil awav Phrvxus and ililT?, was e-Li.-ouraged by ihr oracle to fnvite the noblest vouth of (Irw-ce to his aid. and tifty of the most ilistingiiiNlieti nmonL'st them obeyed the call. Il(>nikl0a, TliOsius. TelaniAn and P><k'us. Kastor and Pollux, Mus and Lvnkcus — '/.HCn and Kalats, the wliii."il sons of Hort-as — Meleager. Amphiaraus. Ki'ph ens, LaertCs. .\iitiilykus, Memetius, Aktor. Kr ginus, Kunh^mus, Auka'us, Picas, IVriklviin'iMii. Augeaa, Eurytiis. Adin(<tus, Akastiis, kaiir. Kuryalus, P^ueleiV and I/<<itus, Askalaphiis :im>I lalmcniu, wen' among them. . . . Since s<i in oiy able men have tn'ateil it as an undispiihj reality, and even made it the pivot of systiiiiiiiii ciminological calculations. I may heri! i^'Imhi iIh opinion long ago expressed by Ileyne. ami m' 11 Indicated by Bumiann. that the pris-ess of ilj. seeting the story, in si'srch of a liasis of fari i» one altogether" friiilliss.'— (1. Orole, IlitI -t (trtfff. r. 1, i>l 1. cA. 1:1.—" In the rich 1 lu-i' r of myths which surround tlie captain of tin Argo and his fi Hnws are pn'si'rvisl to iis tin' whole life and doings of the nnn'k niariiimi' Irilaw, which gndiially iinltinl all the iiaia|>. »l!li one another, and altractisl Hellenes dwilliin,' 111 the mi St different seats into the splnn' nf iliur activity. . . . Tlie Argo was sidii to liuvi' welghi'tl anchor from a variety of (sifts— fh'in lolciis in Thiiwaly, from Antlieiion and Siplie m Ikpolia: IIh* home of Jason hinwlf wns •■!, Mount IVIion liy ttie sea, ami again on !,• tnir.-s and in Corinth; a clear pnsif of how h- iih' gemtius wen' the in. iienoes running on v.iii'us cimsts. However, tlie myths of the Argn mrt developed in the gri'Stesl comph-teness mi •!•• \*Hg»K4'un gulf. In tile ■#>>!« nf Ih" Min^i ^'"i they are IIk' first with whom a perceptible in >i- nwDt uf tiM Pulaagiaa tribw bcyand tba srs is 136 AROONAUTIC EXPEDITION. other wonb, s Oreek bUtonr io Europe — be- gin*. "— E. Curtlus, UM. of Orttee, hk.l.ch. %-ii. ARCOS.- ARCOLIS. — ARC! VES.— ■ ' No district of Oreece contains so deoae a lUccoiatoD of powerful citadels in a narrow space as Argo- lls [the eastern peninsular projection of the Peloponnesus], Lofty Larissa, apparently de- iigned by nature as the centre of the district, is succeeded by Mycen», deep In the recess of the land ; at the foot of the mountain lies Mides, at the brink of the sea-coast Tiryns; and lastlr, at a farther distance of half an hour's nurch, Kaupliu. with its harbour. This succession of ancient fastnesses, whose Indestructible struc- ture of stone we admire to this day [see Schlie- mann's ' Mfftna' and Tirynj'] U clear evi- ilenoe of mighty conflicU which agitated the tiirlit'Ht days of Argos; and proves that in this line philn of Inaclius sevcrnl principalltiea must have arisen by the side of one another, each putting iU conlldcnce in the walls of its citadel ; some, according to Uielr position, maintaining an intercourse with other lands by sea, others rather a connection with the inland country. The evidence preserved by these monuments "is liorne out by that of the mvlhs, according to which the dominion of Danaus is dirlded among his successors. Exile<l Pnptus Is brought home to Argos by Lycian bands, with whose lidii he builds the cottstfortress of Tirvns, where he holds sway as the first ami mightfest In the land. . . . The other line of the Itanaidie is also tu- tlnuilely connected with Lyria I for Perseus . . [who) on bis return from the East finmds Mycenn"! as the new regal seat of the uniUnl kIngiiiHn of ArnDs. is himself essentially a Lt-clan hero of I)..l.» I... I. .„..!.... ... .1... II *!.„ ../ . 1. ARQ08. but Impotent competitor. By what steps the dechne of her power had taken place, we are un- able to ;nake out, nor can we trace the succes- sion of her kings subseiiucnt to Pheidon fSth centurv B. C ] . . The title [of king] existed (thougli prolmbly with very limited functions) Bt the time of the Persian \Vjir [B. C. 490-»791. . . .There is some ground for presuming that the king of .\rgos was even at tliat time a Her- akleid — since the Spartiins offeri-d to him a thini part of the comniiind of the Hellenic forec conjointly with their own two kings. The con- auest of Thyn.^ ;e» by the .Spar.ans [about 847 .0.] deprived the Argeians of a valuable por- tion of their Periirkis, or depimdcnt territory. But Omeie and the remaining porlion of Kynu- ria still continued to belong to ihcm: the plain round their city was very priNliittive; and. ex- cept Sparta, tliere was no other power in Pelo- p<mnesus superior to them. .Mykenie and Tirvns nevertheless, seem lioth to have been indepen- dent States at the time of the Persian War since IxHh sent contingents to the Iwtlle of Plaliea, at a time when Argos held aloof and rather favoured the Pcrsian-s. " — O. Orote, Ilitt of Grttee.pt. i, ch. 8 (r. 2). B. C. 4g6-4at. — Calmmitout War with ;, T . . ","■■ ■"""•■»".< • «.»<.i«ii iHTu oi ntiii extone<l fnmi the .fiir nrtuns «t Vuni.lln n.htl».longing,o the rrlglono^ Apollo. . . . ! and rava«-d the Argivet^ri or Thcffl^^^^ Finally, lleracles him.icif s cimnect ' w th tho m,..t.....r,.ii .i.„i. J .. . ;, . ,■,'"• ■^' *," '"''» Finally, Heruiles him.icif Is cimnect "' with the fsinily (if the Pcrseids, as a prince .,om on the Tir)-nthlan fastness. . . . During these divisions III ihe house of Danaus. ami the misfortunes lie- falling that of Pro'lus, foreign fHmilit>s aci|uire inliuiiice and ilominlon in Argos: these ai« of the race of .Eolus, and oriKinally hehmg to the hHrNiur-coiintry of the western coast of Pelo- IHinui'sus — the Amytlia<inidfe. . . . While the ilominion of the Argive land was thus sub- iliviiled. and Ihe native warrior nobility sulme- (liiciilly eihausteil itself in savage Internal feuds, s new roysl house But'n<-<li'd In grasping the •upn-me power and giving an entirely new im- |)..rl«iire u» Ihe wiuntry. This house was that •if the Taatalidff [or Pklofiim, which see] unlUil with Ihe I'ones of Achmin piipulallon. . . . The n-siiltie of fact Is. tliat Ihe ancient dy- nasty, c<iiine<'lul by descent with Lycia was nvcrthniwn by the house whicli derive<l Its I'riirin from LydIa, , , , The poetic myths, ab hiirring long rows of names, mention thre.> prin- i'«s» niling hen' In suciTsslon. one leaving the "vpinnf I'rloiMU) the other, vlt. Atri'Uu, Thv ivi« and Agnmeinniiii. Mvcenw Is "he chli-f "Hi of their rule. whi. h Is i^it restricted to the ilKtri.t of Argos."— E. Curtlus, UitofUi-r^ Ml, M. 8 —After th.- Uiric invasion of lia- 1 1 ii ivinnesiis {mv Urketk: Tii« .Mhikatiom.. sKi, DoKuNs AXD Io!ii.*ssi, Argtis appears In UfiTk history as a IViric state, originally the fori'miist one in iMweramI Influence, but humlli- sinl after Iohk years of rivalrv bv her HrMrmn r» iMlilnmm. Argia never forgot that »li Sp«it».— Noo-«ction in the Persian War.— Slow recoTtryof th* crippled State.— "Ono of the heaviest blows which .Vrgos ever sustained at the liand of hertnulitioiml foe befell her alNiut 41« B. C, six years before the Hrst Pi-rsiim In- vasion of Qrvwe. A war with .Sparta having broken out, Clmmenes, the Ijirnl.i.moniin king, "iicceeileil in landing a lurire uniiv, in vessels ho Imil extone<l from the .Et'lnetuns. at Nuuplin muslenif all their ?orces to nsint him. and the l»i> nrinies encampeti opiMislte emh other nenr Tirvns. I'leomenes, however, eoiitriveil to at- tack the Argelans at a moment niieii they weto unprepareil, making use, if Hernlotus is to be credited, of a stratagem which proves tlie ex- Irente incapacity of the opposing generals, and completely routed them. The Argeians loik n>fuge In a sacred «• ive, to which the rcmorsu- less Spartans set lire, and so de<itrove<l almost the whole of them. No fewer than HidOl) of the citizens of Argfis perislietl on this dlsuHtrous day. I'leomene* might have captured the city Itself- but he was, or a/TeoUM to Is-, liiiiden-d" bv nn- fttvouralile omens, and drew oH his troops. ' The loss sustained by Argos was so ss'verc as to re- duce her for some years u> a coiidiilon of girat weakness; lull this was at the time a fortunate circumstance for the Hellenic ciiiiw, Inasiiiiich as It enabled the [.iMetilieinoniiins to devoie their whole encrifles to llie work of reslstanii^ to the Persian invasion wllhmii fenrof eminii-sat lumie. In this great work Arifm t<s>k no iMrt, on the iHiaslon of either the tirst or wccinj atU'mpt of the Persian kinirs lu bring Hellas under their dnmlnion. Inde-l, the city was strongly sus- ix-cteil of ' medisInK ' t<<iii|enclrs. In the jiertod following the final overthrow of the Persians, while .Vi hens was pursuing the sple-.^id career of aggrandisement and conqueat tli it maile li<.r Ihe fori'mosl stale In Ureece, and while the Lace- dirmonUiis were paralyzed by ilie revolt of the Mes»-s!3!!s. .\rgo» n^4fw=*i rtf-'ii-fh aftti in flueiice. whl< h site at imce emplovol and In „-- . ,,,,,^ aHwi K^iftn iiiAi HIM- hiwl i;^nXtwiM^'5'^''L:^t.r"^'-''l".;."'« r*-'' "V»'- han..rp;;ih.v:'""'"Tde",;';puta: «r iwiiDg tuwanis ttpwta wm tbat of a jvaluua Un( MyoMMl aati TJrya^ WhUe iht cooimUwI 137 AR008. ARIANISM. ■erenl other lemi-independent places In the Ar- Silld to acknowledge her ■upreraac> During e first eleven years of the Pi-loponnesian war, down to the peace of Nlclaa (421 B. C), Arg » held aloof from all participation in the struggle, adding to her wraith and perfecting her military organization. As to her domestic conditions and political sysu-m, little is known ; but it Is certain tiiat the govi'rament, unlike that of other Dorian states, was dcmocretic in its character, though there was in tlie city a strong oligarchic and philo-Laconiiin party, which was destined to ex- ercise a decisive influence at an important crisis." — C. H. Hanson, The Land of Oiteee, eh. 10. Also w : O. Orote, IliH. of Oreeee, pt. 2, eh. 86 (e.4). B. C. 4ai-4i8. — Lean* formed against Sparta.— dutbreak of War.— Defeat atlfan- tinea. — RcToiution in the OUnrchical and Spartan interest. See Orbkcb-B. C. 421-418. B. C. 395-3S7— Confederacj acaiiMt Sparta. —The Corinthian War.— Peace of Antalddas. See Qrkece: H, C. SMIMST. B. C. 371.— Mob outbreak and maasacre of chief citizens. 80c Greece: B. C. 871-363. B. C. 338.— Territories restored by Philip of Macedon. SccUkef.ce: B. C. 8S7-886. B. C. 271.— Repulse and death of ^rrbns, king of Epirus. See Macedokia : B. C. 277- 844. B. C. a39.—Lil>erated from Macedonian con- trol. SecURKKcK: B. C. 2HO-146. A. D. a67. -Ravaged by th* Cotha. See OoTlIs; A. 11. 2.'>H-a«f A. D. 39$.— Plundered br th* Goths. Sec Oothd: .\. T). 3B,'>, A. D. 1463.— Taken by the Turks, retaken by the Venetians. 8ee Greece: A. D. 1434- 147U. A. D. 168A.— Taken by the Venetians. Sec Tl'BKS: A. 1). I«(*4-16»6. » ARGVRASPIDES, The.-" He [Alcxamler the Orcnil then marched into India, tlml he might Imve lii^ eniiiiro hounded by the ocenn, and tlie cxtn'nic |mrts of the f^ust. ThHt tli« equipments of Ills army miRht be suitable to the gli)ry of the K.xiittiltion, lie mounted the trap- pings of the homes snd the arms of the soldiers with silver, ami lall.d a body of his men, from having silver sliliUls, Argyraspldes."- Justin, Z/iV'.ry (tr.tn: fty J. S. WnUrnn). bk. 13, eh. 7. AiJio im: I'. Thlriwall, Hint. M '}rttet, eh. 5«. — S<T. iilw). Ma('Kim>ma: B. C. ^23-816. ARCVRE. So<' (RRTSR. ARIA.~AREIOS.-ARBIANS.-The name bv whiih till' llcrirud and its valley, the illstriit of modern llrnit, was known to the «nil<nl Ort'eks. Il« liiliiililtuntswcro known as the Ari'l- ans — M l>iiii< kir. Iliil. of Anliq.. hk. 7, rh 1. ARIANA. — " Mtnitio uses the name Arlsiin for the liinil of lilt v nations of Iran, enifpt that of the Mnlin and I'treians, i. e,, for the whole eaulini half of Iran"— AfghaniiUn and BelixK-hlMtaii — M. Diinckrr. Uia. of Aiititiuitu, f. 8, Mr. 7, M I, ARIANISM.-ARIANS.-F>r)mthesemnd century of lt.n rtiatenrr, the Christian rliurrh was diviiliil by hitter controversies tourhing the mystery of the Trinity. "The word Trinltv Is iouiiil liritlMr ill ilie Holy Scriptures nor m'tlio writings of the Hnit ChrUthms; but it liail been Mipioyed frum the beginning uf the sewud cvn- 138 tury, when a more metaphysical turn had been given to the minds of men, and theologians had begun to attempt to explain the divine nature. . . . The Founder of the new religion, the Being who had brought upon earth a divine light, was he God, was he man, was be of an in- termediate nature, and, though superior to all other created beings, yet himself created t This latter opinion was held by Arius, an Alexandrian priest, who maintained it in a series of learned controversfaU works between the years 818 and 823. As soon as the discussion had quitted the walls of the schools, and been taken up by the people, mutual accusations of the gravest kind took the place of metaphysical subtleties. The orthodox party reproached the Ariana with bUspheming tlie deify himself, by refusing to acknowledge him in the person of Christ. The Ariana accused the orthodox of violating the fundamental law of religion, by rendering to the creature the worship due only to the Crcntor. ... It was ditncult to decide which numbcreii the hu'gest body of followers; but the ardent en- thusiastic spirits, the populace in all the great cities (and especUlly at Alexandria) the women, and the newly-founded order of the monks of tiie desert . . . were almost without exception partisans of the faith which has since been de- clared orthodox. . . . Constantine thought this question of dogma might be decided by an as- sembly of the whole churcii. In the year 82.'5. he convoked the council of Nice [see ?Jic.«a[ CofNclL orl, at which 800 bishops pmnouncil in favour of the equality of the Son with the Father, or the doctrine generally rrgar li .1 as onh<xlox, and condemned the Ariana to exile and their books to the flames."— J. C. L. dc 81s- mondi, FiiUofthe Rniuin Umpire, eh. 4. — "The victorious faction [at the Council of Nice] . . . anxiously sought for some im-concilable mark of liistinction, the rejection of which might in- volve the Arians in the guilt and cnnaeqiienrcs of heifsy. A letter whs publicly read ami igno- mlntously torn. In whidi their patron. Eiis«T)lus of Nicomnlin. Ingeniously confesw'd that thi' ml- misnion of the hom(M)usion, or consubatantial, a word already familiar to tlie Platonists, was in- compatible with the principles of their tliiii. logical system. The fortunate op|M)rti.nitv was eagerly cmliraced. . . . The consulMtnnliality of the Father and the Son was esUbllshed liv the Coimcil of Nice, and has liecn unanimoiisfy re- ceive<l as a fiinilanienfjil article of the Cliristlim faith by the consent of the Greek, the l.atln. the Oriental and the I'Mti-stant churches." N.it- withntanding the ili-cisloii of the Coiinrll of Nice against It. the heresy of Arliis ciintliiiietl to gain ground in tlie Kast. Even the Kin|M'ror Conslanfine hti-ame frieiully to it, and the noim of Conifantlne. with some of tlie later eniiMn.rii who foUowiii them on the eastern throne, wi n- anient Arians in belief The HomcNiuniniiH, ..r ortlioilox, were siilijecteil to peraecution. whi, h was illnK-ttil with spe<-ial bitterness againxt tin ir git-nt leader, .\thanaslus. the famous l>it<lio|i if Alexantlria. But Arianism was weakemil bv lialr-spllttiiig illstinciions, which resullitl in many diveriring cni-ils. "The sect which as- serteil the iloctrtneufa 'similar sulistanc*'' was the moat numemiu. at !<>iut In thn pnivimTa of Asia. . . . 'I'he Greek woril which was rhiwa to express this mysterious resemblance bears »<> close an aflSoity to the orttodu symbol, Ibat th* ARUNISM. profane of every age have derided the furioua contests which the difference of a tingle diph- thong excited between the Homoouslans and the Homoiouslans. " The Latin churches of the West, with Home at their head, remained gen- tmlly arm in the orthodoxy of the Homonusian creed. But tlie Qoths, who had received their -"hristianity from tl)e lUut, tinctured witli Arianism, carried tlut ueresy westward, and apreaii it among their barl>arlan neighbors — \nnil»i9, BurguQillaiisand Sueres — through the iutlucnce of the Uotliie Bible of Ulfllas, which lie iiikI his missionary succesaors bore to Uie Teu- tonic peoples. " The Vandals and Ostrogoths lieraevered in tlie profession of Arianism till the liaal ruin [A. O. 833 and 553] of the kingdoms wliich they had founded in Africa and Italy, Tlie barbarians of Gaul submitted [A. D. 807] to the orthodox dominion of tlio Franks; and Spain was restored to the Catholic Church by the voluntary conversion of the Visigotlis [A. D. SN9]." — E. Qibbon, Veelitu) and mi of tht Riiiuin Empire, ch. 21 nitd 87. — Theodoaius formally proclaimetl his adiiesion to Trinitarian orthodoxy by his celebrate<l olict of II. D. 880, and commanded its acceptiince in the Eaatem Empire. See Home: A. U. 879-89.5.— A. Ne- sndcr, Oen. Hut. of Chrut. Bel. and Ch., Iran: bi/ Torn/, V. i, $tft. 4. Almi in: J, Alzog, 3fanualof Cniv. Ch. Hitl ««•(. IKKIU.— W. O. T. Shcild, Uut. of Chrut. Diirli-ine, At. 8.— J. H. Newman, Ariant of Vie Ftiurlh CtHtiiry. — A. V. Stanley, Leett. on the Hilt, uf the Hut. Ch., IteU. 3-7.—.!. A. Domcr, Uitt. iif the Dtivluimtent «/ lite Itoctrine of the /Vrwrt nf Chritt. die. 1 (r. 2).— S'f, also. OoTiis: A. 0.341-381: FiiA.iKs: A. D. 181-511; also, OoTilsiViKiiioTiis): A. O. 507->V)9. ARICA, Battlt of (i88o). Sec Chile: A. D. l83:Mmt. ARICIA, Battle of.— A victory won by the Riimaiis oviT llic .Vuruncians. B. C. 497, which suiniiuirily endi'd a war that the latter had lie- clarc<l Hguinst the former. —Li vy, Jliil. of Btme bk. -i. eh. M. J J . ARICIAN GROVE, Tht.-The sacred grove St Aricia (one of the towns of old Latium, near AllNi Louga) was the center and meeting-place of an curly league among the Latin peoples «li.iut which little is known.— W. Ihne, Hiit. of liwu. hk. «, rh. 8.— Sir. W. Ovli, Toitng. of Hume r I.— "On the northern shore of the lake [of .Viiiii] ridht under the preri|iitou.<i cliffs on which the nicKltrn vlllttifeof .Nenii is fwrrheil, stood the M( hnI KMve mid sttnctiiary of Diuna Nemort- osis or nihiiii of llie Wo.n1. . . . The site was cx- Divntfi iu 1883 liy Sir John Saville Lumley KiiitliMi ai. .hassador at Home. For a genenii ili'uriiilion of the site and exinvations. tee the AllHiiieum. lOth Ortolier, 188,1. For deUlis of 111. llii.|Hiii.e'Bull.'tlnodell' Instltutodi Corris- I1..111I.M1M Archeoiogioa," tHH.V . . . The hike :iiiil thi' If n.ve wen' Miini'tinii'S known as tlie lake Mv\ itrovi- of Aril-ill. But th.' t.iwn of AricU (the mi«l..rn U Itliiia) was situated about three iiiil..» i.tT, Ht the f.M of the All«n Mount. . . . \i 1-or.liiig to one utory, the woniliip of llUna at N.iiii was iu^liriiU.<l by On-stes, who, after killiiiit Thoaa, King of tlie Tauric Chcrs-weso ■'■"■ '•-«>■ HI rt^l wllli his shitrr t.) Itaiy, hrinij- iu« Willi liim the Image of ilie Tauric Diana. ■ . . Wllhiii the aancliMry at NemI grew a cer- laiu tree, of which Do branch might be broken 1S9 ARIZONA. Only a runaway sUve wag allowed to break oft ir he could, one of lu boughs. Success in the attempt entitled him to flght the priest in single combat, and It he slew him he reigned In his stead with the title of King of the Wood (Rex Nemorenals). Tradition averred that the fateful branch was that Golden Bough which, at the Sibyl's bidding, iEneas plucke.1 before he cssaved the perilous journey to the world of the dead. . . . This rule of succession by the sword was observed down to imperial times; for amongst his other freaks Caligula, thinking that Hie prJest of NemI bad held office too long hired a more stalwart rufflan to slay nini."— 3. O. Frarer, The OoMen Bough, eh. t leet 1 ARICONIUM.— Atown of Koman Britain which appears to Imve been the principal mart of the iron manufacturing industry in the Forest of Dean.— T. Wright, The Celt, tlie Soman and the Siuvn,p. 161. ARIL The. See LraiANa ARIKARAS, The. See American Abori- gines: Pawnee (Caddoax) Family. ARIMINUM. — The lioinun colony, planted In the third century B. C, wliicli grew into the modern city of Rimini. See ItoMK: B. C. 205- 191.— When Cesar entered Italy as an Invader, crossing the frontier of Cisiilpine Oaul — tlio Hubiron — his first movement was to iK-cupy Ariminura. He baited there for two or three ww'ks, making his preparations for the civil war wliich he had now eiiU-rul uiKm and wiiitiiig for the two legions tliat he had oriicnil from OauL — r. M.Tlvale, iHiit. ufthe Iliminm, eh 14 . A?l9y^*-°"S' *^'°K of 'he Lombardi, A. I). 626-638. ARISTEIDES, AacendancT of. Sec Ath- E.Ns: n. C. 477-402. ARISTOCRACY.-OLIGARCHY.- •■ Aristocracy signitlcs tlie rule of the Ih'sI men. If. however, this epithet is n^fc-m-d to an absolute ideal standard of excelUiice, it is miinif.st that an aristocratlcal government is a mere alistract notion, which has nothing in liistorv. or in nature to correspond to It. But if w.' corit.'iit ourselves with taking the same terms in a iilutivc si-nse, . . . aristocrHcy . . . will Ik' tli:it form of gov- ernment In which tlie ruling f.w are distin- guished from the multitude livilliiHtrimis birth hereilitary wcailli. and iMr-iiiiul •ncrit. Whi'never siicli 11 change t.K.k jil.iir in ilie char- acter or the n-iiitivo iMmitioii (if thu riiliiiir Ixidy, that it nolongi-r conimaml.-.l lli.t resp.. 1 of fu', subjecta, but four I itself opiM.sc.| to them, and eom|)elliHl to direct its nuiwiin-s iliieily to the pn'st'rvation of its jiower, it ceased to Itv, iu the Greek sinsc an ari»t.K'ra» v; it U'liinie a faction, ail oligarchy."— C. Thirlwall. Jliel. of Orteee, eh, 10. ARISTOUNEAN war. S<e .MEB««.^iAa .\ Alia, t lUHT AND Second. ARIZONA: Th* Name.-" Arizona, proba- bly .\rlr.oiiae in ita original t.irm. was tlic native au.l pMliably I'lina name .if tin- pluei-- of a bill, valley, stream, or some otli.r lisnl feature — just south of the mixlern iNiuiidurv, in the mountains still so cnllnl. on tli.' li.wlWal.rs of the stream Howing past Saric , wliir.^ the famous I'laiiehas de Plata mine wus disovenil in ilis niiililie of Uie IHtli »*ntury, ili.- iiaiiii' being first known to Spanlanls in tliat coninrlion nii.llH-ing '"'" " niinaa. Known 10 spanlanls In tliat coninrlion nii.1 Ih< ii|)plie<l to the mining camp or n'al i\v nili Iba aburlxliiel mouliig of thu term U ARIZONA. ABKAN8AS. known, tboueh from the common occurrence In this region of the prefix ' ari,' the root ' son,' and the termination 'ac,' the derivation ought not to escape the researrh of a competent student. Sucli guesses as arc extant, founded on the native tongues, offer only tlic barest possibility of a Sartial and accidental accuracy; wliilo similar criva'ions from the Spanish are extremely absurd. . . . The name should properly be writ- ten and pronounced Ariaona, as our English sound of the z dws not occur in Spanish." — H. H. Bancroft, Jlut. of tht PMi«c State; t. 13, p. 620. Aboriginal Inhabitant*. See Amekicas Adorkiines: Pukblos, Ai'achk Group, 8ho- •noNEAN Family, a.nd Utahs. A. D. 1848.— Partial acquitition from Hex- leo. See Mexico: A. D. 1848. A. D. 1853.— Purchase by the United SUtee of the ■outnem part from Mexico. — The Gads- den TreatT.— "On December 30, 1858, James Gadsden, United StiUes mini»tt-r to Mexico, con- cludiil a treaty bv which the boundary line was moved southwanl so as to give the United States, for a monetary consideration of 110,000,000. all of modem Arizona south of the Gila, an effort so to fix the line as to include a port on the gulf being unsucces.<<ful. ... On the face of the matter this Uaiisilen treaty was a tolerably satis- factory settlement of a boundary dispute, anil a purrhitse by the Unitwl States of a route for a southern railroad to California." — H. H. Ban- croft, JJiit. of the hmjie Htiitet, e. 13, «*. 30. ARKANSAS, The. See Axericam Abo- KKiiNKw: SiiiiAN Family. ARKANSAS: A. D. 1543— Entered by Her> nando de Soto. See Florida: A. 1>. 1338- IW.'. A. D. 1803.— Embraced in the Louisiana Purchase. Sic I.m isiana: ,V I). 17WH-1803. A. D. 181Q-1836.— Detached from Missouri. —Organized as a Territory.— Admitted as a State. — ■■ I'rcpiinitiiry to the assumption of stute gnvcrnniciit, the limits of the Missouri Territory were nstricletl on the south by the parallel of 3tP M north. The restriction was maiie by an act nf Congress, approved March 3, 181V. entitled an '.\ct establishing a separate territorial govcrtiinciit in the southern portion of the Missouri Tcrritury." The pirtlon thus Sep- aratc'i was sulwcuucntly orgaiiizoi into the second grade of ti'rritorial government, and Coloni'l Jaini's Miller, a meritorious and dislin- gulsl'.cil iitltciT of the Northwestern army, was ap|H>intcd tint KDvcmor. This territory was kniiwn H* the .Vrkuiisas Territory, and, at the periiNl of its tlr'<l organization, contained an aggregate nf nearly U.tMW inhabitants. lU limits ciiniprisi'd jiII llie territory on the west side of the Mississippi U'lween the parallels 83" and 30' 80', <ir iHiwtin the northern limit of I.oui- siana and the souilicrn Ixiundary of the Slate of Missouri. On tlic west it rxtendeil iiulellnitely to the Mcxiciiii territories, »t least (WW miles. The Post of .Vrkiiiisiis was made the seat of the new govenmii'iit The population of this exti-n- slve tiTritiiry for several years was comprisiil chiefly In the setlli'nicnls upon the tributaries of 1 While HIver niirj iiie m Fmncis: upon the Mis- ! Blsslppl. Iietwi'i II Ni'w .Madrid and Point Chicot; { aiul U|Min IniIIi Kide* of the Arlunsas Kiver. wlthia lUO miles ul lis muuUa, but sapedally in the Tidnlty of the Post of Arkania*. . . . S« feeble was the attraction in this remote region for the active, industrious, and well-disposed portion of the western pioneers, that the Arlcan- sas Territory, in 1880, ten years after its organ! zation, had acquired an aggregate of only 30,8^ souls, including 4,676 sUves. . . . The western half of the territory had been erected, in 1834, into a separate district, to be reserved for the future residence of the Indian tribes, and to be known as the Indian Territory. Prom this time the tide of emigration began to set more actively into Arkansas, as well as into other portions of the southwest. . . . The territory increased rap- idly for several years, and the census of 1835 gave the whole number of inhabitants at 08,134 souls, including 9,630 slaves. Thus the Arkan- sas Territory in the last five years had doubled its population. . . . The people, through the General Assembly, made application to Congress for authority to establish a regular form of stats government. The assent of Congress was not withheld, and a Convention was authorized to meet at Little Rock on the first day of January, 1886, for the purpose of forming and adopting a State Constitution. The same was approved oy Congress, and on the 13th of June following the Statie of .Arkansas was admitted into the Federal Union as an independent state, and was, in point of time and order, the twentv-flfth in the con- federacy. . . . Like the Missouri Territory, Arkansas had been a slaveholding country from the earliest French colonies. Of course, the institiitiim of negro slavery, with proper checks and limits, was sustained by the new Constitu- tion." — J. W. Monette. lUtntrery nnd Settkment of the Vatlfii of the Mimuipiri. bk. 6, eh. 17 (0. 2).— Sec, also, United Stati:^! or Ax.: A. Dl 1818-1821. A. D. 1861 (March).— Secession Toted down. See United States or Am. : A. U. 1861 (March — April). A. D. 1861 (April).— Coremor Rector's reply to President Lincoln's call for troops. See United States of .\m. : A. 1). 1861 (April). A. D. 186a (Januarr— March).— AdTance of National forces into the Stats.— Battle of Pea Ridge. See United States or Am. : A. 1). 1862(Janiart— March : Misnoimi— Arkansas). A. D. i86a (July— September).- Progress of the CiTil War. See United States or Am. : A. D. 1863 (JcLY— Septemrcr: Missouri- Arkansas). A. D. iSAa(Decemb«r).— The Battle ofPrairie Grove. See United States or Am. : A. D. 1863 (Skptembkh — December: Missouri- Arkansas). A. D. 1863 (January). —The capture of Arkansas Post from the Confederates. S<'e United St.\tks or Am. : A. D. 1863 (Januahv: Ahkanhan). A. D. 1863 (July).— The defence of Helens. Si* United States or Am. ; A. U. 186:1 (.Irn: On the Miwisrippi). 1 A. D. 1863 (Angast— October).— The break* ing of Confederate anthority.— Occupation of Little Rock by National forces. See I'NiTKq SiATEsor Am. : A. D. 1888(.\LouaT— OiToBtu.' Arkansas — MisaorRi). A. D. 1864 fMarch^.OetoberV-'Lsst !«> portaat operation* of the War.— Price's Raid. SiH- United States or Am. : A. D. 1864 ^MAJtcU — tXToaui: AasAMsas— XissuuHi). 140 ARKANSAS. A. D. iSAi.— First steps toward Receutrue- tion. See I sited States of Am. : A. D. 1868- I8M (December — Jclt). A. O. 1865-1868.— Reconstrnction com- pleted. See United States op Am. : A. D. 186S (Mat— JcLT), to 1868-1870. • ARKITES, The— A Canaantte tribe wlio occupied the plain north of Lebanon. ARKWRICHTS SPINNING MACHINE, OR WATER-FRAME, The inTention oi See Cotton Manufacture. ARLES : Oriria. See Saltes. A. D. 411. — Double siere. See Brttaui: A. D. 407. A. D. 435.- Besieged by the Goths. See OoTns (VwiooTHs): A. D. 419-451. A. D. 508-510.— Siege by the Frmnks.— After the overthrow of the VUigotliic kingdom of Toulouse, A. I>. 507, by the victory of Clovls, king of the Frsoks, at Voclad, near Poitiers, "the great city of Aries, once the Roman capital of OttuI, maintained a gallant defence againfit the united Franks and Burgundians, and saved for generations the Vlaigothic rule in Provence nn.l southern Languc<liir. Of the siege, which lasted apparently from UnS to 510, we have some f.niphic details In the life of St. Ciesarius, Bishop of Aries, written by his disciples." The city was relieved in 510 bv an Ostmgothic army, sent by king Theodoric of Italy, after a great battle in which 30,000 Franks were reported to be slain, " The result of the Iwttle of Aries was to put TheodoHc in secure possession of all Pro- vpnoi- and of so much of Languedoc as was nwdful to ensnrr his acn>ss to Spain"- where tlie Ostrogotliic king, as guardian of his Infant grandson, Amalaric, wa-s taking care of the Visi- gnthic kingdom.— T. Ilodgkiu, Ilalg andUer In- twkfcr*. bk. 4, th. 9. A. D. 933.— Formation of the kiardom. See BiiidiMiv: A. I). W»-93:t. A. D. 1033-1378. — The breakinK up of the kingdom and its gradual absorption in France. 8i«lt\i((UNi)Y: A. I). 10;«. ami tl27-l.'J78. 1002-1107.- The fl court of Provence. Sit I'kovence: A. D. 9»3-li)0'J, and 1179-1207. ♦ AitHADA, The Spanish. See Enqland: A. I> ivs. ARMAGEDDON, S<'e Meoiddo. ARMAGH, St. Patrick's School at. Sec Ihkiaso: .'itli ii.mh Centuries. ARM AGNAC, 1 he counts of. Sec France : A. I» I;t27. ARMAGNACS. Sec France: A. D. 1880- 14l\ iin.l I4I.VI410. ARMENIA. — " Almost immediately to the west i.f tlie Caspian tli.tv rises a high tableland cliversilled by ninuiilaliis. wliirli stretches east- "iinl fcr more tliiin eighteen degrees, lietwecn the HTlh'uid 41st parallels. This highland may pr..|Krly Iw reganlftl as a eonllnuation of the criui Imiieiin pluU'au, with wliiih it is connected at Its sinithnistem comer. It comprises a por- tion of till- nLxlem Persia, th<' whole of Armenia, ■iiiil ni(»t of Asia Minor. lis primHpal moun- l:iin rinff.s an- latitudinal, or from west hi east. only the inlnor onu takins the oppfwite or l<in. KliieiiiiiiliiinTiioii . . . The lieart of (hemoun lai'i rinion, the ir.Ml extending from the district of hrivnn on the e»»i tn the upiier course of the hliii Irmsk river and the vicinity of Sivia upon ARMENIA. the west, was, cs it stm Is, Armenia. Amidst these natural fastnesses, In a country of loftt ridges, deep and narrow valleys, numerous and copious streams, and occasional broad plains— a country of rich pasture grounds, productive orchards, and abundant harvests— this interest- ing people has maintained itself almost un- changed from the time of the eariy Persian kings to the present day. Armenia was one of the most valtuble portions of the Persian empire, funilshlng, as it did, besides stone and timber, and several most important minerals, an annual supply of 20,000 excellent horses to the stud of the Persian king."— O. Rawlln8<m, Fice Grmt Man- anhiet: Pertia, eh. 1.— Before the Persians es- tablished their sovereignty over the country, "it seems certain that from one quarter or another Armenia had been Arianized; the old Turanian character had passed away from It; immigrants had flocked in and a new people had Xteen formed —the real Armenians of later times, and indeed of the present day." Submitting to Alexander, on the overthrow of the Persian monarchy, Ar- menia fell afterwards under the yoke of the 8e- leucidae, but gained independence about 190 B. C, orenriier. Under the influence of Partbia, a branch of the Parthian royal family, the Arsa- cids, was 8Ubse(iiiently placed on the throne and a dynasty established which reigned for neariy six hundred years. The fourth of these kings, Tigranes, who occupleil the throne In the earlier part of the last century B. C, placed Armenia in the front rank of Asiatic kingdoms and in powerful rivalry with Parthia. Its sul>se<iuent history is one of many wars and invasions and inuch buffeting between llomans. Partlilans, Persians, and their successors in the conflicts of the eastern worid. The part of Armenia west of the Euphrates was called by the Koinans Ar. menia Minor. For a short period after the revolt from the Seleucid monarchy, it formed a dis- tinct kingdom called Sophene. — O. liawlinson. Sixth niut Sffrnth Umit Orientnl Mim-irehic B. C. 69-«8.— War with the Romans.— Great defeat at TirranocerU.— Submission to Rome. See Home; H. C. 78-6H. and 69-63. A. D. 1 15- II 7.— Annexed to the Roman Empire by Trajan and restored to independ- ence by Hadrian. .See It>ME: A. 1). tW-liw. A. D. 4aa (?).— Persian Conquest.— Becomes the satrapy of Persarmenia. See Persia: A. D. 826-627. A. D. ioi6-i07t.— Conquest and dcTastatioa by the Seljuk Turks. «<■<■ Ti rks (Skuiuks): A I). 1(XM-I(l8:i. and 1063-1073. iath-i4th Centuries. -The MedicTal Chrit- tian Kingdom.— "The hist decade of the lath century saw the establishment of two small ChristfHn kingiloms in the L,evant. which long outlived all other n-lios of the Crusades except the military onlers; and which, with very little help from the West, susiidiied a Imzardo'us ex Istence In complete contrant with nimmt every- thing around them. The kiniriloms of Cyprus and .\rmenla have a hislorv vi ry closelv'inter- twineil. but their origin ami most of tliVir cir- cumstances were very dilTen-nt. Ilv Armenia as a kingdom Is mi-ant little mon> thai) the ancient Cillcia. the ka.! !«-lB.-nrn Tsnni- sii-l i!,r sra. from the frontier of the principaliiv of Antioch I oaatwani, to Ki lendcris or Palivopolis, a little j beyond Sileucia; this lerritorv, which was com, ' puted to contain 16 days' Joumey In lenfthj 141 ARMENIA. ARNiEANa raeuQicd from four mile* of Antioch, by two In breadtb, waa separated from tlie Oreater Ar- menia, which before the perim] on whicli we are now employed had fallf n under the away of the Seljuks, by tlie ridges of Taurus. The populit- tion wiis composed largely of the sweepings of Asia Miuor. Christian tribes which had laltea refuge in the mounuins. Their religion was partly Orcclt, partly Armenian. . . . Their rulers were princes descended from the house of the BagriuitiiE. who had governtHl the Greater Armenia as liings from tin- year 883 to the reign of Constantine of M»nciinn('lius, and had then merged their hazardous independence in the mass of the Orceli Empire. After the seizure of Asia Minor by the Seljuks, the few of tlie Biigra- tidiB who Imd retained possession of the moun- tain fastnesses of Cilicia or the strongholds of Mcsopotmnia, act<"d as independent lords, showing little respect for Byzantium save where there was something to be gained. . . . Rupinof the Mountain was prince [of Cilicia] at the time of the capture of Jerusalem by Saladln; he died in 1189, and his successor, Leo, or Livon, after hav- ing successfully courted the favour of pope and emperor, was recognised as king of Armenia by the emperor Henry VI., and waa . rowned by Connul of Wittelsbach, Archbishop of Mainz, in 1198." The dynasty ended with Leo IV., whose " whole reign was a continued struggle against the Moslems," and who was aasassuiated about 1343. "The five remaining kings of Ar- menia sprang from a branch of the Cy priot house of Lusignan [see Cvpnca : A. D. 1193-14891. *— W. Htubbs, Left: on the Stuilu of Mediatal and Votknt UM.. ttet. 8. A. D. 1633-1635 — Subjugated by Peraia aad renined by the Turkf . See Tcbks : A. D. lOantMo A. 0. 1895.— Turkish Atrocities in. See TrnKs: A. I). 189.'). * ARMENIAN CHURCH, The.-The church of the .Vniicniaiis is "the oldest of all national churches, They were converted by St. Gregory, called 'The Illuminator,' who was a relative of Dertad or Tiridatcs, their prince, and had been forced to leave the count •• at the same time with him, and settled at C. 'n Cappadocia, where he was initiated into u. > hristian faith. When tliey returned, both prince and p<'ople em- braced the Oosm! ilirougli the preaching of Oreifory, A. P. "ira, and thus presente<l the first insum I' of an entire nation becoming Ciiristian. . . . Hy an accident lliey were unrepresented at [the Council of] Chalcedon r.\. D. ^il], and, owing to the poverty of their language in words serviceable for the purixMcs of thiiilogy, they had at that time but one woni for Nature and Person, iu consequence of which they misunder- stood the decision of that council [that Christ p()aaesse<{ two natures, illvlne and human, in one Person) with suttlcicnt cleameM. ... It was not until elithty four years had elapsed that they finally :idiipii-ii Kutychianism [the diKtrine that the dlviiiiiy Is the sole nature in Christ], and an anathema wns pninoiinci'd <m the Chalcedonian decrees iiaili ' — H. F. Toier, The Vhurrh and the liulirn Kmpirr, rh. .1— "The religion of Armenia could not derivi. iiiocli gUny frijm the ieaniing or tlie power of its inhabitants. The royalty explreil with the origin of their schism; ptui their Christian kings, wiio arose and fell in the 18th century on the confines of Cilicbi, were the clients of the Latins and the vassals of the Turkish sultan of Iconium. The helpless nation has seldom been permitte<l to enjoy the tran- quility of servitude. From the eariiest period to the present hour, Armenia has been the theatre of perpetual war: the lands between TauHs and ^rivan were dispeopled by the cruel policy of the Sophis; and myriads of Christian families were transplanteil, to perish or to propagate in the dis- tant provinces of Persia. I'nder the rod of oppression, the zeal of the Armenians is fervent and intrepid; they have often preferred the crown of martyrdom to the white turban of Ma- homet; they devoutly hate the error and idola- tiy of the Greeks."— E. Gibbon, DeelintandfUll of the Ronuin Empire, ch. 47. ARIIINIANISM. 8eeNETiiERLA]fDS:A.D. 160»-1619. ARMINIUS, The Detirerance of Germany by. SeeOERMANT: B. C. 8-A. O. 11. ARMORIAL BEARINGS, Oricin of.— "As to armorial bearings, there is no doubt that em- blems somewhat similar have been Imm'-moriailv used both in war ami peace. The shields of aii- cient warriors, and devices upon coins or seals, bear no distant resemblance to modern blazonry! But the general introduction of sucli bearings, as hereditary distinctions, has been sometimes at- tributed to tournaments, wherein the championi were distinguished by fanciful devices; some- times to the crusades, where a multitude of all nations and languages sto(Ml in need of some vis- ible token to denote the banners of their respec- tive chiefs. In fact, the peculiar symbolsof her- aldry point to both these sources anil have bei-n borrowed in part from each. Hereditary an..j were perhaps scarcely used by private families liefore the beginning of the thirt<-enth century. From that time, however, they became verj^ gen- eral,"- H, Hiillam, The Middle Age*, eh. 8, pt. 2. ARMORICA. — The peninsular projection of the coast of Gaul between the mouths of tlio Seine and the Loire, embracing modem Brittany, and a great part of Normandy, was known to the Romans as Amiorica. The most importaut of the Armorican triln's in Ciesar's time was llmt of the V^enetl, " In the fourth and fifth centu- ries, the northern coast from the Loire to the frontier of the Netheriands was called 'Tract us Aremoricus.' or Aremorica, which in Celtic sit'- nirtes ' maritime country.' The commotions iif the third century, which continual to incn'asi during the fourth and fifth. reiM'aU^lly drovi' the Itomans from that country. French antiqii;!- ries imagine that it was a regularly constitim-il G.'dlic republic, of which Clilovis had the protci'- torate, but this Is wrong, "—H, O. Xiebuhr, hel: on Ancient Ethnography nmt Uexg., t. 2, p. 81H .\Leo im: E. II. Bunliurv, llitt. of Anci.ut Of,)}., t. 2, p. 23.1.— Se.', alsi'i, Vkneti of Wk.-t- KKN 0.\ri,, and InEKrANs, The Wksterm. ARMOUR INSTITUTE. See KDUCATio.f, MuiianN: America: A, D, 1824-1893. ARMSTRONG, General John, and the Ncwbnrgh Addresses. See Vn im d States of Am, : A. D. 1782-1783 Secretary of War.- Plan of descent on Montreal. Sw Ukited Statbs or Am,: A, I), 1813 (Oct,— Nov.). ARMY PURCHASE, Abolition of, P=« E.<cni,ANl>: A. D. 1871, ARNAANS, The. See aHUCB: The Ml- OIUTIONa. 142 ARNAULD. ARNAULD, JacqaeliBe Marie, and the MooMtetT of Port ftoy»l. See Pobt Rotai, »nd the Jasseihsts: A. D. 1603-1660 ARNAUTS, The. Sec AtBAMiAjis, Midl« ARTHtm. See ARNAY-LE-DUC, Battie of (1570). FKASfK: A. D. 1588-1570. ARNOLD, Benedict, and the American ReTolution. See Casada: A. D. 177.%-! 776 »nd I SITED States or Am. : A. D. 1775 (Mat);' 1 . . . (J rtr— October) ; 1780 (Anocsr— Septem- BEH); 1780-1781; 1781 (J ANUART-May, ; 1781 (.Mat— OrToBER). '' r*^9^° °? bRESCIA. The Repablic of. SefUoMF.: A. I>. 114.V1I.55 ARNOLD VON WINKELRIED. at the U^l*«8 "" **"■* '^'^''^^'"^"O- A. D ARNULF, Kinr of the East Franki &rA%^8«»= '^'"'^ "' "•'^ "" ARPAD, Dynaety of. See Hcnoariass: 1114 I Mill W^'""™' " Hcnoary: a. D. 972- ARPAD, Siece of.— C.n.lucted by the n 7"*>o ^<"?"*r'"' T'Kl«'h Hlescr. boijinning ^,h tP.** Ii"li.ng twoyeBin. The fall of the city brought with it the submission of hII nortii. "'iw^.'V;r> " **»."•« l«.Vri.i. M. 2. ARQUES, Battle* l,,(icSo). See FHiNrr- .V. I) 1.^9-1,590. *^ oee *B.4SCE. UWUU*^'^"^'' '^'"- ^ f'WRENCE: A. D. ARRAPACHITIS. See Jews: The E«i,y nEllKKlV Hl?TORT. ^AKI.l ARRAPAHOES, The. See .\xebicaj. Abo- "■'I'^^.Aloo.s.ji-ian Family. »« *ki. ARRAS: Oripn. S<e BeL(i«. A. D. 1583.— Submiision to Spain See Netiu;ki..\.nu«: A. D. 1.584-1.585. ^^ A. D. I654.— Uniuccesiful Siere hi the f.?"'im ^°°"- ""'"^ *■«*•'«: A. D -♦ Pears, rA< fUl of Sec See ARRAS, Treaties of (1415 aaj J4,r^ APBW-^.RJ**.i-'^i'''"'f^'*-^'^-'*^ ARRETIUM, Battle of (B. C 38«) R..MK. H. C. 2»,5-191 *'• ARROW HEADED WRITING. See Cc .NEIKOIIM W HITISO. oee LC ARSACIDiE, The—The ilvnaatv of Par- ...... kmjs were so calle,!. from 'the Lnder .ff a. lin... Araaces, who Id the r..volt of Partwi n1ms.11 10 the throne. Acnmling to some ..nu..nt writers Arsaoe., was a Bactrifn • ac^ nl (^r'„VS,f VV'^T-?- ««-«^''!^'^-^A AKbEN-In one of tlie earlier raids of the Armenian commerce." E OaiularUinople, eh. 2. Lakf of^v»„' irJ^f-T^", ""''''"' '^«'n« 0' the sfraho P H ^"""^K '' »l^' *^"«' Thopitis by ArmenT.'^'^JIr h^a' C^builtTnlki t.°' superintendence of Hanni[;:i.Vhile «"re uL^^ Armenia. At a later tin.e it was c^Hed Ve^il Pe1."^^f.^5^=„.e4^°''G'j-ANUS,Kin.of ^^enie, Ochu., King of Perwa, B. C. a.wl ^. . . . Artaxerxes, or Ardshir, Foiiuder of the f"j^*» »»n"chy. See PeksLi: B C im! ARTEVeT^ 8eeDAST..0ERD. AKieVELD, Jacqnes and Philio Van- rs.'raStj^Vi^iis/''""'- «-^--": RMn7*xf S* ^*'^\ *°"* *•"* Knights of tha a wo^nr?*' " h'^torical Arthur or not ;„' ... " ?' t*° ""'St now be devoted nrin V'!"'*"'* never calls Arthur a gwledi/^r pnnce bi.t emperor, and it may be inferr«l tlSl I man, tl ,?.L""'T' */'*']'"' JepartuR.. of the aJnr ^™^ '"!'"'T' ""= L.""' 'i'le of^lmper ator emperor.' and made it into 'amheramlvr ' »V!..k: »«>m— . imperator ceased to have anything more to say to this couX theS was given to the highest olBcer In the iaian woXvr'fmr "."'«?'«'■ "-d thatK or wiioever it was tliat wrote the HistorU Brittonum a.scril».d to hlni- fh.'ii. a«? U r,,,r..«>ntod «,h.ing in Impsny wiUi^he kings of the Brythous in deff of their common country. L Mng their "*1rr , w^ -ui;x^ii:fa??iX;;:a!;Sp^l* w^snootLerlhan Arfhur.it would .uW*~ reason why that writer called Mael^S -uilll? 143 ARTHUR. ARTAXS. Itrli dntoo,' 'the dngon or war-captain of the bland,' and why the latter and fats auocewors aftvr him were called bv the Welsh not gwledigs but kings, though thefr great ancestor Ciineda was only a gwlediK. On the other band the way in wliicli Oilclas alludes to the uncle of Mac'lgwn without even giving his name, would Mvm to suggest that in liis estimation at least ho was no more illustrious than his predecessors in the position which he held, whatever that may have been. How then did Arthur become famous above them, r ' how came he to be the subject of so much story and romance t The answer, in short, which one has to give to this hard question mayl be to the effect, thnt besides s historic Arthur there waii a Brythonic divinity named Arthur, after whom the man may have been calleil, or with y hose name his, in case it was of a different origin, may have become identical in sound owiag to an accident of speech; for both explanations are possible, as we shall attempt to Buow later. Leaving aside for a while the man Arthur, and assuming the existence of a god of that name, Ut us see wliat could be made of him. Mythologically speaking he would probably have to be regarded as a Culture Hero; for, a model king and the institutor of the Knighthood of the Itound Table, he is represented as the leader of cxpeiiitions to the isles of Hades, and as one who stood in somewhat the same kind of relttion to Owalchmel as Owydion did to I Leu. It is needless here to dwell on the character usually given to Arthur as a ruler: he with his knights around him may be compared to Con- chobar, in the midst of the Champions of Emain Madia, or Woden among the Anses at Valhalla, white Arthur's Knights are called those of the Round Table, around which they arc described sitting: and it would lie interesting to under- stand the signification of the term Round Table. On the whole it is the table, proliablv, and not lu roundness that is the fact to which to call attention, as it possibly means that Arthur's court was the first ejrly court where those present sat at a table at all in Britain. Xo such thing us a common table figures at Conchobar's court or any other descrilml in the old legends of Ireland, and the same applies, we lielieve, to those of the old Norsemen. The attribution to Arthur of the first use of a common table would fit in well with the character of a Culture Hero which we have ventured to ascribe to . ', and it derives countenance from the pn-tem' i ' jtory of the liound Table; for the Ar'.hu'-' .'gend traces it back to Arthur's father. L'thr iragon, in whom we have under one of his y names llie king of Hades, the realm whenc II culture was fable<i to have been deriveil. In a wider i<ense the Itound Table possibly signified plenty or abundance, and might be compared with the table of the Ethiopians, at which Zeus and the other gods of Greek mythology used to feast from time to lime." — J. Rhys. Stmlirt in the Art>iiin,in lieg^nii^ch. 1. — 8ee. also Ci'MBRI.V ARTHUR, Chester A.— Election to Vice- Preiidency. — Snccestion to the Presidency. (>ee I'.NiTED States ok Am. : A. D. ItWO and 1M<1. ARTI OF FLORENCE, See Florbuce: A. I» ri.VV-1298. ARTICLES OP CONFEDERATION {American). See Umtf-o States or Am. : A. 1>. 1777-1781, ud 17t).'i-17a7. ARTICLES OF HENRY, The. See Po. LAND; A D. 1S78. ARTOIS, The Houie ot See BotntBoii, The House of. ARTOIS : A. D. 1529.— Preteiuioni of the Kinr of France to Suseraintr resigned. Kee Italy: A. D. 15a7-15S». ARTS, The Fine. See Music, Paistiso Scm.piURR, Stti.eh ih Akciiitectubk. ART YNI. See DmiuBoi. ARVADITES, The. — The Canaanite inhnb Itanu of the island of Aradus, or Arvad, and wl),) also he'd territory on the main land. ARVERNI, 'The. See JEom; also, Oaitls. and Allobrooer. ARX, The. See CAPrroLOfB Hill, also Oens, Roman. ARXAMUS, Battle cf.— One of the defeats sustained by the Romans in their wars with the Persians. Battle fought A. D. 803.— O. Raw- liu.son, Sertnth Grmt Oriental Monareha, rh 24. ARYANS.— ARYAS.—"Thlg family (which Is sometimes called Japhetic, or deacenduuts of Japhet) includes the Hindus and Perdans among Anatic nations, and almost all the peoiiles ut Europe. It may seem strange that we Engllth should be related not only to the Oermans mul Dutch and Scandinavians, but to the Kus.si:in!i. French, Spanish, Romans and Qreeks as will; stranger still that we can claim kinship with such distant peoples as the Persians and llindus. . . . What seems actually to have been the ca>e is this: In distant ages, somewhere rbnut the rivers Oxus and Jaxarles, and on the north of that mountainous range called the Hindoo- KiKish, dwelt the ancestors of all the nations we Iwvo enumerated, forming at this time a sini;!)' ami united people, simple and primitive in tluir way of life, but yet having enough of a comnn 1 na- tional life to preserve a common language. Thev called themselves Arvas or Aryans, a wuril which, in its very earliest sense, seem.-, t.i havf meant those who move upw.irds, or strak'ht and hence, probably, came to stand for the noble race as compared with other races on whom, of course, they would lixik down. ... As thiir numbers increas«Hl. the space wherein thty ilwilt became too 'mall for them who had out of one formed mnny different peoples. Then lieira"^ a series of migrations, in which the collei tion of tribes who spoke one language and forninl otif ale started off to seek their fortune in new 1. . . . First among them. In all prohaWlity, started the Kelts or Celts, who, tniMlliug Perhaps to the South of the Caspian ami the North of the Black Sea, found their war to Europe and spread far on to the extrenii \Vest. . . . Another of the great families who 1. ft the Arvan homo was the Pelasgic or the linro^- Italic. These, journeying along first South wnnis ai:d then to the West, passed through Asia Minor, on to the countries of (JriTfe and Italy, and In time separated into those two great peoples, the Greeks (or Iblliin-^, m 'ley came to call themselves), and the It 'nians - . . Next we come to two other great fiiiiilies of nations who seem to have taken tin- ume route at first, ami perhaps began their travels toeelher as the Qreeks and Romans did Ti!?«e are the Teutons anil the Slaves. . . . The word Slave comes from Slowan, which in old Shivonitu meant to speak, and was given bytheSinvoniini to themselves aa the people who could s|><sk ii 144 ARTANa oppottUon to other mktioni whom, u they were not able to undentand them, they were pleaaed to cuDsider u dumb. The Oreek word harbami (whence our barbarUiu) arose in obedience to a lilie prejudice, only from an imiutinnof babbling such as is made by laying 'bur-bar-bar.'" C. F. Keary, Itaitn ofj/ittorp, eh. 4.— The above passage seta forth the oider theory of an Aryan f»milv of nation* aa well aa of languages in its uii'iuulifled form. Ita later moditlcatlons are in- iliiHted in the following: "The discorery of .Sanscrit and the further discovery to which it led. that the languages now variously known as Aryan, Aryanic, Indo-European, Indo-Oermanic, InJn-Celtic and Japhetic are closely akiu to one another, spread a spell over the world of thought which cannot be aaid to have yet wholly passctl away. It was hastily argucil from the kinship of their languages to the kinship of the nations that spoke them . . . The question then arises as to the home of the 'hoiethnos,' or parent tribe, before its dispersion and during the pro- ethnic p«rio<l, at a time when aa yet there was neither Greek nor Hindoo, neither Celt nor Teuton, but only an undifferentiated Arran. Of course, the answer at lirst was — w'hcro could it have been but in the East. And at length the glnttulogist found it necessary to sliift the cradle of the Aryan race to the nciichbourhood of the Oxus and the Jaxartes, so as to place it somewhere between the Caspian Si'S and the Himalayas. Then Diwtor Latham liolillr ralseil his voioe against the Asintic theory aliogether, and stated that he reganled the at- tempt to deduce the Aryans from Asia as n-sem- blinj an attempt to derive the reptiles of this country from those of Ireland. Afterwards Benfcy argued, from the presence in the vocabu- lary common to the Aryan languages of words for bear and wolf, for birch and beech, and the absence of certain others, such as those for liun tiger »nd palm, that the original home of the Arya must bare been within the temperate 101. . Europe. ... As might be expected in the > a; of such a difficult question, those who are inilined to believe in the Eurogiean origin of the Aryans are by no means agreed among them- selves as to the spot to be fixed upon. Latham place<l it east, or south-east of Lithuania, in Po du!ia, or Volhyniii; Benfey had in view adistrict nlH.ve the Black Sea and not far from the Cas- I'l.iri; Peachcl fixed on the slopes of the Caucasus- ( uno on the great plain of Central Europe Hiirier on the southern part of Russia; POsche on the tract between the N iemen and the Dnieper ■ L. Gelger on central and western Germany; and' ieiikaon.Sranilinavia.' — J. Rhys, Ai<« T/ieorirj, in .^nrl'nm-tl«n Hee., Jan., t8S»).—" Aryan, in Mi.ntiflc language, is utterly inapplicable to race 11 nuaus language, and nothing but language- an.l. if we si.eak of Aryan race at all, wp should' Kn.iw that it means no more than x + Aryan r,'"'" ; i • K ''■'■* •I'^'srwl sttain and again Umi If I say Aryas, I mean neither bloo.! nor tK|n.-«, nor hair nor skull; I mean simply those who »i>eak an Ar)an language. The same ap riles to Hindus, Greeks, Romans, Germans. I (lis un.l Slaves. ... In that sense, and in that w nse only, do I mv that even the hU-k.'st (fin. 'liiyepresent an earlier suge of Aryan speech "n.! thought than the fairest ScamllnaVians 1. 'it. answer must be given as U>llie place where uuf Aryan ancestors dwelt before their «paration, " 146 ASIA. whether in large swarms of millions, or in a few scattered tents and huts, I should still say, as I s«i<l forty yean ago, 'Somewhere in Asia.' and no more. — F. Max Mailer, Biog. of W,>rd» am» Home oftheArynt. tk. 6.— The theories which dispute the Asiatic origin cf the Aryans are strongly presented by Canon Taylor in T/io Oni/xn of the Arynnt, by G. H. Readall. in The ii'"'." "J"^ Aryan*, and by Dr. O. Schnuler in Pifhulone Antiquitia of the Aryan I\,,ple». — See, also, Ijtdia: The ABomoisAL IsnABiT- ARTS: The iMvioRATroir amd Co.vqcESTS of TBI Abtab, and Edropk TIUS.— Ihe term As [among the Romans] and the words which denote its divisions, were not confined to weight alone, hut were applied to measures of length and capacity also, and in general to any object which could be regarded as consisting of twelve eoual parta. Thus they were commonly used to denote shares into which an inheritance was divided." As a unit of weight the As. or Libra, "occupied the same position In the Roman system as the pound does in our own. According to the most accurate researches, the As was equal to about Hi oz avoirdupois, or .-ST.? of an avoinlupois pound " It '■ was divided into 13 ecjual parts calle<i unciie and the uncia w.is divided into 24 equal pans called scrupula. " • The As. regarded as a coin [of copper] originally welghiKl, as the name im- plies, one pound, and the smaller copper coins those fractions of the pound 'enoted by their names. By degrees, however, tiie weight of the As, reganled as a coin, was greatly iliminished. »Ve are told that, alwut the conimenii-ment of the first Punic war. it had fallen from 12 ounces to a ounces; in the e.irly part of the second Punic war (B. C. 817), it was reduced to one ounce; and not long afterwards, by a Lex Papiria, it was fixe.l at half-an-ounce, which re- mained the standard ever after." The silver cojns of Itome were tlie Denarius. ef|uivalent ter 217 B. C.) to 16 Asses; the Quinarius and tile Sestertius, which became, respectively, one half and one fourth of the Denarius in value. The Sestertius, at the close of the Republic, is estimau-d to have been equivalent in value' to two pence sterling of English money. The coinage was delnised under the Empire The principal gold coin of the Empire was the De- narius Aureus, which passed for 2.1 silver De- ' narii.— W. lUmsay, M.iiimi of Ihiiuin Antio . (■A. 13. ■ " ASCALON, Battle of (A. D. looo). See Jeki-salem; a. I). 1099-1144. . ASCANIENS, The. See Brande.vbcro: A. D. 998-1142. ASCLEPIADiC, The. See Medical Scr. B.N('E, GlIKKK. ASCULUM. Battle of (B. C. aTo). See Rome : B C -i^i-irr, /y; ° ^ _ ASCULUM, Massacre at. Sec Rohe: B. C. 90-^. ASHANTEE WAR, The (1874). See ASHBURTON TREATY, The. See United States of Am.: A. D. 1842 ASHDOD. .Scr PntusTiSEs. ASHTI, Battle of (1818). See Ibdia: A. D. 181 6-1 Ml 9. w « ®l^ • J*" N»me.— " There are grounds for belieTing Europe and Asia to hare originaltf ASIA. ASIA MINOR ■ignlfletl ' the west ' ud ' the owt ' respectively. Both are Semitic terms, and pnilutlily paaneil to the Qn<p|is from tlie I'l>aMii( iaug. . . . The Greelis tirst applied the 'itlc [Asia] tr> tliat por- tion of the eautern continent which lay nearest to them, and with which they became first ac- quiiinlecl — the coant of Asia Minor opposite the Cyclades; whence they extended it as tiiiir knowledge grew. Still it hud alwars a speiial application to the country about Ephesus — O. lian'liiison, Xotit to llertHtiitu; r. 8. p. 83. ASIA: The Roman Prorincc (lo called). — "As originally constituted, it corresponded to the dominions of the Itinn of Pergamus . . . left by the will of Attalus III. to the lionuin people (B. C. 133). ... It included the whole of Mysii and liVdia. with ..ISolis, Ionia and Caria, except a ■mull piirt wliicli was subject to Rho<les, ami the greaUT part, if not the whole, of Phrygia. A portion ol'^ tli(> last region, however, was de- tached from it."— E H. Bunbury, Hut. o/Aitcien^ Oeog., ch. 20, urct. I ASIA, Central.— Hongol Conque** Sec MOXOOI.B. Turkish Coaqaeit. See Turks. Rutf ->n '~''aqueiti. See Russia; .V. D. : ■ ■ .m(9-i>wi. A- 'j^ I-'. ' UR. — "Thenameof AsiaMinor, so 'i. i. .11- to the stmlcnt of a-icient geogra{)i..y, wa> • ■•! I UM' I ulier among Greek or itoman writers u 1 a very late pi^riod. Orosius, wlio wrote in 111. 5fth century after the Christian era. is tlic Ir-' xtant writer who employs the term in its -,!• .; rp «en.«e'— E. 11. Bunbury, //><(. of An- ci.iil ''■■",/.. e/i 7, »rt. 2.— The' name Anatolia, wliirli is of <»n'ek origin, synonymous with "TIk' Levant, signifying " The Sunrise, " came Into use among the Byzantines, aluut the 10th century, aud was adopted by their su(xessors, the Turks Earlier Kingdom* and People. See Phrtoi- A.NSAS11 MVKIANI*.— LyOI.VNS— C'ABIASS.— LVCI- AS* — liirilYSIANS — PoSTf;! (CAPr.ADOClJk). — PaPHLAC.OSI ANS. — TROJA. The Greek Coloaies.— " The tumult which had lx'»'n caused by the irruption of the Thts- protians into Thessaly and the displacement of | the population of Greece (see Grekce: Tiie MiORATio.N. Ac] did not siiUsiJe within the lim- i its of the p.-iiinsuia. From the north and the i 8.1UII1 those inlialtitantg who were uiialilo to main- tiiii their v'ri'unci against the incursions of the i Tlies.salians. .Vriiai'ans. or Dorians, anil preferred ■ exile to Militiiission. sought new homes in the is- | lands of tin- .\ei;ean and on the western coast <.f ! Asia Miii.T The migrations eimtinucd for sev- ' eral generations. When il length tliev came to ' an end, aii.l the Anatolian roast from >lount Ma ' to the Tri.ipian headlami, with the adjacent islands, was in tlie posin-ssion of the Greeks, tlirei' great divisions or trilvs were distinguished in the new settl.'ment.<: Dorians, loniuns, and Aeolians, In ^pite of the presence of some alien elements, the Dorians and loniaiis of Asia Minor weri' th" sjinif trilx-sas the Dorians and lonians of Omii- Thf .\eolian-s. on tlie other hami, were a eomposite tribe, as their name implii- ... Of these three divisions the Aeolians lav farthest tolhenirth. The precise limiu of tlieir territory were differently nxed bv ilitferi'nt au thorities , The Ae<ilie cities' fell into two ' groups a northers, of which lyCslNn was the centre, and ■ Kiuthem, compowd of the cities in the immediate neighbourhood of the Herrous, and founded fn)m Cyme. . . . The northern frmip included the islands of Tenedos and Leslios. n the latter there were origiaally six cities: Methymna, Mytilene, Pvrrha. Eresus, Arisha, and .\ntisHa, but Arisbs was aubaequently con quered and enslaved by Mytilene. . . . The sec ond gn'ut stn-am of migmtion pniceeded from Athens (after the death of Cislrus — we Athens : From the Doriak Mioration to B. C. 683 — aiconiing to Greek tradition, the younger sons of Codrus leading these Ionian ei 'h >nisl8 acMss the Aegean, first to the Carian citv of Miletus — see Mii.KTis, — which they capturi 1, and tlien ti> the eoiM(Uesl of Ephesus aiid the island of .Samos] . . . The colonies spread until a dodecapolis was establislH'd, similar to the union widch tln' lonians had founded in their old settlements oti the nortliem shore of Peloponnesus. In some cities the Ionian popidution formed a minority. , . Tlie eolonisati(m of Ionia was undouhlKlly, 'n the main, an achievement of emigrants from .Vttiea. but it was not accomplished by a simile faintly or in the space of one lifetime. . . . Tlie two f st famous of the Ionian cities xerv Mi- letus and Eohesus. The first was a Carian eily previously known as Anactoria. . . . Ephesus was originally in the hands of the Li'lesres niul the Lydians, who were driven out by tlie lonians undiT .\ndroclus. The! ancient sanctuary of the tutelary gtsldess of the place was transfonnni by the (ireeks into a temple of Artemis who was here worshippetl as the gochieas of birtl ind productivity in accordance with Oriented r lier than Hellenic Ideas." The remaining Ionic . 'ics and islands were .Myus (naineil fnMii the m ><- quitoes which Infested it, and wiii. h liii.ilty drove the colony to abamhm it), l*riene, !'.!', thrac, ClazomeniB, Teos, I'hocaea, t.ilop! Lebedus, Samos and Chios "Chios was inhabited by Cretans . . . aiid subsi-quent ! \ Curians. ... Of the manm'r in which Cliio^ came connecteil with the loni.ins the Chians 1 give no clear account. . . The southe; . | of the Anat.'lian coast, and the southem-m iiUids in the Aegean were colonis<-d bv Dorians, who wresteti them from thi? Phoeiiii or Carian occupants. Of the islands, Crete is most lm|iortant. . . . Crete was one of the est centres of civilisation m tin Aegean Chetr ]. , . . The Dorian (. .ny in Rho'-* like that in Crete, was ascribed to ihi' band win .1 left Argos under the eomiriand of Althaemeni-~ , , . Other islands col. .nisi'd by the Dorians Win Thera. . , Mehw, , Cnrpathus, Culv.irit, Nisyrus, ::nd Cm. . From the islands, the Dorians g| .ad to tie- mainland. The p< nin«iila ofCnidus vas |>erha|.s the first scttlemeni , . Ilalicarna^sus was f..unded from TnH'reti. :iri.l ■le Ionian element must have Wvn . .insi.lirilL, , Of the Dorian ei!ii.s, six uniteil in th. ..in- a.in wi.rship .f Apoll- on the heaiilaiid . ! in '. Ilium, Tiles, were I.iudus, lulysu.s, ai,ii ( s- iniriis in iih.siis. Cos. ami, on the mami 1:. 1 llali(arntis.sus nii.l Cnidus , , , The tern: ry which the .\e.ilians acquired is d<'»<ril«.! 'v llensiotus as more fertile than that miupi.l ' v the lonians, but of a less excellent i;limste ft was inhabiti ' by a niiiiilM-r of tritws .on.ng whicli the '!'• or Ti ucri were the clii. f In Homer the il habitants of the city of 111. Inn.! are Dardani or Troes, and the name Teurri i »-» 11, 1 occur. In historical time* the liergi'tM -si ■r 1 li.e • •\d- 146 ASIA MINOR wbo dwelt tn the town of the lame name . . v»r Lampaacus, and also formed the lubject papulation of Miletua, were the only remnants of IhU once famous natioD. But their former jfreat- ress was atteste<l by the Homeric po<?ms. and the cccurrence ot the name (iergithians at various places in the Troad [see Troja]. To this tribe ticloneed the Troy of the Grecian epic, the site «( which, bo far as it represents any historical city, is fixed at Hiasariilc. In the Iliad the Trrijan empire extends from the Aesepus to the Oiicus; it was dividol — or, at least, later his- l.irians speak of It as divided —into principali t.'s which recognised Priam as their chief But tSe Homeric descriptions of the city ami its emi- nence are not to be taken as historically true. Whatever the power -nd civilisation of the sDcienr stronghold exhumed by Dr. Sohliemann may have been, it was necessary for the epic piie't to represent Priam and his nation as a d:in- perous rival in wealth and arms to the gmit kings of Mycenae and Sparta. . . . The tradi- tional dates fix the«<- colonies [of the Greek.* tn Asia .Minor] in the generations which *■ Ilowed th*- Trojan war. ... We may suppose iiiat the colonisation of the Aegean and of Asia Miniir bv tae Greeks was coincident with the expulsion o"f the Phoenicians. The greatest extensiun of the Pho<^ dan power in the Aegean seems to fall in ■he 1". !i century B. C. From the 13th it was grailu^i iv on the decline, and the Greeks were -nslili': !o secure the trade for them-.! ves. . By lllio B. C. Asia Minor mav have Ijeen in ■ h,".niU of the Greeks, tli iuti the Phoeniti^i; ;11 mai; mod themv ives in Rhodes ui. ' • vpms. '.. A all attei- pts at chronology u: illusory."— i; .\bbott, /. rf of Ortfee. eh. i (e li -Vlsoln: L. Curtius, j-:-t of Oruet, hk. 2 cA 8 I 1).-G. Orote, »/i,r f Onefe. pt. 2, eh \X-\:, —J. A. Cramer, Oet-,- irutHitt. Ihtrription tf.Uit .)fin»r, net. 6 (r. 1). — See, also, .Miletis Phi KE.lSrI. B. C. 784-539. -Proiperity of the Greek Colonies.— Their SubmistiontoCrcesus, King of Lydia, and their conquest and anuexation to the Persian Empire.— " The Grecian , r,|,,nies on tlic r .>iist of Asia early rose to wealth bv means of tmile and manufactures. Though wc hav. n.it the ni' Mus of tracing their comnii • e. we know it it wa-. considerable, with the inoilier i with Italy, and at length Spain, with Pi ami t!i.- interior of Asia, ^ .nee th. ,iro<lii. of I:, U\ pa»,sed to Greece The V had ' if woolen mnnufnctufes, . commerce to the Euxine. ot. all ? ihcy founde<I factories, and exr III liiufjrt'jres and other goods with ai. 1 the n ehbouriiiiT peup|c!i for rnv l,i,l, bees-wax, flax, Iwmp. Tlnf . ven reason t.i suppo~ ths of ■ .iia. their tni iers hart. • ' no: : ,r from the conti; i of Chii . But while thev »•->> adv »n.i prosperity, apowerfi; rnona i'l l.v.lia. ,.f which tl •■ i-v at th.. r«)iof Mount Tti of th Mermna.: ilynast iTiiu-x,. whose reign Ik at).. lit IS r 734 ast » Lv Ionian cities on ti « half theelTor iluce these sta: • l'»l- K) [ft t. I'sifln^, \ ..i nde.i ti'ieir is-.i of which ingctl (heir iieScv'hians ...ve- <„.l. etc. means if war. ^ MiLETI - . iT in we.t! it ' •T■r\^^^\ it.self .Sanies, a citv is._ yges, the flrs't 'f - iian kiiiifA (See IM •.<lti) li.ive t«.gun -'"' — ^^.- ^^Hirii! the I hiring a century and ■d=»n monarchs to re- re una .limi: At length iSft-! Jtr .»M,rHted C'rtuus ital 14; A8U MINOR mounted the throne of LydU, and he nude aH Asia this aide of the River Halvs (Lycia and tilicia excepted) acknowledge "his dominion. 1 he Aeoliar., lonten and Dorian cities of the co,«t all paid him tribute; but. according to the ! usual rule of eastern conquerors, he meddled I not with their political institutions, and their ! might deem themselves fortunate in being insured , against war by the payment of an annual sum of tnoney Cr-psiis, moreover, cultivated the friend- } ship of the L.ircpean Greeks. " But Crtesus was ; overthrown. B. C. IVM, by the conquering Cvrus ; and his kingdom of Lydia was swallowed ti'p in I the great Persian empire then taking form fsee Persia: B. C. 54i>-.521], Cyrus, during his war , with trcEsus, had tried to entice the lontans """y ',f"m the latter and win them to an alliance with himself But they incurre<l his resentment by refusing. ' ' They an.l the .EolUns now sent amimssadors. praying to be received to submis- , sion on the same terms as those on which they 1 had obeyed the Lvdian monarch ; but the Mile- I sians alone found favour: the r-st had to prepare ! for war. They repaired the walls of their towns. I and sent to .Spartii for ai J. Aid. however was I refused : but Cyrus. Ixing called awav bv the war wMth Babylon, neglected th-m for "the 'pres- ent. Tlir.e years aft. rwards (Ol. .59. 2), Harpa- giis. who had saved ( yrus in his iiifsincv from Ills .grandfather .\styac ■ ,ime as governor of i.y.lia. He instantly ,)r.-[«»red to reduce the -ities of the coast. Town after town submitted .he Teians abandoned theirs, and retired to -Vbdera in Thrace: the Phoc*ans, gettiii on shipboard, and vowin:; never to ntum, saik .'or Corsica, and l» ng there harass<-.| by the Car- tliagenians an.l Tyrrhenians, they writ to Rliegion in U&\\ and at length founded ■ issalia (Marseilles; .n •■»■ coast of Gaul. The -ecian coloniM tho- ^ ame a part of tlie P.r em- P'f^ — T. K i-'htley, Hitt. of Oreeet, pt 49 Also IX: : rodotus, Uint.. tr. and e,l ',y O R.iiet,,M,n. \, arulapp.— yi. Duncker, i/i»«. of .Uti'/uitit . 8. eh. (5-7 (r. 6). B. C. Soi-493 —The Ionian revolt and its suppretaion. S<e Persia: B. C .521-49:) B. C. 479.— A -hens aisumea the protec:ioa of loma. .See -ie-vs: B. C 4;tt-478. «^" ^- S'^^■~^ Jrmation of Confederacr of Deloa. Sec Gil • : B. C. 4Ta-477. ,. 8- C- 413.— aute again demanded from the Creeks by the Persian Kior.— Conspiracy against Athena. Se.- Greece ; B. C. 4;:i ''• C. 4i3-4»--ReTolt of the Greek cities m Athens.— Intrigues of Ai-biades. See ^ ece; B. C. 4I$-41>. ^- C. 4ta.— Re-submission to Persia. See Hstv: B. C. 4>I«-J0.>. B. C. 401-400.— Espeditton o- Cyrus the . cunger, and Retreat of the Tea Thousand. .■>..<. I'kksia: B. C 40I-1(X). . B C. 399.387.— Spartan war with Perki« in -naif of the Greek cities.— Their abao- dooment by the Peace of Anta,cid*s. See GiiKECE: B. C. I199-:J«T. B. C. 334— Conquest by Alexander the Great. Nr .Hacedoxia : B C 3;«-.t<o B. C. 3ot.— Mostly annexed to the 'hracian Kingdoir. of Lysimachus. Sie M. ixjxia, &r : «. t . 310-aoi. B. C. 281-324.— Battle-ground of the war- ring monarchies of Syria and Egypt — Changes of nuutert. See Selbucid*. ABU. MINOR. ASSASSINS. B. C. 191.— Fint Entrance of the Romaiu. — Their defeat of Antiochaa the Great.— Their expansion of the kin^om of Pttfm- mnm and the Republic of Rhode*. Sve Hsuco- cms: B. C. 224-187. B. C. iao-65. — Mitbridatea. —Complete Roman Conqoeit. See Mitiihidatic Wars; alio KoMK -. B. C. T8-(M, and HU-m. A. D. 4S>ioo.— Rite of Chriitian Churchei. Bee CunuTiAMiTY : A. I>. 33-lU(). A. D. 39a.— Dio. .etian'i scat of Empire es- tablished at Nicomedia. See Uome: A D. »n-my A. D. te»4a8.— Persian invasions.- DcHt- trance by HeracUus. See ItoME: A D. S«S- •28. A. D. 1063-109*— Conquest and ruin br the Scljuk Turks. See Turks (8eui'Ks): A. D. lU6a-107a: aod 1073-1092. A. D. 1097-1149.- Wars of the Crusaders. Bee Ckisadks: A. D. 1090-1099. aod 1147-1149. A. O. iM4-ta6i.— The Empire of Nicaa •ad the Empire of Trebisoad. See Orbbs Ehpihr or Nic.cA. ^ ASIENTO, OR ASSIENTO, The. See Blaveht: a. D. 189U-1778; Utrrcht: A D. 1713-1714; Aix-la-Cbapkllr, Tub Cunorrm op: Enulard: a D. 1789-1741: aod Qburuia: A. I). 173S-1743. ASKELON. See PniurriNEs. ASKLEPIADS.— ■■ThmuKhout all the his- tortinl »iiv* lof On^rrv) the dcun-DdauU of Axkl^piiw [or Eaciiliipiuitj w<-rc nuinvniua and widely dilTuartt. The many familiva or Kcntca .callnl A«ltl<<|iia<U. who dvvnini th«iiup|vFt to [the Ktudy and pnu'liiw of mi-diiiiit-, and who |prini'i|«llr dwfit near Ihf tt'iiipli'a of Aakl<>|>iiiii. fwhilher auk and aulTcrin); nii-u cnmo to olimiii Irvlicf — all n-coitnUi'il the K'xt. not tni-rrly aa thv 'otijtH'tof their t'omiiion worHliip, hut alim aa tlirir actual pM)(«uttor. "— U. Urole, Jlitl. of Umet, ft 1. fh. 9 ASMONEANS, The. Ber Jews: B. C. Ifltt- 40. ASOKA. S.'e I Mil A : B. C. 813- -s ASOV. See Azop. ASPADAN.— The ancient name of which that of lijialian ia a corniptnl form. — U. Rawlin.tiin, Fit* limtt M'in-irrhut: Vnlia, eh. I. ASPERN-ESSLINCBN (OR THE MARCHFELOl, Battle of. See Uermany: A. I>. IWWIJaNIAKV— .IlNKI. ASPIS, The. Stf PiiALAXX ASPROMONTE, Defeat of Garibaldi at (lS6a>. S.-.. It MY A. I) li^rtJ l-iW. ASSAM, Enflish Acquisition of. See Inku .\ U IHjS IHiCT ASSANDUN, Battle ef,-Tlie lUtb sn<l lai>l Iwtlli'. .\ l> UMA. tH'tween l^lmimd Iron- alili ••. till' Kiitrli<h Kinit. and hin Danlnh riviij, t'liiil, or (aniile, for llic I'rown of Knglaml. The Kni{li«h w.-re li-rrihiy dcfi-atiil ami the flowiT of tlii-lr ni>l>lllly iwrloliol on iIh- Scld. iTIw nwdt WW « ■livUion of tht' kioedoni: hut Kdinund wxin iliiil. i>r wan klllixl Avhiuttton. In K-scj. wiiii ihi' Iwtllr jjnmud. Hw Knolanu: A l> UTU mitl ASSASSINATIONS, NoUbls.- Abbas, Pasha of Erjrpt.^ .s<'<' F^iypt: A I). IN4o l*iw . . . Aiczandtr !!. of Ratiis. ^><. tcr'-ii.l, n |m;u I'M) Reatoun. Cardinal. r«<i!>i<>T. LaMi a 1) IMI. ...B«ck«t,Th»mM. xeeKliu- laicd: A.D.11I»-1170. ..Bnckinrbam. SeeKNa laud: a. D. 1838. . .Casar. See Komp.: B. C. 44. . . .Capo d'Istrea, Count, President of Greece, See Orebcb: A. D. 1880-1863. . ..Carnot. President. See Francb: A D. 1894-1898.... CsTendish, Lord Frederick, and Burke, Mr. See Ireland: A. ?). 1883. . . . . Concini. See Prance: A. D. 161&-1619. . . .Danilo, Prince of Montenegro (1S60). See Mo: teneuro Damley. See Scotlaiid: A. D. LMl-lseS. . . . Francis of Guise. See Framcb: A. D. 1900-1563. — GarAcId, President. See United States OP Ax. : A. D. 1881 .. . .CusUtus III. of Sweden. See SoANDiHAVUN States (Sweden): A I). 1730-1793.... Henry of Guise. See France: A. D. 1584-1589. . . .Henir III. of France. See France: A. D. 1S84-18)J».... Henry IV. of France. See France: A. D. 1599-1000..... Hipparcbua. See Athens: B. C. 500-510 John, Duke of Burgundy. See France: A D. 1415-1419.... Klcbor, General See Francs: A. D. 1800 (January— June) Kotscbue. See Oermajty: A. D. 1817-1890.. .. .Lincoln, Preaident. See United States op Am. : A. I). 1805 (April 14tb) Marat. See Francs: A. D. 1798 (July). . . .Mayo, Lord. See India: A. D. 1803-1876 . . .Murray, The Regent. S<e Scotland: A. D. 1501-1568. ...Omar, Caliph. See Mahometan Coni)UESt. Ac. : A. D. 661 ... Paul, Csar of Russia. See Rumia: A. D. 1801. Perceral, Spencer. See England: A. I>. 1806-1813.... Peter III. See Klwia: A. U. 1761-1762 ...Philip of Maccdoo. SeeOBKErG: B. C. 857-836 ...Prim, General (1S70). tV« Spain: A. D. 1866-1873. . . Rissio. 8.-e Scot lakd: a. I). 1561-1.568 Rossi, Count. Si'* Italy: A. D. 1848-1849. .. .Wallsnstein (16141. See Orrmahy: A. I). 1683-1634. .. .Wili.ua the Silent. See NETORRLANDe: A. P l.V<l- 1584 ...Witt, John and ComeUua de. .S« NBTaERLANDS: A. U. 1673-1674 ASSASSINS. The.-" I must apeak ... of Uiat wonderful nnithrrhni<d of the Aiuwtiiitia. which during the 12th aod 13th rcnturiea «pri ad •uch terror thn>UKh all Aaia, Miiaaulman and Chriathio. Their deeda sliould be atudkil is Von liammer's hiat4iry of their order, of w iilcli however there is an excellent analyaU In TavInD iliatory of Mohammedaniain. The word .Xwiiviiti, it muat lie rrmeinbcreil, in itaunlluary alitnilic^i lion, ia derived fnnn this order, sod not the n- vene. Tlu) Aaaaaaina were not so callnl Im ,iii'«< I'ley were miinlerera. but munterera are vMit! »M««Kln« la'<'au«<- tin- Aaaaaaina were murdenm. Tlif orl){ln of the word Aaaaaain haa Ihi n mm I dUj.iUnl liy oriental acholara: but IHaiiplinitlii la MillU'leully written U|mid llie Aaiatic liiKlcirv "| the 12th century. The Aaaaaaina wen' iioi. -n '. ily JUH-Hkinif, adynsaly, hut miher an onhr. lik. ilie Templars: ■nly the ollliti of ( Irand Ma>li r. Ilkii the Caliphate, lM'<«m« bereililarv. They »<rv orii(iniilly a liraoch of the KKynllan Ixhitiiu liii^ [nee .M\iiiiMKT.*N ("imm'EaT: .\. I» 9il8 li;il ami at Hnt proteased tlH> principlea of thai k^ i But then' can lie 00 doubt that llieir lniitr.i« IriiU' latanieal last smere iH'ffatiiHi of all n lii^i' a ami all niomlity. ' To U'lU've nothing an! M dan' eterylhinjt' waa the aumniary of iIkK l4-achlnK Tlieir esoteric principh'. adiln""'!'! t« the lion Initialed nu'inhen of tlie iinli r inl •jliiptt idiiid t.tM-.Ii«'lKe Ut Uh* Hiil t»f iii' •> "<* IN'riora If tbe .Vaaaaain waa ohiertil to laki''>< a Caliph or a Suluit bjr tits dagger ut Uw li"*^ 148 ASSASSINS. the deed wu done; tf he was ordePMl to throw bimae ( from the ramparts, the deed was done likewije. . . . Their fuunrler was IlasaaD 8ubuh who, in 1090, shortly before the death of Maiek Shah, seized the castle of Alamout — the Vul- ture's nest — in northern Persia, wlience tliey ex- tinded their possessions over a whole chain of niduntiiin fortresses in tliat country and in Syria. The Umud-Master was the Shvikh-al-Jebel, the fninoua Old tkn of the Mountain, at whose name Etirupeand Asia shuddered. "— E. A. Freeman, Ifiil. iiiut CiiTuiUfli nf lilt Sartutnt. Uet. 4. " In tilt' Piitimide KImlif of Egypt, they [the ASSYRIA. .Vswiissuis, or Ismailiens of Syria and Persia] be- lii'lil an incarnate deity. To kill his enemies, in uli.itfver way they l)est could, was an action. till' merit of which could not be disputed, and Ilii.' reward for which was curtain." Hasan hiibiih. the founder of tlie Order, died at Ala- moiit A. D. 1124. "Prom the day ho entereil Aliiiriut until that of his death — a period of tliirtj-flve years — he never emcrgel, but upon nvnnodialons, from the seclusiim ot his house. I'ililcM and inscrutable as Destinv. lie watclied Ihf irimbled world of Oriental ixriitics, himself iiivisililo, and whenever he perceived a formida- ble f(i«', caused a dagger to be driven into his heart. " It was not until more tlun a centurr after the deatli of iu founder that the fcarfiil orgauijation of the Assassins was extinguished (.V. I). IS.-)') by the same Hixxl of Mongol inva- sion wlilcli awept Bagdad and tlie Caliphate out of enLicuce. — R D. Osbi>rn, ItUtm uiuler Iht Kkiilijunf lii'jiUd, pi. 3, (A. 8.— W. C. Taylor, nut '/ Miihiimmriltnitm aiut its SefU, e/i. 9.— Till- .\~«i«iii» wen" rootol out from all tiieir striMiglioliU in KuhlaUn and the neighboring re- giim. sail were pravticallr cxterniinatol, in li57, by tlif .Mongols under Khulagu, or Houlagou' bmthi-r of .Mongu Khan, the great sovereign of the .H.mgol Empire, then nignlng. Alamut the \ uiture's Nest, was demolished. — II II llowiirlli. Iliit.iiflht MonifJt, fkirt I, p. 193- ntui I'iria. l(l-l(H-S<-e Haoi>ai.: A. D. I'iW ASSAyE,B4ttltof(iao3). SeelHDiA:A D. ITilt |sii.-, »»?SI¥°^X °'' J"? NOTABLES IN FRANCE (I7t7), See Pkas A. U. 1774- ASSENISIPIA. Tht propoMd Stktt of. ** NoHriiwKsT Tkhhitohy of tub United t>TATK»UK .Vn : .\. I). I7M4. *|SIDEANS, Tht. See Cihsidim. Tub. ASblENTO, The. S... .\-iknto ASSICMATS. Hee PnAME • A. D. 17S»- l.iM ITW-ITK,', (Jii.r-ArKiii; also, MoNiT ASSINARUS, AthtoiAo defsat and tur- Ac4fi.'.oV., i^'' '*»"*"»'< » C 4IV4i:l AasiNlBQlA. Nee NimrnwMT Tkiihi- TcMll>...KrvN»|l\ ASSINIBOINS. Th.. See Anemcan Aao- ■VllSK- MilUAN KaMII.V AA?^l'i?'M ^''* ■'••«>y- *« EHOLANO: A II ttw:» (SKrtKMnKw) ASSIZE OF BREAD AND ALE. -The A«M/.. „f Hriail an.1 Ale w.m ni, Kngllsh .mil. wm.or ,.,i«,imcnt, .laling l««-k to iIh. llnicf l-iiry 11 |„ tlK. lath miiury, which flx«l il,,. ITl... ,.r iliiw. cimmiHlitic. by a scale rcir"i«i.d L, I ' f "' 'v. tT "'"'■'•■' I'"'-'-* "t wlicat. Iwrlcy •" Ulrly as the b«j;liwiin «' H" Usl wBtury and 149 wa» only abolished in London and tU neighbour- hood about thirty years ago "-that is, early in n®,-''/^'" century. -O. L. Cndk, Uut! of Brituh Ommerce, t. 1 n 1,37 "' Ar SIZE OF CLARENDON, The. See Enc -j: a. n. IIBJ-IITO ASS'ZE OF JERUSALEM, The.-" No sooner had Godfrey of U<,uilloii [flecte<I King of Jerusalem after the Uiking of the Holy City by tlie Crusaders A. I), lOOoT accepted tlii offlreolT supreme magistrate than he solicite.1 the public and private advice of the Utin pilgrims who were the best skilled in tlie statutes and custona of turope. From these materiaU. with tha counsel and approbation of the Patriarch and barons, of the clergy and laity, Oodfrev com- posed the Aiwlsc of Jerusalem, a precious" monu- nient of feudal jurisprudence, tiie new code, 'h^' f* ^1 "'* "*"''-"'. "'« •^'"8' «''e Patriarch and the Viscount of Jerusalem, was deiMwited In the holy sepulchre, enriched with the im- provementaof succeeding times, ami resm'ttfullv consulted as often m anv.loubtful question aroii in the tribunals of Palestine. Wtli the king- dom and city all was lost; the fragments of the written law were preacrve<l by Jealous tradition and variable practice till the middle of the tiirteenth century. The co<le was restore.1 by the pen of John dlbelin. Count of Jaffa, one of the principal feudatories; and the final nvislon was accomplUliwI in tlie year thirteen IniiidrMl and sixtynliie for the use of ilie Latin kingdom nf Cyprus. "-E. Uilibou, Ikdimami FMof Iht Homan Kii^hiy, r/i. .V). ASSIZES.— " Tlie formaledicU known under the name of Asslxcs, the Assizes of Clarendon and N(.rt linmpton. the Assize of Arms, the Assize of tlie Forest, and the Assizes of Mca.Hures. are the only relics of the legislative work of tira perio.1 [reign of Henry II. Fn England]. Tliese eilicu arc chieHy comp<»«l of new regulations tor tlie enfonx^ment of roval Justice la this respect they strongly fi-semble the caiiitu- arietof ilie Frank Kings, or, to go farther lliick. the cflicu of tlic Homan pncUirs Tlie term Asaize, which comes Into use in this mean- ng about the midilie of the twelfth centiirv Urth on the contliirnt ami in England, apinari to bo the i>ro|Hr Norman name for such edicts. ... In the ■ Assize of Jerusalem' it simnlv means a law: and the same in Henrys Kirllla- lion Secondarily, it meiins a form of trial Mlol>lislie<l by the (uirtlcular law, as tlie Ori'at ,\Mi«e, the Assize of Mort dAiicesl.r; and lliliil y the curl h.1,1 to lio|,| ,„cli trial. In wlilc I ai'tiM- It li conimoiily iiaed at the pnwnt ''*ior.^» """■'•'• '■""' ''**' "/AV.M. 13. A99UR. Sti AssYHIA. ASSYRIA.— For matter relating to Anyrlan history, the reader Is nferrinl to the caption ?.?.!"/'?•."""''.' *''''■'' " " '" •»' «l»"' The sub- Jert Is defernd to that part of this work which will go later Into print, for the reason tliat every month Is addinc to tlie knowlwlgeof thestiidenta of ant ieiit oriental history and clearing away dis- pute.! <|tieatlona It is <,iiltv p,«|bre that the Unw Utw«n the publication of our Hrst volume and t>ur fourth or lifih may make important ad- ditions to the scanty literature of the subject In ancient cities In tlw hjut. bringing u> light larin llbranr eollerlions of inscribed rlav tableU - Mcnd and hblurical writlajt, oiBctal ivroid^ A88TIUA bnalneii oontruti imd muiy TsrtetlM of intcrip-' tloiM,— have almoct leTolutionlud the rtUuT of ancient histonr and the vlcwg of antiquity derived from It. " M. Botta, who waa appointed French coMul at Moaul in 1842, waa the «nt to com- mence excavationa on the aHea of the burled cities of Anyria, and to him la due the honour of the flret diicovery of her long loat pahuxa. M. Hotta commenced hia Uboura at Kouyunjik, the ihrge mound oppnalte Moaul, but he found heie Tery little to compeuaate for hi* laboura. New at the time to excaTationn, he doea not appear to have worked In the beat manner; M. Botta at Kouyunjik contented himwif with ainkinic piu in the mound, and on these proving unproduc- tive abandoning them. While M. BotU waa ex- cavating at Kouvunjik, hia attention waa called to the mounda of Khonabad by a native of the Tillage on that site ; and be aent a party of work- men to the spot to commence excavaUon. In a f-'w days his perseverance waa rewarded by tlie ilbcoTcry of some aculpturca, after which, aban- doning the work at Kouyunjik, he transferred his esublishmcnt to Khoraabad and thomughlv explored that site. ... The palace which M. Botta hail discovered . . . is one of the most per- fect Aiwvrian buildings vet explored, and forms an eio'llent example of Assyrian architecture. Beside the palace on the mound of Khonabad, M. Botta also opew 1 the rem^ina of a temple' and ■ grand porrh decorated by six wingetl bulls. . . . The operations of M. BotU were brought to a close in 184.1, and a snlenild collection of sculptures and other antif|ultlea, the fruits of liU labiiun, arrived in I>arla in 1844 and was dc- waited in the louvre. Afterwards the Krenrli Ooveninient ap|H>lnU-d M. I'lurt consul at Mosul. and he r.>ntlnue<l some of the excavations of liN predi'oe««or. ... Mr. Layard, whose alttiiiloii was carlv lum-.I In this dlrrctlon. vtsitrfl tlir country In l»4il il sfh'rwanls Umk a great In- terest In tlip ex'itvalions iif M. Botta. At length. In 184,1, Ijiynnl was enaliliil through the assis' tani'e of .SirMratfonI Canning to commence exca- vallnns in Asayria himself OnlheSlhof Novrm- brr lie st«n«l fn)m Mosul, and dean-ndnl the Tigris to Nlmmud. . . Mr Uyanl haadearrilicil In his works with great minutenrM Ills suniwlre rxcavallons, and the remarkable and Interesilnv dlarovirlrs he rowle. . . . After making tlii-n' diaixiveriea in Assyria, Mr. Uvartl vlsll.-.l Hal.v lonla. and upeoeil trrnchis in several of ifif mounils there. t)n the ntuni of Mr. LaynnI in EnirlniHl, excavations wrro continued In the Kii|>lintl).s valley uiidi-r the superintrmlence of (••oIimhI (now Wr Ilenryl Itawllnson. I'mler his (lln-itlnnii. Mr. Ilormuni liaasam, Mr. Loflus. kimI Mr Tsrlor excavated various sites and made hMimniiMillsroveric*, the British Museum tri-rW ing till' U'Rl of the monunu'nla The materials roUi'itt-.l III tlir national miiM>uma of Kramv ami KngUiiil. and the ti merous inscrintlooa pub llalMil. Hiiroite,! ilie ' nlion of the bamed, and very simiii loniidintlili light was thrown on the historr, liniji'iigf, nninnir*. and customs of an clent AsKjria anil lUbylnnla."— O Smith, At fliri,in thtnmntt, rk. I.— "(hie of the moat Im- poruni remtluof Wr A. II. Uranl's exploiatloos at Niueveh wa« the liisroviry of the ruinnl library of the ancient city, now Iniried under the piithb trf K™iT-jniii: TSm, i.r..ferii .lay (auiri. belirtiglng to this library not only fumlalied the •tudenl with an immjitv nait of UlHuy ■utter. 160 ASTT. but ^ with dfawt aidi toward* a knowledge of the Aayitan syUabMy and lan>tia«& Among the liteistun nprewnted in the libntry of Kou- yunjik were lisU of cfaaractoa, with their various phonetic and IdeogTapbic meanlnga, tablea of synonymes, and catalogueaof the nameaof phuiu and animals. Thla, however, waa not alL The Inventors of the cuneiform lyatem of writing had been a people who preceded the Semitea in the occupation of Babyloaia, and who spoke an ag- glutinative Unguage utteriy different from that of their Semitic aucceaaora Theae Acc»dlan« u they are usually termed, left behind them a conaiderable amount of literature, which was highly prixed by the SemitiG Baby kmiana and As- syrian*- A large portion of the NInevite tablets accordingly, condste of Interiineaf or paralici tr nalationa from AocadUn into Aaayrian, aa well aa uf reading books, dictionarie*, and grammars In *hich the Accadian original la plact i by tin- side of iUA**yrian equivalent. . . . The bilingual tcxU have not only enabled acholars to recover the long-forgotten AocadUn hmguage ; they have also been of the greateat poaifble assistance to them in their reconstruction of the Assyrian dic- tionary itself The three expeditiona conducted by Mr. George Smith [187»-1879], aa well as the later one* of Mr. Hormuzd Rassam, have adiird largely to the sUx-k of Ubieta from Kouyunjik originally *<<|ulred for the British Museum l.y Sir A. II. Layard, and lave alao brought to light a few other tablet* from the librariea of Baby- lonia."— A. H. Sayce, /Vwa* light from tA« An- eitnt Monument; ch. 1. AMOWifJ. Rawlinann, Flrfflrfnt HHmarrhitt TV AdMNf Mannrchf, ek. ».— M. Diincker, Jli,t vf AHtiqnity, blu. B-4._8w, alao, Habvi.onh- BMim*; LlHRAHIKS, Ani'IKXT; EoUCATIO.t AMCIBIIT; MoRIT ADO BAKai.NU. ASSYRIA, Epeajrm Canon oC— "Just as tliere were arrluHis at Athens and consuls at Home who were ek-cted annually, an among tlw Assyrians tlicre was a custom of elerllng one man to lie over the year, whom they cnlliil ■llmu,' or 'eiMHtym.' . . . BnliykHiInn and Assyrian doruim-nta were more generally <IiiI(n| by the iinines of tlieae epoovms than l^v'thst nf the n-igning King. . . . li IHAi s,, II,.„ry Itawllnson i|lsctivere<l the fragment .f the eponym ramiu of Assyria. It was one of ihc grenilmt and must liiiii<irt«nt dlsciiverh-s mp made, for It ha* dt-ciiitil iletlnltely a greiit iiuiiiy poinu whleh iHlierwIae i-iiiild wver have Ixiii clwiml up. FragmenU of wven niplcsof ihU canon were foiiiHl, ami from thene lli« i-li-iinol(ii;y of Assyria ha» lii«n dctlnitely wtllrtl from II l' 13*1 to aUiiit H. (• (WO — K A. W Uuilit.'. ifaA|f<.i«|.iii A,(/> >iHrf lliatorfl, rh. it ASTOLP, KlBC of th« Lembwda, A, I) 74l» 7W ASTRAKHAN : The Khwutc H.-e Mox oois: A. n I8*«-1I»| A. D, ts««.— RaaaiM renulat of tha Turks. acelti'ssiA: .\. I) l.VM-lsfl ASTURIANS, The. Si-e ('AirrAnniA<i« ASTURIA8: Rtaitt«ace to the Moonsh Canaaeat. SivHpaisi: a I) 7I!V-T3i A8TY, OR ASTU, The.-Tlie an. I. ni . iir of Alh<'n* proper, aa dUtlniulslieil fn«ii llsn.n nart.d hariior*. waa chIIiiI the Astv, nr A>iu —J. A. »t. J..hn, I'h* tIrlUiui. ht. l,'fk 4 Aun IN W. M. I.eake, r"j>-/nip*y »f .IMms, -a. la— tie*, alao, Atiuun: Amu. *c. ladgeot AmoD^ if Kou- Tsrious bica of f planu L Thp ing bad > in the anag- 3m that adiaiM, them a !h waa 1D(I As- taUrts, parallel aa wril nmare, by tbi- lingual recover !J have mc« to an die- ducted laathp adilid yunjik urn 1))' » iJKht Bahy- h$Aif trrhin: . JIM. ONII; »TIO!«, Uit M ula at tg the g "lie CHJIctl and diilcil hat iif Henry f I he i>f the 1 enr iiuiiiy ' Ixell if Ihii Kiliiirv 111' iud):e. A. I) urki. loriih A«lu IhtlU, "P5 r • 3? • -. ~ - y . 7 I ^ = ■: & * « :t - .= 08 ^t = I. . 7 i i f^ i ^ I. r c r a lllfif^ j^^M 'r " i - - « 5 f "i ?'i s ■? c a ■? -3 i y^lJ -!|-M:i^^^il " - '5 « - "? ~ f S 1 C - .- J -. - : C > ^ rr 7|-J| c ^ni^l^^;^:!^ » - ^ .- £ •• J ■7 .b 5 •'. ;; ^ .' i . i := = c ^ - ' z 1 c i i;.zf _ - * 5t.= S r- 5 ^ a 3. ^ 1 - ,_ ._ _g ^ -. , ; ^ _ » . u. "Zl 1 Li r s ■ . i f r, : > '. J ;^iH:..,n|i| "t c ^--ii^--?i^-2f ' ■ ' ^ ; ~ , - " - H - -a : -= it h V c 5 ^ £ •■• ■- j % :. ' ce'i-s -^ _'• c ■ f 1 = c u - ; i - a -. -. f -^ T ~ " ' ~ ■— " -' ja ■ / 1 t - s — ■a = , e t = « ."^ ^ •< "^ - J V > ■, , - - £ r r ■3 i ? ~ ^ / C J 2 ;: 5 -^ .= 9 1 h I 5 i . ■ ? i. T t -3 i — a - T 1 1 — « ; -.3 « = T !: r 3 '-t- i :x ~ c >. r i ^ := ,. - -r i, 3 .5 I ! sf .;:;; :!; 3 c _ ^ ^, : " ■'^ = 'i' I. - ^ -= 'J -I -^Mi 7 « ^ ' « - ^ - " -^ '' ^ '" z r- » a _ v - V - •* i - i - ; — ij -i t- - •' ■ ■ c ; -' « - 3 • ~ ■f i 2 ? ? * ^ ■= : j 5 ^ i -5 - " it" 4 - .= - - J -■, t - s I % i f "■: i - ' ' 1 . M - -^Ml^: - ~: = a.= -• - rifH^ -T - 'ill:'-^ t . , ^ — - Z; - .■ 2 1^ S »• *" s ■? 3^ ■-1 1" ■. T ^T * ATHENS. ASTVNOMI.— Certain police offldab In an- ririit Athena, ten in number. "Tlicy were >'linr|f^-a witli hII thiit IM-Iimgs to street tupet- vision, e. f.. tlie eli>iuisinK of the streets, for wliicli piir|Mwv the copntlngl. or Htreetsweepers wen> under tlii'ir onlcra; tlie securing of momlity snil decent lieliiivivur in the strwts."— O. F. i^Miwinn, AHlii/.ofdrreee: TJie Stult, pi ;1 rA 3 ASUNCION : A. D. 1537. -The foundiiiK of the city. See Paiiacuav: A. D ISl.Vl.m „AJAf EOS, ATTABEGS, OR ATTA- BECK5.— " From tin- deilim- of tlic dynasty of Siljook to the coniiucst of Persia by ilulakiMi Khan, tlie mm of Clunuliia, n |K-rio<l of more than a century, that country was distracted by the contests of |Mlly princes, or governors, (sllnl AttalK-ffs, wlio, taking advantage of the wealtness of the last S)'lj(H)kian monarchs, and iif tlie (listraetlDnK wliicli followed their final t'Xtinrtion, estalilishcd ihoir authority over some of tlie finest provinces of the Empire. Many of these petty (lynastles ac.iulrixl such a local fame as, to this day, gives an Importance to their memory with the inliahiunts of the countries liver wldch they nik.l. . . . The wonl Atta- Ih'k is Turkish: it is ,1 compound wonl of 'atta ' ma»li-r, or tutor, ami 'Im-v', lonl; and signifies a governor, or tutor, of a lord or prince. '^Ir J ATHENS. Malcolm, Ilitl. ofPenin, t. 1, eh. 9.— "It Is true tliat the Atabeks appear but a short space as actors on the stage of Eastern history; but these •tutors of princes' occupy a position neither Insignificant nor unimportant In tlie course of events which occurrcl (n Syria and Persia at tlie time thc^y fiourlshed. "— W. H Moriey, Prefiu» to Xirkhimrt IIM. of the AUibela.—iieK. also 8ai.ai>in, The Empirb or. A.^^^,Kf^*r' '^ '-"• ^-^ P-- ATELIERS NATIONAUX OF 1848. AT PARIS. See France: A. I). 1848 (Pebkuart — Mav). and (April— DECKMncii). ATHABASCA. The Diitrict at SeeNoRTii- WEST Tkriutories or Canada. ATHABASCANS, The. See America.1 Aborioinrm: Atiiapasca.n Family. ATHALAYAS. See Sardinia, The Island NAME ANI> EAKLV IIISTORT. »AJ,5.^ ":.•- ^THE L I NO.- ATHE L- BONOE. See Ad>:l. ATHENRY, Bi ;tle of.— The most desperate liattle fought by the Irish in resisting the Eng- lish conquest of Ireland. They were terribly slaughtered and the chivalry of Connauifht wa» crushetl. Tlie Imttle occurrwl Aug. id K D 1316.— .M. Uaverty, nut. <^ Irttamt, p. 888. The Preeminence of Athena.— " When we «j«'ak of UretK-e we think first of Athens. T" citizens and to stninirers hy means of epic reiiiatiuiis and ilrainiilii- siMKtacles, she presented M idealised image of lifi,. itself. Slie was the Inline of new lih'as, ilie inotlierclty from which [p.Htr.v. eio,iuen<T, and philosophy spreail Ui distant lands. While ihe chief dialects of Greece mrvive, each not as a mere dialect but as the latittuaKc of literal un-, -a thing unknown in the lii-tory of any oth.r people,— the Attic idiom, in which llie cliara<-teiisiic eleinenta of other lii:!!^^ met and wen- lileiiileil. has become to u^ :!■• It ilid to the aiieieula, the very type of ll.lltnic- spiTch. .\iliens was not only the 'capl- lii! of liriTce.' tlie 'scliiN.l of Greece; it deserves ilie mine appllisl to il in an epitaph on Euripides: Ins iiMuilry is Alliens. UrviHV of Onwce.' The rays of the Gn-ek giniiis hen' found a centre and > f,.,iis — S. II. Itiilelier, S„ne AepteUofthe iirni /,V;ii««. ;,/, ;w :«.— "Our interest in an- 111 lit lii«iory. it may Im- wild, lies not in details liiil in hirge massi-s. It mailers little how early ilii Anailiaiis aci|iiinil a iMililieal unity or what -N.iliisdid 111 .Myei'ii^e: llial which Interests us is the I oii.ijiullon of Alliens, llie repulse of IVrsIa, III.- Iirlef liLsmi of TImIn's. Life is not so long "'" * Hi«|a'iiil oiinlaysover the unimportant fat.- of iiiiintirestlni; trilMHi and towns. " Area and Population.— 'The entire cireult yi llie Astv (Ihe lowiT lily, or AHiens pMper] lj'm< Widls and mariiime city, taken as one in- >i -im . IS e.|ual to alKiut 17 English miles, or I !■< «ta.|es. This is very dilTerent frtim the 8U0 iiii-l.s »lii(h Dion Chrysostom states to have iHin Hie cireuinfen-iu'e of iIm> mnny> w.ills an e-iiiimi.ejiceisling liy more than 'J()stailes even til. sum of tlie iM'riplieries of Ihe Astv and l.iraH towns, a< nling to the numh^n of iiiutj.lides. , . . HoiiM! was cin-uUr, bjriBcuM! ATHENS. 161 triangular, and Athens cnnslste<l of two cireuUr cities. Joined by a street of four mil<.» in length — a figiir... ihe siiiwrflcles of which was not mora tlian the fourth part of that of a citv of an eiiual cireiimfcrent')-, in a cireular form, 'llenif wlien to Home within the walls were wMed suburb* of eipial extent, ita popuiatlim was greater than that of all Attica. That of Athens, altiiough the moat populous city In Greece, was prolMldr never greater than aOti.lXK) ."— W. M. Leake Ti>iKx/mpAiff,f Alhfiu. KTt \" ' loniaii Orii^in. Sec IKini vns and Ioni vns. The BecianinK of the citj-atate. — Hew , Attic* was abwirbcd in it* capital.- ■ In the j ilays of Ceeniiis and the first kings [see Attic \1 ; down to Ihe nign of Thes.us, Allien was dividisl I Into ctmimunra, having their own town halls luiil ' inagistratM. Emi-pl In case of alahu the whole pople did not assemble In council under the king, but administered their own alTairs. and ad vised together in their several townships Some of them at times even went to war with him, ai the Elciisinians under Euinolpua with ErtY-tlieiis. Hut when Theseus came to the throne, he, iM'Ing a iMiwerfiil as well as a wise ruler, among other Improveiiients in the ailininislratlim of tlie coun- try, (IIssoIvihI the councils and separate govern- ments, and unlti.d ail the inhabltanU of .Vttica In the present city, eslalilishing omi council and town hall. They continiieil to live on tlielr own lands, but he comiH'IKsl them to resort to Athens as their inetni|><ilis. and liem-eforwanl tliev were all InscrilNHl in tlie roll of her ciiizens .V ^ri^l city thus anw which was linndtHi down hv The- «<iis to his di'siTndaiita, and fniin his da\ 1.1 thta the .\f!i..ntw= Mv,> rp»Hlsf!y relrbratctf thr n»- lloiial festival of the Synoeria, w 'union of the communes ' in honour of the goildess .\ihene. liefore his lime, what is now the Acmtiolls and Utv gruuiMl lying unOer It to tbo south wa* tlM PLA!» OF ATHENS. *Vor,i "MytM^y and iloKwmmU of Ancinl AiStra," by Jatu JT. BarrUon and MargartI d* O rerrall BARBOBa ITIUUta. 152 ATHEKa. ATHENS, a C. 634. dtr. Many icmoim may be urscd In proof of thfintolcment"— Tliucydldes, Uittor^ (Jowttfi tniM.). bk. 2. uet 13. Al«) in : M. Duncker, Ilitl. of Ontte, bk. 8, ck. TC 3). From the Doriaa MiKration to B. C. 683.— End of kiofahip and inatitntion of the Arcboni.— At the epoch of the Biicntiaa and Doriiin mignitiona (itee Oreeck: The Miora- Ti<>N>i. Attica was RucKled by fugitives, both finm tlic north an<l from the Peloponnesus. " Hut tlic btilli of the refugees paase*! on to Asia, and built up the cities of Ionia. . . . Wiivn the swnrnis of emigrants clcantl off, and Athens is again discernable, the crown has passeil fn>m the old nival house of the Cecnipidae to a family of exiles from Peloponnesus. ... A genrriitiiin later the Dorian invasion, wlilch hail (iverwlii-lmcil Corinth and torn away .Megara from tlie Atlic dominion, swept up b) the verv gales nf Alliens. An oracle declared that the city would never fall if its ruler perishol by the luind of the Invaders; therefore King Codrus <iisi;iii«'<l himself as a peasant, set out for the Dorian (»nip. struck down the first man he met, and WHS himself slain by the secimd. The Inva- sion fHiled, and the Athenians, to perpetuate the memory of their monarch's patriotism, would not hIIiiw the title of ' king ' to be borne by the ciesr ndanls who succoedetf him on the throne, but cimnged the name to 'archon,' or 'ruler,' . . . Tiiosc legends evidently cover some obscure vhanci's in the internal history of Attica." — C W C. Onuin. HM. of Onter, ek. 11.— "After the death of Coiinis the nobles, taking advan- tage, pi'rhaps, of the opportunity afforded by the ilispute between his sons, are said to have alK)li^lll•d tlip title of king, an<l to have substi- tuted fnr it that of Archon. Tills cliange, how- ever, seems t4> have lieen im|H)rtant, rather as it iiiiliiated tile new, pn-cnrioua tenure liy wliiili tlie royiil power was lield, tlian as it immetliately affwte.l the nature of the olBce. It was, Inditil, still held for life : and Medon, the »on of Codrus, trHiisrnilled it to his posterity. . . . After twelve n>lgn», ending with that of Alcminm JB. C. 7.VJ], the duration of the office was limited to ten jKirs; anil through the guilt or calamity of Ilippoineiies, the fourtli decennial archon, the ; h.viise of .Me<lim was deprived of its privilege, | iinil the supreme magistracy was tlirown o|«:n I t> till- whole body of nobles! This change was i ■ eilily followeii by one much more important. 1 The duration of tlie arclionship was again ; rnluie.l to a single year [B. C. 883); and, at the < *itm time, its branches were severeil and ills- I triliiited among nine new magistrates. Among I tlu-ii-. tlie llrsl 111 nink retaineil the distinguish- j iii^' title nf the .Vrchon. and the year was markeil I I'v his imiiie. He representeil the majesty of the I siite. iin.l exeri'iiieii a |Hruliar jurisdiction — that wliii li liiiii U'longiil to the king ■■ tlie common [im-i.t iif hi.-i ik-ople, the protector of families, llie iTuiirdian nf iirphniM and heiresses, and of the irmeml right.i of inheritance. For the sienii.l iinhiin the title of king Ibasileus], If it h!iii lueri laid aside, was reviveil, at the func t! .^> .i-:«lgneil to hlin were those moat associated »;tli 111. lent nKolh'ctlimB. He repreM-nleil tin. k .; 1^ liie higli priest of his people; he regit- liiel the lelelimtion of the mysteries and the m.»t .*,lei!in fesiiviils; diH-l.led all causes which ifftcted tht Intcrtuu of reli|[tua . . . Tlie tltinl 153 archon bore the title of Polemarch, and filled the place of the king as the leader of his people In war, and the guanlian who watche<l over its security in time of peace. , . , The remaining six arcuons recelveil the common title of thesmo- thetes, which literally signifles Icgislatom, and was probably applied to them as the Judges who determined the great variety of causes which did not fall under the cognizance of their colleagues; because, in the abst'nce of a written cmlc, those who declare and interpret the laws may Ix? properly said to make them."— C. Tlilrl- wall, Ilut. nf ChttM, ek. n.— • We arc In nu coiiditloD to determine the civil classiAcatiou and IMiliticul constitution of Attica, even at the period of the Arclionship of Kreon, 683 B. C, when authentic Athenian chronology tirst com- mences, much less can we pretend to any knowl- eilgc of the anterior centuries. ... All the information which we possess respecting that old polity Is derive<l from authors who lived after all or must of these great changes [by Solon, and later) — and who. finding no records, nor anything better than current legends, ex- plained the foretime as well as they could by guesses more or less ingenious, generally at- tachetl to the dominant legendary names." O. Qrote, IIM. of Grteet. pt. 2, ek. 10. Also is: O. P. Schftinann, Antiq. nf Greeee: The Sl,iU, pt. 8, ck. 3— >L Duncker, Ilia. „t Qrrtft. bk. 8, ek. 7 (r. Si. B. C. 694.— Under the Draconian Ltgitlt' tion.— " Drako was the flrst tliesniotliet, who was called upon to set down hi^i tliesinoi [onii- naiices and decisions] in writing, and thus to in- vest them essentUlly with a diameter of more or less generality. lu the laUT and la-tterkiiown times of Athenian law, we find these anriions de- prived In great measure of their jwiwers of Judg- ing anil deciding, and restricUil to the task of first hearing of parties and collecting the evi- ili'iice, next, of introducing the matter for trial into tile appnipriate dikastery, over which they pri-sided. Originally, there was no separation of powers; the archons both Judged and adminis- tered. . . . All of till'!*!' functionaries belonged to the Eupatrids, and nil of them doubtless acteil more or leas in the imrrnw interest of their onler: moreover, there was ample nsiin for favouritism In the way of coiinlvniii'e as well ns antipathy on the part of the arciiniH That such was decid- edlv the case, and tliat disionteiil Ixifan to bis serious, we may infer fmni the ilutv iiii|Hiseil on the thesmothet Drako. U. C. 6-U. to' put in writ- ing the Ihesnioi or oniiimnces. so tliat tliey niiglit Ir- ' shown publicly ' and known befnreliiind. He did not meddle w"ilh the political ci institution, and in his onlinances .VristolleliiiilH little worthy of remark except the cxlri'me severity of the punishments awanleil: petty thefts, or even pn>vi>d idleness of life, Is'ing' visited with death or disfranchisement. But we are not to i-oiiKtriie this reiiuirk as demonstrating aiiv special inhu- manity in the ciiaraiter nf Drako, who was not investeil with the large power wliich Solon af- terwanis enjoyed, and cannot Ik- Iniagined to liave imposeil u|)im the cimimunilv si'vere laws of his own ln%-ention. . . . The general sjiirit of jM-iial legl«|iiili>n liiid tutom" '^> niiieh niiUler. during tlie two centuries wliieli foilowiHl. that the-K- old nnlinnnees appeiiieil In .Vristotle intol- erably rignnms."— 0. Orote, JIul. of Urttet, pt. 2, eh. 10 (p. 3). 1^» * -3f ATHENS, B. C. eiS-M6. B. C. 6ia-S9S.— Coniplfmey of Cylen.— Buitbment of the Alcmaonida.— The flret at- tempt at Alhiiw to overturn the oligiin-liUnl government ami establish a pemonal tyranny was miule, B. C. 613. by Cvlon (Kylon), a patrieian, wminlaw of the tyrant of MeKiira, viho was em-ouniKiil anil helped In his under- takinif by tlie latter. The conspiracy failed misembly. The imrtisnns of Cylon, blockaded in the acropolis, were forwd to surrender; but they plaitnl thi'msclvps under the protection of the goddess Minerva and were nn)niise<l their lives. Mon- elTectuulIy to retain the protection of the KiNldes!) until their escape was effected, they attache<l a conl to her altar and held it In tliefr hamis as they pas.s.i| out through the midst of their enemies, rnhappily the cord bnike. and the archon Mepacles at once declared that the safcKuanlof Minerva was withdrawn from them, whereu|Mm they were massacrol without mercv, even though they fled to the neighlwring altars and clung to lliem. The treachery and bad f.iith of this cruel deed does not seem to have dis- turbed llie Athenian p<'ople, but the sacrilege involved In it ciiuse.1 horror and fear when they had had time lo rellcit upon It Megacles anil his whole family — the Alemmnnids as they were called, from the name of one of their an- cestors — wiTc held accountable for the affront to the gods and were considered polluted and accursed. Every public calamity was ascribed to their sin, and at lenirth, after'a solemn trial, they wen- banislni) from the city (about 586 or 695 B. ('.), while the dead of the family were disinterreil ami east out. The agitations of this affair e.\eriis<d an im|iortant influence on the course nf eviiits. which o|)ene<l the way for Solon anil his roiistitiilional reforms.— C. Thirl- wall. Ilitl. <if If nifr, rh. II. j Ai.si) IN : (}. (irote. Ilinf of Orvfff. pi. 2 eh. 10 B. C. 610-586.— StruKle with Henra for Salunis.— Cirrhcan or First Smcred \Var.— "The petty state of Megara. which, since the earlier iigi-s had, from the dependent of .\thens. grown up to the dignity of \.n r val, taking ad- vantage .if the internal dissensions in the latter city, suiiiiilid in wre-^Mng rr,m the Athenian governnii'iit the isle of Sahimls. It was not, how- ever, w ithoiit bitter and repeatei] struirgles that Athens at la.st siibinittitl to the Gurrender of the Isle. lim, after signal losses and defeats. a.s nothing is ever more oilious to the multitude than uiiHucressful war, so the popular feeling was siirli as to induce the government to enact a decri'e by ttliiih it was forbidden, njion pain of death, I., pn.posi'reassi'rting the Athenian claims. . . . .Many cif tlir younger [mrtion of the com- munitv, pining at the dishonour of their einin- try, uriil 1 au-i r f"r enterprise, were secretly in- cliniMl t.. luiiriti iiaiiiT any stratagem that niiglit iniluie 111.' r.v.TMil of the decree. At this time there went a rip..rt tliniugh the city that a man ofdisiiiigiii.|i..| birth . . . had incurred the con. •ecratiiig mi«f.iriune ..f in.sanity. Huddenly this person apjs ami in ilie market "place, weariiig the peculiar ba.k'e |a cip) that distinguisheil the *'<•'' \«rifi.liiig the M. me from which the heral.is iiiadi' tliiir priKlamations, he began tore- citeaiiiiula poi'in upon the lossof Salamis, Isildly repniviiig tin- 1 ..w.-inlii-i. of the people, a!::! in citing tliiiiiuk'nin t.iwnr. ilisKuppostnl insanity protectiKl him fr.iin the law -his rank, ri'pula- tiuo, and the circumstance of his being himself a 154 ATHENS, B. C. SM. natlre of Salamis, conipiretl to give to hit exhor- tation a powerful effe«'t, and the friends ho hiil s«'cure<l to back his attempt louuly priK-iaiineil tlieir applauding sympatliy with tliJ spirit of the address. The name of the pritendiil mai'man was 8olon, son of Execestides. the descendant of t'iKlrus. . . . The stratagem and llie eloi|uence of Solon produced Its natural elTect 11 '^in Ms spiriteil and excitable audiem-e. anil the' public enthusiasm p<>rmitteil the oliganhical govern- ment to propos)^ and effect the reiieal of the law. An expedition was decreed and planneil, ami Silon was lnvest<-il with its command. It was but a brief struggle to recover the little island of Salamis. . . . But the brave and nwiiute .Mega- rians were not men to lie disheartenni by a sin- gle reverse : they iwniistiKl in the eonU-st- losses were lustaineil on eit'ier side, and at length both slates agreeil lo refer their several claims on the sovereignty of the island to the decision of Spartan arbiters. And this ap|M-al fnim arms to arbitnt- tion is a pnwf how much throughout (JriiHi) had extended that spirit of eivilisution which is hut an extension of the sense of justice. . . . The arbitration of tlie unipin-s in favour of Athens only suspended hostiliiii-»;and the Megarians.iiil not cease to watch (aii.l shortly afdTwanIs they found) a fitting oci-asi.Hi to n-gain a settlement so tempting to their ambition. The creilit ai-iiiiind by Solon in this expedition was shortly after- wards gn-ally increasisl in the esliiiuition of (}«.!•«■. In the Bay of (%)rinth was siluati-.i a town calleil CIrrha. inhabited by a flirce and lawless race. who. after devastating the sacnd territories of nelplil, sacrilegiously iK-siegiil the city Itself. In the desire to |K)sst.ss" themselves of the treasures which the piety of (Jreei-e had ac- cumulaU-d in the Temple of "Apollo. Solon ap- pi-ared at the Amphictyonic i-ouncil, repri'senteii the sacrilege of the ("'irrha-ans. and iM-rsuailiHl the Oreeksto arm in defenc-eof the altars of iliiir tutelary gml [B. C. .'i!).)]. t'listhenes. the tyrant ofSicvon, wnssentascoinmnnder-in-chief against theCirrhffians: and (according to Plutan-li) the reconls of Delphi inform us that Aicmieon was the leader of the Atlienians. The war (knonu as the First Sacreil War) was not very sucii'ssfu! at the onset; the oracle of Apollo was consultiil and tile answer makes one of the most amusing- aneciloU'S of priestcraft. The Is-siegers were in- f.irmed by the gisl that the placi; woul.i not \v niliiciil until the waves of tlie Cirrlmiin Sia washed the territories of IVIphi. The reply lur- pleXiHl the army . but the suiierior sagiui'ty .i{ Solon was not slow in discovering tlial the 'h..ly intention of the oracle was lo appropriate the lands of the Cirrhteans to the prolll of the lem- pie. lie therefore ailvisi<d tlie besiegers to .nt- tark and to ciini|uer Cirriia. and to delicate its whole territory to the wrvi™ of the g.sl. Tin- advice was adopU^I — CirHia was taken (II. i'. .'►><«) : it iK'came thenceforth tin arsenal of Delphi. ami the insult|.|l deity ha.l ' le aatisfaili.iu .f Wfing the sacred lands washiil by the waves .f theflrrhieanSi'a. . . . The I'vlldan gaimscni meneiil, or were reviveil, in celebrali.iii of this victory of the Pythian gisl." — Sir K Ibilwer l.yttim, Atkfiut: ht Itiie and Fall. I,k. •i.tl. 1.— S«.e, also, Dki.piii. B. C. 594.— The Constitution of Soion. - The Council of Four Hundred.— • N>l.>n, An'hon 01. 46,1, was chosi'n nnsliat.ir K.piitv and moderation are described by the ancients •■is ATHENS, B. C. 894. Contlitutttm ATHENS, B, C. 5M. the chanctrriitirs of hii mlr - le det«rmined to ali»llsli the pririle^ra of part.^uUr clane*. and the nrliitniry power of otflcera, and to render all the pHrtiilimtont in riril and political freedom equal In the eye of the low. at the same time ensuring to every one the integr.ty of those rights Ik which his real merits entitled him; on the other hanil, he was far from contemplating a tnt«l subversion of existing regulations. . . Wlmliver was excellent in prescription was In- ciirpiirale<l with the new laws and therehv stjinipiil afresh; hut prescription as such, witii tlie exi I ption of some unwritten r^'igious ordin- snces cif the Eumolpids, was deprivetl of force. The liiw was destinitl to be tne sole centre, whence every memlM-rof the political community WHS til derive a flxiil rule of conduct." — \\'. Wai'lmmuth. IlitlortMl Antiqtiitifi of the Greek; mrt V\ (f. I ),— ■• Tlie factions, to allay the reviv- ing «nimi»ilies of which was Solon's immoliate olijeit. had, at that time, formed parties corre- spomliiig to the geographical division of the country, which wc have already adverted to; tlie I'ciliiei, or inhabitants of the lowlands, in- Bisleil on a strict oligarchy; the Panili, on the coast, who, <lid we not find the Alcmaeoiiid Mipii Ics at their head, might be considered the w.iillliiir p<)rtion of the people, wished for a mixcil cinstitution; buttlie Diacrii orilrperacrii fcif tlie uiountninous district) forme<l the great nmjority, who, in their Impoverished state, loiikeil for relief only from a total revolution. Sdlim niiulit, had he so chosen, liave made him- self tvnint by heading this |)oiiulace: but he prcferr.cl iietirig ns mediator, and with this view cauxd himself t» tw elected archon, B, C. 504. a.* tv inir un Kupatrid of the house ... of t'oiiru< "— C. F. Hermann. Mil imal »/ the Pnlilif.il Anli'iiitiet nf Orrm, r/i. !i, utt. 106.— "The chief power was vesteii in the collective people; but in onler that it might lie exercised with ad- vsmiL-e it was nei-easary that they should lie emlim.il with common rights of citizenship. Solon etieetiil this by raising the lower class from itideiiradaliou, and by subjecting to lei;al eontpi.l thos*' who had till now formed the ir^verninir onler, as well as by rendering the lilwrty of l«iih dependent upon the law. This < li.inite was bmuglit aUmt by two onlin- smvs, which must not he reganle<l as men' p iiiclies for the al.nses of that pericsl, hut na the pcnniin.nt Imsis o! free an<l legal citizenship. The one was the .Sisachlheia; tlds was eimeted by Solon to afTonl relief to oppr(<s.se<l debtors, ' V riiluiing their debts In nmoimt, and by rais- iiiiT till- value of money in tlie payment of inter st an.l iirineipal; at the same time he abrogaleii Ilie former rigorous law of debt by which the (n-eni.in might lie reduced to servitude, and thus w'un-il to him the unmolested pos.session of his h L':il rinhlH. . . . A secimd onliimncc enjoineil lliat their full and entire rights sliould be resloreii l'>iinriii/.ens who bud incurred Atlmia, except '■ al'solute criiuinnls. This was not imlv ■i.->iimc| to heal the woimda which had bwn fjiUMid by the previous dissensions, but as till that time the law of debt had been able to re riuoe . Ill/ens to Atlmia. and the majority of the AtH!-: pointed ,«,! |,y s„!,.n Were slave* for iiei't, iliat ileclaration itnud in clow ramnectlon '"til the Selsachthela. and had the effect of a pn» laniatUm from the state of Ita intention to fiurantee the validity of tbe new ciUxeoablp 155 . . . The rlifht of n»tur«llzatlon wan miited by 8olon to deserving adens, when 8,000 citizena declared tlienisrivei in favour of the measure, but these new citizens wen- likewise deficient in a few of the privileges of citizenship. . . . The statement tliat Solon received a great many fon-igners as citizens, and every artizan that presented liimself, appi-ara highly improbable, as Solon was the first legislator w"ho aystemati- cally regulated the condition of the Mettvci. The MctfBci . . . probably timk the place of the former r>emiurgi ; their (xisition was one of sufferance, but the protection of the laws woe guaranlee<l them. . . . The servile onler, ex- eluKively consisting of purchased aliens and their desci-ndanis, did not, as a bo<ly, stand In direct relation with the state; individual slaves beoime the pmperty of individtiul citizens, but a certain number were cmploywl by the state as cjerka, etc., and were abandoned to the arbitrary pleasure of their oppreasive taskmastera. . . . Those who were manumitted stiKxl upon the footing of Metwci; the citizens who enfranchised them liecoming their ProsUt*. . . . I'pon at- taining the age of pulierty, the sous of citizent entered public life under tlie name of Ephebt. The stale gave them two years for the full development of their youthful strength. . . . Upon the expiration of the second, and accord- ing to the most authentic accounts, in their eighteenth year, they n'ccived the sliield and spear in the popular assembly, complete armour being given to the s<ms of those wlio had fallen in battle, and in the temple of Agniulos took the oath of young citizens, the chief obligations of which concerneii the defence of their country, and then for tlic space of one or two years per- forme<l military service In the Attic border fortn-sses under the nameof PerifMili. The cere- mony of arming them was followed by enrol-' ment In the book which contained the names of those who hail attained majority; this em- jHiwennl the young citizen to manage his own fortune, preside over a household, enter the popular assembly, and speak. When he asserted the last right, viz., the Isi coria, Parrhesia, he was d<-nominated Ithetor, and this appellation denoted tlie difference between him and the silent memlier of the tts.semblv, the Idiotes. . . . V\mn attaining his 3ihh year, the citizen might assert his su|H'rior rights ; he was qualified for a member of the sworn Iribunnl entitled Heliiea. . . . The woni lleliast does not merely signify a Judge; but the citizen who has fully attaineil maturity. . . . Tlie judges of the courts of the Diietetie and Kphetjc. wliich existe<l without the circle of theonliimry Iribuimls. wen- required to lie still older men tliiin the Heliiists, viz., SO or 60 years of age. 8<5lon ap|Hiiiite<l gradations In the rights of citizenship, acconling to the con- ditions of a census In n'feri'iice to olfli-esof state. . . . Upon the principle of a conilltioiml equality of rights, which assigns to every one iw much ai he deserves, and which is high'ly elmmcteristic of Solon's policy in geneml. lieinstitiitol four cIhsw'S acconling to a valuation; thesi- were ttie IViilaeiwiomeiliiiiiii [whose land yielded .WO ineasun-s of wheat or oil), the ilippeis [horse- men], the ZougitJE [oAiiers of ■ voke of mules], and the Tlietes [or laltonrs]. 'Tlic valuation, however, i^nly altectnl thai portion of capital from which contributions to the state biirtheni were required, coniequcntly, accoidlng (a i! il 11 ATHEN'H. a C. 5M. BAekh, a taxaMe capital. . . . The Thptca, the laat of thrw rbuaes. were not rt-KuIarly iiim- moixtl to ptTfiirm military iervici", but only exrn-ianl flu- civic riftlit as tnemlKn of the a»- wmlilyamllhelawniiirts: . . . the higheat class exclusively siipplieil the superior offlcea, auch as the arrhonship. anil lhniU);h this the council of the Armpatriis. . . . In lieu of the former coun oil of Hdministration, . f which no memorial has Jieen pre«er^•e<l. Solon inatituted a Council of four hunitreil citizens tulten from the lirst three riasw-t, 100 from .very Phyle, of which no person iimler 30 years of agecoukl lie a member. The appointments were renewed annually: the cancliilBtia underwent an examination. a<i<l such as wire deemed eligible drew lots."— W. Wachs- muth, IliftoriMl AniioKitif of the Orttkt. tct 4«-47 (r. 1). Also in : O. P. Schnmann, Antii/. nfOnev: Tht StnU. pt. 3. eh. 3, ».r 4.— E. Abbott, llitt. «f Orrrrt, pt. 11, eh. 3 - (>. (Jroie, Jli»t. of Oreeer. eh. 11.— Plutarch, .v^.n.— Aristotle OithtOinM. of Athens (tr. hi/ K nmtr). eh. 5-13,— S,*. also, AKEni-AitrK. I'KYTANf,!'. llKi.iif "ind Okbt. B. C. 560.510.— Tht tyrar >f th? Piti*. tratidB.— "The constituliiin .1.., he [Solon | framed was fountl lo lie tnsr, i n even in his own lifetime. . . . The po r •• ? v re still {VMir. in spiteof the S'iMi. ti.a reform of the conHtitution. At ti. ■■ .nc the ad- mission of the lowest elasH ^uie of prop- erty to the ri({hta of Atl .'itizenship. and the authority (tiven to tl. ^.^-m nil Assi'mbly. bad thniwi. .» i>ow. r into the hand.t of the masses which rtlliii the nun- conservative citizens with resentment and alumi And so the oUl party quar rels, which hiul dividiil Altii-a before the reforms of Silon. reappeanii after them with even ereater vioUnre. The men of the plain were le<l by Miltiades. a grandson of the tyrant of Corinth, and l.ycurgus. the so,i of Aristolaidas: the men of the shore by .Mipacles. the Alcnueonid, who had ncently striniitbeueil the position of his familv by his niHrrmpe with Agariste, the ' dfughter of Clistliiiies of Sicvon. At the liead of the mountaiiii'iT- sIiknI I'isistratus, a descend j ant of the roviil stork of Nestor, who . . . had ' greatly distintfuished himself in the Salaminian war As he possessiil propi'rtv in the neighlsir I hooii of Marathon. I'i>lstratu8 may have In-en I intimately known to the inhabitants of the iidjaient bills. . Silon watcheil the failure of ' his hopes with the dwp<.8t dlstn-ss He en- ' de.'ivoun^l to recall the leaders of the contend ' liitr parties to a sensi- of their duty to the roiinlry, and to siHiihe the bitterness of their followers. With a true instinct he regarded Pisistratus as by fur the most ilangeMUS of the three. Pi.sistnitus was an approved general, and thi faction whiili he li d was composeil of (Mpor men who had uothinj; to lose. . . . I'isistratus met the vehenunt e\|iri-sslons of Solon by driv j Ing Wounded into the market place. The ! peoples friend had siilTenil in the peop|<.-H ! cause; his life nn* in ilanger. The incident ' MU!i.il the .\thenians to an unusual exercise of '■ poliit.al flower WiiliiMit any previous (lis. I cussioii in the t'ouni il. a decree was pas8e<l bv i the [H-ople all.iwinc I'isiijiralus tosummnd hini ■ self with a b.,!y i.".!::r,! ,:f tiftv men. srr! to arm : them with liulis. 'I'lius prolei-teil, he threw off i all disifuises. and e»labli»hed himself in the ! Acropolia a* tyrant of Athens [B. C. S«0]. , I 106 ATHENS, B. C. SlO-507. Hemdotu* tells us that Pisistratus was a just and miolerate rtiler. He did not alter the l.i«s or remove the existing forms of governnimi The Council was still elected, the Assign.).! continued to meet, though it is impmliable il, eltliei the one or the other was allomil to exti uri Its functions beyond domestic affairs The arcbons still continueil to lie the executive i. ,^-,> trates of the city, and ca>.a of munler mr.' triiil, as of old, at the An'M|«gus. The tyrant contented himself with occupying the Aenipiilia with his tnmps ami securing lin|Mirtant ixmN in the administration for his faniiivorhisadbereMlK ' Twice, however, Pisistratui 'was driven fr.m power by the combination of ills opp<ment.s. an.l into exile, for four years in tlie lirst instance m ! for ten yi-ars in the last : but A ibens was compi 1;, . | toacci'pt him for a ruler in 1 he end. "PisiMiratus remained in undisturbed piawtssion of the thrni,, till his death in S27 B. C. lie was sui 1 1 i-,ie.i by his eldest son Hippias.with whom Hippnrelni.i and Thessalus, his younger si'im. wen- usv , j ated in the government.'^ But thi'se vouiik.'ir tyrants B<«n mads themselves intolerarilv liati fill, and a eonspimcy formed against thVni Ij I lUrmistius and Arisiogellon wiis succeH^ful i'-i I taking the life of HipiMtn-hus. Kour years Inti r In .510 B. C, with the helpof IVlphI and S^.n Hippias was driven from Ih.- city. Clislli, ,.^' at the iiead of the exileil .\ .. nuionids. wu- the I master spirit of the n'voluti.ii, and It wa« i.iil.r : his guiiUmvthat the .\theuian ilemisrHlic ■■•n stitiition was n-organizcd.— E. Abbott, JJttl ..r I Oreere. r. 1, eh. l.'i. I AI.SOIN. ii. Gwte. lliDt.nf (7 reeee. eh. U'l ml. <> I B. C. 510-507.— The constitution of Clei i thenet.— AdTance of democracy.- -Tlie .x I pulsion of the llsistratids left the deniih rati,;,l : party, wlw.h had first raiatil them to p..H,r t without a liader. The A^.-inaHinids had »l.i ivj I lieen iiin8ider..| as its ad . ersarii-s. ihoufrh tti.v I were no Iitis opposed 1 the faiiion .f Ilie n.iblea. which seeiiui at tJiis time to bav. ' .n headeil by Isagonis. . . Clei»then<.sf.uiii.| , self, as his party hait alwavs Invn, unal.,. m oi|>e with it; he resoh.-.i, ti,'. r,.fore, to sliilt his ground, and to attai li hiii.- ' to that p.rMiUr cans*, which Pi.iiKimtus liail u>. .1 as the Mepr inn sloneof his amliition. His aim.*, however, ».n not conllned to a teinpot irv lulvanlnge over liis rivaij; be planned an in.) r'ant chiuiL'e in ilie ■■onsiitution, which shoulil .rever l.n ak the |Hiwerof his whole onler, bv iiiwih ini: *. nie .i the main link.' by wliieh thef.- »w»v was * , iir» I. Kor this piir|i.«e. having gaimil "the con;i.i. :;,¥ of tlie coniiiKinaltv and oblaiuiil the sanrii.r.i .,f the Delphic oracle, be alsilishtHl the fcmr am i, ut triU'S. and made a fresh geographiial lir. imii of Attica inio ten new trilas. eaeh .if »hi. .'1 Imre a name derived fnun wime Attii la f" I"!;. ten trilas Were siiUliviihil into diMruK various extent, called denies, ea, li (•.im.iiiiij:^. , town or village. . . , t hi«theni.s up|u.,rs t.. have prewrVHl the an.ient pbratriis. !■ .t ss they Were now left lnsulatt.<l bv liie sNliti -ii of the Irilas to which they lal.int'. I, th. i i.~t all poliiieal iin|H.rtance. . , . Cleisihein^ it the same lime ini nai«-il the strength ..f 'I, .;. nionally by making a great inani m-w hm/.i:*. and be is ^ji.i (,, haw enfram n. itl 1 -uv alicna- and these Nith residenuaii u'l. from abroad — but slaves. . Tin- frame of the s •■. .e wai leorgauizc" o cur; ..Jl'TS ATHl S. B C «7. with the new ci!viki..o of S'Oafe f>^ the Fotir Hufs^ii Fits llur ml, tha» *ift> n ( irh tri' uhI ' ' ' i* WM wlat 'I to th,, • i!.. I f earh « filling i thirty"' iliiys In « (illfifn nij elrrtwl ■ triN^i t i piv«lde «t th-' ■■f the P»->f)lf which .. four timfr 'n the iii>intl uivsijrneil !' t-mh met'lin^' ihc antry. The •<l wii. Inrreaied tr. ,'ht !»■ (li^wn from * of thi' [•r.ufclcnry the fifty c*»U(iHll"''H •ttlrc for thirty five • r "■•(ion. ind nine roiin- from < a'h of thp 'n^r inril ami the Au^-mlily < no« ■ ille<l ri'giilHrly '■erfiiin Imnincaii heing The Ht'ltaa w«s alwi u.-<.^i^ ■••-•■ ■ > <»■ '. ••■ii.Kd^ am. itt-it^n "visa itiMi (iistriliutp<l ir-.itenr<)un»: anil the Mim division hcnreforth [ TVa 'I in m<>«t nf 'he pMblic offl'H, thouj;!! th' imt)er of tl.i- in:hoii« re- mained iinohnngf-l. To C'lelsthi i •* also 1% ;i»(ril>e<l iie f'lrrtiKl inatiliition of the ostracism. Th'w rtMinire«. anil the influcnre they acqiiinit for tl«ir niithor. reduced the j"irty of Isaginiit to utK-r wi-akni-gs. and they saw no pr.i[.rt! of maintainin;.' themselves but bv f. rt iirn ai'i ' Isacror.i'*. m iiinJingly. applied fi'r help to< I- -tnenes. one of iji,- kings of (Sparta, who h'ui 11, ready interfereil i-i Athenian affairs by »«Bu.iii.j nt the expuKion < i the Pi»i«tratida' Cle'i^i-ni* re'-p'iniled In fining 'o Atheon with a *r-,i]\ f.'rre [B. C. -V)^, wi h sufficed t.. nver a». '!' people, and. li -liming dirtatorial a'lthor be est»!'i.»hi'd Ini/orasin power. With :in Hltei'ii led niirranijement if the govornment. !! hi'gin by iKiniiliing 7"<( 'imiliel^desisnateii I'V Uig'ir..-'. lui'l then prooec'l' I to s'lrpress the Oiiu.cil of the Fii.- Hundn ir.d i I'ldge the gr.vi rnment in the hands if ,rre Hundreil of iiw fi^ieml - p«itisai;i. W '.•■:. himever. the f.MiDiili r« resit-" <l '.W.^ attempi. the p-ople took i.''!rt, :•'!. (!• II. :hs nnd *'>i,'nr«» having • ipi. 'i I,, eii.i .. i !■'«; in a ! , !;. ,nd beslegwl fie'ti tli-r' As tun w-re not {rejiared'to (,ii>.lJiin ;i .-"k-e thiy mp; .'ated . r. the thirl li.ij : ('!ei; in„ and Iva.'nris were l«'rmltted t ilepiirt «iih the 1,nr, la'nionia;i trooiw, hut thiv wir •M,nnelle.l lo niiandon thei- 'idherents toihemer.y 'f their eneiiiicn. AH were put to ileiih. and rl.i-thenes and the 70<) banisheil fanilies retiirw,! triumphan'ly Ij Athens." Clii'Pienes so^n aft, r« irdii nii'^d a force with whiih to But«ii'e .\!h. n« and restore Is-igoras. T '• .\theniiins in their alarm sent an embassy to S'lf itstiiwiMcit •!!■ proterti.m of t'>e Persiin.<. For!iin»lely. nothing came of it, and Ck-omeues wa-s Ml nmdi opixised in his project, bv the f iriDthian* and "tiier allies of Sparw, ili'al he had ! tiive It up.— C. Thirlwall, Hit. if Uretft .Si.eeilV: <; Grote. lift of Greeet, pf 2 M 31 -K. AW-itT, //,»( of lirem: rh. 1.'!. — Aristotle , ., rV '...,.• of AtUu'Mr. hyf: /Wfi.fA. 30-23 B, C. 509-506.— Hoitile undettakinn of Kleomenes and Sparta.- Help aolicited from the Persitn king,— Subjection refuted.— Fail- ure of Spartan tchemei to reitore tyranny.— Protest of the Corinthians.— Succeaifui war with Thebes and Chalcis.— " With Spans it i>;,* otivioiis th.it the Alliiniatui now hail a deadly inMrri'l, and on the 01 or side they knew that lllppiis was sci-king t > pr. ripitatc on them the i«m-,r of the Pemlan king It seemed Tit-T-^f-rt- tti hr a m.i:trr ..f ,;, n, necewiitv 10 sntii ipal. the intrigues of their Iwnnhed tvfant ; I'nd the Alheninns accordingly M-nt ■inilmaaadors w. .sanh is U) i;. ik ar. ind.pi.mlent alliance with ' Uie Persian uc>.-'t. The envoys, oa being 15 ATHEN'S, B C. S01-4SK3 bitnigbt Into the presence of Artaphemet, the Satrap .,f Lydia. were told that Darei'- woul.i admit them to an alliance if they would give htm earth and *ater.— in other words if they would «' knowledge themselves l.is slaves. To this den. and of absolute subjection the envoys ^■ave an aaaeot which was indignantly npudl- ated tc the whole boily of Athenian citizens. - . . toiled for the tini«- In his eff,,rts, Kleo- menes was not cast down. Keganimg the Klela- theoian constitution as a personal iiis-jlt to hlm- «lf. he was resolved that Isagoraa should be despot of Athens. »>ummoning the allies of Sparta [including the Bipotian League headed by Thebes, and the people of Ctialcis in Eulwai he led them as far as Eleusis, 12 miles only from Athens, without Informing them of the purpfine of the campaign. He had no sooner cor feaeeil it than the Corinthians, declaring that they hail been brought away from home on an unrighteous errand, went back, f.illowed bv the other Spartan King. Demaratos. the son of Aris- 1 ton; and thN conflict of opiniin broi:e ,pthe I rest of the army. This discomltur- ■ ' 'their enemy seemeil to Inspire fresh strenj^t, n , , the Atlienians. who won a series of ticiories over the B< ioiians and Euboiai ■ — complet, !v over- thmwing the latter — the ihalcidians— taking possession of their t Ity, and making it a peculiar colony and dependency of Athens —.See Kler- triia. 1 he anger of ftleomenes "on being dis- conifltcd at Eleusis by the defection of his own anil's was heightened by indignation at the dis C'lvery that in driving o"nt his friend Hippias he h.'id tieen tnply the tiHil of Kleisth, iies and of the Dilpi, .0 prjestc"; whom KIei..thene!. had bri))eil It was now clear to !, '11 and to his countrymen that the Atheniai,, would not aciiuie-re in the pr«<lomiimnce of Sparta, and that if they retaini-d their freeibm, the power of Ath'ns would «,ion be eijual to their own. Their only fafety lay, therefore, in pr.ividing the Athenians with a tyrant. An invitation »»s, therefore, sent to Hippia.<. at Sigeion. to attend a congress of the allies at Simrtu. who were summoned *o me<t on ;lie arrival of the eilled iesp/it " The appointed congnss was lield, nnd the Spartans bi.sought their allies to aid t!j,m in hiim'olinit the Athenian iKmocnicy, with the iihj'it of resl.iring Hippias to (wiwer But sfuin itic (■,..: 't.ians protestwl, bluntly sugg «!ii • ! sf rtans thoueht tvrsnny a !!.;.)<: fv ,f flrst try it for tliem- scivps. B) ,. g in his own iH'half, attempii! i-> ooovince tnem that the time was comiue ■;•. which thi . wouhi find the Athc- DiiK'fr a th-rr in their si !c. For the present his exhortat ri .rs w. r, thrown a\-By. The allies protested Nii«iiir.:oijsly against hfl attempts to interfere wilh ilie inlenaradministmtion of any Hellenic liij , am! the banished tyrant went back disapiiouit. .1 to Sigeion, "—{f. W. Cox, 77ie Gr,,kt irmi tht J^trnart; rh. 4. Also in U. Omte, Ilitt. of ijnere, ol 2 M Slir-J ' /- • ■ B. C. 501-490.— Aid to lonians against Per- »ia.— Provocation of King Darius.— His wrath and attempted vengeance. —The first Persian invasions.— Battle ot Marathon.— it is un- denlalile that the extension of tlie Persi in do ininii !i liver Asia .Miuor, Syria, and Eirypl gave a violent check to the onwaril movcmeni'of (Jni-k life On the other hand, it seemed a." if the great ft- ATHENS, B. C. 801-490. iViftait War. ATHENS, B. C. 501-490. IP: enterpriK of Diiiiiiii Hyiuupl* Kgafntt the Scy- tliiiUM (luglit to have uuitiil thi- Um'k!! hiiiI IVr- »iHU». It was of a pint whli the ^rciunil policy of Darius that, after ilefeatinft «« nianv other aif- vernarie*, lie unilertook to iirevent for all sue ceediii); ihiic a ri'iM-titioa of tlioae Innnils with whieh. Dome reiiluriea before, the Seylhiaiis luiil visiteil Asia and the civilized worlil. He ixw- Htietti authority enough to unite the ililfenut nations whieh ola-yed his sceptre in a srri'at eain- paijrn iiKainst the S<ytlilan8. , . . The Ureeks Were his Uiil allies in his eainpai);n: lliey built him the bruise by whieh he crossed the Uoai>oru». and nix) the briiltre of Ikmu over the Dnuuln- by which he made his invasion into the enemy's U-rriiory. Tlie n>sult was not one which coiild pro|HTly lie called unfortunate; yet it was crr- laiulyofa very doubtful ehanu'ter . . . Aureiit region, in which they had already obtalnt^l very eonsidemble lutluenee, was closed to Iheiii oii<"e more. The I'ersiau anny bniuirht uv ixipula- tiohn u|H.n the htrymou. many 11 numUr and imliviilually weak, under the dominion of IVrsia Kid even Amyutas. thi' king of Makeilonia. one of a raceof rulcrsof (ireek origin, was cominlled to do homaice to ih« On-»i King. Thus the movement nliieh had Ihri'st liack the Unrk^ fnim Kgypt and Ania Minor maih' lulvani-es even Into tlie ri'L'iiins of Kuro|>e which lN>nlered u|k>u Northern llelhw. It was an almiMt imvltable conx i(ueineof this (liatthe (in-i'ks wen' menac<'il and Hlnilemil even in tlieir pro|M'r lioiue. .V pn le\t and i>p|Nirtunily for au atuiek ui>.m the IJreek i?dand« was pn-M'nIitl lo the IVrslam liv the i|Uei>lionsat issue iMtwiTUtlie |Kipulalion»o'f the lilies and the tyranla. . . . The iuitnmieiil by whom the erinU wiu Immght alsiiit was in.i a (H-raou of .iiiv great im|Hinau<r Ii is noi -M ways grial iiaiuns. or nalun-s strong in (he euii I niousness of their own (mwers. that bring ..m ' ■iii'h Cdulllcl*, Ibis is i.,rnetiiiies llie work ..t IhoM' tlexilile chanu-lcrs which. Uiug al ilic- ! point of contact tatween II pposing f.mv- ' pass tn>m one side to the other Such a ( hara. I Ur was Aristagoras of .Miletus . .Morally ' ronleiii|iiil,|e. b,it gifltsl Inl.lle.lually with a I rajiiT" iif ill. as of unlimilisl exiinl. .\risiagon.s \ maiie for hini« If an im|M'risliable name by Wu,^ ' the lirst lo eclerlaln the thought of a r,,l|,ell». ' on|h«iiion lo the Persians on the pari of „|| i|,< ^ Ureeks, iven conlem;<lating the |Mis»iliility of waKiiiga griala'uUuiiTHiifiilolTen.Hive warup..ii lluui II.- aiUMuninsi m Mil.iiis liis ,>hii i ri»U'nali.>h .f |h.w.raiii| the nst.iriiion !.• ib.- |»..l.|.'..f Ih.ir ..Id laws A g. ii. ml ..v. r thn.n ..f t\rannv eiisuisl ||| (' .VMj. iin..|yiii;.' ' a r. n.li fr..iii I', rsia. an.l Siriligl w.ri ,v,r\' ' wh.re a|>|...uil..| Thi' supniiii' jh.iv.t In il.,- ciii.s ».„ l.r^,| u|H.n a goal un.l.rsiaudiii-' iMtw.-in 111. Ii.i|,l,rs..r |h.w.r an.l the l'.r,ian~ th.- fi.l Ih.i .,11. .,f 11,,^, rulirs f.iiuel 111.' au tli..hty ..I til.' r. Tsi uis iiil.il. ralile was Ih.' ►ii.'ii ,| f.ir 1 iiiimrvil r.'>..|| Ari.iag.ims hiiiis. If »,,| i unl inly niit.iiii.,.,| ii,etvnuuij, il i|,. r l\r:iiiii '< w.r.' .oii,|»||,i| |„ nil,. ||„, ^,,„„. ,,,„„: g„| i thus 111. (ili.s. a.sMiiuiiig at Ilie same liin.' .i.l.'ne. ; iTili.- orgaiii/aii..ii cum.' into li.miiiii\ uiih INrsi.i riie .hies aii'l Hlan.ls w hi; h |,;el i «ii..fl.nt»'.'ii for. I'll i..«.ibiiil„ione,,ii|,lii,,t i,,,,,,. ! to ni^.i till INrsiaiis l.\ ilM-irowu iiimid.-.i iir.rts I fcveii Anslag.iras ....d.l !..'• ,ve e»|«',i.',l „, ! much . M.'vi»ii.,| Uk. iiHui, tiM' •iroiiif ' W trf UM! Ofwk powers. In pinou. au.| en i 108 deftvorrd to carry her with him In his plans. . . Ilejected by Sparta. Aristagonis N'Uuk himself to Athens. . . . The .\i:ieniaiis granteil Arista- g.>ras twenty ships. t» which the Ereirians, from friemlship to Miletus, ailihsl five more. Th.. e.)ur»ge of tlic lonians was thus revive<l, and an ntuick ii|ion the l>i<rsiaii d.iminion rommenciil. din'cti.d. not inileisl against Siisa. but against Sanlis. in their immisliaie M.-iglilMirlioiNl. the enpi tal of the satmpy whicli iiii|Mised on them their heKvl(.8t bunlens. . . . Rv I he burning of , Sanlis in which a sanctuary of' Kyls-le had bis-n ile stniyisl. the Syrian nations luul Xuva outragtsl in the iHTson of their g.sls. We know that it was part of the system of the l>ersians to take the goils of a country uii.hr tli.ir prot<H-tl.m. N..r w.iul.l the gn-at king who thought himself ap- |Kiinte.l to U< masii-r of Iheworid fall Ui n'si-nt an Invasion of his .l.imini.>iis as an insult railing for n-venge. The hostile attempts of the lonians made no gn-at impn-sfi.in u|Min him, but li.- aske.l who wen- the Alh.iiiaiis, of whose shan- In the campaign h.' Iia.1 lN'.'n informtil. Tli.y wen- r.in-igiiers. of wliosi' jsiwi'r tl • king had scarcely heanl. . . . Th.' eiilerprise of Arista gonis hiwl meanwhih- i-ausisl genend (simmotl..n He had by far III.- larger part of Cyprus t.. gether with th,- fariaiis. .m his si.le. All Hi.- country iii-ar the l'n.)M.iitis and the Hellesp.mt was in n'volt. Th.- I'ersians wen- eom|M'lle.l t-. I make it their flrst onci-rn t.i suppn-ss this iiisiir i n-clion. a task whi.-h. if atleinpte.l by wa. .11 1 I not pnmiise to Is' an .asv In their llrsl .'ii I .-."iintcr with the I'lioniiians th,> lonians ha.l ih.- I a.|yaulage. When. Ii..».-yi-r. the foni-s of ih,. I gn'at enipin- wen- asst'inliLsl. the liisurn'i lion i was everywhen' put il.iwn . . . Il must U. n'<'konisl am..ng Hi.' c(iiisi,|iien<S's of Ih.- baltl ' .if ImIv, by w..ii-li tin- i..iiiliiiiall.m againsi tliu renian enipln- lia.| In. n aniiiliilatisl, that King I'arius. ii..t ninteiii « iib Inving isinsoli.lati<.| In-, il.imlnion in l.inia. on.i' n- n'siinnsl lii.- pl.-i .>■ pushing f..rwar.| into Kiin.|M., of whiih hit i^nlerprise against li. ' S yihians f.imi.sl part with the execuli..n of lliis pniject he e.>miiii> siontsi one of the priii.lpal ii.rs.ins of ih.' i'iii|iir.' ami theco'iri. Mar.loiiius byname, wh.iii he unltisl I.) his family by marrying him I.. Iils .laughter This g.-nl nl ,-nau...| t|ie M. II, , poMI with a large army, his ih.-t always a.-.. .mi panviiig him al.mir the shon- whilst I'm- |iu..ie-.| .m by (he maiiilan.l ||.- ..nis- m..n' siil»|.i,.| .Maki-.l.inla. ph.liably lln- .lisiri.-ls whieh li.-ul 11..1 yi-l. liki' 111.- .Mak. -.Ionian Iviruf, l«s-iibroiii,'lil into sulij.-i-tion. an.l cai.- ...it tint his aim »n .lin-.t.sl againsi Kntnaaii.l Atli.-ns. Ihe .-lu-ini. s ..f III.- king III lie .i,,rmv wal. rs n. .,r M.iiint AthiH, whi.h hav.- alwa* s ina.l.- the n.,,1 gili.ai of llu' .Kg.-an .lull. nil. his H.et sntf. r. I ship wns-k Hut niilioui 11 iva' Biip|H.rl»h nil not li..|s' to gain |h„„-«|,,i, ,,f „„ i,|„i„l a,,.! i marilim.- !..» n !.itual. .1 ..11 a pnmiont-iry Ki. 11 l.y lin.l 111' en, ,iiiit.-r.-.l r.si»iaii.e mi llial ti- I 'Uii.l it a.lvisiil.l. I,, p,>,l|Hiii< Ih.' further . »i.ii ti'.iiof Ills UM.hrtakiiigsl.. iii.,i|i.rliiii.- In • ■r.l.r t,. siiIkIu.- Ill,' n, il.itraiils. .-.is. 1 illy .\lli. Il- and Knirii. aii.uli. r slli-ni|il was..rkMn 1/.-.I «iili..iit .1. 1..y I ii'l. r two g.-ii.-rals ..ti. .f wh..iu. Ifcihs. wi.aM.sh ih.-.aher, Aria'.h. n..^. 'he s I III.- fcitripof S,ir.|is of Ihi- s.tlli. liiin,- aii'l brolln-r ..( lln- hinm wli.i was in alli.n..' with llippias. a marilitii. . (|HHliii.iii was uii.l. f Ukeii fur tlu^ iiuuH-dlale subjugukm ..f Itw ATHENS, B. C. S01-49a War. ATHENS, B. C. 48»-t80. Miuifli iuhI the maritime dlttrlett. It wu bm dc lignrd (or open iKMtility Kgmliut the Oreelu In jSt'iKraL . . . Their design wu to uUtlze the in- U'n»] diaension* of Oreece in conquering Uie nriocipal enemief upon whom the Oieiit King liid awom venminoe, and preieating them a* I Kptires at hit feet The project luccredetl in iliccaseof Kretria. In spite of a brave rraist- »nce it fell by treachefy into their hands, and ihry could avenge the sacrilege committed at Sutlln bv pluniiering and derastating Orucfw unrtuaries. Tlicy expected now to be able to over|M>w(T Athi'iis alao without much trouble. ... It was » cin'iinMtancu of great value to the Atheniita.H that there was a mun amongst them who was familiar with tlie PiTxian tactin. This was .Miltiatii.'H. tboBimof Kiiimn. , . . Although a Thnii'iHn priufe, lie had never oenaeil to be a cltizt'Q of Athens. Here be whh im|H'u('liv<l for bsTing held a tyranny, but was ac<|ultte(l and clinarn strateKUS, for the democracy could not rejrrt a man who was so admirably uualiHed to lie at their head In the intcn-luuige of hnatilitles with Persia. Miltiadt-H was ciiuducting his own personal quarrel in uiiderulilnir the defence of .Utii'a. The force of tliu I'eniaiis was indeed inoom; jably tlie larger, but tlie plains of Mara- thon, on which they were drawn up, prevented Ihrir |iru|H'r deployment, and they saw with as- timisbment the Athenii'i hoplites displaying a (runt as extendeil as their own. These troops now rushed upon tlu-m with an im|H'tus which gtfK swifk'r at every monu'ut. TIm- Persians I'ssiiy succeeded In Itrcaking through the centre of llic Athenian army; but tiMt was of no momtnt, for the strength of the onst't lay in the two wings. wIktc now l>ei,'»n a hand-to-liand flght. The Ptmian swon!, formidable elsewhere, was not adapted ki do gooil service against tlie brm/r armor and the siwar of the Hellenes. On l»th tUnits the Athenians jbtaine<l the ailvan U','c. anil now attaclted tlie I'erslan com re, which WM iii>t able to withstand tl e onslau)(lit of men will ~e natural vlitor was heig iienetl by gymnastic Iraimrig. The Persiaiu, to 'heir mislortune, had (»l™i!ili-<l uwm di's-rtior in the ranks of their npiKiiiiMUi, fiiile.1 In tl,;.. h.i|H', they rvtreatwl Ui the shore and to their ships, liiniiliitus in- tiinatti that the iVrsiiins had sa-cret intelligence with a party in Alliens, and t<Kik th«'ir course rmnd the pnnnonuiry of Hiinium towani the city, UI the lio|ie of surprisiuii It But when they >»m- 1" anchor Ow Albeiiians ha<l arrived alsii, Miillhiy saw themH<'lv<-s once mo^■ coufronte)) liy the vli-lors of Miiratb«n."~L. von Kaoke, Chi .> rml IliMorji, t. ,. Aiao IX ; lleroiloius, ll,M>My. hk, t. ~ V. Duruy llitt ./ Ilrfrv, eh lB(r •.') —S,^, ,u, Pkhsi;^- H (' JJI-IIU, siiil Uhkki'k: U. C. 4U'j 491, and B C. 4*9-4*o.-Ceadamaatian ud dMtk of »liltiades.-Th« ^Kinataa war.— Naval power created by Tbamistoclta.— The vie 1 If) ..f Marathon was chiefly iliie to Miltlailea, it w u he who bniught on the eiiiraK<'ine„t, and he umihief in niniinaiid on tlie day when th« lain.- wss foUKht. Much a brilHanl siMXvaa KPiily Improvwl hia p<iaition to the Hty, and '__«'ii<.l in his enemies a sllll de^'|>er batrad Kv.r on the wslch for an opportunity to null " •'! their rivsl it was m)t long befora they I "111 I i«ie rioon after bla vickiry, Mllthules i-auk lirfuic the AtbuBhuM with ■ rwtucal that a 159 iqtiwtamnf 70 Ihlpi might he pbccd at hl« din- Posal. The purpo*) for which he required them he would not disclose, though pkidglng his wont that tlie espeditiuo wouhf mid hrgely tc the wealth and praaperitv of the dty. The request being grante<l, he sailed with Uie ships k) Para an ishuKl which at Uiis dme waa subject to ■•ersia. From the Parians he demanded 100 tah-nts, and wiR-n tliey refused to pay lie block- aded the city. So vigorous and succe.«f'd waa the resistance olTereil that, after a long debiy Miltiailcs, hinuelf dangcrouslv woiualwl, was aimpellcd to return home, flls ewniit-i, with Xantbippus at Uieir head, at once nlUiknl liim for misconduct in the enterprise. . . . Mihiadcs waa unable to reply in |iersoii ; he was carried Into court, while hb friends pb-ailed his cause. 1 he sentemw was given agaiuat him. but the penalty was re<lucc<r from dealh to a line of .10 «','"'*• ** '*''*" • •""" *"• "*'"' '•""• <''""^ Miltiades could pay; he waa thrown into prison as a public debtor, where be soon dii^d from liw inortiUcarlon of his wound. . . , His comtemna- tion wsa one in a long series of simihir punish- ments. Tlie AthenUns never learnt to lie Just to those who served them, or to dbitinguish be- tween trencherr and errors of Judgment. . . , We Imve very little Information about the state of Athens Immediately afk-r tlie battle of Mara- thon. 8o far as we can tell, for the ciinmology Is most uncertain, ahe was now cngageii in a war Willi .Cgina. . , , Meanwhile, a man was rising to (wiwer, who may be said to have creak-d the bisl.iry of Athens fur the rest of the century,— Tliemistocles, the sim of Neocles. ... On the very day of Marathon, Themiska lea lit I prolw- biy roaile up bis mind that the I'emians would visit Greece again. What waa to keep them away, so long as they were masters of the .«geanT . With an Insight almost incredi- ble be perceived tliat the Athenians couW be- come a maritime nation; tluit AtlH-na ixmiessea barlaiura large enouirh to receive an enormous llitt, awl capable of Iieing strongly fortilled: tliat In posass s lon of a fleet slie could not only •.•(■ure her own safety, but stand forth as a rival iH.»er k> Hiwrto. But ho-v coiihl Tbeinlskxles Iniluce the AtbeoUns k> abamlon the Hue In which they had bee?> so successful for a nuaie of warfare In which even Miltiades liad failed? After the fall of the great gi-ueral, the conduct of alTalrs was in the bamls of X.uithippua . . . and Aristldes. . . . They were by no p- tns prepared for the change which ThemiskK-iea -vaa lunllMting This Is more especially true of Aristldes He had been a friend of Cllstlienes; lie waa known m an atimirer of rtpanan customa. . . . He luwl bi«n mmmi in command at Mare- t!: m, and was now the moat eminent geia-ral at Aihena Frimi him Themislocles cuuld only ex- |MH| the mi«t resolute opiwaition. Xaiithippiis ami Aristldes could reckon on the au|)|iiirt of old traditions and gieat contiectlons Themialocb'S bail no aupiiort of tlie kind lie hail to maU his party . . (^Hlacioua of tlwir oan (msi lion. AristiileaamI Xantbliipiis lis'kcit ^itbcou tempt uimn tie l.n.it of nun who Umm t v itatber rounil tticir unmannerlv and unruUlvaliil leaiU-r AimI ther might. |H'riia|>s. Imvi. hihiu. kilneil their poailiim if it bail not Is-in (or llio .iC^ineUn war That unlucky slriiunlr bail l»' gun. ai»n after the reforms of (^lt»ibriii'<. wiili an unprovoked attack u( the .Egiot lans ou tba ■i j : ATHENS. B. C. 480-480. P roMt of AttloadWe B. C), [.Eginii being «lll.-.l wiih Thobft in the war nipntiimvil alMivp — H.C, ."«)a-."i001. It was rpni-wril when tlio .Ks^iwWris frivo fiirth mm! water to the lieraliU of l)«rii;» in 4U1. an I tlioii^h sustX-ndtil at thn tirap of tlw Persian Inviwion. It broke out aRiiln witli re- i:cwcil fepK-ilv noon aftorwanls. Tlie .tijini'Uins liaii the stroncer fleet, and defeated the Athenian lililpa. "Such experiences naturally causeit a I hanjre in the minds of the Athenians. ... It was clear that the old arrangements for the navy wi'n- n,iit4> inade(iuale to the task which was now reciuired of them. Yet the leaders of the BtHte ntide no proposals." TliemlstiM-les now "rame fnrwarrl publicly with pm|KMaU of naval ri'form, and, as he expected, he drew upon liim- wlf the strenuous opposition of Aristldes. . . . It w,ts clear that notiiin:; doHsive i-ouM Ik- d.me in llie .Bjfinet.tn war u:dess the proponaN of TliemistiK'les werv lurriid ; it was c ciiillv i l.'ar i;iat thiy never would N- c.irried while Aristides uiid Xanthippus were at banc! to ojipow tlieni. I'nder these clrcumsianei'S n^courw was had to the safety-valve of the cunstilullon. OitrMlnm was proposiHl and afciptcd; and in this inaiiner. br 483 H. C, Themistocles h:iil got rid of inilli of Ins rivals in the city. He wm now master of the situation. Tlwonly obstacle to the reall- ^.illon of his plans was the expense involve<l in liiiilding ships. .\nd IhU he was able to meet by a Imppy accident, whl.h broui{ht into the inasury at this time a large surplus from the .■-ilver mines from Ijiurium. ... By the sum- mer of 4M0, the Athenians . . were able to I.I inoii 180 Teasels. lK>sides jiroviding 30 for the use of the Chalcideans of Eulxca. ... At the F'une time ThemistiK?les set alxitit the f.irtilica. li m of the i'eimus. . . . I'ould he have earrieil t!>r .Vthenians with him. be would have made the l*tire«» the capital of the country, in onler that the Khips and the city might Im- (n lioac connec tion llul for this the people were not pre- panil ■— E. Abbott, Ptrifitt and Iht U 'Ilex Aje :f .Ith.iu. eh. a Ai.-<.>ix: IMutareh, AnMi,U:~Tlumi,lu-Uii. B. C. 4II-479-— CoBcrait at Corinth. -Or- Ksoised Helltaic Union, undtr the headship of Sparta S<'e (IukkiK II (' 4'4| KJ B. C. 480-479.— The second Persian i.-j»a- •ion. - Thcrmopylx, Artcmisium, Salaiiis, Platxa. - Abandonment of the City.— ■ I'lie l;i-.l d:iys of KariiiH wi n- il mdi d by tlie di«is|i r of Mar.itli.in. ■tliiit Imtle firmrd llif luniirii} |M.lnt of his go.Kl f.iniine.' and it w.iild wtiu th.it il.e news of it I11I to sevir.il Iniiirn-iiiont. partiiularly that of Eifvpt, Imt tbev wen- sin;! put down t>arius dlid (lllymp. T.l .li. siil Xi rxcT whosui (•••.■dwl bim. K^mpreventi'il fru:-! t-ikiii.' rvcriire on the .V!lM>ni:im by ctii- nv.ill of l.il.\pl. will, Il cniTiigi'd bin uitrnti vii d rl'i;; tlie flrvi M.iM .if lii« n i:fn. Hut he com;,! t, ly ivm oil r d \\v l:iK'iri;rnt* after Ihi'y biwl ii. 1 ■! ;iiaet| lli.iii* Ivi 1 all ml four or live yi'srt. and hi llien made pnpariii >«•< firihat vi'ti.reimi> on .Vrliiria for Khiih bis tnrbirlan pride was Im riu.; The anouiil iif tlie ilirre years' pr<'p:irili..ni of X<r\r«. h .* lie a«■^mbled hl« army In ,\sla Mill r. hoiv he m.idr a bridge ai nnts the llelli-s Ik.iil II 1* he cut a 1 uial tbMUith llie Islliinus of Mi'iiil .\l!ini t.i prevrnt hU Hiil In iiig di'»iroyi'd by »1 .ritiH — ill Itii4 is known lo every om- » Im has r ad llirt«|ii!u» History U hi'n- so mm h In l<r»<ne« with |«sjlry. Ibtl'thiy '-aa 00 longer '•" ATHENS, B. C. 480-479. IT. be ippimted. . . . The Qrceks awaited thp at- tack (Olyiup. 7.5, 1). ■ but they wer.' not asrreid among tbemwlvn. The Argivcs from halreil i<| H,Hkrta Joined the Persiaiia, and tlie miserable UoeottaiU likewise auppurtmi them. The otherH kept togetlier only fnim neo-asity ; and without the noble tpirlt of the Alh<'ni.iiw Onvce would have btwn loet, and that from the most paltry circumstance*. A dispute arose as to who was to be honoured with tliusupn'ine eommaml: the Athenians gave way to all. for their oalv desire was to lave (Ireece. Had the Persians miiveil on rapidly, they would have met with no resistance, but their proceeded slowly, and matters turniil out dllferently.' A Ort-ek annv was encfuipetl at Tetniic, at' the entmii(!e of Tbeasaly, and at llrst iletermineil on defending Tlieasiily. But they must have «e«'n that they could Iw "entirch surrounded from l'p|MT Thensiily; and when they thus diseoven-l the Imposdibllity of stop ping the Persians, they relreansl. The n:irr,iliv'> now contains one ineonei-ivable eir<'Uiiistani:<' after another. ... It is Incoaciivalile tint, as the tSreeks did make a stand at Tlieriiiop> jai-. 11 1 one else took lii.s piisilion thire exispt Kiu^ Ixs)nidas and his .'Spartans, not ineluiling even the IJlct^laemonians. for they n'niained at hoini': Only l.0(«) Phociatis (a-eupiisl the bei.,'hla. though that |ie<iple might sunl? have furnislud 10.(li»!> men; 4IN» of the Ittaiitians wi're |Hwteil in the n-ar. as a sort of hostages, as Hennlotus re marks, and 7IH) Thespians. Where wi'ni all the rest of the Oreeks t . . . (."oiiiilli'ss hosts an- in- vading Uns>ee ; the (tnrks want to defend them- selves, and are making active pn'iMniiions at ■ea; but on lanil hundredsof Ihoiuands are met by a small baud of l'elo|Hmnesiaiis, 7iH) Thes- pians. 4110 Thelians as hostages, and 1,1)1)0 Pho- elans, stationed on the helirhtal A pass is ivhu. pleil, but only that one, and the others an' left ungiianUsl. . . . All this Is ipiite uninielliLMble; it would r.lmnst ap|iear as If there had Ic-i-n an Intention losacritliw I.i<-<midas and his men, but we cannot supixna^ this. These ciicumstanii < aloni' aiiggi'st to us. that the numbers of i!ie IN'rslan army cannot have Ixs'niu gn>al as liny ar»' deserilssi; but even if we n-duiv ilic in to in Immense extent, it still n-inains lucoiii'.i\ilili' why Ibi'y wen- not opposed by greaur nuniluM of the (Jrei'ks, fir as afierwanls they viii tun-l 111 attack the Persians in the opin'riil,:, it was iirlainly mmh nion- natiiml to opiMw tlniu while inarching across tile bills, llul Inmevi r this may be, it Is an iindoiibied fact, tli.it l,i'iiii das and' his Hpartaiis fill in the contest, of wlm h we may form a emiispii in from the dem ripiini of Hennlotua, wlien afar a n-slstance of tbni- lays they were surrouiidnl by the Perslms .\ fiw of tfie Sp irlaus estM|Msl 00 very ex. nn^^ilile LTi'unds. but lliiy were so geiieruliy di^|ii»i-il. that their life la-came unendurable, an I lie v maile away with tbi-mselves. This Is 11 rtaiiilv historiiiil. . . . After the victory of Tlhriniiiyliie all Hellas lay open bi'foB< the I'ersiaiis. and tin v now advamssi towanis Athens, a disianci- nlil' li Ibey iiiuld march in a few days Thels's .iixin I her gates, and Joyfully ail'inllted them fmni halnsl of Athens • Mrantlme a portion of ilw armv ap|M-«red befnn- Iti-lphI It Is almost in eoncelvHlile that the Persians did nol smiiisl i.i biking the temple . Tim miracles by wlmli the li'mple Is said U> have Is-en saviil. an- re peated li tbe Muoe manner duriuy Ihu attack of 160 ATHENS. B. C. 48(M7S. War. ATHENS, B. C. 47JM78. ti>e (knli. But the temple of Delphi wu entalnl 7 not plundered.'. . . Thecitynf .Vthenthiul Inthe mnntime been •baixloDed by all the imipli- ; tliH di-fcaerlea had taken refuge intlieiinull Uliuiil of HaUmU, or of Troezen, 'and all the Athenians capable of bearing arm* embarked in the Itect. ' . . . The Perriaiiathu* took Athena without any resiitanee. . . . Durins the nme dajri on which the battle of Thermopylae waa fought, the Oreek flert wu engaged in two indeciilTe but glorious battles near the promontorr of Artemisiunt ' In a thin) the Peralana gained the upper haml. and when the Qreeks at the same time heani of tlie defi-at at Thermopylae, tbcy withdraw, and doul>ling Cape Sunium aailc<l towarda 8aUmi». ' (}<>l arnt them a sUirm whereby the Periiana in tlicirpursuittufferHiiihipwrcck. . . . While tlie (itwk fleet waa tlationeil in the channel between tlif island of Salamis and Attica, towania Pi- rieeuB. discord broke out among the Ore. k». The I'l'loponnesiaos thought only of ihemaeive*: Ihi'vliml fortlHed the luhmus; tSere they wnre aswmlilml. and there they wanlcl to offer resist- naif u> the Persians. In their folly they fnrgol, that if the enemy with his superior fleet, ahiiulil limi Hirainst IVInponnesus. they mii(lit land wlMn-vertheyllke<l. . . . ButThemlaUirl«s now dclared, that all the hopes of the Atlicninns weriMlirecled Uiwanis the r?roviTy of their nwti rity; lliat, if the Peloponnesians should sarrirt<v Ihcm. sod. thinking of tliernselvea imlv. stmiihl alKinilon Attica to the barbarians, the Ath<-ni;tii4 wouM not be so childish as to sacriflce thenvHclvcs f.ir tlii-rn, but would Uke their women anl rliil iln'n cm Imanl their ships, and sail far away from tli<> IVnians to tlie ii^land of Sardinia, or some otiiir place where Oreek colonies were eslnti- li<li'-.l. that there they would settle as a tnv pe..pli', and aliandin Peloponersus to iu fat.- and that then the peninsula would sixm be in the hand* of the enemy. This frighU>n<.<l the Pelo. iiorininiirn. and they resoleed tosUnd by Athene It in ivj.lint that, throughout that timei Thi'iiiis- ti. 1. 1 luwl u> struggle with the m<Mt intolemlile dilliultiii, which the allies placet! In his w«v. as well as with Ihrlr Jealousr, meanness, and into- lince. ' Tlw riid'-nem of tl>e Spartans ntid Cor- iritliiinsltnowlirtr morpHtronglvcimlnwlii". with liic nittiem.-iit of the Atlvniaiis. than on lliat K'TiMoii.' But after he hwl tried erervihini; «ii_i ov,ni.tne by everr pussitile means a liiindri- i liTiTrtit dimcullies. he yet saw, tliit he c.mi|,| n t n-lyon the perseverance of the IVI..[),inne- 'i.in«, anl th:it ifiey would turn to tlie I-ilhmin .1 H,.,,! a, X.rses shoiiM pr<K-ee<l in th-il dine 11 .11 II.- an-..nlingly induml the Persian kin^, '>y a f 11-* mrwitte. ti snrnninit the Un'i.k fleet f.rili.- piiriKMc of rutting off tlieretn-itof tlie I ' I .|..nn.-,ian< IFe deifarpd Uims<.|r n-a.lv 10 ■ livi r iIm- whole of the Oreek rte>-t into' hi* |ii>i.li riiiiilevli* was iiuiteui tlie inin.l of the i . roaiM. X.rx.-« Wlercl him. and follow.^ Iiis ', ■?'. ^*"'" Themi«t.irles waa thus sum of III.. IMotKmneslans. the ever memorable Imtile of >»Uini«.-,imrm.n<iil, which isas certainly hisl.iri- <al 4>ilMt .>f Canme. orany molcm battle ■ what • V rtl» niiml.ers may lie. ' The battle pr.K*e.l«| N.m. what In the manner of the battle of l,.lpiig wirnlhewue waadecidnl. aportl.mof th.»ie wlio "ii'hi 1,1 liarr Jolneil their (.ountrymen b.f..re i"« I.- .-onimon cause with the Onirks Tlieir *.v«ii>uii«-r«ase<l thericuwyof ibeOreeks lenaln si the battle of thUmls Is, all the .uvounis lei of what tnok pU e after It. are rerr doubtful. ThU much is certain, that Xerxes letumed leaving a portion of his army utid.r .Mardonius in Greece;' . . Winter was now approaching, and .Uantonlus withdrew from ravagt^l Altica taking up his winter-quarters partly In Thesaalr aii,| partly in BoeotU. . . . l*lie pr.>lwbillly is that tlie Athenians remained the winUr In Hilainis in sheds, or under the ojien sky Mar- il.inius offered to restore to them Attl(» unin- juriMl, w far as It had not alreadv been devas- uited, if they would conclude peace with him riie." might at that time have obtained anv terms they pleased, if they had abandoned the common cause of the Greeks; and the Per sians would have kept the peace; f.ir when thev ionclud«l t^•l.tles they observe<l them: they were not faithless barb«1ana. But on this occa. sion again, we see the Athenian people in all Its greatness and excellence; it scorned su<h a pe«.i., and pref..rn.d tlie goi.1 of the Pelopon neaians. , . . .Uardmiius now again advauei-tl towanls Athens; the Spartans, who ouglit 10 have prooeeilod towards Oithaeron, had not ar rived, and thus he again t<»ik posw-wion of Attica and ravaged it completely. At hngth however (Olymp 7a. «). the Aih.-bians pnvailed upon the Peloponnraians to leave the Uthmua, and thev gradually advance.1 towards B<ieotl». Tliere the battle of Plataeac was fought In regani to the accounts of thN battle it is his- torimlly certain that it was completely wi>ii by the Greeks, and that the remn.int.i of the Peniao armv retreatetl without lieinn vigorously pur- sue.1. It must have reachnl Asia, tmt ft then diaapp«ra. It U also histort(.ally certain, that I auaanias was the commander of the allied army of the rirceks. . . . After ihelr vl.uiry the (Jreeks a<lvance<l towanls ThelM-s In ai- (Mrlancj with a vow which tliey ha.1 luaite '"•fore the war, Thelies ought Ui have Im-n di- »lrove.l by the Greeks. But their opinion.i were divi.l,.,!. ... On tlie same day on whidi the luttle of Plataeae was fiHight. the allied Greeks gainiN] as complete a victory at sea \fier this vi<tory of Mycale. the itmian cities rev..li,-.i against the Perstaos "—a O Miebuhr /^lurr^ on AnfienI llUtorf, s. >, ImU 87 .i»-f IW AlJM t!t: Herodotus. Uutor^; tn,m ,iml fl A.V If AiWi'<w.>«, »t 7 (p 4l.-Pliilarrh Thf nM.«-W«._<J W C.x. rh, l/r^kM„n'l l'.r.„„., f; C. 479-47I-— Pretaction of looi* assumed. — Sitja ud captur* of Scstus.-KcbuildiaK And cnlarK*m«nt of the city and its walla.— laterferanct of Sparta foiled by Tbemistoclct. — ' The ailvanUgt.li oliuiiie.1 by the ll<.||.ne« (in their w.ir with Per<ja| eame ii|)oo Ihrm so unex- |«H'te,lly as t/> lln.l them totally unpnpart-.l, anl aiTorlingly einharrassivl bv ilieir own vie I.iri.'s. VVIliI was to be d.Mie with Ionia ? "" 'I'c wholt inirv to lie ndmilte<l into the llilli-ni nfedi-ralion T T.kv gn-al a n- »pon«ihilliy woiil.l In the opinion of the Peloixm nesiins. Ik. Iniiirrwl liyaui-haslep It would Ik' Is.tler Ui saiTirtiv the eounlrv. and extalilish the lonians in w.illements in I'.ther pans at the expense of tliott- who hail favi.nn..l ' the M«l.-t. 1. e . ..f the Argives, Hivotians I^k ri siK, and Tlie»«ahsns . The Athenians on the other hand. esp.Mised the i»use of iht. litiea l.inla oiiitiil to lie a bulwaik airainat Iha Harliarljiot aii.l i.. \v\tm\( Ui tin- llilli-nea The Aiiieiilana (.iiiud a supptiri iu Iha fMilag H ATHENS, B. C. 4T»-«T8. piCT»laot kmoof the lonluu, who were MturallT oppowd to aaj forcwl •ritliment. Accorilliialv, in the lint liMUm-e, ^ialn»ll, Lesboa, I'hicw, «n.l • number of other iiUoJ towni, werv uliuitli'il into the confederation . . . and a new Ijcllu* wa» formed, a Oreek empire comprehending U)th •Meaofthe lea. CdUKideratlooa of caiitiuo made it neceaanry, alMve all, to lecura the paaaage from Aain to Europe: for it waa unireraall; liC' Beved that the bridge over the Hetleapont was •Uhir (till In exisU'Uce or bad been reatnred. When it waa found to hare been deatroyed, the Feloponnealana urged the termfawtion of the cam- paign. . . . The Atheniana, on the other hand, declared theni«rlvp« n-aoWed ... not to leave unllnished what they had begun. Seatua, the atrongeat fortrcaa on the Hellespont, ought not to be left In the hands of the enemy ; an attack on it ought to be risked without deUiy, before the city bad prepornl for a siege. They allowcil the IVlii|H>niiesians to Uke their departure, hikI under the command of Xauthippua united with the ships of the lunlana and Uelleapontiana for the purpose of new undertakings. " The PersUns in 8estua resisted obstinately, enduring a long •iege, but were forced to surrender at hut. "Meanwhile, the main point conaiatcd in the Atheniana having n'maioed alone In the field. In their having fratt-mlziHl with the lonlana aa one naval power, and having after such successes attained to a conadence in victory, to which no eoterprlae any longtr seenmi either too distant or toodUleult. Alrewly they regarded their city •a the centre of the ci«»t lands of Qnm. But what was the cnnilitioo of tUa litv of Athena itaelf? A ffw fragini-nts of the ancant city wall, a few scattrred bouses, which had served the Per aian romnian<lers as tbrlr quarters, were yet st4adlng . the rest was aabes and ruins Afi«-r the battle of IMataw the iohabiunts bad retume<l from Salamis, Tr>eaene, and -Egina; not even the ••et and lu crews were at hand to afford them aasls t s n ce. They endeavoured to make shift aa heat they could, to pass through tlie trials of the winter. Aa soon as the apriag arrived, the res- toration of the city waa comouincad with all poasible actlvitv. But even now It was nut the comforts of dnmrsticllr which occupuxl their thoughts, but, above all, the city aa a whole and iU security To Tbemlsl.«les. the founder of the port town, public contldeiice was iu ibis matter pro|wrly accorded. " It waa not poMiblv ■to carrj- out a i.cw and regular plan for the city; but it waa ns..lv«l to extend lu circum ference beyond thi- circle of the ancient walU, _so aa to be aide. In case of a future sieir.'. to offer a retreat to the country (MipuUl Ion with In the capital Itai-lf Hut the Albtniana wer«' not even to be | i<rrallted to build lliclr walls umiisturbeil . for. as Mion as (heir t-raml plan of u|ieratioiu Utaiue known, the envy and insidious jeabmity of tbilr nrubbours broke out afreafa The IVIotHinnrswn staler. aUite all ^glnaand( 'irintb W-iinol u> dirctt tbt atten lion of ^<|lana to lur >iiuatbm of affairs. Aa at Htiarta illy waila wrm objected to on princlpb), au.1 as |..uhui prevaitnl with riitaril to the fai I tttsi a well fortlAmt tiiwn was iiupreg aable to ilw ullltery art of Uir IV l.itMifin.-.ian.. it was artualiv rr«.linl at aiiv prti-e to provctil tbe buildinir of ihr walls In .\tn, « ||,it f.wMiainr , sake, the lalrrfi-rriu •- iiMK^taken by .fMns was put upon tha grouu<l Uw; >„ tba eveni ut a (uiiir» U)2 ATHEira, B. C. 4n-4M. invasion of th« country, only tbe paniaaolaeoulii be successfully defended ; that central Qreei < would neceasarUy be abandoned to the eneniv and that every forUfled city io H would fuml'li htm a dangerous base. " At auch a criaia craft alone could be of avaU. When the Sparun* made their imperious demand at Athena, Themis toclea ordered the immedhta oeaaatioo of buil.l ing operations, and with aaaumed lubmiaaivt neaa, promised to present himself at BparU, In order to pursue further negotlationa in person Un his arrival there, he allowed one day after *^« »»^' to «o by, pretending to be waiting for bis fellow envoys. " In the meantime, all AUitns waa toiling aight and day at the walla, and time enough waa gained by the audacious duplicity of TBemistoclea to build them to a safe height for defence. " The enemies of Athens saw that their design bad been foiled, and were forced to put tbe best face upon their discomflture. They now gave out that they had intended nothing b.' Tond go.«l ailvice."— E. Curtiua, Uut. of Om^, I*. 8, cA. a (e. 8). J . ALao IN O. W. Co». Uul. of Qrtttt, U. i eh 7-« (». 1-3). B. C. 47H77-AUe««tion of the Aaiatic Creeks from SpuU.— Fonutioa of the Con- fedcracy of Osles.— The founding of Athenian Bmpirt. SeeUiiKErB: B. C. 4i(M7i. B. C. 477-4te-— CoostitBtional fains for the democracy. —Aacendsncx of Aristcidss.- De- clining Mpalarily and ostracism of Themis- tokles.— Taa sastentation of the commons.- Tho strippiog of power from the Areopagus. - At the time wheu lite I'onfcilrracv of I). I.., was formed. "Ihe Persians siill bilil not only tbe Important poats of Kion on the Strvmon suil iKiriskus lu Thrace, but also sevi-rnl other posu in that country which are not s|>ecilled to us We may thus understand why tlie Oreek citlea on and near the Chaikidic (H-ninsula . . . were n..t lesa anxioua to seek protection In Ihe bostmi if the new confeilenicy than tbe I>orian islandu uf Ithodes and Coa. the Ionic inlands of rtamoa an.l t'hios, the .Kollc l^aboa and Teneiios, or (. n tinenul towns such aa Miletus and Byiantlum SKMae sort of union, organised and ol.li gatory u|iun esi-h city, was inilis{M ii.table U> iht- saf.'ly of all Indit-il, even with tliat aid. at tlii- time aliea the t'lmfnlrnky of llrlos Has I.fHl f.irmeil. it waa by no nu-atis certain the AsUiii Miiniy would I* effectually kept out. eaiiecialh at the IVnuiw were strong iiul im-r. ly from tii.ir own font but also from tlie aiti of lutirhul |>art»-» In many of the (ireclan stali-s— trail. irt wiUilii. as well as ivilc» without. Amonc tin «• trBiU>rs, tbe first lu rank as well as the iin^t fomildabli . was the Spartan l>aii>aiil:i» ' Pausanbia, whose trrasonablc iiitrigun ailh \h>- Peraiau^klngjiegan at Uruntium (See (iKtri i H t' 47H-4**) was ion\icti4l some nine or i.u years later, and suifervd a terrible fair Uu.t shut within a temple to wbli h he had tieil i,i.a starved. IIU trmaiaiable projects lni|.li.«i. I and brought to dUgraiT a man far Kriimr il.m blmwlf-the Atbiiiiao Tlomlstokles Tl« rhirj" lagainst Thiiiil«iokli-«) of rolliitlon wlili tbi Ivrsians loiimris li«.lf with tlir jirii.-iS movement of |H>lllli'»l |>artiea . . Tbi- rnnltv of Tbemistokles sod Arialeldes had Urn irriitiiv •piMasml by tbe iuvaaloo of Xersrs. oiilili ti.l ' upon both the (xremplury un twlij .x ATHENS, B. C. 477-Ml ATHENS, a C. 477-409. cni>peratloD agaiiut a commoii enemy. And apparently it wu not returned during the timu* whii'h laiin.Hliiitcly •mTcwItxi the return of tlio Atlirnlsns t<i their country: at leaat we bear of both in elTei'tive M-rvira and in promineDt puatn. Tbeniistoltles ■tanili forward aa the contriver of the city wall* ami architect of Peiraeua: Aria- triiles \» commander of t lie fleet and flrat organiaer of the ('iinfe<leracy nf I>elo«. MoreoTer we leem hi detect a change in the character of the latter lie hmi ceaMil to be the champion of Athenian old fMbioned landed intereat, agalnat Themit- toklej aa the oriicinator of the maritime inno. TntiiHif Thoae InnoTationi bad now, aince the battle of Halamia, become an eatabliahed fact. . . . Prom henceforth the fleet ii endeared to every man aa the grand force, offentive ami defenilve, of the atate, in which character all the iniHtical leuiler* agree In accepting it. . . . The iriri iiies, and the men who manned them, takin iilhrtively, were now the determining element in the ii'tate. Mori-oTcr, the men who nwrineil them had juat rcturniil tnim Salamis, fnsli friiiu aiceiie of trial and danger, anil from a hurt est of vliUiry, whiih had ci|ualizeil furtlie iiiuiiietit nil AthenianaaaaulTerera. Ht combatant*, anl lilt imtriulH . . . The piilitical change ari-iiiii; from hence In Athene waa not leM imsiiriaiit than the niilltury. 'The muritimo miiliiiii.le, authiin of the Tirtiiry of Halamin." nil I iiKtrumeiitii of the Tiew viKallon at Athriiii »« luaii of the Dillan Cimfederacj . HpiHiirniiw K- , h.Unl in the political cim»tltiril.in al-n; imt ill iiiiy w.iy M a separate or privile^iil rla^a, but a» li :ui nini; the wlinle iiiasH. atn-nstheiiini; the ilriL K 'aii.il M'litiiiii'iit, and proleiting iitfain'-t all i.iii){iii«.'.l |Hiliiiral Ine.iualilies . Rirl,- afi' r I.I.- nliirii to Atti.a, tlii' Klel-illiii.i.ih C"i.-iiuiiiui wiw enlHri,-i'i| ai ri -i iit.< elicililii / to '.i:- iiiaifi^lraiv Anoriini; tii that cmi'il tiii-ii. tlie f Mirth nr la-t rlais i.n the Suli iilaii nil i«. iiirhiillnj; the inn^iileraMe maj'Titv if fn •< I Reren.it a<lMii^»l!ile to iKTl.e* i.f siate. til .illiy pi.,-i.ii!« ij votes In (■•ininiui with 111 I »l. no [wnmn waa eliKilile to lie a magia- Irni.- mil, w he Ixlonged to one of the Ihne lii^ I.n l.isMH. Tills restriction naaiKiwanniillid ail I . Ii.iliility cxirti.leil to all the riliitena. We nil. i|.|rriilale the »ln.n«lh of deling with wUi. ii ■ II h rif..rm waa ileinaniliil when we find til 11 it H.H pr,i|»i«.|| liy Ari«teiilea . . . The I'.'iiiliriiy tliiiB eimiireil to hliii, pMliably heigh- till.. I li) Minie n.>;r. t fur hU prevloua oatraciam, w.i« raleulali'.l tii aiijiilre |irrni«nence fnim hU •traik'lilfiirn ird "id iiKnrnipiilile character, ihiw brmicht Into atri.nj! relief by hia function aa aaaiwir to the new Ilellan i'onfeileracy. On the other hand. Ilie anieuilen.r of Tbrmiatoklea, Ih.iuifh ao often e «all«l by hin unrivallnl poliil cal genlua and daring, aa well aa by the algnal value of hia public rieoniniinilationa, waa aa ofti a iiverthMwn by bi» diiplii Ity of meana ami unprineipleil ihlral (..r mmer New p<.lilli»| epliiuentaaprung iip against 'him. men ~ . iiiiia- Ihisi,,, with Arl.lii.l.-, <»f the*, the chief wiri. KimoD [f'ini ^1 ,..,n i.f Miltiadeai, and AUiiiinn ■ In 411 II ( riieinialokiet waa aent ini i.ili. liT a v.iti. I.f iMw. ism. and retired to Arc H Five yi ir» lull r be waa accuaed of ri>ii.|.licitr In the trii«onalile intriguea of lui.iiilaa, and All li. i! mrt of the I'emlan kill- . where Ii.. .p, nt the niiiaiml. r i.f hia ihiv« ■■ AriitieiJea iliol aiMiit three or f mr yvnn after the ottndim of ThemlatoUea."— O. Orote. IhtT. offtnui. pt. 2, eh. 44 (e. 8).— Th« conatituti<iDal ellectauf the Peraian war, and the political situu- lion of Athena immediatelv after the war, at« Kpreaented tomewhnt dJITerpntlv from the account almve, in the lately iliscovered work on the Conttitutlon of Athens which ia attributed to Ariatotle. The following is iiuotiil from one of the tranalatlona of the latter: " After the Median war the council of Areopacus [.See AREOPAOua] recovered strength ami ruled the Mate, nottliat any law conferred the hegeiiii.iiv on them, but becaiiae the aristricmtic partv b 'd the credit of the victory at Salamia. For' when the generals hud dvapaircd of the country and pnK'laimeil a aauve qui peut, the Areop'agiia mi.sed funila, gave every man eight drachinna («a. (d ) and iiulu(.ei| them to man the ahipa. In cona-'ipnni e of thia public aervii e the Kci liiiia vlelled the aacen.leney to the Are<ipagu«. and public arairj were niltiifrably adininiatereil during the follow. Ing ep<Mb. For thev acipiin-d the ort ef w.ir, iiiaite their name )ionoiiri.<l tliroinrbout tlic IleUenic worM, and posai-axd tbemaelvea of the aovereignly of the sea with the conacnt of Ijikeilaimon. At tbia time the leaden of the conimona were Aristeides, »,n of Luainuicboa. ami TbemUtokles. ».n of Neukba ; the latter alU'Houa of the arts of war. the former reputeil eminent in stalesmanabip imd honeat la'Vond biHC«ntcmpor:irie-i : wliirb i li^raeters made tbclr e.eintrymen emplor the . iie as a general, the other aa a ci.umllW Tlie nlniiliring of the walla of Athena waa tliiir j. int work, thougb tb.'V Were otherwise at feml. The ilelarbment of the lonlans from Persia ana the formation of an alliance with i^parta were iliie to the counocla of Ari.steidet. who wi/ed the opportunity nfforileil by the diacreiiit east ..n the I,akonlana I y the conduct of Pausanias. lie tmi orlginallv npjK.rtloucd, two year* after the battle of Sijamla, in the anbonship of Timi»thenct i '.''* n v.), the ctmtribiition to be pail by the {..lander*. . . . Hulwipii nlly, when 'lofty tbiiughta filled every laMoin and wealth waa aecumulating, Arisl'eblea advised tliem to adminlater the beseni.ny with their own banda. to leave their naii'ilrv oiiupatii.ns and flx their domicile In the liiv' Siisientnlii n. be pnmiiseil, would be pniviilid for all, elllier aa aoMiers or aailor* in aeti\e mrvbe, orastriH.pa in garriaon or aa pul.lic airvanH; and then Ibey eould increase the vit'ourof ili.ir imperialsway. They foilowni hia advice, ami. taking the rule into their own hanila. n-iliie. d tlieir alliea to the poeitlon of voaaala. except tlie Cliiana, I-eablanji. and Hamlant, whom Ibi y kept aa aatellitea of their |M>wer, and |>erniiiii.<l to n-tain their own constitutions and to rule lliilrownilep«.n<lencie*: and they provided f,.r their own austentalion by the melhwl wbiih Aristeldea lndicali.<l: f.ir iii the end the public revenues, the tales and llie thbutea of the alliea gave nialnlenaiiee to more than S<),(NX) There were A.ISK) dliasts or Jiir..ra, I «!)"> anhers. \:i(.M) eavalry, .VMI ainalofs. .'lOO s..|ilieraof thediK kyani narriaon, .Wcilv ^iiar.la, TiNt home i-iaglslrates. TiHt foreign magiMnti-a, '.'."riNi bravv armed aoiilier* (this was tin Ir hum tier at the iieglnnlng of the I'elii|>oiiii..slan «ari, 4.ISNI salbira manning til) giianUbips. .' is>i) •iiilors nppolnteii by lot, manning 2(1 tribute 11. Meeting ships, and In ti|.lill..u In tli< se the I'rutuneion, the orphans, lliu gaolcra . and all hvi ATHENS, a C. 477-l6«. 1 p«noni were malnuinad at the expense of Uw mtioiwl (mwury. Tlie iiulvnutiou of the comm..n» wiu thun secured. The 17 yi«r« » hi. li foniiwiHl the Mnliau w»r were about the inTiixi dunii).' which the country continued umlcr ll.c tMcrmieocy of the Areopagui. though lis uristo- «»tic fraturei were mdually on the wiiiie. »h.n the nuMes had grown more and more pnpoiiilerBtit. Ephtaltea. aon of Sophoiii.li-a. npulfil iiui>rniptible in hi* loyalty U> iler.ioc ncy. became Itwicr of the commooa. and iK'Ran to attack the AfiNipagua Firat. he put to deatli many of its membera, by impeachint; tliein of ofrin<vi commitiiHl in their admiuinlralion. Afterwanlii in the archonahip of Komrn (468 B. (jhe dcinH>llHl the council itaelf of all lla more recently aciiuired attributea. which were the kcynlone of tlic eximiiie constitution, and dUtrtbuted them aiming the Senate of SiHI, Iho Enlea a, niiil tlir court* of law. In thi* work he had the <■<. ..iMrati.« of Thembtoklea. who wa* hmiai'ir an An-opagite, but expe.tinx '" '"« tmpt-ached f..r tnawiiiuble <^>rrc«|x>iid.n<e with iemta. . . . KphiHltcs and TbemiHUiklcH kept accmine the Arinpuirua before the H.-iiute of 000, and afruin iK'f.irc the cinnmona, till ftnallv they 8irip|«<l it of all |u principal functions The asaassiiKition of EphtulU'* lir the instru mentality of Arist.»lil(.« „f Taniiirra foll„w«| not lonif after Sui li win- i|,r .inimistam cs I'f the overthrow of tlie An-oijajrus. After this the ileeradailoii of the cimstltiillon priHcciltil witliout intermission trtm the eapcriicss cif r>olitician* to it in (Mipuhir favour: ami at the •anie time there hapiH'iietl to be no oritani/ier of I the aristwratic party, whose heiul, Kiiiion. the I aon of .Miltiades. aax tisi yonnit for siHne y.-ars I to enter iMilitical lit..; l»-siilea which their rank* I were muili dcvastalMl by war. Kxpeditioiiurv i forces were recruited by eonarription ; and as j the tfi-ncrals hail no military ex|)erience and • ow.-.! their ap|K>inliuenl u. the nputalion ..f | their aneestont. each expetlition entuileil the •acrlfice of 4.(HM» r)r 8.000 Uvea, chiellv of the noblest son* of Athena, whether lielonKing tollie wealthy claaw-s .>r to the commmu."— Arixtotle Wa tht t'omlitiiUiiit nf Alhriu itr, by K. i*(*le ) «». M-'ifl— Oulliealsive. Dr Abls.ti c<iminenla aa follows: "S.i miiih of this account aa refers to Themistocles may be at om-e dismi.-«e<i u un historii-al. ... If tlie evidence of Thucvilidia U U> count for anythiiiir, it i* quite certain that Tbemisliicles flually left (Dreece for I'eraia alioiit 4«8 H <■ . I'lutan-h says not a word aUiut ThemisUicles But the remainder of the account /of the attack on the Areopa»riis] is aiipiMiHeil liy all our autliorill.s-if indee<l it i. not merely re[Maled l.y tliem -E Abbott, JU.I „f (irmi Ai.~> IN J !• Mahaffy, /h-.JJ,,,^ ,„ On-rk llfi.rfi ;, Ml - riiit.,r< h. rhrmifil:^l,t Hi'e. ulw., I.I..W H (■ 4(l«4.-,4 B. C. 470-464.— Conlinuad war aguaat Ik* Peraiana - Cimoa'a *lctori«a at the Euryma- don.-Kt»olt and aabjugatiea of Naao*.- • I iiil.r tlir K'H'laiM-t' of Athena, the niir hlmIiisI the i'<T-.lans «a» mntinueil. liinon IKimohi s-iilt-i with a Meet to the coast of Thraie (nil Inid Hieife to Ei. n the Htrvnion |H ( 47ii The IVrnlan ;rirrl«in made a «r->llaiii defence an<l iiriiilly Hoc, « i(„. ^ov.nior, Miher than siirreiid. r. ciist nil hi- ^old nti,| tiltir into the nver, anil, l.auoK rai«ii a huge pile of w.»«l. m ▲THEMS. a C. 406-154. 'I'T J**?, **»"• «Wldi»n and ilarea. tad Ui.l their Nxliea on It ; then setting flrs to It. ho flunir hiouelf into thetbmaa: the garriaon •urtendere.l at discretion. Uuriacua was attacked in vain liut all the other Persian garriaona in Eumiw were reduced. C'imon then, aa executor of an Amphictvimic decree, turnwl hia arma against tlie piratic Dohipiauaof the laleof Hcyraa whom he ex|)elled, and fllletl the ialand with Athenian c iloniata. t>n this occaaion he aought and found (as wa* auppoaedl the bones of the lero Theseus who had died in thiaiafaindlMOyean bafoie; and he brought them in hia own trireme to Athens — an act which gainetl him great farour with tli« people. By thia time, acme of the confederates w-ere grown wearj of war, and began to miiriimr at the toila awl cxpenae to which it put ihein The peopteof Naxua were the flrat who ikwi tively refused to contribute any longer: but the AthenUna. who had taaled of tlie sweet* of cm iiiand. wouhl m>t now iiemiit the exertiae of fn. wjll to their allies. Cimon appeared (((I. :k;(i m. ( 4W| with a large Heet before Naxoa: the ftaxians defended themselvea with rigour hni were at length forced to aulimit: and' the Athenians hail the hardihiKKl to leduce them i i the condition of subjnts to Athens — an ex amphi which they siM>n fothiweil in other cnnev. . . . After the reduction of Naxos, Cimon will, i over U) the (imst of Asia, and learning that tli, Pemhin generals hud aMenibletl a large fleet sn,l army In I'ainphvlia. he c<il|«teil a tieit of Jiii) IrinniesHt (nidoa, 'ith which lie prtKiwIed i,. the c.ia«t of that country, and laid hiege to ||„ city of l>haaelis. which, though On-ck ol.n.l the Persian monarch Having re.iuce.1 ii i,, siihmisaion. he resolved to proceed and Htiuilt the I'eraian fleet ami arniv. which be lenrnnl were lying at the river Euryniedon. On hi. arrival, the Persian fli-et. of *iO triremes, tenr ing at first to flght till HO I"h.»iilcian »ei.i«N which they were ex|M< tliiir. rhould ii ii, kerit in the river: but hiuling that the tJn.i.* were preparing to attack, they put out to „, and engaged them The action dhl not coniiniM Jong: the Ihrlwrians fle<l to the hind: atsi.liii., fell inUi the hamls of the victors, anl seieml wer»' destniywi. Without a moment s ililiv Cimon iliseitiliarknl his men, ami M th.in Bgainiit the htnd forces the reauitance of il,e renians was olwtinute for some time but at lait tiM-y turiieii ami Il.^l. having their . >imp a i,r, v to Ihe coni|iieron: and Cinion had thus the r» e glory of having gain),<l two inip<irtant vieton.. ill the one day. Hearing then that the «tt |'1„, nicUn vesaela were at llyilroa. in the M, „( « yprus he iniiiie,lialclr saileil thither and l...|c or de»ln.ve,i the wluib< of tlicm. The victor, on the Kiirymedoii niav Iw regarded as ilm lerniluatlon of the lonfll. I lirtween (ireece «i„l '.'"'" '"'"■ .*■"■'"■ »'''' it «»l 7H.4) |H «' 4ti,'ii Xerxes wa-) n^xuutinaieil. and the usual confmion l.«.k f.la. e in Ihe court of Sua*' - T. Keightley, Jli't -r i;n,,r. 1,1 I. M la _Ai.soi:, W >V ix.yi ru .\gt ,ff }Vn^. .k S. 1. also I'F.HsiA ; H ( 4>*«-(a'i B. C. 4M-4S4 - Lcaderahip is the Drlisn confederacy chaafed to *OT*rei|a«r. -Revolt and subjugation of Tbasos - Help le Spsrt. and Its ungraciou* requital.- Fall mmt e».l« of Cimon Rise of Pericle* aid tae demo- cr»t»e Mti-Spartu policy. -RcMMal oi th» ATHENS, a C. 466-lU. ATHENS, B. C. Ma-tSl federal tmtnrj from Detoi Bnildinx th« Loog Wkli*. — " It wot now evUciii ti> ilw tvbolc l>.iily •>( tUe allies of Athena that by jolaint; the IcijitR they bmJ proviliil thenuelvi-s with a nlstivM rather than a leader. . , . Two yvAT* ■iltr the niluctlon of Nazoa another powi rf iil UlauJ Ktnte broke out into rebellion aminiit tlie iupn'Riacy of Athens. The people of Tba-wM bad from viTy earlr tliiiei poeacned tcrribjrr on the mainland or Thrane opposite to thrtr Island. By holding this r<Kk>t-8llp liiey encromed the trade of the V.illcy of the StrymDti. and held tbe riclt giKl luiries of Miiuiit Panzaciu. But the Athenians, after the I'.iplure of Eton, set themscivi'ii tu devilop that |K>rt as the commercial n-ntrc uf TlinifX'. . . . .V spot called 'The Nine Ways,' . . where tlist inmt river first bogitis to bri«t>!i!i out into iui estuary, but can still be spanned by a bridfre, WBK the chosen site of a fiirtnais tu secure the h lilt of Athens on the land. But the native 'I'krarian tribes band««^ tbenuielves tof^ther, and fi'U u|Hia the invaders with such dc^ipt ration tti:;t . . . the .\thenianarmii!S were defeat! d. ... It was probably tbe discuuraf^iniDt which this ilrfent lauwHl at Athena that embnlilemil Tlias<><i to di>clari' iHfr aeci'iuiion from the ('•>nfeileracy of Delia. She wisbvl to atve her Thrnciaa trade. In fiiH' Athens could nuilie anotbi r attempt to iliM-rt it fmiii her. Tlu- Tlmsiaii!! dii uot rely •>n tliiir own n-aourfcs alone; tliev euiisU'il tbe I'limi'iiins and .M.icetioniunjt of ibe mainland, fiiiii M-nt to Sparta to ciuieavnur to iuiluce the rphiirs to decUrti war ou .\!h<ns." The Spar- t iiis were well illsixtmil to taki' up the oaiiiv of f^H* ThaMians; but ut tbat luunieiit tbey were KVirnlii limil liy tiie calainilr of the frightful Linui|:iakr uf 464. in»bujtly followed liy the nsiMiT of tlu' Ilcloti itntl tbi- tbini Mcssrnian «:ir I.S.C MrxsKsuN War. Tiiic TiiiaU). "Tliu ivluriil Hiuie was tbtrifore b ft to its own re- >>"Unv«: and tbeiie wire so coiuiJernlile t!i it she hiM uut ataiust thi' force of Lie Atlu-ni.m con- f;'.|i'r»iy for two wlifile v<ar<. . , . .slw was oliiiiCi'd at but to .'<urnn<lir to Ciiuon [fl ('. W,i]. whose army bud lintg ln-eu lyin.; before brr walls Like Na.fii*. olie wasi puut.ihcd for Iht cIi fpction by the loss of hi r war tlo-t and I IT fortiMcaltons. ninl thu iiii|M>>:tion of a Hne of maiiv In^'ntM. Still mure iralliii .' must have lieen lur low of her tnuie Willi Tiirocc, wbiih now |iito«Ml I'litin-ly into AtlHuia-i Imiuis. . . Tlie ^|i«rtaii> weri' atlll riii;iiKi'>l i:i a ib'«|M>rale ulruK- >.'l>- with liifirreviiluti sulijii !» wluii tli • niceof IttHN'" raiiie tuamii I. I'liuoii. nbowa^nowat ih< l,< iL'lil of bin n|oit:iiioii ami imwir, saw ui'.li il|.ilre.is Ibc tnul.l.'s of tlic i ity be so much a.liiiiri .1 lie set liiiiiicir to inT'iuailf liie .Vibe- i.i»ii» that tbi'y i«ubt t.i fon it" old itriulai'S, iiiilwii- fnim"ile<tm. Ihn tlie bi.itc which Lid »iiaiii| Willi »lnm l.i.- itlory i.f llie i'eraian war. Ill* |i|iiii!iii^ HiiK lii'iterly o|'|>ow^| by the hiiii Spartan partv iii .Vtlicni', lieald bv two «l«t.5nitu, Epiii.lii. n!vl ririiiii, who had itir»«ily come in o riotiiv ii» nuia'.'ontnu of • iroon Hut tli n i:iniro'i< »ii,| uiiwi«' |«iliiy pri'vailel, ami 4 mo b"i'liu-a <vere Kent to tin- sill of S|Birt;i (M <■ 4il':| Tbi. army was putsiKil by mn-fortiim . it was so uiioiin i-mi fill in nttai'kiiiK Illiiiiii- that the ."<|mrtaii» stirlba..! 11. failun' to .11 will ratber than ill ink riiey. Ili.nfon-. Uuun to trial ilmr aUla wnb madwii dtacu.irlisj , auil at lust sent them home wttbout a word of thanks, merrlr statiui; that their services could be of n.i fur.hi'r u*f [See MKtiaK!(iA!« W.vii. Tiik Tufni)]. This ru liiiess and ingmtituilc fully Justified llio au-.i-Spurtan party at Athena . . . I'limm was n!iw no lon)^r able to deal with the policy of the state as he chose, and tbe ci>:iiluct of altair* Ix'inn to po-sa into tlie honJa of nun whose for- eii;n and domestic policy were alike opp<>.*-d to all his views. Ephialt<'4 and Perirles procewled to form alliances abro:ul with all tbe states which were ill disposed towani Sparta, and at home to commence a revision of tlic coastitulion. They were determined to carry out to Its fur- thest logical development the dcmocmtic ten- dency wbicli Cleistiieucs bad Intrxluci-d iuto the AUicnian polity. Of Kphialtes, the sou of Sojihonidcs, comparatively lit le ii known. But Pericles . . . was the son of Xanthippus, the accuser of Miltiodes In 4Hi>, B. C. and the victor of Mycale and Sestos; while, on his mother's tide, he came of the blooii of the Alcmai'onldae. Piricles was staid, self-contained, and luiuebty — a klranire chief for the popular party. But Ms nlaLiiiiiablp to CleUtbenes. and the enmity which exited U-tween hU bouse and that of "rimon. ur^i-d him to eiipouiie the cauiic of ili-n-.ii.ricy. . . . While riiiion bad Gn^ece iu bin mind, Pcfi. r!( > could only think of Athins, n;i I tlie 'eitiixr of llie times was favourable ii tbe n:trro«er f'.Ii-y. . . . Till- first aim wbirh I'lridn in.! ll'liioltes set iH'forc tbeniwlvi's w:i; t!ii' cu'.iins il i«u of tbe |>"Wer of the .\n>ops;:iH [ Vi :i!i .ve: II. V. 47:-irt','|. Tbat IhxIv had ►imc the I'lr. si in war N ronie the Rtronj,')io!d of liiu C'orwrva tie and pliilo-I^imiau party. . . . Kpbialles t hik tbe li-oil in the ;ittack on tbe .\n- pinus. it.' cb'Mc a moment when Ciniou wan anny at * % bint on a-wi.sting a r Inllion arainst" the Gr at Kinff which hiul liroken out iu ^^,-y•lt. After a violent struggle, he succnilid in i irry- li\i » law which deprivifd the .Vreopapus of its stiiii lit censorial power, awl nduitnl It I la lu? n? c I lit to try bomioiiles. . . . When Cinion cumu bitiie fmin r».'ypt he was wildly enMcul. . . . Ilivo irsc was'lud to the tixt of iwlrirism. It ili'i i'ltl :i:;:iinst Cimon, who then-fore win: into banisl.nii lit [R. (' l.^.a). Hut tbi* wronk'M-ainst tlic ({riatist pinir. I of .Xllii-ns wai. not l..u^ afur, avin.','i''l by an over ^i.tlousaud uiiHirui.ii lous frieiiil. Kphialtes was slain bv ika.sa.v.iii« in his own liouii' . . . The imnifiliale ti -.nil of this munler ».« to b :ive Peril len in sile ant uudividi I coiiiruand of the ilimo< ratic party The fon-iifn poliiy of IVricles ko'D biiin to Involve .Mbeiii in trouMes at home. He con- cluded alb inin with .Vrjjot sn<l I'lieixily, both sial.-s at V: riaiiiv »iib Spart.i, and then liy maile a i.i!li»lon witli ibe I.aii-dsmouian confiihtncy ineviubli-. II' pive slill more illriit olTime to t'.irint!i. oik of the most powerful menil«'n of thiit loiifidri-aiv, by comluilinK a cb.*' ullianra with Mc-art. In IbKiitU. ti«). be siirftsl up (nnoly. by trivini; an aitive suppon to tin- ditiio- cratir I'lrty ri Ihit country Tliisi' provma- tjoni ou'ii- I » .ir iiii'viuible' In (."iH n (' tbe utor'ii burst . .\t tbe niimiiut of t! r .iii bri' ik "f till' ilrit I'liporta'it naval wir iviii' Ii she b'kl lo tt iL-' nitli a (lisik eii-iny sii.i . the firinitiion of bi r i tni»i^-'. .Vthin-i t-v>K iivo In, li.i.iiil si. (IS ■''II,- iir-i V -IS ib'llni.l to _-uanl aitMiiist .ill' H-'-v f ti i.-(i.riiij.i-s h> SI. I. ii .'i.ii kistt I in tlie irau.sfen'Ui.t' l'..iii lli'loa |o .Viiuus lU'-j ATHSN8, a C. 408-154. Itj*??^, ••!??*"' •u'JwHUft between 46t and 434 B. C] of the oentnl trauur>- of the confed- eracy. ... It waa not long before the Athe- niaiu came to regard the tiwwury aa thcfr own and to drew up»n it for punly Atllc needi. Which had no connection with tho welfure of the other <J'nf«l';™l«* • ■ . The second important event of the year 438 B. C. was the commence- ment of the famoua 'Loug WalU' of Atfena [See I.«xo Wall*]. . . . When they wetx' lln- tehed Athena, Peineus, and I'hal.run.. formed the aovlea of • raat fortiaed trlanjrle, while the ■pace between them, a oonaiderable ejtpanae of open country, could be utilized ai a place of refuge for the nopuUtion of Attica, ami eren for their flocki and j>erd*"-C. W. C. Oman, Zfirt. tf Oretce. th. 23-34. At JO IK E. Abbott. PtridMandthf 0,JUn Ant !f "t'^f^'of*- £;« -C- Thiriwall, lli,t. ,.f<}r,en, <*. 17 (e. 3).— Plutarch, CSmon; P.-ir-l., ,^- p- 4«<J-449-— Ditaatrona expedition to ATHENS, B. C. 460-440. Ml ^ M *'» i* "° "•• P«lopouneiian Coaat. —Recall of Cimon. — Hia last enterprise •minat the PerauiM.-The disputed Peace of Omon or C*HUa.--Fi»e years truce with 3>*rt*-— Inurus. king of some ..f ihe Ubvan trib.-8 on the wesurn bonier <if Kirvpt had Mcitid an iiiBiirPection there airuinxt tin" Persians [about 400 B. (J, and liisamhoritv wasaeknowl- edged thn.mrhont tlie pnurer (Kift of ih.- o>un- trv Art«»er.xes irnt his lirr.ilier Aehamencs with a pnat anny to -luell tlii* reMli.m An Atheniim armament of ':(I0 ^ail.yii was lying at the time off ( ypni«. ut.i Inariw wnt to irfxain lt» H^iM^lanc.v The Alluniin omimanden wlicth.r rul|„Hln« ihcir own ilbK-relioii. or after oMer^r.ivivwl fn.in home, fiiiitiwl (vimn and lianiii: Joined wiili ih,- lii»urL'ent.t. eiiAlili-<l iliem tod. fiat Ail.,emeiit.,, who fell in the l«iile by the iK.ii.l ,.r InariH. Tluy llieii s.,ilul up the :sile 1,1 M. nii^hiH, «hen'al>.i.lvof IViviar, and si'ine I.^;,i|,i,iiM. who Mill .ulh.r.il to Hair eaiiae '^n"'.";.-'.'.'-*"^"'"" "' """' '!"-'rt<r of llie liiv ea)I.Hl While (;„si|e. Tlie r.^t w,w Mii.i.vt io '","■'"• •' ""■'■<• '!"• Atiuiihuw st,iti.,ii,-,i iheiii. H'lvis. ami l*«ie(;„| H... I'.rsiaiH \rtax tT\,H Milt a IVrsi.m. naind .Mu^.l a/,., to h|urn. «iili a aiiiii of inoiiev. U) t»- . int.] ,vmI in linliiiitf the |.riiKi|)ul H[«rtiriui to um i|„ ,r iiitiii <n., „. as to enttaee their roiiiilrvio. i, i,, an ti|mli;i..n aeaiiwt Altioa Meiralia/iiH .li,l „„t tiiul I!.,, hailing .-^paruuis unwillinL' t., t.-.iiie hinni..p>.v. l,„t tiM y »,*m u> have Urn unahle t..rrri,h r him tlie M-rvUe for wliirli it wa.- oll.r.,! Ith.HiM- .nil h,.|,| out: and S|wrta had |.i..l,:il.iv iM't v.t -uilUiently .itiMr n-eover«l her sinnetli ' ornstor..! internal traii.iullity. to vi iiiiir, f>u llie j |ir.l»i'.Mliiiva.<ion SoiniriimcHirsol !lil ta i{oei». thai n in lM\e r.iMhe,| Aiheiis. and h..>, qiu, k- "•">' Tey with whiih i-eriifc, i.,.« Lritrd ' the e..nij.l,iion of the Umf walb. Riu [ •mohtf l.is M|,|H.n,.i,t» llM-ri' wac a fa. im -vho i Tlew.nl il„ pniitr.iw of thN unnt «..rli in a ! dlffK.i.i li.;lii from Ciiiioii an.l aaw ill 11 i><4 iIk. > meuiM.i vniruip tie liah |h iideiHr ..| Aih.iu. lull a »ml« irk of the hut.il .-.mimon lin riiey l<"i Wou,.i hu\e i.-hi.||y laeii ,„| li,v,„li„^ ,nin i„ Aili.a. ul.i. h i„l,.|„ „,^i„ ij„.,„ i„ ,|, ,,r,,;.|, , Uie work ..i„| Us aiith..r«' Tlil« |,.irl> 'wa* weuM.I ,,f ., mpatliv win, |h,. Siwriaii .'«|„.,|l Moil »huh .aihe lo Ihe heU, ,,f i>.,rl, . ai,.,! |.,,, ri».»i.iii- im5T li ('.and ,vhi. h .l.(.,ii ,1 ii„. AUHiiiaa.s St Ta!i,n;ra i.-m liiiij;. t ll. I 4J»- (4M). In 4*1. the Hpartans were remimhil thsl Uiey were nlw> llahk. to he atlacki'il at In, me An Athenian arman.<!ut of .V) galleys and il we may trust Dlodoni,, with 4,0(10 li.avy armefi '"".''"4.'" *""•"'• ""'''"^ "■"""'I I'el' l««>ni»s..u» under TolmiilcH. hiinit tlie Spartan arwimi ,t Uythlum. took u town immeil Chaleia tnloi i-jutf to the Corinthians, aiHl defeated the .Mryonian, who atUinntwi to op|i.»ie the landiiiij of n,; tniopa Hut Uie miMt imi>ort.inl advantaite gained in the exp.-illtion was tla- <ai.iure of «aup«etu.s, whl< h lMl.,n«ed t<,the(»/oliaii |,,xh ans, ani now fell inu> thelmmlsof ih. .Viheninn^ at a very stusoiuihle Jimcture. Tlie ihini M,., aenian war luui Just conu- to » rlom. The hnl^ e defenders of lihonie luul olitaiiMil hoiiourahi,. ^rma . . . Ttie U-jiiew-d were pemiitteilto ,,u,i Pelopoiinesus with thiir families, on eoii,litlo,i of MnK rietaioeil in sUverv if thev ever i\ iiim*,i Tolmkles now settled tlie hoim-hM waiaienrs in ^aupnotus. ... Hut these «ie<fi>M n wrre couiiterlMlanoed hy a ifverse whieh l» fil the arros of Athena thia same year in antrtlur <( uarf er After the def.-at of Aelueinens, Artaxerxes disappointed Ui hia hoiaa of assiiOani'r from Hoarta, . . raised a great army, whieh be Shiccd unler the command of an abler general legabyzus, son of Zopynjs. Megabyius defeaUtl the insurgenta and their allies, and forced the Greeks to evacuate Memphis, and to take refuge in an island of ibi Nile, named froaopitiii, whieh rontuini,datown(:aniil Hyblus where he taak-gt^d tliem for 18 niuhili»; At iengtli he reaort«l to tlie eontrivanee of tuminv thj' stnum. . . . Tl«' (Jreek galleys ».r.all left aground, and were Itnil by tlie Atl,. iiiano tlieniselvi-s, that they might not fall into the ineniy s hamls. Tlu- iVrslnn. then man h<d intj tin' bilanil over Ihi- dry lail of the ri>.r the tirypiiaus in dlsmav aliiindi4ieil tin ir alii, » who ver<. oMnaiwentl "by riiimlars aial almost all destroyui. . , . InanishiinHilf wrjilairnvedhito the lunda of ihi- I'eniiaiM and pu* to d<-«t'h. Kirypt . . . was aifaiii niliu'eti under ilie Per- sian yoke. ex.'eiK a (airt of tlM' Ulta, where an itlar pnti'iHler, iianit'd AmvrtieiiH, who assum«-.l the tftU' of king . , malntaiiuHl him self for several yejim against tla' power of Uie I emhin iiioiiarrhy. Hut tlu- iiiiafortuiii' of thi- Atlienlans ilkt not rial with tlie il.-»tnirtion ot the gr, at lie, i and army whi. h lia.1 lain tir-t iinployixi III ila war. fhev ha<l eiit a s<iiiadroii of SU galh y» lo the relief of lUIr > o.intr\ men. whiih. arriving la-fofe tlie news of the reo-nt divu,j, r luul naelasl tlwm. em. reil th-- M.iwlesiaii bran. Ii,,f iIm. Ml,- Tlay were la i- MirprJM.l h\ a <i.iiil,iii...l alta.k ..f the IVrsiiiM hiial f,.f>.- anil a i'luanii iaii lle.t. aial lint fi « e.s..i| .1 lo In ar tia- inoumfiil thiiiiiTN I,. Alliens \ .1 e\en aft. r i;,i- . alaiiiilv wi- hml th. Aiheni tins. mitHiiiim i r |«aii', but Unl on . »i. mlinir th ir |«>«i r. ami annoying llM-ir enemies ' Ijirlv In 4,M il« > ,.,,1 „„ n.a,||||,a, („,„ tj^,. t-ily. 1,1 n-I.,r.. a riikr iiaiiieil ( ireaiii., who hail Urnilriv.n oui ■ H„| ||„. Bii|»rioritv of the llaasiillaii- 111 ia>.ilrv .li.ik.sl all Ih.lr oiiera lions III ihi tH 1.1 II,. V f.,11, ,1 in an ,i,, ,„„, „p,<, I'hanuiiii- aii'l »iri al k iiirlh fori .si lo retlf* viiili.mt haiiii., ni.,aii|.li..|ii,| any of thiir ends, ll » ... |»r!,,i| , •., ».,,il„. t|„. |„i>,ii, .li.,rt|,|M>int niii.t ili;ii I'iri, |, < shortly afi.rwanU . nilatrked HI l'i(.a- « 11, I ikM, „„.„ „,,,( ,.,.„|j,n, ^1, south side of Uie i orimhiau gulf made a lit) ATHENS. B. C. 46(M4B. ATHENS, B. C. Ut-Ul. dcfCTDt on the territory of Sieyon, knd routed the 8lcyon fun* «ent to nppoee bii Umilin^. He then . . . laid liege to the town of (Kniadie. . . Till* attempt, hnwevcr. proved unvucreu- fill: and the general result of the campalfpi •ernu not to have been oo the whole advantage- »ui or en<viiraplni{. ... It neeni* to have twcn not long after the event* which have been juit related that Cimon wan m'alliHl from biieille; and the ilerree for that p-irpnuo was moved by Perli-leii himself ;— a fart whii-h avema to Inti- mate that aome change ha-l taken place In the relations or the temper of pnrtiea at Athens. . . . The three yenrs n.-st follo.ving CImon'l return, as we have Hxeil its dat«' [H. C. 4SI or 4.VI!, pnsaeil. happily for hia contemporarici, without alTori'ing any m.itter for the hiatnrlan ; and thi:> pause wih followed by a dre years' trace [with 8[>art.il, In tlie course of which Omon embarked in hia Inst eipe<lilion, and dieil near tlie scene of his ancient glory. The prete.-i.lcr Amyrtaus hail solicited succtiur from the .\ili< iil:itia . . Cinion WHS appointed to the cuniiii.ind of a fleet of ;'<ki g.-ille.vs. with which he uile.1 to Cvpnis. and siiit a wpiadrnn of W) to the a.*»i-t.inci> of Amyrtieus, while he hlmaclf with the rest laid sic-, to < ilium. Here he wai (urri.'d off by illiii-« or the cimaequences of s woiinci; and theaii?i.tment was siMm after conipi ilid. by want of pr.. virions, to raise the sii'Bc !t«l Cymon's spirit still aniinnled his counlrMU'U, who. when thev had Miled away with liis remains, fell in with a great flwt o"f l'lii»-iiiii,in and t'ilirlan galleys, near the Cypriiii SiliiMiis, and, having compl. tely de- feate.i tli.iii, followed up tlieir lunal vicU)ry with iiiiithir wliich they gni I (m short, cither over liie tn>"|)i wliieh had h.ndeil from tlie enenivs sldps. or over a land force by which Ih.'V were supportinl. After thin they were ioineii by ilie stjiiadron wlih h liad been ai-nt to Egypt, and winch returne<l. It would >p|iear, wlthiiut having achieved anv material object' and all sailed home (B. C. 440). In aftcrtlmea Cimon's miliu-.ry renown was enhuuce<l by the report of ■ pi-ai-e [aometiiiies called the Peace of Cimon. and sometime* the I'<>ace of Callias], which his victories had compelled the Tertian king to conclude on terms most humiliating to tile nimarehy Within Icrs Ibnn a century after his .li'iilh it was. If not commonlv lielievcil. con- tidenily userted. that by this irealv. negotiated as it was suniHwed. by Cnllhis. son .if iiipiHrni- ciis. ilie I'ersians had agreed to aluintlon at least the niilitsry oc-eupaiiou ..f Asia .Minor, to the liistanie of three days Journey on fool, or ime on lionelwik, fn>m the const, or, aiTonling to snollier account, the whole peninsula w . »t of the ll.lv-' an.l t,> abstain frun passing tl.j umtb of tlie H.i..piioriis ami thefh. li.lonianlslaihls, on the c,M»l „r l.yei.'.. .,r the town of rims. lis. Into the \\e.i.-rn,>*ea The mer.sllen. eof 1 hu. v.iiileson »o iniporiaiit a tmnsaciiou w.iul.l Iw eiiougb to ren.l. r the uhole account ejtrein. h siispii ious " --t' Ihirlwill. Ilinl. of tlr,,^,. ,h '\: {r a>. Mr J.roi, i.vepi. III.- IVai-e of t iniun its an historical fs't. 1 Mf (urtiiisreji-ctsll.— (i tir.ile Ihtt ,.f '•>.--. ,./ ••, M 4.1 (e 5). — K. Cuititis; //„/ „,■ Ur„. '.< :|, ,t, .j,^ J, 1..1 ^ ■•5j:4j* War for Me»ra with Cor- iBlh «:..! itgina. Victories of Myrooi<'e»,- |.iege«„,| c.nqu.stof/egina. -Colinionwith t«* Spartaat m Bootia. - Dr ut at T«ii«itra. i ic: -Oywthrvw of tlM ThtbMa.— Racovtrad A*- Ctadcncy. t)ee Oruce: a C. 458-456. .. °- S; 449^S.-HoitU« rtvolution ia Boo- '*:";9**"' ■* Coron«l«.-Rtvolt of Enb<M •»« MttmrB — The thirty ytara' trace.— Ter- ritorial lotsat.— Spartaa rtcofirnition of the DeliM Cenredency. SeeORKKcB: B. C. 44»- B. C. 445-43'<— Supremacy of Perldea aad the popular arte \n which he attained it.— The eplendor of Atheai and grandeur of tht Atheniaa Empire under hit rule,- ■The con- clusion of peate left the Atheui .in lo their coq. fcienicy anil their Internal polities. . . . After the d"atli of Cimon ;/ic ollgnrel,icu; party at Athens had Iieen h-.l by Thucvilid.s, the son of .Melesias, a man of higK chamcter ami a kinsman of Cimon. . . . llilherto the nieniliers hud sat [ here or there in the assemlilv as tliev pleusid- I now ihey were eombluod intoa single "ixxly, and Sit in a s|>e( iai pl.-ic. Such a con.solidation waa dou!illes8 n.eilcl if the parlv was to hold itsown a'.'ain.st I'.iirles. who woa rnphllv carrying nil iM-f.ire him. For years past he bail pnn'id.^ a Milisisteme for many of the poorer citliens by means of his niimemus colonies— no fewer than •ViHK) Athenians must have been sent out to the •cleriiehlcB 'in the interval bet ween -J.lil B. C and 444 B. (". The new sysU-ni of juries [.See Dl( A- STKiin] had also l«en established on the fall of the Areo|iagus. mill the jurym.n were |i:iiil--a sicoiid source of Income to the piKir. .Siirli nnusires Mvre Iwyond any.hlngthat the private lii.inility of '"imon — spli iidid IS it was — .-ciil,! ailiiive- and on Cimon's iK-atb no other urist.M-rat i iroe forward lo aid his partv with his |i:,r-e IVri- cles did not stop here." Since t;,e cisvitii.n of tlie war with I'ersia there Lnd lie. n feu-r .Ir.ilij oti the public purs<-. and the contrilMiiii.ns ,.f the allies were a>Tumulatlng in the public treusury. A sirupulous nuui would hnv.- regar.ieil the iuroliia as the money of the alli.s. . . I'l ri.lca to.ik another view. He plalnlv lold the Allieid- ans that so hmg us the cltv fufflll. ,1 the conlni< t made with the allied cities, ami ki|it I'ersiiin vessels from their (.hores, the surplus w -a iit the dis|MisMl of Aihi'iiv Ac'ing on this ,-lni iple he devole.1 a iwrt of It to the emliellisliMi.nl of the city, V\ ith theaid of I'hei.lias, the >. ii|pt..r and litmus, the ar.hilecl, a new t.ni|.|e ii.i;an to rise on the AerojHills In honour of Atluiia — the ceh'l.rit.<l I'arthen<m or 'Viiu'ins ri,anilHr' |is.e r\tiTIIi:N<.N), , , . i),l„.r public |,i,il,iii,M were also tieirun alniut this time Ath.n.swas In fact a va-t w,.rksli..p, in whiih employment was found f„r a preit nuniUr of ciii/, n^ " Xor was this all . . Kit eight months of tlie year 00 ships Were kept at tax with crews on lioani in or.ler that ili.r.- might \w nu ample siipplv of practical H.-aiii<ii . . Thualiy.linrv ..r imli'reti means I'.ri.h-. in.ide the stair ih.' pivninster of s va.^t niinilsT . t i Iti/.-is. and the' Mate was [iractlially hiiii>.:t, .kiili h. «e pui I .i!i/,i,H at his back. At ;li.- vanie llrue the pulli. f. Rivals of the city were . ilar:,'eil and nilorii. .1 witii i„ iv M'!.;n.|..iir . That -.11 mithi aueiKl t! ,- thea- tre in ulii. h the pluv- vere ai;.-.|. I'eri. ie. pro. \il.>.l thai every , , ii should rni-ue ii, in the Mai.- n h'lm ■u;tU i. ^ ii ;,av the .hririre .1. i..,o. u,l from ilie sp.M-.nl. r» I ihe l.-v« ,■ |^, ,- |ii,,iioi v| ».■ may l-Kik on these nua«iiris b-. !!i • -iris of a ilemagugue. ... Or wo may saj i.,,t 1'. i,le« ATUEX3, B. C. 44S-43t. Age nf PfTieia. ATHEX8, a c. ^^^-^s». I WIU «bl* to (fTWIfy hit pMHtrq fnr »rt at the FX |M!U»'ofthc VtliFnUnt tnd their klliei. Ni-ithrr of lli.ae vlrim b iilt«|{ctlier unteniiMf; anil Ixilli j»re far fiwiii iocluilfnK Ibe whole iruili. riritUi . . . wiw. if we pleu-at to My |l. it ileniiiK' >){"(-• ituil i» coanoiMeur. liiii In- wim ■oiiwlhin); iiiiirt. I^xikiiiif III •ie whole t->ul,ii,v iK-fore im with inipurtiHl It' - we rBnniii rifu-M- to »c14imi«1c1i:o Hint Im- rheriMlu'il ^wpirittiimii worthy of a (frent •iHltitimn. He siiuvrrlr deninii that every Atli. niiux siioiiM owe to LUcily the blewiiii; of •n eiliH-atiim in all tliiit wiis livautiful. awl the opportunity of a happy aotl useful life. . . Tlie oliicanhn ilelermliir.l (o piiil ilmvn IVrirle*. If it wen- (NisKilile . Tliev pmiMweil, in (lie winter of 44.5 B. (' , tl»t tliere hIioiiIiI I,. ,m iwlrarism in tl..- eity. The txople avriv.!. .il the usual am iijfementa were inmle. But wip ■> ilie ilay ciinie f.ir ilerision. in tlie aprini; of 4+1 B t'.. till- wii' iiie fell, not on I'eriolea, but o;i Thui v.lnleH. i he M-nlenre h ft no douht alMiiit the t'ei'liiiK of (lie Alheniiin iKiiplc. ami it wiu ail . pieil at tlnal. ThurydiilesiliKappt'anil from Athens, ami for the next tlfieen years IVri' |i» WHU ni.M. r-if tliiiity, . . . Wliife Athens «.i» liilive, oritini/in'; her ronfislenu'V and tui iirini; her roniinunii i'i..ii with the mulh, the I'elo- poiinexiaiiit hiel allowed the ye:ir» U> parn In a|>athy und inanention. At le'n.ilh ihey awoko U> a Kelts.' 1. 1 ;lir situation. It was oieiir that Athens liail aivoi'loiied all iii.-u of war with Per- sia, anil Lhat tile ' .>iifedera< y of Delon waa traiia- foriiied into all Alhenian eiii|iin'. of wl.oae fon-ia the irreiit eily wa« alim.liiu ly inisiniie And ; nieanwlii!.- in visible Kreatnesg A 'In lis hiul In-- I ennie far the Hr»t city in (}niie — K Alilxilt. | /', iiW.», M. |l>-ll. — "A r»|ild ulaui'"- will s.illld. to sliow the eiiiineim- wliieh Atliena hiui .iiinitii-d | over ilie olli.r stales of Uiveec. She w.is liie I lieai! of the ! niaii U'litfuv — the niUlress .f inu ! (ineliin (ie;i-: will) -<parta, the sole rival that I eoulil i-oiK- Willi ler arniiea and iirn-si tier am- bition, slie had olii imeil a jK-aee Corinth waH ' huiuliled — .Kirin.i ruiinsl — Mei .n liad shrunk into her de|Hiiiiein V and ifarri».in. The siati s of BiiKitia had n-eeiveil their very i siitulion ; fniin tl.e hands of an .Vtlieniaii V'"'''^d — tlr- I deiniHniiiis plaiitisl iiy Athens wrusl t,i make i lilierty llsilf sulM<rvient to her will, and involv.-d I in her safely. Mlie had n-niedi<sl lin- stirllily of j her own soil by si lurinjf the rieli |i.,-.iim» of^^tlw nelirhliiiiirihi: KuIkim. Slie had addisl the ifild of Tills..-, I., the silver of l.iurion. and estali- li.sli. .1 4 f •pii.i.: in riiessaly whirli was at muv a fortri -,s au'ainsl the Asiatie arms and a iiuirt for ^»i,:i. eoniiiiiTie Tlie fairest lands of the (ippi..!ii eoasi —the most pioveifiil islandsof the Oniiaii s.-as — roii:ributisl lo li-r tnasiiry. or Wen- aliitM.i I, irally sulijivled to her n.veiijte. ■ I" ill <in e. .Mvrouides was perhaps Ilie ablest LI iiiTal - ri-rieies . . . was uiidoiiblislly the ni..st highly edu'-atwi. rauiloiis und i i- niandink' siHlisiiiai, . . . lu aeti;al pos« ssion of the irilmie .i hi r allii-s. Alliens ii< ipiired a new riKlii tl- ir« 1 .||.-. ii,.n and its iiiaiii.'.- :i., and whil ■ sli,- div.iiid some of the Inasiiris to the nmint. naiiee of her slrentrth, she iK'traii early to uph .11 Hie pnr.i^-ative of appnipnaling a part to Ilie I iilii'iiiiiient of her splendour. ... It w.^.s III. IV I ilsait H C. 4441 reaolvtsi Ui make Ail.iii. iK , tile Slat ami .eiitre of the judieial sii-l. riiv lla- Mihjeit allies wire eom|Kll.sl. V liut ub iniuor, ul Ivaki uu all iiii|>orUut eawa, to tf^im to AtbmUn cnnrta of Uw for Jiiaiiee. And thuaAtheiu became, as it were, Iheinetrop.k lis of the allies. . . . Uefor»« the lVr«ian war and even searcely la-fore the time of fiinim' Athens cannot be said to have n-liiMii) her iielKliliours in the arts and scienct Hlw- Im-- eame the centn- anil capital of the most polislii .| eoniinuniiies of Uni-ce, and she dn-w intoa fiMus all tlH- Un-eian inu-llect; slie ohuineii fMm her de|M-ndenis the wraith to s<!mini.Hter the arts, which uiiivenal tralHc and inleniiiirse taught her touppneiati-: and thus the Odism. and tlia HirtheiiiMi. and the IVipyla-a arose. Diiriniftlio same ailministration, tlie fortilleations were n.u. phtisl, and a thini wall, parallel and near to tlmt uiiitinit r>eu« with Athens, consiimmateil il,,. works of 'i In-inisbiclc* and r'imou, aiul i)n.s.rvi I the eommuniealion la-twis-n the twofold i iiv even shoul I the outer walls fall into the liaiii'ls of 1 eiieiny."— K. (J. Bulwerl.ytton, Al/tfiu- riM i.fttiKi Hill. hk. 4, eh .1, U: H. r/t. 2. .VijKi IM: W \V. IJoyil. Tlu Ane uf l\HcUt — I'lulan-li, I\r,Hf B. C. 445-439— The Ajfe of Pericles: Art. — •' riie (}ii .ks , . . wen- iniliistriiiiis. ciMiimir- cial. seiisiiive to physhal and moral Uauly. ea^er for diseiisaion and controversy, thev wi'n- pniiidof their hninanitv, and happy in tlie i.,,,,. w-^ionof tiieir pi«-u. Ibtir hisloriaiis. tliiir on- •.irs and artisis. It is sinirular, in tin- hisi.irv of nations, to meet with a ptsip.e dlslinifuisliei at once by mercantile aptitude, and by an exipii-iie fi-(lini;and sympatiiy for works of art; to s,s- the vanity of wealth compatible with a uin- ilis- (■eminent for the true principlea of taste; lo la-, hold a Dstion, inconHlaut in ideaa, inionn-ivalily dcklc in pn-Judiei-a. worMhippinn.. man oik- di'ir Mild pnaa-riliinif him the neJit. vet at the saiiii tillleproBr<•ssill^; with uiilieuni of rapidity ;»iiiiin tlie space of a few years traversing all Hvsti iiis of phil.Mopby. all foniis of i{overnineni. laying' the foiitiilations of all Mieius-s, niukini; war \n\ all iu iiri4;hls.rs, yit. in the iiii-Ut of lliis i haos of loeas. systems, and piLssions, developiiit; art su-adlly and with calm intelliirenee. Bivim: '.> it nov'lly, oriititialily, and ln-auty, while pnsi-rv- iiiK it pun- fniiii the alMrrntions and i-aprins i.f wliat we now call fanhioi.. At the time ul lln- Iirtitleof SalHmi.s. 4H0 11. C. Athens hail l»s-n iiestniyisl. Its .erritory rava^isl. and the Allmv ians had iiolliiiii; left but theii ships: yet so Knat was the miiviiy of this iHimmeri iiil hut artistic people, that, 'only twenty years after- wants, they had built the Parthenon.' — K !■;. Vi.illet le-Diic, lUmiurtt ..a Arrhilrfiiin ;. W B.C. 445-439. -The Age of Pericles; Do- meatic life. -The Athenian house -■ Koruiv one comliiu' fmiii Asia it s<-eiiiiil as if in eni. rial; Athens he was iiinK into an ant's iiisi I'm m-asiiii;. lit Hie ipiH-h of its iin-atest powi r tlie thns- |>ort« of Muiiyehia. riiiilerum and II..- I'i- rens. it lovensl adlslrirt whose lin uii;!. r. n-i- nieiiBiinsI two liiiii.lndsiailiadwentv f..(ir mil. -; Hut it w.isHniuiMi ;lie .\eni|.uiis that tli ■ I. .u- s Win. ,nmii.-d I...... tliir 1 iid the popni iii.ii •tlways In 111 livlty I'here waitons w.-n- n.s.int' to and fni. tillid with inenhainliM In. 1.1 Hid ports or ( .ejillii il lllilher I'llr sl!v,|» ,11.1 jiiiblii pill IS ill whiih |Msi,.le piss..! 1.11 ln.-s |in-s<-i:te.| a busy and noisy sn iie. Sir in .ii-s, who laiiii- lo liiiv ..r t.i s.11. "w. n- loiitimial'i ii- tiriiiir or l.avih,- the slinps and pl.i. . - ..f in mii faetuiv, and slavi-a »ea- carryiuf.' iiii .s-i.i(,'es or 1G3 ATIIEXS. a C. 44.>-489. Af of r»rUu. ATHEXS, a C. US-Oi. burdeni. Women u well •* men wen to be Ken in the itreeU, guiog to tlw nurfcetii. the public piiii-* aiul the mcttingt of corporate lioilifs. Fmm the esrliett lioun of the (lay larse nuinlH'n of in-iunnU inl)(lit be Ken bringinit in vi^tiiiblm. fruit and lOTultry. and crying Uiiff w«rt» in tliu •tnitt Iloiuea of the hlfflicr clau wcuni,,! the «eo>nil zone; they generally posMwuvd a itaniin anil soniolimi'9 outbutlilinKK of coiuiilintblv vx- Unt. Annind them were to be sttn cliciiu uud iwrasilcs, waiting for the hour wh<-n the nidau-r nhoulil inakehiaappraraocv; nnil whiling away the time liiaeuuing the news of the day n-iK'al. iug til.' rumoura, true or false, that Were current hi lUc city: getting the alarca to ulk. and laugh- ing among themwlv« at the atrangera that hap- pined to be poaalng, or aildreuing them with a view to make fun of tlnir aceent, garb or (Iriiw. The house of C'hremvlua. ri'cently built rn that fcrond ion*, waa a aubji-rt of renuirk for all the iillers. Chremylua, who hiul laU'ly be- cuiu.' weuliliy by mean* of ctMnnii ni-, ami of ccruiin tranaaetions of more or lusa cttiiiublu cluractcr in the colonies, waa an objcx-t of envy an.l ( nticUm to moat people, and of ailniiratioii f..r»,.uie who did justice to his iuulligence and iuvDiy He eiiioyed a certain de«ife of in- llij. iHv in the publfc asaembli.s — thanks to his lilKnlilv, while he took care to ai'cure the g(»Hl (fruci-s of the nrrlioiis and to enrich the temples ft AS or ATHKXtAK BOl'lUL *>• have fin ,Mc acmmpanyini; flguifl the r<«.l Tl... »ii,. i, („„nded on eithrr si I.- by r.nm ((. «|,i,.h I, ,i,mMiml«l by iK.nl.-..H At U.. slay.,, with kit.,l,eu at C aa.l latrli.es at a Prom tbia flnt court. In the centre of which la • auall fountain with a baain which recclvea the r.uVp''' ','•'•, !»»?«« ^ ""^ '"«» "»« Inner tourt E, which is htrger and ia likewise sur- roundc-d by portlo*. At O Uthe receptl.m room, at II the strong room for valuables, and at 8 the ng provUions and wine; and at I the ainall din- ing room (triiliiilum); the cooking-room for the family being at J with latrines at b. The Urire triclinium U at K. The pansaije ni «'mils U, the gyn«ceum. couUiinJng tli.,- beiln.ims I' al.mij tlio portico M, aoomiiion room for the women with lU small enclosed garden, and chweu at e The quarten for vUitora are entered by the pasMige t, and consist of bedr.K,ins V, a ponicITT a small garilen and el.aeu f. At d is an omuing into tl«! Une for the servants, wluii r,-, ulrej The gwilens ext.n.l i-i the dinilicu Z. This house UsituaU'<i ou the sixties of the hill which to the iouth-nest looks UmanU the Acropolis- thus it is sheltered from the vi,>l,nt winds whirl, sometimes blow frinu this >,uari.r. Krom the largo dining-hall and fp.m the t. rra..- L. whi. U ailjoins it, tlier<f is a clianiiiu« pnMiH'cl for alx.vc the tr.-.s of the ganlin is «-in tin- cliy I'V/.I" .'o'l ""J' ."'e Acr,.,H.lis. „„d towards the lef the hill of the AreoiMgiis. From this terra, e L there U a descent to the ^.ard.-.i by „l»,ut twelve steps. The p<iaition wus . liosiii wi,l, » view to prou-ction against the ^ill^s beat and Iha troublesome winds. From tlie iK)rti. j of tlu- irynieceum are seen the liills ext.iidin- towar.U llie north, covered with housi-s siirnmn.l.d by ol yetrees: and In the backKroin«| .M,„„it iVif. I'liius ... In the dwelling of Ch.-i-inylus the various departmenu were arnmeed at iho pri>- priitor s dis. n-tion, and the arrliii.-et only ion- formttl to his instructions. Tims the fr iit part of tlie house is assigueti to the external r. Iali.>u» of the owner. In this court O a.s.s<iiil,lf the agentKor factors who ciiiie to give uu aic.uui of the commissions they have ex<.iiti.i. or to re- ci'ive onlers. If the master wi.sli,s to sinak to any of them, he Uki-s him into liis re.i|.tiou nxim; his UiUlminbir biing at U. hr can i',i,ily n-iuiir U) that n-oeption-Mom or to ili.- gynaeium rmrvcil for the women and youn^.r cliildriu If he enteruiiis frieads. they have tin ir s.|mrate apartiiiiiits, which are shut olf. not Ik-'uii in tonimiininition with the lirst court exnpt thrjiugh (he passage t All that part of the l,«l'i- tation which Is bvvond the wide entrance hall I) is i-onawrote.! to domestic life; nii<l only the iiiti- iiuite friemis of the family aiv admitted into the wc- mil court; for example, if thvy are inviie.1 to iilmmiuet.— whiih is held in the great hall K I he maiiter usually takes his finals with his wife mid one or two in. niU-rs of his family who live in tliehmis.. in the smaller r...m I, the .iMulies i.t whi.hwill hold six pirsoiis; wli.rea, lifiwu jjii.st* can Ik' ii<-comni.i.lated on the eoiuh.s ot 'he v-nat hall K. Chreniylu, |„i.s spaml •i.tliing tonnderhis li.. use one of tlu ino.'-t siiii,|,i,i,,ii» in tlie city. The eoluiiiu.s of IN nleli. ,ui marble siipiHirt ar-hitraves of -.v,..!, v,„„i.,ui,i, -j [,„ friezes anil mniiees overlaid Willi Mue(„ anil oniKPient.sl with cVlicule paiiitiiii.' I very, where tlie walls an- nwtt.l «iil, iji.e Mii„oth planter. ail..nie,l «iih iKiintiu:.-,. .,:.,| the .eiljnea r artist h-aily 1 ari- of liiiilK'i — K. \iollet li 11.'/ Ayia. th. i'. wrouirlii aim e.iloim'd. I>iii', T)'4l UMit.iUfh, 'J l/.l 169 m w [ "Is* ill I ATHENS, B. C. MS-429. Agt of PaieUt. ATHENS, B. C. 445-430. B. C. 445*439.— The Ase of Pericles : Law and tti Admiaiitntion.— ContrMt with the Romans. — "It is remarlcsble . . . iLat the '(•(|tiality'of laws on which the Greek dcraoc- racics prided themselves — that equalitv which, ill the iM-autiful drinking song of Coillstnitus, Hiirinodius and Aristogitou are said to liavc given to Athens — had little in common witli the 'equity' of the Romans. The first was an eqiml administration of civil laws among the citizens, however limited tlic class of citizens ini^'ht be; the last iinplic<i the applicability of a law, which was not civil law, to a class which dill not necessarily consist of citizens. The first exrltided a despot; the last included foreigners, and for some purposes slaves. . . . There are two special dangers to which law, and society wliich *» held together l)y law, appear to be liiililc In their infancy. One of thcin is that law mtiy l)e loo rapidly developed. 'This occurred with the codes of the more progressive Greek communities, which disembarrassed themselves with astonishing facility from cumbrous forms of procedure and needless terms of art, and soon ceased to attach any superstitious value to rigid ruK's and prescriptions. It was not for the ultimate advantage of mankind tliat they did so, though the immediate benefit conferred on their citizens may have been considerable. One of the rarest qualities of national character Is the capacity for applying and working out the law, as such, at the cost of constant miscarriages of abstrut justice, without at the same time losing the ho|>c or the wish that law may be conformed to a higher ideal. The Greek Intellect, with all ita nobility and elasticity, was quite unable to confine itself within tlie strait waistcoat of a legal formula: and, if we may judge them by the popular courts of Athens, of whose working we possess accumto knowledge, the Greek triliunuls exhibited the stnmgest tendency to confound law and fact. The remains of the Orators and the forensic commonplaces pre- served by Aristotle in his Treatise on Hhetoric, show that quistioiis of pure law were constantly argued on every eoiisiilcration which could possibly influence the mind of the judges. No durable syst^'in of jurisprudence ,\mld be pr»)- du«'il In this way. A coininuiiily which never hesitated to relax rules of written law whenever they stood in the way of an Ideally perfect decisiim on the facts of particular cWs, would only. If it bcqueathe<l any iMKly of judicial principles to posterity. 1k'i|i"i(m"- one consisting of the ideas of right and wrong which hnpixMicd to be prevalent at the tiini'. Such jurispru- dence would eimtaln no frnniewr)rk to wliich the more hiIvhih eil eonceptiiui'* of siiliHe<|U>'iit aiies could Ih' fltli'd. It woulil amount nt iNsttua philosophy, marked with the lin|><Tfectlons of the civilisHtioii under wiiiih It grew up. . . The otiier liiiliilily to wlilih the iiifaiKV of society U ixposcd has prcvcnteil or arrextiHl tlie progress of far the (rrealer part of iiiiuikliul. Tlw rigidity of primitive law, sri*ipg ihietly from Its cnrllir assiH'lutlon ai.d Identiflcatioii wllh religion, liax clialnod down the muss of the human raiv to tlioKe views of life and cop lucl wliii'h they entertalnwl at the time when their iiMii^es were first consolidated Into a By«..'maii<' form. Then- were one or two racM exempteil hy a inarvilious fite from this (iilamity, and irafu fruiu these stocks have fertilbui) « fi.w modem aoeletiea; but it Is still true that, orer the larger part of the world, the perfection of U>w has always been considered as consisting in adherence to the ground plan siipposetl to Lave been marked out by the original legislator. If intellect has in such cases been exercised on jurisprudence, it has uniformly prided it8<df on tlie subtle perversity of the conclusions It could I'lild on ancient texts without discoverable departure from their literal tenour. I know no reason why the law of the Romans should be superior to the laws of the Hindoos, unless the theory of Natural Law had giveu It a tyiie of excellence different from the usual one." — II. 8. Maine, Aneient fMir, eh. 3-i. — "But both the Greek and the English trial by jury were at one time the great political safeguard against state oppression and injustice; ami, owing to this origin, free nations b«>coinc so attached to it that thev are blind to its ilefecis. And just as Ireland wouM now U'nefit licyond conception by the alH)lilion of tlie Jury svstein so the secured Athenian (or any other) ih luiKTaey would have thriven In'tte'r had its laws lieen adminLstered by courts of skillml judges. For these large bcHliea of average citizens, who, by the way, wir- not like our iiirymen, unwilling occupants of the jury-lKix, but who made it a paid business ami an amusement, did not nganl the letter of the law. They allowed actions barred by the reasonable limits of time; tliey allowed arguments totally beside the quesliou, though this too was Illegal, for there was no competent judge to draw the line; they alloweil hearsay evidenci', though that too was against the law; liidetHl the evidence produced in most of the speeches Is of the hMiscst and (HKirest kind. Worse than all, there were no pniper re<onls kept of their decisions, and wltni-sses were ealle<l In to swear what hail been the past dicisions of a jury sittiug in the same city, and under the same procedun'. This Is the more reniarlialile, as there were state archives. In wliicli tiie decrees of the pi>| iilur as.semb:y were kejit. . . There Is a most "tniordlnary speech of Lvviui against a man called NIchomaclius, who" was appolnteil to trauscrilM.* the hiws of Solon In four montlis, but who kept them In his possessiiui for six years, and Is accused of having so f.ilsilleil tliem as to have suballlut«<l himself for Solon. Hence there can have Ix'en no recognlzeil dupli- cate extant, or such n thing ei;uld not be attempted. 8<i again. In the ', nijiezlticin of IsocniU's, it is mentioned as a Well known fact, that a certain I'ythalorus was convlited of tampering with stati'-documents, signed sud sealed bv the magistnites, and de|)oslte<l In the AtroimlU. All these things meet us In every turn In the court speeches of the .Vttic oraiirni. We are ania/.eil nt wiliig relationships proved in will (asj's by a man coming In and swearin; that such a niius liilier hiwl told hliu tliii hii lirollier was inarrietl to such a w.im.in. of ^m li a house, \V(. Olid the most lilM'tlous (liir.;i'» lirou;{ht aicainsl oppont'iils on mottirs t'lilly Is-side till' (piesiion at Issoi", and even f.nrnal evidence of general bad characU'r iidiiidli'ii. We find some siM'Bkers In omseqiieiKi' Ihating the Jury Willi a iBirt of ininirl-d defenine and eonieinpl wlili li Is amusing 'On the f.'riiicr trial of I his i.w,' they say, ' my opponent iiiau- ag.il to tell vmu nianv" well "devised lie.,, of !our«c you wepj deceived, bo-* ct);iW lt!»: iisfo-r- no ATHENS. B. C. 443-429. Agt of Puricla. ATHENS, B. C. 445-439. wtee, knd you made a false decision ;' or else, ' You were so puzzled tliat you got ut variance witli oue anotlier, you voted at sixes and sevens, and by a small majority you came to an absunl decision.' 'But I tliink you Itnow well,' says Isocrates, ' that the city has often repented so bitterly ere this for decisions made in passion and without evidence, as to desire after no long interval to punish those who misled it, and to wish those who hod been calumniated were moro than restored to their former prosperity. Keeping these faols before you, you ought net to be hasty in believing the prosecutors, nor to hear the defendants with interruption and ill temper. For it is a tliame to have tlie character of behig the gentlest and most humane of the Or^eks in other respects, and yet to act contrary to this reputation in the trials which t.ike place here. It is a shame that in other cities, wbtn a human life la at stake, a considerable majority of votes li required for conviction, but that among you those in danger do not even get an equal chance with their false accusers. You swear indeed once a year that you will attend to both plaintiff and defendant, but in the interval only keep your oath so far as to accept what- ever the accusers say, but you sometimes will not let those who are trying to refute them utter even a single wonl. You think those cities uninhabitable, in which citizens are executed without trial, and forget that those who do not give both sides a fair hearing are doing the very same thing.'"— J. P. Mahaffy, Soeial Lift in Ortm, eK. 13. . ^; F; 44t4a9-r'^'>« Ab« of Peridet : Poli- tical life.— The democrMr.—" The real life of Athens lasted at the most for 200 yars: and yet there are moments in which all that we have won by the toils of so many generations seems as If It would be felt to be but a small thing beside a ningle hour of Perikie*. The Democracy of Athens was in truth the noblest fruit of that self- .ii'vclopjng power of the Greek mind which workeii every possession of the common heriUge into some new and more brilliant shape, but whieh leamc<l nothing, nothing of all that formed its real life and iu real glory, from the Barba- ri rius of the onU>r worid. Men tell us that Qrcc -o liiirned this or that mechanical invention fMm rimnlcla or Egypt or Assyria. Bo it so; but stand in the Pnyx; lUten to the contending era- torn i lliiten to the ambassador* of distant cities; li«l« n to each side as it is fairly hearkened to, and see the matter in band decided by the peaceful vote of thousands— heifl at leaat of a truth is sjimething which Athens did not learn from any Awvrlan despot or from any Egyptian priest .\nd we, children of the common suVk. sharers In the common heritage, as wo sec man, Aryan man, 111 llio full growth of his noblest type, wu may ^1 » 'hrill as wo think that Klelsihcne* and IVrlklOs were, afUT all, men of our own blooil — •• we think that the Institutions which grew up uni er their hands and the Institutions uiidiT whi. h wo ourselves are living are alike braueh™ sprung from one stock, (x.rilon* of one inheri- tance In which Athens and Knghind have an equal right. In the Athenian I).m.H racy we »lv » l>opularconitltution taking the form which wa< natiiriil for such o constitution to take when it w«» able to run Iu natural course in a common- wealth which conatNtiMi only of a sinsfie rity Wherever the Ajwml>ly really remains. 1u truth 171 aawellMin name, an Aiaembly of the whole people in their own persons, it must in iU own nature be sovereign. It must, in the nature of things, delegate more or leas of power to magia- trates and generals; but such power will bo sim- ply delegated. Their authority will be a mere trust from the sovereign body, and to that sov- ereign body they wiU be responsible for its exer- ctoe. That is to say, one of the original elementt of the St'iU', the King or chief, now represented by the elective magistracy, will lose ite indepen- dent powers, and will sink into a body who have only to carry out the will of the sovereign Assem- bly. So with another of the original eleinenU the Council. This body too loses its independent being; it has no ruling or checking power; it be- comes a mere Committee of the Assembly chosen or appointed by lot to put measures into shape for more easy discussion in the sovereign body As wwlety becomes more advanced and compU- cated the Judicial power can no longer be exer- cised by the Assembly iuelf, while It would be against every democratic Instinct to leave It In the arbitrary power of Individual magistrates. Other Committees of the Assembly, Juries on a gigantic scale, with a presiding magistrate as chairman rather than as Judge, are therefore set apart to decide causes ami to sit in Judgment on olfenders. Such is pure Democracy, the govern- ment of the whole people and not of a part of it only as carried out In iU full perfection in a single city. It is a form of government which works up the faculties of man to a higher pitch '",»" »uy other; it is tlie form of government which gives the freest scope to the inborn genius of the whole community and of every member of it. Its weak point Is that It works up the facul- ties of man to a pitch so high that it can hardly be lasting, that Iu ordinary life needs an enthusi- asm, a devotion too highly strung to be likely to live through many generations. Athens In the days of her glory, the Athens of PeriklSs, was truly ' the roof and crown of things; ' her democ- racy raised a greater number of human being* to a higher level than any government before oy since; it gave freer play than any government before or since to the personal gifu of the fore- m(»t of mankind. But against the few years of Athenian Klr)ry we must set the long ages of Athenian decline. Against the city where Peri- kli>8 was General wo must set the city where Hadrian was Archon. On the Assemblies of ■>lher Grecian cities It I* hardly needful to dwell ()ur knowledge of their practical working I* slight. Wo have one picture of a deliate In the impular A**cmbly of SparU, an Assembly none the leas popular In Its internal conslilutfon be- cause it was the assembly of what, a* rcgar.led the oxcludod classi's of the Bute, was a narrow oligarchy. Wo see that there, as might bo l(M)keil for, the chiefs of the Sutc, the Kings, and yet more the Ejihors, spuko with a degree of olllcial as distinguished from personal, authority which fell to the lot of no man in the Assembly of Athena Perikl«* reigned supreme, not birauso he was one of Ten Generals, but because he was P'-fJ!''''*- • ; ■ In <he Ekkl«sla which listened to PerlklOsand Demoathenfi* we feel almost n» much at home as In an Institutlcm of our own land and our own times. At least wo ought to feel at home there; for we have the full materials for cvWnn iiji the political iifc nf Ath.u* Iu all iU fullnej*, and within our own time* oue of tlie •! 'J: \\- '-in: . i iwii Mi 1 i "^ ■" ■" "'! i ATHENS, B. C. 445-489. Age of Pericles. ATHENS, B. C. 445-429. pnntrvt minds of our own or of any age has given Its full strength to clear away the mists of error iind culumny which so long shroiidcU the parent Rta.p (if justice and free<lom. Among tlic con- tcrnporiiries and countrymen of Mr Oroto it is shame indeed if nici fail to see in the great De- miK-racy the first state which taught manliind that tlio voice of persuasion could be str,.nirer than a despot's will, the Hrst which taught tiiat disputes could be settled by a free debate and a free vote which in other lands could have been decided only by the banishment or massacre of the weaker side. ... It must be constantly borne in mind that the true differenee between an aristocratic an<l a democratic government as thoie words were understood in the politics of old Oreece, lies in this. In the Dcmocracv all citi- zens, all who enjoy civil rights, enjov also politi- cal rights. In the aristocmcy political rights belong to only a part of those who enjoy civil ru'hls. But. in cither case, the highest authority of the State is the general Assembly of the whole ruling bo<ly, whether that ruling body be the whole people or only a part of it. . . . The slaves and strangers who were shut out at Athens were according to Greek ideas, no Athenians; but every Athenian had his place in the sovereign assembly of Athens, while every Corinthian had not his place in the sovereign assembly of Corinth. But the aristocratic and the democratic commonwealth both agreed in placing the final authority of the State In the general Assembly of all who enjoy the highest ifranchise. . The people, of its own will, place<l at lu head men of the same class as those who in the earlier state of things had ruled it against its will. PeriklCs Nikias, AlkibiadOs, were men widely differing in character, widely dlllcring in their relations to the popular government. But all alike were men of ancient birth, who. .ia men of ancient birth, found their way, almost as a matter of cours.'. to those high places of the Stiite to wliieli Klcon found his way only by a strange freak of fortune. At Home we find quite another storv. There, no less than at Athens, the moRd Influence of nobility survive.1 its legal privileges- but more than this, the htitil privileges of the el.ler nobdity were never wlinllv swept away, and the inherent feeling of re»i>(ct for illustrious birth called into Ix'ing a yonniter nobility l)v ii4 side At Athens one stage of reform placeil a dislinc timi of wealth Instead of a distinction of birtli iinoiher stage swept awav the dlslincti.i:i of wiMlih als<j. But the reform, at each of in stages, was general; it alTec'ti-d all iiitices a'ike bavo those sacred olllees whii li siill remained the special heritage of certain s.ieri-.l families In an aristocratic cominoinvealth there is no room for I'erikPsi ther.' is no nniin for the people tii.l hearkened to Periklt^s: but in men of th,. si'Cond oriler. skilful conservative administrators tnen able to work lb.- system which they find i^tab llshed, no form of government Is so fertile But everywher.. wo learn the same leiun the Inconsistency of commonwealths which boast themselves of ibilr own freedom and exalt thetn- lelves at the co<t of the freeiloro of otiiers.' — E. A. Freeman. Cumnmtitt l\Aitiei, Uet .5-fl " D«mo« was hims. If King, Minister, ami I'arlia ment. He ha<l his smaller oDIcials to carry out the necewary d.-taila of publjc businesa, but he was most undoubtedly his own First Ix>rd of the Treasury, his own Foreign Uecreurr. his own 171' Secretary for the Colonies. He himself kept up a personal correspondence both with foreign potentates and with his own officers on foreign service; the 'despatches' of Nikias and the note's of Philip were alike Bfldrcssed to no om cer short of the sovereien himself; ho gave per sonal nuiliencc to the ambassadors of other states and clothed his own with just so great or s<) small a share as he deemed good of his own Iwnndless authority. He had no need to entrust the care of his thousand dependencies to the mys- terious working of a Foreign Ollice; he liimHlf sat in judgment upon Mitvlenaian rebels; he him self settled the allotment of lands at Chalkis or Amphipolis : he <lecreed by his own wisdom what duties should be levied at the Sound of Bvzan- tion; ho even ventured on a task of which "two- antl-twenty ages have not lessened the difflcuitv and undertook, without the help of a Loni High Commissioner, to adjust the relations ami compose the seditions even of Korkyra and Z.i kvnihos He was his own Lord High Chancellor 1^1 ■ "/'"■/'"n' Pri™"'*. '"is own Commander in- thief. He listened to the arguments of Kleon on behalf of a measure, and to the arguments of N klas against it, and ho ended by 'ridding ?iiki8» to go and carry out the propos , which he Iiad denounce<l as extravagant or unjus* He listenc<l with approval to his own ' explanations • ' he passed votes of confidence in his own policy- he advised himself to give his own royal assent to the bills which he had himself passed with- out tlic form of a second or third reading or the vain ceremony of moving that tiie Prytaneia ilo leave Micir chairs. ... We suspect that the averagi; Athenian citizen was, in political Intelli- gence, above the average English Me.nber of 1 arliament. It wa'* this concentration of all power in an aggri'gate of which every citi.-en foinied a pert, which Is the distinguishing ciiar actenstlc of tn-e Greek democracy. Florence had nothing like it; fiicre has been nothing like it in the modem worid: the few puredemocra cies which have lingered on to our own day have never had such mighty questions laid iK'for.' them, and have never had such statesmen and orators to lead them. The great Democracy li.n had no fellow; but the political lessons which it tca»hes are none the !p<i,s lessons for all time and for every land ami people, "_E. A. Freeman, //M^nnmf «M,iv»(r. •»).• m Athtnian Demx-nu-v " The individual frceilom which was enjoyeil at Alliens ami which Is extolled by Pericles was plainly an exciption to the common u.sagc of Greece, and is so regarlerl in the Funeral Speech riie w.ird 'freedom,' It should be rememlKnd iKirc an ambiguous meanmg. It denoted on the one hand |)olitical liidep<ndencc,— the exeniin of sovereign power by the State and of poliile il rights by the citizens. In this sense every Gni k citizen could claim It as his birthright Kveii the Spartans coiil.l tell th,. Persian Hyilarnes th il Me had not, like them, tasted of fret«Iom auddi 1 nut know whether it was sweet or not. But tli.. wonl also denoted p«T»onal and social lilierlv. - freedom from the excessive restraints of Uw' Di ■ absence of a tyrannous public opinion and of in Inleraiire between man and man. Pericles clainn for Athens ' freedom' in this double sense Hut fretilom so far as It Implies the absence of h^'il lnU;rfer<'nco in the private concerns of life «,n but little known except at Athens."— S 11 Butfher, Aa, 4,^^, ,y> 5,^ q^„^ „ ATHENS, B. C. 445-429. ATHENS, B. C. 440-137. 70-71.— "To Athens . . . we look ... for an iinswer to the question, Wh«t dofs history teach ill regiinJ to the virtue of a purely democmtic {Tovcrainent T And here we may safely say tliiit, under favourable circumstances, there is no forni of government which, while it lasts, has such a virtue to give scope to a vigorous growth and lu.xuriant fruitage of various nunhood as a pure ilemocn\cy. . . . But it does not follow that though in this regard It has not been surpassed by any otlier form of government. It is therefore absolutely the best of all forms of government . . . Neither, on the other hand, does it follow from the shortness of the bright reign of Athenian democracy —not more than aoO years from Clis- tlienes to the Macedonians — that all democracies are short-lived, and must pay, like dissipate! young gentlemen, with premature decay for the feverish abuse of their vital force. Possible no doubt it is, that if the power of what we may call a sort of Athcnif.n Secon:! (;iinml)er, t'.i'e Areiopagus, iu.stead of being weakcne<l ns it was by Aristides and Pericles, li.ul b<x.'n built up ac- cording to the idea of ^schylusaud the intelli- gent aristocrats of his day, such a iKxIy, armi-d. like our House of Lords, with an efleciivo n"g;i- tlvc on all outbursU of popular mshness, miglit have prevenU'd the ambition of the Athenians from launching on that famous Syracusan expedi- tion wiiicli exhausu-d their force and maimed their action for the future. But the lesson taught by the shortlived glory of Athens, and ifa sub- jugation under the rough foot of the astute Mace- donian, is not that democracies, under the inHu- inre of faction, and, it may be, not free from veniility. will sell their liberties to a strong neigh- twur— for aristocratic Poland did this in a much more blusliless way than democratic Greece — but that any loose ngg,Tgato of independent •States, given more '.c quarr/ amongst themselves tliiin ti) unite 8g-iln:,t a '?omn;on enemy, whether (lemooratie. or ari.U ratin, jr ..lonarchical in their form of govemmi'nt, cannot in tlie long rim maintain the.r ground against tlic I'rra policy and the well-massed force of a strong monarchy. Athens was Iilotted out from the map of free peoples at rhienmea, not licoausc the Athenian piKiple hail too much frcc<loni, hut b<'causc tlie Greek StJites had too little unity. They were used by Philip exactiv in the s,ame w.iy thit Napoleon useil the German States at the com- menci inent of the present century. "—, I S HliRkie. What itiiet Ilintitrn Tenrh t /)■). 2M-:tl _ • In Herodotus you have 'the beginning of the age of (li«eus«ion. . . . Tliedl<rours<sondemr>c- r:iey, aristoeracy, and monarchv. wliieli be puts into tile mouth of the Pirsl.iu ennspinitors wluii the monarchy was vacant, h ive Justly licen r:\]],;\ absur.1. :is 8|>eeclie» supposed U) have lieen sp. .k,n by tliiiv pereons. No Asiatic ever thought of siicli things. You might as well Imagine Saul "T Daviil speaking them as thos<! to whom lliro ilotus attrlliuU'S them. They an- Greek spie.'hes lull of free Greek di iissions, and suggcsK'-l by llie experience, alre.idv considerable, of the Greeks In the results of discussion. The age of ilchaU' is beginning, and even Herodotus, the Uw,. of a wrangler of any man, and the most of a swirl and simple narrator, fi'lt the effect When we come lo Thucydldes, the results of discussion ore as full as tlK-v have ever been; his light U ■m. 'dry light.' free from tlie ■humours' of i3!)!<, and purgwi frum cuu«icral«a usagu. At 1 t Groto s history often reads like a report to Parlia- ment, so half Thucydidi-s rends like a speech or ni itermls for a spc-ech, in the Athenian Aa-K-nibly ■ — w. Itngihot, Fhi/Mic aiut Piilitict. pp 170-171 •1 440-437— Ne v settlements of Kler- oiichoi.-The founding of Amphipolis.— Revolt and subjueation of Samos.— ' The great aim of Perikles was to strengthen the powiT of Athens over the whole area occupied by her confederacy. The establishment of settlers or Klerouclioi [sec Kt.EnuciisI, who re- tained their riirhts as Athenian ritzens had answered so well in the Ix'lnntian plain of EulKiia that it was obviously go(Hl policy in ex. tend the system. The territory of Hesliala in the north of Eulioia and the islands of I.<>iniios Iinbros, and Skvros, were thus occupied; and Perikles himself led a botly of settlers to Hie Thrakian Chersonesos where he repaired the old wall at the neck of the penlnsul.i. ami even to Siiiope which now became a meinlier of the Atheniiin alliance. A genemtion had parsed from the lime when Athens lost lO.tKHt citizens in the attempt to found a colony at the mouth of the SIrvmon. The task was 'now undertaken surcessfully by Hagnon, and the city came into existence \vlii<-li was to Iw the cause of disaster to the historian Thucydldes and to witness the death of Brasidtus and of Kleon [see Amphi- l-o!,is1 . . Two years liefore the fiHinding of Ampliiimlis. Samos a-volted from Athens. In this revolt of Samos the overt action ci.nns from tiio oligarclis who had seiwd upon the Ionian town of Priene, and defeated the Mile- sians who opposed them. The latter appealed lo the Athenians, and received not only their aid but that of the Sainian demos. The latter now Iiecame the ruling iKuly in the island, fifty men and fifty boys iH'ing taken from the ohgarrliic familiesaml plaeeil as hostages in Ix'innos. which as we have seen, \vm now wholly oceiipii?<l liy Athenian Kleniuehoi. But the Samian exiles (for many hail lie 1 rather than live under a deinocnu'y) cntereil into covenant with Pis- soutlines, the S;inlian satrap, en)ssed over to Samoa and si'ired the chief men of the demos, then falling on lA-mnos succeeiled In stealing away the ho-itages: and. having bandnl over to Pissoutlmes the Athenian garriscm at Samos, maile ready for an e<pe<liii,m against Mileios The tidings that Uyz mtion liad JoinH in this last revolt left to the Atik-nians no room to doubt the gravity of the crisis, A Heet of sixty ships was dispatched 'o S.imos under Perikles and nine other generals, of whom Ihe poet Sophoklcs is said to have bei-n one. Of these ships sixteen were si-nt. some to gnther tlie allies, others to watch for the Phenii ian Heet which thev lie- Ileved to U- off the Kuii:in coast ailvsncirig to Ihe aid of the Saniliiii oligarchs. With the re- m.ilnder Perikles <lid not hesitate to engage the Samian fleet of seventv ships which he encoun- tered on lis reiurn from .Mlletosoff the ItlamI of Tragla. The Athenians gained the day and Samos was lilnckadeil by land and sea. Bn! no sooner had Perikles aslled with sixty shii-. lo ira-et tlie Piienician tieel. than Ihe Samlans, iiiak- liig a vlgomiis sally, broke the lines of the lie- sl.'gers ami for fourteen days remalm-d masters of the sea. The return of Perikles changed the face of things, Soou after the resumption of the sle-je Ihf iirrfviil nf Bi,i[tV frerth sliiiis fnitn I Atbens under dve btralcgoi iu two duiarliinents, 73 i:\l ATHENS. B. C. *4(M37. Aloponnaian War. ATHENS, B. C. 431. with thirty from Chlo§ and LMboa, damped the energy of the Samian oligarchs; and an unsuc- cessful effort at sea was followed by their sub- mission in the ninth month after the beginning of the revolt, the terms being that they should raze their walls, give hostages, surrender their ships, and pay the expenses of the war. Follow- ing their example, the Byzantines also made their peace with Athens. The Pheniciaa fleet never came. . . . The Athenians escaped at the same time a far greater danger neater home. The Samians, lilte the men of Thasos, hail ap- plied for tid to the Spartans, who, no longer pressed bv the Helot war, summoned a congress of their allies to discuss the question. For the truce which had still flve-and-twenty years to run Sparta cared nothing; but she encountered an opposition from the Corinthians which per- haps she now scarcely expected. . . . The Spar- tans were compelled to give way ; and there can be no doubt that when some years later the Corinthians claimed the gratitude of the Athen- ians for this decision, they toolc credit for an act of good service singularly opportune. Had they voted as Sparta wUlied, Athens might by the extension of revolt amongst her allied cities have been reduced now to tiic condition to which, in consequence perhaps of this respite, she was not brought until the lifetime of a generation had been spent in desperate warfare."— G \V Cox, Hilt, of GrcfM, bH. 3, ch. I (v. 2). ,.?■ C.43'-— Beginning of the Pelopoaneuan War.— Its Causes — 'In B. C. 431 the war broke out between Athens and the Pcloponncslan League, which, after twenty -seven years, ended ' the ruin of the Athenian empire, It began through a quarrel between Corinth and Kerkyra, in which Athens assisted Kerkyra. A congress was held at Sparta ; Corinth and other Suites complained of the conduct of Athens, ami war was decided on. The real cause of the war was that Sparta and its allies were jealous of the great power that Athens had gained [see RKBCE: B. C. 43.'M;!3 and 433-431]. Afar greater number of Greek States were cngageil in this war than had ever been engaged in a single undertaking before. States that hud takra no part in the Persian war were now lighting on one side or the otiier. Sparu was an iillii.irchy and the friend of the nobles ovcrywlaru' Athens was a democracy, and the frienil of the common people ; so tliat the ,var was U) some extent a struggle betweeen these classes all over Greece, and often within the same city walls tlie nobles and the people attacked one anotlier. the nobles Iwing for Sparta and the people for Athens. On the side of .Span.i. when the war liegan, there was all I'elopoimc-i'n except Argos and Acliira, and also the ollgunhlcnl B-eotlan League under Thebes besiile.1 Phokis, I^jkris and other States west of thera. They were very strong by hiud, l)ut the Corlnthians'alone had a good fleet. Later on we shall see the powerful Slate of Syracuse with iu navy, adinfc, with Sparta. On the side of Athens there win- almost all the „t,giean Islands, and a great uiiinli«T of the A^.tan coast Uiwns as well lis Ker- kyra and certain SUtus In the west of tireece riie Atlisnlans had also made alliance with Nlalkes, the barbarian king of tiiu interior of Thrace, Athens was far stronger bysealliaii bparu, but hail not such a Btr)ng land armv Oa ths otiier hand it bad a large trea»jr>'. aod'a s;rstem of taxes, while the Spartan League had little or no money,"— C. A. Pyffe, Ilitt. of Orttet (Ilu-tory Primerii), p. 84.— The Ionian cities, called "allien" of Athens, were subjects in reality, and held in subjection by tyrannical measures which made the yoke odious, as is plainly explained by Xenophon, who says ■ "Some person might say, tliat it is a great support to the Athenians that their allies should be in a condition to contribute money to tliem. To the plebeians, however, it seems to l>e of much greater advant^ige th.U every individual of the Atuenians should get some of the property of the allies, and that the allies themselves should have only so much as to enable them to live and to till the ground, so that they may not be in a condition to form conspiracies. The people of Atiiensseemalso toha' acted injudiciously in this respect, that Aey c re their allies to make vovages to Athens for the decision of their law- suits. But the Athenians consider only, on the otiier hand, what beneflts to the state of Athens are attendant on this practice; in the first place they receive their dues throughout the year from the prytaneia; in the next place, they manage the government of the allied states while sitting at home, and without sending out ships; they also support suitors of the lower orders, anj ruin those of an opposite character hi tlieir courts of law; but If each sbite had its own courts, they would, as being hostile to the Athe- nians, be the ruin of those who were most favourable to the people of Athens. In aildition to these advantages, the Athenian people have the following profits from the courts of justice for the allies being at Alliens; first of all the duty of the hundredth on what is lauded at the Peineeus affords a greater revenue to the city ; next, whoever has a lodging-house makes more moni'v by it, as well as whoever has cattle or Slav .or hire ; and the heralils, too, arc b<'uijlltcd by tlie visits of the allies to the city I'.^i les. if the allies did not come t,i Alliens for law, they would honour only such of the Athenians !is were sent over the sea to tliciu, as geuirals, aal capliiins of vcssi'ls, and ambassadors; but now every indlvi lual of the allies is obli,r,.,l t. liattur the people of Athens, knowim; that m goin:? to Athens he must gain or lose his ra»*> nceordiag to the decision, not of other Julian. b»t of the people, as is the law of Athens; au i he is comiK'lled, too, to use supplication befun' tlie court, and, as any one of the people enters, to take him by tlie hand. Uy these means tli" allies lire in consequence rendered much in irf the slaves of the AthenUn people."— Xenophi^n. Oi tlie Athenitin Oomnnunt (Hiwir It'.r*. tniiui. hi/ iter. J. S. WatHDn), p. J:),"). — The ro\ a of these ciK'rce,l and hostile "alHea," upon lii- outbreak of the Pelipoaneslan War, was Iuim table— ■'"he prominent events of the Pelopoiiiu slau war, in wlihli nio.t of, the Grwk Stati* were involved, are pro[HTly narrated in th.ir connection with Urei'k history at large iv OiiiiKci;: B. C. 4;ll-4a9, and aftiT). In liii, place ii will only be n-eessary to take accoa:r of the consequences of the war as they altic!. I ll.i^ rin irkable city and pi-oplf whose sapirinr; » h.i I od-asioned it liy challenging and S'lmiw lii'. o.rcu,lvi.|y provoking the jealousy of tliii nel'.;til»ors. 174 B.C. 4)1. — Peloponaesian invasions of A'";»- — Siege of Athens, - WiilLj tiir !\: ATHBNS, B. C. 481. Funeral Oration 0/ PtricU*. ATHENS, B. C. 430. ponncsiana were gathering at the Isthmus, and were still on their way, but before they enteiwl Attica, Pericles, the son of Xanthippus, who was one of the ten Athenian generals. . . . repeateil [to the Athenians] his previous advice; tliey must prepare for war and bring their prop- ertv from the country into the city; they must defend their walls but not go out to battle; they should also equip for service the fleet in which lay their strength. . . . Tlie citizens were per- suaded, and brought into the city their children and wives, their household goods, and even the wood-work of their houses, which they took down. Their flocks and beasts of burden they conveyed to Euboea and the adjacent islands. The removal of the inhabitanu was painful : for the Athenians had always been accusU)med to reside in the country. Such a life had been chancteristic of them more than of any other Hellenic people, from very early times. . . . Whin they came to Athens, only a few of them had houses or could find homes among friends or kindred. The majority took up their 8bo<le in the vacant spaces of the city, and in the tem- ples and shrines of heroes. . . . Many also estab- li-shcd themselves in the turrets of the walls, or iu any other place which they could find; for the ciiy could n,'t contain them when they first cami^ in. But afterwards tliey divide<l among tliem tlie Long Wa'ls and the greater part of the I'iricus. At the same time the Athenians ap- plied themselves vigorously to the war, summon- ing their allies, and preparing an expedition of 100 ships against the Peloponnese. While they were thus engaged, the Pelnponnesian army was adviinring: it arrived first of all at Ocnoc." where Arcliidiimus, the Spartan king, wasted much timi' in a fru'tless siege and assault. "At last tliey ni;irche<i on, and about the eightieth day after the entry of the Thebans inU) Plataea, in the middle of the summer, when the corn was in full ear, invaded Attica. . . . They encamped ami ravaged, Srst of all, Eleusis and the plain ufThria. . . . At Achamae theyencampiM). and remained there a considerable time, ravaging the lounlry." It was tlie expectation of Archidamus that tlie Athenians would be provoked to come out and meet him in the open field; and that. ini|«,i, they were eager to do; but the prudence of till ir great leader held them back. "The peo- ple were furious with Perioles, and, forgetting all his iirevious warnings, tliev abused liiin for nut leading them to battle." But he was vlndl- nitid by the result. "The Puloponneaians re- mained in Atticji as long as their provisiims lasted, an.! ilicn, taking a new roiit«, retired through "."■"tia. ... On their return to Peloponnesus the tnK)ps disperse.! to tlieir several cities." -Hiiiniiim' the Athenian and allied fleets were nivui'inif the Pelopounesian const. ' ' In the same sunmur [B. C. 431] the Athenians expelled the .Vt'in, tans ami tlieir families f mm Aegina, alleg- ini: that they had Ik'en the main ciiuae of the wsr . . . The Lacedai'monians gave the Aegine- tan r\ili..< tlie town of Tlivrea to occupy and the «"ll"inini: country to cultivate. , . . About the fw of llie summer the entire Athenian force. imlurling the metica, inviwled the territory of » fi"^" ■ ■ • ■'^'"^'' •"'"""rmg the greater part ot th,. cnnitry tiny retired. They repeated the nviiM ,., wunetimcs wiili cavalry, sometimei with iiw wi,,,|,. Atiipoi,,,, „„„y , . year during the •w until .Nis:«-:; was taken [B. t. 424]."--l-hucy- 176 ?o'o^' ,^*^/ '«>»"• »y B. Jouett, bk. a, net. \o-o\ (e. 1). B. C. 430.— The funetsl oration of Pericle*.— IJunng the wmterof the yewr B. C. 431-430 "la accordance with ao old national custom, the funeral of those who first fell in this war was cele- brated by the Athenians at the public charge The ceremony is as follows: Three days before the celebration they erect a tent in which the bones of the dead are laid out, and every one brings to his own dead any offering which he pleasia. At the time of the funeral the liones are placed in chests of cypress wood, which are c<>nveye<l on hearses; there is one chest for each tnbe. They al.so carry a single empty li"er decked with a pall for all whose Ixxlies u-e mi j- ing, and cannot be recovered after the battle The procession is accompanied by any one » lio chooses, whether citizen or stranger, and the female relatives of the deceased are present at the place of interment and make lamentatiou The public sepulchre is situated in the most bepu- tiful spot outside the walls; there they always ■""■y those who fall in war; onl^ afU-r the battle of Marathon the dead, in recognition of tlieir pre-eminent valour, were interred on the field \\ hen the remains have been laid iu tlie earth Boi.ie man of known abilitv and high reputation chosen by the city, delivera a suitable oration over them ; after which the jieople depart. Such is ttic manner of iuk-rment ; and the ceremony was repeated from time to time throughout tlie war. Over those who were the first buriwl PcTicles was cliosen to speak. At the Httiuij Miriinent he ailvanced from the sepulchre to a "fty stage, which liad ln-en erected iu order tliat he iiiiglit lie heard as far as pos.sible bv tlie inul- litude. and spoke as follows:— ' Most of those who have spoken here before me have tom- mended the lawgiver who added this oration -> our other funeral customs; it seemed to thei . worthy thin^ that such an honour should Ik' gi> a lit their burial to the dead who have fa'', o on the field of battle. But I shouI<l liave preferred that, wlien men's deeds have Leen brave, thev should Ik! Iionourc<l in I'-ed onlv, and with such ail hcmour as this public funeral, which vou are now witnessing. Then the reputation of many would not have been impiiilled on the ehxiucnce or want of elo(iU"nce ot one, and their virtues lielieved or not as he spoke well or ill. For it is difficult to S.IV neither too little nor too imieh; and even mcKleration is apt not to givr the im- pression of truthfulness. Tiie friend .)f the de:-d who knows the facts is .Ikelv to think timt the words of th. spi'aker full short of his kn.iwli.lge and of his wishes; another who is not .s,> w.-ll in- forine.1. vhon he hears of anytiiiiig wlii.ii sur- passi'S his own powers, will tw envious anil will suspect cxaggerati.m. Mankind are tol.rant of the pralsesof otlie.sso long as each hearerthinks that he can do as will or neiirty as well himself, but, wlien the speaker rises alwve him. ji'alnusv lsarous<'ilandlieb<'ginstobclncr. duloiis. Ilow'- ever, since our ancestors liave set ll.e seal of Ihi-ir approval upon the praelice, I must obey, im.l to the utmost of my power shall eii.l.'ai ..- to satisfy tlie wishes ami Iwliefj of all « ho hear me. I will speak first of our ancestors, for it :s right and twcoming that now. wlien we are lamiiitlag the deai' a tribute sliouM lie paid to their mem- ory. There has never lieen a time when thev aid Out iuhabil this land, wli.ch by their vaiour ),-^ m lit- " i' » I;: 1 I ATHENS, B. C. 480. Funtrat Oratim 0/ PirieU*. ATHENS, B. C. 430. they have hnnded down from generation to gen- eratioD, and we have receiveil from them a free state. But if tliey were wortliv of priiise, still more were our fathers wlio adilcil to thiir hiheri- tancc, and after many a struggle transmitted to us their sons this great empire. And we our- selves assembled here to-day, wlio are still most of us in the vijjour of life, have chiefly done the work of improvement, and have richly endowed our city with all things, so that she is sulllcient for herself botli in peace and war. Of tlie mili- tary exploits by which our various possessions were acqiured, or of the energy with which we or our fatliers drove back tlic tiile of war, Hel- lenic or Barbarian, I will not speak: for tlic tale would be long and is familiar to you. But be- fore I praise the dead, I should like to point out by what principles of action we rose to jK)wer, and under what institutions and througli wliat manner of life our empire became great. For I conceive, that such thoughts are not unsuitcil to the occasion, and that tills numerous as-iembly of citizens and strangers may proBt.ibly lisU.Mi to them. Our form of eovenifnent ilnes not enter into rivalry with the Institutions of others. We do not copy our neighbours, but are an example to them. It is true tliat we are called a democ- racy, for the administration is in tlic hands of the many ami not of the few. But while the law secures equal justice to all alike in their private disputes, the claim of excellon<'o is also recog- nlse<l ; and when a citizen is in anv w.iy distin- guislied, he is proferri'd to the public service, not a.s a matter of privilege, but as the reward of merit. Ncitlierii poverty a bar, tut a man may bineflt his country whatever Iw the olMcur- ity fif his conilitii>n. There is no exclusiveness In our iniblic life, and in our private huercoursc we are not suspiciius of one another, nor angry witli our nei.,'bl>oui if he does wlmt he likes; we do not put on sour looks at him wliieh, tliouHi harmless, are not pleasant. Wliile we are thus uneonstniiiied in our private inUTcourse, a spirit of n'veniicepervadesourp..;)licaets; wearepro- venled from doing wrong by respect for autlior- ity and for the laws, having an es|vcial regard to those which arc ordained for tlie proteiiiiin of the injured as well as to those unwritten laws which bring upon the transga'ssor of them ti,, reprobation of the general sentiment. And wi' have not forgotten to provide for our wi-arv spirits m.iny relaxations from toil; w have rLg.i- lar games and sjicritlces tliroughout the ye.ir- at home tlic style of our life is rellned ; and the delight wliicli we daily feel la all these thing's helps to banish melancholy. Because of tile grealmss of our city the "fruiu of the whulo earlli ll.nv in upon us; so that we enj"y tlie giKxis of othiT countries as fni'ly as of our own Then, again, our militiirv training i.s in manv rcspci l».,,iperiorto that of ourailversaries. () fr city is thrown open to the worlil, and we never expel a f.in'inixT or prevent him from si.^irii; or learning anylliing(.f whhh the secret if revealed to an eniiny uiiglit proilt him. We relv not upon luanagementor trickery, but uponourown liearts and lianils. .Vnd in the matter of Hlucation, wliinMH tliey fri>m eariv youlii are always under- going lalioriousexiTei.seswhiehare tomaketlii.in brave, we live at ease, and yet arc eipialiv ready to face the l,.iee(|iiemonians come into Atlica not by ihemsi-lves, but with their wli.ile confcleraey foUowlQg;wegoa!om;liit^>ane!^'libuur'=futi!ilry: 176 and a' • 'lough our opponent* are fighting for their Uomi id we on a foreign soil we liave sel.loiri any d . Ity In overcomfiig them. Our encinity have yet felt our unitcil strengi li ; tlie tare of a navy divides our attention, and cm Ian I we are obliged to send our own citizens every wlurt But they, if they meet and defeat a part of our army, arc as proud as if they had routed us all and when defeated they pretend to have lueii vanquisheil by us all. If then we prefer to iniat danger with a light heart but without lalK)ri„us training, and with a courage which is gairnil liy habit and not enforced by law, are we not envulv the gainers 1 Since we do not anticipate tli<' paJQ although, when the hour comes, we can lie a^ brave as those who never allow themsihis to rest; and thus t(x) our city Is equally ailrniriyi! in peace and in war. For wc are lovers of tli. Iieautiful, yet simple in our tastes, and wc eiil" ti vate the mind without loss of manline.^. Woaltli wc employ, not for talk and o»tentalio:i. bit when there is a real use for it. To avow pov- erty with us is no disgrace-; the true lis'niio |j in doing nothing to a\oid it. An Athetiiiiii eiti zen does not neglect the state Ihwiiuw Itc takes care of his own household ; and ever thos,. of us who are engaged in business have a v.ry fair idea of politics. Wc alone rogarj a inari wlw takes no interest In publii- affairs, not as a Innn- less, but as a useless cliaracter; and if few of u, are originators, we arc all sound jiidins of a policy. The great inip<iliment to aeiio:, i,< in our opinion, not disim.ssion, but the want of ihu knowledge which is gained bv ilis<ii<,i,,ii nn>. paraUirv to action. Forwe haveapiculi ironivor of thinking l»'fore we act and of a.iiii,' km whereas other men are courageous from i ' i ranee but hesiuite upon roflecticm. Ami thm aiv ^ iroU to be esteemed the bravest spirits who lining the clearest sense both of the pains ani pi. imi^j of life, ilo not on that account slirink from ilan- ger. In doing g<x)d, again, we are unlike oihcrj- we make our friends by conferring, not hy re- ceiving favours. Now ho who coiiHrs a ravour is the firmer friend, becau.se he would f on by kindness keep alive the meinorvof aiiohli itioo but the recipient is colder in his feelings. Ivcause ho knows that in requiting another's irin. msity he will not lie winning gratitude butoiilv [nvin- adebt. Weahmedo good toour neiithlilinrs" m mxm a calculaticm of interest, hut in tln' oma- deneo of fn>edoin an<l in a frank ami fcarlew spirit. To sum up; I say that Alliens is tbc stiKHil of Hellas, ami that the imiividual .\tbe- nian in his own pi'rson seems to have the pow,.r of adapting himself to the most varie.1 forms of action with the utmost versjitiliiv and iirace This is no piLs.siiig and i.lle wonl, but tnitli and f let: 11,1 1 till' iiss,.rtioii is vi'riliod !iy the p.^itinn to wliieh tlii'se cpiiliiies have raisV.l tlir sate For in the lioiir of trial Athens alone am .n- lier ciintemiximri.'s is siqierior to tlie n'port,,f licr No enemy who eiimes ag.iinst her i.s indinn ant at the reverses whiili he sustains at tli' binds of Huch acily; no sulijcct coinpiains that his raaa- Urs are unworthy ,if liini. Ami we shall u- s'iredly not lie without witnesses; th ie are nil 'hty monuinenis of our po.ver wlii 'i will make us the wornlir of ihi) uml of sir ^linij ages:weMliall not iioed the pmis<s of II ror of any olhcr panegyrist whose |)oe|rv niav pkiue for tile iiioineni, although his n-|)ri>sinratMUof tju facu will not boar the light of day. For w« \THEKS. B. C. 430. Fmrral Oralltm of PtricUt. ATHENS, B. r h»Te compelled every land and every «ea to open a path for our valour, and have everywhcru planted eternal memorials of our friendship and of our enmity. Such is the city for whose sake tlic-ie men nol)ly fought and died; they could not btiir the thought that she might Iw taken from them; and every one of us who survive 8houl(l ghully toil on her behalf. I have dwelt ui)on the griMintss of Athens because I want to show you that we are contending for a lilgliitr priic tiian tliii*.' who enjoy none of these privileges, and to estahlish by manifest proof the merit of tliose men whom I am now commemorating. Thiir loftii'st praise bag been already spoken. For in mauMifying the city I have magnified them, and men like them whose virtues made her glorious. An.l of how few Hellenes can it be siiirl as of thim, that their deeds when weighed in the bilince have been found equal to their fame! Mctliinks that a death such as theirs has been givis the true measure of a man's worth ; it mav be tiie first revclaliim of his virtues, but is at any r:iie their final 8<-al. For even those who come sh .r. In other ways may justly plead the valour wi;h which they have fought for their country; they have blotU'd out the evil with the good, and hive benefitc.l the stjitc more by their public Servicer than they have injured her by their pri- vate ;i' tions. None of these men were enervatoil by IV !th or hesitaU- 1 to resign the pleasures of life; .. .lie of them put off the evil day in the hope, natural to poverty, that a man, thougli poor, may one day become rich. Hut, deeming thai tlie punishment of theircnemies was sweeter tli:m any of tliese things, and that t!iev could fall in n . nobler cause, they determined nt'the hazard of thiir lives to be honourably avenge I, aril to leave the rest. They resigned' to hope their un- known cha.nee of happiness; but in the faee of (le.iih they resolved to a'ly upon tliemselves alone. And wlien the moment tame they were minled to resist and suffer, rather than to Hy ami s;ive their lives; they ran awav from tlie w.jnl of dishonour, but on the battle fliM their feet si(Hxl fast, and in an InsUmt, it the height of tie ir fortune, thcv pa-.sed away from the scene, not of tlieir fear, but of their glorv. Sueli was the eri.lof these men; f'ley were wirthy of Athens anltlie living ne • • .< re :o have a more h.roic spirit alt, • v pray for a less futil is<ue. Th 'a spirit is not to lie expressed in .,» can discourse to vou for ever all ^^L3of a brave de- fyiiee winch yo y. H„- instead of listening' to him ..ave yr. ..av by dav fix yoiir eyes iipou i.ic givatuesso .thens.' until you become filled with the Live of ,i, r; amlwIeMi jou are Impressed by the spectacle of her glory reflect that this empire has iH-en acquinMl hV men who knew tlieir dutv and had tlte couniir",' t<)<lo it; who In the hour of contiict had the fear of dishonour always present to them, and who. ir ever they failed in an enterprize, wouhl not allow their virtues to be lost to their count rv. but freely gave their lives to her as the fairest ollering which they cull present at her feast, llie sacrifice which ihey collectively made was iniiviilually repal.l to them; for tliev received ig:iin each one for himself a praise wldeh grows not oM. and the noblest of all sepulchres — I siH'ak °f o* .'"*' '," "''''■'' "'^'''' "'"'«'"•• "re lal I. but 0. !.M! J!) wlilth their glory siirviv.-.s, and l» pi., aaiineU alwaya and ou every fitting otcusiou 1< t both in wOTd and deed. For i.ie whole earth is the sepulchre of famous men; not only are they coinmemorated by columns and inscriptions in their own country, but in foreign lands there dwells also an unwritten memorial of them graven not on stone but in the hearts of men Make them your examples, and esteeming courage to be freedom and freedom to Ir. happiness do not weigh too nicely the perils of war The un- fortunate who has no hope of a change for the better baa less reason to throw away his life than the prosperous who, if he survive, is always liable to a change for the worse, and to whom any accidental fall makes the most serious dif- ference. To a man of spirit, cowanlicc and dis- aster coming together arc far more bitter than cleath striking him unperccived at a time when lie is full of courage and animated by the gen- eral hope. Wherefore I do not now commiserate the parenU of the dead who stand here; I wo'iM rather comfort them. You know that your life has been f. is.sed amid manifold vicissitudes- an.l that they maybe deemed fortunate who have g.-iinwl most honour, whether au himourable death like theirs, or an honourable sorrow like yours and whose days have been so onlered that the term of their happiness is likewise the term of their life. I know how hard it is to make vou feel this, when the good fortune of others will t'M) often remind you of the L'ladness which once lightened your hearts. And s. .rrow is felt at the want of those blessings, not which a maii never knew, but which were a part of his life before they were taken from him. Some of you are of an age at which they may hope to have othe' children, and they ought t., biar their sorrow better; not only will the chil Ireu who may here- after be bom make them for^'et their own lost' oni'3, but the city will be doublv a gainer Shs will not be left desf>late, ami she will be safer For a man's counsel cannot have equal weight or worth, when he alone has no children to risk in the general danger To those of you who have passed their i..ime I say: "Congratulate yourselves that you have iRvn happy during the greater part of your days; remember that vour life of sorrow will not last long, and be comforted by the glory of those who are gone. For the love of honour alone is ever young, and not riches, as some Siiy, but honour is the delight of men when they an; old and useless. " To you who are the sons and brothers of the departed I see that the struggle to emulate them will be an anluous one. For all men praise the dead, and, however preeminent your virtue mav be, hardly will you lie thought, I ilo not sav to equal but even to appniach them. The living have their rivals and detractors, but nhe-i i\ man is out of the way. the hi>nour and gikd will which he re- ceives is unalloy(.il. And. if I am to speak of womanly virtues to those of vou who will hence- forth be widows, let me sum them up in one short admonitiim: To a woman not to show inor.. weiknc'sthanls natural to her s(..\ is 'igriat glory, and n.it to lie tjilkerl al>.Mit for giHHl or for evil among men. 1 have paiil the rcquire-l tribute, in obe.lienee to the law. making use of such lit ting words as I had. The tribute of dewls has been paid in part; for the dear! have been honour alilv iiilerri'l. and it remains only tint their eliildreii should be maintjtinwl at the publi,. elpir^n until liny are gn>wnup: this is the soljil prize with which, as with a garland, Athens cmwus I K* ii^i. ui,. ATHENS. B. C. 4S0. IV PIlVIM. ATIIENS, B. C. 439-421. her anna living and dead, after a strugRlc like liifira. For where the rewards of virtue iiri> Itrentost. there the noblest citizens are enliste.l in the service of the state. And now, wlien yoti have duly himented, every one his own dead, von miiy depart.' Such was the order of the funeral oelebratetl In this winter, with the end of wliich ended the first year of the Pe'oponnesian War. " — Thucydidea, Jlulory, traru. by B. Jowett. r I Ik. 8, tet. 84-47. B, C. 430-439.— The Plague in the city,— Death of Pericles.— Capture of Potidica,— •As soon as the summer retumetl [B. ('. 430) liie Peloponnesians , . . Invaded Attic;i, where they establi^ihcd themselves and ravaged tlie country. Tliny had not been there m:inv days when the plague broke out at Athens for the first time. . . . The disease is said to have be- (Tuti soutli of Egypt in .tlthiopia; tliciice it de- winded into Egypt and Libya, and after spnwl- iuL' over tlif greater part of the Persian Empire, sudiienly fell upon Athens It first attaclied the inli.il)itants of the Pirsus, and It was 8uppos«-(l that the Peloponnesians had poisone<l the cis- terns, no conduits having as yet been made there. It afterwards reached the upper ciiv, and then the mortality became far greater. As to its probable origin or the causes whicli miglit or could have produced such a disturbance ()■ nature, every man, whether a phvsician or not, will give his own opinion. But f shall describe its actual course, and the symptoms by whieli any one who knows them bcforehaml mav remg nize the disorder should It ever reappear.' For » was myself attacked, and witnessed the suffer- ings of others. The season was admitted to have been remarkably free from oitllnary sick- ness; and if anybody was already ill of any other disease. It was absorbed in this. Many wlif> were in perfect health, all In a moment, and without any apparent reason, were seized with violent heats in the heiul and with redness anil lutiammation of the eyes. Internally tlio tiinwt and tongue were quickly suffused with bloocl and the breat'i became unnatund and fetid. There followed sneezing and liDarseness; in a short time the disorder, accompanied liy a vio- lent cougli, reached the chest; then fastening lower down, it would move the stomiich and bring on all the vomits of bile to which physi- cians have ever given names; and thev were very distressing. . . . Tlie txxly extemallv was not so very hot to the touch, nor yet pale ; it was a livid colour inclining to red, and breaking out in pusttdes and ulcers. But the internal fever was lnten.se. . . . The disorder which had origi- nally settled in the head pa,sse<l grailually through the whole body, and. if a person got over the worst, would often seize the extremi- ties and leave Its mark, attacking the privv parts anil the finirers and toes; and some escapi'il wit' .he loss of tliese, some with the loss of their eyes. . . . Tiie crowding of the [leople out of I le country into the city aggravated tiie misery; and the newly -arrive<l suffered most. . . , The mortalitv among them was dreailful and they jierishcl in wild disfmier. The dead lay as they hail died, one upon another, while others hardly alive wallowed in the streeta and crawled aljout every fountain craving for water. The temples In which they lodged were full of the corpses of tlinse who died in them; for the violence of the calamity was such that moo, not knowing where 178 to turn, grew reckless of all law, human and divine. . . . The pleasure of the moment aril any sort of thing which conduoed to it took the place both of honour and of expediency. Xo fear of Ooil or law of man deterreil a crimin.il ' Terrilled by the plague, when they learned of it the Pelopoimesians retreated from Attica, after ravaging it for forty days; but, in the mein- tiine, their own coasts had been ravaged, as be- fore, by llie Athenian fleet. And now, being one.' more relieved from tiie presence of the eneniv though still grievously alilicted by the plagu'f the Athenians tume*l upon Pericles with com- plaints and rep-oaches, and imposed a fine upon liim Tliey also sent envoys to Sparta, with IH-ace proposals which received no encourage ment. But Pericles spoke calmly and wisely to the people, and they acknowledged their sense of dependence upon him by re-electing him gen- eral and committing again "all their affairs to his cliarge." But he was stricken next year with the plague, and, lingering for some wwks In broken health, he died in the summer of 429 B. C. By his death the republic was given over to striving demagogues and factions, at just the time when a capable brain axa^ han.l were neeiled in its government most. The war wert on acquiring more ferocity of temper with every campaign. It was especially embittered in the course of the second summer by the execution, at Athens, of several Lacedaemonian envovi who were captureil while on their way to solicit help from the Persian king. One of tliesi' un fortunate envoys was .Vristcus, who had organ izcd the defence of 1' lidaea. Tlir city was still holding out against tlie Athenians, who 1! hU- aded it obstinately, although their trooji-; suf- fered frightfully from the plague. Bu' iu the winter of 430-429 B. C. they succumbed . star- vation aud surrendered their town, being per- mitted to depart in search of a new li.ime. Potidaea was tlien peopled anew, with colonists — Tliucydides, Ilutory, tr. by Jomett, bk. -.' *•'•( 8-70. Also in: E. Abbott, Periela anil the GM/n Aye of At/ient, eh. 13-1.5.— W. W. Lliiyil T!u Age of Perides, eh. 64 (o. 2).— L. Whiblev, /'../, Yi ■ (vii Pnrtie» in Athens durimj the Ptloponn^niin iKar.— W. Wiichsmuth, //«»«. Antiquities ■■fthe Orr.kn, neele. 02-64 (c. 2). B. C. 429-421.— After Peridei,— The rise of the Demagoeues,— "When Pericles rov to nower it woulll liave been possible to fniiiie ,1 Pan-Hellenic union, in which Sparta anil .Mliens would liave bein the leading states; anil sueli a dualism would have Imkii the best guarantee lur the rights of the smaller cities. Wlien he liiiHl there was no policy left but war with Spana. and conquest in the West. And not only so, but there was no politician who could adjust the relations of domestic war and foreign ccm.iuesl. The Atlienians pasist'd from one to the nlle r. as they were address<'d by Cleon or AUiliiales. We cannot wonder that the men who live.l in those days of trouble spoke bitterlv of I'erii les, holding him accountable for the miseries «liiili fell upon Athens. Other statesmen li.i.l be Queatheil good laws, as Solon and Clistlieiies. or the memory of great achievements, as Tlniui-i.' cles or Cimon, but the only changes wliieh Pericles had introduceil were thought, nut wltli- oiit reason, to be changes for the worse: an.l In- left his Country involved in a ruinous War. — li t ATHENS, B. C. 42«-481. Rue nf the UemagoQuee, ATHENS, B. C. 484-408. Abbott. PerieUt and the Ooldea Age of Athewi l,;i. 362-363.— "The moral cliaOKe wliicli U.i\ . . befallen the Attic community \im\ it U true, even (luring tlic lif, ime of Pericles, manl- fisled itself by means of sufflciently cleiir pre- monitory siffM; but Pericles lia,l. notwitlistand- ill?, up to the (lays of bis la.st illness, remainc.i the centre of the state; the people ha ' igain and agiin returned to him, and by suboriinatinL' tliemaclves to the personal authority of Perick^ Imd succeeded in recovering the demeanor wliicb liilitted them. But now the voice was hushed wliich had l>een able to sway the unruly citizens I viii against their will. So other authority was 111 cxntence — no aristocracy, no official class, no Ij.Kini of experienced 8tal.esmen— nothing in f.ii t. to which the citizens might have looked for tluiJanee and control. The multitude had re- covered absolute independence, and in propor- tion iw. in the interval, readiness of speech and sopiiistic versatility had spread in Athens the numlier had increased of those who now' put tlieiiiselves forward as popular speakers and \m\en. But as, among all these, none was capable of leading the multitude after the fashion of Pericles, anoiher method of leading the people anollier kind ot demagogy, sprung iiitoexistenre' Pemles stood above the multitude His successors were obliged to alopt other means- inonlcrto ac(iuire influence, they took ii.ivi-i. taje not so much of the strong as of the we ik points In the character of the citizens and achieved popularity by flattering their iiiclina tious, and endeavoring to satisfy the cravin-'s of tlieir baser nature. . . . Now for the first Time men belon-ing to the lower class of citizens tliriist themselves forward to play a part in rolitus.-menof the trading and artisan class till' culture and wealth of which hi: i so vigor- ou>ly mcreased at Athens. ... The office of gciicral f re<iuently became a post of martyrdom • am) the bravest men felt that the prospect of beini; called to account as to their campaigns liv coT.inily demagogues, before a ca jricious mi- tit'Kle. disturlied the str.iightforwaid ioyoiisncss of thrir activity, and threw obstacles in the way of their successes. ... On the oratou' tribune t!ie contmst was more striking, "ot^ the first immunent successor of Perich a certain 1. .inites. a -ude and uneducated who was r.iniW on the comic stage as ■ 'boar' or ; ir of .Mehtc (the name of t,.c district to « uili he belonged), a dealer in tow and mill- owner, who only for a short space of time took he lead in the popular assembly. His place was .■uen by Ly.sicles, who had acquired wealth by . M. !,■» that the dem:igogues attained to power w lio h.1.1 lirst made themselves a name by their on- p .Miion a,;uinst Pcricies.and, among thcm,Cl(;on « .1 ^ 1 le li rst who was able to maintain his authority I .ra lon-,.r period of time; so that it is in his pro- i( -lin;;, liuring the ensuing years of the war I. > ,e who (■ character of the new demiigogy ■/, , I, Tjl'^^' 'n'">'f'-'>"« itself. "-E. CurtiiV,. . 1 ; ,;;n ■"*"• '• ■'• •■''; '-"The characters " ii. military commander and the political 'ZZ.TZ *-':^".''"'"y ^-P^rated. The first J.J MIS or his division we find in the davs of iKHii. but his real genius cleariv cillci |ii,„ ,„ .Tl" '"„,*'"' '\-^^<^n„n. Periklfls w,« ,11 .hi. and «uc(;es8ful genenU; but in hiiu the military chaiiicter wag quite auborditiale to that of tlie political leader. It was a wise com promise winch entrusted Kiinon with the de fen. of the state abroad and PeriklCs with its ina.iagetnentathome. AftPi Pcriklc-alhescpara- ..n widencl We nowhere liear of DOmos- tlieirfj an( Phormion as political lea.lers; and even m SMaa the political is subordinate to tlic military (;lianicter. Klefln, on the other Land WIS a piihtician but not a soldier But the old notion of combining military and political iiosi ion was not quite lost. It was still deemed that he who proposed a wariikc expedition should hi it!!, if It v,-ere needful, be able to conduct it uJ^f "'l-r'" ^""'.w** tempted to take on himself iiuliliry functions; he was forced into comiiiiu.d agamst SphakUJria; by the able and loyal help of DOmosthenCs he acquitted himself with honour. But his head w.as turned by suc- cess; he aspired to independent command- he measured himself against the miglity Brasidas andthe fatjil battle of Amphipolis wMtlie result It now iKcame clear that the Demagogue and the General must commonly be two distinct persons I he versatile genius oi AlkibiadCs again united the two cliaracters; but he left no successor ■ . . A Dijinagogue then was simply an influ- ential speaker of popular politics. DflmosthenOs is commonly distinguished as an orator, wliile Ivleon is branded as a Demagogue; but the po.sition of the one was the same as the position of the other. Tiio only (,ue.stiou is as to the wisilomand honesty of the aducc given either liy Kleon or by OamosthenCs."— E. A. Faemau lIMariral Evfiyg, id net., pp. laS-UO B C. 429-427— Fate of Platia.-Phormios V.ctone,.-^evolt of Lesbos.-Siege of Mity! M 'VT^'*"" •,'''°°<'' itcttK and its reversal See Oreeck: B. C. 429-427. n,°" C- 42s— Seiiure of Pylus by Demos- theneo, the general.— Spartans entrapped and captured at Sphacteria.— Peace pleaded for and refused. S,-e Gueece: B. C. 425. B. C. 424-406.— Socrates as soldier and ati*en.-the trral of the Generals.-" Socrat.s was hntn very shonly before the year 46» B (' ills father, Soplironircus. was a sculptor his mother, Pluenarete. a midwife. N'olliing 'di-ii. nite IS known of his moral and intelle.tii .1 development. There is no specific record of * il" .., . *- * *'"■" ''" "■"» '"■"'•ly forty years old. All that we can siiy is tliat his voiitii and manhood were passed in the most splendid Ceriod of Atlienian or Greek history . As a »>; he received the usu-il Athenian liberal edu- cation In music and gymnastic, an education that is to say, menUil and idiysical. He was fond of (luoting from the existing Greek litera ture, and he seems to have lieeu familiar witli it especially with Homer. lie is represented by Aenophon as re|K'ating Pnxlicus' fable of llic choicc of Heracles at leng'h. He says that he was in the habit of studyi.ig with his friends tJie treasures which the wise men of old have left us in their books: ' collections, tluit is of the short and pithy sayings of the seven sag( s ■uch as -know thyself; a saying, it may !,,'. noticed, whieli lay at the root o' his whole U-achiiig. And l.j Imd some knowledge of malheni; s, ahd of science, as it ^x,^u•U .a those di-.ys. He understo"d something i,f aKtroiiomy and of a.lvuuc;.d geometry; uml he 179 ' ATHENS, B. C. 424-406. uiul CifOen. ATHENS, B. C 481. wa« acquainted with certain, nt anv rate, of tlic thvorius of liU predecessors In plillowphv. tlie Physical or Cosmicul pliilonophers. sucli ii.s Ileraclitusund PurinenidiD, anil, espi-ciaily, witii those of AnaxaRoms. But tiierc is no t rustWnrt liy evidenre which enableii us to go 1-eyonil tlic bare fact that lie had such knowledge. . . . All then that we can say of the first forty years of Socrates' life consists of general statements like these. During Ihcso years there is no specitii: record of him. Betwct'u 433 B. C. anc'. '29 B. C. he served as a common soldier at the siege of Potldsea, an Athenian dependency which had revolted, and surpassed every one in his powers of enduring Imrigcr, thirst, and cold, and all the hardships of a severe Thracian winter. At this siege we hear of him for the first time in con- nection with Alcibiadcs, whose life he saveil In a skirmish, and io whom he eagerly relinr(iiished thj prize of valour. In 431 B. C. the Pelopon- nesian War broke out, and In 434 B. C. the' AthcnUus were disastrously defeated and routed by the Thebans at the battle of Uelium. Socrates and Laches were among the few who did not yield to panic. They retreiiled together steadily, and the rv.soliite bearing of Socrates was conspicuous to friend and fiHs alike. Had all the Athenians behave<l as he did, says Laches, In the dialogue of that name, the di'feat would have been a victory. Socrates fought bravely a third time at the Imttle of Anipiiipolis [432 B. C] against '' - Pelo|ionnesian forces, in which the commands on both sides, Cleon and Brasidas, were killeo. :t there is non-cord of his specific services on that occasion. Aliout the same time that S<wratcs was displaying con- spicuous courage In tl'.e cause of Alliens at Delium and Aniphipolis, Aristophanes was hold- ing him up to hatred, contempt, and ridicule in the cometly of tlie Clouds [B. C. 42,"}], . . . Tlie Clouds la his protest against the immorality of free thought and the Sophists, He chose Socrates for his central flgUK-, chiefly, no doubt, on account of S(K-rates' well-known and strange personal appearance. The grotesque ugliness, and flat nose, and prominent eyes, and Silenus- like face, and shabby dress, might be seen everv day in the streets, and were familiar to every Athenian. Aristophanes cared little — probably he did not take the trouble to find out — that Socrates' whole life was spent in fighting against the SophlsU. It was enough for him that Socrates did not accept the traditional beliefs, and was a good centre piece for a comeily. . . . The Clouds, it is needless to sav. is a gross nn<l absurd libel from beginning' to end: l)Mt Aristophanes hit tlie popu-ir conception. "Tlie charges wlilch he made iu 423 1!. (' stuck to Six-rates to the end of liis life. Tliey arc exactly tlie cliarges made hy [i..pular nrejuiiice. against which Socrates defends liimself In the first ten chapters of the Apolouv. and which he savs have been so long • in tlie air. ' He formulate"s them «s follows: • Socrates is an evil doer who busies himself with investigating things beneath he c.irtli and in tlie sky, and who makes tlie worse appear the better reason, and who teaches others tlies.!same things,', . . For sixteen vears after tlic battle of Aniphipolis we hear iiothing of Socrates. The nv\< events in his life, of which there is s specific econl. are tiiose narrated liy himself in the twi-ntieiji chapter of the Apolo-^-v 'luey illustrate, as lie ine:iut llicm to illustrate. 180 his invincible moral courage. ... In 406 B C the Athenian tied defeaU<<l the Laimliemoni iin at the be'tlc of Arglnusip, so called from sciao small islands off the south-east pt)!nt of Th-sUis After the battle the Athenian conii.iatidera omitted to recover the IkxHcs of their dead an.' to save the living fniin olT their dl*ihl|.,i enemies. The Athenians at home, on hearlne nf this, were f; js. The due p«'rfomianee of funeral rites was a very sacred duty with tlie Greeks; and many citizens mourned 'for frien.Is and relatives who had been left to drown, Tho commamlers were immediately recalled, ami s" assemlily was held In wlileh they were aceii»-J of neglect of duty. They ilefendtKl themsilves by saying that they had orilered certain infirior olficera (am<mgst othere, their accuser Tlura- menes) to perform the <luty, but that a storm had come on which had rendered the perfi.-i. ance impossible. The delwte was adjourn, 1 and It was resolved that the Senate slionKl decide In what way the commanders slmuM lie tried. The Senate resolv<>(l ikit il,e Allienun people, having lieard the aecusaiion and x'.k defence, should priK-eed to vote forlliwiih f r the 14 (|uitlai or condemnation of the eiirht i.-i man.lTs collectively. Tlie resolution «'is gnissly unjust, and It was illegal. It suNti tut<(l a popular vole for a fair and formal tri il . . , SiK -rates was at lliat time ameinlierof ili^ Sen,ile, tlie only olHei! that he ever filled. I'ii Senate was ci>nipo.>«-d of five hundred i iii/, as clciteil by lot, fifty from each of the ten Irilv-i and holding olHce for oni! year. Tlie iiieuiVr^ of ea<-li trilH! held the Prvlunv, tliat is wen- responsible for the conduct of business .vr thirty-five days at a time, and ten out ..f ili,^ fifty were proedri or presidents every seven .!,i\ < in succession. Every bill or motion was e\:im' ined by the proedri In-fore it was submitlol to the Assemlilv, to s<-c if it were in acair.Liiuv with law: if It was not. it was iiuaslied: ouo of the proedri presided over the Si-nate ami th,- .t-- sembly each d:iy, and for one ihiy onlv: ho was called the Epistates: it was his duty t"o jnit ih question to tlie vote. In short he was -.h. speaker. . . . (In the day on -.liich it was pro- |)osed ti> take a collective vote on the ai ,|uiiiai or condeinnatiim of the eight ciinimandiTs Socrates was Epistates. The propoiil was as we liave seen, illegal: but the people wire furious against the accused, and it w.is a verv piijiiilar one-. Some of the prcn-dri nupos,-,! i'; before it was submitted to the Assemlilv. oa ihe .L-ronnd of its illegality ; but they wire' sK n.rii by threats and sulisided. Socrates alone refuse i to give wav. He would not put a ijues!i-n which he knew to be illegal, to the voie Threats of suspension and arrest, the elamoi;:,'; an angry people, tlie fear of impri.souiii.nt , r death, could not move him. . . . IkH h:* authority lasted only for a (lav ; the pm,v, Ihu-s •" • idjoumwi, a more plfant Epishuo* -.» d hira, and the generals were conie;]i:i-! aLdcxecuted."—F. J. Church, Intr.:4. t- / ■• nid Death of fix-nitea, pp 9--.';! _.<e ■ . - Obeeck: B, C, 406, B. C. 421.— End of the first period of the Peloponneiiaa War.— The Peace of Niciss - "The first stage of the Peloponnesian w ir ,.n. to an end just ten years after the liiv i.; n . ' Attioi by Arch: iamiis in Ml 15, C, i;> r -u:;., had been almost purely negative, a vast .(i^a ATHENS, B. C. 421 ExptdiUtm. ATHENS, n. C. 4IV •itT of IjIooiJ and treasure h«/| Jxwn wa«t«il ',a "-:«;h 8i 1p. but to no great purpov- "li... Ath<nian naval power was unim|>.'iire<l. aL tlj<; coafoleraof of Iklos, llioiiijli uliakirn by tlie sucfMsfiil revolt of Amphipoli* atl tlie Tiirarc- w»r'i towns, waa ttill k-ft sutmistin? On tlw lAhtT hand, the attt.npu of Allnni to iu:ii<m- piiiih anytLin,» on land had cntiniv fai;»!<l uii I the defensive policy of Periclea ha(i befn no far jxstiSed. Wtll would It have be«n for Athcni if !i( r citizens had taken the lemon to heart, tud < .[itfn!"i thi-mselvea with having escaped «o <aaily from the greatest war ther ha/1 tvr known.— C. W. C Oman, llitt. of Qrtv^. p. '41 — The tn-aty called since ami.mt times the rv&Tf: of Nicias . . put an tnd to the wir }« tw'<:a the two Gre.,k confwlcrations of sut/js aft/r it hoiJ lasted for rather more than tcri years, viz,, from the attack of the IVe^jtians up-.n Plat**. i)\. Ixxxvii. l 'Ije^riunini of April B C 431 1 to Ol, Uxxix 3 'towards the mi'M!" of April B. C, 421) Th.; war was for this r>-:.*.n known umler the n;>m<> of the Ten Years' War, while tlie P.loponnpsiaui call-i It the Atiic War. Its en,! constitute 1 a triumph for Atheui; for ail the plaas of the enemies who hail attacked her had come 1 1 nauibt; Sparta ha-l been unable to fulfil a sin- gle "ne of the promi^s wi.h which she Iia<l enter, i upon the war, and was ultimatelv fotred to aeiinowledge the dominion of Athens in its w!)fc!e extent.— notwittstauding all the misukes and inis/ivmes, n'>twithstandini{ all the calami- tit-9 attributable, rr not, to the Athenians them- selvs: the re*jurces of off, nee and defence ■vhii .i the city owed to Pericles had therefore rrov 1 their excellence, and all the fury of her opp-,:icnis ha.i wasted itself ai;ainst her in vain Spir 4 hers. If was satisfied with the advanu^ej whi 1 the peace o3ered to her own citv and citi- zens, but great was the discontent amon? her eoaf. .erates, particularly amonif the sec^tndary .-•ate. »jo had originallv occasione.1 the war inl ,::,az(A Sparta to take part in it. Even after t,ie conclusion of tlie pea!.-, it was impos- sib.e to ,n,iuce Thebes and Corintli to accede to It. 1 he result of the war to .Sparta was there- fore tiie dis.so!tnion of the confe,leration at wb.»e hea.1 siie had lje?un the war; she felt herself tlir;r.-()v place.l in s.j dangenjuslv Lvjlatcd a posi- tio.n, that slie was oblijed to fall back upon .Vtlieni m self k-fence ariinst her own confeder- •ites, AecorrJinily the Peace of Xicias was in the Course of the same rear convencj into a fifty ycari alliance, under tli« terms of which Sparu ■M'i Alliens contracted tlie obligation of mutual ■ivsistance a?uiiist auv hostile att*-k.'— E Cur- tu-. II..-. „fiir„^,, M-. 4 <./, 2 ,. 3, _see also '■iiEF.i K: B. C, 434-421, B, C, 4J1-418.— New combinations.— Con- axting alliances with Surta and the AreiTe Co.niederacy.-Rising ioflaence of Alcibiades. -War in Ar^os and Arcadi*.— Battle of Mao- t:aea, .SeOREECE: B. C, 4aI-41■' B C 416— Siege and conquest of Melos.— «»s,s ,-e of the inhabitants. S • iIrefce r-,« J\^\~^^* expedition ajainst Syra- cjie.-Mitilation of t£e Herm* :Hermai). - A-rMiTii having brolien out in .■9i. ilv. iKtue^-n ,''; '■'"^ ."/ Seu-e-tta and Selinou., ■'■the latt.T :■ eii:.-! aid frc.,,. Svracaw rp.-,a ti,i^, S-.-.-.-sla '">!--' vaiuiy sought heip from Carthage, »p l^i pealed t , Athens, where the exile.1 Sicilians wrr» n irnerou.,. Alkiblades ha<l been oueof the in.«t , urgent f ,r tlie atfj>ck upon Mel«. and he .lid not , Vm-. th- f,r.s..-iit opiwrtuuity to Incite the Athen- ians t.. ;:, .■nterpriv:.^ much jtreator iiniK.rtance I and wh.-re he hoped t,. be in cominan'l All , mens minds w.,re fllle,! >ith ambithius hopes Lverywhere. says Pli, .rch. were t.. be w-en younif men in the gymnasia, ohl m.n in work- sho(«i an 1 publl.; places of m.tetlni', -Irawine tlie map of Sicily, talking alxmt the s'-a that sur- rounds it. the ijwluess of its hirljors, its pcni- tion opp.jsit« Airi.^ii. Est«blisli..d chere, It would tK; ea-.y to crf«s over and subjugate Carthage and extend their swav as far as the Pillars 0' Hercules. The rich did not 'ipprove of this rash- nes.s. but feare.| if they opp<«ed It hnt the op- posite faction wouM nccus« them . wishing to avoid the service and Cf«ts of ■ mg gnllevs. Mkias haii more courage; even -r 'he \tlion. lans had appointed him general, ,1 Alkibiades and I-amachw, he spf^ke pub! against the enterprise, showed the Imoru.lcnce of going In search of new subjecu when th<^- they alr.ady r-u .T^^? " ""^ """nei' in « sUteof revolt, as in thalkidike, or only waited for a disaster to bre:ik the chain which bound them to Athens He ende.1 by repr-oching Alklbiades for iilunging : .' republic, to gratify his personal ambition '■ ) a foreign war of the greatt^st danger, . . • ae of the demagogues, however, replied that lie woii.d put an end to all this hesiution, and he propw-d and secured the passage of a decree giving the genenli full power to use nil the re.s<.urc.s of the city in pntparing for th- i-\ .edi- tion f.Mar.h 24. 41.", B, C) Nikias was vim- plete y in tbt! right. The expe<Jition to Sicily was Impolitic and foolUh. In the .Egaan Sea I ay the empire of Athens, and there oalv it cnuhl lie, within reach, clc«e at hand. Every acquisition westward of the Peloponnes.^ was a soure.- of weakness. .Syracuse, even if coniiucre<l would not long remain subject Whatever might be the result of the expedition, it was sur- V, be disastrr.us in the end. ... An event whicli t.wk place shortly before the departure of th.- fl.et '*-» June; threw tftrro- 'tito the citv: on.- i 'n- ing the hennai througi, the city' w.re s , have been mutilated. . . . 'Tli.-si- Her-i. half-statues of the god Herm.'s. T'rrr> bl,x ' nwble about the height of the himan tii .e The upper part was cut in*o » h. nd ' .e m-'k and bust; the lower part w.u ft s-. ,. ..ua.l- rangular pillar, broad at the ba.v u-iu,out arms Ixxly, 01 legs, but with the sir .. t tn.irk ..f the male sex in .■ •. Ti, -v wei. .: ,ribut.-d In great numbers r - -bout Athrn., in.l always m the most cons, . ., .is situation-:; >taf!irig be- side the r.uterdfxirs of private liousts a-, ».-ll as of tempi, s, near the mo.st fnt.iuente.1 iM.rti, .n at the intersection of crjss ways, in the public agor»^ • \- The religious feelings of the Greeks considered the gfxl to be planted or domicile,l Where his statue sto.>l, so that the (.-.inip-jnion ship, sympathy, and guardmnship ..f H.rip's Ucame ai.-(.xiate.l with m.^t of the manifesta- tions of conjuuit life at Athens,— i...litical s.>cial, cominerci.ll. or gvmnastic,'. , , To all pious minds the citv seemed menac.-l witli i;riat misfortunes uale-is th,.- aUL'er .,f Heaven -I1...1I.I be app.-a.vvi by a sulfici.-nt expi.iti.m. While .\;»i:il.„I.-. had inauv p.ini-ians. lie Had :i!-m vi.. at enemies. Not long U,-forL- this time llyiK-r I 1 i ATHENS, B. C. 415. Sieillitn Expedition. AXaESS. B. C. 4l5-tl3. bolos. a contemptible man. had almost gucceedetl in obt.%lnin); his banishment; ami he had C9capc(l tliij danger only by uniting his party with that of Nilcias. and causing the demagogue himself to suffer ostracism. Theaflairof tlie hermai ap- peared to his adversaries a favourable occasion to repeat the attempt made bv Hyperbolos, and we have good reason to believe in a political machination, seeing this same populace applaud, a few months later, the impioiu auiiaclty of Aristophanes in his comedy of Tlie Birds. An inciiiiry was set on foot, and certain metoikoi ami »l:ivcs. without making any deposition as to the hermai, reralled to mind that before this time some of these statues had been broken by young men afK'r a night of carousal and intoxication, thus in lirectly uttackini; .\lkiljladoii. Others in set tfrmi accused him of havint; at a banquet piroJied the Eleusiniaii Mysteries; and men took alvanta!?eof the superstitious terror* of the peo- ple to awake their political anxieties. It was re- peated that the breakers of sacred statues, the jirofaners of mysteries, would n-spcct the gov- ernment even leas than they had respected the fro Is, and it was whispered that not one of tliese (Times liad been committed without the partici- pation of Alkihia les; and in proof of this men spoke of the truly aristocratic license of hi) life. Was he in led the author of this sacri- legious freak? To beli"ve him capaMe of it w.iuld not l)e to calumniate him. O;, on the other hand, was it n sciwnie pl.anneti to do him Injury ? Although proofs are lacking. It is cer- tain that among tlie rich, upon whom rested the heavy burden of the naval expenses, a plot had l)e.'n formed to destroy tlie power of Alkibiades, and perhaps to prevent the sailing of the tieet. The demagogues, who had inloxir iu«l the peo- ple with hope, were for tlie expedition; hut the popularity of Alkibiades was obnoxious to them : a compromise was made between tlie two fac- tions, as is often done in times whe.i public morality is enfeebled, ami Alkibiades foun I liim- self thrratenol on all sides. . . . Urging .is a pretext the dangers of delay in sending olT the expeilition, they obtained a decree that .\lkil)iadi's should embark «t once, ami that tlie (luestion of his guilt or innocence should be postponeil until after his return. It was now tlie midillo of summer. The day appointed for departure, the vvh lie city, eitizens and foreigners, went out to IMraii'us at daybreak. . . . At tliat moment tlie view was clearer as to the doubts and d angers, and also the distance of the expeditim; but nil eyes were drawn to the imnien*! pretiiralioin tlmt hod iK'cn niadi', and ronficlence ninl pride consoled tlioHc wlm werealxMit to pari.' V iMi- riiv, ffitt nfth- d'lrk Ml ,/,•, .-V 21. «'<-r a {r 3| Also !•« TIiucv liles, Itiilini. H: H.ir-. Jj-js — <}. V . Cm, r/i' Alhfiiiiii kn lir. r'l ,1. — (1 Orote. /fitl. of tlrrri-,-, f,t. i. cA, .H (r 7) B. C. 4'S-4i3< -Fatal end of the expcditioa aKaintt Syracuie.— ■Alkllilaili's w asc ill.' I liark to Athens, to lake his trial on a eiiarge of im. piety. . . . He did not go bark to .Vlluiis for Lis trial, but estaptil to IV-loiionnAsoH, wliire we shall hear fmm him again. Meanwhile the coin- man I of the .Vtlienian forec In Sicily was left prariicaijy In tl„. |,aiiils of NIklas. .Vow Miklas coull always ait well when he diil ai-t; but It was very liar.l to m.ike him art: alnivc all on an erraiii wiijrU he ii it<-r|. i»ne might say tliat Byraruse waasavol through the delays of Nikias. He now went off to petty expedilions in the west of Sicily, under coverof settling matters ai Segesta. . . . The Syracusans by this time iiuite despised the invaih rs. Their horsemen roile up to tiie camp of the Athenians at Katari<> and asked them if they had come into Sicily nuTely to sit down there as colonists. . . . Tlie winter (B. C. 415-414) waschletly spent on both sid^s in sending embassies to and fro to gain allies Nikias also sent home to Athens, asking fm horsemen and money, an 1 the pi^pIc, without a word of rebuke, voted him all that he asked. But the most important embassy of all was that which the Syracusans simt to Corinth and Sp in i Corinth zealously toik up tha ciuse of i„,r colony an I plead.<d for Svricuse at ,Sp irta .\n I at Sparta Corinth an I Syracuse found alnlp.rin the banislie 1 Athenian Aliibiadfls. who was n <v c; ling ail that hs ciuld against Atlieiis. . . . H,. tol 1 the Spartans to occupy a fortri'ss in .Vttica which they soon afterwarls diil, and a great .Ital came of it. But he also told them to give vigor ous help to Syracuse, an I above all t\\i.ij;1 to send a Spartan co:ii Hinder The m t<! ni n^ nf Sparta went for a great deal in those days; Imt no man could have been better chosen than tlie Spartan who was stmt, lie was Oylipjios, the deliverer of Syrarus'. He was mire lil<e an Athenian than a Spartan, ijuirk and ready nf resource, which few Spartans wen;. . . . Ami now at last, when tli" spring rann (U4) XiJsias wasdriven todosom'thing. . . . The .\iliiniaas . . . occupied all that part of the hill wliiili lay outslile the walls of Syracuse. They were joined by their liorscmen, Greek an. I Siliel, anj after nearly a year, the siege of Syraous<. n ally began. The obji-ct of the Athenians now wu to build a wall acniss the hill and to carry it down to the sea on both sides. Syracuse would thus be hemmed In. The object of the Hyr»- ciisans was to builil a cross-wall of their own which should hinder the Athenian wall from reaching the two points it aimed at. Tliis they tried more than once; but in vain. TliiTe were several fights on the hill, and at last there w is s fight of more importAnce on the lower irrnanil by the (Jreat Harbour. . . . The Syrac.itins were defeated, as far as fighting went; but tliev gained far more tlian they lost. For l^im i.h.Ji was killed, and with him all vigour passed iwny from the .Vthenian camp. At tlie sam i in munt the Athenhm Heet sailed into the On'at II irlioiir, and a Syracusan attai'k on the Atlienian w irks on the hill was defeate.l. Nikias n^m lined in comman I of the invaders; but he was iiri v r.islv sick, an I for once In his life his liead vr<m i, have been luriie I by suocoss. He lliiisinil tlie wall on the south "side; but ho iiegle,i,| to •Inish It on the north siilo also, so that SyMenw was not ri'ally hemmed In. But the In iru uf the Syrariisims sank. ... It was at this d irkist moment of all that lieltventnce came. A (Virinthian ship, under lU captain (Jon.'vlo- sailed into the Little Harbour. He bron^-ni tli' news that other ships were on their wav fr>in i'eloponn^soa to the help of Syracuse, an I. vet more, tliat a Spartan gi'iieral was aeiuiil'in Sicily, getting together a land fori'e for th. <am. end. As soon as the go<Nl news was heani, ilnh' was no more talk of sunfnder. . . .Vnd one rl«y the Alhenlsn camp was start!«! hv tli- i!^ pearaoceofa l^ciNlsinonian herald. olterin< tliiiu » truoo of Ave days, that tbcy might get tUeui 188 ATHENS, B. C. 415-413. KxptditUm. ATHEN8, B. C. 413-418. nut of Sicily with bag and bagj^go. Gylippos was now on the hill. He of course did not ex- pect that the Athenian army would really go Hway in Ave days. But it was a great thing to show both to the besiegers and to the Syracusang that the deliverer had come, and that deliverance was beginning. Nildas had kept such bad watch th»t Oylippos and his troops hod come up the liiM ami tlio ^yracusans had come out and met tUem. without his luowledge. The Spartan, as II matter of course, took the command of the whole force; he offered battle to the Athenians, which they refused; he then entered tlie city. The very next day he began to carry out his scheme. This was t<) build a group of forts near the western end of the hill, and to join tliem to tiie city by a wall running east and west, which would binder the Athenians fn)m ever linisliing their wall to the north. Each side went on building, and some small actions took place. . . . Another winter (B. C. 414-41:1) now (•ami; on, and with it much si-ndiug of envoys. Oylippos went about Sicily collecting fresh troops. . . . Meanwhile Nikias wrote a letter to the Athenian people. . . . This hater came iit a time when the Lacediemonian alliance ba>l de- ternilnt'd to renew the war witli Athens, au i when they were making everytliing reaily for an invasion of Attica. To send out a new 'force to Sicily vna simple madness. We hear nothing of the di'lmuw in tlie .\thenian asscmWy. wliellier any one argued against going on with llie .Sicilian war, and whether any ileiMHitogue laid any blame on Nikias. But the assenililv voted that a new force eiiual to the llrst sliould bt; sent out imdcr IMmostlienC.4, the b«nit soldier in Athens, and Euryiufdim. . . . .Meanwhile the Syracus- ans wiTestrengtIiened by help both in Sicily and from Pi'lop irini>sjH. Tlieir m:iin oltject now was to strike a blow at the fleet of Nikias bi'fore the new force came. ... It had lieen just when tlio SymcuHiint were most downcast that they were cheere<l by the eorning of the Corintliians and of 0ylip|>o8. And just now that tlieir spirits were higliest, they were d;tslie<l again by the the coming of IMmostlienAs and Eiirymediln. A flei't as gn'at as the first, sevi'nlytlve sliipi, car- rying .l.OOO heavy. armeil and a crowd of liglit tnxips of every kliifi. suilnl into the Oreat Har- bour with all warlike pomp. The IVloponne- jiiiins were aintady in Attica; tliey li:ut plaiito.l a l'elo|>imneHian garrisim there, which bwunlit .Vthi'iis to gn'at straits; but the flwt w:w sent out to Synieuw all the same. l)Omo<tliemVH kn.'w what to do as well as Lamaclios liad known. He saw that there was notliing t<» lie done but to try "lie gn'St blow, and, if that failed. Ui lake llie rtict liome again. . . . Die attack was at tlrst xiicTtwfiil, and the Ail uians lixik two of the .Syniiimn f .ru. Hut the Thespian allies of Syrwiise Bt'i-id their ground, and drove the as- »:iilaiits baek. Utter coufuMon followiil. The lait chance was now lost, and IWinostlienJs was eager l« go Iwiiie. But Nikias would stay mt . When sickness grew In the camp, when fn'Hh lu'l|i fron .Sicily and the great Iwdy "f the allies from I'eloponuAsoa came into Syra- < ii*>. he at iitsi agreiNl u> go. Just at that m iin 'lit the iniKm was eclipsed. . . , Nikias c >.i«iil!e I hi.4 siNithsayers, and he gave out lliat i'r v ;ii i3t st.iy iw.i.ty.iiiu,, d«»s, auoliier fuii r i"liitiiii of the mo<m. This reaolvu was the Jesirucikm of the b«*l«|[lng army. . . . It wh 183 felt on both sides that all would turn on one more fight by sea, the Athenians striving to get out of the harbour, and the Syracusans striving to keep them in it. The Syracusans now blocked up the mouth of the harbour by mooring vessels across it The Athenians left their position on the hill, a sign tliat the siege was over, and brought their whole force down to the shore. It was no time now for any skillful m.anoeuvres; the chief thing was to make the sea- fight as much as might be like a land-light a strange need for .Vtbenians. . . . The last tight now began, 110 Athenian ships against 80 of the Syracusans and their allies. Never before did w> many ships meet in so small a space . . . The light was long and confused; at last the Athenians gave way and fled to the shore. The battle and the invasion wereover. Syracuse was not only saved ; she liad begun to take vengeance oa her enemies. . . . The Athenians waited one day, and then set out, hoping U> in ikc their way to some safe place among the friendly Sikels in the inlanil country. The sick hail to 1m; left lie- hin I. ... On the sixth diiv, after frii?litful toil, tlii'y deteriiiiiied to change their course. . . . They set out in two divisions, that of Nikias going flrxt. Much Ik'tter order was kept in the fn)nt division iiinl by the time Nikias reached the river, IWmnstlienLrs was six miles liiliind. . . . Ill the morning a .Syracusan fono cam.' up with t'.ie frightful news that the whole division of DVn-nthetrfswerepris.mers. . . . The Athenians tried in vain to escape in the nii;lit. The next m irtiing thev set out. hara.Hsed lu liefon;, and driven wild by intolerable thirst. They at last reached thi- river .VssliiapM, which runs by the present town of Noto. Tliere was the end. . . . Tile .Vtheniaiis were so maddened by thirst tlmt, though men wen; falling umler darts and the water was getting inud.ly and bloody, they thought of nothing but drinking. ... No furtlier terms were made; most of the horse- men contrived to cut their way out; the rest were made prisoners. Most of them were embeizled by Syracusans as their private slave*; but alnrnt T.OiJi) men out of the two divi- ■ioiia were led prisoners into Synriise. Tlii'V were shut up in the stone-iiuiirrieH, with no further lieed than to give each min dally h ilf a slave's allowance of f.xKl imd drink. .Mniiv ili^d , many were sold; some escaped, or were set fr.c; the rest wen- after a while taken out of the iiuiir ries and si't to work. The generils hail made no terms for theinsi-lves. HermokntOs wished to keep them as hostages against future .Vlhcnian attempts against Sicily, Ovlippos wished to lake tliein in triumph io Sparta. The Corinth- laus were for putting them Ui (h'alli; and s.. It »'a»d . . . So ended the Athenian invaslcm of Sicily the gn'atest attempt ever made by llivek.-. a.; liiist Greeks, and tluit which came to the most iiil<T failure. "—E. A. Freeman, /'A* 4«>.c,V ./ .s,V,V«, /)/>. |17-t;l7. AlJ*i> IN: Thucyiliiles. lliitnrti ; tram, hi/ n. JoifM. hk. tt-i (e. 1).— .See, also, Svkaccsb; U. (' 415 4i;j B. C. 4i3-4>'-— CoaMaucdr:et oftht Sicilian Espedition.— Spartan aftiaac* with the Per- •iani,-Plottiar of AlciUadtt.— The Dectliaa War,—" At Atliens. wlK-re. even lieforj- this, every one liail la-en In the most anxious suapens)-, the news of the lose of the expclliion pn»liice<i a ooiMleruatiuD, wUicb waa oertaiuly greaU r iliao ii !, l3|: i! ATHENS, n. C. 413-413. that at nninc after the battle of Canoac, or timt lu oiir own diiys, after the battle of Jena. . . . ' At Ifiist 40,000 citizens, allies ami slaves, had perished; and among them there may easily have been 10,000 Athenian citizens, most of whom Iie- li)n,ite(l to the wealthier and higher cliuscs. The flower of the Athenian people was dcstrovcd, as at the time of the plague. It is impossible to say what amount of public property may have liocn lost; the whole fleet was gone.' The conse- quences of the disaster soon shewed themselves. It was to be foreseen that Chios, wliich hi«l long Iwen wavering, and whose disposition could not b" trustol, would avail itself of this moment to ri'volt; and the cities in Asia, from which Athens derived her large revenues, were expected to do the s;ime. It was, in fact, to be foreseen, that tlie four islands of Lesbos, Chios, Samos, and Rhodes, would instantly revolt. The Spartans wen- established at Decelea, in Attica Itself, and tlience ravaged the country far and wide: so that it was impossible to venture to go to the coast without a strong escort. Although there were many districts in wliich no Spartan was seen from one year's cml to the other, yet there was no safety anywhere, exct-pt in fortilied places, ' and tlie Athenians were constantly obliged to guard the walls of their city; and this state of tilings had already been going on f,>r the last twelve months.' In this fearful 8itu:ition, the Atlienian people showed tlii^ same tlrmuess as the Uomans after the battle of Cannae. Had they hut had one great man among them, to whom the state could have been entrusted, even more mi^lit per- haps have been di>ne: but it Is astoniihing that. lUthough there was no such man. and although the leading men were only second or third-rate persons, yet so many useful arranifcinents were ma<le to meet tlie necessities of the ease. . . . The most unfortuuaU' rircumstaiioe for the Athenians was, that Alcihlades, now an enemy of his country, was living among tlie Spartans; for he IntriMluceil inu> the undertakings of the Spartans the very element which before they li:id Ix-en altogether deficient in, namely energy and elasti- city : he urged them on to undertaliings, and in- duced tliem now to send » fleet to Ionia. Erythrae, Teos, and Miletus, one after anotheri revoiu-d to the Pelommneslans, who now con- cluded treaties with TLssapherncs in the ii:i:ne of the king of Persia — Darius wa* then king — anil in his own name aa satrap ; ami in this manner they aacrifle.Hl to him the Asiatic Orwks. . . . The Athenians were an object of antipathy and Implacable hatntd to the Penians ; they had never dimbted that the Athenians were their ^■al oppo- nents in Greece, and were afraid of them; but they did not fear the Spartans. They knew that the Atlieuians would uke fmm them not only the Islands, but the towns on the main l;ind, and were In great fear of their maritime power Hence they joined the Spartans; and the latter were not luthamed of negoiiuting a tn-aty of sub- hidlea with the Persians, in which TIssaphemes In the king's name, pmmised the aasisUnre of the PhiH'nleian fleet; and large «ulHidli>s. as pay for the anny. ... In return for this, they re- nounced, in the name of the Ori'eks, all ehifms to liuiiiM'udenee for the Greek cities in .V»la ."— II U. Niebuhr. {•fftnnt nn \nri>nt HMnrii r a tfrt: 53 anJ M.— See, also. Uurkce: B. 6'.' 41.')- .\l^ IM O. Orot«, Ui$t of Or:M€, A. 81 (e 7) 184 ATHENS. B. C. 415-411. B. C. 413-4"- -Rerolt of Chios, Miletna, Leiboi and Rhodes from Athens.— Rerolu- Hon of Samos. Sei- Grkrce: B. C. 418 . B- C. 4«3-4«i.— The Probuli.— Intrigues of Alcibiades.— Conspiracy against the Consti- tution.— The Four Hundred and the Fire Thousand.— Immediately after the lireadful calamity at Syracuse became known, "extraor- dinary measures were adopted by the p<«iple ; a number of citizens of s<lvnnced age were formed into adclibenitlvc and exiK-utive iHidy under Die name of Probuli, ami empowereil to fit out i fleet. Whether this laiil the foundation for oli garchlcal machinations or not, those aged men were unable to brins back men's minds to their former course; the prosecution of the Hermo- copidte had been most mischievous In its results; various secret associations had sprung up anil conspired to reap advantjige to themselves from the distre'ss and embarra.s3iiient of the state; thi' indignation caused liy the infuriateit exceases of the people during that trial, pos ibiy here, as frequently happeneil in other Grecian st;ites. detcrmine<t the more respectable members of the community to guard ag:ihist the recurrence of similar scenes in future, by the establishment of nit aristocracy. I.istly, the watchful malice of Alcihlades, who was the implacnblo enemy of that populace, to whose blind fury he had been sacriflced, baflled all attempts to restore confi- dence and tnuiipiilllty, and there is nodoubt that, whilst he kept up a eorres|H)ndenco with liispar- tlsiins at home, he did everything in his power to increase the p.'r|>lexlty and distress of his native city fmm without. In order that he might Ik- recalled to provide for Its safety and defence. A favourable opportunity for tlio execution of Ills plans prescnte<i Ksi'if in the fifth year of his exile, Ol. »i. 1; 411. B. C. ; as ho had lneurn-<i the suspicion of the Spartans, and tXooi higli ii the favour of Tissaphernes, the Atheniau-i thought that his inlen-ession might enable them to obtain assistance from the Persian king. "The people in Athens were headed by one of his most invetenitc enemies, Androcles; and he well knew that all attempts to effect his return would W fruitless, until this man and the other dernaito jrues were removed. Hence Alcibiades ciiWred Into negotiations with the commanders of the Atlienian fleet at Samoa, respwling the estah llahment of an oligarehical constitution, not from any attachment to that form of government in itself, but solely with the view of promoting \\U own ends. Phrvnirhus and Plsander wer emially insincere iu their co-opcratiim with .Met blades. . . . Their plan was that the latter should reconcile the people to the change in tlie c<instituti(m which he wished to effect, by pr.. mising to obtain them the as.Hlstenc<j of tlj<' gn-ii king; but they alone resolved to reap \W Ixpellt of his exertlrms. Plsan<ler took upon himsi'" to miina-je the Allieniiin populace It was in truth no sliglit underi ikIng t<i attempt to oVl■rtll^lw n democraev of a ioindreilami tweniv yeirV st.indinir. and of InteiiMt development; liir lunt of the able biKlied eltixens were absent wi!:i the rtii-l, whilst such as were still In the cil v were confounded by the imminence of the dan^'.r from without ; on the other hand, the pnwpect of succour from the Persian king douhtle,* hi I some weight with them, anil thev piuailiU- f. :i ikiiMe symiitoms of n'lurnlng slTerUon for tliiir former favourite Alcibia.ic's. Nevvrtbuloss Pl«a;i ATHKXS. B. C. 418-411. PtU)p'jfiHr*ian War. ATHENS, B. C. 404-403. der and hU accomplices employe) rraft r»nd per- fldy to accomplish their ilestgna; tjie pcoplu wlti; not persuaded or convinced, but entrapiieil Into compliance with their meaaures. Pisandcr gained over to bis purpose the above named el ubs, and inducrd the people to lend him with ten plenipotertiaries U, the navy at Samos. In the mean timj the rest of the conspirators pro<iecutp<l the work of remodelling the constitution." — W, Warhsmuth, Jlitl. Anttiuitiet of the fJnxkt, t. 2. pp. 2.')i-3.M. — The people, or an aiK mbly cleverly made up and raunipulatcd to represent the people, were Indiiceil to vote all the powers of SDVemment Into the hands of a council of Four [undred, of which council thecitizens appointed only five members. Those Ave chose ninety- five more, to make one hundred, and each of that hundred then chose three colleagues. The con- spirators thus easily mailc up the Frmr Hun- dred to their liking, from their own ranks. This council was to convene an jemblv of Five Thousand citizens, whenever it saw fit to do so, But when news of this constltution,'kl change ! reached the army at Samos, where the .Athenian I heaiiijuarters for tlie Ionian war were fi.xe<l. the citizen soldiers refused to submit to it — repudi- ■ «te<l it altogether — and organized thrmselves as i an in'it-pendent state. Thf ruling spirit among them wus Thrasvbulus. and his inlfucniv brought about :i reconciliation with Alcibiades. then an eille slieltcred at the Persian court. Alrlbiailcs was recalled by the army and placed at its liivul. I'n'8<'ntly a reaction at Athens ensued, after the oligarchical party had given aigni of trea.sonable communication with SparU, anj In June the people aiisembled in the Pnyx and reasserted their sovereignty. " The Council was deposed, and the supa'me aovereignty of the state restored to the people — not, however, to the entire multitude; for the principle whs retained of reserving full civic rigbu to a committee of men of a certain amount of property ; and, as tlie lisu of the Five Thoasand had never been drawn up, it was decreed, in order that the ili>nin'cl end might be speedily reached, to follow tlio prcce<lcnt of limilar institutions in other 8t.itcs and to constitute all Athenians able to furnish tliem»<Ives with a complete military e'luipment from their own resources, fullcitizcnn. with the righu of voting and participating in the government. Thus the name of the Five Thou sand liail now become a very inaccurate designa tion ; but it was retained, because men had in 'hf iMt few months become habituattti to it. At th.' same timf, the abolition of pay for civic otflr.4 »nd functions waa decreed, not merclv as » t.'mporary measure, but aa a fundamcnt.il principle of the new commonwealth, which tlic citizens were bound by a solemn oath to main- tain. This reform was. upon the wln.lc, a wise combination of ari^unracv and denvK-racv; ami, acconling to the opinion of Thucvdi'ies, the Iwst constitution which the Athenians had hitherto prnvwod. On the motion of Critias. the recall ■f Al'lbiades was ilpcrecl alwut the same time. »n.l a deputation was despatched to SamcH. to »<compli«h the uniim bctwwn armv und cirv — K. f irtius. Hint. oftirtfTf. hk. 4. rk. .1 — Mi'«t of till' 1. idew of the t'lmr Hundred fle<l to the Spar- tan I imp at Dici'lia. Two were taken, lri«l i::\ '.iiiruwd —Tiiutnlides. lliHnty. hk S, trrt. 4H-«: —See, also, Ukiseie: B. U. 4i.'M13 kiMin: V. Uuruy. Uul.^fUrim, ck. 'UCr ;| B. C. 4t 1-407.— Victories kt CTnoitema and Abydos.— Exploits of Alcibiades.— Hit tri- umphal return.— Hit appointment to com- mand.— Hii aecood deposition and exile. SeeOBEECE; B, C. 411-407. B. C. 406.— The Peloponnesian War: Battle and Tictory of Arginusae. — Condem- nation and execution of the Generals. See GliKECE: B. C. 406; and above: B U. 424-406. B. C. 405. — The Peloponnesian War : DecisiTe defeat at Aigospotamoi. See Oiieece : B. C. 40.i. B. C. 404.— The Surrender to Lysander. — After the buttle of .CgospoUmi (August, B. C. 40-5), which destroyed their navy, and cut off nearly all supplies to the city by sea, as the Sparuns at IXcelea had lonir' cut off supplies upon the land side, the Athenians had no hope. They walteil in terror and despair for their enemies to close in upon them. The latter were In no baste, for they were sure of their prey. Lysander, the victor at .(EgospoUmi, came leisurely from the Hellespont, receiving on his way the surrender of the cities subject or allieil to Athens, and placing Spartan bamiosts and garrisons in them, with the local oligarchs establisheil uniformly In power. About Jik)vem- twr lie reachcil the 8aronic gulf and blockaded the .Athenian harbor of Pini'Us, while an over- whelming Peloixinnesian lanrl force, under the Liicediemonian king Pausanias. arrived simul- taneously In Attica and encamped at the gates of the city. The Athenians had no longer any power except the power to endure, and that they cxer- clsetf for more than three months, mainly resisting the demand that their Long Walls- the walls which protectwl the connection of the city with Its harbors — should lie thrown down. But when famine hail thinnol the ranks of the citizens and broken the spirit of the survivors, they gave up. "There was still a hlgb-splrit*.!! minority who entere<l their protest and prcfcrre<l death by famine to such insupportable disgrace. Tlie large majority, however, accepted them [the terms] and the acceptance was made known to LysandeT It was on the Iflth day of the Attic month Munychlon,— aliout the middle or enrl of March.- that this victorious commander saileil Into the Peira-us, twentyseven years, almost exactly, after the surprise of Platiea bv the ThelMns, which opened the Pelop<mnesian"War. Along with him came the Athenian exiles, seveml of whom app<-ar to have been WTving with his armv and assistine him with their coun- st'l."- 0. Orntc, Jfiil. of (ireef*, pi. 2, eh. «!i (r «i. -The Long Walls ami the fortifications of Pineus Were demolished, and then followe<l the organization of an oligarchical government at .\lliens. resulting in the reign of terror under ■ The Tliirly. ' — E. Curtlus, Jlitt. of Orttet, bk. 4, eK J, .Vi.so rx: Xenophon, IIMtmrt, t>k. 8, eh. 3.— Plutarch. Ayoiubr, B. C. 404-401.— The tfraanj of the Thirty. —The Year of Aaarchy.— In the summer of B C. 404. following the siege and surrender of .\thcns. and the humiliating cliwe of tlie long Peloponnesian War, the petunwl Iciiders of the ollgarciiical [mrty, who had IxTn in exile, sue- cx-edcil with the help of their 8|»irt»n frlemls, in overthrowing the democratic cimstltutlon of the city and establishing tlieinsilves in power The rvvolutiou wiu accomplished ut a public aaseui 18.j ATHEKS, B. C. 404-408. bly of citizens, in the presence of Lynunder, the Tlctorioiw L.ice<licmoniBn Bdmlral, whose fleet in the Piraiia lay ready to support his demands. In this assembly, Orocontidas. a scoundrel upon whom repeited sentences had been passed brought fDrwarda motion. proposinR the transfer or the government into the Immls of Thirtv per- •ons; and Tliemmenp.^ supported this pn^posal which he declared to express the wishes of Bparto. Even now, these speeclics produced a storm of indienation; after r!! the acU of vio- lence which Athens had undergone, she yet con- tained men ouUpoken enough to venture to defend the constitution, and to appeal to the fact that the capitulation sanctioned by both parties contained no provision as to the Internal affairs of Athens. Hut, heriMipon, Lysaiider hlms<lf came forward and spoke to the citizens without reserve, like one who was their absolute muster. ... By such means the motion of Dni- contldas waspas-sctl; butoniy a small niimlierof unpatriotic and cowardly citizens raised their han(ls m token of assent. All better patriou contrived to avoid participation in this vote Itext. ten members of the government were chosj.n by Critias an<i his colleagues [the Critias of I lalo 8 Dialogues, pupil of Socrates, and now the viol.'nt nnl I.I.kxI thirviv leader of tlieaiiti- demmratie levuliition], ten hv Themmene.^, the conlidentiul friend of Lys.iii<ler. and finally ten out of tlie assembled niiilliluile. prob.hly by a free vote; and this Inianlof Tliiitv was liercumm establislie<I as the supreme government authority bv a resolution of llie assembly presi'nt. Atost of the memlurs <.f the new government hail formerly l«.en among the Four Ilumlre.1, an.i hart therefore Ion!; piirsiicnl a commcm course of action. The Tliirly Tyrants so plaail in power were masters of Athens for eight months, au.i executiii their will without coiistiencc or merev having a garrisim of Spartan soldiers in the Acropolis I,, support them. Tliev were also sus- taine.1 by a [Ueked Ih«Iv of citizens, "the Tlinv Ihoiisiud," who iHire arms while other citizens were stripped of every weapon, fjirife nuinU'rs of the more patriotic an.i high-spirile.1 Athenians bad escaped from their uiifortiiniite eitvaii.l ha.l takeiin-fuge, chlelly at TlielH^s, the o'ld enemy .. "Vi . ■ '"" "'"" «;i"l""l"ticin her distress" At TheK's these exiles ..rganized tliein»..|v,., under Thrasybulii ,i,l Anytus. and deieimliie.l to exp«'l the tyrants and to nis.ver their homes They first »viu;l a sirong post at I'livie in Attica, where they giiiiie<l In nunilH'rs rliiilillv •ml from which point they wer<' able in a f.'w jrj-eks to advance and ixeupv Hie I'irens Wlien the tr.Hips of The Tl.irly e:,me ,„„ ,„ rJl**;,, /'«■ "'••:•.'''•'■" ''■"■I' '" the «di;icent '■ belt-It of .Muhv.hla and ih,re fo.ivlit a biitile »hleh .Ivlivend their , ity from the Tyrants Lrm««, i!„. must, r !.|iirit of the usiirpaliori, xv.is •lain; t.,e more violent of his iMJIeaglleS Imik refucc at Kieu-is, an<l Alliens, for a ilui,' rcma Incil uij.ler the goveriin.enl of a new olltf-,r- chieal IJoardof Ten. while Thrasybulus an.l th.' i dem.«rnllr lil,enit,.rs .i.:.i„Iained t'heir hea.h,uar. i ter. at Munyehla. All parlies waite.1 the aelion of Sparta. Ly,,,nd>r, the S|wrtan general. ! iDMched an army Into Attica t„ restore the | lyninny which was of his own creating: but one ' of tb» two Sparun klngi. I'auaanliui, Iniervcned ' a»8iji.ir,I the ci.iomnmi in his own p«r*m. and •l.plle,! his cfforu to the unagia't "' PiHce It ATHENS, B. C. 839-338. between the Athenian parties. The iwult was a restoration of the democratic constitution of the Attic state, with some important reforms. Sev- eral of The Thirty were put todeath,— treacher- ously it was said,— but an amnesty wa« extended .riuV partisans. Tlic year In which they ami The Ten <ontrolled affairs was termed in the olHeial annals of the city the Year of Anarchy and its maifistrates were not recognized.— e' Curtius, IIi8t. of Orefce, 4*. 4, eh. 5. an<f 4*. 5^ AiM> IS: Xenophon, Ilellenies. bk. 3, eh. 3-4 _ C. Saiikey, Tlie Hjtartan and Theian Huprema- cte*. eh. 2-3 ^:,9.- 39S-387— Confederacy ■Minit Sparta. — Alliance with Per»ja.-The Corinthian War.— Conon i rebuilding of the Lonr Walls. — Athenian independence reitored. — The Peace of Antalcidas. See Qreece: B, C. 3»»- 387. B. C. 378-371.— Brief alliance with Thebes Sparta. Sc^ " " ~ the Social War.— Upon t'heLihi^ration oftli "k^ aeainit Sparta. Sec Orbkce: B. C. 379^:1" BC. 378-157.- The New Confederal and -- — --— .. v|"'*> iii«. uiuurnm^uui llieoeS and the signs that began to appear of the tieeline of Spartan power— during the yearof the arclion- ship of Nausinicus, B. C. 37H-f, which was m:ule memoralile at Athens by various movements of political reger-eralion,- the organization of a new I onfederaey was undertaken, analagoua to the Confederacy of Dclos, form.'d a century before Athens was w be, " not the ruling Ciipital. but only the directing city in possession of the i.ri- macy, the sent of the fwleral council. . . Calll- straius was in a sense the Aristides of the new confisleration and doubtless did much to bring alKiiit an agreement; it was likewise his work that, in place of the • trihuies ' of odious memory tlie payments necessary to the existence of the confederation were introduced under the gentler name of •contributions.'. . . Amicable n-lation* were r..sume<l with the (^yelmleg, Klio.les and 1 erinthus; in other wonla, the ancient union of navies was at once renewed upon a large scale and In a wide extent. Even such staU's Joined t as had hitherto never sUskI in confwiemte re- lationswith Athens, above all Thebes."— E Cur tius m,l. nf r.rtee,. bk. 6. eh. 1. — This weoiid confederacy n-newol much of the prosi, rliv and influence of Athens for a ,.rief p<.riod of iil),„ii twenty ye.irs. But In 3.-.7 B ('., four lmp,.ri:int nieiii Hrs of tlieConfnIeri.cv, namely, Chios, I'o, Ub.Hles, and Byzantium I, .giied thems..|ves i:i revolt, with the aid of .Maus,.ius, prince of Caria and an inglorious war ensue,|, known as llie NK'liil War. which la.slpd threw years, Athens was foreeil at last to ass,.nt to the si-cc-sslon of the four revolted nlies and lo n^eognize llieir irid.' IH'iiilem-e. whji li gnmlv im|iaire<l her presti •■ and power. Just al the lime wh.n she wasealle I upon to resist tlie <ricroaeliinenls of I'liilii) of .Mii<ed..iila. -C, ThlHwall, //,V „r l/mYe. eh (.• Tk K 37<^3«»; -Alliance with Sparta against T^-'H'rJ!?"'* •' Mantinea. See (JifiiKn B. C. 359-338.-The colliijon with Philip < f SL^"'*''?^/''? '*'"''' "' Demoithenei H.il Policy of Phocion.- ' A n.w periisloiH-n* «i: . '.'•ii*-'''".".!''.'!'.""' -Mawlonian imwer 1111 i,r I'liillij (:i.-,lt-;|.1« B C ) We ar.. hc^ chlelly . ..,. \"'7"'' !'' "'•'"'*■ "«■ ■•fftft on the Cily-Siaic ...f Ailiens), not only of the str<'nKth and policy .,f this new power, but alio of the effofti of'lhe ATUEX3. B. C. 330-339. Demonthfnri and Macedon. ATHENS, B. C. 339-333. Orcclu thenuelves to counteract it. At the time of Philip's accesiiioD the so-calleU Tlicban suprnmacy had just practically ended with the death of Epaminondas. There was now a kind of balaucc of power between the three IcatliuK Stiites, Spartu, Athens, and Thebes, no one of which was greatly stronger than the others: and such a bahince could easily lie worked upon by any great power from without. Thus when JIacedon came into the range of Oreek politics, under a man of great diplomatic as well as mili- tary capacity, who, like a Czarof today, wished to secure a dnn footing on the sea-lxwrd of the ^gean [see QiiKErK: B. C. a59-3,W), slie found her work comparatively easy. The strong im- perial policy of Philip founci no real antagonist except at Athens. Weak as she was, and straitened by the break-up of her new con- federacy, Athens could still produce men of great talent and energy ; but she was liampered by divided counsels. Two Athenians of this periinl seem to represent the currents of Oreek political thought, now running in two dilTerent directions. Demosthenes represents the cause of the C'itr-State in this age, of a union, that is, of iwrfcctly free Hellenic cities against tlic com- mon enemy. Phocion represenu tiie feeling, which seems to have been long growing up among thinking men at Athens, that the Clty- State was no longer what it had been, and could no longer stand by itself; that what was needed was a general Hellenic peace, and possibly even an arbiter from without, an arbiter not wholly un-ilclleuic like tlie Persian, yet one who miglit surcevj in stilling the fatal Jealousies of the liailin? States. . . . Tlie efforts of Demosthenes to olici:k Philip fall Into two peri'xls divided by tlie pi-iice of Philocratcs in 316 U. C. In t. o liMt of tiiese ho is acting chiel1% with Athens alone; Philip is to him not so moil; the eomaioii enemy of Greece as the dangenyus rival of Athens in the north. His whole mind w,.i giv. ii to the internal reform of Atlieus so as to strengthen her against Philip. In nor relation to other Greek States he perhaps hanlly saw '■"Vond H balance of power. . . . After iJ40 Ids Atlieiiian feeling seems to h -^ome more dis- tinclly Hellenic. But what culd even such a minus Demosthenes do with the lliilasof that il.iy 1 He could not force on the On.Tks a real ami permanent uniim; he could but urge new iilli.inccs. His stre-ttgth was spent in embassies wuh tliis object, embassies Um often futile. No alluiuce could save Greece from liie Macedonian piwcr, as iul)8e(|uent events plainly showeil. Wiiat was needi . was a real feiiend unii... be- iwirn the leading StaU-s, with a stmng ontral eonlrtplling force; and Demosthenes' iM.liiy was ImiKless Just 1k-c«us<' Athens could never iie tliv rcnirf of such a union, nor could any otlic- city. i»iMi,isllienes is tluK tlie last, and "in simie re- j'lKi is llie most heroic cli.mipion of the oii) Greek iiistiiiet for uul jii.v. He is 'he true ciiihl of thi CltyMtale. but too child of its old age an<l "lernpiiudo. He still iK-lieves in Athens, awl it sm Alliens that all h.s hopes are biis.'d. He (■"■k« on I'hillp as one who must inevitably lie llie fill' alike of Athens and of Oreeei' He •"■••nistoihinkthal he can be beaten off as Xeries was. and to forget that even Xerxes almost tnumpIiedonTili,- divisions of the Greek Slates, and that Philip I, n nearer, ■ more prominent, wiUafur less barUirimi {u*. . . . Phociou «a« 167 the somewhat odd exponent of the practical side of a school of thougiii, which had been gaining strengtii In Greece for some time past. ThU school was now brought into prominence by the rise of Macedon, and came to have a marked in- fluence on the history of the Citv-State It began with the philosophers, and wfth the idea that the philosoplier may belong to the world as well as to a particutar city. . . . Atlieiis was far more open to criticism now than in the days of Pericles; and a cynical dislike betrays itself in the Itt-public for the politicians of the day and their tricks, and a longing for a strong govern- ment of res .... Aristotle took thi; facta of city life as ihey were and showed how they might be made the most of. . . . T) liiin Mace- don was assuredly not wholly b:i: irian; and war to the death with her kings coulil not have been to him lis natural or desinible as it seemed to Demosthenes, ^nd though he has nothing to tell us of Macedon, we can hardly avoid the con- clusion tliat his desire was for [hhcc and internal refonn, even if it were under the guarantee of the northern power. ... Of this philosophical view of Greek politics Phocion was in a manner tb political cx[)onent. But his policy was too much a negative one; it might almost be called one of indifferentism, like »' feeling of Lessing and Goethe in German most momentous period. So far as we kno Phocion never pro- posed an allUnce of a n.rabie kind, either Athenian or Hellenic, with Macedon; he was ctmtent to be a purely restraining influence. Athens ha<? been constantly at war since 433; her own resources were of the weakest; there was little military skill to be fouml in lu r, no reserve force, much talk, but little solid courage. Atliens was vulnerable at variou.i points, and could not possibly ilefend more than one at a time, therefore- Phocion despaired of war, and tlie event prove<l him right. The faithfulnesa of the Athenians towards him is a pniof that they also instinctively felt that he was right But he was wanting on the practiail and cre'ative side, and never really dominated either Athens, Greece, or Philip. ... A policy of re'sistance fouml the City-State too weak todefenci Itself; a policy of inaction would Und It in a .Maceilonian empire which would still further weaken its re- maining vitality. The flrst polity, that of Demostlienes, did actually result in disastir and tlie presence of .Macedonian garrisons in Greek cities. Tlie attcond policy then took its place, and initiaUil a new era for Greece. After the fatal battle of Chieronea (.'ttS B. C.) Philip assumi'd the jiosition of leader of the Gnik cilies.'— W. \V. Kowler, T/if ''it// .'^,i/e i>r' the (Irrrku n-ul limoiiui, cA. 10.— Se<', al.^o, GlilECE' B. C. 340.— Alliance with Briantium •' aintt Philip of Micer on. SceGnKKcK; li c "no B. C- 33(* jt2.-Eni of the Struggle with the Mac.doniani.— Fall of Democracy.— Death of Demotthtnee.— Athenian decline.— An unex|)eetiil ineidrtit elianiris tlie whole aspect of things. Philiji falls the victim of assassination; ami a youth, who as yii is but lit- tle known, is his successor. Imnudlately IVmosthenes institutes a seconil alliani-e of the ()n.i.k<; but Alex.indcr "udd; iilv apja^ira !»- fore Thelies; llie lerrilile vengeaiire whicli be here takcK, Instantly ilestroys the league; l>emot- thvues, Lycurgus, and several of their support- m ATHENS, B. C. 33ft-32a. Mae^Jonian ATH£NS. B. C. 336-823. ill; e», are required to be delivered "in ; but Dfnuulci ii at tbst time able to lettle thee' acuity aud to appease tlic king. IIU atrength was tbcreforo enfeebled as Alcxauiler ileparted for Asia; bo begins to mise bis head once mope wlien Sparta attcmnts to tbrow off tbe yoke; but under Anll- palcr lie is overpowereil. Yet it was about tills very time tbat by the most celebratol of bis dis- courses lie gained tbe victory over tlie most elo- quent of Ids atlvcrsaries; and ^scblnes was fore ed to depart from Atbens. But tbis seems ?;::1;- >" have the more cmbittere'l bis enemies, the leaders of the Macedonian puriy; and they soon found au oniwrtunlty of preparing hfs downfall. When Harpalus, a fugitive from the army of Alexander, came with his treasures to Athens, and the question arose, whether he could be iwrmitted to remain there, Demosthenes was accu8e<l of having been corrupted by his money, at least to be silent. This was sufficient to pnwure tbe imposition of aflne; and as this was not paid, he was thrown into prison. Prom thence he succeeded in escaping; but to the man who livf^l only for his country, exile was no leas an evil than imprisonment. He resided for tbe niost part in ^giiiaand at Tnrzen, from whence he 'cmked with moist eyes toward the neigh- bouring Attica. Suddenly and unexpectedly a new ray of light broke through the ciouds. T (lings were brought, that Alexander was dead. The moment of deliverance secineil at hand ; tbe excitement pervaded every Orecian state; the ambassadors of the Athenians passed through the cities; Demosthenes Joined himself to tJic number and exerted all his eloquence and power to unite them against Macedonia. In recjuital for smli services, tbe people decreed bis return • and years i.f sufrcrings were at last followetl by a day of exalted compeiiaatlon. A gal'oy was sent to .Eglna to bring back the edvocate of lilierly. ... It was a momentary glimpse of i tbe sun, which still darker clouds were soon to conceal. Antipatrr and (,'raterus were victori- ous; and Willi (bciii the Macedonian party In Athens; Dcmcwilicncs and his friends were num- bered among tbe aivusid. ami at the Instigation of Demades were condemiuii to die. . . . De- mosthenes hail esciiiHil U> the Island Calaiiria in the vicinitv of Tin'zen; and took refuge In the temple of Neptune. It was to no purpose tbat Arelilus, the satellite of Antipatcr, urged bliii to nurrender lilinsclf under pnimlsc of par- don. He pretendeil lie wislied to write some- thing; bit the quill, and swallowiil the |)i)i(um contalne<l in It."— A. H. L. Ileeren, Hfflictiiiin on tin lUilim of Aiieient (Ireie, trniu hu (I Bann-ofl, p,,. a7H-iW().-8ee. also. >m llic " Unilan War, ilic siipprewiion of IX'iiKK'mey at Athens »ud tbe expiiLsiim (if iKHir citizens, Oi'iKKCK M c' 823-:f,'a.— •Willi the decline of |)oliiical .ndc' pendenee, . . . tbe nitntal powers of the iialiou rect'lved a fatal blow. No longer knit together by a jHiwerf ul esprit de corps, the Greeks lost tbe habit of working for tbe common weal ; and, for tlie iiioitt part, gave llieii' tlvcs up to the iiclty luluri'sts of bdiue life a their own personal tmubli-s. Kv.n the betU-r dJsiHMed were too much Dccupicd in opiwring the low tone and corruption of the timei, u> lie able to devote llieiii«lvcs, in Ibeir momenU of relaxation, to a free and 8|Hculiitlv« consideration of thing. W ml coulU Ik' cxpectal In such an age, but iliat philoDophy would take a decidedly practical turn, if .ideed It were studied at all f And yet such were the political sntecedenU of the Stoic aud Epicurean lyttenu of philosophy. Stoic apathy, Epicurean self-satisfaction, ami Sceptic ImperturUbility, were the doctrines which responded to tbe political helplessness of the age. They were tbe doctrines, too, wbicb met with the most genenil acceptance. The same political helplessness produced the sinking of national distinctions In tlie feeling of a com- mon humanity, and the separation of morals from politics which characterise tbe pbilosopby of tbe Alexaiiurian and Roi lau period. The barriers between nations, toge her with national independence, bad been swept away. East and West, Greeks and barbarians, were united In arge empires, being thus thrown Uigcther, and brought Into close contact o:i every possible point. Pbilosopby might u-ac!i that all men were of one bloo.1. that all w 're equally citizens of one empire, that morality resteil on the rela tlon of mnn to bis 'ellow men, independently of nationalUies and of social ranks; but in so doing she was only explicitly stating truths which had been already n i;'iHed in part, and which were in part corollaries from the existing state of so- ciety."— E. Zoller, T/ie .*«•<-,, Epieureaiu, and Seepliet. pp. 18-18.— •• What we have said con- cerning the evidence of comedy about the age of the tirst Diadochi amounts to ti:i: Menauder and his successors — they lasted .1 x'ly two gen- erations—printed in a few stereotypes a small and very worthless soiiety at Athens. There was no doubt a similar set of people at Corinth, at Tbelies, possiblv even in the city of Lycur- gtis. These |K-ople, idle, for the most part rich and in mxKl society, spc-nt their earlier years In debauchery, and their laUr in sentimental refl(>c- tioiis and regrets. They bad no serious object 111 .lie, aud regarded the complications of a love affair as more Interesting than the rise aud fall of kiiigd.inis or the gain and loss of a nations lilK-rty. Tliey were like tlie people of our day who spend all their time reading novels from tlie libnines, aud who can t(>lerate these eternal variations in twaddle not only williout clisgiist but with Interest. They were surrounded with slaves, on the whole more intelligent aud Inter- esting, for in the first place »l«ves were iKiiiud Jo exercise their brains, and la tbe second tliey had a great oblect— liberty — to give ilii-m a keen pursuit In life. The relations of the sexes In this set or portion of society were bad, owing to the Want of education In tbe women, ami the want of eaniestneas In the men. As a natura coiisequenc-e a class was found, apart from household slaves who t<K>k advanUge of these defects, and, bringing culture to fascinate un- principled men, established thou nlatious whlrli brought eatrangenients. If not ruin. Into the home life of the day. "—J. P. Mahaffy, Greek Uftnml rh„u;,ht. pp. 123-184.— "The amount of Persliin wealth poured Into Greece by the oceidents of the conquest, not by Its own Indus tries, must have pro<liiccd a revolution in priita not sime equalled extvpt by the Intlux >f the gold of tbe Aztecs and Incas into Spain. I hare already poinu-d out how this change must have pressed iiiHin ixKir people in Greece who did not share In the plunder. The price of even ne( i-s- i-iry Mild :.lmjiit: things must have oft.n ri.-,tu JH'yiHid their means. Kor the adventurirs brouglit home large furtuuui. aud the •radirs 18;> ATHENS, B. C. 836-823. Ex)ian»toH of iittUniam. ATHENS, B. C. 33»-323. ant! •'urreyora of the armies made them ; and with tlieae Eiutcrn fortunes must liave come iu tlio tastu for nil the superior comforts and luxuries wbieli tlicy found among the Persiun cranducs. Not only the appointments of the table, in the way of plati! and pottery, hut the very tastes aud flavours of Greek C(H)kery must have profited by comparison with the knowledge of the East. So also the furniture, cspotially In carpets and h:\i.gingB, must have copied Persian fashion. Just as we still affect oriental stuffs and designs. It was not to be expecte<l 'hat the example of so many regal courts and so much royol ceremony should n"t HfTect those in omtact with them. These iiiMuiuces were not only shown iu the vulgar ■ braggart <'upuiin,' who came to show off Ills suiMen wealth in impudent extravaj;a ro iiiuoii^' his olil tow-.^pcople, hut in the ordinary life of rich young men. So I imagine tlie personal iippolutmcntsof Alcibiades. which were the talk of Gieece in his day, would have appeared poor and mean beside those of Arams, or of the gen- eration which prec-eiled him. Pictures and statues began to adorn private houses, and not temples and public buililing* only — a change beginning to show itself in Demosthenes's day, but coming in like a torrent with the opening of Orccte to the Eastern woKJ. It was noticed tltat Phwion's house at Athens was modest in size and furniture, but even this was rellevetl from shabbiness by the quaint wall decorathm of shining plates of bronze — a fashion dating from prehistoric times, but still admired for its very anllc|uity."-J. P. Maliaffy. (jrnk Life and Thowilit. pp. 105-100.— "The modern historians of Greece are much dlvidei! on the questum where a history of Hellus ought to end. C'T- tlus stops with the battle of C'iiaeroneia ana tjie prostration of Athens before the a<lfancing power of Mace<lon. Grote narrates the cam- paigns of Alexander, but stops short at '.h, con- clusion of the Lamian War, when Greece had in vain tried to shake off the supremacy of his gen- erals. Thiriwall brings his narmti.e down to the time of Hummlus, the melancholy suck of Corinth and the constitution of Achaia as a lionian province. Of these divergent views we regard that of the German historian as the most correct. . . . The historic sense of Grote did not exclude pretudices, and in this cjiso '•- was probably led astray by political bias. Ai the close of bis ninety -sixth chapter, after mention- tag the emuassii's sent by the degenerate Athe- nIaiiB to King Ptolemy, King I.ysiumcuus, and Antipater, he throws down his pen in disgust, and witli sadness and humiliation brings his nar- rative to a close.' Athens was no longer free aud no longer dignified, and so Mr. Grote will have done with Greece at tiie very moment when the new Comedy was at iu height, when tlie JIusium was founded at Alexandria, when the Jilaysof Kuriphles were acted at Ujibylon and tabul, and every Greek solillcr of fortune car- ried a diadem iu hU baggage. Surely the his tonau of Greece ought either In have stopped when the Iron hand of Philip of Mac».iion put an end to the IH)ertle8 and the ix.litlcal wrangliugs of llillas, or else persevered to the time wlien Itonu' and Parthia crushed Greek imwer lictween tlieiti. like a sidn between two icebergs. No Mouirinm reply wouhl U\ that he declined to reifard the triumph aliroad of Mr' rlouian anus u a cuulinualiuu of the history ilcllas. 189 The truth is, that the history of Greece consists of two parts, in every respect contrasted one witli the other. The first recounU tl e stories of the Persian and Pcloponnesian wars, aud ends with the destruction of Th.U. i and the subjuga- tion of Athens and Sparta. Ths Hellus of which It speaks is a cluster of autonomous cities in the Peloponnesus, the Islands, aud Northeru Greece, together with their colonies scattered over the coasu of Itoly, Sicily, Tliracc, the Black .Sea, Ashi Minor, and Africa. These cities care only to be independent, or at most to lord it over one another. Their political institution.s, their re- ligious ceremonies, their customs, arc civic and local. Langimge, commerce, a couunon Pan- theon, and a common art aud poetry are the ties th.t bind them togcti r. In Its u!Coiul phase, Greek history begijs with the cxiMHiition of Alexander. It rcv.als to us t:.e Greek as ev ry- where lord of the barbarian, as fouuding king- doms and feden.' systems, as the instruct* ' of all nutnkind in ait aud science, and the spicader of civil niid civilked life over the known world. In the first perii«l of her history Greece is form- ing herself, iu h .'r second she "is e<lucating the world. We w!'' venture to borrow from the Germans a convenient expression, and call the history of indeptmdeut Greece the history of Hellas, that of imperial Greece the history of Helleiiisiu. . . . The Athens of Pericles was dictator among the cities which had joined her alliance. Corinth, SparU, Theln-s. were each the political head of a group of towns, but none of tlie three admitted these latter to an e(jual share In their ci- ucils. or adopted their political views. Even in the Olynthiau I.eague. the city of Olynthiis occupied a iM)sition quite superior to that of the other cities. But tlio Greek cities hail not tried the exp< riinent of an alliance on equal terms. This was now at- tcinpte<l by some of the leadinir ritjes of the Peloponneae, aud the result was ;ie Achaean league, whose histoiy shells a lus e on the last I., -s of independent Greece, and wliosc generals w.,1 licar comimrison with the statesmen of any Greek Kepuhiic [see Gkeeck: B. (.'. 2B0-146]. . . On tiie field of Sellasia the glorious hopes of Cleomcnes were wrecked, and the recently reformcil .Siwrta was handeil over to a succesxlon of bhiodthinity tyrants, never again to emerge fnim ol)8curily. But to the Achaeans themselves the intcrfer.-ncc of Maceilou was little '.•ss fatal. Henceforth a Maceiloiiian garrison occupied Coriii'li, w.iieh had l>een one of the chief cities of the League: and King Antlgoiiiis IX>son was the recognlitiMl ari)lter in all disputes of the K'lo|M>niiesian Greeks. ... In Nortlieni Greece a strange i imst presente<) Itself Tlie historic races of the AtheiilKiis and Boeotians laiiguisiied In iieace, obscurity, au,l luxury. With them every day saw something added to the enjoy- ments and elegancies of life, and every day I)<illtlcs drifteil more and more Into the back- grrmnd. On the other bawl, therinleseml Orn^ks of the West Aetollaus. Acamaiiiaiis, anil Kpl- rotes, U> whose niauhiKxl the repulse of the Gauls was mainly due. came to the front anil slioweil the lK)ld spirit of Greeks divortvd from the thier faculties of the race. The Acamanians formed ft !e»g:ii. snmewli-it on the plrtli of llie .\ch;u-au. But they were overslmdoweil by their neiglilHirs the Actollans. whose union wiis of a dilTereiit character. It was the Unit time that there hod U ;■ I ATHENS, B. C. 83ft-39a. been formed in HelUt a state framed In order to prey upon ita neighbours. ... In the course of the Pcloponneslan War Grcelc ri'llgion began to lose iu hold on the Greelts. This was partly the work of the sophisU and philosophere, who sought more loftv and moral views of Deity thun were furnished bv the tales of popular mythology. Still more it resulted from growing materialism among the people, who saw more and more of their immediate and physical needs and less and less of the underlring spiritual elements in life. But though pliilogopliy and materialism had made the religion of Hellas paler and feebler, they had not altered its nature or expanded it. It still remained essentially national, almost tribal. When, therefore. Greeks and Macedonians suddenly found themselves masters of the nations of the East, and in close contact with a hundred forms of religion, an extraordinary and rapid change took place in their religious ideas. In religion, as In other matters. Egypt set to the world •••e example of prompt fusion of the ideas of Greeks and natives. . . Into Greece proper, in return for her ' opulation which flowed out, there flowc<l !n a c. owd of foreign deities. Isis was especially welcomed at Athens, where she found many votaries. In every cult the more mysterious Clements were made more of, and the brighter and more materialistic side passeil by. Old statues whicli had fallen somewhat into con- tempt in the (lays of Phcidias and Praxiteles were restore.! to their places and received ex- treme veneration, not as beautiful, but as old and strange. On the coins of the previous period the representations of deities had been always the Iwst that the die-cutter could frame taking as his minlels the finest contemponirv sculpture; but henceforth we often find them strange, unciutli figures, remnants of a period of struggling early art, like the Apollo at Amyi-lae. or tlie Hera of Samos. ... In the in- tellectual life of Athens there was still left Tltalily enough to formulate the two most com- plete expressions of the etliicul ideas of the times, the diKtrines of the Stoics and tlie Epi- cureans, towards one or the other of which all educated minds from that day to this have been drawn. No doubt our knowledge of these dix-- trines. being largely drawn from the Latin writers and their Greek contemporaries, is some- what coloured and unjust. With the Romans a •y^f™ "f pliil(«ophy was considert'il mainlv In Its bearing upon conduct, whence the etiiical elements in Stoicism and Epi<un>aiiism have been by their Homau ailherents so thrust Into the foreground, that we have almost lost sight of the intellectual elemenU, which can have had mtle less ininortance in the eyes of the Greeks Notwithstanding, the rise of the two philosophies must be held to mark a new era in the history of thought, an era when the Importance of con- duct wan for the first time recognii.-d bv the Un'iks. It is often observed that the ancient Uri'eks were more modern than our own an- cestors of the .Middle Ages. But it in less generally recogniicil how far monMn.Klern thin the (trceksof Pericles were the Greeks. )f Aratus In very many respecu the age of Hellinism and our own age presint remarkable similarity. Id both there «pp./.ir« a sudden Inrn-aso (n the power over material nature, arising alike from llie greater accessibility of all paru of the world ATHENS, B. C. 900. and from the rapid development of the sciences which act upon the physical forces of the worid In both this spread of science and power acts upon religion with a dissolving and, if we mav so speak, centrifugal forra-, driving some men Ui take refuge in the most conservative forms of faith, some t« fly to new creeds and superstitions some to drift into unmeasured scepticism Iii both the facility of moving from place to place and finding a distant home, tends to dissolve the closeness of civic and family life, and to make the individual ratlier than the family or the citv the unit of social life. And in the family re- lations. In the character of individuals, in the state of morality, in the condition of art we find at lioth periods similar results from the similar causes we have mentioned. "—P. Gardner Aein CImplm in Oretk llitUini, eh. lH. B. C. 317-316— Siege by Polyspercho.1.— Democracy restored.— Execution of Phocion — Demetriui of Phaleron at the head of the groTemment. See Gukkck: B. C. 32l-;tl2. ?C. 307-197 —Under Demetriui Poliorcetes *™ the Antigonids. See Greece: B. C. 307- B. C. 388-363.— Twenty years of Indepen- dence.— Siere and subjugation by Antigonus ConaUa.— When Demetrius Poliorcetes lost tli,. Macetlonlan throne. B. C. 2«8. his fickle Athenliu subjects and late worshippt^rs rose against his authority, drove his garrisons from the Museiiiri and the Piraeus and abolis.'ied the prie8tli(K>il thev had consecrate<l to him. I)emetrius gathered an army from some quarter and l;ii,| *."'P .*" "'* "^y^ *"" without success. Thi' Athenians went so far as to invite Pvrrhus the warrior king of Epiriis. to assist them ngiiinst "''"• , Pyrrluis cnine and Demetrius ix-tiicl The dangerous ally coutente<i himself with a visit to the Acro|K>lis as a worsliip|M'r, and left Athens in possession, undisturbe;' of her fnslilv gained freedom. It was enj.xed after a fasiiioh n'"o"li^^'^.y™"' *' "'" ""'' "f ^'licb Perin,!. iJ. C. Z68, Antigonus Oonatas. the son of l).'nie trius. having regained the Mace<ionian crown reasserted his claim on Athens, and the citv wis once more besieged. The Lacediemoniaiis ami Ptolemy of Egypt both gave some inelTeetuul aid to the Athenians, and the siege, interruiitiil "n several occasions, was prolonged until li C 283, when Antigonus tiH)k posst'ssion of the Acropolis, the fortified Mus«-iim and the Pineus as a master (see M.\ckih)NIa, ifce. : B. 277-244) Tills was sometimes callwl the (?hn'inoiiiilean War, from the name of a patriotic Athenian wlio took the most prominent part in the long liefence of his city, -C. Thirlwall, IIM of Ortea; ch. Bl B. C. aaj. -Liberation by the Achaian League, hee Oukeck: B. C. 280-146 J °; C. ayo.— Vandaliam of the Kcond Mace- donian Philip.— In the year B. C. 200 the .Mjkv- (lonian king, Philip, ma<le an attempt to surprise Athens and failed. "He then encamix-d in tlie outakiru, and proceeded to wreak his vengeaucv on the Athenians, as he had Indulgcl it at Thermus and Pergamus. He d<"strovc-<l ..r de- faced all the monuments of religion "and of nrt all the saco'd and pleasant places which adornr.l the suburbs. I'lie Aca.lemv, the Lv.ruin. an I Cynosarges, with iheir temples, scIi.'kiIs gn.v.s an-l ganltns. were .lil wasted with tin- .N"t *.»•'? "'<' «'P"lclin's were spared."- C. Thiriwall, Itut. of Urt*n, fA. 64. 190 ATHEIfS, B. C. 197-A. D. 138. Ptantinc of ChrUtkmily. ATHEXS, A. D. 54 (T). B. C. 197-A. D. 138.— Under Roman rule. — "Athens . . . affonjs the disheartening pic- ture of a commonweftlth pampered by tlie su- preme power, and flnaocially as well as morallv- ruine<l. By riRhts it ought to b&vv found iLwff in a flourishing condition. . . . So city of an- titiuity elsewhere possessed a domain of its own, such as was Attica, of about 7(X) square miles. . . . But even U'yond Attica they retained what they possessed, as well after the Mithridatic War, by favour of Sulla, as after the Pliarsalian battle, m which they had taken the siilc of Pom- ptius, by the favour of C.tsar;— he asked them onlv how often they wrmld still ruin themselves and trust to be saved by the renown of their an- cestors. To the city there still belonged not ated In no long time.— W. Ihne, Iliil. of Rom*. **. 7. cA. 1..— "Athens was . . . taken by »«Mult . . . The majority of the citizen.-- was slain; the camaee was so fearfully great as to l>ecome memorable even in that age of bloodshed ; the private movable property wa» seized by the so diery, and Sylla assumed some merit to him- self for not committing the rifled houses to the flames. . . . The fate uf the Pineus, which he utterly destroyed, was more severe than that of Athens. From Syllas campaign in Greece the commencement of tlie ruin anildepopulation of tlic country is to be date<l. The destruction of property causc-d bv his ravages in Attica was so great that Athens from that time lost its commer- cial as well as its p,)litical importance. The merely the territory, formeriy" p^S^ "by { ^'^ ol A"thenir„ chiz^n;'^;" aSrextirpaSi'' Uahartus, in B.K'ot.a, but «l.v, on their own and a new population. composedTa heterow^' OUS mass of Setf lem fvr^.ivn^l thn ..;.>1.» ^t ^i^. coast Sulamis, the old starting-point of their dominion of the sea, and in the Thracian Sea tlie lucnitive islands Scvros, Lemnos, and Imbros, as well as I)elos in tfie Aegean. ... Of the fur- lli r L-ninls, which they had the skill to draw by liuttiry from Antoninus. Augustus, against «liuin tliiy hail taken part, tixik from them cer- tiinly Acgina and Eretria in EulxH-a, but they wi-re allowed to retain the smaller islands of the Thracian .Sea. . . . Hadrian, moreover, gave to Uii Ml ilij Iwst part of the great island of C'eplial- Icnia in the Ionian Sea. It was only by the KiiiiK-rnr fv'verus. who bore them no gc)od"will, tliui a [tortion of these c.xtran<-ou3 ixMsessioiii «;u withdrawn from them. Il.idrian further grunted to the Athenians the delivery of a cer- tiin ijii.intity of grain at the e.xpense of the em- pire, aud by the extension of this privilege. hitiurto reserved for the capital, acknowledged Athens, ns it were, as anotlier metropolis. Not li>s was the blissful institute of alimentary en- (lowm» [its, which Italv had enjoye<l since Trajan's time, extended by Hadrian to Athens, and the cipit.il requisite for tills pur|K>se certainly pre- .sc iitid to the Athenians from his purse, Yi t the community w,is in constant distress ' — T. Momuisen. Ili'l. nf Home. bk. 8, eh 7 Also I. \: ,1. P. .MahafTy, Ue Greek KorUI under U,,i,ii, .^my.—Sce, also, Giieece: B, C 146- A I). 1-0. B, C. 87.86,— Siege and capture by Sulla.— Massacre of citizens.— Pillage and depopula- ''on- -Laitine injuries.- The earlv successes of .MKiiriihites of Poiitus, in his savage war with tiif IJciiians, included a general rising in his f iv, r among the Greeks [see MiTURtD\T c n Alls], siipporU'd by the fleets of the Pontic Kini; aud by a strong invading army, Athens au'l tiie Pineus were the strongholds of the On-rk revolt, and at Athens an adventurer named An«t.<.n. bnnging from Mithridates a body-guard of 2.IKIO soldiers, maile himself tyrant of the city A .ve.ir passed before Home, distracted by the In uinmngs of civil war, could effectively inter ;' ■■'; J}"-'^ Sulla came (B, C. 87) and laid siege I'tlie Pineus, where the principal Pontic force WIS l,>,ls;,-,l, while he shut up Athens by blockade -111 the t.illowing March, Athens was starved to ^'|> h weakness that the Romans entered almost uiiipp,Bi.,j and kille.1 and plundered wi;'i no ineny , but the buildings of the city suffered litile harm at their handit The siege of the i-iraus was carried on for some weeks longer until Sulla had driven the Pontic forces from every part except Munychia, and that they evacu- 191 ous mass of settlers, receivc<l the right of citizen- shin. — G. Finlay, fjreeee under the limaiu. eh 1 • ^- Pa^ (?».-The Visit of St. Paul.-Plaat- ing of Christianity.—" When the Jews of Tlies- salonica had knowledge that the word of God was proclaimed of Paul at Bea.a also, they came thither likewise, stirring upand troubling thcmul- titwde Aud then immediatclv the brethren sent forth Paul to go as far as to the sea: and Silas and Tmiotlieus alxHie tlure still. But they that conducted Paul brought him as far as Athens- and receiving a coinmani'ment unto Silas and' Timotheus that tliev should come to him with all s|Hed, they departed, Now while Paul waited for them at Athens, his spirit was provoked within him, as lie lieheld the city full of idols So he reasoned in the synagogue with the Jews aud the devout persons, and in the market place everj; day with them that met with him. And certain also of the Epicurean and Stoic philoso- phers encountere<l him. And some said what would this babbler say ? other some. He seemeth to be a setter forth of strange gwls: because he preached Ji <us aud the resurrection. And they t<x)k hold of him, and brought him unto tlie Areopagus, saying. May we know what this new teaching is, which is sixikcn by thee ? For thou bringest certain strange things to our ears: we would know therefore what these things mean. (Now all the Athenians and the strangers sojourn- ing there spent their time in nothing else, but either to tell or to hear some new thing. ) Auil Paul stixxl iu the midst of the -Vreopagus, and said, ie men of Atiiens, in all things I perceive tliat ye arc some-vhat superstitious. For aa I passed along and observed the objects of your worship I found also an altar witli this Inscription, ' To an Unknown God.' What therefore ye worship in ignorance, this set I forth unto you. . . . Now when they heard of the resurrection of the dead some mocke<l ; hut others said, We will hear thee concerning this yet again. Thus Paul went out from among them. Howbeit certain men clave unto him, and believed: among whom also was Dionysiiis tlie Arcopagite, and a woman nanietl Damaris, and others with them."— .lrt» -/ </i«' Al*i»lU; Iterimd Vernon, eh. 17.— "Consider the dillicullics whicli must have beset the planting of the Church in -Vtliens, If the burning zeal o? the great Apostle ever pcnnitteii him to feel dinideuce in addressing an assembly, he may well have fcit ii when he a.idicswd uu Mars' Hill for the first time an Atlienian crowd. No doubt the Athens of bis time was In her decay, inferior In opulence and grandeur tc many younger dti^ ATHENS, A. D. 64 (TV Yet even to a Jew, provided he hud n^celved aome educntioiMl Impressions Iwyond the fanatical sliibbiiletlis of Pharisaism, there was much in that wonderriil centre of IntellJKenoc to shalte his most inveterate prejudices and Inspire him wi'! unwilling respect. Shorn indeed of her political sreatni-ss. deprive<l even of her pldlosophicid supremacy, she still shone with a brilliant after- glow of esthetic and inU'llectual prestige. Her monuments Sashed on the visitor memories recent enough to dazzle his ImaginHtion. Her scliooU claimed and obtainnl even fn)m Emperors the homage due to her unique past. Recognis- ing her as the true nurse of Hellenism anil the chief missionary of human refliiement, the best spirits of the age held her worthy of admiring love not unmixed with awe. As the scat of the most brilliant and popular university, young men of talent and position flocked to her from every quarter, studletl for a time within her colon- nades, and carrie<I thence the recollection of a culture which was not always deep, not always erudite, but was always .ind genuinely Attic To subject to the criticism • f this people a doctrine professing to come dii.. t from God, a religion and not a philosophy, depending not on argument but on revelation, was a task of which the dilficulties might seem insuperable. When we consider what the Athenian character was this language will not seem exaggerated. Keen subtle, capricious, satirical, sated with idoas eager for novelty, yet with the ragemcss of amused frivolity, not of the truth-seeker: critical by instinct, exquisitely sensitive to the ridiculous or the absurd, disputatious, ready to listen, yet impatient of all that was not wit, satislied with everything in life except its shortness, and there- fore hiding all references to this unwelcome fact under a veil of complacent euphemism — where could a more uncongenial soil be found for the seed of the Gospel ? ... To an Athenian the Jew was not so much an object of hatred (as to the Roman), nor even of contempt (as to the rest of mankind), as of absolute indifference. He was simply ignored. To the eclectic philosophy which now dominated the schools of Athens, Judaism alone among all human opinions was as If non-existent. That Athenians should be con- vmced b^ the philosophy of a Jew would be a proposition expressible in words but wholly des- titute of meaning. On the other hand, the Jew was not altoget:u . uninfluenced by Greek thought. Wide apart as the two minds were, the Hebraic proved not insensible to the charm of the Hellenic; witness the Epistle to the Hebrews witness Philo, witness the intrusion of Greek methods of interpretation even into the text-books of Rabbinlsm. And it was Athens, as the quin- tessence of Hellas, Athens as represented by SMKratea, and still more by Plato, which hail gained this subtle power. And just as Juda'a alone among all the Jewish communities retained IS cxclusivenes.^ wholly unimpaired by Hellen- ism, so Athens, more than any Pagan capital was likely to ignore or repel a faith coming iii the garb of Judaism. An.l yet within less than a century we find this faith so well established there as to yield to the Church the gmnl fruits of martyrdom in the person of its bishop, and of alile defences in the person of thri'eof iu teachers The early anil the later fortunes of the Athenian C:iiiinh are buriisl in oblivion; it comes but for a brief period beXure tbc sceoe of history. But ATHENS. A. D. S39. the undying Interest of that one dramatic m )mrnt when F^ul proclaimed a bmlilv resurrection to the author* of the conception of a spiritual im- mortality, will always cause us to linger with a strange sympathy over evenr relic of the Chris- tiiuiity of Athens."— C. T. Cfruttwell, A Litcran- tlittary of Girly Chrulianity, t. 1, bk. .3 eh 4 Also ts: W. J. Conybeare and J. 8. Hi'.waon' Life and Utten of St. Fiiut, v. t, eh. 10 —F V Baur, P>xul. pi. ., eh. 7 (» 1).— On the inscriiK tion, see E. de Pressensc. The Earlg Ymrt ,.f Chnitinnity: The Apoetolie Km. bk. 2. cA 1 A. D. ia5-i34.--the works of Hadrian.- Ihc Lmperor Hadrian intciesteil himself greatlv in the venerable decaying capital of the Oreiks which he visiteil, or resided in, for consideraWo periods, several times, between A. D. Vili and 134. These visiu were made important to the city by the great works of rebuilding whioli he undertook and suiKTvised. Large parts of the city are thought to have been reconstructcii bv him, "In theopenand luxuriousstyleof Antiiwh and Ephesus.' One quarter came to be nilkl " Hadriauapolis," as though he had created it Several new temples were ere-cted at his com^ mond ; but the greatest of the works of Hatiriaa at Athens was the completing of the vast national temple, the Olympieura, the twginning of wliicb dated back to the age of Pisistratus, and which Augustus had put his hand to without finisliin ■ — C. Merivalc, Ilitt. oj tlte Itnrnnm. ch. (W ' A. D. 367.— Capture of, bjr the Goths. See GoTOS; A. D. 2.58-i67. A. D. 39s.— Surrender to Alaric and the Gothi.— VVTien the Goths under Alario inva iid and ravaged Greece, A. I). 395, Athens was sur- rendereii to tliem, on terms which saved tlie citv from being plundered. "The fact that tha depredations of Alaric hardly exceeded the nrli- nary license of a rebellious general, is . p, r fectly established. The public buildini;s an I monuments of ancient splendour suffir.-d no wanton destruction from his visit; but then- can be no doubt that Alaric and his troops Kviol lieavjr contributions on the city and its inhaliit- - .ts. '— G. Finlay, Oretee under the Botnam ch 2 tect. 8. Also i»: E. Gibbon, Decline and Fill „f (V Roman Empire, eh. 30.— See, also, OoTUs: A D 31(5, AL.\Ric'g Invasion op Greece. A. D. 529.— Suppression of the Schools by Justinian.— " The Attic schools of rhet.irio anj philosophy maintained their superior rej>m;iMoa from the Peloponnesian War to the reign nf Jus- tinian. Athens, though situate in a barnn suil. possessed a pure air, a free navigation, an i the moncments of ancient art. That sacri.l ntirc- ment was seldom disturbed by the b i>ini>< <A trade or government; and the last of tin' Athen- ians were di.stinguished bv their livelvwit tl;e purity of their taste anil language, tl'i rir siiil manners, and some traces, at least in di-cuiir»<>. of the magnanimity of their fathers. In the suburbs of the city, the Academv of th" Ph- tonists, the Lycwum of the Peripatetics the Portico of the Stoics and The Garden of tlic Epi- cureans were planted with trees and dtcoriitid with statues; and the philosophers, instial if being immured in a cloister, delivered tlicir ia- struitions In spacious and pleasant walks, wliiih, at different hours, wen- rnnsecrated to tlir ■ srr- cises of the mind and body. Tlie genius of me founder* still lived in tiiose reneiuble aeata. . . . 192 ATHEXS, A. D. 820. Tb« achooli of Athena were protected br the wuest and most rtrtuoua of the i^oman prince*. . . . Some vestige of mvsl bounty may be found unJer the successors of Conttantine. . . . Tlie golien chain, as it was fondly atylc<l, of the Pla- tonic succewion. continued ... to the e<ilct of Justinian [A D. 52»] which impoMxl a per- TMturjl silence on the schools of Athens, and excited the grief and indignation of the few re- iniining votaries of Greek science and aupersti- ti n."— E. Gihboo, Dteline and Fail of the Soman Emrri-f. eh. 40. K. O. taos.— The foonding of the Latia Dnkedom.— '■ The portion of Greece Iving to the south of the kingiom of Haloniki was divided by the Crusaders [after their conquest of Tonstan- tiaoplc, A D. 1*H — see Btiastixe Empire: A I). I2fti-12(M] among several great feudatories of the Empire of Romania. . . . The lords of Bojdonitza, Salona, Negropont, and Athens are alone mpntioned as existing to the north of the iithmos of Corinth, and the history of the petty sovereigns of Athens can alone be tracefl in any detail. . . . Otho de la Roche, a Burgundian .iobleman, who had distinguished himself during the sicee of Constantinople, march<^ southward with the army of Boniface the king marquis, and g-iiaed possession of Athens in 120.5, Thebes aad Athena had probably fallen to his share In \.\'; pirtition of the Empire, but it is possible that th» king of .Saloniki may have found means to inr rea«i his portion, in order to induce him to do h jmage to the crown of .Sjiloniki for this addi- ti n. At all events, it appears that Oiho de la R a^he did homage to Boniface, eith<r as his im- m 'iiate superior, or as viceroy for the Emfieror cflt.-unia. . . Though the' Byzantine aristoc- ricvar. 1 dignified clergy were 'severe sufferers b_v the transiference of tiie goverament into the h.ini'i of the Franks, the middle classes long en- j:.ved peace and security. . . . The social civili- m:: a of the inhabitanu. and their ample com- m mi of the ni-cessaries and many of the luxuries of Hfe. were in those days as much superior to tbe condition of the citizens of Paris and London a.« tiny are now interior. . . . The citv was large an 1 wealthy, the country thickly co'vered with v;;i.»i;.<, of which the ruins mav still be traced in spots aff.irdine no indication? of Hellenic sites. . . . The trade of Athens was considerable, and the I'iX!iry of the Athenian ducal court was celc- Iratt 1 ia all the regions of the West where chiv- alry flourished. •— O. Finlav, HM. of Qntet from iu c.tq'iijit Jy the Cnmuitri, cA. 7 A'*. L\: C. C. Felton. Onea, Aneient and M'^lern: Vh Courte, Itet. 5, ATLANTIC OCEAV. I ,^A.D. 1311-1456.— Uoder the CaUUnt and I the Florentuet. See Catai^ax Gbaxd Com- ; PA,"fv 1 A- J. 1456.— The Tork* ia pouesiion.— , Athtr,.* was not occupied by the Turks imtil three years after the conquest of Constantinople (see CoNsn>m>opLF.: A. D. l-fclS). In the mean- time the nign of the Florentine dukes of the house of Acciaioli came to a tragical close. The last of tlie flukes, Jlaurice Acciaioli died, leaving a young son and a young widow, the latter re- nowned for her beauty and her talents. The duchess, whom the will of her husband had made regent, married a comely Venetian namtnl Pal- meno, who was said to have poisoned his wife in order to be free to accept her hand. Thereupon a nephew of the late duke, named Franco, stirred up insurrections at Athens and fled to Constanti- nople to oomplain to the sulun, Mahomet II '•The sultan, glad of all pretexu that coloutwj bis armed intervention in the affairs of these prin- cipaliric^. ordercl Omar, son of Tourakhan, chief of thf permanent irmy of the Peloponnesus, to take possession of Athens, to dethrone the duche^ and to confine her sons in his prisons of the citadel of Megara." This was done; but Palmerio. the duchess's husband, made his way to the sultan ind icteroeded in her be- half. " Mahomet, by the advice of his viziers feigned to listen equally to the complaints of Palmerio. and to march to reestablish the legiti- mate sovereignty. But alreadv Franco, en- tering .Megara under the auspices of the Otto- mans, had strangled both tho duchess and her son. Mahomet, advancing in turn to puni.-h him for his vengeance, cipelled Franco from Athens on entering it, and gave him, in compensation, the inferior and dependent principality of Thebes, in Boeotia. The sultan, as lettered as he wn« warlike, evinced no less pride and admiratio , than Sylla at the sight of the monuments of Athens. • What trratitud' ' exclaimed he bef re the Parthenon and the tem]. of Theseus, 'do not religion and the Empire owe to the son of Tour- akhan. who has made them a present of these spoils of the genius of the Greeks. " — A. Lamar- Une, nut. of Turkey, bk. 13. fft \(\-Vi A. D, 1466.— Capture and plundering by the itians. See Greece; A. D. U."»4-14T9. Venetians. A. D, 1687,— Siege, bombardment and capture by the Venetiaos.— Oestructire ex- plosion in the Parthenon. .See Tceks: A. n Ift-H-lflM A. D, 1831-1829.— The Greek revolution and war of independence.— Capture by the Turks See Greece; A. D. 1*21-1529 , ATHERTON GAG. The. See Uxited STATES op Ajj. ; A. D. 18t , ATHLONE, Siege of ,k. D. 1601). See Ikki.am> a. D. 18hi>-1691 ATHRAV \S. See Maqiaxs, ATIMIA— The penalty of Atimia, under SO' 1 :.! .Vthenian law, was the loss of civic rviiu— (j. F Schumann, Antiq. of Grtttt: Tt\t ATIMUCA, The. See Ajreaicoi Abo- Bi.iNEs T'MrcrA. ATLANTA : A. D, 1864 (May-September,, -bnerman t advance to the city,— Ita sieze sndcapiure. See LsmcDST.tTESorAn. ; A. D. O^RU 7' ^^*^^^' *^ (MaT-aMTMfBHi: la 193 A. D. 1864 (Septerrber— November).— Re- moval of inhabitants. — Destruction of the city. See United States op .\m .v D. l^iVi (Septembbb— October: Gemroia',, and (Xo- VEMBER— DecEMHER : GeoRoIa). ♦ . ATLANTIC CABLE, See Ei.ErTitirAT, Dist DVEKT AM) Invention .V D l'-54-I'>6S ATLANTIC OCEAN: The name.— The Atlantic Ocean is mentioned bv that name in a single passage of Herodotus, "but it is clear from the incidental wav in which it [the name] ia here intrrii'.wd that it was -t-ne wei! k;:t*a ia hisjay. ■— E. H. Bunbury. mt of AnHtnt Otog.. eh. '.. Itet. 1, rutlt.—ToT a sketch of the history of the modem uieof the name, see Pacific Ockax. J ml ATREBATSa ATREBATES, The.— Thin name was borne by a tribe in ancient BelftirOaiil, wliicli ocrnpiiil nioilcrn Artois and part of Frcnoli Flanders, nml. also, by a tribe or group of tribes in Britniii, which dwelt In a region between the Tlmines and the Severn. The latter was probablr a colony from the former. See Beixi.*:; "also BniTAiN. Cei.tio Tribes. _ATROPATENE.- MEDIA ATROPA- TENE.— " Atropatene. as n namefor the Alpine land in the northwest of Iran (now AderlH'ijaii), came into use in the time of the Greek Empire' [Alexander's]; at any rate we cannot trace it eariier 'Athrapaitl' means 'loni of tire;' 'Athmpata,' 'one protected by Are;' in the re- mote mountains of this district the old flro. worship was preserved with peculiar zeal under the Sclcueids."— M. Duncker, Hint, of Anli'iuil//, bk. 7, eh. 4. —Atropatene "comprises the entire bain of Lake trumiyeh, together with tlie country Intervening between tliat basin and the high mountain chain which curves pouml the southwestern come' of the Caspian."- G. Knw- linEon, f\Te Orent Monitre/iiei: Mtdin, eh. 1,— Atropatene was " named in honour of the satrap Atropates, who had declared himself king after Alexander's death."— J. P. MabaCFy, Story of AUxdiuler't Umpire, eh. 13. ATSINAS. Sec Americau AaoRtaiKEs: Bl.\<kfket. ATT. 3EGS. See Atareos. ATTAC APAN KAMI LY, Th«. See Ameri- can AiionioiNEs; Attacapan Pamiit. ATTAINDER.— BILL OF ATTAIN- DER. — ' '.Xn attainder Cattinctura') is a degrada- tion or pulillr dishonouring, which draws after It corruption of blood. It is the consequence of any condemnation to death, and induces the disheri- son of the heirs of the condemned person, wliirh can only be removed by means of parliament. A bill of attainder, or of pains and pennlties, inHiets tlie consequences of a penal sentenei- on any state criminal. ... By the instrumentality of such bill the penalties of higii treason are eenenilly impose<l. Penalties may, hi.we^er, be iniposn! at pleasure, either in" aeeonlnnce with, (ir in contravention of. the common law. No other court of law can protect a person c .-. deninrd in siiih manner The first bill of the kind orciirp I under Edward IV., when the ATTICA. mend. Ktij. Coiut. flint., eh. 10 (id td.. p. 8»3» foot-niit*. • tn^SS^A.?' ^'^■^"■AN. SecCoasACKs. ATTECOTTI, The. 8ce Otadeni; iW, Britain, {?ki,tic TiiinRs. -ATTIC SALT.— Thyme was a favorite ,-..n. diment among the ancient Greeks, "whj.h throve nowhere else so well as in Attica. Kvin Mit was seasoned with thyme. Attic salt lipw ever. Is famed rather In the flguratlvo tl'ian in the liteml sense, and did not form an article ,,f trade."— G. F ^\\ttma.nn, Antiq. of Oretee ■ T„ SInte. pt. a, eh. 3. ATTIC TALENT. See Talent. ATTIC WAR, The. See Tew Yeaks' War. ATTICA.— "It forms a rocky peninsula ■enamteil fnm the mainland by trackless nidiin' Mm, anil Jutting go far out into the Ea-tc rn Sea that It lay out of the path of the trilnj moving from north to aoutli. Henee the mlgratorv pai^sagcs which agitatwl the «hcile,.f Hellas left Attica untouched, and for this n ■is.in Attic history is not divided Into such ni,irl>,i| epochs as that of I>eli>p<mnesus; It possesses a superior unity, and presents an unlnterruntid development of omditions of life native in iluir origin to the land, ... On the other Imiui Attica was perfectly adnpteil by nature f..r receiving immigranU fnim the sea. Fur Ilio wliole country, as Its name Indicates, consists, .f coMtland; and the coast alH)Uiids in ImrlKnirs and on account of the depth of water in ilj,> roatis la everywhere accessible ; while the best of its plains open towanis the const . . . Int.. ilie centre of the entire plain advances from the di. n'ction of Hymettus a group of rockv liii-lit« among tlietn an entirely separate ami ini.-hn lil(jek which, with the exception of a narrow •to- cess from the west, offers on alt sides viiiiiallv pn'cipitous walls, surmounted by a broa,i 1, vtl gnfflcienlly roomy to alToril space for the saii.tu- aries of the national gods and the hahitaticns of the national rulers. It seems as if natiiri' lud designe<l!y placet! this ro<k in this positi„n r\« tlie ruling castle and the cjntre of the nati.M-i! historv. This is tlie Acropolis of .\tli,ns . . . .So far from being 8uia<iently Iiixuriani to allow even the lillc to And easv means of sustenance, the Attic soil was stonv, devoid of - • V ■. """'■ »-■•""■■■ •'■. "■"" luc siisienanee, tne Attic soil was stonv dei commons h to confirm the statute condemning « suffl.ient supply of water, and for th Clnri'nee to death. This conven ent meilinH nf -..rf „..!„ ..i ....••'... .!._.'-,_:. . C'lnri'nee to dtntli. This convenient method o? tettiiip rid of disagreeable oppoiwnts was in high favour during the reign of Henrj- VIII. . . . What had bien an instrument of' kingly despotism, under Tudnr sway, was converted, under the StuartR. into a parliamentary engino against the crown. The points of indictment against .>strafTord were so weak that the lords were for acquittinghim. Thereupon, Sir Arthur Ilaselrig intrc»iuced a bill of attainder in the commons. The staunch friends of freedom, such aa Pym and Hampden, did not support this mea.sure A bill of attainder may refer simply to a conente ease, and contrive penalties for nets which are not specially punishable by statute, whereas an impeachment applies to some viola- tion of rerosnized legal principles, and is a solemn indictment preferrecl by the commons to the house of lords. '—E. Fischcl, The Enc. Con- ilitutiiin. ht. T, eh 9 "By the !«* S4 Vict c. 23, forfeiture and nttalnder'for treason or felony have been abolished."— T. P. Taswell-Lanf- 194 part only adapted to the cultivation of Iviricv ; everywhere . . . labour and a regulated indus- try were needed. But this labour was n.t lin- remunerative. Whatever orchard and irinl.-n fruits prospered were pcciillariy delicuc and airreeahle to the taste; tlie mountainlurlis wire nowliere more odourous than on Hvraettus : ,siid the sea abounded with fish. The mo\nitains not only by the beauty of their form i.iv.si the whole seeniTv with a certain nobilitv. but in tli. ir depflis lay an abundance of the most cTiill.nt building stone and .sliver oi« ; In the lowlands was to be found the best kind of elav f -- pur- poses of mantifacture The materials existi- i f.^r all arts and handicrafts; and flnallv .Vtti'-a rejoicc>cI in what the ancients were wisc^ invach to recognize as a special favour of Ilea von. a dry and transparent atmosphere. , . . The Immigrants who domesticated themselves in Attica were . . . chiefly fuuillles of siifurior eminence, so that Attica gained not enlv in numbers of population, but also in maU-riaii of ATTICA. eiiltiiTe of tvtry flpwriptlon."— E. Curtiui, ITut. ' ,f lirftft. »*. 2, i-K. 2. Ai>f> IX: J I. Lockliart. Attim and Alhtm — Stc !i\*n, Atiiess: Tiik BKniNxixa ATTILA'S CONQUESTS AND EM- PIRE. Sp Hin- ATTIOUANDaRONK, The. Sec AnERt CAN AwiKUilXKS; Hi ROSS. 4r. ATTYADiE, The.— The first <lyn««ty of the kian of LyiliH, claimed to tx; unninif from At.tv'i. son of thu (fo*! Manen.— M. I.luDCker, m»t '/ AntimiU)!. hk. 4. rh. 17. AU3AINE, The right of.— ".\ prer<-)ff»tive bv wliirh the Kiti?s of Franee rlajmcd the prop- erty of f'in;i?Dcrs who flip<l in their kinirilom witlKiut Ijoinir n.itTiriliz(.-<l." It wm nuppresscil by (.v.lliert. in the reii»n of Louis XIV— .J. A. B'lan.iui, UM. of P>A. Eeonomg in Europe, p. AUCH: Oriapnof thenune. See AQcrr.nsE: I The .\\rrENT TmiiEit. ■ AUCKLAND, Lord, The Indian Adminis- tration of. See IsDI.4: A. [>. 19:11^.11*4.5 AUOENARDE. S.e OifuXARDE. AUDIENCIAS.— "For more than two ren- turies ami a half the whole nf ."^oiith .Vmirir.i. e.tcipt Brazil. sfttle<l down untjir the roloni.ii irivfmm<nt of Spain, and durini; the irnatcr part of th.1t time this va.st territory wa« under the rule of the Viceroys of Peru' residing at Lima. The impfs-sibiliiy of cunduetiii^' an'effl- citnt ,\dmini.str,ition from sncli a centre , . at onci- 11-. ime apparent. Courts of justice called AudietK i.s werf. therefon-. established in the di^unt provinces, and their presidents. s<imetiinis ■ivith the title of cipl.-^ins-cenenl. had charire of ■. tt.i? QXf. .tire under tlie orders of the Vicerovs. The .Vii lienci.i of t'hareft,s (the mrxlem Bolivia) ■ WW istal)li,hed in 1.'>.J9. Chile was rule<l by ciltains-ieneral. and an Audiencia w,-is estab- li.^bi d at -Santi 120 in l-WS. In Xew Grenada the pre,! !■ at of the .Vudiencia. ereateil in l.VU. wis alv, faptaiu eeneral. The Audiencia of yuito. h'M, with its pn-sident as captain-general, datwi fnra 1V12: and Venoiuela was under a eaptain- eintril. " — C. R Markham. C-hr,i.U JIM, nf .■• Am. iXirratiee and Critieal UM oi' Aii\ r 8, p. e'.f,.. •' ' • ! AUERSTADT, Bittle ot See GEim.AST: i .V I) l-»Ml<ToBF,RI. AUGEREAU, Hanhal, Campciens of. rU>e FU'. K: .\. I). 179; I SEPTEMBER): GeR\(ANV: A 1' 1X1)6 ((kTOBERI: SPAIX: .\ U IxllO 'pF.niir.-.RT — IiNEi; and Ri.-»ia .A 1) lsl2 i.IixE — SF.rxEMBER): '.Sl.-J (AcofaTi, iOcTo- BEp, nrTonKii — December*. AUGHRIM, OR ACHRIM. Battle of (A. O. 1691. >•• I,iF.i.'..>r>: A U. Iwy-lUUi. AUGSBURG: Oripn. See Aiolsta Vis- riKn-oinM. A., p. 95S.-Great defeat of the Hunpuiana. N-HiNnRrvNs A D. 6.U-9.-).5 A. D. iS30.-Sitting; of t -,e Diet.-Sirnine and reading of the Protestant Confeiiion o' ^alth.— The Imperil Decree condemning the rrotestants. .S-.- ^Ap^cY A I) l.".;io-I.*>;Jl A D- '555— The Religious Peace con- cii'ded. .N, Germany: a I). l-'.-jJ-IWI AD. 1646.— Unsuccessful siege by Swedes and F.-ench s,... Oermiw; A V> \>w~\-'A* A. D 1686.1697.-The League and the war of the League. See C.ekmast: A. D lu-M), and Fuses : A. D, 16i>»-169o, and after. AUGURS. A. D. 1703.— Taken bj the French. See Gerj«ast: a. I). 170:i. A. D. 1S01-1803.— One of six free cities which surriTcd the Peace of Luneville. See t.ERMANV: A. I). I'Kd-l'K),'}. A. D. 1806.— Lost of municipal freedom.— Absorption in the kingdom of Bavaria. See Gerj«.\.st; A D. l'Mi.*)-l>*)fl. I t^ ° "t?* s. - PONTIFICES. - fetia. LES.— '• There was . . enouijh of pricsthfx«l anti of priests in Home. Thfwe. however, who had business with a g'»\ resfirted to the ftiA. and not to the priest. Every suppliant and inquirer ad- dressed him.self directly to the divinity . . . ; tio intervention of a priest was allowetl to con- ceal or to olrtcure this original and simple rela- tion. But it was no (^sy matter to hold con- verse with a jrorl. The irf«i had his own wav of speakin?, which was ihtellliible only to those acrjuaintcl with it; but one who liid riiihtly understand it knew not o ly how to a.scertaln but also how to manage, the will of the cod. and even in case of nee<l to overreach or to con-train him. It was natural, therefore, that the wor- shipper of the grul should re?iilarlv consult such men of skill and .isten to their advice; and thence arose the corpontions or collefres of men specially skillefl in rirligious lore, a thorow:;hlv nati mal Italian instituliDn, which had a far more important intluenee on politital develop- ment than the individual priests or priesthofids. These colleer.s have tan often, but erroneously, conf'pundtil with tlie priesthof«!s The priest- IkkkIs were charirod with the worship of a sp<>cific divinity. . . . I'nd'r the Roman constitution and that of the Ijitin communities in gi nend there were originally but t-o such collr/es: that of the augurs and that of the pontitires. The six augurs were skilled in interpreting th'; language of the giyls from the flight of birds; an art which was p..>4ecut.-.1 -vith great earnest- ness ami reduced to a qiiaM-sci.ntitic sv^t.-m. The live 'bridge builders' (pontifices) derived their name from their function, its sjicred as it was politically impurtant. of conducting tlie building ami demolition ot the bril.'e over the Tiber. They were the Roman engineers, who understood the mystery of measures unrl nuni- hers: whence there devolved upon thi also the duties of managing the calendar of t' tate of proclaiming to the pf-..p|,. the time 01 new and full mcKjn and the da^ s of fesiiv:ils, and of see- inL' that every reliL'ious and every judicial act t'lok phice cm the riirht day. . . Thus tliey ac- • juireil 'although not protwbly to the full extent till after the abolition of the monarchvi the iren- enil oversight of I{oman worship anil of what- ever -« n connecte-l wit', it. [Tlie presi.lent of their (.1 re was callerl the Pontifex .\Ia.<imus ) . . They theni.s/'lves descrilied the sumof tlieir kr.owle<lge as 'tlie science of things divine and human.' . . , By the sirle of these two ol.lest and most eminent corporations of men vers. .1 in spiriiiial lore m.iy be to some extent ranked the Col!. .»,. of the twenty stateheralds (fi.ti:de.,, 01 uncertain derivati.>ni destined as a living rei.'.si- tory to pres<>rve traditionally the n'lni.mliraiire of the tnaties concluded with neiglil^irini; e.Mi- muuiik-s, t- prtinotiiK.f an auth..ritatit.' opuo-u on allegiil infrjcti.ms of treatvright-i. an I in case of neol to demand satisfaction ami .b. hire war.'— T. Muuimsea, llM. of Uun^, tik. 1, cU 12. 195 '*=!' I' d- i 4 ]"f» i i ACGCRS. Also in: E. Guhl and W. Koner, life of tht Oreeka and Uomtint, leet. 103. — See, also, Acs- picks, iinil Fktiales. AUGUSTA TREVIRORUM. See TatviM, Orioin Ol'. AUGUSTA VEROMANDUORUM.-Mod- ern St. Quentin. !<«,> Bklo.«. AUGUSTA VINDELICORUM. - " Au- Busia Vindeliconim is the mndera Aiigsburjf fouiidwl. it may lie suppoaed. aliout tlic year 740 [B. C. 14] after tlio c<)n(|iie8t of Hhietia by Drusuii. ... Tlie Itin •Ti\r.v% represent It as the ci-ntru of tlie roads from ViToiia, Sinnium, and Tri'viri." — C. Morivale, Uitt. of tite Homant, ch. 86 notf. AUGUSTODUNUM.-Thc Emperor Au- gustus chanKed the name of Bibracte in (Jaul to Au^iist.Kluuum, which time has corrupted, since to Autuii. AUGUSTONEMETUM. See Geroovia or Tin; .\KVKIINI. AUGUSTUS.- AUGUSTA: The Title.- '•Urtavius [see Romk: ». C. 31-J4] lind warily d<<limd any of the rpcognlze<l desiifuations of BoviTiiitn rule. AnUwius had alKilished the dic- tatorship; his Buceessor respected the arclania- tious with whirl! the people had greeted this <ie- cree. The voices wliich had sniutnl Ca-sar with the title of king wire peremptorily commanded to be dumb. V.t (Ictaviuswas fully awan^ of the intluenee whirh attiiclied to distinctive titles of honour. Wliile ho wrupulouslv renou ■d the uiuiies upon whirh tlie breath of'humau Jr.il ousy had blown, be coneeived tlie subtler polii y of erialinit anothrT for himself, which Imrrowiiil,' Its uriL'inal splendour from bis own cliaractir, •liouhl ntleet upon him an untarnished lustre. . . . The epithet .\iiiruslus . . . Iitwl never been iMinii' by any man liefore. . . . But the adjunct, tboii^'h neviT given to a man, had been applied to Iliiriits most nolile. most venc-nible and most divin.v The riti'sof the gods wen' called august, till- tunplfs wen,' august : tile word itself was de' rivi-d fn; 1 thi' holy auguries by which theiliviiK! will was revealiHl; it was ciinneetiil with the favour and authority of Jove himsj'if. . . . Tlie IllMslrious title wa.-, In'.slowed upon the heir of the C'a'sarian Empire in the nii(hlle of the month of January, 727 U. C. 27), and tlieticeforth it Is by the iiHiiicof .\iigustus that he is recogni/ed In Uoiiian liistor> '— I'. Merivale, Hint.' of th4 Itni.n,,., i-li. ;)0.— ■ When Octavlanus had timdv ^■^lalllisllel| his iwiwcr anil was now li fi without • rival, the .S'liale. Iieing ilesinmsof disliiutiiish- Inif liim liv some pimliar and eiiipiialir till,., de- creed, in ft. (• 1>7. that he should Ih' .stylwl Au- giisliis. an epilhel pni|>eHy applicable lo some ubjei I (hiiiaiidiiig nspecl anil veiiinilion liev I wiial is bisiiiwisl upon human things. . . .'This lieiiur an honorary appell'ilon ... It would, as ■ matlir of course, ha»e Imn Iransmilleil by in- hchliitice to his Imiiii'diHli' drsei'iidaiits. . Clnuiliiis, altliiiugh he could not ln' n'ganlcd as a di'Mi iidant of Oelavlanus. asMuiied on his ne cisslon the liilo of AuL'ii.ius, and his eiami.le WHS (..||.,w,,| bv :,11 suen.aiMit rillrrs . . . hI„, coiiimuiilrnliil till' tiili' of Augusta to liiilri sorts" -W. Hamsav. M-imi.il „f H„nvtn Aiilut fh. .%-_S'.'. also HmiK II. (• ,H|-A. I) 14 AULA RECIA, The. .Sc Clhi.i Ukuib ok THK \oini(> KiM.s. AULDEARN, BattU uf (A. O. 1643). B«i' HcuTLAAU: A. I) 1044-1043. AUSPICES. AULERCI, The.— The Aulercl were an rjc- tensive nation In ancient Oaul which occupiid the country from the lower course of the Seine to tlie Mayennc. It was subdivided into tlin'e great tribes — the Aulerri Cenomannl. Aulerci I)iahliiitc8 and Aulerci Eburovices.— Naix)leon III., Ilitl. of Cinnr, bk. 8, eh. 3. A.^D"V4'»1P5?9"''^"- ■"•■'• ^ ''■""'-^ A^""»UK;93°'"'' "'"SPa). See France A A?^!?^V^1^'"'' *' <'587)- See Fha.>ck; A. I/. li>H4— loHil. AURANGZEB, Moghnl Emperor, or Padii- ch«h of India, A. D. 1858-1707. » *,H?.Ay'. ?'"'• »' <'3«S). See BRiTT.i.Nv: A. 1). i:i4i-l:<0.v AURELIAN, Roman Emperor. A. D 270. 27.5. AURELIAN ROAD, The.— One of the gn.,it Uoman roads of antiquity, which ran from Home to Pisa and Luna.— T. Mommsen, Hut. of ll„iue bk. 4, rh. 11. ■ AURELIO, King: of Leon and theAtturias or Otriedo, A I). 708-774. ' AURUNCANS, The. See Auso.mans; also OSCANS AUSCI, The. See AqniTAisK, tiik ancie.nt TniiiK.s. ,„^,"^9'-^'C"' The. See Austria: X. 7). AUSONIANS, OR AURUNCANS, The.- A tnlie of tlie ancient Volsiians, who lUnU jn the lower valley of the I.iris, and who ari. said •" "«ve b I exterminatiil by tlu' Komaiis It (' .HI4. — \V. Ihne, Jlul. of lime, bk. 3, ch.' M -i Si't . also, < >s<-ANs. AUSPICES, Taking the.-" The lionmns, In the eariier ages of their historv, never eiitind upon any liiijiortnnt business wliatsisvir whillier public or private, w itiiout eiuliavouriiu;' by means of divination, to ascertain llie will „f llie giKis in n fen'Hce to the uiiderlakiiig. . . . I his openilioii was termed 'suiiiirc »ii>|.iii,i ' and if tlie omens pniveil unfavoumble llu' husi- ness was aliamloned or defem'd. . . . N,, miii. Ing of the Comilia Curiata nor of the ( omiiia Cinturiala could be lield unless tlie auspi,,, lui.| Ucn previously Uken, . , . As far as piililic priKci'dings were iimcemed, no privai. in- ili.idual, even among the patricians, hail the right of taking -iispin-s. this duty de\..|nil upon the siipn. me magistrate alom., . . . |i, an niiny tliis power belonged eKilusivelv 1,. the commander iiichief; hmiI hence all aeliiivum iiH «en' said lo k' performed under his aii-|ii.t». even ahhouitli he wen' imt pnsenl. . . . TIm olviects observed ill taking these auspices inre biriN ihe class of Hnlnials from whieli ihr H,,ri| is ilcnved (• Auspleluin ab ave spieieiiilai (If these, soine wen' IhIIcvisI to give imlicii s l.y "" "■ "inlit IhiTs liv ilieir Holes .,r iri.i . . . while a thinl class consisted of elii. kins Cpiilli ) kept in cages. When it was d,s 1, d 10 oblaiii an iHiien from lliene hist, fissl wiis (.l;ii«l bi Ion. Ilieiii. and tlie niaiiiii r in wliich tlir\ i.«ii- poitiilllicmselvea wasclos.lv walcliisi, . . , Tlw maimer of takinif tla. auspices pnviims M liie CoMiilia was as follows: — Th aitislrilc »ii(. was III iin'side at the hsmiiiIiIv anise imim liihly after miilnlirhi on (|ii. ihn f..f «h!..!i It li::-.! Ine!! siimmoiHsl, and called uihhi an augiir 1.. uvisl hiiu. , , , Wilii 111* aid a rvgluu u( the sky AUii 106 AUSPICBa AUSTRALIA. 1601-1800. » space of ground, withtn wblcli the auspices were olnerTetl, were marked out bv the divining staff ('lituus') of the augur. . . . iTIiis opcrutiun was perfornie<l with the greatest care. ... In making the necessary observations, the president was guided entirely by tlic augur, who reported to him the result." — W. Ramsay, Manual of Bom. Antiq., eh. 4. Also is: W. Ihne,Zri«<. of Borne, Mr. 6, eh. 13. — See. al»i>. Ai'orK. AUSTERLITZ, Battle of. See Fkance: A. I). IHO.! (.M.tucii— Dkckmbeh). AUSTIN, Stephen F., and the settlement of Texas. Sc-e Tkxah: A. I). IHlll-lsa'i. AUSTIN CANONS, OR CANONS OF ST. AUGUSTINE.- "AlxMit tlie middle of the lltli century an attempt liad l)een nnule to redn'ss tlie balance between the ri-gular and secul: r clergy, and restore in the latter the Influ- ence anc! considenitinn In spiritual matters which they had, partly by their own fault, already to a great extent lost. Some earnest and thoughtful spirits, distressed at once by the abuse of numastic privileges and by the general decay of eeclesiasti- caionler. sought toelTi-ct a reform hv the estid)lish- nient "f a stricter ami lictter organized discipline in lliiiw cathedral and other churches wliich were serveil by coUeges of wcuhir priests. . . . Towards the I'legliwiiiig of the twelfth century tlie atlempia at canonical nform issued in the fi)rin of wliat wius virtually a new ri'liglous onkr, that of the Auguxlinians, or Canons Hegul.ir o' the orciiT of S. Augustine. Like tlie monks and unlike tlie secular canons, fmm wlunn tliey weri> can'fully liistinguished, they had not Hilly their table and dnelling but all things in ciimiiicai. and were bound by a vow to the olwer- value "f llieir rule, groiiiided upon a piwsage in ciiie iif the letters of that gri'iit fatlni of the Latin Cliunh from whom they tiK)ktlieir name. Their Mheiiie was a coinpniinise In'tween the old- fushioneil system of canons and that of tlie mon- H'^lic confnilernities; but a compromise leaning strcjML'ly lowiirds the nioiiustic aide. . . . Tlie Au»liii canons, as they were c<imiiionly called, iiiiiile their way ai'niss the chanm I in Henry's niitii "-K. Norgate, EngUml iinil.r tU AiiiKciii KtiKjt. r. 1, rt. 1. Also in: K. L. Cutta, Seenaand Chamcttnof Iht Mi.hllf .\,,,,, eh. 3. AUSTRALIA: A. D. i6oi-i8oo. — Dis- covery and early exploration.— The founding of the penal colonies at Sydney and Norfolk lilanij.— •■ .\iisiralla has iuiil no t'obiinbiis. It is (Veil ilouliiful if the ilrxt naviiriitora who riiiche.l hiT shores set out withanv hha of dis i"Vi riii^' II jrreiit south lanil. At all events, it Hciulil seeiii, their aeliieveiiients were so little eslienicil by themselves and their countrvmen tliiit no iiieiins were taki'u to pnwrve "their iiiiiu- In roiini'xioii with their dls<Hivciies. Ili>ll,iii,| Inint hml the cn^dit of bringing to light tle( MMeiiienr tliul islmiii Continent, wiilch until ri (Tilt yi'uis wu.t best known by her name. In I'^'H. honivrr, .Mr. .Major, to whom we are uiilt litid for re n'lvnt resiarch iipim the sub- J'll. priMluiiil evhh'iire which appeared to iliiuoiiMinlellial tlie I'ortiiguese hud reached the slmn.of Aiislniliii In liloi. the years lafon' the IMit.li yaihl Ibiyphiii. or hove. — llie earliest 1 M, »!„,„ iiiiMM' has been iianded down, — ►urhtid, ahout Man h, lOlKt, what U U'liuved to Uuvc Utu the coast near Cape Vurk. Jlr. Major, In a learned paper read before the Society of Antiquaries In 1872, indicated the probability that the first discovery wag made 'In or before the year 1581,' The dates of two of the six maps from which Mr. Ma^or derives his Infor- mation are 1531 and 1.543. The latter clearly indicates Australia, wliich Iscalled Jave la Grande. New Zealand is also marked."— P. P. Ijibilllcre, Birlg Hint, of the 0,tn„ii of Vietoria, eh. 1.— In 1006, De Quiros, a Spanish navigator, sailing from Peru, across the Pacitie, reached a shore which strc'tched so far that he took it to be a continent. "He called llie place 'Tierra Australis de Espiritu Santo,' that is 'Southern Land of the Holy Spirit.' It Is now known that this was not really a continent, but merely one of the New Hebrides Islands, and more than a thousand miles away from the mainland. ... In after years, tlic name he had invented was divided into two parts; the Island he had n-ailv dis- covered being called Espiritu Santo, wliife the continent lie thought he had di.scovered was callwl Terra Australis. This last name was shortened by another discoverer — Flinders — to the present term Australia." After the visit to the Australian coast of the small Dutch ship, the " Dove," it was touched, during the next twenty years, by a number of vessels of the same nationality, "In 1622 a Dutch ship, tlio 'Leeuwin,' or 'Lioness,' sailed along the south- ern eimst, and its name was given to the south- west cape of Australia, ... In 1628 General Cariienter siiikil completely round the large Oiilf to the north, whicii lias taken its name from this circumstance. Thus, by degrees, all the northern and western, together with part of the southern shores, came to lie roughly explored, and the Dutch even had some idea of colonizing this continent. . . . During the next fourU-en years we hear no more of voyages to Australia; but in 1643 Antony Van Diemen, the Governor of the Dutch posscssiims In the East Indies, sent out his frienil Aliel .laiisen Tasman, with two ships, to make discoveries In the South Seas" Tasman discovered the island which he called Van Diemen s Land, but which lias since been named In his own honor — Tasmania. "This he did not know to be an Island; he drew it on his maps as if it wen- a peiiiiisnla beloiiKlnnto the mainland of Ausiialia." In Wmil. thi' famous buccaneer, William Danipler, was j;iveii the com- mand of a vessil sint out to the soulheni seas, anil he cxplori'd alKnit INK) miles of the norlh- ttcsteru cimst of Auslnilia: but the diseiiptlon which be gave of the country did not eneoimiu'e tlieadventimmstoBeek fortune In It. " We hear of no further exploiallons in this part of the world until nearly a ceiilurv after; iiiiil, even then, no one tlioiiirlit of wnilbi!; out ships «|M'chilly for the purp.ise. Hut In the vearlT.i) a series of iinportant iliscoverh'S "i le iiidiri'iliy brought alMjut. The liuyal Sinlety of l.on.lon. calculating that the planet Venus" would cross the disc of tlH! sun in 17(111, |H>rMuadiil llie Kugllsh -foveninient lo send out an expedllion to the I'acillc Ocean for the piir|i<>si< of making oliservatlons on this event which woulil enable astronomers to cahulate the distance of the earth fiiiin the sun. A small vessel, the ' Endeavour.' \\'as elioMeii ; mitronoiiierw w{i|} their Inuir'imt'Uts cnibaiked, and the whole placed under the ihari'e of" llie n-iiownid sailor, Caiitaln .lanns ( isik. The astiuuomical |)ur|H>««4 of the vxiiedltiun 1 197 lli if AUSTRALIA, 1801-1800. wcrcBfttisfartorily aoTOtnpIisliol nl OtiUidtc nnrl I nptiiin ('(Mik then pnKccIrd to nil explomlinri of ilR" slions (if New Zciiliind iiiul Austnilin. Hiiviiig vntiTiHl a liin' biiv <in the soiitliciisturii const of Ausiniliii, 'lie exiimined tliu coiiniry for a few mil.H Inland, nnd two of his solentlllc frk'tidH — Sir Joseph Hunks and Dr. SoI.uidtT— niiidc'splcndi.l lolloctions of lioljiniciil spcclnicna From this cirnimstnnif the pliite was chIIihI Botany Hay. and its two hcad-hinda rcoelved the nanus of Cape Banks nnd Capo Solnndor. It was here that Captain ("ook . . . took iioswsslon of the ooiintry on Inhalf of His BritJinnic Majestj-, giving It the name 'New South Wales, on iiiiount of the resemlilancc of its masts to the southern slmresof Wales. Shortly after they h.iil set sail from Holany ttiy they <>liserviHl a small opening' in the land, but Cix.k del not slay to examine It. merely marking it on Iisehart as I'ort .faekson, in honour of his frienil Sir Oi'orgi! .Jackson, . . . The reports linin!.'ht lioinehy Captain Cook completely clmnge.1 the beliefs current In those days with regard to Australia. ... It so hap|H'ni-d that, sliorlly after C(Kik a return, the Knglisli nation hail to (leal with n gn-at dillleiiltv In regard to lis criminal populaliim. In 1776 the United Stales dwlared Iheir Indeix'iideiice, nnd the Knglisli then found thi'y c-oulil no hmger senil their c.mi yicts over to Virginia s they had formerly done In a short time the uaols of England were cn)wdiKl with felons. It liecinie neei'ssary to select a new place of tninsportiition ; and. Just as this dittlculiy an>si.. Capi.iin Cooks voyages called allenlion to a land in every way suiteil for such a purp..«|., Ii,iih bv n'asim of lis fertility ami of Its ureal distance. Viscount Sydney, there- fore, (lelcrmined to send out a party to' H<ilanv Hay. Ill order to fcmiid a convict witlement then' • and III May. 17H7. a licet was ready u> sail ■' After a voyaire of eight moiilhs the Hl'cl arriv.'fl at Holany lliy. in .lanuary, J7MH. The waters of the Hay were found i„"l«> Iim shallow for a proper liailsiur. and Captain I'hillip the a|i|Hiiiile.l (J.iycrnor of the settlement, set out with time Isiats, to search for soniclhing In'tter' "As he passed along iju. coast he tiiineil to cxaiiiine the opening whic h Capuiln CiKik had called Port Jai'kson. and siKm found himself In a winding chaunid of water, with great clilfs fMwniiig overhead. All at ontv a inagnllleent j)ro«p<-ci o|»neil on his eyes. A harUiiir, wlil, h Is. iM-rhaps, the most iHaiilifiil ami perfect In the world. SI niche,! b.'fore him far to the west till It was lost on the distant hori/.on. It seemed a vast maze of winding waters, dotbHl here ami then' with lovely isl.l,. . , . c,,,,,,,!,, I.|,i||j,, K'U'cled. as the i.l.Mv most luituble to Ihu sitll,' meni. a small Inlet, whic li. In honour of the Mlnlsler of Slale, he called Svdm'y Cove It was so ,1,,'p as to allow veswds to appr-wch wi .III a yard or two of the shore." Onat dlltlciilticsaiid suirerings nltendisl the founding or the iiiMial Hiiileiiicnt. atiit many dicil of ncliiil ►tarvallonaswcllasofdUe.,,,.; but In twelve years llie|.opulali„u bad risen ,o l„.twcen 6,IKN1 ami ..iHtil iHisoris. .Meaniirne a brincli coh.ny h.id "■en . stal.ll»h,.d on Norfolk Island. In 171li tJovernor I'hillii,, bn.keii in heallh. ha.| n'signcd I jnd n l..t.1hel„„| iHcn suce.sslc.1 by Ooyeriior ^ Mnnter. •When »)overn..r Hunter nrrlvisl. In , .i! .» I. '"f" "'■'' ^'•'"' "" '■-"''••' l'i«»l.i|-, tUf Ifc'lliiuce, a young surguuD, Oforifu Uuw AUSTRALIA, 1800-1840. ami a midshipman callc<l Matthew Flinders 1 hey wens young men of the most adinimlile chameter. . . . Within a numlli after ihcir arrival they purelia.se<l a small lioat nlK.ut ci-ht f<'et In length, which tli<'y clirisl4-ne<I the 'Ton, 1 humb. Its cn-w conslsKil of themselves and i iMiy to assist." In this Kinall craft they Ivgiin a survey of the c<„st, Hs..f,illy charting many miles of it. Sisin sflerwanis, fteorge Bass in uii open whale III >at, piirsiuil his explorations south >yanl8, to the n-gion now nillisl Victoria and through the straits which bear his name 'thus discovering the fact that Van Diemens I.iiid or JiSI'"!."'*' '" "" '"'"'"'• """ » IM-ninsula. ' In 1.1)8, Bass and Flind.rs, again ns.sociated and furnished with a small shsip, miIIikI round and surveytsl tlie eiitin^ coast of Van Dlemeus Ijin.l Hass now went Ui South America ami there .lis- appeared. Flimlers was commissionetl by the British Oovernment in 1H(H) to make anexi,.nsive survey of tile Aiislnilian coiists, ami <lid so IMimiinp to England with his maps, he wis taken pns<iner on the way by the French and held In aiptivity for six vi^ars, while the fruits of his labor were st.ilen. He diisl a few yiirs .ifter b,.|, ,.|,.as..,l.-.V and U. Sutherland, Iliiit. of Aimtrnlin. ch. 1-3. .\i.s<) IN: O. W. Uusilen, //,..(, of AuMmlia. eh l-'l ('• 1). / i).i8oo-i840.— Beginning of the Pros- '• "' "— '=-"1 Wiles. -Introduction of 198 peiuy of New South .. _ ^,.„„ „, ihcep-farminor.-The founding of Victoria and South Auttralia.— "For lwcnlyy,.ars an.l nmre m. one at li.niie gave a thought to N..» South Hales, or 'Hotany Bay,' as It was still einm- eously calleil, unless in vague liomir an.l cm passion f,,r thi' pisir cri-atui-es who livi'il tlien" ia cMie ami sl.arvati.m. The inily civili/.in - ,1,. iiiint In the plaiv was the pn-seiice .if a .l.'v..i, ,| ■ l.rgyman iiaiu.'.| .Iohns.m, wh.. h.ul v..luiiui.ily a.i-.inipanii'.l liie llrst liatch of onvi.ts C'.lonel Lichlau M.ic.iuarie .•nl.'rr.l on llieolll.e of governor In IWIO, an.l rule.1 the selthni.nl r,.r iwelve years. His adminislnitlon was ih.. liivt turning imint in lb. hisbiry. . . . Mae.,iiaiics:..v that llic liest ami cliea|H>st w.ay of ruliii' the c..nvl.t8 was to make tliein fnvmen as ».;„i m |...sslble. B.f..re his time, the goverii...N In,) , lo..k.sI on the omvhts as slavi-s, to Ik^' ttork.d tor Ih.. pr..tlt ..f the g..yernm,-iit and of th.' fi.r sctth'i-s. .Maciuari.- .11.1 all he coidd |.. d.v.t,. the class of emancipists, anil u> incoura -e ili,. convicts 1.1 pemevi.ri' In solwr Imlustrv la l!.e liopt. of one .lay acpiiring a n>s|H'cbil.ie|KKitiMi, II.' Isgan to.lise.inlinue the govcrnm.aii fmin ami to eiupl..y llie cmvlils In nia.l makin' s,. ,i to .'Xliml th.' c..|.iny in all din', lions. Wli.n in' caiiU' t.i Sy.lmy. the country more than a .la\ s rule from the i.iwn was .jiiite unknown Th.' growth of the s.'ith.m,.ni was si.>pi»v| ,„, ti,,' ";••;'''/» "ing.. ,.a||,..| the H M..u„i:,i„.. whl.li iH'f.in' his tiin.' n.i .me lia.l su.n.d. d ii cr..s«iiig But In \Hy.y th.r.. .am,' a .|...,i.-ii- up.,ii t h..n.h.ny: Ih.'.allle. ..ii wlii. hcv.'.viliuu- .I.IHii.l.-.l. wer.. uiiaiil.- i.i timl f,»kl M.i.'.|iiaH,' si.nii Is..! (hat ih.r,' must Im' ph'ntv of pasiiiiv ,.ii till' plains alM.ve the Blue Mountains: he s,,,! ,:, >vpl;|ring imrty, t.'lliug th.'m (hat a pis, ,„ ,.t "• dls<'.,v.'r,..l. In a f.'w iii.>ntlis. m.t ..iilv « u this task a<<-omplish..,|, ami the vast ami f.ri'e niHlun's .if ILiihiirst r!'a,!i.',l h:,t a t..;.\ : M Miil.s long wasiiiaile. e.Hiii...l|iig iheiu with S( 1 '"■y. ihe U>'hlan an.l .Ma.'.|uarle rivers « r» ACSTTULIA, 1800-1840. AUSTOALU, 1800-1840. traw'l out to tlic west of the Blue Moiintnlng. Bt-siiles tills, cfml was found at tlio month of the Hiintir river, and the wtllcment at Newoa«tlc foriiiiil. . . . When it Ijeraine known tliat the IKHul settlement w!i.s irradu.illy Ixroir.in'f a free rolnny, anil that Sydn' y and its po|Mi!ation wen: rapidly ehanging their rhameter, Enelisli and fic'itch people iw)on Ix'tlioiizht them of cmi- t'nitina to the neweountry. Macijuarie returned home in 1«22, liavini,' New South Wales four limes as populous, and twenty times as lar^e as when he went out, and many years in advance of what it miiht have Ixin under a less able and eniTL'>'tie poverror. The discovery of the line pastures U'vonil the Ulue Mountains settled the destiny of tlic eolonv. The settlers came up thither with their tlorits long iH'fore Maojuarie's rt«d was tinished; and it turned out that the downs of .\usfr,ilia wen' the liest sheep walks In the world. The shi><p thrives better there, and pn«liues finer and iiiirc abundant wool, thananv- wliire els.'. .Fohn .Maiaithur, a lieutenant in the XdvSiuiii Wales crir|H, liiul sp<'nt si.'vcral vears in studyine the elTirt of the Austmlinn clfmatc iiIK.n the shitp; and he riuhtly surmised that tlie staple of the colony woulil'lic its fine wool. In l-io:). he went to Kiu'laud and procured s.>me pure .><p;iriisli menno shop from the ticK-k of iJ.orL'e III . . riicrrivy Council listened to his wimpI proje'- , and he ri'ceived a larce grant of land. .Mauiriliur had found out the true way T<i .\u-traliau prospi-rity. When the irreat up- Imd p'lMures wen? dis<overed. the merino hn-ed WIS Will esUblisheil in the eolonv; and the sljisp ovtnirs. without waiting for L'r'ants, spread witli tie ir tl'if ksover immense tracts of country. This w IS tile tx'L'inninv' of what is calle<l squa't- tiiij. Till 8.|uatiers afterivarils paid a ijiiit rent t'l the L'ovcrnment and thus got their runs, as till y calli-d the unat clistricts where tliev rias- tun.l their ll'K-ks. to a certain extent secure*! to llii-m . . Iluiidnds uinm hunilreds of square niili-s of the urn-at .Vusiralian downs were now explorid and stocked with sheep for the Knglish w,K,l ni.irket. ... It w!is iu the time of Mac- (luarii- s sueisssor, Sir Thomas llrisliane, that the nrns|».. Is of New South Wales iH-caine peni'mlly known ill England, t'nv eniigmnts, each brinir ItiiT niori' or less caiiital withhiin, now jiounsl in . 1111 1 the demand for lalMiiir liecauic enormou-S. .\t tir^i ih- ixnal settlements were n^newefl as di-ii-its for l!if supplv of lalx.ur, and It was even pr.,|>.~-.| liiat the convicts should bes.ild bv auc- tion oi. 111, ir arrival ; but in the end the intfux of free l.iboiuvrsent" '. alterwl the question. In jlri.lianes iline, it of his sui-ceiwir. Sir Kiilpli KirliiiK. « !-• s fell and work Ix-camc virr.' Ill En.'land, and Enelish working men no«i„ii„.,|t||,.jrii,i,.,|ii,,„,„Xusi™iU. Hitherto t he |i.ri|i|,. iimi |„.,.|, ..jii,,., convicts or free si't- l.Tsof 111,, re ir hss Wealth, and Ix'tween these ri.iss,-, ihiri. »•„, ^,r,.„ liiiiernessof feeling, each iiiiliirilly .■iioiiirli. ihiiikiug that the col.iny ex! l-!ed f..r their own exclusive l»ne«t. The free ili..ur, rs u iio „,,w |,.,,,r,.,i i„ grj.,.„]y rontribute,! ill t"";- of lime to lushii, the |).,i„ilation into one III llrisliane « tim,., trial bv Jurvand a free |iirs, w.re lntr..|,ie,sl. The finest 'iiasiuns In .^M^lrllll. the Darliiiif Downs near Mon-ton IJhv ».«• .Iwoverisl uu,|«itliKl [is-.M). The rivers " " !'■ ■"■ '"■" M..1.I..I1 tiav weni expion-<i en. uf tliein was named the Hrislwne, and a few UiUn troiii lis mouth the luwu of the luoc imme was founded. Brisbane Is now the capit.al of the colony of Queensland : and other explonitions in Ins time led to the foundation of a s<;cond inde- iwndeiit colony. The Macqiiarie was traced lie- vond the marshes. In whieh It was supposed to I'ise Itself, luid named the Uarling: and the .Mur- ray river was dis<-ovend [IS'JD]. The tracing out of the Murray river bv the nrlventiimus traveller Stiirt, led to a eolonv on the site which he named South Australia. "In Dariing's time, the Swan Hivcr Colonv, now calk-d Western Australia, was cominence<l. Darling was the first to Mil the land at a small fixed price, on the system adopted in America - . . Dariing returned to Enitland in lH:il; and the six years ailministration of his sue c-ssor. Sir Hichanl Boiirke, marks a fresh turning-point in Australian hi.story. In his time the colony threw olf two great offsluKits. lort I'liillip, on which now stands the great citv of Mellmume, luui U-en discovere<l in 1W». niid iu the next year ii,.- government sent hither a convict colony. This did not prosper, and this fine site was neglected for tliirf v vears When the sudden ri.se of Xew South \Va"ies iK-gan the squatters liegan 'o settle to the west and north of I'ort Iliilllp; and .he government at once sent an exploring party, who reporttsi most favour- ably of the country aroiiml. In Ih;i«, Governor U'liirke I'oundesl a settlement In this new land, which had lieen calleil. fmin its rich promisi' .\ustralia Felix: and under his din-ctions the site of a capital was laid out. to lie callisl Mel- bjmrne, in houoiirof the Eiclisli Prime .Minister This was In 1*17. so that the N^ginning of the toloiiy corresponds neariy with that of gm-en \ ictorias niiin; a elreinnsiaiiee which afler- wanls led to its being n i I Viciori.i. Further west still, a se'cond new eolonv aros<; alxuit this time on the site discovere.i In- Sliirt In \xnt This was called South .\iislnilia, ami the first t'ovenior arrivisl there at tlie end of the vear l><ifl. The Inteniled capital was naineil .\de- laide. In honour of the Queen of William IV' IJ<illi the newci.lonles were commenced on a new system, called from its inventor the Wakeliel | system, but the fnuu.lers of South Australi.i were able to carry It out iii.ist elTectuallv N- aiisi. they were quite in.|i|i. mlent of the experl- and the prejiidiies of tin • ' em mint .Mr. \Vakefield was and a clever writer. ... II the new colonies ouzht to I ii'l the pr -Mr \V. 199 ney coNern- iiioiis man is I in was that _ -"' •■■ ■"• made 'fairlv to represent English s<Kieiv.' His pl.in was to ar- nst the strong dem<icratic tendencies of the new community, and to repr.«luee in Australia the strong distlneiinn of . lassis whieli was found In Englaml. He wanieil the Lmd sold asileara- pMsibie, so that lalniiirers mii;lil not beiome laiel owners: ami the pr«lueeof ih,- laml was to iw< appliisl In tempting hili<iiirers to emigrate with the pMs|H-ct of l.ii.r ivaife, than thev got at hoiiin. A Company was lasilv formiil loiarry out these ideii» in Smtli .\ii«irilia . . I.lkc the ». iilement of Carolin:i as frimisl by !,,« ke and .-soiners. It was n-allv a plan for ireiting the advanlaires of the colony inio ihi> hands of the non lalKiiiring classes and bv the natural laws .if imlitinil economy, it f.iih-.l evervwbere -Vdelal.ll! I>eci«me the •(..n.j ,,f 2~ ^..'.....11,^ • bubble ■ Tli.. lan.l J.ibliers ami m.inev l.n.lers ni.a.l.' f.inuii.-s but the p...pl.. who i mli:nii..| in.«tly bil.inglug to the middle and upiKt ;t| AUSTRALIA, 1800-1840. classes, found the scheme to be a delusion. Land rapidly rose in vulue. and as rapidly sank; and loU for which the omigranu had paid high pric-cs became almost worthless. The labourers emigrated elsewhere, nn<l so did those of the capitalists wlio had anything left. . . . Tlie de- pression of South Australia, however, was but tcmrxirary. It contains the best corn land In the whole island : and hence it of course 8<Kin be- came the chief source of the food supply of the nelghlmuring cnlonies, iK-sides exporting large cmaiitities of corn to Knghind. It conUiins rich minis of copi r. and produces larirc quantities or w.Hil. — E J. I'ayne, Jliit. of b'uroimn Colo- met, eh. v;. See SocTii Walks, Victoria, and BOITH Als-. IIAI.IA, Also in: O. W. Rusden, Hitt. ofAnrtralia. A.p. 1830-1855.— Propesi of the Port Phillip District.— Its Separation from New Sojth \Vales and erection into the colony of Victoria —Discovery of Gold.— Conititutional organ iz«. Ji"" °/ "If; colony-— " lu 1«J» the population of 1 ort I'liilllp amounted to nearly 6,000, and was being rapidly augmented from without The sheep in the ilistriet exceeded half a million, and of cattle and horses tlie numbers were in pro- portion eiiually large. The place was daily growing in Importame. The Home Government tlierefore <lecidiil to 8<nd an offlcjr, with the title of Superintendent, to lake charge of the district, but to act under the O.ivemor of New ikmlii Wales. Cliarles .loscpli Jm Tn)be, Ksi\ was ap- pointed to this otlice. ... He arrived at Mel- Imurne on the 30tli Siptemlier, ISHl). Soon after this all classes of tlic> new comiiiuiiltv appear to have lieioine alTecliHl Iiy a mania for s'lH'culation. . . As is nhvays the eas,' wjen speculation takes the jilire ,if sliudv industry, the neces- saries of life I aiiic fabulously dear Of money there wiis but little, in consldeRition of the amount of bu.iriess done, and large tninsac- ticms wi ciricted by mcansof paper and erwiit. St to lowist. all lived extnivagiuitly I. a stale of things could not last for- lf<4j. by which time the population ■asi'd to 24.IH)(), rhe crash came. . hr ,. iliisdepressiontheeolonyslowlvrecovered and a soiindir l)u<iness sy.stem took the place of thcspeculativcMimv . . . All this time, however the colony was a d.pendeney of .\cw .South Wales, and a strong filling had gained ground that it suffered in eonseiiuenee. ... A ( rv was raised for separaliun The demand was " as a matter of course, resisted bv New South Wales but as the agilalimi was eariied on with ineniisi.i'l aetlvity. it was at last yieldisl to bv the Ibune aulli.irili.s The vessi 1 U-aring llielnielligiiiee arrived nn tlie llih .Nnvi inUr, IS."ii). The news SjKin spread, ami gniit was the satisfaetii.n ef the eMlunl^ls. Hi |..ii iiiirs were kept ii- In Mi 1 bourne fur live < iinseeutive davs. . . Hi f.uv however the », parallon could la. :,.g„llv ai eoni' pllsheil. ii was iiiiissary that an Ai t Miiuild Ih' passed in NVwSmiiUi Wales to settle del, ils. The nijuisile luriiis »■ rr at length givin eifeei to, :inil. on tin- Im .July. IS.'.l. a day wiiirii has ever since hei. MM riipiil.Mi.lvobserveil as a pulilie hnlnlay, it «:i« pmi luinii-.rthat the I'.irt I'liiliip disliiit of .Niw SuiMli \V;i|r, had iHTU eo'cled .uto a »<'|.arile , i,l,,ov to \,v ,„1|imI Vietoria, aflir tlie iiaiiie i.f Her .Nliwf Urailous Malesty Ai the wiiii. liiiK' Ii,,' S.i|iiriiitendent, Mr' (• ,J L» Trolw. was raised to the rauk of Lieuteuaut- From lii^ , . . Sui ever t had AC8TBALIA, 1839-1858. Governor. At the commencement of the year of separation the population of Port Phillio num. b«red 76,000, the sheep O.(K)O,0O0. tl/catlle »»o,UUO . . In a little more than a mouth aftir the esUbhshmeiit of Victoria as an independent colony, it became generally known that ri.h deposits of gold existed within its borders The discovery of gold . . . |„ Srv, s'.iitl, Wales, by Hargreaves, in February, 18.'.l.caiis.d numbers to emigrate to that colony. This bein- coiisidere<l detrimental to the Interests n? Victoria, a public meeting was held in .Melbourne on the 9th of June, at which a ' gold diseoverv committee ' wasappoliite.1. wliiih was aiilliorizill to offer rewards to any that should diiwover goM In remiinenitivc quantities within the colony The colonists were already on the alert Al the time tills meeting was held, sevenil parties w, ,0 out searching for, and some had already f„m,i| gold. The precious metal was tirst dislvivenil at Cluncs, then in the Varra ranges at Anderson's Creek, smm after at lluiiinvong ami Ballanit shortly afterwnnls at Mount Alexandir an,i eventually at BeiKllgo. Tlii'deposits were found to bo richer and to extend over a wider ana ih in any which had been disei.v.rtHl in New Son;li Wales. Their fame soon K|.n'ail to the adiannt colonies, and thousands h.istened to the spot. . . . When the news n-aelinl home cruwils of emigrants from tlic United Kimrdom huiried lo our shores. Inhabitants of other Knrupoan Anii-ri. ;ins .'ounirlesquicklv joined in liierush. from the Atlantic .States were not long m loii.nv '"K- Stalwart Califoriiiaiis l.fi their own i:nl,l. yielding rocks and placers to try their furlnni's at tlie Simlhern Eldorado. Lnst" of nil, sw^unn of thliiese arrival, eager to unite In th,- g.niml scramble for wealth. . . . The iinporiani imm- liou which the Au.stralian clonics lia.l olit.iin,-,l n cons<-inienee of the diseuviiy of gol,|, and ila- Intlux of population cousi-iiucnl iheriMm w.is liie (K-casionof the Im|)erial tiovcrnment del, nnia- ing ill the latter end of Is.V,' il„,t each e.ilnnv should be invited to frame such a Consiitmioii for Its government as Its representatives mi'lit deem best suited to its own iM-eiiliir eireuni- stances. The Constitution fninied in Viiti.r and afte .-anls approved by ih,. Ilriiish I'mHii: ment, WIS avoweilly basi'd upon ili.it ,,| tlie LnitiHl Kingdom. It pnoiilid for the i-imIiMnIi mentof twol.msesof L.gislalim., wiili p,,«,r to make laws, sii ijeet to Hie absent of ih,. i r,,H.i as repre!«-nled generally by tli,. ((,,vi.rn..r of ilie colony; tlieI,e„'iHlatiye('oiiieil.orrpiK.rl|,.iiv to consist of :v>, and the l.i iiislalive A-s.nil.iv' or Lower House, to conM-i uf «i) iii,inl.,i> .Memtx'rsof iKith Houses to Is- .liciivr an I t,) tiiHsess property qualitli ali.iiH. El.i l..!-...! I. .i!i Houses to possess either i>rop.irly or pr..lisvi..n,il qualilleati.iiis (the properly ,|iialilliaii..n..t ni. ni- iM.rsand el|.iiors of the l,.ov.r II.him. ha, ,,■.,>•• Nrn al.,.lisli«l|. . . . The Ippir ll.niv n..i |.. la' ill«s..|ved. but five iiietiii..rs to niir.' ,v.rv two years, and to in- eligible l.ir re eleeii..n TliV I.«iwer House to bi? dissulvi.l every tiv.' v. trs [since nsluced to three|, ..r urieiier' at 111.: .Ii, creilon of the (Jovernor. c. rtaiii oili,, rs .1" ih.' (Joverninent. four at least of wl 1 s:„,.i: i have seals In I'ariiament, I.. Im' dii'innl Ii. sponsllde Ministers • . . This (•iiiisliiiiii,.n « is prorlaimi-.l la V!.-iaria <■» it,,- i.ui N,,, •::■.:■; r. m\ —II. H. llaylcr, Auf<a an M« tWcit ./ Vtcturta, cA. I. 200 AUSTRALIA, 1830-1855. AdtraHm. APSTRAUA, 1890. Atso in: F. P. LBWlllcre, Rirty JBtt. ef tht Colony of Vietoria, t. 2.— W. Wcstgarth, I\rtt l\e€nlu Yean of the Colony of Victoria. A. D. 1859.— Separation of the Moreton Bar District from New South Wales.— lu erection into the colony of Queentland.— " Until Uvcem- ber, 1M9, the nortU-west purtion of the Fifth Continent waa known n.s the \f iireton Buy ilislrirt, anil belonged to the rolony of New South Wales- but at that date it had grown so large that it was erected into a sepnmte and independent colony, under the name of Queensland. It lies iK-twecn lat. \<P 43' S. and 2i»^S.. and long. 138' ami l.W E. , bounded on the north by Torres Straits ; on the nortlieast by the Coral Sea; on the east bv the South Pacific: on the south by N'ew South vVales and South Australia; on the west by South Australia and tlic Northern Territory; and on the northwest by the Gulf of Carpentaria. It covers an area . . . twenty times as large as Ireland, twenty-three limes as larire as Scotland, and eleven times the extent of Kiigland. NuniircMis ginid liartKiurs an- f md. many of which form theoutletsof navigalili rivers. "The principal of tliesc lis] Moreton Bay, at the head of which stuniis Hrlsbane. the capital of the colony. , . . Tiie mineral wealth of Queensland i3 very great, and eviTy year sees it more fullv develoiml. , . . Until the year 18«7. when tlie Gympie liild was di.scoverol, gold mining as an inl isirv wa.s iiardlv known."— C. H. Eden The /r". Cnnliuent. <•/(.' 10. A D. 1885-1892.— Proposed Federation of the Colonies. — "It has lieen a commrn saving ill Au^iraliii that our fellow countrvmen in that part nf the world did not recoirnise the term • Au-itraluii;' e.-.i h ri-(-i>gnis<'d onlv his own colony and the empire But the advocates of combin^ition for ciTtain common purjioses achievi-d a sreat step forward in the formation of a • Fediwl Council' in iss.v It waa to lie only a ■ Coum il.' its decisiims having no force over anv col.itiy unless a(-ro|)t(d afterwards by the colonial I,i-L'i>!itiin'. Vi<tori:i, Queinsland. Tasmania and W.-vt Austnilia joined. New South Wales Siiith Australia, and New Zealand standing out. and. S-. ( onsiiiuted. it met twice. Tlie results of the ilelilxratjont Wert' not unsatisfactory, and the oiinim that the move was in the right dlrvction r ;.ily grew. In Febru.-irv of \<m) a Federation ' .f.Tince. not private but representative of the • Uli-rcnt Gi.vernmi-nts. wa«calleil at .Mell)o.irne It ii Lifted 111, address to the Queen declaring the ";>iiii '11 i.f the confenucf to be that tlie best irit.r.-«isi,f the Australian colonies require the CHily r.rmalinn of a union under the Crown into 0111- (...vcrnm, nt. Inith legislative and executive tvints pnHvcd ipiickly in Colonial History. In 111- course of isy.) ||„. hesitation of New "South Hui.s was Ilnally overcome; ixiwerful factors i lielii,: the weakening of the Free Traile position i a! the eUelion of IsiH). the report of (^.neml I tdwiirds on the Defences, ami the dllHculties ' «"oiit ( liim-se iiiimiiiralion. A Convention i ai-i.,riliiii:l> ;,ssi.mliled al Svdncvin .March. IWl I wlmli a.-reed upon a (•on;titiition to bo recom- \ iii-ri.|.-.| to the s.-veral Colonies.-— A. Caldeisitt. ' A.v, ,«,(■,,/„,, ;„f,„„ ,,,„/ l-:ii,i,ir, f/, ■; ,„i .1 _ . "11 M"ji.:.-iy. March ;.'ml, ls«i. tlic National I .Vi-'riliislan Convention met at the |»srliain""> i H".- .Sidney. .Sew Saith VValwi. ami »as ! aucMl.il hy Kven n'pre«ntallvi-« from each 1 tviuuy. except New Zealand, which only sent three. Sir Henry Pa.kcs (New South Wales) WHS electc<l Prcsiden of tiie Convention, and Sir Samuel Griffith (Quee.islaml), Vice President A st.nes of resolutions, moved bv Sir Henry Parkes occupied the attention of the Conventitm for several days. These restdutions set forth the principles upon which tlie Fedem! Government should be esublishejl. which were to the effect tliHt tlic powers sod privilegesof existing Colonies should be kept Intact, except in cavs where siirrender would lie necessary in order to form a Fc(leral Government; that intercolonial trade and intercourK- slioul<I lie free ; that power to impo.se Customs duties should rest with the Feil- eral Government ami Pariiameu.; and that the naval and military defence- of Australia sliould be eutrustc<: to the Feileral Forces under one command. The resolutions then went on to approve of a Federal Constitution which should cstiililish a Federal P;irliam<nt to consist of a Senate and a House of Kepriwutatives; tliat a Judiciary, to consist of a Federal Supreme Court, to be a High Court of Appeal for Australia, should be estsblisheil ; and that a Federal E.xe- ciitive. amsisting of u Governor General, with rt-sponsible advisers, should be constituted. These resolutions were disi-ussed nt great length and eventually were adopted. The resolutions wen- then referred to three •'oinniltlies chosen from the delegaU'S, one to considir Constitutional Mailiinery and the distrihulion of powers and fiinctions; one to deal with nmitcis relating to Finance, Taxation, and Trade licLMilatioiis; and the other to consider the i|iieslion of the estab- lishment of a Federal Jiidii iarv. A dmft Hill, to constitute the 'Commonwealth of .\ti-inilia ' was tmiiight up by the first meiitioneil ni these Com- mitti-es, and after full coiisideriition was adopted j'y,""' t'onvention, and it was airreeil that tlie Bill should Ik presented to each of the Austra- lian Parliament.s for approval and adoption Oa Thursday, April Otii, the Coiivi iiii,,i; closeil its I>ro(( edings. The Bill to provide f. .• the Keiler- ation of the Australasian mlonies entitled • A Bill to constitute a Comnionwealth of Australia' which wasdnifttsl by the National .Vustr:ila.sia'n Convention, has Urn iuti-odiict-d into the Parlia- ments of most of till- (oloiiies ot ihc L^riiiip and Is still (OiIoIbt. lHi|-,'i, under I onsi, brill ion.' In \ictoiia it his piis.si-d the I.o>vi r llou-.. with some amemlin.uts. — .**.i(,»«, '« Yi.irlf>„k \'*'M. />. ;ios. A. D. 1890.- New South Wales and Vic- toria.— "New til Wiiies heirs toVicloriaa Ttain statistic.-, scmbliiiice. The twocol,iiiies 'he same population, and, -It tlic suine revenues, ex- "le. Iniiich. a irr-.'at capital irhooil more than a third I I ■ ■ But consiilera'jle I an,l an- lik.-ly to develop in have [l!(901 roughly spei, Iiiiidifire, d( Collects in oue the total popiil dilTei-encvs lie Im I the liiiure. New .Siulli Wide-, in'the opinion of her enemies. Is less eiiterpri-iiig iliaii Vietoria and tins less of the go liiead spirit whi. h disHn giiishi-s the .Melliouriie |m.o|.|,.. On the other h.iiid she poKsi-SM's a lurirer t.rriiorv. abundant supplies of coal, and will liave pr.ihihh. in «on N-i|iicnce. a greater liiiiiie. Althotigh New Soiiiii Wales is time aiei a half tiim s as l.irge as V'1.'1..i-Im I I .,.. -r f 1' f ,. ^ . and Italv conihiiiiil. she is of i-oiiis<. much smaller than th, three other but as vit le». Im- portant coIonicD of the Auslraliin loiitinent [see 201 I 1 1 *.'■■■ AUSTRALIA, 1890. QVSBNSLAND, South Acstbama and WE«TEni» Australia]. As the country was in a large degree settled by assisted emigrants, of whom simicthing like half altogether have been Irish, while the English section was largely composed of Chartists, ... the legislation of "New South Wales has naturally shown signs of its origin. Map'KKxl sulTrago was carried tn laW; the abo- lition of j)rimogcniture In 1888; safe and easy transfer of land through the macliinery of the Torrens Act in the same year; and nlso the abolition of statu aid to religion. A public sys- tem of education was introduced, with oilier measures of democralic legislation. . . . Public education, which in Victoria is free, is still paid for by fees in New South Wales, though cliildnn going to or returning from school arc allowed to tnn I'l free by railway. In gencnd it may be said that ^ew South Wales legisTatinu in recent times has not iKTii so bold as the legislation of Victoria. . . . Tlie land of New South Wales has to a large e.vtent come Into the liaiids of wealthy per- sons who are becoming a territorial aristocracy. This has lieen the effect flrstlj of granU and of Bipialting legislation, then of the perversion of the Act of 1861 (for -Fri^ Selection before Sur%-ey '] to the use of those against whom it had been aimed, and timilly of natural causes — soil, climate anil the lack of water. . . , The traces of the convict element in New South Wales have liecome very sliglit in the national cliaracler. The prevailing cheerfulness, running into fickle- ness and frivolity, with a great deal more vivacity than exists in England, does not sug- gest in the least tlie inlermi.xlure of convict IiIimhI. It is a natural creation of the climate, and of the full and varied lift led by colonists in a youiii cmih-i-y. ... A population of an excellent ty|>e has swallowed up not only the convict elemfiil. but also the unstable and thriftless eleiiient shipped by friends in Brit- ain to ISyilney or to .MellKmme. The ne'er- do-wi^els were either sonii'what almve the aver- age in brains, as was often the case with tlnw who reiovereil themselves and started lU- afresh, or i«'ople who drank themselves i,i death anil ilis<ip|M'ar(il and left no descendants. The coiivicl.s were also of various classi's; some of tliini wire men in whom crime was the outcome of restli'ss energy, a.s, for instance, in many of those tiansportnl for treason and for manslaiighter; while some were people of avemge mnrility ruined through companions, wives, or suihlin tem|)talion. and some persons of an ess<.ntiall. depmved and criminal life. 1 lie liiitiT elassii of convicts, in a new country, away from tin ir ohi conipanions and old tempta- tions, tiirneil over a new leaf, and tluii abilities and llieir strong vitality, which in some cases hml wroiiL'ht their ruin in the ohl world, found healthful sio|k' in sulKliiing to man a new one. Criiiie in tlair easi's was an aecideut. and would not Ik' transmitted to the children they left be- hind them. On the other liaml. the genuine criminals, and also the drunken De'cr-do-wifls. left no clill.ireii. Drink and vice among the 'assigned servants' el.iss of convicts, and an absence of all facilities for marriaire, worke<l them off the faceof the earth, and those who nad not l)-en killed Is'fore I he gold discovery generally dran.< tliems4'lves to death nnon the dlairiiiL'u " Sir C W Iliike, truOienu' of UnaUr' Jiritaiii, fi. 8, ch. 8. AUSTIUSIA. ^ AUSTRASIA AND NEUSTRIA. OR NEUSTRASIA.— ■- It is conjectured by Lude , with great probability, that the Rlpuarians .c originally adled the • Eastern ' people to d in- guish them from the Salian Franks who lived to the West. But when the old home of the con cpierors on the right bank of the Rhine was united with their new settlements in Gaul, the latUT, as it would seem, were calle<l Neiistriaor Neiistrasia (New Limds); while the term Aus- trasia came to denote the original seats of the Franks, on what we now call the German bank of the Rhine. The most im|>ortant differenie between them (a differe-nce so gnat as to leiul to tlieir |)crmanent separation into kingdoms of France and Germany by the li v .)f Verdun) was this: that in Neustna the Fraiiliish element was quickly absorlied by the mass of Oallu Romanism by which it was surrounded ; while in Aiistrasia, which Included the ancient seals of the Prankish compierors, the German clement was wholly preilominant. The Import of the word Aiistmsla (Austria, Austrifnuicia) is very fluctuating. In its widest sense it was used to denote all the countries ineor|M>rated into tlie Frankish Empire, or even held in sul jection to it, in which the German language and population prcvailcil; in this actvptati.m It include.1 there- fore the territory of the Alemanni, Bavarians Thuringians, ami even that of the Saxons uiiii Fnses. In its more common and pro|)er seiisi,' it meant that part of the territory of tlie Franks tliemselv,^« which was not indudeil in Neiistria It was siilMlivided into L'p|)er Austrasia on tlie Moselle, and Lower Austrasia on the Rhine ami Meuse. Neustria (or. in the fulness of the monkish Latinity. Neustrasia) was boiiinlid i>ii the north by the ocean, on the south by the Lnin-, and >^ _i the southwest [simtheast?] tiiwaiiN liiii' gundy by a line which, lieiriniiing IkIow (Jiin ..ii the Loire, ran through the rivei-s Loing and Voniir, not far from their sources, and passing noiili of Auxerre and south of Troyes, joined the river Aube above Arcis.' — W. f I'errv 77„ Franhi. eh. 8. — "The northeastern part ,.f Gaul, along the Rhine, together with a .slice i.f ancient Germany, was already distinguished as we have 8<"en, by the name of the Eastern Kiiit' dom, or Ostcr-rike, Ijitiiiized into Austrasia It embraced the region fli-st oc-cupied by the Hi puarinn Pranks, and where- they stiiriived the most compnctiv and In the greatest numlKr This was, in the cslinmliou of the Franks, the kingdom by cminenee, while tlie rest of ilir north of Gaul was simply not it - ■ ne nsti r rike, or Neustria. A line drawn from ilie mouth of the Scheldt to Cambrai. and iliemr acnws llie Marne at Chateau-Thieriv to \W Aulic of Bar sur-Aulie, would have sipanilcl the one from the other, Neustria eomprisiii' iiil the northwest of Gaul, lH'twe<>n the Loire mid tlie ocean, with tlic exception of llijit,iiiv This had been the first j.ossi'ssion of the .s.ili m Jranks in Gaul. ... To such an exlint had they been absorlied anil infiuenciKl bv tin. |t«niiii elements of the |«ipulath>n, that Ihe'Auslrasiaiis scarcely consideriKl them Franks, wli'le tin v in their turn, regarded the Austrasians as" tlio merest untutoretlbarlinrlans."— I'. (l.Hlwin, //i.r 0/ fV«n«.- Aneieiit Ihiiil, bit. 3. eh. 13, iri7A «.f.. Alsoih: K ,A Pr.w™an. //r.-f, (,V-v. ''fH-tr:;:r. eh. 8, teet. «— ."ice, nlso. FuA.NKs (.M't:iiuviKut.v.N Lmpire): a. I). 5I1-7S8. 202 if i ^.' '«!* ~ i^Sn ^j: t'rWlf 1*. *3, It- 1 'WMSi 1 Houa kauiiiF m Ir" I u\ -i\ AUSTIUA. ACSTRU. J^ ^fS^-r'"^" ?»™ "' Au«tria, Oe.ter. relcli — Ostrich as our forefathers wrote It— Is naturally enough, a common name for the east- SIl'!?f''li,°'«''y kingdom The Franlclsh king- dom of the Merwlngs had Its Austria; the Italiw kingdom of the Lombards ha<l iu Austria also. We are half inclined to wonder that the name was never given in our own island cither to Essex or to EastAnglia. But, while the other Austrias have passed awav, the Oestcrreich. the Austria the Eastern mark, of the German kingdom Jts defence against the Mapvar invader, has lived on to our own times. " not onlr lived on. but it has become o, ,e chief European ^JTu Ami it Ims K-cme so by a proceSto S . ''woi'l'l be hanl to find a parallel "— E. A. Freeman, Tht Uutorieal Otooravhu of burope, V. \, eh. 8, p. 305. '~n f » "j The birthplace.-' 'On the disputed frontier. In flie zone of perpetual conflict, were formed ami dev. ,ope<l the two states which. In turn were to dominate over Germany, namely. Aus- tria and Prussia. Both were born In the midst of the enemy The cradle of Austria was the Eastern arch, established by Charlemagcc on the Da .m bevond Bavaria, at the veiy gate from the Orient . . . The cnulle of ftussia was the march of lirnndenburg, bctwecs the Elbe and the Oder In the region o." the exterminated Muvs. — i,. Lavissc, Oeiieml VieiDoftlte PolUi- calllutory of Europe, eh. 3, wet. 13 The Smgfularity of Austrian hiitory.— A power which is not a national power.— 'it Is liy no means an ™sy task to till the story of the vanous lands which have at different times ronie under the dominion of Austrian princes he story of each land by itself, and the story of tliem all in relation to the common power A cmtinuous narrative Is Impossible. Sfuch mischief has been done by one small fashion of mcxlcrn speech. It has withiu my memory be- fome usual to personily nations and powers on llie snmllest occasions in a way which was for- merly .lone only in language ;norc or less solemn, rhetonral or poetical. We now talk every mo- ment of England, France, Germany, I{u.ssia Italy f^K.p 7 VS '^'^"'- A"'' •" '""8 «9 ills onl) England. France. Germany, Kussia, or Italy Is done; the thing is a mere question of stvle t r those are all national powers But wl.™ we go on to talk in this way of 'Austria,' >il lurkey, direct harm is done; thought is (•infused, and facts are misrepresented I mvn seen the wonis 'Austrian uatlonal honour ' i l.ayo romc across people who believed that AUSTRIA. Austiia was one land Inhabited by 'Austrians,' and that Aastnaus' spoke the 'Austrian' lan- guage. All such phrases are misapplied. It Is o lK3 presumed d.at In all of thim 'Austria' means something nore than the true Austria 10 arcliduchy: wl at Is commonly meant bv thm is the whole d( minions of the sovereign of ;;"!';'' F'i'"^K '"'"'? """ »•>« Inl'abltanu of I imse dominions have a common being a com- mnn interest like that of the people ofEngland Jrinee. or Italy There if DO AtStrian longuage, no Austrian nation; therefore there can be no such thing as 'Austrian national hon f jr. Nor can there be an ' Austrian policy ' in 203 FSllf.h ^"§^- '^' "' » P""<=y '" ""Ich the wnf , .K '/"«'^^ government carries out the wllfof the EnglUh or French nation. . . . Such r„,wr ". A"«'^»'> intereste.' 'Austrian policy.' ami the like, do not mean the Interests or tLe policy of any land or nation at all. Tliey simply mean the Interests and policy of a particular ruf^ ng family, which may often be the same as the Interesta and wishes of particular parta of their dominions, but which can never represent any common interest or common wish on the part ?K f'? '^'"''"'- • • • We must ever remeiXr that he dominions of the House of a" "r^^ hm.'?i![.,*.~".?^"°°K »' ■''ngd'""'. duchies, etc.. brought together by various acci.Iental causey but which liave nothing really in common, no wTiIT? T*^'"' "^ common feeling, no common merest. In one case only, that of the Magyars In Hungary, docs the House of Austria nile over a whole nation ; the other kingdoms, duchies, etc., ?n!..?°^ parts of nations, having no tie to one f^^2J ;.,"?' ''"''"? ""« '^''«e't ties to other fifilKl'*'r.'*'J*™'^ nations which He close to ThT' 1 '.!!:''i^'' ■"* ""^<''' °"'" governments. The only bond among them all is tliat a series of ■larriagcs, wars, treaties, and so forth, have gl^eI. them a comm. n sovereign. The same person Is king of Hungary, ArehSuke of Austria Countof Tyrol Lord of Trieste, aud a hundnx^ other things That is all The growth a^ the abiding dominion of the House of Austria is one of he most remarkable phenomena in Euro- rw".^''.'".'"'^; /"*■'=" °f ""e same kind have arisen twice before; but in both cases tlicy were ofTfi;^^"''" ' '■''.";""' P°«-" "' tl'e^Hous^ or Austna has lastctl for several centuries The power of the House of Anjou in the twelfth cen- ll!7«rl IT*'"' "f "■* """'* "f Burgundy la the fifteenth century, wen; powers of exactly the same kiud. They too were collections of scraps with no natural connexion, brought together by lluj accidents of warfare, marriage, or diplomacy Now why H It that both these iK)were broke In pieces almost at once, after the reigns of two princes hi each case while the power of the Hoiiss of Austria has lasted so long? Two causes suggest themselves. One is the long connexion Ix'tween in?i l'^"'*^''''*i"J!,'''* «"'' "«' «"■""'■ Empire and kingdom of Germany. So many Austrian pnnccs were electcl Emtwrors as to make the Austrian House seem something great and im- periil in itself. I believe that this caus^ i,Ts lone a good deal townnls the result; but I be- lieve that another cause has ilone yet more. This is that though the Austrian [lowcr is not a national power, there is, as has been alrca<lv no- ticed, a nation within it. While it contains only scraps of other nations, it cimtalns the whole of the Magyar nation. It thus gets s.imething of tiie strength of a national power. . . The kingdom of Hungary Is an ancient kinmlom. with innwn boundaries which have changal sin- gularly httle for several centuries; and ita con- nexion with the archduchy of Austria ami the kingdom of Bohemia is now of long standing Anything beyond this is mo<lcm and shifting. Ihe so-called empire of Austria' dates onfy from the year 1804 This Is one of the simplest matters In the worid. but one which is constantly forgotten. ... A smaller point on which con- M . !■ W I AUSTRIA. fiiiJon aln preT»lI« ta this. All the memben of the House of Aiistrin are commonly spoken of OS nrehdukes and arrhduchessea. I tee] sure Hint many people. If asked the meaning of the wonl archduke, would say that It was the title of the children of the 'Emperor of Austria,' as grand- duke Is used iu Russia, and prince In most countries. In truth, archduke Is the title of the sovereign of Austria. He has not given it up; for he cills himsilf Archduke of Austria still, though he calls himself 'Emperor of Austria' as well. But by Geniinn custom, the children of a duke or count arc all called dukes and counts for ever and ever. In this way the Prince of Wales lscalle<l 'Duke of Saxony,' and In the same way all the children of an Archduke of Austria arc archdukes and archduchesses. For- ninlly and historically Ithen, the taking of an hereditary Imperial title by the Archduke of Austria Id 1804, nrv\ the keeping of It after the AUSTRIA, A. D. 80S-13M. gmwth, age* in which the Idea of right, as em- b4i<lled Id law, was the leading Idea of states- mcD, and the idea of righu Justlllcd or justiflnble by the letter of law, was a profound influence with politlcbui*. . . . The house of Austria . lays thus the foundation of that empire which is to be one of the great forces of the next age : not by fraud, not by violence, but here by a politic marriage, here by a well advocated Inheritance here by a claim on an Imperial fief forfeited or escheated: honestly where the letter of tlic law Is In her favour, by chicanery it may Iw here and there, but that a chicaiic.y that wtars a spe- clous mrb of right. The Imperial idea was but a small influence compared with the super- structure of right, inheritance, and suzerainty that legal instincU and a general acquiescence In legal forms had raised U|)<)u It."— W. Stubbs Snentten Uetun* on the Study of Jtedieml and Modem Uutorf.pp. 209-215. prince who t of Qerinu' sheer aud . posture wbi ends."— E. A. i of Aimtrnl/iin'j,!.^ history of rights am. •""d ceased In 180« to be King " Emperor-elect, was a ure. But it is an Im- 'ily well served its • to Lcger't IlUtury 1 History is a modern History as coutnisted with medieval divides itself into two portions; tlic first a history of powers, forces and dynasties; tlie second, a history In which Ideas take the place of both rights and forces. . . . Austria may lie regarded as representing the more ancient form of right. . . . 'Tlie middle ages proper, the centuries from the vear tOOO to the year 15U0, from the Emperor tlenry II. to the Emperor Maximilian, weie ages of legal 201 .* ?*«•»•— "The ethnical elements of the population are as follows (1S90 for Austria ar'l 1880 for Hungary) on the basis of lanitiiai'c — Austria (1890); German 8.461,580; lioLeinian. Moravian and Slovak 5,472,871; Poli.sh :| TIM - 232; Ruthenlan 3,iai221: Slovene l.lTtifiTJ- Servian and Croatian 644, 9-26; Italian and Latin 875.30o; Roumanian 209,110; Magyar S lliu. Hungary (1880): German 1,972,115; Bohemian, Moravian and Slovak 1,892,806; Rutlieiiiai) 8«0,0,51; Slovene 88,401; Servian and Cnwitiiin 2,359, i08; Roumanian 2,423.387; .Magyar M78,7il; Gipsies 82.2.T0; Olliers 83,94li."— Stiitftman's Tmr Bxik. 1S93 ,• at buJ. .v ii,llU. A. D. 80S-1346.— The Rite of the Margrav- i«te, and the crMtioa of the Duchy, under the :! i em- te«. tl>Ie nee bis nut itic ICC, or law ere pe. }iit wr- 'y. ' in bs. Hid r i !l ■3-3 II -- ■■A h: ■1 5-9 .^ : a j n l»i ' ^H fi" ^ ■ ; - ■ 1 1 QQ a> -5 ? it £•7 ~- ,H 5 t « S -= ^ - .2 - g - ? -: ! . ■H - - 8 - § s — — C j — J ' ' ,H « £ ^ =t :ll! ? I.' T t: ^ 2- ?:S 5l£ — •- *- J .i K — " L. 5 -^ .. ^- a J -r 3 — . ? i i ^ 3 ^ J i - « I f - ^. '^ ~ ■; s 5 .1 ! H 3 = •I .i • . — ='?=.. a ; 5 I 2 . i . c . >- 4 c = ■;■ - : r « £ •^ - " » . s I, § s £ 2 £ w 2d S 3 H i :3 » 5 j. I" 3 =1 ." ^" ••r * M = V ^ J -S •s a s 'S 3 s ■C - i =- _ H 111 £ § 3 3 -i I 7 4 j . 5 J J. i 7-: = ^l <g^^ ■^ t .= ! - •? 1 H 1 'I i ; ^, ^ * " i 1' C- u i ^ £ 5 — .-= , ■n z -. .' t^^'lj'^1 ~s .: 1 _ I r ^.': 1 7 V ' Si ■ - u i = S ; : B 1 ^ 3 31 ii £ ■- J ^ -2 _2 ; - - - I 3 * -r 4 'Hi'^ff . -- *■ > - .1 '" S - V- ~ ^. -J ; ^ rr ■ " 7 ' : -^ i "r ^ Z " i - if — V ■ £. i '■ • 5 i =■ ? ' *; - 7 - 2 ." ." I ; ^-^l^E-^ 5 s„ " "* '•- i^ .1 ■" - 3 : B ^ : -n^&ii •5 i i ^ t e: -1 I 5 = :_ i 1 S i r a .- ^ - _= ^ i s ' -; .t 1 J ,^ ._ c 3 ? -' ' 3 ? ^ ^ ..J ^•T t ^ 5 3 5 _5 2 5 - ■' » i ^ 3 i *i ;i t; ; rs _- " ^- c r. « / ^ ^ •^ I ~ T T £ T f ^ I S / is ^ ■t. 1 -J c - <; ^ ^ r .- ^ ^. ■■7 ^ C i — — ... £! — t. *~ -« 4. - £ ,s 9 J /■ iF-» S ;; It rr *-l " ^ ■s — -1 - - ■2 i ^ f - •^ - •■J *•. a 5 ■= 5 5 -< c — ^ * — /». j; t 3 " a i « i; s ^i^ ■a^^ Bj ' 1 i i -■ ^ ■ AUSTRIA, A. D. 805-1246. Babenberg AU8TRU, A. D. 805-1848. Babcnbergft.— Changing relations to BaTkrU. — End of the Babenberg Dynasty.— " Austria, as is well known, is hut tlie Latin form of the (icrman Oesterreich, the kingdom of tlie cast [see iilH)ve; AustkasiaI. This celebrated liistoHnal name appears for the first time in 990. in a doca- mont signed by tlieemnenir Uto III. (' in regione viilgari nomine Osterrichi ' The land to which it is tlicrc applied was crealcil h march after the destruction of tlie Avar empire [SOU], and was foverned like all the other German marches, ditically it was divided Into two margnivlates; that of Friull, including Friull properly so culled, Lower Pannon'a to the south of the Drave, Car- intliia. Istria, anil the interior of Dulmatia — the Beacoast having been cedetl to the Eastern em- peror ; — the eastern margraviate coniprisinir Lower Pannonia to the north of the Drave', I'pper Pannonia, ami the Ostmark properly so eallcil. The (tetmark included tlie Traungau to tlie east of the Enns. which was com)iletely Oer- limn, and the Oruiizvittigau. . . . The early his- tory of these countries lacks the unity of interest which the fate of a dynasty or a nation gives to those of the Slagyar and the Chckh. They form hutaportionof the German kingdom, and have no stroiiply marked life of their own. Tlie march, with Its varying frontier, had not even a geograph- ical unity. In 876. It was enlarged by the ad- illticm of "iJavaria ; in 80<), it lost Pannonia, which was given to Ilriieislav. the t'roat prince, in re- turn for his help against the Magyars, and In 9;!T. it was dcstniyed and absorlietl by the Mag- yars, who exlei»h(l their frontier to the river Enns. Aftertlie liaiileof liCilifeld or Augsburg (!)V>1, Ocrmaiiy and Italy iM'Ing no longer cX|H)8cd to Hungarian Invasions, the niHreh was re con- stituted and granted to the margrave Burkhanl. the liritlier in lawof Henry of Havarla. Leo|Hihl ct lialK'nlwrg Bucceedcfl hfin (OTilj. and witli him liij-'iMS tlie ilvnasty of Iljilienlierg, which ruled the iiiiintrv (furing the time of the Premyslides [in Doheiiila] and the house of Arpad [in Hun- gary ), The HalienlK-rgs derived their name from tlie easlle of Balienlier^', built by Heii,-y, mar- gmve of Nonlgau. in lionor of ' I e, Babn. sister of Henry I lie Fowler. It In the iiiiiue of the town of Itainlierg • . forms putt of tlic kingdom of llavari 'ougli not of right an hereditary olflee, tl j.„'.iivlulo BiKin iHTiime so, and retnained In ilic family of tin. Dalieiiliergs; the march wai so importjinl a |';irt of tlie empire tliai hi dimht the em|KTor was j'lad to make the defence of this exposed distrlit the eiju'eial inlen'st of one family. . . , The marriages of the UalicniK'rgs were fortunate ; in nasilie lirollierof Leonohr (Fourth of that iiauii' ill ilie Margravlnle] Conrad of Holieu- staufen. Duke of Iraneonla, was made cmiicnir. It Was now that the struggle U'gan Iwtwwii the liiMw (it llolieiist4iiiren and the great house of \Vilf (or (liielf: Hee Ol'Kl.n AND OnniKLlNRs] «li.i«c n presentalive wiu Henry ihc I'roiul, Uuko of .>*axoiiy and Havarla. Henry wim I'.efeated lu llie iiiii'i|iial strife, and was plaeetl under the l«n I'f ilii- Kiiipin'. while the ilucliy of Haxony wii» uwanlid 'o Alln'rt tlic Hear of Hraudenburg, and till' (hu liy of Itavnria fell to the share of Uh>|h>M IV (IliiN) Henry the Proud died In the follow- I'H'uar, leaving iK'hind him a son under age, « 111! was known later on u ileory Uio Lion, flla iinv ic tt (It woulil not iiilimit to tliB forfeiture by hu liuuMi uf tiiulr old duiuluknis, owl tuafdted against Lenpold to reconquer Bavaria, but be was defeated by Conrad at the battle of Welnsberg (1140). Leopold died shortly after this victory, and was succeeded both in the duchy of Bavaria and in the margraviate of Austria by his brother, Henry II." Henry II. endeavored to strengthen himself in Bavaria by marrying the widow of Henry the Proud, and by extorting from her son, Henry the Lion, a renunciation of the latter's rights. But Henry the Lion afterwanls repudi- ated his renunciation, and in 1150 the German diet decided that Bavaria should be restored to him. Henry of Austria was wisely persuaded to yield to the decision, and Bavaria was given up. " He lost nothing by tliis unwilling act of disinterestedness, for he secured from the emperor tonsidcrable compensation. From this time for- ward, Austria, wliicb had been largely increasc<l hy the addition of the greater part of the lands lying between the Enns and the Inn, was re- moved from Its almost nominal subjection to Bavaria and became a separate duchy [Henry II. being tlie first hereditary Duke of Austria]. An lm|>erial edict, daU-d tlic 2l8t of Septcmlier, 1156. declares the new duchy hereditary even in the female line, and authorizes the dukea to absent themselves from all diets except thot,' which wci« held in Bavarian territory. It also |K>rinits them, in case of a threatened extinction of theirdynasty, to pro|>o8c a successor. . . . Henry II. was one of the founders of Vienna. He constructed a fortress there, and. In order to civlli/.c tlie sur rounding country, sent for some Scotch monks, of whom there were many at tliis time in Ger- many. " In 1177 Hcnrv II. was succeeded by Leopold v., called the Virtuous. " In his reign the (Idcliy of Austria gained Styria, an important addition to it« territory. Tliis province was In- haliited by Slovenes and Germans, and took Its name from the castle of Sleycr, built in 9W) liy Otokar III., count of tlie Trungau. In 10.56. it was created a margraviate, and in 1150 It was enlarifed by the addition of tlie counties of Mari- bor (Marlmrg) and filly. In 11«». Otokar VI. of Styria (llM-119'2) obtained the lienilltary title of duke from the Enimror in return for his help against Henry the Lion." Dying without ehll (lieu. Otokar mode Leopold of Austria his heir. " Styria was annexed to Austriain 1193, and has remained s<> ever since . . . Leopold V. is the first of the Austrian princes whose name is known lu Western EuroiH'. He (oined thetliiiilcrusaile." and tpiarrelled with Uieliard t'oeur de Lion at the slegi' of St. Jcand' Aeri'. Afterwards, when liichard, returning home hy the Adriatic, at- tempted to past through Austrian territory in- cognito, Leopold revenged liituself liy sel/.ing and imprisoning tlie English king, tinal'ly selling his royal captive to a still meaner Kinperor for SO.IKXt marks. Leopohl VI who sueeceded to the Austrian duchy in 119M. did mucli for the ommerce of his country. "He made Vienna the staple town, and lent a sum of BU.tKW marks of silver to the city to enable It to Increase Its trade. He adonieil It with manv new liuililings. among them the Neue Burg." lllsson. called Kn'derirk the FiiiliU'r (l'J3U-U46) was the last of the BalH'ii- lierg dynasty. His hand was against all hit ueighlsirs, including the Emperor rre(leri(k II., and their liands v.ere tu'ainst him. He periahud In June. 1246. on the banks of the UHUa. while at war with the Huugariuui — L. Lcger, Uut. uf 206 hi^^ ^J AUSTRIA. 134ft-i283. Rodolph of Hafmmiy. AUSTRIA, 1240-1282. AiJW) IN : E. F. Ilendcrson, Select IIM. Doet. of the MidiUe Age». bk. 2, «/<. 7. A. D. 1346-1282.— Rodolph of Hansburr and the acquisition of the Duchy for his family.— " The Hoiiae of Austria owes its origin anil power to KlxHiolpli of Hnpsburgh, soa .f AllK-rt IV. fotiiit of Ilupslnirgli. Tlio .\u8t''ian jfeiie:ilo,i{ist8, wlio li;ivf taken indcfntlgahic but luetTeetual pains to trace his illustrious il'-aeent from the Honians, carry it with great prolmliility to Ethico, duke of Alsiu-e. in the seventii century, and uui|uestlonal)ly to Uuntnim the llich, count of Alsace and Hrisgau, who flourislied in the tentli." A grandson of Ountrain. Werner by Biinie. " became bishop of Strosburgh, and on an eruincuce alnive Win<lis<'li, built tlie castle of Ilapsburgh (' llabiclitsburg' 'the castle of vul- tures' ), widch became the residence of the future counis, and gave a new title to the descendants of Ountr:iin. . . . The successors of Werner in- creased their family inheritance by marriages, donations from tlu Enipcn)rs, and by becoming prefects, advocates, or administrators of the neiglilxiuring alibeys, towns, or districts, anil his greiil grandson, Alliert III., was possessor of no Inconsiderable territories in Suabia, Alsace, and that part of Switzerland which is now cjtlleil tlie Argau, and held the landgraviate of Upper Alsjiie. His son. lihixlolph. received from the Eni|KTiir, in addition to his paternal inlieritancp, tlie town and distriit of l-aullenbiirgh, an iiu'- periul city on the Ulilne He acquired also a ciiiisidirable aicis.siou of territory by obtaining tlie advocacy of Uri, Schweitz, and Undir- wnlihn, whosi' natives laid the founilalion of the Ilelvitii. Confedenicy. by their union against the oppns,sions of feudal tyranny."— W. Coxe, I[i.-<l uflht ll„iiv of AiiHlriii. eh. 1.— '-On the death of Kmliilph hi 1232 his estates were divided bctwi-eii his sons Albirt IV. and ' tlolph U the former receiving the laiidgra ■. 3 of L'p|Hr Alsaie. and the county of Hapsburg, together with the patriiniiiiial castle: the latter, the coun- ties Kheinfeldeu and LaiilTenburg, and some olhir territories. AlU-rt csiHiused Hedwige daughter of Llrie, count of Kyburg; and froiii this union sprang the great UiHlolph, who was born on the 1st of May 1218, and was pre- sentcti at the baptismal font by the Emperor Fred(i,c n. On llie death of his father Albirt in l:i4il, Hmhilph sucu'etled i. his estates- b the gnali r portion of these were in lli> hands of his paternal uncle, HiKlolpli of I ..ufTenlmri: and all he could call liis own lay within sight of the gnat hull of his castle. . . . His disposilinn was wavwnnl and restless, and drew him into niMiiied contests with his neighlkmrs and n.-\n 51""," .,■ ; '" " '1"»''"' »'ll' till! Bishop of Basle, Itodolph IimI his troops against that city and burnt n convent in the suburbs, for whii'll he WHS exroinmunitatcil by I'ope Innocent IV He then cnlercd the service of OtIiK-ar H. Iving of Uoiii'inla, under whom he servwl. In compniiy with the Tiiilonic Knights, in Ills wars ngainst till- I'russijin pagans; and afterwanls against Bela I\ Mng of Hungiry." The surprising c eeli.in. In Viti. of this little known iimnt of Hapsburg, to lie King of the Ifcimans, with 'lie sutwtaiue if not the title of the Imperial dlgnltv which that eleetiou earrhsl with it, wiudue lok Mngiilar rricndshli) which he had uc(|iiirc?tl sonio fouftcyu j-rart before. WheO AlcIiI.i.Uop VVer ■•r, Elector of Hsau, wu ua bis way tu Howe la 1239, to receive the pallium, he " was escorted across the Alps by Rislolpli of Hapsburg, and under his prelection secured from the robhirs who beset the passes. Charmed with the alT i bility and frankness of his pnitector, the An li bishop conceived a strong reganl for IliHlolpl, ■ and when, in 1272. after the Great Inti'rri -nn'm IseoOKKM.KNV: A. I). i:.-.<t-t272], the Oerimni,. Electors foiiml ditllcultv in choosing an Kin penir, the Elirtor of .\lent/. recommended liij friend of Hapsburg as a camlidalc. "The Electors arc descrilied bv a contemporary .is desiring an EmiK>ror but detesting his imwir The comparative hiwlhiess of the Count ..f Hapsburg recommec i. '. him as one from whmn their authority stiKMi 1.1 little jeopanly; but ilie claims of the King of Bohemia were vigoron^ly urged ; and it was at length agreed to deride the election by the voire of the Duke of Bavarii Lewis without hesitaticm nominated Rih1o1]iIi . . . The curly days of Rmlolph's reign wire disturbed by the contiunacy of Ottocar KhiMif Bohemia. That I'riiice . . . persisteil in r, ?iis ing to acknowleilge the Count of Hnpsbiir.' ih his sovereign. Possessed of the ihitelii.H' nf Austria, Styrin. Carniola and Carinthia. he mi -lit rely upon his own resources; and ho was f.,rii. Heil In his resistance by the alliance of Ilcnrv Duke of Lower Bavaria. But the very p. «>,"<' sion of these four great flefs was siililcicut I.) draw down the envy and distrust of the cilur German Prinees. To all these territories in deed, the title of (Htmar was siiftleienily' ,lii. putable. On the dcilli of Kiederic II. liUli duke of Austria [ami last of the ll.ilienli. r - dynasty] in 124B, Ihut duUliy, togethir ttiifi IStyria and Carniol.i, was ilained by liis nii . ■ Gertrude and his sister .Margaret, liy a inir riagc with the latter, and a viilmy over I!i la IV King of Hungary, wliosi' uncle married (in trudc, OtliK-ar obiuindl jiosscsslon of Au^un and Styria; and in virtue of n purrhase fmin Ulrlc. Duke of Carintliia and Canii.ihi. he p.n. sessed himself of Ihose diilrhies on I'lric 's (|( ;ith in 1269, in delianee of the claims of I'liiiin brother of the late Duke. Against so pmv, rfni a rival the Priiires assembl.d at Aii'simr' readily voleil surroiirs to |{i»l.)lph; and OHn.,ir having refused to sunvudir tlie Austrian d.iniiii. ions, and even hanged the lurilds wlio wnc sent to pronounce tlie consi.,jueiit scntemv .f proscription, HiMlolph . iili his aceiistoni,,! promplitude tiK.k the field [IJTO). and i..n founded his enemy by a rapid man li up .n Austria. In his wav"lie surprised and v:iii quisheil the lelxd Duke of Bavaria, wh.ini lie eomiH'lled to Join his forces; he besliircd and reiluciil to the last extremity the rin if Viinmi and hull already prepand n bridge of li.,:tN in cross the Oanulw and invade Bohenii.i. wlmi Oltocnr arrested his pnigress by n iie-isa:;.- ,if siiliiiiisslon. The terms agnrd U|>oii Hvrc sevenly bumiliniing to the pniud soul ..f ilii.i ear," and he was wkm, in revolt again, witliilm •iipix.rt of the Diike of Bavaria. K.^LIpli iii.iiihed aiainst him. and a ilesiierate liiiti,' w is fought at Marsihfeld, August 2<J, 12TH. in whi. '1 Ottocar, deserted at a critical iiioiiiiiit by lliu Moravian troops, wasdefeatiil and shiln. "'■|lii) total lost of the Bolieiuians on thai falnl iliy amoiinteil to inon! (Iijiii 14.000 men. In !!:c drit moments of his triumph. Kmloiph design.il to approprlal. the duuiiuious of hU ditnuia 206 AUSTRIA, l.'M<-1283. enemy. But his avidity was rcstraloed by tlic Princes of ( o Empire, who iiiturpoacd on behalf of the son o; Ottooar; and Wenceslaus was pcr- niiiud to retain BobemiA nml Moravia. The projected union of the two fiimilics was now renewed: Judith of Hapsburi; was anianced to the younji; King of Doliemia: whose sister Agnes WHS married to liodolpli, youngest son of tlie Kin? of the Romans." In 1283, R<Kl<)lph, "afler satisfying tlic several olaimants to fli!)se territories by various cessions of lands . . oli- taioed tlie consent of a Diet held at Augsburg to the settlement of Austria, Styria, and Carniola, upon his two surviving sons; who were accord- iQgly jointly invested with those dutcbies with great pomp and solemnity; and they are at this hour enjoyed bv the descfendanU of Rodolph of lapsliurg. "—Sir R Comyn, UM. of the Wettern . Miiire, eh. 14. Also in: J. PlanU, Hut. of the Hdtttic Confed- erivg, bk. 1, ell. 5(1). 1). A. D. I383-I3IS.— Relations of the House of Hapsburg to the Swiss Forest Cantons.— The Tell Legend.— The Battle of Morrarten. Se Switzkkla.nd: The Tiikeb Fouest Can- tos!. A. D. 1390.— Beginning of Hapsburr designs upon the crown of Hunnrr. See IIunoauy- A. I). 1114-1301. A. D. 1291-1349.— Loss and recoTery of the imperial crown.— Liberation of Switzerland. —Conflict between Frederick and Lewis of Bavaria.- The imperial crow.i lost once more. — Kii l.ilf of llapsburg ilesinil the title of King of llic Uomatis for his son. "But the electors iilii:i.ly found that the new house of Austria was liic .iminit too | cjwerful. and tiiey refused. On his (li Mill, in fact, in 1291, a prince from aiiotlier family, piKir and olpscure. Adolf of Nassau, w:is eh'i i<d after an iiiterreirntini of ten mouth;. ' llij rtiirii of six years is marked by two events- ho Bold hiinsilf to Edwanl I. in 1294, against I'li'ilip the Fair, for KW.OilO pounds sterling, and used llie money in an iitlempt to obtain in Thiirini;ia a priiulpality for his family us Huihilf had ihme iu Austria. The electors were displea-sed :iiiil chosi. AllKTt of Austrii to succeed him who ii'iir|iiiii(| and killel his adversary at GiUilieim mar \V.,rtus (I29H). The ten years reign of the n>w kirm of the Uomaiis showed that he was viTV amhiii.uis for his family, wliich hi' wished to esiahlish on the thnne of ■Uohenila, wlure the Mivoiiic (lyii,i.,ty had lately died out. and iilsoin . liuriiiL'i* and .Meissen, where he lost a liattle He w;is also iH-nt upon extending hl.s rights even un|iisily— in Alsace and Switzerlanii — and it priivid an iiuforluimU^ ventuie for him For on the one hand, he roused the three Swiss can' loiw .if Iri. Sehweilz, and Untcrwaliien to revolt, on the other liaml, \v roused the wrath of his 11, phiw ,?olin of .Swiibia, whom he lie rmuili.l of his iiiheritaiieedl, .mains InSwitzer- laii.l Swal.ia and Alsiue) As he was crossing ilie It.uss, .lolin thrust hlin through witli his swoni (|:t0M, The assn.ssin escaiK^I. One of j\ll« ri s daiii!hter». Agnes, dowager queen of f 7 ■>,!"' '"""' "''"' " "lousand innocent '■'•"ple killed to avenge the death of her father li.' griHiir part of the priwiit Switzcrlaml had Ism oriirlimlly includi-.I In tlir Klti"-d.Ti ,.f !5.,r piiiHl.v aii.l was eeiliMl to the empire, together with ihat klnirdom, in 10;i;l, A feudal nobility, lay and ii'cl«i«stlc, '-d gained a Ann footing ¥, AUSTRIA, 1291-134a. there. Nevertheless, by the 12th century the cities had risen to some importance. Zurich, Basel, Bern, and Freiburg had an extensive com- merce and obtained municipal privileges. Three little cantons, far in the heart of the Swiss moun- ^ins, preserved more tlian all the others their in- domitable spirit of independence, Wlien Albert of Austria became Emperor [KingV] he arro- gantly tried to encroach upon their independence. J hree heroic mountaineers, Werner Stauiracher, Arnold of Slelchllia!, and Waller Fttrst, each with ten chosen friends, conspired together at RiUli, to throw off tiie yoke. The tyranny of the Austrian bailiflf Oessler, and William Tells well-aimed arrow, if tradition is to be believed gave the signal for the insurreC on [see Swit- zerland: The TauEE Fouest Ca.nto.ns] Albert's violent death left to Leopold, !iis suc- cessor in the duchy of Austria, the care ot repressing the rebillion. He failivl and waa completely defeated at Mortgarten (1315). That was Switzerland's deld of Marathon. . . . Whea Rudolf of Hapsburg waa chosen by the electors, it was because ot his poverty and weakness. At his death accordingly they did not give tluir votes for his son Alljert. . . . Allie.t, however succeeded in overthrowing his riv.i. But on hi* death they were firm in their decision not to give the crown for a third time to the new and ambitious house of Hapsburg. They likewise refused, for similar reasons, to accept Charles of Valois, brother of Philip the Fair, wli,.in the latter tried to place on the iinpiii,d throne, in onler that he might indireetlv rule over Ger- many. They supported the Count of Liixem. burg, who iK'caine Ileiirv VII. Bv choosing .m. perors [kings?! who were poor, tlie'eleetnrs placed them under the temptation of enridiiiig them selves at the cxiK'iise of the empire, Adolf failed, it is true, in Thuriiici:;, hut Rudolf gained Austria by victory; Henry succeeded In Bohemia by means of marriage, and Bohemia was worth more than Austria at that time iH'caiise, besides .\Ioravi;i, ii was made to cover Silesia and a part of Liisatia (Ulieriausitz). Henry's son, uoiiii of Luxemburg, ma Tied tlie heiress to that royal crown. As fi r Heiiiy him- self ho remained as |)(H)r as before. He bail a vigorous, restless spirit, ami went to try his for- tunes on Ills own acei-iint lievond the Alps, He was seriously threatening Naples, when ho died either from some sickness or Iroiu being (wii- soned by a Dominican in partaking of the host (1313), .Vyearsintirngii'.ini follow. d; ihentwo emiK'n.rs [kings vl at once : L.wis of Bavaria and Frederick the Fair, son of tlie Enipii.ir AllK'rt. After eight yearsof war. Lewis gain.,! bis p.ilnt by the victory of .Mnhhloif (13221, which d.liv- crcil Freiierick Into his lian.ls. He kept liiin in captivity for tliree years, nn.l at the eii.l of that time became recuiciled with him, ami thev were on such giKul terms that both iKire the title of King and governed in comin.m, Tlie fear lnspln.Kl in Lewis bv France and the IL.lv Sea dictal(.il this singular agreement, Henrv' VII hail revived the p.ilicv of interfinnce liy tho German einiwrors in the allairs of Italv, null had kindksl again the quarrel with tlie Papacy which had long n|i|>eared extingulshe.l, l^'wis I\, did !lii t.,uiu, , , . Uiiiie Hotiiface Vlll, was making war on Philip the Fair, Albert allleil himself with him; when, on the other 'land, thL' Papacy was reduced to the state of a 207 i 11 i II. >.' "i ( t^ ;: AUSTRIA, 1291-1849. Tyrol. AUSTRIA, 133&-13«4. ierrile auxiliary to France, the Emperor returned to his former liostility. Wlienex-communicatcd by Popo John XXII. , who wished to give the empire to the king of France, Charles IV., Lewis IV. made use of the same weapons. . . . Tired of a crown loaded with anxieties, lewis of Raviiriii wiis finally aliout to submit to the I iipi- iiiiil abdicate, when the electors perceived tlie luivssity of supporting their Kmperor and of foriiiiilly releasing tiie supreme power from foreign depeudcucy which brought the whole natMn t,) shame. Tliat was the object of the I'rugniatie .Saiiclion of Franlifort, pronounced in ll} ""' '"'''' "" *'"-' "'port of the electors. . . . Tlie king of France and Pope Clement VI., whose claims were directly affected by this declarati.m, set up against Lewis IV. Charles of Lu.xenilmrg. son of John the Blind, who became King of Uoheiiiia in laiO, when his father had JK-en Isillcd ligliting on the French side at the battle of freiy. Lewis died the following year. He liad giiiued possession of Brandenburg and the Tyrol for his liouse, but it was unable to retain possession of them. The latter county reverted to tlie house of Austria in 1363. The electors most hostile to the French party tried to put lip, as a rival candidate to Charles of Lux- emliurir. K<iwar.l III., king ,.f England, who refuseil the empire: then they offered it to a lipive kniglit, (Junther of Schwarzburg, who dieii, perliaps poisoned, after a few months (1349). r.ie kinir of lioh.-mia then became Empcmr as (liarUs l\. Ijy a second election. "—V. Duruy y/"' /lixlon/ ,/ the .\fiil,l/e A>/e», bk. 0, eh. 30 — Sir. also, {Jkkm.vnv: A. D. 1314-1347. nV. ?/ '330-i364.-Forged charters of Duke Kadolf.— The Privilegium Majut.— His as- sumption of the Archducal title.— Acquisition of Tyrol.— Treaties of inheritance with Bohe- mia and Hungary.— Kill;: .lohn, of Bohemia, had iieirri,'.! Ihssk 1 son, ,/,,hn Henry, at the ago of M^rht. to the aflirwarils notable Margaret .Vajillas< ill' (I'iiiiehnioiiili), daughter of the duke of l.vrol ami Carintliiii, who was then twelve years old. He liopeii by this means to reunite tlii..se provm.es to Boh, nila. To thwart this seliinie, the Kinpenir, Louis of Bavaria, and the two Aiistri:iri princes, Albert the Wise Bn(> Otto the (Jay, eaiiie to an understanding. "By the tnaty of llag.iiau (1330), it was arranged that on the (le.itli of duke Henry, who had no male li'irs, ( annthi.i shouM lavome the properly of Au.-lria, Tyrol that of the Emperor. Henrv (lieil in 133... wlun-upon the Emperor, Louis ilf Bav.,na dr, hired that .Margaret Maultaschc had lorti Mill all rights of iiihi'riljiucc. and proo'cdid to a.ssiirn the two provina'S to the Austrian I|rliie(s, with the exception of «<mie portion of the Ijrol uhieh devolved on the house of Wl- telsliiii h ( iirlnlhia alone, however, olxved the Liiipiror; the Tyrolese nobles declared for Mar- garei, Mild, villi the help of John of Bohemia tins iirineess was able to keep possession of this part of her inherll.iiK'e. . . . Carinlhia also did not loiiL' nniain in the undisputed pos«e««l.>n of Austria. .Margaret was sikhi dlvorcid from her very youthful husband (1342), ami shortly after Iiiarned the son of the Eiiii« ror I^ailsof Bavaria who hoped to Ik; able to Invest his son, not only with lyn.l, but Iso with Carinthia, ami once mnr<. we !>:i:! !i,r h=-..i=»s r.f Hap^burgand Lux- emburg unltol by a comimai Interest. . . When . . . Charles IV. of Bohemia was ctosen em- peror, he consented to leave Carinthia lo the possession of Austria. Albert did homage for it . . . According to the wish of their father the four sons of Albert reigned after him ; but the eldest, Rudolf IV., exercised executive authority in the name of the others [1358-1365]. . . If,, was only 19 when he came to the throne, but ho had already married one of the daughters of the Emperor Charles IV. Notwithstanding this family alliance, Charies had not given Austri i such a place in the Golden Bull [see Germany A. D. 1347-1492] as seemed likely to secure either her territorial importance or a proper position for her princes. They had not Ihtu admitted into the electoral ccllege of the Eiiipin and yet their scattereti possessions stretche.l froiil tlie banks of the Leitha To the libine. . . . These gnevances were enhanced by their feeling of envy towards Bohemia, which had attained great prosperity under Cliaries IV. It was at this time that, in order to liierca.se the importance of his house, Rudolf, or his offlcers of state, had I recourse to a measure which was often employi i| in that age bv princes, religious IkxHcs, ami j even by the Holy Sec. It was pretended that I there were In existence a whole series of charters ! which had been granted to the house of Austria < by various kings and emperors, and which j sicurcd to tlicir princes a position entirely inde i pendent of both empire ami Emperor. Aieord- I iiig to these dcHUmenls, and more especially the one calle<l the 'privilegium majiis,' the duke of Austria owed no kind of serviie to the empire « hlch was. however, bound to protect him ; . . he was to appear at the diets with the litie if arehdukc. and was lo have the first place among the electors. . . . Itudolf pretended that tlaso iLwumentshad Ju.iteome to llijht, and demauiUd their eontlrmaliim from Cliarhs IV., wlion fused it. Xevertheless on the strength of these h iiig charters, he took the title of palatine an hd'ukr without waiting to ask the leave of Charles, and used the royal iii.signia. Charles IV., who eoiild not fail to be irritated by these' pretensions in his tuni revived the claims which he had inliiriied from Pn'mysl Otokar II. to the lands of Au!-lria t^tyria, Carinthia, and Carniola. These i laims[ however, were simply theoretiial. ami no attempt was made to enforce them, and the niediuiior. of Louis the Gnat, King of Hungary, lliially h'ci to a treaty between tlic two prinees,"wlii(h KitislUd the ambition of the Habsliurgs (13Uli. Kv this treaty, the houses of llahsburg in Austria ami of Luxemburg In liohemla each guaranteed the In heritanec of their lands to the other. In ease of the extinction of either of the two families, and the estates of Bohemia and Austria ralilied this iigreement. A similar eompaet was eoia luded between Austria and Ilunnarv, and thus the Isiuuilaries of the future Au»tr{an state wi re for the 'Irst time marked out. Bmlolf himself gained little by these hmg and liitrleatn neitotl. alions, Tyrol being all he ailded to his territory. .Marirant Maullam he had marrhil her son .M. lii- Imr.l to the daughter of Allsrt the Wis,, at the siinie time deilaring that, in default of h< irs ni:de lo her son, Tvnd should once more beiniue the possession of Austria, and it did so hi i;W3 Kiidolf Immislialely set out for Bolzen, an<l tin r« ri'ccived the homatrii of the Tyrolese nobles. . . . 1 lie iM.<|uuilion of Tynil was most Important to Austria. It united Austria Pro|H'r with the ..Id pijasvssiuDS of the Uabsburgs tu Wcjtcm tier- 203 ACSTRIA, 1330-1364. The Hungarian Crown. AUSTRIA, 1438-1493. many, snd opened th3 way to Italy. Margaret MniiltAgrbc died at Vienna in 1309. The ineniory (if tills nstless and dissolute princess still survive! among tlie Tyrolese."— L. Leger, UM.afAuHro- Uitnijary. pp. 143-148. A. D. 1386-1388.— Defeats by the Swiss at Sempach and Naefels. See SwrrzEKLAKo; A. U. 13S6-1388. A. D. 1437-1516.— Contests for Hunraryand Bohemia.— The right of Succession to the Hun- earian Crown secured.— "Euroiie would Imve li.iil iiotliiu),' ti) fear from the Burliarian.s. if Hun- gary Imd l»fn pemianentiv united to liolienila, and littd held them in clicc1<. Hut Hungary in'- terforcd botli with the independence and the re- ligion of Bolicmia. In this way they weakened eiich other, and in the 15th century waveri'd be- tween the two Sclavonic and Oo-nan powers on tlicirhonlers (Poland and Austria) [sivHcNOAnv A. I). 1301-1442, and 1442-14.W]. United undei aOermnn prince from 14.M to 1458, separate ' for a lime under national sovereigns (liohemis until 1471, Hungary until 1490), they were onre more united un(l('r Polish princes until 1526 at wljicli period they iiassed definitively into the hands of Austria. After the reign of Ijidislas of Austria, wlio won so much glory by the exploits of.lohn Hunniades, George P<Hliebrad obtained the crown of ISolienda, and Matthias Corvlnus, Xiw sun of Hunniades, was elcctiMl King of Hun- pnry (14.W). These two princrs opposed sue- ccssfullv the chimerical pretensions of the Em- peror frciierick HI. I'.xliebmd protected the Hussites iirid incurred the eiunity of the Poih-s Jl:itihi!is victoriously encountered the Turks and iililamcil tlie favour of I'aul 11., wlio offered him llie crown of P(Klielirad, his fatherin-law. The liitlir opiM)sed to the hostility of Matthias the allhnie of the King of Poland, whose eldest son, Liilisliis. he designated as Ids successor. At tlie fumii'limc. Casiiuir, the brother of Ijidislas. en- ilnivoiircd to U»kc fnim JIaitliias the cniwi; of llinii,Mry. .Matthias, thus [iressed on all sides, w:i,,,l,li.^oil(on'iiouiiccthecoii(Hiestof Uohemia] and iiintcnt himself with the provinces of Mom- via, .^il.sia, and Lusatia, which were to return li' i.idisliis if Mattliios died first (I4T.5-1478). Tlie King of Hungary cominnsated himself at llii' expense of Austria. On tlie pretext lliat lrcil<Ti.k III. had refusi'd to give him his iliiifiitir. he twice invaded his states and re- tiiiiiid them in his possessicm [see Hinoary- A. II. 14Tl-;487). ^\ Itli this gn-at prince Cliris- tiniloiii lost lis chief defender, Hungary hereon- -imsis nnd her political prenoiideraiice (14U0) lliucivill/Hilon which heliad tried to Intnnluce into liia kingdom w.j deferred for manv cen- Innes. . . bulislas (of Poland), King of"Bolie- inia. Iiaving been elected King of Hungary, wiu atliKked liy Ids brother John AIUtI, and by .>r.xiinilian of Austria, who Ixith imlended to tliut( rown. He appeased lilslin.lher bv tlieces- si.in of Silesia (I4U1), and Maximilian b> vesting in the House of Austria tlie right of succession I" il.f Ihione of Hungary, In case he himself Bhoiild (lie witliimt male Issue. Under Ud- Mas, 1111,1 under his s.m Ixmis 11, who succw-ded liini wlidc still a eliild. in 15l« Hungary was ravaged wiih Impunity by the Turks. "-J. Jliclie- ).t. .1 s-,,,,,,,„.„^ ,j(.,.^,, „.,, ^^ ^ ..^ al«o, Hoiikmia: A. I). 14.W-I471. A D. i438-i49r_The Imperial Crown last- ingly regauw<J.-Tli« aboit rciga of Albert II., and the long rei^^n of Frederick III.-" After the death of Sigismund, the princes, in 1438 elected an emperor [kingVJ from tlie house of Ausl tna, which, with scarcely any intermission, has ever since occupied the ancient throne of G' many. Albert II. of Austria, who, as soninla of the late Emperor Sigismund, had liecome at the same time Kin.jof Hungary and Bohemia, was a well-meaning, distinguished prince, and would, witliout (Joubt, have proved of great benefit to the cnipire; but he died ... in the second year of his reign, after his return from an expedition against tilt- Turks. . . . In the year 1431, during the reign of Sigismund, a new council was as.sem- bled at Basle, in order to carry on the work of re- forming the church as alreadv commenced at Con- Jtance. But this council scxjn became engaged in many perplexing controversies with Pope Eu- gene IV. . . . The Germans, for a time, took no part in the dlspuu-; at length, however, under the Emperor [King?] AUkti II., they formally adopted the chief decreesof the council of Basle at a diet held at Mentz in tlie year 1439 Amongst the resolutions then ad<"ipted weri such as materially circumscribed the existing privi- legesof the |)ope These and other deiisions. cii culated to give Important privileges and con- sideralile independence to the German churcli were in a great measure, annulled by Allierfs cousin and successor, Duke Frederick of Austria who was elected by the iirinces after him iu the year 1440, as Frederick III. . . . Frederii k the empcMr, was a prince who meant well but at the same time, was of too (jiiiet and easv a nature • lis long reign presents but little that was calcu- lated to (lisiiuguish Germany or add to lis re- nown. Fnim the east tlie empire was endangered by the appniacli of an enemy — the Turks, a-iiinst wliom no precautionary measures were adopted They, on the 29th of .May, 1453, cou(iuered Con- stantinople. . . . They tlieu made their way to- w-ards the Dannl*, and very nearly succeeded "'";•"> .•■'king Hungary [see Hl-.noary: A. D. 144',-14.K'<J, . . . The Hunirarians, on the death i>f the s<m of the Em|)eror"'AllKTt II., Wladislas Poslliumus, in tlie year 1457, witliout leaviii" nu lie r to the tlmme. chose Matthias, the son of Jolin Corvlnus, as king, being resolved not to elect ()iie fnim amongst the Austrian princes. 1 he Bohemians likewise selected a private nolilc- man for their king. George Pudriabnid (ir P,Hlie- bradj. and thus the Austrian house found itself - J' . : .......iii».i iiv'ita^- iiiiuiii iiseir for a time rejected from holding jklsscssIoh „f ' '■■' ■ ""se cc.imries. ... In Geriinny, eilher of meantime. Ih. re existed numberless contests and feuds; each party cimsldered only his own per- s.«ial (piarrtls. . . . The emperor could not give any weiglit to public measures; scarcely could lie maintain Ids dignity amongst his own sub- jects. The Austrian nobilily were even Iwild enough to st'nd challenges to their sovereign' whilst the city of Vienna revolted, and his brother Alliert, taking pleasure in this disorder, was not backward in aiding to it. Thinns even went to such nn extremity, that. In 14(1:.', Ilic Emperor Jrisleriek. t.igcllier with his consort and son Maximilian, then four years of age, was besiegd by his sulij, ( ts in his own castle of Vienna A plelK-ian burgher, nanunl llolzer. had phuci! !.;i.i. «lf III the head of Ihe insurgents, and was made burgomaster, whilst Duke AUwrt cninelo Vienna perwaially to sii|M'rintend the siege of the ca.slle whkli was lutrei' '..cdaud bumUrilea. . . . Tbe 201) !i AUSTRIA. 1488-1488. TS4 BuTgundian Marriagt. ACSTRIA, 1477-1495. Oprmar. princes, however, could not witness with l^udifftrcncc such disgraceful trentment of their "'" ■"" ' liberate him. was the first lire, set the ciliation be- iperor, how- ■ n. for ciplit AllMTt dic(i lie Gi rniaiiic : was lu little ids. . . . The rick's ri'ijfn to emperor, and thev assembled Geor-(/ Padriabrad, Kin); of Boli who Imstened to the spot with enipororat libcrt.v, and effected twicn him and liis brother, ever, was obliged to resig! rears. Lower Austria and \ in tlie followinji^ year. . empire, the voice of the ci heeded as in his heredita ■ feudal system raifol undiT j „..,.., .,-,„„ ,„ such ane.\teut, that it was purMud even by the lower classics. Thus, in 1471, the shoeblacks in Ljipsic sent a challenge to the university of that piaie; and the lakers of the Count "Palatine l-ew is, and those of the Margrave of Baden defied sevenl imiwrial c. s in Swabia. The most im- portant transaction in the reign of Frederick, was tlie union which he formwi with the liouse of Murgundy. au<l which laid the foundation for the griatuess of Austria. ... In the vear 1486, the wliol,. of the assembled prineis, intiuenccd es- pechilly by the represt'ntations of the faithful and now v.nerable AIIhtI, called the Achilles of Urandcniiuri;, electc<l .Maximilian, the emperor's son. king of Kome. Indeed, about this period II c hanged and improved spirit began to show Itself in a niiiarkable degr^ in the minds of many tlirougliout the emi.ir. . so that the pro- toiiii.lcontemplatorofcommgcventsniighteasily Sic the dawn of a new era. . . . These last yeaii were 111.' best in tlie whole life of the emperor iiiid yii Ided to him in return for his nianv sufTer- ngs ih.il tran.iuillity which was so well' merited by Ills faiiliful g. nerous disiiosiiion. He died on the lllili of August. 149;), after a reign of ,54 vcars. 1 he einiKTor lived long eiioiiirh to obtain III 111.' year UIHI. the restoniti.m of his hiTcilitary e.<jt.il.s by the .1, atli of King .Matthias, by means of a e..nipai t mail.- with Wla.lislas, his su<'ces.sor " ~t. Kohlrausch. IIUt„iji of Gennany, eh. 14 _ SeerjKinnNv: A. 1). I:i47-1493. A. D. i.<68.--In»asion by George Podiebrad or Bohemia.— The crusade against him. See lioiiKMn: A. I» 14.V-I47I A. D. 1471-149'— Hungarian invasion and capture of Vienna.— Treaty of Presburir —Succession to the throne of Hungan •ecured.-"lJeorge, King of Uoh.niia, expind ''.'. "•>; "lid the claiiii.H of the Knipiror ami Km; .,f Hungary lieing ciually <lisr.%'.'ird,'.l, the """". ",','? "■""f''''".l <m Uladi.slau9, s.mi of a'm""."',/^ V"^'",", "f ^"'""''' ""J Knin,l.,„n of AllHTt II. To this eleciicm Kre.leric long p.r. Msle. ill wiil,h,,l,ling his a.ssent; but at ^ngtli h.' .l.t.iiulne.l to crush the claim of Slat Unas by tormally investing riu.lislaus with 1 1- king.lorn and el.itorate <if IJolicmia, an.l the oltl..' of iiTiprnul eiip.|».anT. In ri'vengc f,.r tins .ilTront. Malihia.i marcli.'.! into Austria- t.K.k poss. s.,,„„ „f ,iie forlnsMsof the Uanuln'; an.l omiKll.M th<. hmpernr t.. purchase a cessation of li.«tiliii, , ,y uml. rtaking to pay an huiidri',1 thoii^in,! gul.lin ll.*rii„ i.h.-lialf of which was disbursed by the Aii«tr.,f, stal.s at the appointe.l time Hut as the Kinir o' ilungary still .lelav,.l , to yield up ,1,,. <„,,i„r,,l fortresses, Frederic refused all further payment; and the war was I •gain reneweil. Matthias invade.l ami ravs">'d ' Auttru, 1.11,1 liKMiifli iie exiierieneed forml.ia~ble i retUtiuio! Irom ievcral towns, bli anus were 210 crowned with success, and he became master of Vienna and Neustadt. Driven from his capital tlie terrified Lmpenir was reduced to the utmost distress, and wan.lered from town to town and froin convent to convent, endeavouring to aMuse the German States against the Hungarians Yet even in this exigency his goo<l fortune did not wholly fiirsake him ; and he availed himself ..f a Diet at Frankfort to procure the election of Ins son Maximilian as King of the Ilomans. To this Diet, however, the King of Bohemia received no summons, ami then'fore protested against the validity of the election. A full npoloiry ,,nj admission of his right easily satisfie.1 I L.dislaus and he consented to remit the fine which the Golden Bull had fixed as the penalty of the ??^f ',"!)• .'^'"' ''™"> "f Mi'tthias Corvinus in 14WU, left the throne of Hungary vacant, an.l the Hungarians, inlluenced by their widowed ..lur,, conferre.i the < rown upon the King of B.)li<iiii,i' without listening to the pretensions of Mnvi! nullan That valorous pnnce, however, s\v„r,l nhand recoven.l his Austrian dominions: and tlic rival kings concluded a severe contest by the treaty of Presburg, by which Ilungary was f„r the pn-sent secured to Uladislaus; but on his death without heirs was to vest in the d.sr. n- dants of the Kmix-ror."- Sir K. Comvn The Ihttory of the Wmtern Empire eh 28 '(c "^ _ 8»'0 Ilt:NG.\nv: A. I). 1471-1487, ami 14.s7-r-,:.'i) A. a i477-i49S--Marriage of Maximilian with Mary of Burgundy.— His splendid do- minion.- His joyous character.— His vigorous powers.— His ambitions and aims.-" Miixi mi lan, who w is as active an.l enterprising as his father was in.i.)l,.nt an.l timi.l, marrie.l at . ith- ton years of age, the only dauifhter of Ch.irl,., tlic Bol.l duke of Burgiinily [st'c Nkthkkhm.. A. u. 14,,J. _ She bmuglit him Flarjd.r^ tranche^Comte, ami all the Low t'ountri.s Louis M., who disputed some of tli.s.' t, rri^ tories and who, on the d.'ath of the .hike had sclze.1 Burgun.ly, 1'icar.ly, Ponthieu, an.l .\r;..i. as llefa of !• ran.T. whi.h c.mld mit K' p.is^ .,^.1 by a w.mian, was .iefeated by Maximilian at Ouinega.stc; and Charles VIII., who r.Tieued ih,. same claims, was obligi.l to cmclu.le a .lisa.l- vantageoiis peace." Maximilian sii.-.r.-,l.,i i„ V.'L"'','I"'V. ""'"'"-' "» •''« "leath of his fahi, r in 1.1 T^- "'"«'■". "'»!■ "fM"<lenL K'ir.,i, l.ti r 4« (r. 1).— " Bi'twwn the Alpsan.l tin- l{.,li.nii,n tronlier, the mark Austria was first foiuM,,! r<)und and about the c tl.s of Kr.ms and .M, Ik Since then, N'lfinning first in the vall.'v to«;,rla iJavanaamI Hungary, an.l coming to the llnii^e of llabshurg, it ha.l extend..! across th,' «l„.l,. of the northern sl.,|)e of the Alps until wli, r.' th« Slavish, Italian, an.l Oeriimu tongu.'s part ai].l .>v.r t.i Alsace; thus becoming an arih.lii.liv fioina mark. On all si.les the Ar.h.liikes hail claims; on the German side to Switz.Thii.d. ..a t le Italian to the Venetian ixissessions, and ..ii the Slavish to B..liemla ami Hungary. Tosinli a pilch of greatness ha.1 Maximillan'by his mar- riagc with .Maria of Durgundv brought th.- h. rii- iiL'.. recelv.-.i from Charles the Bol.l. Tni,. 1,. the .NetheriaiKlcrs' gn'eting, in the inscripticu .ivcr their gates, 'Thou art our Duke. Iluht .mr battle f.ir us, war was from the first his haii.li- craft. He silopteil Charles the Bol.l's ho,iilu a'tifu.ir f.wRrrls Francx; hr sav.d ti..- v'r...i.f part of his inhcriUnce from the 8<li.ni.s ..f Louis XL Day and night it was his wliol* AU8TRU. U77-1498. Jr<u<ma<a». AUSTMA, 1477-1496. thought, to conquer It entirely. But after Maria of B-jrgundy's premature death, revolution fol- lowed revolution, and hla father Frederick being too old to protect himself. It came about that In the year 1488 he waa ousted from Austria by the Hungarians, whilst Ills son was kept a prisoner in Bruges by the citizens, and they had even to fear the estrangement of the Tyrol. Yet they did not lose courage. At this very time the father demited with the vowels, A. E. I. O. U. ('AUes Erilreich ist Oestcrreich unterthan '— All the fnrtli is subject to Austria), the extent of his hopes. In the same year, his son negotiated for a Spanish alliance. Their real strength lay in the imperial dignity of Maximilian, which they hud from the German Empire. As soon as it be- g;m to bestir itself, Maximilian was set at liberty ; us .sdon lus it supported him in the persons of only a few princes of the Empire, he became lord in his Xetheiiands. . . . Since then his plans were directed against Hungary and Bur-;un'v. In ilungiiry he could gain nothing jxccpt atouring the succession to liis house. But never, frt° (luently as he concluded yniHcc, did he give up liis intentions upon Burgundy. . . . Xow that he ha<l allied himself with a SforEa, and had j"ined the Liga, now that his futlier was dead and the Empire was pledged to follow him across the mountains, and now, too, that the Italian (dniplication.s were threatening Charles, he took fresh liope, and in this hope he summoned a Diet nt W ornis. .Maximilian was a prince of whom although manv portraiU have been drawn, vet there is scarcely one that resembles another "so cisilv and entirely diil h(! suit himself to circum- st:in( es. . . . His soul is full of motion, of joy 111 tl]inj.'s, and of plans. There is scarcely any- thiiii; that he is not capable of doing. In liis mines lie is a good sceener, in his armoury the best plater, capable of instructing others in new in\ eutious. \S ith musket in hand, he defeats his l»>t marksman, George I'urkhard; with heavy eiinncra, wlueh he has shown how to cast, and liiis plaeed on wheels, he comes as a rule nearest tlie mark. He commands seven captains in their seven several tongues; he himself chooses and mixes Ins food and mediein.s, la the open cumiiri, he feels himself happiest. What really distinguishes his public life is that pre- sentiment of iho future greatness of his dyna-stv which lie lias inherited of his father, and the restless stnving to attain all that devolved upon him from the House of Burgun ' Ai. his I'llu y ami all his schemes were cncentrated ii"t ii|«.n Ins Empire, for the real neeilsof which lie n meed little real care, and not immwliatelv 1111.111 the w. [fare of his liereditary lands, but upon tlie realization of tiiat sole idea. Of it all "?''"',"'."».' .spwclies are full. . . . In Mareh, 14Jj, Maximilian cjimc to th(' Diet at Worms ■ • . At this Ueichstag the King gained two ni-mientous prospccu. In Wurtemberg there lad sprung of two lines two counts of ouiie "l'l'"site cliuracters. . . . With the elder, Slaxi mlian now enU^red Into a comp,ict. Wurtcm- l«rg was to \k raised to s dikedom — an eieva- ion wlueh excluded the female line from the fueeession-and, in the event of the stock fail- uig was to be a ' widow's portion ' of the realm to the Ka, .-.f the Imjn.ri.ii Chamber. Now as tile sole hopes of thU family centred In a weakling Of a b,,v. this arrangement held out to MaxImiluS Md bin iuccetwn the proipect of acquiriog a splendid country. Yet thl» was the smaller of his two successes The greater was the espousal of his children Philip and Margaret, with the two cliildren of Ferdinand the Catholic, Juana and Juan, winch was here settled. This opened to his house still greater expectations, — i' Drouglit him at once into the most intimate alli- ance With the Kings of Spain. These nutters might possibly, however, have been arianged elsewhere. W'hat Maximilian really wanted in the Iteichstag at Worms was the assistance of the Empire against the French with its world- renowned and inuch-envicd .soldiery. For at this time m ail the wars of Europe, German auxilia- nes were decisive. ... If Maximilian had unitt'd tlic whole of this power in his hand neither Europe nor Asia would have been able to withsUind him. But God disposed tliat it should rather be employed in the cause of freedom liian oppression. What an Emjiirc was that which in spite of Its vast strength allowed its Emperor to be expelled from his heritage, and did not for a long time take steps to bring him back again ? tf we examine the constitution of tiie Empire not as we sliould picture it toours<;lves in Henry 111. s time, but as it had at length become — the legal independence of the several estates tlie emptiness of the imperial dignity, the cleetive- ness of a head, tliat afterwards exercised certain rights over the electors,— we are led toiiKiiiire not 80 much into llie causes of its disintegration for t us concerns us little, as into the wav in whieli It was luld figether. Wliat weldwl it together, and preserved if, would (leaving tra dition and the Pope out of the question) appear 1 i ,: V ■!■' ■"<. "■ lilt iiuesiKini appear, Ix'fore all else, to have been the rights of in- dividuals, the unions of nciglibours, and the Kicial regulations which universally obtained Sucli were those rigiits and privileges tliat not only protected the citizen, his guild, and his quarter of the town against his neighbours and more powerful men than himself, but wliich also endowed him with an inner independence . . . >ext, the unions of neighbours Tliese were not only leagues of cities ami pea.santries expanded from ancient fraternities — for who can tell the origin of tlie Han.sa, or the earliest tre-aty between L'ri and Schwyz? — into lar'c as- sociations, or of knights, who strengthened a really nsignilicant power by confederations of iieigli- bours, but also of the princes, who were bound together by joint iuhentaiices, mutual expectan- cies, and the ties of blood, wliicii in some cases were very chise. This ramitlcation, depindent upon a supreme power and coulirined by it l«nind neighbour to ueii;hbour; and, whilst securing to each his privilege and his libertv, ' .iided together all countries of Germany in leg .ondsof union But It is only in the siKial re- atioiis that tlie unity was really pereeivable , Inly as long as the Empire was an actual n .ly, could the su- pre-me power of the Electors, each with his own siiecial rights, lie maintained; only so long could dukes and princes, bishops and abliots hold their neighbours In due re'spect, and through court offices or here<litarj- services, tlmmgli liefs and the dignity of their independent position give their vassals a peculiar position to the whole Only so long could the cities enjoying inimeiiiate- uess under the Empire, carefully divided into free and imperial cities, be not merely protected, but also assured of a participation to tlie govem- meut of the whole. Coder tlili MuctlAed and 2U iJSi^m AUSTRIA, 1477-1495. Thrift. AUSTRI.' 1.119-1565. tradlMnnal system of suzerainty and vassalage all were happv and contented, and bore a love to It such as is cucrislied towards a native town or a father's house. For some time past, the House of Austria \\m\ enjoyed the foremost position. It also liail a union, and, moreover, a great fac- tion on its side. The union was the 8ual)ian Lcaguu. Old Suabia was divided into three leagues — the league of the peasantry (tlic origin of 8wii/' rli\nd); the league of th- knights in the Black I St, on the Kocher, tlK Xeckar. and the Danu, and the league of the cities. The peas- antry w .re from the first hostile to .\ustria. The Emperor Fredirick brought it to pass that the cities and kniglits, that had from time out of mind lived in feud, bound themselves together with several princes, and formed, under his pro- tection, the league of the land of Suabia. But the party was scattered throughout the whole Empire. ' — L. von Ranke, History of the Latin and Teittonir Jfationt, bk. I, ch. 3. A. D. 1493-1519.— The Imperial reign of Maximilian.— Formation of the Circle of Austria.— The Aulic Council, gke Geumanv : A. I). 1493-1.519. A. D. 1496-1499.— The Swabian War with the Swiss Confederacy and the Graubunden, or Grey Leagues (Gnaons).- Practical inde- pendence of both acquired. See Switzerland : A. U. 1396-1489. A. D. 1496-1526.- Extraordinary aggran- dizement of the House of Austria by its marriages.— The Heritage of ':harles V.— His cession of the German inheritance to Ferdinand.— The division of the House into Spanish and German branches.— Acquisition of Hungary and Bohemia.— In 149ti, Philip ilic iiiir. soil (if Maximilian, Archduke and Emper- or, by his marriage with Ma-v of Burgundy, "espoused tJie Infanta of C-i daughter of Fenliniiml [of Aragon] and L , of Castile. They liad two )ns, Char.ca a- , .^rdinaiul, the former of whom, known in history by the name of Clmrles V., inherited the Low Countries in right of his father, Philip (1506). On the death of Ferdlnuml, his maternal grandfather (1.518), he became heir to the whole Spanish succeasion, which coiiipiehended the kingdoms of Spain, Aaples, Sieily, and Sardinia, together with Spanisli America. To these vast possessions were;i(l(l(d his patrimonial dominions in Austria, wliicli were tmn.sniittcd to him by his paternal gruiidfather, tlie Emperor Maximilian I. About tl- same time (1.519). the Imperial dignity was .erriil on this prince by the electors [see A. 1). 1519]; so that Europe had Gbkm.^ny not seen, since the time of Charlemagne, a monarchy wi powerful as that of Charles V This Emperor concluded a treaty with his brother Ferdinand; by which he ceded to him all his hi reiiiiary posses-iions in Qermanv. The ,two lirolhers tl.us Iwcame the founders of the itwo princ i|iiil lirnnclies of the House of Austria, viz., that c»f Spain, which iM'gan with Charles ;V. (cuIIhI Cliaries I. of Spain), and ended with Charies II. (17()0); and that of Germany, of which Fenliiiand I. was the ancestor, and which became extinct in the male Hue in the Empen)r Charles VI. (1740). Tliese two branches, closely allied to each other, acted In concert for the advanceiuei.1 of their reciprocal interests; more- over they gained each their own separate advan- tage! bjr the msnisge oonnexions wtUcb tbey formed. Ferdinand I. of the German line marri»d Anne (1521). sister of Louis King of Hungarv and Bohemia, who having lieen slain by the Turks at the battle of Mohscs (1526). thesV two kingdoms devolved to Ferdinand of the House .if Austria. Finally', the marriage which Clmrles V. contractwl with the Infant Isabella, (lau);lii,r of Emmanuel, King of Portugal. procure<l l'|,ilip II. of Spain, the son of that marriage, the wliuie Portuguese monarchy, to which he succei'deil mi the death of Henry, called the Canlinal (I.5.S111 80 vast an aggranilisemcnt of power alamieil tlie Sovereigns of Europe."— C. W. Koch, The l!,r„. lutionx of Europe, prriml 6. Also in : W. Coxe, llitt. of the JJome of A utlrin eh. 25 an,/ 27 (r. 1).— W. Roliertson, l)iM. ofih ReignofaharU»V.,bk. 1.— See, also, Sp.\in: A. 1). A. D. 1510.— Death of Maximilian.-Elec- tion of Charles V., " Emperor of the Romans " 8eeGERM.\Nv: A. D. 1.519. ^.^•,°- .',519-1555— The imperial reign of Charles V.— The objects of his policy.-His conflict with the Reformation and with France.— " Charles V. did not receive from iiiiture all the gifu nor all the charms she can bestow, imr did experience give him every talent ; but lie \\ :is equal to the part he bad to plav in the wmlil He was sufficiently great to keep his maiiv- jewelled diadem. . . . His ambition was ,Mi,l and wise. The scope of his ideas, which are m.t quite easy to divine, was vast enough to enninl a state composed of divers ami distjint portimis so as to make it always very difflcult to anial;:u- mate his amdcs, and to supply them willi f.iuil or to procure money. Indecd'its very e.xisiini would have lieen exposed to permanent il.ui'tr from powerful coalitions, had Francis 1. kiicwn how to place its most vulner.ible points uu.i.r a united pressure from the armies of France , f England, of Venice, and of the Ottoman Enipin Charles V. attained his first obie<-t when he ire- venU'd the French monarch from taking' lies session of the inheriluuce of the house of .Anj.m at Naples, and of lliat (,f the Viseontis at .Milnp' He was more 8iic<'essful in stopping the manh ,1 Solyman into AusI . ia than in checking the spn .ul of the Reformation in Oerinanv. . . . Churlis V. had four objei-ts very much at liiart: he wished to be the master in Italy, to clii( k the progress of the OtU)iiian power" In tlie wi^i ,,f Europe, to concpier the King of Fninee. and t,) govern the Germanic body by dividing it. and In- making the Hi^formation a religious pretext for oppres.sing the political ('.efenders of that lulief. In three out of fourof these objects lie.siurei.lerl. Germany alone was not conquere<i: if sli,. w,u beaten in battle, neither any political triinepli nor any ndigioiis results cnsue<i. In Ciirnmiiv. Clmrles V. Ingan his work t(X) late, and aiieii ;.«) slowly; he undertook to subdue it at a lime win n the abettors of the Uef.irmation had irmwii strong, when he himself was growing waiiir . . . Like many other brilliant caners, ihu career of Charh'S V. was more 8uc(f»,st ' ami more striking at the ciimmenctment niai llie miildle than at the end. of Its course, .\t Madri<I, at Cambrai, at Nice, he made his rival bow down his head. At Crespy he again f.irie<i him to obey his will, but as he had cornel'jtflv made up his mind to have peace, Charles ilic- tated it, in some manner, to his own detriment. At I'lHau he had to yield to tbe terms of his enemy 212 AUSTRIA, 1519-15M. Charin M« Fiflk. ArSTRIA, 152»-15a7. — of an rncmy whom diarlos V. encountered in liU old age. and when liis iMiwers liad decayed AltliDtigh it may Iw said tliat the extent ami the power iif tiie sovereignty wliich Charles V. left to his successor at his death were not diminishe<l still his armies were weakened, his finances were exhnusted, anil the country was weary of the tyranny of liic imperial lieutenants. The Buprerniiey of the empire in Germany, for which he had struggled so much, was as little estab- llslie<l at the cud as at the Ix'ginning of his reign ■ religious unity was solemnly destroyed by the •Recess 'of Augsburg. ! • that which marki the position of Charles V. .is the representative man of his epoch, and as the founder of the IKihcy of miKlern times, is that, wherever he was Tirt4)rlous, the effect of his succesE was to crush the last efforts of the spirit of the middle ages ami of the imiependenee of nations. In luviv lii Siwin. in Germany, and in the Low Countries Ills Irimnphs were so much gain t(j the cause of a'lSdlule monarchy and so mii<h loss to tlie liUrty ileriveil fnim the old state of s.icicty H li.itever wag the character of lilierty in the miilille ages — whether it were contested or inconiplite, or a mockery — it pl.iyed a greater part llian in the four succeeding centuries Cliiirles V. was aisurcdly one of those who con- tnluitiil the most to found and consolidate the jiolitiiil system of modern govcmmenu. Ilis hislnry has an as|)ect of grandeur. Had hrjuiiisl. U'enas sagacious in the closet as he was h,il,l in the field, by a vigorous alliance with hii!.'!iiii(l, with Pnitestant Germany, and with s..me of the republics of Italv, he might perhaps have balimced and controlled the power of Charles \. Hut the French monarch ilid not I»is.sc¥S the foa'sightand the solid understandiug mcissary to pursue Mich a iiolicy with success Ills riv:il. therefore, mcupics the fi-st place in tlie liw.irical pictua' r' the epoch. Charles V. had il,e se^ntiment of his position and of the pun he had to play. "-J, Van Praot, £«,,«, o,i the luhtiail lUttwy of tlu \T,th, Wth. and I'th icHlurua. pp. liK)-194._See, also, Germ.\.nv ;-„P,.';V® "' '""S-lWl, and FiiANCE: A. D. li;'(Hi-,'.'J, to l.WT-I.Wa. A, D. 1525-15*7 -Successful Contest for the Hungarian and Bohemian Crowns— In lliiiigiiry, "under Kbig .Matthias the house of ^;ip..|.va, so called from a tihivonic village near i .isoluga, whence it '.riginatcd, rose to peculiar emmcnee. To this iious^-, in particular. King ^^lKllslas had owe<l his accession to the throne- "liince. Iiowcver, it thought itself entitled to • IniMi a ..hare in the sovereign power, and even a j-.rl of |.rosp..etivc right to the throne. Its mem- l"rs were the wealthiest of all the magnates ; thev Ms^ssed seventytwo castles. ... It is said tlwi a pnjphecy early promised the crown to the ). iim- ,I„lin Zapoly.i. I'ossessed of all the power cunrerred by hi.s^rieh inlieritance. Count of Zips, aiut \\„mode of Transylvania, he soon collected a strong party arounil him. It was he who :iminl.y persuaded the Hungarians, in the year >0.,. to exc u, e all foreigners from " - Oirone '.» a formal deeae; which, tlioug -y wea; i.y ahvavs able to maintain in forct-, tney could .uar l.,!4 the WoIw.Ib micociUiI in putting J own an exceedingly formidable insun-ection o? the lesser nobility priced tlie more highly, because 213 It enabled them to reduce tlic peasantry to a sill harder state of servitude. Ills wish was, ou the death of Wladislas, to become Gul«mutS of the kingdom, to marry the deceaaed king's daughter Anne, and then to await the courae of events. But he was hea- encountered by the policv of M.jxinili«n Anne was married L tlio ^n,i .'J, ' J''"l!n»"d: Zttiwlya was excluded from the administration of the kingdom; even the vacant Pa atinatc was refuse.! him ami given to his old rival Stephen Bathory. He was liTghlv I?**."!"'- ,• • ■ ^"' " '■"' "f* ««1 'I'c year l.WS that Zapolya got the U|)per hand at thelJakosch . . .>o one entertained a doubt Uiat he aime.1 at the hrone. . . . But before anything was accomplished— on the contrary, JiJat as these party conflicts had thrown the country into the utniiKt confusion, the mighty enemy, Soliman appeared on the frontiers of Hungary, deU-rmined to nut an end to tlie anarchy. , . . In his prison • at Madrid, Francis I. had found means to entreat the assistance of Soliman; urging that it well beseemed a great emiieror to succour the op. preascd. Plans were laid at Constantinople, accordmg o which the two sovereigns were to attack Spain with a comblne.1 tieet, and to send armies to in- ade Hungary ami the uonh of luilv tollman, ^ ithout any formal treaty, was by liia position J ally of the Ligue, as the kitlg (,f Hungarj wa.s, of the "mpea)r. On the 2*1 of April, lo28, .Soliman, after visiting tl, .■ gi^ves of his forefathers ami of the old Moslem martyrs niarchctl out of Constantinople with a niig"l,tv host, consisting of about a humlred thousiiud men, and incessantly strengthened by fresh re- cruits on its road. . . . ^Vhat power ha<l Hun. gary, in the condition we have just described of resisting such an attack ? , . . Tiie youiiiJ kmg tiH.k the field with a following of not mot? than three thous.-md men. . . , He procewle.l to the fatal plain of Mohaez, fully resolved with his small band to await in the open field the overwhelming force of the enemy . . Personal valour could avail nothing. The Hungarians were Immejliately thrown into di.sorder their best men fell, the others took to Uight The young king was compelled to Heo. It was not even granted him to die in the field of battle- a far niore ui.siTable end aw-.-iiled him. Mourt'id iK-liind a bilesian soMier, who served him as a guide, he had already lieeti carried nrnws the dark waters that divide the plain; his horvu was alaady climbing the bani;, wli,-„ he slipped, fell back, and buned himself and his rider in the moniss. This rendered the defeat dc-isive N>lim.an had gained one of those victories wiiicli decide the fate of nations during long ep,«.-hs . . . That two thrones, the succession to which was not entirely free from doubt, hivl thus been lelt vaiant, wiu an event tli!,t necessjirilv c:iusi-il a great agitation thn.ughout Christendom It was still a .pieslicin whether su(-h a EuMpean power as Austria would continue to exi.st— . question which it is only iieces,sarv to -tat'e ■ onler to be aware of its vast i'nixrrlanee to the fate of mankind al larin-, and of Gennnny in ii;ir- ticular. . . . The claims of Ferdinand" to IxMh .-owns, unquestionable as tliey might bo in reference to tlie ta'aties with the'reigning h."i«e» «tTui,p|Mwi.,l iu tile nations thems'elvi's, by tho r ghtof elect ion and theauthority of considerablo rivals. In Hungary, as soon as the Turks had retired, John Zapolya apiwaieU with the duo ■i fe AUSTRIA, 1525-1587. Skngarn and auhtmla. AUSTniA, 1564-1618. Sr}^.iT^f .^ ''1^'' '"'''' ^'^ 'f""" "'« inflict: of Ills Ivrrsarii'S. . . . Even in Tokiiv liow- wl. Ic tlKMli,k.-»..f Bavari,. cmciv..! il.c .l.-sil of getting i...»«.88l„n of tlio throne of UohcmRi. n; ; .1 "■ *'" '', '" •'"' 'W" kimtiioms alone U at t K.SC pretenders ha.1 a consi,le,,.bIe part" The sta e of politu, |„ Europe was such as to .jsur.. hem powerful support'ers ahrcvul I^tl^ whh'y t^/"'T''' ^J"^ fntimaU'ly conne<.te,I he pope was al his sicU'. ami the Germans In on of'X "u'T" V"" ri'""^"' "»'*'""' "'« fac tion of the \\ oiw.Mle with money. Zaiiolva sent n lmitte.1 a uiemher of the LIgue of cl.^nae In plrtS *""• ";{:,*""'"'■" '""f l""g "a.T .levote.l piirtiaiins, . . Th« conse(|ucnces that must ■ave resulted, had this scheme sueee.-dt"l are « Inoaloulahle. that it is not t.H. m.uh t., 8,,y 1111^ hi',l!;.if'p" compU^ely chanjred the pJIli ie.d history of Europe. The power of Rivaria would have o„tw,.|j:he,l that of Austria In both oZan iind hiavonian countries, and Zapolva. thus su,, Sm Th"" ""'* T-^ awe to-main,.!"' s station; the Ligue. and with it hiffh ultm-mon- tanc opmums would have held the ascendency ^c.istem Europe Never was there a pm ?t more pn.snant with danirer to the crowing p,>wer with all the prudence and enerjry which that house h,u, so often displayed in .liSfcultemerKc'n cies. tor the pn'sent. the all important obieet was the cn)wn of Bohemia. . . . All his meas ures were taken with s,.ch skill and prudence that on the .lay of election, thou^-h the Bavarian dH ;?, 'f •> "'' '" *"" '""' "-'""It. not the slightest doubt of the success of his ne^r,„ia,|ong. an over- whelming majority in the three estates electe<l Fenlinaml to tli.. throne of Bohemia. This t.K.k Place on the 2;W OcIoIkt. 1.5J.t. . . ()„ Jds brothers birth-day. the 24th of February "v'7 Ferdinand was crownwl at I'rairue. . The affairs of Hungary were not so e.isilv or so peaee- fo^ani'"';, 1.- • • A' "^^'^ «"™ ^■'I.olya'^^ame forwani, full armed and powerful out of the general .iesolalion. he lm,l the uncontesU^ supenontjv The capital of the kingdom s,«rgl his pn.,ection. after which he march,,! to StuI weissi^nburg, where his partisans. b,.re d,>wn all attempts at opposition: he was electe.1 an.I cTowncI (llth ,,f NovemV-r. 1,W8); in Croat a AM :.I nn''',"h '"■''""» le'lged king at a diet; he fllle 1 all the numerous places. temp,.ral anil spiri„i|,l. Ic, vacant by the dis,ister of Moh,u7 a In. 'l?u /■,',""''.'■••. ■ • n'>"J "'e Germans tt.liancci Mthou interruption; ami as s.«.n as it nppeariKl iwissible that Fenlinaml might lie succes.sful, Za,K.lya-8 follower In'gan to . Im'rt him. . -Never .11.! the Oennan,r,H,psdS,y more bnivery and constancy. Thev had ofu'n iKi.her nuM, nor brca.l. an.i were obliged o iv" on »u<h fruits as th,.y f.mn.l In the ganlens: he 1 ihabi Ian s were wavering ami uncertain - th..v sul.in,l„.,|. an,l ilu^n revoltul again t,. the emmv ■ Z,ip,.lyas troops, ai,l.,l by their knowlclg,. ?,f bv" nk'h! • .m;'''-;r "n " '"^ ("'"^^.M^ at^cks b> iiiirht; but the Germans evince,!, in the moment of ,l«uger the skill an,! ,!eterm nation of a H.,man hgi.ai: iln.y sh.,w«|. t,«, a noble con- sUimy umrcr .lllll.nltira and privations. At Tokay they .IcfcateU Zupolyu and comp..!?.^ him 214 1).7, Feitlinand was crowne. n Mtuhlwii*,,.,, pl le, Ferdinan.1, however, distinctly fell ,| , this appearance was .Musivc. . . . In Boh,, , too IS, „,wer was far fr..m secure. Ilis Bav„ 1 .^r vll.".? ""' "."' "■'Inquish.Kl the hop,. Irning him from the thnme at the first g,.n,r. urnoFaflrairs. The Oltomims, mcanwhll, ". t ng upon the persuasi.m tliatev..ry lam! in wl,i, l, Uie lea. of their elii..f ha.l Mtid belo.iw, „f; . '.JL"'""' *T P"T''ring to ri'tum to Um gary ; cl her to take pos.*.ssi,m of it thenis,""" or at lirst as was th.'ir c.ist.mi, to licstow it „„ ,; nativj. ruler -Zapolya, who now eageriy .s,„i "l an a iance with them -as their vas^i'!: ITJ H^". "i'^ "/ ""^ formation iVi dr. many, bk. 4, ch. 4 (r, 2) dolph and Ferdinand II.- Prelude to th, Th'rty Year. War.-" Then, is no peri',! c J,' nec,e.I with these r,.||gious wars thiit ,|,.«,.rv s m,)retobe8tudi«! than tliese reigns . Kirili nan,l I., Maximilian [the 8..coml],\ml th.t: ,,f his 8um^,rs who preceded the tliirtv v.ars' ,^. ;.i ". '""I "" ""^•^"■iSn who exhibit, ,1 th,,t exercisoof m,xlerati,m ami rikkI si-nse wl,i, |, „ pl ilos,.phcr w.iuM re,,ulre, but Maximili,.,,; a ■ was lmn.e.liately followe.1 by prin.vs ,f a different complexion. . . . Nothing c.uM 1... m, re compl..te than the .lilflculty .,? t„l,.r,„i.n « he time when Maximilian nigne.!; «n,l |, ' ndl,l policy could be attended with favoun.l.I,' eff,.ctsinhisageam! nation, there can l)e li,i|. fear of the experiment at any oiIi.t peri,>,l \„ riTX,!!"; •'r'!^"" .'"."'" *""« w»» then disp.K,.,| ,w i^V '"l'i'''>;'"'"ur from anv sens,. „f u„. justice of such forbearance, but from moliv,, „f leini«,r.,l pohcy alon... The Lutherans, it uill 1„. seen, could not bear tliat the Calvinisis ^h^uM «.|ve,Tf"'y? ,'■'■''>'''"•'* privileges with tl„m. 8. his. The Calvinisis were c,,ually opinion:it,.,l ami unjust; and Maximilian himself wai prnl,„|,|v U.lerant and wise, chiefly bt^cause he w... i„ l.u real opini.ms a Lutheran, and in outward pro- r, ,i 1 ^"' '"'S'''*' y™"' «''e whole of his reign, he prcscrvinl the reliirlous peace ,)f tlje eommimity. without destroying the r.Ii'i. ' 1 free,l,.m of the human min.l/ He supp."„:i u" allTl^l, 'l*'!'!'"'^' "' "«' l"-"l»minanl p,„.v. in all their rights, possessions, am! privil,'-, ,;" l,„t c pro„.c„.,l the I'rot,.s,ants in ev'-ry ..vTr. isi' !1 their religion which was then pra;n,„bl,.. I„ .therw.)r,ls, he was as tolenmt an,l just as tl„. emper of 8,Kuty Ih.'n a.lmittol. ami mure „, than the state ,.f thinirs woul.l have su2L',st,d ... Ihcm.'rit of Maximilian was butt,H,a ,r. em the m„m.;nt that his 8,>n R,Molpli was , , l,,l UH,n,. supply his ph.ce. . . . He lull alu.vshft the (Mliuiatum of his son ami successor |o,,„„i,h ;i,'.i„. ' ;' «'^"™ "f Ilis bigot.H! con8,irt Ho dolph. his son, was ther..f,.re as igimnui! an,l f nous .m his part as were the Pr,.,estants „n theirs; !,r l,ad imimillate recourse t,. th,. usum! (xpedi,,,., — force, and the exwuti,in .f the e'r '''•''« /I'O' "'■"'•r. . . . After K.«l„l|:h (oiries Matthias, ami, unhappily for all Eim.|».. :""■"■'•' '*"'' 'he empire felt afli-rwanls ,i„.i,r the management ..f Ferdinand II. Of the ,liir,.r ent Austrian princes, it is tbc t«lgn of Feniinsna AUSTRU, IMl 1818. TUrhiTian Iror. AUSTRIA, Ut8-1M8. n. that b more pnrttcularly to be cnnildcrctl. Siidi WM the iirbllrary nature of his gdvem- nwnt over liin siiliji-rta In Bnhcniiit, tlmt tlicy n'vcilicd, Tliiy ilfctcfl for tliiir king the jouiig EliTtnr Paliiline, hoping thus to extricate tluniselvcs from the higotry and tyranny of Ftriiiuiind. TIds crown 8i> offered was ucconted ■ and, in tlie event, the cau9<; of tlic Bolicmlana Ix'Oimc the cause of the Reformufion In Gor- miiny, and the Elertor Palatine the hero of that cause. It Is this which gives the great Intert-st tnthlsrol^'n of Fenlinand II., to thise concerns f)f hiHsuliJects in Rohemia, and to the character of tliis Elector Palatine. For all these evenu and circumstances led to the thirty years' war." — W. t<myth, l^rliim on Moilern flinhrry t I Ifrl. 13. — See B<iiiEMi.\: A. D. 16U-16lk and GER.M.VNT: A. I). 1B1»-Ifi20 A. D. is67-i66o.-Stnig:Blet of the Hapt- burg House in Hungary and TransTlvania to establish rights of sovereigntj,— Wars with the Turks. Sec IIlmhuy: A. D, 1567-1604 and lOotUBflO. • A. D. i6i8-i648.-The Thirty Years War. -The Peace of Westphalia.— 'The thirty vinrs war made Germany tlie centre point o"f Lun.peun politiea. . . . Nn one at il.s eommcnci d iratlon and —IS L-verywhen; let it goinjr; , and sw.il- .y truth, tliat ..iirlydiipluyed. first broke "out (>p( mint could luive foreseen the exiint. But the train of r- - ^ laid, and required only the • mere than (.iie war was jo lowed up in it ; and the n war feeds itself, wasnever t ^„ . . . Thiiugli tin- war, wii.vli „^ „„ in B<iliemia, concerned only the hoii.sc of Austria vitljy its originating inVeliirious disputes by Its i» culiur character as a nligious war and I>v- t he miiisures adoptwl iK.tli by the Insurgeiilsand ti.e eijiperor, it acquired such an extent that even thequellins of the in-urrcction was'lnsuf- tioi, nt to put a stop to it. . , . Thoueh the lJ..hemian war was apparently terminated, V( t the name had communicated to Gernuinv lind Hunirary, and new fuel was added by the act of proscription promulcated a^-ainst the elector ^r,-,l,ric ami his adherents. From this the w ,r itcrived that revolutionary character, which was hem tfnrwani peculiar to it; it was a step that couldnutbut lead to further results, forllieques- ii.rinf the relations betw,-. n the emp.mr ami his states was in a fair w,. of being practically formed in \ieuna and Madrid, where it w.is r« lived to renew the war with the Netherlands. Lnder the present circumstances, the suppn^s- sion of the Protestant redigion ami the overthrow of(,ermanand Dutch liberty app«ired insepar- a!.-, uhle the success of the lm|Krial arms, > "Ir!,' "*''"'}• *i-"^, hy the league and the f 'r ' M u* *;f"'"""->l8. gave just grounds I . « '.r i.v • • ^?' "'': '•■"."■Jing of the war into t^mnlf^ "'■• v."' P^"'iP»' seat of the Protes- tant religion in Germany (the states of which had a,,p.,i,„« chtistian IV. of IX.nmark »^ n J, ""'■""-■'''• ?«>'' "t their confwieracy), the- i^onhem s- .tes had already, though with.iu anv benehcial result. iKK-n inv^lvcl ln*'the ^ri e "Id the Danish war had broken out. But the r'/.\:':.""';'f/."T," i ^V""^"*'^-!" to the di"ni,v ., .,.,„,..,[ j.„ jj.j,j|j ^^^^ ini|K;rial gencmloye'r m r,^- niportance. as it affi-cted the whok- couri »fldcUa«eltro/UK. war. From this time tU^ 215 M. iL J ".'° '■"' ?■';," ■» ""■ m'iiutenauce of his army coul< noi fail to make It such . The <lhitlnguh,h«l success of the ImpcTiul arms ^l,em..Tu","'"r"J',""'^''"'«' «'■<-■ ''"ring schemes of W allensteln. He did m.t come for- ward as conqueror alone, but. by the investiture of Mecklenburg as a stale of the empire, as a ruMne this noTus homo, exasperated and annoye<l the ,H.'ll"'n I? ','•'" "'"" "'« Pr"testant\tati.s i-spicially the league and iu chief: all implored rMi','",1,^^'"™'"'''"'« discharge. Tl 'u ?^ the diet of the elwtors f.t Augsburg, the emperor was r«luced to the alternative of resigni g him or Ids allies He chose the former.*' Wallen- ste n was .llsmissecl, the majority of his army disbandt, , an,l Tilly m.miuaW commander lu^ chief of the forces of the en.|)eror m,1 the l.ague w;.tlif '? '"''■,"' "•« <^'»Peror sufflcient care r.^.^ "i^ '" ?"''""» ""^ *»■■• The refus,il to restore the unfortunate Frederic, and even the bide of his up|)er Palatine to Bavaria, must with justice have excited the apprehensions of the other princes. But when the Jesuits finally suceewlwl, not only In extorting the edict ,]l restitution, but also in cimsinc iff. Im. enforce; n the m(«t .hIIous manner, the Catholic st.ites themselves saw with reg.-t that peace cuuld no longer exist. . . The grea> r tile suce...,s that attended the house of Austria, the more actively foreign p(dicy lal)oure<l to counteract it. Knl land had taken an interest in the fate of Frtnl- eric V. from the first, though this interest was evinced by little Iwyond fruitless negotiations. Denmark became engagifl in the ,,uarnl mostly through the inHuemx. of this iKiwerand Holland Richelieu, fn.m the time he l)eeame prime numster of France, had exerted him.sdf in opi»»,ing Austria and Spain. He found employ, ment for Spain In the contests respecting of Mantua. W lliugly would he have detachi-,1 the German league from the interest of he emperor: amf though he failed in this he procured the fall of Wallenstein Much niore imiwirtant, however, was Hiche^ l!»"J /"""'■"C'; on the war, by the essential share he had In gaining Oustavus Adolphus' active partieipatum In it. . . . The nineteen yeareof his ^Gustavus Adolphus'l reign which 8lri-«'ly elapsetl, together wi'th the Polish war, which lastiHl nearly that time, had taught the world but little of the real worth of this great and Uilented hero. The decisive superi- ority of Protestantism in Germany, under his guidance, soon created a more just knowledge and nt the same time showed the advantages' which must result to a victorious supporter of that cause. . . The Imttle at Uipzig w»s decisive for Oustavus Adolphus and his party, almost U-yond exiiectation. The league feirasun<lcr arid in a short time he was master of the ( oun- irics fMm the Baltic to Bavaria, and from the Rhne to Boheniia. ... But the misforiunes and death <.f Tilly bn.ught Wallenstein again on the stage as absolute commander in chief bent on plans n„t ., whit K-^ extensive than those he had iK-fore formctl. N.)pt'rio.lof the w,-ir gave prtmiise of such great aiul rapid successes or reverses as the present, for both leaders wen^ Uctcrmined to effect tbem; but tbe vlctor>- of AUSTRIA, 1018-1648. Peactcf tpkaha. Wttt, AUSTRIA, 167»-1714. 1„ H LOtzen while It cost Gustnvus his life, prepared the full of \V a :ensteln. Though the fall of Uustavus Adolphus frusiratnl his own private views, It did not those of liis party. . . The school of OustHVHs produced a number of men peat In the n'Mwt and In the field: yet it was hard, even for an Oxensteim, to preserve the Importance of Sweden unimpaired; and It was but partially done by the alliance of Hcllbronn. ... If the forces of Sweden overrun almost every part of Germany in the following months, under the guidance of the pupils of the King, Bemant of Weimar and Oustavus Horn we must apparently attribute it to AV.illonstein's Intentional Inaotivitv in Bohemia. The distrust of him Incnas,.,! In Vienna the more, as he took but little trouble to diminish It; and thougli his fall was not sufficient to atone for treachery, If proved it was for his equivocal character and Imprudence. Ills death probably saved Oer- iimny from a calastronbe. ... A great change UH)k place upon tlie ileath of Wallenstein; as a prince of the bloo<l. Fenllnand. king of Hungary and Bohemia, obtained the command. Thus an end was put to plans of revolutions from this quarter. But in the same year the battle of Honllmgcn gave U) the imperial arms a sudden preponilcrance, such as it had never before acquired. The separate peace of Saxony with the emperor at Prague, and soon after an alli- ance, were its consequences; Sweden driven back to Pomemnia, st'cmcd unable of herself, during the two following years, to maintain her ground In Germany: the victory of WItUtock turned the scale In her favour. . . . The war was pro- longinl and gri'allv extended by the active share --.„... ..„..^.v,.,,, ^^vcuuvu uj lue Hciive snare taken In it by trance: first against Spain, and soon against Austriii . . . flic German war after the treaty with Bemhard of Welmnr was mainly carried on by France, by the arming of Oemmns against Germans. But the pupil of Oustavus Adolphus preferred to fight for him- self rather than utliers, and his early deatli was almost as much mvetnl by France as by Austria The succi'ss of the Swe<ilsh arms revive<l under Bauir. ... At the general diet, which was at last convened, the empemr yielded to a general amnesty, or at least what was so designated But wh.'n at the mwling of the ambassii.iiirs of the leading jKiwcrs at llaml.urg, the pnlimin- Bries Were Rlgnul, and the time and place of the ci)ngrcss of p,ac.. fixed, it was de/crred after Klchelicu » d.iitli, (who was succee<led by M«/.a- rin). by tlie war. which both parties conlinuwl III the hoiK' of s.-.uring Oetter coniiltions by victi.ry A new war broke out In the north b<twc(n Swcihn and Denmark, ami when at '»"• " tigress of peace was oiwucd at MunMcr ■nd OHHiiliruck. the negotiations draggcl on for llinc vcurs. . Tlie German p<'ace was neg„tlai,.,l „i .Muiister between the emperor and f ranci', and at IKnaliruck lietwiTn the emperor ■nd Cwclin; hut iH.lh treaties, according to express auncmcnt. Oct. 24, 1648, were to tic conslderifl MS cue. under the title of (lie West- phallan '-A H I, llecrcn. A »v,;.,l ,.f tht tl„l;ry nf the IU,I,^.,I si„l„n of Knrmr „H,iif ("<.:„.>. ,>,,. 91-(tH -Tlie Peace of Wc.ili>hall» littj. riicl manifold hostile conimenu, not only ln carlLr. hut also In later, llni.» Oi'rnmn patriots romplnuiiil that 'iv It the unity of the Empire ws-i f,.;,;. an,! in.f.i^j tiic c..uiwtli.iu of the Bute., which even Uforc was kKMc, was relued t°^,*e extreme. This was, however, an evil which could not be avoided, and It had to iv. accepted In order to prevent the French ami Swedes from using tiielr opportunity for tlie further enslavement of the land Tlie religious parties also made objections' to the peace. The strict Catholics condemned it as a work of Inexcusable and arbitrary injiistiit. v. •-"*. dissatisfaction of the Protestants wa., chiefly with the recognition of the Ecclesiastical Keservatlon. Tliey complained also that their brethren In the faith were not allowed the frie exercise of their religion in Austria. Their h,.,. tiiity was limited to theoretical discussions which soon ceased when Louis XIV. took udv in' tage of the prt^pondcmnce which he liiul won to make outrageous assaults upon C«miauv and even the Protcstanu were compdUd i,; acknowledge the Emperor as the real dcfcmler °I . i2'"'''"'*P<""''^'«;«"— A. OIndely, UiHon of the Thirty Tenrt' War. e. 8, ch. 10, tect. 4 -Sw also, Germant: A. D. 1618-1620, to 1«4)*' f627S'i*' "■ *^^^''^- """l It*'-*: a. D,' A. D. i6ai.-Form«l eitablisbment of the rtght of primogeniture in the Archducal * X* ^^eO^-XMAXv: A. D. 1636-l«:tT D- u o '''i.-'*^;— Hoitile combinations of Richelieo.-tbe Valtelline war in Northern lUly. 8ceFRA.NCE: A. D. 1624-1620 A. D. 1637.1631.-War with France over the iueceiijon to the Duchy of Mantua. 8c. Italy : A. D. 1627-1031 A.D. i648-l7is.-Relationa with O-rmanT and France. See Okrm.vnt : A. I). lii|s-i;i.i A. D. i66»-i6tf4.— Renewed war with the Turks. PeeHiNdAKv: A. I), laoo-loill A. D. 1668-1683.— Increased oppression and relimoua persecution in Hungary. Revolt of Tekeli.— The Turks again called in. Mus- tapha a great invasion and tiege of Vienna - DeliTtrance of the city by John Sobieski. Sw HtNOAKT: A. I). 160H-1(W;I. »t1f ?/ ir'*""'7'Ar''"'V ."■" 'rith Louis XIV. of France: War of the Grand Alliance. -Peace of Rjrswick.— " The Ica.liiig prindnle of the reign [fn France] of Ixiuis xfv is the principle of war with the dynasty of ( harl.s V —the elder branch of which reignnl in .•^iMiri while the desccmlania of the younger hramli occurile<l the Imperial throne of'Gcrniaiiv At the death of Maiarin, or to si.cit tn.*. correctly. Immediately after the death of I'hilip IV.. . . the early ambilion of Louis .\1\' sought to prevent the junior branch of the Austrian dynasty from succeeding to Iho in- heritance of the elder branch, lie had no disiro to see reconstilutwl under the Impirlai s< 1 pirr of Ocrmanv the monarchy which Cliarlrs V. h:ul at one time wishni to transmit enlln to liis »..n. but which. Worn out and weakened, he »iil) seqiiently allowed without ri'grct to lh> ,livi,|,d iK'tween his son ami his brother. Bifon' iii.ikinit > war upon Au.stria, Louis XIV. last his vut upon a portion of the territory bi'loniriiiir'to Spain^nd the exiHiilt ion against llollaitil U-zm I'i.. 'l.l"* NF-TIIKni.ANIW (HOLLAXIM X 1672-1674, ami IH74-I07M1, for tlie purixw of absorbing the Spanish provinces bv overwhelm Ing them, opened the series of hi» vast e r prises. Ilia rtrst irreat war w:ts !:!i!.:Hrf;!!r speaking, his first great fault. iTe faiii .1 In hit object: (or at the end u( six campalgus, duruif 216 AUSTRIA, 167a-1714. Wan tcith ItmU XIV. AU8TRU. 1673-1714. which the French armies obtained creat and deserved «ueceM, Holland remained uncon- qucred. Thus was Europe warned that the lust of con(|iicst of ft young monarch, who did not liinisk'lf possess militiiry (tenlus. but who found in his Rcncrals the resources and ability In which he was himself deficient, would soon threaten her Independence. Conde and Turenne, after having been relK-llious subjects under the Regency, were about to become the first and the most illustrious lieutenants of Louis XIV. Europe, however, though wametl, was not Immediately ready to defend herself. It was from Austria, more directly exposed to the dangers of the great war now commencing, that the first sts- tematic resistance ought to have come. But Austria was not prepared to play such a part; and the Emperor Leopold possessed neither the genius nor the wish for it. He was. in fact, nothing more than the nominal head of Germany. . . . Such was the state of affairs in Europe when William of Orange first made his appear- ance on the stage. . . . The old question of suprrniiicy, which Louis XIV. wished to fight out as a duel with the House of Austria, was now alMMit to change its aspect, and, owing to the presence of an unexpected genius, to bring into the qu.irrel other powers besides the two original competitors. The foe of Louis XIV. ought by rights to have been bom on the banks of the Danube, and not on the shores of the North Sea. In fact. It was Austria that at that moment most neciled a man of genius, either on the throne or at the lii'iicl of alTain. The events of thecenturr woulii. In this case, doubtless have followed a dllTiTi'iil course: the war would have been lesH gcnenil, and the maritime nations would not have Ixen Involved in it to the same degree. The treaties of peace would have been signed in winie small place in France or Oermanr, and not in two towns and a village In Holland, such as Ximeguen, Kyswick, and Utrecht. . . . William of Orange found himself In a position soon to form the Triple Alliance which the very policy of l,.>uis XIV. sugKesUHi. For Fmnce to attack H.illiin.l, when her object was eventually to n-adi .\intria. and keep her out of the Spanish »U(W*.i,in, was to make eiirmies at one and the sjinic lime of «paln, of Austria, and of Holland. iJui if It aftcrwanls rcquirrd considerable efforts rn the part of Wlljlam of Orange to maintain tills allmncc. It denunded still mor« cnergv to ixtenil It It fonmii part of the StadthoMers iillerlnr Plans to combine the union between him- self and the two branches of the Austrian .,'11 ■*'■ "'"' "'" "'"' Anglo-Swedish Triple Alliance, which had lust Inrn dissolved under the strong pressure brought to bear on It by Louis XIV. . . I^ul, Jciv.. whose finances wetv exhauste<J. was very soon anxious to make peace even on the morrow of hit most brilliant vidories; whilst William of Orange, beaten and relrealiiig, anienlly desired the continuance of 'he »,.r . . The I'race of Nimeguen was at iMl Mi-neil. and by It wen' secured to lA>ula XIV rraiielie romte, and some important places In till- Hpan sh Low t'oimtries on bis northern fnmtler (we NlMKoiKN, Prac- or]. This was the nilminating point of the reign of Louis A!\ Alil.mjgh the ttaUthm haxf prpvpntrfi ag.ln.| the House of Austria, which bad been w ausorb by ooaqucst so mucb of tba territory 217 belonging to Spain as would secure him against the effect of a will preserving the whole In- heritance Intact In the family, yet his armies had been constantly successful, and many of his op- pomaw were evidently tired of the struggle. . . . Some Tears passed thus, with the appear- ance of calm. Europe was conquered; and when peace was broken, because, as was said, the Treaty of Nimeguen was not duly executed, the eventaof the war were for some time neither brilliant or Important, for several campaigns Iwgan and ended without any considerable re- sult. At length Louis XIV. entered on the second half of his reign, which differed widely from the first. . . . During this second period of more than thirty years, which begins after the Treaty of Nimeguen and lasts till the Peace of Utrecht, evcnta succeed each other in complete logical sequence, so that the reign prescnta Itself as one continuous whole, with a regular move- ment of ascension and decline. . . . The leading principle of the reign remained the same; it was always the desire to weaken the House of Aus- tria, or to secure an advantageous pariltion of the Spanish succession. But the Emperor of Ocrmanv was protected by the coalition, and the King of Spain, whose death was considered Imminent, would not make up his mind to die. . . . During the first League, when the Prince of Orange was contending against Louis XIV. with the cooperation of tiic Emperor of Ger- many, of the King of Spain, and of the Elector! on the Rhine, the religious clement played only a secondary part In the war. But we shall see this element make ita presence more inauifest. . . . Tims the influence of Protestant England made Itself more and more felt In the affairs of Europe, In proportion as the government of the Stuarts, from its violence, its unpopularity, and from the opposition offered to it, was approach- ing its end. . . The seomd coalition wai neither more united nor more firm than the first had U-en : but, after the expulsion of the Stuarta, the germs of dissolution no longer threatened the same dangers. . . . The British nation now made Itself felt in the balance of Eunipe, and William of Orange was for the first time In his life successful In war at the head of his English triMips. . . , This was tlic most brilliiiut epoch of the life of William III. ... He was now at the height of his glory, afU'r a [M-rio-l of twenty years fn>m his start In life, and his .!■ ^tiny was acn>mpllshed; so that until the Treii; ..f Rys- wick, which In 1698 put an eml to his hiwtiiitles with Fmnce, and brought about his nTognitlon as King of England by Louis XIV., not much more was left for him to gain; and he had th« skill to lose nothing. . . . The negotiations for the Treaty of Ryswick were omduited with less ability and b>ildnesa. and ronclmliil on less advantageous terms, than the Triii-e of Ratlslmn or the Peace of Nimeguen. Nevcriheless, this treaty, which secured to l,<iiii« the possession of Strasbourg, might, particuliirly as ttfte was now crxH'ping on him, have dosiil I'lls military career without disgrace. If the eternal quistlon. for the solution of which he had mniie so many sacri- fices, and which had always held the foremost place ill his thoni^hts, had not remalne<t as uo- Srillrt! oil! 03 fu:l nf diiEcuity as or, the a^j when he had mounted thethi^one Charles It. of Spain was not dead, and the question of th« Spanish luccMtioa, whkh bad so MtlTtljr 1r AUSTRIA, l«7a-1714. o/VtneU. AUSTOIA, 1718-1738. employed the Brmletof Loult XIV.. and taxed his dlplomncy, wns aa utiilwidcd aa at the bc- ginnlngofhis wlgn. Lo.,|,xiV. sawtwoalter- natlvcs before Uim: a partition of the aucceaaion between the tmpomr mid lilmw-lf (a aolution proposcil thirty yearn before as a meant to avoid war), or else a will In fuvoiirof Fmnce. followwl C .m!'."" ^ \ UToninicnecment of general hostilities Loul, XIV. pr<.|K»ed fn si"' cewion two schemes, not. as thirty y.^ra befon-, to the Emperor, but to the King of England «,i"f iR"''", "?.'' ,'*'"'* Seniua rendeit5 him the arbiter of all the great afTalre of Eurow. «; i V'!. "'?' "' ""' "i'"«''« "' Pirtili-n, Spain and tlie I»w Countries wef« to be given U. the I'rince of Bavaria; in the second, U, the Archduke CImr les. In both. France obtainwl Naples and Sicily for the Dauphin. . . Both tlii-se arrangements . . . suile.! both Prance and tngland as a paclflc solution of the question . . . Hut events as we know, deranged all theae calculations, and C'lmrl."8 II., who, by continuing tol ve had dimppointed so much impatient ex- pectation, by his Inst will prt)voked a general war. to be carrii'd on apainst France by the union of England with t|„. Empire and with Ho land — a union which was much strengthcnwl under the new dynasty, and which afterwnnis embraced the northern stales of Germany. . . . >V illiam III. dicl at the age of flftytwo, on the 91 h of March, 17(«, „t the iKginnlng of the H ar of Succession. After him, the part he was to have played was dividol. Prince Eugene Marllx.n)ugli and Il.iiwius (the tirand Pen- sionary) had the conduct of political and especlallv of miliwry alTttlrs, and aca-<l in con- «rt. The disastnius onwijuences to Prance of that war, in which A\illliiii, i,a,l no part arti notorious. The battles of Uleuheim. of /lamilies, and of Oudraanle brouirht the allie<l armies on f le soil of Prancv. ami plact^l l^.ulg XIV on t ,e verge of ruin. ••^. Van Praef, Eu,,),, on lentiine: pp. afl(>-414 im.lUl-tVi Also in: H. Martin. //m«. „/ fh,nft: Aofof .i.^ii°- '*;3-«M7-Mercileia tuppretiion of the HuBjarian re»olt.-The crown of Hungary made h.rediUry in the House of HapabuT? Ne llis.nHV: A. 1). I()*l-lrtS7 ' A. D. i683-i6M.-E>pultioB of tha Turka from HunjarT.-the Peace of Cwlowits. B.e A. D. 1690-171 j.-Suppreaaion of the Re- volt under Rakocay in Huneary. See 11^^ uamt: a i> imw-i;m *^ i-^h?" ■7<»<>-''>';"" of the Imperial House rr...i»_ n<v (iKHmNV: A. I). |fl«, |u A. i»: A I). '-ceaaion. lTAi,r: A I) 1MI-171S: Si'ain ««ii^' 'V.'.^'^'" ^ "' "•• SP"'*" Sac ceaaion.— Ita Circumi ancea chanced —"Tlu. UA. wh.jlech^,er'of''u„.'W«r.,7he hSI Bucceaaion. Ai J«.ph kft u« male belS! the 218 hereditary dominions of the House of Austria devo v,Kl U,bU brother, the Archduke Cl.ark? and tliough that prince had not In-en elec,«| King of the I{<,maiis, nn<l had li.trefore tol*. c.)mc a candi<late for the lm,K-rial c^.wn vet there could be l.t lie doubt that he would a Uin that dignity, ll.nee. If t'liark-s should »|!i |J! n.nie aovcrelgn of Simln an.l the In.lles, the v,^t , emp.re of Charles ^. would U- again imilclTn one pcraon; and that very evil of ,n i.lm.«t unl versnl monarchy would be established, the nn^ ventionof which had iKrn the chief cause f,.r I taking up arma against Philip V. . . After «n intern-gnum of half a year, during which th2 affaira of the Empire ha<t Nen conductal liv the Eh^-tflr Palatine ami the Ekn-torof Saxony „ the Archduke Charies waa unanimously na.n.d Empejmr by the Electoral College (Oct I'th) :^ ,. ^- ■ "Wef'^i'd the imperial (Mwn ^j^.r"}^'"';^J^ 8*.<. *itl' the tlt/e of CLarl," \' ,,-T- U- Dyer, Hut. o/M.Mlern Europ,, hk 5 c/l. O (9. o). « ■ , «t.^n!ifc'Z'^'^'1~^°^i"8^ °'*''« War of the ^•^.^ Succeaaion.-The Peace of Utrecht i^d the Treat, of Raat^lt.-Acqui.ition of «^e Spuiah rfetherlanda. N.plea and Milan. See Utukciit: A. D. I7I3-17I4. -4^1; ?• ,'7«3:;7l9--Continued differcncei with Spain.- Tie Triple Alliance.- The (Quadruple Alliance. S<* Spain: A, 1) 1T13! A. D. 1714.— peDeaertionof the Catsians. SecSpAi.N: A. D. I7i:»-i:u A. D. l7i4-;7«8.-RecoTery of Belgrade and final expulaion of the Turka fromliuD- *'!'•«'* '"■""*'«*: A. I). 161HJ-171H e,«i«- 'VJ:'2"~'^?* l"«»ti««> Of the Sue. VI .^iu* P"Pn"»": Sanction of Charles VI., audita narantec by the Powera- im he death [A. U. 1711] of J.«.ph, the l,o|«, „f the house of Austria ami the future d. stinv of of Spain, Charles III., Iiiehcctuallv cnu.siini Ml, ■'v"'*'',. "'"'"'". *'"' ""> '*•'"""'" •"■!* I lillp V. ; afterwards, as Empt^ror, Cliarl.s VI 1 who was the only surviving male of lii» III,,,! trii.us family. Bv that event the houxs of Aus- tria, Uermany and Euroiie were placiil in a mw and critical situation, t'n.m a principl,. „f n,l,. taken pollcv the succeaslon lo the hinilitan ilo- minions mil never lKTne8U.l.li»h,.,|arii.nli„i;l,„„ Invariable rule; for It was not clearlv as., rtaiiiid whether mslis of llio collHiiral lirHmlHs sliouij U- pri.femil to females In lineal dew-iil. an un eirlalnty which hiul fri'iiuenllv ,Hr»»i..,ie,| nnuv vehement disputes. To obvlale this .vil if 7. \ ** J", r"'**"' 'I't'ire di»|iiii.s. I i«.|,| Ifalher of Joseph and Chnrles) had arninu. J ilio ■.nlrrofsuecession: to .l,H..ph he awl^-n..! Una garyand Bohemia, and the olh. r liinillMn ,|... Ill iilous; and to Charles the cnnvn of Snm{ .irhl Hi the territories which Ulonge.1 lo llic S|.nin,li inherilanw. Shoukl J.wph die wlil„,ui K..,,- mall' the whole aui>ceM<i<>n was to il.-M,ti,l 1,1 t harles, and In case of his death, iiiuler -iinll.v elniinisijinees, the Austrian ilomlnions h.o 10 ilevolveon tlie daughters of J,.w'|>|i h, ,,rif,r .•nee to those of Charles. This family i,i,n,,»ot was signed by the two brother* In ilii< (.n-.j.. r.r U-MHiM. .I,«,.pu ,i,„i without nislr Iwiie: but left two daughtera." He was suiiiidiil liy CbnrhM in accunlaoce with the touipMi. "On AU8TRU, J718-1738. PragmaHe auieticm. AUSTRIA. 1740. the Sod of Augtiit, 1718, iood after the ilgnature nf tlie Quadruple Alliance. Ckarlei promulgate*] a new law of lucccasion for the Inhcritaace of the hnuM) nf Austria, under the name of tlie Pratrnmtic Sanction. According to tlie family compBot formwl liy Tvcopolil, and conflnncd by .loscpli and Charles, the guccesilon wa» entailed on tlip dnuehtcm of Joseph la '.reference tii the il»U)rhters of Charles, shoiii they both (lie witliout issue male. Charles, ImweTer, had sromly awcnded the throne, though at that lime without chihlrcn. than he reversed this cnmpae I and setllwl the right of succession, in diruult i>( his male Issue, flrst on his daughters, then on the daughters of Joseph, and afterwanis "" — ..-..-. u. w.m^pu, «uii oiujrwHnil on the nupen of I'ortugal and the other daugh- ters of I,c<ip<,I(l. Since the promulgation of that (iecree. the Empress had borne a son who dir<l in his infiinrv. and three daughtera, Maria Theresa, Maria .\ime and Maria Amelia. With a view to insiirp the succession of these daughters, and to oliviftii' tlie dangers which might arise from the claims of the Josephine archduchesses, he puh- llsheii the Pragmatic Sanction, and comptlled his nieces to renounci- tlicir pretensions on their marrinpes with the electors of Saxony and Ba- varia. Aware, however, that the strongest re- nunciations are diareganled, he obtained fmin llic (lifTcn'nt states of his extensive dominions tlie ac kriowliiltemeiit of the Pragmatic Sanction anil m.iilc it the great object of his reign, to Willi li he sucrillreil every other consideration, to rriieiin> tlie guaranty lit the European powers" This k'uaranty was nbtained In treaties wiiu llie si'venil powers, as folldws: Spain in ITS.'S- Rus- sia. i:.'«. n hewed in 1T;W: Prussia, 1728; Eng- land ami Holland. 1781 ; France, 1738: tlieEmpiri' 17;K. Tlie inheriunee which Charles thus eii- lieavim'd to secure to his daughter was vast and imp<«inL'. "He was bv election Emperor of (Jernianv, by herpilii...v right sovereign of Hun- gary, •irans.vlvania. IJoliemia, Austria. Stvria (armlhiaanil Caniiola, the Tyrol, and the bris- pau. and he had nrentlv obtained Naples and .•»i(ily. the Milan<se and the Netlierlands."— \V (•"Xc. UiKt. „fihe IhiiM! nf Auitria, eh. 80. Hi-ail '■" , ~,.' ' '"' •'fi'K'">'>"c Sancthm, though framed in i. rilize the aeotaion nf Maria TlieniMi, ex- (luiliHtlie priM-nt EmiHwr's daughters and his gri.iuj, liihl by nostrHinliig the sueossion of limahs to that of mahs In the family of Cimrlis ;, 7 • ". ""•"■cliier. The IhriUqt of tht aipi,l';r,;,i/;.rl„i(,/,l!D !{,».. Murfh. l»89t Aix. IN : II. Tiittle. /li,l. o/Pruma. 1740-174.5 t' w '^ 'I""'"""- ""'■ <^ "^ Uermani'f A. D.1719.- Sardinia ceded to the Duke of kV I", ■.'?'?,"«• f". S'^llr- S«^« Sl'AI.N: i7:n '''•^''-'^' »""' Italt: A. D. 171,V -A: ?■ 'T^'-."''"''? aecond Treaty of Vienna KJ^kT '"'' """"*'• S*'"**'"^ A 1) A M lT:IMr?r* P'"*"**- Si-o PuI.A.M>: A. D. i733-i735.-The war of the Polish Spain, and Lorraine and Bar to Fraace. s.* Iti.v'iTiM i'-'i-It:K. «id Um.x: A. 1». I urki, in alliaoc* with RoMia,— HuaUiatiac 219 S?£*QfL°*''T?'*-^?1«""'«' «' Belgrade, A. D.^m^75S "**" "^ '^ livmu.: n.\-°' '7?"* <Oe»o<>«f)-Treachery amoiw .. rif ""t"*"" of M«rie Theresa disputed. ^.h f ^^IP^""" S'i'I'''-"* ^'^ died on the 20th of October, 1740. Hi» daughter Maria llicresa, the hcire&s of hU dominions with the title of Queen of Hungary, was but twenty- three years of age. without experience or knowl- e;ge of business; and her husband Francis, the titular Duke of Lorraine and reigning Orand .u^»,?^ Tuscany, deservwl the praise of amiable qualities rather than of commanding taleuta Her Ministers were timorous, irrescilutc, and useless: 'I saw them in despair,' writes Mr. Itobinson, the British envoy, 'but that very despa r was not capable of rendering them bravely desperate. ' The treasury was exlTausteil. the army dispersed, and no General risen to re- place Eugene. The succession of JIaria Theresa was. Indeed, cheerfully acknowledged by her subjects, and seemed to be secured amongst fore gn powers by their guanmtee of the I»rag- matic Sanction; but it soon apiiearcd that sut-h guarantee* are mere wortiilesa parclimenU » licre there U stnmg temptation to break and only a feeble army to support them. The principal claimant to the succ-ession was the t-lrttiir of Ilavaria, wlm maintiuned that the will of the Emperor F.idinand tlie First devisiKl he Austrian stales to his .laughter, from wlioni the Elettor descended, on fai' re. of male liiieaire It anpearcfl that the origiiiu: ..ill In the archives at Vienna referred to the failure, not of the male but of the legitimate Issue of his sons: but this document, tliou-h ostentatiously dis- plave.1 to all the Ministers of state and forelim amliassadors, was very far from Inducing the hli^cUir to desist from Ids pretensions. As to the t.reat Powers-Ihe Court of France, the old nily of the Bavarian family, and mindful of its iijuries from the Hous.' of Austria, was eager to e.xalt the Urst by the depression of the latter. 1 he UourUms In >|iain followed the dirtKlion of the BciurUms in France. Tlie King of Poland and the Empn-ssof Hussia »er<. more friemlly In their cxprtwiions tlmn in tli.ir designs Au oi.p.«itc ..pirit |i. rvail.Ml Enitiaiid am! HollamI Where motives of honour and of policy combineti to support the rii:lils of Maria Theresa. In (.ermany itself ||„. Elector of Coh.gn... the llavarians brother, warmly csimiusjiI hia cause - and -the remaining El.cton..' says I In .tertleld," like elwtors with ii», lhoughl"it a proiier op- p<irtun ty of making llie most of their votes — *[! ?" ".'..""' '■■<J'<''»<' of the helph'ss and abandoned House of Austria!' The lirst bhiw however came from Prussia, where the King JreMlerick William liad dieii a few months l». fore, ami lM.en siiece.iliil by lila son Frwierick the Second; a Prince siirnsmiil the Onat by ■.lets. — I^mi Mahon (Earl StanhoiK.). //„« ,;/ ft"?.. 171»-I7Hil, M SHir. »)- -The elector ,.f itavariaacUnl in a prompt, hon^t. and consistent manner. He at on.e l.><lg|.<| » ,,rot,i,t against any d sposltlim of llie h.nsliiarv estates to the prejuilliw nf his jwn riehU; ln>ik!<^<t .-.„ (1;;. win of Ferdinand I ; and demanded the pitidui lion of the original tt'xt It was iiromptly prislureil. Hut It was found U. lonvey tlie sin ii.«.i»n to ihe iieii* of liM (laughter, the auutttvos of Um AUSTRIA. 1740. War 0/ M« AUSTRIA. 1'40-I741. ill' elector, not, u he contended, on the failure of male heirs, but In the al>«ence of more direct heirs bom in wedlock. Mitria Theresa could how- ever, trace her descent through nearer male heirs and ha<i, therefore, a superior title. Charici Albert was in any event only one of several claimants. The Kma; of Spain, a Bourbon, pre- sented himaelf as the heir of the Hapsburir emperor Charles V. The King of Sardinia alleged an ancient marriage contract, from which he denved a right to the duchy of Milan. Even August of Saxony claimed territory by virtue of an anti(|unted title, which. It was pretended, the renunciation of his wife could not affect. All these were, however, more vultures compare<l to the eagle f Frclcrick of Prussia] which was men to descend \\\Min iu prev."— li Tuttlc, llitt. of Prnma, 174(»-1745, eh. 3. A- D- «74«>(Octob«r— Norember).— The War of the Succetsion. — Conduct of Frederick the Great ■■ explained by himaelf.— "This Priig- matic Sanction had been guarantied by France England, Holland, Sardinia. Saxony, and the Roman emi)ire; nay bv the late King Frederic « illiam fof Prussia) also, on condition that the court of Vienna would secure to him the succes- sion of Juliers and Berg. The emperor promised him the eventual suc<'ession, and did not fulfil his engagemcnta; by which the King of Prussia his successor, was freed from this guarantee to which his father, the late king, hail pledged him- aelf, conditionally. . . . Frederic I., when lie erected Prussia iiilo a kingdom, had, by that vnin gramleur, plantiil the wion of ambition in llio bosom of his posterity; which, soon or late, must fruclify. The moiiarchv he had left to liis des- cendant.* was. if 1 may Ik- permitted the cxpres- sion, a I i-"l of iHTmapliriKlite, which was rather morenr ..rtonite than a kingdom. Fame was to be Ok , iireil liy determining the nature of this lieine- i„i ihis ««'nsation crruinly was one o' those which strengthened so many motives, con- spiring to enuMgc llie king in gmnd enterprises If the ar.pii.Miii.n of the dutcliy of Ikrg had nnt even met Willi almost iiisunnountablo impiili- ment« it wiis in iijK.lf so small that the posNssiou would add Imle gninchMir to the house of llnn- dcnliouri; 'Ihesc retleitioiis occasioned the king to turn his views towanl the house of Austria thesuec'ssii.n of which wouUI Ucome matter of litigaiiiin. at the death of the emfwror, when the throne <if the Osars should be vacant Tlin* event must !»• favourable to the distinguish. d partwhidi th.' king had to act in Uemianv bv the various . laims of the houses of Saxonv and Bavaria to tlii-^' states; bv the number of candi- dates whii h iniirht canvass for the imperialcrown' and by the pn.J.cts of the court of Versaillea" which, on such an iKcaslim. must naturally pn.tli by the Iroiililes that the death of Cliarles VI could n..l fiil to excite This accident did n.it long kci 11 the world in expectation. The cm pcri.r cii.jii! hi* (lavs at the palace U Favorite onthc'Jllil,|.>(MI,],|«y,,f((ci„Wr. 1740. The news urriv<i| at Kb. in^ls rir « li.ii ibe king was ill of a IZ^":. : ,"' '"'""''iai- ly rt-solved to r. claim lhoprinci|aliii,s,.f Sllc,i;l;llH!righUorhishllUlll• towhllh lloiitf d.imiaiil. the claim dating back to a orlaiii covcnuiil of heriUgebrolherhiKKl with the duke i.f Llegnin, In lS87, which the TT'^^'fuT' t^ '"'*-^' ^' ^ s^uiliKi by ii.« (tiatcN nf lt..bcnila| *. re Inconteiublc : and he prt'lMutil, at the aanut time, to lupport ttietc pro- tenalon^ If neooMry , by arms. Thta project ac- compUahed all his political view*; it affonled the tneana of acquiring reputation, of augmentiuir the power of the atatc, and of Urminating what related to the litigious succession of the dutchv of Berg. ... The state of the court of Vienna after the death of the emperor, waa deplorable' The finances were in disonler; the army was ruined and discouraged by ill success in its wars with the Turks; the ministry <li8unite<l, and a youthful unexperienced princ'ss at the h.ad of the government, who was to ilefend the sucies- sion from all claimants. The result was that the government could not appear formidable It was besides impossible that the king slioiiid he destitute of alliea. . . . Thewarwhii-h he migh^ undertake In Silesia was the only offensive war that could be favoured by the situation of hu stotci. for It would be carried on upon his front- iers, and the Oder would always furnish him with a sure communication. . . . Add to these reasons, an anny fit to mareh, a treasurv ready prepared, and, periiaps, the ambition of ■acquir- ing renown. Such were the causes of the war which the king declared against Maria 1 liensa 'i *."»'"»• a"'"*"" "' Hungary and Bohemia "- Frederick U. (Frederick the Great), llitt „f Vu Oitin nmet: FbHhumoiu Wvrki (traiu. bu 111 (Tr>fl), e. 1, eh. 1-3. * ^- D. »740-i74i— The War of the Succei- "^J Faithlaaaneaa of the King: of Prussia. --The M»c«ul«yTerdict.— "From no iiiiartir did the young queen of Hungary receive stron,-, r aaaurances of friemiship and siipp,,rt ilmn from the King of Prussia. Vet the Kim; cf Irussia, the 'Antl-Machiavel,' had already fully determined to commit the great criiue of violating hia pllghUil faith, of n.bbinf the ally whom he waa bound to defeml and A plunging all EuMpe into a long, bl,«Kh ,ud desolating war, and all this for no end « luitevtr except that he might extend his dominimis and ^•e his name in the gaxettes. He ,hteriiiiii,d to assemble a great anny with swk'.I and s.rr. ■ v to invaile Silesln iK-fore .Maria Theresa slioulj \^ npprixed of hia dcaiirn, and to arid thut riih province to hta kingdom. . . . Without auy declaration of war, without anv demand f.r reparation. In the very act of pourimr fort li.oni plimenU and assurances of gissl win. Krclenc commenced hostililies. .Many thous.iiid» of his lr>M)ns were actually In Silesia b<'for.) the Uu.ca of Hungary knew that he hud s.-t U|) anv claim to any part of her territories. At Icnirthhe sent licr a message which could Iw regarded . nly ,j an Insult. If ahc woul.l but let him have .Xiici.i he would, he aaid. stand bv her aL'ain>t anv power which chould try to deprive hir.f her other dom' '..ns: aa if he was not nlrca<lv UninJ to stand by ner, or as if his new prmiiii' nmia tic of more value than the ohl one. It wi. tlic depth of winu-r. The cold was sivere and tlie ri«i.ls deep In mire. But the l'ru,s,»iain proM-d on. Resistance was imposKible. The .Vii>irl.-in army was thru Ueilli. r nuiiwrous ii.ir e:!l I lent The small portion of that ariiiv whi>h lav In Silesia was impre|>anKi for liM,iil,t.ts. Oogauwasblockaile.!; Br,.»lsiiotHnedii> .'«i,,, lihlaii was evaciiatisl, A few siBtlercd irsrri sons still hchl out; but the wlii.|n ..[-.n ."iin'rv ""••"''JV**'"*: no enemy ventured to cm. initrr the klnf In tbo ileid ; ami," before the end ,.f .lin uary, 1741, ha 220 I returned to rec*lv« the cougraluU- AUSTRIA, 1740-1741. Omduel of I Onat. IVwitrfckM* I AC8TMA, 1741. tions of hi§ aubjecU at Borlin. Had the Sile«!an question been merely a question betnreea Frederic aad .Maria Theresa it would be imp.M«ible 'o acijuit the PruMlan king of ijroM perfidy. But whin we conifidcr the elTecta which his poliry Iiwlureii, and could not fail to prwluce, on the whi.le community of civilized nations, we arc coniiitilcd to pronounce a con '•■•nnation still more severe. . . . The 8<.'lflsh rapacity of the kinf of I*rassia gave the Kignal to bis neigh- hours, . . . The evils prixiuced by this wicked- ness were felt in lands where the name of Prussia was unknown ; and, in order that he might rob a noigliliour whom he ha<l promised to defend, blat k men fought on the coast of Coromandel, SD'I r.il men scalped each other by the great lak.s of North America. Silesia had Ixjen occu- piLii without a battle; but the Austrian troops w(re advancing to the relief of the fortresses whiih still held out. In the spring Frederic re- joined his army. He had seen little of war, end hail never comman<led any great bf»iy of men in thefiild. . . . FnKlerics'Hrst battle was fought St .Milivitz [April 10, 1741], and mver did the curii r of a gnat commander open iu > more in- aii-imiou» mauner. His army was vicUirious. ^' it only, however, did he not establish his title to the < imricter of an able general, but he was so unfirtunateas to make it doubtful whether he pos.«sMd tlie vul(jar counige of a soldier. The cuvulry. wliich ! commanded in person, was P'lt to lliiht. i'.i... cu.ttomed to the tumult and camaie of a field of battle, he lost bis »eif-pos- siwioii, and listened t.io readily to those who urt-'d liini to s.ive himself. His English gmy rarri.-.l liim m.inr miles from the field, while Sih'.v. nil, though wounded in two places, man- Tilly ufhilf! the day. The skill of the old Kiell M irslial and the steadiness of the Prussian iMttalions i.nvailed. ami the Austrian armv was driven fr.m the field with the li«sof 8.<J0<)men Tlie n' « s was carrie<l laic at night to a mill in wlie h ihe king hud taken shelter. It gave him ■t hitter pang, lie was successful; but he owe<l his «ii<e,»s to dispositions which others had tni le, and to the valour of men who had fouglit whili- lie was flying So unpromising w.is the fir-t api.e.irinc-.. of tlie greatest warrior of that «-• -- l,onl .M.iniulay, Frtderic tkt (Jrtat (/i- A. D. 1741 (April-M»y).— The War of the Succession : French respontibility. — The Ctrlyle verdict.— "The battle „f .Mollwiti w.nt otlhk. a sunal shot among the Nations; Inll- m.i!iri„' tliat tlnv were, one and all, to go battling Will, h i!iey dil. with a witness; mAking ■ tcr- nt)le tliiiiit of It, over all the world, for above sev..r, vears t. come. ... Not that Mollwiti kiullid huMi«.; .Kuropc was already kindled I..r»..inetw., yeurs past ;— especially since the lite haw r, lied, and bis Pragmatic Sanction was JUP"M lied to the other troubles afoot Dut •inie that Image of Jenkins's Ear had at "I up in the slow English brain, like a nry,,,„.|,.|UtionorSign in the Heavens, syi '••iK-r v,e(, injustha, and unendurabllities. a ha,l li^.l,!., ||„, Spanish. English War [see E!«a- '~^y< \ I> 17;»-17411, Eumpe was slowly but pr. , ly surelv taking fir,., France ' could not aeo -,i:.. i;i.,.r,...,| „i,e Mi.i: England (In lu own ■111 1 fetlmg, and als., In the fart of things), could H,'lu "i. "" *'""'l'* ""»''l'l<T»l'ly humbling SjNiln fraoce, endlessly totcretled in tUt la.! U< and Spanish English matter, was already sending out Beets firing shoU,— almost, or altogether, put- ting her hand in it. 'In wnich case, will not, must not, Austria help us?' thought England — jindwa.sasking,d"ly, at Vienna . . . when the late Kai-ser died. ... But if not as cause, then as signal, or as signal and cause together (which it pr.)|KTly was;, the Battle of .Mollwitz gave the finishing stroke and set all in motion. . For directly on the back of Mollwitz, there ensued, first, an explfwion of Diplomatic activity such as was nrver seen before; E,\cellenci(S from the four winds taking wing towanis Friedrich; and talking and insinuating, and fencing and fug- ling, after their sort, in that Silesiau camp ot his the centre being there. A universal rookery of Diplomatists, whose loud cackle is now as if gone mail to us; their work wholly fallen putres- cent and a< oldable, dead to all cn'atures And scconrlly, in the train of that, tli.re ensued a universal European War, the French and the English being chief parties in it ; which almiinda In battles and feats <,( arms, spirited but delir- ious, and cannot be got stilled for seven or eight years to come; and in which Friclrich and hi« War swim only as an intennittent Epi.siKle hence- foilh. . . . The first point to lie noted is. Where did It originate T To which the answer mainly is . . . with Monseieneur, the Mar.'ehal<le Helle- isle principally; with the ambitious cupiilities and baseless vanities of the Fniich Court and Nation, as repn^sented bv U<lleisle The English -Siianish War had a I)a-,is to stand on in thislniverse. The like had the Prussian- Aus- trian one; so all men now admit. If Friiilrich had not lnLsiness there, what man ever had in an enterpris<' he ventured on? Frinlrirh after such trial ami pr.mfashas ».l.iom Ihcm, got hli claims on Seldesien allowiil In- the Kestiuies. ■ • Friedridi had business in this War; and Maria Tlien-sa versus Friedridi had likewise cause to appear in Court, and do her utmost Pleading against him. But if we u>k. What Bellcisle or F'ance and Louis XV. Ii.ad to do tiK'reT the answer is rigoroiisiv Niithiiii;. Their own winly vanities, amliiiiiuis, sanctioned not by fact and the Almightv Powers, but bv Phan- taMn and the babble of Versailles; transcendent silf conceit, intrinsically in^une; pretensions over their fellow-creatures whii li were ivithoiit basis any whin' In Nature, excejit in the Fn'iiili brain it was this that broiiirht ll.llei,le and France into a (ierninn War, And Helleisle ami France having gi.ije into an Anti I'rairiiiatic War the unluckv (k-or-e anil his Enirland were dnm-ged Into a Pragmatic one.— ijuitiing their own busi- ness, on tlie Spanish Main, and liurrving to (Jer many.— in terror as at iKuimsiiav.'aud zeal to save the Kevstone of Nalim> tliep-' That is the notable p<iint in regard to this War That Prance is to In- called the aiillior of It. who alone of all liic parties, h.t<l no business there wh'ttever ■•— T. Carlyle, //i«f .,f AViVrfnV* ir It la, eA. 11 ir 41— See. als/i FrwiK: A I> 1733 A. D. 1741 iMay— June .—Mission of Bell*. '«'••— The thickening of the Plot. -■ The ilefcat of Maria Theresas onlv- army (at .Mollwitz] swept away all the doubu and scruples of Fraiin- Ths flerv Bellei-le h.tl a!r»-a.!y =..» ..:,; ;ijj^.=, |,i, mission to the various tierman courts, an ii-d with powers which were nliictanllv LTaiitisI . y the canlinal [Fhury, thi' Fn'iieh iiiinisierj. anii oador to y enlargnl by the ambaasaJ 21 •)') ■ i lit r 1^' |';f iii AUSTRIA, 1741. wit hig own more ambitlnui views of the dtua tlon. He travelled in oriental state The almost royal pomp with which he strode into the presi-nce of princes of the bUxxl, the copious eloquence with which he pleaded his cause were .mly the outward decorations of one of" the most iniquitous schemes ever devised by an un- scrupulous .liplomacy. The scheme' when stripped of all its details, did not indeed at first appear alwoluuly revolting. It proposed simply to secure the election of Charles Albert of Bavaria M emperor, an honor to which he had a perfect right to aspire. But it was difflcult to obtain the votes of certaii electors without offering them the prospect o. territorial gains, and impos- sible for t haries Albert to support the imperial dignity without greater revenues than those of Jiivana. It was proposed, therefore, that pro- vinces should be taken from Maria Theresa Ler- ■elf first to purchase votes against her own husband, and then to swell the Income of the successful rival candidate. The three episcopal electors were first visited, and subjected to vari- ous forms of persuasion,— bribes, flalterv, threats — until the eflecu of the treatment "began to appear; the count palatine wasdevoted to Prance and these four with Bavaria made a majority of one. But that was too small a margin for Belle Isle s aspimtions, or even for the safety of his project. The four remaining votes belonged to the most powerful of the German states. Prussia Hanover, hujcony an<l Bohemia. . . . Bohemia! If it voted at all, would of course vote for the gr8n.|..luke Francis [liuslwnd of Maria Theresa! Baxoiiy and Hanover were already negotiating with .Jluria Therrsa; and it was well understooa that Austria coul.i have Fredericks support bv DaVlllif his nrici* " Aiiatrtn *«>r.,.....i ..,..-..-.'' MariaTStrtm inHmtgcuTi. ACSTRIA, 1741. h.:- ■?> paving his i.rice." Austria refused to pay the pnci-, and Irrd.rick signed a treaty with the ,ll^ t?'"" "' "'*•''''»" on the 4tli of June 1741. The tss; lice of it was continued in four secret urticU'S. In these the king of Prussia re- noun<f(l hl.s claim to JUlich-Berg in l>ehulf of the hou«|of t.ul«buph, an<l agreed to give his vote to tUe ilidor of Bavaria for eminror. The king of I- roue eiiKag,-.! to guarantee Prussia in the possession of lAiwer .Silesia, to sen<l wlllilu two months iin anny to the support of lluvaria. and to provoke an immediate rupture beiwein Swe- Ii40-li4.i, e/i 4. M^uaT/'a' ^^' *'"'"'' "'"' "f """'»'*' "f'^^"^. A. D, 1741 (June— September),— Maria Theresa and the Hungariani.-" During these anxious summer months Maria Tli.r.™ and the AUKirian court had re«l.|e<l mainly at Presburff In lluiiKarv. Here she had b.in .«<upied in tiie solution of dimiestle as well as IntiTiiatlonal pmhl.MMs. I he Magyars, as a m.-.nly and chivalmus race had Nrn touched by U..|.irilous ■itiHton of the young quw-n; but, while ?"''■""> I"' «'i»K their loyally. Insisted not the Kss on the n.oL-nilion of tliWr own iiiall.'iial.lo rights. Th.M. had iMcn iniwleiiualelv observed in ren nt v. ars, ai,,| j, se.iuence no little dls affe. ti..n ,,n.,ail,.d ii. Hungary. The magnates res.lv,.,|. then for-, as th.y had re».,lve.l at the b..gii,,i.,g of pn-vlmis nignii. to dcmami the n^ oral on „f all thHr rigl.U ui.l privileges. But t! .!,»., „„. :,,,i„.^r Il:r:l th.y wiii'.HJ U, Uk,> any u ig.ii..r..us advantage of the s<'X or the necessities of Maria Ther?.,. They were ar^u mentatlve and stubborn, yet not In a bargamlnir mercenary spirit. They accepu-d in .luue a qualified compliance with their demaiiils; and when on the 25th of that month the q„,."a appeared before- the diet to receive the crown of »t. Stephen, and, according to custom waved the gre'at sword of the klng.loin toward the four pointa of the compass, toward the irorlh aiij the s<>uth, the east and the west. challin-inL- all enemies to dispute her right, the asseinhlv was carriei away by entliusiasm, and it wcini ,1 ,„ if an end ha»l forever been put to coiistitiiii,.nal technicalities. Such was. however, not lie case After the excitement causi'd by the dramatic coronation had in a measure siibsideil tin. olJ contentions revived, as bitter and vi.xalimis as before These concerned especially the ii,,.iiii, r n which the administration of lIu'iiKary should be adjusted to meet tlio new state of ilii,,,.. Should the chief political ollUes be (ill,,! hv native Hungarians, as the diet diinanded ? ( \»m the co-regency of the grand-duke, whic li wis ardently desire-d by the quwn, l)e a<<( |,i,,| i.r the Magyars? For two months the di^iiui,. „v,r these pmblems raged at Preshurg, uiiiil ijniillv Maria There-sa herself found a ImiM, iio'. nious and patriotic solutii.n. The news of tli.' Kniicp' Bavarian alliance and the fall of Pa^siiu ,1. i.r. mined her to throw hersi'lf eoinplctelv u;>..iiilie gallantry and devotion of the .>lagvars. U |,a,i long lieen the nolicy of the court of Vi.iuia ri„t to entrust the Hungarians with arms. Hut Maria Theresa had not Iwen rol.l>,.,| |„ Hpii,, „f her experience with France and I'rus-ia of all her faith In human nature-. She look Hi, r, si„,ii- sibility of her decision, ami the result pn'vid that her insiglit was correct. t)n tin- nUi ,.f St'ptember she summoned the meml«rs .f the diet before her, and, s.'ate(l on tli,> ihn.n,. explained to them the peril.uis situaii,.ri ,.f 1,,t dominions. Tlie danger, she said, thn.u, „c,l herself, andall that was deart,>h.r Aliiii,|,ii„.,| by all her allies, she took refiiKc in the li.Miiv and the ancient valor of the Huiil iri.iiH i"„ whom she entrusted herself, her chilli, 1, iiu.l her empire. Hire she broke iiii,, LursaiiJ covere-d her face witli her hanilker<lii, I ' The diet respondeil to this apju-al bv prm laimiiiL' ilio ' insurre'ction ' or the equipment of a lai •. i„,|i. ular forec for the defence of the ,|ii,>ii iSo great was the enthusiasm that it inarK s», pt away even the original aversion of th,. Una. gariansto the grand-duke Krancis, wh.. i„ the queens delight, was filially, thoii^l, ii,>i wiihout Willie murmurs, accepted as eon i;, nt rhls uprising was organired ii,,t nii liMur t.H) early, for dangi-rs were pressing iinoii ih. ,|u,.,a ['■i'^ .^.*','w'"y '''''^•■"-" tuttle, //„(. ..f h-,ma. 1740-1.45, ek, 4. AlJHtiN: Due do Broglie. f^titfiirk t>„ (,r„i( anil Maria 7T*.c<«.i, rh. 4 (r. 2| i,^' ?•-''*' (Aujutt — November!. - Tht French-Bavarian onaet •■France 11.. » I,, v.u to act with eneriry. In the ni..ntli "f .\iitii»t II44I] two French armiescnw.siil the Khii,, ,aih about 40,000 strong. Tlieflrsl inanhe.li ,\V,st- phalia, and frightened f},.orge II liuo ...i lii.l ng a treaty of neutrality for llaiioM r. an.] nnm- Ising his vote lo the Kiwlor of Havana The Si'coml advanii,(t thr<>iii;h South <tt-r:!:::;;v ::n Paasau, the fn>iitier city of Bavaria an,l .\ii,iris As soon as It arrived on Oennan soil, the Kr,i.ili officers aiiuoied the blue and white OHk^de of 822 AUSTRIA. 1741. SOtla to JVrdcr»r<r. AUSTRIA, 1743. BtTUia, for U wu the cue of France to tppear onW u an auziliarr, and the nominal command of her army waa vested In the Elector. From Pauau the French and Bavariaua paned Into Upper Austria, and on Sept. 11 entered iU capi- ul Linz, where the Elector aaaumed the title of Archduke. Five days later Saxony joined the alliei. Sweden had aiready declared war on Kus- sia. Spain trumped up an old claim and at- tacked the Austrian dominioas in Italy. Itseemetl as If Belleisle's schemes were about to be crowne<l with complete success. Had the allies piishud forward, \ ienna must have fallen into tlieir iiands. But the French did not wish to be toe victorious, lest they should make the Elector too powerful, uDd so independent of them. Therefore, after six weeks' deUy, they tumeil aside to the con- aucst of Bohemia."— F. W. Longman, Frederick th* Grait and the Seven Teare VTar, eh. 4, tet. 4. — '■ While ... a portion of the French troops, under the command of the Count de Segur, was left in I'pper^ustria, the remainder of the allied army turned towards Bohemia ; where they were joined by a body of Saxons, under the command of Count Rutowsky. Tlu-y took Prajrue by as- sault, on the night of the Mtli of November while the Grand Duke of Tuscany, the husband of Maria Theresa, was marching to his relief. In Prague, 8,000 prisoners were taken. The elector of Biivaria hastened tliere, upon hearing of the success of his arms, was crowned King of Bo- homU, during the month of Decemlwr, anil re- ceived the ooth of fidelity from the constituted authorities. But while he was tfc:-.8 employed t>ir Austrian general, Khevenhuller, had driven the Count de Segur out of Austria, and had him- self entered Bavaria; which obliged the Bavarian army to abandon Bohemia and hasten to the de- (tnce of their own country."— Lord Dover. Life 0/ Fi-fdtrick 11, bk. 8, eh. 8 (e. 1). " Also in: Frederick II., /Art of Mv v i limei (Potthumoue Work; ». 1, ek. B), ^*\ P- '74; (October).— Swret Tr««ty with Fredenck.— Lower Silcaia conceded to him. -Austrian success.— ■' By October, 1741. the fortunes of Maria Theresa had aunx to the low- Mt ebb, but a great revulsion speedily set In. The mnrtlHl enthusiasm of the Hungarians, the siilAKly from England, and the brilliant mUitary talents of Oenenil Khevenhuller, restored her armies. Vienna was put In a state of defence, •nd at the same time Jealousies and suspicion niwle their way among the confederates. The tlpiKiri of Bavaria and Saxony were already In Mnir.legree divided; and the Gcrmana, and es- (x-eial J- Jrcderick, were alarmed by the growing a.s,e,„iency, and irritated by the haughty do- mtanoui of the French. In the moment of her cxtnnie depresaion, the Queen consented to a ronn ssion which England had vainly urged upon litr Ik fore, and wliidi laid the foundation of lier future succrsa. In October 1741 she entered iiio a secret convention with Frederick [caUed "• convention of Obcr-Schnellendorfl. by which lliHi IU.IUU. sovereign agreed to desert his allies, nn.l I c«n,i from li.wiilitT,.,, „n condition of ultl- m«l( ly obtaining Ix.wer SilesU, witli Breslail and •M !»«.•. tvery precaution waa Uktn to ensure •ecrecy. It waa arranged that Frc<lerick ah.iuld .,..., n.,-t„ besiege Smsse, Uial liie luwn should illuimie y he surrendered to him. and that his 'r;.M|» should then reUre Into winter qusrUrs, »nd lake no furUier p«t In Ui« war. As the sacriace of a few more lives waa perfectly In- dllTerent to the contracting parties, and in order that no one shouhl suspect the treachery that was contemplated, Neiase, after the arrangement had been made for Its surrender, was subjected for four .lays and four nights to the horrora of bombardment. Frederick, at the same time talked wiili his usual cynical frankness, to the English aiiil>aasador about the best way of at- tacking his allies the French; and observed, that If the Queen of Hungary prospered, he would perhapssupporther,lfuot— everyone must look lor himself, lie only assentetl verbally to this convention, and, no doubt, resolved to a'wiiit the course of events. In order to decide which Power it was his interest anally to betray; but In the meantime the Austrians obtained a respite wiiich enabled them to throw their whole forees upon their other enemies. Two brilliant cam- paigns followed. The greater part of Bohemia was recovered by an army under the Duke of Lorraine, and the French were hemmed In at Prague; while another army, under General Khevenhuller, Invaded Upper Austria drove 10,000 French soldiera within the walls of Linz blockaded them, defeated a body of Bohemiana who w-ere sent to the rescue, compelled the wliole Frencii army to surrender, and then, cross- lug the frontier, poured in a resistless torrent over Bavaria. The fairest pkins of that Imiuti- ful land were desolated by hosU of irregular triMips from Hungary, Croatia, and the Tyrol; and on the 12th of February tlic Austrians marched in triumph into Munich. On that very day the Elector of Bavaria was crowned Emperor of Germany, at Frankfort, under the title of t harles V II., and the Imperial crown waa thus for the first time, for many generations, separ- ated from the House of Austria "—W EH Letky. Uiet. of Eng., 18<A Century, eh. 3 (p 1) _ Also in: P. Von Raumer, ContHhutione Iliet.; Fredk II. and hi* Tinue, to ch. See MiHUrn 13-14. A. D. I74i-I743--Successcs io Italy. iT.tLv; A. I). 1741-1743. A, D. 174a a«nu«rT — May).— Frederick !^"f ''•^ '""' •«««« -Battle of Chotusiti.- I he Queen of Hungary had assembleil in the beginning of the vear two considerable armies in Moravia and Bohemia, the one under Prince Lobkowit? to defend the former province and the other commanded by Prince Charles of Lor- raine, her brother-in-law. This young Prince possessed as much bravery and activity as Frederick, and had equally with him the Ulent of insi)lnng attachment and confidence. . Jrederick, alarmed at these preparations and the progress of the Austrians In liavaria, abruptly broke off the convention of Ober-Schnellendorf and reciimiiieuced hostilities. . . . The King of Prussia became apprehensive that the Queen of Hungary would again turn her arms to recover Silesia. He therefore dispatched Marshal tkhwerin to seize Oiniiitx ami lav siege to Glatx whiil' surrendered after a di's|'>eratc resistance on tl..- 9th of January. Soon after this event the King rejoinwl his army, and eiideavouri'd to drive the Austrians from their advanUgeous I position in the siu|t||«m parts of Bohrtni^ tthii-h would have dellvereil the French tr.xips In the neighlKmrhood and checked the progn-ss of Khevenhuller In Bavaria. The klug advanced to IgUu, on the frontiers uf Boheoda, and, oo- 223 AUSTBIA, 1749. &$ i i: ■ ill Baity of ChottitiU. AUSTRIA. 1748. cupylng the banks of the Taya. made Irruptioni into Lpper Austria, liia hussars stm'ading tern>r even to the gates of Vienna. The Austrians drew from Bavaria a corps of 10,0()() men to eover the capiul, while Prince Charles of Lor- raine, at the head of S0,000 men, threatenetl the Pru8Bian magazines In Upper Silesia, and bv this movement compelled Frederick to detach a con- siderable force for their protection, and to evacuate Moravia, which he had invaded. Broghe, who commanded the French forces in that country, must now have fallen a sacriflcp, had not the ever-active King of Prussia brought up 80,000 men, which, under the Prince of Anhalt-Dessau, entering Bohemia, came up with Prince Charles at Czaslau, about thlrty-flve miles from Prague, before he could form a Junction with Prince Lobkowitz. Upon this cnsutil [ .May 1 .. 1742) what is known In hiatorv as the Iwltlc of Czaslau [also, and more commonly, called the battle of Chotusltz], . . . The numbers In the two armies were nearly equal, and the action was warmly contested on both sides. . . . The Prussians remained masters of the field, with 18 cannon, two pairs of colours and 1.200 prisoners; but they Indeed paid dearlv for the honour, for it was computed that their loss waseq'al to that of their enemy, which amounted to 7,W0 men on either side; while the Pnissian cavalry, under Field-Marshal Buddenbrocb, was nearly nilne<l . . . Although in this battle the victory was without doubt, on the slile of the P.-ussians, yet the imme<iiate consequences were highlv favour- able to th<^ Queen of Hungary. The Riug was disappointed of his expected advantages, and conceived a disgust to the war. He now lowerwl his demands and made overtures of accommixla- tion, which, on the 11th of ,Iune, resulted in a treaty of peace between the two crowns, which Was signed at Breslau under the mediation of the British Ambassador."— Sir E. Cust, AnruiU of the Wanoftht iSth Ctntnry. r. 2 p 1» Also is; T. Carlyle, Ilitt. of Priedrich U. of Prumin, hk. 18. <•». 18 (r, »). A. p. 1742 (June).— Treaty of Breslau with Ql DmaaiA •' ft... #..11 t ., the Kmgof Pruiiia.— "The following are the preliminary articles which were signed at Breslau: 1. The queen of Hungarv ceded to the kirg of Prussia Upper and Lower Silesia with the principalitv of Olutz; except the towns of Troppau, JaegendorlT and the high mountains slttiale<i beyond the Onpa. 2. The Prmwians underUmk to repay the English 1,700,000 cn>wns which sum was a mortgage loan ou Silesia. The remaining articles related to a suspension of arms, an exchange of prisoners, ami the free<lom of religion and trade. Thus was Silesia uniteii U> the Prussian States. Two years were suf ficlent for the conquest of lliat"lmporlant prov- ince. The treasures which the Inle king had left were almost extieniled; but pnivim-i's that d.. not cost more than seven or eight millions are dieaply piirehasetl."— Frederic U.. //iW ,.f Mil (hfn l\nui (Ihitthummf ^^^ork^, r. 1) cA 8 #Aw "»''*'.. 'Jnne-Decemberl-ExpuUion of the French from Bohemia.— Belleisle'a re- treat fri>m Prague.-- The Austrian arms Ugan now to lie sueci'ssf ul In all quarters. Just Mnn the signature of the preliminaries. Prince I/>b. cowltz, who was stationed at Budweiss with iO.noO mc n, madi- hh i.tiafk on Frauenlierg : Hrf)g- lio and Bcllelsic advanced from Ilseck t<7 relieve tlie town, and a combat took place at Sofaay, in 224 which the Austrians were repulsed with the low of 300 men. This trifling affair was magnllicl into a decisive victory. . . . Marslml Brogii,, elated with this advantege, and ndylng on 11,^ immedUte junction of the King of Pro- m re mained at FrauenbiTg In perfect secui'ty. But his expectations were disappointed ; Fr< .ieric ha,) already commenced his secret negotiations, ami Prince Charles was enabled to turn his f.irrcs against the French. Being joined by Prince l/>b cowltz, they attacked Brogllo, and compelled iiim to quit Fraucniwrg with such precipitation that his baggage fell inU) the hands of the light troop, and the French retreated towards Bnmau har- as-sed by the Croats and other Irregulara.'. The Austrians, pursuing their success a»!ninM the French, drove Broglio from Branau, ami fol h>we<i him to the walls of Prague, where he found Belleisle. . . . After several consulbttions tlip two generals called In their posts, and sciiiml tlieir army partly within the walls and luriK- within a peninsula of the Moldav. .s,]„"u afterwards the duke of Lorraine Joincil tlic armv r<>f Prince Charles], which now amounted to Td". 000 men, and the arrival of the heavy anillprv enabled the Austrians to commence the sieiro "— W. Coxe, llitt. of the Iloute ofAutlri,,. eh 'w (e. 3).—" To relieve the French at Prague, .Mar shal Mailleliois was directed to advance with his army from Westphalia. At these tidings Prince Charles changed the siege of Prague to a M.xk- ade, and marching against his new opihuienls checked their progress on the Bohemian frontier' the French, however, still occupvi;"r tlie town ?/ 1?*?™' ^' "'"' "'"''''' ""^' firciimsUuu cs that Belleisle made his masterly and renownwl retreat from Prague. In the nigh"t of the 18tli of Dcrem- ber, he secretly left the city at the hciul of 1 1 (KKl foot and 8,000 horse, having deceived the .Vus- trians' vigilance by the feint Oi a general fora^rt in the opposite (juarter; and pushe<l for Kcm through a hostile country, destitute of nsoun-cs and surrounded by superior enemies. His ml diers. with no other food than frozen hreuil and compelled to sli-ep without covering on the snow and Ice ; ' -\ in great numbei^i; Imtthp gallant spirit oi ^. ,e triumpheii over cv, rv obstacle; he struck tnrough morasats alrm^t I untrodi'-n lieforc, offered battle to Princi' Lobko I witz, who, however, declined engaging, and at length Bucceede<l in reaching the oiIkt I'nnrh ; army with the flower of hl« own. The r. iiijiiint i left at Prague, and amounting only to A (Km mm I seemed an easy prey; vet their threat' of Urine I the city, and peri.shing lM>ncath Its ruins, mil ilie I recent proof of what despair can do, ol.i.iine.l I for them honourable terms, and the pernii.vsi.in I of rejoining their comrades at Egra. Iliii in i spite cf all this skill and cr>unige in llio Fnnili Invaders, the final result to them was f.iilim . nor hail they attained a single permanent adv in tage lieyond their own safety in n'treal Maille hills and IX' Broglie took up winter quarierv in Bavaria, while Belleisle led bock his division acrosa the Ithine; and it was computeil ilmt, of the 85.000 men whom he had first conduei.d into (Jermany, not more than 8,000 returned lKiie;iih his tianner. "— Lord Mahon (Eari Stanhoih > ll„t of hng.. 1713-1783, th. 24 (r. 8).— •' Thus at the termination of the c.impais-n »!! IVilw n-,:^ ■=•:■,- regained, except Egra; and'on the Uth of M«v. '^^Ol^fla Theresa wassooii afterwards crowned »t Prague, to the recoTery of which, aayi her AUSTRIA, 1743. BatlU af AUSTRIA, 174»-1744. great rlTtl, her flnnnew had more contributed I linn the force of her amw. The onlf reverie which the Aiutriani experienced in the midst of tlieir succesaes waa the temporary loga of Ba- v.iria, which, on the retreat of Kevenhuller, waa occupied by maraba] Seclcendorf; and the' Em- pf ror made hia entry into Munich on the %\ of October."— W. Coxe, Bi*t. cfthtHouteofAuUria ch. 103 (r. 8). A. D. 1743.— England drawn into the con- ;.— The Prajnnatic ArmT.— The Battle of diet. ._. __„„„. Dettingcn.— " The cauae of Maria Theresa liml begun to excite a remarkable enthusiasm in England. . . . The convention of neutmlity cn- tenni into by George II. in September 1741, and till- extortion of his vote for the Elector of Ba- varia, properly conceme<l that prince only as Elector of Hanover; yet, as he was also King of England, tliey were felt as a disgrace by the English people. The elections of that year went apinst WalpDlc, and in Febr ;:iry 1742' he found himself compelled to resign. He waa succeeded in the administration by Pulteney, Earl of Batli though Lord Carteret was virtually prime min- ister. Carteret waa an ardent supporter of the cause of Maria Theresa. His accession to olflcc was immediately followed bv a large increase of thearmy and navy; five millions were voted for carrying' on the war, and a subsidy of £500 000 for the (^ueen of Hungary. The Earl of Stair, with an army of 16,000 men, afterwards reinforced by a large body of Hanoverians and Hessians in British pay, was dcspatche<l into the Netherlands to cooperate with tl.c Dutch. But though the StaU's-OeneraV at the instance of the British Cabinet, voted Maria Theresa a subsidy, they were not yet prepared to take an active part in a war which might ultiinat<<ly involve them in hostilities with France. The exertions of the English ministry in favour of the Queen of Hun- gary had therefore been confined during the year 1742 to diplomacy, and they had helped to bring about ... the Peace of Brestau. In 1743 they wire able to do more." In April, 1743, the Em- ptror, Charles VII., regained posieMion of Ba- varia and returned to Munich, but only to be (Inven out again by the Austrians in June. The Bavarians were badly beaten at Simpach (May 0) jnd Munich was Uken (June 12) after a short bombardment. "Charles VII. was now again cMiiied to fly, and took refuge at Augsburg. At his command, Seckendorf [his general! made a I onvention with the Austrians at the village of NieihrscliOnfeld. by which be agreed to abandon to them Bavaria, on condition that Charles's tnxips should be allowed to occupy unmoli'Sted quarters between Franconla and Suabla. Maria I hen'sa 8eeme<l at first indisposed to ratify even terms so humiliating to the Emperor. She hod iHionie perhaps a little too much exalted by the f.i\M turn of fortune. She had causol herself to l» crowned in Prague. She had received the l.oinage of the Austrians, and entered Vienna In a virt of triumph. She now dreamt of nothing I' s.. t lan conqHering I^rralne for hen!.lf, Alsace for the Kmphx.; of hurting Charies VII. from till- Imperial throne, and placing on it her own lonwrt. She was persuaile<l, however, to con- sent at length to the terms of tli.. Nii..|er~-l!nnfeld ir"V "!'"", 'Meanwhile the allie<i army of tiigish and Germans, under the Earl of Stair, nearly 40 (WO ,trc«ig, which, from Its destlne.1 object, had awumed tfa< oame of the Pr.igmatic 22G Army, had croand the Meuae and the Rhine in March and April, with a view to cut off the army of Bavaria from France. George II had not concealed his intention of breaking the Treaty of Hanover of 1741, alleging as a ground that the duration of the neutrality stipulated in it had not been determined; and on Jfiiue 19th he had joined the army in person, He found it in a most critical position. Lord Stair, who had never distingufaheii himself a.s a general anil waa nov. falling into dotage, had led it into a narrow valley near Aschaffenburg. between Mount Sneaaart and the river Main: while Marshal Noaillet [commanding the Frenehl .. no had crossed the Rhine towards the end of April, by seizing the principal fords of the Main both above and below the British position had cut him off both from his magazines at Honau . 'is" ""PP"e» which he had expected to procure In Franconla. Nothing remained but for SiT..'° M" '*'» *•? '»<='' to Hanau • In the batOe of Uettingen, which followe<l (June 27), all the advantages of the French in position T^ thrown away by the ignorant impetuosity of the king 8 nephew, the Duke of Orammont, who comtnanded one division, and thev suffered ?,if?12«'**'''"' /'The French are said to have loat 6,(»0 mer and the BriUah half that number u \a uie last .viiou lu wiiicli a King of Kntrland has fought in person. But Gwirge II., or rather I<ord Stair, did not know how to profit by his victory. Although the Pragmatic Army waa joined after the battle of Dettingen bv "l5 000 Dutch troops, under Prince Maurice of" Nassau nothing of importance was done during the re- niainder of the campaign."— T. H. Dyer, Biit. of Modern Europe, bk. 6, eh. 4 (r. 3>. Also in: W. Coxe. Hiit. of the IJouu of Am- tria, eh. 104 (c 8). — Sir E. Cust, Annaii of the nartofthe mh Century, v. 2 pp. 30-36— Lord Mahon (Eari Stanhope), Hilt. ofEng.. 1713-1TS3 eh. 2.5 (5. 3). ./ » , ^.A. D. 1743.— Treaty of Wormi with Sar- dinia and England. Sec Itai.v: A. D 174;! ^ A- P- '743 (October).- The Second Bourbon Family Compact. See France: A. D. 1743 (OCTOBKB). A. D. 1743-17^. — The Pruttian Kinr rtnket in aKain.-The Union of Frankfort.— Siege and capture of Prague.— ■ Everywhere Austria was successful, and l^'rederick had reason to fear for himself unless the tide of conouest could be stayed. He explains In the • Histoire de Mon Temps ' that he feared lest France should abandon the clause of the Emperor, which would mean that the Austrians, who now boldly spoke of conipensulion for the war. would turn their arms against himself. . . . France was trem- bling, not for her conquests, but for her owu ter- ritory. After th(- battle of Ih'ttingcii, the victorious Anglo-Hanoverian force was to crosi the lUiine alxive .Mavenco and march into Alsace, while I'rinee Charles of Lorraine, with a stnmg Austrian army, was to pass near Basle and oc-cupy Lorraine, taking up his winter quar- tera in Burgundy and Champagne. The English crosseii without any cheek and moved on to Worms, but the Austrians failed in their at- tempt Worms l»'r»me a r-.'titrt; of intrigue which Frederick afterwanls called ' Cette abyme lie mauvalse f..i.' The Dutch were persuaded by Uinl Carterti to join the English, and they did at ioat wad U,U(W men, who we>« oever of i I u AUSTRIA, 1748-1744. Capture o/ rragut. AUSTRIA. 1744-1749. Uw le«it u«e. tOTd Carteret ilao deUxhcil Charles Emanuel, King of Sardinia, from his rri-nch leanings, and persuaded him to enter Into the Austro-Engllsh alliance [by the trriitv of Worms Sept. iS, 1748, which conceile.1 to the King of Sardinia Finale, the city of Plarcn- tia, with soma other small districu and cave him command of the allied forces In Italy] It was clear that action could not be long post- poned and Frederick began to recognize the necessity of a new war. His first anxiety was to guard himself against interference from his northern and eastern neighbours. He secured as he hoped, the neutralfty of Russia by mar- rying the young princess of Anhalt-Zerbst, afterwards the notorious Empress Catherine, with the Qrand-Duke Peter of RussU. nephew and heir to the reigning Empress Elizabeth. . . Thus strengthened, as he hope<I, in his rear and flanik, and ha- Ing made the commencement of a Oerman league called the Union of Frank- furt, by which Hesse and the Palatinate agreed to join Frederick and the Kaiser, he concluded on the .'Sth of .June, 1 ?44. a treaty which brought France also Into this alliance. It was secretly agreed tlint Frederick was to Invade Bohemia conquer it for the Kaiser, and have the districts of KOniggrStz, Bunzlau, and Ix;ltnieritz to repay him for his trouble and cosU; while Prance which was all this time at war with Austria and England, should send an army against Prince Charles and the English. . . . The first stroke of «ie coming war was delivered by France. Louis AV . sent a large army into the Netheriands under two good leaders. Noaillcs and Maurice de 8sxe l/rgcd by his mistress, the Duchesse de ChSteau roux he joined it himself early, and took the nominal command early in June. . . The towns [Menin, Ypres, Fort Kno<iue. Fiirnp^l rapidly fell before him. and Marshal Wade, witli the Anglo-Dutch-Hanoverian army, sat still and lookeii at the success of the French. But on the night of the 30th June — 1st Julv, Prince Charles crossed the Rhine bv an operatfon which Is worth the study of mflitary students and invaded Alsace, the French army of observation falling back before him, Louis XV. hurried back to Internosc between the Austrians and Paris. . Maurice de Saxe was left in the Netheriands with 45.000 men. Thus the French army was paralysed, and the Austrian army in Its turn was actually invading France. At this time Frederick struck in. He sent wortl to the King that, though all the terms of their arrange- ment had not yet been fulfilled, he woul.lat once invade Bohemia, and deliver a stmkc I ag'iinst Prague which would certainly cause tiic retreat of Prince Charles with his 70,0(K) men If the French army would follow Prince Charles in his retreat, Frederick would attack him and between France and Prussia the Austrian army would certainly be crushed, and Viedna be at their merey. This was no doubt an excellent plan of campaign, but. like the previous opera- tions concerted with Broglio, it depen.lH for succPM upon the goo.1 faith of the French, ami tills turned out to lie a broken reed. On the 7th of .\ugu8t the Prussian am' ssador at Vienna esve notice of the Union of nkfurt and with- drew from the court of Austi .., and on Uie 15th Uie Prussian army was put in march upon lii^liS te'-S-""".'.'. »."«« "» 8eco^nd three columns tte toUI ittcngth being ove- 80,000 . . Maria Theresa was now a|ain in great danger, but ai usual retained her Utb courage, and once more called forth the enthu. slasm of her Hungarian subjecta, who sen* (wanns of wild troops, hone and foot, to the seat of war. . . . On the 1st of September th, three columns met before Prague, which had better defences than in the last campalen and i garris. of some 18,000 men, . . . Duri'ne the night of the IKh the bombardment commenced . . . and on the 16th the garrison surrendered 1 nus, one month after the commencement of tlie mareh Piaiue WM captured, and the campaira opened with a brilliant feat of arms. "-Col C ¥ Brackenbury, Frtderiek the Ortat «A 7 Also IN: W. Russell, Hitt. of Modern Enrmt K 8, Wtor 28._F. Von Raumer, Contrihutionit:, |^«*g-» Bit ■■ fredk. II. and hit Tima X , \ Hi '744-i74S--Frederick'» retreat and freab triumph.— Anitria recovers the imperial crown.- Saxonr »nbdned.-The Peaie of Si;!r!!°,:~^'?'". "•* "'d"«l'"> of I-ragu., Frederick, -in deference to the opinion of .MarshM Bellelsle, but against his own judgment, advanced into the south of Bohemia with the view of threatening Vienna. He thus exposed himself to the risk of twing cut off from Prague. Yet even so he would probablv have been able to main- tain himself if the French had fullilleii Hioir engagements. But while he was conquerinc ihe .llstricts of the Upper Moldau, the Austri,in army returiie<i unlmpaire<l from Alsace The French had allowed ft to cross the Rhine unmo- lested, and had not made the slightest attempt to Harass its retreat [but applied tlicmselves lo the siege and capture of Freiburg], Thev were only too glad to get rid of it themselves. " In Ihe env.--'-; operations Frederick was completelv outmanoeuvred. Trauii [the Austrian genenlj, liaok tonaras »]. Frederick's foroM moved io -• •• ...■«.. |nn ^\I4BIIUII1 1 without ri.sklng a battle, forced him bark the Silesian frontier. He had to choose' lietween abandoning Prague ami almndoning his rom- munications with Hilcsia, and as the Saxons hail cut off his retreat through the Electorate, there was really no choice in the matter, So he fell back on Slleshi, abandoning Prague ami liij heavy artillery. The retreat was uttendeil with considerable loss, Frederick wa , icli stniek with the skill displayed by Tra ^' ad savs. in his 'Histoire demon Tcmpa,' •' .e reglinled ''"» /^'npa'gn as his school in t' t of war and SI, de Traun as his teacher, T ampalirn may have be«'n an excellent lesson . the art of war but In other respects It was very disastrous to tredenck. He had drawn upon himself t^ie whole power of Austria, and had hiirnt liov little the French were to be dependisl ii|~.n His prestige was dimmed by failure, and ev, n in his own army doubu were entertained of his i apa- city. But, bad as his position alreadv « ,~ i; became far worse when the unhappy "Kmi. r dle<l [Jan, 80, 174.1], worn out with diseas, ,,■; ! calamltv. This event put an end to the Ini.™ of Frankfort. Frederick could no lonp r < laim to be acting in defence of his opprrssdl soven icn. the ground was cut from under his feet. Nor was there any longer much hope of pnventing thp Im(*rial Crown from reverting i.. Ai.,tfU, The new Elector of Bavaria was a mere hov In this altered state of affairs be sought to mske peace. But Maria Theresa would not let him 226 ACSTraA, 1744-174S. ffinur o/ Hap*- burg-Lorraint. AU8TRIA, 1765-1790, off loeuilv. In order that she might use all her forces againit him, ihe gnuite<l pearc to Bavuria, lad (fave bacli to the young el«'U)r liig liere<li- tarv (luminioDii, oo coodition of liia n-signing all claim to hera and promising to vote for her Tiug- biiiul as Emperor. While Fredericic thus lost a fricn<i in Bavaria, Saxony threw herself com- phtclv into the arras of his enemv, and united with Austria in a treaty [May 18] whicli Irnil for its ()l)jiTt, not the reconquest of Silesia merely, l)iit tlic partition of Prussia and the miuetioii of till' king to his ancient limits as Mnrgmve of Bnwlcnburg. Saxony was tlicn muc'h lurgir tlmn it is now, but it was not only the nuiuhir u' triMips it could send into the fluid that made its hostility dangerous. It was partly the geii- graphioal position of the country, which niaiTe it an I'xcellent base for operations against Prussia, but slill more the alliance that was known to subsist iM'tween the Elector (King Augustus III. of Poland) and the Russian Court. It was prob- able that a Prussian invasion of Saxony would he followed by a Russian invasion of Prussia. Towanis the end of May, the Austrian and Sa.xiin army, 75,000 strong, crosse<l the Giant Mountains and descended upon Silesia. Tlie Austriaus were again commande<l by Prince ( liarlts, but the wise head of Traun was no lonsir there to guide him. . . . The encounter took place at Holienfriedbcrg [June 5], and n'Siilliil iu a complete victory for Prussia. The Austrians and Saxons lost 0,000 killed and woundid, and 7,000 prisoners, besides 00 cannons and T;1 Hags and standards. Four days after the batt'c tbcy wer, back again in Bohemia. Fnilcrick followed, not with the intention of sti.uking them again, but in order to eat the coiijiiry bare, so that it might ndord uo susten- anil- to the enenjy during the winter. For his own part he was really anxious for peace. Hi nsoiiri t » wore all but exhausted, while Aust was fed by a constant stream of English su Biiliis. As in the former war, England iuterposed with bcr good ofliccs, but without efleit: Maria Till nsa was by no means dishearteneil by her dil'iul, and refusiKi to hear of peace till she had trinl the chances of battle once more. On S»'pt. la lur liiisband was electeil Emperor by seven voti<oiit of nine, the dissentients lieing the King of Prussia and the Elector Palatine. This event niiMil the spirits of the Empress Queen, as Maria Tlicrisa was heiicefurward called, and opened a wiilcrticldforherambition. Shesent peremptory onlirs to Prince Charles to attack Frederick before be retireil from Bohemia. A battle was aiconlingly fought at Sohr (Si'pt. 30], and again victory rested with tlie I'russians. The season was now far advanced, and Frederick returned home expecting that there would be no more fighting till after the winter. Such however, was far from being the intention of his enemies ' A plan for the invasiim of Braudcnluirg by tlin* Austrian and Saxon armies, simiiltaneoiisfv was neeri'tly concerted; but Fn'dcrick had timely warning of it and it was fni.stnited by his activity and energy. On the 2*1 of November he surprised and defeated Prince Charles at 1 I iiiiirsdorf, "Some three weeks afterwards tl>«i . 15) the Prince of I>e9sai! defi .it.'ti a e :~-.n.-I Baxon and Austrian army at Kesu-lsdorf. u few miles from Dresdi-n. This victorv compleUd the iulijugation of Saxonv ami put nn end to the war. Three day* afur Kesstladorf, t>«derick entered Dresden, and astonished erery one by the graciousness of his behaviour and by the moderotion of his u-rms. From Saxony he exacted no cession of territory, but merely a con- tribution of 1,000,000 thaiers (£150,000) towanla the expenses of the war. From Austria l>j demande*! a guarantee of the treaty of Breslau in return for which he agreed to recognize trancis as Emperor. Peace was signed [at Dresden] on Christmas Day. "— F. W. Longman Ftederiek the Great and the Hecen Team War ell. 3. ' Ai*o in: T. Carlyle, ni»t. of Frtdtriek 11., bk. 15, ek. 8-15 (r. 4).— Lord Dover, Life of Frederick II. .bk- a, «A. a-.5(r. 1). ,A- **•„ '745-— Orerwhelming ditaatcri in Italy. See Italy: A. D. 174.",. A, D. 1745 (Ma/).— Rereraei in the Nether- lands.— Battle of Fontenoy. See Netiieb- LAN08: A. D. 1745. A. D. 1745 (September— October).— Tht Consort of Maria Thereta elected and crowned Emperor.— Rise of the new House of Hans- burg-Lorraine.— Francis of Lorraine, Grand Duke of Tuscany and husbaml of Maria Theresa, »;as elected Emperor, at Frankfort, Sept. 13, 1745, and crowmnl Oct. 1, with the title of Fran- cis I. " Thus the Empire ntunied to the New House of Austria, that of Hapsburg-Lorruine, and France had missed the principal object for which she had gone to w.ir." By the treaties signed at Dresden, Dec. 25, lietween Prussia, .\ustria and Saxony, Frc(leri<k. at Elector of Brandenburg, assented to and recogniz-etl the election of Francis, against which he and the Elector Palatine had previously protested.— T H. Dyer, llitt. of Modern Eu'roix, bk. 6 eh. 4 (f. 3). A. D. 1746-1747.— Further French con- quests m the Netherlands.— Lombai.-'^ recov- ered.— Genoa won and lost. .See . -ieb- I.A.NOS: A. D. 1746-1747; and Italy: .1 D 174B-1747. A. D. 1748 (October).— Termination and re- • suits of the War of the Succession. See Aix- laChapklle, The Conqrkss of. A. p. i75S-»763-The Seven Years War.— Qerma.ny: a. D. 1753-1:56, to 1763; ahio. See Qerm ^ Seven Yeabs Wau. _ A; D- '765-I790.— Joseph II., the enthroned Pbilosopner. — "The prince who best sums up the spirit of the cen'ury is not Frederic [the Great, of Prussia], it is Josiph 11. [the emperor]. Frederic was bom s master, Joseph II. a dis- ciple, and it is by disciples that we j-idge schoola The king of Prussia dammed up the waters, directed their flow, made use of tlie current ; the emperor cast himself upon ti, m and permitted himself to be carried. With Frederic the statesman always dominates, it is he who proposes and Snail v' derides; the phil- osopher is sulHinilnate. . .'. With Joseidi II. rational conception precedes political calculation and governs [t. He had breadth of mind but his mind was superflcial : Idi-as slipped from it. He had a taste for generosity, a passion for granileur; but there was notliliig profound in hiin but ambition, and it was all counter stroke ami rtrflretitiu. He wished t.i Sllrp«^» I'reii. lic: his entire conduct was but an awkwani, Impru- dent and ill-advised imitation of this prince whom he had made his liero. whom bislorv made his rival and whom he copied while detesting 227 AUSTRIA, 1765-1790. JoMI* II. AUSTRIA, 1790-1797. him. The political genius of Fiederic was born of ({i)od »enae »nd nnxlenitio i : there was uothing In Joseph II. but the imm.Hli rii'e. lie was a nun of systems: he had ciilv .t,Teat Telleitiea. Hia education wai mediocre, a'ad, as U> methods, entirely Jesuitical. Into this contracted mould he cast confusedly notions h»tilj !> arrowed from the philosophers of Friiiire, In. n .;ie economists cs|K'ciaUy. He thus formed ii • ory vague ideal of political aspirations and en exiggersted sense of the power at his dis|"Mi>; .1 o realize fliem, 'Since I as<'ended the tliron md have woru the tintt crown of the worb' ' . .ite he in Uil, 'Ihiive mail"' Philosoph' '',1 , naker of my empire. Ht-r logical an-l, -lUous i,!«? going to trunaform Austria.' Heu. ' ruike rc.irmsin every direction at once. K;,~i> • n M i <rhim, tnulitious do not count, uof n ts •• uired. There is no race, nor perif ', .1 r ■ roui. ingclr- cumstances ; there is the .^ , c w i;rl: i? every- thing and can do everytl \c j. F wr es In 1782, to the bishop of Htra>l) iir ■ ■ t i»ing- dom governed conformabl< 1 . tu- ; j; iplea, prejiKlice, fanaticism, borlu.n jf -xnr ', nuist disappear, and each of r v >:i';eci,. ibj>i, •. reinstated in tlie posses')!,) : <>, Ms r,s'"ni rights.' He must have v.wX-', \nd, i' . icji condition, the rejection ' .;i ip vi;*!!' , ' r Chance malies him operat.' n , \ .«,il ■ .1", m,->x heterogeneous, the most int^ iirent, t!ii' ni., i cut up, parccleri out and trav' led by ,irr .,^. that there is in Kunjpe. X(, ning in <Mir,'.„ii, among his subjnis. neither Ian? lage. nor ira- ditioiiH, nor intensts. It is frum this, acconiiii^- to him. that thedefi'ct of moimr' hy arises. ' The German language is tlie universal language of my empire. I am llie empcnr of Germany, the "tates which I possess are pniviuces which form luit oni' b(Hiy with the State of which I am the licad. If the kingdom of Ilunirary were the most Important of my possessions, f should not liesilale to impose its tongue on the otiier (o'lniries ' So hi' iiniioscs the tierman language on the Hungarians, the Croats, the Tchfijues, tlie I'dles, iin all tlic Slavs, lie suppresses tire ancient tirritorial divisions . thev recall the suc- cessive agglomerations, tlie irregular alluvions which hail formed the monarchy; he establishes tliirtet'n governments and divides them into cir- cles. The diets di8ap|«-ar; the government pa.ssea into the hands of intendants according to the French formula. In the cities tlie imrgonias- ter appointed by the government becomes a func- tionary. The nobles lose the part, already much curtailed, that they still had. here and there, in the government He taxes thini, he ta.\es the ecclesiastics: he meditates establishing 8 tax ["•oportional to Incomes and reaching all classes. He prote(;ts the peasants, alleviates serfdom, diminislies the corvi'-cs, huilds hospitals, schools aliove all, in which the state will form pupils to olii y her. His iil«-al would be tlieeoiiality of his sulpjccts under the uniform sway of his govern- ment. He unifies the laws; he institutes courts of appeal with a supreme court for the entire empin-. He makes regulations for manufac- tures, binds commerce to the most rigorous proU'Ctive ^ystr-m. Finally he puts a high hand on the church and d.srees tolerance. . . . This immen^i revolution was sceompHshnd hy means of decr»>es. in less than Hve yi-ars. If we com- pare the state of cohesion which the Bourbon govemmmt had brought about in France in 1789, 228 with the Incoherence of the Austrian monarthv on the death of Maria Theresa In 17(W, It wiii be seen that tlie revolution which caused thi' Constituent Assembly was a small matter coni^ pared with that which Joseph II Intended to effect."— A. Horel. L'£un>pe tt la Hetolutinn {m"*"*" ('""^/"^ '^ J^yeneA), pt. 1, pp. uu- _A. D. I77»;l773.-The Firtt Partition of Poland. See Polakd; A. D. 1763-1773 A. D. 1777-1779.— The quettionof the Bava- nan Succesaion. See Bavahu: A. D. 1777- 1779. A. D. I78a-i8ti.— AlMlitioa of Serfdom See Slavirt. Msdijeval: Obrmant. A. D. I787^t79i<— War with the Turlts.- Treaty of SiatoTa.— Slight Acquisitions of Territory. See Turks; A. D. 177»-179i . A. D. 1790-1797.— Death of Joseph II. and Leopold II.— Accession of Francis II.-The Coalition acainst and war with revolutionary France, to the Peace of Campo Formio.- ''It is a mistake to imagine that the European "rw attacked tlie Revolution in France. It Revolution which attacked them. The .natisU of the 18th century viewed at lirst with cynical indi^erencc the laeeting of the States - General at Versailles. . . , The two miiuls which occupied the attention of Europe in 1789 were the condition of Poland ami the troubles in the East. The ambitious designs of ■'atherine and the assistance lent to them by Joseph threatenol the existence of the Tul■l(i^ll Empire, irritated the Prussian Court, and awak iiied English apprehensions, ulwuvs sensiiiv iiliont the safety of Stamboul. I'olanil, thi,' I'tittle-fleld of cynical diplomaty, torn by lnui; dissensions and ruined by a miserable constitu- 'i was vainly endeavouring, umler the jenlnus eyes of her great neighliours, to avert the doom impending, and to reassert her ancient claim to a place among the nations of the world. Hut ltus.sin had long since determined tli.it I'ohin 1 nmst lie a vassal State to her or cea.se to u ^^tnte at all, while Prussia, driven to face a iMn) necessity, realised that a strong Poland iiml ., strong Prussia could not exist together, and that if Poland ever ro8»! again to power, Prussia must bid good-bye to unity ami greatness. These two questions to the States Involved seemed to lie of far more moment than any political reform in France, and engrosseil the diplomutisn of E_unipe until the summer of 1791, In I'lliriMrv. 1790, a new inllucnce was inlrodiiceil imo European polities liv the death of the Kin|ierot Joseph and the ai icssion of his brothi r ljo|h,l,; II. IxMipohl was a man of remarkalib- shiliiv no enthusiast Rii.i no dreamer, thorout'lilv \- In the selfish truiliiions of Austrian policy ai some of tlic subtleties of Italian statccmft. cerning, tempemU\ resolute and clearln :. quietly determinetl to have liis own wav genemtly skilful enouj^h to secure it. \.< • lonnd his new dommions in a slate .f liw utmost confusion, with warandnUllion li r,:ii,n Ing him on every side. He 8|H-eilily ■-. i nl«.;it restoring order. He rcpealeil the uniH,[iiiliir .1. crees of Joseph. He conciliatc<l or n |ires.se,i l,.s discontented subjects. He gradually re 1M..I1- "=Ih?<! ti,e aMllioritv of the Cniwn. . . . Xiv. 7 i Ingly, the first efgliteen months of Uo|h i reign were ocrupie<l with his own imiiH-lKii interests, and at the cod of that time his succom 1 i-i la •iis- ,^.,i .A AUSTRIA, 17«ft-17»7. Wan with Rt wUittionarl/ Fmner. «u marked. Catherine'i vaat sclienes iu Tur- key had been checked. War had been averted. l'<ilaD<l had been itrengthened by intenutl cliaDKC'S. Pruvta bad been conciliated anil out- nunieurred, and lier influence had been imiwirvd. At last, at tlie end of August, 1791, the Emperor was free to face the French problem, and he set nut for the Castle of Pillnitz to meet the King of Prussia and the Emigrant leaders at the Saxon Elector's Court For some time past the restless- ness of tiie French Emigrants had been causing great pcriilexity in Europe. Received with open arms l<y tlie ecclesiastical princes of the Khue, by the Electors of Maircnce and TrJves, they proceeded to agitate busily for their own restora- tion. . . . The object of the Emigrants was to bring pressure to bear at the European Courts, with tlie view of Inducing the Powers to inter- vene actively In their belulf. . . . After bis escape from Fiance, In June, 1790, tlie Comte de Provence established his Court at Cobleutz, wlien' he was joined by his brother tiie Comte il'ArUjis, and where, on the plea that Louis was a prisoner, he claimed the title of Regent, and iissumed the authority of King. The Court of ttic t«(i French princes at CoLilentz rvi.resenteil faithfullv tlie faults an<l follies of the Kuiignii:: party. But a more satisfactory sjiectacle was offered by tlic camp at Worms, where Cond£ was bravely trying i.. organise an army t.-. fight iigaiiist the Rcvol ^tion in France. To Condi's stamliml tlfickcd ihe more patriotic Emitrrants. . . But the German Princes in the nelgl.liour- hood lookeil Willi disfavour on the Emigrant army. It caused i'i>afusion in ilieir dominions, ami it drew .Uiwii .m them the lostility of tlie French Govt-rnnieii! The Emperor joined tliem \h protesting airai.st It. In February, 1792, ( oiiile's army wiut i niiipelled to abandon its camp ;4 Worms, and to n 'ire fiirtlier into Gtrmiiny. Die Emiwnjr whs U aware of the nckless seltisliMessof the Emigrant princes. He Iiud as little sympatliy with tliem as his sister. He did not intenil to listen to their demands. If he in- terfered ill France at all, it would only be in a tautiousaiid Unttitive manner, and in onler to save Miiriu AnUiinettc iiml her husband. Cer- liiiiilylr would not umlertiike a war for the restor- ation . ; tile Ancien liegime. . . . Acconlingly Mie inlervii ws at Pillnitz came to nothing. . i..irlv in .Mureh, IT92, Lwnolil suddenly died. I'l; , liiir Fnincis, unrestrained by his father's tact and mixlcmtion, assiinii d a different tone and showed less pMience. Tlie chances of any elTectivc prcs- Min; from the Powers declined, as the pnwpect nf w;ir rose on the Iiorizon. Friiiiris' language «ii8 Mifflciently sliari. to give the A-> uibW tli<' pntixt which it longed for, and c the Siitj .\pril, Louis, amid >:eneml cntliusiasm, (,une ■ lowii to the Assimlily and d«-lured war aitainst Austria The elfects of thiit inomenUjiis step no uimmciit lari exagircrate. 1 1 riiinwl the liest ^ ixsuf !h,. Hcvojuiion, aii.l preimml tlie way . r u miliLiiy des|).ilisni in 11^. futiir. —C. K .Mullet. J he Fnnd, /;,„^„l„„i. 7 — St- l-K*.\eE: .V. D. 1790-17, ■. 171. ,.l, . , -Decem- I UKK); 1T91-K92; 17tn! (Apku.-.J, , v), and iSEPTEsiiiEii-DKcKMnEii). 17U-.'-179;i Decem- llEIl-l'KUlllAHV); IT*! (FeUHIAHV^ Ah|(I(., I 'i-u< ",.,!:'~'"'-"-'""'" 'IW (.MARrii— Jui.Y) i liW-l.Kj (IXTOUKK M.»Y); 17!)5 (Jine— De- 1797 lUtToBtn— Apbu.). AUSTRIA, 1798-1806. A. D. i794-i;96.— The Third petition oi Poland.— Auatnan share of the apoil*. See Poland: A. I). 1793-1796. A. p. i7OT(Octob«r),-TreatT of Campo- Formto with France.— CcMioo of the Nether- land* and Lombard proTincei.— Acquisition of Venice and Venetian territories. See Fbance: a. D. 1797 (.Mat— October) A. D. i798-x8o<.— Congreas of Raitadt.— Second Coalition asainit France.— Peace of Luneville.— Third Coalition.— Ulm and Aui- 'f''.*.*-."?*"* <*f Preiburg.— Extinction of the Holy Roman Empire.— Birth of the Empire of Auitria.- •■ When Bonaparte sailed for Egypt he had left _ congress at Rastadt discu-Mng means for the execution of certain ariir les in the treaty of Cainpo Fonnio which were to establish peace between Franco and the Empire. . . . Though openly undertaking to invite the Ger- mans to a congress In order to settle a general peace on the basis of the Integrity of the Empire tlie Emperor agreed In secret ..licles to use his iniluence to procure for tlie Ucpiiblic the left liunk of the Rliiuc witli the exception of the Prussian provinces, to join with France in obtain- ing comiH'nsatiiin in Germany for thof"; injured by this change, and tocontnbute no more than Ills necessary contingent if the war w.re pro- longed. The ratification of the.s.' awni pro- visions had lieen extorted from till muc.-is by threats before H. iiapwrte liiul left, !■ i ih.- ques- '■ nof indeniiiiiH;iiion hiid progres.s. i mi farther lu a decisiou to secuhirlse the • '. ^ill.^tical s., !cs for tht puriiose, when extnivii^,'iiut de- m.-.'idsfrom ti French deputies broiiirht nego- tiation toa dea. i ck. Meanwliile, another en.ili- tion war hud Ui brewing. Paul I. of I{iis.siii had regarded wit i little plen.siire the di insrs of the Ilevolntiun, and when his pnjteges.tl- kniirliis of St. John of Jerusalem, had been di ; rived of Malta by Bonaparte on his w:,v to Egypt, when the Directory established bv 'force Vt iiriiis a nclvetic republic in Switzerland, when it fniinj occasion to carry off the Pope iutoexile uihI . rrct a Roman republic, he aliandoiieil the (iiuinus and self-seeking i>oli(v of Catlien . . m„i , ,,rJi. ally responded to Pin - lulvaiicis nii alli^iiicc. At the same time Turkey was lied by the invitation of 1 vpt to iiily itself mce with Russia. Austi conviiKr.l that !,i i rtiuli did not intend to pay a fair Campo Formlo, also de! ties; and Naples, cxaspi a republic at Koine, and -'ressiveness, enrolled il»i Xeapolitau king, iinleeil. some 8ucces.s, Ix'fore he < from his al'ies; but hi- wh the French und his Into a Pan. impean .blic. An tia, on contrary, iiv> .iied ti mval of iho Ru-. .m forces; ami lb ceni ( anipaign began early in 1799. Th Fr wh. 'iting against such iriner- bIs a> the Ar al«k iharlefl and the liu^.-ian Suvarwff, wir iit • ,■ sup. lision of Carnut or ;.') ■■! iiler|)ri»« of noiiMparte, vet r,M rses and great priyaiinua. lie 111.! the Russian amiv endured ishin a "n-mnt of (\ts- s Iflsli- .Vus!? .Ill ibinet; and this caused light ii. had other riasoiw for .iidniw iiis tr ...ps from the field. rice for the i mined to reiie lied by the siic I rilled by ¥: ' in • vj leag ipti: the V <■< -ilil receive Kin vamiuih... 'lions we^ conv V of 4ili- eof Hg- The «ith ■port 1 liy rted he tiie atrat suffered - Town muc ncK^ ■! ti the 1 sar. disci ;eni . Whe 229 Uotiaparu' was made First Consul the ACSrraA. I78S-180*. Van trilk Xapoimm, AUSTRIA. 1796-1808. milit«r7 pndtioD of France wm, ncvertlu'loM very precarious. . . . Tlw Roman nii<l Cisalpine republics linJ fslien. Tlic very conirn-sn iit Ras- tadt hail been illsperseil :.y the iippnuuli of llic Austrians; and the French emissiiries had lieen sahreil by Austrian tro..[ier8, tlinugh how their insolence came to be thus foully punialieil has never been clearly expluinwl. At this crisU France was rescued from forel^jn fin's and domestic disonlera by Its most siici-essful gen- eml. ... In tlio aimpuign whi.h followed, France obuineil signal satlsfneiion for lu chagrin. Ix-aving Morenu to carry the war into Oermanv, BooaiNirte sud<lcnly cmssed the Alps and defeated the Auslriikns on the plain of Marengo. The Austrhius, though eompletply ci)we<i. refrained from concluiling a <Ieflnll« XH'MV out of respect for their enumgenienU with Englanil; and armistices, ex|>lring into desul- torv warfare, prolonged the conU-st till Moreau laid the w-ay open to Vienna, by winning a splendid triumph at Hohenlinden. .\ treaty of grace was Anally concluded at Lunevjllc. when Francis II. pledgetl the Empire to ila provisions on the ground of the consenu already given at K«Bta<ll. In conformity willi the treaty of Canino Formio, Austria retained tliel>oundary of Ihc Adigc In luly; France kept Belgium and the left liank of the Rhine; and the princes, dis- poaaesHCfl by the cessions, were pmnilseil com- IK-nsation in Uermknv: white Tuscany was given to France to sill Ui Spain at the price of Parma, Louisiana, six ships of the line and a sum of money. Shonly afterwanls peace was cTtended to Naples on easy ti'mia . . . Tlie time was now come for the Itevdhilion In Com P'ete tlie niin of the Holy Komau Empire Pursuant to the treaty of Luneville, the German Diet mi't at Kegenxliurg to iIIm-iiu a scheme of coni|>eiiiuit|iin fur the ili!i|MMsi'x.vil rulers. Vlr- tunlly the Hurting was a renewal i.f the ningnw of Uiwluilt. ... At Itastadt llie IniiMiennee anil ilisinti-KrHlinn of tlie venerable Empire lijul beciimc painfully a|<i>an'nl. . . . When it was known th:it the hiwl of the nalLin, who had giiaranlceil Ilie inl.grily of the Eniiiirv in the pnliuiiniiries of I/ei>U-n, aiwl had renewiil the awuranee when he eonvoked the awtemblv liml In truth iKtrayeii to the stranger nearly all the left iHiiik of the Rhine,— the (»ennaii riilen. tntilil) hasteneil to siture every iNissible Irille In till- M-nonlile nf nHlistriliutiiin The slow ami wiariii.me ilelmtes were supplenieiiteil by intritfun I.f ilie nuisl degradetl nature. Cm; «■ " 'hat the French Consul eiiulil give a cieiiiiiif v.ite i.n any dlKputeil i|Ui-«ti<>n the priniiH f.HiMil no liiillgnilv tiio shameful no trirk till Ins.-, to nbtnin his faviiur . . Tbe Hr«t C.iiMil, (,n hia side, pniweuliil with - -•■ •' — "••■' . I'K-Ki HU1I Willi a iliipliiily nixl mldn'ss, herelofure iineiMmllnl the tniililiMiial (Milliy nf France In Oennaii , "'"* r'iK'il'itf In Uke Into ii'miMinvIa the MuiiiB r^r, whiM- cnnvenient rrieiii|»hlp wa.i liiiix iiwlly iilitaiiiiilnn luiiHinl nf hi< family mniiii tit.im with Hie (tiniiaii e<«in«, hi driw upa Mhiiiienf )iiilrinnih<alii.M and pnwntitl It to the l))i I f..r I ii<l.,n«niint. In due lime a mr vile nsm-M h.u> glvin In every (Milnt whieh enn nrniil iIh two aulixnits. fty this wltleminl AiiMtria and I'niwia were miin- eiiiially lialniinii nrinniieme in Wiiiieni (l.nnanv. ami Hie hiHer BuUIng In mure cuavtulint situations • rich li30 recompense for Ito oosionson the Rhine; «|ii|r the middle stales, Bavaria, Baden, and Wanmi berg, n^-eived very considerable acceasiniiH of territory. But if Bnna|iarte dislocatetl yei fur ther tlie (lolitical structure of (^jrmiiny lie was at least instruinenUl in removing llio wnrsi of the ana.^hrouisms which stlflcil the develniiirieut of iinpn 111 institutions among a large di\i<ion of its [K-nple. The same measure which bmiielit Oemian 8i-|>arali8in toacliiiiax.alsoextinifiiislicii the ecclesiastical sovereignties anil nearly all ilie free cities. That these slninghnliis of prii-,tly obscurantism and Imurgeois apathy wiiulil «.ia",. day be invaihil by their more ainbitinus ami active neighlmura, hiul long liecn ap|>an'iil And war was declare<l when Uiouxamls „f British subjecu visiting France hail alrniily lieen ensnared and imprisonetl. . . . I'iit |,ai'| taken tlic conduct of the war out of the liamlsof Addingtons feeble ministry. Posaessiinf il,t. confldence of the powers, he rapidly com liidiii offensive allhnces with Ruask, Sweilen sml Austria, though PrussU olistinaUly reiuaiiml neutrJ. Thus, by 1H05, Napoleon had put u. baxjnl all hia Utely won power In a emitliet with the greater part of Europe. The lialtle of L^pe Trafalgar crushed for good hU maritime power, tad rendenxl England safe from ,Unit attack. The campaign on land, however, mailc bim master of central Euroiio. BringiiiK tlie Austrian army in Oemuiuy to an inglnrious capitukttioo at Uien, lie marehcil UinaiKli Vienna, aiHl, with inferior forra-s won In hii beiit stTte the battle of Austeriiti against the ir.«,|), of Francis and Alexander. The aelinn was decUivc. The allies thought not of niiiwini! the war with Uie nlays of trta.ps whirl, were hiirrying up fmm Nortli and South. I<ii«>i»n ami Austrian alike wislml to be rid of thiir ill fatiil connection. The Emperor Alixamirr sllenlly retiirneil home, pursued only bv Naiai Jeons Haltering tokens ofi-sUem: the tiniiiror Francis aeei'pted the peace of I .vsliurg h hli h deprived ills house of the ill gotten Viinllaii HIales, Tyrol, and iu more disUnt |Hwie« slons in Weatem Uermany; the Kiinr nf Prussia, who hail been <m tlie point of joininn ll«- coalllion with a large army (I his m.'liation were unHuccessfiil, was commllteil to an allianei' with the eoiiiiuerur by bis Urritliil muni u.r Anil well dill Napoleon appear Ui nialte the friiils of victory ci>in|ietiaat« France for iin m r lions. The empire was not made more iiii»{,ih' n bulk, but its de|MndenU. Bavaria. Wnm™ l>erg, and Uailen, niTlveil conniderable a, n-» slons of territory. sihI the two flrst wen- ml«M to the rank of kingdoiiui; while the EmiKnu. Italian |.riiicipiillty, which he liml slnaily lumeil Into a kingilom of luly In the gre.il ilit gust of Ailalria. was inereaan'l by the aiLliilnii of the eeiliil Ven.tian lamls Uul the full il,-|ith of t,iini|H< a hiMiiilialion was niH exid-riemiii till the two fntlnwing yeani. In I** an ,\.| ..f Fiileijlion was.igne.1 by the kiiiin nf llnaria and W llrtiiiilNrg, iIh- Kleelor nf Hail.n ami Ihlrtwn minor princes, whii-h iinititl thrni itilna li-agiie iiniler the nniteclion of the K .mil hni|>en.r The oliJi..ia of this iiMifnii raiy. known ii-< the lUieinliuml were defenre ac^iiist fiin-Ign nggn-BSHHi bikI the exen-iae nf e..iiii.N-ir niii..i...in> Hi ii.iiiie. . AInwIy Hie i.-nne iiiMii. .-M of Hie I'lure of l.unevllle hs.| in.|iiii.| the ruliug Ua|Mburg to assure bis cqualil} wilk AUSTRIA, 17a»-1808. the lOTercigiu of France ami nunia by taking tbe imperial title in Ilia own right; ami Ix'furetlie ('uiifc<leratioa uf tlic Kliinc wtu iiuxli' public Iiu fiiniiully renouiicol liisofticT of cli-clive KnijH'ror ■if the Holy Koniiin Empire ami relcoaetl from uliiyiuncv t<> hint all the stnteaaml princetof tlie IMch. Tlie triumph of tlio German policy of the Conaulate was complete. "—A. Weir, The tlulorinU Hutu uf Modern Europe, eh. 4, — See iilso, Khanck: a. I). 170H-ITW, to 1805, and Okhmany: a. I). 1801-lWW, U) 18aVl»06. A. D. 1809-1814.— The aecood atmnle with Ntpoieoo and the tccond defeat.— The M»r- riacc alliance.- The Cernutnic War of Liber- ation.— The final alliance and the overthrow oftheCoraican.— "On the 12tUof July, 1806, fourteen princea of the south and west of Oer- inany uniu-d themselves Into the confederation of the lUiine, and re<'ngnised Napoleon as their pr>itM'lor. On the Ut of August, they signifletl to the diet of Ratisbon their separation from the (J«-nimiiic body. The Empire of Oemianv ecaacd to exist, and Frnncis II. abdicated the title by prorlsmation. By a convention slgneil ut Vienna, on the 15tb of I>ecemlK-r, Pniasia exeliuiigiil the U'rriUiries of AnHpaeh, fleves and NeufcJmU'l for tlie electorate of ilunover. Na|ni- leon had uil tlie west under liis |M>wer. Absolute master of France and Italy, ns empemr and king, lie Kiis also master of Hpain, by the ilependenee of that court; of Naples and lloilaiid, by his two lirKthers; of Hwitzerhtnd, bv the act of niedlHlion; and in Oermany he had at hisdiH- ixwiil the kings of Bavaria and WurU'nilierg, ami (lie idiifeih'nition of tlie Hhine against Austria 1111(1 1'riifsla. . . . Thhiencp<aching progress gave riiie to tlie fourth coalit'.m Prussia, neutral Kinii'llieiM'aivof Bile, liar, ir the last cam|iaign, Uin on tlie point of loiniu,- the Austro-Ruiainii niaiilion Tlw rapidity of the emperor's ' tiiric« had alone restminiil her; but now, alarm. 'I lit llw iiiigramlizement of the empire, and enoour- tiitiil liv llie line comlitioii <if Iwr troops, she liKKUtcl with Uiiasia to drive the French from (nriiuiiiy. . . . The cain|iaign o|N'iieil early in <Hl..liir. NaiNileon, as usiia', everwhcliiRil the iimlilloii by tlie iiromptltude of his iiiunhes aiul the vigour of his measures. t)n the Utii of thlolK-r, he deslroynl at Jena the military monHfiliy of I'mssia. by a dn-ixive vlct4try. liii' < uiii|Niign in Poland was lew rapid, but as Inilliiint lis iliat of Priiisia. KiiisU, for tlw thini lliiic. nil HsiintI its strength with Fnnce. Con- 'jiiend at Zurich and Auslerlits, it was almi ili-reHtiil at K> lau and Frietllaml. After Ihiiie num. .milk' Imiiles, the emiM-n.rAlexiinderentenil into s ni'golistioii. and coiicliidiil at Tilsit on ihf.'M of June, 1H07, an armisiiiv whicli waa t,.ll..»ii| bys detlnitive treaty on the Tib of July I 111 |H aif of Tilsit exleudiilthe Friiich ilonilna [' "" '«• "Hitinent. Prussia was reiluoal Ui Imlf lU extent. In tlie south of (iemiany >ii|>oliiin hml liiiililiil<i| the two kliigihiins of Ifcivnris aiHl Wiirtemhrrg against Austria (irihi r to the north, he created tlie two feudatory l>iinr.|..ms of Saxony awl Wotphalia against • "i«m. luonler to obtain universal himI 111". nil still supniiMMy. he niaile use of arms «)!«iii»i llienmiinent, and the it«Mli<in of ••om 111' lonlliMuUl states all oanmuiiicatioii with f.iiitlHiiil. he ttu pn lutriug mw dintcultitv for uumll, auU mwu atUed to Uw oaliBuaity of Ifura Wfk JVmwiMm. AUSTRIA, 1809-1814. opinion excited by hit detpotiim, and Uie hatred of BUtes produced by his conquering doinl- ' u, the exaspenUon of private interesU and com- mercial sulTeriug occasioned by the blockade. . . . Theexpetiitionof Portugal in 1807, and the mrasion of Spain In 1808, began for him and for Euroiie a new Older of events. . . . The reaction iiisiilfitit.-d Itself in three countries, hitherto allies of France, and it brought on the fifth coalition. The court of Rome « as dl»aiuisll«l ; the peninsula was woundi-d in its nullonul pride by having imposed upon it a foreign king; In its usages, by the suppression of convents, of llic Imiiilsition, and of the gmmU-es; Holland suffered in its commerce fmin the blockade, and Austria supported ini|>atleiillv its liauea am) sulionlinate condition. Eughiml, watching for an opiNirtunity to revive tlie stniggle on the continent, excited the resisUince of Home, the |M■llinsull^ ami the cabinet of Vienna. AuslrU . . . made a |Niwerfui eHort, and raised .M0,000 men, comprising the Laudwehr, and tisik the field in the spring of 1800. The Tynil rose, and King Jenmie was driven from Ills capital liy the Weslplialians; luly wavenil; and IViiiwia only wailtil till Napoleon met with a reverse, to take arms ; but tlie em|HTiir was still at tlie lieight of hb iMiwer and pnw|H'rity. He hiistened from Madrid In the la-ginning of Feb- ruary, ami (lirvcteil the nicmtM'rsof the confiibra- lion to kirp their contingents in reailineBs. t)ii the lilh of April he left Paris, piuweii lla- Kliiiie, plunged into U<>rinaiiv, gaineil the viiuiri« of Kckmahl and Es.Hiiug. iMiiiplud Vienna a second time on tlie l.tlli of .May, and overthn-w Ibis new coalition by the bii'ltle of Wagram, aftir a campaign of four nioniliH. . . . Tlie|H-aceof Vienna, of the IlthoftKlolHT. 1809, depnvetl tlie house of Austria of several more pnivinces, and compelled it again to adopt tla! conlim'ntid system. . . . Nnp'Ii-on. who m^eiiuil to folhiw a rash but inltexihi policy, deviatiil from his course about tills lime by a second marriage. He di' 'reed Joaepliiiie that he might give an heir to tla empire, and marriinl, on tlic Isl of April, IHIO, .Marie touiM-, arch diiclu-ss of Austria. This was a deciiletl error. He iiuiiiitl his iMsiilion and his [»m\ as a parvenu and nvo- lulionary monarch, op|Hising in Kranir the ancient couns as the reniililii' liad op|MMed tlie .;ncient governments. He placiil liiniMlf in a false situation with M<|ie«t to .Viistria, which he ought eillier to have rriiaheil atler the victory of Wagmni. or to have reinslulitl In its |HMScssion8 after Ills marriage with the arch duchrsa. . . . The birth, lai the StHU of Manh, l.sil, of a sim, wlm n-irlvwl the title of klug of Rome, seemwl to ■tinaoliiliite the |Miwer of .NaiHileon. by nciur Ing Ui hliii 11 suciisaor. The war In Spain was iiniwTUted Willi vigour during tlie years INIilsnd 1811. . . . While the war was pni<<ee<ling in ttw (s-niiMula Willi lulvantagc. but without any del idi'd siiii-esi, a new campaign waa pfe|iariu|r III tlie north. Kuwla |H'ni'ivi.<l the empire ol Napoleon appMaihiug its terrilories. . . . .Msiut the rliwe of 1810, II liH-n-aae<l its armies. rcniwiHl lu conimenial n'lations wilh tin-at Britain, aial dhl iHit si^eiii imlis|Hwil to a rupture. The year IMll was spent in m-gotlalions which leil to toolbibii. oihI |m|>aniiiiHw U<t war wen- maaie on laithshle*. . . . Oiillu'Vlhof Manh, NsfMileon k-fl Paris. . . Ituring si'Veral inontiis he'll xeil hli GUim at DivMku, wtan thu ein|H.'iur iil 231 Tm lir-' i! •, i-. AUSTRIA. 1800-1814. Austria, the king of PnmU, ROfl hII the •ovcrcfgM of Oermiiny. crnne to bow before liis high fortune. On the Mud of June, wnr wm <ktl»r«l against KiimIh. . . . N«|)olet)n. who, •ccinling to his ciut.mi, wlglicil to ttnish all in one cnnipaign, advanet-d at onre Into the heart of Hiwsla, nutead of prudently organiiing the 1""'!' '!?;f''„i: »«•'•'«" "• III' «nny amount.-.! to alwut .VI«).(HK» men. He piuwe.! the Niemenon the J-«tli of June ; Uh.Ic Wilna. ami Witcptk, .lefeate,! the RuMiau. at Astrowno, Poh.tak, Mohilow Nnolensko, at the M.wkowa. and on the Uth of Jj'pU-mber, maile his entry Into M.weow. M.W.-..W was bumtil by its governor. The emiMTor ought to liave seen that thin war wouhl not terminate as the others luul ilone; yet eon- ■luiror of tile foe, and nuwter of bis oipltal he .•om-eiye.1 hopes of iwaee which the /tuminns ski fully eneourag.'.l. Winter was nppr.»uhlng. ami Naiwleon ProlonKe.1 his stay at Moacow for six w.rks He .lelayed his movements .>n •ecount of the d.-ceptlvc n. ,-otlatl.ins of the Russians: ami .11.1 n.it decl.lc on a nlrt-at till the tl>th of t)rtober. This retreat wiu .llwsttui.s. and began the (h>wnfall of tlio empire The caliitiel of Berlin Iwgiin the defections. ()n the Isl of .Marih. IS13, it Joined Russia ami EnglamI whir 1 1 ero fonning the sixth coalition. Sw.Hlm acc.-.li-.l to it so<m afu-r, yet the empemr, whom the .-..nfeilenite power thought pnMlrate.1 l.y the la>t diwwier, o|)ened the camiiaiifn with new vletorieii. The Imttle ot Lutx.n, wm liv eon script*, on the Jml .if May, the .atupalion of l)ns.l.n;the victory of Uaiiixen, and the war .■iirri.-.! to the Kllie. astonishe.1 the eixiliilon Austriii, whl.li, »ln.e IHIO, Iwd bti-n on a f.K.t- ing of (H-aiv, was resuming arma, aii.l alreadv meditating a elmnge of allian.-e. She m.w pni. IXW-.I li.rsclf lis 11 nii-.liatrix la-tween llieeiniH-Kir ami the .Miif.d.niles. Her ine<li<ilioii w,,, aovpu-d: an iiriiiisti.e was eoneludcd at Pless- wit/., on the 4lh of June, and a eongnss ask'inlil.'tl at I'nigiie to negotiate |M.-aee. It wiw lni|KM.sili|,. i„ ,.,„„i, t,, „.„„, Austria Jtilii.-.l theeuililinn. and war, tl niv means of M'ttling this >;niit lontest, was .esiiiiieil The emiMror luul only ixil.im men against .■>«() INM \iiiory w.in..i|. at flmt, l.i M<<<iml him At llri'Mliii he dtri-ut.il the eomliiiml fonis- but the defeats of hi, lieutenants d.rangid his plans. Tlie priii.vsof the eonfedemtion of tin- Khiiie .liose this moment to d..s.'rl tlir i uis.- of Ihrenipir,' A ni.t eniragi-ment haviii,: lakin pla.. nt l,.iiisi<- iH'tween the two armies ih,. S»».>iis and ft iirtcmla-rgers pa«M<<l over to (he enemy on (|„. », Id of battle. This d. f.vli.m to the sIreiiKtIi ,.f iIm- oakvecl jxiw. r», who ha.l leariie.^1 nior.' I'onitHK't ami sklffnl tmsleof war far>. oblitfid .\ii|M,).iin to n-in-at. after astriig gle of ihn-.- day ., The empire was lnv,ul,,| in all ilin-.'tioiis The Aiistriaiis ei.i. r.-d Italy lie Knglisli, Imving mwle tlM>ma<>lv.<s mnslemof the (HMiiKiila during the lost Iw.. n:ir. hiul IMvwsl II,.. Hi.|.is.s.w, iimler r-neral W. Ilinirton ami «ma,in,l on the J'yn-mvs. Thnv armi-i pres-d oil Y ran.i- Ui the ea«t and north SaiK.lc-on was .dillge,l to mit |.> the ♦•.MLlllona of il„. ttllLsl (a.wers; their pretensions Inere.uasl with Hair |N.wer . . . On the 1 1th of .'.',. '*■ '"■ ""'""Mwl for himaiir ami ' '''"/♦"'J ,''*'• !!!r.nn nf FriJi.,, «„,; iuiv. ami l»selv.sl in eneliange for his vast si.v.rigniv. the Uiiiiis of wbkb IuhI Mteodul tfvm ladls °tu tiie Ot^ertkrom of \ttpoltim. AUSTRU, 181»-18&.. naltic Sea, the little Island of Elba."— P \. Mignet. Uittorgof lit* f<nueh HnolntioH, ch iV -becOjtrtJiAMT: A. U. 18»)» (January— June), i„ 1813; Russia: A. D. 1813; and Fhamck: A II lSlO-1818 U> 1814. i.^ °L '••♦•-"•^"'** ™l« In Northern lt«ljr. See Italy: A. D. 1814-181.'5. ^ °- '«'4-«»«5--Trt«tie« of Paris and Con- Esaa of Viciiii«.~R«adjuatinciit of French undanca.— Recovary of tha TTrol from Ba- varia and Lombardjr in Italy.— Acquiaition of tha Vtnatian aUtaa. See Fhamce: A. I) ihu (Aprii.— JuN«), and ISI.'J (Jitly— N.)veiibkhi also ViKNNA, TitK CoNoRnw or. A. D. ili4.iBao.— Formatioa of the C^-. maoic Conftdaration. Sec Qermany' ' 1) 1814-18-JO. A. D. Ili5.-The Holy Alliance. Sec Hoi.v Al.I.tAXCE. ^P- '8'5-— Return of Napoleon from Elba. — The Quadruple Alliance.— The Waterloo 181?-'wS' *"** "* **"""•■ ''^'^' ••'"*'«"' -V 1) ••^.?;-fi'**''i5.-.T5"l*"" P'«Kli. Prinet ?!?"V^'^, "" 'I"* ■y'teni."— 'After tli< 232 treaty of \ieuiia In IWW, ami still more ...n sptetiously p.'lcr the paeiaeati.in of Eiin.|». the |H>litlcal wis,h)m of the nihrs of Austria in cllne«l them ever more ami more to the iimin teoance of that state of things wMeh was km.»n to frfcmla and fi*s as the System. Iliit wlmt was the SysUm T If was the orgnuisation of d.. nothing. It cannot even la. said to have h.Tn reacthmary: It waa slin|.ly Inaetionarv Mark time in pla<w' was the WonI of ...mmaii.i In every goumment offlee. The biirea-ii nu v was enn .,-„| from morning to night in iiiaiiiiiK work, but notliing ever came of It. Not .v.n were the hla-rwl lnm)vatlons which ha.l lii«i„| t .tough the reign of l^.pold p,t rid of Kvirv liiiig went on In the eonfuse.1, unrtnlsh.M. and lmfT.-.tivo .late In which the great war ha.l fouml It. hneh was the famous System nhiili was viiieralisl by the ultra- Tori«-« of ev.rv I.111.I ami ni,»t vencrat.-.I where It was least iiiKler' st.Msl Two men dominate the history of .\ustria during this unlwnpy time — m. 11 who though utterly unlike In ehar* t.r ami Inl.lle. i were nevertheless ailmirablr lllle.1 to wi.rii 1.. gellKT, and whom nnniea w(ll h.. hiiig iinite.i in an uiienvlnlile notoriety. Tins,. «,.re tl.,- Kinjanir KramU an.l l'rin.-e Meii..rni.h TIh- tlrst was the evil genius of lnt.-riml i».|||i.<s i|,a s.-eond eii, r. Is.sl a hanlly 1.-M lianefiil inH.i.m-o ov.r foreign affair.. . . . For the e»t.rm.l polk y of PriiHi. Meiierni.h. tin- first ami ni.«i iie.--i. sary omdition was, that Austria should tflve to t.uro|a- the linnnsslon of nxn\ adhen me to ilw most extreme onsi-rvsli- e vh-ws. So (or ni.iiiy jears tli.y w h| together, Prim-e Meti, rnl.li always .).-. laring that he was a mere l.«,| h, the ham Is of his master, but In n-aliiv far re nlwolute In the dinethm of his own d. iwrli t .,"'1 .""'"'""■*"•''''''• Prime M, II. r m.h ha.l the power »f making th.- m.-t of ull lie knew, and constantly h-ft U|>..n |»r~.ii» .f real merit the Impn-saiou tlwt he »as >i imhh . f Miy aspiratl..iis ami liberal views. »ho f.r.i.l hlniaeir ui repn-sa such temlfiii i.-* In oih. r« !«• cause lie thought that ilu.ir repr-.-^i-.-!! «=s a ='"r ijui lion lor Aiulrlo. Tlie nu-u of ahiliiv «li ■ liiM-w him Intlnwiely, thought h-ss well .If |,ii., To them h« appeared vain and supertlilal. »iiii AUSTRIA., 181&-18S3. Frtmtm IMUmtek mod •■UuSttUm." AUSTRIA, 181S-18M. moeh that raotUed the French nobleeee of the old regime in hie wkjr of kmklnc at thinn, and empbatioUly wutiog in erery elemeot of giest- nea. With the outbreak of the Qreek in^unec- tlon in 1881. began a period of dllHculty and romplicatlona for the itateemen of Austria. There were two thinn of which they were ninrullr afraid — Ruaaia and the revolution. Now, If they aaieted the Oroeki, they would he plKriag into the liamU of tlie eerond; ami If thf'v oppneed the Orceki, they would be likely to I'lubmil theniwlvet with the flr*t. The wliole art nf Prince Mettemlch waa tiierefore ex«rt£<l to keep things quiet iu the Eaalem Peninsula, sihI to postpone the intiilerabla ■ question il'Orlent.' Many were the shifts lie friwl, and Homi'times. asjustaftcrtheaccesfciniiof Meliolas, U» hopes rose »ery hlih. All wiw, howevt-r, in Tsin. England and Russia settled matters be- hind bis back : ami altluiugh the tone which the nulillciats In his pay ailoptwl townnis tlie Greeks be(»me more favourable in 1820-7. the battle of Navarino was a sail surprise and mortification to the wily duucellor. Nut less annoying was the commeaceroeut of hostilities on tlH-' l>anube be- tween Kuasis and the Porte. The reverses with which the (rrest neighbour met Iu bla first cam- palyn cannot have been otherwise than pleasing St Vienna. But the unfortunate success which aitiniknl his arms in the second campaign soon tunie<l III'dlssembkKl Joy inU> ill ciinceuk-d aorn>w. and the treaty of Adrianople at once hiweml Austria's prestige in tlie Kast and de- pose.1 Metternlch from the comnmniling p<Mltion which he l»d oicupiiHl in the coiincila of the Holy .lilies. It liecame, indeed, ever more ami mure evident in the nest few years tliat tile age of Congress politics, during which be hail lieen the observeil of all obaervrn. was past ani gone, that the diplomatic period bail van- UIhiI away, ami tliat tlie military i>vriial bati be- gun The very form In whh-h the hl<rlieat in- ternational iiuesllons were delmted was utterly cbangei] At Vienna, in 1814. tli« dlpbunaliau had l»fn reKlly the primarv. Ilie sovereigns onlv •nnndary personages; while at the interview of Mniirhengrati, between Nicholas ami the Em- IxTtir Prancis, in 1883, the great tocrat ap- ("•anii to look up<m Prince MetU-n. h as hanlly iiinri' than a confidential clerk. The dull m..ri.iii,ny of servitude which oppresaeil nearlv ih«- whole of the empiie waa vartetl by tlie agita- tions „f one of lis component parts Wlien the lluriK«riai.I»letwa«dissolved In INU.ilw emperor ha.1 ookmnly pnmiiaeil tliat It sbouhi be called i.'ir. iImt sgaia within three years. I'p to 1HI5 aiiiTillngly, the nation went on giving ei- irHMrlliiary levies and supplies without much '•pl"»liiiMi. When, however, the ap|M.lut«<t ilmi' was fulflllwl. It lagan to murmur ^mr iiv year the agluilon went on incn-aoing. 111! il la.t the hn-akliig out of the On^ek revi.lu- II 11 :.iid llic threatening ap|icarsiH« of Eoalem !► h!,.«, IihIikimI l-rintw Metlemiih to Joiu bis «iiir.,iiie« to tliiKie of many irtlier i ounacllors, wh. I ,HiW not !«• suspect«<l of the sllglit«»i lean 111.' (o conatltMtlonal views At length tiie < iit« r..r yiehlwl, ami In lHa.% Preaburg was once iiir. lillnl with the best bhaal an.1 nioM «,.ii.» •i".u ,.r iIh, u,HJ, oaaemhleii in psrlinment. —Mi: ami iinnny were llw debates which enaiied mill t waa. from Um« u. time, the veiatlon nf tit. >'iti|ieiw. and great was the exdtettwat throughout Hungary. In the end, howeTer, the court of Vienna triumphed. Hardly any griev- ances were redressed, while iU demands were fully conceded. The Diet of 1843 was, however not witliout fruit. The discussion wbicb took place advanced the political education of the people, who were brought back to the point where they stooii at the death of Joseph IL— that is, before the long wars with France bad come to distract their attention fmm their own affairs. . . , The slumbers of Austria were nor. yet over. The System dragged its slow length along. Little or nothing was done for the Im- provement of the country, KlebcUberg ad- ministered the finances In an cosy ami cureieas manner. Conspiracies and rising:) in Italy were easily checked, and batches of priaonera ac^nt off from time to time to Hsntuu or hpiellxTg, Austrian influence rose ever iiiKher and higher in all the petty cnuru of the Peninsula, ... In other regions Russia or England might lie will- ing to tliwart him, but iu luly Prince Meiu-r- nich might proudly reflect that Austria was In- dce<l a great power." The Fnnch Revolution of IKW waa at first alarming; but when it re- siillej In the enthronement of a ilynaaty which called to lu aid a ■cabinet of re|iri-«»iiin.' all fears were stilled. The EmiH-ror Francis con- tinued to say, when any cbaiivv waa pn.|>o<itil, ' We must sleep upon it,' anil dlid lu Ift-Ti in ' the abundance of peace.'"— M. E. (Jrant Duff. MtMifM* I* Sun^iutn hililia, pp 14U-14U.— See also, Okrmant: A. D. 141I«-1H47. A. D. t8i5-i846.-<!aia8 of the HansburK monarchr. — Its agfressiT* absolutism. — Daath of Francis I — Accession ol Ferdinand I.— Sappreaaioa of rt*olt in Galicia Extinc- tiooaadaaatxatiooof the Republic of Cracow. —"In the new partition of Eump*-, arraugeil iu the Congress of Vienna [see Vik.nna. Tiik ( ox- nHMS or). Austria recelve<l l.,oihlHir<ly and Venice uniler the title of a l.,onilninli> Venetian kingdom, the Illyrian provlncei also oa a king- dom. Venetian Dalnuitia, the Tinil, Vonirllarg, Haltburg, the Iniivlertel and ilauKrnckavicrti'l ami tlie part of Uallcia ceiled bv her at an earlier period. Thus, after three and tweniv years of war, the monanby boil gnlneil a cons'iilemlilc acceaion of stn-ngtb, having olitiiineil, in lieu of iu remote ami iinpnillialilc {MweiviMna in the Netherlands, territoriea which iHinaolidated lu power In ttalv, and nuule it oa gr»at ii extent as It hod been In the days of Charlea VI , ami far more oomnact and defcnuiMe. The gmud duchies of Miah'na. I>amia, ami Plan ntla, were moreover niiloreil to the colhilcral bramhca of the boiiae of llapaliiirg, . . . After tlie luai fall of NajHiletio . . the grvat iwiweia of the cim- tinent . . . conatltiilt'illheinai'lve^thei ham|i(i>ns of the principh' of al>»i>lul« monanhv. Tho malntenanei' of that primlple iillinmiclv"Uiaiiie the chief object of the wi calliil Holy Alliance eatnhllshtKl in |x|fl beiwr<>n Kuwia. Aualriu and Pniasia. and was pursiieil with remarkaliii' mead, faaltiess by the Km|Mriir Francis and hia niin- latJ-r, Prim-e .Metternieb (see lloi.v Ai.i.unckJ. . Tliencef.irth It lieeame the iivoweil iM.licy of tin- chh-f Miveri'igns of (.)<'niuiny Ui inalnlain •he riehts :<! -.lysuaUrx |r ■-.; H,|-,>f.^ „-;.„. .„ tliiMC of tlnlr aubjnta. The pciple, on the other ham I, deeply resinlnl tin' lin'ii. Ii nf Ihian pn>miaes which hail la-en ■> lavUbli inaili lo tbe:n uo the general summons to Ike war uf 883 IIH 4 i^^H ifl^^^^^^B - " 1 '^^^B '^Hl ^Ji! •g^^^H ik S^^^^EO" 'i ACBTRIA, 1815- !84S. libentiaa. DiMffectloD took the place of that enthiMUitlc loyiltT with which they hwl bled and (ufferad for their natiTe princea; the lecret •ocleties. funned with the concurrence of Uicir rtilcra, for the purpowi of throwing off the yolie of the foreigniT. became ready instrumcnu of ■edition. ... In ihe winter of 1818, a German r«lfraU»e ominuB aawmbled at Vienna. In May of the f. il..wlni year it publlsheii an act eimlalnlnR oloaer didnltioni of the PedcraUve Act hai-,n;f i.r ilMjlr enential objecu the ex- clusion of the vurloi!» piorincial Dleu fi«m all poaltive iiu-frrtnce in the general affaln of Uirmany, ami an Incrr^iie of the power of the pnrM'ea o ur their respective DieU, by a ffuaian- tee of aid 00 the part of the confederate*" (see Oermany: a. n. 1814-1820). During the next UiTvf yean, the powers of the Holy Alliance under the leail of Austria, and acting under a conoert established at the successive congresses of Tn.ppau. Uvlwnh and Ven)na (see Vkrona C ON0REH8 or), Interfered to put down popular risings sgainat the tyranny of goremment in Italy and Spain, whlli- il„ v discouraged the re- To t of the Orael(s («,• Italy: A. D. 1880- 1821 ; and Spaik: A. I). 1814-1827). "Thccom- motlons that pervaded Europe after the Fr<>ncb Rej-olutlon of 1830 affected Austria only In her lUltan dominions, and there but indirectly for tjie Imperial aulhority remalocd undisputed in tlie I^nilwnlo- Venetian lilng.lom. but the duke of Modena and the archduke of Parma Kcri' lillgwi to quit tlioee sUtes. and a formid- able Insurrecllon broke out In the territor- '.f the i lum-h. An Austrian army of 18,0i .> men quickly put down Oie Insurgents, who nise ajTHin. however, as s.Nm as It was withilrawn. Tlie poiH- again invok«'<l the aid of Austria wlidse triMips entere<i Bologna In January I88a' and r*UI>lished themselves then- in garrison' I pon this, ttie French lmnie<liately sent a force to occupy Ancona. and for a while a r»'newal of the oftnp<ated conflict Ulwctn Austria ami France on Italian ground se<me<l inevitable; but It siNin appeared that France was not pnpaied U> supnort the nvolullonary party in tl«- popes dominions, ami that d-nger pai>ae<l awiiy. The Fnnrh rrmained foramne years in Aonma. and Uie Austnans in Holoirna and .itlier towns of Itomagna This was tlie last Important Im-ident In llie foreign affairs of Austria pnvious to Iho di-alh of tlie Emperor Francis I. on the 2n<l of Msrch, 18)H. after a reign of 44 veaia. . The Emperor Francis was suceenl'ed by his son Fe^lllland I , whnae accesHlon occasioned no change in the political or ailnilnlstrative svsh-m of th. emnlnv IncapaclUtwl, by physical and mental liiflmilty. fnwn labouring as his fallier ha<i done In the business of the stale, the new monarch left u> I'rim-e Mettemlch a much inon> unrestricted power than that minisl4'r had wlehieil in the pre<v<llng reign. . . . The pmy- Joce <if (>ali( ia began eariy in the new rvlgn to o«»»ii>n uneaalnesa t4> the govemnient. The (.'oogrvsa of Vienna hail oinstTtuU-d the cllr of < r»«i.w an intiepemlent republic— a fiitlle representative of tlut l^illsh nathmality which flad utuv rtumlnl from the Haltic to the Black .■^.>..*"'''; »'"•'•"'"»"' the Polish iDaum>clion of 1881 against HusaU. <;rac..w U-came the focu* or rn-sli eoiiKoirariio i<j niit ,u> ,.[,.i t,, tchirfc the nty was ihi unlwl by a mixed force of Kuariaoa. PruMtMM, a.id AuitriuMi Um twa (ofner waie AUSTRIA, 1815-1849. SSS *W^T?- ""'i '^t >•'««' """^ned until 1840. When they alao bad letired, the Polish propaganda waa renewed with conshlerable TSJ^ u*° InsBrrecUon broke out in Ualicia in 184«, when the acantioess of the Austrian uiili tary force in the prorince seemed to promise it success. It faihxl. however, aa all previmis effort* of the Poliah patriote had failed, bccaus.- It rested on no baala of popubr sympathy. Tlie nationality for which they cont^nd^ had ev,r been of aii oligarchical pattern. hoaUle to llie freedom of the middle aoil lower classes. The Oallciaii peavinu had no mind to excliange the yoke of Austria, which pressed lightly uik.u them, for the feudal oppression of the Polisl, nobles. They turoeil upon Uie insurgents au.l •lew or t<K>k them prisoners, tlie iHilioe iniitiiiL. them to the work by publicly offering a rew.inl pi nve florin,, for every suspeittd pcnum ili Uvered up by them, alive or dead. Tims ilie agenw of a cIviilzMl government becamu tlie avowed Instigators of an Inhuman ' ju.<,uerie ■ The houses of the Umleil pn.(.riet-)r8weieHi..k,,l by Uie |>easanta. their luinal. - were U.rture,l ..i.l muni riHl. and bloody anarl,., raged tlirougii„iit the land in the pnwtitutnl name of lovallv The Au.striiiii trcwps at hist n-ston-d onier" ; liiit Ba-ia Uie iemler of the sanguinary murHuil, rs was thanke.1 aud highly rewaideif in the name of hb sovenlgn. In the same year the timr protecting powem, Austria. KussU. and l'ru»>iii took possi.sslon of Craci.w. and. Ignorinir ii,e right of ihe other parties to the treaty of \ i, mm Blves alHiut the fate of tin- 234 to concern themsel „. .„„ ..„ „, i,„. „. public, tliey announced Uiat ita indeiHii.l, n,,.. was annulled, and that the city and teriiinn of Cracow were annexed to. ami forever iii.oi|«, raUHl with, the Austrian monanliy. Knuii tliit time forth the iMilitlcal alinosp lerv of Euroiie tscaine more and more loailiHl wlUi the pr. nil-.h of the storm Uiat burst in 1848 "—W. K Kelly (i»>t,i„iali,m of Cut,; IM. „f the ll.mv 'uf AuMna. ch. .V8. .. ^ D- «««5-««49.— ArraBtements io Italy of »•.?""*'•!? «V'*"»^ -"••»'«>•«» o'«l>« Austrian yokt.-Tht Italian riainrs.- lly the treaty of \lenua(181,^), Uie . . . emir, king dom of \ enetlau Lombardy waa handed m, r u. the Austrians; Uie duchies of Modena. XU^-^m. «-llh Maasa and Carrara, given Ui AuMriiui Drinii*; Parma. Hacenaa. and auaat>ill;t u> >a|H.le,ins queen. Maria Luisa. because slu ks< an Austrian princess; the grami duehy of Tui cany to Ferdinand UI. of Austria, the dm hv ..f Lucca to a Bourbon. Rome and the Ifc.iimL Stalin were restored Ui the new Pope, llus Ml Mlciiy was united Ui Naples under the B.iiirlK,iis. and Uler deprived of l.er wiostltuthin <l. >iiii« llie pnmiisetl protei-Uon of England, the ( «iii„a Tlclno, though atricUy Italian, aiineietl to ilie Hwls* < i*ili-.leral!mi : the little republic of .•«i Marino left Intact, even us the primipslitv uf Monani KnglamI reUiine.1 Malta; forsiiuHss left to fraiice Italy, so MelU-nikh «'«i Euniie fonllv ho|M..|. was iwlunil Ui a gi-og uphi. «1 ex prrasion I'njusl, brutal, and tn-a. l«•^Ml. ss w»s thttt parlliion, at hast It taught ilic li .lu that who wouki he free himself muststrik ih« blow. It uniteil them Into one Gumiiton h.iind of Austriaand Austrian satelliiea By •uIh.iiiui ifig impai, .\j«rt»n, an.i itourtiuu desis>ii.<.ii. I'.t the free Instltutluos, c.«h'S, and constlliilion, ,,| tie Maiwiauiih: era, it taught Uwm Uie .liflir, u. t AUSTRIA. 181S-184>. The Fmtikforl Amgmm}/. AUSTRIA. 1848-1849. between rule and mi-^nile. Hence tlic ilcmnnil of the Nciipolltans duriug their flnit revolution (1830) was for a conatitutfon; tliat of the Pieil- mnntese and Lombards (1831) for a ninstltiition and war against Austria. The Bourbon swnru and foreswore, and the Austrians ' restored onler ' In Niipli-s. The Pledmnnteae, who liiul not con- rcrtcil tlicir moreinent until Naples was cruslied —after tlie abdication of Victor Emmanuel I. , the frranting of the constitution by tlie regent Charles .Mliert, and its abrogation by tlie new king Charles Felix— saw the Austrians enter Pie<r mont, while the leaders of the revolution went nut into exile [see Italy: A. D. lW?i)-lftJlj. Uut those revolutions and tliose fiiilurcs were the boffinning of the end. The will to be lnde|i<'nilrnt of hII foreipcrs, the thirst for freedom, whs universal; the very name of empire or of em- pemr. was rendere<l ridiculous, reducol to a parody — in ihe (lorson of Penlinand of Austria. But one illusion remained — in the lilMrating virtues of France and the Freneli; this had to lie dispelled by bitter experience, and for it siilistl- tiitetl the new idea of one Italy for tlie Italians. a nation united, inde|>endent, free, governed bv a pri'sident or by a itiii j chosen by the sovereign people. The apostle of this iilca, to which for lifty years victims and martyrs were siierifloil liyiliousinds, was Joseph .Mnzzini; its champion, Jiiw'pli (inrilHihll. By the genius of the former. Ilie prowess of the latter, the abnegation. Ihe eonslaniy, the tenacity, the iron will of Inith, all tile inipnlations of Iwly were siibjugatol by that Ide.i: pliilosopliers deriionstrntetl it, poets sung it. pious Christian priests priKlaimed it. states- men foiinil it confMnting their negotiHtions. Iiaffllnir their half-measures." — J. W. \'. Mario. I itrifhirtinn t>t Autiihififfr'tphtf tif frttrifmUfi — See Itai.v: A. D. I**)-!***!, and IH4«-1M0. A. D. 1835.— Acccuioo of the Emperor Ferdinand I. A. D. iS3O-il40.— The Tnrko-Ecntian '(uestion and Its Mttlcmcnt.— QoftdrnpTe Alli- • nce. StTi'HKS; A. I). IKJl-KWI. A. D. 184*-— Th« Ctnaaaic rcvolntioiury risinj. -National AaMmbly "t Frankfort.— Archduke lahn elected Admiatetrator of Ger- many. —' When the thiril Frr-nch Kevoliition lir keoiil. Its influence was Inuiieiliatelv felt in Ce rinnny Tlic popular movement this time was Very dilTennt from any the <l-'Wmincnt» hail hliicrtn had l« contend with. The people wen- evil, iiily ill earnest, anil rcsolviil to obtain, at Willi! ver cost, Ihelr clilef ilemanda. . . . The I{ev.,liiilon was inont •erioua in the two great flirni.in Slates, I'russiii and Aiutriii. . . It «H i.',ner:illy liopisl that iinlim as well as fn-e- '! rn »:i» now Ui !«• iwhleved by Germany: but, i< I'russia ami Austria wene fn t<»> much dis- ' I. T to do anything about .MDtlleniians from the » in. IMS States mil at Fmnkfurt, and on .March II I'lMstitiileil Ihemsi'lviMi n pnivlstonal I'arlla- "I'lit An PxtnMiie party wislieil the assembly ti'li-.liire Its,|f perm.inent; but In this the inii Wiiy would not agn-e. It was 1leeld.1l llial a >ili"iial Aswinblv should h<- rlwHil forthwith hy ih.- fkrmaii tnnple. The Conf. derate i>iel l<n"wliig that till- iinivlslonal Parliament w.ia ij'pniv.-d by the nation, recngnlntl itaautliorily. T.'.rr-.-.ij.-!-, tj^p f)4jij (1,^ y^^„„j Qj,j.^^jjj..j,jj| jj.,i,.p ' 'itiinunimled with, ami all of theiu ngn.t-\ to mike arruigemniu for tlie elections. . . TIh- ^•itonal AaemMy was upeonl la Fmnkfurt on »Iay 18, 1848. It elected the Archduke John of Austria as the head of a new provisional central Oovcminent. The choice was a happy one. The Archduke was at once acknowledged by the diflerent governments, and on July 12 the Preil- dent of the Confe<lemte Diet formally made over to him the authority wlilch hod hitherto belonged to tlie Diet. The Diet then ceased to exist. The Arclidiike chose from the Assembly seven mem- liers, who formed a responsible ministry. Tlie Assembly was divided into two panics, tlie Kiglit and the U-ft. These again were limken up into various sections. Much time was lost in uai'less discussions, and It was soon suspected that the Assembly would not in the end prove tMlunl to the great task It had undertaken."- J. Siine, History of Otrmnni/. eh. 19, «r(«. 14-11. — SeeOKRMANT: A. D. 1848 (.March— Seitem- BEII). A. D. it4t (December).- Acceation of the Emperor Francia Joaeph I. A. D. I84S-IS40.— RerolntionaiT riainn.— Bombardment of Prane and Vienna.— Abdica- tion of the Emperor Ferdinand.- Accetaion of Francis loacph.— The Hung^arian ttrunle 'or independence.— " The rise of national feeling among the Hungarian, Slavonic, ami Italian KUliJectsof the House of Hapshiirg was not the only difflcully of the Empenir Fenllnaiid I. Vienna was then the g.iyestand thedeari'st ci-ntre of fashion and linury in Kunipc, but side by side with wealth there aei-llied a mass of wretchcil povirty; and the prolcctive trade system of Austria so incieiuied the price of the necessaries of life that lireail-riols were frequent. . . . Tlio university stiiihiits were fon>mo«t In the demand for a cimstitiition and for the n-moval of the rigid censorship of tlie pn-sa ami of all IxHiks. S<i. when the news came of Ihe rtli;lit of I^iiils I'hillpiie fmm Paris [sec Fkance: A. 0. 1H41- 1S4M. and I^SJ the stiidenu as well as the artiaiins of Vienna rose in revolt (.Man-li 13, 1H4S). the lattiT breaking machinery and ntlnek- Ing the iHiiiaes of unpopular employe™. A deputation of cltizeoK elaimiiireil for the resigna- llim of the haled Metlemlch: his house was burnt down, and he tli-d to England. .\ scconil oullin'ak of the excited |><ipuhiii'(Mav 1.1. lK4i<», siiit the Em|N'nir Fenlinanil in lielple-ui llieht U) Innsprnek In Tyrol; but he retiimeil when they Bvoweil tiM'lr loyalty 1« his pcnton, though they detesteil tlie idd hurcaui ratic sysU'm. Far more compllcale<!. however, wen' the race Jealiiiisles of the Em(>ire. The Slavs of llohcmia . . . hiul demanded of Fcrillnand the union of liohemla. Moravia, and Austrian Silesia in Estates for those provinces, and that thi- Slavs should enjoy e<|ual iiHvllev* with the Oerinans. After an unsotls- factory answir hail la-<'n n'(vlve>l, they convokeil a Slavonic » .Mii^n-sa at Prague. . . . lint while this Babel of tongu<>« was sit-king for a means of fusion. Prince Winiliscligrftti: was aswinlillng Austrian troo|M around the Roliemiiui capital. Fights in the slnfls lc<I to a iKimbanlmentof the (Ity. which Windisehgrfttl soon enlereil In triumph. This has hft a bitterness hrtwei-n the Tsechs or Bohemians and the (Jermans which still divides Ihiliemia socially and (lolltleally. . . . The exciting news of the spring of 1H48 hw) mit<i< tin- tiol Ai^Hlte titoal of IIh- Mngynrs boll; yet even Kossuth and the ilenuKrits at (Irst only ih-inandcsl the atmlltlon of Metter- nlch's system In favour of a tvprcsentntivo gov- i 236 AU8TRU, 1848-1849. HungariaH Stngglt for htdtpndntxt. AUSTRIA. 1848-1849. ft that the Magynr laws and languaf^e must now also in tiK. Humrariim 'crown lands' ofT)alm«. Ha, Croatia, and Slavonia, and Uie enthusiastic „J?'^^""i..*'*J"^' *'"" '" •'*"■'' »'« ancient princ palily of Transylvania; but this apiiu wm Momly resisted by the Roumanians. 81avs. and Saxons of that little known comer of Europe and their discontent wai fanned by the court of \lenna. Jellachlch. the Ban or Governor of I roiilla, iKwlcd this movement, which aimed at malii»K A»rram the capital of the southern Slavs. Their revolt apiinst the Htinjrarian ministry of Battliyanyi was at flrst disavowed in June I84S but in (VtobiT wasencourageil, by theperfldioua eoycromcnt of \ienna. A confennce between Rilthyanyi and Jellachlch ended with words of deflance: Then we must meet on the Drave.' sahl the Hungarian. 'No. on the Danub.-.' re , • J™' '••"'n'P'on of the Slavs. The vacil- lalmg Fenlinand annulled hU acceptance of the new Hiinmrian constitution and declared Jellachlch dictator of Hungary. His tool was unfortunate. After crossing the Drave. the Slavs were defeated by the brave Hungarian honveds (defenders); and as many as » ()()(» were made prisoners. Unable to subcliie Ilungary, Jellachlch turned aside towanis \ ienna to crush the popular party thetv. For the demwrats, exasperated by the ptrtldious po icy of the government, hail, on October 6 1»4M, risen a third time: the war minister Ijatoiir. hait lw>n hanged on a lamp post, ami the emperor again fled from his turbulent c«t>ilal to the "•<"■■ faithful Tyrolese. But now Jella- rhl( h and W indischgrStz bombarded the rebel lious cnpit.1 . It was on the point of sum-ndering when the Hungarians appeared to aid the city ; but the levies raised by the exertions of Kossuth wen. this time outmanieuvred [and defeated! by the lm|Hri«li(,is at Scliwcchat (<)<-tob<T ao imni and on the next day Vienna surrendenii. Blum' « <le egHte frr)m Saxony llo the German Parlhi'- of mediation to Vienna, but who had taken a part in the flghting). and some other democnits were stmt. By this clever but unscrupulous uw of race Jealousy the Vienn.^ Government •e<-mcd to have overcome B<)hemlan.H. Italians Hunganans and the citizens oflts own capital in tiiro; while it had diverted the «,utWrn Slavonians from hoslillty to actual service ou its InW.nf ifl'iT *"^ health and va,-ill„lng spirit of Fenlinand did not satisfy the knot of courtiem of \ ienna, who now, Hushed by siiceesa r«hfn.',""u'"'^'"""*J'" ?"""••■ 'n«he Viennese tabmet. Worn out by the excilemenis of tlie } ear and bv the demands of these men, Fenll Hand, on l>.cymb.-r 2. 1H4N. yieldd up the crown, not t» his rightful suci^-s^.r, his brother but to lis nephew. Francis Jo«-ph. He. a vouil of eighteen. ««,ude,l the throne m t^ide y shaken, and st II n spite of almost uniform .lii usier in war. Iml.l, sway over an empir,- larger and rmire (xmerful than he found It In IMH The lliingahnns nfused to recognise the voiini sovenign ,h„. ,..^x ^^ ^^ ^ ,^ '^8 that he was not cir.wnej at Pirsburg with the Mcre.1 iron crown of St. Stephen show.<l that Iw dW n,|^ Intend „, r»,.^s^ ,fe. n,,„^^^\*^_ .„l,^?i. ^"£1''V !"«?•"'»»" Windiscl.grit, intered Buiia-fMU., but the Uunfartun pauiuu withdrew from their capital to organize a national resistance; and when the Austrian Gov ernmeut pro<laimed the Hungarian ainstituiiori alK.li»l,«f»„,|the complete atieorption of 1,, Kary in the Austrian fempire, K.«uth and 1, colleagues retorted by a IX-clamtion of I,„|, pen,lence (Apri 24. 1^49). The House of 1 , , , burg was .lecUretl Uuiishcl fn)m HunA v which was to be a republic. Kossuth, the ll«i governor of the new rvpubllc. and (jorgei ™ general, raisejl armies wfilch soon showt5 I'li, ir rowess. • The fli,.t Important battle of the w« had Iwen fought at Kapolua. ou the right bank of the Thel™ on the 8«Ui of February. H49 Onrgel and I)<mbinski eoinnianding tlic Hun- pmans an.l Win.lis.l.gratz lea.llr.gV Aulir - ans. The latur won the victory, and il,,. Hungarians retreated toward Uie Theias. Al».ut the. niddle of March, QOrgel resumed the off" f.A'^rjl"'"'"* ,'"*""' P™*^' •»<» e>>count,'r,"| the Austrians«tl8as/.eg, when- he defeated ili,i,i n a harv -fought battle. -or rather in twl, t"' ties which are sometimes called by dilTennt names: viz., thatof Tapio BIscke fough Apr" 4tli, and that of (Jodolo, fouglit on Uic .'StI I was now the tura of the Austrians to fall l,„ck and they .-onci'iitrateil b»>hiud the Rakcn 1,; cover I'esth. The Hungarian general inj, round their left. carrieS Walton by 1 .Tn ^jrocd them to evacuate Pcsth and to felnai in I^sburg, abandoning the whole of Huiii:,,ry they IkI I The most lmport«it of these f.iri n.««js, that of Buda, the "twin-city, " ™p,MU. Pestli on the Diuiiilie, was besieged U ih, Hungarians aiid carrie.1 by storm on the iU „f Mav. 'In Transylvauia. too. the Hunmrians umlcr tne talenied Polish general Bem. ove,-,- ,e n^.^'Kio*^"' S'"*""!*^ »n<l Roumani,.,,, i,, miuiy brilliant encounter*. But the pnHl.uiu Hon of a r.-|nibllc bail alienaud those llniira riaus who hwl only striven for their old con-iii„ tloiml rights, so (juant'ls anae U'tw.-eu (;„r,..i and the anient dem.«r.it Kossuth. Wors.. ..till the (zar Nicholas, drea<ling the format i,m of a np hlic near his Polisli provini^es wn. the 11 iliuuy aid which Francis Joseph in May IS4II ini plored 8o™>t«»,0()(H<u«|M,8 under P«ki,witrl, poured over the north.m Carpathians to heli. the bea en Austrian., while olher»overp.i«>r,,l i^'i^/i*'*?' '^'™ '" Transylvania. Jellaehi, h with his t ronis again iuvadetl South Huiicrv and Haynau, the s.t>urge of I.<.inlmr.lv. manhnl on the «lron^,t Hungarian fortrtsa. |{,>m,„n. ,.„ he Ihiuiibe. The Hungarians, overpower,,! I,v the combination of Austrians and H.is,iuti« again.l them, were defrntcd at Pcnil Juii, M ■infVfA '.'V '*'.'^""?"r""'"'y "•«« Wail/,,,.' July l«.«t^Ioml«r, July 30; atS,ge,var. .lulv .11, at IMinciln, August 2; atSzegedln. Atiir,,:! V »' Teinesvar, August 10. "In ,|,.|,,ir Kossuth handed over liu dlcUtorahipto hi> rual Grtrgei who soon surrendered at V!lag,««iih all bis force* to the Russians (August lit I -I!) About 5.000 men with K,>ssuth. fc-m. ami ,.ih,r leaders. («cape,| to Turkey. Even th< rf Ituvi;, and Austria soujtht to drive them forth, bir .-„ Porte upheld V.y the WesU-ra Powers. ..uii. Hilled its right ui give sanctuary ac-onlii,.; i„ tlu- Koran. Koasuiii iitHi many of his fi ]l-» ixiL-s nnully salle.1 u. England [and sfurwar.l. to America), where his majestic el.«iu.n,e aroused d«vp syniNtUiy for Uie •flUcttd euuniiy 236 AUSTRIA. 18«a-1849. Otrmnn Burtaucruen. AUSTRIA, 184»-18M. Mmit Hunifiirfan putiints luffnrpfl rlonth. All rrbels had their pmpvity noaHiicatH. and the (fluntry wu for yean ruled by armed force, iind iu old righu were nbolislied. "— J. H. Roac, A Cthtury mr OanlinmM llutory, eh. 81. Also in: Sir A. Aliaon, IIM. nf Europe, 181.V 18.K, <■*. M.—A. Oflrgcl. Mg Life and AeU in U'lHqnry. — General KInpka, Menniin of the War •■f Indtptndtntt in Hnngarj/. — Count ilartie, llfneMt nf tht Berolutim in Au4tria. — W. H. Stileo. Auilriain 1H4H-49. A. O. 1848-1849.— Rerolt in Lombardj and Venetia.— war with Sardinia.— Victories of Radetskr. — Italy vanquished arain. See Italy: A. D. 184»-184». A. D. i848-i85o.— Faiinrc of the morement for Germanic national onitr. — End of the Frankfort Assembly. — " FraiiMort had iM'co'iie Ih.-tentrcof themoTcment. Thclielplcsa Diet had iirknowledged the necessity of a Oerninn parlia- ment, and had summoned twelve men of conH- ilcnn- charged with drawing up a new imperial ((institution. But it was unable to supply what was most want(!d — a strong eierutive. . , lnatea(i of establishing before all a nimng pxerti- tive able to control and to n-aliac its reaolulionsi, ilie Araembly lost months iu diwuMing the fundiinientiil rights of tlie Gorman people, and given, and even at the time of failure it was certain, as Htoeltmar said, that the necessity of circuinstunces would bring forward the nmn who, prcUting by the experiences of 1848. wouhl fulfil the national aspirationa. "— F. II. Oeffclten, The Unitfiof Germitiin (Englith ni'turiml Het., il/'nV. 1891). —See Germany: A. D. 1848-1850. A. D. 1849-1859.— The Return to pure Ab- solutism. — Bureaucracy triumphant. — " ' The two great giiins which the moral earthquake of 1848 brought to Austria werv, that througli wide pmvinces of the Empite. aud more cspecUlly iu Hungary, it »n-ept away the sort of semi- vassMlage in which the peaanntry hod been left liy the Crbnrium of M:iria Theresa [an edict whicli gave to the peasauu the right of moving from fdace to place, and the riirlit of bringing up their children us they wi.shed," while it estnb- lisbed in n-rlain ojurts the tri:il of all suits to which they were parties], and other reforms iikin to or founded uiion it, and introduced modem in the place of miitttle-age relations between the two extremes of society. Secondly, it overthrew the poliry of do-nothing — a surer guarant'e for tile c(mlinuanre of abuses (hau even the deter- uiination. which soon mauifesu-d itself at head quarters, to make the head of the state more almildte than ever. After the takiug of Vienna hiis was overliaulcd by the events. In June, \ by \Vlndis<hgratz. the National A^-mbly had Priiice Windischgraets crushed the insurrection 1 on tlie l.'Sth of Novemlter 1848, bi^n removed at Prague; and In Novemlicr the anarchy which I from the capital to the small tiiwn of Kremsier had prevailed during the whole summer at Berlin was put down, when Count Brandenburg became llrst minister. . . . Scliwar/.enlHTg [at Vienna) declared sa soon as lie had taken the reins, that his programme was to nutiutain the iinily of the Austrian empire, and denuimled Hint the whole of it should enter into tlie U<-r- m.inic confederation. This was incompatible Willi the fe<leral state as contemplated by the Xutioiial .\aaemlily, and therefore Uagem, who hail U-eome president of the imperial ministry [it Frankfort], answered Schwanenbcrg's pro- (.'ramme by declaring tlwt the entcriug of tlie Austrian inonarcliy with a majoritv of non-Oer- insu imtionalities into the German ° federal state »ii« an im|K)s»ibility. Thus nothing was left but 1(1 place the king of Prus-iia at tlic head of the German state. But In order to win a iiisjorlly for this plan Gagem found it neces wry to make large concession.'! to the democratle in .Moravia. Here it proUjngiHl an Ineffeitivc existence till March 184», when the court camarilla felt itself strong enough to put an end to an inconvenient censor, and in March 1840 it ceased to exist. A C(msiitution was at the same time pnimulgated whicli contained many gO(«l pnivistons. but which was never heartily appnived by the ruling powers, or vigorously carried intoefft'ct — the proclamation of a sute of siege in many cities, and otiier expedients of authority in a revolutionary period, easily enab- ling it to be set at naught. The successes of the reaction in other parts of Eunipe. and, above all, tlie coup d'etat in Paris, emltoldened Schwartz- euberg to throw off the mask: aud on thi' last day of IMl Austria liecanic once more a pure despotism. The young emperor had taken ' VIribus unitis' for Ids motto; and his advisers interpreted those words to mean that Austriit was henerf(irw!ird to be a aUtle as iiighlv ci'n- trslisrd as France — a state iu wliich the minister party, sinoncst otiiers universal aiiffrage. This WHS not calculated to make the offer of the iniiH-rial cmwn acceptable to Frederic William ..-..,..,.,... „, i.„ ,,,,„ „„„- ,„ I\. but lii« principal niwra for declining it was, 1 aulhorilv haif been Mverely f( It in the pit- at Vienna was absolulelv to govern eveiylhing from Salzburg to tli6 Inm Gate. The hand of iriu frtmi (k-rmany. After the refusal ol the (T'.wn by the king, the National Aaaemblr was iliKinicd; it had tvrtainly cominltU'd great I'nults. but the (IccUive resMm of its failure was the lack cf n rli-ar and resolute will in !*russi». History, however, teaches that great enterprises, such as It was to iialfy an empire dismembered for ceu turies, niivly succ«e<l at the first attempt. The iapi'sl importance of the events of 1848 was ilwl they had made tlie (ierman unionist move- " V. nil hijtoricai iiu.\ . il Oiuld never be eiraivd more trouble. The old pcjliical 'llviBi(m into counties was swept away , the whole land was divided into five provinces: and the courtiers might imagine tliat fnim henrefortli the Magyars would be us easily' led as the inliubitauls of l'pp<'r .\iistria. Tliese delusions 80')n became general, but they owed their origin partlv to the enlliusiaslic ignorance of those who wen> at the head of the army, aud partly to two men "— Frinci- Schwsrtrenberg and Alexander Bacb- Or the latter, the two leading Ideas were to ii"i,i iiie snnsis tliat all the G<<rman gorem- i cover the whole empire with a tJennan biiivau- iii.m. had publicly scknuwioigrd that temlency : craey. aud to draw ckwr the ties which con •• (egtumau;, tlM dirrctioa for the future wu | nccted the court of Vienna wliJj that of IlunM. 237 AUSTRIA. 1849-1830. TV War <• Ualf. AUSTRIA, 1869-1886. ... If kbKlutitm In Austriit liad a fair trial from llif 8Ut of DecemUr 1851 to the lulliin war. itUto Bach tliat It waa owlns; and If It utterly and luilicmiisly fallwl, It la he more than any other man wlio must U-nr the bliimc. Already, In 1840. the bureaurniry had be<n reorKani«c<l. but in 18S8 new and stricter rreuln- lions were Intrnducnl. Everything waa <ktcr- mlmil by precise rules— even the exact amount of hair which the employ^ waa permittixl to wear upon hia face. Hanlly any question was thought suffldentlr insignlllcant to be deciiled upon the spot. The smallest maturs bad to be n-firn^l to Vienna. ... We ctm hardly be sur- priw-d tliat the mat ruin of the Italian war bmught down witli a crash the whole ediflee of file reaction."— M. E. O. Duff, Slurlif in A'uro- jinni Pititiet, cA. 8. Aijo in: L. Lcger, Hut. of Atutm-ffungnry, A. D. 1853.— Commerciml Treaty with the German ZoilTereia. See TARirr Leoislation (Ukkmv.vy): a. n. 18.53-1893. -/ A. D. 1H.VJ-I8.VI. to 1854- A. D. 1851-1856.— Attitude in the Crimeaa •. S'C HIT ' "^ -■ - - War. 18.56. I'WIA : A. D. i856-i859.-The war in Italr with Sardinia and France.— Rercrtea at Maccnta and Solferino.— Peace ofVtllafranca.- Surren- der of Lombardy.— "Prnm the wars of 1848-0 the Kinif of .Sanlinia was looked iipcm by tho moderate pnrty as tlic champion of Italian fri'C- dom. Clitirics Albert luid failed: yet his sim Would not, and indeed coulil not, go bacit though, when lie In-gan his reign, there were nmiiy Uiings agaimit him. . . . On-nt effort* were made to win him over to tlie .\ustriMn iwny. but tlie King was neither cast down by defeat ami distnist nor won over Iiv soft wonlil He soon showcil tliat, thouich he hiid Xmn forred to make a treaty with Austria, vet lie would not ca^t in his lot witli the oppn-mlim of Italy llu made Masalmo dA/.eglio \i\* chief Minister and fiiinlllo Benso di Cavour his Mlnlnti r of Com- meree. With the help of iIh.sc two men he honestly carriwl out the reforms which had iK'cn granted liy his father, and set new ones on finit . . The quick prr>gres» of n form frigliKiici lount .Massimo d'Axrirllo. He retired fmm office in 18.18. ami his place was tnki 11 by Coiint Cnvour, who made a cimlition wiih the di'inii- cralic imrly In Pte<lmont hendi-d by L'rlnno Itit- tim«i Tho new chief Minister bigan U) work not only for the good of Piedmont but for If^ily Ht large The Milanese slill listened to tlm hoim which Mai!i:ini held out. and couM not i|iilrtly hj-ar their subjection. Ci.iint Cavoiir Imliuiiiantly remoii»trate<l with Railetcky for his hiirsh government, . . . The division and shivery of Italy had shut her out fr.m EiirtiiNnii ixilitirs Civour hel.l tlia;. if she was once lookinl upon as an useful iillv, then her dellvenuiee iniicht \»- lasteneil liy foniun interference. The .S,ir- diiilan army had Ucn bmught into goo.1 onler by Alf<HiBo della Mamiom: and wn» n-udy for Bcthin In lavi, Sanlinia made alliance with hnicluirl anil Krance, who were at war with KiiMla ; for Cavour looknl on tliat power as the 1tre.1i sup|K>rt of Hie system of despotism on the tomlitftit, aiHl hehl tliat it was ner.-s«iry for IlHlinn fti-e.h>m llwt K.iwl, Mi.'tl,! lie humbhd. The .Sardliiiitn army was t!.. fore sent Ui the t rtmea, under La Mamiom. whcro it did gowl service in the baUle of Tchemaya. . . The next year tiie Cnngreaa of Parli was held to arrange terms of peace between tho allies and Itussia. and Cavour took the opportunity of l.iy. ing before the repreKnUtivea of the Euronian poweni the unliappy state of his countrymen ... In December, 1851. Louis Napole<in Buo- naparte, the PreeMent of the French Republic seized tlie government, and the next year took the title of Emperor of the French. He was anxious to weaken the power of Austria, and at tlie beginning of 1850 it became evident that w,ir would soon break out. As a sign of the friendly feeling of the French Emperor towanU the Italian cause, his cousin. Namdecm Joseph, mar- ried Clotilda, the daughter of Victor Eniiiuinuil Count Cavour now declared Uiat SardinU would innke war on Austria, unless a separate and na tional government waa granted to Lomlumlv ami Venetia, and uniesa Austria pr0mls.1l to me<ldle no more with the rest of Italy. On the other hand. Austria demanded the disannu iit of Sardinia. The King would not iUteii to this deinaiul, and France and Sanlinia declarvd w ir against Austria. The Einpemr NniK,l(.,n ,K.. dared that he would free Italy from Hie Alps to the Adriatic. . . . The Austrian army cn«,s..,l the Tieino, but was dcfeaUsI by the Kiii' un.l General Claldini. Tlie Fitncli victory .1? M,. genla. on June 4th forecd the Aiistrians to n- tmit from Uimlmnly. ... On June 24lli tlic Aiistrians, who had crosseil the .Mincio wire defeatwi at Solferino by the allied armies of trnnvv and Sunlinia. It seeim-d as tliouitli the Fremli EiniH-nir would keep bis wonl. Hut lir foiinil that If he went further. Prussia wimlil take up the cause of Austria, and that he would »"*e «o "(fl't on the Kliiuo as well as on the Adige. Wlicn. therefore, the Frcnili nniiv Clime licfore Verona, a meeting was armnv'id iK-tween the two Emperors. Tills UM.k plare ut Villafmnca. and tliero Buonaparte, without roii suiting his ally, agree<l wiUi Francis Josepli to favour the estalillsliment of nn Italian (oiif,n|,r iilion. . . . Austria gave up to the Kins of Siir fliiila I.omlianly to the west of Mincio. lint Hie (Jniiid Ibike of Tuscany and the Duke of M> dina were to return U> their States. The pn>. IKDHsl Confeilenitlon waa never iimih', fnr ilu' IMsiple of Tiiscuny, Molemi. Pnnn;i. aii.l li,i niaitn.i sent to tlie King to pray that llicv nilnlit be made |>iirt of his Kingdom, and Viii.ir Km rnaniiel refused to enter on the sclaiue nf Hi,. Jrench £m|>eror. In return for allnvinit iln' Italians of Central Italy to shake off Ha- yoke, Buonaparte aaknl for Savoy mid .Vi/./.a. . The King. . . c.msente.1 to give up the u'lorlnus cradle of his Monareliy ' in excliaiico for I'ltitril Italy,"— W. A. Hunt, IliMtoi-g,,/ ft.iljt.i-k. II. AI.SO in: J. W, Pndivn. Iliitg f].m 1h|.1 i,> lWt<». M. »-10._C. de Manwle. Z,/,- ./ <:...,.t (,ir,f»r. » 2-7._Hoe, also. It.*i.V: A. I» 1.S.W- 18.59. an ; 1 OB-IHfli. A. p. l86a-ilM.-The Schletwir-Holsteia quettion.— Quarrel with Prussia.— The humili- atinf Seven Weeki War.-Contllet » ith I'm, sia grew out of the coinplieausl Sclilcsu • ,: stein mieation. reopenisl In 186-Jaiid proi '. settleil by a delusive amingenieiit b'twin n 1. sla and Austria, InlowhichllK' latter wiisai ; '»• drawn iiy I'rince iiiainnrek. S<s' [scanihs n \ HTATMlDltNIIAHK): A D. 1848-lH6i. and i.tK "ANY: A. D. 1881-1860. NosuMKr wa-lhe wur as8 AUSTRIA, 186»-18W. War. AUSTRIA. 1866-1867. with Denmark over, Uutn " Pninia sliowiil that it wan her intentinn to annex the newly ai'i|uin.tl liiiriiic* to herself. This Austria could not en- dure, and accordingly. In 1866, war limkc out IrtwiH-n Austria and Prussia. Hrus.sia sought alliAiH-u with Italy, which slie stirred uptonttacli Austria in her Italian p<i«acssions. The Austrian armv defeated tlic Italian at Eustnzza [or Cua- Wi«a (we Italy: A. D. 1863-1866)]; hut tlic fortunes of war were against them in Germany. Allied with the Ausitrians were the Haxons, the Bsviirians, the WOrtemlierKers. Ba<len and Hesse, and Hanover. The Prussians advanc<^l with their chief army into Bohemia with the utmi«t nipidity, dreading lest the Southern allies sliould march nortli to Hanover, and rut the liinii'lnm in half, and push on to Berlin. The [•ruwians had three armies, which were to enter Bolieniia and effect a Junction. The Elbe army uiidor the King, the flrst army umier Prince Frtilerick Charles, and the second army under the Crtiwn I*rince. The EIIh- army ailvancetl acnws Saxony by Dresden. The Urst army was in LuKilia. at Keichenberg. and the seomd army In Silesia at Heisae. They were all to meet a"t (ilt.scliin. The Austrian army under Uenend Ilemdc k was at KOniggrilti. iu'Easteru H<)Iien<i:i. . . .U in the wars with Napoleon, so was it now; the Austrian genends . . . never did the riL'l4t tliin!;at the right moment, llenetiek ,iid inili'i'il manh against tlic lirstarmy, but too late, and when lie found it was alrr'udy thrtiiigh the moiiiilain iliHir lie retrealetl. and so gave time for llio thn* arii.ies to ronrentrate up<m him. The Ell<e army and the first met at MUnchengratz, and dcfeatnl an Austrian army there, pusliiil on. and drove tliem b.tck out of Uilsrliin on KOnig- L'rillz. . . . Tlio Prussians puslied on. and now tlie Kllie army went to Siuidar. and ttie first army to lliirrilz. whilst the si-coiul army, under the ('n>«n Prinee. was pu.Hliing on. and had got to (inidliti. The little river Blstritz is crossed by ilii' hidi riHui to Knniggrlltz. It runs through swttiiipy ground, and forms little marshy piNds or lakes. To the north of Kftniggnllz a little stream o! much the same character dribbles lhrou.i;h iiogs into the Eilie. . . . Hut «ls>ut I'liluMi. Neilelist and Lippa is ternced high irniiind. and tlierc Ik-neilek planteil his cannon. Till' I'nisxians ailvancetl from Smidjir iijainst llie lift wing of tlie Austrians. from il.irzitz ai.'aill^t I lie eentre. and the ( nnvn Prinee was to att.irk li.e right wing. The Imltle iH'gan on the :i.l i.f .I'lly, at 7 oi!iMk In the morning, bv the ■.iniu];aii«iu i advam e of llie Elbe and the flrst uriiiv iijion the Hi'iiiitz. At .Sudnwa is a wool, atid ilhie the lialile mgiil iiiosi lienidy. . . . Two ihinga were against the .\iistrians; first, lia ill i.iMih.uiiei' 'f tlu'ir gemril. and, setcmdly, (ill' li.fi riori'v of ti<oir guns. The Prussians hiid wlial re nilled twUe guns, breath hwders, whu li i.n- Hred by ilie p-iek of n niKillc, and for 1'^" M|iiiiily with wliieli IIm\ nin In' firiil far •u',.a>«i| llie old fa'thioned inii/.zl loidirs usiil by till A islrians .Vfler tlii<. vreat luiti:e, .viiiili iHcalii'.l liy ilie Knnrli and Ent'li-h the bmtl.' -if ShdowaiSailrtwa. not Sndflwa. im it is emweously i>rMiMunr(Hii. but whieh Ilie Cermans call tlie liaiil. cif KdniggrHtn, the Pni««ians maniieil on Vl-r-ia. ami narfaed tin- M.tr. lit. id Infori- Ilie Kni|>.nir Krancis,Io«epli would come to tenns. At hut, on the 33il of August, a ixw-e whieh gave a erishiiig prcponderaiice ta Ut-nuau; to Pntssla, was concluded at Prague. '—S. Barlng- Oould, Tlie Nttiiy of Otrmany, pp. aV0-)iW4.— SeeOEii.ii.vNY: A. D. 1866. A. D. i866.-The War in Italy.— Lott of Vcnetia. See It.u.v: A. D. 1862-1)166. A. O. 1866-1867.— ConccHion of nationality to Hung^ary.— Formation of the dual Austro- Hunganan Empire. —"For twelve years the name of Hungary, as a State, was enuie<l from tile map of Europe. Buienurratic Absolutism ruled supreme in Austria, and did its Iwst to ob- liU-rate all Hungarian institutions. Uermanisa- tion was the order of the day, the Qennan tongue lieing dwianil tlie exclusive language of ofiieial life as Well iisof the higher schools. Ooveniniint was carried on by means of foreign, Oerman. and Czech o;il<'ials. No vestige was left, not only of the national independence, but cither of Home Rule or of self-government of any sort; the country wiw diviiled into provinces without re- gard for historical traditions; in slum, an at- tempt was made to wipe out every truce denoting tlie existence of a separate Hungary. All ranks and clossi-s opposed a sullen passive resistance to tliese attacks against the existence of tlie nation ; even the sirlions of the natiimaiities whicli linil rclsdUil against the enactments of IH^x. at tlie instigation of the reactionary Camarilla, were e<|ually disaffecli'd in consi-quenci- of the sliort- sigiiUil poliry of despotical centralisiition. . . . Finally, after the collapse of the systiin of Ab- solutism in consei|iience of flnaniialdiwiMers ami of the misfortunes of the luilian War of lx.">!t. tlie Hungarian Parliament was again convoked: anil after protracted negotiations. Imikenolf ami resumed again, tlie impracticability of a Kvslini of pnivineial Federalism liaving Ixru pmviii in Ilie miiinlime. and the defeat iunirnHl in the Pnisshin War of 1866 having d<'inoiistnittil tlie fiitilllv of any reconstruction of the Empire of Austria in which tlie national aspirations of Hungary were not taken Into due omsideratiim- an arrangement was concludeil under the aiis- pices of Francis Deik, Count AiidnUsv, anil Count Delist, on the basis of the full iicknowl. eilgnient of the separate national cxisieiiii' of Hiingiiry. and of the continuity of it.s legal rights. Theidenof acentraliseii Aii.striiui Em- pire had to give way to the dual Austnilluii- gariiin monnnliy. which is in fact an inili.>«oliible fe<lemtion of two ei|ual Slates. undiT the com mon rule of a single sovereign, tlie Eni|K'ror of Austria and King of Hungary, each of the States having a eonstltiiiion, giiveniinint. anil fiarliament of its own. Hungary esixcially retain- ng, with fliL'ht niiNliflc<itions,'ilsaiieii'nt iiiHtitii- liims remiHli'lled in 1848. The ailminisintion of the fondun ixilicy, the management of ihe army, and the ilisliiirsement of the expentlitim- ni-ci-s- sary for tlirsi- purposes, were settieii u|ion as common nlfairs of the entire monanhy. for the mnnagi'mi'iit of wliicii common ministers were inslitulinl. rfHponsible to the two deieuntions, cini|iial (ommitteesof the pariiaments of Hun gary and of ilie I'islelthanlan (.\ii«lrian) pn.v- Inn* Elalmrale provisions were rraiiud fur ilie smiKiih working of these common insiilntions, for givin',' W( iiiht to the eonstitiilional inllncniT, ever in iiiHtlersuf common policy, of tlir Kipa- rule ('i>lrilliaiiiiiii and Hungarian ininixirii-H. and for nnilering their rvsimnsibility to the ri's|H et- ive i'lirilamenlH an earnest ami solid nalilv. The financial queitiuiii |K-uding in the two iuiia- 239 AUSTRIA, 18e«-18«7. w l-i. m\ :. ■■'3.-' penilcnt uil equal Suttaa were wttird by n com- promlw: mcanircs were Ukeo for the ™iilulilo •rraiiKtTOint of all matters which nil"lit «rl«- In ifliition to Intorreta toiirhinif In>i1i Suii,., g,„.|, as <liitk.g. commerce, nml In.llnrt t.ixation, hII legislation on these siilijocu l,lkln^' plnrc by memis of Identical laws scpamuly cnaoteil by the Parliament of ea»h State. . . . Simiilta- nooiisly Willi these arranp-ments the political (llffercnciii between Hungary ami C'nmlla were compromlsecl by gmnting pn.vinri,.! Home Kiilc to the latter. . . Tims llic organisation of the AustroHungarian monarrliy on the luutis of nualtsm, anil tlie compromise etitereil Into lie- tween the two halves comp<wiii!; it, whilst iinitinit for the nurposi's of tiefence the forirs of two States of a mnilemte size ami extent Into those of a great empiri', al)Ie to cope with the exigencies of an a.l.^,|iate ixwitlon amongst (he Hrslelass nmeniof i,uro|>e. restomi also to lliinsrary lis lii<lep<n.lence ami its unfetteif<l sovetxigtiev In nil Internal matters." — A. Puls/.kv, Il„„L,u (.yitiiiiuil Life and Thowjht. Uct ' .•!) —••The Aiis^leieb, or agreement with llnngarv was arri.nse.l by a committee of 87 meml'iera of the Hiingarian <llet, at the liea.l r.f whom was the tranklin of Himgarv, Fmneis I>eak the true patriot and inexomble legist, who lud taken no part In the ri'volntions, hut who ■ml never given up one of the smallest of .' "¥ «,%?'^ ■'* '""'""O-- ... On the nth of June [ISrt,] the empetDr Fninels Joseph waa crowniKl with great pompat l>..»ih. Onihe 2Sth of llic following June-, he appn.v.,1 the decisions of the diet, which settled the iXKiii.in of Itun- pry with regani to the otiier cuntrin U'long- ing to his majesty, and mo.liti<d «,„,e portions of th.. laws of \>m Sin™ ,he Ausgleleh the einpin- lias consisted of two parts For the s^ike.if clearness, political language has U>cn mcria.s4d by the Invention of two new terms tisliiihania and Tmnslelthania, to dcserils. the two gnmps. s..,wnit«l a little Nlow Vienna by a small atHuent of the I>anul»., callcl the I^itiia— a stnani wliicU never expecli.,1 to iH-eomo so "^t^T^a ''*"'• "^ '/''«""'■//««• Also in: Francis Dmk. A Mfttfir, rh Sfl-Jtl _ ( <»iiit vi.n Ik^ust, Mrnwirt. r. •,• M ;w _i »ellKrm.inn, l/<i„o„rg and if I\„:,U rh .-, " v^AiJ?- '?*«-'887.-Th. Auatro-Hun«rian Empire -Its new national life.-Its difficul- ties and proraiMs—Ita ambitions and aims in Southeaatern Europe.-" l.,.»..e ,M,IilirianHn,av ►.u that a war always do,-, niori. harm tliaii alw.ivs ,!,»., at any rate, niomlly siH-aking. „ the vM,.rs: but that it d.HMi not ll, the van Filially exel.id«l from Italy and (l.rmanv liv th.. ,.a,i,,u,g„ of ,NM, sh<. has cast asl.!.' h.T dreams of foreign domination, ami lias „| her self ma.ilullv t.. the task of making a i,«,i„„ ,„u of tlie vinous .tinllicliug nationalities „ver which s.„ pt,.shi,i.. It ,loes not n-quire niiicl, n.u-h. to ,».nvive that as long a, ^r ,,. 1,1 her pmi.io,, n, (^niiany this f,„i*n was bo|„.|..„ ■ lie oycrwh.lmi.ig pn-pomlerauo. „f the (>,.r. man .leni. m n„Mle any ap|,r<«t.h 'to a r,., (pro. MIL' .mli..n:,l,i„;„s;„i;jw.U:'|V was" forth™"".. co,..„,au.l, for thuK,. to ol«.y. 1„ |ik,. mtt,„„.r u V>rua Jhiiiirt. AUSTRU, 18M-1887. ?^. .?'?**■"''*' '"' """ Austrian Oovcmment to establish a mutual undenlan.liiig with a i^im lUion which felt itsi'lf attn.ct.,1?- „iike hi 'the tics of rai:e, language, an.l ^'eogranhi,al i),;,iii,„i -to another |Hilitlcal union. .Vay m'or, a* long as the oceu|Mtlon of the Itjilian pn.viluvs romaluejl as a blot on the Iin|NTial e«ulcl.„,„ It was iintaissible for tlie Uoveriiim-nt to.,.,n! mijnd any genuine 8ym()alliy from any .,f ju suhjecU. fiut with the cloi of the war with Prussia these two .lilHcullies-tho relation, with Oeniiany and the relati..ns witli liilv_ were swept away. From this lime f..r«.r.l Austria n.ul,| «p,M.nr U'fore the w.irl.l o^, . Power bimling together for the interest, oi all a number of la'tty nationalities, ea.h ..f which was loo feel.le to maintain a separate e.\i.si, „,.. In short from the year 1886 Austria li;„l ^ mison diHri-, whereas before she lia.l no..,- Itanin Ik-iisl, mi tlie 7th of February. |.><o; t.„k offlix. umler Fran/. J,.,t.ph. His pro,.r.niii,c inay lie st|.le<l as f..l|ows. H.' s<iw that H.. Z of ct^ntralism and imperial unity was gon, ,^i reaUl. ajidtliatthe most lilR-ml Cinstituiinii iu the worid would never recmeile the natioiuliUes U) their present p<«ition. as pn.vimxu uii.kr llio always detested uii.l now despia*..! Eiiipin' But then came the questl<m-Oranu.d tli.it a cnain disintegration is ineriuhle, how far is this dig. Integration to go? Beiist pr.>po.«.si i,. .lisariu the opposition of the hading natioiialiiv hv the gift of an a most complete iii.h.iHii.lcn'.,.. ami resting on the supix.rt thus obtaiiie.1. t.. gai,i inie for conciliating the n-muining pn.vii,, , , |,v building un a new system of free govern,.,..,,! It wouhl be out of place u. give a .i,,aili,i account of the well-kn..wn me.isur.- whi. h eon verteil the "Austrian empire' into tl... Vustm Hiingnnau rnonarchy.' It will Ik. ,„,,,sirv howeiM.r to Ie8cr...e tlie s<lditioiis iii*!,- 1„ it liy the ixihiical nwchinery. The Hungarian 1{, ieh/ tag wasoaistrucUHl on the same principle ,is the Austrian liel.hsrath. It was to iiiwt in l',.»il, as the I{eicli.s,..th f '•icnna. anil was to hue Iti own re»p..iisihle ministers. From the m, lal^r, of the Itichsrath and Ileichstag r..s|Mrtivelv were to be ehiwen annually sixty deh'gat.s to ri;iiresent Cisleitliauhui ancf sixty t.j n pr.scnt Hungarian interesu - twenty Uing t.ik.n iu eacli case from the Upwr, forty from the Umu House. Thi-setwo ■ rv-legations, ■ wh,«,. vote, were to Iw taken, when neei«8«ry, .nil., ijv.li though each IK.legation satinailiatim 1 1 l,;,i„litV' owing to the diirer..n<x^ of langimge, lor,i,„i the .Supreme Imp'rial A»«.mblv, an.l m. t all. r nate years at \ ieniia and Pwih. Tli.y wire ' ui|H.i..ut in matters of foreign is.liiv. 'i,, „,||i '"" -'■••' —'•- — ■ in TmiHrial liaau... lary adniinistraiion. and .U their h.ad nt.sKl three Impi.ri'al iiiini,hrs — he l{eicli«k.iii/.ler, who presUhsl al th.' ForeiKu • •III •e, aii.l was ex officio Prime .Minister, the Mi.i,si,r of War, .,,,1 the .Miiiist..r of Fiaau.v 1 hi-s.. thn.e niinisi.rs w.re iui||.|. iiileni „f tl,e HeiclisMth an.l |{, idwtag. anil i...,il,l oiiiv be ilismiM..! by a vol.- ..f want of e.«ill,leii.v ...l the |>art .,f th,. l»,|./.,ti,„„. Tiie • Aus.'hi.h ■ .,r Mhenicf f.slcmiion wiih Hungary is. ii.Mloiibt. miieh open to i riti, Imii. both as » 'whole ,„i,| in its several iwris. li must always Ih' b.me io niiml thai aitniinislralively aiul iHiljtii.iHv h u-a^ u r. (rogn.sHioii .\, „ time i„ which all ..ih.r hiir.i|Man nations — iiotahly Nortli O.-niioiv- werc simplifying and unifying their poUtkal AUSTniA. 186C-1H8T. Aiutro-Hun- faruM Kmpirt. AIX. -U. 186e-1887. Ijiteim, Austria wu found dnln;; Um Tvry re/i-nc. . . . The truo answer to thcie objec- tions U, that the n<"iwiirc of ttM7 wu ««■ ■tnii'tcd to mwt a practinil ililBrult- . Itat-nd wiw not the furmatiiiii of n aymmvtrio. •fitcm of gDvtninirnt, but the pucinnitlon uf li;in<;iiry. . . The intcrnni history of llio two halves oif the empire flows in two dilTert'nt cluinneU linif .Viulntssy, the llungarlun Pre.nicr, Ivid a Kiriipiimlively easy task before hlin. There were sevtril rtasons for thin. lu the Brst pliiee. the pRNloininance of the Magyars in Hunif.iry wu* more assured than that of the (lennniu in C'i<l' ilimnia. It is tnie tliat tliey nuinliereilonly 5,1)111), (dW out of the 16.000,0(10 inluibibinU; but In tliese .V(KIO.00O were inrlmlctl alinost all iho ranlt, wealth, and intclll^'nrc of the country. HeiKf they formed In the Reicli»tag » c uuipact ami liomogentHms majority, under whieli tlie reinaiaing Slivaka and Cnntians sn>m learnt to mnite themwivcs. In the second [ilaee, Hun- gary liad tlie great adrniitai^e of suirtlni,' in a certiiin ilegree afresh. Her govenuneut was not IkhuuI by thi^ traditional p-iliry of former Viciuiam'inistiies, ami , , , it iiwl inanniieil to Icivp its Hnancial einilit unimpairetl, lu tlio third place, as tliose who are u<-<|uainted witli Hun- garian liistory well know. Parliamenurv institu tioiis had for a loni; time tlourislicf I in llungnry. Indeiil the Maeyars. wlio among tlieir many virtues eau lianlly lie crediteil with the virtue (if humility, assert tliat the world is inisuken in ascribing to England the glory of having invetitiif tvpresentulive government, anil claim this glory for themselves. Hence oni; of tlie main ililHcultieii with which the C'isb'itli.inian Oiiv.'rrunciit had to deal was already solved for Gr.if .\ndm.s.sy and Ids colleagues." — .Imtri,) $iiirf Siihmi {^mirlfHi/ Hivift. r, 131. pp. «"»- IH). — "It is ditDcull fiT any imo except an Aii^iro Hungarian stau-sman to nali<e tliu dilll- ciiliiis of goveridng the Dual .Mon,ir<-liv. Cis I/'illiani.'i has, as is well known, a Itetchsral b an'l wvenlcs'n Pnivincia! DieU. Tbi; two Auslri.-w, !<tvria. Curinthia. and SaUliurg pre- seiii ii.i difricultivs, but causes of tniul>le are almnl^int in tlie other districts. The Em|H-nir will prolMbly end by gettin.^ himself crowneil Kill,' of ll<iliemi:i. although it will be ditneult for liimtolcn.l liliiiself to a proscription of the <!-nnaii lan^'oage by the Tsechs. as be has been fnriT.| by tin: Magyars to lend himself > . the pnncTiption in parts of Hungary of IdMiman and of v:irious Slavonic languagi-a. But how far is this priHvss toomtinue Y Tlie German Austriaiis ire as un|iopular in Istria ami Dulinatia as in Bohemia: arid Dalmatia is also an andi-nt kingilom. These terribiries were originallv o taine<l by the electhm of the King of lluii r^y to the crown of the tripartite kint'doin of Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia, Is ' F- n-nc/. Jotsef ■ to bo crowntsl King of Dalmatia? And It Dalmatia to have Its wparate .Ministrv and its separate officia' language, and its co'mplctelv separate lawsT And what then of Kliime. the so-called Hungarian \mn r Then, again, Oalici , Is also an ancient kingilom. although it liiu at other times funneil part of I'oland: and the Empiror U King of Qalida, „ he is Kin-,- of Bohemia and l>.dmati:L Is he to !»■ cniwniil King of Qaliciat And if so. is the s.-panile eJiMtence of Ualicia to be a Polish or a Uutlaiiiau Muienoe, or, iotleeil, a JewUhT for the Jews 1« 241 are oot only extraordinarily powerful and numeroui there, but arc gaining ground day by dar. The Rutbenians cmiplaiu as bitterly of being bullied by tlio Poles in Oalicia as the Croats complain of the Magyars. Even here the difflcultica arc not emk-d. Tlie Margraviate of Moravia contains a large Taech popuUtlon, and will have ti> lie iuhle<l to tlic lloheiniaa kingdom. Biikowlna may go with Galicia or Transylvania. Austrian Silesia may be diviiled between tlie Tsechs of Bohemia and Moravia on the one part and the Poles or Itutliiniaus or Jews of Oaliciii on the other. But what is to become of tlint which, with the moat obstinate disregard of pcdanta, 1 Intend to omtinue to call the Tyrol ? Trieste must gi> with Austria and Salzburg ami the Northern Tyrol and Slyria iiud Carinlhin no doubt; but it U not dilltciilt to show that Austria would actually be slrengtlienetl by giving up the Southern Tvrol. wliere the Italian people, or at least the Italian language, is gain Ing ground day by day. There really seems very little left of the integrity <if the Austrijin Empire at the couclusion of our surrey of Ita constituent parts. Matters do not look much better If we turn to Trans Uiiliauia. Hungary has its Reichstng (which ia alao known by si me terrible Magyar name), iu House of Reprcaenta- tivea, and its House of Magnates, and, althoiigli there are not so many Pn>vincial Diets as in Austria, SUvonia and the Baunt of Croatia poasess a Common Diet with which the Magyars are far from popular; and the Principality of Transylvania also pos8<»se<l s»-paniti' local righu, for trying completely U> Kiippress which tlie Magyars are at present highly untKipular. The Principality, although umler Magyar rule, ia dividfil between 'Saxons' and Koiimans, who ei|ually iletest the Magyam. anl tlie Cruau and Slovenes who people the lianai are Slavs who also execrate their I'grian rulers, inscriptions iu wiiose language are defaced whenever seen. Croatia is under-representisl at Pest, and says that slie (fix's unheard, and tlie Croats, who have partial Home Hule without an executive, ask for a local executive as well, and liemauil Fiiiiiie and Dalmatia. If we hmk Ui tlie nuinla-rs of the various racx-s, there are in Austria of (Jer- mans ail Jews alaiiit U.INIO.IIOO to about lil.lWKI.IHKI Slavs and a few Italians and i{ciu mans. There are in the lamisof the Crown of Hungary 3.000.000 of OiTiuans and Jews, of Idiuinans nearly a.(HW.(HXl. alllioii^h tlie Mag- yars only acknowleilge J,."!!!*).!!!)**, and of Mag- yars and Slavs la'tween live and six millions apiece. In the whole of the territories of tlie Dual Monarchv it will lie «■■ pi that tliere are 1-i.lKW.noO of Slavs and only IT.OOO.OtK) of tl.a ruling ra-es —Oeniiaus, Jew<. and Magyan — while iMlwcen three and four millions of IJou- toans and Italians count akaig with the Slav malorltv as being hostile to the doniiimnt natlonallllcs. It is dilHcult Ui exaggerate ilio gniviiy for .Vustria of the stau- of things which tliesi- rtgun-s ri'veal,'— r**' I'rtttit Pmlioii ,4 Kui-'Httiin l\Mia {Fltrtniiihlli/ Heriiir, l/iril, ISSTi — ' III piwt times, wliin Austria lial held Kriuui- light iMiuiid betwei<u .Spain. tJinuany. ;ind the Nvi|-,i.r!«ri'ls, s'tr liad a.it'ilTnl to 'a dominant piMition in Weal^-rn Kuni|H-; ami. so long as her eyi« were tunit-d in tliat direction, she naturally bail every iiilerest in pn-serviiig the Otiuinan Empirv iutjict. for slie was thus V ■] il « i f AUSTRIA. 18««-18R7 iimrantpoil Heninnt %» atuclu from tlip Boiith. Wm, iifi< r till- liiM of lnT Itnlkiii iwwsi.ssi.ius in 1*»>. itml of puit of Cniatio in mm. «fnr llii' tllwuiK™ of 1H4». lt»» aoil ltM6. iilir rliouclit more, noil moit- wrioiuljr of ImlimnifyliK hir Mif Ht the cxiKMe of Turkey. It waa mom.v.r ivlilrot that, in order to iwnilyae the <lamiiL'liiir powir nf HunifHry. It was Mwntial for Iwr to Hs<imil«l<- the primitive and scattered peoples of I lirkcy, arciistomed to centuries of complete siilmusslon nnd obedience, and form thus » kind of irc.n band wlilch should encircle Hunmiry ami cffictually prevent her from rising. If, in fact we glanot hark at the podtioo of Austria in ItMl, and take the trouble carefully to study the change of Idem and InteresU wh'ch had then Uken plati in the poiicy of France and of Ki'.ssia. the U-ndcncles of the strongly consti- tuted nations who were repugnant to the authority and Influence of Aujtria. the basis of tbs power of that empire, and, duallv, the internal ruin with which she was then thteat- cn«l, we cannot but arrive at the conclusion that Austria, by the very ln<itinct of self- preservrtion. was forced to turn eastwards and to consider how best she might devour some, at least, of the European provinces of Turkey Austrian statesmen have been thoroughly con- vinced of this fact, and, Imtjelled by the instinct iibovi-mentioned, have not ceased earefully ami consistently to prepi.re and follow out the policy here indicated. Their objects have already been Mrtially attained by the practical annexation of Bosnia and Heriegovina ib 1878 |se« Tdr«s: A. D. 1878) ; and it wn striking to observe with what bitter feeling and resentment this measure w,-« looked upou at the time by the Hungarian ; section of thd empire. . . . Kussia has never ! made any secret of her designs upon Turkey; I she has, indeed, more than once openly made I war in order to ci^rr)- them out. But Austria ' AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN EMPIRE. si7~ Austria: A. I». 18«a-l>«7. AUTERI, The. Sec Irkijino. Tribes oj' EARLY Celtic (MiAnrrANTs. AUTUN : Origin. See Oalls. A. D. 387.— Sacked by the BsKaads. See Baoauim. ♦ AUVERCNE, Ancient. The country of the Arveroi. See iEoci ; also Oal'Ui. AUVERGNE. The Great Dan ot See FhaSCR: a I) !««.-, 7 i. ore AUXILIUM. See Tallage *VA. Si-e I.VDIA : A. I). 1823-1833. ..J^ .-*"*• ** NEwrotrNiiLASiJ: A. D. iaiU-16.Vi: iitid .Mahtxamd: A. D. iKti. ^VARICUM. See BoriuiBs, OHioLf op. AVARS, The.— The true Avars an.- repre- sented to have Uh-u a powerful Turanian p<-ople who exercise,! (n the sixth century a wid,. dominion in Central Asia. Among 'the IriN-s subject to them was one called the Ognrs or Oiilgours, or Ouiars, or Oiiar Khounl. or Varch onites (thi-ae diverae names have beirn given to llie nation) which is supposed to have Nlongcl to the national family of the Iluns. Some tPme In the early ha./ of the sixth century, the Turks tlien a people who dwelt in the vety center of Asiii. ,it tlit- f,n,t of the Ait.il moiiutaina, making tiieir flnt apnearance In history at conquerors cruahed and almuM annihilated tlM ATaii^ theie^ AVARS remains a fata] obstacle In her pnlli Kven ai tiling* at present stand. Austria, bv Iut l-mi- grapliical p<wltion, so commands and' dominates the Kussian lino of operations that, once the DaniilH! uasscd. the Russians are omstamlv ■"'"""C"* >'/ Austria on the dank and n-ar And if this be true now, how much more tme would it be were Austria to continue her march eastwaids towanls Salonica. That necessarily at some time or other, that march must lie eon' linued may be Uken for almost certain ; but that Austria has It in her power to commence it for the present, cannot, I think, be admitted She must further consolidate and make certain cif what she has. Movement now would tirinif upon her a struggle for life .rt- death — a slrutvle whose issue may fairiy be said, in no unfriemllv spirit to Austria, to be doubtful. With at home a bittcrty di«t«ntcnte<i Croatia, strong Pan slaylstic tendencies in Bosnia. Herzegovina ami Ualmatla, a Greek popu' Mon Lhoroughlv dis affectetl, and a Hungary . •> f ful, she would have to d ... with the not contemp' ,:■,' bined, of ServU. Bii >ri, aspirations she wo-' with a bitterly hnsti. with the whole arine the gigantic militar is not fantastic to aii ^ loyalty to dfoubt- ■VOU.I her frontiers mios. when cim id reece. wbuse lilting for ever. .>n in Hacnionia, ..< Turkey, and with of Russia; whilst it that Oermany would be holering near, ready t.. pounce on ler 0,r man provinces when the moment psyeholi.iri Q'le should occur. With suoli a nnwivot before her, it would be worse than madnew for Austria to move until the eanla fell mim- favourably for her."— V. Caiilard. The liul !f<man ImbrogUo {PWtRigkUy Renew. iMeemWr. I WW). A. D. i|78.--Th« Treaty of Beriin.-Acqui- •J*'»» J^^"*"^ ■"*• HenejOTina. See Turks 242 bv bi-coming the lords of the Ouigoura. or ()u«r Khouni. But tb« latter found an opportunity |.> escapje from the Turki!* yoke. ••Oath.-rin< together their wives and their children, ih.ir flocks and their herds, they tume,! their wwer-n^ towards the Setting Sun. This immense exxl :, comprised upwards of SOO.'JOO persons The terror which inspired their flight rendcre,! ib.ni resistless in the onset; for the avenirliii; Turk was behind their track. They overtum.'.l . i.rv thing before them, even the Ilunnie irit»-t „f kindred origin, who had long hovenii ,.n xh,- north east frontiers of the Empire, nnd .Irivini- out or enslaving the inhahitiims. estaWisi*! themselvM In the wi.le plains which »tr.trh betwwn the Volga and th<^ Don. In that at,- ..f imperfect information they were naturally emmeh confounded with the greatest and most f.. mill ab.e tribe of the Turanian stock know:i u> the nations of the West. The report that the .Vvari had broken loose from Asia, nnd wen- eomimr In Irresistible force to overrun Europe, spreail lls.lf all along both banks of the IMnuN" and pemimutl to the Byzantine court. With true Iwrbarie ( un ning, the Ouar Khounl availed themselvei c.f iho mistake and by calling themselves Avars Ijirfilv Increaied the terrors of their name and Iliiir chancea of nonnuest." The nreter..!.- i A -.art were taken into the pay of the Empire hv ,liiv tlnlan and employed against the Hun tribe^ north and eart of the Black Sea. They piesently \ AVAia. afqiilwd «flrm footiotr on both banks of tlic liiuiiitw, and turned their amu H.-»lnM the Euipire. The lmport«ui i Ity of Sinnlum wnii tukin by them after ao >'i>stltiHt« siij^e aa<l iu inhiiliitants put to »li« »worrt. Their niv ijfeacx Icr.lfd over centrnl EiinijH to the Ellif. whrrv iImy were beaU-n bocli My the warlik >ank8 »n(l. aouthwarUs, thniugli Moeaia, Illyrii. ' irace' Miimlonia and On*oe, even to the Peloptianuiua! Coiisijuillnoplc iMelf was threatened mon; than rmi''. and in the summer if 62^ it wasdespcr- BU-ly attacked by Avars and i'ersians In con- junction (see RoMB: A. D. j6.,-«28), with dls- iistrous results to the assailants. But the seat of tlitir Empire was the Dacian country — modtrn Ruumania. Transylvania and |>«rt of Hungary — in whirh the Avars had helped the Lombonb to rrusU and extinguish the OepidiC. The Slavic tribes whl. h, by this time, had moved In grea' numbers Into rvntral and south-ei4.t«m Eumpt were lareely in subjertion to the Avari! and did their bidding In war and peace. "These uiifor tunale creatures, of apparently an Imperfect or, at any rate, imperfectly cultlvate<i intelli- gence, endured such frightful tyranny fn.m their Aviir i-nnquerors, that their very name has passed Inu. u. aynonyme for the moat degraded servitude " -^I (t. Hbeppard, Fall of Borne, Itet. 4 Also tH: E. Gibbon, Dteliat and MtV ,.f the limtan Empire, ch. 48. 7th Century,— The SUvic Revolt.— T!.. Km rire of the Avars was Omhnn and much >!hiiin i!il)e<l in the Seventh ( .Di'-ry by an vx'i-i,^\:-.. rising of their opnresaeu .■;*vlc subjecir r ',i,.-,| :inil IcI, It is said, by a Frank merchant, ..r ,-.d venturer, named Samo. who became their M.g I iir first U> throw off the yoke were a tril* cai;,.,i ti.e V.ndes, or Wendes, or Venedl, In Bohemia ^!io were n-putc<l to be half castes, n-sultini fr.m intercourse between the Av«r warriors and the women of their .Slavic vassals. Under th.> M of S,mo, the Wendes and Slovenes or Miv,.fi(ans drove the Avars to the east ami ■1. »nd it seems to have been In conneotioii «iili il.n nvolutlon that the Emperor Heraclim iiiduceil the Serbs or Servians and Croiti^ •>l«vie trihi-9 of the same rac. and region— i. " in depopulated Dalmatia. "■Pmm tlie jei; '.W A »■ writes M. Thierry, 'the Avar pj'oi . an no longer mentioned In the annals of of th. tiisti the succeisora of Attila no longer Bsun t.-side the successors of < .instantinc It r.-ili]m-.l new wars In the West to bring upon the siaire of hi.«ory the khan and hU people ' In the* wai^ [of Pepin and Charlemagne] they weri. finnlly swept off from the roll of Euro- pwi nations. "-J. O. -Sheppanl, F„U of Ii„nt AD. 79i-8os.-Conqne«t by Charlemacne, - Ilun^rarv, now »o ealU^I, wai possesdTj by he Avars who ioming with thcmacrves a multl tu<le of llimnlsh triU*, accumulaU"d the Im raen«. sp.„la whieh l„th they tlK-msclves and tlielr eciually l«r!):jrou8 pn-deetasors had torn tn>m the other nations of Kurope Thev extended their limits towanis iTmhanly, and vT" , ' "" ''" "■'y '■"?'-■ "' ft'varia . . . «uru ot ,1 e.i eastern fmnlier was now lost, al- m.»t wi; ,,it a »"ugglc on their part, liv ti.e f 't 1 . . . r U. ..r».u8 natJODK. especially the ETil^JL"^.*""* " ""■ ""•«"' t-harle- n»«i>e. whom they proTokeU by forming an al- AVIONOX, Ik e with --^ nmbii .,us Duiu' of aivnris. Ta»- t' 7 If'.*' ■"«*"'"" of all Kle. resJMled the ^' < kiUKs 1 .("ni.us uuil imiMrial r.,ie In a "«"» vig'" lis campaisnu. Iietweeu 791 !,d Charlemagi!' lushed the power 'lieAvars •••"I took poss- JM of their co,..,irv The r.'ral " ring " or fonghold — In-lieved 'to have !»•■ Miluated In ti^e ne1ghl»>rh<»Ml of Tiit^ir !«.•- tw, a the Danube and the Tin iiw— was im w- tmuil, and the vast treasure >,tor(il theie was siized. Charlemagne distriliw -d it wiili ,v ..e„. en.us hand churches, to m uaMi ri.-s and to the poor as well as to his o« -. nobles. >er.anis ui.l soldiers, who are said to liave W-vn made inrli. There were subsequent risings of the Avars and wars, until 805, when lb.- ninnant of that almost annihilated people obt iine<l p« rmis Mon to settle on a tract of land between .Nirvar ind Haimburg, on the right bank .f the I>;ii»be wb, ,,. tlK^y would be prolectoi from their .•^l.i> ...ian enemies. This was the end of the Av:ir nation -a. P. R. ..'ames, Uut. vf VharU '■■■"l:^. IA.1. \) ,l,ul 11. • "^f .."'i, ' '• -^"mbert, nUt. of Charia thi AVARS, The Rings of the. -The fortiflca ti.ais of the Avars were of a peculiar and effec- tive construction and were calWd Brings, or Khjgs, 'They seem i l.av. ,n*n a series of eight or nine gigantic .npans, constructed in concentric cinlei. tb. ; .er one of all being cjMvd the riyxl circle or camp, when- was de- I* :-nca all 'i- valuable r.Iunder which the war- rii M bad , -.1, -ted in il=,-ir expe<litions. The nuiuKl of CM.;Mnicth:K Ui nimparis was R..niewuat siiiiriilHr. Two parai'el rows of gigan- tic (>;;.-3 were drivci. into the ground, some iw-in, feet span Tlie Inn rveninur space was nil'. I with 9UWCS or a species <f chalk, so ct.in pnei.-il as to become a solid n.nss. The (id. s and summit were covered with soil, upon wbu h were planied trees and shrubs, whost- ink-rlaciug brnnchei. firmed sin impeuetrable hedge. "—J Sheppanl /•'.i-V ,,; /4,iB«, ^^( 9. AVEBURY. .See Aburt. AVEIN, Battle of (1635). See Xf.ther lands: a I». 18*5-1938. AVENTINE. The. See Sevk.n Hills or Ri'HE. AVERNUS. Lake and Cavem.-A gl,«,m) i.»ke calhsl Avenius, which fllli-<l the crater of an extinct volcano. situate<l a little to tlie north of the Bay <if Naples, was the object of many siip;r- stitious imaginations among the ancients. '■Then- was a placr near Lake Avemus called the prophetic cavern Persons were In attend- ance tlK're who ca!i<d up ghosta. Any one desiring 11 came ibiiber. mid. having killed a victim and ismriil oiu lilsitiims. summonetl vluit- ever ghost b.' wanted. Tlie ghost came, very inint ami doubtful t^i the sirfit. — .Mii.timii» tvrius aiiotedbyC i '. Feltoti in (irttr,, Aufienr .,,„t .V.W-rn. c. i, l,rt »._!<,.e. :iIk,i. Ci M.K and BAi.li. AVERYSBORO, Battle of, .Se I sitfd Statbs of Am. a. 1). 1>*(M iKfcUBLAKV— .Mahi H: Thk Carolina-). AVICENNA. SeeMEDK ALStlENCB: 7-llTH CESTITH!; ; AVIC.MOM: loth Ceotury.-In the Kini- dPraef Aries -leeBiiniiNDV .\ 1). W)-i'.S. " "^ " SeeAL- A, O JSJi -Si-jeby Louie villV 2Ai il AVIONON. A. O. tsao-i34t.— Ilatii the Mat of the P«- pacT-PurchaM of the :itjr by Clement V. bee Fapacv: A. I). ia94-l»W. A. p. 1367-13^— Temporanr return of Ur- ban V. to Rome. Sec PAi-Arv; A. 0. IllVi I:i7s A. D. I377-I4I7-— Return of Pope GreirorT XI. to Rome.— Reaideisce ef the anti-popei of thecreatSchiam. 8<f I'apaoy: A. I). 1:177-1417 A. D. iMo-iTvi.-Rerolatioa aad Anarchy. — Atrociticacommitted.-Renaiea with Fraace decreed. Hce Franck: A. r> ITW-tTei. A. D. 1797-— Surrendered to France by the Pope. Hev Fkamck: A. D. 17i«-1797 (Uctobkr — April). - A. D. 1815.— Poaeeaalon by Prance con- armed. Sec V lEs.yA, The Cunukcm or. AVIONES, The. — "The Arionra wrn> a Bui'vlc clan. Tlicy urr mpnti(>nal liy Tnritiis in connexion with the Ucii.liKnl, Angll. Viirinl, fcudowji. Simr<lc>ncs niiil Niiithoo.-.. nil Smvic clauii. Tb<wtrtlH-8 miiat have iici'iiplol Mrok Icnliurg; Jkhwiriu. M.oklinbiirit 8m-lltz nnd Wtiwick HoUti-ln, I III! Kllw \».iug tlielr Ea»tem hHimUry. It 1«, Ik.wivit. ImpomihU; to dfllne tlielr pn-clw loc«liili»."_A. J {Uiiirhiinil W J BriMlrilib. Minor Wuria of T^ieitii; Ihnn. \ota tu th* Oertmnig. ,J5^}h.^^* Houae of. jcc Poutuoal: A. D. X9(»~lSHa. AVIS, Knifhta o'.— Thl« U a Portumieee ?1 J, .''^"■"'5'""* "'""''■ *''''■'' oriKln«to<l nbniit 1147 iliirlni; the wnni witli tin- Muiini. iin<l which lormerlv odecrvHl thr in«nastir nilw of Hi Bine- diet, it IxTiimp .t.im<Ttii| with the onler of Lalatrava in .H|mln uml itTi'lvnl from llie Utter iu prniM-ily in fimiiCHl I'oiie P.H1I III iinluil the Uruiil MnufniliJi) to tin- Oniwo of I'ortiiKul. —P. C WoimIIiiiiim'. MiliUrg Itelir/i.iut Onlm. Pt*^—>*n\ iiImi. I'oRTroAi.: A. I> lOH.Vlsa.'S AtK.}7^^' *»"•" Emperor (Weitemi, A D AWIli, The. — The (iriiflnnl inlinliiiniii* nf the ■oiith we*t iiimer of Cwjuui. fmiii wliidi they were.lrlveii l.y the l'lim.llni*-ll Ewnl.l /«•/ of hniet. hk I . trrt 4 AYACUCHO, Battle of (ila4). s.-< Prrc A. I» IM.tl-lK-.tl ^ AYLESBURY ELEnTION CASE. S.,. Emii.anii .\ I) |70:| AYLESFORD. Battle of (A D. 4SS>. -Tl«. flnt Imltle roii«:lit i>n.| won l>y the Inviwlini. Jut™ after llieir Inii.tln^ In Hriuin iio<ler Hen fr«iin.l llonit It wiM fougbt itt the lowe«t ml of the river .Meilwny. Sec Exoi.AKii .\ |» AyMARAS,The. See Peri-. Tiik .\iioi.iot RAl. iMItniTANTII AYOUBITE OR AIVUBITE DYNASTY OK' Sm.adin. Tiirc Kmpimk or AZINCOUR (ACINCOURT), Battle of. Bee Fkan<r a I» 141.1 AZOF OR AZOV: A. D. l69ft.-Tak.B by thcRuaaiant. s. Thiki. A II 1«h4-|(H»(I A. D. i7ii.-Reiloratlon to the Turka. See S< 4.N01KAVIA.V SIATKH ISWEUBN) A l> 1707- ^'*i2'?"*lW :Caotured by the Ruetiaai. -Secured to them b* tbe Treaty of Bclrrada. few Ki IMA . A I> 1 7M 1 789 IMJ-liWll, alao. Amkricam AuuRianw: NAiAa 244 AZTEC AND MATA PICTURE -WRITINQ i*^?^?^*''? '•A^A PICTURE-WRIT- INO.— No nation cTcr rviliicnl It [pIctoeMnhvl niojv to a iy»tcm. It was in conuant uk in i|,e •Inlly tntniiaclioos of life. Tliey [tlio An.-.-,) mnnuforturwl for writing purpoaes a tliiek coane paper from the leavea of the agnvc pkut by a procees of maceration and pnswm- An Altec iNwk cloaely rewmbhia one of our oiwrtn rolunirt. It is maile of a tinrle alieet, 18 to 15 inrlie» wWe. and often 80 or TO feet lonir nml ii not rolled, but folded either in wiuans or titmn 111 inch a manner that on opening theiB aiv two page* expnaed to »lew. Thin wooden biMnli are fMtened to each of the outer learea, no tint the wlioh! preaenti a« neat an «pp.«mnc.. remark. ^■^;^*!'^yI: s 'f " '*"'' """" '"»" "« ■••"p of a akllfiil book bhxler. 1 .>y alao coTereil builil Ingii. tapeatriea and trrolU of parchment with til.*, devices. What is still more «»toni,h ii»r. there Is reason to liellere. In some huunr..^ tiKir rtg.tres w<re not palnu-d. but «rt..«ny printed with movable blocks of wnoii on whi.li tlie symbols were carveii in relk-f, tlmuuli tl,|, was probably conDncd to those Intendiil f,.r omanu-nt only. In these reconis we iliHcni something higher than a mere BymU.lle nnt,iiii,n rhey ponuin the germ of a phonelli- Hlplialx t ami represent sounds of spoken liuigimKi' Tliii symUil is often not cnnnecuil with the Mm hut with the wonl. The inixlc in wliirli ml, u '.l.,nr oiirn-sixwU prrclsily u> thiit of the nliiH It i, a slniiie methol. renilily suggesting Its. If |n the middle agi-s it was much In vogue In Kiininc for the same purpose for which Ft w,w . hi. i\. einnloy,.,! |q Me»i.ii at the sain<- tim,> ih' writ ng of prnpir name*. F..r "jiiinpl.v il,.' fcngllsh fam.iy liolt.m was kn.>wn In li. nl.lrv by a 'ttin'tmnstlxnt by alH.lt.' Pr..i«<lv*. the Mexican Kmpenir IxcontI i>i mention. I inthu AiUT maniiM-riiiu iimier the flgure of » wr.H nt c.»itl, plenitl l.v olMhllan kniven, I, til ' Ashsyllalileroiild Ir- expn-^'te.l l.v iiiiv iil.j, , t wh.Mc nam.' ■■..imneneed with It. n", f.w »,.n|i can lie given tin- f..rm ..f n n bus wiih.mi »i,i,„. Umngj-, as the Itgiin's sometimes r. pnseni ih. ir iiill phom-tle value, soiiietlmes only tlmt ..f ih, Ir inillsl sm;'.,l. aii.l as uniTeiaally tli<- sti. nii.n „f the nrtlst «iw .MnTU-d l.« t<i the s. I ih in i<, llieldi.a. the ilhlactle piilnting .)f the M.\i. .ii. »lii«tever It might have Ixtu u. them, l» >i «. ,,l,,i l«".kl.. us. and must nmaln so in gr.;.i p,n Immi'nM- masses of aiirh iI.m iiiiiimh, «, .,• •I'.ml in tin- ImiM'rial nrehlvt^sof am hiii .M. »i. .. Ti.r.|tieinii.ln nax'rts that live cities ahin.' \ i. M. .i t" the .S|iiinli>li g.ivenii<r ..n one n'i.wl»iii..ii n., Irsnthan Ifl.iNHi v.iliinies or senilis' Kv.rv I. af » li i|,.Hln>ye<l In.leetl. so llii>n>iii,'h lui'i who!.' sale was tli.' ilestrmtiiHi of ilii'v m.-MmiliiK ii'iw s<i precious In .iiir eyes, that huhilv .li'm-h remain to wliet llie wfu of aiilt.itmii.; In ilic libraries of Paris. I>n«len, P.Mli, .in.l tlw Vatican are. however, a suffleleiii n.iii.U r lo make us despair of ih-elphering iIi.mi h:..| wo for comparisiHi all which the S|i,iiiUr.l, ,1,'s. iroyeil. Ilevon.1 all oihera the .M ivw. ^-.i.h .it on the peninsula of YiicaUn, wonM w..!. in have sppnmch. art-st a true pli.m.li.' kvhi, m They ha-l a re» ....r ami will un.h'r<t.»l nl|.hH bet of SJ7 elemcnury soiiikU. tlie liltert ..f » In. Ii are totally different fnnn tl«i«' ..f «iiy "thir nation, ami evidently origluaU'.l with lli. lii'" I.. . But lieshles these they iiiH'.t a larg.' Hiiiiil..r nf purely eoDrenlloaal syiubuls, and ui..n^>vi.r AZTEC AND MAYA PICTCRE -WRrTINO. wrrc •eciutomcd ccatUntlr to employ the iiiiik-nt pictugmpliic metboU In uldltlon as > «irt »f commvDtary on the louml repmcntMi . With tlie M at thU alpbalwt, which hw firtunately b«en preeerved, we mn ennblcd to ^|H■II out a few wonis on the YucHtvcan manu- scripu and fnfade*, but tlius hr with uu pusitive BABYLOmA. reaulta. The loaa of the ancient praaundation U CTiH-cittlly Id the way of such itudiiii In duuth Aiiii-rica. aho. there b aaU to huv« lieeo a nation who cultivated the art of picture D O. Brinton, Tlu MftU of (A« W WarU. BAB, Tht.-This title, iliniirTlnK "gmte" or •door." w« Kjren to a young reriglout n- fnnner, namml MIrxa All Mohammed, who ap- ncareil In I'crela about 1K44. claiming to bring « dlrinp meaaage laU^r and bifrhcr than tlioac for which Jesua and Mohammnl were icnt. Ilia Irachinir forbade polygamy and divorce, anil hU own life waa pure. lie won a large body of ill« Ipira, and the aert be founded is wid to be .till •.t-n-lly tpreading, notwitbatandfng con tinuni iieraeriitlon. The lUb waa himacif out to d.-«th in 1H8I. -M. F. Wilaon. 7»« «»«,'- iSf IlilUCoHtrmiMirarfi Htr.. Ittf., 1H«8). BABAR, KUk of^Fcrrhau, A. D. 14M King of kabnl A. I> lT,.>4-; Ile|hnl Em- peror or Padiachab of India, A. D T.va6-l»su BABENBERCS, Tht. Hee AtaTRiA: A. d! BABYLON : The Clty.-"Thc city «tand» on « hroad plain, and la an rXBCt ii<|uarp. a hundred «ncl iwenry fiirlonpi In li iicth wirb war. •<> that 'I nlin' linuli is four humln.'d and ifithf fur- l.iriir« Wliilr Ruch la it* «i«-, In magnilJcenctf ihiTp i» nil oihi-r citv that approacbra it It la virrounded. in the lin.1 place, by a linad and cl.cp ni-wl. full of water, behind which riaena wall flfty r.valrubiu In wi.lih and two hundnn! In height On the ton, along tlH- edges of tliewall. ther ciiniilrurud buildings of a single chamber fadug one anotlicr, k«vlng lictwecn tlicni nxiiu for a (iiiir horw- chariot to turn. In the circuit of (lie w»ll Ktv a liuiidrcd gatea, all of bniaa. with tirij.n llnt.U and aiilc iKwts. The bitumen Uit><l ill Ihi- worit was Imiugiit to Babylon from the Is mnmll tin-nm which Hows into tlw Euphretes HI till- iK.int wlicri' llir city of the aanir name sUnds • lUlit . inn' Journey from lialiyion. Lumps of hiHiiKiiitrf found in gn'iit abunilanc*- in this rircr The niy it lilvideil into two portions by tlie riri r Khlih ninn llimiigh the mhlst of It. Tills r vir li the Kuplirs:!-.. ... The city wall U lir.m»ht down on Ixiili sidca to the itlgc of the «renin. tlHiice, froin llie comers of the wall Mien- l> rarrir.1 uionic eaili hiuili of the rirer a (in,e i.f Immt briiks Tlio nouses are mnstly Mmv mill four stories lilgb t :e stni-is all run In •iniifht llni-«. not only tliiw pnndlel to the nver hut ai»i |t„- cross stnvli. which leail 'I'wn to the water shie. At the river cml of 'hai ^l»mi the slre„m. which are, llli. the great CH. H In the outer wall, «f brass, and own on II" «nier Tlie outer wall la tlie nuiin defence Hf the , iiv TlH-re K however, a «..oihI Inner «iil. ..f \,« thiekm^ss timn tlic flrst, but very I'" '• Infer. ,r to It In strength The mm- of •ell 11^11^.41 of the town waa 0.1 uitktl l,v a »"ni« In llM- iMie aloo.) the |w|«r- of tlie kmc, .urMiiiKle,! by „ w,|| „, ^„,„ ^1, r V iJv ""' """' *•• ""' •*"^' pfwiwi "1 •^I'ller IWlii, a «|„ar,. emhwir.'. two furlong, •*h way. wlib gates of solid braaa. wbkh wm B. also remaining In my time. In the middle 0/ the pre, iiict tliero was a tower of solid masonry a furlong In k-ngthaiid breBdtli, upon which waa ndswl a aecoml tower, and on that a thini and sji on up to eight. The ascent to the U>p Is oo be outside, by a path which winds round all iiie towers. ... On the topninsl t<iwer there is a spnrimis temple. "-Hciwlotus. Hut., tmiu. A* /i<,<if.«»«. Mr, I, M, n8-l8i,_Acc,mllng ^..1 ."'J,''*. "^"" "'J'" *»"» "' IJabyloS was but 9S0 furlongs. The historians of Alex- ander agreed nearly with this As regaida I lie beiglitof thewa^la. "Strabo and the "liatoriuns of Alexawler substitute 50 for the »» cnl.its of Hero, otua, rnA It may Uierefore be su»|Mite<l lliat the Utter author referred to liands. four of which were eoual to the cubit. The measure. liHlcwi. of SO rathoma or 300 royal cubits for the walUof a city In a plain b ijulto prep.«.ten>ua. . . Mv own belief b that the height of tlie walls of Bnbvlcm did not eice«i «0 lir TO Eng- llah f,vt. -II. C. liawlinson. n<>U t„ aiocr —See also. IUbtuima: B. C 6XV-.l:i9 BABYLON OP THE CRUSADERS. Tht. fleeCiifSAtiBs: A D. lilM-liM BABYLONIA, Primltl»..-(Ho much new knowbdge of th, ancient peoph-a In the Knu has been 8U.I Im Mi g brought to li^ht liy r,,-,nt jeareii aiid study. «n<l the acwuntof It inEniriinb htatorleal llterali-re las;) im>agreas vet. that llure srenis to be gcv:d reason for deferring llie In at ment of ti.;-.- subjecu. for tlie moat part lo a Inter volume of tUs work. T1k> reailer b refemM tJierefore, to llie article "Semlleii," In th,' lio-m that, Ufore iu publiiation la reached, in tU fourth or flfUi volume, tlM-re will lie later nn,l lielter woriia to ijuote from on all tla- miI.Ji , is emlinuK-d Terrfcn de Ijur,.uperie-» int. r, Ming tlMxiry, which b Uitrnduc,",l ImIow, in ilii« iilu,," Is qucstione,! by many biIkiUfs. and I'mf.Mof Niyre. w e writings have don,: niuili to |«ipu. ariie the new orienul atmlU-i. aeenia Ui Kohoine. Ilm,« in advance of the aure gr,uii»l>_Tho Nmilriana, inliahlianu of tb Hhlnar of iIh- Ohl TeatMiienl narrative, ami AixadUna, Hiio dl- vUtil prin.ltive llabyloniu latwcen lti,ni • were overrun and coni|iier,il hv tlie .Vndll,' llaby loutanaof later hl«tnry, Ai,ail UIng apiwn ntly the llmt half of th,- country to fall iiihhr tin- •way of tlie new cowers »» b |Hjaailil,< that I asillm, tin- ll.lin'W woni translaliil Clmldeeanr ('hiihleann in the Hiilhiiri<ii| venioii. is tin' llidiy- Ionian ■ caxldi ' or ciwiijiMrora. a title wlii, h i-on- linueil U) I ling to tin m in niii«-<|ueiiei> i.f i|„ir coni|iiest. Tlie Aermliuna bad lieeu tile ii;ven- toraof the plctoriid hiinigivphica wlii< ii nfier- wanis iievelo|ie<l into the 1 1'lni iform or wi-lue aliiiiMii writing. Iln-v bail foiiiHleil tlM'griiii i'li|,-s III ( liidilea, and Inwl attaiiieil to a bigb degn-e of < iilturi' and civili/Htion Tlwlr citiis p<N«>a«^| lllir»rl<>s. stocked with books, written pHrtly on IMipyrus, partly on clay, which was. whib stUl iV> iifl BABYLONIA. •oft. hnprpwrd with chnnrtm by menat of it inrtiil ilyliis. Tlir iMmki were nuinfn>iw. hihI n'lattil to n vRrit-ty of niblrrts. ... In miirM- of time, howcvrr, Uh- two ilUlcrla of Wiiniir luiil Acnul n-nifl to be apokt-n ; but Dm- i»-<twity for Inirninjc tiM-in Mill n-mnlnol, nml we Anil, Hr- ttinllnKly. Ibiitilowntotln-laiiiitiUyiiof Ixali Aa- ayrin anil IlMliylonU, th*- eiliicHltil rliisaca were tttiiKlit tlH- iilil rxlinrt Amulinn, luat lu in mivl- rraKiimpftliryHntUUtflit Ijitlu. — .V II. Sayiv, FriMk U,iht from the AiH-iinl MonHiiirnlt, eh. 2. —'■Since Siimir. tlie Shinnr of the Bible, wiu tlH- flrst pun of the eountry ornipiiil i>v tlie In- THilin)! Similea, while Amiil Iihik mntlniiol to lie rcitimli'd aa the teat of nn alien race, the lan- ifiiaiti ami nopulalbm of primitive Cliiililea have l«Tn namcH Arrailian by tlie niajorilv of Aa- ayrian aelHilar*. Tlie part plavi-d liv iliiite Ae- f aillana in tb»' Intellrrtiml hiitlnrv of inankiiKl la lii/flily iinpiirtant. Tliiy were llie enrlii-sl livili- 7.era of Weitem Aala, and it la to tlieiii that we /«ve to Irare the arta ami ■rlvneFa. the n'Mxioiia tnulitkioa anil tlie philoaophv not only of ilie Aa- ayrlana, but also i.f the I'lHvnirlana. the Am- nuiiina. anil even the llebrewt themavlrea. It waa. Um. fitim I'lialdea lliat the verma of Onvk art anil of miioh of the On-ek pantheon anil myth- oliicv orliilnally eaine. ('oiumoar arrhiteeture reai'luil ita (lr»t anil hiKheat development in Uiiliy Ionia; the liooa that atill guant the main en- trance of My ken* aiv diatinrtly Aaarriao in char- arteriand the Om-k llenUtle* with hia twelve laboun llnda hia nnttotyne In the hem of the irnvt Chaldean epic. It la diinrult u> aay how much of our piMent culture ia not owed to the •tiinted. oblique-eynt people of ancient Baby- lonia. JeruiMlem and Athena an- the aacnil citiet ofourtmaieni life;aadlHiih Jeniaaleninml Athena wen- pn>founilly influenced by tlie iileaa whiih liail their Arat alarting point in Drlmieval Ai-cnil. TIk- Heralle liaa ever been a tradi r and an Inler- niiiiiary. ami hiai-arlleat work waathi- pn<riiiiia tnule in aplritual ami mental warea Knlivlnnla waa iIh' iHiine ami miilher of Semitic ciillun- and Hemiliclnapiration: the Pbirniciana never foritot tiMl tlM-y were a oilony from the IV-nlan (Julf. widle tlie lantelile rmiunteil Hint hU fmln-r Aliniham had lui-n bom in I'r of the Clinldet-H AIniiwt llie wlwOe of the A»vrlBn litenitiin' wie* ihriviil from Aiiiui.Hiid Iranaiatitl fnmi thi'deinl laiiiiiiatre of primitive Ciwliiea."— A II (<«vii- /liAjA.oina lAlrnilMrt. ;ip. *-7 — Tlie aa'nie] AtteirHl fCnptntnfthr KimI. tt/tp. 2 —••Tli,. plaii. of China in tla- imat and future i« md that which It w:ia lonir •upiKiwil |o 1». lii-renl n-o-an-he* have iiiM'li«)-<l llinl tin liviliintion. like oiim war varloiialv deriveil fnmi lh>>aameokl fiMiixof ciil tun-of aiiutb weateni Aula. . . . It wax my |ri»l fortum- III lie ahli- III irliim, in an uninierrupliil »< rim of a «<iir« or hi iif |iii|i< ra in |H<ri<>licHia of eomniimicatlona lo the Uoyal Aaiatic S.i,-iety and elaiwhere. piitiliahetl and unpublialMil. ami of coniriliiitlona to aeveml wiirka alner April Itmt downwiinla. Hint the wrilinit iml mmw kmiwl' edtfe (if ana. mIi nee and iroveniineni ..f iIh' early Chlneae. niori' nr Um eniimeraliil Nhiw. wen- di-riveii fmm tin nki civiliutlon of llthyhmia lliniuuh IIh- m iimilary fiK ua of Miiatana. ami that thia ih-rivallou «iia a walal faii. n-aultlUK w>t from aeh-nlirte li-uiiiiiif but fMm pracilral In unimrw of aonM- k-nvlh la twii-n lh<- .Hiiaian iihi fiih'ruliHi ami the future i-lvilUert of llie C.iiiH-ar tbi Bak i.lbea, who, ffma ifadr nviybbouftoi 246 BABYLOKIA. ■Pttlemenu in the N.. moved eaatwan^aat ihi- time of the (freat riainif of the XXIII. iinliirv n. C. Coming a/rain iu the Held. I>r ,1 K.lkin, lia« Joine<l roe on the tame line. "— Terriin il, I.«coujperie. AiiyfeniVi ami ChtM {Aouhmi/ Ann. 7, 1880).— '■ We could enumerate a Imli; aerlea of afflnitica between Chaldean ciiitim ami ChlD-JH! civilization, allluiuxh the liiat win ii.,i iKimiwed diivrtly. From what evklence we h.n , It aeema highly 6mbHble ilint a certain niinilHr. t famiiiea or of trlla-a, wiiiimit any apparent urn eric name, but among which the Kiiiu fliliil an imporunt pualtkio, came U> China aUiiit tin- vi-ir MtW B. C. Theae tribea. which came fn.ni ii„ Weat, were obliged to quit tlie nei){htHnirhiii»l probably north of tin- Suaiana. and wen- loni priaeil in the feudal agKloineralion of that n-einn wlH're tlii-v muat have been intluemitl hy ilii- Akka.lo('haldeMn culture."— Terrien ile Ijicnu |a-rie. Knrlif Hul „f Chii^mi CiriluaUon. /. H.' — **«•. alao. China Thk < Ikiuin or tiik l^: i Th« early (ChaMeaai moaarchy. - iiur eariieat glimpw of tlie pi .itical comliliim „f Chaidea aliowa ua the country dlvidnl im,, numeniua amall atatea. each hemled by a t-nai city, maile fannHiaand powerful by tlieaannunrv or temple of aome nartlcular deity, and nili-d h'v a jwleai. a title whh-h ii now thought to mean prieat king. I. e , prieat aad king In one Tliin' can be little doubt that the beginning of ihi- 1 itv waa every where the temple, with iU nilliife .If mioktering prieala, and that the aumiiiii.lini; aeltlement waa gnilually formeii by piUhnu and worahlppen. That myalty diveloixMl „iit of the prieathiKal ia ala<i more than pniti.ihle . . . Tht-nr comet a lime when for the title nf pateti la lulaMltuted that of king. . . It js notli-eabh- that the iliaiinction latwein tbf Hemitic newconien ami the iniligenoiin Shiimiri Accaillana contlnuea long to la- inu-ealili- in the namet of the mval tem|lle-hlllhle^^ even iifi.r th«" new Hcmillc Idiom, wliich we inll ilii Aiayrian, liail eiitln>ly oiiateil the old laiu-iifni . . Kurtliermore. even aiipertlcial iili«-rv.-iil,in aliowa that the old fainguage ami the old minii-n aiirvive long<>at In Hhuinir, — IIm' Houih. Krin thia fact it ia to lie Inferreil with little ilmnn ,.f miatake that tiie North.— llw lami of .Xi.wl - waa eariier HemitlznI. that the Semitir ini niigranU eaUbliah«-<l their Hrat lM-a<h|uan.r« m that part of tlie country, that Ihelr i«i«ir nml intliiemi- Ihemv apreail'to Itie Houlh. r ulU in acconlance with Ihi-ae imiicniiona. llie Hmi i-rrinil hiatorical figure that merta ua at the I n-li.-M .■! Chalilean hiaiorv. dim with the mialaof ■iifi- uml fabuknia tnulltlona. vii unmiatakalili r. il. m that of th<' !4eniile t^lwmikln. king of .\,..i,|. or Agadc. aa the gn-at Northern city ranw- 1.> l» calhil — more iL'enerally known In hl»li.ri w^'.-t thf corrupt nHaieni nwllng of .StrL'in nnl c-allnl Hargon I . 'tlie Finn.' to illalinir<ii'<li lnm fnim a vi-r>- famoiia Aaayrian miinnr> li ••< il.i tame name wlm relirneii many ifiiiiirii-. ho. r At U> the city ..f Airaile. It la no niln r ih.iii Ilir city of Accail mentioned in (ieneaia t. |o li waatltuateil cloae lo tlie Kuphniea mi « »i.l. canal Jual op|i>aille I4|ppar. an ihat In lliii- ili* two clllea came l<i be <<onaiilen-<t a* one .lniMe city, and Ih.- Ilebrewa alwava i-alhii It ili.' i»- Hippara — Heplmrvaln which ia often a|..>kini'( In the liilih- The tivniemloualv amfanl lUtv of IHUU B C h now gewrally' lo .< I'l'M fur Harguo ot A(»d« - pcrfaapt tbr nm<um BABYLONIA. BACTRIA. tuthrntic lUte yrt arrlvrd at Id liUtnry. "— Z. A. iUfrorin, Ktanaf Vhalden. «*. 4.— "A hnrde of I awitii. or K<«armni iw ;.» down fmm the nioiiiiliiins <>f NortlM-ni Elain uikIit tlieir Ivuier, KImiiimiiniKM; Aowl wiu roiiijiKTi-d. a furpifrn ilyiir.ity n(Uil>liiiiM!<l In the litnil, anil the nipttul traip'firrol fMm A);aile to RHii.vlon. Babylon now liM'ame a city of importanii: for tli« llret liiiii': th<.- rank aaiiKtml U> it in tin- mytlilml »fi' niM lint a reflprtlon of tlw puaiiinn it lii'kl afu-r ihi' CiiMite comiueat. Tin? CiuHite dynasty i« pn.lmlily ' i" Anil>iHn ilynaaty of IVniaiM. . . . A ncH Iv foiiwl inmriptioD of NuliunidiM makes tlif dale ("f Its advi-nt) B. V. ST.V) \fiiottU)lt\. . . . Tlip tint ran; of Khtminiiniirns. after rstab- liiliinK liiniM-lf in Arratl. was li> cxti'nd his sway KviT ilif Miiitliem kinploni of Siimrr as well. . . . Khammurana Ix-mnir kiriK of tlio «|iolc iif Batiylonia. From thia tinii- onwani thecoun- try rrifialned a united mouanjiy. Tlui Cassile ilyna>ty muat have lasted for serenl cenliiries, aiiii iiniba'jiv inrlude<l mure than oor line of kiniK. . . U waa under the CaMiite drnasty that the kinfplom of Assyria tlmt t<>4i Its'risi-,— partly, perhaiw, in conaequem-e of the Asiaiie n>n(|iie«ts of ttic Kgyplian monarcha of the rlirhtiinth dynasty. ... In B. V. 1400 the CsMijie kinr married an Assyrian princess. Her •im, Kara Murdas, was munlerol by tlie party oppnui-d to Assyrian influence, but the usurjier. Nazi buKas, was quickly overthmwn l>r the Assyrians, who placed a vasaal prince oh tlw throne. This erent may be cimaklemi the lum- inir iNiint In tlie history of the klnifloms of the Tlirriaand Euphrates; Asayria henceforth lakes lli<|il»ciMif the worn out monnnhy of tlalivlonla, ami |il»_VH the chief part In the afTaintof VVcstem A>ia until tlie flay of lu flnal fall. In little more ihni] :i huri>lrr<l years later tlic Asayriana were acnin In Babylonia, but this time as avowed 1111 inirt lo all parties alike ; Balirlon was captured tiv ilu- AMvrlan monarch Yitflath Adiir lu B. ('. I ITo. aiHl the rule of the CiMslle dynasty came 111 an end "—A. II. 8ayc«, Anfifiit Kmjiim of tht hint, apfi. 2. .\i.iMi IN (J Kawlinson, Fire (Imit Moivtrrhif ■ l-l„M,.-, <•* H — Hee. abai. AssTHIA. B. C. 6as-S39.-Th* Imttr Empirt.-Por Binri' thiin »1» c<>nturi<<s after iIh- coiKjuesi of II ( I'.'M. Babylonia «n< olwun'tl by Aswyria. Itiirinir nnxit ui that kmit (lerioil. the CbHlili-an kint'iliin Mas aubji>ct lo lis nonliem iH-iiriilair iiiiii triinriMMl by Assyrian vliiiMvs TIhti' »etv fn <|iii'nt revolis and arane Iniervala of imlepen ill mi', bill they werv lirlef. ainI Ihc |i<iliticiil life "1 ItHbylotiia as a itlMinct |io«ir oinv !■<• mid to li.Ki hiin sua|iended from I'.'M iiulil Art H. C , » tun .N,ilii>|>olaaaar wIhi nikil llmt im iht- vlcrniv • ■( III.' .Vioyrian UHaian-h. threw oil his yoke. u»>k till silriliiili-s of soven-lirntv lo hiiiisi>ir. ami !■ iiH-il ilie Mithis in eillntfulshlnff the «lorv of Niin-vi'b "TIm- Assyrian Kinpirr w«« iinw fliiin-l lirtwiien MiilU ami Ilabvlon NuImi I'hiiir uim-r. or N'eburhadn<r.rar. SaUipok.ionra • I.I.M MHi, waslhrn-al rmmhrof iIm- liabvlonian iiiuilri' The alleropt of Pliaraoli Ni-cS«i'lo w In ("■r Kivpi ihe Intwrilnnre of Asavriii wan i»i<r il.fon HI ibe Imllhof I'lm iHiiriab. aiHl wlau .N>lii).h«i|n'«*ar siiii<i<e<|e<i his fatli. r in II f «"4 Ik fuiiiMl hlnmlf iIh- uiMllspiitnl loni of " . -I. rti Alia. l'Hh<«lim' was cta'ninl in niri. uml II.. .ii-.iru<'tloo of Jerusalmi in .V»7 liiid a way Hitu Ivr tiw luTaaluo ul £«ypl, witiili tuuk 24; place twenty years later. Tyne alio underwent a louK siege of tliirteeo years, but it is doubtful whither ft was uken after all. Babylon waa now eurichitl with the spoils of foreign coouuesL It owed as much to Nebuchadrezzar aa Rome owed to Ausustiis. The buildings and wnllt with wliich It was Bilome<l were wortliy of tlie metnipolis of the world. The palace, now rep- rcHentMl by the Kasr mound, was built In tlftecn days, awl the outermost of Its thife wells waa si'vcn miles in circuit. HanffinK gartlens were constructed for Queen Amy lis, the daughter of the Meilian prince, and the great U-mpIc of B«'l was niufeil with cedar and overiaid with gold. The temple of the Seven Lights, dnlicateil to Nibo at Borsippa by an early king, who hail raiseil It to a height cf forty-two cubiu, was completetl, aiHl Vk:1ous otlMT temples were erecuid on a sumptuous scale, both in Babylon awl in tlie neighlaiuring cities, while new libra ries were established lliere. After a reign of forty-two years, six months and twentvonc itays, Nebui-bailrezzar dl«l (B. V. ,V)3), ani'l left tlie crown to his son Evil Memdach, whohnd a alairt and inactive ivign of three years and thirty- four daya, when he was murderetl bv his bmther- inlaw, Nergal-sharczer, the Neriglissar of the Oreeks. . . . The chief event of bis fvign of four years and four months waa the construction of a new pabur. His son, who aucceetled him. was a mere lioy, and was muirleivtl after a brief ivign of four months. The power now paastil from the hoi;«e of Nabopolaaaar,— Nabu-nuhid or Nabonidos. who was raised to tlw throne, la-ing of anotlHT family. His reign lasted seventeen years and five months, awl witnessed the end of the Babylonian empire,"— which was overthrown bv ("yrus the (in-at mr Kvnw) li c .•WW— see Pehsia: B C .^41♦-.V21 —A.' II. Saycci .tiinriil Kminni nf tht Kitl. ny.y. -i. — Ni.. ,il«,, Skmitk<. Eimiation, A.smkst: LninAiiiKsi .\NiiKNT: .Mkdical Hcik.ick, Babtminian ■ .MojiKT A.vD Bankino; Tiiadb. .Vlso is: M. Uuucker. //i«<, tf Antiguily, bk. I. '*A. l,V BABYLONIAN JEWS. OpcIkwo: B C rt.l4.Vm: B V Xm \ I> .>!. «n.| A l> 21KI-4.SI. BABYLONIAN TALENT, S, Tm-kxt BABYLONIAN TALMUD, The. ike Tai.mmi "BABYLONISH CAPTIVITY" OF THE POPES. Sel'Mniv A D l.lil l;HM BACCALAOS, OR BACALHAS, OR BACALHAO COUNTRY. h.t; .VitwroiNu. i «Mi A i» iioi-i.^rN BACCHIADvE. s-e Cohinth. BACCHIC FESTIVALS. S.e Oiojuma BACONS REBELLION. SeeViK„.MA; BACTERIOLOGY. t<.?eMii>i. ai. S. irn, k ll»Til Ck.i<ii IIV BACTRIA.-" Wher<' Ihe iilifi- [nf the tilil.i lind of Iranj rws to ilie l.ifiv llliidii Kii.h. ilieri- lies iin itn iionbtrn ilupe a favonHl ilnirii t In Ibe reifiiMi i.f lUe Tpptr <)zii» iin the lianks of iliii river, which flows in ii ninli westerly illn-.iii.ii. eiit^nd liM*| niiiuiitaiii pss- tiires, wlM-re •ii|.|K.ri in foumi lu iIh- fn-Ji nimin- tain sir for minieroiis ber<ls of horses aiel «lii'. n ami bemiiih ilu wonbil hilU ar<' blooming s»i leva Mil ili.-«- .li.t... „r tiM' llimln Ku«h ihe inlddk singe Utwemi tlie table laad and (^ BACTRIA. BAGDAD. deep pUin of the CMpUn Sen, lay the BArtrtann — the Bnkhtri itf the Achaemi'niilii. tlie lUkhdlii of tlie Av«sta. ... In ucirnt timen the Rac- trtana wcrv hanily dlitinguhlicd fn)m nnmiuls; but thpir Uml wm exteutve ami ntn(luoi<d fniita of all kind«, with the exception or tlie vine. The fertility of the land enabled the Hellrnic princes to make great conqiietta. "— M. Duncker, Jlitl. of Antiquity, bk. 6. ch. 3. —The Bactriaoa were among the people lublugated by Cyrus the Orent and their country formed part of the Per- ■ian Empire until the latter waa orerthmwn by Alexander (are MACttraxiA, ifcc. : B. C. 880-438). In the diriaion of the Maeeiloniao conqueita, after Alexander's death. Bactria, with all the farther east, fi'll to the share of Scleucus Nicator and formed piut of what came to be called the kingdom of Syria. Alwut iM B. C. the Bactrian pn>vlnce, being then governed by an ambitious Greek satrap named Diodotus, was leil by him into revolt against the Syrian monarrhv, and easily gained its independence, with Diudotus for fulling (aee Seijci'cio.*: B. C. 3«1-334). "The autluirity of I>iodotus was conflrmed and riveiiil on his K(iliJ<-ots by an umllsturbed reign of eigliurn years iM-fore a .Syrian anny even showed Itself in his nelelilxn'rliooii. . . The Bactrian Kingdom was, at any rate at ita com- mencement, as thoroughly Ureek aa that of the Heleucida! " "From B. 0. »)« to aliout B. C ItiS was the most tlourishhig |M<rioil nf the Bw trian monareliy, which expandeil during thrat spwf from a small kingdom to a coosiderahte empire" — exu-wllng over the gna a ii part of niixli'm Afghanistan awl acniw tlw' Indus Into I lie Ihinjaiili. Rut mrantimi' the nnghhoring I'lrtliiaiu. who threw olT the tteleucid yoke s<N>n nftiT the Baelrinns luul done ■■>, were gniwing in |(iiwi r anil tliev soon paiiiK-<l fmni rivalry to miMlrry The biictriuu kingiloin w»« prac- tieallr extinguiahe<l alH>iit t.to R. C. by thr con (^ueniit iif the l>artliiau Mithridates I , ' uithouKh t.re«k nionarrhs of the H^tctrian serii« i^iniiniinl mSHiem nf Calml an<l Wenlerii Inilia till Hhou! H (■ IJli •_<! \lnw\[n*<u. .Sifi (Jrr.il Uritnl:il BADAJOS: Th« Geographical Cooeresa (IM4). K.1- AmKKHA .\ 11 llm-l.V.'t ■Aden : E«rly Sueric popalatiea. Si HrKvi A. D. iSai.|l03.— Ae^uiaitiea of territory under the Treaty of Luneville. 8ee Okhmanv A l> 1N01-1H(« A. D ltos-iao6.— Anrraadiaad by Napo- I'on. -CroatodaGrBodJtachy.— JoiMd tothe Confederation of the Rhine. Hee OmMtN-v A II IMO,-, I'VM. ami 1*>H i.lA<cfAHr— VioinTi A. D. iai3.-AI>aadonmeat of the Rhoaish Coafederacy and the Froach Allianc*. I<ee Kmsi-K. A l>. |H|4 (jANItHV— M«K< ill. A. D. Il49.— RoToiutioa sapprosaod by PrusatAB troopa. See Ukumahv: A l> 1H4.'« 11V » A. D. i8M.-The Seven Weeha War.— In- 4ennity and territorial ceioi— to Pmaaia. He<- Okhuasv a H l»«) A. D. ia70-it7i.— Treaty of Uoioa with the Germanic Confedtratioa, aaoa traaafermed into the German Bmpire. Hee Oknhamv A I* mTutHKjTKMiiKK-nih-iiiaKa), and IM7I. BADBN.OR RASTADT.TrMtyoTdrM). Bee t'nuKUT A U l7U.tTI4 BADR, OR BEDR, Battlo of. See Ma- notiKTAN CoNiitiarr? A. D. 60S-4I83. B^CULA, Battle of. See Puxtc War. Tiia Hrcond. B^RSARK. See Bitnannm. B^TICA. — The ancient name of the prov- ince in Spain which aflerwanis took rn)m the Vandals the name of Andalusia. 8ee Spain B. C. 818-85, and A. P. 488; also Tckdktani. and Vanuaui: A. D. 438. B.AT1S, The. — The ancient name of the Ouadalquirrr river In Spain. BAGACUM. See KERVit. BAGAUOS, Insurrection of the (A. D. 387). —The peasants of Gaul, whose condition had become very wretched during the distractions and misgovemment of the third century, were provoked to an Insurrection, A. I». S«7. which waa general and alarming. It waa a risirn: which seemt to liave been much like those tliut occurred In France and England eleven centuries later The reliel peasants were called Bugiiudn. — a name which some writera derive tnmx ibe Celtic word "bagad" or "bagat,' signirving "tumultuous assemblage." They sscked'and ruined several cities.- taJting Autun after a »ieire of seven montha, — ami committed many tirrilile atmcitiea. The Emperor Maxlmlan—cnllengu.' of Diocletian. — sucoeetled, at last. In suppn'wing the general outbreak, but not in extlnguisliing It every where. There were traces of it mirviv- Ing long afterwarda.- P (Godwin, //i»<, of fymmtr. r. 1 : Aiitient (hr*i, hk. 2. ek. « Atao n : W T Arwd.1. The Hewtan SftUm of P'nnmnal Ailmiiulration, rh. 4— See, also, Denrrmrs. BAGDAD, A. D. 763.— Tha feaading; of the new capital of the Callpha. .>«e<< Maiiomktan CoMJJIKOT ANIl EmPIHK .\ D l«8. A. D. Its-V^S-— Decline of the Calipkate. See MaROMKTAM COHUL-KKT ANU EmPIMK \ II 8t.VIM.V A. D. lose.— In the handa of the Sctdjuk Tnrka, «»■<• TriiKK A D linM-lotCi A. D. 1158. -The Fall of the Caliphate. Destruction of the ctty by the Moa(ols.-!:i l.'.Vi, on till- nccewiion Ml M:iiiifu Kh.iii ijriniU.ii nf .linpis KImn. to tlie wivenifiily nf ih. Mongol ICinpire |w MoNnoiji|, a irniil Kurili li iirrnuii'il wiw lii'id. at which It v>:i'< di riili«l t.> wnd »n •'«)><<iiiiiiin Into iIh- West, fnr t»n pur |>inii< III. tn exienniiiule tlie iaiiiailtiin.. • Awmwlnii, « h.i «tiil niaintiiintil tiieir |».«. r : , mirtlirm Pi-ntta; (SI. t<i niliu-e tin- t «iipli .1 ll:igd>i>l tn aiihmimlon tn tlie .Mnniriil Hiipniiiiii ^ The command of thi- expe<liiii>n wa-. iriv.-n i.i Mangu'n limiher Khulagti. or Houliii{i«i. »h.i IH'rfoniied liii ap|ioinli'il tiwk* willi tliomui'fi neas and uumen-iful n-Milutlnn In IJ'i7 h' made an end of the .Xkmimiim. to ilie irr> 1' relh'f of th<> wluile eastern world, Mulmmiiiiu and Chrtetuui. In l'J.V< he |uvtiir<l on In Itn >iul preceded by an emlMMV wliieli ■timmiunil tin- I'ullphlo submit, to miu- the vrulit nf iUu'lpI t» give up his vain preienainnM UilheKoverricf'i "f tlie Mnak-m world, anil to aiknowletli'i •■ Ureal Khan fur ht« lord The fcelih >>ali|il> .11 1 his irearlM-nuu awl im-afiaMc iiiiniai-n miiii ' •MlHni'leil mir rn O ili i vtr»nxii> preparalinn- I r rtp#eoee A*» mnviiiieim- iiairdaii wax i ik. 1 afti-raslege win. h noly etclted Uh- f^riHiH "( il,. Mongols TI..V ttreif llif' rtiv atel ^auifhiio-l lU (H-uple, esuepiittit sonic Clirlslauu. wIk> an 248 M xSdiii I 'I I* m I ^ BAODAD. DAINBIUDOE. uM to bAvo hcxa ipaied through thr infliirncp of one of Khiihigu's wivei, who wa» a Nrstorinn. The sack of RKgdad lasted tevcn dnys. The number of the aead, we an- tuld by liaachid, wa° HOO.OOO. The caliph. M'MtaHu-m. with all hU family, wa» put to death.— 11. H. Hownrth, lliit. '/ tht MuneoU. t. I, pp. lil.H-aoi.— Fora n>nHidrnible period before tbb flnul <!atastrophe, In the declincof the Seljiik Empire, the Caliphate at Dagdad bad l)ecom'^ once more "an ladc- nendent tempoial state, though, instead uf rul- ing iu the thir« qiinrten of the globe, the CfiTlphi ruled only over the pmvlnee of Irak AmbI Their position was not unlike that of the Popes In recent times, whom they alio restmbled in aasuminK a new name, of a pious cbsnctcr, at their Inauguration. Both the Christinn and the &loHl<'m pontiff was the ml temporal sorerelpn of a small state . each claimed to lie spiritual soverelRn over the whole of the Faithful; each was recognized asauch by a large bn<lv, but lejectfl by others. But in truth the spiritual recognition of the Abhaside callplis was mon- nearly univenal in their last axe than it had ever been before. " With the fall of Bagdad fell the caliphate as a tempond sovereignty; liut It iiirvlvtd, or was resurrected, in its spiritual fimetl'ins, to beo/ms merged, a little later, la the supremacy of the suftan of the Ottoman Turks. " A certain Ahmed, a real er pretended AblHi<j>lde lleil [from Bagdad] to Egypt, where hn was pro<lninied caliph by the title of Al Mns'anser BIMah, under th.. pmtection of tnc then ^itiHan Bibars. He aad bis successors were itci nicd. In spiritual things. Commanders of the Fuitiiful. and lliey were found to be a convenient in!itniment iioth by the Mameluke sultans tuil liy 11' lur Mahometan princes. From one of them. Bai i/i-t the Thunderbolt received the title of Su.iitn; from another. ISelim the Inlleiible pro- runil the cemion of his claims, and obtainol the rii;ht to deem himself the shsdow of Ood upon i-arth Since then, the Ottoman Padishah has liern held to inherit the righU of Omar and of Hnniim. rights which if strictly presse<l, might Ik' tcrribk- alike to enemies, neutrals, and allies." -K. A. Freeman. Uiii. andConq. of the Saraeent, A. D. 1393.— Timoar't pyramid of tmmda. S<f TiMorii A. D.tAa3-t63S.—TakM by the Persians knd retaken by the Turks.— Fearful slanrfattr of the inhabitants. Sit^TrHKS: A. l>. 16S3-t94U. BAGISTANA. Si* Bkiiisitk, Rock or. BAGLIONI, The.— ■TbeBaglioni flrst came Intn rii.tic !■ iiuring the wars thuy carried on with tlie ( idiii „f Perugia In tne Nth swl I5lh cen- turies This was i>or of those duels to tlic death, liki' that of tiM- Vlseonti with the Torrensi of Mllnn. on which the fa.e of so manv Italian citH* of the middle ages hung The nobles t'wiKht; the townsfolk atsisUtl like a Oreek chorus, sharing the |masi»oa of the actors, but coniriliutlng little to the catastrophe. Tho piaiia was the theatre on whirh the tragedy w«» playod In this (-..nteil the B««Ho,ii proved the utMnger. snd U'gan u> sway itie sUf of leniitla afu-r tli« irn-guhr faahioa of italiao (lesDou They hwl no legal right over Uh- lity, no heredil""" ' * -*-' * * authority. ■spoU They had no legal right over tin- eity, > hereditanr magistracy, no Utle of prinwly ithority. The Church was irckooed the •upnrme ■dmlnlsttslur uT tbe Perugiao t-ummon- wealth. But in reality no man could set foot 00 the Imbrian plain without permission from tbe Bsglionl. They elected the officers of strte. The lives and goods of the citixens were at tbeir discretion. When a Papal legate showed hta face, they made the town too hot to hold him. ... It was hi vain that from time to time ths people rose against them, massacring Pandolfo Bnglioni on the public square In 1893, and johi- Ing with nidolfu and Biacdo of the dominant bouse to aa8Ha<iinAte auother Pandolfo with his son NIccolo in 1460. The more tiiey were cut down, the m<.ro tliey flourislieil. The wealth they derived from their lordships in tlie duchy of Hpoleto and the L'mbrian hillcitles, and tbe treasures they accumulated in the service of the Italian republics, made them omnipotent in their native town. . . . From father to son they were warriors, and wc have re(:.->i<la of few lulian houses, exceiit perhaps the Maiatestl of Rimini, who equalled them in banlihoud and flerceneas. Esperklly were they noted for the remorseless vendetle which they airried on among themselves, cousin tracking cousin to dentil with tbe ferocity and and craft of sleuth- bounds Ha>l they restraineil these fratricidal passions, they might, perhaps, by following some common policy, like that of the Medlei in Florence or the Bentirogli in Bologna, have suc- cessfully resisted tbe Papal autliority, and se- cureil dynastic sovereignty. It is nut until UOS that the history of the Bagliuni beeomi-a dra- matic, possibly because till then tliey lacked llie pen of Matarazzo. But from this year forward to their final extinctkin, every detail of their doings has a pictures<)iie nrn awful interest. Domestic furies, like the revel descrie.l by Cas- sandm above the palace of Mycenae, seem 10 take posaei-sion of the fatnl bouse ; anil the doom wliieli has 'alien on them is worked out with pitiless exactitude to the last generation. "—J. A. Symonds. tHuleAtt in Itait; and Ortta, pp. 70-79. BAGRATIDAE, The. See Abiuuiia; 12th- I4lll CENTITHtES. BAHAMA ISLANDS: A. D. 149a.— Dia- coTcry by Columbna. See AnKiurA: A. D. 14U-.>. BAHRITE SULTANS. See Eotpt: A. O. ia.V)-l.M7. BAI^.— Dais, in Campania, opposite Puteoli on a small Iwy near Naples, was the favorite watering pla^e of tlie ancient Romans. "As soon as tho reviving heals of April gave token of advancing summer, the noble and the rich hurried from Rome to this ''boli'o retreat, and here, till the raging dogt.U; forbade tbe toils even of amusement, they di;iporte<l Ibemaelvee or shore or on sea, in the thick groves or on the piarld lakes. In Ittten and chariots. In gilded Ihiiis Willi palntol sails, lulled by day and night V Ith the sweetest symphonies of song and musk, or gazing indolently on the wanton measures of male and female dancers. The bath, ehiewbere tbeir relaxation, was here th<> business of tbe dsy: . . . they turiMd tbi' |KKils of Avc-mus and Lu'-rinus into tanks for swimming: and in these pie.isant waters both sexes met familiarly to- £ ether, and convened amklst th<:- rosts sprinkled ivishlv nn their surface." — C. Merivale, UiiL tf tkf Hm<iiu. M. '0. BAINBRIDCB, Commodore WiUlam, :■ the War of iSia. See Uiiitbd «tatw or Am. : A. U. ttll3-l»U. 249 H R ¥ ''t. Wss, BAIWttJXa BAIREUTH, Creation of tkt Priocipalily of. N-eUKRJIAWT: TninTBEHTH ClNTfur Separation from tkt Eltctorat* of Braadan- tntf. Sfe Uhamukmhi... a. D. 1417-l«4t». , BAJAZET I.-TnrkUh Saltan, A P 1389- BAKAIRI, The. ti« Amehkan Abohkh im ('ARim. «?.*'^f -• Co'o^' Edward D., KiUed at Ball ■ BlnC iSrv I .\n EO Htatu or Am. ■ A 1) 1061 (Oc^uBCIi: ViRiiiMA). BAKSAR, OR BAXAR, OR BUXAR, "1J*? »',.','%'•. 2:' ■""■aA.D. 1757-1773. .^BALACLAVA. Battle of. See Hi>^ia: A. D. 1854 (OCTOIIKM— NiirKVBKHI BALANCE OF POWER. In E ,rop«,n diplomary, « phrni- sL-nifvlnif Ihe poli.v wlii.li •imni at lir.'|iinu' mi approKiiniitc (viuilihriutn or pnwiT amoii)( tbe urcnti-r niitloiw. —T J L«wr<Ticc, IiiUriMtionul Lair. p. r.'d. i^KSL't^.^ Roman Emperor. A. D ?.T8 »..?,^JrB<*A S DISCOVERV OF THE PA- CIFIC. S('« America: A 1). 1513-i:)17 BALCHITAS, The. 8ee Ambrican Ar.o- RIGZNEg: PaMPAII TRtBES. BALDWIN OF FLANDERS. The Cm- a^a ■ . . t'"l"*l>E8: A. I). I2»)1-1S()3 Baldwin I.. Latin Emperor at ContUntiaoole (Rmnania), A. D. l!H»i-iao5. .... Baldwin It A. D. 1287-1891. «»«»wia ii.. BALKAN ASn DANCBIAN STATES. BALEARIC ISLANDS.-' The nam. n.. I.sre.' wai.t, rived by the Orrekt from ' l»ill, |" '■" i-J; ""l!.' '» ■" ''""•'« Phwnlriun -1 Mu"'"^ '"■ ■* *-*'«""'»'«•* -Kid BALI. "*«* Malat AnCHiMLAeo : Ditch BALIA OF FLORENCE, Tht.-The chief in»tnim<iit cmplou^l |,y the McdIcI to eiil«l.li«h Iher p..*,r in fl„n-uce wu "tlio p,.n,i, i.,,,, »y.u-m of the I'Mrl.u.unto nn.l Ilalla. l>ym.«iM«f which the iMf.pl, ■uM-nil.lnl fmm time to time in the public iKiuMn', unit iotimidiiu-d by liic niai;ln» fxtlon, mru.t«l full powen to a » l.-.t ,,„„! nilttre ruminalwl in pri\ iilc by the ch,. f, ,if Ute rr'i'IlI.T- • •. \^P'' »«>■'= 'The Parl»,„..,„„ S. ' ""^I'nf "' "'« Klun-ntlne people ,,„ |. Piaii, .,f tlie SI({nory. When the slgnory I,. . trtlien 11.. plm-c to tuhlrvM the meeting, tl„ pi ,/, . li guarded by anued men, and then th.. m ..i.le are aikwl whether they wish to give all*.| ,ic pow.r (Balb.1 and authority tothodll.. n,n«MH,l t..r their g.«Hi. \\ hen the anawer. ye., promputi la return. ,1, the Mf Dory immediately retfn ^ im, hepaUir Thi» kalf that i« meant by thin h«r lamini... which thua .dve« away the full ,»,\v,.r or eil.Tiing » (bAOA- in theaUte."— J .\ >;« inimda, Jirnaiuawf ,„ Half : Af^Ou Ik.,.,t4 A. D. 1878-1437. aud 145H-14M. BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES.' Ancient Hiitory. — The Slatea of aouth eautern Kurope, Ut«ly cnmncipimil, for the most |mrt, from the rule of the Turka uro ao a««K mted by a common hintory. although re- markahly diverw In rac... tlial it aetmaexr»nllent to bring them for iluw-uMion togi hor TIkv ■iccupy mainly tlie ngiona known inRoinun times aa Momia. Daiia an<l Ii.i.vrici m to which namea the n-ader la nfem-d for «om, acoiunt of the a<nnly inci.ienta of tlieir early niatory — See. also, Avahh. Races exifting.-" In u part of Wratern Europe do we And distrieU iiihul.it.,1 l,v men difTerhig in ancech and uaiioiml fw-linK, liinit in distinut patclMTi here and tluir over a larj r.""".'"- , ,V"''"^" "*'• ""<■ "f ""' l"ri"r .-ouii. t e» in » h . h one parish, |)erhap, „„„ hm.,|r,.,| ajHike Welaii anoUier Latin, aiiothe. Kiik1i.Ii aiiotlier Maniah, another Old Knnch, aii,,tli, r the tongue of more mwlem a.-ill.n., KlenilnK. Huguenota or Palalinea. la aniiiiililiig w hich «,' find lianl to c<m.-eive. and which, a<« «ppli«l i„ ciirown land or to any other Weiiem land wunda al~..nl on the face of It. When we p.M Into Houlh .HHlen. Kurope, Uila state of thing., the very ,leu of which «-em. abaunl in the W«f |. w, fln,| dwelling tliere at Uie beginning of rerorried l„.,.,ry, together with aeveral «c which have come In ainee, .|| „maln. not an Znu I'^rr'^' '" "!"■**»'«■ but aa nationa. f^Hn™ L' * ""'."r' '""K'^R"^ •"'« national feellnga and each having lu greater or le«. aliar,' of pructioal ln.|«)rtapce in tjie iHilitica of thepr.p,.„ moment Setting aalde ra<-ea which have ai inply puMMt^ Uirough Ok country without M:cupylng it, we may «iy that all the lacet •8»» Ap|itndi<f> B and r, vol. |. 'ioi) wl r!> have ever iettled in the eountry are there Mill aa diatii.et rarea. And, though each race hi.a ta own particular region where It r.,ri„s the whole p„,ple „r ,|,e gre.i majority of the .,. .,,.1, Mill there arc large diatricU where illir '. ui race, really live aide by aide in the ven >.»v which aeem. K> abaunl wIhu we try to coi„ , ,ve Urn any Wettem country We cannot ,,,„. cilve a Weleb, an EngliJi, and a Nomuiii vi|. a Turkiah village .idc by aide la a thi-ig »l,;,h may be M-eii in manv part, of Tlira.e. The ohieat race, in thoae Inndh. tha«! which answer to U«M(ue. and Brrtona in Wcatern Eun.iN. l„,i,l iiuiu- another pnaiiiuo from tliat of Baixiue'. ,ii,,| Ilreton. in Wcalcrn Eur..p, They form ihnr Mvintf and vignrou. naiionn, OreeV, Allm; >.ii, .i.id ilouman. They «iand aa nations al .tu.lil'' •f the Slave, wlm in Uier, and who answer Muithly to the r-iitona in the m-ot. while .,ll alike are under tlie rule of thu Turk. wh.. Im> nothing answering to him in the H\>| «hen the Honiana con.|uer.d the .Smlli la-uni landa. they found there thnv gnat rail, ilie (Jreek, the lllyri.n, and tlie Thra.ian. il„.H, three rana are all then- still. Th.> (lre.k. .,„ .,li for tliimaelvea The Illvriana are repr, .,.,!..! by the modem Alhuilan'a. The Thrai ian. are rrpr*^^.^!, there st-ems every reaaou to U li, >e, by llie mnlern Koumana. Now had iIk «Ih le ill ■ •'""'I' «»lern landa la-en Inhabit.l Iv lllynana and Thraciana. thoae hinds ft..ui;i doulitles* have Uicme aa thoroughly ll>ni,,M u the Healern lands liecanie ... But the |..«i lioii of the V.ntk nation, iu long hialory si„l in high tlvilizailou, hinden-<l thia. The (ir.^ks could Dot become lUimaiM in any but Iht m.^ Mr. DANUBIAN \ « AND ^^ : BALKAN STATES ' •MOWINO CHANOCt OUNINa THt PRUENT UNTURV r^'r«Ji/-'4JM«MtaHM<«fll«aMMlff BOM AS "u.. ...,,. ,t,.,M.r.rt««»»» ITALIC U 'TIMS *«*'»t»H|4«^»o«w<4ft ■,.«..« '»• *MJ«i*r««« >.iiM<wn «cnrilMy f» r»« f^Mfy 1^^ !•»««■*. ft.. j«/^. « r. l4!i. BALKAN AND DANCBUN STATES. pui-ely political aenw. Like other gubjecU of the Koman Empire, they gradually took the Homan name; but they kept their own lan- guage, literature, and civilization. In sliort we nmy §ay that the Koman Empire in the East occame Greek, and that the Greek nation be- came Roman. The Eastern Empire and tlic Orcek-biH-akmg lands became nearly coe.xtcn- aive. Greek became the one language of the tastern Homan Empire, while those that spoke t still called themselves Romans. Till (luito lately, that is till the mo<icm Ideas of nationality iKgim to spread, the Grecksp<aking subjecta of the Turk called themselves by no name but that of Romans. . . . While the Greeks thus took the Homan name without adopting the Latin language, another people in the Eastern penin- sula adopted both name and language exactly as the nations of the West did. If , as t here is good reason to believe, the modem Roumans repre sent the old Thracians, that nation came under the general law, exactly like the Western nations. The Thracians became thoroughly Roman in speech, as they have ever since kept the Roman name. They form in fact one of the Romance nations. Just as much as the people of Gaul or Spain. ... In short, the existence of s highly civiliasl people like the Greeks hindered in every way the influence of Rome from being BO thorough in the East as it was In the West Tlic Greek nation lived on, and alongside of Itself, it preserved the other two ancient nations of the peninsula. Thus all three have lived on to the present as distinct nations. Two of them the Greeks ami the lllyrians, still keep their own languages, while the third, the old Thracians swak a Romauce language and call themselv™ Kiiumans. , . . Tlie Slavonic nallons hold in the hast a place answering to that which is held by the Toutiinic nations in the West . But though the Slaves in the East thus answer in many ways to the Teutons in the West their position with regard to the Eastern Empire was not (|uile the same as that of the Teut4ins to- wards the Western Empire. . . . They learned BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. much from the half Human, half Greek power with which they had to do; hut thev dlil not themselves hiTome either On-ek or ijonian in the wav in which the Teutonic con.iuerors in tlio Western Empire U'cuuie Roman . Thus, while In the West everything except a few survivals of earlier nations, is either Homan or Teutonic, in the East, Greeks, Illyrian«. Thnu i- ans or Roumans. and Slaves, all slool side by side as distinct nalli,. s when the next set of in- vailera came, ami they remain as distinct nations itill. . . . TliirecameMTiongthem.inihefiinnof the Ottoman Turk, a people with whom unlnn Was not only ImnI but inipoxsilili', a jwople wlio Wen- kept illsllnct, not by speeiul ( ire iiuistances but liy the inherent nature of llie case. Had the Turk Ik'cu other than what he reallv was be might simply have Income a new "nation Jl.mgslde of the other Southeastern nations B«'ing what he was the Turn couhl not do this . . . The original Tii-ks did not l»'long to the Ar}Bn bnuK h of nmnkind. and their original spcich Is not an Arjan •pcecli. The Turks and their aiH'eih Uloug to »ltogeth< anolhi-r class of nations and lauiriMgei ^ng before tlio Turks came into Eurom.. the Msgyan or llun- garians liail come ; an<t, iN'fore the Magyan came tiM UulK«riaui had oume. Both tin M*(yars and the Bulgarians were in their origin Tur anlan nations, nations as foreign to tlfe Arviin people of Europe as the Ottoman Turk.s thrm selves. But their history shows that a Tunuiian nation scttlmg in Europe may either be aMimi. lated with an existing European nation ..rniav sit down as an European nation along.si,!,. of others. The Bulgarians have done one of iliese things; the Magyars have done the other t|,.. Ottoman Turks have done neither. So much has been heard lately of the Bulgarians as I,,!,,,, in our times the special victims of the Turk that some people mav (ind it strange to |,,,,r «ho the original Bulgarians were. Thev were a people more or less neariv akin to t)io Tiirlis and tliey came into Europe as bnrlMirian eon". querors who were as much dreaded !iv the nations of South-eastern Europe as the turlts themstOves were afU'rwanls, The oM Bulirar. lans were a Turanian people, who 8ettle<l in a large part of the Southeastern peninsula in tands which had been nin.idy occupied bv Slaves. They came in as 1. ,i barian conquerors- but exactly as happened to so many conuu.rors In Western Europe, they were presently as^imi. Uted by their Slavonic suhjrets an.l iieighlx.urs. They learned the Slavonic speech; they enulu- ally lost all traces of their foreign origin Those whom we now call Bulgarians are a Slavonic people speaking a Slavonic tongue, and thev have nothing Turanian alwut them exiei.t the name which thev borrowe<l from their Turanian masters. . . . The Bulgarians entered the Em- pire In the seventh centurv, and eml.raied Christianity In the ninth. Tiuv rose to cnat power in the South-eastern lamis, and pl^ivid a great part in their h..(torj-. But all thVir later history, from a comparallvelv short time «ft,.r the first Bulgarian eon.iuest, has iK-en thai ,,f » Slavonic and not that of a Turanian |„.,nle Thi' history of the Bulgarians therefore shows that it is quite possible, if cireumstancs are favourable, for a Turanian pt^ple to „ttle among the Aryans of Europe and to Ix. i|,„r. oughlv assimilated by the Aryan nation anmiut whoiiilhey setthHi."— E. A. I'ri-eman. The mio- man /infer in Eiiroix, eh. 3. Also in: R O. Latham, Tlu XationalitU, cf A'/r«;»e. ■' 7th Century.-(S«rri«, Croatia, Bosnia. Dalmatia and Mentco«Kre.)— The Slavomc settlement.— "No country on the face ..f nur unfortunate planet ha. wtn oftener ravat'c-.l no and so ofu-n soaked with the blood , f its In haliltaiiu. At the <iawn of histor)- n,.»,ila fomKHl part of Illyria. It was said to have Im-cb already iK-oidcl ty Slav trilies. Rome <(,n- ilueriHl all this region as far as the Oanulii- and annexed It to Dalmatia. Two proviiid's were formed, 'nalmalia maritlma," and • Dalmatia in U-n\i\, or 'Illyris Imrbani.' Onler reigiinl and as tlie Interior communicated with the c oa»i ihs whole country flourished. Important |»>rti grew upon the littoral. ... At the fall of the Kniplre came the Goths, then the Avars, who for two iTiilurii's, burned and massacred, ami turm^d till- whole country into n desert, ... In i:;to llie (roats iK'gau to occupv th>' present Cn'itls, Slavonia, and the north of Bosnia, and In Kto the Servians, of ili« uinc met- ami jaiiKUBtfi', ex- linuinaliil the Avars and [leophil flcrvla, Sjiutherii B<isnia. Montenegro and Dalnmlla. The ethnic situation which exisu to-day daua 252 BAXKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. from this spoch." — E. de Laveleye, The Balkan PeniMula, eh. 8. — "Heracliiis [who occupied the throne of the EHStcrn Empire iit Constan- tinople from 610 to 642] appears to have forined the plan of establishing a permanent barrier in Europe against the encroachments of the Avars and Sclavonians. . . . To accomplish tliis object, Heracliug induced the Serbs, or Western Scla- vonians, who occupied the country about the Curpatliian mountjiins, and who had successfully opposed the extension of tlic Avar empire in that direction, to almndon their ancient scats, and move down to the South iirto the provinces be- tween the Adriatic and the Dauiibc The Roman and Ori'i'li population of these provinces had been driven towards the Bcacoast by the con- tinual incun^ions of the nortliern trilios, and the desolate plains of the interior had been occupie<l by a few Sclavoniun subjects and vassals of the Avars. The most importiii.t of the western Sclsvonian tribes who moved southward at the invitation of Heraclius were the Servians and Croatinns, who settleil In the countries still peopled by their descendants. Their original settlements were formed in consequence of friendly arrangements, and, doubtli-ss, under the sanction of an express treaty; for the Sclavonhm people of Illyria and Dalmatia long regarded themselves as bound to pay a certain degree of territorial allegiance to the lilastern Empire. . . . Tiipse colonies, unlike the earlier invaders of the Empire, were composed of agricultural com- munities. . . . Unlike the military races of Ootlis, Huns, and Avars, who had preceded them, the Servian nations increased and flourished in the litmis which they hod colonized; and by the absorption of every relic of tlie ancient piipulati(m, they formul political communities snd independent states, which olTercd a firm barrier to the Avars and other hostile nations. . . . The staU-B which they cnnstitutetl were of consiilirable weight in the history of Europe; and the king<l»nis or bannats of Croatia, Servia, Bosnia, Kascis and nalmatia. occupietl for soma centuries a political porfticm very similar to that now held by the seccmdary monarchical states of the present day."— G. Finlay, Onere undtr the Rmniu, eh. 4, •«•<. 6.— St'e. also, Avars: Tira Breakino or theik Dominion ; and Slatonic Nations; 6th and 7tii C'ENTi'Ruti 7th-8th Centuries (Bulgaria).— VasMlmn to the Khaiara. See Khazahb. 9th Century (Serrial.- Ri»« of tht Kiar- dom.— " At the period allude<l to [the latter part of the ninth century) the Servhiiis did not, like the rest of the Sclavonians. constitute a distinct state, but acknowledged the supremacy of the Eastern Roman Emneror: In fact the country llicy inhabitetl had. from ancient times, formed part of the Roman terrilory ; ami itslill remained nsrt of the Eastern Emiiln- when the Western Empire was re esubllshwl, at the time of Charle- magne. The Servians, at the same tieriod, em- hrae.'.l the Christian faith ; but In doing so they dill not subject themselves entirely, cIlhiT to the empire or church of ihe Greeks. ... The Em- ■^'T' ; .■ P*""'tl«l tlie Servians to be ruled by native chiefs, solely of their own election, who preserved a patriarchal form of government . In the eleventh century, the Greeks, des pit* of the stlpulathms lliey had ent.ml into at- tempted to uke Servia under their immediate •oatrol, and to subject U to their flnanH^l ty*. tem. The attempt met with a defeat which wasdeclsive. •' Notonly did It put a speedy ter- mination to the encroachment of the Court of Constantinople In imposing a direct government, but it also firmly established the princely power of the Grand Bhupanes; whose existence de- pended on the preservation of the national inde- pendence. ... Pope Gregory VII. was the first who saluted a Grand Shupane as King "— L. Von Ranke, mtt. ofSenia. cA. 1. 0th-l6th Ceatnrie* (Boania, Servia, Croatia, Dalmatia.)— Conrertion to Christianity.— The BoKomilei.— Huorarian crusades. — Turkish conaueit.— AfU-r the Slavonic settlement of Ser- via, liosnia, Croatia and Dalmatiu, for a time " the B<)vereignty of B,-zantium wa.t acknowledged. But the conversii/n of these tribes, of identical race, totwodiffen-ntChristianrites, creatal anon- Wgonism which sliU exist*. The Croau were con- verted first by missionaries from Rome; they thus adopted Latin letters and Latin ritual ; the Servians, on the contra-y, and consequently part of the Inhabitants of Bosnia, were brought to Christianity by Cyril and Methodius, who, coming from Thessalonica, brought the char- ncUrs and rites of the Eastern Church. About 860 Cyril translated the Bible Into Slav, Invent- ing an alphabet which bears his n"me, and which Is still In use. . . . In 874 Budmir, the first Christian Khig of Bosnia, Cri«itia and Dalmatia, called a diet upon the plain of Dalmlnium. where he tried to establish a regular orgauiiation. It was about this time that the name Bosnia appeared for the first time. It la said to be derived from a Slav tribe coining originally from Thrace. In 90.T Brisimir, King of Servia, annexed Croatia and Bosnia; but this union dhl not lost long. The sovereignly of Byzantium ceased In these parts after the year 1000. It was gained by Lndislaus, King of Hungary, obout 1001. In 1103 Coloman, King of Hungary, added the titles of ' Ilex Ruinie^ (Heraegovma), thenof 'Rex Bosniie." Sincetlien Bosnia has always been a dependence of the crown of Saint Stephen. . . . Almiit this time some Alblgenses came to Bosnia, who converted to their iK'llefs a large number of the people who were called Catare, In German I'utarener. In Bosnia they received and a(li>pte<l the name of Bogomile, which means 'loving Gfxl.' Nothing is more tragic than the history of this heresy. . . . They [the Bogomilrs] became in Bosnia a chief factor, both of Its history and its present situation. . . . The Hungarian Kings, in oltcdl- ence to the Pope, ceaselessly endeavoured to extirpate them, and their "frequent wars of extermination prov..ked the hatred of the Bosnians. ... In li3H the first great cnisade was organized by Bela IV. of Hungory, in obeilience to Pope Gregory VII. The whole country was devasUted, and the Uogomiles nearly all massacnsl. exeept a numlNr wlio escaped to the fon-Kts and mountains. In 1243 the Hun- garian Bishop of Kalocsa hintmlf led a second crusnile. In I2H0 a third cnisaile was under- uken by I^dlslnus IV., King of Hungary. In order to n-galn the Pope's favour, AlKUit the year IHOO Paul of Breblr, ' lianus Croutorum et Uosulse domlnus,' finally added Herzegovina to Bosnia I'lider the Ban Stephen IV., the Emperor of Servia, the great Dushnn, occupied Bosnia, but it soon regaineil its independence (ISW), awl uwler Stepbea Tvartko, wijo took 253 BALKAN AND DANXJBIAN STATES. BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES ~ri.!!/'o^t^°i•„i'•„'^^»5't7 '"^"^^r »'!!?' »"^. "f!?. i-lr °r "-F--E- PLbbon. /..,.. pcnod of peace and proeperity, . .'." Before liia death tlic Turks appeared on the frontiers. At the memorable and decisive buttle of Kowiovo fcf* •^*^'''o'"'i^- ^ 1360-1389]. whieli wave them bervia, 30.000 Bosnians were engaged and thougli retreating stoppt^ tl,e conqueror! Inder Tvanlto II., tlic seconc* king, wlio was a /r!S'"!', ."•, ""^nl'* '■nJoye'l some years' pence i'.'S*;'-t*,^'' '^'"'" f"'!"""! [sctTlkks: A. D. Iwa-lWll a bloody inu-riudc of civil war" winch invited the Turks and pr<p.are.l the way for them. " .Mohammed II,, wlio had just taken Constantmopic (U.Vl), advance<I with a formid- able army of 1,50,000 men, whicli nothing coul.l resist. The country was laid waste: 30 000 young men were circumcised and enrolled amongst the janissaries; 200.000 prisimers were maile slaves; the towns which resisted were bumed ; the churches turned into mosques, and the land couUscated by the conquerors (1463). :. • ,. P*'""''"' "f Wugglo lastiHl from 1463 till the detinue conquest In 1527 [see Tuhks- A D 1451-14«11. . . . Wlien the battle of Moliaci (August 29, l.^Sfl) gave Hungary to the Otto- mans [sec IlrNBAHv; A. D. 14«7-1528] Jaitche the last rsMipart of Bosnia, whose defence had Inspired acts of legendary courage, fell in iu turn in 1527. A strange cfroumsUnce facilitoted the JIussulman conquest. To save their wealth the grittter number of magnates, and almost all the Uogomiles, who were exasperated by the cruel iHTsecution* directed Kgainst them went over to Islaniism. From that time they became the m.»t anient followers of M<ihammedanism whilst keeping the language and names of th. r ancesKirs. They fought everywhere In the fop-- front of the battles which gained Hungary for the Turks." Within the present century the Btk man Miissulmiins have risen in arms "against all the reforms that Europe, in the name of modem principles, wrested from the Porte "— E. de Ijjveliye, T/u IMkan ruiiMiiUt, ch 8 Also in: L, von Uankc. IIM. i>f Serrin Ae loth-iith Centuries (Bulrarial.— The First Bulnrian Kingdom and its overthrow by Basil 11.— ■• riie Kl,)ry of the llulgarians was c<>nniK><l to a narrow s<opo IkiiIi of time and place. In the 9th and 10th centuries they reigned to the south of the Danutie, but the more powerful nations that hiul foilowwl their emigration niHlled all return to ilio north and all pn.aress to the west. ... In the l».gi„ning of the 1 th e.nliiry, I lie Second Basil [liyzomine or (Jn-ek tnipernr. A. I). U70-llt2.-.| wlic was lK>rn in the jmrpK , ,h'sciv«l tlie appellation of cimqiieror of tlic Bulgarians [sulHiued by his pmh'irssor. .Folin Zimisccs, but still reU'llfousl Ills avariei' w».h in some measure rnitlHcd bv a treasure of 4(X»,(H)0 pounds steriing iIOIhW pounds weight of golil) which he f on .id In'tlie palace of I.vehnidus. His cruelly inHictal a col am exiiuli.|le vengeance on 15.0<>l),,,ntives who hwl b«'en guilty of the defence of tlu ir coiintrv They were deprived of sight, but to one of e.u'l'i hundnd a slnirl.' eve was left, that he might con- duct his blind century to the pnT«.|icc of their •'I?", V":^' •''"" '» "•''1 '" '"♦»••• '"P'rcii of grief and li.irnir, (he nation was awiil by this terrible example; the Bulgarians were swept «wa.V fn)in their setlleinenU. and clreumscrilM-d within a narrow province, the surviving chiefs be- queathed to their chllilrea the advice of patience 254 and fall of tit Romiin Empire, eh. 55 Also in: O. Finlay, Jiitt. of tht Byznntiue Emrnn.fnna 716 to 1007, bk. 2, 7k. 2.-Sie i Is^ C ONgTANTiNopi,E: A. D. 907-1043, and Acukika' 1 HE Kingdom op. pA,°; '096 (BulB«ri»\-Hostilltie. with the FHjt Crusaders, bee CRuaAUEs: A. 1). lu«(^- laith Centnrr (Bulg«ri«).-The Second Bui- B«n«n or WjUehUn Kingdom.- • The reign of Isaac ir. [Byzantine or Gre-ek Emneror A T) 1185-1195] is Hlk-d with ««,ries of rev'Sts 0^^,^ by his incapable administration and anaiieial rapaciiy The most important of these was the great rebellion of the Vallachian and Bulgurian populathm which occupied the country between Mount Ha;mug and Uie Danube. The immense population of this extensive country now sen- arated itsi-lf finally from the government of the Eastern Empire, ami iu political destinies ceased to be united with those of the Greeks. A new European monarehy. called the Vallachian. 01 bccond Bulgarian kingdom, was formol. which for some time acted an important part in tlie affairs of the Byzantine Empire, ami contributt'd p<)wcrfully to tlie depressio. of the Greek raee ThcsuddenimnortanccassMne.Iby the VallueliiaD population in this revolution, and the gnat e>t -ut of country then occupied by a iwo|iie wii., .md previously acted no prominent part in th. political events of the East, render it necessar- to Kive some account of their previous history. Four dilTerent countries are siwken of under the name of Vallachla by the Byzantine writers: (ireat V allachia. which was the country round tlie i.laia of 1 hessaly, iiarticulariy tlid s<iiithern and south- western part White Vailachia. or the niulern Bulgaria, which formed the ValJachlo-Bulgariun kingdom that re-volled from Isaac II.: Black Va lacliia, Mavro-Vallachia, or Karolwplcn, which Is Mohhivia; and Hungamvallachia, or the vallachla of the present day, comprising a lart . Ti"!!*'''.'"";'*- ■ • • '^'^ question remains un- decided whether these Vallachians arc the lineal <U-«ccndanU of the Thracinn race, who. ^\nU> tells us. cxUnded as far south as Thessniy, and us far north as to the borders of Pannonia ; for of I, i:.;. '"'" language wo know nothing "— U. Finlay, Ihrt. of the nytiinUiudvii Hi,rk Km pin; from 716 to 1453, A*. 8, eh. 8 wrr 1 - " ,!',",''.'■'■ ""'y wreofHlavIc origin or of Gaelic or Welsh origin, whether they were the u1k>- riglnal Inhaliitauls of themuntry whohad<oiiie umlerthc intluencc of the elder Home, aiul had acquired so many Latin words as to overlay tlieir language am' to retain little more than Ihi'Vrain- nmtical forms and iiiouhl of their own lant'imiie or whether they were thedescendanlsof the I n cohmlsta of Ducla (we Dacia: ThajanV Con- HVKtr] with a large mixture of other |)ei.pli-«. are all questions which have been much i..nlro- verUil. It is remarkable (hat while no people living on the south of the Balkans appear t., Ijc mentioned as Walliichs until the (eiilli eeiiiiiry, when Anna Coninenn menllons a village lalUii Ezclian, near Mounl Klssavo, iKTupled bv ilntn, almost suildeiily we hear of (hem as a tnat niiliontodicsouthof the Balkans. Tliev ►poks a language wliirb differed little from' Latin Thessniy. during the (welfih (rnlurv in ii»iially called Great Wallaehla. . . . Ih'sides lln^ U»l- lachs in Thessaly, whusc descendants are now BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. called Kutzo-Wallachs, there were the WallKchs in D»cia, the ancestore of the preaent Rouman Una, and Mavm-Wallacha in Dalmatis. Indeed according to the Hungarian and Byzantine writ- ers, there were during the twelfth century a series of WallHchian peoples, extending from the Thci58 to the Dniester. . . . The woia Wallach is usi'd by the Byzantine writers as equivalent to shepherd, and it may be that the common use of a dialect of Latin by all the Wallachs is the only liond of union among the peoples bearing that name. They were nil occasionally spolien of by the Byzantine vrriters as descendants of the '5°'S*''"- ';Z^- ''™"- ^'^ ^^ "f CorutantinopU eh. 3.-''The classical type of feature, so ofTa met with among Roumanian peasants, pleads strongly for the theory of Roman extraction and if just now I compared the Saxon peaaanU to Noah s arit figures rudely carved out of the coarsest wood, the Roumanians as often remind me of a type of face chiefly to be seen on cameo ornaments, orancient signet rings. Take at ran- dom a score of individuals from any Roumanian rillaee. and, lilce a handful of antique gems which have been strewn broa<Icast over the land you will there surely find a pood cnolce of classi- cal profiles worthy to be Immortalized on agate onyx, or Jasper. An air of plaintive melancholy pnera ly characterizes the Roumanian peasant- It is the melancholy of a long-subjected and oppressed r«cc. . . . Perhaps no other race pos- sesses in such marked degree the blind and 1m- mo^'ablc sense of nationality which characterizes he Roumanians. They hardly ever mingle with the surrounding races, far less adopt mannen snrt customs foreign to their own. This sinirular tenacity of the Roumanians to their own dress manners and customs is probably due to the In'- tluenr.. of thc|r reHgion [the Greek chureh] I'inf !i"™ !'" *;™y 'll^'-rpence from their own es abl *|,^ .„Ir, i, sirf,,|.-'_E. Gerard, Tmn- •ylmnimi i-,,pif, (CrHte-np. lirr.. .Vanh 1887) Stephan Oushan.-'In 1.341. when John Can- n™z™usas«ume,lthepurple[at Constantinople], mportant prospccu were opened to the Servfani t^ntarurenus . went up the mounuins and trv ™ "'^*^''>,'"'- ■"•horn he fouml i^ coun- L> ,r'Tf ,V '^"'■». '« Join his cause." As the nsu.t of this connection, and by favor of the op ^.rtunit,,.. which the ,ivil war and genera? de- T Civ MlJiii' *;'" ''"-"'"i""' over EnVrus •Tr^auu*''"**'™'"- ■""' « P'»rt Of Thrace The .Shkypetares in Albania followed his In piinAr "O'l Joannina were in his ^«.J1* wnL^ ^^ri^r f"''"" '■'' Volvo,!,., [Palatines], f,7^„ ^ ° J'^ ^*''''"' '">'' 'ho Mnrizzn as Z " U'llgaria, which he also regarti," lis a 266 r.^ ^ 'J*^ laid the foundation, and ere be n^Jnl?"!^!;.?!? his power by the bulwark of &^ «A 1-a" ^"^ ^^- '^°° ^''''*' -"*"• "•'' Also IK: M'me E. L. Mljat,)vich, Khuovo, Int. A. D. 1380 (Bulg:ari«).— Conqnett by the 5^60^389 ■" *'^'"' 0™"ANS): A. D ft.Ii«J^'"i!.'^ (Bnlgrari.).- Subjection to ,%^i.v^ "J™?*"^- A D. 1301-1448. I4tb.i8th Centunei (Roumanla. or Wal. cSrfikSf.. >Jold.»i.).-Four cintnrie. of hr « V ^*'' Hunpinane and Turks.—" The hlv"".l"?"'^'^*° monarehv, whatever may have been Ito limits, was annlfelUtcd by a hoiSfe of Tnrtai^ about A. D. 1250. The mme raci committed great havoc in Hungary, cmS t ^"^"l r?"*" ""IdaviaT trensyl'vanK middle of the 14th century, when tncv wer» driven northward by the Hungarian, Saxon and exlt'w'^'h*"' '!i Transvlvanit and with Xir exit we have done with the barbarians. h.i i..1?*f "y *,'!? '■'»'"''»>'« of Roumanla havi o?^,i.""''ii^)i"'' """™ •^"naming the events -^""f P*""? "cyond traditions wilich, though very Interesting are now gradually giving plaTe to recoBled and authenticated fabts * It u ^l?!,;^!^. ""' the plains and slopes of the Carpathtons were inhabited by commuiiities naledover bv chieftains of varying powcTand rm?nvf wK.^T *""= banatis,*ar that of ni!; a*' . •'''i' '°".^ remained a semi Indepen- dent State; then there were petty volvo<Ieror £1,^.1. • • '"""^ ^^"^ tfiese' there were Khanates, . . some of which were pettr principalities, whilst othen were merely thJ goveraorships of villages or groups of them hUt;,^ '^; °"*, "' "•* '"'"*' "' Roumanian history, not only secured the independent f^L ^l *m encc of God.- but in 1.389 he formed an alliance with Poland, and assumed ° h" title* by the right of conqucsr This m1^^, 1 • ^ '"'■ It? "bjocts the extension of his dominions as well as protection airalnst Hungary on the one hand, and the Ottoman power on the other: for the . . . Turkish ar^ie" had overrun Bulgaria, and about the year 1891 tUL , ?"!f "'*l'' apt^sfHice n,>rth of the successful In stemming the tllle of invasion" but after a year or two, "finding himself be- tween two powerful enemies, the King of Hun- gary and the SulUn, Mireea elected to form an al ance with the latter, and concludcl a treaty with him at Nicopolis (1893). known as the Fii/t Capitulation, by which Wallachia retained its autonomy but agreed to pay an annual tribute and to acknnwlclgethe suzerainty of the Sultan . . . According to several historians Mlrca did not adhere to it long, for he Is said to have been In command of a contingent In the army of the cruM,lers, and to hnv,. I^n present at the battle of Nicopolis (1396). in whIcA the i'.uwer of tie French nobility fell. and. when he found thei? muse to be hop,.|,.ss, once more to have deserted hem and joine,! the victorious anna of Bsjazet. ur the contiuucd wars and dissensions in Wal- lachia during the reign of Mireea It Is unnc-ces- "'X'l'^/ff*^ J^' "''•■'< *•"> varying fortunes until His A n " A Srt-ond Capitufali.m w2 ooncludwl. M AdiUcople. wiUi Uie TuriU, S m i H ;!Ji BALKAN AND DANXJBIAN STATES. Ji*?; *'7 ,* '■'*"■ Wallachian voivcdc, named Vlad. It incrvased the tribute to the Porte but made DO other important chanire in the terms of suzerainty. Meantime, in the neighbouring aioldavian principality, events were beginning to shape themselves into some historical distinct- ness "For a century after the foundation of Moldavia, or, as it was at first called, Bogdania, bv Bogdan Dragisch [a legendary hero], the hjstory of the country is shrouded in darknerf Kings or princes are named, one or more of whom were Lithuanians. . . . At length a prince """* fSr*''^"' """ ">* ■*** ascended the throne. ■ A ■ . ^'" Stephen, sometimes called the ^^«^\ °J' Good' ■ . ■ He came to the throne about 14o6 or 1458, and reigned until 1504, and his whDie life was spent in wars against Transyl- vania \V allachia, ... the Turks, and Tartars. ... In 1475 he was at war with the Turks, whom he defeated on the river Birlad In that year also Stephen . . . completely overran vvallachia. Having reduced it to su'hmission he placed a native boyard on the throne as his viceroy who showed his gratitude to Stephen bj rebelling and liberating the country- from his «r ,; ,H' "'= ^'»» '° his turn murd-red by his Wallachian subjects. In 1478 Stephen sustained a temblc defeat at the hands of the Ottomans at \ alea Alba (the White Vallev), but eight yeara afterwanls. allied with the Poles, he again en- counu-red [and defeated] this terrible enemy ■ ■ ■ After the tattle of Mohacs [see Hcsoart- A. D. 1487-1526] the Turks began to encroach more openly upon Roumanian (Moldo-Wal- Uchian) territory. They occupied and fortilie<l Uraila, Giurgcvo, ami Clalatz; interfered in the election of the princes . . . adding to their own influence, and rendering the princes more and more subservient to their will. This state of tilings laste<l until the end of the 16th ce -iry when another hero, Michael the Brave o. Wall lacliia. restored tranquility and independence to the Irimipshties, and raised them for a season in the esteem of surrounding nations. " Michael wlio nioiinled the throne in 1593, formed aii alliance with the Prince of Slcbenbtlrgen (Transylvania) and the voivo<lc of Moldavia against the Turks. He began his warfare! rjovember 1501. by a wholesale massacre of the Turks in Bucharest and Jassv. 'c then took Giurgevo by stonn and defeated the Ottoman forces in a battle at Rustchuk. In 1595, Giurgcvo '«■'« Jlie sctueof two bloody battles, in both of which Mhhael came off victor, with famous laurels. The Turks were effectually driven from tlie country. The ambition of the victorious Jlichael was now excited, and he invaded Ininsylvania (l,59«i desiring to add it to his do- minions. In a battle " which is called by some the buttle of SchellenlxTg. and by others of llermauHtadt." he defeated the reigning prin • (ardlual Andreas, ami Transylvania was at hit feet. lie »iilKlue<l Moldavia with equal ease and the whole of ancient Daela lieoanie subject to Ills rule. The Emp<.mr Rudolph, as suzerain of Transylvania, fcognized his aiilhoritv. But his reign WHS brief. Before the doae of the year IWK) a rising ix-curred in Transylvania, and Michael was defeated In a battle fought at Miriszlu. He escaped to the mountains and be- came a fugitive for some months, while even hit Waliachlan throne was occupied bv a brother of ue MoUavka volvode. It length he mtde BALKAN AND DAm'BIAN STATES. term* with the Emperor Rudolph, whose nn. thority had been slighted by the Traimlvanmn Insurgente, and procured men and money with which he returned in force, crushed his opmraenta at Goroazlo, and reigned again as viceroy But he quarreled soon with tlic commander of the hnperial troops. General Basta, and the lattir caused him to be assassinated, some time , August 1601. ... The history of Mol.lo.W,.|. acliia during the 17th century . . . p,w«.s*s little Interest for English readera. " At thTemi ?i we 17th century "another grea; Powir IKussia] was drawing nearer and nearer to Ron- mante, which was eventually to ezcrcl«. a erave influence upon her destiny. ... In the iHcin- ning of the 18tli century there ruled two voivodes, Corjtantine Brancovano. In Wallacliii and Der rius Cantemir in Moldavia, both of whom ha(. t>een appointed in the usual inanucr under the suzerainty of the Porte; hut tlusc princes. Independently of each other, had cntemi Into negotiations with Peter the Great after th,. defeat of Charles XII. at Pultawa (17i)9) to assist them against the Sultan, their suzciiiin stipulating for tlieir own Independence uudcr the protection of the Czar." Peter was ludurid to enter the country with a considerable amiy [1 .11], but soon found himself in a posiliuri from winch there appeared little chance of esrspe He was extricated only by the cleverness of the Czarina, who bribed the Turkish comnisnclcr with her Jewels — see Scandinavian .Stvtes (MVEDES): A. D. 1707-1718. The Mohlnviaa Volvodc escaped with the Russians. Tlie Wal- laehian, Brancovano, was aeizcd. taken to Con- stantinople, and put to death, along with his four sons. " Stephen Cantacuzene. tlie son of his accusers, was made Voivode of Wallachla but like his pretlecessore he only enjoyed the honour for a britf term, and two years after- wards he waa deuoaed, ord' ;d to Constantinople imprisoned, and deu- litated; and with him terminated the rule of the native priiinn who were followed, both In Wallachla and Muhiavia, by the so-called Phanariote governors [sec PiLANARlOTEs] or farmere-^eneral of the I'orte, " — J. Samuelson, Soumama, Piut and I'l-meiit pt. 2, eh. 11-18. I4th-t9tli Centuries: (Montenegro) The new Serria.— " The people that inliabit ilio two territories known on the map as Serviu and Montenegro are one and the same. If voii asik a .Montenegrin what language he siHakn. he replies 'Serb.' The last of the S-rb (Varsf.ll gloriously fighting at Kossovo In l:i.s9 [ste Ti-RKs: A. D. lMO-1389]. To this ,l,v the Montenegrin wears a strip of black silk upon his headgear In memory of tliat faUl day. . . . The bravo Serbi who escaped from Kd«.snvo found a sanctuary In the mountains that <.\ ( rlimk the Bay of CatUro. Their leaiicr, Iv.. vur- nam«Hl Tsemoi (Black), gave the iim .. of Tzmogora (Montenegro) to tliese desert n.cki. . . . Servia having become a Turkish proviniv, her colonists created In Montenegro a m w and Independent ServU [see Turks: A. 1» U'll- 1481]. The memory of Ivo the Bkik U still grven in the country. Springs. ruiiiN and caverns are- called after him, and the people \mt forward to the day when he will reapixar as a political Metdall. But Ivo'a desniulanU proved unworthy of him ; they commltii 1 tbs unpardunable aln of marryiag sUcn*, atid •■ ^\r 256 Ilii BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. In the l«th century the last desoendnnt of Ivo the Black retired to Venice. From 1518 to 1607 Montenegro was ruled by elective Vladikas or Bishops; from 1697 to 18.51 by hereditary Vla- dikas. For the Montenegrins the 16th. 17th and 18th centuries formed a period of Incessant warfare. ... Up till 1703 the Serbs of the mountain were no more absolutely independent of tlie Sultan than their enslaved kinsmen of the plain. Tlie Havatch or Sultan's slipper tax was levied on the mountaineers. In 1703 Pinilo Pftrovitch celebrated his consecration as a Christian Bishop by ordering the slaughter of every Mussulm.in who refuse<l to be baptised. This massacre took place on Christmas Eve 1703. . . . The 17th and 18th centuries were for Montenegro a struggle for existence. In the 19th century began their struggle for an outlet to the sea. The fall of Venice would naturally have given the mountaineers the bay of CattJiro. had not the French stepped in and annexed Dal- matia." In 1813, the Vladika, Peter I., "with the aid of the British flei.'t . . . took Cattaro from the French, but (pursuant to an arrangement between Russia and Austria) was compelled sub- sequently to relinquish It to the latter power. . . . Peter I. of Montenegro . . . died In 1830, at the age of 80. . . . His nephew Peter II. was a vise ruler. ... On the death of Peter II., Prin'.a Danilo, the uncle of the present Prince, went to Russia to be consecrated Bishop of Montenegro. The czar seems to have lauglieii him out of this ancient practice; and the late Prince instead of converting himself Into monk and bishop returned to his own country a.nd married [im[]. . . . Prince Danilo was a-ssiis- sinntod at Cattaro (I860). . . . He was succeeded by his nephew Nicholas."-^. G. C. Minchin, .SpmVi and Jfimteiugro (Nationnl Life ami Thnuqht, kct. 19). — "The present fiirm of eovernment In Montenegro is at once the most Uespotic and the most popular In Europe— des- potic, because the will of the Prince Is the law of the land ; and popular, because the personal rule of the Prince meets all the wants and wisliesof the people. No Sovereign In Europe sits so firmly on his throne as the Prince of this little Stale, and no Sovereign is so absolute. The Montene- grins have no army; the/ are themselves a stiinding army."— J. O. C. Minchin, T/u> Orncth of rrffdiin in the Balkan PeninntUi. eh. l.—\. A. Patnn, Rifitreha on the Diinuhe and the Adriatii; hk. a, M7(e. 1).— L. Von Ranke, Iliet of Serria. ♦c. .■ HUiK Pn ~:neei of Trtrketi, eh. %^ — "Montenegro is an extremely curious instance of the way in which favourable geographical cimiliiions may aid a small people to achieve a fame and a place in the world quite out of pro- p'Ttmn to their numticrs. The Black Mountain Is the one place where a South Sclavonic com- munity maintained themselves in Independence Koniiliines seeing their territory overrun by the lurks, hut never acknowledging Turkish amlK.rily de Jure from the time of the Turkish t iimiucst of the I.Mh century down to the Treaty of ll.,lui Montenegro could not have done that but for her geographical structure. She Is a hijrli mass of limestone; you cannot call it a plHtesM, because It is seamed by many valleys, and rises into many sharp mountain-peaks. . •> l?^ mountain num. the average Iielg.it of which Is rather more thin 8,000 feet above U e •<.». with summlu «««■ hlt,« i,W;. It is bare 257 BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. limestone, so that there Is hardly anything grown on It, only grass— and very good grass— In spots, with little patches of com aud potatoes, and It has scarcely any water. Its upland U covered with snow In winter, while in sum- mer the Invaders have to carry their water with them, a seriousdifflculty when there were no roads and active mountalncera flred from behind every rock, a difflculty which becomes more serious the larger the invading force. Consequently It is one of the most Impracticable regions imaginable for an invading army. It is owing to tliose circumstances that this handful of people — bcQiuso the Montenegrins of the 17th cent .ry did not numlier more than 40 100 or 50,0<i) — have maintained their inde|,endt.,ce. That they did maintain it is a fact most important in the history of the Balkan Peninsula, and may liave great consequences yet to come."— J. Bryce Helntioiu of Hittoiy and Oeography (ConUmn. Bet., Mar., 1886). I4th-i9th Centnrist.— (Ser*;«) : The lonr oppreision of th» Turk.- Strurele for fre^ dom onder Kara Georsr and Dfilotch.- Inde- pendence achiered.- The Obrenovitch dy- nasty.— "Tlie brilliant victories of Steplian Dushan were a misfortune to Cliristemlom. Tliey shattenKi tne Greek empire, the last feeble bulwark of Europe, and paved the way for those ultimate successes of the Asiatic conqucr- ora which a timely union of strengtii might have prevented. Stcphan Dushan conquerc<l, but did not consolidate: and his scourgir'? wars were in- sufficiently balanced by the advantage of the code of laws to which he gave his name. His son Lrosh, being a weak and incapable prince, was murdered by one of the generals of the army, and thus ended the Neman dynasty, after having subsisted 813 years, and priKliiced eight kings and two empemrs. The : )wn now de- volved on Knes, or Prince Las.i .i < nnexion of the hruse of Neman. ...(>' all the ancient rulera of the countrv, his ini'inory is held the dearest by the Servians of the prexent dnv " Knes Lasar perished in the fatal battle of Km- sovo, and with him fell the Servian monarchy (see TCBKS: A. D. 1360-1389. UOS-lWl and 1459; also Montkneoiio). "The Turkish con- quest was followed by the gradual dispersion or disappearance of the native nobilitv of Servia, the last of whom, the Brankuvltch, lived as 'despots' in the castle of Svincndria up to the iH'vinning of the 18th century. . . . The period preceding the second siege of Vienna was the s|)ring-llde of Islam conquest, Affr this event, in 1684, began the clili. Hunearv was lost to the Porte, anil six yeara afterwanis 37,000 Ser- vian familii-a cmlgrate<l into that kingdom : tli's fli-st led the way to contact with the civilization of Germany, . . . Servia Proper, for a sliort time wrested from the Porte by the victories of Prince Eugene, again became a" part of the do- minions of the Sub in [see Ri-ksia: .V. D, 1719]. But a turbulent n.ilitia overawed the govern ment and tyrannizwl over the Rayahs, Pa,sviin Oglou and his bands at \VI''llu were, at tUc "';! ofthe last century, l:i oix-n t.'vi.lt against the Porto. Other chiefs had followed his example; an<i for the first time the Divan thought of associating Christian Rayahs with the spalls, to put down thes-j rebels. Tue Dahls, as these brigsnd-ehiefr, \ttK called, resolved t<i anticipate the appnwciiiiig Mruggle by a luaawtcre ot the II' n v, 1 i ml. .,■ BALKAN AND DANUBUX STATES. BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. most influential Christians. This atrocious ma- ■acre was carriwl otit with indescribable horror i^„ . "^ ^^« P^"^^ George], a peasant .< , "'. ToPo'* «!>"'" the year 1767, pettin timely information tliat his name was in the lisi or the (i.Tomed. fled into the woods, and irradu- ally orpinized a formidable force. In tlie name Of tlie l^orte he combatwl tlie Dahis, who had usuriKil Iwal authority in dcHnnce of tlie Pasha of B,.I,;ra,lc. The Divan, little anticipatinR the ultimate Issue of the strujr«;le in Scrvia, was at ■flrst delighted at the success of Kara Oeorg; but aoon saw with consternation that the rising of the .Bervmn peasants grew into a formidable n^lwlllon and onlcr.-d the Pashas of Bosnia and Scodrs to Msemble all their disposable forces and Invade ^,» *<• . Between 40,000 and 50,000 Bosniacs ?^ ^°*f,,'^^^'^ ?° the west, in the spring of 1806, cutting to pieces all who refused to receive Turkish authority Kara Ocorg undauntedly met tlie storm," defeating the Turkish forces near Tchoupria, September. 1804, and more Mverelv two years later (August, 1806) at Sha- ^/: u ^«<*'"]«'" o' the same year he surprised and took Belgrade. "The succeeding years were pajwed in the vicissitudes of a guerilfa warfare, neither party obtaining any marked success; and an auxiliary corps of Rus-sians assisted In pre- venting the Turks from making the re-conqiest pt Scrvia. . . . Kara Oeorg was now a Russian lieutenant-general, and exercised an almost un- limited power In Scrvia; the revolution, after a •trugcle of eight years, appeared to be success- lui, but the momentous evenU then passini; in Europe completely altered tin aspect of affaira Kussia, in 1812, on the approach of the countless legions of Napoleon, precipitately concluded the (treaty of Bucharest, tlie eighth article of which Iformally assured a separate administration to the Bervians. Next year, however, was fatal to Kara Oeorg. In 1813, the vigour of the Otto- man empire . . . wa.s now concentrated on the resubjugation of Servia. A gencml panic seeme.! to seize the natic ,; and Kara Georg and his companions In anns sought a retreat on the Aus- l"","».'-"iIi'>'"?.V*^'',""'"™ PaMwt into WallBchla. In 1814. 300 Christians were impaled at Belgrade by the Pasha, and every vallev in Scrvia pre- sented the spectacle of infuriated Ti.r-..:sh spahls avenging on the Servians the blood, exile and conHsoation of the ten preceding years. At this period, Milosh Obrenovltch appears prominently on tlic po Itlcal tapis. He spent his youth In herding the fame<l swine of 8«-rvia; and during the revolution was cmploved by Kara Oeorg to watch the passes of tlie Balkans. ... He now saw that a favourable conjuncture had come for his advancement from the position of chiefuin to that of chief; he therefore lost no time in making terms with the Turks, offering to collect the tribute, to serve them faithfully, and to aid them In the resubjugation of the people. He now displayed singular activity In the ex- tirpation of nil the other popular chiefs,' until he found reason to suspect that the Turks were only usins him to destroy him In the end. Then In mn he turned upon tliem and raised tlii standsr.1 of revolt. The movement which ho headed was so formidable that tlie Porte made haste to treat, and Mllosch made favourable terms for himself, being reinstated as tribiitc- coileclor "Many of the chiefs, Impatient at the apeedy lubmiadon of Miloah, wlahad to flght 258 the inatter out, and Kara Georg. in order to glTe effect to their plans, landed In Scrvia. MlC Mretended to be friendly to his design, but >retly betrayed his place of concealment u> the governor, whose men broke toto the cottas! where he slept, and put him to death."-* A Paton, rUMarchn on the Danube andth* Adrintt bk. 1. f.8.-"In 1817 Milosch was pr.Xim% hermlitary Prince of Scrvia by tlie' Nm™„ As-scmbly. ... In 1830 the autonomy of ii^rv^ was at length solemnly recognized by the Pone and Milosch proclaimed ' the father of iheFiitLnr' 1 ;:ii • V a*''"' »''y the descendants of .Mil. osch stiM rule over Servia. and not the descen' . ants of Kara George, my answer is that cverv step in bervian progress is connecte<l with tlw Obrenovltch dynasty. The liberation „f ,1 country the creation of a peasant preprietarv «ie final withdrawal of the furkish troop, f S Belgrade In 1863, the Independence of he country, the extension of iu territory, and t Z making of itarailwayg._all of these are aiiC he results of Obrenovltch r-le. The founder o? the dynasty had n 1830 a great opportunity o making his people free as w»ll as indepenclent But MTlo«^h had lived too long with Tuiks to te a lover of freedom. . la 1839 Milcscli ab- dicated. The reason for this step was timt he refused to accept a constitution which Hussia ■ .J".u'"'' ^"'^•^tcd for him. This charter vested the actual government of the country in a Senate compose.! of Miloech's rivals, and en- tirely Independent of that Prince. . U was anti-democratic, no less than nnti-dynastic Mil. osch was 8uccec<lodflrst by his son Milan, anj on Milan s death by Michael. Michael W8.i too gentle for the troubled times in which he lived and after a two yearss reign he too st.irt«l imoi his travels. .. . W hen Michael crossi'il the Save Alexander Kara Georgcvitch was elected Prince of Servia. From 184? to 18.58 the son of Black George llve.1 — he can scarcely be said to have reigned -- In Belgrade. During these 17 years this feeble son of o strong man did ahsnliit, ly nothing for his country. . . . Late in is.i, h'e fled from Servia, and Jlilosch ruk-.l In h\i stea.l Milosch is the Grand Old Man of Serb hi.story His mere presence in Servia checked the \a- trigues of foreign powers. He died peaeefully in hisbe<l. . . . Michael succeeded his father " Pnnce Michael was munlered by convicts in the park at Topscliidcra near Belgrade " He "uas succeetled (1868) by Milan, tlie graud.son of Ze- nlirem, the brother of Milosch. As .Milan \v;u barely fourteen years of age, a Regency ef thne was appointed. "—J. O. C. Mincliin, Srn.i „nd MonUneirro {\ationnl Life and T hou'ihl krt 19] Also in: E. dc Laveleye, Tha Balhin linin- tula, fli. 6. .^\°- J-'tS (BoanU).— A part ceded to Aus- tri* by the Turks. See Hungary: A. I). 1091I- lil8. A. D. 1739 (Bosnia and Roumanial.-Entire restoration of Bosnia to the Turks, and Ce«- •i.»no' Austrian Wallachia. ScoHimia: AD 19th Century (Roumania and SerriaV- ,'l*""'"K "' ■ National Spirit.- Tfte effect of historical teaching.— "No poliiieal fa.l is of more importance and Interest In nioderu loull- nental history than the tenacity with wiiirli the smaller nations of Europe preserve their pride of nationality in the lace of tb« growing tendfiicy BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. tflvanUi the fomution of large, ttronsly con- ct'ntratcd empires, supported by powerful armies. Why should Portu^ utterly refuse to unite with Spain? Why do Holland and Belgium cling to their existence as separate States, in spite of all the efforts of statesmen to join them T Why do the people of Bohemia and Croathi, of Finland, and of Poland, refuse to coalesce with the rest of the population of the em- pires of which they form but small sections? Why. finally, do the new kingdoms of Roumanht and Serria show such astonishing vitality ? The argiuncnts as to distinctive race or distinctive iHDguaKe fail to answer all these questions. . . . This rekindlirsof the national spirit is the result chiefly of the development of the new historical school all over the Continent. Instead of remain- hig in ignorance of their past history, or, at best, regarding a mass of legends as containing the true talc of their countries' achievements, these small nations have now learnt from the works of their great historians what the story of their fatherlands really is, and what title they have to be proud of their ancestors. These great historians— Herculano, Palacky, Szechenyi, and the rest — who made it their aim to tell the truth and not to show off the beauties of a fine literary style, all belonged to the generation which had iu interest amused in the history of the past by tJie novels of Sir Walter Scott and the productions of tlie Romantic School, and they all learnt how history was to be studied, and then written, from Niebuhr, Von I{ankc and their disciples and fol- lowers. From these masters they learnt that their histories were not tr be made interesting at the expense of truth. . . . The vitality of the new historical school In Roumania is particularly Mnarkable, for in the Danubian provinces, which form that kingdom, even more strenuous efforts limi been made to stamp out the national spirit thim in Bohemia. The extraordinary mpiility with which Uie Roumanian people lias reassertwl itself in recent vears, is one of the most remarknlile facta in nuxfem European history and It is If-rgely due to the labours of its liistor- ions. Up till 1832 the Woumanian languaw was vigorou«1- ,r() c'led; the rulers of the Danubian I'T"* ■* instruction to the upper <^'"* ge of the rulers only, and *'"*■ n the days of the Phanariota ""^j in! and fiuhionable language, j''"' ■ he uobility and bourgeois, "* r- 'cft in ; ."iorance. Four men, wbose .oservc n M. first endeavoured U) niise the lioumoniai ansuage to a literary fcvel. and not only studied Roumanian history, buttrirf to tearh the Roumanian people some- Uiing of their own early history, (jf these four, Oiwge Sohinkal was by far tlie most remark- alile. Hi. was an inhabitant of Transylvania, a Ifciuinsniiin province which still remains subject U> llun^jarj- and he first Umught of tryinp to revive 11^. Kimmnntan natUmality by teaching UR. |x«i>l,. their history. He arraugi^d the annals f hU.^umry fr„n. A. D. 8« to A. U. 173» with liia<rwnr:u,ie laNiur. during the last half of the fnlT •",'■"'''' .™*'''™ '""'*'•• "fter such care- f 1 weighing of ..rigtaal autlKirities, and with sue rmeai power, ilmt Iu- dewrv™ Ki b.- rank«l ILri ';«"">' l»e saki that Schinkals Histx.ry was not allowed to be printed by tlu! Hungarian 259 BALKAN AN .XUBUN STATES. authorities, who bod no desire to see the Rou- manian nationality re-assert Itself, and the censor marked o" It "opus igne, auctorpatlbulodignus.' It wa.not published until 18.53, mor« than forty years after iu completion, and then only at Jassy, for the Hungarians still proscribed it in Transyl- vania. Schinkafs friend, Peter Major, was more fortunate in his work, a ' History of the Origin of the Roumanians in Dacia," which, as it did not touch on modem society, was passed by the Hungarian censorship, ami printed at Buda Pesth in 1818. The two men who first taught Roumaiihm history in tlic provinces which now form the kingdom of Roumania were not such learned men as Schiukal and Petar Major, but their work was of more practical Importance. In 1818 Qeorge Asaky got leave to open a Rou- manian class at the Greek Academy of Jassy under the pretext that it was necessary to teach surveying in the Roumanian tongue, because of the questions which constantly arose in that pro- fession, in which it would be necessary to speak to the peasanta in tlieir own language, and In his lectures he carefully Inserted lessons In Rou- inanian history, and tried to arouse the spirit of the people. George Lazarus imitated him at Bucharest in 1816, and the fruit of this instruc- tion was seen when the Roumanians partially re- gained their freedom. The Moldo-Wallachian pnnces encourageii the teaching of Roumanian history, as they encouraged the growth of the spirit of Roumanian independence, and when the Roumanian Academy was founded, an historical section was formed with the special mission of studying and publishing documenta connected with Roumanian history. The modem scientific spirit has spread widely throughout the klng- doin. — H. Morse Stephens, Modern Ilutoriaru' "SS "'^ Nationalitie* (Contemp. liet., July,' 1887). A. D. 1839 (Roumani*, or Wailachia and MoldaT:?>. — Important provisions of the Treaty of Adrianople.— Life Election of the Ho»pod«r».— Substantial independence of the Turk. See TunKS: A. D. 1836-1829. A. D. 1856 (Roumania, or Wailachia and MoldaTia).— Privileges guaranteed by the TreatT of Paris. See Russia: A. D. ISSi-lHSe. J.. ''S8-t866.— (Roumania or Wailachia and Moldavia).— Union of the two provinces under one Crown,- Accession of Prince Charlei of Hoheniollern. See TcnKs: A, D. 1861-1877. t\.1- '»7S-i878— The Breaking of the Turkish voke.— Bulgarian atrocities.— Russo- Turkiih War.— In IsT.i, a revolt broke out in Herzegovina. "The efforts made to suppress tlie growin J revolt strained the already weakened resources of the Porte, until they could bear up aga nst it no longer, and the Herzcgovlnesc re- bellion proved the last straw which broke the back of Turkisli solvenrv. . . . The hopes of the insurgents were of (durse quickene<i bv this catastrophe, whii li. as tliev saw, would alienate niuch sympatiiy from the Turks. The oiivlsin of tlio Sultan, therefore, thouifht it neccsjuiry to lie omcillstory, and . . . they induced him to Issue an Irade, or circular note, promising tlie re- mission of taxes, and ramomical and s<Hial rt'torms. . . . Europe, however, had sniwii tin^d of the Porte's proniisiii <.f amendment, an.l for some time Uie Imix'rial Powers hiui Ikho laving tlieir heads together, and the result of their 'con- Hi ri n-' ^4r, tK w BALKAN AND DANtJBIAN STATEa BALKAN AND DANOTIAN STATES. iultntions waa the Aadnusj Note. The date of this document was December 80th. 1875 and It wag sent to those of the Western Powers who ^fhn^^h'?^ ''' '."iS""? ?' ^^- I' J^*:'*™*! that >™ ? i"" ""* 'P'"^' °' tl"* »"«gegted reforms was good there was some doubt whether the Porte had the strenRth to carry them out; Count An- drassy. therefore, proposed tlm the execution or the necjssary measures should be placed under the care of a special commission, half the mem- bers of which should be Mussulmans and half Christians. . . . It concluded with a serious warn »n™ .i.-.T»ii.' ■ ^"'— '"tu niiuaotTioiis warn- ing, that if the war was not gone with tlic snow Ji. K K "■"'^'"5'"* °' ^"^ """l Montiuegro which have had great difficulty In Itceping aloof from the movement, will be unable to resist the current. It was evi.knt, however, that this note would have but little or no cCku it coa- talnwt no coercive precautions, and accordingly i^H^l^f ."^"j:,""°Ji"^ "■« question to drSp, and contented Limself with profuse promis^ . . . So affairsdrifted on; the little war continued to sputter on the frontier; reinforced by Servians and MooteDcgrins. the Herzegovinese succeeded in keeping their enemy at bay. ana. instigated, it to said, by Kussian emissaries, put forWkrd de- mands whkh the Porte was unablfl to accept ... 1 he Powere, In no wise disconcerted by the failure of their first attempt to settle the diffl- cuities between the Sultan and his rebellious sub- lects, had published a sequel to the Andrassy JNote. There was an infonnal conf- ace of the three Imperial Chancellors. Prince Bismarck. Prince Oortschakoff. and Count Andrassy. at Bcriin. in May . . Then on May 18th the Am- (.fT^iT S'.^''Si?'"'' *'™»™- «°'» Italy were invited to Pnnee Bisnmrcks house, and the text of the famous Beriiii Jlemorandura was laid be- w„™ V'""- • • .-, P".'!-' "■« ""«e Chancellors were forging their diplomatic thunderbolt, a catastrophe of such a terrible nature had occui^ In the interior of Turkey that all talk of armis- tices and mixed commissions had bi-come stale and unprofitable. TIr. Beriin Memorandum was not even presented to the Porte; for a rumour, though carefully suppressed by Turkish officials w as beginning to leak out that there had been an insurrecthm of the Christian population of Bul- garia, and that the most horrible atrocities had been committed by the Turkish irregular troops to its suppression. It was communicatcil to Lord Derby by bir Henry Elliot on the 4th of May. i,fm , .1, "^ '?"* a^letter was received from him at the Foreign Office, s;iying, • The Bul- garian insurrection appears to be unquestionably put down, although I regret to say, with cruelty, and. in some places, with brutality.'. . . A week afterwards the Constantinople correspondent of the Daily News . . . gave the estimates of Bul- garians slain as varying from 18.000 to 30 000 and the number of villages destroyini at about a hundred. . . . That there was mGch truth in the Btstementa of the newspaper correspondents was . . . demonstrated beyond po8slbil'»y of denial as soon as Sir Henry Elliots despatches were made miMic. . 'I am satisfied.' wrote Sir Henry ill.,,1, • Uiat, while great atrocities have been committci. both by Turks upon Christians and Christians upon Turks, the former have been ■,L .. J?"?***!' a'">o"glJ the Christians were undoubtedly the first to commence them.'. Meanwhile, the Daily News had nschr-.' on send- ing out a special commissioner to make an In veaU- 2C0 gatlon independent of official WDorts. Mr I * JIacGahan,an American, who "had been onetf that Journal's correspondents during the Fran^ .^Zl"i ^"' *" '.'"' J?""" elected. X Started in company with fir. Eugene Scl uyler the great authority on the Central A«i.» ouestton. who, in 'the capacity o™ Con uT deneral, was about to prepare a similar Tta'e ment for the Hon. HoraSe Maynard the V .tn States Minlsterat ConstantinoprT^L,!;'Hr'v'^^ at Phillppopolis on the 25th of July, Avtllb 5^*'<^'t*"^«' •"■« °^ ^^0 Secretaries ,!f The B.uish Legation at Constantinople, wa, n\t,J, MriS'^A°K~' "".""'^ information. The first o^ Mr MacGahan's letters was dated Jul.-tlie 's-h and ita publication in this country revivi-d in » moment the half-extinct excitement of h, popu l«*c. . Perhaps the passage which was m«"t ta which he descnbed tlio appearance of the mountain village of Batak. 'We enter" ha town. On every side were skulls and skeletons charred among the ruins, or lying entire where they fell in thei- clothl,, sr. Thereiere skefctoil of girls and women, wul. long brown hair ha^ tSJ^ ?h""" """"i ^^'^ ''PP'-«'«=l'ed the church. There these remains were more frequent until the pound was literally covered by skdetor ski-lFs. and putrefving bodies In cl tS Between the churcl. and school there were ?■?""?; The st=nch *a3 fearful. We entered The whole churchyard, for three feet deep was festennt with dead bodies, partly c„ve,^.d hands legs, arms, and heads projectinir in ghastly confusion. I saw many littk, all, heads, and feet of children t'ree^ years «"«e and girls w. h heads covered with l.e.uti^ui flair. The chureh was still worse. 1 lie tioor was covered with rotting bodies quite uncovered 1 never imagined anything so fearful. The own had 9,000 inhabitanu. There noivrema a i;?^;w ''"'^:'''"' ^'"' '■^"P*"'' •""' •^■'"nied recently, weeping and moaning over their ruined half a mile off. Some were dlggini' out the skeletons of loved ones. A woman was siuL. moaning over three small skulls, with Iwir cliDgmg to them, which she ha.1 in h.r lap. The man who did this, Achmcd Agra, has been promoted and is still governor of the district ' An exceeding bitter cry of horror au.i dis-ust f.w.'l t5i""'K''0"' the country on the rt'ceipt of this terrible news. Jtr. Anderson at onee asked for Information on the subject, and Mr. Bourke was entrusted with the difficult dutv of replvins He could onlv read a letter from Sir Bam,' -. in which he said that, as far as ho had b<.eu ahle to discover, the proportion of the numlnrs of the slain was about 12.000 Bulgarians to .'ioo Turk.! and that 80 villages had been wholly or paniallv burnt. ... Mr Schuyler's opinions wen, m might be cxpectetl from the circumstanee that his Investigations had been shoru-r than tli.)sc of Mr. Bijrine, and that he was ignorant of the Turkish language — which is that chiefly spoken In Bulgaria — and was therefore at the mercy of his interpreter, the more highly coloureji lie totally rejected Lord B-aeons- field s Idea that there had been a civil war and that cruelties had been committed on both sides. Un the contrary be asserted that ■ the insurgent ▼luages mads UtUe or no resistance. In many BALKAN Ain> DANVBIAN 8TATKS. BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. CUM they nimndered their sniu on the flrat demand. ... No Turkiih women or children were IdUed in cold blood. No Mussulman women we' ' TioUted. No Mussulmana were tortured. No purely Turkish village was attacked or burnt. No Mosque wu desecrated or destroyed. The Baslii-Bazouks, on the other hand, had burnt about "'' villugea, and killed at least 15.000 Bulgarians.' The terrible story of the destruction of Batak was told in lanfuage of precisely similar import to that of Mr. Slac- Onlian, whose narrative the American Consul had never seen, though there was a slignt differ- ence in the numbers of the massacred. ' Of the 8,000 inhabitants,' he said, 'not 2,000 ate .now.i to survive'. . . . Abdul Aziz had let loose tLc hordes of Bashi-Bazouks on defenceless Bul- garia, but Murad seemed utterly unable to rectify the fatal error; the province fell into a state of complete anarchy. ... As Lord Derby remarked, it was impossible to effect much with an imbecile monarch and bankrupt treasury. One thing, at any rate, the Turks were strong enough to do, and that was to defeat the Ser- vians, who declared war on Turkey on July 1st. ... Up to tlie last Prince Milan declared that his :Dtentions were purely pacific; bit the Increasing troubles of the Porte enabled him, with some smal! chance of success, to avail him- self uftlie anti-Turkish spirit of his people and to declare war. His example was followed by Prince Nikita of Montenegro, who set out with his brave little army from Ccttigne on July 2nd. At first it appealed as if the principalities would have the better of the struggle. The Turkish generals showed tlieir usual dilatoriness in attacking Scrvia. and Tchcmaieff, who was a man of considerable military talent, gave them the giKKlbye, and cut them off from their base of operations. This success was, however, tran- sitory; Abdul Kerim, the Turkish Commar icr- inChiof, drove back the enemy by mere force of numbers, and by the end of the month he was over the herder. Meanwhile tlie hardy Monte- negrins had been considerably more fortunate; but their victories over Mukhtar Pasha were not sufticiently important to oflect a diversion. "The Servians fell back '-^n. all tlicir positions of defcinw, and on " \bcr 1st received a most disastrous beating I the walls of Alexinatz. ... On ScpteniTw • h the Porte agreed to a suspension of liostiliiies until tlie 25th. It must be Hcknowledged that the Servians used this period of grace exceedingly ill. Prince Milan *a8 proclaimed by General Tchemaieff, in ilia absence and against his will, King of Scivia and Bosnia; and though, on the remonstrance of the Powers, he readily consente<l to waive the obnoxious title, the evil effect of the declaration remained. Lord Derby's proposals for peace, which were made on September 2l8t, were neverthek'ss accepted by the Sultan when he saw that imunlmity prevaih.'d among the Powers, and hi> offered in addition to prolong the formal 8us|Knsion of hostilities to October 2nd. This olier tlie Servians, rvlyirg on the Kusshin volun- U-ers who were flockiug to joir "'ohemaieff, rejectiii with some contempt, a., hostilities Were resumed. They paid dearly for their temerity. TchemaiclT's position before Ale ■ iiiatz was forced by the Turks after three da- "■vtrv flgliiing; p(»ition after pogltlon ylelj-d to them; on October 3Ut Alexiuau was ukeo. and Dellgrad was occupied on November 1st. Nothing remained between the outpost of the crescent and Belgrade, and it seemed as if the new Kingdom of Servia must perish in the throei of its birth." Russia now Invoked the Inter- vention of the powers, and brought about a con- ference at Constantinople, which effected nothing, the Porte rejecting all the proposahi submitted. On the 24th of April, 1877, Russia declared war and entered upon a conflict with the Turks, which had for its result the readjust- ment of affairs in South-eastern Europe by the Congress and Treaty of Berlin.— CiMe«'»/H««- trated Hittory of England, e. 10, eh. 23-23.— See Turks: A. D. 1877-1878, and 1878. A. D. 1878.— Treaty of Berlin.-Tr»nifer of Bosnu to Austria.- Independence of Serria, Montenegro and Roumania.— Division and Mmi-independence of Bulgaria.- "(1) Bo«nU, including Herzegovina, was assigned to Austria for permanent occupation. Thus Turkey lost a great province of nearly 1,250,000 inhabitants. Of these about 600.000 were Christians of the Greek Church, 450,000 were Mohammedans, mainly 11 the towns, who offered a stout resist- ance to the Austrian troops, and 200,000 lioman Catholics. By the occupation of tlie Novi-Bazar district Austria wedged in her forces between Montenegro and Servia, and was also able to keep watch over the turbulent province of Mace- donia. (2) Montenegro received less than the San Stefano terms had promised her, but secured the seaports of Antivarl and Dulcigno. It needed a demoustration of the European fleets off the latter port, and a threat to seize Smyrna, to make the Turks yield Dulcigno to the lAontenegrians (who alone of all the Christian races of tlie penin- sula had never been conquered by the Turks). (3) Servia was proclaimed an independent Prin- cipality, and received the district of Old Servia on tlie upper valley of the Morava. (4) Rou- mania also gained her independence and ceased to pay any tribute to the Porte, but had to give up to her Russian lienefactors the slice acquired fnim Russia in 1856 between the Pruth and the northern mouth of the Danulie. In return for tills sacrifice she gaine-d the large but marshy Dobrudsclia district from Bulgaria, and so ac- quirwl the port of Kustendie on the Black Sea. (5) Bulgaria, which, according to the Sun Stefano terms, would have been an indepcnileiit State as large as Roumania, was by tlie Beriin Treaty subjected to the suzerainty of tlie sultan, divided into two parts, and confined within much nar- rower limits. Besides the Dobrudsclia, it lost the northern or Bulgarian part of Jlace<lonitt. and the Bulgarians who dwelt between the Balkans and Adrianople were separated f ron ttieir kins- folk on the north of the Balkans, in a province called Eastern Roumelia, with Phili.jxipolia as capital. The latter province was to remain Turk- ish, under a Christjiin governor nominated by the Porte with the consent of the Powers. Turkey was allowed ti> occupy the passes of the Balkans in time of war."— J. H. Rose, A Onturg nf Con- tinental lliitory. eh. 43.— See Tchks: A. D. 1878. Also in: E. Hertslet, The Map of Euroiie by Trenty, r. 4. no». .518, 5'34-533. A. D. 1878-1891.— Proposed Balkan Con- fede. ation and its aims. — ' During the reaction against Russia which followed the creat war of 1878, negotiations were actually set on foot with a view to forming a combination of the Balkan 261 BALKAN AKD DAKUBIAN STATIC. bALKAj, AKO DANCBUN STATEa I .J SUtei for the purpose of reslntor RumIm seirm. ^on . I'rince Alexan-Ur alwa« f«v«^ the I. k.« of a Balkan C«iife,leratiou wl.'ch ,J^ to include Turkey ; and even llatened to propoJL" on the part of Greec... defining- the BulffSrKd Greek spheres of inrtucnce in Macedonia Tli.t «.e revoft of taa.em noumelia, foMowed by"he n,^'^''^?"",? '■" ""<* "'« cl'«»<l«cment of S^. ^f / ' •"-' '"*'"■ I'""»''ed «, much bitter nesa of feelin/r among the rival racvs that for '~„ s .....i.iig uiv rivtti ratvs that for r^l r"", """''-IJ? ""'«' ""•" ''f»"l «f » Balkan Confedemtion. The idea liaa lately been ivv ved under d,fr..rent auspices and with Somewhat dif ferent ainis. Durmg the past six years the Tn .1.. Alliance, witli EnglandThas, draoito tl e Ba kL'„"Tt°S''"""' BFsmar^k pnSj le Balkan States in general, and Bu garia in par- tieular from the armed intervention of Ru^ia*^ It hasal8o acted the part of policeman In pTewrv- ing Uie peace throughout thb Peninsula. a„d in de ernng the young nations from any dangerous indulgence in their angry paaiona The mrwt remarkable feature in the^GS^ of this periSl ha. been the extraordinary proVw maj^ bv Bulgaria has been treated by Dame Eurooa as i aaughly child But the Bulgarianf hX be, , !n^r' i""!??** •°''"* ""' tfie Central Power^ and England have an interest in their n„«o.i" independence and consolidation; they hal^ n' cogniseji the truth that fortune favoure th<^ who help themselves, and they have boldly uk^ tl^,r own ,rse. while can-fully avoiding any hrin 1k"^ ' "'™P"«'es such L might aga"n bring them uij_ er the censure of the lurop™" vH'T'Ti J''^-y venture.i, in.leed, to eTct their himli,, an(i pniphesied that Prince Fenli- nands davs m Bulgaria might, perhaps be as manr „, Pn„ce Alexander's yeara^ Yet Prh," InJTlf "■'I'T'"? "" '.''« "'">"«• ""d is now en' gngi.i in celebrating the fourth anniversary f his accession: the internal development of the country pr,H-ec U apace, and the progress of I e o. *^r''""1,'^"'"!""Tr* ""'"'''^ "'e country-"^ other words, the Macedonian propaganda -is no, a whi behind The Bulgarians have made their greatest strides in Macecfonia since tl ™faH hf.JT"""?,'^'^""'"*^''- "■"•' «a««lways ready to humour Russia at the cxix-nse of Bulgaria What happeueil after tlie great wa"- of 1878 ? ' \ ponmn of the Bulgarian rSce was given a nom^ °" ,f:rt"" ^■■"''^ *■'". ""'T expected toTa mi ity; Russia pounce.1 on Bessarabia. EneLd Fran ;r"'',-^'""™.'?° Bosnia and Herzegovfna J- ranee pot sometung elsewhere, but that is another matter. The Bulgarians hive never fo raV.^, ; i'h""'"'™'"'''''' ''"• "•<•• division of their ?rZ; \^ ' hav, «en some bitter jH^'ms upon the mf^W'™rV '" ""-■ Bulgarian tongue whch laZl ri;' r"" 'J ^•<"'''' ,"->' ?«"> to Sear tran? l^H In J''J.^'^'I'S l'''v« liatci us since ou-.orr: pation of (yprus, and Hrmly believe t; mean to take Crete as well, the Se^.ians ,. .c not forgotiei, how Russia, after instigating them , J?sLs rlf^'Th"""' 'I™'' with their claims ' at Sau .^tefmio; they cannot forgive Austria for her occupation of fi<«nia and iferzegovlna an I every Servian peasant, as he pays his ifMvy taxes or reluctnr.iy gives a big pfic^ for sJime^orth I'll iirtlfln fjiula *i.^ III ^3rrc^fX.nt^rS the Balkan people* Imve no reason i..^ much benefit from the next great wf, (^.2^^ European Conference whiclf^rirwiowTt "or from the sympathy of the Christlai, P„"e^ rA„,^^~.'.' "'^°' ^^ "'" """">« of the pro *S Object ? The Balkan States are to act in<l,p,n, ;he foM' irn Po...»... —.1 ._ - """•"nil i™» !„ ■', f'"^'." "'« pnce lor sot less imponed article, feels the gaUlng yoke of her flKal and commercial tyranny. ifeJd it bo 262 SolreXtao^Xfa^re?irke'rwt£"'' portunity present, itJelf. TieymuTt „"„"?£ Peninsula. In either case the hones of H,» . «... nations will be destroyed forev^"?' ut ^S fore soug^it to extricate a jwrtion at leasi of the Eastern Question from the tangled web „5 European politics, to isolate it, to deal ^Uh ^ as » matter which solely conce™ ,he 8 ck Mii and his immediate successors. It ta howd tL« imMH*' ^/l"? ""y ^ '"""^ by the detZiin" nttitude of his expectant heirs to make on'r to them theirseveral portions in his lifetime should he refuse they must act In concert and ,,me eutlmiiaslaf„rthemoribundownerof.M..cSa Crete. an.l Thrace. In other wonia it i« u. !.!i that the a,lk«n States, if oncTtSly "o , d'en,"^ wh«['is"kfto}"H"".l." "■S"."'^ tLir cl'imMo w lat Is left of the Ottoman Empire in Enrnn,. ffiiTJ'""'^. ■■""^ without ZaMofTny ttv is ^oT; ^""« «''<^'' P"'^""' to bear u^h 1 urkey as to induce her to surrender maceulilv her Eur,.pe.m inwsessions, and to contem he « ff henceforth with the position of an Asiatic P.'^er ' iM.v;!i'""'r5'^'*' Semi -Abduct on aid «bdic«tion of Prince Alexander.-" TheB,"" Treaty, by cuttlnK Bulgaria into three ,^.ee, , . "IT •^"'•«'«'>"l of both geograpliica .m. wlTcri'cJir- T' """""^l the^l^n^und'fn";! w men a crop of neverend iig aKitali.u was Trea'tv oy^TL^Sf }" "Pring-a^rorwl. icl, T, Boh ?rt *^'l V""?; ''''" "' "'« B«""""'. '""!' in un!nTJ:"\ '" «"""»''i«. the same .leMre for union existed. Both parties were agn, ,1 as to I. en,?''i"'''ri'^.'"^"''' •" "> tl'e mean.sliv which ?,l,ir.V '"'■,"""";'''■•'• "" tl'« other haiHl, main tain«ltliat hey should be diallengcl. It was a few Individuals bi'longing to the latter pirtv and acting with M. KaravA,ir, the l^'ul ,lf2 carrie<l out the revolution of .SptemlM r 1^ \m So unanimously was this move ni si,|.p..it.(i by the whole population, including ,'v,u the Mussulmans, that it was accomplish.",! and the union pnx'inimcd without the least resistance being encountered, ami without the shedding of one drop of blood I Prime Alexander was in no way muuu aware of what wa« in preparation! BALKAN AND DANTBIAN PTATES. BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. but he knew very well that ' Tould I ! his duty to place himself at the h J of any national movement, and in a proclamation dated the 19th of September, and addressed from Tlmova. the ancient capital, he recommended union and assun.cd the title of Prince of North and South Bulgaria. The Porte protested In a circular dated th^ 28rd of September, and called upon the Powers who had signed the Treaty of Berlin, to enforce the observance of Its stipulations' On the 13th of October, che Powers collectively declare ' that they condemn this violation of the Treaty, and are sure tlmt the Sultan will do all that he can, consistently with his sovereign rigliis.bi'fore resorting to'the force which he has at his disposal' From the moment when there was opposition to the use of force, which even the Porte did not seem in a hurry to employ the union of the two Bulgarlas necessarily became an nreomplished fact. . . . Whilst Enghind and Austria both iioceptcd the union of the two Bulgarlas as being rendered necessary by the position of affairs, whilst even the Porte (although lirotesting) was resigned, the Emperor of Russia illspliivefla passionate hostility to It, not at all la accord with the feelings of the Russian nation ... In Russia they had reckoned upon all the liberties guan iiteed by the Con -'utlon of Timova becoming so many causes f; disorder and anarchy, instead of which the i.ulgarians were growing accustomed to freedom. Schools werp being endowed, the country was progress- In- in every way, and thus the Bulgarians were IxLiming less r.d less fitted for transformation into Russian subjects. Their lot was a pref. r- able one, by far, to that of the people of Rus.sia — henceforth they would refuse to accept the Russiiin yoke! ... If, then, Russia wanted to maintain licr high-handed policy In Bulgaria tlie must oppose the union and hinder the con- solidiition of Bulgarian nationality by every means in her power; this she has done without scruple of any sort or kind, as will be shown by a brief epitome of what has happened recentlv bervn. lioping to e.\tond her territory in tfie direction of Tru and Widdin, and, pleading regard for the Treaty of Beriin an I the theotr ot the balance of power, attacks Bulgaria. On Novimber 14th [17th to 19th?] 1885, Prince Alexander defends the Slivnitza positions fin a three days' liiittlo] with admirable courage and strategic skill. The Roumelian militia, coming in by forced marches of anhcardof length per- form ppHligiea of valour in the field. Wi.hin eight days, i. e., from the 20th to the 28th of ^ rvemlKr, the Servian army, far greater in numbers,!, driven back Into Its own territory the Draiiomun Pass is crossed ; Pirct is taken hv assjiult; and Prince Alexander is marching ,.}, Aisch, when his victorious progress is arrestwi by the Austrian Minister, under threats of an armed intervention on the jiarl of that country ' Uii Deirmbtr 21st, an armlstic! is conclude"d atlerwanls made into a treaty of peace, and siL'Dnl at liiicharwt on March Srd by M for the N.ltan. Prince Alexander "did all he C0UI.1 to bring about a reconciliation with the Mr and ,.ven went so far as to attribute to liusMan instnictors all the merit of the victories Ti„ „' 1 J"L*""- ''''"■ *""f *""''! not vleld. Then the Prince turned to the Saltan, and with him succeeded In coming to a direct understand- ing. -The I'rincc was to be nominated Oovemor- beneral of Roumclla; a mixed Cor.,mis»ion was to meet and modify the Roumelian Mtatutes: more than this, the Porte was bound to plat e troops at * disposal, in the event of his bei- ' attacke.1 {"rom that date the Czar swore that hi would cause Prince Alexander's down- n ; li *2*^'"J'' *'"•' ^f'n™ Alexander of Battenberg had chani^eci into a sword the sceptre which Russia had given him and was going to turn it against his benefactor. Xothing could be more untrue Up to the very last moment, he did everj-thlng he could to disarm the anger of the Czar, but what was wanted from him was &■'!"" m* ■'" '■'' ■""''e Bulgaria an obedient satellite of ussla, and raUier than con- Mnt to do so he t Sotia. The story of the » '^'=*'^f''"'"* •'^ ^y Kussia-i influence, or as Lord Salisbuij- 1, by Russian gold, is well Known. A hantf ot malcontent offict:-s, a few awets of the Ecoib Mlliuire, and some of Zan- Koffs adherents, banding themselves together broke into the palace during the night of the ^Ist of August, seized the Prince, and had him wried off, without escort, to Rahova on the Uaniibe, from thence to Rent i'. Bessarabia. Where he was handed over to the Russians I The conspirators endeavoured to form a government, but the whole country rose against them, la spite of the support openly given them by M. BogdanolT the Russian diplomatic agent. On t.1e 3rd of September, a few days after these occurrences. Prince Alexai '.er returned to his capital, welcomed home by the acclamations of the whole people; but in answer to a respectful not to say too humble, telegram in which ha offered to replace his Crown in the liands of the J-zar, that potentate replied tlmt he ceased to have any relations with Bulgaria a.s long as ITIncc Alexander remained tlierc. Owing to advice which came, no doubt, from Berlin Ifflnce Alexander decided to alnlicate; he did so because of the demauds of Oic Czar and in the dc Ijiveleyc, T/u fitrufrgle of th» Iroirth of fyee- '.. Koch, Prince 263 Interests of Bulgaria."— E Balkan "niiuula, Inlrod. Also A. Von Iluhn. Bulgariant.—J. G. C. Mine. dom, in Vie liaikan Penimulo Aleiaruler of Batl i^berg. A. D. i(<7o.ilido (Seryia).— Quarrels and divorce of King MiW and Queen Natalia.— Abdication of tm- K.ajf.— Tn Octolier, 1875 . . -Milan, then t i .ei.fy-one years old, mar- r ;•• atalia Kechi. ,, l.erself but sixteen. The pi' , r Ouecn was -e daughter of a Russian ol. . and of the Princess Pulckeric Stourdza. She as little as her husband, had lieen bom with a likeliho<Hl to sit upon the throne and a quiet burgher educction had been hers at Odessa. Hut even here her great beauty attracted notice, as also her abilities, her ambition and her wealth. ... At first all went well, to outward appearance at least, for Milan was deeol ,- en- amoured of his beautiful wife. .,ho soon became the Idol of the Servians, on account of her beauty and her amiability. This affection was but increased when, a year after her marriage she presented her subjects with an heir. But from that hour the domestic discord Iwgan The gueen had hern ill long m\A seriously after her boy s birth ; Milan had sought distractions else- where. Scenes of jealousy and recrimination 'Pi i 1^ tag BALKAN Am) DAKUBIAN STATE& / frequent Further, BenrU wiis then pais- Jng through a dilHcuIt poHUcal crisis: the Turkish war »a» in full swing. Milan, little be- loved ever since he Iwgan to reign, brought home no wreaths from this conflict, although his sub- JecU distinguished themselves by their valour Then followeil in 1882 the raising of the nrinei- Sality into a kingtiom — » fact which left the ervians verj- imiKTerent, and in which they merely beheld the |)ruspect of Increased tnxes, a prevision timt wiis ronlized. As time went on and troubles inrrciised. King Milan became some- what of a despot, who was susUinc<i solely by the army, itself undermined by factious In- trigues. Meantime the Queen, now grown some- what callous toiler husband's Infldelities, aspired to comfort herself by assuming a pollticiil rOle, for which she Ulieved herself to have great ap- Htude. ... As she could not influence tin- de- cisions of the Prince, the lady entered Into op- position to him, and made it her aim to oppow ^1 his protects. The quarrel sprvad throughout the entire Palace, and two inimical factions were formed, that of the King an<i that of the Queen. . . . Meantime Milan got deeper and deeper into debt, so that after a Umc he luul almost mort- gaged his territory. . . . While the husband and wife were thus quarrelling and going their own ways, grave events were maturing in neighbour- ing Bulgaria. The coup d'etat of Mllippopoll which annexed Eastern Roun-lla to the princi- pality, enlarged It in such wise that Servia henceforth had to cut a sorry flgure in the Balkans. Milan roused himself, or pretended to rouse himself, and war was declared against Bulgiirin. . , There followe<l the crushing de- g'at of Slivitzu. in which Prince Alexander of BaltcnlKT^' nirricd iilf such laurels, and the Servians Iniil to lunt adisgriiceful and precipitate rctniit. Fur frcni proving himself the hero Na- thalie had dreiiiiMil. .Milan . . . telegraphed to the Queen, biisiiil with tendi.ig the woundnl that lie intended to abdicate forthwith. This cowardly oonduct gave the death blow to any BALTIMORE. hellng the Queen might have retained for the King. Henceforth she despised him, niul tixik no paini to hide the fact. ... In 1S87 the pair parted without outward scandals, the Ouwn taking with her the Crown Print*. . . . Florence was the goal of the Queen's wanderin^ts and here she spent a quiet winter. . . . The winter ended, Nathalie ciesiri'd to return to lielirnule Milan would not hear of it. . . . The iJuein went to Wiesbaden in consequence. While re- siding tliere Milan professecl to lie suildenlv taken with a paternal craving to sec his son. . \,|,| to the shame of the Uennan Ot>veniiiieiit W it said they lent their hand to alwluetini: m onlv child from his motlier. . . . Before ever the ej. citemcnt about this act could subside in Kiirope Milan . . . petitioned the Servian SyniKl f„r a divorce, on the ground of 'irreconcilable mutual antipathy ' Neither by canonical or civil law was this possible, and tho Queen refused her consent. . . . Nor could the divorce liave JK'en obtained but for the servile cumplaiKiinre of the Servian Metropolitan Theodore. . . Ouick vengeance, however, was in store for Slilan The international affairs of Servia had grown more and more disturbe<l. . , . The Kiuj.' per- plexed, afraid, storm tossed betwwn dividiHi counsels, highly Irritable, and deeply impre«8e<l by Rudolph of Hapsburg's recent suicide sud- denly announced his intention to aMiinle in favourof hisson, . . . Without regret his people saw depart from among them a man who at thirty-dve years of u>.'e was uirtadv d.-. r.nii . . After kneeling down before his s.>ii nid sweariiig fldelity tu him as a »iibj(<t i March !«■<!'), Milan bci<K)k hluiMir otf to t.mr ilirou-h .I''',''*;,- • • ''''"'™ ItW'ts an' uppoiMi.,1 ",„ iiHd the Kingduring IiIh minority."—" Poliiikos ' TAf Sinretgnt, pp. JWI-Jtoa. . *;, 9l, ««93-Roy»l Coup d'^tat.-In April, 1H93, the yiiiins; king, AUxiuidir, thin 8evente.>u years old. bv a sudden rou\> .I'.tut dismissed the regents, and took the nin.s into his own bauds. BALKH.-Destructlon by JinKit Khan (A. D. UJli.— Fniin his crmquest of the region beyond the Oxus, >)ingisKlian moved southwanl with his vast horde nf Mongols, In pursuit of the fugitive Khahri'iminn prince, in TiSOor 1221 and Investeil th>' great city of Baikh,— which is thouglit in the eiuit to be the old.-»t city of the worid. and wiiicli may not impossibly have N-en one of the capiliiU of the primitive Aryan race '•Some iilea of Its exU-nt and rirhes [at that time] may possibly Iw funned from the statement that it eoniaiiiiii 1,2<M) largo moHques, without Including chapels, anil 2lM» public batlis fir the use of fon'ltrn merrlmnu and travellers — though It has iM'en siiggi'sted that the more correct readlnit would Im' 2(HI mos(|ues and 1,200 liatha. Anxi.iiis to avert the horrors of storm and pillage, the ritirens at once offered to capitulate; but Chlnthi*, ilistnisting the sincerity of their iuhmis«loi> Ml lonif as Sultan Mohamme<l Sbah wasjil nlivi'. pn ferriKl u> carry the place by force of arms lui achievement of no gn-at dlffl- cullv. A horrible butchery ensued, and the 'Taliemsrie of Islam '— as the pious town wu calUd — was rajeil l<i the ground. In the w«inli of the Pinian iKS't. uuntcd hv Mainr Prlr» • Tlie uohle ciiy he laid as smooth as tlie palm of Uibaod — iu tpiKloua aitd kifty ilructurw be Itutton, (hitrdl \f"itfft>ts. 264 levelled in the dust.'"- Afia, eh. 4. Ai,soi!t: II. II. Iloworth, //i«f oft/i, t. 1, eh. 8. BALL'S BLUFF, The Battle of. S<« I NrTED States or Ah. : A. I>. imll (nduiiuK VimiiNiA). BALM ACE DA'S DICTATORSHIP. S,r CllII.K: A. I). 188.'5-1H01. BALNEA. See Tiieri(.s. BALTHI.OR BALTHINCS.-' Hi, nilin. of the Vislgolhs, though they, like Ihi- .\nml kings of the Ostnigoilis. htvl a greui liuii.c, ilic BalthI, sprung from the si'ed of (IimIs, iIIiI n,ii at this time [when driven acnms ilic liiiniilie by the Huns] N-ar the title of KIiilv I.mi am tented themselves with some humhh r i!. »iL'ns lion, which the I..atin historimis trmislati.l inin Judex (Judge)."— T. Ilmlgklu. Il,,/^ „,ul hfr Inmrtm. int., eh. B.—Hiv HAfX. I.c.iii.- or BALTIMORE, Lord, and the Colonisation efMarTluid. See Mahtlano: A Ii lii;«, to I8H8-lfn7 BALTIMORE, A. D. 17*9-1730. Found- iBrefthidtjr. SitMabyland: A. n i:.'!i \in>i A. D. iSll.—Riating'af the War Party -Th« mob and th« Podtralisti. .S41' I'nitku States or Am. : A. D. t«lli (JuMI-Ocruaut). BALTIMORE. BALOCHISTAN. A. D. 1814.— Britiih attempt agfaiatt the city. See United States or Am. : A. D, 1814 (Auou<<T— September). A. D. i8io.— The Douglas Democratic and Constitutional Union ConTentions. See United Statu or Am.: A. D. 1860 (ApbiI/— Noveuber). A. D. lUt (April).— The citj controlled hj the Secessionists. —The attack on the Sixth Massachusetts Reriment. See Uxited State* op Am. : A. D. 1S6T (APHit,). A. D. 1861 (May).— Disloyalty put down. See United States op Am. : A. D. 1881 (Apbil — )1at: Maryland). BALOCHISTAN, OR BALUCHISTAN. — "Balochistan, in the modern acceptation of the term may bo said, In a general sense, to in- clude all that tract of country which has for Its northern and northeastern boundary the large kingdom of AfglianUtan, Its eastern frontier be- ing limited by the British province of Sindb, and Ita western by the Persian State, while the Ara- bian Sea washes its southern base for a distance of nearly six hundred milea ... In area Balo- chistan had long been supposed to cover in Its entirely quite 160,(K>il square miles, but the latest estliuiites do not raise It higher than 14i9.0()0 Si|uari' miles, of which BO.UUO are said to belong to wliiit is termed Persian Balochistan, and the rcmiiininK HD.IXK) to Kiilati Baliwhistan, or that portion which is more or less directly under the rule of the Brahui Kluiii of Kalat. . . . Balo- clilstaii may be said to be Inhabited chiefly by the Haloch tribe, the most numerous In the rmintry. and this name was given to the tract tliiy iK-eupy by tlie great Persian monarch, N idir Shah, who, as St. John remarks, after (lriviii!;the Afi;lian Invaders from Persia, mttds himself master in his turn of the whole coimtry tt-.st iif tiie Indus, and placed a nntlvechlef over tlie new province, formed out of the districts boiiiiiliHl „n the north and south by the Halmand vulley and the si'a, and stretching from Karman on the west to Sindh on the east This newly. forniiHl province he called Balochistan, or, the country of the Balocli, from the name of the most widely spn-ad ami numerous, though not the dominant, trilH-. Aeciinllng toMasson, who, It must be admitted. Iiiui more ample opportuni- ties of olitaining correct information on this sub- Jii I than any other European, the Balochls are divided into three great elas.se«, vis., (1) the Hr thnis ; {■>) Uie Kinds ; and (il) the Lumrts (or Nuniris) ; but this must be taken more in the sense of InhalillanU of BaicH-histan than a* divis- ions of a trlbi". <in<-e the llmhulaarp of adIITen'nt nice and lani; ige, ami call the tnie Balochls 'N' inds.'lu (ontraillstlncllon to tliemselves as Hilnils.' . . . The origin of the word 'Bahsh' Is evidi iilly involved In some obscurltv, and has gtv.Mi rise to many dllTi-rent Interpretations. I'rolf.snr Hawlins<m supposes It to be derived «r..ni It,.!,,,, kini; of Haliylon, the NImrod of Holy W rit. ami that from 'Kush.' Ilie father of Nlinr.Hl, comes the name of the KalatI eastern district. -ICaehh." I'otlinmT believes the Balo- chls to be of Turktmian lineage, and this from a simdarity In their institutions, habits, religion — ' ■, ,-';**-. in rvrrsttiiiiii l,ul llieir language, lor • lilcli latter anonialv. however, he has an ex- planatliin to offer. Bill Ix- this as It mav. tlie very irlbc' themselves nstTlbu their origin to the 265 earliest Muhammadan invaders of Persia, and are extremely desirous 01 being supposed to be of Arab extraction. They reject with scorn ail Idea of being of the same stock as the Afghan. They may possibly be of Iranian descent, and the affinity of their language, the Balochki, to the Persian, bears out this supposition ; but the proper derivation of the word • Bahxh ' still re- mains an open question. . . . The Braliuis. who, as a race, arc very numerous In Balothistau, Pottinger considers to be a nation of Tartar mountaineers, who settled at a very early period in the southern parts of Asia, where they U^d an ambulatory life in Khels, or siwieties, beaded and governed by their own cldefs and laws for many centuries, till at length they became In- corporated and attained their present footing at Kalat and throughout Balochistan generally Masson supposes that the word 'Brahui' is a corruption of Ba-roh-i, meaning, literally, of the waste; and that that race enu>red Balochistan originally from the west. . . . The country may be considered as divided into two portions— the one, Kaiati Balochistan, or that either really 01 nominally under the rule of the Khan of Kalat; and the other as Persian Balochistan, or that part which Is more or less directly under th« domination of the Shah of I'ersia. Of the gov ernment of this latter territory, it will suffice tc say that It Is at present lid ministered by the Governor of Bam-Narma.shlr, a deputy of the Kcrman Governor ; but the only district that Is directly under Persian rule- is that of Baiiiurr — the rest of the country, says St. John, Is left in charge of tlie native chiefs, who. In their 'urn. Interfere but little with the heads of vilUjrcs and tribes. ... It wotdd , . . app<'ar that the su- premacy of the Shah over a very large portion of the Immense aiea (6(1,(1(10 square niilesi known as Persian Balochistan Is more nominal than real, and that the greater numbiT of tlii' chiefs only nay revenue to their suzerain when compelled to do so. As regards KalntI BalochisUin, the goT- eniinent Is, so to sreak. vested hereditarily in tlie Brshul Khan of Kalat, but his sovereignty In the remote poHloiis of his extensive territory (80,0(10 square miles), though even in former times more nominal than real. Is at the present moment still more so, owing to the alniust con- stant altercations and quarrels which take place between the reigning Kluin ami Ids Sanlara. or chiefs. . . . In . . . the imslcrn history of Ka- hiti Balochistan under the pn*nt dvnasty, ex- tending from sbout lli.- couimencenient of the iNtli century, wheu Abdiila Khan was ruler, down to the present lime, a ixriod of, say, nearly IHO years, there is not much to call for remark. Undoubtedly the AiiiriiBtau age of llalochistsn was the ndgn of the flmt Nasir Khan [IT.'* nit,')) he Oreat Naiir, as he is to this day called by tlie Balochia Of his predecessors little seems to bi' known ; they were indeed simply successful mbliers on a large scale, with but few trail's of any enllghteneil policy to gild over a long suc- cession of dcisls of lawli-ssiicsM, rapine, and bhssl- shed. . . . Had his Rinci'«ors U-rn of the same stamp and metal as himself, the Kidati kinirdom of today would not perhaps show lliat aiianliy and confusion which are now iu most »trlkli!i; characteristica"— A. W Hughes, f/,, O'linlni nf lUilntkittan, ftp. 8-4X, and a:!.-, —By treaty. Ill IH.-H, the Khan o* Kalat, or Kl- lat, ri'ceivi'ja subsidy from the British government in India. I II BAL0CEI8TAN. «pd WM brought under its Influence. In 1876 the subsidy was increased and the British ob- tained praitloal poaaeaslon of the district of VJuitta. Since that time, by successive arranire- Dients with the Kliaii, they have extended 'ht-ir ailimmstnitive control over the districts of Bolan ail I Khctran, and established their authoritv in tlie country between Zhob valiey and Gumal rasa An important ptu-t of Balochlstan has thim become pra<iicaliy British territory, at- tached to the British empire in India. This rcjfion Ims been fortiiied, has been and is beinir intersected witli railways, and is a portion of the delusive frontier of IndU on the east BAN.-BANAT.-'Ban is i)ultc(Dui), and Ban.it 18 Duchy. The territory [Hungarianf east of the ( arpatlii.ins is the Banat of Severin and that of tlu- west the Banat of Temesvar. . . llie Hanat is the cornucopia, not only of Hun- Kar}\ hut of the wli,>lc Austrian Empire."— A. A. Paion, UeKuieh,, on the Danuie and the ^'l"'"tc, r. 2. p. 2^ -Among the Croats, "after the kinp, the raost important officers of the state were tlie bans. At Hrst there was but one ban who was a kind of lieutenant-general ; but later on tliere were seven of them, each known by the name of the province he governed, as the ban of ^lrmlil, ban of Dalmatfa, etc. To this day tlie royal lieutenant of Croatia (or ' govcmor-jrcn- enjl. If I l.;,t title be preferred) is called the iMn " a Ai'i^'Z^J'"' "■'' ■'io'trv-ITungarv, p. 5a. 11?H IHt ''np*ri«l. SccSaxosi: A. D. the°*R ^.V^Xt- B*"ie Of—Sometime, called the liaitle of Kilirecote "; foiieht July 80, 146B anil wiih siKcess. hy a bo<ly of Lantistrian in- suru'cnts, in the KnKli,h •• Vi'ars of the uZ-, ff'""w ""■„'""•? °f •'"' ^'"'kist king. Edwarf BANDA. See .Molcccas. BANDA 0RIENTAL,Th«.-8ignlfyinR the tMj^Urn Uonler : a name applied originally by th.. >puniH..is u. ilie country on the eastern side of Km .ie U I'lata whi. h afterwanis t.»,k the *""m' 'I -i."!?"?-^- **•"•' Ahoestisb Kri-i-blic : A- I • 1 '>'^''~1 ( « I BANKOFTHEUNITEDSTATES. 8« ^MV^i^T^.'^^'""' '^'* •*•. I). i*«-iH!w. i« ilKi*'£- ;""'' ^'""^ *"" hankino. BANKS, NathanitI P.-Spt.k.rthip. See IMIKI. M»TKs OK Am: A. X). 1»*.M-T8,M- Command in th« Shenandoah. »<o U.mtkd SniE-oF Ah ; A I) |S6« (Mat-Ji^xk : Viu- «iMAi . . Sieje and Captur* of Port Hud- ton NelsivKoSrArKs or Am.: A. D. iwia piu-.li ,v : Ox -riiR MispisHtppi) R,4 Ri»er Expedition. Se,. I-kitud Mtaiks or ^nA«J'o "Ji' '^'*'" "-MaV: 1^,1 INIANM , '^"ANCE.— The Bank of Anisierilnm Wrts r...ii„l,.,| ,„ irtoit, and replaced, after 1N14 by tlie N, Ilierland Bmk. The liank of Kngland was f.un.lHl in im.4 hv William PatU rson,™ 8. ot, hm in , an.l tlinl of |.'ranre by .lolin Law, In l.Ifl 1 lie latter lulbp,,^ with the Mis«l«ln,,l ••heme anil was n-vlve.) jn i7-« ._.! i |^) ', f( < itri^./.Hi,! uj lu. Hcitnet. »«e .Mo.nkt a.nd BA.^Kl^u. 2C0 BAPTISTS. TANKS, Wildcat. See Wildcat Bawi BANNAr{^^^T.,""''.i \^ 1887-l(«r^ BANNOCKBURN, Battlo of (A. D. 13,4). ^^S^^- ^ °- 18": and 1814-1828. 5 ANT, The. See Gau. BANTU TRIBES, The. See Sonn Af- kica: This ABOBiomAi, inh a kitants : and A™CA: ThB DTHABrriNO RAIKH o f If I, ^'^^•~'^''"'"' "*"'* ■ HuPtist* was not a aelf-chosen one. In tlie early Reformation time those who withdrew from the dominant churdies because of the failure of these churches to ills. criminate between the church and the world between the regenerate and the unrepenerate' and who sought to organize churches of h-licv' er» only, laid much stress on the ln<k of iScriii- turai warrant for the baptism of infants and on the incompatibilitv of Infant Iwptism with re- generate meniberabip. Following wluit thev believed to be apostolic pncept and ..vaninle they made baptism on a profession .if f„ith a condition of church fellowship. Tiiis re- jection of Infant baptism and tljis insist, me on believers' baptism were so distindive i.f these Christians that they were sti»:iimlize,| „s Anabaptists.' • Catabaptist.s.' and som. linu s iis simpiv 'Baptists' ; tliat is to say, they Merc de- clared to be 'rcbaptizers,' 'p«'rverter9 ol hop. Ti """; '? ""duly magnifying bapii-m and making it the occasion of scliism, siiiiplv 'ban- tlzere. These party names they carne'silv re- piulinled, preferring to cull tlicmsclves Brdiinn thristiani. Disciples of Christ, Believers ttc" . . . IJaptlsU have, for the most part, been at one with the Itoman Catholic, ii.. (;r.ek Cmh- olic, and most PnHeslant coinn. unions in ac- cepting for 8ub«tBiic-e the so-called Apuslles'. INlccne, and Alhaiiaslan cre<Mls, not, however iHcause they are venerable or because of the de^ cIsioDs of ecclesiastical councils, but because and only in so far as, they have appeared to Uiem to be in accord with Scripture. \s ri'mnls the set of dixtrines on which Angilstin dllTjred from his theological predecessors ami modern CalvlnisU from Arminians, H«pt|,M have always been dlvide<l. . . . The great nn iority of the Baptists of tuiay hold to what may i)e calliH moderate Calvinism, or Calvinism lein IKTW with the evangelical antl-AuBustiniauisni which came tiirmigh the Moravian Urtiliren to Wesley and bv him was brought |H)w,rfullv to liear on all b<«lie» of cvangeli.al ( liristinns. Baptists are at one with tlie ^'nnt (..ncreLa- tloual body and with most of the n.iia.r de- nonilnations as nganls chiinh K"veriin,( nt - • ■ 1 ^J'*"*", A llitlury -f l/,r /l.i/,li,i n.uirfitt I't the V «, »■;.(>->«/. — "Baptist prim 11 ,s are dlsooTcrable In .New Knglaml fi.uii r earliest colonial settlements. The I'm I lynioiith had minghHi with Oio Dutch •luring the ten years of tliclr sojourn in I aiul some of them teem to have bnuti, Haptlst tendencies even In the ,M,i\lli)«,r Dutch Baptists had eniigrat.'.l to y.unUw] siid extended their principles there : and frnm lime tolimeap..rs<'<-nliHl UaptUt In Knvlan.l ^•i,M M!:„.. in .imeriiB. ami, pianlnl iieo', iiciiifht forth fruit after his kinii. But as every olT«l„-.| if these principle* here wasso speedily liiul » Ig.ir very l.s of ptisU i inliil, over BAPTISTS. BARBARY STATES. ou»ly beaten down by pprseeutlon. and etpeclally as, after the banighnu i of Koger Williams, tliere was an asyliim a few miles distant. Just over Narraganset Bay, wliere every persecuted man could find liberty of conscience. Baptist nriJcipU'S made little projrcsB in the New Eng- l»'jd colonies, except Khude Island, for the first > undred aii ! twenty ycsrs. [On the banishment of Roger William.-t from Massachusetts, the founding of Rhode Islanil, and the organization of the first Baptist Church in that colony, see Massaciiusktth : A. D. »!).%, and Riiodb I*- LAND. A. D. 1531-1838 to 18.39.] A little church of Wilsh Baptists was founded In Rehoboth, near the Rhode Island line, in 1863, and shortly after- wanls was compc-lled by civil force to remove to Swimjea, where, as it was distant from the centres of settlement, it was suffered to live without very much molestation. It still exists, the oMcst Baptist church in the State. In 1669, the First Baptist CT- ch In Boston was organ- ised, nrid, alone, for r...uo9t a century, witlistood the fire of persecution, — ever In the Barnes, yet never (|uite consumed. In 1698. a second church was constituted in .Swanzia, not as a Regular, but as a Six I'rinriple, Baptist Church. In 17(W, a Baptist church was formed in Oroton, Connecti- cut. These four churches, three Regular and one ?ixPrinciple, having in the aggregate prob- ably less than two hundred mrmbers. were all thf Baptist churches in New England outside of Riiixlv Island previous to the Great Awaken- iiiif,'— D. Weston, Rirly liiptuU in Mam. (The HijiliMiii nntl the Xitliniyil Centenary], f>p. 18-18. —■•The represetiiatlve Baptists of London and vicinity, who in 1689 put forth the Confession of Faith which was aftcrwanl adopted by the PhilHilciphia Associatifm, and is therefore known in this country as tlu- Philaitelphia Confession, copied the Westminster Confession word for word, wherever their convictions would permit, and declnred that they would thus show wherein they were at one with their brethren, and what I'.invictloiis of truth made impossible a com- plete union. And wherever Baptists appeared. however or by whomsoever they were opposed, the gr .und of complaint aralnst them was their princi |>les. Some of I hese pri nri pies were sharply antapmlstic to those of existing churches, and al*) 111 those on which the civil irovemments were administered. Thev were widely disseminated. e«p<'cinlly in Ilolbnil. England, and Wales, and tliere were separate churches formed. rnm purely doctrlniil causi-s also came di- visions among 'the Baptlr.e<l churches' them- Klvea The most notable one was that In England between the General or Armlnian Bap tists, and the Particular or Calvinistic Baptists. With the latter division do the Regular Baptists of America hold lineal connection. . . . The churches of Philadelphia and vicinity kept the closest connection with the mother countrv, and were most affected by it. In New England, in ' the Great Reformation' under the lead of Jona- than Edwards, there was made from within the Congregational churches a most vigorous assault against their own ' half-wav Covenant ' in the Interest of a pure church. " Along hii lines of thought lie started multitudes who could not stop where he himself remained and would fain have detained them. They wparated from the Congregational churches, and were hence called Separates. A large propi.rtiop of tlitm beciimo Baptists, and formril themselves into Baptist churches. Through the laLors of earnest men who went from them to Carolina and Virginia, their principles were widely disseminated in tliose and the neighboring colonies, and, in con- sequence, many churches came into existence." G. D. B. Pepper. Doctrinal Ilitt. and I'imtion (The mmt). pp. 81 -52. BAR, A. D, 1659-1735.— The Duchy ceded to France. Sec France : A. 1>. Irt.W-lGBl, and IT.'W-lTa.l. BAR : The Confederation of. Sec Poland : A. D. 1:6.3-177.1. BARATHRUM, The.— "The barathnim. or ' pit of punishment ' at Athens, was a deep hole like a well Into which criniimils were precipl. tated. Iron hooks were inserted in the sides, widch tore the bixly in pieces ns It fell. It cor- responded to the Ceadas of the I.iice<la'moniiiiis." — (}. Rawlinson, Iliit. of lleiudottu, bk. 7, tct. 1.S3, note. * BARBADOES.— This, the most eastward of the Windward poup of islands in the CarlMn'an Sea. hns been claimnl by the Enirlish slut e 1B(J.'5, occupied since 1685, and has always remained in their possession. BARBADOES : A.D. 1649-1660.— Royalist •ttitode towardsthe EorlishCommonwealth. See Navioation Laws; A. D. IMl. A. D. 1656. — Cromwell's colony of disor- derly women. Bee Jamaica : A. D. Itl.'i.j. BARBARIANS. See AnVANS. BARBAROSSAS, Piracies and dominion of. See lUiinAiiv States : A. !». MlO-l.'VI.V BARRANCAS, FORT.-Seixure by Se- cessionists. See I'MTED STATE.S: A. U. l»«y- lt<61 (DlKSMBtll— FEBHL'AUV). A. D. 64V.709.-Mshemetan North Africa. See Maiiumrtak Co'soirtsT A I) H47-7()9. AD. 906-1171. -The Fatlmlte Caliphs. Se,. .Mmiomktan Comji isT AND EnmnE : A D diiS -] 1 , 1 _ . * J*- »4'5— Siege and captors of Ceuta by the Portugaesa See Poiitcoai,: A. D. 141*- A.p. ijOS-1510.— Spanish coaqassts en the cosst- Orao. _ Bagia.- Algiers.— Triooll— In \y<\n Spnnlsh expedition, planned sodurged by Cartlinal Xlmenes, oapturad MaitaniulTer, an BARBARY STATES, conquest of 267 " Important port, and formidable neat of pirates, on the Barlmry coast, nearly oppositi' ('iirlha- gena." In IStW, the same energetic prelate led personallv an expedition of 4.1XK) horse and 1(1.(11)0 foot, with a fleet of 10 gsllevs ami hO smaller vessels, for the conquest of'Omti • This place, situated atiout a league from the former, was one of the most conslderalile nf the Moslem possessions in the Medlterranenn. hi inc n princi- pal mart for the trade of the Ix-vant." emi main- falr.i!!) :^ 5-xsnn "f Ofiil^rr^. Whi'-!l J-.-, rjrl fhc Mediterranean " and made fearful depri'dations on Its populous borders." Oran was taken by BARBART STATES, 1805-1810. AirAoKiwai. BABBART STATES, 1819-153S. •torm. No mercy wu ihown; no Kspect for »ge or iei; and the soldiery abandoned them- •elvea to all the brutal license and ferocity which seem to stam religious wars above every other. . . . No less than 4,0()0 Moors were said to liave fallen in the battle, and from 8,000 to 8.000 were made prisoners The loss of the Christians was ^considerable." Recalled to Spain by Kiiiit Ferdinand. Xlmenes left the aSy to^Afri^ Mdcr the command of Count Pedro Navarro rjavarro 8 •'first enterprise was andnst Bugia (Jan. 13th. 1510), whose king, at tEo head of a powerful army, he routed in two pitched battles and got possession of his flourislilng capital (Jan. 3Ut). Algien. Teunis. Trcmecin. and other cities on the Barbary coast, submitted one after another to the Spanish arms. The inhabitanU were received as vassals of the Catholic king • #• ,,^^^ Kuarantced. moreover, the liberation V. L^?;'^*'.'?'' "'Pt'^es 'n their dominions; for which the Algerines, however, took car« to In- demnify themselves, by extorting the full ran- sonj from their Jewish residenu. ... On the ^Bth of July, 1510, the ancient city of Tripoli after a most blooily and desperate defence, sur- rendered to the arms of the victorious general whose name had now become terrible along the whole northern borders of Africa. In the follow- mg month, however (Aug. 28th), he met with a serious discomfiture in the island of Oclves. w-herc 4,000 of his men were slain or made prisonera. This check ,ii the brilUant career of Count Navarro put a final stop to the progress of the Castillan arms in Africa under FerdlMnd. The resulu obtained, however, were of great Im- portance . Most of the new conquesU escaped from the SpanUh crown In later times, through the imbi-cllitv or indolence of Ferdi- nand s successors. The conqu-i«s of Xlmenes however, were placed in so stioug a posture of defence as to resist overv attempt for their re- covery by the enemy, and to remain permanently incorporated with the Siianlsh empire."— W II. Pre»..ott. Ui,t of the lUign of fltrdinand'and iKtwUii, ch. 81 (r. C). A. D. t5i6-is«.-PiraUe*l dominion of the Barbarossa* in Alpera. — Etubliahmeat of Turkish soTcreirnty. — Seiaura of Tunii by the Corsairs and its conquest by Charlca V — •• About the Inglnning of the Iflth century a su(I ri revolution hiipnencd, which, by render- mg the states of niirlmry formidable to the Europeans, hath maile their history worthv of more attention. This nvolution wai broQght about by persons bom in a rank of life which entltle<l t .em to act no such Illustrious part Horuc and Ilsyradin. the sons of a potter i^the Isle of LI»lK)8, promptwl by a restless and cnter- priiing spirit, forsook their fathers trade, ran to sea, and joinnl a crew of pirates. They soon dl.^tingui»lied themselves by their valor uid ac- I vity, and, becoming miuiUTS of a small brigan- tlne carrictl on their infamous trade with such conduct and succ-ss that they asaembied a fleet of IS galleys, Inxldra many vessels of smaller u. ..'.*'''" ""■'''■ ""f""^' 'he elder brother, called Ilarbarossa fmrn the red color of bis beaid w«sa.i,^iral, audHiiyra<lin second in command' but with almost equal authority. Ther called thems<ves the friends of the sea. and the ene- mies of all who sail upon It: and their names Kv>o tireamc terrible frr.m H« Slraiui of the Dar- •JaneUea to Uioee of Oibraliar, . . . TUy often carted the prizes which they took on the coast. and enriching the InhabitanU bv the mkot the r booty, and the thoughtless "piodigan y "f S*' Mt*^ ""'« "elcome^uests fn every 1^' at which thev touched, -fbe convenient ^iZ tlon of these harbours, lying so near tlie ga'at^st commerce states at thit time in Chrisumlora Sl^'co'SSt^^'^A" ^"^ '°'r «t.-WiShment?i that country. An opportunity of accomplishing this quickly presenteJ itself flSlO], whieh he? did not suffer to pass unlmpiovtd." InviteX taking a Spanish fort which had been built ta hU neighbourhood, Barbarossa was able U, mur ^ri™ ISSJS'""'*'''? """P'"/". n"««ter the Al- ^.1 «®J''°??'"? *°^ "*"'T '»» crown. "Not satUfled wfth the throne wliich be had acquired he attacked the neighbouring king of Tremecen' and. having vanquShed him In battle, JSte dominions to those of Algiera. At the same time he continued to Infest the coasts of Sndn and luly with fleeU which resemble<l Z iZt mcnts of a great monarch, rather than the liirht squadrons ofa corsair. Their frequent cruel X viMjution. obliged Charles fthe R?th- ,rgreS Emperor and Ring of Spain: 1519-15,W1, afcut quU de Comares. governor of Oian, with ttoons wf^"."'.?? '"~=? '''""• " BarbarlMsa waHe fcated in the ensuing war, driven from Tren.c known Ilkewhw. by the name of Barlmr,«« assumed the sceptre of Algiera with the same ambition and abilities, but with better forttr His reign being undisturbed by the arms of the Spaniards, which had full occupation in the wars !?»?£m " European powers, he regulated with admirable prudence the interior police of his kingdom, earned on hh naval operation, «ith ^Hnlif"!' "^"tende.1 his conquests on tlie continent of Africa. But perceiving tlist the Moora and Arabs siibmittcd to his government with reluctance and bein» afraid that his eou- f iJJ'.'k''''"^*"?"! *""''' '">« •'"y draw u|K«. him the arms of the Christians, lie put hi,, 'l„- "1 '°/i'.."„'V'*'' *■;• protection of the dran<l .S.ig- Pi.?' fJ'nJ' •"«'„»ceiv.Mi from him [win, tUe liiM°' ^i;?' Bevlcrl. y] a body of Turkish soldlera 'jfflclent for his domestic as well as forelsTi enemies. At last, the fame of his exploits daily Increaaing, Solymun offered hliii the com- mand of the Turkish ttni. . . . Bart«n.s»« re- paired to Constantinople, ami . . . guln,,! Uic ent re confidence both of the sultan hikI his til V v" .' . ™ ''* cu'nniunicated a sclmiie vvhich he had formed of nuiklng himself iim.s|rr or funis, the most flourishing kingdom st that time on the coast of Africa; ami tills Ixing so- proved of by them, he obtalnwl whiili ver he Jlcmandiil for carrying it Into exeeullon. Hit hope, of success In this undertskiiin Here foundeil on the intestine divisions In th, kin,{- dom of TunU." The last king of that i-o.iMr". 11 . ".* "'"• ''^ "llfferent wivi-s, lind estuii- IWied one of the younger sons on the tlmmi' -.,§ his successor. ThU young king atteniincl lo put all of hU brothen to death ; but Alnisdiid. *{'" *»• one ot the eldest, escaped and ll.il lo Algiers. Barbaiusaa now proposed to the Turk- ish su!t«a to attack Tijb!» n.-. the pr<=t< :)r^ -f yindlcating the rigbU of Alraachid. His pro- "~-' -* -itedr ■ ■ • - ' poeal WM adop 268 and carried out; but ereo BARBABT STATES, 1518-1S88. Xxr*diUon o/OmiinV. BARBARY STATES, 1343-1560. before the Turkish expedition uiled. Alnucbid himsvlf disappeared — a prisoner, shut up in the Seraglio — and was never heard of again. The use of his name, however, enabled Barbarossa to enter Tunis in triumph, and the betrayed in- habitants discovered too iate that he came as a viceroy, to make them the subjects of the sultan. "Being now possessed of sucli extensive ter- ritories, he carried on his depredations against the Christian states to a greater extent ana with more destructive violence than ever. Daily compiaints of tlie outrages committed by his cruiaera were brought to the emperor by his subjects, both in Spain and Italy. All Christen- dom seemed to expect from him, as its greatest and most fortunate prince, that he would put an end to this new and odious species of oppression. At the same time Muley-Hasccn, the exMed king of Tunis, . . . applied to Charles as the only person who could assert bis rights in opposition to such a formidable usurper. The Emperor, scconlingly, In \TiSS, prepared a great expedition against Tunis, drawing men and ships from every part of his wide dominions — from Spain, Italy, Oemmny ana the Netherlands. "Op the tOth of July the fleet, consisting of near 5(K res- scls, having on board above 30,000 regular troops, set sail from Cagliari, and, after a p-os- perous navigation, landed within sight of Tunis." The fort of Qoletta, commanding the bay, was invested and taken; tlie corsair's fleet sur- rendered, and Barbarossa, advancing boldlj from Timls to attack the invaders, was overwhelm- ingly l)oaten, and fled, abandoning his capital. ('Imrle.t'8 soldiers rushed into the unfortunate town, esciiplng al! restraint, and making it a i#ene of indescribable horrors. " \l)ovc 30,000 of tlie innocent inhabitauu perishca on that un- happy day, and 10,0(i.i were carried away as eliives. Mulry-IIasctn took possession of a throne surrounded with carr"ge, abhorred by his subjects, on whom he hud brought such rnlamities." Before quittirg the country, Charles nmcluded a treaty with Muley-IIascen, under which the latter acknowledged that he held his kliigilnm in fee of tlie crown of Spain, doing Iwnisgc to the Emp -or as his liege, and main- tJiining a Spanish garrison in the OolctU. He also released, wlihout ransom, all the Christian slaves in his dominions, 80,000 in number, and iiromised to detain In servitude no subject of the Kmperor thereafUT. He opened his kingdom to the Chri.stiun religio" and to free trade, and pledgeil himself to exclude Turkish corsairs from Ii'b ports.— W. Robertson, "ft. oftht Heion vfCliarht r.,bk. 5(c. «), n^- P- ,'.M«--tT'«« di»Mtro»« txpcdition of Charles V. agaiott Aljfiert.— Encouraged, and lUii iveil, by bis easy success «t Tunis, the e.n- p«n)r, riiftries V., detennineii, i,i LWI, to under t.ilie till riiluction of Algiers, and to wholly I xti nniii;ite the freebooters of the north African <|«i»t. \h fore hit preparatiims were completed •■ the 9CHS0T unforti.natelv was far advanced on wliiih ncco.mt the Po|h; entreated, and D;)ria ■iHiJurici him not to expow bis whole armam« nt t(. a destruction almmt unavoidable on a wild sliiire iluriuK tlic violence of the autumnal gaics. Aillhring, however, to his plan with determined ;'i>«in.i<y. !ic rmhsrhed at pnrto Vcncrr The f„r,.c . which he lia.l collected . . c>u«ltu-ci of 80,000 f<mt and a.OOO Iwnk,, moatly tcfnuu, togctUcr with 3 000 Yolualwrt. Besides these there bad Joined his standard 1,000 soldiers sent by the Order of St. Jolm, and led by 100 of Its most valiant knighu. Landing near Algiers without opposition, Charles imme- diately advanced towards the town. To oppose the invaders, Hassan had only 800 Turks, and 6,000 Moors, partly natives of Africa, and part'/ refugees from Spain. V»'hen summoned to ear- render he, nevertheless, returned a fierce and haughty answer. But with such a bandfil of troops, neither bis desperate courage nor ■xin- summate skill in war could have long resisted forces superior to those which had formerly t ^ated Barbarossa at the head of 60,000 men.''' He was speedily relieved from danger, however, by an opportune storm, vhlch burst upon the region during the secon.l .iav after Charles's de- barkation. The Spanish camp was flooded ; the soldieiB irenched, chilled, sleeoless and dis- pirited. In this condition they' were attacked by the Moon at dawn, and narrowly escaped a rout. "But all feeling of this disaster wag soon obliterated by a more affecting spectacle. As the tempest continued with unabated vio- lence, the full light of day showed the ships, on which alone their safety depended, driving fn>-n their anchors, dnsliing agamst one another, and many of them f i-d on the rocks, or sinking in the waters. J: ^ than an nour, 15 ships of war and 140 ti -rcrta, with 8,000 men, per- ished before their even; and such of the unhappy sailora as escaped the fury of the sea, were mur- dered by the Arabs as soon as they reached land " ^^'ith such ships as he could save, Uoria sought shelter behind Cape Matafui;, sending a mes- sage to the emperor, advising that he follow with the army to that point. Charies could not do otherwise than act according to the sugges- tion; but his army suffered horriuly in the retreat, which occupied tbn* days. "Many perished by famine, us the whole army subsisted chiefly on roots and berries, or on the flesh of horses, killed for that purpose by the emperor's orders; numlieis were drowned in the swollen brooks; and not a few were slain by the enemy." Even after tlic army had regained the fleet, and was rcenibarked, it was scattered by a second storm, and several weeks passed before the emperor reached his Spanish dominions, a wiser and a sadder man.— M. Russell, JliH. of th< Ikir- bary Statrt, ch. 8. Also in: W. Robertson, UiH. of tht lidgn of A. D, i$43->(eo.— The pirate Drurut and hi* exploiti.— Turkish capture of Tripoli,— Ditattrous Christian attempt to recover the Pl«ce.— Dragut. or Torghnd, a native of iho Laramanian c<iiMit, opwsite the Island of Rhmies, began bis career as a .Nlediterranean corsair somo time Vfore the last of tbe B,. b'lrossas quitted the ' .ene and waa advance*) \y ■ the favor of the Viifcrine. In 1,140 he fell Into the hands of one of the Dorias and was bound to the oar as a galley-slave for three years.— which did not sweeten his temper toward the Christian world. In 1.543 be n is ransomed, aud rvs" ned his piracies, with more energy than before. " Dra- arut't lair was at the UUnd of Jerlia f>alle<I Cielves. by the Spsninnts]. . . . Not content with the rsfh j,|njltiuf Europe, Dmgut took tiio Spanish outpost* in Africa, one by one — Suta, Sfax, Monastlr; and Anally set forth to conquer 'Africa.' Itlsaot luoommon la Atabictocall 2C9 BARBART STATES, 184».I8M. Lonpf M A'. BARBART STATES, 1578-1578. » country and ita capital by the ume name. . Africa meant to 'he Arabs the province o; no^tT^t^T ^ri' ""■ "» <»pltnl. which w^ n,m^ -T^ Throughout the later middle age, the ^it i'^^'^u '* °PP'^ ^y Christian writeri to the latter city. . . . This was the citv which J;J?«il.Jf'''* !,''■"? !'!*? '° »" "narthic State, ruled by a council of chiefs, each nwlv to betrav tte otber and none owl.,, the smJl&neS Tunr/n»l^'.'™f' ?' "I' "•« ''«»Pl''"d king of faZr n-^n- T';,° ■; "^ t^'P^ «"<* blindeJhls .h;2! '..,"."• i^harles V.'s prot«g5. One of he dtv bv'nWh?™^"' i?** '"'' ""'"y •""''>'°° tne city by night. . . . So easy a triumph roused the emulation of Christendom!'. . DonGarda dc Toledo dreamed of outahinlng the Coi^Tr^ lo.^- «„'h ' /?"'"• *'"' 7'°="'y "' Napier he AnK;.» ilS""^."', ?>?■"'"*<> their aid, and old Andrea Doria took the command. After much delay and consultation a large body of tZos JZT'A^ to Mahdiya an^ dStarkeZ^u Dmfert 'J^- , ^"S""' though aware of the project, was at sea, devastotin* the Gulf of Genoa, and pavlng"him-seif"'ln";;2fvan« for any Christians might Inflict In Africa: hte ii-J .! .!l^i.™ -.-■■— —""•"■K'lk luiuci m Ainca: bis nephew Hisar Reis commanded In the city: When Dragut returned, the siege had gone on mL .r"'> ''V' J" '""^ In attempting to raise it and ret red to Jerba. Mahdiya was ramed by assault on the 8th of September ->,extyear, 1551, Dmgufs place was wiJhU.e Ottoman navy, then eommanJed by Sinan Pasha. snlHipr, LT^^ ^^ Kalleysorgalleots, 10,000 Boldiers, and numerous siege-guns, Sinan and Drngm sailed o,^ of ,he DanliScllei -whither bound no Christian could tell. They ravaged M usu..,l, the Straita of Messina, and then™ vef ^d Uie pomt of attack by makiug dinH^t for Malta " fnniiM.i ""'"/'.?'";.•'' .'•"^= "K"'"" the strong fortiflc. tionsof the KnighUof St. John was ill- planne. and feebly executed; It was easily If£': if , To wipe out his defeat, Sinan "snllea strnieht for Tripoli, some 64 leagues away Tri i^.-i^ ".T,'' '".','* ?"'8''"' of St. John-muc agamst their will — Inasmuch as the Emneror had made their defence of this easS™ Malta But the fortilications of Tripoli were not strong enough to resist the Turkish W bnMm..„t, andOasnnrd de Villiers, he c^m- niandunt, was forced to surrender (August 15tlO wl I. 1 Sueynmn granted to the Knights of Rh.Kies. But Sinan was no Sulevmant mow Ord':r"'lT'" 'I'.l: '"^"Jl' ™8* "'■"• the^Me Order, Ht put the garrison -all save a fcw- n chains and carried them olT to grace his triumph at Stambol. Thus did Tr-.olffall once more Into the hands of the Moslems. Th^ misfortunes of the Christians did not eiid here i ear after year the Ottoman fleet appeariKl In Italian waters . . . Unable as they Wit thein selves o eop. dth the Turk, at .e ' U.e ,k Vw,^ ou nn".™ .''-"r ■^'"'""^ to strike one more blow on land, and recover Tripoli A H.^.t nf Snl^r f""?'.-'! .hKthej7ron Spain. Genoa, 'the IWiglon,' thel'ope fmn. a quarters, with the Puke de MedlnaSl „7 U.:/ 6e&.r nascmbicd at Jtessina. . . . Five times the ezpedlUou put to ita; flv. times wm It driven w'^i^ contraiy winds. At last, on Febmarr 10, 1560, It was fairly away for the aS ™ coast. Here fresh troubles awaited if r '"" delays in crowd«l vessels had pt^u^rf ^.'"j? d««trrus effects; fevere and*^ scurfy and .In"**.? ''*™ ''"''''"8 their terribl ",^va«^ "■^""ftfie crews, and 2,000 «)rpse, were flu^n, Trinl" T.?.- l\ *"« impossible tr lay siege ,f Tripoli with a diseased army, and *hen artn,,ii^ n Bight of their object the idmirals p?ve '™ .'.^ XTJ'h™ "^J"^ A »•"'''''" descent qmVkw save them the command of the beautiful Uanf ■ „i ,. '*° mo:,t;.T a strong castle wa- Snii with all scientlfl. earthwork8%nd the adZ i prepared to cany home such troops m ^^"'o neede<I for Its defence. Unhappi^ forllm he had lingered too long ft^ was aCt to prepare for departure' when news came tlu ,1 e turkish fleet Ud W^n seen at Goza. I, ston,lv all was panic. Valiant gentlemen forg rthS valm-r, forgot thoir cooffiess Before hev could make out of the strait . . . the d"^ Pa»Ta''i°"«^'^ •''r*"' »"'• Ochiali and Aa^ Pasha were upon them. Then ensuwl a sr, ne nf wT'.V'T "";' '"'"•''' 'inscription. Despa ri '° of weathering the north side of J^rba the Z c' S"*'-'^ Clii^tians ran their s.ilps ashort^ "id deserted them, never stopping evVa to <^.t them onflre. . . On rowed tlie fdrks; gdlevVand flm'cl^ti^T^ "l"^'/'' intofhei'r"an';i"1 t»,ouo Christians ved down Ixf-re tluii^ Mi'^fSA "'*'*"''' "P""" tnemomble 11 1 of May, lo(K), was a confused medley of strati 'led ships, helpless prisoners. Turks I.ifsy it, I'l^tt-^ T" ,!l5'*u??."'"y''-''"'» a ''id™"» '-"-of w*'*li"!{"'^- The fleet and the an-. «hi U had satled from Messina . . . were a.,«,lut" y p>XiT:ItlT°''- ""'■ "^ "^^"^""-^ fr«™ ?:JS63-i.56s-Repulie of the Moon P««n it°v.T"' M^yqoi'er.-Caoture of m!»t nf* Xe'*»--I'> ll'c spring at \m a most determined and formidable attempt was S'm Sn^ i"j)f*'?' ^^"'X^y "'■ ^^'ff'""", to drive wlLh^??'*"*! I"'.™,/*™" ""'i Mazurquiver, which they had held since the Afri.au eon- quesu of Cardinal Ximenes. The siege w^ fierce and desperate; the defence nuwt liimi,- The beleaguered garrisons held their gmund U.III a relieving expedition from Spain cai..,. In re?ll.», °° /""f,, ^"'r"' .•'""e, when the .M.xir, retreateti hastily. In the summer of ih,. mm year the Spaniards took the stnmg i land fortnsi of Penon de \ elei, breaking up one mon. ncs, of pintc" and strengthening their footing on t],e Barlwry coost. In the course of the y.ar fol- lowing they blocked the mouth of the riv, r letuan which was a place of refuu'e for ili>. marBudeni._W. H. Prescott, Jh.l. ofth. It.,:,,, , f I'Mip II, hk. 4, eh. 1 (r. 2), A. D. lS65.-P«rticip«tlon in the Turkish Siege of M»lta.-Death of Dragut. .vo HosprrALLKRs OF St. .liiuN A 1> ivhim" I ^- O- «57«>-«57«--War with the Holy Leane of Spain, Venice and the Pope. -The Battle of Lepanto. See Tl bus: A. 1>. I.-.W- r,A. p. 1S7»-»S73 -Capture of Tunis by Dob John of Anstria.-fts recovery, wita r^fVftu''' *''• ''"'"''•• "«« Tuwts: A M. 1573-1570, , 270 BARBART STATES, 1979. WanwUk MVxtnai. BARBART STATES, l««4-188t. A. D. 1579.— Inrasion of Morocco bj Scbaa- tiaii of Portiigal.— Hia defeat and death. See Portugal: A. D. 157»-1580. A. D. 166^-1684.— Ware of France aniut the piratical powera.— DcatmctiTc bombard- menli of AlMn.— "The sncicDt alliance of the crown of France wltli the Ottoman Porte, »lwayo unpopular, and less necessary sinca France had become so strong, was at this moment [early in the reign of Louis XIV.] well-nigh broken, to the great satisfaction both of the Christian nations of the Boutn and of the Austrian empire. . . Divers plans were proposed in the King's cou! il for attack'sg the Ottoman power on the Moorish coasts, and for repressing the pirates, who were the terror of the mercliaii' shipping and maritime provinces. Colber inuuccd the khig to attempt a military settlement among the Moors as the best means of holding them in check. A squadron commanded by the Duke de Beaufort . . . landed 5,000 picked soldie- be- fore Jijeli (or DJIgelli), a small Algerine port between Bouglah and Bona. They took posses- sion of JiJeU without difBcultr (July 28, 1684) ; but discord arose between Seaufort and his officers; they did not work actively enough to fortify themselves," ind before the end of September they were obliged to evacuate the place prccipiuteiy. ' ' The success of Beaufort's squadron, commanded under the duke by the celebrated Chevalier Paul, ere long effaced the impression of this reverse: two Algerine flotillas were destroyed in the course of 1865." The Dey of Algiers sent one of his French captives an officer named Du Babinais, to France with proposals of peace. maKing him swear to return If his mission failed. The proposals were re- jected; Du Bubinais was loyal to his oath and retumeil — to suffer death, as he '.xpected, at the hands of the furious barbarian. •' The devotion of this Brt'ton KcKulus was not lost : d. spou.-f ency soon took the pla.'c of anger in the heart of the Moorish chiefs, Tunis yielded first to the gr of the French squadron, brought to b ar on i from the Bay of (Joletta The Pacha and the D van of Tunis obligated tlicmsclves to restore all the French slaves they possessed, to re- 'R^4 '^'*"'^'' *•»'?». "d thenceforth to release ^1 Frenchmen whom they sho"Ui capture on foreign ships. . . . RlghU of auu. le, and of •wmlraity and shipwreck, were suppressed as re- garrtM Frenchmen (November 25, 1865) The station at Cape Negro was restored to France • . .Algiers subrnFtted. six months after, to nearly the same conditions imposed on it by Louis XIV.: one of tlie articles atipulated that freiirli merchants should bo treaUnl us favorably JS."."'' '""•'«" nation, and even more so(MBy 17, lB«fl). More than 3,000 French slaves were set at liberty. Betw»"en 1869 and 1872, Louis XIV was «'riously mtKiitating a great war of conquest with till. Turks and therr depcn.l.nciea, but pr.. fentMl, Hnajiy, to enter upon his war with Hoi- land, whirl brought the other project to naught. -,„ ?'T "",' "■* ""Oman empire then remained on U.lmbly good terms until 1681. when a squadmn of T-ripoliUn corsairs having carried on a lTi.nch ship on the coast of Provence, Uuniiesne, Ht the heail of seven vessels, pur- I'.t ti ''"'^' "i"" ,"^ *»'*™ "f Orcece. They took nfugc in tlie lisrbor of Scio. Duaueue ;r"u""J ""I ^^ °f o to experS rh» Pacha refrnwd. .ad -.ed on thlTftSnSi 271 squadron, when Duqueane cannonaded both the piratet and the town with sue/- violence that the Pacha, tenUed, asked for a t.-uce, in order to refer the matter 'n tb<i Sultan (July 23 1681) Duqueane converted tht attack Into a blockade! At the news of this violation of the Ottoman territory, the Sultan, Mahomet IV., fell into a rage .. . and dispatched the Captain-Pacha to Scio with 82 galleys. Duquesno allowed the Turkish gaUeys to enter the harbor, then block- aded them with the pirates, and declared that he would bum the whole If satisfaction were not had of the Tripolitana. The Divan hesitated. War was about to recommence with the Em- peror; It was not the moment to kindle It again jt France." In tb" end there was a compromise, and the Tripolitana gave up the French resael and the slaves they b'd captured, , romising also, to rer^lve a French consul .it TripoB. "During th J time anothci' squadron, o >mnianded bv Chiteai-Renault, blockaded thu coasta of Morocco, tie men of Maghreb having rivalled in deprediitions the vassals of Turkey The powerful Smperor of Morocco, Muley Ismael. sent the g'vemor of Tetuan to Franco to solicit geace of . ouls XIV. The treaty was signed at aiut-Oennaln, January 29, 1682, on advantage- ous conditions," including restitution of BVench slaves. "Affairs did not terminate so amicably with Algiers. From this piratical centre had proceeded the gravest offenses. A captain of the royal navy was held in slavery there, with many other Frenchmen. It was resolved to In- flict a tcTlbH punishment on the Algerinea The thougnt of conquering Algeria had more than once presented itself to the king and Colbert, and they appreciated tlie value of this conquest; the Jiji ii expedition had been formerly a first attempt They did not, however, deem it incumbent on them to embark in such an enterprise; a descent, a si( , would have re- quired too great preparation . thev had recourse to another means of attack. The regenerator of the art of naval construction, Pctit-Itenau, in- vented bomb-ketches expressly for the purpose. ■ ;_; ^"'' ^^' ^''**' Duquesne anchored before Algiers, with 11 ships, 15 galleys, 5 bomb- '(etches, and Petit-Renau to guide them. Afte.' Ave weeks' delay caused by bad weather, then by a fire on one of the bomb-ketches, the thorough trial took place durin" the night of August 80. The effect was terrible: a part of the ,-reat mosque fell on the crowd that had takf 1 refuge there. During tlie night of Sep- tember 8-4, tlic Algerines attempted to capture the bomb-ketches moored at the entmnce of their harhjr; they were repulsed, ami the bombard- ment continued. The Dey wished to negotiate! the people, exasperated, prevented him. The wind shifting lo the northwest presaged the equinoctial storm; Duquesne set sail again September 12. The expedition had not Wn dwislve. It was begun anew. June 18, 1683, Duquesne reappeareil in the road of Algiers; he had, this time, seven bomb-ketches instead of five. These instruments of exU-rmination had been perfected in the Interval. The nights of June 26-27 witnessed the overthrow of a great num- bor of hnuwfe, several mosques, and the nslan-e of the Dev. A thousand men perished 'n the harbor and the town. " The Dey opentnl negotia- tions, giving up 700 French slaves, but waa killed by Ua Jaaixariea, and one Uadsl-Huiaela BARBaUT states, l«64-ia84. i S—litanet. BABBART STATES. 17W-1801. proclaimed In hU stead. "The bombardment wag resumed with Increasing violence. The Algerines .-jvenged themselves by binding to the muzzles of their guns a number of Frenchmen who remained in their hands. . . . The fury of the Algerines drew upon them redoubled calamities. ... The bombs rained almost with- out intermissioo. The harbor was strewn with the wreclis of vessels. The city was . a heap of bloody ruins." But " the bomb-ketches had exhausted their ammunition. September was approaching. Duquesnc again departed: but a strong blockading force was kept up, dur- ing the whole winter, as a standing threat of the return of the 'infernal vessels.' The Algerines finally bowed their head, and, April 25, 1684 peace was accorded by Tourvilie, the com- mander of the blockade, to the Pacha Dey Divan, and troops of Algiers. The Algerines restored 3'JO French slaves remaining in their power, and 180 other Christians claimed by the King; the Janizaries only which had been taken from them were resto.ed , they engaged to make no prizes within ten leagues of the coast of France, nor to assist the other Moorish corsairs at war with France ; to recognize the precedence of the fl.ig of France over all other flags, Ac 4c. ; liustly, they sent an embassy to carry their submission to Louis XIV. ; they did not, how- •^«r. P«y tbe damages which Duquesne had wished to exact of them."— H. Martin, Iliit of Frarue: Age of Louit XIV.. t. 1, eh. 4 ond 7. A. p. 1785-1801.— Piratical depredations upon American commerce.— Huinili«tinE trea- ties and tribute.— The example of resistance eiven by the United States.— "It is difficult for us to realize that only 70 years ago the Medi- terranean was so unsafe that the merchant slilns of every nntion stood in danger of behig cap- ture<l by pirates, unless they were protected either by au armed convoy or by tribute paid to the i>cttv Biirlniry powers. Yet we can scarcely open a Iwok of travels during the lost century witliout m.ntion boiuT made of the immense nsks to which every one was exposed who ven- tured by sea from Marseilles to Naples. . . The European states. In order to protect their com- merce, had tlic choice either of paying certain sums per head for each captive, which in reality was a premium on capture, or of buying entire freedom for their commerce by the expenditure of ^rge sums yearly. The treaty renewed by France, in 1788, with Algiers, was for fiftv years and it was agreed to pay fiOO.OOO annually, be- sides large presents distributed according to custom every Un years, and a great sum given down. The jK-ace of Spain with Algiers is said to have cost from three to five mlUionsof dollars There is n'lison to believe that at the same time EnRland was paying an annual tribute of about f280.0<X). Kii:,'land was the only power sulB- dently »t rong on tlie sea to put down these pirates- but in onltT to keep her own position as mistress of the seas she preferriHl to leave them in existence In order to be a scourge to the commerce of otlier Euro|)oan powers, and even to support them by paying a sum so great that other aUtes might find it (lilllcult to make i>eace with them. When the Kevoliitlon broke out, we [of the United Btatt'S of America] no longer had the safeguards tor our commerce that had been given to us bv t.ngiuud, and ii was therefore tliat In our very Ont negotiatioM for a treaty wlU» France we desired to have an article Inserted into the trcatv uiat the king of France should secure the \a- habitanu of the United States, and their vessels and effects, against all attacks or depredations from any of the Barbary powers. It was found impossible to insert this article in the treaty of 1778, and Instead of that the king agrei ^ to 'em ploy his good offices and Interposftion order to provide as fully and efficaciously as possible {?', "'e„beneflt. convenlency and safety of the United States against the princes and the states of Barbary or their subjecU.'"— Direct negotia- tions between the United States and the piratical powers were opened in 1785, by a call which Mr Acams made upon the Tripolitan ambassador' The tatter announced to Mr. Adams that " ' Tur' key. TripoU, Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco were the sovereigns of the Mediterranean j and that no nation could navigate that sea without a treaty of peace with them.' . . , The ambassador de- manded as the lowest, price for a perpetual p^ace 80,000 guineas for his employers and £3,000 for himself; that Tunis would probably treat on the same terms; but he could not answer for Algiers or Morocco. Peace with all four powers would cost at least |1,000,000, and Congress had appro- priated only 180,000. . . . jfr. Adams was strongly opposed to war, on account of the ex- pense and preferred the payment of tribute ... Mr. Jefferson ouite as decidedly preferred war. 'The opinion in favor of a trial of pacific negotiations prevailed, and a treaty with the Emperor of Morocco was concluded in 1787 An attempt at the same time to make terms with the Dey of Algiers and to redwm a numlwr of American captives In his hands, came to nothing '• For the sake of saving a few tliousand dollars fourteen men were allowed to remain in imprison- ment for ten years. ... In Novemlwr, 1793, the number of [American] prisoners at Algiers amounted to 115 men, among whom there re mained only ten of the originalcaptives of 1785 " At last, the natlor began to realize th- intoiirable shame of the matter, and, "on January 2, 1794, the House of Representatives resolved that a 'naval force adequate for the protection "f the commerce of the United States against the Al- gerine forces ought to be provided. ' In the same year authority was given to buil.l six frigates, and to procure ten smaller vessels to be equipped as galleys. Negotiations, however, coutiuued to goon," and In September, 1795, a treaty with the Dey was concluded. "In making this treaty however, we had been obliged to follow the usage of European powers — not only pav a largo sum for the purpose of obtaining peace', but an annual tribute, in order to keep our veasels from being captured In the future. The total cost of '"Ifllllnp the treaty was estimated at <I9»2,- 463.85.'— E. Schuyler, AmeriMn Diplomify, pi. 4.— "The first treaty of 1795, witli Algiers, which was negotiatod during Washington » ad- ministration, cost the United States, for the ran- som of American captives, and the Dey s f.irlxar- ance, around 11,000.000, in addition to which an annuity was promised. Treaties with other Bar- bary States followed, one of which purchased peace from Tripoli by tlie payment of a gross sum. Nearly $2,000,000 hail.liwn squandered thus far in bribing these powers to respect our flag, and Prpsi.|.-.nt .Adam-j omplaitini in i"-00 that the United States had to nay three times th'' tribute Imposed upon Sweaea sud Denmark 272 BARBABT 8TATBS, 1785-1801. Dteatm't JbploU. BABBABT STATES, 180&-180S. But this temporizing policj 011I7 nude matters worse. Captkln Bunoridge arriTed at Algiers in 1800, bearing the annual tribute money for the Dey in a national frigate, and the Dey ordered him to proceed to Constantinople to deliver Al- gerine dispatches. ' English, French, and Span- bh ships of war hare done the same,' said the Dey, insolently, when Balnbrldge end the Ameri- can consul remonstrated. ' Tou pay me tribute tiecause you are my slavea ' Balnbrldge had to obey. . . ■ The lesser Barbary States were still more exasperating. The Bashaw of Tripoli had threatened to seize American vessels unless Presideut Adams sent him a present like that bestownl upon Algiers. The Basliaw of Tunis made a similar demand upon the new President [Jefferson]. . . . Jefferson had, while in Wash- ington's cabinet, expressed his detestation of the method hitherto favored for pacifying these pests of commerce ; and, availing himielf of the pres- ent favorable opportunity, he sent out Commo- dore Dale with a squadron of three frigates and a sloop of war, to make a naval demonstration on the coast of Barbary, . . . Commodore Dale, upon arriving at Oibraltar [July, 1801], found two Tripoiitan cruisers watching for American vessels; for, as bad been suspected, Tripoli already meditated war. The frigate Philadelphia blockaded these vessels, while Balnbrldge, with the frigate Essex, convoved American vessels in the Mediterranean. Dale, in the frigate Pred- dent, proceeded to cruise off Tripoli, followed by the schooner Experiment, which presently captured a Tripoiitan cruiser of 14 guns after a spirited action. The Barbary powers were for a time overawed, and the United States thus set the first example among Christian nations of making reprisals instead of ransom the rule of security against these commercial marauders. In this respect Jefferson's conduct was applauded at home by men of all parties."— J. Schouler, Hilt, of the U. S., eh. 6, tKt. 1 (v. 3). Also in: R L. Playfair, The Soourge of Chri$- ttndon, eh. 16. A. D. 1803-1805.— American War with the pirates of Tripoli.— "The war with Tripoli aragired tediously along, and seemed no nearer its end at the close of 1803 than 18 months be- fore. Commodore Morris, whom the President sent to command the Mediterranean squadron, cruised from port to port between May, 1803, and August, 1803, convoying merchant vessels from Giliraltar to Leghorn find JIalts, or lay in harbor and repaired his ships, but neither block- a<li.il nor molested Tripoli ; until at le igth, June 2i, IMS, the President called him home and dis- misst-d him from the service. His successor was Commmiore Preble, who Sept 13, 1803, reached Gibraltar with the relief-squadron which Secretary Gallatin thought unnecessarily strong. ... He found Morocco taking part with Tripoli. Captain Bainbridge, who readied Qib- raltiir hi the ' Philadelphia ' August 34, some thit-c weeks before Preble arrived, caught in the rHghborhotKl a Moorish cruiser of 23 guns with an AnuTican brig in its clutches. Another Amiriiim brig had Just been seizetl at Mogador. peterniined to stop this peril at the outset, Pa'ble united to his own squakln}n the ships wiiich he had come to relieve, and with this rran!-.ir,P.l force, . . . scadiag the ' Phihidclphia ' to bl(Kkade Tripoli, he crossed to Tangiers Uctober 6, and brought tha £mperor of Horaoco to reason. On both sides prizes and prisoner! were restored, and the old treaty was renewed. This affair consumed time ; ana when at length Preble got the ' Constitution ' under way for the Tripoiitan coast, he spoke a British frigate off the Island of Sardinia, which reported thai the 'Philadelphia' had been captured October 21, more ttum three weeks before. Bainbridge, cruising off Tripoli, had chased a Tripoiitan cruiser into shoal water, and was hauling off, when the frigate struck on a reef at the mouth of the harbor. Every effort was made without success to float her; but at last she was sur- rounded by Tripoiitan gunboats, and Bainbridge struck his flag. The Tripolitans, after a few days work, floated the frigate, and brought her under the guns of the castle. The officers be- came prisoners of war, and the crew, in number 800 or more, were put to hard Ubor. The affair wag in no way discreditable to the squadron. . . . The Tripolitans gained nothing except the prisoners; for at Bainbridge's suggestion PreMe, some time afterward, ordered Stephen Decatur, r young lieutenant in command of the 'Enter- prise,' to take a captured Tripoiitan craft re- named the 'Intrepid,' and with a crew of 75 men to sail from Syracuse, enter the harbor of Tripoli by night, board the 'Philadelphia,' and bum her under the castle guns. The order was literally obeyed. Decatur ran into the harbor at ten o'clock in the night of Feb. 18, 1804, boarded the frigate within half gun-shot of the Pacha's castle, drove the Tripoiitan crew over- board, set the ship on Are, remained alongside until the flames were beyond control, and then withdrew without losing a man." — H. Adams, Sitt. of the IT. S. : Adminutration of Jeffermn, t. 2, en. 7. — "Commodore Preble, in the mean- time, hurried his preparations for more serious work, and on July 25th arrived off Tripoli with a squadron, consisting of the frigate Constitu- tion, three brigs, three schooners, six gunboats, ant' two bomb vessels. Opposed to him were arrt;yed over a hundred guns mounted on shore batteries, nineteen gunboats, one ten-gun brig, two schooners mounting eight guns each, md twelve galleys. Between August 8rd and Sep- tember 3rd five attacks w^ere made, and though the town was never reduced, substantial dumage was inflicted, and the subsequent satisfactory peace rendered possible. Preble was relieved by Barron in September, not because of any loss of confidence in his ability, but from exigencies of tlie service, which forbade the Government sending out an oflicer Junior to him in the relief squadion which reinforced his own. Upon his return to the United States he was presented with a gold medal, and the thanks of Congress were tendered him, his officers, and men. for gallant aud faithful services. The blockade was maintained vigorously, and in 1805 an attack was made upon the Tripoiitan town of Dema, by a combini'd land and naval force; tlic former being under command of Consul -General Eaton, whonad been a captain in the American army, anil of Lieutenant O'Bannon of the Marines. The enemy made a spirited though disorganized defence, but the shells of the war-ships ilrovs them from point to point, and finally their prin- cipal work was carried by the force under O Bannon and Mid.^hipman Mann. Eaton wag eager to press forwani, but he was denied rein- forcemenu and military stores, and much of bit 273 t!f|i --i, ill :! BARBART STATES, 180H806. •dTKitage was lo6t All further oper»tIon» were, however, discontinued in June 1805 when, after the usual intrigues, delays, and prevarications, a treaty was signed by the Fasha which provided that no further tribute shou d be exacted, and that Americ;^ vessels Should be forever free of hU rovers. Satiafac- tory as was this conclusion, the uncomfortable fact remains that tribute entered into the settle- ment. After all the prisonere had been ex- changed man for man, the Tripolitan Govera- ment demanded, and the United States paid, the handsome sum of sixty thousand dollars to Close the contract. This treaty, however, awakened the conscience of Europe, and fram the day it was signed the power of the Barbary corsairs began to wane. The older countries IBW their duty more clearly, and ceased to legalize robbery on the high seas."— S. Lane-Poole, afoiy of tht Barbary Conair; eh 20 ALsouf: J. p. Cooper, HUt. of tli» U. S. Navy, el, eh. 18 and v. 9, eh. 1-7.— The same W'oJ PrebU.—X. 8. Mackenzie, Lift of Deca- tur, eh. 8-7. ntl °A ef5.-Fin«l V/ar of Algier* with the united Sutes.— Death-blow to AlKerine tlif'^T"^"*' ** '••« '«'« war with Great BriUm broke out, the Dey of Aiglets, taking offense at not having received from America the Ccise articles in the way of tribute demanded unceremoniously dismissed Lear, the consul nad decUred war, and had since captured an American vessel, and reduced her crew to Slavery. Immediately after the ratification of the treaty with England, this declaration had been reciprocated. Efforts had been at once made to lit out ships, new and old, includine several small ones lately purchased for the pro- posed squadrons of Porter and Perry, and before many weeks Decatur sailed from New York with the Guerriire, .Macedonian, and Constel- lation frigates, now released from blockade- the Ontario, new sloop of war, four brigs, and two jch«)nera. Two days after passing Gibraltar, he fell in With and captured an Algerinc frigate of 44 guns, the largest ship in the Algerine navy, which struck to the Guerriire after a runmng nght of twenty-flve minutes. A day or two after, an Algerine brig was chased into shoal water on the Spanish coast, and captured by tlie onallcr vessels. Decatur having appeared off Algiers, the t-rrifled Dey at once consented to a treaty, which he submitted to sign on Decatur's quarter deck, surrendering all prisoners on hand making certain pecunUry indemnities, renouncing au future claim to any American tribute or presenu, and the practice, also, of reducing prironers of war to slavery. Decatur then pro- Jo^Ji'J to Tunis and Tripoli, and obtained from both indemnity for certain American vessels captured under the guns of their forU by British cruisers during the late war. The Bey of Irtpoli being short of cash, Decatur agreed to accept in part payment the restoration of liberty to eight Danes ami two N'eapolltans held as i^"'- •r"„""'''^t'i. IIi,t. of the U. S., Second aertet, eh. 30 (r. 3). 13^14*' "''•^^- ilafkenzie. Life of Decatur, eh. A. D. i8i«.— Bombardment of Alnera by Lord Exmouth.— Reiinquiihment of Chriatiaa tlavery m Algiers, Tripolij and Tunla.- •nio eontaira of Barbary still scouted the Mediter- Bombardmmit efAlgttn. BABBART STATES, 1816. nmean; the captives whom they had taken from Christian VMseta, still langutahed In captivit/S Algiers; and. to the disgrace of the civiliW world, a piratical state was suffered to exIsUn r",!ryn'*°,'-'? P"> conclusion of the war [of the Coalition against Napoleon and France! made Uie continuance of these ravages utUrlv intolerable In the tateresto of civilization it was essential that piracy should be put down Bntaiu >•. as mistress of the seas, and it therefore devolved upon her to do the work. . . . Hannilv for this country the Mediterranean command Wi ^]^ ■?¥,«> "la*^/ [Lord Exmouth] whose braver, and skill wenj fully equal to the dangers before him. . . .Early In 1816 Exmouth wa.sin?t™eted to proceed to the several states of Barbarv to require them to recognize the cession of tlie Ionian Islands to Bntain ; to conclude peace with i^iM^^l^r."' ^l"'* """l Naples; and to ^Ush Christian slavery. The Dey of Altera readily assented to the two first of these omdi t ons; the Beys of TripolU and Tunis followed the example of the Dey of Algiers, ami in add™ tion consented to refrain in future from treatiuj prisoners of war as sUves. Exmouth thereuDon returned to Algiers, and endeavoured to obtain a simUar concession from the Dey. The Dev pleadea that Algiers was subject to the Ottoman Porte and obtained a tnice of three momlis In order to confer with the Sultan. But meantime the Algennes made an unprovoked attack upon a nelghbounug coral fishery, which was 6ro- tccted by the British flag, ma»acring the flsLer- Frmwh u^^^?^[",i. *« ^»«- Tills broucht Exmouth back to Algiers in great haste, with an ultimatum which he delivered on the S7th of August No answer to it was returned, and the the Dutch navy) sailed into battle range that same afternoon. "The Algerines permitted tlie ships to movfc Into their stations. The British reserved their fire till they could deliver it watched the ships from the shore; and Exmouth waved his hat to them to move and save them- selves from the fire. They had not the prudence to avail themselves of hU timely warning A signal shot was flred by the Algerines from the mole. The -Queen Charlotte" repli«l by delivering her entire broadside. Five hundred men were struck down by the first dUcharge. ■,• • The battle, which had thus begun at two p clock in the afternoon, continued till ten o'clock n the evening. By that time half Algiers had been destroyed; the whole of the Algerine navy had been bunie<l; and. though a few of the enemy s batteries still maintained a ca.Mial lire their principal fortifications were cruinblinK ruins; the majority of their guns were dis- mounte<l. The Dey humble<l himself to the terms proposed by the British commander. " On the first day of September Exmouth had the satisfaction of acquainting his government with the liberation of all the slaves in the city of Algiers, and the restitution of the monev paid «nce the commencement of the year liy the Neapolitan and Sardinian Governments for the redemption of slaves." He had al.*> cxU)rted from the piratical Dey a solemn declaration that he would, in future wars, treat all prisonorB according to the usagi>s of European nations. f° Jhe battle which won these important results, 188 men were killed and 680 wounded on 274 ;|!U BABBART STATBS, MlflL BARBART ST.' TZS, 1880-1846. bmrd the Britteh fleet; the Dutch loet 18 killed ■nd 52 wounded." — 8. Walpole, Hiit. tf £m front 181S, eh.a(v. 1). Also a: H. Hutineau, Eitl. cf (A< Thii , r«art Prnte, bk. 1, eh. 6 {v. \).—L. Heitilel, CMeeiion ^ Trtatitt and Omteatiom, e. 1. A. O. 1830.— French coaqnett of Algiers.— "During the Napoleonic wars, the Dey of Al pii'n supplied grain for the use of the French iirmiea; it was bought by merchants of Mar- willtfi, and there was a dispute abni-t the matter whirh was unsettled as Ute as 1829. Several in- stiilincnts had bee:i paid; the dey demanded payment in full according to his own figures, while the French government, believing the de- mand excessive, required an investigation. In one of the numerous debates on the subject, Hussein Pasha, the reignine dev, became very angry, struck the consul with a fan, and ordered him out of the house. He refused all reparation for tlie insult, even on the formal demand of the French government, and consequently there was DO alternative but war. " The expedition launched from the port of Toulon, for the chastisement of the insolent Algerine, "comprised 87,500 men, 3,000 horses, and 180 pieces of artillery. . . . The sea-forces included 11 ships of the line, 23 frif^ates, 70 smaller vessels, 877 transports, and 2.30 boats for landing troops. Oeneral Bourmont, Minister of War, commanded the expedition, which appeared in front of Algiers on the 13th of June, 1830." Hussein Pasha "had previously ssl(ed for aid from the Sultan of Turkey, but tliat wily ruler had blankly refused. The beys of Tunis and Tripoli had also declined to meddle with the affair."' The binding of the French WHS effected safely and without serious opposi- tion, at Kidi-Ferruch, about 16 miles west of Algiers. The Algerine army, 40,000 to 60,000 strong, commanded by Aga Ibrahim, son-inlaw of the dey, took its position on the table-land of Staoui'li, overlooking the French, where it waited while their landing was made. On the 19th Otni'ral Bourmont was ready to advance. His sntagoList, instead of adhenng to the waitiug attitude, and forcing the French to attack him, on liis own ground, now went out to meet them, and Hung his disorderly mob against their dis- ciplined luttalions, with the result tliat seldom fails. "The Arab loes in killed and wounded was about 8,000, . . . while the French loss was less than 500. In little more than an hour the battle was over, and the Osmanlis were in full ami disorderly retreat" Oeneral Bourmont took possession of the Algerine camp at Staouvli, where he was again attacked on the 24tb of June, with a similur disastrous result to the Arabs. He then adva ■d upon the city of Algiers, estaUislied his an. y in position behind the city, constructtii batteHes, and opened, on the 4th of J ly, a boinbardm_at so terrific that the dey h...*t«l the white flag in a few hours. " Hussein I'aslia hoped to the last moment to retain his country and its independence by making liberal conceasions in the way of indemnity for the ex- penses of the war, and offered to liberate all (.hnstian slaves In addition to paving them fo.- iheir scrvic-es and sufferings. The English con- sul tned to mediate on this basis, but his offers of mMiation were politely declined. ... It was Anally agree<l that the dey should surrender Algiers with all its fortt anil mlliUry stores, and t)e permitted to retire wherever be chose with his wives, children, and personal belnngings, but he was not to remain hi the country under any cireumstances. On the 5th of July the Frencii entered Algiers in great pomp and took possession of tha citv. . . . The spoils of war were such as rarely fall to the lot of a conquer- ing army, when its numbers and the circumstan- ces of the campaign are considered. In the treasury was found a large room filled with gold and silver coins heaped together indiscriminately, tlie fruits of three centuries of piracy; they were the coins of all the nations that had suffered from the depredations of the Algerines, and the variety in the dates showed very clearly that the accumulation had been the work of two or three hundred years. How much money was contained in this vast pile is not known; certain it is that nearly 50,000,000 francs, or £2,000,000 sterling, actually i-eached the French treasury. . . . Thecostof the war was much more than covered by the captured property. . . . Many slaves were liberated. . . . The Algerine power was forever broken, and from that day Algeria has been a prosperous colony of France. Hussein Pashf. embarked on the 10th of July with a suite of 1 10 persons, of whom 53 were women. He proceeded to Naples, where he remained for a time, went afterwards to Leghorn, and finally to Egypt." In Egypt he died, under circum- stances which indicated poison.— T. W. Knox, Dteiiite Battlei Since Waterlx), eh. 8. Also in: R L. Playfair, The Scourge of Chrit- tendom, eh. 19.— E. E. Crowe, Hitt. of the Reignt of Louie XVIII. andCharkeX., e. 2, eh. 13 A. O. 1830-1846.— The French war of Sub- junition in Algeria with Abd-el-Kader.— " When Louis Philippe ascended the throne [of France, A. D. 1830] the generals of his predeces- sor had overrun the country [of Meiers] — though they did not effectually subuuo it; their absolute dominion not extending far found Al- giers—from Bona, on the east, in la.. 86° u3' N., long. 7' 46' W., to Oran, on the west — nearly the entire extent of the ancient Libya. . . . There was always a party in the chamber of deputies opposed to the conquest who deprecated the colonisation of Algeria, and who steadily op- posed any grants of either met! or money to be devoted to the African enterprise. The natural result followed. Ten thousand men could not effect the work for which 40,000 were required; and, whilst the youn^ colony Unguished, the natives became emboldened, and encouraged to make that resistance which cost the French so dear. Marslial Clause!, when entrusted with the government of the colony, and the supreme com- mand of the troops . . . esublished a series of fortified posto, which were adequately garrisoned ; and roads were opened to enable the garrisons promptly to communicate with eacn other. These positions, rapidly acquired, he was unable to maintain, in consequence of the home govern- ment recalling the greater part of his force. To recruit his army he resolved to enlist some corps of the natives; and. In October, 1830, the first regiment of zouaves was raised." ... In 1833 we " first hear of Abd-el-Kader This chief was the sonof a marabout, or priest, in the province of Oran. He united consummate ability with great vuluur; was a devout Muhammedun ; and when he raised the standard of the prophet, be called the Arabs around him, with the fullest con- fidence of success. His countrymen obeyed lUs 275 S'\1 . I, BARBART BTATES. 1880-1848. AU^Xaa^. BARBABY STATZ3. 1830-1848. e»lHn great numbers; and, encouraged by the •^VL''.^'""" "'"^ dtaplsyed. he first, at the close of 18.«, proclaimed himiclf emirof Tlcrasen (the former name of Oran), and then seized on the port of Arzew, on the west side of the gulf of that name : and the port of Mostagsnem, on the opposite coast. The province of Mascara, lying at the foot of the Atlas, was also under hi* rule At that time general Dcsmichels commanded at Oran He had not a very large force, but he act«l promptly. Marching against Abdnsl-Kader. he defeated him In two pitched battles j retook Arzew and Mostaganem; and, on the 20th of February, 1834, entered Into a treaty with the emir, by which both parties were bound to keep the peace towards each other. During that year the terms were observed; but, In 183S, the Arab chief again commenced hostilities. Ha marched to the east, entered the French territories, and took possession of Medeah, being received with the utmost Joy by the Inhabitants. On the 36th ot June, general Trezel, with only 8,800 men marched a^Mnst him. Abd-el-Kader had 8,000 Arabs uni-cr his command; and a sanguinary combat took place In the defiles of Mouley Ismaef. After a severe combat, the French (oreed the mssage, but with considerable loss. . . . The French general, finding his position untenable commenced a retrograde movement on the 28th of June. In his retreat he was punued by the Arabs- jd before he reached Oran, on the 4th of July he lost all his waggons, train, and baggage; be- sides having ten oflloera, and 253 sous-offleera and rank-and-file killed, and 308 wounded The heads of many of the killed were displayed In triumph by the victors. This was a severe blow to the French, and the cause of great rejoicing to the Arabs. The former called for marahal Clausel to be restored to his command, and the government at home complied; at the same time Issuing a proclsmution, declaring that Algeria AouM not be abandoned, but that the honour of the French arms should be maintained The marshal left France on the 28th of July; and as soon as he landed, he organised an expedition against Mascara, which was Abd-el-Kader's capi- tal. .. . The Arab chieftain advanced*" meet the enemv; but, being twice defeated, he n .jlved to abandon his capital, which the French entered on V !■ 6th of December, and found completely ae» ed. The strecU and houses were alike empiy and desolate; and the only living creature they encountered was an old woman, lying on jome mats, who could not move of herself and had been either forgotten or abandoned. The French sot flrc to the deserted houses ; and having effecte.1 the destruction of Mascara, they marched to Mostaganem, which Clausel determined to make the centre of French power In that dis- m. 63*-fld5.— A camp was esubllshed on the Taafna in April 1836, and an action took pUce rSS 2? "'^ ^'"'' '"'"^" •''« Tableau states that 8,000 French engaged 10,000 natives; and some of the enemies being troops of Morocro, an ex- planation was required of Muley-Abder-Rach- man, the emperor, who saiil that the assistance wasgiven to the Algerines without his knowledire On July 6th, 1836, Abd-el-Kader suffered a dia- ■strous defeat on the river BIkkak. near Tlemsen fL!?* ^i' "' Msrshsl Bugeaud. November 1M8, the flrat expedition was formed asainst Constantlna. . . . After the faUon of dauiel 276 9*?"?LP"""*"°"' '">• "PPolnted governor Feb 12th 1887; and on the 80th of mIv ,he treaty of the Taafna between General B.ijeau.i and Abd-el-Kader left the French government a Uberty to direct all their attention against Co" stantina. a camp being formed at Tifi^jny-cj. Ahmar In that direction. An army of 10 0(10 men set out thence on the 1st of October IN37 for Constantina. On the 6th it arrived 'before Constantina; and on the 18th the town was taken I.S V nl*"* 1«". 'Ofludlng Damr«mont. Mar Tifi n '*? i""**'"' Oamrimont as govern". Jf thI,n.H'''Js^2?'J!""'°* <>"*"'yed the la.st r,iic of the old Turkish government. . . . Bvth.'>7ih January, 1838, loS tribes had submitted to Z ^nch. A road was cleared In April by (Jcnml Negrier from Constantina to Stora on the ees TTiU road, passing bv the camps of Smendou and the Aijouch was 23 leagues In length. The coast of the Bay of Stora, on the site of the an cient Kuslcada, became covered with French settlers : and Phlllppevllle was founded Oct 1838 threatening to supplant Bona. Abd-elK-ider advancing ta December 1837 to the province o Constantina^the French advanced alsb toobserve him ; then both retired, without comUig to blows. A misunderstanding which arose respecting the riK** 'iL^^' °! the treaty of Taafna'was si'ttled ta the beginning of 1838. .. . When Abd-el- Kader assumed the royal title of Sultan aud the command of a numerous army, the French with republican charity and fraternal sympathv sought to Infringe the Taafna treaty, and embroil the Arab hero, ta order to ruin his rising empire and found their own on lu ashes. The Emi- had been recognised by the whole country, f^ r. th" gates of Ouchda to the river Mijerda. Tn; war was resumed, and many French razzias t(K.k place. They once marched a large force fron. Algiers on Millanah to surprise the sultan's c-r n They failed ta their chief object, but nearl- \- tured the sultan himself. He was surroun , .a the middle of a French square, which tiiou ' Itself sure of the reward of 100,000 francs (£4 Ouu, "5'',^.^°'",''*'"= •"" "ttering his favourite 'en- shaliah (with the will of God), he gave his white horse the spur, and came over their bayonets ua- wounded. He lost, however, thirty of bis bo.lv- guard and friends, but killed si.x Frenchmen with bis own hand. Still, notwithstanding his sucresses, Abd-el-Kader had been losing all his former power, as his Arabs, though brave could not match 80,000 French troops, with artillery and all the other ornaments of civilised warfare Seven actions were fought at the Col do Jloursia, where the Arabs were overthrown by the roval dukes. In 1841 ; and at the Oued Foddha, where Ohangamier, with a handful of troops, defeated a whole population in a frightful gorge. It was on this occasion that, having no guns, he launched his Chasseura d'Afrique against the fort, s.iying, ' Voda mon artllleriel ' Abd-el Kader ha.1 then only two chances,— the support of Muley-Abd-tr- liahman. Emperor of Morocco ; or the peace that the latter might conclude with France for him. General Bugeaud, who had replac«l Marshal VallSe, organised a plan of campaign by movable columns radhiting from Algiers, Oran and Con- stantina; and having 100,000 excellent soldiers at his disposal, the results as agatast tlie Eralr we«) slowly but surely effective. U>}neritl Ne- frier at Constantina, Changarnler amongst the ladjout* about MedeahudMiUaaah, C^valgnac B.UtBART 8TATKS, 1830-18M. BARCELONA. ud Lunoridire in Ono,— carried oat the commander-ia-cbieCR instructlona with untirinfr energy and perMverance ; and to the *prlD«t of 1843 the Due d'Aumale, in company with Oen- ersl Changaraler, aurprlsed the Emir'i camp in the absence of the greatest part of hi* force, and It was < ith difllcultr that he liimself escaped. Not iong afterwards he toolc refuge in Morocco, excited the fanatical passions of the populace of that empire, and thereby forced its ruler, Huley- Abd-er- Rahman, much against his own inclina- tion, into a war with France ; a war very speedily terminated bjr Oeneral Bugeaud's victory of Isly, with some slight assistance from the bombard- ment of Tangier and Mogador by the Prince de JoiDvilie. In 1845 the struggle was maintained amiilattbe hills by the partisans of Abd-el-Sader; but our limits prevent us from dwelling on its particulars, save in one instance. ... On the niglit of the 12th of June, 1843, about three months before Marshal Bugeaud left Algeria, Coianeis Pelissier and St. Ar-xHud, at the hrad of a considerable force, attemn>e<l a razzia upon the tribe of the Beni-Ouled-Kiah, numbering, in meu women, and children, about 700 persons. This was in the Dahra. The Arabs escaped the first clutch of their pursuers; and when hard pressed, as they soon were, toolc refuge in the cave of Kliartanl, which had some odour of sanc- tity about it: some holy man or marabout luul lived and died there, we believe. The French troops came up quiciily to the entrance, and the Arabs were summoned to surrender. They made no reply. Possibly they did not hear the sum- mons. ... As there was no other outlet from the cave than that by which the Arabs entered, a few hours' patience must have been rewarded by the unconditional surrender of the imprisoned tribe. Colonels Pelissier and St. Arnaud were desirous of a speedier result; and by their order an immense fire was kindled at the mouth of the cave, and fed sedulously during the summer night with wood, grass, reetls, anything that would help to keep up the volume of smoke and flame which the wind drove. In roaring, whirling eddies, into the mouth of the cavern. It was too Ute now for the unfortunate Arabs to offer to surrender; the discfavge of a cannon would not have been heard in the roar of that huge blatt-f umacc, much less smoke-strangled cries of human agony. The flre was kept up throughout tnr night; and when the day hail fully dawned,' the then expiring embers were kicked aside, and as soon as a sufficient time had elapsed to render the air of the silent cave breathable, some soldiers were directed to ascertain how matters were within. They were gone but a few mhiutes; and they came back, we are told, pale, trembling, I terrified, hardly daring, it seemed, to confront the light of day. No wonder they trembled and' looked pale. They had found all the Arabs dead — men, women, children. ... St. Arnaud and Pelissier were rewarded by the French miu- ister; and Marshal Soult observed, that 'what would be a crime against civilisation in Europe might be a ju^Mflabie necessity In Africa.' . . . A taste of Fn ich bayonets at Isly, and the iKioming of French guns at Mogador, had brought Morocco to reason. . . . Morocco sided with France, and threatened Abd-el-ICadcr, who cut one of their corps to pieces, and was in June on tlie point of coming to blows with Muley- Abd- el-Rahman, the emperor. But the Emperor of Morocco took vigorous measures to oppose him, nearlv exterminating the tribes friendly to him; which drew off many partisans from the Emir, who trieil to pacify the emperor, but unsuc- cessfully." In December, 1848, "ho asked to negotiate, offered to surrender; and after 24 hours' discussion he came to Sidi Brahim, the scene of his last exploits against the French, where he was received with military honours,: and conducted to >he Duke of Aumale at Ne- mours. France has been severely abused for the detention of Abd-cl-Kador in Ham." — J. R. Morell, .Vqeria, eh. 23. A. D. .liSi,— T"-iia brought nnder the protec- torate of France. See Frasck: A. D. 1875-188i». BARBES.—BARBETS.—Theelders among the early Waldenscs were called barbes, which si^nilied " Uncle. ' Whence came the nickname Barbels, applied to the Walilensian people gen- erally.— E. Comba, ni$t. of tht WaUetmi of lUili/.p. 147. BARCA. See Ctrexe. BARCELONA: A. D. 713.— Surrender to the Arah-Moora. See Spai."»: A. D. 711-713. A. D. 1151.— The County joined to Araron. See Spain: A D. 1033- 12.W. I2th-i6th Centuries. — Commercial prosper- itv and municipal freedom.—" The city of Bar- oolona, which originally gave its name to the oo'.inty (if which it was the capital, was distin- jtuished from a very early period by arapk municipal privileges. After the union with Ara- gon in the 12th century, the monarchs of the lat- ter kingdom exteuaed towards it the same libt'rai legislation; so that, by the 13th, Bi-.rcelona had rciiclicd 'legreo of commercial prosperity rival- ling that of any of the Italian republics. She divided with them the lucrative commerce with Alexandrin; and her port, thronge<i with foreign- ers from every nation, became a principal em- iv>r1iim fn the Mediterranean for the spices, drugs, perfumes, and other rich commodities of tlie East, whence they were diffuied over the in- terior of Spain and the European continent. Her consuls, and her commercial factories, were es- tablished in every consiiLrable port la the Medi- terranean and in the nonft of Europe. Tlie natu- ral product" of her soil, and her various domestic fabrics, supplied her with 'luniiant articles of export. Fine wool was if rted by her in con- siderable quantitifs fro.-n iingland in the 14th and 15th centuries, and returned there manu- factured into cloth ; an exchange of commodities the reverse of that existing between the two nations at the present day. Barcelona claims the merit of having established the first bank of exchange and deposit in Europe, in 1401 ; it waa devoted to tto accommodatinn of foreigners as wellasof herown citizens. ShecUlmsthe glory, too, of having compiled the most ancient written code, among the modems, of maritime law now extant, digested from the usages of commercial nations, and which formed the basis of tlie mer- cantile jurisprudence of Europe during the Mi<i- dle Ages. Tlie wealth which dov.ea in upon Barcelona, as the result of her activity and ont-er- prlse, was evinced by lier numerous public works, her docks, arsenal, warehouses, exchange, hospl- u\i, and other construct Idiis of gifueral utility. Strangers, who visited Spain In the 14th and 15th centuries, expatiate on the magniflcenoe ot ti;da 277 H BARCELONA. ^H' '" fMnraodlons prirste ediflcM, the ctauiH- nesBof iu streets and public squuro (n rlrtuebv no means usual in that day), andT the J^enit? ofltaganiens and cultivated environs. But the her municipal institutions. Her government consisted of a senate or council of on^h^",^' were sylod varying at times from four to six n number; the f![.rmer intrusted with the leiris 1« ive the latter with the executive functlonf of ~lmmi.,tn.tion A large proportion ofTeSe ^lies were selected from the n\erchants. ti«dS! men. aD<l mechanics of the city. They were in- vestcl not merely with municipal authority but with many of the rights of sovereignty, thev entered into commercial treaties wiuj foreign powers; superintended the defence of the cUy in time of war; provided for the security of trade; gnintal letters of reprisal against any na- of ?^f, f* Pf"" ™r*y» f"' ^^ oonstnictiou rL.f/^ r";""' "'■ "*« encouragement of such commercial a.lventures as were t^ hazanious or LlPo^'wh'"""'!'.^'','""' <'-'*^Pri»e. Th^^u" scllors who presided over the municipality were complimented with certain honorary privllcires not even accor,l«l to the nobility.^ ■fi/Jy /ere wi&il '^ 'Y """' of '^sniflcci: wew SeatlS? with their Iiea<l8 covered, in the presence of roy^ alty;were prece<le<l by macc-bearera, or lictora. in their progress through the country ; and depu- ties from tiieir bojiy to the court wc^ admitted on the f(>.iii,g and received the honors of foreign ambass;«l.,r,. These, it will be rwollccted, were plebeians,— merchunu and mechanics. Trade «ir.»™ TTi » '''-K^J'tlon in Catalonia, as it csm(^ to bo In Castile."— W. H Prcscott tnUl "1(1%'^'"" "■^ ''"^'*"»<'a'»'' ItabOa, in- 184a-?M3'*°"~'°*""""°"- ^■«8paiji: A.D. A. p. i6si.i«52.-Sien and C4kptnrc by tta« A. D. 1705.- Capture by the Earl of Peterborongh. S.-.- sTpaix : A D 1705 t,." ?• '7o«-— Un»nceeMfnl liere by the French and Spaniardi. 8,^. Sp.un: A. D 17(W th^Ami2'^■47'«^-^•''•'•' "'» -e-rtion by 1 "^ni4 SP*»'""- ** Spais; a. D A. D. 184a.— Rebellion and bombardment See 8pai.\: .V D 1H;1;|-1S46 >«^»«eni. 15'-l""''°'*^' '^'•"^rot. Sec Itait; A.D. Th^e*"?!???^', °", BARciNB PAMILY. Ihe.— I lie family of the great Cartluiglnian UanulbaJ. TIh' surname »>r<». or lUrrai, given u. laihilcHr H riiulvalent to the U.brew ft ™S will Nik'mliiil lighliiiii,: BAROI. Hie .Mu.VKT ASD BA.NklNU: Flor. KN I INK, BARDS. See Fii.i. BARDULIA. S«e Spatti ; A P lMe-12S0 BAREBONES PARLIAMENT.Ti^ i^ MAKENTZ, Voyajet of. See Pulah Ex- PUBLIC SAFETY. «rc Fca.mb. a U BABNEVELDT. A.°d''?^S^,?(5''' ^'J'"" ■^"•^•' S«lt.n. Tt^^TU^^^°^\ °^ BARMEKIDES 1; .I.Tm''.* Barm, rides, or Barmelcides ,mi„„i » J "/''^."y °' ""• Caliplmte at Bagrt, Tnl made familiar to a the world bvthe «nri'. . the "Arabian Nights." we™ a fa,i:iI%S'n,"J .^. , V I^™"'' or custodian of one of hi most«^lebrated temples of the Zoro,istr?m f.i h n^f^^^^^ MahometaiMsm and beo^imo Lt nL-S '"^l' "«'■'"» °' "le conspiracy "iS AK,^^':f '^ "'^ Ommiad Caliphs ahd rai* 1 S .^S^^if I*" "'^ """"«• The flm of tTubt the sons of Yahya wi» te^Ln^ tt^ ™S "' thl"^ of n«roun'andThote''th "fl.fc the Barmecides to iu acme of splen. I "r Sn ZlaJ^^ '" ' ^"'»° hou«,'eTd ^wi^ Jealousy, however, among the Arabs, an.i In the end, the capricious lonl and master of do „n P.|werful vizier Jaafar turned his hear^ , .^j " Barmecides was made as cruel as their ad v.nc*' hZJ'^,.^'^''} unscrupulous. J««f«r w, T headed without a moment's warning' his f ith^r ""' ^rother were Imprisoned, an/k thom,, sUte R n iSfJ'""^,"* "'"^ *» have T „ I ^Also i.n; E. H. Palmer, ffaroun Alr,ur/,i.,. BAHNABITES. — PAULINES • t>. derksregularof St Paulfpaulff wh';«. J,'' l^&nf"?^ '°"""*'^. •>' A..t;>nlo Maria d^tJ. m °'.,^"'"'°"» "^ two Milanese «*.,. I ™ .„.■*•. "P''i"''"' ^7 Clement VII. in in'i »°,'i.^™"fl™«l «« Inifepenileiit l.v I'„„i 111. in I.WI, in 154,5 took the name of I! - . bitee, from the church of St. Hamal.,is, « „ , WM given up to them at Milan. The R.rim. ofl^^.l^S"''7"'i^^°?i«^'. '" "'^ <""'•.«•„,, r/'n!^p »■ ~^^-^"^- "" '*'"'"'•'• /'V'nmi- M.fn^?-"^,"" COLLEGE. See Edication Aif^rirKs"!?- «-^'— wsop Wara of the Ho«e«." E.lward IV. having be,;ndriveno,it of England ami Henry \ , n' Instated by Warwick, "the King niak'.r " the fTjiior retiirae,! In-fore ,lx months had n.i«,"l ;. " .n-ijle 1.1, wav to I>.nd,>n. Warwick ulZ^l v. Ji ii ,^? '■'"""' '"f'tl"'' "n Kasl.T Smii,I;,v, l-«.. Ion. TlH, victory, long d..ul.tful. «■„ «„„ bl.»Kllly adiieve.1, The Eari of W«r»i, k w« am(.ng the slaiu. 8e« E.xoLA.fD: A U. HVV 278 BARON. BARON.— "The title of baron, unlike that of Earl, U a creation of the [Norman] Conqueat The word, in its origin equivaient to 'homo,' receives under feudal institutiooa, like ' homo ' Itself, the meaning of vassal. Homage (homin- ium) is the ceremony by which the vassal becomes the man of his lord ; and the homines of the king are barons. Possibly the kins's thegn of Anglo-8n.ion times may answer to vie Norman baron." — W. Stubbs, CorM. Hill, of Eni}., eh. 11. tet. 184. BARON, Court. See Makors. BARONET.— "One approaches with reluc- tance the modem title of baronet . . . Qram- maticall^, the term is clear enough; it is the dlminutire of baron; but baron is emphatically a man. the liege vassal of the king; ana baronet, therefore, etymologically would seem to imply a a doubt. Degrees of honor admit of no diminu- tion ; a ' damoisel ' and a ' donzello ' are gram- matical diminutives, but they do not lessen the rank of the bearer; for, on the contrary, they denote the heir to the larger honor, being attributed to none but the sons of the prince or nobleman, who bore the paramount title. They did not degrade, even in their etymological signiflcation, which baronet appears to do, and no act of parliament can remove this radical defect. . . . Independently of these considera- tions, the title arose from the expedient of a needy monarch [James I.] to raise money, and was offrred for sale. Any man, provided he were (if good birth, might, ' for a consideration,' canton his family shield with the red hand of I'LjUt '— R T. Hampson, Origina Patricia, tm. 8(»-3fl9. '^^ BARONS' WAR, Tht. See Ekolaito: A. D. 1216-1274. BARONY OF LAND.-" Fifteen acres, but hi sivme places twenty acres."— N. H. Nicolas X.litm lliitoriea. p. lilt. BARRIER FORTRESSES, The rssiar o' the. See Nktuerlands (Holland^: A. tt BARRIER TREATIES, The. See Eko- L.t;«D: A. D. 1709. and NBTmauixDa (HoL- UND); .V D. 1718-1715. BARROW.— A mound rained over the buried di«d " Thl!< form of memorial, . . . as ancient M It Ims been lasting, Is found in almost all parts (if the globe. Barrows, under diverse nam( «, line the coasU of the Medltermnean, the BTftii iif iinciint empires and civilisations They almimd In Great Britain and Ireland d'lf- fcnnff m Bbape and size and made of various mat. n:il8; and are known as harrows (mounds of fsnii) Biid cairns (mounds of stone) and popu- lar)- In Home naru of England as lows, bouea. and l.m,ps.'-Vv. Orcnwcll. BHIiA Aim.«^ BARRUNDIA INCIDENT, Tht. See UVTIIM, AMf-TtIC*- .\ I) ISKt)-t«»4 BARTENSTEIN. Treaty of. See Om- "o^Io-^.l'. 'i«'' (•'"nKI'ART-ljfNE). A- I' 1*11 (.Iakcart). Jt h,*^"***' ** ""■ '•■**'• «'™«» «» BASHI B0Z0UK8, OR BAZOUKS— tt^'M:r:::;!l?:^^i''.VT''^' '^'^'^ '° J- .VKK,;;fi^•,:i»'?S);^;Ud^'^'th;''^?i:^■S? »««» engaged agalott Um Buljaitao^ fmt 270 BASmO HOUSE. nnmbers of the Moslem part of the local popu- latlon had been armed by the Government and turned loose to fight the InsurgenU in their own way. These irregular warriors are called Bash! Bozouks, or Rottenheads. The term alludes to their being sent out without regular organizaUon and without officers at their head."— H O "^S^iTurkiA Life in War Titne. p. 15. . ?u ^i"- '• <'!;'••"' *•» Macedonian), Emperor tathe East (Byzantine, or Greek), A. D 867- ^i.J •°""'.",yH.»% '-.Grand Duke of Volodomir, A. D. 127i-lS78 Basil II Emperor in the East (Byzantine, or Greek).' A 0. m-lOiS Baail. Sr Vassili, II., Grind fnne« of Moscow, A. D. 1889-1425 BasU »"• (The Blind), Grand Prince of Moscow. BASILEUS.— "From the earliest period of history, the soverelps of Asia hod been cele- brated in the Greek language by the title of Basileus, or King; and since it wos considered as the first distinction among men, it was soon employed by the servile provincials of the east in their humble address to the Roman throne."— E. (JIbbon, Decline and Fall of the Soman Empire, eh. 18. BASILIAN DYNASTY, The. See Btzah- TISE Empire: A. D. 820-1057. BASILICA — " Among the buildings appro- priated to the public service at Rome, none were more important than the Baslllcie. Although their name Is Greek, yet they were essentlafly a Roman creation, ancl were used for practical purposes pcculUrly Roman,- the administration of law and the transaction of merchants' busi- ness. Historically, considerable Interest attaches to them from their connection with tlie first Christian churches. The name of Basilica was applied by the Romans equally to all large bulldlags intended for the special needs of pubHc business. . . . Generally, however, thev took the form most adapted to their purpiises — a semicircular apse or tribunal for legal trials and a central nave, with arcades and galleries on each side for the transaction of business They exUted not only as separate buildings, but also as reception rooms attached to the great man- sions of Home. ... It Is the opinion of some writers that these private baslllcie, and not the public edifices, served as the model for the Christian Basilica."- R Bum, Rome and tht Campagna, introd. Also is : A. P. Stanley, Chriitian Inttitutione eh. 9. BASILIKA, The.— A compilation or codifi- cation of the Imperial laws of the Byianline Em- pire promulgated A. D. 884, In the n'ijm of Basil I. and afterwaMs revised and amplitlcd bv his son, I,eo VI -(J Flnlay, lliit of the Bumn- tine hmpirr, fr,.m 710 to Vm, hk. 2, cA 1 M^t 1 BASING HOUSE, The Storming and Da- atructionof,—' Basing House [mansUm of the Marquis of Winchester, near Basingstoke. In Hampshire], an Immense fortress, with a feudal CBstle and a Tudor palace within Its nimparts had long been a thorn in the side of the Parlia- ment. Four yearsit had held out. with an army within, well pMvlsioni-d for years, and blocked the road to the west. At Isst It was resolved to Ukell . itud Tromweil was directly commissioned br Parliament to the work. lu capture is one of the most terrible and stlrriof tncidenu of tte ! 13 11 li BASING HOUSE. war. After six days' constant cannonade, the itorm began at six o'clock in the momlnir of the 14th of October [A. D. 1645]. After some hoiim of dc8p<'rate liKliting, one after another lu de- fences wire talien and its garrison put to the sword or taltcn. The plunder was prodigious; the destruction of property unsparing. It was gutted, burnt, and tlie very ruins carted away, " — F. Harrison, Oliter Cnmtr^eU, ch. 6. Ai.som: 8. R. Gardiner. Hut. ofthtCinl War, «A. 37(p. 2).— Mrs. Tliompson, RecoUtetiont of Lit- trani Vharaetert and Ctlthrated Place; v. 8, e*. 1. BASLE, Council of. See Patact; A. D 1431-1448. BASLE, Treat!** of (1795). See Framce: A. 1). 1794-1795 (OcroBKB— Mat), and 1795 (June— Deckmbkr). BASOCHE.-BASOCHIENS.-"The B.-M- oche was an associaticin of the ' clercs du Parlc- ment ' [Parliament of Paris]. The etymology of the name is uneeruin. . . . The Basoche is supposed to have been instituted In 1308, by Phllippele-Bel, who gave it the title of ' Roy- aumc de la Basoche,' and ordered that it should form a tribunal for judging, without appeal, all civil and criminal matters that might arise among the cltrks and nil actions brou^tht against them. He likewise ordcrwl that the pre.sident should be called • Rol dc la Basoche, 'and that the king and his subjects should have an annual ' montre ' or review. . . Under the n^ign of Henry III. tli > numU'r of .>. ibjects of the rol de la Basor ■• •motinted to nearly 10,000. ... The menilx-rs of the Basoche timk upon themselves to exhibit plays in the 'Palais.' in which they censured the pulilic manners: Indeeii they mav be said to have been the flrnl comic authors ami actors th.it ap- pj-ari'd in Paris. ... At the commencement cif the Itevolution. the Bawx'kiens formed a troop, the uniform of which was reil, with epaulette* and silver buttons; but thev were afterwards disbanded by adecreeof the National Assemblv. " —Uiit. of Parit (Lomhn; O. B. Whitlaktr, 1857), r. a, p. lOfl. BASQUES, The,— 'The western extremity of the I'yn-nres, where France and 8pa)n join, gives \i% a locality . . . where, although the towns, like Bayonne. Painpeluna, and BIIImo, are French or Spanish, the country people arc BaM|Ufs or Hiscuyims — Basiiucsor Ulscayans not only In the provinces of Blway, l)ut In Alava, UpiHT Navarn-. and the French districu of La- bourd and S<iij1(., Tlii-lr name Is Spanish (the worl having oriirlnated In that of the ancient Vftsmne>>, ami It is nut the one by which they desiitnnte themselves; though possibly it Is in- directly itinni'cted with It, The native name is deriveil fr.mi the txwi Eusk-; which becomes Euskara when the langiiiigp, Euskkrrrla when thec.iuntry, and Euskalilunac when the people are np.iken of '— H. G. Latham, Ethnology <f Hurrifr, i-h. 'i. Al.KO IN: I Taylor. Origin of iht Arvnnt. M. 4, tft. 4 —See. also. iBXHlA.ts, Tnit Wkstkhn, and .\rri;Ni>i\ A. v 1 BASSANO. Battle of. SeeFRAHcit: A D. 17ml (.\PHII,— llrTDBKR.) BASSE IN, Treaty of (tloa). See India: A. I) 179H-1N<W BASSORAH. See Bissohar. BASTARNA, Til*. See P«cctin. BASTILLE, The.^ Thf caw .-»f Bast!!!*' *r BMtcl w**, in aocleot time*, (Itcd 10 any BATAVIAN3. kind of erection calculated to withstand a mili- tary force; and thus, formerly in IJnglanil and on the borders of Scotland, the term Biistel- houae was usually applie<l to places of strengtU and fancied security. Of the many Bastilles In Prance that of Paris, . . . which at first was called the Bastille St-Antoine, from being erected near the suburb of St-Antoino, retained the name longeat This fortress, of melancholy celebrity, waa erected under the following circumstances: In the year 1356, when the English, then at war with France, were In the neighbourhood of Paris, it waa considered neces- sary by the inhabitants of the French capital to repair the bulwarks of their city. Stephen Marcel, provost of the merchants, undertook this task, uud. amongst other defences, a<lded to the fortltlcalions at the eastern entrance of the town a gate flanked w-ith a tower on each side." Tlilj was the beginning of the constnictlons of the Bastille. Tliey were enlarged in 1369 by Hujh Aubriot, provost of Paris under (Charles V. He "added two towers, which, being plaewi opposite to those already existing on each side of the gate, made of the Bastille a square fort, with a tower at each of the four an -les '' /''er the death of Charies V., Aubrio: wlio h-Hl many enemies, was prosecuted for alleirwi crime*, "was condemned to t)erpetual coiitine- ment, and placeii in the Bastille, of whii h, ac- conllng to some historians, he was tlie tirst prisoner. After some time, he was rrmovod thence to Port TEvSque, another prison," from which he was liberated In l!!8l, by the itisurn-c- tlon of the Maillotins (see Paris: A. I>. lltNl). "After tlie insurrection of the MallKitins in 1382, the young king, fharies VI., still further enlarged the Bastille by adding four tnvers to it, thus giving it, instead of the square f,>rm it formerly possessed, the shape of an ohI..ai; or parallelogram. Tlie fortn-ss now ciin<i^ieil of eight towers, each 100 feet high, and. like the wall which united them, nine feet Uilek. Four of these towers looked on the city, ami fniir on the suburb of Bt-Antoine. To incre,i»e its strength, the Bastille was surroundnl bv a ditiU 25 feet ilwp and 120 feet wide. The roid which formerly passefl through It was turned on mie svW. ■ . . The Bastille was now completed(13K:h,aii(i though addition* were suli*cquently made tn it, the body of the fortress underwent ho iiiipdrtant change. . . . Both as a platw of niililarv de- fence, Bn<l a* a state prison of ereat »tn ncth. the Bastille was, even at an earlv perii).|. verv formidable. "—//i»f. of t/it HulilU (rA.i.nVri'i MiftlUing, BO. 182, e. 17).— For an aecnint of the taking and destruction of tlie Risiille bv the people, in 1789, see Franck: A. D. 17hs) i.liLv), AlJK> IM: D. Bingham, Tk> liutitU.—ll A. Davenport, Ifiil. nf thr lUttilt. BASTITANL Th*. See Tcbpetahi BASUTOS, Th*. See South Krmcs. : A. D 1811-1868. BATAVIA (I«TB). Oririn of. See Nkthkb LANDa: A. D. 1594-lA'JO. BATAVIAN REPUBLIC. The. See PRAMrK: A. D. 1794-1795 ((HT<mitR—M»Tl BATAVIANS, OR BATAVI, The.- Th« Germanic Batavl bad been peacefully iinitid with the [Romanl Empltt!, not hv ('Haar. but not long aftarwarns, perhaps by iVrusus. Thef were settkrt! tn the tthinc delta, that h .-a the toft bMik of Um Khliw ukI on tii* iilandi fomwd 280 9 BATAYIANS. BATTLE OF THE EEOS. hj lu armi, upwards aa far at leaat ai the Old Rhine, and go nearly from Antwerp to Utrecht and Leyden in Zeauind and Boutbem Hoiland, on territory originally Celtic — at leaat the local names are predominantjy Celtic: their name is ■till borne bv the Betuwe, the lowland between the Waal ana the Leek with the capital Noviom- agus, now Nimeguen. They were, eapecially compared with the restless and refractory Celts, ob('(lii'nt and useful subjects, and hence occupied a disiinctlTe position in the aggregate, and par- ticularly in tne military system of the Roman Empire. They remained quite free from taxa- tion, hut were on the other hand drawn upon more largely than any other canton in the re- cruiting: this one canton fumishcfl to the army 1,000 horsemen and 9, (KM) foot soldiers; besides, tiie men of the imperial bixly-guard were taken eapeciiilly fn)m them. The command of these Bntavian divisions was conferred excluslTelr on native IJatavl. The Batavi were accounted In- dlsnutahly not merely aa the beat riders and iwlmmoni of the army, but also as the model of true soldiers."— T. M6mm.scn, I/itt. of Home, hk. 8, eh. 4. — " When the Cimbri and their aaaociates, about a century before our era, made their memnnWe onslaught upon Rome, the early in- habitants of the lihlne inland of Batavia, who were proli'lily Celt*, joined in the expedition. Arectnt ind tremendous inundation had swept away tt. ,r miserable homes. . . . The island was di~rte<l of ita population. At almut the Siiine piTiod a civil dissension among the ChattI —a powerful German race within the Her- cynlan forest — resulted in the expatriation of a ivmioii of the people. The exiles sought a new hnme in the empty lUilne island, called it 'Bt't auw,' or 'good meadow,' and were them- (elvcs called, thenceforward, Batavi, or Batav- ians."— J. L. Motley, Hut of tht Dutch BepMie, introd. . tret. 2. A. O. 69.- Revolt of CiTiUt.— "Oalba [Roman Emperor], succee<ilng to the purple upon the suicide of Nero, dismissed the Batavian lire-(riii\rds to whom he owed hl» elevation. He is murdered, Olho and Vltelliua contenil for the fucnwion, while all eyes are tumiKl upon the eight Batavtan re,i{iment«. In their hands the scales of Empire seem to rest. They declare for Vitellius and the civil war begins. Otho la defcatitl; Vitflllus acknowledged by Henatu and xipli'. Fearing, like his predeoi'.ssors, the in|xrlou« lurbulonce of the Batavian legions, he, ti«i, Hends them into Ocmiany. It was the siirnal fur a long and extensive revolt, which had will '■•■'\\ nvertunied the Roman power In 0;ml arl ■•r Germany. Claudius CIvllis WIS a ll.i'aviiiti of noble rnee, who had •erve<l ivtenty five years in the Roman armies. His Teutonic name has perished. . , . After a quarter of a (rntury's service be was sent In chains to Rnm and his Imrther executeil, both fals< h- (hari.i-.| with consplrarv . . . Desire to aTenm- his own wmngs was mingled with loftier miitiv,.« In his breast. He knew that the*cvptre J>u In the girt of the Batavian soldiery. 111 liy his eourage, elmiuence and talent for polltl r.il rnnibinutlons, CIvllis etlt(te<l a general con- ("l-ratim of all the Netherhind trilies. both I ■llic and German. Kor a brief moment there w-JiaTiEltcd prrpie, a tUuvUu cuwiiioiiwenllh. ■ The details of the revolt [A. D. 001 have been carefuUy pivwrrwl by Tadtui, vaA form one of hU grandest and most elaborate pictures. . . . The battles, the sieges, the defeats, the indomitable spirit of Civilis, still flaming most brightly when the clouds were darkest around him, have been described by the great historian in his most powerful manner. . . . The struggle was an unauccessful one. After many victories and many overthrowa, Civilis was left alone. ... He accepted the offer of negotiation from Cerialis [the Roman commander]! ... A col- loquy was agreed upon. The bridge across the Nabalia was broken asunder In the middle and Cerialis and Civilis met upon the severed sides. . . . Here the story abruptly terminates. The remainder of the Roman's narrative is Ifwt, and upon that broken bridge the form of the Batavian hero disappears forever."— J. L. Motley, Bit of t/ie Dutth BemMie, intrad., terti. 3-4. Auso in: Tacitus, Uittory, bkt. 4-5. » BATH, The Order of the.— "The present Military Order of the Bath, founded by King George 1. in 'he year 1725, differs so essentially from the Knighthood of the Bath, or the custom of making Knights with various rites and cere- mtmics, of which one was Bathing, that it may almost be considered a dl.stinct and new fra- ternity of chivalry. The last Knights of the Bath, maile actordiiigto the ancient forms, were at the coronatioci of King Charles II.; and from that f)crlod until the reign of the first Oinrge, the old n8tit\ition fell Into total oblivion, Al; the latter epoch, however. It was determined to revive, as it was termed, The Order of the Bath, by erecting it ' Into a regular Military Order ' ; and on the 25th May, 1723, Letters Patent were Issued for that purpose. By the Statutes then promulgated, the number of Knights, indepen- dent of tlie Sovereign, a Prince of the Blood Royal, and a Great Mjkster, was restricted to 85." It has since been greatly increasid. and the Order divided into three classes: First Class, con- sisting of " Knights Grand Cross," not to excised 80 for mllitarv and 25 for civil service; Second Class, consisting of " Knights Commanders, " not to exceed lO'i for military and 50 for civil service; Tlilrd Class, "Companions," not to exceed .595 for military and 200 for civil service. —Sir B. Burke, Book of Orden of Knighthood, p. 104. BATH, in Roman times. See Aqu.* Soms. BATHS OF CARA-'tr.LA, Nero, etc. See TilKHM*. BATONIAN WAR. Vhe.-A formidaMe revolt of the DiilmatiaO't and I'annoninns, A. 1> 6, Involveil the Roman Kinpin', unlir Augustus, In A serious war of thn'e vimts dunilion, which was called tl.r Ilatonlan \V;\r, from the nanu-s of two leaders of the Insurgent.s, — Uiito the Uiilma- tlan, and Bato the I'iinnoulnn.— T. Mi....msen, Hint of lime, bk H, eh. 1. BATOUM : Ceded to Ruaaia.— Declared a free port. See TniKs: A. I) !•<;?*. BATTIADi€, The. See Cvhi;ne. BA'^TLE ABBEY. See E.nui.^sd: A. D. 10«)«><TOI1KB). BATTLE ABOVE THE CLOUDS, The. See L'MTKn Status or Am. : .\. 1» l^eatOcTo ■KK— NoVKMBKK: TkMNKIWI':K> BATTLE OF THE CAMEL. Sec Ma BiiMr.TiM t oNyi kkt; A. D tiiil BATTLE OF THE KEGS, Th*. 8w pHiLASlLruu: A. U. 1777-1778. 281 £ i'A u: BATTLE OF THE NATI0K8. BATTLE OF THE NATIONS (Leip.Jc). BEn), and (Octobkb). ^I^^IJ-"^ O'' THE THREE EMPER- ? n'T^, fi?*"'* o' Au9terllti-8ee Pkancb: A. U. 1805 (March— Dbcembkk)— wasao called bv Napoleon. A^l^TnTT^^' 7f''' ""j^- ^ '^*'' Common: i.ATT^c^o'' v."' CRrMWAL: A D. 1818. BATTLES.— The battles of which account Is given In this work arc scTorally indexed under the^naraea by which they are hlatoricaUy BAt'RE, The. See Ahericaw Aboeioike8: ANORI HX8. .ofV^iJTZEN. Battle ot See Germakt: A. D. 1813 (.MAT— Al-OCST). BAUX Lord! of; Gothic Origin of the— The Illustrious Vi!!ijrotliic race of tlie ■■Diilthi" or Hatha ("tlie bold"), from which sprang Alaric. "continued to flourish in Fiance fc the Gothic province of Septimonia, or Laniniedoc <mder the corrupted appellation of Baux, and a (■ranch of that family afterwards settled In the tlT'i'?! °l ^«pl<■s.'-E. Gibbon, JDMline and tmofthe limmn E.npire, ch. 80, nott. BAVARIA: The name.— Bavaria derived Its name from the Boii.-K. O. Latham, Tht Ger- mama of Tacitut; EpiUgamena, net. 20— See also, Boians. ^ fj^^i! ^•''"'''^P ,'!''— ","»^"'» • • • f«II»Into two divisions; tne Bavaria of the Rhine, and th» Bavann of the Danube. In Rhenish Bavsrir. the descent Is from the ancient Vonglones and Ne- metcs, either Germanized Gauls or Gallicized Uermans, with Itoman superadditions. After- wanis, an ext.nsion of the Alcmaunicand Suevic populations from the right bank of the Upper Rhine completes the evolution of their present Germanic character. Danubian Bavaria falls Into two Bub<livisions. North of the Danube the valley of the Naab, at least, wai originally 8U- T :.ic containing an extension of the Slavonic P; .ilatfon of Bohemia. But disturbance and di-,.laceiiient began early. . . . In the third and '."i ^nO'il'S- the SueW and Alemanni ex- . luled themselves from the Upper Rhine I he northwestern parts of Bavaria were probablr Oeniian from Ihe Uglnning. South of the Dan- ube lie etlm.ilogy changes. In the llret place the I{.>man element* IncreaK; since Vindelicia was a Ifoman province. . . . lu present charac- ter has arisen from an extension of the Germana of the I pper Rhine. "-R O. Latham. Ethnciocl of huritpe, eh. %, — ~»» .-.Ab' 547--Subleetlon of the BaTkriau to the Franks.-' It Is about this period FA. D Ml) that Ihe Havarians first bi'come known in history as tributari.'s of the Franks; but at what time tli.y Ixeame so is matter of dispute. ivm the nrevicMiB silence of the annalists re- spert iig this |«.. pie, we may p«'riiaps Infer that both tli;y an.l the Mualiian: remalnixi independ- ent until the fall of , he Ostrogothic Umpire in \u^ ..T'l'" ^V.'."'''" ■'■•"''''Ions V ere bounded on the north by Itlwiia and Xori.um; and between thes.. countries and tim Thuringians. who lived still further to the north, was the country of the Bavarians and .Suablans. Thiiringia h^l long been jioHsess.;. by the Franks. Rhaala was a^ied by Vilisges, king of Italy, and Venetia was eon- iulTi V;r ■^^•""':j'<'-t fthe Austraslan Kmnk KlnjJ. The Bavarians were therefore, at this BAVARIA. period. alnMMt turrounded by the Frankish f» ritorie* . . Whenever they may have fl« submitted to the yoke, it U certaii that a. ,? time of TheudelirtV death [T D. «? o shorty after that event, botfi Bavarians and Sw., W"*^ kings. "-W. C. Perry,^^-!: A. D. 84>o«a.— Tlie ancient Duchy. Sce Gbkmany: a. D. 848-968 ' a^P'^J^~:*^f^^ *» *■'• Austrian March Bee Austria: A. D. 805-1846 "»«rcn. A. D. iQ7t-ii78._The Dukes of the House ofGnelt See Oueijs and GHiBBLmE" m^ Saxost: a. D. 1178-1183. ' " w*;r°o"^'~°'*"*""'» C™«*<>e of Duke Welf. SceCRtfflADEs: A. D. 1101-1103 .f^" ^'J?S-«iSa.-The origin of the Elector- ate. See Germany : A. D. 1184-1873 A. D. II3S-II83-— loTolved in the b^ i« ningaof the Guelf and Ghibelline CoSflkti The strurelet of Henry the Proud and Henry the Hon. See GrELKs and Gbuielli.nes anj Saxony: A. D. 1178-1188. A. p. list-Separation of the Austrian March, whicn becomes a diitinct Duchy &* Ai-stria: a. D, 805-1348 ' K. D. n8o-i3<6 -The Houie of Wittelt- S'^'Hr't* «C'«?'»ition of Bavaria an" thj Palatinat* of the Rhine.-Losi of the Elect tora^ Vote by Bararia.- When, in 11% The dominions of Henry the Lion, under the h,in of A. U. 1178-1188), by the imperial senten.-e of for- fe ture andwere divided and conferre,! upon others by Frederick Barbaroasa, the Dmhy of WiT?,'^fhJh" «^"" to Otto, Count Palatine of Wi tclsbach "As he claimed a descent fn.nian ancient royal family of B«varia,itwa8allep,.,li!ml, In obtaining the iovereignty of that state he had only In some measure regained those righu which In fomer times belonged to his aunstora. " -Sir A. Halllday, AnnaU of the Uoiue of Han- Tx\\>^<.^V^r"R^^ ■ ■ ■ "osades.Vn.lant of that Duke Lultpold who fell in combat with the HunMrians, and whose sons and gnimlsoni had already worn the ducal cap of Bavari Xo princely race in Europe is of such ar ..nt e.x •-iction. . .. Bavaria was as yet de.stitute nf towns: Landshutt and Munich first rose Into nin- rtderatlon in the course of the 13th eenturv Katlsbo:?, already a flourishing town, was n- garded as the capital and residence of ilie Oukcs of Bavaria. ... A further accession of ilii:iiitv and power awaited the family in 1214 in the lisltion of the Palatinate of Ihe lihlnc. acquii Uuke Ludwig was now the most powerful i.rinee of Southern Gcnnany. ... Ills son On', ilie Illustrious remaining . . . true to the Imiih rial house, died excommunicate, and his diinlni.jni were placed for several years un<ler an iiiK rdicL . . . Ipon the death of Otto a partition nf ilie Inheritance took place. This parliilon b-iame to the family an hereditary evil, a fatal sourc-e of quarrel and of secret or open ennillv la Ithe] dark and dreadful perioii of lii't. rr. cnmn (»<-eGERMAKT: A. I). 1250-1'.'7'J]. wlnii ail men 282 waited for tlie final dissolution of the inwiire nothing appears concerning the Witt.isliarh family. . . . finally in 1273 Hii.iolf, the first of the lUh»bur«, awrn-lrd the hr.^ unurcuricd tlirone. . , , He won ovi-r the Bavarian nrinres by bwtowiac his daughtvn upon them hi BAVARIA. BAVABIA. intrriBgc. LouU lenuined faithful and Tendered blm good lerrice; but the turbulent Henry, who had already made war upon his brother for the possession of the electoral vote, deserted him, and for this Bavaria was punisheid by the loss of tlie vote, and of the territory aboTe the Enns." Afterwi -ds, for a time, the Duke of Bavaria and ttie Couiit Palatine exercised the rieht of .be electoral vote altematelr; but in 1&6 by the Ooklcn Bull of Charles IV. [see Obbmant : A. D. 1347-14931, the vote was given wholly to the Count Palatine, and lost to Bavaria for nearly 800 years.— J. I. von DOllinger, Tlu Jloute of Wittrhiaeh (Studiet in Burmean HUtory. eh. 2). A. D. 1314.— Election of Lonia to the im- perial throne. See Obbmaict: A. D. 1314-1347. A. D. 1500.— Formation of the Circle. See GEBM.iST: A. D. 1493-1519. A. D. 1610.— The Duke at the head of the Catholic Leapie. See OsiutanT: A. D. \WH- 1618. A. D. 1619.— The Duke in command of the forces of the Catholic League. See Oerkaht : A. D. 1618-1820. A. D. 1633.— Tranafer to the Duke of the Electoral dignity of the Elector Palatine. See Germ.kNT: a. I). 1621-1623. A. D. 1633.— Occupation by CnataTus Adol- phus. SretiERM.^T: A. D. 1631-1632. A. D. 1646-1648.— Ravaged by the Swedea and French.— Truce made and renounced by the Elector.— The last campaint of the war. SwOerm.vnt: a. I). 1646-1648. A. O. 1648.— Acquisition of the Upper Pala- tinate in the Peace of Weatphalia. See Okh- M.\SY: a. D. 1(M8. A. D. 1686.— The League of Aursburg. Si'e Oeiim.*nv: a D. 1686. A. D. 1689-1696.— The war of the Grand Alliance against Louis XIV. See France: A I). 1689-1690; 1689-1691; 1692; 1693 (.luLV); 1694; 189.')-1696. A. D. 1700.— Claim* of the Electoral Prince 00 the Spanish Crown. See Spain: A. D. 1698-1700. A. D. 1702 — The Elector Joins France against the Allies. See Okrmaht: A. D. 1702. A. D. 1703.— Successes of the French and Bavarians. See Oermant: A. D. 1703. A. 0. 1704.— Raraged, crushed and aurren- dered by the Elector. See Qermamt: A. I>. 1704. A. D. 1705.— DisaolutioB of the Electorate. SeeOKRMANY: A. I), 170.V A. D. I7i4.-The Elector reatored to his Dominions. See L'trkcht: A. D. 1712-1714. A. D. 1740.— Claima of the Elector to the Austrian succession. See Austria: A. L>. 174U (( ll TOIIKK). A. D. 174a.— The Elector crowned Emperor. SeeAiNTKiA: A. 1). 1741 (OrroBKR). A. D. 1743 (April).— The Emperor-Elector recovers his Electoral territory. See Am- thia: a. n 1742 (,IiNE-l»ECKMBKn), and 1743. A. D. 1743 (Junei.— The Emperor-Elector again a fugitive.— The Auatriana in Posses- sion. Sif AfHTKu: A. 1) 174.1 A. D. I745.-Death of the Emperor-Elector. -Peace with Austria. See ArsTRlA: A. I). Ii41 ITl.'i A. D. !74S. -Tsrminitlon and resaltsef the war of the Austrian Succesaion. See Akla- 1 HAPEtXE, TUK CUMUIIUB, A. D. 2767.— EspnIsioB of the Jesnita. See jMFirrs: A. D. 1761-1769. A.D. 1777-17/9.— The Succession question. — " With the di^ath of Maximilian Joseph, of Bavaria (80 December, 1777;, the younger branch of the house of Wittelsbach be<»rno extinct, and the electorate of Bavaria . . . came to an end. By virtue of the original partition iu 1310, the duchy of Bavaria ought to pu.-? to the elder branch of the family, represented by Charles Theodore, the Elector Palatine. But Joseph [the Second, the Emperor], saw the possibility of securing valuable additions to Austria whiclii aduM round off the frontier on the west. The Austrian claims were legally worthless. They were based chiefly upon a gift of the Straubiniren territory which Sigismund was said to hava .nade in 1436 to lis son-in-law, Albert of Austria, but which had never taken effect and hud since been utterly forgottea It would be impossilile to induce the diet to recognise such cliiims, but it might be possible to come to an underataiiding with the aged Charles Theodore, who hiid no legitimate children and was not likely tc feel any very keen interest in his new inheriuince. Without much difflculty the elector was half frightencHl, half induced to sign a treaty (3 January, 1778), by which he recognised the claims put forward by Austria, while the rest of Bavaria was guaranteed to him and his successors. Austrian troops were at once despatched to occ-ipy the ceded districts. The condition of Europe seemed to assure the success of Joseph's bold venture. . . . There was only one quarter from whieli opposition was to l)e expected, Prussia. Frederick promptly ap- pealed to the fundamental laws of the Ein|iirc, and declared his intention of upholding them with arms. But he could find no supporters ex- cept those who were immediately interested, the elector of Saxony, whose mother, tt.s a sister of the late elector of Bavaria, had a legal claim to hisallodiii! property, and ehariesofZweibrQcken, the heir apparent of the childless Charies Theo- dore. . . . Frederick, left to himvlf, despatched an army into Bohemia, where th s Austrian troops had bejn Joined by the emperor In person. But nothing came of the threatened hostilities. Fred- crick waa unable to force on a liattle, and the sn-atUed warwas little more than an armed nego- tiation. . . . Fnini'e and Kussia undertook to mediate, and negotiations were opened ia 1779 at TeachcD where pe:ice waa «igne<l ou the 13th of May. Austria withilrew 1 claims which had been recognised iu the treaty with the Elector Palatine, and received the '<;uartirof iho Inn," I. e., the 'ivtrlct from Pansim to Wildshut Frederick' i'ntual claims to the succession in priiici|ialiiie» of .Vnspach and Austria had every inU'rest in recognl.vd by the tri'aty. The ly were bought olt by n pryment lalcrs. The most uiiaiitlifaclory I>art of the in-aty was that it was giiarauteetl by Krncc and Kussia. . . On the whole, it was a gn-at triumph f"r Frederick and an eijiial h nil- the Fni Bulreu! I pposir; rlalins o: A 4,00().(: ulion for Joseph II. His schemes of aggruuu Iseinent ha<l Innn foileil."- K. Lodge, Uii Minttrn Karopf, cA 20, aft 3. AlJo IN: t. H. Dyer, lliit. of Modem Eurvpt, bk 6, eh. 8 (B 3). A. D. tSoi-iSoj.— Acquititiau of leiiitacy under the Treaty of LuoeTillc. Sec Qekmamt: A. D. UMl-ltWS. 283 i BAYABIA. A. D. i«os-i8o6.-An:tmadl».d by Napoleon. —Created a Kiaffdom.— Joined to the Con- federation oi the Rhine. See Qehmaitt: A. D. 180*-1806, and 1806 (Jamcabt— Acoubt). A. D. 1809.— The reTOlt in the Tytol.— Heroic ttnigeie of Hofer and his conntrrmen. See Oebmant: A. D. 1809-1810 (Apw^-Fkb- buart). ^A. 9. 1813.— Abandonment of Napoleon and the Rheniah Confederation.— Union with the AUiei. Soe Germany: A. D. 1818 (Septbmbbb — OcTODEH), and (OcroBEit— Dkcembkr). A- D. 1814-1815.— Restoration of the Tyrol to Austria.— Territorial compensations. See Vienna, The Conqress of, and Fbance: A. D. 1814 (April — June). A. D. 1848 (March).— Rerolutionary out- break.— Expulsion of Lola Hontez.— Abdi- cation of the King. See Qebmant: A. O 1848 (MARcn). A. D. 1866.— The SeTen Weeks War.— Indemnity and territorial cession to Prussia. SeeUEHMANY: .i. D. 1868. A. D. 1870-1871.— Treaty of Union with the Germanic Coofeder .tion, soon transformed into the German Empire. See Oermany: A. D. 1870 (Septe mbeb— Dec bmbeb). aud 1871. BAVAY, Orifin of. SeeNEBYii. BAXAR, OR BAKSAR, OR BUXAR, ---I w-» w.«c»w«»n, vrn DUJkAn Battle of (1764). S«e India: A. D. 1757-1772 BAYARD, The Cheralier: His knightl- deeds and his death. See Italy: A. D. 1501 BAYEUX TAPESTRY.-A lemarkaUe roll of niedliEval tajMjstrY, 214 feet long and 80 Inclips wide, preserved for centuries in the cathednil at liijeii?'. Normandy, on which a pictoriiil history of tlie Norman Invanlon and conqutst of England is represented, with mo- 5J '<;™ "I names and explanatory Inscriptions. Mr. h. A. Freeman {Xartnun Conguat, r. 8, ««<« A)Mya: "It will be seen that, tliroughout this volume, I accept the witness of the Bayeux Tapeslrv as one of my highest authorities, I do not hesitate to say tliat I look on -t as liolding the first place among the autlioritii » on the Nor- man side. That It is a contemporary work I entcrtoin no doubt whatever, and I entertain Just as little doubt as to lu being a work fully entitled to our general conddence. I believe the Upestry to have U-en made for Bishop Odo. and to have l)een most probably designed by liini as nn ornament for bis newly rebuilt ciitiie.lnd churdi (if Bayeux." The precious tap.strv is ""ZIZ:!',','^!" "'« Puljllc library at Hnv.-ux. BAYEUX, The Saxons of. See Saxons ok Bayki \. BAYLEN, Battle of (!«)«). Sec Spain- A. 1). I-^o'^iMay— Skptembeu). BAYOGOULAS, The. See Amkkk an ABi)iiimM-..< Ml KKiior.EAN Family BAYONNE (15651. See Frame: A. D. l.WI I'lTil BAZAINES SURRENDER AT METZ. S^eehiiA.s, I, A I) l-<Ti» (Jii,v_Ai m^ii 1 \r- <»rsT-M:fTi:.Mm;ii), ,,,i,| (Skptkmiiku— Oi Kp- ltKiw. BEACHY HEAD, Battle of. See Kno- LANIl \ I) 1«IK»(.Iim;) BEACONSFIELD iDiaraeli) Ministries. rr,' t'\"'*^" -^ " IWl-lSOa; 1858-1859^ 18»i8-l»ro, aud I87a-1K80. 284 BBC. A."|^5,^Sf7^<*' '^•'•- «« <'-->«»": Bc°±^?:=A.^5,' /JS. "' "" ^'"""•- «« ♦fc^J?' 'S«»-At""'''^'' '°"' ^ Tpor-ted in iSaM*^ '•■ ^'»*^"- A. D ?;<.. 5.;5'"'* '^ Nantes. See Fbakck; A. D. 1001— 1d¥o. r°^'^a°"''' Cardinal. The aasassiDstion of. See Scotland: A. D. 1S46 „ BEAUFORT. N. C, Capture of, by the National forces (i862>. See United States of Am.: a. D. 1863 (J iart-Apbil- North Caroijka).. ^f.^H'^^l ^"'« of- -The English com- manded by the Duke of Clarence, defeated in Anjou by an srmv of French and Scots, under the Dauphin of Prance; the Duke of cian'oce slain. ,.,?! A"?!^'*CHAIS'S TRANSACTIONS WITH THE UNITED STATES. X United States of Am. : A. D. 1776-177H a °n^K5*?.'*'^' B'"'« »'• S™ ^''^•'"■'; A. U. 1>>70 (AUOUST — SEPTFMnER) BEAUREGARD, General G. T.-Bombard- ment of Fort Sumter. See Uniteb Statks ok Am. : A. D. 1861 (March- April). ... At the first Battle of Bull Run. See United .Stvtks OF Am : A. D. 1861 (July: Virginia). . . Cora- mand in the Potomac district. See Ixrriu States of Am.: A. D. 186I-1H62 (DErEMiiuii- April: \ iRoiNiA) Command in the West. See United States of Am. : A. U. 1882 (Ficimi.- ART— April: Tennessee), and (Aphii,— Mu- Tenne8«ee— Mississippi) The Defence of Charleston. See United States of Am ■ A D =J4^V?.V?'.'Z^'^'^"'""'"= South Carolina). ' BEAUVAIS, Orimn ot See Belo.« g|BRYKIANS.Vhe. See Bithyniani BEC, Abbey of.— One of the most famous abbeys and ecclesiastical schools of the middle ages. lu name was derived from the little beck or rivulet of a valley In Normandy, on the banks of which a pious knight, Herlouln. retiring fmu the world, had fixed his hermitage. The renown of the piety of Heriouin drew olliers around him and resulted In the formation of a religiom community with himself at lu head. Among those attracted to Herlouin's retreat were a nolde Lombard scholar, Lanfrsncof Paviu, wlionfttr- wanis became the great Norman arelil.i.-hiip of Canterbury, and Anselm of Aoslii, anoihcr Italian, who succeeded Lanfranc at Canlr rlmry with still more fame. The teaching of Lanfranc at Bee raised It. says Mr. Green in his SJ..rl /fi»<.»ry </ tlu Rngliih I'ciplf, into tlie most famous school of Christendom ; it was, in fart, the first wave of the inUilleetuiil ni .vcmcnt which was spreading fnmi Italv to ilie rtidir countries of the West. The fubilc of lli.' c.inon law and of mediaeval scholastliisni. wiili tlie philosophical skepticism which tiMi HwoKeiindrr its infiuencc, all trace theirori»:iri to llei- 'The glory of Uee would have iM-eii as ti:lll^iI^ry as tliat of other monastic hrnm's. Imi f .r ihf ap pearanceof one illustrioiw man [LiiiifniM | who came to lie enrolled as a private miiulnrif the hrrithrrh.->.--i. snd wh;, g^-.r I!.t fur :i w-Hic a special and honorable cliaracter with which hardly any other moiiuslcry iu Christendom coul J BEC. BEGCINE3. compart."— E. A. Freeman, Norman Corupuit. BECHUANALAND.— The country of tha Berhuanas, S. Africa, between the Traiisvaa! and Oerman territory. Partly a possession and partly A protectorate of Great Britain since 1884-8i BECKET, Thomu, and King Henry II. SccENnLAXD: A. D. 1162-1170. BED-CHAMBER QUESTION, The. See Enol.vnd: a. D. 1X37-1839. BED OF JUSTICE.— "The ceremony by which the French kin^ compelled the registra- tion of their edicts by the Parliament was called 1 ' lit de justice ' [bed of justice]. The monarch pncceded in state to the Grand Chambre, and llie chancellor, having taken his pleasure, an- nounced that the king required such and such a decree to be entered on their records in his pri'sence. It was held that this personal inter- ference of the sovereign suspended for the time being the functions of all Inferior magistrates, anJ the edict was accordingly registered without « word of objection. The form of registration was as follows: ' Le roi s£ant en son lit de Justice a iirdonn^ et ordonne que les presents Sditaseront curogistrcs;' and a* the end of the decree, 'Fait en Parlemcnt, le rol y scant en son lit de ^\u- xke.'"—StudeiUi' Hint, of France, not.) to eh. 19. —See, also, Pabliamknt of Paris. — "The origin of this tirm ['l)ed of justice'] has been much discussed. The wits complained it was so Btylcd because there justice was put to sleep. 'file term was proljubly derived from the arrange- imnt of the throne on which the king sat, 'The Iniek uiid sides were made of bolsters and it was called a bed."— J. B. Perkins, France urtder .Vftitii-i:!, t. 1. p. 388, foot-note. — An elaborate aiul eiitertiiiuing account of a notable Bed of Ji.stice held imder the Regency, in the early part of the reign of Louis xV., will be found in the Memoirs of the Duke de 8uiut Simon, abridiK il tnmslation of St. John, v. 4, ch. 5-7. BEOR, Battle of. See MAnoMETAN CoN- qiEsT: .V 1). 61)9-632. BEDRIACUM, Battlet of. See Rom: A. 1>. IW. BEEF-EATERS, The. Certain palace at- ti'n>l:i'itr< i.n tlio Kmrli.-ih sovereign whose duty is toeiirry >ii> the royal dinner. See Yeomen or lilKGlMil). BEEF STEAK CLUB, The. See Clubs: i nK lil K.K Stkak. BEER-ZATH, Battle of.— The field on wliieli the great Jewish soldier and patriot. Judos Miieeabieiis, liaviug but 800 men with him. was iK-sel tiv 111! army of the Syrians anil slain, B. C. 161.— .fosephus, Aniiii. „f the Jem, bk. Vi. eh. 11. Also in: II. Ewiild, ifitt. ofltmtl. Iik. 5. teet. 2. BEG.— .\ Turkish title, signifying prince or lorl; whenri', als4i, Hey. See Bkv. BEGGARS (Gueux) of the Netherland Re- volt. See .NKTlIKiU..l.NDS: A. D. 1 jfl'2-l.')88. BEGGARS OF THE SEA. See Nethkb- I.-KNIIS A II. Vui. BEGUINES, OR BEGHINES. — BEG- HARDS. - Weaving Brothera.- Lollardi.- Brethren of the Free Spirit,— Fratricelli.— Biiochi.- Turlupina.— " In the year 1180 there liwd in Liejje a certain kindly, stainmeriug jinest, known from bis iDflrmlty as Laml>ert le L'-.^iLie T!'.i» msr, tt-'k pity on tlie destitute wiiluwsnf the town. Despite the impediment in his speeeh, he was, as ofun happens, a man of 4 tertuiii power and cloijuence lu preaching. , . . This Lambert lo moved the hearts of his hearers that gold and silver poured in on him, civen to relieve such of the destitute wunien of Liege ns were still of good and pious life. .With the moneys thus collected, Lamliert built a little square of cottages, with a church in the middle and a hospital, and at the side a cemetery. IIcic he housed these homeless widows, one or two in each little house, and then he drew up a half monastic rjle which was to guide their lives. The rule was very simple, quite informal: no vows, no great renunc'ation bound the 'Swes- trones Brod durch Got." A certain time of the day was set apart for prayer and pious medita- tion ; the other hours they spent in spinning or sewing. In keeping their houses clean, or they went as nurses in time of sickness into the homes of the townspeople. . . . Thus these women, though pious ana sequestered, were still in the world and of the world. . . . Soon we find the name ' Swestrones Brod durch Got ' set aside for the more usual title of Beguines or Bcghines. Different authorities give different origins of this word. . . . Some have thought it was taken in memory of the founder, the chari- table Lambert le B*gut. Others think that, even as the Mystics or Muttercrs, tlie Lollards or Hummers, the Popelbards or Babblers, so the Beguines or Stammerers were thus nicknamed from their continual murmuring in prayer. This is plausible: but not so plau.sible as the sugges- tion of Dr Mosheiin and M. Auguste Jundt, who derive the word Beguine from the Flemish word 'beggen,' to beg. For we know that these pious women bad been veritable begcars; and Ix'Kgan should they again become. With surprising swiftness the new order spread through the Netherlands and into France and Germany. . . . Lambert may have lived to see a beguinage in every great town within his keu; but we hear no more of him. The Beguines are no longer for Liege, but for all the world. Each city possessed its quiet congregation ; and at any sieK.be<l you might meet a woman clad in a simple smock and a great veil like mantle, who lived only to pray and do deeds of mercv. . , , The success of the Beguines had made tfiem an example. . . . Before St, Francis and Mt, Dominic in8titul<'d the mendicant orders, there ha<l silently grown up in every town of the yetheriands a spirit of fratemitv, not imposed by any rule, but the natural impulse of a people. The weavers seated all day long alone at their rattling hHnns, the armourers beating out their thouglits in iron, the cross-lejfgiil tailors and busy cobblers think- ing and stitching together — these men silent, pious, thoughtful, joined themsi'lves In a fra- ternity modelled on thai of the Beguines. They were' called the Weaving Brothers. Bound by no vows and fettered bv no rule, they still lived the worldly life and plied their trade for hire. Only ill their leisure they met together and prayeil and dreamed and thought, , , . Such were the founders of the great fraternity of ' Fratres Textori'S,' or Ileghurds as in later vears the iieople more gi'iieniUv calleil them."— A, M. F, Iloliinson, The Kh.l ,',f the Midille Agn. 1 — " The Lollards differed from the Heglmrds less In reali'y than In name. We are informed ro- spcLting thrm t;,.it, ii their origin In .Vnlrtetp, shortly after 1300, tliey ossociateil together for the purpose of waiting upon iMUienls danger- ously sick, and burying 'he dead. . , . Very 285 1 ^" BEGUINES. early, however »n element of a dUTerent kind began to work In those fellowghipg. Even about the do« of the 18th centunr Irregularities and extravagances are laid to their charge The cliargra brought against the later Beghards and Lollards, m connection, on the one hand, with the fanatical Franciscans, who were violentlr conu-nding with Uie Church, and on the other, w th the Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit ro ale to tlirec particulars, viz., an aversion t<i all useful industry, conjoined with a pnjpensity to mendicancy and idleness, an inU-n^perate spirit of opposition to the Church, and a skepti- cal and more or less pantheistical mysticism Ihcy . . . declared that the time of Antichrist was come, and on all hands endeavoured to em- broi the people with their spiritual guides. Their own professed object was to restore the pure pnmeval state, the divine life of freedom Innocence, and nature. The idea tliey formed or that state was, that man, being in and of hhn- self one with God, requires only to act In the consciousness of this unity, and to follow un- restrained the divinely implanted impulses and lucl nations of his nature, fn order to be good and ifodly. -C. tllinann, Stformert btf^re the Re- orrmttwn e. 2, jm. 14-16.-" The names of beg- lards and beguincs came not unnaturally to be tised for deyottes who, without being members of any regular monastic society, made a profes- sion of rehgious strictness; and thus the applica- tions of the names to some kinds of sectaries was easy — more especially as many of these found It convenient tu assume the outward appearance of betfhanls, in the hope of dUguising their dif- fennces fr<>m the church. But on the other hand, tliis drew on the orthodox bocliards fre- quent jHTsecutions, and many of th.'m, for the sake of siifety. were glad to connect themselves as tertianes with the great mendicant orders U-i.i' .> ^ '■"'' «'"tiiry, the popes dealt hardly nith the beghards; yet orthodox s<Kicties under this name still remained in Germany; and in Bjlgiurn. the country of their origin, sisterhoods Of l)e«uines flounsh to the present day Mattl.i.isof Janow. the Bohemian reformer, 'in the end of the 14th century, says that all who act < ilTeremly from the profane vulgar are called Ix.ghardi or turiupini. or by other blas- phemouii names. . . . Among those who were confoumled with the beghartis- partly because like them, they abounded along the lUiine — were the brethren and sisters of the Free Spirit Ihese appear in various places under various names. They wore a peculiarly simple dress professrc to give themselves to routemplatlon and. K.l.ling tliat laUiur is a hindrance to con- templaliDii and to the elevation of the soul to 2?i ;, ''^■'^.''.r beggary. Their doctrines were mystical and alnuMt pantheistic. . Tlic brethri'n and usters of the Free Spirit were much pers«<iiteil, and pml>al)ly formed a large pro- portion .if ili,«e who were burnt under tlie name of bej:lmr.is --.J, c. Uohcrtson. I[i.t. of Chri>- turn I hurfh, l,k 7. ch. 7(r 8) -••N,.«r the clos,. oft ns centiirv (the Ilith] origlnaud ii Italy the I-ratrijeili and liij.Hhi. parties tliat in Germany ami l-miue were denominated lUgiianls; and othir pontiffs con<lemned. and wishe.1 to see pcrsiTute,! l.y the In-.iuUltinn and rxtenii'.aatcd 1?J'"'';T r.T"'''-' .""y- The Fratrieelli, who •lao '.ailed themselves In Latin ' Fratres parvi ' 286 BEHRINO SEA CONTROVEHSY. (tittle Brethren), or ' Pratcrcull de paupere vita' (Little Brothers of the Poor Life), ^re fVancta can monk., but detache<i from the great f mUv of Pruiciscans : who whAed to obse^e the S lations prescribed by their founder 8t ¥tlsL more perfectly than the others, and tlitrefo« PO-esMd no property, either individually " collecUvely, but obtained their necessary fo.^ from day to day by begging. Tliov m/ dieted a reforniation and puriflratlon ..f the wlw- ■ A ■ They extolled Celestine V. L the legal founder of their sect; but Boniface an<i h« succeeding pontiffs, who opposed the Fr.triee HI they denied to be true p6ntiffa As IIr. .reat Franciscan family had iu associates and .U-xnU St Francis [which required only cerUin nious observances, such as fasu, prayers, eonlinlZ >.^J^' '^^^K^^- ^""'"y °' manners, &c.' but did not prohibit pnvate property. niar^isCT. pubUe oiBces, and worldly occupktioMl. and wl^ tae Fratrieelli ... had numerous Tertlarii of Ito own. These were called, in Italy. UizocW and BocaaotI; in France Beguini; and inTer many Beghardi, by which name all the T.rt aril Tl!^^J^°uJ ^^^:^.- These differ«l from Th«^Vi^ r • • ""'y. '" "',"' ■"«!« <'f life- The Fratrieelli were real monks, living m„ier 11 ?.'? "1 ?'• r™""^'*; b"' the BizwliT or Be- gulni lived in the manner of other people rotally different from these austere Heguini and Beguino!, were the German and Iklitic Beguins, who did not indeed originate in this century, but now first came into notice Concerning the Turiupins. many have written- butnoncaccuratcly. . . The origin of th,. name,' I know not; but I am able to prove fr>„„ mh- stential documents, that the Turiupins who were burned at Paris, and in other parts of Kmna> were no other than the Brethren of the Krw Spirit whoin the pontiffs and coun( ils ron- ^^"i^eA —J. L. Von Mosheim. I,uf> ..f tWl,. »M*h«jf IIut..bk. 8. century l:i, pt. 2, cli'. i, „,t 89-41, atuleK. 5, iret. 9. foot-note. Auo in: L, Mariotti (A. Gallengs). /V,i Mdm ""£.£.1 ?>'»"•— See, also. Pii ahoh. »f3B^^K?r ^"°." <OUDE), Warren PBS<^5-f?,''M""'o "1? India: A. D. i::;i-iis\ BEHTSTUN, Rock of.-" This rein.irkal.Ie spot, lying on the dire<'t route iH'tween Hiil.\ Ion and Ecbatana, and presenting the umisuul n,,,.- blnat on of a copious fountain, a riili pi liu ami a rock suitable for sculpture, must Imvc ,i,rlv attracted the attention of the great moriardi's who marched their armies tliroiigh the Zneros range, as a place where they might eonveni<nlly set up memorials of their exploits The tablet and inscriptions of Darius, wlil.li liavc made Bchistun famous in miKlern times ,m In a recess to the right of the scariM^i f,i,e of U\e ")ck, and at a considerable elevation ■— (J U;,w. linson, /^Vm Great .V„i,arc/iif» : .\U,/i,i ,■>, \ _ The mountain or rock of Uehistun fixes the location of the dUtrict known to ilieiin.ksaa HagLstana. "It lies southwest of K.iviml between that mountain and tlic Za^rnis iu tlie valley of the Choaspcs. and is the distrid now known as KIrmenshah."— M. Duncker, ;//»( ,/ Anttquiti/, hk. 8. eh. I BgHRINC SEA CONTROVERSY, and ArDltratioo. See Ukitbu States ok Am.: A. O. ltJtM-1883. BEIRUT. BELORADB. BEIRUT, Origin of. See BBRTTca. BELA I., Kiae of HanEUT, A. D. 1000- 10«3.....B«U II., A. D. 1181-1141 Bel« III.,A.D. Ii78-11M.....B«UIV., A. D. 1280- 1270. BELCHITE, Battle oC See Spain: A. D. 1809 (Fbbrcart— Jum). BELERION, OR BOLERIUM.— The Romto name of Land's End, Engfauid. Bee BUTAIN: CBtTIcTRTOB. BELFORT.— Siece bj the Germaas (1870- 1871). See Francb: A. D. 1870-1871. BELG.£, The.— "This Belgian confedera- tion includea the people of all the country north of the Seine and Mame. bounded by the Atlantic na the west and the Rhine on the north and east, except the Hediomatrici and Treviri. . . . The old oiTisions of France before the great revolu- tion of 1789 corresponded In some degree to the divisions of the country In the time of Cssar, snd the names of the people are still retained with little alteration In the names of the chief towns or the names of the onte-rerolutionary divisions of France. In the country of the Rem! between the Hame and the Aisne there is the town of Reims. In the territory of the Suessiones between ihe Mame and the Aisne t here is Solssons on the Aisne. The BelloTact were west of the Oise (Isara) a branch of the Seine: their chief town, which at some time received the name of Ccaaromagus, is now Beauvais. The Nervii were between and on the Sambre and the Schelde. The Atrebates were north of the Bellovaci be- tween the Somme and the upper Schelde : their chief place was Nemetacum or Xemctooenna, now Arras in the old division of Artoia The Ambiani were on the Somme (Samara): their name is represented by Amiens (.Samarobtlva). The Horini, or sea-coast men extended from Boulogne towards Dunkeroue. The Mcnapii hnnlcrMt on the northern Horini and were on Imth sides of the lower Rhine (B. O. iv., 4). The Caloti were north of the lower Seine along the cosat in the Pays de Caux. The Vclocasses were ciLst (if the Cslcti on the north side of the Seine :u far as the Oise : their chief town was Rotoma- I7US (Riiuen) and their country was afterwards Voxin Normand and Vexln Fran^ais. The Vero- maiidui were north of the Suessiones: their cliU'f town under the Roman dominion, Augusta Veromanduorum. Is now St. Qucntin. The Adus- tucl were on the lower Maas. The Condrusi and tbe others incluled under the name of Oermant were on the M...is, or between the Maas and the Kliine. The Eburones had the country about Tcingem and Spa, snd were the immediate neigh- lioureuf tbe Menapii on the Rhine. "— O. Long, DefUne of tKt Romin BepuNie, v. 4, eh. 8.— "CiEsar . . . informs us that, in their own esti- mation, they [the Belgte] were principally de- scended from a Qerman stock, the offspring of 8<)me early migration across the RLlne. . . . Stmbo ... by no means concurred in CiEsar's view of the origin of this . . . rare, which he Ix'licved to be (iaulish and not Oerman, though ili!l«ring widely from the Oalli, or Oauls of 111" ccntml region."— C. Merivale, Jlut. of the Also i.n: E. Guest, Originn Celtiat, t. 1, eh. 12. B- C, 57.~Cseaar'9 campaign against the confederacy.— In the stcond year of Cesar's command in Gaul, B. C. 87, he led his legions against the ficlgs, whom he chanctorised b his Commentaries as the bravest of all the people of Gaul. The many tribes of the Belgian country had joined themselves in a great league to op- pose the advancing Roman power, andwereable to bring into tbe field no less than 290,000 men. Tbe tribe of the Reml alone refused to join the confederacy and placed themselves on the Roman side. Csesar who had quartered his array during the winter in the country of the Sequani, marchca boldly, with eight legions, into the midst of these swarming enemies. In his first encounter with them on the banks of tlio Aisne, tbe Galgic bar- barians were terribly cut to pieces and were so disheartened that tribe after tribe made submis- sion to the proconsul as he advanced. But the Nervli, who boasted a Germanic descent, together with the Aduatucl, the Atrebates and the Vero- mandui, rallied their forces for a struggle to the death. Tbe NervU succeeded in surprising the Romans, while the latter were preparing their camp on the banks of the Gambre, and very nearly swept Cnsar and his veterans off the field, by their furious and tremendous charge. But the energy and personal Influence of the one, with tbe steady discipline of the other, pn vailed in the end over the untrained valour of the N'crvii, and the proud nation was not only defeated but annihilated. "Their eulogy is preserved in the vrritten testimony of their conqueror; and the Romans long remembered, and never failed to signalize their formidable valour. But this recollection of their ancient prowess be<»me from that day the principal monument of their name and history, for the defeat they now sustained well nigh annihilated the nation. Their combat- ants were cut off almost to a man. The e'ders and the women, who had been left In secure re- treats, came forth of their own accord to solicit the conqueror's clemency. ... 'Of 600 sena- tors,' they said, 'we have lost all but three; of 80.000 fighting men 500 only remain.' Cirsar treated the survivors witli compassion." — C. Merivale, UM. of the Human*, ch. 7. Also in: Julius Ciesar, 0<i«tV! Wnn,bk. 2.— 0. Long, Deelintoftlielioman Republic, e. 4. <!A. 3.— Napoleon III., Jlint of Caiar, bk. 8, ch. 5. BELGiE OF BRITAIN, The.— Siippo^i^d to t)e a colony from tin- Belga; of the 1 ontiiient. SeeBiiiiAiN: Ci i.Tf TuiiiF.ti. BELGIUM: Ancient and Mediaeval His- tory. Sec Bei.o.k, N'kiivii, Fuanks, Loiiuainb, FLANDKKS, LifeoE. NiTnEllI.ANDS. Modem History. See NKTnKRi.AND«. Constitution of 1893. See Constitltioii or BsLOirM. BELGRADE : Origin.- During the attacks of the Avars upon the territory or the Eastern Empire, in the last years of tbe 6tb century, the city of Singidunum, at the junction of the Save with the Danube, was taken and totally destroyed. The advantageous site of the extinct town soon attracted a colony of Sclavonians, who raised out of the ruins a new and strongly fortified city — the Belgrade, or the White CMty of later times. "The Sclavonic name of B>;1- grade is mentioned in the 10th century by Cun- stantine Porphyorgeoitus : the Latin appellation of Altia Gneca is used bv the Franks in tbe beginning of the 9tb."— E. Gibbon, Decline and Pifl.-.fthr' Rfljfuin Bnr-frf. eh. 48. ft'-fr. A. b. 1435.- Acquired by Hungary and forti- Bed acainst the Turk*. See Hunuahy; A. U. 1301-1443. 287 BELGRADE. A. D. I44a.-Pint npnlae of the Torki. R-r TunKS (Tire Ottoman*): A. D. 1402 • I'li A. D. 1456.— Secoad rcpnlie of the 1 urkt. Svv HuKOARY: A. D. 1443-1*58; and Turk» (TbrOttomaxs): A. D. 14.51-1481. ^A. p. isai.— Sien and upture br SolTman the Mafnificeiit. Bee Homoabv; A. D. 1487- 1336. A. D. i68S-iteo.— Taken by the Anitrians and recorered by the Tnrks. See Hdnoart: A. D. lfl8S-16M. A. D. 1717.— RecereiT from the Tnrka. See Hcnoart: a. D. ItW-lllS. A. D. 1739— Restored to the Tnrka. See Rdwia: a. D. 1725-1789. A. D. 1780-1791.— Taken by the Anatriaaa and rettored to the Tnrka. ^ Turm: A. D. 1778-1798. A. D. t8o6.— Snrpriaed and taken by the Serrians. See Balkan and Dandbian Statbs: 14th-19th Centdr»8 (Sbrvta). A. D. i8«3.— Withdrawal of TnrkUh troopa. See Balkan and DAiniBtAN States: 14Tn-19TH Centuriks (Skbvia). I - > *i t' BELGRADE, The Peace of. See Rossia: A. D. 1725-1739. BELIK, Battle on the (Canha—B. C. u). Sec Rome: B. C. 57-53. ** BELISARIUS, Campaigns ot See Van- dals: A. D. 533-534.1111(1 Home: A. D. 535-55-'?. BELIZE, or British Hondnras. Sec NiCA- R.*01!a: a. D. ISW. BELL ROLAND, The great. See Oiient: A. n i.-jsa-i.vto. .^^^y- TELEPHONE, The invention of t&e. See Ei-Et-iKK Ai, Discovkut and Inven- TicN-: A. D. 1S78-1892. BELLE ISLE PRISON-PEN. The. See ^■'A'^'^% ^.'.' I R"-0«-PkN8, CoNFKDKIiATK. ilJ-LOVACI The. See BKi.<i.f;. BELLVILLE, Battle of. See Uhfted BELMONT, Battle of. Sec Umi in .Siates OF.\.M.: A. D. 1881 (SBPTKllBEU-NuVKMDEn: On Tni'. MtBsiBsippi). BELOIT COLLEGE. Sec Eui cation, MomnN: Ameuica : A. D. 1769-1884. bEMA, The. SeePNvx, BEMIS HEIGHTS, Battle of. Sre United BENARRQ^ \'' lT77(Jui.v-Ot,oi.EK). titinAKEls.— Benares "msy even date from tlie time when the Aryan race first spread Itself over Nortlicrn India. ... It is certain that the city is ri'ganled by all Hindus as coeval with the birth of Hinduism, a notion derived both from tnulltlon and from tlicirown writings Allusions to Benares are exceedingly abundant iii ancient Sanskrit literature: and perhaps there Is no city In all Hindustan more frequiiitly referred to. lly reason of some subtle and nivstcrious charm, It has linked itself with the Vdlgious sympathies of the Hindus through every century of iU existence. For the sanctity of ||a In- habitants — of lu temples and reservoirs — of its wells and streams — of the very soil that Is trodden — of the very air tliat is breathed- and of everything In and around it, Benares has been Tamed for thousands of years. . . Previously to Uic Introduction of the Buddhist faith Into India, she was already the sacred dty of the iaod,— the centre of Hinduism, and chief seat of Ita authority. Judging from the strong feelings BENEDICTINE ORDERS. of veneration and affection with which the native community regard her In the present dav and bearing In mlncTthat the founder of Bud' dhism commenced his ministry at this snot ii seems Indisputable that. In those early times nn. ceding the Buddhist refonnatlop the city i.uia have exerted a powerful and wldc-spi^ad relMoiM Influenci over the hind. Thioiighoiu the Buddhist period in IndU-a periodext.n tag from 700 to 1,000 years- she gave the same support to Buddhism which she had previously given to the Hindu faith. Buddhist works of ™' e™ • • • c'esfly establish the fact that the HuddhlsU of those days regarded the city with much the same kind of veneration as the Ilindii doesillw."- M. A. Shcrring, T/it Siwrf Ciivof tn* JuMu; eh. 1.— For an account of the Enit- llsh annexation of Benares, see Indu- A i) 177;'-1785. BENEDICT II., Pope, A. D. 684-085,,.. Ben<.-dlct III., Pope, A. D 835-838 t'en- diet IV., Pope, A. D. 900-003 Benedict V A°??' ^ B;.*^"*^ Benedict VI., Pope' t;JLV^'"i Benedict VII., Pope, A. n «2:*^ Benedict VIII., Pope, A, 1). 101": 1^1- -.XVo^""!''' ^^■' ^SP'' A- D- 1033-1044. 1047-1048 Benedict X., Antipope. A D 10,'!8-1059 Benedict XI., Pope, AD IMlll 1804 Benedict XII., Pope, A. D. 1334-134" ....Benedict XIII., Pope, A. D. 1394-1423 (at Avignon) Benedict XIII., Pope, A. D 1734- 1730..... Benedict XIV., Pope, A. D. ' 17401 BENEDICTINE ORDERS.-The rule of St. Benedict.— "There were many monastirfca in the West bi'fore the time of St. B»"ne.lictof NursLi (A. D. 480); but he hus been rightly con- sidered the father of Western monastlcisiii ■ for he not only founded an onlcr to which liiany religious houses became attnrhed, but he estab- lished a rule for their government which in Its main features, wns adopted as the rule of mon- astic life by all the orders for more than five centuries, or until the time of St. Dominic and St. Francis of Assisl. Benedict was first a hermit, living In the mountains of Snutliorn Italy, and In that region he afterwards estab- lished In succession twelve monasteries, each with twelve monks and a superior. In tlic year .530 he founded the great mouastery of Monte Casmo as the mother -house of his order, a house which iK'came the most cclebmted and powirfiil monastery, according to .AIontalcml)ert, in the Catholic universe, celehmted especially because there Benedict prepared his rule and fonnci! the type which was to serve as a moilel to the innumemblc communities submitting to that sovercigu code. . . . Neither In the East nor in tiic West were the monks originally ecclesiaitirs; and It was not until the eighth century that they became priesU, called regulars. In contrast with the ordfn:iry parish clergy, who were called seculars, ... As missionaries, they pmvi'd tlic most powerful Instruments In extending the authority and the boundaries of the church. The monk had no Individual property: even his dress belonged to the m mastery. ... To enable him to work effleiently. It was neocssary to feed him well; and such was the Injunctiob of Benedict, as opposed to the former practice of strict ascellciMn. "— C, J. Stiltc, .Vij,/„j is Medtmud JIM., eh. 12.-" Benedict wouKI not have the monks limit themselves to spiritual 288 BENEDICTINE ORDERS. BENEVOLENCES. labour, to the action of the loul upon itself; he mode external labour, manual or litemry, a strict oliIlKStion of his rule. ... In order to banish indoienrc, which he called the enemy of the soul, be reguiated minutely the employment of every liour of the day according to the seasons, ami ordained that, after having celebrated the praises of God seven times a-day, seven houra adsy should be given to manual labour, and two hours to reading. . . . Those who arc sicilicd in the practice of an art or trade, could only exer- cise it by the permission of the abbot, in all humility i and If any one prided himself on his Ulent, or the profit which resulted from it to the bouse, he was to have his occupation changed until he b'-' '•'nbled himself. . . . Obedience Is also to . a work, obedientiae laborem, the most i..e.itoriou8 and essential of all. A monk entered into monastic life only to make the sacrifice of self. This sacrifice implied especially that of the will. . . . Thus the rule pursued pride into its most secret hiding-place, t^ubmission had to be prompt, perfect, ami absolute. The monk must obey always, wltli- niit reserve, and without murmur, even in those tilings which stemed impossible and above his strength, trusting in the succour of Ood, if a humble and seasonable remonst'-ince, the only thing permitted to him, was rot accepted by hb si.j jriors."— The Count de Hontalembert, The Monkt of the West, bk. 4, leet. 2 (c. 2). Also IK: E. L. Cutts, Sanet and Charnttertof theMimieAgt»,e 2.-8. R Maitland, The Dark Ai/et, Xb. 10.— J. H. Newman, Mition of St. Benetlict (Hut. Sketehet, t. 2).— P. Schaff. Uut. of the Chrittian Church, v. 2, eh. 4, teet. 4S-4.'!. — E. F. Henderson, Select ffiit. Doa. of the MiMlt Age*, bk. 8, no. 1. — See, also, Capcchtns. BENEFICIUM. -COMMENDATION. - Feudalism "had grown up from two great sources— the beneflcium, and the practice of commendation, and had been specially fostered on Gallic soil by the existence of a subject popu- lation which admitted of any amount of exten- sion in tlie n;ethods of dependence. The beneficiary system originated partly in gifts of land made by the kings out of their own estates to their kinsmen and servants, with a special undertaking to be faithful: partly in the sur- render liy landowners of their estates to churches or powerful men, to be received back again and held by them as tenants for rent or service. By the latter arrangement the weaker man obtaine<l the protection of the stronger, and he who felt himself insecure placed his title under the de- fenoe of the Church. By the practice of com- mendation, on the other hand, the inferior put himself under the personal care of a lord, but witliout altering his title or divesting himself of his riglit to his estate; he became a va.ssal and did homape, The placing of his hands between those of his lord was the typical act by which the connexion was formed.'— W. Stubbs. 0>rut. Ui,t.,fEiu;., ch. 9, met. 98. ALfoiN: H. Hallam, The MiddU Age*, eh. 2, V'- 1 -See, also, Scotland: IOth-IIth Ckh- TrKIEf BENEFIT OF CLERGY.-' Among the most llll^lortant and dcariyprized privileges of the ,!,»rrh was that which .-r.nfprred on Its [;iemlK rs immunity from the operation of secu- ir law, and relieve<l them from the lurisdic- Uou of secular tribunals. . . . 8o priceleaa a prerogative was not obtained without a long and resolute struggle. ... To ask that a monk or priest guilty of crime should not be subject to the or<Iinary tribunals, and that civil sulu be- tween laymen and ecclesiastics should be referred exclusively to courts composed of the latter, was a claim too repugnant to the common sense of mankind to be lightlv accorded. . . . The persistence of the church, backed up by the unfailing resource of excommunication, finally triumphed, and the sacred immunity of the firiesthood was acknowledged, sooner or later, n the laws of every nation of Europe." In Englaiul, when Henry II. in 1164, "endeavored, in the Constitutions of Ckrendon, to set bounds to tlie privileges of the church, he therefore especially attacked the benefit of clergy. . , . The disastrous result of th" quarrel between the King and the archbishop [Becket] rendered it necessary to abandon all such schemes of re- form. ... As time passed on, the benefit of clergy gradually extended itself. That the laity were illiterate and the clergy educated was taken for granted, and the test of churchman- ship came to be the ability to read, so that the privilege became in fact a free pardon on a first offence for all who knew their letters. . . . Under Elizabeth, certain heinous offences were decUred felonies without benefit of clergy. . . . Much legislation ensued from time to time, effecting the limitation of the privilege in vari- ous offences. . . . Eariy in the reign of Anne the lienefit of clergv was extended to all male- factors bv abrogating the reading test, thus placing the unlettered felon on a par with his better educated fellows, and it was not until the present centurj- was well advanced that this remnant of mediieval ecclesiastical prerogative was abolished by 7 and 8 Geo. iv. c. 28."— H. C. Lea, Studies in Church Hist. , pi. 2. Also in: W. Stubbs, Const. I/lst. of Eni teet. 722-725 (eh. 19, t. 8).— See, also, E.noland: A. D. 1162-1170. BENEVENTO, OR GRANDELLA, Bat- tle of (1266). See Italy (SoiTnERNi: A. D. 12.">0-I2«8. BENEVENTUM: The Lombard Duchy. — The Duchy of Bcncventum was a Lombard fief of the 8tli and 9th centuries. In southern Italy, which survived the fall of the Lombard kingdom in northern Italy. It covered nearly the territory of the modem kingdom of Naples. Charlemagne reduced the Duchy to subniis.sion with considerable ditflculty. after he had extin- guished the Lombard kingdom. It was after- wards divided into the minor principalities of Benevento, Salerno and Capua, ami became part of the Norman conquest. — See Italy (Soitth- KR.N); A. D. 800-1016; and 10(K>-1090; also, Lombards: .\. I). .'>T:i-774, and Amalfi. BENEVENTUM, Battle of (B.C. 275). See Rome: B. C. 2S3-2T.-). BENEVOLENCES. — "The collection of benevolences, regarded even at the time [Eng- land, reign of Edward IV.] as an innovathm, was perliaps a resuscitated form of some of the wor^t measures of Edward IL and Kichard II.. but the attention which it aroused under Edwanl IV. shows how strange it had become under the Intervealiig kin^s. . . . Such evidence nA exists shows us Edward IV. canvassing bv word of moutli or bv letter for direct giflji i\t money from his subjccu. Uenry III. had thua 289 i ,1 ^^1 Hi .■* 1 •"! BENEVOLBKCES. begged for new yeu't gtfu. Bdwaid IV. requ8«ed aiid extorted ' free-will offeringt ' from ererj one who could not mr no to the plead- tanot lucb • ktag."-W. Stubbe. Cofut Hit. ?m^m!' ***■ •"••-^ Buouakd: a. D. BENGAL. Th*Bn|UtliKqnis]clenot See BEMqAL:"P«mun«itS«tU«ment." Bee Utdia : A. D. 1785-1798. BENNINGTON, Battle of. See U»it«d BENTINCK, Lord WilJlam, The Indiui Mministratlon ot See Imdu : A. D. 1828- BENTONSVILLE, Battle ot SeeUsrrED Statm or Am. : A.D. 1863 (Fbbiiuabt-Maiich : Thb CAnOLINAS). BEOTHUK, The. See Ajuricah Abobi- or.NKs: Beotrukan Famii.t. BEK1ERS, The. See Libtaks; Notiid- lANS J --r, Obioih o» thr akciert pkoplx • and ii. I, I). BERE.x-CE, Cities of.— There were three cltiee of thk name (glTen In honor of Berenice mother of the eecond of the Ptolemice) on the Egyptian coast of the Red Sea. and a fourth in Cvrenaica. A °n^^,f}^^' ''••••?• »' '•>•• See Rcsiu : A. D. 1818(OcTiinEn— Dkcembeh) BERESTECZKO. Battle of (1651). See Poland : A. D. 1648-1634. v 3 »• ow BERGEN, Battle, of (1759 and 1799). See Orkmakt: A D. 17.W (Apmi.-AuQcrT ; and *^'i^2o"/; A.'ii^ (SEPTEIinKR-OCTOBEK). BERGEN-OP-ZOOM, A. D. isSa.-Tfce •«f* raised. See Nbthkblands: A. D. 1888- 1593. A. p. i6a3.— Unsuceessfnl siege by the fP*""*™!. See Netherlands: A. D. 1621- A. D. i747.i748._Taken by the French and restored to Holland. SecNETnEiii.ANDs 1746-1747, and Aix-LA-CHAi-ELi.B, The ORKgg. AD CON- BERGER. See BiitoEit. jjBERGERAC, Peace of. See Frasce : A, D. BERING SEA CONTROVERSY AND ARBITRATION. See United "?AT^> op Am.; a. D. 1886-1898. BERKELEY, Lord. The Jersey Grant to. »e New Jersey : A. 1). 1664-1667. to IOhS-itsn BERKELEY, Sir William. GoTernmenl of Vi'iiFVl,'',- ^^ VIRGINIA : A. I). 1642-184<J, to I0W>-IOj7. BERLIN: A. D. 1631.— Forcible entry of y • *<lolphns. See Geuma.nt : A. I). BKRSBRKZR. _P=?LIM CONFERENCE (iSSj-igg,,. T^i'*A"l).187S«"""°"''^"'*'«^- 8«e BERMUDA HUNDRED, Butler's Arnli •*• flee CNIT.D States or Am. . A. D iS^ ^^KRMnffl'S'' Tm Armt or the Jame, BERMUDAS, or Somers Islands.-Tlil. group of small islands, iltuated in the wes .4 Atlantic. nearW «00 miles eastward of (w HMteras, was dlscorered In 1S13 bv a SpanS mariner, Juan Bermudes, and was -well C,„ •^IS"*^"' '•*, ""' «*■"•"?• but never "Z pied. The region bore a bad reputation f, storms. By the wrecking of the fcnglUh ,h n ••Sea Venture,'; with Admiral «lr Georg"so7 ieW-1616), the l«knds were brought into rtla tions wHh the Virginia colony, «Sd were I^ arterwanls Inclndedin the grant to the Virelnla Company, but sold presentfy to another colS t'Sfn'hS'TSr- ^b^^ British D«va,ta u ; %. *",'?" A"*""' ^'y "re to some extent what Mauritius is In the Indian Ocean, but far tht BntiA OoloniM, t. i,ieet.l ^ •' ^^BMN, Diatrich eC See Veboha: A D. L^V*V!^^fi'^*^ .^^ See France: ,^L.n^(ter-fSS?;>iiRT % &wE'S;ri.Wir6E^i;:-rD'' 1818-1818; 1818 (Adocst). (SkpTEiBE^ciS: BER), (October— December) BERNARD, St.. and the Second Crusade. See Crdsadeb: A. D. 1147-1149 e Jif'll'^; *i- °- '353--Joined to the original Swiss Confederation, or Old League of High "«"n«ny. See Switzerland: A. D. 1332-1490 A. p. 1798.— Occnpation by the Fr«nch.- The plundering o' \ht ; r» jury. Sci ^fui- erland: a. D. 1798-1798. Threatened by the Swedes. • A. D. 1640-16tss. Ing Austrian attack. Sec "(Jl-LT— DErKMIlKIl) -en and plundered by the ■■■— SccOeumanv: a D. Set '. A. German. A. D. I7t..- . _.,:„ , Austriaasaad Russians. 1780. A. D. 1806.— Napoleon in possession, Oermant: a. D. mm (OoToiii-H) .„^,P; '•48.-Mistaken battle of soldiers ana citisens.— Continued disorder.— State of ?«f-i8W** "*'"''' ■ * '^ '**" tMA«c"), and See BERNICIA, The Kingdom ot See Exo land: a. D. 547-688; and Scotland: 7th Ce.v- ttrt. BERSERKER. - B.fiRSiERK. - • The word Bffirswric is variously spelt, and statpd to be derived from ■ bar ' and ' sierk,' or • barcshirf ■riie men to whom the title was applleil [among the Northmen] . . . were sUteti to be in the hHJit of flghting without armour, and wiarlng onlv a shirt of skins, or at times . ki.l. In Iceland they were sometimes called I'l..' ^In I. c., wolfskin. The derivation of Bsisierk has been questioned, as in philology is not uncom- mon. The habit of their wearing bear (l)jftrn) skins, is said to afford the meaning of the word. In philology, to agree to differ la heal. Tlie Bienferks, according to the sagas, appear to have i)een men of unusual physical development and savagery. They were, moreover, liable to what was called Rwrasrkegang. or a state of (•-•icite- ment In which they exhibited auperhiunan strength, and then spared neither friend nor foe. . . . After an attack of Bxrscrk frenzy, it wis 290 BERSERKER BET. beliered that the inperfaumaD lufliienoe or (pirlt left the Bcncrk's bodT m s 'ham,' orcait-off shape or form, with the mult that the Bar- lark iuffered great exhauitioD, bis natural force* being uied up." — J. F. Vicary, Saga Time, eh. S. Aijo in: p. ~ ~ "■ ■■■ "■■ ■ *. t. eh. 20. Aijo in: p. B. Du Chaillu, Ttu Yikint Age, BERWICK-UPON-TWEBO: A. D. 1393- 1333.— Conqnaat bythe Barlith.— At the begin- ning, in \'f»i, of the ttruKgle of the Scottish nation to cast o9 the feudal yob which Edwaru i. had laiil upon It, the EDgliih king, marchlnK angrily northwards, made his lint anault upon Berwick. The citizeni, whoae only rampart wai a wooden ttmkatle, fooUihly aggrsTated bit wrath by gibes and taunta. "The stockade wi.« stormed with the loss of a single knight, anil nearly 8.000 of the citizens were mown down ic a ruth- less carnage, while a handful of Flemish traders who held the town-hall stoutly against fill assail- ants were burned alive in it. ... The town was ruined forever, and the great merchant city of the North sank from that time into a petty sea- port." Sulnequently recovered by the Scotch, Berwick was held by them in 1838 when Edward III. attempted to seat Edward Balliol, as is vassal, on the Scottish throne. The Englist \ •lege to the place, and an armr under the r, Douglas came to its relief. The battle of 1. -. 1- don Hill, *n which the Scotch were utterly routed, decided the fate of Berwick. "From that time the town remained the one part of Edward's conquests which was preserved by the English crown. Fragment as it was, it was viewed as legally representing the realm of wkli'h It had once formed a part. As Scotland, it had Its . chancellor, chamberlain, and other offleeni of state; and the peculhtr heading of acts of Parliament enacted for England 'and the town of Berwick-upon-Tweed still preserves the memory of its peculiar position. '—J. R Green. Short Hist, of Iht Sttgluh People, eh. 4, Utl. 3 and 6. .Vl.^u in: J. U. Burton, Hitt. of Scotland, eh. 17 — .•>ee ScoTLAKD: A. D. 1290-1305. BERWICK, Paciflcationof. See Scotlasd : A. I> 1638-1640. BERWICK, Treatyof. SceScarutKD A. D. 15."jH-15tW. BE RYTUS.— The colony of Bervtus (mo<lem Beirut) was founded by Agrippa, B. 0. 15, and maile a station for two legions. A. D. 551.— Its Schools.— Its Destruction by Earth '.uake.— The city of Berytus, modern Beirut, was destroyed by eartl ■uske on the 9th of July, A. D. 551. " 'Thttt city, on the coast of Phcenicia, was illustrated by the study of the dvll Uw, which opened the surest road to wealth and dignity: the schools of Berytus were fille<l with the rising spirits of the age, and many a Touth was lost in tne earthquake who might have lived to be the scourge or the guardian of his country."— E. Gibbon, Oeelint and FaU of the Butnan Empire, eh. 43. A. D. nil.— Taken by the Crusaders. See Cbisades: a. D. 1104-1111. BESAN90N : Origin. See Vesontio. a D. ii<a-iA48 — a Free City of the Em- pire. See F'sAMCiiK Coiitb. A. p. 1674.— Siege and capture by Vauban. bee NETRSBLAIID8 (IIoUjLHD): A. D. 1674- I643. BESSI, Th* — The Beisl were an ancient Thracian tribe who occupied the mountain range of Hamus (the Balkan) and the upper valley of the Uebrus. They were subdued by Lucullus, brother of the conqueror of Mltbridates. — E. H. Bunbury, JKit. qfAneitnt Oeog.,eh. 18, tet. 6. BESSIN, The.— The dUtrict of Bayeuz. See Saxons or Batkux. BETH-HORON, Battles of.— The victory of Joshua over " the live kings of the Amoritea " who laid siege to Gibeon ; the decisive battle of the Jewish conauest of Canaan. ' ' The battle of Beth-horon or Qibeon is one of the -nost important In the history of the world ; and yet so profound has been the indifference, first of the religious world, and then (through their example or In- Quence) of the common world, to the historical study of the Hebrew annals, that the very name of this great battle Is far leas knovra to most of us than that of Marathon or Cannse."— Dean Stanley, LeeU. on (As HM. ofth* Jeteuh Chvreh, teet. 11.— In the Maccabean war, Beth-horon was the scene of two of the brilliant victories of Judas Maccabeus, in B. C. 167 and 162.- Joaephus, Antia. of (As Jen; bk. 12.- Later, at the time of the Jewish revolt against the Romans, it witnessed the disastrous retreat of the Roman general Cestius. BETHSHEIIESH, BatUe of.— Fought by Joash, king of Israel, with Amaziah, king of Judah, defeating the latter and causing part of the walls of Jerusalem to be tlirown down. — 3 Chranieht, xxv. BETH-ZACHARIAH, Battle of.-A defeat suffered (B. C. 168) by the Jewish patriot, Judas Maccabaeus, at the hands of the Syrian monarch Antiochus Eupator; the youngest of the Macca- bees being slain.— Josephus, Antia. of th* Jtai, bk. 12, eh. 9. BETHZUR, Battle oL— Defeat of an army sent by Antiochus, against Judas Maccabeus, the Jewish patriot, B. C. 165, Josephus, Antiq. of the Jeait, bk. 12, eh. 7. BEVERHOLT, Battle of (1381). See Flanders: A.. D. 1379-1381. BE Y.— BE YLERBEY.— PACH A.— PAD- ISCHAH.—" The administration of the [Turk- ish] provinces was in the time of «Iahomet II. [the Sultan, A. D. 1451-1481, whose legislation organized the Ottoman government] principally Intrusted to the Beys and Beylerbeys. 'These were the natural chiefs of the class of feuda- tories [Spahis], whom theirtenure of office obliged to serve on horseback in time of war. They mustered under the Sanjak, the banner of the chief of their district, and the districts them- selves were thence called Sanjaks, and their rulers Sanjak-beys. The title of Pacha, so familiar to us when speaking of a Turkish jirovincial ruler, is not strictly a term imply- ing territorial jurisdiction, or even military authority. It is a title of honour, meaning literally the Shah's or sovereign's foot, and implying that the person to whom that title was given wa.s one whoi" the sovereign employed. . . . The title uf pi- . ' was not at first appliuil nmimg the Ottonran .^.iusivcly to those olliirrs who comaiiiir.led i<rn ics or ruled provinces or eitlea. Of t!ie ft-.:- first Pr,.-has, t!i-,t uro mentioned by • .-nan writers, three were liUT. ary men. By de.^'rees tills honorary tith' was appropriated U> those whom the Sultan employed in wu and set over dUtricta and important 291 -r t ij-t BET. town*; S.1 that the word Pscha became almnat •yuonymou* with the word governor. The titlK Pmliachali, which the Sultau liiinself bcar». and •vliich the Turltiah diplomatists have l)ciii very jealou* in allowing to Christian Sovereigns is »n f.tirely different word, and means the great, the imperial Schah or Sovereign. In the time of Mahomet II. the Ottoman Empin- con- tttlued in Kuro|)e alone thirty-six Saujalia, or lianners, around each of which a&scmbled about 400 cuvalierB.'— Sir E. 8. Creasy, Uut. of tU Ottoman Turin, eh. 6. BEYLAN, Battle of (1833). See TtiBKa: A. D. IS31-1840. BEYROUT, Oripn of: See Berttvs. BEZANT, The.— The bezant was a Bvzan- tlne gold coin (whence iu name), worth a'little leas than,ten English shillings— $8.50. BEZIERES, The Massacre at See Albi- SBNSK8: A. D. 1209. BHARADARS. Sec Ihdia: A. D. 1808-18H. j^HONSLA RAJA, The. See I»du: A. D. BHURTPORE, Siere ofdSos). See India: A. D. 1798-1805. BIANCHI AND NERI (The Whites and macks). See Pu)Behce: A D. 1295-1300, and BIANCHI, or White Penitents. See White Pknitknts. BIBERACH, Battles of (1796 and 1800) See Fh.\.\ck: A. U. ViW (Apkil— Octobek): and A. D. lHOO-1801 (Ma»-Fkbkuarv). BIBLIOTHftQUE NATIONALS. S« Li niiAiiiKH, Modern: France. "RACTE. S.M. G.m:i.«. ^CI, The.— .V tribe of ancient Britons m-ar the Timnicn. • ERAL SYSTEM, The.-Tliis term 1 ..d by Jereniy liinthMiii to the divisicm o . Slsliitivc biKly into two (lminh<r.« — such "ni'i^ti'.""*' ' '•'"■''" "'"' """"'' "f ''"'unions. BICHAT, and physiological science. See ilKrm u, .SciKNcK : ISm Ikntiiiv BICOQUE, OR BICOCCA, La. Battle of (I«3I. ."Sir FiiAM K : A I> I,V20-IM:) BIG BETHEL. Battle of. S« United bJTS!; 4i;.-^ ^- "*•" ^ivsK. Viii.:isiA). BIO BLACK, Battle of the. He. L'nitkd Btatk* or Am . A I>. ln«8 (Ai'Uii.-Jui.T : On Till; .MiKsiKsii'pi) BIGERRIONES, Th.. See A.ji,TAii.t, Thk ANdKNT TmiWB BIGI, OR GREYS. The.-One of the three factions whiih divided Flonii.e In the time of Savonarola, and after. The Hlnl. or Ureyt Were the imrliHithN of the Medici ' BILL OF RIGHTS, tk* K.soi ani>: A I) l«N«(().TonKH). BILLS OF EXCHANGE. S.e I,.uv, Com. Mi.S: .\ 1» l»Iii;t. BILLAUD-VARENNES.and the French RcTolulionary Committcs of Public Safety t^ FlUN.E: A I). 17«;t (.llNK-O. T..nKU)' (SrPTEm(l.-K— I)Kl KMBKl;), lo ITW-lTUj 1 Jlj.¥— Arnri ). BILOXIS, The. SwAmerkan Adokioihks: Bi"i'»N Family. A^lMSn/' ''"''* '''"^ ^' ^^ Amkiika: BIRAPARACH, Fonrssa of. Sw Jlroi. BLACK DEATH. „°"*°^"' KJ»f of Sweden, A. D. 1290- 1319 Birnr. Rennt, A D. 1250-1266 A^n^"«.S.'',ffi^*A ■^''•- 8«««™TLand: A. U. 1638-1640; and Enoland: A D 16411 ^BISMARCK ARCHIPELAGO. See Me^ BISMARCK'S MINISTRY. Bee Obr. MANY: A. 0.1H61-1866, to 1889-1890 ; and Feaiii «• A. n. 1870 'Ju.NK-Jui.T); 187(^1871; 1871 (Ja, lABv— MA^h and Papacy : A. D. 1870-1874 " BISSEXTILE YEAR. See CAii^NDiR Julian. ^!'^,"y'i'^fS''^"^'"ANS.-"AIongthe coast of the Euxlne, from the Thraclan Bo«nlK,ru« eastward to the river Ilalys, dwelt Bithynians or Thynians, Mariandynians and Paphlagonians — all recognized branches of the widely extended ThracUn race. The Bithynians especially In the northwestern portion of this territory and reaching from the Euxlne to the Propontis are often spoken of as Asiatic Thracians,— while on the other hand various tribes among the This- cians of Europe are denominatecT Thynl or Thynians.— so little difference was there in the population on the two sides of the Bosphorus alike brave, predatory, and sanguinary. The Bithynians of Asia are also sometimes called Bi'brykians, under which ilenomination they ex- tend as far southward as the gulf of Kios in the Propontis."— U. Grote, llitt. of Greta, pt. 2 rA 16 —The nitliyniaus were among the penpl'e in Asia Minor Bubjugnted byCr(Psu.s, king of Lvdia and fell, with Ills fail, under the Persian nile' Hut, in some way not clearly understo<Kt, an in di'iMnileut kingdom of Bitliynia was forineit alout the middle of llie 8th century B. C which rfisted the Persians, successfullv rcsistiil .Mix. iiiiiler the Great and his successors' in Asia .Mitmr ^•slsted Mithridates of Pontiis, and existed until H. C. 74, when its last king Nlcorae<lis III bi'i|ueathcd his kingdom to Rome and it was made a Itomaii province. A ^,'7,9.^J.9i.^'"'* "' <'734)- See France BITURIGES, The. See .«dii; also Bot'Hoi.s. OitioiN or. BIZOCHI. The. See Beocines, etc J BLACK ACTS. The. SeeSioTtAM. A 1) BLACK CODES. S.* pag.. !M:8 ,, .' :, BLACK DEATH. The.-"The III.1. k IVath npiwirs to have Imd iU oriiflii hi tii<' o,ritrM .,f Cliliia, in or about the year i;a-( It is w.;.| il.ut it was acroin|>anieil at Its ouilircnk by v;iric.ii!i terr.-strial and atmosplierir pliieiiomi-iui uf u niivil and most destructive eimracli r phi- noiiiena similar to those which rliari( li riznl tl.« flmt apiM-arance of the Asiatic ("hoi. m. .,f Hie Iiillui uia, anil even iu more remiit4> times of the Atli. niiiii Plague. It is a singular fait that nil ephle.iiics of an unusually destru.-tive 1 luirsrl.T have had their homes in the farth.'st l-jt^i nmt have travellnl slowly fMm those regions in«anl« Kur.pe. It appears, t<M), that the ill8.-n«.- ex. hHUslcl Itatlf In the place of its origin at .'ilioiit Ilie Nime time In which it made its apwiiranee In Kuroiie. ... The disease still exists iiniler tlw name of the Levant or Oriental I'lagiii', and is.'ndeinir in Asia Minor, in parta of Tiirkev and ill Egypt. It Is speclllcally a .llsesw la wlijih Uiii lilnnfj (• poisoned, la wfc'.:-h •!■!- c-.-^u-r-. sciks U) ndleve itself by suppuration .d ilw glands, and la which, tlie tissues becoiulof ills 212 BLACK DEATH. BLOCKADE. or^nnljicil, and the blood thereupon being In- UliruU-'il into them, dark blotches appear on tlio skin. Hence the earliest name by whicli tlic Plugiie was described. The storm burst on the Island of Cypnis at the end of tlie year 1347, ami WHS accompanied, we are told, by remark- able physical phenomena, as convulsions of the earth, and a total change In the atmosphere. Many persona ailccte<l died instantly. The Black iJeath seemed, not only to the frightened im- agination of the people, but even to the more sober observation of the few men of science of the time, to move forward with measured 4teps irom tlic desolated East, under ♦; • Ut-r> of a dark and fetid mist. It is v v-hU^:: .;.«t "<,!'- sequent upon the great pi. ' Jil convul.iii.r^ which hiul rent the earth am :)rc('i!od the dis- ease, foR'ign substancea of a c el it r us characl »r liail iK'pn projected into thi alu ■ sjiheri!. , . . The Black Death appeared a; , vgi^on ii Jan- liiiry 1348, visited Florence u^ A. r-'i'-O of .\|iril. and had thoroughly penetrated Krant. iiiiii Germany by August. It entered Poland in 1349, reached Bwedcn In the winter of that year. and Norway by infection from England at about the !iame time. It spread even to Iceland and Oretnland. ... It made its ap|)earance in Rus- sia ia 13Sl,aftcr it hod well-nigh exhausted itself ill Euroiw. It thus took the circuit of the Medi- ttrriinean. and unlike most plagues which have |H-nelratC(l from tlie Eastern to the Western world, was checkeil, it would seem, by the barriir of the Caucasus. . . . Ilecker calculates the loss to Europe as amounting to 25.000, UUO. " —J. £. T. Rogers, Uitt. of Ai/rieuUur» and I'rirfi, e. 1, «A. 15. Also in: J. F. C. Heckcr, Etiidtmift of t/u Viddh Aget—See.. also, Encii.and; A. D. 134«- 134H; Fhance: .V. D. i;U7-134«; Florencic: A. I). 13W; Jkws: A. I) 1348-1349. BLACK EAGLE, Order of the.— A Prus- sian onlir of kniu'lithood institutetl by Frederick llI.,<l«torof liniriclenburg, in 1701. BLACK FLAGS, The. Bee Fuance : AD. l<T"i 1NH». BLACK FRIARS. HeeMiNDirANTOiinKKS. BLACK FRIDAY, btr Nkw Vokb : A. U. I 111 I. BLACK HAWK WAR, The. See Illi- MMs: .\ |>. im:w. BLACK HOLE OF CALCUTTA, The. Se<-lM>i*: A. 1). 17.VV17.17. BLACK PRINCE, The wart of the. See I'oiTlKlis; Franck: .\. I), 1360-13W); and SPAIN (CA^Tii.K): A. 1) i;m<H3ll9. BLACK ROBE, Couatcllort of the. See VlNHK: A. D. 1IK)S-1319. BLACK ROD.—" The gentleman whose duty it is to preserve decorum in tlie House of I/inN. Just as it is the duty of the Hergeontat- Km\s to maintain onler in the House of t'om- miihK These otHclnls are bound to execute the conimandi of their respective cliamliers. even tlii>U):li the task Involves the foreilile ejection of snotwiri'iicrousniemN'r. . . . Hls|Hliick Itxia) must disturbing i«x'ii|)nlion, now aiiays. is when lie conveys a nie»j<,ige fnim the l-ords to the t'omnioiis. . . . .\(, siH>uiT do the [Kilieemen lieralil his appnituh fniin the loblili's than the il'iorsof the Ixiwir ('haniU-r are elomil against liire r.n.! !;;-- i= r.-.n-.pjl^i t,> »,;!; f„f a,!lSli-ii.-a Willi Iseoming liiimiilty and humhlenrai. After this has been granted, he advouect to the bar. l>ow8 to the chair, and then — with repeated acta of olit'isance — walks slowly to the table, where his request is made for the Speaker's altim lance Ih the L'pi»r House. The object may be to listen to the Queen's speech, or it may simply be to hear the itoyal assent given to various bills. . . . The conse(juence is nearly always the same. '. e Sergeunt-at- Anns shoulders the mace, the Speaker joins Black Rod, the mcmliers fall in behind, and a more or less orderly procession then starts on its way to tlio Peer's Chamber. . . . No matter what the subject under consideration. Black Rod's appearance necessitiUes a check . . . till the journey to tlie Lonls has been completed, The annoyance thus caused has often found ex- fessioii diiriug recent sessions." — i'o)iuiar Ae- : unt of Purliaimiitarv I'metdure, p. 11. BLACK ROOD, of Scotland. See Uolt Rood ok Si othsd. ••BLACK WARRIOR," The case of the. Bee CuiiA : A. U. ItiSO. BLACKBURN'S FORD, EnraKement at. See United States or Ak. : A. l7. 1861 (July: Viroinia). BLACKFEET. SeeAsiEitiCAN Adohioikes: Ul.vckkkkt. BLAOENSBURG, Battle of. Sec Tnited States OF Am. : A. U. 1814 (Ai!oi;st— Ski'tkm- IIEII). BLAIR, Francis P., Sr., in the "Kitchen Cabinet " of President Jackton. See L'nitku States OK Am. : A. 1) 1829. BLAIR, General FrancisP.,Ir.— Difficulties with General Fremont. See L'mtkd .■'T.itks 1801 (AfoL'sT— Octoukk: .Mis- oC or Am. : A. D. SOUKI). BLAKE, Admiral Robert, Victories See Knoi.anh: A. I) l«.Vi-lil.-)4. BLANC, LOUIS, Industrial scheme of. See S»( m. .MovEMKNT-: A. I) ["lil-lsis. BLANCO, General Guiman, Thedictator< •hip of. See Vknizi-hf A : A. l>. lHli!l-lMIJ BLAND SILVER BILL, The. S.c1;mii£D SlATliS (IK All.: A. 1). 1878. BLANKETEERS, The. See EsoLANn: A. 1). 1810-lH-.'l». BLENEAU, Battle of (1653). SeeFuANiK: A. 1). l(V>l-lil.">.t BLENHEIM, Battle of. See UKiiM.vvr: A. I). I7in BLENNERHASSET, Harman, and Aaron Burr. See L'.NiricD firATKHor Am. : .\ I) I'^iMt- 1807. BLENNERHASSLTT'S ISLAND.- An Islanil in the Ohio, near Mariettji. on tvltii li ll.ir- inan Illennerliaisi'lt. n geullenuui Iroui In I mil. had creatitl a eliannlng home, ut tlie l>' ;iiiiiliii; of the present eentiiry. He wa.s drawn iuio Aamn llurr's mysterious aebeiiie (wf I'MTKn Statkh ok Am. : A 1>. 1806-1807): his Island lie- eame the rendezvous of the ex|H'dition. and he «aa involved in the ruin of the tnason.lile pri- ject. BLOCK BOOKS. See I'hintino A I> 14311-1 l.V! BLOCK ISLAND, The oame. See Nkw YmiK .\ l>, HllO-lrtl4. BLOCKADE, Paper.— This t<Tin lias Nen applii'il toihe Mssuinplion liya lielliKeri::! power. In war. of (he ri.'ht lo ihclari' a givii roust or vrrtrtl-i .-iHiHi-i:-.!*-! J---FH. !-• 'v i'i Piv -Hit-'.f hliH-kuili'. wlllioiit actual presi'iiee of l.lm bailing squailroiia to euluns the declaration; lu by lue '.•3 p. m (■ ■ BLOCKADE. ^^fMilP'^^ •" Council. "and the " Berlin- s' ITiJS^ P*"^ °'. N«P«'«>n. In 18(»-1807. Hf oV5°T'"*Tf°',^ = A. D. 1804-1809. 15M Treatlei of. See Italy : A. D. 1501- BLOOp COUNCIL, The. See Netii«ii LANDx: A. D 1887 riiTHKii- _;;^0£D AND IRON" SpMck of Bl.. ti»rtk. See Oekxabt : A. D. 1861-l8fl« «,?i;°°°y ^^'H.LE- The. To UK.TED A."a'?S?r8.^S. ^''- ^ ^-'^- E±5Po°IS"i°6?5'''^""<>' «-NKW BLOODY MARSH. The BatUe of the. Bee Qboroia; A. D. 1788-1748 BLOREHEATH Battle of (A. D. 1450). -Fought on a plain called Blorehcath. near V t^l^ Dudley, and about half that number of Yorkists under the Earl of Salisbury. See En" lAsn , A. I>. 14.W-1471. ' BLOCKER'S CAMPAIGNS. See O.b. MINT; A. D. 1806 (OcTOBKU): 1812-1813; 1813 OVlllIL — Mat) to (OCTOIlKIl — I)KtEliBER)- FkaKO: A. O. 1814 W.-..UAHT-MABCH). ,^d .n^""A%",fejsr"""- '^''^•-"'- BLUE LICKS, Battle of (A. D. 178a). Sw kKNTlTKV: A. D. 1775-1784 ' ' BLUE-LIGHT FEDERALISTS. -" An nciilcnt, rtal ,.r imapiuary, which Im.l Uu-iy fin 181J] wrurrtHl at New London IConnectlcitl wna aeiied upon a. additional pnxij of collusion between the FedemlisU and the etieniv Ifk-c iNiTKD State* or Am.: A. D. 181^1" As the winter approached. Decatur hail vximtni to gel to «•« wftb his two frigate.. Vexe,( l„ timl hHn- •cir thwarted In every attempt by thr; wiitchfu! nesa of the enemy, he wrote to the Nav Department In a fit of dlagu.t, that, h,.you.l ull ■ •.il.t the British had, by signals or otiirrwiw i^H ant4iniH)UB Information of all his movcmenu, and as pr.K,f of It, be suu.l that, after s^.v.rai niffhui of favorable weather, the report eln-iilnt nif ill the town that an attempt was to lie mmle W' get out. 'In the course of the eveniiiR two Mue lighi.s were burned on boUi p<iinu of the lmrl«.r» mouth/ These -signal, to the en.mv,' for .uch he unhesitatingly prououn.i.l th.ni hail l«ei. re,R.ate<l, „, ho wrote, and lia.1 Ixmi. «, „ though it(lo4Tinot appear that Decatur hlnmir wiuonrof the number . . . Such a.h.mor wh,, ruiiKd aN.iit it, Uiat one of the CunHertiiut meml».rs of Congress mored for a o>i,„„lttee of iuv.stlgutlon. ... The Inquiry was quashrd, but the story sprea<l and grew, ami the more v.-liement onnonenui of the war began to Ih. MigmaliiH as 'blue light Fetlerali ' BCEOTIA. .BLUE PARTV (of VenesaeU)" The Bee Bee VBNi.il KI.A. A I) I8afl-'l88a. BLUE RIBBON, The Order of the BIHAI'tllM BLUES, Roman Patlioo of the. See Um vm, Factior. or TBE lioiiAji. 2P4 S^in. See Spain: A D. 1478-141(2. ^^ BOADICEA, Rerolt ot See BRrrAW : A. D. -9^"*^', .The.- A "Cow-lord," having BOARIAN TRIBUTE, The.-Also oiiled exaction said to have been levied on Ihi province of Leinster by a King Tuathal of Erin '"iSSi/"'' fi*" hundred years. BOCAGE. The. See Fua.nce: A. I) 170a (Mahcii— Aphii,). '"*' BODLEi'AV^>?°l'^*''°- ^'"^'■""■ iS'o¥A'^^Hs'^''s^;"^rTrAAr;';^. BCEOTIA. - B(EOTIANS - "i;;tweer Phokis and Lokris on one side, snd Attica (from and Pames) on the otfier. we Bnd the im,K,rtaiit territory called Bofotla. with its u^n or nv,™* RUtonomou. cities, forming a sort of confederacy under the presidency of Thelies. the most power ful among them. Even of this territory dost ned during the second period of this liistorv to play a part so conspicuous and effertive w'c 7?«"n"^ '"vg ''!.'''"» ''"' *™' »*" '^'""rics after 77B U. L. We first acquire some insight into It on wcaslon of the disputes between Thebes and Plabea. alKiut the year 530 B. C.'-O tJrote iM of Untct pi. 2, eh. 8. -In the Greek legendary peruKl one part of this territory sub- sequently Iki-otian- the Copaic valley "in the north- was <K-cupled by the enterprising ,„,,ple called the .Mmyl, wliiwc chief city wu.h (irelio- meuus. Their neighbors were the Cadriuians of Thebes, who aro "rich," as Orote expr.s,v« it in legemlarv amiouitles." The npuUni founder of Thebmi was Cadmus, bring, r of llttoni to Hellas, fmm Phcenicia or from Egypt «, ,„ni Ing to dilTerent represenutlons. lii„i,v.u« nijicchus) and U<>n«kl(>s were both 8unp„*;i to ncognlie the Cadmelan dtv as their birth place The terrible legends of ftldipu, «„,i Ui\ „„! happy family connect Uiomselves with llir wme place and the incident wars between IIuIk's anil Argc*. — the aasaulta of the sevni Ar^'lre elil, fj and of tlieir suns, the Epi^imi - xeir perliiips. real causes of a real destruction of the power of some race fur whom the Caiirn.laus stand. They ami their neighlHirs, (lie Miiivl of Oreliomeuus. iipinar to have given way li-fore another |«i,ple. fn,m Thesaaly, who gave Uie name Bipotia to the country of Niih and who Were the liihabilant. of the Thel-t of hi»torii llnies.— a. (Jrote, IlitI of Urefft, ,.t 1 rh 14 — h t-iirtlus. Ilirt „f llrttn. bk. 1, eh 4 -■That the Birotla of hisUiry should never have altalneil to a slgnlHeanee corre.puoding to the nalursl advantages nf the locality, and to the nnwin'rity of llHi ilislricl in t;i,. pr,. Homeric age. U due at»ve all to one priiieiiial eauw. The iinnilgrs tion of the Theasalimi Ikeotianx. fnim whiih the country derived its name and tiM l*ginniniji of .•„,""'!"'*■''■'' ''i*tory. desln.yni the 1 arlier civilisation of the laud, withoiil niKnriliiig hi esUbllshiiig a new eiviiiiatiou capable if eoo- ducting the entln' district to a pn«|«Toii« and harmonious development. It caniml la- wtid that the ancient eeniis i:f f.!l!:;ri! -.x-.k. i,.,..!.!--^.-! ^if tlwt liurlwMua times suixrviuiil Vhe siii-ieBl s«au of the guUs aud uraules cootioued lo to BdOTIA. BOHEUIA, ISSS. boDOured ud the ancient featlTali of the Muiei on Mount Helicon, and of the Cliarite* at Orchomenoi, to be celebrated. In Bceotia too the beneficent influence of Delphi was at work, and the poetic scliuul of Hesiod, connected aa it wu with Delphi, long maintained Itielf here. And s yet stroczer ncUnation waa displayed by the i£olian immiEr <ta towards music and lyric poetry. Theculttv .ilon of the musicof the flute was encouraged by the excellent reeds of the Copaic morasses. This was the genuinely national species of music in BorotU. . . . And yet the B<Botians lacked the capacity for attract- ing to themselves the earlier elements of popula- tion in such a way as to bring about a happy am»lgitmation. . . . The B<Botian lorda were not murb preferable to the Tbesaalian; nor was there any reeion far or near, inhabited by Qreek trilies. which presented a haiaher contrast in culture or manners, than the district where the roail led from the Attic side of Mount Pamea acmas to the Bootian. "— E. Curtlua, But. of Orott. bk. fl, <A. 1. — See, also, Orebce: Tbs MiO RATIONS. BOEOTIAN LEAGUE.— "The old Boeotian Lcairuo, as far as its outward forms went, seems to h,Hve been fairly entitled to the name of a Federal Government, but in its whole history we trace little more than the gradual advance of Thebes to a practical supremacy over the other cities. . . . The common Kovernment waa carried 00 in the name of the whole Bceotian nation. Ita miw: iiiipr>rt«iit magistrHtvs bore the title of Btso- tarili'i; tlicir exact number, II or 13, is a dis- piiriil |)iii ii . . . Tlicbvs chose two Boeotarcha ami II. Ii iif the other cities one." — E. A. Free- man. ///«( ■/ h'llfnU (tort., rh. 4. »«/. 3. BOERMAAVE, and humoral pathology. See Ml 111. .41, SciKNCK : ITxii Ck.nturt. BOERS, Boar War. Hee Sodtb Anuca: A. D. 18(»-1881. BOGDANIA. Bee BjiLKan aro DaxtmiAH STATKS. UTII-15TB CKMTURtKSdiOUMAKIA, ETC.) BOGESUND, Battle of (ism). See Scan- WHAViAN .Statks; a. D. 13l>7-152r. BOCOMILIANS, Th* .'. religious sort which arose among tb I'ans of Thrace and Bulgaria, in the century, and iuffeted persecution in. ludox of the Greek church. They ». ..«! with the IcoonclasU of former timi were hostile to tlio adoration of the Virgin and sainu, and took more or leas from the heretical doctrines of the Psullolsns. Tliiir name Is derived by some from the two 8claviinian worda, "Bog, signifying Ood, itnd "'mllui," "have mercy. Othen say that " Bogumll," meaning "one beloved by Ood. wss the correct designation. Basilios, the leader of the Bugomllians, was burned bv the Emperor Alexius Comaenos, in the bippoifrume, at Con- stantinople, A. D. lUA— O. Finlav, Ili$t. »f th» HuturtUiu and Orttk Smptnt. 71»-1453, Mr. S, tJt. i. mrl. I— See Balkan ANt» Dani-bian 8t»ii.,i« t)Tii-ieTR Crntcrikk (Bosnia, ktc.) BOGOTA, The fouadincof the city (1538). 8e. ( OLOMBUN Htatbs; A.I) 1,M«-IT31. BOHEMIA, Dcrivatioa of the iwma. See B<>I\M«. Its people sad their early hiitery.— " What- r'lT may be the i!)fer>nces from th- fact of l;<iin uiU having been polltlcallv connected with llie eiiipira of iho Oennanic Marcomaonl. wUtever may be thuae from tbm elemaat Boio-, M coonectlng ita population with the Boil of Gaul and Bavaria (Baiovaril), the doctrine that the present Slavonic population of that king- dom— Tshekhs [or Czekhs] as they call them- selves — Is either recent in origin or secondary to any German or Keltic aboriginea, is wholly unsupported bv history. In other words, at the beginning of the historical period Bohemia was as Bktvonic as it la now. From A. D. 526 to A. D. S50, Bohemia belonged to the great Tbur- ingian Empire. The notion that it was then Oennanic (except in ita political relations) is gratuituua Nevertheless, Schattarik's account is, that the ancestors of the present Tshekhs came, probably, from White Croatia: which waa either north of the Carpathians, or each side of tliem. According to other writers, however, the parts above the river Eulpa in Croatia sent them forth. In Bohemian the verb 'cetl'='to begin,' from which Dobrowakv derives the name Czekhs = the beginners, the foremost, i. e., the Ilrst Slavoniana who passed westwards. The powerful Samo, the just Krok, and hia daughter, the wise Libussa, the founder of Prague, oegin the uncertain Uat of Bohemian kings, A. D. 634- 700. About A. D. 722, a number of petty chiefs become united under P'remyal the nusband of Libusaa. Under his son Xezamysl occura the first Constitutional Assembly at Wysegrad ; and in A. D. 848, Christianity was Introduced. But it took no sure footing till about A. D. 960. Till A. D. 1471 the names of the Bohemian king* and heroes are Tahekh — Weoeeslaus, Ottoluir, Ziska, Podiebrad. In A. D. 1564, the Austrian connexion and the process of Oernianiziiig tiegan. . . . The history and ethnology of Moravia ia nearly that of Bohemia, except that the Mar- romannic Qermuns, the Turks, Huns, Avars, and other less important populations mar have effected a greater amount of Ind rmtxturo. Both populations are Tshekli, speuking the Tsliekh language — the language, probably, of the ancient Quadi." — R. O. I.,atbam, Sthnology 0/ Burom, eh. 11. 7th Century.— The Yoke of the Avar* broken.— The Kingdom of Samo. See Avars: 7tii Cextikt. ^th Century,— Subject to the Moraviaa Kingdom of STatopluk. .Sec Moravia. Oti CKNTfHV. 13th Ccntuiy.- The King made a Germanic Elector. SeeOBRMAMT. A I) 11?.1-1!!7a. A. D. 1276.— War of King Ottocar with the Emperor Rodolph of Hapsburg.— Hia de- feat and death. See Ai;stria: A. D. 1246- Vixi. A. D. 1310.— Acquisition of the crews by John of Luxembourg. See OcaMAirr: A. D. law- 181 3. A. D. 1347.— Charles IV. elected to the In- ferial throne. See Obrmaht: A. D. 1847- 4t)». A. D. 1355.— The iuccesiion fiaed ia the Luxemburg dynaaty.— Incorporation of Mo- ravia, Silesia, ftc— The dirt of the nobles, in 13.VI, Joined ('harles IV, In "fixing the order of sui'ct'ssliin III the ilynastr of Luxemburg, and in delinltely establlsliing that principle of primo- geniture which liatt alreaily been the custom in the Premvslide dynaitv MnraTta, f.'.'.i-sin, Upper Lusalia, Brandenburg, which had been arquirad from the margrave Otto, and the oouaty of OloU (Kladiko), with the oooaeat ol 295 I '^S| " "^5' F ll;l DOHEMU, 1*55. JoXn Hui. BOHEMIA, 1405-1415. Uie (lieu of these provinces, were Utclared In- tegral nnd inalienable portions of the Itingdom of Bohinnia. — L. Leger, Uitl. of Auttro-nun- gary, rh. 11. A. p. 1364.— RcTcrsion of the crown piar- anteea to the House of Austria, See Aus- TRU: A. D. 1330-1384. A. p. 1378-1400.— Imperial election and A ''l°"l347 1493 "'"'""■ *** Germany: I A. D. Mos-Mij.-john Hus, and the moTement of Religious Reformation.— "Some sparks of the lire whicli Wiolif li:iil lighted faee Enuland: A. I). 13«0-1414], l.hnvii over half Europe, as fnras remote Bohemia, iiuirkeiied into stronper artivliy a flame which for l-mg years l)urm-;l and scorched and consumed, dcfyinjr all effcirts to c.xtinKuish it. But for all this, it was not Wicllf who kindled the Bohemian fires His writing did much to fan and fee.1 them; while the assumed and in part errrmeously Msumed, idonlity of his teaching with tliat of Hus tontnbutiil not a little U> .shape the tragid tasues of the Bohemian reformer's life. But the Bohemian movement was an indeiwndent and eniinentlv a national one. If we look for the proper forerunners of Hus, his true spiritual ancestors, we shall find them in his own land in a succession of earnest and faithful preachers . . John Hus (b. 1389, d. 1415), the central Ogurc of the Bohemian Reformation, took in the year 1394 his degree as Baihelor of Theo- logy ill lliat Iniversity of Prague, upon the fortiiiii-s of wiiiih he was destiniil to exercise so hwtiiig an inlluencc; and four years later in 13«H, he Ixgan to deliver lectures there ' He siM)n signNllz..d himself by his diligence in breaking the briml of life to hungering souls and his boldness in relmking vice in high places as in low. So long OH he confined himst^lf to reproving the sins of the l.iity, Ic ..g those of the Clergy and monks una.s.-ail<Hi, ,.,: found little »p|)osition nay. rather support and applause from thesi'' Hut w lien [\i»:,] he brought them also within the circle of hm eoiiilemnation, and began to upbraid theiu forllinrcovetousness, tluir umbition, their luxury, their sloth, and for other vices tliey turneil angrily upon him, and sought to under- mine his authority, everywhere s|madiug reports of the uiihouudtiess of his teaching . V,M\e matters were in t '» strnined ciiidition events took place at I'rsg.ie which ar.' ti . elom'lv con- nected with the Ktorv th», we nri' tilling" e.ver- cised tiHi great «n iiirt..eiice in briiigiiig'abo„t the Issues that lie U-for.' us. to allow us -o pass them by . . Tlie University of }'ngw. though nrently founded — it only dateii liaek to tlieyear 1348— was now, next after those of I'aris and ( ixfoni, the moat illustrious in Europe This l-niversity, like that of I'aris, on tliu pattern of which It bad been m0dell.1l, was diviiledintofour'nations'— four groups that is or families of k Iml.rs — each of these having iii academical alTiiirs a single col|o,tiv,. vote These nations wen' the navarlin, the .Sixon the PolHh. and tin- Bohemian. This dis's not appear at first an unfair division -two (iemmn and two Slavonic; but In practical working Jie Polish was so largely reeriilled from Hllesia, and other Oi'rnian or half (Jerman lands, that Its vote was n t:ut Oerm^i.. si,„, Tl.-r Trutr.ni. voU» were thus as three to one, and the llohenilans In their own Uad and their uwa I'Divenit/ un trtrj 296 mportant matter hopelessly outvoted. When by aid of this preponderance, the University wm made to condemn the teaching of Wiclif matters came to a crisis. Urged by Hus who as a stout patriot, and an earnest lover of the Ilohemmn language and literature, had more than a theohigicai interest in the matter,— bv .leronie lof Prague],— by a Urge numlier of flie IJoho- niian nobility,- King Wenzel publish.,! ,„ edict whereby the relations of nativ.s a„d foreigners were completely revenwd. 'fliere should be henceforth three votes for the liohe mian nation, and only one for the three others buch a shifting of the weights certainly aippean as a reiirossing of one inequality bv . riming another. .' i all events it was so earnestly resf ntij by the Germans, by professors anil stuilints alike, that they quitted the University in a IkhIv some aav of five, and some of thirty thousand and founded the rival University of hipsjc l,,,vini no more than two thousand students at I'riigue »uli of indignation against Hus, whom tliev rsgarde<l as the prime author of this affront and wrong, they spread throughout all Gernianv the moat unfavourable reporUof him and of his ti"ach- Ing. Thiaeicxiua of the foreigners hail left Hus who was now Rector of the Unlversitv, with a freer field than before. But Church matters at Prague did not mend; they became nior.^ om- fused and threatening every day; until prewnlly theahamcful outrage againstali Christian nioraliiv which a century later did a still more elL-ciuiil work, served to put Hus Into open opiKwiti.m to ^e corrupt hierarchy of his time, hw .iohn XXIII., having a quarrel with the King .if Naples, proclaimed a crusade against him wiili what had liecome a c.mstant accompaiiini. nt of this,-- Indulgences (o match. But to.l,Ti,„in.e Indulgences, as Hus with fierce and rigl,i,„ii8 iniiignation did now, was to wound K.mie in h.r most sensitive part, lie wnsexcommiinicai.-.Ut once and every place which shoiil.l harbour him stricken with an iiitenllct. While matt, rs were In this frame the Council of Constanc [•<,.• Papacy: A. I>. 1414-141**] was opem.l wl.i.h should appciise all the troubles of Christen.l,.m and correct what.ver was amiss. The Holninmn dllHculty could ii.it Ik- omitteil, ami Hus ».« summoned to nnike answer at Coiisiin.'.' f..r himself. He h.i.l not been there four nirlis when he was rii|uired to appear Ih fore Ih.' I'niie andCanliiials(.Nov. 18,1414). AfKra l.iief ii.lor- mal hearing he was commilted to harsh .luran.-e from whicli he never issmil as a fri'e nmn ai;iiln NIgismund, the German King and Knii'.rnr Elect, who had furnlshe.l Hus with .1 sau iim- duct which shoul.l protect him. 'g .ing l.ithe Council, larrjingat the "oiineil, returning' fp.ra the Council,' was abs«'nt 'r.mi Con«t«riie aiihe time, and lieani with real displeasure lio» lithllr regarded this prmilse and pledg.' of hi- \v.vl Iwen. Home big wonls Urn he spoke, tlir. .1. ning to come IdmM'ir and releiuie the pri-, mr t>y force; but, being wait<sl on bv a il. pui.iiii.ii from the Count II, who represen'tnl to l.ini I'lst h.', asa lavnian. In giving •uch a saf.- ...n.liict had exrenled his |«iweni. and inlruii..! intns region which was not bis. ,Sigisniuii.l was .vn- vinMil. or affected to be convliieed. . Mere than seven nionlhs ehipmsl I ..tor.' H>i< e.mlil obtain a ln'arlng liefon' the C 11 il Thin «w S ranted to him nt last Thrice heanl (June S, 7, . 1418),— if indcud such tumultuary nittiiigt rOHEHIA, 1405-1419. VMorUa at tU Humttm. BOHEMIA, 1419-1434. «bcn the man inMiking for his life, and for miic'b more Uum his life, wua cimtioually inter- •n]iied and overborne by hmtile voicfs. by Idud 1 '".eti of ' Recant,' ' Kecant,' may be reckoned aa hcHriiigs at all, — he bore himself, by tlic cnn- frssinn of all, with ciuiraf^e, mcelineiu and ilipnity." He refuned to recant. Some of the Hrticlc'S brought agalnnt him. he uid, "rhnrgcd liim with teaching thhijn whic li he had never tHii^ht, and he could not, by tliis formal act of retraction, admit that he had tavight tlicin." He was condemned, sentenced '» tlie stake, and Immed, on the 8th of July, 41i5. His friend, Jerome, of Prague, suffernl tlie siime fate in the following May. —R. C. Trench, Leelt. on Mediaeval Chunk llttlory. leet. 22. Also in: E. H. Gillett, Life and timet of John Hut. — A. H. Wratiilaw, John Hut. — A. Neander, Oenernl Hitt. of Chrittian Belif/ion, t. Q, pt. 2. A. D. 1410. — Election of King Sigismund to the imperial thron*. See Uekxany; A. D. 1347-1493. A. D. 1419-1431.— The Hnisite Wars.— The Reformation checked.— "The f..ta of Hiiaa and Jerome created an instant and tierce excite- ment among the BohemUns. An addrem. defending them againit the charge of heresy and prnte.sting against the injustice and barbarity of the Council, was signed by 400 or 500 nobles and forwarded to Constance. The only result was that the Council decreed that no safe-conduct could be allowed to protect a heretic, that the I'nlversity of Prague must be reorganized, and tlie strongest meaf -ires applied to suppress the HiDwite doctrines in Bohemia. This was a (leflance which the Bohemians courageously Hoceptod. Men of all classes united in proclaim- in/' tliat the diKtrincs of Huss sliciuld be finely taii^lit, and tliat no Intenlict of the Church uliiiulii lie enforced: the University, and even W'l iizeis queen, Sophia, favored this movement, wliicli siHHi l)ecanie so powerful (liat all priests tt iio nf used to administer the sacrament ' in both f.iniis' were driven from the churches. . , . When the Council of ConsUnce was dissol veil IMIN], SIglsmund [the Emp»Tor] liasteiied to Hungary to carry on a new war with the Turks, who were already extending their conciuests iiloiiff he Danulio. The Hussites in Holieniia ciii|)loyiHl this opiwrtuiiitv to organize tlieni- silves for resistance: 40.(HX) of tliem. in July, UIH. aHseniblcd on a mountain to whieh Ihev pi>e the name of Tal)or. and chose as tliefr | liielir n nobleman who was siirnamcd Ziska. ! Ih.- oiieeyeil.' The excitement s<«'n rose to Mi.h n piieli that severnl immast, Hes were i M..1T1111I and plundered. King Wenir, I arrested i ►ome of the ringleaders, but tills only Inlhinied I liie spirit of the |«-ople. They fomi"<l a pro- i (esMon in Prague. marche<l through the citv I (iirrvinir tlie saeramenul cup at their iiead, and I'N.k foreilile iHisM'SMJon of several churches ^\ hill they halted liefon> the citv-hall, to demand the r. h'ss,. of their Imprisontif brethren, s vmes Win- thrown at them (Mm the windows, wliere- iil'"ii liny bn.ke into the building and hurled till- HurKiimaster and six other ollleials umm the uplu hi siK'nrs of those Mow. . . Tile Huss- ites^ wen- nirraily divided Into two parties, one m:=.: r,!,. jii jj, ,!,.n,anii5_ (.giij,,) (j,„ j-„ij^,j,„., tn,m the Utin ' calix.' a rhsMce, which was their «v,i,l».| [nferrlng to their demand for the ad- mhiistr^aon of the eucbarUlic cup to the laltv or communion ' sub utraque specie '— whence they were also called ' Utraquisw '] ; tiic other radical and fanatic, called the •Taborites,' who priKluimed their separation from tlie Church of Home and a new system of brotherly equality tlin)Ui,'li which they expected to establish the .Millenium upon earth. The exigencies of their situation obliged tiiese two parties to unite in common defence against the forces of the Church and the Empire, during the sixteen years of war which followed: but they always remained separated in their religious views, and niutual'v intolerant. Ziska, who called himself 'John Ziska of the Chalice, commander in the hope of God of the Tabcrites," had been a friend and wag an ardent follower of Huss. He was un old man, bald-headed, she-, broad-shouldered, with a deep furrow acroij his brow, an enormous aquiline nose, and a short red nioustaclie. In his genius for military operation . he ranks among the great commanders of the world; his quickness, energy and inventive talent were marvellous, but at the same time 11c knew neither tolerance nor mercy. . . . Sigisniund does not seem to have been aware of tii . formid- able character of the movr mcnt, until the end oC his war with the Turks, fjme months afterwanis, and he then perauadcd ..he Pope to summon all Christendom to a crusade against Bohemia. During the year 1420 a force of 100,000 soldiers was collected, and SIgismu.nd marciied at their head to Prague. The Hussites met !iim with the demand for the acceptance of the following articles: 1.— The word of G'kI to be freely preached ; 3. — The sacrament to be adniinistereu in both forms: 3.— The clergy to posses- no property or temporal authority: 4.— All sin-, to lie punished by the proper authorities, .sigis- niund was ready to accept these articles as the price of their submission, hut the Papal I.*gate fiirbaile the «greement. and war followed. On the 1st c: Novemlier, 1420, the Crusaders were totally ilefeated by Ziska. and all Bohemia was soon relieved of their pr^icnco. Tlie dis,'ute between the nroderaU-s and tlic radirals broke out again : the idea of a community of nni|)erty Ik, n to previ.il among the Taborites, and most of the Bohemian notileii refuseil to act witli them. Ziska left i'ragiic with his tn)ops and for a time devoUKl himself to the task of suppn-ssing all opIMisition tlirough the country, wiili lire and swonl. He burned no hss tliiin .V>0 eonvenU and monasteries, slaying tlie priests and monks who refused to accept the new doelrines. . . . While Ijcaleging tlie town of Ifciliv, an armw destroyed his remaining eye, yet lie eoniinued to plan battles and sieges as before. The very name of tje blind warrior iK'canie a '.error throughout Oennanv. lu September, I4'j|, a second Crusade of Sixi.lHK) men, commanded by five German Electors, enlereil Bohemia from tlie west. . . . But the blind Ziska, nothingdaunted, led his wagons, his Hail iiien, and mucewielders against the Elittors, whiwu insips Iwgan to ily iH'fore them. No bittle was fought : tl«! StH),000 Crusaders were scatU'n-d In all ilireetion.s. and hist heavily during tlieir ri'treat Then Ziska wheiled alKiut and niarelied against ,sigi»mund, who ,'.a» late In makinir his appeamnie The two nrniies met on ttie »th of January. I4'.'2 |at DeiitM-hbnNi]. and the Hussite victory was so eiinipleUi that the Emperor narrowly eseji|MHl falling into their bauda ... A thin) Cruaads 2T, hi 3 l^irt fi ,.' *1 -"sf BOHEMIA, 1419-14S4. The Fr/ormaHo» Ckteliwt BOHEMIA, U84-14S7. WM arranged and Frederick of Brandinbiirg (the Hohenzollem) wl<>cted to comumnd It, l,„t the plan failed from lack of support. Tlic dK lensions among the Humltes became fiercer than ever; Ziska was at one time on the point of attai-king Prague, but Uie leaders of the mo,lcr- ate party succeeded in coming to an under- standing with him, and he altered the citv in triumph In October, 1424, while marcfiing against Duke Albert of Austria, who had invaded Moravia, he fell a victim to the plague. Even after death he continued to terrifv the German •oldiers, who believed that his sliin had lieen iniide nto a drum, and still called the Hussites to battle. A majority of the Taborites elected a pncst, called Procoplua the Great, as Uicir com- mander in Ziska ■ stead; the others who thence- forth styled themselves ' Orphans,' united under another priest, Procoplus the Little. The approach of another Imperial army, in 1426 compelled them to forget their differences, and the result was a splendid victory over their enemies. Procoplus the Great then invaded Austria and Silesia, which he laid waste without mercy. The Pope called a fourth Crusade, which met the same fate as the former ones: the united armies of the Archbishop of Treves, the ilectnr Frederick of Brandenburg and the Duke of haxony, aOO.OOll'strong, were utterly defeated and fled in disonl.r, leaving an enormous quan- tity of stores and munitions of war in the hands of the Bohemians. Procoplus, who was almost the equal of Ziska as a military leader, made ■ev-ral unsuccessful attempu to unite the HussiU's in one religious body. In ordc; tv prevent their dissensions from becoming danger- ous to the common cause, he kept the soldiers of ail sects under his command, and undertook fierce invasions into Bavaria. Saxony and Bnin- denburc. which made the Huiwite name a terror to all Germany. During these expeditions one hundred towns were destroyeil, more than I rm Tillages burned, tens of tiiousands .)f the inhabi- tanw slain, and such quantities of plunder col- lected that it was impossible to tniiisport the whole of It to Bohemia. Fmlerick of Branden- burg and several other princes were cuniiwlled to pay heavy tributes to the Hussites: the bmpirc was thoroughly humiliateil, tl.e neonle weary of slaughter, yet the 1' .|m- refiis.'d even to cal! a ( oiineil for the disrusKiou of thedilli, ulty . . . The German prini'es made a la.staii.! iles- p<Tale effort : an unny of 130,000 men, 40 ik'MI .if whom were cavalry, was brought to/.ether under the command of Knhleriik of Branii.ri- burjf, Willie Allurt of Austria was to support it by invading IJoheniia from the south. I'nKn pius and his dauntless Huasilis nut the ( riisiiders on the I4th of August. Uai, «t a place called rhauss. and vmn another of tlieir marvellous victories. The Im|icrial army was literallv cut to pieces, S.IKIO wagons, filled with iir.iv[si..ns and iniinitiiins of var, and I.W cannmiH were left upon the field. The Hussites nianlied northward to the Baltic, and eastward i Hun garj-, burning, slaying, and plundering as they went, tven the Pope no\, yielded, and the Hussites were Invltetl to attend the Couneil at Basil, with the most lolemn stipulations in regard to personal safety and a fair discussion of their <n«n,!x In l^.--.-?. fiimily 3i)0 Hussites, heaile.i b^ Procoplus, appeared in liasel. They liSii K '."'^,'™ "P"" "'''"='' ""ey "^ united in J^\ ^1" ?,'"•■' Jf"™ ***''» °' talk, during which the Council agreed upon nothing «,„| primised nothing, they marched away after stating that any further negotiation must Z airried on in Prague. ThU course compelM the Council to act: an embassy was appointed which proceeded to Prague, and on the 30th of November, the same year, concluded a tnaty with the Hussites, the four demands were granted, but each with a condition attache! which gave the Chureh a chance to remin lost power. For this reason, the Taborites an I Orphans refused to accept the compact tlie moderate party united wflh the nobles and undertook to suppress the former by force i fierce inu-rnal war followe.1, but it was of shon duration. In 1434 the Talmrites were defeat [at Lipan, May 80], their fortified mounlS taken, Procoplus the Great and the Little were both slain, and the membemof the sectdispersed jhe Bohemian Reformation was never airahi dangerous to the Church of Rome."— B Tavlnr Hut. ofOermann, eh. 28. ' ^ ' An^J""- ?: ^- ^^^^- ^o'^tion and AnUKtfonmtton in Bohtmia, introducluni eh 9, M. 18-18.-E. de Schweinltx, ilit. oftKiCk - ^;°i,'*?*-'fS2.-Omiiia«tlonof the Utra- qnitt NatTon./ Churcli.-Minority of Ladit. laui Poathumua.— Rejrency of CcotKe Pod «I ,«»"^-OW» «'tb. Oniti Fr.tSS!-'!Th^ battio of Lipan was a turning point In the his vhi ir.^) the hands of the UtraquisU. an.l enabled them to carry out their plans unhindered The man who was foremost in shaping eveiiu auil who became more and more prominent, until he exercised a commanding influence, wb.s J„\m of Hokycana. . At the diet of 1435 he «,s unanimously elected archbishop. . . . Meaniirac Ngismund endeavored to regain his kin>;,l„m The Diet ma.le demands which were strinci nt and humiliating; but he nledge<l himself to fullill them, and on the 8th of July, 1436, at a niciing held Willi great pomp and solemniiv. in the niarket-place of Iglau, was formally "acknowl- edgeilas King of Bohemia. On the same .x.u»ion the t.impacUta were anew ratified and the Bohemians readmitted to the fellowship of the mother church. But scant- ly had SiKisniiind reacheil his capital when he began so serious a reaction In favor of Rome that Kokyeans sicretly left the city and retired to a eastle near Parduhic (14af). The kings Inaeherv was, however, cut short by the hand of death on the 9th of December, of the same year si i^naim, while on his way to Hungary ami his successor and son-in law, Allwrt of Au.iria fol- lowe.1 him to the grave in 1439, in the midst of a campaign against the Turks. Bohemia was left without a ruler, for AlUrt had no eliiMrpu except a fKwthumoua son [l,a<li8laus I'osthuniiis. — .See Hlnoarv: A. D. l.*Jl-l44a, and 144*- UM], A time of anarchy began and various leagues arose, the moat powerful of which stood un.hr Baron I>tacek. ... He . , . called so ^™'«'»'«"tl<'al "invention at Kutlenlierg (i let.. her 4th). This conreution brought about far nwh. iug resulLH. . . , iiokycaiia was acknowle.l(fed as Archbishop elect, the supreme dlre<tioii of demud^a nulWng mo™ U«n th«l.Z«„™'"^» " Arehblsho,, elect, the supreme dlre<tio„ of iwHiawi«u ouuuug mure uuut U«i acceplanoe of j eecIeaiaaUca) affairawaa committed Into hhi hands, 298 BOHEMIA. 1484-1487. The Vnltat AVafriiM, BOHEMIA., 1458-1471. the priests promised him obedience, and 34 doc- trinal and coostitutiuaal articiea were adopted whicli laid tlie foundation of tlie Utraquist Cliureli as the Katiooal Church of Bohemia. But the Taboritea stood aloof. . , . At last a dis- putation was agreed upon, " as the result of which the Taborites were condemned by the Diet. "Tliey lost all prestige; their towns, with the cxirptioD of Tabor, passed out of their hands; tlieir membership was scattered and a laree part n( it joined the National Church. In the follow- ing summer Ptaceit died and Qeorge Podiebrad iuccceded him as the bead of the league. .\UUougb a young man of only 24 years, he dis- played the sagacity of an experiencied statesman ami was distinguished by the virtues of a patriot. In 1448 a bold strolce made him master of Prague and constituted him practically Re* ^nt of all Bohemia; four years later his regency -as form- ally aclinowledged. He was a warm friend of Rokycana, whose consecration he endeavored to bring about" When it was found that Rome could not be reconciled, there were thouglits of cutting loose altogether from the Roman Catholk and uniting with the Oreeic Church. " Negotia- tions were actually begun in 1493, but came to an abrupt close in the following year, in conse- quence of the fall of Constantinople. About the tame time Ladislaus Pusthumus, Albert's son, awumcd the crown, Podiebrad remaining Re- gent The latter continued the friend of Roky- cana; the former, who was a Catholic, conceived a strong dislike to him. As soon as Rokycana liad given up the hope of conciliating Rome, ho began to preach, with great power and eloquence, against its corruptions. " It was at this time that a movement arose among certain of his followers which resulted in the formation of the remark- al)le religious b<xly which called itself Unitas Fnitrum. The leading spirit in this movement was Kokycana's nephew, commonly called Ore- gory the Patriarcli. Tlie teaching and intiucnce which shaped it was that of Pet<!r Chelcicky. OK'gory and his companions, wishing to dwell togitlier, in the Christian unitv of which they had formed an ideal in their minds, found a re- treat at the secluded village of Kunwald, on the esiHte of George Podiebrad. " The name which they chose was 'Brethren of the Law of Christ' — 'Fratrca Lcgis Christl'; inasmuch, however, u this name g'lve rise to the idea that they were a new order of Monks, they dianged it simply iotn ' Bretliren. ' When the organization of their Church had been completed, they assumed the Aiii'itional title of 'Jednota Brstrska,' or Unitas Pratrum, that is, the Unit*- of the Bri'tliren, which has remained the .incial and signlflcant appellation of the Church to the pres- ent day. ... It was often abbreviated Into ' "The foHy. Another name by wblcli the Church called itself was 'The Bohemian Brethren." It related toall the Brethren, whetlier they belonged ui Bohemia, Moravia. PrussU or Poland. To call them The BohemianMoravian Brelhien, or tbo Moravian Brethren, la historically Incorrect The name Momvtan arose in the time of the Renewed Brethren's Church, because the men by whom it was renewed came from Moravia. . . . The orgsniutiou of the Unitas Pratrum took place In the year 1457."— E IV Brnwrfntt^. Hint. */ «*« CAiircAiaawaai Unitai fhitrum, (A. Ift-W. . ^'^vMS*- -Election or OMrn Podiabntd to tht threo*. See UimoAmT : A.D. 144i)-14S8. A. D. 1458-1471.— Papal escommmilcatioii ■ad deposition of the king, George Podie- brad.— A crusade.— War with the Emperor and Matthias of Huafarr.— Death of Podie- brad and electioa of Ladisiaui of Poland.— "George Podiebrad had scarcely ascended the tlirone before the Catholics, at the iistigation of the pope, required him to fulfil I oronation oath, bv expelling all heretics from tlie king- dom, lie complied with their request, bunish«l the Taborites, Picards, Adamites, and all other religious seots who did not profess the Catholic doctrines, and issued a decree that all his sub- jects should become members of the Catholic church, as communicants under one or both kinds. The Catholics, however, were not satis- fied ; considering the Caliztins as herev.cs, they entreated him to annul the compacts, or to ob- tain a new ratiflcatica of them from the new pope. To gratify their wishes lie sent an em- baasy to Rome, requesting a confirmation of the compacts; but Pius, under the pretence that the compacts gave occasion to heresy, refused his ratification, and sent Fantino deila Vuile, as legate, to Prague, for the purpose of persuading the king to prohibit the administration of the communion under both kinds. In consequence of tills legation the king called a diet, at which the legate and the bishops of Oimutz and Bres- lau were present The ill success of the embassy to Rome having been announced, he snid. ' I am astonished, and cannot divine the iuteutions of the pope. The compacts were the only means of terminating the dreadful commotions In Bohemia, and if they are annulled, tlie king- dom will again relapse into the former disoniers. The council of Bislo, which was composed of the most learned men in Europe, approved and grant«d them to the Bohemians, and pope Eugenius confirmed them. They contain no hercsv, and are in all respvcU conformable to the doctrines of the holy church. X and mv wife have followed them from our childhood," and I am determined to maintain them till my death.' . . . Fantino replying in a long and virulent invective, the king ordered him to quit the assembly, and imprisoned him in the castle of Pixliobrsd, allowing him no other sustenance except bread and water. The pope, irritated by this insult, annulled the compacts, in 146.1, and fulminated n sentence of excommunication against tiie king, unless he appeared at Home wituin a certain time to justify his conduct This bull occasioned a great ferment among tlie Catholics; Podiebrad was induced to lilierate the legate, and made an apology to the ofl^ended pontif!: wiiilu Frederic, gretctui for the assist- ance which he had recently received from the king of Bohemia, when besieged by his brotlier Albert, interposed his me<ilatli>n with tlie pope, and procured the suspension of the sentence of excommunication. Pius dying on the 14th of August, 1464, the new pope, Paul II., perse- cuted the king of Bohemia with Increasing acri- mony. He sent his legate to Breslau to excite commotions among the Catholics, endeavoured without effect to gain Caalmir, king of Poland, by the offer of the Bohemian crown! and applied with the same ill success to the stales of Ger- many. He ni length orcroimc the gratitude of the emperor by threats ami pr,.iui»i.i, and at the diet of Nuremberg In 1467, the proposal of his legato IVuitlao, to form a crusade against Um 2\)9 ,'. f ' 1 i : BOHEMIA. 1«8-U71. ^'"'S^'** BOHEMIA, 187»-1«01 his emissaries wi •xle tliruufchout the Austrian tcrr <ric drew from violent iuvrcli- formal derlan declaration by ing devastatio: In vain appliei assistance: ttii< of Hungary ai; . Im^*!? 1^°*'^''' ^'le'^. »M «upported by the Imperial ambassadors. Altljougli this uronosal sentence of dep..s,i,„n against Pinliebrad, and Ilowed to preach the cru- iny, and in every part of The conduct of Fred- ^1,' of Bohemia, In 1468, a !ist his ingratitude, and a war; be followed this ption into Austria, spread- as I !..• Danutw. Fmlcric if princes of the empire for ■ngth excited Matthias king i»»V r="-'. ■":' ■ ' '"' father-in-law, by offcr- hig to invest him with the liinsdom of ftiomia. Matth as, forgetling his obligations to Po.lie- brad to whoni he owed his life and crown, wa? dazzled by the offer, and being assisted by bod'-^of German marauders, who ha<I assumed the u J88, invaded Bohemia. At the same time ^1„f, l^^T "'.."" P"P* •^'^c'ting the Catholics to psurrection the country again became a prey to the dreadful evils of a civil and religious war The vigour and activity of George Podiebrad suppressed the internal commotions, and repelled the invasion of the Hungarians; an armistice rS^f T ao*^'; 'i'i'' "'" '"° ^'"go- °° t'"' 4th of April U69, held an amicable conference at Sternberg in Moravia, where they entered into • treaty of pear,.. But Matthias, influenced by the perfidious i, . sim, th.it no compact should be kept with hcretir.s, w.is persuaded by the papal legate to ri'sume hostilitfes. After overrunning Moravia and bilesia, he held a mock diet at Olmutz with .some of the Catholic party where he w,« cmson Ijing of Bohemia, and iolcmnlv crowned by the legate Po.liebra<l, in ord/r to iMlfle the designs both of the emperor and aialthias. siimiiioncd a diet at Prague, and pro- p.«.. to the Mates as his 8ucces.«.r, Ladislaiis, e^drst mn of Ca.siiiiir. king of Poland, by Eliza- bj-ih, see,)nd daughter of tlie emperor Albert I he prriposiil w:u wurnily approved bv tlie nail"". ... as the (Jatliofics were desirous of inH".*f "']'.'■,•".''"•'"'''"' ""■'■■ o*" communion, and the ( alixims an.>;ii>u9 to prevent the aocea- sioii of Fie,|, r,e „r Matthi.is, b.,th of whom were hostile to their .|. .ctrines. Tlie stites acc<.nlii,g| y a88<'nled witlioui lie.^itation, and Udi-laus was unanimously n..min.il(.d sueces.sor to the throne I he mdnrimtion of .Matthias was intl,im<>fl bv liis disiippointment. and liostilities were cnntihue 1 with ncreasing fury. The two armies, con- ducted by tlieir respective sovereigns, the ablest genera » of the a^e. f„r some time kept each other in elieek: till at len-th both tiarties wearied by tlie devastation of tli.ir resn.etive mintricH concluded a kind of armistice, on the »Jn<l of .luly, 1470 which nut a peri.M to I, « tililies. On the death ol l'o«iiebrad, in tlic 18 ensuing vear irederic again presenting hiiiiwlf as a caiididute. was 6up|M)rte<l by still fewer ad- herenu than on tlie former occasion; a morr numerous party espoused the InteresU of Mat^ uilag. but the majority declaring for Ladislaus Bewail re.lerted, and proclaimed king. fml'. eric .uH^trtod Lailislaus in preference to JJatthlas. and by fomenting the troubles in iill'''"/-ii I" ";*" "^ ^'y '''" Intrigues with the king of Polaml. i nde.<v,.„n,d not onlv tn dliwt>- |H>int Miitililas of the throne of IV.liemU. but eveu to drive bim frotn that of Huogwy "— W A. D. 147 1-1479.— W«r with Matthias of Hungary—Surrender of MorarU and Sde.iL See UUNOAKV; A. I). 1471-14«7 ^"e»'«. th™?»/t?*~'^'°*^ LadiaUu. elected to th. throne of tfungary. See Hungary: A. D. 14«7! „fa;,R" '^'tL57«.--Acceiiion of the Houn Al.«„'!;~^\' Reformation and its .treng^? i;;1i5f« VI '?*i '°'"*t.on and perwcutioS.- In 1489 \ ladislav • was elected to the throne nf Hungary after the death of Mathlas Corv im» He died in 1516, and was succeeded on the tl m» of Bohemia and Huni^ary bv his mim,r rn I^uta. who perisli«i in 152/ at the bat ifof 1487-1528]. An equality of rights was main taiued between the Hussites ^d the iCan Catho ic» during theae two reigna, LouisT, ft no children, an/was succeeded*on thelSrncf „ Hungary and Bohemia by Ferdinand of Austria [see also, Austria: A. t). 1496-1526). bS of the E,np,.ror ChariesV..and marritd to X sister of Iajuis. a prince of a bigoted and desnoUc found aspeedy echo amongst the Calixtines und/r the prece<ling reign; sn.F Protestantism gained so much ground under that of Petxlinanl tS the Bohemians refused to take part in the war against the Protestant leajrue of Smalkalden. and formeil a union for the defence of the nai onal ami religious liberties, which were menami bv h^,7'Ti J."* ''¥<'•'• "' "'« Protestantsa the battle of Muhlberg. in 1547, by Cliaries V wh ", laid prostrate their cause in Germany, pnKluceJ a severe reaction in Bohemia. Several leallm of tho union were executed, others inipris.,nea or banislied; the property of many nobles w,« coiiliscuted, the towns were heavily (in,-,l d" prived of several privileges, and sibjeit,.;! to new taxes. These measures were carried in execution with the assistance of German, .Spani" l" and Hungarian soldien,, and legalized by an as- seinbly known under tiie name of the Ul,KKly i„„ .1 ■ .• ■ ■ ^''? "'**U'*" *'*^"' "'"« Intiwlueed dur- ng that r,.ign into B<.hemia. The privileires of thctal xtine or, as it was officially call,,!, the PnM?„ ^^ Cliurch, were not abolished, and l-erdinand, who h.»d succeedi'd to the imperial erown after the 8b<lication of his brother Charles \ ., wftened, during the lalt^^r years of hi.s reign. his harsh and despotic character. . . . He .lied In 1..64, i-'ncerely regretting, it is said, tlie a( t« of oppre „ion which he ha.l committed acainst his Bohemian subjects. He was succeede,: bv his son, the Emperor Maximilian II.. a ni.in u'i noble character and tolerant disposition, whidi cd to tlic Uhef that he himself Inclineii Inwanli t''« 'Iwtnnes of the Ke'forniation. He <lip<l ir. 1579, leaving a name veneraUKl by all parii,s. • . . Maximilians son, the Emperor Hu,l..l|ili was educated at the court of his cousin, I'hiiip u. o. Spain, and could jot be but adverac to I rotestanlism, which had, however, become t..> sinmg. not only in Bohemia, but also in AuMru proper, to be easily suppreascil; but several wi- direct means were adoj.iwl. in order a.-sdually t- <^ecl this objeea.-V. Krasinski, l^u „„ tU Jitiwtmit IIinl uf the Slawnie Xations, Uet i A. p. 1576-160*.— PejMcuUon of Protestants BTRudolph. Siee Uuhoabt: A. I). 1M7- 800 BOHEMIA. 1811-1«18. Th' Letter of BOHEMIA, 16U-iai8. A. D. 1611-1618.— The Letter of VLtAttij, or Rojal Charter, and Matthias's Tiolation of it.— Ferdinand of Stjria forced upon the nation as king: hy hereditary right. -The throwing of the Royal Counsellors from the window.— Beginning of the Thirty Years War.— In 1811. the Emperor I{o(lolph was forreil to surrender the crown of Bohemia to liis '.irotlier Miittfaias. The next year ho died, and Matthias succeeded him aa Emperor also. "The tranmiillity which Hn<lolph II. 'a Lietterof Majesty soe Germant: A. D. 1608-1018] had established in B<ilieiriiB tested for some time, under the ailmi!:istijtioD of Matthias, till the nomination of a new h«ir to this kingdom in the person of Fcnllnanii of Oratz [Styria]. Tills prince, whom we shall afterwards become better acquninte<l with under the title of Ferdinand II., Emperor of Germany, had, by the violent extirpation of the Protestant religion within his liereilit.iry dominions, announced himself as an inexombic zealot for popery, and was consequcntir lookeil upon by the Roman 'Catholic nart of Bohemia as the future pllbtr of .iieir church. Tlie declin- ing health of the Emperor brought on this hour rapidly ; and, relying on so powerful a sup- poner, the Bohemian Papists began to treat the Protestnnts with little moderation. Tlie Protes- tant vassals of Roman Catholic nobles, in pur- ticulNr, experienced the harshest treatment. At length several of the former were incautious enough to speak somewhat loudly of their hopes, nnd by threatening liiuts to nwaken among the Protestants a suspicion of their future sovereign. But this mistrust would never have broken out into nrtual violence, had the Ib>inan Calliolics conflueil themselves to general expressions, and not by attacks on individuals furnished the dis- content of the people with enterprising leaders. HiMiry Matthias, Count Thum, not a native of B'ljii'inia, but proprietor of some estates in that kinidom, had, by his zeal for the Protestant cause, and an enthusiastic attachment to his ni-wly adiipted country, gained the entire con- fitliuce of 1 lie Utniquists, which opened him the war to the most im|)ortiint posts. ... Of a hot anil Impetuous disposition, which loved tumult beoiiise his talents shone iu it — rash and thou^tlitless enougli to underhike things whicli cnid [irudcnce and a caliiuT temper would not hive ventured ujxm — unscrupulous ciioiigli, where the gratiflciilion of his piissinns was con- ccraed. to sport with the fate of tliousaiids, and al the same time jiolltic onougli t/) hold in lead- inir strings such a peoph the Toheminus then were. lie had alrvadv tjiriin an active part in the troubles under Rudolph's administration; »iid the Ixjtter of Maiesty which tlie States had ixtiirted from tliat Em|)eror, was chiefly to I)c laiil to his merit. The court had intrusted to hun, as burgrave or caaUdlan of Calstein. the iu*!i«ly of tlie Bohemian crown, nnd of tlie naticmal charter. But the nation had ploced in i.ii hands sonu'thing far more importimt — itaelf — Willi ih<> olBce of defender or protector of the fuiih Tlie aristocracy by which the Empi^ror « '« ruled, imprudenjy deprived him of thi^ ■ irinl(-s guanli.iwliip of the dead, to leave him III- fiill inrtuemc over the Uving. They took ti in him his oillce of hiirgrnve. or eonstJilile of li.f . ;u.ile, which litwl remlered him dependent on ll.i' •■■uri. I hereby opening his eyes to the im- I lK.n»nie uf the other which remained, and wounded his vanity, which yet was the thing that made his ambition harmless. From tbS moment he was actuated solely by a desire of revenge; and the opportunity of gratifying it was not long wanting. In the Royal Letter whicli the Bohemians had extorted from Rodolpb II., as well as in the Qerman religious treaty, one material article remained undcermiued. All the privileges granted by the latter to the Protestants, were conceived in lavour of the Estates or goveruing Iradies, not of the subjects; for only to those of ecclesiastical states had a toleration, and that precarious, been conceded. The Bohemian Letter of Majesty, in the same manner, spoke only of the Estates an<l the im- perial towns, the magistrates of which had con- trived to obtain equal privileges with the former. These alone were free to erect churches and schools, and openly to celebrate their Protestant worship: in all other towns, it was left entirely to the government to which they Ijelonged, to determine the religion of the inhabitants. The Estates of the Empire had availed themselves of this privilege in its fullest extent; the secular indeed without opposition; while the ecclesias- tical, in whose case the declaratio.i of Ferdinand had limited this privilege, disputed, not without reason, the validity of that limitation. Whnt was a disputed poiut in the religious treaty, was left still more doubtful In the letter of Majesty. ... In the little town of Klostergrab, subject to the Archbishop of Prague; and in Braunau, which iK'longed to the abbot of that monastery, churches were founded by the Prote-stants, and completed notwithstanding the opposition of their superiors, and the disapprobation of the Emperor. ... By the Emperor's oniers. the church at Klostcrgrab was pulletl down; that at Umunau forcibly shut up, and the most turbulent of the citizens thrown into prison. A general commotion among the Protestants was the con- sequence of this measure; a loud outcry was everywhere raised at this violation of the Letter of Majesty; and Count Thum. animated by revenge, and particularly called upon by his oflice of defeniler, sliowed himself not a little busy in inflaming the minds of the people. At his instigation deputies were suininoued to Prague from every circle in the empire, to con- cert the necessary mea.siircs again.st the common danger. It was resolved to petition tlie Emperor to press for the liberation of the prisoners. Tiio answer of the Emperor, already olleiisive to the states, from its lieing addressed, not to them, but to his viceroy, denounce.l their comliiot as illegal and rebellious, justified what had lieen done at Klostcrgrab and Brauiiau as the result of an im- perial mandate, and contained some passages that might be consfied into threats. Count Thurn did not fail t. .mrment the unfavourable impression which t - imperial edict made upon the assembled E les. ... He held it . . . advisable flrst to .! it their indi^'nation against the Emperor's coiia.sellors; nnd for tliat piirpo.se circulate<l a reimrt, that the imperial pnnhiina- tion had l)een drawn up by the gmemnieiit at Prague and only signed in Vienua. Among the imperial delegates, the chief objects of the popular hatred, were he President i>f the Cham- iK-r. S!aw.it«, ami Bar.in .\ffirtinitz. who lis.1 been elecWd in place of Count Thurn, Burgrave of Calstein. . . . Against two characters so un- popular the public indignation was easily ex SOI i 'A; 'IJ BOHEMIA. leil-lSIS. I*<rt» Fton BOHEMIA, 174a. dted, and they were marked out for a iacrlflcc to the eeneral Indignation. On the 23nl of May, 1B18 the depuUea appeared armed, and In great numbers, at the roTal paUoe, and forced their way Into the haU where the Commlaioncrs Stem- herg. Martlnlti, Lobkowiti, and SlawaU were assembled In a threatening tone they demanded to know from each of them, whether he had taken any part, or had consented to, the Imperial proctamatlon. Sternberg received them with composure. Martlnitz and SUwata with defiance. This decided their fate; Sternberg and Lob- kowitz, leas hated. , id more feared, were led by the arm out of the room: Martlnitz and SUwata were seized, dragged to a window, and pre- cipitated from a height of 80 feet. Into the castle trench. Their creature, the secretory Kabrlclus was thrown after them. This singular mode of execution naturally excited the surprise of clTlllzed nations. The Bohemians Justified It as a natloMl custom, and saw nothing remarkable in the whole affair, excepting that any one should have got up again safe and sound after such a fall. A dunghill, on which the Imperial oom- mlsslonere chanced to be deposited, had saved them from Injury. [The Incident of the flinging or the obnoxious ministers from the window fi wten referred to as 'the defenestration at "ague.] . . . By this brutal act of self-redress, no room was left for Irresolution or repentance Md it seemed as if a single crime could be absolved only by a series of violences. As the deed itse f could not be undone, nothing was left but to diaann the hand of punishment. Thirty directors were appol ted to organize a regular Insurrection. They seized upon all the offlcea of state, and all the imperial revenues, took into their own service the roval functionaries and the soldiers, and summoned the whole Bohemian nation toavenge the common cause. "— P Schiller Hint, of Uie Thirty Tcart' War. bk. 1. pp. 8l-S.^' Also Df: 8. R. - 'Hlner, Tht Thirty Yrari' War. .«A 8.-A. I -y. Hint, of tht Thirty n ■' "^l- ^„- Kohlrausch, HiU. of Oermany, eh. 23. # ^' ?-'*'8-«6«>.— Conciliatory measure! de- feated by Ferdinand.— His election to the Im- penal throne, and hit deposition in Bohemia. —Acceptance of the crown by Frederick the Palatine Elector.— Hia unsupported situation. SceQERMANT: A. D. 1618-1620. .,\°A •*»»--Di»»PPointment in the newly elected KinK.— His ^tcressivc Calvinism.— Battle of the White Mountain before Prairue. —Frederick's flight.— Annulling of the Royal charter.— Loss of Bohemian Liberties. See Oekmant: a. D. 1620. and Huhoart: A D 10(*fl-1660. AD. 16a1.1648.-The Reign of Terror.- j * • .T.'*""*'""*'"' 'onfiication, dranioo' ades.— The country a desert.— Protestantism crushed, but not slain.— "In June. 1621, a fear ful reign of tiTror began in Bohemia, with tlie execution of 37 of the most distinguished here- tics. For years the unhappy people bled under It; thouaaniN were banished, and yet Protestant- Ism was not fully exterminated. The clinrtcr was cut into shreds bv the Emperor himself- tliere could be nn fofb-mrance towards 'such acknowledged rebels. ' As a matter of course, the Lutheran pn«cl.ine was forbidden umlsr the heaviest penalties; heretical works. Bibles es- pecially, were token away In heaps. Jesuit colleges, r rches, and schoob came Into power- but Uils was not all. A large number of dli-' t nguished Protestant families were deprived of hefr property, and, as if that were not cnouKh it was decreed that no non-Catholic could be a citizen, nor carry on a trade, enter Into » m.,. riage, nor make a will; any one who harlmured a Protestont preacher forfeited his pronertv- whoever permitted Protestont Instruction to t» given was to be fined, and whipped out of town- le Protestant poor who were not converted were to be driven out of the hospltols, and to be replaced by Catholic poor; he wfio gave freeze? presslon to his opinions about religion was 'o ho executed. In 1634 an order was issued to all ^^ "", u?^^ »eachera to leave the country within eight days under pain of death; ana finally. It was ordained that whoever had not become Catholic by Easter, 1626, must emigrate . . . But the real conversions were few ; thousands quietly remained true to the faith; other thou sands wandered as beggars Into foreign lands more than 80,000 Bohemian families, and among them 800 belonging to the aristocracy, went into banishment Exiled Bohemians were to be found In every country of Europe, and were not wanting In any of the armies that fought against Austria. Those who could not or would not emigrate, held to their faith In secret. Arainst t lem dragoonadea were employed. DeUchments of soldiers were sent Into the various districu to torment the heretics till they were converted The 'Converters' (Scllgmacher) went thus throughout all Bohemia, plundering and murder- ing. . . . No succour reached the unfortunate people^ut neither did the victors attain their end Protestontism and the Hussite memories could not be slain, and only outward siibmi3.slon was extorted. ... A respectoble Protestant party exlato to this day In Bohemia and .Momvia But a desert was created; the land was crushed for a generation. Before the war Bohemia had i-^S?^ Inhabltonto, and In 1648 there were but 700,000 or 800,000. These figures appear pre nosferous, but they are certiSed by Bohenilan histonans. In some parts of the coimtry the population has not attoined the standard of 1630 fo this day. "—L. HBusser, The Period of tht Rt- forina. on, ch. Z2. Also in: C. A. Peschek, Reformation and Anti- Hfformatinn in Bohemia, v. 2 — E do Schwclnitz. Hitt. of the Church knoten at tht Unitat Fratrum, eh. 47-51. A. D. 1631-1633.- Temporary occupation by the Sa=ons.— Their expulsion by Wallenstein. ScoOermant: a. n. lfWI-16:)3. A. D. 1640-1645.— Campaigns of Baner and Torstenson. Sec Oehmant: A. 1) I6411- 164.1. ■^ °;. i«4*-'«48.— Last campaigns of the Thirty Years War.— Surprise and capture of part of Prague by the Swedes.— Siege of the old city.— Peace. See Oehma.nt: A. 1). I«4«- 1648. A. D. f 740.— The question of the Austrian Succession.- The Pragmatic Sanction. t«^ Austria: A. D. 1718-1738. a.- ' 1740. A. D. 1741.— Brief conquest by the French, Bavarians and Saxons. See Ai-xtuia: .K. D 1741 (ADOcrr— NnvEMBEit). and (Octdhkhi. A. D. 1741 (January— May).— Prussii.! inva- sion.— Battle of Chotusitz. Sec .•li.ariu\ A. D. 1748 (Jandarv- May). 302 [ml- \± u BOHEMU, 1743. BOKHARA. 1819. A. D. 174a (Tone — December). — Bxpuliien of the French.— Beileiile's retreat. — Maria The- resa crowned at Prague. See Auuthia: A. D. 1742 (June— December). A. D. 1757.— The Seren Years War. — Frederick'! InTaaion and defeat.— Battles of Prague and Kolin. See Oermahy: A. D. 1757 (April— June). BOHEMIAN BRETHREN, The. See BoiiEMi.i: A. D. 1434-1457, and Oebxamv: A. D 1830. BOHEMIANS (Gypsies). See Otfsies. BOIANS, O" BOII.— Some pas *es in the curlier Uistory ..ail movements of the powerful Otillic tribe KDown as the Boii will be found touched upon under Rome: B. C. 890-847, and B. C. 29.5-191, in accounts given of the destruc- tion of Rome by tlie Oauls, and of the subse- quent wars of the Romans with the Cisalpine Osuls. After the final conquest of the Boians in (jallia Cisalpina, early In the second century, B. C.. the Romans seem to have expelled them, wholly or partly, from that country, forciig them to cross the Alps. They afterwards occu- pied a region embraced in modern Bavaria and U,>Iicmia, both of which countries are thought to have derived their names from these BoTan people. Some part of the nation, however, as- sociated itself with the Ilelvetii and Joined in the migration which Ciesar arrested. He settlei these Boians in Qaul, within the .Eduan terri- tory, between the Loire and the Ailler. Their capital city was Gergovia, which was also the name of a city of the Arverni. The Oergovia of the Boians is conjectured to have been modem Moulins. Their territory was the modern Bour- bonnais. which probably derived its name from them. Three important names, therefore, in European geograpliy and history, viz. — Bour- bon. Bavana and Bohemia, are traced to the Gallic ua*' n of the Boil. — Tacitus, 'Jermans, tnint. by (Jhureh and Brodrihh, notes. Also in: C. Merivale, Jlitt. of the Romnnn, e/t. 12, note. BOIS-LE-DUC— Siege and capture by the Dutch (1629). See NhTtiEULANUS: A 0. 1621- KCJS. BOKHARA (Ancient Traososania).- ' Taken literally, the name [TmuwxaniaJ is a translation of the Arabic Mavera-un-uehr (that which lies beyond or across the river), aad it might therefore be siipposed that Transoxanlii meant the country lying Iteyond or on the right sliore of the Oxua. But this is not strictly 8;)eiiking the case. . . . Prom the period of the SumaniJes down to modern times, the districts iif Talltan, Toltliaristan and Zcm, althougli lying partly or entirely on the left bank of the Oxiis. have been looked on as integral portions of Bokhara. 0>ir historical researches seem to gn)ve that this arrangement dates fmm the umaniiles, who were themselves originally natives of that part of Khonissan. ... It is almost impossible in dealing gcognphically witii Transoxania to assign detinit<;ly au accurate frontier. We can and •■■ill therefore compre- hend in our definition ' f insoxania solely Bok- hara, or the khanate 01 .i,)khara; f«' .ilthough it ha.4 iiiity betu known liy llie iatu-r name since the time of Shctbani antf of the Ozbegs [A. D. 1500), ihc shon-H of the Zerefshan and the tract of country stretching southwards to tiie Oziu and northwards to the desert of Kizil Kum, re|ireaent the only parts of the territory which have remained uninterruptedly portions of the original undivided state of Transoxuiiia fronitlia earliest historical times. . . . Bokhara, the capi- tal from the time of the Samanides, at.'! tlie date of the very earliest geogmphicHi i>>>iirts concerning Transoxania, is said, during Hh jiros- perity, to have been the largest city ol the Islamite world. . . . Bokhara was not, however, merely a luxurious city, distinguished by great natural advantages; it was also the principal emporium for the trade between China and Western Asia; in addition to tiie vast ware- houses for silks, brocades, and cotton stuffs, for the finest carpets, and all kinds of gold and silversmiths' work, it boasted of a great money- market, being la fact the Exchange of all the population of Extern and Western Asia. . . . Sogd . . . comprised the mountainous part of Transoxania (which mav be described as the extreme western spurs of the Thien-Shan). . . . The capital was Samarkand, undoubtedly the Maracanda of the Greeks, which they specify as the capital of SogdU. The city has, throughout the history of Transoxania been the rival of Bokhara. Before the time of the Samanides, Samarkand was the largest city beyond the Ox us, and only began to decline from its fonner importance when Ismail chose Bokhara for his own residence. Under the Khahrezmians it is said to have raised it^olf ugaiu. and liecome much larger than its rival, and under Timour to h:ive reached the culminating point of its pros- perity. " — A.. Vambery, Ilitl. of Bt>kluirii, iiitrod. Also in: J. Button, Central Anin, eh. 3-3. B. C. 329-337. — Conquest by Alexander the Great. See MACEDONtA: B. C. 330-.S23. 6tb Century. — Conquest from the White Huns by the Tnrks. See Turks: Btu Cen- tury. A. D. 710.— The Moslem Conquest. See Mahometan Conqukst: A. D, 710. A. D. 991-998. — Under the Samanides. See Samanioks. A. D. 1004-1193.— The Seldjuk Turk&, See Turks (TuE Seldjdks): A. D. 1004-luii3, and after. A. D. iao9-iaao. — Under the Khuarezmians. See Kiiuarkzm: 13Tn Ckntury. A. D. 1219.— Destruction of the city by Jing^s Khan. — Bokhara was taken l)y Jingis Kimn in the summer of 1219. "It was then a very large and magnificent city. Its name, according to the historian Alaiudilin. is de- rive<l from Bokliar, which la the Magian lan- guage means the Centre of Science." Tne city surrendered after a siege of a few d.iys, Jingis Khan, on entering the town, saw the great mosiiHC and asked If it was the Sultan's palace. "Being tolil it was the house of Qod, ho dis- mounted, climbed the stem, and 8;tid in a loud voice to his followers, 'The hay is cut, give your horses fodder.' They easily understood this cynical invitation to plunaer. . . The inhabit- ants wen; onierud to leave the town . niliixly. with only their clothes, so that it might Ih! more easily pillaged, after which the spoil was divldeil among the victors. ' It wm a fearful i\.\y,' says Ibn al Itliir; 'one only iieani tiie solis an<l wii'p- ing of men, women and chlhlren, who were separated forever; women were ravished, while meD died rather Ihan survive the dishonour o{ 303 t i fl ^1 BOKHARA, 1819. b^ll.tTiTrfl""'.*'",?''?*"-' "^ Mongol, ended i^DdiL* » '[fre/'ullt of firiok remained •tanding. _H h, Howorth. n~,. of the Mon- fft'.T. 1. MS.-" The flourishing city on the t^J^^ ^ ^T • ''"••"P "f ".bCish. but wUch deserves our admiration. Tlie Mongol wl^^f,.°S^'' ^'^"'V "'" B"'"""-i"t8 themsclvea 7^ J^ "■' *" i'"' »?«"''Sl»'lil<'": but all In Jh/«in I' Y"" <=«'•P^•«<'' "'en ""'I unimals that Kfi,.!^,' ''"''■ T''« ix-aceablc portion of the reristance. More than 80,000 men were executed. the v?^"??''"'",''*"' *'"' 'he exception of ine very old people among them, reduced to slavery, without any distinction of rank wha^ I! ™i ? .' j"? the InhabltanU of Bokhara, lately 10 oelelmited for their learning, their love of art. ana their general refinement, were broueht ^nT^Jatri't^'"'';! "' '"'~^y »"" .ie/mdatfon 5/,i^?aTi *° "I' quarters. "-A. ■C'ambcnr, nsllla: "• '^* Mongols: A. 0. A. D. 1868.— Subjection to RouU. See RfHBiA: A. n. 18.W-1878. "■»—»• oee BOJ-ERIUM. 8cc BEI.KRION. lOlHl-Kli) Boleslaui 11., Kine of Poland A- ,1^ '""f-l"*) Bolesliu, ifl., Duke of Poland A. D. 1103-1138. .. . Boleilaui IV '•"»*., King of Poland, A. D. 123:-ia7» r..S?n Y'*'l^'""~***'"*K«' *"•' "d e«e- l."3f^°54:i ^•'*<"^'"'- A. I>. 1527-1.531; and. nRf'S^Ji';., Sec Bcloaria: Orioi.v op. BOLIVAR'S LIBERATION OF XHP SOUTH AMERICAN STATES. See "? LOMi.iAN States: A. D. 1810-1819, 181B-1830- 1826- InT' 1830-1836. 1825-1826. and "Wh^'.y^" """ ■ho'j.K''"'! inhabitants.- VVitl! t he Toromonos trilK-. who (x-cuj.ied as Orb.sny t<-ll8 us. a district of from IP to 13^ of bomli latitude, it was an established rule f,>r .vtrv man to build his house, with his own hands iil.jiie, and if he did otherwise he lost the title of man as well as became the laugliing- wn^! >"^ r f'^^"""' e't'^nB- The only clothin^' worn I.y tliese p<.ople was a turban on the head c..ini«,H,.,l of feathers, the rest of the liody being P«rf.iily naked; whilst the women us«l a gar m.^nt, manufactured out of cotton, that only partially vnyered their persons. . . . The oma mom m whu-h the soft sex took most pride was a necklHiH- niade of the teeth of enemies, killed \v their husliands in battle. Amongst the Mox<« polygamy was tolerated, and woman's infldelitv severely punish,,!. . . Tlie Moxos eullivateJl the land with ploughs, and other implements of agneulture. maile of wood. They fahricaU.l canws, fouiiht and fishe<i with bows and arrows Jntl.e nrnvinre of the Mox.» lived also a tribe ea! .<! lK..,.mir^, wh,,. !K:sidrs the«' i„,,i ,M,„ai Instriimenls of war. used twool-cd wo<«len Jcimitam. The immonillly of thes,. Uonomoi BOLOONA. WM Mmething like that of the Mormons of our time . . fhe Canlchanas. who live.",,™; Machupo. l«tween 13° and W 8. lat. and Ot' "o fl«o W. long, t 8 reputed by M. d'Orbiimy as the bravest of the Bolivian IndUns. Tli.v „n! accredited to have been cannitials. . . w>i,"^ Jujuy-the most northern province of t^ Argentine Republic-iolns Bolivia, we have in ndirnTT,"'?,/'"' ««'««"«?« «"'' t»„h^ Indians. The latter are represented to me by Oi Mattenzo of Itosario. as intelligent and dfvoted to agricultura labor. They have fixed to .1 .riu K*.™^' "".* '"'"'*» of whfch are clean and iiea" Each town is commanded by a capitan. whose only."_T J. Hutchinson. T/u: /^.r«,w. '/" 4 - a^'-rupi' ^'"^'"'^'''* Aborioines: A-ndewahs, In the Empire of the Incaa. See Peru Tm Empire op tub Incas. »f ri?' 'SS9--E»tabliihment of the Audiencia of Charcas. See Acdiencias. II- r D- »;a5-'*a6— The independent Repub- Uc founded and named in Upper Peni.-Yhe BohTian Con«titution.-"Up,ier P.ru |„r 1^ Charcas, as It was more spec ically ku,>wi 1 RKPCnLic: A. D. 15^-1777] fmm the ^oJ'm- ment of Lima ... to form part of tin. newlv ronstituted Viceroyalty of BSen,« Ayres The fifteen years' struggle foi" independence w,w here a sanguinary one fiideed. There-'is^i'anTl'y's town, viUage or noticeable place in this vast region where blood is not recorded t,) liavo l»en alied in this terrible struggle. . . "Thf Snunlsh army afterwanis sueeumlieil to that of tin' inde pendents of Peru; and thus L-pp.r Per.i p,i„«i, not indee.1 liberty, but independence iind, r the rule of a republicim army. This vast i.mvince was incapable of governing itself Tl„' .Vriten tines aid claim to it as a province of th, Jon UHleration ; but they already exercisi'd t,H> irreat a preponderance in the South Am.rican system and the Colombian generals obtained Ilic nlln miishincntof 111, 'ii. pretensions. Sucre (itolivars Chief of htniri lussumed the government until a congn-ss TOuf.l lie a.sseml)le,i: „„,| „n,|,r the inHuencc of the Colombian sohiierv IniHr I u was erectol into an inil,|H>ndent stjiU' by , ,e iiaiiie of the I{epublic of Bolivar, or Ilolivia '- *-• J. 1 ayne. Jlift. of Eun>i»m Coloni,: n 29() — tor an account of the Peruvian war of lilKr ntion — the results of which embraced Inp-r leru — ami the adoption of the Bolivian tunsli ,oJi'" hy I lie latter, see Peru: A. I). 1830- 1826. and IMi-,-182(l. A. D. 1834-1839.— Confederation with Peru. -War with Chile. See Peru: A. I). 1828- A. D. i879-i88^.-The war with Chile. See Chile: .\ |) ik!'U1884. BOLIVIAN CONSTITUTION, or Code BoUvar. See Peru : A, 1). 1835-1828, auii 1836- lc*iO. BOLOGNA: Oriein of the city.— On the flual eomiuest of the fJoianOaiils in .North Italy a new Itoman colony an.l frontier fortnss were establishwl. B. C. 189. callwl ftret F.'lsiiis and then Bonoiiia. which is the Bolosna of msalern Italy.- 11. u. Ll.ldell. Ui,t. of liome. bk. i, eK Origin of the name. Sec Buians. 304 K?- BOLOGNA. BOOK OF THE DEAD. B. C. 43.— Cenftreiic* of tli« TrianTin. SecRomt: B. C. 44-48. nth Centnry.— School of Law.— The Gloo- Mton.— "Juit lit thia time [end of the 11th cen- turv] we find a famoui school of law establishetl In Bologna, and frequcnt«Ml by multitudes of pupils, not only from all parts of Italy, but from Otrmnny, France, and other countries. The basis of hII itx instructions was the Corpus Juris CiTilis. Its teachers, who constitute a series of dis- tin)riii»be<l Jurists extending over a century and a liiilf. devoted themselvcn to the work of ex- piiunding the text and elucidating the principles of the Corpus Juris, and especially the Digest. Frdin the form In which they recortled and bawled down the results of their studies, thev have obtained the name of glossators. On their copies of the Corpus Juris they were accustomed tn write glosses, 1. e., brief marginal explanationa and remarks. "—J. Fladley, Intnd. to Human Late, Uel. 3. See, iilso. Education, MKDr.KVAt.. iith-i2th Centuries. — Rite and Acquisition of Republican Independence. See Iiai.t : A. n. lorja-iiw. A. D. 1275.— Sorereienty of the Pope con- firmed by Rodolph of Hapibure. See Qsu- UANV A. D. 1273-131)8. A. D. 1350-1447.— Under the tyranny of the Visconti. S'l' .Vtii.A\ .V. U. 1277-1447 ; and Fi.'iKF.Nt E : A. n \mv 1112. A. D. 1512.- .. -■ ion by Pope Juliut II. Sii' Italy ; A. I'llH. A. D. 1796- . n ined to the Cispadane Republic. S. .<<k : A. D. 1796 (Apuii.— Oi I'l'iKii): 17^^ r'.t7 (OrronK.it— .Vrmi.). A. D. 1831.— Revolt suppressed by Auitrian troops. (M'C Itai.v: A. I>. 1830-1N12. « " BOMBA." 8.e Italy : A. D. imR-lS49. BOMBAY.— Cession to England (1661). See Isnn: A O 1«<K)-1702. BON HOMME RICHARD, and Serapit, sea fight of the. See United Htatks or Am. : A II 177!l (Skptkmbkb). BONAPARTE, Jerome, and his Kingdom of Westphalia. See Okbm.\.vt: A. D. 1807 (.IlNK .IlLY); i-^lS (SKITE.MBER — OCTOBEn), aiiii (i)c roiiKii— l>i:('KMiiKii). BONAPARTE, Joseph, King of Naples and King of Spain. Sue Filv-mk; A. D. iSo.VlWW (l)KrnMiiKK— Srftksiiikki; Spain: A. D. 1808 (Mw— Seiti MiiKH). to 1812-1814. BONAPARTE, Louis, and the Kingdom of Holland S<r Nktiikrlands: A. D. 1808-1810. BONAPARTE, Louis Napoleon. See Xapo- LKDS III. BONAPARTE, NAPOLEON, The career of. See France: A. I). 17»:)(Jclt— DErEMBKB), and 17M (OcTonER— Decembeii). to 181."). BON AP ARTE F AM I L Y, The origin of the. — " About four miles to the south of Florence, on an eminence overlooking the valley of the little river Greve, and the then bridle-path leading towards Siena and Rome, there was a very strong castle, called Monte Boni, Mons Boni, as it is styled in sundry deeds of gift eiec-itetl within its walls in the years 1041, 1085, and 1100, by which its lords made their pea"* with the Church, in the usual way, by sharing with churchmen Uje proceeds of a rnurse of life such as ne<Hled a whitewashing stroke of the Church's office. A strong castle on the road to Rome, and just at a point where the path ascended a steep bill, offered 20 30 ■dvaotages and temptations not to be resisted; and the lords of Monte Bon! ' took toll ' of pasxen- gers. But, as Villani very naively says, 'the Florentines could not endure that another should do what they abstained from doing. ' So as usual they sallied forth from their gates one fine morn- ing, attacked the strong fortres.s, and razed it to the ground. All this was. 0.1 we have seen, an ordinary occurrence enough in the histnry of young Florence. This was a w.iy the burghers had. They were clearing their liind of these vestiges of feudalism, much as an Ameriuin settler clears his ground of the stumps n muining from the primevol forest. But a special interest will be admitted to belong to this insLince of the clearing process, when we disaiver who those noble old freebooters jf Monte Boni were. The lords of Monte Boni were called, by an ca.sy, but it might be fancied Ironical, derivation from the name of their castle 'BuonI del Monte,' — the Good Men of the Mountain ; — and by abbreviation, Buondel- monte, a name which we shall hear more of anrn in the pages of this history. But when, after the destruction of their fortress, these Good Men of the Mountain became Florentine citizens, they increased and multiplied ; and in the next genera- tion, dividing off Into two branches, they as- sumed, as was the frequent practice, two distinc- tive appellations; the one branch remaining BuondelmontI, and the other calling themselves Buonaparte. This latter branch shortly iifter- wanis again u'vlded Itself into two, of which one settled at 9an Ailniato al Tedesco, and became extinct there in the person of an aged canon of the name within this century; while the other first established itself at Sarzana, a little town on the coast about half-way betw.'eii Florence and Genoa, and from thence at a later period transplanted itself to Corsica ; and has since been heard of."— T. A. Trolloiw, iri»t. of the Com- mimrr.iHh nf Florrwe, t. 1. pp. .'lO-.'il. BONIFACE, ST., The Mission of. See Christianity: A. D. 496-800. BONIFACE, COUNT, and the Vandals. S<e Vandals: A. D. 429-439. BONIFACE III., Pope, A. D. 607, Febbcart TO November. . . . Boniface IV., Pope, A. D. 008-01.'5 Boniface V., Pope, A- D. 819-625. . . Boniface VI., Pope, A. D 896 Boniface VII., Pope, A. D. 974, 984-985 Boniface VIII., Pope, A. I). 1294-1303. . . . .Boniface IX., Pope, A. D. 1.380-1404. BONN, Siege and Capture by Marlborough (17031. See Nethehlands: A. D. 1 702-1704. BONNET ROUGE, The. See Liberty Cap. BONONIA IN GAUL. See Oesoriaci-m. BONONIA IN ITALY. See Boloosa. BOOK OF THE DEAD.— "A collection (ancient Egyptian) of prayers and exorcisms com- [OTged at various periods for the benefit of the pilgrim soul in his journey through Araenti (the Ki»yptian Hades); and it was in order to pn)vide liim with a safe conduct tlm)ugh the perils of tint terrible valley that copies of this work, or portions of it, were buried with the mummy i:i ills tomb. Of the many thousands of papyri which liave been preserved to this day, It is per- haps scarcely too much to say that one half, if not two thirds, are copies more or less complete of the Book of the Dead."— A. B. Edwards, Aeademii, Srpt. 10, 1887. M. Naville puhlislied in 1887 a collation of the numerous differing ^•^1 BOOK OP THK DEAD. U^m'i,*k" ?*;'',"' "•" ^*^- o" »•"> Prep^tlon nnJ?M=" '"^l' '" '■" e'>8»««s<» '<» ten yekn. ir.^9 S5' ?'":?'• "•' "«• ••ttliment of Md ITTlMTsI*"' '^'^'""•'"^ ^ J*- "65-1778, A^P^iSw'iS-'-^' ^•*H« »' See MiMocB,: A. I) 1S«I(FKBKCARr— JULT) BOONSBORO. or South feountmln, Battle of. Ne LNiTEn 8TATEII or Am.: A. D. 1863 (.SEPTKMHitR: .Maryland). Pr!.^?.L"'.^»''". Wilke..-A.MMin.tioii of aL A K Vi!!?"'?- ^ ^''""° State, or *1i'^- "• "*M.\Puii. Uth). BOR-RUSSIA. SeePHUB«A:TnEOiuoii.Ai, Ps^?!l?.^f "\, *'" SLATEBr. Medmsval: A.Nor.\.Nt): iilso Man-okk Tt.wf" Mahomktak Comucew: A. D. Ste;.°»fV5?°-~.'*"^* "' ""• Frondeurt.- aleee of the citr — TreatT of Pmu s^ 0™J1 "T-'**''*"'?," »C *'•• Soiiety of the and iubmiMion of the city.-- The pence of Bonleaux InOctob. r. l.r.0. h'i l.-ft ,h« cUrtrr/n neither att«rhn,J to th- ffovemuirt.t nor afmi.l of .'i„' i "JT .*■*,■• •" "I '^'"^'*- " ^'ol''"' element ol.. !i L*?"".:''' """''r '"■■ '""•orl'anee. and not alarmed by the posslhllity of radlenl rl,ang,.H in th,. f^uTt" """"« ""^ I">l'<il'>r emoli.M, amilriHt EiH'rnon, nieetmgn, moMllv of the lower Claniwij, had been hehi umler annie Kreut elms near the rit v. and from thia circumiiUnce a party hml taken ttie n.ime of the Ormec. It now as- sumed a niof definite form, and befjan to pro- test niralnst the aliM-knesa of the offleem au.l miiKi.»tml<>>i. who It wh« clmrjfed, were ready to «»'."! ""i/ V .i;"!"!'""" ""•«•• The I'arllati.ent wan i»..fdivid,.,l into two factions." Itnown as 111. Litilc Fronde and the (Jwit Fronde — the latter of whl.h wns dev„ie.l to tlic Prinee .:f «H"'r"ii V"' ''V.'"^" *"'* "■'■'ety comiKiml originally of a smnll numU-r of a.tive and vio. I.'L"i!i.'".'i."' ""'.' '" L'" '"•(r'«nl««llon not wh.illy unlike the s-niety of the Jh<-obin« Troul.lii tocrraae,! I«.tw...„ IliU s.m|hv ami the parlia- ment am on .1 ,.,,,■ 3d (19.-.2| it held a mWtinK atU.nd«l bv HICK) ann.-l men, nn.l d.Tided on the ..<lle of foiirtw n of the Judges who were rr- jtar.1"! as ir.itnrs to the <a.i«.. . . . The offend- Ine Judife. w.re ohiiired to leave the city, l,ut In f'V* ''»> • I'Tlioment aRain ol.l«in«| con- trol and the exile, were nrullwl and rc^-elved with If real solemnity. Hut the Omific was not thus to lie over.;ome. On June 8.1th the.,, cm- U-'ts resulti-l In n buttle in the itreels, In whl, li llie s.Kietr l;'»'l llie advaMta^e. Many of the JiidKea abiuid •.! the confli<t and lefl'lhe ritv 1 he Onnfc establl.lH,! Itaelf at the Hotel do i I"'';. •"'' ""'•'■'-•'"'t In controllint for the moat pait the affairs ot the Hty. . . . iNmdi decide,! lli.it ]»■ would re<Hi(tnli;e the Ormft- a^« a political orifiinlMtion. anil «ir.n«lhen It bv his approval . . . 1 ho restomtlon of lh« Kind's authority at Paris f»„. Jhakcr: A I). 1M1-I(W;)] slwnith- ene.1 the part;- at llonli-aiu that ilesfre<l peace and Inen^Kf the .!,,ie.,..r ,,f the ,.,r,j- thsi" wai •ppoied to It PloU w«r« laid for the orw^ BORNEO throw of the local authoriUei, but they wem wholly unsucctWul. . . . The desire of i|« people, the nobility, and the clerKy was f r peace Only by speedy aid from Spain could the city be kept In hoatllity to iu Kfcg and n allcrlancetoeondfi. Spali waa a.k«f to ^nd assistance and prevent this important loss \mt the Spanish delayed any vigoroS actlolpa ' y from lemisuieu and partly from lack of in^Z and money. The most of the province of Oulenne was/fiuduallylosttothetasurminta. . . Con.iI seems to have left Ouienne to itaelf ' in llihi condition the people of Bordeaux turied to [; h"l!!r'.'i."' "" ""V Peraon who had the power io help them. . fhe envoyi were reieiv.Hl W Cromwell, but he took no step, to send aid to Bbrdeaux. Hopea were held out which en couragcd the city and aUnr-d »:,e French mini,, ter but no ahipt were sent." MeanUme. th. Kings forces In Ouienne advanced with stead v success, and early in the lummer of 1653 tliev ^S?f„ '^S "'*** "' the city. The peace party ni!?l°' ^^ encouraged, soon overthrew the Ormfc. and arranged terms for the iubml««ion of the town. "The government proceede.1 st once to erect the castles of Trompette and H4 and lliey were made p.)werful enoueh to check any future turbulence. "-J. B. Perkins. Frane, vnder Maiarin, rh. 15 (». S). . « » «« I -^"i '?/."'-7''"''« girendiati in the National H«f *?,'?"" Asaembly. See France: A. 1) nui (<HroBi.;n). A. D. 1793.— ReTOlt anintt the Revolu- tiooary Covemment of Paria.— Fearful ven- geance of the Terrorists. ^'■•^ '•'ranck V I) l.»:ll.Il'.NE); (.h l.Y— DeIEMBEK); SU.I I71*i-i:W (OCT.inKB— .Vphil). IS.^^lMsf""""'''''^''®- **KAIfSA.;AD. 1708 (APKII,— OCTUBEH). jjfjORC'AS. Tht. See Pafact: A D. MTt- doS ,S^i^°T J*"' ,'»™'''-ly powerful kl.,«. nZi 1 r "■' ^'? '" "«""• '» * *""'«lm< «r,,n i V"" '"i""^' '^■'" '«''"''' "f «l'i''i " h.?' ",( ; ,""" '«<T' '-"^t. , . . Kx,lu,l,n« thc.ohil„,.,it„| u„,l ,„,,„ „ i„„, „,.^ ,^,,^,^, ,^^ . . - With the Hilju.eiitiit.lj. . . jt h,„ai.,.„I two an. a half tln,,.s that of U... Hriil,], |,lei . . . JBya,ievenoreijrlit times smHll.r,..«(,„li t t.;n or twelve time, ii, the nundsr nf |i, i„ habitants.^ even the thinly pe„p|„| i,iH,„| „f Hima.ra U more than twi,-.. li f„,,„|.,„s. .,' r.?', li'T".?'' •••*'"»"• <ll«proporlioi, mui.t Im- ^>re,Ui which enclnl,, nearly th.. whole „f ihe wn?'""i:u-- • • ""•I hunting U 11 lv.,l,j...t wiU. which many trib,.» ai.prau h ll...if .1. idi Dora. . SighteiJ by the 1'ortuiru.w pn.UMr 306 in tlie flrat years of the.Uleenth.Tnlurv" H..ri. reniHln.M unknown to history till I,Wl.'v.l„i, ii». survivors of .Magellan's expedition r.,ui,.l th- glolie pn ...nUHl lhem«-lve. iM.for.. Brunei ^,.« aftrr this evout. J„r«e ,i,- M.^neses «rt„l,ll,l„-.| s factory 00 the writ cuaat; the Uul.b made iLeit BORMXC. tpponnce la 1086, wad they were toon followed bv the BngUth. But all attempt* at ezploratioD were lUCceHively abandoned. . . . Permanent European aettlemention the coaat were first made in 1813, wben the Engllih occupied Pontianac and BiuiJermaMin, wbicb were two yean later tn'.r- rendered to tbe Dutch. . . . The Dutch, matters of all the rest of Indonesia, except the eastern half of Timor, bare not bad time to establish tlirir rule over the whole of Borneo. They have, liDwever, gradually redui«d or annexed all tbe aection Irfng south of the equator, as well as Hbnut half of the northern districts. But possvs- Hion of tbe north-west and northern parts has l>t«n secured by the EnKiisb, through various treaties with the Sulian of Brunei, former tiizersin of the whole of this nwlon. In 1H40 tile British goTemmcnt obtaineu tbe absolute cnwion of tbe island of Labuan, at tlie entrance of Brunei Bay, despite thi- protests of the Netb- erlHods But the sultan had already granted to James Brooke the principality of Harawak, com- prising the southern part uf his kingdom. In return for a yearly subsidy, this soldier of fortune, commonly known as Kajab Brooke, thus became master of an extensive territorv. which has since been gradually enlarged at tlie expense of the sultan's domain. On the i>piM> site side of Brunei the tultan lins also yieUied llie northern part of the islaml to a powerful llritlsh company, which has already oiitained a royal charter from tbe Crown of Gnglatid. A pirt ot this territoiy having also Ixren eliilnieti by the sovereign of the Sulu archlpel.igt), tliiit piti'ntate. like hit Brunei colleague, has U-en fxiiiitht oir by a pennon. Thanks to this piir- oliaiwof the land, Hpain, which had meantime lie- eoine the suierain of the Hulu prince, baa lien(«- (nrlh been excluded from all claim Ui the powwlon of any part of Borneo. Lastly, the siil- uiuBic of Hrunel itself depends for its verv exist- piii-e cm the suiferance of England, and it' Is now prc)iK»ed to unite it to tbe other territories of the twii cumpanies, under the direct protectorate of Great Britain. But a frontier question still re- niiiinn to be settled between tbe Dutch govem- iiivnt and the North Borneo Companv. arising nut nf a misunderstanding aa to the Klentity ot Un- river ,Sebukn. which Is accepted by both •iiles as the lioundarr line. . . . Borneo tllll liHilHiiirs many alwilutely savage peoples. . . . Till- )!rt«t bulk of tbe inland populations are rnllwtlvely known as Davaks [or Dvaks), a term . whi<'h, for tbe .Vislava. has sl'mplv the sen* of 'wild' or ' heathen.'''— K. li<'clus, T/u Kirih ,vid lit In'iiihitiinUi : ttftnuim. rh. «.—«<■<• ,MAl.^v^1 K.iK — 'Hlr James Uro-ike visited Hnrncn in ih.^, lo sueceeil In carrying out. by hi« ii«ii pi'PKinal energv, what the gnat East IjkIIii Coiiiininv had fiiflifi to arcompllxh lie f.iiii.|.-l Saniwuk With the aid of Ailmlral Ki piwl III' annlhllaterl the dangerous Imnles of t'lrHii-i tliai Infi-mtiHl the western coasU He Micwfiili,- xamiM-d out a risinc of Clilnese, in will, h ojx-niilim llm native tribes lovallv cume 111 lin HHHlstaiiee ; and he has (leiiiiin«trat<-d. tlrnin. iaily niHl politically, the wtalom of thoae enrlv Hutch and Hrlliali ailventurers who saw a »l>ii^ri<lii| prop<-rtv In the iKlaiKt of Uomeo. In 1*4, the t''neli>h e<3Ver!..!!«!t, »eri.-jjr tIsB (?B- ixirtani-e of a station in this latttutle, piirrhaMil Uhiian, sn Island ofl the onaM of Borneo, and ■uUe it an English colony, wltk a fovtroor and 307 BOROUOa all tbe necessary offlcen and applUncM of aa effldent administration. Such is the brief hi*, tory of Borneo, poatession of which is now divided between tbe Dutch government, the Hultan of Brunei, Rajah Brooke, and the British North Borneo Company, the latter recently (IHtllJ endorsed in ita undertaking by the royal charter of her Majesty Queen Victoria. Borneo has been made familiar to the general reader by the settlement of Sarawak, which is situated on the western side of tbe island. Rajah Brooke's territorv iionslsts of over IW.OOO sijuare miles, . . . Alone and unaided, without state protec- tion or oHlrlal service, for forty years Sarawak lifls maintained an independent position, her Eu^Miah ibief holding sovereign power, bis gov- ernment being often spoken of by travellers who have visited Borneo as an example worthy to be studied by some of tbe world's greatest powers. 1'lie Britiab North nomeo Company have raised tlitlr Hag over about the same extent of country Hs that which comprises 8arawak : and they have wisi-ly Imitated the policy of Rajah Brooke In ruling the natives through their thiefa, and with all due respect to tbeir own laws, cualoros, and religion. Harawak is a happv and pnwiM-r- mis colony. With a populatlim of IMtl.WHi souls, it has a respectable military force, garrisons, and forU ; it pays a competent staff of Euro|>ean and native ofUccrs : and maintains three gunlMnts to imrtect its commerce and guarantee the safety of life and property to its 8iilije<ts. (Rajah UriK.ke left Sarawak in IwW, and died in England in 1M18. He was succeeded aa rajah bv a nephew who had taken his name. Sarawak was placeil under BriUiih protection In 18HH.) . . . The I>iit<h claim suzerainty over all the other portions of Honieo that are not occupied by Kajab Hr(H>ke In Harawak, the British North itdrni.'i tnnipany in Habab and tbe Hultanate of Uruiui. Tliey have established something like a regular gKV- emment over the coast dlKtricts of the west and south. They have Residents in the sotithern and eastern districts, and their chief town is Pontlanak. A native sultan is nominal ruler. They have as yet, however, done nothing in the way of developing this colony compariHl with their working of other posaessibna "— J. llatton. Be Mne OiloH. rk 8. BORNHOVED, Battia ofdsay). See Bcan- DIHAVIAK Htatss: A. D. 101K.-i»i7. BORNY, OR COLOMBEY-NOUILLV, Battle of. 8eeFR*m«: A.n l«70(Jt!LT— Ado l BORODINO, OR THE MOSKOWA, Battle of, Hee Husiia: A. D. mt (Jurb— HiPTKMaRM) BOROUGH,- CITy,-TOWM.-VILLB. —••The burh of the AnglivBaxon period wae simply a more strictly organiznl form of the township. It was prol«bly In a more ilefenslhle position : hail a ditdi and mouml instead of the imickset hedge or 'tun' from Kblcli tbe town- ship took Its name ; and as the • tun ' originally waa the fenced humesti'sd of the tiiltivator. tlie burh waa the fortlHed bonne and courl-vani of the mighty man — the king, tlie magistrate, or tlie noble."— W. Stiihha, Cntuit. Him. oi tSnf , th. B.— "I must freely confess that I do not kn<iw what dllTrrence. except a dtfferenre la ntnk. there !» in England bclwra-n a rity and a Nirough. ... A city doe* not seem to have sny righu or power* as a city which an aot rqiially siMnd by every other corporate town. Tbe oeir !■■ n BOROVOa eorpoimte toWM whkh hsre any ipedal power* •bove other. «re those which are coumfeaof tlieniael»e«i and all cities are not counties of thcmaeWea, while aome towns whicli ure not cities are. The citir in En«hmd U not so easily deHned as the city in the United Sutea. There eveiy corpont« town is a dty. This makes a »rmt many cities, and it leada to an use of the word citv In common tallc which seems a little atranmi In British ears. In England, even in speaking of a real city, the wonfclty U seldom used, except In language a litUe formal or rhetorical: In America It U used whenever a city is mentioned. But the American rule has I I.*?"'?** °{ •*'"« perfectly cliarana avoid- ing all doubt And It agrees very well with the Origin of the word: a corporate town is a civltaa, a commonwealth; any lesser collection or men hardir U a commonwealth, or b such only in a much leas perfect degree. This brings us to the hUtoricsl use of tiie word. It Is cl<ar at *Urtlng that the word is not English. It haa no Old-English equivalent; burh, burgh hMwugh in Its various spellings and variSui shadea of meaning. Is our native word for urbes of every kind from Rome downwanl It Is curious that this word should In ordinary speech have been so largely displaced by the vaguer word tun, town, which means an enclos- ure of any kind, and in some English dialecU ia still applied to a single bouse and iu surround- ings. . . . In common uik we use the word borough hardly ofteuer than the word city; when the word U used, it has commonly some direct reference to the pHrtlanuntary or municipBl charactera of the town. Miiny people, I suspect, would define a borough as a town which sends members to Parliament, and such a definition, though still not arc urate, has. by lato changes been bought nean-r to accuracy than It used to be. City and Ummgh, then, are both rathtr for- mal wonls; town is the word which comes most naturally to the lips when there is no special reason for ustag one of the others. Of Uic two •ormsl words, borough Is English; city is Latin It comes to us from (}»ul and Italy by aome road or other. It U in Domes-lay that we find bv no means l.s first use In England, but lu first clesriv formal use, the firet use of it to dls- Ungulah a eeruin class of towns, to mark tiiose towns which are 'civltatcs' as well as burgi from those which are burgi only. Now ia -'"'.K""J;i*"*i .'° '""^ '♦■"""> language WMthe tribe and its territory, Uie whole Inn,l of mo ArvemI, Parisll. or any other tribe. In a secondary sense It meant the hcati town of the JH ; i.- y»^hen Christianity was esubli-ihf.i, eiuat of the bishops diocese; Oie civlias' to Iho narrower «nso bwmme the ImnuHliate •eat of Us bishupstool. Th..» we amnot say that in Oaul a town Ucamc a cKv bH.-ause It was a bUhop'a see; but we may mv thai a ceruin clans of towns became hlJi.,!,,' sevs because they were alrvadv cities. Bui in ni'xi.m french use no dUlfnction U mA<le l«rween these ancient oapiuls which b.Hamo hi.hopricaand oUicr towns of leas temporal ami hill "S^ ^'' ■ "^ "" "' ">• bt^opric. the lM-a.1 of the .iiclent Drovtaos, the hMM] of Um m,iil.«^d«p-rtm-at. ifi= tnm\u>f sr-wa which has m-vir rissD to any of those dlnitlaa. an >ll •iilurllW. loro-s-'w-uirW-IitairwlJ! BOSPHORUa 808 dbtlngulshed from meaner places. The woM cite is common enough, but it haa a purely I,kS meaning It often llstingulshea Uie old pa?? a town the ancient Vivrtas,- from later addN tlona. In Italy on the oUjerhand. citU isC U>8 familUr and Uie formal name for town, grat and malL It is used ^ust like ville " fv^:.~^J- Freeman, fti, and Bo^h (Jfumtttsn'i Mag., May, 1889). ^' j,,|^ROUCH-6ncLISH. SeePiuDALTra- mB."m",SS^."'.?®5l.,"**"« ot-Pought March 1«. 1W8, In the civil war which arose la England during the reign of Edward II. m sc^ count of the fing-s favorites, the IMspenw^ Thomas, Eari of Uncaster, the leader of oppW- 'i^^^^'^- '^^"^' ""»°-Hix £?*:« BOROUGHS, Rotten and Pocket Sm BORROM«AM. OR GOLDEN LEAGUE. The. See Switxbrlahd: A. D. 167»-168() the Greeks gave anciently to the river now ^° - ^0 Dnieper, 'it ,1,0 became th' name of a town near Uie mouth of Oie river which was originally called 01bla,-a very earl. tiling settlement of the Mllesl^ ' ' BOSCOBEL.Th. Royal Oak of: See Scar. "ND: A. D. 1651. D«!ocoT- 8TA?at*"^ ^ °*'''^ *"" DA.^rBU!, BOSPHORUS, OR BOSPORUS, The- straiu from Europe Into Asia. They gave the name particularly to that channel, oS wh"h C.mstantlnople lies but applied it al«« to other ^ "f ' •'.r'"2' '"'^.'' " ""' Cimmerian Bosporus opening the Sea of Aiov. '^ ^ The city and kinrdom.— " nesnectlni; Bm. fTL^ ^r""^'^' 'f™ "oth nS doIZ )^.„^. city, though Uie former luinie often comprehends be whole snnci»l domlni.m) It SJu K'™™«'^»'',B*»P"rus (near K.risch) wo first hear, about the period when Xtnn waa repulsed from Greece (4«(M79 B C » 'i was the centre of a domlni.m inclu.ling Pham- on Uie AsUtic side of the strait; and it in ui,| u. hnve been governed by what aeems to have beta iiu oligarchy— called the Archmin«ktl,l,i_f„r f,.i1y-two voari(4»(M88 B, C ) After ll„m we have a series of princes standing out Imlivi,!,,- ally by "aire and succeeditv each other In tl„ same family. [488-384 B. cf. . . . During tl,e relps of tbaeo princea. a connexion ..f mnw Intimacy subsisted between Ath-niami U,».|»,ri.,; a oonnesloo not political, since the I».«|H.r«in,> prinoea bad little Intoreat in Uie conlentlmn «l«)ut Hellenic hegerajwy _ but of private lnt<p.vur*., commercial eichangeand redprucal g(K»l i.tflee<. The eastern comer of the Tauric (^herwHi.«u.i. between Pantikapcum and Theodosia. ww well suited fof the production of com; while iiieiuy I*!: ^i" ^" •• •«»". "«• to he ha<l In or nei the Palus Mootia Com. salted fish »i..l .n.>sl, Wde* and barbaric slaves In oonshleral.le num oral, w«r« iu demaaii among all (Jreeks niuiul SLwT**?' •««» "Ot lea* at Athens, where MqrtWaa alavsa wen nunerous; while oil and B08FH0RU& BOSTON, 188t. trine, and other products of more ioutheni re^loni, were uceptable in Bosporus and the ntlier Pontic ports. Tliis important traffic Menu to have been mainly carried on In ships sod by capital belonging to Athens and other Mgaia maritime towns, and must have been gmitly under the protection and regulation of ibe Athenians, so long as their maritime empire subaUteil. EoterprisGig citizens of Athens went to Bosporus (as to Thmce and the Thraclsn Chemonesus), to push i "Ir fortunes. . . . We have no means of following [the fortunes of tlie Doaponiaic princes] in detail ; but we know that, almut a century B. C. , the then reigning prince, I'arisades IV. found himself so pre««l and squeezed by the Ucytliians, that he was forced (like Olbia and the Pentapolis) to forego his independence, and to call in, as auxiliary or master, the formidable Mithridates Eupntor of I'ontus ; from whom a new dynasty of Bospor- anic kings began— subject, however, after no long Interval, to the dominion and Interference ot Rome."— O. Orote, Ilut. of Oittee, ft. 8, th.m. Also ir: T. Hommsen, IIM. of Rome, bk. 8, th. 7.— SeeMrTHRiOATic Wabs, and Romb: & C. 47-W. Acqnisition by th« Goths. Bee Qoths, Ac- qonunoH or Bospborus. A. D. 565-574.- Captor* by tba Tarkc— " During the reign of Justin [A. D. 56.V-574] the dty of Bosporus, In Tauris, liad been cnpturecl by the Turks, who then <ir< iipird a considerable portion of the Tauric C'liersnnesus. The city of ('hemon alone continued to maintain its inde- pendence in the northern regi>^ns of the Block f'ea."— 0. PlnlaVi Oneu under tht liomaiu, eh. 4, itct. 8. — See Tinuts: Sixth Csirri'BY. BOSSISM.— The ' ' S polls Svstem " In Amerl- ran politics [see Spoils System] developed enor- mously the influence and power of oertam leaden »n<l niB.. ^n of party organlistions, in the ^■nal cliirs and some of the states, who acquired the niimcsof " Bosses," while tlie system of poli- tics wlilcli they represented was called "Boss- Urn." The notorious William M. Twee<l, of the New York "Tammany Ring" [see Nkw York: .\. n. 180ii-t8i 1] terms to lisve been the flrst of theH|M'ries to be dubbed "Boss Tweed "by his " het'lors." or followers, and tlie title passed from bini to othcr<i of like kind. BOSTON : A. D. 16*8-1630.— Th* feaad- Ing and aaminr of tha city. Hcc llAStACav- ^KTTl^ A. U. 16!»-I62(*. and l«80. A. D. i43i-i65i.-Th« Paritan Tbaecrae*. AeeMASSAravsiCTTS: A. O. 1881-1686, to 1646- IH'il. A. D. 1635.— Ponndlnc th* Latin School. 8ee ElltTATION, MoDKHM : Amrrica. A. O. 1656-1661,- Tho porsocation of Qna- ksrs. See Mass ACBtWRrrs : A. D. I6M-1A1. A. D. 1657-1669.— Tho HalfiraT CovoMuit aad the foundiac "' **>• Old South Chnrch.— " In MnsMihiisittji after 16.VI thi<j|il;iiim rapidly gxini'd gn>uo<l Uiat all baptlani perMiiia of up- riithl anil dtroniun lives ought to lie innRldered, fur pniiiiral purposes, as mrmbers of the cl.urch, »ikI llicn'fore entitled to the exerriiie of pollllral riKhla, even tliough unqnalifled for pnrtlclpatluo iu ihc I.ord's {(iipiirr. This liieury of churrb- ini'nihcrslilp, bosefl on what wss at that Uma itijiinatlsed u tbv Halfway Covenant, aroutsd Intense opposition. It was the great question of the day. In 1657 a council was held in Boston, which nppmved the principle of the Halfway Covenant; and as this decision was far from satiaf viiig the churches, a synod of all the clergy- men in Massachusetts was held Are years Uter, u> a-coDsider tlie great question, llie decision of tlie synod substiiutlally confirmed the decision of the council, but there were some dissenting voices. Foremost among the dissenters, who wished to retain the old theocratic regime In all Its strictness, was Charles Chaunccy, the presi- dent of Harvard College, and Increase Mather ngn'ed with him at the time, though be after, ward saw reason to cliange his opinion and pub- lished two tracts in favour of the Halfway Cov. cnant. Host bitter of all toward the new theory nf cburch-memberahip was, naturally enough, Mr. Davenport of New Haven. This buming question was the source of angry contentions In the Pint Church of Boston. Its teacher, the learned and melancholy Norton, died in 1668, and four yean later the aged pastor, John Wil- son, followed him. In choosing a successor to Wilson the church decided to declare Itself inop- poattion to the liberal decision of the synod, and in token thereof Invited Davenport to rome from New Haven to take charge of it. Davenport, who was then seventy yeara old. was disgusted at tlie recent annexation of his colony to Connec- ticut. He accepted the Invitation and cnme to Boston, against the wishes of nearly half of the Boston congregation, who did not like the illib- oril principle which he represented. In little more than a year his ministry at Boston waa ended by death; but the opitosition to his call had alreailr pro ile<i so far that a secession from the old church had become inevitable. In 1889 the a<l vacates of the Halfway Covenant or- gauizeil themselves into a new society under the title of tlie • Third Church in B<iston.' A wooilen meeting-house was built on a lot which had on< a liclonged to tlie late governor WInthmp, in what was then the south part of the town, so that tha society and its m(>eting-liouse became known aa the South Church; and after a new church founded in Summer Sln-et in 1717 took the name of till' \cw South, the church of 1869 came to lie fiirilier diitlnguislied a» the Old S<mth. Aa this eliunli represented a liberal idea which waa growing in favour with the people, it soon be- came the most douriahing church in America. After sixty vears its numticrs had increased so that the old mi-elingliiiuw could not contain them; and in 1<;!9 the famous building which still stands was erected on 'ho same sp<it, — a building with a gramirr history than anV other on the American cimtlnent, unless It be that other plain brick building in Philadelphia where the Declaration of Independence waa adopted and the Federal Co..stitutlon framed."— J. Flake, Th* BiginniHf »/ AVw fiu.. eh. 8. Amow: H. M. Dexter, Thi Omfrrtgalionalitm <^th*lail 900 gean. het. 9.— B. B. Wisn'-r, lti,t. vf Ou Old Smth Chvrrh. wn»n« 1.— W. Emer- son, UiH. Hheteh eflht F\nt Ch. in liiiton. itct. 4-7. A. O. l674-i67t.-KiaK Pbllio'i War. See Nbw Ekolaxd: a. D. 1874-167.'): KIT'i, 1«T6- 1678. A. D. i6<9.— Tbe rieiac for William and Maiy Md tbe downlall of Andrea. Sci' .VI asoa- cmornm. A D. I8M-16(M. 109 ::;■ i> BOSTON, ie»T. tj^ ?• ''97:;-Thrwitene«l attack by tht A. O. i704._Th« fifst newipaper. See pRlwriNo, 4c. : A. U. 1704-1729 ' Hall. 8ee Panbdil Hall. A. D. 1761.— Th« qnattioa of the Writs of auistaoce aad W. Otia'a tiSech^ s^ MAMACHPBBTre: A. D. 1761 "»««»• oee Non-importation amementa. »«« UirrrED Btatim ok Am. : a. tt 17W-1767 / n ^ LiBBRTT Trek. . Jr ?• y?*— Tht acisure of the sloop " Lib- *■'*'• -«'oto»» patriotiim.— ■' For some veani ^Htn?':^?, '"' the custom.) had bJnTcTuffln making neizures of uncustomed goods, which n^™^ I •"""?• ""* ">* <Jcterml£i»ti^of the rommiMloDcni of customs to brealt up thU prsc- lice freouently l«l toeolltalons; but no flaSunt outbreal occurred until the seizure of 5X with a csrjfo of Madeirs wine. The offlcer in In the cabin the greater part of the cargo w^ rpmoTed, and the remainder entered at the cus- tom-house as the whole cargo. ThS led to »?z ure of the ve«el, „M to h.%e been IhelreTZie bv the commissioners, and for security she Was placed under the guns of the ' Romncy, ' . ma" of^ar In the harbor. For this the re^nueTfS- cere were roughly handled by the mob. Thdr i^v I^fhli;""'; ""•".'!""«'• threatened. aSd they with their Blarme.1 families, took refuge on Iioani the ' IV,mney, ' and llnally in the cSle These prooe«llng, undoubtedly led to the «nX i-.< adJitionsI milit.,rj' force, to Boston In ^p I ' • time, but no effectual nroc-twUngs were Uken •..■.ln»t the rioters. Pubfic sympathy wm with -M. rhsmberlafn. Tht limMion Immmiina . *• "• "TM.— The quartering of British f« h^l . '" '*"r"'"; "M" "■«'"»<•'"» from Httll fax lia<l iK^n onienil thither. When news of thst not arriv,,!, two .ddlti.mal reglminu were orter,.d fn.m Inlnnd. The srrival of an „ffl^7 sent by Ouije fn.m New York, to nnTvide quarters for these trrwps, oc-caslone-l i town -ne-tlng in !!.«,.,„, by w'Sch iSTgorern' r ws° req<,™t«l to summon a new General ( "ourt which he p..mmptorily n.f..«,i to d,.. The m*?h g then rrcmmind.-l » amvenllon of delem,u5 /„»".'" ;'">■■•• '"'■'•"«•' luence of prevail- Ing s|.preh,.„,io„H of a war with Franco '--such was tif pr- teiKc -they s,W|mhI all p,.non« n. t . re«.ly provided with 'rtrr-arm, u, pn'^-^ Jhem St once , ,h,y a «, ..ppolnu-l a dnv of fa, ?„, .nd praver. to U- „l.«.rvr,l by all the CongrpJtl.ma r.*t^,..>','''T ',""" """^ «»"» l?2nd^ iZ, -w "'■" '^ ''"«l.v at Iho day appointed 1^1 %''{"": V''"""K. «l»«ker\,f iW 1^ .10 uic. a. tiM-lr chairman. and p.tltlon,Kl Bernanl tosummon a .Jen.ml Court. Vhe gnvernTSo BOSTON, 1788. eautloui and mc'-'^te. All nretmainn. . poUdcal authority were ex^fy^dSci" In tlw couias of a four days' i««iion aS™ , , i^nfr££!l.'*r*u^ ""1 « letter to "t, toTf.^ ^"^^ of which the chief buniea wm to defend the prorhioe against the charge of ^ rebellious spirit Such was toe flrsroftl^L* n^^ru^ts-'fjss.'iji^rtTtt 3^rt^ '5 ""' '"""^ The council werSS tJie quartering Act. as they a legeil till ii„ barracks were ?ull there wui L necl^ y " nro: bir^T.'^ZJlif'""'"- ^7»"1 '■"Ute/tl.it'^ire conridered as already full. The ^uncH^repM that. eTen allowing that to be the case bylh; J«™» »' the act, the provUion ^qu7rte« bel«ged not to then-, but to the locsl^™^^ iratea There was a large building hi Bostnn bdong^ng to the provinceflnown as*the '& poor !amlllea Bemaid pressed'the cimneU to jdTlse that this bu'ldlng lie cleared and nrt^DaJrt reft.^'^K"'"' °' '"e^r^jpsThSt they utw^ ™ h^^- The governor then undertook to do it ?.nHii '^"..'""^•"^•y-- The troops ha.1 aliwMll landed, under cover of the ship, of war loihl Peared to demand an entrance Into the Manii. only Refused u. nnlve tlieir 'iH-tUiiln but iIa- "iti charff. the proceeding wore eiceediagly 310 which liad no tents, the temporary use of R. L i th«Tr: "'•"•»*nt'y/l«l«le>l; t^ the res. ..f h except the council chamlx-r. was thrown .,,,..„ by the governors order It was Sunday, th" Town OouM was directly opposite the nieetin« In" W ; ^.^'"'Chureli; "LUnon wen' Kl stnlu ,h. 1 ^ M.""™''* ""•"= "tatl,,,,,,! in the streets; the Inhabltanu were challenged amh.v PMsed. The devout were greatly ncKrivm,,! tnarehing of the troops. iWntly Oa«,. .Hme to Boston to urge the provUlon of ,,,,.,rl.r. The council dlrecte.1 blsatunllon to tlie 'i.r.n, ,.t the act. and referred him to the wlreim. n .v, the act spoke only of justice, of the ihs.,. il,,' jelectnu^n decline,! to' take any s.e « ii' {i: matter Bernard then r..nstltute.f*i,Ht he ,„11«| M,i^~ °l ; !?1!"'*'^1 ?"'' f'-i"''*! them t,. linl fl„L '■"if"',""'*'''"'*' «'"l'"rity. Oage waH outof his own mlllury chest the firing. l«-.|.|in.- and o her arUce. menll,m«t In the ^iiartorl. .• Act the .»uncll having declined toonltr anv . x pendlture for those purnosi,. un the «r-M,iHl that the appmpriaUon of money hlonit^i . » clu^vHy to the General Court.'_R llWreti, r 1 S- •*• •'"thlneham. Uf: .,sif n=i^ f .rrtf ?'■"*."■..'•* 8_-T. Hut^hlna(,D, Hit* »/ 1*« AwNass^ Mrtm. ibjt, I7«-1774, pf. »(»-glT B08T0X, 17W. A. D. I7<9.— The pktrioU tbrMtenid and VimnU ipcakiaf out. See Uhitkd Statu or AM. : A. D. nro. A. D. 1770.— Soldiers ud citiseu in col> liiion.— The " MMMcre."~Remoral of the troopt.— "As Uie spring of the year 1770 «p- pmiwl, the 14th and 20th regiment* had l^en m boston about seventeen months. The 14th was in barracks near the Brattle Street Church ; the Stthwas quartered jus' -nuth of King Street; •bout midway between them, in King Street, ud close at hand to the town- liouse, was the main fcuard, whose nearness to the public build- ings bod been a subject of great annoyance to the people. . . . One is forced to admit . . . that a good degree of discipline was maintained; no blood had as yet been shed by the soldiers, although provocation* were constant, the rude element in the town growing gradually more ag- gressive as the soldiers were never allowed to use their arms. InaulM and blow* with flste were frequently taken and given, and cudgels also came into fashion in the brawls. Whatever awe the regiment* had inspired at their flrst coming bad long worn off. In particular the workmen of the rope- walks and ship-yards allowed their tongues the largest license and were foremost in the en- countv'rs. About the 1st of March fights of un- usual bitterness had occurred near Orey's rope- vslis, not far from the quarters of the 89th, between the hands of the rope-walk and soldiers ot that regiment, which had a particularly bad reputidi .1. The soldiers bad got the worst of it, and »i-."j much irriuted. Threats of revenge bail been made, which liwl called out arrogant replii'8. and signs abounded that serious trouble was n<it far off. Prom an early hour on the evening of the Sth of March the symptoms were very ominous. ... At length an altercation be- ran in King Street between a company of lawless boys and a few older brawlers on the one side, kA the npntlnel, who paced his beat before tlie cu«ti>mhou«e, on the other. . . . The soldier re- treatnl up the step* of the custom-house and callr<l out for help. A Die of soldiers was at once df«p«trhc<l fn>m the main guard, across the street, byC'aptain l'rest<in,oincer of the guard, whohim- «elf ftxm followed to the scene of trouble. A coat- in? of ice covered the ground, upon which shortly before bad fallen a light snow. A young moon wanfihining; the whole transaction, therefore, was plainly visible. The soldietn, with the ««ntinel, nine in number, drew up in line Ijcfore the people, who gnally outnumbered them. The pieces were IhbiIhI and hi Id reaiiy, but the mob, bellcv- inu tliat the tMops would not use tbeir ar-ns ex- cept ujion n'i|iilsition of a civil magistrate, (houted ooarse insulu, pressed upon the very muiilcs of the pieces, struck them with sticks, «nd BMHultcti the MiUliers with balls of Ice. In the tumult preclaely what was said and done lannot Im known Many affldaviu were taken In the Investigation that followed, ami, as always •I tuib times, tlie testimony was most contredic- i«>ty. Henry Knox, aflerwards the artillery ten,m\. at this time a b<x)kseller, was on the »pot and uaeil his liifliienoe with Preston to pre- vent a <^>inmand to flre. Preston dwiarwl that he nevHr Kive the command. The air, however, Wh« full of «hnuta. darin- the «oli!'er« u> Are •"me of wiiich may have been easily unlrrsUwd u > 'inmanilii. and at laM the diwbarfe came. If tt lud taiM 10 Goaa, iodoMl, ttM (urbMiMM BOSTON, 1770. wonM have been quite miraculmia. Three were killed outright, and eight wtw wounded, only one of whom, Crispus Attucks, a tall mulatto -.ho farod the soldiers, leaning on a stick of coid- WO.HI, bad really laken any part in the dia- turbance. The test were bystander* or were hurrying 'nto the street, not knowing the cause of Uie tumult. ... A wild confusion . . . took possewion of the town. The aUrm-bells rang frantically ; on the other hand the drums of the regimenu thundered to arms. . . . WiuU averted a fearful battle in the streeU was the excellent conduct of Hutchin*on"— the lieutenant-governor who made his way promptly to the scene, caused the troop* to be lent back to their barrack* ordered the arrest of Cuptain Preston and the nine aoldlers who had done the firing, and began an investigation of the affair the same night The next day a great town meeting was held, and, as crowds from the surrounding towns pressed in It was adjourned from Faueuil Hall to the Old South Church, and overflowed in the neighboring streets. A formal demand for tlie removal of the troops was sent to the governor and council by a committee which had Samuel Adams at its head Governor Hutchinson disclaimed authority over the troops; but their commanding olBcer, Colonel Dalrymple, proposed to compromise by sending away the 89th regiment and retaining the 14th. As the committee returned to the meethig with this proposal, through the crowd, Adams dropped right and left tlie words, "Both regimenu or none."— "Both regimenu or none." So he put into the mouths of the people their reply, which they shouted as tvith one voice when the report of the committee was made to them. There was a determination in the cry which ovenume even •he obstinacy of Oo'emor Hutchinson, and the departure of both regimenu waa ordered tlut same day . " In EngUod the affair was regarde<l as a • successful bully ' of the whole power of the government by the little town, and when Lord North received details of these evenU he always referred to the Uthand 29th as the ' Sam Adams regiment*. ' "—J. K. Hosmer, Samuel ArliW. eh. 11. Also in: K. Frothingham, Lift and Timei nj JompK Warrtn. eh. «.— The same, Th* Sam AdaiHt RrgimenU {AlUntie .VxiUAiy, r. 9, 10, ami 18; ltWM3j.— J. Q. Adams, Life of John Adamt eh. 8 (». 1).— T. Hutchinson, Ifint. of (he Proriaet »/-"<««•. Ilfiv, 1749-1774, pp. 270-3SO.— H. Mies. Prineiplf and AeU of thr Reruliition (CkiUniniat tdition),pp. 15-79.— F. Keddcr, lliit. of ih* Burton Matnert. A. D. 1770,- The fair trial of the soldiers.— " The episode [of the affray of March Sth) had ... a sequel which is exlremrly cnxliublo to the American people. It was determined Ui try the soldier* for their lives, and public feeling ran so fiercely against them that It seemed as If their fate was sealed. Tlic trial, however, was delaye<l for seven months, till tlie excitement had In »ome degree subsided. CapMin Prestnn very judiciously appealed t.) John Adams, who wa* mpldly rising to the llrst pUce both among the lawyers and the popular patrioU of litMton. to umleruke his defeni-e. Adams knew well how much lie wa* risking by espousing so un- r«>p«I»r a r-suse. Inil ho kacw aiio his pro- fesaloniil duty, ami, though violently oppoaed tt the British government, he was in eminently honest, brave, and hlUMM maa. jt WIUUB9 ail Ji Pll BO8T0X, 1770. Uon with JcMUh Qulncy, a young lawyer who wu aim of tlie patriotic party, he undertook the inridious taak, and he diicharged it with con- summate ability. . . . There was ahumlnnt evidence that the soldiera had endumi gnws provocation and some violence. If tlie trial liad been the prosecution of a smuggler jr a setlitJDiis writer, tlie Jury would probably have deciiletl agaiost evidence, but they had no disposition to she<i innocent blood. Judges, counsel, and Jurymen acted bravely and honourably. All the soldiers were acquitted, except two, wlio were found guilty of mansUughter, and who escaped with very slight punishment. It is very rcmarkabl'i that after Adams had accepted the task of di lending the incriminated soldiers, he was el('cte<l by the people of Boston aa their representative in the Assembly, and the public opinion of the province appears to have fully acquiesced in the verdict. In truth, although no pvople have indulged more largely than the Americans in violent, reckless, and unscrupulous language, no people have at every period of Ibc'ir history been more signally free from the thirst for blood, which in moments of great political excitement has been often shown Doth In England and Prance.'— W. E. H. Lecky, lliil. »/ Eng. in th» 18<A Centnry. th. 12 (». 8). Almoin: J. Adams, AvtMngraphy (Woria, ». 2, ;>. 280).— Lord Mahon (SiW Stanhope), Hit. of Eng.. 1713-1788, e. 8, a 260. A. D 1773.— The Tea Party. — •' News rraolied Boston in the spring of this year [1778] tliiit the East India Company, which was em- Inrmmeil by tlie accumulation of tea in England, owing to the refusal of the Americans to bi:y it, had iiidua-d pitriiament to permit iuexpnrtation to Aiiiprica without the pityment of the usual duiv [sec United States or Am: A. D. 1772- 1773]. This was intended to bribe the colonisU to buy ; for there had bt-i'n a fluty Ixith in Eng- land /ind in America. Tiiat in Eiiglancl was six pence a p<mnd, tliat in Amcrioi three pence. Shins were laden and sent to Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Chiiricston, and they were now expected to arrive in a short time. ... On the 2«th of November, 1773, whl<li wasSiiniliiv, the (Init ten-ship (the ' IMrtm.Hiih') eiiU-mi the harlKir [of Boston!. The f.)llowlna; miirniiig tlie rllizens were iniormcd by plaeanl tlmt tlio • worst of plagues, the detested tea,' had arlually arrivetl, and that a meeting was to lie hchl at nine in the morning, at Faneuil Hall, for the pirposc of making 'a united and suecesHfui nuiatanre to this last, worst, and most deslruc- live measure of administration.' The Cradle of Mlwrty WHS not large enough to conuin the •Mwd that was calleil Uigellicr. Aiiiims rose nnd made a stirring motion expressing deter tiilnalion that the lea slioiild not be liimTed. and it was unanimously agni'.l to. The mtH'ting then adJoumc»l to the Old South meeting house, wliere the motion was repeated, ami again aiiopted without an opposing voice. Tlio owner of tlie sliiii protested in vain tlutt the pmriwl- ings were Illegal; a watch of twentyBve persons was set, to see that the intenti'Hi:! of llie citiscns *vn- not pvaiU-d, and the meeting ailjoumt'.l to the following morning. The thnmg iit ilmt time was as gn«t as usual, and whih; the A, liU-r atlolM were gi.ing on, a nwange was received from the governor, tliroiigb the sheriff, ordering ' —i to CUM) their ttruveuaiogs. It wm voM 8 BOSTON, 1778. not to follow the adTioe, and the sheriff was hissed and obliged to retreat disoomflted It was formally resolved that any person importing tea from Enghud should be deemed an eueniv to his country, and It was decUred tiiiit at the risk of tlieir lives and properties the landiuc of the tea should be prevented, and its nium effected. It was necessary that some posiiive action should bo taken in regard to tlie ten within twenty days from ita arrival, or the col leetor of customs would confiscate ships and cargiws The twenty days would expire on the ietli of December. On the fourieenth a crowded meet- ing was held at the Old South, and the importer was enjoined to apply for a clesranre to allow his vessel to return with its cargo. He applied but the collector rcfuscil to give an answer until the following day. The meeting therefore adjourned to tlie 10th, the last day before oontis cation would be l^gal, and before the tea wouM be placetl under protection of tlie shins of war in the liarbor. There was another eirlv morning meeting, and 7,000 peopli^ tliron'e!! about the meeting-house, all filled with n nenae of the fact that something notable was to o,Tur Tlie importer appeared and reported that the collector refused a clearance. He was tlun directed to ask the governor for a paiw to enahic him to sail by the Castle. Ilutcliinwm h ul retreated to his mansion at Hilton, and it would take some time to make tlie demand The importer started out in the cold of a New Eni- land winter, apologlxed to his Excellency foi his visit, but assured him that it was involuntary He received a reply that no pass could \k given him. , . . It was six o'clock before the importer returned, and a few candles were brought In to relieve the fast-increasing darkness. He n>port«i tlie governor's reply, and Samuel Adams moe and cxcUimed: 'This meeting can do nothing more to save the coiintrv I' In an instant there waa a shout on the porch; there wasawar-whoop in response, and forty or fifty of tlie men (liasuised as Indians rushed out of the doom, down Milk Street towards QrifBn's (nfterwanls Liverpool) Wlmrf, where the vessels lay, Tlie mectiiiit was decUred dissolved, and tlie throng followed their leaders, forming a determined giiunl about the wharf. The 'Mohawks' entemi the vrasil; tliere was tugging at the ropes; tlien- was Imak ing of light boxes ; there was pouring of pniious tea into the waten of tlie harbor. For two or throe hours the work went on, and three hun- dred and fortv-two chests were emnti. j. Then. under the light of the moon, the Indians mnrrlipii to the sound of flfe and dmm to their liomes, and the vast throng meltctl away, until not s nuin remained to tellof the decil. The committee of oorreapoodcnce held a meeting next clay, and Samuel Adams and four others wero sppolntiii to prepare an account of the affair to N^ ixotol to other plaoea. I'liui Revere, who in aald 10 have been one of the ' Mohawks,' was aeMiexpres* to Phlhuk-lphia with the ww«, whuh waj received at tliat place cm the •ifltli. It wm Bnnounce<l by ringing of lielUi. awl tin re wu every sign of toy. . . . TIh' eoulinent ww uiii vcrsally stirred at !•«. "—A. Ulliiiau, TA. .V./» ^f Baton, e/t.m. Al*o I." : E. Q. Phrter, Tke Re.Tinr.ir--: ,-.! .'>..• hntitUitn (iltmuriiU Hit. <tf Ontim. r. ;l r/i li — B. J. I/Ming. M<A( riM* nftitt /£ nVxfi "I n I «». «1.-T. UutchiMou, Uit. u/ Uk I'/whoi ■■/ t BOSTON. ITJt. BOSTON, 1774. Mam. Bay. 174»-in4, pp. 4aM40.— S«rac, Diary and Letten, p. 188.— <}. Baacroft, llUt. of l/u U. S. (Autht>rf$laitrmm<m), v. 8,eA. 84.— .J. Kim- hall, The 10(MA AntUvtrmry of tht Dtntraetion of Tea {Euex Intl. Iliit. GM., c. 13, no. 3). A. D. 1774.— The Port Bill and th< Mmm- chuietts Act— Commtrce interdicted.— Town Meeting* forbidden. See United Btatiw or Am. : A. D. 1774 (Marcu— ApniL). A. D. 1774.— The enforcement of the Port Bill and its eflecta.— Military occnpation of the city by General Care.— "The exeoutiim of thii measure [the Port Bill] devolved on Tbomas Oage, who arrived at Boston May 13, 1774, as Captain General and Oovemor of Masaacbusetts. He was not a stranger In the colonies. He had ex- hibited gallantry In Br.uldock's defeat. ... He had married In one of the most respectable fami- lies in New York, and hail partaken of the boa- pitalltiea of tbe people of Boston. His manners were pleasing. Hence he entered upon his pub- lic duties with a large measure of popularity. But be took a narrow view of men and things about him. . . . Oeneral Oage, on the 17tb of May. landed at the Long Wharf and was received with much parade. . . . On the first day of Juno the act went into effect It met with no opposi- tion from the people, and hence, there was no difHrulty in carrying It Into rlf^orous execution. 'I hear from many,' the governor writt-s, 'that tlieacthasstaggeroithcmcHi presumptuous: the violent party men seem to break, luwl people to fall off from them.' Hence he looked for sub- mi&siiin ; but Boston asked assistance from other ciil(inio3, and the General Court requested him to appoint a day of fasting and prayer. The h)yBl- iKts felt uncassy nt the absence of the array. . . . Ilonrf a respectable force was soon concentrated la IloHton. On the 4th of June, the 4th or king's own rcfe'iment, anil on the 15th the 43d regiment, lanilwl at the Long Wharf ar ' encamped on the common." The ."Sth and 3? 1 -egimenta arrived m\ the 4th and 5tli of Jul} , .ho PIHb regiment was lamlnl at 8alein August 6. and additional troops were ordereil from New York, the Jerseys anil Quclwc. "The B<>.non Port Bill went Into 'ipcration amid the tolling of bells, fasting and pniyiT. ... It liore severely upon two towns, Boston and Clmrlestown, which hiul been long (-onncctrd hyacommon patriotism. Their laborers woro thrown out of employment, their poor Wire deprived of bread, anci gloom pervaded their streets. But they were cheered and siisialncil by the large contributions sent from evi TV quarter for tholr relief, and by the noble woriis that accompanied them. . . . The ex- cit<'ment of the piilillc mind was intense; and till' months of June, July, and August, were fliaractcrlMil by variol political activity. Mul- lituile* signed a solemn league and covenant agiiinst the use of British goods. Th» lireach lutwi-en the whigs and loyalists daily became wilier. Patriotic donations from every colony were on their wav to the suffering Uiwns. Bupplles for the British tnxips were refused. It wss while tlw public mind was i.i l»'l* state of exciteownt that other acU arrivecl wh^■h Oencml Oage was Instructed to carry into effect. " These were the acta which virtuallv annulleil liu! Mwmchuaetu ciiaru-r, which forbade town meetings, and which pmvltlod for the sending of aetiuHKl penoos 10 England nr to other colonies fur trial. " SbuuiJ MiMacbuMtU tubmlt to the new acts T Would the other colonics see, with- out increased alarm, the humiliation of Massa- chusetts T This was the turning point of the Kvvolutlon. It did not find the patriots unpre- pared. Thev had an organization beyond the reach alike of proclamations from tbe govemoia, or of circulars from the ministry. This was tbe Committees of Correspondence, chosen in most of the towns in legal town-meetings, or by the vari- ous colonial assemblies, and extending through- out the colonics. . . . The crisis called for all the wisdom of these committees. A renurkable circular from Boston addressed to the towns (July, 1774), dwelt upon tbe duty of opposiug the new laws: the towns, In their answers, were bold, spirited, and firm and echoed tho necessity of resistance. Norwasthlsall. The people promptly thwarted the first attempts to exercise authority under them. Such councillors as accepte<l thefr appointments were compelled to resign, or, to avoid compulsion, rvtiretlinto Boston. Oeneral Oage now began (In S:.'pterabcr) movements to secure the cannon and powder In tho neighbor- hood. Some 850 barrels of powder belonging to the province were stealthily removed by his orders from a magazhie at Cbarlestown and two field-pieces were carried away from Cambridge. " The report of this affair, spreading rapiilly, ex- cited great indignatioa The people collected in large numlwrs, and many were In favor of at- tempting to recapture the powder and cannon. Influential patriots, however,8uccee«lcd in turning their attention in another direction. . . . Mean- time the fact of the Kmoval of the powder be- came magnifietl into a report that the British bod riinnonodiHl Boston, when the bells rung, beacon- fires bhued on tbe hills, the nci);libor colonics were alarmed, and the rf)ads were filled with armed men hastening to the point of supposed danger. These demonstrations opened the eyes of the governor to the extent of the popular movement. . . . Oeneral Oaiire saw no hope of procuring oliedtenco but by the power of arms: and the patriot party saw no safety in anything short of miiilary preparation. Uesistance to the ants continued to l)c manifested lu every form. On the 9th of SepU'mln-r the memorable Suffolk resolves [drawn by Joseph Warren] wore adopted thy a convention of Suffolk county, which em- raced Boston] . . . and these were suc(x>ede<l by others In other couuties equally bold and Ylrited. These resolves were approved by the Continental Congress, tlien In session. Every- where thepeoplc either compelled the unconsti- tutional olncers to resign, or opposed every at- tempt to exercise authority, whether by the governor or constable. They also made every effort to transport ammunitiim and stores to place* of security. Cannon and musket* were carrieil secretly out of Boston. The guns were taken from an old battery at Cbariestown. where the navy yani is, . . . •ilently, at night . . . Oen eral Gage immeiliately began to fortify Boston Neck. This addeii inU-nsiiy to tho excitement. The inbabitanta berame alarmed Kt so ominous a movement : auvl, on the 5th of September, the selectmen waited on the geoeral, represented the public feeling, and rcquealed bim to explain his ohject Tb-» srovemor 8tsi!!d In reply tbal hU object was to protect hi* najesty's troops and hi* majesty's subjects; and that he hod no Inten- tion to stop up the avenue, or to obstruct the frte passage ovtr It, or to do anything heitUe SIS m i\ BOSTOX, 1T74. •gnlnst the InlmliltanU. He went on with the works nnil soon mounted on them two twenty- four noumlers ami eight nine pounders. ■ — R. frotlilngliam. //irt. of Uui IXtgi of Bottoa. dt 1 AlJM IM: TUe same. Ltfe nnd Timet of Jonepli rjj'"'^!^- "■ ",i^ "I!P- ' <fl»"'V tut of the Suf f'ik Awrf»)._w. if. Wells. Life of Samud Adam,., a pp. 164-233. -W. Tudor. Lift of J'unet Otit, eh. 27-20. ^ ■' 1 t: ^' '175 -The bcKinoinr of war.— Lex- ington.— Concord.-Bnnker Hill. See Uhited Btatrb of Am. : A. D. 1778 A. D. i775-i776.-Th« iieM.-ETacuBtlon of the city by the British. Sec Umtkd States CP AM. : A. D. 1.7,'>-17T6 A D. i87a.-The Crest Fire.-A fire which broke out Jfov. 9. 1872. swept orer 6.'. aires in the business heart of t he city. Loss «SO,UOO,0(IO. BOSTON UNIVERSITY. See En. ca- tion. MoDKRN: Amrrica: A. D 1789-lt<84 BOSWORTH, Battle of (A D. MSsT See England : A. I). 14«8-1485. ^^^7Jir ^*^- ^ ^-™--- A. D. BOTH WELL, Earl of. and Mary Stuart. Bee Scotland : A. D. l.WI-lSeS BOTHWELL BRIDGF, Battle of. See «,?.?J.°^"°°^''^''«- ^« Amkbican Abo- BiniNES: Trpi. BOUIDES, The. See MA^oMlCT^^ Cor- QUKST AND Emi'irk : A. P. 015-945 ; also Turks • A. D. 100|-1(I63: also. Samanidks " BOULANGER, General. Ti.e Intrigues ot See France: A. D. 187.'5-1889 SSHJ-I;.T.'l«- ^^ Areopaocs. BOULOGNE : Origin. See Gewjriacui.. A. D. 1801.— Bonaparte's preparations for the invasion of Eng:rand.-NelslMi's atUck. Ne Fka.nce; A. D. 1801-1802 i-S9H^°''/.^'"'« "^ See France: A. D. tu^h^^a"^"^'^ EXPEDITION. See Po.n BOURBON. The Constable: His treason and bis attack 00 Rome. See FRANrE' a i> n|A°V:«r ?, • ME°"h^ ^t-7 ""•• «« F„^m"ll^^°^' T"' "»"• of: It. oripn.- Fmin kiug Louis IX. (St. Louis). „f Fniiire r„»?"S /! ' ''"' ""''" '■''''■'• ""'«« >'e Vniw. Comte de Clermont, sprang the House of Hour- Beatrix, wife of this i)rinee. was en.cte,l Into a frhr''IIlL" """f."' Lo"l». I'U son, and gave to his iJesoemlants the name which they havt rc- tnlne. that of hVance lH.|ng reserved for the Uoyal branch. . The Huu*, which h,ul the honour of s.mplylnp »,,verelgns to our couutry -as.nlhM ■J.Vi.ice.'' But our kings. Jealous of tlrnl t-reat name, rt^rved It for tLelr own sons M^tftT M^iJ''''"? the designation ' fils ' an.l ■m. p '* Tj*"^ The posterity of each flls de France forme,! a clct branch which t<w.k Artols BourlHin Ac. At tbe time of the acces .Ion of Henry IV Uie name of Bourbon mit!!."" wiUi those younger bmnches of tJoii.le.uid .Mont- Knrier wh ,:h h»l spning from the main branch before the OutUi of ilenry Hi But Henry IV. s 814 BOCROES. children, those of Louis Xin., and those of tli.i. succe^wrs In the throne, were su™I^«l 1' Pr».K)e ; whibt in conformity with™Tavf to de«:en.UnU of LouU XUI. '. tcond «.n r^^d ' 1 the surname d" Orl«ans, from the UUe bon, • W their gmmlfaUicr. . . Posser-.rsof vast .rf tones which they [U.e BourL.,ns] owed m.' ,'"o fjimily alliances than to the gencii)slty of kinifs lev hml known how to win the affec.io, * f tlK'Ir vassals. Their magnlflcent hospitality ,lrow arumid t|„m a numerous and brilliint nobiliiy Thus the ■ hotel- of those breve and auirust L^w'^V^irl'V* ^""•'« Bourbon.' as ou school in which a young nobleman could lf„r„ the DTOfession of anna. Tlie order of t he In, ^tftuted by one of them, hiul been coveted „,i worn by tlic bravest warriors of France s" flclently powerful to ouuhine the rauk and flic of the notlllty. they had at the «,me time n" l, „ ii'I!P..*'Vi'^ ■"" "'« '""nense power wliicl, enablejTthe Dukes of Bourgogno. U Bretag ,? Md otiier great vassals, to be,5)ine the rival,"; the enenjlesof the royal authority." The ex ampte of the trr-<aon of the Constable Bourlxm by any of the princes of his House Tlip pmnerty of U,e Conndlable was deflnltelV aliin ated from hs House, and Vendflme [his brotlurl did not receive the hereditary posseilons of ilic Dukes d Alenyon, •/> which hU wife was eutltl«l He died on the 25th of March, 1538. leaving t a scanty i»triinony to his numerous descin.hmts. . . . JT,»c only of his sons obtained their uiaioritv Antoine [Due de Vendome and afterwards Kinc of Navan* Uirough hU marriage with Jeanne ,r Albret. see Navarre: A. D. A2S-15631. fatl.or or Henry IV.. who was the ancestor of all iIr. born 15J01, who was the r.K,t of the House „ Conde and all ito branches. " —Due d' Amiulc I'»it.ofthePri<M,aftUUouMofCondrhk. 1 el,' BO ^'^N : The Spanish House. S.e ^''i^J?.;^-^ '8I»-1700. Snd 1701-17"' BOURBON FAMILY COMPACTS. (A"orT^^°"«''"*«<«"-'"''^ word Bourg ongmally meant any aggregati.mof houses, fmm tfie greatest city^o tlies.n.-.ll.-st hamlet. But. . the wor,lshifte<l itsnuanir.ir. and came to signify an nssemblaffc of h„u„s jurrounded witE walls. Si.c»„,||y. ,|.e word Bourgeois also was at first use.1 us synonym.,,,, t th the Inhabiuiiit of a bourg. Afterw.ir.l when corporete fnuichises were bcstowe.1 on par tieular bourgs, tlio word acmiired a sense nlru' sponding wfth that of the English dcslgnalioa Burgess; that is a per»>n entitled to the privi leges of a municlpia corpomtion. Finally, tlic word Bourgeoisie, in lu primitive sense, wi, tlic description of the burgesses when spoken .if collectlvelv. But. in lU later use. the woni would be best rendered Into English by our term citizenship: that is. the privilege or fnncbise of bjng a »«'g«»-^'-Sir J. Sviphen.^wto.. //,,< „/ unUtnA ^.'^"i* •■ >«*"-l»TH Cksti. HOURCES, Origin of.— Thedty of Bourc. « I ranc»-, was originally Uie capital dty of uc Spe 1761 the BOUROES. Oallic tribe of the Btturigea, tod wai called Avuricuin. "As with many other Okuliah towus, the original name became exchanged for thut of the pei^ple, I. e., Biturigea, and thcoce the mixlcTn Bouriea niid the name of the province, Ikrri."— C. Mcrirale, JIM. of the Romaiu, eh. 13.— Stf. »l»o, JEdvi, and Oaiti.: B. C. 88-81. BOUVINES, Battle of (A. O. 1314).— The battle of Bou vines, fought at Bouvinea, In Flan- ilcrs. not far from Touruuy, on the 27th of August, A. D. 1214, was one of tlie ini|>ortnut battles of EurniK-au history. On one side were the French, Iwl by their king Philip Augustus, and fighting (isli'nsibly as the champions of the Pope and the cliiirch. On the other si<le was an allied army of Euglish, under king John, of Ocrmam under Otho, the Ouelf — one of two rival claimants of llie imperial crown — and of Flemings and liOtliaringUns, led by their several lords. Philip Aujfustua had expelled the English king from his Norman dukctlom and caused a court of the p<^rs of Franco to c 1 .-cUre the title forfeit. From that success his . ubltlon rose so high that be luul aspired to tlie conquest of the English crown. A terrible pope — Innocent III.— had approved his ambition and encouraged It; for John, the miserable Engllahkhig, hadglven pro- vocations to the church which had brought the thunders of the Vatican upon his head. Excom- municated, himself, his kingdom under Interdict, — thelatltr offered itself a tempting prey to the vigorous .French king, who poeed as the champion of the pope. Ho had prepared a strong army and a fleet for the invasion of England ; but fate and papal dii 'omacy had baffled his schemes. At the last moment, John had made a base submission, had meekly surrendered his kingdom to the lH)pc and had received it back as a papal fief Wlii'reuiwn the victorious pone commanded his Fri'uch champion to forego his intended attack. Philip, under these circunutauces, detcrnilneil to UBc tliearmy he had assembled against a trouble- tome and contumacious vassal, the count of Flanders. The iwpe approved, and Flanders was overrun. King John led an Englisli force across tli,^ channel to the help of the Flemish count, and Otho, the German king or emperor, who was king John's nephew, joined the coali- tion, to antagonize France and the iwpe. The Utile of Bou vines was the decisive contlict of the war. It humbled, for the time, the independent Bpiiit of Flanders, and several remoter conse- iiuciiccs can be traced to It It was "the first mil Flinch victory. It roused the national spirit lis noihiug else could have roused it; it was the niuions tli-st taste of glory, dear above all things t" ilie French heart. . . . The buttle somewhat inikc the higli apirit of the barons: the lesser l«ii.iii» iind cimrclics grouped themselves round ilic kiiii,'; the greater lonis came to feel tlieir wiamicss in the presence of royalty. Among 111- iniiilciital consequences of the day of U..11 vines Win the ruin of OUio's ambition. He nil! triMii the llcid into utter obscurity. He rvUn;\ u> tlic llartz mimnUlns, and there spent liii; rcMMiiiing jciirs of his life In private. King •iHliii, iiK), was utterly dlscrDdiU-d by his share In [he vcar.s campaign. To It may partly be traced Ins liunuliiitlon k'fore hlsbamna. and ihpslKnios I'! ilif Gmil CiiariiT in the following year at hiimymHc'-rj. W. Kitchin, /li.l. .^hanet. '*■ .t.r/. 7.*>p<.4.--TlieliBttleof Bouviueswaa not ilie vhiury of Philip Augustus alone, over a 315 BOV8 IN BLUE. coalition of foreign princes; the victory was the work of king and i>eople, barons, burgliers, and peasanu, of Tie de France, of Orleanness. of Picardy <,f Normandy, of Champagne, and of Burguiuly. . . . The victory of Bouvmes marked the commencement of the time at which men might speak, and Indeed did sneak, by one single name, of 'the French.' The nation in France and the kingship in France on tliat day rose out of and above the feudal system."— F P Guizot, J^pul<tr Hut. ^ France, eh. 18.— See! <^}»o. Italy: A. D, 1188-12S0, and Enolamd: A. D. 120,5-1313, and 1218. BOVATE, OR OXGANG.-" Originally as much as an ox -team couhl plough in a year Eight Bovatea are usually said to have made a Carucate, but tlie number of acres whicli made a novate are variously stated In ililTerent records from 8 to 84."— N. H. NIcohu, yotitia Uittoriea p. 134. BOVIANUM, Battle of (B. C. 88). See Kosfit: B. 0. 90-88. ' BOWDOIN COLLEGE. See EoucAxioif, HoDBiiN: Akeuica: A. D. 1794 BOWIDES, The. See MAnoMBTAH Cow- ^citT AND EsfpiBB : A. D. 818-848. BOYACA, Battle of (1819). See CoixMrniAW Btatbs: a. D. 1810-1819. BOYARS. — "In the old times, when Russia ' ,,"*'*'? » collection of Independent prin- cipalities, each reigning prince was surrounded by a group of armed men, composed partly of Boyars, or large landed proprietors, and partly of knights, or soldiers of fortune. Tliese men, who formed the Noblesse of the time, were to a cer- tain extent under the authority of the Prince but they were by no means mere obedient, silent executors of his will. The Boyars miglit refuse to take part in his military e.x|K'<liii(m8. . . Liider tlie TarUir domination this political equi- librium was destroyed. When the country Irnd been conquere<l, the princes became servile vas- sals of the Khan, and arbitrary rulers towards their own subjecta. The political sigiiirtcancc of the nobles was thereby gnally dliiiiuUne<l. '— U. M. Wallace, Ru—ia, eh. 17. BOYNE, Battle of the (1690). See Ireland: A. D. 1689-1691. BOYS IN BLUE.- BOYS IN GRAY.- Soldicr nicknames of the American Civil War. — " During the first year of the war [of the Keliel- llon, in the United States] the Union soliilcrs commonly called their oppom-nu 'Kcbs' awl •Sccesh"; In 1862, 'Confeds'; in 1803, ' Gray- backs ' and • Butternuts ' ; and in 1864, 'Johnnic-s ' The nickname 'Butternuts' was given the Con- federates on account of their homespun dollies, dyed re<ldlsli-l)niwii with a dye iimilc of biittemiit bark. The last name, ' Joluinies. ' hi siiid to have originated In a quarrel iH'twwn two pickets, which l>egan by the Union mans saying tliat the Confederates de|K'iido<l on England to get tlK'Ui out of their scrape. . . . The Union nmn . . said that a 'Hcb' was no better than a Johnnv Bull, anyhow. . . . The name stuck, ami in the hut part of the war the Confederate soldiers were almost universidly called 'Jobiinica.' Throughout the war the Confeileretes diiblied all the Union snldlcn ■ Yankr^K ' und 'Yriiikii,' without any reference lotlH' imrt of tlie country they came from. . . . Otiier nicknnnies for Union soldiers, wcaslonallv umiI, were Kiila.' ' Blue Birds and Blue lie I'lii's.' SIncx- the wa' I -I I BOTS m BLUE. the opponenti have been oommoDlr called ' Bon In Bluo'uid 'Bovi in Or»y.' "—J. D. Chunp- lln, Jr., Young FhtM BStUnrf (tfVu War for Vu Union, p. 187. BOZRA. SeeCARTRAOB: DivuioHs, Ac. BOZZARIS, Marco, The death oC See Orkbcb: a. D. 1831-im BRABANT : Mythical Bsplaaatlon of the name. See Amtwerp. 4th ceatnrr.— Firat Mttlement of the Franks. See Toxandrix. 9th century.— Known as Basse Lorraine. See Lorraine: A. D. 848-870. , *^P- '096-1009.— Dnke Godfrey de BouiUon in the First Crusade, and his kinrdom of Jerusalem. See Crusadis: A. D. l()9»-109e: and Jerusalbm: A D. 1099-1144. lath to 15th centuries. — The county and duchy. — From the berlnniugof the 13tli century the county. afterwanU the duchy, of Brabant, ezistec' under Its own counts and dukes, until the beginninf; of the l.')th cpntury, when U drifted under the sovereignty of the burgiuidisn dukoa. A. O. 1430.— Acquisition by the House of Burgundy. See Ne 1 hbrlanim : A. D. 1488- 148U. BRACCATI, The. See Roint : B. C. 878. BRACHYCEPHALIC MEN. See Oom- CnOCKPIIALIC BRACTON, HENRY DE.and early Enr- lish Law. Sik- Law, Common : A. D. 1216-1878. BRADOOCK'S DEFEAT. See Ohio (VAr i.Kv); A. D. l?.^. BRADFORD, GoTcmor. See Massachu- setts : X. D. 1681, and after. BRADFORD ACADEMY. See Educa- tion, MoriFKN : Refohmn: A. D. 1804-1891 BRADFORD'S PRESS. See Prwtiho, 4c. : A. I). 1585-1709, 17i>4-1789. BRAGANZA. The House of: A. D. 1640.— Accession to the throne of Portunl. See PoHTUOAL: A. D. 1637-1868. BRAGG, General Braxton.- luTasion of Kentucky. See United States of Am. : A. D. 1868 (June- Octoueh: Tennessee — Kkn- TOCKT).....The Battle of Stone River. Sec Ukited States of A>i. : A. D. IWiJ-lSttI Prcbmber — Janc.vrt: Tennessee) The Tullahoma Campaira. See United States of Am.: A. D. 1863 (June-July: Tennemke). . . . .Chickamanga.— The Chattaooora Cam- paign. See UNrTBD States of Am. : A. D ISO:) (Auouan^-SBPTBiiBBB, and Uctobbii— Xovem- BBR: Tennessee). BRAHMANISM. See India; The immiora TION AND CONQUESTS OF THE AltYAS. BRAHMANS. See Caste system of India. —Also. India: Trb AooRiaiNAi, iNUAmTANTS. BRANCHID.A, The. See Ur.\clE8 of the Greeks. BRANDENBURG: A. D. 9*8-1 wa.-Be- (Innittgs of the Marparate.— "A. I). 928 Henry tlie Fowler, msrcbin}; Hcnua I lie fnir.en bogs, took Bniunlbor, a chief foitrtvi of the Wemls; flr»t mention in human speecli of tlio place now called Itrandenburg : Bor or ' Burg of the Brenns ' (if ' pre ever was any Tribe of Ureni!!!.— Brenn! there w rl.owhprr' Ik-lng name for Kin« or ^ adcr); • Burg of ilic Woods^ say otlKTS,— whoasllttleknow. Probably, atthat time, a town of cUy huts, with ditch aud palisaded BRANDBiroURO, 1149-11S3. !?*S?" /"■'""' "' certainly 'a chief forutssof the vrei^ — whb must have been a cowl dial surprised at sight of Henry on the rimy winter morning near a thousand years ago. That Henry appohitod due Wardcnship In Bp.miilmr was In tlie common oourae. Sure cnouiM wunc Markgnf must Ukechsrce of Braunibor —lie of the Lausitz eastward, for example, o- \k of Salzwedel westward:— that Braunibor, ii time will Itself bo found the fit place, and I :ivf its own Harkgraf of Bramlenbure; this, a, A what in the next nine centuries iJrandenljiiri; will grow to, Henry is far from surmising. . la . T. " *™ "*" °' "■* P'^mitive >IarkKraves of Brandenburg, from Henry's time downward- two wu, • Markgreves of tlio Witekiud nice ' and of another: But tliey are altogetlicr uncer- tain, a shadowy intermittent set of Miirkitravcs both the Witckind set and Uie Non-Wireklnd- and truly, for a couple of centuries, seem none of them to have been other than subaltern Depu- ties, belonging mostly to Lausitz or Salzweilel of whom tlicrefore we can say nothing here but must leave the Prst two hundred years iu tlicir natural gray state,- perhaps sufflcicntly con- ceivable bv the reader. ... The J)itnwrs,li. Btade kindred, much shkia ta battle with tlie Heathen, and otiierwisc beaten upon, died out, about the year 1180 (earlier perliaps, pcriiaps later, for all Is shadowy still) ; and were succeeiled in the Salzwedel part of tlieir function liy a kin dred called 'of Ascanlen and BaHcnslil<it ■ ; tlie Ascanlcr or Anbalt Margraves; wiiose History and that of Brandenburg, becomes liencefortli articulate to us. . . . ThU Aacanien, iiapoily has noting to do with Brute of Troy or the pious .Sneas'a son j It Is simply tiie name of s most ancient Castle (etymology unknown to me rums still dimly traceable) on the uortli s1o|k' of the Hartz Mountains; short way from Aschore- lebcn,— the Castle and Town of Aschirsliben arc, so to speak, a second edition of Awaniea . . . The kindnd, called Grafs aud ultimately Hcrzogs (Dukes) of 'Ascauien and Balleiistadt ■ arc very famous In ol<l German llistorv, espe- cially down from tliis date. Some r.tkiin that they had intermittently been Markgnif* i.i tlicir n'gi(ra, long before this; which U coin', iv- able enougli; at all events It Is very plain they (lid now atudn the Offl<.c in Salzwedel (BtraiL'ht- way shlftinif It to B >, lenburg); and held it I else that lay adjacent, , coQspicuous maimer. lasted for alxjut two- Carlyle, Fre(krick thi 316 continuously, it and r. for ccnluricH, in a •■' In Brandeiiliurg tli Imndred vciirs."— I Grtal. Ilk. 5, cA, 8-L A. D. iiaa-iisa.— The Electorate.- • He tlicy cull •Albert the Ik'iir (Albr. Lht d.r lUr),' first of the AsciUiieii Markgmves of Ilniiulen- Imrg; — Unit wholly definite Markgraveof linio- dcnburg that there is; once a very sliinlnij lii-ure in tile wo/ld, tlioi.ijli now fallen dim ui..iigh »?»' got tlie Xorthern part of what ii still called S.ixtmy. ami kept it 1. Iii^i fiinily. got the Bmndenlmrg Countries withal, grii the ausitz: was tlie slifnin:.' Hgiire iind ffM man of the North in his day. Tlic MarkgriMim of Salzwedel (which sixm became of BrandenlMir/j) he very naturally ac(|ulrcil(.V. D. 1143 oniirlier), very iiaiunilly, tousideiiiig wiial S:ix..ji itad other honours uud |>one«sioiis ho hail aln-adv :.'ot hold of We can only siiy. It was tlie luckiest o( events for Braudeuburg, aud the bcgiuuiug of ail BRANDENBURG. 11«»-115>. BRANDSNBURQ, 1168-1417. the better deaUnief it baa had. A conspicuoua Country ever ■Incu in tlie world, and whicU growa criT more so In our late times. ... Ho trans- ferml the Harlignifilom to Brandenburg, proba- bly as more central in Ills wide lands ; Salzwodel is knccforth tbe led Markgrafdom or Harck, and soon falls out of notice in the world. Salz- wedcl is called henceforth ever lince the 'Old Marck (Alte Harck, Altnurck)'; the Branden- burg countries getting tbe name of ' New Marck. ' . . . Under Albert the Markgrafdom had risen to be an Electorate withal. The Markjgraf of Brandenburg was now furthermore the KurfQrat of Brandenourg; ofllcially 'Arch-treasurer of the Holy Roman Empire '; and one of tbe Seven who have a right (which became about this time an exclusive one for those Seven) to choose, to 'klercn ' the Romish Kaiser; and who are there- fore called ' Kur-Princes,' KurfQrste or Electors. as the highest dignity except the Kaiser's own." — T. Carlyle. Frederick the Oreat, bk. 8, eh. 4.— See. also. Oeruany: A. D. 1135-1872. A. D. 1168-1417.— Under the Ascaniui, the Bavarian and the Lnxemburg line*i to the first of the HoheiuoUem. — Allicrt the Bear was ■ucceeiled in 1168 by his son Otho. "In 1170, as it would appear, the name of Brandenburg was substituted for that of North Mark, which had ceased to describe more tiuin the original nucleus of the colonv, now one of tlio several districts into which it was divided. The city and territ<>ry of Brandenburg were not probably included in tbe Imperial grant, but were in- herited from the Wendish prince. Pribislaw, whom Allx'rt had converted to Christianity. . . . Under Otho II., brother of the preceding, the (auiily luliuritance was sori'ly mismanaged. The Marjjnivc becoming involved in some quarrel with the See of Magdeburg, the Archbiaiiop pkicLiI him under the ban; and aa the price of release Otho was required to ar nt the Suieniinty of the prelate for the old'" d better part of his dominions. His l)rotlii and suc- ceawir. Albert II., was also unfortuuate in the bcgiiuiiiig of his career; but recovered the favor of the Emperor, and restored tbe prestige of his house before hia death. . . . Very important acquisitions were made during the reign of these two princes The preoccupations of the King uf Deumark gave them a secure foothold in Pomeniuia. which the native nobility acknowl- edged : the frontiers were pushed eastward to the Oiler, where the New Mark was organized, and tlie town of Frankfort was Iniil out; pur- ciMiie put them in possession of the district of Lcbus; and the bride of Otho III., a Bohemian Iiritiees-i, brought him as her dowry an extensive rigiun on the Upper Spree with severni thriving Tillai;e9 — all tliis in spite of the division of power and authority. . . . Otho III. died in 1J67. John one year laU-r; an<l a new partition of tlie estate was made between tlicir several fcins, the oldest. Otho IV., receiving, however, liie title and prerogatives of head of the house." Tiie last iiiiiriJtrave of the Ascauian line. Walde- iiui. died in l:il9. •■ His cousin and only heir, ll.iirv, WHS a minor, and survived him but u .veur • Tiien •' a host of claimants nrose for the wlinli' (if paru of ihe Mark. The estate! showed M lii>i ii p.llaiit devotion to the wi<low. and in- tnisiid liie reins of aviliority to her; but she •■'!i-"d tlii* ttdelitv by hastily es|Miusing the Uulie of Uiunswick, avd transferrlug iier righu to him. The tnuiiaetloo wm not, howarer, ratified by the esutes, and the Duke failed to enforce it by arms. PomeranU throw off tbe voke which it bad once unwiUhigly accepted; Bohemia reclaimed the wedding portion of Otho's bride; the Duke of LiegniU sought to re- cover Lebus, although it had once been regularljr sold; and in the general scramble tl:<> Church, through its local repnaenUtivcs, fought witli all the energy of mere worldly robbers. But in tids crisis the Emperor forgot neither tlie duties of his station nor the interests of his house. Louis II. of Bavaria then wore the purple. By feudal law a vacant fief reverted to its suzerain. . . . It wrj not therefore contrary to law. nor did it shock the moral sense of the age. when Louis drew the Mark practically into bis own posses- sion by conferring it nominally uimn his minor son. . . . During the minority of fjouis the Mar- grave, the province was admiuisteri'd liy Louis the Emperor, and with some show of vigor." But troubles so thickened about the Emperor, in his contiict with tlie House of Austria, on the one hand, and with the Pope on the other [see Oer.hanv : A. D. 1314-13471. that he could not continue the protection of his son. "The Mark of Branilenburg was invaded by the King of Polaud. and its Jtargravo " watched the devasta- tion in helpless dismay." The people defended themselves. "The young city of Frankfort was the leader in tlic tJiniv but successful uprising. The Poles were expelled; the citizens had for the time saved the Mark. . . . The )Iargrave Anally wearied even of tlie forms of authority, and sold bis unhappy dominions to his two brothers, another Louis and Otho. In the mean- time his father bad died. The Electors— or five of them — bad already deposed him and chosen In his place Charles of Moravia, a prince of the house of Luxemburg, aa bu successor. He lie- came respectably and even "iredilably known in history as Charles IV. ... / ''ough he failed in tbe attempt to sulidue by ai.. Uie Margrave of Brandenburg, who had naturally espoused his father's cause, he was persistent and in- genious in diplomatic schemes for overthrowing the House of Bavaria aixi bringing the Mark under his own eceptre. . . . From Uiuis he pro- cured ... a treaty of succession, by which he should acquire Brandenburg in case of tbe death of that Margrave and his brother Otho without heirs. His Intrigues were finally crowned with complete success. Louis died suddenly in 1365. Otho. thenceforth alone in the charge, vacillated between weak submission to tlie Emperor's will, and spurts of petulant but fc>-ble resistance; until Charles put on end to the faroe bv Invading the Mark, crushing the anny of tbe Margrave, anil forcing him to an abject capitulation. In 1371, after a njiiiinal rule of half a century, and for the price of a meagre annuity, the Bavarian line transferred all its rights to the family of 0h.«rie8 IV. ' Ohnriea died in 1378. HU sou Wenzcl, " for whum the Mark had been destined in the plans of Charles, acquired, meanwhile, the crown of Bolicinla, a richer prize, and Braodeulmrg passed to the next son, Sigismond. The cliauge was a disastrous one." Si);isnionii Sawne<i the Miirk to his kinstn-iii, .Uilwt. of loravia, and It fell Into great disonler. "Im- perial alTnirs during tills |)crio<l were in scarcely leas confusion. Wcnzel of Boiieiiiia liiid lieen chusen em|icror, and then deposed for obvious 317 BRANTENBCRO, 1108-1417. unntnoii jpert, Count P»l»tine. had next been elected. bj'iI lixl dUxl. Again the iioit wai Tueunt. Mini SlfiMnnnd, Mill the ival Elector of BrniiiJeabiinr. . lasuwl auccemfully from the conlcsl. Hi. (:^' 1 fortune wa* due In a con- »pieuou«degrci' ■ > the influence and the money of Frwlrri.-. Htingnnc of Nuremlicrg r«ee H011KNZ01.1.K ;^ I(HK OF Tire House ok); and it is to ilie cr il.' ,1 Sigisinond that he did not »d<l insrutiti.l to Ids oilier vices, but on his election as era • rot hastened [1411] to malie his BRAKDENBURO, 16«^lfl88. patron stattba I years later. In U,: Tentvil with the »■ M.irgravc ami l^i, x-roj-of ttie -Mark." 81x cderic was formally In- igniy of the Hark, as — H. Tuttle, Out. Of ■>/ Frederick th» Oreat, -n-c .re. ioh •n integral part of lUa, Bee Boobmia: 5.,u -Rii ng importance of the lam- v.- .^.':quilition of the I iug Invested with the ^ Trederick of Nurem- •' paje t'> the Vurem- -i'.l' ':'■''■■ '-. y ■ . ince. ■ •'■ ' us, he . ■ ; from anarchy .~ Sigianmnd he '.ag the i-eign of istically known ''3). the strong ! M nl)urg became and onier. The Pru—iit ti> t eh. landi. A. D. nr; the Kinpio"- A. D. !3.r! A. D. I i ••/- ; Hohensolltrii Duchjr of P'u«sif - Electorate of Ur • i m: , berg sold tl.. . '-■ ..f n bergers anr .^c : >'■< ,i I : ■ "Temiierat. , inst ani, Jjim ; succeeded . i ducir.;^ ariii ) l to order. ',r mi'- jn leiKtv had beguii ih ■ in-',.. his son and s^ i-aaor, > ii 1 -.. as Frederick 1 -nteeth i 14 ' nand was not ', ixeil; a 1 i . tbenceforwari) lamntl i,, \-.\i „.„, „rucr. me Electorate, wli;ch during tiic ji.M edin;} century had been ciirtailvd by losses in war and by sales began again to .'iilarge its borders The New March, whicii liiid been sold in the davs of Sigii- mund to the Ti-iitonic Knights, was now [14551 bought back fmin them in their need. . . . Albert Achilles, the brother and successor of Frederick II., was a luan as powerful and as able lu his pn-dcci-swr. By his accession the Cu-ipiUlties of Baireuth and Anspach, which been separated from the Electorate for the TOuuKersous .f Fn-derick I., were ri'united to it; and by a sclieme of criws remaijiders new plans were laid fnr the acquisition of territory ... It W.1S already unilerstood that the Elector- ate was to desceml according to the law of primogeniture; but Auspiich ami Baireuth were still reserved as appanages for younger sons- and upon tlie dratli of AIUti Achilles, in U84 Ins territories were again diviiled, and remained so for more than a hundreii years. Tlie result of tlie ilivision. however, was to multiply and not to weaken tlie strength of tlie Hou.su. The earlier years of the 16th century saw the Hohen- zoik-ms rising everywhere to power Albert Acliilk's liad been succeeded [t4«6) by John of whom littl*- is known except his eloquence, and bv .Joachim [Ul»9], who was preparing to bear his part against the lieforraation. A brother of Joachim had become, in 1514, Elector of Mentz- auil the double vot.,- of the family at the election of diaries V. ha<l increased their importance The younger branch was rising also U, eminence (Jfoige of Brandenburg. Margrave of Anspach and grHiklsou of Albert Achilles, was able iii 1TJ4 to purcliase the Duchy of Jain.mdorf In Sllesm. awl with it tiie reversions to the prind- iwlilies of OpiK-hi and lUtibor, which evontuailr fell to hha His youuger brother, Albert, had been cnoaen in 1511 Qrand MaMer of the Ttu tonic Order, and was already converting 1,1, o.'Hce into the hereditary Dukedom of Prussia ■• woicu it became in 1535 (see Poland- v n l*«-l-^73). •• The Elector Jo«;liim I. of 7in,n denburg U perhain the least prominent, but wm not the W prudent, of hb family. Thr»u«li- out hU life he adheiud to the old faith, and nre served his dominions in trauquililv His wn and succeaM>r, Joachim II , to the' joy of his people, adopted the new religion ri,'i;i91 ami found in the secularized bishoprics of BrVndeo burg Havelburg, and Lebua, some compensation for the eccleshutical Electorate which « i., about to pMS, upon the death of Albeit of .Mentz from hU family. But he atao was able to .vcim. the continuance of peace. Distrustful of the •uccesi of the League of Smalkald he refMs-d to Join In it, and became chiefly known as a media. tor in the struggles of tiie time. The EI«t.,r» [l.W(Ma08] follo»-l the same poli< v of [i^acc . . . Peace and luwrnal progrus.- hail (imrac- terized the IBth century, war .ml external ftcquisltlons were to mark the 17th. The failure of the younger line in 1603 caused liivreutii Anspach, and Jaiferndorf to fall to the 'Elisior Jo*-him Frederitii. ; but as they were re j'Rinie.l almost at once to younger sons, and uevir ui;,lu reverted to the Electorate, their ae(iuiMti„u became of little imiKirtauce. Tin- Mar -nvu George Frederick, however, had heltl, in siliiiiion to his own territoiiea, the olHce of mimiiiistraior for Albert Fre<lerick, second Duke of I'nis,sia who had become imbecile; and, by his ilialli the Elector of Brandenburg became next of liin and claimed to succeed to the olBce, Tlic sui mission of this claim pliiced the Electors in virtual possession of the Duchy. By a th-i-.l of co-iufeofl'inent, wiiieii Joachim II. had obtaiiie,! in loAH from his father-in-law the Kins,' of I'liUm' tliey were heirs to the Duchy u|ion fuiiiire "I '''0 younK'-r line, . . . Duke AlUrt .i;..lin 1618; and Brandenliurif and 1'rus.sia weri ;lien united under the EU-eior John Sigismiin i It was well that the Doi-liy had b-en secunsl Ik-- fore the storm which was already gatlieriiii,' ov -r the Empire had burst. . . . ihmas, the Icmi; struggle of the Thirty Years' W.ir. liie liistory of Brandenburg is tliat of a sullenr niihir tliau an acuir. . . . Gi-orge William, wlm ilu.l in 1840, bequeathed a desert to his suci-essor Ttuit successor was Frederiek William, to Ik- kiimn in hUtory as the Great Elector, "—t'. !•" ,I.jiiu stone, llulorim A'mtr.ictn. ch. 5. .\L80 in: T. Carlyle, IlUt. of Fr„i k the Or, 'It. bk. S(c. 1(. A. D. 1609.— The JUlich-CleTe contest See Okkiianv: a. I) IdOS-luis A. D. 1637.— Occupied by Wsllenstein and the Imperial army, aee (it..u>n.Nv hi,',- ;i.j;) A. D. 1630-1631.— Compulsory allia.icf of the Elector with Guitavus Adoli)::»s of Sweden, tiee Uuuma.ny : .v 1). l«:lo-iii,ii i,.,,! 1631. A. D. 163a.— Refusal to enter the Union of Heilbronn. See GKiim.\v. .V li lii.i.' |i..tl A. D. 1634. -Desertion of the Prote; -it »"»«•— Alliance with the Emperor, ^e. JiASYt A !> !(!.{+- !!'.:M1 A.D. 1640-1688. -The Great Elector.-His deTelopment of the strena^th a', the Electorate. — Hia Miccettfui wars.— His acquisition of the 318 BRAKTiENBUBO, 1«40-1688 CMBPlH* foverticaty of Pnu«i«.— PtbffetUia. — "rVoderic Wtlltom, koown la hiatory u the Orait Elector, wu only twenty yon uld whco he iiicceeded hli fatter. He fouail everytlilng In diaonder: b<» country d>>aoUte, hit fortrmci i;iiiTi>nn<Hl by troops undei a tnlemn order to obcycnly the nianil>ic((4 the Emperor, hUarmy to be counted almoeton the flngera. Hit flnt CUV WW to conclude a tnioe with the Swedei; bis aecond to Kcure hU western borders by an tllisDce with Holland ; his third — not in order of sitioD, for in that respect it took first place — to ralM the nucleus of an army ; his fourth, to cauM the eTacuation of his fortresses. ... To uilar tlic wrath of the Emperor, be temporised uutil bis armed force had attained the number of 8,000. That force once under arms, he Ixtldly as- Kfted h<8 position, and with so much effect that in the discusRions preceding the Peace of West- phalia he could exercise a considerable Influenoe. By the terms of that treaty, the part of PomeranU known as llinter Pommem, the principalities of Magdeburg and Haloemtitdt, and the bishoprics of Minden and Kammln were cedrd to BraiMlen- hur(. . . . The Peace once signed, Frederic William set dillKi'ntly to work to heal the dis- ordtn and to repair the mischief which the long WHr had caused in his dominions. . . He specf tlly cherished his prmy. We have SPf^ its small U-'ginning In i64(M3. Fiftn'n year< later, in 16.1.5. r seven ycam after the conclusmn of the Peace ' Westphalia, it amounted to ftVOOOmen, well 'trilled and well diacipli'u'd, dispn^ng of wvcniy I -vo pieces of cannon. In the ; les In which lie lived he had nee<t of such an -rmy. In 18.V(. Christina, 'he waywanl and ..'Ifted Liughti ' nf Oiutavus \dclphu4. had abdicated. Her sui -asor on the throne of Sweden was her couuD. ibarlcs OustAvus. Duke of ZweibrQcken. . . . The right of Charles Oustavus to the suc- ceisioD » a. however, contested by John Casimir, Kill) >f i land . . . War ensued. Inthatwar tlie Klar of Charles Oustavus was in the asrpnd- aut, and the unfortunate John Casimir was forced to shandiin his own dominions and to flee into SiWa The vicinity of the two riv-ils to bis own outlyin;^ territories was, however, too netr not to render an xi<. us Frederic William of Brandenburg. Toprotect Prussia, tlien held 'ntlef from the King "t Poland, he marched with 8,000 men to its bor- ders But even with such a force h'- was unable, or p<Tliiip8. more correcily, he va^ prudently unwilliiie. to resist tlioimiiatance put upon him at Knmifsberg by the victorious Kmg of Sweden (KLVIi i4i transfer to him ilie feudal ovorlordahip of that pfovince. Great results follo»'l from this (ompliance. Hanlly had liic tre,iy been (iened. when John Casimir >tumingfromSileal« with an Imperial army ii: his hvk. drove the Swi'l-s from Poland, and reoovcK^I his domin- iont He did i«)t evidently inttnil to stop there. Tbin it was that the opi>ortiinitv arrived to the On-M Elector. Earnestly w.licitfKl liy the King of Swpil.n to aid him In a oootcst wli'ieh had as- sumed liimensions so formidable, IVnleric ftil- liam c(.a*-.ii'-d. hut ool u the coixiition tluu besihould ret-svetht Polish palatinates (Woiwod *aften) of Pmm utd Kaliscli as the price of '-"-■~~~~ -— --jslgn. He ihr^ ioinrd the S:: with hisani metlhrencnivat Warww.fouuh. with him ( h«« to ihM .ity a great h«t(te, wbioh la*nl liin^ ,iay« («l^h to SOth July ]«M), anl wucb tt'rmiaated tlk-o, thanks mainly to -im BRAXDKNBURG. lMO-ia(l& pertlnarity of the Braadenburgen — in the com- plete defeat of the Poles. The victory gaineiL Fretleric William withdrew his tiu>p& . . . Again did Joan Casimir rccorer from his defeat; again, aided by Uie ImperUllita, did be muih to the front, reoccupy Warsaw, and take up a threatening pnaition oppodto to the Swedish camp. The King of Sweden beheld in this actfcw on the part of his enemy the prelude to his own certain deatructlon, unless l>y any means be cnukd induce the Elector of Brandenburg once more to save him. He sent, then, urgent meaaengen after htm to beg him to return. The rocssengcni found Frederic WUlUm at Labian. There the EI<<ctor halted and there, joined the next day, SOua November KM, by King Cliiirlcs OuaUvua, he signed a treaty, by whiiii. on condition of hit material aid in the war, tiie latter rcnouna'd hia feudal orerlordship over Prussia, and agreed to acknowledge the Elector and his male descenJ- ants as sovereign dukes of that province. In the war which followed, the enemies of Sweden and Brandenburg muluulled on every side. The Danes and Lithuanians espoused 'he cause of John Casimir. Its 'isue seemed to i rederic Wil- liam inore than doubtful. Hs asked himself, then, whether — tiie newer -mieswhohail arisen being the enemies of Sweden and not of himself — he bad not more to gain by sharing In the victories of tiie Poles than in the i efeato, of the Swedes. Iteplying to h nwl' alUrmatively, he concluded, afllh (Septcnlur 1657, through the In- terint-Uiation of the Emp.r.ir. with the Pi>l<«. at W"hlau, a treaty wbereli .e duke<loni of Pr's- aia was ceded In absoluu- sovereignty to liio £le< !»i of Brandenburg and his male hsue. with reverse >n to PoUnd in case of tliv exllnition of the family of the PraoconUu Hohenzolb 'iw in return. Frederic WIDUm engaged himself t «ip. port the Poles in their war a.Tiinst Hvedcr «ith a corps of 4.000 n'en. But before this c en- tlon could be aited upon, fortune had iilu smiled upon Charles Guatavus. Tuminir . tlie height of winter agfinst the Danes, tin King of Sweden liad defeated them in tlic open Oehl. ptir- sued them across the tnizen wiLivnof tlie BcH ■■> FQnen an ' Heelaiid, ai hiul iiii|«>Hc<! upon tin ir king the huiiiiliatiiit' -.oeot Kooskilde (lest^t He seemed iuriined < eed still further in i! dest-'iction of the anra- ival of his couiilij, whri acom'inid amiv ■: Poles and Bmndvn- burgers sui tily poiire<I burg into H istidn. drove and gave tin '< no rest till likewise Schi ^wig nnd Ji battle which i««»k a-e sh the IsUnd of F, n,t, t Ny b fercd a defeat. T!i:a defeat tavusdespni > treat fi" 'Ugh Mcckk-n- e the Swedes, luui evacuated ! (IMQ). In a afterwards fin the Sweiles suf- uie Churh'S Ous- >i'.«ea8, and he liail alnixly liei^un when I -ath sua) (lied him from MY leeO) The nei- ! iaiions which ■»< -•••r, continued, ainl flnully iK'nce '.! the 1st May 1980, In lite mononiiTy «e to Danzig. This peace (-ontiniKtl rof rtrHmlenburghisBoverelKnriglits luehy if IVussia. Fr>m this epoch coinplele union of Brandenliurg uiid PritNsta — a union upon which a great iiiun was abic u. '^iiiic fuumlAliou ui a iiuwerrui North Qenna Kliittdom!" During the mxt dozen Ttaf -im <r"iMt Elector was chiefly lnitiie<l in es- :at>i> :iiiig biK auilHirity in his doniiiiion.t and cnrfamg the power of tnc nobles, puriii/.irly iu \iH' sceue ha.: bcgu wa- sIgD' of Mva to KU ov. th. dsi li sm r • BRANDENBURG, 1M&-1688. PnutI*. In I«74. when touii XIV. of France provoked war with the Oennan prince* by hii attack on the Dutch, Frederic William \vd 20,000 men Into Aliace to Join the Imperial forces. Louia then called upon hia allies, the Swedes, to hivade Brandenburi, which they did, under Gen- et^ Wrangel, in Januaty, 1875. "Plundering ud burning aa they advancetl, they entered HaTelUnd, the granary of Berlin, uud carried their devastations up to the very (futcs of that capital. " The Elector was retrettlin!.' from Alsace befora Turenne when he heard of tlie Invasion. He paused for some weeks, to put bis army in good condition, and then he hurried northwards, by forced marchea. The enemy was taken by surprise, and attacked while attempting to re- treat, near Fehrbcllin, on the 18th of June. After two hours of a tremendous hand-U)-hand conllict, "the right wing of the Swedes was crushed and broken ; the centre and left wing were in full re- treat U>wards Fehrbellin. The viiU.rs, utterly exhauste<l — they had scarcely quitted their tjul dies for eleven days— were too worn out to pur- sue. It was not till the following niomiuK that, refreshed and recovered, thev billowed the re- treating foe to the borders of .Merklenburg. . . The Ureat Klector proniptlv follnwed up hia vic- tory till he hnd cumpelled tne Swedes to evacuate all I'omeninia. Three years Inter, when they once more rroased the bonier from Livouia, he torcfl them again to retreat; and although in the treaty signc<l at St. Uermaln in I6*l» he waa forc«Hl to nnciuiiee his I'omeraulun conquests, he did not the leas extablish the ultimate right of the SUte of which he was the n»l founder to thow landH on llie Baltic for which he had so hanllv struKRlinl at the negotiations wbieh pre- ceded the Peace of Westphaliu. Whin he dleil (Ihh .Mav 1«W) he left the Klnp.lom ainady niatle In a luwlllun of priMperily ■ullliieut to justify his son nnil Huricssor In aaiiunilng, thirtein viars laliT, on till- anniveraary of the vlclnrv of tVlir- belliii, the till,, of King."-(). B. .Malliwm. Uo Balltr h\MM„f llfrnMiiii.fk. H — S.i-. «!«> S«aii- DlN.*vi\N St»tk.s(,Swki.M): A. I) l«44-i««r A. D. 1648. -The Pmc* of Westphalia.— Loss of part of Pomcrania.— Compcnsatiar ■cauisitions. Sir Ukkm.i.ny: A. I). HUH . *■ O- •*Z»-«*7»--ln th« Coalition arainst Louis XIV. !»«• XltTnKIII.ANIIl. (lli.I.l.AM.) A l» IflTJ l(IT4, and I874-187H, alwiXiJiKiiiKM A. D. i68y-i«96.-The war of the Grand Alliance against Louia XIV. Si- Kua.mk A. I> HWK l«H«i. t(i 18V.VI8IM. A. D. 1647. -Tbo Traaty of Ryawick.- Rtatitutiona by Fraac*. See Fha.nik A. I>. A. D. i7oa.-Tha RIactor mad* Kior of Prussia. Si. I'hib*ia : A. I». I7uu BRANDY STAtTonT OR FLEBT- WOOD. Battle of. Si. Imrmi Htatks or A* .\ It l'««Wl.ll„IC V BOIMIA) BRANDVWINE, Baltit of U* (A. D 1777'. S.<> t NiitiiSTATMur Am. : A I» 1777 (Jam miv I>ki>mu»:h) BRANKIRKA, Baltit of (1(11). SeiH^A-*. DiN.Mts .M tt»« \ |l |iiti;.iKg7 ..BRANT, CHIEF. and iha Indian wartert of lbs Amtrican RcTolution. tiit- I'NrrKii Statks or A« A U 1T7B .Jiaa-NovMUM), and iJuLV). i 4 |3 BRAZIL, ISIO-IMI. BRASIDAS IN [CHALKIDIKE. 8«a OllKBCB: B. C. 4M-4S1. BRAZIL: OrMn of the lUUB*.—" As the moat valuable part of the cargo which Americus Vcl. Ductus carried back to Europ3 was the well known dve-wood, 'Ceaalpina BraziMinsis '_ called In the Portuguese hinguage ' pau brazil ' on account of ita resemblance to • bm/.ns,' • .mi of Are,'— the land whence it .-ame was icrmid the • land of the bnuil-wood '; and Bnally this appel- latlon was shortened to Brazil, anil cimii.llicly uaurped the names Vera Cruz, or Sunla Crui: ■'_ J^\ Fletcher and D. P. Kidder, /lr.,:,t „,„) (A, Bmttliaiu, eh. 8. — See, alao, Ameriia: .\. D 1800-1514. The aboricinal inhabitanta. See AnKiiicAii Aboriulnes: Tin,— OUARA.M.— Tii-ivx> ^, GtJCTt or Coco OnutT. A. D. i500-lS04.-DiscOTef7, exploration of the coast and Brat aettlemeot. S.-.' A m i uica A. D. 1496-1500, l.VW-ISU. and l.-,0;H.To| A. D. 1510-1661,— Portugucae colonization ■ad acriculture.— Introdnction of Slavc-v — The cominf of the Jeauits.-Cor.cues'.s of the Dutch, and the Portuguese recovery of them. — "Umzil, on which tlir I'liriuu'in s,. ^iiip, had been cast by accident, Imil Uiii f .mi 1 to unite In Itw'lf the capniiilities of i-v.rv |:irl(i( the world in which Eiimiwun Imv.' s, lUwl though happily gold and silv.r hnd 11. .1 v. t Iwii discovered, sml the colonists b«l.«.k ilu'invlvu from the Unit to agriculture. The llr^t i.. mis nent aettlemenU on this coast «iri' rn ilc by Jews, exlhil by the perserutiou of ih,. |:„|:ii,i. tion; and the govenimiiit siippli im nii <l ilirsc by sending out criminals of nil ki:i.K Hut gradually the conseiiu.ii.i' of IJri/il Unimc recognized, and, as afterwnnis hN|>|H iir.l I:; N.-w Enilan.!, the nobility at fannie a.'.kiii In sh inlhr land among themselves. Eiiiniuiiiii I «. ,il I mit countenance such a claim, but IIiIh lii.iI irinw died In IXil, and his su.ii'ssi.r. J Im III n tended to Brazil the same sysli in » liii li h „i \ma ailopteil in Mnileira ami the A/<>ns. 1 1„ «||„|,. sea-coast of Brazil was panTll.il mil \\ f, u,lal panta. It waadivideil Inlo rniiiulm ii ^'. ,. h ,W leaRues hi length, with no liniils in ih. ,; :, rior. and these were granhil out us iii,il, 1.'. witli absolute power over the iialiMs, >,i, U ... ;.: ilmi time exishil over the serfn wlin till, , I ih, - ij In Euro|ie. But the native BrHiillniis », n n, lUirr ■oeasy aconqui-st asthePinivli is, n. r».i:uilv inilueeil to InlHiur; and the I'lirtu 11, -, : » U- gnn to brini; mxros frum iln iluii;, ,1 ,.«»t. This tralTtc in huiiinn tii-sh hwl h _■ Ik. n ujiir ously puniued in vnrious iwris i.f llMri* ,"thf Portuguese now intriMlu.iil it to Ann ru 1 Tlif selllers of Hrazil «ire, pni|irrly »|.<»kiiit', the first Kuni|>ean lolimisU, For llii v o.M ihi irown iMMseaniiins st home, and liMuirlil tli.ir hnuw holds wllh Ihini to the new cnuiilrv riiinlbry Krwlunlly forni.il Hi.' henrt of a ih-h n^iikia when-as the ililif Spaninnts »l«,i\, Munml home after a eirlaln tenure of iliilr' .Hli. ir sad those who reiimiiiiil In the colony ileni. intid to tlie rank of the r«ni|iirnit nsllVi < .Miiir of tlioae wh.i eniiie lo Kraril Iwd alrimh s. ri.il la the expeiiiiioiM to Hie l-jisl, •ml Ih.'- nnurslly [lerceiveii that ilw roast of Ameriia ii.ii-hl rslsr the pmlueilmm of India ll.iice Ilni/il .srlr N««ime a RlaElatluo •.■■.A-.a-.v zvM !:= ;-..-; .ii.riir U very much due Ui the nilluri' of llii' »iiit«r i-aar Tbe Hortuguess were greatly aasiihnl. IkiUi is 820 BRAZIL, 15I»-1MI. the Eut ibA the Weet, hy the eflotta of the newlT founded order of the Jeeuiti. . . . John III. (n [1649] KDt out liz of the order with the fint goTemor of BrmzU. . . . The Dutch, made bold oy tbeir giemt tucoeiee* in the Eut, now ■ought to win the trade of Brazil by force of irmi, ud the lUCCCMof the Eut India Company rnrciurafed the idveaturen who iubicribea the funds for that of the Weit Indiea, incorporated in 1821. The Dutch Admiral, Jacob Willekena, luc- ressfully aaaulted San Salrador [Bahia] In 1634, iiiil ibouKb the capital wsa ofterwardi rvtakro by tiie Intrepid Archbishop Texeira, one half of tbe coant of Braiil lubmitted to the Dutch. Here, i> in the Eaat, the profit of the company was the whole aim of the Dutch, and the spirit In which they eiecuted their design was a main cause of Its failure. . . . But ... tbe profits of the company . . . roee at one time to cent per cent. Tbe visions of the speculaton of Amstenlam be- came greater; and they resolved to become masten of all Bratll. . . . The man whom they despatched [1687] to execute this design was Prince John Maurice of Nassau. ... In a short time he hnd greatly extended tbe Dutch posKS- ■ions. But the Stadhouder was subject, not to tlic wise and learned men who sat In the States- Gt'neral, but t<> the merchants who composed the rourtsof the nimpany . Tbvy thought of nothing but tbi'ir diviilt-nds ; tbey considered that Maurice kept up nuire tninps and built more furtreasea Ihun wfre necessary furs mercantile community, and that he lived In too princely a fasliion fur one in tbeir service. Perhaps tbey suspccled him ofsn intention of slipping into thut n>yiil dig- nity which tbe feudal frame of nnziliati society ■ei .1(1 t«i offer bim. At any rat*, in 1848, tbey forced bIm to resiva. A recent revolution had tenninated the sut i ctiun of Portugal to 8pttin, sn<l llie new king cf Portugal nmcludefl a truce for t«u years with ilolUnd. War w.ns therefore •upiuMi'd to lie out of tbe question. Hut tbe nrall of .Maurii-f was the signal for iin imliiK'nd- ent revolt in Brazil. Though tbe motlier ciiun- trii-> were at |>eacc, war broke out between tbe Dutrh and the Portuguese of Braxll In 164-'S. The Ji'suits bad long preacbcd a crusade against the bcntic Duti'h. . . . John Kenlinand de VIcvra, a wcsltby men-hiint of Pemamburo, le<l s |ti tiernl uprihlng uf tbe itraxillans, and although till- Dutcli msiie a stubUirn resisumw, Ihey re- r<ivii| no aHiistance from borne , tbey were ilriven fr'ni one post after another, until, in 18.M. tlie liut of tlie mmpuny's servanU iiuittml Hnuii Tlie Dutth lierlanil war a^rainst I'ortugal; but hi IDitl |>ea«* was inaile. anil the Dutch sold tbiir cUiiiu for S.OOt.OOO florins, the right of trading being secured to them. But after tlie eipuUioii of the Dutch, tltr trade of Brazil came more ami more into the bands of tbe Knglish '— E. J I'srne, /At*, r/ Kui->i<nin a*'«i«». M. 3-3. Aiao iH: rt. 0. Wat*.n, f^piniih nnd /».r<B. fMsi SnlkAm€ritn. » l.rA. »<tn<i 1(1,- e. 9. e*. 1-4.-11 Boutbey. IIMM UmH. r. 1-4 A. D. 1524.— Conceded to Portnnl. See Amkkica: A l> I.1lt>-l.t34. A. D. ISJ1.1641.— The Republic of St. Panl. -The Paulistas or Mameluke*.- The cele brated republic of St Paul, as it Is usually oenominalAl. h^d It! fi"e aLhh.!! tl^e vear !SS!. 'nim a very Inconsiderable beginning. A mariner of the name of Hamalhn. having been ship wrecked oa this part of the coast, wm rcMlTcd SI a: pidly. 'ng • BRAZIL, lSSl-1641. •monc a naU Indian tiiba oaUed tbe Pbatinlnn, after the name of their chief. Hera he waa found by De Sousa some years aft -wards, and, contrary to the esubllahed policy .^nnitting no settlement excepting Immediately on the sea- coast, he allowed this man to remain, on account of his having intermarried and having a family. The advanUge* of this establishment were such, that permiidon waa soon after given to others to settle bera, and aa the adventiirera intermarried with the nati vea, their numben Increased rai ... A mixed race was formed, poesese^ng _ compound of civilized and uncivilized mannen and custooa. The Jetulte soon after establislied themselves with a number of Indians they had reclaimed, and exerted a salutary influence in softening and harmonizing the growing colony. In 1S81, the seat of government waa removed from St Vincent on the coast to St. Pauls; but Its subjection to Portugal was little mora than nominal . . . The mixture produced an im- proved race, 'the European spirit of enterprise,' says Boutbey, 'developed itself in constitutions atlapted to the coimtry.' But it la much more likely that the fne and popular government which tbey enjoyed produced the same fruit* here as in every other country. . . . They soon Quarreled with the Jesuiu [IMl], on acootmt of the Indiana whom they had reduced to slavery. The JesulU declaimed against the practice; but as there were now many wealthy families among the I>aullstaa, the greater part of whose fortune* consisted In their Indians, it was not heard with patience. The Paulistas first engaged In war against the enemies of their allies, and afterward* on their own account, on finding It advantageous. Tbey "stebllahed a regular trade with the other provinces whom they supplied with Indian slaves. Thev by this time acquired tlie nuine of Mamelukes, from the peculiar military discipline tbey adopted, tiearing some r«-semlilance to the Mamelukes of Egypt The revolution in Portu- gal, when Philip II. rf Spain placed bimsilf on lu throne.cast the Pau I istas In a stete uf independ- ence, a* they wera the only settler* In Bmiil which did not acknowlettge the new dvtuisty. Prom thcyear 1S8U until tbe nildiile of the 'follow- ing century, they may be regtinleil as a npiililic, and It was during this p«'ri.Kl tbey displavi-d that active and enterprising character for whleli tbey were so much celebnte<l . . . While a HpuoUli king <iocuple<l tbe throne of Poriugal, tbey attacknl tbe Spanish sitllenients on the Para- fruay, allegini; timt tlie ^puniards were encroaeh- ng on their terrllorv. . . . Tbey attacked the Jesuit missions 1I6JV]. ... .is tbey bad fixed IlienwIvfseast of tbe Parana, the I>Bullstaa laid bold of this as a pretext Tbey carrii'il away upwanis ivf a.tKXl of tlieir Indians Into captivity, I lie greater part of whom were sold and dls- tributeil as slavea The Jesuiu complainetl to tbe king of Hpain and t<> tbe p<ip«; tbe Inller fulminated his excommunication The Paullnlii* attacked the Jesuiu in tbeir college, and tii:t tbeir prinri|>al to death, cx|K'lled the r<'msiii<ler, and set up a religion of tbeir own, at least no longer acknowle<lge<l thesupn-macyof tliei>o)iv. Ineimspquence of '..,e Interruption of tbe .\rriean Irn.le during the Dutch war, tbe demand for !5:!!»n s'.s-.rj srM rs-rv n-.-.j.-h m.-r«i54aj Tiie Paulistas ivibiubled tbe/rexertions, awl traversed every part of the Braiils in armed iruopa. . . . The fuuadatloii was laid of enmity to the Portu ? ii 11 !i f - i; BRAZIL, isn-iait: rxw. whleh oootlBaM to Ihia day, althouch • pomplete ttop wu put to tlw intunoiu practice In the )r«ar 17S6. Wlwo the bouae of Bia- gaoia. in 1640, awmided the throne, the PaulU- tas. inatead of ackaowledcinc him. oooccived the Idea of electing a king for UieinaelTea. Tbor actually elected a diatinguiabed dtlien of Uie name of Bueno, who peniated in refuaing to accept, upon which thev were induced to ac- kn.>wl«ige Joam IV. [1»41]. It waa not until long afterwaida that they came under the Portu- giute ^Temmeot."— U. M. Brackenildge, Yog- eh. n iSSS-'fto.— Attempted HocBeaet A. D. ISftClMa, agt to SautA Amniea, t. 1, ek. ». ALao tM: a Boutfaey, JKK. of Braml, <». 8). ,^A. D. iS40->54>--O'«U«aa'8 veraga down the Ama aon a. »ee AMaioHa Rivbr. A. D. calonj I Flouda: a. _. .„ A. D. i654-t777.— The Peitunca* policy of •>clnaion and reatrlctioo.— BoBodarT dia- patea with Spaifc— " The period of oeace which followed tlieae rlctr-iea [oTer the Dutch] . . . waa uaed by the Ponugueee government only to get up a kind of old Japaneee ayalem of liolatlon, by which It waa intended to keep the colony in perpetual tutelage. In oonaequenoe of thia eren ■pw, after the lanae of half a century aince It *iolenUy aeparated itaelf, Biaiiliana genenUly aatertain a bluer grudge agaiait the mother ■ountry. All the trade Ir and fiom Braxil waa angraaed by Portugal; f.rery functionary, down to the laat cle.k, wan Por«ugueie. Any other Curopean of adentiflc education waa looked at with auapicioo! and particularly they aought to Krevent by all meaoa the eiploratlon of the iterlor, ai they feand not only that the erea of the naUrea might be opened to their mode of admlnlalrstioa, but abo that luch trarellera might tide with the Spanbrda In their lung dis- pute regarding the boundaries of the two nationi, as the French aatmnomer. La Conda- mine, had done. Thia queation, which arose shortly after the diacorery, and was hushed up only during the slmrt union of both crowns (from l.Wl-llMO), bnike out with renewed rlifor now and then, maugra i:m Treaty of Tordealirias •? li** t"" AMBaiiA: A. I). U»4). ... By the Treaty of tM<> Il.iefooso, ia 1777, both partira having long felt how lmpraclfa»ble the old arrangemenu were — at least, for their American colonies — the buundariee were fixed upon the principle of the utl poasidetla,' at any mte so far as the imperfect knowledge of the hiterior allowed -. but this effort alao proved to be rain . The unsolved question descended aaan evii heritage to their respective heirs, Braall and the Boutb Aawricaa Hepublka. A few y<«n ago It gave rise to the tefrilile war with Paimguav and it wlU lead to fresh cunlllcta between Braxil and the Argentine Republlr "— K. Keller 7'*« Amattm and )f<KUnt Mmn, pp g3.g4 Also IK: R tJouthey, MMwy ^ BrtM, .. • med. Bee (JniKaT. A. D. 17IS-t7t4. jii;;.a;i»rf7r^-'*^^-»- ^ A. O. lart-llM-SMMMS tb« idlag _ _ „,. .— ■• Whihi aoaKhy and ruin — - ri7*itr— Tke hMdiM^Tu? !•■ ImI iMira.-- Whlb aaaKly and ruin 'verawwJ W« gi«kWr part of tiii beauUtui Of BmUi AMttea, Ike l«yif« Of Bm- 12'1 BRAZIL, 1808-180. ^ won an independent enatanca without blond- shed, and kept it with credit. The Dutch oonqueat of Bnuil, and iu raoonquest by the Port"*""*". •»• been mentioned In a former chapter. The country long remained under the cloeeandoppreaaivemonopiriy Impoaed upon it by the PortugtMse: but in 1858 [l807]whcn N. pblcM invadid Portugal, the regent wnbarkcd [see Pobtooal: A. D. 1807], witC the royal in^ signia, for Braxil. which at once assum^ the dignity of an Integral part of the kingdom. The porta were opened to the commerce of the world the printing-preaa waa introduced; learning was encouraged; tha enonnoua naources of the country were explored: foreign aettlon were In Tited to eatabliah themaelvea; emhaales were aent to Konpean powers of tha fli - rank, sod diptomatio agoito (eoelred. N/>w towns and harboura were planned: new Ufa was breathed into every department of tha atata; After a few yeara. the atato of affaiis in Europe compelled King Jobn VL to return to Europe, as the only chtnoe of preserving the Integrity of the mon- archy. The Cortea of Llabon Invited their sover- eign to revisit his ancient capital, and deputies from Braxil were aummoned to attend the sit- Ungs of the National Assembly. But before the deputies could arrive, the Cortea had rehired tl>'~ Braxil should be agabi reduced to aUolute dependent* on Portugal A resolution more scnseieas or mora impiacticabie can haidly be imagined. The territory of Braxil was s> farm aa all Europe put U)«.ther; Portugal wu a little kinplom. Isolated and without luflu.uce among the monarchies of the Ol.l World v.t it waa deliberetoiy decree<l Uut all the nioM.iix.jic. or the exphxled oolonlal svsi. m should Iw re- vived, and that Enghmd siiould bedeprin^lof >er free tnde to baxlL The king apHuied hta eMeat son, Dom Pedro. Regent of the new kingdom, and soon after took lila departure fur Usboo. with many of the emlfrrant nohiliiy I>>m Pedro assumed the government undrr the perplexing circumstances of an empty trcmurv a heavy public debt, and the pruvincrs alm.«t lii revolt. Bahia diaavowed hU authi>rity, and the Cortea wlthheM their support fr.Mu liim. The regent reduced his expenditure to the monthly sum altowed to hia princess for pin nion.) . h^ retired to a country house, ami olwin'Jl tUc most rialii economy. By great exerilonn h.' n- ducBl the public expenditure fnHn $.'W,ij(«m«ii) to ll.t.UUO.UUO; but tlie uunh<-m au<l liu<m»l piDvlncea still wlthlield tliilr t«sn, the «niiy liecame mutinous, anil the niinistcn r.f hU fatlwr. who still remalne<l in power, were ua popular; the regent In despair deinaninl hi* recall. But the Bntlllan* were at k-nitth dU armed by his noble conduct; llwy ni-oKui/nl his artlvtty. his benefloenoe, hU amiduliv In th« affs s of government, and tlie iMtiituai fci lino of I., jtlon and respect for the IIoum uf Brs ria, which had for a moment b«n Islil v\nn . diatruat, were reawakened with nix wwl •tjength. It waa fortunate that the uii«ml» which diatttrbad Braxil wrreaonMninu!«U'<< !• r»r« the arrival of Intelligence from Portugal lUnlly hail the king arrived in Lisbon wlien he f..uud bimaelf obilged to aaeat to s ronstituiluo whh h treated Ua BrBslUaa subjects as mere I'oluauu, ItuiBllfaitinf to the Brexlllaaa The deslKu •>( lieeiariag BruU aa ladapaadant kiBgdum. grew =. I BRAZIL, 180e-18M. BRAZIL, 1871-1888. mon and mora In public farour; but the prinoe wM uDwttUnK to place btmiclf in direct nbcllion to the crown of Portunl, and ■taulily adhered to hii determination to leave America. At length, it ii related, a deipatch was delivered to the regent, which he declined to ihow to any of hta mmiaten, but which evidently excited in hit Blind no ordinary emotion* of anger: he cnuhed the paper in hia hand, and moved away to a window, where he stood for a few momenta in thought; at length he turned to bis council with the words ' Independencia ou morte': — the ex- clamation waa received with tumultuous cheers, and wss adopted aa the watchword of the Bevo- lutioa. The Portuguese troops wer« sent back to Europe. The Cortea of Lisbon were now anxious to recall their obnoxious decrees; to sdmi' the deputies from Brazil; to make any concession that might be demanded. But It waa too late: the independence of Braxtl waa for- mally procUlmed m August, 1833, and in De- cember of the same year, Dnm Pedro was crovned Emperor of BiBxil. This is tile first, and a* yet the only inatanoe of a modem colony achieving ita independence, and aeparating itself completelv from ita metropolla without blood- shed. "—Viscount Bury, £«Miiif tf 0» WmHtm Xatimi, «, 3, cA. II. Also IS: J. ArmiUge, Bitt. (tfBratO, e*. 1-7. —See, also, Portvoal: A. D. 11130-1884. A. D. iSas-i86s.— Wars with th« Arreo- tiaes.— Abdication of Dom Pedro I.— Tb« GuarradosCabaaoa.- " In 1838, chinHy through tli« mediation of England, Braxil was acknowl- edged as an indepeodent empire. But the inner i-ummntions continued, and were not even sootheti by s new Constitution, drawn up in 1838, and sworn to bv the Kmperor in 1884. New revolu in IVmambuco, and aiime of tlie otiier Northern prorinm, and a war of three yeara with tlio Argi'otine Kepubltc, which ended in 1823 by Brazil giving up Banda Uriental, annexed only eleven years before, disturbed and weakened the Uml. The foreign soldiers, enlisted for this war, and retained afl«r iu condusioa to keep down If Opuaition. anti the extravagant private life if ilie Empemr, who recklessly trampled down tlie honour of respacUble famlliaa, provoked dliMliifsctlon and murmurs, which rose to the b\iiUi'»i pitch when be inaisi ' upon earrviiig on a Hunt unjHipular war in Po. ugitl to derentTtiie riKliU o( Ilia daughter. Dona jiaria da Gloria (in whuM faviiur he had abdicated the Portuguese Crown), against his biuthcr. Don Miguel [see i'oKTiiiAL: A. n. ]884-t88»] In April, Iftll, U'Mi Hniro I., so enthuaiaatically raised to the Hmziliitn Uinme only nine yeare before, waa fnnwl to abdicate It. deserted and betrayed by evfry one, in behalf of hia younger son, Pwiro 1 lie next peritKi was the most disturbeil one tliHt U.0 voung Empire hiid yet witnewwd Hhve K;»<>lls at Bahia, a civil war In tlie >louth, which alinwt n<tl it tlie pnivinceof Hioarawledu Hul. ami tlie bloody rebellion known aa the Ouerra iii« ( alunos. In I'ara and Amuim, fn>m 1883 to l!w:, (i>llowe<i each other quickly. In tlila last revolt, the Bratilians bad stirred up Uie Indians anil mesUniea agaltiat tb« abhorrad Portuguess, «iihout ixmsiderlng that they skouki not be slile to gucDch tlia Are thev had UMOHalvaa S.MM. in » ahm time, tke fury of M* wboU Allured populaikw tunMd aniMt ail wUmh imilltaaa aad PunuftMM iBka, wHkoui aajr distinction. Mon than 10,000 persons are said to have perished in this Guerre dos Cabanos; and, to tlie preaent day. those terrible times and the barbarous cruelties committed bv the In- dians, lialf-castes, and mubttoes, continue to be talked of with awe In the two provhiccs. A revolution in Uinaa, got up by the personal ambitiona of a few polUical leaden, rether than emanating from the spirit of the people, and the war against Roaas, the DicUtor of Uie Argentine Republic, passed over Brazil without leaving deep traces, at leaat when compared with the last war against Paraguay; which, besides the stimulus of the old differences about boundariea, waa occaaioned by the endless vexations and re- atrictiona with wlilch the DicUtor Lopez strova to ruin the Brazilian trade on the Pant,aay, and to prejudice the province of Mato Qroaso." F. Keller, 1%4 AnaioH and Madtin Binrt, t». Also di: J. Armitage, Bit. rf Braril, 1808- 1881.— See, alao, Aaournra Rkfcbuc: A. D, 1818-1874. A. D. 1I6S-1I70.— Th« war with Paracuay. SeePAHAOUAT: A. D. 1806-1878. A. D. t87i-i88a.— Emaacipatioo of SUvas. —The Brazilian act of emancipation, known as the Law of Rio Brenco (taking tliat name from the Minister who carried It through) was passed on the 38lh of September, 1871, "and from that date it wu enacted 'that cliildren henceforth bom of alave women shall be considered of frea condition.'. . . 8uch cbildren are not to b* actually free, but are bound to serve the ownen of their motliera for a term of 31 yean, under the name of 'apprentices.' These must work, under severe penalties, for their bereiiitary niastera; but if tlie latter inllict on tlicm excessive bodily piinUliment, they are allowed to bring suit in a criminal court, which mnv declare their freedom. A pnivlslon was alao maJe for the emHncipalion of government slaviii, and there was a clause which insured a ceruin sum, U> tie annually set aside frnin Hue*, which was to aid each pmvince in emancipating by piirrlntae a certain number of alaves. . . . The passage of this hw did not prove merely prospective in ita elTwln, In a very short time tlie sums placed aaiile roremnnri- pating slaves by purchase resulted in tlie frreiiom of many bondmen. And more tlian this, there seemed to be a genenms private rivalry in the good work, fMm motives of lienevolencf and from rellgloiia iiiHueiice. Many p^raona in various parts of firatil lilieratcd their alxrea without cim- p«-nsation. ... I am happy to say tliat the number llbcreuil, either liv the provisions of the Huie or by |irlv«tp imlivUunla, N slways in an increasing mlio. When the writer lint went to UrHZll [IH.U| ... It wiM estlinale.^ that there were S.UUll.UUi) In alarery. . . . There were at tlie beginning of \n'\ when the law of emanc. patlon hail iMvn hut a little more than three fean In onerHtlon, l,478,S8i slavea. "— J. C letcbcr and l> 1' Kidder, Ortuit n/uf Iht Bm- iil,aiu. eA. 38— "(Mi the 35lh o! .Manb. |fM(. alavery waa abolialied In the pmvince of Ciiini The lUo News says. The movemt-nt began only 18 nmatiu ago, the first municipality ilbcntting IM ikvaa OB tl<e lat of January, 1888. The new <•« tow of \aM Nnvinnber emtiv acc-leraled Ikis n i o grsM. because It mad* alavehokllng im- POHibto, tk* value of the slave being leaa than UMtar"* Ua tiis 38tk ot OapUaber, 1888, ifet 828 f! BRAZIL, 1871-1888. IrapstlMioe of the BniflUiii to rid thenuelrei of sUrerv eipitMnd itMlf In a new EmancipaUon Act, known u the Suaira Uw. It pn^ided f^ 1?'^* haitenlni the extension of BRAZIL, 1888-1881. freedom, by ina«Mlng the public fund Bppropri- •t«l to Jt, by defining the Ttluation of glaTee, and bT other effecUve provliions, so that ■•within ten yean (from ita date] it ia siippoMd ?5 'If 'ST? ""' •"»" «*«<' to e»l»t in Bntil. " . 7i}- k- """''• ■* '«»'■ •'» -Shut/, op. 381-2tM — '•'On March !», 1887, the official return nve the nu Tiber of ilares in Brazil aa 788.419, of Uie |legarr,Iu« of $485,885,818. On May 18, 1888, itfce Crown Princeaa, aa reeent, javc the royal aifcnt to a itiort measure of two clauMis. the flrat decUrfng that ilg ery was abolished in Brazil Ttom the day of the promulgation of the law, and the second repealing all former AcU on Uie sub- ject. Boih Cbar.u)ors refused to consider the claim for compensation made by the sla»e own- ers. —Statr^imurt Ttnr-Book, 1890, n 391 of the Empjre.-B8UbUahmeBt of the Republic of the United Stataa of Brazil.— RejVjoua freedom declared.— "The sudiko ollapsooftlie Imperial Oiivcrnment in November fl88"l resulting in the downfall of Dom Pe<lro and hU banishment, causi-d universal surprito. For some time the Government had been cniilied bv the Republican Journals with the wish anil intention to dUperse Uie army througlio,.. the provinces and along the frontier, ro Uutt with the assUtance of th- newly-organised National Ouaid, the succession of the Prfncesa Imperial to the throne might be secured 1 1 the event of tlie djMth or incapacity througl Id age of the ^peror Dom Pedro. An infantry battollon ordered to embark for a disUnt province, mutinied and refused to go. The W«' Depart- ment resolved to compel them by force to depart The result was a general niuUny (NoTember 15 1888). which soon l«fame i rsTolutloo. "The organlurr of Uie muUny was Colonel Benjamin C<msUul Botelho de Magal- kMt, an officer of exceptional ability andPro- Umatia the MlUtary Academy. The movement •wmed dlivcted at first only against Uia oboozlous Ouro Preto Ministry ; but the enUiusi- Mm of Uie iMpublicana. under Uie leadership of a popular agitator, J(«e da Patn^lnio. waa so IT'^uP.T^'^'^'J'"'' •' • nieeUng held In the dty hall. In Uie afternoon of Nov. 15, a rrtolu- tioo proclaiming Uie Republic was pasaed bv aixlamatlon. About the same hour, a silf con- stltuu-jl committee consisting of General Deo don. |,la Fonseca], Benjamin CoosUni, su.l Uiilntliio Bocayuva, met ami organlse<l a Pro vl»l.«i«l Government," with Marshal l).i.l.«i)da Foims-a f..r iu Chief. Colonel UoU ll.o .K- M„„|. bar. f,.r .Mlni.t.'r of War. •• A f.Hinal decree wa» lssue<i d«larln» a fe.l.nil Kinulill.. the sevrral provlnren of the lain Kmpln.u-..n»t;i«ilng the Hutes and eaih Htate arranging iu o»ii mn- stitutlon and clerti'ig Iu drllU-milve Uxli,-. ami tooal govemmenu On Uie iiK.rnIng <.f tlw IMih the denoani Kmpiror received liitlmatkin ilmt lie and hia family niu»t leave the ii.iintry wlthi,, twenty four hours — • Between ii and 3 oolmk on tlie morning of lliv 17lh an olBcr app«Breil at Uie palace and liif .rmrii Uie KinpenV that lie m.»t St nsee emte^k. «iil, .\\ 'Sht Wrmlx:™ of l.m family. The wrtlclw,! ,.l,| ,mo prolealed UMt 1m waa not a fmlllvu, and Uiat he prefarreil to embMk by day; bat aftw Iktmilng to the officers ezplanaUoo Uiat a cooOict might occur Md blood might be ahed, he flmilly y e^' proteating thatln such a criaia hia old griy S was the only one Uiat was oooL And so at the dead hour of night, wiUi no one to say a fair, well MKl bid him Godspeed, the aged iTmperor' with hi. dcirated wlfeiS^childreV^wmtt to the Caes Pharoni, where a launch was wait ^g to convey them out to the small RuniKwt Pamahjrba. About 10 o'clock the gunlx" steamed out of the harimurand w.-nt down („ Ilha Orande to wait for Uie merchant ,u,.mer ^'S*"^ ^■^^'^ "^ •*•» <^'>«rt"wl to cnvpy the exile, to Europe- It waa said tlwt he Imperial MinUt^. prindnally throuifh the with Dom Pedro to abdicate at the rnj i January. 1890, in favour of hU daughter the i^ ."««" dEu- But the CounteM, with' her ausband, was extremely unpopular wiih ilio army and navy and from tli««e the f.rlins of disloyalty spre«l rapidly among the pcplo [u- decree of Um Provisional Ooveni.n; ,u, ,hi pi^ovinoes of Brazil, united by th.- tic of f«l,.r. atlon were to K .lyU-d the •United StaU,. of Brazil, and general elections were to Uikc nlare n August 1890, to confirm the esUbllalmient of the l^public. A counter-revolution lm.ke out ! > '.'S "^- '*■ •* nximXm of soldiers, aailnn an.l clvlltans took part in it, and troops hail t.i !« on,, red out to disperse them. It was not mitll I Uie m)\ that the disturbance was flnally iiui'lli,! • -AuHunl RmMtr, 1889, ft. 1, „,. 444-MK - The revolution was the work of leaii.M who were not only conscious of their power liiii alao confident that Uie nation would inevitably con- done their temporary acu of usurpation. 'Tlieie were no signs of weakness, vacillation or uncrr- tainty in their actio! A coalition of the •"Jjy officere and the conatlluUon mak.Ts and political dreamers of tlie League would iiare been im7racticable If the leaders ha/i not known that tha80 provinces of the Emplr weiv pro- roundly dlMlTected and would readily acquiesce In a radical change of government. . . . The Emperor of Bnszii haa enjoyed Uie repuUtion of being one of the DMst enlightened and pm- grnalve aoveraigoa of hIa Ume. ... He was s ruler wlUi maov faKinathigandestimalile trhitu w ho endeared bImMlf to hU people. Thia and much moie may ba said in prcise i>f the ilep,.*! and baniahed Emperor; but when the ntonl ,.f hts public services and of his privau- vlmi.-» in riimplete, the fact remains tliat he stool fur s svilein of centralizatitm that practically dinrinMJ the great series of fedeniu-d provlmi-s of' llu ir BUtonuiny and his sulijccts of the privilege,, if •elf government. Dom I'lilni II whs not a ,..« sUtutional rtlormer. The charur wliii li he lu,| reoslved from his father was not ni<Klitie<| In any easenUal respect during his long reign •-.>■ )* TViJiilM «n,„, r. I, M. 18 (I8N9)-' A new ConsUtutfcitt . was raUlled liy tlw flr-t NutliHwl Congri'M. ronve->e.l ihi Nor l.l. \-<wt By this instrument liie Il.nuilian uitllon (vtiml- tut«-i| lui'lf Into a finiersl rrpubllc, uii,li r tin name of the Unitwl Suu^s of llrsiil K i, k of Uiooiil provinces was di-rliinHl a self ifm, miiin su««, to In atliuinisleriMl uudorareiMiliViniii f.irra of guiretuuu-tu, with power to Impose t««, i. aii,l nibjoct to no interfi rencn from Uie ( . ntrai Goveranwnt, except for purposes of oati<iUiil 324 BRAZIL, 18W-18n. BRnrBNTELD. df fcBM or tlM pmerratUn of IntoAil order or for Um execution of Fedenl bwi. Lea[liUtion reUtiog to cuitonu, paper cturencj, wid poatal rommunlcetions ii reeerred to tin Fedenl Govcrament. The right of lOffrBge te Mcured to all male citizeiu over 21 Tean old, wtUi the i<ir«pt!oa of brggmn, peraooa ignonuit of the alphabet, soldieni in actual lerTke, and penom under monaatlc Towa, regtalratlon beHng the only prerequUtte. The ezecutlTe authority is Tfttnl in the Preddeot . . . elected by the people diivctlv for the term of liz years, and not eiigilile for the succeeding t«nn. . . . Senslors are electt-d by the Legislatures of the Sutes for nine yean, three from each State, one retiriog and his sucoeaaor being choieu every tbivt' yi'Sts. . . . The Chamber of Deputies has the initiative in all laws reUting to taxation. I)eputic« lire elected for three yean by direct popular vote in the proportion of one to every lO.OOO inlubitanta. ... It is declared that no •I'd or church sliall receive aid from the National or State governments." In 18S1, differences aroae between the President and Congress, at flrst over financial nieaaures paaard by the Chambcn and vetned by the I*resident and Khemes recommended by the President that were voted down by Congress. In November the President published a decree dissolving CoDgreas, closed the Chambcn by force, pro- rlslmed himself Dictator on tlie invitation of offlcrn of the army, and convoked a new Con- gress, to be charged with the revision of the constitution. The State of Rio Orande do Sul led off in a revolt against this usurpation, and on thf 23d of November, after some shots had been tiriHt into the city of Rio de .laneiro by a naval 't.juailrun acting against him, President Funseca ri'aigned. " Floriano Peixuto was immedlataly I Killi'ii br tlie revolutionary committee ssPrn- ii|i-ni In his metui."—Apt>lrton'i AtiHvai Cyrl^- I '.lut isiil. ;./) Dl-M.— Fora time, the govem- I lint oiKicr President Peixoto was maintained vviih < oiiHidemlile sticress : but in iH98 a serioui r-lx llion. in which the navy took the lead, ^)rok• Mil. The naval insurgents held the harbor of Uio de Janeiro for some months, but gmdually I < support. On the Ist of Manh. INtM. a pre*' M'-ntial I'lertinn was hrkl. which n-Miltrd m th« rhoicc of Prudente Morws, a civilian. This ra- movnl the leading grievance of the rrbeU. that iVi\'ito WHS (lerpctuatint! a regime of purr milt- iHriuu. On the 11th <il Manli the f.ret which the governmi-nt hail In-i n fitting nut In tb« I'liltitl Htittrs and Eur<'|if appeari-d at the en- irariiv to the harbor of Rio. The Insurkjnt rominanili'r ufTired to surrender on cooditKma, whii h heinir n'fuvHl. he and his ofllrfn sought ii«ylum on flrst ii Krcnrli and later a Portuguese n If vi'wi'l Tims ili'iH'rted, tlie orews of the i'i<iir<i'nt TPam'U surrrndered without rrslstaoca wlii-n till' government iNttlcrles opened flr*. In III" rtr»t n.irt of April the Eovimment forcM ' 'I'tllv ilrreuted the rebels In Hio Urande do 8uL NT 0o^8^lTt•TlOH or Rrazil. BREAD AND CHBKSB WAR. NtTiiKiit «M>»: A. I>. 14W-14im. B«« BRECKINRIDCB, lehn C- Defeat bi Ree I'siTHi Preside.itiai clecMea. Bee I'xiTi' i> Htatbs or ">x A Ii imKi (ApHII.— KuVKMHKH) BREDA : A. D. IS7S.— Spaaish-Ottch Cm> grtsi. tiaa Nbtbularim : A. D MTtiy 1977. A. D. ino.— Optm hf Priaet Maorlca •! NasBan-Orann. Bee NvmEBLAmis: A. D. 1588-1503. A. D. iAa4-l6as.— Sicfe and captara by th« Spaaiarda, See NBTiiKRi.AMoa: A. D. ISSl- lKi3. A. D. 1637,— Takta br the Pihica of Oraas*. See Nbtrkrlands: A. D. lOWV-lOHS. A. D. 1793.— Takca aad lost by the Preach. SeeFRAHca: A. P. 1798 (Fbbhuakt— Arau,). > BREDA, Dcclatatioa from. See Eholaxd: A. D. 165»-1«60. BRBDA, Treaty of (tM6). See NcracB- laKiM(HoLLAHO): A. D. 16l»-lflW. BREED'S HILL (Bnakcr HiU), Battle oC See UifiTSD Status or Am. : A. D. 1775 (Juki). BREHON LAWS.— "The portion of the Irish tribe system which has attnuted most attentio ia tlie mode in which the judicial authoritv was witiidrawn from the chief and ap- propriated by the hereditary caste of tlie Breiions, and also the supposed anomnlous principles which tliey applied to the decision of the cases which came before them. The curlier English «'riten foiud no terms too strong to ex- press their abhcrrenco and contempt of tliese natlvu judges, and their contempt for the prin- ciples upon which they pn)cee<lt>d. On the otlier hand, Irish writcrr attributeil to them> profes- sional nrbitml'irg advuicol princlplni of equity wholly foreign U) an early community. . . . The tnn^ation of the existing vast nia«.H of Rn'hon law books, and the trunslatlon [publication?] of the moot Important of tlicm by the onivr of the government, have disposed of the argumenta and awcrtions on hotii sides. It is now ad- mitted, that the aysiem and principles of the Brehun jurisprudence pn>senl no characteristics of any special character, although in them primitive ideas of law went eUbonted in a manner not found elsewhere ; ... the hiws which existed among the native Irish were In substance those \?liich are found 10 have pre- vailed among other Aryan tribes in a similar stage cf social progress ; as the social develop- ment of the nation was prematurely arreslea, so also were the legal ideas of the same stage of existence retidned after they had dlaappearMi In all other nations of Europe. This legal survival continued for centuries the property of an hereditary caste, who had acquired thn knowl- edge of writing, and some tincture of scholaritic pbUosophy and civil law. . . . The learning of the Brehons consisted (1) in an acquaintance with the minute ceremonies, intelligible now only to an arcbnologist, and not alwavs to bim, by which the action could be instituted, and without which no Hrrhon rould sasume the m! -if arhitrator: and (2) in a knowledge of i' tradilioiia, customs and precedrnta of the tril In accordance with whlcn the dinnule should in decided."— A. O. Rlcbey, SKtrt liiM. qftkt IriiA Aentt eh S. Also .m ; Sir II Maine. XaHg IIM. / M- MtuHonM Uet 3 BRBISACH: A. D. id)t— Si«icc aad can- tar* br Dnka Barahard. ?» Qrrma.iy: A. ft. l«S4-ta8» A. D. 1641.— Ceaalau to Fraac*. Hee Oaa- HANV: A. I> iOM. BRBITBNFBLD, Battle of lor Srst battle •r LaipaiC). See UaaMAJIV: .V I*. IU3I ... i ' 'tt. 325 t. ' BRUTUUFKLO. Jk I 1 V tf 4tf ^T ■ III I 1 - - * L ft* * BRETWALDA. R^rmed RdJcien. 8ea Papact: A. D. 1334- S^» ^^iSLly^"*^ "K *'•• Blihoprlck to . JJ"* "^OfUtAWT: A. D. 1«48 Ommaict: a. D. IMl-lsS. **"~^*- "^ A. D. iSiit.— AuMscd to Pnacc Sae FkaH«; A.D. J8lO(F..ROABT-DECKI.B«Rr A. D. iBio-iSi(.-LoM aad rtcerery of •BtomHnraa • "£f dty." See Crrw7lM rtniAi, AHD Fmb, op Obmaht A. D. iSic.— Onco mort a Fn* City sod a AbUtKtt^^SteiSJOrs;; OaBMAmr: A. D. 1888. BRBMI : A. D. l63S-t««t.— Takon br tha Fr«aeli.-RacoTM^ tqr tft^ SpanUrti' SeS Italy: A. D. ItatV-lASs' -•—"»• oee BRtMULB, Battla of (iito). See X>a- Laxd: a. D. 1067-1 18S. Vh a^ ajxa BRBMTlfORD BatUe oC-Foujht and woo by Edmund frtnulde. In hU oonMet w^th CMut. or CMiute. for tb. Engltah thro^ aTd! I ^"^^'Ai ^ ^^ «5«».— Captara aad bU. j*|J by the French. See Italt: A^R 18?S^ A. D. 1849. — Bombardment, capture and imtal treatment bj the Anatria^ HiynM. fcS Italy: A. U. 1(»4»-1M». "•jnau. ckv ,"""SLAU : A. D. 1741.1760.-In the wara 1.41 (Mav-Jlm); 174a (JA:iuABr_MAr) :Va (Jr««): Okhmakt: A. D. I7S7 (JctV-l kk" ■cm, ami 1700. i'k.«»- whlcl, fr,.m tie llr-i Ul^.uwl uiler "«■ ,L"X: fecu and Imptrfeotl.m,. h«l in counK of tlm„ 10 \>\ect of tlH-mwIVM. or been lUnDn-au.! Th- two tl.ln«.. h„w«v,r. Mill eitauJl 'Tli^e prt.p..„«lty u. «llKl,H„ M«idall«r am' l^H-""! "'•""«*'"'< •«ndlli,H., which m u"mi and n.n,i,.„,l pr«ctlc»l,le ti.e effort. utb^^T^ taSr.iA'^""'" '"»•«"«« of the Common Lot !!l "","••, • Tli« ant ■otiiur of thtancw 1* -uli dc Umnt, urlmnlu, Ma«nu«), a^Sa •f flowla* piety ««i (mat Id loTUag gwU powerful popular orator aad an affoctloiiato I?L^2?.®I'*Pi?T*'^ the ancient Fathew l,ln lerting the racorda of Chttatian antluuitv Hence, ho had tona before employed young men under I.U 0Yerri|i>t, aa copyliu. thereby «! compltahlng the threefold edd of multipiln, the* good theological worto, giving proflubif employment to the youths and obtalSlnir mod portunltr of influencing their mind.. TT,U L continued more aad more to do. The dnlr. nf hU youthful friend., «Aolar^ Md\Sni:riU became from day to day larger, and grew «t part owed It. origin to the copying of tlie S<riD ture. anddeTotlooal book.. tlJe's-Siety fmmX out«t, «id through it. whole continuince, ^1* ^ Holy Scripture and iU prop.g.tio„^e ^'?i?- ~"|«^«. PW"'^*. •lid Stilizinu „f good theological and Mcetical boolu. one of lt» BreUiren of t^ Common Lot,' [or of tli.. Cam. f??n J;"'J 1', Brethren of Good Will.- • Fnitre. Coltatlonan .' 'JeronymUn..' and 'O^rKorUnT . . . ImitathiB the Church at Jeruaalt-n« aoj K!?S?^.h^^*u'^ BffecUon. they nm!u»IIy er ty. or c oomcrated al«> their fortune. If tlier P?||*ijed any. to the wrvlce of the communlt/ rrom thiaaource. and from donation, aad leeV ejch of which a certain number of memlxrs lir«| together, .ubjected. it i« true, in drew, dl, t .nd general way of life, to au appointed ruk" hut wkh^M^ST'"^'? "^''"'^red from tlie world, with which they maintained coovtaot Int^m.urw and in .uch a way h. In oppoiition to .M..n>i<h: fEui"" ''^.'r." '*• J"''«^P'« of imlivMu.! Utjerty. —C.lllnuum,Afun:tmirfor(thtll,f„r. 7Xy- t?J,.'^- *.- '^- »— "ThroJgh th.. w,.D derful actirity of that fraternity of teailier!, rS^' "?»' »«»■<»"«> th« B^thren of tS LummoD Ufa, the Netherland. bad the Unt ivi- K i?!!f "".M*'"^..'"r*5r '•"■(!• town .n.1 Kln,„t ^tke IfithMandi, p. &_8ee. alw, Eolhatio!.: •i-jRC**'* ff OommoH Lift, M. )M1 (r Ii .i?i!!?ili°.f X.' '^'•^ ot-The treaty. cnlW ?•?•,';""*» pdward HTof Englao.1 .„,| .i;,|,d n«,l?"""T' '1 "£!'='' ^""^ r..|i,.,.n...l hii L^!!^2^ '",'?" '^•"■'' '•"'"''■ "•"'•««■'' f" » r^Il!:'"'^'''!'"'--"'*'' » Priioner lo hi. I>.,ikU. and rorolvedtlie full •.ven-ignty of (Jul, „«■. lo^tou and Ponthieu in Praiia-. btidc. r..i*lni„K Calah and Oulwea-ace F«a«cb: A. U IJt: the early Eogllah kinga " Opinions ilim r u 10 the meaoiug of the word Brtlw.ld*. I-Klirmvt. •?•„ WP^nwwf take it a. equivalent to of Briuhi': Kemble cooMniM it 326 „ nilfr .■j~lizr", ■ ."""""^ ""•"n""" II bniail niliiiir.' •M eoee in it a dignity without duty. Iianfly SSS!'*J''.!M'''"*'"»' 1»:1u<I" El mum of *•«■ WM iiroke the powvr uf tlio putty klagf BRZTWAXOA. u far u the Homber, Redbald of Eait AncIU, who obuined it bj gome nukai eren in tbelife- time of Etbelbert, uid the tbree past North- umbrisn kings, Kdwin, OtwoM Mid Oiwy, wboM iupremacy howeTerdid not eitend to Kent" — C. EltoQ, Origiiu of BngUtk HiM., p. SM, aota. Aim nf : K A. Freeman, Hut. if IM* Jioiman Odiu. of Bng., ». 1, am. A— See, also. Eholamd: A. D. 477-527, and EaoLAND: 7th Ckntuht. BREWSTER, WiUUm, and the Plymonth Pilninu. Bee iHDBPEifoeim: A. D. 1001-1617, UHTMAnACBiiBrm: A. D. 1680, anil after. ERE YZ AD.— The people and the language of Brittany, or Bretagne. See BHiTTAiiy: A. 5. 618-912. BRIAN BORU, The reign in Ireland eC See Ireland: A. D. 1014. BRIOGE, BatUe of the— A lerioue reverie suffered by the Arab followen of Mahomet in tbeir early moTemenU against the Persians, A D. 684. A force of 9,000 or 10,000 having croaed the Euphiatea by a bridge of boats were beaten back, their bridge deatroyed and half of them slain or drowned.— O. Rawlinaun, Smnlh Ortat Oriental Mmankp. eK. M.— See Mauomk- TAX roNqtmr: A. D. ma-651. BRIOGEWATER,OR LUNDY'SLANB, Battle of: See UMrnco Statu op Ah. : A. D. 1814 (JcLT— SarrtMBiR). BRIOGBWATER, Storming et See Eng- laud: a. D. 1648 (July- Siitkmbeb). BRIENNE, BatUe et See Fhahcb : A. D. 1814 (Janitabt— March). BRIGANTES, The.— One of the stmngest snd flpiwst of the tribes of ancient Briuin. be- lirvnl liy some historians to have been the origi- lul [irr (Vltic inhabitanu of the Island. At tlie time of lhi> Roman conqueat they held the whole interior northward from the [lumber aod Mersey to the Forth and Clyde. They were subdued by Aifrioola.— E Quest, Origiiui Otttiea. ». 1, M. 1 —See, also, Britaim, Celtic TRiBca, and A. O. 43-,'l3. also, Irblaud, Tmibbs of Early Celtic iNHABrrANTa. BRIGANTINE.-BERCANTIN. See Caravklh. BRIHUEGA, Battle of (A. D. 1710). See Spaih : A. D. 1707-1710. BRILL., Tha capture oC See NETnERLANOa: A. I) I.ITJJ. BRISBANE. See ArvniALU : A. D. 1800- 1841). And law, r.o«5S?Jl.P" WARVILLB AND THE GIRONDISTS. See Frahce : A U. 1791 (I)<tx>bf:k). to 178S(HErTBMBEH— December). BRISSOTINS.-The party of the Gimn- ilUu, In the French Hevolution, waa aoroetimes to I'slk'd, after Brisaot de WarTllle, one of iu lestlrn. BRISTOE STATION. Battia eC See iMTKllSTATEaOPAM.; A. D. ltM8(jDLY— No- vemrch: Vinuinia). BRISTOL: i«th CeBtur.-ltt aUpt trade and other cemmtrcc.—- Within iu compara- tively narrow limits Bristol must have been In feneral rliaracter and aapect not unlike what It " fT"^'' r * •^y' ""^'tog. doselypached city, full of tlie eager, active, surging life of cinn full ""Th' ,',?'"e^- 0«me" tnm Watcrf.ml »"• >u!,i::i. horthinen Uwn Uw Westero Isles sn.1 ih- more distant Urknoya, and even from • "-" '-' ' olfi Uis which m 111- more distant Urknoya, and even fi Ni'rw.y Itself Iwl long ago leant to avoiii *w* «f (hi UigiB.' ika mlgMy cumat wli BRISTOL. itni kept iu heathen aame deriTcd from the aea- jod of their forefathers, snd make it serve to float tliem into the safe and commodious har- bour of Bristol, where a thousand ships could iS.'J'L'i'J?^'. A»,»5««™»ttn«ling centre of the west Bristol ranked ss the third dty in the kingdom, surpassed in importance only hy Wln- clinter and Ixmdon. The most lucrative branch of IU trade, however, reflecu no credit on lu burghers. All tlie eloquence of 8. Wulfstan and all the sternness of the Conqueror had barely availed to check for a while their piactice of kidnapping men for the Irish slave-market; and tliat the tnfflc was in full career in the latter years of Henry I. we learn from the eipericnces of the canona of Laon. "— IC Norgate, Bn^nd under tht Angnin King; t. 1, eh. 1. A. D. 1497.— Cabot's voyage of diacoTcrr. See America: A. D. 1497. A. D. 1645.— Tha stormiBC of tha city by Pairlas. See £.<iolaiio: A. D. 1643 (Jult-- September). A. p. 1A8&— The ceoimarca and wealth of the city.— '• Ne«t to the cspiui. but next at an Immense distance, stood Bristol, then the flret English seaport . . . Pepys, who visited Bris- tol eight vears after tlie Restoration, was struck by the splendour of the city. But his sUndard waa not high ; for he noted down as a wonder the circumstance that, in Bristol, a man might look round him and see nothing but houses. ... A few churches of eminent beauty rose out of a labyrinth of narrow lanes built upon vaulu of no great solWity. If a coach or cart entered those alleys, there was danger that it would be wedged between tlie houses, and danger also that it would break in the celUrs. Goods were therefore conveyed shout the town almost exclusively lu trucks drawn by dogs; snd the richest inlwbit- nnU exhibited their wealth, not by riding in carriages, but by walking the streeU with trains of servanu in rich liveries snd by keeping tables loaded with good cheer. The hoaplulity of the c'ty was widely renowned, and especially the collatlooa with which tlie sugar reflnen r«nled their visltoii. . . . This luxury waa suppi>rte<l by a thriving trade with the North American PfamUtioas and with the West Indies. The pas- sion for colonUI tratllc wiis so strung tlist there was scarcely a small shopkc«pcr in Bristol who tiad nut a venture on b<«nl of some ship bound fur Virginia or the Antilles. Some of these ven- turers indeed were out of the most honourable kind. There was. in the Transatlantic pusses- sioasof tlie crowu, a grent deiiiHiid for hibour; and tills demand was piirtly siipplieii by a system of crimping nmi kiilimiipiug at the principal English seaports. Nowhere was this system in such active ami extensive operation as at Brialol. . . . The numlivr of iiuusi-a appears, from the returns of tlie hearth-money, to have been, In the vear 168,1, Just 8.800. . . . The popuhtiim of Bristol must therefore have been about S9,0OU."— Lord .Moeaulay, //.««. uf Eng., rA. 8 (». 1). A. D. iljf.— Ths ffsform BUI Riots.— The popubv excitement Drodiiced In England in 18dl by the action of the House of Lords in rejecting tlie Heform Bill, led to riou hi several pbon, but most seriously at Bristol. " Th* Bristol mobs have always Been noted for their bruUlity ; wd tlie outbrsak now was such as to sinase and con- found the the wbois kingdom. . . . Tlie lower parts of the city wsri tlMi barUMurage of probably 327 BRISTOL. a woiH ieaport populace tban any other place In England, while the police waa ineffective and <lc- moraliwd. There waa no city In which a greater amount of aavagery lav beneath a society pr<)uil, excluaWe, and mutually repellent, rather than enlightened and accuitomed to aoclal co«pem- tlon. Thcae are circunutancea which go far to account for the Bristol rloU being ao fearfully Imil ns they were. Of this city, Sir Charles Wcthcrell — then at the height of his unpopularity ns n vigorous opponent of the Reform Bill— waa recorder; and there he bad to go. Id the laat days of October, in his Judicial capacity. . . . The symptoms of discontent were such aa to Induce tlie mayor, Mr PInncv, to apply to the homc- offlcc for military aid. Lord Melbjume sent clown some troops of hone, which were quartered within reach. In the neighbourhood of the dty. . . Sir Charles Wetherell could not be indurad tn relinquish his public entry, though warned of the danger by the magistrates themsolvca. . . . »)n Sotimluy. October 2«, Sir Charles Wetherell entcrwl Bristol in pomp : and before he reached tlie Mansion House at noon, he muat have been pretty well convinced, bv the hootlnga and throwing of stones, tint he Lad better have fore- gone the procession. For some hours the special constal>le8 and the noisy mob in front of the Man- sion House cxdiangrd discourtesies of an em- phatic character, but then- wa.i no actual violence till night. At night, the Slansion House was attAcko<l, and the Klot Act was read; but the military were not brought down, as they ought to have been, to clear the streets. The mayor liiul • religious scruples,' and was ' humane '; and liLi indecisinn was not overborne by any aid from his brother ma^'islrates. When the mili- tary were brought in, it waa after violence had been committed, and when the passions of the mob were much excited. Sir Charles Wetheiell escaped from the city that nlitht. During the dark hours, sounds were hearil provocative of further riot; shouU in the slreetH, anil the ham- mering of workmen who won- Itonnling up the lower windows of the Mansion nnuw and the neighlKiuring dwellings. l>n tlie Sunday morn ing. tJie rioters bmkv into the Mansion Ilnuso without oppoKilion; and from the liiiie they got into the cfllars, all "iiit wrouj Hungry wretches and boys broke the necks of the ImtTi-s, and Queen Sijuarc was strewed with the Inxlles of the ilead ilrunk. The soldiers were left with- out onlers, and their otlleers without that sanc- tion of the magistracy In tlie altsence of whirh tliiy could not act, but only raradr; and in this parnding. some of the soldiers nalurallv lost tlwir tempers, and siMikc anil uiaile gestures on lliilr own accoimt, which iliil not lend to the smithing of the mob. This mob never consisteil of more than live or sl.x huiiiireil. . . . The mob ihi'lanil op^-nly what they were golns In do , and they went to work un'eherkeil — armeii with suves anil bludgeons from the quavn, and witli inm palisades fmm IIm- Mausiou House — to bn-a., open au.l burn the briilewell. the Jsil, the lil.Hlmps palace, the eusiomhnusc. and Queen Siiiian> They pave half an hour's notice to the inhali<uiils of each house In the si|iiare, wliieli thev then set Hre to In regular sucnHnihin. (Ill two sides, each measuring S.W fitt. lay in smoking roln. The b>aiitt« of the rininken'were se<-n roasting in the (Ire. The grea'" <<iirober of the riotera were be- Ucvad to be unUi.t twenty years of age, and some BRITAIN. were mere children; MMiie Sunday acholaia, hitherto well conducted, and it may be ques- tioned whether one in ten knew anything of tlie Kiform Bill, or the offences of Sir Charles Weth- erell. On the Monday morning, after all aetual riot seemed to bo over, the soldiery at last niaile two slaughterous charges. More horse arrived and a conshlerablo Ixxiy of foot soldiers; ami the conatebuhtry became active: and fmm that time the city was In a more onlerly aUto than the nsi denta were accustomed to see it. . . . TbcniairiS' trates were brought to trial, and so was Cnlimel Brereton, who was understood to be In comnuimt of the whole of the miliUry. The result of that court-martial caused more emotion throuirliout the kingtiom than all the sUughtering ami hum. Ing, and the subsequent executions wliich marked that fearful season. It waa a year before the trial of the magistrates waa entered upon. Tlie reault was the acquittal of the mayor, and the consequent relinquishment of the proeccutlnn of his brother-magistrates."— H. Martlncau, A Hit- torn "/ '*< Tliirtg Tean' Pent*, bk. 4, eh. 4 (t. 2). » BRITAIN.Connt and Duke of.- The military commmndera of Roman Britain. HeeUHiTAix' A. D. 838-337, also Arthck, Kiwa. BRITAIN, Tha name. See BRrrAiran. Celtic Tribea.—" It appeara that the south- eaatem part of the laland, or the district now oc- cupied bv the county of Kent, waa occupiiil bv tlie Cantii, a Urge and Influential tribe, which iii Cnaar's time, waa divided among four cliltfs or kinga. To the west, the Regni held the mi»lem counties of Suaaex and Surrey, fromtlic sia e.iast to the Thamea. Still farther west, the Bilirie ne- cupied the couutry from the aouthem coast to the Bristol Channel, Including nearlv the whole of Hampahire, Wiltahire and 8omeraet»hiie The whole of the extensive district extemiingr fruin the Bclga to the extreme western point nf the island, then called Antivestvum or Boleriiim (nnw the Land's End) Including Devonaliin- ami C.rn wall, waa occupini by the Diiinnonil, or Dam- nonll. On the coast between the I)umiiMiiii iinj the Belg.e the smaller tribe of tlic IMin.irij-e* held the moilera county of Dorset. On the ntlur side of the Thames, extending nortliwani^i t,i t!i^ Stour, and including the greater part of .Mill. lie sex as well as Eamsx, Uy the Triuoliuites. To ili- north of the Stour dwelt the lei-ni, e^lemlin;.' over the counties of Suffolk, Norfolk. Ciinliriil.'o and Huntiugdoa The Coritavl piwuewed li..' liP'sent counties of Northampton, L<iiv»ter Uu! lomi, Derby, Nottingham and Lincolii; ,m\ the southeaslem par* of Yorkshire was lnM h\- xUc Parisl. Between the tribes last eiiuniirati-.l. In tlic counties of Buckingham, Biilford iwil llert ford, lay the tribe called by Itolei'.v ilie ( a'- yeuchlani, ami by others Cstuvelhinl.' .\ii.>ther name, apparently, for this lrilH3, r.r f„r a .livibion of It, was the Cassli. West of lliiiw were the Atrehates. In Berkshire; and still further west were the DobunI, In the counties of (»»f,.ri snii (Jloucester. . . . Theinteriurof theisiami inirtli ward waa occupieil by the Brigantes. wIh> liel ! the extensive districts, difflc"'' uf appriMih i>a account of their mouuuin* wimmI^ ikiukI ing from tlie Humber and Mewy ii> the prraent iK-.nIrr* nf S.--->tl«^.! Tiil-i .v :....-■;».. tribe appears to have fncluih-u .-veral Miinller ones [the Voluutii, the Seatuni.i. the .Iniidiiti:! and llM Cao(i]. The Brigantes are bvlievnl ui BRTTAIK. hire bren Um origbukl lahitblUnta of the laUnd, who had been driren northward by niccoMlTe in- Tuiom. . . . Wale*, alin, WM lnbabtte<l by a primitive population. The northern countie* . . . wu the territory of the Ordovlcea. Thcsouth- eutrm rountiea . . . were lield by the Demetac. The still more celebrated tribe of the Silures in- hatiiteii the modem counties of Hereford, Radnor, lirrolinoclt, Monmouth and Cbmorgan. Between tlieae and the Brigantci lay tlie Comabii or Cam- tbii. The wilder parU of the island of Britain, to the north of the Bricantes, were inhaliitcd by a great number of smaller tribes, some of whom seem to bare been raised in tlie scniu of eiviliza- tiim little above savages. Of tlicae we liare the names of no less than twenty-one. Bordering on the Brigantes were the Otadcni, inhabiting the coast from the Tyne to the Firth of Fortli. . . . Next to them were the Oa>icni. . . . The Selgova inhabited Anoandale, Nitbadale and Eikdale. in Dumfriesshire, with the East of Oallo- wsT. The Novantes iuhabite<l the remainder of Oslloway. The Damull, a larser trilie, held the country from the cliain of hills separating Oal- loway from Carrick, northward to the river £m. Thrw tribes lay to the south of the Forth and Clj'iie. Beyond the narrow boundary formed by Ihrw rivers lay [the Horestii, the V-nricones or Vcrnicnmes, the Taixali or Taexali, the Vaco- nugi. the Albani, the Cintai, the Logi, the Cafnabii, the Catini, the Mertc, the Camonacc, the Crcones, the Cerones, and the Epidii]. The ferocious tribe of the Attaootti inhabited part of A' :> Icshire, and the greater part of Dumbarton- »hire. The wild forest country of tlie interior, ■(Down as the Caledonia Sylva (or Forest of Cel- riiiion). extendeii from the ridge of mountains bttween Inverness and Perth, nonliward to the forest of Balnagowan, including the middle parts of luverneas aiul Rosa, was held by the CaMonil, wliirb appears to have been at this time [of the conquests of AgricoUJ the most important ami powerful of all the tribes north of the Briganles. " -T Wright, Tlie Celt, the Roman and the Saxon, eh.i. .\i.ai)iM: J. Rhys, Cellie Britain.— J. P. Skene, •Vliu Heollaml, bk. 1, eh. 8. B- C. 55-54.— Caaar's inruions.— Having Fitendeti his conquesU in Oaul Ui the British riiannel and the Strait of IK)ver (see Oacl: H ('. 5H-51), Cvaar crossed the ! ler. In August, II (' !y\ and made his first Uiidiiig in Britain, whhtwn legions, numbering 8.000 tu 10.000 men. P'>rtu« ItUia, from whicli he sailed, was probably eiiliir Wl^aant or Boulogne, and his landing pliire on the British coast is believed to have l)e. II ii< HI Deal. The Britons disputed his land- ing witii great obstinacy, but were driven back, iin.l ()IT<rc'd to submit; but when a few days iCerviinls, Camnr'n fleet suffered greatly from a "I'-nii, they rcconaidemt their submission and opened hi.'^tllltics again. Iioutc<l in a second Iwllle. tlK'jf once more sued for peace, and gave U»Utfn; whereup<m Cesar recmlmrkcd his tri»ipi. and returned to the contin. ,;i, having n-nwlniil in Britain not more titan three weeks »nil penetrated the island a short dutaiice only. The f.illowing summer be cruuttl lo Britain sgdin. deU'i-minnil im maklDK a tii!>rou^h cnn quest or the «>imtry This time lie hati five legi'ins at his bnt-k. with two thousani horse, ««■! the eipeditlun was embarked on more than eiflit huodfed ships H« sailad from and Uadad BRITAIN, A. D. 4a-sa at the same pointa as before. Ha vtais established and garrisoned a fortlflcd camp, ho ailvanced into the country, encountering and defeating the Britons, first, at a river, supposed to be the Stour which flows past Canterbury. A storm which damaged his fleet then interrupted his advance, compelling him to return to the coast When the disaster had been repaired he marched again, nud again found the enemv on the Stour, assembled under the command of^Caasivelauniu, whoso kingdom was north of the Tliamcs. He dispersed them, after much fighting, with great sbiugliter, and crossed the Thames, at a point, it is supposed, near the Jimction of tlie Wey. Thence he pushed on until he reached the "oppi- dum " or stronghold of Caaaivelaunus, which la Iwlleved by some to have been on the site of the modem town of St. Albans. — but the point la a disputed one. On receiving the submission of Cassivelauniis, and of other chiefs, or kinga, fixing the tribute they should pay and taking hostages, Ciesar returned to the coast, reem- barked his army and withdrew. His stay in Britain on tills occasion was about sixty daya — Coisar. Oattie War, He 4, eh. 80-86, and bk. 7, eh. 7-83. Also nt: H. M. Scarth, Raman Britain, eh. 3.— O. Long, Decline of the Roman RepuHie, t. 4, ek. • ami 11-18. — T. Lcwin, Inmeion of Britain bf Caear.—T. T. Vine, Cmar in Kent.—Z. Guest, Originee Oeltiea, t. 8. A. D. 43-53. — Coaquesta of Claudiua.— Nearly a hunured years passed after Ciesar's hasty invasion of Britain before the Romans reappeared on the isbind, to enforce their chiim of tribute. It was under the fourth of the im- porinl successors of Julius Coesar, the feeble Cliuidius, that the work of Roman conquest in Britain was really begun. Aulus Plautius. who commanded in Oaul. was sent over with four legions, A. D. 43, to obtain a footing and to smooth the way for the Emperor's personal cam- paign. With him went one, Vespasian, who began in Britain lo win the fame which pushed him into the imperial seat and to a great place in Roman history. Plautius and Vespasian made good their occupation of the country aa far as the Thames, and planted their forces strongly on the northern bank of that river, be- fore they summoned the Emperor to their aid. Claudius came before the close of the military season, and his vanity was gmtiflc<i by the nomi- nal leading of an advance on the chief oppidum, or stronghold of tbe Britons, called C^mulo- dunum, which cx-cupie<l the site of the modem city of Colchester. The Trinobantes. whose capital it was, wore beaten and the place sur- rcnden-d. Satisfied with this easy victory, the Emperor returned to Rome, to enjoy the honors of a triumph : while Vespasian, in command of the second legion, fought his way, foot by foot, into the southwest of the island, and subjugated tbe obstinate trilxn of that region. During the next ten years, umlvr the command of Ostoriiis ScapuU, who succeeded Plautius. and Avitiis DIdlus Oallus, who succeeded Ostorlus, the Itoman power was firmly settled in southern Bri- tain, from the Stour. at the East, to the Exe and the SfTrm St thi- Wi-at. Th« .Hll'.m-*, of ftiiith Wales, who had resisted moat stiiblHimly, under Caractariis, the fugitive Trinobnntine prince, were siibducii and Caractacus made captive. The loetU (in Suffolk, Norfolk and Cambridf*- 829 BRITAIN, Aln) wme ndaccd fhmt alllM to lulleD depend- MU. The Brigantei, mnt powerful of M the WbM, ud who held the gnmltr part of the Whole north of modem Enclaod. were etUl in- dependrat. but dtotracted by Internal dimnaioni wnich Roman influence waa active in keepioc •"»•• Thl«. 't«ted briefly, waa the extent t3 which the conquest of Britain waa carried dur- ing the reign of Claudiui,— between A. D. 43 •nd 54.— C. Merivale, Mut. of lAt /bmaiu. e*. 01. ALao w : K. Gueat, Originet OUiem, t. 2. pi. J, (*. 18.-H. M. Hearth, Jhman Britain, ik. 4.— See, alao, CoLcmcaTBR, Oaiom or. *• D; *'•— Camnalgna of Snatoaiu Panli- ans.— From A. D. SO to 61, while Didiua Oallus ami hU lucceiMr Veranlua commanded in Briuin, nothing waa done to extend the Roman acquialtiona. In the btter year, Suetonius Paulinus came to the command, and a stormy period of war ensued. Hit flrM movement waa to attack the Druids In the iaie of Mona. or i^'}'^^^ i"?" ."'** ^r •»<« retreated from Gaul and Britain, in suooesalTe flights, before the ImphMble hostility of Rome. "In this gloomy Uir, secure apparenUy, though shorn of might and dignity, they still persisted in the practice of their unholy sapentftion. . . Here thejr retained their aaaemblies, their schools, and their oracles; here was the asylum of the fugl- tlTes; here was the sacred grove, the abode of the awful deity, which In the stillest noou of night or day the priest himself scarce ventured to enter lest he should ruth unwittingly into the pivience of Its lord. " Prom Segontlum (modem Caernarvon) Suetonius croaied the Menal Strait on rafu and boatt with one of hit legion., the Batavian cavalry twimming their hones. The landing w»t fiercely dteputed by women and men. priests and worshlppere; but Roman valor bore down all resUunce. "Prom thlt moment the Dnilils disappear from the page of history; thev were exterminated, we may Relieve, up^n their own altara; for Suetonius took no half metaurea ThU accomplished, the Roman commander was qnlcklv called upon to meet a terrific outburst of patriotic rage on the part of the powerful nation of the Icenl. who ociupied the region now forming the countiet of Suffolk Worfolk, Cambridge, and Huntingilon. Thev had iK-en alllet of the Romans, first; then tribu- taries. under their own kinir. and flnnllv sub- Jecta. much opprette<i, Their latt king. t>rasu- tMut. had vainly hoped to win favor for hit wife and children, when he died, by bequeath- ing hU kingdom to the Roman Slate. But the widowed queen, Boudicea, or Boadicea. and her daughteri, were only expow^l with more htlp- hemaemto the insolence and the oiitmges of a brutal Roman officer. They appealed u> their people ami m(ul.lene<l them by the exposure of indcK-ribal.lo wrongs. The riting which ensued was flcrrc ami Kcniral bevond precedent. •• The Roman offld«ls fli'd. or, if arreatail. were slaugh- teml ; and a v.tst multitude, armed and unarmnl lolled southward to overwhelm and extirpate the Intrudera To the Coin*, to the T^merM the tea, the country lay enthnely open." The - ^Z. •» C»n;ulodunum (Colchawefx waa de- •troyed: Veruhunium (St Albans), and Loo- ninmm (l«hl<Hij. «ere tacked and burned; not less than 70.000 of the Romans in Britato ;rere tUufhtersd without micy. buetooluT BRITAra, A. D. 78-M. hatte to quit ABflaiej when Um diMdful newt reached hJm, and preasad, with all speed ^ «» f!^ W«''7'y of Watitag 8tiwt!l^ffl up Eta forces In hand -beVent-tofe.?^ ,Sf awfu scene of rage and terror. Ha had col. le«ed but 10,000 men when he eonfronte.i i, hut, the vast swarm of the insnraentt. oi t ;ilI1."'i''M'5?!.i' 'T'^'^ "»* »» haJtecun.l, la the neighborhood of Camulodunum. But once more^ vakwof undltdplioed teml-barliari,™ wrecked Itaelf on the flrm'shiekb of the It^ma™ johort* Mod 80,000 Britona are said to mJ fallen In the mereil«. flght The IntunecSi wat cruthed and Roman authority in Bri™Q I? l?ISr- ..?".V ""e,*^™ Suetoniut dealt so hanhly with the broken people that even Home remooatrated. and he waa. preaently, recalled to give place to a more paclflc commander —(' Merivale. Eim. <!fa» TajSoiu. ^^^"-^ ALao «: H. A BcMrak,Jloman Britain, tk. J. — T. Mommten, BiH. ef Bomi, bk. 8, ck 5 A. D. 7M4.— CMipalcaa of Agricola.-Far Kventeen yeart after the recall of Suetoniut Pwlinua (A. D. 61) there wu a tutpension 0? Roman oonquett In Britato. The military power to the bland luffered great demorafuation, retulttog naturallv from the chaos of affsin « Home, between Nero and Veapaaian Thete conditiont ceated toon after the acceision of the in Britato the foottoa from which he clImM to the throne, interested hbnself In the epretilinir .f island. C. Julius Agricola was the soldier and statesman— a great man to each charader — whom he selected for the work. Agricola wu nwle prefect or Oovemor of Britain. A f) 78 •• Even to hta first summer, when he had been but a few montht in the taUnd, and wlien none even rf hta own ofllcers expected active «rrvi<-e Agricola led hta forcea into the country of the Ortlovicet. in whose mountato passes the war of lndei«nd.noe still lingered, drove the Briuinji across the Menal Straita and pursued them inio AJL'U.«/, aa Suetonius had done before him hv boldly croastog the boiling current in the fare of the enemy. Another summer saw him advance northward Into the territory of the Bri»ranl«i, and complete the organization of Uie dlmrict, Uitoly reduced, between the Humber and Tyne Struck perhapa with the natural defences ol'^the line from the Tyne to the Solway, when- ii,e Island seems to have broken, as ft were, in the middle and soldered unevenly together he lin'W » p^'n o' 'oris from tea to sea. ... In the third year of hta command, Agricola pushed forward along the caatern coast, and, niaklog gooA with rowlt and fortrestet every inch of bit progrns, reached, as I imagine, Uie Firth of Korth. . . . Here he repeated the opeiations of the preceding winter, planting hta camps and stations from hill to hill, and securing a new belt of territory, ninety miles ac ' - " tion." The next two 830 I, for Roman orriips — yean were »i>eiii In strengthening hit poaitkni and organiilnir hit conquest In A. D. 88 and 84 he a.lv«n(.d beyond the Forth, to two campaigns of hard flghting. the Utter of which was made m< mor aUe by the famous battle of the Onunpiaus. or Graupiaa, fought with the CsfctKnjian hcrj Gai pcua. At the clote of tbta campaign he tent his flaat Borthward to explon the unknown to kwa the rsaoMr Mbn, tad It i* BRTTAIK, A. D. 7»44. IRITAIX, A. D. a8»-888L tUmed that tiie tmmI* of Agrloola dreumiMrl- latcd the uIwmI of Britain, for the first time, and WW liie Orkneyt and Shetlaod*. The further pUns of the lucoeaiful prefect were Interrupted by liii sudden recall. Vfipaelan, flrat, then TU.is, hud died while he r.ued hie vtctorioua course Id Caledonia, and the &^ean Domltian waa envious and afraid of his renown.— C. Merirale, Ui$l. oftkt Bamaiu, <*. St. Alm> ik: Tacitus, il^n'cjta.— Momnuen, Ittit. tfOmit, hk. 8, ck. S. j:-3d Ceotariea.— latrodnction of Cbri»> tianitT. See CHKurriAiimr: A. D. 100-813. A. D. jot-aii.— Canpaigoa of Sararaa.— A frf^i Inroad of the wild Caledoniana of the north upon Roman Britain, In the vear 906, caused the Emperor Sererua to visit toe distant Uaad In person, with hia two worthlesa sona, Cancalla and Qeta. He desired, it is said, to re- DtoTc those troublesome youths from Rome and to subject them to the wholesome discipline of militnry life. The only result, so far as they were concerned, was to give Caracslla opportuni- ties (or excltinf mutiny anaong tlie troops and for making several attempts against his fatber'a life. ButSeverua pvrslsted In his residence In Britain during more than two years, and till hi* death, which occurred at Eboracum (Yorli) on the 4th of February, A. D. 811. During that time be prosecuted the war against the Cale- doniana with great vigor, penetrating to the northern extremity of the iaiand. and loaing, it is uid, above SO, 000 men, more by the hardabipa of the climate and the march than by tlie attacks of the skulking enemy. The Caletloniana made a pretence of submlsuon, at last, but were soon hi arms again. Sevenu waa then preparing to pursue them to exierminatioa, when ho died. — £. Gibbon, DtcUnt and fUU ^ th* Oman Bm- fin, ck. 6. AI.80 1S: T. Mommsen, IKH. <if Rome, M. 8, A. S. A D. a8S-«97.— RabellioB of Caranaius.— " During the reign of Qalllenus [A. D. 30O-26H] . . . the pirate fleets of the Franks infested the British ^M, and it became needful to have a lle<-t to protect tlie coast The command of tliis tteet hml litvn conferred on Caiausius. a Mcnaplan birtb : but he was suspected of conniving at Eaty. in order that he might enrich himself by iimins a slurer in their booty, wlicn they re- turned laden with plunder. To save hiinseif, tlicrefore, from punishment, h<' usurfMil the Im- perial power, A. D. 888, and reigned over Briuin lur seven years. A vast number of bis coins strurk in Britain have been preserved, so many tlMt tlie history of (,'arausius has been written (Mm liis medala. He waa slain at length by hi* miniHler Allcctus, wlio usurped his power. The FntiiltK [iM allies o( Allectus] had well-nlgli eslalilisbiil their [lower over tlie south portion of Briiiiin when it wss broken t»v Consuntlua, the father of Constantlne the (Jfcat, who defeated Alleitiit in a deciaive battle, in wliich that usii'-iH-rwatsiitin. . . . Allectu* held the govern- ment of Britain for three yeara. Many of hIa coins are found."— II. M. Hearth, Rn'f.m Britain, th. II). A1.S0 hi: T. Wright, OU, Ammh am) /l^am. ch 4 A- D, 333-3W.— Ceaatantiac'a Orraalsatiea. — I niler the scheme o( government designed by Diucieiiau and amended by Cooatautioe, " Briiaia formed part of a Taat pro-oouufaite, extaadta* from Mount Atlaa to the Caledonian deaerta, and waa govened by the QaUlc prefect, through a 'vicar' or deruty at York. The ialaod waa divided Into five new provlnoea. . . . Britain was under the orders of the Count of Britain, assisted by the subordinate offloen. "TIm Duka of Britain commanded in the north. The Count of the Suoa Shore, governed the 'Maritime Tract ' and piDvided for the defence of the south- eaatem coast. The Saxon Shore 00 the coaat of Britain must not be mistaken for the Saxon Shore on the oppoalte coaat of France, the bead- quarteiaof which were the harbour of Boulogne. "The namga of the several provlnoea into which Britain waa divided are given in the ' Notttla,' vix:— 1. Britannia Prinu, which included all the south and weat of England, from the eatuary of the Thame* to that of the Severn. 8. BriUnnla Secunda, which included the Principality of Walea, bounded by the Severn on the eaat and the Iriah Channel on the west 8. FUvla Cnarienal*, — all the middle portion of Britaia, from the Thamea to the Uumber aud tha eatuaiT of the Dee. 4. Maxima Caaariensls,- the Brigantlan territory, lying between the eatuarieaof the Humber aiid Dee, and the Barrier of the Lower Isthmua. S. Valentia,- the moat nortbera portion, lying between the barrier of Hadrian and that of Antoninu*."— U. M. South, Ammm Britain, th. 10. A. D. 367-370.— DaUTaraaca br Thcodoaina. -The dlatracted condition of affsira In the Ro- man Empire that soon followed the death of Constantlne, which waa relieved by JulUn for a brief term, and which became worse at hi* death, proved eqiecially rulnoua to Roman Bri- ti\ia. 'The savage tribea of Caledonu — the PIcta, now beginning to be aasociated with the Scota from Ireland — became bolder from year to year In their incunion*, until they marched acrnaa the whole extent of BritaiiL "Their path waa marked by crueltiea so atrocious, that it was be- lieved at the time and recorded by St Jerome that they lived on human fleah. London, even, was threatened by them, and the whole i»land, wliich, like all the other provinces of the Empire, liiul lost every spark of military virtue, was In- capalile of opposing any resutaoce to them. Tbeodosiu*, a Spanish otncer, and father of the great man of the aame name who was afterwards aasncbkted In the Empire, was charged by Vaien- tiniun with the (ie(ence o( Britain. lie forced tlic Scots to fall buck (A. U. 387-370), but with- out having been able to bring them to su en- gagement"— J. C. L. de Sianiondi, Fail uf tht lioman timpirt, eh. 9. — "Tile nplendour 0} the cities and the security of the (ortiUcntiona were diligently reatnn^l l>y the patenial care of Tbeo- duaiua, wlio with a strong liau>l contlneil the trembling Caledoiiiiuis to Uie northern angle of the Island, aud periictuated, by the name and aettlement of tlie new province of Valentia. the glories of t!ie reign of \ alentiniao. " — £. Qibbon, Dtfline and Fail of the Hitman Empire, eh. i!i. A. D. 383-3U.— RcTOitof Masimu*.— In :i83, four vean after Theodoaius the Oreat had been asKKiated in the Roman sovereignty bv the younif Emprnr Oratlan. aiwl !>lw"l <m the tl!rt.oe of the East, the geuerou* Uruliiin lost tiia own throne, ami bis li(e, thnnigli a revolt tliat waa organised In Britain. "Une Maxiinua, a Span- iara by birth, uix'upying a high olBclal position 331 Is : '% BIUTAIX, A. D. 88S-888. fa that proTince, ^>n«d on Uep bj ttrp into In- •unectlon. by a loldiery and a people of whom he anpcara to have been the fdol, raiM-d tiie itandard of rcrolt in the island, and paaied orcr .»;'.>,&"''■ ■«««'''>«l l>y « Urp) multitu.Ic.- \%^^m men and 70,000 women, bhvi Zociimut the By/jintino historian. This colouy, iettllnjr In the Armoriran peninsula, gave it the name of Brittany, which it has since retained. The rebel tones were soon victorious over the two Em perors who had aneed to share the Roman IhroiJB [OratUm and his boy-brother Valeutinian who divldt'd the sovereignty of the West between them, while Theodosius ruled the East]. Gra- tian they slew at Lyons; Valentinian they speedily expelled from Italy. . . . Theodotius adopted the cause of his brother Emperor" and overthrew Maximus (s<« Roue: A. D 871Mi05) —J. O. Sheppard, FaU of Bmm, Uet. 6. Also ih: E. Oibboo, DtAin* and f\M of tk, Roman Empire. cA. 87. " -r?- ^?7— Th« UanrpaUoii of CenatMtiiM, — The Roman soldiers In Britain, aeeing that the Empire was falling topieces under the feeble sway of Honoriua, and fearing lest they, too should soon be ousted from their dominloQ In the bland (part of which was alrewiy known as the Saxon Shore) clothed three usurpers wccesiivelr with the Imperial purple [A D. 4071. falling, u -ar as sod, 1 position was concerned, lower and lower fa their choice each time. The last and least ephemeral of these rulers waa a ;;rivate soldier named Coostantlne. and chosen for m, pthjr reason but his name, which was accounU-d lucky as having been already borne by a general whi. had been carried by a BritUh army to supreme dominion. "—T. Hodgkln, Italy aniUtr Inmtb-,, bk i, M. 5.— The usurper Constantine soon led his legions acmas the channel Into Gaul then ravagwl by the Vaiidal.H, Smvcs, Alans and Burgundlaus who passed the lUiine In 406. He was welcoine.1 with joy by Uie unhappy people who found themselves abau.loncjl to the bar- barians. Some BUcriHiaes which the new Con- stantine had, in pnnlent encounters with de- tached parties of the German iuva<l..rs, were greatly magnlfled, and pave pnstiKC to his cause Ue was still more succt-ssful, for a time, in buyini the precarious friendship of some tribes of the enemy, and made, on the whole, a consiilerable show of dominion In Gaul during two or thn-« years. The seat of his gov.m.mnt was estab- lished at Aries, to whicTi city Uie ortiocs and court of the Roman I'netect of Oiiul h,ui retreated from Treves in 408. With the help of • c<.nsi<lerable army of barbarian auxiliaries (a curious mixture of Scota, Moors and Mareom. anni) he extendc<l his sovereiifKly over Spain He even extorteii fnini tlie pusilliinimoiu court at Kaveiina a recognition of his usurpeil n.yaltv and promiswl assistance to Honorius against tlid Gotl^ But the tide of fortune preseniTy turned The lieutenant of Constant iiM; in Spaih. Count Uerontius, l»ecame for some reason disaffcolwl and crowmil a new usuriwr. nam.'d Maximus In support of the latter he attackwl Constantine ?|i P^iL' "'1?,"^ i" *'*«l. A' "'« «">« "me. tlie bmperor Honorius, at Ravenna, having made peace with the Goths, sent his general ClonJtantius ?!'*.':".*.L'^ Oa.k.-Britl.* usun-T. CoT^nthH BRITAIN. X. D. UM. Arlsa capitulated to the representative of the great name which Honorius still bore, as tituUr rn:pei«tor of Rome. Constantine was s,, t To Jr.T*"^ S?**. P"* *» <*«•"> on » '« way (X U »!^^ M° 8.^ ^•■"' "** ^ '^ "" '^'"'' .. /v. ?• 4»o.-Ab»ndontd \n th« Romans.- . 2J° n"L."^l?"i' • • • "■'«'' "»« '"UxrUI troops quitted Britain, we tee them ablr asilv to repel the attacks of lu barbarous ».v.,ilanti When a renewal of their inroa<ls left Britain weak and exhausted at the accession of tli,. Em. peror Honorius. tlie Roman general Stilid,,, „. newed the triumnlis which Trie<Ml,»,,usliml ,„n The Hct was driven back afn*l,, the Ss„« boats chased by hU gallevsas far as ll.,. ( )rk,„ v" and the Saxon Shore probably •.trengtl...i«l wlili fresh fortresses But the campaign of .Mili,.ho — the hut triumph of the Empire lu li« «i sttrn waters, drew In fifth cer and th. sheb 1L by. thar ai.pnMM-hing Aries, found It already besieged bv Qerontius, The btter waa aU nSone.! VhU troop., and fled, to bo •tain «»B afterw^ 832 "i struggle Rome had wagwl «,, |„„» to i-s end: at the o\w\mvs, „t tu' I' '^rn.siataiipesuddenly broke (li.wu fx mass of barbarism wiili »i,iti; '. \ b- ..ke in upon tlie Empire. . i' llie Empire, broken everywliere volts. Was nowhcri- more timkcn ain. where the two legion- wliidi re- •urn, artered at Rlchlxirough au<j York set up I. ./.„ tlwn once their chiefs as En.|x mrs and followe<l them acroes the channel fa a mar, 1. uiion Home. The histof these pretenders. Cuisiaiiiiue crosfce.1 over to Gaul In 407 with tlie bulk „t ilic soldiers quartered In Britaia. aii,l the pn.viuce seems to Imvc been left to ita own dcf, m f„r it was no longer the legionaries, but ' ll„. i. ,nle of Britain who 'taking up arms.' npuLvi . „.» onset of the barbariana . . . They api...,. I to Honorius to awcpt their obedi. ni.c, and r, i.moe the troo|)s. But the legions of tlie Enii.ire », re needed to guard Rome itself: and in 410 a Utier of the hmjwror bade Britain pr,>vide t.r its ..»u g,)v..ninient and lu own defence. K,.* si iie- ments are more false than those wliiih pin, in; tiie British pmvinclals as cowanis, „r ii,.ir struggle against the barbarian as a w,ak .u.,1 mi worthy one. Nowhere, fa fact. tl.r, .^U Hie wimie circuit of the Roman worl.1. wn., .- . I. :,. and so desperate a reaislauce offerx.,! to il... „ sailanta of the Empire. . . . For B,)me iliirtr years after the withdrawal of the legion.s th, frti province maintained an eiiual struggle .ii. ,ju»i her foes. Of these she proliably e«uut, i tin. Saxons as still the least f,)rmldable. . It «•«» with this view that Britain turned t,i what seempjl the weakest of her assailanu. an.l »ir..T8 to tlnil . . . troops whom she could us,- as iicr- cenaries against the Pict."— J. R Qreeu Tin Maktitg of fngUiut, int. Also in: J. M. Uppenberg, IIUI. of Km. under IhtAnjiotiixon kinff: ». 1. p/,. ST-iW ,. *• "• 44*— The Uat appeal to Rome.— let onre again a suppli.atiiig cinlia..v.v was sent to the R<iman general .Stius. durini; his third coiisiilship. in the vear 448. . .Kiius was unable to lielp them.'*-J. M. Lapp..iil»rj, io "iC*''^ ""*'■ '*• -*««*> •'*"«"« Ai ',.... p 83.—" The date of the letters of appeal i» fixed by the form of their address: 'The gn«n. of tlie BriUins to Aetlus for the third time Coi,, i Tlie savages drive us to the sea and the sea < »su u« back upon the ••▼•(«■: so arise two kinds of BRITAIN, A. D. 446. ^anSH COLCHKA. dmth, ud « are either ilrowncd or ilaaglit«md. ' The thin) ( •naulaie of Aetiiu (ell in A. I 446, t year memorable in tlu? >Ve(t aa the be^t ining of a profouo'l calm wtiich precni>->l < ' on- tUu^ht of Attila. The 'omplaiut'jf iirii i liaa Irft ti'i irare in the poenii n uich celebr •^ tlie year ^f repoM- ami our i'ltroniclcs »t :>t any mte wronK win n they attribute ita rejct tion to the strtiM of j war with t'. ' una. It ia pnniblc, indeetl, tliat the appeal w« ..'Ver made, ai '•- tlutt the whole ttorr r<'pnr.vnts nothing but a rumour current in the ilayn if Uildiui among tlie BritiEh exiles in Anno'ri< . "— 0. Elton, Origint of Snfluh /lut., cA. 1 A. D. 449433.— The Anglo-SAxoa Cod- qnest. tV e Enulamd ; A. D. 44V-473. Ui :>4;-«):i Ath CcBtaiy. The cnaubdued Brttona.— "The Hritiios were soon reatricttKl to ihe we*t<-m parta of tlie iilanil, where tliry main- tainetl thenuelvea in aeventl aimill at«tc:i. of which lliiwe lying U> the east yitiUcil more and more to Germanic inr. uen( "; the others ppiu-cted by their mountains, preserved for a c< luUlerable time a gradually decreasing iDilepeD<'t'n>u. . . In the southwest we nw ' with ll- (."""'ert'ul territory of Damuoniu, the kingdon >\ Arthur, wbii'li iMire also the name of \s < »' Wales. Paiiirinnia, at a later periixl. was I. .<ited to Uyvn.tiul, or Uevonshin.', by ilut sepunition of Cirnau, <ir t'omwull. The ilitlricl3 1'ulleil by the Saxous those of the Sunioi^itin, of the Thoru- KClmt (IKimetshire), anil llif vViUstttaH wure lost to the li'T." of Uyvnaiul it au e;irly period; tlioii;;h (i^iuriea after- •■ rila a la ■;'<" Bntisl, |H>pul:itioii ^.aiit»!nediti>cl' ., tiioHepit ' aiiioo^ the Sax. Ill settlers, as aI! as mii i< tb' Defnsiiias. long after the Nixon o,iii| ii it Oi Dyvimiiit. who for a considerable lime pti virvcd tollic luitivr^t of thjit shirt* tlieapiH'ila'in . if Uio "Wclsli kiml Cambria (('yiuru). tlie ci ;iitry whii !i at tbi' pn'M'tit day we (all Wilm. wiia aiviili I into w-nnil »t«t«8. " The iliief if these early xtAtes uiu Veiietlotia (Gwyiutltll, the Ikiug of which was supreme over the other states Araoiii; these latttT were Dimetia (Uyvcd), or West Wttle.i ; Powys, which » as east of UwyiiciM and Pnowdon iiiountuiu; (iweiit (Monmouth- shin) or South tast Witlcf, the ounlry of the Hilures. "The usages aud Uws of the Cam brisiis were in all these states csiientially the same. An invaluable aud venerable iiionumeui uf tliim. although of an age in whirli tiic Welsh had long lieen stilij'Ct to the Anglo ..txons, and had adopted many of their insliliaiona aud custoiiis, are the hiws of the king llowel Dtia, who reigned in the early pari of the luth century. . . . The partition of Cambria iuto several small states in not, as luts often been supixiseil, the eonaeipi nee of a divislou mile by kinjj Hudri Mawr, or Koderic the Great, among b3 lona. ... Of Dyfeil, during the tint centuries after the coining' uf the Saxuus, we know very little : but witli ri'gard to Owynedd. which was in con- suiit 'varfare with Northumbria and .Utrcia, our infoniiation is hss scanty: of Owent, also, aa tlie bulwark ot Dimetia, frequent mention occurs. On ilie whole we are less iu want of a nuaa of M.furiiiation respecting the Welsh, than of a-xuracy and precision iu that which we poaeaa. . An olwuniy still more dense than tiLit ' T Wales involves tlie dbtrict lying to tin north of that country, comprised under Uv: nauie uf Cumbria [lee Ccmbma amd eiJUi.; cLTDEl "— J. M Lappenberg, JSitl. et Br.^. under (W AmA iiMtii Kinf, e. 1, p. 11I>-I23. A. D 63;.— Defeat of the WeUh by th« Ei^ltah of Banicia. See Uevehvixu), Battljc 3 ITAIN, Great: ." 4option of the name for le United Kingdoms of Eneland and Scoi.aad. bee HCUTLANO: A. U. 1707. BRITAIN, R«aaa WaUi in. See Hoiiam Walls in Britaoi. BRITANNIA, The Origla of the name.— " Mauv aiv tii>* .speciilatioos which have been si«rte<l ai to the - tymolugy of the word Britan- nia, and among tue hiter ouea iiuve lieei: some of tlie most cxtmordinary. Vci surelv it is not one of tliosc philologinl dlfflculties wdich we need despair of solving. Few penons >viU question tliat the name Britannia is connoctcJ with Uie n-uno Britanni. in the same way as Oer- manU, Uallht, Graoia, &c., KithOertnani, Ualli, Graeci, &c., and 1: ia not unreaaonable to as- aume Uutt Britanni was originally nntliii.g more than the Latinized fcrm of the Welsh word Brytlion, a name which we find given in the Triads 1 one of the three tribes,who tlrst coto- uized Br lain. . . . Prom the Welsh ' brith ' and Irish ' l-rit,' parti foloureo, may have come Bry- I then, which on this hypothesis would signify t£e I paiated men. ... As far ttien as philology la I concerned ' liere vem» tc be no obJetti,jti to our j assuniiig :rytbou. and therefore also Britanni, to signify '10 painted men. How this Celtic I name tlrst »amc to denote the inhab't.i-ts of liH-iu- ifilaniis is a quostiou, the propter aii^ ver to I Aliuh liei* •lifjK.'r than is generally suppo»!tl. . . . The liiiiaonic Isles' is tin.- oldest name v>t fird given m theie islands iu the clait-sieal writers Vndtr this title I'olybius (:i. 57) refers to tliem In connection with the tin iraile, and 'he well known work on the Kosmos (c. 3) men litxui 'The Britimnic Isles, Albion aud leme." . . But in truth ueither the auiiiorKliip nor the ago of this laat-named work haa been satisfac- torily aettli'<l, and therefore we cannot aasert thai the pU.-ase ' The Britannic Isles' came into uj" before the second century B. C. The Uiime Britanuia flrst occurs in the works of Cowai and waa not iripr?l>ably Invented by him. " -K. Guest, Origint* Celtica, t. 2, eh. l.-^Tl.,- etymol- ogy contended for bv Dr. Quest ii- so Mr. IUiy8,onprinciplesof Celtiephoiiilf-i on the contrary, traces relatiui,-. tiei ^ name Brython and "the Welsh ^.^aLlea ' bruthy n, ' cloth, and itr congeners, " aii' ) con- cludes that it signified "a clothed or cloth clad people." — J. Rlivs. CeUie Brituin, eh. 6 BRITANNIA PRIMA AND SECUNDA. See BKITAI.N : A. I). 328-837. BRITISH COLUMBIA: AboriKinal iif babitaota. Sec Amkricak Abobiolnks: Atra- PASCAN Family. A. D. 1856-1871.— Eatabltshment of provin- cial (oremmenl.— Union with the Dominion of Canada. — "British Columbia, the Urgest of the Ctnadian province*, cannot he said to have had any existence ai a colony until 18S8. Previous to that year provision had lieen made by a series of Acts for extending the Civil and Cnnitnailrfiwsol the Court/) of lower and L'ppcr t'anada over territories not within any province, t'ut o.iierwise the territory was useil as a hunting ground o! the Uudaun's Bay Company. The 333 ^ I BRTTISH COLCKBIA. Aq>QtM and dlfflcuitiM thtt aroM from Um ta- t2?ii.^^n **!!; •*»«»»»o«> of the lloence of the lIudMo I Bi..' ComtMuiy. sad the paMlar of the mperi.1 Act M A £7ic,. c. M. tiToJlde for the iruvcnimejt of Britiih Columbb. ^H k"^. ^'""''TJ^ tppolnted Oorernor •aa bv bU cuinmiiiion be wu authoriied to make Uwi. Institutione and ordinanoea for the Rj^w r ""^ '^^ P»»erniiiBnt of Britiih Lm "■■'''- P"wlamatlon Iwued under the puhic ieal of the colony. ... The OoTemor contlnue.1 t» kgiiUte bjr pmchunatloo uaUl 1W4. wben bii pmclamatloaa gave way to Onll- nancet paned by the Oorernor with tie adrlca and coMint of the LegUMre Council L p to thii time the Goremor of Britiah Colum- bia was alao OoTrrflor of the neichbourinf Uhmd of Vancoujrer. VancouTer', Itland ultotori. cany ao older colony than Britiah Columbia. Though diicof ered in ISM it remained practicallr unluowa to Europeana for two oenturiea. and ft r^u""?."".'" ""*• "•»" ">« '»'««» "■• ranted to the Hu.l«>n, Bay Compayr. that a oSreroor waa anpo nted. . . . In 18«f the legialature of the ItlatMl adopted a aeriea of laaolutiona in farour of union with Britiah Columbia, and br the Imperial Act W ft W Vic. (i). c. 67. the twb oolonlfa were united. ... By an Oixler in Council datol the Itth day of kay, 1871, BriUih Comnibia waa decMred u be a prorhice of the i«?i f'"" '"^ ^lj*..*"i- ^ '^ •"•'• "nJ •TW- ISTS) from the *«h of July. 1871."— J E. C Munro, Tht r.Httilulion of Camula, cA. % A'JK) is: ii. H. Bancroft, Hit. .jT UU AmOd A. O. ia7a.-SettlMwnt of the Sm laaa Water B{>undarT OUpate. Hee Baa Jcai oa NoMTirwKn'EiiM Water BovMOiuiT QimmoH. APRl'cA*"s?^r '^""'CA AND SOUTH AFRICA. .Ste .\FHH A : A I). Il«4-l(j|». ,nd "»'L._""- ""< Til ArHicA. and Ibka BRITISH HONDURAS. See C««Tm*L BRITISH MUSEUM. .Sre Libbawim. pJ?i?i^'?!f u''°'*'^" BORNEO COM. BRITONS, .s,-,. ('Ki,T« , «|«.i. BniTAHMiA- BKi TTANY ; la the Roman period. Haa AH«..m, » : ,|„j^ VKNitii ..r Ui,«Tieii!« (Jac. A. D, jlx-Britiah aattlamaat aad —- > .Vf lliiii «iN : A. I), DMMHN. "- , ^ **• 4*?-— Independanee aaaarted.— At ih> t m.. lh.tX Brl.iruUn.1 pmrtiaSi; J^V^ it. omn.^ ti.m will, the e«plrinK Homai Kmnire (.b.,u. 4(W, the Briu-Oi of Uie 'mU^-Tt^^ Armonna pn.Tloce. or m<>iem Brittanr - MU.w.,| the eiampl. "Thry eipeiw'ihe Rmiaii marfl.tnii«. who .rt«i uod^the au^ thorily of the uaurprr ConslaiiUne ; and a free ««vrmm..„t WM«ul.lUh.,i anH,.,, , peopl-wh^ ha.1 •. long l«.n .uhj«t to th^ arli.Ary will of »«►•» kmp,r,, r* 81 -■■Km.n thi. timr Vr fmni ih.- i^Uilr, of the r»t of FrwKw whirh war. found flghllng by th.- .i.|, „f 1,V.«al BRirrAKT H** ^°?"* "P*"* *^ HuBi, on the great dar at Chalona. Bee Ho«a: aTd. 451 "^ _ *•. D-, •i»-9H.— Tha Brarsad Kingdom - Sat^ien to tha Normaa l)«kaa.-3^rrir '"•«°« "uprenutty over the Armoricam in»v bt oompared to Uie dominion exeitrfaed by I„„"rW R«»* •»<»«»» the Caucadan tribea-Jh.^ righU of Independeoce. intercahued amon«»t the coorerje perloda when the Emperor cannont^rt the rig hu of authority ; yet the Pranit woul.llt abaadw the prerogaUTe of the Cae«n^ Th Ut ^tJ^S^.SL •'""'n'on on the one part. .,,.1 the 1 ^SI5!?!5"?°°'j?^'*»«'0'>»heotlK!r. nri.Mnv b dirMed into Bretagne Bretonnu.,t« «,„| h^'^ kST^IS'L-^ ^"*' conatltuted tl... m J^ Unda, and here .he Counto marrhen, w.r*. pl,„,i by Charlemigne and bU auecewr., Kniu moatly by llm.a«e: ret one Breywd. Ncuii,.* waa tniated by loufc-le-dibonnalr,! A. I) "*) with a delegated authority. Ncwnli,.* ,1.^ rv^ .i ^**n' '•«*»•.•»"<' "' the n<'w m.i.„f the era, Ilterelly ukrn from the ploiii;li Tl» dlaeenaiooa among the Pnuik.cnabl.,| Xo,„in.*t« tacreaae hia auilH.rlty. Could th.r.- l« „,. adTeiaary of the Kii,pire *o (tupl.1 ui ,i ,i u, prolltbT the l«tllo of Wntemiy. .' . . s.mL\i aaaumea the royal title, Tindloile.! ,h.. ImM. "a denoe of hU a„,lcnt p.«ple. ami .-miblnl ,h. , ,, in Uptime of Hollo, toawcrt with inoom.i g^^a- dUoouenoB panlonable In political .rg„„,.„i ,i,., UieFranit had nrver rrlgned within tl..^ |.rn„.r Armorican bcMindaric •' Nomln.* lr«Mi,iuiii«| hia crown to hl» ion ileriapoe; but lli.' I.iur re giied bri<>ny. .u,vumhlng u, a ..„„,,ir.cy which raiac.1 hi« nrplu-w, SoCmon, loll,,, ilm.w au.?^ .■T"» ' v'Kon'Ua warrior. ...m. lin^ lf,i. IL*^ '^™"''»' 1'"* ">"«■"•»■•• "tnu-dins email klngdoii,. lie rxu-nd^l bu .loti,i„|.,n. S!!!: *"?'•_'?. 'I'"'"*' .*fj"»- ""1 ""■ '"iiira "til --" --~w* --"•-"..». .■•■■•■u. will iiic itlMire Normandv. and hie royal title waa «n. i,o„.,| bv Chariea the H„l,| H„t he. U»i, »u ,,„„|,i^a againit. bllmtia and (ifthn>i,rd, dying in |,ria.in !^mIS^.' I?- Ihe.-^ond duke of X.,rln«,„i; eaUbliabed hia ioniihip ovrr tlif ili-'ri.in| country. •• ili.iorir«| BrIUniiy miiL^I im., f,,,,, great ■muntl.'H. whith alio alMorli.^1 |I„ c.r. lovlngian mar. It IkiuU. I^nmn, .Nnnl.< Vnnneg an<l ( .^ounill. ■.. rivHillng ami je.,l„„K;ni; ,i,»ri Ing ami warring agaliMt r* h olht r f,.r il„. r, J or ducal dlgniiy. imiil tlic mipnnia. v » .. i-r nianemly «iUhlUl,«l in Alan »Vri,'Hnr. Iin. iIh. ally, the onnonciit, llirnon In law of W illi.i.i ihi. liaaUnl. Hut ll,r •iiu-raliilv or«ii|>crii.nit ..f »l| Hritanny waa vraie.1 In the (•.M,.iu.r..r < ii, 1 !!»■ Planugenrt'a lim^ge, tlU tlw forfciiiin. in. urtwl Sr King JiJtn — an unJuAlcjcniwnf Iumi,,. _ M. I, M. 8. .i.^i°:.'»f' V -'^''« ""» D»k" After the death of hi.r h, . . all tln-o- .li»in. i.iif territorire nM-rgi'.l In th^- thrw (l.-minmi nn .if Nantea. Rennra, ami ('onmuailln .\ni..ii -.t (he (•ella nmnm\ w«> lm|Nwiili|<' In ,»As~ -.mt^ Nomrnop the Hul.rof Cormnialll. , lw,l *.,iiii»,| I'V l*r auilHirily. ihi' n.v»l ,\\\. l.m ib, r.iiinu.if Ki'nmv ai'iiuinMl ihcpri' finiihiMi .»rr llir .Hher chlefuin. Higalliv ,;,m,|,„| (j„,f friy. aua of I'ouau [A O. VW Knm' iuuM 334 BRITTANT. BBIXHAM CAV. bi dtattDguiihad m the flnt Duk* of Brittany. Ba cooiUtuted himaelf Duke ttrnply bv takinf Dm Me. Thl* HMimptiaa nuy poaibly hav* ben HiictlaiMd b/ the ett c c — o r of Saint Peter; ud, by decreet, hie rank in tlie dTll hieraroiiy bttame olilmately Teoognixed. . . . The Count* of Brittany, and tlie Dukea in lilu manner, in bter timee. Tendered homage 'en parage' to Normudjr In the ilrit instance, and tliat tame homane wai afterwarda demanded br the enwn ofFnuux. ButtheCapetianmonarcharefueedto letainwledge the ' Duke,' until tiie time of Peter Ibuclerc aoo of Robert. Count of Dreui, Earl of RIchinonil (A. D. UlS-lSST]."— ,?lr F. Palgrave, Biit. ^Jiormandg and Rng., «. is, p. 165. A O. 1341-1^5.— The lone Civil War.— Montibft agaiatt Bloia. — Aimoat limuitane- oualy with the beginning of tlie Hundred Years Wir of the Engliu kings In France, there broke out s malignant and destructive drii war in Brituoy, which French and English took part in, on the opposing sides. "John III. duke of thsl province, had died without issue, and two rivsU disputed his inlierilanre. The one was Cbsrlea de Bluis, husband of one of his nieces tod nrpbew of the King of France; the other, Montfurt, . . . younger bruttici of the last duke sod . . . disinherited by him. The Court of Pwra, devoted to the king, adjuJgrd the duchy to C'lisrk« de Blois, his nephew. Hontfort im- awillat«ly made himaelf master of the strongest nlscc*. awl rendered homage for Brittany to Liog lidward [III. of EnglanU], whose ssslstsnoe he Implored. This war, in which Charles de BMa wu supported by France and Montfort by Eoxlaod, lasted twenty-four years witliout Inter- lupthio, anil presented. In the midst of heroic sctiou. a lung oiunte of trmchprics and atrocious mbberics." Tlic war was ended In lUM by the bsttli! uf Auray, in which Charles de Blols WM •lain, snd Hcrtrand Du Quesdin, the famous Brrtun warrlnr, was taken prisoner. This was •nnn followeil by the treaty of Ouiiande, which MUblitliml Miinlfurt In the duchy.— E. Da Bon- aeibw. Hit of Franet, s. I, bk. % eh. % mad i. Almi m : Proiisart (Johnes), CArmMss, U. 1, M. 64-227. A. D. 1491.— Joia*4 kv ■aniaga tm tha French crown.— The famlnr of Montfort, hav- iag bm'n raUbliiliol In the auchy of Brittany by the >mi» (if tlie English, were naturally iacUned to Kntclinb (xntiiTtliina; " but the Bretona would ■rliluiii prmill thrm to be effectual. Tvro car- ilinsl (rrllDM guiilrd tlie eomiuct of this brave ukI fjiilliful iietiplr; the one an attachment to th<- Fri-iu'b natiiin and monarchy In oppoaltion to fiinifii riu'iiiica: the iiibrr, a rral fur tiielr own privilojje*. aiul tlii- family of Montfort, In opposi- tion Id lilt' t'nrMarb'iients of Uie crown. lu FniH'ii il . tlie pn-i<:.t duke Jat the time of the tmwi.in of Clmrli's VIII. of France. A. D. iiM], llir mail- line of tliat family was about to be sx- lliii;iii>Uii<l Ilia ilaiiirhter Anne was natumlly tl iil>)i'ii r many siiluirs. amonic wliom wera INtnii'iilarIt (limiiiguiiilinl the tluke of Urleooa, »h<,Mi<inii u> havi. been pn'frmil by herself, liu iiml of Altmt. a inrmlHT of the Uaariin family nf |-\il« fii».niwi by tlif Bn-Um nobility, • » iiiiml liii Iv 1.1 (imn-rre tlie prnce and lilirrtles "f llitir <iiuii(ry. Iiiit whoee niro .Tniiemi him im viTv iuir|il«ti|,! ui a yniilhful prinoras: tnd Mmtmilian, liih< of the Homiui* [wlMaie Arst «llr. Mary uf Burgundy, died Ui t^U] UriUur waa rent bj ffeetfams and OTsmin l>y the armlei of Uie regent of France, wito did not lose tliis opportunity of interfering with its domestic troubles, and of penacuting her private enemy, tiM duke of Orieaaa. Anne of Brltany, upon Mr fatlwr's death, finding no oUier means of escap- ing tlie addresses of Albret, wss married by proxT to Maximilian. Tliis, however, aggra- vated the evils of the oountrv, since France waa reaoived at all events to bresik off so dangerous a connexion. And as Mazimillan himaelf waa tu- able, or took not tuffldent pains to relieve his lietrathed wife from Iter emiMutassments, she waa ultimatelv compeiled to accept the hand of Charles VUL Ua had long been engaged by tha treaty of Arraa to marry the daughter of Maximilian, and that princess vras educated at the French court. But this engagement had not prevented several year* of hostilities, and con- tinual intrigues with tha towns of Flanders againat Maxuaillan Tha double injury which this latter sustained in the marriage of Cliarles with the halrsss of Britany seemed likely to ex- dte a protrtctad contest ; but the king of France, wlio had other objects In view, and perhaps was conscious that he had not acted a fair part, soon came to an accommodation, by which be restored Artois and Franchs-oomtA . . . France waa now oonsoUdatad into a great kingdom: the feu- dal sjitem waa at an end."— H. tiallam, Tht MUUU Afm. ek. t.jpt. a— In the contract of .narriage between Charlea VIIL and Anne of Brittany, "each party surrendered all scpaiata pietenshins upon tlie Duchy, and one stipulation alone wss comddered requisite Ut secure the per- petual union of Brelaoy with France, namely, that in case the queen should survive her con- sort, she should not remarry unless either with the fu'un king, or. It that were not possible, with the n.-vaamptive heir of the crown."— C Smedky, Uut. <^fyanct,pt. 1, «A 18. Aiaon : F. P. Quisot, npularBitl. ttftVaitm, ck. *6. A. D. rsja.— Piaal raaaioa with tha crowa of Frail je.—" Duprat [chancellor of Francis L oi F.ance], whose auminiatratioo was . . . shameful, promoted one measure of hi^h utilitv. Francis I. until then had govenH«i Britunv only In the oualitv of duke of that ptovlni v , iViprat counarllvd him to unite this duchv in an ludis- soluble manner with the crown, anil he prevailed upon tlie Hutas of Brittany thomaelvealii request this rvunktn, which alone was capable of pre- venting the brsakina out of dvil wan at the it h of the king. It was Irrevocably voted by the H'stes asK^mbled at Vanoes in I.Vl;i. The king swore tii reaiMft tli« rights of Brittany, and not to raiw any sul:«iily llirreiu without the con- srnt of the Mutes i'rovincial. "— E. de Uonne- chuse, Uut ,^ FroMi. bk \.tk.%. A. D. 179].— Raaistaaca to tha French Ravelatioa.- ThaVaadaaaWar. HvoKKANca: A U. I7W (Mamcm— AraiL), (Jtna); (Jilt— DasCBMBU). A. D. i7«4-i7«6.— Tha Chanaaa. 8«a FnAJica: A. iTlTiH-ITWI BRIXHAMCAVB.-AmvimnearnrlilMm, Ilevunahlre. Knglaml. In wlilrh niit»l ■■ti.lciiiit of a very early rwr of mi'ii, t-oatriii|»iriiieiiua with i-rrtain estlmt aninuUa, have Im-n found.— J <>plktr. rrrkftanr Kurap* AUK> UI W. B. Uswkiaa, Osat tfaniinf. 335 1 ; i' ■ BBOAD-BOTTOMD ADMINISTHATION. TION°T^.'°lIS'*"° ADIIINISTRA- I8?r°8« 'nSS!!!!.'?:?' ^ "'• War ol loia. see UxiraD StATn opAm.: A D iHia *»SS22!.=-*- •* 1867-1878. *'' BROMSE BRO, P«w* of ( tUtt Rh. n.. MAST: A D. 1640-l«2k ' ^^ 8«>0t«. ^.SS^^'lJL^f "^"^^ SPRUIT, B.ttle of BoM^''*' "•J'*' "^ S"-""^- 8« BROOKLYN, N. Y.: A. D. i6m -The int the women worklug in Uit- (iiW,. ,|,iu. ,|.e ^ 71^ «"«■«« In tlie KTvice of the Dntrh Wwt l»«d.-The occupation of luid within the l<a of the preMotctlT of Brooklyn . . . hwlHwrfUr progiMiMl. until now (l«A) nearlr thewbol* w»ter.fn«t,fromN.wto;„C™ektoihe^2Ss; iniUi """•?'"» ""y. »•• In th,. poaealoBoY v^iT^ '''i'"";rr "«•««! "> lu^lcturicuiti. A. D. 177«.-B«ttl. of Lou I.»«i. li IKITKI) STATE" or Am.: a I) 1776 lAllmwrT BROOKLYN BRIDGE.- T^e ^Ji^tTi K \7\"^ Brooklyn, at • h. i«ht of m feet a,«» feet ; ri»er upwi, I.S».'4 HH'i-iuci. JlTen 11 h,"i?°.M""* JONATHAN._A title by WMhln^Um to h , cIom frien.l, Oov. Jon, BRoV{«iSfitnn.J> P'""? «" An..ri<W SSSSrlPJ?^ ^'■"^> ■>■»«•• W,.' ( 1 1 1« rH.?°^J!'*:?"«*' •"•• *•■• C«««di«i "CltM Ilia. He« iKiTtu Maik, ,„ Am a 1) mi (>M«^IB«B--^.,^E^BKHi; IMH ,(.,to„»,,_ pi;i x' .J"''" - Attack on Harper'. Ferrr.- Trial and ...cutioo. .S., l.uki' »TAiM..r Aw A l> IKW BROWN UNIVERSITY. H« K.„ , at...v BROWN?STB* ^i l> .r«-17..u J»«^!W.^" "°^"' ""^ "* 8«»»l«»d. A I» nllSv -""•■^"■"'* " but the feotral aic«uot bow li, thai the ChM- BRUNSWICK. •vl «n.J AagriTaill eot««d their wliLment, dn.ve them out ud utterij exterminui.TS wiih Uie common belpof the nelglilMiiritu' in «" either from hatred of their tyriiny or fn m ii ' attmctlon. of plunder or fr4 bii." , fl' ,t' aW« regard for ua. it did not eve,. gruZT^ Ell' —..S^"' ^ Roman amu «n<l w,«,h,i„ ^.'S;.*''?**'*'' •*'•>"> our d..|lg|,i„( e,T" • "The origta.l«rttlemenUof the B„.cJ>^ ?r„r ^P"fH'...'"5' '° '»''• '^■n »>itween the T^?f ISlSl?"' "".•"•'•'■•'Jo of thJup^" Their deatmctioo couM banllv have Ik-,.„*L, complete M Tadtui repiwente. aalliev-^. .„t^ "9UenUjr««..loned S, CI^V-ItZZ BRUGES : Itth C«.»«.y.-Th. Great Fair SeeKLAHDiM: ItTHCwrrwET. ■"*'™"^»"- oJ^fiti!?S C«»tlri~.-Commerci.l i». B^'asiii?.'irF;!^^^-/V^^^^ A. D- >379-i3ti.-HeMUiU«a with Cheat. See Flaxdbiu: A. D. 187»-ia«l. *".°" .'J?*~^»*«" ■"* plnadered b» the poopit of Ghent. S.*Fi^5d£h.: A I) i". A. D. 14to.1488.-At war with Ma«im.liaa. A. p. 15S4.— SubmiMion to Philip of Spaia Bee Nktiiehlakos: A. I) IStW-l.W.'i [J.^^ i "'•«;. NKTHE«LAN,«l(A,;,rKU.N I'Roy. CO^^ Ac "^ ~.a A,X.LA.CHAPEtLK 1 U, See Ambmcan AiioRMi.<(t> See FitA.M-( of. .Sv n (■ BRULE, Tho. Sioi'A.v Kamii.t. BRUMAIRB, Tht moath. A D nW (OCTIIBBB). BRUIIAIRE, Tht Elckteenth I''i*''<K A. I) 17»(N0VEMBKH) ^■RUNDISIUM: Origm. He« Ro»k «^°i,^*»-^''W •'Pompeiut before C«».. Be- ItoMK U v. 5(MI». '--■"• -i.?." '^•n*"~'^** P^» "^ Aatony and Octi- Tiua.-llie peai-e whi.li Ani.«iy .n.l iM.v.u. wen. fonwl by their own eol.llt'n t.. luak. .1 Brun(li,ii.iii. B C. «), p,» poor.l f,.i t,,, u-.r. Ilw ttuMi Mruggle hetweeu the two rlii, f Tri in, vlre. J„r a much Innnr time It ".li I at l.«,! •ecure ti.e rep,*, of lljjr. F..r « jxri,,! ,.f ,1,,,, humlre.1 and flfty ynm, eie..pt (.■„• ,1,, , e.ihr tag lo the atrecu of Rome, from lUirgnim t,. 11,. KuMcoa 00 awonia waie again cm«m^ inwsr — 8ea RuMB : B. C. 81. BRUNEL SeoBommn. BRUNKBBURG,Battl««r tht (1471). S«. BRUNNABURGH, OR BRUNANBURH, Battle oC Hee Krolahd: A D »;•< BRUNSWICK. The citr of.-OrigiB awl tma.- In the tenth (intiiry, it priii -• ' 336 Bruno, younger kmi of Uir relifnln» iiiiki' .f "b» Ttlte, aad gnuideuB of the Emperur Ucnry Ita Hi BRUNSWICK. BVDQXT. TtmUr, ntiind h bii patrtniaaT the country tbout the Ooker. " HbtIdk flied hi* reiidenoe tx * Tillage eMabliabed br Ch«rleiiui|nie on the bulu of that rirer, it became known a* the ■Vh-us Branonix,' acu. wlien enlarged and formed into a city, afterward* gave it* name to the prindpaikT of which it formed the capital " -Sir A. fiblUday, AntuUt <if tK$ Umm <ff Uawrr, «.l, Uc 4. la the HaoMatie Laafv*. See HAvaA TowKi. BRUNSWICK-LUNIBURG, OR HAN- OVER. See HAifOTKi. BKJNSWICK-WOLFENBUTTEL, OR BRUNSWICK : Oricin of the heu* sod dnke- doB. See Saxokt : The Ulo Dvcht, and A. O. 1178-1188. The Goetf conaacttao. See Qvmlw axv Ohibklumk, and Em, Hovtm or. A. D. 1543.— ExpaJaioa of D«k« Hetur b* the Leant of SmalaUd. BeeOBBMAMT: A. U. 15.<«-lS4a. A. D. 1S46.— Final aapaimtiaa from the Llacbarc or Haaovariaa braach af the heaaa. bee UAHOvut: A. D. IIM*. A. D. ito«.-Tha Daka'a iimlnleaa coaSa- cated by Napolaoa. See Osbhakt : A. D. ISOS (OcTOaSa— DiCBMBBB). A. D. ilo?.— Abaerbad ia the Idafdom of Weetphatla. See Oemuamj: A. D. IWT (Jma — Jl'LT). K D. lije.— Dapoaitlaa of tfca Duka. See QauAHY. A. D. 1&I9-1847. BRUSSELS: A. O. 1577.— Tha Uaioe of Ik* patriot*. See NrrBBBLAima: A. D. 1573- 1S77. A. D. 15SS.— Sarreadar to tha Spaaiarda. 8r« .NamaLAHD*: A. D. IDM-liMM. A. 0. 169s.— Bombardmaat by tha Freach. 8ee PHAxrB: A. D. 1«»IV-16M. A. 0. ifaA.— Takaa by Marlberoach and tha AUie*. See NvnuaiJuiD*: A. D. t7(M-1707. A D. i746-i74S.~Takaa by tka Freach aad rt*tef«d to Aaatria. See NaraBBLAKD*: A. D. 17M-1747, and Au-LA-CHAmLi.B: Taa CoH- aan*. Ac. A. D. fits.— Tha Battle af Watarlao. See fntiic*: A. D. 1816 (JcHE). A. D. ilje.— Riot aad Rarolatioa.— Datch tttatk oa tha city rapaUad. See Mbthbu- UKM: A. D. 18a»-lMS. BRUTTII, The. See SAMNrraa. 8RUTUM FULMEN.-A phraae. aignify- Ini; t hllad tbniiit which wa* applied in a coo- I' tiiiHinirv pamphlet by PranrI* Hutman to the Kill of I'irominiink-atiini Ifutied br Pope tiixttis i'luN. K: A l> 1W-I.V<1». V aifMiiat HenrT of Navarre, In ISM —See BRUTUS, Luciu* Jaaiaa, aad the eapal- lion of the Taroaina. Hee KoMB : R (' ItlU BRUTUS, hiarcu* laalaa, aad the ataatai- ■ttioa of Caaar. Si^IUimb -. B. C. 44 l<> 44-42 BRYN MAWR COLLEGE, ^«e« Enii a r!"-<, M.iiiicRs Hk oiiMx A. D. ISIM lt«l, BRYTHONS, The. See Cblt^ The BUBASTIS— On the eaalern aide nf the IMii, |.,f ibe Nile], more than half w«v from «• ">i>lin Iti Z.«n. Ur the (treat Htv of I'l beielh. IT Itiibuiit V»«t moimil* now n.iirk tlie ilii' »iiil prewrve tli.- name; deep In ll»'lr nitii»t He tlie •haltered fragmrota uf the beautiful lemplt whl:>h ilerodotu* aaw, aad to which in hi* day* the Egyptian* came annually in va«t numben to keep the grealeet featlral of the year, the Amem- bly of Boat, the goddea* of the place. Here, after tlie Empire bail fallen, Shiahak [Sbeahonk] aet up hi* throne, and for a abort *pace revived the Imperial magniflcenoe of Thebe*."— R 8. Poole, 6V(M* «f BmpI, ek. 10. BUCCANEERS, Tha. Bee Ambbica : A. D. 18»9-1700. BUCENTAUR, Tha. See Vbhicb: Urn Cekti'rv. BUCHANAN, JAME&-Pratidantial alac- tien aad admiaiatratiax Bee L'hiteo State* or Am. : A. D. 1806 to 1861. BUCHAREST, Treaty of (itiiV See Trax*: A. D. ITW-ISIS; alio Balban and Dahubiam State*: 14TH-l»ra CEMTtJBU* (Sbbvia). BUCKINGHAM. AaaaaaiaaUea oC See Enoland: A. D. 16%. BUCKINGHAM PALACE. Bee St. Jameb, Tar. Palace ahd Coitbt or. BUCKTAILa Bee Nbw Yobx: A. D. 1917- 1810. BUDA : A. D. tsa6.— Takaa aad plaadarad by tha Tarka. See Hdnoabt : A. O. 1487-1696. A. D. iu»-is67.— Takaa by the Tarka.— Baaiagad by tha Aaatriaaa.— decayed by tha Snitaa.— Bacomaa the aaat of a Paaha. Sea liUMOAar: A. O. 1SS6-1567. A. D. 16M.— Racovary bom th* Tarka. See IIUNOABT: A. D. 168»-1687. A. D. iaA9.— Sicga aad capture by tha Haa- gariaaa. See Aiitria: A. U. 184»-184». BUDA-PESTH: A. D. 187*.— Uaioa of tha citiaa.- Buda, on the right bank of the Danube, and Peath, un the left were incorpoiBtcd in 1873 into one city — Buiia I'enth. BUDDHISM. See India: B. C. 81S- -; alio LAMAa— LAMAitM: and Chixa: The rk- uaioNa BUDGET, Tha.— "The annual financial ■Uleinent which the Cbaooellor of tlie Exchequer make* in the llouae of Common* in a Commlltee of war* and mean*. In niaklng thi* Matrnient the mini*U-r give* a view of the general finaiirial policy of the government, and at the nime lime preaenu an eatimate of the probable income and expenditura for the following twelve mnniUi, and a atatement of what taxe* it i* intencletl to reduce or aboliah. or what new om-i it may be nercaeary to impoM- — To open the budfret, to lay before the IrglKlatlve hoily the flnanrUl <*• timateoand plan* of the executive gov't." — Imp. IHft— Mr l^twrHinhbt lluli-ry ,(fTiuntit>H ir 1, M. S) (taUii that the plinuH- ' i>|ienlny the Budget ' came into uie In EngUml during the reign of (leorge III., hwI that It Ikirv a reference to the bougette, or lillle hag, in whicli the cluincellor of the exche<|uer kept hit papera The French, he add*, ailoptni tlie U'rm In tlie preient centuiy, about 1814. 1'lin fidlowlnif, however, ia la dl*. agreement with .Mr. INiwell'* explanattoo: "In tlie reigu of Uenrge II Hie wnni w*a utetl with cnn*riou* ■lliinlnn to the relelmited pamphlet which ridlcuieil 8lr It. Wulpole a* a conjuror opening III* liiuliret or 'bag of trick*.' Aft<'r- wanU, it mum, f«r a time. Iiave been current a* •lang. bul. a* It •unplled a want. It wa* M«>n taken up loki titeonllnary vocabulary. "—<< (Am- mum, m 14. t8»t. p. Sli 837 M i if iH^ BVDim. BUOINIiTlM.— A noniaaic tribe which ITfm- iotiu dncrlbM M kodentir inhablUnff » ngina bctwera the Lral Mouauina ud tlie CwDlao 8e» ;;5; Onte. ISH. </ OriMt. pi. 9, a. 17. w°'i5?'iV' G«"*S»f *>« CmIo*, Cuaptignu fr *» Ukiwd BTATn o» Am. : A. lyitiai (Jdit— NovBMBBii); I86t (Jahvary— FUIRD- A«T: KlWTrCBT-TlUOIBMt); (Pbbhuakt- *»•«»•= TwmwMB); (Jcm-Ociobbh: Tew- ■■•«■— KwrnrcBTX HC VH. oee AJWBHTUf B tUCPUBLIC. BUENOS AYRKS. Tl» City of: A. D. *S*-~f**^ "^ ■MBCCMrtU budlac of tht ■""'ALO, N. v.: Tb« .boricioal occih MBU of Um lit*. See Ambricak AaoKioDiBa: UUBONt, Ac. A. D. i744._C«Mloo of tb« Pear Mite Strip br tk* Smmcm. See PoHTiAc'e Wab. A. D. IT79.-TIM BlU eccapted by tk* yMiTRD BTATRa or An. : A. D. 1779 (Auaovr— Sbptbmbbb). Uw ettr. ^ Nbw Tobb: A. D. 178M793: Bee Uhitbo Stat « or Am. : A. O. 18U (Ssr- TBMBBM— NOTBMBBR). A. D. tti].- Deatnctioa by Billirt aad la- •UM. See CiitTBO Statbb or Am.: A. D 1818 (DaCBMBBB). See NBW YoBB: A. D. |1i7-1M1l A. D. i^t.— The HaMaaai Pfaa-Sail Caa- «|«rti0B. Am Unitc* SKatm or Am : A. O. A. D. rtM.— Tba Paaiaa iavaataa af Ca»- •4*. SeaCABAOA: A. D. 1H88-1871. BUFFALO HILL, Battlaa af. 8« Ukitbo *''*'"^"' *"■ ■ ^ " ><••> (Auoi»T— Decbm- BBB: WbTT VtROIHIA). BUFFINCTON FOBD, Battte oC Bee iHlTBoSTATBeorAM. : A. D. 1H« (JrLT: Kbh- TtTTBT). BUCIA, CMqaaat br the Spaaiardt (1510). BULGARIA. See Balbak a»d ftAKraiAB SH'-'^^i**"' ^^ raUgioaa Sectariea ao callad. See pACLiciAin. A'.i'^^Niisr^'' "^^ "" •'««-= A"n"Vi:,tr^'^'-^- ^"""--^ Pope BoDlfan Vllt. Feb. S4. 18M, f..rlikldlni the clergy to pay aod the Hwukr (>nwen u> eiert under penalty of eioommuntcslina. ooa- trlliutione or ta»a. tentha, Iwnitteth*. bun- ftiwrtth^ or the like, fmm the n-vraura or the jn^of the churchae or their mtnlef w."— W. .A *lSi?' ' J^ '. Headafano. Mte* Bim /W. ^ . BULL "DaaUaaa R- ji .l_.- Saa Jaatrm: A. tV ITa»-lll7I BULL "Bsana Daiaiaa.'* flae Pavadt' BUROmfDIANB. BULL,G«MaiL 8ea GoLon Bitll, Btiab. TJJ.B; alao Obbmaot: A. D. 1847-U«8.i£ III xiiABT: A. D. 1114-1801. ' ™ BULL. "LMidabiUtar/' Tha.-A paixU bun promulntod in 1185 by ^peAdriaTlv X one EasUahmaa who erer attained to St. pi-i^ "•Vu'TE?^^*^'^'' "» klBfdom of uS«a A.^D^'riCSS^-"^-"'^ ««'•-- BULL "Ualfaaltaa," The. See Port Rotu. lUtSi-ir ?Hf/ °" MANASSAS, Fim BULLA. Tha. SeeTooA. OBO V. (NOTBMBEB-l)«CK)IBmj; .BUND, BUNDBSRATH. BUNDESPRB. BIDBNl'. BUNDBSCBRltHT, The S\^ See SwiTSBBi.Ain>: A. D. 184»-18M ,g}WNgB8<TAAT. 8.. oiSLr: AD. BUNDSCHUH INSURRBCTI0N8. Be. BUNKBR HILL, Battte af. See ix^tD Statb. or Am.: A. D. 1775 (JiTit) n« fiaaite monammt. 1891 fm In heiKht whki S38 BUR6BS8. See BooaeBon ^M»OH. OR BURGI, OR BURH. 8m BURGOS, Battte af. See SrAm: A D m (SBrrBMBBN— Ubgbmbbb). BUROOYNB. GoMnJ lafca. and the W., af tfea A«aricaa Re*olaUoa. Sh linn) STATBaorAM.: A. D. 1773 (Apkil-Mav\ 1T77 (Jtav— Octobkb). BURCRAVBS. See Palatitcb. fnr^ BURCUNOIANS: OnKinaadMririuMarT —"About the middle of the fourth cvnlurv li" cmtntrtea. perhapa of l.unwv mh] Thurini[«, ..0 either aUeof the Kibe, were (iccupii\l bv ilu- \»gm dominion of tha BuririuMiteaa - a w«rlikr wj numeruua people of the Vandal mo., wh.* !, acure name inaeaaibly awelM into » -..w.-rful kin((dom, and baa finally aettlnl no a H.urtiliin* province. . . . The diapuied ponnuno or hokk rwlt-plta eataged the Alemaaal and th.. ttm^n- iliana hi frequent conteata. Thi- Uu.r « m ea^ tempted by the aeiwt •i>ll<ii>iii..n> 1 id liberal offenof theempemr IVnlnuinUn. A :> ".'J.- ■°«1 U^lf fabuloua ileaceat fn.m tl,.- Ifc.., in ly^-^T had formerlr been Irfi to gm: .n tha fortraaaea of l)ruau» wm ulinUuil wili J" ."-*~ «"«lullty, aa It waa cm iidvr to miimtl ™"JJ*- An anny of founon ihoiiMii.l llur- cuadlana anna appeami on the i«nkK ..f thr Hntoe. and Impatiently rmiulml ili.«ui.|«.niiiij ■JwaMtea which Valenllnlan h*! (inrnilneil tmi ***y.^ — ■a m aaii with eiruara An<l ilciav. till >t ''1*"i.«ft ar a fn iltleiai t«prr»at(<-h. timv win "■^'■!"*.*? •■■* The Aima aail fortllii «imi •r tfea Oalltr Kvatier check d Ite fury ..f thrit iuat w i n liiiB L ."-K UMhb. OmttJamd m BCItOCNDUNS. BDBOUKDT, A. D. Stt-MI. f Oi Rm»» XK^n, A. IS.— "Weflnthearof them [the Bunundtaoi] M • trilie of Teukwio itork. kiorted betwen Uie Oder and the ViMuta, no riUwr Imnk of the river WarU. When the Grpiilc dcKendcd louthwanl with the Oothi, tfar Buixundians were onmpelled tn recoil before tlie idmm of the former tribe: one portion of tlM-in toolc refuge in Bomholm, an island of the Bdtic: the rnnaiodrr turned westward, and mide an attrmpt to enter Oaul. They were re- piilird by Probua, but permitted to settle- near the lourccs of the Main. JovUu sltowiil tlirm fivour, and gave them lands in the Ocnnania gwunda. This was in the latter part of llie fourth ccntunr. Just at its cloae, tlu-y adnpli-d Christianity, but luder an Arian form. Ammi- sous tells us that they were a most warlike rsce."— J. 0. Bheppard, TM* FnU of Home, bet. 8.— "The other Teutonic people hnil very little recaid for the Burgundlans: tliry accused thrra of haring degroeratMi from tlie vakir of thrir snccsturs, by taking in petty towns (biiur- gaili'*), whence their name BurKundii sprang; sni they looked upon them as bt-iug more suit- sblr for the profesuooa of mechanica, smiths, and arprnters, than for a military life." — J. C. U de Htsmondi, Th* fYtnelk andrr U« Merann- fiaiu, eA. 8. — "A document of A. D. TM, in Dotiring the high tract of huds between Ell- wsoKcn and Anspacii, has the folli>wing ei- uivwiim,— ' in Waldo, qui Tocatur VIrgunnia.' Urimm looka for the deriratioa of this wuid in the Moao-Oothlc word 'fairgunl.' Oh! High Oennan 'fergunnd'= woody bill-range. ... I have little doubt but tlutt tills is the nuiiie of the tni't uf land fmm which tlie name liiirgundl anair; and that it Is the one which dxes tlicir kxiiiity. If io, iM'twM'n the Burgundhin and Sut'vir Orrmans, the diifrn-nop, such as It was, was probably almoat wholly pulitical. "— IL U. Lsthiun, Tilt Otrmania of Taaliu; Spiltgamena, ml It. A. D. 406^09.— UtmIm of CaaL Bee Oah. : A. 1>. VM-4M. A. D. 443-4S>-— Tbtir Savajru kiagdoa. — " In the •iiutu-rast of Uaul, tiie Burgundians h«<l. sfti-r niaiiy wars and auroe reveraea, eatab- liiluil tlirii»irlvt's(44S) with the consent of the Itiiriiaiit in the <IUtrict titen called thipaudU and niiw Maviiy. Their territory was somewhat nuire rxU'milve tlian the pmviniv which was the cTullr of the pment ruval house of Ilalv, since it tlntiiKMi DOfthwanls lieyond tlie lake uf Ncuft hiit4'l and suuthwani* hd far as Qreoobk-. Hrrr the HurgundUn imiii. raiiu under tluir king Quoiltuk, were busy si ttiiiig tbrmarlvrs in Ihi'lr new possession. cult'vatinK the kuds whk-h they lud dirliled by hit. eat-h one ivcriv- hif half the estate of a Itoiiiau h<iat or 'hos|M's' (for under such gentle naiuea tlie spoliathia was TCilrd), when the news cam* that tlie t<'rriM<' Hun bad cmssed the Rhine {A. D. 4.M|, ami Hint all hosts and auesu in Usui must unite fur its defence"— T, lliidgklu. lUUg and Utr inuidtr; a J, <A s. AD. 4Si.-At Ut bMtIa of Chaleaa. thw BiKs A. D. t«l. A, D. *ae.— BBtMsiMi of thair Uard«m.— "Their (the BurauwiUnsI domain, conahirrHhly nnre eitenatTe than wlirii we hut vlrwnl it on Um' evi nf Attlhi'a invanlon. wiw Iwtiiili.l lli« hlrr norliKt't of Biirgiimly, Kraut lu'ConiitS ■ml Dauphlui, beaidea Haroy and Um groaler part of Switierland —In fact the whole of th« Talkys of the tteone and tlie Rhone, save that for the but hundred mihss of iu course the Visi- goths barred them from the right bank and from the moutha of the latter river." At the tlnw now spoken of (A. D. 000), the Burgundian kingdom was divided between two bruther-kiDfi, Oundofaad, reindng at Lyons and Vienne, and Oodegiael at Qeneva. Oodcgiaei, the younger, had conspired with Cloris, the king of the Franks, against Oundobad, and in this year SOO the two confederates defeated tlic latter, at Dijon, driving him from the most part of his Ungdom. But Oundobad presently recnveivd hia footing, besieged and captured Us treaclienMia brother at Vtenne and promptly put him to death — there- by reuniting the kingdom.— T. Hodgkhi, IIoIm mmt Utr latadm, M. 4, eA ». A. D. S344— Final coaqneat ^ th* Franka.- " I am impatient to pursue the final rule of lliat kingdom [the Burgundian] which waa accoro- Slfaibed under tlie reign of Bigismond, the son of undobald [or Oundobadl. The Catholic Sigia- mood haa Mquired the honours of a saint and martyr; but the handa of the royal saint were stained with the blood of his Innocent son. . . . It waa hia humble prayer that Heaven would inflict tn thia worid tne punialimrnt of his sins. His prayer waa beard; the avengeia were at hand ; and the provinoea of Burgundy were over- whelmed by an army of victoriuua Franka. After the event of an unauocessful battle, Sigismiind . . . with his wife and two children, waa tfana- ported to Orleana and buriul alive La a deep well by the stem command of the sons of Clovis. whose cruelty ndght derive some excuse from tlie maxims and examph-s of their barbarous age. . . . The rebellious Burguniiians, for they Hitemptcd to break tiieir clMlna, were still per- niitteil to enjoy their natiouni lawi under the oblintioa of tribute and military service; and the Merovingian princes peaceably rt-igned over a kingdom whoae glory and greatnesa hail been first overthfown by the arma of Clovla." — E. QibboD, DtUM and nu tf tin Human Kmpirt, M. 88. Also m: W. C. Perry. Tht FYaiUit. «*. 8. BURGUNDY: A. D. SM-7SA-Tha Mer*. Ttngiaa kin g dom.— Afu-r iLe .ivrrthmw of the Burgundian mooarrhy by tlie sons of (kivis. the territory of the Burgundlaoa. with part of the neighboring Frank terriuiry luhkil to it. Iieaune, umler the name of Burgumlin or lliirguody. one of the three Frank khigiTonw ( .\ tiiti nuin awl >ieus tria being the other I wo), into which iIh- .Mrnivin- gian princes divhini thrlr doiiiiuiou. ll uccu- pk^ " tlie east of the country, iHtwren tlif Uiire iind tlie Alps, fnmi I'nivi'iH'e ou iIh- sihiiIi to the liillrangfs of ttie Vuagi-a on tlu' north."— P (tiHlwiii. IliM. 11) fYiiiift ■ Aiirifiil U'liil, (•*. II, A. O. I4J-9JJ.— Divisions of the early king- dom.- The latsr kingdoms of the south ana the French dakedem of the northwest.— Ily tlie In-Hly of Vrnlun. .\ I) H|:l. mIh, h iMinmllv diviiliil Hie I'lnpliv uf I'iMrh'iiiuKiH' l< 1 Mt n his thnv KnunlMina, a part uf DnrKuiiilv »<» iiikiii to fonn, with Ilalv awl i^irniiiM-. tin l.iiiK>him of the Eni|H'nir IxitiMr, »r l^otluilrr In lbs fiirtlM-r iliiwiliitiisM whicii fulkiuiil, w khitcclom uf liuri;uiHl> 01 I'rovi'iiK kiw liiiniiitl In x?? bv irtH* iUimt. a iiniH-i- \\\¥* IumI iimiDiit lniiiiti;nru, dsugbler u( tlu: Lui|Hrur Lmaa II , »« ol sau 1 -a 1 -ii iJl; V I'vl '' ' . ~ J G > n 1 f* 1 t 1! BCROUNDT, A. D. L<Hh»lre. It "liieludad ProTmcc. Dituphlni. the luiithcni put of aiToy, ud the ciintry between the 8mim ud the Jura." »n<l ii *.ni.' tlmM calle<l the kinRdom of CU-Juniue Bur- fundy. "The Ungdom of Tnuis-Junuie Bur- ffUDdy, . . founded bjr Rudolf In A. U 88H recogiiiied la the ume yew by the Enipimr Arnulf, included the northero part of 8«voy •nd all SwiUerUnd bMween the Keux and the Jun. —J. Bryoe. Tht JMf Roman Bmmn. ck. 6. and aTV..not, A.—"Tbe Ungdomt of Pro- r*^^ '."^ Tranajuran Burgundr were unlt«l. In ».«. l.y Raoul II., King of iWjumn Bur- guoily. and formed the kingdom of Arlea. SILT"*'..'''.?" B87 to W8. by Conrad le , f"!!'."' ..r'l O"!*"*. tSM. 4 ariliMtinn. and England. 6t. 1. «*. 4.-" Several of the greater and more commercial town* of France •uch aa Lyona, Vienne. Geneva. Braancon Avignon, Arlea, Marseille and Grenoble were ritualed within the bounda of hU ftJonrad the Pacinca] atatea ■— J. C. L. de SUmondl, fVaiM «»*r M. f>udal S^mtm, M. g.-'Of the older Burgundlan kinmlom, tiie northweatem part forming the Und l>est known ai llie Uurhy of Bur- *"?V'' rS • •" **" <llrt»iona of tlie ninth century a Jef of KarolingU or the Western Kingdoin. Thia b the Biirarimdy which ha* DlJon for lu capital, and which wai held by more Uian one dynaity of dukea aa raaaala of the Weatem kinn. flratatUon.andthenatParia TbU Bursundv which, aa the name of France came to Uiir fta modem aenae may I* dittlngulshed aa Uie French Duchv,muit be carefully dUtinguWied fn,m the Royal Burgundy " of tlie ClaJunine and Trana- Juranv kintrclnrnt mrntii>nr<t alwvc — E. A. Free- man, IliMlnri-iU l/f'j. of furu/r, fh. fl ttd 1 _*■ P- M»-«0}J.-th« French Dnkedom.- Tha fonndiof of tha Fint CapttiMi Honaa.- Of the earliest iirimeii of thia northwenttrn frag- ment of the ul.l kinKilom of Burgundy little aet ui« to have be.n diwNivrmble. The flef and ita title do not weni U> hav.- lHMX.nic here<llury until thrv fell nto the gruHpInK hamln of the Capc-tlan family whhh ImpiHiinl Juit at the time when the aaplring omnu of Haria were rl«ing to royal rank. In the early yean of the t.-ntfi i-entiirv the reigning count or duke wan Rirhanl le-JuiJ ticler wlxiM- (ii«iii)gul.iliiiig prim-tly virtue U recorUeiJ in lila name Thii Kutianl )c Juatl. Lr *."*>' '»'•"'"•' "'that Boao, or Boaon. aoo In law ».l tiiip.p.r L.,ula II , who Kok advantage il .'I" ""'""*"' ">« «'">««<• fa«hl.>n for him- aeira klng<li>m of Burgundy In the .South (('1«. Jurane Burifumly, or Provence,— ire above) Rl< l.«r.l . •«! lUoul, or Rudolph, marrie.1 Emma the daughter of Uobert. Count of Pari, and j uune of trautv, who waa axon aftirwanU. lio«,n ' h.ng, ,,y the noblin, who tlre.1 of ( nrlovlnaUn \ mijrule Kinn HolMrt . reign waa ali..rt. In- f,.|l ! lnl»lllo wilhth. (ariovlnjan.. atHolii«M» tlie . J!^L."' Tlie Onat. found It more u. hU taate to be khig nwk.r than U. lie king He di-clln«l the pnAer.-.! . mwn. and brought about the coro- natior, of hi. ImMher in Uw, the llurgumlUn . ' .''''JH'".'.'*'?'^ '"' «'«vn year. Vihru he ''.'"m '5,***' ""»?''«'»•«"»' ••Ill lirld the crown at hi. dUp<iaal ami .till refuMl !.• wi-ar It him Tli i T'" t'**^ "•'» l"n<f n-ker to »t a t.arlovlngian priiiie on the lhr..ue, Im iIic ner«.n Of Loula dOutr. Her. a young mx of tCfcS BCROUNDT, 1082 the Simple who had been reaivd In Ernland bv hla tnghah mother. But, if Duke Hn^uZZ nothing for the name, ho cared much f<ir tli.„,b stance of power. He graaped dominion whtr,.; ever It fell within hU reach, and the Burgundiw duchy waa among the Matea which he cluicUH King Rudolph left nom to Inherit eith.r |,u dukedom or hb kingdom. lie had a bn,t|„!r Hugh, who claimed the Duchy; but the gr,.,UT Hugh waa too strong for him and KcurwT, aiih t^io •utbority of Uie young king. hi. prUcKe, t™ Itle of Duke of Burgumiy amfthe largrr iwrt ? the domain. •• In the Duchy of France or il,. County of Paria Hugh le-Orand had nothing ° yowl the regalltlM to desire, and both In BurKun,tv Md the Duchy he now became an imnimnble \ Iwroy But the privllegessoobtaine.1 l.v Hugh le-Urand produced very Imporunt p.iliiii-»| re sulU, both present and future. Hugh awunvil even a loftier bearing than before: Burgundy »» anneje.1 to the Duchy of Prance, and m«»,1 »i" the Duchy ; ami the grant thereof made l>y llufh tapet to hU son [brother? ] Henri IcOrand k v*r Ing the same from the crown. creale<l the on- mier Duchy of Christendom, the most .pifuili,! appanage which a prince of the Uiinl ml i. (lUe Caiwllau.! c<.uld enjoy- the rival of the lhn.ne ^^llr V Paiivvttwa f/.'^ .^ \r • . .. — Sir F. Palgrave. Uut. of A^rwoVi/V W AV !-♦ — Hugh-le-Grajid diwlln 81U *». I, pf. %° di. . •M. ••His power, which, more than hLuk'nili or ezploiu. bad given him the naiiie of UrfW was divided between hU chlhlren, who vvtv yet very young . . . There Unomrdoubtas toiluir numlier and the ordir of their birth. It miwm however, that Otho waa the el.lwt of liis iLn-c sona He had given him hi. part of tlu .lii.liv of Burgundy, and had made him nmrrv ili;. I daughter and heir of OWebert. duke of «i;.,ii„r I part of Burgundy, to which (Uho»ii<i-,-,-,|.,| ib. I same year. The Utur dying in »M ,.r Wi-I il«. duchy of Burgumly passed to his thlnl bnnhir I .ometlmea named Henry, wmetiinc. Kul™ I Huguea [Hugh], sumanail Capet, who »«<•. .•.,l,..l ! U) tiie county of Paris and the duchy of Kmiuf , waa but the second sou."- J. C. L. de Sism,.u.li' I Th* fYrwA undtr tk* Cttrlorinffiaii; rk. l."i ■- In W7 Hugh C«|>et became king of Fmuiv .u.l founded the lasting dynasty whliti U»r< hU nan». Hi. ehler brotlier Henry nm«iu.-l Duki- of Burgundy until hi. death. In Wn wlniiliU royal nephew, lioUrl. son and »u.i-.».».r ..f Hugh, annexiil the Umhv to the CroKii It ». r.-inaio«i until Wfi Thin Kiiiir II, i,r. I ».n of Robert, grante.1 it ai an .ppnnak-; t., Iii, hnilber Robert, who founilnl tlic llril t«i«-iiui HouK of Burgundy —E. ile B.mii..h.i«.-. iha «/ AVwaar, 4*. 1, eK. i A. D. loja.— The laat kiogdom.- It. uniaa with Carmaoy, and its dissolution. - Ihi- Iwt kiiigtlom which liorc «hn im I Huriiun.li - tlxmgh more often calM ih.- kluiftl.mi ,1 .Ulii — fortmnl, aa sute<l aliove, hy tin- iinio.i i,f i(w short lived kingdoms of Prminrt- sii.l 1 mii.ju rune Burgundy. iK-came In lictj iioini.Mll) uiiii«i to the domiiiiona of iIh' EmpiT..r KIbk- uf i«r many. Ita hut lnd<')ienileut knot *as Itii.li.lf III . son of Conrail the Paiilir. wlm »*. uii.le to the Emperor Henry II iiehiK .hil.lirfx. in- named Henry hi* heir The latter ti,.Kivfi dle«l first. In 10'J4, and Rudolf «tuiiipi.-l t.. canifl his lieijiniit. clslminn ibal It "an iiw-l.- !•> Henry |ier»>nallv, not a* Kins "' 'lie li. nnann WUen, however, ibo Burgundlan king iluil. la BUBOUNDY. loss. BURGUNDY. 1127-1878. ton. the then nigntng Emp«ror, Connul the HtUc, or the FnuioonUn, formally procUinied the unioa of Burgundr with OcmuDV. ' ' But aince Bur^ndy «» ruled klnxxt eiclusirely by the mat nobility, the eovereignty of the Oemian Empvron there wu nerer much more tlian ■ominiti. Betidee, the country, from the Bemeae Oberlanii to the Hfditerranekn, except tlut part of All'-niwioia which la now Oerman Switzcr- land, waa inhabited by a liomauce people, too dininct in language, ruatnma and lawa from the Oerman empire ever n-ally to form a part of It . Yet 8wit(erlaDd woa thenceforth connecttd forever with the development of Oemiany, and for BOO yean remained a part of the empire."— C. T. Lewto, Bitt. of Otrmany. hk. 9, eh. ft-T— " The weakncta of Itodolph-leFnineaot [Hodolph III., who made Henry II. of Ucrmany hia heir, ai itatrd above], gave the great lonla of the kioftiiom of Aiiea an opportunity of conaolidat- \zf tbdr Indepenilciioe. Among theae one begina torcnmrk Berchtold and hia ton. Humbert-aux- BUnchtn Maine (the White-handed), CounU of .Mauriinne, and loundera of the iluuae of Savoy ; Otto William, who it la pretendeil waa the aon of .VIullxTt, King of Itiily, and heir by right of his iiiMlliiT to the county of Burirundv, waa the f.iuii'liT of the Bovrrvign hiiuae of Pranche- Cimitc [County Palatine of niirgundy] : Oulgue, Ciiunlof AllHin, founder of the aovpn'ign bouae of tbr dauphin.s of Virnnoia: and William, who it U i.n'lenilotl waa the i-wuc of a brother of Ralulph of liurirundy. Kini; of France, and who waa aoven'isn count of Provence. Theae (our Innla had. tlirouKhouf thr reign of Rodolph. much incin- power thnn he in tlie kingdom of Aril's; an<l when at hiit ilfaiii liia rniwn waa unltril to iIkiI of till' F^mplre ihr fnidatoriiM who hail i;r""'n titrtA at hia expiiiaa- became alnioal alMi>liiti'ly imii-pendent. On the other hand, their vaiuala liegan on their aide to aci|uire impiirtanre under them : and In Hrovenre can be traeeil at thin periiMl the HU(?ct*!iJiion of tlie rounta of Kcmilquier and of Veimiiwin. of tlie pnuces i>f Oranire, of the viacoiinta i>f Slaraeilie. of the llama* of Baux, of Hault. of Uricnau. and of Cwtiilane. We can atill follow the fonnatiimof a frn'at numlier of other fi'udatory «r rather anvrn inn lioiiapa. Thiw the eouiitaof Tixiliiuar, Ibipni' nf Itiiiiergue, the iluki-H of (luM'imy. tiic I'oiihU iif Fiilx. of IMwrn, and of (anamime. ilate 1(1 li'wi! from thia e|Mich ; but their exUlfOi'C is SMUiHineeil to ui> only by their dililoiuaa and ihfir 'villn ."— ,1 0. L. de Hlnmoudl, >n«K« uiuUr "m- r'.'i-M Aiiltm. eh. 8— See. aiiio. Pbovtsce: A !• iMS-lOB'J. and Fhani'HK t'.iMTK. A. D. ti»7-i378.— The Franco-Carmaoic conteit for toe valley of the Rhone.— End of the kmgdem of Arlaa.— "Aa aomi aa the I 'apt ti.iii niitnarehn buitnri)tiinii enough atrrogth It li.iiii- 1,1 In' alilr III liKik with aafety abrtwd, tliev l"eiui to make iiiti^riMliiiia nn tlw tempting •nj wenltliy ili'iMiideinifii of tlie itialant em- jK'pirs Hut tlie Itlitini' valli-y waa Ion ini|>ortant in i!« If. auil of tii.1 xnal utratrgli-al value aa •aeuniii an eiwy ri«d to Italy. t«i make It p.*- •IbW f.r till- emiMron to iui|Uieac«! eaailv in lla loaa Ill-nil' « I'ing eoiirtut, whleh aonn im-ame a aaiii.iial i-onlliit of Frtiiirh and Oeraana. to ■auiuiii the Imfierial piwilion in llie aiddle kme t.im ' ,,f tlie Ulmne valley M Fneniier a lii«li !<!- ItovaiMB. i Ark-B et lie Vienn 118»- ll>i . par I'aul Fuumtvrj ahaa at gtviag an adequate account of thia ttruggte. . . . From the time* of the mighty Barliaroiaa to the ilnieii of the pretentioiu nnd cunning tburles of Luxemburg [aeeOsaiiAHT: A. D. (ISS-I^IM, and A. D. 1347-I4V8], nearly every emperor aougbt by conatant acta of eovereignty to uphold lila prt'carioua power* in the A relate, tnablo to effect much with their own rcsoiircea, the em- pc-rora cxbnuated their Ingenuity iu tinding allies and inventing brilliant achemea for reviving the Arclate, which invariably came to nothing. Barbaroaaa won the band of the heiresa of the couiity of Burgundy, and sought to put in place of the local dynaatles princes on whom be could rely, like lierthold of zkringen, whiit>e father had received in 1127 from Conrad III. the higli- aounding but mcaoinglea* title of Hector of the Burgunuiea. But hia quarrel with the church aoon aet the clergy against Frederick, and. led by tlie Carthuaiwi and CiatercUn onlera, the Churchmen of the Arelate began to look upon the orthodox king of the French aa their truest protector from a schismatic emperor. But the French king* of the period saw in the power of Henry of Anjou [Henry II., of EnKland — aee ENoijtND: A*. D. 1154^11Ntt] a more real and preaalng danger than the Empire of Ilic Itohen- Ktaufen. The result waa an alliume betwei-n I'hilip Auguatua and hia auccessora ami the ISwabUn emjierora, which gave Fnilerirk and Ilia aurcesaora a new term m whii h they could Ktrive to win back a real hold over HurVumly. Knilerii-k II. never lost sight of thii i.'.jni Ilia invmtlture of the great feudal lord \Vi!li;ini of Baux with the kingdom of Aries In l'.*!.'!. his lonir istruggle with the wealthv nienliuiil riiy o( Maraa-illt-s; hia alliance with Ihiynioirr of Toulimae and the heretical elements in l*ro%enre ngainut the Pope and the Freneli : bin itTort ^ to leoil an army against Innocent IV. at Lyons, were among the chief phases of his ioii.>tuut elforts to make the Imperial Influeiiee really felt ill the valley of the Hhone. Hut he lind Ni'litllo sureesa that the French cruandet<< ai;:iiu»t the .VUiigenaes wnfed open war within its liiiiit]. and destroveil the heretic eltv of ,\vij:noii («ii> Ai.nioK!i»its: A. D. 1217-1229). while liiii.»i'iit ill hi< ex:le could And no surer protiitinn a.'Miiint the emjieror tlmu In the Im|>erial i ity of l.\.iiia. After Fnderlek'a death the poliiy of St l-oula of France waa a complete triumph IlislirMilier. Clisrlea of Atijou, eatablislied hini.-<lf i:i l*niv- eu.e, though in later llimathe .Xncivin ! riis of I^nivcnee and Naples bi-rame ao mroiu' that tlii ;r local intereats maile them enemies ruili. r ilian friendaof the exteualonof French |h)»i r on ilicir Imnlera. The sul>«eiiuent efforts of the i'ni|', mra were tlie m^'rest ahania and unn'ulilies. liiidolf of llapaburg wuiiiesced without a miinnnr iu the pnigreaa of Philip the Fair, wlio niuli' liim «'lf master of I.yona. and si-cursil tin- Kn-o County of llurgiindy for his aon [ai-e Fhami UK ( iiMTEJ. . . . The "n-aldence of the I'oiiea at Avignon was a further help to lli- Fn neU lulvauc)' . Weak as wen the early \ alon kiuga, Ihey were a'.ning enough W ii'u-,h aliil further the ailvuntage won by their greaUT pre- desi-saom The rivalry of the lerding htuti-a of tile Rhone valley. 8avoy b.'mI Daupliiny. faiili- Uleil their task. Phllln VI. a»j)ire<l t'- take Wnne an Philip IV. hoi! obtalueil Lyons The IHtuphin. lIunilK-rt II.. stniggh'<l in vain against him. and at last accepted tbs hieviuble by Ul f! ^^fi BUBOCITOT, n>7-lST& ?*"« «<» *• 'WW* kliif the lucceaion to all hta n«nu in DauphiiiT, henceforth to become the •ppwMge of the eMett •om of the Prem h klnin. At last. Ouu-lea of Luxemburg. In 1378, nVe toe Piwich airrcfiioni a legal basii by con- ferrtag the VIcariat of Arlw on Uie Dauphin ghyl**. auhMquently the mad Charlea VI. of riaoCT. From thia mnt Bnroy only waa ex- »pte4 Henceforth the power of Fiance in the Hhooe TallcT became ao great that It aoon be- S?^ .J*", 'f^'*"" y •''•jP'*' "uwl Ignore the •"^ 0«. 8, 1801 (retieving "U Btmumt A. D laoMJoi.-AdTaacaeftha demioiou BeeBATOT: Htb-IStb CurrtmiEa. A. p. >3&t-— Th* Frueh DDkadom.— Th« iy^'Jj*'^-:^*"^ Oukeof Burgundy Rober*. aoo of King Robert, died in December. the Chlteau d« Rourre. near Pljon. had been Wa Mrthplaoe. and hia reaidence He waa Mill to Ua youth when he died, although he had borne the ducal Utie for twelre ycara. It fell to him at thr age of four, when hU father died, nom lil. mother and hIa grandmother he In- herile.1 ad<litioii»])y, the county of Burgundy yianchp Coml«) and the cnuntiet of Boulogne Anv-rtroe and Artoia Hlx tender veara had not SreTtutfd the marrUge of the young duke to Iar«ret, daughter and beireaa of the Count of Ilanden JoKn 11. King of Fnuce. whoae mother was a Burgundian princeaa. claimed to ULi ..''"^'.'V'*"'*°"'"'y"'">* "Juk". when the Utt.-r .lied in IMI, and. although hia claim ^.^/"•'T* '•^ ""> King of NavSrn.. diariS the Ba<r Kina John took poaaeaalon of the duke- „."• J,'* "JrJl''? ■?«'" °' •"n»"lo". and not of King ftolwrt having en tain*. I no rev.mlonarv pn.viiii»ii. Kranche Comt*. or the c.inly of Burgumlv together with Artohi. rrmalne.1 to ti.e I?,?,",f *''''"^""K»'«« of Flandeia, while the oountl.-. of Boulogne and Au»ergne pa«M<d U) John of Uoulogne, Count de -Montfort. A tmx opportunity for atnngtheuing the crown of F>«ii.r, l.y annexing to it the powerful B.irg.in ^^ri i". ""'■ ."""o-pff'™! «« King John .?l,„t ho lii.k.'.l (lie wlailom to improve it. He ur.f.rr.Kl to grant it a»ar aj a anlemlid appaiiagr for hi., ft.von...*„,_,|,cfourtl.-theapirit«dhul Philip, ni LhI t ... Frarl,.... wIh. had stood by hia f«th.-ri ^1- m II.. . I«,tr.m. battle of PoitiAni. and wl... »h.. h t...k rtT.<t on King John. dcaUi, in IM4 Pliilji, II... Marie., ,o,l on bis h.lia. «.«.« »/i,r »«r.l-. I l.ilip. m.rTia„v with th* young wl<l.,w on.i.,m,„K.,.,«o., I'lm=pd..i{.,uvre. w«»lm„,»|,i alw. .> ..« h i,«or..,i :i,. ir f .rmer union with the u,,K„|.„„ ibe Mori. .,«lUn County (Kran,he Con I. , „„| beewiui, » Artoia, wl.ilr it guv« W .l« ,„ « :hike pR..,...„v,.ly the rich .-orinly of H«i,.l.r>, I., which .Mar^flnt waa th.. I„ in«i JvlTrMl'T' '(',"»'■•"»"• m,«t for,„l.l,l,le rival nhi.i, ,(„. ^,,,1 iH.w^f ,„ Ynacf t,w| ev^r l«.j..nu r.,1 will,. an.l ihr ..laKnlluileof tl,o l,|,„„|.., ll ,""■' , '" u^"^ "■'■'••'."'' '"•'•"' half » r...,iury ^ ij'lT* ~ '"^ (j,.h,K.,) C-ArwaK/«, 4*. { BUROUNDT, IMT. ^Auom: 7. p. Oolaoi, IkruUu- UiM. o/fh^ A. D. i3S»-Flaad«rs addad to the dotal domintooa. 8m Fiajionia: A. D. laa ^ °- »4«-l453--CiTU war with the Ar. ■iacMca.-iaUMct with the Engli.lL >i^ fKAllc*: A. D. 1880-1418; MlV-UlJ^un 14W; 14S9-1481: 1481-1488. "*^""'' '*"- I ^ D- J4^--Holtaiid, Haiiwidt and Friaa. iMul ateeiUl by th. dakta. See .N'S i^oa (HoLuutDAHO Hajhadlt): a. Dnit. il« wilS-T*^"*^" »*• B<»«>-Hi.po.i. UoOtbctwaMGwauuiTaad France.-HiJai taCMlMB to Letiia xf.— The "Middle KiS^ hlOoryM Cl*rlea the BoW. became Ii„li,M,fTr '""^ ?.r*;^A»"?*«*""9 '"'• '"her Philip mi namea-ThaOood." " Hi, portion w J, t", ChviM held the rank of one of the flr«t prinm taEurope without being a King, ,„,| iuSZ poaaeaalng an Inch of ground for whi.h he did not owe wrrice to aome auperior l..r,| » J^ more than thh. he did not owe ^rvue t^Z lord oriy. The phnae of Orfat l'o*,„ m not bwn inrented in the ISth ont.irv bw torn CM be DO doubt tliat. if It hH.1 !«.„ thi Duke of Burgundy would have ra«li...| ,„W« the foremoat of them. He w«», i„ ...^1 strragth. the equal of hU royal miKhlNntr to Uw weat and far inore than theequal of I.U lni,KtUI ne^hbour to the eut. Yet for evrrj- 1„, i, !,f ™ teiTltoriM he owed a Taaal'a duty to .,..« or °*^'.°'i,'"'°h ^'•<*' "n 'he bonl.ni of Knuw and the Empire. M>me of hia terriLwi., «,.„■ heU of the Empire an.! «>nie of the Fnn. h ( n.wn. Charka. puke of Burgumly^ Count of Himlen and ArtoU, wa. a vaMal ofTr«nce; l.«t ( l,„rl«s, Duke of Brabant. Count of Burgumly, Ii„||.i3^ and a down other duchiea and counti..., I.,.M hii d..mini.Hi. aa a vanal of Cawr. HU .Inniinioai were large in ptisltive extent, and they wn» Talaab e out o^ all proportion t<, their eMent. ^o other nrin.^e In Eun>|>e wa« tl... .liiect •ovcreigii of •<> many rich and flourinhing riti««, ryn.Ier..d stil ni..re rich and fl..uri«hing thn.utli ■ ' ■""«»;''•,'" *^o ""'n. P««<*ful a.lmin:itii Hon of hi. father. The ritie. of tl.« N.lli.rlMdi were ncomparahly greater and m..re pr,..i.muii than th.«c of Iramt- or Kn^'lau.l: .n.l. lUouili they enj.iyed Urge mi.ni.'i|ml privil.,f..H ibry were not, like thiMe of U.rmanv. in I, |»-M.lnit i»inm<.nwealtha. acknowledging wilv hi. . »i.nwl suztnilo In their n.>niinnl h>r| (lih.rtMru.)! l.i. doniinliM).. tlie Duihv ..f Burgun.lv ,>|».i ally, were aa rich In m.-n hh Klnn.l.r.. km ri.h id m.mey 8o farthe I)uke.,f B:ii«un.lv lii.<l aime great a<lvanug<« o\.reverv .uli.r priii.e..f kb lime. But, on the ..Iher ^i«o.|. hU .l..miniooi were further r.Miiov...l than ih.Mr of «nv prince in fcuropr from f.>nnlng a |.<.in|Kt< i « li !.■ lie *»f P"» King .if one kingiloin, hut Diik.. CouBt, and l»nl .>f iuniini.nilih' .lu. hi..H, .^otniiitMi ud l.irtl»hl|.«. a<'.|uir...l l.y .lifT.n-nt nteai... h.M by .,— ,--.-.. I — .... ..J <i,ii(-n-iiL iiit-Kiift. n.-ii, ll- m" . *'"' "' ■''"••"•nt overi..nl«, HiMak- ilij.'.i to.lllT.Tinl lawi, .lmir.nt riil.'« i.f i 342 ing different Ungii«i'..«, »ul,i.Hi to.lllT.nni 1 tnoainittod .oconliuii to .|l(T,r.nt riil..« i.f __ ceaMion. , . . Th.'V l»v in tw^. large luAue* the two Burgumliea f ,nnlng on.' nn<l the Uw Couotrira forming the .M her. iki tl.ni ihcirixninuia maatM cuuU not go from one capital u. uwiiMt Af 8n 417- riw m. «17- lur- ion out ilA Dd. xt >«1 )Ut llM "« Ul bt Ul lii or ee U n. n «, 1 U u r» L CI I. h w If] ill t- -^L m BUBOUXDT. 1467. BCnOCXDY. 1467-1468. without pudnc through • (orplgn territoiy. Awl, even within theae two i^rntt niMus, ttivrv wrn- ptirtioni nf territory intenpctinc th« iliical ildiiilnlooi which there wai no hope of Annexing liy fair rocani. . . . The citreer of Cluu-lcs the B<il<l . . . divides ittelf into a French ami a Oemuio portion. In both alike be is expoiie<l to the rfJtleas rivalry of Lewis of France; but in the one perlnl tliat rivalry is rnrriMl on openly wiiliin the French territory. «liilc In the second nericiil llie crafty kin)( fiiiiU tlie means to deal far more effectual blows tbroiiuh tlie airency of Tiiili'iiic banils. ... As a Fri'nrh prince, he juiiinl with other French prinifs to nut limits on llie power of the Cniwn, arui to divide tlie kingdom Into gnat feudal holdings, aa nearly Imlcpeudent as might be of the common over- liinl. As a French prince, he plavotl his part In the Warcf the Public Weal [see Framci: A. D. 14<1-146(*]. and insisted, as s main object of his policy, on the estnblishmrnt of tlie King's bnitlirr Bsanall but indeiH'udcnt Duke of Nor- mandy. The object of Ia'wIs was to make Friiiio a compact monarchy; the oliji'ct of C'hurlt'S and his fellows was to kicp France aa marly as might be In the same stnteas(]<'rmany. But, when the other French princt-s liad Imtu grailiially conquered, won over, or ^"t rid of in sonic way or other by the crafiy jHilicy of Lewis, Cliarles remained no longer the chief of a coalition of French princea, but the personal rival, the deadly enemy, of the Frencn Kini». . . . ClirKnologically and gi-ogmphitully alike. Cliarli'!! and his Uucliy form tin- ^rcat harrier, or the ^-reat ainnecting 'link, whichever we chfMwo to call it, lietween the nuin divisions of Kuro- rifan history and Euroix-an g<-<ignphy. The Iiuki's iif Burgundy of the I(oui)>> iif \ ah>ls form a Hirt (if bridge lM>tweeu the later Middle Age smi the period of ttic Kenalimtnoe ami tlie Iti fiirinatioii. They omnect tlnwe two jx-riiMU liy forming the kernel of the vuHt dominion of that .Vustrian House which became their heir, and whi<'li, mainly by virtue of that heirship fllisi •ui'h a space In the history of the IBth auti irih (viiliirii's. Buttheduminlonsof the Hurgundiaii Ihiki-s hold a still higher historkiil position. Tlii'V may be said to bind together tlie whole of Euni(iran history for the last tliousand yearn. Kroni the 9th century to the llhli. the |><>liticii of Eiirc.|ie have largely gatlu-n-d riuiiid Ihi' rivalry tielwcin the EasU'm and the Wi-stern Kiiigdi>nia — ill iiioili'm language, between IJermanv and Fniiice. From the Ihh century to tiie I'lHh, a Binitssion of efforts liave been niaile to estubUHli, ill niK- shaiH) or another, a mkldle siiite lietwej'n ilic iwii. Over and over again during that long |iiri.«l havi' mtn niriven to make the whoU; or »iin,' (Hirtlun of the fmnller lands streU-hing (nm, till! iiiiiuth of the Ithine to the mouth of the lih.mi' Into an iii<lf|iendeiit barrier alute. . . . T!i:il olij.ct was never more distinrtly aiiniil at, anil it never sctiiieil nearer toil* ai-roiiipllHliment, Slum w Inn ('liHrliii the ilolil aitiially reignni fMni Uic /.iiiclir Zee to tlie Ijike of Neufi-htti'l. ami »»» mil without ho|ies of exteniling bin fmnller tn 111,. (;i,lf of Lyons. . . . liohllng. as lie dt<l. imnn iif iilit Ixitharinghi and parla of old Riir- guiiily. there can be nodoulitthul heaimeil at the n- intalillshment of a great Middle Kingdom, Willi h sliiiuld Uke In allthat had ever been liur- gundisn or Ixitbaringian ground. He alnii'd, In shurt, aa utbcrt have aiiDetl before and since, at the fonnatlnn of a aUta which should hold aoen- trul position lietween France, Oermany and luly — a state which should discharge, with Inanitely greater ativngth, all the duties which our own age has endeavoured to throw on Switzerland, Uelgium and 8«voy. . . . Undoubtedly it would have lieen for the permanent interest of Europ* If he had succeeded In hia attempt."— EX A. Freenuui, CkarUt th» BoU (UutoriaU E—af, ls( laie; no. 11). A. D. 1467-1468.— The w«r of Charlea tha Bold with the Lieceoia ud his troubles with Lonia XI.— "8oon after the pacillcation of the troulilea of France faee Frakce : A. li. 1461- 146H], the Duke of Burgundy began a war against the Llegeoia, which lasted Tor several years; and whenever the king of France [I.,uuia aI.] bad a mind to Interrupt him, he attempted some new action against the Bretons, and, in the meantime, supported the Liegcois underliund; upon which the Duke of Burgundy turned against him to succour his alliea, or else they came to some treaty or truce among themselves. . . . During theae wara, and ever since, secret and freah intriguea were carried on by tlie princea. The king was so exceedingly exasper- ated against the Dukes of Bretague and Bur- gundy that it waa wonderful. . . . The king of France's aim. In the meantime, was cliietly to carry his design against the province of Bn-tagne, and he looked upon it aa a more feaiiible attempt, and likelier to give him lesi resisbinre than the house of Burgundy. Besides, the lintons wire the people who protected and culi-rtaineil all his malcontents; aa his brother, and otlien, whose Interest and intelligence were great in his king- dom; for this cause heendeavoiikHl vorv eanuntry with (. harles, Duke of Burgundy, )iy several advantageous offers and proiMWaU, to prevail with him to deaert them, promising that u|ion tlioHe terms be also would abandon the Lii-geois, and give no further pnitection to his malcoiittuts. The Duke of Burgundy would by no means consent to it, but again made preparations fur war against the Liegeois, who hiul bMken the ixace." This waa In (><tobir, 1467. The Duke (Clmrlea the Bold) attacked St. Trim, which waa held bjr a garrison of 8,000 of the men of l,iegc. The I.,ief;euis, 8U.000 strong, came Ui the relief of the iK-siegiii town, and were rouleil, leaving 6.000 slain on the fle'd. St. Tron and Tongrea were Imth surrenderetl, and Liege, itself, alu;r considerable strife among its citizens, o|ie!ied its gall's to the Duke, who entered in triumph (Nov. 17, l4A7)aod hanged haifa dozen for his moder- ate saliafaclloti. In the i-ourae of the next sum- mer the French king opened war afresh upon the Duke of Bn-UKne and fimiil him into a treaty, before tlie Duke of Burgundy, his ally, could take the lii'ld. The king, then lieing extri'mely anxious to pacify the Duke of Bur- gundy, took the extraonlinary step of \isitiug the hitter at Pennine, without any guani, trusting himoelf wholly to the honor of his enemy. But it happi'ned unfortunately, during the king's stay at Peronne, that a feriicious revolt oeeuri*d at Lii'ge, which was traceii tieyond denial to the intrigues of two agents whom king Louis had si'nl thither not longlM'fore, for !:iisihief making piiriioaes. The Duke, in his wnitli. wan not vM\\y restraintil from doing some vinlenre to tha king; but the royal trickster cM'a|Hil tri>m his grave predicament by giving up the unhappy S43 -il !l BCRaUNDT, 14C7-14<e. Liegeoii to the reiifteuiM of Duke Charles uid peraonallv usiRting the Utter to Inflict it After the conclusioii of the peace [dictated by Charles at Peronne and dgned ■ubmiwivelr by Louis] the King and the Duke of Burgundy set out the next morning [Oct 18. 14«8] for Cam- bray, and from thence towards the country of Lioge: it was the beginning of winter and the wrather was very bad. The king had with him only hu 8cot=h guards and a small body of bis stimimg forces: but he ordered 800 of his men- at arms to Join him." LMge was invested, and. notnithstandingiu walla had been thrown dowi the nrevioiis year, it made a stubborn defense. During a siege of a fortnight, several desperate sallies were rajde, by the Ust one of which both the Duke and the King were brought into neat personal perU. Exhausted by thfi final effort, the LiegeoU were unprepared to wpel a grand assault which the besieging forces made upon the town the next morning— Sunday, Oct 80. Ll#ge was taken that day almost without resist- ance, the miserable inhabitanU flying acnw the Maes into the forest of Ardennes, abandoning their homes to pllUge. The Duke of Burgundy now permitted King Loais to return home, whlto -k!*? v.™^ ' '*T "y! """f" *" deioUte U«ge, which his flerce hatred had doomed. " Befon the Duke left the city, a great number of those poor creatures who liad hid themselves in the bouses when the town was taken, and were after- wards made prisoners, were drowned. He also resolved to bum the city, which had always been very populous; and orders were given for Bring It in three different places, and 8. WW or 4,000 foot of the country of Limbourg (who were their nelgbboura, and used the same habit and lan- Cuage), were commanded to effect this desolation ut to secure the churches. . . . All things beini thus ordered, the Duke began his marehlnto the country of Pranchemont: he was no sooner out of town, but Immediately we saw a great number or bouses on Are beyond the river; the duke lay that night four leagues from the city, yet we Muld hear the noise u dUtinctly as (f we had been upon Uie spot; but whether It was the wind which lay that way, or our quartering upon the river, that was the cause of ft, I know not. The next day the Duke marcheo on, and th.ise who were left In the town continued the conflagration accord ng to his orden; but all the churches (except some few) were preserved, a. .1 above •BO houses belonging to the priesU and ofllcere of ^inh^SUirS'"'*''' '? 't" ^-"^ " »•« «> soon the priesU. "--Philip as Commlncs,jr»mfl,>,. it » BUBOUIIDT, UTt-HTt. of Burgundy tried means to Uke away Lorratoe from the voung Sent. That province was ne^ S^L'^K "'•.*° "r*" ^ i"^ *^ northern eStoi with thoK In the south. The conquest wm KMh; but it was reserved for a small oeoDle f^' celebrated for their heroic valour and by i^^!^" °' "»>e'ty. to beat this powerful muL Irritated agaiiut the Swiss, who had braved him' ChsjrlM crossed over the Jura, besteged the litili town of Gnnson, and, in despite of a capitu'a- tion, caused aU the defendere to be hanged or ^wned. At this news the eight cantons which then composed the Helvetian rSpubllc arose and i^^S^I^' t^ ""'"y they attacked the Duke and dispersed his troops [March 8, 11781 Some month, later [June £],' supported b^ you?| Ren« of Lorraine despoUed of his inhirftan. ,? they exterminated a second Burgundian army SSST.mS'*- *^'^1"^ vanouisEed, reaasem- Wed a third ar^, and marched in the midst of i^^^^^^"^\ 7"<* •»«» '""en into the huMUoftheSwtaaandLorralners. It was there th«he perished [Jan. 8, UV] betrayed by 1^ mwcenary soldiery and overpownna by bum- AtTi Z^^.??^^- ^**- '^ ^»«. » 1. T^,^ A."»^'»ble out-load of sheep skins that the Count of Romoot had taken ftonithe Swlssi Also ih: J. P, ifirk. But. of Chart,, thi BoU f. 1, M 7-B; M. ».-<•. F. W^llerCni A.W I^M Jr;:-8ir. W. Scott. ««»<.; Dun,a?d.l Bee, also. DiNAirr. A, D. Ufi-un. -CiMriss the Bold ud the •wlM—HJs ds/eats and his death -Tha ^. c.f hia fall.-" Sovereign of t~ "i.l.y of Burgundy, of the Free County, of Halnaut of '•T-lrrs of Holland, and of ^ueldreThsrl^ wlshe.l,hy Joining to it Lorrelne, a piortion of Bwlt«^|,.„,|. an-lth. Inheritance 'of dd King d^Sfk?,!'^?' "' i>^". «« «*o»po«< the an' clent kingiiom of Lorraine, such as It had exUled under the Carlovlnglan dynasty; and flattered hi.u»lf that by offertn, his daughter t^SK? milUn mm of |(S*derick"in. , he wUuid obitlnxha tiUe of king. Oeodved la hla hopes, th« DuU 844 Almighty haf not f onaken the Duke of Burgundy M».!?f?* «»ceiTable he would have expoaeS Umself to such areat dangers upon so Sinalland Sl^.f°a'S*T"i "PecUlly considering the offers the Svriss had made him, and that his con- 2^J "k "* enemies would yield him neither profit nor honour; for at that Ume the Swiss wc:» not in such esteem as now, and no peopl.. in the world could be poorer. " At QransoT' • the |.,»r M^ rT. "n J"'«^"^ enr ched by the plun.l.'r of hU[the Duke of Burgiody's] camp At tint they did not understand the value of the treasure Ifl r'"'r>'""i°"u °'j especially the coininon soldiers. One of the richest and most maguifl- cent tents in the world was cut into pi,,*! There were some of them that sold quantities of dishes and plates of silver for about two sous of our money suppodng they had been ne-ri«r. His great diamond, . . wfth a large p. .r, fl,ed to it was Uken up by a Swiss, put up again Into the case, thrown under a wamn, Uk.n up again by the same soUier, and after all omn-.l li a priest for a florin who bought it and sent it to the magistrates of that country, who returned bim throe francs as a sufllcient reward. I This was long suppos^ to be the famous iiuicy diamond ; but Ilr. Streeter thinks that the tnidl- tlon which BO connects it Is totally dlsprovnl] They also took three very rich Jewels .iilhd the inree Urothers, another large ruby calli^l U Hatle, and another called the Ball of Flandrrs, wh ch were the fairest and richest in the W(.rl.l; Je»™es a prrxllgious quantity of other giw-ls," In hU last battle, near Nancy, the Duke had lea •ban 4,000 men, •• and of that number not sl^ve IJOO were lo a ooodltion to fight." He en(^.un tered on this oooaakm a powt^ul army of Swl« and Chrmana, which the Duke of LorraUio had been able to ouUeot, with the help of the king of mnoe and others. It was against the s<l vin. of V} J»«.o?«»™ello« that tbs beadatrang, Ulf mal Duke Ctwrlet dwbed to fittis aniiy afiiia (bit BUROUNDT, 1478-1477. BCHOUNDT. 1477. (mter one, and be paid the penalty. It was broken at the first shock, and the Uuke was killed la the confused rout without being known. His body, stripped naked by the pillagers and mangled br wolves or dogs, was found frozen fast in a ditch. "Icanunteasilydetermlne towards whom Ood Almighty showed his anger most, whether towards him who died suddenly, without pain or sickness In the field of battle, or towards his subjects, whoneTerenjoyedpeaceafterhisdeath, but wers continually involved in wars against which they were not able to maintain themselves, upon account of the civil dissensions and cruel animosities that arose among them. ... As I bad seen these princes puissant, rich and honour- able, so itfarea with their subjects: for I think I have seen and known the greatest part of Europe, yet I never knew any province or country, though of a larser extent, so abounding in money, so extravagantly fine in their furniture, so sump- tuous in their buildings, so profuse in th«<' expenses, so luxurious m their feasts and enter- tainments and so prodigal in all respects, as the subjects of these princes !n my time; and if any think I have exaggerated, others who lived in my time will be of opinion that I have rather laid too little. ... In short, I have seen this family in all respects the most flourishing and celebrated of anv in Christendom: and then, in a short space of time, it was quite ruined and turned upside down, and left the most desolate and miserable of any house in Europe, as regards boiA prince and subjects. "—Philip de Commines, Memoiri, bk. 8, eh. 1-8. — "The popular concep- tion of this war [between Charles the Bold and the Swiss] is simply that Charles, a powerful and encroaching prince, was overthrown in tiiree great battles by the petty commonwealths which he had expected eaafly to attach to his dominion. Grandson and Morat are placed side by side with MorKsrten and Bempach. Such a view as this implk-s complete ignorance of the histciv ; it im- plies ignorance of the fact that it was the Swiss who made war upon Charlea, and not Charles who made war upoa the Swiss; it Implies ignor- ance uf the fact that Charles's army never set foot on proper SwiM territory at all, that Orand- son and Mont were at the beginning of the war no part of the possessions of the Confederation. . . . The mere politioal accident that the country which formed the chief seat of war now forms pan of the Swiss Confederation has been with m.iny people enough to determine their estimate of the quarrel. Grandson and Mont are in Swiu- erlaml; Burgundiaa troops appeared tad were defeHU'd at Grandson and Mont: therefore Charles must have been an invader of Switzerland, and the warfare on the Swiss side must have been a warfare of purely defennive heroism. The sim- ple fact that it was only through the result of the Burgundtan war that Onndson itnil Mnnt ever became Swiia territory at once (llspones of IhU Una of argument. . . . The plain facu of the raae are that the Burgundian wnr wu a war dwUnnI by Bwitierliind against Burgumiy . . . sii'l tUiit In the campaigns of Grandson and Morat the Duke of Burgundv was simply spelling and avenging Swiss Invasions of his own territory anil the territory of bis allies. "-E. A. Fneman. Uularieal Asom, ». 1. no. U. Also in: J. T. Kirk, Bit. tf Chnrltt t** BM, «. 8.-L. 8. Costello. iltmttn «f Jfoi* </ i»i»r- ;a«%, ei, 14-S7. A. D, 1477.— Pcnnmocntlj restored to tkt French crown.— Louis XI. of France, who had been eagerly watchhig while Charles the Bold shattered his armies and exhausted his strength in Switzerland, received early news of the death of the self-willed Duke. 'WTille the panic and confusion which it caused still prevailed, th« king lost DO time in taking possession of the duchy of BurguLdy, as an appanage which had reverted to the crown, through default of mala heirs. The legality of his claim has been much in dispute. "Charles left an only daughter, un- doubted heiress of Flanders and Artob, aa well as of his dominions out of France, but whose right of succession to the duchy of Burgundy was more questionable. Originally the great fiefs of the crown des<«nded to females, ana this was the case with respect to the two first men- tioned. But John had granted Burgundy to his M>n Philip by way of appanage ; and it was con- tended thjkt the appanages reverted to the crown In default of male heirs. In the form of Philip't investiture, the duchy was granted tu him uui his lawful hein, without designation of sex. The construction, therefore, must be left to the established course of law. This, however, was by no means acknowledged by Alary, Charles's daughter, who maintained both that no general law restricted appanages to male heirs, and that Burgundy had always been considered as a feminine fief, John himself having poswssed it, not bv reversion as king (for descendants of the first dukes were then living), but by Inheritance derived through females. Such was this ques- tion of succession between Louis XI. and Mary of Burgundy, upon the merits of whose preten- sions I will not pretend altogether to decide, but shall onl V observe that, if Charles had conceived his daughter to be excluded from this part of his inheritance, he would probably, at Cfonflans or Peronne, where he treated upon the vantage ground, have attempted at least to obtain a re- nunciation of Louis's claim. There was one obvious mode of preventing all further contest, and of aggrandizing the French monarchy far mire than by the reunion of Burgundy. This was the marriage of Mary with the dauphin, which was ardentiv wished in France." The dauphin was a child of seven years; Mary of Burgundy a masculine-minded young woman of twenty. Probably Louis despaired of reconcil- ing the latter to auch a marriage. At all events, while be talked of It occasionally, he proceeded actively In despoiling the young duchess, seizing Artois and Francbe Comli, and laying hands upon the frontier towns which were exposed to his arms. He embittered her natural enmity to him by various acts of meanness and treachery. "Thus the French alliance becoming odious in Flanders, this princess married MHxImilian of Austria, son of the Emperor Frederic— a con- nexion which Louis strove to prevent, though it was impossible then to foresee that it was or- dained to retard the growth and to bias the fate of Europe during three hundred years. This war huted till after the death of Mary, who left one son Philip and one daughter Margaret"— U. Hallam, Tht ViddU Aga. eh. 1, pi. 9— "The king [Louis XI. 1 had reason to bo more than nrdinarilv pleased at the death of that duke [of Burgun(ly], and he triumphed more in his ruin than in tliat of all the rest of bis enemies, as he thought that nobody, for liw futuri), sitiutr of 846 i **ii '« i il ^ji BURQUNDT, 1477. hii own gubjccta, or his neighbours, wouM be able to uppose him, or disturb the tranquillity of his rclgn. . . . Although God Almighty has shown, and docs still shiw, that his determina- tion is to punish the family of Burgundy sevrrely, not only in the person of the duke, but In thei. •ubjecu and estates; yet I think the king our master did not take right measures to that end. For, if he had acted prudently, inateRd of pre- tending to conquer them, he should rather have endeavoured to annex all those large territories, to which he had no Just title, to the crown of France by some treaty of marriage ; or to have gained the hearts and affections of the people, and so have brought them over to his interest, which he might, without any great difflcultv, have effected, considering how their late alflfc- tions had impoverished and dejected them. If he had acted after that manner, he would not only have prevented their ruin and destruction, b'lt extended and strengthened his own kingdom, •nd established them all in a firm and lasting peace."— Philip de Commines, iiemnirt, bk. 6, eh. 18.—" He [Louis XI.J reassured, caressed, com- forted the duchy of Burguadv, gave it a parlia- ment, visited bis good city of Dijon, swore in 8t Benignus' church to respect all the old privileges and customs that could be sworn to, and bound his successors to do the same on their accession. Burgundv was a land of nobles; and the king raised a bridge of eold for all the great lords to come over to him.^'— J. Michelet, Btrt ^(fFrana.bk.\^.eh.^-^. A. D. 1477-I4«a.-Reign of the Burgnndian htiresa in the Netherlandt.— Her marrian with Maximilian of Anttria. See Nrhsr- IJUIDS: A. D. 1477. A. D. tsia.— FormatioD of the Cirelt. See Gcrmany: A. D. 1498-1819. ^A ?• J544.-Renttnciation of the Claim* of Charlet V. See France: A. D. 1888-1547. BURH, The. See BonocoH. BURI, The.— A Suevic clsn of Germans whose settlements were anciently in the neigh- borhood of mo.lem Cracow,— Tacitus, Otmany traru. hfi Church and Hrmtrihl). Oemj notet BURKE, Edmund, and the American Rt*o- Intion. See United States or Am. : A I) 1775 (Jawuakt— March) And the French RtTOlution. See Enoland- A. I), 1793-IT96 -.T^^k^'O"' ^o""- •"<• *>«• "ip* of Queen aSnS.yi'PA'SI CHINESE EMBASSY AND TREATIEa See China: A. D. 1857- BURMA : Risaof th« kinrdora.— First war with tht English (18j4.18a6K-Ces.lon of a" ■mm and Aracan. Bee India: A. D. 1833-]f33 A. D. i8sa.— SMood war with tha Earllih! ~k??iJ//.;C-..?*'«''"'lA: A. D. 1858. A."D"?r-?8?0^''°"''^»- «~«coT.,x,„: BURNSIDE, Canaral Anbrea* E.-B>p«. AM. : A. O. 18«8(Jani'aiit— Apiiil: North Car- ouRA), .Command of tht Annr of tha Poto- ,fffL ** Un'"° »tatwi op Am. : A. D. 1868 ((Mtorcr-Dbckmbkr: ViRoratA) RMira- mtnt (rem command of tht Armr of the Poto- mac. S« Inited States or Am. : A D 1888 •f Saat ToaatMM. Sea Uitmo fSm BX7TLER. or Am.: A. D. 1868 Acotwr— Ssfxeitber' TKXNBsen) Defenae of KnosTille. iSee Usited States or Am. : A. D. 1863 (OcTonER- December: TEifNEssEE) At the siege of Peterabttrg. Bee Uotted States or Am. : A. D 1864 (JtrxE: ViKGiinA), (Jolt: VlRoufiA). , BURR, Aaron. See United States or Am • A. D. 1800-1801, and 1806-1807. BURSCHENSCHAFT, The. See Gem- MANY : A. D. 1817-1820. BURU. See Malax Aiicbipxlaoo. BUSHMEN, The. See Afkica: The ih. HABrriNa races. BUSHWHACKERS.— A name commnnlv given to the rebel guerrilla* or half-bandits of the southwest, in the American Civil War — J Nicolay and J. Hay, Abraham Lincoln, t. 6, p. BUSIRIS.— DtstroTtd by Diocletian. See Alexandria: A. D. 296. BUSSORAH AND KUFA, The rise jd impertaace oC— In the first yean of their con- quest and occupation of MesopoUmU and the Delta of the Euphrates and Tigris— as early as A. D. 688 — the Moslems founded two cities which acquired importance hi Mahometan his- tory. In both cases, these cities appear to have ariara out of the need felt by the Arabs for more salubrious sites of residence than their predecps- ■o™ *" ^ .mcient country had been contented with. Of Bussorah, or Baasorah, the r'lv founded in the Delta, the site is said to have Utn changed three time*. Kufa was built on a plain very near to the neglected city of Hita, on the Euphrates. ' Kufa and Bussorah . . . had a singular influence oa the destinies of the Caliph ate and of Islam itself. The vast majoritv nf the population come from the Peninsula 'and were of pure Arabian blood. The tribes wlilrh with their families, scenting from afar the prey of Perala, kept streamhig hito Clmldaja from every comer of ArebU, settled chiefly In thrso two cities. At Kufa, the races from Yemen and the south predominated ; at Bussorah, from the north. Rapidly they grew into two great and luxuriouscapitals, with an Arab population .w li of from 180,000 to 800,000 souls. On the lit.™ ture, theology, and politics of Islam, these liiips had a gieater Influence than the whole Moslem world besides. ... The people became petulant and factious, and both cities grew Into hoil^'ds of turbulence and sedition. The Bedouin ilc •.nent, conscious of its strength, was jealmn of the Coreish, and Impatient olf whatever clif< keil ita capricious humour. Thus factions spranir "P T'hleh. controlled by the strong and wl.*- ami of Omar, broke loose under the weaker Calipli«, eventually rent tha unity of Islam, and bKiU|.'lit on diaaatroua daya"— Sir W. Muir, Annal, ,f thtSartf 0aUiMl4, eh. IH.-Bee, also, Maiiomk TAN Comodkot: a. D. 689-681. BUTAbA,Tke. See Phti-a BUTB'SAbMINISTRATION. SecE.xo hAim: A. D. 1760-1768. BUTLBR, Ceaeral BeiHamio F.— In com- maad at Baltiorare. See UNrnto Statks or Am. ; A. D. 1861 (Apbil-Mat: Martland! UceauMaiatPortrtaaMowoe. SeeUNiTKU BTATnorAM: A. D 1881 (Mat)..... The Hat- BUTLER BYZANTINE EMPIRE. A. D. 717. ten* Bzpeditioa. See Unitrd States of Am. : A. D. 1861 (AcouBT; North Carolina) Commajid at New Orleans. See United States OP Am. : A. D. 1883 (.May— December: LociuAMA) Command of the Army of the Jamei. See Unitbo States of Am. : A. D. 1864 (May: VraonnA). BUTI.ER, Walter, and the Tory and In- dian partisans of the American Rerotution. See United States of Am. : A. D. 1778 (Junk — NovE.UBEn). and (July). BUTTERNUTS. See Boys in Blue; also United States of Am. : A. D. 1884 (October). BUXAR.OR BAXAR, OR BAKSAR, Bat- tle of (1764). See India: A. D. 17.'57-1778. BYNG, Admiral John, Esacutioa ot Bee Minorca : A. D. 1738. BYRON, Lord, in Greece. See Gruecx: A. D. 1821-1829. BYRSA.— The citadel of Carthace. See Carthaoe, The Dominion or. BYTOWN. See Ottawa. BYZACIUM. See Carthagb, The Domin- ion OF. BYZANTINE EMPIRE. — The Eas-.cm Roman Kmpire, having; its capital at Byzantium (modem Constantinople), the earlier history of which will be found sketched under the caption Rome: A. D. 8t>4h-895, to 717-«00, has been Sken. in its later years, the name of the Byzan- ne Empire. The propriety of this designation Is questioned by some historians, and tlie time when it l)egins to be appropriate is likewise a subject of debate. For some discussion of these questions, see Romb: A. D. 717-800. Its part in history.— Its defence of Europe. — Its ciTilising influence.— "The later Roman Empire was the bulwark of E'lrone airalnst the oriental danger; Hauricr and .'.jracfiui'. Con- ■tantine IV. and Leo die I> jrian ^erc Cue suc- cessors of Themistocles and AfHcunus. . . . Until the days o' the crusailcs, the Qermnn nations did not combine with the Empire against the common foe. Nor did the Teutons, by themselves, achiere any successof ecumenical Im- portance against .lon-Arvan races. I may be reminded that Charles the Orent exterminated the Avars; but that was after they had cease<l to I* really dangerous. When there existed a tnily fnrmtdablc Avar monarchy It was the Roman Kmpire that bore tlie brunt; and yet while most people who read history know of the Avar war of Charles, how few there arc who have ever hrard of Priscus, the gcmml who k<i bravely warned against the Avars in the rrlgn of Maurice. I may bo remimU'd that Charles Mnrtcl won a great name by victories in southern Gaul over the Saracens; yet those successes sink Into Insignificance by the side of tho achievement of bit contemporary, the tlilnl Lj-o, who held the gate of eastern Europe against all the forces which the Saracen pow< r, then at lu height, cnuld mutter. Every oiif knows about the ex- ploits of the Prank; it is almost Incredible how little Is known of the Roman Emperor's defence of the greatest city of Christian Europe, In the quarter where the real danger Uy. . . . The Em- pire was much more than the mtliury guard of the Asiatic frontier; it not only defended Imt sito kept alive the trwllllons of Greek and Homsii culture. We cannot orer-estimate the Importance of the presence of a highly clvlllsul ■••• lor ■ system of aatlons whicli were as vet only beginning to be civilised. The constant, intercourse of tho Empire with Italy, which until the eleventh century was partly imperial, and with southern Qaul and Spain, had an in- calculable intiuence on the development of the West. Venice, which contributed so much to the growth of western culture, was for a long time actually, and for a much longer time nomi- nally, a city of the Roman Empire, and learned what it taught from Byzantium. The Byzan- tine was the mother of the Italian school of painting, as Greece in the old days had been the mistress of Rome in the fine arts ; and the Byzan- tine style J architecture has had perhaps a wider influence than any other. It was to New Rome that the Teutonic kings applied when they needed men of learning, and thither stu- dents from western countries, who desired a university education, repaired. ... It was. moreover. In the lands ruled by New Rome that old Hellenic culture and the monuments of Hel- lenic literature were preserved, as in a secure storehouse, to be given at length to the ' wild nations ' when they had been sufSciently tamed. And in their taming New Rome played an in- dispensable part. The Justinian law, which still interpenetrates European civilisation, was a product of New Rome. In the third place the Roman Empire for many centuries entirely maintained European commerce. This was a circumstance of the greatest Importance; but unfortunately It is one of those facts concerning which contemporary historians did not think oT leaving records to posterity. The fact that the coins of the Roman Emperors were used through- out Europe hi the Midole Ages speaks for itself. ... In the fourth place, the Roman Empire preserved a great idea which induenced the whole course of western Europeon history do'vn to the present day— the idea of the Roman Em- pire itself. If we look at the ecumenical event of 800 A. D. from a wide point of view, it really resolves itself into this: New Rome bestowed upon the western nations a great idea, which moulded and ordered their future history; she gave back to Old Rome the idea which Old Rome bestowed upon her five centuries before. . . . If Cons(antinople and the Empire bad fallen, the imperial idea would have been lost in the whirl of the ' wild natlo"t. ' It Is to New Rome that Europeans really owe thanks for the establishment of the principle and tho system which brought law and order Into the political relations of the West"— J. B. Bury, Hittory 0} the Littr Roman Empire. S(>e TiunE. A. D. 7x7.— Us organisation br Lm th« Isaurian. — " The nccessinn of Leo the Issurian to the throne of Coniiti'.itiiiople suddenly opened a new era In the history of the Eastern Empire. . . . When Leo III. was proclaimed emperor [A. D. 717], It seemed as ft no human nowtr could save Constantinople from falling as Roma had fallen. The Saracens considered the sov- ereignty of every land, in which any remains of R' man civilization survived, as within their grasp. Leo. an Isaurian, and an Iconoclast, con- sequently a foreigner and a heretic, ascended the throne of Constantine and arrested the victorious career of the Mohammedans. He then reorgan- ized the whole administration so completely hi acconlance with the new exigencies of Biastem society that the reformed empire oulllvetl for many cent-:ri«s every government cuntemporary 847 -sM ?; BYZANTINE KMPIHE. A. D. 717. with iti ntabllghment. The Enstern Roman Empire, thus refonned, ii called by ii:odeni hi8- toriangthe Byzantine Empire: and the term is well devised to mark the changes effected in the government, after the extinction of the last tncesof the military monarehy of ancient Rome. . . . The provincial divisions of tlie Roman Empire had fallen into oblivion. A new geographical arrangement into Themes appeara to have been established by Heraclius, when he recovered the As<atic provinces from the Per- sians; it was reorganized by Leo, and endured as long as the Byzantine government. The number of themes varied at different periods. The Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus, writing about the middle of the tenth century, counts sixteen in the Asiatic portion of toe Empire and twelve in the European. . . . The European provinces were divided into eight con- ttneDtal and five insular or transmarine tfaemea, until the loss of the exarehate of Ravenna re- duced the number to twelve. Venice and Naples, though they acknowledged the suzer- ainty of the Eastern Empire, acted generally as independent cities. . . , When Leo was raised to the throne the Empire was threatened with Im- mediate ruin. . . . Every army assembled to -ncounter the Saracens broke out into rebellion, .'he Bulgarians and Sclavonians wasted Europe up to the walls of Constantinople; t!'e Saracens ravaged the whole of Asia Minor to the shores of the Bosphorus."— O. FInlay, JIM. <ff tkt Bjfiantint Empire, bk. 1, eh. I. Also -»: E. W. Brooks, Tht Emptror Zenon andthe /iaunaruiEnolUh Hitt. lin., April, 1898). A. D. 717-797.— The Isaurian dynMfy.— The dynasty founded by Leo the Isaurian held the throne until the dethronement of Constantine VL by his mother, Irene, A. D. 797, and her de- thronement, in turn by NIcephorus I., A. D. 802. It embnici-d the following reigns: Constantine v., called Copronymus, A D. 741-775; Leo IV., 77.'i-780; Constantine VL, 780-797; Irene, 797- ana. A. D. 736-751.— The Iconoclaatic Contro- ▼ersr.— Rupture with the West.— Fall of the Exarchate of RaTenna.- End of anthority in Italy. See Iconoclastic Co.ntrovirsy, and Papacy : A. D. 738-774. A. D. Soa-Saa— Emperors : Nicpbonis L, A. D. 80a-«ll ; SUaracius, A D. 811; Michael I., A. D. 811-818; Lto v., A. D. 813-820. A. D. S03.— Treaty with Charlemagne, fix- inr bouadariet. See Vknicb: A. D. 897-810. A. D. 830-1057.- The Amorianand Baailian or Macedonian dynaatict.— MIrhacI, the Amnrian (820-829) so named from his hirth-place, Amorium, in Phry gia, was a soldier, raised to the throne by a revolution which deposed and anaaslnated his friend and patron, the Emperor Leo V. Michael transmitted the crown to his son (Theonhilus. 829-843) and grandson. The Utter, caltaHi Mirlmel the Drunkard, was con- snired against and killed by one of the companions 01 hU drunken orL'te»(887), Basil the Macedonian, who liHd t)een In early life a groom. Basil founik'd a dynasty whicD reigned, with several InK-rruptlnns, from A. D. 887 to 10."S7 — a period rovtriiig tlie following reigns: Basil I.. A D B«7-HKe; Leo VI.. A. D. 8*V-91I; Constantine VII. (I'orphyrogenltus). A. D. 911-9.V); Komanus I (Colleague), A D. 919-944: Constantino VIII. tUoUeague), ▲. D. 944; Rumaous IL, A. D. BYZANTINB EMPIRE, 1087-1081. 989-983; Nicephom* II., A. D. 988-989; John Zimisces, A. D. 969-978; Basil IL, A. D. 96»- 1028; Constantine IX., A. D. 988-1028; Romanus IIL, A. D. 1028-1084; Michael IV., A. D. 1034- 1041; Michael V., A. D. 1041-1042; Zoe and Theodora, A. D. 1042-1088; Constantine X A. D. 1042-1054; Michael VL, A. D. 1056-1057 A. D. 865-1043. — Wars, commerce and Church Connection with the Rusaians. See Rdbsiavb: a. D. 885-900; alsoCONBTAUTiNoPLZ- A. D. 868 and 907-1048. A. D. 870-1016.— Fresh acquisitions in South- ern Italy. See Italy (SotrrHXBii): A. D. 800- 1018. A. D. 963-1035.- Recovery of prestige and territory. — "Amidst all the r-lmcs and revolu- tions of the Byzantine govi, nent — and its history is but a series of crimes and revolutions — it was never dismembered by Intestine war. A sedition in the army, a tumult in the theatre, a conspiracy in tBe palace, precipitated a mon- arch from the throne; but the allegiance of Con- stantinople was instantly transferred to his suc- cessor, and the provinces implicitly obeyed the voice of the capital. The custom, too, of parti- tion, so baneful to the Latin kingdoms, and which was not altogether unknown to the Sara- cens, never prevailed in the Greek Empire. It stood In the middle of tlie tenth century, as vicious Indeed and cowardly, but more wealthy, more enlightened, and far more secure from its enemies than under the flret successors of Herac- lius. For about one hundred yean preceding there had been only p&rtial wars with the Mo- hammedan potentates; and in these the emperors seem gradually to have gained the advantage, and to have i>eoome more frequently the aggres- sors. But the increasing distractions nf the East encourage) iwo brave usurpers, NIcephorus Phocas ana John Zimisces, to attempt tta actual recovery of the lost provinces. .Tjey carried the Roman arms (one may use the term with less reluctance than usual) over Syria; Antioch and Aleppo were taken by storm; Damascus submltt.Hl ; even the cities of Mesopo- tamia, beyond the ancient boundary of the Euphrates, were added to the trophies of Zim- isces, who unwillingly spare<l tlie capital of the Kli»llfate. From such distant conquests It wu expedient, and indeed necessary to wlllulraw; but Cilicla and Antioch were pprmancnlly re- stored to the Empire. At the close of tlio tenth century the empcrore of Constantinople pos- sessed the best aud greatest portion of the modem kingdom of Naples, a part of Sicily, the whole [present] European dominions ot the Ottomans, the province of Anatolia or Asia Minor, with some port of Syria and Armenia."— H. Hallam, Tht MiddU Age; eh. 8. A.D. 970-IUI4.— RscovetTafBnlgaria. See Const ahtikoplb: A. D. 907-1043; also Bcl- OAHIA, and ACBKIDA. A. O. 1054.— Ecclesiastical divlslea of the Bssttm from ths Roman Church. See Fii.i- OQtnt CoimtovERsv, and OnxHODOx CiirRCH. A. D. loS7-ioSt.— Between the Basilian and ths Comosaiaa dynasties.— A dark period.- " The moment that the last of the MiicpilnnlHn dynasty was gone, the elements of diTDrl seemea unchained, and the double i<coiiri;i' nf civil war and foreign invasion begsn to Htfll' t the empire. In the twenty four yesrs t»'iwiin 1087 add 1061 were prBsaud more disast«n than 348 BTZANTINE EMPIRE, 1057-108t kid been leen in any other period of East Roman histoiT. ure perhaps the leign of Heraclius. . . . The aged Theodora had named as her suc- cessor on the throne Michael Stratlocus, a con- temporary of her own who had been an able soldier 25 years back. But Michael VI. was grown aged and incompetent, and the empire was full of ambitious generals, who would not tolerate a dotard on the throne. Before a year had piused a band of great Asiatic nobles en- tered into a conspiracy to overturn Michael, and replace him by Isaac Comnenus, the chief of one of the ancient Cappadocian houses, and the most popular general of the East. Isaac Comnenus tnd bis friends took arms, and dispossessed the aged Michael of his throne with little difficulty. But a curse seemed to rest upon the usurpation; Isaac WKS stricken down by disease when he had been little more than a year on the throne, and retired to a monastery to die. 'His crown was transferred to Constantine Ducas, another Cap- padocian noble," who reigned for seven troubled years. His three immediate successors were Roraanus IV., A. D. 1087-1071; Micliael VII A. U. 1071-1078; Nicephonis III., A. D. Um^ 1081.— C. W. C. Oman, The Story of the SJitan- tiiu Enpiri, eh. 80. A. D. io63-i09a.— DiiMtera in AbU Minor. See TiHKS (Skuuks): A. D. 1063-1073 ; and A. D. 1075-1098. A. D. 1064.— Grc .t rerlTal of pilarinuufes from Weitem Europe to tho Holy LutdTSee Crcbapes: Causes, etc. A. D. 1081.— The enthronement of the Cemnenian Dyiuety. See Const antisoplk • A. a losi. A. D. 1081-10(5.— Attempted Norman con- ouest from Southern Italy.— Itobcrt Ouiscard the Norman adventurer who had carved for him- self a principality in eouthem Italy and acquired the title of Duke of Apulia,— his duchy coincid- ing with the subsequent Norman kingdom of Naples — conceived the ambitious design of add- ing the Byzantine Empire to his estate. His conqiieaU in Italy had been mostly at the ex- pense of the Byzantine dominions, and he be- ilcveil that he had measured the strength of tlie degenerate Roman Greeks. He was encouraged moreover, by Uie successive revolutions which tossed the imperial crown from hand to hand Slid which had Just given It to the Comnenian, Alexius I. Beyond ail, he had a claim of right to Interfere in the affair* of the Empire; for his young il.iughtcr was betrotlii-d to the heirex- pemnt whose expectations were now vanishing snd had actually been sent to ConsUntinople to receive her education for the throne. To pro- mote Ills bold underUking, Robert obtained the apim.vBl of the pope, and an absolution for all who would join his ranks. Thus sDiritually equipped, the Norman duke Invaded (freece in thesuinmerof 1081, with 150 ships and 30.000 men .Miiking himself master, on the way. of thcls.mi.i of Corcyra (Corfu), and taking several port* on the mainland, he laid siege to Dyrra- .hlum, ...id found it a most obsttante fo-tidcatlon to red.ie... It, massive ancient wallc delicd the 1^ ,' J^ K f^ Ouiscard gained possession of k- u,»n bv the tr«ichery of one of It. .lefend- '.N Mciii tinu; the Noi mans had routed an.| soat- 1^.^ on,, large army, which the Emper,,r Al«!ril., W ia prrsua to ih« ttlM of Dyrmmiumi but 849 BYZANTINE EIhPIRE, U4«. the fortified towns In Illyrla and Epirua delayed their advance toward Constantinople. Robert was called home to Italy by important affairs and J Is *"" ^hemund (the subsequent Crusader and Prince of Antioch), in command. Bohemund defeated Alexius again in the spring of 1083, and rtill a third time the following autumn. AU Epirus was overrun and Macedonia and Thesaaly invaded; but the Normans, while besieging Larlisa, were undone by a stratagem, lost theS camp and found It necessary to retreat Robert was then just reentering the field, in person, and had won an important naval battle at Corfu over the combined Greeks and Venetians, wheii he died (July, 1085), and hia project of conquest in Greece ended with him. Twenty years after- wards, his son Bohemund, when Prince of An- tioch, and quarreling with the Byzanttaes, gathered a crusading army in Prance and Italy to lead it against Constantinople; but it was stepped by stubborn Dyrrachium, and jever got beyond. Alexius had recovered that strong coast defence shortly after Robert Ouiscard 1 death, with the help of the Venetians and Amal- flans. B> way of reward, those merchant alliea received important commercial privileges, and the title of Venice to the sovereig-.ity 01 Dalma- tia and Croatia was recognized. ' ' From this time the doge appears to have styled himself lord of the kingdoms of Dalmatia and Croatia."— G Finlay, HiH. of the Bymntine and Greek Empire*. it. 8, eh. a, tet.X. A. D. to8i-i 185.— The Comnenian emperor*. — Alexius I., A. D. 1081-1118; John II., A. D. 1118-1143; Manuel I., A. D. 1143-1181; Alexius II., A. D. 1181-1188; Andronicus I., A. D. 1188- A. D. 1096.1097.— The pusag* of the firrt Crutadert. See Crusades: A. D. 1099-lOW. A. D. 1146.— DeatnictiTe iuTaaion of Rorer- king: of Sidly.— Sack of Thebee and Corinio. —When Roger, king of Sicily, united the Nor- man possessions in Southern Italy to his Sicilian realm he became ambitious, in his turn, tft acquire some part of the Byzantine possessions. His single attack, however, made simultaneously with the second crusading movement (A. D. 1146), amounted to no more than a great and destructive plundering raid in Greece. An insurrection in Corfu gave that island to him, after which his fleet rav.igcd the coastaof Euboea and Attica, Acamanii and jElalla. "It then entered the gulf of Oorinlh, and debarked a body of troops at Criasa. This force niart;hed through the country to Thebes, plundering every town and village on the wav. Thebes offered no resistance, and was plundered in the most deliber- ate and barbarous macner. The inhabitanU were numerous and wealthy. The soil of B<votia is extremely productive, and numerous manufactures establigbe<i in the city c . Thebes gave additional value to the abundant produce of agricultural Industry. . . . All military spiri* was now dead, and the Thcbans had so long lived without any fear of invasion tliat tliey had not even adopted any effectual measures to secure or conceal their movable nrop<.'rty. The conquerora, ar^un against all danger of Inter- ruption, plundered Thelies at their Visure. . . . Whe,. all ordinwr means of collecting booty were exhausted, the citizens were compellod to take an oath on the Hnlv Serintur; « that they had n^t cononaled any ponion of tiwir pivpvtgr It! 'li BTZANmrSBMratB, 1146. jet many of the wealthiest were dragged away captive, in oriltr to profit by their ratuom; and m.my of the most sltilful workmen in the silk- manufuctories, for which Thebes had long been famous, were pressed on board the fleet to labour at the our. . . . B<.-njamin of Tudcla, who visited 1 hcbcs about twenty years later, or perhaps in 1161, speaks of it as then a large city, with two thousand Jewish Inhabitaute, who were the most eminent manufacturers of silk and purple cloth n all Greece. The silks of Thebes continued to be celebrated as of superior quality after this invasion. . . . From Boeotia the army passed to Corinth. . . . Corinth was sacked as cruelly as Thebes; men of rank, beautiful women, and skilful artisans, with their wives and families were carried away into captivity. . . . This Invarion of Greece was conducted entirely as a plundering expedition. . . . Corfu was the only conquest of which Roger retained possession ; yet this passing Invasion Is the period ftom which tlie decline of Byzantine Greece Is to be dated. The century and-a-half which preceded this dis- aster had passed In uninterrupted tranuuiUity. and the Greek people bad increased rapidly In numbers and wealth. The power of the Scln- vonlan population sank with the ruin of the kingdom of Achridaj and the ScUvonians who now dwelt In Greece were peaceable cultlvatore of the soil or graziers. The Greek population, on the other hand, was in possession of an extensive commerce and many flourishing manu- fivctures. The ruin of this commetxa and of these manufactures has been ascribed to the tnmsferenco of the silk trade from Thebes and Corinth to Palermo, under the Judicious pro- tection It n-celved from Rc^'er; but It would be more correct to eay that the Injudicious and oppressive financial administration of the Byzan- tine Emperors destroyed the commercial pros- perity and manufacturing Industry ( ' the Greeks • while the wise liberality and intelligent pro- tection of the Norman kings extended the com- merce and Increased the Industry of the Sicilians When the Sicilian fleet returned to Palermo Kogcr determined to employ all the silk-manu- facturers In their original occupations. He con- sequently collected all their families together and settled them at Palermo, supplying them with the means of exercising their Industry with profit to themselves, and inducing thorn to teach his own subjccu to manufacture the richest brocades, and to rival the rarest productions of the East ... It Is not remarkable that the commerce and manufactures of Greece were transferred in the course of another century to and Greek Emri'-t, from 716 to 1458, 4*. 8, eh. 2 ^P- "47:J«4»— Tronbit with th« Gcraum f, ., ,f?i?'" Cru«»d«rfc See Crusades: A. D 1147-1149 BTZAN-nni! EMPIRE, 1808-1204 oratemmlble m before his coronation, and received no tlutiure of manliness or virtue from that ceremony. In the second year of his reiT wtiif "EiF'" ""t •^°"l "' '" Bulgarian 4d Wallachlan provinces by a successful revolt In the ten^ year (A. D. 1193), Isaac was pushed from his ttrone, deprived of sight and shut ud in a dungeon, by a brother of equal worthless- ness, who styled himself Alexius III. The latter neglected, however, to secure the person 2;.n« ^ "on Aiexjua. who escaped fmnVCoD- ^ mP'® »"<* mxie Jjls way to his sister, wife of Philip, the German King and cUim.-iiit of the western hnpcrial crown. Philip theriMinon plotted with the Venetians to divert the giZ crusading expedition, then assembling to take ship at Venice, and to employ It for the Rstora Won of young Alexius aiul his father laiac to the Byzantine throne. The cunning and ner- moxia means by which tiiat divlrsion V'a brought about are relatcnl In another place fsee Crusades: A. D 1801-1808). The ^at £ of the crusading fliibustere arrived In the Ros- phorui near the end of June, 1803. The arn-v which It bore was landed first on the A .iatf- side of the strait, opposite the Imperial city After ten days of parley and preparation It wis conveyed across the water and began Us attack. ^e towers gua-ding the entrance to the Golden Horn — the harbor of Constantinople — were captured the chain removed, the harlmr occu- pied, and the Imperial fleet seized or destroyed On Uie 1 .th of July a combined as,sault by laud and water was made on the walls of the city at their northwest corner, near the Blaehera palace where they presentetl one face to the Horn and Mother to the land. The land-attack failed I he Venetians, from their ships, stormed twenty- five towers, gained possession of a long stretch or the wall, and pushed into the city far euough to start a conflagration which spread ruin over an extensive district. They could not hold tlielr ground, and withdrew ; but the result was a victory. The cowardly Emperor, Alexius III fled from the city that nigiit, and blind old Isajic Ajg lus was restored to the throne. He was ready to associate his son In the sovereipniv. and to fulfill, If he could, the contracU whic'li the tatter had made with Venetians and Cru^ulers. These invaders had now no present excuse for making war on Constantinople any further. But the excuse was soon found. Money to pay their heavy claims could not bo raised, and tli<ir hato- fulness to the Greeks was Increased b- the in- solence of their demeanor. A serious "collision occurred at length, provoked by the plumlc ring °' ■ S^nomctan mosijuc which the Byziiutinea A. D. Ii8s-ia04.— The Annll.— laaac II 1808; Altxini IV., A. I». 1203-1804. A. p. iao3-iao4.-Iti orerthrew by the VtBetiana ana Crus«deri.-S«ek of CoBttaa- tinople.— The lastof the Comnenlan Emperors J K J"?'*Ji'?'-'''« •'"''»' Andronlcus I.— Sl«w i'"*"^.'' y. '?, * '■"■' iMurrectlon at Con- stantinople which his tyranny provoked. A. D. .11, -I Jli*!!"*?"': ^"""^ Angelas, collater- My leUted to ths Imperial JjoSse, bad been a had tolerated In their capital. Once "mor.', on this occasion, the splendid city was fired liy the ruthless invaders, and an immense district lu the richest and most populous part was desiroved, while many of the Inhabitants perished. 'The '"» '"•«d two days and nights, sweeping a wide belt from the harlxir to the Marmora. The suburU of Constantinople were pillaged and ruined by the Latin soldiery, and muve and more It became Impossible for the two n^tnred eoiperors to raise money for paying the claiiru of the Crusadcn who bad champlomil them. Their subjecu bated them and were clespcraio At Jut, In January, 1804, the public feeling of Oonstutlnople flamed out In a revolution which crowuMd a new emperor,— one Alexis Uucss, If 350 BTZAirmn: empire, 1203-1204. nicknamed Mourtzophloa, on account of bli eye- brows, which met A few days afterwards, witli suspicious opportuneness, Isaac and Alexius died. Then both sides entered upon active pre- parotioDs for serious war; but it was not until April Otii tliat the Crusaders and Venetians were Kiuiy to assail the walls once more. The first assault was repelled, with heavy loa< to the be- siugcrs. They rested two days and repeated the attack on the 12tb with irresistible resolution and fury. The towers were taken, the gates were bmkcn down, knights and soldiers poured into the fatc<l city, killing without mercy, burning witlinutscniple— atartingatliirdappailingconlla- Kration which Uid another wide district in ruins. The new emperor fled, the tmops laid down their irms,— Constantinople was couqucred and prostrate. ' ' Then began the plunder of the city. The imperial treasurr and the arsenal wct« placed under guard ; but with these exceptions the rigl't to plunder was given indiscriminately to the troops and sailors. Never in Europe was a work of pillage more systematically and shamelessly carried out. Never by the army of a Christian state was there a more barbarous sack of a city than that perpetrated by these soldiers of Chr^t, sworn to chastity, pledged be- fore God not til sheu Christian blood, and bearing upon them the emblem of the Prince of Peace. . . . 'Never since the world was created,' says the .Marshal [Villehnrdouin] ' was there so much booty gained in one city. Each man took the liouse which pleased him, and there were enough for all. Those who were poor found themselves luddenly rich. There was captured an immense supply of gold and silver, of plate aud of precious Hones, of satins and «f silk, of furs and of every kind of wealth ever found upon tlic earth.' . . . riie Greek eye-witness [Xiccliis] gives the com- plement of the picture of Viiielianlouin. The lust of the army spared neither maiden nor the virgin dedicated to God. Violence and debauch- ery were everywhere present . cries and liimen- tations and the groiius of the victims were heard throughout the city ; for everywhere -pillage "•••' ed. . . . A ^ in the ise. . . . - .nt-.-rend 'ii? were .. Mc-y M obtair Ue adorned. . ho was unrestrained and Ir large part of the booty h tim'e ihurches designate The distribution was n- ■ of April. Many work: sent to the meltiog-po. statues were broken up metals with which they ....^ .„.>,.„™ eimquerors knew nothing and cared nothiu-. for the art which liad added value to the metal "— t. Pears, T/it Fall of CoiutantinopU, ch. 14-15 Also in: O. Fiulay, Ilirt. of the Bytantine and (imk hmptret, fivm 716 to 14a'3, hk. 8 cA. 8 tet. ;). • I . A. D. lJ04.-Relfii or Al»iut V. A. D. tao4-iaos.— Th« partitioniiu: of tht »'','" 1 "■* Crusaders sad the VenctiAn*.— Uifore the crusaders made their last successful altmli on Constantinople, they concluded a treaty Piirtitmumg the Byzantine empire and dividing tlie plumier of the capital. . . . This treaty wm entered into by the Frank crusaders on the one part and the citizens of the Venetian republic ™ the oilier, for tlie purpose of nrcventing dis- P t,s and preserving unity in tte expedition." 1 he treaty lurther provided for the creation of Sii fcmpire of Itomauia, to take the place of the Bytaaime Empire, and for the el^ oVaS BTZANTINE EMPIRE, 1804-1205. Emperor to reif^ over it Tlie arrangements of the treaty in tliis latter respwt were carried out, not long after the taking of the city by the elec- tion of Baldwin, count of Flanders, the most esteemed and the most popular among the princes of the crusade, and he received the imperial crown of the new Empire of Romania at the hands of the legate of the pope. "Meas- ures were Immediately taken after the coronation of Baldwin to carry into execution the act of partition as arranged by tlic joint consent of the Frank and Venetian commissioners. But their Ignorance of geograpliy, and the resistance offered by the Greeks In Asia Minor, and by the Vallachians and Albanians in Europe, threw innumerable difflculties in tlie way of the pro- posed distribution of fiefs. The quarter of the Empire that formed the portion of Baldwin con- sisted of the city "f Constantinople, with the country in its ImineJiate vicinity, as far as Bizya and Tzouroulos in Europe and Nicomedia in Asia. Beyond the territory around Constanti- nople, Baldwin possessed districts extending as far as the Strymon in Europe and the Sangarius In Asia; but bis possessions were intermingled with those of the Venetians aud the vassals of the Empire. Prokounesos, Lesbos, Chios, Lem- nos, Skyros, and several smaller islands, also fell to his share."— O. Finlay, IIi»t. of Gretee from iti Commat by Vie Crumden, eh. 4, tect. 1-2.—" In the division of the Greek provinces the slmre of the Venetians was more ample than that of the Latin emperor. No more than one fourth was appropriated to his domain ; n clear moiety of the remainder was reserved for Venice and the other moiety was distributed among tlie adventurers of France and Lombardy. The venerable Dan- dolo was proclaimed Despot of Romania, and was invested, after the Greek fashion, with the purple buskins. He ended at Constantinople his long and glorious life; an.: if the prerogative was personal, the title was used by his successors till the middle of the fourteenth century, with the singular, though true, addition of • tords of one fourth and a half of the Roman Empire ' . . . They possessed three of the eight quaitera of the city. . . . They had rashly accepted the dominion and defence of Adrianoplc: but it was the more reasonable aim of their policy to form a chain of factories and cities and islands along the maritime coast, from the ucigbUmrhood of Ragusa to the Hellespont and the Bospliorus. . , . For the price of 10,000 marks the republic purohascd of the marquis of Montferrat the fertile island of Crete or Candia with the ruins of a hundred cities. ... In the moiety of tlie adventurers the Marquis Boniface [of Montferrat] mi^iit claim the most liberal reward; and besides tlie isle of Crete, his exclusion from tlie throne [for which he had been a candidate against Baldwin of Fiandere] was compensated bv the royal title and the provinces bevond the Hellespont. But he prudently exchanged that distant and ditflcult conquest for tlie kingdom of Thessalonica or Macedonia, twelve davs' Journey from the capital, where he might 'be supported by tlie neighbouring powers of his brother-in-law, tlic king of Hungary. . . . The lots of the Latin pilgrims were regulated by chance or choice or snbseduent exchange. At the lieail of his kni;lit« and archers each baron mouLled on horseback to secure the pos- ■estion of hi* share, and their first efforts were 361 n\ '1f ' t i I' «■ i t BYZANTINE EMPIHE, 1204-iaos. fcncmlly succcMful But the public force wu wenkencd by their dUpcrslon ; and a thousand quarrels must arise under a law ami among men whose sole umpire was the Bwonl,"— E. Qibbon Dteliiu! and FnU of the Roman Em,.irt. eh. 61. A. D. iao4-iao<.— The political ahaping of the frapnenti. See Romania. Thk Empire: Obkkk Empire or Nicjia; Thebizond; Epirus; Naxos, TnE Mediaval Dukedom: Achaia: A. D. 1805-1887; Athens: A. D. 1S0S-14M: BALOMKl. A.D. »26i.i453._The Greek reitoration.— t"* >tny[K>e with the Turks and final orer- throw.— Tlie story of the shadowy restoration of a Greek Empire ist Constantinople, its hut struggle with the Turks, and ita fall te told else- where-.— See Constantinople; A. D. 1261-1453, to 14.53.—" Frcm the hour of her foundation to tliat in which her sun finally sank fa blood Christian Constantinople was engaged In con- stant strugrles against successive hordes of bar- barians. BTic did not always triumph In the strife, but, even when she was be8t<'n she did not succumb, but carried on the contest still ; and the fact tliat she was able to do sc is alone a Bufflciug proof of the strength and vitality of her orgnnization. ... Of tlio seventy-six em- Eerors and five empresses who occupied the lyzantinc throne, IS were put to death, 7 were blinded or otherwise mutilated, 4 were depose<l and imprisoned In monasteries, and 10 were comixlled to abdicate. This list, comprising nearly half of the whole numlKT, is suflicient Iniir- cation of the horrore by which the history of the empire is only too often markcl, and it may be frankly admitted that these dark stains, dis- flguring pages which but for them would be bright witli the things which were licautiful and glorious, go some way to excuse, if not to Jus- tify, the obloquy which Western writers have been so prone to cast upon the East. But it is not by considering the evil only, any more thfcn the good only, that it is possil)le to form a just judgment upon an historic epoch. To judge the Byzantine Empire only by the crimes which denied the palace would be as unjust as if the French people were to be estimaunl by nothing but the Massacre of St. Bartholomew, the Reign of Terror, and the Commune of 1871. The dynastic crimes and revolutions of New Rome were not a consUnt feature iu her history On the contrary, the times of trouble and anarchy were epiwxles between long |)erio<ls of peace They arose citlicr from quarrels in the imperial family itself, which degraded the dignity of the crown, or from the contentions of pretenders struggling among themselves till one or other hail wors' 1 his rivals and was able to become the founder of a long dynasty. . . . The most deplorable epoch in the history of the Byzantine tnip re, the period In which assiisslnntion and mutilation most abounded, was that in which it was exposed to the Influence of the Crusadeni and thus brouj?ht Into contact with Western Eun)|X'. . . . The Byzantine people, although in every respect the sup«rior8 of their contem- poraries, wore unable entirely to -scape the In- fiuencc of their neighborhood. As the guanlians of classical civilization, they strove to keep almve the deluge of barimriSm by which the rest of the world was tlien inumlatcd. But it was a flooti whose waters prevailed eiceedlngly upon the Mftli, aud sumetiines all the Ugh biUs were BTZANTIUM. ooTBTBd, even where might have rested the a.* In which the vraditions of ancient culture were being preserve<l. ... The Byzantine Em- plre was predestinated to perform in espec i«l one great work in human history. That work was to preserve civilization during the period of barbarism which we call the Middle Ages. Constantlncple fell, and the whole Hellenic world piMed Into Turkish slavery. Western Eumiie looked on with unconcern at the appalling ciit:ij. trophe It was In vain that the last of the ™alologoi cried to them for help. 'ClirlstcD- rK^i'.f''/^"''*"'' 'l^held with indilTeiincc the fall of Constantinople.' ... Up to her last hour she bad never ceased, for more than a thousand ychrs, to flght. In the fourth eenmrv she fought the Goths; In the fifth, the Huns and Vandals; in the sixth, the Slavs; In Oie seventh the Persians, the Avars, and the Arabs: In the eighth, ninth, and tenth, the Bulgars. the Mair- yars, and the Russians; In the eleventh the Koumanol, the Petzenegol. and the Sili .I'lkiaa Turks; in the twelfth, thirteenth, fiiiiuenth. imd fifteenth, the Ottomans, the Normans, tlie Cnisatlcrs, the Venetians, and the Genoese No wonder that at last slic fell exhausted' Tlie wonder Is, how she could keep herself alive so long. But it was by thb long battle that she 8ucceede<l In saving from destruction, amid the u 'ersal cnt«clysm which overwhelmed the classical worid, the clvilizition of the ancients mojiifled by the Christiau religion. The moral and inU'llectual development of modem Eumpe arc owing to the Byzantine Empire, if it he true that this development is the common offsprinr of antiquity uiKin the one hand and of Chris- S?,°"}[ "•""' "'" otlier-"— Dcmetrios Bikelas, The Bytantine Empire (SeoUith Rev., t. 8, 1888). BYZANTIUM, BeglnBiajsot-The ancient Greek city of Byzantium, which occupied part of the site of the modem city of Constantinople was founde<l. according to tradition. Iiv Mesa- rians, in the seventh century a C. Its situation on the Bosplionis enabled the possessors of thu city to control the important com supply wliicU cam* from the Eiixme, while its tunnv tish- enes were renowned sources of wealth, 'it was to the latter that the bay called the GoMen Horn was said to owe iU name. The Persians, the Laceihemonians, the Atlienlans anil the Macetionians were successive masters of Hvzan- tlum, before the lioman day, Athens and Spnrta having taken and retaken the city fn)in one another many limes duriug tlieir wai-s. B. C. 478.— Taken by the Greeks from the Persians. See Gukecb: B. C. 4TH-I77. B. C. 440.— Unsuccessful revolt araiost Athens. See Athens: B. C. 440-41)7. B. C. 408.— Revolt ud reduction by the Athenians. See Gheece: B. C. 411-407. ..B- C. 340-— Unsuccessful siege by Philip of Macedon. See Ohekck: B. C. 34(1. B. C. 336.— AlUmnce with Alexander the Great. See Gkeecb: B. C. 336-33.5. A. D. 194.— Siege by Serems. Sec noint: A. D 192-384. A. D. 367,— Capture by the Goths. See OoTiis: A. I). 2,W-867. A. D. 333.— Siege by Constantme. See Rome: A. D. SO.VSaa. A. D. 330.— Tfansfonntd Into Coostastl* aopl*. See ComrAireuiopijL S52 m^-m <;aira. CABIKBT. CA IRA: The origin of the cry and the 100^. _'' WTIicn the news of the disastrous retreat [of Wasliington, in 1776] through the Jerseys and the mlssries of Valley Forge reached Pr— ce, many good friends to America began to tbiulc that now indeed all was lost. But the stout heart of Franklin never flinched. 'This is in- deed biul news,' said he, 'but ^ ire, 9a ire [litemlly, 'this will go, tills will go'], it will all come right in the end.' Old aiplomnts and courtiers, amazed at his confidence, passed about his clicerlng words. They were taken up by the newspapers ; they were remembered by the people, and, in the dark days of tlic French KeTolution. were repeated over and over again on every side, and made the subject of a stirring song which, till the Marseillaise Hymn appeared, had no equal in France." — J. B. >lcMa8ter, JUitt. of tlie People of the U. &, v. 2, p. 89.— L. Rosen- tlial, Ameriea and fYanee, p. 883. — "The original words (afterward much changed) were by i^&dre, a street singer; and the music was a mpular dance tune of the time compose<l by Becourt, a drummer of the Grand Opem." — Century Dieiionnry. — " The originr] name of tlie tune to which the words were written is 'Le Carilloa National,' and it is a remarkable circumstance that it was a great favourite with the unfortunate Marie Antoinette, who used to phy it on the harpsichonl." — J. Oxenford, Book of Frenrh Sonr/t {nnte to " Ca ira"). CAABA AT MECCA, The.— "An Arab legend asserts that this famous temple was erected by Abraham and his son Ishmael wiih the aid of thcanicl Gabriel. Mahomet lent his authority to the lege.id and devoted to it several chanters in tlie Koran, and thus it became one of tlii Mus- sulman articles of faith. Even before the intro- duction of Islamism tills story was current through a great part of Arabia and spread abroad in proportion as the Ishmaelitish tribes gained grouad. . . This temple, wlio?c name ' snuare Iwuse ' indicates its form. Is still l)resei-ve(l. It was very small and of very rude conitniition. It was not till comparatively recent • that 'lad Ti door with a lock. . . . For .. time I •-■si.i- sacred object it contained wa- a-je- bratcd lilack stone hadjarel-aswad, an ..t-rolite, which is still the object of Mussulman venera- tion. . . . We have already mentioned Hobiil, tlie first anthroponiorphic idol, placed in tlie Canlm. Tins example was soon copied. . . . The Caaba thus iK-oaiiie s sort of Arabian Pan- tliccm. and even the Virgin Mary, with her child on her knees, eventually found a place tliere."— F. Lcnormant, Manual of Ancient Hut. of the But. hk. 7, th. 3. Also IN: Sir W. Muir, Life of Mahomet, eh. 8. CABAL, The. Sec Cabinet, The Ekousii ; also. Enoi-and: A. D. 1«7I. CABALA, The.— "The term Cabala is usu- ally iipiilicd to tliat wild system of Oriental plii- liwiphy wiiich was introduced, it is uncertain at *liat i«Tl(Ki, Info the .lewUh schools: in a wider wnw it mmpridieiided all the decisions of the Italiliiiijcal courts or schools, whether on re'.igious iir civil pnints."— II. H. Milman, lli»t. of the Jem. f. 2. bk. lH._"Thc philosophic Catwla aspired Jo be a more sublime and transcendental Rabbin- Mm. It was a myst<>rv not e.-icluslvc of, but stKivc their more couunon mystcdee; • eecret 853 more profound than their profoundest secnti. It claiini'<l the same guaranty of antiquity, of revelation, of tradition; It was the true, occult, to few intelligible sense of the sacred writings and of the sayings of the most renowned Wise Men : the inward interpretation of the genuine Interpretation of the Law and the Prophets. Men went on ; they advanced, they rose from the most full and perfect study of the Talmuds to the high' <■ f)r>ctrines, to the more divine contem- C' iona 'tht Cabala. And the Zoliar was the k of ihe Cabala which soared almost above the comprehecsion of the wisest. . . . Tn its tradi- tional, no doubt unwritten form, the Cabala, at least a Cabala, ascends to a very early date, the Captivity; in its proper and more mature form, it belongs to the first century, and reaches down to the end of tlie seventh century of our era. The Sepber Yetzira, the Book of Creation, which boasts itself to be derived from Moses, from Abraham, if not from Adam, or even aspires higher, belongs to the earlier period ; the Zohar, the Light, to the hiter. The remote origin of the Cabala belongs to that period when the Jewish mind, during the Captivity, became 30 deeply impregnated with Oriental notions, those of the Persian or Zoroastrian re-ligion. Some of the first principles of tlic Cabala, as well as many of the tenets, still more of the superstitions, of the Talmud, coincide so exactly with the Zen- davesta ... as to leave no doubt of their kin- dred and afllllation."— H. H. Milman, Uitt. of theJettf. bk. 30. CABILDO. The. See Louisiana: A. D. 1769. CABINET, The Amiriean.— "There is in the govemncnt of the United Stau-s no such thing as a Cabinet In the English sense of the term. But I use the term, not only because it is current in America to describe the chief minis- ters of the President, but also because it calls attention to the remarkable difference which ex- isM between the great officers of State in America and the similar officers In the free countries of Europe. Almost the only reference in the Con- stitution to the ministers of the I'resident is that contained in the jiower given him to • require the opinion in writing of tlie principal officer in each of the executive departments upon any subject relating to tlie duties of their respective offices.' W\ these departments have been created bv Acts of Congress. Washington began in 1786 with four only, at the head of whom were the follow- ing four officials: Secretary of State, S<'crelary of the Treasury, Secretary of War, Attorney General. In 1798 there was added a Secretary of the Navy, in 1829 a Postmaster General, and in 1849 a Secretarv of the Interior. . . . Each receives a salary of $8,000 (£1,600). All are ap- pointed by the President, subj.-ct to the con- sent of the Senate (which is pmctically never refused), and may lie removed bv the Presiilent al' '. Nothiiiit murks them off from uny other of als who inlglit be placed in charge of a de- partment, except that tliey arc summnned by the President to his pHvate council. None of them can vot n Congress, Art. XI.. §6 of the Constitution ; roviding that 'no person holding any office under the United States shall lie a mcmlKT of either House during his cnniinuance in office, ' "—J, Bryoe, The Am. QmtmonveeaUh, eh. fi! tri ll-. iJliilJ ll ■, CABINET. • — "In IMa s nporate Department of Airricul- turewas eatabliafied. ... In 1889 the hSd of CABINIT. r r, — --~™™".. . . . tu loan me neaa or tie Department becune Secretary ot the Depart- ment of Aericulture and a Cabinet officer: A Bureau of Labor under the Ir>erior Department m.bi^,. L » iepwate department, but did not ?.K.t l" ^ l ^'*'^' '""^ therefore not a tabinet officer." There are now (1891) elirht heads of departmenta who constitute the F %i. denfs Cabinet. _W. W. and W. F. WiUoughby, Oott.and Admtnutrationoftlu U. S. (JohniSmj. ™.. M . *^' ^*" EnBh»h.-"Few things in our history are more cuiTous than the origin and growth of the power now possessed by the F, .'i«tH h^.^ "" *i"'J: P*"^ '•'8 Kings of t.''?^? ^ *^'' »«'»ted by a Privy Council to Tn J"^ ^ - '?'' "SiP-ed many Importiit f uncUons and duties [see Pbivt Councii.]. During several T^'"^Vh '"dy dellbemtei on the*gnivSt Md most delicate affairs. But by deg^ lt« diaracter changed. It became too large for des- patch and secrecy. The rank of Privy Councillor was often bestowed as aa honorary distinction Ml persons to whom nothing was confided, and •ehose opinion was never asked. The soverelen. on the most Important occasions, resorted for advice to a small knot of leading ministers. The „,w°J^f fjf* dlsadvantogcs o1 thU oourae were early pointed out by Bacon -vith hU usual ludir- ment and sagacity: but li as not tlU after the Restoration that the Inter. «uncll began to attract general notice. During many jdn old fash oncd politicians continu^ to reW the Cabinet as an unconsUtutional and dingerous board. Nevertheless, It constantly becami more and more important. It at length drew to Itself the chief executive power, and has now been regarded, dunng several generations, as an essen- ;?>i P"".-"' ""' P°'"y- ^'<'*- "range to say. It f'"' <:°°"""«8 to be altogether unknown to the WW. The names of the noblemen and gentlemen who compose it are never officially announced to the public No rc-cord is kept if ite meetings and resolutions; nor has its existence ever bein recognized by any Act of Pariiament During some years the word Cabal was populariv used M synonymous with Cabinet. But It hapWd by a whims ral coincidence that, In lehVthe Cabinet consisted of five persons the taitlai let- nu„°L'"^°^ names made up the word Cabal Clifford Arlington, Bucktagfiam. Ashley wd J^nH'^f,"'*- ,3T "'"Istfiraweri therefore m- phatically called the Cabal; and they soon made that appellation so Infamous tha- ft has n^r since the r time l.«en used except as a tem of "^^t^Vr}^'^ Slacaulay, IRt^^of Eng^di. 8 — Walpoleswork, . . . thecffectof htaDolicv' iLh ?hl' r.lf."? "y carried through, waS K5: Ilsh the Cabinet on a definite foothig, as the seat jnd centre of the execuUve government, to mfln- toh^ he executive In the closest relaUoS with the legfalature, to govern through the leglstature, ?^m-,'".'T'fJ ""• eoyefaod authoifiy of tS Crown to the House of Commons. Some writCTs have held that the first Ministry In the mXn •enae was that combination of Wljlgs whom Wil- Uam called to aid him In govemSent In iSfli ?}^ZTKr^ that the .i^nd adrntalitratton ofLord Rockingham, which came Into power ta i^'lSi wV^#'i"2P5r°'."" Americii colon: K^ tlie faU of LoHi North, and Ute defeat of 854 George HI., waa the earliest Ministry of the tyn, of to-day A- whatever date we choose first to see all the decisive marks of that roinarEbfe Initiative in the executive, with the possess! onof i7trM%?!!!irr itTSxi :e"re"fit'fiT^t p;'Sfar„,::;""io3f and that the Cabinet system receive/ then„T,?i ston that it bears In our own time. . . I '"£ the most Important of all the dUtinctions bit»4n the Cabinet In Ite rudimentary stage at Z beginning of the century and Ito"^ late? pmai„ remains to be noticed. Queen Anne he-id , n^llf.' r*7 ^"""^y- " wWeh'he was Uer^lf present Just as we have seen that she was pri ent at debates to the House of Lords. Whht doubtful exception In the time of George III r^wJr *° ^ '^° P"""' •» » "eetlng uf th'i Cabinet since Anne. ... ThU vital chan™ -.j probably due to the accident that Ann.li sue cesser did not understand the language in which Ito deliberations were carried on. The with drawal of -he sovereign from Cabinet Council, was essential to the momentous change which has transferred tha whole substance of authoritr and power from the Crown, to a committei P-T" K"^" '»"°'*' °' "•« »*o H»"*a of JKarUament from among other members. . iilh ru.?"°'?f •■ i? "•* keystone of the Cabhiet arch. Although to Cabinet all ita members stand on u equal foottog, speak with equal voice, and on the rare occasions when a division is taken' are counted on the fraternal principle of one nian! one vote, yet Uie head of the Cabinet is ■ primu. toter pares, and occupies a position which, so long as It lasts, fa ote of exceptional and peculiar authority. It Is true that he fa In foruT chosen by the Crown, but In practice the choice of the Crown fa pretty strictly confined to the man who Is designated by the acclamation of a party ms- Jority. . The Prime Minfater, once appoinUKl, ch.X)ses hfa own colleagues, and assigns them U> their respective offices. ... The flexibility of the Cabinet system allows the Prim.- Jlinister to an emergency to take upon himself a power not Inferior to that of a dictator, provided alwavj that the House of Commons wfll stand by hiib. In ordtoary cireumstonces, he leaves the heads of departmenta to do their own work ij tlieir own way. . .Just as the Cabinet has been described as being the regulator of relations be- tween Queen, Lords and Commons, so is the rame Mtaister the regulator of relations lietween the Queen and her servants. . . . Walpi.le was to practice able to invest himself with more of the functions and powers of a Prime -Minister tnao any of hfa successors, and yet was com- pelled by the fecltog of the time .■amcstly and profuwiy to repudiate both the name and title, and i-ve' - of the pretensions that it involves. the ( instance In which I have found the ..ead of lue government designated as the Premier to in a letter to the Duke of Newcastle from the Duke of Cumberland In 1746."— J. Mori, v, Wai- vote, ch. 7.— "In theory the Cabinet is nothing but 8 committee of the Privy Council, yet with the Council It has In reality no dealings; and Jc"f .r'8«"*"""l''™7 result has taken nhice, that the Government of England fa in the iiandi or men whose position is legally undeflneii: that while the Cabinet fa « word of every-day use, n« OABraST. C.X8AR-AUQUSTA. kwrer can mt wlut • Cabinet b: thu while n. oiduisiT Xngiiihniaii luiowi who the Lord* ot the Council an, the Church of England prayt, Sunday by Sunday, that theie Lordi may be 'endued with wiidom auii undentandinfr ' ! that while the collective responaibiiity of Miulsten ia a doctrine appealed to by i.^embera of the Gov- eminent, no less than by their opponents, it ia more than doubtful whether such responsibility could be enforced by any legal penalties: that, to sum up this catalogue of contradictions, the Privy Council lias the same political powen which it had when Henry VIII. ascended the throne, whilst it is in reality composed of persons many of whom never have taken part or wished to take part in the contests of political life." — A. V. Dic»y, Tht Privy Council, p. 148. CABINET, The Kitchen. See Uxited States or Ax. : A. D. 1828. CABOCHIENS, The. See Fkance: A. D. 1380-1415. CABOT, John and Sebaatian.— Americui DiscoTeric*. See Ambkica : A. D. 1497, and 1498. CABUL : A. D. 1840-1841.— Occupation by the British.— Succeaaful natire riting. — Re- treat and deitruction of the Britiah army. See AroBAKWTAN: A. D. 1888-1842. A. D. 1878-1880.— Murder of Major Carag- nari, the Britieh Reaident. — Second occupation by the EoKUah. See Afohakutah: A. D. 186i^ 1881. ♦ CACIQUE.— " Cacique, lord c' vassals, was the name by which the natives of Cuba, desig- nated their chiefs. Learning this, the conquerors applied the name generally to the rulers of wild tribes, although in none of the dialects of the continent is the word found."— H. H. Bancroft, But. of the Pbafie Statet, t. 1, p. 210, foot- note. CADOOAN FAMILY, The. See Ameri- can Aboriowes: Pawnee (Caddoan) Family; also, Texas: The ABORiomAL inhabitants. CADE'S REBELLION. See England: A. D. 1450. CADESIA (KADISIYEH), Battle of.— This was the first of the decisive series of battles in which the Arab followers of Mohammed effected the overthrow of the Persian Empire (the Sassannian) and the conquest of its domin- . ins. It was desperately fought, A. D. 838, under the walls of the fortified town of Cadesia (Kadisiyeh hi the .\rabic) situated near the Qea of Nedjef, between the Euphrates and the Arabian desert. The Persians numbered 120,000 men, under Rustaro, thek beat general. "I'he Arabs were but 80,000 strong at first, but were rein- forced the second day. They were commanded by Sa'ad and led by the redoubtable Kaled. The battle was obstinately prolonged through four days, but ended in the complete rout of the Per- sians and the death of Rustam, with 40,000 of hismea— 0. Rawlin3on, Seeentk Great Oriental M<mard,;i rh. 26.— See, alao, Mahometan Coh- •JDISt: a. 1). 632-651. CADIZ : Origin. See Utica, and Oadeb. A. D. 1506.— Taken and sacked by the English and Dutch. See Spain: A. P. 1596. A. D. 170a.— Abortive Engliah and Dutch expedition against. See Spain: A. U. 1702. A. D. i8io-i8i(.— Siege by the French. Bee bPAis : A. D. 1810-1812. A.D.i8a3.— Siege, bombardment and cap- lureby the French. Bee ISpain : A. D. 1614-1827. CADMBA(KADMEIA),The. SeeOnucB: B. C 888. CADMEANS, OR KADMEIANS. See BffiOTIA. CADURCI, The.— TheCn 'iircl were one of the tribe* of ancient Oaul wl. -.e chief pUce was Divona, now Cahors on the Xx)t.— Q. Long, De- cline of the Riman Republic, v. 4, eh. 17. CADUSIANS, The.— An ancient people so- called by the Greeks, whose territory was on the south-western border of the Caspian Sea,- the district of modem Persians called Ghilan or Ohulan. Their native name was "Gaels."- M. Duncker, Hiit. of Antiquity, bk. 8, eh. 1. CADWALLON, De«th ot See Gbven- FIELD, BaTTLK or TBK. CALIAN HILL, The. See Se- Hills or RoMB. CAERLAVEROCK, Siege of.- famous siege and reduction of the Scott)' .astle of Cacrlaverock, in Dumfriesshire, bv ;^ward I. A. D. 1800. CAERLEOM.— "Caer,"like the "Ceaster" of the Saxons, is a comiption by Celtic tongues of the Roman " Castrum." " In memory of the second lesion, which had been so long established at •''» Silurian Isca, they [the Welsh] gave to ti- rulna of that city the name of Caer- Legi J, the city of the legion, now softened to Caerleon."— T. Wright, Celt, Soman and &am, eh. 5. C.SSAR, JULIUS, Career and death oC See Rome: B. C. 69-«8, to 44; Gaul: B. C. 6."- 61; and Bmr.uN: B. C. 55-54. CiESAR, The title "Octavius was the adopted heir of Julius Cesar; from tlic moment of his adoption the surname Csesnr became ap- propriated to him, and it wns by this name accordingly that he was most familiarly known to his own contemporaries. Modem writers for the sake of distinction have agreed for tlie most part to confine this Illustrious title to the first of the CiEsarian dynasty; but wj should ''oubtless gain a clearer conception of the gradual process by which the idea of a dynnstic succession fixe ' tscif in the miuds of the . "ins, if we follow . their own practice in this pa.i. :ular, and appl^ the name of Cesar, not to Augustus only, b . also to his adopted son Tiberius, to t .'le scions the same lineage whci succeeded hi- 1, ard <jveu to those of later and independi' :i ;!vn!istl rf. As late indeed as the reign of Diocletiw., h<> iioman monarch w IS still eminently the C r It vas not till the close of i,-. 'hird ecntur) ■.' ur era that tliat illustriou. i! wa.1 dipos-il from its Sreeminence, and rr id to a seiflnuury and eputed authority. Its older use w.j however revived and perpetuated, though less exclusively, through the declining ages of the empire, and has survived with perhaps unbroken continuity even to our own days. The Austrian Kaiser still retains the name, though he has renounced the succession, of the Cesars of Rome, while the Czar of .Muscovy pretends to derive his ai.tional desig- nation by direct inheritance from tlie Cesars of Byzantium."— C. Merivale, Ilitt. of the Sumant, ch. 31.— See, also, Rome: B. C. 31-A. D. 14. C^SAR-AUGUSTA.— Oneof the fortified posts established in Spain by the Emperor Augustus, B. C. 27, and in which the veterans of the legions were settled. The place and its name (corrupted) survive in modem Saragosaik — C. Uerivale, £w<. o/<A« Somant A 84. 355 C^SAREA IN CAPPADOCIA. Origin. C^SAREA m CAPPADOCIA Dee Mazaca. A. D. 3«o.— Capture, massacre and pillan ^at^r, fang of Persia, See Pkmia : A^. CiESAREA IN PALESTINE: MaMacn of Jews. See Jews: A. D. «»-70 ■•«>«■ lOO-Sia^**"** «n- See CHHwruiriTT: A. D. C^SAROMAGUS IN BRITAIN.- A Roman town Wentifled. generally, with modem Chelmsford. -T. Wright, OU. Biman and Scuon, C.SSAROMAGUS IN GAUL.- Modem Beauvnis. Sw Beloa jgCj«SARS, The Twelve See Rom: A. D. j^CAESAR'S TOWER. See Towkb of CAFFA. See Oenoa: A. D. 1861-1290 CAHORS : Oririn. See Cadubci. . . . A. D I«o.-SieKe and capture by Henrr of *•?.'? I5V, ^* !■ "axcb: a. D. I6TO-1680. LAIkN. See Bakrow, -.S^"*° • ^- °.- *«'-Ori|C''". See Mahome- tan CoNyiEgT: A. D. 64(M(46. r.^„?: 9«7-"7i.-Capital of the Patimite l.aliplis. b(c Mahometan Conouest ind Empire: A. I). 9(W-1171. ^. A. D. 1517-— Capture, sack and massacre b» irSo °"° ''""''"■ '^ Turks: A. D. 1481- Bn^P.rJI^-Z^p"'*'**' '*'.*''« •'«»«* "»<««' Bonapaxts. Sw Fr.\.nck: A. D. 1798 (May— tt^nr?' l^~^"'*K wppressed by the French. Stc France: A. D. 1800 (Jakcaby— JCNE). A. D. i8ei-i8oa.— Surrtndtr to the Enclish im-Vm^""^"'^"'"^- »«•*"«*«« .Tt. I). , d- "• i'°5-;»8"-Massacr»s of th« Mame- lukes. B<cL(iYiT: A. 1). 1808-1811 Hi~.^.i'.'i,'^/"3-ReTolt against the Khe- fLV^? t"°'*^V? controL-Oceupatlon by CAI^TRAVA AND BANTIAaO. ^f."^ ^^ "*" necessaries, obtained by ravaging the country round and by ahipment from England." Calita held out for a yea? and Migered the king 10 bv ito obstinacy that when is August 1847, starvation forced Its people tos^ render, he required that six of the chief burm»8M their necks, for execution. Eustache St Rem and five others nobly offered themselves for the sacrifice, and It was only by the weepinif inter- cess^n of Queen Phlllppa that E.lwlkl was in. duceH to spare their lives. He expelled all the nhabltants who refused to take an^th of feahJ w V°K "P^OP^ the town with Englishmen 8.— «ee, also. France: A. D. 1887-1880 8e^ST'L'a?»-'"• ^'••"* '" =-«""« '™'- F44'ieiSsrT'^'ll4^lf5Sf •" •» ,i.^" • 'S«4.— Pinal surrender of Enrlish claims. See France: A. D. 156S-15W * the Spaniards.— Restoration to France 8™ Fbancb: a. D. 1598-1598. '•™"- Bee A. U "^'l*^** Caligula, Roman Emperor, CAKCHIQUELS, Tht. See American Ado- «»"'NK»i it '"n"*. «n<l .MAYAa .1.71 r.?'^' ''"'■'"•''•'■•'*»>• name.-"Aftor the l,ws of the true Cnlabria [to the LombanNl the vanllv „f the Gr,H;ks subitltiiU.l that name Instead of tlie mom iRnoble appellation of Unit r.il'"'!.!}' '1* "]""'''' "PPt'O" to have taken place hefnn. the time of ( Charlemagne. "-E Gib A. D. iota— Norman duchy. See Italy (Southern): A. 1). 1000-1090. t-E^h^B^l^AW*'".' W7-Slegt and cap- ^. •*'. ^'''••"* III.— ImuMdUleiy afur IHs rJui ii"-. ';;''' "''f" «» "'" w^otf Hty „f "wMh k'" 'n"l "J"*" "' •""• "'"nJ the rlly I. ... i^K "«'"'■''' •^^•*t"*'' tlio Hold,' and laid Uout with a market, regular .tr.*u and shop!, all the necessary acrornmodatlrai f,.r .n •nny, md tillher were carried in vast stoivs of 356 of ^Vt^J^^^ AND SANTIAGO, Knights S;^ Y was to repress the never-ceasing incur. ?L^?' "''.Mohammedans, as weU as t., ntuni ttiese Incurslcins with Interest, tliat, in the time of rf„'^1'"*° I*?'™?<'o XL of the early .S ,S kingdom ol Leon], two mllltory orden, th.«e of Calatrava and Santl.™ [or /t. Jago_or St iT?* "/ Compostcllal, were InslitSu^. The origin of the former order was owing to the ^^.'""."U"" Cistercian monks; .St. IfciymoDd abbot of Fitero, and hU companion, the riw plego V elasquei. These Intrepid men. who had iH^^^^^f""* P"*"'""* to their m„n.wtic pro- fcsslon, Indignant at the cowardice of the T.ran- ars, who resigned into the king of (U»lile^ ^^fll "^ '?['?*; "/ Calatrava, wlilch ha,| been confided to their defense by the emperor Alfonio proposed. In 1158 to the regency of that kiZi do III, to preserve that position against the as.sa!j. ants, llie proposal was readily accented The preaching of the warlike abUit w,w so elll<,,d„us, that In a short time he assembli-,1 20 (KN) niin whom he conducu-d to Culatrava. and immnii whom were not a few of his own monks. Thoi; he drew up the institutions of the <ir.ler. which took Its name from the place, and which In Its religious government long followed th.,(i,i, n iiin rule and wore the same monastic hal.it -. ??-* Tk^.-'^.I "^Pulary- tUypoiw IVtinllct AIIi. the habit was dispensed with, sihI the knigjts allowed to marry ■.nee.'- A%.r,„,(, 1 riie other onler commence.! In 1 161. .S<pnie Mb- bers of Leon, tourh.'d with their past eni.niiltie., resolved to make reparation for them, l.y il, fiixl- Ing the frnnllers against the liicumh.M of the Moliammedans. Don I'edro Fernanda - if iho ^"Jl . i'm? "' '*•" •'•''*•' •" «**'» "omilhliiK liko respectability to the origin -w,u the rhlef founder of the onler He engaffcHl the Imlhrco to assume the rule of 8t. Ausu.sline, in a,|.li:i..n to the ordinary obligations of knightlu><>i. Ilia military and monastic fraU-mity was H|.pr..v,d t>y king Fernando; at whiwe suiriteniinn the knig lU chose Santiago as their piilron, whi«e blo.«ly Bwonl, In form of a cr.w.. NTarno Iheir pr<if.-«lnn3| Bj.ribol. Thrsfl two or,l.,, »,re richly endowed by sucoessive Ungt of Uun and CALAXaiVA AND SANTIAGO. CALENDAR Casttle, until their pnsussioiu became Immenae." —8. A. Dunham, Iiut. of Spain and Jhrtugal.'Uc. 8. tcet. i,eh.l. die. 2. —In 1398 the knighU of the order of St. James of CorapoBt«lla " received permission to marry. In 1493, the Grand Master- ship was united to the crown of Spain." In 1933 tlie right of nomination to the Grand Mas- tereliip of tlic Order of Calatrava was transferred from the Pope to the crown of Spain, "and since that lime the order has gradually merged into a court institution. The state dress u a white robe, with a red cross on the left breast. The permission to mnrry has been enjoyed since 1.540."— F. C. Woodhouse, Military Beligiimt Orderi, pt. 4. CALAURIA, ConfederatioD ot— A naval confederation, formed at a very early period of Greek history, by tlic seven maritime cities of Orcbomenus, Athens, .Cgina, Epidaunis, Her- miune, Praais and \auplla against the kings of Argoa. The island of Calauria, off the eastern point of Argolis, was tlie center of the confederacy. — K. Curtius, Uisl. of Orteee, e. 1, hk. 1, ch. 3. CALCINATO, Battit of (1706). See Italt (Savoy and Piedmo.nt) : A. D. 1701-1718. CALCUTTA : A. D. 1608.— The feoadiac of the city. See I.ndi.v: A. D. 1600-1703. A. 0. 1756.— Capture br Suiajah Dowlah.— The traredy of the Black Hoi*. See India: A. D. 175S-1757. • CALDERON, Battle oC See Muuco : A. D. 181U-1819. CALEDONIA, The nam*. See Scotlamd, THK NaMK. Ancient Tribes. SeeltRiTAiN, Celtic TaiBBi. Wars of the Romans. See Bbitaim: A. D. 78-M. » CALEDONIA SYLVA. See BmiTAni, Cel- tic Tin IIKS. CALEDONII, The.— One of the wild tribes which (Hcupied the Ilighhinds of Scotland when the Hnmims held nrittiin, and wliose name they gave ttniill.v to all the Highland trilies and to that part of liie Island.— W. P. Skene. Celtic Seotland, t. 1— St BRrrAiN. Celtic Tribes. CALENDAR, The French RopnbUcan. See Framk.: a. I). i;U:l (OCTOBER). CALENDAR, Creeorian.— Grcforian Era. —■'I his wiu a i-orncilon and Improvement of the.Iulian [w-e Cai.k.xdar, Julian]. It was (liRovercil Ht length, by more accurate astronomi- cal olwrviiliimi, ihatlliu true si> ir or tropical year was IKW (lays, .1 li..urs, 48 minutes, and 57 h'cimd!*; whence it I. J short of the Julian or Egyptian computation of ))6.1 days and Ohouraby aniiilcrvulof It minutes, Ssecimds. . . .which, in the loiirw of lao years, amounted U> a whole (lay .\i the end of 1;I0 years, therefore, the tnipl<aiy,iir Ix'sanaihiv earlier tlun the civil or f< II hm k a day behind It. ... In the time of lopcdngnry XIII., A. D. 1889, ... the [ver- nal| equinox wa» found to be on tlie Uth of .Mure h. having fallen l.iick ten days. In order thinfore, to bring it forwanl to its former place or the •JNt, h,. |,.ft out ten days In Octolicr, call- ng 111.. .VI, the l.lih day of tliat month. Whence in thai y, !,r of confusion, thn 2?.l ilgy nf Deccm- Wi l„-.aiiic the dmt of January. A. D. 1S88. Which was the ilrst ysu of tile Ongorian Era. In making this correction, he was principally assisted by the celebrated mathematician Clavius. But to prevent the repetition of this error in future, a further reformation of the Julian Calen- dar was wanting. Because the vernal en uinox fell backwards three days in the course of 890 years, Gregory, chiefly by the assistance of Aioysius Lilllus, decreed that three days should be omitted in every four centuries: namely, that every firat, second and third centurial year, whico would otherwise be bissextile, should be a com- mon year; but that every fourth centurial year should remain bissextile. Thus, the yeare A D. 1700, 1800, 1900, and 2100, 8300, 8800, were to be common yeare; but A. D. 1600, 8000, 8400, to remain lean yeare. By this ingenious reform, the Julian Calendar Is rendered sufflcicntly accu- rate for all the purposes of chronology, and even of astronomy, for 6000 yeare to come. . . . The Gregorian or reformed Julian year was not adopted in England until A. D. 1751, when, the deficiency from the time of the Council of Nice then amounting to eleven days, this number was struck out of the month of September, by Act of Parliament; and the 3d day was counted the 14th, In that year of confusion. The next year A. D. 1753, was the first of the new style, be- rlng January 1, histead of March 33."— Hales, yea Analyrii of Chronology, r. 1, bk. 1.— The change from Old Style, as the Julian Calendar, and dates according with it, now came to lie called to New Style, or the reformed, Gre- gorian Calendar, was made in Spain, Portugal, part of Italy, part of the Netheriands, France, Denmark, and Lorraine, in A. D. 1.W3; in Poland in 1.586; in Hungary in l.W; in Catholic Switzer- land In 1583; in Catholic Germany in 1584; in most parts of Protestant Germany and Switzer- land In 1700 and 1701, and, lastly. In England, in 1751. In Kussia, Greece, and the East generally, the Old Style is still retained.— Sir H. Nicolas, Chmntiloai/ nf Hintory. CALBi«DAR, Julian.— Julian Era.— 'The epoch of the Julian Era, which precedes the com- mim or Christian Era by forty-flve yeare, is the refonnation of the Roman caleuilar by Julius CiEsar. who ordained that the Year of Home 707 should ronsist of 15 months, forming altogether 445 days ; that the ensuing year, 7U8, should be ciim|»ised of 863 days; and that every fourth year should c<mtain 866 days, the additional "day being introduced after the 8tli of the calends of Manli, I. e., the 84th of February, which year he called Bissextile, liecause the 6tli"of the calindi of Marrli were then doubled. Julius Ca'sar also divliled the innntiu into the numherof days whicli they at present contain. The Uoman calendar, which Wild divided into calends, nones and idea, was used In most pulillc Instruments throughout Eun>|)e for many centuries. . . . The caleud ii the Ist day of each month. The Ides were right days in each month: In March, May, .luly and . OctolH'r the ides commence on the iSth, and In all other months on the 13th day. The nonet are the 5tli day of each month, excepting in March, May, July and Octola'r, wlMsn the nonet fall on the 7th day The ilayt of the mimUl were n-ckonisl backwards Instead of forwards:' thus, the 3il ralrnds of February Is the iXllh of January ; the 4lh calends of February the 29th JaniLiry. . . . E![c-.!!!!ni'.r::!yai!!) .\ii!r:i=t. which were uaninl after Julius ami Augustus Ca'sar, having been called l^uiutUia and Sextllts, tlM 857 m; CALENDAR jXi.'Jwl*? '" «'jf» after the dcth of JuHui C«i«r, from reckoning eveiy third instead of every fourth year a bi«?xUlo. or leap y^ ?Sl. ■luJt""''"'?'"*^ 88.5 days. 8 hours. *^When ^U mUtake was detected, thirteen intercalations ^n'J?^".ir^ iMtead of ten. and the year conse quent y began three days too Ute: the calendar deied that each of the ensuing twelve years Should not be any leap year until A. U. C. 760 1 1 : !• ,V""" **"" "">e 'he years have been calcuUted without mistakes, and the Roman year ^,^.h'^?P.^ '•y "" ^"ristian nations, though !^hLh%''"''a*".'"'>'.f''«i' J*^" t" «J»'« from ^blrth of our Saviour. "-Sir if NlcoUs. fflroa- o^y of Iluton/ p. 4. -" It might naturally have been expeeud that Julius CsJu would havTso ordcrci his reformed solar year, as to begin on the day of the w nter soUtlce, which. In the* Year Sf fh. JH?'"", f- "■• "'« y*" '" '"'"* 'he error or the calendar was corrected] was supposed to fall on Dec. 85. But he chose to begin Wnew on that day the moon was new. or hi conjunc- tion with the sun. at 7 hours. < mhiutes and 8S •econds after noon. By thU means he began his ?^". n ".T™' ^'*<'' <"■ '•"'y d'y among the^an cicnt Dniids, with whose liages be wai well ac- quainted, and also nia<le his new year the first "J^rJZl.7tiT^'- "'"»• ^'^ ^'^'^ 'f rJk^ir v'' ^- *'••'''••>*• ^f**- 0/the Soman*, H^;„ „>Th ""■•"»=«";'""' th. subsequent correc- tion of the Julian calendar, see CxiiuDAB, Gb«. rAi''Snr'?S- A" ^^■•«:'>"*". J' ".'AN. CALHOUN, John C, and the War of i8m. »■>• tj«:"KD ^T.vrKH or Am.: A. I). lSIO-1813. . . .His Nullification and Pro-tUvcry policr. ^i'r ih'^"" x'tJ,"? "' Am.: A. D. luaTlUM, jM.-lN.tN, and 1>M7. ».E^''F°,'*'"^= ■r'"* aboriflnal inbabi- N«m,?,«„«"' ^"'^'' ^'"' "•"" CAL,KOK«,A -i^i ^- "S,43-i7«i.-Ori»in of th« namt.- T^'fa^^u- e«ploration and Mttlement.- The founding of ih« Franciscan missions.- ulThi*;, *;'"'"'"■"" ",f •''« SpanUh missionaries forniK dau- from the first f.mndatlon of San Diego m.«h f I"" ?;*»'"'« that were lat.r founded north of San Dl.go were, with the original "^'•"'''■"'•■nf "*lf. f"r a time known merefy by •om,. colk^ctlve name, such as the JfortLra Missions. But lat.r the name California alrea.lv tong slncp applM u, the cuntry of th™ h^dIS ml«.lon. „ th.. Southward. w,i exun.!...! to tt new land, with various prefixes or qualifying Tn^ .''i . ^ ''■''''■' f^"'"""'!* at last came, Wng appllH to our pn.s.1,1 country durinir the whole p.ri,.i of ,h.. MeM,an lUpibllcTn *," ..^^ u';^ As to the orlitln of ,h,. ,.ame California, no J^.'*i';?^',^ r""? '*" "»'• '•«» to a portion of U.wpr (allforula, was derived fn.rl, an old wh I I 1 * "■•"•oovered in 186a, ami tn,m For, la thJf romance, tb* B«Be Caafoniia waa CALIFORNIA, 1S4S-1781. ISilSlJlS*'*'" "*? ■P.P""1 1" » fabulous Island. de«»46ed as near the Indies and also 'very nei the Tenejtrial Parmltae. • Colonlsu whoiXiS brought to the newly discoveiwl peninsula^ 1585, and who returned the next yea%- maT ha« been the first to apply the name t8 thU TupJZi Island, on which they had been for a tinr,^ vf.lL J^^ "^^°* UPP" California" :S^'i visited during the vovace of the p»nUr. ' , ™ Cabrillo m ,52-48. H^'yl^l llndlng'^s' w , 'Z made on the coast and on the Islfn.l,, „ Z SanU Barbara region. ... In 1.57B ri^.t IsnUi*" "^^^^r [«* akkrica: a'"^' sure that ie did not en/^r'or ob'irv'^'.hriS Gate, and that be got no sort of i.leao ttS existence of the QreSt Bay. . . . This result „f the examination of the evidence about 1 mki ! 3X''r''/"'"j'''^"'"^P«*'J. "IthmiZ-S peopfe will always try to inai»t that DrakeX-' covered our Bay of San Francisco. The Lme 8u Franctaoo was probably ai.plied to a port on thl. coast for the first timi by Cermefion'^who ^SJ°^,T. '"""/H" Philippines in imZ RTvIf' Z, "P'?'<°« the c-st mar Po™ ^yes. It is now, however, perfectly sure thst wM^h^'" 'PP'i*^ *■>'* '»"''• •« °"' Pr.»™t bsT ^.^Hn^^rM"* li^I^y unknown to European yixcaino conducted a Spanish explorinir exneZ tion along the Callforara oo«.,t . . # rnSu voyage a little more knowledge of the ch "rac?" geographical researches in the region „f (all EJ'?i».5r'^. '"f »""' a rentury%nd » la) . 868 Wl.iT^^iJVi 1 ' " reniury and With only tliU meagre result we fvach il,. , r,, „f misdons of the peninsula of Lower California fnT^i,'°i™'; by the expulsion of th,. .l.Uit^ Into the hands of the Vmndnrans; „,„| ,S tractcd in this direction l.y the rlmiii.'e.l cnn- long-chcrished plan to provi.le the Manilla ship,, on their return voyn^re. with go,»| ports ,.f supply and repairs, and to occupy tl, . north west land u a safeguard agali..V Kussian "r ynL?"^ XK '"^'"'^fy aii.1 sittleuienl i„ ( „li lornla. The rurly years show a genenllv rapil Drogres^ only one great <li«Mt<T .K-eiirrin,;' - l., aestructlon of San Die«o ,Mi,«i„„ i„ i;;-, i,v •J^SjndlanB. But tl w. w,ls ,|,ii, klv r.:. founded at Monterey. In ITTi, « land ,x,„,li J^uTY^""^ andCreM.I, tlrst e.vj.l,.r„t the easum shore of our San Kraiic I.h<-o lh\ in an effort u, reach by lan.l th,. ,.|,1 I'ort of s.,, iU «• 3. . . . AfU-r 1778, il„ old ,„i,„e |„i..„nto thenceforth, the name l'..rt of Han ■Fru.i*,; means what we now mean thenliy. In KM Lieutenant Ayala entered the new liarlH.r hv water In the following y,«r the .MlsKi,.,, „i San Francisro was founded, anil in « ».tol>, r it, < hurrh was dedicate,! ISot only iiil>«.ioiiH. ho» . v. r. hut Fk ir, '"''«''lted by Spanish it.loni.ls. lav in the odlclal plan of the new ui.,l,rt«kinK« Ylie flrst of tliese to be establlah.-,! wa« .San },m: foun<l.Hl In November, 1777. The next «,« I/« Angelee, founded In H<'ptember >'"< "—J Koyoe. Cai\/Qmta, eh. 1, tet » CAUFORKU, 1548-1781. Auo m: H. H. Bancroft, ffitl.of the Paeifle aatf. e. 18 iOalifomia, e. 1).— P. W. BUckmar, £^nM IiutUutiimt of the SmUhwat, eh. S-IS. A. 0. 1846-1847.— The American eonqueit ■nd its unezplainr 1 prclodt.*.— " Earlv in 1846, the Americans in CalUornIa numbered about 200, mostly able-bodied men, and who In tbeir tctivity, enterprise, and audacity, constituted quite a formidable element in this sparsel, in- habited region. The population of California at this time was 8,000 Mexicans and 200,000 In- dians. We now come to a period in the history of California that has never Deen made clear, and respecting which there are conflicting statements soa opinions. The following facts were ob- tained by careful inquiir of IntelUgent parties who lived in Califomh during the period men- tioned, and who participated In the sr< let nar- rated. The native Callfomiana appea> u> have entertained no very strong affection for tb :;ir own Sverament, or, rather, they felt that under the luences at work they would Inevitably, and St no very distant period, become a dismembered branch of the Mexican nation; and the matter was finally narrowed down to thla contested point, namelv, whether this state surgery should be performed by Americana or Engluh, tiie real struggle being between then two nationalities. In the northern part of the territory, such native Califoraians as the Vallejoa, Caatna, etc., with the old American settlers, Leese, Larkin, and others, sympathized with the United States, and desired annexation to the American republic. In the south, Pio Pico, then governor of tlie ter- ritory, snd other prominent native Callfomians, with Jsmes Alexander Forbes, the English con- sul, who Bettle<l in Santa Clara in 1828, were ex- erting themselves to bring the country under English domination. . . . This was the sute of affairs for two or three years previous to the Mexican War. For some months before the news that hostilities between the United States and Mexico had commenced [see Mexico: A. D. 1848-1H47] reached California, the belief that such an event would certainly occur was uni- versal throughout the ti-rritory. This quickened the impulses of all parties, and stimulated the two rivals — the Ameriraii and English — in their efforts to be the first to obtain a permanent hold of the country. The United States govem- raent had sent Colonel Fremont to the Pacific on sncxiiluring expedition. Colonel Fremont had pas8*'il through California, and was on his way tn Oregon, when, in March, 1848, Lieutenant Olllesple, of the United SUtea marine service, wss sent fnim Washington with dispatches to Colonel Fremont. Lieutenant Oillesple went screws Mexico to Msxatlan, and from thence by sea to Califomia. He finally overtook Fremont early In June. 1848, a aliort distance on the road to (Ingon. and communicated to him the purport of hla (iJKpstches, they having been committed to memory and the papers deatmyed before he en- tered M, xlct). What these Instructions author- lied Cfijonel Fremont to do has never be«n pro- muleaini, hut it is said they directed him to rrmain in rallfomia. and hold himself in n-mll- neM to conp,.rate with the United SUtes Act, in caw' war with Mexico should occur. Fremont Imtiii.liately returneil to Califomia, and camp.-d s short lime on Feather River, and then took up tu n..i.i4u«iler» at Gutter's Fort. A few days after, ua buaday, Jiim 14U^ 1841, • pMty of OAUFORIOA, 1848-1847. fourteen Americans, under no apparent com- mand, appeared in Sonoma, captured the place, rwsed the Bear flag, proclaimcclthe independence of Califomfai, and carried oS to Fremont's head- quarters four prominent citizens, namely, the two Vallejoa, J. P. Leese, and Colonel Prudhon. On the consummation of these achievements, one Merritt wai elected captain. This was a rough party of revolutionista, and the manner in which they improvised the famous Bear flag shows upon what alender meana nations and kingdoms are sometimea started. From an estimable old hidy they obtained a fragmentary portion of her white skirt, on which they painted what was in- tended to represent a grizzly bear, but not being artistic in their work ... the Mexicans, with their usual happy faculty on such occasions, called it the 'Bandera Colchis,' or 'Hog Flag.' This flag now ornaments the rooms of thcPioneer SocietyTn San Pranciaco. On the 18th of June, 1848, William B. Ide, a native of New England, who had emigrated to California the year pie- Tious, issued a proclamation as commander-in- chief of the fortress of Sonoma. This proclama- tion declared the purpose to overthrow the existing government, and establish in its place the republican form. . . . General Castro now proposed to attack the feebly manned post at Sonoma, but he waa frustrated by a rapid move- ment of Fremont, who, on the 4th of July, 1848, called ameetingof Americans at Sonoma; and this assembly, acting under his advice, pro- claimed the independence of the country, ap- pointed Fremont Governor, and declared war against Mexico. During these proceedings at Sonoma, a flag with one star floated over the headouarters of Fremont at Sutter's Fort. The meaning of thla lone-star flag no one seems to have understood. . . . Just as Fremont, with his company, had started for the coast to con- front Castro, and act on the aggressive generally, he was suddenly brought to a sUnd by the as- tounding intelligence that Commodore Sloat had arrived at Monterey, and that, on the 7th of July, 1848, he had raised the American flag and taken possession of the place; also, that, bv com- mand of Commodore Sloat, Commander "Mont- gomery, of the United States slixip-ofwar Ports- mouth, then lying in San Francisco Bay, had, on the 8th of July, taken pos.scs.sion of* \vr\Mk Buena and raisetl the American flag on the plaza. This of course settled the business for all par- tica The Mexican flag and the Hear flag wg^ lowered, and in due time, nolens volens. all ac- quiesced in the flying of the Stars and Slri|)ea. . . . Commodore Hloat . . . had heard of the commencement of hostilities on the Kio Grande, . . . sallwl from Mazathin for Califomia, took possession of the country aril raised the Ameri- can flag on hia own resiiimHlhlllly. These deci- sive steps on the part of t'onuniKlore Slont were not taken a moment too soon, as on the 14th of July the British manofwur ColllngwoiNl. Sir George Seymour commimding, arriviii at Moo- U-ny," Intending, as Sir George acknowledged, "to take poaaession of that p<irti<m of the coun- try." lu August, Comni.siore Sloat rellmiui.shed the command of the Pacitic sqiimlron to Com- miKlore Hliickton, who "imme<liaU>lr instituted bohl and vigorous measures for the subjugation of the territory. All his avnlUlile foriw fi>r land operations was 8SU men — sailors and marine*. But io impU mmI •klUul were StocktoB's noTT 869 H ? CALIFORNIA, 1846-1847. F^mA„?°^..^ efflcicnt WM the coSpentlon of Fremont with hta small troop. th.tCaUfon.ta was effectually conquered in January 1847 During all this perioj the people of tK CnH^ States were tenorant of what was transpiring In California anS vice versa. But the ictlon of Commodore Sloat „d . . . CommcSore thr^r^.,^B. f ** ^"' anticipate the wishes of June, 1846, dispatched General Kearney ac^es the county from Fort Leavenworth [s^ Nkw I„^,. lit". *" '"'"'"" CaUfomta. and whei Mnquere.1 to assume the governorship of the tenftory Ooneral Kearney arrived In cSliforSa jIaSan PM,,,ml with greatly diminished forces. December, 1848, a few weeli before «:M veTm- tary operations In that region ceased."— £ E Dunbar, The Romance of Xh» ^Tm. 2iM8 Aate,. t 17 (California, t. 6). A. l-ll-JTc. Fremont, Mhnotn of my Ufi, «. l, «*. 14.15. A. p. 1848.— Cesaion to th* Uaited SUtM Bee Mexico: A. D. 1848 •"»»"• aim.vn. .-^.?: ."48:i849._Th« diMovMT of Gold »nd the immigration of the Gold-honten — „,"/»*, ''"™"" °' •***^ "•• American residents ^L.i . ',*i. ?T'*^'''''« Perhapa 2,000. and mostly established near San rfar.riico Bay f?^^~ °^^ *'"" '"'P« "<» confidence to thi .u.nTf .•,'■'[ f"'^™™™* held secure posses- J^on of the whole territory, and had announced lis p»rp.«e to hold it pehlunently. " It » «;;f,iri'? .I*""' "/ t''i»Jln>e one It the leading S»^»-^i K™?' Anierican InteresU In Califor- ta^e f n"''° ■^V^""'*'-. * Swiss by his paren- toge: a Qerman by tlic place of £ls birti. ;n f w r • m1 ^""T'™n '">• n-sldence and naturallza- Uon in Missouri; and a Mexican by subsequent 1830 he had settled at the lunctlon of the Sacni- menu. and American Hvers. near Uie site Ir, t"'*"' V''>' "' Sacmmento." His ranclio became kn.wn as Sutter's Fort. IPT of '.""S""" ",n'**^'.*" P'"""" 'he build, ing of a flour-mill, and "partly to irrt lum ber f.,r it, he d, tem>ine.i to bulUd /saw-SSfl iZ Since there was no g«xl timber in the vallev if.^ r!?,"!;""" "" ' ^ '" "-e mounuins. Tfle Siflv2' '/ V* ";"'^'"^ ""y J«"" W. Marshall, a native of New Jersey, a skilful wheelwright by occupation nclustri.ms. honest, genemus blu ^ZliJfA^^}^ '"'^'**' "d defmivehi' •ome kinds of business sense. . . The nlwn 1.VK) f„.t above the level of the sea, and 45 r.^'" in"". ^""""' '^""' '""" '^b^ H was am ,.«ib ,. by wagon without expense for roa. 7^^::' \ 1 ^^'^' '" "**' "•" -* ">•" *»• n^iy the nu-e to cairy away some of the I.hhw dirt and gmv.l, an.i then h,ul bcrn turned o.T again On tl...„ft,.m.,.nof M.mday, the !Mth of January Man, mil was walki,,^ lo ,he tall.,«;e, when on Its rot . n «mnit.. b..d nn-k he saw some vellow parti, es and ,,i. k«l up several ofXm.^ Th^ largest wer,. aljout the .i»„ of grain, of wheat . . . lie Ihmighl lli.y were gold, and went to ''••"'"■ «"■"; he told the men that he hm fou.Ml a gol,i mine At the time, little import anee w,,, atta. lio,i to hi, sUle^nent. iT was rrifanl..,! as a pn.jHr ..ihject for ridl<iil» Mar moll liiwuKreU his new metal ud found It CAUFORNIA, 188*. malleable; he put It into the kitchen flm «i.,i observed that It did not readily melt or M discolored: he compared Its color with goldS and themore be examined It the more 1 e wu convtaced that It wa. gold." He soon fouml^ opportunity to show his discovery to 8u te7 who tested the metal with add and by oarefui weighing, and utbfled himself that Marsha U oonclujion wa. correct. In the spring „f 1848 w.^.5*^' • ""•«« "' »hout 7(10 inhab? ^T\y}^c>»? nf*!p»Pe". 'he ' Californiai' 5 ^. ^ ..5'"'°'^*' *"• hoth weeklies. The first printed mention of the gold discovery was the 15th of Jtarch. stating that a gold mine l,ad been found at Sutter's Mill, and Siat a packsM of the metal worth |30 had been receVved S t^r.^^w't.- • • ^'0"' 'he middle of Ju^ the whole tenrttorv resounded with the cry^ t£^ 'r • • ^'.y.*" »he men hurrie.1 off to tte mines. Worksliops, stores, dweiliosi for a time to take care of themselves. . ihe reporto of the discovery, which beiran tn "»'h the Atlantic States In 8eptemCr%»° commanded little credence there liefore January butthenew»of theanlval of large amounts if Ck'L'^l'!'; VlP-™i«o. P»nrm.,an,iNe°w' JnH . S^ ^^^ Pf" °' 'he winter, put sn end to all doubt, and in the spring there was Buch a rush of peaceful migration is the worM SCO had never jeen. In 1849, 2S,000-afcor,li„g to one authority 80,000-imm.grant8 w.ut bv 4^ 00?^^ Mountains, and by s..a perhsn, 4ii,(j)0 from other parta of the worid. . Tlie gold yield of 1848 was estimated at ^.smm- i^'n,2f J^'J" *W.»0O,0tK); that of INW a »'!O,0OO,OOO; that of 1858 at »6.'..00(I.WIO and tlien came the decline which has coiitiriii.Hi until i^2R,'2?^i"'"*,f*2**].rh'-'' 'he Jl'l'l is atom •18 01)0,000 '^-J 8. Hittell, Thi Dim.r^ of OM^tn aUtfonua (Oenturg Magatine. tV,nari, Also nj: E. E. Dunbar, Ttu Somnwf nf tht Age. or the Diteotery «f O.M in <:■■ ^\i \\ Bancroft. Htet. of the PMiJie Slatee, , IHiCali- fornta, t. «) eK 3-4. /~- 5' ;"50-— Aomiialon to tht Union as t «?!J****T^*'! Comproml... 8.e I mtkd States of Am. : A. D. iR-x) A. D. (8s6.— The San Fruteiaco Vigilaace r"*.?™ ^*J!?-~"^heass<Hiation of cili/.eM»lvnown as the vigilance committee, which was (.rcunlmi In Han Fnuiclaco on the 15th of Mav, IK,I\ has nail such an Influence on the growth arui pms- perity of that city that now [1877). at th,' , ml of ii years, a true account of the origin and .»ul»e- quent action of that association will 1m. nail with interest. For some time the comipticiu in the courts of law, the Insei-urily of the Imlint Imi at elretlons, and the Infamous cluinicter of many of the public offloials, had bi^en the kuI.j.tI of complaint, not only in Han Framiv,.. but throughout the Sla'.o of Callforola it \vi» evi- dent to the honest and respecial.!.. ,iii/ru« of San Francisco that ... it would U-v>,m,- the amy of the people to protwt ihiiii«Kr< by refonning the courts of law. and bv laliim; the imllol Imx from the hands of "gr<.-.lv and unprincipled politicians. " The latter w. n' n pte- '^luJ i^ ° nt^'Tspaprr f4ii!.-.i Ihe Suinlui Tirnt*. editiMl by one James 1». Casiy. The oi'ilnioo of CALIFORNIA, 18M OALIFORNU, 18M. the better cliuaea of citizeiu was voiced by the Evening Bulletin, whoee editor was James King. On the Uth of May, 1856, King was shot by Cwey, in the public street, receiving a wound from which he died six days Uter, and intense eicitement of feeling in the city was produced. Casey surrendered himself and was lodged in jsiL During the evening of the 14th some of the members of a vigilance committee which had been formed in 1851, and which bad then checked a free riot of crime In the suddenly populate<l and unorganized city, by trying and executing a few desperadoes, came together and determined the organization of another committee for the same purpose. " The nextday (the ISth) a set of rules and regulations were drawn up which each member was obliged to sign. The committee took spacious rooms, and su citizens of San Francisco having the welfare of the city at heart were invited to Join the association. Several thousands enrolled themselves in a few dsya. . . . The members of the vigilance com- mittee were divided into companies cf 100, each company having a captain. Early on Sun- day (tlie 18th) orders were sent to the different captains to appear with their companies ready for duty at the headquarters of the committee, in Sacramento Street, at nine o'clock. When all the companies had arrived, they were formed Into one body. In all about 2,000 men. Sixty picked men were selected as a guard for the executive committee. At half-past eleven the whole force moved in the direction of the jail. A large number of spectators had collected, but there was no confusion, no noise. They mnrrhed through the city to Broadway, and there f rmed in the open space before the Jail. . . . The houses opposite the jail were searched for men and arms secreted there, the committee wishing to prevent any chance of a collision which might lead to bloodslied. A cannon was then brought forwTl and placed in front of the Jail, the muizi. "vdnt^d »t the door." The jailor waa now cttllwl ujion to deliver Casey to fhe com- mittee, and complied, being unable to resist. One Charles Cora, who had killed a United .States msniial tlie November previous, was taken fmm tlie Jail at the same time. The two prisim- ers were escorted to the quarters of the vigilance eomniiitev and them conflned under guard. Two days afterwards (May 80th) Mr. Kiug died. Casey nnci Cora were put on trial before a tribu- nal which the committt . had organized, were condemned to death, and were hanged, with solemnity, on the 22d, from a platform erected in front of the building on Sacramento Street. "The executive conii.iite«, Undlng that the power tney held was petftrtly under control, anil that tliere waa no dancer of any popular exeesscs, (Iet4>miined to continue their work and rid the country of the gang of ruffians which had for SI) long a time managed elecHiona in San Fran- cisco and its vicUiit/. These men were all well kn"\vn. and were ordered to leave San Francisco. M;u:y went away. Those who refused to go Were arrested and taken to the rooms of the ^)mmiltee, where they were conflned until optiorl unities offered for shipping them out of the country. ... The governor of California at this lime was Mr. J. Neely Johnson. , . . The °?j"'' *(>lKn«l of the secuod division of swte militia (which Included ♦ he city and county of Ban Francisco) was Mr WUIUoi T. Sberman [afterwards well known In the world as Qeneral Sherman] who had resigned his commission in the United States army and had become a part- ner hi the banking house of Lucas, Turner & Co., hi San Francisco. . . . Toward the end of Mav, Oovemor Johnson . . . appealed to Gen- eral Sherman for advice and assistance hi putting a stop to the vigilance committee. At tliis time Oeneral Wool waa In command of the United States troops, and Commodore Farragut had charge of the navy -;-d." Oeneral Wool was applied to for arms, and Commodore Farragut was asked to station a vessel of war at anchor off San Francisco. Both officers declined to at as requested, having no authority to do so. " When Governor Johnson returned to ^cramento, a writ was issued, at his request, by Judge Tenr of the supreme court, commanding the sheriff of San Francisco to bring before him one William Mulligan, who was then In the hands of the vigilance committee." The vigiUnce committee refused to surrender their prisoner to the sheriff, and Oener ' Sherman was ordered to call out the militU of hiS division to support that officer. At the same time the governor issued a r n>cIaiiiatlon declaring tho city of San Franciac a state of insurrection. General Sherman fou it impossi- ble to arm his militia for service, a. A resigned the command. The governor sought and ob- tained arms elsewhere; but the schooner which brought them was soized snd the arms possessed by tlie committee. On attempting to arrest the person who had charge of the schooner, one of the vigilance committee's policemeu, named Hop- kl. s, was stabbed by the afterwards notorious Juage Terry, who, with some others, had under- taKen to protect the man. "The signal for a general meeting under arms was soundc<l, and in a short time 1.500 men wtro reported ready for duty. In an hour 4,000 meu were under arms and prepared to act against the so-called law- and-order party, who were collected in force at the different armories. These armories were surrounded." Judee Terry was demanded and delivered up, and all the arms and ammunition in the armories were removed. "In this way was settled the question of power between the vigilance committee, who wished to restore order and were working to establish an honest judiciary and a pure ballot, and their opiKiuents, the law-and-order party, who wlslnil to uphold the dignitv of the law by means of a butcher's '^nlfe in the hands of a judge of the supreme court. Althougli the committee were masters in San Francisco, their position was made nu-re precarious by the very fact of thi'r having dis- armed their opponents. The attention of the whole Union was attrac*.>d to the state of thir.gs in California, aud it 'm nimored that instruc- tions hsd been ac. trum Washington to all the United States vessels In the I'uclflc to pniceed at once to San Francisco ; and tliat onlers were on the way. placing the Unit<il States military force in' California at the disp(>.oal of Oovornor Johnson. The committee went i>u niinilily witii their work. ... All the important cliangcs which they had undertaken had been r«rried out successi'ully, and they would gladly have given up the responsibility they had assumed had ft not iH-en for the lase of Judge Terry. ... At last the ntiystctans announced that Hopkins waa out of danger, and on the 7th of August Judge Terry waa released. . . . lUvlof got rid of 861 CAUTORMIA. IVt. th7 wH^ " " • 'T- "x' "° tlie 18th of August the whole aasotmtion, numberinir over 8 (XX) fn a„ "»"^'»co. returned to their he«dqu8rtcr» In L%T '""y fr'^'^ ""<"'«1 'n>m duty. T . In the following Novembor thero waa an elertion of city and county officer.. Eve" ^Ingwen" on . ry quietly. A -people's t'cket\ Kie wL^Z °' /''°:r"8'5'y "jrustworthV cmJena! m^i^'Jfr * f. P"f J'- '"" elected by a larn majority and for the last 20 years San Franc)»?o ^.•"•d the reputation of being one of^*ete«? Srv '^/'i"' '^""' . ^'°''"' States. "-T. O (.iltMnrii; Monthly, Dee. 1877) «,^tof"«?«rr.;v "'*"C"'ft, JWrf. o/(», fli«7fc Sherman, Memnn. ch. 4 (el) ^>""- "• »• ^«.n .„ in 18 < 7 a meeting was called in San Fren- «tT«^t^£Rrf *y"lP«thr with the men then on ftiii^t i' "ttsburg In Pennsylvania. . . . Some strong language used at thft meeting, and ex- nggerated by the newspapers, frigfiened Uie KbVLV'f •" '°™'lf » -^t of Slt^ iL5 ."'' **'^-ty- • • • The chief result of the incident was furtlier irritation of the poore? witi^ tT™ '' Sh"": ""= ,^''P««^ to deal ha«hly m M„l, inT" -?'""«'y •ff^r c«me an election of Satur,. T?" """^ •""•"*" "' the State legisiatun-. The contest, as Is the custom in ^'.nSVn"'"'^'" '!"" "'" « numSr"o?°c?u "s and otlier organizations, purporting to represent I?l^^ »■;!?" '',';.'^'!-">"' of apart}, and am^g tH,"" I'^-.'y.^J'l^f, 't^V". ' The Working men* CAUFORNIA. 1877-1880. poiltlon wai flnally usuivd bv hi. \^i along with several other siSen an«,t„Y„"!i prosecuted on a charg. of riot fn r^^.^ 'fT Bammatory speeches delivered at T^xSni '"" the top o(Nob Hill, one of the Mc^d ^iilf which n»ke San Fhuictoco the most pirt, S ,,' ^American cities. The prosecution fail" U^' Kearney was a popular tero. Clerks an i t^ better class of citliens now began to at?^n ' meetings, thooirh in.nv^ -.,,. PXl _ A"^" _ . ,„, iia,.,, jne worklnir men 9 Tra.le ami Ubor fnion.' the Secretary of w^iicl' was' ov%" k" ^'"'^ ^T'^T' ^'•^'' ti cimlon W« imi„„' K™rnoy declared that he would keen Ws tmion going, and form a working man'f party Wm to ai;;'^';' "'«"^" '? *?''■ t° h<»ve a^t t^ei clur™^ui M* ?""'""' "t » 8-mdny debating Club called ilie I.yceum of Self Culture Kearneys tongue, loud and abusive soiin CrrJ "" "'""'■''"• "" the west side of &^S L7^~ar/."?h'""" the peninsula from tlm .\1^1 '"wards the ocean, there is (or the, wi.5) vpM^.mV'"'' "P"""' ""^ °"t for building, but n «^h.^ f • '/'■"" *'"' ""h had been wont to Mrtv ^rr "r^''^'" ?^**™''? formed hU l^n f.nt oL J l^ ''?*' ""^'^ '"ga^wnds to lis- 1dm un T? """. '""^ ''"t newspapers took M LiJ^ n T'""* ')*"■ "'« Chronicle and the m r «,^„? 'a T.r '" ""•" ""^'y- •■«' "'e for golniri^he«,l m. ' 1^ "'""•"ent a chance of matter .„M I "'"'■','"' T'""""' "'th tenMllonal mtn went In hot an.T strong for the'sand Lot ?irl/«v'.Ki K"''r"'*"'*"t which the Chro- °'h",,*f^* hlin bv its report, and article., and »«e 1^ soon made him • penoDage; and his 862 President . . The Sand l>.t party rfre-^f M m the East, have the larger share of tS P.™'Ki.*'™'*Jt' '^'e "■" "''••■ unwelcome o ,h! weauea their old opponents: while »h» tJz^ ?™S' ""f?* "'"'S'^y to 'capture U%^ve^ feeble resistance. Thus it «rew thn ?,,<,,. ! »on began to run a tlck'et ofTown a'"' i', ' '^ 1^-^^"^^°^ " ""^e^ """t of the c ty ft,^ ^nZ'"'K .'?* ^"""tion was submlttci to to people whether a new Constitution shouH (^ framed for California, it threw i vot^ in L^r of having one and prevailed. . . Next <^° n the summer of 18^8, the choice of delcraS stitution. The Working mans Party ol.t linivl . substantial representation in the convent ,mw ^nominees were ignorant men, witi out „ perience or constructive ideas. . . . h,,'"; the working men's delegates, to«.th;r w th S excen?toi^fit'"rK '""'""f 't "ttle ,u„lK?ri,; except to cartr out by statutes the provi.,i„ns ot hL^r"!')"""- 't make, •lobbying ie r,"Plf^tio'i of a legislator, felony. 3. It fcrhids fXf^ leglBtature or local ...tliorities t, incur ?.„^"i*y??'' •.•*ftaln limit, taxes uncultivS land equally with cultivated, makes s.i , V due "f ™°«g»P taxable In the distri.'t wC o of e'v^vh^^." ' "'«'■'? '"luli.ltorial .. ruliny Clare, thaf .hi s? . u'* *»»«rin« of «,„ k, ' dc ~,~,J_ ,"'*S "^tf •"" Po*" to pfvcrt cor- P?„7Hn^/r"" "'"''rtinB their busin.s, snaMo nanle? ^L^^^t^,"^ teleimpf, ,„,| g^, com ^ln„ «."'"'"" V.'t''?"''"" to fix the tn,n«p„r. ^kS «h".^'". ""."^•** ■""' examine the books and •«»unt. of „, transportation mm- £?S ?h.i- " ^°^^ all cornorBti.>n« to . nploy fShM? KT- '^"^^ them from the milTrU. «m^..ii"'' ^P'oyytnton any pul.li.- worts ?hLy.a.^'.~'"r^ for -coolie labour.' dimt. the legislature to provide for the punishn,. m of anycompany which shall Import Cliii., m-. to IniT* "^"""t'oM on the residence of ihin.*, andto cause their removal if thev fail to . h«. rve nn .H-.^ 'ij""yi\"* • '«g*' 'l*^' work on .11 public worka. When the Constitution came to ■' 1 M CAUFORNU, 1S77-188C. CAMBORICUM. te submitted to the Tote of the people, to Hay 1879, it WM vehemently opposed by the monled men. . . . The stru-jgle was severe, but the Gnrnger party commanded so many rural votes, and the Sand Lot party so many in San Francisco (whose population is nearly a third of that of the entire State) that the Constitution was carried, thoug) jy a small majority, only 11,000 out of s toUl of 145,000 citizens voting. . . . The next thing was to choose a legislature to cany out the Constitution. 1 1 id the same Influences pre- vailed in this election as prevailed in that of the Constitutional Convention, the results might have been serious. But fortunately there was a slight reaction. ... A series of Statutes was passed which gave effect to the provisions of the Con- stitution In a form perhaps as little harmful a* coulii •>!! contrived, and certainly less harmful than ' J. '. been feared when the Constitution was put to the vote. Many bad bills, particularly those aimed at the Cliinese, were defeated, and one may say generally that the expectations of the Sand Lot men were grievously disappointed. While all this was passing, Kearney had more and more declined in fame and powck. He did not sit either In the Constitutional Convention or in the legislature of 1880. The mob had tired of his harangues, especially as little seemed to come of them, and as the candidates of the W. P. C. had behaved no better in ofllce than those of the old parties. He had quarreled with the Chronicle. He was, moreover, quite unfitted by knowledge or training to argue tiie legal, econondcal, and political questions Involved in the new Constitu- tion so that tiie prominence of tliese questions tliriw him into the baclcground. . . . Since 1^ he lias played no part in Califomian politics."— J. Bryce. The Amerimi Commmu'tallh, eh. 90 {r 2). atui app. to e. 1 (containing the text of the Vnnt.ofCnl.). CALIFORNIA, Unirertity of. SeeEDCt.A- TIUN, HODEBN : AXEBICA : A. D. 1868, » CALIGULA. SeeCAics. CALIPH, The Title.— The title Caliph, or Khalifa, simply signifies in the Arabic language '■ Successor. '' The Caliphs were the succeswrs of Mulinmet. CALIPHATE, The. See Mahometan Cos- (JCEBT. CALIPHS, The Turkish Snltao become! successor to the. See Baot>ad; A. D. 1858. CALISCH, OR KALISCH, Treaty of. See Gekm.\nt; a. I). 1813-1818. CALIXTINES, The. See Bohemia ; A. D. U19-I434. CALLAO: Sie^e, t8a5-i8a6. See Pkro: A. 1). 1820-1826. A. D. i866.— Repulse of the Spanish Beet. SwPehu: \. D. 1826-1876. CALLEVA.— One of the /rreater towns of Roman nrttain, the walls of wlilcli, found at 811- fhfsifr enclose an area of tliree miles in circuit. — T. Wright. Vdt, Romnn and Hum, eh. 8. , CALLIAS, Peace of. See Athens: B. C. CALLINICUS, Battle of.— Fought In the wars of tlie Homsns with the Persians, on the h»nli» of the Euphrates, Kaster Eve, A. r ^gl The Koinana. commanded hv R/-!|ai)riu« s ered au apparent defeat, but they checked an intended advance of the Persians on Antloch.— O. RawUo- ion, Severn Unat Onental ManarOf, eh. It. CALLISTUS II., Pope, A. D. 1110-1184. . . . .Caltistna III., Pope, A. D. 1 vm>-i158. CALHAR, The Union ot See Scakdina- ▼lAN States; A. D. 1018-1807, ejid 1897-1527. CALPULALPAM, Battle of (i860). Bee Mexico: A. D. 1848-1861. CALPURNIAN LAW, The.— "In this year, B. C. 149, the tribune L. Calpumius Piso Frugl, who was one of the Roman writers of annals, proposed and carried a Lex Calpumia, which made a great change In the Roman criminal procedure. Before this time and to the third Piuiic war, when a maglstratus had misconducted hii; self In h's foreign administr . ion by oppres- sive acts and spoliation, tliere were several ways of Inquiring Into his offetice. . . . but these modes of procedure were insufficient to protect the Btib<ects of Rome agt.'nst bad maglstratus. . . . liie remedy for these .>v{l8 was tiic establish- ment of a court under the name of Quaestio Per- petua de pecuniis repetu idis, the first regular criminal court that existed at Rome. Courts similarly constituted wer afterwards established for the trial of persons charged with other offences. The Lex Calpumia defined the offence of RepetundK, as It was briefly named, to be the taking of money by irregular means for the use of a governor. The name Repetunds was given to this offence, because the object of the procedure was to compel the governor to make restitution. . . . The court consisted of a pre- siding judge ... and o'' a -<xly of Judiccs or Jurymen annually appointed. The numlwr of tlih body of judlces Is not known, but they were all si-nators. Tlie Judge and a jury taken from the body of the judiccs tried all tiie cases wliich came before them during one year; and lionce < m.c the name Quaestio Perpetua or stan Ung court, ill opposition to the extrnoniinary coi> ds- slons whic'i had hitherto been appointed ih tlie occasion ai y;.' We do not know that the Lex Cainumia tuntalncd any penalties. As far as the evidence shows. It simply enabled the complain- ants to obtain satisfaction."— O. Long, Decline of the liuman Rtpublic, ch. 2. CALUSA, The. See American Adorioi.nes: TiMlQl-ANAN Familt. CALVE N, Batth of (1400). Sec Switzer- land: A. D. 1396-1499. CALVIN AND THE REFORMATION. See P.\p.*rY: V. D. 1821-ir)33; and Ge.neva; A D. 1536-l,'S64. CAMARCUM.— The ancient name of the town of Cambral. CAMARILLA. — A circle of irresponsil)le chamber counsellors —courtiers — surrounding a sovereign with Influences superior to tiiose of his responsible ministers. CAMBALU.ORCAMBALEC. SceCuiNA: A. D. 12.'S!>-12»4. CAMBAS, OR CAMPA, OR CAMPO.The. See Bolivia: AnoRtoiNAi. inhabitants. CAMBOJA. See Tonkin. CAMBORICUM.— A Roman town in Bri- tain.— " Camborlcum was without doubt «. very important town, which commnnde<l tlic southern fens. It had tliree forts or citadels, the principal of which occupied the district called the Cnstle- eiid.in the modem town of Cambridge.nnd np|>eara tn liavr h.vl a hrtdgp m-orthe Cnm, -"T Orsirita; of the others, one stood below the town, at Cliee- terton, and the other above It, at Oranchester. Numerous ruadi branched off from this tow& 863 CAUBORICnit «."-; ?*^Si**!!* *''* »epre»ent«tlve of Cambori- cum, ta hl« time, a 'llttte deierted city.' and coffin for their wtatly abbeM, EtheWreda. they ^h.?** ' brajutlful Kulptured taiSSus o^ white marble outside the dty walbof the |^^J"J'»-"-T. Wright. Cto, Baman and ri£^^-il^o^^ D; iS«x.-Un«ucce»»luI SSKe'l' D. T^!!«?l ''•™^ 8" ^"""«- |»rernorBalH:nl.-S»e|;e «ad captnriby the «n». SeeFBAKCE: A. D. 1SS8-1S96. wiL?" **77--T«ken by Looia XIV. See MBTHaRLAin]e(HoLL.u<D): A. D. 1874-1678 n'^&T*'**'**' *• Fiance. See NncK- CAMPBELLITSa ttUKir, Tbk nuCB OR iim-ff^'' **•■" "•' ** ^'*^'= ^ °- CAMBRIA.— The early name of Walca. See »ra«Y, and Cumbria ; also. BRiTAUf : tfrn Ckn- O^ilfc^i^^^' ^"-^ °^ «•'• See «5t"'|?'J?<^=' »•••— The ant aettle- CAMBRIDGE, Platform. The. See MAasA- CHi-SETTs: A. D. 1646-1651/ CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY. SeeEou- CATION. CAMDEN, Battle of. See United States ,-!P.**'^'*ONIAN REGIMENT, The.-In lfti». when ClaTerhoiise was raisinir the Hiirh- «n, clans in favor of .lames U.. " William Cle- , n ,"'"",'"' '<!"?'" with distinguished bravery at Botliwell, and was one of the few men whom Clavpj-house feared, made an offer to the [Scot- tish I hstates to raise a regiment among the Cam- eronians, under the colonelcy of the Earl of Angus, and the offer was acccpti'd. Such was the origin of the Csmeronian regiment Its first heutenant-olonel was Cleland : its arst chaplain was Shields. Its courage was first tried at bun- keld. where these 800 Covenanted warriors rolled b,., k the tide of Celtic invasion ; and since tlaV nn.l.gencrate though changed, it has won trol pill, s ill every quarter of the world."_J. Gun- F»^Am°?f03r,%'-» - "». See ..,9A»<0RRA, OR CAMORRISTI. Th..- avi^fuiv .L";'^"'" "»"«>'*"«» know'n to tnd avowed by the law . . . there existed under tlm Bour.Hu, rule at Naples [pverthmwn by '^riUim I _!., J^ * self const tut«( BUthoritv mom terrible than either. It wa. not rasy LK wL^;^?:ttne"^n^srrn•t'!;f\TC ^BV^i^U''^%X^l}l^^ CAMPBELI..SirC rejealed ftelr exUtence by the orders which they issued. This secret influence was that S tMn St™-, r Camorristi, a sort of^mS„t ttonof the violence of the middle ages, of tto trades union tyranny of Sheffield, and of Z were a body of unknown IndivlduaU who suS sistol on tlie public, especially on the small, tradespeople. A man effecU-d a lale of his warr as Uie customer left his shop a manof the til would enter and demand the tax on the saT?o the Camorra. None could escape from th, SS?"* ^TSSy- I' ^" Impal^ble to Z S? m^»r ^^. ""' ?"'/°« itself tTthe Imlus ?, ?hJ"Tl'^H*"?i!°S- It i^ued Its orders. When f^f.^'^'jS P"""™"! Imposed stamp duti« that aenaiblv increased the cf..t of litigation h« Indtapenaable luxury of the Neapolitan., tte advocatM received letters warning thtm to cease a^ practice In the courts so longit, Uiese ,S dutfea were enforced. 'Otherwise,' continued ^e mandate, • we shall take an early onp,«u„"i^ of arranging your affaire.' SigJeJ by ■t^ C™>°n» ot the avvocatl.' ThramZment hinted at was to be made by the knife Th. Italian government, much to Its credit, made s great onslaught on the Camorrlstl. Many were arrested. Imprisoned or -!xile<l. some even killed o?l??^i5t, P^f ?• . ^" ""^ *<"»' <'™'li'-»tioa of «) terrible a soctal vice mutt be [published in i^ J. ' ^"i.°',.ff<*' difficulty, liemverai." CAMP OF REFUGE AT ELY See Pm land: A. D. 106l»-107i: "*'"-"• »<« £sa. CAMPAGNA, OR CAMPANIA.-' The name of Campania.' says Pelligrinl. ' which »m tended Itself by successive rc-aningcnunti of iLlv L^ provinces over a great part of (.Vnini: i,I?A'i'. *SL^^ gradually shrank back si'ain J^„ .Jr".^'","' ?°? city only. Naples, and that one of the least Importance In Italy What naturally followed was the total disu^ of the ^ \^i y^" **"" Campania, theivfon., be- came obsolete except in the writings of a few mediaeval authore whose statemeiits cnatrf some confusion by their ignorance of the different senses In which it bed at .lifferent tini.s liofB U8c<l, An Impression seems, however, to have prevailed that the district of Capua Im.l Inrn so named on account of iu flat and fertile natui* and hence every similar tract of plain cumtrv {?„"1? ^ ■* rS?"'^ * campagns iu the Italian SffnTj .Tlio^ exact tinio when the name, which had thus become a mere appellative, was applied to the Roman Cnmpngna is not aiciiralelr Mcertalned It will "hv sc-en that the tenn itpman tampagna Is not a geographical ilctiiiiiion of any district or province with clearly ti.<ed llmlU, but that it Is a name Iixisely emnloved in speaking of the tract which lies niund tlie city of Home. — H. Burn, Jime and tlui fammgna, eh. 14, note at end. Also in: Sir W. Oell. Top,,/;, of Ibmr r 1 * S^¥J^^°"*°' °*'»1« ^ See FLoitE.-(n!: A. u, 1380, ^ CAMPANIANS, Tho. See Sabines , slio, CAMPBELL, Sir Colin, The Indian Cam- """'' "" ' A. D. l«,5:-lN.Vs Sec Uisciri.i'.s. 364 CAMPBELL'S STATION. CANADA. CAMPBELL'S STATION, BMUe et See Chiteo Btatm op Am. : A. D. 1808 (OcTOBBBr— DiCEXBKR : Tjantmaa). CAMPERDOWN, tttmil tetUe ot See Emolasd : A. D. 17OT. CAMPO-FORIIIO, Peace o£ SeeFRAHca: A D. 1797 (Mat— OcTOBBR). CAHPO SANTO, Battle of (1743). See ITALT : A. D. 1741-1748. CAMPO-TENESE, Battle of (1806). See Fbamce: a. D. 1805-1806 (December— Sbp- TEMBER). CAMPUS MARTIUS AT ROME, The. —"The history of the Campus Martius presents us with a series of striking contrasts. It lias been covered in successive ans, first by the comDelds of the Tarqulnian dynasty, then by tiie parade ground of the great military repub- lic, next by a forest of marble colonnades and porticoes, and, lastly, by a confused mass of mean and filthy streets, clustering round vast mansinns, and innumerable cliurclies of every size and description. . . . During the time of the Republic, the whole Campus seems to have been considered state property and was used as s military and athletic exercise ground and a place of meeting for the comitia centuriata. " — it. Bum, Home nnd the Campagna, ch. 13, pt. 1. —"We have hitherto employed tliis name to designate the whole of the meadow land bounded by the Tiber on one side, and on the other by the Collis Hortulorum, the Quirinal and the Cupito- line. . . . But the Campus Hartius, strictly speak- big, Yin that portion only of the fiat ground which llei in the angle formed hj the bend of the stream. According to the narrative of Livy, It wa» the property of the Tarquins, and upon their expulsion was confiscated, and then conse- crated to Mars; but Dionysius asserts that it had been previously set apart to the god and sacri- legiously appropriated by the tvrant . . . During the republic the Campus Martius was employed specially for two purposes. (1.) As a pUce for holding the oonstitutional assemblies (comitia) especially the Comitia Centuriata. and also for ordinary public meetings (concioues). (3.) For gymnastic and warlike sports. For seven cen- turies it remained almost entirely open. ... In the Comitia, the citizens, when their votes were taken, passed into enclosures termed septa, or ovilia, which were, for a long period, temporary wooden erections. "—W. Ramsay, Manual of llomaa AiUig., eh. 1. CAMULODUNUM. See Coujbbcteb, Ori- gin OK. CAMUNI, The. See Rh.«tians. CANAAN. — CANAANITES. — " Canaan signifies 'the lowlands,' and was primarily the name of the coast on which the great cities of Phoenicia were built. Aj>, however, the inland parts of the country wer j inhabited by a kindred population, the name tame to be extended to designate the whole of Palestine, just as Pales- tine itself meant originally only the small territory of the Philistines.'— A. 11. Sayce. fWMJi Light from the Ancient Mmumentt, eh. 2. — See PiiosNi- ci.\K8; Oriqin and early HISTORY; also, Jews: The £arlt Hebrew History, and HAMiTsa. CANADA. (NEW FRANCS.t Namei.— "The year after the failure of Ver- razano's last enterprise, 1S25, Stefano Oomez sailed from Spain for Cuba and Florida ; thence he steered northward in search of the long hoped- for passage to India, till he reached Cape Race, on the southeastern extremity of Newfoundland. The further details of his voyage remain un- known, but there is reason to suppose that he entered the Oulf of St. Lawience and traded upon iu shores. An ancient Costilinn tradition existed that the Spaniards visited these coasts before the French, and having perceived no ap- pearance of mines or riches, they exclaimed frequently "Aca nada' [signifying 'here is nothing 'T; the natives caught up the sound, and when other Europeans airived, repeated it to them. The strangers concluded that these words were a designation, and f mm that time this mag- nificent country bore the name of Canada. . . . Father Hennepin asserts that the Spaniards were the first discoverers of Canada, and that, finding nothing there to gratify their extensive desires for gold, thev bestowed upon it the appellation of Capo di Nada, 'Cape Nothing,' whence by corruption iu present name. ... La Potherls gives the same derivation. . . . This derivation would reconcile the different assertions of the early discoverers, some of whom rive the name of Canada to the whole valley of the St. Law- rence; others, cuuaily worlli> of credit, confine it to a small district in the neighbourhood of attdacona (now <)ueb«<4 . , , Dupunceau, in the Transactions of the [American] Philosophical Soficty, of Philadelphia, founds his conjecture of the Indian origin of the name of Canada upon the fact that, in the translation of the Qospel of St. Slatthew into the Mohawk tongue, mule by Brandt, the Indian chief, the word Canada U always used to signify a village. The mistake of the early discoverers, in taking the name of a part for that of tiie whole, is very pardonable in persona ignorant of the Indian language. . . . The natural conc'usion ... is, that the word Canada was a mere local appellation, without reference to the country; that each tribe had their own Canada, or collection of huts, which shifted its position acoording to their migra- tions. " — E. Warburton, The Comreit of Canada, c. 1, eh. 1, and foot-note. — " Canada was the name which Cartier found attached to the land and there is no evidence that he attempted to displace it . . . Nor did Roberval attempt to name the country, while the commission given him by the king does not associate the name of Francis or any new name therewith. . . . There seems to liave been a belief in New England, at a later (lay, that Canada was derived from William and Emery de Caen (Cane, as the English spelled it), who were in New France in 1881, and later. Cf. Morton's 'New English Canaan,' Adam's edi- tion, p. 283, and Josselyn's 'Rarities.' p. S: also, J. Reude, iu iiis iiiatory of geogranhical names in Canada, printed in New Dominion Monthly, It. 844."— B. S. De Costa, Jaequu Carti*r and 865 CAKADA. \i „i^ *7^' ^l" "' £"«»«•' He oonflnl. the name of Canada to a dUtrict extending from the Isle am Coudrea In the St Lawrence to a Vint at lome distance above the site of Quebec, ^he country below, he adds, was call^ bVthe In dians Saguenar. and that above, Hochelsga. In the m»p of (Jerard Mercator (15<W) the name P,^, „*„'!k^'!S° ^S ^T°' ''** «" adjacent dU- trlct, on the river Stadln (St. Charles). Lescar- h^fh M *'',Tu'*'!,''- t"""* "»' ^0 country on both sides of the 8t Uwrence. from Hochelaga to iU mouth, bore the name of Canada. In the ^??i.,"o"''xr°' 0««»"». PublUhed about the Si^m'P'. ?'"'/'?"«'• Nova FrancU is thus .ij»'l'"iii^'°2**"'»'*'*"^=""' ""St Lawrence PaundMotf CANADA. laOS-iaOBL .h,.„.Vi,'„Di o "' •"'"inCTonineDt. Lawrence f^ Inl^ ?ir'^'«".*°?y '• ' CUlagaVHochelaga), the angle between the OtUwa and t^e St Liw- rence; Saguenai,' a dUtrict below the river of that name ■ 'Mo«»«a,' south of the .< Lawrence !Sh *^.'K°^'te ^'^*'" I^cheUeu; 'Avacal.' west Md south of Moscoea; • Norumbega,' Maine and New Brunswick; 'Apalachen,' VTrginU, Penn- ?teJ!-.^'. 'Terra Cortereaiur Ubrador; Flonda, Misriaeippi, AUbama, Florida. Mer- «tor confines the name of New France to districu bordering on the St. Lawrence. Others give it • much broader application. The use of thU name, or the nearly allied names of Francisca and La Franciscaue. dates back, to sar the least, as far as 1,525. and the Dutoh geographers are especially free in their use of it, out of spite to the Spaniards. The derivation of the name of Canada has been a point of discussion. It is without doubt, not Spanish, but Indian. . ' Lescarbot alllrms that Canada is simply an In- dian proper immc, of which it U vain to seek a meaning. Belleforest also calls It an Indian word, but translates it 'Terre,' as docs also iS.7?i: T:^- P»'''"?»n,A<»K»rso//>on«i»«A« Tu » ' C'Aow/'Wn. cA. 1,/oot-mh The Aborigfinai inbabitanti. See American ABOHIOINES: AloOJCQUIAN FAMILY; HUBONS; Ojibwavs; SiocAJC Familt; Athapascan Family, akd Eskimauan Family. r.wT' '3'?'»*9'"^"»»* diacoTerie. of the Cahota. See America A. D. 1497 and 1498 A. D. X500.— Cortereal on the coaat. See America: A. D. 1500. b™;„°b'?"''5'M -Portnpieae, Norman and Breton fiihermen on the Newfoundland banks Bee >E»ifocNDLAND: A. D. 1501-1578. A. D. 1534.— The coasting Tojare of Ver- razano. See America. A. O. 1528-1534 A. D. 1534.1535. —PoaaeMion taken by Jacques Cartier for the King of France. See America: A. I). 1534-1533. ' „A °: .»54»-j6o3.-Jac5uea Cartic.'a laat nndertaking.-UnsuccessSil French attempts "bo? ° ""*"°°' ^"^ America: A. D. 1541- „,^- ,D- 1603.160s.-The BeriDninr of Cham- plains Career in the New \frorid.icoloniza- tiou at Port Royal.-Exploration of the New ift«i ..^ ''?"^ [»ee America: L D, 1541- J!^J'..^.^"r' ""^ Champlaln, acaptoln in the navv accepted a command ... at the reniipst of 6e Chatte [or De Chastes] ; he w„a"S of Haintr.nge, and had lately rclurned to Fmncc from the ^e»t Indlep,, wUe« he hS galn^^ 366 high name for boldness and skill. Under th. successful elforu were made to found a dm manent settlement in the magnificent provfc. of Canada and the stain of the errors and dSwen of more than seventy yean was at lenRth wiwi) away. Pontgray*^ J Champlain saile for?^ ~ .^'1*2'*,*° *'^- "Plored it as far m Z rapids of St. Louis, uid then returned to Fmnce They found that the patron of their undcrtakhiB De Chastes. was dead. - Piene du Ouast S ^!. J"""^ J^ succeeded to the powera and privileges of the deceased, with eveia more e, tensive commission. De Honts was a Calvlnta and had obtained from the king the freedom of religious faith for himself an/ hia fonowe™ ?n America, but under the engamment th«t th. Ronutn Catholic worship sho^f Ss" tlM among the natives. ... The tradinir mmn^ni T^^" ^F ^ ^'"''« was%o'2j!K37 a Id De Honts waa enabled to fit out a more co™ plete armament than had ever hitherto been engaged inCanadlan commerce. He miled from Havre on Uie 7th of March. 1004. wHh fo° vessels. Of these, two under his Immediate h«wSTP',°- """y other volunteera,%m. barked their fortunes with him. purposlnn to cast their future lot in the New Worid. A tirf Sto7n '««P«'«''«1 "nder Pontgrave to ,h1 Stra t of Canso. to protect the exclusive trading ?o^ tX? "' "'." ^"'P'''/- The fourth 8tecref by the Indian hunters from the dreary wihls of the Saguenay. On the 6th of May D« Mont^ I reacheJa harbor on the coast of Acmiia " but for some reason not to be undcrsUnxl. his pro^ jected colony was quartered on the little iskt of ftt. Croix near the mouth of the river of tliat name, which became subsequently the bouodarr between Alalne and New B^Jmswick. Meantim? Port Kn^V^^T An^Po"'. then named ™ .»?^*'v ""^ '^'' discovered, and was fk^M^',.*. \?_'?,''«* surrounding territory, by De Moots to De Poutrincourt, who pm]m^ to ».^tle upon it M ito feudal proprieto'r and lord The colony at St. CroU havfng been hou.,cd and put in order, De Poutrincourt sailed for France ?^L> K "°J'*'-, ^ *'<""»• Chaniplain. and hose who remained, suffered a winter of terrible hardships, and thirty-five died before spring. De Monte now resolved to seek a better site for his Infant settlement, and, finding no other ^™? I ."u?"?? ^^ resumed possession of that most desirable Port Royal which he had granted ^M?!? '° Poutrincourt and removed his colony 7 i/rfi Champlaln, meanwhile. In the summer of 1805 had explored the coast southward far down the future home of the English Puritans, ooWng Into MaasachusctU Bav, Uking shelter in Plymoiitli harbor and naming it Port St. I^uis doubl ng Cape Cod (which he called Cap Ulanc), turning back at Nausctt Harlior, and jfiuning on the whole a remarkable knowledge ■>f the country and its coast. Soon after Chain- plain a return from this coasting voyage, I>e Monts was called home to France, by newt of machinations that were threatening to ex- tinguish his patent, and Por,tgrsv4 waa left Is comnuind of the colony at Port Royal— E War burton, Tht CbnjMM ^ Canada, r. 1, ch. a-I- CANADA, 1608-iaOS. Mxptontiont. CANADA. i6oe-mi. De Monti' petitkHi to the Unr for leave to colo- nize Acadia Uist region wu defined " as extend- bg from the 40tb to the 4Atb degree of north latitude, or from Philadelphia to oeyood Mon- treal"— F. Parkman, PioMen ef Frajwt tit tha Sat World: Chanaiain, eh. a Alio ra: E. F. Slafter, Mtmoir pr^. to ••VoyagttofSamutl de Champlaiii" (Prince 8oe., 1880), eh. 1-5. A. D. 1606-1608.— The fortbuet of the Acadian colony.— "I>e Monts found his path- way in France surrounded with diillcultiea. The Boclielle merchants who were partners iu the enterprise desired a return for their investments. Ilie Baron de Poutrincourt, who was still possessed with the desire to make the New World his home, proved of assistance to De Monts. De Poutrincourt returned to Acadia and encouraged the colonists, who were on the verie of deserting Port Royal. With De Pou- trincc a-t emigrated at this time a Parisian advocate, named Mark Leacarbot, who was of great service to the colony. During the absence of De Poutrincourt on an exploring expedition down the coast, l«scarbot drained and repaired the colonists' fort, and made a number of ad- ministrative changes, much improving the con- dition of the settlers. The following winter wss one of comfort, indeed of enjoyment. ... In May, however, the sad news r^Cfaed the colony that the company of the merchants on whom it depended had been broken up. Their depen- dence beinir gone, on the 80th of July most of the colonists left Acadia for France In vessels sent out for them. For two vears the empty buildings of Port Royal stood, a melancboly sight, with not a white person in tlicm, but under the safe protection of Memberton, the Micmak chief, who proved a tnisty friend to the French. The opposition to the company of Rochelle arose from various causes. In addition to its financial difficulues the fact of De Moots being a Protestant was seized on as the reason why nothing was being done in the colony to chnatianize the Indians. Accordingly when De Monts, fired with a new scheme for exploring the northwest passage, turned over the man- agement of Acadian affairs to De Poutrincourt, who was a sincere Catholic, some of the diffi- culties disappeared. It was not, however, till two years later that arrangements were made for s new Acadian expedition. "—O. Brycc, Short HM. of the Canadian People, eh. 4, teet. 1. Alm in: J. Hannay, Biet. . ' Aeadia. eh. 4 A D. 1608-1611.— Champ> ^'» third and fourth expeditions.— Hit settlen.ent at Que- bec, discovery of Lake Champlain, and first wars with the . -oquoia. — "De iilonts in no way loBt heart, and he resolved to continue in the career of exploration for settlement. A new ejp(Hlitloa was determined on, and De MonU scleck-d the Saint Lawrence as the spot where the .ilort sliould be made. ChampUin coun- selled the chance. In Nova Scotia and on tlie cast of New Bri-nswick and Maine he had been struck by the number of ports affording protec- tion to vessels from sea. and by the small number or Indians whom he had met. In Nova Scotia he would b^ exposed to rival attempto at setUe- iwnt Mil at ihc same time he could not see the possihiiity of obtaining Indian allies. In Canada Uie full control would remain with those who lint made a aetUement on the Saint Lawrence, and Cham plain counted Um natlva tribes ■■ powerful instruments in carrying out his policy. We have the key here to his coMuct in assisting the Hurons in their wars. ... In 1606 Cham- plain started for the St Lawrence. Pootgrevi was with the expedition. A settlement wai made at Quebec, as ^he most suitable place. Some ground was cleared, buildings were com- menced, when a conspiracy was discovered. The ringleader was hanged and three of those actively implicated were sent back to France with Pontgrav£ on his return in the autuma Matters now went peaceably on. The summer was passed in completing the ' Abitation de Que- bec,' of which Champlahi has left us a sketch. It was situated in the present Lower Town on the river bank, in the comer where Notre Dame Street meeu Sous le Fort Street It was here Champhin laid the foundation for the future city. Winter came, the scurvy carrying off twenty of their number. ... In June, Des Maraia, Pontgravi's son-in-Uw, arrived, telling him that Pontgravi was at Tadouiac Cham- plain proceeded thither. The question had then to be discussed, what policy should be follower with the Indiana T Should they be be aided by what force Champlain could command, in the expedition which they had resolved to make against the Iroquois T It is plain that no advance in discovery could have been made without their assistance, and that this assistance could only have been obtained by rendering them service. . . . With the view of making explorations be>ond the points then known by Europeans, Champlain in the middle of June ascendeti the St. Lawrence. About a league and a half west of the river Saint Anne, they were joined by a party of Algonquins who were to form a part of the expedition. Cliamplain tdls us of their mortal feud with the Iroquois, a proof that in no way he created it. They all returned to Quebec, where there was festivity for some days. It was brought to a close and the war parties started; Champlain with nine men, Des Marais and a pilot, joined it [them ?]. With his Indian allies be ascended the Richelieu and reached Lake ChampUin, the first white man who saw ita waters: subsequently for 165 yehis to be the scene of contest between the Indian and white man, the French and English, the revolted Colonies and the Mother Country. . . . The advance up Lake Champlain was niade only by night They reached Crown Point They were then in the Iroquois domain ; very shortly they knew of the presence of the enemy." On the 80th of July the invaders fought a battle with the Iroquois, who fled in terror before the arque- buse of Champlain, which killed two of their chiefs and wounded a third. Soon after hia return to Quebec from this expedition — the beginnidg of the long war of the French with the Iroquois — Champlain was summoned to France. The patent of De Monts had been re- voked and ho could not obtain its renewal "Nevertheless, De Moots, with his associates decided to continue tlieir efforts, and, in March, 1610, Champlain again started for Canada." After reaching Quebec his stay this time was short lie joined hLs Indian allieii in anntlier expedition of war, and helped them to win another victory over the Iroquois, at a place on the Richelieu, one league above Sorel. On returning be gut news of t)<p assassination of 367 CAKADA, l«»-18n. XiulM aiiaek m Jfov-' - SmMlD-trt CANADA. 1910-181& '* ■ Henry rV.MdiUrtedat once for France. "The clefttli of Henry IV. exercbed great influence on the fortune, of Caoida. He bad penonally taken Interest in Champlain'a voyageT and hb energetic mind wai well quallflctl tS direct the fortunes of a growing colony. Louis XHI. was not then ten years old. Jiary of Mcdcci. was under the control of her favourites, Leonora Galigni, and her husband. Conclno Concinl. Klclielleu had not then appeared on the scene. . . The Jesuiu were becoming all-powerful at ^ • • '^'*°<* was unsettled auddisordeied. .Jf ""f«»'^'»; not without provocation, were acting with passion and without judgment. The aMassinatlon of the King had alarmed them. The whole kingdom was threatened with con- vulslor and anarchy, and Canada was to pass out of the notice of those in power: and. In the sense of giving aid, half a century was to elapse before the French Go- ,-nment ^uld comp^* bend tlje duty of taking part In the defence of Jh^J"H''fy' ,""l°^ Protecthig the penons of those living In New Trance. The gSund was JLw7.'?'"?*'^.;''"P.''L"»* «eW to? the active trader, side by side with Uie devoted missionary Thus the Government fell virtually under the control of tlie Jesuiu, who, impatient of contra- .1 S'.'"'"^-, °J'^y »' ""i establUhment of their authoritv, which was to bring the colony to the verge of destructioa" Champlaln returned to his colony in the spring of IflU, fachig its pros- pects with such courage as he found In hU own Tm a^Tfl)^" ^'"S"^""'' ^^- of Canada. 4* "aijo ix:' E. B. O'Callaghan. ed.. Doe. Sit. of ^1. r., t. 3, pp. 1-9. A. D. 1610-1613.— The Acadian colony re- -ll?f ' '*p*j'n'"7"' V "" English of Vifw * u ^^T*^""^ '*°y*' *"* '«f' uninhabited tUl 1610 when Poutrincourt returned at the Instance of the king to make the new settlement a centnl station for the ronvcrsion of tlic Indians,— a work which made some Jesuit missionaries prominent ni^ ^^^7,."' •.''.« New World. H& son fol- lowed in 1611, with ff.thers Pierre Blard, and Knemond Mass*. Madame la Marquii de Gui-rchevi He. a ■ ious Catholic, to wlom De whom afterwards the French king granted the whole territory now covered by the United Btatts, was the chief patroness of these voyages, pesirmg to make anoUier settlement, she S DatchefTa vewel in 1618 with two more Jesuits, lather Quentin and Gilbert Du Thet. and forty, eight men under U Saussaye. "When they sons-fathera Blard and Masse, their servknt the apothecary Hebert. and another. All the rest were absent, either hunting or trading Xn^Ii'"?";*^-"'* <*"*«°'* •"««' tS Hubert, wifo represented Biencourt in lite absence, and taking the two Jesuits, with their servant and luggage nu.^ hJ *.'^^'''u" Pentflg-'et. which father 2i n™^ m'"^ ""'J^" P"=''fou». IJUt when w,S? .*''°.''° » *'•'«='' '"« came on. which asted for two days, and when It became clear, MnLf "L'" - 't ^'^'' "^ "'« extern side of Mount Desert IsUnd, m Maine. The harbor r,^ if*Pr. ■«:""; Md oommodloua, and they Judged this would be a favorable sitTfor the colony, and named the pUce Su Sauvour La SauMiye was adviied by the ptindptl ookn- 868 Isu to erect a sufficient fortification before con menciag to cult vate the soil, but he disre^sJSS tliU advice and nothing was compleJlTthi f[ of lofence. except the rateiug of a snlSl palisaded structure, when a storm* bum S the colony which was litUe expecttd bylS chants bul founded a colony on tlie Jam.-, li"" II Vi'-gfnia, wher., after suffering greatly from the insalubrity of Uie climate an! wnt ^f T visions, they had attained a considerable deC vessels to tish on the coast of Aca.lla, convovS by an armed vessel under the command of C^^ tain Samuel .' jgal, who had been conn«;u.d wS the CO ony since 1609. Argal was ourof tho« adventurers formed In the Khool of Drake wbS made a trade of olracy, but confined tl"„^7m to the robbery o/^those who were so unfortTnlu M not to be their own countrymen. wC Argal arrived at Mount Desert, he was toW b? Wli^'*l"Sf "'"' "■,« ^"^ "«« there in itj harbor with a vessel. Leanitag that thev wm not very numerous, he at once ^Ived to at^k ^Jl. ^ii "■" ^'^^ "«« •"«'™ when S approached except ten men, most of whom wire unacquainted with the working of a sliip ArcS auacked the French with muiketry. and aV Uie second discharge Gilbert Du Thet Si back Z tally wounded; four others were severely in- iHIT^v''"'' 'wo young men. named Leiioino ri^»;i?'"»-J'""'^ overboard and were drowned Having taken pouKssion of tlie ve.- f£aA^^' T*"' "T"™ "d informed La Saussaye that the pl«;e where thev were was English i'n^'rT'.r'' '"=""*«• *" ^^ charter of VirJnI. and that they must remove; but, if they Luld prove to him that they were there under a com- mbsion from the crown of France, he would treat them tenderly. He then asked La Saussaye ^n^i'^iH'i!; .""I <»"'n'f»ion;but, as Argal, w4 unparalle ed indecenry. had abstracted it from bU chest while the vessel was being plundered by bis '■"■■'■ the unhappy governor was of couine unable to produce It. Argal then assumed a very lofty Y"^\\i.- ^?*° ■*'■«["' •"f'^cd in VirgiuJa, he found that hi? perfidious theft of the French governors commission was likely to caise hu prisonere to be treated as pirates. Tliey were put into prison and in a fair way of being exe- cuted in spite of Argal's remonstrances, untU struck with sliamc and remorse, he prorluwd the wunmission which he hatl so dishonestly filched from them, and the prisoners were set wi ,""' .* production of this document, while it saved the lives of one set of FrenibiiKn, brought ruin upon all the others who remained in Acadia. The Virginta colonists . . . resolved to send Argal to destroy all the French settle- menu hi AcadU, and erase all traces of tbeir power. . . . The only excuse offered for tbU piratical outrage of Argal — which was com- mltteil during a period of profound u( ace -was the claim which was made by Knglaml to tbe whole continent of North America, founded on the dtecovenes of the Cabote more than a cen- tury before. That claim might, perhaps, liave been of some value if followed by imrae<ilat« occupancy, as was the case with the SpanianU In the South, but that not having tiorr i!r.DP, and the French colony being the oldest, it was entitled to, at leut. as much consideration at that of VirglnU. Singularly enough, this act OAKADA, leio-iais. .iHaakmtt* CANADA, 1611-1618. produced no mnonttimnce from lYuoe."— J. BuDsj, Biit. o/Aeadia, eh. S. Also ni: W. C. Bryan' and 8. H. G»r, Apu- lar IIM. oftKtU. 8.,t>. 1, ck. 13. A. D. 1611-1616.— The feundiac of Montreal. — whamplain'a invaaion of the Iroquoia in New York.— ' In 1611 Champlain again returned to America . . . and on tbe SStli of May proceeded In search of hii alliea, wliom he was tu meet by appointment Not flndinc them be employed LU time in chooaing a aite for a new settlement, liiglier up the river than Quebec. After a care- ful survey, he fixed upon an eligible spot in the vicinity of Mont Royal. His choice has been amply justified by the great prosperity to which this place, under the name of Montreal, has sub- ■equently risen. Having cleared a considerable apace of ground, he fenced it in by an earthen ditch and planted grain in the enclosure. At length, on the 18th of June, three weeka after the time appointed, a party of his Indibn friends appeared. . . . As an evidence of their good will they imparted much valuable information respect- ing tbe geography of this continent, with which they seemed to be tolerablv well acquainted as far south as the Oulf of Mexico. They readily agreed to his proposal to return shortly with 40 or SO of his people to prosecute discoveries and form settlements in their country if he thought proper. Tliey even made a request that a French youth should sccompauy them, and make obser- vations upon their territory and tribe. Cham- plain again returned to France, with a view of making arrap^.ments for more extensive opera- t^'-ns ; out this object was now of very difficult . .^mplishment. De Monts, who had been ap- pointed governor of Saintonge, was no longer Inclined to take the lead in measures of this kind, and excused himself from going to court by stat^ ing tlie uriency of his own affairs. He therefore committed the whole conduct of the settlement to Champlahi, advising him, at the same time to seek some powerful protector, whose influence would overcome any opposition which might be made to bis pUns. The latter was so fortunate as to win over, almost Immediately, the Count de Soissons to aid him in bis designs This nobleman nhtained the title of lieutenant-general of ^ew France; and. by a formal agreement, transferred to Champlain all tlie functions of that high office. The Count died soon after but Champlain found a still more influential friend In ilie I»nnce of Conde. who succeeded to all the privileges of the deceased, and transferred Uiem to him in a manner equally ample. These privi- leges, including a monopoly of the fur trade, gave great dissatisfaction to the merchanto ; but thamplain endeavored to remove their principal objection, by perndtting as manv of thsm ai cLose to accompany him to the New World, and to engage in this traffic. In consequence of this f.^l!' » .; ""eamerchanl, from Normandy, one ; TJ^''*"*,:,"''"* °"e '""" St Malo, accom- panied him. They were allowed the privUeges LfJT '"1* °° <»ntributing six men each to f^„ ..'?, P'?-f?cf o' discovery, and giving one- twentieth of their profit* towards defraying the Mi^'r?.2!i?« ""'ement. In the begibniSg of March [1813] the expediUon sailed Lm Har- fZ1*?1 "° *■** '"* »' *'»>' ""*«! »t Quebec. Champlain now engaged In a new project" Hl« ftrll»r't?' '"Ji I°f »«• "^ exploration up the Ottawa Paver, which be MoompUsbed with greai ** 369 difficulty, through the aid of hit Indian alliet, but from which ne returned disappointed in the hope he bad entertained of discovering the north- em sea and a way 'o India thereby. The next lummer found Champlain again in France, where " matters still continued favorable for the col- ony. The Prince of Conderetalned his influence at Court, and no difficulty was conseqtiently found in equipping a small fleet, to carry out settlers and supplies from Rouen and St Malo. On board of this fleet came four fathen of the order of the RecoUets, whose benevolence in- duced them to desire the conversion of the In- dians to Christianity. These were the first priests who settled in Canada. Champlain arrive»l safely, on the 2Sth of May, at Tadousaac, whence he im- mediately pushed forward to Quebec, and sub- sequently to the usual place of Indian rendez- vous, at the Lachine Rapids. Hi. •e he found bis Algonquin and Humn allies full of projects of war against the Iroquois, whom they now pro- posed to assail among the lakes to the westward, with a force of 2,W0 fighting men."— J. Mac- Mullen, Hitt. of Canada, eh. 1.—" Champlain found the Hurons and their allies preparing for an expedition against their ancient enemies, the Iroquois. Anxious to reconnoitre the hostile ter- ritory, and also to secure the friendship of the Canadian savages, the gallant Frenchman re- solved to accompany their warriors. After visit- ing the tribes at tlie head waters of the Ottawa, and discovering Lake Huron [at Georgian Bay], which, because of iu 'great extent,' he named ' La Mer Douce, 'Champlain, attended by an armed party of ten Frenchmen, accordi'^gly set out toward the south, with his Indian allies. Enrap- tured with the 'very beautiful and pleasant country ' through which they passed, and amusing themselves with fishing una hux'-'jg, as they descended the chain of 'Shallow uikes,' which discharge their waters through the River Trent, the expedition reached the banks of Lake Ontario. Crossing the end of the lake, ' at the outlet of the great River of Saint Lawrence.' am! pass- Ing by many beautiful Islands on the way, the Invaders followed the easten shore of Ontario for fourteen leagues, toward their enemy's c n- try. . . . Leaving the shores of the lake. t< .>- vaders continued their route inland *o the south- ward, for 85 or 80 leagues.'' After a journey of five days, "the expedition arrived before the fortified village of the Irmiuois, on tl nortlicm bank of the Onondaga Lake, near the site of the present town of Liverpool. The village was iu- rloeed by four rows of palisades, made of large pieces of timber closely intcrlc ced. The stock- ado was 80 1 , high, with galleries running around like a parapet" In the siege wliich followed tlie Iroquois were dismayed by the fire- arms of Champlain and his men, and by the operation of a moveable tower with which he ad- vanced to their stockade and set fire to it But his Indian allies proved incapable of acting in any rational or efficient way, or to submit to the least direction, and the attack was a)x>rtive. After a few days the invading force retreated, carrying Chimpiain with them and foreing him to remain in the Huron country until the follow- ing spring (1616), when he made his way back to Montreal.— J. R. Brodhcad, Hist, of the Stau of yew York, v. 1, eh. 8. — The above account, which fixes on Onondaga Lake the site of the Iroquois fort to which CumpUin penetrated, does not i t li I CANADA. 16U-161flL IV Humdrtt CANADA. 1818-1828. •gwe with the vlewi of Pftrkmsn, O'Callachan •nd some other historiang. who trace Cliamplain'a loute farther westward in New Vork; but it ac- cepts the concluaioM reached by O. H. Marshall J. V. H. Clark, and other careful studenu of the question. Mr. MacMuUen, in the "HIatory of Canada ouoted above, finds an extraordinary route for the expe<lition vU Ukes Huron and Bt. Clair, to the vicinity of Detroit-J. V. H. Clark, /«.(. of Otiondaga. A,'-'", '"= O- H- Marshall, Champlain't Ba,. (Pnrwe Sk.). I880.-E. B. OtalUghan, X -I^Hf^^^'" fi"t Je'urt miisioii.-CreatioB of the Corapany of the Hundred AiM>ciatet. — I lie exploration In the disUnt Indian terri- tories which we have Just described in the pre- wdinir pages was the last made by Champlata. He hud plans for the Bur\ey of other regions yet unexplored, but the favorable opportunity did not occur Henceforth he directed his attention more exclusively than he had hitherto done to tte enlargement and strengthening of his colonial plantation, without such success, we regret to say, as his zeal, devotion and labors fitly de- served. The obstacles that lay In his way were tosurmounublc. The establishment or factory we OHO hardly call It a plantation, at QuebM* was the creature of a company of men:hants. Tiny had Invested considerable sums In ship- plug, buildings, and in the employment of men to onler to carry on a trade in furs and peltry wiUi the Indians, and fliey naturally di-sircd remunerative returns. This was the limit of their purpose in making the Investment . ln(ler tlu-se circiimstauci'S, Chnmplain struggiwi on for years against a cum-nt which be could barely direct, but by no means control He i*iiece,Hled at length In exu.rting from the company a p. jmisc to enlarge the eslablisliment I" w (arsons, with suitable eqiilpmeiiU, farmlni Implements, all kinds of sce.is, and domestiS sjiimnlH, including cattle and sheep. But when the ti„,„ came this promise was not fulfllle<l. UIITerrnces. bickerings and feuds sprang up in the companv. 8om.. «»nU-.l one thing, and si le wanUii another Tlic Catholics wislied to extend tiie faith of their church Int4) the wilds of t«ua<ia, while the Huguenola denlnxl to prevent , • .",'■ "' '*^'.""' '" P">"i'>te il by their own rontrl. bullona. The company, in»plre.l by avarice an<l a <l'« r,' to restrict the eslabllHlnnent to a mere tnwiing post, raiwil an issue to diiun-dit Cham J?„. ". ■ . "'»? K™''«-ly I>ro|M«ed tliat he should dc».. o himself exclusively U) exploration, and thst the govemiiient and trade . .ould henceforth b* under the din^ction and control of Pont Orave But Chamnlaln . . . obuiued a decree ord. ring that he sfiouhl liavc the command st UuelMc, ami at all Mher settlements In New rrance, and that the company shoul.l almlnin from any nterrrn'm-e with l.lni in the dU.l..rgo Of the . utUH nf hi, offlee. ■ I„ |6») the I>rln?n ae tomlf M>ld his vieeroyallv U) the Duke de M(.ntn«>r<ney, il«.n high ailinfral of France, who commisaiond Chamnlai,, anew, as his lleuten ant and supporUKi him vigomusly Champlain ha.1 iiia<le voyages to Canada in 1817 and 1818 »nd 1M.W in llao, h« i.|.-:^«i u: hi. p.-^; kn?ui ^l H""'*".''* **«»" lmm«<llately the buikUoc •! • Jurt. wliidi Iw aUM fort St LouS; 370 ^e company of lasodates oppw^d this wnrti and so provoked the Duke of .M.mtmor..nry bv their comluct that "In the spring of w^ Z summarily dissolved the ass.K.iat1on nf ^ " chants, which he denominated the •Comn.my „. Rouen and 8t. Malp,' u>d esubllshed an,rtl7r I IW pUre. He continued Chamjilain In the ffl„ ?-!,~H'*.TJ!m"' «l"""lt'«l »11 matters relaC to trade to William de Caen, a merchant otS standing, and to fcneric de Caen, the ■• phew «f the former a good naval captain." In the fn on^ ° !*/^I~""? f "Panle* we™ con«,li,la,o,| l.JiSV,^'"'"'?*'" ""n"'""! »t Quel,™ f„ur years before again returning to France hl. time was divided between many local enterprises riven to advancing the work on the unttnislieU ;hrh™,n"'r *" ?""'^i}° 'S*'"' Incursion, of the hostile Iroquois who at one time approached tbe St. Charies. In the summer of 1624 (ham plain returne<l again to Prance, where the Duke de Montmorency was Just sellhig. or h«,i s.,ld his vicerovalty to the Duke de Ventadour. mlJXt.A.H^^"! ' i^P'y religious cist of mind, had taken holy orders, and his chi.f pur- pose In obtaining the v|.,royalty «„, to encourage the planting of C«lliolic nii5.si,.n« in New France. As his spiritual dlrect,>rs «,.re Jesuito, he naturally committed the work to them. Three faUicra and two lay I.rotl„r, of this on • were sent to Canada In Wi\ imH mhers subsequent yjoined them Chanipl.ii,, «," reappointcil Ifeii.enant, but remained In Fmnre two years. Hetimilng to Quebec In. Inlv PiM he found, as usual, that everything Im't ihule had suffered neglret In his absence. Nor was le able during the following year, to imiimve much the prospecta of the colony. As a < ,'l„in- • It had never prospered. The averape :iuml» r ccimposing it had not exceeded aliout Wl intvihs. At this time It may have Iieen somewlmt nion- but did not reach a hundred. A single fiimilv only appeara to Imve sulwisted by the culiKatlua of the soil. The rest were sustalneil by sofplics sent from Prance. ... The company a« ,, mrre trading association, was dmibtless KU.irwful • . . he large dividends that thev w,r.' «M,. to make, intlmattii by {'hamplaln to l« n..t far from forty per centum v.nrly. were, of (..iirse highly Hittisfactorv to the cmipany Veirlv twenty years hail elapsed sime the f.mn.iinir nf [ QueUr. and it still piissesseil only the rlrirnitfr of a trailing post, and not thai of a c .l,.nial pi' nlation. This progress was »nilsf,„torT nether to Champlain, to the VIihtov, iiorlo the t ouneil of Htnu,.. In the view of ihcne wv,ral lnten.»ted parties, the time had eonie f<.r a la.ll cat elmnge in the organization of the lonipanr. t annual de Ulchelleu hail risen hv his eMnionll nary ahillty as a stau-sman, a "short time an tertor to this, into sukn-niu aiithorilv. ... He lost no iln<e in organUing measims; . . . The cnnipnny of merrhanta wIhmc llnan. . ■« hn.l In'en 8(1 skilfully managiKl by the Caena « i- l.y him at once diaMilveit. A new one wa« form. ,1 de- mimlnated 'U Com|Mgnle de ht Noin.lle r ranop, ' consisting of a hundre<t or more nirro Irrn. and niniiriohly kuowu as the ( oniiiniiv of the llundretl Assoclalei. It was under i lis oualrul ana oHUMfMHat <rf BidieUeu kimsslt CAKADA, 1616-1638. r\tiea/tkt ttlim Jnuit iHmiotu. CANADA, 1684-18SI. Iti memben wete Urnlj gentlemen in olBdal positions. ... Its authoritjr extended over tlie wliole domain of New France and Florida. . . . It entered into an obli^tion . . . witliin the ■pace of 15 yean to transport 4.000 colonists to New France. . . . Tbe organization of tlie com- pany . . . was ratified by the Council of State on the tthofMay. 1628."— E. F. Slafter, Memoir ffChampUun {iogaget: Prinu Soe., 1880, e. 1). ch. 9. Also ik: PJre CharleToix, flirt, of JVete finnte, tmru. kg J. 0. Shea, bk. 4 (e. 2). A. D. i6a8-t635.— Conquest and brief ocen- pation by the English.— Restoration to France. —"The first care of the new Company was to succor QuebPC, whose inmates were on the verge of starvatioL. Four armed vessels, with a fleet of transports commanded by Itoquemont, one of the associates, sailed from Dieppe with colonists and supplies in April, 1628; but nearly at the nme time another squadron, destined also for Quebec, was sailing from an English port. War had at length brolten out In Prance. The Hugue- not revolt had come to a head. Rochelle was in armssgninst the king; and Richelieu, with his royal ward, was beleaguering it with the whole Btrenglh of the kingdom. Charles I. of England, urjrwi liy the heated passions of Buckingham, had declared himself lor the rebels, and sent a flret to their aid. . . . The attempts of Sir William Alexander to colonize Acailia had of late turned attention in England towards the New World ; and. on the breaking out of the war, an expedition was set on foot, under the auspices of that singular personage, to scire on tlie Fnnrh pussemlons in North America. It was a private enterprise, undertaken by London menhaiitx, prominent among whom was Oervose Kirke. an Engli.ihman of Derbyshire, who had long lived at Dieppe, and ha<l there married a Frenchwoman. Oervose Klrke and his associates (Itted out three small armed ships, commanded rwpwtively by his sons David. Lewis and Tlicimaii letters of marque were obtained from the king, and the adventuren were authorized to drive out the French from Acadia and Canailn. Manv Ilujruenot refugees were among the crews Hsving lieen expelled from New France as •■tiler*, the persecuted sect were returning as piiiinles. " The Kirkes reached the St. Lawrence lu Hilvnnre of Ro<|uemont's stipply ships, Inter- o pted I he latter and captured or sunk the whole Till V then sailed back to Knitland with their sp"iM, ami it was not until the following summer thit they returned to complete their conquest M. »!itime. the small larrison and population at tjiiciiec were redue<>d to sUrvation, and were »uh«i»ting on acorns and roots when, In July 1H'.», Adinirel David Klrke, with his thtve ships «IM";nred Iwfore the place, riiamplaln could do n-lhiuK hut arrange a (llgnltltHl surrender For time years f.dlowin?, Quelwc and New Franco rrmalneil under the control of the English Thi-y wen- tlun restored, un.hr a treaty stipulation to rranee "U long remained n mystery why hsrlM ciisenttKl to a Mipulnllon wKich plctlged lam to rtsiirn so important a «muuest. The my. ery i, „pl,|n,.,| \,j ^\„ „.,,p„, discovery of !..;..r I""" '.''' .'''"K "' S'f •""« Wake, his yuein I enrietla Maria, amounting to 800,000 crown., hiid been but half pal.l by the Frfich lovsrameut, and Charles, then at Ihu« w'u» bis 371 Parliament and In desperate need of money '?«'™ct» bis ambassador that, when he receives the balance due, and not before, he is to give up to the French both Quebec and Port lioyaf which had also been captured by Kirke. The letter was accompanied by 'solemn instrumenU under our hand and seal ' to make good the trans- fer on fulfilment of the condition. It was for a sum equal to about $340,000 that Charles entailed on Great Briuin and her colonies a century of bloody wore. The Kirkes and their associates, who liad made the conquest at their own cost, under the royal authority, were never reimbursed, Uiough David Kirke received the honor of knighthood, which cost the king nothing •— and also the grant of NcwfouudlaniE On the 8th of Julv, 1689, Quebec was delivered up by Thomas Kirke to Emery de Caen, com- missioned by the French king to reclaim the place. The latter held command for one year with a monopoly of the fur trade; then Cliam- plaln resumed the government, on behalf of the Hundred Associates, continuing in it until his <le«tb, which occurred on Christmas Day, 1685 ■^Tr •.?"?""''• ^""«r" 0/ France in the Xev World: Champiain, eh. 16-17, Also IN: CiUendar of State Ftiperi: Colonial ^net, 1574-1660. np. 96-143.— D. Brymncr. Bept. on Canadian AreMeet. pp. xi-iit, and note O—U Kirke, firtt Knulith Oonqueet of Canada. —See, also, Newfoundland, A. D. 1610^1655 .wA* ?1 '*%:'*5,'-The Jesuit missions and their fate.— The tirst of the .Jesuit mlsgionaries came to Quetwc in 1825, as state<l above, but It was not until nearly seven yeara later that they made their way into the heart of the Indian country and began there their devoted work. "The Father Superior of the Mission was Paul le Jeuue. a man devoted In every fibre of mind and heart to the work on which he had come He utieriy 8CT)me<l difiiculty and poin. He had received the order to depart for Canada 'with Inexpressible ioy at the prospect of a living or dying mailyrdom.' Among his companions wa« Jean de Brebosuf, a man noble in birth and aspect, of strong Intellect and will, of Heal which knew no limit, and recognized no olwtaclc in the path of duty. ... Par in the west, beside a {treat lake of which the Jesuits had vaguely heanl, dwelt the Humns, a powerful nation with many kindred Irilies over which they ex- ercised Intiucnce. The Jesiiiu resolved to fiiund a mission among the Hunms. Once In every year a lleet of canoes come down the great river, bearing six or seven hundred Huron warriora' who visited Quebec to dlsiKvie of their fun to gamble ami to steal. nrC'txpuf and two com- panions U)ok paasaee [IBW] with the returning fleet, and set out for the ilreary scj'ne of thelt new aposlolate. . . . The Hun>n» received with hospitable welcome the hlackrolied strangen The priests wer able to repay the kindness with services of high value. They taught more effective methiala of fortifying the U)wn in which they live.1. They promiae<l the help of a few French musketeen against an impinding stuck by the Iro<|uols. They cured diwaars' they bound up woumls. They gave simple In' StructtoQ to the vounir. and irnlned ilw h^ana of their pupils liy gifts of Uads and raUlna The elden of the p<-ople came to have tbe faith ezplalnot to them: they readily owned that It was a guud faith fur the French, but thej oouid 11; nu ' CAKASA, 1684-188a. in M« ITmI. CANADA, 16S4-1878. not be pentuded that It was suitable for the red man. The fathers labound in hope and the •avagei learned to love them. . . . Some of their methods of conTersion were exceedingly rude. A letter from Father Gamier has been preserred In which pictures are ordered from *-ranc8 for the spiritual improvement of the Jndians. Many representotions of souls in per- dition am required with appropriate accompioi. ment of flames, and triumphant demons tearinii them with pincere. One picture of saved souls would suffice, and 'a picture of Christ without ?K K ■.■ "''7 .r*." consumed by a leal for the baptism of little chUdren. At the outset the Indians welcomed this ceremonial, believini: that it was a charm to avert sickness and death wut when epidemics wasted them they charired the calamity against the mysterious operations H.^® ^Tlv""^ "■'"'"l »»'' to PennI' bap- h^M K^luf " recognized the hand of Satan to tils prohibition, and refused to submit to it. They baptized by stealth. ... In time, the patient, selfnlenying labour of the fathers miirht have won those discouraging savages to the crc«s ; but a fata^ interruption was at hand. A po« . r- rul and relentless enemy, bent on exterminatiou was about to sweep ov. r the Huron territory, Involving the savages u ;il their teachers in one common ruhi. Thirty-two yearn had passed r'UfL f /^ i"i'"'^ expeditions in which Cbamplain had g^vcu help to the Hurons against the Iroquois. The unforgiving savage? hiid [1643-164i»] attacked in overwhelming foree the towns of their Huron enemies; forced the Inmle- quale defences; burned the palisades and wo<xl,n huts; slaughtered with indescribable tortures t^ie wretched Inhabitants. In oneof these towns Uiey found Breba;.if and one of his companion.... They bound the illfaud missionaries to sUkes they hung around their necks collars of red-hot ron; they poured boiling water on their heads; hev cut stripes of fli-sh from their aulverinJ limbs and ate them In their sight. To the last Breb,euf cheered with hopes* of heaven the native converts who shared his agony. And whTh'^.^.f'*'?'^ "'* T""" "' martyjljom for whkh in die fervour of their enthusiim, these good men had long ycnnied. In a few years the Huron nation was extinct ; famine and small-p<>x swept off those whom the Iroquois spared. The Uie nice for whom It was founded. Many of the misslouttrios perishcl; «,n,e returne<< to f-rance Their laUmr sicmcil t.. have Ihk^u in vain ■ th. Ir yea™ of toll and sulTorinir left no trace.' "-U ■• W itl. the fall of the Ilurr.u., fel/rhe S«^ti,H! of the Canadian minion. They, and the stable and populous cnmiunllles around them, bad «;'n.i . '"'I'' n"",^r'»' 'f»m '"••Ich the Jesuit w uld have formed his Christian empire in the wllderuess; hut. one by one, these kindred p.... pl.-« were upr,«.lec| and swept away, while the neighboring Algonqulns, to whom lliey had hein » Imlwark, were lnv„|vi,| with them In a common wi.' • '" • >""«ure, the occupation of the -Ti}*^ gone. Some of them went hom... rem™ Tlr*^' "?'"■"'«' Father Superior, to n,.!^.^ Wierombat at the first sound oi the ^1^\ ■ *^"; •-' ""^ "^ remsiBrd, about twenty lo number, several soon fell rlrtlm, to (aaiM, Urdtiiip and Um IroquoJs. iTf.w 872 yejm more, and Canada ceased to be a mIssloiL political and commereial Interests graduaUv 2: Ar«> IK ; Father Charlevoix, But. of V« ^W. tr. by Shea. bk. 6-1 {v. 8 .-J 6 She? ttteandCntuttlllM. of Am., e. 4, M 6) f«n:»°Bi'*^''*'*rNicolet.-Marau.tte.- JoUet.-Pioneer exDloration in the West ud dlic«»T«i7 of the rfia.ia.ippi._When ChaSr plain gave up hU work, the map of New FnZ wasb&nk beyond Lake Ontario an,l 7}fI,S BV- Th« flnt of the French explores whS wdened it far westward was a Noi?nan "amcd Jean Mcolet, who came to America in 1618 and ^rvice. "After dwelling some time amonfr the NIpissings he vUited the' Far West; seimfnX between the years 1834 and 1640. In a bS Dark canoe, 3 bave Norman voyageur crossed or coasted Lake Huron, entered thf St S River, and, first of white men, 8too<i at the strait now called Sault Ste Marie. Ho does not «?m to hav. known of Lake Superior, but ntunied dowu . ,e St. Mary's River, passed fron. uS Huron through the western detour to Jlieliill macklnac, and entered another fresh-water se« MItchlgannon or Michigan, also afterwa^; known as the Lake of the Illinois, Luke St Lake. Here he visited the Mcnomonee tribe of Indians, and sfu-r them the WUinlbag.ies The fierce wrath of the IroquoU had "driren ntimbera of the Hurons, Ottawas, and aevpnii minor Algonquin tribes westward. Tlie ..12."°. '.'"'* * **.''«^*' """^ »P'" ""-■ n"«hem tribes tato east and west. Sault Ste Murie be- came a central point for tlie refue.e.*. i^oUier gathering place for the fugitives had been found very near the south-west corner .)f this great lake This was U I'ointe, one of ti,e Apostle Islands, near the present town of .Vsh- land in Wisconsin. The JcsuiU took nii tlu« two points as mission centres. ... In 11W9 the rathera Dablon and Marquette, with tli.ir men hail erected a palisaded fort, enclo.sing a elmi« 1 and house at Sault Ste Marie. In the same year Father Allmiez had begun a mission at Cma Hay. In 16.0 an intnpld explon-r, St I.usson under onlers from Intcndant Talon, c.mie west searching for coj.pcrmines. He was .le.om- pnnletl by the afterwards well known Jeiiel. When this party arrived at Sault .Sie Jllurie tlie Indians were" gathered together In gnnt num- hers, and with imposing ceremonies .St. Lusson took possession of •Sshito Slario du Saut, a. tisn of Lakes Huron and Superior, the Ul.ind ef Manetoulln, and ail countries, rivers, lak, », anj streams contiguous and adjacent tlien^uiiw.' . . , It was undoubtedly the pressing d.sin.^ of the Jesuit fatliera to vLit the couiitrv of tba Illinois and their great rlvrr that le.1 to the dis- covery of the 'Father of Wal.rs.' latliir Alloucz Indwil had already as.iii.l.'<| tin- V»i HIver from Lake Michigan, and seen tlie m intliT lake which U the head of a trlhuurv ..f ili« MIsslMippl. At last on June 4ih. f(i:.'. ilie IT-euUi luinUU'r, Coiliert, wrote to Talon 'Al after the Increase of the colony there is ri.tLIng monlntportut for tlw outuny tLaa the discovery CANADA, 1884-1S7S. CANADA, 1O37-10S7. of a paaage to the South Sea, hit Msjetty wiihes jou to give It your attention.' Tills meaaagc to tlie iDtendsntcame as he was leaving for France, and he reoommended the scheme and the explorer he had in view for carrying it out to the notice of the Governor, Frontenac, who had just Bfrived. Governor Frontenac approved and the explorer started. The man chosen for the enter- prise was Louis Jollet, who had already been at Sault 8t« Marie. He was of humble birth, and was a native of New France. . . . The French Canadian explorer was acceptable to the mis- sionaries, and Immediately journeyed west to meet Marquette, who was to accompany him. . . . M. Jollet met the priest Marquette at St Ignace Mission, Mlchilimackinac. Jacques Marquette, of whom we have already heard, was bom in 1637 at Laon, Champagne, ir France. He sprang of an ancient and dis- tinguished family. ... On May 17th, 1678, with deepest religious emotion, the trader and missionary launched forth on Lake Michigan their two canoes, containing seven Frenchmen in all, to make the greatest discovery of the time. Tliev hastened to Green Pay, followed the course of Father Allouez up thf Fox River, and reached the tribe of the Masci tins or Fire Nation on tills river. These weiv new Indians to the ex- plorers. Thev were peaceful, and helped the voyagers on their way. With guides furnished, the two canoes were transported for 2,700 paces, and the bead wateis of the Wisconsin were reached. After an easy descent of 80 or 40 loaeups, on June 17th, 1678, the feat was accom- Vlisbfd, the Misslasippl was discovered by white men, and the canoes shot out upon Its surface in latitude 43°. Sailing down the great river for a month, the party n-ached the village of Akansea on the Arkansas HIver, In latitude 84^ and on July lith began their retumjoumey. It is but Just to say that some of the Recollet fathers, be- tween whom and the Jesuits Jealousy existed have disputed the fact of Jollet and Marquette ever reaching this point. The evidence here wrms entirely in favour of the explore™. On lliHr return journey the party turned from the Mississippi Into a triliulary river In latitude 88' Tins was the Illinois. Ascending this, the Indian town of Kaskaskla was reached and here for a time Fatiier Mar<|uetto"pernBliKT d IjIs party passed ou," arriving at Jollet and .... p„.,, ,,„«, Montreal In due time, but !, <ing lUl tlielr Mpers In the rapl.U of the St. I , m ,,co. Father Slar- qtictte established a mission among the Illinois Inilians, but his labors were cut sliort. Ho died will e on a journey to Orecn Huv, May 18. 167.'5. i igh enrcjmluma of Father Mnrijuclto fill — «n.l (l™ rvedly so— he 'Jesuit Helatlotis.' Wo have his autograph map of the Mississippi. This gnat sln-am lie desired to call 'f.mceptlon Kivcr luit the name, like ihowof 'Colliert' and Uuaile (the family name of fount Fnintenac] wiilih wire N.th bestowed upon It, have failed totiilie til., place of the muslral Indian name." -^l llrrcf tihvrt Hut. of tu C<i«a«<iun F*opU, Also i^. F Parkman, La R^.Ue and the Di, •wnrc/Me (rr,rt. UV.», eh. S-5.-C. W. Bulter- »■'''■, .""' i'f. '}* IH'c«ftry „f tht X W. by jV l(, u_s. I Hehberd^/L. J^WU^T^ 873 A. D. lfi37-i«S7 — The Snlpician MttlcBMt or Montreal and religious activity at Quebec. — Lhamplain was succeeded as governor of New mnce by M. de ChSteaufort, of whose brief administration little is known, and the latter was followed by M. de Montmngny, out of the translation of whose name the Indians formed .1* ,V"t Onontio, signifying "Great Moun- teln, which they afterwards applied to all the irnncb gOTcmors. Montmagny entered with real into the plans of Champlain, "but difficul- ties accumulated on all sidca Men and money were wanting, trade languished, and the Asso- ciated Company in France were daily becoming indifferent to the success of the colony. Some few merchants and inhabitants of the outposts, ndeed, were enriched by the profitable deal- ings of the fur-trade, but tlieir suddenly -acquired wealth excited the Jealousj rather than increased the general prosperity of the settle™. The work of religious Institutions was alone pureued wiUi vigor and success in those times of failure and discouragement. At Sillery, one league froni Quebec, an establishment was founded for the Instruction of the s.ivages and the diffusion of Christian light [16371 The Hotel Dieu owed iu existence to the Uuchesse d'Alguillon two vea™ afterward, and the convent of the Lreulines was founded by the pious and high- born Madame de la Pcltric. The partial suiceas and subficquent failure of Champlain and his Indian allies in their encounte™ with the Iro- quois had emboldened these brave and politic savages. They now captured several canoes belonging to the Hurons, laden with fura, which that friendly people were conveying to Quebec. Montmagny's miliUry force was too small to allow of his avenging tills Insult; he, however, zealously promoted an enterprise to build a fort and effect a settlement on the Island of Montreal which he fondly hoped would curb the audacity of hit savage foes. The Associated Company would render no aid whatever to this impnrt.mt plan, but the religious zeal of the Abh6 Olivier oje^ame all difficulties. He obtained a grant of Montreal from the king, and dispatch.d the bleur de Malsonneuve and othe™ to tako ' -isses- sion. On the 17th of .May, IWl, the p . les- tineil for the settlement w-as consecra'cii the superior of the Jesuits. At the same tinio the g()vern(.r erected a fort at the entrance of the Klver Richelieu," which to far rhi-cked th<' Iro- quois tli.1t they entered in!) a tn^aty of peace and respected It for a brief i itIihI.— E. M nrbur- ton. T/if Omfuftt of CamnU, r. 1, ch. 12— The settlement of Montreal was undertaken bv an association of thirty five rich and Inllueniiuf [wr- tout In I ranee, among whom was tlie Duke de Liiincourt de la R<K-lie Ouyon. " This company obtnlneil n concession of the Island in 1640, and a member of the asw: 'lall.m arrived at Quebec from Fmiue witli tcv.nil Immigrating faniilies, tome loliliers, and an armainent valued at 8.1,000 piastres,' In 1041 "a rliiforccment of colo- nlils arrived. led by M. d'Ailleln.ust de Mu.wau. During (he following year, a teconil party came. At thia tlmetlic European population resilient In Canada ilid not exceed 200 touls. The immi- grants will) now entftrnd {t had been aclecird with tlie utmost cere, "—A. Ikll, Ih$t' .if l\tn„da, hk. 8, eh. 1 (», D— In 1«,57 the selgnlority of Montreal was ceded to the Seminary of 8t Sul- pica in Paris, where the rriot of Its |overnm«il CANADA, l«87-ia87. Kavagn of tktlri CANADA, 1S63-1674 i were held until 1898.— Father Charlevoix, Eitt efli'ea Franet, Irani, by Shea, e. 8 p i!8 Also in: P. Parkman, Thi JemiU in Xorth Am., eh. 13-16. A. D. I64O-I70O.— The wan with the Iro- ?",S*'~ ' """ *'^"' ^^ ?*""■ '•*<' to the year 1< 00 a constant warfare was maintained between the Iroquois and the French, interrupted occa- sionally by negotiations and brief Intervals of peace. As the f rmer possessed both banks of thebt Lawrenc, and thecirculUof lakes Erie ■™ u ' ' *''*y intercepted the fur trade, which the Frcnci were anxious to maintain with the western nations. . . . The war parties of the League ranped through these territories so con- stant y that it was impassible for the French to S ass in safety through the lakes, or even up tlie t Lawrcnre above Montreal. . . . Bo great was the fear ( f these sudden attacks, that both the trailcra aud the missionaries were obliged to ascend the Ottawa river to ner.r ita source, and from thence to cross over to the Sault St Marie, and tlic shores of Lake Superior. . . . To retali- ate for these frequent Inroads, and to prevent tlieir recurrence, the coimtry of the Iroquois was often invaded by the French. . . . In 1665 M. Courcclles, governor of Canada, led a strong party into the country of the Moliawks; but the hardships they encountered rendered it necessary for them to return without accomplishing their purpose. The next year, M. de Tracy, Viceroy of ^ew Prance, with 1,200 French and 600 In- dians, renewed the invasion with better success He captured Tctt-ton-tald ga. one of the princi- pal villages of the Mohawks, situated at the mouth of the Schoharie Creek ; but after destroy- ing the town, and the stores of com, which tliny found in csrlics, they were obliged to retire without mi mg an opposing force. Again, hi 18(«. SI. I), a Burre, then governor of Canada entered the .ountry of the Onondagss, with ■'»"» '■*'•' en. Having readied Hungry Bav. on th. simre of lake Ontario, a conference was iM with a delegation of Iroquois clilefs. ... A species of armistice was finally agreed upon, and thus the expe<lltlon ended. A more successful enterprise was projected and carried Into execution m 16S7 by M. De Nonvllle, then K:!"^"°'S'''':-'i^- ,"«»'Dg raised a force of 2.0(Kt French and 600 Indians, he emlwkcd them in n fleet of 200 bateau, and as many bircli bark Cannes. After coasting lake Ontario from KltiKx ton to Irondeqiioit bay, iu the territory of tlie B.iircnK he landed at the head of this bay, and found liln.s.' f within a few miles of the principal vill.i^-es of tlie Senecas, which were then in the counties of Ontario and Monroe." Aftc' one battle w th about OOO of the Senecas. the latter retreiile.1 Into the Interior, and the * rench de- ilroyed four of their villages, together with the siirrj-undlng liehLs of grr)wing com. " To retali- ate f..r this Invasion, a formidable party of the Iroqiiom in the fall of the same year, made a sudden .lescent upon Fort Chambly, on the SonI Kiver, iiriir .Monlnal. Cnal.le to capture the fort, which wns resolutely defended by the gar n ri, Hoy r>ivngedihes<atlementa»dlHcent,niid reiiimeil with a numlier of cnptlves Alwiit the same time, a party of SOO aitacke<l Frontenac on the site of Kinirston. aud de>in>vn| »"•! i»<! jHnte the Clnniat ions and estalillshments of the French without the fortification. In Julr of Um coiuluc yew u«, French wen made to feel 874 •till more sensibly the power of their revenm. A band of 1.200 warriors, animated with the fiercest resentment, made a descent upon the taUndof Montre»l, ... All that were wlthom the fortifications fell under the rifle or the relent leu tomahawk. Their hcus<.s were burned thdr plantation! ravaged, and the whole Island cov- ered with desolation. About 1,000 of the French. according to some writers, perished in this Inva slon, or were carried into captivity. . Over whelmed br this sudden disaster, the French de stroyed their forts at Niagara and Frontenac and thus yielded the whole country west of Montreal to the possession of the Iroquois. At this criti cal period Count Frontenac again became gov l7°u,^''"^5\''P'^ '',!i"''*f *''« *'"'« n^sidue of hU life devoted himself, with untiring eneri?r to restore lu declining proaporify. "_ L H Mor' gan. League of the Iroqnai; bk. \, rh \ Also ra: Vf. Kingsford, IIM. of Canada bk 2-4 (r. l-iJ).-E. B. OTallaphan, A., IhTilui "L? Ja \}: «i- .*r^-i'**-J- «• Broclhead; O. H. Manh».n,Emed.oftheMarguudeAonTilU as el the Seneeae (Iliil. Writinfft, pp. 123-1N8> A. D. iMo-t688.— French encroachments »nd Engrhah concettione in Newfoundland. See N-vpodwdland: A. D. 1660-1 BS8 pii'?i"j'*7*-i^"/*«'* •>' Colbert into a 5?'^ f ™'*"«--Brief career of the French West India Company.— "In 18(1:1 the nrocceil- Ings of the company [of the hundn'd ii»,wi.iti»l beoime so obnoxious that the king of France decided upon the Immediate resumption of hii rights, and the erecting of Canada Into a rmal government: Monsieur de Mfeiy was anpoiniid govemor, and proceeded from France to (Juekc with 400 regular troops, and 100 families as settlers, with cattle, horses and implenunta of agriculture. Under the royal jurisdiction, tlie governor, a king's commissioner, an iipostolical vicar, and four other gentlemen, were fomiid Into a sovereign council, to whom wen: eonfidni the powers of cognl/ance in all cauaoa, civil and criminal, t Judj^e in the last resort acenrdinK to the laws and ordinances of France, and the prac- tice of the Pariii.ment of Paris, reserving the generaj legislativt powers of the Crown, In Iw applied according t( circumstnnoes. This ('diin- cil was further luvested with the regiil.itic.n uf commerce, the ex;)cndilure of the piihlic ninnies and the establishment of inferior courts at Three Rivers and Montreal. This cli.iiige of lanaila from an ecclesiastlcnl mission to a secuhir tnvcrn- ment was owing to the great {'olbert. whn was animated by the example of (Jreat Hrilain. to Improve the navigation and cominerre of hli country by colonial establishments. The eiillt'lit- ene<l policy of this renowned finaneial ininistcr of Louis XIV. was followed by the suceeas which It di «irved. To a regulated civil gnvcmment was added Increased mllltarv proti'dinn ai;aiiift the Iroquois Indians; the eiiilgratlon of Knnch settle™ to New France was pfom-Mcd l-y cvi rv possible means, and a martini spirit was Liiprirtcl to the population, bv the locntlnn In tlir ("Innv of the disbanded sofdicrs of the Cnpiiriian nti- ment . . . and other troops, wh.iai' (iiIIhts became the principal Seigneurs of lli<M(.limv, on mn.-!ltinn of niiikicg rcasions .-.i ir.nd ur,.;. f ;ho feudal tenure, as It still exists, to the s«l.llc|si and other InhabltanU.' The ambitious pr.JKia of Louis XIV. MOD led, however, to a new measun CANADA, 1663-1674. Meliorations 0/ LaaalU. CANADA, 1669-1IJ87. which prnved Icsa ntisfactorr in Its working. "The French West India Companr was re- modelled [1664], and Canada added to their posBCSslong, lubordinatc to the crown o( France, with powers controlled by his Majesty's govern- ors and Intendanta In the different colonies." The domain of the company embraced all the possessions of France In the New World and its {glands and on the African coast. "The com- pany was to enioy a monopoly of the territories and the trade of the colonies thus conceded for 40 years; it was not only to enjoy the exclusive nsvleation, but his Majesty conferred a bounty of SO livres on every ton of goods exported to Franre, . . . The company was not only endowed as St'lgncur with all unconceded lands, but Invested with the right of cxtins;uishlDg the titles o( seigniories granted or sold by previous com panics, on condition of reimbursing the gmntees and purchasers fortheir costs and improvenn nts." The West India Company's management soon showed evil effects, and came to an end after ten years of unsatisfactory trial. "Monsieur De Talon, the Intendant, a man of profound views, . . . perreived that It was the natural Interest o( the Company to discourage colonization. He represented to the minister Colbert the absolute nwessity of the total resumption of the rights of the crown; !rcw his attention to the means of ibtalning al) lulance of warlike Instruments and aval stores within the colony . . . and, In fact at last prevailed ; so that, in 1674, the king of France resumed his rights to all the territories conceded to the West India Cimipany, assumed their debu and the current value of their stock, and nppointe<l a governor, council and judges for the direction of the Canadian colonies. . . . From this period (1674). when the population, enihraeing converte<l Indians, did not exceed f),(m. the French settlement in Canada rapidly prngrrswd, and as it rose in power, and assumed offensive (iperations on the New England frontier the jealousy of the British colonies became roused, and Iwtii parties, aided alternately by the Indians, carried on a destructive and harassing border wnrrjre."—H. M. Martin, Uiit. of Upper and irtif. .inarfrt, eh. 1. Also i A. Ikll, Jlitt. of Canada, bt. 8, eh. 8 (r 1).-K. I'arkmau, TU Old Rtgime in Canada. ell 1(1-17. ' ' A. p. i669-i687.-La Salle and the acqnisi- tion of Louisiana.—" Second only to Champlain among the heroes of Canadian "history stands Rokrt Cavelier de la Salle — a man of Iron If ever then waaone— a man austere and cold in manner, jijid endowed with such IndomiUble pluek and persevemnce as have never been sur- passed In this world. Hedid more than any other niiin to extend the dominion of France In the P>ew World. As Champlain had founded the colony of Canada and opened the way to tlie great lakes, so La Salle completed the discovery of the Mississippi, and added to the French poe- T^h" l'"-:,''^' Pf 'vli'cc of Ixiuisiana. . . !ln im Iji Salle made his first journey to the west. Hoping to flml a northwest passage to China, but .^^7.."",'^ '.'"^"*" *•""' ""» •■xpeditlon, except that the Ohio niver was discovered, and perhaps »l»o the Illinois. U Salle's fcu.lal doSTsIn "f S' ^.||^lic«, aoine eight miles from Montreal, Dear, today Oie name of U Chine, or China, wuich is said to have been applied to It In derision f>I this fruitlais ex|wdltloii. J- '«7S tli* ptim 876 Marquette and the fur-trader Joliet netually reached the Mississippi by way of the Wiscon- Sin, and sailed down the great river as far «s the mouth of the Arkansas; and now the life-work or La Salle began In earnest. He formed a grand project for exploring the Mississippi to its mouth ''?'l,"^,'i'™ "'"8 '■hetlier it flowed into the Oulf of California or tlie Gulf of Mexico. The ad- ''!^'7 of Spain on the side of Mexico was to be checked forever, the English were to be confined to the e.ist of the Alleghanies, and such military posts were to be established as would effce.ually confirm the authority of Louis XIV. thrr>ughout the centre of this coiitinent. La Salle had but little ready money, and was surrounded bv rivals and enemies; but he had a powerful friend in Count Frontenac, the Viceroy of Canada. . . At length, after surmounting InnumeraMe diffi- culties, a vessel [the Griffon or Qriffln] was built and launched on the Niagara Kivcr [1679] a small party of 80 or 40 men were gathered to- gether, and La Salle, having just recovered from a treacherous dose of poison, embarked on his great enterprise. His departure was clouded by the news that his Impatient creditors had laid hands upon his Canadian estates; but nothing daunted, ho pushed on through Lakes Erie and Huron, and after many disasters readied the southern extremity of Lake Michigan. The vessel was now sent back, with half tlie party, to Ni- agara, carrying furs to appease the crtHiltors and purchase additional supplies for the remainder of the journey, while La Salle with his diminished company pushed on to the Illinois, where a fort was built, and appropriately named Fort Cr*ve- OTur, or as we might translate it, the • fort of the breaking heart. ^ Here, amid perils of famine mutiny, and Indian attack, and exposed to death froin the wintry cold, they walteil until it liecame evident to all that their vessel must have perish- d She never was heard from again, and most likely had foundered on her perilous voyage. To add to the trouble. La Salle was again poisoned ; hut his iron constitution, aided by some lucky anti- dote, again carried liim safely through theorlcal and alHiut the 1st of March, 1680, he started oil foot for Montreal. Leaving Fort CrirvavuT and its tiny garrison under command of his Ithful lieutenant, Tonty, be set out with four » rench- men an.l one Mohegan guide. . . . They made their way for a thousand niles acro.«s Michigan and Western Canada to igara, and so on to Montreal. ... At Ni., , Salle l.arneil that a ship from France, fr r him wiih a cargo worth more thru 20, i* hud bten wrecked In the Gulf of St. La . and nothing had been saved. In spite oi ..s dreadful Mow he contrived tr get together supplies and reenforce- menta at Mumrcn,. and had retumeil to Fort Frontenac, at tlie lower end of Lake Ontario, when still more woful tidings were received. Here, toward the end of July, a message came from the fortress so well named t'ri vecn^ur. The garrison had mutinied and deal roved the fort, and made their way back through Michigan " Tlie indomitable La'Saile promptly hunted ihiwn the deserters, and sent them in chains to yuelwc. He then "proceeded again to the Illinois to re- eonstru. t hU fort, sr..-! -=cuf . if rn.i;ri!,K-. hh lieutenant Tonty and the few faithful follciwen who had survived the mutiny. This llti le party. abandoned In the wilder less, bed found shelter MBon; tbe UUooli ladlUM; but durtiig the lum- ^t^^^^^Bs 'i ^^^^■^ 'M ^^^^^^^Hb^ ^^^^^k! ' H ^^^^B<! u ^^^^^^^B'< ]/^ ^^^^^^^H i^n HpH|li m ^^^^^^K 4'i-: ^^^^^^^Bi |;|! ^^^^^^^B^ ^"1- H ^^^^^^^K M M 1 i! CAl^ADA, 1069-1687. ' mer of 1680 the gre»t Tillage or town of the mi- Doia wu destroyed by the IivquoU, and the hard- presaed Freachmen retreated up the western shore of Lake Michigan to Oreen Bay. On anlTing at the Illinois therefore, La Salle found nothing but th: terrible traces of fire and maaaacre and cannibal orgies ; but he apent the following win- ter to good purpose In aecuring the friendship of the western Indians, and in making an alliance with them against tlie Iroquois. Then, In May, 1681, he set out again (or Canada, to look after bis creditors and obtain new resources. On the way home, at the outlet of Lake Michigan, he met his friend Tonty, and together they paddled their canoes a thousand miles and came to Fort Frontcnac. So, after all this hardship and dis- aster, the work was to be begun anew; and the enemies of the great explorer were exulting in what they imagined must '<e his despair. But that was a word of which Lu Salle knew not the meaning, and now his fortunes began to dumge. In Mr. Parkman's words, ' Fate at length seemed tired of the conflict with so jtubbom an adver- sary.' At this third venture everything went smoothly. The little fleet paaaed up the great lakes, from the outlet of Ontario to the head of Michigan, and gakicd the Chicago River. Cross- ing the narrow portage, they descended the Illin- ois and the Mississippi, till they came out upon the Gulf of Mexico; and on the 9th of April, 1683, the fler.rs-de-lis were planted at the mouth of the grtat river, and all the country drained by lu tributaries, from the Allcghanlcs to the Rocky Jlouutains, was fornmlly declared to be the prop- erty of the king of France, and named after him Louisiana. Roturung up the river after his triumph. La Salle founded a station or small col- ony on the Illinois, which he called St. Louis, and leaving Tonty in command, kept on to Can- ada, and crossid to France for means to circum- vent his enemies and complete his far-reaching schemes. A colony was to be founded at tlw mouth of the Mississippi, and military statio;. . were to connect this with the French settlements in Canada. At the French court La Salle was treated like a hero, and a fine expedition was soon fitted out, but everything was ruined by jealousy and lllwill between La Salle and the naval com- mander, Beaujeu. The fleet sailed beyond the mouth of the Jli:i(.l8«ippi, the colony was thrown upon the coast of Texas, some of the vessels were wrecked, and Bi^uii ji u — tliough apparently with- out sinister design Railed away with the rest and two y<ars of lerrilile suffering followed. At lust, in Jlii'\:h, 16NT, La Salle started to find the Mississippi, hopi:ii{ to astend It to Tontv » fort on the Illinois, and obtain relief for his foflowers. But lie Imd scarcely set out on this desperate en- •erpii.«> when two or three mutinous wretches of his piirty laid an ambush for him In the forest, and shot him dead Thus, at the early age of forty three, peri.^Iieil thisextraordiuary man, with his iifeworli but half accomplislieif. Yet his labors had done nuuli towards building up the lm|)()sin)f dominion with which New Franee con- frontecl New Knjrlatid in the following century " — J. FIske, Tlie Jinnuiiue of thd Spanith and JiWncA ExplvriTi [Harper $ Mag., t. 64, pp. 446. AL8o in; F. Parkman, La SalU and the Dit- ffl«nr=/ Ih^ t!r,.,! n-.*f _f!ie¥al!.-r ToDti, Ac.-'t ^.V.dela SitU'i li,t Krp. (X. T. Ilitt. ."*«. GAi; *. 8).— J. a. Shea, Diioovtry andEipl. qfth4 Hit- CANADA, 1689-1690. iMfpiJaaey.-C. Le Clereq.Kr.^ EOaHMmt, cf th4 finth in J\r. Franee, tr. by Shea, ch. 21-i, ,.^ P^^^^f!f^•—'^* fi"' Inter-ColonitI War (King WiuSun't V^ar): The SchenectaS Muucre.— Montreal threatened, Quebec at- *'S-'E*''vf"'' ,'*">'* '*"7"1 1**"" ^ the English. —The Revolution of 1688, In England, which drove Jamea IL from the throne, and called to it jiU daughter Mary with her able husband, AVil- llam of Orange, produced war between England and France (see Fbauce: A. D. 16in I690). The French and Engliah coloniea in .rica were soon involved in the contest, an.. »o far as It troubled American history, It bears in New England annals the name of King Willlam'i War. "If the issue had depended on the con- dition of the colonies. It could hardly have seemed doubtful The French census for the North American continent, In 1888, showed but 11,249 peisons, scarcely a tenth part of the Eng- lish population on its frontiers ; about a twentietii part of Engllah North America. West of Mon- treal, the principal French posts, and those but inconsiderable ones, were at Frontenac, at Macki- naw, and on the Illinois. At Niagara, there waa a wavering purpoae of maintaining a post, but no permanent occupation. So weak wore the garrisons that English traders, with an escort of Indians, had ventured even to Maeliinaw, . . . France, bounding its territory ne.xt New England by the Kennebec, claimed the whole eastern coast. Nova Scotia, Cape Bret<in, Xcw- foundland, Labrador, and Hudson's Hay ; and to assert and defend this boundless region, Acadia and lu -dependencies counted but 9<)() French inhabitants. The missionaries, swaying the mhids of the Abenakis, were the sole source of hope. On the declaration of war by France against England, Count Frontenac, onre mare governor of Canada, was charged to nonviT Hudson's Bay; to protect Acadia; ami. by a descent from Canada, to assist a fleet fmm France In making conquest of New York. Of that province De Callieres was, in advance, ap. pohited Bovemor; the English Catholics wire to be permitted to remain,— other inhabitants to be sent into Pennsylvania or New Eujjlaii.l. . . . In the east, blood waa first shed at Cxheco, where, thirteen veara before', an uiisuspiciiug party of 850 Indians had U^en taken pris<iner» and shipped for Boston, to be sold into f..aii;n slavery. The memory of the tn'oelierv w:i3 fn- dellblc, and the lodiaa endssaries lif faslin easily excited the tribe of Penueook to rcvincc On the evening of the STtU of June [KW'.i] two sijuaws repaired to tlie house of Uicliarl Walii- ron, and tlie o<-togenarian magistrate tiaile thcra lodge on the floor. At night, they riv, unliar the gates, and summon their companions, " who tortured the aged Waldron until he died "The Indians, burning his house and others that stood near It, having klll«l tlirecandtweiitv. rciurncd to the wildemess with 89 cnptlves." lu Augiibt, the stockade at Pomaquld was taki n hv' 100 Indians from the French mission on ilie IVnob- acot. "Other inroada were nimle In ilie I'lnob scot and 9t John Indiana, ao that the setileracna eaat of Falmouth were dcarrted. In Scpiiinber, commlaaioners from New England held a con- ference ulth the Molmwks Hi AIliHiiv. ^.';i>ilin^ an alliance. 'We have burned Montnil.' saia they; ' we are the allies of the English; wu will 376 CANADA, 168»-1«S0. CANADA, 160S-1697. keep the Atia unbroken.' But they refiued to iDTode the Abenakia. . . . Frontenac . . . now used every effort to win the Five Nations [the Iroquois] to neutrality or to friendship. To re- cover esteem in their eyes; to secure to Duran- taye, the commander at Mackinaw, the means of treating with the Hurons and tlie Ottawas; it was resolved by Frontenac to make a triple descent into the English provinces. From Mon- treal, a party of 110, composed of French and of the Christian Iroquois, — having De Mantet and Bainte Hclene as leaders ... — for two and twenty days waded through snows and morasses, through forests and across rivers, to Schenectady. The village had given itself calmly to slumber : through open and unguarded gates the invaders entett'd silently [Feb. 8, 1690], and having, just before midnight, reached its heart, the war- whoop was raised (dreadful sound to the mother* of that place and tlieir children I), and the dwell- ings set on Are. Of the inhabitants, some, half clad, fled through the snows to Aib-uiy ; 60 were massacred, of whom 17 were children and 10 were Africans. . . . The party from Three Rivers, led by Hertel, and consisting of but 63 persons . . . surprised the settlement at Salmon Falls, on the Plscataqua, and, after a bloody engage- ment, burned houses, bams, and cattle in the stalls, and took 54 prisoners, chiefly women and cbiidren. . . . Returning from this expedition, Hertc'l met the war party, under Portneuf, from Quebec, and, with them and a reSnforcement from Castin, made a successful attack on the fort and settlement in Casco Bay. Meantime, danger taught the colonies the necessity of union, and, on Uic 1st day of May, 1690, New York beheld the momentous example of an American congress [see I'siTKD STATEa OF Am. : A. D. 1690]. . . . At that congress it was resolved to attempt the conquist of Canada bv marrhing an army, by way of Lake Champlam, against Montreal,"while Massurkusetts should, with a Hect, attack Que- bec. "-0. Bancroft, //i»(. oftlie r. S., eh. 31 (r. 8), (p(. 3, eh. 11. t. 2, i'» the "Author'B last Re- rmon"),— Before the end of the month in which the ciiii(.'re88 was held. Port lioyal and the whole of Acadia had nhtmly been cimquered, having Bumnilered to im expedition scut out by Mossa- chusitts, in eight small vessels, under Sir Wil- liam Phips. The larger fleet (consisting of S3 ships ami carrying 3,UU0 men) directed against Quebec, sailed in August from Nastasket, and was, likewise, commanded by Phips. "The plan of the campaign contemplated a diversion til bv made by an assault on Montreal, by a forci- ciiniposi'd of English from Connecticut and Xew York, and of Iroquois Indians, at the same time with the attack on Quelicc by the fleet. And a mciind expcditiim into Maine under Cap- tain { hurch was to threaten tlie Eastern trilws wkdiic iiKursicins had, during the last summer, been m disostroua ... As is so apt to happen when u plan involves the simultaneous action of distant parties, the conilitiiin of success fallwl, The mnvcnicnt of Church, who had with him but 3m nun, proved incllective as to any con- tribuiiim to the descent upon Canada. ... It was not till after a voyage of mope than six weeks that the fleet fiiim Boston cast anchor •xl:'.:i- th» iiK-tith v! Ihc river St. Lairrrncc. aiiil meanwhile the overland expedition against Mon- treal Imd miscarriifd. The commanders respec- Hvcly of the Connecticut and the Now York troop* had difiagieed, and could not act effectively to- gether. . . . The supply, both of boats and of provisions, was found to be insufticieut. The disastrous result was that a retreat was ordered, without so much as an embarkation of tlie troops on Lake Champlain. Frontenac was at Montreal, whither he had gone to superintend the defence, when the intelligence, so unex- pected, reached him from Quebec ; and presently after came the tidings of Phips's fleet being in the St. Lawrence. Nothing could have been more opportune than this coincidence, which fave the Governor liberty to hasten down to Irect his little force of 200 soldiers at the capital The French historian says that, if he had been three days later, or if the English fleet had not been delayed by contrary winds, or had had better pilots in the river, wher« it was nearly a fortnight more in making its slow way, Fron- tenac would have come down from the upper country only to find the English commander in his citadel. As it was, there ensued a crushing mcrtiflcation and sorrow to Massachusetts. Nf w France was mode much more formidable than ever." The fleet arrived before Quebec Oct. 6, and retreated on the 11th, after considerable cannonading and an assault which the French repelled. It suffered storms and disasters on the return voyage, and lost altogether some 200 men.— J. G. Palfrey, Iliat. ofXew Eng., bk. 4, A, 2 (r. 4). Also in: F. Parkman, Count Prontenae emd Xeie PraTiee under Lmit XIV., eh. 10-13.— Doe. nut. ofX r., t>. 1-2.— F. Bowin, I'fe of SirW. Phipn {Library of Am. Biog.,t. 7), eh. 2-3.— J. R Bro<lliead,/7M(. oftht State of N. I'., t. 2, eh. 13. — J. Pearson, et al, IIi»t. of the SchentftaJy Pat- ent, eh. »-10. A. D. 1693-1607.— The first Inter-Colonial War (King William'* War): Abortive plant of invaaioo on both sides.— French recovery of Acadia.—" The defeat of the ex])e<litiiin of 109O was probably attributable to the want of concert on the part of the troops from Connecticut and New '^ork and those from ^lassucliusetts. and the failure of the supplies which were 6<iught from England. . . . But there was iiiisniuiiage- ment on all hands in the conduct of the expedi- tion; and it seems to have been predestinated that New England should not Iks delivered from the presence of the French at the north, until time had wrought the ne<^es.siiry changes which were to render the conquest of that country available for the promotion of still more impor- tant ends. Hence a new expedition, projected two years later, and resolved to be jirosecuted in the following year [1693]. was atteiuled with the like circumstances of mortitieation and defeat. England herself participated in this enterprise, and ... the government was Informed that It had ' pleased the king, out of liis great goodness and disposition for the welfari' of all his subjects, to send a considerable strength of ships anil men into the SVest Indies, and to direct Sir Francis Wheeler, the admiral, to &i\\\ to New England from the Caribbce Islands, so us to be there bv the last of May or the mliUlle of June at furthest, with a strength sullicient to overcome the enemy, if joined and seconded by the forces of New Eiislaut!.' . . . UiifortUiKtlrSy fnr t!ie suttv-ss of these plans, the letter, which shoulil ha\en»elied Boston by the first of April, did not arrive until July; and the mortality which prevailed in the 377 CANADA, 1893-1607. CAKADA, 1700-1785. :! Sif »■ iS ! fleet during iu stay in the Weit Indies wu m freat that, when the commander-in-chief. Sir riiucia Wheeler, anchored off Xantaaket. — briuging hiinself the news of the projected invasion.— he liad lost 1,800 out of 3,100 sailors, ami 1,800 out of 3,400 soldiers. Ail tboughU of reducing Canada were therefore abandoned ; but a plan for another year was settled with the governor, the details of which were that 2,000 land force a should be sent from England to Ciinseau by the first of June, to be joined by 2,000 irom the colonies, and that the whole force should go up the St. Lawrence, divide and simultaneously attack Montreal and Quebec. Changes in the government of the province, however, and other causes, prevented the execu- tion of this plan, whose success was problem- atical even if it had been attempted. But if the plans of the English for the reduction of Canada were doomed to disappointment, tlie plans of the French for the recovery of Acadia were more successful. For the first year after the conquest of that country, indeed, the French were as little concerned to regain, as the English were »j retain, the possession of its territory; nor was Massachusetts able to bear the charge of a sulticit-nt military force to keep its inhabitants in subjection, though she issued commissions to judges aud other officers, and required the ad- ministrntion of the oath of fidelity. In the course of that year [1691], authority was given to Mr, John Ni'lson, of Boston, who had taken an active part in the overthrow of Andros, and who was bi.unu thither on a trading voyage, to be commaudtT-in-cliicf of Acadia; but as he neared the mnuth of the 8t, John's, he was taken by Jlonsieur VillelK)n, who, under a commission from the French king, had touched at Port Roval, onci Drdcred the English flag to be struck, and the French flag to be raised in iU place. The next year an attempt was made to dislodge Villebon, but without success. . , . In the summer of 1096, Pemaquid was taken by tlie French, under D'Iberville and Castine, and the frontier of the dominion of France was extended Into Maine : aud by the treaty of the following vear A<a(ila was receded to France, and the English relinquished their claims to the country. The last year of King William's War, as it was long termed in New England, was a year of especial alarm to the province piassacliusetts] and rumors were rife that the French were on tiie eve of fitting out a formidable fleet for the invasion of tlie colonies and the conquest of New York." ArcordUig to the plan of the French undertaking, a powerful fleet from France was to lie jciincd by a force oi 1,500 men, raised by Count Knintenac, hi Canada, and make, first, a concjuest of Boston. " When that town was taken, llipy were to range the coast to Piscataqua, destniyitii; the settlements as far back into the country aa possible. Should there be time for furtlicr Hciiulsitlons, they were next to go to New York, and upon its reduction the Canadian troops wire to march overUnd to Quebec, laying waste llie country as they proceedeti." This project wa.s frustntcd by happenings much the same in kind as those which thwarteef the designs of the English «,(alnst Quebec. The fleet was delHved \>v contrary wlmf», and hy rr-rtain bot less uudiTtiikings in Newfoundland, until the season was too far advanced for the enterprise oonteuiplutcd, "The ...«c« of Ryswlck, which 878 •OOQ foOowed, led to a temporary suspension of hostilities. France, anxious to secure as larm a share of territory in America as possible, retained the whole coast and adjacent Islands from Maine to Labrador and Hudson's Bay, with Canada. and the VaUey of the Mississippi. The posset sions of England were southward from the St Croix. But the bounds between the nations were imperfectly defined, and were, for a lon/t time, a subject of dispute and negotiation "—J a Barry, But. <^M<u$., v. 8. cA. 4. ' „.^"£ ™- *"• Psrl^an. Omnt Frmtenat and Neu France under Louii XIV., eh. 16-19— j Hannay, Hitt. of Acadia, eh. 14— See, also Nbwtoundland: A. D, 1694-1697. A. 0. 1696.— Frontenac's expedition against the Iroquois.— The war with the "Bastonnais" or "Bostonnais," as he called the New England- ers, did not divert Frontenac's attention from "the grand castigation which at last lie was planning for the Iroquois. He had suwcedMi in 1694, in inducing them to meet him in pLnera! council at Quebec, and had framed the lundi- tions of a truce; but the English at Albany Intrigued to prevent the fulfilment, ami war was again imminent. Both sides were emlcavoring to secure the alliance of the tribes of the uppi? Ukes. These wavered, and Frontenac saw the peril and the remedy. His recourse was to at tack the iroouois in their villages at ni.cc, and conquer on the Mohawk the [K'ace hi- nicili.l at Michilimackinac. It was Frontenac s last cam- paign. Early in July [1090] he lift .Mi.ntreal with 2,200 men. He went by way uf Fort Frontenac, crossed Lake Ontario, "lamhd at Oswego, and struggled up its stream, and at last set sails to his canoes on Lake Onondaga. Then his iorce marched again, and Fruntcnaoi enfeebled by his years, was liome ahini,' in an arm-chair. Eight or nine miles and a day's work brought them to the Oiiomiagu village; but its inhabitants had burned it and fled. Vaudreuil was sent with a detachiiunt which destroyed the town of the Oneidas. .Vft<r com- mitting all the devastation of crops that he could, in hopes that famine would help him, Frontenac began his homeward march txfnre the English at Albany were aroused at all The effect was what Frontenac wished, 'ihe Iro- quois ceased their negotiations with the western tribes, and sued for peace."— G. Stewart, Jr, limUmax and hit Timet (Narratin and Critiail UiU. ofAm.,v. 4, eh. 7). Also in: F. Parkinan. Omnt Front, wc and yew France under lMui« XIV., ch. 1H-1!I. A. D. 1698-1710.— Colonization of Louisiana and the organization of its separate govem- meat. Sc- Loiikiana; A. D. Ifl9»-17r,>. A. D. 1700-1735.— The spread of French occupation in the Mississippi Valley and on the Lakes.-" From the time of La Salh i visit in 1670, we can trace a enntiuuous French occu- pation of Illinois. . . . He planted his citadel of St. Louis on the summit of ' Starved I!(Hk,' pro- posing to make that the centre of his colony. . . . At first his colony wasexctH'din^iIv IVcblc, but it was never diseonllnued. '.lout.l I mnd a garrison at Fort .St. Louis ... in lii>^;, :ind in 1689 La Uontun bears testimony that ii »iill con- tinued. In 1696 a public docunrrnt jirrivcs its existence; and when Tonty, in 17U0, apain de- scended the Mississippi, lie was attcuilcd by twenty Canadians, residents on the Illinois.' CANADA, 1700-1780.' CANADA, 1711-1711. Eren whik the wan named after King William lod Queen Anne were going on, the French set- tlement* were growing in numbers and iocreaa- ing in size : thoae wars over, they made still more rapid progreat. Missions grew into settlements ind parishes. Old Easkaskla was begun in what hi Salle called the 'terrestrial paradise' before the close of the seventeenth century. Tbe Wabash Valley was occupied about 1700, the first settlers entering it by the portage lead- bg from the Kankakee. Later the voyageun found a shorter route to the fertile valley. . . . lie French located their principal missions and posts with admirable judgment. There is not one of them in which we cannot see the wisdom of the priest, of the soldier, and the trader com- bined. The triple alliance worked for an im- mediate end, but the sites that they chose are as important to-day as they were when they chose them. ... La Salle's colony of 8t. Louis was planted in one of the gardens of the world, in tbe midst of a numerous Indian population, on the great line of travel bet^i-een Lake Michigan and the Mississippi River. Kaskaskia and the neighboring settlements held the centre of the long line extending from Cannda to Louisiana. Tbe Wabash colony commanded that valley and tbe Lower Ohio. Detroit was a position so im- portant tliat, securely held by the French, it practically banished from the £ngligh mind for nfty years the thought of acquiring the North- west. . . . Then how unerringly were the French guided to the carrying places lietween the Northern and the Southern waters, viz.. Green Bay, Fox River, and the Wisconsin; the Chi- cago River and the Illinois; the St Joseph and the Kankakve; the St. Joseph and the Wabash; tbe Mauniee and the Wabash ; and, later, on the ere of the war that gave New France to Eng- Itnd, tbe Cliuutauqua and French Creek routes from Lake Erie to the Ohio. ... In due time tbe French began to establish themselves on the Northern frontier of the British colonies. They built Fort Niagara m 1726, four years after the English built Fort Oswego. Following the early footsteps of Champlam, they ascended to the bead of the lake that bears liis name, where they fortiflwi Crown Point ta 1727, and Ticon- dtroga in 17.31. Presque Isle, th« present site of the city of Erie, was cccupied »'pout the time that VInronncs w.,s founded In the Wabasli Val- ley [ITSaJ. Finally, just on the eve of the Ust itruggle between England and France, the Frencli pnnsed into the valleys of the Alleghany and the Oliiii, at the same time that the Kuglish also btgan to enter them."— B. A. Hinsdale The Old XortliiFf^t, cli. 4. A. D. X702-1710.— The Second Inter-Colo- nial War (Queen Anne's War) : Border r»T«- «• in New England and Acadia.— English Conquest of Acadia. SecNEwJiNULAKD: A. D. 17U4-I7IO. A. D. 1711-1713.— The Second Inter-Colo- nial War.-Walker'» Expedition against Quebec- Massacre of Fox Indians.— The gtace of Utrecht.— After the rwiuctiou of Port Ku.vul. wlii.li was practically tlie ciuiquest of Acadia, Colonel Nicholson, who bore the honors Of that mliievenient, repaired to England and prfTdlltil with the govtruimul to fit out au ade- jiuste expedition for the Conquest of Cana<la. The llirt, conalstlnB of l.'i Hliips of war and 4<> muisport*, was placed under the command of Sir HoTenden Walker; seven veteran regiment* from Marlborough's army with a battalion of marines, were hitrusted to Mrs. Maaham's second brother, whom the queen had pensioned and made a brigadier-general, whom his bottle com- panions called honest Jack HUl. . . . From June 25th to tbe 80th day of July 1711, the fleet lay •t Boston, taking In supplies and the colonial forces. At the same time, an army of men from Connecticut, New Jersey, and New York, Pala- tine emigranU, and about 600 Iroquois, assem- bling at Albany, prepared to burst upon Mon- treal ; while in Wisconsin the English had allies in the Foxes, who were always wishing to expel the French from Michigan. In Quebec, meas- ures of defence began by a renewal of friend- ship with the Indians. To deputies from the Onondaf^as and Senccas, the governor spoke of the fidelity with which the French had kept their treaty ; and he reminded them of their promise to remain oulet upon their mats. A war festival was next held, at which were present all the savages domiciliated near the French stntlements, and all the delegates of their allies who had come down to Montreal. In the presence of 700 or 800 warriors, the war song was sung and the hatchet uplifted. The savages of the remote west were wavering, till twenty Ilurous from Detroit took up the hatchet, and swayed all the rest by their example. By the influence of the Jesuits over the natives, an alliance extending to the Ojib- ways constituted the defence of Jlontrccl. De- scending to Quebec, Vaudreui^ found Abenaki volunteers assembling for his protectiim. Meas- ures for resistance had been adopted with hearti- ness; the fortifications were strengthcncii ; Beau- port was garrisoned; and the people were resolute and confiding; even women were ready to labor for the common defence. Toward the last of August, it was said that peasants at Matanes had descried 90 or 96 vessels with the English flag. Yet September came, and still from the heights of Cape Diamond no eye caught one sail of the expected enemy. The English squad- ion, leaving Boston on the 80th of July [1711], after loitering near the bay of Gasn6, at last be- gan to ascenil the St. Lawrence, while SirHoven- den Walker puzzled himself with contriving how he would secure his vessels during the winter at Quebec." At the same time, the present and actual difficulties of the expedition wore so heed- lessly and ignorantly dealt with that eight ships of the fleet were wrecked among the rocks and shoals near the Egg Islands, and 884 men were drowned. The enterprise was then abandoned. " 'Had we arrived safe at Quelw,' wrote the admiral, ' ten or twelve thousanil men must have been left to perish of cold and hunger: by the loss of a part, i'rovidence saved all the rest.' Such was the issue of hostilities In the north-east. Their total failure left the expt<liti(m from Albany no option but to return, and Montreal was unmolested. Detroit, in 1713, almost fell before the Valor of a party of the Ottai,'iiniie8, or Foxes. . . . Itiwdving to bum Detroit, they pitched Uieir lodgings near the fort, wliidi Du Buisson, witli but twenty Frenchmen, defended. Aware of their inU-nlion, he summoned his In- dian allies from the eha«'; and. nl>out the middle of May. Oitawas and ilurons and Pottawotta- mlea, with one branch of the 8;irs. Illinois, Munomnnics, and even Osages and Missotiris, each nation with its own ensign, came to liia re- 879 CANADA, i7u-ina. Oitputn. { • ^ lief. So wide wm the influence of the mlaion- •riee In the Weet . . . The wurlort of the Fez nation, far from deetroying Detroit, were them- selTea besieged, and at last were compelled to ■urrender at diicretlon. Thoae who bore arm* were ruthleaelv murdered; the rebt distributed among the confederates, to be enslaved or massa- cred at the will of their masters. Cherished as ihe loveliest spot in Canada, the possession of De- troit secured for Quebec a great highway to the upper Indian tribes and to the Mississippi. . . . In the meantime, the preliminaries of a treaty had been signed between France and England; and the war . . . was suspended by negotiations that were soon followed by the uncertain peace of Utrecht fApril 11, 1718]. . . . England, by the peace of Utrecht, obtained from France large concessions of territory in America. The as- sembly of New York had addressed the queen against French settlements in the West; William Penn advised to establish the St. Lawrence as the boundary on the north, and to include in our colonies the valley of the Mississippi. ' It will make a glorious country'; such were his pro- phetic words. . . . The colony of Louisiana ex- cited in Saint-John ' apprehensions of the future undertakings of the French in North America.' The occupation of the Mississippi valley had been proposed to Queen inne; yet, at the peace, that immense region remained to France. But England obtained the bay of Hudson and its borders; Newfoundland, subject to the rights of France in its fisheries : and all Nova Scotia, or Acadia, according to its ancient boundaries. It was agreed that ' France should never molest the Five Nations subject to the dominion of Great Bri- tain. ' But Louiitiana, according to French ideas. Included both banks of the Mississippi. Did the treaty of Utrecht assen', to such an extension of French territory? And what were the ancient limits of Acadia t Did It include all that is now New Brunswick T or had France still a large ter- ritory on the Atlantic between Acadia and Maine T And what were the bounds of the ter- ritory of the ^'ive Nations, which the treaty ap- S eared to recognize as a part of the English oininions? Tlitae were questions which wei» never to be adjusted amicably. "— O. Bancroft, Hut. of the U. S. (Author't Latt Bninon), pt. 8, eA. 12 (r. 2).— With reference to the destruction of the Fox Indians at Detroit, a recent writer says: "The French official reports pretend that tlie Wisconsin Indians, being in secret alliance with the Iroiiuols and tlie English, had come to De- troit with the express purpose of besieging the fort and reducing it to ruins; and thtir state- ment has henliifore been unsuspectingly ac- cepted by all historians. But there is little doubt that the charge is a shameful falsehood. The Fox Indians liad rendered themselves very ob- noxious to the French. Firmly lodged on the Fox Uiver, they controlled the chluf highway to the West; a liaughty, independent and in- tracuible people, they could not be cajoled into vossjilage. It was necessary for the suc- cess of the French policy to get them out of the way. Tlicy were enticecf to Detroit in order that they might be slaughtered. '— S, 8. Uebberd, Ilitt. of U'u. vnder tlu dominion of Franct. eh. 5-6. Also ra : Hu. Ilitt Sif. Cvll:,v. 5.— W. Kings- fOBl, IIi§t. of Cnruuln, bk. 8, eh. 6-fl (r. 8) —II Brown, UUt. oflht Jtland </ Cap, Brtton, Utt»r$ CANADA, ITSO-ITBH. 8-».— fl«e. alio, Utbbcrt: A. D. 1712-17:4 sad NBWrODKDLAIlD: A. D. 1718. A. D. i7aa— Th« fottifjrinK of Lonisbosrr See Caps Bkbtor: A. D. 17>P174S. ^^" «,^ D;X744-i74«— The Third Inter^olonisJ \y w(Klni: GeorK*'* War).— Loss and recovery of LoniabonTK aad Cape Breton. See New Ekouuto: a. D. 1744; 1745; and 1745-1748 A. D. 1748-1754.— Active measures to fortifr petaeaaioii of the Ohio Valley and the West Bee Ohio (VALUty): A. D. 174*-17.'54. A. D. 1750-1753.— Bonndarics dispntes with England.— FotiTenegotiationsat Paris,— "For the past thret years [1750-1758] the commij- siooen appointed under the treaty of Ali It- Chapelle to se.tle the question of boundaries between Francj and England in America had been in leaaira at Paris, waging Intermliuble war on paper; La Oalissoni^ru and Silhouette for France, Shirlev and Mildmuy for England By the treaty of Utrecht, Aciidia belonged to England ; but what was Acadia t Acconling to the £nglish com'uissloners, it comprised not onlv the peninsula called Nova Scotia, but all the immense tract of land between the River St. Lawrence on the north, the Gulf of the aame name on the east, the Atlantic on the south and New England on the west. The French commU- sioners, on their part, maintained that the name Acadia belonged of right only to about a twen. tieth part of this territory, and that it did not even cover the whole of the Acadian pciilnsuU, but only its southern coast, with an adjoining belt of barren wilderness. When the French owned Acadia, they gave it boundaries as com- prehensive as those claimed for it by the English commissionaries ; now that it belonged to a rival, they cut It down to a paririg of its former kK. . . . Four censuses of Acadia while it bilonged to the French had recognized the mainland as included in It; and so do also the early French maps. Its prodigious shrinkage was simplj- the consequence of its possession by an alien. Other questions of limits, more important and equally perilous, called loudly for solution. Wlwt line should separate Canada and her western (le]iendcn- cies from the British colonies f Various prin- ciples of demarcation were suggested, of which the most prominent was a peograpliieal one. KM countries watered by streams falling into the St Lawrence, the Great Lakes, and tlie Mississippi were to belong to her. This would have pliinted her in the heart of New York and nloin; the crests of the Alleghanies, giving her all the interior of the continent, and leaving nothing to England but a strip of sea const. Vet in view of what France had achieved; of the patient gallantry of her explorers, the zeal of hi-r mis- sionaries, the adventurous hanlih<HHl of her bushrangers, revealing to civilized mankind the existence of this wilderness world, wliile her rivals plodded at their workshops, tlieir farms, or their fisheries, — In view of all this, h r pre- tensions were moderate and reasonnWe loinpared with those of England. The tPMlvof I irecht hail declared the Inxiuois, or Five N'aticms, to be British subjects; therefore it was insisttd that all countries conquered by them helon^rc .1 to the British Crown. But what vmis an iroiiuoia con- quest? The Imquois rerply .i.-,-\ii>-;-.l t h"- r.-.-.m- tries they overrun. . . . But the ranLreif thiir war-parties was prodigious: and the Knu'lish laid claim to every mountaiu, forest or prairie wlien 880 CANADA, 17S0-175S. CAKADA. 1755. in Iroquol* had teken • iCLlp. Thii would slTe tbem not only the oountrr between the Alle- fhuiesand the Miiiiiiippl, but alio that between Lake Huron and the Ottawa, thua reducing Cuada to the patch on the American map now repreaented by the province of Quebec,— or ntber by a part of it, alnoe tiie eztenaion of Acadia to the St. Lawrence would cut oif the preeent couotiet of Qaapi, Rimouald and Boaaventure. Indeed, among the adrocatea of Britiah chdma there were thoae who denied that France had uy rights whatever on the aovf 'Me of tite St Lawrence. Such being the of the two untestanta, it waa pUin then ,. «8 uu resort but the lut argument of kings. Peace must be won with the sword."— F. Parkman, Mmtealm and Wotfe.ch.6{t.t). Also m: T. C. Hallburton, Aeeaunt of Ifeta Seotia, t.t.pp. 14S-14B.— See, also. Nova Scotu : A. D. l'4l>-17Sr —Relative to the very dubious English claim based on treatlea with the Iroquois, aee N'ew Tobk: A. D. 1684, and 17M. A. D. 1755 (April).— Plans of the Encllah agaiaitthe F ich. — "While the negotiations [between En .^i and France, at Puis] were pending. Bra lock M ived in the Chesapeake. In March [17M] he reached Williamsburgb, and visited Annapolis; on the 14th of April, he, with Commodore Keppel, held a congrosa at Alex- andria. There were present, of the American gorernors, Shirley, next to Braddock in military ranli; Dclancey, of New York; Morris, of Pennsylvania; Sharpe, of Maryland; and Din- widdle, of Virginia. . . . Between England and France peace existed under ratified treaties; it was proposed not to invade Canada, but to repel encroaclimeuts on the frontier. For this end, {our expeditions were concerted by Braiddock at Aleiamlria. Lawrence, the lieutenaot-govenior of Kova Scotia, was to reduce that province according to the English interprptation of its boundaries; Johnson [afterwards Sir William Johnson, of New York] from his long acquaint- ance with the Six Nations, was selected to enroll 3Iohawli warriors in British pay and lead them with provincial militia against Crown Point; Shirley proposed to drive the French from Niagara; the commander-in-chief was to recover the Oliio valley."— O. Bancroft, But. tf th» V. 8. [AutKor't iait reeition), e. i, pp. 41»-41l>. A- D. 1755 (Jnne)-— French disaster at Sea. —Frustrated attempt againat Nora Scotia.— The arrival of Dieskan at Quebec- " In 17M. France fully awakened to the fact that England not only intended to maintain her position in the wilds of America, but likewise by sea. She equipped an srmament under the command of admirals Macnam J« and Bola de la Mothe, of 18 ships of the line and frigates, having on board, ostensibly for Canada, eleven battalions of troops under Ocncml Dieskau, an 'ajve' of Marshal Saie. England, apprisil of this force being sent, despatched Vice- Ai 'miral Boscawen with 11 ships <if the line and one frigate to Intercept it en mute. Both sailed about the same time, the 22d iif April, 1755. The French ambassador at London being duly notiflcd, replied: 'That nls royal master would consider the first gun nreil at sea in 8 hostile manner to be a declaration of K.ir ■ The esoteric instructions of the French fleet «crr to rendezvous at Chebiictou Harbour, destmy Halifax, and then proceed to Annapolis for the same purpose. While the instructions were of neeeaalty secret. It waa well known In Acadia that an attempt would be made by France to recover possession of the province. It waa thia fleet, so eagerlv expected by the Acadians, that gave rise to the insolent manner In which they addressed the Council at Halifax, and which led to an immedUte removal of their arms and subsequent dispersal. Owing to mis- adventure, some of the French fleet under Macnam^ra had to put back to Brest; the re- mainder met the English oS the coast of New- foundUnd [June 8] in a dense fog; avoiding an engagement, aeveral of them escaped by taking the northern route via Bellelsle . . . success- fully reaching their 'harbour of refuge,' Louls- bourg. The ' Lys ' and the ' Alcyde ' were suf- ficiently unfortunate to be compelled to face the guna of the English frigates ' Dunkirk ' and ' Defiance, 'and after five hours close engagemeut the ' Lys ' struck its colors . . . followed by the ' Alcyae,' when Hocquart in command became Boscawen's prisoner by sea for the third time, together wltli £76,000 sterling in money, eight companies of soldiers and several officers and engineers. The unexpected rencontre with Bos- cawen's fleet, the loss of two of their vessels, and the kno .viedge that the garrison at Halifax was considerably reinforced by tht forces brought out by Boscawen, caused the abandonment of all attempts to recover Acadia. Dieskau, after landing a few regiments at Loulsbourg, pro- ceeded to Quebec."— O. E. Hart, The FiM «/ AVte Fhtrtee, pp. 51-54. Also c«: J. Campbell, Natal But. of Qreat Britain, e. 5, pp. 104-106. A. D. 1755 (Inly).- Defeat of Braddock'a Expedition anuut Fort Duqnesae. See Omo (Vallbt): A.1). 1755. A. D. 1755 (Annst— October) : The abortive expedition aninat Niagara.— According to the English plan of campaign, concerted with Braddock at Alexandria, Governor Shirley was to lead an army for the conquest of Niagara; but his march westward ended at Oswego. "Colonel Philip Schuyler led the first regiment of the expedition. Boats were built at (%wego to convey 600 men by lake. Shirley followed by way of the Mohawk, and reached Oswego August St. He was delayed from various causes, and in October a council of war decided that the attack on Niagaia should be postponed for a year. Shirley was to have met Braddock In victory at Niagara. Both branches of the plan haa been shattered. The great western scheme sank to a mere strengthening of the defences of Oswego. Colonc! Mercer was left in command of a garrison of 700 men, with instruc- tions to build two new forts, acid Oeneral Shirley took the remainder of his force back to Albany. The pitiful failure led to recriminations relative to the causes of the fatal delays." — E. H. Roberts, Ann York, t. 1, eh. 20. Also a: R Uildreth, Bitt. o/(A< t7. £, M. 26 (». 8). A. D. 1755 (September).— The Battle of Lake George and defeat of Dieskau.— " Tho expedition against Crnwu Point on Lake Cham- plain, had been intrusted to Qeneral William Johnson. His troops were drawn principally from Massachusetts and Connecticut; a regiment from New Hampshire joined them at Albany. At the head of boat navigation on the Hudson, a fort waa buUt which, Ui honor of their com- S81 CANADA, 175S. BMxler, whom thny nrenBoed u '» bnre uh) Tirtuoui m»n,' the loldien Mined Fort LTnuui. But when Johntoo Htumed the command he ungenerouily chmnged the name to Fort Edwaid rffj* V* ' riHi*"' *" '•''» '<»*■ Johnwn moTed with about 5.000 men to the head of Lake Oeorn and there formed a oamp, intendini to deacnid Into Lake Champlain. Hendrick, the celebrated Mohawk chUf. with hia wairioi;, were am«S theae troopa. larael Putnam, too, wa* there, u a captain, and John Stark aa a lieutenant, each J?i '^*,i*^?* '" ''"*>™- The French were not idle; the diatrict of Montreal made the mott •trenuoua exertlona to meet the invading foe All the men who were able to bear anna were called Into active aervlce; lo that, to gather in the harvest, their places were supplied by men from other dUtricts. ""he energetic Baron Dies- kau re«o.ved, by f attack, to terrify the inva(»-r». Taking wit him 800 reguhui, and aboL 1,800 Canadiana aL ' Indiana, iSlietout to capture Fort Edward; but, aa he drew near, the IndUns heard that it was defended by cannon which they greatly dreaded, and they refused to advance. He now changed his plan, and rewjlved to attack Johnson's camp, which wassuppoaed to be without cannon. Meantime scouU had reported to Johnson that they had seen roads made through the woods in the direction of Fort iaward. Not knowing the movements of Dies- t^i." * ae'Kl'raent of 1,000 men, under Colonel tphralm Williams, of Massachusetts, and 800 Mohawks, under Hendrick, marched to relieve that poet The French had information of their approach and placed themselves In ambush They were concealed among the thick bushes of a swamp, on the one rje, and rocks and trees on the oUier The English recklessly marehed into fs! . »i''- .. T^^' *'" vimrously attacked ISept. 5] and thrown into confusion. Hendrick was almost instantly killed, and in a short time WUIiams fell also. The detachment commenced to retreat, occasionally halting to check their pursues The firing was hear^ in the camp; as the sound drew nearer and nearer, it was evident the detuchment was retreating. The drums beat to arms, trees were hastily felled and thrown together to form a breastwork, upon which were place>. a few cannon, just arrived from the Hudson. Scarcely were these preparations made When the panting fugitives appeared in sight, hotly pursued by the French and Indians. Intending to enter the camp with the fugitives pieskau urged forward his men with the neatest impetuosity. T' "moment the fugiUvis were past the muzz' uon they opened with fh.'tr^'i?^"; "• ''hlcTscattered w ^^^^ f"" "^ ""« Canadians, w.n.,T''"?.''K -^tenntaed con: test ensued, which ,« un,ii .i,. IT r" "f,™ "^'i^I J'' e the Indians and Canadians did but little execution; thev remained at a respectful distance among the .n!f'.K » ' '™*"' H** '"^"y **8"" to retnat, «Dd the Americans leaped over the breastworks and pur8ue<l them with great vigor. That same evening, after the pursuit ha^ ceased, aa Se fff °tl.'^*,^ retreating, they were suddenly attocked with great spirit by the New Hamp- shire regiment, which was on iu way from Fort iiawara. fhey were so panic stricken by thU new assault that they abandoned everythtag and fl*l tor Uieir Uve* Dieskau had bee£ wowided Artdsqf CANADA, ITU onee or twlM at the eommenoement of (he batfls^ but be never left hia post ... He was ukS P'^~^' ^Ji^'y tt«ilennd sent to E^guS where he died. Johnson wa« sllghUy wouDdrf at the commaioement of the battle, and prudenSr retired from danger ToGenetmlLvmanbeirn the honor of the rictory, yet Johnson in iS, report of the battle, dia not even mention S name. Johnson, for his exertions on that djT was made a baronet, and rect-lved fn,,,, royii *"- t "V" °' •*«•"*'• He had frien,!, .t TOUrt, but Lvman was unknown. Col. Ephralm WUltoms, wto feU In this battle, whUe p^«Z SSSl!?S.t^^7' ^^^^^'^ ** precaution t? make Tils will, in which he bequeatlied property to found a free s^ool in wcsurn MassachiiMtti That school hM since grown hito WllliamaCoI. Auo ni: W. L. Stone, J^fi and Time: of &> A. p.t7« (Oetob«r-N<»»emb«r).-Remonl ud lUapenroa in e>Ue of the French Acadian See Nova Scotia: A. D. 1765. .i.^.."?? «7SA.— FornuU dcclarmtiona of war- f.*"! ^"X-f? ^ar " of Europe, calledth, French aad Indian War" in Brit^h Americi — MontcaJn Mnt from France.— " On tlie 18Ui tmty, at length declared war. She had attsclied France by land and sea, turned loose her sliipi toprey on French commerce, and brouglit some 800 prizes into her ports. It was the act of s weak government, supplying by spasms of vlo- ^ce what it lacked in conslclerate resolution. 382 .. .-.,-^„ .„ >^iiiuii<;ntie n'.soiuuon. *>ance, no match for her amphibious enemy is Uie game of marine depredation, cried out ia horror; and to emphasize her complaints and slmalize a pretended good faith wliich hir acts hadbelied,ostenUUou8lyreleasedaBrltlshfriirata captured by her cruisers. She in her turn de- clared war on the 9th of June: and now begun the most terrible conflict of the 18tH cen" -v one that convulsed Europe and shook ^Lueii i !;'iilia, the coasU of Africa, and the islands of the ses [see Enolahd: A. D. 1754-1755, and after alio Gkbmakt: >L D. 1755-1756, and after] Henceforth France was to turn her strenrth against her European foes; and the American war, the occasion of the universal outbreak was to hold in her eyes a second phtce. . . Still something must be done for the American war; at least there must be a new general to replace Ulesksu. None of the court favorites wanted a command in the backwoods, and the minister of war was free to choose whom he would. Hfa choice fell on Louis Joseph, Marquis de Mont- calm-Gozon de Saint Vfiran. . . . The Chevalier de Levis, afterwards Marshal of France, wai named as his second In command. ... The troops destined for Canada were only two battal- ions, one belonging to the regiment of La Sarre, and the other to that of Royal Rousslllon. Louli aV. and Pompadour sent 100,000 men to fight the battles of Austria* and could spare but 1.200 to reinforce New France." Montcalm, who reached Quebec in May, was placed in difficult relations with the governor-general, Va'^JreuU, by the fact that the latter held eomitiawl v! the colonial troops. The forces in New Franc e, were of three kinds, — "the ' troupes de terre,' troops of the line, or regulan from Ftanoe ; the ' troupes OAKADA. 175C I%i"r^r*iKhm>d CANADA, 1780-1757. d» U muliM,' or oolonr recuUn; and laitly the militis. The flnt coiuMted nf the four battalion* that had come over with Dieakuu and the two that liad come with Montcalm, comprising In all a little leaa than 8,000 men. Beaidea theae, the InttalioDS of Artoia and Bourgogne, to the num- tier of 1 , 100 men, were in garrison at Louisbourg. " This constituted Montcalm's command, "nie colony reguUra and the militia remained subject to the orders of the governor, who manifeatea an early Jealousy of Montcalm. The former troops numbered less than 2,000 men. " All the effective male population of Canada, from 15 rears to 40, was enrolled in the militia. ... In 17S0 the militia of all ranka counted about 18,000; and eight years later the number had increaaed to about 15,000. Until the Ust two years of the war, those employed in actual warfare were but few, ... To the white fighting force of the colony are to be added the red men. . . . The mili'rirT situation was somewhat perplexing. Iroquois spies had brought reporta of great pre- parations on the part of the English. Aa neither party dared offend these wavering tribes, their warriors could pass with impunity from one to the other, and were paid by each for bringing in- formation, not always trusts orthy. They de- clared that the English were gathering in force to renew the attempt made by Johnson the year before against Crown Pomt and Ticon- deroga, as well aa that made by Shirley against Forta Frontenac and Niagara. VaudreuTi bad spared no effort to meet the double danger. Lotbiniire, a Canadian engineer, had been busied during the winter in fortifying Ticonderoga, while Pouchot, a captain in the battalion of Beam, had rebuilt Niagara, and two French engineers were at work in strengthening the defences of Frontenac. . . . Indiiuia presently brought word that 10,000 Endiah were coming to attack Ticonderoga." Both Montcalm and Levis, with troops, " hastened to the supposed scene of danger . . . and reached Ticonderoga at the end of June. They found the fort . . . advanced towardscompie'lon. It stood on the crown of the promontory. . . . The rampart consisted of two parallel walls ten feet apart, built of the trunks of trees, and held together by transverse logs dovetailed at both ends, the space between being filled with earth and gravel well packed. Such was the first Fort Ticonderoga, orCarillon,— a structure quite distinct from the later fort of which the ruins still stand on the same spot . . . Ticonderoga was now the most advanced position of the French, and Crown Point, which had before held that perilous honor, was in the second line. . . . The danger from the English proved to be still remote. . . . Mean- while, at the head of Lake George, the raw bands of ever-active New England, were mustcrhig for the fray."— P. Parkman, Montealm and Wolfe, f. 1, eh. 11. Aim in: W. Klngsford, flirt, of Canada, bk. U, eh. 9 (e. 8). «.^1 °- '7S6-I7S7- — Prench •nccetaes.— Capture of Oswego and Fort William Henry. -Bloodv work of the sarage alliea.— On the death of Braddock, Gov. Shirley became com- mander In-chief of the British lort-n in Amprirs "a position for which he was not adapted by mUltary knowledge. ... His mlllUry schemes for the season of 1766 were crand in conception aod theotr, but diiastrous ftUuies in practice. Ten thouaand men were to advaDce agaioil Crown Point — e,000 for aenrlce on Lake On- tario, 8,000 for an attack on Fort Duquesne, and 9,000 to advance up the tiver Kennebec, destroy the settlement adloining the Cbaudlira and descending the mouth of that river within three uii>es of Quebec, keep all that part of Canada tn alarm. While each of these armies wa* being put into motion, the season had be- come too far advanced for action at any one point. Moreover, the British Government, dls- aatlsfled with a Provincial officer being at the head of its army in America, determined upon sending out General Lord Loudoun. While Shirley was preparing, Montcalm advanced againat the three forta at Oswego, the terror of the French In the Iroquois countir and which it had been their desire to destroy for many yean back; they likewise commanded the entrance to Lake Ontario. The English had a garrison of 1,800 men in theae divided between Fort Ontario . . . Fort Oswego . . . and Port George, or Rascal . . ■wut a mile distant from each other." M aim 'ook all three of the forta without m difficulty, and demolished them. "Shiriey wu jiuch bUmed for this defeat and the failure of his projecU, and lost both hi* Jovenunent and command, being succeeded by ohn Campbell, fourth Earl of Loudoun, Baron Mauchlaw, one of the sixteen peers of Scotland, with General Abercromby as second In command — both notorious for previous incompetency. . . . They were sent out with considerable rein- forcements, and had transferred to them by Shirley 16,000 men in the field, of whom 6,000 were regulars; but, with that masterty inactivity and indecision for which Loudoun was most renowned, no further movement was made this year. The year 1757 waa not distinguished by any miiitaiy movements of much moment. An intended attack on Louisbourg was postponed because of news that a powerful French fleet held possession of its harbor and that the garrison was very strong. "Montcalm, finding imself f.ee from attack, penetrated with his armr ft 7,606 men to Fort William Henry, at the head of Lake George. Included were 2,000 Indians. The fort was garrisoned by 2,264 regulars under Colonel Munroe of the 35th Regi- ment, and in the neighborhood there was an additional force of 4,600 men under General Webb. On the 8d of August the fort was In- vested and, after a summons to surrender was rejected, the attack was begun and continued with undiminished fervor until the 9th at noon, when a capitulation was signed. General Webb did not join Munroe, as he was instructed to do by Abercrombjf's plans, some cowardice being attributed to him by contemporary writers. An incident of the war which has given rise to a Seat deal of controversy and iir-fecling up to e present moment, waa the so-called n ^vacn at Port William Henry, the outcon'- ' the numerous horde of savages the F.or i. allies had in the engagement. ... On the morning following the surrender, the garripin na.' to march out under a proper escort t- r feci them from injury at the hands of the Indians. The evacuatfon na-i tarelreommeDa.il, wht-ua repeti- tion of the looting of the day previous, which en- sued immediately after the capitulation had been signed, was attempted. An effort being made by the escort to stop it, some dnmken Indiaai 883 CANADA, n9»-1787. IM r >«i ittocke'l the defile, which resulted In the murder tnK »nd acalning of some «) or 70 of the prisoners; mBltreatlng and robbing s large num- ber of otiie.s. Upon a careful Investigation of the contemporary authorities, no blame whatever can be attached to the good fame of the brave and humane Montcalm or De Levis. . . , Fort Oeorurc, or William Henry, as It was Indifferently called, like its compeer Port Oswego, was raied to the ground and the army retreated Into their winter quarters at Montreal. The termination of the year left the French masters of Lakes Champlain and George, together with the chain of great lakes connecting the 8t Lawrence with the Mississippi; also the undisturbed posaewton ef all the country In dispute west of the Alle- fhanv Mounuins."— O. E. Hart, TIU FcM of Aeie franee, pp. 70-70. Also in: e! Warburton, Ommuit of Qinada. ». 8. cA. a-8. "• J A. p. 1758.— The Iota of Lonisbonrr and Fort DuQuenie.— Bloody defeat of the Ene- Mth at Ticonderoca.— " The affairs of Or«at Britain In North America wore a more gloomy Bipect, at the close of the campaign of 1757, than at any former period. By the acquisition of fort William Henry, the French had obuloed complete possession of the lakes Champlain, and George. By the destnictlon of Oswego, they had acquired the dominion of those lakes which ronnect the 8t Lawrence with the waters of the '■ ' ' wd unite Canada to Louisiana. By LouUhowTD amd TIamderoga, CANADA. 1758. Missiiis! means < ascenil turlH' Allegi, were dr of the . By *'i QuCsne, they maintained their the Indians, and held undls- n of the country west of the .tains; while the English settlers I the blue ridge. The great object - 'n tliat quarter was gained, anil J ranee held the country for which hostilities had been toimneneed. , . . But this Inglorious scene was liU.iit to Ik) sucoee<le<l by one of unrivalled brillianty. , The brightest era of British his- tory was to commenoc. . . . The public voice bud. «t length, made its way to tlie throne, and hiul forced, on the unwilling mimareh. a minister who hiis h(( 11 justly deemed one of the greatest men of tlie »^e |n which he liveil. ... In the summer of 17.17, an administration was formed which (orniliate.! the great contending interests In parliament; and Mr. Pitt was plaii-d at iu heiiil. . PosMtwIng the public contldencc wlihcMit limitation, he commanded all the re- aources of the nation, and drrw liberally frtim the puMie purse. . . In no part of his majesty's dominions was the new ailminislration more populiir than in his American colonies The ein ular letter of Mr. Pitt aasureil the several governors that, to repidr tli.' losses and dlsap- poinliuenta of the last inactive campaign the cabinet was determined to send a fnmddable tnrve. to oi>erate by sea and land, against the French in America; ami he called upon them to raise as large Ixnlles of men. within their re- spective governmeuta, as the number of Inhabit- ants might allow. . . . The legislature of Mas- aachuwttji agreed to furnish 7.000 men; Connec- Ocul ft.OIH): and New llam|>ahire S.OOO. . Three eipeditions wei« pro|Mne<l. The first was against r,<)uish()urg ; the si'<t>nd against TIcon- aeri>ga and Crown Point; anil tlm thlnl against fort I>u qu«sne. Ihe army deeUued against LouUhourg, (■oosistlDg of U,000 men, wai 00m- nanded by major general Amhent [The aipe- dltlon wa« successful and Loulsbourg fell J.ii, 26, 1758.-8ee Capk Breton Island A tf VmS-nOO.] . . . The expedition against Tioo„; deroga and Crovn Point was conducteil bv cm eral Abercromblc In person. His army corisiM tng of near la.OtX) effectives, of wliom 8 000 were provincials. » as attended by a fonnidahl. train of artillery, r.nd possessed every rinuisite to ensure success. On the 6th of July he embarked on lake George, and reached the land- ing place early the next morning. A dlsembarJ! atlon being effected without oppositi.m the troops were Immediately formed In fourcolumnj the British In the centre, and the provimialg oii the flanks; In which order they marcheil towarti the advanced guard of the French, composed of one battalion posted In a log camp, whioh on the approach of the English, made a precipi'ute retreat. Abetcrombie continued his nmnh to- wards TIconderoga, with the Intention of invest Ing that place; but, the woods being thick and the guides unskilful, his columns weie thrown Into confusion, and. In some measure, entangled with each other. In this situation lord Howe at the head of the right centre column, fell in with a part of the advanced guard of the French ■ which. In retreating from lake George, was like-' wise lost In tho wood. He Immediately attacked and dispersed them ; killing several, and liikine 148 prisoners, among whom were five offlcers This small ailvantage was purchaseil at a dear rata. Though only two ofllcers, on the side of the Britiah, were killed, one of thesi- was lord Howe himself, who fell on the first tire Tliis gallant young nobleman had cndcand iiimsejf to the whole army. . . . Without farther oiiixi. sitlon, the English army took piM».ssinu of the post at the Saw Mills, within two iniles of TIconderoga. This fortress Icalled Carillnn by the French], which commands the cnninuinlca- tlon between the two lakes, is enconipaiisid on three sides by water, and secureil In front hv a "••J™"- The ordinary garrison amoiiniini?' to 4,000 men, was sUtioned under the cannnu of the place, and covered by a breastwork, the an- proaih to which had been reiidcn-d cxinnu'lv diflicult by trees felled In fMnt, wiih Ihur branches outward, many of which wen- «harp- eneil so as to answer the purpose of cluvnndf- friie. This body of tniops was rendereiU ,lltmire formidable by Iu general than by it.s |.-»iti,.n It was commamled by the marquis' de .Montcalm. Having learned from his prisoners Ihe strcnitth of the army under the walls of Th ondcrot-a, and that a reinforcement of a.(HKI men »a« daily exiMHteil, general Abercromble thoiijjht It ad- visable to storm the place before tlila niiiforfe- ment should arrive. The troops man hiil lo Hip assault witli great Intrepldit'-; but tlnir m.-mmt efforts couhl make no Impression on the worki . . . After a coldest of near four hours, and several repeaUil attacks, general Alien runihie onlervd a retreat. The army rellrwl to the canin from which It had marcheil In the momliiL-; sml. the next day, reaunml its fomier jiosithm on ilif south side of lake George. In this rash niiimpt. the killed and wounded of the Eugliah anKioiliHl to near U.OOO men, of whom not quite 4i«i wire provincials. The French were covcnii (lurinf the wholR sr!i.--.n, swi tfsrif I--^ 5^i= i---t-i- siderable. Entirely disooncerteil by this unei' |>ecleil and bloody repulse, general Al» '• n>nibl< rtllnqulebed his deslgua sfainat Ticuuderup 384 CANADA, 1788. ot (sd Crown Point Seaiching however for the means of repairing the miifortune, if not the disgrace, sustained by his arras, he readily ac- ceded to a proposition made by colonel Brad- ■trcet, for an expedition against fort Fmntignac. This fortress stands on the nortli side of On- tario. . . . Colonel Bradstreet embarked on the Ontario at Oswego, and on the 2Sth of Auiust, landed within one mile of the fort. In two days, his batteries were opened at so short a distan-."* that almost every shell took effect ; and the •■ - emor, finding the place absolutely untcn. ■•'..:, lurrenderctl at discretion. . . . After destrc ing the fort and vessels, and such xtores as coul m ( be bmuglit off, colonel Bmdstri'et return* ' to the army which undertook nothing fartherdu " -i the campaign. The demolition of fort Frontig nac and of the stores which had been collects there, contributed materially tu the success of the expedition against fort Du Qutfsnc. The conduct of this enterprise had Xxxn entrusted to general Forbes, who marched from Philadelphia, about the beginning of July, at the head of the main boily of the army, destined for this service, In order to join colonel Bouquet at Rayatown. go much time was employe*! in preparing to move from this place, that the Virginia regulara, commanded by colonel AVaahington, were not ordered to join the British troops until the month of September. . . . Early in Octolwr general Forbi's moved from Kaystown ; but the olmtruc- tioDS to his march were so ^reat that he did not reach fort Du QuCsne until late in November. The garrison, being deserte<l by the Indians, and too weak to inaintAln the place aj.iiin8t the formid- able iimiy which was ajiproaj'liing, nl-indoned the fiTl the evening tielorc th<! arrival of the Brilisli. and escaped iiown the Ohio in lH>ats. The English placed a garrison in it. and changed its Dame to l*itliiburg, in compliment to their popular minister. The acquisition of this post was of great importance to Pennsylvania, Mnrvland, ao'l Virginia." — J. Marshall, Life of H'<u/iin;(<>n, ». 1. th. IS. A1.W1 n: W. C Bryant and S. H. Gay, Pnp. Hi't. oflh r. «. r. a, M. 11.— B. Fernow, JU Ohi., Ullryin Oiioniat IMm. rh. 7.— Major H. Hogm, .Umrnatt, ed. hp llnugh, pp. 11,V133. — W, Ir\ing. Life nf WtuhimjVm, e. 1, rh. 24. — N B. Craig, th* (Men Time, t. 1, pp. 177-200. A. D. 175a (June— September).— The Fall of Quebec.— "Wolfe's name stood high in the eslei ni ot all who were qualified to judge, brt, at the Mine lime. It stood low in the column of colonels In the Army List. The great minister |Piil| ihought that the former counlvrbulanced the liitlir . . . One of the last gazetles in the J ear 17."iH aimounixtl tlie promotlim <>f Colonel ames Wolfe to the rank of majorgeneml, and his sjipointiiient to the chief cimimand of the eipediiion against Quebec. About the middle of Krl>nmry, 17.W, the squadron sailed from Enitliuid to Ixiuisbourg, where the whole of the BriliKh force destined for the Hlver 8t Ijiwrence wasonlirnd to assemble. . . . Twenty-two ships of the line. Ave frigates, and ninelwii smaller vem. U of war. with a crowd of transports, were musund under the orders of the admirul [8aun- dfnj. ami ailplachnirnt nt artllterT sod enstseers. anil iin Imltallima of infantry, with six companies of Ksnjers, formetl Wolfe's command; the right (bnk roniranles of the three rrglnwoM which still fanixiQcU liBultlwurf MMM •(!» Joioed tka 385 CANADA, 17(». army, and were formed Into a corps called the LouUbourg Orenadiers. The total of the land forces emlwrked were somewhat under 8,000." — E. Warburton, >.anqu€tt (^Canada, e. 2, eh. 9. — "Wolfe, with his 8,000 men, ascended the St Lawrence in the fleet in the month of June. With him came Brigadiers Honckton, Towns- hend and Hurray, youthful and brave like 'dmself, and, like himself, already schooled to .nt;s. . The Orenadiers of the army were aju'ipauuec? hv Colonel Guy Carleton, and part of the ligl.i '• .» itry by Lieutenant-Colonel Wil- liam Howe, h- < h destined to celebrity In after years, in :he 1 unals of the American revolution. Colonel ilorf was brother of the gallant Lord ^lowi whoF .J fall in the pTeceding year was so Kt.ui.:.-'> li.mented. Among the olBceraof the fleet was ^ervis, the future admiral, and ulti- mately Earl St Vincent ; and the master of one of the ships was James Cook, afterwards re- nowned as a discoverer. About the end of June, the troops debarked on the large, populous, and well-cultivated Isle of Orleans, a little below Quebec, and encamped in Its fertile fields. Quebec, Cue citadel of Canada, was strong by nature. It was built round the point of a rocky promontoi-y, and flanked by precipices. , . . The place waa tolerably fortified, but art had not yet rendered it, a< at the present day, Impregnable. Montcalm commanded the post His troops were more numerous than the assailants: but the greater part of them were Canadians, many of them inhabitants of Quebec; and be bad a host of savages. His forces were drawn out along the northern shore below the city, from the River St. Charles to the Falls of Montmorency, and their position was secured by deep intr»'nch- ments. . . . After much resistance, Wolfe estab- lished batteries at the west point of the Isle ot Orleans, and at Point Levi, on the right (or soutli) bank of the St. Lawrence, within cannon range of the city. . . . Many houses were set on fire in the upper town, the lower town was reduced to rubbish; the main fort, however, remained unharmed. Anxious for a decisive action, Wolfe, on the (hh of July, crossed over in boats from the Isle of Orleans to the north bank of the 8t. Lawrence, and encamped below the Montmorency. It was an ill- judgeil position. . . . On the 18th of July, Wolfe made a recon- nolterlng expedition up the river, with two armed sloops, and two transports with troops. He passed Quebec unharmed and carefully notea the shores aliove it Rugged clifls rose almost from the water's edge. ... He returned to Montmorency disappointed, and resolved to attack Montrairo in his camp, however dlHIcult to be approached, and however strongly posted. Townshend and Murray, with their brigades, were to cross the Montmorvncy at low tide, below the falls, and storm the miouht thrown up In trmit of tlie fimi. Moiicktim. at the same time, was to cross, with part of his brigade in boau from Point Levi. ... As usual In compliealed orders, part were mlsundentood. or neglected, and confusion was the consequence.' The assault waa repellnl and Wolfe fell back across the river, having lost four hundred men, with two vessels, which ran azroued and were burned- lie felt the failure deeply, and his chagrin waa increased by news of the suooesMs of bis coadju- tors at Ticimderoga and Niagara. "The dfffl. cultlsa multiplylag wouad bim, and tba delajr of f CAKADA, 17S0. Qmen.\ Ambent in hMtening to hia aid, preyed incewantly on bis iplrits. ... The agitatlcn of bU mind, and his acute sensibility, brought on a rejer, which for some time incapacitated him ftom taking the field. In the midst of hU illness be called a council of war, in which the whole plan of operations was altered. It was deter- mined to courtj troops aboye the town, and endeayor to make a diyersion in that direction, or draw Montcalm into the open field. . . . The brief Canadian summer was oyer; they were in the month of September. The camp at Mont- morency was broken up. The troops were transported to Point Levi, leaying a sufficient number to man the batteries on the Isle of Orleans. On the 5th and 6th of September tbe embarkation took place aboye Point Leyi in tran.sporU which had been sent for the pur- P<»e^ Montcalm detached De Bougalnyille with 1,500 men to keep along the nortK shore aboye the town, watch the movements of the squadron and prevent a landing. To deceive him. Admiral Holmes moved with the ships of war three leagues beyond the place where the landing was to be attempted. He was to drop down, how- ever, in the night, and protect 'He landing The descent was made In flat-bottomed boau" past midnight, on tbe 18th of September Thev dropped down silently, with the swift current Qui va la f ' (who goes there t) cried a sentinel from the Bhore. ' La France,' replied a capUIn In the first boat, who understood the French language. • A ouel regiment T ' was the demand. I)e Is Heine (llie queen s) replied the captain, knowing that regiment was In De Bougainville's detichment. Fortunately, aeonvoy of provisions was einected down fn)m De Bougainville's which the sentinel supposed this to lie. • Paaw ' CTleji he. and the boats glided on without furtlu'r challenge The landing t<H)k place in a ove near Cape Diamond, which still bears Wolfe's name. He had marked it In reconnoltering, and S^.K .."i ?.'»«»?1 .?»"> "ragKl'd up from it to the Il.igbts of Abraham, which might be climl...; though with difficulty, and that it appeared to lie slightly guarded at top. Wolfe was among the first tluit landed and ascended up the sleep and narrow path, where not more than two could go abreast, and which had been broken up by crass ditches. Colonel Howe at the same lime, with the light Infantry and Hlirh- Und-n, s<-rambled up the woody preclpia* helnmg themselves by the rooU and branches and putting to flight a sergeant's guard posted at he summit Wolfe drew up the men liorder as they mounte.1 ; and bv the break of day found hlmstjf in possession of the fateful Plains of Aliraham. Montcalm was thumlerstruck when woM was brought to him In bis camp that the English were on the helgbu threaUmlng the weakest part of the town. Abaii.lonini his inmmhmenU, be ha*t«no<l across the river 8t Charles and aaccmled the heights, which slope up gnuiusllv from iu banks TlU force was equal in numlwr to that of th.. English, but a great part was ma<ie up of colony trooM and savaites When he saw tlie formidable host of regulars bo hail to <ouU-,id with, he s.nt off swift mSMengeri I>tatk<if wov*: CANADA, im. memorable battle which ensued, Wolfe »l,n i-j the English line, received, first,' aluskerw;'?^ Ws wrist, and soon afterward was struck bv. second in the breast. He was borne morSlJ wounded to the rear, and lived just long ,.„3 to hear a cry from those around him tb.uT enemy ran. Giving a quick order f..r \\\w, Ri»er bridge and there obstruct tlio French ^il??'' ^' ^"™*^ "P"" '"'» »''le, saving •■ Now God be praised, I will die in peace,'' a,u„S In the meantime the French c<m,man,l,.r W <»lm had received hU death-wound. X. striving to rally his flying tr«op,. Th,. virtoi of the English was complete, and they h^S to fortify their position on the Plains of .U rS preparing to attack the citadel. But, M., ,i2 aying of his wound the following niominrn" furUicr defence of the place was undortakon It was surrendered on the 17th of Sepu.mbiT t.. Gen- eral Tow-nshend, who had succeedt^d to il,e com. mand.-W. Irving, l(feofWa,Mngton. ,. l mm ^-23-— Lord^ Malion (Earl Stanhope), \i-'. — ,""" "' "^ "KMi Bwiii meiaenffers tosiimmnn De Houirsinville with hi,dctachiSent to his aid; an<l IK, Vaiidreil to reinforce him with i.v..! nist-, frrrfi, -trcainp. in the [ii.-ituiliiie be P"!!!*^'' "' "'"b ""■ '"" "' ""> English line and rorcc tbem to the opposite prsdploM." In the Ena 1713-1-783: mTV U'iy-^rSmA'l of Canada, t. \, eh. t.S. Knox, mioricalj Jr. nal T. 1, pp. 2J.va80; e. 3, pp. l-Vi> Vi.U°' '•?" <J««ly-Ang:u.t).-The fall of Nugara, Ticonderon and Crown Point - For the campaign o7 175« the Briii>l, i'„rlia. mentvotejl liberal supplies of men and monov ana the American colonies, encouniijinl hv the successes of the preceding year, raiscllaw num- bers of troops. Amherst 8Ui)ersedtKi .Vlkrcmmbie as commander In-chief "The pl.in for tlie year emlimccKi thri-cextMHiitlons; Fort Xi„g„m wksto be attacked by Pri.ieaux, asslsU^I by Sir William Johnson ; Amheret was to march his f,>n <■ ssaiurt Tlcondiniga and Crown Point; and Ou, Nt wu to Ix- assailed by an army under Wolf,- hh.I a tim un., r Saunders. I'ridoam and AmhciM afltr th. ipturt of the forU, were to dewriul the Sl Lawrence, take Montreal, and join th.. anny \w!on VJuehec. . . . Vaudreull, the Ooveni.ir, liavinir received warning from France of the iuleiiti„ns of the English, sent a small force to Xia^'ara under the entfiniH!r Poucbot, not exiiecling to be abl« to hold the post, and not wishing to sacriflcs many men, or to spare tlie troops fnim the more Important polnU. Poucbot repaln-d tlietbf. pci* and when the alarm was given thai the l.-i 'lish were near, sent for men from \'ti-».in Uk Venango, and Di-troU. Prideaux, in e..nun.ni,l of two British retflmrnU, a battalbm .,f ll,v»l Americans, two liatullons from .New York and a train of artillery, was jolne.1 bv John- ui iviili a detachment of Indians. They \hxmi ilieir march from 8<lienertaily on tlie'SOili ..f .Mar, and, after a difficult journey, n-arhed o-wpiio. where a detachment under 'Coloml llr iuianJ was left U> take jMmseaalou and fnnn a |. -i and the remainder of the forces einlrarl,e.l ..ii Uke Ontario, and on the 1st of July laml.tl wiiliout opfkisitliiu aUiutsix miles east (.f tlii. nicuihof the Niagara. . , . Prideaux liegan his mmtin on the loth, and im the llth a sallv wa* in*l« fp<m the fort ; but the Enxlista plaoHl ib, in* Ives iu line of liattle, and the Pri'mli wire oblu-nl t.) retire. l*rideaux wu •ii<iti)||v ailt-gii.ih; ii)a work . . . when, on ibe IWh. tin was kiilnl br the bunting of a shell from a Coehorn iii^mr In oos of (he trsDcbea, wbarv be bad gone to iisus 386 CANADA. 17M. n< JVtndk aurnndmr. CANADA, 1780. Olden. Amhent appointed Qeneml Oage to ■ucceed him, but before tlie arrival of Oage tlie command devolved upon Qeneral Johnaon, who carried on the siege according t ' the plana of Prideaux." On the 34th a consii rable force of French and Indians, about 1,600 trong, sent to tlie relief of tlie beleaguered fort, waa inter- cepted and routed, most of the French officers and men Iwing slain or captured. This took from Poucli<)t his last hope, and he surrendered the fuUawtni; day. " As the stations tieyond Niagani were unw completely cut off from communica- tion with the east, and had given up a Urge part of ihi'ir men to join D'Aubry [in the attempt to relieve Niagara], they were no longer capable of resistance. Presqu' Isle, Venango, and Le BcEuf were easily taken by Colonel Bouquet, who had been sent to summon them to surrender. " The detachment left at Oswego, in charge of stores, was attacked by a body of French and Indians from La Presentation (Ogdensburg), but the at- tack fnilcd. " For the reduction of the forts at TiconcliToga and Crown Point, Amherst lukd iuraewli.'it more than 11,000 men. He began preparations early in May at Albany, preparing Dosts, gathering stores, and dittciplining the new recruits. " In June he readied Lake George with his army, but it was not until late in July that " the uriny moved down the lake in four columns, in a fleet of whale-boats, bateaux, and artillery rafts, viry much as Abercroniby's men liad gone to tlieir defeat the year Ixfore, and left the U)ats nearly opposite the former landing-place, Tiie vungu^iril, pushing on rapidly over tlie rood to tlie falls, met a detachment of French and In- dians, whom they overpowered and scattenil after a slight skirmish, and the main btxly pressed on au<l took a position at the saw mills. Friim prisoners it was learned that liourlnmaquu commanded at TIconderoga with 8,400 men. Montculm was at Quebec. The French witli- drew fnim their outer lines Into the fort, and made a sliow of resistance for several da- lile they evacuated the place. An explosi " the nli;lit of the 2.*ith of July, "and tl the burning works, assured the Engli reti^stof the Flench, of which they bau heari from a deserter, and Colonel Ilavlla . puf- ■ued them down the lake with a few troops, and look siiteen prisoners and some l>i>au laden with powdrf. . . . AftertheHames«.recxtlngulahcil, AmhiTsI, who had I'Mt about 73 men, went to work to repair the fortiacations and complete the rmil from the lake. 8<>me sunken French boats Win- ralwl. and a brig was buili. Amherst was ilowlv prc(iariiig to attack Crown I>oint, ami sent llouerswilh his rsngrrsto reconnoitre. But on the Urst of August they learned that the rnmh lia<t aliandoned that fijrtalso: and on the lUtli that Ilourlaiiiai)ue's men were ercamosd on the Me aux Nolx, at the northern extremitv of Lake I'Immplain, comiiiaiiillrg the entrance to the Itii h.lifu. They had lieen Joined by some •mall •|.(m limenta, and numtx'ri'd alwut 8.500 men. AitiliersI spent his time in fortifying Crown Point, ami ImiMiug boaU and rafts," until "It Was too l.ii,. to deM'enil U) .Montreal anil go to the help of \\,,|f|.; the time for that bail been passed 111 elslHirate and useless pn'|>ar>tionB."— R John- r-it. Ir.-^. r,j thi h.mJi War. oA. 18. AisiiiM; F.. Warhurton, OmmtMt of dtnada, t. 2 M l»-_W L. Huine, Lif, and JYium ^ Sr A. D. 1760.— The completion of the EiufUtk conquest.— The end of" New France."— "Not- withstanding the successes of 1759, Canada waa not yet completely conquered. If Amherst had moved on faster and taken Montreal, the work would have been finished ; but his failure to do 80 gave the French forces an opportunity to rally, and the indefatigable De Levis, who had succeeded Montcalm, gathered what remained of the army at Montreal, and made preparations for attempting the recovery of Quebec. . . . After several fruitless attacks had been made on the British outposts during the winter, De Levis refitted all the vessels yet remaining early in the spring and gathered the stores still left at the forts on the lUchclieu. On the 17th of April, he left Montreal with all his force and descended the river, gathering up the detached troops on the way; the whole amounting to more than 10,000 men. Quebec had been left in charge of Murray, with 7,000 men, a supply of heavy ar- tillery, and stores of ammunition and provisions; but the number of men had been much reduced by sickness and by hardship encounte'cd in 1 bringing fuel to the city from forests, some as I far as ten miles away. Their position, however, j had been very mucii strengthened. . . . De Levis encamped at St. Foy, and on the 27th advanced to within three miles of the city."— R. Johnson, I Hint, of thi French M'ar. eh. 21.— "On the 2«th I of April, Murray, marching out from the citv, left the advantageous ground which he first ! occupied, and hazariled an attack near Sillery Wood. The ndvanoe-guard, under Uoiirlamaque, ^ rctuincd it with ardor In danger of In-iiig sur- rounded, Murray was obligeil to lly, leaving ' his ! very fine trainof artillery, and losing 1,000 men. I The Fr«'nch appear to have lost about 800, i though Murray's report increased it more than j eightfold. During the next two days, Levi j [Levis] opened trenches against the town; but ! the frost delayed the work's The English gar- I rison, reduced to 2,200 effective men, labored i with alacrity; women, and even cripples were ! set to light work. In the French army, not a i word would be listened to of the possilillity of I failure. But IMtt had foreseen and prepared for ! all. A fleet at his bidding went to relieve the city; and to bis wife he was able to write In ! June: 'Join, my love, with me. In most hiiiiible and grateful thanks to the Almighty. Swaiiton j arrived at Quelxc In the VanguanI on the 15th ' of May, and destroyed all the Fri'iiiii sliipping, six or seven in numlier, The sieire wis raisj'd on the 17th, with every liappv circumstance. : Tlie enemy left their caiiip sumling: abandoned 40 piece! of cannon. Hajipy, happy day I My I Joy and hurry are ineipn^ible. When the , spring openea, .\mherst had no dildciilllKa to : encounter In taking pos.si'ssii>n of Canada but I such as he himself sliould create. A country suffering from a four yean' scarcity, a dis- heartened peasantry, five orsix battailous, wasted I by Incrediljlc services and not recruited from I France, offered no op|x>sltion. .\mherst led the ; main army of 10.(K)0 men by way of Oswego; ' though the laNir of getting there was greater ^ than that of nroceeiling directly uiMin .Montreal. i He desrended the St. Lawn-nre cautiously, fak- ing piMM-asioii of the feeiiie works at t'gdens- burg. Treating the helples* Canaillans with humanity, and with no loss of lives except In paasiuK the niplda, on the 7th of September, 17flU, 387 CANADA, nao. lU I Q m tw CANADA, 17»-m4. he met before Montreal the amy of Murmy. The next day Haviland arrived with forces irom Crown Point; and, in the view of the tiree armies the flag of St George was raisod In triumph over the gate of Montreal. ... The capitulation [.signed by the Marquis deVaiMreuil governor against Uic protest of U.i»j included all Canada, which was said to eitend to the crest of land dividing branches of Lakes Erie and J 1 *^'"i,(™"' "'"^ "' ""« Miami, the Wabash Si. '.'T'1 ^l""- Pnyerty and religioi were cared for In the terms of surrender; but for civil liberty no stipulation was thought of On the fifth day after the capltuUtlon, Romrs departed with 2i)o rangers to ciny English 6^ nersto the upper posts. . . . -nie iSdians on the lak.a were at peace, united under PontUM;, the great chief of the Ottawas, happy In a country fruitful of com and abounding In game. The Americans were met at the mouth of a river by a deputation of Ottowas. • PonUac,' said they IS the chief and lord of the country you are In- wait till he can see you.' When Pontlac and Kogers met, the savage chieftain asked: 'How have you dared to enter my country without mv ■ til \ ?'"*'•■ '?P""' "'^ £"«"»»» agent, with no design against the Indians, but Ut re- move the French. •^' Pontiac, after some delay, smoked the calumet with Itogers and consented to his mission. The latter then proceeded to take possession of Detroit. In the following spring ho went on to the French posu in the noithwest-0. Bancroft. /fi,t. oftht U 8. {Author M Uut rention). r. 2, pn 522-534. .J"}^ '.?• W. Smith, nut. of Canada, 1. 1, M. 7 (giving the Articles of Capitulation In full) — P l-arkman, .Vonlnilm and Wolfe, eh 59-80 (c 2) -r,^- P- ,'Z'3.-Cede<l to En and by the Treaty cf ^aris. See Seveji \ bars Wxk. ,ri;»5i' '''*|-'774— The ProTince of Quebec Oh a 7° '"" "*' military nileT-The Quebec Act of W^.-E.tension of QuebSI ProTince to the 6Woand the MitaJtJfppi!!: / V":? J'''*" "f'^'f »li« conquest, the govem- nient of taniula was entrusted to military chiefs •tatlon« at (Juebec. Montn-al and Three Rivera the "^eadquartersof thethn'c departments Inui whlcu General Amherst di decf the coun'-y Military councils were esUbllshed to adminisUT ^ :.. k"","',' "?"'t' ""= I^P'**!'-! not resort to such tribunaU, but settled their difflcultics among ,l„.ms..lvea In 1783. the king. O^rgo III., Isauwi a proclamation esubllshlng four new governments, of which Quebec wu Soe. Lab- rador, fnini 8t. John's River to Hudson's Bav Antlco.ll, and the Magdalen Islands, were place,! under the jurisdiction of NVwf.mndland aiil the Island, of &t, John (or Prince Edward liCd „ U was afterward, called), and Cape Breton (ile Royale with tlie smaller islan.l. ..Ijacent tl,er..u' were added to the government of Nova Soolla' .h!LT.f P""" ^"^ «''■'■" ^ "'" 8'>''emors, In the l.t ten. patent by which these govcmmenU were .•..,«titut«l, to summon general ««emhli", with iJio advice and cmw'nt of His Majostv's Council, n such manner and form a* was usial n tlH«,.».l,,nies8n.l provimc. which were under the King . imnicliate government'. . . No as- ,«^ £■ '"'"•"•'f- o"" ""•t. a. the FrenchUana- dlao popuIaUnn were unwilHng Ix. take Hje t^jt ^iSj""* "T ,»<'r«™ment of the province was OMTled on solily by the governor general, with tbo aMiitaoce of an execuUve oouna, ocapoMd 388 In the first instance of the tw- lieutenant «.. i^h/*V.."'* surveyor general of custom, .^j eight others chosen from the leading re,i, , V b ^n-«!^^av!^'-uS,S'^t!''S;'£ p'^'tX-w^^ ""'"^iie-'ri ii cWion of 1763. In 1774, PariUment fn "rveS for the first time ■ . Oanadlan affaln. ,.mi „ . Importontconstitu.:.nal7han^ T^e' Ivr'' constitution had been creatSHy IXZ^Z under the great ««1 of Qtf^i Britain, in tl Hi ^l^i;?.K'"JV""°°"S,«'"«l "nJisp-iUd pre. of the old possessions of Great Britain now XT.r/h'"' ''°"*^ ^'•'«"" America, had thej origin In the same way. But In J774 a svS of government was granted to Canada liV thS express authority of Parilament This eon^titu tlon was known as the Quebec Act, and giSuv extended the boundaries of the pTvi^^i? 8n'„^'.f ''V'?"'^''' "■" P'oclamatFon ,! 7:m On one ride, the province extended to tl,e (ma- tier, of New England, Pennsylvania New York prpvU.ce, the ollo, and the left bankT.f tfe Territory Labrador, and the Islands ann.x,5w Newfoundland by the proclamation of ITti) were ^^f^ti,!'* "•* Pro'flnce of QueW-c. The Act of 1774 was excee<lingly unpopul« i, E„i ^i^t '" "'° English-syaking Llcni' , Thfo at the commencement of tlie Revoluti.m Pa, hJ°lf °H«.'~ ?"• 5PP<«" *" '""'e been int)u,.nced by a derire to adjust the gov .rnm.nt of the provtace so as to concilUte tSe majori? ■ ::; ,"'e' F^P . A • ■. ^"^ "ew eoustitutiim ciimi. into ;«"*'" O't^h*'. j"4. The Act sets forth amu„g U^e reasons for legUlation that the pr„vi,S nH™hX"'f^P'^'"™«"™'" "88 wire i„,^ pi cable to the state and cireumstanivs ,if the said province, the inhabitanU where„f »„,„uuted ?l..nl?h"''T'' «° «'«ve 65,000 |H.r».nu pro- feaaing the religion of the Church of R.,,,,,, ^^i enjoying an ostablishe.! form of constltiilinn and !S^r?'J"*'' ''y "hieh their persons «m,I |m)p. erty had been protect^l jpjvernci. «„d „r.|,r^ for a long series of years, from tlie tlrst eslalilUh- Ti,^?l . »P'^'^''"^' Cons<-qii..ntlv, it is pro- .lu*!..^' ."?'™'? ^^'"•'olirs should b.. no Innjer . fi^*" take the tost mth, but onlv the oath of allegUnce. The government of the province was entrusted to a governor an<l . legislative roundl appointed by the Crown, i.iasmuch u 11 '"•""Mlent to call in asseinhlv ' This council was to compriM not more tliaii" iwetily- three and not leas than ievcnt«'cn iiienilx r< sod hail the power, with the conwnt of the m.v.mor or commander-in-chief for the time Uing. i,, make oMlnance. for the peace, welfan., aiul good g-vemmenl of the province. They h .,i no su- lh.irity, however, to lay on any tales or .iutlet "o ?J" '"?\" ""> InhabltanU ol anv town or district might be authoriie<l w asse;^ or levv within lu proclncu for roads and or-liimrv locsl servloea. No ordinance could lie (laMiit Ijcepi by a majority of the council, and everv .'mi. IH to t« irmiaiiii i i„i within six month* afle'r lueimrt- ment to His Majesty for approval or .lisallow. ance. It was also enacted that In all matteni of controTeny, relatlre lo property and civil tight., lii L^ CANADA, 1788-1T74. Amitriea» ImvailOK. CANADA, 1775-1776. ncoune ihoulu be bad to the French dvil pro- cedure, whilst the criminal law of England should obtain to the exclusion of eTerv other criminal code which might have prevailed before 1764. . . . Roman Catholics were permitted to observe their religion with perfect freedom, and their clergy were to enjoy their ' accustomed dues and rigbu' with respect to such persons as profesred that creed. Consequently, the Roman Catholic population of Canada were relieved of tlieir (Us- abilities many years before people of the same belirf in Orrat Britain and Ireland received iimilar privileges. The new constitution was inauguratcdby Major Oeneral Carleton, after- wards I,ord Lorchester, who nominated a legts- e council of twenty-three members, of whom t.Lu. were Roman Catholics."— J. O. Bourinot, Manuiil of Oaiut. Jliit. of Canada, eh. 3-3. Also m: W. Houston, DoeumenU lUuttratite (ff the Canadian Conttitution, pp. 90-96 See also, Unitkd States of Am. : A. D. 1774 (March — Apbil). A. D. 1775-1776-— loTuioa by the rcToitinr American colooiits.— Lois and recoTeir 01 Montreal.— Succeiaful defence of Quebec— At tuo beginning of the revolt of the thirteen colonies which subseoucntly formed, by their separation from Great Britain, the United States of America, it was believed among them that Canada would join their movement if the British troops which occupied the country were driven out. Acting on tliis belief, the Continentil Con- gress at Philadelphia, In June, 1775. adoptc<l a rcsolutiim instructing Urncml Schuyler to n-pair without delay to Ticonderoga (which had been jurprisi'd and taken a few weeks l)oforc by Ethan Allen and his " Orcen Mountain Buys "), and "If he found it practicable, and it would not be dis- agntalile to the Canadians, immediately to take pos3cs.sion of St. Jiihn's and Montreal, and pursue any otlicr mea.«Hn>s in Canada which might have a U'mleniy Id promote the peace and 8<'curity of these col.inies." Oeneral Schuyler founcl it dilHcult to gather tnxips and supplies for the projiiled expedition, and it was the middle of August iK'fore he was prepared to move. Ilia chief »iil>ordlnate ollirerwas Oen. Ricliard Mont- (toiiKTv, an Irishman, formerly in the British 8.rvur, liut wttled latterly in New York ■ and he was 1,1 lie »iippi)rted bv a cooiiemtiVo i'nm"e " le<l by Ik>ne<llct Arnold ment planned aiid tHiHial .Montiroiiiery, with 3,(X)0 men. would go down I,:ike Clmmiduin and attjick Montreal- while (iimml Ariiohl. with 1,300, was to seek the hemlWHters of Kennebec Hiver, cross the heijtlit of laud, ami dtiwx'nd the Chaudicre to tho very gates of l^udiec. The brave Ch'n.'ral tarlei.in. who Imd lK.<.n with Wolfe at Quetiec was How ill coimuaiid of the forces of Canada — If Hio Ilntish regulars and a few hundrtnl militia mlghi Ik »o ilenoiiiiiiated. No doubt Oovcmor (.arliMu with his small army undertook too murh lli».uglit to defend the wav to Montreal by ho ,|,nu' Korl St. John, and that io (iuclicc by J. finding' Clianil.ly. Both these places fell be- low the Americans. General Montgomery puHied o„ ,|„w„ the Hivcr lUchelleu and occu- r~~'' '^' j'"'"*'»ff forcci across the St Laws-:;:' :in;j .-rfT.nl 'laltmrs On ildlfa >i,lv« l<> pn'Mni inicriourwi Ix-twwn Montreal and (^uehjc .Montreal, iiuw ' ■fenccli«, was com- pelle.1 to ,„rr,.n,ler on the itfth of November, and u Brtiish Vessels were jlron up to tile eoMDy It WM r»ally s dark hour for Canada. General j^arleton has been severely criticized for dividing his fonws. The truth is, the attack was so un- "lE^. • ""* *° '°°° *'*«' "•« outbreak of the rebelUon, that no plan of defence for Canada had been Uid. . . . General Carleton escaped irora Montreal, and, in a boat, passed the Sorel batteries with muffled oars under cover of night The general had but reached Quebec in time. The expedition of Arnold had already gamed the Bt. Lawrence on the side opposite the 'Ancient Capitol. The energy displayed by Arnold's men was remarkable. The Kennebec b a series of rapids. lu swift current hurrie- over dan- gerous rocks at every turn. The highUnds when reached consist of swamps and rocky ridges covered with forest. The Chaudiere proved worse than the Kennebec, and the current being with the boaU, dashed them to pieces on the rocks. Arnold's men, on their six weeks march, had run short of food, and were impelled to eat the dogs which had accompanied them. Not much more than half of ^mold's army reached the St. Lawrence. Arnold's fores crossed the St. Lawrence, htndcd at Wolfe's Cove, and built huts for themselves on the Plain* of Abraham. On the 5th of December Mout- fomery joined the Kennebec men before Quebec he united force was of some 8,000 men sup- ported by about a dozen light guns. Carieton had, for the defence of Quebec, only one com- pany of regulars and a few seamen and marines of a sloop of war at Queliec. The popuUritv of the governor was such that he easily prevailed upon the citizens, both French and English to enroll themselves In companies for the defence of their homea. He was atile to count upon about 1,600 bayoneU. The defeuces of Quebec were, however, too strong for the Americans On the night of Dcceinlier Slst, a desoerate effort was made to take the citv by escalade. Four attacks were maile simiiltaneimsly. Arnold sought to enter hv the St. Charles, on the north side of Quebec, and Jlontgomery liy the t..>uth, bt'tween Cape Diamond and the St. I^wreiice. Two feints were to be matle on the side towards the Plains of Abraham. The liopc of the com- manders was to have forced the gates from the lower to the upper town in botli cu.ses. Arnold falletl to reach the lower town, and in a sortie the defenders cut off nearly the whole of his column. He escaped wounded. Montgomery was killed at the second entrenchment of the lower town, and his triMips retired in confusion. The American generals have been criticised by experU for not making their chief atUiek on the wail facing on the Plains of Abraham General Arnold remaineil N'fore Uueliei'. tiiougb his troops had bi-come reiiuiiHl to WK) men. General Carieton pursued a policy of acting strictly on the defensive. If he retained Quebec it would bo his greaU'st sueivss. General Arnold sought to gain the «vin(i8tliy of the French Canadian seigniora snd iHHiple. but witliout any success. Three thousauit triMips. however, came to reinforce Amolil early in the vear, and 4 000 ow'upled Montreal. St. Johns, and Cham'bly. Hut on the 61I1 of Mav relief came from Kng- iaud; men of war anil trantporta, with three brigades of infantry besides artillery, stores, and an .nunltloM, The ,\inericans withdrew to Sorel. ''he British tniops followed them, and a brigade encampeu at Three lUvera. The Americwu n- 889 CAXADA, 1775-1776. IV nnntfir CANADA, 1830-1887. H^,^. tempted to lurpiiae the force at Three River-, but were repulsed with heavy lou. The Ameri- cans now fell back from Montreal, deserted all the posts down to Lake Champlain, and Oovemor Carlcton had the pleasure of occupying Ie'3-aux- Noix as the outpost, leaving Canada as it had been Ix-fore the first attack in the year before. " — G. Bryce, Short Hitt. 0/ tht Canadian P^pU, eh. 6, leet. 8. A1.8O iH: B. J. Lossing, Life and Timet of Philip Sehuyler. v. 1, eh. lfr-29, and v. 3, eh. 1-4. —J. Sparks, Life and Trr<i») n of Benedict ArmtUl, eh. 8-5 (Library of Am. Biog., v. 8).— J. Ann- strong, Life of Bieharti Montgomery (Lib. of Am. Biog., V. 1).— C. H. Jones, Hitt. of the Campaign for the Conquestof Canada in 1776.— J. J. Henry, AmoUl't Campaign against Quebec. A. D. 1776.— General Carleton'a unauc- ceaafu! advance against Ticonderora. See United States op Am. : A. I). 1776-1777. A. D. 1777.— Burgorne'a diaaatroua inTaaion of New York. 8«'e U.nitkd States of Am. : A. D. 1777 (July— October). A. D 1783.— Settlement of bouodariea in the Treaty of Peace between Great Britain and the United States. See Uniteo States or Am. : A. D. 1783 (Septembkhi. A. D. 1783-1784.— Influx of the "United Empire Loyaliats" from the United Statea. See Tories op the American Revolution. A. D. 1791— .The Constitutional Act.— Di- Tiaion of the province into Upper and Lower Canada. — " In 1791 a bill was introduced by Pitt dividing the Province into Upper and Lower Canada, the line of division being so drawn as to give a grfitt nuiJDrity to the British element in Upper CaiuKlii unci a ureal majority to tlie French settlers in I»wer Canada. The measure was strongly opposed by F(ix, who urged that the separation of the English and French inhabitants was most undesinihle. . . . The act was passed, and is known as the Constitutional Act of 1791. ... In each pmvincc the legislature was to consist if the (Sovemor, a Legislative Council and a I-egislativc Assembly. The Governor liad power to give or withhold the royal assent to bi'ls or to reserve them for conslderatioM by the Crown. He could summon, prorogue, or dis- aolve the lejfislature, but was required to con- vene the legLilature at least once a year. The Legislative Council in Up|)er Canada consisted of not less than 7, and in Lower Canada of not less than 15 members, chosen by the King for life the Siieakerlieing appoint d by theOovemor-Oeneral. The U'gislative As-scmblv was in counties elected by VH. freeholders, aiicf in towns by owners of houses of £.1 yeiirly value and by icslifent inhabit- ants paving i'lO yearly rent. The number and limits of eleetond distrii'ts were fixed by the Gov- ernor-tJenenil Lower Canada had 50 members. Upper Canada 18 memt)ers, assigned to tlieir respective 'egislalures. TlienewCunstUutiondid not prove a sueeess. Serious diftcreuces arose Jietween the Legi.slative Council and th- I cgislat- Ive Assembly in n'gani to the control of the revenue and supplies, differences which were aggravated by the conflict that ■till went on between the Fr-nch and English races. . . . The dlscimtent ri-su twl in the retM>llion of 18S7-8."— J E. C'. Munni. 7"A< Vonitilutionof Canmla, eh. i. Al.rO IS: W. Houston, Dnci. lUiittfMite uf Vu Canadian Const., pp. 118-188.— O. Brvmoer, Btft. en Canadian Archiva, 1880, i^ip. B. 890 A. D. i8i»-i8is.— The War of Great Britaia with the United States. Bee United .States OP Am. : A. D. 1813 (June— October), to IS15 (Jasuart). A. D. 1818. — Convention between Great Britain and the United States relating to Fiaheriea, etc. See Fibiiebies, North Amehi- can: a. D. 1S14-1818. A. D. 1830-1837.— The Family Compact.- " The Family Compact manifestly grew cmi of the principles of the U. E. Loyalists. It wiu the union of the leaders of the loyalists witli oihers of kindred spirit, to rule Upper Canada, heedless of the rights or wishes of its people. We have admired the patriotic, heroic ami seiiiiinental side of U. E. loyiilism; but plainly, as related to civil government, its political doctrines and pmctices were tyrannical. Its prominent mem- bers belonged to the class which in the American colonies, in the persons of Governors Hemard and Hutchinson, and many others of hij;li office and standing, had plotted todestmy the lilierties of the people and had hastened the American revolution. ... By the years 1818 or IWO s junto or cabal had been formed, deflnitc in its alma and flrmly combined together, known ss the Family Compact, not to its l)est leaders seeming an embodiment of scltishnes.s, but mther set for patriotic defence and hallowed with the name of religion. "— G. Bryce, ."ih-jrl lli,t. „fiU Cana^an People, eh. 10, sect. 2.— •Upper Canada . . . luis long l)ecn entirely goveim-d by a party commonly dcsignaU-d throufrlumt the Province as tlie 'Family Compact,' a name oot much more appropriate than party desiLMiatious usually are, inasmuch as tlicre l.s,"in trutli. very little of family connection among the pirsons thus united. For a long time this hoily of men, readying at times accessions to its memlKTs. pos- sessed almost all the highest puMii oiliies. by means of which, and of its induinee in tbe Executive Cotmcil, It wielded all the pow. rs of {[ovemment; it maintained iidluence in tbe liirfs- ature by means of its predondnnnee in tbe Leg- islative Council ; and it disposed of a l,iri,'e num- ber of petty post* which arc in the patrimniie of the Government all over the Province. Succes- sive Governors, as they came in their turn, iire Siiid to have either submitttHi (piietly to its inllu- ence, or, after a short and unavailini; siruci;le. to have yielded to this well organizcl luriv the real conduct of affairs. The Innch, the rMiigis- tracy, the high olllces of the Episcopal ( burrh, and a great part of the legal profession, nrc tilled bv the adherents of this party : by gninl or pur- chase, tliey have acnuired ni ;irlv the wliole of tlie waste lands of the PnivincV; tbiv ore all powerful In the charu-ml lianks. and. till bitelv. shared among themselves almost exilusin iv all oRlcea of trust and profit. The bulk of 1 bi^ purty couslsts, for the most part, of native Ixirn inljublt- ants of the colony, or of emlgnini.s h bo willed In it before the last war with the I'niiid Slates; the principal members of it btdong to llic cburch of England, and the mainti/iiam e of ibc ilaims of that church has always been one of in dis- tinguishing characteristics."— Earl of Durham, Hrpt. on the Affaire of Hritith .V. Am. p. lOV- " The tnfiuemrs which pn>duce<l ibe Fimily Compact were not contlneil to Upix'r Ciniida. lu the Lower Province, as well asin^ovn .>-nli» and New Brunswhk, similar raUMW led tosniillsr resulta, and the tenn Family Compact has at out CANADA. 1880-1887. ^ time or auotber been a famtlUr one In all the liritisli North American coloniea. . . . The des- ignation Family Compact, liowever, did not owe iw orisrin to any combination of North American colonists, but was borrowed from the diplomatic history of Europe."— J. C. Dent, The 8tory of tht V'i'ptr Canadian StbelUon, ch. 8. A. D. 1837.— The Causes of discontent which ptoduced rebellion.—" It was in Lower Canada that the greatest difficulties arose. A constant antagonism grew up between the majority of the Ipgislative council, who were nominees of the Crown, and the majority of the representa- tive assembly, who were elected by the popula- tion of the province [see above; A. D. 1791]. The home Government encouraged and indeed kept up that most odious and dfangerous of all instnimenu for the supposed management of a colony— a 'British party' devoted to the so- called interestsof the mother country, and obedi- ent to the word of command from their masters and patrons at home. The majority in the legis- lative council constantly thwarted the resolu- ti, ■ of t he vast majority of the popular assembly. Disputes arose as to the voting of supplies. The Government retained in their service officials whom the representative assembly had con- demned, and insisted on the right to pay them their salaries out of certain funds of the colony. The representative assembly took to stopping the supplies, and the Government chilmcd the right to counteract this measure by appropriating to the purpose such public moneys as happened to be within their reach at the time. The colony — for iiiilecd on these subjocta the population of Lower Cauada, right or wrong, was so near to being of one mind tliat we may take the declara- tions of public meetings as representing the col- onv — ik'uianded that the legislative council slif'uM l)e made elective, and that the colonial giivirnnu'ut should not be allowed to dispose of tlie mnnevs of the cohmy at their pleasure. The Ilousi' .if "Commons and the Government herere- iliid liy refusing to listen to the proposal. . . . .t is not necessary to suppose that in all these disputes the popular majority were In the right sml thi' officials in the wrong. No one can doubt that there wtis much bitterness of feeling arising out of the mere differences of race. ... At last the npreseniative assembly refused to vote any furthtr supplies or to carry on any further busi- ness. They formulated their grievances against the home (lovirnment. Their complaints were o( srliitniry conduct on the part of the governors ; intdleralile composition of the legislative council, whieh they iusisteil ought to be elective; illegal iippr>l>riaiion of the public money, and violent IiMn.i.Mtlnn of the provincial parliament. One of llie Ic'ailing men In the movement which after- variU liecame ri'tM'ilidn in Lower Canada wa* Hr. Loais .IiiHcph Papineau. This man had risen to high position by his talents, hU energy, and his uniliiibtedly lionouralile character, lie had rep- rescnteii Montreal in the representative Assembly of 1.0 ver Canada, and he afterwards became Speaker of the House. He made himself leader of the iiioveiuent to protest against the policy of the governom. and that of the Government by whom ihfy were sustained. Ho held a series of mee'iUL'5. si ^sime nt wlilrh iinstnuhtpilly rather itrniiir laiiKua;;ii was used. . . . Lord Clotford, the iT'ivemor, tH'ian hr dismissing lereiml mllltta oflcers wl'u had takeo part In lome of ' iXmmtmt t CANADA, 1887. demonstrations; Mr. Papineau himself was an officer of this force. "Then the governor issued warrants for the apprehension of many memljers of the popular Assembly on the charge of high treason. Some of these at once left the country ; others against whom warrantu were issued were arrested, and a sudden resistance was made by their friends and supporters. Then, in a manner familiar to all who have rc» I anything of the history of revolutionary movements, the resistance to a capture of prisoners suddenly transformed itself into open rebellion." — J. .McCarthy, Hitt. of our own Timet, t. 1, cA. 3. — Among the griev- ances which gave rise to discontent in both Upper and Lower Canada, "first of all there was the cb nic grievance of the Clergy Reserves [which wt public lands set apart by the Act of 1791 for Jie support of tlie Protestant Clergy], com- mon both to British and French, to Upper and to Lower Canada. In Upper Canada these reserves ^.nountcd to 2,500,000 acres, being one-seventh of the lands in the Province. Three objections were made against continuing these Reserves for the purpose for which they Imd been set apart The fir.t objection arose from the way In which the Executive Council wislied to apply the rev- enues accruing from these lauds. According to the Act they were to be applied for ' maintaining the Protestant religion In Canada' ; and the Execu- tive Council interpreted this us meaning too ex- clusively the Church of England, wliich was es- tablished by law In the mother-country. But the objectors claimed a right for all Protestant de- nominations to share In the Reserves. Tlie second objection was that the amount of these lands was too large for the purpose in view: and the third referred to the way fa which the Reserves were selected. These 2,500,000 acn-s did not lie in a block, but, when the early surveys were made, every seventh lot was reserved ; and as thesi' lots were not cleared for years the people complained that they were not utilizetl, and so became incon- venient barriers to uniform (civilization. With the Roman Catholics, both priests and people, the Clergy Reserves were naturally unpopular. . . . Anadditionalsourceof complaint wasfound in the fact that the government of Ui)per and Lower Canada had fouml its wny into tlie hands of a few powerful families luimliil together by a Family Compact Imx above: A. I). l«2()-lt«i7]. . . . But the Constitutional dilllinilty was, after all, the great one, and It lay at the bottom of the whole dispute. . . . Altogether the issues were viry complicated In the St. Lawrence Valley I'rovlnces and the Maritime Pniviuces . . , and to it Is not to be wondered at that some should Interpret the rebellion as a class, and perhaps semi-religious, contest rather than a race-con- flict. The constitutional deadliK-k, however, wa« tolerably clear to tlK«c who lixikeil beneath the surface. . . . The main desire of all was to be freeil of the bunlen of Executive Councils, nom- inated at home and kept in olllce with or without the wish of the people. In Up|)er Canada, William Lyon .Hackenrle, aiul In Uiwer Canada. Louis Papineau and Dr. Wolfred Nelson, agitated for independence. "—W. P. Oreswell, ]Iiit. afths Dominion of Canaiki, ch. 18. At*) in: J. McMullcn. Jlitt. of Canatia, c\. 19-20. —Earl of Durham. «•/>? <""( PitiutitJuM. — 81r F. B. Head, Xarratirt.—Hei't. «f Cmirt. ap- pointed to inquire into tht qritmncetnmiiUitnfda) inU!»trCanaiia(UKUtl^Oimmi>n: Ftb. 20, 1887> il i 391 II CANADA, 1887-1888. Ihintliitf of CANADA, 184U-184L z A. D. i837-i838,— The rebel' n nnder Papi- neau and Itackciuie, and it ppraMion. — The Burninr of the Carolinr immediately on the breaking out o{ the a, the con- stitution of Lower Canada - spended; the revolt was put down at or J with little dilHculty. Though the out i Upper Can- ada showed that a compar small portion of the population was disal' . to the gorem- ment, there were some sha .irmlshes before the smouldering Are was coii , u.'ly trodden out. ... On the night of the 4tU of December, 1837, when alt Toronto was asleep, except the police- men who stood sentries over the arms in the city hall, and a few gentlemen who sat up to watch out the night with the Adjutant-General of Militia in the Pa, iment House, the alarm came that the rebels were upon the city. They were under the command of a newspaper editor named Mackenzie, whose grotesque figure was until lately [this was published in 1865] familiar to the frequenters of the Canadian House of As- sembly. Rumours had been rife for some days last of arming and drilling among the disaffected the Home and London districts. . . . The ahirm threw Toronto into commotion. . . The volunteers were formed in the market square during the night and well irmed. In point of discipline, even in the first instance, they were Dot wholly deficient, many of them being retired offlcers and discharged men from both the naval and military services. . . . Towards morning news came of a smart skirmish which had occurred during the night, in which a party of the rebels were driven l>ack and their leader killed. During the succeeding day and night, loyal yeomen kept pouring in to act in liefence of the crown. Sir Allan, tien Colonel, Macoab, the Speaker of the House of Assembly . . . raised a body of liis friends and adherents in the course of the night and following day, and, seizing a vessel in the harbour at Hamilton, hurried to Toronto. . . . The rebels were de- feated and dispersed next day, at a place some two miles from Toronto. In this action, the Speaker took the commsiKi of the Volunteers, which he kept during the subsequent campaign on the Niagara frontier, and till all danger was over. . . . Mackenzie soon rallied his scattered adherents, and seized Navy Island, iust above Kiuiriira Falls, where he was joiuca by large nuinlKTs of American 'sympathizers.' who came to the flpot on the rliance of a qtiarrel with the Engli.sh. On receipt of this intelligenrc. the Speaker hanteneil fn)m the neighbourhood of Rranifonl (where he liad just dispersed a liand of insuri;enM under the command of a doctor nathi'ii Diiiuiinitx) t») reinforce Colonel Cameron, forniirly of the T9th, who hail taken up a iHmi- tion lit ('lii|i|N'wa. Xavy Island, an eyott some ?|uarter of a mile in length, lies In the Niagara {iver within musket -shot of the Canailian bank. The current runs patit the IsUnd on both sides with gn-Ht velocity and, immediately below ir, hurries over tlie twi^ mill's of rocks and rapiils that prvceile its tn^' iK^ms leap. The rcbeU llirvw up wiirkx on the »l<le facing the Cana- dinnn. They drew their supplies frtmi Fort Sf'hiixwer, an Anierirau work nearly opiHisite the villjiiriMif ChitiiM-wii " A Miiall ati'iimtMuit nnnied the C^aniline. Iiail li<>en securiKl by the Insurgents Slid wan piving between Kurt Hcliloaser anil Navy Islauu. She "had bruught over ^vcral fleld-piecea and other military stores ; it theiefois became necessary to decide whether it was not expedient for the safety of Canada to destroy her. Qrcat Britain was not at war with the United States, and to cut out an American steamer from an American port was to incur a heavy responsibility. Nevertheless Colonel .Mac- nab determined to assume it." A party sent over in boats at night to Fort Schlosser surpriaed the Caroline at her wharf, fired her and u'nt her adrift in the river, to be carried over the Falls. —Viscount Burr, Exodtuoftht HV»^>,. Sniiant, e. 8, eh. 12. — "On all sides the insui^mta were crushed, jails were filled with their leaders, and 180 were sentenced to be hanged. Some of them were executed and some were banished to Van Dieman's Land, while others were pardoned on account of their youtli. But there was a gteat revulsion of fcelmg In England, and after a few years, pardons were extended to slriost all. Even Papineau and Mackenzie, the leaders of the rebellion, were allowed to come hack, and. strange to say, both were elected to si'ats in the Canadian Assembly. "—W. P. Orcswell, UM.vj tite Domininn of Canada, eh. 16, tect. Ij.— On Hic American bonier the Canadian relx'llion «f i»3;. 88 was very commonly called "the Patriot War." Also in : C. Lindsey, Life and Tiimi nf Wm. Lyon Maeluntie, e. 2.— J. C. Dent, ISIory ,if tU If. Canada Heiellion. A. D. 1840-184 1.— International Imbroglio conseauent on the buminr of the Caroline— The McLeod Case.— The bunilng nf the steamer Caroline (see, above, A. I). ;H:iT-183b) gave rise to a serious question between Urcat ritain and the United States. "In the fray which occurred, an American naiiied Uurfrce was killed. The British govemnieiit avowed this invasion to be a public act and a necessary measure of self-defence; but it was a question when Mr. Van Buren [I'resident of the liiited States] went out of otnce whether this avowal had been made in an authentic manner. ... In November, 1840, one Alexander McLeml lamo from Canada to' New York, where he boasted that he was the slayer of Durfree, and thereupon was at once arrested on a charge of niun'er and thrown into prison. This aroused gnat ani^ in EngUnd, and the conviction of .McLeod was all that was needed to cause immediate war. . . . Our [the American] "ovemmcnt was, of course, greatly hampemi 1; action . . . by tliefaritliat McLeod was within the Jurisdiction and in the power of the New York courts, and win illy out reach of those of the Unite<i SlaU's. . . . Mr. Webster [who became Secretary of State under President Taylor] . . . was fmrdly in office tiefore he received a demand from .Sir F11.X for the release of Mcljcod. iu which full avowal was made th^l the burning of the Caroline was a public act. M.. Webster determinul that . . . the only way to dispose of McLcixt was to get him out of prison, separate him, diplmnaiically speaking, from the affair of the (.'art'line, and tlien take that up as a liistinct matter fur nei'O. tiation with tlic British goveninient. . . . His first step was to instruct tlie AttoriK y Cii neralto finxxed to Lockport, where McLuhI was mprisoned, and comniuni<ate witli tlie counsel for the defence, fumi^sliiu^ them with aiiiliintic information that the destruction of lli. ( amllno was a public act, and that therefore Mcl/eod could nut be held responsible. . . . TLi^i threw 198 CANADA. 1840-1841. Clear OriU (md OmMrmMvM. CANADA, 1800-1871. the reapoiulbility for HcLeod, and for eonaequent peace or war, where it belonged, on the Mew York authoritiea, who aeemed, however, but little inclined to aaaist the general goTemment. McLood came before the Supreme Court of New York in July, on a writ of babeaa corpus, but they refused to leleaie him on the grounds set torth in Mr. Welnter's instructions to the Attor- iiey-G«neral, and he was remanded for trial in October, which was highly embarassing to our govcrriaent, as it k<!pt this dangerous affair open." But when McLeod came to trial in October, 1841, it appeared tliat he was a mere braggart who had not even been present when Durf iw was killed. His acquittal happily ended he case, and smoothed the way to the negoti- ation of the Ashburton treaty, which opened at Washington linon afterwards and which settled all questions uetween England and the United States.— H. C. Lodge, DanM Webtter a\. 8. Also ra: W. H. Seward, Worfa, e. .,, pp. 647- 688. -D. Webster. Workt, t. «, m. 247-288. A. D. 1840-1867.— Reunion o( the piorincet. —The opposition of races. — Clear Grits and Conserratives. — " The reunion of the two Pro- vinces had been projected before: it was greatly desired by the British of the Lower Province ; and in 1823 a bill for the purpose had actually been brought into the Impcrisl Parliament, but the French being bitterly opposed to it, the Bill bad been dropped. The French were as much opposed to reunion as ever, clearly seeing, what the author of the policy [Lord Durham] had avowed, that the measure was directed against their nationality. But since the Rebellion they were prostrate. Their Constitution had been superseded by a Provisional Council sitting under the protection of Imperial bayonets, and this Council consented to the union. The two Provinces were now [July, 1840] placed under a Oovemor-Oeneral with a single legislature, con- sisting, like the legislatures of the two Provinces before, of an Upper House nominated by the Crown and a Lower House elected by the people. Each province was to have the same number of representatives, although the pii]>ulatloa of the Frenrli Province was at that time much larger than tliat of the British Province. The French language was proscribed in official proceedings. Frenih nationality was thus sent, constitutionally, undir the yoke. But to leave it its votes, necessary and right as that might b- was ^t leave it the only weapon which puts the I'ak on a level with the strong, and even gives tlicm the advantage, since the weak are the most likely to hold together and to submit to the discipline of organised party. . . . The French . . . 'had the wisdom.' as their manual of history . . . complii»'ntIy observes, ' to remain united among themselves, and by that union were able to exercise a happy influence on the Legislature and the Gdvcmment." Instead of being politically tuppr('SM>d, they soon, thanks to their compact- ness OS an interest and their docile jbedlence to their liiulers, became politically dominant. The Britisli factions began to bid against each other for their support, and were presently at their feet. . . . The statute proscribing the use of the Frenrh language in official proceedings was fp^s'-i. sad the Canadian Legislature was made lii lingtial. The Premiership wai divided betWKH the English and the Frendi lewier, and the Hiniatries were deaigiutted by Uie doable name — 'the Lafontalne-Baldwin,' or 'the Mac- donald-Tach£.' The French got their full ahare of seats in the Cabinet and of patronage; of public funds they got more than their full share, especially as being small consumers of imported goods they contributed far less than their quota to the public revenue. By their aid the Roman Catholics of the Upper Province obtained the privilege of Separate School in contraventior. of the principle of religious equality and severance of the Church from the State. In time it was recognized as a rule that s Ministry to retain power must have a majority from each section of the Province. This practically almost reduced the Union to a federation, under which French nationality was more securely entrenched than ever. Qradually the French and their clergy became, as they have ever since been, the basis of what styles Itself a Conservative party, playing for French support, by defending clencal privilege, by protecting French nation- ality, and, not least, by allowing the French Province to dip her hand deep in the common treasury. On the other hand, a secession of thorough-going Reformers from the Moderates . . . gave birth to the partv of the ' Clear Qrits, ' the leader of which was Sir. George Brown, a Scotch Presbyterian, and which having first insisted on the secularization of the Clergy Reserves, became, when that question was out of the way, a party of general opposition to French and Roman Catholic influence. ... A change had thus come o<'er the character and relations of parties. French Canada, so lately the seat of disaffection, became the basis of tho Conservative party. British Canada became the stronghold of the Liberals. ... A period of tricky combinations, perfidious alliances, and selisn intrigues now commenced, and a series of weaK and ephemeral governments was its fruit. " — Ooldwin Smith, Canada and the CaTtadian Qittttivn, eh. 7. Also is: W. Houston, Doe». llluttratiTe oftht Canadian Omtt., pp. 149-185.— J. O. Bourinot, Manual of the Conii. HUt. of Canada, eh. S. A. D. 1843. — Settlement of boundary dit- putea with the United SUtea by the Ash- burton Treaty, See UNrrsD States or Ax. : A. D. 1843. A. D. 18M-1M6.— The Reciprocity Treaty with the United States and its abrogation. See Tariff Lioibiation (United States akd Canada): A. D. 18.54-1866. A. D. 1864.— The St. Albans Raid. See United States of Am. : A. D. 1864 (October). A. D. 1866-1871.— Fenian invasions.— The Fenian movement (see Ireland: D. 1858- 1867) had its most serious outer in an at- tempted invasion of Canada fr< the United States, which took place In IHi "Canadian volunteers were under amis all ly on the 17th of March, 1866, expecting a Finiiin invasion, but it was not made: in April an insignificant attack was made upon New Brunswick. About 900 men, under Col. O'Neil. crossed from Buffalo to Fort Erie on the night of May 3l!t. Moving westward, this body aimed at dcs roying the Welland Canal, when they were met by the Queen's Own Volunteer Regiment of Toronto, ami the 13th battalion of Hamilton Militia, near the village of Rldgeway. Here, after a eonliict of two hours, in wnlch for a time the Volunteers drove the enemy before tbem, the Canadian -*il 893 CANADA, 1866-1871. m mraUm of CANAi^ii, 1867. f orcet retirea to Ridgew», ud thence to Port Colborne, irlth a lou of nine killed and 80 wounded. Col Peacock, in charge of a body of reguUrs, wa.<) marching to meet the volunteers, so that O'Neil wai compelled to flee to Fort Erie, and, crossing to the United States with his men, was arrested, but afterwards liberated. The day after the skirmish the regulars and volunteers encampi ' it B'ort Erie, and the langer on the Niagiii ronlier was past A i'enian expedi- tion till .lened Prescott, aimhig at reaching the capital at Ottawa, and another band o'. marauders crossed the borltr from St. Albans, Vermont, but both were easily driven back. The Fenian troubles roused strong feeling in Canada against the American authorities. ... A Fenian attack was led by Col. O'Neil on the Lower Canadian frontier, in 1870, but it was easily met, and the United States authorities were moved to arrest the repulsed fugitives. A foolish movement was again made in 1871 by the same leader, through Minnesota, against Manitoba. Through the prompt action of the friendly American com- mander at Fort Pembina, the United States troops followed the Fenians across the border, arrested their leader, and, though he was liberated after a trial at St. Paul, Uinnesota, the expedition ended as a miserable and laughable failure. These movements of the Fenian Society, though trifling in elTect, yet involved Canada in a con- siderable expense from the mainterance of bodies of the Active Militia at different points along the frontier. The training of a useful force of citizen soldiery however resulted. ' -O. Bryce, 8hori Sut. of the Cartadian People, pp. 468- 470. Also IK : O. T. Denlson, Jr., The Fenian Raid on fVrt Erie.—Corr. relating t the Fenian In- tation.—OJtU-ial Report of Gen. » yXeiU. A. D. 1867.— Federatior of 1 ■ .ovince* of British North .imerioi in tL> i^ominion of Canada.— The constitution of the Dominion. — " The Union between Upper and Lower Canada lasted until 1S67, when the provinces of British North Ameriea were brought more closely to- g ether in a federation and entered on a new era 1 their constitutional history. For many years previous to 1865, the administration of govern- ment in Caniida had become surrounded with political difflculties of a very perplexiug charac- ter. .. . Piirties at last were so equally bulanccd on account of the antagonism between the two Bc ; )ns, that the vote of one member might dec.ue the fate of an administration, and the course of legislation for a year or a series of years. From the 3l8t of May, 1882, to the end of June, 1864, there were no less than five dif- ferent ministries in charge of the public busi- ness. Legislation, in fact, was at last practi- cally at a dead-lock. ... It was at thte critical Juncture of affairs that the leaders of tlie govern- ment and opposition. In the session of 1864, came to a mutual understanding, after the most ma- ture consideration of the whole question. A coalition government was formed on the basis of a federal union of all the British American provinces, or of the two Canadas, in case of the lailure of the larger scheme. . . . It was a happy coincidence tliat tlie legislatures of the lower provinces were about considering a maritime union at the time the leadUig statesmen of Canada had combined to mature a plan of set- tling their political dlfflcultiei. The Canadiao 394 ministry at once availed themselves of this fact to meet the maritime delegates at their conven tion In Charlottetown, and the result was tht decision to consider the question of the Urirer union at Quebec. Accordhigly, on the loth of October, 1864, delegates from all the British North American provinces assembled in confer- ence, in 'the ancient capital,' and after very "nple deliberations during eighteen days serced to 78 resolutions, which form the basis uf the Act of Union. These resolutions were formallv submitted to the legislature of Canada in Janu- ary, 1885, and after an elaborate debate, which extended from the 8d of February to the Ulh of March, both houses agreed by very iar^re majori- ties to an address to her Majesty pravinc lier to submit a measure to the Imperial Purliament ' for the piirpoae of uniting the provinces in ac- cordance with the provisions of the Quebec resolutions.' Some time, however, had to elapse before the Union could be consummated, in con- seq jence of the strong opposition that very soon exhibited Itself in the maritime provinces, moi» especially to the financial terms of the scheme " Certain modifications of the terms of the Quebec resolutiODS wer* acccordingly made, and "the grovinces of Janada, Nova Scotia, and New runswick, beUig at htst in full accord, through the action of their respective legislatures the plan of union was submitted on the 12th of 'Peb- niary, 1807, to the Imperial Parliament, where it met with the warm support of the statesmto of all parties, and passed without amendment In the course of a few weeks, the royal assent being given on the 29th of March. Tlie new constitution came into force on the First of July [annually celebrated since, as ' Dominion Day ] 1867, and the first parliament of the united provinces met on November of the same year. . . . The confederation, as hiaugurated in 1867, consisted only of the four provinces of Onurio [Upper Canada], Quebec [Lower Canacia], Novs ScoUa, and New Brunswick. By the Udth sec- tion of the Act of Union, provision was made for the admission of other colonies on addresses from the parllameut of Canada, and fr.im the respective legislatures of Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island, and British Columbia, itnpert s Land and the North-west Territory miglit also at any time be admitted into the Union on the address of the Canadian Parliaincnt. ... The title of Dominion did not appear in the Quebec resolutions. The 7l8t lies, j to the ellect that ' Her Majesty be solicited to determine tlie mnit and name of the federated Provinces.' The name [• The Dominion of Canada 'J was arranged at the conference held in London in IHWl, when the union bill was finally drafted. "—.J. tJ. Iliuri- uot, Manual of Oonet. llitt. of Oinwh. rh. 6-7 ('?*^ foot- »»*()■—" T^e Federal ('(instituiion of the Dominion of Canada is contiiiiHd in the British North America Act, 1867, a statute of the British Parliament (30 Vict., c. 3). 1 note a few of the many points in which it desi ti\ to be compared with that 01 tlie United States.' The Federal or Dominion Oovernnicnt is con- ducted on the so-called 'Cabiuet system' of England, L e., the Ministry sit in I'arliament, and hold office at the pleasure of the House of Commons. The Govertior Genera! [:i[:;uiateJ by the Crown] is in the position of an imspon- stole and permanent executive similar In tliat of the Crown of Great Briutn, acting on the advice CANADA, 1867. ne Dominttm of Canada, CANADA, 1669-1878. of reipoiuible minbten. He can dlnolve Par- liament. The Upper House or Senate, is com- poc-^ of 78 pereons, nominated for life by the Govcmor-Gcaeral, i. e., the Mintotry. The House of Commons has at present 210 members, who are elected for five years. Both senators tod members receive salaries. The Senate has very little power or inQuence. The Oovemor- Oeneral has a veto but rarely exercises it, and may reserve a bill for the Queen's pleasure. The judges, not only of the Feacm' or Dominion Courts, but also of the provinces re appointed by the Crown, i e., by the Domiuion Ministry, and hold for good behaviour. Kach of the Frovinces, at present [1888] seven in number, has a legislature of its own, which, however, consists in Ontario, British Columbia, and Mani- toba, of one House only, and a LieTitenant- Oovemor, with a right of veto on the acts of the legislature, which he seldom exercises. Mem- bers of the Dominion Parliament cannot sit in a Provincial leKisUture. The Qovemor-Oeneral has a right of disallowing acts of a ProTlnclal legislatute, and sometimes exerts it, especially when ft legislature is deemed to have exceeded its constitutional competence. In each of the Provinces there is a responsible Ministry, work- ing on the Cabinet system of England. The distribution of matters within the competence of the Dominion Parliament and of the Provincial legislatures respectively, bears a general resem- blance to that existing in the United States; but there is this remarkable distinction, that whereas in the United States, Congress has only the powers actually granted to it, the State legisla- tures retaining all such powers as have not been taken from them, the Dominion Parliament has a gpneral power of legislation, restricted only by the grant of certain specific and exclusive powers to the Provincial Icgi jtures. Criminal law is reserved for the Dominion Parliament, and no Province has the right to maintain a military force. Questions as to the constitu- tionality of a statute, whether of the Dominion Psriiamcnt or of a Provincial legislature, come before the courts in the ordinary way, and if ap- pealed, beforj the Jv-licial Committee of the Privy Council In England. The Constitution of the Dominion was never submitted to a popular vote, sad can be altered only by the British Parliament, except as regards certain points left to its own legislature. . . . There exists no power of amend- ing the Provincial constitutions bv popular vote similar to that which the peoples' or the several States "xcrdse to the United States. "—J. Bryce, T>u American Commonwealth, t. 1, app , mie (B) to eh. 80.— See Cohstitction op Cahada. Also nc J. E. C. Munro, The Const, of (Mmda (irilh text of Aet in app.}— Pari. Debate on Confidf ration. M Sem., Sth Prm. Pari, of Oiwirfd.— W. Houston, Doei. Illiutrative of the Canadinn Contt, pp. 186-224. A" S- '5?9"'*73-— Acqniiltion of the Hnd- B ". • rV T*""«'y— AamiMion of Manitoba, r1l'"L*'''''"°'''* •"<• Prince Edward's Is' i tothe Dominion.— "In 1869 . . . the Do. u was enlarged by the acquisition of the famous Hudson 8 Bay -rerritory. When the charter of we Hudson 8 Bay Company expired in 1869, Lnrrl Oranvllie, then Colonial Secrelnry pro- {^ ."•" the chief part of the Coini)any'8 f^7'f'^jl''!>;t'j""'''>.'™"''«"'«' ^ ** DoiSinfon lor ijw.ooo; and tite proposition wm agned to on both sides. The Hudson's BayCharter dated from the reign of Charles II. "The region to which it referred carries some of its history im- printed in its names. Prince Rupert was at the head of the association incorporated by the Charter tato the Hudson's Bay Company. The name of Rupert's Land perpetuates his memory. . . . The Hudson's Bay Company obtatoed from King Charles, by virtue of the Charter in 1670, the sole and absolute government of the vast wat<"«hed of Hudson's Bay, the Rupert's Land of t..- Charter, on condition of paying yearly to the King and his successors 'two elks and two black beavers,' ' whensoever and as often as we, our heirs and successors, shall happen to enter into the said countries, territories and leeions.' The Hudson's Bay Company was opposed by the North West Fur Company m 1783, which fought them for a long time with Indians and law, with the tomahawk of the red man and the legal judgment of a Romilly or a Keating. In 1818 Lord Selkirk founded the Red River Company. This toterloper on the battle field was harassed by the North West Company, and It was not until 1821, when the Hudson's Bay and North West Companies- Impoverished bv their long warfare— amalg uiated their interests, that the Red River sett' s were able to reap their har- vesu to peace, disturbed only by occ&«iona! plagues of locusts and blackbirds. In 18.S^ on Lord Selkirk's death, the Hudson's Bay Company bought the settlement from his executors. It had been under their sway before that, having been committed to their care by Lord Selkirk during his lifetime. The privilege of extiusive trading east of the Rocky Mountatos was con- ferred by Royal license for twenty -one years In Moy 1888, and some ten years iater the Company received a grant of Vancouver's Island for tlie term of ten years from 1849 to lSo9. The Hud- son's Bay Company were always careful to foster the idea that their territory wat; chiefly wilder- ness, and discountenanced the reports of Its fer- tility and fitness for colonisation which were from time to time brought to the ears of the English Government. In 1857, at the tostance of" Mr. Labouthere, a Select Committee of the House of Commons was appointed to enquire into the state of the British possessions under the Com- pany's administration. Various Oo.emment expeditions, and the publication of many Blue Books, enlightened the public mind os to tlie real nature of those tracts of land which tlie council from the Fenchurch Street house declared to be so desolate. . . . During the sittings of the Com- mittce there was cited in evidence a petition from 575 Red River settlers to the Legislative As-sem- bly of Canada demanding British protection. This appeal was a proceeding curiously at varl- ance with the later action of the settlement When In 1889 the chief part of the territories was transferred to Canada, on the proposition oT Earl Granville, the .Red River country rose in rebellion, and rclused to receive the new Gov- ernor. Louis Riel, the lusurpent chief, seized on Fort Garry and the Company's treasury, and pre:'... med the independence of tlie settfcment Sir Garnet, then Colonel. Woiseley, was siMit to command of an expedition which reached Fort Garry on Augu,st 28, whei tlie insu'?ents sub- mltt-d without resistance, and the district re- ceived the name of Manitoba." — J. McCarthy, Mitt, of our own Timet, eh. 55 (t. 4). — Jfanitou 896 CANADA, 18W-187S. and the Korthweit Tcrritoriet were admitted to the DominioD Confederation May 12, 1870; British Columbia, July 30, 1871 ; Priooe Edwanl Ulani, July 1, 1873.— J. HcCoun, Maniteba and tkt Ortat North Wut. Also di: O. H. Adam, The Canadian North- teat, eh. 1-18.— G. L. Huyshe, 1%» iM Biter Sipedition.—yi. P. Ores well, JSiW. if tht Do- minion of Canada, p. 813.— J. E. C. Hunro, The Oontitution >f Canada, eh. i.—Q. E. Ellis, The Hudton Bay Company (Ifarratite and Crit- ical met. cjj Am., V. 8).— See, also, British CAK0S8A. CotuMsiA: A. D. 18{»-187l and Nobthwiw Terbitobiks or Canada. A. D. t87i.-The Treaty of Wathin«on. See Alabama Claims: A. D. 1871. A. D. 1877.— The HalUax Fishery Award. Bee FiSHUUBS, Nobth Amkhican: A. D. 1877- 1888. A. D, i8Ss-i8>8.— Termination of the Fish- ery articles of the Treaty of Washington.- Renewtd coatroreraie*.— The rejected TreatT See FisHBBUs, North Ambricah: A. D. IS'n- 188a CANAI, The See Amxbicak Abobigihes: Aloonqciak Familt. CANARES, The. See Eccaoor: Thx abo- rioinal nfRABiTAirrsL CANARY ISLANDS, Diacercry of the.— The first great step in African exploration "was the discovery of the Canary Islands. These were the ' Elysian fields ' and ' Fortunate islands ' rf an- tiquity. Perhaps there is no country in the world that has been so many times discovered, conquered, and invaded, or so much fabled about, as these islands. There is scarcely a nation upon earth of anv maritime repute that ha* not had to do with them. Phoenicians, Ov- thaginians, Romans, Hoore, Qenoese, Normans, Portuguese, and Spaniards of every province (Aragonesn, Castilians, Oalltcians, Biscayans, Andaludans) have all made their appearance iu these islands. The Carthaginians are said to have discovered them, and to have reserved tlicm as an asvlum in case of extreme danger to the state. SertoriuB, the lioman general who par- took the fallen fortunes of Manus Is said to have meditated retreat to these ' islands of the biased, ' and by some writers is supposed to have gone there. Juba, the Mauritanian prince, son of the Juba celebrated by Sallust, sent ships to examine them, and has left a description of them. Then came the death of empires, and darkness fell upon the human race, at least upon the records of their history. When the world revived, and especially when the use of the loadstone began to be known among mariners, the Canary Islands were again discovered. Petrarch is referred to by VIera to prove that the Genoese sent out an expedition to these islands. Lat Caaas mentions that an English or French vessel bound from France or England to Spain was driven by con- trary winds to the Canary Islands, and on its return spread abroad In France an account of the Toyage. — A. Helps, Spanith Omqutet, bk. 1, eA. 1. Also IN: £. H. Bunbury, HiM. of Ancient Otog., eh. 30, noU E. CAN AS, The. See Pkbc: Thr aborioinal DIBABITANTa. CANCELLARIUS. See Chancellor. CANDAHAR.— Siese and reUefof Easlish forces (1880). See Apobanistan: A. D. VM9- 1881. CANDIA.— This is the name of the principal town in the Island of Crete, but has been often applied to Crete itself. See Turks: A. D. Ifi^"!- 1W9. where an account is given of the so-called " War of Candia"; also Crete: A. D. 888. CANDLEMAS. See Q|7artbr Days. CANDRACUPTA, The tmpire of. See iNDrA : B. C. 327-8U, and 313 . CANCI, The.— A tribe in earlv Britain whldi occupied the westerly part of Hodem Camarvon- shire. See Britain, Celtic Tbibbs. CANN.«, Battles ot See Punic TVas- Tbb Second : and Rome : B. C. 90-«>8 CANNING, Lord, The Indian administra- tion ot A. D. 1830-1863. CANNING MINISTRY, The. See Eso- LAND: A. D. 1830-1837. CANON LAW.-" The Canon Law In Its widest sense consists of Holy Scripture the cus- tomary laws and usages of the Church, and of constitutions comprising the decrees and de- cretals of the Popes, the canons of c( . ncils, sod. to a limited extent, the writings of the Fathers. "-J. Dodd, A Bittory of Canon U« p. 15I— In a more restricted sense it is dcscribtd by Blackstone as being " a body of Romsn eccle- siastical law, relative to such matters as that church either has, or pretends to have the p:-oper Jurisdiction over. This is compiled from the opinions of the ancient Latin fatli. r» the decrees of general councils, and the decretal epistles and Dulls of the Holy See " CANOPUS, Decree of.— An important In- scribed stone found in 188S at San, or Tanis, in Egypt, which is a monument of the reign of Ptolemy Euergetes, who osccndi'd the tiirone in 346 B. C. It gives " in hieroglyphics an. I Greek (the demotic vereion is on the edge) a d.iree of the priests assembled at Canopus for their yearly saluution of the king. When they were so assembled, in Ills ninth year, his infant daughter Berenice, fell sick and died, and there w:is great lamentaUon over her. The decree first recounts the generous conduct and prowess of t lie king, who had conquered all his enemies uliniiui, and had brought back from Persia all the stutues of the gods carried off in old time fn)m E^-vpt by foreign kings. He had also, in a great tliVeatcn- ing of famine, when the Nil.' had failed to rise to its full amount, imported vast quantities of corn from Cyprus, Phcenicia, ikc, and fed his [leople. Consequently divine honours are to be paid to him and his queen as • Benefactor Oodt ' in all the temples of Egypt, and feasts are to be held in their honour. . . . This great inscription, far more perfect and considerably older than the Rosetta Stone, can now be cited as the clearest proof of Champolliou's rvading of the hiero- glyphic*. "—J. P. }A»iaSy, tHoryofAkiarukfi Empire, eh. 1.5, note. CANOSSA, Henry IV. at.- In the conflict which arose between the Qcmian Emperor, Henry IV. (then crowned onlv as King of the Romansil and Pope Gregory VII. (the intiexible Hildebnind), the former was place<l at a great disadvantage by revolts and discontents in his own Germanic dominions. Wlicn, therefore, on the 83d of February, A. D. 1076, the audacious SontiS proaouuoc-d aguiuiil Uie kiug Uh, Ixuiiu- ou* (entence, not only of excommunication, but of deposition, releaalng all Christiaus from S86 CANOSSA. ilkghnce to bim, he addreued a large party, both in Gennaiiy ond Italy, who were more than willing to accept an cxcuav for depriving Henry of Ilia crown. Tliis party controlled a diet held at Tribur, In October, which declared timt his forfeiture of the throne would be made Irre- vocable If he did not procure tmn the pope a release from hisexcommuniealion U-forc the com- ing anniversary of its pronunciation, in February. A diet to be held then at Augsburg, under the presidency of the pope, would determire the affairs of the Empire. With characteristic energy, Henry resolved to make his way to the pope, in person, and to become reconciled with bim, liefore the Augsburg meeting. Accom- panied by the queen, her child, and a few attendants, he crossed the Alps, with great hard- thip and danger. In the midst of an uncom- monly cold and snowy winter. Meantime, the pope'had started upon his Journey to Augsburg. Hearing on tlie way of llenry's movement to meet bim, not desiring the encounier, and dis- trusting, moreover, the intentions of Ids enemy, he took refuge in the strong fortress of Canosaa, liigh U(i in the rocky recesses of the Apennines. To thiit mountain retreat tlie desperate king pressed his way. "It was January 21, '077, when Henry arrived at Canosaa; tlie cold was severe ond the snow lay deep. H- V ged at the fcKit of the castle-steep, and Inter- view with the countess Matiliia [i. 11 .'the castle, iiud devoted friend of the rlugli. abbot (if Clugny, and others, in , (^liapul of St. Niiiilas, of which no traces now remain. Three days were spent in debating terms of reconciliation; Matilda and Hugh interce<led with the pope on the king's behalf, but Gregory WH3 inexorable; unless Ilcnry surren<lered tlie crown into the pope's hands tlie bitii should not be takin off. Henry i>nild not stiKip so low as this, liiit he made tip his mind to play the part of a iK'ultent suppliant. Early on the moniing of Jauuarv 2.'i he mounted the winding, rocky path, until he reached the upperiiiust of the Umx Wttll.H, the one which enclosetl the ca.stlc yard. And here, before the gateway which still exists, and perpetuates in its name, ' Porta di penitcn^u,' the memory of this strange event, the king, barefoot, and clad in a coarse woohu uliirt, «rii<Kl knocking for admit'., nee. But lie kwnkcd in vain: from morning till evening the heir of tlie Itoman Empire sIimhI shivering out- siile the fast closed diKir. Two more days he rlimlH-d tlie rugged path and sto<Kl weeping and iraploriiig to lie ailinitted." At last, the Iron willeil pmitill consented to a parley, and an agree- mint w;i9 briuight almut by which Henry was rc'leiiMd friim e.\communication, but the question of his crown was left for future settlement. In theeiul be gaiiiwl nothing by his extraordinary abaseiucnt of himself. Slany of his supporters Were iilieiialed by it; a rival king was elected. Gathering nil bis energies, Henry tlien sttxjd bis ground and made a fight In which even Gregory fled before him; but It was all to no avail. The triiiinph remamed with the priesU.— W. R. W. Stephens, llildebrand and Uu Time$, eh. 11-1.5. Aiw IN: A. P. Villemain, Ltfe of Gregory nr. y- .>;— See, also, P.\P.«Y: A. D. 1056- 1122; iiUi UoME: 1081-I0S4. CANTABRIA, Becomes BardtiUaud Cu- tu«. S.e OPAIA; A. U. 102ft-1280. CAPE BRETON ISLAKD. CANTABRIANS AND ASTURIANS, The. — The Cantabrians » ere an ancient people in the north of Spain, inhabiting a region to tlic west of the Asturians. They were not conquered by tlie Romans until the reign of Augustus, who led an expedition against them in persim, B. C. 27, but was forced by illness to commit the campaign to his lieutenants. The Cantabrians submitted soon after being defeated in a great battle at Vellica, near tlie sources of the Ebro; but in Hi B. C. they joined the Asturians In a desperate revolt, which was not sulidued until three years later.— C. Merivale, Uitt. of the Homunt, eh. 84. Also is: T. Mommsen, Bist. of lionu, bk. 8, eh. 2. — See Appendix A, voi 8. CKHTJE, The.— A tribe In aiiclent Cale- donia. See Britain, Celtic Thibet CANTERBURY.— The murder of Becket (1170). SeeENOLANO: A. D. 1164-1170. CANTERBURY PRIMACY, Ortcin of the. See England: A. D. 5»7-6*5. CANTII, The.— The tribe of ancient Britons which occupied the region of Kent. See Britain, Celtic Tribes. CANTON: A. D. 1839-1842.— The Opium War.— Ransom of the city from English as- sault.— Its port opened to British trade. See China: A. D. 183ft-1842. A. D. 1856-1857.— Bombardment br the English,- Capture by the English and French. See China: A. D. 1856-1880. CANTONS, Latin. Sec Gens, Roman: also Ai.n.i. CANTONS, Swiss, see Switzerland: A. 1). 184I^1B90. CANULEIAN LAW, The. See Rome: B. C. 44,1i-400L CANUTE, OR CNUT, King of England, A. 1). 1(117-1035, and King of Denmark, A. D. 1018-103.'; Canute II., King of Denmark, A. I). lOdO-loae Canute Ilf, King of Den- mark, K. D. 1147-11.')6 Canute IV., King of Denmark, A. D. llS2-r2in>. CANZACA. Sec Ecihtasa. CANZACA, OR SHIZ, Battle of.-A battle fought A. D. 591, by the Romans, under Narses, supporting the caust' of Chosroes II. king of Per- siii, against a usurper Uahram, who had driven him from his throne. Baliram was defeated and l'liosn*8 restored. — G. Kiiwiinson, HeKnth Oreat Oriental Munareht/, eh. 'i'.i. CAP OF LIBERTY, The. Sec Libeiitt Cap. CAPE BRETON ISLAND : A. D. 1497.— Discovety by John Cabot. See America : A. D. U«7. A. D. 1504.— Named by the fishermen from Brittany. See NKWP0tSDL.\ND: A. D. 1501- 1578. A. D. 1713. — Possession confirmed to France. See Newfoixdi.and: A. D. 1713. A. D. 1730-1745.— The fortification of Louis- bourg. — After the surrender of Placentia or Plaisance, in Newfoundland, to England, imder the treaty of l.trccht(5ceXEWPorNDLAND: A. D. 1713), the French government determined to fortify strongly some suitable harbor on the iitlanti of Cape Breton for a naval station, and especially for the protection of the fisheries of France on the neighboring coasts. The harbor known previously as Havre i Y Anglois was chosen for ihe ptirpose. "When the French •■1 397 IJ ■■ CAPB BRETON ISLAND. gOTemment dedded In favour of IIaTi« il' An- glois iu name was changrd to LouiiU>urg, in honour of the king; and, to murk the value §et upon Cape Bret >n it waa called Ule Royalc, ■which it retained until iU final conquest in 1758, when iu ancient name was resumed." In 1780 the fortiflcatioDS were commenced, and the work of their construction was prosecuted with energy and with unstinted liberality for more than twenty years. "Even the English colonies contributed a great proportion of the niaU iHuls used In their construction. When Messrs. Newton and Brad- street, who were sent to confer with M. de 8t. Ovide [to remonMrate against the supplying of arms to the ludi.Hns in Nova Scotia] . . . re- turned to Annapolis, they reported that during their short sUiv at Louislwurg, in 17S5, fourteen colonial vessels, belonging chieflv to New Eng- land, arrived there with cargoes of Iwards, timber and bricks. . . . Loulsbourg [described, with a plan, in the work here miotedj . . . had, between the years 1720 and 1745. cost the French nation the enormous sum of 80.000,000 livres, or £1,- 800,000 sterling; nevertheless, as Dussieux in- forms us, the fortiflcations were still unfinished, and likely to remain so, because the cost had far excowied the estimates; and it waa found such a large garrison would be renulrcd for their defence that the covemraent had alnndoned the Idea of completing tlicm aceordiug u> the original de- sign. "—U. Brown. Hint, uf Iht Island of Ciiiu Jirtton, Utttr$ 9-11.— "The fort waa built of •tone, with walls more timn 30 feet high, and a ditch 80 feet wide, over which was a conmiunica tlon with the town hv a drawbriilge. It had six bastions and three bat I. ties, with platforms for 148 ciuinon and six niorl«rs. On an Islet, which was tliuikril on one side by a shoal, a battery of 80 guns. 28 p<iimders, defended tlio entrance of the liarlior, which waa almut 400 yards wide, and was also commande<l from within liy the Omnd or Royal Battery, mounting as many guns, of the calibre of 42 pounds. The fort . . . waa a safe rendezvous and refuge for French fleets and firlvaUH'rs, sailing in the Western Ileml-Hpliere. t commanded the maritime way InUi Caiiiida and It wutchol the Englisli settlements all along the coast. It was a stjiiiding threat to the great business of New Encl.in.l seamen, which w.is the fishery on the lianks."— J. (i. l"alfr<'y, llUt of S. Kiig., bk. 5, eh. U (r H).—-- 'So gn'at was Its strength that It wii.t called lliv Dunkirk of America. It had nunnerii-sai.d paUces, tirraces and ganlens. That such a city rose upon a low and di-soUle Island In the inlancy of American colonization apiM'am imndihle; explaustlou Is nhiiie fiMiud In the nsliing enthusiasm of tin- P<;n;"l "— f H tllioti, 7 he C. S. aiuUhr \. f rishtnta, yi, 18. A. D. i744.-Outbreak of the Third Inter- colonial War. Mir .Nkw England 1744. A, O. A II A, D. 1745.— Conqueit by the New Enr- laodcra.— Fall of Louisbourc. »•« Nkw E.s" I »NI« .\ 1>. I74,V :in,| E.^ulanii: A. I». 174.V A. D. 1748.— Reitored to France. See Aix i..*» lui-Ki.i.K, TifK i <»ouicHs, and N«w E.n<i. L*Ni> A. It IT4.'>-174'< A. D. i75«-».r«o.-The final capture and dcstnictioo of Lou.ibuurf, by the Enrhsh.- ■ in .Mav. 1.,1H Muring the Siveii Veen War — •«■ Casaua: a. I). 17SO-175a and aflcrj' a CAPITOLIint HILL AT ROME. powerful fleet, under command of Admin] Boecawen, arrived at Halifax for the purpose of recapturing a place [Loulsbourg] which ouirlit never to have been given up. The fleet con- slated of 88 ships of the line and 18 frigates. besides transporta, and when it left Halifax It numbered 157 vessels. With It was a land force, under Jeffery Amherst, of upward of 12,000 men. The French forces at Louishourg were much Inferior, and consisted of only SsliiiS of the line and S frigates, and of about 4 000 aoldlen. The English fleet set sail from Halifax on the 98th of Mav, and on the 8th of June a landing was effecU"d in Uabarus Bay. The neit day the attack began, and after a sha'" ivjflict the French abandoned and destroy^il two ImporUnt batteries. The siege waa then puslied by regular approaches; but it was not until tlie 26th of Julv that the garrison capitulated. By the terms of surrender the whole garrison were to become prisoners of war and to tw s<'nt to England, and the English acquired 218 cannon and 18 mortars, Iieside great quantities of arnmu. nition and military storea. All the vessels of war had bi-eu captured or destroyed; but their crews, to the number of upwani of i.m) men were Included In the capitulation. Two yi^ari later, at the beginning of 1780, orders »,re sent from England to demolish the fortress render the harbor Impracticable, and transp'„rt tlie garrison and stores to Halifax. Tlicw orrlits were carried out so effectually that fev 1 <•,.$ of Ita fortillcntions remain, and llie phue Ii inhablte<l only by fishermen. "—C. C. Sniilli Tfn Wiirs on <lu Henboard (Xarratitt aiui Cnlieai Hill, of Am., r, 5, cA. 7). Also in: F. I'arkman, Montralm nml \y„lft, eh. 19 (p. 2).— 8if, also, Cajiai>a (Nkw KuAMt)' A. D. 1738. A. D. 1763.— Ceded to England by the Treaty of Parie, Set- .Sbvkn Yeakh Waii A. D. 1763.— Added to the government of Nova Scotia. See Canada: A. I). I7i»-1T74. CAPE COLONY. 8ee Sorxii Arm. a CAPE ST. VINCENT, Naval battle ot See Enulami: A. I>. 1797. CAPETIANS, Origin and crowning of tht. Sec France: A. t). ml, and 877-987 CAPHARSALAMA, Batt:. of.-Oiu of the vIcUirlcsof the Jewlsli patriot, Juilns .Miicialmus over the Syrian general .Mctinor. H t' 1(13.— Josenhus. Aiilii/. uf the Jnr; hk 12. rh. 1(1 CAPHTOR.— An ancient Ph<eiii, ian Mttle- ment on the ciwst of the .Nile Dilia ' Krnm an early peri(«l the whole of this distriit li i.| l«ru e<>lonise<l by the riiienlcluns. and as I'li.iiiliia Itai'lf was ealh-il Keft by the Eg\ ii'iaiir tin- |.:.rt of Egypt In whhh they had settled w, 111 livllie name of Keft ur. or '(Iniilcr I'honiiia '— .V H. Hayce, AW«A l.iahl fr,;n Iht .\iin.i,l V>n'i- menU,eh 2.— On the otiier hand. Kn.iM sud other writers say that 'the I'hiliMidiH mme friMn Caplitor," aiHl lliat " this now i.l»...lete niiiiie pmhHlily designated either the whole or a |iart of Cri'le. " ( CAPHYiC. Battle of. -Fought II r t» IsMwien llie Arhieiui ami .!•;(. ili..,ii I., ,,mi,-, CAPITAL PUNISHMENT. >., I.vw, ChiMINAI.. .V ll IMSI nnd llUIO-JM-.XI CAPITOLINE HILL AT ROME -The Capital.— Ill pri'historie times ilij« l.ill nss called the .Mons Suiuriiius, see Varrvj, i,iu. Lat, S'JS cAPrrouMX hul at bohk. CABAFFA. T. 41 ; it! luune being ooonected wtth that legm- duT 'golden age' when Saturn htnuelf reigned In Italr. . . . Tbii bill, which, like the other hills of Rome, liaa had Ita contour much altered by cutting away and levelling, consUta of a nusi of tufa rock harder in structure than that of the Palatine hilL It appears once to hare been surrounded by cliffs, very steep at ni(wt place*, and bad only approaches on one aide — that towards the Forum. . . . The top of the hill is shaped into two peaks of airaut equal height, one of which was known as the Capi- toliuin, and the other as the An, or Citadel. . . . The Capitolium was also in early time known as the 'Mens Tarpeius,' so called from the familiar legend of the treachery of Tarpeia. . . . In later times the name ' rupe* Tarpeia ' was applied, not to the whole peak, but to a part of its cliff which faced towards the 'VIcus Jugarius' and the 'Forum Magnum.' The identification of that part of the Tarpeian rock, which was used for the exeruticm of criminals, according to a very primitive custom, is now almost impossible. At one place the cliff of the Capitolium is quite perpcniiicular, and haa been cut very carefully Into an upright even surface; a deep groove, about a foot wide, runa up the face of thia cuttini!. and there are many rock-cut chambers eicaviili'd in this part of the cliff, some openings into wliicli apiicar in the face of the rock. This is popularly though erroneously known as the Tarpeian rork. . . . The perpendicular cliff was on«' very much higlirr than it is at present, aa then- it a great acrumulation of rubl)isli at ita foot That tills cliff cannot be the Tarpeian rork where criminals were executed Is shown by Dionyaiiu (vili. 78, and vii. 89), who expressly u,v> that this took place in the sight of p^ple In the Fonim Magnum, so that the popular Rupcs Tsrpeia u on the wrong side of the hill. "—J. tl. Middlr^on, Anrient Bom* in 1885, ch. 7. — 8ce. also. »>Kvr.:< Hills or Rome, and QcMS, Komaji. CAPITULARIES.— " It Is commonly sup- pooeil that the term capitularies applies only to the laws of Charlemagne; this is a mistake. The wohl 'capitula,' 'little chapters,' equally spplliD to all tlie laws of the Frank kings. . . . Charlemagne, In hla capitularies, did anything but li'ifiaJHte. Capitularies are, properly speak- ing, tlie whole acta of his government, public seta of all kinds by which he manifested his suthority."— F. Ouiiot, Ilut. <^ Cintimtion, Itrl il, .\i.M>i<i: E. F. Ilenderaon, Sritet UM. Don. ^11; Vi'MU A<in, ** i. CAPITULATION OF CHARLES V. Sea Otiititw: A U. |.VJU-IS3t. CAPO O'ISTRIA, Count, Tha AtMSila*- tioaof. H,v Ohkkce: a. I). i830-i8<M. CAPPADOCIA. See MirnKintTic Wam. CAPS, Party of th*. »<•« M( andinaviah •tukxSwkdkk): a. I). 17»M71«. CAPTAL.— A title, derived fn>m ' ' capiulls, " wiirhiiiny ei|ulv.ilrnt to count, and ancirntjy li Tiic liy wvcral lorils In Aquitaine. "Towanis thr llih irnlurv there were no more than two oipi»l»a.limiwln|grd. that of Huch a"d that of Priiir - ProiMart (Johnea), CArowWw, Mr. 1, M IV „„lr C TiViTY, Priac« «r tU. Bee ivm*. A. I> im^iiM CAPTIVITY OP THE JEWS, Tfc«. »e« iift B. C. 604-M6. CAPUA.— Capua, originally an Etruscan city, called Vultumum, was taken by the Sam- nitea, B. C. 424, and waa afterwards a city in which Etruscan and neighboring Oreek influences were mixed in their effect on a barbarous new population. "Capua became by its commerce and agriculture the second city in Italy in point of size — the first in point of wealth and luxury. The deep demoralization in which, according to the accounts of the ancients, that city surpassed all others in Italy, ia especially reflected in the mercenary recruiting and in the gladiatorial sports, both of which pre-eminently flourished in Capua. Nowhere did recruiting officers find so niunerous a concourse aa in this metropolis of demoimliied civiltzation. . . . The gladiatorial sporta ... if they did not originate, were at any rate carried to perfection in Capua. 'There, seta of gladiators made their appearance even during banqueta"—T. Mommaen, Hi$t. of Borne, bk. «, eA. 5. B. C. 343.— Snrrendar to tbo Romaaa. See Rom: b7C. 848-290. B. C. ai6-aii.— Welcom* to Hannibal.- SicKO and capture by the Romaa*.— Th* city repeoplad, l»ee Pmic War, The Second. A. D. aoo-ioi6.— Th* Lombard principalitj. See Italy (SournERN): A O. 800-1016. A. D. 1501.— Captor*, sack and maiaacr* by th* Fr*ach. See Italy: A D. 13U1-1504. CAPUCHINS, The.- "The Capuchins were only a branch of the great Franciscan order, and their mode of life a modification of its Itule. Among the Franciscans the severity of their Rule lud early become a subject of discuiwion, which finally led to a secession of some of the members, of whom Hatteo de' Bassi. of the con- vent of Muntefalcone was the leading spirit These were the rigorists who desired to restore the primitive austerities of the Order. They liegaa by a change of dress, adding to the usual roonaatic habit a 'cappuccio,' or pointed hood, which Matteo claimed was of the same pattern aa that worn br St. Franria By the bull 'Religionk zelus (1S28), Matteo obtained from Pope Clement VII. leave for hinwlf and his companions to wear thia peculiar dresa; to allow their Iteards to grow; to live in hermitngea, according to Uie rule of St. Francis, and to itevote themselves chiefly to the reclaiming of i^rcat sinners. Paul 111. afterwards gave thin iwr- mission to settle wheresoever they like<l. 1 on- sislently with the austerity of their professions, their churches were unadorned, and their ron- venta built in the simplest style. They benime very servlreal)le lo the I'hurch. and tlieir fear- lessness and HMiduity in wailing upon the sick during the plague which ravagiil the wli<i|« of Italy, maile them extremely popular." — J. .\lzng, MiinuiU iif I'liinrmU C/'urfh Ifirt , r. 8, n. 4M. CAPUCHONS, OR CAPUTIATI. See WlllTK IliHlim (IK PRANrB. CARABOBO, Battles of (iRai-tiM). See Coi.niiBIA!« St\TK8: a 1> 18IH-l8;l<t. CARACALLA, Roman Emperor, A. 211-217. CARACCAS : A. D. ilia.-Deitmction •arthqnake. 8ee C01.0MHIAII Htatm: .\. CARAPPA, CardiMU (Pop« Paul IV.) and th* Counter Rtformatioa. See Papact: A. U. 1387-1303, and I53^I(HX). 8U8 f ! if Iff. fir CARA& CARAS, OR CARANS, OR CARANQUIS, The. See Eccadok. CARAUSIUS, Rerolt of. See BRiTAni: A. D. 288-897. CARAVELS. — CALEONS, Etc. — "The term csrevel wu originally given to ships Mvigsted wholly by uTii u distinguished from the galley propelled by oars. It has been applied to a great variety of veweh of different •lie and conitructton. The caravels of the New World discoverer* may be generally described as lonfc narrow boats of from 20 to 100 tons burden, with three or four mast* of about equal height carrying sometimes square and sometimes lateen •ails, the fourth mast set at the heel of the bow- sprit carrying square sails. They were usually naif-decked, and adorned with the lofty forecastle and loftier poop of the day. The latter con- •titute<i over that part of the vessel a double or tri'lile deck, which was pierced for cannon. . . . The- ealera was a vessel of low bulwarks, navi- gatetf by sails and oars, usually twenty or thirty oars on either side, four or five oarsmen to a bench. . . . The galeaza was the Urgest class of galera, or craft propelled wliolly or In part by nam. ... A galeota was a Bmall galem. Iiaving only IS or 30 oarsmen on a side, and two mtists. The galcon was a large armed merchant vessel with high bulwark!, tliree or four decks, with two or three mnsts, square rigged, spreading courst-s and top sails, and sometimi's tup-gnllaut sails. . . . Those which fplled between Arapuico and Mimila wi're from 1,200 to 3.000 tons bunlen. A galconclllo WHS a small galcon. The carao was • Inrge carrying vessel, the one lntcnde<l for Columbus' sti-ond voyage being 1,2JJ0 tonelcsor I,*!*) tons. A nao, or navlo, was a large ship with hitfh bulwarks and three masts. A nave WHS a vessfl with deck and sails, the former dlMinguishlngit from the l)arc«, and the absence of ours from a galera. The bergnntin, or brig, had low bulwarks. . . . The name brigantine WHS npplii'd In America also to an opi-n Hat- botliiini'd lH)at, which usually carrio<l one sail and from H to 18 men.'— U It. ftancmft, Hitl. uftht Ptififif Stilt,*, t. 1, p. 187, /«)<-Bofe.— See, also Amf.kica: a. n. 1403. CARBERRY, Marr Stuart'* (nrreodtr at. See SriiTLAND; A. D. l.'Ml-l.WS. CARBONARI, Origin and character of the. Sci' 1tai.v(8oittbe«»): A. I). 1H08-1809. CARCHEMISH. See IIittitrs. Tub. CARCHEMISH, Battle of— Fought, B. C 604. between the armies of Neclio, the Egyptian Pharaoh, and Xibuchadnezzar, then crown prince of Habylon. N.rho, lieing ilefeatcd, was driven bark u> Egypt and strippe.1 ..f all hi* Syrian conquesta.— K. I^normant, Mjnual of Antirnt I lint «f thf Kul, hk. a, eh. 4. CAROAOEN, Battle ofdSol). Bee Spain: A. I> l*W-18(H»(r>l«KMnKII-MAIlCB). CARDINAL INFANT, The. SeeXmnn ^: A I) 1(B.V1(WH. RDINALS, Cellefe eC 8« CtTiiA, Tii« i> >■« (I'AfAi.), and Hahmt: A. D. 103». r.'-,*''P.V*^"'' The.- flouth of the Ukc [Ijike.if \«n. In Asia M ...r] lay the Canlufhl wlmm the later Greeks all the Oortlywaiis and OonlyeiiM; but anwmg the Armenians Ihev were known as Kortlii, iiinoni; th.j !4vrURft oa K:trTi;} Thrse an- I he anceslors of the mixlem Kurds a nation bImi of the Aryan st«xk. "— M. Duncker Uitt. </ Antiquitt), hk. 2, eA. 12,— 8ee, abo,' CARL OoBDTKWE.— Under Saladin and the Ayonbite dynasty the Kurds playe<l an imporUnt part la inediaivHl history. See Salaoin. Empirr of CARGILLITES, The. See Scotland A. I). 1681-1689. CARHAM, Battle ot— Fought and won hy an army of ScoU, under King Malcolm, invad- ing the then English earldom of Bemlcin K D 1018, and securing the annexation of Ixitiilan to the Scottish kingdom. The battlefield was near that on which Ffodden was afterwards fou^rht,— E. A. Freeman, Norman G>nque»t, eh. 6 tret i CARIANS, The.— "The Carians may be calleil the doubles of the Lieleges. They are tctmied the ' speakeis of a barbarous tongue ' snj yet, on the other band, Apollo is said to have spoken Cariaa Aa a people of plraU's elml in bronze they once upon a time had their dny in 'he Archipelago, and, like the Normans of the Middle Ages, iwoopcd down from the sea to desolate the coaiU; but their real home was In Asia Minor, where their settlements lay between those of Phrygians and Pisidlans, and ei>m munlty of religion united them with the Lydians and Myslana.' — E. Curtius, Uitt. of Qrttee. hk I «A. 2. — The country of the Carians was the mountainous district in the southwesU-m ancle of Asia Minor, the coast of which is Indented with gulfs and frayed with longprojwtine rocky promontories. The ishind of lUuiilini llej close to it on the south. The Carians were sub- jugated by the Lydlan King Cnpsus, sn.l afier- wanls passed under the Persian yoke. Tlie Persians permitted the establishment of a vassal kingdom, under a dynasty which tiled its capluil at Halicamaasus, ana made that ritv une of the splendid Asktic outposts of (irp<'k art and civilization, though always falthfullv Persian in Its politics. It was to the memory oY one of the C^arlan kings at Ilalicamassus, Mausolu'i. Ilist tho famous sepulchral monumuiit, wliieh jruve Ita name to all similar edifia-s, and wljieh ilic ancients counted among the seven woniiers of the World, was ervcttxl by his widi>w. ||«|i carnassus offered an olwtlnatc reslstame to Alex- ander the Ureat and was destniytnl liy thai ruth- less conqueror afu-r it had BuccuniUil to his siege. Subsequently rebuilt. It never gained im- porunce again. The Turkish town of llmlrura now occupies the site.— C. T. Newton. Tr.mt* nml Ditemeriei in the Ijentnt, r. 3.— ,St, al»o, ItAMmcs and Dorians and Ionian*. CARIAY, The. See Amkrican AnoHiiii.<iiM: Oi'cit OK Coco Oroit CARIBBEAN ISLANDS, The. See AmtHicA: A. D. 149»-14X6, an.l Wkst Isnrit*. CARIBS, The. See Amuhcan Ahoh.oimu. CARtHa. CARILLON.— The French name of F.itt Ticonderoga. See Canada (Skw Fhasck) A. I). K.Vt. CARINTHIA, Bariy mediaeval history. See Hi.AvoNio PcoruM: 6tii-7tii I'KNTi Hilts, and Uf.iim\nv: .K. D. H4a-9«3 CARINUS, Reman Emperor, A. I> >:)- CARIPUNA, The. See Amerk an Aimiii OINKS: Oi'iK OH Coco Oriii-p. CARtSBROOK CASTLE, The flight a( Kln{ Charles to. Sec EsqIwUco; \. v. ioi? (Ai'iirsT— Drtkwrkr). CARIZMIAN8. See Khcarezm CARL,ORKARL. SeeEntKU-KTHKLna 400 'iw4' CAxusoa. CARLINGS. See Fiuiiks (CABl/>Tniaux ExriRE): A. D. 768-814. CARLISLE, Orifin o£ See LvanvALuuK. CARLISTS AND CHRISTINOS. See Spain: A. D. 183S-1846, tod 1878-18aV CARLOM AN, Kinc of the Franka (EMt Franks— Germanj— in aaaociatioa with Louis III.), A. D. 876-881 ; (BurpindTaod Aq Mtainc), A. 1). 879-«94 Carloman, Duke and Priace of the Franks, A. D. 741-747. CARLOS. See Craruu. CARLOVINGIANS. See Fraxxb (Cabo- LDiaiAii Em-iiuc): A. D. 768-814. CARLOWITZ, Peac* ot See Hdhoabt: A. I>. 1688-1680. CARLSBAD, Congrtsa oL See Qbkkaxt: A. D. IH14-l«iO. CARMAGNOLE. See Framck: A. D. 1798 (Pkbkiart— April). CARMANIANS, The— "The GermanUn» of Ilorodutus are the Carmaniaiu of the later Orci-lu, who also passed with them as a separate nation, though closely allied to the Persians and Medvs. They wandered to and fro to the east of Penis in the district now called Kirman. '— M. Dunckcr, IIM. <^ Antiqutty, v. S, bk. 8. ch. 8. CARMATHIANS, Tht.— "In the 277th Tear of the Hegira [A. D. 890], and in the nelgh- butirfaood of Cufa, an Arabian preacher of the name uf Carmath assumed tlic lofty ami tncom- pruliensl'i'.e style of tlie Qutde, tlie Director, tlie Ik-monatration, the Word, the Hiily Gliost, tlie Camel, tlic Herald of the Mi'ssiah, who hiul cci- Terwil with him in a human sliape, ami the rfpri'mntatire of Mohammed the son of All, of St. Jiilin tlic Itiiptist, and of the Aniti'l tliibrii-l," t'annalli »ii» one of the eastern priwi'lviig of tlie K.Tt of tlic Uliiiutileans or Ishmailites— tlie same _ fMm wlilcli sprang tlie k'rrible secret order of ] heim, InUituU* of EecUtiiulieal Uuton the Awiusiua He foL -Ipd another branch of ' etnt'g 12, pt. 8, eh. 8, tett 21 the Uliiiiailcans, which, tailing his name, were ~ ' ' ~ callctl the Carmathians. The s<'ct made rajiid fiaiu.* among the Bedouins and were su<>n a for- Miidalile and uncontrollable bixly. "After a liliK«iy conflict they prevailed In tlie province of Bahrein, alimg the PersUn Oulf Fur and wide tlic tribes of tlic desert were subject to tlie Kvptre, or rather to the swurd, of Abu Said and liiHMin AbuTaher; and these ri'brliioiis imams ci.iiKl iiiurtcr In the field 107,000 fanatics. . . . TliiM'lliesof Itucca and Baulliec, of Cufa an<l Bawirali. were taken and pillaged ; Bagdad was fliltil with conateniation : and tlie caliph trembliil btliiiul tlie veiU of hi* palace. . . . The rapine of the Carmathians was unnctlfled by their aver- ilea U> the worahip of Mecca. They robbed a caravan of pilgrluia, and aO.iKM) devout Moalems Wire abnmiiiiiwl on the burning sands t« a death iif ImuKi r ami thirat. Anotlicr yi'nr |A. I). Bilt) lliey nitfcriKl the pilgriiiw to pmccihI without liitemiptiiin; but, in the festival of devotion. Aim I'iiher stormed the holy city and trampld on ilic- mmt venerable rt'lics of the Mahometan failJi. Thirty thouaaihl clll/.em ami sirangcra wer»- put to the swoni; the saeml precincts were |>„l|utc.| by the burial of 8,0(10 dead Uidk'S; the Well (if Zemzen overflowed with blood ; the giiMen ii|<,iut was forced from lU place; llic veil of tlie Caalis was divided among Uu-se Ini. [.i..ui. m-iurirs: and tlie black stone, the nr»t Bionunient of the nation, was heme away In Wumph to their capiul. After this deed of Mcrlli gc and cruelty they ountlaued lo lufaat the CARNOT. confines of Irak, Syria and Egypt; but the vital principle of enthusiasm had withered at the root . . . It Is needless to enquire into what factions they were broken, or by whose swords they were finally extirpated. The sect of the Carmathians may be coDsidered as the second visible cause of the decline and fall of the empire of the cidiphs." — E. Gibbon, Dtdint and fiiU of the Homan Em- pin, eh. 58, and note by Dr. Ant'tA.— See, also, AsSASaiNBk CARMELITE FRIARS.- "About the middle of the ri2th] century, one Berthold, a Cala- brian, with a few companions, migrated to Mount Carmel [Palestine], and in the place where the prophet Ellas of old is said to have hid himself, built a humble cottage with a chapel. In which he and his associates led a laborious and solitary life. As othera continued to unite themselves with these residenU on Mount Carmel, Albert the patriarch of Jerusalem, near the commencement of the next century, prescribed for them a rule of life; which the pontiffs afterwards sanctinned by their authority, and also changed in various Teapects, and when it was found too rigorous and burdensome, mitigated considerably. Such waa the origin of the celebrated order of Car- melites, or as It is commonly called the order of St Mary of Mount Carmel [and known iu Eng- land as the White Friars] ; » hich subseiiucntly passed from Syria into Europe, and became one of the prlncliNtl mendicant oniera. The Carmel- ites themselves reject with disdain this account of their origin, and most strenuously contend tliat tlie holy prophet Eliiis of the M Testament, waa the parent and founder of tlieir society. But they were able to persuade very few, (or rather none out of their society), that their origin was so ancient and Illustrious. "—J. L, von .>Io»- Ik. 8. .en. », tett. 'i\. Al.«ora: G. Wiiddlngton, //i»*. of the Churth, eh. to, tect. 8.— J. Alzog, Manual of UmtyrmU Church Ilitt., net. 344 (r. 2).— E. L. Cutts, Seen** and Charaelert of tlie .Viitdle Agee, eh. 5. CARMICNANO, Battle of (1796). See France: A. D. 170)1-1797 (October— .\piiil). CARNABII, OR CORNABII, The. See Bhitaim, Celtic TuBEa CARNAC. See Ahirt. CARNATIC. 8<'e Karnatic. CARNEIAN FESTIVAL. The.-A Spar tan festival, said to Imvc been institutiii 11. C. 676. " The Cameian festival fell in the i^paitan month Camrius, the Athenian Metageituon. cor- resnomling nearly to our August. It was held in honour of A|iollo Carneius. a deity worshipped from very ancient times in the Pclo|Hiiiiiese, especially at Amvclte. ... It wa; of a warlike character, like the Athenian HoedrOmla. "— U, lUwllnson, Sotr to l/rnmli'liit, bi. 7. Also IN : E. Curtlus, ;/■•(. of Orrtre, bk. 2, ch. 1. CARNIANS, The. H.>e [(ilktians. CARNIFEX FERRY, Balllt of. Sec UifiTEu States or Am. : A. D. ISOl (Aiofsr- Dbckkrer: West Viruiniai. CARNONACA, Th«. See Britaik, Celth: Tribes. CARNOT, Lasara N. M., and the French |(a*9hitiM|, H<-t> KuAMrg: A. L> 17<>!< (JcyE— OiToiiKR), to 17V7 (Septembkh), and IHOl^-1801 (May— Februaht). CARNOT, Prasldtat, Assaaaioatloa oC 8et^ Fiu.'^iK ; A. U i'*ili-18«j. 401 »Ti CARNTTTEa CARNUTES, The. A tribe who occupied • region siippnaed to be the center of Gaul. The modern city of Chartrcg stands In the midit of Jt. — Q. Lonp, Ikrlint of the Honmn Bepublie, ». 8, rA. S2.— Sec. also, Veneti or WBaTERN Qavl. CAROLINA GRANTS. See Axbrica: A. I). 1639; and NoBTB Caboldia: A. D. lt»- 167(). CAROLINAS, The. See North Caboliha, ■nd S<H'TH CAROLtSA. CAROLINE, Qaeea, Trial oC See Eko- LAND: A. D. 1820-1827. CAROLINE, The Buning: of tb*. See Cakada: a. O. 1887-1838. and 1640-1841. CAROLINE BOOKS, The.— A work put forth hv ClmrlcniHgnc a^lngt imnire- worship. CAROLINE ISLANDS.-An extenalTe group of sniiill isliinils in the Pacific, lying aouth- eastWiinllv from the Pliilippines, were first called the New Philippines, but afterwards named the Carolines, in honor of Charles tl. of Spain. The Islets are some .lOO in number, but their total population is only 20,000 or .'»,(KX), mostly con- taineil in the three Isrtrer islands, Ruk, or tlouk, Poimpe, an<l Yap, or Qnap. That some of them were onee inhnbiU>d by a race capable of great works is shown by the existence of ruins, con- strurti'd of enormous basalt blocks. The ei- Istina; natives are Polynesian. The Carolines were (li<eovere<l by the Portuguese, in 1527, Their possesion was long in dispute between Spain and (Ji-rmany, but settled, by papal arbi- tration, in favor of the former, In 1885, CAROLINGIANS. See Praito (Caro IINOIAN Kmpihk); a. D. 768-814 CARPFT-BAGCERS. See Vnmo States OP .\M : A I) 1H66-1871. CARK .-ilKE.— A Koman work In Britain, formed t. 1 the draining of the Lincolnshire Fens, :iiii; iiml, also, as a road.— II. M. Scarth, Bomiin Rritnin, eh. 16. CARRACKS, OR CARACS.-"A large spwies of merchant vessel, principally used In coasting trade. " among the Spsnianls of the 15th and Iflth centuries.— W. Irving, life and Vof/agm ef lUnm/mt, A*. «, M. 1 (r. 1), /x/t-nofe. — See, also. Caravri.s. CARRARA FAMILY, The: Its rias to aoTsreipitr at Padua and its atrunl* with the Visconti of Milan. See Verona; A, D. l*8i»-|.t:iH. and Milan: A. I) 1277-1447 n *;A?-''.*1*' ^"!;» "' '"• C- S3). See Ro¥« : ^^„'y-W (A. D. »97). See Pbrsia: A. D. Ca'rRICK'SFORO, BattlaoC See United 8TATK«nrAM. : A. I). 18ei(JuNB_j0LT: WbsT VlRlllNHV CARROCCIO. Th».-"The militia of eTerr rity |Im Lonilmnly, or northern luly, elerenth and iwi lull rentiirles) wasdivldnl Into separate bodim, a( i-ortllnjf to IihsI partitions, each fed by a O<mfalonlere, or slandar<l-lM>an>r. They fought on f'Mit. anil Hnwinhled niund the camKilo a heavy car drawn hy oxen, and covere<l with the flap ami annorlal la-nrings of the clly A high pole nw ill ilie niiildle of this car, iH^aring tfic <x>louri anil a Clulsl which siTmed to bless tlie army, wiili Imtli amis rxtendeti. A prlmi said dally inaxs at an alt«r plaiid In the fn>nt of the Mr T!h' trmnpeter!! -.^f tUr r:-jr.R,!5r,j?y w^fa.) on Hip \mk part, aoiiiKle.) Hh' charge ami the retreat It was llerihert, arriiblahop of Milan toBlemporary of Cammi itm Salic, wlw ioTealwi 1897, Eiro- OAirTHAO,u,. this car In Imitation of the ark of allUnce sm) caused It to be adopted at Milan. All the free cities of Italy followed the example: this sacred car, Intrusted to the guardianship of the militia, gave them weight and confidence."— J. C. L de Ismondl, ITitt.af the Italian Remibliet. eh i CARTERET, Sir George, The Grant to. See New Jbbset: A. D, V tJ 1688-1738, CARTERET'S MINISTRY. See lAND: A. D. 1742-1745. CARTHAGE, The foanding: ot-Ethb»al or Ithobaal, a priest of Astsrte, acquired possejl slon of the throne of Tyre B. C. 917, deixisine and putting to death the legitimate prince a descendant of Hiram, Solomon a ally and friend The Jezebel of Jewish history, who married Ahab, king of Israel, was the daughter of this king Ethbaal. " Ethbaal was succceiled bv hii son Balezor (885-877 B. C). After eight years Balezor left two sons, Mutton and Sicluirhaal both under age, , . , Mutton died in the yenr 858 B. C. and again left a son nine Tears old Pygmalion, and a daughter, Eliasa. a few ycirj older, whom he ha<i married to his hmihor SIcharbaal, the priest of the temple of Melkarth Mutton had intended that Elissa and IVirnialiiin should ri'ign together, and tlms the power n>iillv passed into the liands of SIcharbaal, tliehuKlpiind of Elissa. When Pygmalion reached \x\n six. tcenth year the people transferred tn him the sovereignly of Tyre, and he put Slcliarliii:il his uncle, to death , , . (tweB.C). Elissa (,.r liiio, as she was also cslle<l] fled from Tvte Nfiin- her brother, as we are told, with others who would not submit to the tvtsnny of Pygmalion. Th« exiles ... are said , , , to liave laniiwl on ihe const of Africa. In the neigh Nmrhood of Ityke the old colony of the Phenlcians. and then'' to have bought as much land of the Libvanj u could be covered by the skin of an lix. Br diviiling this Into very thin strips they ohtaineii a ph-ce of land sufficient to enable them to build a fortress. This nr>w dwelling-place, or the ilty which grew up round this fortress, the waniler- ers callwl. In reference to their old home, Knr- thada (Karta hadasha), 1. e., "the new cliy,' the Karrhedon of the Qm-ks, the Carth.iire of the liomans. The legend of the punlmsi' of the soli mav have arisen fmm the fait that the settlers for a long time paid tribute to the ancient population, the Maxvsns, for iliilr soil."— M. Duncker, llitl. of Antimit), hk. 3, eh. II. Al«oi^: J. Kenrirk, Phnemria : Iti'l.i'h. 1 Divisions, Sin and Population,— "Hii' iliv pmiHT, at the time at whirh It Is liest known let us, the per' I of the Punic wars, eon»istii| nf the Hyrsa or Citadel quarter, a (Jnik w.inl corruivleil from the Canaanltiah Uorra. orIl.«tni. that (s, a fort, ami of the Cotliim or h.irliour quarter, so Important in Hie history of thi' final siege. To the north and wmt of tlii«i. iiml occupying all the vast -pace belmeen IImmi nnil the Isthmus Is'liind, wini the Megara (iirlm'ir, Mairurim), that Is, the suburbs and i:<ir>li'ii« of Carthage, which, with the city pM|'iT, mvireil an an'a of 211 mile* In clrcii-nferemiv \\* |«i|mi- lation must have lieen fuiiy pn>piirlh>netl loiu siir. Just hrfnrc the third Punic w.ir, whrn ia strength had lieen drained ... It contained IM.im inhabitants."— a B Bmltb, CirtKaft ami th» QirthagiHiani, eh. I. 402 cabtha6b. CARTHAOE. C&rthafeBl«a Commerce, CIEXT. The Dominion ot— " AH our podtlre Infor- mation, scanty u it la, about Carthage and her institutions, relates to the fourth, third, or second centuries B. C. ; ret it may lie held to justify presumptive conclusions as to the fifth centurr B. C, especially in refei. m to the general system pursued. The maximum of her power was attained before her first war with Rome, which began in 2«4 B. C. ; the first and H'cnnd Punic wars both of them greatly reducc<i bcr strength and dominion. Yetln spite of such mlurtion wo Icam that alMut ISO B. C. shortly bcfnrc the third Punic war, which ended in the captun' and depopulation of the city, not less than 700.000 souls were computed in It, as occu- pants of a fortified circumference of above twenty miles, covering a peninsula with Its isthmus. Upon this Isthmus its ciMMlel Byrsa was situated, surmunded by a triple wall of Its oiwn, and crowned at its summit by a magnificent temple of ^cuiapius. The numerous population Is the more remarkable, since Utica (a cnnsiderahic city, nilonlzcd from Phoenicia more anciently than even Carthage itself, and always indci>en<l- cnt >i the Cartliaginians, though In the condition of an inferior nncldiscontenteu ally) was within the (lislanre of seven mHcs from Cartilage on tlic one side, and Tunis si.-emingly not much further nil (in Ihe other. I, ten at that time, too, the Canli:is;iiiians arc tv.ul to have |M>sse8Scd 3iK) tributjiry cities in Libya. Yet tliis wim but a smiill fraction of tlie prodigious empire wlilrli luid iH'liinged to them certainly in the fourth cinturv II C. and in all probability iilso lietwecri tHO-410 U. C. TImt empire extended eastward as fur M the AUiirs of the Philieiii, near the Cwit Syrlis.— westward, all along tlie const to the I'illiirs of Herakles and the western const of MdrtKii) Tlie line of roast soutlieost of Car- tbaire. lu fur as the bay called tlie Lesser Syrtls, was proverbial (under tiic name of Byzacium ami tlie Emporia) fur Its fertility. Along this Mtensive line were dislribukil Indigenous I.lliyiin tribes, living by agriculture; and a mlxeil population called Liby-Pha-nician. . . . Of Ihe Llhy i'hiciiician towns the niimU'r Is not kniiwn to us. but it must liave been pnxllgioiisly gn'.it. . . . A few of tlie towns niimg the coast. — Hippo, Utica, Adrumctuin, Thapsus, Leptis, *c.— were colonies from Tyre, like Cartliago Itself . . . Vet the Carthaginlnns contrived in time to rcnilcr every town tributary, with the e«',.pti„n of Utica, ... At one time, immedl- auly after the first Punic war, they took tnm the mnil cultivators as much as one-half of their proliiie. and doubled at one stnike the tribute levliHl upon tlie towns. . . . The native Cartlm- ginlan», iliough encouragnl by honorary marks to iiinleriake . . . military service ytvn gener- ally avirwj to it. and sparingly employed. A eh.«in divlHioo of »,,V)0 cilisens, men of wenUl, ,111.1 fmnlly. formed what was calltJ the Nneml Uuiid of Cartilage distingtiialii'.l f.>r tin ir liranrv in the flelil as well as li>r the splemtoiir or ihi Ir arms, and tlie gold anil silver plate »h Ml f-rniHi part of their Iwggagc. We shall tlml il„«. ,iti,.,.n troops occaaionally omphiynl •--• - • . :t- :n ainiy ; but moat iwrl of llw Caniia- Itlnlaii ,rmy ronslaU of OhiiIs, Ilierians, Liby- ans. A, , « minghNl host got fogetlier for ifio owssion, ili»tordanl In koguage u well as lu See Tbadc, As- [ enstoms."— O. Orote, But. of Oruee. pi. 2 81. J r . eh. of Syracuse. See Stra- See Sicily: ^3;. C. 4>0.— Invasion of Sicily.— Great defeat •t Utmen. Sec Sicily: B. C. 480 «*• C. 409-40$.— I'.vasions of Sicily.— De- struction of Sehnus, Himera and AKriMntum. See Sicily: B. C. 409-40.5. B. C. 3J«.— Siei oubb: B. C. 897-3S B. C. 383.- War with Syracnte, B. C, 888. B. C. 3<o-30«.— Invasion by AKathokle*. See Syracuse: B. C. 317--W0. B. C. a«4-34i.— The first war with Rome.— Expnlsion from Sicily.— Loss of maritime •npremacy. See Pisic W.\n, Tuk Pihot. B. C. a4i-338.-ReT0lt of the mercenaries. —At the clo»e of the First Punic War, the vet- eran army of mercenaries with which Hamilcar Barca had maintaine<l himself so long in Sicily— a motley gathering of Greeks, LIgurians, Qauls, Ilierians, Libyans and others — was sent over to Carthage for the long arrears of pay due them and for their discharge. Tlie party in power in Cartilage, being liotli incapable and mean, and being also embarrassed by an empty treasury, exasperated this dangerous body of men by delays and by attempts nt bargaining with tliem for a reduction of their claims, until a genenl mutiny was pn>vi>ked. The mercenaries, 20.001) strong, with Speiidiiis. a runaway Campanian slave, .Matlio, an African, and Autaritus, a Gaul, for their leaders, mareluil from the town of Sicca, where they were quartered, and campeil near Tunis, tiireatening Carthaec. The government becaiiio panic-stricken and took no measures which did not einlKilden the mutineers and Increase their demands. All Ihe oppressed Afri- Gin peoples in tlie Carthaginian iloinain rose to Join the revolt, and pounnl into the hands of the mercenaries tlie tribute money which (,'arthage would have wrung from them. The latter was soon brought to n state of sore distress, without an army, witlmu- ships, and with Ita supplies of fooil mostly rut olT. The neighboring cities of Utlra and Hippo Zarytiis were besiegeil. At length the Cartliaglnian government, roiitrollcd by a party liiMtilu to llainilrar, was oliligcil to call hlni to tlie command, but assoeiateiT wllh him ilanno, his liilten'<t personal enemy and the most Incompetent leadiT nf the ruling faction. Hamilcar Hucceeileil. after a despemto and limg struggle, in destroying the mutineers to almost tl last man, and In saving Carthage. But tlio war, which lasted more than three years (U. C. 941-3;W), was mercilevi and horrilile beyond de- scription. It was known to the ancients as the " Truceless War " and tlio "Inexpiablo War." The nvnct ami circiini<tanccs of it have lieen ex- tnionliiiarily piciureii in KlaulH-rt's " tSaiammlio, " whiili is one of the most revolting but moat powerful of historical romances.— it. B. Smith, Carthiigt ami thf Cirlhii'/ininiu, M 8. Also i.\ : W lime, //,W. of llmw. hk. 4, M, 4. B. C. 337-aoa. -Hamilcar in Spain.— The second war with Rome.— Hannibal in ItalT and Sicilr.- Scipio in Africa.— The rreat de- feat at Zaraa.— Loss of naval dominion and of Spain. See I'fMc War. Tii« .SKrovn B. C. 146.— Osstructioa by Scipio.— Cat tliaife exisu-d by Kimian sufferance for fifty years after the endlnij of the Second Punic War, aud even rwxivun.'d some considerable prosperity 408 m CARTHAGE. In tnde, though Rome took care that her chances for recovery sLniild be slight. When Hannibal gave signs of bt'ing able to reform the govern- ment of the city and to distinguish himself in (tatesnunship as he had Immortalized himself in war, Kome denuuide<l him, and be escaped her chains only by Higlit. When, even without Ilannibal, Carthage slowly repaired the broken fortunes of her merchants, there was an enemy at her door always ready, at tlie bidding of Itome, to plunder them afresh. This was Mas- sinissa, the Numldian prince, client and obedient servant of the Roman state. Again and again the helpless Carthaginians appealetl to Rome to protect them from his depredations, and finally they ventureil to attempt the protection of them- sel ves. Then the patient perfidy of Roman state- craft grasped iu reward. It had waited many years for the provocations of Massinlssa to work their effect; the maddened Carthaginians had broken, at last, the hard letter of the treaty of 201 by assailing the friend and ally of Rome. The pretext suHlced for a new declaration of war, with the fixed purpose of pressing It to the last ex- treme. Old Cato, who had lieen crying in the e.irs of the Senate, "Cartliago delemla est," should have his will. Tlie doomed Cartha- cinians were kept in Ignonmce of the fule decrecil, until they hud been foully tricked into the surrender of their arms and the whole arma- ment (if their city. But wlien they knew the dreadful truth, they tli'ew off all cowardice and rose to such a majestv of spirt as had never been exhibited in their liislory bi'foro. Without Weapons, or engines or ships, until they made them anew, they shut their gates and kept the Human armies out for more than two years. It was another Selpio, adoptetl grandson and name- sake of the conquiTtir of Hannibal, who finally entrred Cartlwge (B. C. 146), fought his way to iu eitodei. sireet by street, and, against his own wish, by command of the Implacable senate at Rome, levelli-d its last building to the earth, after sending the inhabitants who survived to be sold as slaves.— R B. Smith, Cart/iagt arul tin Cartluigiiiiuru, eh. 20. Alko in: 11. O. Liddell. ITitt. of Rome, ch. 4«. B. C. 44.— Restoratioa br Casar.— 'A sit- tlement named Junonia, had Uen miulc at Car- thage by C. Oracclius [which furnislu-d his eiiuinics one of thi'ir weapons against him. be- I'ause. Ilicy said, he liiul itmwn in himsi'lf the curse of »( iplo] and it appears that the city of Gracchus s:ill existed. Caesar restored the old name, and, as Strabo savs, rebuilt the place: many Ihimaiis who preferred Carthage to IJoiuo wcrest-nt there, ami some soldiers : and It Is now, adds Straho [reign of Augustus) more populous than any town in Lilya. "—(i. Long, Ikelinf uf tin Jiiiodii liiiiulilii; t. 6. M. 32. ad-4th Ctnturies.— The Christimn Church. Sei'CiiiiisriAXiTV: A. I). 1(I(.-312. A. D. 439.-T«ken by th* Vandalt.- ( artliagc wiw surpriwl and captured bv the VamlaU on tlie Uth of Dei., A. D. 4:)9,— nine years after the conquest ami deailruetlon of the African provinrcs by Oinseric hi-gaii.— ,VH years afUT the ancient Carthaire was destniyiil by Selpio. "A new city ha.! risen fn>m its rulBs. with the Uth- „f a r;..!...ny; gthi tlh.ug!, Cartilage might yield to tlie niyal prerogallvt-s CARTHAOE. maintained the seconl rank in the West— u the Rome (if we may use the style of contemporariesi of the African world. . . . The buildhigs of Car- thage were uniform and magnificent. A sbadr grove was planted in the midst of the capital- le new port, a secure and capacious harbour' was subservient to the eommereial industry of citizens and strangers; and the splendid gameaof the circus and theatre were exhibited almost hi the presence of the barbarians. The repuutlon of the Carthaginians was not equal to tliat of their country, and the reproach of Punic faith still adhered to their subtle and faithless charac ter. The habits of trade and the abuse of luxury had corrupted their manners. . . The King of the Vandals severely reformed the vices of a voluptuous people. . . . The lands of the proconsular province, which formed the Im- mediate district of Carthage, were aecirately measured and divided among the barbarians • •-E. OlUmn. Dedine and fhU of tlie Ihmin Bmpin, cA. 83.— See, also, yAHDAi,8: A. D. 429- 439. A. D. 533 — Taken by Bclisarius. See Vandals. A. D. 583-334. A. D. 531-SS».-The TroWnce of Africa after Justmian^s conquest.— "Suecc8.sive ln- riHids [of the Moorish trib<-s] had reslucHl the province of Africa to onetliini of the n-caoure of Italy; yet the Roman emperors conthiuwl to reign aUive a century over Cartilage unci the fruitful coast of the MMllterrauean. But the victories and the Iosskw of Justinian were alike pernicious to mankind; and such was the dcsiila- tion of A'rica that a stranger might wander whole days without meeting the face either of a friend or an enemy. The nstion of the Van. hi Is liad disappeare<l. . . . Their numbers were inliniiiiv surpassed by tiie number of the Moorish fiiniiliii extirpated in a relentless war; and the same destruction waa retaliate*! on the Romans and their allies, who perished by the ,.llinaU'. their mutual quarrels, and the rage of the barliariana. When Procopius first landed [with lleh^urius, A. D. 533] lie oumireil tlio impulousneis of ilie cities and country, strenuou.sly exereised in tlie labours of commerce and agriculture. In le« than twenty years that busy scene was converted into a silent 8<ilitude; the wealthy ciil/ein escaped Ui .Sicily and Constantinople ; and the secret historian has confidently afflrmed thai tlui millions of Africans were c<msuir.e<l hv tin' wars and government of the Emperor Justiiiian ' -E. Olbbon, Dteliiu and Wi« „/ th» Itaman h'miiire, cA. 43. '^ A. D. A98.— Oestrjction by the Arabs.-" In the 77lh year of the Hegira \.\.. I). HW] . . . .Alxralmalec [thoCalliih] sent llossan Ibn An- uo'man, at the lieail of 4I).0UU choice tniiipn. to carry out the scheme of African fonquest [wlilth hail Iniiguished for some yiiars, during the civil wars among the Moslems]. That genenil pressed forwani at onci' with his triMips against theciiv of Carthage, which, though deillnei! fnmi lis ancient might and glory, was still an ln.|.irtaiit seaport, forlillcil wlili lofty walls. Imuglitj i.iwtn ami iMJwerfiil bulwarks, and had a numoiDus garrisiHi of (ii-eeks and other Christians. lluasHa proceeded acconllng to the old Arab moii.-; he- Inigucrinff and ri.iuelitg it by a twUH »h)(e. tw Zri<.'Z'2i'.^','i^"^\'~"'i"' "r '"■'"' H""*"""" <hcn Bssallcil It bv storm, scaled Us hifiv wsilt ll.^3^ rirl*'.^L » .P*'""!" ««,the traite of with tadih ™, and' inailo hlmsi'ir masteruf tl,.. Aieuwlria or Uie splUMluur of Aiiiioeli, site stUl plaoe. Mwy of the UUutblUuiU fcU by the vtigt 404 CABTHAQE. CARTOUCHE. of the sword ; many eicaped by sea to Sicily and gpain. The walU were then demolished ; the citywas given up to be plundered by the aol- dierr, the meanest of whom was enriched by tnoty. . ■ ■ The triumph of the Hotlem host was suddenly interrupted. While they were tevelling in the ravaged palaces of Carthage, a fleet appeared before the port ; snapped the strong chsin which guarded the entrance, and sailed hito the harbor. It was a combined force of ships and troops from Constantinople and Sicily ; re- infora'd by Ooths from Spain ; all under the com- mand of the prefect John, a patrician eeneral of great valor and experience. Hosaan felt himself unable to cope with such a force; he withdrew, however in good order, and conducted his troops laden wiUi spoils to Tripoli and Caerwan, and, iiaving strongly posted them, he awaited rein- forcemenU from the Caliph. Theae arrived in course of time by sea and land. Hoisan again took the field ; encountered the prefect John, not far from Utica, defeated him in a pitclied Iwttle and drove him to embark the wrecks of his army and make all sail for Constantinople. Carthage was again assailed by the victora, and now its desolatiim was complete, for the vengeance of the Moslems gave that majestic city to the flames. A hcup of ruins and the remains of a noble aque- duct are all the relics of a metropolis that once valiantly contended for dominion with Rome." — W Irving, Mahomet and hit Sueet—an, t. 2, cA. M. Also i!«: N. Davis, Carthage and Her tlemain*. — S«', ilso, Mahometak Cosr^cMT; A. D. 647- 709. CARTHAGE, Mo., Battle of. See United States or Am. : A. 1). 1891 (JtXT— Sbpibmbeb: Miesoi'Ri). CARTHAGENA (NEW CARTHACt .- The founding of the city.— Ilasdrubal.son . law am! sunt-ssor of Ilamilcar Rarca In Si>ain, founded New Ci, rthage — modem Carthagena — some t ime between 229 and 231 B. 0. to be the capital of the C'artliadnian dominion in the Spanish pcuin- >ula.-ll. B. Smith, Carthage and the Cartlia- ffinMns, eh. 9. Captor* by Scipio. See Ptmic Wab. Tnx Skcosd. Settlement of the Alaat in. See Spagi: A D. 4U»-414. CARTHAGENA (S.Am.): A. D. 1697.- Taken and sacked by the French.— One of the la«t enterprliK'S uf the French In the war which was cKwed by Hie I'cacu of Uyawick — under- taken. In fact, while the negotiations at liyswick were in progress — waa the storming and aacking nf Carthagena by a privateer squadron, from Brest, commanded by ruar-admintl Vointis, April, 16U7. "The inhabitants were allowed to carry uwar their effects; but all the gold, silver, and priciiius Ktoucs were the prey 01 tlu conqueror. I'«iiiii« . . . reentrn?<l Brest safe and sound. I>r<iii;ing Imck to his sliipowncrs more than ten milliiiuH. Tlie nWccrs of the squailron and the privHt -ers hail well provldwl for themselves be- >i<les, ami the Hpuniards hail pmliably lost more tlian twentv milliona"— It. Martin. J/itt. of fUnft: .ijo of LmUXt V. (<r. »* 31 ' L. Booth), r i. rh i A. D. 1741.— Attack and repulM of the Sii(lish. ik-« EauuaxD: A. 1). 17S9-1741. A. D. iSlS.— Siege and capture by the Spaniarda. See Colombian States: A. D. 1819- 1819. CARTHUSIAN ORDER.- La Grande Chartreuse.—" 8t. Bruno, once a canon of St. Cunlbert's, at Cologne, and afterward chan- cellor of the metiopolitan church of Rheims, fol- lowed by six companions, founded a monastery near Orenoble, amid the bleak and rugged mountains of the desert of Cliartreuse (A. D. 1084). The rule given bv St. Bruno to his disci- ples waa founded upon that of St. Iknedict, but with such modiflcatlons as almost to make of It a new and particular one. The Carthusians were very nearly akin to the monks of Vallis-Umbrosa and Camaldoll ; they led the same kind of life — the eremitical Joined to the cenobltlc. Each re- ligious had his own cell, where ho spent the week in solitude, and met the community only on Sun- day. . . . Never, perhaps, had the monastic life surroimded itself with such rigors and holy aus- terities. . . . The religious were bound to a life- long silence, having renounced the world to hold converse with Heaven alone. Like the solitaries of Thebals they never eat meat, and their dress, as an additional penance, consisted only of a sack-cloth garment. Manual labors, broken only by the exercise of common prayer; a board on the bare earth for a couch ; a narrow cell, where the religious twice a day receives his slight allowance of boiled herbs; — such Is the life of pious austerities of which the world knows not the heavenly sweetness. For 800 years has this order continued to edify and to serve the Cliurrh by the practice of the most sublime virtue ; and Its very rigor seems to hold out a mysterious attraction to pious souls. A congregation of women has embraced the primitive rule." — J. E. Dartas, Uitt of the falhUie Chureh, t. 3, eh. 4, yxir. 26, and ai. 10, ;«r. 11. — From the acoouvt of a visit to the Grande Chartreuse, the jiareut monastery, near Grenoble, made In 1667, by Dom Claude Lancelot, of Port Royal, the follow- ing Is taken: " All I had heard of this astonish- ing seclusion falls infinitely short of the reality. No adequate description can be given of the awful magnificence of this dreary solitude. . . . The desert of the Chartreuse la wholly iuacces- sible but by one exceedingly narn)w detllc. This pass, whicli is only a few feet wide, ii indeed truly tremeiidous. It winds Ix'tweiMi stupeiniiius granite rorka, which overlmng aliovc. . . . Tlie mouaatcry itself Is as striking as the approach. ... On tlie west . . . there is a little .'pnce which ... is occupieil by a dark grove of pine trees; on every otlier side the rocks, wliidi are as sleep as so many walls, are not more than ten ya' ds from the convent. By this means a dim and gloomy twilight perpetually reigns within." — M. A. Schimmelpenninck. A ("«r i(» AUt and La Orantle Clifirtrr'ine. r. 1. />/). 6-13. CARTIER, Jacques, Exploration of the St. Lawrence by.— ^XT AMbiiicA : .V. I). 1.>34-I5;i5, ami 1.M1 I6oa. CARTOUCHE.—" It is impiMsible to travel in UpiH'r Egypt without knowing what i» meant by u cartouche. .V cartouche Is that eliHiir:ited oval tennlnutnl by a straight line which i:* to be seen on every wall of llie Egyptian liiiiplea. and of which other monuments also alTonl us numerous examples. The cartouche always coutaios the luuue uf a king or of a queeu, ur u 405 yv CABTOrCHK. •ome CMM the names of royal prlneeaacii. To dMignate a king there are mo*t frequently two car»«uche« aide by side. The first Ig callc-d the Srsnomen, the second the nomcn. "— A. Biarictte, hnumenU of Upper Egypt, p. 43. CARTWRIGHT'S POWER LOOM, The iaventioa oC See Cotton Manufactcre CARUCATB. See HiDB OF Land. CARUS, Roman Emperor, A. D. 283-283. .„9,*?A "ATA, Battle ot See Mexico: A. D. 1847 (Harcu— September). CASALE: A. D. i6a8T63i.— Siege by the Imperialists.— Final acquiaition by France. See Italy: A. D. 1687-1631. A. D. 1640.— Unsueceasfnl siece by the Spaniards. See Italy: A. D. 1635-1680 A. D. 1697.— Ceded to the Dnke of Savoy. See Savoy and Pieomont: A. D. 1380-1713 See CASALSECCO, Battle of (14J7). Italy: A. D. 1412-1447. CASAS, Bartolom< de las, The humane labors oC See Slavery: Modern— of the Imoians. CASOIM. See Babtix>nia. PRiurm"',. CASENA, Maasacre at. See Italy: A. D. 1343-1393. CASHEL, Psalter of. See Tara, The Hill AKD THE PeIS OP. .CASHEL, Synad of. See Ireland: A. D. 1169-1173. CASHGAR. See TcnKKsTAN. CASHMERE. See Kaaumir; alao, Siebi. and I.ndia: A. D. 184.VlS4fl ,nlFu^^'**J'* .'•• *?'"« "' Poland, A. D. 1037- J?~ ;.«;*^"'2"" "•• °"^« »' Poland, A. D. 11.. -1194 Casimjr III. (called The Great), King of Poland, A. I). 1333-1370 Casimir IV., Kinr of Poland, A. D. 144JV-1492 Caiimir, John, King of Poland, A. D. 1648- CASIMIR-PERIER, Presidency of See Pranie : A. D. lHfl4-l«)5. ^CASKET GIRLS, The. See Louisiana r A.'i^lS^^TsJ^^^"'*^''^-- «-«cotland: CASPIAN GATES (PYLiE CASPIiE).- An iinporUnt iihss in the Ellmrz Mouotoitis so called by the Greeks. It Is iilentiflcd witli the puns known to tlie modern PtTslans as the Ointnni Sunliir-ali, some fifty miles or more easlwunl or n.irthpnatwanl, from Ti'liomn. "Throuirli this \nua alone can armii's proofed from Armenfii Mnlm. or Persia eastwanl, or from Turkestan Khonisan and Afirhanigun inu> the more western parts of Asia. Tlie ponition ig tlierefore one of Rrlniary iniimrUncc. It was to guard It that liajtfs was Imllt so near to the eastern end of iu territor}-. ' — O. liawlinson, tiitth Gnat Oriental Moiutrchji, eh. 4. Also in: Same, Fitt Ormt Uonarrkin: Me<Ua, cA. I. CASSANDER, and the wars of the Dia- dochi. N'c.Macki>onia: H. Caaa-SietoSUT-iiw- alw. Orivcr: B. f. 821-312. CASSANO, Battles of (170J and I7M). S.'c Itait- a n. 170}-!7i3. aud France, a" "TW (Apnii. — Septemher). CASSEL: A. D. isSL-Hnnied by the Frtack. SeeFLaNDBRS: A. U. lan. CASTE SYSTEM OF IXDIA. CASSEL, Battles of (13*8 and 1677) Rm Flanders: A. D. 1828, and NETHERLANustHoT LAND): A. D. 1674-1878. CASSIAN ROAD.— One of the great H uian roads of antiquity, which ran from Hon « bv way of Sutriiim and Cliisium to Amtium'ana Florentla.— T. Mommsen, Ui*t. of Home, bk 4 ck. 11. • • » CASSII, The.— A tribe of ancient Britoni whose territory was near the Thames. 8«; 11=, TAIN, Celtic Tribes. CASSITERIDES, The.-The " tin Islands." from whicli tlie Phopnicians and Cartlin-iniain obtained their supply of tin. Some arclino|.jLM«. identify them with the British islands, m\w with the Scilly islands, and some with the islands In Vigo Bay, on the coast of Spain.— Charles Elton. OngtruofEng. Ilitt. ^ Also in: J. Rliys, Celtie Britain. CASSOPIANS. SeeEpiRis. . ^!^?*^^}*^^ SPRING.-A sprinp which Usued from between two peaks or cliffs of Mount Parnassus and flowed down-, inl in a cool stream past the temple of AdoUo at Delphi. CASTE SYSTEM OF ihoiA, The.- •' The caste system of India is not base.1 uiwo an exclusive descent as involving n differencv of rank and culture, but u|K>nan exclusive dcacmi as in- volving purit V of blood. In the old materialistic religion which prevailed so Inrgelv in the ancient world, and was closely associatjHl wiih scxuaj ideas, the maintenance of puritv of hl()(«l was regarded as a sacred duty. The "indivi,;ual had no existence independent of the faiiiilv Mala or female, the individual was but a link in the life of the family: and any inu-rmixtun. would be followed by the separathm of the impure branch from tlie parent stem. \r a wnni caste was the religion of the sexes, and as sucli'.xisu 1.1 Ind a to tills day. . . . The HimliiH arc di- vided into an infinite numlier of castes nccord- ing to their hereditary trades and prof.siiions; but In the present day they are nearly all ora- prehended in U - great castes, namelv the Ilralimans, or prii Kshalriyas, or soldiers- thc\ai8va8, or merchi. , ; and the Siidms. or wrvilc clasg. The Bralimans are the iti.Miih of Brahma ; ti.e Rshatriyas are his arms ; tli.- Vaisras are his thighs; and the Siidrus are his fi.t, the three first castes of priests, soldiers, and nicr- chants, are distinguished from the fourtli ea«lo of Siidras by the thread, or paita, which is worn depending from the left shoulder and restinit on flic right side below the loins. The Investiture usuallv takes place between the eiirhtli and tw< Ifth year.andls known as the second liirlh and thosewho are invested are termed the twice bom. It is ditncult to say whether the thread in- dicates a separation between the compiin.rs and the conquered ; or whether it origlnali-d iu a re- ligious investiture from which the Siiilm.s were excluded."— J. T. Wheeler, Ilitt. of liuli.i. e. 3, pp. 114 and 64. — "Among tlic delusions atiout modem Indhi which itwTiiis impoBsibie l.> tiiil.ihe jielief still survives tliat, allhciugh llirre have lieen many changes in the system of caste it re- mains true that the Hindu |xipulath>n is dinded Into the four great classes dewrllK-ii by Mauu: BmlimHns, Kshatrivas. Vaisvas. aim Sudris. In India iuieif this no'tion Is fostemt hv thi- mors learned among the Urahinans, who hive lo make themselves and others believe in the cnntinuoui eiUtcnce of a divinely constituted orgauizatiua 406 CASTE SYSTEM OF INDIA. CASTLE ST. ANOELO. To what extent the rcligloas and Mcial mtemi iludowcd forth In the ancient Bralimnntcal litera- ture hiiil an actual existence It is ditncult to say, but it is certain that little remains of them now. The Bralimans maintain their exceptional posi- tion- but no one can lilscera the other great castes whicli Manu described. Excluding the Brah- mans. caste means for the most part hereditary occupation, but it also often signlfles a common oridn of tribe or race. India, in the words of Sir Honry Maine, is divided into a vast number of independent, self-acting, organised social groups— trading, manufacturing, cultivating, •in the enormous majority of Instances, caste Is only tlie name for a numiier of practices which are followctl by each one of a multitude of groups of min, whether such a group be ancient and natural or modem and artificial. As a rule, every trade, every profession, every guild, every tribe, every class, is also a caste: and the i lemuets of a caste not only have their speciui objects of worship, selected from the Hindu Pantheon, or adoplfl into it, but tliey exclusively eat together, and exclusively intermarry." Mr. Kltts, In his Intensting "Compendium of the Castes and Tribes of India," compiled from the Indian Census re- ports of 1881. enumerates 192« different castes. Forty-seven of "licse have each more than 1,000,- 000 mcmlx-rs; twenty one Inve 2,000,000 and up- wards. The Bralimans, Kunbis (agriculturists), and Cliuinars (workcre in leather), are the only tlirec ntstfs each of which has more than 10,- 000 OOO; nearly 15 percent, of the InhabitanU of India are included In these three castes. The dl8tin<tions and sulMlivisions of caste are in- nuim rahic, and even the Brahmans, who have this in common, that t'.iey are reverence<l by the mcmlKTs of all other castes, are as much divided anion)? iliimst'Ivcs as the rest. There are nearly li000.0<IO Urahmnns; according to Mr. Shcrring, to his wnrlj on " Hindu Tribes and Castes," tlierc are m'ire than 1,800 Brahmanical subdivisions: and it cipiistantly happens that to a Brahman of some particular class nr dUtrict the pollution of callna with other Bralimans would ue nitnous. . . . Tlie Bralimans have become so numerous tlul only a small proportion can be employed in aacrnlotal funi-tiuns, and the charity which it Is a dutv tn bestow upon them could not, however profu'st. be sufliclent for their support They are found in almost every occupation. They are soldiirs, cultivators, tnulers. and servants: they were vi rv numerous In the old Sep.iy anny, and the nami'of one of their sulidlviaions, 'Pandc,' liccami' the generic term by which the mutlneera of iC'iT were commonly known by the English In Inlia. ... Mr. Ibtietaon, in his rejKirt on the census in the Punjab, shows how completely It is tnic thiit castu is a social and not a religious institutiim. Conversion to Mohammedanism, for tostancc. does not necessarily affect the caste of the convert." — .Sir J. Strachev, Iruiin, leet. 8. Aisors: M. Williams. RtUgiotit Thought and Life in Imliii, rh. 18.— Sir A. C. Lyall, Atintie Sluriif. eh. 7. — 8ir II. 8. Maine, nilage Gmmuni- tia, rh. J. CASTEL. See MoooicTlAcrM. CASTELAR AND REPUBLICANISM IN SPAIN. Sec SrAix; A. D. 1966-1373, and 1B7S-1HRV CASTELFIDARDO, Battle of (iltoX See Italy: a. I). 18S«>-18«1. CASTELLANO. See SPAinn Coon. CASTIGLIONE, Battle of. See Fiuircx: A. D. 1706 (April— October). CASTILE, Early inhabitants oC See CEI.TIBEniANS. A. D. 7I3-I330.— Oripn and rise of the kingdom. See Spain: A. D. 713-737, and 1026- vm. A. D. 1 140.— Separation of Portugal at an independent kinsdom. See Poktl'ual: A. D. 109.V1825. A. D. 1 169. —The first Cortes.— The old monarchical constitution. Sec Cortes. A. D. 1312-1338. — Progress of arms.— Per- manent nion of the crown with that of Leon. — Conquest of Cordova. — Vassalage imposed on Granada and Murcia. See Spain: A. D. 1212-1238. A. O. 1348-1350.— Reigns of St. Ferdinand, Alfonso the Learned, and their three succes- sor*. See Spain: A. D. 1248-13.50. A. D. l366-t36o.— Pedro the Cruel and the inTasion of the English Black Prince. See Spain (Castile): A. D. 1:16« 1369. A. D. 1368-1476.— Under the house of Traa- tamare.— Discord and citU war. — The triumph of Queen Isabella and her marriage to Ferdi- nand of Aragon. See Sp.un: A. I >. 1368-1479. A. D. 1515. — Inr - poration of Navarre with the kingdom. Sec Navarre: A. D. 144'i-l,'>21. A. D. 1516.— The crown united with that o( Aragon, by Joanna, mother of Charles V. See Spain: A. O. 1496-1517. ^ CASTILLA DEL ORO. See America: A. D. 1509-1511. CASTILLON, Battle 01(1450). See Francr: A. D. 1431-1453. CASTLE ST. ANGELO.— The Mausoleum of Hadrian, begun by tlie emperor Hadrian, A. D. 135, and probably completed by Aut<minu8 Viva, "owes Its preservation entirely to the peculiar fitness of its site and shape for the purjMtses of a fortress, which it has served since the time of Bclisariua. . . . After the burial of Marcus Aurelius, the tomb was closed until the sack of Rome by Alaric in 410 A. D., when his barba- rian soldiers probably broke it open in scareh of treasure, and scattered the ashes of the .\ntonines to the winds. From this time, for a hundred years, the tomb was turned into a fortress, the possession of which became the object of many struggles in the wars of the Qoths under Vitlges (M7A. D.)and Totllas (killed 5.V2). From the end of the sixth century, when flregory the Great saw on its summit a vision of St. Michael sheathing his sword, in token timt the prayers of the Romans for preservation from the plague were heard, the Mausoleum of Hudriun was considered as a consecrated building, under the name of '8. Angelus inter NuIk's.' ' l.'sque ad Cnflo8,'or "Inter Cffilos,' until It was seizetl In 923 A. D. by Alberic, Count of Tusculum, and the infamous Marozla. and again N'oame the scene of the fierce struitKles t)ctwc»'n Popes, F.mperors, and reckless adventurers which marked those miserable times. The last Iniuries appear to have been Inflicted upon the building In the contest between the French Pope Clemens VII. and the Itilmti P-r-*; Urban VlII [=r<> Papact: A !>. 1377-1417J. The exterior was then finally dis- mantled andstripped. Partial additionsand resto- rations soon began to take phice. Boniface IX.. Id the beginning of the fltteentb century, erected 407 CASTLE ST. ANOELO. new battlemenu and fortillcatioiu on and anund the buUdlug ; aud since his time it liai remained in the poKseiwidn of tlie Papal government. Tlie atrange medley of Papal reception rooms, dun- geons and miliUry mafnzines which now en- cumUirs the top, was chiefly built by Paul III The corridor connecting it with the Vatican dates from the time of Alexander Borgia (1494 A. D.), and the bronze statue of St. Michael on the summit, which replaci-d an older marble statue, from the reign of Benedict XIV."— R. Bum, Ronuaiul ,7i« Campagm, eh. 11. CASTLENAUDARI, Battle of (i^). See FliANCB: A. D. 1830-1638. CASTLEREAGH, Lord, and the union of A'lTniw-l^*'"" ="'^°- ^ J«'"^°= C ASTC a WAR "i.— " Durobrivian or Castor ware, as it is variously called. Is the production of the extensive Roinano-Britteh potteries on the Klver Aen in Northamptonshire aud Hunting- donshire, wliich, with settlements, are compuu-d to Iiave covered a district of some twenty square miles in extent. . . . There are several varieties . . . and two especially have been remarked: .„ . /• ''''"'• •"' 8'«te-coIoured, the other reddish-brown, or of a darli copper colour "— L Jewett, 6'/vipe Mmindt, p. 158. CASTRA, Roman. — " When a Roman army was In the held it never halted, even for a single night without throwing up nn entrenchment capable of conuiining the whole of the troops and their bngpige. Tills field-work was termed taslni. . . . The formof thecampwasas<iunre each siilc of which was 8,017 Roman feet in length. The defences consisted of a ditch (fossa,) the earth dug out, being thrown Inwards tons to form a rampart, (agger,) ujwn the sum- mit of which a palisjide (vallum) was erected of »_0(xlen Slakes, (valli — sudcs,) a certain number or which were carrie<l by each soldier, alonir with his eiitrem-hing tools."— W. Ramsay, Manual of Komitn Aiiliii^. ch. 13. .Sf^^TJ'CUM. Battle ot See Fkancb; A. I). 1i!I9(SkITE.MBER— OCTOBEH) ,.fo*.^J..'*'°'^S' ''■''*• SeeALBAKiAKs: A. D. l44t)-i4Di. CASTRUCCIO CASTRACANI, The dea- •^i.'!^ »;-i;'.''J^^''^'= ^- D- 131»-1330. CAT NATION, The. See American Abo- Bioi.NEs: lIiHoNs, &Q., aud Ihoouois Con- FEOKRACY: TllEIR Co.N<JUE8TS, &c CATACOMBS OF ROME, The.-'The Jtoman Catacombs — a name consecratitl bylonK usage, but having no etymological ineauini, and not a very .htcriiilnate geographical one — are a va-st labyrinth of galleries excavated In the bowels of the earth in the hills around the Eternal tity; not in the hills on v.hieh the city Itself was built, out in those beyond tlif walls Their extent Is tnormous, not as to the amount of superticlal »oll which thty un Icriie. for they rarely, if ever, pass U-yond the third milestone from the city, but In the actual 'ength of their gallirics; for these are often excavated on various levels, or plani, three, f-ir, or even five one above the other, and the\ jss and lecniss one another, some time* at i; t Intervals, on each of thrs.. levels: so th.it, on the whole there «e certainly not less that 830 miles of them: that 8 to say. If stretched out In one continuous line, they would extend the whole length of Italy CATALAN GRAND COMPANY. 408 jticlf. The galleries are from two to four fwt in width anJ vary in height acconling to S. nature of the rock in whicE they are dug The wa Is on both sides are pierced with h,,rizonul niches, like shelves in a book-case, or bertlis to, steamer, and every niche once contained one or more dead bodies. At various intervals t!ii« succession of shelve* Is interrupted foraniiment t»t roor Toay be made for a doorway oiunlo,; Into a uuall chamber; and the wall, „f th«! chamber, are generally pierced with gmvesin the *ame way a* the gafterics. These vast ei cavaUon* once formed the ancient Chriatlan cemeterie* of Rome; they were beL-un in apMtolic times, and continued to be used as burial-place* of the faithful until the capture o the city by Alaric in the year 410. In tl e tl. W oenlury. tiie Roman Churoh numbere.1 twen v! five or twenty-six of them, corresponding to t£o number of her titles or parislies witlilii the dtr and bes de* these, there are about twenty oilien.' of «maller dimensions. Isolated monununu of special martyr*, or belonging to this or tb»t private faudly Originally thev all belonged to private families or individuals, the villas or garden* in which they were dug being the property of wralUiy citizens who had eml.raced Uie faith of Christ, and devoted of their sulistance to His service. Hence their most anciiiit titles were taken merely from the names of tli. ir l«w- ful owners, many of which still survive It has always been agreed among nun of learn- ing who have had an opportunity of exaiiiiniuj tliese exravatlons, that they were used exclusively by the Christian* as places of burial and of hol.i- Ing religious assemblies. Jlotiem researih bat placed t beyond a doubt, that they wire also originally designed for this purpose and for no other. -J. 8. Northcote and W. U. Bro»nlo», Roma Sotterranea, At. 1, dt. 1. Al^ Ut: A. P. Stanley, C/irutian /mtitulion,, Cn, IS. CATALAN GRAND COMPANY, The.- The Catatan Grand Company was a formidable oprty of miliUry adventurers — merceuarv sol- diers—formed in .Sicily during the twcutv'viara "'war that followed the Sicilian Vrajiera. High pay and great license drew ihi^ bwt sinews in Catalonia and Aragon into iiicrcen- arv battalions of Sicily and ind' : •li,m to submit to the severest disciplhin ;],„ con- elusion of peace in 1802 Uirew tiii ni.d army out of employment, and the gre ' pan of iu members were enlis'ed in tlie sit* ■ of Aiulrooi- cus II., of the restored Greek empire at t•|p|l^tauti■ nople. They were under the coniiiiaml ..f one Roger de Flor, who had been a T.rnpliir, de- graded from his knighthoo<i for ci.sirtinu. and afterwards a pirate ; but wliosc niililarv lalcuu were undoubtwl. The Grand (Oinpanv soon quarrelled with the Greek emperor: it.-. 'Uailir wa* assassinatwl, aud open war dei land. Tin' Greek army was terribly defeated in a Imttle ul Apros, A. D. 1307, and the t'aulans pluiidired Thnice for two years without resistaiicr. Galli- pot . their headquarters, to which tiny linnigbt their cantlves, became one of the gnat slave Diarts of Europe. In 1310 they niarihi-.| Into the heart of Greece, and were engaged in the service of Walur da Brieuiie. Duke of .\iiitns He, too, found them dangerous wrvants. Quarrel* were followed by war: tin Duke perished In a battle (A. D. 1311) with his CatslsJi CATALAN GRAND COMPANT. netenuries on the Ixuilu of the CephiMUi; bit dakedom. embracing Attics and BoeotUi, wu the nrlM of their victory. The widows and daugh- ters of the Greek noble* who had fallen were forced to marrv the olflcen of the Catalans, who thus settled tnemselves in familv as well as esttte. They elected a Duke of Athens; but nf<)ceeded afterwaids to make the duchy an sppansge of the House of Aragon. The title wu held by sons of the Angoneae kings of SIcilv until 1377, when it pasaedto AlphonaoV., king' of Aragna, and was retained by the kings of Spain aftrr the union of the crowns of Aragon and Castile. The tituhir dukes were represented at Athens by regents. " During the period the duchy of Athens was poaseased by the Sicilian branch of the house of Aragon, the Catalans were incessantly engaged In wars with all their neighbours." But, gradually, their militarr vigor and discipline were loat, and their name aaJ power in Greece disappeared about 138«, when Athens and most of the territory of its duchy was conquered by Nero Acciainoll, a rich and powerful Florentine, who had become governor of Corinth, but acted aa an independent prince, and who founded a new ducal family. — 6. Finlay, Hut. of tht Bymntine and Greek Empiret, bk. 4, eA. 2, leet. 8. Also in : Same, Hiit. of OreeeefYam itt Onui. by thfCnundert, eh. 7, ««■. 8.— E. Gibbon, Dteiine and Full of the Roman Empire, eh. 63. CATALANS : A. D. 1 151.— The Cotinty of Barcelona united by marrUce to Aragon. See Spun: A. D. lOSS-lSM. A. D. lath-isth Centuries.— Commercial importance and municipal freedom of Barce- lona. See B.^RCELON.v; 12th-16th CESTCRtES. A. D. 1461-1473.— Long but unaucceaaful revolt against jonn II. of Aragon. See Spain : A. D. i;W«-14TU. A. D. 1630-1640.— Causea of diaalfection and revolt. See Spain : A. D. 1837-1640. A. D. 1640-1653.— Revolt.— Renunciation of allegiance to the Spanish crown.— Annexation to France offered and accepted.— Re-sabiec- tion to Spain. See Spao: A. D. 1640-1642; 1644-1646; 164&-16.W. A. D. 1705.- Adhesion to the Alliea in the War of the Spanish Succeaaion. See Spain: A.D. 1:0.5. A. D. 1713-1714.— Betrayed anddeaerted by the Allies. See Spain: A. D. 1713-1714 Bee Hens: CATALAUNIAN PLAINS. A D. 4.M. CATALONIA. See Catalans. CATANA, OR KATANA, Battle of, See SvHAdsK: B. C. 397-396. CATANIA. — Storming and eaptnre by King Ferdinand (1849). See Italy: A. D. 1«HN-1H4». CATAPAN. See lTALT(3o0THKaH): A. D. 800-1(11(1. CATAWBAS, The. See Aioeiucan Abo- BIOISKS: SlOlAN FaMILT. CATEAU-CAMBRESIS, Treaty oC See Fr.\N(K: a. 1). 1547-l.>->«. CATERANS,— "In l-ia^ an art wi= passed [hy the Scntili pHrliament] for the nuppreaaion of nmstirfdl pliinilerers, who get in tl:: stjt'ite their Hlfthliinil immo of 'cateran.' . . . This is the flnt uf a long succeaaion of penal and denuncla- 0ATH0LIC3. tory laws against the Highlanders."— J. H. Bur- ton, niU. of Smtland. t. 8. eh. 27. CATHARISTS, OR PATARENES.— "Among all the sects of the Middle Ages, very far the most Important In numbers and in radical antagonism to the Church, were the Catlmri, or the Pure, aa with characteristic sectarian assumption they styled themselves. Albigenses they were called in Langueduc; Patartnes in North Italy ; Good Hen by themselves. Stretch- ing through central Europe to Thrace and Bulgaria, they Joined hands with the Pauliclana of the liaat and shared their errors. Whether these Catharl stood In lineal historical descent from the old ManichKans, or had generated a dualistic scheme of their own, is a question bard to answer, and which has been answered in very different ways. This much, however, is certain, that in all essentials they agreed with them." — R C. Trench, Leett. on Mediimtl Church llitt., Ifft. 15. — "In Italy, men supposeil to hold the same belief [as that of the Paiilicinns, Albigenses, etc. ] went by the name of the Paterini, a word of uncertain derivation, perhaps arisini; from their willingness meekly to submit to all sufferings for Christ's sake (patl), perhaps from a quarter in tlie city of Milan named ' I'utaria ' ; and more lately by that of Catharl (the Pure, Puritans), whicli was soon corrupted into Oaiuiri, whence the Ucrman 'Ketzer,' the general worU for a heretic." — L. Marintti, Fri DoMno and hi* IXmn, eh. 1. — See, also, Paclicians, and Ai.bi- OENSEa CATHAY, See China: The Names op thb COCNTRT. CATHELINEAU AND, THE INSUR- RECTION IN LA VENDEE. See Fk.vnce: A. D. 1793 (Mabch— April;; (June); and(jDLT — D ^MBEB). f .'HERINEII.,of Ruaaia. SeeRusBTA A. 1761-1762, and 1762-1 T9« Catherint of Aragon. See England : A. D. I.'i27-1.'>34, 1.'i36-15«) Catherine de Medici. See Francb: A. D. 1882-1547. CATHOLIC ASSOCIATION. See Ibb- LAND : A. D. lSll-1829. CATHOLIC DEFENDERS. See Ireland: A. D. 1780-1798. CATHOLIC LEAGUES. See Papacy : A. D. 1580-1581 ; and France : A. D. 1578-1585, and after. CATHOLIC REACTION. Sec Pap.\ct : A. D. 1.5.14-1540, to l.WS-lfti;!. CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY. See F.nuCA- TiON, Modern; America; A. D. 1 769-1 hk4 CATHOLICS (England): A. D. iS73-i679. —Persecutions. Si* England: A. I). 1572- 1603; 158.5-1587; 1587-1588; 1678-1679. (Ireland) : A. D. 1691-1782.— Oppression of the Penai Laws. Sec Ireland: A. 1). 1691- 1782. (England): A. D. 1778-1780.— Repeal of Penal lawa.- No-Popery Riota. See E.vo- land: a. I). 1778-1780. (Ireland): A. D. 1795-1796.— Peraecution by Protestant mobs.— Formation of the Orange Society. See Ireland: A. I). lT»r>-179<i. (Ireland): A. D. 1801. — Pitt'a promises broken by the King, S.r K.vs;: ^nh a i>, 1801-1806. (England and Ireland): A. D. 1829.— Eman- cipation from civil disabilitiea. bee Ikklamo^ A. D. 1811-1S29. mmi 409 CATHOUC-. ft. Pafact: a. D. CATHOLICS, Old. 1860-1870. D SAL'^"*^' TheCoMpiracy ot SeeRoioc IS. L. 60. £^IL'"a.T''*' ^^ BHiTAnj, Oi.LTic Tbibes. CATO THE YOUNGER a«d the iMt CATO STREET CONSi IRACV, The. See En(.i,am): A. D. 1830-1827. CATRAIL, The.— An ancient ra t ; .wt, the renuma of which are found la f,- •, 1 tj Scot- land, runniDjf from the aom ; .1 , ner of PeubleMhire to the south aide >: Llduew, le It la supposed to have marli. betwrvn the old Ani^lian '.-.'u and the territory of the Briiu' (Dumbarton).— W. P. Sket CATTANl.- VASSAL i. SERVI.— The feudal baron ; . wca- culled Catunl. In the 1 kro" "many of these Cattani, aft*" i.»\iti ih** IxiL ndary ;■• ' o; Bi nicia I' 01 ,' luith ..tt, ,i>tU,.\ . e. 1. -MASNA J.V— It' nor : (■■•n taly ■r ory, .11 iub- dued and made citizens of VLx-,.,j;' u,' i,y,„. tained their feudal followi!.i; , -■a wer n*u,; '. attended by troops of retalrer-. Ijiif >lives 1 ' freeilmeu. called ' UominI & M-.sr.. d^,' ' ■'. \l certain possessions of thfi. , , h, ;. .1.,. military service, took oaUii ,f adel • • iO appear to have included every t ok of pi -^. , :i the dilTerent Italian states a<i irdinif qualitv of the chief; but with. .iit any detn .;.• tion of character i» ini; attacht,! to =wh tmpl.n-- distill, I lon isnmde between tlie • Vassl," who are Bupp..>,d K. have been vassal of the crown, and S^U T^ ■ ■ v''" *'''^" "" '■'^'» «f Freat lords. Ih. Vavasours' were the vassals of great vjissmU. . Ii,«i,ii.g ,i„.sp niilitary Vil- lains, wl,., w.re also called 'Fedeli,' there were two other kiiiu, of slaves amonftst the early Italians, imniely prisoners of war and the labour- ers iittHchfd to the soil, who were considered ns catt le 111 every resp.-.'t except that of t heir superior utility and value. The former species of slavery disappear. d much earlier than the latter"-- r A •rT'i""T/ '■"■'»""''"■ ^'""ni, r- 1. p. dU. i,.A I TI, The. See C'ihtti CAUCASUS, The R.cet of the.-'One „f the most remarkable characteristics of tin- C uumsus IS that, while it has acted as a barri.r iHtween the north and the somb, stoppin.^ niul tumiiii; aside the niovemenU of populuti..n it has also preserved within its sh.'ltered r..i4ea fragments of the different pcopk-s wl,„ from time to time have pa.ssed by it, or who have been driven by conquest Into it from the lower eounlry Thus it is a kind of ethnolojricul miiseiim, where specimens may be found of count iss races and lanjtuages, some of whi.h probably belong to the eariy ages of the world ■ races that s<eni to have little affinity with their r)res..nt njlghbours, and of whose history w,- know nothin.L' ex<,.pt what comparative piiilol. pgy can revear Even before the ('hristian era It was famous for the variety of Its p<'oples >o more mappropriHte ethnologl<^8l name was ever pn-rounded than tliat of Caucasian for a rwtclnl :::•. ;.sinn of tti. human family, the cream Of nmnkin<l, from which the civiliz^ peoples of Europe are 8upp>.ed to have spri.ng. For the Caucasus is to day, as it wa« in Strabo'a lime CAlTCASrS. full of imoef differing In religion, langug« Mpect, maonert, character."— J. Brvce TVoiT eauetma atid Ararat, eh. i. • '^w- Th« Circsaaiani. — Th« Ruuian Co. qnert.— "The Caucasus has always i».,*««i a certain fascination not for the Kussl!„i,otJv^ but also for western nations, and is i^thI larly rid, In historical traditions, and in Cm ories of ancient times and ancient imtio™ Here, to the rocks of Elbruz, Promelh, ™Tat chained; and to Colchis, where the VhZ flowed towards the sea. through ev, r •!„.„ woods, came the Argonauts. The ..rl^f., which, iu the sacred grove of Ares, hung tlie golden fleece. The gold mines which the Uus- sians discovered in 1*4 were apparenth I- »,Sn, to the Greeks, whose colony. Dioscuria- w,. an assemblage of 800 diverse natimmlities Black Sea arose the famous Pontine k.i,a,l, ni [see MtTHHiDATic Wars! which in spite ..f its valE -I^T under MIthridates, fell » victim t,, ;(■' ggression. Along the rivers Kunsnd . u,... ;an the old commercial road fr ,„ Kur i* tu Asia, which enrichij the Venwan.s 1,1 the Genoese In the middle ages. Up to ree.nt limes this trade consisted not only of all sorts of ,itlnr merchandise, but of slaves; numberless eirls iiul women were conveyed to Turkish In.rems aud there exercised an Important intlueii.e on Uie narat-U.T of the TarUr and Mongol niees In the iniddle ages the Caucasus was the r.ute bv wiich the wild Asiatic honles, tlu- (Jotlis hhasars, Huns, Avars, Mongols, Tartars and Arabs crossed from Asia inUj Eumim^ and con- sequently its secluded valleys couuin a n,.i.uU- tlon compose*! of more different ami distinct races than any other district In the wi.rld It was in the 16th century, umler Ivan the Ter- rible, that Russia first turned her attention to •If ?2?5"**' °' *''* Caucasus; but it ->a» not till 1859 that the defeat and capture ef tl-e famous Schamyl brought about the final subiu- gallon of the country. ... In nsr, [afu r the partial conquest of 1784— sw Tlkks: A D. 1776-1792] the mountaineers had been incited to take arms by a so-called prophet Scheii k Man- sur, but he was seized and banisheil toSoli.vctsk, on the White Sea. In 1820 a Mollali, Kasi by name, made his appearance in Dagli.sl.w and began to preach the ' Kasawat,' tliat is, I, .iv »«r against the Russians. To him succeed.-.! aii.itlier equally fanatical a.h I'liturer, llamsel llei; Tlie wijrk which they h:i.l begun was carri. .1 .m bv Schamyl, who far surpaasetl his pn-dee.sxire ii all the qualities which make ui> a su.icssfi,: guerilla chief, an.l who maintaiue.l the iineiiusi conHict against the enemies of his .-ouiiirv for 'A5 years with singular good fortun.-, miriauntr.1 courage, untiring energy, ami c<iiis|.i.utws ability. He was of the trifie of the Us^'liiaos iu I^ghestan. and was bom in 179«. in the \i\UK of Oimri, of poor shepherd parents In -; ^r of Ills humble origin he raisjKl himsill t.i ih. rinJi of an Imaum, surroumlnl himself with 1 -tnmg body-guard of devoted aiiturents. wii.iii he named Muridcs, and succeedeil in Liiiiiiii;: tos flame the patriotic ardour a! his fe!!i:v. :;:;>.-v men. The capture of the mouiitaiu I.tMii.ss'.if Achulgo in 1839 seemed to lie the ili-ailiM..«- .it Schamyl's caU8<-. for it brought alniut tin !.«. of the whole of Uaghcstan. the very focus vl •Jus 410 CAUCASUS AXD THE CIRCASSUNS. lluridcs' actirity. Schamyl barely escaped lKi3g nuule a priaooer, and wa« forced to yield up Ills >on. Djammel-Edden, only nine yean of age M a hostage. The boy was sent to St. P«tt.T»burg and placed in a cadet corps, which be left at the conclusion of his military educa- tion somewhere about 1850 and returned to Ida uaiive country in I(*5i where lir died a few Tims later. In HM the Tchctchcns, who had pn-viously been pa< ided, row in urnig once more, sad Daghestan and other parts of the country followed their example. The country of tlie Tcbctcbens wiu a specially favourable theatre for the conflict with the Ruaaians; its long mountain chains, roclty fastneases, impenetrable foresta, and wild precipices and gorges rendered imbuscades and surprises of constant and, to the Russians, fatal occurrence. During the earlier stages of the war, Russia had ransomed the officers taken prisoners by the mountaineers, but, aubsequcntlv, no quarter wiui given on either side. At lust, by means of a great con- centration of troops on all the threatened points, by furtifyinff the chief central stations, and by funning brtwd military roads throughout the district, the Russians succeeded in breaUnK down Schamyl's resistauce. He now suffered one reverse after another. His chief fastnesses, Dargo, Weden, and Ouui were successively stormed and destroyed; and, Anally, he himself and his family were taken prisoners. He was astonished aud, it is naid, not altogether grati- fied to llnd that a violent death was not to close bis romantic career. He aud his family were at first intermtl at Kaluga in Russia, both .1 house anil a coasiiltrable sum of n.oney for his mutnte- luuee bein. .issigned to hini. But after a few years he was allowed to remove to Mecca, where be died. His sons and grandsons, who have en- tirely adop id the manm-s the Russians, are otfic'LTs ill the Circassian guard. In lti64 the paritiiatiun of the whole country was accum- pli^Mol. and a few years later the abolition of serfiloni «:is proclaiiued at Titlis. After the sub- jugation of the various mountain tribes, the Circassians hal lUe choice giv< 11 them by the Goverunient .f tiling on the low country ali>ng the Kuban, or (migrating to Turkey. The lalttr ciHirse wa.** > hosen by the bulk of the nati 'H, UfLid, therct4), in great measure, by en- voy- fMm Turkey. As many as 4OU.0O0 are said tu liave (i)ine to the ports, where the Sultan liad pnnuisetl to send vesscU to receive them: but detuts took place, and a large number died of want aud disease Those who reached Turkey were settled nn the west coasts of tlie Black .'^. in Buiiraria and near Varna, and proved tlii , selve- most truulilesomc and tmruly subjecis. Most f those who at first remained in Circasaia folKm.d their f' llow-countrymen in 1874." — H. M. llirster, limna, eh. 1«. Ai*) l^ F. Mavne. Life 'if Xiehtiltu /, pt. 1, eh. 11 .1(1./ 11.— S. M. Hchmucker Life and tki/rn 0/ MfhJ.u I . eh 21. CAUr ASUS, The Indian.— The re»l Cauca- sus » IS the most lofty rau|?e of mountains known lo tin- Greeks Ix-fori; lAlcxandcrs conouestsj sad they were ({eneralK reganl.t! as the highest m-juntairis m !)■,,. w.-.-!-f '-X-- \.ta ih- ursET o( Alexander came in sight i.f liic vast mountain barrier [of tlie Hindoo Koosli] iliat roa<- ivfore them as they advanced northward from Aracho- ■a, they seem lo have at once conclud^ that CECROPIA. this could be no other than the Caucasus. ' Hence the name Caucasus given by the Qreeka to those mountains; "for the name of HiudiMi Koosh. by which they an still known, is nothintr more than a corruption of the Indian Caucasus. — £. R Bunbury, Hitt. of Ancient Qtog., eh. 13, CAUCI, The. Sec Ibbiju(d, Tribes or Earlt Csltic Inbabitants. CAUCUS.— In 1634 — the fourth year of the colony of Massachusetts Bay — the freemen of the colony chose Dudley instead of Winthrop for governor. The next year they "followed up the doctrine of rott ^n in office by choosing Haynes as governor, a choice agreea upon bv deputies from the towns, who came together for that purpose previously to the meeting of the court — the first instance of ' the caucus system ' on record."— R. HiWreth, Iliet. of the V. S., e. 1, p. 234. — See, also, Conoress or the United States. CAUOINE FORKS, Tha Ronuuia at the. See Rome: B. C. »43-30O. CAUSENNiE, OR ISIN.£.— A town of some importance in Roman Britain. "Them can lie no doubt that this town occupied the siUi of the modem Ancaster, which has been cele- brated for its Roman antiquities since the time of Leload."— T. Wright, CM, Honuin and Sojeon, ch. 5. CAVALIERS, The party of the. See Eno- .asd: .V L). 1641 (October); also, Roik-w llEADS. CAVE DWELLERS.— "We find a hunting ami lishing race of cav« iivellers, in the remote pleistocene age, in dob.-' sion of France, Bel- gium, Germany, and Brrain, probably of the same stock as the Eskimio, living and forming f>art of a fauna in which northern ami southern^ iving and extinct, species are strangeiy minified with those now living in Europe. In the neolitUic age caves were inhabited, and used for tombs, bv men of the Iberian or Bosque race, which is still represented by the small dark-haired peoples of Europe." — W. B. Dawkins, face U'-ting, p. 4;Ji>. CAVE OF ADULLAM. .S.e A vm. Cave op. CAVOUR, Count, id the unificativi. of Italy. See Italy: A. !>. 18M .M, and l-jj»- 1861. CAVOUR, Treaty of (1561 .-^e. Savov A. D 15.'5ft— 1580 CAWNPUR. OR CAWNPORE A. D 1857.— Sie« by the Sepoy mutinee — Sur render and massacre of the E ;^i a. See IsuiA A. D. 1857 i.M.w— Ai (H> aud 1H57- 1«.)8 (JCLV— JCNE' CAXTON PRfcSS, Th' -ee Pri> :so a:4D the Press: A i UTil CAYENNE, Colontzatto n. :-. e Guiasa: A. D I.VIO-I.SU. CAYUGAS. The, "*•■< vsraRi'-VM Abo- BIOI^KS: IroijI'OIS Cli Kl« »lV. CEADAS, The. .-- li vrimiii. CEBRENES The. ?•-< Thoja. CECIL. Si illiam the retni of iteth. 155.- iolfcS. CECORA. Bat >■ A. 1» 159()-1' 4«. CECROP i.-CECROPIAN HILL.— The Acropolis of iien Si \iTieA. Lord Burleigh), and •e r. so LAND: A. D. 1621 . See PouuiO: 411 'i«'* C£DAR CREEK. CEDAR CREEK, Battle of. 8m CirmD 9TATB8 or Ax.: A. 0. 1864 (Acoubt— Octobbb ■ ViKdINIA). CEDAR MOUNTAIN OR CEDAR RUN, Battle ot Skk Unitkd Htateh or Am.: A. V. 1868 (JuLT— August : VinoiNu). CELEBES.— Tba eilniordlnary conforma- tion of the inland of CVIc-bca (situated east of Born<\)) gives it a coast line of no less tban 8,.VI0 miles, though iu area is but 75,000 square niilcM In other words, "although little over oiiethlnl the size of France, It has a seaboard ciiiml in exu-nt to that of France and the Iberinn tVnInsiilii taken together. . . . Were it as densely uei.plwl as Java, it would have a population of some thirty millions, whereaa, according to tlie approximate estimates, the •ctual impulatlon is little over three-quark-ra of a million. Hut, alllmugh nominallv under the Dutrh rule, most of the iiilerior is still occupied by Alfurus. timt is. wllil tribes for the moat part living in Isolated and hostile groups. Nor was the l)utch iKvupation elTecttd without many sanguinary struggles, not always to the advan- tage of the lnva<lers. The Europeans appeared Orst as guests, and the early conHlcts were con- nected with iguestions of Iraile rights. Then the Dutch pri'si'ntixl themselvefi as rivals of the Por- tuguese in 1860, when they seized the fort of MacHHsar, long their only piHuession on tlie coast Later they conclude<i a treaty of alliance and a prou-ctomte with several iietty statra In the south went em peninsula, and since that time thev have emitted no occasion of strengthening their ixmition in the island Yet in nuMt of the inland «UU'S they are still unrepresenu-d by any omciuls. anil even the coast districts are visited only at long int.rvals, «VleU-s has not v.-t been ciimplettly explontl, and some part* are known only iu H ginenil way. . . . The native p<ipula- t ons nr.' usually classed as Malavs ami Alfurus, the Inland wild tribes . . . Ilwingl Indiscrim- inately groiipiil as Alfurus'— K. Keclus, Tk* Rirllt anil iu Inhnhilanti: ttftanii-a rh 8 CELESTIAL EMPIRE. H.i. China CELESTINE II., Pope. A I) IIM^UW. .. . .CeleetiBe III., Pope. A n lUl-liw Celestine IV., Pope, A 1). mi Celettine CELESTINES. or CELESTINIAN8. —A rligtous onler foundinl by the hermit. IH-U'r of .M.iMne. who sfterwsnls. In tSM, became I'.JH-. snd 1.1. .k the name Celestine V. i- r.S'-7"'^^''.l**'S' T"*— ■■ The appellation t eltllN-rians indicHte* that In the northeastern part .if the p. ninsula frtpain] there was a mix tore .if Celt- bihI Ib.rtans.'-W Ihne, t/ul „f i^'ci T« ■J.'l "• "^'-«>'<' NfHANTiAN War CELTS, The.-'The Celts form a branch of Ihi' gr»'«t family of nations which has twen Tnri.Hniv calliil Aryan, IihK. Kuropisn, Imlo- Oermunlc, Indo Celtic and Japhetic . . The ( .It. nf antiquity who appeare.1 first and often- «•« In hLtiirv were Ih.Meof Oallia. which, liaving Nrn made (iv tl,, ».>e,^h Into Haule, we »<.nn ««ul ThiCililrfsmllT. sofarback a* we can tra<T it into the darkncMi ..f anllqultv. c-on »\*u>\ iif iwii gr»u|M or branches, with llngidstic fiaturi.. iif their own whlrh marked them off from line snolher To the one U'lnnmil th.- an rj itiirs ,.r th. p.-..pi,- »l«i.iM.,k liiM-lir in Irelmid. the I.le iif Man sn.1 the IlighlaiHU of the Niwth. . . The iMljimal rume which the members of CENSORS. a. one knows, is that ol Oaidhel, pronouioS ami spelt in Engliri, Uael. but forinerlVTnS by thenuelTo. Qoidel The other- cmuDi! repreeented In point of speech by the ,,'. pe 5 WfalM^dthefiretona . . . The natio ,»l "^ L»e Briton ; but. slnre that word has now i,., |,r,T|„ meaning, we take the Welsh f.irm ,.f it. « ,"^'^ BiylJ)on, and call this groun Hrythoim and Brr thonic, whenever It is need/ul Ui Ix- cxa, i tI, ancient Oaidsmurt also be classili..d wi,|, ,h,B, ' —J. Ithys, CtlUc lintain, eh. !.—«<,.,. also A» TAR», and AprK.Miix A, vol. 5. " Who were the heltie of Sp«ln 7 tlie p Uaikm whose name o<rura In the woni (VI i.i JS Ce "berl, Keltic Ibirians or Iln^riun K, ItL, LI *^"'•f "'""«* u««l to deii.,niinat«t'|w tribe and nations allied to the Gauln. it lilif wort a* little native as WelA is British. , ] thlU i?L??°'*'. ""' " *" • *°"1 belonging t,i U,; Iberian language, applied, until the time of Cesar at least, to Iberic p<ipiilatl.iii«. u other words, the Iberian name for an Il,,.ri,n popuUtlon was first adopted by the (i^rk, ,, the name for all the inhabitants of south w,.,tf" Oaul, aitd It was then extended by the IlimsM so as to Include all the populations of (lallis « cepttheBelntandAquftaniana'-a, a. Uihsm, Sthnotoff of Bun.pt, r*. 8. ^^ . ^?}'J^'~.A "*""' "f*""'" «mong8rih,r.iln)[lit« to certain prehistoric Imphni.nls, IhhIi st.,i„.»nd bronze of the wedge, chisel, and axe kind It has evidently no connecUon with tlie »,>r,l Cll used ethnological ly. CELVDDON, Foreit of (or Coed Celrdtw), See BaiTAi!., Ckltic Thihks. ' '^ CENABUM. H<-e ORNAniM CENSORS, The Roman.-TI riiiiisl business of the lioman censors na« ti. p .-isicrtlie citizens and their pn.|M.rty. They ■ma.l.niil the returns of tlie free popiilatiiin , Imt i|„.vdi,| more; they divided it ac<unllng to it. . ivil ilii- tlnctlons, and drew up a lint of th. », t,„i„r. s list of the e»iiiin», ■ list of the ni. nil« r. ..f ' r several trilws, or of those clllzi-ns »li.. .hjovmI the right of viMlng. and a il.t ..f i),,. ararinr- conslstliiB of those freedm.h. naliinill/Ml nmr gets, and othen, who. iK-lngeim.ll.il in i).,M. poes«'Sjed DO vote in theconiitia. Imi -till 1 ii]..vr.| all the private rights of H.iiimn ,iii„„„ s'„w the lists thus drawn up by lli. .. n~.n. »,•:,■ „■■ garded ai legal evj.lence ".if a nmn . .,,iMlill.«i. . . From thence the traiiHilliui un. >ii,r •cconling In Konan nolLms. t.i th. .1. < i.i.^, ;,f questions of right; such as win id. r u .ititm was really worthy of retaining his riit.li If » man behaved tyrannically tn hi^ «if. ..r chil drMi, If ha was guilty of eii-iwiv.' cni, liv i-nn '.". ,*''*'^- " *" negle<t«| bin I,u„| if w in ilulge.1 Id habits of extravagant . »pi "-< . "f fnl IowmI any calling which wan ni:anl.il a> ilf (trailing, the olTince was Jii«llv nui.il hy thi- ornsora, arl the offender »a» strmk ..IT frim Un- list of senatora. If his rank was xi hl|ili ; "r If bp wofN an onliRarr : !!!s"r., h^ w-h -li-"-! fr-a his Irilie, an.l r«lii<tKl to the elKsaof ih. amrlsm ' -T AmoU, U,M «/ lime, <-h 17 -M.v, sian Li;tTHinc 412 CENSORSHIP. CENTRAL A3IERICA. CENSORSHIP OF THE PRESS, ia Bag> UodaadGcnamax. SMFkorraaAmiFBMii A. D. 1«W. CENTRAL AMERICA: Roiaaofuciaot civilintioa, Sm Aximcait Adomoinu: Matai. (D(I Qcicim: alao, Maxico, Ahcicrt. DitcoTcrr aad carlj ttttlcmcat. See Amu- l-.» A D. 149S-tiW9: 1509-1511; 18ia-1517. A. D. iBai-1871.— Scpantien from Spala. ■od Independtnce. — Attempted Mcntioa sad it! hitaret.— Wan aad rerolotioaa of the Sve Republics.— " The centnti part of the American cnniini'nt. cxtpiulinf; fmm the louthem boundary of Mdim to tlie Isthmus nf Panama, cnnaiited In tlie olil colooini time* of M-veral Intendanclet, all of which were uuitvil in the Captaincy-Oen- ctil of Qualetnala. Lilte tlie Weel Indian Island!, It was a neglected part of the Spanbh Empire. . . . Centnti America has no hiatoiy up to the epoch of independence. ... It was not until the succeaa of the Uevolutlon had beoome certain on both aide* of tlicm. both in Mexico and New Oranada, that the intendanciet which made up the Captaincy-Oencral of Ouatamala dcrlarrd tbemselre* also independent of SpaliL The erf of liberty had indrcd been railed in CoetaRica in 1818, and in Nicaragua in 1818; but the Rerolution waa poatpnncd for six yean loam. OuateraaU, the irat of gOTemment, Rublisbed Its declaration in September, 18S1, and I example waa apeediiy followed by San Salva- dor and Honduraa NhsraKua, on prochklmini; its independence, together with one of tlie depart- ment* of Ouatemaia, declared its adhesion to what was known In :.<jxicn as the plan of Iruala [see Mkxk%>: A. D. 183O-1H30]. >!< there were DO Sponish troops In Ceiitml Amer. i the recu- sant HiNuiisli otHolal party could mske no resist- uuv to the popular movrmcnt; and many nf Ihrm crossed the sen to Culm or rptumod to Spain. . . . Tlie Revolution of Central America thut stands alone in the history of Independence, K hiiTing been accompliahed without the slied- (llnj nf blood." During the brief empire of Ilurtiiile In Mexico [see as above) the Central Aim'rlran states were aanexe<l to It, though Willi stning resistance on the part of all exrept Gu^trinaln. "On the proclamation of the Ped- rnl llcpiilillc in Mexico [IH'.M). the whole of Central Anuriia, except the district of Chiapas, wlilxlrrw fnim the alliance, and drove out the Mctlcao offlcials aa only a year before they had Irivcn out the HpaiiUh officials. The people uow hail to face the task of forming a government for thomwlres: anil . . . they now resolved on mmhinint in a fe<leration, in Imiution of the irtrnt Initwl Sutea of North America. Perhaps DO aiAirs were ever less suited to form a federal unhm The petlr terriuirlea of Central America He im twixHTuns. are divi<le<i by lofty mountains, ind bare srarrrly any communtcatfon with each other, anil the citlsena of each have scarcely any innimiin Inirrest. A Central Ameriraa fedt-m- lim, hiiw..v.-r. was an imposing idi-a, and llio P"'|>le rliinjf h> ll with grcnl pertinacity. The lirxl rffiirt for fitlrralkin w,is made under the iliririlon nf (Wnrral Flliaitia All llie IntemUn i-i" » n.nililniil In one aovrn-iftn state; flnil under III- mim.' i.f tin- lnlte.1 IVorloces,' afterwards ^ •-'nixr 52. 1*63; iiH.i*r llwl of Ilia ' Federal Ibinilillr of Central America. . , . A ooMlltu- tion „1 tv nHMt llbeml kiwi was votad. This oiHuUiiiilua Is rciMTkabl* fur havtog b«« Ik* first which abolished slavery at onoe and abso- lutely and declared the slave trade to be piracy. . . . The clerical and oligarchic partv set their faces stubbornly against the execution of the constitution, and began the revolt at Leon in Nicaragua. The union broke down in 1830. and though Morazan [of Honduras] ruoonstituted it in 1|J2», its hisuiry la a record of continual re- bellion and reaction on the part of the Quate- nuUtec oligarchy. Of all South American con- servative parties this oligarchy wiu iierliaps the most despicable. They sank U) tliclr lowest when they raised the Spanish tin? in 1«33. But in doing this they went too fur. Morazan's successes date from this time, and liavingbeaten 'he Oualemalteca, ha transfcntHl the Federal Kvemment in 1884 to San Salvador. But the deral Republic of Central America dragged on a procanous existence until 18.18, when it was overthrown by the revolt of Carrcra in Ouate- maia. From the first the influence of the Fvd- eialists in the capital began to decay, and It was soon apparent that they had little power except in Hoodurss, San Salvador and Nicaragua. Tlie Costa Ricaos, a thriving commercial community, but of no great political Importance, and sepa- rated by mountainoua wastes from all the rest, soon ceased to take any p;irt In pulilic business. A second Folenil Republic, excluding Costa Rica, was agreed to in 184J; but It fiin-il no better timn the first. The chief n<pn-wnt<itlve of tiie FiilcTftllat principle in Ci-ntnil America waa .Morazan. of Ilomlunui. from wIioik; govern- ment Carrem had revolted in IWM. On the fail- ure of the Fe<lcration M )raz.in iiai n.d to Chile, and on his return to Cmta Kicn lie w.is shot at San Jose liy the (,'iimTlsM, This was n gn-at blow to the LiliemU, and it was not until 1847 th.'it H thinl Federation, consisting of llomluras, 8iL .><:ilvmlc)r, and Nicaragua, was nr).'anized. For some years llnndiirw, at tiie lieml <f tiiesa states. carrie<l on a war iit.'.'iinst (luaii nmla to C(Mn|»l It to Jola the union (iuatemalu was fur more than their miitch; Su;. Salvaiior ami Nica- ragua soim fiih^l In tlic struggh;, and left Hon- (lur\a to carry on the wnr almu.'. Under Ueneral Carnra Guatemala completely defeatt'tl Its rival ; and to his successes are due tlie rvvivnl of the Conservattva or Clerical party all over Centnii America. . . . The government of each state became weaker and weaker: revolutions were everywhere frequent: ami ultimately ... the whole country was near falling Into the hands of a North American a<lventiin'r [see NlcARAorA: A D. 18.WlH(i()]. In former times the Kngliah government had maintained some coonertioa with the country [originating with the bucca- neen and inatie Imporiunt by the maiioganv cut- ting] through the iu<te|ieiident IiidUiM of tlio MiMi|iiitii coast, over whom, for the pur|HMesof their trade with Jamaica, it lia<l iiiaiiitalneii a protectumte : and even a amall Kngllsli coiiimer- eial loltmy. called Oreytown, had Tieen foiindi'd on tills riuKt at the nioiuh of the river Mnii Jii.ni. Towanis the rhw of Cirn-ms aaieiHUncv lliU ONUt was nslgmil to Nimragiia. uuii llie Ikiy Islands, which lleoiT the const, to lloiiilunw. iiiul Kiigiand thiun'taliiiil nothing In lliecoimtrv hut Ute old settlement of liritlth Honduras, wli'li its utiiitai, ileiisr Alu>r< iirr<'ra'i>i4iis<li III I'Ot^. tiie Ubeial party tiegan Ui n-wm-rt itjvlf ami in |n;i there was a I.llieral revolution iu tiunlcmnU It- mU." -E J. Payne, Uul u/Hurvy^ CUva s, isA. ii. 4ia CENTRAL AMERICA. CENTRAL AMERICA. .:;( ■ k I ' A. O. iS7i-i88s.— Atctndsncjr of BaitIm in GuatcmaU.— Hia eOtartt to ratttablith • Central American Union. — The reTolutiou of lt»7l, lu Uiiatemala. eatabliihed a goTemment under tbe control of tlio Liberal*, with Mimel Garcia Qraoadoa a* proviiional pnsidfuL "Tbe new administration had hardly initiated reforms when an insurrection broke out tn Santa Roai, promoted by the prieau ami their aristocratic alilea It does not appear that Garcia Granado* bid at first intended open hostility to tlie re- ligious orders. . . . Tbe priesU would nut rest cuntented with tbe loss of their former high staniling. . . . The new riiime now resolred to cut looDe [fnim] the eccleslastiral incubus, and t<) cstabllab tbe supremacy of the riril authority in the state on a firm lusis. Its tlrsl step was to carry out a decree ... to cxpol the Society of Ji'sus forever from the repul)lic. This was not elTccted without some scaiuial and disturbance from the sealous portlaans of the '>rder. Seventy- three Jesuits, must of whom vere foreigners, were sent away on an American steamship, Ihitind at Panama." The expelled Jesuiu were allowed to land in Nicaragua, where they re- Diained until IHHl. They were Uien accused of instlnatin- an insurrection, and wen driven from that state. In Guatemala the expuWoo of the Jesuits was followed, tn 18iS^, by the sup- pression of tithes, the extinction of religioiu c< immunities of men, and 'be decreeing of free- diim of worsliip. with toleration for all religious Si eta The proTlsiounl pn-aUlent was succenled in June, 18*9, by Justo Riifluo Barrios, electeii liy iMipular vote. Barrios, who bad been the liiiiling spirit of the revolution, was a resolute ami energetic man. His government was vigor- it isly, often violently, maintained, during a pfesiilency of twelve ymrs. Among bis early arts was one which llnlalieii Uie liiHuolutlon of the ri'ligiiiiis houses, by op<>ning the convents of women, and mailing a public allowance of mimey to tlie departing nuns. The chief aim of Bar- rios, throughout his career, was to bring alnut toe long-sought union of Centr J Ameriran statea To that end, he seems to have nasiilii ously interfere<i in tbepoliticsuf themlgliburing n>piiblli'a Hy fom- of anus, lie estiilili>-he<l a government iii Halvaalor ttiat was favorable to nis views, and he ai-nimpllsh«<i the ume in Honduras by pmniotlng a revolution. In Nica- ragua and I'iMM KIca lie hail lex* sui-ci-sa In ltin> a new conslitulion was ntlopliit in liuate- mala, and BarriiM was electeii umier It. iu INNO. for a further terra of six yeara Tlie eountry i enjoyetl a lime of great pnwpiTiiy. ami HarrinK. after visiting Kunipe anil tlif I'liitiii Slal<-«. i<n>|i<iae<l. In IHN3, to n'sl^n lie was peisiiailiil. liipwi'Ver. to n-iiiiiin in offlre. iiiit Ills efToris fi>r the union of M«ti<« wire ri's inieil Tliey en (ountenil so mil' li oppwitliai that he' lust patli'iice, and mslily iiiHlirtiink. in \m^. tn sr. timipliitli till- ijiiineatliin i.f ( intral AnHTJra liv force Bv :i d.-i fee Isnii-tl mi IIh< IWlh of Keb- ruary In tlia! vmr !«■ |l^«•jllra«! tbe omsulltla- tion of the live utates inln i«<' repiilillr. The '.■'ivirnment of liiii»liir»a assenliil . ihi- other lliret- mates fiinneii an allianrein resist HarriiM niarrheil an iirmv li,iiir«alvail<ir, and Inst his life in llie flglitiiK Ihnt eiisueil. — H H. Rani-Mft. //iW"V "f ''*' /"'"•/" SittlHi, r rt, cA, do-i2l. A. D. iM6-il«4. -C*aliffa«4 alrnffKliag (sr Ualea, aad coJttaMd r**«liitiMHU7 Cm- fliet*.— Not loog after the fkll of Barrloa th^ (OTemuMDt of Salvador itself proposed a con- greia to arrsoge terms of union ; but the propo- sition failed. Nicaragua, always looking for- ward to tbe probable construction of an Istlimlaii canal within her border, and ambitlaus to enlny the great posMvion alone, continued aloof CosU Rica, having some share in the same am- bition, dM likewise. Yet the unionists, who seem to have been always numerous, kept the project alive, and were able, in April, 1»H7, to bring about a preliminary treaty between the five republics, "to establish an intimate relation- ship between them, ami, by making the cmitiDU- ance of peace certain, to provide for their funire final fiisluQ in one country." In the next year President Soto, of Ci».ta KIca, urged the bmpdi- bling of a diet, to establish the uuion. piiKlinit which Costa Kican citizenship was ixliuileil m the citixens of the other repulillca. The iliii nut In September of that year, but the de^ir<sl union was not achieved. In Noveiiiln-r, Imn». th,. three states of Honduras, Guatemala, and Sulla- dor took another step. Joining in a treaty which contemplated a nrovUlunal confederatinn fur im yeara, after which, if it proved salisfuiinrv, » more perfec; and permanent union sljuiilii' u- farmed; but Nicaragua and C'onta Kim wmilil not take parL In Salvaitor, mon-over, ihe ami unkniata rallied, and a conflict Miiirn-il iintu:, In which the government was overlhniwii, the president killed, and liie opimnents of union n tabliibed a provisional c.ivemnieni, wiih (icn KzeU at lu bead. Then the pnsiil. a nf Guatemala, Manuel Barillaa, who hail ■min .^lid Barrios, interfered, and Guatemala ami Nilimht went flert ! ly to war. The Hulvaiiurinnii hwl tW beat of It in most of the fighting, ami Ikrillun was bard pmaed bv revnlutioiUHtH at home luil he kept bis power In (iiiaU-iiiala, iIuhiWi Ih' li.il not succeed In suppressing Kxela anil hin |>;iriv in Salvador. One incktent <>iiine<'li-t| wlih ihi »c events caused excitement and ciHiiruvi>r«i m the United Statea. A Guatemalan exile. Ii;iinin<lii took passage from Mexico, on a i'tuitii .Ma;; steamer, for Salvador, to enlist in the hih I l,e steamer touched at a port in Guatemaln. whirr the auiiiorities undertook to arrent him Ttu captain refused to give bis passenger up hut neither the United Sutea niliiiitiir nor hhmiI olBcers present in the imrt could liml iiiiili riu to sustain the captain's refusal, ami tin liii:<r was farced to yield. Barrumihi n«iMi.| ilie arreat, and was shot. While tlH- i>|i|i<'nini» .>: union triumpheil In Halvsiiiir, iliey l:\iM in s desperate attempt at revi<liillon In liuh.l n.n IVsldent liogran, in tiial state, n)aiti'a>iii''l lilt authority, ant ' as siicretiliHl at the i liw . ( hi« conatltiiiiunal r-n. in l<*Vi, by (ieiH'r:il l.uiii. In IMM, tbe (MVemmeiit of Leiva hik "mi thrown tiy insurgent Lilierala ami i'wliiarpn Boullla made president. uihIit a ni » imii.iiiu tliin. .Vi-aiilime. alTuirs in MearagiiN hi;i! ^uiha dor were e<|ualiy l>>nipesliious. l*nf i>h i;i Nmua, In the furuirr, was rmuM'llnl to mitu, m lf>A Whether lite ailoptlim ni a new coiiniiiiii.iii. iii IflM. and the et|iiiNliiii of a niimlMr or.'mu'ti and nuns, will lulm the ilisonler, iriniiini- In lit seen. In Salvador, Eieta was lirivin fnim tlH prtisldencv in 1I<M. and a provlahiiml i!<>ven meat set up in CosU itica. during iwi ;i. Mierr wsrs ooDlIlol* lietwsvB the preshlrnt aiul ibr legteWturs, (nil no rvrolutiua occurri^l lu 4U CKNTRAL AXKBICA. CHALCIS AMD SRBTRU. Onttenttk, PraridMt Bufllat wm (ueeeadcd ia \m by Gen. Joti Bht1o% ho of Um foniMr proideiiL CENTRAL ASIA. Bm Aiu, CHmuk CENTRE, TiM. SaeRiaHT, Ac. CENTREVILLB. BvMMtiea ot 8w CicrrcD Statu or Am.: A. D. lWl-188a (Da- CM BEm— Mabcb : VimoiKU). CENTURIES, Romu. 8«eCoMiTuCB» TUBIATA. CENTURION.— The aaeeroomiMiidtng CM of the flfty-flTe centuriw or compeiiiee in a Ro- man |p?<oa of the empirtL See LMioa. CEORL. Hee Eokl, and BrHmL. CEPEDA,BatUeef(iU»)> BeeAMnmn rkpcbi ic : A. D. i8i<» lerft. CEPHISSUS, Battte ol tk« (A. O. 1311). Soft ('ATtLAN Obaxd COMPAinr. CERAM. 8eelfALATABCHirBLMO:l>aTea £aiit Ihdim. CERAMICUS OP ATHBN8.— The Ceim- inirii« wiM ciriirfDRlly the moet important of the I'lhiirlmn iliMricts of Athena and derived Ita uime (nim the pottiT*. "It ia probal>le tliat »\K:ii tliF time of PinUtratiu the nurliet of tlie anricnt oiiliurb callpil the Ceramicui (for every .\ttic ilUtrirt pnaMiaed lU own market) wa* con- stitiitnl the trntral market of tlie city. . . . Tlvr [the Piaintrntidn] connected Athvoi In ail lilrrftliHu by raailwaya with the country iii»- irirti: tbne madi were accurately mpniiiin.v|, >n<l all met 00 the Ceramicua, In tlie centre of which an altar waa erected to the Twelve Oixla. CVto this centre of town and country were ciil- ruliteil (he distancea to the different country (liMriru. lo the porta, and to the moat important Morluarira of the common fatherland. ... [In the mxl nntury — in the »g» of Periclea — tlw I>npul»iiiin had extended to tlie north and weat •n>l| p.trt of the ancient pottera' diatrict or CcmTiiii'iii had long become a quaiter of the city |th>- liintrCrramicuaj; the other part mnalniti »:iliiirl> (tlie Outer t'eramicua]. Between the !ir<i lav the douhl" ^nle or Oipvlttm, tlie broad- i-t am) m<Mt apk-ndid gate of tira city. . . . il'Tc the bnaul carriafe-raad wliich. avoidln> nil heiflit*, atcended from tiM marliet-phire of lli;<|HiiUinu»dinH'tly to Um eity-narkct of t i<nniini!i, cnleml the city; from Itera atraigi. to the wiM led tlie mad to Eleuaii, tba tacred M.iir* of IJH- fnilve proc ea a i ona. , . . From IhiH nwl amin. immediately outatda the cate, bran<h<-.| oft that which led lo the Acatlemy Tlie liiiih riNwIa in the vicinity of the city era-* weiv every wkert bordered with numeroua Dill luiiilaiimv arpulchral moaumeota, in par- tiriilar tlie riiad leaillnf through tba outer Cera- >i>liii» Here ]»y the Dublic bttrial-gtound for tli<-iliif<.nii who luid fallea in war; the vaat *\wr wai clivliled Into fieida. oarreapondin;; U> till' ililTi nnt Ultle-flekia at boOM and abnaui'."— I I'unm,. //,.«. ^ onm, M. I. M. 9 amf U. I. ^.Vijoi!,: W. M. Leake, nipfr'f'^f <^ AtHem, CEHHSTES. OR KBRBSTBS. BMUaaf (l»». Ni llisuAHT; A. I) IDM-iaiM. A ImI?"'""*' "'"'• "^ *'*•!'• ■*«* '»*"■ 41 CBRRO GORDO, Battlt oL 8«e Mexico A. D. 1847 (MancH-SBrTBitBEK). CESS.— A word, corrupted from "aaieia,* Hgnifylng a rate, or tax ; used especially ia Scotland. CEUTA, A. D. I4is.-Captnrt by th« Pertanaaa. Hee PoarooAi. : A, D. 141^-1400. A. O. 16M.— Cedad to Spain. Hee Pobtd- oal: A. D. 1«87-1«68. CiVENNES, The propheta of tha (or the Cereaoi propbata). — The Camiaarda. 8ee Frakcb : A. iV 1708-1710. CEYLON.— The name Ceylon la derived by a leriea of corruptions from the Sanskrit name Sinhala. given to tlia ancient people. T.he Oreek name of the island was Taprohane The (Sinhalese, who form the most of the population came originally from India. BuddkiKm was intruluced at an early day (see India: B. C. 813—), and is still tlie religion of the Siiibaleiie. The wilder narU of the island are occupied by a people called tl.e VeddiUis, who are probably tlie reinnauta of an abori>pnal race. Arabs and Chinese form a considerable element of the coast population. The Portuguese eKUblisbed llieninelveii In the inland in t!ie Irtth century, but were driven out by the Dutch lietween 1088 and Kl.Vl. Ceylon waa ceiliil to England in 17IM, and tlio cession conHrme<l in IMrj — (««« Kra.mik: a I). 1I*)1-1H02 — C P. Liieas. A Jiitt. (Jfuij. lifts* BritUk Vittrthii: r. 1. ttrt 2 CHACASUCO, Battl«ef(l8i7>. HeeCaiLB: A. I>. miO-1818. CHACO, Tba Graa. Hee Gran Cbaco. CHARONBA, Battlaa of. Hee Uasaca: B. C. 857-888 : and .Miturioatic WABa. CHAGAN. HeeKiiAN. CHACOS ISLANDS. HeeMA>rARKKR CHA'HTAS, or CHOCTAWS, Tha. He« Amkrican AaoRioiRaa : McyKnooBAN Famii.t. CHALCEDON.— An ancient Greek lity. foimiieil by the Megariana on the Asiatic side <.t the lioaphoriis. neariy oppoalte to Bvxantium A. D. as*-— Captnr* bj tba Cetba. ^ee Ouru^: A. D. ».V(-8A7. A. D. 6i64«s.— Tba Partiaaa ia poaaessiea. See I'l.KaiA : A. D. HM-887. CHALCEDON, Tba Coaacil of. See Nrii. TiMii \\ AND .MovoFayatTE Cojitiiovrii-v. CHALCIS AND ERBTRIA- TIk- p. .t danireniiM rivals of Ionia were the townn cf Eub<ea. among which, in the drat in^latice. C.vme. aituateil in an excellent bay of tie east coast, in a district abounding In wine, ami af. lerwanis the two sister towns on the Eiiriniis, CImli'is and Kn-tria. distinguished themselves iiy larirer niea«un-s of colonisation. \> hlle Eretrta. tl»f ■ lily of niwers. ' rose lo (irusperity esperlally by means of purple ll<heries ami a rerry'navi|,>a- Uim conducted on k cunslantly Inrreastng scale, Chalcis, the • liroiue elty.' on the double sea of the Btrotian soumi, rontrivnl to raiw and amptoy foe herself the mnat Important of the Many tnaaures of the tsUnd — lu copper . . . Chateia bacaaie the . . . Greek Hidon Next to Cyprua there were no richer stnras of rrijiprr in IbaOraek world than on Euben "— E. Curilna tSM.^iirmn.hi i.rh S— Tliei bakniians were aal w u risiag ooloniaU. partlcuUrly in Tbnire. In Ik* Macedonian peninsula. . and Insouilrrti Italy aad IMcity . It was the abuudaut wealth g( . t n iH'r CHALCIS A.XD ERETRIA. Thimce In metallic om which drew tlio Chalcl- dUns to It. About 700 B. C. a border find between ChalcU and Eretiia, conct'niiu); reruin "Leianttac ticlda" which hiy betwien tliora, grew to »ucU proportion* and *o nmny other »'»«« <»nie f« Uke part In It, that, •■ Kccordlng to Thucydli'-» no war of more unlverwl import- ance for 'he whole nation wa» fouglit between the fall oi Trojft rnd the Persian war."— The aamc. b. 1, ik. 8, M. 1.— ChalcU waa eubdufd by the Athenians in B. C. 806. Sw Athe.N3; B. C. 80»-»0>i- klao Kt.C81'CES, and EracEA. CHAT CUS. See Taunt. CHALDEA.— CHALDBES. See Babt- loniA. CHALDEAN CHURCH. See Neotokiasb. . SP^k^'^i^"' °*'"« "' ('5'4)- See TcnKs: ^ D, 1481-'1520. CHALGROVE FIELD, FaU of Hampden at. SeeEKOLARD: A. D. IMS (Acocar— Sef- TEXBKR). CHALONS, Battlea at (A. D. J7i).-Amon» the many pretenders Ui the Koman Imp.rliU throne— "the thirty tyranU," a« they were OkUed —of the distracted reign of Oalllenua, waa Tetricua, who had been governor of Aquitalne. The dangerous honor waa fon»l upon him. by a demoralized army, and he reigned against his will for leTeml years over (Jaul, Spain and Britahi. At length, when Jie Iron ham led Aur Itan had taken the reins of government nt Rome, Tetricus aerrrtly plotted with Ulni for deUverance from his own uncoveted i. ><itne)>s Aurelian Invaded Gaul and Tetricus led a.i armv against him, only to betray It, in a great buttle at Chalons (271), where the rebels were cut to plecet.— E Gibbon, VteliM aiuf FaU of the Beman Kmpin, cA. 11. A. D. 3««. See Auwaiihi, Ikvasioh or OAtn, Bt TUB. A.D. 4SI. See HnNs; A. D. «1. Attilas UfTAaioif or Ga(7u » ^CHALYBES, Th«.-Tho ChalTl)os, or Chalyblana, were sn ancient people' In Asia Minor, on the coast . .' the Euiine. probably east of the Halys, who were noU^I ns workers of iron — E. H. Bunbury, Hit. of Ancient Oeug., eh ii i»o«« A. » . . CHAM AVI, Tilt. See Bucctebi; also. Francs; also. Gaul: A. D. 8S.V8A] CHAMBERS OF RBANNEXATON, Prnch. See I-'hancc: A. D. I«7»-1(»(I CHAMBERSBURC, Baraiac of. See iNiTED Statm or Am.: A. I) 1»<M (.Jiiv: VlMOINIA— MARn.ANI>). , ^.^'^^T.^^^^- *>'*«*■ «^ *•»• county.- In 'he middle yean of the revolt that il< ilir.mil the ( arlovlngians ,„,( n,|^ „,„ C'apeliuii« to a thnme wLloh they made the thnmeiif a klncdom of Frame, Count Herbert of Vernuindoi« allieil hiiUMlf with the party of the latter, ami Ngan operations for the expanding of his donmin •^The (hampaign of Hheims. the ■ Campania Remenals'~a moat appropriate descriptive de- oomlnailon of tlie nirlon — an eitenaion of the plains of Flanders — Imt not yetemplovi-.l p„litl. callv - 'fealgnatlng a province — wa»pn.iect.'d against Count llen^.t • a the Vermamloi. bonier by the CMlrum Th==rf, t-Cb4trau Thirrrr. Herberts profuM ,■ mUei iodure.1 the eommandcr lo l^irav uu uu:». . . . Herbert through tlito oecupalioa of (^Imu Tblrrry,' 4M CHAKC2LL0R. obtained the dty of Troyes and all the ' CamDsak Kemensls,' which, under his potent swat wu spee<lily developed Into the magnidcent (SJuntv of Champagne. Herbert and Lis lineage l,di Champagne during three generations, until snm.! t me after the accesalon of the Capets, when the Grand Fief paiaed from the House „f v,r mandols to the House of Blols."— Sir F Pa|. grave, Ui'm. of Narmnndy and Knn., r !! n 1S> CHAMPkAUBEkT, Battle o/^ i^ Fkancb: a. D. 1814 (Jancabt— MARrni A D ^87"?M^'**^'^''"^'- '*^'*"«*'^=^ CHAMPIONS HILL, Battle of. s,, yxrraD Statm of Am.: A. D. 1863 (.\prii_ Jilt: On the Mimibippi). CHAMPLAIN, S«nii«l.-B«plorations sad Cdomaatioiifc See Canada (New Krasce' A. D. H08-1WB; 1808-1«11: and 1811-1«1«" CHAMPLAIN. Lak.: A. D. 1776. -AmoMi UTiU battle with tartetoa. See tKiTKD ™ra or Am. : A. D. 1776-1777, A. p. iSi4.-Macdoaouch'a aaral vietoiT. See Lnmo BrATEa or Am.: a. D. 18U isii! TEMBSa). «??^?f.f^ °." MARS. -CHAMPS DE MAI.— >\ hen the MerovlngUn kluvs of tie !• ranks summoned their captains to t:;iiher for the planniiig and preparing of r.i!ii|..iiitn« tlie a^seml'ies were called at first tli.t I li.in,n, i, Mnrn, iM'causo the n»>ellng was in earliest upriat -~ 11 .M„rch. " But as the Franks, fn.m », rvinJ "II fiKit, liecame cavaliers under tlie nemnd [ilil (^irlovinpiiinj race, the time was . haiiircl to May, for the sake of forage, and llic «s.s,mli|if« wire called Champa de Mai -K E Crowr Iha. of Fnnef, eh. 1— See, al»>, Malum jn<i Parliament or Pauib. CHANCAS, The. See Peri-: Tiik Abobi OINAL INnAHITANTS. ^5"*,f";^^'-0'*' The.-" The name [of the Chanocllorj, derlvnl pmlnbiy from Ilie lamtlli or screen behind which the sivntarial wnrli of the roval household was carried on. clainu soio- siderable antiquity ; and the oBltrs wlili h It ll^ note* are various In proportion. The cliaooelLir of the Karolinghin sovereigns, sucfcedlni; lo tin place of the more ancient referendarius. Isiimply the royal noUry; the arehicanci'llarius ii tlx rliief of a large Iwdy of such omrtm SMKiated umler the name of ihe chancery, and Is the kwpet of the roval seal. It la from this minlntrr tkt llie English chancellor derive* his name sod function. Edward the Confessor, the drsl of our soverelirns who had a seal, Is also tlie (Irit who had a 1 liancellor ; from Ihe reign of the ConnufPr the offlce has descended In reitular »iiroe«»iou. It seems to have been lo a companllvrly lat« perital. generell/ if not slways, at l.-aat in En, laml. held by an *cclv»la«llc who was a mrml- f of Ihe royal household ai.ilon a fi»illiiir with tl,« great dignltarii* The iliancellor v,, tin- bh-I diirniniff of the royal rhaplalns, if ii.ttlii' Iwnl of thai Naly. Tlu> whole secreUrl il ir.irk of tb« household and court fell on the rlninr.) • sail the chaplalaa . . . The chancellor w;i» in a manner, Ihe secretarv of stale for all Ifpsrt- menu."— W. Stublie. Vv.iM< /ft,/ ,/ AV.y .', 11. Kt't. li\. — " In Uie relgu of Edwani I **'• ir^is to perceive sign* of the rise of the e\tra..nlioiir» or equitable jurlaillcthm of the Chai'. ell.T TlW numerou* pctlUuna addrsaaed tu thy Uia| sail iwnm : i f i .■ CHANCELLOR CHARLI8. hii CooDcil, neking tbe interpmition of the royal grace sDd favour either to mitigate the hanh- ness of the Common Law or supply ita detlciencies, bad been in the apecial care uf tlie Chancellor, who examined and reported upon tliem to the King. . , . At length, in 1S48, by a writ or or- dinance of the 83d vear of Edward III. all auch matter! aa were ' of Grace ' were dlrectod to be i|i«patrhrd by tbs Chancellor or by the Keeper of tbe Priry Seal TtUa waa a great atep in tbe rcc< Intuition of tbe equitable jurisdiction of the Oiiurt of Chancery, aa diatinct from the legal Juriadiction of the Chancellor and of the Courts of Common Law ; although it waa not until tbe foUnwiDg reign that it can be aaid to have been peraumently eaubliahed "— T. P. Taawell-Lang- mead. Bag. Cml. IIitt.,pp. 178-174.— "The Lord Chancellor ia a Privy Councillor by his of&cc; a Cabinet Miniater ; and, according to Lord Chancel- lor Ellesmere, prolocutor [chairman, or Speaker] of tbe Ilouae of Lords by pri.cription." — A. C. Ewsid, Tlu Crown and iti A'Intrr; kct. 3. Also a: E. Piachel, Thf BiuMth ComtituiiaH, U. .1, eh. 1. tivo, also. Law, Eouitt. CHANCELLOR'S ROLLS. See Exchs- ariK.— ExcmnirKR Itoujt. CHANCELLORSVILLE, Battles of. Bee rxrrED Statu or Am. : A. D. IWS (Anui^— Mat: Viroinia). CHANCERY. See Cba.'vcxi.iar. CHANDRACUPTA, OR CANDRAGUP- TA, Tht empire ot See Ihvia : B. C. 337-313, and ;il3 . CHANSERS, Tht. See Ajucrica.i Auuri- OINKK SlOtAH 1- AHII.T. CHANTILLY, Battle of. See I'nited StaTK.s iir .\»l : .\, 1). IHfla (.ifOt "T— SltrTEM- BEK VllUlt.MAl. CHANTRY PRIESTS.— ■ With the m..rn vrilibv niid lievout jio till- 14th, l.Vh iiud 16lh onluricii) It was the pnu'lice to enit llttli) fh:i|KU nhirh were either aildid to cliiirrhes or eniloMHl Iiv screens within them, wliere eliuiitrv pni"it4niji.'lil relehmte masa fur the gorxl of tlitfr sniil4 in perpetuity. . . . I^r^e sums of money werr . . devotetl to the maintenaucv of chantry priiTt*. whiiie duly It was t<> say maw for the trpow uf Ilie leslttl'or'ssiiul. , . . The • hararter sail nmiluit of tlie ihnntry priests must Imvu be- riiiiu' «innwhat of a las onler In the IKMi cen- tury -—It U Hliar|H', Int. to ••liiUniUir ..i' WiUt in V,r fi,urt !■/ It'iilinfi. Ixnukm," t. 2. ;>, r?i». CHAOUANONS, th«. S. r Amkrii am A»o ail. INK SlIAW ANKHi;. CHAPAS, OR CHAPANECS, Tht. Sec AjlKHlr\<( .\lU)llI<ilNK8: Z\I-<>TMS, Ac. CHAPULTEPEC, Battle of. See Mbxico: A l>. lm7(MAK<ll— .SaPTKMBEH). CHARCAS, Las. —The S|>anlsh pruvlnre whifh BOW fonrw the liepublic of Ilolivia. Al«i cbHhI, formerly, I'pper I'rru. ami sometimes the pnivlm-e of Poioal — See Arorntixk Ki.pt-Bi.ii : A D. 1880-1777; ami Bulivia: A U. IC'.'.V CHARIBBRT I., King of Aqaitsiat, A l> N1-M7 Chwbtft II„ King of Aauitaint, A. D e»(Ml31 • -• 1 ^CHARITON RIVER, Batlla of. See Usmn HTiT!c« or Am : A !) !><«9 (JrLT— BSmUBRB; MlaBlll'RI— ARRAIlaASI. .CHARLBMAGNS-S BMPIRE. Am ra»!i«- A l> :«•< HU. (jKn«»'«v A J» llfT- >**<<•>», ,,in| S11..M4.J. Umirnii.- A I) n HolUad. See 7S4-774 ; SazoifS : A. D. 77S-8M ; Atabs : 711. 805 ; and SPAis : A D. 778. CHARLEMAGNE'S SCHOOL. Sec School op the Pti.Arii : also, Education. CHARLEROI: A. D. 1667.— Taken by the French. See NETii!;iaA.Nu» (The Spanish Phovinces): a. D. 1667. A. D. 1668. — Ceded to France. See Nether- I.A.NDB(U0LIJiKII): A. V. 1I>6M. A. D. 1679.— Restored to Spain. See Nime ouES, The Peace op. A. D. 1693.— Siege and capture by the French. See France: A. 1). 161(3 (J clt). A. D. 1697.— Restored to Spain. See Frajicg : A. D. im. A. D. 1713 Ceded to Utrecht: A. D. 1713-1714. A. D. 1746-1748.— Taken by French and ceded to Anstrta. See Nethbrlanm: A. D. 1746-1747,and Alz-LA-CnAPELLE,TH> CoRouEas. • CHARLES (called The CrtRt — Charle- magne), Kiag of Ncnstria, A. I). 708 ; of all the Franks, A. D. 771 : of Franka and Lombardy, 774; EmpcrorofthcWest,tM0-«14.... .Charles of Austria, Archduke, Campaina oL See Frarcei a. D. 17«« (.\PRii,— Oct«bbb); 1790- 1797 (October— .Vpbii.); IT": (Apru^Mat); 1798-1799 (AiotrsT- April) . 1799 (Aioist— December); also Germany. 1^09 (jA.>rARY— JcNE), (.ItLT— September) Charlea of Bourbon, Kinr of Naples or the Two Sicilies, 1734-17o9. . . . .Charlea (called The Bold), Duke of Burrundy, 1407-1477 Charles 1., King of England, 1039-1049.- Trial and execution. .SeeENoi.AND: A. D. 1049(.I.\NfAHV) Charlea I. (of Anion), Kinr of Naplca and Sicily, I.'OO- Vin-i: Kinc of Naplca, 13tl3-13ss Charles I., Kinr of Portural, 18HU- Charlea II. (called The Baldi, Emperor, and Kinj of Italy, A. 1). 875-477; King oi^Ncuatria and Burcundy, "iiy-sn Charles II., King of EngUnd, lOAU- l(W.^. (Bt a loyal fiction, supposed to have reigned from lOao, when his Uther was be- headed : though the throne waa in Cromwell's posscssioa) Charlea II., King of Naples, IJts.'V.13il9 Charles II., King of Navarre, 1.M9-1387 Chvles II., King of Spain, UUii- ITtxi Charles III. (called The Fati, Em- peror, Kiag of the East Franks (Germany), and King Of Italy, .V. I). 8H|-nn.><; King ot the Weat Franka (France), Ht«4 ^*HH Charles III. (called The Simple), King of France, A n. H»3-U3fl Charles til., King of Naples, lltMI-lSM Charles III.. King of Navarre, 1.'IN7-I43.*. . Charles III., King of Spain, n.tU-l?)*). . . • hsries IV., Emperor, and King of Italy, lau i:i7M; King of Bohemia, I:l4<>- i:)7N; Ring of Gcimany, i:u;-I3?m, King of Burgundy, IHAVIHTm Charlea IV., King of France, and of Navarre (Charles 1.), i:l-.>'.>-ia;j>i Charles tV., Kiag of Spain, KNH-twm . Charles v., Emperor, t.MI>-l'>.V4; DukcofBur* gundy. I'liw l.WV King of Spain (aa Charles I.I sndof Naplea, or the Two Sicilies, I.MH- I.VW S<f Aikthia: a 1». UWi^ I.V.'i) . Charles V. ^called The Wisei, King of France, i:UVt-t!«<0 Charles VI., Cermsnic Emp>-rot, •ad Kiag of Hunearr and Bohemia. '. T ! I ''"> Charlea VI. (called The Well-loved', King of France, i^m^ 1433 Charles VII of Ba- varia), Gsrmanic Emperor, ITt'.' I7i'> Charles VII., King of France, 1433 t«i>t . 417 ^1 ^M 1 Itlil^l ». ■!. CHARLSa Cha.'le» VIII., Kins of Fnuic*, 1483-1498 Charles IX., King of Fnace, 15«0-1.")74. . . Charle* IX., King of Sweden, 1604-lUtl. Charlei X., Kinr of France (the Uat of the Houte of Bourbon), 1834-1830 Charlea X.. King of SwMiea, 1654-1860 Charlea XI., King of Sweden, 1660-1697 Charlea *i!;. King of Sweden, 16»7-1718. . . . .Charlea XIII., King of Sweden, 180»-1818 Charlea XIV. (Bemadotte), King of Sweden, 181»-1844. . . . .Charles XV., King of Sweden, 18.>i)-1873. iJ-^^^^* Albert, Duke of SaTor and King of Sardinia, 18ol-I8l9 CharleJ Emanuer DukeofSaToy, I.**)-1630 Charles Emaauei II., Duke of SaToy, 1638-16:5 Charles Emanuel III., Duke of Sanr and King of S'L*'°'V J^-*"-!' '^ Charles Emanuel IV., Jin. "' S?^^ ""• Kinr of Sardinia, 1790- 180^..... Charles Felix, Duke of SaTOy and Kinr of Sardinia, 18-J1-183I Charles Mar- tel, Duke of Austrasiaand Mayor of the Palace (of the King of the Franks), A. D. 71V741 Charles Robert, or Charobert, or Caribert, KingofHunganr 1308-1343 Charlea Swer- kerson, King of Sweden, 1101-1167. CHARLESTON, S. C. : A. D. i68o.-The founding of the city. 8e« Sonu Cakoliha: A. D. loro-iowi. _A- p. 1706.— Unsuccessful atUck by the French. St-e Soitii Cauollna : .V. I). 1701- li06. A. D. I775-I774-— Revolutionary procced- iW;- ** »"'TH Carolina: A. U. 177J ami 1 1 ID. A. D. 1776.— Sir Henry Clinton's attack and repulse. Sec Unitkd States or Am. ; A. I). 1771! (Jixi). A. D. 1780.— Siege by the British.— Sur- render of the city. fn*. tNiTKuSTATrsor Am. ; A. 1). liMiKtKimrAHY — Anii-irr). A. D. i860.— The splitting of the Nation&I Democratic Convention. S<f L'mtkh SrvTF.t O'' -^M- : A. !». iNilMAl-HIL— XoVKMHKllV A. D. i860.— The adoption of the Ordinance 01 Secession. N-c IMtku Statkh ot- .Vm A. I>. l'«HllNoV|..MIlKll— IlKCKMIll-iHI A. p. 1B60.— Major Anderson at Fort Sum- ter. Nh- I .SITED .>rATKs or .Vm. : A I) 1^;) (UkckmhkiiI A. D. 1861 (AprUi.— The Beginning of war. —Bombardment of Fort Sumter. S.^^ IMteo STyKjoKAM A 1). IxiiKMAii.ii-Apiiii.) .^■°'^63iAprjh.-Tht attack and repulse of the Monitor fleet. S.T l.\ni..u Status or Am : A I) I'fW 1 Ai-bil: South Caholina), A. p. i8«3 (jB'n-Tlie Uniea troops oa Morris Island. See Unitkd Statrs or Am • A. 1». IH8S (July : South Caboi.in k) A. D. ll«3 (ADg«st-Decembcr).-Boa- bardmsBt, See t'.tncu Statkh <ir Am. ; A. D. I8*l(Ariiif«T— DaiKMBEii: Soiih Iaboliiia); A. p. iSOS (Ftbmaty).— EraruatioB by tha Confederates. S<« Umitrd Statkh or Am • A. U 186.1 (Pkbbi'abt : 8f>rTR Cabolixa). A. D. 1886.— Eartbqaake.— A serers aarth- quske. Aue. 31, 1886, destroywl muck of thedty anil many livrs. CHARLBSTOWN, Maa*.: A. D. ifaj.- A. n. IflW-lAHM. A S!*^!! Jf.5,°^*' '"''••• *» COBHECtlCUT : CHlTILLON-SUIl-SKmS. CHARTER OP FORESTS. See LAKD : A. 0. 1818-1*74. CHARTERHOUSE, OR CHARTREt Bee Cabthusiak Oudbk. CHARTERHOUSE SCHOOL, - See EDncATioK, Hodhm: Eubopkah: LAHD. CHARTISTS. — CHARTISM. See LAMD : A. D. 1888-1848, and 1848. CHARTREUSE, La Craada. See 1 thusiar OEDSm. CHASE, Jndga. Tha Impaacbmcat Trial ot See Uihteo Stath or Am.: a 1804-1808. ^ CHASIDIM, ORCHASIOEES, OR SIOEANS, The.— A name, ■ignifrini; J wily or pious, assumed by a party anion" ew». In the second century B. C. who rm the OredaDizlDK tendencies of the timv u the influence of the Orcco-Syrian domiim and who were the nucleus of the Maoeal rpTolt The later school of the Pharigrfs is resented by Ewald (Hitt. of Itrael, A*. 5. *< to have been the nruduct of a narmwink, 'i fxrmation of the ■cliool of the CbastiMni ; while EoKonc's, in hU view, were a purer a-8iilue ol CliiiHiilim "who strove after piety, yet W( not join the I'liariwvs " ; who abandoneit "so a.1 wiirlilly ami inrurably corrupt." and in »1 "the coiiiicience of tlic nation, as It were » drew inl.i the wilderness."- H. EwaH ;/,, hnul, hi. ,1. If I. 3.— A mmlem wri. iM.mi* the name, fotimUil liy one Israel Baal S'hcm ' first apiHiiml in i'oilolia. in 174<l, iniwiil |.. lirace moitt of the Jewa in (lulloia, lluiip Southern Kuiwla. and Wallachia.— H. V A(J« J/i$l. nf iht Jeum. p. .lai. Ai-Ko IN : H. Oraeti, I/itt. o/theJetn, r .1, d CHASUARII, The. Bee Fhakks: Ohii kti. ^ CHATEAU CAMBRESIS, Treaty (»SS9>., «<■<• Kkance: a. U. 1.%47-l.V.y CHATEAU CAILLARa-Thi» wm n»me iflveii to a famou.i castle. Iiuill h ■ Uirli t'uMir (le Liou 111 Xormamly, and disiiiiicl t.i the key to the defencTH of tliat Imixirt.iiii ,|iic "A» a monument of warlike «kill, hi* 'Siii f'ttstle,' I'hilteau Uaillanl. atands find aiiiiiun forln'SM'g of the Middle Ajtea. Hi. iianl di HU Kite where the Seine Ih'IkU miditenlv at U. Ion ill a (.'real aemiiinle to the north, ii'nd wli- the Viilliv of Ix-s Aiiili'lya limik* the lit f 1 elmlk (lilfn aloiii; it.s Imiik. The eiiMli' f.mi part of an liitri iiclied eanip wliirli ItulmnI ■ «l>!iiiil to cover his Noniian iiipilal . . 1 e.i.v rnliictiiin of Norniamly 011 the Till Chilean (laillani at a later tliii- (wImii it m taken 1)^ Philip Augustus, of Iriin.v] i.nn Hlilmnlit foriHifKht."— J. H. (Jniii, .vA.-rr Hi of till l.'n'/linh I'tiiiAr, eh. a, lerl t) CHATEAU THIERRY. Battle of. 8 l-iivNM.: A. I). 1n|4(Jakiakv— MMiiir CHATEAUVIEUX, Fate to the soMii of. .N|. I.nii:iirv Cai'. CHATHAM, Lord ; Administration of. S Kniii.and: a. I). 17.17-17(10: i;(iii-iri..l »i I7i'..">-176H And the American Rtvolutio Hen rmmi Stath of Am: a. D. I7W. u 177.1 (.I.AiirABT— Mabi-h). CHATILLON, Baltlaa of (1793). K FiiAM^: A l> nHJKJii.T— DrrmHiTK) CHATILLON-SUR-SEINE.Congrens Sit FllAJill.. A 1). lM14(jAI(UA«V-ilAll>ll! 418 CHATTANOOOA. CBERUBCL CHATTANOOGA :Tlwn«m«. SeeCHiTBD State* of Am . : A. D. 1888 (Adooct— Septkm- ggR: Tbmnmbbe). A D. 1863.— Sccored by tht Coiusderatet. See United States or Am. : A. D. 18«3(Jra»— (KToiiKn: TEmcKaBEE— Keittuckt). A. D. 1863 (AnKU^).— ETACumtien by the CoLrederatei. Son tsiTKn S'tates of Ah.: A l>. lHfl3(Aroi'8T— Skptuibeh: Tenkebbee). A. D. 1863 (October— HoT»mber).— Th« ,i,n.— The battle on Lookout Monntain.— The uMult of Mtitaionwy Ridge.— The Ront- iar of Bragf's mnny. Foe United State* cr a5 : A. D. 1868 (OcTOBiui— NoviuoiEu: Ten- lIEfgKK). ^ CHATT!, OR CATTI, The.—" Beyon<i [the Mttitioci] are Ute Cba'ti, wlii.iic M-ttlemrots hrgin at Uie I'creynlan forwt, where the country in not ao opn and m&raby a« in the other cantons Into which OcrmanT itielchea. Tliey are found when' tlure are hilu, and with them grow less freijucni.ior the Hercyntan ffreat keeps close till It ha» aet'D the last of it* native Chatti. Hardy frames, close knit limbs, flerco countenances, ao(i a peculiarly vigopoua courage, mark tlio triU. i'liT Oermnna, they have much Intclll- gfnrt' and sagacity. . . . Otiier tril>es you si-c golui? to battle, this Chatti to a campaign."— 'The w'ttlpmcnts of the (Chatti, one of the chief Ocmian tribes, aptmrently (»inciiie with portions of WcKtiiliulia, Nassau, HeiBir' Darmstadt and UesM'-Caiwel. Dr. Lntham asaumes the Chatti of Tiiiitus u> be the Sucvi of Ciesar. The fact tliat the name Chatti docs not occur in C'saar rendi n tlii» hypothesis by no means improbable. " —Tacitus, Hermans, tmim. *y Church ait<! Brod- ribb, II iiii Hiitr. — tK'C, also, SfKVi. CHAUCER, and hit times. See Etiui.Aiii>: A. I). VKiO-lVM. CHAUCl AND CHERUSCI, The.- The fihe of the Chiiuci . . . U'ginning at the Frisian ■ctth-inrnts andoccupvinn a part of tlie coast, itretrlii-s along ilio frontier of all the )rilM'ii which 1 have rnumrrated, till it reaches with a Ijend as far as the (,'liattl. Tliia Ta«t extent of cnutjtiy is not tnerely poaseaaed but ilensely lieoplwl by the ('hauci, tlie noblest of the (Jcr- man rai-ra, a nation who wouhl maintain tlieir irrcHtncM by Hi;hteous dealing. Without am- kiiion. williout lawless violence, . . . the crown- lug pnii.f of their valour and their strength is, th.it they keep up their au|>eri<>rlty wittmut barm to others. . . Dwelling on one aide of the Chain I iind <'hatti. the Clicrwl long cheri^lied, uniusiulctl, an excessive and enervullng love of pciici' Thu was MKin- ph-aaaut tlian safe, . . . Mill »> the Cluruaci, ever reouted giNNi an<l just, arc miH nillnl niwanis and finils, while in the CHM- <<f tlie victorious Chatti siKcesa has been iilculitlisl altli prudeni'e. I'he downfall of the I'hiniwl hrmiglit with it al«> that of the Foal, a srik-lilxiuriiig tril<e." -"TIhi settlementa of the CluiK i . . . muHt have im liidtsi aliiiiiat the en- tlw.imiiiry iK'twcen the Knis and tiiv Weaer — that Is. < ililrnliurg and part of Uanorcr — and havr uikeii in luirtions ot Wesi|ihHlia aUiut Miiidi.r and Pailerlairn. Tlie I'licrusci . . . appcur til have mTUiiiiil Ilninswirk an.l ihe Mfuih |mri i>f ilsniivcr. Arniiiiiuii wiio lii-atniysi tlie ItHiiiitn army umicr Varus, was a ClM-niMMn thief . The Foal . . . must liave la-cupiisl feitof llaoon .{ "- Tacitua, ilimr Wurlu, tran*. by Church and Brodribb: The Oermnny, -jiith Oeug. nota. — Bishop Stubbs conjectures that the Cluauci, Cherusci, and some utliur tHbes may have been afterwards ccmprelicndisl under the general name "Saxon." See Saxons. CHAUTAUQUA ASSEMBLY, ani! Cir- cle. See EoucATioH, MoocuM: Aiuutira: A D. 1874. CHAZARS, The. See Kraza m, CHEAi SUMMIT, Battle ot SeerniTCO States or A:i. : A. D. 1861 (Acomr— Decbk- BEB : West VmoiHiA), CHEBUCTO.— The origiiial name of the harbor of Halifax. CHEIROTONIA,— A vote by show of bands. snODK the ancient Or^ka. CHEMI. Bee Egypt: Its Nave£. CHEMNITZ, BatUe of (l<i39). See Oeb- MA.vv: A. 1). l»i;il-16iffl. CHERBOURG.— Destroyed by the Eag- llsh. See Knoi.and: A 1). ITW (.Ifl-v— AloisT). CHEROKEE WAR, The. See Soltii C.KnoMNA: A. D. 17.W-1761. CHEROKEES, The. Sec Americas Abo- liKiiNRs: CiiEimKEEa. CHERRONESUS, The proposed Stste of. Si-e Northwest Tkrbiturt or the L'nited States or Aic. : A. D. 1784. CHERRY VALLEY, The massacre at. See Uxn-ED States op Ax. : A. D. 1778 (Jithb ^— ^ovrmbrr) CHSRSON. See Bosphokus: K. D. 563- 574. A. D. 988.— Takes by tho Rnssiaas.— " A thousand years after the rest of the On-ek nation \VH4 sunk in irremediable slavery, Cherson re- mnined free. Such a phenomenon aa the ex- istence of nutnly feeling in one city, when man- kind everywhere else slept contented in a state of political degradation, deserved attentive con- sideration. . . . Cbenon retained its position as an ind. pendent State until the reign of Theo- plillus [Uvzantine emperor A. D. 839-843], wlio 'Compelled it to receive a governor from Con- stantinople; but, even under the ttyznntine government, it contlnue<l to defend its niiiiiicliial liUiiitutions, and. Instead of slavishly soliciting the imiH>rial favour, and adopting Byzantine manners, it boasted of ita constitution and self giiveinment. But U gradually lost ita former wealth and extensive trade, and when \'la(liniir, ti>e Boven-ign of Rusam, attackinl it in 9HH, it was betrayetl Into bia bands br a pncst, who in- formed him how to cut off tlie water. . . . Vladimir obtained the hand of Anue, the sister of the emperor* Basil II. and Constiuitlne VUl., and was tiaptised and marrinl in the cliur<h of the Panagbia at Cherson. To wsithe the vnuily of the Empire, he preten>led to n-tain posM'ssioD of bis conquest an the dowry of his wire. Many of the prieuta who coiivertetl the Kiisstana to Christianitv. and maiiv of the aitlsts wlm adorned the earlirat ItusaUkn chiinin-t with paintinins and mosali-a, were nativesnf Cliirson." -■(J. Kliihiy, llitt, u/ tkt Bytantiru Kmfirt/rom 716 to KttT. » CHERSONESE, The Golden, SerCnKYSR. CHERSONESUS.-The UriTk name for a petiliistiiii. nr IiohI '.slMiiii," H|n>tnsi iti.M-i 1 f.|rt-t i. ully III tlic louir tongue of luiid bi'twirn the llcl!fsiH>iit :lll'l the (illlr of MclSK. CHERUSCI, The. Suv Cuawvl 419 CHESAPEAKK AJTO SnANNON. « ????;^'*"^'^S AND SHANNON, The CHESS, Origin of the guae of.— "If we wtohHl to know, for liistancc, wlio Ims tuuglit us the game of chcM, the name of clieaii wouia tell u» Jwtler than onythlns else tlmt It came to the West from Persia. In spite of all that has been wrttU-n to the contrary, chi-ss was originally the fame of Kings, the game of Slialis. This word hah became in Old French cscliac. It. scacco Germ Schach; while the Old French e.*.hecs was furtlier corrupted into chess. Tlie more original form chec has likewise been preserved, though we little think of it when we draw a cheque or when we suffer a check, or when we ■peak of the Chancellor of the Exchequer The great object of the chese-ptaycr is to protect tlic king, and when the king is in doninT the • <>pP"?e°"» obliged to say 'check,' i. e.. SImli the kliig^ . . . After this the various meanings ?\ n'.";r. "^'"*<l"e- O' exchequer become eiiaily Intelligible, though it Is quite true that if similar changes of meaning, which in our case we can watch by the light of hlatoiy, had taken place in the dimness of prehistoric ages, it would be difflcult to convince the sceptic that exchequer or scsccarium, the name of the ohess-boanl was afterwards used for the checkered cloth on which accounu were calcuUted by means of counters, and that a checkere<l career was a life with many crossUnes. "— P. Max MlUler, Biao. tf ff'XYfc, rt. 4. ^ CHESTER, Origin of. See Dsva. CHESTER, The PaUtine Earidom. See rALATmR.TuB Enomsu Countus: also Walu Princu or. ' CHESTER. Battle of. -One of the flcreest of the biitths fought iKtween the Welsh and the CHEVY CHASE. See Ottbrbuhn. HArruc or. CHEVENNES. OR SHEYENNES, The. Bee Ambhica-X Aborioi.-jes: AuK)NqLiA.N Fam- CHIAPAS: Ruins of ancient dTiliaatioa in. »eo.\M::!ticA!<ABOiiiuiNK8;MAYAS;andMKXico AjfciKNr CHIARI, Battle of (1701). See Italy (Savoy AKD I'lEIlMONT): A. D. 1701-1718. CHIBCHAS, The See Ambrican Abo riiiinkh: ('iitnriiAs. B ^"i*^^9° • tt- °- «•".— ETaeuation of the Fort Dearborn Post, and maaaacrc of most of tut retreatiog garrison. See Unitkd States or Ajr: .VI) I"<ia (.li xk-Octobe..). . °' '»«?— .The Republican National Con- vention. -Nomination of Lincoln. H.r IMteh ^J""-" "" Am. : A. I). 18«0 (Apbii,-.N,)VE¥ A. D. i87i.-The rrcat Fira.-" The gnate^l ev.>.K 11. tl... hUtoryof Chicago was tl.,' (Jh-Hl Fin. lis it i» t.muHl. which broke out oii tl... evenin.' ,.f O,., m. i«7i. Chicago was «i il„,t tlin.' I. .n.vpt III th,. biwlness e.-nln) a .itv of wo.«l_ l-or u l.iiig III,,,, prior to til.' <v.ni,ii; rc- fern.l to ilirr.. h,„| l„ .n blowing a hot » in.l from tie «.mil,v...st wlil.l, |„«| (irieil evorvlhin,, to theiiillimiiiiHliiliivof iln-l.r. and it w,w ,ip.,n a tlmt thr rtre Inijan in w„rk. It Is .,ip,«,M-,| lo bavi' ..rltflnnuvl from \\w n. , id,.nt;il upwiiin,: of ■ kcnmue lamp in a cow born [.Mrs. OUary'sj CHICAOO. on De Koven Street, near the comer of Jcffcraon on the west 8i<le of the river. This region «ru composed Urgily of shanties, and the fin- snnJj mijidly, very s.«n or™«lng tlio river to the.s„utj mue. and fastening on that portion of t|„. ,.1., which contjiimM ncariy all tlie leadini- buMnai houses, and which was built up very lajg, ly u-^ stone and brick. But it scenicl to eiikin.lle u if It were tinder. Some buildings were bl„irn up with gunix.wder, which, in conniction will, t le strong southwest gale, prevenltHi Wv in™. slon of the flames to the south. The lln; sweot on Monday stewiily to the north, Includin-fverT tiling from the lake to the South Brand, aij then croase<l to the North Side, and. taki;,. in everything from the lake to the North Ilruicl, it burned northwanl for adistanceof thpv ii,ii«; where it die<l out at the city limiU. wl,c„ t|,e~ was nothing more to bum. In tlie midst „f tlm broad area of devastation, on the north n.le of Washington Square, between Clark Slnrt and Uearbom Avenue, the well-known Ogd, n house stands amid tiv^es of the ancient forest au.l sur rounded by exU'nsive grounds, the soliiarv relic of that section of the city Infore Uie ll.rvlliwd The toul area of the laud burned over w/is " 100 acr<» Nearly 2I).()(H) buil.iiags were con.u^^ed; IW.OOO people were rendered homeless; Jilo lira were lost, ud the grand total of values d^tniyed is estimated at $200,000,000. Of this vast Hiim. newly one-half was covered by insunimr but under the tremendous losses manv of tl,e ig. •urance companies were forc«Hi Ui the wall lad went into liqulilatlon, and the victims of iIh'cod- Dagratkm n^overwl only about oi„.-ilfii, „f their aggregate losst^. Among the Imilditiu's nhfch were burned wen- tl,e courtliou.H,., lu.si.iii Imme and post offlce. chanilHT of comim nc ilmr nil. way depou, nine daily new»|mperolll(.» iliirtr- two hotels, ten thcatn^s and lialla, eiirli! nt,bUc schools and some branch schoul buildinc-i f.irty- one churches, five elevators, and all tl,,' n.,iioiiil parallel In Us dimensions and the nia!,'i,iluile of its dire results, the charity whirl, followed itwu "l"»lly,unrivall.sl in its enlent VII the civilized world npix-ared to instanllv aiwinciste the calamity, F.k«1. clothing, siippli,.. „f ,.verT kin.l. money, messages of alfccti «yni|«ithT etc.. began poiiriiiitin atonceiii aslminiiliitsih peanjl endlcvi ami iHiiioinleas. Inall. tl„ai.uiunl conirilmted reaeiusi ovir 17.000,000 |t w>« believed by min.v that tlie lire had f,ir.v,r lil„n«l out Chicago fn>iii il,|. list <,.' gnat .\miric»ii cities but the spirilof Iwr pi-oplewa.s uii.l.iimtBl by calamity, and. cncoiimgiil liy tl„. piiLTom sympathy au<l help from all quartirs tli. v set to work at once to npair their almost ruised fortune* . . lU-building was at on..' iimi ineuccd. »n<l. within a year aft.r ilie lir. more llian WO M," (•KHI H- Tl' expenihsl in impn.n niwili. The cltycanir uj rmm lis ruins far 111. .n- palstisl. splemlid, strung i„i,| imperisiialili. tli.i, l« fore. In one sense iImiIh' was a iH'neflt. Ilscuw.iueace waa a chus of »trucliir>'8 far iK'ttir. li -7 M«-ntlal respect, than iKfore the iv.nil Fireproof buiiiliiiK's iNvame llie ruU', li, ,u of wood were carifullv nsiiriclcd, au'l tiic . • of the reconBtni.!...! 'jKirti-.m i;!ii!:::;.;:r-;!:!v .r cceilod Uwt of the citv wl,i<li lia,| \w,n >lisi r, n «! " —MitrifHW lhn,lh,>„k<>fl'l,ini,f,, ,, ■:< -- Tlio«- sandsof people on tl„. .N'ortl,8i,lc tlr,|r„r.. lit. ■nths prairie, but other thuusouds, less fortuuaU', wrr 420 omcAoo. CHICAOO. hemmed tn before they could retch the countnr, luid were driven to the Sands, a group of bcacL- iiillnclu fronting on Lake Michigan. These liad hwn covered with rescued merciiandiM and fur- niturr. The flameB fell fiercely upon the heaps of goods, and the miserable refugees were driven iuto tlie black waves, where they stood neck-deep in chilling water, scourged by slieeU of sparks anil lilowmg sand. A great nuinlH-r of horses luid been coTlecte<l here, and they too dashed into the sea. where scores of them were drowned. Towanl evening the Mayor sent a fleet of tow- hosta which took off the fugitives at the Sands. When the next day [Tuesday, October 10] dawned, tlie prairie was covered with the calcined ruins <if more tlian 17,000 buildings. . . . This was tlK* greatest and most disastrous conflagration on reconl. The burning of Moscow, in 1H18, caused B lom amounting to £30,000.000; but the Ion at Cliicago was in excess of this amount. The OrestTIre of London, in 1660. devastated a tract of 436 acres, and destroyed 18,000 buildings; but that of Chicago swept over 1,900 acres, and burned more than 17,000 buildings."— M. F. Swwtser, Chimgo (" dtia of the WorU," ». 1). — The following is the statement of area burned over, and of property destroyed, made by the Chicago Relief and Aid Society, and which is probably authoritative: "The total area burned over in the city, including streets, was 3, IM acres, or nearly three and one-third square miles. This area cDnUined abou 78 miles of streets, 18,000 buililini^, and the homes of 100,000 people." — A T. Andreas, Hitt. of Chicago, e. 8, p. 760. Also in: E. Culliert and E. Chamberlain, CM- tan" unit the Grtat VonJIniiration. A. D. i8t6-iM7.— The Haymarkct Con- spiracy.— Crime of the Anarchists,— Their trial and execution. — "In February, 18H6, Mes.'irs. .McCormick, large agncultunil-machine makers of Chicago, refusing to yield to the dictaliiin of their workmen, who required them to (liM'liarge some non-Union hands they hsillikin <m, an'inunce<l a 'Iwk-out,' and pre- parvil to resume i. jsiness as soon as poasililc with anew ulaff. Spies, Lingg, and other Oerman Ananliims saw their opportunity. They per- siuuii'U the ousted workmen to prevent tlx' '«cab«,'— angiici. ' bUcklegs,' — from enteriuK the works on the day of their reopening. Reviilvcra, rifles, and bombs were readily found, th« isMer being entrusti-il prinripally to the hands of profeiwioDal ' Hcdj." The most violent sppealn were maiie to the members of Unions and thi' piipulare generally : I'lHthouirh nsuecossionof rlou wcri' got op. th?y were easily quidled by the nwiliiti' aitiiin of tiie ii.dlce. iMu-ked by the sppMv d of the immenw iiiijority of tlie people of Cliir.'ii.'o Fitii'lly, a mass inetHlnir in arms was called to lake piaieon May 4lh. 1)*)46, at 7.80 p.m., in Ihi \\i ' marKi't, a long ami n-ciiitly widene<l strwt of t'le town, for the express purpose of 'UnMiiihliig tit- tiolici!. But the iulention of the AimrrhiAtH was not merely to denounce the police thin was the pretext onfy. Tlie prisons were to be (.iri-ed, the pidice-stations Mown up, the piihlii' hiiililiiiKS attacked, and tlie onslaught on prop'-rty mid capital to he iimuiriirHted by the •ii'v iMaiion of one of the fairest cities of the Vni II. Ity M p. ni a mob of simie three or four 111" I Hid per«ms hail U-en c<dle<-tiHl, and were K-piird liy s|)eerhes that became more violent M Uie lUgUt war* (A At 10 p. m. tte io\io» appeared in force. The crowd were commanded to disperse peaceably. A voice shouted: 'We are peaceable.' Captain Schaack says this was a signal. The words were hanlly uttered when ' a spark flashed through the air. It looked like the lighted remnant of a cigar, but hissed like a miniature sky-rocket.' It was a bomb, and fell amid the ranks of the police. A tcrriltc explosion followed, and Immediately afterwards the mob opened fire upon the police. The latter, stiiimed for a moment, soon recovered tliem- selves, returned the Are, charged the mob, and In a couple of minutes dispersed it in every direction. But eight of their comrades lay dead upon the pavement, and scores of othera were weltering in their blood aroiiiul tlie spot. Such was the Chicago outrage of May 4tii, 1886." — Tht Spectator. Apr. 19, 1890 (rtrirmng Srhtuuk'e " Anarehy ami Anarekiett"). — The Anarchists who were arrested ao<l hroucht to trial for this crime were eight in number, — August Spies, Michael Schwab, Samuel Fieldcn, Albert R Parsons, Adolph Fischer, Oeorge Engel, Louis Lingg, and Oscar W. Neebe. The trial began July 14, 1886. The evidence closed on the lOth c'i August; the argument of counsel consumed mure than a week, and on the 20th of August the Jury brought in n verdict which condemned Neeoe to imprisonment for flfteeu yeara, and all the other prisonere to death. I.inijg committed suicide in pris<m;.the sentences of Schwab and Fieklen were commuted by the Governor to Imprisonment for life: the reni:iiiii!ii four were hnnircl on the 11th of November. 1HH7. — .Indite Gary, The Chirntjo Ananhiste "f 1»«6 (Centurf Mag.. April, 1808). A. D. 1889-1893.— Chicago University. >i i- EdIHATIOS,M<'1)KH.N: AmKK" a; a I) 1S.Nl|.Isn;j A. D. 1891-1893.— The World's Columbiar Expoaition. — " As a fitting nnxii' of n lelirtiiiig the four hundredth anniversary of the Inuiliiig of Columbus on Oct. I'i. 149i, It was pmiHwcd to litivv a universal exhibition in the I'nited States. The idea was flrat taken up by citizens of New York, where subscriptions to the amount of $5,000,000 were obtalneil from merchants and capitalists before application was miule for tlie sanction and support of the Federal Government. When the matter came up in Congn'ss the claims of Chicago were consldereil superior, and a bill was passed and iippmvod on April 39, 1890. entitlnl ' An Act to provide for celebrating the four hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America by Christoplur Coliiinbus, by hola- ing an intemationul exhibition of arts, industries, manufactures, and the proilucts of the soil, mine, and sea in the city of Chicago, in the State of Illinois.' The act provided for the appointment of commissioners who should organize the exposition. . . . When the organ- ization was completed and the stipulateil finan- cial support from the citizens and municipality 01 Chicago assured. President Harrison, on l)cc. 34. 1890. issued a protdaiiiation inviting all the nations of the earth to participate in the World's Columbian Exposition. Since the time was too short to have the gMiinds ami buildings inmi- pleteii for the sumnuT of 189'i. as was originally uilendni, tiie owning of tlie ex|iiwiliiMi was announcMl for May, 189.1. When the work was falrlv lirgun it was accelerated, as many as 10,0110 workmen tieing employed nt one time. Id order lo have tiw bulkUogs nwdy to Iw d«di 421 i-t 1/ cmcAoo. nted with Impodnf ceramonlps on Oct 13, 1899 lu lominrmonition of the exact date of the dla- covory of Amvric^"— AppUloai Annual CM»- padia. 1891. p. 837.— On May 1, 1(«3, the Fair waa opened with appropriate cetemoiilea by rreaident Cleveland. » CHICASAS, The. See Akmicam Abo- mioiNES: Mi'SKnooEAN Familt: alio. Lociai- ajia: a. D. I71O-1750. isaviM-""*^*^^' ^•- ** *•"'»= ^ °- CHICKAHOMINY, Battlet on Ui«(Gaiii.t' Mill, i86a; Cold Harbor, 1864). Sec Uhitbd 8TATK8 or Am.; A. D. IWti (.Iixs-Jult: VimiiNiA); and ISMOUy— Jtsr.: Viuoinia) CHICKAMAUOA. Battle ot S« Umt«d States or Asi. : A. D. 1863 (Auoiot— Skptbh. BBR: TENXEaaKE). „ CHICORA.— Tlie name riven to the region of Boutli Carolina l)y ita Spiin&h dlscoverera. See America : A. D. 1519-1335 CHILDEBERT I., King of the Fraiika,at Panj. A. D. 511-5.58 diudebert uTkI^ of the Frank* (Anitratia), A. D. 573-353! (Bumindy). 583-.'.U6 CMIdebert III., Kiar 09^-7' 1 '■'"^' (Nenatria and BnTpindy), A. D CHILDERIC II., KiBc of the Praata. A n 6t)(t-67:l Childerielll., A. D. 742-7S CHILDREN OF HAN. .Sei Chwa CHILDREN OF REBECCA. See IUbec- caitk.'*. CHILDREN'S CRUSADE, The. See CHiSADKit; A. i). 121a. V,,9"'LE: The Araucanlan*-"The land of l-liili. tmm dO' Hoiith latitude, waa and is still in part ocrupkd by several tribes who si)c»k the same lanRuaKe. They form the fourth and most ■oiithern jfroup of the Andes people, and arc callH Ariiuniiiians. Like almost all Aii«ri<an triliHl nnnies. the term Araucanwn Ls imietlniu-- ionieliniis it i.s restri<te<l to a single ban<! and sometimes so exieii.iwi as to cinbmec a gfoup of triliea. .Some reirard tliem us a separate family callins them fhilians, while otiiera, whom we follow, r|.,;a^l tliem as the southern memben of the Amies «roup, ami still otlieni riaas them with the Pampas Imli.inj. The name Araiicanian Is an improper one. imnnluceil bv the .Simnianls but it is so (irmly llxe,l that it cannot lie clinnired' The native names are .Moluehe (warriors) and ALipuehe (natives). Originallv they extended from Cxiuimbo to the Chonoa Arehlpehigo and from o<^;in to iKvnn, and even now they extend thoujrh mil very fur. to the east of the Cordlllcraa! They are divide.1 into four (or, If wc include the Plcunehc, Hv.) irltn™, the names of which all end in tcheor •ehe.' the wor.1 for man. Other minor divisions exist, The entire number of the Amucanians is computed at about 80 000 •ouls but it is (lecrvaslug bv siekiiesa aa well ai by vice. They « ',■ owner« of their land and have cattle lu «„ i.iiianix-, |>ay no Ux.-s. and even their tabjir in the iimstriietl jn of highways is only light. They a-e warlike, brave, and still enjoy some of the bl, ^'rft of the Inca civilization; only the nal. wcMem Araucaniain in Chill have atlami^d U. a wilentary life. L..iiif before llu! aniv.ii ,if th. ^S|„.niani» the goverumeut of tlic Aniueanlans ollemi a striking itwinblancetotlie military ariHiiK-raty of the old world. All the nat that ba^ been written of their high itage of CHILE. 14S0-17S1 cultttie hai prpred to be an empty picture of fancy. They followed agriculture, built fixed housea, and made at least an attempt at a form of goreniroent, but they stiU remain, aa a whofe CTUel, plundering aavagea."— ITu .%$,utari J^nnrf But. (JT & KingtUt, ed.), t. 8 m m-m— • ' The Anucanhina hihabit the deliirht; Jul region between the Andes and the 8<a snd between the riven Bio-bio and Valdivia Ther derive the appellation of Anucanlans f n.m tlw provtooe of Arauco. ... The political division of the Aiaucanhin stete U regulated with much ntelllgence. It U divided from north to south i.!?i te j?o»en,ment8. . . . Each governnieot la divided tato five provinces, and each pr..viiic. into nine counties. The state consisu of tliiw order* of nobilitv, each being subonlinaie i.> the other, and all having their iwip.Htlve vuskiIi They are the Toquls. the Aiw-Vlmenes, ami the timenes. The ToquU, or governors, art' fourjn number They are hMiependent of pa. h oilier i 'u*??'*"*""*** '*"■ "■* public welfare. The Arch-Llmenes govern the provinces under their reapective Toquls. The Ulmemw ^oveni the counties. The upper ranks, generally, are like- wise comprehended under the term LImeues - K. O. Watson, Spanish and IWtugiuM S. Am.. V. 1, cA. 13. TT^}*".^: "'• ^- Molina, Gtog., Natural an.1 CM Hut. of Chili, e. a, hk. 8. A. p. 1450-17*4. -The Spanish conquest- The Araucaoian War of Independence.-- In the year U-iO the Peruvian liieu, Yupammi deslrour of extending his dominions to»,inl< the south. sUtionetl himself with a iniwerful Hrmv »' Atacama. Thentv he dispatcheil a fonv of '•'•"*> men to Chili, umler the coiiiiii.inl of Uilnchiruca. wl-*. ov,^rc«miing almost iiicmlilile obatacles. marched through a sandv <lesert a.i f»r aa CoplaiK). a distjince of 80 leairues. The Copbpina flew to arms, .md prep»re<l to resiit thU invasion. Wnt r.\ inchiruea. true to the policy which the Incaa always observed .m.»id upon the defi^nsivp. trusting to ptTNimsiiui rithor than to force for the accomplisliimni of his designa. . . . While he proffere<l |»a(.. he warned them of the consoquenn-s of nsi.tiuif the ' Children of the Sun. ' " After wav, ri.u- for a time, the Copiapina submitted tlieiiw hi» to the rule of the Iiieas. •• The adjoiiiiri;; |n.i inee of Coquirabowuseiiailysubjujrateil. iin,l M,.i„lily advancing, the Peruvians, some six ve^irs after their flrst enterin;; the country, llnnlvV>i;iblish«l themselves in the valley of Vliill. „i „ ,li,iauce of more tlian 200 leagues fnmi IIk- frcinii. r o( Atacama. The ' C'hildn-n of the Hum Iu.I met thua far with little n'siaWiice, ami, rni-.,urait.il by suoceas. tliev marelie<l their victorimiMaruiiej against the I'liruinanelans. ,,", ^ - ". ■. wurlik" |...ipW living beyond the riv.r lUpel." Her., ih, v were desperately reslsKil, In a buttle wl;i. l,■ia^t(J three days, and from whUh ImiIIi aniiin with drew, undefeateil ami iinvletorious. ( tii 1. irning this reault, the Inea Vu|ian<|ui onhnil hi^ iva- ersis to relinquish nil nttiiiipis at fiirili.r<on quest, and to ■•seek, hv the iiiir<«liii iiia of wiae Uws, and by inslnu'tiug the |Moplr iu airriiul tiirc and the arts, to esiablUh tli.ius. h,-, more flmily in th« u-rris.u-v alr^Hilv r,--;\'-\ 1- what extent the Peruvians we're so', , .^^ful la the endeavor to ingmfl theirclvilUutioii. n lirioa, and customs upon the Chilians, it Is at thisilisunt day iinpuiaibic to deter:;iinc, sinii' the eurliert 422 h.f.. CHILE. 14S&-1791. CHILE. 1810-1818. tbtnrUni dUter widely oa the subject Certain It in, tliat cm tho vnTal uf the SpsnUrd* the Imiui. at least DominallT. ruled the oouotr;. . tnil received an aanuu) tribute of gold from iit'ii|ile. Ill till- year 1585, after the death of tbo unfortunate Inca Atabuallpa, Diego Almagro, 8rt'il by the love of glory and the thirst for eold, yieliird to the solicitations of Francisco Piuirrii, ihe conqueror of Peru, and set out for tlic •iibjcction of Chi'.;, which, as yet. bad not bn-n visited by any European. Ilia armr con- (iDliti of 370 Bpanianln, well equip|)ea, and IS.unO Peruvian auxiliaries. Regardless of diffl- cuitirs and dangers this impetuous soldier se- lected tlie near route tiuit Iny along the summits of tlie .Vniles, In preference to the more circuitous roa<l po.ssing through the deiiert of Atacama. Upnn the horrors of this march, of which so thrilling so account is given by Prescott in tlie 'C'lirMiuest of Peru,' it is unnecessary for us to lUi'll ; sulflce '.t to state tlutt, on reachlnK Copiapo ■III less than one-fourth uf his 8|»iiiiitu troops, SD<i two-thirds of his Indian auxiliaries, had perlsliitl from the effects of cold. fiiiiKuo and starvation. . . . Everywhere the Spaniards met with a friendly reception from the natives, who regunie<l them as a superior race of Iwings, and tlie after conquest of the country wouW \<T' >)>ably have iK'en atteude<l with no dilUculty had a con- cilialiiry policy Iv^cn adopted; but this naturally inolfennive people, aroused by acts of the most barlian>us cruelty, soon flew to arms. Despite the op|x»ition of the natives, who were now jiiWf! iu every direction to oppose his march, Almagro kept on, overcoming every obstacle, until he reached the river Cachap>oal, the north- em boundary of tlie Purumanciim territory." Here he met with so stulibom and elTective a re»ii)taiice tliat he atiandoneti his expedition and rrtunitii to Peru, where, soon after, he lost his life [.v-e Peru: A. D. ISSJ-liUs) in a contest with tile Piianoa. *' Piiarro, evir desirous of conquering Chili, in 1540 dispatclxd Pfdro V'al- (livia fur that purpose, wiiii some 200 SpaiiiKh soldiers and a large body uf Peruvians.' Tlie iavsKiiin of Vuldivia wiis oppoMil from the miiiiii'iit he enterv<l the country; but he pushed on until he reached the river MnpiK'lio, and "eni'um|)e<i upon the site of the present capital of Chili. Valdivia. finding the IcHiition pleasant, Hod the surrounding plain fertile, here fouiiitf<i a city on the 24th of Kehruarv, IMl. To this tret European settlement in Ohili he gave the nunie of Santiago, in honor of the patruu saint of Spain. He luid out the town in Spanish ttyli' : snd a.i a place of refuge in <'ase of attacit, eniinl II fort u|)«u a steep rocky hill, rising iimie ',>lli feet shove the plain." The Mup<x'liins »«'n !iM .iked the infant town. dMVe its [leople to ilic flirt and bunie<i tlieir wttleinent; but werr finally rimilaed willi dreailful slaughter. "Ou tlic arrivul of a second army from Peru, Vahlivk, wlio-.e niiihition Imd a'-vays been to coniiuer the •oiitli' m pniviuivs of C'fiili, advanced into the coiiiilryif tlie Puruniauchins. Ileri' liUtory is prol'ulily defective, as we have no account of any Iwttlis fiiiight with these brave people. . . . \\v simply learn that the isiunlsh leader cventu- fti'j g^lfirtl tlirir gtun* will, and esfniiii.'ihni with them an alliance both offensive and defensive. In the following year(l-MO) the tSpaiiish forces eroaaed the river .Mauli, the southern buumlary of the Punimanciana, and advancisl toward the Itata. While encamped near the latter river, they were attacked at dead of night by a body of Araucanhuis. So uuexpected was the approach of this new enemy, that many of the horses were captured, and the army with diiflculty escaped total destruction. After this terrible defeat, ValdivU finding himself unable to proceed, returned to SantiaEo." Soon after- wards he went to Peru for relnforcementa and was absent two years; but came back, at the end of that time, with a large band of followers, and marched to the South. " Reaching the bay of Taicahuaoo without having met with any oppo- sition, on the 6th of October, 1550, he founded the city of Concepcion on a site at present known as Penoa" The Araucanians, advancing boldly upon the Spaniarda at Concepcion, were defeated in a furious battle which cost the invaders many Uvea. Three years later, in December, 1553, the Araucanians nad their revenge, routing the Spaniards utterly and pursuing them so f uiTousIr that only two of their whole army escaped. ValdivUk was among the prisoners taken and waa sUin. Again and again, under the lead of a youthful hero, Lautaro, and a vigorous toqui, or chief, named Caupolican. the Araucanhins as- sailed the invaders of their country with success: but the latter increased in numbers and gained ground, at last, for a time, building towns and extending settlements in the Araucauiao territorv. The indomitable people were not broken in spirit, however; and in 1596, bv an universal and simultaneous rising, tbev expelled the Spaniards from almost every settlement they had made. " In 1608 . , , of the numerous Spanish forts and settlements south of the ISio-Bio, Nacimiento and Anuco only had not fallen. Valdivia and Usomo were afterward rebuilt. About the same time a fort was erected at Boroa. This fort waa soon after abandoned. Valdivia, Osomo, Naci- miento, and Arauco still remain. But of all the 'cities of the plain ' lying within the boundaries of the haughty Araucanians, not one ever rose from its ashes; their names exist only in history; and the sites where they once flourisluti are now marked by ill-defined and grass-grown ruins. Krom the peri<sl of their fall dales the independ- ence of tlie A:-tucanUn nation; for though a hundred years more were wasteil in the vain attempt to reconquer the heroic ptsiple . . . the l^paniartls, weary of constant war, and dislKart- eneii by tlie lotui of so much L!'iod and treasure, were finally compelled to sue for IH'iice ; and in 1T'.24 a treaty was ratifietl. ucknowi"dging their freedom, and establishing tlie liniitso' their terri- tory." — E. R. Smith. T/it AniHi-itniiiht, eh. 11-14. AlJK) in: R. O. Watson, SjkiiiM uml Utrtu- ffiuM^. Am., t. l.r/i. 12-14.— .1. I. Mo'iiia. (Vox;., yalanil and rinl IfUt. of ChiU. r. 2, l,k. 1, 8-4. A. D. 1568.— The Audiencia established. See .\l DiKNCIAs. A. D. 1810-1818.— The achievement of in- dependence. — San Martin, the Liberator. — " Chili first threw off the Spanish yoke in Sep- li'"lK'r, 1810 [on the pretext of fidelity to the liourlKin king dethroned by NapoU-on]." but Ihe national independence was not fully eil.iblislifd till .\pril 1818. During the iiiteruioiliute period, llic dissctislims of tlicitiHrrriit I'rtKiv-. (li.-ir dis- putes as to the form of coveniiiieiit and the law of ek-ction ; with other drstnictini; cium's, arising out of tlie ambition of turbulent liolividuals. anil tlie inexperience of the whole nation in political 423 I &!■' ! u^ CHILE, 1810-181S. »ff»ln; so matprislly retarded th« anion of the epuntry, that the SpwiUnlg, by icDdlDS ezpedi- tloM fn.m Ptru, *,„ enabled, in 1814, to remln their l.>8t authority in Chili. Meanwhile the Oovrramcnt of Bucnoa Avrea, the independence of which had Iwn eiUbfUhed in 1810 faee A«. oestikkRkpiblic: a. D. 1808-18SO], mturally dreaded that the Spaniarda would not long bi confined to the western aide of the Andes; but would »pee<lll;r make a descent upon the prov- nci's of tlie Kiver Plate, of which Buenos Ayres ^1 1 1.5*?"*' I" ""^J' '" f""^ •«*''»»» thU for- midable danger, they bravefy resolved themaeWes to become the invaders, and by great eaertlona eouipped an army of 4.000 men. The command of this force was given to General Don Jos« de Pan Martin, a natfve of the town of Yapeyu In Paraguay; a man greatly beloved by airmnks. ami held in such high estimation by the people that to hu personal eiertlona the formation of this army la chiefly due. With these troops San Mnrtm entered Chili by a pass over the JUides heretofore deemed Inaccessible, and on the 18th of February. 1817. attacked and completely de- feated the_^ roval army at Chacabuca The Chilians, thus freed from the Immedtete presence of the enemy, elected Oene-al O'HIg^na [see I^Bu: A. D 1550-1818] as Director; ud he ta 1818 offerwl the Chilians a constitution, and nominated Ave senators to administer the alTalrs of the country. ThU meritorious offlcer, an Irishman by descent, though bom In Chili, has ever since [1825] remaine*! at the head of the Soveminent. It was originally proposed to elwt en ml 9an Martin as Director; ^ut this he "'''^''/v.n''"f''' .P"'po«'n<? hl» companion In arms O Iligglns. hi his stead. The remnant of the Si^nish army took refuge in Talcuhuaiia, a fortitiid seaport near Conception, on the southern froutier of (hill. Vigorous meaaures were taken 1818. the \ Iceroy of Peru, t)y draining that prov- Inee of Its b<'8t troops, tent off a U.ly of 5 000 men under General Osorio, who succeeded in joining the Spaniards shut up in Taleuhuana Tliua reinforce<i. the Uoyal amiv, amounting In sJI to 8,000, drove back the Chlifans, mattli.-.1 on the capital, and gained other considerable mivan- .f ^".L?"'"/'".'?'''y '" » "'8'" •"««'' •' Talca. on the 19th of March 1818, where the Kovalisu almost entirely dispersed the Patriot fories San Martin however, who, after the battle of Chaca- buco, had been named Commander-in-rlii.f of ,,."?lf** "™'" "' Chill and Buenos .\vr..« " rallle<l his army and equlpiXKl It anew so iiiiickiv that, •■ on the Sth of April, only 17 days afur hfs defeat he engaged, and, after an obstinate and sangulnar)- onllict. completely route.! the Span- Uh army on the plains of Maypo. From that day Chili may .late her complete independene, for although a small portion of the Sn^uiish inxips endeavoured to make a stand at toncep- tlon they were soon driven out and the country left In the free iios.si'ssion of tlie Patriots. Havini now time to Ln-atlie. the Chilian Government. ^!r\,.^' 'J"' °u ^'^"^ Ay**- 'JeU'mlne.l to attai k the Itoyullsu in their turr. by sending an ?™",""'"* «»f«inst Peru [see Pbbu; A. I) iSa, 1»3«|— a gnat and bold me««iirn. oriffinatini withhan Mart,n."--Capt U HM, Ettraeufh^ a Journal, », 1, c\. 1. Al«)in: J. Miller. Mmoin ef Omtni JfilUr A. 4-7(.. 1)._T, ButclUfe. ai^ Tmnt'chdi OHILIC, 188S-18M. *^J^^y*^r^*^ B- Mitre, Th4 Bmo^ mp^ffa. America. • Hia. of San MartiT^ P^trf-A!'S*-l'S^i^"'- '- •••™- 8- ^.P' '???•'••<•— A tncceMfal oliKardi. ■EiiiS '*!^"*'^-*rk« ^ with Pe?"2j BoUri*.-" After the perfection of ltsnati,3 'J:^"??^; »»» Cfil-n government *Si paMed Into Uie permanent control of civlllani while the other govemmenU of the went cm2 remained prize* for military chieftalrin ■ T, .1"**"^ "»?«»»««««on was framed In im. uA though it is only half a century old it l>^ odest written national conatitution In fon, |" all the worid except our own. unless the M»m Chwtaof EngUnibe Inihi.ied in the eai,,.,,?? The pollticar hwtorv of chile during the sL years of iU life has been that of a Well „niere5 commonwealth, but one of - most unuKnal tai Interesting sort. lu gove forcibly overthrown, and tempt at revolution has ' name and In an import t yet its government Ir reatricted to those m. tered. who are twent,< ried and twenty -one I'ead and write; and property- qualification ■nt hiu nci IT been on.- scriiius sl- ide. Chile U ia a I puhlii, and I'- y. 8ulTra,;i.U who are n i,'is- .trsold If uniiur- ricd, and who cm <! is also a strin;:fnt The consequence is tim 424 the privilege of voting is confined to an ari-!,«-. racy: in 1876. the total number of ballots tljr-.w, for president was only 48.114 in a population i' about two and a quarter milli,.na Yhe prpsl. dent of Chile has immense powers of m.mins- tlon and appointment, and when he is a nun of vigorous will he tyrannically swavs imlilte policy, andean almost always dictate the name of his successor. The government li,i.s thus become practically vested In a comimntivelv small number of leading Chilean famlli.'s. Tlieii is no such thing as •public opinion ' It, i!,,- s.n« n which we use the phrase, and the ne«s|>H|»Ti, though ably conducted, do not attemnt. Wimv do not desire, to change the existing or,l. r of things. 'History,' says Mr. Brown.-. Jon °"f. J"™'*'' »n example of a more i. ,w,rful political " machine " under the title of republic nor, I am bound to say, one which has b^n more ably directed so far as concerns tbe s?- grandl7,ement of the country, or more h.iii.stfr aumlnlstered so far as concerns pecuniar; .or- riiption. The population of Chile douhlinl be- tween 1843 and 1875; the quantity of Und brought under tillage was quadrupl,-.! more than 1.000 mile* of railroad were built > foreign export trade of |:iI,BI>.V039 was re|» rted in IM.N; and two powerful iron-cUds. which were destlne<l to pUy a miwt Important piirt in u., ■''*'"■ wre built in England. .Mean- while, the constitution was offlclally Interpreted so as to guarantee religious toleration, and tb« pollticail iK)wer of tbe Koman Catholic priert- hiKid diminished. Almost everything goxl, except home manufa. tures and popular eiliica- tion flourished. The development of the naiioo In these years was !>n a wonderful s<-ale f,>ra South American sute, and the contrast Utweea thlle ami Peru was necullarly striking . . . f-ar!y in 1879 began tho grval series t.f eveuU vhlch were to make the f'. tune of Chile. We Uk- tbe word 'gr»it.' in lu low. sup.rficial senk.' and witb.iut the atU'butlon of any moral signifloui.„> to Um adjeGtiTij. The at^gn.'aaor la CHItE, 1888-1884. CHILE. 188» ll»L tbc war between Cbile and Peni wm Inspired ly the mn«t purely Miflah motives, anil It lenuiiiM to be Kfu whether the Jiut gnU will not wir in the lon/r run. even th<iuffh the Burae of their antsgoouti be played with hearily j>late<t imn- clads. . . . At the date U«t mentioned Chile wi>' tuflering, like many other nations, from a genen depinaion In business pursuits. Its people were in no serious trouble, but as a irnTprnment it w«« In a bad way. . . . The means to keep up a sinking fund for the foreign 'l<'>>t hnd {ailed, and the Chilean Ave per eem» were quoted In London at sixty-four. '.V political cloud also was darkening aipilo in the mirth. In Uie renewal of something like a confnlemtioo between I^ru and Bolivia.' In this state of things the (rov.rning oligarchy of Chile decided, rather Kuddenly, Mr. Bmwne thinks, upon a scheme wliich was sure to result - ither In uplrndid pmaperity or absolute ruin, and wliirli contemphited nothing less than a war of cunqiir^t against Peru and Bolivia, with a view to seizing the mott Talual)lc territory of tin fomier country. There Is a certain strip of land bordering up >n the Pacillc und about 400 niili.'S long, of wbk-h the nortliem three quarters be- lon;:(>'i to Peru and Bolivi.t, the remaining one qiiiirtcr to Cliile. Upon tills land a heavy rain nivir fails, and often years pass in which thp anil il<«^ not feel a shower. . . . Its money value la immense. 'From this ref' ■ ' » world dc rivM almost Ita whole sup. ! nitrates — chit'tiy naltnetre — and of Iodine : its moimtains sl!«^ are rich In metnis, and great deposits o! guino nv found In the highlanils bordering the iPB Til' nitrate-bearing country Is a main, from tif!> to eighty miles wide, the nitrate lying in layers Just below a thin sheet of impacted BtoniH L-ruvel, and sand. The export of salt- pplr> U.'.n this region wa» valutil la 1HH9 at near;. liJt.ono.OiX), and the worth of the Peruvian icrti II. w! i > 19 much the largest ami most pr>> duciivo. is '!m»tc<l, for government purprnes, at a r:i[iltal of |600,000,000. Chile waa, natu- rally. '''II aware of the wealth which lay so flnsi' 1 li.r own doors, and to possew herself tliin-of, a ' thus to rehabilitate her natlomU f nunes, kij oddresaed herself to war. The <»'i'aai<in for aar was easily found. Bolivia was first attacked, a difficulty which arose at her port of Antdfagaata, with respect to !jcr en- fon>'ment of a tax upon some nitrate worki carrini on by a Chilean company, affording a gmni preli'.itt; and when Peru attempted inter- volition lior envoy was confrtmted with CLilt's knnwiHige of a sw-ret treatv twtween Peru and Biilivi'i, and war was formally declared bv Chile uii-m IVru, April 8, 1878. " This war "lasted. with Mine breathing spaces. f>r almost exactly five years. At the outset the two belligerent powers— Bolivia Ulog soon practicilly out of the contest— aeenxtl to be about equul in ships, (oldlers, andTe»ourfi>*; buttliesupmnacy which Cliile soon gained upon the sea'i siilmtontlaily detemiinwl tht- v ir in her favor. Koch nation owned two powi tui 1; ,n-clads, and six months were employed !' ac;t!i.ig the question of naval superiority. . . Oi- tli' 21st of Mav . 1878, the P^r-ivian Rert s: r-ki-d „':u aiiai.'sl t!: -'.r-jyrd the Chilean wooden ,igv-j which were blockading Iquique; hut In '-h-ulng a Chilean corvette the larger Temvlan Irorciail— the Indepcndcncia — na 'MO Bear the slnre. and «:« fatally wrecked. 'So Pent li>- me of I, r ^ pluye<l wii he other- mlnible, ln' a lo^g o October the same y attacked . the Chileaii two iron-cluds, and waa t desperate r '■istance. :l,^>' . The gnme she he liuoscar — was ad- ■;' and on the 6lh of -ir the Huaacar was "et, which lnclud< ]y captured ' after r im tills moment the Pcruvin coast was at Chile's :nerry: the Chilean arm« pn-tailed in every pitcli>'<l battle, at San Fraociac [November 1«, 1879] r.- Tacna rWay 26, I>WU|, at .-riea [June 7, l-'-il; and finally, on the 17th o[ January, Ih^I after a series of actions which resembled in vine of their detail.-) the engagements tliat preceiled oui capture of the ( ity uf Mexico [ending in »hat li known as the Battle cf Mireflores], the victuriou* array of Chile look possession of Lima, the capi- tal if Peru. . . . The results of the war have thus far cx' •■dcd the wildest hcTes f>f ''bile. She has t;i!,< n absolute posaeaslon uf the whole nitrate ri';:i"n, lias cut Bolivia nit from the sea, and a< ! irviil the iM'rmanent duvolution of the Peru-B' liviancoiifiHlenttiuii. .\s a conscqueoce, her f .'i'n trade has doubli ' the revenue of her g rvi- iment has been trebi ;, and the public debt gri'ii ■ V- reduced. The Chilean boniis. which nere sold iit 64 in London in .'snuary, 1^79, and fell to 60 In March of that year, at the announce- ment >f the war, were quoted a' '"> in 'iinimry, H"*! " — Tfui <rrmriii;-j h/tttr ti: '.■■ Hep'ihlie of Chilr.i.UlitHlif itnuthty. Jutit, !-■•!). .\l.!«iiv II. Uirkediil, Th' UtU- Wir inS. Am, lOr.-li,,.. r<;tli';. -.'»,■»., Feb. . anri Mil reh. 1984). -(■ R .M -kUain T/. War M. V-ru und Chile. -R. X I! •:. i, Via:; ,1. It, 17. -.If .*ij« of tht rrittiit'%: '' ff.,tr'tn.'initt':iql^pfit ^latingio the Wi'.' ii • Ain .Jan. i<\. » '82.— T. »V Knox, Dfciritt Hi- • n'lt'V H^itirino, ch. 'i'i — See, also, Peiu': a. !) IfJ(i-lsT8. A. D. 1885-1891.- The pmidency and dic- tatorship of Balmaceda — His conflict with the Coneress.— Civil war. — "Save in the one 8trug.;leln whic b the parties n'>.>rted to arms, the political development of Chih wos fn-e from rh-n disturbances, and the ruling class was dls- tin. iihe<l amon^ the Spanish Araericin nations not inly for weaitli and education, but f 1 its talent for coverniiii at and love of constitutional liberty. The republic was called 'the Enirland of .S)V't< -Vmerica,' and it was a common iKMst that i' ■■ liiii a pronundamlcnto or a revolution waa iniiHisKible. The spirit of modern Liberalism became more prevalent. ... As the Liberal party Ixn-ame all powerful it split into factions, divided liy (|iieationsof principle and by strug- gles for li-a"ier»liip and otace. . . . The patron- •»ge of till' Chilian President Is enormous, em- bracing n. it only the general civil service, but local otHcials, except m the municipalities, and all appointments in the army and navy and in the teleirraph and railroad services and llie giv- ing out of contracts. The Pn'sident has always been able to select his successor, and has exer- cised tlila iN'wer, usually ii. harmony with the wishes of Intluentlai statesmen, itometiiiies call- ing a conference of party chiefs to decide on a candidate. In the course of time tli more ad- vanced wing of tlie Liberala grew more numer- ous !!:an tb* '-■• -ler^Tes The m--* ri-licaJ aectlim h;. I its i)„ jVus In a Reform Club In Bantiairi' ionii.. o .if young university men, of whom ")..lo»ci li w.ii! t:ie flneat oratiir Knter- log Congre^ in IfStS, he took a leading part la 425 I f I, : n CHILE, imMSM. debatet. .. In 1886 he wi i the matt popular man In the country ; but hii chUm to the presi- deoiial »ucce*.fc>n wa^ contiated by varioua other aapiranu— older puliticiuni and leaders of fac- tion* ttrJTing for tupivmacr in Consreaa He wai elwtiKl by an ovirw licfming niajoritv, and aa ITenldrnt injoyjil an i.nfTamplml deirree of popularity Kor two or ll.rre years the poUH- ciajis who had been his party aaaixUtes worked In harmony with his ideas. ... At the flood of the democratic tide be was the moat popular man In South Amcrira. But when the old tj-rritorial faniilie<i «hw Ihc seat« in Conirrrss nnd the posis in the civil service that bad be.n their prin.Kstlve flilcl by new men, and fortunes nia.l.. by upstarts where all chances bad been at tlieir iliii|).«iil. then a reliction set In, comiptliin was »cenl..,l. im.l .Moderate UbiTala, joiniuif baiHia will, the Nutionalisu and the reviviiic t..iu.rv,itive imrty. formed an opposition of re»peetal>le str. nvtli In the i-arller part of liis *#.'""»,'"'""" "'''"•»••'•'<» had tlie <-o-oper«l ion of the Niitioniili.n. who wer.' repn-wnted in tli.. I iibliict. In the lB»t two yeiiPi.if bin U'rrn. when the linu' ilrew n.iir for wleetiiig liU succiiMi..r deration and rev.,|t nnd the rivalries of «i.pir' oni-. for the .-ic.f«ion tlmw the part v into dis onl.r and an^end in liitlie-.o un juejitloni'd lea.l-r . . In jHiiujiry. l^.*), the '»pp,wiii„n wen- strong enmiifh to p'.ice their candidate In the chrtir when the He ,«■ „f Keprescniatives orgnni/(d Tli tiiiiiistrv resit'iM-d, aiidacontlict b.nve.n the .Jiecullve sihI leL'islallve bramlies ;'. .'.'' '.";''"■"""■'" **" "ixnly iM'irun when the I nsident »|>|x.inte.| s Cabinet of his own wl.-iliiin . . Thin ministry had to facesnoTcr ^» '"•'' L' iiiaj.'rity naiiinit tlie I'rei.ident, which treated li,m -.1* r. .11 lat.ir nnd ln'pin to pass h,.«'il.- liws iijiil r.^oliiii.iiis llmt were veUied nnd r, fiise.l (,. consider the measures thai he r<i ..nini •■.'..Itil The ministers wer>' liud liefore the t li.'iinlxrs rinil i,iie.«i..n, d about the inaiiiier I'f th.ir ii|.,«,ii,i,iieMt Thev eiih.r ch,|in.Kl to au>wi r. (T ii.isw ir.-.| in a wnv that Incri-asiil the •nMn...ity of Cin-n... which flnallv iniMd n »ote ..f .■,.n„m-, in ■.l,.,|i,.nre to whi'ch, aa wn^ usun . IliM Cihm. I r.-iL-i»d. Then H>dnince<la •ppothid :i miiiiMrv in M|i,n ileHanie ,,t ( ,,n trres- will, -n.if.i.n.p, «, i., .,„„|. the ,,„„, ,.,„, ! wiui..lri-rt,ly si..,l,en ,f ■., hi. «-le. I.-I eiii.illdBle I f..r the i.r.>id,„.y II,' p^■|M^■.| f,.r tl». ..nig ch' that lie ii,v.t.-.| l.y rciH.v ing the .hirf, ,,f the ; «diiiini»tniti,„ ..f ilie .1. pirtnient. nnd npiielne I them Kith mend. >,.t,.dt.,l,iiUH.If„„| |,i,,„,|i,v ' ail. milking ehnntf.-, i., the ,„,!(,.,. ,|,.. ,„||j,i-,' , an.l. lo s..m.- .si. i,i. |„ t|„. „rniv nti.l nnrv c..m' i liMiK a 1 he yn*- .|. ii-hmcI llln, „« n .li;tnt..r ' an.l indlgnnti i,.ii,ii.M »,.„. l„.|,| i„ ,.,,„: t'Wii Bnlmn.-.l-. „iid l,i, .iip|«,rt.r» i.rele.i.1,^1 i '" "• " "!.» '!"• ■Immpi..iis of the i„. ,|,|,. | ajtaiiisl til,. ttri.!.._m,y, l,.,t .,f ,|,e pr/nci .le , of thdi r,r th.. nM»„. -.ii.iMo„'. A„J,.,I |.,W..,,,1W ,,,.,,.,., ,.., -.•■TheUm.tlrtween I I n- ,l.nl ltaii.m...|,, „i„| Cm^rr^ Hp.ne.1 Int.. | rev.^uti.m (l,i.l«n,inry I. Ixyi. the Op,>,.,iti,«i i inernlK n. ..f the Senate aii.l I|..iim' „f Ui.iitles ' in.t and nign-l an .\. i ,1,, Inring that IIm- I'n si I dent was m,»,,rt|,y ..f his |-«t. aiMl that he was j no l.mgjr hew ,.f the stniem* PreaMent of the KepjiLll.-. n-. I»- >».| vl,J,|„| the Constitution «»n .Inn.inry 7 tlK- nn»y .l.-clami In fav..u...f t|,r leglslHt.ir* nu.lairalti.tHalnunT.la The |'n,i IMt deouumed the navy as traltun, abullshtd ..U CHILI, 18>l-lbM. 4Jti the lawi of the country, declared hlnurlf nirts. tor, and procUimed martial kw. It was an™ ^ '^T".. T^* "PRS^Uon "crult«d an annv ,„ the UUDd of Santa Maria uinler Oenei,! Irr;., " and CommanderCanto. On February U a « v, r, flght took place with Ibe Oovemmcnt tr.«>i.» In l.|ui(|uc, and the Congressional ariiiv !.«* PoMisalon of Plsagim. In April, Presi.lent iSalmaceda . . . delivered a long message .u aTA^Sl'Trj- •. T'^^'-t^tconriniK^ and April 7, Arlca, In the province of Tiir. iwea, waa Uken by the revolutionists. Sme naval fights occurred later, and the ir.in.l,a Ulanco Encahida was blown up by the l»iii« Uir's torpedo cruisers. Finally, on August at Uernral Canto lan.led at Concon, ten miles ii„rtli of V alparaiso KnlmiMwIab forces atla< k^l ini. mejllately ami were routwl, hising S.fHNl kiilnt I n!. .1*"^??"':. 7}^ i'onp*" »rmy l.»t mi. On tlw) SUth a decisive battle waa 'ought at |'|» cilia, near Valparaiso The Dictator hail IJikio tro.)|)s, and the opposing anny 10,0011. HiTlnis- ce<U 8 fore.* were complelcly routetl after rtv« hours hard fighting, with a loaa of 1,5IN» men >anting.. fomi.illy surrendered, and the triii.i,|,h of tlie Congrens party was crmipletc A Jiiiiia heailed by heftor J..rge Montt. took chnr-e „f alTain. at \alpsniiso August DO Balniiic-.|», »h.) hail taken refuge at the Argentine bg? tl.in in Nintiago, was not able tnmtie hi.ew luie an.l I.. av..i.' ei.pture, trial, aiul punisliment , .'ni; m Ited sidcide, Heptemlw 80, by slio<,tiiii: |„m «». <»n the ICth November Admlml ,).,rre Montt was chosen be the Klwt.iral Coll.g.. at Santiago. I'n'si.l.nt of Chill, and on I>eceiMlNr"» lie WIS Installi'.l w ith great cen-roony uid g. u, r»l Tvi<iiv{ngt.'~Aiinvit liivt'trr. IN»I n i'Hi II*; P- ••9"-l89a.--Di«cnlt» with the United St«t.. -thremtenad W»r.-I>uri„g till' ilTll war whiih terminated, as U.ld sUn,- ill the overthniw iinil suici.le of the ill.'1iii.,riiii I iisuriwr. lialmiiecla. the triumph of the ( .a gns. party, ami the election to the pre*i.l.ii,v I of AdniintI Jorge .Monti, tie lepreaentaiii.- .'f the l'nite«J States. Mlnl>ler Egan >li..«.<l mnrk.il favor to Balmnciln and his party h hi, I, irritaiHl the <liilenns. iiml [.r-sluiwl among i|„ ,u I a h.«t.,e feeling t.iwanls Americans an.l the I American K..verninent This was Incn'swd l.v I h.' action of Mr Kgan, after the def.Ht . f tl,'e Knlmacedlsts, In sheltering a latg«> n.inil.r ..f refuK.^., of that pnrlv within the walls ..f the American leg:,tl..n The same was i|n„e hy ..Iher foreign npr. s.-ntallves, but ton., s.uh er tejit, exc. pt In the <„«■ ,,f the Hpanlsli l.g»ii..n, A lel.gratn sent t,v Mr Kgan on the f\u ..f «Ht..lrr to the StBte Hepariment at Ws«liii..-t..n stat.sl "Hii [H r»i.M»Kniglit nf.ige In his l.(:« ti.mnfterthe.virthn.w ..f ||„. |f«|nia< mIh am eminent , aUiut tlie same number In llieS|.iiiil«h l.gntion, tt In the nraslllnn. .1 In the Kr.ii.h s.veral In the frugiiayan, i In IIk- (leminii «iMi 1 In the hnglish. Kalmaceda sought nfiu-.. in the Ar«^tlne All these have g..iie mil , »,, pi ■ ■"iln his own legation. 1 In the tieriiian ...,.1 1 In the Spanish • v : ven'iirin;? t.. \l..l,ii. Hi, privilegi-s of the rican .Minister'. h-.l,|.t:,e the Chilean authorities pln<T.| it uti.hr |" : .» surveillance, an.l nrnsUd a niinilsr of i^.-m entering Uie premi..-. The Minister . m rlnln.'<l. ami was s.ipp.,ri.sl In his complale'. st >* ushington. causing further irritation in ( hiif. 1 his was again greailf lacrrawl by his >lal» m CBILB, Un-1801 CBDfAIUEAN FAMaT. Idi the rfgbt not only to iheltcr the nfugcM in bi^ rt'iidrnce, but to protect them in tbdr de- parture rrom the country. In tliat, too, be wu iiutaiuni by hi* goTeroment, sod the refugees wcn> Mkfi-ly wnt aw«T. Meantime a more leri- ois (iiu« of quurel between the two countriei iuii ariwn. A purty of sailor!) on shore at Val- rwntiiio. from the united Htates ship Baltimore, hiul lie<>n asaaileil by a mob, October 16, and two were Itillefl, while eiibteen were wounded. The t'nitnl Statu* demanded aatiifaction. and mu-'h tagry currespondenne enioed, made particular!? offentive no the Chilean Me bv an insulting drciiliir which HeAor Matta. the Chilean Foreign MIniMer, imued December 13, and which be rsuwil in be- published In the Chilean news- nit|ienL "The note was to the last ilrjfrec in- tuUlii|(. and would hare juvtifled a witlulrawal of our mininter and a serrrance of diplomatic n-latiims. Tb attempt was made lat<-r tn <vl up the claim tlint it was a 'domesllc rommii nimtiim' which could not be the subject of iliplomittic coinpUint Mr. Blaine de<'lini-d to irrrpt tlie view tliat a nation Is to take no notice of nn iimult nut <iirectly communicated, awl n'- fuml t'l rvalue as a siifflcicnt apology a s'liic- ment that the Chilean goremmrnt woiiM strike out the offensive wonla ... In the elslx>mte ri'vh'w cif the difflcully made in his mesaaKc of Jiiii\wrT M, ItW!!. rrc«lilent Harrison s«j« : The nimniunieatlons of tlie Chilean (fovem mint . Ii»ve ntii at any lime taken the form (it a madly anil satlsfuctory expression of retfret, much liiw of apology.' TiiU statement is at!cu- r;il'' .ii l<i the attitude of Ciiile up to the end of .Miitt 1 wiministrntion. . . . Wlien, in .lanuarr, III' I'hileiin fim'iirr. ilepartment paasi'd Into the |j.H!i(l- of (ienor I'ereira. a ehanie Is instantly vi>,hl. . on January 4th S<-fti>r Montt at Wash tiii;t..n iifB<iBlly mentloni'd the nccumnice whicli 'Chile has lamenlni anil iliies so sincerely Iniiiint ' Piiur days later he announcetl that he li:ail nielvetl siMM-ial inatnictiiins t^ stale 'tliat iIh' tiovemmi'ut of Chile has felt very sincere MTil f.ir tlH' unfortunate events which oeciirri'd III ValparaiMi on the 18th of October;' and he ailiinl that hi« Oovrmment 'sincen-lv deplon-s Ihiaf'irewiil ilisturbancp ' Minister Montt hiul singly HUir^'eatiii arbitration a* a means of aet- tlini! ill" <li<piiie On .laniury inth the (.'liileaii a iilioritie* notiHed Mr Kgan that ther <iHiil,| »iili<lraw any offensive paaaaiies in tlie y .111 cirriilar, an<i Wl instru<ie<l their MinU ut it) Wanliiiiirttai to expn'sa retfret. The upoloirr. tliii« eiitir«-«e(l luiih in Was'ilnitton nml SaiitliuM, wa« •ilT ami unifwiTfu' iMTlinp* in *t<i|iiale; but it wsM inaile In kikkI faith On .111 icy 'JOth erideiitly ri'ellni;tlMt all was now wr.ii.' the ChilcaiK vt iituBil. ai'ting on a liliit <'( Mr lliiiiii'it. t4i aik for Kgan's wltlidmwal ii< n |K'r«>'m ni . errata ' What, Ihervfore. must law luiii III'' >ii<niar of the Chileans, ou Jin uin '.'.ll. t.. ri'11'lvr lin offli iai notici'. which the I,, w-ini. mi|iiIiIh»I ati ' iiltinmtum.' euntalnlng I'u. '.hirmi'iit tl.at the l!nite«l Mates C»oTcm in.iii wa« n<a lati^llitl with the result of the 'uliii'il iiivestlgatliMi at Val|>anlao and still »>kMl f.ir a siiitahle aiKilngy : ' that for the .Mii';i note tliere must Iwsllll another 'suiliihlc n|..|.«y • without which 'he ('lilted HtalCB wiiiili) ii'niiimie.lli.liimallc reunions ; ami lliat the re '1 "•• ' r Mr Kgnn's witbdnwal could mil at UaX liiiie \k cunsldcrcd. ll was a bittsr draught for any gOTcmment ; but threats of war were reaounding through the United States ; Ameri- can naval Teasels were hurriedly being made ready; coal and supplies were going into the Paclflc. There wss power behind the note, and Chile prepared to bend to the storm. The ' ulti- matum' appears to have reached the Chileans on Haturday, January Sfld. On Mondar, January 83th. they sent an answer which could not pos- sibly be read aa anything but a complete and abject apology on all the three points.' But on the same (Uy on which this answer was being for- warded, the Pnsident of the United States sent • warlike niesaoge to Congress. "It rehenrsed the whole controversy at great length, submitted copious correspondi'nee. and ended with the sig- nlllcant phrase : ' In my opinion I ought not to delay longer to bring these matters to the atten- tion of Congress for such action us may be deemed appropriate.' ... It la an uiipMllfalile controversy as to whether the ttiitlmritlea in Washington knew that an answer wan on Its way: if ".ey had read the corn'siiomlence ti.ey knew that an answer must rome, and Unit thi- I'hilean Ministry must have wnt a peaceful unswer It is llien-fure ilifflcult to understand tlii' piirposa of the president s message. . . . Thi ilTe<t was to Inflict an unneitssnry humiliation im Cliile. H|«ntsh AinrricunshuvcgmMl nicmiirii a Meiico still cherishes resentment for the war liegun against her forty Hvi- years ngi'; and flirty live years hence the Chileans are jikily to ri'niember the Balmaceda affair as Anieri. iir.s n'memlien-ii the impressment of Anieriran Xia- men by Oreat Britain. We have the aiKjI^gv, hut with It we have the ill will"— A. IJ. Haft, J'riifNetU Umapt oa Ar^natn Unrtrntaenl. Ut- Mjr 3. CHILIARCHS.—Cr plains of thousands. In the army of the Vani'jils. — T. IlMlgkin, Uiit$ tiiid hrr Inniil/rf. hit. % ck. 8. CHlLLIANW.'.l.LAH, Battle of (1849). Hee !mii« A D im.Vlt«» CHILPERICI.,KinKofthcFrankslNciis- triat, A D .VII .V«4 . . Chilpsric II., Kinr of the Pranks, .\ I) 7I'^ -.H) CHILTERN HUNDREDS, ApplTinffor the Stewardshipof the.— A seat In the Hrilii>h House of Ciiminons "cannot Is* resigned, nor can a man who 'i.is nnc<' formally taken his sint for oiM' constit .cy throw it up and iimii «l anotlier KIther a .I'sqiialiflcation must Ih- in curn-d. or the House must deilare the si-nt vacant." The necessary iiis(iuali''iatiim can lic im urrtil by accepting an nfllce of pmAt umlir the Crown, -wi'nin certain oflldai categoric* "Cirtatu oil! offleea of nominal value In tl»' gift of the Treasury are now granted, ss of courw. tn menils'rs who wish to n-sign their scats In order to l»' ipilt of I'arliamiintjtri .'ufirs or to contest another constituency TlH-se offices nn- the Htewardship of the Chlllem Hunln'iia |Cmwn pr'Wrtv In Huckinghanisiilrp]. of tlic manors of hn»t Hemln'il. Nortbsinul, or Hemp holme, and the escheatorship of Miinster The office Is n-slgiiitl as soon a« it hns operaliil to vacate llie seal"-Nlr W H. .\iisim, /-.iif ami r»tl;m of Mr <\.n%t , r 1, fi iM CHIMAKUAN FAMILY, The. Hee .\MriiH IN Anoiiii mts CiiivAkr*!! P.tiiiiT CHIMARIKAN FAMILY, The. Xee Aiisnu an AnuniuiiiBs CamaniKAR FamilT' 427 CHmA. CHINA. CHINA. The NamM of tht Coutry • • Th»t ipaclnm •eat of aacieot cl»Uli«tion which we call C'hiua has luomed always lo hirge to weatern evii, . . . that at era* far apart, we flnd It to have been dlwlngulihed by different appellations ac«>r-ling as It was regarded as the t<'rmiinu of a southern sea route coasting the great i«nlD- sulas and Islands of Asia, or as that of a northern lajid route trsTerslng the longitude of th»t con- tinent. In the former aspect the name applied 2f* ^f'^' ^."'y* '^'' •°"« f'>™ "f «he name Sin, Chiu, 8lnir, China. In tlie latter point of Ticw the region in question was known to the ancients as the land of the Seres; the middle ages as the Empire of Cathay. The name of China has been supposed, like manr another wi.nl and name connected with tm.le and r^igmphy of the fur enst, to have cinr u> us tliri.ugh the Malays, nnd U> have been applied by tliim to the great ea»tem m<«a<Tby fmin the itvle of the dynasty of Thsin, which a little mora timn two centuries Ufore our era eujoved a brief but very vigorous exi»t*me. . tliere are reasons however for btlieviug that the nameof China must have been liestowetl at a niucli mrller date, for It occurs in the laws of Manu. » liich awrt the Chinas to Iiuvh l^-en degenentic Ksha- tryas. and intheMalialiharat. comjiosltioinniKny ceiituriesolder than the im|ii-riai il vnast) of I lisin Tills name may have yet pwisiliiy" l^eu i-on- nectetl with the Thsln. or some moiiarcliv of like dynastic title; for that dynasty liadreignwl I'xally In HhensI from theUtbcentUiy l>ef,)reour era ; and when, at a still earlier date. tl,.. empire was partltloneil Into manv sii.ai| kins<ionn, we lln.l among them the dynasties of tli<' Tdn ami tlie Ching. . Some at ieaxt of the circiim- stamps which have liecn collwteil . . nn<ler It the Iras Improbable that the Hinim of tlie propbt-t Isaiah should Iw truly Inierpr. ti-d as ludicatlnp tlio Chines... Tlie nam. ..f China III this form was late in reaching the (ir.-. k» „n\ Komaus, ami to them It pMlmblr came ilmiugli pcple of Arabtan «peech. as tlw Ariln. iMin^ without the s<.und of ch.' ma.le Uie t hini.f rl,u Hindus and Malavs Inti' Sin an I •II. The KUlMi were a people of Manch., ra<Se. who Inhabited for centuriWi a co,"rr7 „ the north-east of China." During „ ivri.l between the 10th and Uth centurira t|„. Kl,i tans acquliwl supremacy over their nei>rl,lH,u„ and esublished an empire which en,l,r«.,™ Northern China and the adjoining reifions „f TarUry. "It must have been during thi.s peri,«l eadlngwith the overthrow of the dynasty jiallcj the Leso orlron Dynastyl In 112)), snd wliiL tk,. iMwthem monarchy was the face which the Cel,, Ual EmplB! turnwl to Inner Asia, that tiie nam. of Khitan. Khitat, or Khital. became in,liM„ln biy assoeiatetl with China"— H, Yule i„iUi and tAt B'.iy mt/,, r: I'rttiminnry KmujI — ■■ Tlj* term •China.- ar.pliiil by Eumpeans to this p. gion, is iiiikniiwn to the natives, and the T.n r.v?"*-\ "'»■'"•«' probably the Hindu f„rm China has for nenrly flftee , huiidr.il v.a~ reused to rule over tile plains of the llo«usl,„ and Yangtze kiang, Ji„r do tliev nctni/,. the epithet •Cel.siiul,' atlribuUKl lo tlnir .ii',. pin-. ... In onlinary hingiiage the ii.uhI n. presfclon in Chung kwo; llmt Ts. ' Middle Kiiiir doni. ..r • Central Empin-,' In refennre ,.i,|„.r t«) the pn'ponderanie gradually aeqiiinil In tli. ci'ntral plains over the surrounding siatix i.r i \ 'les. thill Cliiin timeslnto Thin. llemelh'Thino/ th. „.itliorof [he I'erlplusof theKrvlhrieanSea.who ipiuftMto l>etlieflr«e«taiit«u!liortoemploytheni»iie ill this form, hence also the «|iib rihI Thinieof I'toleinv ... If we now turn to tlie SiTes we (i .,| ihi< name mentioned by classic authors iiiik li in. .re ^^ .|ueiil|y sihI st ui earlier date bv nl I. a.| • reniury. The name i« fsmillur enoii.-li i„ ii,„ l.«tlii poeU of the Aug.i»t«n age. but ...h,Ht. in a V iijue way The n-ime .if Si'n* \» pr,>ln» Illy from Its earll.'^t ii.«. In the west i.ienlittiil With the name ,.f the siik»t>rm and It. pn.luce ati.l this as«»isi|..n omlnue.! until ih. mm.'. c*am-i\ enllt»ly t.. !»■ u«d a« a g.-..gripiii.a| etnreMi.ia (. was in the .lays ..f th.. M.in g'l' . . . that China Hr^t lierame renllv kie.^n ..1 hiirope. an.1 thst by a name whi. h', ll,.mgh •sp..rlally appILd t.> tlien..rth.'rn pr..v in. .s, ulni <v«.iie to hear a m..regen.r»l appliiati..ii I mhav Th:.. name khilai, is ih.t l.y whi.h rhma Is s!> I.M li. this .lav l.y all. „r n.-8rly all. th. i.ait,Hi« wl.i.h know It fr..ni an Inlan.l point of vi .« '"''"'""«.'„; •*""•'•"'. the Peralaiis. ami ih^ BHions ..f Turkestan, and yet It originally ^ulungaU 10 ■ people who wer« not Cbini.*e at 428 the iil..a cinnion lo so many |i<.tipi< was reully thecntreof theworl.l. T.ilheu«Mal f.nir limits of Uie compass the Chin.s.. a.1,1 , rtfth-the cntr..: that is, China (-okt ibf Manchu con.j.iesi the .ffldal designati.m n T.t sing k«.,; that is. II,.. ■(;r..ttt an.1 I'nr, Knini,,' or |*rliap,, Ta Tslng-kw... the Kmpln. .,f th', ,1 "If^i.'ni"''^.. ■''l"P'-<'I'l'lbem.-l^.,are tlie ( hll.in.u of Han,' ..r the • .Men ,.f r*„iir in allusion to t«o fain.. us dvn»Bli..« Tin sis.. call lheMi«.lv(.< l.iiiiin. an .•"iiiginaticali.nn ,„iii. monly r> n.|.r...l • lilack hain^i Ihic.. ' |l„i i|„.r,. I is 11.1 pr.^iw i.Ht.iral term ..f g.-iHrai »,,.<.;m„ ._llher f..r 111.. ....iintry or Hie jN'ople v y. |i„ i^ /'.< h'lith mill lit li,l,„l,it.uit.i. I ',' r', A China Proper anj the Chinese Empire.- Tlii. t hin..Ne Fni|.ir.. ..mlira. is Mm li.ir , .Mon p.lia. Z.ihLMna, k»«li.'»ri« i-.r K.i»i..ni Tur k< «t..n,. uii.l I iU I, a> n.il as China, |....|m rlv - inll..<i Kor..:i was ..».. ,,f i|,|. .1. .« i,,!, ,i, j,; ,,< the Kmp.r.. iiniil iMOft, w|„.„ j, ,p,,,„r,,| |,„i, |M mill,.. . „, I ,.,m».,, ,„.„,.,, ,,f ,(„, ,,^f ,, ,„^^ t liiita a!i.l .lapan |n sr^-a, wnn . U ,u i|, m ..lie llilrd .,f iIm. Kniplre i., .■.,i,t„i,i„| i„ , |, ,,, pr..|«r, bill f„llv iiin. (..nil... ,.f u,. >,„t .,,. , lail.ui ..( th.. Kmpir.. i, a„|,| ,„ i^ ,|«, ;!,,.;;,« thai ....e thini ..f tlir CliiiLs.. .|..iii,iii, Tii. na'iir'.I limits ..f « hliia i.r.i..r an. miII!. i.nilv w.ll .htiiLnl (In III.' we I ih. ..asi. rn . \|. i ..,-1 of Ih.. Tilrlan plai..au. Inn «. |.ari.t..| l„ .|,vp river valley, iiu,. .I!v..rg..nt ral,^'e,. f,,rti,H „ , i,,,r rr.nlier liMw.vn Ih.l hln.se ainl Ui..|,...l( m.v«i;.. U.l.> Sifan ami ..ih.r hill trila's .\..nh«sr.|. tin- tlwal Wall in-iii-al.-s throiighmit ni.~ , f I'. course the parting line lH.tw.<<-ii the «rabl. ImiU aiMl Ilie si..|.i«. ..r iU-ttn K»nt an.l •.ii.th ,«,t war.U llie l'a<ifi|. ()(i«n wash>.s the sialfciarl whi. h .ler..h,pi a se.niclr<'<itar ..wi.t lin,. .r,r ».<KK» miles in Client Ijistly, i.n llie «v;i|, roimnlain rangr*. plateaus, inar^iv lr.vi« lilK cull river gorg.-s. separate Chins fr..ni In- Trans (langell<.|»nlnsiila Her.. I>..»r..r fl, i?"!l" "'"" '• " " P'"'"''' <..ii»eiiii,mal nn.l : 1 thii dirertlofl China merges moregrwliisi!i 'li... ---\ CHIKA. CHIHA. elMwhere with the bacderlandi. It oeeuplet In tbe rxtreme eut of the oonticcat a .(>aoe of al- molt circular form, with one aciiitcircle traced nn tbe mainland, while the othrr is formed by ttrj Pacific Eidboaid. . . . Within it* natural limlu Chimi proper enjoya a fair degree of HfrMgraptiic uoity. Tbe mountain systema run nulnly in the direction from west to eaat, thua rvrry where oiM'ning euy routes from the cnaat IdIiuiiI. The plsinx on either nidc of the main rniKenare al«> con .ected br meant of freouent gapt and eaay pi-awa, ao tLnt the f>w itolated plateaux are nowhere extenaire enoiiffb to pre- Tent the fualon of tbe surroundinK populationa The national unity haa been promi>te<l in a •pnlal manner by the diapiieition of the two rri'at river tyatema. Doth the Yellow and Hlue ftlfi'ra [the HoSDg-hoaod Yang-tie] flow mainly parallel with the equator, and ftllliough their niititlle rounca are widely deflcrtnl north and »iiuh. the interreniag uplaml* are almoat ererv- wbvri' <'nia«r<i by aocemible nuitet . Tfie two Kreat Huvl^I haaina, co-npii)) ng in Tlt>-i, Kuiiu niir, Mongolia, and China an areit of urer t.Hil.iMli) aquare milea, may even he reganliil t* rorining a common hydrop'apbic avalt-m. The section of thit VHat «n-a lying aotilh of the Mon^'olian ateppea and enat of the Tibetan plaie,iux haa naturally become the domain of a uuiteit agricultural nation." Tlie Innda toiith of the two great twin rivera " are leaa aolidly unltpii with the real of the empire. Here the moiintiiina am more eleTatP<l llian in the lieart of the country, and are groupeil in a Kreater tmrobiTof independent rldge«. running, notweat anil ni»t, hut niaiidy a<mth west and north eaat. N<if ran the 81 kiang. the chief river of tula re- gion, he companMl with the two main atjeama 111 China, either in extern or in the fncilitlea alfonietl by ita lat<THl Tnlliya fur free inUtid comniuniratiiia. Hence thia portion of the em- pire iimat'.tiitea a dialiiict territory, more nearly alliwi phyaicalir and ethnlcnlly with Further loJia than witJi China pmner Tlie Soiithcrn C'hlni* lilffer widely from llioae of the central awl northern region'a. both In '•in h and cua- tnma. awl have within tlie hialoric |<erlo<) fre- r'nily formed diatinct political ayatema In rnntem bemitphere (?hlna corre«|kHKla with Weat Kuropc In it* climate, pnalucla, and hia- lnrir ileveiopment The maaa of the land doulit- lim Ilea much nearer to th.' ei|u«tor. for ita iiorthrm frontier at the eiint rn ixireniitv nf ilieliri«| Wail la croaaeil liy tlie4(ith parnili'l, lild Mminl Athin, Minorca." ami H<iuth Spain, whili !he whnle ciaat aonllt «( the ('■inlon e«- tiiari lleawithin the Ir.'plin Hut IhelMitheriiml liiw «iloaay. dellert China pn>|«'r northwanla. Iiiipanlng to it a rUtltely i-..ld clinmtr Tliel hiiieaepeonlriHniatltuienneiif ihemiKl Jia iliul vnrlptieaiif nutiikiml They an- i-oniinoiily fnriiiilaaabramhuf theaoi-nll'iii Mi«ig"l type, al!linui:h pnvntiiig a nutriiid ouitrHitt to the n(iiiiii.i irll»-» of lliia name. The v.ry i-xpri* »l<Hi Mi>iigri|. t,i which a more pr-'tine meaning wa» f .riiiftly aaalgniii. denote* at pnaent lii'le more ihan ihe rrlatlonahtp of contwt or p^>x lniil\ Imw.en liie Ka»t .\»i«ti<- na!lona The t'hm.-» are e«ldpnllr ii virr mixeil race pr<' •eiiiliu a great vartny of lypea in the Tn*t le.-l.vi «ir.iihliiif f«>ii( t'linlim lo Ihe Great Wall fr.im Ih.- P.u-lrte * alirnril t<! TlbiH. But »i Iht'W tyiM-a tlie Mongol la perbap* lb* IwMt common tmongit the 'Children of Han'. . . . The native* of tile varloua provinoea preaent tbe *harpe*t contraita with etch other. The true national link ia their eommoo culture r,icher than any common racial type. For the •\bori- glnal element* have been divcraely mndifled by mixture with Tibetan*, Tartar*, Mon/iol*, Man- cbiia, Burmeae, Bhana, Malay*, beakle* tbe 81 fan, Minoue. and other atlli half-aavage hill triliea, which have no collective ethnical deaignution. For thouaanda of year* the agricultural popiihi- tiona of diverae origin aettled In the HiHing-ho and Yang tze-klaog baaiua have had tlic aarau biatnric de*tinle8, *peak dialect* of the aanie lan- guage, and have become one nation. . . . Uiit tlie difference* are atill conapicuKUii in *ome of tbe louthem province*, nota'ly In Fokien and Kwangtung."— E. Keclui, n» Earth and i(< Inhalitanl: t. 3, eA. 5.— See, alao. Hanciiv- ni«, MuHoouA, Zdhoabia, TtntKcsTAK, and Tinrr. The (rest baeiat of the Heaog-ho aad the Yaag-tse-Kiaaf.— "The region dreioed br the Hoang-ho, or Yellow River, oompriaca In Tibet and China proper a total area of aamu WKi.nOU ai|uare mile*, or about three timew the I'xiint of France. Yet it rank* only m the M-cond river baain of the empire. . . . Tlie Wei i« . . . it* hu-geat affluent, and even more im- portant a* a navigable highway. . . . Both rivera waah down large quantitlea of aedimen lary matter, entimateil In ITWa liv Ktaunioii at ■ ine.flfiieth of tlie whole volume for tin- niiitiii Htriam. . . . Theaedepoaita are one of llie great Houm-a of danger to tlie riverain (MipiilHtiona NiitunI emliaokmenta arc tberehy grailuully fi>rini<d along tbe coiirae of the Kti'eiiiii, wiiiw! bed ia raifted, and new channel* fornie<i lioring tlie fl(KKla, which often caiiae widiiipniiil ruin Like the Nile, I>o. and Mlaahrippi. the V< How Itiver tbua flowa occaaionallv at a lilglier eliva- tion than the aurrounding plain, ailhonirli not >» hirh aa baa tx-en rrpreaented by tlie tirMr- atrii'ken fancy of the inbatiitanta. ' A vtut xv < um of enilianknient* haa hern erected mi li<iih •id>« to keen llie ktrrnm within ita lieil ilurinir tile rlaini of ita waters. . . . But this vitv i.\ a tern iltelf. maintaineil by the conalant inlioror Ro.dtK) handa, lia* the inevitahle re»iilt uf in creaalng the . iliffennce in hvel liel w iiti the river.lml and the low lying plaina . . The higher the emhankmenta'are (arrieii tlie iiii>re dangernua becomea tbe atream In apiti- ci( uU precaiitiona. great diaaatera *n> iM-cHniuiiiilly cauaed by tbe I'urating of tlic dvkea, when iliV criip* of'whoie provlnn^a nrv awept awny, umI i nililiona become n prrv to famine and iM'xtili iiit- For Ch ilia Ihe lloang lio atill tTmainatheNih ho, or 'H-'lxlliniiK Kiver.' aa it ia cailiil by th<' <ild ihronlrlera The rl«-erain populati-wa are al waya at the men y of Invailing hiaKa. or I'ven of prtnlatory tmiidi •Iroiig enough to atijc and iipen IIm'"»IuI(i'» . , .\|<ark from the hiiriiliiiida and alluvial plaina, mimt of the lioane ho Imain ii mvereil with hoang tu, or • yelfnw enrlli.' which pnvaii* thMuirhoiit Pw'hill. Slnmti. K*n*u. half of Sheiiai. the northern ditUlun of ilonan. and eitenaive traiia in Hhanlitiig Thi* formation coniprtaing a n'gion lart'er limn liie whole of Franci'. renchea in aome piao-a even to the hanka <'f the Vnni lie. and atreii hi-a Heat wania lo the Tilvtan plati'Miix. In theai- ntU'iH everything is yellow — bills, flelds, highwH}*, 29 m : !■ ni CHIKA. houMu the TBIT tonwiti ud itrMuni charired with slluria. Eren Um TeceUtion ia often coTered with a yallow Teil, while ererr puff of wind raiaM clouds of floe duM. Kr..in tliew.- land* the emperor hlnuelf takes the title of lloang ti. 2^'y. . . '^•' «xi"'»»lent to • Matter of the !i_. ^""^loiftoHlchthofen. thehoangtu, regarded by him as a formation analoirous to the loess of the Rhine and Danube banint Is nothing more than so much dust aocuniulated during the course of ages by the northern winda • • • On the plateaux encircled by mounuin parriers forming close*! basinii the yellow earth forms a unifunn layer of unknown depth But wherever the crosfve action of running waters has had full play, enormous AMurtn with verti cal walls hare been opened in the argiliaceous maw. • The erosions rereal in *ini«pliiceii a tbic'kiieH of at krnst 8,000 f«-t, offering a pr>v diglous iiuantity of fortlll/,inif noil, con«imillv wa^hwldown, and malnlainint; the prolmilve. net* of the plains wM.red by tlM^ ll.iang Ixi. Jor thl< yellow earth i» the richest ik>II in China, being far more fertile eren than ordinary allu- Tiuni It re<|uires no manuring, anil goes on pnxluiring heary crops for ag<ii . . Much In- g.nuity has b«,n displayeil in ovrrroniing the ililHi'ultii-* offen-d to frei- conimunicjtiion by the p.Tii.'Mdiiuli»r waIN of the yellow lands To (>.«« from riyer lauln to riyir l.!i«ln a<|yantage h.w be«-n taken of eyery narn>w ll«ur<- dm> rutiings haye been made in many plai-ra. and I f^•.ll n..itet opene.1 when thi-x- liayp bm ailed up by the landalipa Honu- of the km fm- iiiicnl.'.l nwla have been eir«yai«l todrpclM of fr-ini 4o to Kill feet and upwards, and the labor ex[H mied on all these worti \, .t leant eiiual U, that lavi>b>'<t on the building of tlw (Irest Wall or Ihc ctHi'.trucllon of the Oraiul Canal Tlif inouniHin* whnae lower iilo|i.-i( Kn> cnyenti bv ttic v.-llow earth also riMitain smne of the rirli.'M c.«l Ix.,!* in the world. AnUir». (t*. and olh. r Viiri, tle» are foumi in all the pnivinces w»ten'<l 1)V iributaries of the iloaug lio The Vwig l/.e klang basin cmiprU.-* UiriW f(itblh« of China pniper. wlili a iMmululioii es- tiniaii,! b.-f,ire the late c|y|| war, at no lew 111 ill ■J.liimiil.iSNI Although not c^ginally found.-,! here the State drew fr,m thi. n-eUm tlie cluef elemrnta of strength, which enalilnl it to ileveloii Into the paramount |«>wer of Kast A«i. «lf the two great Chinese riyem the ^ .1.1- t/.e l« by far the largest, and is henre nim ni.iilv siMiken of simply as the Ta klane <ir t.rcii Kiver It is certainly <Hie of' the Very larL-. It ui llie world In the lengUi of Its < ...ir«- >tri<l tlH' eiteni ..f Us basin it U no do.ibi .iirpii-..! by ihr.-.. .ithera in Ask aliHH- U,e <> ■ \.tii«i ami 1,4'na. Hut In yoinme It far ei.e.,U :h.m„ Silx-rian streanw. an.l itccmling to Ih. .ireful nK-asuri-roenu of Hiakisi.Hi an.) <»ii|.|.v. II U.ur|iame.l in ibl> n«|«..-< hv lliree onU III il,.- «ho|e w<jrld - the Aniai.Mw C.w»o i an.l Ui l'l,.i» The Yang i».- tm. never c«it«<i «iirh K kl.'.iqva.l ruin a* that wiwb Iim SII.I..1..I the »liiriinr« of tlM' II.imiiiIm. nor 1. ' anv rit.T in Il»- n.H-hl rhht usefnl !..r uayig^ ^ ll.>" If ii .i.«a not yet ii.inili.'r a« main stram' i sf- a« iIm- MiwiMlppl. .«- even th.- \ ..Iga II Is n..i., il> leH, irowiUl «iih Itotlllas of iimk, i siel ruer ,r,,fi „f „„v .1... rlptl.M. while .i. n..iiiiii: |n>|M;laii,Hi ia noinlari.l l.i h,M«t.,..l, ,,f ih.m^iid. llie Yang t«e been r..|y«lfr«»i • ('OH It ii'l ill llial ■^alll.' M Ilk' 41ft CHIKA. the Mongolians the tlUe of DahU, or • Sea ■ .ml in the history of China it has playe.1 th. ,"„, part as the ocean and gnat marine inl, i, ,.li» where. It has affonied ey«u great, r fa. iliiie, for trayel. for the transport of go<«l.. „,„i f" the mutual intercourse of the nurnmnilln,, peoples. At the present day Kur.ii»„„ i„rt,, enceaare pt'nelmiing into the hi«rt of tin ,m pire through Ih.' same channel, which f..r nra, tlcal purpiMcs may be regarded asacMiiiniuti,,, of the siniboBrd. stretching some i.4iiii i„ik', iu laiid. The total l.'ngth of the navig;,l,|,' kji,.,, ill IU liaain ia e<|ual to half the cinunif.reiu.' „f the glolie. Thi- h<-ad streams of th.' Vanirt/e are known to ri* on the Tibetan ih.i.uuv fnr bi'vond the limits of China pr,.|HT •- I i; , ;„, ii'f Hirih iiiut ill liihiiiiii.inim r i rl, , The Origin of the People and their early History. -The iwlgln of^ the Chini-,.. i,„,. f, shroiiiled in Home oliaciirity. The liivi r. .,,nl< we liaye of them reprewnt them as u l.,i„| ,,| mmigrants seitllng hi tlu' north .aM. „. i.p.v in«-« of the mislern empire of China ;.i»l ■ ri,| Ing lb«'ir way amongst tlie alaaigiiies nn.. h ai tile .)ew.« of old f,M',»,| their way iiii,' against llic various tribes which ili.'t i p.>s*>'saii>n of tlie land. It is pru'l,:,! tlH>iii:h Ihiy all entend China In i|, niute, Ih.y s. parateil into luiii.ls ulni..^i tfan-shold of the cmpiir One Is.lv. ih. hate left IIS 111.' ni-.mls of iluir lii«i.,r\ n, tij,. ancient Cbiiiesi' Usika apparentiv fi.li..«,,| He course ><( th.' Yell..w River »i„|, iuniii,;.. ,.,„ih wahi with il from its n.H-therninosI 1.. u." ., ulcl themaehes iu llie ferlili'ilistriclsof th. • ..hri' provinces of >hai»ii ami Monaii Hiii ,i» ., , ii,|.| also tiwl at alsMit the aaiiie |M'ri.»l a liirj. ^ ill,' UM-nt was nmile as far aouUiaa Annani. .,| nl.i.h there Is ii.> mention in the Iss.ks of tli,. i„.riherti Chinese, we muM aMHim. Ihsl uii,.||i. r !„>|y struck .lire, tly siwlbwanl ibroiiirli ili, vinlhrB pruviiHvs of China to thai i-oiinlry Hi. .,uei tion th.ii arisen, when- iliil Una.: (i.',.).,, .,«» from? and the uiiawer wlili h rii ,iil re»,"o, i, mv H.tHYLosit I'iiihitivkI ifiv.-s 1,1 ihis .|t<.^,ni Is. fnmi the soiiih of the ( aspiaii >e« Ig all tir.ilwliilii>, ihi' iiiiilin'ak in S.i.isdu .,( |uwsibly. Bonii' iNiliiiialillainrliaiiie m al».,.i ila^ Stih or a:tr.| leuniry II C , dron ih.. i hinrse from Ilic lan.l of ||„ ir adopthm. i,n,l ih.i i1i«t waii<ien-.l eistwsr.l iiiuil ihev tinallt KiiMin Chiiui aii.i llie ,.,iiiiiriea soiiih ,if n |t woiihl a|>t«>ir 'ii«.. Iliat the (Inn..,.' nu . jiiu, China |,.««.«.e,| ,,f ilu' r.' r, ,s ..f W •■sfeni Asian mliur Hiey br.iiiihl »iih th.ia > kn.iwhsli.'.' of writiiic aial aHiroiiomv. iis u.ll ai of the ari- Mhieli priiiMriiv loinisi, i i,,iln nantt aiMl comf.n i.f iinuikiiui Tl i.i.n.si ..f lliese ciir|isHi|{ InfliiiiKs's ia IriiiliihiimlU nii'ib ■iieil III 111. Kii,|ier<ir llwani: h. olioi- -.m t., have niL'tMl '• ,,11 II c .'imr •.'"illT liui th, naaH',>f ihn-.i. i, i.n I, ,.!« i,.|,,.u|,|i * ihathe ttrirt ant on ilw tUr.ai, in Chun ti, ■ . f hi< iiaam. w, sri loH was N'al, aim, nllt N«k ani in I'll' I hini'se |N,|(..,CTH|ihi.-al , ,.ll. . ii .n he i» ilesi'rtt»<i l.\ a charai I«r , .Hup.",-,! . f n irmiip of plNHoii, < will, h rewl S,Ak..i, u TV reae mM aiiiy hi-i« «,«, thi. name •a.l il. ,' ..f Nak hunt. »li. ttct.iniinir i,, ih. *ii..itth i- »'* wan thei hiif ,if Ihe ir.»|. t« .Htti, i,.)rtU strikiiif uml nian\ ,>f ih. ailrilii,,,. Iiehmgiiii; l,,bims,. -mh asl'.pla,, him oil mi .',|iMlllr with ll" ''i4«m .l.>ily In , lactsivurdance alsii with tli. «, jUbi J CHINA. Btma*Um. CHINA. of BabjkmUn chronolngy b« nUliltslieJ t cycle of tot'lre yrvn, U)J Uxnl the linKlli of the year at 3tiO lU.Vit cumpoanl vf twelve iiidDtlii, » Itli an isteriaUr'y month to balance the turplut time. He further, we are tuld, built a Linx t«i, or obMTVHiory, reminding ui uf the liabylnnian Zigftunttu, or liouie of obaervation, ' from wlilrh to wnlrh the morements of the heavenly bollea.' Tilt' iirimitive Cbincac, like the Babylonian*, rr(<i)!iii!ic<i five planeta beaiilei the aun anil niuon, •iiil, with one rxceptioa, knew them by thesiuiie luiiira. . . . The varioua pliaaes of these pluueta vpre rurt'fully watched, and nortcnta wire dirivi'il from every real and imaginary chunf^i- in tkeir rilutive miititloua and i-ulnurs. .\ ('iiiiipari- lufl between the astnilogical tableta tniUHliiloi liy Pnifemior Suvi-e and the aa'nilogintl rliiipter (iTili) in the She ke, the earliest of the n>iiuKlic HisUirlps, shiiwi a remarlciililc |Mir»lli'liNiii, nut only ill the general alyle of the fiire«-a»t«. but in partirulnr luirteiita whirh arc ao iiiiitrary tJ> Cliiiiese prrjuiiirca, oa a nation, and the 'rain of thuufrlit iif the people that they would lie atonre putituwn aa of fnreirn origin, even if they were not fiiuml in the linbvlnniun nHonla. ... In the nicn of C'hwau Ilii (2.'}i»-«43.1 H. C). we llnl aiTiinling to the Chim-ac reconln, that the Ttir, ai aniiiiig the ChaMenn*. began with the ihirii niiiulh of the aolar yinr, and a comparison beiwi'en the ancient iianieauf the moiitlia given in Ilir I'rh ya. tlie oldeat riiiiieae dhiionary. vith the Accailian eqiiivulcnta, allow*, in aome instance!!, an exart identity. . . . Tlieric paralM i-iiH. to^'tlier with a luwt of othen whirh niiKht W pnolui'iii, all point to the existence of an curly nlaiioiikhip Ix'tween Cbineae and Meaopo- laiiiUii iiiltiin'; and, arnieil with the advantage* tliiii puMKased, the Cliiiirae enlen>il Into the enipiriMiMT whirh tliiy wire iiltliimti'ly to over- •[•riail tliiuiselvea. Hut they iviiiie among trilies wli... iliouu'h aomewhat inferior to them in ii' III rill ri\iliMition, wire by no mean* di'atjlute if niliiire. . . Among auih people, ami III her* ■ f II l.nir rivilii«iti,in. *ui'h a* the Jung* of the vi .1 mill the T< ka, the aneeator* of the Tekke T'lri.iniaii*. In tde north, the Chineae wiceeeiled iBi.lil.li-liIng themsi'lve*. The Emperor Yaou > .".".(l-;;j.V) IJ. {.' ) dlvidni hi* kingdom into t» 111 |i.irtliiii«. presiileii over by aa many Paa- I r>. in iviiit iniilation of the d'uoilenarir feudal I , -ti 1.1 i.f .Sum « ith thrir twelve l*«*t«ir Vrinrei I- Vi"« nuniiileil Shun, who carried oo li ■ « Ik "f M» pri'iliii>«iir of ciiiiaoliilating the ( l.mix. |».«ir with iiiir>;y and »iHTera. In hi* riii;n llie lirst niiiitiuii i» nmile of rrilglou* wor- sliip . . In !>hun« riij;" i«curr«irtlie great ri<«J «lilih Iniinilateil mimt of the pnivlnie* of the flirting einplri'. The wiiler*. we are told, rue 1.1 Ml iireal a In i({ht, that the people bail lo lirlalie Ibrromlti'ii lo the mountain* to ewape ilratiL Tlie lll»n^ler aroM-, a* many aimlhu' ilia Mli-n. though of a h «• mairniUMle, have ainre •rinen. in cimi«niiiii, e of the Yellow Kiver burntmg iu ImuiiiU, and Uiii 'Ureat Yu ' wa* tpimln'cil to lead the wnlern bark to their chan- ■. n<l Wllh unreniiiUiig emrirv he *et ■Iniit his t»»k, anil in nine jei-.n aini i-eiliil In bringing the rivt un,lrr .•.imri.j . . A. a n-wanl for the •efMre. lie bad n ii.irreil to ilie empire, he wa* lnv.,i.,l with th. |.rimtp«litv nf ll.-a, and Kfler [i»'ine ,i.iu|,l,,| il„. throne I iinjojiiily with Mum '" """«' I'*", be auiietMled that aoverign on liia "-»l>.inS»0«B.f, With Yulwgan the. lynaaly i of He*, which gave place, in 17M R C, to the Hhang Dvuaaty. The laat aoverit:n of the Haa line. Kieb kwel, la kuid to have been a monster of iniquity, and Ui have suffered the iuat punish- ment for hhi crimes nt the hand* of Tang, the prince of the Sute of Sliang, who tooli bis throne from him. In like mcnm r. (HO years later. Woo Wang, the print* of Clinw. overthrew Chow Bin, the last of the Sbaiig Dynasty, and estab- Ihdied hinuelt a* the chief of the aoverign *Ute of the empire. By empire It must not lie suppowid that the empire, as it exist* at present, i* meant. The China of the ( how Dynasty lav between the 33nl and 8«lh pnnillels of Ulitude, and the lOBth and ll»th of longitude onlv, and exU'nded over no more than portions of the pro- vinces of Pih ehih II, Shansi, Shense, Honan, Keang-se, and Shantung. This territory »a» re arranged by Woo Wang Into the nine priiici- palllies esubllbhed by Y'u . . , Woo Is held up In Chinese history as one of the model momin lis of antiquity. . . . Under the next ruler. K'ang (B. C. 10T8-1053), the empire was consolidsled, and the feudal prince* one and all acknowleij^'ed their allegiance to the ruling hmiae of Chow. . . . From all accounta there spt'cdilyoccurreil a marked degeneracy iu the cbaraitersof the (bow kings. . . , Already a spirit of lawlessness was spreading far and wide among the princes and noblca, and wars and rumours of ware were creating misery and unrest throughout the coun- try. . . . The band of every iiiuu wa* against his neighlHiiir. and a constant slate of internecine war succiided the peace and pros|H'rlty wliich had exhit«d under the rule of Woowaug. . . , As time went on and the dbionler Increased, supematufsl sign* added their U'stimony to the Impending crisis. The brazen vessels upoa which Yu had engraved the nine divisions of the enipire were observed to shake snil totter m though foreshadowing the appniacblng change in the political poaition. Meanwhile Ts in on the northwest, Ta'oo on the south, and Tsin on the north, having vanqiiislietl all the nlher Halea, engaged in the final struggle for the nmiliry over the oimfederate iiriurlpitlllles. The ullf- mate victory rvstnl with the slatt- of Ts'lti. .-iiid In SS8 B. C, Chaou seang Wang beiitiiie the at'knowie<lge<l ruler over the ■ liLirk haired jieo- ple. Only four V'-aia wen- given him In r ign supreme, aiul at the end of th>it>linie he was i-.u:- ceeileil by his son, tieaoii wan Wang. *hii dL-d almost liumetlUtely on ant emliuii the Ihnine. To liim sucn-edeil Chwang seang Wanir, who naa followed In H6 B C by Che ll«an)! te. tlie first I.m|ieMr of China. The alu.iiil.in i.f femlHlism, W'liii'h wa* the first act of Chi' ll«aiig te riiU'il much dlaiHinti-nt among thoae to wlmni tli> fi'iKlal BValem had brought iiower ami niioliinii ' ». mid the countenance whicb bad Intn h'imu m iIh) sy»tem by Confiiclua suti Mini lus iidiiie It il< ^lr■ aliie — Ml thought the emisnir — to iliiuolliii oni-e fur all their lesiimiHiy in favour of llial coiidllliin of affaira. which lie had ilnriiil slioiild lip aniimg the things of llii past. Willi thit objeet he ll^b'ml that tlH' whole exlslint: liii ra- lure, with llie exiiptiim of Imuks on iimli. ii'e, Hftrli'iilluri', simI illvinaliiin ahonld N' liiir'.d. Tlie liiinv was iiU'jiil as faithfully a« « aa |Hi*allih- In the ease of an awitping an iinllimi.i*, ail I fur many years a night of luiioraMri' n >iiii on the niunlry. The iimslrm iioii of mii tU'ni,. tic work — tbif Uri'at Wall of China - has iiia>i« 431 It c CHINA. Jm nsiM ot thl« moDarch u funoui m the dea- tniotion of the hoolu has nude it inramoiia. Fiwlinif the Heung-nu Tarun were mitkiiiK dangeroui Inroad* Into the empire, he determined with cbancteriitic thorGughoeM to build a huge barrier which liiould protect the northern fron- tier of the empire through all time. In 314 B. (.'. the work waa be^un under hi* penonal super »i«ion, and though every endeavor wa* mads to hostun lu completion he died (900) leaving it un- flnishcd. His death wsa the *ignal for an out- break among the dl*poa* e «« e d feudal princes, who, however, aftrr some /earn of disorder, were again reduced to the rank of citizen* bv a luc- cesaful leader, who adopted the title of Kaou-te, and named hi* dymistv that of Han (309). From that day to tbia, with occasional Interrenium*, the empire ha* been ruled on the line* laid down by Che Hwsng-te. Dynasty has succiwlcd dynaaty, but the nolitical tradition ha* renmlned ttnchang<'<l, and tliougb Mongols snd Munclious have at difrernit times wreste<l tht? thrine fn)m its Irgitinutte heirs, they have t/een enitulfiit in the liiimrigennius maa* inhaMtin? the eiupiro, and Intitead of iniprusHing tlirlr seal on the coun- try have tieoome l.iit tlie ri'llction of the van- quished. The (Ivpastiis from liii' Iwginninj; of tba earlier Han, fouudni, -is Hlutetl above, tv Kiiou-tc, arc as follows : — The earlier Han Dynastv B. C. 806-A. D M; the late Han A D. 25- Ji'); *Jie Wei 2Sn-2HO; the western T«in 865-317; the eastern Tsln 817-4JO; the Suiib 48i)-«:0, tlio Tse 479-.'S03; tho I,..«ng 5*13-557; the CUiu 5.57- B8B. 8imultani-on»ly with tli»9«— tlie northern Wcl A. D. »»«-,.:«; th-> wcsumWei M.'>-,'m7; the eastern Wei 534-r(5(); the northern Ta'e 5.W- 577; the northern Chow 587-589. The Siiv .M»- 618: theTangei8-*>7; the Utcr Leang 9<)"7-»en ; the later Tang 9i3-93«; the later T»m 1K18-BI7; the later Han B47-951; the later Chow »5".-9fli), the Surg 980-1127; the southern 8ung 1127- 12H0; the Yuen 12S(»-l3fl8; the Ming 18d*-lBM: the Ts'lng in44. SImulUneuualy with some of these — the Ixsoii 007-1125; the wexU'm I*aou 1 135-1 1«S; the Kin 1115-1280."— R K. Dougla*. Clitn.1. M. 1 • Also IM n.r. noiilirrr, Jlint of ChirKi. t. t-8. Tha Religion* of the People.— Confucian- Urn.— Taouiun.— Buddhiam.— " Vlie L'hiuesa describe theni.«'l\'e4 as |HMaeai>lnK three n'ligioiis, or more aii-iiriuiv, three B<-et«. nnnielv Joo kcaoii, the »nct of Htlmliun; Kuh lieiiori. the •vt l^f Huilllm, and Tmu keaou, lliu sect of Taoii Itiiili ii» n .'imls age ami origin, the wet of Sehi'lur*. . r, .» it i< genenillv cnlici, (on- fnelsnliiii, rcjin .4 iilH pre emiii.nllv llie religion of Cliititt. ft liitH it« riKit In tli'? worNliip of Sliini? le. a il.liv wliiili ix aswK-iated Willi the earliest trwlitioimif ilieChiiieKe rut: Unuin to (2fl'J7 11 (' ) rreiiiil a U'lnple to Iiik honour, uiul • lenr.lliig f ni|i. Tort wi.r»lii|i|., ,1 Ik f.-ro hilt shrin.v Hiirinu ilie inniMciH tiinn whii h f illo«e.| after the rii,'n of the few lirsl wivenlifin o( llie Cli.iw l>Viia«iv, the lM-l|.f in n personal diily grew lii.limmet ami cIImi, iinill. when Con- f.. Iii» [l«.ni 11. ( ,V.l) l»gaii hit eaMT. lliere app.a^•d iioihinif str«n;.'e in lils ullieiHile (],«■ \Titu'* Me never in any wav denle,! the ex l.liiiee of .mrn.-Tu- le. but he |-ri..r..l |,ini His coiireni was Willi nisii as a meinli. r if im-lety. an I llie ulij.rl .f IiIh teaihlnK was l-i l.ail hiui i:ito tlKw p.llli«.,f h.,||;i|,|,. Hill, I, iiil^lit |,.,t wmt-ihute to bis own luippliiess, and t.i ilie well- 43 CHINA. being of that eommunity of which he foniiM part Man, ho held, was bom good, aud ww emlowed with qualiUa* which, when cultirst«| ami improved by watchf uloaat and lelf-iestraiiit. might enable him to acquire godlike wiadon and to become 'the equal of Heavea H« divided manklDd Into four rl*mi, via., thos! who are bom with tha poaaaaaSon of knowledge those who leam. aod *o readily get poMession of knowledge; those who are dull and stupid, sad yet nicceed in leamisg; aod, lastly, those wlio are dull and stupid, and yet do not leam. To all these, except those ot the but class, the pstli to the climax raached by the 'Sage' la open. Man baa only to watch, Uaten to, undentind. and obey the moral sense implanted hi him br Heaven, aod the highest perfection is wlUiin liii reach. ... In this *yBtem there i* no pisce for a ncrsonal Ood. The impenonal Heaveo, according to Confucius, ImplaiiU a pure nature In every bi'ing at his birth, but, having ilme this, thern is no further supernatural ioterfcfetm with the tboughis and dceda of men. h is In the power of each one Ui perfect his nature, and lliere is no divine inlluriice to restrain tiiuse who UiUe tlio downwsrd course. Blau has his destiny in Ills own liauds, to nuke or to mar. Neither bad C'oufiuius sny indueenient to offer to en coiirage men In the practirc of virtue, except virtue's self. He was a iiia'terof fu t, uclm- j njjiuiulvc man, who was (|ulto eontent looecupr I hiiiiself with tliu study of bis fellow men, snl I wa* dislnellu'Hl to groiw Into llio future cr li jieer upwards. No wonder that his system, sa I hi tnuneiated It, proved a failure. Eacrrlv be I sought in the exeeuliou of bis olflc lui ilutien tr e!Tect the regeneration of the empire, hut Nvond the circle of Ills personal diariples he f.mnj few tollowers, and aa soon as princes snd atate;inieM hud satiafled their curiosity about him Ibej liimcd their backs on his p'recepts snd would noneof his ivpniofs Succeeding sge<, reeoiiils. Ing tlie loflintsa of hi* alms, viiminau-d all that wsa impracticable and unn-al In bl« sysum, snd held fast to that part of it that wss tnic sod good. They mem content to accept the l.igic of eventa, and to throw overhoani the irieal 'isge.' and to Ignore the supposeil i>ot4-n;y of hi:: la- fluence; but they clung to tJie doetrininiif dlitl piety, brotherly line, and virtuoiw living. It waa admiration for the emphiwis whi< li be laU on these ami other virtues wliirh luu drawn m many millions of hh'U imu> him; uhiib hu nuwic his tomb at K«> fi»> h«-n to be the Meces of CoiifiielaiiNm. si\d has wlorned evirvrilvf the empire wlUi uunples built in his Iio!i..'it .' foncurrently with the Unw< iif piin- I ..ii(iici»;i Isni. awl the adoption of iliixie prim i|>iea wlixb find th«'ir earliest expnsBlon in tlw |ir< fuifurisa cU-wiin of China, tliire is nl«. r>nlile a n-iure i.p the worship of ftluiiig te. Tlieiiuwi mniririiiriil t< inpiv in the empire is tlieTeiiiple •>( liiaf u tt rekliig, when' the higheat ohji.t .,f . hincae wnr hip Is wloriil with the pun it ritu What is popularly known In i;iir.|i.- a-i tin fuiiimiara Is, tlien-forv. <'onfu< luiiisio uiiti Urn dl-iiinetlve opinions of Confui ins omliinl . , Hut this worslilp of Hlisnit te is e.>iitlii.-.i .mly ID the emiieror 1 he iMople Iwre no lot orli' ritsc* in the sui'Rd sets of worahio at llie ,Mnr .( Ilea- in. . . Hide bj- side wiili tli.- n>ii.l ( the Ji«i l;iHM)a, urhler till' liilluriiii- "f ( itifiMu, grew up a ayau-m uf s toUilly dlifen-tu luioia, J caocA. Bmalrtof Xuitat Kkam. CHINA. iaa»>iNi ud which, when diveitad of lu Moterie doe- Irioct, ud reducixl bv the practically-iniiided Cblnunen to • codd of morals, wa* destined in future ages to become aUUiated with the teach- logs of the Sage. This was Taouism, which was founded bjr Laou-tazc, who was a cod- Kmporiuy of Confucius^ An air of mrstcty bangs oTcr the blstcnr of Laou-tsxe. Uf his punitage wa Itnow nothing, and tt>e Itistoriana, in tlwlr anilety to conceal their ignorancp of liis nrlier reara, slielter tiiemselves lieiiind the Irnnd that he was bom an old man. . . . The pRnurv meaning of Taou la 'The way,' 'The path,' but in Ltoa-ttze'i philoitopby It was more tiian Iku wuy, It was the way-goer as well. It wu an eternal road; along It all beings and things walked; it waa ererythlng nnd nothing, and the cause and effect of all. All things originated from Taou, conformed to Taou, and to Tariu at last returned. . . . ' If, then, we bail to eiprcsa the meaning of Taou, we should dewribe it as the Absolute ; the totolitr of Biiog sod Things: the phenomenal world and its orlir; and thv I'tbical nature of the good man, and the principle of his artinn.' It waa absorption into this ' Motbcr of all things ' that Laoii-t<ize amiini at And this end wan to bu attniucd to by self - rniptint'tn, and by giving free scope to the un- contaminated nature winch, like ('(nifucias, be taught was given by Ucavcn to all men. . . . But these subtl<tics, like the more abatniae epecuktiuns of Confucius, were suited unly to ttie taste uf the schools. To the rommnn people ther were f(K>ll.shne8S, ami, before Uini;, tlie phiW'phlcal doctrine of LaoU'tat.e of the Ideutitv of t'Xiatcnce and DODexialence, assumed bi their eyes a warmnt for the old £picurean molt), 'Let us eat and drink, for tn-Di>m>w we die.' The pleasures of sense were sut»lituted for the delights of virtue, and the next siep was to desire pMloogation of the time when Uioso pleasures could be enjoyed. Legend said that uwrnute had secured to' himself immuri;y from ilrath by drlnkine the elixir of immortality, and t" enjiiy the same prtirilege became tlie all abr«.rlilng objri t of his followers. The demand k'T (liiirs and rburms produced h supply, and Taiuiim ijuirkly degenerated Into a svsum of nugti'. . . ; Tiie teat'hinga nf Lauu-Uze having fsmillsriiwl the fhluiwa mind with pliildsopbical ilntriiies, «liieh. whutiver were thiir din-ct H'unv. !K)rt a marked rvaembUuce to the mus- ingidt Indian sages, served to prepare the wsy fur the Inirudurtlon of Buddhism. The exact dste at whkh the Chinese ttnt became ac((uainUHl with tlic ductrinea of Uuddha waa, acnirding to •n author qui.Kil In K ang-be's Imperial Emy- cHip^lta, lie thirtieth jtmr of the reign of .4Le Hwang If, 1, c , B. C. 216 The story tills wrtter 'I'Hiol <i.e ditUeultIrs which the first miuloDaries rsruunten>d l< rurlous, sod singularly sugges- tiv« of die uomlive of Ht Peter's Imprtson- 3»«it. -II K I),.ug!as, CUna. dk. 17 -Also l> The Mtat (vntSmnnitm and Tmnium.— '^ Bml.lliltni |H'wt»k-d to China along the aifd r-iiit,. fn>ni iuttia to iliat <-<>untr)-, muml the fc.nii.we,t -„mer of Uie lltnwlaraa and amiae fc*t»n! lurkestan. Aiready in ti«e a«d v™r i> ( . an iinlwMv. perhaps seal by HuvWdia i«h<> i,'i,!i„<l In Kabul and Kaaamm-I took HwkJiwt i».ji, t„ Uw then Emperor of ('hina, A IK ; sud lii, tjii|«r<ir Ming tl, MAP, guided b.v • iinwu II a«i>l lu have sau to Tanary ead 2>> Central India and brought Buddhist books to China. Prom thia time Buddhism npidlr spread there. ... In the fourth century Bua- dUsm became the Mate rellgloD. "— T. W. lUiTt Darida, AuWUms, dk, (, , •^ifS.™ '• Wf«- ^** Stligioni i^Ckina.— J. Edklna, Sdtgion in C'Ai'na.— The some, Ckinm B}i<UAum.—S. Beals, BwUlhitm in Ckiiia.—S. Johnaon, Oriental HiligUmt: China. A. D. iao.f-ia34.— Conqueat by Jingit Khaa and bia aon — "The cnoqiiestof China was commenced by Chlnghiz [or Jini;lj Khan], nltliough it was not complctetl for siveral gen- erations. AIrea<ly in 1805 he had Invaded Tan- gtit, a kingdom occupying the extreme north- west <if China, and extending beyond Chinese llinils In the (uune direction, held by a dynasty of Tibetan rare, which was or bad been a vaaaal to the Kin. This invasion was repeated In auc- eeviling ^can: and i.i 1211 his attacka extended to the Linpirc of the Kin Itself In 1!14 he ravaged their provinces to the Yellow River, and in the following year took Chungtu or Peking. Ill 1218 he turned his arms against Western Asia: . . . but a lieutenant whom he had left Ix'hinil him In the East continued to prosecute the subjection of Xorthem China. Chinghix himself on his rcturr from his western conquests renewed his attack on Toag ut, and died on that enU'rprisc. 18th August. Okkodol, the son and successor of Chlnghiz. followwl up the subjuga- tion of China, exiinpuishwl the Kin finally in 1234 and consolidated with his Empire all the provinces north of the CIrcat Klong. The tiouthem provinci s remained for the present subject to the Chinese dvnastv of the Bung, reigning now at KingssiVr Hongcheu. This kincdnm was known Ui the Tartars as NangkUss, and also by the quasi (lilnefe title of .MangI or Manzi, mode so lamc>ii!i by >!nrco Polo and the travellen of the following age." — H. Yule, Cathag ami ths B'ay TMther. Prrliminary /",. •fi.V. serf. BI-98. — See, alio, Mongols ; A. D 1153-I2S7. A. D. ias9-<a94-— The Empire of Kublai Khaa.— Kuldai. or Khubilai Khan, one of li.e gnunlsons of Jingis Khsn. wb..niv'm-d as tl;e Ureal Khan or Supreme lord <.f the Mongols from 12511 until 1291. •■ was the wiven iitn of ilie krgest I'lnplre llmt wm ever ccKitp.lled bv . m- man. China. Con a, Tbiliet, TumrKing, t'.«liia China, a great iKirti.m of Imliti Ix-muhI the Oanges. the Turkish ni:d MIk riun realm., fr, ni the Eastern Sea to the DnlijHT, nlwved bin com mands; and although the obii f uf uie llnnlea of Jagstai and Ogaui rt'fused to ac knowletlge him, the Ilkhans of I'epfia . . . were hia feuiialiTiet. . . . Tlic r«upremi! Klum lutd immediate autboriiy only In Mongolia and China. . . . The caplui e^f the Khakan, after tlw^ accession of Khublhii, was a new city he liulit rlose to the ancient nietrnpii- lis of 'he I.l».i and Kin dynasties. "—11. H lloworlh. Ilitt ./ tUr Mimgi-Li, \: 1. pp. 216.283. — •KhanUillg (Mi.ng,, Tlie Khan's citv'i, the Caraialu of Marco, Piking . . . ws» rap- tured bt Chlnulilz in r,M.\ amlin 12ft4 Kubl-d made It ^lia eliitf residence. In 1207 he built a new etn ihn-e II ' t.i Um. rii.rth east of the old oae, to otiicb was given the name uf Tn tu or 'Ureat i «Mirt.' called by the MiMigols INIdu. the Taydo of Odorli- nnd Taidu of INilo. w Im> (tin n a daacrlption of il* dliiien>i<ins, the numlxr nf is etc, stoiilsr to tiau in the text. Tbt ma It «. CHUrA, 19W-1904 Ibrtnr CHINA, UM-lSm Chlneie accounu give only eleren gates. Thto city wu •bandonea a* • royal reahlence on tlie enpuUion of the Mongol dynaalr in \36n. but re .iccupied in Itil by ttie Uilnl Minir Kiiiidror wlio buUt the walla >a they now exist, rediiciiiif their extent auil the number of the gates tn nine. Thia la what la commonly called tlie • Tartar city 'of the present day (ojled alao by fjie Chl- neiie Uu-Cbhingor •Old Town"), wUioh there- fore npreaeou the Taydo of Odoric."— II. Yule. Cat/Mg and th* W<^ Thithtr, ». 1. p. 127, /out- AiJO m Marco Polo, TVuarft. wtt* A'ohi bf Sir ^! '^•^ ».-8ee. ahn, MoaooLa: A. D. 1281^ 18W, and Pout. Mabco. ^^ "V i,"<K-«Mj-Dl»«»lotlon of th« Em- '^ S' ?»"»'«*«».- The MJiiK dyoMty •od its falL— The enthronement of the pre- jent llanckn Tartar DynaMy. of the Tainga w Ch inn.— The appearance of the Portngucae •ad the Jesuit Miaaionariee.— "The immediate aucceaaors of Kublai. broujrlit up in the luxuries of the imperial palace, tht moat gorgeous at that time in the world, relied uikm. the prestige with which the glory of the iale emperor investeii them, and never dr»aiiHHi that change could touch a domhiioo so viwt an^l no nolid. t»omede- voted UiemsoWee to elegant literature and the Improvement of the iieople; lawr nriucra to the mvsteries of Buddhium, which beiame In some degree, tlie sUU- rcligi.m ; and aa the cvi le went round, the dregs of the dynasty ai>au(h>n<'<l thenuelvea, as usual, to priests, women, and eunucha. . . . The disUnt provlncs threw off their subjection; roblwrs ravage.! the land, and piratea the aea; a minorifv and a famine came at the samt moment; and in lesa tlinn ninety yeara after iu cominem-euient, tlio fall of the ' dynasty was i.uly ilhiiniued by some few tlaxlii-a of dying heroism, and every anneil TsrUr wlio ~"''' ■ '- ■• l">nio u. aid his flight, s[uimd could obUiio bjrk to his native deserti Some of "tiiem of the royal race, turning to tliu w.st. took refuge with the Mancliows, and in prwess of time, marrying with the families of the chiefs, intermingled the bl.xid of the two great tribes. The proximate cause of thia cataatrophe waa a Chinese of low birth, who, in the midst of the troubles of the time, found means to raise him- self by hU genius from a servile suiion to the toidership of a boily of the malcontents, aii<l thence to step Into the imperUI throne. Tlie new dynasty [the Mint;! I»t>'»n their relgji with cn-n' brilliann. Tlie . nif.. rur larri.^i the Tartar war into their ..wn touniry, and at homo made uiir.- lenting war U|ioii ,lie abuses of his psla.^.. II,. cuuimitted tlio luLstalie, however. ..f graiiliiiif separate pn».i|M,li|i,,» u th.^ ni.nil.r« (,f his h')ii»e, whii 1. Ill II. XI reikis , :,„« ; war, and tlm ui.u: n of the tlir. umle of the then fii.i» rnr. The u»ui: • it i» reiiiary to trHn»l.r tlw lapiul to l"- . a |Hi*t of ik'feuiv i<;;,nii»t tiiu eaaU-rii i will, now nuide tlirir ainxmramr aijain •vfuiful ntugi.. Ill- was SUO^wfil, hl,», ,,r ,D hi* wars iu t|,c d.M rt. and be aiidtKl Tununln and ( .Khiu t hiiia u> the fhlnese domlni.ms. After hiiii the l.iriuiiefi of tliv dynasty i,vk»nio wane. 1 li,- utivinimint iH-inmo weaker tin lanara stn.im.i, »..m. pHmr* atUcliiHi them SelKTf to 111. rai.m-, N.ri,,- 1 . lloddliisinorTafilsm; 1 '"lun ( hina r.v.ili.-l. and v>.m l,«t i., ji,,.,,,, pirs, Japan ravagni the cnuu with her privs . ■ ivil ■•> ~n found :iir. iia irisrs, II this in 434 teers; famine oame to add to the homn of mis. rule. "-Leltch Ritchie, UM. rt- Ms Orienlat xi <J'«». **. 7, <*. 1 (s. «).-■• rtom without, tlK Mings were oopstanUy hanassd by the enciWt menu of the Ta-tars; from within, the cea«i«« intnguingof the eunuchs (resulUng hionecsM In Uie temporary depositian of an Emperor) vu a fertile cause of trouble. Towards the close of the ISth oenturr the Portuguese appeared upon the scene, and from their 'coaoession ' at Ma^T some time the residence of Camoeus, onenni nimmercial reUtioos between Cliina and the West. They brought the Chinese, among olhtr things, opium, which had previously u"n Im. ported overland from India. Tli.y p,«sii,i, Uugbt them how to make gunpow.lcr, to the In- vention of which the Chinese do n.it mm up a striiting a balance of evidence, to poi«<«kn h. dependent cUim. Aliout the same time n.'SsjI Koine ccmtributed the first inBt«lni.nt ofii^ai wonderful Jesuit fatliers. whose naiiu!i imiy truir be said to have filled the empire 'with »,imi,fj that eiho still.' the memory of their mitniiljc lalioiira and the licnefiu they thus conlt..„l upun I liina having long survive<l the ytniH tud dii- cnnlit of tiic laiUi to which tliey divotid their livr!*. Ami at tlila disUncv of time it iliips Df« apiiear to be a ivii.l statement U> uwrt that hail the Jesuits, tlir Kranciscaiis. and the l)oiiiiiiioiin, 1k.ii able to resist quarrelling among tlii'iimivei and had they rallier united to p.'r»ua.l.' I'uiial iu- li.'liliiliiy to iK'riiiit tiM! iucorporation of aiimlur » .i^liip Willi tlie rius ami ceiiiii.,iiii» ..f the l<oiiii.,n church — China would ut thia r. «n«.t be u Catholic iMuntry. and Bu.ldliiMii, T»„i«n, ami Confucianism w.iul.i hmj sini^e iiav.' rw-eiicl liilo tlie iwsL Of all these Jesuit ini.«ioiwrie», the name of .Mutt.-o Wivi [who died in liilU] ••lunda by common ctmsent drat up.iii the long list . . . The overthrow of the mum (.V. I). 1«44| was brought alxuit by a combiiuiiKin ol events, of the utniimt ini|M<rtaiice to iliciae who would undenund the present position i.f tin Tartars aa rulers of China. A su.lil.n rel> Uioa had resulted hi the capture of Peking by the in- surgents, and In the suicide of the Empemr who waa faU-d to be the hist of his line. The Im- perial Commander-in-chief. Wii eankuel, jt Uut time away on the frontiers of Manchuris, ea- gacJ in nuisllng tlie Incursions of Uie .Msnchu tara. now for a long time in a sute of fft- n., .It. imi.ie<liau.ly hurried back to the capital, liui was Uiully defeated by the insurKrnt liadt.-, »:. I once more made his way, this timr •» » fugitive ami a suppliant, Uiwards Ihu laii^r camp, lleti' h.' olitaine.1 promises o' a«i;ii«i.r>, ■ liletiy on loudition that he would share hb L 1.4 and grow a l«H in a«-..r<hinc« with Mancbu ous- toin. and again set off »1U| his new auiiliann towanis I'l-king. Mng ninforcoi 00 tlie t,s» b» a boiiy of .Mongol volunte.Ts. A^ things turr.»l out Wu Hankiu-i afrivt^l at Peking in sdvam* of tbes.1 alllim, an.l acti; .lly aumwTed, with tU remnant of his own watt-Ted forces, la Muliaj the Iniops of tli.- r. tsl h-ader befo't 'le Tartan and the Mongols came up. He ili.ii j'jirt.'.! m pursuit of llietlyinif f.w Meanwh'lo llie Tar- tar ciwtlngeiit arriv.-.i ; an.) on enteiiug the cajil. ta!. (he young Man. Iiu prince in c.mimandwM invi,...! by tlie {leople of iVaing to ascend Um vacant throne. " ■ ■ ■ ' l» apiieared h« .... or Tsing dynasty tlie |>e<i|de of iVaing to ascend Um ne. H.) that by the time Wi Han kuel he found a newdySMty [ths Vf'rt irnasty u.' the pieseDt dsyj ilr^; CHINA, 18M-188S. Opium War. CHIXA, 1888-1849. wUbliibcd, uti hli lata Hanchu ally at the head uf affain. Hi* flnt intention bad doubtlea* b«ea to contiaue the Ming line of £mperore ; but lie teeroi to bare leadily fallen in with the arrange- nwnt already made, and to have tendered bia {omuil allcronce on the four following condi- tioni:— (1.) 'I>at no Chineae woman abould be taken into the Imperial aeragllo. (3.) Thnt the fint placeat the great triamiaTezamination for tlie highest literary degreei ahould never be given to a Tartar. (3.) That the people ahould adopt the natioiml coatume of the Taruira in their every- day lire : but tbat they abould be allowed tu bury their rorpac* in tlic drcu of the late dynasty. (4. ) That this cunditiun of costume abuuld not' apply to tlie women of China, who were not to Im compelled either to wear the hair in a tail before marriage (aa the Tartar girls do) or to abandon the custom of compreaaing their feet The great Ming dvnastv waa now at an end, though not 4estine<i wholly to pass away. A large part of it may be »iicl to remain in the literary monu- ments which were executed during ita three cen- turies of existence. The dresa of the period survives upon the modem Chinese stavv; and when occasionally the pieacut alien yoke la found to gall, seditious whispen of ' •estoration' are not altogether unheard. . . . TheageoftheCh'ing* i< the age In which we lire; but it is not so n- miliar to some peraoos aa it ought to be, that a Tartar, and not a Chinese •oTereIgn, is now seated upon the throne of China. For some time sfter the acoeasion of thu flrat Hanchu Kmperor there was couaiderable friction between the two faces, due, among other natural causes, to the enfiirced adoption of the peculiar coiffure in Togue among the Manchus — i. e., the tail, or plaited queue of bair, which now hangs down CTerr Chinaman's back. This fashion was for a bog time vigorously resisted by the inhaliitanta of Kiuthem China, though now regarded by all illke as one of the mo«t aacred cfaaracterUtfci of the 'blnck-haired people.'. . . The subjugation >if the empire by the Hancbua was followea by a mlliury on-upatlon of the coontrr, which baa survivetl the original n e cea s lty. and Is part of the system uf g< vemment at the present day. Qu- luans of Tartar troops were stationed at Tarloiia Imp >naiit centrea of population. . , . Tboa* Tartiir guriii'ias still occupy the suoa poaltiocs; sod the descrnilaou of the flnt battalions, with occssional ivinforrements from Peking, lire side by tide ai-d in perfect h.-u-moiiy with tlie strictly Chinese (fipulatioiuk Thcw Bannermen, aa tbey are calle:|, may be known by their equate, beaTy hifn. whi.'li contrast strongly with the sharper and more luluU' physiognomMa of the Chineae. Tbey a|ieak tlte dialect of Peking, now rerogniaed St tile otDrial lautfuage par ezoel'.ence. Tbey do Dot uae their family or aumamea— which belong rather to the cUn than to the individual — but In ll^ier to conform to the roquirementa of Hilmiie life, the persona! name is siibstltutrd. Thiir women do not compreas their fwt, ami tha f"ni»li' coiirurc and dress are wholly Tartar In rhara, t.T. lnU'ni.arriare bt-lween the two racea iiui't I ^nsiilered desirable liiough inataocea ar« iii.t uukri„«n. In otlier respects. It is the olj Morj- 111 • VI, i» victrix ; ' the oonuuerttig Tartara havf bivn lluniaelvea conquered by tbe penpki ovir wtM.in tliey set themsclvva to rule. They hs" v!>|.ti.,| u,, Ungoage, written and collo- |ulal, uf Chhia. . . . Uanchu, tlie languag* of the conquerors. Is still kept alive at the Court of Peking, liy a Ktate Action, It is auppowMl to Ik the Unguage of the sovcreiga . . . Eight em perors of this line have already occupied the throne, and ■ become guesta on high ;' the ninth Is yet [in 1883] a boy Teaa than ten yea-a of age. or these eight, the second In every way fills the largest spa<* in Chinese history. iC»Dg Hsi (or Kang Hi) reiined for sixty -one years. . . . Under the thin! .Manthu Emperor, Yung Cheng [A. D. 1788-17861, began that violent persecu- tion of the Catholics wlich has mntinned almost to the present day. The various sects — Jesuits, Dominicans, Franciscans— liiul Urn unable to agree abimt the Chineae equivalent for God, and the matter had been tinally referred to the l*ope. Another difticulty had arisen as to the loleratlon of ancotral worship by Chinese converu pro- fes.^ing the Catholic faith. . . . Aa the Pope re- fused to pi-rmit the embodiment of thU undent custom with the ceremonies of the Catholic church, the new religion ceasi^l to advance, and by-and-by fell into diarrpute."— U. A. Ullea, uulorif China, eh. S-O Atao m 8. W. AVilliams, Tht MuMU Kxagdnm, th. 17. and 19-aO (v. 8).— C. Outzlall, Skrtrk of Chine- UiM.. r. 1, eh. 16, e. 9.— J. K<»a, TI14 Jf^fwAtis.— Abbi Hue, ChrvUianitM in China, «. «-& A. D. 1839-184J.— The Opium War with EBfland.— Treaty of Nanking.— Opening o> the Five Porta.—" The tirst Cliinese wiir [of Englamll waa In one sense directly iiltributable to the alte.t^ poiition of the Eii-st India Com- pany after 1838. [SeelnniA: A.I) lHa»-1838.1 Up to that year trailc betweon England and China had l>een conducted In both countriea on principles of strict monopoly. The (.'hineaa trade was sirurni to the East India Company, and the English trade was contined to a company of merchants spm'ially nominated for the pur- pose liy the Ei'ipj'ror. The change of thought which pnxiuced the destruction of monopolict in England did not penetrate to the conservativa atmosphere of the Celestial Empire, and, wbUa the trade in one country was thrown open to everyone, trade In the other wm still exclusively couflned to the merchanta nominated by tha Chinese Government These merchanu. Hong merchanta aa tbey were called, traded separately, but were mutually Ibble for the dues to tM Chinese Oovcmment and for their debts to the foreigners. Such conditions neither promoted the growth of trade nor the solvei.< y of the trailers; and, out of the thirteen line? ivTchaata In 1837, three or four were avowedly iuwilvcnt (SUte Pap..«. V. 27, p. 1810.) Such were tha general coniiilion* on which the trade waa con- ducted. The must inip<.rtant article of trade waa opium. The importation of opium into China bad, imleed, been illegal simx; 1704. But the Chinese Government had made no stringent efforts to prohibit the trade, end a Select Cany mittee of the Houae of Commi>ns tiud declared that It waa ln»<tviaablo to abandon hii iniportsol source 'if revenue to the YjM, India I unipany. (Siate Papcra, v. S«, p. 1020 ) The oplu ,1 trad* conaeiiiientlv tlinive, and grew from 4. liiO olieats In 1796 to 81I.U11U cbi-su In li- 7. and the Chi^iew oiiinlvid at or ignored the gnit.ing Iraite. (111! I., p 1019). . , , In 1837 the CI •«: Gov. eniinent ailopteit a freah policy. It decided on rig'^uroualy stopping lb < Inda at which it had 435 OHIX&. I8a»-lSU. Ofimm War. CHINA. I8>»-lStfL pnHouslv taritljr connWcd. . . Whether the t'biaew Oovrrnmciit wu n .,lly ilinckfU it Uie trroning uar of the drug anU the cotiiici|ui-nnr« <rf it! ute, or wh«'lber It wiu alurmed ut ■ drnia of fUver from China whicli disturbed what the politica: arithmetlcUoa of KoKland > huntlml yeun befiire would hare mllrd thv hnlaoce of trade. It undoubtedlj delrrmined to check the trafflc by ercry meana at iu illspowil. With thli object It atrengtlieiit'd Iu fiirre on the coast ■nd wot Un, a man of creat energy, to Canton [March, 1830] with iuprome authority. (8tato rapen, t. 39, p. 834, and Autoliiogrtphy >f Sir H. Taylor, t. 1. appx.. p. 843.) Before Uu'i arnral cargoes of opium hod been aclzed by the Custom Iluuaa authorities. On bis arrival I.ln required both the Hhiib mcrchuoti and the Chioeie merchants to dillvcr up all the opium In their puasessiun In order that It might bo destroyed. (State I'ltiiers. t. t.l, p. OM.) The IntereaU of Enfrland in China were at that time entrusted to (harles EllloL . . . But Elliut occupied a very difficult position In Clilna. The Chinese placed on their communir»tlona to him the Chlicae word 'Vu,' and wished him to phice on his despatches to them the Chinese word 'Pin.' But Yu signideaa command, and Pin a humble address, siid a British Plenipoten- ihiry could not receive commands from, or humble himself before, Chinese officials. (State Papers, v. 8», pp. 881, »ij«, 888.) And hence the communications between him and the Chinese Uovemment were unable U) follow a direct oursp, but were frequently or luually sent throuch the Hoax mcrclumts Such was the sute of things In Chinu when Llii, arriving In Canton, insisted on the surri'uder snd destruction of all tlie opium there. Elliot wus at }(acao. lie at nnce (lecidod on ivlurrinn to the poat of dilHeulty and <langer; and, Ui<iu;,'h Canton was l.lockuditl bv Chinese foru« and iU river giurded by Chinese batteriia, he made his way up In a boat of H. M. 8. -Lame,' and threw himself among his imprisonid eountrvnien. After his arrival he ti»'k tlie responsibility of deiiuinding the surrender Into his own hamls, fi)r the scrvlcs of bis Ooverument, of sll the IJritUh opium In Chlua, and he surnnderi'd the opium which be thus obul.ned, ntiiountinK ti> 2I»,2S) rlirsts, to the Chinese authi.iities, by whum it wns destroyed. (Ihld., pp. 045. Ofl;.) Th.' Iminliient dani^cr to the lives and pn>iierties of a large nuuiber of Brilinh subjects wus uiidnubtedlytnmoTed by Elliots action. Thoii;;li some dillleulty arose In c<muerti<in with the sumniler, l.in undertook griMliiiilly to ri'lin the K:riniT<mv(.f thcmeasuri'S whli h he hail ii,l,ipttHl (ilii.l.. p" B7T), and Elliot ho|K.! th.it his i.wn /enlnus elTi.rt.i liicirry out the arranceim nt which he li.i'l innde wmild lead to the mihiiig ..f t:ie hlocLadf He was, Imw- ever. »<»>n uiiilf.t(v«l. (in the 4lh of April Uu requiml him. in cmiJuiHllon with the n»r- chanu. lo en-j r iiii4> a l».nd under whirh all Vessels bereafler eiigap-il In the opium tralEc would have Ixen ei^ulljuMtiil to the Chlne.se Oovemment, ami ull iNnums ennnceted with the traile woidd .-ufT.r dmth at the hiincU of the Ceksliul (f.iirt/ (Il.i(!., p V>:t) This bomi Elliot ateiulily refuHsl ij ijjsn (ihld , p. 902); and feeling timt 'all Mowot i>e<iirity was broken lo pieces' (Ibid , p WK,. be orUiMl nil British sub Jecu t<. leave (aiil4in (ibid., p KKH), he himself Withdrew to the Purlugurse aetUcment at MacM j 436 (IblJ.. p. 1007), au! ho wrote to Auckland the Uovemor-fieneral of ItMli^i. for armed assistance (Ibid., p. s)».) The^j grave evenU nalumllr treated profound anxiety. A Select Commltui of the House of Comim^ns had formally declined I . interfere with the trsile. The opium monopolv at that time was worth some £1,000,000 or i;, 800,000 a year to Dritlflh IndU (Ibid., p 1020) and India, engai;<'<l in war with Afglianistsa and alreoily Involved In a serious deBelt could not affonl to part with so hirge an amount of m revenue (il>il.. p. 1090). Nine-tenths ' the British mcr.'lumts hi China were engaged : •]» Illegal traio (ibid., p. 1030), whUe Elliot lo enforcing the surrender of the opium, had dvea tbeinerch ,u bonds on the British Oovemnwnt for Its value, and the 20,000 chesU surrcmlrnil » ore supposed to be worth from 600 to 1 "00 d.)llirs a chest (ibid., p. (WT). or say from tJ.4(K»,m-1 to £4,800.000. ... As the 'rnmer advanced, mon-nver, a fresh outrage Imnued tlie Intensity „f the crisis. On the 7th .lulv some British seamen landed Dear Ilong Koni, and engaged la a serious riot A native «:i8 un- fortunately kflliHl on the occasion, and thi>ujh Elliot, at his own risk, gnve the lehjliona of tie victlin a Urge pecunUry compensation, and placed the men engaged la the riot on their trial, Lin was not satisfied. He moved down to the coast, cjl off the supplies of P.ritlsh suhjecti, and thieatened to stop the suinlles to .Macao 'f the Portuguese continued to oi^ist the llrltlsh. (Ibid., pp. 1037-103».) The BritUh w, r.- m coo- Sequence forced to leave .Macao; and u^Mt the same tine a small schooner, the 'Blaik .Kike' was attacked by the Chinese, and a Uriii^h sub- Ject on boani of her seriously wounded. Sum afterwards, however, the arrival of a ship of war, the 'Volage,' In Chinese waters emibk^ Elliot to assume a bolder front He returned to Macao: he even atteinpted to procure sunplk* from the mainfauid. But, though he su> (..Mtd In purchasing food, ' the Mandarin runm ri ap- proMbed and obliged the oatires to take hack their proTlsIoas,' and Elliot, exasperated at ihiir oondiiet, Hied on some war JunJta of the Chimse which Rtumed the lln. A week afu rwanli Elliot declared the port and river of t imton to be la a sUte of blockade. (Ibid., p. 1008.) The commencement of the blockade, however, dij not lead to immediate war. On the contrary, t> rhliieae showed cnoslderable desire to an" fcOBtllltles. They InUsUil, Indeed, that some British sailor must hi surrendered w them to suffer for the death of the Chinaman wlm hikl fallen In the riot of Uong Kong. But th.j showed so much anxiety to conclude an anunkf ment on this point that they endeavouKnl to In- duce Elliot to declare tliat a sailor who was aid dentally drowned In Chinese waters, and vlw~t Iwdy they bod found, was the actual mtirli n r (State l*uiHrs, v. 80, p. 27.) Ami Ic thr i:hiui while the trade which Lln bad InU iidul to dr stnvy went on at leatt as actively as ever. I.ln» nn)ceeillngs bad, Indeetl, the effect of siltnjlat- lag it U> an unprecedented degree. The drviruc- lion of vast stores of opium led to a ri-H' in the price of opium In China. Tlio rise in pric pro- duced the natural consequence of on liirnssfd speculation; and, though IlritUh sliippins wu excluded from Chinese wivun, and the contents of British Tesseln i id to be transfermi to.\rafri- can bottoms for cv.iTexanoe Into Chinese p«tl% OaOfA, 183»-1841 OritmWmr. CHINA, 1880-lMI. Britith tnde hod never bern lo large or to tdvantagcoiM ai in the ucriuj which succeeded Un'i arbitrury pnxMHlluKa. Elliot was, of couno, iioaMc to pruvcnt war cither by the nirrrniler of a liritish tailor to tlie Chineie, or by iTcn aasuuiiug that a tlruwm-d luan waa tlie murderer; and war in conaequcnce became dally more probable. In January, IMO, operationa ictuaily commenced. Elliot was instructed to mslie an armed demonstration on the northern coasts it China, to take iMMacuinn of some Island CO tlic coast, and to obtain reparation and in- demnitr, If possible by a mere display of force, but otoerw&e to procrcd with the squadron ind thence tend an ultimatum to Pckin. In tcconionce with these onlcra tlie lalnud of Chusan waa occupied In July, and the fleet was mt to the mouth of the I^iho with orders to transmit a letter to Pekia But the sea oil the IViho is shallow, the ship* could not approach the coasts, ami the Chinese naturallyrvnised to yield to an empty demonatratlon. The expcdi- tioD was forced to return to Chusan, where It found C'^t the troops whom they had left be- hind were smitten by disease, tliat one out of tTeiy four men were dead, and that more than one-half of the survivors were InTaUded. Thua, throughout 1840, the Cbineaa war waa only at- tended with disaster and distrea. Things com- nenced a little more prusperoualy in 1841 by the capture of the Chlneae position at the mouth of the Canton rlrer. Elliot, after tbia succesa, waa even able to conclude a pn^'limlnary treaty with the Chinese authoritlea. But this tn-aty did not prove aatisfactorv either to the British Govern- ment or to the Chinese. The British saw with dismay that the treaty made no mention of Uie trwle in opium which had been the ostensible cause of tlie war. The Whig Government tccunlingly derldol on superseding Elliot. lie was recalled ami replaced by Henry Pottinger. Before news of his recall reached him, however, the treniy whic:h had led to his supersession had been disavowed by the Chinese authorities, and Elliot hod commenced a frenh attack on the Chinese forrc which guarded the roail to Canton. British sailors and Britlah tmopa, under the com- mand of llnTOcr and Oough, won a victory wblch plao-d Canton at their mercy. But Elliot, slirinkiiiu' from cx|)osing a gn-at town to the homOT of an asiwiilt, stopped tho advance of the troops and admitted the city to a rinsom of £l,2M,O0O. (Sir 11. Taylor's Autobiographr, V. l.appx.. pp. ftW-3f)3.) Ills modemtion wits naturiliy imaca jilaliie to tlic troops and not fntlnly ;ii-provc<l liy the Dritish Clovemmcnt It constituted, however, Elliot's hi«t action as «i:cnt in Cliina. Tlic sulincquent opi-ratlons wrre conducted under Polllngir's a«lvlcc."— 8 «a)p<.ic, lli>t. ,<f Eng. fnm 1815, Xott, t. S n- -.^T-S!)! -" Pir Henry Pottinger, who arrlvd M 1 Icnlpotcull iry on the 10th of August, to.ik the chhf .lincilon of tho alTaln ... To the end i.f MI tii.re »i re T-arijsis successes achieved »•}■ the l.i:i,I aid i,;ivttl fonos, which gave tho British ii-SMi-ion of many large fortilleil towns, JjKjjfsl will, h wcr.- .Vmoy, Tinghal, Chinlml, >ms.-\«.. and Slian'fhal. The Chinese were r.evinh<l,-.« pirsevcring in Ui<lr resistance, and 10 most .-:i(s evinceii a braviry which showed 1.x- mi,:uk.ti were the views which regarded tlic suhj. ciira of this extmordinarj- people as an tuy taii>(. . . . The Britiah fleet oo the IStb of Jime [184S] catered the great river KUn(, and on the 6th of July advanced up the river, and cut off lu communication with the Grand Canal, by which Nanking, the ancient capital of Cidna, was supplied with grain. The pdnt where the nver interaecU the canal is the city of Chln- Kiang-foo. ... On the morning of the 9tst the city was stormed by the Britlah, in three bri- gades. The realatance of the Tartar troops was most desperate. Our troops fought under a burning sun, wbow overpowering heat caused some to fall dead. The obstinate defence of the place prevented tU being Uken till all o'clock In the evening. When the streeu wen entered, the bouses were found almoat deserted. Tbey were filled with ghastly corptet, many of the Tartar aoldlen having destroyed the'r famllle* and then committed suicide. The city, ^m the number of the dead, had become unlnbiibiuble." — C. Knlffht, Pbjmlar UM. cf Eng., e. 8, s*. 9& —"The destruction of life was appalling. . . . Every Maurhu pnfcrred resiManoe, death, suicide, or flight, to surrender. Out of a Xanchu popuintion of 4,000, It was eatlmated that not more tlian SOO rurvived, the greater part having perished by t'.ieir own lumda. . . . Within twenty. four houra afl"r the troops landed, the cit V ami suburbs of ChlnkUng were a mass of ruin aud destruction. . . . The total loss of the English was 37 killed and 181 wounded. . . . Some of the large ships were towed up to Nan- king, aud the whole fleet reached it August 9tb, at which time preparations had been made for the osaaiilL . . . Everything was ready for the assault by daylight of August I5th;" but on the night of the 14tn the Chinese made overtures for the negothition of peace, and the Important Treaty of Nanking waa toon afU'rwanls con- eluded. Its terms were as follows: ■■!. Last- ing peace between the two nations. 3. Tho ports of Canton, Amov, Fuhchau, Ningpo, and Shanghai [known afterwards as the Treaty PorU] to be opeoeil to British trade and resi- dence, and tnule conducted according to a well- uuderstoixl tariff, 8 ' It Ixing obvlou.sly neces- sary and desirable tliat British subjecUi should have some port whereat they may careen and reflt their ships when rei|iilre<i.' the island of Hongkong to be ceiled to licr JIaJesty. 4. Six miiliona of dollars to be paid as tlu' vu'luc of the opium which waa delivered up 'as a ransom for the lives of H. B. M. Superintendent aud sub- jecu," in March, 1830. 5. -niree millions of dolhus to be paid for the debu due to British merchants. 8. Twelve millions to be paid for the expenses Incurred In tlie exiH^iition sent out ' to obtain redress for the violent and unjust pro- ceedings of the Chinese liigh authorities. 7. The entire amount of $31,000,000 to be paid before December 81, 1843. 8, All prisoners of war to be ImmcdUtely released by the C'Idnese, 9, The Emperor to grant full and entire amnesty to those of his subjects who had aided the British. " .\nlcles 10 to 13 related to the tariff of export and import duea that should be levied at the open ports; to future terms of oQlcial corre- S(K)ndencc, etc. The Treaty was sipned by the CummUsiouen on the 20th of Augu .t, 1842, and the Emperor's ratilication was received Septem- ber l.lth.— S W. WiilUms, Th* MiddU Jiing- dum, eh. SI-23. Alio IN D C. Boulger, Bitt. of China, ». 8. eh. S -7.— £. II. Parker, ChiiumAccttifthtO^um Har. CHINA, 1830-18M. CHINA, 18Sa-18M. cif \'n A. D. 1850-1864.— The Taiping Rebellion. — "The phrase ' Tiiiping RelielHoii Is wholly of foreign manufacture ; at Peking and everywhere among those loyal to the government the in- surgents were styled 'Chang-mao tseh,' or 'Longhaired rebels,' while on their side, by a whimsical resemblance to English slang, the im- perialists were dubbed ' Imps.' When the chiefs assumed to be aiming at independence in 1830, in onler to identify their followers with their cause they took the terra ' Ping Chao,' or ' Peace Dynasty, as the style of their sway, to dis- tinguish it from the 'Tsing Chao,' or 'Pure Dynasty ' of the Miinchus. Biich of them pre- fixed tlie adjective • Ta ' (or ' Tai,' in Cantonese), ' Qreat.' as is the Chinese custom with regard to dynasties and nations; thus the name Tai-ping became known to foreigners. " — 3. W. Williams, T/ie MidiUe Kingdom, r/i. U(r. 2).— "This re- markable movement, which at one time excited much interest In Western lands, originated with a man named Hung 8ew-tscuen [or Hung Slu- tscucn], son 'if a humble peasant residing in a village near Canton. On the occasion of one of bis visits to the provincial city, probably in the year 1^33, he appears to have seen a foreign Protestant missionary addressing the populace in the streets, assisted by a native interpreter. Either then or on the following day he received from some tr.iot-distributor a book entitled ' Q(hk1 Wonls for Exhorting the Age, ' which consisted of essays and sermons by Leang A-fah, a well-known convert and evangelist. Taking the volume home with him, be looked It over with some interest, but carelessly laid it aside in his iKiokcnse. A few years afterward he at- tended for the second time the competitive literary examination with high hopes of honor and distinction, having already passed with much cmlit the lower examination in the dis- trict city. His nmbitious venture, however, met with severe disappointment, and he returned to his friends sick in mind and body. During this state of mental depression and physical infirmity, which continued for some forty days, he hail certain stnnirc visions, in which he rccilveil Ci>mmanils from heaven to destroy the idols. TIh'«i fancied revelall'.ns seem to have pr<»luccd a deep impression on his mind, and Itnl to a cer- t;iln gravity of demeanor after his recovery and his quiet occiini ' vilhi^n schoolmaster. When the English war return to his quiet occupation as a student and broke out, and foreigners swept up Canton River with their wonderful fire-ships, ... It is not surprising that Hung should hare had his atten- tion again attracted to the Christian publication which Imd lain so hmg neglivted In his library. . . . The wrillnK" of lA'ang Afah contalnetl rhaplers from the Old and New Testament Scriptures, which l.n found to com-spond In a striking manner with the pnrtematural sights and voices of that meinoniblu perhsi in his lilslory [during his sickness, six years lirfore] ; and thts strange coincidence convinced him of their Ir'ilh, tndof his iM'ing divinely app<ilnte<l t^i restore the world. tliHt is China, to the worship of the true Uixl. Hung Si^w t«'Ucn accepted his mis- sion and liegan the work of pn)pak;«ting the filth he hail espoused. Among liis first converts was one Fung Yun-san. who iKvanio a miMt anient missionary anil disinterested preacher. ThoM two leaders of the movement traveled far people of all classes and forming a society o{ Qo<{-worahlppers. All the converts rendiuiced Idolatry and gave up the worship of Confucius. Hung, at this time apparently a sincere ami earnest seeker after tnith, went to Canton and placed himself under the instructions of the Kev Mr. Roberts, an American missionary, who for some cause fearing that his novitiate ml^lit be inspired by mercenary motives, denied him the rite of baptism. But, without being oHemled at this cold and suspicious treatment, he went home and taught his converts how to baptize themselves. Ifhe God-worshippers rapidly In- creased in numbers, and were known and fesri I as zealous Iconoclasts. . . . For a year after Hung Sew-tseuen had rejoined the OiKl-wor- shippers that society retained its exclusively religious nature, but in the autumn of 18.50 it wai brought into direct collision with the civil magistrates, when the movement ossunieil a political character of the highest aims." It was soon a movement of declared rebellion, ami allied with a rebel army of bandits and pirates which hod ta'kcn arms against the govern- ment In south-eastern China. — L. N. Wheeler, The Pbrtigner in China, eh. 13.— "The llalika schoolmaster proclaimed his " mission ' iu 1850. A vast horde gathered to him. He norninateii five 'Wangs 'or soldier su'i kings from out of hisclan. and commenced hisnorthward movi'ment from Woosewcn in January, IS.'il. TliMui^li the rich prosperous provinces his desultory march. Interspersed with frequent halts, spriail destruction and desolation. The pe«( i il tteii shudderinely l)efore this wave of fierce, - ilwsrt rumanbood, with its tatterdemnliun tau,iriness, its flaunting banners. Its rusty naked wcaiwiDs. Everywhere It gathered in the fwal wsiuridn lisin. The pirates came from the coa.Ht; the nihkrs from the interior mountains rallied to u,u enter- prise that promised so well for their traile. In the perturbed state of the Chinese populntinn the horde grew like an avalanche as it roileii along. The Heavenly King [:is lluni; now styled himself] met with no opixi-iilioii ti sixik of, and in ItWJ his pnunenaili: ended unilir tho shadow of the Porcelain Tower, in the riiy of Nanking, the second metropolis of the Chinese Empire, where, till the wWlllon and hit life cndeil slmiillanmiusly, lie llveil a life of liirn- tlousness, d.Hrkened further by the cnwae-t cruelties. The relielllon had lasteil neurlv ten years when the fates brought it into cnlllsifm with the armed civilization of the West. Th,; Imperialist forces had made sluk.'k'islily some head against It. Nanking hail iHen i' vested after a fashion for years on end. 'The [ii . -i|Ki Is of the.Tai pings. 'says Commander Uriue. intli* early spring of IS80, had become very (jliomy. The Imperialist generals hail hemmed' 'I'lii pinK dom within certain limits In the lower valley <>( the Yants/e, and the movement lunKulihid further 'from Its deslriicllve iiiiil exli;iii»tlnK nature, which for continued vitality i.m^isntly reqiilri'd new dlstrUts of country to e- 'mu-l ami deslMy.' But In IH.IB China ami the \Ve,l lamo Into collision. . . . The ndnlllon liml upper tunity to recover h>st gniund. F.ir the sislli time the 'Faithful King' ndleved N iiikiniT The Imperialist generals fell back and then lli' Tal-plngs took the olTensive. and as the reniill "( sunary victories, the rebellion regained nn oiilve •ud lluutiaiiiug uuudiUuu. . . , SiwuglMi, uOi: <ii 438 CHINA, 18S0-18M. War wilh Snglaiui and Fmnct. CHINA, 1856-1860. the treaty ports, wm threatened."— A. Forbes, Chinae Oonkm, eh. 8. — "Europe . . . hug known evil dsvs under the hands of flcrcc con- querors, plundering and destroying in religion's name; but iti annals may Iw ransacked in rain, without finding any parallel to the miseries endured in those proTinces of China over whirh 'The Heavenly King,' the Tai-ping prophet, ex- tended his fell sway for ten sad years. Hung Sew-t°uen (better known in China by his assumed title, Tien Wang) . . . hod read Christian tracts, bod learnt from a Christian missionary; and when ho announced publicly three years after- wards that part of his mission was to destroy the temples and Images, and showed in the jargon of his pretended visions some truces of his New Testament study, the conclusion was instantly seized by the sanguine minds of a section set upon evangelizing the East, that their efforts had produced a true prophet, fit for the work. Wedded to this fancy, they rejected as the in- ventions of the enemies of missions the tales of Talping cruelty which soon reached Europe: and long after the details of tlie impostor's life at Nonuin, with Its medley of visions, execu- tions, edicts, and harem indulgence, became notorious to the world, prayers were offered for hU success by devotees In Oreat Britain as blgotfd to his cause as the bloodiest commander, or ' Wang,' whom be had raised from the ranks of his followers to carry out his ' exterminating decrees.' The Talping cause was lost in China before It was wholly abandoned by these fanatlri in England, and their belief in its ex- cellence so powerfully reacted on our policy, that it might have preserved us from active intitrvintlon down to the present time, bad not certain Imperialist successes elsewhere, tlie diminishing means of their wasted possessions, and tlie rashness of their own chiefs, brouglit thcTaiping arms into direct collision with us. And with tlie occasion there was happily raised up the man whoso prowess was to scatter their bliKKi cemented empire to pieces far more •pwiily than It had bten built up." — C. C. C'b(»iiiy, Kuny» in Military Biog., eh. 10. — "The Tuiping rebellion was nf so barbarous a nature that its suppression had become necessary In the lntere«u of civilization. A force raised at the expense of the Shanghai merchants, and sup- ported by the Chinese government, had been for some yuan struggling against iu progress. This force, known as the 'Ever Victorious Army.' was commanded at first by Ward, an Amcrii-an, ami, on his death, by Burgevine, also an American, who was summarily dismissed ; for s short time the command was held by Holland, an Kni;Il*li marine oOcer, but be was defeated at Tuiuan 2» Feb.. 1863. LI Hung Chang, govrniorgi'neral of tlio Kiang provinces, then applied to the British commantkrin-chlef for the services of on Engllsli officer, and Qonlon [Charles OiKirge, subsequently known as 'Chinese Ocirdcm'] was authoriae<l to accept the command. Ho arrived at HungKlong and entenxl on his new duties OS a mandarin and lieutenant -colonel In the Chinese service on 94 March 1863. Ills force was cumposeil of some three to four thou- sand Chinese, offlcercd by l.W Europeans of ^mcwt every nationality and often of doubtful character. Bv the indomiuble will of It. com- ■f^' tW* heterogeneous body was moulded ffito a &Ui uiu; wiwse iiigii-souadiof title of 'ever- victorious' become a reality, and In less than two years, after 88 enga;;eme>its, the power of the Taipings was completely broken and the rebellion stamped out 'The theatre of operations was the district of Kiangsoo, lying between the Yang-tze-Klang river in the north and the bay of Hang-cliow in the south." Be- fore the summer of 1863 was over, Gonlon had raise<l the rebel siege of Chanzu, and taken from the Taipings the towns of Fu.shiin, Taitsan, Quinsan, Kiihpoo, Wokong, Pataehiiiow, Leeku, Wanti, and Fusaiqwan. Finally, in December, the great city of 8oo-chow was surrendered to him. Cordon was always in front of all his storming parties, "carrying no other weapon than a little cane. His men called it his • magic wand.' regarding It as a charm that protected his lifi- and led them on to victory. W hen Soo- chow fell Gordon had stipulated with the Governor-general LI for the '.Ives of the Wangs (reb<'l leaders). They were trcrrheroui'/ mur- dered by Li's orders. Indign<int at ■ Is per- fidy, Gordon refused to serve any longer with Governor LI, and when on 1 Jan. 1864 money and rewards were heaped upon him by the Em peror, declined them all. . . . After some [two] months of inaction it became e idcnt that if Gordon did not again take the field the Taipings would regain the rescued country," and he was prevailed upon to resume his campaign, which, although badly wounded In one of the battles, he brought to an end in the following April (1864), by the >a»pturcof Clianchufu. '"This victory not only ended the campaign but com- pletely destroyed the rebellion, and the Chinese regular forces were enabled to occupy Nuniiin in the July following. The large money present offered to Gonlon by the em|H.'ri)r was again declined, although he hod spent his pi.y in pro- moting the elllciency of his force, so tlmt he wrote home: 'I shall leave China as poor as wlien I entered it '"—Col. R H. Veltch. C/iarUl Oeotyt Oordiin (Diet, of Nat. Hiog.) Also ts: A. E. Hake, T/u Story of Chinem OnnUin, eh. 8-8.— W. F. Butler. Chiu. Oeorgt Oonton, eh. 2.-8. Moasman. Qeiural Oonlm in ClUiut.—PiitiU* Diary of Qen. Oonlon in C'Aiiut, —Mm. Callery and \van, Uitt. of the Iruurrte- lion in China. A. D. 1856-1860.- War with England sad France.- Bombardment and capture of Can- ton.— The Allies in Pckio.— Their destruction of the Summer Palace.— Terms of peace.— The speech fn)m the throne at the opening of the English Parliament, on Februi..-y 8, IS.'JT, "stateil that acta of violence, Insult* to the British flag, and infractions of treaty rights, com- mitted by the local authorities at Cunton. and a pertinacious refiuuil of redress, luul rendered It necessary for 'her Abjesty's otHcers In China to have recourse to measures of force to obtain satis- faction. The allege<l olTenccs uf the Chinese au- thorities at Canton had for their single victim tlto lorcha ' Arrow.' The lorclia ' Arrow ' was a small boat built on the European model. Tho word ' Lorcha ' is taken from tliv IVrtuguetie set- llemeut at Matao, at the nioiilli of the Canton river. It often iwcura in treaties witli the CI lueso authorities. Ou Ocuiber 8. tti'iO, a party of Chinese in charge of an offlcer lN>anle<f the 'Armw,' In the Canton -Iver. They liwk oil twelve men on a charge of piracy, leaving two men to charge of the Forcha. The ' Arrow ' wm 439 '► ! ' CBIXA. 18S0-1890. Affair of tk* Arrmi. CHINA, 18S0-18aa ^: declnrod by Its ownera to be » Britiah vessel Our mnsiil at Canton, Mr. Parkcs, ilcmaiulwi irom Yeh, the Chinese Governor of Canton, the return of the men, basing his demand uiion the 1 reaty of 1843. sunplementnl to the Treaty of 1843. Tliis treaty did not give tlie Chinese au- thorities any riglit to seize Cliincse offenders, or supposed offenders, on Imard an English vessel. It mereiy gave them a right to require tlie sur- render of the olfcnders at the lunds of tlic Engli.sh. The Cliini-Me Governor, Ych. con- tended, however, tliat tlic lorcha was a Cliinesc j)irate vessel, which had no right whatever to hoist the flag of England. It may be plainly 8tate<l at once that the • /■ -row ' was not an English vessel, but oiilv a Ciiineso vessel wliicli had obtaine<l by false pretenec« the temporary possession yf a British llag. Mr. Consul Partes, however, wag fussy, and he demanded the in- stant restoration of the captured men, an<l lie sent off to our Plenipotentiary at Hong Kong. 8ir John Bortiliig, for authority and assTstanceln the business. Sir John Bowring . . . ordered the Chinese authorities to surrender all the men uken from the ' Arrow,' and he insisted that an apology should be offered for their arrest, and a formal ple<ige given that no such act should ever be committed again. If this were not done within forty -eight hours, naval operations were to be be- ?in against the Chinese. The Chinese Governor, eh, sent back all the men, and undertook to promise that for the future great care should be taken that no British ships should be visited Im- properly by Chinese olHcers. But he could not offer an apology for the particular case of the • Arniw, for he still maintained, as was indeed the fart, that the 'Arrow ' was a Chinese vessel and thai the English hati nothing to do with her' Accmiingly Sir .Jolin Bowring carried out his tirciit, ami had Canton bombarded by tlie fleet J. hi. h Adnilnii Sir .Micliael !S<"\"i,ourcommandetl r-.om »>et()l)er 23 to November 18 naval and mili- tary o, eratious were kept up continuously. Com- missioner Yeh retaliated by foolishly oilerinir a rewanl for the heiul of every Euglishman. This news from China cn'ated a considerable M'nsation In England. t)n February 84, la'jr, \a>v\ IX^rbv brouiflit forwanl in the House of Lonis a motiori comprehensively condemning the whole of the proctjillngs of the British autlioritiea in China. The debate would have U^n memorable if onl" for the powerful s|wwh in which the venerable Lord Lvndhurst supported the motion, and ex- posed the utter Illegality of the raurse pursuwl by Sir John IjAwring. The Houm- of LonIs re- jected the motion ofLord Derby »i a nialoritv of 148 to 110. On February 26 'Mr Cobden brought forward a similar motion in the Hou.ic of Commons. . . . .Mr. CoUlcn h:id pi.'lialily never dreamed of the amount or the nature of llie support his motion was destined to nivlve The vote of censure was carried by 263 voti^s against 247 - u majority of 16. Lord Palmerston announced two or tlirt^*) days after that the Oovemiiient hail nN)lv(^l on a dtwolution and un apixal to the country Lord Palmerston under- sto««l his countrjmen." In the ensuing elections his victory waso.mnlete. "CoUlen, Bright, Mil- ner Glb*,n W. J. Fon, Layard, and many other calling opponents of the Chinese policy, were left without seau. Lord Palmerston came back I'l "Tyi *'"' I*"""*"! »nd redoubled strength " H« bad the satisfaction before he kft offlo: [in 1858] of being able to announce the capture ol Canton. The operations against Chtoa had I„.en virtually suspended . . . when the Indian Mu- tiny broke out. England had now got the o. operation of ti^ance. France had a complaint of long standing agidnst China on account of the murder of some missionaries, for which nnlresa had Ix'eti asked in vain. There was, therefore an allle.1 attack made upon Canton [DeeemlHT' 1S57J, and of course the city wag easily captun^il' Commissioner Yeh himself wag Uken prisoner not until l.e had been sought for and hunted out n most Ignominious fashion. He wag found at last hidden away in some obscure part of a house He was known liy his enormous fatness. He was put on boanl an English man-of-war ami afterwan s sent to Calcutta, where he dic^d iurlv In the following year. Unless report greatly he- lietl him he bad beep exceptionally cruel even fcr a Chinese official. The English and Fitnch Envoys Lord Elgin and Baron Qros, succewled in making a treaty with China. By tie con ditlona of the treaty, England and France were to have minii-ters at tlie Chinese Court on certain special occasions at least, and China was to be represented in London and Paris; there was to be toleration of Christianity in China and a wrtain freedom of access to Chinese rivers for inglUh and French meroantlle vessels, ami to the Interior of China for Enj^ilsh and Ftfnch sub- lectg. China was to nay the expenses of the war It was further agreed tliat the tenn 'barbarian' ?:'i°f °° iS"**"' •" •* applic<l to Europeans In China. There was great congratulation in Eng- land over this treaty, and the prospect it affoniSi of a lasting peace with China. The peace thus procured lasted in fact exactly a year The treaty of Tien-uin, which had been arrangid by Lord Elgin and Baron Oroa, conuined a clause pnu'id ug for the exchange of the ratifleaiions at Pekin witliin a year from the dai \ of tlie »ig- iiature, which took place In June laW. b,r,I Elgin returned to England, and his brother, Mr JriHlerick Bruce, was appointed In Slareli IN59 Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleniimien- tiary to China. Mr. Bruce wag directetl to pro- ceed by way of the Peiho to Tientsin, and thence to Pekto to exchange the ratiflcatious of the treaty. Lord MalmesLury, who was then Foreign Secretary . . . lmpress«d upon Mr. Bruce lliat he was not to be put off from going to the aipiial. Instructions were sent out from England at tlic same time to Admiral Ho|)e, the Jfaval Com- manderinChlcf in China, to provide a sultii ieot force to accompany Mr Bruce to the mouth of the Pelho. The Pelho river tlows from the high- lands on the west Into the Gulf of Pechell, at the north-east comer of the Chinese domlnlens. The capital of the Emnire is about 100 miles inland from the mouth of the Peiho. It does not stiiud on that river, which flows past It at some Ui«- liince westward, but It U connected with the river iiy means of a canal The t4)wn of Tien- tsin stands on the Pelho near Ita junction with one of the manv riven that flow into It, and alKiut forty miles from the mouth. The entrance to the Peiho was defended by the Taku fori.. On June 20. 1S59. Mr Bruce and the French En voy renciiwl the mouth of the Peiho with Admlnd Ho|H-s fleet, some Dlneteen vessels In sll, to escort them. They found the forU defended: sinne negotiations and ioter-communlca'!uujtook place, itbU a Chiucse uOiviai from Tisa-tgin caiuv 440 C-aiNA. 18S6-18aO. Airbuifunj i» AWk. CHINA, 1897-1M8. uod endeavoured to obtain lome proinin. Mr. Bruce became con- vii" .'(1 lufi . the condition of things predicted by :^)nl Malriicsbury was coming about, and tlut tilt Chinese authorities were only trying to de- fciit Ills purpose. He called on Admiral Hope to clear a passage for the vessels. When the Ailmiml brought up his gunboats the forts o|Kne<l Are. The Chinese artillerymen showed unexpected skill and precision. Four of the gun- Uiuts were almost immediately disabled. All tlic attacking vessels got aground. Admiral Hope lUtenipted to storm the foru. The attempt wtti> a compiecc failure. Admiral Hop himself wiis woun<le<l; so was the commander of the French vessel which iiad contribute<i a contingent to the storming party. The attempt to force a passage of the river was given up and the mis- sion to Pukin was over for the present. It seems only fair to cay that the Chinese at the mouth of the'P'.'iho cannot be accused of |>ertidy. They had mounted the forta and liarricadvd the river openly and even ostentatiously. ... It will be eHsily inmgine<i t it the news created .^ deep seniuitiou in England. People in general made up their minds at once that the matter could not be allowed to rest there, and that the mission to Ptkin must be enforced. . . . Before the whole question came to be discussed in Parliament the Conservatives had gone out and the Liberals ' id come in. The English and French Giovemmeuts determined that the men who had made the treaty of Tien-tsin — Lord Elgin and Baron Qnn — should be sent back to insist on its reinforce- ment. 81r Hope Unmt was appointed to the militiiry command of our land forces, and Qeneral Cousin de .Montauban, afterwards Count Palikao, commanded the soldiers of France. The Chinese, to do them Justice, fiught very bravely, but of course they had no clmnce whatever against such forces IIS those commun<led by tlie English and Fnnch generals. The allies ciiptun'd the Taku fort.1 [August, 1800L occui)led Tientsin, ami infirciieil on Pekin. The Chinese Oovemment eniiciivoured to negotiate for peace, and to iuter- |H)se liny manner of delay, diplomatic or other- wise, between the allies and their progress to the espitui. LonI Elgin consented at IhkI to enter into negotiations at Tungchow, a walled town tell or twelve miles nearer tlian Pekin. Before tile negotiations took place. Lord Elgin's secre- taries. Mr. Purkes and Mr. Loch, gome English olticers. Mr Uowlhy, the o>rrespontlent of the 'Times,' and some members of the stall of Baroa Oriw, were tiiiieherously seized by the Chinese while uiiiler a Hug of truce and dragged off to viirii us |iri.«iiis. Mr. Purkes and >Ir. L<Kh, with cknii of their companions, were afterwanis n'- leiixd lifter having Iwen treated with much eruclty and Iniilgnity, but thirteen of the prison- ere ill 1 of the horrible 111 treatment they re- cilvei L<)rd Elgin refused to negotiate until the iirismicrs had been returned, and the allied Hriuiis Were B'-tually at one of Ibe great gates of I'elklii, sud lind their guns in ixwUion to blow tlie Kate In, when the Chinese acceiled U) their teriiii. The gate was surrendered, the Bilk's eu- liriil the citv, and the English and French flags wi re Iu.UimJ ,|,|e by side on the walls of Pekin It WHS only after entering the city that LonI Elifiii learned of the munler of the captives. He Hum letemilned that the Summer Palace should K burul duwD ■■ a meuia ui impressing the mind of the Chinese authoritiet genenlly with some sense of the danger of treachery and foul play. Two days were occupied in the destruc- tion of the paUce. It covered an area of many miles. Oanlens, temples, small lodges, and pa- godas, groves, grottoes, lakes, bridges, terraces, artillchd hills, diversiHed the vast space. All the artistic treasures, all the curiosities, arch- aeological and other, that Chinese wealth and Chinese taste, such as it was, could bring to- ge*'<°r, had been accumulated in this magnificent pit ' . unce. The surrounding scenery was be . ..'ul. The high mountains of Tartaiy ram- pai :<.d one side of the enclosure. The buddings were set on fire ; the whole place was given over to destruction. A monument was ralsi'd with an inscription in Chinese, setting forth that such waa the reward of perfidy and cruelty. Very different opinions were held in England as to the destruction of the Imperial palace. To many it seemed an act of unintelligible and unpardonable vandalism. Lord Elgin explained, that if he did not demand the surrender of the actual perpetra- tors, it waa because be knew full well that no dittlculty would have been made alH>ut giving him a seeming satisfaction. The Chinese Oovem- ment would have selected for vicarious punish- ment, in all probability, a crowd of mean and unfortunate wretches who had nothing to do with the murders. ... It is somewluit singular that so many persons should have been roused to in- dignation by the destruction of a building who took with perfect composure the unjust invasion of a count^. The allied powers now of course had it all their own way. England established her right to have an envoy In Pekin. whether the Chinese liked it or not. China had to pay a war indemnity, and a large sum of money as com- pensation to the families of the murdered pristm- emand to those who had suffered injuries, and to make an apology for the attack by the garrison of the Taku forts. Perhaps the most important gain to Eumpe from the war was the knowledge that Pekin was not by any means so large a city as we had all imagined it to be, and that it was <m the whole rather a crumbling and tumble- down sort of place." — J. McCarthy, S/iort Hint, of our men Tintt, eh. 13, 15, 17 (cA. 30 aiui 43, e. 8, iif Uirger vork). Also i.n: L. Oliphant, NarrnUtt of the Earl of Klgin't Mition, t. 1, — H. B. Loch, Ikrmituil Nur- nitire.—a. W. Williams, The MiMle Kingitom, eh. a (e. 2).— Col. Sir W. F. Butler, Chu. Ueo. Oontun, eh. 8. A. O. i8s7-l868.— Treaty with the United States.— The Burlingame Embassy and the Burlinrame Treaties. — "The guvernment of the I'lilteil States vieweil with «n.\iely the new breaking nut of liostilitie:! U'tween Ureut liritain, supported !)»• Friiiict' as an iilly, and Cliiim, in the ve»r IMII. 'Preitident Buchuniin mliI thitlier the ilim. William 1). Keed to wuti h the eourst! of events, and to act tlie part of a miKlistor and iK'aivmaker when opportunity should offer. In Wn* he was sustained liv (lie intliience of Itussla. Mr. Iteed arrived in Ibing Knng. or- llie line war steaim r .Minnesota, NuveiniHT 7, 1N.>7. He at once set himself to reninve tlie dirtlciillies U'lweeu the En»;'i»li anil Chinese, nml s.ive if possible the fulun' elTiisii)n of IiNkmI He en- deavored ill vain to persuade the pmiid mid ob- Hiinate governor Yen tn yii-ltl jiod itive ('iitil^tQ from bombardment. He proceeded to the north. 411 CHIN^ 1857-1888. Burlingame Embanj/. CHINA, 1857-18«8. and m«do on behalf of bb government a treaty of pt^ce with China which was glgniii June lA Tlic flret article of the treaty contains asicnifi- cnnt referencx- to the posture of the Culted States in n'lation to the war then in proKrvas as well as to any whlcli might thcreafur arise. The artKlo says: -There shall be, as there have always ixua, peace and friendship Iwtween the Lniud States of America and the TaTsiuK Empire, and between their people respectively Tliiy shall not Insult or op,,ress each other for any trttimg cause, so as to pnxluce an estraoKe- ment between them; and If any other natn)n should act unjustly or oppressively, the United btaU's will exert their good offices, on being Infonned of the case, to bring about an amicable arrangement of the question, thus showing their friendly fetiings.' A subsequent article of this treaty Is to be taterpreted by kitping In view tlie bitter root of the dlfflculties between Great , Vi.o„''°'',*^'''°» *''''^'' '"> 'o 'he previous war of 1839 to 43, and to this war After statlnit the ports where Americans shall be permitted to reside and their vessels to trade, it continues In the following language: 'But said vessels shall not carry on a clandestine and fraudulent trade at othe- ports of China net declared to be legal or along the coasto there-of ; and any vessel under the American flag violating this provision shall, with her cargo, be subject to confiscation to the tliinise government; and any cltizi-n of the Lnacd states who shall trade in any contraband article of merehandi.w sliall be subject to be dealt with by the Chinese government, without lieing entitled to any countenance or protection from that of the Inlted States; and the United Males will take measures to prevent their flag from iK'ingabused by tlie subjects of other nations as a coyer for the violation of the laws of the empire. The development of the foreign tm.le with China during the brief time which has passed [INTO] since llie Ixst war has been very great. . . The American government has ken representwl most of the time by the Hon. An8<m Uur ingamc. who has taken the lead, with n - markabl.. ability Bn<l su.cvss, in establLshing the policy of peaceful coi.|)<.ration between the chief treaty powers, in encouraging tlie Chinese to iidopt a more wise and pn.gressive policy n the r entenourse with foreign nations and in llie IntrtKluetion of the improveiiienls of the age . . . Mr. Uurllngimie. whohailU-enlnChiiiasix years, determined [in 18«:| to resign his post and reiiim to Amenca. The news of it exc t .'.l iiiiich ngret ainoiig lioth Chiiiem. and fon'-n <lipl,mia- tiHt.s 1 he former endeavored In vain U) dis-siimle him from his purixwe. Failing to lu complish this, he wasinvlu.,1 by I'rinc.. Kui.g loa farew.llenler jalnnirnt. at which wir.' pn«.nl niiuiy of the l.ad- Ing olllcrrs of il,e government. During it they exi.r. .H.S.M1 l„ hlin their gratitude for his ofllces to theiiiiisan inlclllgent an.l disinterested counselor MO friend. And tliey seem to have conceived at this thiie the thought of putting th« niations of the empire with foreign countries npona more Ju.st •nc cjual ba«i.H, l,y «..ndlng to them an impJrial eniliassy of which he should be the hea<i T'lev nmiimily con8ult..<l some of their more rellabfe fri. niU iiniong the foreign gentlemen at the capi- M. and 1,1 two days afur they Unden'<l Ui Mr. Burlingame. much to his surprise, the appolnt- men of mli.lsier plen!;H)tcnti«ry of China to the Western pvwct* . . , Sir. Uufllugaiue iufi the Cunese capital on the SRtii of XovemlKr 1867 The embassy oonsistol. besides the principal of Ch h-kang and Sun Cliiaku, a Mauchu uikI « Chinese officer each wearing the red ball „„ i,u cap which Indicates on offlcfi.l of o rank nfuZ the highest in the empire; J. McLeary Unm,, formerly of the British legathm, andM 1),., champs, as secretaries; Teh Jllng and Fuiixi as Chinese attaches, and several other ...rsons nsulKmlinatc positions. . . . It went to «I,X! hiU, thence to San Francisco, where It was nidt cjiniially welcmicd by both the American axu (.hiiiese mercantile commup:les. It reiulail Washington In May, 1868. riie cmhaj; «„ i^ifiV-' *t' ?"" ''. '"sOnftlon at the A.n.ricua capital. No American statesman was so cnnal.le ami dlsi«.se,l to enter conlially into Its ohje taas William H. Seward, wli<«o mind ha.1 1»bk an: preheiided the gre'„; features of the policy wliu'l, American and fcr.ign nations shoulcl pursue in relati jn to the Cldnese empire. On the Ifiili of Ju. the Senate of the United States ratiticU ti«ity which he had made in behalf of tlil. country with the representative of the Chinese government The treaty defines and fixes the P,.f ';.','•■* "' the intercourse of Western nations witu China, of the Importance of which I have already spoken. It secures the territorial iuteg- ^X? '•'.".''"'.P'"','""' "'"cedes to China the rights which the civilized nations of the world accord to ca'-h other as to eminent domuiii over land and waters, and jiirisdictioii over ix-^ons and pro|x.rty therein. It t^ikes the oL step toward the appiilntmcnt of Clilnes»' consuls in our si'aports — a measure proniotiv.^ of l„ith Chinese and American Intere^sLs. Itwiiiris u- emptiou from all disability or pei*,uiion on faith in either coiinirv. It 442 acioiiiii of religi. recoi;iii/.cs the rif . o' voliiuUiry eiu'lKioiiiui' mi makes iKiial the v ...ngg „f n^. coolie irulll, It plwigcs priv':.ge8 as to travel or resi.l.ncu in either coi:utry such as are enjoviil bv tin i,«t faytred nation. It grants to tlie CfiiniM mr- mission to attend our schools aixl colli-.r, IiuJ allows us u>fr.Tly establish ami maintain sihoolj In ( una. And while it acknowledg ,„. riifbt of the Chinese government to conti..i ii.s own whole Interior arrangements, as u> niilroiids, tcl.graplis and other Internal Inipreveiii. uts it suggests the willingnesa of our goveriiin. ut to Bllord aid toward their ramstruct'on liv ilisii- iiating and authi.riiing suitable cngiiicrs w perform the work, at the expense of the I'hiuew goveriim-iit. The tr «ty expressly leav,« the (|iiestlim of naturalization in either country «n o|)en one. ... It is not necessary to follow in (htail the pn>gre8s of this first lmpcri.il t'hiniw embassy In England it was re'ci-lved ut tint \ery coldly, and It was some months Ufore pro|Hr attention ci>uld be secured fnmi tin uor- crniient to its obJi-<t«. At length, how.vc r, on >;iv,|iiilK'r at). It was presenteil to the uiinst » iidsor Castle. . . . What hoar* U thin that will not join In theconlial »i.;l. ihu( 'h- tr,.itiei iiuide I).v the emiMtssj- with Great Uritaiii, FruKf, I rii.<>iia ;oid other European powers mH\ !«• the coii.ineiiccmeat of a new era in the (iii"iIoinatic am; national iiitcreourae of China with iliu* and a! other land) of the We8t!"-W. 8pe.r, Ut HUletl unit IIk Xttetit Binpirt. eh. 14. AlJt.1 IN T<f>Hia ami amtc::l:'>.v h,: 0* I. H. aiu: uHier J\neen (last), p, lJ»0Bdl7». CHIKA, 1884-188S. Futurt of the Chinam. CHIPPEWA. A. D. 1884-1885.— War with Frmnce. Sw Fuasce: a. D. 1875-1889. A. D. 1893.— Ezdtttion of Chinr.xe from the United Statu. See Unitku Static of Am. : A. D. 18»a. A D. 1893.— The future of the Chinese. — A iptculation.— " China ia generally regunled asa stutiiimiry power which can fairly hold its own, tliougli it has lost Anniun tc Fmnce, and the •uieniinty of Upper Biinnah to England, and the AmcKJf Valley to liussia, jut wliieU is not a jcrious coniiH'ti'or in tlie race for eninire. There is a certain i- .lusibility in this vii . •. On the other hand, Cliina luis recovered Eai>.«ni Turkes- tan from MiUiommedan rule and from a liussiaa prutectiimte, is dominating the Corea, and has stamped out a dangerous reljcl'm in Yunnan. No one can doulit that if China were to get for niTeri'iKn a man witli the rrganising and aggres- sive genius of Peter the Great or Frederick the Sjccdod. it would lie a very formidable neighbour to either British India or Russia. Neither is it easy to suppow that the improvements, now tentatively intruducca iutoChiua, will notS'Kin be taken up and puslied on a large scale, so that nilnays will be carried into the heart of Asia, and lar^e armiesdrillcd and furnished -'itharms of precision on the European model. In any such KLse the rights which China has reluet;intly conceded or still claims over Annam and Ton- uuln, over Siam. over Upper Burmah. and ever Ntpaul, may become mitta-rs of very serious dis- cussion. At present the French settlements srrest the expansion of China in tlie direction inoiit dangerous to the world. Unfortunately, tlie elimale of Saigon is sucli as no Euroiwan cares 10 wttle in, and the war to secure Tonquia vss Mj unpopular that it cost a French premier ills tenure of otllce. . . . Whatever, however, be the fortune of China in this direction, it is scarcely doubtful tliat she will not only people up to the furthest Inundary of Iier recognised territory, but gradually acquire new dommiona. Tlie history of our Straits oettleinenta will afford a familiar instance how the Chinese an. spread- ing, Tliey already form half the population predoniiiiating in Singapore i<nd I'eruk, and the best oliservers are agreed that ihe Maluy cannot hold bis own against them. They are beginning to settle in Borneo and Sutiiaira, and tliey are supplanting the natives in some of the small islands of the Pacific, such as Hawaii. The cliinat<' of all these countries suits them, and they commend themselves to governments and em. players by their power of steady Industry ; Rud they intcrman^ freely up to a saf j point with the women "f .he country, getting all the advantages of alliance, yet not sacridcing their nationality. Several causes have reUirded their spread hitherto: the regions enumerated liave mrstly been too insecure for an industrial Ee^plc to fliurish In, until the Bntish or the lute'-, established order; the government of China has hitherto discouraged emigration; English administrations have been obliged to lie rather wary in their dealings with a people who showed at Sarawak and Penang tl"it they were capable of combining for purposes of mu.s.sicre; and tlie Chinese superstition alHiut burial in the sacred soil of the Celestial Empire mi"''! the great majority of the emij^rants birds of passage. All these causes are dliappearing. . . . Euro- peans cannot flourish unt'er the tropics, and will Lit work with the hand where an interior race works. What we have to consider, therefore, is the probability that the natives who are giving way to the Chinese in the Malay Peninsuli will be able to make bead against them in Borneo or Sumatra. Bo:.-ieo is nearly six times as big as Java, and if it were peopled like Java would suppor a population of nearly 100,000,000. . . . In the long run the Chinese, who O'lt-numbcr t'"' Malays as sixteen to one, who are more <lecidedly industrial, and who organise where they can in a way that precludes competition, are tolerably certain to gain the upper hand. They may not destroy Uie eurly settlers, but they will reduce them to the position of the Hill tribes in India, or of the Aiiios in Japan. Assume fifty years hence tliat China has taken ita inevitable position as one of the great powers of the world, and that Borneo has a population of 10,000,000, predominantly Chinese, is it easy to suppose in such a case that the larger part of Bomi 1 would still be a dependency of tlie Netherlands t or that the whole islanil would not liavo passed, by arms or diplomacy, iiit<i the possession of China t . . . There are those who Jelieve that the Chinaman is likely t<i sujierseda the Spaniard and Indian alike iu parM of »outh America."— C. H. Pearson, A'ativnal Life and CharatUr, pp. 45-51. A. D. 1894-1805.— The Korean c|uestion and war with Japan.— Japanese victories. See KoiiKA. On other subjects relating to China, see Thade, Medi.eval ; Edl'i A'l ION : LiuitvitrES, MuoEBM ; and Mo.net >nii Bankimi. CHINANTECC. The. See A.mkkican Auo- niOLNt,*; ZaI-OTECS, ETC. CHING OR TSING DYNASTY, The. SeeCiiiSA: A. 1). ViMt 1882. CHINGIS KHAN, Conquests of. See MoN. •.ou: A. a 1153-1227; and Indu: A. D. P77- 12iXI. CHINOOK, The. See Amkhicam Abohi- oixeh: Ihinookan Family. CHIOGGIA, The War of. See Venice: A I) i:n»-ia8i. CHIOS.— The rocky Island knovn nncientl- IS tliii*. ealli^l f^cio in modern 'Imes, was one of the places wl ieli claimed Homers birth. It is utuaud iu the Egeun Sea, separated by a strait oiiiv «ve . M,., i,li, from the Asiatic cioaU The wlues of Chilis wire famous hi antiquity ami aire u guud reputation at tlui present day. The Island was an important niemlier of the Ionian confederation, and afterwards subject to Athens, from which it revolteil twice, suitcring terrible barlwrities in consequence. See Asia Mlnoh: TheQheek Couimes. B. C. 413. -Revolt from Athens. See Ghebck: B. C. 413-412. A. O. 1346.— Taken by the Genoese. See CoNSTANTiNoPLi;: A. I). 1348-i;t.Vi. A. D. 1681.— Blockade and attack by the French. S<c»AitiiARv States: a. I». 1«(U-U184. A. O. 1770.— Temporary possession by the Russians. See Tihkb A. I). 17tW-1774. A. D. 1823.— Turkish massacre of Chris- tiana. SeeQHEECE: A. I). 1821-182«. CHIPPEWA, Battle of. S« Ukitki.Htatm or Am. : A. U. 1814 (J uly— bKPTEMUEU). 44S f I CHIPPEWA8. CHIPPEWAS. OR OIIBWAS, The. Soe AMERICAN AnoRIOtNM: AUJONQUUW FaMILT AKD CllnWAS. ' CHIPPEWYANS, The. See Ai«»ican AfloHiniNEs: Athapascan FAMtLY. nJE b , °''' The.-"Thc chiton [of t\ e ancient Greeks] wiu an oblong niece of cloth armnged round the body so that the arm was put through a hole in the closed side, the two ends of the open side being fasU'ncil over the opposite shoulder by means of a button or clasp. On this latter side, thea.fore, the chiton was completely open at least as far a.s the tliiffh. underneath of which the two ends might be either pinned or stitched together, ft.und the hips the chiton was fas- tene( with a riblwn or girdle, ami the lower part could be shortened as much as required by pidl- Ing It through this girdle. . . . Frequently s!c-eves, either sliorur and covering only the upper arm, or continued to the wrist were added to the el.itou. . , . The short-sleeved chiton is frequently worn by women and children on monu- ments. Of the sleeveless chiton, worn by men over l)oth shoulders, It U stated that it was the "?? of a fn-e citizen. Slaves and artisuns arc said to have worn a chiton with one hole for the left arm, the right arm and half the chest remain- ng quite uncovered. ... It appears clearly tliat the whole chiton consisU of one piece Together with the open and half-open kinds of the chiton we also And the closed double chiton Bowing down to the feet. It was a piece of cloth considerably longer than the human iKxIy and cliwd on lM)th sides, inside of whicli the per- son imtliii jj it on stood as in a cylinder. "— E, Quid Md W. Koncr, Ufiof tht Oreila and li,,n,in. p« I, *,-<, 4i._"X|,e principal, or rather, the ■ole garnioiit, of the Dorian mai.lens was the cliitoii. or liimation made of woolen stuff, and without sleeves, but fastened on either slioulder by a l.irge d.Lsp, ami gathered on tlie bn'a>.t bv a kind of bro-ich. This sleeveless r,)lK., which scl.lom rcaeliiil more than half way to the knee was moreover Kft open up to a cerhiin ix, ..t on both sides, so tiiat the skirts or winjcs Hyliiif op.n IS thcv «alke.l, entirely exp,S."d their iimiw. ... 1 lie married women, however, did not make their appearance in pulilic 'en che- .nlse, Imt wlun going abroad donned a si'Cond ment wlmli seems to have resembled pretty n'lv tlieirhiLoliuuds' himatia."— J. A. St. John • IMIeii,,,, hi:. ;t, eh 8 tHITTIM. See KlTTIM ;HlVALRY.--."Tlie primitive sens,, of this «e!l k- ..,1 wunl, durivwl from the Fniieli Che .a . Bigniliis merely cavalry, or a b<Kiy of soldieio (.Tviugou liorsebaek; and has Urn used In that gi'niTal a.ceptation by tlie best of our pmts, aii,ii.|it and modem, from .Milton to IhoDias Canipliell. Hut the present article respects tlie iH< uliar meaning given to the wonl n in.K em burot.,.. as ai.pli^l to the onl.r of kniglithiKHl, established In almost all her kint'- tloms during ilu^ middle ag.'s, and the laws niles, and ciisImmis, liy whi( li it was gov.Tned' riiose laws ami i ustoms have limg '.een anti- <iuale,l. but Hair cITects may still Tk! tracwl in LuroiH'aii manners; and, excepting only the < haiige win, li llowcd from the lntr,«luetion of jhe ( hristian nligion, we kn,>w no cans,, which lias prixluecd sui li general an,l permanent ,liff,T ene,. iMtwixt tlie ancients and mo<lernH, as that wlilth has arucn out of the lustitutiua of chivalry CmVALRT. . . From the time that cavalry becomes usnl in war, the liorseman who furnishes and sunnom a charger arises, in aU countries, into a person „! superior importance to the mere f.mt R,)l,li„ ... In various militarv nations, ther,f,,r,- .« Hnd that horsemen are <fistinguished as an o'ni.J in the state. . . . But, in the middle u-es 7S distinction ascribed to soldiers serving ou imnt back assumed a very peculUr an.f imfoZ, character. Ther were not merely rcspiK-U'J » account of thefr wealth or military skill bw were bound together by a uni,>n of a'ven peculiar chan;cter, which monarehs were am bltious to share with the poorest of their subject. and govcme<l by laws directed to enlian, e into enthusiasm, the military spirit an<I the s,.nse of jiersonal honour associated with it. The asoir anu to this dignity were not pennitted to u*uine the sacred character of knighthiKxl until ,iftor a long and severe probation, during whidi they practised, as acolytes, the virtues neees.sar>' L the oftier of Cliivalry. Knighthood was the goal t,) which the ambition of every noble v, uth turned; and to support its honours, which (in theory at least) could only be conferrcl ,)n the gallant, the modest, and the virtuous it wu nccccamry he should spend a certain time in a subordinate situation, attendant up.m some knight of eminence, olwierving the eoii.luct of Ills master, as what must in future U- the nindel of his own, and practising the virtues of hmnililv modesty, and U^mperantv. until called uiwn to display those of a higher order. . . In the general and abstract dcliniti,>n of (^hivalrv wheUier as comprising a iMsly of nun vh6i military service was on horseback, Hn,i wlio were investd with p<euliar honours and nrivi- leges, or with reference to the iiuhI,' and peri.jd In which these distinctions ami privil.>;,.s were twferred, there is nothing either i>rigiuul or exclusively proper to our Oothio ancisiors. h was In the singular tenets of C'liivaiiv. — in tlie exalwd, enthusiastic, and almost Bam'tiiiiiinious ideas connected with its duties, — i MiL-ular balance which ita institutions olTere dsI the evils of the rude ages in which it aros. hat we are to seek those peculiarities which r,ii. it so worthy of our attention. . . . Tlie eclM.,,tionot the future knight iM'gaii at an early iiri.»l Tiie care of the mothir, after the ttrst'vi'arsi.f mrlv youth were passeil, was d,.<.ni,il im iiinlcr aiiJ the inilulgences ,)f the paternal roof li k) , ifimi- nate, f,)r the future aspirant to tli,' iionours of chivalry. . . . To eountenu't these lialiits nf indulgence, the first step to the onier of knight. iKKxi was the <legree of Page. The vungana noble stripling, genenilly aluiut his twilfih year, was transfern.,! from liis father's Innise tu that of some baron or gallant knight, .sediil„nslv , Imn by the anxious pari'iit us tliut whiih li.icl'iii, lnM reputatiim for gisni onler ami liiMinliin'. . . . When advani'ing age ami experiiiicc in ihc u« of arms hail qiialiiled the page for the h.lnl.^llip^ and dangers of lutuul war. he was r. miovhI, from the lowest to 111,' tu'cond gra.lniiiin o( chivalry, and bei^ame an Ksciiyir. K-i|iiin', or Squire. Thederivali f this plinisi' lix-^ Iwn much conteatcl. It Imsbeen genenlh Mip|«i«eil t<i be derived from its lie^eoniinu' the n'tlii lai cluiy of the esquire to carry the shiihl iKm iimf ilie knight his master, until he wa> alHuit i.i engage the cnr.my, Other? hsve feteliii! ilu- iplihet (more remotely certainly^ from Scuria, a swliH 444 CHTVALRT. CHOCZIM. the charger of the knight being under the eapeciol care of the iquire. Others, again. ucribe tlie derivation of the word to tlic right vklch the squire himself liad to carry a shield, and to blazon it with armorial bearings. This, hi later times, becaqie almost the exclusive meaning attached to the appellative esquire; and, accordingly, if the phrase now means any- thing, it means a gentleman having a right to carry arms. There is reason, however, to think this is a secondary meaning of the word, for we do not find the word Escuyer, applied as a title of rank, until so late as the Ordonnance of Blois, hi 1579. ... In actual war the page was not eipccted to render much service, but that of the squire was important and indispensable. Upon a inarch he bore the helmet and aliield of the knight and led his horse of battle, a tall heavy animal fit to bear the weight of a man in armour, but which was led In hand in nurching, while the knight rode an ambling hackney. The iquire was also qualified to perform the part of an armourer, not only lacing his master's helmet and buckling bis cuirass, but also closing with a hammer the rivets by which the various pieces wi're united to each other. ... In the actual shock of battle, the esquire attended closely on the banner of his master, or on his person if he were only a knight t)achelor, kept pace with him during the melee, and was at hand to remount him when his steed was slain, or relievo him when oppressed by numbers. If the knight made prisoners they were the charge of the esquire ; if the esquire himself fortunra to make one. the ransom belonged to his master. ... A youth usually ceased to be a page at 14, or a little earlier, and could not regularly receive the honour of knighthood until he was one-and- twenty. . . . Knighthood was. In its origin, an order of a republican, or at least an oligarchic nature; arising . . . from the customs of the free tribes of Oermany [see Cojhtatcb], and, in its essence, not requiring the sanction of a monarch. Ou the contrary, each knight could confer the order of knighthood upon whomsoever prepara- tory noviciate and probation had fitted to receive it. The highest potentates sought the accolade, or stroke which conferred the honour, at the hands of the worthiest knight whose achieve- ments had dignified the period. . . . Though no positive regulation took place on the subject, ambition on the purt of the aspirant, and pride and policy on that of the sovereign princes and nobles of high rank, gradually limited to the totur the power of conferring knighthood. . . Knitthts were usually made either on the eve of battle, or when the victory had been obtained ; or they were created during the pomp of some solemn warning or grand festival. . . . The ipmt of chivalry sunk gradually under a combination of physical and moral causes; the flrat arising from the change gradually introduced into the art of war, and the last from the equally great alteration produced by time in the habits jncl ni,«lc8 of thinking in modem Europe. Liuvalry began to dawn in the end of the 10th, and biirmning of the 11th century. It blazed lortiiwuh high vigour during the crusades, which inuecrt may be considered as exploits of national knight errantry, or general wars, undertaken on y>c "cry snme principles which actuated the con- aucl of individual knighu adventurers But ita nwM biiilimii period waa during the wan between France and England, and It was un- questionablv in those kingdoms that the habit of constant and honourable opposition, unembittered by rancour or personal hatred, gave the fairest opportunity for the exercise of the virtues required from him whom Chaucer terms ' a very perfect gentle knight.' Froti^rt frequently makes allusions to the generosity exercised by the French and English to their prisoners, and con- trasts It with tlie dungeons to which captives tokin in war were consigned both in Spain and Germany. Yet both these countries, and indeed every kingdom in Europe, partook of the spirit of chivalry in a greater or less degree; and^ven the Moors of Spain caught the emulation, and had their orders of Knighthood as well as the Christians. But even during this splendid period, various causes were silently operating the future extinction of the flame, whiclk blazed thus wide and brightly. An important discovery, the invention of gunpowder, had taken place, and was beginning to be used in war, even when chivalry was in its highest glory. . . . Another change, of vital importance, arose from the institution of the bands of gena-d'armcs, or men at arms in Prance, constituted . . . expressly as a sort of standing army. ... A more fatal cause had, however, been for some time operating in England, as well as France, for the destruction of the system we are treating of. The wars of York and Lancaster In England, and those of the Huguenots and of the League, were of a nature so bitter and rancorous, as was utterly Inconsistent with the courtesy, fair play, and gentleness, proper to chivalry. . . . The civil wars not only operated in debasing the spirit of chivalry, but in exhausting and destroying the particular class of society from which its votaries were drawn."— Sir W. Scott, Euay on Chimlry. Also in: O. P. R. James, Hut. of CtiiwUry.— H. Hallam, State of Europe during the Middlt Ane*. eh. 9, pt. 3 (v. 8).— F. P. Quizot, Hut. of Oinlimtioa in Franet, 6rt leet., id eoune (o. 4).— "rt. of Chitalru.—H. Stebbing, Hut. of Chi0u„j and the Cnttadet. — L. Oautier, ChiixUrg.—K. H. Digby, The Broadttone of Honour. — Dr. Doran, Knighti and their Dayt. — See, also, Kniohthood, Orders or. CHLAMYS, The.—" The chlamys [worn by the ancient Greek?] . . . waa an oblong piece of cloth thrown over the left shuuldcr, the open ends being fastened acrosa the right shoulder by means of a clasp ; the comers hanging down were, as in the himation, kept straight by means of weights sewed into them. The chlamys waa principally used by travellers and soldiers." — E. Guhl and W. Koner, Life of t>te Greek) and Ro- man*, pt. 1, Hei. 43. CHOCIM. See Cnoczisi. CHOCTAWS, OR CHA'HTAS, The. See AstEnic*!» AnoRiciiNEs: Ml'8kiioue\.n Pamilt CHOCZIM (KHOTZIM, CHOTVN, KHO- TIN, CHOCIM, KOTZIM): A. D. 1633.— De- feat of the Turks br the Poles. See Poland: A. D. 1590-1848. A. D. 1673.— Taken by Sobieska and the Pol . —Great defeat of the Turks. See Poland: A. 1. 1668-1696. A. O. 1739.— Captured bj the Ruiiiani and restored to the Turks. See Russhi: A. D.IT^}- 1789. A. D. 1769.— Taken by the Ruttian*.- Oe- featofthe Turks. SeeTcau: A. D. 1768-1774. 445 CBOCZDt A. p. tTM—Dcfcat of th* Torkt by th« Rasiiana. Bee Tvbks: A. D. 1776-1782. CHOLERA, The Visiutions ot See Pijioin: : 10th Cbiituiit. CHOLET, Battles ot See Fiuiic« : A. D. 1798(Jdi,t— DaoxBKK). CHOLULA. See Mexico, Aschiit: Tarn ToLTitn Empiu, and Mexico: A. D. 1518 (OrTOBKR). CHONTALS, The. SeeAMKRiCAnABOW- SINES: Choktals. CHONTAQUIROS, OR PIRU, The. See Amkrican Aborioikrs : Andbsiams. CHORASMIA. SeeKHCARKZM. CHOREGIA. See) roiM iKs. SSSIfJS'.O'* CHi.JSn-N. SfloKoMtA. CHOTUSITZ. OR CZASLAU, Battle ot Bee Apstria : A. D. 1743 (J^kuart— Mat). CHOUANS.-CHOUANNERIE. See Frarci : A. D. 1794-1T9S. CHRISTUOTTT. CHOUT.— The blackmail levied by thelhk. tsttas. See Ihdia: A. D. 18(»-1816. CHOWANS, The. See Ammican Abos* oiKis : Iroquois Tbibbs or thk Soutii CHREItONIDEAN WAR.The 8«. Athihb: B. C.S8a-M8. . < ^ an CHRIST, KniKhts of the Order of. Sm Pobtuoai. : A. D. U1(H4«0. "^ CmtlST IAN I., Klajr of Denmark, Norw» •ad Sweden, A. b. lfl8-1481 dhriitiS II., 1518-1528 Christian III., mi-lM? ii--Cfcri»ti«» IV., 158»-ie48... Cri.t^ v., 1«7U-16»9 Christian VI., Vm"im wi.f '•5i!l*''" VII., i7«e-i8oe. . . . .chri,ti„ VIII., 1889-1848 Christian IX., 18«:i- CHRISTIAN BROTHERS. See Kdcca- Tios. Modern : REroRMS : A. D. 188t-lN;8 st^.t12'^£l^^?]!J>?iSSro;^'-«"»i'e. CHRISTIAN ERA. 8eeKBA,CHBHTus. ■I I !■' Historical geographv has of late years be- «)me an inteml part of the historical science Kecent InTestigations have opened up the subject and a solid beginning has been made — but it is only a bcginnrng. ft is clearly ncognized that the land itself as it appears at different periods Is one of those invaluable original documenU upon which history is built, and no stone U being left unturned to clear away mysteries and to bring to our aid a realism hitherto unknown to the science. ... But the special branch of this vast and complicated theme of hUtorical Seography which interests us most and which I esire bnedy to bring to your attention is that which deals with the Christian Church Our eyes first rest upon that little group at Jerusalem that made up the Pentecostal Church. Itsspread was conditioned by the extent and character of the Roman Erplre, by the municipal genius of that tmpire, its great highways by land and sea; conditioned by the commercial routes and the track of irmies outside the bounds of civiliia- tlon conditioned by the spread of languages— A- '. Greek, and Latin,— and, most import- ■^'' .conditioned by the whereabouts of the sev .llion Jews massed in Syria. Babylonia, and -eJPt, and scattered everywhere through- out the Empire and far beyond its boundariea"— H. W HulUrt. The Hitorieal Otoma^y of tht Ohnrtuin Church (Am. Soe. Chunk ffM..t 8) — 'When we turn from the Jewish 'disperaion' in the Last to that in the West, we seemln quite a different atmosphere. Despite their intense natliinallsm. all unconsciously to themselves their mental characteristics and tendencies were In the opposite direction from those of their brethren With those of the East rested the future of Judaism; with them of the West in a sense, that of the world. The one represented old Israel groping back into the darkness of the past; the other young Israel, stretching forth its hands to where the .• wn of a new day was about to break. Tbew J s of the West are known ./'j!.^^*-?' Hellenists. ... The translation of the Old Testament into Greek maybe r.ntded as the staring point of Helleni j. It rtidered possible the hope that what in .>a original form •S«* Apptodiz D, vol. I. CHRISTIANITY." 446 had been confined to the few. might become sccm. slblc to the worid at large. ... In the account of the truly representative gathering In Jerusalem on that ever-memorable Feast of Weeks, the divi- sion of the ' dispersion ' Into two grand sectioiu — the Eastern or Trans-Euphratic. and the West- em or Hellenist — seems clearly marked. In thij arrangement the former would Include the rarthians, Medes, Elamites, and dwellers in Meso- potamia, Judsa standing, eo to speak, in the middle while 'the Cretes and Arabians ' would typically represent the farthest outrunners re- spectively of the Western and Eastern Diaspors. The former, as we know from the New Tesument commonly bore in Palestine the name of the ' di* persion of the Greeks', and of ' Hellenists ' or Grecians. On the other hand, the Trsiis. Euphratlc Jews, who ' Inhabited Babylon and many of the other satrapies,' were included with the PalestinUns and the Syrians under the term Hebrews, from the common language which they spoke. But the difference between the Grecians and the ' Hebrews ' was fur deeper than merely of language, and extended to the whole directlim of thought."— A. E>itr«heim. TML(rtand TimstofJttu* the Memah. t. 1. h». 1, ch. 8-8, and 1.—" Before Pentecost an l^asem• bly of the believers took place, at which the post vacated in the number of the aposths byilie suicide of the traitor Judas of Kerioth, was filled up by the election of ilatthias by lot. )n this occasion the number of the assembled hnUuen amounted to about 130 men. ... At the (esst of Pentecost ... a very considerable nrirssion was made to the font rly mo<leratc band of be- lievers in Jerusalem . . . ; about S.Ooo souls re- ceived the word and were ioinetl to tin- Church by baptism (Acu 11. 41). We must not, Imwever. at once credit the Chureh in Jerusalem with this increase. For among the listeners to the apos- tolic discourse there were Israelitish guests and proselytes from near and distant countries (ii. 5. 9-11, 14), whence we may Infer that of those newly converte<l many were not living In Jeru- salem Itself, but partly In Judira and lialilte, partly In countries beyond Palestine, who there- T<SK returued home after the f«agt lia/i woe L ■•. bytheUab' icAK Aaosi. JUTH. '.The. See •«• of. See rk^Norwaj .Chriitiu ■ ~' riitiia K;>l)-I74«, .Chrittias , 18«:i-. 8«o Ki)cc\- BI-IN78. rheUaited r. CBBlaTU.V conieacctt. be account I Jerusalem !9. thedivi- Dd sectioni 1 the West- fd. InthU iliidc ' the •rsinMfiio- ?ak, io the ins ■ would unnera re-, Diaspora, reatflment, >f the ' dis- lenists ' or he Trans- bylon and uded witli r the term a^e which tween the far deeper led to the IvUrsheim. 4. t. 1. bt. iin l^ssem' h the post lis by me was filled In thia Ijrethrcn the feast noTsaion ml of be- I souls re- (' Church however, with thii the apos- it'sts and ries (ii. 5. of thoae In Jeru- I Oalllte. lid there- »)i were i r y j IjgUim 4^\ \ ■JSr % V •I- \ K I ,^ ;• /• -p,. ''•'VX ^- 'A \^ Sfe V'^ n s ■^y ,.jss^ V ^ -VI -'v U i ' lit 1 1 n i CHRISTIAinTT. JewUk Ckritlinnitf. CHRISXIANITT. nded. Borne of theie might, under certain cir- rumstance*, form the centre of a imall Church in the diapenlon, lo that gradually Churches Dur have ariwn to which alio James may pos- sibly have addressed his Epistle. . . . Soabun- ilintly did Ood bless with success the activity of tlic cArlr apostles though limited to the nation nf Israel and the land of Canaan, and their fidel- ity within a circumscribed sphere. Hence there ciistcd St the end of the perio<l of which we lR«t numerous Christian Churches in Jerusalem MiJ the whole country of Judasa (comp. Qal. I. ii, etc. : Acts xi. 1), also on the coast (Acts ix. 3-2-35. etc.) in Samaria and Oalilce, and finally in Svria. Phenlcia, and Cyprus, (Acts Ix. 2. id, i\ xi. 10), some of which were directly, some In- directly, founded by the Twelve, and were. In any <asc, governed and guided by them. In tlie shove named districts outside Palestine, It miKht not, indeed, have been easy to find a Christian Church consisting exclusively of be- lieving Jews, for as a rule they consisted of be- lieving Jews and indiviiiual Qfntiles. On the other hand, wc shall scarcely be wrong In re- arAmn the Cl>ristian Churches within Palestine ItKlf as n)mpose<l entirely of believing Israelites. Out even among tlieae there were many distinc- tions, e. g., between Palestinians and Hellenists." -0. V, Lcchler, The ApotMit and Patt-Apoi- tMf Timft, t. \,p. 80-3.1.—" We find the early [.lowishl Christians olMervIng the national feasts and hididays (AcU ii. 1; xviii. 21; XX. 6, 16; Itim. xiv. 5). They take part in tlie worship of tlir temple and the synagoeue: they pray at the ouBlomnry houm (chaps. 11. 46; ill. 1; T. 42; X. 1*1. They olntcrvc the fasts, and undergo volun- tiirv nbstinenre, binding themselves by special vows like all pious Jews (xili. 3; xvii. 18; xxl. £1). Tiiev scrupulously avoid unlawful food, nml nil legril defllemcnt (X. 14). They have their (kildnn circumcised (XT. S; xvi. 8: Oal. v. 2). . . . This scrupulous piety won for them the esteem and admimtion of tha people (ehap, T, 13)." At first their creed was "comprlMd In t riogle dogma: 'JetusistbeMeasIah.' . . . Thair nriHiliinir of the Oospel strictly followed the lines nf Messianic tradition (1. 7; ii. 86; ill. 80). . . . But in reality all this formed only the out- side of tluir life and creed. . . . Herein lies the protauiiii slffniAcance of the miracle of Pentc- iint That il«v was the birtliday of the Church, not heenuw of the marvelous success of Peter's pn-ai liiiig, hut because the Christian principle, uilherto txlsllnf only objectively and extemnlly In the p<rsi)n of Ji-sus, passed from that moment Into till' souls of ills disciples. . . . And thus in the very midst of Judaism we see created and unfolded a form of religions life essentially dif- Trent fnmi it — the Christian life. "—A. Satmtler. Vif .ii>mil4 I^iit, pp. 85-S6.— " By the two fiml>li'<<of the Mustard Seeti and the Leaven, hrlst inarke<i out the two sides or aspects of His truth — its rxtemal gmwih tmm the least to the Eiwest, and Its internal arllon on society at rge— as scttlni up a ferment, and making a sew lump out of the unkneailini mass of the old humanity. With these two symbols in view we m«v iMife what the gospel was designed to lie •nil to do. It was to grow into a great outwaril iOefc'y _ •!:= tr-a> r.f fiiP Ch'irvll ; btit It ws= rIv> to dn a wnrk on M-cular society as such, corre- •IHmdinit to the action of h-aven on flour. The UMory uf Christianity hH been the carryiog out of these two distinct and contrasted conceptlooi; but how Imperfectly, and under what draw- backs." — Rev. J. B. Heard, Alexandrian and Qirthaginian Theology Cnntratted, p. 186.— "The organic connection of Jewish Christians with the synagogue, which must, in accordance with the facts before us, be reganled as a rule, is certainly not to be taken as a mere incidental phenomenon, a customary habit or arbitrary accommodation, but as a moral fact resting upon an internal necesolty, having its foundation in the love of Jewish Christians to their nation, and in the ad- hesion of their religious consdousnetw to the old covenant. To mistake this would be to under- rate the wide bearing of the fact. But lest we should over-estimate its importance, we must at once proceed to another consideration. Within Judaism we must distlnguisli not only the Rab- binical or Pharisaic tradition of the original canonical revelation, but also within the canon itself we have to distinguish the Levitical cle- meu* from the prophetic, . . . taking the latter not i t a close but a wide sense as the living spiriti al development of the theocracy. "—O. \. Lechlc, The ApoetoUe and Pott-ApoetMe Timet, v. 1, p. S4.— " Moreover the law had claims on a Hebrew of Palestine wholly independent of his reliirious obligations. To him it was a national institution. 08 well as a divine covenant. Under the Oospel he might consider hti< relations to it In this latter cliiiractcr altered, hut asembixlving the decrees and usages of his country it still de- manded his allegiance. To be a good (Christian he was not re<|iiircd to be a bad citizen. On these grounds the more enlightened members of the mother-church would Justify their continued adiiesion to the law. Nor is there any reason to suppose that St. Paul himself took a dilTerent view of tlieir obllgationa "- J. B. Lightfoot, Dmertatione on the Ajxittulie A^. p. 67. — "The term ' Jewish-Christianity ' is applicaMe exclu- sively to those Christians who really retained, entirely or In the smallest part, the nathmnl im<l political forms of Judaism and inslsteil upon the oliaervance of the Mosaic Law without niodificit- tion as essential to ChristUnlly, at least lo the Christianity of the Jewish-bom converts, or who indeed rejected these forms, but acknowledged the prerogative of the Jewish people also in Christianity. '—A. Hamack, Outtina of the Iht- tont o/Dirgma, p. 75. A. D. 33-ioa— The RIm of tha Cburchei. — JeruMiem. — "After the miraculous healing of the cripple and the discourse of the Apostle Peter on that occasion, the liistorinn goes on to say, ' Many of them which beard the word he1ieve<l. and the numlierof the men was about S,0(X)'(iv. 4). It sei'ms as if in consei|uence of this event, which mtule no little stir, a larger numlH'r J(dnv<l themselves to the I'lmreh, Nor is it probable that this heallnit tiHik place until a long time after the beginning of the Church. The miracle, with tha efTeet which It had, Mrrea as a resting place at wlitch the result of the previous growth of the Church may be Morrtalned. And here the number again In- cidentally mentioned refen without doubt to the Church at Jerusalem."— O. V. Lechler, The Apaelolie and l\At- ApottoUe Timet, t. 1, p. 10. — Xfie fRr'r hf"'---'-? --■• t!» rhtirrhMi "faUa lot© tbice periods which mark three distinct stagea la ita progress: (1) The Extension of tha Church to Ike QentUei; (3) The RtoofalUon of Ocatil* 447 CHRISTIANmr. ApoiMte Uimlon: CHllISTIANnT. Ill :x Liberty; (3) The Emancipation of the Jewish Churches. . , . And Boon enough the pressure of events began to be felt. The dispersion was the link which connected the Hebrews of Pales- tine with the outer world. Led captive by the power of Oreeli philosophy at Athens and Tarsus and Alexandria, attmctcd by the fiwoinntionsof Oriental mysticism in Asia, swept alunz with the busy whirl of social life in the city and court of the Ciesnrg, these outlying members of the chosen race had inhaled a fn^r spirit and con- tracted wider interests than their fellow-country- men at liiime. By a series of insensible gm<ia- tions — proselytes of the covenant — proselytes of the eatc — superstitious devotees who observed the rites without accepting the faith of the Mosaic dispensation — curious lookers-on who Interested tiiemselves in the Jewish ritual as they would in the worsldp of Isis or of Astarie — the most ». ibom zealot of tlie law was linked to the idolatrous heathen whom he abhorred and who despised him ' turn. Thus the train was unconsciously la: hen the spark fell from heaven and lired it. Meanwhile at Jerusalem •ome years passed srfay before the barrier of Judai.'<m was assailed. The Apostles still observe)! the Mosaic ritual; they still conflneil their preaeliing to Jews by birth, or Jews hy •doptidn, the proselytes of the covenant. At len);lli a brearli was made, and tlio assailants as might lie e.xi>ecti'd were Hellenists. The first step towanis the rreatlon of an orKanir.ed ministry was also the first sl«'p towards the emancipation of the (.'liiirch. The Jews of Juda'a, ' Hebrews of the Hebrews' had ever regarded their Helleiii'<t brelliren with suspicion and distrust; and this estmngement repriKiuewl itself in the Christ lan t'him'li. Tlie int<!resta of the Hellenist willows had been neglected in the dally distrl- butlmi iif alms. Hence 'arose a murmuring of the HilienistJi against the Hebrews ' (Acts vi 1), which was mi't by the ap|i<>intment of seven persons s|M'elally charged with providing for the wants (if these neglected poor. If the selection wa« made, as 8t. Lukes hingiiage seems to Imply, not by the Hellenists theinst'lves but by the Cliunh at large (vl. 2), the com'ession when granted was carriiil out In a lllMTai spirit. All the names uf the seven are Ureek, pointing to a Hellenist rather than a Hebrew extrnction. ami one is esjH'iially descrilieil as a proselyte, Ixlng diiuliiliss ehown to represent a hltherlo small but gniwing serllim of the ctmiinunilv. Bv this a|)polnlinent the Hellenist members o'btahieil a sljitus in Uie i^hureh; and the ctfeets of this measure soon N-eame visible. Two out of the •even stand prominenlly forwani as the elinin- plons of eiiiuiieipHtion, rftephin the preaelier and martyr nf lllierty, and I'Ipillp tlie praelind worker ' — ,( B. IjightfiKit, Jn—frl'Uinn» o'l Hit .l/»«f"/„- .\;,f. pp. (HKVi. — •■The Hellenist Stephen niiistsl dei'p stirring movements ehlellv In Hellenist eireles. . . . The permrutlon of the Jenisuleni eonmiunily — |M>rha|M sprelally of its Helleiiist imri — wiiieh fiillowisl the stiming of bti'phen. Iseame a means of promoting the spreail .if till' Christian faith to . . , Cyprus, at la*t to »> lm|H)rt«nt a centre as Antioeh, the Imperial eapilai of the Kast. To the winning of tliH Jews tn faith In .lesiis Om'Tv Ia slreadv added the nsipiion Into the Christian community of the ploii* * lent! h- ( Cornelius, a proselyte of the gate. . . . Tbouyh tblt appwn Id tmUtfam a« an Individual case lanctloned by special DIrine guidance, in the meantime Hellenist Cbristiani had already begun to preach the Gospel to iKini Greeks, also at Antioeh in Syria, and surross fully (Acts xi. 19-96), Barnabas Is sent tliither from Jerusniem." — W. Moeller, Iliilory nf th, Chrittian Church, p. 58-54.— "Philip, drivoo from Jerusalem by the peiwcution, preacliod Christ to tiie SamorltaDS. . . . TheApostlea who had remained at Jerusalem, hearing of the success of Philip's preaching, sent two of their number into this new and fruitful field of lulior. . . . Pet*'r and John return to Jcru.salem while the Deacon Philip is called, by a new manifi'sta- tlon of the will of God, yet further toexteml ilie field of Christian missions. It is not a Samari- tan but a paran, whom he next Instructs in the truth. . . . He was an Ethiopian eunuch, a trn-jt dignitary of the court of MeniO, treasunr of the Queen. . . . This man, a pagan by birth, li»| taken a long Journey to worship the true (tod in the temple of Jerusalem." — E. De Pres.sen»e, Tht Barty Yenn of Chnttianity, pp. 71-74.— "For the sake of tlie popular feeling Hensi Ajripps laid hanils on memlM'rs of the comniiniirv, ami caused James the brother of John (the »i>u of Zebedee) to In put to death by the swoni, in the year 44, for soon thereafter Hensl Acrippn <iled. Peter also was taken prisoner, but miracu- lously eseaiH-d and provisionally left Jeriisalfm. From this time on James the bnitluT nf the I.iord ap|)ears ever more and more iw n.illv liear- Ing rank as head of the Jerusalem cumnuinily, while Peter mure and more devotes liiiiistlf 'a the apostolic mission abroad, and imli iil. ninro accurately, to the misshm In Ismel."— \V. .MikIIit, Ilintory iif the Chrilinn Vhureh, p. M.— "The aerounts whii-h we have reimniing the sivistle Peter, represent him as preaeliing the gosjuj from the far east to distant parts of the »ist. . . . Acconling Ui his own wonis. he fouiidcil i Imrches In Pontus, (}alatin, CappuIiKla. Asia, ami lliiliy nlo, and aceoniing to the testimony n( niuieiil historians of the Chureh in the east al«). in Syria, Ikiliylon, Mesoixitamia. Clialdaea. .\raliia. PhiM-nicia and Egypt, and In the west, at Iti'ni'. In Britain. Ireland, Helvetia and Sixiiii "-J. E. T. Wiltach. Ihnd limk of tht ilfKiniphy ,ii.i SInlMiet of Tht Church, r. 1. /71. 1II-J>- "Thri'C and tlm'c only of the personal ili*!- pies and Inimtiliate followers of our Uml \M any pMmliieiit plmv In the .\pcwtolie riii>nis— Jaines, Peter, and John; the first IIm' l,iml> brother, the two latter the foremost ininilnnnl the Twelve Apart from an Incldcniiil tvUr enre to the death of James the son of S^lsilre, which is ilLsmissitl In a single senlemi'. ilic nst of the Twelve are mentioned by name f'lr tiie last time on the day of the Lonl's ■\'<iiri«ion. Thenceforwanl they illsap|M'ar wliollv frniii tlie canonical writings. And this silcecu slio extends to the traditions of sucec'iini: sci We read indeed of St. Thomas In Itidiii, ufM. Andrew In S<ythiii; hut such scanty imllii'*, even if we aeiTpt them as trustwcirthy. slmw only the more plainly ho* little lln' 1 liunli eoiild Ij'll nf her earili-st teachers Ik.iihlli'JI they lalmured xenloiisly and elTiciivi ly In the •pri-ail of the (losiMd; but. so far as wc know. l.'iey h»ve left n^ impresa of IU-At !!!!!'i'!i!»l mind and cliamcii'r on the Church at lariir Ocrupying the foreground, and Indccl oivprim the whuki caovas ul early ' lusUstical liltturj, 448 CHBISTIANITT. AdvHt a/8t.t1uiL CHRIBXIANITT. ippetr four figure* alone, St. Paul, and the three Apostles of the Circumcision." — J. B. Lightfoot, DiuertatioTU on the ApottoUe Age, p. 40— "While Peter (as it appears) is occupied with the work of preaching to the Jews outside of I'ali'stine, the community at Jerusalem, and indeed the Palestinian communities in general, lUnd I :<ler the leadership of the brother of the Lord, J.iracs, as their recognised heiul. They lemain strictly in the life of the law, and still bold securely to the hope of the conversion of the whole of God's people (which Paul had for the present given up). The mission to the Gentiles is Indeed recognised, but the manner of its conduct by Paul and the powerful increase of Psulinc communities excite misgivings and dis- sensions. For in tliese mixed communities, in the presence of whut is often a preponderating Gentile element, it becomes ever clearer in what direction the development is pressing; that, la fact, for the sake of the higher Christian com- munion the legal customs even of the Jewish Christians in theae communities must inevitably be broken down, and general Christian freedom, on principle, from the commands of the law, gain recognition." — Dr. Wilhelm Moeller, Ifitt. cfthe Chrutian. Church, p. 73.— "The fall of Jerusalem occurred in the Autumn of the year 70 [see Jews: A. D. M-70]. And loon the catastrophe came which solved the difficult prob- lem. . . . Jerusalem was razed to the ground, and the Temple-worship censed, never again to be revived. The Christians foreseeing the calam- ity hail fled before the t«.'m|)«st. , , , Before the crisis came, they had been deprived of the coun- sel and guidance of the leading apostles. Peter ha>l fallen a martyr at Tiome ; John hud retired 1/ Asia .Minor; James, the Lonl's brother, was shtin not long before the great catastrophe. ... He was succeeded by his cousin Symcon, the son of Clopas and nephew of Joseph. Under these ctr- cunistanres the Church was reformed at Pella. Its bistiirv in the ages following is a hopeless blank. " —J. 11. Lightfoot, Di—trtationt on the Avoitolie Aft, p. W— " While Cicsarea succeeded Jcrusa- Irm as the political capital of Palestine, Antioch »ii(«t'ilftl It as the centre of Christendom." — ▲. I'lummer, Churth of the Knrly Fathere, eh. 8. Antioch.—" t'nder Macedonian rule the Greek intiU'il had IxTome the leading Inlellecttial poivvr of tlie world. The great Ontrk siicakiiig Uiwns of the East were alike the Htriingiiuld.s of tnti'lliTttial power, the battlelieUls of opinion and systems, and the laboratories of sclintillc reiciin li. where discoveriii were made and liter- ary midi rtaklngs requiring the r(miliiiiation of forcM wire carried out. Such was .\ntiiHh on the Orcntis, the meeting point of Syrian and Onik inlelliTt ; such, al>ove all, was Alexandria. " —J. J. Von DOlllnger, Stnilirt in Kuri'itrim Hie- torn, p lll.V— "The chief line along which the new rcll^'i.m develo|)ed was ihat w hlch led from Byriiiu .\ntiiK'h Uimiigh llie t'iliii.in Gatrs, siruii- l,y.*.iiiU to Eiihi'Kus. ("orlntli, nnci liome. Our mit'.idiary line followed the land route by Philalidphia, Troas, IMiilippI, and the Kgnatiun Wivto Krlndisi and llome; and unollier went nnnh from the Gates bv Tvana and Ciesareiaof Capiii.liKia to .\miMM In I'ontus. the creal har. hour ,.i' ihi' iilark Pea, by which the" traile of Cinir;d .\«iii was ctrried to Ibime. The main- tenHMn' (if I'loMi unit constant communication ■K.tvrt'1'n the scattered oungrcgatlons must be m presupposed, as necessary to explain the growth of the Church and the attitude which the State assumed towards it. Such communication was, on the view advocated in the present work, maintained along the same lines on which the general development of the Empire took place; and politics, education and religion grew side by side. — W. M. Ramsay, T%e Churchlnthe Roman Empire, p. 10.— "The incitement to the wider preaching of the Gospel in the Greek world starts from the Christian community at Anti<x:h. For this purpose Barnabas receives Paul as a companion (Acts xiil. , and xiv.) Saul, by birth a Jew of the tribe of Beniamin, bom at Tarsus in Cilicia, educated as a Pharisee, and although indeed as a Uellenlst, he had command of Greek and had come into contact with Greek culture and Greek life, yet had not actually passed throueh the discipline of Greek culture, was introduced by Gamaliel to the learned study of the law, and bis whole aoiU was seized with fiery zeal for the Statutes of the fathers. . . . After [his conversion and] his stay in Damascus and In Arabia and the visit to Peter (and James) at Jerusalem, having gone to Syria and Cilicia, ha was taken to Antioch by Barnabas."— W. Moel- ler, Ilietory of the Chnttian Churth, p. 57.— " The strength and zeal of the Antioch Chri.stian society are shown in the sending forth of Paul and Barnabas, with Hark, a cousin of Barnabas, for tlieir companion for a part of the way, on a S reaching tour in the eastern districts of Asia liuor. First they visited Cyprus, where Sergius Paulus, the prtx;onsul, was' converted. Thence they sailed to Attalia, on the southern coast of Pamphvlia, and near Perga; from Perga they proceeded to Antioch in Pis; lia, and from tliere eastward to Iconium, ami -> far as Lystru and Derlie in Lycaouia. Retnu ing their steps, they came back to Attalia, and sailed directly to Antioch. . . . This was the first incursion of Paul into the domain of heathenism."— G. P. Fisher, llittary of the Chritti.in Church, p. ti. — " How then should Paul and Barnabas proceed ? To leave Syria they must go first toSeleucei.i. the harbour of AnticK'h. where they would find ships going south to the Syrian const and Egypt, and west either by way of Cyprus or along the coast of Asia Minor. The western route led toward the lUimiin world, to which all Paul's subseiiuent history proves that he considered himself called by the Spirit. The Apostles einlmrkeil in a ship for Cyprus, which win very closely con- nected by commerce and general intereouriH' « ith tlie Syrian coast. After traversing the Uhind fmm east to west, they must go onwanl. f*l ips going westward naturally wiMit across the (■■ ast of Pamphrlla. and the Apistles, after rcuiliing Paphos, near the west cn<l of Cyprus, sailed in one of these ships, and hindeil at Attiillaiu I'am- Jhylla." — W, M. Hamsay, The Churth in tht imMii Eminre, p. 6(1. — "'The work starting from AnIkH'h. by which acre<;s to the faith is opcniHl to the Oeiitiies. the formation of (pre{M>niliT«t- Ingly) tlculile Cliristlim communities, now intn)- diuesiiito the oriuiual Christian development an important pnihlem. which (about the year 153, prolialily imt later), (Oul. ii. ; .Vets xv ) 'leads to dliuMiiwiiins and explunatloiiH nt tlip KO'C:illi<d Aposlolic Council [at JerusulemJ. . . . For Paul, who ha« rlwH to perfect indeiKiidence by the energy of his own peculiar stamp of gospel, tbert uuir begin the year* of bis puwcrftit 449 CHMSTUNITT. rutWt Ifimionan CHRISTIANITY. IS iH •ctlTltytn which be not only again vtolts and extiuds bU former misalonary flelJ In Asta Minor but gains a firm footing In Macedonia (PhUippI), Athens and AchaU (Corinth); then on the so^ called third missionary journey be exercises a comprehensive Influeoco during a stay of nearly three years at Epbesus, and finally looks frr>in Achaia towards the metropolis of the world."— W Moeller. fflW. of tht Ohritian Chunk, pp. 07-39.— "If the heathen whom he (Paul) had won to the faith and received into the Church were to be persuaded to adopt circumcision and the law before they could atuin to full nartlcl- pation In the Christian salvation, his pi Mna liad fallen short of bis aim. It bad been In vain since It was very doubtful whether the Gentiles giiuied over to believe in the Messiah would sub- mit to the condition. Paul could only look on thiise who made such a demiind as false brethren, who having no clair. to Christian brotherhood had forced themselves Into the Church at AnUoch In an unauthorized way ((Jal. 11. 4). and was per- suaded that neither the primiUvc Church as such nor its rulers, sharcd this view. In older there- fort- to prevent the (Jentile Christians from being disturbed on thb potat, he deU uined to jro to Jerusalem and there to challenge a decision In the matter that sliould put an eml to the strife (I. .>). The Church at Antiocli ulao recognized this neccjslty ; hence followed the proceedrncs in Jtrusuilem [about A. D. 52]. whither Paul and Barnalws ri'palrud with other u.ssociate8 (Gal U \i ^}',^>\ 8,«f). • • It is ceruin that when Paul laid ..is (free) gospel before the aut.'oritles In .Jerusalem, they added notliliig to it (Gal. II. »-«), 1 e thev did not require that the irosDel he preaclijd W the Gentiles should, besides tliisolo comlilion of faith whi. h ho laid down, impose Judaism up. I. them as a condition of participT 1 1.11 in salvation . . Pauls stipulations with tlie authontles In Jerusalem resiwctluir their future work were just as important forlilm as the recognition of his free gospel (Gal. II. 7-10) Thty had for their basis a recognition on the part of the primitive apostles that he was en- trusted with the gospel of the uiulrcumcislon to which tl V could add nothing (11. 6), just as Peter (as admittedly the most prominent amonit the prtmitivc apostles) was entnisted with that of the circumcision. ••-Bemhard Weiss, A Man- *" .'Ci','!^"!f*""' '" "" ^''>' TttUiment. t 1 pp. 1/2-1". »'8^'; It seems clear that the first meetlnm of the Christians as a community apart -in.-llnjp that is of a private rather tharT a p^.l«■lytl8in» character — took place as we see from Acu 1. 1»-15. ir. private apartments, the w^ith ud social position, who could accomma date In their house, hirge gatherings of t^?JS" f ul : and It is taterestlng to reflect tBat w Lne^m. of the mansions of an ancient city migl ^^^ neasing hi supper, of a Trimalchio or a Vim Kene. more revolting to modern tLS. ii^' a moat anythhig presented by X pag^\^?," others, perliapg hi the same itre. t, nSt be i. seat of Christian wonddp „r of theMS^ "plF^rF "?«'«'f^- &«s v«« I J"," "'*'"'^ """ » Prtod of tS yrars Larj: spaces are passed over in silcnca In L"^"!?'*-"'.'" '»>e catalogue of his mfxXl Incdentallv given, he refers to the fact th""^ ha.1 been sLipwreckH three Umes, and thesl dU asters were a prior to the ahinwr..!.i „ .> Island of JIalta''described"'by Tuke'" Z^y after the conference at Jerusilem he startXJ his second toilsdonaiy tour. He wa« n-^™ paniiKl by Silas, and^M joined by Timothy « Lystra^ He revtaited hu' converts n Eastern Asia Minor, founded churches in Galalia aS Phry,-m and from Tr«». obedlen-. to a h -av/ok .uni. 19, crossed over to Europe ll«vi,, plar atPhilippI a church that "^einaiu '«^ mark ,. devoted and loyal to him. he (Movni the great Koman road to Tbessalon c» t ■ ■ , .t Important city in Macedonia. Driven fnm tL™ and from Berea, he proceeded f. .",S f^ cultivated city he discoursed on Mars IliU (o aud!u>™ eager for new ideas In phil„s.,,,h" .lid religion, and in private debatal with SiLi and Epicureans. At Corinth, which had rU-,. fmm U ruins and was once more rich and pr,.,,».nmi he remained for a year and a half. I wai th re ,. ,„ .„, ,,, |,,ivai« Hparrmenis up|»r n).>ms or large guest chambers In the houses of individual members. Such a room was doubtless provided by the liberality of Titus Jus- tus (Acta xvill. 7). such a nK)m again was tl e upper chamber In which Ht. Paul preaehe.1 at TrouKAcUxx. 7 8), In such awmbVed tK con- veris salutt.l by the AiH«tle as the churc.i which .Ld of PblLnion. . The primitive Itoiimn b.n,»c had only one story, but as the cities irh'w o U- more densely populati^^l upjn^^r stories otme iut-. use. and It was the custom to plac- in these laming apartmenu, which were callcl cenarulT »u.h apartmeuls would answer to th« ■ upper iou?; L"'l"'i' • ^'"' P'*'''"' •'""'mm.itk. couulocd from u early period members of 4d0 prebably, that ho wrote his two Eoistl^ „uS The««lon an Christlami. After a sinrt stay™ Ephesus he returned to Antloch by «„y of Cesarc-a and Jerusalem. It was not Im,? Jhn Paul -a second Alexander, but on a ,«H.-.'f™ expclltlon- began his thlnl great iuiv.i„„ary journey. Taking the lan.l ^,ute from .\,ai"b. he traverse.! Asia Minor to Ephesu-s. a u.„iri»h. proWnoe of A.hi There, with occa,i„ual ab- senoes, he macle his abode for upwanU „f two i'^rt; . .".' ^}"i»''?- probably. h<- ^>r„ie the Epistle to the tialatians. . . . Frm. Eplu^su. tidans The Second Epistle U, the C.rimhian. he proljably wrote from Philippl. . . Couiiui dowu through Greece, he remalncl thiru thr« inontiis. There he a.mpose<l his E-islle t(. Ilie Itomans. . . . The uitlrmg Apostle 'ii..w turaiHl his tttce toward ■ Jer isulem. lie dcslrcl to bo present at the festlva' of the Pcntecwt. Ii, „nicr to save time, he niiled past E|.h.«u», c M .t IHIletus bade a tender farewell t,. the K|„„»l»n elders. He had fuiail..! hU , .-e ^hn\ „| ilm conf.renc.- and ho now carrlnl comril,iiii..uj from the Christians of Mace-' iila sn.l .Vchaii for the p.H.r at Jiru«.ilem."-G. P. Kishtr. ll,.l^ oftM Chiutum Vhiink, pp. 87-."m _■• Uc may safe y say that If Saul hiwl b.-.n l.ss of s Jew, l-ao! tlK^ ,\{«>st;re w„u!u have bau i.»» U.ui aaJ independent. His work would have Inen in. re siiuerflcial, and his mind less unfelt.r,-,! IW did uot choow » boatlwu to bo the aposllv for tU CHRISTIAinTT. Labonof at. Fini. CHRISTIANITT. knthen; for he might hare been ensnared by the tradition* of Judaism, by its priestly hier- srchy and the splendours ol its worship, as in- deed It bsppenra with the church of the second century. On the comrary Ood chose a Pharisee. But this Pharisee had the most complete ex- perience of the emptiness of external ceremonies ud the crushing yoke of the law. There was no fear that he would <!ver look back, that he would be tempted to set up again what t'^e grace of Ood had justly overthrown (Gal. 11. IG). Juda- ism was wholly vanquished in his soul, for it was wholly displaced. "—A. Sabatier, TheAryeilt Paul, p. 69.— "Notwithstanding the opprsition be met from his countrymen, in spite of t.ii the liberal and the awc'iened sympathies whi?h he derived from his w 'rk, despite the necessity of conleD.ling daily ai.d hourl^ trt the freedom of the Gospel among ti.e Ge:;uies, he never ceased to be a Jew. . . . The most ardent patriot could not enlarge with greater pride on the •;lorics of the chosen race than he does in the Epist;-* to the Romana His care for the poor in Judoti is a touching proof of the strength of this n ttlonal feeling. Ills attendance at the great annual fes- ti'alsin Jerusalem is still more signiflcont. 'I riuit spend the coming feast at Jerusalem. ' This nguaKC beroiuea the more striking when we ememlwr that he was then intending to open out a new tleUi of missionary lalmur in the far West, and was bidding perhaps his Inst far"well to the Holy City, tlie loy of the whole earth."— J. B. Lljtlitfoot. Bihtifal Eunyt, pp. 200-210 — "The .Macedonian Churches are honorably dis- tlnguishcil ab^ve all others by their Hdclity to the GiwiM'l a .d their affectionate regard for 8t Paul himself. While the Church of Corinth disirriioil herself by gross moral deliniiuencies, whili' till- Ualittians bartered the lilK'rty of the Gospel for a narrow formalism, while the be- lierera of Kphesus drifted into the wildest speculative errors, no such stain attiiches to the brethren of Pliilippl «n(l Thesanlonica. It is to the Macviloniiin congregations that the Apostle ever turns for solace in tlie midst of his severest trials and sufferings. Time seems not to have chli:,'<l ihi'se feelings of mutual alTection. The Epistle to the I'liilipplans was writu-n about ten yean after the Tlu-agalonian letters. It is the more sur, rising therefore that they should re- wmbic each other so strongly in tone. In both •like .St I'uul drops his olllciiil title at the outset . Olid in both he adopts throughout the same tone of confidence and aroction. In this inter- val of ten years we meet with one notice of the Mawilonlan Churchei It is conceived In terms of luiimiisured praise. The Ma ■•■donians bad l»een c«|l„l upon to contribjto u> the wants of their p()<inr brethren iu Juda'a, who were suffer- og .r .m famine. They had resp«m«UHl n,>bly to itie call I)v«p simk in poverty and sorely tried by peiiiprutloii. they came forward with eager jor and pnur.'.l out the riches of their lllicrBllty •tralDlnij their means to the utmost in order to relieve t he »uffer.-rs, , . . We may imagine that the pe.,ple ,1111 reialni-d something of those •implir habits mil that ntunlier character, which .,»;'',''"■'' '".*' ""*'" ""'I Orientals in the days " r.M,:j. am! AK-iamicr, ai.d l.'ius in the e.rty ^^u . "'j''" <^'"^»"«'' t'hurch the Maccloniai PhalMi offered a successful resistance to the •Jjjulls of .n enemy, before which the lax and «»rv»t*d rvikt of Ada and AciuU bad yielded ir^ominlously,"- J. B. Lightfoot, BiNieal Euayt, I '. 849-250.- At Jerusalem, "the Apostle was rescued by a detachment of the Roman garrison from a mob of Jewish mallgnants, was held in custody for two years at Cesarea, and was finally enabled to accomplish a long-cherished Intention to go to Rome, by being conveved there as a prisoner, he having made an appeal to Ctesar. After being wrecked on the Mediterranean and cast ashore on the Island of MalU, under the cir- cumstances rehited in Luke's graphic and accu- rate description of the voyage, he went on his way in safety to the capital."— O. P. Fisher. Ilit- tvryoftKeChrittian Chnrch,p. 29.- "Paulsapos- tollc career, as known to us, lasted . . . twcnty- ntae or thirty years; and it falls into three distinct periods which are summarized in the following chronological table : First Pcrio<l — Es- sentlallv Mlssionery: 85 A. D., Conversion of Paul. — journey to Arabia; 38, First visit to Jerusalem; 88-49, Mission in Syria and Cilicia— Taraus and Antioch ; 50-51,Fir8t missionary jour- "Py— Cyprus, PamphyliaandOalatia tActexiii., xiv.); 52, Conference at Jerusalem ;Ajtsxv. ; QaL li.); 52-55, Secondmissionary jou'jey — Epistles to the Thessalonlans from Coiinth). Second Period —The Great t uiflicts, and the Great Epis- tles: 54, Return to Antioch — Controversy with Peter (Oal. li. 12-22); 5.V5T, Mission to Ephesus and Asia; 66, Epistle to the Oalatians; .WorSS (Passover), Firet Epistle to the Corinthians (Ephesus); 57 or 58 (.Sutumn), Second Epistle to the Corinthians (Maccdoida); 58 (Winter) Epistle to the Romans. Third Period — The Captivity; 58 or 69 (Pentecost), Paul Is arrested at Jerusalem ; 58-60, or 59-61, Captivity at Cffis- area — Epistles to Philemon, Colossians and Ephesians; 60 or 61 (Autumn), IX'parture for Rome; 61 or 03 (Sprint'), Arrival of Puul In Rome ; 63-63, Epistle to the Phillppians ; 63 or 64 End of the narrative of the Acu of tlie Apos- tles. "—A. Sabatier, TKe Apottlt Paul, pp. 21-23 _ "The impression that we get from Acta is, that the evangelisation of Asia Minor originated from St. Paul; and that from his initiative the new reli- gion gradually spread over the country through the action of many other missionaries (Acts xfi. 10). Moreover, missionaries not trained bv him were at work in South Oalatia and In Enlu'susas early as 64-56 A. I), (Oal. v. 7-10; Acts xviil 85). . . . The Christian Churrli in Asia Minor was always opposed to the priinltl»-e native eliar- arter It was t'hristianltv, and not tlu^ Imperial government, which llnallv destnived the native languages, and made Orcek the'universul lan- guage of Asia Minor. The new religion was strong in the towns before it '.'ml any lioM of the country parts. The ruder and the le.ss rivlliaed any district was, the slower was Christianity in permeating it Christianity in tlie eariv centuries was the R'l^Hon o' the more advaneed.'not of the ' barbarian ' [H-opleo , and in fact it wems to be nearlv ceinllned within the limits of the Roman world, and pructically to take little thought of any people l»vond, though Intlieory, ' Hariiarian and Scythhm are ineluded in it. . , . The First Epistle of John was In all prolMbility 'addnssed primarilv to the cln-le of A«lal!c Churrtiis, n! which fcplieaus was the centre.'"— W. M. Ilim- .«y, T"** Church in the Unann Emjiire, pp. 284, 44, 80;i.— '■ Unless we arc pre|iared to ri'Jeet with- out a hr ring si' the traditions of Christianity we ca^ji rcfuD to believe that the latest yean 461 CHRISTlAinTT. M/okm CHRISTIAKTIT of the Apottie St John were ipent In the Roman proTlDce of Asia and chiefly in £phesu8 Its capi- tal. This tradition is singularly full, consistent and well-authenticated. Here he gathered disci- ples about him. organized churches, appointed bishops and presbyters. A whole chorus of voices unite In bearing testimony to its truth. One who passed his earlieT life hi these parts and had heanl his aged master, a disciple of St. John himself, recount his personal reminiscences of the great Apostle; another, who held tliis very see of Ephusus, and writing less than a century after the Apostle's death was linlted with the past by a chi-in of relatives all bishops in the Christian Church; a third who also flourished about the close of the century in I numbered among bis teachers an oid man fn)iii this very district — are the principal, because the most distinct, witnessi'S to a fact which is implied in several other notices of earlier or contemporary wriUTS. As to the time at which St. John left 1 ' original homeanc' settled in this new abode nodirect account is pre- servcti; but a very probable conjecture mav bj hazarded. The impending fall of the Holy t'it ' was the signal for tiic dispersion of the followcM of Chri.st. About this stiine time the tlin^e oil; - great Anostles, St. Peter, St. Paul and St. James, died a nmrtvr's death ; and on St. John, the lost surviving of the four great pillars of the Church, devolved the work of developing the theology of the Gospel and completing the organization of the Church. It was not unnatural that at such a crisis he should fix bis residence in the centre of a large and growing Christian community, vhicU had been planted by the Apostle of the GcntiLo and wat-ri-d by the AiHwtle of the Cirrumeision.' The missionary lalKJurp ol St. Paul and St. Peter in Asia Minor wen- .onflrmed and extended bv the prolonged res'Mcnce of their younger coii- temponiry. At j.II events such evidence as we possess is favouraliie t tni^ view of the date of St. John's si'ttlement at Ephesus. Assuming that the Ap<x-alyp8e is the work of " beloved Apos- tle, and accepting the v'.-w whic assigns it to the close of >en)s rcign or thereal)outs, we find him now for the first time in tlio immediaU ncighlH)Hrhood of Asia Minorniid in direct com- inunicution with Ephesus and the miglibouring Churrlies. St. John however was not alone ^Vhetlu•r <lniwn thii,. r by the attraction of his presence or acting in pursuance of some common agneimnt, the few surviving personal dKciples of the I.<)nl woulil seem to have chosen Asia MiP'iras their permanent abode, or at all events as their remgnW'd Ii<«il,|imrter8. Here at least wc meet witli the friend of St. John's youth an<i perlmps his fellow. townsman, Andrew o' Ilelh- BHlda, who with liira had first lisU'tied to John the Biiptisi. and with himalsohail been the earliest to ricofTiiise Jesus as the Christ. Here tiKj we encounter Philip the Evangelist with his daugh- ters, mid perhaps also Philip o' Ih'thsuidu, the Apostle. Here alv. was settled the Apostle's namesake, John the Presbyter, also a personal disciple of Jesus, and one Aristion, not ether- wise known to us, who likewise had heanl the Ixird. And (sisslbly also other Apostles whoso traditions Pajiias n-eonled Iseo J. 11. LiglitfiH)t A/MfMie Father; p. M^], >fatthew and Thomas Slid James, may have hail some ninrwurinn, tpin- porary or penhanent, with this district. Thus surrounded the surviving disciples of the Lord, by blii.opi tad preibyten of iiit own ap- polntinent, and by the pupiU who gathewd about him and l.xiked to him for instruction 8t John was the fo.us of a large and active sor'ietv of heli«ver». In this respect he holds a unique pos-Uon ainong the great teachers of the ucvt faith. St. Peter and tit. Paul converted rtl.scinle's and organized congregaUons ; St. John alone was the centre of a school. His life prtilonped tin the close of the century, when the t'lmreh was ,?u^J°'J*^'^, ^"'l *;''•"';' "^"tended, combined with his fixed alxxle in the centre of an estsb- lished community to give a certain deHnitiness to his personal influence which would be wnntin? to the wider labours of these str<.iiy niLssionarv preachers. Hence the notiw-s of St. John haves mnre solid ba»ls and claim grec.ier attention than rojries relating to the other Apostles "—J B Llghtfoit. nmieal Em-'/; pp. 81-,'5.3._" In'.he parable of Jesus, of which we are speskiiiL' it is said that 'the earth br.ageth forth fruit i.f tn,- self;'— that is, to tm:.»fcr the Greek term into English, 'automatically.' That epithet is chosen which denotes most precisely a self netin:,' spon- taneous energy, inherent in thesei'd wliiih Jesus through his discourses, his acts of nierey and power, and his patience unto death, was sowinB in the world. This grand prophetic deelanition utu-red in a figure so simple and beuutlful in the ears of a little company of Oalilerins was lo be wonilerfully verified In the coiuini; O". ,f Christiiin history."— O. P. Fisher, Th« .V, rt and Mrthiid oflttteUitutn, p. 47. Alexandria. — "Plutarch looketl upon it a« the great mission of Alexander to iniiisiilunt Grecian culture into distant count ries, mid to conciUate On^■ks and barbarians, ami In fuse them into one. He says of him. not without reason, that he was sent of God for this |iuriinse though the historian did not divine lliiii this eDci itself Was only subsidiary to, and the miiinsef one still hijrl - — the niakiiig, viz., the united peoples of th Kast and West more aeeessihle to the new cnaiioa which was to prMced from Christianity, and by the combination of ihe ele- ments of Oriental anil Hellenic culture the piv- paring for Christianity a material iu wliiih it might develop itself If we overlook this ulterior end. and do not fix our n'ganls i ii tlie hiKlur quickening spirit destined to reanim \U\ for .some new end. that combination which a read v liore within itself a germ of corruption, ac "might well doulit whether that unhin was na.'v a gain to eitlier party; whether, at least, it «;is not everywhere attended with a corre»|Kin(h nt loss. For the fresh vigour which it infused inio tie old national spirit must have Ihm'M con-lanlly f- pressed by the violence which the fi.nii;n ele- ment did to it. To intriHluce into that eoniWns tlon anew living principle of develn|.iiii nt. aud. w'thout prejudiie to their original ess<i.. e. to unite p«'culhirith'« the most diverse Inin a whnli' in which each part shouhl Iw a eoiiipl.'ment to the other, reiiuln-d siuiiethiiig hiirhir than any element of human culture. The true living rora- munion tietween the lOast and Ihi- \\e«t. which ■hould cimiblne together the two peculiar prin- ciples that were equally necessary f.ir a loiiiiihtc exhibition of the tyiH! of hunmnitv. enul 1 Ilrsl come only from Christianity. Uiit'siill. as pre- parst'iry tlufrto, the iniiuenro whi.ii, f, r thrm centuries, went forth fmm Alexandria, that a>n- tre of the intercourse of the world, was of great Importance."— A. Meander, Uentral Uiit. of t\i 452 CHBISTIANITT. n* £arty CkwrA at Bowu. CHRISTIAinTT. Chritlian Religion and Church, t. 1, introd.— "The Greek version [of the Old Testament, the geptuagint], like tlieTargum of the Palestinians, origiosted, no do ibt, in the first place, in a felt Ditlonal want on he part of the Helk-aisu, who u a body were igi. 'rant of Hebrew. Hence wo Jnd notices of very --ariy Greek versions of at least partsof the Pentateuch. But this, of counse. could not sulBce. On the other hand, there ex- isted, as we may suppose, a natural curiosity ou the part of the students, specially in Alexandria, which bud so large a Jewish population, to know ihe sacred hooks on which the religion and bistory of Israel were founded. Even more than this, we must take into account the literary taste' of the first thitie Ptolemies (successors in Egypt of Alexander the Great), and the excep- tional favour which the Jews for a time enjoyed. " — A. Edersbeim, L\fa and Timti of Jetui the Matinh, e. I. p. 24. Rome.— "Alongside of the province of Aski Minor, Rome very early attains to an outstanding Importance for young Christianity. If, as we have supposed, the community here which eman- dpated itself from the synagogue was mainly recniitcd from among the proselyte circles which had formed themselves around the Jewish syna- gogue, if Paid (luring the years of his captivity, ana Peter also, influenccl this preponderatingly OeiitlleChristian community, we must, however, by no means undervalue for the Christian com- munity the continuous influence of Judaism on the Itonian world, an influence which was not lessened but rather increased by the destruction of Jerusalem. Many thousands of Jewish cap- tives bad arrived hei.: and l)ccn sold as slaves — Rome was the greatest Jewish city In the Empire, . . . and in part it was an enlightened and lilwral Judaism. Jowlsh Hellenism bad already long availed itself of the weapons of Hellenic philoso- phy ami stieme . . . in order to exalt the Jewish fpiili. . . . Under this stimulus there was . . . developed a pruselytisni which was Indeed at- trarteil l)y that monotheism and the belief in providence ai d prophecy and the moral Ideas tllieil therewith, and which also had a strong tenileney to Jewish customs and festivals — ea- pecliilly the keeping of tlic Sabbath — but which remuiiied fur fniiii binding itself to a strictly Icgnl way (if Iif(! in circiiiiicision, etc. We may >up|n>He that Koiiian ('hristiani'v not only ap- peared In the charaetj.'r of such a p...;j|ytism, but also retained fmin it a certain Jewish colouring." — \V. Mueller, Iliatory of tht Clirittian Church: A. D. l-flOd. /)/). H3-S4.— "The last notice of the Roman Cliiireh in tlie Apostolic writings seems to ixiiiit to tw(j separate coniinunitics, a Judaiz- \af Chun h uiid a Pauline Churrh. The arrival of the Cleutile .Vpostic in the metropolis, it would aptxar. wiis the siirnal for the scpamtion of the Jmhiirird. »li>i Iniil hitherto associated with their 0-r.;;ie linllireii o.dilly and distrustfully. The preseu if M. Puiil iiiiist have vastly strength- ened die iiiiiiilierH and influence of the more li' .al iiuil Ciithi.llc party: while the J'ldaizers piuviikcit In rivalry reihiiililed their efforts, that liimakliij,'e.mvert.-i to the Gospel they might also gain priHelyies to the law."— J. B. Liglitfuut, Diufl.ili,,!,!! :,n Ihe Aixittidie Age, }>. B4. — "His- torical intiiriiiaiion of any certainty on tbe latter peri.id (if Paul, life is entirely wanting. While theeplMlcH reiiiiire this unknown pcrtod, and a Kcoud euptivlty, as a basis for their apottollc origin, on the other hi>nd, the hypothesis of a second captivity scarcely finds any real founda- tions except in the three Pistoral letters."— A. fahatier, TIte ApoHle Ihitil, p. 869.— It only re- mains for us, returning to tbe close of the apos- tle's life, to put together the slencler indication! that we have of its date. He embariied for Itome in the autumn of 60 (or 61) A. D. ; but was com- pelled by shipwreck to winter In the island of Malta, and only reached the Etcmui City in the spring of 61 (62). Luke adds tliat he remained there as a prisoner for two years, living in a private house under the guanf of a soldier; then his narrative breaks off abruptly, and we are confronted with the unknown (Acts, xxviii. 30). Paul is supposed to have perished in the fright- ful persecution caused bv the fire -if Rome in July 64 A. D. All that is' certain is that he died a martyr at Rome under Nero (Sabatier). [The purpose of what follows in this article is to give a brief history of Christianity in son ~ of its relations to general history by the methou of this work, and in the light of some of the best thought of our time. The article as a combina- tion of quotations from many authors attempts a presentation of historic facts, and also a positive and representative view, so far as this may be obtained under the guidance of ideas common to many of tl.e books used. Some of these books have had more influence on the devehipmeut of the article than others : entire harmony and a full presentation of any author's view would mani- festly be Impossible. Nevertheless, the reader may discover in the article principles and ele- ments of unity derived from the literature and rcprescting it. Unfortunately, one of the es- sential parts of such a history must be omitted — biography. J A. D. ioo-3ia.--The Period of Growth and StruEgle. — "Chriitian belief. Christian moral- ity, the Christian view of the world, of which tlic church as a rcligieiis society and institution is the focus, as fluid spii'.nial elemeuts permeate hiimnnity as it liecomesClirii'ittii, fuc beyond the sphere of the church proper; while convcrs<'T the church is not assured against the possibility tl!;it spiritual elements originally alien to her may (luminate snd influence her in their turn. ... In this living interaction tue peculiar life of the c'l'-Th is unfolded. In accordance with its Internal pilpclples of forniatidu, into an ex- iraordinarily maniioM and complicated object of historical examination. . . For this purpose it is necessary to elucidate t'lc general historical movement of the cliuo h by the relative separa- tion of certain of its a!i|M'( is. without loosening the bond of unity."— W, M.K'ller, Ilitt. of tht Clirintiiin Church: A. 1). 1-000. ;i;). 1-3.— "Such, in fact, has been the history of the Faith : a sad and yet a glorious succession of battles, often hardly fouglit, and sonietiiiies indecisive. Ix'tween the new life and the old life . . . The Christian victory of coH'inon life was wroug'iiout in silence and patience and naiiieiess ai;(Miies. It was the victory of the soldiers nmi nul of the captains of Christ's army. Hut in due liuie another cnnfllct had to be sustained, not by the massis. but by gn'atmen, the conse(|iienee and theciimpletiim of tfiut which liad gone tiefore. . . . The discipline of action preee(i(>s tlic elTorl of reascn. ... So it CHiiie to pass tliat the pcriiMl during wliieh this second conflict of tlie Kiitli wiu waned wai, rtiugbly speaking, from tbe middle of the second 453 CHRISTIAinTT. OrMt PhOatopImn and CHRISTIAinTT. to the middle of the third centuir. "— B. F. We»t- cott, Bmay in tht llittory of Heligiout Thougkt in tlu Wat, pp. 194-197.— ■■PhfloeophT went on its way among the higher cliiiei, but laid ab- ■olutely no hold on men at large. The reforma- tion which it wrought in a few elect apirita failed utterly to spread downward to the mass of mankind. The poor were not touched by it; society was not helped by it; IM noblest men, and they grew fewer and fewer, genera- tion by generation, bewailed bitterly the univer- lal Indifference. The schools dwindled into a mere univeraity system of culture; Christi- anltv developed into a religion for the civilised world. . . . New ideas it bad in abundance, but new ideas were not the secret of its power. The essential matter in the Oospel was that it was the history of a Life. It waa a tale of fact that all could understand, that all could believe, that all could love. It differed fundamenully from Phi- losophy, because it appealed not to culture, but to life. ... It was the spell of substantial facts, living facts, . . . thespcllofaloyaltytoapersonal Lord ; and those who have not mastereil the differ- ence between it philosopher's speculations about life, and the actual record of a life which, in all that makes life holy and beautiful, transcended the philosopher's most pure and lofty dreams, hai'e not understood yet the rudiments of the reason whv the Stoic could not. while Christiaulty could and dill, regenerate socictv." — J. B. Brown, Sioiei and Siinlt, vp. 85-86.— The 'period, from the accedsiun of Marcus Aurelius (A. D. 161) to the accession of Valerian (A. U. 253) was for the Oen- tile wnrld n period of unrest and exhaustion, of femient niid of imlcrision. The time of great hopes and creative minds was gone. The most conspicuous men were, with few exceptions, busied with tlie piist. . . . Local beliefs hiid lost their power. Even old Rome ceased to exercise an unciuestioned monil supremacy. Men strove to be cosmopolitan. Tliey strove vagu ly after a unity in wliieh the scattered elements of ancient experience sliould lie harmonizetl. The effect can be s<'en lK)tli in the policv of statesmen and lii the speculations of philosophers, in Marcus Auielius, or Alexander Severus. or Decius, no less than in Plotiuus or Porphyry. As a necessary conse- quence, the teaching of the Bible accewiihle in Greek began to attract serious attention among the heatlieu. The assailants of C'iiristianity, even if they affected contempt, shewed that they were dwply movol 1^ its doctrines. 'I'lie mem- orable saying of Numenius, • What is Plato but Moses speakhig in tlie language of Athens?' shews at once the feeling after spiritual sympathy which iH'gan to \>e entertained, and the want of splritunl iusiirlit in the representatives of Geniile thought. "—B. F. Westcott, JSMoystn t/m IIMo'y of Urli;/iiim Thdiight in tht Wut, pp. 196-IB7.— " To cur miniis it apiH^rs that the preparation of philosophy for Christianity was complete. , . . The time wiui ripe fur tliat movement of which Ju.stin is the earliest [complete] representative." — Q. T. I'urves, The Tftinwuyof/utliti .Vartyr, p. 135— "The writing in defense of Christi- anity is called t'le apology, and the writer an apologist . . . Tli?rc were two classes of apolo- gists, tlie Greek and the Latin, according ui the lerrlloiy which Ihey occupied, and tile language in which thcv wrote. But there were further differences. The Greeks belonged mostly to the •ecood century, and their wriuogt exhibited a profound IntimacT with the Greek pliilosnnhv Some of them had studied in the Greek scliools and entered thechu.ch only in mature life. They endeavored to prove that Christianity was tlie blossom of all that was valuable in every system. They stood largely on the defensive. Tlie fjitjns' on the other hand, were aggressive. They lived mostly in the third century. . . . Tlie priiiclpsl Greek spologisU [were] Aristo, Qiiailnitus Arts- tides [A. D. 181], Justin [A. D. 180], Melito [.V. D 1701, Miltiades, Irenaeus, Athenagoms |A. D 178], Tatian, Clement of Alexandria | A. I) im Ilippolytus, and Origen [A. D. 8i5].'— j p Hurst, Short IliHory of the Chrirtiun Church n 83. Lightfoot assigns to about A. I). 15u (?i 'ih« author of the Epistle to Diognetus. "fimei without number the defenders of Clirlsiianitv appeal to the great and advantageous clinnirt wrought by the Gospel in all who emlinKeti ft. ..." We who liated and destroyed one another and on account of their different manners would not receive into our houses men of a diirirent tribe, now, since the coming of Christ, live fa- miliarlr with them. We pray for our enemlei, we endeavor to persuade those who hate us un- justly to live conformably to the beautiful pu- cepts of Christ, to the end that they niiiv iKTume partakers with us of the same joyful linpe uf a reward from God, the Ruler or all.' This dis- tinction between Christians and heaihin, tbii consciousness of a complete change in eliaraott'r and life, is nowliere more beautifully dibcrilted than In the noble epistle ... to IMo^'nctus." — Gerhard Uhlhom, Tht Conflict of VhiittMiUty with Heathenitm, p. 186, — "For Cliristi;ins are not distinguished from the rest of muukiml eitlier in locality or In speech or in customs. F.t they dwell not somewhere In cities of lluir own, neither do they use some different luiittuage. nor practise sn extraordinary kind of life. . . . But while they dwell in cities of Greeks and liarlis. rians as the lot of e.ich is cest, and I'mMuw the native customs in dress and food an<l the othrr arrangements of life, yet the coustituiidii uf thiir own citizenship, which they set forth, is nuirvil- lous, and confessedly contradicts e.vpiiiation. They dwell In their own countries. Ijut onlv as sojourners; they bear their slmn- in iiM lli'ings as citizens, and they endure all li^ir<!>hi|>s as strangers. Every foreign country is a fullirrlanJ to them, and every ftttiicrianii Is foniirn Their existence is on earth, hut their i iii/.iiship is in heaven. Tliey obey the estalilishid l.iws, and they surpass the laws in tlitir own lives. They love all men and tlicy are persei nt.ii hy all. . . . War is urged against tlieni as all. ns hy the Jews, and persecution is carried <>ri airaiiiit them by the Greeks, and yet those tliat Mat" tLem cannot tell the reason of their lioHtilitv. — ,1 B Lightfoot, Trant. of the Kpitllf to /)/•»/«. r.o i The Apottulie fUthen, pp. 60,V-50fl) — "TIk-- apoln. gists rise against piiilosopliy also, out vf H....a they themselves had arisen, in the full (luiMiuus ness of their faith open to all and not >ii>ly u, the cultured few, the certainty of w hieli, Ui^ld upon revelation, cannot be replaced bv uncertain liiinan wisdom, which, moreover, isself-contra.lic lory in its most important representatives. (In lli'' other liand. they wililnily recogni.se in tlie pliilowphr by means' of whicti tliey had tlieniMiMs lieeb educated, certain elements of truth, wliii h they partly derive from tlio scedconisof truth, which the divine Logos bad scattered among the heatbta 454 CBRISTIANITT. KOM9 CHRisTiANrrr. ilio, putlr eztemally from a dmendeno* of Onek wtMom oo the much older wudom of the Eut, ud therefore from the uae of the Scripture* of the Old Testament To the reproach that they ti*d deserted the religion which had been handed down from their ancestors and thereby made ■acred, they oppose the right of recognised truth, the right of freedom of conscience; re- UgloD becomes the peculiar affair ' * personal coQvictioo, against which methods of force do not tufflce: Ood is to be obeyed rather tlian man." — W. Hoeller, Hill, of the Chrutian Churth: A. D. 1-600, p. 179.— "Such a morality, as Roman greitni'ss was passing away, took pc^session of Uie ground. Its beginnings were scarcely felt, icarcely known of, In the vast movement of sSairs in the greatest of empires. By and by Ita prefDce, strangely austere, strangely gentle, itrangcly tender, strangely Inflexible, began to be noticed. But its work was long only a work o( indirect preparation. Those whom it ctiarmed, tfaoK whom it opposed, those whom it tamed, knew not what was beins done for the genera- tions which were to follow." — FL W. Chureh, The OiJU of Civilitation, p. 159. — "The more spiritual and profound historians of the Church recognize it as a manifestation of this divine life Sowing into human history. But this is true of the organized church only with important qualiHrutiuns. The life must manifest itself in ID organization ; but the organization is neither the only nor the complete exposition of the life. . . . The life wliirh creates the organization penetrates and purifies also the fi-niiy and the state, renovates individuals, and blooms and fructities in Christian civilisations; and these are alto liistorical maaifestations." — 8. Harris, Tht Kingdom of Chi-itt on Earth, p. 87. — It was the great fnrmatlve period of the world's new life, and all streams tended to flow together. The in- fluence of Greek thought on Roman law had led, under the circumstances of Roman commercial life, to the development of an ideal "jus gen- tium." a kind of natural law discovered by the reason. This conception tr»nsf<)rme<i the Roman law and brought it into touch with the new sense of human relationa "It was by means of this bigber conceptior .f equity which resulted from the iili ntiflcatioi f the jus gentium with tiie Jul iiatunilc — th the alliance Ixawcen law and philosophy was i lly made efficient '—\V. C. Morey, OulUiu$ _, om Raman Law, p. 114. "There were tliree agencies whose influence in workiiii; simultaneously and successively at this Idcntirul task, the developing and importing of the ius gentium, was decisive of tlie ultimate result These were the practorl»n edict [which ftacliij its climax under the Ri;publlc and was coraol.teil under Il»drian],IlomBn scientific Juris- pruiUuL-c [which developed its greatest ability about A. U, 200) and imperial legislation."— K-M\m,IiittUutttnf Itaman Lin. p. 46.— "The Utenl poliiv of Rome gradually extended the P""'' ' of her citizenship till it included all herBulijrots; nod nloni; with the 'Jus suffragii." went of ciiurM the 'Jus honorum.' Even under Augustus -lud a Spanianl consul at Rome; and under (iallia nn Ejryptian is governor of tgyrt_ It is not long Ix-fore even the emperor rm,^:t X, s;:ppliid by iIk- ()ruviuee«. It ia eosy to eoinpr..h,nd therefor.' how the provincUis torgoi III,, fatherlaml of their birth for the father- Uud of their titlzenship. Ouco win the fran- chise, and to great capacity was opened a great career. The Roman Empire came to be a homo- geneous mass of privileged persons, largely using the same language, aiming at the same type of civilisation, equal among themseWes, but all alike conscious of their superiority to the surrounding barbarians. '—W. T. Arnold, Th* Soman SyOem of Provineial Adminutration, P- 87. — "As far as she could, Rome destroyed the individual genius of nations: she seems to have rendered them unqualified for a national ex- istence. When the public life of the Empire ceased, Italy, Oaul, and Spain were thus unable to become nations. Their great historical ex- istence did not commence until after the arrival of the barbarians, and after several centuriea of experiments amid violence and calamity. But how does it happen that the countries which Rome did not conquer, or did nut long have under her sway, now hold such a promhient place in the world— that they exhibit so much originality and such complete confidence in their future? Is it only because, having existed a shorter time, they are entitled to a longer future? Or, perchance, did Rome leave behind her certain habits of mind, intellectual and moral qualities, which Impede and limit activity? "— E. Lavisse, PMtical Hitt. of Europe, p. 6. — Patriotism was a considerable part of both the ancient religion and the old moralltv. The empire weakened the former and deeply injured the latter by conquest of the Individual statea It had little to offer in place of these except that anomaly, the worship of the emperor; and a law and justice adminis- tered by rulers who, to say the least, grew very rich. "The feeling of pride in Roman citizen- ship . . became much weukprns the citizenship was widened. . . . Roman citizenship included an ever growing proportion of the population in every land round tlie Mediterranean, till nt last it embraced the whole Roman worlil. . . . Chris- tianity also created a religion for the Empire, transcending all distinctioi.s of nationality. . . . The path ofdevclopmcnt for the Empire lay in accepting the rcligiou offered it to complete its orjranisatlon. Down to the time of Hadrian there was a certain progress on the part of ilie Empiro towards a recoffnltinn of tliis necessity." — W. M. Ramsay, Tht Church in the Ui,m,m Empire, pp. 873, 101-102.— The relations of the laws of the Empire to Christianity may lie britlly stated, but there are diffcrcnci-s of opiiiicn wUuU cannot be noted here: "A. I>. 3i) to IIHI. Cliristians treated as a sect of the Jews and shariiij; in the general toleration accorded to them. A. 1). 100 to 2.50, Christians recognized, . . . ami rendered liable to persecution: (Ist) For treason an(l impiety. ('.!nd) As belonging to illegal associations, but at the same time protected in their capacity of tnembers of Friend 1 v or Burial Societies of a kind allowed by the law. A. 1). 2.)0 to 2U0, Christi- anity recognized as a fomiidalile power by the State. Commcneeineut of an open struggle be- tween Chrislianlly and the secular authority. . . . The cemeteries of the Christians now for the first time inlerfcreil with and became places of hiding and secret asicmbly. A. I). .00 to 800, I'crsecutions cease fur a time, 40 years Peace for the lliurch. Time of mii<h prosiMTily when, as Eiiselilus writes. • great inulliluilrs Hoclted to the religion of Christ.' A. D. 800 to 313, Last de- cisive struggle under Diocletiim. "— O. B. Brown, /'Vum Sehoia to Cathtdral.—" The Judges decided 455 CHRISTIAinTT. CHRISTIAinTT. Uo ibnplj In e^corduice with the km, knd, In the great mejorltj of cues, did lo c^nlly, aUmly, without psMioa, M men who wt umply die- charging their duty. . . . Not tLo prieeta, but the Emperon led the attack. ... It la true the Cbriitians never rebelled againat the State. They cannot be reproached wiub eren the appearance of a revolutiunarT ipirit Deiplaed, penecuted, abused, they itill never reTolted, but showed thenuelTea everywhere obedient to the lawi, ard ready to pay to the Empcrora the honor which waa theii due. Yet in one particular they could not obey, tue worahip of Idols, the strewing of in- cense to the Caesar-god. And In this one thing it waa made evident that in Christianity lay the germ of a wholly new political and social order. This is the character of the conflict which we are now to review. It is a contest of the spirit of Antiquity apinst that of Christianity, of the ancient heathen order of the world against the new Christian order. Ten persecutions are com- monly enumerated, viz., under Nero, Domltlan, Trajan, Hadrian, Marcus Aurelius, Septlmlus Severus, Maximinua the Tbraclao, Dcclus, Va- lerian, and Diocletian. This traditional enumera- tion Is, however, very superficial, and leaves en- tirely unrecognized the real course of the struggle. . . . Thnuirh times of relative tranquillity oc- curred. Christianity remained, notwithstanding, a prohibited religion. This being the case, the simple arrangement of the persecutions lo a series makes the Impression that they were all of the same character, while in fact the persecution under Noro was wholly different from that under Trajan and his successors, and this again varied essentially from those under Decius and Diocle- tian. The first persecution which was really general and systematically aimed at the suppres- sion of tlic Cliurch, WHS the Decian [see Rome: A. D. 192-284], That under Trajan and his suc- cessors [see Home: A. D. 96-188, 188-180, and 803-30.')] consisted merely of more or less fre- quent processes against individual Christians, in which the establLstied methods of trial were em- ployed, anil the existing laws were mote or less sharply used agninst them. Finally, the perse- cutions under Nero and Domitian [see IloiiB: A. 1). tU-OJ*. and 70-96] were mere outbreaks of I)er8<iniil cruelty and tyrannical caprice. . . . Christianity is the growing might: \iith the energy of "yotith it looks the future in the face, and there sies victory l)e<konlng onward. And how clianged are now its Ideas of tliat triumph! The eiirlier piTiml had no tliou^htof any vict4>ry but that w hieh C'lirist was to brmg at bis coming. . . . But in tlie time of Cyprian the hopes of the C'riatians are (lirt'ctc<i towards another victory: tb. , begin to grasp the idea that Christianity n ill vanquish heathenism from within, and become tlicdominant religion in the Roman Empire. . . . It is true that the Christians were still greatly in the minority. It is generally assumed that they formeil nlKiiit one-twelfth of the whole population In the Kast. and in the West about oi:c-fiftecntb. Even tills is pirhnps too high an estimate. But there were two things which gave a great im- portance to this minority. First, that no single religion of the much divided Heathenism had so many aiiherents as the Christian. Over against the ecattvri'd for.-^^* of Iteat'renism, the Cliris- tians fortned a close phalanx ; the Church was a compart and strongly framed organization. Second, the Christians were massed in the towns. while the rural population wu almost ei- clusively devoted to Heathenism. There existed in Antiocb, for instance, a Christian church of flfty thousand soula"— O. Uhlhom, Tht CoiMet of ChriHiaraty leith IltatKtnitm, bk. 8.— "The Encyclopedia of Missions " on the authority of the late Prof. R D. Hitchcock states that then are on record "the namea of churches eiistiDi at this period [at the close of the perseciitloiu] in SaS cities: cities of Europe 188, of Asia 214, of Africa 128." (See Appendix D.) Tliercwere tendencies at work In many of these against thai toward general catholic (universal) organization, but in suffering and sympathy the Cliristiaii Churches formed a vast body of l>elievers. "Such a vast organisation of a perfectly new kind, with no analogy in previously existing institutloni, was naturally slow In derelopment. . . . The critical stage was passed when the destruclinnot Jerusalem annihilated all poasibility of a loialised centre for Christianity, and made it clear that the centralisation of the Church could reside on ly In tn Idea — viz. , a process of intercommunlcatiuniunido and brotherhood. It would be lianily |w8«ibli! tu exaggerate the share which frequent mtcr- course from a very early stage between the sep- arate congregations had in moulding the lU velop- mentoi iheChurct Most of the d<K'U!n( uts In the New Testament are products and nionuinents of this Intercourse ; all attest in numlierli.sA iletail) the vivid interest which the scattered rom- munities took In one another. From the fii^; the Christian Idea waa to annihilate tlie sepurutioa due to space, and hold the moat distant hrotlicr as near as the nearest. A clear consciou.snt ss of the importance of this idea first appears Id the Pastoral Epistles, and is still stronger In writ- ings of A. D. 80-100. , . . The close n hitioos between dillen-nt coug" gations is lirougiit into strong relief by tlie ciuunistances dis<hiK(l In the letters of Ignatius; Ihn welcome extcmiecl everywhere to him; ihe hiving messages sent when hewoswritingtootlierchurrlies: theilipu- tations sent from churches off Ills road tu meet him and convoy him; the rapidity with which news of his progress was sent round, so that deputations from Ephesus, Magnesia, ami Tniiks were ready to visit him in Smyrna: the news fn>m Antiocb which reueheil hint In Tri':i.<<, hut which was unknown to him in !<niyriiii; the directions which he gave to eall a rouiiiil nf the church in Smyrna, and send a me>.tengt'r ti cud- gratulate the chureh in AntliH h : the kn'ml^lge tliat Ills fute is known to and is eni.':>.L'iiiir the efforts of tlie church in Uonie."— \V. -M. liamsay, Tht Chureh in the Poman Einpir', i>p. ;«>4-;i6« — "The fellowship . . . thus strongly Impressed oy apostolic hands on the infant Chureh. i.i never wholly lost sight of throughout all the aires, and its permanent expression is found in the synoj, whether cecumenic, provincial, orilhuoiin This becomes fainter as we reach the age in w hith a presbyter, told off from the IkxIv lo a ilisiinct parish, attaina gradual isolathm from hii lirttb- ren. But this c(mies some eeutiirii s l.iti r . . . Everywhere, till that decline, the I. ha is that of a brotherhood or corporate oflhe, a unity of function pervaded tiy an energy of iT'ihcrly love. ... It is no mere conlluenee of ui.iis be- fore distinct."— 11 llHviimn. /i. ---"•■ ■'■^''^■di (ConUmp. Her.. (Jet., ISH-JV— " It is the ai;c when the New Testament writings begin to I'^ine to- gether to form a geuctally reeoguueJ canon 4oG OHBISTIANITT. IUra$rUUt Chunk. C'HHIHTIAMITy. nt epvMltloB too to the ■oTenigii ipirit of tContanut propbecy undonbtedly locraHed the need (or it . . . After the example it the Oncetict, » begfamlng it tlio made with eze- Eitlckl eiplanation of New Teetament writingf ; ellto with one on the ReTclatlon of Jolin, acer- trJn HeriMditut with one on the Apoetlei. . . . rtoally, in thii Hune oppocitlon to the heretic*, it ii tought to Mcure the agreement of the dif- ferent churches with one another, and in this re- lation importance ia gained by the idea of a uni- venal (Catholic) Churdt So-called catholic Epiitlet of men of repute in the church to differ- ent communitiea are nlgblv regarded. Aa illua- tntlonii take tbote of BiahopIHonyiiutof Cor- inth tn Lvcediemon, Athens, Crete, Paphlagonia, Pontus. Rume (Euseb 4, 28)."— W. Mueller, //w(. (f the Chriitian Church, pp. 188-184.— " This period [100-812] may be divided into the Post- Apoetolic Age which reaches down to the middle of the Kcond century, and the Age . the Old Catholic Church which ends with the >..abliah- ment of the Church under Constantine. . . . The point of tranaltion from one Age to the other may be unhesitatingly set down at A. D. 170 The following are the moat important data In r> fard thereto. The death about A. D. 165 of uatin Martyr, who markt the highest point reached in the Post-Apoato'.ic Age and forms also the transition to the Old Catholic Age ; an<l Irenai'ua, flourishing somewhere about A. D 170, vbo was the real inaugurator of this latt' age. Beaidea these we come upon the beginning, of the Trinitarian controversies atraut the year 170. Finall ', the rejection of Montanism froB the univereal Catholic Church was effected aboct the year 170 by means of the synodal institutiio called into existence (or that purpose." — J. E. Kurtz, Church lUttory. v. 1, p. 70. — "If evenr church must so live in the world aa to be a part of its collective being, tL^n it must always be construed in and tlirough the place and unic to which it lives."— A. M. Fairbaim, r/tePtar* of Chritt in Modern T^^o/n^.—" The Church of :ie: first tliree centuries was never, except pertepa on the day of Pentecost, in an absolutely iJeK ' condition. But yet during the ages of persr . tioD. tlie Churrh as a whole was Tisiblr aa tia. worldly instiiUtion. It waa a spiritual en in recognized antagonism with the worldeti • — F. W . I'ulUr, The Primititt SainU and ■«• of lime. p. LOS.— All thegreaterfoicesof ' ee, politinil and legal, an<l commercial, aidei. lOse working within the church to create au uk-aoic unity. "Speaking with aome qualifications, the patristic church was Oreek, as the primitive church had bcenjewiah, and themedinval church was to he Latin. Its unity, like that of the Oreek nation, was federative; each church, like each of the Orcrian states, was a little commonwealth. As the Orerre wliich resisted the Persians waa one, not by any imperial organization, but by com- mon Ideas and a common love of liberty, so the church of the fatlier* waa one, not by any organic connt'Otion, but by common thoughts and sym- Mthics, ab.)ve all by a common loyalty to Christ. Naturally the questions which agitated such a church were those which concern the individual loul rather than society. Ita meml>en made much of personal beliefs and apeculatiTe opinions ; and so long as the old free spirit laated they al- lowed one another large freedom of tliought, only lequlrhig that common iuttnct of loyalty to Christ Hapr-fly for the world, that free tpiilt did not die < t from the East for at least two centuries aftt Paul had proclaimed the indirld- ual relational o of the soul to Ood. . . . The genius of the -eek expressing Itself in thought, of the Latin ruling power, the ChristUnity whichwastoi former a body of truth, became to the latter a syi- :n of government." — O. A. Jack- son, Thi Fatiu ^ of ths Third Century, pp. 164- 156.— The Ap 'tolic Ideal was set forth, and wltliin a few g. t-rati^ns forgotten. The vision was only for a ume and then vanished. ' ' The kingdom of Chnst, not being a kingdom of this world, is not liiiJted by the restrictions which fetter other socit tt, political or religious. It is in the fullest sei) -• free, comprehensive, univer- sal. ... It is m «t important that we should keep this ideal drflnltely in view, and I have theiofore stated it as broadly as possible. Yet the br ia statement, if allowed to stand alone, would suggest a false impression, or at least would convey only a half truth. It muft be evident tha*^ no socir-y of men could hold to- •I without offlc.'- without rules, without ms '>f any ■ d; and the Church of s not cxemr- ' m this universal law. iception iuMfe.i ■strictly an ideal, which i*cvcr hold befor .iir eyes. . . . Kvery rof tb»- human f ' -of th< fhunh. . It » M lianil. a(»<) h.ii «tmlie<( i, .tlion %T .^ttrntion, Christiar. h irch lia> I in the eautei'ipatioD il in tl3« jifmoval M : class aB»i i j^tas, ami in 'he diftusion of a aeral pii .iaalfampy untr»mi! kd by the fet- ■ '•n of par or race; in s!ii«, ii^t t > 'it mainly msat be -" ' the mfwt iinp"r-ant advan- tage* wh tli< «up>ri"' y of modem socleii ■ ' lusiiou y or uncon- scious .-. ■miversui priesthood, of therii.. f ail men, which, though not untai^ Morf. wxs first enil»xlied in the C'hiir- >)■■'. ■-t0tm. h%«w rked and is working un- t.ild 1 -lU^sSiip- i iustitution.H ami in social life. • !i>- -j-r- -'udent will alrto observe tliat II. -* . - . been vi ry imperfectly anpn'! .ironghout the history of t£- < ' i^ifn strugeliug for rccogni- t ^ ili'eerneU in some of its a«i ;mes ■« holly ignored in others; " th' Ht'tual results are a verv 1 irr of its elHciicy, if only ft iTominencc and were allowed son . . It may be a general aadrr ordinary circuinstauecs a •-raal l:iw, that tliu highest acta il worship shall lie performed iicers of the congrega- V" may ari-ic Tvhen the ly A-as potentially a as surli, a pries, of denied, I think, oy historv of modem hat this conception • en mainly instru- f the dcjrwlcd and if artificial barriei°s and ■■ iiia< - cou fre. rulr prHi tK«ttj of ^ hf1»*tt)i Ihroui'h ?V principal tion. '?' ! an emergen spirit > i not the li • r must decide. The Christiat. ideal will then . interpret our duty. The higher ordinance of tjic universal priesthood will overrule nil sptviiil limitations. The lay- man will assume func is wliiih are otherwise restricted to the ordain luiuister." — J. B. Light- foot, Ihtnertationt on tlie Apoetolic Age, pp. 137- 140, 837 — "No Church now existing is an exact counterpart of the Apostolic Church. . . . AUu- ■ions bear out the idea tlutt the Church at Corinth wa* at yet almott ttructureleat — little more than 457 CHRBTUimT. Mtmtf CHRISnANITT. u aggiegtto of IndiTMuab— with no bUbop, picabyteror dewoo."— J. W. CuiuhiKhuii, Thi Orouth cf a* Ckurtk in itt OrganimO&n and In- «'»'•'/,««»». »• n, 18.— "Soiiio Ume b«fora the mlditle of the wcond century hereay benn ndly to diftnct the Chriitiu community ; ud to »Toid imminent danger of ichiim. It wu deemeo expe- dient in • few great town* to arm the diainnan of the eldenhip with additional power. A modifled fonn of prelacy was thua introduced."— W. D KUlen, nt Old OatMic Church, p. 81 Rea pect- tog the rise of the Episcopate aa a diitinct office there la a dillerence of opinion among acholan — aome holdhiK that i t wa« ex preaely or£dned by the Apoatlea, others that It nroae quite independently of thein ; a third class think that it waa developed gradually out of the eldership, but not without the sanction of one or more of the Apostles For the Church is a catholic society, that is a society belonging to all nationa and ages. As a Mtholic aocletj ft lacks the bonds of the life of a city or a nation — iocal contiguity, common lan- guage, common customs. We cannot then very well conceive how its corporate continuity could have been maintained otherwise than through some succession of persons such as, bearing the apostolic cummis8ion for ministry, should be It etch generation the necessary centres of the Church's llfe."-C. Gore, Tht Mutton of the CAureh,pp. 10, 11.— "Jewish presbyteries existed already in nil the principal citiesof the dispersion and Christian presbyteries would early occupy a not less wide area. . . . The name of the presbyter then presento no difficulty. But what must be said of the term bishop? . . . But these notices besides establishing the general prevalence of episcopacy, also throw considerable light on its origin. They Indicate Uiat the retatlon suggestwl by the historyof the word ' bishop ' and iu trans- ference from the lower to the higher office is tlie true solution, and that the episcopate was created out of the presbytery. . . . They seem to hint also that, so far as this development waa atfected at all by national temper and characteristics it was slower where the prevolling Influenoea were nionp\m]y Greek, as at Corinth and PfaillppI and Rome, and more rapid where an Oriental spirit predominated, as at Jerusalem and Antioch and Ephesus. Above all, they establish thia re- sult clearly, that iu naturer forms are seen first in those regions where the latest surviving Apostles (more especially St John) dxed their abode, and st a time when Iu prevalence cannot be dissociatfil from their influence or their sanc- tion. '—J. B. LiRhtfoot, Diuertationton theAnot- Mie Agt, pp. 151, 100, 191.- "Since then in the constitution of the church two elemenU met to- gether—the aristocratic and the monarchical- it could not fail to be the case that a conflict would ensue between them. . . . These str . gles »»- tween the presbytcrial and episcopal systems belong among the moat impor»aut phenomena connect- i with the process cf the develop- ment cf church life in the third century. Many presbyters mailc a capricious use of their power iiurtful to good discipline and order In the com- munities. —A. Ncander, General Milorv of the ChriUian Religion and Church, e. I, leet 2 — •' As a rule Christianitv would get a footfaig first in the metropolis of Iu region. The leasnr dtiea would be evangelized l)y misslona sent from thence ; and so the suffragan aeei would look oa tbenuelvM aa daughters of the metmpoUtu IM. The iMtropoHtao btsbop la (h« natunl rntiir hi unity for tC Uahop. of the provin " rhi ri^SfVhV^ metroDolltan sees acoulred certrin brothar biahopa. Moreover, among the ni».t Im portant churches • cerUIn order of precdenM grew up which correaponded with the livil dl^ nitr of thecitteain whld, those churches t."i»^: ■ad finally the churehea which were fomKledbv' ™ ^P*^*!J"J" "*»*«1 ""»" peculiar rever- theaetofOmt.pp. 11 and 18.-" The triumpj .i'"J!5'*^'" "y*""" undoubtedly promoted unity, order, and tranquillity But, oVtheolTr ^Ju," H?Ir°"r''''l'° "•« '™« development of the life of the church; and while thv latter promoted the formation of a pric8tho<xl foreign to the eaaence of that development of the kini- dom of God which the New Testanunt mu forth, on the other hand a revolution of semi. mert which had already been prepand-w alte; ^ view of the idea of the priesthcHl-had no small infiuence on the development of tb« episcopal system. Thus does this change of the original constitution of the Christian comnmni- tics stand Inttaiately connected with another and still more radical change, -the formation of a sacerdotal caste in the Christian church Out of the husk of Judaism Christianity had' evolved itsel r to freedom and independence,— had st ripped off the forms In which It first sprang up ind within which the new spirit lay at first con, ,a!cd until by Its own Inherent power it broke throueh them. This development belonged more par- ticuUirb^ to the Pauline position, from «lii(h proceeded the form of the church In the fjentilc world. In the struggle with the Jewish climeuta which r;>poaed the free development of (_ liristl- anity, tnis principle bad triumphantly m.ulr its way. In the churches of pagan Christ i:,ns the new creation stood forth completely unf.ildeil- but the Jewish principle, which had be. n vaa' quishe^, pressed in once more from unotlier quarter. Humanity waa as yet incapable of maintalnlne lUelf at the lofty position of pure spiritual religion. The Jewish position was Ut- ter auapted to the mass, which needed first to be trained before It could apprehend Christianitv in IU purity,— needed to be disabused from iiaiinn- Ism. Out of CI Mianity, now become in.li pen- dent, a princlpl ice more sprang forth akin to the principles 01 the OKI Testament,— a new out- ward sliaping of the kingdom of God. a new discipline of tht law which one day was to bi rve for the tru'ning of rude nations, a new tuior«liip for the spirit of humanity, until it sliould arrive st the maturity of the perfect nianhixKl inthrist. This Investiture of the Christian spirit in a f(.rm neprly akin to the position arrived at in tli.' (i|d Testament, could not fail, after the fruiifi:! prin- ciple had once made lU appearance, to unfold Itself more and more, and to bring to litht (■ce after another all the consequences whii h it in- volved ; but there also began with it a reaction nf the Christian consciousness as it yearned aftir freedom, which waa continually burst in l' forth anew hi an endless variety of appearances until It attained iU triumph at the Reformation "—A. Neander, Oentral Uittory of the ChritUan lUH- gion and ChurrJi, r. 1. te^t. 2. i?.— "Thouch the forma of (pann] religion had broken awav, the spirit of religion was still quick; it had" even developed: the aenae of sin, an almost new 458 CHRISTIANITt. CHRISTUinTT. phenomenon, begar lu/adeSodetjuidPhlloio- pby ; and along wiu ^bli, an almost importunate craTing after a rsTelation. The changed tone of philoaopbr, the spread of myaticUm, the rapid growth of myttery-worahip, the reviveri Plat> ninn, are all articulate expr«ulon* of thla need. The old Phlloioph J begins not only to preach but to pray: the new strives to catch the revealed Tolce of God in the oracles of lea* unfaithful daya ... In the teeth of an organised and con- centrated despotism a new society had grown up, ielf-supporting,'self-regulated, self-goTemed, a State within the State. CUm and assured amid a world that hid its fears inly in blind ex- citement, free amid the servile, sanguine amid the despairing, Christians lived with as object United in loyal fellowship by sacred pledget more binding than the sacramentum of the sol- dier, welded together by a stringent discipline^ led by trained and tried commanders, the Cburdi had succeeded in attaining unity. It had proved itself able to command self-devotion even to the death. It had not feared to assimilate the choicest fruits of the choicest intellects of East Bud West. . . . Yet the centripetal forces were ■trongcr; Tertullian had died an heresiarch, aiul Origen but narrowly and somewhat of grace escaped a like fatt. If rent with schisms and threatened with disintegration, the Church was ■till an undivided whole."— O. 11. Rendall, Tht Emperor JuUiin, Paganitm and Chrittianity pp 21 -22.— " The designation of the Unlvemal Chris- tian Church as Caibolic dates from the time of Irenat'us. ... At the beginning of this age, the heretical as well as the non-heretical Ebionism may be regarded as virtually suppressed, although some aeanty remnanU of it might yet be fouud. Themostbrllliantperiodof Qnostlcism, too . . was already passed. But in Manichajism' there sppeared, during the second half of the third cen- tury, a newpcril of a no less threatening kind in- spired by Parseelsm and Buddliism. . . With Marcus Aurelius, Paganism outside of Christi- anity as embodied In the Roman State, begins the war of extermination against the Church that was ever more and more extending her boun- daries. Such manifestation of hostility, however was tot able to subdue the Church. . . . During the same time the episcopal and sy nodal-hierarchl- cal organization of the church was more fullr developed .ly the introduction of an order of Metropolitans, and then in the following period it reached its climax In the oligarchical Pentarchy of Patriarchs, and in the institution of oecumenical bynois. -J II Kurti, Church UUtory. v. 1 vp. .i-j3 to w-hlch the reader is also referred for aU periodsof church history. See, also.P. SchafT Hit- tpofth Chriitian Church; and, for biography, ftw'"'" '"'i^h^f'^' ^ Dictionary of clri,Uak ftj^apfly.-' Missionary effort In this period was mainly directed to the conversion o/ the hea- then. On the ruins of Jcrusa'. ;: Madrian's colony of J:iu Capitolina was pL.,;. «, "hat even there the cSurch. in iU character and rh^'^''i.''""'''P> *"• » G«''«"e community, apital of the small state of Osrhene, in Me^opo- S?^., ^"*''"'e mUdle of the second centubT S eounr.':," ^"'" ^" """I'^i'-ntly flourisUi^ to count among ita meml»r>, the kins, AbgarBai ^...^ ■*'„**""' this time the gospel waa preached m Penrfa. Media, Parthia, and ^triT We bare noUces of aurehes in Ai»bi» In tiS V^IJ^^ °[ S^ ^^ century. They wen Tisited several times by Origen. the cefebrmted ™u5? ??? 9'"'"'' '*»«'"" (185-254). In the ^ddle of the fourth century a missionary. Theo philus, of DIu, found chirches in Indta. In SBTr P"""?""? msde great progress, especi- •nd other neighboring pUces. in upper Eiypt, where the Coptic language and the superatftloil of the people were obstacles in ita path, ChrisU- •nity had, nevertheless, gained a foothold as «rly as towards the close of the second century. At this tirne the gospel had been pUnu!d in pro- ronsular Africa, being conveyed thither from Koms, and there was a flourishing church at CWthage. In Oaul, where the Druidlcal syste-n, with its priesthood and sacrificial worship, was the religion of the Celtic population, several churches were founded from Asia Minor At Lyons and V ienne there were strong churches la the last quarter of the second century. At this time IreniBus, Bishop of Lyons, speaks of the establishinent of Christianity in Oe.-many. west of the lUilne, and Tertullian, the No-'h African prMbyter, speaks of ChristUnity in Bi.tain. The fathers in the second century describe in glowing terms, and not without rhetorical exaggeration, the rapid conquesU of the Gospel. The number of converu in the reign of lindrian must have been very large. Otherwise we cunnot account for the enthusiastic langua'e of Justin Martyr respecting the multitude 01 professing Christians. Tertullian writes in a similar strain. Irensus refers to Barbarians who hare believed without having a knowledge of letters, through oral teaching merely."— Q. P. PIslier, Uittory of thi Chrutian Church, pp. ii-ti, Alewuidria.— "ChristUnity first began ita acUvlty in the country among the Jewish and Greek population of the Delta, but gradually also among the Egyptians proper (the Copu) as may be inferred from the Coptic (Mempbytic) translation of the New Testament (third cen- tury). In the second century. Gnosticism [see QNosncs], which had ito chief seat here as well as in Syria, and, secondly, towanis the close of the century, the Alexandrian Catechetical School, sliow the importance of this centre of rt'liglous movement and Christian education."— W. Moel- ler, Hitt.oftth Chrittian Church, p. ia>.— " Never perhaps hag the free statement of the Christian idea had less prejudice to encounte- than at Alexandria at the close of the second century. Never has it more successfully vindicaied by argument its right to be the gn^at Interpreter of the human spirit. The instituthms of the great metropolis were highly favourable to this rvsult. The Museum, built hi the Ptolemies, was in- tended tolH', and speedily became, thecentreo'an intense intillcctual life. The Serapeum. at the other end of the town, rivalled it in lieauty of architectiiri and wealth of rare MSS The Sebas- tiot rearcHl in honour of Augustus, was no un- worthy companlim to these two noble establish- ments. In all three, splendid endowments and a rich professoriate attracted the Ulent of the worid. If tile ambition of a secured reputation <lrew many eminent men away to Rome, the means of securing such eminence were mainly pr(X:ureil at ASexaiiilriit. . . . The Christian Church in liiis city rose to the height of Its grand opportunity. It entered tt»- lists without 'ear ami without favour, and :dly proclaimed iU competence 14, m) f CHMSTIANnT. Ckmnk. CHMSTIANnT. Mtbfy tlie intellectual craTlngs of man. Num- bers of restless and inquiring spirits came from all parts of the world, hoping to find a solution of the doubts that perplex«l them. And the Church, which had already brought peace to the souls of the woman and the slave, now girded herself to the harder task of convincing the trained intelligence of the man of letters and the philosopher."— C. T. Cruttwcll, A Literary Hit- tory of Birlg Chrutianity, bk. 4, «A. 1 (r. 2).— "Thcqucslion . . . came up for decision towards the cluite of the sub-apostolic age, as to what shape the Church was finall/ to take. Two typos were set before lier to choose from — one the Hebrew-Latin type, as we may call it, into which . . . she finally settled down; the other the Hellenist type of a Demos, or commonwealth of free ritizens, all equal, all alike kings and priests unto Uod, and whose moral and spiritual growth was left very much to the initiative of each mem- ber of the community. In Alexandria, as the meelin^-poiat of all nationalities, and where Judaism \Ue\t had tried to set up a new tvpe of thought, eclectic b«twcen Hebraism and Hellen- ism, and comprehcncUng what was best in lx>th, naturully enough there grew up a Christian type of rcleetieism corresponding to that of Philo. . . . Into this seething of rivu sects and races the Alexandrian school of catechista threw them- selves, and made a noble attempt to re*-Uf the Church, the synagogue, and the Stoics alilie from the one Itanu common to all — the dangerous delu- sion tint the truth was for them, not they for Uie Imlli. Setting out on the assumption timt GoiI'h purpose was the education of the whole human fuinily, they saw in the Logos doctrine of St. .Idlin the key to harmonisu all truth, whether of (lirtxtiun sect, llelirew synagogue, or Stole philosophy. . . . To educate all men up to this standanl seemed to them the true ideal o( the Church. True Qnosia was their keynote; and the (Jnostic, as Clemens loves to desiTtbe hlnuw'lf, was t/> them the patU'rn philosopher and Chris- tian in one. They regarde<l, moreover, a disci- pline of at least three veara as Imperative; it was the preliminary condition of entrance into the Chrisliiin Churth. '—J. U. Heard, Aleriimliinn ami <'iirlh>ii/iiiiiin Thfoltigy OtntrtuM, pii. 37-38. — The two gri'iil Christian writers of Alexandria wi-re Clenii-nt and Origen. "The universal in- fluence of Oritfen maile Itself felt in the third century over the whole field of Oreek thTOJogy. In lilni. as it wi-rt', everything which had hitlierio iK'en striven after In the On>ek Held of tlieoloity. had l»en giithiteil ti>gither, so as, Ining eoUeeted In re in a lenlre, to give an Impulse in the most various direetioiis; lienw also the further de- velopnient of theology In suli«e(|ueni times Is alHiiNsureiistomed to link lts<-ir on to oi]e side or the other of his rieli spiritual heril;ige . . And while this Involves that Christiiiiilly Is phxed on frieudiv relations with the previous phll.iwiiihiiiildevefoiinientof the highest eoiie( p- tlons "f (ii»l anil the world, yet on the oilier lint]<l I lirlstimi truth alwi apiH'Hm c<inver<i|v :\» the uhivenud triilli which gatliem togeilie'r in It-silf all till' hitherto isolated rays of divine truth. ... In the great ivligious ferment of the lime then- was further contained the ten- dt ney lu tvW siniilnr nllglom hieas amid tliii ;,...; rt r,t Tny'h'-T'-K*- ri! fen;;iirTi3 fnrii:3 ;i:i.i ta mingle them syni retisllcally This nligl.ius fcr- uent was still further increased by the original content of Christianity, that mighty leavm which announced a religion destined to the re- demption and perfecting of the worid, and by this means a like direction and tendency was Im- parted to various other religious views likewise. The exciting and moving effect of Gnosticism oa the Church depended at the same time on the fact, that Its representatives practically appre- hended Christianity in the manner of the antique religious mystcHes, and In so doing sought to lean upon the Christian communities anil make themselves at home in them, according as their religious life and usages seemed to invite thim, and to establish in them a community of tlie initiated and perfect; an endeavour whirh the powerful ascetic tendency in tlie church exploited and augmented In its own sense, ami for which the Institution of prophecy, which was so highly respected and powerful in the coniinunltles, afforded a handle. In this way the initiated were able to make for themselves a kisis in the ciim- munity on which they couhl depend, while the religio-philnsophical speculations, whicli are always intelligible only to a few, at the same time propagated themselves and branehert out scholasticiilly."— W. Moeller, IlintoryuflluChrit- tian Church, np. 21,1, 213, 130-131.— "".\t .Vlex- andria, Basilides (A. I). 12.">) and Valeiuine ex- erted lu turn an extraordinary inttuiiue; tlic latter endeavored to cstal)li.>ih his st Iick.I iii jtonie nlKiut the year 140. The liiiosties of Svri;\ pni- fcTised a more open dualism than those of Kirvpt The Chun-h of Antioch had to ri'sist Saturuin, that of Edessa tooppose Bordesimesand Tatian. " — E. Uc Pressense, The Kiili/ YiiinffChrintMn. i'y; Ttie Mnrlyrmml Afnl'ijitt»,p. liH — 'iinre was something very Imposinit lu those miirlily v\ s- tema, which embraced heaven and earth. Illnv philn and meagre in ccmiparisou seeiiied simple Christianity! There was something n niarlialilv attractive In the breaiith and lilM'rality of (iimv ticism. It seemed completely to have ni >iiiil(il Christianity with culture. How narrow tlie Christian Church appeared! Even iioMe souU might be csptivate<i l>y the hope of winniiur ilie world over to Christianity In this way . . . Over against the mighty systemsof theOnoslirs. the Church »t<KKl, in soImt" earnestness lu .1 ehill- llke faith, on the simph' Christian ihstriiK' of tliu Apostles. This was to lie souglit in tlie ilmn In i founile<i by the apostles thenivlves. wh.ntliiy hail defined the faith in thi ir pnailiirii- — (t. Uhlhom, 7lieO/nltiri„ft'hnMl,'tnil!/inlli ll,.tiSiii- itm.hk. a, M. 8.— "(irifk pliiloitopliy liail JoiiutI hands with Jewish theiiso|ihy. andllie t Imrrh knew not wliere to lisik for help. .So si li.i'n ili.l the danger strm. w hen it « as a.ssaili'<l at ' m e ami from opiMMlIe shies l>y .lewi^h aiul Orei kt>i«»ot (inimticism. theouefnuutlienioiioihi i«ii< ii'liitnf view Impugning the ()iHllie;iil. the ollii r f r the KiKTtIc side explninlng away las a spirii'i'il lllu- slonj the manliisHt of Christ, tliat tie I liun li. In despalrof iM'allng.rnirhy nii ria|Hi|oi!\ h llliaik on theinethisl of aiilliorily. The (lion ii « iithe only safe kee|H'r of llir dipo-it of sin r-" I iii.liii"n; whis'ver Impugned that triulition. Ii I liim •"■ I'll out of the communion of suits. ' -Ui* I II lliKnl, Altxiiiulhiiii iiHil Ciiriliii'iiiiiiiii ri'i"l".y <'„nlr,ittril,it. 41.— ■Tlieliilen'sl, tliiineiuiim:. "f (inintleism ri-st entirely U|M)n llsitliii.il in "live !t iv.ii iiu at!. lupi, a ». ii.i,i3 ;■;-. 111,';. ; ! i!!:--:"i the dread mystery of aomiw and |"iin. t > iti<«'r that spectnU doubt, which U mostly ii:i>lit."J 400 CHIUSTIANrrT. CkimhM. CHRISTIANITT. downbjforce — Cftn the world u we know it luve been made by Qod ? 'Cease,' aays Basil- idea, ' fn>m idle ana curious variety, and let us retber iliiicuss the opinions, which even barbari- ans have held, on the subject of good and evil.' 'I will say anything rather than admit that Providence is wicked. ' Valentlnus describes in the atmin of an ancient prophet the woes that slflict manliind. 'I durst not affirm,' be cou- ciudea, 'that Oo<i Is the author of all this.' So Tcrtullian says of Marcion, 'like many men of our tlini', and especially the heretics, he is be- wlldeml by the question of evil.' They ap- proach tlie problem from a non-Christian point of view, and arrive therefore at a non-Christian (olution. . . . tiany of tlien^ especially the Uter sectaries, accepted the whole Christian Creed, but always with reserve. The teaching of tile Church thus became in their eyes a popu- lar eintrric confession, beneath their own Qnosis, or Knowledge, wliich was a Mystery, Jealously guarded from all but the chosen few. '— C. Bigg, TheVhruitinn Pl<UonultofAlfjmndHa, pp. 28-'J«. C«iare«.— "Tlie cliief points of Interest in the hi*t<iry of the Church of Cteaiirea during this ueri(Kl are the residence of Origeu there (first {jctwern A. D. 21.1 and 219 and again after bis final departure from Alexandria in 231), the eilucalion of Eusebius, the foundation of the Sreat library bv Pamphilus, and the martvrdonia uring the Diocletian persecution. Most of tlicse will come livfore us again in other con- ncilons. but they require mention here. It would In' (lifllcult to ovcrestiinute tiie effect of wliat llicy imply on the Churcli at hirgc. Hail tlie work of Orlgcn, Pamphilus, and Eusebius at C.i^ari'a n'maiuwl unnforde)!, tlierc would l)e a liiigr lilank in ecclesiastical history, rcnderlni; much tliHt is otherwise known scarcely intcl- li!;il)le. Had that work never been done, the courw of iTclesiastiral history would have U-en very ditTertnt. In the whole of tiie second ami Ibird nnturies It would l)e diHicult to name two more iiiHucntinl Christians than Origen and EusrliliH: and Pamphilus lalM>ureil earnestly to pn-scrvc aiitl circulate the writings of tlie "one and to fiullitate thi»«? of tlie other. It was from the lilirurii's of Painphiiua at Ciesarea and of Aiexandir at Jiriisalem that Kuseblus obtained most of Ills nialirial " for Ills " Kcclesiasticai llis- torj." which has pn>served titles and quotations (rum ninny lost iHKiks of exit-eiliug value. — A. Pliininu r, Thr C/iiirrh ofthf Hirlf Fiit/ieni, M. 3. Edessa.— " EiU^s^n (tlie moilern Urfa) was from the l« winning of the thlnl ceiilury one of the rhlif ciiilns of Syrian Chrlslian li"f« and thiii- liiKhul Miidy. For many years, ainiil the vhlaul tudiii nf Iheidngiciil persecution, a series of flourislmiir tlienliiKiinl achisds were maintaine<l then', one of which (the ' Persian schiMil ') la i,f p'lit lni|iorianre as tiie nursery of NeatoriHiiiam in th«' exirenie Kjist. It was as' bishop of Edessii. also, that .laeoli linmdii'iia organi/.eif the luonn phvsile rlmrilies Into timl Jacobite church of wlilih he Is tlie hem, Kroin the scholars of hdnu.1 innio niaiiv of the translations whiili c«rri,-.|(ir,Tk thought U> the l':«st, and In the |>crio.l«..fiii(itlngrontn)versy Eitewia was within tile ranee of the thitdoglcHl inovementa llml it.rrr-i( ^!,.^^j..iri;, .^;.._i (\,aiitan:iii..iii. Tiie t hnmh le of Kdessa,' as it is ealhil liecailsi- the r;«l«r iiiiuiIn r of Its nuMnm ndale U> blewMiie walni, b a brief ducuiueut in HyrUc cuutaiaed In a manuscript of itz leaves in the Vatican library. It is one of the most important funda- mental sources for the history of Edessa, con- tains a long oiHcial narrative of the flissi of A. D. 201, which is perhaps the only existing monu- ment of heathen Syriac literature, and includes an excellent and very carefully dated list of the bishops of Edessa from A. D.313 to 543."— .4 n- (towr Jimeie, v. 19, p. 874.— The Syriac Versioiu (of the Oospel) form a gMup of which mention should undoubtedly be made. Tlie Syriac ver- sions of the Bible (Old Testament) are among the most ancient remains of the language, the Syriac and the Chaldee being the two dialects of the Aramaean spoken in the North. Of versions of the New 'Testament, "the 'Peshito' or the ' Simple, ' though not the oldest text, lius been the longest known. . . . The ' Curetonian ' . . . was discovered after its existence had been for a long time suspected by sagacious sciiolars [but is not much more than a series of fnigraents], . . . Cureton, Tregelles, Alford, Ewald, Ble.k, and otliers, believe this text to lie older than tlio Peshito [which speaks for tlie Greek text of the second century, though its own date is doubtful 1. . . . Other valuable Syriac versions are ' Phil- oxenian ' . , , and the ' Jerusalem Syriac Lcc- tioiiary ' . . . a service-lxxik with lessons from the Oospels for Sundays and feast days through- out the year . . . written ut Antioch in 1030 in a diulet't similar to that la use in Jerusalem and from a Orcek text of great antiquity." A recent discovery renders these facts and "statements of pi'culiar interests.— Q. E. Merrill, T/u istoiy of the Wiinunrriptn, eh. 10. Rural Poleitine.- " If Ebionism [sec Ebion- ism] was not primitive Christianity, neither was it a creation of the second ceutiiry. As an or- ganization, a distinct sect, it llrst made itself known, we may suppose, in the reign of Trajan: but as a sentiment, it had Ihtu hurlHiured within the Church fnim the very earliest days. .M<sl- inited by the per8<iiial inlluence of the'Aposlles, soothed by the generiil prai tico of their church, not yet forced inU) declaring themselves by the turn of events, though scarcely tolerant of others, these Judaizers were tolenited for a time them- aelyes. Tlie beijinning of llie setond century WHS a winnowing season in the Chiireb of the Circumcision. ... It is a prolialile conjecture, that after the destruction of JeruKtlein the fugl- tlye Christians, living in thiir n'tmniiMit in llio nelghbourliiHsl of the Es«iiu si'tihinents, ri'- ceived largo acci'salons to their niiiiilMTs from this sect, which thus imsuiatnl the Chureh with Its peeuliar views. It is ut hiist worthy i if iintlci-, that In a rellgloiil work enianuling from this s<hiHil of Elilonltes the 'true Unspel' is reported to have lieen llrst propagated ' after the destruc- tion of the holy place.'" — I. II. I.ltrhtfivit, Dit- atrtittiutuion the Atti>i'tt4if A'jr. ;>/', 7N-hO, CorthOft.— " If the World is Imlehted to Iliime for theorganlsrttlon of the Church, l{omo is indebteil to Carthage for the theory on which that organisation is built. The career of Car- thage as a Christian ciiilre veiiiplilles Hie simiige vicissitudi'S of history, I'he -Ity which Idime In lier jealousy hail c'rusheil. whleli. no' content with crushing, she had oliliierale.l from the Taiv of ilie earth, had at the liiiiiiitii: of Koine's greatest son risen fnmi her ashes, and by her cansT almost verifliil tlie |)»et's tauir. that thu KrvatiMM uf Conhoge woa rvanxl uu Um 401 m CHRISTIANmr. Oartkofomd CHRISTIANITT. niln of Italy. For In truth the African capital was in all but pilitical power no unworthy rival of Rome. It bad steadily grown In commercial f)rosperity. Its site wag ao advantageous as to nvite, almost to compel, the influx of trade, which ever sponUuieously moves along the line of least resisliince. And the people were well able to turn this natural ailvantage to account. A mLxed niitionality, in which the original Italian immlgnitii>n lent a steadying force to tlie native Punic and kindred African elements that formwl its basis, with its iuU-iligence enriched by large accessions of On-ck settlers from Cyrene and Alexandria — Carthage had developed in the second century of our era Into a community at once wealthv, enterprising and ambitious. ... It was no longer in the sphere of profane literature, but in her contributions to the cause of Christianity and the spiritual armoury of the Church, that the proud Oucen of Africa was to win her stTiind crown of fame. . . . The names of Tertuiiian, Cyprian and Augustine, at once suggest the source from which Papal Rome drew the principles of Church controversy. Church organisation, and Church doctrine, which have const ilidatcil her authority, and to sonio extent justitied her pretensions to rule the con- science of Cliristendom."— C. T. Cruttwell. .1 lAler.irn Ilithiry of Knrty ChHMianity, bk. 5, c/i 3 (r. 2). — "At the end of the second century the African Tertuiiian flrst began to wrestle witli tile dilHeultiea of the Latin language in llic en- deavour to make it a vehicle for the expression of Christian idias. In reading his dognmtic writ- ings tlie 8truf.'L'le is so apparent that it seems as though we Ulield a rider euileavouring t4> dis<;i- pline an unbnikin steed. Tertullian'i doctrine 19, however, still wlmlly Oreek in substance, and this ciintinuiHl to Ik' the case in the church of the Latin tongue until the end of the fourtli century. Hilary, Ambrose, even Jerome, are essentially interpreters of On!ek phllosopliy and theology to the Ijitin West. With Augus- tine learning U'gins to assume a Latin form, partly original and imlepeiident — partly, I say, for even later corniMwitious arc aliuudantly inli r- woven with Onik elements and maU'rials. Very f'radually from the writings of the Afriian atliers of the ehunh dcK'S the specific Latin element come to iKiupy that dominant poslliim in Western Cliristendimi, which soon, partly from self-autlleient indilTerenee, partly from Ignorance, so completely severwi Itself from On'ek inlliiences tliat the old unity and harmony could never \k n-sUir»'d. Still the HIblicul slmly ■ f the Ijitins is, as a whole, a men^ echo anil copy of (Jrwk pn-dwessom."— J. I. vein Dol- linger, Stiiiliiii in A'ur'i/iwn llittiny, fip. 1711-171. — Fnim I'arthage which wiu aft4'rwar(l the n-l- deme of " tlio primate of ail Africa , . . i\v Christian faith B<»in dlaseminaitsl throughout NuMiiilia. .Mauritania and Uelulia, which is proveii liv llie gnat numlM'r of bishops at two coumlls ill III III Cartilage in 'iM and KW. .\t Uie l«ll«r lhin> weo' S70 bishops, whose nanus are not given, but at the former wen- bishops from(H7) . . . ciilis.'— J. K. T. Wlltsih, //.i/. ^ tuuk of tin OnyniiJiji nml Sl.tliiitirt oftkt Clinn/i. Romt.— "Inthe West, Korne remains and in- detd iM^Mimes evi-r mom and itiiim the '•<•<!"• ApMiolica,' liy far the miwt Important centre where, alongside of the lUimao element, there m tu be found vlemenUitrtsamiug tugelher (mm all polnte of the Empire. Greek names, and the long lasting(8till dominant in the second century) maintenance of Oreek as tlio written language o( Ibiman Christianity are here noteworthy. . Rome was tlie point of departure not only for Italy and the Western Provinces, but without doubt also for ProconsuUr Africa, where in turn Carthage liecomes the centre of dillusliin. The diilusion in the Gneco-Roinan worlj as a whole goes flrst to the more important ton us and from these gradually over the country. The tnstrumenu however of this missinu are bv no means exclusively apostolic men, wim pursue missions as tlieir calling . . . ; every Clmstiim liecomes a witness In his own circle, ami Inter- course and trade bring Christians hither sad thither, and along with them their Cliristisn faith."— AV. Moeller, JliMoiy of the Chnilinn Chunk, pp. 105-107.—" It has been cnutendeil and many still believe, that in ancient lionie tlie doctrines of Christ found no proselyli's. except among the lower and poon-r classes of eiiizeni . . . The gospel fuuwl ita way also to the man- sions of tlie masters, nay, even to the palace of the Caaars. The discoveries lately made on this subject are startling, and constitute a new chapter in the history of imperial |{ome. ... A difflculty may arise in the mind of the reader: how was it possible for these magistrates, cen- erols, consuls, offlcers, senators, and govi rnnrs of provinces, to attend to their duties wiili..ut per- forining ucU of idolatry ? . . . The It.iiiian iin- perors gave plenty of liberty to the new n liitinn from lime to time; and some of them, iiinveilhy a sort of religious syncretism, even tried to ally it with the olHcial worship of the eiii|iin-, and la place Christ and Jupiter on the stepsof tin- same 'lararium.'. . , We must not Islieve that tlio transformathm of Home from a panau into a Christian city was a sudden and unn[i<-ttid event, which took the world by surprisi'. It was the natural result of the wiirk of three cen- turies, brought to maturity uielir Ciinslaiitiue bv an inevitable reaction against the viuleiuc of DiiK'letian's rule. It was not a revoluliau or s convi'rsion in the true sense of tliesi- w.inis; It was tlie olTicial rp<'ognitiou of a stale i>f thlnjti which had long ceiuu'd to lie a si ml The moral suiierioritv of the new distriiiisuMr the old ndigtirtu was so evident, so ovi rii.vM ring, tlial the n>^ ■ f tin" struggle had Ihiii a fore- goneeonilii I 'i. since the age of the tIrM apolo- gisU. The n'volution was an ex(viiliin.'ly mild one, the transformation almost iiii|urri jitible. . . . Thelraiisfnniiation may lie fidhiwidvtaitehy stage in Uith ita moral and iiialerial Of-pii t There is nut a ruin of ancient Itoine lluit dia ■> nit Usr evidence of the great clia'>ite. . . , \lm<- |»)i- srases authentic remains of tiie 'housisiif prayer' In which the gospel was flrst aniiouiiKil In apiK- tolie times. . . . .\ very old tnnlili.in, ciiilrmiil by tlio ' l.ilier I^mtill<■alis,' descrilns thr nimlim church of S. I'udentiana as bating lu<ri ones the private house of the same i'uileiis hIi.i was Intptlzeil liv the ap<iBth'S. and whi is iie ntiunni inthe episth'sof «. Paul. . . . The ...mi.rtiott of the liniiM- with the aiHwtulate of S.-i I'lhr nod Paul liiaile it viry (Hipiilar from tli>' lu .:inriin{(. . . . Keiiiiiins of thehouaeof I'liili ns »i nfriimd in 1870. Tiiey la-.upy a tsinaideM! !•. sn ■! U!!d»r the m'lghlNiriiig housi's. . . , Anioinr ihildinisn churches whose origin can lie tnued \<> tl i' ball of mwling, besides tliusv of l*udeus and rhwA 462 CHRISTIAinTT. Oattloiul ■Iready mentioned, the best prewired ieemg to be that built by Demetriasattlietliird miie-stone of the Via Latina, near tlie' painted tombs.' . . . The Ctiiutians toolc a<lvantage of the free<Iom •cconltHl to funeral colleges, and anociatcd themsclvea for the same purpoac, following as closely as possible their rules concerning contri- butions, the erection of lodges, the meetings, hikI the . . . love feasts; and It was largely through the adoption of these well-undcrst^MMl and re- ijM'rtMl customs that they were enabled to hold their met tings and keep together aa a corporate body through the stormy times of the second and thini centuries. Two eicelient specimens of tchnlie connected with Christian cemeteries and with meetings of 'he faithful have come down to us, one above the Catacombs of Callixtus, the othtrnlmve those of Soter." This formation of Christian communities into colleges is an import- ant fact, and connects these Christian siwieties with one of the social institutions of the Empire which may have influenced the church as an or- nnizntion. "The experience gained in twenty- flve years of active exploration in ancient Rome, both alH)ve and below ground, enables me to state that every pagan building which was capable of giving shelter to a congregation was tniD.sf(>rme>l, at one time or another, into a church or a chapel. . . . From apostolic times to the iM-rsecuiion of Domitian. the faithful were buriiil, separately or collectively, in private tomlw which di<f not have the character of a Church institution. These early tomlis, whether al«ive or below gniund, display a sense of per- fwt M'ciirity, anil an absence of all fear or solid- tuile This feeling arose from two facts: the small ■■xteat of the cemeteries, which aecureil Ut tlitm theriehts of private property, and the pro- tiiii'in and frecMlom which the Jewish otiony in llime enjoyeil from time immemorial. . . . From the time of the npostlesto the flrst persecu- tion (if Diimltian, Christian tombs, whether sbiive i.r Mow ground, wen- built with perfiit iiiipu!iiiy and in delianceof puliljc opinion. We hav.' Ikiii ai'customcd to consider the catacombs of lluiie a.!! crypts plunged In total darkness, and pcnetniiing the bowels of the earth at unfathom- able ilepihs This Is, in a certain measure, the ca.«' nilh those catacombs, or wctioiis of cala- ci)mli«, which were excavated in times of perw- cmi"ii but iiot with those bel<mging fo the tirst centufv The cemeU'ry of these memlwrM of Diimiiiun's family who hail emlirsced the gospel -«uih as Klavlus Clemens, Flavia l)oinilill.i, Pliuiilla, retn)uillii, and others — reveal.s a IhiI.I cxiunple of publicity. . , , How is It |)osail.U' to jnujinc that the primitive Church did not know the place of the death of its two leading »P"»li' s 1 In default of written t<-Mtlmony let us ci'iKiill rnoniiniental evidence. Tlien- is no event of ilie itiiin'rial age and of Imperial Itomi' wliUh is iiii.vii.l by an many noblu structures, nil of whiib |»iliit to the same omclusion.— tlie pn «!ur and cxiMutlon of the apiaillis in the npilal.if theemplri'."— II Ijinciani, JM'/mt niul nn.f,.i„ li,^ fi, , 3 rt«/7._TI,e Cliurch at lli>me ijave no illustrious teachi^rs to am lent ChriMiiriity ... All the greatest i|Uealions »||T .lelwliil elacwheri'. . . . Hv a sort of In. Cij,. r,.r i;«i', (iij iNvupird itai'lf'far mori' with p-ilnw ..f novernment anil organiisation than of •ji-dililMn Its central i«»lil,.n. In the capital crt the empire, and iu Kluriuus memurics, guar- CHRISTIANITT. anteed to It a growing authority."— E, De Pre«- 8ens«, The EaHy Tean of ChHitianity : Tht Martj/n and Ap^ogiiU, p. 41. C«ul.— "Of the history of the Galilean Churches before the middle of the second century we have no certain information. It seems fairiy probable indeed that, when we read in the Apostolic age of a mission of Cresccns to 'Oalatltt' or "Gaul," the western country it meant rat jer than tlie Asiatic settlement which bore tlie surre name; and, if so, this points to some relations with St. Paul liimsclf. But, even though this explanation should be accepted, the notice stands ouite alone. Later tradition imleed supplements It with legendary matter, but it is impossible to say wliat substratum of fact, if any, underlies these comparatively recent stories. The connection between the southern Kirts of Gaul and the western districu of Asia Inor bad been Intimate from very remote times. Gaul was indebted for her earliest civil- iiation to her Greek settlemenU like Marseilles, which had been colonized from Asia Minor some six centuries before the Christian era; ami close relations appear to have been maintaine<l even to the latest times. During the Roman period the people of Maraeiliet still spoke the Greek language familiarty along with the vernacular Celtic of the native popuIatioD and the official Latin of the dominant power. AVlien therefore Christianity had established her headquarters in Asia Minor, it was not unnatural that the Gospel should flow In the same channels which already conducteil the civilization and the commerce of the Asiatic Greeks westwanl. At all events, whatever we may think of the antecedent pro- babilities, llic fact itself can hardly be dispiitcA In the year A. D. 177, umlcr Marcus Aurellus,! a severe persecution broke out on the liaiiks of' the Rhone in the cities of Vienne and Lvons — a' persecution which by iU extent and chanicU'r iK^ars a noble U'stimony to tiie vitality of the Chu"ches in these places. To this Incident we owe tlie earliest extant historical notice of Christianity In Gaul."^I. B. Lightfoot, E»»iyt «n th* teork fntitlrd SiipfrnalnrnI Rtliguni pp. 251-252.-" The Cliiirches of proconsular Africa, of Spain, of Italy and of Southern Gaul ciuml- tute, at this iierii*!, the Western Church, so dif- ferent In its ge.ieral type fn)m the Ea.slcrn. With the exception of Irenaeus (liishop of Lynnsj and Hippolytus [the flrst celehmted preiw hrr of the West, of Italy and. for a period, l,viins| who n'prescnt the oriental element in Gaul ami at Rome, the Western Fathers are broadly ili»tin- KuiHhe<l from t' >se <.f the East . . . They HlBrm nillier than demonstrate: . . . Iliey pre fer practical to »|X'culallvo questions. The sys- tem of episcopal authority Is gradually devebipcd with a larger amount of piuision at Carthage, with greater pruilenee and patience 'n Italy. — E. De I'reswnse, 7'A/ Kirlj/ Vnin tf C'A'iwIi- iinily: tht .Vartynt nnii Ain-kiffiittM. Spain. — ■• Christians are gem-Mlly mentioned as luiving existtHt in all pans nf Spain at the dose of the secimd century: In-fore the miibileof the tliinl century then' is'a letter of the Ruriian bishop Aiiterus'dn 2117) to the bishops iit iliu pnivlnna nf BfFtica sod Toletana . . . : ami after the middle of the same centurv a letter of Cyprian's was aiMn-BiMd to . . . ix'o'ple In the north . iis well as ... in tlie souili of that country —J, K. T. Wlitach, Uamlluuk <if 40U CHIU8TIAN1TT. Oonnertum c* llu CteUU. CHRISTIANITY. ihf Oengraphu and Stalittia of the Ohureh, pp. 40-41. Britain.— " All that we c«n iafcly assert b that there is some reason for jillevlng that there were Christians In Britnin bcfure A. D. 200. Certainly there was a British Church with bishops of its own soon after A. D. 800, and possibly some time before that. Very little can be known about this Celtic Church; but the scanty evidence tends to establish three points, (1) It had Us origin from, and remained largely dependent upon, the Gallic Church. (2) It was confined almost exclusively to Roman settle- ments. (3) Its numbers were small and its mem- bers were poor. . . . That Britain may have derived its Christianity from Asia Minor cannot be denied; but the peculiar British custom respecting Easter must not be quoteit in evidence of it. It seems to tut ve l)een a mere blunder, and not a continuation of the old Quarta-deciman practice. Oaul is the more probable parent of the British riuirch. ... At the Council of Rimini in S5U Constamius offered to pay out of the treasury tlie travelling expenses of all the bishops who attended. Out of more tlian four hundred bishops, three from Britain were the only clergy who availed themselves of thia offer. Neither at Rimini, any more than at Aries, do the British representatives make any show : they •piH'ar to he oiiite without intluenco. "— A. Plummer, 7^ Church of t/u Early fUthert, fh. 8. Gothi.— "It has been observed that the first indisputable appearance of the Ootlis in European liislory must be dateil in A. D. SHS. when they laid waste the 8outh-Danubian province of MiKsia as far as the Black Sea. In the thirty years (23H-2«9) that followed, there took place no fewiT than ten such inroads. . . . From these exiH'ditions ihey retumc<l with Immeuwt boo^v, — com and cattle, silks and Une linen, silver and gold, and captives of all ranks an<l ages. It is to these captives, many of whom were Chris- tians, ami not a few clergy, that tlie Introduction of Chri.stianity among the Goths is primarily due. . . . The periiHl of the inroads, whicli so strangely formed a sowing-time for Christianity, was folfowiii by a long pcriiMl of trani|uillity, j.._. ui.i .1 faith tiH)k roo' ful work and pur [Cliristian] men . . . who hail He<i from Roman during which the new faith tiH)k root and'sprcall . It is to the faithful work and pure lives of civilisation for conscience sake, to the example of jiaticnce iu misfortune and high Christliin character displayed by the captives, and to lli Instruction of the presbyters sprinkletl araoii them, that we must look, as the source CliriKliaiiity among Ihe Goths. . . . The fai which we shall have to refer laier), thi;*, of ai sea raids undertaken by the Goths Ik'tween years Sas and Wi. the Visigoths took part . only two, Willie the 0»tn)goths, who were settled InSiuthern Kiissiu along llie coast ui me Kuxiue fnitn the Criinialo the Dneittcr, were engagi'd probably In all of tin m, makes it verv unlikely that the captives nicnlioiiiil liy PlitkwUirgius Were carriid anywhere else than the ea.sU'm •ctllemcnu. To the iiilluenee of these A.tian Christians, exerted inuiiily. if not entirely u|xm the (>8troi;oili«, must Ik' atiihil the ever increos- ir-.V" Intireotirx.: r:»rri;^! ■■■; (-.y i^-;i i-i-iWii-ii llit Crimea ami iKitli the southern shore of the Euxine and Conslnniiiiople Vo thesi! pnilialiilt ties baa uuw lo Ui added the fact tlut the ualy tr-.ies of an organised Gothic Church existlni bi'fotc the year 841 are clearly to be referte<l tos community In this neigliliourhood. Amoni; the bishops who were present at the Council ,if Nicaea (A. D. 82.1), and who 8igne<l tl« symbol which was then approved, we find a ctrula Theophllus, before whose name stand the wonU 'dc Ootids,' anil after it the word ' Bospljiitj! tanus.' There can be little doubt that this wai a bishop representing a Gothic Cliureh on the Cimmerian Bosphorusi: and if, folio vin,- ,iie Paris MS8., we read further down the lisi the name Domnus Bosphorensis or PosphoMnus. we may find here another bislr>p from this dioav and rcganl TI.eopliilus as chief or ap.hhishop of the Crimean churches. The uniloubted presen:^ at this council of at least one bisliop of tlie Gotlis, and the conclusion drawn therefmm in favour of the orthodoxy of the Gothic Chunh in feoeral. led atterwards to die greatest confusion. ailing to distinguish between tlie Crimcsn iinii Dauubian communities, the historians of tj'n found tlieir infomiatioD contradictory, and altered it In the readiest way to suit the coailition of the Church which tlicV had specially In view. . . . The conversion of that section of the nation, which iKcarac the Gothic Church, was due to the apostolic labours of one of their own race, — the gri>at missionary bishop Ulltlaa [see GoTiis: A. D. 841-381]. But to him too was to be traced the heresy In which tliey stoppej short on the waj from heathenism to a compiete Christian faith. —C!. A. A. Si'ott. I'lJiliU. Aittlte of the Oollu, pp. 19-30.— "The suiwrstitions of the barbarians, who had found homes in the empire, hail been exehangnl for a more -iholo- some belief. IJut Christianity hail done moru than this. It had extendeil its inlliiencc o the distant East and South, to Abvssinia, and the tribes of the Syrian anil 'l.vhian deserts, to Armenia, Persia, and i'. lia."— "C. i*. Fisher, Jlint. of thi Chrutinn Church, p. MS — • ' We have before us many sigiiitlcant examples nf the facility with which the most intellii.'em of the Pagans accepted the outward rite of Christian liaptisin, and made a nominal profession uf tlie Faith, while tlicy retained and o|xnly pnictimt, without rebuke, without tvmark, with the Indulgence even of genuine bi'lievers. the rius and usai^es of the Pa,;anism they pretemled to have abjur We find abundant reeonlsofthe fact tlint pe.sonages high iu otilce, such as eon- Buls and other magistrates, while adiuliii>tiriui{ the laws by which the old idolatries were pro neribetl, actually jwrfonned Pagan rites iiml ven erected public statues to Pagan diviiiitii's. I'll more did men, high In the ix'spwt of their lloW'Cliristians, allow themsi'lves to clurt.h enllments utterly at variinee with the ihllni- lioDS of the Church."— C Merivale. /■I'ur hdnnt on Home t.initJf of Jiirly Church /h'li>rj/ p IV) — "We IcMill back to the early actitaiid ih'iII' y ,,■[ liie Church towanis the new nai'ons, their kinus ami their jviiple; till' vaysand v».., i«nf liir Miiv.ii>n- aries ami lawgivers, I'ltllas aiiioni; the (!olh<, AugiLstine iu Kent, Remlglus in Krau.e Itoui- fiuv in (Icriiiaiiy, Anwiiai in the Nonli.tln ln»h Coliiinban in ilurgiiiiily and ,><wii/>rl.inil, IhiHilict at Monte Cossimi: or the reforniiii< klri^n. tiic .\rian Tiiuxhrric. tiic gn-al ti-.r'-M-tii Charles, the great Eni{li«li Alfnil. .Measund by the liu-lit and the sti lelanls tliey have hel|HHl us tu ututu to, their methods uu doubt surprlte, 464 CHRISTIAirm. CHMSTIlinTT. diwppoint— It msT be, revolt ut; ud all that we dwell upon u the childishness, or the imperfect monllty, of their attempts. But if tliere is anything certain in history. It Is that in iheae rough communications of the deepest truths, in these [for us] often qLestionable modes of ruling minds and souls, the seed? were sown of nil that was to malte the hope and the glory of I lie foremost nations. ... I have spoken of iM.-.c other groups of virtues whicl^ are held In spiTial regard and respect amoni' us — those (iinnrcted with manliness and hari work, with ri'vcnnce for law and liberty, ard with pure fiiniily life. The ruiliraents and ftndeuclea )ut (if wliich these have grown ap^'sr to have Vx-^n riirly marked in the Oerman ruxs, but thev ueri- nnl^ rudiments, existing in company with much wilder and stronger e.cments, and liable. nmiil the changes and chances of barbarian ixisU'Dcc, to be paralysed or trampled out. No men' barbarian virtues could by themselves have i.t<iu<l the trial of having won by conquest the wealth, the lands, the power of Rome. But lluir guardian was there. Wliat Christianity ilid fo- these natural tenilencics to gOfHl was to lulcipt them, to watch over them, to discipline, t(i ('(insi>liilate them. The energy which warriors W( TV accustomed to put forth in their elTorts to >>>ii<|uer. the missionaries and ministers of ( iiristianity exiiibited in their enterprises of (iinvvr»ii>n and teucbiiie. The crowd of unknown wiuts wlioM! nanu'M till the calendars, anil live, Hiine of tlicm, only in the titles of our churches, miiiiily represent" the age of heroic spiritual vultures, of wliich we we glimpses in the story of ^•t IJonlface, the apostle <if Otmiany; of 8t. (i)liiiiilmn and 8t. Gall, waniliring from Ireland to nclaiin the barbariaas of the Burgundian (lewris and of the shores of the Swiss lakes. It was among men like these — men who were thi'U tinni il einpliaticnlly ' ..len of religion '—that the 111 races saw tlie example of life ruleil by a (.•nut and sirious purpose, which yet was hot one of ambition or the excitenii nt of war; a lif<t odlililnraie and sternly indjstry, of hard and unn>iii|ilaiuing lalmur/a life as full of activity ill |«ace, of stout an.l brave work, as a warrior's wasttont to lie In the camp, on tb" march. In the Imiile. It was in thesi' mea and in the I i.n-iiuiiity which they taught, and which li -|i|ii(l ami governed them, that the fathers of our nioiUru nations tlist saw exeniplitled the Kii'H' of human nsponsiliility. first Irarued the iioMi ness of a ruled and disciplined life, first inlirv'ed tlidr tli<mglits of the iws of 1 \i«iii»e. tlr->t w<re taught the dignity nnii Ku inliieas of honest toil. These great axioms of nio.liiii life iiasscd silently from the »|ve<lal lioiiii > of n llglous einployinent to thow of civil ; frniiHli,. (loisters and cells of men who, when liny Win' not engaged in worship, wer.- engagnl ill tl.ilwork or luKikwork. - clearing the fi^irest, iMiiiliug eultivation, multiplying manuscripts — !" tlie guild of tile cniftsiimh, the shop of the ini.l.r tliistuily of the sdiolar. Heligion g"uer- itUi\ :inil fed llie-ie ideas of what was manlv and ^^■ril.y in man. '—It. W. Church, rhe iiijU of l..ii,..lli„„, ;,;). STD-Jsil. A. D. 3"-337— The Church nai the Em- pire. - ■ Mm.iii.v afier liie In-ginning of the tounh ciiniry ihire iK-eurred an event which. Iiad it -.11 1 riili, ie.1 in the dnvs of Nero or even of iKi-iu-, Would have been deemed a wUd fancy. 465 i<. was nothing less than the convetBion of the Roman Emperor to the Christian faith. It wag an event of momentous importance In the history of the Christian religion. Tne Roman empire, from be'ng the enemy and persecutor of^the Church, thenceforward became its protector and patron. The Church entered Into an alliance with the State, which was to prove fruitful of consequences, both good and evil, in the subse- quent history of Europe. Christianity was now to reap the advant.'vges and Incur the dangers arising from tlie friendshii of earthly rulers and from a close connection »;th the civil authority. Constantine was bom In 274. He was the son of Constantius Chlorus. His mother, Helena, was of ob).cure birth. She became a Christian — whetlier before or after his conversion, is doubt- ful. . . . After the death of Constantine's father, a revolt against Oalerius ajgnicted the number of emperors, so that, in 8(W, .lot less than six < lairoed to exercise rule. The contest of Con- stantine was at first In the West, against the tyrannical and dissolute Maxcntius. ft was just before his victory over tliis rival at the Mih i»n Bridge, near Rome, that he adopted the Christian faith. That there mingled in this lieeision, a * in most of the steps of his career, political ambition, is highly probable. The strength of the Chris- tian community made it politic for hiin to win its uniteil support. But he sincerely iK-lieved ' i the God whom the Chriiitians worshipped, and In tlie lielp which, through his providence, lie could liiid to his servants. . . . ShortI" before his victory over Maxentius there occurred what he asserted to be ■..._ vision of a tlaming cross in the sky. seen by him at noonday, on which was the insiription, in Greek, 'Bv this comiuer.' It was, perhaps, an optical illusion, the effect of a parhelion belicld in a moment when the imagin- ation . . . was strcmgly excited. Ueiwhipted the lalwrum. or the siandanl of the cross, which was afterwards carried in his annies, [hee K0.1IE: \. 1). Saa.] In later contests with Licinius. the ruler in the East, who was a defender of paganism, ConstJintine la'came more distiiietiv the cliampion of the Christian cause. The tinal defeat of Licinius, in .taH. left him the master of the whole Roman world. An edict siitueil liy Ualerius, ConsUntine. anil Licinius." in 811, had proclaimed freedom and toleration in matters of religion. The edict of Milan, in 3ia. emanating from the two latter, estalilislied unrestricted liberty on this siiliject. If we consi ir the time when it was i.sMied, we shall be surprisi'd to find that it alleges as a mo- tive for the eiiict the sacred rights of con- science. "—O. K Fisher, JIiHt. ,if the C/irittiiiH C/iiiir/i, pp. 87-W.— "Towanls'tlie end of the year Constantine left Home for Milan, where he met Licinius. This meeting resulted in the is-^iie of the famous edict if .Milan. I'p to that li<>iir ( liristianily had Isen an ■ illicita religio.' anil ir » a.s a crime to be a t hristian. Even in 'I'mjiir. s answer to I'liny this lamilion is iissumed. tiioi.gli it forms the biisis of humane ngulations. 'I'lie edict of .Milan is the char' r of I'liristianity; it pna hiims absolute fret-iloin lu the matter of religion. Both Christians and all others were |i> 1h' Inely iK'miitted to follow whatsoever religion each mitht ciioime. Moreover, restitution was to be maile to the Christian Issly of all clitiri lies and other biiihlings which had twen alieiiateil from them during the persccutiuu. This was in CHRISTIANITT. Ckurek OrgtmitaUon. CHBISTIAinTY. i ■ 818 A. D. . . . But the cauKi of diiaensioa remained behind. Once more (828) the question btatveen paganiim and Christianity was to be trifd on the field of battle, end their armies con- frontttl one another on the plains of Hadrianople. Again the skill of Constantine and the trained valour of his troops proved superior to the un- di8(.'ipline<l levies of Licinius; while at sea Cris- pus. the eldest and ill-fated son of Constantine, dcstroye<l the enemy's fleet in the crowded wati'rs of the Hellespont, sowing thereby the seeds of his father's jealousy. Byzantium fell, but not without a vigorous resistance; and, after one more crushing defeat on the site of the modem Scutari, Licinius submitted himself to the mercy of Constantine. . . . What we notice in the whole of these events Is the enormous power which still belonged to paganism. The balance still wavered between paganism and Chrisitiiinity. . . , Constantine had now, by a marvellous succession of victories, placed him- self in a position of supreme and undisputed power. At this juncture it is of interest to observe that ... the divided empire, which followed the reign of Constantine, served to sustain Catholicity at least in one half of the world. . . . The foundation of Constantinople Wis the outwaril symbol of the new monarchy and of the triumph of Christianity. . . . The choice of this incomparable position for the new capital of the world remains the lasting proof of Constantine's genius. . . . The niagniticence of Its public buildings, its treasures of art, its vast endowments, the beauty of its situation, the rapid growth of its commerce, made it worthy to lie 'iLs it were a daughter of Home herself.' But the most important thought for us is the nlaticMi of Constantinople to the advance of Chri.Htianity. That the city which had sprung into hupremncy from its birth and had become the capital of the conquered world, should have ezcluiie<l from the circuit of iu walls all public recoKnition of |Hilytheism, and made the Cross its most conspicuous oniament, and the token of its greatness, gave a reality to the religious revdlution. . . . The imperial centre of the worlil had been visibly displaced."— A. Carr, The Churth anil t/it Rmnnn Empire, eh. 4. — With the first General Council of the Church held at Nicwa, A. D. Bil (see Nic«a). " the ditisioim ... of which received the force of law fnim the confirmation of the Emperor, a •'''I'l y was entered upon which was decisive for I lie riirther development: decisive also liy the fact lliHl the Emperor held it U) be Ids duty to eoni|M'l sniKinlination to the decisions of the eouiKil (in (lenalty of banisliinent. and actually carried nut this banishment in the case of Alius and wvcral of lila ailherenta. The Em|)eror summoned general synods, the fiscua provided I the cost of travel and subsistence (also at other great ayncHls), an imperial eommimioncr openini tliein by niuling the imp<Tial edict, and watcheti over the r'Hirse of huniness. Only the bishops and their ap|M)inted representatives had votes. Dogmatic jMiints fixed . . . were to bo the out- come of unanimous agreement, the rest of the ordinann-s (on the constitution, discinline and worship) of a majority of vou-s."— W. Mueller /AVf t>/ Ihr C/rnMan Vhtirch. p. 337.— -The illrect Influence o* " of the emperor, however, does noi appwr iiniii the Emperor Marclan procured from the C^ouucil of Cbalcedun the oomptetioo of the Patriarchal system, \auming that Rome Alexandria, and Antiocu were Patriarcliaus br the recognition of their privileges at the Coiineil of Niciea (though the ciinon of tliat council doM not really admit that inference), the Coiin<i| of Chalcedon, by ito ninth, seventeenth mil twintv eighth canons, enlarged and fixed the patriarchal jurisdiction and privileges of the Church of Consuntinople, giving It authority over the Dioceses of Thrace, Asia and Pontus, with the power of ordaining and requiring candnical obedience from the metropolis of those DiiKcaes and also the right to adjudicate appeals in causes ecclesiastical from tlio whole Kastem Chureh. The Bishop of Jerusalem also ohiniueil in this council patriarchal authority over l'»lw. tine The organization of the Church was thus conformed to that of the empire, the patriarchs corresponding to the Praetorian Pnf.its the exarchs, to the governors of the Diocews anil the metropolitans to the governors of the provinots — the Bishop of Rome being given bv an (diet of \alentinian III., of the year 445," supteme appellate jurisdiction in the West, and the Bishop of Con.s-antinople, by these camms of Chalcedon, supreme appellate jurisdictimi in the East. . . . Dean Milman remarks tliiit the Episcopate of St. John Chrysostom was the last attempt of n bishop of Constantinople to lie imlf pen.lent of the p<ditical power, and (liat his fate involved the freedom of the Churehof tlwti iiv." —.1. H. tgar, Vhritte-ndim : BcfUn.ulinil ,',nd PnUtiml. fnm Contlnnlint to the lt,f„niMtinn pp. 2.V27.— "The name of patriarch! pmlmlilv borrowed from Judaism, was from this piriull the appellation of the highest dignitaries of the church, and by it were more immciliutilv hut not exclusively, designated the bishops of C.n- stiintinople, Alexamlria, Aiitioch, and .lenisnlem. One patriarch accordingly presided over sevirai provinces, and was distingiilshetl from th • metro- politjin in this, that the latter was bu' nlinate to him. and had onlv the superintendem . of me pnivini-e or a small district. However the desii;- mitiim applied only to the highest nilers of ihn church in the east, and not U> those in the wesi, for here the title of patriarch was iioi untir- quently givin, even In later times, to the nu tro- poliUiii. The first mention of this title oceurs in the si'tond htter of the Itoman bishop. .\na(le tiis at the iKginniiig of the senmd ceiiiiirv, ami it is next spokin of by Socrates; and afiir the Council of ChaUedon, in 4.'il, it came into general Use. The bishop of Constantinople |i,.re the »l«'tial title of u'cumenical bishop or put rianh ; there were also other titles in use a iir the Xi-s- torians and Jacobites. The Primates and Mi ini. isilitaiis or Archbishops aros*- conli nipnnne. oiisly. The title of Eparch isal.suhaiil in have Is'in given to primates aliout the niiddle of the fifth century. The metro|Mditan of Kphi-<in «uh- Bcrilied hinis) If thus in the year flwi, then h.n in the fiuccitiling period. There was no parlli ular title of hmg contlniiancc fur the lUmuM liish. p until the si.xth century ; but from the v ar HM he was usually calleii I'apa. ai'd fmni tin tiiic of On'gorv the Ureat he stvled hiniMlf S.rviu f*trvorum Dei."— J. E. T. V<iltsch. Il<v,'l''-k ••/ thf iJrngraphu and f^ntiitif of the Cluiri-li. jtp. to. 71 Hitti 7i. — ''('hristinnity may now iie said lo have ascended the imperial throne: »iih the single ex<rption of Julian, from this period the monari'hs uf tin Homaii empire prulciisd 466 CHRISTIANITT. CHHISTIAmTT. the religion of the Ooapel. This important crisi* jD the history of Christianity alniogt forcibly umits tlie attention to contemplate the change viougbt in Chriatinnity by its advancement into * dominant power in the state ; and the change in the nmdition of mankind up to this period, attributable to the direct authority or indirect iofluenre of th'- new religion. By ceasing to exist M a separate community, and by advancing its pretentions to influence the general govern- ment of mankind, Christianity to a certain extent, forfeited Its independence. It could not but submit to these laws, framed, as it might seem, with its own concurrent voice. It was no longer a republic, governed exclusively — as far, at least, as its rellgous concerns — by 'its own inter- nal polity. The interference of the civil power in some «f its most private alTaire, the promulga- tion of its canons, and even, in some cases, the election of its bisltops hv the state, was the price which it must inevitably pay for its association with the rulhig power. . . . During the reign of ConstaLtine Christianit' had made a rapid advanor, no doubt, in the ni mlx^r of ita prose- lytes as well as in Its jztemal position. It was not vet the established religiou of t. empire. It did not as yet stand forward as tlie new religion adapted to the new order of things, as a part of tlie grrnt simultaneous change which gave Ui the Roman world a new capita, a new system of government, and, in some important in«t«nrrs,anewjurispnidence. . . . Tlie- Ilgion o( the enincror would soon become that of the court, ann, by somewhat slower degrees, that of th°empi"e. At p-i^sent, however, as wo have seen, li'de open agression took place upon pagan- ism. The few temples which were closed were insulated cases, and condemned as offensive to public morality. In general the temples stood in sll their former mnjcsfy, for as yet the ordinary process of di-cay from neglect or ruptneness could have pro(luce<i little effect. The differ- ence -viis, that the Christian churches begim to assume a more stately and imposing form. In tlie new capital they surpas8e<t In grandeur, and pnilmhly in decoration, the pagan temples, which beIonge<i to old Byzantium. The im- munities grnntei to the (fhristinn clergy only pUccd tiiem on t.ie same level with the pagan priesthood. The pootiflcal offices were still held ny the distinguished men of the state: tlie emperor himself was long the chief pontilT; but the r<0)tfinus office had become a kinci of append- »gf to the t.niponil dignity. The Christian pre- laUa Wire constantly lulmitted, in virtue of their office, to the imperial presence. "—H. H. Milman Hut of diruUiDiity, bk. 8, ch. 4.—" As early as 'onstHnilne's time tlie punishment of crucifixion >:isal»i|i«lie<l; ImiiKiral practices, like infanti- cide, Hiid the exhibition of gloiliatoriiil shows, wen' (ItscDuragwl, tl.» latUT of these being for- liiddin in Ciinstantinoiiie; and in order to Impnui. the relation of the sexes. n-\en laws ■ovn- |i,iK«^| agslnst adultery, and restrict' w-cp' piiicinl on tlie facility of divorce. F the IWi„|m were empoweroi, in the i>t rellirinn, to interceile with governors, an. even Willi til,. ,.mi*ror, in behalf of the unfortunate anil oppniimil, Ami grailiuillv they ohtaitied !"c riBiii „f exercising a sort of moral suiteriii- h'tt. en<v over the discharge of their official auli.H l.y tlie Judges, ami others, who belonged w Iteir commuallki. The supervlsioo of the 467 prisons, in particular, was entrusted to them; and, ereas in the first instance their power of interfe. once was limited to exhortations addressed to the judges who superintended them, in Jus- tinian's reign the bishops were commissioned by law to visit the prisons on two days of each week in order to inquire into, and, if*^ necessary, report upon, the treatment cf tiie . risoners. In all these and many other ways, the influcuce of the State in controlling and improving society was advanced hy ita alliance with the Church.''' — H. F. Tozer, The Chiirth and tlie Biutern Em- rtre, pp. 56-37.— "The Christians were still a separate people. ... It can scarcely be doubted that the stricter moral tone of Constantine's leg- islation more or less remotely emanated from Christianity. . . . During the reign of Constan- tine Christianity continued to advance beyond theborderaof the Roman empire, and in some degree to indemnify herself for the losses which she sustained In the kingdom of Persia. The Ethiopians appear to have attained some degree of civilization; aconsiderable part of the Arabian commerce was kept up with the other side of tlie Red Sea through the port of Aduiis; and Greek letters appear, from inscriptions recently dis- covered, to have made considerable progress among this barbarous people. . . . The theo- logical opinions of Christianity naturally made more rapid progress than ita moral influence The former ha<i only to overpower the resistance of a religion which had already lost ita hold upon the mind, or a philosophy tcxi speculative for ordinary underetiinding.'j and too unsati.sfactory for the more curious ami inquiring; it hnd only to enter, as it were, into a vacant place in the mind of man. But the moral influence had to contest, not only with the natural dispositions of man, but with 'le Kirbarism and depraved manners of ages. While, then, the religion of the worid underwent a total change, the Church rose on the ruins of the temple, and the pontifl- cal establishment of paganism became gradu- ally extinct or suffered violent suppression; the moral revolution was far more slow and far less complete. . . . Everywhere there wiw exagger- ation of one of the constituent elements of Christianity; that exaggeration which is the inevitable consequence of a strong impulse upon the human mind. Wherever men fwl strongly, they act violently. The more speculative Chris- tians, therefore, who were more incliniHl, in the deep and somewhat stdllsh solicitude for their own salvation, to isolate themmdves from the infected class of mankind, pressed Into the ex- treme of asceticism, the more practioiil, who were' in earnest In the desire of ilissi'niiuatiiig tlio blessings of religion throughout society, scrupled little to press Into their service whatever might advance their cause. With both extremes the dogmatical part of the religion predominate<l. ... In proportion to tlie admitted im[)ortance of the creed, men liecame more sternly and excl.i- sively weii(le<l to their opinions. . . . While they swept in converts iiidiscrimttaately from the palace and the public street, while the emperor and the lowest of the populace were alike admitted on little more- than the open profession of allcfflance. Um'V wen- swfliftn) if th<-ir all*"- glann; in this respect was blind and complete. Heni« a far larger admixture' of hiiiimn passions, and the common vulgar incentives of action, were infused into the cxpanJiDg Chriatiau budy. \ CHBISXIANITT. IVOract Ckure*. CHRISTIANITT. Men bMame Chriatiiuia, orthnlox Christians, *Uh little sacriflre uf that which Christianity aimed chiefly to extirpate. Yet. after all, this imperfect view of Christianity harl probably some effect in concentrating the Christian com- munity, and holding it together by a new and more indismluble bond. Tlie world divided into two parties. . . . All. however, were enrolled uniier one or the other standard, and the party which triiimphetl eventually would rule the whole Christian world."— H. H. Milman. niiit. of Chrittinnity. bk. 3. ch. 4-5._"Of this detcr- lomtion of morals we have abundant evidence. Riwl the Canons of the various Councils and you will learn that the Church found it necessary to prohibit tlie commission of the most heinous and abominable crimes not only by the laity, but even by the clergy. Read the homilies o"f such preacliers as Chrysostom, Basil, and Gregory, and you may infer what the moral tone of a Christian congregation must have been to which such reproofs could be addressed. Read, above all, the treatise on Providence, or De Qubema- tione Dei, w^ritten at the close of our period by Salvian, a presbyter of )Iaiseilles. The bar- barians had over-spread the West, and Chris- tians had suffered so many hardships that they began to doubt whether there was any Divine government of human affairs. Salvian retorted that the fart of their suffering was the best evi- dence of the doctrine of Providence, for the miseries they endured were the effects of the Divine displeasure provoked by the debauchery of the Church. And then he proceeds to draw up an indictment and to lend proof which I prefer not to give in detail. After making every allowance for rhetorical exaggeration, enough nmiiins to show that the morality of the Church had grievously declined, and that the declension was due to tlic inroads of Pagan vice. . . Under this head, lind space permitted, some account would have l)een given of the growth of the Christian literature of this period, of the great writers atid preachers, and of the opposing schools of interpretation which divided Christen- dom. In the Eastern Church we should have had to notice [at greater length the work of] Euscblus of Ca'sarea, the fatlier of Church History and the friend of Constantine; Ephrem the Syrian, the poet-preacher; tlie three I'appa- docians, Basil of Ciesarea. Gregory of Nyssa, am' Gregory of Xazianzus, each great In his OV..1 wrtv, tlie first as a preacher and adminis- trator, the second as a thinker, the thir<l as a poet and pani-gvrist; Chrysostom, the orator and e.Kegete ; Thfoclore of Mopsuestia and Theodortt of Kyros, along with Chrysostom the most in- fliientiiil representatives of the School of Antioch. In tlie Western Church we should have had to sjnak of Ambrose, the eloquent preacher and vulmnltious writer; of Jerome, the biblical critic; and of Augustine, the philosopher and conlrovur»mlist, whose thoughts live among us even at tlie present day."— W, Stewart, The Vhiirrh of tKe ith and hth Centuria (St. GiUt' I^fluret, ith ,,na).—»pc Rome: A. D. 883, to 3U1-39.J. — •'Hitherto Christian asceticism had iK-en iudividualistie in its character. ... In the third century hermits began to form a class by thi'mselve-i in tl.r East and in Africa; in the fourth they began to lie organize<l into communi- ties. After the institution of monastic societies. Uii« development of Chriulan asccticiim spread far and wide from the deserts of the Tliehnid and Lower Egypt; Basil, Jerome, Athauasius, Au- gustine, Ambrose, were foremost anioiur iu eariiest advocates and propagators; CsMian Columbanus, Benedict, and others, crowned the labours of their predeceseon by a more elaborate organization."— I. Gregory Smith, C/iritUait Motuutieitm, pp. 33-33. A. p. 318-335.- The Arian Controrersr ud the Coundr of Niaea. Si-e Ahumsm and >ICAA, The First CouviIl or. /»\ ?• ?32:">S4--T>ie Eaatem (Greek, or Orthodox) Church.— ■■ 'The Eastern Cliurch ' says a well-known writer, ' was like the East stationary and immutable; the Western like the West, progressive and flexible. This distinction is the more remarkable, because at certain periods of their course, there can be no doubt tliat the civilization of the Eastern Church was fur liiglier than that of the ^t'estem.' "— O. F. Maclcar, rA« SUirt, p. 23. — It is the more remarkable be- cause this long-continuing uniformity, while peculiarly adapted to a people and a church which should retain and tron.nmit an inheritance of faith and culture, sunds in singular contrast to the reputed character of the Gnrk-speaking peoples of the East. The word Greek, however, has, as an adjective, many meanings, nnd there is danger of wrong inference through iniittention to these; some of its distinctive charactire are therefore indicated in bracketa in various places In the following matter. "The New Rome at the time of its foundation was Roman . . . But from the flret it was destined to become Greek; for the Greek.s, who now began to call themselves Romans— an appellation which they have ever since retained- held fast to their language, manners, and prejudices, wliile they availed themselves to the full of their rinhu ag Roman citizens. The turning-point in tliis re- spect was the separation of the empin's of the East and the West in the time of An'iulius and Ilonorius; and in Justinian's time we find all the highest offices In the hands of the Gniks, and Greek was the prevailing language. But the people whom we call by this name wen' not the Hellenes of Gn-ece proix-r, but the Jlrtccdonian Greeks. This distinction arosi' with the estab- lishment of Greek colonies with muni(i|ml gov- ernment throughout Asia by AU'.xnndir the Great nnd his successors. The ty|)e of chiiractcr which was developed in tliem and anionir those who were Hellenisiil by their influence, ililTcn-d in many respects from that of the old (-niks. The resi'mblancc betwi-en them was indctil niain- taine<i by similarity of education and social fwllngs, by tlic possession of a coiiiiiion lan- guage an(f literature, and by their cxrUisive- ness, which causcil them to I(X)k donn 011 Icsfi favoured races; but while the inlml'it^iiits of Greece retaine<i more of the indi'|xiidinl spirit and of the moral character and piiiiiotisin of their forefathers, tlie Maceiloiiiiiu (ini k^ wen- more cosmopolitan, more sulisirviint. utv\ more ready to take the impress of those iiinoni; whom they were thrown: and the a.stiiti'n('s.4 :iiLd virsa- tility which at all linn's had fonmil om elemint in the Hellenic character, in tla'ni !»< iiiiii' the leading characteristic. The inllueiKr of liiis type IS tntceaidc lii Itie |Kiilr) of iIk- I;,i.~i<td Empire, varying In intensity in ilifTcnnl ni-i'sin protMirtion to the I)owerexerci9^^l by thi'iinrk*; until, during the later period uf the history -in 468 CHniSTUNITT. 2V CkHtNoiUnd the tttne nf the Comneni, and still more In that of the Pula-ologl — it la the predominant feature. " — H. F. Tozcr, The Church and the EtuUrn Empire, m>. 9-10.—" What have been the effects of Christianity on what we call national charac- ter in Eastern Christendom? , . . The Orecks of the Lower Empire are taken as the typical example of these races, and the Greeks of the Lower Empire have become a byword for every- tliing that is false and base. The Byzantine was rrofoundlv theological, we are told, and pro- foundly vile. . . . Those who wish to be just to [it] . . . will pass ... to the . . . equitable and conscientious, but by no means, indulgent, liidgrarnts of Mr. Flnlay, Mr. Freeman, ami Dean Stanley. One fact alone Is sufficient to engage our deep interest in this race. It was Greeks rUcIleni-st .lews] and people Imbued with Greek ideas who first welcomed Chrtstlanity. It was in their language that It first spoke to the world, and its first home was in Qreek house- holds and in Oreek cities. It was in Oreek [Hellenistic] atmosphere that the Divine Stran- Ser from the East, in many respects so widely ISerent from all that Greeks were accustomed to, first grew up to strength and shape; first 8howe<l its power of assimilating and reconciling; first showed what it was to be in human society. Its earliest nurslings were Greeks; Greeks [Hel- lenist Jews] first took In the meaning and mea- sure of Its amazing and eventful announcements: Greek sympiithies first awoke and vibrated to its appeals; Greek ol)e(iience, Greek courage, Greek suffering first illustrated iu new lessons. Hud it not first gained over Greek mind and Greek belief, it is hard to see how it would have made Its fur- ther way. . . . The Roman conquest of the world fouuil the Greek race, and the Eastern nations which it hiul inrtuenced, In a low and declin- ing state — morilly, socially, politically. The Roman Empiri', when It fell, left them in the same (liscouraging rondlilon, and sutTering besides from the degradation and mischief wrought on all its subjects by iU chronic and relentless flscul oppression. . . . These were the men In whose fhilillsh conceit, childish frivolltv, childish self- assertion, St. Paul saw such dangers to the growth of Christian manliness and to the unity of the CUiristian I)ody — the idly curious and gos- siping men of Athens; the vain and shamelessly ostentatious Corinthians, men in intellect, but In moral seriousneas babes; the Epheslans, 'like rhililien carried away with every blast of vain teachius,' the victims of every Impostor, and simrt of every ileceit; the Cretans, proverbially, 'ever liars, evil IwasU, slow bellies;' the pas- Mnniite. volatile, Gnrkspcaking. Celts of Asia, tlie ■ foolish ■ Galatlans. . . . The Greek of the Itoman times is portrayed In the special wam- ines of the Apostolic Epistles. After Apostolic times he Is portrayed In the same way by the beatlhn satirist Luclan, and by the Christian pnarhi rChrysostom; and such, with all his l)a<l teiKleui ies, aggravated by almost uninterrupted misrule and oppression, the Empire, when It lin'id' up. left lilm. The prospecta of such a p'>ple. iirniil the cimiing storms, were dark. Evervihiiii;, tlieir gifts and versatility, as well as lliiir fiiulta, tlireatene<l nation?' lecav and •IisiuieLTition. . , . These races v ♦he Em- pire of tlie Ca-siirs left like scatttrtv. !ieep to the merey of the barbarians, lived through a lucccsslou of the most appiiuiug storms, and CHRISTLANnr. kept themselves together, holding fast, resolute and unwavering, amid all their miseries and all their debasement, to the faith of tlieir national brotherhood. . . . This, It seems to me, Chris- tianity did for a race which had apparently lived ito time, and had no future before ft— the'Greek nice in the days of the Ciesare. It created In them. In a new and characteristic degree national endurance, national fellowship and Vmpathy, national hope. ... It gave them an E.mplre of their own, which, undervalued as It Is by those familiar with the ultimate results of Western history, yet wIthsUxid the assaults be- fore which, for the moment. Western civilisa- tlon sank, and which had the strength to last a life— a stirring and eventful life— of ten cen- turies. The Greek Empire, with all iU evils and weaknesses, was yet In ito time the only existing Image In the world of a civilised state. . . . The lives of great men profoundly and per- manently influence national character; and the freat men of later Greek memory are sainto. hey belong to the people more than emperors and warriore: for the Chureh is of the people. . . . The mark which such men left on Greek society and Greek character has not been effaced to this day, even by the melancholy examples of many degenerate successors. . . . Wliy, if Christianity affected Greek character so i o- foundly, did It not do more? Why, If It cured It of much of its Instability and trifling, did it aot also cure It of its falsehood and disslnnila- ti(m? AVhy, If It impressed the Greek mind so deeply with the reality of the objecu of faith, dill it not also check the vain inqutsitiveness and spirit of disputatiousness and sophistry, which filled Qreek Church history with furious wrang- lings about the most ho|)eless problems? Why, If It could raise such admiration for unselfish- ness and heroic nobleness, has not this admiration borne more congenial fruit? Why, if heaven was felt to be so great and so near, was there in real life such coarse and mean worldliiiess? Why, Indeed? . . . Profoundly, permanently, as Christianity aflfected Oreek character, thero was much in that character which Cliristlunity failed to reach, much that it failed to correct, much that was obstinately refractory to Influ- ences which, elsewhere, were so fruitful of g(M)d- ness and greatness. The East, as well as the West, has still much to learn fn)m that reli!,'ion, which each t<H> exclusively claims to mider- stanil, to appreciate, and to defend."— R. W Church, The Giff of Ciriiimtion. pp. lSM-316. —" The types of character that were deveIo|M'd In the Eastern Church, as might be expected, were not of the very higliest. There was among them no St. Francis, no St. Louis. The uni- formity which pervadi'S everything Byzantine prevented the developmcut of such salient characters as are found in the West. It is diffi- cult, no doubt, to form a tnie estimate of the Influence of religion on men's lives In Eastern countries, just as it is of t: ■•ir domestic relations, and even of the condition of tlie lower cliis.ses, Ixrause such matters are steadily Ignored l>v tlio contemporary historians. But all the evi.lence tends to show that inilividiial rallier than heroic piety w!is f.icteri"! tiy thp system wlii..!i |. re- vailed there. That at certain peri<Kls a high tone of spirituality prevailed among certain classes Is sufficiently proviil by the beautiful hymns uf the Eastern Church, many of which, 469 CHHIBTIANITY. WtOntailieai i'A m thank* to Dr. Netle's singular fclldty In tran«- htinn, are In uae among ourselves. But the loftier development of their spirit took the form of rwceticism, and the scene of this was mthvr the secluded monastery, or the pillfr of the Styliie, tlian human society at large. But If the £asU-m Church did not rise as high as her sister of tlie West, she never sank as low."— H. F. Tozer, The Churth and the Outern Empire, pp. «-48.— "The Greek Church, or, as it cafis Itself, the Holy Orthodox, Catholic, Apostolic, Oriental Church, has a venerable if not an event- ful history. Unlike the Church of the West, it has not l)een moulded by great political move- ments, the rise and fall of kingdoms, and the nvulsions which have passed over the face of •uixlern soc-lety. lu course ha* been out of the •ight of European civilisation. It has grown up among peoples who have been but slightly affected, if they have been affected at all, by the pmirri'ssive movements of mankind. It has no midtile ages. It has no renaissance. It has no Reformation. It has given birth to no great universities and schools of learning. It has no Protestantism. It remains very much as the fourth and fifth centuries left it. . . . When the royal throne in the days of the first Christian Emperor was removed from Rome to Constanti- nople, there arose at once a cause of strife l)etwccn the bishops ol old i>nd new Rome, as Byzantium or ConHtantinople was name<l. Eaoh r'aimed pre-eminence, and each alternately re- ct.vcd it from tlie governing powers in Church and Slate. One Council decreed ,A. D. 381) tlmt the Bishop of the new Rome should be inferior only to tliat of the old ; another declare<l (A. D. 451) the equality of both prelates. The Patri- arch of Constantinople at tlie close of the sixth century claimed superiority over all Christlim Churches,— a claim which m'ight have developed, had circumstances favoured it, into an Eastern Papacy. The assumption was, however, but sbort-lived, and the Bishop of Rome, Boniface, obtained from the Emperor Phocas in 806 tlie mucli-covefe<l position. The Eastern Church submitted, but from this time looked with a jeal- ous eye on her Western sister. She noted and mafcniaeil every point of divergence between them. Differences or apparent differences in dix-trinc and ritual were denounced as heresies. Excommunitmtions fulminated between the East- em and WesU'rn city, and ecclesiastical bitter- ness was intcnsifieii by political Intrigue. . . In the ninth century the contest grew very fiene. The holder of the Eastern see, Photius formnlatol and denounce<I the terrible doctrinal and iitlier defectiims of the Western prelate and his followers. The list is very formidable. Tliey, the followers of Rome, deemed It proi>er to fast on the seventh day of the week — tlmt is on I he Jewish Sabbath: in the first week of U-nt I hey p<-rmltt«l Uic use of milk and cheese; they (iLsapproved wholly of tlie marriage of priests; they thought none but bishops could anoint witli the Imly oil or confirm the bap- tized, and that they therefore anointe<{ a second time those who liail bc-va anointed by presbv- ters; and fifthly, they had adulterated the Coil- Btantinopolltan Cree«i by adding to it the wonls Flli<"l'ie. thus leaching th.it the Hnlv Spirit did not pn«ee<l only from the Father, but also from Hie Son. This last was deemed, and has always been acemed by the Greek Citureb the great CH1U8TIAN1TT. heresy of the Roman Church. . . . Thcflrwk Church to-dav in all Its branches— In Turkey Greece, wd Russia- professes to hold flmily C the formula* and decisions of the seven lEcu menical or General Councils, ivganline with •peciai honour that of Nice. The Nlcene and Atlianasian Creeds are the symbols of its fiutii the Filioque clause being omitted from the former, and the eighth article readlnif thus- And in the Iloly Ghost, the Lord and Giver of life, who proceedeth from the Father, and with the Father and Son together is wotshipn«l ajnd glorified.' ... The Greek Church, unlike the Latin, denounces the use of images as objecU of devotion, and holds in abhorri'nce every form of what It terms 'image worship.' Its position In this manr- r is very curious. It Is true no figures of our Lord, of the Virgin, or saints such as one sees hi churches, wayside chapels, imi |n the open fields in countries where the Koman Church Is powerful, are to be seen in Russis Greece, or any of those lands where the Eastcni Church Is supreme. On the other hand, piotuiw of the pbinest kind everywhere take their place and are regarded with the dei-pest veneration.'' —J. C. liccs, T/ie Greek Church (in the Chircha of ChrieUndom). leet. 4.— See, also, Fii.iooci Controversy. A. D. 33^47«.— The tall of Imperial Rone. —The ri*e of Ecdesiuticml Rome. -The ixill. Ileal and religious hIsUiry of the Empire from the death of Constantinc is so fully narrated under Rome that mere mention here of a few events will suffice, viz. : the revival of PiipinUra under the Emperor Julian ; the n-iisci'mli -yof Christianity; the formal estalilishmeut of (bris- tianily as the religion of the Romans, by tlie suf- frages of the senate; the final divisiimof the Em- pire into East and West between the .scins of Theodosius; the three sieges ami the sucking o( Rome by Alaric; the legal sipuniliim of thp Eastern and Western Empires: the pillage of Rome by the Vandals and its final subtnLssidn to the barbarians. See Rome: A. D, 3;i7-3fil, to 445-4T6. For an account of the earlv bishops of Rome, see Papacy. " A heathen' historian traces the origin of the calamities wliicli he re- cords to the alKilition of sacriflce by TlniHl.wius, and the sack of Rome to the laws against ilie an- cient faith passed by Ills son. Tliis (ilije<!ion of the heathens that the overthrow of lilnlairv and the ascendency of Christianity were the eaiise of the misfortunes of the emplrew iis so wiile spread. and had such force with those, both I'ligans and Christians, who conceiveil history to 1k' the out- come of magical or demonic powers, that .Vul'us- tine devoted twelve years of hLs life to its ntuta Hon. His treatise. ' De Civitate Dei,' was Ingun in 413, and was not finished till 4-'«, within four years of his death. Rome had once iK'iri taken; society, consumed by inward corrupticm, w.ia shaken to its foundations by the violent e;iset of the Teutonic tribes; mens li'arts were failing them for fear; the voice of calumny eridl aloud, and lahl these woes to the charge of the C hris- tian faith. Augustine umiertook to n fute the calumny, and to restore tlie counige of liis fel- h>w Christians. Taking a rapid siirvev nf his- tory, he asks what the gixls had ever (Imie for the Well Ix-ingof the stale or for puhli.- n;..r,iii;v. He maintains that the greatness of Koine in the past was line to the virtues of her sons, unci not to the protection of the gods. He shows that. 470 CHBISTIAinTT. WaltmEmptr* ttndCkMrek. CHWSTIAinTY. long before the rise of Chrtstlanltr, her ruin had befun with the Introcluction of foreign vices ifter the destruction of Carthage, and declares that much In the ancient worship, iatteauot pre- Tenting, had hastened that ruin. He rises above the troubles of the present, and amid the vanish- ing glories of the city of men he proclaims the itS)fiity of the dty of God. At a time when tlie downfall of Rome wan thought to presage «ppn>achlng doom, Augustine regarded the dts- a»ter» around him as the birth-throes of a new world, as a necessary moment In the onward movement of Christianity."— W. Stewart, The Ckureh of the ith and Sth Genluriei (St. Gila' leettirft, 4<A teria).—" There Is as little ground for discovering a miraculous, as there Is for dis- owning a providential element In the course of erents. The Institutions of Roman authority and law had been planted regularly over all the territory which the conquering hordes coveted and seized; alongside of every magistrate was DOW placed a minister of Christ, and by every Hall of Justice stood a House of Prayer. The Repnwntative of Ciesar lost all his power and dignitv when the armies of Ctesar were scattered Inflight; the minister of Christ felt that behind him was an invisible force with which the hosts of the alien could not cope, and his behaviour im- piesseil the barbarian with the conviction that there was realltr here. That beneficent mission of Leo, A. D. 452, of which Gibbon says: 'The pressing eloquence of Leo, his majestic aspect and sarenlotal robes, excited the veneration of Attila for the spiritual father of the Christians ' —would Ik.' but an instance of what many name- leas priests from provincial towns did, ' not count- ijng their lives dear to tliem,' The organisation of llic Latin state vitalised by a new spiritual 'toroe vaniiuislied the victors. It was the method «D(I the nisicipline of this organisation, not the subtlety of its doctrine, nor the fervour of Its officials, that l)eat in detail one chief with his motley following after another. Hence too it came about that the Christianity which was adopted as the religion of Europe was not modi- fie<t to suit the tastes of the various tribes that cmljraced it, but was delivered to each as from a common fountain-head. ... It was a social triumph, proceeding from religious motives which we niav regard with unstinted admiration and gratitude."— J. Watt, The Latin Church (St. OiUt' Lerluru. 4th tenet. — "The temporal fall iif the Imperial metropolis tended to throw a brighter light upon hor ecclesiaslicnl claims. The separation of the East and the West had already enhuneed tlic religious dignity of the ancient capital. The great Eastern pntriarchates of An- tiixh, .Mexandria, and Jerusalem had up to that time all held tliemselves equal, if not superior to lioine. ( imst.'intinople had even assumed certain airs of supri'inacy over all. The General Coun- cils nliieli hiul defined the Faith at MIctea and Constantinople had been composed almo°t wholly of Orientals. The great Doctors of th 'lurch, the men who had defended or diffused tne com- mon Faith, had been mostly Greeks by origin and language. None had been Romans, anu It was ranlv, till the fourth century, that any of them ha<l written in the Latin tougue. When Athauanius, exiled from Alexandria, came to Italy and Gaul, it was three years before he rould learn enough of the language of the West lo address Its congregatioot in puDllc, But this curious fact shows that the Western Chrlstiant were now no longer the little Greek colony of the first and second centuries. Christianity had be- come the national religion of the native races. The Romans might now feel that 'ncy were be- coming again a people ; that th"lr 'glorious career was assuming, as it were, a new point of depart- ure. . . . For at this moment the popular In- stinct could not fail to perceive how strongly the conscience of the barbarians had been affected by the spiritual majesty of Christian Rome. The Northern hordes had beaten down all armed re- sistance. They had made a deep impression up(/n the strength of the Eastern Empire; they had, for a moment at least, actually overcome the Western ; they had overrun many of the fairest provinces, and had effected a permanent lodge- ment In Gaul and Spain, aud still more recently in Africa. Yet in all these countries, rude as they still were, they had submitted to accept the creed of the Gospel. There was no such thing as a bartwrlan Paganism established within the limits of the Empire anywhere, except perhapa in furthest Britain." — C. Merivale, Four ieeturet on tome Epoeht of Barly Church Uittory, ;)p. 130- 186. — " When the surging tides of barbarian In- vasion swept over Europe, the Christian organi- zation was almost the only institution of the past which survived the flood. It remained as a visi- ble monument of what had been, and, by so re- maining, was of itself an antithesis to the present. The chief town of the Roman province, whatever its status under barbarian rule, was still the bishop's see. The limits of the old ' province,' though the boundary of a new kingdom might bisect them, were still the limits of his diocese. The bishop's tribunal was the only tribunal In which the laws of the Empire coul'd be pleaded in their Integrity. The bishop's dress was the ancient robe of a Roman magistrate. The an- cient Roman language which was used in the Church services was a standing protest against the growing degeneracy of the ' vulgar tongue.' ... As the forces of the Empire became less and less, the forces of the Church became more and more. The Churches preserved that wliich had been from the first the secret of Imperial strength. For underneath the Empire whicli clianged and passed, beneath the shifting pageantry of Em- perors who moved across the staire and were seen no more, was the abiding empire of law and administration, — which chanaeil only as the deep sea changes beneath the windswept waves. That inner empire was coutinuiil in the Cliristian Churches. In tlie years of transition from the ancient to the modern worI<l, when all civilized society seemed to l)c disintegrated, the confederation of the Christian CInirolies, by the very fact of Its existence upon the old imperial lines, was not only tlie most powerful, but the only powerful organization in th" civilized world. It was so vast, and so powerl It seemed to be, and there were few to quea.. jn its being, the visible realization of fit Kingdom of God which our Lord Himse' 1 preached." — E. Hatch, Tlu Organitatii .he Chrittian Churchet, pp. 160-178. A. D. 347-412.— The Syrian Churchei.— " St. Chr}-sost4)m was bom there A. D. 847 ; and it was in his time that AutiocU, with its hundred thousand Christians, became the leading Church In Asia, especially in the Arian controversy [see AM&MMii], for Arianism was very prevalent 471 CHRISTIAinTT. Oohmwmw CHKISTJAOTTT. lily Uicn>. Biit hU this lies outiUe our period. The ncnllitl '8cho<>l of Antiorh' baa iu origin Just Ufore ... our period [311, Wlltsch]. Doro- theiiR, . . . and llio martyr Luciun mny lie rc- ^nlul at) itii fdunilers. In oontnuit to the allegor- ising mysticism of the School of Alcxundria. it was distinguishMl liy a more solwr and critical In- ttrpretntlon of Scripture. It looked to grammar ■ml historj- for its princlpl"S of exegesis. But we must not suppose that iliire was at Antioch an educational estjthlishmeniilketheCutt-ehelical SchiK)! at Alexandria, which, by s succession of great teachers, kept up a tnulitlonal mode of exegesis (uid instruction. It was rather ar in- tellectual tenileney which, beginning with Lucian and Domlheus, developed in a definite direction in Antio.li and other Syrian Churches. . . . These notiiTs of the Churchcsof Jerusalem, Cwaarea in Palestine, and Antioch must suffice as representative of the Syrian Churches. The numlier of these Churches wa* considerable even In the second century, and by the beginning of the fourth was very large indeed, as Is seen by the nunilter of bishops who attend local Coun- cils."— A. Plummer, 17ie Chunk of the Early Fathert, eh. 3.—" It has often a. nished me that no one has ever translated letters of St. Jerome. The letters of St. Au inc have been translated, and are In many ^.^.ts very enter- taining rending, but they are nothing in point of living interest when compared with St. Jerome's. These letters illustrate liic about the year 400 as nothing else can. Tliey show us, for instance, what edueation then was, what clerical life con- sisted in ; they till us of modes and fashions, and they tench us how vigorous and constnat was the eoinmunication at that same period between the must distant parts of the Koman empire. AVe are apt totliinkof the fifth century as u time when lliere was vry little travel, and when most certainly the Knsi and West — Ireland, England. Gaul and Palestine — were much more wiiiely and completely separated than now, when steam has praelieallv nnnihilate.1 time and space. And yet such an iilea is very mistaken. There was a most lively intercourse existing between these regions, a constant Church correspondence kept up iH'twei n ilu in, and the inr t intense and vivid iulerest luaiiilained by ihc Gallic afcd Sviiau cliurehes in the minutest detjiils of tlieir re- spective histories. Mark now how this hap|>encd. St. Jerome at Bethlehem was the centre of this intercourse. His position in the Christian world in the beginning of the fifth century can only be compared to, but ^ 's not at all equalletl by, that of John Calvin at ihe time of the Reformation. Men from the most distant parts consulted him. Bishops of highest renown for sanctity and leaniing, like St. Augustine, and Exuperius of Toulouse in sowtliem France, deferred to his authorily. The keen inU-rcst he took in tlie churches of Gnu!, and the intimate knowle<igc he possessed of the most petty local details and nlijiious gossip therein, can only be understood by one who has sliidieil his very" abusive treatise against Vi'.'iliintius or liis correspondence witli Exuperius. . . . But how, it may be asked, was this corr(s[>on<ience carried on when there was no postal system? Here it was that the or- ganizatiim <;f mimaptlrlsm suppiit-U a want. Jerome's letters tell us the very name of bis Ewtman. He was a monk named Sysinnius. e was perpetually on the iDsd between liar- seillet and Bethlehem. Again and again don Jerome mention bis coming and his going Jli» sppearwice must indeed have been the ktvu ti citement of life at Bethlehem. Trneliin. probably tI» Sardinia, Koine. Greece, mul ih' islands of the Adriatic, he gatbereti up all liinda of clerical news on the way — a piece of cdnduct on his part which seems to have had iis u,u,i results. As a tale-bearer, he not only revi-uled sccreU, but also separated chief friends, uiirl this monk Sysinnius with his gossips seems t.) have lieen the original cause of the celebrated ijuantl iwlween Augustine tad Jerome."— (i. T. Stokes, Ireland and tht Celtic Church, pp. 170-17i A. D. 496-800.— The Prankish Churdi to the Empire of Charlemagne.-" The liaptism of Chl(Miovech [Clovis— see Fuanks: A. I) 481- 811] was followed by the wlmlesale eonvirelon of the Franks. No compulsion was used to bring the heathen Into the Church. As a lautlien Chlodovech bad treatwl the Church with for bearancc; he was equally tolerant to hiiiiluniam when be was a Christian. But liis eMimple worked, and thousands of noble Franks eniwiled to the water of regeneration. Gregory of Tours reckons the Franks as Christians after tlu' bap- tism of their king, which took place at Christmas, A. D. 496. His conversion made no alteration In the policy and conduct of Chlodovech; he remained the same mixture of cunnini; and audacity, of cruelty and sensuality, thai he was before. . . . But, though his baptism wa-s to Urn of no moral import, its conse.juences were wide spreading. When Gregory of Tours eoinpares the conversion of Chlodovech with that of Con- stentine the Great, be was fully in the rijtht. . . . And the baptism of CliMovtch dediiml to the world that the new blood In-ing poured into the veins of the old and expiring eivilizatioD, had U'en quickened by the same elements, and would unite with the old in the new development. . . . That many of those wlio were liaptind car- ried with them into their new Chris'ianitv their old heathen superstltionsas well as their Ijarliarism is certain; and the times were not those in which the growth of the gnat Christian gnins was encouraged; the germs, however, of a new life were laid."— 8. Baring-Oould, 1/ie C/mn-h i« German!/, 'A- 3.— "The details of the lii,«t»ryof the Merovingian pericnl of Fraiikisli hislorv are extraordinarily complicated; happily, it is not at all necessary for our purixisc to follnn thim. . . . In the earlier years after the euni|ui>l, all ranks of the clergy were tilled by Gallo Knniaui The Franks were the dominant nu-r. ami uire Christian, but they were new cmiverts from a rude heathenism, ami it would take some ^inira- tions to raise up a ' native miuLstry among them. Xot only the literature of the" (Western) Church, but all its services, and, still ni.re, the conversational intercourse of all eivili/.d and Christian people, was In Latin, id siiiis. (lie Franks were warriora, a eimqiieriiur (.lsIo. a separate nation ; anil to lay down ilie ii'ili axe and speer, <\nd enter Into the pc iieefiil r;ink» uf the «. r; ■o-Oallic Church, would have sinned t.) tie" ..Ue chaneiug their natiimaliii fc.rthat 1 f till nore highTy eulturtil, perhaps, Imt, in their ijye.-", S'lbject race. The Frank kiiiirs did n: . iun. 'Jjc value of cduc-ation. Cin-.is issaiJ to have established a Palatine school, anil 1 ncour aged his young men to qualify theusilvea for the positions which bis conquests bud uiieuuiout 472 CHRISTIANITT. JCMoMto ttfOOTmOM. CHRISTIAOTTT. to them. Bli grandioiu, we hATe aeen, prided thcmsolvesonthetrLatinculturc. After a while, Franks aspired to the magnltleent posltloni which the frrcst sees of the Church offered to their ambition; and we find men with Teutonic names, and no doubt of Teutonic race, among the bishops. . . . For a still longer period, few FrankH entered Into the lower ranks of the Church. Not only did the prU. ,thood offer little temptation to them, but also tho policy of the kinffs and nobles opposed the diminution of their mllitarv strength, by refusing leave to their Frank.^' to enter Into holy orders or Into the mon- asterios. The cultured families of the cities would afford an ample supply of men for the clergy, and promising youths of a lower class Kcm already not infrc(|uently to have been edu- cated for the service of the Church. It was only In the later period, when some approach had been made to a fusion of the races, tnat we find Franks entering Into the lower ranks of the Church, and simultaneously we find Oallo- Romans in the ranks of the armies. . . . Monks wieldal a powerful spiritual influence. But the name of not a single priest appears in the bUtory of the times as exercising anv influence or authoritr. . . . Under the gradual secularization of the Church In the Merovingian period, the monasteries had the greatest share In keeping sllve a remnant of vital religion among the people; and In the gradual decay of learning and art, the monastic institution was the ark in which tlie aniiont civilization surviv. I the deluge of barlurism, and emerged at lengtn to spread Itself over tlic modem world." — E. L. Cutts, Charle- maijuf. rh. .5 and 7. — "Two Anglo-Saxon monks, St.'Wilfind, bishop of York, and St. WiUibrord uiidcrt(H)k the conversion of the savage flsher- mi'D of Priesland and Holland at the end of the seventh and beginning of the eighth century; they were followed by another Englishman, the most renowned of all these mis.sionnrics. Win- frith, whose name was changed to Boniface, perliaps liy the Pope, In recognition of his active and Innetloent apostlcship. When Gregory II. appointed liim bishop of Germany (723), lie went throu):h Kavaria and established" there the dio- ceses of Frialngen, Passau, and Katisbon. When Pope Zacliarias bestowed the rank of metro- politan upon the Church of Mainz in 748, he entrusted its direction to St. Boniface, who from that time was primate, as it were, of all Ger- many, under the authority of the Holy See. St. Bonifiiec was assassinated by the Pagans of Fries- land in T.'i.',."— V. Duruy, IIM. of the MiMh ilj«, Ilk. 3, eh. 8. — "Boniface, whose original name was Winfrld, was of a noble Devonshire family (.V. 1). 680), educat«>d at the monastery of Sutcelle, in Hampshire, and at the age of thirty, five years had obtained a high reputation for leamini; and ability, when (in A. D. 716), seized witli the prevalent missionary enthusiasm, he alianiiimiKl his prospects at home, and set out witli two companions to labour among the Fris- ians. . . Winfriil was refusi-d permission by the Duke to preach in his dominions, and he returneil homo to England. In the following spiim; lie went to Rome, where he remained for some niciiitha, and then, with a general au'liori- zaiinn troni the pope to preach the gospel in Central Europe, lie crossed the Alps, passed thruuv'h Bavaria into Thuringia, where he began his work. While here the death of Radbod, A. D. 710, and the conquest of Frisia by Cliarlet Martcl, opened up new prospects for the evan- gelization of that country, and Boniface went titither and l"boured for three years ain(mg tiia missionaries, under Willibronl of Utrecht. Then, following In the track of the victorious forces of Charles Martel, he plungetl Into the wilds of Hessia, converted two of Its chiefs whose example was followed by multitudes of the Hessians and Saxons, and a monastery arose at Amiineburg as the head-quarters of the mission. The Bishop of Rome being Informed of this success, sum- moned Boniface to Rome, A. D. 723, and conse- crated him a regionary bishop, with a general Jurisdiction over all whom he shoulil win from paganism Into the Christian f(dd, requiring from him at the same time the oath which was usually required of bishops within the patriurebatc of Rome, of obedience to the see. . . . B</nifaco was not only a zealous missionary, an earnest preacher, a learned scholar, but he was u states- man and an able administrator. He not only spread the Gospel among the heathen, but he organized the Church among the newlv converted nations of Germany: he regulated tlie disorder which existed in the Frankish Church, and estab- lished the relations between Church and State on a settled basis. The meditevai analysts tell us that Boniface crowned Pepin king, and modem writers have usually reproduced the statement. ' Itettberg, and the able writer of the biography of Boniface in Hcrzog (Real Ecy k, s. v. ). argue satisfactorily from Boniface's letters tliat he took no part in Pepin's coronation.' When Biuilfaco withdrew from the active super\ision of tiie Frankish Churches, It is probable tliut bis place was to some extent supplied in the councils of the mayor and In the synods of the ('!;ur;li by Chrodegang, Bishop of Met/., a ■ >. vhosc character and influence In th' the Frank C;hureh have hardly bit' .^ .. r^e- ciated."— E. L. Cutts, CharU. •;. '? — "Both Karlmann and Pippin ' ^^> r; u certain abuses that had crept i ■ > ?!. v. Two councils, convoked by KarLuo • ■" Germany (742), the other in the f .t-. at Lcstines (near Charleroi, in Belgiuii , ■• .p decrees which abolished superstitious rites and certain Pagan ceremonies, still remaiiiing in force; they also authorized grants of Cliurch lands by the ' Prince ' for military purposes on condition of a payment of an annual nut to the Church; they reformed the ecclesiastiral life, forbade the ricsts to hunt or to rule ilirougli the woods w dogs, falcons, or sparrowliawks; a .1, li 1 ■'ade all priests sulKiniinate totlieir ulo"'(in, .11 ' >,is, to whom t"' y were oliliiiinl to givi 1 CO ;ji i-i.ch year of their faith and their minlsl;y - - .i.- f wl'dch were neressary i>n)visions for the organization of tlieecilcsiastleal liierarehy and for the regulation of church Knverninent. Similar mi i ivcs were tiiken liy tlie Council of Soissons, couv'iked by Pippin in 744. In 7' Karlniaim renoaneed the world nmi retired to the cciebroted Italian monasteiy of .Mcmte las- sino. As he left he entruMiil his iliildnn to tho care of tlieir uncle. Pippin, wlio rolil)ed tlieni of tlieir inlieritimce and ruled alone over the whole Krankisli Empire. . . . (^Imrleiiiairiio enlarged and coinpleleii Hit work wliiili liad only iM-en tHgun by Charles Martel and Pippin. . . . The jliildle Ages acknowliniged two Masters, the Pope and the Emperor, and these 478 I s' il I .l>t: CimiSTIANITT. CharUmuMffms and tin Chunk. CHRISTIANITY. two powprs cnme, the one from Rome, and the other from AiistnuiiHn Fmnee. . . . The mayors of Austrasift, Pippin of Heristal, and Charles Martcl, rclmilt thv Prankish monarchy and pre- pansi the way for the empire of Cliarlemagne ; . . till' lion'mn pontiffs . . . gstlier'-l around them all the churches of the West, aud placed themwlvcs at the head of the great Catholic society, over which one day Gregory VII. and InniM cnt III. should claim to have sole dominion. " —V. Duruy. ///«<. ./ rAo Miitrile Aga. pp. 119- 123, los — Sci> Mayoi. iiftiirPaIxAck; Franks: A. I). 7IW-NI4; an' I .M i : *. D. 7M-774, and 774. — The iiir. I'iiiri oi •. !'ai'Ic!i '."Tic at Rome by Pope Leo i' (^■e RuM^> K?. i m, A. D. 800) pave the ' isicii Cliiinh the v.ce in the state it liad he ' in." r the earlSi r I.i man emper- ors. The chai 'ii t f a<i ^.Tcai, a ; an, the very books he rtwl a .• i I : >iat fi ■( the ' igorous ideal element in so p.n.Hiui u i. iHt are worthy of Interi'Bt ; for this at least he souglii to accomplisli — to pivconicr to a tumultuous and barharian worlil, aud to cstahlisli learning, aud purify the church: "While at table, he liked to hear a recital or a reading, and it was histories and the gn'at di'cils of past times which were usually read to him. lie umk great pleasure, also, in the works of St. Au>;ustlne, aud especially in that whose title is •!)<■ Civitate Dei. . . . lie prar- tice<l the Christian religion in all its purity and with cfiat fervour, whoso principl<-s had iieen taught him from his infancy. . . . He iiillg<>nlly stt4'ndi'<l . . . church in the evening and mom- ing, ami even at niirht, to asai-st at the oltlccs and at llic holy Siirrili<e, as much as his health jH-miiltcd lilm. lie watched with care that notliini.' shiiiiM l)e done but with the greati'st pnprii ty. .Mii»tanllv ordering the guanlians of the cliun li iupt to allow anything lo be brought then' or lilt I In ri' iiiionsistent with or unworthy of the sum lily iif the place. . . . He was always ready to hilp Ilic pisir, and It wim not only 'in his own iiiimtiy, or within his own ilomininns that 111 ili^p.ii>.d tli.w gratuitous lils'ralitii's which till' (iniks call 'alms,' but U'yond the seas " in .•^yriu, in Kj.'ypt. in .Ulrica, at Ji'runaliin, at .Ml xaiiilria, at ( arthage, everywhere where he lianii'il ilial (liristians wen* living in iMivcrty — he piiii'il tliiir niisiry and loveii to send them monev. If III' wiiiirht with so much care the friendship nf fori'lgn sovereigns, it was, alsive all, to priHuri' for the ChristUns living under their rule In Ip and n'licf. Of all the hnly plaice. 111' lia'l. alKive all, a great veneration for the Cliiinh of the .\|Kistle St. Peterat Home."— Kginhanl. I.i/ruf ' '/mrlfnuit/nt. — '' Thv nligioiis side I if ( liarlis' rharacler is of the greatest intir- est in the study of his remarkable rlMracter as a whole and his n'llgiiius (xilley h'd to the most Iniportaiil and diiralile results of his reign. He Inhiriliil an in lisiastical policy fnim his fnllier; the pnlii y of rigulatlng and stn'ngthening the Inhiii'iiii' of ihi' Chiirch In his dominions as the chief sifiiii nf rivHlr.allon, and a gn-at means of bindiiii; ilie variniis elements of the empire Into ime; till' |»iliiy "f acii'pling the liishopof Hume OS till- Iii'.'kI uf Wisfini Christianity, with patri- archal aiiili.'riiv nvir all iU Churches."— K. L. Cutis. fh.irl.m,i,iur. eh. 88 —The following Is a noteworthy passage fmm Charlemagne's Capllii- larv of Tw?; "l! isMtirwlaliihatvi-.'.: mavtis- ivhst It Ik limes the s.,|iiii<ra of Ihn church' t^i U",— RliKious in heart, leameil lu illsvuunu, puru in act, eloquent In speech : so that all who nppmach your house In order to invoke the Divine .Master or to behold the excellence of the nligioiis lifp" may be edified in beholding you, and liiMructtd in hearing you discourse or chant, ami may return home rendering thanks to (Jisl must HiijtL Fail not, as thou regardest our favour, tu scud a copy of this letter to all tliy suffragans and to all the monasteries: and let no monk go tsynnd his monastery to administer justice or to intir the assemblies and the voting-places. Adieu "-J B. Mulllnger, Tht School, of CluirUj, the Ihfnt ' Sth-Tth Centurie*.— The Neitorian, Mono- DbyMte and Monothclite Controversies. Si; NeSTOBIAR AMD MoMOPIIYSITE, and Mo.NOTHK- LITK. Sth-fth Ceaturici.— The Irish Church and its miHiooi.— The story of the cuuvi-reloa of Ireland by 8t. Patrick, and of the missiimsry labors of the Church which he fouuiliil. is hriitty told elsewhere— see Ireland: ftili-siii Cej,. TUBUS. "The early Church worknl Iht way in the literal sense of the word, 'unc|iri.'r(iiinil,'' under camp and palace, under senate ami f .rum But turn where we will In thes<; Cellir Miis.i,.ns] we notice how different were the featiiri« li ,t marked them now. In Dalarailia Si I'uihik obtains the site of bis earliest chunli fi ,in tlie chieftain of the country, Didiu. At Tiira, lie obtains from King Laoghain- a relintani tokr- ation of his ministry. In Connauglit lir .il.lr, s„.< himself first to the chieftains of finiw li-v an.l in Munster Imptizes Angus, the kinir. ai i ,sln-l the seat of the kings.' What he ilil In \nW:\\ repnsluces it«<'lf in the Celtic missiiais,,f Wiilts and Scotland, and we cannot hut laki- ri"i>' if the important Infiueix-e of Welsli anri I'ji-ijsli chiefs. , , . ' The people nmv lint liavi- ailopli-.! the actual professinn of Cliri'stianity, whi. Ii ims all perhaps tliat in the llrst instanie'tlii-v aiLiiiiiil from anv clear or intelligent appniiul'liin of il* superiority to their fonner n'iigion. But to obtain from the people even an actual pnifissicn of Christianity was an important slip tn ultimiite success. It secured tJileratlon tit least fur Chrii- tiun institutions. It enalileil the ini».sic.iiarli'« tn plant in every tribe their ihurchis, m Ii.h.Ii, »ii.| monasteries, and to establish anning tin' lislf pagan Inhabitanta of the country sisiiiirs ii( noly men, whose devotion, usifulnrss, aii.l plity soon pnslueed an effect on tlie iiinst liarhaMut and savairi' heart*.' "—<) !■'. Macli-sr r...,..>-«c..i of thf \Vr»l: The r-eiU.rh. 11.— "Tlie M.lii v»l Church of the West found iu the sivmlli r. mury an immense task XkUitk It to fiillil. . . The missionaries who aildreasi'd thniisi Ivis \.> the enormous task of the conversion of (i. rtmiiiv mav be conveniently dlvideil Into tlm-i' >.Ti'ii|«t — the British, tlio Frankish, and, i niiritiit ■mtin'- what later into an honourable rl\alry »itli iln-w, the Anglo Saxon. A wi.nl or Iwn uimti mi k nf these groups. The British — thi-v iiiilink Irtsli ami Scotch — could no Umger timf a llilil f ir the exercise of their ministry in Knglaiid, ti..w tkiit there the Unman rule and iliMiplliii t.. wliirh they were so little disixuHsl to suliinii. Ii«'l i viry- where won the day. TlM'irown nligi'iu- limiw'S were full to oveillowing. At home llnn ».u little for them to do, while yil that .liiiw hunger and thirst for the wIhiiIhk of «mlj, •a-llii-h !-,,^t .i,, |„^...,^,j (i,,. !,.._.: ..f « Patrick, llvisl on in Iheim. To tlii-T "> nuiilnt, pagan Uennauy offen'U a welttiitu- Ikld ul 474 I ''HRISTIANITT. 7nM liimionariea. CHW8TIANITT. labour, and one In which there was ample room {or all. Then there were the FninkUh misttion- aries, who enjoyed the support of the Prankish kinps, which sometimes served them in good sttMil ; while at other times this protection was very f»r f mm a n'oommeudation in their eyes who were easily persuaded to see in these missionaries Ibe emissaries of a foe. Add to these the AnRlo- gaxons; these last, mindful of the source fn>m which they liuil received their own Christianity, making it a point to attach their converts to Rome, even as they were themselves bound to her by the clo.«'St ties. The language which these 8|>oke — a language which as yet can have diverged verv little from the Low German of Frisia, must bave given to them many facilities which the Frankisli missionaries possessed in a far slighter degree, the British not at all ; and this may help to account for a success on their parts far greater than attended the labours of the others. To them too it was mainly due that the battle of the Creeds, which hail been fought and lost by the Celtic missionaries in England, and was pnsently renewed in Germany, had finally the same issues th^re as in England. ... At the same time, there were differeucea In the intensity and oltstiuacy of resistance to the memage of truth, which would be offered by difleiviil trilK'S. There was ground, which at an earlv day hod been won for the Oospel, but whicli !n the storms and confusion of the two preniliiig renturies had iH-en lost again; the vbiile liiii', that is, of the Danul e and Uie lihine, regions fair and prosperous on<x', but In every sense wMiicruesses now. In these we may note a nadiiT ncceptanct* of the Message than found pliiie ill lands whicli in earlier times that mes- utv h^iil never reached ; as though obscure n-mltiisi rm IS and tntdilions of the past, not whully < xiinri, had hel|Mil to wt forwanl the pn-wiit wiirk." — It C. Tremb. l^rliirtt on MeiHrt.tl ri.iirrh l/inturv. Ifet. ,1. — "Fnini Irihind caiue(i!illii«, Kridolln, Kilian,Trutb<'rt and Levin. . . . The onlir in which these men succreiied one anntlicr cniiuot always be established, from the unccrliiinly nf the accounts. We know thusmuih, liiatiif 111! ihosi' alKivenientiimeil, Galluswasthe llrsi. fiirlii>lulKiur!tln Uelveti8iSwil/.erlaud)were cmitiiiiiiil fnmi ttie preceding into tlie period of Willi h »■ are now treating. On the other hand, il in 1111.1 riaiii Its to Kridoiin wiietber he had not eorapl.ii.i his work Infnre (iallu.s. in the sixth aniur\ , fur in the opinii.n of some he closed his career hi Ibe time of Chsloveus L, but, accord lni( t(i (itliiTs, he is said to have lived umhT Cio(iii..us II., oratanolher periml. His labours tJtemliii over the knds on Ibe Mind lie. in tlij Vimiicit Mmmliiins, oviT Helvetia. Ithaiiii and Nlitra Silva (llie Klack Fori'sl). He built the mmasi.ry of Sekklnga on the Uhlne, Tr\itbert WM .1 i..nteni|MirHry and at the aamo time a niunlr>iiiaii nf Dallus. His siihere of aethm la •aid 1.1 have Ui'n Hrisgovia (lln'i- lu) and the Bhuk l-',.n.t. Almost half a ceii y laU'r Kit- tan |ir.«l timed llie gospel In t : incimla and Wirtjiiiirg, with two aasislauts, Colonatus and Tiitnaims. |u the latter place they converted duke (i.i/lKTt, niid were put to ileath there In *<*. .\ft,.r ihe alKive mentioned miaalnnaries from Inland, in tlie seventh century, had built firif ;:rr, anii miiCiiiU iki ill the aoulheru Ger- nwnv. th, iniHsionariet from Briula ix'twired with a Kiiiiiki purpoi«, to tbc uurtlMtni cuuatrl^ . . . Men from other nations, as Willericus, bisliop of Bremn, preached in Tninsalbingia at tlie beginning of the ninth century. Almost all the missionaries from the kingdom of the Fmnks selected southern Gennany as their sphere of action: Eminenin, alxiut 649, Ratislioiia, Kud- bert, about 696, Bajoaria (Bavaria), Corbinlan the country around Frisinga, OtUrt the Brcisgau and Black Forest, and Pirmiuius the Brcisgau, Bajoaria, Fronconia, Helvetia, and Aisalis." — ' J. E. T. Wiltscli, Ilatuibuok of the (lengmjihy and Statutia of the Church, r. 1, pp. 30.)-3a7. A. D. 553-800.— The Weitem Church.— Rito of the Papacy.— " Though kindly treated, the Church of Itome did not make any progress under the Ostrogoths. But when their power had been broken l553), and Itime had tieen placed again under the authority of the Eni|Mror of Constantinople [see I{ome: A. I). .5*>-.>.53]. the very remoteness of her new master insured to the Church a more prosperous future. The in- vasion of the Lombanla drove a great miiny refugees into her territory, and the Koman popu- lation showed a slight return of its old eneriry in its double hatred towani them, as Iwrbarians and as Arians. ... It was at this favorable point in the state of affairs, though critical in some re- sjiects, that Gregory the Great made his appear- auri> (.•)9(>-fl04). He was a descendant of the noble Aulciii family, and added to his advantages of birth anil position the advantages of a well- eniloweil tiody and mind. Hu was prefect of Home when less than thirty years old. but after holding this olHee a few inonllis he abandomil the honors and cans of worlilly things for Ihe retirement of the cloister. His reputation did not allow him to remain in the olnuiirily iif that life. Toward 579 he was wiit to Conslanti- nople by Pope Pelagius II. as siirelary or pupal nuncio, and he rendered di.stini.'uislii'd services to the Holy See In Its n^Ialioiis with Ihe Empire and in iu struggles against the Loinbanls. In .'>9(» the clergy, the s«'nate. and the people raised him will) one accord to the sovereign nonlilirate, Ui siii-ceed Pelagius. As it was still neii'ssary for every election to be iimtlrmed by the Em- |«nir at Constantinople, Ort'gory wrote to him lo iM'g him not to sanction Ibis one; but the letter was IntiTceptiil and sinm imlers arrived from Mauri™ ratifying llie elecilon. (ingory hid hinuk'lf, but he was illsi-ovcn-d and liil liiuk to Koine. When once Pope, lliuugli airaiiist hi* will, he usiil his power to strengtii.ii Ihe papacv, to propagate Christianity, anil to iiiipnive tbe discipline and organization of the Cburcji. . . . t*tnngllicncil thus by his own itTuriJi, he under- took llie iiropagalion of Chrisiianity and orllio doxy iMitli within and without Ibe linillsof tlie oldlioinaii Empin'. Williin those limits tlier* were still wmie who clung lo paganism, in Sicily, Sanliniii, and even at the very gales of Itnnii', at Terrmina, and ihiubtb'n also In Gaul, as there is a ciiiislilulion of ChllilelN'rt still extJint dated VV4, and eiilitliil: 'For the alsilitiim of the re- mains iif iiliilalry." Then' were Arians very near lo Itiiiiie — ntmiely. llie I<onil>anis; but tliMugh the Intcrviiilion of Thcuilaliiida, lliiir quiin, Gngory sueeiHileil in having Adelwahl. Ihe heir to llie thniiie. bniiight up in the Ciilholic faith: a« early as M' the Visigoths In Hpsin. under lieei-nnii, were cunverteii. . . , The Itoman Empire had |H'ri»]ied, ami llie barlinriHiis had built u|iou Ita tulua niaoy aUgltt atruulurua uiial 475 CnniSTIANITY. sit of tU Papacy, CHRISTIANITY. r?:*3' were soon overthrown. Not even had the Frank.s, who were destined to Iw perpetuated as a uution, ns yet giioci'eclcd in fotiiiding n UDoial state of any strenttlh; their luck of experience led tlum from one atitnipt U) another, all equally vain even the attempt of IharlcmaRne met will, .1 more pt'rmuncnt success. In the midst of tl.. ■•(■ siiicesMve failiins one Institution alone, (Icvi lii|.injj slowly and steadily through the cen- turiis, followinu out tlie spirit of ita principles, continued to grow and gain in power. In extiait and ill unity. . , , The I'ope had now heeome, in truth, the ruler of Chrisleniloin. lie was, however, still a subject of the Greek Emperor; hut n rupture was iuevitjililc. as his authority, on the one hand, was growing day bv day, aiid the cmiwror's on the contrary, was declining." V. Puruy, lli»t. ,^thf Miililh Af/in, pp. lU-ll.'S, 10tm09. 117. — "The real jMwer which advanced the credit of the Uoniun see during tlu-so ages wag the reaction against the Byzantine des|>otisin over the F:a8tcm Church; and this is the expla- nation of the fact that altliough the new map of Euro|H' had Ix-cn marked out. In outline at least, by the year .liHl, the Ibiman see clung to the easuni cinni'ction until the first half of the eighth century. ... In the political or diplo- matic struggle iH'twein the Church and the Em- perors, in which the Emperors endeavored to make the C'luinh 8ul>s<rvient to the imperial policy, or to adjust the siluulion to the neoes- •IticH of the empire, and the Church strove to retidn Its autonomy as a witness to tlie faith and a Icirislator in the lilTiiirs of religion, the Bishop I'f Home iKianie, so to speak, the conHlltutional lii:id nf the (ipiHisilioii; and the East was willing loe\!ilt his aulhorily, as a counterpoise to that of llie Emperor, to any extent short of acknowl. edging tli.it the priinaey imi'liiil a snpnmacy." — .1.11. Efiir, ('/in>l,ii,f„m : J'>rl,in,ulif,U ami J'i'litir.il, frtiiii ('niifiiinliiie In th« tlijhrnuilion, /i. It».— ■The election system was only usi-d for one degree of t lie ( ( eli«iii.stii al dignitaries, for the bishopric. The lower dii^iiitaries wen? chosen by the l)i.-l' They were ilivided into two lategfiric -the liiflier and the lower onhrs, T hn .■ hij:her onlers, namely, the priesl> ons, and tlie siih-ihacona, and liiur In rs, the aeolvtes, the disir- kw(Hrs, th) xorcists, and the' ri-adera. The latter orders wen> not ngarihil as an integral pan ,1 the elirtv. as their niemliers were the f«r\;.nlsot till' olhem. As reiranlsthe lerritoriHl divisions, the bishop govenieil the diis.-w.whlih at a much later ilule was divldeil Into parishes, whos4' spiritual welfari' was lu the hands of the parish priest or curate (iiirio). The parishes taken together, eoiistitiilisl the diorese ; the iiiiileii dio(eB.s. ir suffragan bishoprics, conatituleil the ecch siaslieal proviiue, at whone head stixst the nietro|>olitan or an liliishop. When a provin- cial loiincil was held. It met In the melroisilU and was pn -iie i! over by the metn>|Militan. Alsoe tie' nil tropolitaiis «,«• llio Puiriarxhs. in the Eiisl. iind the 1'rini.iles in th« West. hiHho|ia who held the gri'ut lapiials or the apostolic ws's, Conslaiitinople. Ah xaiidria, .\ntria'h, llonie, Jerii'udeni. ( esiina in CappadiM'ia, Carthage in Africa, and lleriH litis in Tiirace; among them Home rankiil hiirher bv one deirree, and fmin this supreme |Hisiiion exen isisl a supreme sulhor- Itjr ackiiowlnlgiil bv all Die ('hur»h."— V Uuru/, Ui4l. </ (A« MiiUU Aft, |y. lU9-lia— "The divergence of the two Churches, Eastem and Western, was greater In reulitv tl,an it appears to be from a superlicial view. U ^-^ based on essential variations in the character anj disposition of the people in the East ami in the West, on tlie nature of their civilization. ,.i]„i „„ the dilTen'tit, almost antagonistic. iIim lopiMintuf the Christian idea in one Church and in the ether. . . . The Eastern Church rejoiced in iis direct alHliation with apostolic times, in its mii liil pre. servalion of traditions, and was con- inn .1 of jt, esjiecial right to be considen'd tlie true lie ir nnil successor of Christ. . . . The letter of i|„' h^ superseded the spirit; rillglon stilfened im,, for. maiisni; piety consistol lu strict ohserv^nee of ceremonial riU's; external holiness re|,l:i(f,| ^in. cere and heartfelt devotion. . . . Tliroiifihout the West the tenilency was in a coniniry ilinn^. tion — towards the practical appliealiou of ti,e religious idea. The effete, worn out eivili/ntion of the past was there renovated by coniiii t und admixture with young and vigonMis nnrs. and gained new strength and vitality in the siriii;(;le for existence. The Church, freed from eentrul, became Independent and self-iLssertimr; llie re'- sponsibility cf government, the preservaiiuo ef social order, ilevolved upon it. and it rose proudly to the task."— A. F. Hcanl. I'L /,'i«. lian l.hureh and Jium-in l)in,iil, ji/}, iHi),_ "On the overthrow of the Wesi. rn Eiiipin-, and the demonstraiioii, rendered nmnilVst to all, tint with the complete triumph of the new world of secular p<ilities a new spiritual di'velopniint, a new phase of Divine guidance, was openin^r, the ronscience of the UTievers was arou^iil to a sense of the aiufulnesa of their innanllv iniic- tivlty. 'Go ye into all nations, and inptiw them,' had iH'cn the last wonis of tli. ir hlrssed Master. ... It Is to this new or reviinl mis. slonary spirit which disiiiiguishrd the si\;li nu- tury. of which I would place I'ope (;ieL.,,rv llie First, or the (Jn'at, as the ceiitml tiiriire. ili,,,t I desire now to inlnstuco you. Kinjrinli, r that the Emnire, whiih had rcpresenteii tlieiii,iiv(d mankind, had la'conie dislntegrited and hrekia Into fragmcnta. Meu wen' no |oii;:er H.niaiis, but Ooths and Sucves, Bnrgundiaiis iiii.l Van- dals, and beyond them lluiis, .\>.irs, Kniiilis. and Eonibanls. some «lth a slli.'lii liiMiiire ef Christian teaching, but most wiili nonr . . . lA't but the (fONiK'l Is- pnKlaliiiid to ,.ll, «nd leave the issue in GihI's hands; .Siieh wai tlie eoDtrnst between the age of Eeo and tin- age nf Gregory! . . , The conversion of I lov is ami tlie Franks Is. I lupiHise, the earliest in-.i.inii' id a Christian mission carried out on a ii iiional sealu by the common action of the Chun h n pr. vnlcd by the I'opf and .See of Home. It lnremi'S ■i-conlingly n gnat historical event. d>s<rvin{ the earnest cfinslderallon not of Clnin liim n i.nlv, but of all iMililU'.denipiln'rs. "— C .M. rivali . /■;..> Ijtttufit UH H»M K'l>"r/ll nf Kirln I'.'iffnl, lliMl , }>p. lT'J-177.— "Chrlslliuilty tlms nnenrd in anlor forproaelytisin, .iml Gnitorv i ..nininiiisl ie Its suci'eaa most wiwly liy eiijotiiun: pn e, ptn et nioderathin u|Hin his' mlsslonnries. and n> ilii< skillful manner In which he mnde the innsiiien to Cath.dlcltm easy Iji the paitans; he «i',ie to Augustine: 'He cawful not lodi«lniv the piiiraa temph'S; It !• only swrsjiarv to de-.ir--.- th-.- !•!■>!•. then to sprinkle iIhi (slillc«> with hoU «anr. siid to build altara and place relies ih. re If the UHupki aiv wtili built, it U » wUi uul uwful 476 CHKISTUNiry. Convertton of tht £ngluh. CHM8TIANITY. thing ''f t''*™ ^ P*" '""" ">* worship of dfiniw-j to the wonhip of the true 0<x1; for vhilr the nation sees its old places of worship still staiulinK, it will be the more ready to go tliiiv, bv force of habit, to worship the true G()(l.' In the inteiior Gregory succeeded in amint-'ing the different degrees of jHiwer in the Churi'li. and in forcing the recognition of tlie lupreiue power of the Holy S»'e. Wc find him craniiiii: the title of Vicar of Oaul to the bishop of Aries, and corresponding with Augustine, inlilrishop of Canterbury, in regard to Oreat Britiiiii, with the archhishop of S«'ville in reganl til ^'paiii. with the archbishop of Thes.salonica in regiirii t« Greece, and. finally, sending legates 1 liilire' to Constantinople. In Ids fastonil. wliirli he wrote on the occasion of his election. auil w liiili became an established precedent in tlie West, he prescribed ti) the bishops their sivi'ral duties, following the decisions of many imincils He strengthened the hierarchy by pnveiiling the encroachments of the bishops upon (1111 imotlier: I liaxe given to you 'le spiritiKil direction of Britain.' he wrote to le amliili"iis Augustine. ' and not that of the Gauls.' He rr;irningeiTthe monasteries, made discipline the I'liji-i t of his vigilant care, reformed Church musir iinil substituted the chant that iH'urs Ids name f"r the Andirosiau chant, 'which re- semlilid. accortling to a contemporary, 'the fur- (it! iioi-i' of a chariot rumbling over pebbles. ' Hmiii'. vii inriiHis again with the help nf (iri'gory till' liri'ul. continueii to push her coni|Uesls to ilivianl rmintriis aft«'r his death."— V. Duruv. Il,,l .ftlif ViMlr Afff. /), lift— Sei'. aliove: X l> 4W1-XII0. and Home: A. I). 51K»-«4(I A. D. 597-800. —The Eogliih Church.— 'Till' ( athiilie Chun li in ttie west became prac tI'Mlly s|'lil up into two great strtions. One of llie«liiid its centre at Home, drew its inspiration fr'in the culture and discipline of the imperial ciiy. its strength from the traililions of an apoa- iivlir -ei'. and exercisi'd an inlluence none the less nil luKnini' often litful and resented, over her biirUiriancoMqiiironiiiirougliout western Kuni|)e. Till oilier, driven bark to the islands and hills of InUiiil Sniilaml. and Celtic Kngland, develoi>ed •iiijiil ir powers of iH'rsonal sitiiitllness and mis- tii'tiiiry M-Ir Siicrifire among her uncultured and un.li~ iplini il children. Kn^ni the uninii of the tnoihi' I hiirch of England derived its full atid nutuieil life, . . On the tttlh of Novemlier L\. I>. .'ittTi he (Augustine) waaconsi'erated .KnU- M'li'iKif the Knglish l)y Vergiliiis. Anlibishop sml ^l,■tlopolil»n ,)f Aries and the Infant Church nf Kiichiiid began to bi- " — 11. O \V«kem»n. An Inlr-'iliirlion to t lie Jlinlorfi nf tlir Cluirfh of Kviliwl, ell. 1. 3 —"About ilie year .WO, . . . (iri'i:"ry iveupietl ihermiik of a deaiwi. ... lie w»«i»rly noiiil for his zeal and piety; coming iiiiii liiriie |w)«ses«|iins . he had exJM'ndeii his «• iltli in the foundation of no less llian st-ven 111 mMieii.-t. and hail become himself the abliot of St Andrew's, at Kome. Devoted as he wii> from tlie first to nil . go.nl works, his aiienlton was more jiarticularly lurnecl t' ilie iiiuse of Christian missions by casually Mnarkiiig a troop of young slaves eililbitiHl tor sale in the lioman market. Struck with the lieiutT or fresh c-.inspleiinB of the*' t'.rar.. ms. he nsketl whether thry werr Christ \m' or Pagans. Tlwy wer<' INgans, II wn« ^'l'liP'l lluw sad, h« ticlaluMj, that inch fair countcnaces should lie under the power of demons, 'Whence came they ?' — ' From Anglia. ' — 'Truly they are Angels. What is the name of their country?' — "Deira." — 'Truly they are subject to the wrath of God : Ira Dei. And their kingY' — 'Is named .fllla.' — ' Let them learn to sing Allelujah.' Britain had lately fallen under the sway of the heathen Angles. Throughout the eastern section of the island, the faith of Christ, which had been established there from early times, had Iwen. it seems, utterly extirpated. The British church of Lucius and Albanus still lingered, but was chiefly confined within the ruder districts of Cornwall. Wales, and Cumbria, The reported destruction of the people with all their churches, and all their culture, begun by the Picts and Scots, and carried on by ti ■ Angles and their kindred Saxons, had mwle profound impression upon Christendom. T:. ■(Jroans of the Britons 'had terrified all man- kind, and discourageii even the bmve nds- sionaries of Italy and Gaul. . . , Gre.irory de- termined to nuilic the sacrifice himself. He prevaili'd on the Pope to sanction his enter- prise ; but the people of Home, with whom he was a favourite, interposed, and lie was constrained reluctantly to foivgo the p<'ril and the blessing. But the sight he had witnessed in the niarket- |ilace still ntained its impression upon him. He kept the fair-liainvl Angles evir in view; and will 11. in the year .">W'i. he was himself elevated to llie popislom, lie ri'solved In send a mission, and lling upon ilie obscure shores of Britain the full beams of the sun of Christendom, as tliey then seennil to shine so eonspii'uously at Home. Augustine was the preacher chosen from among the inmates of iine of Gregory s monasteries, for till' arduous task thus im|H)sed upon him. He wiLS to lie accompanied by a select bund of twelve monks, togetlier with a i . ,tain numlM'rof attendants. , , . Tliere is something \ery re- markable in the facility with which the "rti rce idolaters, whose name had struck such terror into the Christian nations far and near, yielded to the persuasions of this band of peaceful evangelists." — C, Merivale. Ftmr Ircturt* on p<ime A'/«»-/i» .,/ /'iir/v Churrl. lltntorv. t>l' l!»-!-HW — Se Eno1..\nu: a. 1) »»7-«W.'i— The Honian missionaries ir England landed hi Kent and ap- |H'ar to have had mon- infiueme with the petty courtsof the little kingdoms tliiin with the (Hople, The convitsion of the Nnrtl. of Kngland must be crediU'd to the Irish monastery on the island of loiia, 'At the lieginning of the sixth cen- tury these Irish Christ: ns were seized with an unconquerable '.mpulse to wander afar and preach Christianity to the heathen In !W3 Columba. witli iwelvi confederate:), left Inland and founded a monastery on a small Island off the coast of Scotland iloiia or Ilyi. through the iufiiience of which the Scots and Plitsof Britain U'came convertisl to cluistianliy. twentythn-e missions among the Scots and eighlii'n in the omnlrv of the Picts having Ix-en established at tlie death of Columba (.WT) I'lider his third successor the heathen Saxons wen- convert*-!!; Aedan. summoned by Oswaril of Northunibria, having lalMired among them from BIM to tl.11 u missionary, alilsit. and bisliop His successors. Finnan aind Colman. worthilv carrie<! on his work, and inlnsluctil Christianity- into other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms near East Anglia, Mvrcia. and Esaex."— H, ZUumer. Tht Iritk 477 IIIe- CHRISTIANITY. TV B%dgariai% Church. CHRISTIANITY. Stemmt in .Veditmil Cuhure, pp. 19-21.— "Two buids of devoieil men had hitherto been em- pIo^e<l in the conversion of England, the Komao. assisted by their converts and some teachers from FrancH. and the Irish, who were plainly the lare^r Ixnly. Betwet-n the rwo there were the i>l(l dilTcrencos as to the time of keeping Easter and till' form of tlie clerical tonsure. . . . Thiia, while Dswy [King of Mercia] was cele- brating Easter lu^cording f(< the custom he had learnt at lona. Ms ■lucen Eartleila observed it a»'cording to tht rule which she had I'.-amt in Kent, and was s'ill pn\cti.»ing the austerities of Lent. Tlw'W dileren^es were tolerated during the Epiw'opate of Aiilnu and Flnan. but when Finan died and was succeeded by C'olman. the controversy" was terminated bv" Dswv. after much debate, with the words— ""•I viiriiold to St. Pi'ter. lost, when I present mvself at the gates of Heaven, he should close tliem against me.'. . Colman, with all his Irish brethren, and thirty Northumlirians who had joined the monastery, ouittcil Lindisfame and sailed to lona. " — O. I. .Miidear. dmn-rnnn of the W,»t: Tht EnijlM., ;»,). 81-M.">.— The impartial historian to wlioni we owe all the early history of the English Church, thus records "the memory of these devoted men as it remained in the niinds of Englishmen long after their dep.irture. It is a brief passage, one like thosi' in the greater Ecclesiatical History of Eusebius, whi<h iiuist stanil fur much we do not know. Ii<ferrii;g to their devoteil lives ■ -" For this reasim the relig lous iiabit was at that time in great veneration; so tliat wheresoever any clergyman or monk happened to come, he was j(vyfiilly received bv all persons, as (JikI's servant ; and if tliey chanceil U> meit him upon the way, they nm to him, i>nd bowing, were ghid to l«."8ignMl with his hand, or blessed with his mouth. Great attention was also paiil to thiir e.\horta!ions; ami on Sundavs they tl(Kked •airirly to the churdi. or the monasteries, not to feed their bodies, but to hear the word (.f (JvhI ; and if any priest hapiH ned to cimii' into a village, the" inhabitants Hinked together to hear from him the word of life; f,ir the prii'sts and < lergynii'n went into lli, ,illag.> <mno other a<count than to jireai h, baptise, visit the silk. i.nd. in few wonls, to take care of •ouls, andthey wen's., fri'e fn mi woriily avarice, that none of tlicni n'leived lands anil piwsessions for building niotnisteries, unli'ss they were cnm- pelleil to do Ml liy the tein|>oral "authorities; which cusloni was for some time after observed in all the . hurilii-s of the Xorthuirbrians. ibit enoiiizh has now la'en said on this subject." — jiif 1>|(. niUf Hfiien KreUtitutinil Ilinlirry „f Hnqln ml; f'l '',1/ ./, .1. (Jilff. bt. U, f/i. •>« — Tlie English t'liunh passed through severiil stages during this piriisl A notable one was the ris«' and fall of • loosi' monastic system which altnutiil men and ■.mmen of the U'tter claases. but fur lack of a siriil rule limught Itwdf into disreimte. AnotliiT was the development of classical leaniing »nd the fiiiincliilion of the schiH.I at .larrow in NorthiMnl»rland resulting In making England the Intellectual centre o( the world. Venerable Ikile, who wiote tie Keclesiasllcal History of the English Church, was the greatest teacher of this epoch; and Aleuln, a Northumbrian bv birth, and of the s.hocil a: V,,rii, ..f liu' i«xl. " iuviled b^ Charlemagne to the Frankish Court, he carrietl Eogllsh learning to the Cuutloent, ami although he died at the time of the foundation of the Empire, left bis Influence in manv ways on the development of European culture. "A siuei. fact of interest will suffice, to show the i|„se connection of this early history witli tjiai of Rome and the continent — viz., to AUuin \\|. are largely indebted for the parent si-ripl wiijch formed our Roman letters. (I. Tailnr Tk Alplubtt. T. 3, p. 180.) Northumbrian" li-iirninir and the rich libraries of ancient ami Ain-Iu- Saxon literature were destroyeil by ilu' D.ims who, in their incursions, showc" fiir a Icmmiine peculiar animosity to monks and moiiii»i,.rios Although the service of this eariv Aii;.'li. Siixim Church was partly in the veniac'ular, aii.l l.irirp portions, if not all, of the Gos|)els iiuii Ihcii translati ;, little remains to us of its larlv nlij. ious literature. The translations of iln '(;,,,n;,i into Anglo-Saxon that have come down to usare to be attributed to a late period. 9th Century.— The BulKuian Church.- In the Iwginning of this 9th ccnturv, a sister ..f the reigning Iltitgarian king. Bogoris, Um h]\n as a captive iiuo the keening of the tJn'i k em- peror. For thirty eight > ears she liviilat Con- stantinople, and wa- there instructed in tlie iI.k- trines of 'ne Christain Faith. .Mianwhil,. the adminis'.iition passetl into the lianiis of ilic em- press Regent, Theodora. She was intinsiid in a certain monk named Ciipharas, who liml t«.|.n taken prisoner by the Bulgarians, and with a view to his n>demption, she openiil tieirotiiitiunj with Bogoris. An exchange of prisoners was Hnallv effected. The sister of H,iir,,ris »n; re- stored to him, while Cupharas was pirniilti.l to return to Constantinople. Hi i r.. the plia'< of the pious monk, however, he liinl striviri. Iliniii,'h quite unavailingly. to win the Bulgarinn prinif to the service of the Cross. These fniill. s» m- deavi-s were supplemenleil by the eiilri:iii.« of the kin;; s sister, on her retuiii front ( .inMinti- nople. . . At last, fear snapivd tlie filters which love had failed to bsiMignge. . . Hi, baptism was celebrated at miilniglii with pnv loundest secriH-y. The rite was ailininistinil hy no lessa p<'r8image than the patrianli I'li.itiiii He emphasized the solemnity of the mi isi.in hy presenlit.g the neophyte with a lemrthv inatiso on Christianity, theoretical and pnuiii-il. mn sidered mainlv in its liearings on the diilii s nf « monarch. The emperor .Michael si.>.«l sii,.ii»ir by proxy, ami the Bulgarian king n ri ivni. ,« his Chrisiiau name, that of his inipiriil ml. father . . . The Iwttle-criis of thii>l"i;v nnt over Christendom, anil the world was p-eiili-il with the 8|)ectacleof a struggle iHtwem the rivsl Cho.riiu's forthepiBuM-ssionof Hulgariu. imiinlrT till re.ently so omspleuously 'islliute nf lim-ras if any kind. The Bulgarians tliemsi hi s.iL.iilit- h'ss much astonished at the upmarfor thelrsikf, and. surely, more |>erple.xed than en r liv the manners anil customs of Christianity. iHgaii to waver in (heir adheremv to the Westi'rn Church, and to exhibit symptoms of an iiulinatiun tutnuu- fer their allegiance to C.)nstaiiiiniipl- The strife went on for years. At la<t. A l> nT7. the Latin clergv having bt'en dismisseil from the omntry. l'o|>e John VIII. solemnly expostiiliitril. (iMti-stlng against the Greek priKlivitirs nf the iulgarians. and prtKlictinirdire results fmm their idenlily with a C'liun-h whieli was nniv fr« tnmi heresy in one form or another. .\ wrtbe- less, the ByjtontlDe leooiogs uf Bulgari.t did cul- 478 CHRISTIANITY. Slav and yorthmen. CHRI8TUNITY. minste in union with the Eastprn Church. A Greek iinhbishop and bishopa of the same rom- raunion. settled .n the country. . . . ' The East- tm branch ' of the Slavonic lHn;;iiages, propj'riy gocullfl. 'comprehends the Rus.sian, with vari<. i< local dialects, the Bulgariiin, and the Illyrian The most ancient document of this Eastern branch is the so-called ecclesiastical Slavonic. I. f,, tlic nn.-ient Bulgarian, into which Cyrillus anil Mi'tluxlius translated the Rilile in tlie I'niildli' of tliiDthcenturv. This is still the autliori/.<il version of the Bible for the whole Slavonic nice, jnd to the student of the Slavonic languages it |j what Gothic is to the student of German. ' " — O. F. Maoleur. Convernoti of the M'fit: The Shu-, fp. .>l-<)9. 9th Century.— CoiiTeriion of MoraTia. — • In the iipeninir years of the 9th century Moravia siMcliiil frotii the Bavarian liorih'rs to the Hun- pirian river Drina. and from the banus of the D.tuuU'. Iwyond the Carpathian mountams. to the river Stfyi in Southern Poland. Into this terriiiiry Clirislianity had U-en ushered as early as -V. I>. l^ll. by Charlemagne, wiio, as his cus- tom w;is. ciiforeed bfiptism at the point of the swnril. at least as far as the king was coneeme(i. ElI'iK wire suba»'quently made by the arch- hisli.iw of Salzburg and Passau to fan this first fei lile Iticker into something like a flame. But no suiTcss attended their exertions. Paganism was iiv( rpoweringlv strong, and Christianity not only weak, but rude ami uncouth in type. . . . The story of this country, during the process of enianiipiition fnmi paganism, is but a re[M'ti- tion of the incidents with which, in nelghlHiuring Stat, s, we have already become familiar liami- li.aliotis .if the work .if Cyril ami Methodius ex- t.ii.li 'I into S'rvia. The ?*lavonie alphaliet made wiiy ihire, as in Bohemia and Moravia, for Chrisiianity. The Servians 'enjoyed the advant- at'.if a liturcy whi( h was intelligible to them; and we tiiiil that, early in the loth century, a ri.n«iilirable numl)er of Slavonian priists /rf>m all the ilicKeses were ordained bv the bishop of Nona, wh.t w as himself a .Slav ,n by ilescent. ' " — i;. K, Mallear, Oinremiiiii of t/i('Wett: Thf SUr,. ,■', 4. 9th-ioth Centnriea.— The Eaatem Church u a missionary Church.— " If the missionary >|iiril isllie best evidence ..f vitality in a chureli. it.irtaiiily wasn.it wantlnir in the Eksteni Church iliiriug tile ninth nt^d tenth centuries of our era. This iieriiHl witnesseil the conversion to Chris- tiiiiiityof the principal Slavonic peopli'S. whereby tley are Is.th llnkeil with ('..nstantinople, anil tfc.uml lOiTither bv thow assiK-latiimsof envil. as w.li as race, wlifeh fonii so important a factor in the KunijM'an |>oliticsof the prewntdav. The Moravians, the Bulgarians, and the Itussians were n.iw brought within the fohl of the Chunh ; ami the way was prepared for that vast exteii- •lon.if the Greek communion by which it has •prea.l. not only throughout the Balkan p«'nln- sulaaiid the laii.ls to the north of It. hut whtr- ev-r liiisslan inHuence is found — as far as the White Sa on the one side, and Kamtchalka ..n llif .ither, aii.l Into the heart of Central Asia. The ha.lers In t'lls great work wen- the two h^.th.m, Cyril and Methodius, who in conse- ij::v::r:- r.i this, h.ive i.in..' Into klioWu as (lie .\|«isil,.s..f the Slavonian* What Meirop did f"t the .Vrmeninns, what Vmias dhl for the Outh., wu, accomplltUeU for that raie by Cyril in the indention of a Slavonic alphabet, whidi from this cause is still known by the name of the Cyrillic. The same teacher, by his translation of the Scriptures Into their tongue, provided them with a literary language, thereby pnslucing the same result which Luther's Bible subsequently effected for Germany, and Dante's DIvina Com- media for Italy. It is no matter for surprise that, throughout the whole of this great branch of the human race — even amongst the Russians, who oweil their Christianity to another source — the names of these two brothers shoidd occupy the foremost place in the calenilar of Saints. It is not less significant that their names are not even inentlonetl by the Byzantine historians." — II. F. Tozer, T!ie Church and the Eattern Empire, eh. 7. 9th-iith Centuries.— The Western Church aa a missionary Church. — The earlier missions of the Western Church have been descrital. but it is noteworthy that again and again missions to the same regions are necessary. It requires such a map as the one accompanying this article to make plain tLe slowness of its diffusions and the long period needed to prmlucc even a nomi- nally Christian Europe. ' ' The views of Charle- maene for the conquest and conversion of the Northern heathens [see Saxons: A. I>. TT'i-S'M], were not confined to the limits, wide as they were, of Saxony. The final jiaciflcation effected at Salz. st<enied to open his eves to more extensive enterprises in prospect. V'olitlcal may have comblne<i with religious motives in induc- ing him to secure the peace of his new frontiers, by enlisting the tritx-s of Denmark umler tlie banner of the Cross, and he conceived the i.lea of planting a church in the neighbourhood of Hamburg, which should f)ecome a missionary c.ntre. This plan, though interrupted by his death, was not neglected by his son Louis le Di-lKinnaire. or 'the Pious.'. . , But it is easier to propose such a plan than find one willing to carry it out. The well-known femcity of tho Northmen long deterred any one from offering liims<>lf for such a duty. At length he re(eivi.3 Intelligent from Wala. the abNu of ('. rlK-y, near .\miens, that one of his monks was not unwilling to undertake the perilous enterprise. The intrepid voluntwr was Anskar, "— (i. P. Maclear. f'onrfrnon of the H'Mf; The Xort/im^n, eh. 'i.- "In 82-2. Ilamld. the king of Jutland, and claimant of the crown of Denmark, came to st'ck the help of Louis the Pious, the s<m, and one of the successors, of Charlemagne. . , . On Harold's return to Denmark he was accompanied by Anskar, who well ileserves to be calletl the ajxwtle of Scandinavia. . . . Thus Anskar and AutlH-rt s<'t out In the train of Ilarolil. and .luring the Journey and voyage a kimllv feeling sprang up between the royal and the missionary families, Harold got no'cortllal greeting fMm his pMtiil heathen subjects when he announced to tliem tha* he had ilone homage to tin empemr, ail.; ihat he had embraceil the gospel. He seems to have Iki'U very sincen; end viry earnest in lii ■ emieavoun to in<luce his nobles and subjects to abandon idolatry and embrace (Christianity. To expect that he was altogether judicious in these efforts would be to suppoiie that be had those >ieWH regar.liug Ihe relation thai ought Ui sub- tlst fietween rulers and subjects. . . . views reganiing lll>erty of conscience and the riirht of private judgraeoL . . . The result wsa that 479 i m- CHBISTIANiry. 7%* Aiufian C%urck. CHRISTIANITT. ^tter.two jetLTi, in 828, he was c impelled to abdicate the throne. . . . The position of Ansliar, difflcult as it was while Harold was on the throne, became still more ditHcult after his abdication. . . . But just at the time when the door was shut against him in Denmark. auot.*ier was oiwned in Sweden, which proniim'd to bo wider and more effectual. . . . He was Itindl.v received by the Swedish king, who gave him permission to preach, and his subjects freetloi- to accept and profess the gospel of Christ. As Anskarliad tieen led to expect, so he found, manv Christian captives, who had been brouglit from other countries, — France. Oerniany, Britain, Ireland. — and who, having iH'en as sheep with- out a shepherd, gladly received from Anskar those consiilations au' "xhortations which were fitted to alleviate fhe . rrows of their captivity. . . . jvftera year and a half's stay in .Sweden, Anskar returned home, and gladdened the heart of the gixxl emperor, and doubtless of many others, by the cliee...ig prospect he was able to present of the acceptance of the gospel by the Swedes. He was now made nominally bisliiip of Hamburg, hut with the special design of super- intending ami conducting missionary operations both in Denmark and Sweden. . . . Horik, king of IDenmark, who had <lriven lliinild from his tlirone. . . . liad been hitherto an uncom- pn)mising enemy of the gospel. Anskar under- took the management of some p<i!itlcal negoti- ations with him. ami in the conduct of them made so favourable an impn's.si(m on him that he refused to have any other negotiator i)r amba,ssador of the German king at his court. He tri'aled him as a i>er8onal friend, and gave him full liberty to conduct missionary operations. Tlie-u' (iperationa he conducted with his usual Zeal, and liy (iixl's blessing, with nuich sucies.s. Many were baptijcil The Christians of Ger- many ami Hiilland traded more freely with the Dane.t than Infore. and the Danes resorted in larger numbers as traders to Holland and Oerniany ; and in these ami other ways a knowl- edge of the gospel, anil .some apprihenslon of the blessings which It brings with it. were diffused among the people . . Allliough the Norwegians wvrv c mtinually coming into cim- tact. In the varying rela'ioiis' of war anil peacr. with the Swedes and the Danes, the Fniicli and the Germans, the English and the Irish, and allhinigh in this way some knowledge of Ilie Chri.ttian system must have iMin diffused among them, yet the formal Introduction of It Into their country was a full ciijiiiry l.itcr than lis Intro- ductlim into Denmark and Sweden. "—Tiiomas Smith. .VfMimil .Viuutnt, ;)/'. li3-13M._'The conversions in Denmark were conllned to tlie mainland. The islands still remained pagan, while human victims contlnueil to lie offernVtill the Kiniien)r Henry I. extorted from Gorm. the first king of all Denmark. In \. D. BS4, protection for the (.'hristians throughout his realm, ami the sl>olillon of human sacritlces. In Sweden, fur •evenly vnim after Anskar s deatli, the nucleus of a Christian Church continued to Ih' restricted to the Delghlxiurhood of BIrka. and the country was liarilly vislteil by Christian missionaries.'— O. F. Madear, fonrfriuin of Ihr \S'e4it : Th, S-jrthmfn. fh. 'i. — 'his verv n-markaiiin that in the whole history of the inlriKluction of Christlanitv Into Norway and IiTlaml. eztendlpg OTer ■ period of a century and a half, we meet not with the name of any noted bishop, orecclesl. astic, or missionary. There were, no doubt ecclesiastics employed in the work, ami tbfse would appear to have been generallv Kujriisli- men; but thcv occupied a secondarv place almost their only pi ince being to baptize tlnise whom the kings i. pelled to' submit t,i thit ordinance. The kings were the real niis,si.iiiariis- and one cannot help feeling a kind of uilinir.ition for the ferocious zeal which one and aunthiTof them manifesteil in the undertaking, — cviii m the Lord commendel the unjust steward ln-i-auac he had done wisely, although his wLsiloni was wholly misdirected. The most persistint and the most successful of these missionarv kints was Olaf the Thick, who came from England in ini; and set himself with heart and soul to the work of the demolition of heathenism, an^l the sub- stitution of Christianity as the naiimial re- ligion."— Thomas Smith, Meriimil ifini,,!,, ,,,, 140-141. ■" loth Century.— The Russian Church.— • In the middle of the lOtli century, the wi.l„wetl I'rincess Olga. lately releasi'd from the <iiresot regency, travelleii from Kief to Constantiiniiilc Whether her visit had political chjeet,, i.r whether she was prompted to pay it wvblv as some say, by a desire to know more i4 tin 'bi.ly faith of which only glimpses had Imvii vumb safed her at home, cannot Im> posiiiveh ibciiicfl. But her sojourn in the Imperial city was a lum- ing-i)oint in her career. Baptism "was ailminis- tered to her by the patriarch Polyene ie<. tlie em|K'ror Constantlne Porphyrogeniius nllic iaiinir as sponsor. I'olyeuctes then snlemnlv uil.lhN^HH the princess, predicting that thn)UL'li her instru- mentality Russia should be riclilv llesw.l 'Olga.' writes M. Mouravieff. n.iw Imnuie Helena by baptism, that she might re*nilil. I».th In name and deed the mother of Conslaiitim the Great, stcxxl meekly Ixiwing down her lie ul, ami drinking in, as a sponge that Is thirsty nf neiist- ure. the instructions of the pnlatc. ' ' . . s.mic latent impres-sions favoural)le to Christiauiu her voungest grandson, Vladimir, doubtless imi-d to her. Nevertheless when, at the il.alh .f his brothi r 'Varapolk, for which indeed lie was In M responsible, he mounted the throne. n« .sit-in »( a gracious character revealed themselves IK' was. III! the contrary, a bitter ami bignteil puna. . . . It seems to have (xiurnd to ni.inv mission- aries of varying ty|«s. that a chief of s'neh mark should not Ik- left at the mercv of his own vinlent pasaloms. The spiritual well-being "f Vladimir accordingly l>ecame the object of lalmrii'ii- j"ur- neya, of much exertion, ami uf rediimlan! el* yuence. . . , Lastof all came a tiriek i nnssary. He was neither ' a priest nor a mi.ssl>ui.'iry, hut a philosopher. ' . . . LIki slan chief was greatir moved .Ike Bogoris, the wild Kus- - „ _ ;lv moveil. . . . The follow- ing year the king laid Iwfore the elders of his council the rival pleas of these variously recom- mended forms of faith, and stdUlteii tlieir advire. The nobles mused awhile, and then e.mii'MlW their master to aM-ertalu how each reIit:ioa worked at home This, they thought. w»ulil be more practical evidenct' than the plausihle ripn;. sentalions of professors. On this suggesthm Vladimir actetl. Envoys were clioseii,— pre- MimaHv. for their powers i-( i-b^tyA'.'-'.i.—vA the emlNuay of tnnuirv started. ' This public agreement, says the historian of the HuHiu Church, 'eipUins in some degree the luddta 480 CHRISTIAinTY. CHTRCH OP ENGLAND. «d genenl acceptance of Chriitianltj which iboitfy after followed in RuMla. It is probab' that not only the chiefs, but the common peopie ilso, were expecting and ready for the change.' A report, far from encouraging, was in due time received from the ambossaoors. Of the Oerman and Roman, as well as the Jewish, religions in daily life, they spoke in very disparaging terms, while they declared the Mussulman creed, when reduced to practice, to be utterly out of the ques- tion. Disappointed In all these quarters, they now piiKTitli'd, by commaml, to Constantinople, or, ss the Russians called it, Tzaragorod. . . . Singularly enough, the Russian envoys, accus- tomed, as we must suppose them to have been, only to the barest simplicity of life, had com- plamed not only of the paucity of decoration in the Latin churches, but of a lack of Iwauty in their appointments. Thus the preparations of the patriarch were accurately fitted to their ex- pectant frame of mind. They were led into the church of S. Sophia, gleaming with variegated marhles. and porphyries, and jasper, at that time 'the m.isterpieoe of Christian architecttire. ' The buililinjr glitterofl with gold, and rich mosaics. Tlie strvice was that of a high festival, either of St. .Iiihn Clirysostom. or of the IK-ath of the Virttin, and was conducted by the patriarch in person, clad in hi.-* most gortjeiuis vestments. . . . (In Ihcir return to Vladimir, they dilated with eaiii r <lclii;hton the wonders thev had seen. The kina; listened gravely to their glowing ac- count of 'the temple, like which there was none 'ipon earth. ' Afterswcetness, thev protested, bit- ttmt'ss wouM 1)0 unbeumble, so that — whatever others niiitht do — they at all events should at once aboiilon heathenism. While the king hesi- t»te(l, his liovers turned the scale by reminding binithut if the creed of the (Jreeks had not in- deed li;id niiicli to recommend it, his pious ami sanaciiiiis j;randniother. Princess Olga, woiilil not have loveil and otn-yed it. Her iiiinie acteil like a talisman. Vladimir n'solved to conform toChri-tianitv. But still, tcmdly clinging to the Itiliits <.f his forefathers, he cherished the idea of ^Miini; anil winning his new nligion by the swurd . . I'nder the auspices of the sovereign. ! the stately church of St. Basil soon arose, on the very spot recently occupied by the temple of Perun. Kief became the centre of Christian in- fluence, whence evangelizing energies radiated in all directions. Schools and churches were built, while Michael, the first metropolitan, attended by his bishops, 'made progresses into the interior of Russia, everywhere baptizing and instructing the people." The Greek canon law came into force, and the use of the service-book and choral music of the Greek communion became general, while, in the Slavonic Scriptures and Liturgy of Cyril and Methodius, a road was discovered which led straight to the hearts cf the native population. ' Cyril and Methodius, if any one, must be considered by anticipation as the first Christian teachers of Russia; their rude alphalwt first instructed the Russian nation in letters, and, by its quaint Greek characters, still totlHes in every Russian book, and on every Russian house or shop, the Greek source of the "religion and lit- erature of the empire.'" — G. F. .Maclear, Cunter- noil nf the Wett : The fHatt. ch. T,. "As in the first centuries it w.is necessary that the leaven of Christianity should gradually penetrate the entire intellectual life of the culti- vated nations, before a new spiritual creation, striking its root in the fonns of the Grecian and Roman culture, which Christianity appropriated. Could in these forms completely unfold itself; so after the Siime manner it was neces,sary that the leaven of Christianity which . . . had been intrn- diiiiil into the mas.s<'S of the unt itoreil nations, should gradually penetrate their whole inward life, iH'fore a new and peculiar spiritual creation could spring out of it, which shoulil go nn toi unfold itself through the entire ptriix! of tlioj middle ages. And the period in which we now are must be regarded as still l)elonginir to the epoch of transitiim from that old spiriiu.il crea- tion which flourished on the basis of Grecian and Roman culture to the new one. " — A. Neander, <iimr:il Hint, of the I'lirintinn llili:ii''n ,ind Ch'irrh, r. 3. ii. 4.'>6. — We leave the author's sen- tence incomplete, that it m;iy express the more fully all the suliseciuent history of Christianity. CHRISTINA, Queen-regent of Spain, A. D l*l''-l'*tl Christina, Queen of Sweden, A. II lit;:i-lii.-,l, CHRISTINOS. The. Se Sp.vim A. I). iNCt- l-Ml! CHRISTOPHER I„ King of Denmark, A 11 lj.V>-ir,it. ..ChriitopTier 11., A D \m-\xu ..Chriitopher III., King of Den- mark, Sweden and NorwaT, X. I) U:t',(- ms CHRYSE.— Vague reports of a region called Chr>M. ith.' Golden), wimewhen- Ix-vimil the 0»ii;e«. un<l of an island liearing the same n.'ime. off 'lie n ths of the Ganges, as well as of another island enlleil Argyre (the Silver Islandi, were pri'valent among the earlv Roman geo- paphical writers They probiiblv all ha.l nf: rin. e to the .Malay peiHnsula, whfch I'tolemv callid 111,. Oolilen Chersonese.— E. 11. Uunburv II, .t . C. I .,,.,•, ,ir Uf^tj.. eh, •J.I. CHRVSTLER'S FARM, B»tt!e of. Sep I .MTKii Sj.tTM OP Am. : A. D. 18i:l (Uctobek— >OVEMllKHI CHRYSOBULUM. See Golden Bcll, BTU.M1NK. ai CHRYSOPOLIS — Moilern Scutari, opposite Constantinople; oriirinally the pcirt of the city of Chalcedon CHRYSOPOLIS, Battle of (A. D. aai). See Rome: A. i). lid.V.i.':! CHUMARS. See ( \-ii System ok Inoh. CHUMASHAN FAMILY, The. See A.'HEIUC.V.N Am>RICitNF.S: (111 >I\SI!.VN K.VMII.V CHUR, The Bishopric of See Ttiiol. and Switzehi.vnd: a. I). i;!IMl-lt;i'i CHURCH, The Armenian. See Armk.nh.n ClIllK II. CHURCH OF BOHEMIA, The Utraquist NationaL s,r Hoiumu A 1> li;M-I4.->7. CHURCH IN BRAZIL, Disestablishment of the. S.C Rin/ii \ I) lss;.-is|ii CHURCH OF ENGLAND: Origin and Eitabtiihment. .S'c KNu[..tNi>: A. II. \^i1~' I.1;M: 1.V11-1.'.«8; and l.W.Vl,-.3!). The Six Articles. Se.- Enolanp: \. D. 1■^3f> The completed Church-refortn under Ed- ward VI. S.C Esai..tNn: A I) l.VIT-l.'i.'iU. The doubtful conflict of religioni. See Zsa- LAMO: A. U. 1553. 481 :J| CHURCH OP ENGLAND. Romanism restored by Marr. See Exolasd : A. D. 15,55-1558. Recovery of Protestantism under Elizabeth. See England: A. D. 1558-15S8. The Acta of Supremacy and Uniformity. See England: A. D. 1559. Rise of Puritanism. See England: A. D. 15.5!»-I566; 1564-1565 (»). The Despotism of Laud. Sec England: A. n. 16iB-1640. Rise of the Independents. See England: A. I). lfl;W-1640. The Soot and Branch BilJ. See England: A. D. 1041 (.March— May). The Westminster Assembly. See England : A. I). ItUSaiLY), and 1640 (.March). The Solemn League and Covenant. See Emu.ani): a. D. 1643 (JiLY— Seitkmher). The Restoration.— The SaToy Conference. See F.M.i.A.vo; A. D. 1661 (April— J li.yI. Thi Ac; of Uniformity and persecution of NoncGnformists. See Enol.\nd: A. D. 1663- 166.). Charles' Declaration of Indulgence, and the Test Act. See England: A. I). 1073-1073. and 1687. James' Declaration of Indulgence.— Trial of the seven Bishops. SeeE.NGLAND: A. D. 10.S7- leyn. The Church and the Revolution.— The Non- Jurors. Sec England: A. D. 1089 (.\pniL— AfiicsT). A. D. 1704.— Queen Anne's Bounty. See QlEEX .A.NNES norNTY. A. D. 1711-1714.— The Occasional Conform- ity Bill and the Schism Act. See England- A. I). 1711-1714. A. D. 1833-1845.- The Oxford or Tract- arian Movement. See Oxford or Tract- AHIAN MoVE.MENT. CHURCH OF FRANCE. See Oallican Chiki H. CHURCH, The Greek or Eastern. See Chkisthxity: \. D. 3;i()-I()54. CHURCH OF IRELAND, Disestablish- ment of the. See Enoi.and: A. I». I86H-IH71) CHURCH OF LATTER DAY SAINTS. Si'e Mokmdnism: A. I). IHO.'i-lH.'to CHURCH OF ROME. S(c Papacy CHURCH, The Russian.— The great schism known as Raskol. Sec Hcssia : \. I>. 10.5.'>- lO.'iU CHURCH OF SCOTLAND.-Its birth. See Scotland: .•V. I). 1.547-1557. The First Covenant. See Scotl.\nd; X D 1.557. Rebellion and triumph of the Lords of the Congregation. See .Scotland: A 1). 1558- 156(). Restoration of Episcopacy. See Scotland- A 1) 1572 The First National Covenant. See Scot- land; .\. I). 1,581. The Black Acts. See Scotland: A. D. 1584. Appropriation of Church lands. S<t Scot- land: A. 1), 1.587. The Five Articles of Perth. Sec Scotland : A. 0. 1018. Laud's liturgy and Jenny Gcddet' stool. SeeSioTLAND: k. U. 1687 The signing of the National Covenant. See BcoTLAND; A. D. 1888. CILICIAN GATES The First Bishops' War. See ScntLA-m A. D. lfl:»-104(). The Second Bishops' War. See ENOLA-ei) A. I). 1040. "Hie Westminster A isembly. SecENcinifD A. D. 1643 (July). The Solemn I cague and Covenant Sw E.VGLAND: A. D. 1643 (Jilt— Seitemiikki Montrose anc* the Covenanters. See Scot LAND: A. 1). 1644-1645. The restored king and restored prelacv Sw Scotland: A. D. 1660-1666. Persecutions of the Covenanters. .•<i-i. Scot- land: A. D. 1669-1879; 1079: 1681-1«N<) The Revolution and re-establishment of the Presbyterian Church. See Scoti.anh \ 11 1688-1690. ' The Disniption.- Formation of the Fret Church. See Scotland: A. D. 184:). ■* CHURUBUSCO, Battle of. Sr, Mexico ■ UoXE: A. D. 1847 OLkRcii— Septe.mrehi CIBALIS, Battle of (A. D. 313). .s, A. D. 30.5-333. CIBOLA, The Seven Cities of. Sir Xntm- CAN AllilRI'.INKS : I'lEHLOM. CICERO. SeeHo.MK: B. C. ««-«:) ti> 44-4> CID, The. See Spain: .\. I) lii:)i |,i.i„ CILICIA. — KILIKIA. — An ancient district in the southeastern comer of Asia >Iin(ir. iHpnlfr- iug on Syria. It was a satrapy of tin- I'l rsLiii Empire, then a part of the kingdom of the S-- lucidip, and afterwards a liomaii pmvincc The chief city of C'ilicla was Tarsus, :i very unciert commercial emporium, whose people wire noted for mental acuteness. The Apostle I'anI is t,i Ije counted among the distinguished iiativ,-s i.f Tar BUS, and a quite n-inarkalile numlxr ef .-miiient teachers of philosophy were from the .same hin.'i- place. CILICIA, Pirates of.— During the Miihridatic wars piraoy was developed to ahiniiirn; propor- tions in the eastern parts of the ^leiliiemmean Sea. Distracteil by civil conflicts iiml i«c-upiiil by foreign ones, simultaneously, the Knninns, for a considerable period, gave no"priii'<'' hoi.ltotbe growth of this lawlessness, until tliev foiiml their commerce half destroyed ami li.'.ni.- ami Italy actually thn-atenwi with starvation liv the intercepting of their supplies fromalir.Kel ' The pirates flourished under the priiteeti 11 :iu(l en- couragement of the king of Ponlu- :it whose instance they established their chi. f head quarters, theirdocks. arsi>nals and nmgiizines, at various points on the coiutt of tillcia. Hence the nami' Cilician came to Ih' applieil i.i all the pirate of the time. This era of pinicv wu orni: it to an end, at last, by Ponipev, wl'ifi wiu sen- .gainst them. B. C. 67. with exinioriiiiisrr po rs conferred by the law known ns the l/i G,i iida. He procec-deil to his undertiibiiii: «iih remarkable energy and ability, nnd hi- liiinliDi; down of the freebooters which he iici oniplisheii effectually within thn-e months from ilie ihiv hit operation's began, was reallv the mi"si lirifliant exploit of his life.— H. O. Liddell. //,»r »/ Hume, lA. 7, eh. 68. Also in: C. Merivale, Ilitl. nf the litntaia, <■* 1 — G Lone. DeHine of the lh:u:iu Ufp'ihtit. r. 3. eh. 6-7. CILICIAN GATES.— A pass through the Taurus range of mountains, opening troni fap- psducia Into Cllicia, was anciently cilkd tiM 482 U-- CILiaAlT GATES. CIMBRI AND TECTONES. PyUe Cllicic or Cilician Oates. The city of Traoa was situated at the entrance to the pass. Both Xenophon and Alexrader, who traversed it st'om to have regarded the pass as one which no army could force if properly def ended.— E. H. Bunburv. //<»<. »f Ancient Oeog., eh. 10, >ect. 2. amlrh. 12. *"<«. 1. CILURNUM.— A Roman city in Britain, "tlic cxti'iisive ruins of which, well described as a Britisli Pompeii, are visible near the modem haniMsof Chesters."— T. Wright, Celt, Soman and^trntt, ch. 5. CIMARRONES, The. Sec Americ.\ : A. D. IST'-'-lWO. and.lAMAiCA: .\. D. 16.55-17P6. CIMBRI AND TEUTONES, The.— For » considerable pcri<>d [second century, B. C] an 'unsettled people' Imd been wandering along the northern verge of the country occupied by the I'elts on l)oth sides of the Danube. They ralleil themselves the Cimbri. that is. the Chem- pho. the champions, or. as their enemies trans- lated it, the roblH'rs; a designation, however. wliicli to all appearance had become the name of tlie people even Ix'forc their migration. They came from the north, and the first Celtic people with whom they came in contact were, so far as is known, the Boil, probably in Bohemia. More exact details as to the cause and the direction of their mijrnition have not been recorded by con- temporaries and cannot besunpUed by conjectun-. . . Hilt the hypothesis thiit the Cimbri, as well a< the similar lionle of the Teutones which after- wanU joined them, belonged in the main not to the t'lliii' nution, to which the Romans at first assi^neti them, but to the Germanic, is supported by the most definite facts; viz., by ■he e.\istence of two small tribes of the same nami' — remnants left behind to all appearance in tlieir primitive scata — the Cimbri in the modern Denmark, the Teutones in the north-east of (Jennany in the neiglibourho<xl of the Bidtic, wliert' I'ytlieas, a contemiwrary of Alcvander tlie (iirat, makes mention of them thus early in oouiiirtion with the amber trade; bv the insrtion of the Cimbri and Teutones in tlie list of the Oermanic peoples among the Ingsvones alongside of the Chauci; by the judgment of Onar. who first made the Romans acquainteii witli the distinction Iwtween the Germans and tlie Celts, and who includes the Cimbri, many of whom he must himself have seen, among the Geriuims; and lastly, by the very names of the jH'ople niul the statements as to their physical apiwai^nee and habits. . . . Un the other hand it i.> eoneeivable enough tiiat such a horde, after luving wandered perhaps for many years, and havinit doubtless welcomed every brother-in- amis who joine<l it in its movements near to or wiiliin the land of the Celts, wouid include a certain amount of Celtic elements. . . . When nun afterwards began to trace the chain, of wliii li this emigration, the first Oermanic move- i:ieiii which touched the orbit of ancient civili- 7. .,iim. was a link, the direct and living knowledge "' it liiul long passed awav. " — T. Momiusen, Ili'i nf Wnnf.bk. 4, ch. S.— •'The name Kymri, orryniri. still exists. It is the name that the \Vi Uh itive themselves, but I am not aware tliat iip.v "ilier people hav<- calhti them by that name. Till M' Kymri are a branch of the great Celtic !"■ "pli , and this resemblance of the words Kymri ml t iiiibri has led many modem writers to U3MII1U I hut the Cimbri were also a Celtic people, as many of the ancient writers name them But these ancient writers are principallr the later Greeks, who are no authority at all on such a matter. . . . The name Cimbri has perishiKl in Germany, while that of the Teutones, by some strange accident, is now the name of the whole Germanic population. " — G. I<ong, Decline of th^ Roman Republic, r. 2. ch. 4. Also in: W. Iline, Hint, of R,/me. bk. 7, eh. 9. B. C. 1 13-103.— Battles with the Romans. —The Cimbri and the Teutones made their first appearance on the Roman horizon in the year 113 B. C. when they entend Xoricum. The Noricins were an indcpendeat people, as yet, but nrcepted a certain protection from Rome, and the latter sent her consul, Carljo, with an army, to defend them. Carbo made an unfortu- nate attempt to deal trcacherouUy with the invaders and suffered an appalling defeat. Then the migrating barbarians, iastead of press- ing into Italy, on the heels of the flying Ilomans. turned westward through Helvetia to Gaul, and occupied themselves for four years in ravaging that unhappy country. In 109 B. C. having gathereil their plunder into the fortified town of Aduatuca and left it well protected, they advanced into the Roman province of Narbi>, Southern Gaul, and demanded land to settle upon. The Romans resisted and were again overwhelmingly beaten. But even now the victorious host did not venture to enter Italy, and nothing is known of its movements until 105 B. C. when a third Roman armv was defeated in Roman Gaul and its commander taken prisoner and slain. The affriglite<l Romans sent strong R'-enforcements to the Rhone; but jealousy between the consul who commanded the nc army and the proconsul who retained commau of the old delivered Ixith of them to destruction. They were virtually annihilated. Oct. 6, B. C. 105, at Arausio (Orange), on the left bank of the Rhone. It is said that H0,000 Roman soldiers perished on that dreadful field, besides half as many more of camp followere. "This much is certain," says Mommscn, " that only a few out of the two armies succeeded in escaping, for the Romans had fought with the river m their rear. It was a calamity which materially and morally far surpassed the day of Canuiv. " In the panic which this disaster causeii at Rome the consti- tution of the Ri'public was broken down. Marius, conqueror of Jugurtha. was recalled from Africa and not only reelected to the Consul- ship, but invested with the ottlce for five successive years. He took command in Gaul and found that'the formidable invaders had moved off into Spain. This gave him time, fortunately, for the organizing and disciplininiJ of his demoral- ized troops. When the barbarians reappeared on the Rhone, in the summer of 102 B. C, he faced them with an armv worthy of earlier Roman times. They liad now resolved, apparcntlv. to force tlieir way, at all hazanis, into Italy! and had divided theiV incn-asing host, to move on Rome liy two routes. The Cimbri, reinforced by the Tigorini, who had joined them, made a circuit to the Eastern Alps, while the Teutones. with Ambrones and Tougeni for con- fedeniti's crossed the Rhone and attacked the defenders of the western pas-es. Failing to make any impression on the fortified camp of Marius the Teutones rashly passed it, marching straight for the coast rcwi to I>aly Maritu 483 m 'M II I 1^ CniBRI AND TEUTONES. antioiuly followed and after tome day* gare battle to the barbarian*, in the district of Aquie Sextis, a few mile* north of Manilla. The Romans that day took reTcnge for Araugio with awful interest The whole barbaric horde was annihilated. "So great was the number of dead bodies that the land in the neighborhood was made fertile by them, and the people of Massilia useii the bones for fencing tlieir vine- Tsrds." Meantime the Cimbri and their fellows had reached and penetrated the Brenner pass and were in the valley of the Adige. The Roman an' stationed there had 'ven wa? before them, anil Marius was needed to roll the lnva.sion hick He (lid so, on the 30th of Julv B. C. 101, when the Cimbri were destroyed, iit'a buttle fousht on the liaudinc Plain near Vercellie. as completely as the Teutones had been destroyed at Aqiue Sextiie.— T. Mommsen, Uitl. of Rome, bk. 4, eh, 5. Also in: W. Ihne, Ilint. of Itomt, bk. 7, eh. 9. CIMBRIAN CHERSONESUS.-The mod- em Danish promontory of Jutland i believed to have lieen the home of the Cimbri before they migrated southwards nnd inradt J Oaul CIMINIAN FOREST, The.— The moun- tains of Viterbo, which formed nnc-" ntly the frontier of Uome towards Etruriii, vere then covered with a thick forest— "the silva Cim- inia' of which I.ivy gives so romantic a descrip- tion. It was, however, notliintf but .i nntund division between two nations wliich were not con- nected liy friendsliip. and wislieti to have little to do with each other. . . . This forest was liv no means like the 'silva Hercynn' witli wiiiil; Liw compares it, but Wiis of jist such an exten; that', accordin? to his own aceotmi. the li)iiians <iiilv wanted a couple of hours to inarch through it." — H. i;. Xiebuhr, LietH. on the Hint, of liotiv '■•(■t. +4. ■' CIMMERIANS, The. -■The name Cim- mcri.ms appears in \\w Oilyssi'V,— the fable deserilk's llinn as (Iwellin:; rievoiiii the ocean- stream. iiTUmrsed in ilarkness and unlilcssed hr ' the nys m llelifis. Of this people as existen"t ' we can render no account, for tliev had passiil awav. or lost tlieir identity and Iwe.' .iie siilijeet, previous to the coniiiieneeinent of tn^stwortliv authorities: hut they s<-eiii toliavelKcn ilieiliief occupants of the Tauric CliersomseiCriimal and of the territory In tween that pc nin, ula and ilie rivi r Tyras l Dneister) at the time when llie (Jreelis ' first commenced their permanent settlements ! on those coasts in the seventli century ll C | The numerous localities whieh bore their name i even in the lime of Herixio'us, aftir they had ' ceased to exist as a nation. — .is well as the tonilis of tli<- Cimmerian kings then shown mar the Tyras, — siillleiently attest the fact: and tliere is reason to lielieve that lliev were — like their con- querors and suecessors the Sevtiiians— a nomadic people, mare-niilkers, muviut' about with their tents and herds, siiitablv to the nature of thos*' unbroken steppes whiili their territory pre- sented, and wl'vli olfered little except herhnec in profusion "itM>tells>is — on whatautlioritv we do not ki.,,\— that ti- v. as will as the Tri'res and other Thnuians, had desolate<l Asia Minor more th:in nn<-,. lw-f..r,- the (iine of Ardyi [Mnif of l.ydi^i. seventh eenlurv B. C.l and even earlier than Homer.' —G. droie", Hiit. of (irteee pi. 8. eh. 17. -See, also, C . .M.«. '' ' CINCINNATI, SOCIETY OF THE. See Atbsks: B. C. 477, ■See Athcks: B. C. 4J0. ■ -The fouadinr • 87 "anolTeruaa CIMON, CuMf oC 4«2. to 460-449. CIMON, PMce ot 449. CINCINNATI : A. D. t^, aad MmioK of the citjr.- ; 1 made to Congress by John . ;- Symines fafi'i" wards famous for Us theory that the eanh u hollow, with openings at the poles], to buy two millions of acres between the Little and the Oreirt Miamis. Symmes was a Jerseyman of wealth had visited the Shawanese countrv had Wn greatly pleased with iu fertility, and had oome away declaring that every acre in the wildest part was worth a silver dollar. It was to., lie thought, only a question of time, and a virr short time, when this value wouhl he douMc!;! and tripled. Thousands of immiRranu were pouring into this valley each year, hundreds ,if thousands of acres were being taken up, and tlio day would soon come when the rich land alooi? the Miamis and the Ohio would be In Krcm Hit mand. There was therefore a mightv fortune ia store for the lucky speculator who "should l,„7 land from Congress for five shillings an acre and sell it to immigrants for twentv. But hij business laggeil, and though his oiler to pur- chase was made in August, 1787, it was the I.ltli of May, 1788, before the contract was cl,.s«l. In the meantime he put out a pamphlet and made known his te'ins of sale. A copvsi«.n Ml into the hands of .Matthias Denman. "He heeame in- terested in the scheme and purchaseil that section on which now stands the cit v of Cineinn.iti 1 )ne third he kept, one third he sold to Uoliert I'atter- son, and X\\' remainder to John Filson. Tie- ron- diticms of tlie purchase from Svminis l'.ivi tliem two years in which to beirin "niakim: c I.Mrinirs and '.uilding huts. But the thne chtermiiutl to lose no time, and at once made ready to liv out a city diri'ctlv opposite that spot" wli. n'- tlia waters <>f the Licking mingled tlieniselv.s with the Ohio. Denman and Patterson wiri' no schcdars. But Filson had (.-.-e lui^n a -.ii.N.l. imtster, knew a little of Latin and soni.iliinL'of historv, and to him was as-signc-d the .|iit\ (if choosing a name for the town. . . . Iled.ti rminisi to make one, and prcnluced a woni iliit w:(s a most absurd mixturi' (if Latin. Creekand Fr.ii.h, lie called the place Losantiville, whi( li. Ininif interpret:d, means the eitv opposite th,- nioiith of the Licking. A few weeks later the \\'A\-mi sealpeil him.'— J. B. McMa.ster, IIM. ■•< ■'. /'..>- fhofthf r. S.. p. 1, ;,. ,5Irt._The n;in,^ -iv.a a little- later to Filson's settlement was cut, rnd on it by (ieiieral St. Clair. Governor ..| i|i. I'lr ritorv. in honor of the ScK-ietv of the tin. iiiiciti. ,^•1. .NoiiTiiwKsT TEimiTonv ok tiik I . .s .V I). Ai.s..t.S: ¥.W. Miller, riiieiuioiti'' l!,'-i, -.it A. D. t86p.— Threatened by John Moruan's Rebel Raia. Sec United sSx.tTEs A. I). IxtCUJuLY: Kkntickv). ol.' .Vll. CINCINNATI, The Society of the.- Men of the pnsent geiwration who in ehildli.io.i nini- magetl in their grandmothers' cosy i;:irrets .:i;i not fail to have come across scon-s df nmstv .m.l worm-eaten pamphlets, their yelL.w 'iwir.s crowded with iialies and exclamation points, in- veighing in passionate languiiire airain-t the wlckeii and danirenma Society of the CiiKiTimitl Just before the army [of the" American Kevojit 484 craOINNATI, 80CIBTT OF THE. tion] wu disbanded, the offlcen, at the iuggei- tion of General Knox, formed themselves [April, iresj into a secret society, for the purpose of keeping up their friendly Intercourse and cher- iahing the heroic memories of the struggle In which thry had taken part. With the fondness for classical analogies which cha'ticterized that time, tliey likened themselves tu Cincinnatus, who w!is taken from the plow to lead an army, and rctumci to his quiet farm so soon as his warlike duties were over. They were modem Cincinnati. A constitution and by-laws were ntablished for the order, and Washington was unanimously chosen to be its president. Its branches in the scvemi states were to hold meet- ings each Fourth of July, and there was to be a general meelibg of the whole society every year in the month of >Iay. F" jnch offlcers who had tnkcn part In the war ,vere admitted to membership, and the order vas to be p»rpetu- ateil by descent through the eldest male n-pre- lentatives of the families of the mcmb<-rs. It was further provided that a limited membership should fn)m time to time be granted, as a dis- tinguished honour, to able and worthy citizens, without regard to the memories of the war. A golden American eagle attached to a blue ribbon «lg(Kl with white was the sacred badge of the orilir; and to this emblem especial fa' ur was shown at the French court, where the in .gnia of foreign .-itates were genemlly, it is said, regarded with'jealoHsy. Xo political purpose was to be subserved by this onler of the Cincinnati, save in so far as tlie members pledged to one iiiinlhcr their ditirmination to promote and cherish the union Utween the states. In its main intent the Mciity ttiis to l>e a kind of masonic brotheriicxjd. charged with the duty of aiding the wi(lo"s and the .irpliiin cliildren of Ita members in time of neeil. Innocent aa all this was, however, the news of the e»tJil)lishment of such a society was greclcd with a howl of ln<lignation nil over the country. It wiis thought that Its founiiers were inspired liy a deep-laid piditical scheme for centralizing' the government and setting up a hcndit:ir> iiristocracy. . . . Thcabsunlilvof the lilUiilinii was nuickfy realizetl by Wasbiugton, and he prevailed u.ion the society, in its first annual meeting of May, 17H4, to abandon the prim iple iif hereditary membership. The ai'ila- tion «.is thus allayed, and in the pn^seiice of graver iiuestiuns the much-dreaded brothcriiood fiiluilly leased to occupy popular attcntiuti.' — Fi-ke, n.e {ntkiil I\riod of Am. Uiat., eh 3 --I 1!. .MeMa-ster, Hitt. i>f the'Penpk i^ the V. .«., r. 1. .7). J.— ■The her(^litary succession > as never aliandoned. A recommendation to that effect was indeed made to the several Suite Societies, at the first OenersU .Meeting in Phila- ilelphia . But the proposition, unwillingly uri:(il, was accepted in deprecatory terms by some, and liy others it was toUilly rejected. . . . .\l tlie sec.nd General Meeting, it was resolved th.it tile altemtions couM not take effect until Uiev had lieeii agreed to by all the State Societies. ' rhty nevir were so agreed to, and consequently the oriiimal Institution remains in full force. Ih'Ke MKieties that accepted the proposeil alter- atinns unci.ni!itiona!!y, of r.iurse prrislinl wllli their own generatii ti."— A. .Johnston, SnneAret «ni,e s^. of the 'Snnniuiti (ftnn. UUt. .*«;. -W^'e^r, r. «, ,,;,. „-53).-"The claim to mem- nersuip lias latterly boeu determined not by strict CINQUK PORTS. primogeniture, but by a 'luitelectirepTeferenoe, especially In the line of tiie flnt-bom,' who luw a moral but not an absolutely Indisputable right; and membership has always been renewed br election. ... Six only of the original thirteen states — MassachusetU, New York, New JerMy Pennsvlvanla, MaryUnd, and South Carolina — are still [In 1873] represented at the General Meetings. The largest society, that of Massa- chusetts, consisting originally of 343 members now [1873] numbers less than 80; that of New York, from 230 had In 1858 decreased to 78; the 268 of Pennsylvania to about 60; the 110 of New Jersey, in 1866, to 60; and the 13l of South Carolina was, in 1849, reduced to 71."— F 8 Drake, Memorial* of the Soe. of the Cineinnati of Mat*. . p. 37. CINCO DE MAYO, Battle of (i86a). See MEXicoi A. D. 1861-1867. CINE, The.— Kinsfolk of the head of the tribe, among the ancient Irish. CINQ MARS, ConapiraCToi^ SeeFBABCS A. D. lMl-1643. CINQUE PORTS, The.-" Hastings, Sand- wich, Dover, Romney, Hythc — this is the order In which the Cinque Ports were ranke<l in the times when they formed a flourishing and important confederation. Winchelaea and Rye were added to these five . . . soon after the Nor- man Conquest. , . . The new comers were otflcially known as ' the two Ancient Towns. " When therefore wc wish to speak of this famous corporation with strict accuracy we say, ' The five Cinque Ports and two .\ncient Towns. ' The repetition of the numljer five' in this title proha. bly never struck people so much as we might expect, since it very soon came to he merely a technical term, the French form of the word being pronounced, and very often spelt ' ."^ynku ' or 'Sinke.' justasif it was tlie Knv'lish 'Sink.' . . . The difference between the Cinque Ports and the rest of the English coast towns is plainly indicated by mediicval custom, since they were generally s, ken of collectively as • The Ports." . . . Most ..tcrs upon this subject . . . have iH'en at pains to connect the Ciiuiue Ports by some sort of direct descent with the five Roman stations and fortresises which, under the Comes Littoris Saxonici [see Saxon .Siioke, Coint of], guarded the southeastern shores of Bnt.ain.'' — .M. Burrows The Ciii'im l''Tt», ch. 1-3— 'Our kings have thought them [I he Cin(|iio Ports] worthy a peculiar regard : and, in onier to secure them against invasions, have grunted them a particular form of goverument. Thev are under a keeper, who has tlie title of Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports (an otilcer first appointed by William tlie Conqueror), who has the authority of an admiral among them, and issues out wriu in his own name. The privileges anciently annexed to these porU and their dependenta were [among others): .Vn exemption from all taxes and tolls, , , , .V power to punish foreign- ers, as well as natives, for theft, , . . A power to raise mounds or banks In any man's land against breaches of the sea. ... To convert to their own use such gooils as they found floating on the sea; those thrown out of ships in a stonn; and those driven ashore when no wretk or ship was to be seen. To be a guild or fraternity, and to be allowed the franchises of court leet and court-baron. A power to assemble and keep a portmote or parliament for the Cinque Porta. 486 CINQUE PORTS. CISTERCIAN ORDER '■•:4 . . . Their barons to have the privilege of gup. porting the canopy over the king's hoail at his coronation. In return for these privileges the Clnciuc Ports were rcqulriKl to (it out 57 ships, each manned with 31 men and a bo/, with which they were to attend the king's service for IS days at their own expense; but If the state of affairs n-quirod their assistance any longer they Were to be paid by the crown. . . . As the term baron occurs contmually throughout all the charters of the Ports, it may not be improper to inform our readers that it is of the same import ■s burgess or fn-eman. . . . The ri'presentatives of the Ports iu i>arliament are to this day styled toirons." The post of Warden of the Ciuijue Ports, " formerly considered of so much honour and consequence, is now converted Into a patent sinecure place, for life, with a salarv of £4.0<H) a year"— y/i,<. «/ the Uomuglu of Ofent lirWiin ; toffetlwr irilK the Cinque Birta. r. 3.— The office of Wanien of the Cinijue PorU has been held durine the pres«'nt centurv bv Mr. Pitt, the Eiirl of Liverpool, the Duke of Wellington, the Earl of Dalhousie, Viscount Palmerston, and Earl Granville. CINTRA, Conrention of. See Spain: A. D. 1H<I8-18(« (AfOl'ST-^AM-AKV). CIOMP. Tumult of the. See Florence: A. ' "'-ft 1427. kS, or SIRKARS, The northern. S A. D. 1758-1701. .SSIANS. See Caucasus. .vwLES OF GERMANY, The. See Gekmanv; a. D. 149:i-1519. CIRCUMCELLIONES, The. See Dona TISTS. CIRCUMNAVIGATION OF THE WORLD: A. D. 1519-1522.— Magellan'! voy- age : the first in histotr. See AxERii a : A 1). 151il-i.-,24. A. D. 1577-1580.— Drake's royage. See America: A. I). IST'.'-l.'iW. CIRCUS, Factions of the Roman.— "The ract in its tirst institution [anions the llomaii^]. was a simple control of two chariots, whose drivers were distinguished by white anci n'd liveries; two additional colours, a liirlit green anil a cerulian Mue, were afterwards introduced; «i»l as the races were R'p<'ated twentvlive times. "lie hundred chariou contributed in the siime day to the pomp of the circus. The four fac- tions soon acijuired a legal istalilishnient and a mysU'rious origin, and their fanciful colours were derived from the various iippearancea of nature in the four siMisons of the vear, . . Another interpretation preferred the elements to the seasons, and the struggle of the green and blue was supposi'd to represent the conflict of the earth anil sea. Their respective victories announced either a plentiful harvest or a pros- perous navigation, and the hostility of the hus- liandmin ami mariners was somewh.'it les.s absurd than the liliml ardour .-t tlie Koman p<'oplc, who devoted their lives and fortunes to the colour which they had espoused. . . . Constantinople adopted the follies, though not the virtues, of ancient l{ome ; and the sainc factions which had agitateil the ciriiis msreil with redoubleil furv in the hipp<xirome. Under the reign of Aiiastasius [A. D. 491-518] this popular frenzy was inflamed by religious »-al; and the greens, who had treacherously concealed stones and daggers under baskets of fruit, massacred, at a solemti festjvsl ■I.OtN) of their blue adversaries. From ihi mnitsi this pestilence was dilTused Into the iimvimn and cities of the East, and the sportive ili«iiiii ijna of two colours pnsluced two strong uml imnio. cllable factions, which 8h(s)k the foumliiinn, „( a fii'ble government. ... A »eiliti..M, «l,irli almost laid Constantinople In aslii's. was im itca by the mutual hatred and momentary n . m,, iijj. tlon of the two factions." This fearful tiinmlt. which acquired the name of the Nika .k..iiij,,ii fromthecry, "NIka" (vanquish). uilu|iii',| |,v i|ie rioters, broke out in connection with the n llhrj. tlon of the festival of the Ides of Jiiimnrv i D 53'i. For Ave days the city was uinii r,|, j,, ,|„ moh and large districts In it were Imri.a jn. eluding many churches and other siai, u „ii. flees. The emjHTor Justinian u .iiM ' i^ve abandoned his palace and throne, liu: f,,r the hemic opposition of his consort. Th |..ra On the sixth day. the imperial autlmritv ».i, 1, ,siali. lished by the great soldier. HelK.,rill^. afi^f iiO.iKH) citizens had Ix-en slain in the lii|i|>iHlri>iiie and iu the streets.- E. Olblmn. />,<■/,/„ „„,/ /;,« of ttte limuut Kinfnre, rh. 40. CIRCUS MAXIMUS AT ROME, The.- "The races and wild In-ast shows in ii,,. ,.|^i were among the most ancient and in.i>t fav.nirite Roman amusements, and the buililini:^ ilc .liiainl 'o these sports were numerous, ami m :irlv ,(|uai In .-laiiniflcence to the amphitheatre> tin- ( if. cus .Maximus. which was first pr"vi.l.,| wjtii pirmancnt seats for the spectators as earlv a.» the time of Tarquinlus Priscus. was sueees-ivilvrt. storeil and ornamented by the ri piiMii .u j;.i\Vra- ment in 3'i7 and 174 B. C. and liv .iiiim- 1 i.^ir, Augustus. Claudius, Domitian aiiil I'rijaii The psult was a buUding which, in ilimeiiMiiijs nnil magniflcence, rivalled the Coliseum. I,iit has, unfortuiiati'ly, proved far less iliinilile, .virnly avestigeofit"nowbenigleft'— R. Uurii, lim,t,ii,d the i'limiMiffiui, int. unit eh. 12. — "s,.,. ,,1^,, j'^m-n BOARIUM. CIRENCESTER, Orign of. .SetoiiiNuu CIRRHA. See Delphi CIRRHiEAN, OR KIRRHiEAN WAR, The. Sec Athens: B. C. BlO-.'ixti. au^l I>ki.i'hi. CIRTA. — .\ii ancient Xumiilhin liiy The mislern town of Constantina in Algeri;i ii . n its site. Si' NUMIDIANS. CISALPINE GAUL (GALLIA CISAL- PINA). See Home: B. C. :I'Jo-:j4: CISALPINE REPUBLIC. Sn Kkame: A. I). 1796-1797 (Octoiieii— Apiui,!: KH? i.M.tT —October); 1799 (April— Seitemiikio. anil mn-ims. CISLEITHANIA. See Austuia A D 186«-1K67. CISPADANE GAUL.— Cisalpim' (Jaul south of the Padus, or Po. See Paois. CISPADANE REPUBLIC, The. See France: A. 1). 179»>-1797 lOcTonEit-.VrRiD. and 1797 (May— OctoberI CISSIA (KISSIA). See Elam. CISTERCIAN ORDER.-The Monasteiy of Citeauz. — "Hanling was an V::i::iblinuin who spent his boyhmxl In the nionast. ry i.f Slier- iKime in Dorset, till he wass«MZeil h illi a |ia»sii)ii f.-.r wandering and r>r stti.ly whi. h '■•I 'ii-r- fiK to Scotland, then to Oaul, and at la.-^t to Kome. It chance<i that on his return thence, passing through the duchy of Burgundy, he stupiieil it the abbey of MoICmes. As he siiw the ways sal 486 iv- CISTERCIAN ORDER. CITIES, IMPERIAL AND FREE. hsblU familiar to his cliildliood reproduced in thoae of tlie moaks, tlic wanderer's lieart vearne<l fur tlie peaceful life wliicli lie bad forsaken ; he took the TOWS, and l)ecnnie a brother of the bouse. But when, with the zeal of a convert, lie began to look more closely into his monastic oblijtations, he perceived that the practice of Muk^mcs and Indeed of most other mona-steries, fell very far short of the strict ru'e of 8. Benedict. He remonstrated with his brethren till they had Dci ri-»t in their min<is. At last after lon^ and anxious. deliates In the chapter, the abbot dcter- iniui'<i to go to the nnit of tli matter, and ap- poinbil two bri'thren, whose learnin); was f(|ualliil bv their piety, to examine diligently the original rule and dvilare what they fouiiil in it The result of lliiir investiijations justitied liunliiig's repn)aclies and caused a schism in the convent. The majiiritv refused to alter their sccustonicd ways: finding they were not to 1k' rfforiii.l. the zealous minority, consisting of Koliert tlie abbot. Harding himself (or i^tephen as he nas called in religion) and sixteen others equally 'stiff-neckcil in their holy obstinacy,' left JlolCnies, and sought a new alHxic in the wilder- Di'ss. The site whfcli they chose — in the diocese of Cluilonsur-Saone, not far from I>ijon — was no happy valley, no ' green nareat ' such as the earlier IJeuedictine founders had Ix-eii wont to seliei. It wa> a dismal swamp overgrown with hru<liwood. a forlorn, dreary, unhealthy spot, from whose marshv character the new hou.se took ii> nuiiie of ' the Cistern ' — Cistellum. commonly calliil Citeaux. There the little band set to work in 1(108 to carry into practice their views nfniona.«ticduty. ... Thrce-and-twenty daugh- ter liousis were brought to completion during his [llanlings] lifetime. One of the earliest UiiH I'onliguy, founde*! in 1114, and destined in afiirdays to become inseparably associated with the name of another English saint. Xext year thiri' went forth another Cistercian colony. whose glory was soon to eclipse that of the niiitherliouse itself. Its leader was „ young monk called Bernard, and the place of its "settle- ment was named C'lairvaux. From Burgundy ami Champagne the ' White Monks, ' as the Cis- lercimi.s were called from the colour of their h»l)it, s<H)ii spread over France and Norman.l \ . In UiS they crossed the sea and matie an e'n- tramv into their founder's native laud." — K. Xiirijatt', Kngland uiuler the Angerin King», r. 1, ch. 1, Also is: S. R. Maitland, Tlu Dark Aget. 21. CITEAUX, The MonastetyoC See Cister- CU.N (iKDEll. CITIES, Chartered. See Commuse; also BoHotoHs. and Ocilds. CITIES, Free, of Italy. See Italt: A. D. KW-ii.V.'. and after. CITIES, Imperial and Free, of Germany.— " The territorial disintegration of Germany [see Gf.k»hnv: i:jTit Centcrv] had intnxluied a new anil Ixneticial element into the national life, by allowing the rise and growth of the free cities. Tiles*- wereof two claaseg: those which sti»Kl in immediate connection with the Empire. ami were practically independent republics, and t!i~i- -.vhirh. while owning some depiudeuce uiK'u spiritual or temporal princes. ha<l vet con- quiriil fur themselves a large nieasim''(if self- jtovernment. The IchmI distribution of the I'rimr, which u curiously uuenual, depended •ry I lilt upon the circumstances which attended the 'is- ■olution of the old tribal dukedom Wber r some powerful house was able to oeize upoi le Inheritance, free cities were few: whereve the contrarv was the case, they sprang up in alu Gl- ance. In Swabia and on the Rhine there " ere more than a hundred: Franconia on the counted (miy NOmberg and five smalle • Westphalia, Portmund and Herford: v Bavaria, Ihgensburg stood alone. ... 1 pcrial free lities . . . were self-goveme- constitutions in which the aristocratic denuwratic elements mingled in vari ins tions: the- provided for their own de'" I . . . were repiiblics. in the midst of Statc^ w m i.< personal will of the ruler counted foi i.. :■ ii more. ... In these cities the retii. J m i luxurious civilization, to which the prince^ .» indifferent, and on which the knights waged pri'datory war, found expression in the jiursuit of letters and the cultivation of the arts of life. There, too, the Im|H'rial feeling, which was else- where slowlv dying out of the laiul. retained much of its force. The cities held, so to speak, directly of the Empire, to which tliey bioked for pnitection against powerful and lawh'ss neigh- bours, and thev felt that their liherlies and privileges were bound up with the niaiutcuaiice of the general order. ... In them, too, as we might uaturuUy expect, religious life put on a frcTr aspect. " — C. Heard, M^irtit, Lnllur und l!u liefoniMtiun. p. IG. — -I'rior to the peace of Luneville [1801]. (icnuuny |kis.si's,si(1 i:!;i free cities, called iteichstadte. A Heiclisladt ( ' civitas imperii ') was a town under the inunediate authority of the Emperor, who was reoresented In- an imperial official lalled a Vogt or ISchultheis. The flr-t mention of the tenii 'civitas imperii' (imiH'ri.il citv) im( urs in an edict of the einpemr Frcic rj, k II" [lil-H'-ViO]. in which LulK-ck wag di< I 111, I 'civitas im|H'rii ' in perpetuity. In a in. 1 .■•111 I. i.f the year I'iST, we find tliat King Rod. If teniK d the following places ' civitates regni' (royal ritiesi. viz.. Frankfort, Frieilberg, Wetzlar Oppenheim, Wesil, and Boppurt. All these re yal litiis subseipieutly lucame imperial cities in I'onseijiunce of the Iviiigs of Gtennanr being again raiwd to the dignity of Emperors. During the reign of Louis the Havarian [i:il4- 134T] Latin cea.si-d to 1m- the olUcial language, and the imperial towns were designated in the vernacular ' Richstat ' In course' of time tlic imiK'rial towns aci(Uired. cither by purchase or coii(|Uest. their imlepenilenee. " Besides the Reichstildte. then' wen- Kn-istUdte. or freetiiwns, the principal being ( logue, Ba.sle, Maycnce, Ritisboii, ,*spins. and Wurnis. The free towns appear to have eiijoyeil the following im- munities: — 1. They were evempt fnmi the oath of altegiauc to the Emjieror. *. They were noi Uiund to furnish a contiugeut for any ex- peditiou beyond the Alps. 3. They were free from all imperial taxes and duties. 4. They could not be pledged .") They were dis- tingiiisheil from the imperial towns by not hav- ing the imperial eagle emblazoned on the muni- cipal cscutclieon ' Subseiiui ntly "the free towns wen' placi-d on the same footing as the Keieiistiiiii, and the lenii Kreisiadt.'or free lowu. was disused. The goveruincnt of the im|K'rial towns was in tlie hands of a military and (ivil jjoveruor . . On the imperial towns iH-coiniug uidepeudeut, the admiuistrution uf the town was 487 I .; .-ft Mil jilt I' n lit I?l CITIES, DfPERIAL JiSD FREE. •Btruited to « colten of from four to twentf- four penoDi, Mconfing to the population, and the memben of this kind of town council were called either Rathsmann, Rathaf-eund. or Rath*- herr. which menu councilman or adviaer The town councillors appear to have wiected one or more of their number as presidenU, with the title of Rathsmcister, Burgrrmcister, or Stadt- meister . . . Many of the imperial towns gainnl their autonomy either by purchase or force of arms. In like manner we And that otlier« either lost their privileges or voluntarily became sub- jects of some burgrave or ecclesiastical prince, e. g.. Cologne, Worms, and Spin-s placed them- selves under the jurisdiction of their respective archbishops, whereas Altenburg. C'liemnftz and Zwickau were seized by Frederick the Quarrel- some in his war with the Empcn)r; whilst others, like tiagenau, Colmar, Landau, and Strasburg. were annexed or torn from the German Empire. As the Impi'riiil towns in- creased In w<-;iltli and power tliev exteniled the circle of their authority over the surrounding districts, and, in onler to obtain a voice in the affairs of the I'inpin'. at leni;th demanded that the country under their jurisdHion should lie represented at the KilcliMtag (Imperial Diet). To accomplish this, lliiy formed tlirinselves into Bunds iir onfeilerations to iissert their iliiims, and sucretnlisi in forriiig the Emfwrnr and the f)rince8 to allow their representativis tn take part n the delilH'nitions of the I>iet. The primipiil coiifiilerations brought into existencv l)y the strugirles going on in (iemiimv were tin- Klienish and Simblan Hunds. ami the lliinsa [ve IIa.vsi Towns) Vt tlie Diet held at Augsburg in 1474, It appi'iirs tluit almost all the inijierial towns wen- n pri'scnliil. and in ItWX, an the f<:ii t Westphalia, when their presence in the »i.t was fi.riiiMlly rici.gnized, thev were fnnni-d Int.i a Hepuntte mll.ire . . Ilv' the pi-iur ,if Lumville four of tlie iiiiiMrial towns, vi/:.. .\lx. la ChiiiMll.-, Colo^'ne. Spins, ,in,| W. inns, wire ceded til France. In 1x0:1, all the iniiMriul towns lost tlieir autonomy with tlie ixn piion of th.. | following six — .Vufisliiirg, Xuninlsrir, Fnuik- fort, LuU'ck, llanilmrg, ami IJn'tni'M; an. I in IsiKl th|, tlmt thire. and in IHpi th,. oi|i,rs sljarinl tlie siune fate, Init in Hl'i, on tlir fail of Napnii-on. Hn-nien. Ilanitmrg, Kuls-rk, ami Frankfort, n'eovepHl their fri<tloin. nml wiri' n.iniitteil iM nunilsrs of tlii' (Jirman Ibirid. wliii h Ihevcontlioml to Ih' up to tlif viar IxrttI " — W .1. Wyatl. IfiMl nf /Vr(«(,i. r •>. ,,,, 1J7. 4if.' — •■ A<i onling to tlie Oirniun hisi.irlans ihr piriisi of till' gnalest siiNn.ioiir of tlii-si. towns wasiliiriutf the Hih ami |.-illi <intiiri.s .In till IHth century thev ■till eiijovid the sjiiiie pio,|« rilv. but the i>..ri.Kl of their deiav was cone Thi- Thirty-Years War hasiemd' tlieir fall, anl Manily oi f ih>'in estnoeil ilistnic lion and ruin during that [sriisl .Nev.rthcl. «, Ihi' Inaiv of Wesiplmlia nHiiilnns them |"isi' llvtiy. and B»«'rtB their p<«itlun as inimisliate stall" that is to s!iy. slates which iii'|it'nd<s| Im- nii'iiiaiily ii|>on the Eni|X'Mr. but the neiirh Isiuriui; .Sovi ri'lifos. ,>ii the one ban 1. and on the other till- .'•nixn.r himself, the i-xiTelwnf whooe flower, simi. the Thirty Years War, was timltisl t'^' the leffl.r v:ix!^iU =:f ifo. .^mj-ifr- frslHri,-,! their novereiirnly within narrower and narMwir limits. In III.- IMih .■.-niiirv. .11 of iheni wen- Mill in viisteuce, they tilled two bciiebMi at tho CIVIL RI0HT8 BILL diet, ud had an independent vote there; but in fact, they no longer exerciaed any influence upm the direction of general aftai.'s. At home thev were all hearily burtbened with oe'iU, partly be cause they continued to be charged for tlie im. perial taxes at a rate suited to their former splendour, and partly because their own ad- ministration waa extremely bad. It is very r«- markable that this bad administration seenml to be the result of some secret disease which wu common to them all, whatever might be the form of their constitution. . . . Their pupul, tion decreaaed, and distresa prevaileil in tl,|.„ They were no longer the abodes of H.rnuD civilization: the aru left tliem, and went lo shine in the new towns created by the Soven-iinij and representing modem society. Traiie foiw),ik 'he'" — their ancient energy and patriotic vimur disappeared. Hamburg almost alone still n- maineil a great centre of wealth and intelligent but this was owing to causes quite peculiar to lier'. •elf."— •^- de Tocqueville, Slals nf S.Hitii i« £V>im-e b^on 1789, note P.— SJee, also, lUsi* TOW.NS.— Of the 48 Free Cities of the Empire re maining in 1808, 43 were then roblsvl of Un-ir franchises, under the exigencies of the Treaty of Luneville (see Oekhanv: A. I). IWH-lijo:)). After the Peace of Hressburg only thn-e sur- vive.1. namely, Hamburg, LulH-ck ami Hnmea (ai-e Germany: A. D. 1805-1806). Tins,, w^re annextsi to France by Napoleon in INK) —See France: A. I>. 1810 (FtBRUARy— I)k< EMiigK) The Congress of Vienna, in ISliS, restored frw- lioni to them, and to Frankfort, likewise, »ii,| they Is'came members of the Oemiaiiii Cud- ftsieration then formed.— 8ec Vikxw, Tin CiiNiiRESs op.— I,ubeck gave up Its privilei-es u a fn-c citv in 1H66, .(oining the I'nissiun (■ii*i,.ra.s I nion. Hamburg and Bremen diil tlie s.inii. io 1MH8, Mng absorbed In the Empire. This min- gtiished the last of the "free cities." St-i (ka many: a. D 1888. CITIES OF REFUGE. The sis .I.hUi, "cities of refuge" for the inaii-!n.i .,. Numbew xxxy, rt, Ut-l.".! were 'Ki,|,.i,. Sheihim, Hebron, Uezer, It8niolli(;ile..,.l, :ii,i Golan CITY. Si.<' KoHoi'oii. CITY OF THE VIOLET CROWN - Ancient Athens was so calle«l by the poets CITY REPUBLICS. Italiu, ,Se Imr. A. I) 10.VI I -..' CIUOAD KOORIDGO: A. D. iSio-itta - Twice bcsi«|[cd and canturtd by the French s<id by the English. See Spain: .\ 1> |s|ii |S|> CIVESltOMANI AND PERECRINI.- "Befon' the SiHiiil or .Marslc warill (' isi iln-r» Wen- imly two classes within the llniiui .[..iiiio- ions who were designaleil by a poliiiial ii;iTm-, (Ives Itoinnni. or Itoman citizens. hilI I'lr, crini. a term which comprt'hendiHl the Latini tin S»ii and the I'nivinciales. such as the liihalii' .nn.if Sicily The I'lvi-s Itomani wen- the liti/.ips.if Home thi- elllitens of Koman cuionie-i uiil rhc inhaliiljinls of the Miinlcipia which lis.l nsTiv«l the Roman citizenship "—G Long, Ihrliiif >ftlit lt>iMH llrpiMic fh. 17— See, also, Komk 6 C. CIVIL RIGHTS BILL. The Pinrt, !)n t rjiTr.ii r^TVTCs of Au A li I'mr. ;,\j.riti - The Stcond, and iti dtclarad uaeanstitutit» ality. See L'nitbu BTATka or Am. . A 0. 187.V 488 crVILSSRYICK REFORM: EXQLAND. CrV'IL-SERVICE REFORM: ENOLAKD. CIVIL-SERVICE REFORM IN ENG- LAND.— " It was not till long af'er 1832 that the inherent mischief of the partisan system [of ippointments in the national civil service] became msnifest to the great xlv of tbinl(ing people. When that result was attained, the flnal struggle villi patronage in the hands of members of Par- liament began on a large scale. It seems to have betn, even then, foreseen by the best informed tliat it could nut be removed by any partisan ■i^cui'y. They began to see the need of some mi'tliciit by which fitness for the public service coulil Im? "ti'sted otherwise than by the (iat of a mcmlierof I'arliamcnt or the vote of the Cabinet or tlie Treasury. What that methrxl should be vaa one uf the great problems of the future. Ko government had then solved it. That there must Ik' tests of fitness independent of any political action, or mere otflcial inlluince, became more and more plain to thinking men. Tlie leaders uf the great parties soim began to s<'e that a public opinion in favor of such tests was bi'in)? rapidly cleveloped, which seriously thrcat- taiil their power, unless the party system Itself could lie made more acceptable to the people. . . . There was an abundance of fine promises made. liut no member gave up his patronage —no way was opened by which a person of merit could get into an otiice or a place excvpt bv the favor of tha party or the condesceu.<ii<>n of a nicnilMT The partisan blockade of every port of entry to the public service, which nuid'e Ittiiitolil easier for » decayed butler or an in- ciiniiN'iint cousin of a nu-mber or a minister. liua for the promising son uf a rHx>r widow, to !«.< the barrier, was, afu-r the Keform Bill as U ' n; rigidly maiiitaineil. Fealty to the party iii work in its ranks — subserviency to mem- iirs and to ministers — and electioneering on th<ir iMhalf — these were the virtues liefore which the ways to office and the diKirs of the Tniuury wer« opened. Year by year, the public diiconlenl with the whole system Inrieased. . . . During the Melbourne administratlim, txtwiTn 1834 and 1841, a demand for examina tioij». «• a ciindllion for admission to the service, caiiic fnmi two very dilTerent quarters. Due w»« tin' tii)ther ollli'ials, who declari'd that they could not do the public work with such piHir srrranta as the partisan aysk'm supplied. The othir was the more indepi'mlent. thoughtful portion of the people, who held it to be as un- list US It was demoralizing for members of ^aii'aniint and other officers to monopoliie the priviligi. ,.f saying who might enter the public « rviii. Uini Mellmunie then yie|i|e<l so far as to allow pius examinntious to Iw Inatituliil In iiinw of the larger offices; and he was Inclined to fator competltire examinations, but It was tliouKlit to he too great an innovation to attempt stoii.e Thrseeiaminatlons — several of them bfiiigrompetltlve — lntn>duce<l by public offli'tm in n If difi-nce many ye«r« previous to I8,"MI, bad tK'fun- tUt lime prixluced striking ivsulu, In thT I'i...r Imot CommiaaloD, for example, they Mil brought about a reform that arrested public stlfntiou. I' nder the Committee on Education, tiny had caused the selection of teachers ao niiii h superior • that higher lalariea were biditen tor Ihcm for prlvjttc mtricf ' The* ex- smmstmna were stmidily eilended from office ».. offlo ,|„wn u> the rwllcsl change made In t8:»a It had bv«B prorUwl, kaf btfon :«U, i:: that those designed for the civil service of India, should not only be subjected to a pass examina- tion, but should, before entering the service, be subjected to a courae of special instruction at Hailevbury College, a sort of civil West Point This College was aliolislied in 1854, but equiva- lent instruction was elsewhere provided for. The directors had the putninuge of nomination for such instruction. . . . If it Ke<'ms strange that a severe course of study, fur two viapt in such a college, WU.S not siitticient to wi-Id out the in- competents which patMiiaue fom-d iuto it, we must lM>urln mind that the sjime iiitluciice wliich sent them I' ere was used to kci'p tin in there. . . . Both the Derby and the .\1k nliiii udminls- trations. In 18.W and IS.'!:!, took niitice that the civil service was in a comlitioii of piril to British India; and, witliout distinction of party, it was agreed that railiial refuniis niu.st be promptly mnile. There was corruption, there was inerticienry, there was disgraceful ignorance, there was a humiliating failure in the govern ment to eiimnmud the res|M-et uf the niori' intelli- gent |M)rti()n of the people of India, and there was a still more ahmiiini; failun- to overawe the unruly classes. It was as liaii In the aniiy as in the civil olllres. . . . There was. In sliurt.a liutUii of abuses pndiflc of tliow intliiences which causiii the fearful outbreak of IS.'ST. It was too late when nfonn was deciileii u|)ou, to prevent the outlinak. but not too late to save British supn-nmi y in India A ehant'e of system waa entered upon in 1n.-,3 The 36th and 3Tth clauses of the hnlia act of that year pniviiUd • that all powers, rights, and nrivileires of the <'ourt of directors of the saiil Inilia ( umpanv to nominate ur apiMiint piTums to lie udiiiitleif as stuileiits . shall ceas<- : and that, subject to such ngu- lalious as might lie made, any person, being a natural Uim subjett of her Miijestv, who might be desirous of presenting hiiiiseff. should be admitted to lie examintsi as a candidate,' Thus, it will lie seen, Indian patrunage n-nived its deathblow, and the same blow oiniiiil the door iif stuilv for the civil servii'c of India to every British citixen. . . In 1H,W, the British Ouvem- mint hail ri'ached a flnal decision that the tiartisan system of appoimnients couhl iioi be loni-er toUn.ted. HulMantial euntml of iioinina- tlounby memliersof Parlinnient, however guonli'd by restrictions and iiiiprovol by mere pius etamitiatiiins. had continued to Is- demurali/iug In itselTect upon elections, vicious in its inllueiice upon h'gishitlon. and fatal to eionoiuv and elTlciency in the departments . Tlieadminis- trathin, with l^oni .\Unhfii at its head, promptly di'iidwl to undertake n radical and svstematio reform. . . It was deihlid that, in the outset, no appliratliin should Is- made to Parliament. The reform should lie undertaken bv the Eng- lish Kjecutive , , for the lime lie'lng The first step dii'ideil u|»in was nn in<|ulry Into the exact condition of the public service. tMt Siaffonl Niirtheute (the presi-nt Chancillor of the Kxclieqiieri and Sir t'harli'S Trevelyau were appointisl in l"!:! to make such Imnllrv and a rei>on. They siilimitted their n-port In S'ovem- l»r of the same year ... A system of com- petitive MamilMlioiis . [waaim-ommeuiletl T!u^ rri-.:-.rt »i:!. -:e;-.ir.[wnM with ^ sohriae for carrying the exaniiiinlhins into effeit, from which 1 quote the following nsssages. . , ' 8ucb a mvaaure will «a«rcii« Vb» kappleai lalltt 489 m CIVIL-SERVICE REFORM: ENGLAND. race in the rduration of the lower classes throughout England, acting by the surest of all motives — the desire a man has of bettering him- self in life. . . . They will liave attained their situations in an independent manner through their own merits. The sense of this conduct cannot but induce self-respect and diffuse a wholesome respt-ct among the lower no less than the highi - clauses of nfflcial men. . . . The effect of it ,11 giving a stimulus to the education of the lower clas.«es can hardly Ik- overt^stiniated. ' Such was the spirit of the report. This was the theory of the merit system, then first appri.vcil by an English adniinistration for the home government. I hardly neeii repeat that the examinations referred to as e.xi.sting wen' iwith sm.ill exception) mere pass examiiiations, and that the new examinations propiwcd verv open, competitive examinations. . . . But the great feature of the n-port, which made it reallvapro- posal for the intro<luction of a new system, wiw its adviM-acy of open competition, ICxcept the experiment just put on trial in India, no nati<m had adopttHl that system. It was as theoretical as it was ra<lical. ... A chorus of ridicule, Indignatiim, lamentation, and wrath arose from ■II the official and partisan places of politics. The government saw that a further stniggle was at h.ind. It app<>ared more clear than ever that Parliament was not a very hopeful place in which to trust the tender years of such a reform. . . . The executive caustnl the report to Ik- spread broadcast among the people, and also re(|uesie<l th" written opinions of a large number of persons of worth and distinction both In anil out f f office The remirt was sent to Parliament ln.t no action U|)on It was requested. . . . -\Ni\u the tinii- that English public opinion h;id pronounced its tirst Judgment upon the official reixirt, and liefore any ttnul action had l» en taken upiHi it, the Alierdeen ailministration went out. . . . Lonl I'alnieraton came into power early in IHM, than wh<im. this most practical of nations neviT pnsluccd a mon- hanlheadt^l, pracliial statesman. . Toon his ailministra- tlon fill the duty of deciding the fate of the new system ailvitfated in the" report He hail faith in his party, and believcil it would gain more l>y removing grave abuws than liy any partisan use of patronage . . Making no direct apiM^al to PaHiament, and trtisting to the higher public opinion. I>jrd J>»lmerstoii'« «d- ministration ailvis<'<l that an onler shoidd lie maile bv the Qinin In Council for carrying the reform into i^ffn t ; and such an <inier was inaile on the 8Ut of May, 1M.M."_I), n. Eaton, finl Sfrriff in (Iriot llntittn. CIVIL-SERVICE REFORM IN THE UNITED STATES.— "The i,ue»tii.n as to the Civil Service (in llie I'nlteil States] arint's from the fact that the prealdi'nt has the imwir of amKiinting a vast numtirr of p- ,1 ,■ oincials. rhielly prwtniaaten and officials ■•onivme,! witli the collection of the feileral revenue Suiu fifllcials have properly nothing lo do with t«)li lies, they are simply the ugents or clerks or servants of the national tnvemmenl in conduct. Inif its business, and If the busincM of the national government is to i<e managed on such onllnary princlniM of pr^iftei^ee as pfevst! In the mananemrnt of private '•uin-'., such servants ought lo Iw wierted for personal merit ud re taioed fur Uf« or during good bcfasTiour. It did CIVIL-SERVICE REFORM: THE U. 8. not occur to our earlier presidents to regani th» tnanagement of the pubfic business in my other 1 ght than this. But as early as the begiMinj of the present century a vicious system was ct*, ing up in New York and Pennsvlvania ',1 th'ow stales the appointive offices came to N^ uh^ ,. bribisoras rewards for partisan servios Bv securmg voles for a successful candidati' a m.ii with little in his pocket and nothln- in tianicular to do TOuld obtain some office witu a coinfcrt iMe salary. It would be given to him as ii nwiml and some other man, perhaps mon. (,.mi„unt than himself, would have to be turm.l ,,« j- onler to make room for him. A nion- itTntive method of driving good citizens • out ..f ,, jitir,' could hanlly l)c devisi'd. It called t.. the fmnt a large cla.ss of men of coarse moril lihr,' The civil service of these slates km s, ri.mslv damaged in quality, politics deireninm,! i,it„ . Willi scramble for offices, salaries wi n- p.M to men who did little or no public servii ,. in ntum and the line which sepaiBtes Uxation fMm rob- Iwry was often crossed. About th.- mtw time there grew tip an idea that there is si.riit-tliinr especially di'mocratic, and therefore tiiiritnri.iiu alKiut 'rotation in office.'" On the ilmiigeof party which took place upon the clii ti.m of Jackson to the presidency in IH-'H. •• th.- imthocls of New York and Pennsylvania were appli,',! on a national scale. Jackson cherishi'd tho alisuni lielief that the administratiuii of lii.s |in.lii ivmr .\dams had been comipt, and he ninii.l 111,11 out of office with a kwn rest. Durini; tin' f.mr .vears between Washington's first hi;iii-iir:cri„ii am' ickson's the total nuinUrof n in,.v,il,fr,,ra office was 74, and out of this nuniNr .1 win- .Ir- faulters. Ituring the first year of .Ia< ks,in j ad- ministmlion the numlKT of cluingis nia.i,. in tin civil service was abtmt 2,(NXI. Sm h »u« the abnint inauguration upon a national si alo of the so-called StHiils System. The phras.' oriKiD.itf<l with W. L. .Marcy, of New York, win. in a speech in the 8<'iiate in 1831 dechin.i ili ! ■ i.i ihf victors belong the spoils. ' . . . In the canva.M.f 1H40 the Whigs pn)mis<'d to reform ihi- ilvil service, and the promise brought llum iiLiny Democratic votes; but after they ha.l won iht election they followeil Jackson's Vxaini.l.' The Ik'miKrats followeil in the siunc wav iu isri. ami fnmi that time down to 1NM.5 it wii«'ni»t.iniarv jt each change of partv to maki n ' ilian .»■.■. p' ..f the offices. Soon after the Civil War ilMink.f the system began lo attract serious all. niinn ..n the nart of thoughtful |«iiple ■— J Kl.k., i;„l linrl in rAe I'. S. pp. '2fll-',>(M _■ li w 1, not until 1M87 that any important nio\r was iii*lr [lowanUn.form] . . . This was liv .Mr .Ii-n. li<, of Uhisle Island, who inlnslucisl a'lilll. iiia.le sn able .;'|xirt and several s|Mv<lies in lis !»li.ilf Vn'ortunately. di'sth soon put 1. in.l t.> hlii lalsirs and deprivetl the cause of an able .i.lv.vatf But the seed he had sown bore gissl fruit W lenlion was so awakennl to the necossitv .'f rr 'orm. that President ilranl. In his m.ssujr In IHTO, called the attention of Congnss to it, jn.| that tMiily passed an act In March. I"*:! irhiih autborizetl the l>resident to pr.'«< rils'. f .r *lral»- slon to the Civil Service, stioh rt k- ilni"!" «• would hi'st pnimote lis effiiirmv. an.l axTrtnin th* Itneii.-friifh -r-srrililair frf"i::!- ;--■'■■;, tt^ sought. For this purpose. It says, he nny md plor sult«ble pemont to comluct smh liojuirirs, and mmj prcwribv their duties, aad rtubliih 400 CIVIL-SERVICE REFORM: THE CLAraVAUX. RgulatioDs for the conduct of persons i 'lo i . nceive appointments in the Civil Service.' icconlance with tliis act. President Orant ap- poinwd a Civil Si-rvice Coniniission, of which fleorge William Curtis was made chairman, after- wards succeeded by Dorman Q. Euton, and an tpproprintion of $35,000 was made by Congress to defray its expenses. A like suia was voted nextvciir; but after that nothing was jgrranted until 'June, 1HS3, when, instead of |-,>.5,00<") asked for by the President, $15,000 was grudgingly sppropriated. It is due to Mr. Silas W. Burt, >sval Officer in New York, who had long been greatly interested in the subject of Reform, to my that he deserves the credit of having been the 6m tri introduce open competitive examinations. Before the appointment of Oruat's committee, he had hchi such an examination in his ottlce. . . . Under Orint's commission, open competitive ex- smin»tiim« were introduced in the departments It Washington, and Customs Service at New York, and in part in the New York Postofficc. Alllii'»i>'h this commission labored under many disadviu-'iges iu trying a new experiment, it was ible to inalic a very satisfactory reivjrt, which wa-H approved by the President and his cabinet. , . the r<des adopted by Orant's commission were prepared by the chairman, Mr. Curtis. Thry were adinimblv adapted for their purptjse, and have served as tlie basis of similar niles since thin. The great Interest taken by Mr. Curtis at that time, and the pnu'tical value of his work, entillnl him to l)e reganled as the leader of the Ri'tnmi. . . . Other able men took an active part in the movement, but tile times were not pro- pitious, pulilic wntiment ilid not sustain them, uiil Ci.iitfress refUM'd any further appropriation, sitliiiu^'h tlie Presiilent asked for it. As a con- leqiieBie, Competitive Examiimlions were every- where sii5|HniIeil, and a return made to 'pass (uminalions.' And this melhcKl continueil in use at Wiutliington until July, ItWl, after the pajwaire of the Civil Service Iteforiu Act. Pn«iilenl Hayes favonnl reform of the Civil »rrviee. and ntnmgiy urged It in his messages to (Vinirrew; yet he did things not iiinsistent with his profi's»inn», and Congress paid little attention to liiK n'l-iimmendalions, and gave him no ef- fwlual aid. Hut we owe it to him that an ohiev was pa.'W.-d In .March, INTH. enforcing the use of coni|» titive examinations in the New York Cus- tom ll(i\i»e The entire rliarice of thij work was VI n to Mr Hurt by tlie Colhctor . . In IMWi, 'imm.uiler James revlve<l the competitive metlii«l« in some part* of his ollice . . When the I'nsjdeni, ilesiring lliat these examinations ihniild lie mon- general and uniform, asked (on- pess f'T an appropriation, it was nluNil Hut uiitwiilisunding this. com|H'tilive eiamiuntiouH cailinued 111 [„■ held iu the New York Custom Hoiw and I'osioffli-e until the passage of the lleforin .\i t of 1N83. Feeling that more light was niiili ,| upon Uie nietluNls and pmgresa of "■'""» ' her wuntries, l>Tealdent Haves ha.1 fiimully n>iiu<-«l(Kl .Mr. Dorman B hlaton to visit Knitland for the purpow- of making such In quines. .Mr fMUm stK-nt several months In a oirrful. ihnrough examination, and his n-isirt «»« tr»n»nHii.-,| to Congrraa in DecimUr. 1H7» uT the l'ri.kitl»iif In . ,_„_-.,._^ .„.|.i .>. ■ . _,, ■ ' , r * m—ssgp »ni-,!i lirstTibt-ti II »< an elatKirate and compfvbeoslve hisUirr of I!irj"."'f ,""'.'!"'• Thlsrvp.irt waa afterwards tmbudiisi in Ar Uuiat ■ dvll Berrlre la Oraat K SritaJn.'. . . For this invaluable service Mr. Eaton received no compensation from the Oovem- ment, not even hii personal expenses to England having been paid. And to Mr. Eaton is due, also, the credit of oririnating Civil Service Re- form Associations. "—H. Lambert, TAo Prograt of Cinl Seniee Reform in the United Stale; pp. 6-10.— "The National Civil Service Reform League was organized at Newport, R. I., on the nth of August, 1881. It was the result of a conference among members of civil service reform associations that bad sponUneousIy arisen in various parts of the country for the purpose of awakening public interest in the question, like the clubs of the Sons of Liberty among our fathers, and the anti-slavery societies among their children. The first act of the League was a resolution of hearty approval of the bill then pending In Congress, known as the Pendleton bill. Within less than two years afterward the Civil Service law was passed in Congress by a vote in the Senate of 88 yeas to 5 nays, 33 Sen- Btora being absent, and in the House only a week Uter, by a vote of 155 yeas to 47 nays, 6* mem- bers not voting. In the House the bill was put u|)on iu passage at once, the Speaker permitting only thirty minuus for debate. This swift en- actment of righteous law was due, undoubteilly, to the panic of the party of administration, a panic which saw in the disastrous result of the rit-ent election a demand of the country for honest politics: and it was due also to the exult- ing belief of the party of opposition that the law would essentially weaken the ilominant party by reducing ita patromige. The sudden and over- whelming vote was tliat of a Congi ^sa of wliich nmbablv the members bail very little 'r dividual knowleilge or conviction upon 'the subject. But the instinct in regard to intelligent public opinion was uudoubte<lly sure, and it is intelligent public opinion which always commands the future. . . . The pasdage of the law was the first great victory of the ten years of the reform m<ivement The si-cond is the demonstration of the complete prncticability of refonn attestetl by the hemis of the largest otfici's of administration In tlie country. In the Treasury and Navy departments, the New York Custom llouse and Post Ottlee, and other im|K>nantcusUim houses and postortlws. wiihimt me least n'gani to the » Islies or the wrath of that remarkable clnss of our fellowcitizens. known as political iK^ivHia, It Is conceded by ollleent, wholly lieyond suspicion of party independence, that, in these chief branches of the pulilic nTvice. reform is (HTfectly practieable anil the ri'formed svslem a great public iH^netlt And, although a's yet these olTlceaare by no means thoMUghly reorgan- Izwlupon n-fiirnrprineiplea, yet a (|uarter of the if places in the public serviiv to whole numUr ... , ._...., _...., „ which the n-formed niethisls apply are now In eluded within those nietlnsls "— (J. W. Curtis, Ailiire—, .\,ili,:iuil I' S. Ilrffrm Uiiij'ir. \'^*\. See. also. Cmtkii Statks ok Am.; A. I>. IW-V CIVILIS, Revolt of See BAT.kViANs A IV 6S CIVITA-CASTELLANA. Battle of (17911. SeeKHASCK! A l» ITIf«-171«»iAiaiBT— Aphid. CIVITEf A,Siet«of(i5S7). 8eeFB*.\cE: A. n i.v»7-:.'v..» CLAIR-ON-Er : S, TrMtf •£ ber Non- HANS: .\ I) 87«-»ll CLAIRVAUX. TiM MeaaMtiy of.-St Her naid, "the (naicti (ctnrnMr u( tjM abuic* at 491 11 ■ 11 : II fir,- CLAIBVAUX the monastic life, if not the greatest monir in history [A. D. 1091-1158] . . . revived the prac- tice in the monastery of Citesux, which he first entered, and in that of C!airvaux, which lie afterwards founded, of the sternest discipline which had been enjoined by St. Benedict He became the ideal type of the perfect monlc . . . He was not a Pope, but he was greater than any Pope I., his day, and for nearly lialf a century the history of the C'lirLitian Church is the history of the inttuence of one monk, the Abbot o"f Clairvaux."— C. .1. Stllle, ««rfi« in Medimnl llitt., th. IS.— "The convent of Citeaux was found too small fortlienumlKTof persons who de- sired to join the 8<x;iety which could boast of so eminent a saint. Finding his inllucnce bcnefli ial, Uernard proivedcd to found a new monaslerv. The sp)t wliicli lie chose for his purpose was in a wild and elimniy vale, formerly known as the Valli'V of Womiwixxi. . . . The district per- taiuiM to the bishopric of I.,augres; and here Bernard raised Ills far famed abbey of Clair- vaux."— H. SU'bbing, Uut. of Chritt't I'liir. Churth. rh. 28. Also im A. Butler, Lire* of iKe SiinU, t. 8.— W. F. IliK)k, Eeettnattieal Biog.. r. 2.— J. C. Morison, l.ife ami Tinin of tH. Bemanl. — See, also, CisTKHCiAN Order. CLANS, Highland,—" The word Clan signi- fies simply children or descendants, and I be elan name thus implies tliat the members of it an' or were siipposi.'d to be descended from a common ancest^ir or eponymus. and they were <lisliu- guislied from eiich other by their patronymios, till' use of gumames in the proper sense" tH'ing uukiiown among them. [See (Jens, liojiAN.l . . . lu considering tlie geaealogies of the Highland clans we must U'lir in mind that ir the earlv state of till' trilml organisation the jwiigree of till' sept or clttii, anil of eaili nicmln'r of the trilH-, haii a very iiii|M>rtnnt meaning. Their rights were dirivetl through the common ancestor, and their relation to liim, and through him to each otlier. indicated thfir position in the suc- ccsiiiim. a.'< well as their plare In the all ication of the tiibe land, lu such a state of society the pedigri"' occupleii the same {Kisition as the tille- di;d of the feudal system, and the Seunachics •Krrv as niucli the custodiers of the rights of families as the mere pauigyrisls of the clan. Durlug the 19lh century rht- clans wen- bn)uglit ini*> direct cor tact with the Crown, and in tlie lalUT iiart of it serious elTorts were made by the Legislatun- to establish an ertlciert contml ov r them. Th-se gavi ris<' to the Acts of 1,V<7 and \\H . . . ; but ll>ey were followed tn a few yean by an ir.tpurtant Statute, which had a powerful etTei't upou tlie p'>sltion oi the clans, and IhI to another great change in the theory of their descent . . . The chh'fs of the cians thus found themselves comtx-lled to defend their rights uiwn gniunds will, h could compel* with the claims of tlieir erger op|H>n -iits, and to maintain an eijuality of tank and prestige with tlii'm in the ileralds' Uftlee, which must drive them to every derii-e necesaary to ritivl. their I'lirpow, and they would not hesitate D mauu- fiictur*' titles to the land when they <;id not exist, and to put forwanl auurioiu iHitigrm-a Jietter i\aleul(ii«| u. msinlaia their ptailW when u native ilewent \m\ lost its value aud was tisi weak to serve their purpo«v From thU iM'ri.Hi MS. histories of the leading Uighlaiul fsmillrs CLANS. began to be compiled. In which these pr tensiom were advanced and spurious charter- inserted . . . The form which thess pretentious gmekK gies tfok was that of makins the eponvmrs or male ancestor ot the chu a Nor A-egian, bam cr ^'orman, or a cade* of some distimruLshiil familv who succeeded to Uie chiefship aiid to t|ie tetri' tory of the clan by marriage with the daiiL-hter and helrese of the last of the old Celtic llm, ihiu combining the ailvantage of r descent wliiil, could com|>ete wiih that of the great N ,n lan families with a feudal succession io tliiir lands and the new form of the dun geneajoity wuuld have the greater tendency to iLssume this f.inn where the clan name was derlvtd not friMi « |>ersonal name or patronymic but fropi u iw r.,(,nal epithet of its founder. . . TheconiluMcm. iIkh to which [an] analyds of the clan iK.lijmTJ which have been popularly accepted ai iljff.rtot times has brought us. is that, so fur us tl.iv pro- fess to show tlie oriein of the dilTi reel Vlans they are entirely artificinl and uiilnistwdrti,"! but tliat the olJer genealogies may 1k' ncciimii as showing the descent of the cljii fr..iii \\% eponymus or founder, and withiu rciisi.ual-li. limits for some generations iieyoiul liiin. whilr the later spurious [x'digrees must !»■ njur-il altogether. It may term surprisni; tlut sudi spurious pedigrees and fabulous uriciiis (.ln'ull lie so readily credited bv the Clan l;iniili,« as genuine traditions, am) teciive sudi |.,-.>nipt acvptance as the true fount from ulii.h ili,v sprung; but we must reolhM't that tl.> '.liulou's history of Hector Boece was a;i r.i|.iii;v ami universidly adopted ns the genuine aniiaUnf the nalionul history, and beci-.nii' iiMite<t in iIkiw parts of the country to which its i!,lii .usrvinM related as local tra.litlon'.. \Vl..ii ]i l.irllieir invested the oliacure usurperOriv; \, itii ilie name and attributes of a ttc^lmu., kin^. (in corv ttif Great, and conn«-ted h..ii wi.h the Mviil line ot kirifs, the Clan Oregorat oi le n'lognlv.l liimss their eponymous an-M -'or and tlieinle.'uint from him is now implicitly iM'lievid in l>v nil the JiacOregors. It is ptnAible, howevir, frmithp* ^"healogies, and from other iiidicalinn^. ta liis. tribute th" -tans in certain grouiw ns Imijnj oppHnrnt';. . closer connection with im\\ oiIht, and thes«! grr)ups we hoid in tile nmiu Ii n (ir""- si'nt tl"' gresl i.ils'S in'o which tlie (;:iclir |i..nu hition was divided liefote .hey iMiaine lirlin up into clans. The iwo great inUs ublcli possrsci'd the greater part of the lliirliliin.is were the Qallgaldlieal .ir Uiul in the west, wlio litd Ih'cu under the |niwer of the Norm i:iiin». ami the great trilie of the .Moravians, or .Min ot >!oray, in the Ceiitiil anci Ki.stern llijiliUnds To the former belong all the i luns ili sciiidiil ot the I.,onis of (he Isli-s, the Chuii'Ik lis nml Msi- lends pnibably representing theolil.i iiilaliitiiiu of their respcH'tive districts, to the Init'r Inl.'iij in the main the clans iimughi in t'e <,|<l I.'iih genealogies from the kings of Dnlr^.il i ot ibe tribe of lA>m, amouK whom tlii' oil .Mormarn of .Moray appear. The groii|) ..ni.iinini: thf Clan Anilres or old Bosses, the M»<k(nziis aud .Mathesons, liehing to the tribe of lios>. ihr ( lau I>iinnachy to Atliole. the 'Ian l.nwr<n I" Sttsi heme, and the Clan Pharluie to Leno'V xliiV tlif ffnuin rtKjtalning thr Mai-Vtitui t' -.:■. ^irt-i-:;:. and MacKinnons, >ppear to have eniifi'id (mm Utendis'liarl. at liaat tola' coniiectivl wilh Ih> old Culiiiiibau luouaateries. The C'»ii<, iiroiicrl/ 4'.»2 CLASS, OUVX m INDIA. K called, wen thai of natlTe origin; the tur- nunes pvtir of native and partly of foreisn deicent."— W. F. Sliene, Celtic Seotland, bk. 8. CLARENDON, The Constitutions and the Aatise o( See Eholand: A. D. 1168-1170; lbs, lee ConeTrrcTioNB or Clasekdok. CLARIAN ORACLE, The. Scu Uiuclu or TBI Oruki. CLARK, Gcorrt Rorcrs. See Uhitid SttTBS or AM. : A. D. 1778-177P. CLARK UNIVERSITY. See Educatiow, Mudehn : Ambrica : A. D. 1887-1889. CLAUDIUS, Ronuui Emperor, A. D. 41-41 CLAVERHOUSE AND THE COVE- NANTERS. SeeScoTLASo: A. D. 1679; 1681- \Ui. and 1680 (Jult). CLAY, Hemy, and the war c' iSia. See I'KmtD State* or Am. : A. D. 1810-1818. .... Ntgetiatioa of the Treaty of Ghent. See tirrreD Statu or Ax. : A. D. 1814 (Dicexbbk). ....And the Tariff qncttion. See TARirp Liaiiii..\TioN(Vi«rrBDSTATC«): A. D. 1816-1824. tnd 1833: and UNrnto Statu or Aic : A. D. 1828-tS33 And the MiaMoii CompromiM. gee U.nited Statm or Am. : A. D. 1818-1821. ....In the Cabinet of President John Qnincy Adimt. See Unitbd Statu or Asc. : A. D. 182V1X28.... Defeat In the Presidential eiec> ties. See UicrrKo Statu or Am. : A. D. 1844. . . , .The Compromise Measures of iSjo. See I'HiTED Statu or Am. : A. D. laV). CLAYBANKS and CHARCOALS.— During the American civil war the Comenrattve ind tiiiiUcsl factions in Missouri were sometimes callrd CUybsnki and Cliarooala — J. O. NicoU«y ukI J. tinr. Ahmhnm Lincoln, r. 8. p. 204. CLAYtON-BULWER TREATY, Tha. SeeN'ir.\RAn(TA: A. D. 18S0. CLEAR GRITS. BeeCAMAOA: A. D. 1840- 1867. CLEISTI'ENES, CoosUtntloa o£ See AtHtNs: B. C. 510-507. CLEMENT II., Pope, A. D. 1046-1047 Clement III., Pope, A. U. 1187-1191 Clem- ent IV., Pope, A. D. 1269-1268 Clement V., Pope, A. I). 1!)U5-1814. . . . .Clement VI., Pop*, A D. 1343-1859 Clement VII., Pope, A. D. 13;»-13U4 (Antlpope at Avignon) Clement VII,, Pope, A. D. 1523-1584. . . . Clement VIM., Pooe, A. I). 1591-1805 Clement IX., Pope, A.1). 1M7-H89 Clement X., Pope, A. T). I«7«-18T« Clement XI., Pope, A. D. 170O- IWt Clement XII., Pope, A. D. 1780- ITW ... .Clement XIII., Pope, A. D. 1758- "«• Clement XIV..Poee^ A. D. 1769-1774. CLEOMENIC (KLBdllBNIC) WAR, The. S.M- (iRUOt: B. C. 980-146. CLEOPATRA AND CiSSAR. Bn Alh- AXDHiv: B. C. 48-47 And Mark Anton*. SeclioMK B C. 81. CLEOPATRA'S NBBDLES.-"Thc two otwUdk* known as CIropatra's Needles we« orijtimilly nt up by Thothmrs III. at Hcllopolls. Augustus transfcrreil ;hem to Alexandi >. where they rrmninwl until recentlv. At pn«nt (.July, 18*)) ctic (irnAmenU the thsmei Enilmnkment IU>iii|..til while the other is on iu way to tlio Iniiitl HUh'i of America, "—f.. Rnwllnitm. Hitt. of A'vunt Kgypt, M. 20, »»<<■. —The obelisk lost >9»nU.<n!-J E.1W s«»r,.is ',;, C*=nfrsl Psrk, Sew lork. having been brought over ami erected by l'imm»D(lprUorringe, at the expense of the 1st* WlUism U. V*Bd*Ailt.-U. H. Oorringe. Bffp. tian OitlUa.—8M, liio, Earn : About B. C 1700-1400. CLERGY, Benefit oL See BiKirrr ov ClJEBOT. CLERGY RESERVES. See Cahada ; A. D. 1887. CLERMONT, See Obrootia or tbx Ab- YEBNI. CLERMONT, The Council of.- Speech of Pope Urban. See Cbcsadk» : A. D. 1094. CLERUCHI. See Klebl'crb. CLEVELAND, Crover : First presidential *l*ction and administration. Bee Unitbd Statu or Am.: A. D. 1884 to 1889 Defeat in presidential election. See United Statu or Am.: a. D. 1888 Second presidential administration. See Uhitbo Statu or Am.- A. D. 1899, and 1895. CLEVELAND : The fonndinr and naminv of the city (1796). See Ohio : A. D. 1786-1796! CLEVELAND, College for Women. See Educatiov, MooBBH : RBroBMn : A.D. 1804-1691. CLICHY CLUB.-CLICHYANS, The. SeeFsANCB: A. D. 1797 (Sb3TEmber). CLIENTES, Roman.— "To [the Roman] familv or househoU' anlted under the control ol a living msster, and the clan which originated out of the breaking ,> of sneh houBchohls, there further belonged the dependents or ■list<'ners' (cllentes, from 'clucre '). This term denoted not the guests, that Is, the members of similar circles who »!■!« temporarily sojourning in another household than their own, and still less the slaves who were looked upon In law as the prop, erty of the liouaehold and not as members of it, but tlioae indivliluals who, while they were not free burgesses of any commonwealth, yet lived within one In a coDtlltlon of protected freedom. The class included refugees who had found a re- ception with a foreign protector, and those slaves in respect to whom their master ha<I for the timo being waived the exercise of his rights, and so conferred on them practical fre«<lom. This rela- tion had not properly the character of a relation ' de Jure,' like the relation of a man to his guest or to his sisve: the client remainc<l non-free, although good faith and use and wont alleviated In his case tlie condition of non-freedom. Henco the ' listeners ' of the household (cllentes) together with the sUves strictly su-called formed the 'body of servants ■('fanillia')." — T. .Moiniiutoii, JJitt. of lime, M, 1, M. S. Axso IN: Fustel De Coulangos, 7^ Ancient Vitf,bk.4, eh. I<inrf6, CLIFF-DWELLERS. Seo Amebica: Pbbbistoric. CLINTON, Dewitt, and the Eri* Canal. See Nbw York: A. D. 1817-1825. CLINTON, Ceorce, The first Goremor ot N*w York. See New York: A. I). 1777. CLINTON General Sir Henry, and th* war of th* Am*rican Revolution. Hec United States or Am, : A. H. ITT.T(Ariiii.— May); 1776 (JPNE). (AfofOT); 17T!<(.?INE); 1778-1779; 1790 (FKBRUAnV— .VHUKT); ITNl l.lANfABT). CLINTONIANSANDBUCKTAILS. See New Vork: A. D. 1H17-1819. CLISSAU OR CLISSOW, BattI* ofdToa). See Scandinavian Statu (Sweden): A. D. 1701-170- CLIVE'S CONQUESTS AND RULE IN INDIA. See UiDU: A. O. 174»-178a, to 17S7- 1779. 493 CLOACA MAXDIA. CLCHa m I ' ■(%»' I CLOACA MAXIMA OF ROME, The— " Even >t the preaent day tlicre standi uochaneed the great iewer, the ' cloaca maxima,' the obfcct of whloh, it may be observwl, waa not merrly lo carry away the rcfua of the dty, but chiefly to drain the large lake whirli wag formed by the Tiber between the Capitoline. Aventlne and Pala- tine, then extended bclwevn the Palatine and Capitoline, and reached as a swamp ns far as the district between the Quirinal and Vlminal. This work, consisting of three semicircles of immense square blocks, which, though without mortar, have not to this day moved a knife's breadth from one another . . . equnlling the pyramids in extent and massiveness. far surpasses them In the difllculty of its execution. It is so gigantic, that the more one examines it the more incon- ceivable it becomes how even a large and power- ful state could have executed it . . . Whether the cloaca maxima was actually executed by Tarquinus Priscus or by his son Superbus is a question about which the anclenU themselves arc not agreed, and respecting which true historical criticism cannot preeume to decide. But thus much may be said, that the structure must bare been completed before the city encompassed the •pace of the seven hills and formed a compact whole. . . . But such a work cannot possibly have been executed by the powers of a state sucli as Rome is said to have been in thoae times." — B. O. Niebuhr, LeeU. on tlu Uitt. 0/ Borne, leeti. Sand a CLODOHIR, Kinc of the Frank*, at Or- Itant, A. u. sn-a-M. CLONARD, Menutcrf of.— A great monas- tery founded In Meath, Ireland, by St. FInnian, in the sixth century, "which l» said to haveatn- Wined no fewer than 8,000 monks and wliich be- came a great trainlug-scbool ia the monastic life." The twelve principal disciples of FInnian were called the ' 'welve Apostles of Ireland," St. Columha b i the chief.— \V. F. Skene, ftftie Scotland, bk. x. eh. 2. CLONTARF, Battle Of. SeelRBLAHD: A.D. 1014. CLONTARF MEETING, The. Bee Ihb- LAND; A. D. IS41-IH48, CLOSTER-SEVEN, Convention oC See OiRUANT: A. I). 1757 (JcLV— DECBMlutK). and I7W. CLOTHAIRE I., KioKofthe FrMks,A. D. Slt-Ml Clothaire II., King oi theFruke (Neuitria), A. D. 5»4-62« ; ( Austnui*), 91 8-823; Burnndy, 010-838 Clothaire III., Kinc of the Fraaka (Nenatri« and BnrnnilT), A. D. MO-670 Clothidre IV.,Kingof the Franks (Aastrasia), A. D. 7I7-7ll>. CLOVIS, Kinc of the Franks, A. D. 481- SIl Cloris II., King of the Franks (Neus- tria), A. D. 688-854: (Ai-strasia),8Aa-8M: (Bur- nady), 888-684. . . . .Cloris III., King of the Franks (Neostria and Bnrgundv), A. D. 681- 6I». CLUBS, Ancient Creek. See LEacm, Hkt- JIRIES, Erami and Tbiabi. The Beefsteak.—" In ITa*. there was formed In the capital [London] the cihhrated Beef 8u-ak Club, or ' Sublime Society of Uecf Steaks,' as lu membere always desired to be deainated. The riglnof this club is singular, and waa in this 'm. rttch, a celebrated harlequin, and patentee ToTsnt Oarden Theatre in the time of George vhU* engaged during the daytime In dlRct- ing and oontrolling the amngements of the «t«» scenenr was often visited by his friends, of whwn he had a very numerous circle. One dav white the Earl of Peterborough was present. Rich (,1. Uic pangs of hunger so keenly that he cooked • beef steak and faivited the earl u> partake of It which ho did. relishing it so greatly that he came again, bringing some friends with him on purDoie to taste the same fare. In process of time tu beef-steak dinner became an institution Some of the chief wits and greatest men of tliu nation to the numlierof 24, formwl theniseh,,, Into i society, and took as their motto ' iStcuks and Liberty. ' Among iu early celebrities vm Bubh Doddington, Aaron Hill, Dr. Hiwllev. KIchard Glover, the two Coimans, Osrrick'and John Beard. The number of the ' steaks ' remained at iu original limit until 1785, when it waa aug- mented by one. In order to secure the admiaaiM of the Heir-Apparent."- W. C. Sydney £,». kind and the EngUek in the VSth dntu'ry, eh i The Brothers'.- In 1711, a political cliih which took this name waa founde<l in Lomlon b? Henry St. John, afterwanls Lord UolimtlTOke' to counteract the " extravagance of the Kit Cat " and "tbcdrunkennesaof the Beef 8l<'Hk." -Thii society . . . continued for some tiim- to restrain tlie outburst of those elemcnte of disunion with which the Harley ministry was so rife. To lie a member o' thisclubwasesteemedadistinKuiAcd honour. They addressed each other as ■ brother ' and we find their ladies in tlieir corri'sixindcnce claiming to be enrolled as sisters. "Tlir mem- bers of this club were the Dukes of Ormocd Shrewsbury, Beaufort; the Earls of Osfoid' Arran, Jersey, Orrery, Bathiirst; Lonis Harley' Dunlin, •iashain; Sir Rolwrt Havniond Sir Willi".;.. Windham, Col. Hill, Col."l)..«icv St John, Granville, Arbuthnot, Prior, S»ift' and Friend."— O. W. Cooke, Memoinof lUiniAnlu e. 1, eh. 10. TheClichy. See Fraxce: A. D. 1797 (Si?. TBHBER). The French Rerolntionarr. See Tmikx: A. D. 1790. The Hampden. See Enulamd: A. D. 181<- 1690. Dr. Johnson's.— " During his Illoranr career Dr. Johnson assisted in the fDiimliition of no fewer than three clube, each of wbiih »;w full; deserving of the name. In 174» h.- c-»t«bll«hed a club at a house in Ivy Lane, I'ateniosiir How, and only the vear before he dieii lie rlrafied a code of rule* for a club, of which the luimben ahouhl hold their meetings, thrire iu imi h week, at the Essex Head in the Strand ; an ist^ililisb- ment which was then kept by a foniu r sirvimt of his ol<l friends the Thrsli-s. TIiom' luirohcn who falleii to put In an appearanci' ui ilii' rluh were required to forfeit the sum of t»o|«m'e. There is an interesting arniunt of one of the meetings of the Ivy IjineCluli, nt wliieh.l'lnisnn preskled, in Sir John Hawkina'a liii>i(ra|iiii of film. . . . Tlie next club with wliiih Jolinsog Itccame acquainted was tlie iiuwt intliituiialof them all. and was the one whii h ia n >w chied/' remcmbeivd lu connection with kia iiaiiu'. It was, however, a plant of alow and Kndual growth, thf <in% meetins of its m"nil«f». who exulted in the deaignatiou of The (liib.'wai held in 1768 at a hostelry called the Turki Head, situated la Oerstd Street, Soho. 'Tki 494 ■it CLUBS. Clnb'ntalned Out title until sfter the fmnrsl of Oairick, when it wu *lr ys known u ' The literary Club.' Ai iti nu..^Jen were inuill and UmiUKt, the admiision to it waa an honour greatly ooveted in political, legal, and literary circlca. 'Tlie Club' originated with Sir Joshua Reynolds, then President of the Royal Academy, who at lint restricted its numbers to nine, these beine Rpynolds himself, Samuel Johnson, Edmund Burke, Dr. Christopher Nugent (an accomplished Roman Catholic physician), Bennet Langton, Topham Beauclcrk, Sir John Hawkins, Oliver Ooldsmltb, and M. Chamier, Secretary in the War Office. The members assembled every Monday evenhig punctually at seven o'clock, and, having partaken of an Inexpensive supper, conversed on literary, scientific and artistic topics till tbe clock indicated the hour of retir- iai. The numbers of the Literary Club were •uDsequently augmented by the enrolment of Oarrick, Edwani Gibbon, Lord Charlemont, Sir William Jnnes, the eminent Oriental linguist, and James Boswell, of biographical fame. Others were admitted from time to time, until in 1791 It numbiTed 85. In December, 1772, the day of meeting was altered to Friday, and the weekly •uppers were commuted to fortnightly dinners during tbe sitting of parliament. Owing to the conversion of the original tavern into a private house, the club moved, in 1788, first to Prince's, in Sackville Street; next to Le Teller's in Dover Street; then, in 1793, to Parsloe's hi St. James's Street; and lastly, in February, 1799, to the Tlistched House "Tavern in St. James's Street, where it remained until long after 1848."— W. C. Srdney, Englnnd and the BnglM in tht 18(A Centiirg.fJt. 6 (r. '). The King's Held. See ilitoLANO: A. D. 18:8-1879. The Kit Cat.—" The K't Cat CTub waa Inrd- tutfd in 1699 T.; „,,«( lUngtrious meix'jers were Congrev^-, Prior, Sir John Vimbrugl. the Earl of Orrery, and Lord Somers; but the memliers bei'oming more numerous, the most violent party obtainc<l the majority, and the Earl and his friends were less regular in their attendance. . . . The Kit Cat took tu nam from a pastry-cook [Christopher Katt], whoae pies formeil a regular dish at the suppers of tbe (luh.--0. W. Cooke, Memoin of BulitMbroke. t. \.'h.W,f<iot-nott. Alto :.«i: J. "nmbs, Club» imf Club life in Ifidm. pp. 47-M.— W. C. Sydney. Enetandami Vu hif/lith in the ISth tientury. th. 8. The Mohocks. See Mobocks. The October and th* March.— '• The October Uub came limt into imporUnce in the latest yeara of .\nne, although It had existed since the last ilMule of llie Utii century. The sU)ut Tory H»\tn met together In the ' Bell ' Tavern In raw.v. dirty King Street, Westminster, to dnnk October ale, under Dahls portrait of vjuw n Anne, and to trouble with their fletv . uncompromising Jacobltism the fluctuating pur- pojhi of llarley and the craftv counsels of St Juttn. The (tenius of Swift tempered their hot tal with 111.. (-,«,! nir of his 'advice.' Then the wi|.|.r spirit, „K.-e<l.Kl, and formed the March 111' wliu h ntained all the anirrv Jacobltism of to pnnt h..iv, but tout all its imporUnce. "— J. KcUrthy. Hut. at (U Fhur Gtm^, ». 1. A. 8 »V'mA xn the Mth tmtury, eh. 8, COALITIONS. Bee EnoLAXS: A. D. 18«S CLUBIIBN. (July- AcoDST). CLUGNY.OR CLUNY.Th* Monuteiyot —The famous monastery of Clugny, or Cluny waa founded A. D. 910, at Quny, near Macon, bi Burgundy, by the abbot Count Bemo, who had Prevjpusly established and ruled the monastery of Glgnl, near Lyons. It was founded under the auspices and at the expense of William, Count of Auvergne, commonly called William the Pious. "In the disastrous times which fol owed the death of Charles the Groat and the failure of his scheme to reorganize the Western world under a single head, the discipline of the religious houses fell with everything else ■ fell not perhaps quite so soon, yet by the end of the ninth century had fallen almost as low as it was ponible to fall. But here symptoms of a moral reaction showed themselves earlier than else- where. The revival dates from 910, the year of the foundation of the Monastery of Clugny in Burgundy, which was destined to exercise an enormous influence on the future of the Church. While matters at Rome were at their worst, there were silently training there the men who should Inaugurate a new sute of things [notably Hilde- brand, afterwards Pope Gregory VII.] Already so one said at the time, the whole house of the Church was filled with the sweet savour of the ointment there poured out. It followed that wherever in any religious house there were any aspirations after a higher life, anv longings for reformation, that house affiliated itself to Clugny; thus beginning to constitute a Conpregiition, that Is a cluster of religious houses, Bcattenni it might be over all Christendom, but owning one rule, acknowledging the superiority of one mother house, and receiving its abhotf and' priore fmm thence. In the Clugnian Congrega- tion, for example, there were about twothouaand iiousei In the middle of tlie twelfth century — these mostly In France; the Abbot, or Arch- Abbot, as he was called, of Clugnv, being a kind of Pope of Monasticism. and for a" long time, the Pope excepted, quite the most influential Church- ruler in Christendom."— 1{. C. Trench, Ltet't m Medimal Ch. Jliet. , eh. 8. Also nt: 8. R Maltlnnd. The Dark Age*, eh. 18-88.— A. F. Vlllemaln. Lifeof OregoryVlI., 6*. 1— S. R Gardiner and J. B. Mulllnger. Int. to the StUitg of ISng. Hitt . eh. 3, net. M — E. P. Henderson, Select Uiet. Doet. of the MitUk Aaee bk. 8, no. 4. CLUNIAC MONKS. See Cliuny. CLUSIUM, Battle of (B. C. 83). 8m Romt: B. C. 88-78. CLYPEUS, The.— The round mm shield of the Romana— E. Ouhl and W Kouer. Life of the OntJct and Romane. net. 107, CNOSSUS. SeeCHETE. CNUT. SeeC/fiTE. CNYDUS, Battle of (B. C. 394). See OREKrK: B. C. 399-387. COA-.JILTECAN FAMILY, The. Sec A.HKRIC.\N AbORKII.-HES. ('OAlllILThCAN KaMILT COAjIRO, Tht. See Amerhas Ahori- OINES: CoAJIRO. COALITION MINISTRY OF FOX AND LORD NORTH. See Enoi.asd: A D 178*- 1783; and 1783-1787. ^ COALITIONS AGAINST NAPOLEON. 8m FEaiicii; A. D. 1803 (Jahcakt— Apkil).- 496 ■"♦t -r .; f coAunoNa OmcAirr: A. D. 1819-1818, and 1818 (Mat— AcorRT), and Frakcx: A. D. 1814-181B. COALITIONS AGAINST REVOLU- TIONARY FRANCE. See Fkahce: A. D. 1798 ( March— Sbfteiuui); 1798-1799 (Anocn — April). COBBLER'S LEAGUE, Tht. See Ocb- MAMY: A. D. 1584-1585. COBDEN, Richard, and the Free Trade fflorement. See Taritt Lboislatioh (Eao- lAND): A. D. 1886-1889; 1848; ."4V1846; and the sftme (France): A. D. 185S-lb60. COBDEN-CHEVALIERCOMHERCIAL TREATY, The. See Taiuft Lsouultio!! (France): A. D. 1858-lt„J. COBURG, Orifrination of the Dnkedom ot SeeSAXONt: A. D. 1180-1558. COCCIUM. — An important Roman town in Britain, the remains of which are luppoeed to \m found at Ribcheater.— T. Wright, OU, Soman an'' Sojnm, eh. 5. COCHIBO.-COCHIQUIMA. The. See AmeKICAN ABnRKilMKa: AKOEalAMR. COCHIN CHINA. Part of Annam. See TOKKIH. COCO TRIBES. See Amuicam Abobi- OiNBs : GucK or Coco Group. COCONOONS, The. See Amxrk-ah Abo- BloiHKR : Hakiporan Fahilt. COCOSATES, The. SeeAqciTAiNE, Thx Ancient Tkibbs. COD, Cape : A. D. i6oa.— Named bj Gee- •old. See America : A. D. 1608-1605. A. O. 1605.— Called Cap Biaae by Cham- filaio. See Canada (New Fbakcb) : A. D. 1603- 805. A. D. 1609.— Named New Holland by Hud- •en. See America : A. D. 1609. CODE NAPOLEON, The. See Fbakcb^ A. I). 1H(I1-1804. CODES. See Law, Cokiiok: A. D. 1848- I88;i, *c. CODS, The. See NBTHERLA]nia(HoLLAin>): A. D. 1»4.V1354; and 1483-1493. CCELE -SYRIA.— " Hollow Syria"- the long, broHd, fertile and beautiful valley which lies Iwtwoen the Uhanus and Antllilianus ranges of mountains, Knd is watentl by thf ()n)ntes and the Loonies or Littany rivers. "Few places in the world arc .-norc remarkable, or have a more stirring histonr, than this wondrrful vale. "— O. Rawlinwin, Mve Great Monarthiei: Ri/itlonia. C CE N O B I U M.- C(ENOBITES. — " The woni ' Ciriic>bi\iin ' Is equivalent to ' monasto- rlum ' in the IiiUt sense of that word. Cassian distinguislies the word thus. ' Monastcrluin, ' he says, • may In- the dwelling of a single monk, C<»ni)l)ium iiiiiHt Iw of sevoraT; the former word,' he adds, 'expressed only the place, the latter the mannerof living. •••—I. 0. Smith. CkrittianMm- attinim, p. 40 Also in : ,1. liingham, Antiq. of Vu Chritt. Ch., bk. 7, M. 3, arrt 3. COFAN, The. See Amebicam ABORioraca: Amdkhianh. COGNOMEN. See Obrr, Rokab. COHORTS .'»rp I.ieotnx RoMAf. COIMBRA; Early history. BeePoBTVOALt Eari.t histort. COINAGE. SeeMoRiiT. 49e OOLOHIANa COLBERT. See Tabttt hKaw.kTvn A. D.1664-1667. Also. Prancb : A. D.ieei-iSffl COLBY UNIVERSITY. SeeED^',^ Modbbh : Axbrica : A. D 1769-1884 COLCHESTER.- When Ciesar entered Britain, the site of modem Colchest. • vas occu- pied by an "oppidum," or fastness 1 he Trino- bantes, which the Romans called Camulodunum. A little kter, Camulodunum acquinhl some re- nown as the royal town of the Trinohantine king, or prince, Cunobelln, — the Cymbeline of Shakespeare. It was after the death of Cunobe- lln, and when his son Caractacus was Ijinjr during the reign of the emperor Claudius, tbit the Romans began their actual conquest of Bri- tain- Claudius was present. In person, whea Camulodunum was taken, and he founded there the first Roman colony in the island, callinit it Claudiana Victricensis. That name was too cum- brous to be preserved; but the colonial character of the town caused it to be called Colonia ceaster the Colonla fortress, — abbreviated, in time to Cohie-ceaster, and, finally, to Colchester. The colony was destroyed by the Icenl, at the time of their rising, under Bioadicea, but was recon- stituted and grew Into an hnportant Roman town.— C. L. CutU, Oakhfler, eh. 1-8. A. D. i6a8.— The Roundhead siege and cap- ture.— On the collapse of the Royalist rising at 1648, which produced what is callwl the Second Civil War of the Puritan revolutionary period, Colchester received the "wreck of the insunw' tion," so far as London and the surMundlllr country had lately been threatened by it. Tmnpj of cavaliers, under Sir Charles Lucas and Loni Capel, having collected hi the town, were «ur rounded and oeleuguered there by Fairfax, and held out against their besiegers from June uniU late in August. " After two months of the moet desperate resistance, Colchester. ct)nquered by famine and sedition, at last surremliml (.K\ig. 27); and the next day a court-martial oondomned to death three of Its bravest ilefcmlirs. Sir Charles Lacus, Sir Oeorgt Lisle, and .sir Btmard Oascoign, *s an example, it was said, to future rebels who might be tempted to imitate them In vain did the other prisoners, Loni Capel at their head, entreat Faiifax to suspend the execu- tion of the sentence, or at least that they should all undergo it, since all were alike jruilty of the offence of these three. Fairfax, cxritij lijtbe long struggle, or rather Intimidated hv Irtion, made no answer, and the eondenineil oHlct'rs were ordered to be shot on the spot. " Ossoolgn, however, was reprieved at the Inst monicDt — F. P. Oulzot. niH. of the Bng. Il.f.l>it,:,i,. M. 8 Also in: C. R Markham, Life uf the Gnat Lord Fairfax, eh. 26-27. COLCHIANS, The.- "The Ci.Irhianj ap^ pear to have been In part indeix'nili iit, in part subject to Persia. Their true liimie « iis evidently that tract of country [on the Euxini) ul>"iit the river Phasis- . . . Here they first Ih( .iim- lin'iwn to Uio commercial Greeks, whose early lUalinjfS in this quarter seem to have given rix' to the poetic legend of the Argonauts, Tin- liniiu of Colchis varied at different titnes. but Ilie uatuni bounds were never greatly depart! d fr'tii The.v were the Euiiiio or. the ea»I, lli>' ; .:..isuJ ca the north, the mountain range wliii h formi the watershed between the Phasls (liioni and the Cyrus (Kur) on the weet, and the high grNnl OOLOHIAKS. OOLOHBIAN STATES. 1886-1781. tiiween Bttonm hmI Kui (Uw MotchUn monn- tiliu)oa the loath. . . . The most intereiting auestioD connected with the Colchlans is tbkt eoDiiected with their natiooality. Thcv were « black race dwelling in the mid«t of whltca, and In a country whidi does not tend to make its Isbabitants dark complexioned. That they were eompantlTely recent immigrants from a hotter clinistewems therefore to be certain. The notion mtertained by Herodotus of their Egyptian extnction appean to have been a conjecture of Ui own. . . . Perhaps the modem theory that the Colchians were tmmigrantg from India is entitled to some share of our attention. ... If the true Colchi were a colony of blacks, they must have become gradually absorbed in the white population proper to the country."— Q. Rawlinson, Hutory of Btroiotut, hk. 7, app. 1.— See, also. Alarodiamb. COLD HARBOR, First and aecon' battles ot gee Uhitbd Btatbs or Ah. : A. D. 1863 (Jinn— Jult: VnuuHiA), and 1864 (Hat — Jtnn: VnoHHA). COLDEN, Cadwalladar, The Uentenaiit- mrcmorship oC Bee Nbw York: A. D. 177S- 1774 to 1775 (APBH^-SiaTniBBR). COLGATE UNIVERSITY. See Educa- noN. MoDBBH : America : A. D. 1769-1H84. COLIGNY, Admiral de. Bee Fbanck : A. D. 15(10-1363 to 1573. Also, Florida : A. D. 1963- If , 156+-1565, and l.VJS. COLLAS, The. Bee Pbru : Tmc Aborioi> Ial Inhabitants. COLLECTIVISM. Bee Social Motb- ia.iTK : DKFiNrrioN op Trrms. COLLEGES. Bee Educatiox. COLLEGIA.— Numerous aasoclations called "collf{;ia" existed in ancient Kome. Some were reliijious; some were (guilds of workmen. The piilitical clubs were more commonly called "aodalitates."— O. Long, Jkelint of th* Botaan BipvUir. r. ^, ek. 11. COLLINE GATE, Battle of the (B. C. 83). See Rome: B. C. 88-78. COLLOT D'HERBOIS, and the French RtTolntionarj Committee of Public Safety. Sec Franor: A. D. 1798 (JmK— Octodkr), to 17W-i:m (,Iin,r— April). COLMAR, Ceesioa to France. See Oeb- HA-XT: A. n. 1648. COLMAR, Battle of (1674). Bee Netbkr- LAN-m (Holland^: A. D. 1674-1678. COLOGNE: Orifiii. Bee Colokia Aomrpi- lrexl'^^ The Electermtc. See Okrmaht: A. D. 1139- 127*. In the Haaacatic League. See Hakia TOWKH COLOMAN. Bee KoLOMAif. COLOMBEY-NOUILLY, OR BORNY, Battle of. Bee Frahce: A. D. 1870 (Jult— Al'llliq',. COLOMBIA, United States oC See Col- ovnivN Mtatks. COLOMBIAN STATES, The.— This gen- eral title will be used, for cimTcnIence, to cover, for ran.tlilprable nerioiis of their hiatorv. the territiiry now divided Iwtwecn tho republics of Wuc/iiciii, E«'iiHiii)r, and the United Stan's of Cnlnrahia (formerly New Omnaiia), the latter emhrwing the Isthmus of Panama. The hUtory of Uicic countries beiny for a looy time substan- 33 497 tlaliy Identical In the main, and onlr distingulsli- able at Intervals, It seema to be difflcult to do otherwise than hold it, somewhat arbitrarily, under one heading, until the seveial currents of events part company distinctly. The aboriginal uihabitaata. See Ahxsicah Aborioixes: Chibcha. A. D. 1536-1731.— The Spanish conqnest o( New Granada.— Creation of the new Tice- roralty.— " For some time after the disastrous fafiure of the attempt of Las Casas to found a colony on the Pnrl coast of Cumani, the north- em portion of Spanish South America, from the Orinoco westwards. Is almost lost to histoir. The powers working for good had signally failed, and the powers of evil seemed to h-we ft almost all their own wav. . . . Lying uehind these extensive coasts to the westward in the in- terior, is the region to which the Spaniards gave the name of the kingdom of New Granada, the name being applied In consequence of a resem- blance which was detected between the plain around Santa Fi de Bogoti and the royal Vega which adjoins the historical Moorish capitd. New Oranida was a most extensive region, com- prising as it did the entire countnr from sea to sea In the north, lying between 60° and 78° longi- tude, and from 6° to 15° of latitude." The Spanish conquest of New Gnmada was achieved in the main by Ximenes de Quesada, who in- vaded the country from the north, although the governor of Quito, Benalcazar, entered it like- wise from the south. "Ximenes de Quesada came to America about the year 1535, in the suite of the Oovemor of Santa Harta, by whom he was selected to lead an expedition again.st the Chibchaa, who dwelt on the plain of Bogot& and around the headwaters of the Magdalena. Set- ting out in April 1536 with 800 men, he suc- ceeded in pushing his way through the forest and across innumerable streams. lie contrived to Bubeist for eight mo"**-*, during which he traversed 450 miles, enduring meanwhile the very utmost exertions and privations tiut human utture could support . . . When he had sur- mounted the natural difBcultics in his path, his remJning force consisted of but 166 men, with 60 hones. On March 2d, 1337, he resumed his advance; and, as usually happened, the mere sight of his horsemen terrified the Indians into submissioD. At Tunja, according to the Spanish historians, he was treacherously attacked whilst resting in the palace of one of the chiefs. ... In any case, the chief was taken, and, after much slaughter, Ximenes found himself the absolute poss e ssor of Immense riches, one golden lantern alone being valued at 6,000 ducats. From Tunja Ximenes marched upon the sacred city of Iracs, where two Spanish soldlera accidentally set Are to the great Temple of the Bun. The result was tlwt, after a conflagration which Usted several daj's, lM)th the city and the temple were utterly destroyed. ... On the Bth of August, 15%, was founded the city of liugotA Ximenes was soon here joined by Frederman, a subject of the Emperor Charles V., with 160 soldiers, with whom he had been engaged in conquering Venezuela; and likewise by Tlenal- cazar. the conqueror of Quito. This latter warrior iiad craned the continent in triumph at the head of 150 Spaniards, together with a multitude of native followers, " In the Intrigues and jealous rivalriea between the three which I m i^^ COLOKBUN STATES, 1<»»-17U. fdk>w«d, Ximenei d« QummU wm puahed aude. at dm, and ctco lined and banished bj the Emperor; but in tlie end lie Uiumphed and wa« appointed marshal of the liingdom of New Oranada. "On his return to Bogoti in ISSl he, to his credit, exhibited an energy in pro- tecting the people of the country against their inTaders, equal to that which he had dispUyed in effecting their conquest. Ten yean Uter he commanded a force organized to repel an attack from the ruler of Venezuela; shortly after which he was appointed Adelantadoof the Kingdom of New Oranada. He devoted three years, and an enormous amount of toll and money, to an absurd expedition In quest of the fabled El Dorado [see tr mI^^I-." Q"«»»da died of leprosy in 1878. Until 1718 the kingdom of New Oranada re- mained subject to the Viceroy of Peru. In that year the VIceroyalty of Peru " was divided Into two portions, the northern region, from the frontiers of Mexico as far as to the Orinoco, and on the Southern Sea from Veragua to Tumbei forming the VIceroyalty of New Oranada, of which the capital was Bogota. To this region, likewise, was assigned the inland province of Quito. The VIceroyalty of New dranada, in fact, comprised what now [1884] forms the Hepubllc of Venezuela, the United States of Columbia, and the Republic of Equador." In 1731 'It was deemed expedient to detach from the \ Iceroyalty of New Oranada ihe provinces of \ cnezuela, Maracaibo, Varinas, Cumani, and Spanish Guyana, and to form them into a sepa- rate Captain Generalship, the residence of the niler being fixed at Caracas In Venezuela "— R. O. Watson, Spanith and Pitrtugutie South Amfnea, t. 3, eh. 9. A. D. 1810-1819.— The ttrunle for inde- pendence and ita achicTement.— Miranda and Simon Bolirar.— The Earthquake in Vene- »nela.--The found ; of the RepnbUc of l.oiombia.— The .omblan .States occupy the first place in the story of South American independence ... The Colombian States were first in the struggle because they were In many ways nearest to Europe. It was through them Uiat intercourse between the Pacific coast and Europe was mainly carried on: Porto Bello and Carthagena were thus the main Inleta of European Ideas. Besides, there was here constant com- munication with the West Indies; and govern- ment, population and wealth were leas centralised than in the more Important viceroyaltles of Mexico and Peru. The Indians of New Oranada ha<l always been a restless race, and the increase of taxation which was resorted to for the defence JL'!"* ™"' '" "•« *»' with Great Britain (1777- 1783) produce<l disoontenta among the whole population, both red and white The French Revolution, coming soon afterwards was another link in the chain of causes. In Venezuela, which the inilustrj- of Ita inhab'ltanta had raised from a poor mission district to a thriving enmmeroUl province, the progress of m<xl..rn id,.«s w„ yrt fwiter. , . The conquest of Tnni<itt(l by England in 1707 gave a new turn to the movemint. ... It was from Trinidad that the first sttempta were made to Mclte the Spanish colonista to revoluUon l^ncls Miranda, by whom <bti was done wa» a typt 01 many other men to whom Is due the credit of le«fhig the South American peoples to talepeudenoe. Ue was a native of Canccaa, COLOMBIAN STATES, 1810-1819. and wh«i a yo-mg roan had held a French com mission in the American War of IndependeDa On hU return to VenezueU in 1788 he found tS populace, as we have already mentioned ir„ excited state and findhig that he was sugpectt^ of designs for Ubersting his own countrf h went to Europe, arU again attached himwif t^ the FJ'ench service. . . . Being proecrilwd bi the Directory, he turned to Enghuid, and when the wm [between England and Sp'tini broke out afresh in 1804. and Knirland Z out an expedition to invade Buen m AjtS. T^"itSS'S*"v •^u'^' Wsopportunity wa. cS In 1808, by Engllab and American aid he uiM from Trinidad and hmded with (500 mtnonth. coMt of VenezueU. But the • Colombian Amv • as Hlisnda named St, met with a cool ncfptloii among the peopk). His utter inability to meet r^^ ^^'^^ force, compelled him to retwt to Trinidad, nor did he reappear on the ronlinent until after the revolution of 1810. The principal inhabitantaofCaraccaahad been medititiD. {h, formation of a provisional government ou the model of the iuntaa of Spain, ever sinw the fS^^^L"" ?' *" '''"« f»*« S'A^: A. D. 1807- 1808] ; but it was not until 1810. when the Unal victoiy of Napoleon in Spain appeared certain that they made a decisive movement in favour of independence. Spain, for the timo at least wu now blotted out of the list of nations. Ac'tin» therefore, in the name of Ferdinand VII the* deposed the Spanish colonial officer*.' und elected a supreme Junta or council. Similar Juntas were soon established in New (Jmnada. at Santa ¥6. Quito, Carthagena, and the othn chief towns of the VIceroyalty . . . and tha fortune of the patriot party In new Granada, from their close neighbourhood, was clowlv linked with that of the Venuzolans. The Regency of Cadiz, grasping for itwlf all the righW and >ower« of the Spanish nation, determtae<i tc luce the colonists to suhitction. They therefore occlared the port of Caraicas in f *i"'* °' blockade, as the British Kovemraent hsrt done in the previous generation with tlial of Boston; and. as In the case of Boston, this rreo- lutlon of the Regency amounted to a d«lanitioa of war. .A congress of all the pr -vinow of Venezuela now met at Caraccas, and published a declaration of hidependcnce on tlw 5ih of July. 18U, and those of Mexico an.l Xe» Oranada soon foUowed. . . . The powers of nature seemed to conspire with the tvrannvof fcuropc to destroy the young South Ann ricaa Republic. On the 86th of March, IftlJ Vene zuela was visited bv a fearful eartliquiikc, which destroyed the capital [Caraccas | ant I wveral other towns, together with 20.(HX) pinpli, and many othere perished of hunger and in other wavi. ThUday was Holy Thursday; and tlie super- stitious people, prompted bv iluir priests, believed this awful visitation to l» a judgment from God for their revolt. The Spiii;ish troops. under Monteveide, now began a fri*h attaclt on the dlsqulet<d VenezoUns. Miranda. wlK.on his return had been pUoed at the hemi of tli.' army, had in the meantime overrun New (iranuda, and laid the foundation of the futun' I uii«i States of Colombia. But the face of alfairs wu ■-hanged by the at-rrs of the carthquaki-. 8niitKa with despair, his aoldiera now ilcscrKil to the royallsta; he lost ground every » lien', the for- tress of Puerto Cavello, oonuuanded by thi 498 COLOMBIAN STATES, 1810-18191 COLOMBIAN STATES, 1818-1880. f <i, doUrtf, ttten a ooknel In the lerrtce of the BtLibllc, WM luirenderad through traschny. Ob the SJith of June Mintnda hlmaelf capitu- littd, with all hi* forces; and Venezuela fell oace more into the handi of the royaliitf. Kinnda binuelf wai arreited, in defiance of the ttfini of the surrender, and perished in an Eniopean dungeon, as Toumint had perished a few yeiire before. . . . Honteverde emptied the prisons of their occupants, and filled them with Uie families of the principal citizens of the npublic; and Caraccas became the scene of a RdgD of Terror. After Miranda's capitulation, Bolivar had gone to New Oranada, which still msiotsined its independence, and entered into the H-rvice of that republic. Bolivar now mppesred in a new character, and earned for binuelf a reputation in the history of the new wwld vhich up to a certain point ranks with thst of Washington. Simon Bolivar, like Uirsnda, was a native of Caiaccas. . . . Like Minoda, he had to some extent learned modem Ideai bjr visiting the old world and the United Slates. When the cruelties of Monteverde had made Venezuela ripe for a new revolt, Bolivar reappeared on his native soil at the bead of a unall body of troops from the adjacent repub- lic. The succesaes which he gained ao incensed the royalists that tliey refused quarter to their prisoners, and war to the death (' guerra a muerte ') was proclaimed. All obstacles disappeared before Bolivar's generalship, and on the 4th of August, 1813, he publicly entered Curaccas, the fortress of I'uerto Cavcllo being now the only one in the possession of the royalists. Bolivar waa bailed with the title of the liberator of Vene- lueU. He was willing to see the republic reitoiwti but the inhabitants very properly feareil to trust at this time to anything but a military government, and vested the supreme power in him as dictator (1614). 'The event udeed proved the necessity of a military govern- ment. The defeated rovalists raised fresh troops, many thousands of whom were negro ■laves, and overran the whole country ; Bolivar was beaten at La Ihierta, and forced to take refuge a second time in New Oranada; and the capital fell again into the hands of the royalists. . . . The War of Indcpi'ndencc had tx'cn under- taken ajptinst the Kegeney ; and had Ferdinand, on \m restoration to the throne in 1814, shown any signs of conciliation, he might yet have recovrred his American provinces. But the goveninient persisted in its course of absolute repression. . . . New Oranada, where Bolivar was general in chief of the forces, was the only part where the insurrection surviviti; and in 1815 a d^t containing 10,000 men under Oeneral Morillc) arrived oB Carthagcna, its priucipal port. . . . Csrthagena was only provisiuned ror a short time: and Bolivar, overpowerwi by num- bers, quitted tlie soil of the continent and went to the Wej't Indies to seek help to relieve Caithageuu, and maintain the contest for liberty." O* uioing assistance in Ilayti, he fitted out an ixiKNlition " which sailetl Ui April from the port of .\iix Cayes. B<ilivar landed near Cuniana, in the easlem extremity of Venezuela, »nd from this point hn gradually advanced wesiwants, jjaining strength by slow degrees. In tile meantime, after a siege of 116 days, LartiiHgina surrendered ; 9,000 of iU inhabitanU M perished of hunger. Both provinces were DOW in Morillo's hands. Fancying himself com- pletely master of the country, he proceeded to wreak a terrible vengeance on the Oranadines. But at the news of Bolivar's reappearance, though yet at a distance, the face of affaii* changed. . . . His successes In the year 1817 were sure, though slow: in 1818, after he had been Joined by- European volunteers, they were brilliant Bolirar beat the royalists in one pitched battle after another [Sagamoso, July 1, 1819, and Pantano de Bargaa, July 25]: and at length a decisive victory was won by his lieuten- ant, Santander, at Boyaca, in New Oranada, August 1, 1819. This battle, in which some hundreds of British and French auxiliaries fought on the side of liberty, completely freed the two countries from the yoke of Spain." — E. J. Payne, Hut. of European Coloniet, eh. 16. Also i» : C. S. Cochrane, Journal ofaRendenee' i/» Coitmbia, t. 1, eh. 6-8.— H. Browoell, JV. and S. America Ittuttruted, pp. 316-331— C. Gushing, SimanBoliTarifr. Am. Rev.. Jan., 1679, and Jan., 1830).— H. L V. D. Holstein, Mtmnr$ ofBoUmr, cK 8-aO.— Major Flintner, Uitt. of tht Sew- lution of Caraeea$. A. D. 1810-1830.— The rlonr and the fjsll of Boliwar.- Dlssolutionof toe Colombian Fed- eration.— Tyranny under the Liberator, and moDarcbical schemes. — Three days after the battle of Boyaca, Bolivar entered Bogota in triumph. "A congress met in December and decided that Venezuela and Nueva Oranada should form one republic, to be called Colombia. Morillo departed for Europe in 1820, and the vic- tory gahied by Bolivar at Carabobo on June 24, 1821, decidM the fate of Colombia. In the fol- lowing January Oeneral Bolivar assembled an army at Popayan to drive the Spanhinia out of the province of Quito. His second in command, Oeneral Sucre, led an advanced guard, which was ri'inforccd by a contingent of volunteers from Peru, under Santa Cruz. The Spanish Oeneral Itamirez was entirely defeated in the battle of Pichincha, and Quito was incorporated with the new republic of Colombia. "—C. R. Markham, Colonial HiH. of 8. America {Xarmtite and Crit- ical Uiet. of Am., t. 8, ch. 5). — " The provinces of New Oranada and VcDczuela, together with the Presidency of Quito, now sent delegates to the convention of Cucuta. in 1821, and there de- creed the iiiion of the three countries as a single state by the name of the Itepublic of Colombia. The first Colombian federal constitution was con- cocted bv the united wisdom of the delegates ; and the result might easily have been foreseen. It was a farrago of crude ami heterogeneous ideas. Some of its features were imitated from the American political system, some from the Eng- lish, some from the French. . . . Bolivar of course became President: and the Republic had need of him. The task of liberation was not yet completed. Carthagena, and many other strong places, remained in Spanish hands. Bolivar re- duced these one by one, and the seoind decisive victory of Carabobo, in 1S22. finally secured Col- ombian freedom. The Engiish claim the chief share in the battle of Carabobo: for the British legion alone carried the main Spanish position, !' ■sing in the feat two-thirda of its numbers. The war now fast drew to its close. The republic was able to contest with the Invaders the do- minion of the sea: Oeneral I'adilla, on the 33rd of July, Itas, totally destroyed the Spanish fleet ■■ 499 A •ni COLOMBIAN STATES, 181S-188a Md the SpuUh commander flnklly capitulated at Puerto Cavpllo la December. All tlieie hatd- won aucceaaes were mainly owing to the bravery and reaolutioa of Bolivar. Bolivar deserves to the full the repuUtion of an able and patriotic soldier. He was now set free . . . to render im- portant services to thereat of South America: and among the heroes of independence nerhapa his name will always stand first But Bolivar the statesman was a man very different from Bolivar the general. He was alternately timid and arbi- trary, lie was indeed afraid to touch the prob- lems of stjiu-sraanship which awaited him: but instead of leading the Colombian people through independence to lil)erty, he stubbornly aet his face ugain.Ht all measures of political or social re- form. His fall may be said to have begun with the moment when his military triumphs were complete. The disaffection to the constitution of the Iciuling people in Venezuela and Ecuador (the new name given to the old province of Quito, indicating its position at the equator] m 1826 and 1827, wa.'i favoured by the Provincial governors, Paez and Mogqiicra ; and Jk)livar, instead of re- 8isii:ig the disintegration of the stote, openly favoured the military dictatorships which Paez and Mosquera establiJilied. This policy fore- shadowed the reign of absolutism in New Oranada Itself. Bolivar . . . lu«i now become not onlv the constitutional head if the Colombian federa- tion, but also the military head of the Penuiiin republics [see I'kud: A. D. 1820-1836 i.S2.>- 1826, and 1826- 1 ~:e] : and ere can be no doubt that he intended the Colim jian consti- ilion to be reduced to the Peruviai. model. A« * first step to.vards reuniting all tiie South A = : rioan nations under a military government. Pa. be- yond reu.s,. liable douht, with Bolivar's connivance, proeluinuci the indeix ndence of Venezuela, April 30th, 182<1. This praetioally broke up the Col- rmtiian federation: and the destruction of the euiistiluti'in. so far as it regarded New Granada itself, Mxiii followed. Bolivar had ».lready re- sorted to tlie usual devices of military tyranny The terrorism of Sbirri. arbitrary arrests, the as- sumption of adilitlimal executive powers, aui finally, the suppression of the vice-presldeiiev ail poinUMl one way. ... At length, after the practical secession of Venezuehi and I iiador under their military nilers. Congress dr •ed a summons for a Convi tion, which met at t Valla in March. 1^38. . . . Ihc lllierals, who were bent on electoral reform and decentralization, were Daralyzfd liy the violent iM-aring of the Bolivian leadint: and Bolivar quartered hinwelf in the ncighbourli.KMl, and thn.'.!ened thi- Convention at the hui >f an army of 8,«I0 veterans He did 111 howevtr resort to open font Instead of lliis. he ordered hia part- to rw*<li from the Convention: and this left ti. Conver tion without the means of making a juorun, J"r ru tlii.s mouiint fhi- designs of Boliv .r we- uninistakat)lf Tln' .linsolution of tne ' nvc tion. and tliv !itp..ititm. it of Bolivar as ! tat- liyajiint:, : nouible followed as a n t^r ( roxirm ai, , t,y the • (»rj:iniic decree ' of ug- ^i 2838, iiolivar iwsunuHl ilie ab«olut<- sovet-^iirmy of Colombia A reign of brut' oe now fof. lowed: iMit the Iriuinph of !v r was 'ily -;mc:i!r— ;. . . Thf r. derail.. «i, - n.ii, U-caine i question of necurinK mil-, % je in the separate pnivinees. A p- -t<.n! ua '.fiance now occurred hi Ecuador, The mocratk party COLOMBIAN STATES, 1838. under Floret triumphed orer the Bollvlan» nndn Mowjuera: and Paez assured his chief ilmt Z help was to be expected from Venezu. Ii «. the CopTenUon of Bogota, lo 1830, thou^li it »u packed with Bolivar's nominees, it became drar that the liberator'! star had set at last. Tbii conTentlon refused to vote him Presiilent Boli ▼ar now withdrew from public life: and a few months Uter, December 17, 1830, he dl.,! hrokin hearted at San Pe<lro, near Santa Martha Boll var, Uiough a patriot as regarded the ulniifjl, with Spain, was In the end a traitor to his fellow citizens. Recent discoveries leave little doubt that be intended to found a monarchy on th« ndna of the 8pa:.ish dominion. England end France, both at this time strongly conservative powers, were In favour of sueh a scheme ; and t I'rince of the House of Bourbon had alreailv been nominated to be Bolivar's succesaor. "— E J Payne, Uul. of European Colonia. eh. 1(1._ " About one month before his death. General Boll kT, the so-called ' Liberator ' of South Amer ica, wrote a letter to the late General Klorcs of Ecuador, In which the following r. markabb passages occur, which have never !>• f.ire been published ir the Englii.h language I hare been in power for nearly 20 years, frotn \> lii-h I have gathered only a few den;iit« r : I -Vmcrica, for us. is ungovernable. 2. I|f nhj dtKiicates < !u"-vices to a revolution, pluws the sea. 8. T .■ only thing tliat can lie d.iue In America, .^ u> emigrate. 4. This (..iintrv will Inevitably ! into the hands ■' tli. unlmilM rabble, ami iUtlr hy little Ik'coh. a pnv t.i n.lty tyranM of all colors and races ■ -¥. llass, urck Four Yairiatiuituj SiMnuhAiii.>^,-am, eh 12 ' Also IN: J. M. Swnce, 77.. ijiiut^'f luimr 1, eh. 7.— E. B. kastwi. . (BdltUofCir'-ib,,). A D. 1821-1854.— Emai — Tiie aholiticm of slavery i, of New Omnada. Veui'^iielu ' . iiei'i,'l,i. eh. U nation of slaves. ..■ three ri'iuililici ml Eriiii.|i)r wsi iuitiaUsI In the Hepubli, of Coloniliia, while it embraced them all. "lUal, . July, 1821. it w.w provid'.ii tli slaves, 1 ru after its pMblieatio. cities ,)f •■ repulilic, should be tain r- s were appropriate! (.fan en.. nation fund in en .f tlle 21st of '"• I'liiliiren of tlie principal n-e. . . . Cer- the creation ii>lrirt .\side fr. . a certain bungling loos<iii>s with Hpanlsh-Aineriiari l:ms are of 1821] contains ~ime very IS, and serviHi t.i liv a solid work of eMiiineipstl..n. since three repuliliis wliirh then lia." In Eeiiailor tin coniple- ion was reached in I.s.vi — K. I><»r» among SjuiiiM .imeri- hirh almost Irawii. it [th( '.■nsiiilc regu .undallou for >mp! !<i| by . inst .te<l ('. t; ! . emaui ■saaurek f\m .!«, op. :i i-SJtt A. D. .Sa6.— Tb" Conrreat of Panama.— The proposition 1 r iisKemlillii:,' this lN«h (inin- iu«l from Bolivar. »lio, in 182:1, as pri>i'.l,-nt of Colombia, invited the governiiieiits of .Meiico, Peru, Chile, and Buenos Avres, !■) form a con- fi .racy of the S|mnish-.(nieri™n ..-ta:.*.. by means of plenipotenliari.^ to lie convini.l in the spirit of classic analog} . in the isthmus i.f P«n ama. To this Invitation the goveninniits of Peru and Mexico promptly Hcri..|..i). Cliili. and Huenos Ayres neglwIisiOr declined to In n;.re- "••nu><l In the assembly, for the reas<ins whieb wi •hal: presently ttat^. T'li^ imgnltlcent iilisofi secuiui Acbaaan Lmgue s<^.-d on the Imagins- ■m COLOMBIAN STATES, 1891 COLOMBIAN STATES, 18S0-1888. tkMU of many ipeculstWe and of some practical men in America and Europe, as deatinod to create a new era In the political hlatory of tbe world by originating a purer system of public Uw, anil almost realizing Bernardin de Saint Pierre's league of the modem natlims. In Its original shape, it was professedly a plan of a bel- ligerent nature, having for its main object to combine the revolutionized states ai^uiast the common enemy. But time was requiad for csrrying it into effect. Meanwhile the project, ma^nilied by tlie course of events, began to change iu complexion. The United Status w re invite<l to participate in the Congress, so as to form an American policy, and a rallying point for American interests. In opposition to those of Eunipe ; and. after the disciusions which arc so familiar to all, the government of the United .States accepted the invitation, and despatched its nprcsvntatives to Panama. ... In the In- terval, between the proposal of the plan and Its execution. Central America was aaded to the ftniily of American nations, and agreed to talte part in the Congress. At length, after many ddavs, this mcxlem Amphtctyonic Coun- cil, consi.Hling of plenipotentiaries from Colombia, Central America. I'eru and Mexico, assembled in the rity of Panama, June 22, 1824, and in a sessii'n of thn-c weeks concluded various treaties ; ouf f p iMliial union, league, and confedera- tion; ^iliir?! rilating to the contingents which the contcderalfs should contribute for the common defence; and another for the annual meetiriL- i.f the Congress In time of war. Hav- ing til ;^ promptly despatched their private affairs, the a.ssembly adjourned to TaculHiya in Mexico, on account of the insalubrious climate of I'iinama. befof tlie delegation of the United Stall- hill arrived, since when it has Justly ac- quiril 'he epithet of 'introuvable.' and probably Dcvi r Kill reiwsemtile in iu original form. Is th. re a>.f n viret history of all this T Why did Ciiili-aii.. .lenos Avrcs refuse to participate in the ( ongr. »s ? Why lias it now vanished from the face of the irth? The answer given In Sii'ith .Vmeriia i.-. that Bolivar proposed the »» mM\ Ai part of a grand scheme of ambition, — i;~ - Uil to him liy the republican party, and not •ithout some countenance from his own cos .'t.— f.Ti-stablishing a miliury empire to i-iii ;:3.T till *li<)le of Spanish-America, or at !.:istaH imi . uniting Colombia and the two Pcrus. To give the ciilor of plausibility to the projectitl aiMembly. tlie United States were In- vited to 1k' rcprcv nicd; and 1' is said Bolivar did mt <K|).'ct, nor very gracio' iv receive, their «ccc|itHnii' of tilt- iovitatlon "— I' Cushlng, Bolt- fir <!<,./ IU Ihlf OmthhiHon {X A. Ret., J.in., l-'Hoj.—In th. . nited Slates "no question, in lis diy, excited more heat and inU'mperate dlscusM .11, or more feeling U-tween a President «a.i S, Mile, than tliis proposed mission to tlie Congr.« of American nations at Panama: and no h-at.-l cjui'stiim ever cooled off and .lied out sosudij.i'.ly mid completely. . . . Th. gh long Jince sunk iiiio oblivion, and Its name alnuist lorgott.ir !■ was a master subjwt on the politic ^ theatre .; . Mg u^ ,)„> ,nd gave rise t.i qu. tlOn« of n.n...,Hi r"t;.-.j--i' !.;•.; - nslLmal |).,li. lie ocr-asi.ii, Blutii.ti ..f fmk I., f occur. Besides the grave questions to which tb* subject gave rise, the subject itself bicame one of unusual and painful excitement. It agitated the people, made a violent debate In the two Houses of Congress, Infiiimetl tlie passions of parties and individuals, niised a tempest before which Congress bent, iniide bail feeling bc>tweea the President [John Quincy Adams] and the Senate; and led to the duel between Mr. Ran- dolph and Mr. Clay. It was an ndmii. tration measure, and preaswi by all the means known to an administration. It was evidently relied upon asameansof acting upon the people— as a popu- lar movement which niiglit have the effect of t..ming the tide which was then running high against Mr. Adams and M Clay. . . . Now, the chief beneet to be derived from Its retrospect — and that indeed is a real one — Is a view of the tlrmness with which was then maintahicd, by a minority, the old policy of the l'nit«d States, to avoid entangling alliances and interfervnce with the affairs of other nations;- and the exposition of the Monroe doctrine, from one so competent to give it as Mr. Adams."— T. H. Bentou, Thirtp Teari Vieie, ch. 85 (r. 1). Also in: O. F. Tucker, Tk» Uanroe Doctrine, th. 3.— C. Schurz, Life of Ihnry Clay. eh. 11 (o. 1). — International Am. Ciinfereiu-e(of'\tS69): Heptt. and DtKuuioiu. r. 4, Hint, apifnilix. A. D. 1830-1886. — Revolutioot mod ciTil wars.— The New Confederation (1863) of the United States of Colombia.— The Republic of Colombia. — "New Oranada was obliged in 1830 to recognize the disruption of Colonilila, which had long tieen an accomplished fact. From this date the three states have a separate history, which Is very mucli of a piece, though Venezuela was for some years pn'served from tlie intestine commotions which have from the beginning distracted New Granada and Ecuador.. . . . Mosquera, who had won ilie election which ilecidcd the fate of Bolivar diii not long occupy the presi.l.ncy. . . . Mosquera was soon driven out by tieneral Urdamie. who was now at the head of the conservative or Bolivian party. But after the death of their leader, this party suffered a natural relapse, and I nlanete wa-s overthrown early in 1831. Tlic history of New Grana.lamay be said really to commerue with the presidency of Bolivars old rival and omipanlon in anns, Santaiiler, who was eli-cted under the constitu- tion ot 1S33. . . . llis presiiieiicv . . . was a comparatively liright episiKle: ilnd with its termination in 1836 In gins tlie dark and troubled periisi which the Or.iiiadineseniplialieaUydeslg- nate by the name of the 'Twelv.! Years.' The sc«ntv measure of llln'raliam which Santander had dealt out to the people was now withdrawn. Marquez. his siueessor. was a sceptic In politics and a man of intlrni will. . . . Now began the aseeniiaucy of clericalism, of alisolutist oligarchy, and of government by the gallows. This same sy.sten; e .otimi.fi un.ler Presi.lent Herran, who waaelei 1 in 1^*41; and then appeariKi on the scene, a.i his chief minister, the famous Dr. Oapina. ' who brought back the Jesuits and cur- tailed the constitution. LilK'ralism again gained gnxinil. electing General I»pez to the presidency ' ■ " -r.rni ;;na- mnrr rspriling ;ri.". T, nolto. In i^M a radical revolution overturned the ■ m iitd Pn-sidi nt Ubando \v:is declared .•onwrvHtives rallii' i, however, cssi. '; of the government befort t^ II H k I [J COLOMBIAN tTATES, ISaO-lSM. tbo clow of the year. In 1857 Ospiiui entered on tbe presidency and civil war ioon raged througli- out the country. "After a hundred flghta tbe revnlution triumphed in July, IMl. . . . Moa- quent, who wa« now in pimaeaaion of tbe Held, waaa true pupil of Bolivar's, and he thought the time hod come for reviving Bolivar'a plana. . . . In 1N03 Moaquerti'it ni-w FulenU Conitltution wa* priM-lainutl. Ilenri-fortli each State [of the eight fnteral Htatco into which the 44 province* of New Oranaila were ilivided] benimc practi- cally independent under ila own Preaiilent : and to mark the change tbe title of the lutioD waa altered. At first it was called the Uranadine Confederation : hut it aftrrwanis took the name of Colombia [the Cnited 8Utes of Columbia], which had formerly N-cn the title of the larger Confeileration under Bolivar. Among tbe moat Imporunt facts in recent ColumbUn history is the indep<-n<lence of tbe State of Panama, which baa l)ecome of great Importance through the construction of the railway cunnectlDf toe port of Colon, or Aspinwall, as it was named by the Americans, on tbe Atlantic, with that of Pannmaon the PaciBc. This railway was opened in IKU; and in the same rear I*anama declared itself a Koven>iKn stale. The State of Panama, after many years of conservative domination, has now |N'rhaps the most democtatic govern- ment in the world. The President Is ele^ed for two yiara only, and is incapable of re-election. Panama luu hiMl many revolution* of Ita own ; nor liHS the new Knlcnil Constitution solved all the diini'ullii's of the Omnailine government In IHOT .M<i)M|Uera was 01)11x1^1 to have rrcoum to a cou<< il'etHt. and decUrrtl himself dictator, but he 14 soon afterwards arrested; a conservative rcvoli.llon toik platv; Mnauuera was lianiabed; and Oiilirm'r. UtanK' Pn-aident. The lilierals, hoKi'Vcr. lanie back iieit year. underPonce. Slutv XHli |||||. i|,.|i,. of writing being 18TS) Ueiiinil I'rm. lias lieen Prraldent of Colombia. — K .1. I'ayur. Hut. of A'u mania Valmim, rh Id— Tiie fnlcral (•institution of IHU w ui clearly furmiil on the mmlel of tbe Coaatitutlno of the I'nileit Mlatea of Americ*. It remalneii lo force until INM, wlien it was superseiled by a law which gave the Stale a centralliitt organiia- tion and named it llie ' Kepuhllc of Colombia.' " — (J.M/ of tkt lUpulttifof l\4»iHhia, thth Ilitt. Intr-ml. hpU Mom {Snp to AnnnU of Am. AeaU. of lU unit Sr. ScHitfr. J,lM., lh|M). A. D. iM .-iloi.-Th* Rerolatioa af iMs. —The eoutitatron of ilM.-Th*pr*aid«ac7 «l Or. Nuft**.— 'Cnrlsgi'iia is virtually the centra of poliiical |Miwrr III Ciiiombia, for it I* tbe rrsl' dewe of Prtaident .Niiftrs, a dictator without the name Ikfore tlie rrvolutliia of INN.-! during which Colon waa bunuil and tbe Panama Hall way prolectnl by American marinea, tbe States enjoyiil a large measure of home rule. The insiirtfinls « ho were defeateil in that stniggle were llailiials ami a.ivauced I.lbrnUs. Tbey werv making a staiHl against centralised govern- ment, and they wen' overthrown. When tbe folkiweni of llr. Niiftei were vietnrioUB, they traiisfonm-d tlie conntitutiuoal systtm of tlie (•ntnlry . I)r Niiflen. who bad entered pulilii iitfrnm* IbulU'alagil^Ukr, iwytiffvuniitMlfly afiMiiid the < Inle As the h-ader of tbe National party tie lirramr the allv of Clerlcaliaa. and the defemler of rcclraUatieal tif1vlk-gs. Being a ■M uf uarivalksd capacity fur dlrectlaf pubik COIiORADa affair* and enforcir • partv dlacipline, he ht establlabed a highl) ....rallzed miliury Rureni- ment without incurring unpopularity by remsta. Ing constantly in sight and openly cii'irisinir authority. . . . Strong government hiu not been without ita advanuge*: but the svmi m rag hardly be considered either republican' or ilinia- cratic. ... Of all tbe tinvcsties of |i»pulw Sovemment which have been witneascil in .S|»inisli .merica, the political play enacte<l in itopiti and Cartagena is tbe most gritewiue. |)r Nullez is known aa tbe titular l*re!ii<li'iit <>( tk^ itepublic His practice is to go u> the ( apiul t| tbe beginning of tbe preaidential U'nii. hihI vhn he has taken the oath of office to n-niain ilitm i few week* until all matter* of poliir anl diacipline are arranged among bis follow • rii. He then retires to hi* country seat In ( anamiu, leaving the vIoe-PreaMeut to iKwr the biinli m u( slate.'— I. N. Ford, Tyopieai Amerim, rh vi A. D. 119a.— Rs-slwtioa of President Noau. — In IMIS, I>r. Kafael Nuftez was eleiliil Pn<<.i. dent for a fourth term, the term of olllce beiiu six years.— fSltatsSNMn's i'tarbvuk, IWKI. » COLON!. See DBDrrtrirs. COLONIA ACRIPPINENSIS.-Arrip plna, tbe daughter of Qermaiiicusaiiil ilie niotlwr of Nero, fouiMled on the Itliine the ( 'oli mln .Vinip. pinensi* (modem Cologne) — pnihalilv il.. colony of Roman veterans ever establisluil uixirr female auspices. The site liad been previnutlr occupied by a village of the I'hii. li ^ curious that thi* alnormal colony luu. alotir, of all it* kindred fouiKlallons. n'taineil lo ibe preaent day tbe name of Colonia."— C .Mirivtie JJitl. oflSt Humaiu. rk. fit). COLONIA. URUGUAY. S.-e Akokntixe Rkpvblic: a. D. 1.Wi^I7;7. COLONIZATION SOCIETY, The Aatri- can. Hee SUkVKHT, NcillUl: A. l> l'*|ll IN4; COLONNA, Th*. See Komk: |;:iii Uti CBXTt'HiKa, and A. U. 1847-1354; alwi I'ArAtT: A. n liW4-l840 COLONUS, Th*. Bee Slavkht. Muuxvai Obknant. COLORADO: A. O. iSoj-iM. Ac^siii- tioa of the oMtem port ta the Louisiana Psr- cImm aad tki we s> s « part from Mtaico. See LorisiAHA: A U. 17IM-I^<(KI, aii<l >U\ku: A. n. 1848. A. D. iIoA-iItA.— Early nptorstie**.- C«M di*cev*ri«*.— Tsrritorial and stsit tt- (■•isotioa.— The flnt Ann riean evi.l.irrr lo Iienetiate to tbe mountainn of ( oluriilii wu .ieutenant Zebulon Pike, sint out wiili i miuII ^«rty by Ui-nerai WllkinaiHi. in IHiiH llr 4p. j>niach<-d within 1.1 mik-s of the lim kv M.'uuuis I'l-ak which bear* his name A more ittintiir iifflcial etiilontion of tlie coiinlrv «s« iiixkiB INIt bv Major Sieph<-n II l^onit! «iio<M rrpeft u|Mia the wliole n-gloo dmiiMil bv iIh Mi^mrt, Arkansaa au<l PUlle rivers sihI thrir tni'uurtis was unfavorable and dlsrotimglnx rrummli rxplocatioos, wbk'h Umclteil loliniil" «tn m*''. in t84S-44. "Tbe onlv |» i»«i'. .ik-iki*- Irred in tbe Hocky mnunuliMto Ft> iii< m tt lUi time were the fe« remaining imHrr- nirl tkrir former emp!ot%. Bt-w their !-.!!;••.!!=!- » !: > li'f'^ with their Me'iican and Imllan •ltr» Mi.i hslf- breeil chihiren In a primitive umiimr <'( lifi, usually under the piutection of some ili (railn BtrtMtun cailsd a (oil The first ' " ~ GO'i COLORADO. COMTTATUS. fcmlW M In Colondo wen • part of the MormoB bitMlioa of IBM, who, with their wtrea and cbildren, redded at Pueblo from September to the ipring and lummer of the following year, when they Joined the Mormon emigration U> Salt Uke. . . . Meaiurei were taken earlv in March. 1847. to lelect location* for two United Statea (oru brtween the MiMouri and the Rocky moun- ulm, the i\Ut lelecled beins thoae now occupied br Krarnfy City and Fort Laramie. ... Up to ISSi Cdlnradn'i icant population ttill lived in or near tome defeniive eatabliabment, and had been decrmitinK nther than increaaing for tlie paat decidi', owing to the hoatility of tu Indiana. " In liSi the flnt organized Marching or pioapecting (or gold in tlic n'gion waa begun by a party of Cherokee Iniliao* and white*. Other partie* 1000 followed; the aearch aucceeded; and the Pike'i Peak mining region waa ipeedilr awarm- iig with eager aiiventurera. In the fall of 18JS8 two riviil town* were laid out on the oppoalte ■ide* of Cherry Creek. They were namril mprrtirely Auraria and Denver. The itruggle (or f liitence between them waa bitter, but brief. Auraria .tuccumbed and Denver lurTived, to become the mctropoli* of the Mountalna. Tlie flnt •ttrinpt at political organiiation waa made •t the Auraria aettlement, in Noremlier, 1838, ud took the form of a pr: ' 'onal territorial Xlzitlion, under the name of the Territory of • III; but the nmvisional goTrmment did oot tuit'i'f^ In eatahliihlng Ita authority, oppoard M II Kan by rondirting claim* u> territorial Juria- dlftlon i>n the part of Utah, New Meiico, KuM.". Nebnuka, and Dakota. At length, on the 2*ith o' February, 1841, an act of Congreaa became Irw, by whicli the pro(MM<><i new tenitory wu iliilr rrealeil, but not hearing the name of .lifTiTu 'n " The name of (. olorado waa given to it n' the fii|rge«tion nf the man aelected for Ita fliM k-'vemor • Iti'iimining In the territorial conll- li.in iiiitil July, IHTll. C'olorwlii waa then admit- I"! to the I nlon a* a sutv.— II. II. Baurroft, //«( .Jih, l\uifie fUatf*. r. 30 : lUnnMl*, M. »-4. COLOSSEUM, OR COLISEUM. Tkc- The rUvlan Amphlthrwlrr, or Coloaaeum, waa built by Vnpaaian and TItii* In the loweat part o( the valley between tiia Cwlcan and Eiqullina Ilnia. whii'h wa* then ixrunlrd by a large artl- Wal pool for naval flghu (• NaumarhU ). . . . TV r\»rt (late of the commencement of the ColoM iiin ii ilimbtful, hut it waa opened fur UM la A l> Ml . . A* built by the riavlaa Km- pefiin ihe upper galleriea ('moenlanl ") wer» ol wood. «ii.| Utnr. a* In the caae of the Clrcu* lUitmiK. at many timea caught Are from light- alni and other caiiaea, and did much damage to Itaftirtie work of the building "—J. H. Middle- too. AirifHl Mow I'a 1888, M. 10, ^ AlJ..i<. J II IVkcr, Arrtiamhni^lbmu. pi. ' — R Hum. W«M« dnrf fAe l\iirpafna, eA. 9 pi <-*r. aim Hoiot- A. I» 7&-M ^SFRii"' °' RHODES. See RRoma COLUMBAMCHURCH.Thr-Tbechurch, irtl. fi;»n:jath>n of ChrialUnlly, In HoHland, wbl. . i.«ili„l fnm the labora ot the Iriah mla- "(jBary. ("lumlia, la the ilith OMtury, and •j'r^ -rr-Tii fr;:ir. th. tfrekl iinmaaiery iiiat be ^>«D.I.-.| on the liiile lafand of luoa. or la, or nu. 11,, ,r (|„, ,n»ier l»buid of MulL-W T ALn> m Count de MoataUiBhatt, A* JfcnJto •f M« Win. U g (t. 8X-8ee Cbbistiakitt: Sth-Stb CcNTUBiRa, and .'^-800. COLUMBIA, Th* Diatrict of.— The federal Diatrict of Columbia, In which the national capi- tal of the United states U situated, wa* orlgl- nallv a aquare of ten mili<<<. lying on both sidt;* of the Potomac lUver, partly cedud to the United SUte* by MaryUnd, in \1hh, partly by Virginia, in 1789. The portion soiiUiwest of the river wa* retroceded to Virginia iu 1848. The preaent area of the Diitrict la 7U wguare mile*. The Diatrict i* controlled by the fedtrel government, through a board of three commiiiaioners, the city of Waabington having no niunicipal liicorpo- ration. A territorial eoycmnient. instituted In 1871, waa abolished three years later, and the preaent form waa adopted 'in 1878.— See, alio, Wa*hii(otoh. A. D. iSso.— Abolition of alavc-trad* ia. See Ukitbo Statu or A«.: A. 1) IS.TO A. D. iMf.— Estcnaioa o^ auffrage to th« Ntfrots. SeeUKiTKoSTAiiuur Am.: A. D. 18«7(jAaUAttT). COLUMBIA, S. C, Th* bnrniar of. Be« United State* or Am.: A. D. 18«3 (Fedkuart — Makch : The Carolimas). COLUMBIA, Ttan., Eafagement at. See UiiiTEDSTATEaor Am.: a. D 1864 (November: TRXXEasEE). COLUMBIA COLLEGE. See F.nrcA- TICK, Modern. Amkhu t : A 1T4«-1T87 COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, Th« World's. See ('Fnr*<i<i .\ 1» imri imsis COLUMBIAN ORDER, The. .V« Tam- HAIT SoriBTT. COLUMBUS, VoTRfta of. See America:' A. D.1484-14M: 14W3: UII»-141W. 1408-I.Vn. COMANA. — Comnna. ru iimieiii ell v of r»p. padocla. on the river SaniH iSiliooiii wiu the seat of a prtesthwxl. In tlie temple of Knyo, or l(cl- lona, so venerateil. to wraltliy ami so iHiwerful that the chief priest of Comanit counted among the rreat Aalat ic dlgnluriis in the time of Cieaar. — 0. Long, ItteiiiM of th* Uutnan lUji.. r. 5, <•*. 24. COMANCHES, Tb«, See Amehk an .Vbo- HiuiNEa: SHoanoNEAN Familv, and KiowaX Family, and Apaciik ORoir. COMAMS, The. M<v Kidiiaks. I'ATi-m- SAKS; CoaaACE*, and IIinhahy .V D. 1114- l»)l. COMBAT, Jadicial. S,^< WtuKitof IUtti.r. COMBS LITTORiS SAXONICI. Sm Saxon Hhorc. Cocnt or COMBS PALATII. Ar Tmatink Coi nt*. COMITATUS.-COMITES.- CESITHS. — THBCNS.— Comliatil* In Iho tnune ^Iveii liy Tacitu* U> a hsty of warlike i<<iiii|iiiiiioiis among the ancient Oermana " wlmnttiK licit tin iiiselves In me cloaest manner to the clili ftiiiii of i!ieir choli'e. Tlicy were In many cases llw sous of the uolile* who win' amtiltlous of niiowii or of a mrfect education In arm*. The |ir{-iii'|» |>r«vli[e<l (or tliem horae*, arms, an<l siii h i>>iiuh ei|iiipmeiit a* Ihey wanted. These anil plentiful eiitrrtainnicnt were acivpted Inaleail of watfis In lime of war the nimllr* fought for thi Ir ■ likf. at ihkv hi* <lefeiitler« aiid Uie rivals of iii-, pniMtitn . in the limes of forced an<l unwileiuiic n-sl they were tlHmnigbly hlh', they canil miiber for farming nor for hunting, bii* s;h m the time In feaatiitg aad la alsep. . . . Like the Fraak Ua^ SOS J ; coifTrA'nj& the Anclo-Skzon king Mcmt to b«Te entered on the fullpoueMinn ofwbat hwl t>een the right of the el<>ctWe principes Tto nomiDate and nuiintain • romitatiu, t<> which lie could give territury and political p«wer]: but the very principle of the comitatun had undergone a cliange from what it was in the time of Tacitua, when It reappean In our liiatorianii. an<l it aermi to have had in Eng- land a prruliar develnpmrut and a bearing uf ■pecial ini|><>rtunre on tlivconititutinn. In Taci- tu« the coiiiit^v are the personal following of the t)rincpps: tbcv live in his house, are maliiuioed by his gifts, tlglit for him in the Held. If there ia llltic diffcrrmc bctwcfn companions and ser- vants, it is Ik-ghusc rivilization has not yet Intro- duced TDluDtary ht'lplesaneaa. . . . Kow the king, the per|M'tunl princcpi and representative of the race, convys to hla penonal following public ilignity and importance. His gealths and thegus are among the great and wise men of the land. The riglit of havinr cuch dependenu Is not restricted to him, but ue gealth of the eal- domian or lii.sliop is simply a retainer, a pupil or award: tbi: free liousehold servants of the ct^orl are in a certain m nse hU geaiths also. But the geslths of tile kinx arc his guard and private council; they may IH.' endowed by him from the foiklaud and admitte<l liy him to tlie witenage- mot. . . . The Daoixh huacarlsof Canute area late repriKiuetioii of what the familia of the Northumbrian kings must have been in the eighth century. . . Tliedetrlopmeatof tliecomiiatus into a territ^irial nobility leeina to be a feature pectiliar to Englisli history. . . . The Lomlwnl Sisind. and llie liavarian sindman were originally p snnie thine on tile Anglo-Haxon gesith. But they sank into the genenu masa of vassalage as It gn'w nil ill the ninth and tenth centuries. . . (IomIv coniiii'tHl with the gesith is the thegn; m> clowly that it is scarcely p<iaalhle lo see the ililTennii' emvpt In the nature of the em- ploy iiient. The tlnirn strms to be primarily the warrior gi-«ith, in diia idea Alfred uaeathe woni as traiislatinK the ' miles' of Bede. He la prob- ably the genith who has a particular military duty in his niamerii mTvice. But he also Bp|M>an as a landowner. The ceorl who has acqiiireil Ave hilled of jp-d. and a special appointment in the kini! s ha «ith other Judicial riglita, lie- ctimes theen wi rthy. . . . And fMm thia point, the time of Atlielstan. tho gesith is hist sight of, elitpt very (K<ai.ioiially ; the more iiii|MirUiit menilirni of the elans having lMK»me thegns, ainl the tenser sort »liiking inUi the ranks of mere lervani" to the king The class of thegns now widens, on tlir one hanil the name is given Ui all wlioiMiswils the |mi|i<'ri{iiantlty of land, whether or no tliev stand in the old relation to the king: OB the other the renmins of the old nodillty place themselves In the king's (rrviee. The name of thegii lovent tin- whole clasa which afu^r the t'onipiest spixars iiiiiler the name of knighu, Willi .lie same i|iialilli'ation In Unit an'* m'arly the name olilitfaii,.ii. It also rarHe>l so m-ich of noMliiy as i« Inipliinl in.beraditary pritilege The theicn N'm are eontraaled with tba i rl- biirn. and are p4 rlmps much the same as the psiiliriind I iiderthe name of ihegn are Inelmlid hi Aevir various grwiea of dignity T!i- tirt-ri --f Kinv :! ihr^s b distiBjfuUbrrtfr.ini that of the niiillal thegns, and from a residuum tlial falls in riuik Is'low the latter. . . . The very like titat of the gtailb, htm dlfftfant leaaea COIOTIA CTNTURIATii- in dlfferaat ages and kingdoms; but the original idea of military service nma through all the meaningi of tbegn, aa that of penonal assiicia. tion la traceable in ali the applications of ge»\ti, " — W. Btubba, Ohm*. JIut. of Stu., th. 3, src( 14 and uA 8. <K(. «8-<U. Alio tx: T. Ilodgkin, Italfand Iftr Innultn bk. 4, eh. 7. — See, also, CotjiiT akd Uukk COMITIA CENTURIATA.-" Under Um original constitution of Rome, the patricisu alone . . . enjoyed political rights in the ttate but at the same time tliey wen- forcol to bear the whole burden of political dutiea In Iheie last were included, for example, the tilling of Uw king's flelda, the construction of publir wnrki and buUdinga . . . ; citizens alone, also, wtrc liable to service in the army. . . . The i>oliUcal burdena, especUlly those connecU><l with tlie army, grew heavier, naturally, as the |H>wer nf Rome increased, anil it waa seen to lie an iojiu- tioethat one part of the people, and that, Um, the smaller part, should alone feel their mlgbt This led t« the first Importsmt modilteaiioa of the Roman constitution, which whs nmile even before the close of the r»'gal iM'rioii. Ai . ontinit totlBdItion, iU author was the king Servius Tuf llus, and iU gemnU object was lo make all men who held land in the state liable to militsrv ler vice. It thus conferml no |iolitieiil rit'lits on the plebeians, but sssigned to Iheiii their ^liure of political dutiea . . . Accor<ting to inuliiinn. all the fn'eliolders In the city lietweeu llie sites o( 17aiHi(IU, with some exceptions, were divliled. without distinction as to liirtli, into tite ilsMri ('cisstit,' 'a summoning,' 'calo') forservin mtlie infantry accunling t<i the size of tlieir i >ut«t Those who were excepted scrviii as borwinia These were selected from among the verv rii best men in the slate. , , . of the live elaM«'i (if in- fantry, the first contained Hie rieiiest nim . The members of ilie first cUss were n'<|>iin>il D cooM lothe battle array ineomplele anmr. wiiile leas waa demanded of the iitlier four. ¥m\i ilau was subdivkied into centuries or IsalleHnl s hun- drwl men each, for convenience In srrain;iii){ iIm army. There were in ail lua renlurn-. . . This absolute numlier and this apimriitinment were continued, as the nopulatiou ini'n';i'«'<i and the distribution of wealth alten-d. until the name centurycametohaveapun-ly conventional mean- ing. even if it bail any other In the In L-iiiniug Henceforth a caiyfiil census was talon • very fourth year an.l all fnt-holders om' maile subject to the 'tributum.' The srrinirrmnt of the |>eople thus drscrilml was |irimsrilT made simply for lullitary piiriioM'«. . liraa ually, however, Ihli orgaulMlion mnie to have politk'al slgnifieani.'. until tlii.illy lime men, got together for iliat Is tl'e >liii( jBitiU' cal duty In a primitive slate, injii.M-l «!if' political privileges there were . in tlie end, this ' eien-ilus ' of I4rrvius Tulli i» furmeil another popular assembly , the ( 'omit in ( > n\ urtata, which supplanted the comilia eun.iti i i'lrrlT. except In matters r nneihii with ilie r< ii.inn of the family and very sism of pun-lv (.irnil »l|fnl- fleaace. This organiMtion. llieref.r.-. u. niiieol the bigliest civil rmtMirtance. and was < niloufd for civil purposr* long after the armt *.umu fihali«ti Oil ouiu- NiitiUi* j jMrtii. "— .\ * :»"»■, ^*" ml»$m»Ht ii/lht Human riout . rh. 4 A 1^1 1)1 W Ibnr, //••< •■/ H.m,, l,k t, A. 1 — W. Bamiay, Jfaawi^ </ Human AhUh , tk. i 604 COXITU CUBUTA. COMITCNE. COMITIA CURIATA.— ■■ In the beginning. my member of any one of the clans whh^ were included In tiv i'^ree original Roman tribea, waa t Roman citi. i. So, too, were hia children bom Id lawful wedlock, and tJiote wlio were adopted by him according to the forms of law. lUeiitimate children, on the other hand, were ex- cluJrd from the number of ritizena. These earlifAt Romans called themaches patricians (patricii. 'children of their fHthers'), for some reason about whirh we cannot bt: surv Perhaps it was in order to liiatinguish themselrea from their illt'jritlmate kinsmen and fr'm such other people as lived about, havmg no pretense of dIoikI connection with them, and who wer9, there- fore, incapable of cuntractiiig lawful maiTiages, scconling to the patrician's view of this religfous ceremony. The patricians . . . were grouped tofethcr in families, clans and tribes. Partly on the basis of blood relstionship, but chiefly on the basis of common reli^Tlous worship. Besides these groups, there was still another in the state, the curia, or ' ward,' which stood between the cisn snil the tribe. In the earliest time*, tradi- tion Fsiil, ten families formed a clan, ten clans a curia and ten curia a tribe. These numbers. If tliey I'ver had any historical existence, could not have Kustained themselves for any length of time in till' caar of the cUna and famiUea, for such or- guisni!! of necessity would increase and decreue quli« irrrgulHrly. About the nature of the curia we bnvi' practically no direct information. The orgsnizatlun tiad become a mere name at an early pCTioii In ll><" city's history. Whether the mem- ben 'it a curia tnotight of themselves as having cliwr kin»hi|> with one another than with mem- ben r>r lit liiT curiae Is not clear. We know, how- ever. Hint tlie c'lriie were drflnl'e political sub- dlvlkii'iM of the city, perhaps like modem wards, tad ilmt each curia had a common religioua wor- ililpfor iismembers' partlcipatior Thus much, St any rate. Is signincant, iiecauae It has to do with ttie form of Rome's primitive popular aa- semlilr. When the king wanttni to harangue the people (' populus.' cf 'populor,' ' to devastate ') Localleiltliem toa 'contio' (compounded of 'co' tnti ' venlii ') But if he wantp<l to propose to tliem action which implied a change In the or- gtaU law of the stale, he summon«i them to a coniliiii (compounde<l of 'con' and 'eo'). To thU the name comllis curiata was given, twcause Its niinilxr^ vhImI by cuilic. Knch curia had one roif. tlie charsicter of which was determined by s nujt'riiy of its memlM-rs, and a majority of the curiie dnhM the mall4-r for the comitia."— A. TIglif. I>frtlm>mtnl of ttu Homan (hntt., eh. 8, Almiix: T. Mimimsen, //u(. if Hmt, lilt. 1, fh.i-r Oe CouKiiges, Ths Anfunt Cilg, Nt >. f» 1. I ml Mr. 4 r*. f— See, also. CoMITIA Cm- TCKivn ami C'oHTloNES. COMITIA TRIBUTA, Tlw. Bm Rom Be *:> VI COMMACBNB, Kiagdom of.- A district ot nof),. T!! •^yris. which was a kin»,ii(:ni in the last c«murv H {.'.. afterwanis a Konukn province. COMMENDATION. h*<e BcNaricitit. COMMBRCE. HeeTKAKi COMMERCiUM. He*' Mi niriPicM. COMMITTEE OF CORRESPOND. c»C£^ :^ U«[TK> Btaiks ur Am. : A. O. 'committee op public bapbtt, Tk« PrwKh Rwtttlwiy. Hw Tuamc*. A D. 1798 (KABca— Jinii), and (Jmnt— Octo- ber). committee on the conduct of THE WAR, The. See United Statks or Am.: a. D. t861-18«8 (Dbcember-March: ViRorwiA). COMMODUS, Romoa iaaetu., A. D. 180- 103. COimON LAW, EiK.:- -'"he munici- pal law of England, or the . ,i of jivil conduct prescrilMl to the inhabitants of this kingdom, may with sufficient propriety be diviiled into two kinds; t' e 'lexnon scriptu,' the unwritten or common law; and the 'lex K.Hpta," the writ- ten or sututa law. The ' lex non scripts," or unwritten law, includes tuit n-.ly general cus- toms, or the common law prop.'r:y go cidled, but also the particular customs ( f certain paiis of the kingdom ; and likewise thor • particular laws that are by custom obstrvcd only in certain couru and jurisdictions. When I call thes'- , iru of our law ' leges non scriptse," I would i t Ik understood as If all those laws were at prescn merely oral, or communicated from the former ages to thepresent solely by word of mout'i. . . . But, with us at pixnent, the nionuni ;i,ts and evideiioes of our legal cusu>ms arc c mta ned In the records of the several courts of justice In books of reports and judicial d.'cisious am! t-i tlie treatises of learned s-ges of tlie profcwion, preserved and handed down to us from the lime* of hir -^t antiquity. However, I therefore style I' • parts of our law • le-e* non acripto: ' becau* 'leir original Institution and B'lthority are n c aet down In writing, as Acts of I>a'l|a- ment are, but thev receive their Mi.ding power, and the force of laws, by long and immemorial usage, and by their universal rrci'ption through- out the kingdom."— Sir W. Blackslone. (Jumneit- tnrin. int., tet. 8. Bee. also. Law, Commo.n Al.xo IN : H. S. Maine, Anriml Law. rA I _ J. N. Pomeroy, Int. to Municifni Late, teitt. 87-43. COMMON LOT, or Commoo Life, Brcth< ren of the. Sec Bbetbbkn or the Comhoh Lot. '• COMMON SENSE (Paine't Pamphlet). Pfv '?fc*"5» •'• *• I'wiTEU States or A«. : A. I) 1776 (Jabi'viit— June) COMMONS, The. .See Estates, Tm Tbhbb. COMMONS, House of. See Parliaxb-tt, The Enolish, and Kmc-its nt- tuk Siiihk COMMONWEALTH OF ENGLAND, Bstabliekment of the. See K.noi.and: a D. l«4»(PCBniARTV COMMUNE, The -The c.inmonaltv; the comm IDS. In feudal \iaagr. thi' li rtu »lKnille<l, as d ■ xl 'ij LIttK', the IhxIv of ihe iKnirgrols (It liurghiM of a town wh.i hml ni' 'ved a charter w .ich •tavu them niflita of t If gi^vem- iTiept "In Prance the eiiiiiiniunil io„«tii,j||,in was durinir this (x-riixl (I'.'th «'uturv)eii>'>uraged. s'lhough lint very heartllr. bv lAw - VI., viho saw in It .,nc mi-ans of fetteriuV t'' ■ a 'ion of the barons an.l blahops and secii,lni( to liiiiiM-lf the support iif a stmn; portion nf hi< (wople la some ca*"« the nminitme of r'ranei' U. like the ^tiilil. •> volunUry association, but Itn obiects are inMc. '.ir fin I more liistinciiy poijiual In soma rsuts of till! kingilom tlie u<wn« had risea '«n.ast their lonis la the latter half i>f the el-.'v«a(k eMttW7, Md had rsiolaed tlie truiit o( 606 if- r comnrm. their hard-won rlctorlM. In othm, ther poa- ^Med, In the remaining fragmenta of the Karollnglan conatitution, aome organiaation that formed a baais for new libertiea. The great number <if cbartcra ifranted in the twelfth century ahowa that the poHcy of encouraging the third ewate waa In full sway In the royd ooondla, and the king by niuly recognition of the popuUr right* gained the affectlona of the people to an Mtentwhich haa few parallelain French hiatnry The French cliartem iiro in both atyle and «ub- atance very different from the English. The libertiea which are beiitiiwed are for the moat part the same, cxpniption from arbitrary tax- ation the rijtht t.. l.Hul liiriKilcUon, the privilege of enfraucliising tin; villein who haa been for a year and a day receivwl within the walls, and the power of rU-cting the offlcen. But whilst all tlic Lnglish rhartera conuin a conarmatlon of free and ttotx] custonw, the French are filled with an enumcraii.iti .if b,id onea. ... The Engliah have an ancient local conatitution the memben or w lUli are the reclplcnu of the new grant, and gullils »f at lean aulHclent antiquity h> render their ronflrmation typical of the freedom now guaranlmi: trench cimmunla la a new iMxIy Which, b)- tho action of a awom confederacy liaa wrung from iu nppreaaora a deliverance from hereditary bondage. . . . The commune lacks too the ancient . Iiment of feative religious or merramili- aKWH-iation which U to conaplcuous in the history of the guild. The idea of the latter is tngllsh. that of the former U French or Oallic. ^pf nntwlthsundhig theae diSerencn, the siilwtautial l.l.ntity of the privliecet secured by these charters seems to prove the eaisuncc of much inteniational sympathy The aniiciit liNrtirs of the English were not uniutilligUik- to the townamen of Nor mandy, Uie rising freedom of the German cities rousMl a riirre»i)ondlng ambition In the towns of Flanilcrg; and the atruggle* of the Italian muiii< ip.ilities awoke the energies of the cities cif I'n.v, iiov AH took difTcmit ways to win the same lilHrties ... The German liansa may hsveb.'.n .lirive.! fn.m England; the com inuna of London was certainly derived from France. The communa of London, and of th.*.' cih. r Knttlish town* which in the twelfth century umtnl at au.h a constitution, was the ol.l tni:lisii ^^liM In a new French garb- it was the an.l.r.i uswiciatlon, but directed tothealUin- mentof m iniclpal rather than mercantile prlvi- legea -W .siubbs. Const. IKtt. of Sng, tk It — •Oppn-wionand Insurrection wore not theanle orlgln..f the communes . . . Two causea, quite dUllnct from feudal opprraaloa. vii , Ih.man tnititioni. and Cliristlan sentiments bad their •hare In the fomiatiin of the i«mm ne- and in the iDmrtilal n-Kults tliereof. The U'man municipal n ulni. n. which U d«acribe<l in M Ouiiots FiMtti, ,ur niutnlre de France (lit ^•V •'''„! -^^ l«l- In ■ ilist. of Clvlllaiil.m.' v_ «. lect 3 did iiui ,vrry wher»' perish with the tmplre; It kept its f...iiiig in a great uumluT of Uiwiis, cspeciallv in tliinie of Siutliem Gaul "— .F !• Ouiiot /<.iM,/-ir IliM. <^Fniiu». rA 10 Also IM .Sir .) KienlM-n, Ln,. on (V llinl «f rn»Hfr. UtI .% -See FhaIICK : ISth-IRtm Cuk TiHiRK; alao. (I HiA, MimnraL; and Giilm PF F! ^Sprh- COMMUNE.TbtFlMBlafc. 8«t Uuiijm op 506 COMPABS. COMMUKE OF PARIS, The Revolt Monwy, of 179a. See FBA^c«: A. D 1 tS 1871 (Mabch— Mat). "" " COMMUNE, Rnaaian and Swiss, g- Mnt, andHwiTZERi.AMD: A. I>. lH4H-iNi)n IgCOMMONEROS. Th.. 'selZirA D COMMUNISM. See Social MovEmvi, COMNBNIAN DyNASTY.-The^uSi ^'1 ^y""""* emperors founded, A. 1) \m!l Alexiua Comnenoa, and consisting of Aluiui / John IL. Manuel I.. Alexius II., Li AmlmnUi A.'g*ff»^?4'2f*=*='' ■^''•- «- ^--« COMPASS, UtrodneUon of the Mariner-i -"It la perhapa Impossible to amvrtain He epoch when the poUrity of the magnet w,« dm known in Europe. The common opinion whfch aacribes Iu discovery to a citizen of Anmlil la Oulot de Provins, a French poet who liv,-,! about the VMr 1300, or, at the latest, under ,si CS i*!^^ 'tr ° ""' "LT' "Oequlv'xal language' the middle of the 18th century. a.i,l Guide GuinlMelll, an lulian poet of the saii... time m equally explicit. The French, as well as lialiin, cUim the discovery aa their own; but wlutWr t were due to either of these nations, or ratlur eame<l from their intercoune with Uie Saraceui ta not easily to be aicertalned. . . . It U a sinini: .^ •'I""™*"'?- »™' "n'y to •» "pliiniHl \, the obaUnacy with which men are apt to n'lert Improvements, that the magnetic n.iill,. »»» not generally adopted in navigation till v.rv loo» . ' T*, alscovery of iu properties, awl even after their peculiar iinporUni-e liad In , n per celled. The writers of the 13th cvnlurv who mention the polarity of the needle. m(riii'.ii sIm IU use in navlntion; yet Capinunv ha.s found nodUtinct proof of Iu employ meul till UiKt .i»l d<>ea not believe that it was fre.|u.-nilv on Ixsud Mediterranean ships at the latter iwrt of the preceding age. "-n. Hallam, Th, !i„i,iu Asm p ^iJ^ .•.."•(* ""''-••IVHh Clmu.Tr tbf EnglUh, and Bartamr, the Scoltlsli. |«p.i alludo familiarly to the compass In IIh' Uih r i.art of the 14th century. "—O. L Crnik, Hut „t llrituA a>mm*rr». r. 1, p l!W.— ■' We havr n„ iTrtaiii Information of the direillve temli iic > ..f the natural mairnet being known earli.r ihan the middle orewi of the llth ivntur>- ■ Kiir..nf of courw). . , . That It was known' H.iatisnd iu practical value recognlu'il ii,.wu bv s passage f^>m an Icelandii' liUlon .iu..ti-d"bT Hanatlen In hlslrratlacof T.rrwin.. MiL-mtism. In this extract an expisiiti.m from V .«ay|„ Iceland In tlw year 86H |a dewrllK-il, ^,.1 it It stated that thret- ravens were taken s> g,ii,\n. for, ailila tJie histurian, 'in iluMe itm.-i «.an»n had no Inailstone In the nonlimi <iiunirifS Tills history was writh'u alsiut tin- v.ar A. D UWH. aiHl the allusion I have ipioii'.l oliviously shows that the autlior was awan- of iialuni magneU having been emi>!"V'.«l a* s i-wup— At the same time It fixes a limit of the ill« .irery In northern countries. We tiwi no nuniim of artUkhU nuf neu being to vinphiyed till about » B COMPASa eectniT hter."— Sir W. Thompmi, juoitd ig R F. Barim in Ultima TkuU, •. 1, p. 818. COMPIBGNE : Captnrt of the Maid of Orlcuu (1430). Bee Pbascb. A. D. 142»-1431. COMPOUND HOUSEHOLDER. The gee Ekolako: A. D. 1865-1868. COMPROMISE. Tht Critteadea. Bee CHmcD Statu or Am. : A. D. 1860(1)- mmsB). COMPROMISE, The Flcmiih. of is«s. Sm Nkturlaxd*: A. D. 116:.1S66. COMPROMISE, The MioMnri. BeeCvmD States op Am. : A. D. 1818-1881. COMPROMISE MEASURES OP 1850, The. 8ee Uhitbd Statb* or Am. : A. D. 1850. COMPROMISE TARIFF OP 1833, Tht. Bee I'kitkd Statu or Am. : A. D. 18^-1888. COMPURGATION.— Amoog the Teutonic tnd other peoplea, in early ttmei, one accund of % crime might clear himaelf by hia own oath, lupportol by the nathx of certain compurgators, who bon- witness to hl« tnistworthin)«i. 8ee WaokbofLaw ;aml Law, Criminai.: A.I).1166. COMSTOCK LODE, Diacovvrr ef the SeeNnvADA: A. D. imH-1864. COMUM, BatUa ef (B. C. 196). See Romx: B. c a)s-i»i. CONCIONES,ThtRoawa. BeeCoimoim, CONCON, BatUa of (il9i). See Criui: A I). IN(«-18»1. CONCORD.— BcKiimiac of the War of tho American Rerolutioa. See UnrnD Statm or Am.: a. 1). 1775 (April). CONCORDAT OP BOLOGNA, Th*. See r»A.irE: A D. 1515-15ia CONCORDAT OF NAPOLEON.The See F».»NiK A I). 1801-1804. CONCORDAT OF 1813. The. BoePAPAcr: A I). IHUJ-ISU. CONDE, Th* flrat Priaca Leitia da, and tha Frtach wara of raUgion. SeePRAUCK: A. D. 1S«I>-1VI3 an<l 1S63-1570. ^Pl'Sr-^''"''* S?J»»* '•'*»« LoBia da ^led TheCraat).-C«mpaicaa ia tha Thirty Years War, and th- irar with Spain. Se« Frasce: A. D. lS48-l»(8i 1648 : Obbm aht : A. D. I«40-l«45, 1648-1644 Ia tha wara of tha Froadc. Sw Kramcr: A. D. 1647-1648: 16411 l«.1u iUl: 1651-1658 Campaina anlaat f'^**i?«*'"»*'^""»' 8p^»nSee FiSuica: A. I) l«.ta-Ui.V). and 16S5-1658 Last caai- sajfas. (w NrrBBRLAinM (Holland): A. D. l«7f 1974 aiMl 1674-1678. CONDE, Tha Houaa ot See BociMoif . Trb Hoi SI. (IP. tv the Austriaaa. See Fraiicb: A. D. 1798 (Jn.if- Deckmbbh). A. D. I794.-Rtc«t«r7 by tha Froaeh. 8ae PRAStK: A. 1). 17 »4 iMar cb-Jplt). CONDORE, OR KONDUR, Battlaal (1718). SwlsmA: A b, 1758-1761. ''^'^ CONDOTTIERB -In the »t»ral meaalac !LL>, '. ; ■ «»'>''uf««i' or leader; applied •perUlly In lulUn hisl«ry, to the profeXMU military ,*!,„ of the 18th awl Mtfi centuries. who „i«.le a btuioeas of war Tery much as a «»«,? ""•"»''i» Tk" » Iwulneas of milroad nwirurtion, and who were open in eoir»«>m?nt •Hh tin tr.«n, at their cnmrnand, by an/prlnce,' ToVDRfehT trBB-r^'^ CONGO FREE STATE. CONBSTOGAS, The. See Ambwcah Abo- Riorau: SusQCEaAiniAa nSPjy'^^f "^'^^ °^ DELOS, OR THE DELIAN. See Obeece: B. C. 47S-477, and Araufs: B. C. 466-454, and after. r£-u''»?°*"i^'r= STATES OF AM.- conatitation and ornnixation of the n ment. See U»rrED States or Am : A. D (Pbbrcart) 1861 A CONFEDERATION, Articlaa of (U. S. of irai United States or Am. : A. D. 1777- CONFEDBRATION. AuatraUaa. See ArsTRALiA: A. D. 188.V18W .■?5''^°«='**'^'°'*' ■f"' Cenaaalc, of 1B14. See Oerhant: A. D. 1814-1 K20 Of tKrp. See Qermakt: A. D. 1870 ( ptember —December). Be?SS?r^"A*l'?ISi'^'" "«'*'' ^"-• Sw^iSSrSS^^^^'^"' -^ SwlM- «" CONFEDERATION OF THE BRITISH ^■fPfiS^" PROVINCES. See CaI:;" T5°*'f?^'^"*'^'°*' O" THE RHINE, The. See Oermant: A. D. 180.5-1806: 1806 (jAMAiiV— AiT.riiT) ; and lNi;t ((),t — Di r ) CONFESSION OF AUGSBURG. See Papait A. n. l.VW-l.Wl. E«^o?J7„"*l'W97^*"^«"-- «- A.'i?'?Sh^5f' "^""^ •' Be, France CONFUCIANISM. See China; The Re- UOIONS. .. ^°^. fl? ''"t"^ ®,TM=> "^ Foondiac of !k ~ r . ,?, J^?"'"' "• «cc<"«»on to the throne [of B«-I»luml. his great object has been to secure colonial possessions to Belgium for her eicesa of population and production. To this end he founded, in October. 1876, with the aid or eminent African einlorers, the International African Association. lu object was to form committers in sereral countries, with a view to the collection of funds, and to the establishment of a chain of sutlons across Africa, passing by V*'"-I"'f"y'k'- •" »"'''' future eipf'orers Accordingly committers were formeii. whoae K!*'''*°IV'f'' ?• '''"<"»»: 'n England, the I^nceof Wales: in Germany the Crown IVInce in Italy the Kings brotli.r; in l'>anre, M de I^ps; and in Belgium, King Ix-opold. Sums of money were subecribeil, and stations were openeil from Bajomoyo (Just south of Zanilbar) . ilf., Jsneanyika: but when toward the close of 18.7, Stanley reappeared on the Atlantic coast and reTealr<i the Immenik! length of the mar- velous Congo Klvrr, King Ixn.nold at once turned his attention In that dinTllon. That he might not put hiniwlf forwent prematurely he acteil under ever of an asatxiation and a committee of rxnloratlon, which wei* In" reality ifri'lv supporfeil by the Kings fonne<l ami ent,,.,, ,,.,,,„.,,„. „^ ,„i, R,ng, energy and by the largi- sums of money that he lavishwi upon th.ni Through this auMM-iiition King Leopiilii maintained Stanley for Ave vears on the Congo During this time a nw.!' was made f^)m the oast to Stanley I'ool, when- the BaTlgabSc rtirtina of iho \:i,\Kt Congo com mences; and thus was forme<l the basis of the future empire. During this period Stanley ai|Bed DO lest than four thoumud treatiea er 507 CONGO FREX 8TATS. eeaocnkiiit of territoiy, on which upwtiii of two thounnd chiefs bad placed their nutrks la ■ign of adheaioa At • coat of many mootht of transportation, neceialtating the employment o;' thounndi of porters, liiht steamer* were plau.d on the upper river which was explored at far as Stanley Falls. lu numeroua tributaries also were followed up as far as the rapids that Inter- rupt their cuunes. Many young Belgian officers and other adrenturous ezploren established themsplves on the banks of the Congo anJ the adjoining river, the Kouiliou, and founded a series of stations, each occupied by one or two Europeans and by a few aoldters from Zanzibar. In this way the country was insensibly taken powession of in the most padflc manner, with- out a struggle and with no bloodshed whatever; for the natives, who are of a veiy gentle dispo- sition, offered no resistance. The Mnate of the United States, which was called upon, in 1884, to give an opinion on the rights of the African Aswiciatinn. made a careful examination of the matter, and recognized the legality of the claims and title dcttls submltu-d to them. A little later, in onlcr to mark the formation of a state, the Congo Association adopted as its flag a gold star on a blue ground. A French lawyer, M. Deloume, in a very well-written pamphlet en- titled ' Lc Droit des Oens dans I'Afrique Equa- torlHlo. ' has proved that this proceeding was not only legitimate, but necessary. The embryo state, however, larked one essential thing, namely, recognition by the civilized powers. It exintt'd only as a private association, or, as a hostile publicist exiiressiil it, as 'a sute in shari's, indulging in pretensions of sovereignty.' Oreat dilticulties st4XKl in the way of realizing this essential eoniiillon. Disputes, on the one hand with Franei and on the other with Portu- gal. Hppeared inevitable. . . . King Leomild did not lose heart. In 1883 he obtidned rri>ni the Kri'mli government an assurance tliat, wlille maintaining its rights to the north uf Stanley Potil, It would give support to the Intenuitiunal AsMX-iation of the Congo. With Portugal it seemed very dlfflcult to come to an underatanil- Ing. . . . Prince Bismarck U)ok part in the matter, ami In the Uerniun Parliament praised highly the work of tlie African Association. In April, 1884. he pMpoaed to France to come to an understanding, and to settle all difficulties by general af^reement. From this pniposltlim sprang the famous B«'rl':i conference, the re markable derisions of which we shall mention later At the same time, before the conference op<iie<l, (lennany signetl an agreement with the Intemutiiinsl AsmxiHtion of the Congo, In which she ngreeil Ui recognise iU flag as that of a sute. It eji'liHiige for an assurance that her tnule should lie free, and that Uvrman subjecU shoulit enjoy all the privileges of the most favored nations. Hinillur agreements were entered upon with nearly all the ot Iter countries of the glolKv The oelegates of |)i« Assnelatlon were accepted at the conference uo ilie same fixiling as those of (lie dllfen'nt states that wire reprt-si'nlnl there, and on Feliniary M. the day on which the art was slgne<l, Bismarck expresaed hlnwlf as fol lows; 'The m'w Hute of the Congo Is destined to (m- one of the rjijcf iafe ffuar-ls uf the work we lisve In view, and I sincerely trust that Its development will fulltl! the noble sspiratkHis of hs august foundar.' Thus ths Cosfo Inter CONORBOATION OF THE ORATORY. astionsl Aasodstion, hitherto only a prlvsts enterprise, seemed now to b« reengnized u a sovereign state, without having, however as ret sriumed the title. But where were the limlu ot its territory. . . . Thanks to the hitcrfrtence of France, after prolonged negotUtioris an under- stunding was arrived at on February 15 issj by which both parties were satistleil Thev agreed that Portugal should take possesk.on nf the southern bank of the Congo, up to il.i junction with the little stretun Vango, abo<re Nokkl and also of the district of Kabinda forming a «'«!» that extends into the French territory on tbe AtUntic Ocean. The International Congo Amo- elation— for such was still lu title— was to bi\« access to the sea by a strip of Innd esiendini from Manyanga (weat of l.«opoldvllle) to Hi ocean, north of Banana, and comprising In wiiJI. tion to thlsport, Boma and the important -Mtion of Vivi. These treaties granted the ssmx ution 081,280 s((uare miles of terriuiry, that l» to ur a domain eighty times the size of Belgium, wiih more than 7,800 miles of navigable riven, liie limits fixed were, on the west, the Kusngo. sn Important tributsjy of the Congo ; on the snush the sources of the Zambesi ; on the east, the Ijikea Boneweolo, Moero, and Tanganyika, ami a ling passliig through Lake Albert 'Eilwani to the river Quelle ; on the north, a line following the fourth degree of latituilv to the Moliaiigi River on the French frontier. The whole lorms one eleventh part of the African contlmiit. The associatir>'> became transformeil into a state in August 1988, whcu King Uopold. wiih th-! authorization of tlie B«'lglan Chanib.'rs, noilHel the powers that he sliould assume the tlilr i>( Sovereign of the Independi'nt Stale of the dmifo the union of which with Bi'Iglum vis to to exclusively personal. The Congo is, tlunfoi*, not a Belgian colony, but neverthelew the Hil- gUn Chambers have recently given vnli!«ble assistance to the King's work; fltst, in I it nj on Julv 36, I88», lO.OOO.OtW francs' wnnli «f shares in the railway which is to ronnect ihi< sea- port of MatadI with the riverport of Leopold. ville, on Stanley Pool, and secondlv liv irraiiling a loan of 38,000,000 francs to the luil. ixiident HtaU on August 4, 181X). The King, in a will laid before Parllarornt, bequeaths all \m Afri- can possessions to the Belgian nation, author- izing the country to take poMenaion of tlirm after a lapse of ten years."— E. du Uveleye Thf Dinoiim <if Atriea {Thr fWnm. Jnn . Ml. See Afiiiia : A. D. 1H7«, 1HT9. IMM. ami after. Al.M)I<i: H M Stanley. The Ciimi.). CONGREGATION OF THE ORATORY, The.- "Philip of Neri. a young Kloreiilinei.f gooil birth (1818-1593; c»iioiiiii.ir lil-'-,'i In 1848 lnstltute<l at Itome the Saietv <>r ihi' l|.>ly Trinity, to minister to the wants i/f ihi' pili:r<nM at Home. But the op<>rations of Iiih ii>i»ion gradually extended till tliey emliruMl the spiritual welfare of the Koiiian ihii'uI lion st Urge, and tlie reformation of the Itom^in clcrir In particular. No figure Is more biphc anil more sympathetic to us In the liUtorv of ilie Catholic reaction than llial of tkU liiMinla' ,pos' followed the rule of St. Augustine. H|>mn|{ in ' apostle of Rome. ' Fnmx his sasiM-ial 1^ aliirilar <ii, whirh \KtH ths r.-»I!gT?=gRtir,ri ---f !hr t>fn:-fV 1' Iv-F-f, famous as the seminary of much that U most admirable In tbe hiboura of the Cstliolli' ilergr" —A. W. Ward, Tkt OtunttrHtfomatun, p. ML 608 OONaBEQATION OF THK ORITORT. CONKAUQHT. —"In thereu 17M, then wereaboTea hundred CoBgregatloni of the Oratory of 8. Philip io Europe aod the Eaat Indies; but iinoe the revo- Itttioiu of the last seventy years many of these bsrc ceased to exist, whfle, on the contrary, within the last twelve years two have been established in EngUnd."— Mrs. Hope, IaS* of 8. PUUp N<n, ch. 24. Also ih: U. L. S. Lear, PrUttl}/ Lift in fmnit, eh. 4. CONGREGATIONALISM. See Ixoxm- DENTS. CONGRESS, Colonial, at Albany. See VxiTKD Statks of Am. : A. D. 1754. CONGRESS, Continental, The First. See I'MTEO Statu or Am.: A. D. 1774 (Scp- TUREH), and (Sbptbmbeh— October) The Second. See Uiiitkd Stateb or Am. : A. D. i;T5(M.\t— ArocsT). CONGRESS, The First American. See I'KrrEi) States or Ambrica: A. 1). IflW). CONGRESS, The Pan-American. Bee CxmD Stater or Am : A. D. lt*»-1880. CONGRESS, The Stamp Act. See Uhitco gTATEi« oif Am. : A. I). 176.5. CONGRESS OF AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, The. i^ Aix-LA-CiiAru.LE, The Conuhess A.\U TllEATT. CONGRESS OF BERLIN. See Ttnuu: A. 11. li<78. CONGRESS OF PANAMA. See Colom- IiIiNSnTfH: A. n. WHS. CONGRESS OF PARIS. See RcsaiA: A. P. 1X54-1H.58. and DErLAHATlos or Pahis. CONGRESS OF RASTADT, The. See FrANCK: .V. 1>. 17»9(APHII.-SKI'TEMBKK). CONGRESS OF VERONA, The. See Vkhuna. Thk roxoKEsa or. CONGRESS OF VIENNA. See VnciniA. CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES.— ■' The Cop stltution rrrnted Congn-iw sod confi'mil upon it powers of Uxislstion for utional purposes, liiit mmlc no proviHiou ns to tbe mt'lliud by which these |>owers should be eierciard. In consequeocr CoDftress has itself dfTeloprtl a methotl of tmnMU'tlni; Its business by meanii of committers The Fe<ler»l Li-glsla- lure consUu of two Houses — the Senate, or l'pp<'r and less numerous bmnrh, and the House of Krpniwntatives, or the I.ower and raorv nurafn>u» |>opulAr branch. The Senate is com- posed of twi, members from each State eli-cted bjr the State V'sislatures for a t»Tni of six yciim. one third of wlioni retire every twi> years. The presiding offlirr is the Vlce-Pri'sldent. Early in escb session the Senate cIkhwps a IVsidcnt pro tempiirr. m as to nrorlde for any absence of the Vice President, whether caused by death, sick- ness, or for oltii>r n-asons. The House of Repre- unutives is ai |ir.-» 'nt [1«>1] composed of 833 members anil f ..ir .ItUyntes from the Territories. These dele^stM. >i,.we> r. have no vote, though lliev msv speak. 1 ii< iiiiuso is prealiled over by • Speaker, elected at the bi-gliining of each ICoDirrrss]. A quorum for busliirsit Is. In either lIi'iiN', K msjiirity ConirriKH nii its every year In the lieitiunliiif of December. Esch Coogrrss •«!='»r-' jrnhi ami hiiMs two ge>«i mi — » Tiii^i sod s »lHirt sesKlon. The long semlon lasts from Oecemher to midsummer [or until the two IIou>e4 •CM upon an adjournment]. Tbe short teaaiun latti ftom December, when Congress meets again, until the 4th of Uarch. The term of office then expires for all the men> <ers >f the House and for one-third of the Senate " 1 he long session ends In even years (1880 and X'^i, etc.), and the short session in odd years (1881 and 1883). Extra sessions may be called by the President for urgent businesa. In the early part of the Nov- emoer preceding the end of the sliort session of Congress occurs the election of ReprcsenUtlves. Congressmen then elected do not take their seats until thirteen months later, that is, at the re- assembling of Congress Id December of the year following, unless an extra session is called. The Senate frequently holds secret, or, as they are called, executive sessions, for the consideration of treaties and nominations of the President, in which the House of Representatives has no voice. It is then said to sit with closed doors. An immense amount of business must necessarily be transacted by a Consress that legislates for nearly 63,(XK),000 of people. . . . Lack of time, of course, prevents a consideration of each bill separately by the whole legislature. To provide a means by which each subject may receive investigation and consideration, a plan is used by which the members of Uith branches of Congress are divided into committees. Each commlttea busies itself with a certain class of bwiluess, and bills when introduced are referretl to this or that committee for conalderation, acconling to the subjects to which the bills relate. . . . The Si'nate is now divided between 50 and 00 com- mittees, but the number varies fmm session to session. . . . The House of liepresentatives is orpmized into 60 committees [a|>pointiHl by the Speaker], ranging, in their number of members, fniin thirteen down. . . . The Committi'e of Ways and Means, which regulateM customs iluties and excise taxes. Is by fur the most im- porUinl. . . Cimgress ordinarily assembles at noon and remains in se«dou until 4 or 5 P. M.. tliouish towards the end of the term It frequently remuins In session until Inle in the night. . . . There Is still one feature of Congreitsional govem- nieut which needs explanation, anil that U the caucus. A caucua Is the meeting of the nu'inlicrs of one part> In private, for the discussion of the attitude and line of policy which memlien of that party are to take oaquestions which are expect«l to arise In the 1. gialative halls. Thus, in senate caucus. Is decidinl who shall l>c mem- bers of tlie various cummlltcvs. In tbtse meet- ings is frequently diiwussed Vfhetlieror not the whole party shall vme fur or against tlii.i or that important bill, and thus its fate is ilecidi'il before It has even come up fur debate In ('ouKresa." — \V. W. and W. F. Wlllougiiby, (i-rl. a>ul Ad- miniitration of the I'. S. {JiJt'ti* UojMnt Vni: tVwIut, leritiii., turn. 1-2), (A. 9. Ai.ao IM : W. Wilson, d'ngrtmunal Gortm- ment, eh. 8-4.— J. Brvce, 7fl« Am. VommoA- tteallh, pt. 1, M lO-ai (r I). — The tMfr.itM, not. 51-85— J. .Stury. Cmnmtntiiritton the Vault. of the r. S. hk il. eh K :tl (r 3-.1l. CONGRESSMEN AT LARGE. See Rxp- IlKSKNT'TIVICS AT LaHKE. CONI— Sieves. See Italt : A. D 1744 : a>\.l Kit\.MrK: A. D I7B9 ( Al'ui'sT— Dii'KHUKii). COKIBO, The. S« Amkiucam Abohiuuies' A!(l>l,JUANa CONNAUOHT, Tranaplaatation of the Irish people iato. See lBSi.ajii>: A D. less. 509 mi CONNECTICUT. 1%* Mhtmdtn. CONNECTICUT: The RiTcr and the «^"~;<" """^ ""* discoveries made of thb part of JNcw England were of its principal river and the toe meadows lying upon Its bank. Whether the Dutch at New Netherlands, or the people of IJew Plymouth, were the flist discoveren of the river Is not certain. Both the English and the Dutch claimed to be the first dlscoTeren, and both purchased and made a setUement of the lands uponit nearly at the same time. . . . B-rom this fine river, whfch the Indians call Quonehta- cut. or Connecticut, (In English the long river) the colony originally took its name."— B. Trum- bull, JIut. o/Gmn., M, 2.— Accordtag to Dutch accounu, the river was entered by Adriaen Block, ascended to latitude il" 48', and named 16llo!'l614"' *" ""■ ** ^'^ ^°^ ^ ° The Aboriginal inhabitant*. SeeAmiuCAX ABORIGINEH: AuiON(<lIAN Faiiilt Sele,and otheiTi.-In 16ai, the Eari of War- fill H?^'"ri",' '^'"•S»y ""'I Sfle, LonJ Brooke, Bir Iticharil Saltonstail, and others, "the territory between Namgan-seft Klver and southwest t<i wants New ^ork for 120 miles and west tci the raclHo Ocesa, or, acrorrflug to the words of Pn-si. dent t lap of 'V ale CVileg •, ' from Point Juilith to £(ew -i ork, and from thence a west line to the South Sea. and if we take Narragansett Hlver In Its wholf length the tract will extend as far nortli as W oro,.»u.r. It comprehends the whole of the colonv of Connecticut and more. This was calle.1 the old patent of Connecticut, and had bein granted the previous year, 1680. by the Council of Plymouth [or Council for New England] to the Earl of H arwick. Vet before the English hacl Pliintwl settlements in Connecticut the Dutch had purchHsol of the Pequota Und where Hart font now »tan(l9«n.l erecU'd a small tmding fort Oillid -Tlie House of Good Hope.'"— C* W »men, H,umb,ry IHtputtt of Conn., p. 15.— In 18*5, four ytars after the Connw-ticut grant said i to Imve b.-,-n (Icriv^l originally from the Council for New h„g|,ind. n IKW. ha.l fieen transferre,! bv i?h ^''h'^^ *"?■'■'' '">"' "»y »"'! Seal anil I othcm, thc(ouncil made an attempt, in counl i Vance with the English court, to nullify all in i grants, to regain p<»«e«ilon of the u-nitory of | New England and tf) P'irrel it out by lot amon* Hs own -nembers. I,: hi, attemptd parcelling ' which pr.m,lineflreclual, Connecticut fell to th.' tot.d^tl.e Eari of Cariisle, the Duke of Lennox. Md the Duke of Hamilton. Modem Investig..: lion »^.ms to have found tlie alleged jrranl fmm the ( .„ n.ll of I'lymoutli, or Council for New I.ng an.l to llie Earl of Warwick, In 1830 to 1m, mytliii-Ml. •• No one has ever seen It, or li.tit iH-aril of any one who cUlms to have seen li \ It 1« not ininllonwl even in the grant from War i Zu !" '. '"*"•*' *""' •*''<■ PSI'-ntM-s In 1931 ' lht..|,.,..| u » mere cjuit claim, which wairant^ ! nc.iluinr and does not even awert title to the soil tmn.frrr...l Why the Warwick transaction i t..Ji il.m iKHultar .Imp., ^,\y Warwick trans- ■ ferre.1. wu „nit showir*; il,|e. a territory which the ori^ma owmn. graytH »new to other pal- enie.» In liiav are <iue«iinns which are liev .n.l coDjHti.r,. "-A. Jol.nHU.n, (hnneetwmt, eUi- Hec Nl£W Emoi AND: A 1) 18!« ^1 ^; J*J4-i637 -Th* pioaacr t«ttl«n*nts U«l by William Holme.. ..ile.1 up the Cowim OONNICnCUT, 1684-1887. cut riTjr. and. irfter bandvlng threau with . ^L°U'^i'K'^^ ^ built a rude fort „n uj filO selves on the site of Windsor. Next year ( loZ nor Van Twiller sent a company of s^v.m Z to drive away these intrudS; but afur Ve«i„ no^tering the situation the Dutchmen thou^u best not to make an attack. Their liltle "('roni i°\^t Hartford remained unmolested TZ » .between thU advanced outpost and New Amsterdam, Van Twiller decldeJi to bu Id L cAherfort at the mouth of the river, but tW, ^t^', ^«"* ""1 beforehand. Rumoun o Dutch dedgns may have reached the nnlt Lord Sapr and 8ele and LoM Bnx,ke -1 • fZt^ ?T'£ ."J?"'*"* blm In -Marmion-Ulio had obtained from the Council for New Eairlud agrant of territory on the sliore. of the S ]?Iff^S?^'K™° <=''<»«" 'heir agent theyo^rr John WInthrop, son of the Massachuseii, row nor, and thU new-comer 8rrive<l up„n tl,, .cent just In time to drive away Van Twill.r.v^ and build an English fort which in honourT his two patrons he called • Say-Bro„ke. ' IhA It not been for seeds of dlaconu^nt alrea-ly sown In Massachusetts, the English hold upon Uh, c"" necticut valley might iH-rlmps h.-,ve Iwu f. , few years confliied to these two niilitarv outpost' at \Vlndsor and Saybreoke. Hut tf.ere C people in MassachusetU who did not look wiih favour upon Uie aristocratic and th..,«Tatic feature, of iu po Ity. The provision that n.n» but church-members shoulil vote .,r h.;l,l „fflt« was by no means unanlinoiiHly appn^vwl Cotton declared that d( inocrarv was no fli government either for church or" for n.nimon wealth wHl the majority of the n.ini,t, r, »m.,j with mm. Chief among those who dill imi »m the leanH^d and ehHiucnt Tliomaa Hook.r reistor of the church at Newtown. . . . Then- were many in N.-wtown wlio t.Hik Hookers vi,w of the matter; and there, as al.so in Watirtowa ami IJorchester, which In 1933 took the Initiative iu rmming town governments with wic. tinen t utronp disposition was shown (o ev,uU- ihe 're- sirictions u|)on thi- Muffragc. Wliil.' hihI, tliinn were Ulked about, In the sumni.r of IIUI;) the s-lventunms John Oldham wan niakini; hinitsy through the forest anil over the mountains into the Connecticut valley, an.l wh.n he Piuninl t« the coast his glowing accounts set noiik' i«,p|,. to thinking Two y,.«ni afterward, a f, » pi,^ nwrs fnmi I)oreli««ter puslieil through the »ll derneiw as far as the Plynioulli miMi s fort ,t Wliidsor, while a party fmm Waterlown went farther an<l came to a halt upon the site nf Wethersfleld. A larger party. hrini:iiig cattle and such girnds as they coul I (^rrv. m t out is the aiitumn and .ucttHlwl iu na. Iiing Wiml*.r ... In the next June, 19!». the .\.-wto»n con grentlon, a hundn^l or more in nuuilHr. led liy their sturdy pastor, an<l liringiug with tliiin ifti hcail of cattle, m:idc the pilgriniag. lo the Con necticut valley. Women and (hildr.n to,.k part in this pleasant summer Jounicv; .Mrs. lloiker thepastor's wife, bting too Ifl to walli. ku carrleil on a litter. Thus. In the nwmonilil. year ■" "^ ""' "f"*' university was lioni. did ( ambridge lieciHue. in the irui'rtrn'k senw of s much-abused word, the metro|H>lls or •moiher town" of Hartford. The migration at ome he came itiong la numbers. DurUig Uic psit comncncxrr, ism-imt. m m t M Ordtn, COKNECnCUT, 188»-16a0. twdTnaoDth • icon of ihlpf had bnniKbt from Enghnd to MamchuietU mora than 8,0flU aouls, ud 10 gmt an acoearion mado further inoTe- nenteasy. Hooker's pjU^rimi vert- soon followed bT the Dorchester and Waterto-vu ronf^ref^tions. ud bj the next May 800 pco|ilt> weru living in Windaor, Hartford, and WetlieniScM. A» '-o lead of the«e moTementi, not of l'.(i!viHuals, i ut of organic communities, united 1r. nV,. ii^ce t« a church and its pastor, a>jd hr' K with iK ' iutinct of self-govemmert. •": seem to •«> Greek history renewed, but wit'i centuries of addeit political training. For one year a board of commiwionera from Massachusetts governed Ihe new towns, but at the end of that time the towns chose representatives and held a Oencral Court at Hartford, and thus the sep»ntt« •exist- ence of Connecticut was begun. As for Sprint;- Held, which was settled about the same time by a putv from Roxburr, It remained for some rnn doubtful to whicti state it belonged. "—J. rUke, The BeginninM of Hew Bng., ek. & Auout: J. O. PiSfrey, Hut. <f N. Eng.. t. 1, A. Il.-Q. L. Walker, iKtt. of the FinI Ckurdk IS HartfoM, fh. 4-9.— M. A. Qreen, BprintfiM, 1«8»-1»<«, rh. 1. A. D. 1636-1639.— The ceastitntioaal eroln- tiOB.— •• It must be noted that [the] Newtown. Wttrrtnwn. and Dorchester mieratlona had not been almgcthcr a simple transR'r of indiviilual Mttli'fs from one colony to another. In each of these migrations a part of the people was left be- hind, so that the Massachusetts towns did not cease to exist. And yet each of them bmught its MMsacliuwIts magistrates, its ministers (except Watrrtiiwn), and all the poltllcal and ecciesias- tical macliinery of the town; and at least one of tliem (Dorrlicster) had hardly cliangrd its struct- ure since its members first organizeti in 163U ut Donhi'ster in England. The first seltlrniont of Connecticiit was thus the migration of three dis- tinct snd individual town organlziitiona out of the iurisiiiction of Massachuai^tla and into ah«ulut<! freeiiiim. It was the Haasachusetts town system let liiow in the wilderness. At first tlie'three towns ri'lHiiHii even their MasRarhusetts names; •mi it Wtt« not until the eighth court meeting. Febrii.ir.v 21 lfl;«J (7), that It was decided that 'the pl:mt«?on nowe calle<l Newtowne shulbc callfil A- named by the^name of Hurteforde Towno, liki'wi.HC tlic plantaa>n nowe called Water- townf slmllie calloii & named Wyhersfeild,' and 'the pliuitacon calletl Dorchester shallie called Wlnili-ir." On tlie same day the boundaries be- tween the three towns were ' agreed ' utmn, and thuii till' germ of the future State was the agree- ment mill iiiilonof tlic three towna Acconlingly. the milmiiiieMt court meeting at Hartford, May 1. 1«37. for the first time took the name of the 'Oenrnll Curie,' and was composed, in addition to Uie iiiun n>agi»trat4-8 who had previously held it. of ciiMiitlet's'of three from each town. 80 Blm|>!y ami niiturally did the migrated town sys- tem ivi.lve, in tills hinal aasemTilv. the seminal pHndple of the Senate and House of Kepreaen- UUvmnf the future Sute of ConmHllcut, The Asuenilily further showi-d its consciousness of lepsnili' enixU'nce by declaring "an olTensive larr :,/; \u,. i'«i|uoilt." ansiguing the proportions of It" iiiiiilittiire army and suppllea to ea<-li town, •mi spiKiiiitIng a commander. ... 811 complete are the fi-stiin-aof SUte-hoixl. tliat we mav fairly •««n M-.v' 1, JM7, M the proper biitiiday of Coonectieut No Uns, no Codcrm, presided over the birth : ita seed waa in the towns. Jan- uary 14, 1688 (»), the Uttle Commonwealth formed "ae first American Constitution at Hartford. 80 Ut is ito provl^ona are concerned, the King, the I'arliament, the Plymouth Council, the Warwick Trant, the Say and Sele grant, might as well nave been non-existent: not one of them is men- tioned. . . . This constitution waa not only the earlleat but the longest in continuance of Ameri- lon documenU of the kind, unless we except the Rhode Island charter. It waa not essentiallT altered by the charter of 1663. which waa prac- tically a royal confirmation of it ; and it was not until 1818 that the charter, that is the constitu- tion of 1689, was superseded by the present con- stitution. Connecticut was as absolutely a state In 168» aa in 1776. "—A. Johnston, The OenetU efa XmSng. Stale (JahiulIopUiu Unit. Studiei, o* 11)— The following is the text of those " FundamenUl Orders" adopted by the people dwelling on Connecticut River, January 14, 1638(9), which formed the first of written consti- tutions: " FoRASMt-ca as it hath pleased the Allmighty God by the wise disposttion of his diuyne p'uidence so to Order and dispa«e of things that we the Inhabiunts and Residents of Windsor, Harteford and Wethersfield arc now cohabiting and dwelling in and vppon the Hivcr of Conectecotte and the Lands thereunto aiiloyne- ing; And well knowing where a people are gathere<i togather the word of 0<kI requires that to mayntaync the peace and vnion of such a people there should be an orderly and decent Uouerment established according to God, to order and dispose of the alTayres of the people at all seasons as occation shall require; doe there fore aaaoliate and conioync our seines to be as one Publike State or Co'iiionwelth ; and doe, for our selues and our Successors ami such as shall be adioyned to vs att any tyme hereafter, enter into Combination and Confvdenition togather to mayatayne and n'searue the liberty and purity of the 1,'ospcll of our Lord Jesus w* we now p'fesae, as also the disciplyne of the Churches, w* according to the truth of the said goapell is now practised amonpt vs; As also ino'Ciuell Affaires to be guided and gouemeii according to such Lawes, Rules, Onlers and derrees a.s sliall be made, onlered * dirrecd, as followeth : — 1. It is Ordered, sentenced and decn-ed. that there shall be yer«'ly two gencrall Assemblies or Courts, the on the s«'coiiil tliunidnT in Aprill, the other the second thiinKlav in Septenilwr follow- ing; the first shall lie calliii tlie t'ourte of Elec- tion, wherein shall lie yerely Chosen frO tyme to tvme soe many Mageslrats and other nulllike OIBcers as slull be found requisitte: Wliereof one to be chosen Ooucmour fur the yeare ensueing and vntill another be chosen, and noe other Magestrate to be clioaen for more than one veare; p'ulded allwayes there be sixe chosen besids the Oouernour; w" iH'inirchoiieu and swome acconl- ing to an Oath recorded for that purpost^ sliall haue power Ui ailminister iustice acroniiug to the Lawes here eaublisheil. and for want tliirwif according to the rule of the word of Ooil . w* choiae shall be nuuie by all tliat nf aiinijtied freemen and haue taken the Oath of Fidellity, aiHl d<ie oilubitte w'in this Jurisdiction, (luiuing beene admitte<i Inhabitants by the maior p't of the Towne wherein they liue.) or the nwvor p'te of such aa shall be tliea p'sent 1 It is (irdered. 611 I* "•'« m:--M comrecncuT, 1688-16M. Katenced and decreed, that the Election of the •foreiaid lUgettnli (hall be on thia manner: euery p'aon paent and quallifled tar cboyie ahall urin^ In (to the I'lons deputed to receaue tliC) one oingle pap' ' the name of him written In yt whom he ut-auxn to haue Qouernimr, and he that huth the ^rrateat odber of papen ahall be Gourrnor for tliat vean". And the reat of the MagestraU or pub! Ike Officers U> be choien in thia manner; The Secretary for the tyme bt'.ng ahall first read the names of all that are to be put to cboise and then shall seuerally nominate them distinclly, and cucry one that would haue the p'son nominated to be rhnaeu shall bring In one single paper written vppon. and he that would not haue him chosen shall bring in a blanke : and euerr one that hath more written papers then blanka ahall be a Msgistrat for that yeare; w" papers shall be receaued ami told by one or more that shall be then chosen by the court and swome to be favthfull therein: but In case there should not be sixe chosen as aforesaid, besids the Oouer- nor, out of those W are miiuinated, then he or they W haue the moat written pap's siiall be a Magestrai^ or Magestrats for the enaueing yeare, to make vp the foresaid ndlier. 8. It ia Ordeivd, sentvnrni and dccn-ed, that the Secretary ahall not nnminatc any p'son. nor shall any p'son be chosen newly Into the Magrslracy W waa not p'pownded in some Henrrall Cimrte l)efore, to be nominated tin- next Election : and to that end yt ahall be lawfull for ech of the Townes aforraiJd by their deputyes to nominutv any two who they conceaue ntte to be put to ehiction: and the Courte may ail so many more as they ludgo reqiiisitt. 4. It is Orden-d, sent4-uee<l and de- creed that ncM! p'son be cluisen Oouenior aboue <!iue in two yeares. and that the Uoucmor be al«»vs a melxT of some approve)! congregation, and fiirmerlv nf the Magi'slracy w*in this Juris- dieiiou; anil all the Magestrats Fret men of this Coniiiuwelth: and that no Magestratc or otiier publike oDlcer sliall exi-eute any p'te of his or their Office i>efore they are seuerally swome, w* shall be done in the face of the Courte if they be p'sent, and in case of abHt>nce by some deputed for timt purpose. .V It is Orderetl. sentenced •nd di'-reed, that to tlie aforesaid (\iurte of Eiectiiio the aeu'all Townes slull send i (leir depu- tyes, and when the Elections are emled they may p'cee<l In any publikc sraruioe as at other Courts. Also the oilier Uviierall I'ourte in Sep- temlK-r shall be for inakeing of lawes. and any olhi-r publike occallon, w* consems the good of the Ciimonwelth. 6. It is Onlered, seiitencetl and decreed, that the Oou'nor shall, ether liyhim- selfe or by the secreury, sewl out sumons to the Constables of eu' Towne for the cauleing of these two sUnding Courts, on month at lest before their sru'all tymes And als4> if the Gim'nor and thegn'test p'teuf tb<- .Magestrats see cause vppon any siH-tiall occatino to call a general! Courte, they may glue onier to the secretary s«c t4> doo W^n fiiwerteene dayes wameing; and If vrgeut necesnity so n^quire. rppon a shorter notice , glue- ing suttlrient gniwmlsfor v t to the deputy es when they meete, or e!s be qiit -ttioned for the same; And if tlie Oou'nor and Mayor p'te of Magestrats shall ether negknt or refuse to call the two Oen- erall sUtudiug < uurts or ether o( thfi. as also at other tymes whin the occations of the Comon- welth require, the Freemen thereof, or tlie Mayor P'te of them, bhall petition to them loe to doc ; if comnccncuT, i6M-ie8». then yt be ether denyed or neglected ih« «m Freemen or the Mayor pte of them shall bsu power to glue order to the Constables of ths leuerall Townet to doe the same, and so nu meete togatber, and chuse to themselues s Mod- erator, and may p'ceod to do any Acte of power w* any other Oenerali Courte may. 7. li u Ordered, sentenced and decreed that after tlien are warrants giuen out for any of the wid Om crall Courts, the Constable or ConstaM.-s of «* Towne shall forthw* give notice dUtine tlv to ths inhabitanta of the same, in some Pulilike As- sembly or by goeing or sending frO howte to bowse, that at a place and tyme by him or them lymlted and aett, they meet and aswmble tU acluea togather to elect and chuse cerlen dipu. tyea to be att the Oenerali Courte then folbwlns toaglutetheafayreaof thecomonwelih; w*Hia Deputyea shall be choien by ail that an ailmltted InhabitanU in the ieu'all Townes ami Iwueukea the oath of fldellity ; p'ulde<l that non U elmwn s Deputy for any Oenerali Courte w-" is not , Freeman of this Comonwelth. The fdrMsid deputyes ahall be choaen in manner fnllMwinic cuery p'son that Is p'sent and quallitieil us before exp'ssed. shall bring the names of sm h. written In seu'rall papers, aa they desire to haue c Ijoeen for that Imployment, and these 8 or 4, more or lease, being the nOber agreed on to lie (lnwrn for that tyme, tliat haue greatest nnber i)f 1*0,™ written fortbe shall be deputyes for that Courle; whose names shall be endorsed on the Im< kr title of the warrant and returned Into the Courle.W the CimstableorConstebleshand vntotlieHunie. 8. It isOnieretl, sentenced and decreeil. that Wjoilsor llarifonl and Wethersfield shall haue power] ech Towne, to send fower of their freemen ai deputyes to euery Uenerall Courte; ami wlisiso- euer otiier Townea shall be hereafter mUM to thia Juristliction, tliey slutll send si> iiiuiiv ilr|iu tycsasthe Courte sliall Judge meete, »" reason- able p'porticm to the nDber of Frwnn 11 that are in the said Townes being to be attende.1 ihin-in; w* deputyea ahall have the power nf the whole Towne to glue their voata and slonann- to all such Uwcs and onlers aa may lie for tlie puMike good, and unto w* the aaid Towni-s an' lo 1« bowiid. 9. It isoniereii and deereiil, that the deputyes thus chosen shall haue (Niwer and liberty to appoynta tymeanda plaee i.f iiHTting togatlier bi'fore any Oenenill Coiirti' to ailuiae and ci'iiault of all such things as mav eonccnie the gixxl of the publike, as also to exaiiiini- tlirlr owne Elections, wlu-tlier acconllni; t.> Ihi-ivnler, anil If they or the gretest p'U- of llieni Sud any election to be illegsll they may serlu.l such for p'sent frn their meetlug. and retviriio the same and their resons to the Courte; himI if vt pnpue true, the Courte may fyne the p'lv t>r pivi* so intruding and the Towne, If they see 1 .iiiii-. uml f;iue out a warrant to goe to a uewe eli-iiiou in a egall way, either in p'te or In whole. \'.t> the saul deputyea ahall haue power to fyue any that shall be disonicrly at their meviinv's. cr !i>rno( coming in due tyme or pUce aceonliri); to ap- K>y fitment; and they may retume the nhiI fvuw lo the Courte if yt be refused ti> lie |iaiil. ami the trraurer lo lake notice of vt, and lo estnnr or levy the aame as hi' d'lth iilntT fv'O's l'> h is Onlere<i, sentence.i and deerl1^l, tliat emry Uenerall Courte, except such as tlmiiiKh ntj(lrtle of tlie Oou'nor ami the greatest p'te uf Mairiiiiniu the Freemen Utemtelvei due caU, shall consist o( fiU ooinnccncTTT, lest-iew. OWcxy. CONNECTICUT, 16n. tb« Oeocnor, or Mmw one cboaen to modenito tlic Court, and 4 other MageetimU at Ictt, w" the mayor p'te of the deputyea of tbe aeueiall Townea I jiiiiU > choaeo ; and in caie the Freemen or iii«jor ;<■ )( thC, through neglect or refuaall of tbe Oouernor and majror p'tc of the magea- tnu. sliall cull a Courte, f ihall constat of the mayor p'te of Freemen tliat are p'sent or their dcputyea, w* a Moderator cboaen by thS: In w* laM uenerall Courta aball oonaiat the supreme power of the Comonwelth, and they only shall bsue power to nuke Uws or repealc thS, to rraunt leuyes, to admitt of Freemen, dispose of Unds Tudispoaed of, to aeuerall Townes or p'sons, toil also shall haue power to call ether Courte or JUgi'strate or any other p'son wbatsoeuer into question for any mlademeanour, and may for just csu<e I displace or dcalc otherwiae aco>rding to tbe nature of the offence; and also may drale in any other matter that conccrna the rood of this cnmna welth, excepte elertion of Mogcstrata, w* shall be done by tbe whole Imtdy of i^«emcn. In w* Courte the Oouernour or Moderator sbull bsue power to order the Courte to kIuc liberty of spvch, and silence vnctasonable and diaonlerly ipeakt'bigs, to put all tbinga to voate, and in case the voate be oquall to liaue the casting voice. But Don of these Courts shall be adiurned or dis- soluej w*out the consent of the miiior p'tc of tbe Court U. It is ordere<l. 8«-nU;ncti land decreed, tini. when any Qenerall Courte vpp<m the occa- tions of the Comonwelth haue agreed vppon any sumo or somes of mony to be leuyed vppon the scuiTall Townea W4n this Jiirisdictiou, tliut a Comittee be cboaen to sett out and appoynt w' ■liall be tbe p'portion of euery Towne U> pay of the said leuy, p'vided tbe Comittees be moile vp of an equall nOber out of each Towne. U* Jan- uary, Wa, tbe II Urdere abouesaid are vote<l." — I'uhiie Becunb of the Vuloiiy of Conneetieut, t. 1. A. a. 1637.— The Pequot War. See New E-NiiLASD: A. D. 1837. A. 0. 1638.— The planting of New Haven Colony.— '■ In the height of tbe llutcbiuaim con- trivcmy [iH-e Mah.\ciil-8ETT8: .\. I). 16it<HB3H], Jolin l»avtiinort, an eminent noncunformixt min- isur from Lonilon, bad arriv«l at Boston, and with liiiii a weidtby company, lc<l by two mcr- cliauia, Tlieopbilus Eiktouand Edwani Hopkins. Alarmfd at tlie new opinions and rt-ligious agita- tiuiis of whicli MasaBobuHetIs was tbe seat, not- withstanding very advantageous offers of setlle- mf nt thire, Ibey preferred U) esublish a separate craniimuity of their own, to be forever free from llic iauovations of error and lia'ntiousness. Ellon and otlicn si'nt to explore the coast west lit llic Connecticut, selccuii a pliice for settle- ment iii-ar the head of a spacious bay at Quina piark ' - '>■ i-^ ■ ' ■ ' ■ . ■ . ^ .. . it< [or Ouinnlpiack], or! as tbe Dutch caili>d d Hill, where they built a but and spent lln> winlir Tbev were Joiiieii in tbe spring l\pnl, l&W] by the rest of their rompanv, and l)iiveDp.irt preached his first sermon under tho •luiloof a spreadiuf <mk. Presently they enteretl lulo what tbey culled a ' plantatiim covenant,' •Oil a conimunication being opened with tbe Imliam. who were but few in that neii{bl)orh«Ml. the \»n,U nf QuSnapiack were piirrhawl, except a smiill nervation on tbe east side of tbe bay, the Imliani ni riving a few presenU and a promise of pmuitiim. X tract north of the bay, ten mUes in uoe direction and thirteen in the other, 613 wu purchased for ten eoeti; and the coloniau proceeded to lay out In squarea the ground-plan of a spacious city, to which they presently gave the name of :;ew Haven."— R. Hildreth, uSt. 0/ th* U a.,v. 1, eh. ».— "They formed their pollU- cal asiocbtlon br what thev called a 'pUntatlon covenant," ' to distinguish ft from a church cov- enant, which could not at that time be made.' In this compact they resolved, 'that, as in niatters that concern the gathering and ordering of a church, so likewise in all public olflcea which concern civil order, oa choice of magis- trate* and offlcers, making and repealing of laws; dividing allotmcnu of inheritance, and ail things of like nature,' tbey would ' be onlered by the rules wbiib the Scriptures hold forth." It had no exh'rnal sanction, and comprehended no acknowledjiment of the eovcmment of Enghtnd. The compuny consisted mostly of Londoners, who at home had been engaged in trade. In proportion to their numbers, they were the richest of all the pinnutiona. Like the settler* on Xarragnnsett Bay, tbey liad no other title to their lands than timt which they obtained by purchase from the Indians. "—J. O. Palfrey, llitt. 0/ XcaEng., r. 1. eh. 13, Also i.n: C. H. Levtrmore, The BepMie of NealluKn. eh. 1, A. D. 1639.— The Fundunental Agreement of New Haven.— "In June, 1839, the wliolo body of settlers [at Quinoipiuck. or New Haven] came together to fniuie a cimstitution. h. tra- dition, seemlnglv well foimded, says timt the meeting was held in a large liam. Accoiding to the some arcount, the purpose for which tiicy had met and tiie priuciples on which tbey ought to proceed were set forth by Davenport in a ser- mon. ' Wisdom hath builded her house, she hath hewn out B«'ven pillars,' was tbe text. There ii an obvious connection between this and the subsequent choice of seven of tbe chief men to lay the foundation of tbe constitution. . . . Davenport set forth tite general system ou which the constitution oujtbt to be fruiued. Tbe two n,aln principles wliicb he kid down were, that Scripture is a perfeil and suttteient rule for the conduct of civil affairs, and that churcb-member- ship must be a coudition of citizenship. In this the coloni.su were but Imitatiug the example of Massachusetts, , , . After the sennou, dye reso- lutiona [followeil by u sixth, constituting together what was called the ' fundamental agreement " of New Haven Colony], fommlly iutrmluclng Davenport's proposals, were carried. If a church alreaily existed. It was not considered lit to form a basis for the state. Aeenrdiugly a fresh one was fnmnl by a curiously eoinplicateil process. As a Hr-l step, twelve men wen' elected. These twelve were instructed, aft<T a due inter- val for consideration to cbmso seyen out of their own niinilHT, who sboulil saTve as a nu- cleus for tlie church. At thi' same time an oath was taken by the settlers, whieli nmy be looked on a* a sort uf prelimiimry and provisional U.-s\, of citizenship, pledging them to accept the principles laid down by t)aven|M)rt, Sixty three of the iiiliabitunts tisik the oath, and tlieir example was sism followed by fifty more. By (>vto!M-r. fuiif iiiimlhs after the original mi t ting, the seven foniially established the new common- wealth. Tbey granu-d the righu of a freeman to all who joined them, and who were recognixed members either of the church at >'vw Haven or Um^M 'i OONNBCnCCT, int. coNNEcnccT, ia«3-iee4. P X of any other *ppn>TMi ciiuich The fr. -men thus cbown rii'Tsd Into ma a^ ^-cmeDt 'he tame effect u ;be oath ainwl taken. !' ..v tl>eu riveted a (>i>rernoraodfuur mgUumtet r 8» tliey were lor the prearnt c»i! 1. a Magiftr» « •od four Deputi^ . . . The luctlona of i Governor and Ma$ri«tntet »rre not defln. Irnit-.-,!, but one -niaJ reaolution wu paaed to th.- conntltutli { the coloni iam.ly. ' that the Wcnl (,f Oo(i Dhall be the onij ruW Httecded unto 111 , ml. ring the affairs of govrmnwnt.' "— J. A. DoyI , r^ Kngluk in Am.; Tht f^Hlan Cotmier • 1. rt, «.-"Of all the New En^Mwl cokmit'ii. ^.■w Haven w»» most purely a govern- ment by compact, bv >iK'ial ri>iiirBct. . . . The fnc filiihtcrs . . signed each their nauiet to thfir vo)'inti.r_'- compact, and ordemi that 'all planters hcrv.ift'r received in this plantation should submit to the said foi.MdamcnUll agrt-;- ment, and li -title the satiu- by si:!»icribing their namea' It h iH'lieved tliat thm Is the sole insunceof tlic furuution of un i>iii<|x-ndrnt civil govemmeut bv a general c •niuuot Hiun'in all the parties totheairrepnH'Dt » • t. le/{iUlv miuir»'<l to be actual i.ii;i-. ■« thereof VVhta this event oocurn-d. John Ixxke was ii his seventh vear, and Itouanenu was a centun away." — ( ' u' Levcriin.r.-. T7if JlipufiUr „f Ae<« J/aten i, 23 A. D. i639-i«a.-Th« aUeged Bli^e Laws Of New Haven.—' ua when or by whom the acts and iinxtt'diiiE-i if New Haven coIumv wet« nrst sliKiimtiied hs .tiuo LAvnt, caniioi now be ' fi. The r ri'«>iniiitiii!i ljoti<ver is Bi that the n»nrt iiad it-, •iri^in u \:.w YorU. and that it tfaii-l ctirrpnt > ii Conv. .ixut am.iiig epi><'(>palian and .>thir' : -.^rit, •. |t,i,l the esublishcd chiirc'.i, belwieii l7v'Uand i'.Mi . . In the colony of Now lla^. i. Uforc llie uni'.n with fiinnecticut, the prinl. ».sof votinB and of bnldinir civil offlc- wen-. !iv the •funds ment.d ierc. nent,' ii-stric'cl i.' i harch-m^rn b.'rs. Ibis i>.Tuliarity of Iw: ccm»ii-ution w.« enough to jrlve color to tin- aa*erti»ii 'hat her Icffislaiiim wHii, preemineiitiv. blue That her old rcconi iH-ik containeil a itkIb of ' blue law-i which were <llH.rcditablH to puritaiiiwi. and which t."-iified to the .. i^er of schism be- came. aniLiic ceruiii cl».», - an aHSun-il Udief To this imagina.y cmle wit and mal'c. made U'gp Hililitioiiii, siinietinieK liy pure Invt-ntlon, •omctiiiics l.y borrowing at«imi or nrhitrary •aws fniiii •tic rn-orJs of (rti(.r colonics .\nd lo the 111 J 1,1 grew. . . . N., specimens of the tows Ml sti(tniati/,e<| seem lo have l)epn publialied bef.ire ITni. when a sketch of some of them' wb:; giv.n |„ t!ic worid by the Kcv. Samuel J lUrt HI • \ tJcneral History of f.«inccticiit ' ' In this •■ llisiiiry." it ') said, were oijllecti-d all the extravagant stories tUt had been "ct afloat during the previou» «fty years. -J, H. Trum bu I. Tfu frue /Sue LaWofCunn. and A', Uarfii Jilt 'il. A. D. i640-i«S5.-Th« attempted New Haven coloniaatioa oa the Delaware,— Fresh auarre:s with the Dutch. See Niw Jerset AD. ltv»(H6.V. A. D 1 643. -The coofederatlon of the colo- "'"•-The progreii and ttate of New Haven and the River Co:ony. Sea Nkw Emilahd. A. P I(r?"- ,...^P- '*5»'T^*"'«»»"'»'boundan«e with the Dnteh of New HetberUn<l!. ;i:r Haw loUK: A I> 10W. I ^A. D. i6s6.iMi.-Tht pertccotioa of Qnmkers. H«e MAsaACHUsxTTs A n mT 1661. A. D. 1660-1663.-7 he bccinaing of bonad. •ry conflict, with Rhode UlM.d.^Bef Se '^ °J "!^.'**lr^''* pretention of tlie of ?>ew Haven the kn.j bad a snecis! cnidi./ Two of the reglchie I uuges ( Whalley and t;„H, I who had sac Tu th.- tribunal which cmdenm.li his fatlier escaped U. New England in IBtiii ■ • were wili received there. . . . The kinits ii',- Jectlves i.,)tly pu.-su«l them throuidi ihe va,\ toDd paths of New England, and ilv wo-il.l 1000 have been taken but for the a iil thev n,., from the p.-r,ple. . . . Aft.-r lurkiMt about Xew Haven and Milford for twi, or thr... ve«r» they aoiipht a more ^.ciuded hiUiuL- place n«, Haaiejr.-'-J. Flake. J'U Beyinniny. .„ S,r ^. A. D i66J-iM4.-Th. Royal Chi t„ Zi annesationof New Haven tothe R.v.: Colony — The Restoration in Englan.1 left tl„ \X Haven colony under a cloud in the i,,v..r„f il,, ■ w govemmtnt: it had be«n ii.nly snd ,„,. -nicious m iu procUmation of Charles II j. :i.i.| been especially rembia iu fearcliinn for il,e n-glckle t-ii^la, Ooffe and Wballey: sn.i anv aprillcatlon for a charU'r would have nv.-.t fr„n N. - Haven with a very ill grar,-. ( , ,ie.ii,„ w. iimler Dosuchdi»abllilie«; and it had iii in (1 rnor, John Winthrop [;ho v.urwr .-^ ■, .if iiii first goveniir of MasaachiiiH-i! a man v, | cai"uUt<sl u> win favot with tlir n ., Kine In Jlarch, 1660. the Genera! I'ourt * lenmlv ,ie. claret US loyalty to Clmrles II., »..„i ,h, i;,,,. emorto i;ngto»l to offer a IovhI ad.lres^ i„ tu ."!)?,""" "^ him for a charter, ami laid :i»id(j Vm U>T hiseipensea. Winthr-.p wn, Mi,re»~',d and thcclwrter waa grantwl April 2" \Mi Tlie acquisili-j of the charur r>.ls.-,| the ( ..nuHii.ui k-ailera U> the seventh iaaven of sutisfMrti,,.i And vvell it might, for itwaaagriint of privileii-j with hanlly a limitation. Hracticall-, the 'iio. had <iven W inthrop • carte blanehe, i;i.UlI..Wf.l him to frame the cliarter to suit liiiiiM 1. It iu. corporatol the freemen of O niiei'ticnl iwa ■ i^in' corporat" and fiollliique,- by Uh' «iim- it T;«. Oovemor and Company of wli.i Ijii-l-i, ( ■■ of Conecticut in New En^'uri . . . The people were 10 b.ve I,.-' and Immunities of free am', nat, -.ii. tlie King, as if bom wiihin thenar... 11 (!r!inti-.! to the Governor and (:<>'Ti|«ny all tl.ai |ian nt New England south of th. Mnssu I .;^ii- line and west of the •Nomiganaii i'iver ciu- monly called Norroganatt liay ' |.. ihi-Suth Sea, with the ' Ulanda tlien>unU> i..li..i..eitii;r . It isdillicul: to see more than i».i 1 mij in which it [the charter] altensi the ■.-rMiiuimo adopted by the townj- n 1639. Thr.- «ire ow to be two deputies fr.im each li>»n, aii.l tlie >M>undarie8 of the I'ominonwealtli now eiiiliriiit J thi rival colony of Nev Haven. . . . Newll.iv.n Jid not submit witliout a struitglc. firmit imlv her pride of separare cuistcDce b>u i he MipremiK v of her eccleshuti'-al system wa., a! .itake. K..'r three yiara a succession of dipl.imatic notn passed tx-tween thc(}eneral (■..minf (•iiiiii..iiiMt and •our honored frl-ndi or .New llavin Mii- fonl. Branfonl. and Ouiiforti ' . . . In (hi.ilrr, 1664, the Connecticut (jeaenl Cnirl «p|»ilntfd the Mew Haven maflltiate* coiuuissiooert for 6U OOIWECTiCUT, l«6S-ia«4. a/ tk< CKarbr iHireCTIClT l<W5-tMT. tbeir towu, 'whh maghtimtion powrre,' es- UbIUhed the Kew Harfn kwal offloera in th<'ir pUcet f"r th»- time, ^i d ileclaml olillvl. n fur tny put mliitsno! t' 'he iawa. In Dec< hiImt, Unford liavinr alreiul xilirnitted, t/ip remDsul of the New tfnven Otinr»l Court, rtpmentioK New ir»iren, Ouilford, sui<l Bnofori). ^cll^ iw test nuvting and v >>k1 to sulimit. with a saivo jure of i)ur former iiifhts and laim.s, ai a people who hare not yet hecu heani m point of plea.' The next year the laws of New Haven were laid taide forever, and I.er Ux^hh sent depiiiiiii to the General Court at Uartf r I . . In 1701 the Oenenil Court . . voted tliat its annual Octo- ber session should tin ri ufter In- held at New Haven. Thisprovii. f a double capital waa incorporated into the ciaiJiMtutioa of l¥lH, aod continued until in 1H78 Hartfori waa nu>le sole capilJil. ■'— A. Johnston, J'lu Ottirtu of a A«« Biu) !^Ut, pp. 25-28. .ii,«o rs: B. Trumbuil, ffitt. tf (vnn., e 1, f* 1 PuMie Jiteordi of t/- ' .lung of ' 'mn itjAV .V D. 1M4.— Ronl grmnt to • Duke of Vork, in conflict with the charte -^.v Xkw VobK: .V. 1) 1684. A. D. 1666. -The New HaTcn migratioa ' Newark, N.J Sec Nkw jEaatv: A D. 166 16S7. A. D. 1 674.1675. -Lonr Iilan and the western half of the colony f ranted to the Duke ot York.— In 1874, nfter '. motneritiirv rcci'vcrj- of New Vork by the l»;uh, and its re surrender to the Kngliah. ihe kin*; isaued n»w mtent for the provini.- in which he not only imluiletl Long lalHod, but the territory up to the Conneotieut Kiver, wbi' h had licen awigned t'l I'oiitiettlciit by the roval eommi!i- si.atrs. 7 •• astelgnnient of Long Island waa re^retied, 1 it not resixttni ; and the island which is the natural seawall of Connecticut nniird. by mval ifrtw. to a provime whose only natural claim to it waa that It barely touched' It at oue rimer The revival of the duke's claim t.. % part uf llie malnlari,! was a different matter, and irery i>rcparatir,i was rr.oile fi.r reaiiitanre In July, ira, ,<jx m King I'liilip s war liad broken ou in Plymouth, hastv «iird was sent from the ai'tiiurities at llartfoni to CapUin Tliomaa Bull jt Sayhrook tliat Governor Andros of New liirli w.ia on his way through the Sound for the purpose, as h<,- a>owi-d, of aiding the people spunst the Indiana. l)f the two eWls, Connecti- cut ra-.her preferre.1 the Indians. Bull was iMtriKt.'d to inform Androe. If he should call at h«yhrr«ik, that the colony bad taken all pre- C4uti.ms against the Indians, and to direct lilm to the iidual scene of conflict, but not to permit the lauding ..f «ny arme<l loldlera. ■ And you are to keep the king'a colors standing there, tiniler lii.. inaJ.-«ty'B iFeutenant, the governor of lonnw ti(u> and If i.ny other colors be set up I here. .v,.ii are not to ■(•iflfer them Ui Hand. Hut V 11 are in his maiesty'g name rcquliwl to ■ -old Kti.kiiig the first blow; but V. they begin then you ure to defend y.>unielvc8, and do your t«t lo v, ure his r.mjesty'a Interest and the |H.ire ,1 ilie whole colony of Connecticut In our pnw-5!-.:R \T^^T^^ esmc i.nd landed at B..,- hrook. hut aonflued his proeee-lings to reailliig ic (luke « patent against the pmtest of Bull aiij IhcConneriicut reprMenUtlves."-A. ,Iohnston. w of took such Town '•<% on IM Bmndanet of Ot StaU of p. 81 .xL*., n« W Rowen, Tht Bovndarv Dimm^ ofCmn., ;> 70-T , A. n i674.|678.-Kiiig Philips War. See j«i" t-v i^sD: A D, 16 -1875 1875; 1878- A D. n ^t.,687._ The hoiUle kiocaad tk* hidden charter.— Si; Edmund Androa in bm> s«Mioa of he Koreratncat. " DurinL' the latter *rs of I reign "f tiiari, s U. ti,e kinir ha-- Won so ■•cklesKof his pl.dgeaand his -.atj. that 1id not s<niple to »<-t the dan<reroui ei- nmpl. ' Tiolatin;t the charters that had been Sl'I'i'. ^•; ' ■"'*"■ <J*'n»rt" the friendship •hat the king !itertalne<l f. Winthn.p, we have seen that Connei it wni. favo ii by him t. a degn-i even after ■■• deal h of tl.it great miu But no looner had Charl., dcmlap<l iui-,1 thf sceptre panel into the Imrxls of h - liigoied brother. King James U., than Conn,, tient waa called upon to contend .leainat her sovii n for liberties that bad been affirmed to her the most R. :emn muniments known to the Knglan i. The , , .. „ „f j.^^g , lace ou the 6tli :■. ,it iu,y i88,'5, :, .18 his baste to violaii .' ,tmor of tli- i;iiii.e»rlyia thesunimen.; !*5. a quo warranto *aB isgu«l agai: ;,j the governor and companv uf ( oiim-cticut. < :ig tliem lo app-,ar before Uie km. *it(iiii eijiit days of .-t. Slartin's. to show b nght id tei - t he v exercised cerwln ih.Heni jiiid pn iiege.;. ■ Tins was quicklv fol- lowed by two other writ^ conveyed t<. Hurtfonl l)v EdwanI Raiido;! the Implacal' enemy of -he colot^i,^. ihe lay ,,f appeurruif"-- nan I In tlie^u was piisse<i long Ufore tlie writs weri «rTe<i Mr, Vhiiinif was sent U. England as the agent of the coloiiv. to exert such Influ- ences as might lie brought to bear against the plainly hostile and uiiscrupilous intentions of the king: but hi^ errand was fruitlesa "On the 28th of Decemt>er another writ of quo warranto «.is served upon the goi emor and company of the OTiony. This writ Vin- date the 23(1 of October, and required the defendants to appear before the king 'within eight iiays of the purifl- cation of the Bless.. I Virgin,' , . . Of course the day named was not known to the English law, and was therefore no day at all In legal cou- templatiou." Already, the other New England colonies had been bniiight under a pmvUiunal general government, by i-ouimissloners, of whom .I(>9enb Dudley was nameil presidi'nt. President Oudley "addreaaeil a letter to the governor and TOuncIl, advising them to resign the charter Into the king's hands. Should they do so, he under- took U) use his influenco in iK'half of the colonv. They did not deem it ad\i»iilile to comply with the request. Indeed they hud l-anlly time to do so before the old coiiiiuiasion was broken up, and a new one gmnted, superseding Dudley and naming Sir Edmund Audros governor o"f New England. Sir Ediiitiml arriveii In Boston on the 19lh of Dm'ni.Kr. ICHfl, and the next day lie publialieil lilscominissiou and took thegoveru- ment into his hands. Sear(^•ly hail he cslablislied liin<self, when he sent a letter to the governor and company of Coiinecti'Mit, acqiialutiiig them with his appointment, and infonning them that he was commiasioneti by the king t > receive their charter if tliev woulil give it up to him."— 0. IL UoUUter, llitt. of Uunn., t. 1, cA. 11— On 515 OOKNECTICUT, l«S-l«n. Charttr. oovstcncvT, iaM>mi. NcHpt of th» oommunlcattoD from Aiulra*, " the Ornrral (Jourt wm kt once conTeoed. aod by iu dln^tioD a letter wu ■dd^tiani to the English Berntary of 8ute, eameatly plendinc for the prmerTation of the priTilegn that Bad been granted to them. For the lint time tbey admlt- te<l the poaalblllty that their petition might be dcnlMl, and In that caae requcated to be united to Mamac-huwtta. Thii waa ronatnied by Sir Etimiind asatirtua) iurrrndcr; but aa the days went by he Hiw that be bail mlaUken the spirit anil purpose of the colony. Androa fliially de- cidt i| lo (TO in (lenon to Connecticut He arrlTp<l at ilartfonl the last day of Octolier, attended by a retinue of (Kl officers and soldiers. The Aaem- biy, then in st-xsion, received him with every outwnril mark nf respect. After this forma] ex- chaniTf' of courtesies, Sir E<lmund publicly de- mnniletl the charb-r, and deilared the colonial Government dissolved. Tntilitlim relates thut iiivemor Treat, In calm but earnest wonls. re- miinstralni anlnst this action. . . . The debate was (\>ntinunl until the shadows of the earlr autumnal evening bad lallen. After eandlea were ll|(lil<ti, the govenH)r and his council seemed lo yielil; anil the box supposed to contain ttie char- ter wan hMught Into tie n«m. and pitted upon the table. Huildenly the lijrhta were extin- guishetl. Oulet reignnl In the rt am, and In tin- deniie crt>wd outskie the buildinfr. The camll's wen- MMin relighted, but the rharter hail di^- appi-areii, ami after the m<>«t diligent seanli cr.tilil not Ik- found. The oimmnn tnwiition has l»iMi. llmt it was taken umlir cover of the dark- neiis hy t'aplain Joseph WiulAWortb, stiil hidden by him In the Imlliiw trunk nf a vimri'lilo and noble "Ilk tree slanilinir near the enlmncega'. iti Gi'Virrinr \V\ llyn's maunlon. The charti-r laken by faplain Waiiaworth was probably the d ipl|. catc. Hii.l niiutined «afely in his ponarwloi for wveml jiarn There is reason lo believe .liat, some lime Infcre llie loming of An<lma to llsrt- fonl. Ihe iiriclnal cimrter lisil liee.^ rarefully iecreUil. and tlic tmillii.ii nf l«ier limes nukes ll liroUhle lliat, while the iluplii-nle charter that was iHki n from the table was lildilen elsewhere. Ilie oritrliial charter fmiml a iwfe resling place lii i Ihe hiiirt "f the In* ikat will alwiivn lie reineni. \ tienil sa The Charter (Ink Thin irii- Is saki lo ' have l»<n preserviil by the early selilers at the ni|ue»l of ilu> IniilaiiB. ' It luis Ix-eii the gulil» of ouranrraior* for centuries,' ilir -jH, 'asii. the lime of planting our com. Wli.-u llie leavi-s sre Ihe nlze i.f a Ruiuae's earn, then Is Ihe time to put it ill Ihe ground' The rminl of the four' l.rielly suie* that Andnis, having been i..|ii irteii III the gnvemor'a f»t hv Ihe gov erii..r him» If d>'< Ureil llial he Itad' Uvn corn ml««ii.iMd l.y his Majesty to lake on him Ihe ■toviriiment of Counei lieu' The commission liaviiiii lain ri-iMl, he said Ibal It was hii .M.«|.-.ly « |.l. aaure lo make ihe lute gnvem..r Slid t iipiiilii .l.ihn Allvn inemliim of bla iminrll III.' iMini.irv liiindeil IlK'ir c<iinmon si-al l.i hir Klih'iii.l, niid sfl.TwariN wrote ilie«<> wonia Iu 'I'-'on r.i..rd His Kjifllemy. Hjr l:.i in.i.d .Voir.-., •\iilifht. ( 'villain (leneral and ti..vi rii.r ..f i,:. Male.iv s Tirrliory ant Itomin |.«i III New l.iiv-Uii.f. In onh r from Ids .Majesty Klnit ..f Kiirfl.ihd, .Ni.iUihI »u,| Ireland, llwSlat ol i>.i..|ar l*<; l.aik Inn. hla liaiida Ihe govern meiil of Ibis .iiliti f I ..imiitUui, ll Islng by liU Jlajvsly aoueini w 'he MaasaibuaelU and "J. sou MAaBACHUBBTTa: |S7)-|«WI ^„D. i6So-i«9r-Kiiic Williams War ; Canada (New Fbahcb): A. I). IB-'g-idoo other ookwlM under his Eioelleney's gnvenunnt Finla' Andma soon diacloaed a hand nf iM liencath tba velvet f love of plauaible wnnU and fair Dromtaei."— E. R SMiford, IKm. of Cn%, Aiao m: J. O. Pklfrey, IKtl. oT An» E,,,. w ?i:i " W'-**- •""• N«* KNoi^KD AD 4 • 15" **A'"**L"''*"T5?: l«7i-i6H«, See and ie»S-l8»7. A. D. 1689-1701.— Tht raioMattrntnt of the elMurtar Kovtrament.—" April. 18«», , ,iim. m last. The people of Boston, at the lir»i nriri of the Engliah Revoluibm, clapped Aiidh«, into custody. May 9, the olit Connecticut auihoritiM quiellv resume<l their functions, and e«ll,d the ijaemhly together for the following ninmh. William and .Mary were proclalmni wii:, ™.,i fervor. NiH a word was said alxiut the dlj. appearance or reappearance of the chart, r hut the charter Bovemment waa put Inio full effm again, aa If Androa hail never Inlerrui tul It An address was sent u> the king, askitii; liiat ihe charter be no further Interfv'rwl with. Imi i.»r- aliona uraler It went on aa befot»-. X.i .In i.le,| action waa taken by the home goveniih. m f.r Slime years, except Uiat ita appoinlmmi ,.r iho .New lork governor, Fleleher, to the i,.mm«ii.l of the Connecticut mllliia, implirtl a .|,,i,|..| that the Connecticut cimrter Itail lavn siipir I seiletl. Late In I(W8, Fill John Wlnllir..]. s., I sent to England aa agent Ui obtain a i-.mliiiiwti.fl j of Ihe charter. Ilo s.viired an en.pliaii, |,t'Hl j opinion from Attorney (Jeneral 8oni.ra l.a.kid by those of Tnliy and WunI, tlial lli.- elurtrr t was entirely VHlid. Trebys concumni ..r.ini.o Uking thU shape: 'I am of the sail i.ini.iti and, as this msller Is aUted, there la i.n i-ri.un.i of doubt.' The basis of the oplni..ii wi, that the charier hail been granleil under lli.. creii neal ; that It bad not been aurrenderiNl uii.lcr tlie common seal of the inilony. nor had anv Jm.|«. ment of record been enlert^l agalnal It , liiat hi operation bad merely lieen liilerfen..| uitli Lr overihiwering fnn-e; thai ilie cli.irler ilimf.ii' rrmaineil valid ; and that Ihe peaceable ..i!„iii»i„ii of the colony In Andnia waa men ty an flli i-HUut pension of hiwful aulliorlly. In olh.r H..r.|. ihr passive allltiiib' of the cilonlal g.i\irnni.Mi li«l disamml Amlnis so far as to slop ihe 1. v d pn. ceedlngs nectwutrv lo forfeit the ehari.r. ami Iheir prompt ai lion, at llie critical iii.iniMi!. secun^d all thai could lie a<rureil uiid. r ll,. .ir cu-nslanct* William was willing in.iiuli t„ retain all p<«allile fruit of Jamea'a ivnnii. «« hf sbo»ei| by enforcing the forfeltun'i<f ili. Ma».v ehusells chsrU'r, but Ihe law In lhi-.i« an t.«i plain, and he ralillnl the lawyer*' . [.mu .11 li April, lOM The clwrter li«l e«^;...| iu eneirles at last, and iU eaia|ie la a i,...ii unuit ..( ime ipf the advaiilages of a real ileiM.« 1 1. > Hi'iiimrBcy hail .lime more for ■'.nitiei 11. m iliui liana Inlluenee b.oil dune for Mi. ... hii.~iN -\ Jnhnalon. (hmtflirut. <•* 11 — The I.k i..i.i,4 which i.atabllalted ihe riglila of f..hi..i n. i.i IncliiilKl lUiiate laland Tlieae iw iiim.fl wealths wen' llie |i.irlli>n of the llriti-l, mipii' diatinglllahetl slaive all olhera liv lip.- Ur»'...| llla'rly. Karh waa a nearly perfe. « ilrm.»rair under Ihe shelter of a iiionsn liv Tlw eniwn. by reserving l.i llaelf the rl«lit .f ip|«Ti:. had •till a OMrtiiod uf Inlvrfrrliig Iu the lu^rjal comnEcncirr, law-iToi. n*Mn<auinm. coimEcncxn', im. tCaln of the two republlci. Both of them were Included ■moog the CDluniea In which the lord* o( tude advbnl ft complete rcetontloa of tlie pieiontiTee of the crown. Both were aunrd in the bill which, in April, 1701 wu Intnxluced Into parlUmeat for the slirogation of all Ameri- can cbartcn. The Jnumala of the hoiuc of lonli Hate that Connecticut wu publicly heard anlnat the meaaure, and cnntendnl that Ita librrtir* were held by contract in return for •rnrioua that hod been perfnmiMl ; iliat the taklDK away of ao many chnrtrni would dratrny aU confldence In myal pniiuiaca, and would alTonl • nremient danfTcniua to all the cliartvreil cor- poratioosof Kngtaml. Vet the bill wu read • •ponnd time. . . . The Imprndins; war witli the Frmih iHwlpomii tlie pur|io«e t!lT tlie arreuinn n( ilieliou«eiif Itimover "— (} Bancroft, l/itt of thtC. f- iAit'inr'n liut rrriinon). ;.( .S. fh H (r, «>. A. D. 1690.— Tht Artt Colonial CoSKrctt. Sv I'mti-:) St.\tf.« or .\>| : A I> ItlKti A. D. I70i-I7l7.-The foundinic of Yftlt College. See Rul-catium, Modbiin : Amkrk a : A U. 1701-1717. A. D. 1701-1711.— QuMB Anne'.i War. Ser Srw Kmoi AHii: .V n. 17(ri-17IO; and C'aiiada (Nkw FK\N<t:): A. I) 17ll-17i;i A. D, I744-I74l.-King; CMrre't War Md the takinf of Louiabourr. S<'-' >kw Knoi.am)' A I) ITU; 174.1: and I ilV-174f). A. D. 1753-1709. -Wcatern territorial claimi. — Settlcmenta In the Wyoming Valley.— Coo- licta with the Penn coloniata. Htv Pen.niivl- TA-il* A I) IT.VI-nw A. D. I7M--The Colonial Conrrctt at Albany, and Franklin'a pla.i of uaioa, See I'xiTKii .^TtTRO or Am a I> 17.V4. A. 0. i7S5-i7«o.-The French and Indian War, and coaqucat of Canada. Hve Ca.nada l\itw KKA-to:) A. I> I7.V> I7M. 1755 17.W- i:.VH7.'i7; 17.W; I7.MJ: I76II. Nova 8c«riA' A l» I74i>-I75,'»; I7.V1; Ohio (Vai.|,bt). A. D i;4H-17%4; 1754; 1755; Cafk BRMtm UlasD: A l» ITW 17(M» A. D. i76o.i7«c-Th« ^uttlioa of taaatioa W Parliament. -Tht Sufar Act.-Tha Stamp Act.-Tba Stamp Act Confraaa. »<■.• I Mtkii St»tm or Am.: A. D. I7«>-1775; 17<»-i:»4 KM. an.| I7WI . ^ °- 'J^i--'^^* "*»»" •«»l»»t tht Stamp ! \ct.— ■TlM' Knylinh K'"^emiiieul ■ioiler»iiNK| tin- will tluit IIh' coloniva were eartieHily < opix«p,l to the Hiamp Art, but they hail uo ' tbuudil iif the utorm of wrath aufi rvnliii:iii,t. '■ whlrh it woulil arouiw It wnn a suri'riM' to : manv .if the l<-i(i||.r» of public afTKlm in Anieri.a, (lovini.ir Kltih and Jnn'.i liiKenoll, wiih nthrf |.r..niiiM>nt i'lii/.en* who Ima ilone nil in Ihrlr iH.wir to opnoM' iIh- wlinne of ta.«Kll >n . i-<"in«lln| >uliintul,in. Thiy mi»t<ail( the f.illiik- uf 111,. !HM,p|e , . , Thed.riry wir.'«iill I Uif liarlint i)f puhlir opinion, iwid they wire \ unlttil III iliniiiiriiiil.m of tlie itn-al wmmf. | SvlHlf. wirt. iirtfiinUiti un.ler the nnnie of i!ie Siii of l.lli.rtT. ||„. „.,.n.t puriKMi' of whi, h •m 1.1 n-«l»i the Hinmp Act hv viok'nt nieaKiini i If mHtiwrv , Mr InKer*.°>ll. who hiwl <loiie ' K\ 111 hu i»,w,.r to i.pp,w tlie 1.111, aft«-r li» tw> ••(IP i|.(|.|.-.l to ai^ept tlie p.Mltl.rii of •|,unn i •«nt f..rC,.uiieetlrii Franklin iiricnl hlni to ] Ukf iIk' pl.uv, ami no im- d«iibie<l fiu niollrra ; in ...■.■i.tiii,, It The n,,.n|,. ,.f t'onnwlkiit kuwev.r. win u<A pivaacd with IhU aitiuu He wu Tiaited by a crowd of citizeni, who inouiivd Impatiently If he would reaign. " Inger- ioll put them off with evuive repllea for aome time; but Anally there wa« a gathering of a tbouiand men on horaeback. fiom Norwich. New London, Windham, Ix'banon and other towna, each armed with a heavy peeled club, who aurmunde<l the obatlnate atamn agent at « ethemlield and made him undentnnd that they were in deadly eameat "•The cause U not worth dying for,' laid the intreplil niuii. who would never have flinched had lie not felt that, after all, thh liand of earnest men were in the riv'ht A foiTiial resignation waa given hlin to »ign. . . . After he had signed his name, tlic crowd crieil out, ' 8wear to it I ' He beggnl to Iw excused from taking an oath. 'Then shout I.ilierty and Property, said the now gfKHl natured ci.nipnny. To this he had no objertion, and wav.-d hishnt enthusiastically u he repeiiti>d the 'vcircls. having given three cheera, the now hiUrious (mrty <lin«; together." Ingerwill waa then escort«Hl to llartfonl, where he n-nd his feaiuimlion piibli ly at the court houae.—E. B teiuifonl, //i»f. (/ C-nnrrlinit, rh. 29 A. D. t7M.-Th« repeal of the Stamp Act. —The Declaratory Act. Sec Lsitkd Statks or Am : A :; 17M A. D. I7«6-I7«8.— Tht Townahend dutiea.— The Circular Letter of MuMchntetta. See IMtkp STATKa or Am.: A. 1>. 17Wi-l767 a.nd i:«7-176H. A. D. 17M-1770.— Tht qnarttriar of troopi in Botton.-Thi " Maaucn " and the removal ofthttroopt. See Boaru.x: A. I>, ITHh mi J liTD. A. D. I7«9-I784.-Tht tndiar of ilartry. Se«' i^LAVEHT, Nkiiho: A. !>. 17l«l-17i.'i A. D. l770-i773.-RtMal of tht Townahend duties tactpt on tta.— Committttt of Correa- Biadtnct inititnttd.- 't bt tta thipt and tht otton Tta-partj. SeerNrrrnSTATKsor.VM .VJV 1770, and 1775-1773, and Boston A. 1). 17711 A. O. 1774.— Tht Boaton Port Bill, tht Maaaaehnatttt Act, and tht Quebec Act.— The Firat Continental Confreaa. ** IMtku 8TATK!<or.\M A I) 1774 A. D. I775.-Tht btcinninc of the War ol the American Revolntien.— Lenington. Con- cord.-New England in armt and Boston btleapred. - Ticonderofa.- Bunker Hill.- Thc Second Continental Congrcaa. Seel .sited States or Am A D 1T7.V A. D. i77«.— Asaumea to bt a "free, tovtr- eiga and independent State."—" In \U) . 1778, the pinple hail (hho fornwlly n'len<e.| fn.'m ih.ir alleglaiire l.i the i niwn . ami In thioluT the general aswmMv (iiuwhI an set auiiniing the fuiirlionii of a Siii.' The lniiK>nanl i»ttl..n nf the ml was tlii' Mmt. as follows; 'TIimI the amiiiil form of civil itovemmeni, enntnliied In the rhartrr fn.m thn..es the H.ivmil, KInir of Kinrliiil. and a.l.ii.'i-d l.y the p,.,)p|(. ,,r this >'ate, thall lie nncf remain the civil ('onsiliiitiMn of ihU Siiile. iin.l.-r the xile nulhorlty ,<f i|i« p«'op!e thereof, Indepen.lcnl of anv liliii; or prliii-e whalevir And th.at IhU Hepiihllc Is, niHl >lial| foriv. - W and remain, a fnv, aoviTelxn niiij liiih pendent .stale, l.v the name of ilic Siai.' i,f Conniiiieiit ■ The ^ortn of the act ^peik* nhat was di.iihtlcM always the liellef of the |K'op|e tuat thtlr charter derived It* vaUdity. out (rua 617 k'- ( II ' /: J- tii- it comracncDT, im Hba win of the rrowD, but from the ■mrnt of ttw peoplr. And tbe curioui Uasiuge of the lut •eoU'nce. I- whiih ' tbii liepulHic ' ilccUros itai'lf to hi! 'a free, •<ivfre(xn, uiil iDdepemlcnt State." msy M-rve to indicHle •oinethiiiE of the apiMsitr- Mice wbii'li Btalf suvpreignty doubtleai pmenteid to the Americutui of lT?»-8»."— A. Jobnuton, Cimiurtieul, eh. 16. — 8oe, alio, Ukitko Statu or Am. : A. 1». 17:6-17;». A. D. 1776-1783.— The war and the Tictory. — Indepaadcnca achieved. 8ec I'ihtkd States OF An. : A. D. 1778 U> 1783. A. D. 1771.— Th« maatacf* at tht WmmiaK ■cttlcmeot. See Uiciteu Statu or Ax. : A. L>. 177»(Jii.T) A. D.1779.— Tryen'tmaraiidiagnpaditioBa. 8«"e Tnitkii STATKHor Am. : A. l" 17.8-1779. A. D, 17M.— Partial cciiioB of weatem territorial clatm* to the United Statei.— The Wettem Reaerve io Ohio. S«f l'mTKi>ST\TEii or Am ; A. I) I7k1-17»«; l>i!(Miiri.VAMA: A. D. PSa-lTW; Kud Ohio: A. I>. 17M-17V6. A. D. I78t.— RatiAcatioa of the Federal Conititation. ivv L'kitko Statiui or An - A. 1) 17M7-17H9. A. D. 1B14.— The Hartford CeaTcntioa. Bee I'niteu Statu or Am.: A. D. 18U (Us- CBMBKH). ♦ CONNECTICUT TRACT, Th* See New YoHK: A. l>. nm-i'm CONNUBIUM. Si'MrxiripitM. CONON, Pope. A. I> 8N6-887. CONOYS. Nt'.VMKHiCA.<« AHUBiniifU: Al- OONUI IAN KaMILT. CONRAD I., Kiac of the Eait Frank* (Gcrmaayi, (the Arit of the Sazoa lioe), A. 1>. »M-»li' Ciarad II., Kincof the Romaae (KiOKOf CennaaT), A I> HJ^^KKW; Kinf of Italy, !<>-.>A-lii:iu, KinKof ButKaady, lIKIi-liKW Emperor, Iii-JT-iikiu Coarad III., Kiw of Germany ithe Snt of the Swabian or Hohen- ■tauffen dyaaityi, Ii:i7 trU' Conrad IV., Kine of Germany, I'.i.'Ht^ \i.\i. CONSCRIPT FATHERS-The H..m»n ««ti:iiiirt Wirt- M> riilli-*!. — " I'liiri'e Connripli " Tin' "fijrin ■•( till' dinltriiiiiloii luu liwn mm li ilin- rUI.Mll. Hlld till' l'«|.llUIHlil.ll Whlrh llUlt fcMlU.l nin»t wif'iitaniT tit llii«. llmt » hfn. at tlic nritutil xatloii iif the l<t piililic, tliiTi' wiu a iww rnuil»n iif nfnitlom. In eil tlif miikn. the nrw m nainn Kiri' iiiIImI "<<>niiirl|iii" ( "wtili',) in Hi,- ri,|| •) • liile llic nldir fiiiis wrrr I'nllnl ' pnin-* (•■ falhcru' I. iw li,f,,r».. Th.n IIh- nhiili' mimXr H«» uddofix-.l n» •■ I'Hlnii <l C'onm'ripti," \klili h lu|-H.l liimllv into " l*iiln-a(°iiOMri|iti. "'-II U Ll.1.1. II. //i-r t limnt. M I rh 4 CONSCRIPTION. The UrM Freach. S<* Fh%vk a I> 171IH l71»»(.Vi..iirr-Ai-Riil CONSCRIPTION IN THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR. r*..- IMtmi Utatm i.r Am A l» I><«HiMah<iii CONSERVATIVE PARTY. 1 he Eorliah. — 111!' nmiw ('.in«i rvntli •. " to rrpliin th.il .if TiTv iwi> KN«!.\>ii> A I) l»"i for till' •iriiilii "f III)' Uliir) iM a |wri\' 'l-i<lv'n«ih>ii. wm lint In lr..|ijii-.| In \K\\ l.y Mr John WIUoii I r.'k.r III «niirlli'l<' in lliiQiurbrly Krirlew ■ || cnpt kliiMJ) liii.i Ki-ncrHl fitviHir. iiIiIikiikIi enini- fi w tlirrr wrn- »lii. alwaya liikl out iKitiuiil it. .11 «"iir«itMl lij- llir I naiiipli' of tht- lair Itn.li-rMf the iMiriy, r«>r.l Ifcw ..ii«lltld. »li.> wm imt «i ^11 utly Iv wteMi a wvlcuutv to Miytiaeg oUkU CONSTABLE. canw with Mr. Croker'i mark upon It "— L J Jennlnci, r*# Croker htptn, r. a, n. |!»s CONSILIO DI CREOENZA. Sti Itali A. n. i05«-ii.w. CONSISTORY, The Papal. S.« Ct u. Papau ^ CONSISTORY COURTS OF THE BISHOP&— " ThodutlMof tli.-..in.i«K„f ,|^.I couru mcmblnl In theory the dutlin nf ii,,. ,»,,. iors undiT tbe liuman Kvpiiblic. In tlir niijille ages, a lofty effort hsU iM'cn iniulp t<i n\,.riw..a the common limitatlomi of ((ovcrnnunt to intm. dure punikhment for sins «« « ill aa < rji,,, , a,„i to visit with temporal penaltlia tlio bniu li.,f n,e moral Uw. . . . The adniinlntniiion nf m:,.), , discipline fell ass matter of ci.iirar, tctl,", l,rcr . . . This aniar tbroii).'li<>iit Kiin.|H. u svsNmJ.f sflrituil Mirveilliince over the buliiismi.!, ,n,li,t ot every man, cxU'mllng fniMi tlir <nii;i::,. |,, i'|„ castle, takiuff note of all wniii^' diHliiu' A ill oppreaaLm of man by man. of nil li. , i,ii,„,.„i..j and pn>t11){acy. and letm'M'niini.' u]>.iti ,~,n\\ in the priucjplea by whltli it »:u. ifiii.lnl, t|„. i,,, of tlie great triliumd of Aliiiii:hlv (iol >i,„u waa the origin of tbe chun li ciHirtB, pirliaii, i!k. gn'atest InHtltutloiis Vit ili-viM-,1 l.y ihuii Itiii t<i iiim at tbeau higb Itli'uls I.h us ihtIIoi.-. lu ii u noble; anil weapons wlilcb may 1h' khUU- 1nw.1l In tbe lisiida of aainia Ih-ciiiii' fitlal iinpl. uliiK (if niiacblef when aainta biivr ii;,«n| u null tlii'ni. . . TbcConalalory I'.mrn luul(,,|piiuii.il iut.ilheiixternllieenturv with iinriMri. 1.-.1 jurii dii'tion, sIllMKigh they liiiil Ui n f.ir t n.riui.iu mrnly (K'n'tiuinlly tl.'win^ f..iiiiliiiii- fn.liii^ the ncli-aiaalUiil excbri|ui'r. 'I'lic nl rumlii.t of fvery Eni;liah man ami wimiim niiii.ui,4 lul. Jerl to them. . . . But . . . llw 1 iM.«iin ^ vm no longer apiritiial. TIh'V u.n' etiitin.uiiil in variiiua grailati.int, fur (Mriiiiiury lliir« ..i.i ..uh offi'ni-e agninat ninnility »ii» nt.il nt ii. .|,,ii;c m.wy value In tlK- K|il»<'p«l lulil.^ Hi- misilrmi'siiKuni of wbi. Ii iliii.'.rts i<>.k < ;.iii aaii.e wire 'i.tTiiirDS apiiuM ili.iMiii Imr^v.' or nialtrr aamiiiliiii; lliirriint ■ viiihnHfl' ' ilrunkruiii'ss,' 'Mnn.lal.' '.Iifinhiiiini iiii|« tient wi>nl«,' 'bn.k.ii proini- » itmili.' 'al«'nri' fnnnebur. b.' •(Mnikiuk- . itl 'if .iml«.' 'ui>n paymiiit of off. iiiiir».' iit.l ..ii..r il. liii- iiutmies ini'spalilp .if Leal .1. hiuiiiiii —J A FriMlde. i/ial. uf hnglm.il, ,1, A CONSOLS.— In i;.'.!, a i»ri. ir ..( Ilrillnti ■OTcmmcnt aecuritlia Min- rcM:«.iliilaU ! Im uw form of at'M'k ralbnl ■ri.ns.»lnl:ii.-"l ai.tjuif.r* ' By abbri'viation lilt y i.'i>i till iiuihi <! .iiimiIh," wliU'b baa rhiiig i<ihII ^"i.il.r ^i 1 'ii.ti.-i x^it.r CONSPIRACY BILL, The. (*.. i;>..i4.<o A. I» I^IM lH.-,». CONSTABLE, The.--' Tl.. imni. 1. .1. rivr,! fmiii till' 'r.inii's atatiiili .f tin lli/4iiini< "'un. and a|i|w«n In the »i">i m earlv'ax ih. iiv-f Onjr.iry of Tuura. Tlii' iliiitini.f llw (■■ii-ii!** i>i France . and Ilim..' nf ilic .-..n'tiWo ■.! Naples are not rxnilly piiMll. I Kitli |ili.i« (if| IhecdiiiiUjblmnf Knglaiiil In \;i|i|. ■, tin n* •table ki'pt ttie kiuKa vauoI. hiiiiiiiiiiiiIhI iI« army, apiHiiulnl ibn i|iiiirtir«. ili«. iiiiiunl ilw tnxiiis amliliatrlhii, I'll till' vniihi U. tin iu.>r>iiiiu ami nil nlbt'riirtii'en Im-Iuk lii» aulinriliiiiii^ Tiw FniH'h nttlce waa iiearl> ili.' uuim' In I ijUnii. bnwrver. tlie luambal km uhI »iil«irilii>ii " iii till' niiiatable I'mliulili ibc Kii|{li-Ui luii'lialt fuiniliMl Ills ilulleH wlii.liliail i>iii lu N.niiiiiilr UfaH.'Uar(«il by tite «.uuaubh». TUe iu.j^>1m1 ■ 618 CONSTABLE. ■ore dbtlnctlr sn officer of the court, the con- ■Uble one of the CMtle or nrmj. . . . The con- ■table . . . eierctafii the offloe of qturtermuter- rml of the court und hnaj and sviccce<le<i to duties of the An|^Io-Hazon italler."— W. StubiM, Ci.nj<. Ilitl. of Kng., c*. 11, Mel. 183, •ml t>"l*. CONSTABLE OX FRANCE.-- No oth.r dipilty In tlie worlil li.-w bc-en held by lurli a iUcretiHion of ifrent nildii-n n* the olBce of Con ■Ubie of France. Tlie Conatable wa» orl^'innllr t mere oRloer of the Htablea, but hU power huil iacm'ted by the lupprenion of the office of OfamI Seneschal, an(l by the time of Phillri AapKtm he exert'lucd control o»pr all the mili- tary firroi of the crown. He waa the gen<-ml In chief "f the army anil the hii(he«t military authnrity in the kincdom. Thecomitablex liad for four o-niurfc-s b> vn liiulen in the wars of Fram-e, u<l tlicy had einerlirnceil stranKc and Tarl<ii (nrt!mi-«. Thf olnce hail been Ixiitowed on the ton i>f Himi)n de Montfort, and he for this honor hni k-ranteil Ui the king of France his ri»bta orer tiKMe vast domuins which had tNfO iivvn hi* father for liiii plou.s coni}uests [^^eo Albi- at-iw.* A I) 1S17-I229) It had been U-- «nw<-ii on Itaoul de Nesle, who fell at Courtrai. whirr llip Kn>nrh nobility suffered its first defmt fnim Kli-nisli boon; on Bcrtrand de Oae»lin. the liwt of the (treat warriors, whoan dei-.l« wi-re sunn "'th those of the palailins of Clisrli-msirni- ; on ClisMm, the victor of Kikmc- beck I .r KiMelieniue]; on Annaf^nac, wliintu nami" lias a bloody iireemineni-e among the leailiTHiif the Aerce sflhllery who ravai^ Fraiic-e liuriiu' tiH- EnKllsh wars; on Buchan, win we Scotoli vaior and fidelity Kslneil him this gn-at tnnt iiwmg a fiiri'i#(n peoph?; i,n Kichemnnt. the cnmpiiiioii nf J. am lUrc; on Saint l*ol. the allv o( Cliirli-. ilie llold, the lietrayer and the victim of U'lni .\l , on llie Ihike of liourlion. who won Ilie tm'ili- lit l'.tilii affainst his sovrreiirn. and liit : bis si'Mii'M t.i that sack of Kihih- whii-li maile ' the r.iv.iif,.* nf (l.-iuM-ric ami .\larii- awm mild. | iMi Anm- nf Monlniiin-nrl. a pnmiiiieut aiU-r iii frery ite«t i-n-nl in France from the battle of I ISvli urainul Charli-s V. to that of St. Drnis I ««in-i ('..li^Mii. on his son. the conipanlon .if i Hi'tirv IV ill Iii-t vouth. and hi» trusuii aitvix-r '■ In 111. im- Till- swonl b..riie bv ituch mi-n '' lu.1 1.-, n li,..i„w«| [ |«J| ] on I.uln.-s.'ilie hem uf sn s>>.i»iiiiitiiin. wlKiroiiMnoldrlllacompanvnf laf.ii!r% it WAS now \\m>\ eUrn (.. tl,.. |„.n', „f rannv l.-.|ih.' Kuki-.if U~.l,.,tiil*r.-»|. and tli.- fTvm , • .- wn. i„ ,.,.,!„. in the ItaiiiU of n tn-M •.I.I1.T -J U I'l-rkins. «vi«o« tiiuier Mtfinn ' lA.,^^ ^^••KK»^<K A n ISSIUISTo CONSTANCB.Th. CmmtU af. See Pai-act A l> UK Ills ^CONSTANCE. Pmm of iiUj). A-e Itai.t '^CONSTANSI..IJ,«MiEmp.ror.A t. «17- »• Constaai II., llaaaiiBmMror lEaM. tmi, \ II tKi-*t>« "^ CONSTANTINA. Tk« t.ki>c of (Uj?,. !*«■ H«KM1K> SrtTM A I* IH.lllllMM CONSTANTINB. Po««. A !• 7.^ 71.1 CoBstantins I. icallad Tho Croati, RomM t-«ror, .V 1. 3,w m Tbo Cokwr."^ jj^W K I, ^ti ru Ponrod do«.- UM.f *,. l.,n„j A H 774 ri Conttaa- no* II . Roman Bapcror, A l> S37 .140 tMMaatias 111., RomM Bnporer ia tha Baati CONSTANTINOPLE, A. D. 8S0. ^- ^ J";*! Conatantina IV. (caUed Pmoov toa), Roman Emperor ia the Eaat, A. I). «»- «'«. .CooaUotine V. (called Copronymua), ?'°?f"?.!"i'" ^"' (Byauitine, or Greak^ ■ u J**"^' Conatantine VI., Emperor m the Eaat (BTaaatine. or Greek), A. I ) 780- 797 . CoaataotiBe VII. (called Porphrronni- tua), Emperor in the East (Bysantine, or Greek), A. D. Wll-fl.w Conatintine VIII, (colleacue of Coaataatine VII.), Enperor in the Eaat (Byaantine, or Creek), A. I). 941 Conatantine IX., Emperor in the Eatt (Bysan^ Une, or Greek), A. D. fej-unw Conatitina r'i7??f."*,n'".*'** ^ (By««ntine, or Greek), A'' I'M-i Km Conatantine Xi, Emperor '.?«,''• ^^ (Byaantine, or Creek). AD iTwi)- III87. . . .Conatantine XII., nominal Greek En- peror in the Eaat, al>out A I). 1071 Con- atantine XIII. (Polaolocnsi, Greek Emperor of Conatantinople, A. I). 1HH-14.-i;i . Con- •*i?i!S* ""• "•»'?•'• *•« BiiiTAiN: A. I> 4(»7 CONSTANTIliOPLB: A. D. 33o.-Triu»: formation of Byaantium.— •( .in»l:intiiie liad for some time ccmtempliitiii the cn-ction of a new capit.il. The experience of nenriv half a century had condrmwl the haKadty u( Di.icle- tiiins seln-tion of a site on the condui-s nf Kiirope and Asia [Nieomeilla] as the wliintilHiuta in which the political centre of gMviiy ,,f tlio hmpire rested. .\t one time Constantiii.- lliimjrht of wloptlnif the site of ancient Trov, and U wiij til have actually cnnimenctil huiidiii^ a new city I ''"ii""'! ■„; *'""' ?■■"*»''■ "•"""IS iilliiiiau-lv pre- valliil. The practical Koiiis of C.mst.mtitie r«inni«ed in the town of ltr):iintiuiii. on the ! l.iin)|»an side of the Imnlir'Uiie Ivtwiin the two omtimiita. the site U*\ a<la|iti'd for bin new i.i|iitjil. All subai-quint atfi-s Inve applaiideil lilt discernment, for experiiiiii- Imn ciidontid tha wisilora of the choice. Uy luiid. with its .VaUn siiliurh of l'hryso|Milis [nuKlirn Scutari 1 it practically spanncil the narrow Htrall and joined hiiroiH- and Asia : by sea. it w,w oin-n on one side to Spain. luly, Oreece. Afrii a. Krfvpt. Syria on the other to the Kuxine. ami wiliv t)ie ll;iiiulM It had easy access to the whole of that liii|>.iriant frontier lietween the Kmpin' ami the IwrUrians; and round all the nortlii rn coasM of the M>a It took the barbarians in dank . , The litv was solemnly diHilcateil with nlli.'ioiiH c.Ti'ni.iiiii-s on the lllb of Mar. iUW. ami lli- m-iuiou win ivle- lirnte.1. after the liomsn fu»lii .ii. I.v n t'reat fiitlval. Isrimvs and Banii-^ in Ilie lii|"ip.«|piine whleh Instill forty ,Jay«. The KniiMmr ^.wv to the lily ln*iitulions modelleil alter tliw.if the aiieient Komc'-E. I. <'uii«, i-„„t.i, ,>,,»• tki <lr,,if, fA. 'JU —"The new wM* i.f l'.m<tantine stn-trhiil fnim tlie port to the l'ii.p,.;i!j, m the .li«taiiiv of (If 11 «i:i,ii.i fr..iii ilie ancient f.trtiflcation, ami. with the liiy nf Mv/tiiilium tlHV enclihKil five of the m-viii liill*'« hi. h. |,> the ryes of Ihow! who apprmeh ('.iiistniiilnopic apiH-ar to riai< als.vc eai ji ..tli, r in l.-aiiilfui nnler Alwmt a crnliiry iifter llie d, uili „f tho fiumler. the new hiiildliii;s air i.lv i-.iieriil the narrow ridge of the sixth iiii.l I'he Lnnil summit of the seventh hill riie Iniil.lintfS i>f the new city Wen- exii iilwl bv «ueh iiitilleer* s« the n-lirn of ('on«uuiiiiie c'liM «tT..ril but ihrv wen. d«onit.il by tlu- liamU of the niiMl i«-l»lifate.| luaak'rs of the age nf I'erii les and .\letatider Hy his iiimmaii.N Ih- cities of *ir«««:« BiiJ Aata wore dtM|iuilt-J uf tiivlr 619 ■i- [■: coxsTAirrmoPLE, a. d. sm. ▼kluable omamrata."— B. Gfbbon, DeHiiu and tIMof tXt Hiim-nt Bmpirt, ek. 17.— "The new city wu »n exact copy of ok) Rome. ... It wu InhabilMl liy Knatora from Home. Wealthy Isdiriiluals fmin the provinoea were likpwiM compellml to kn-p up houaea at CooitantiDople, penaioiu were iMnfi'ired upon them, and a right to a certain amount of proTliiong from the public itorea wa« annrxtil to tbew dwrllinn. Eighty tbouaaod loaves of bread were diatribuUid A»ily to the inbabitanu of Conatantinoplc. . . . The tribute of grain from Egypt waa appropriated to ■upply ConiUntlnople, and tliat of Africa waa left fur the contiumpi ion of Rome."— U. Flnlay, Ontet undfr Iht Hmmint. eh. 3. AlM> IX: J. B. liiiry. IIi$t. of the taUr Roman Empirr. bk. 1. (h. S (r. 1). A. D. 363-518.— Tha Eattem Court from Valeoa to Anaatatiut.— Tnmnlta at tha capital. Bee Komk: A. I>. :«i:t-3T» to 4IIU-.tl8. A. D. 378.— Thrtateatd by tka Goths. SeeGoTlIs: A I) i)T»-a83. A. D. 400.— Popular riainr acaiaat tha Gothic aoldiery.— Their exBuIsioa from tha Citgr. Se.- HoMB; A. I). 40l>-318. A. D. sii-sia.— Tumulti conceminr the Triiagion.— During tlie reign of AnasUtTua, at Corisl;mliiio|iIt', the Hem- conlmvemy which liad ni).'eil fnr many yoam throughout tlie einpin-. Ntwwn tlie .Monnpliyaitea (who maintaineil Hint the divine anil tlie liiiman Daturm in Christ were one), ami the ailhen'nU of llio Coitnril of Clialce<ion (which de<'lnre<l that t'hri«t poineiinnl two natureii in one iHrson), waa emliiltered at tlic imperial cnpital liy oppoaliiou iN'twern (he em|M'n)r, who favon^l tlie Monophyaitei, and tlic Satriiirch who vim mrict in ChaleedonUn ortho- oxy In .'ill, aiKl again in SU, it ruvc ri>e lo two aliinnliii! riots at ConstantiDopU-. On the timt iKdision, n .>|onophy«ite or Kutvchlan party "liiirst into the ChiiiMrof the Archangel in tlie Itn|»Tlal riilmennd dan-'i to chant theTe IVum with tlio uildilion of the forliiihlen wonia, tlie War rry of iimnv an Kiilvehi.in moli, ' Wlio want criuirt.-,! for ui.' The Triaagion. a* it wna called, the thric n |«'iite.l cry to the Holy (Jne. which Isaiah in his virion li'earl iitUTjsl 'hy the aj-ra- phim. tx'cami-, liy the aililition of tlieae wonla. aa cniphaiii- a atau-inent aa lliu Monnphysitp party could ilisire of tiielr favourilv tenet t tint liol, not iiiun. hn-nthni out hit aoui unt<i divth ouUide tlie gntea of Jeniaalem. . . . On the DcJt Sunday the Mouo|iliy»itea aang the verae whii'h was tin If war cry in the gn«t flaailica Itsilf" The riot which enaueil waa i^uletiil with ditllcully liy the iialrlnrch. to whom the cni|M'ror huinliled hiuiscif Hut in the next year, on a fast ilay (Nov (1) the Monoplivailea gave a alinilar < Imilenge. smiting (Ik- Trimgion with the pnihihittil wonis ndd!--!. and "again paalrmslv ftave pliii»r to hlfiws, men woundeil and dving ay U...11 the ti.i..r of the church . . "The orthislox nn.'i siri'aiiud from all parta Into the gnat fi.rum Tlnre they awami>'<l and awayed to and fM all llmt day and all that niiiht. •hoiiiini fonh. not the gn-atneaa of the Kphi'alan Diana, hut ||,,ly. ifily, Unlv,' without the woM» ■ Who wasi 1 ru<'iliis| ' Tiiev hewe<l down the monk". -a tniiiorily of their ilaM. — who were on thi «i.|r of the imperial cree<l, ami burned their in >naiileriea with lire " After two dayaof riot the agiil emperor bumhieit hlmaeir to the m.Oi, lo liiv great Clicua, offered Ui COKSTANTINOPLE, A. D. 86M7S. abdicate the throne and made peace by pmmim to reapect the decrees of Chalcedun.—T. ll.sigkin. luUfand Utr Imfntkn, ».V. 4. eh. 10,— s,t, »ljo Nk«TOMAX AJtD MoNOPHTalTB CoirmoVEBlT ' A. D. SSA— The Sedition of Nika. gn CiRCtra, FACTioMa or tub RoMAif. A.'\i.5vi3r-'"* '"^•' ** ••■•-" A. D. SS3-— C*'*'^ Cooacil. See Ton CnAmna, THE Diepuraor rnc. A. D. «a6.— Attacked by the Avari aad Peraiana. See Komb: A. D. .VI.'MnN. A. 0. 668-«7S.— First aiece by the Sara- cens.— " Forty •Ix years after the Hl«ht of JU hornet from Mecca hia diaciplea apiieared in amu under the walla of Conatantioople They were animate<) by a genuine or Hctitioua Mytoi of the prophet, that, to the flrat arrar whicS beaieged the city of the C«"«tra. their aiiia were forgiven. ... No aonner had tlie ('all|.li Moa wiyah [the flrat of Hie Ommiaile oillplis. aealeil at Damaicus,] iiippreaiied Ilia rivals ami esuib liahoi bis throne, than he aspired to expiiuc tlif guilt of civil blooil by the aiiiveaa of tliisholr exp<-<lition: hia preparations liy ten an<i Itiill were ade(|iiate to the importance of Hie ohject Ilia alandnrd waa cntniatvd tii S<iphian, a veirran warrior. . . . The (Jreeks had litlh> toli,,|s'. nor had tbeir enemies any n-aaiins of fear, fr.m the courage and vlgilaui^ of tlie reigniiii; Kiuponir who disgraced tlie name of t'oiistnuline. »nj iniitate<l only the Ingkirious yearn of Ins i;r»rnl father lleracliua. Without Tlelny or (m[»B,iiii.u, the naval forres of the Hnraivna'passist tiirouitli tlie unguarded channel of tlie llellea|Mint. w)ii,li even now, under the feeble ami illsonieriy gov eniiiient of the Turks, is niaiutaiinsl as iIk iiitiiral bulwark of tiic capital Tin' .\r«lii«ii flci-t caatanchorand the tnaipa were lii.s.nilairkrcl near the palace of IlelNhimon. aeven iiiil.s fnia the city. During maiiT days, from tin- iLswo of light to the evening, tlie line of assault 'vm ej ti'ndeil fMm the golden gate to the Ei'tiro pmnionuiry. . . . Hut thelH'aiei.-i'n ha>l (.nntd an inaumcient ealimate of the stn-iiuih sii.i rr Kiurcesof ConsUntinople. The sol ii I an I l.if'r walla were guardeti liy numlaTu and ilU iiilim'. the spirit of the liimmns was nkiiulliil liy Ibr last danger of tln-ir n-ligioii nuil einpire', t!if fugitives from the conipietvd provinn . mure auot-wfiilly renewe<l the defence of Ihiiiasiiu and .\lexaiidr1a: and the Saracens wen"li«nu(«l l>y the alranire and pr<slii;ious elTi'< isif »nilii'i;il fl'ri' This llrm and elTectual r<si«tame ilinrusl their arms to tlie more easy ntiempts of |i!un.ier lug tlio Kurii|>enn and .Vsialic coasts ..f Uk I'm |»'U!is; and. after keeping the s^a fr'iii l!ir in.'iilh of April to llm: of S ptenilsr. 'O tile iipiir.Mch of winter they ^•ln■al.-i fmir tcort iMilis fniiii the capital. Iii the l>le <•( i v/nin, la nliiih till' had estnliMshiit tluir ini. i/iir if apiil aiiii j.niviahins M<i pailini H.iailu:r pir aeverance, or an lamiuid wen- llnir i'|sr»ii.'n». that they repeatetl in the aix followini; Minimin the a<ime attack ami retreat, with n trralul nliiilement of ho|H'and vigour, till tie- iiili liiniin if ahipwrrck and disease, of the sw.pl ami ■ ( lire, conipellnl them to reliniiiii»h Ihi' fniilli'sa enterprise. They might U-wnll He l'»» r iim iiiemiirnte the niarlvnlom. of ;ioi«»i M •ifim who fell intheplegrof Ciai.tantin.ii'le Tl» event of the alege revived. Isilh In the I. Ml anil West, the rrputatiun of tlie Itonian amu, aixl fi20 OOlTOTAinTKOPUC A. O. M»-«7B. cMt ■ momentanr (hade orer the clorie* of the gtraceos. ... A pmoe, or truce of thirty vean wuimtifled between tlie two Empirei; and the ■HpubtioQ of w> annual tribute, flftir hone* of a noble breed, flftjr ilarei, and 8,000 pieces of foM. dt-gnwied the majesty of the commander of the faithful "—£. Gibbon, i>M<iiw and fUt of llu Bumaii Kmpin, eh 53. A. 0. <la— General Conadl. Bee MoaoTHE- un C'o."iT»ov«i««T. A. 0. 7I7-7IS-— The aecead elcfe b7 the Saraeena.— '■ When Ix«o [the laaurUn] was raised tathe[Byiantinc]tliroue [A. D. 7171, the empl'e wu threatened with Immediate ruin. Six em penirs had been dethroned witliln the space of twcnlT'ODe yrnrs. . . . The Bulgarians and SclsTooians wasted Europe up to the walla of CoDstanilnnple; the Haracens raraged the whole of .Vila Minor to the shores of the Boepborus. . . . The Cilipli 8\ili>iman, who had seen one private ulrenturer Kiicccvtl the other in quick aucoeasion oa the imiH-rinI throne, deemed the moment fsTourable fur the ti-<al conquest of the Chrls- tiani: mid. rc-infordng his bitither's army [In Alia .Minor], he ordered him to lay siege to Con- •UDtln>'ple. The 8sraoen empire bail now R*ch<.i lu great)-st i-itent. From the banks of tb« Sihim ami tli>' Indus to the shores of the AtUntic In Mauri iHnia and Hpain, the order of ifiiilt'inun wa« implicitly olieyeu. . . . The army NiMlrniah liil against Constantinople was the liMt «p|Miint<H| that hiul ever attacked the rhrisiiaus: It consiatiil of M),()UO warriors. The I'aiipli announce)! his Inlriitlon of taking the tli'iil in penm with a<iilitici-uil forces, should the cipiliil of the CbriKtians offer a protractoi rc- niian'F to liic arm.s of IitUm. Tlie whole ex|M> (liliuu in uiil to have cmploywl 180,000 nun. Moilrnuh. afUT capturing I'erganius, Runlit'l to .\li}-il(M. where he was Joined by the SsntiTU tl«'t. Ho then transptiiinl his army tctimi 111.' IIelle«|i<int, and marching Blong the •bore i.f till' rni|i<>ntia, Investml Ix«ln hi»rHpit;il boih iiv land ami s«'«. Tlic str»ng walla of Ci.o •ts. tiuuplc. the entriiics of di-ft-m-n with which lionuu and (Junk art hud covi-nnl the ramparts. Sbl iIk' akill of llw Uyuntine enginrera, rrnilireii f»ery aitrinpt to carry the place liy aaaaiitt h.>iH'- lc«, «<■ that the haracons wi'recomtx'llnl to trust to till- 1 Ifc. t of a strict blockatli- for gaining piw- «*.l.>n nf the city. . . ThcN-aicgerseucainiK'il Uf..rf I'l.nauntlnoplp <in the 13th August .17 The ( .iliph Suleiman diiil iM'fore he was abli- to •end auy rrinfnrci-nii'nU to his brother. The wintfr pnneii unuaually severe." Ureat num hir>..f til,, narriiira fMm tlH-niuth weredeatn>rn| by the ini Ii'miiu y of a climate to which tlity li«l n..| iHH'onif lnim'<l; many more died ,if fsniim in thi' Moahincamp, while the braii-ccd lily wm pl.'ntifiilly aiippilnl. The whole unilt-r- taliiuif KM iliwistMiia from Its tirglnning to its closr aii.l. c laclly one v.>ar fmra the pitching of liia (%:„n uu.hr the ilyitaiitiue walls, "on the 15tli..f AuitUiit Tis. MiMlrmah raia<-il the siege, •tttr r.iiiiiiiu of the fln»it annleathc Sarucciis rrer unititilnl Kew niiliury ilwulls ci.n certiln.; ft-,,, .lif.-n,.,. of Coiutantinupli- hnvp I Iwn pr..*rn,|. \„n there can he no doiilit thai I H «»« Hir >.f the nimt hrilliant expb.its of a I •»r!lk.. air<- The ranltr .if (Jalllc writers I I'M ni..^i,irt.Hi ihr •<i<'<',.as of rharl.'s Martel over ' • i.lun.|.rihrf r«|»iliti.«i of ihe Hpanlsh Amba lalu a niajTcUous vicUiry, and altr'bulad the de- CONSTANTINOPLE, A. D. MT-lOa llTeraaceof Europe from the Saracen yoke to the Talour of the Franka. A veil has been thrown over the talents and courage of Leo, a soldier of fortune. Just seated on the imperial throne, who defeate<l the long-pliinned srhrmes of oooqueat of tke Caliphs Welld bihI Suleiman. . . . The Samceus were griMlually exiu'lled from moat of their conquests b.'vond Mount Tauria"-G. Finlay, IIM. of the Uytautine A'm- jnnfrom 718 to mi, eh. 1. . A;,R;747.-'nie Great Plafue. S.ePiJioi»: A. D. 74i-.4«. A D. 754.— The Icoaoclaatic CennciL See ICOROCUISTII' CoNTHOVKIlHY. Stk-iotb Ccatnriet. See Trade, Medi.*. TAL: BtZANTIKB. A. D. 865.— Flirt attKk by the Rntaiana.- In the year 868, a nation hitherto unknown made its flrat appearance in the hiau.rv of the world, where It waadeatlne.l t.>act no unimport- ant part Ita entrance into the |K>Utii'al system of the European nations was innrkiil by an attempt to take Conatantinople, a pn>Jii-t which it haa often revived. . . . In the r.arlW',!. Uurik, a Scandinavian or Varangian efiief, arrive<l at Novgorod, and laid the drat fdiin.latlon of the state which baa grown into the Ituxsian empire. The Russian people, under Varniigian domina- tion, rapitlly Increased in power, an.1 ^^luced many of their nelghliours to sulmiiaaiim. . . . From what particular circunwtanee the Kiiaaians were led to make their ilaring ailaik on Cun- suntinople is not known. The i;iiiiM-ri)r .Micluel [III.] had taken tlie commuu.i nf au army to act against the Saracens, and Oryihaa, ailmintl of the fleet, acted as govirnor of the capital during bia aliaence. Befon^ lhi> Eniixror had commemi'd his military operatiom, a tli-et of 800 Kiinsian vessels of small size, taking advanUge of a favourable wind, suddenly panMil through the Bospborus, and anchore.1 at tin- nioiiih of the BUck Hiver in the l'ni|H>iiil*, ulmut IH miles from Conrtantlnoplr. This Ituwiaa exiMiiition hail slnaily plundered the sbor.a of the lllmk S<'a, and from lU station within tliu IkMphorua it ravagni the (»untry about t'onstaiiiiuopl.', and plundered the l»rin<i''s lalan.la. pillaKiiig tlie iiionasteriea anil slaying the iiiuiiks ui w.ll as Ihe other iubabitauu. The E»i|i.r..r, iiifoniiMl by Oryphaa of tlie attack on hii c .ipiinl ha-.i nil to itsdefence. . . . li riiiiiin-il n '(.'n.!!. xcrtioiiaon the part of the in.;N'rlal iilll.t r- I jiilp u force sufflcitnt to BttoiU Hiul put to ilL-lit iIlm* invaders, but tlie horriil ennliv of tin' Imr- Iwrians, and the \,'ilil ilarini,' of ili. ir Varnnuian Irailrrs, made a prtifouml inipn-iKion on liic t>e<ipleof Conslanluiiiple. "— (i Kihlay, //»»/. uf Ihe Humnlitu Kmiirr, ^A•. 1, rh. !l. trt' ,') A, D, 907-1043. -Repeated attacks by the Rueaiaaa. — .VotwiiliBlaieliiii; un uilive utiil ill cn-aaing .iiiiimeniai liii<riMur«' l«i«..ii ilic (ireeks auil tll» Kuaaiail*. ('oii>l.illliili>pli m>m ex- ptiaril, iluring the tenth 11 iitury uinl (uirt of the eleventh, to re|¥-«le<l atla< k« frori the iiiai.ierful Vaningiaiii and their aulijeet* In ili.- 1 1 ar ■•.>.*. a ih'«t of ■.'.INK) liuMian v.i»a.li or Ihkik Knarnie 1 int4i the itoaiihiirua. and laid waaii- lli. i>)iiin'a iii the neighlMirhoial of ('oniiuntiiioplr ' It ia no| linpn.lmble tliat the i>x|H-ii,iioit h:..* unili-n ikin to olilaiii inilemuity for sniiie loriiiui n inl l.i-uu . au«. taine<l by tiiijx'rial negliK>'iiii . itLni'iiolv or oppn-aaion The subjicta of Ihe 1 in|i<T >r were murdered, and the liusaians amuani tltiiuwlvet 621 i".it=^?-, V( I 00N8TANTIX0PLE, A. D. M7-10IS. with tnrtuiHni; their captiret In the moat bar- banuM nmiiner. At length Leo rVI.] purehued tlieir n'in-at hr tin- payment of a large mm of money. . . . 'fhciie h(wtilltie* were U'rmlnated by n oommerrlal tn-nty In 912." There was p<-aep under this fn'aty until »4t, when a thinl attark (in Conitantinnple waa led by Ijfor. the ion of Itiirik. Uiit li endnl moat dimittniualy for the Kiiwians iind Ijfor eacaped with only a few IxmtH. The r.«iilt waa another Important treaty, ni^'otiatcd In IMS. In 070 the Byzantine Einpin- waa nmn- M'rioiialy threatened by an attempt on the pnrt of the Runaiana to kulHlue the kingdom of I!iil;raria; which would have bronpht them into ihf name danKcmiis miv'hl«r- hoiKi to Conntanliiiiiple that the Riiiwia of our own il«y haa lali<ir<ii no hani to rea»-h. But the able Biildier John Zimiwva happened tooc-cupy the Ih/iintine tliroii.-: the Ituwiau Invaalon ilf Rul>r»n.i wiw repelled and Bulgaria, itaelf. waa rpunni'\i'<l to the Kmpire, which piutheil iu bcmtidarii'it to the Danube, once more. For more tlun Imir H <'<'ntury. Conatantinople waa undis- turlHil liv the ( civcioim ambition of her Ruuian fellow ClirialiHiH. Then they invadetl tlie Uoa- phoris aicain with n fonnidalile aminmi'nt ; hut the exiHiiilion W!i» wholly diaaiitniua and they retn-Hlrd with a I.'M of LVlNKI men. "Three veant i'litpM'<i li.r..n- |>ea» waa r<' iiitaliliHheil : but a tnaiy was ihin ronrludifl an>l the Iraiie at CiiiKtanlinoph' plitec<l on the old footing; Knmi tlii« iMriixi llie alliance of tlie Itumiiiiia with tlie Hvr,intim- Kmpire waa lone uniuu-r nipliii. aitcl UK llie (irecks lierame mow deeply imiiui I with eiciiHi.iMlcal prejudlrea, and ni<iir hoHtil.' Ill tlie Ijtiin iiiiiionK. tlie I-jwtem Chureh iM-miii' in tliiir rvfn, tlie aymlxil of their naticiiiiilily. and tlif liisoted attachment of the HuwiiiiiK to I lie Hiiiiii' reli^ioi^it formalitie* oh- tiim-d for tliciii fruiii the Brzantlne (Ircekx the 8J>|»llalii>ii i.f th.' iii.»i Chfiitiao nation -(}. Finl;iv. //(»< 7' !><• ltii:,intiM Kmikrr, fnm T18 l4i lo.-iT, M ',' rh :i »,/ i A. D. I o8 1, Sacked by the rvbcl army of Alcatua Comnenus.— Alexluit Comneniiit, the enipi r T wli.i iHiupiid the llrzantine thnnieat theiiiMii.f ihi' Kir«l ( niMule. and wlio lieeame hiKtoriially i>riiiniriiMil In tliat coniieilion. arijiiiriti hU invwn liy a HUriviiaful rilKlHun. He WHS (■..llnt.Tiilly of the family i-f Immi' t'omririi'H, lUiii. 1 I nliiihail rilifiied liriellv In IIWT |o.".!t. -he, iim. Iirtvinit l»-.;i. In hli. Iin- p.-riul "tli<-.'. tlie pr.^luii iif a n-Kiluii'>n Hut the iiiii rviil of t».tint*o yi-am had *fn four em|«riir» lome mid l'o — two to liir jfraie anil t»" iiii.. iii..ii,Mi(i,- Ml luni.in It waa ilie J-wt of till-- Nin jihorii- III liJi.taneites! timt .\lixiu« di-pl.iiiil «illi till' ►u|i|nir( of au arinv wlileh he Ihid [•ri>itMi..lv rommnmitHl. Oiii- iif the (Iitii ..f Uii. ,;i|,ti«l waa helrave.1 In iiliu hv » (hriTiiii n!vr. . lmr^ and Iw irainiil Uii- ('(ly ainii.^i « nil,. Ill h Ii|,,w "Tlie old KmiH-mr con«nii-.( I.. n-iiTM ll!^ rrown and n^tiri' inuia mimi-i. v AlixiiiMiiilenii the tininTiiil palace, a.-id ilw nil. I army ivimnirni'<'<l pliiniierin^' rv.rv .|iiirtcr ..f ih.- dn Native, luiil nier iiiwriis II.. I M.il, .,t„. nn"il«n- in imnw an.l M|.in. \., ,hini I.f m.-iriv waa wwml from llirir hikt liii.l ivarii .■ and Ihr itimateo of mon a»lern-« , twin »».«. aii,l |Mila<.>' -en. alike plmi d<r..| :.ni iii.iit!..| Till. »iici. ..f ('.iMniniiliiiiiiii. by lie («,|,(v-,.i,,„„ H>iii,artaii«, ami tirwka li the M-rviii I.I 1^1, r i<nilii..a of IJoiuuruun, Hum*. OONiTAiniKOPUE, A. D, 1M1-I4(t •nd PkleotogtM, who crept treachemimly Igb, the dty, waa • lit prologue to iu sutferinn when It WM Mormed by tlie Cruaailem in IH^ A I). From thbdlunceful conquest of (^onHtaniinonl, hj Aieilua Comnenua, wc must date the ilrei> of ita wealth and civic auprcmacy, Ixiti, „ i raplul and a commerrfail city, . , The imwer which waa thua esubliahnl in rapine Unniniit«| ?'Hi"J,.f ""'""T '•'?' 'n • >''">-ly ven^ianie hinict4Hl by an faifuriated popiiliue on ll.c Im Emperor of the Comnenian family, Andninicui I, ('onitantinople was taken oii th(. i,i „( April, 1081, and Ah'xiua waa eniwned in .St Sophias next day," — O, KinUy, llul nf'th, Hgiarttiu and Vntk Kmpira, from'\ii in\iSi OK. 8, l!A. 1. A. D. 1304.— Conquest and brutal sack br Craaodar* aad Venctiana. S.-.. Chimde/ A, I), 180I-IS08; ami Uyzantimi: Kmiikk t n IStKt-iaM, ■ A. O. ia04-ia«i.— The Latin Empire and its fall.— Recawary by the Greeks, Sn Hum 4.,u Tiia Evmu or, and Bviaxtisk Kkiih latW-iattt, A. p. ia6i.— Great priTilcKcs conceded to the Cenocsc.— Pera and its citadel Calau m»en ap to thea. 8»-e liK.No.t: A it ijoi- A, D. 1*61-1453.— The restored Creek Em- pire.— «)n the i'Sth of July, A. I) l.'tl! I,„|HUU liiiiiple waa aurpriaeil and the l.i>l l.aM,i • mixnir exiM lli.<l by tlie fortunate arms i,f .\|ii |, „ | l>,i„. oIoj:us, the Ureek uauriH.r at .Nii:ea. iS-iUkeh KMI-IHRor Nir.«A ) Twenty davs l..'i r \|i,|„;i made lib triumphal entry into the urn n m nini tal. "But after the It rst Ininspiirl i.f ih n>(ii,ii and pride, he alKhi.|| nl the dnarv |ir..s|»rt i.( liolitude and ndn. The paiiKi' wns ih iili.l »iih RniokH and dirt and tin- ){ri»« iini ni|nr:iWT.i( the Kranka: whole aln-eiK luid iHini iiihiiimiiI liv tin', or were dentytsi by the injuries if tinii . iW saiTinl and profane eililiics mn- ^lri|•|•l■ll of tlieir ornaments: ami, as if thiv win- i..ii-.iiiu» of Iheir aponaiching exih-. tin-' iii.liixir\ ..f tlie Ijiliiis hail lieen confluNl to the work uf' i.ilUiri. and ili.«tni<-thin, Traile liad i-\pin-.| iiii,l. r liir pn-Miire of anan'hy and distp'ss. nii.l ih. nuinlii n of iiihuliitauu luul di.«re«»<sl wiih Ihe ..|.'il.iiir of the city. It waa the tiM run- i.f ih. lin-rli miiimn'h U) rriuatate the iiolihs in Id.- |.ul,iii-s .,f tluir fatlM-ra. , , He n-iMiipli-iH ,,n.tll,lj||,.!,l(■ l>y alila-ral Inritathio ti. ihi- j.ri.vm,,. Hi i ilir tirave ' vi)lunte<'ni ' wen- wninl in li. ii|l(;il nliii'lihaillieen ris-overi'd li\ Hi. irnrtns I.,-t.al of iHinlsidniC the factories nl Id.- |'iviii« Vrn.- lians. ami UeiioeM., the pnidi IJ ii.ni(ii. n.r m' ceiilcl ilwlr oatlwiif alieitmiii i- 1 Mi..uri.. ■! Ih. ;: liidiislry, c.(>nHrm(.il their priiiii-.,i « at. i iUli «iil them to live uwler the Juii ..lii ii,,ii,.| ih, ir |.M|.r iiiaitlstra'ea Of th(.Hi niii-iiis Ihe I'lvui. and ViiiellaiiM prew'rve<l tin ir ri-'|"riiii ip, ,rii ra ia till- city ; but Ihe » rvieis niil |i.ihi r .1 iln- t»fn- i«-«f (who liail a»i«islnt in lli.- rn.m.i'i. -' f I iio- Htuullnople) deaervisl ni Hh- shiih- lii-i. in- m'i liidi' and the Jealousy nf tli,. i;ri.l.. Tlii:r indi'pi'iidenliiihHiv Kiullrnl |l itiii.hn il-i .1 H"ift liiwiiof lieraclea In Tlinm- Tin i «. r. -i-inlilr M'uIImI, ami wlilisl in iln- i-xi lu.ivi (....^.i-swn of the auhurhof Oalui.i un uiliani.ii-i %- |".kl. In which Ihey n-vlvisi ih. 1 ..mm. r. . nn.i ui'iilii^i till' niaJi.Kty of the My/uJiiu- I nii'in Tin- n eiiverv of ('ootlanliniijiii » .s i-t h l.ra' I « ll" era ot a new tnipin- ' Tu.- m w imiir- iti^ .022 OOmTANTINOPLE, lMl-1481 eMiblifhed In the ancient Roman capital of the Mit niaiie mme uliow (if vipir at Drat. Michael I>»)aalugus " wrenuil from the Praulca leveral of tlie noblest islands of the Archipelago — Lea- bos, Chios, and RluMles. His brother Conatan- tine wss sent to command in Malvasia and Sparta; sod tlic Eastern aide of tlie Morea, from Argoa sod Nspoll to Cape Taiuarua, was repoaaeiwed by the Oreeks. . , , But in the proaecutiun of these Western conqtiesU the countries berond the Hellespont were left naked to the Turks; ud their depredations vcrifled the pnipliecy of tdyinif senator, tliat the recovery of Cunstanti- Bonle would lie the ruin of Asia, " Not only waa .uia .Minor ahandoneil to She new race of Tur- jiishronquemn — the Ottomans — hut those moat ijpvsKive of tlic prowlytea of Islam were In- viteil in the next )r<-neratlim tocrosa the Boa- pluirus, and to enU-r Thrace as partiaans in a (iiwii civil war. Their footing in Kuroiie once pilnei!, tlicy devoun-d the dixtnicted and feeble em\>irt piece i)y piece, until little remained to it b'vcrtid t.'wcnpitiil itwdf. Long lii'fore the IntU-r Ml, the empire was a shadow and a name. In the Tery ■iilmrlm of <'onstantinople, the Oenoeae piidpsta. St I'em or Oaluta. had more iMiwer than lhe(}i«k Kmi^mr; and tlie rival lullan traders. orOenoa, Venice and I'isB, fought their haltkrs under the eves (if 111.' Hyzaotinea with indiffcr- fDce, simiwt, til tlie will or wislies, the opjiosi- tim or the lii Ip of the Iatt4'r. " The weight of the Riiiniin Kiiipire waa scarcely felt fn the bslaaee nf thew opulent and powerful republica, . The Ifcimiiii Kmplre (I smile intmnacrihing the nstiH) miirlit siKin have aunk Into a province (if (^en.w. if the ambition r! the republic had i»it liecii eheckeil by the rul of her fn-edom and i!««l iwm.r. A lung conteat of ISO years waa (IrtrniiinnI hy the triumph of Venice. . . . \Vt Iht jplril nf coiiuiierce »ur» ived that of conquest • •Mi the c.lniiy i.f I'era still awed the capital and mriirsl.sl the Kiuine. till it was Involved liy tlieTurk-tinihe tlnal wrvitiideof ('on.,i«nliiiople ii«lf ■■ -K Cililhin, IhfUiuiHdFaUvfilu Human Em/^r^, i-h Hi na. .\|j.(. IN (1. KinlHV, /Hi. of Hit n»-.,nlinf and l.n.t h.mi„r.,, hk- 4, eh. S._Hee. iil*., Tmaa (Tin (iri..<HN.| A n. t340-I3a6; liJa«-l3S»- A. D. i34«-t355.-W«r with the Cenecac.- aii. with Venice and Ar8»ou.-J(>hn Alliaace _ < jnlsdiieniHi. who ii«iirp<ii the "limine in I.mV ImI n..t rcirned a vi-ar before he waa Involved l-ih.«ti!iii,., will, ||„. Uenoese wdoiiy of (J»|aia "liHi li,i.| sUnys contained many warm nar- ; "»""•' ""' I * "' J^lw-'oit"* [.li«plac„Uy (im*.,,,,,,.-! TbU factory had grown intoi a.'un»l,iii< i.iwn. and C(mmian(h-.l a large ixir- ).« of the (riid, n Mom. Duri.ig the civil i,„ »K. (h! .,-«. enpllallsu had SU|.|.;ie.| i|,r n-ge-icy «Mh i,...r„ y, «n.i tliey now formed almost every knn(t,..f il„. nv.oi.,. which Uic im|« rial govern ««< i^-nvijl fnim the p,« . . . The fin«ii> Ul ^f ' "' ' "■ '" * enipcnir reduced Uielr & ■ J'"' '•"•"»»'« lndii«lrv of the U^ek., ,.,.1 ,h,. J,v,l„,„y„f „,, lU-nU-n-. l.-d l„ 1WI10I.I ||„. »„ („ „ ,r,,rl.er..>i« manner with ;LT' ,".'".,'""'■- '"•"'. "■■■ "*l'"''"<- of tlen.ia L.-r ,,' '■ -^ "•■*•' "' ""^1 < ll--bt large ,tnd "Z'r'] '■"'•> v >.<t«. Ui (•(.n.tai.Hn.ipl' ••dbunit^i «v,ral buiUiog, aud the gil-ater CONSTAKTINOPLE. 1848-1861 part of the fleet he wa* then constructing. The Empress Iiwne, who administered the govern- ment in the absence of her husband, b«-haved with great prudence and courage and repulsed a bold attack of the OemKsc. Cantacuzeno. bastened to the capital, where he spent the winter in npulring the loss his fleet Iwd ,u^ umed. As siHin as it was nadv foradhm he fj^^u ."'**'''""™" '" "«■ P"rt. wlwre he hoped that their naval skill would lie of no avail and Where the numerical superiority of his ahiiw would Insure him a victory. He expected moreover, to gain poxaesslon of OalaU llaelf br on attack on the land side while the (hnoese were occupiiHl at sea. The cowiirdly conduct of Uie Oreeks. I»,th by sea and land, remlered hli plana abortive. The gnaler jNirt of his ships were taken, and his army retreat.-d without nuking a serious attack. Fortiinalclv for Can- tacuienoa, the colonisU of (iaUu rw-eived an order from the Senate of Gen<«i to iniiclude pence. . . Their victory enaliled them to oliliiin favourable terms, anil to k(vp powniion of some land they liad sei»;c,|. ,„„| „n wlih li they ijrjon completed the conotrueti.ni of n new citadel. The friemlly (ljs|MMitiiin iniinifeMed hy the government of (Jenoa iinhuiil < ■.int.ieii/emw to send anibaiwiuion Ui the Seiiule to demuud the restoration of the island of CIiIim, whieh had been conquered by a liand of fjeiioiii,. esiles in l!Ho. A trialy was coiieliided, liy which the Genoese were to restore the l-iliind to th( Kmpen.r of Constaiilinople in ten vears. , , . But this treaty wiis never carried Into executloii for the cxilesat Clii.w set Isith the republic oftiitim and the Or<'ek Eimilre at dellunce. iiiii niuiii.Hl t||,.|r conquest." The peace with Genoa was of shcit duration, ('iiiitacuzenos whs Is^nt upon ex|K'll- Ing the Gen(Hse from Gnluta. and as they were now involved in the war with tlie Vim tlaiM T hieh IS known as the war of CalTa he hop«-il » ttiriiniplish his purpisie by Ji.inliig the latter. "The Genoese had drawn Into their hands the grealer |«rt of the commeree of the Bliick Sea. The town of Tann or A/of was then n place of gr»'at commercial iin|virtance, as inaiiv of the pnKluctioiia of India and China f.iiiiid i)„ir «,iv to western KunqM- Imm its wan limi-is The Gemsse, in eons,.(|iicni .• nf a quam 1 wlih the Tartars. h:iil ls-.ii eniii|i.'nei| t.> Miqiend thiir InteMiurse with Tniia. ..ml l!i.' V.ii. tiain. a>all- ing lli.'m».'lvi's of the oiqs.niiniv, hii.l . vT.ii.!,-d their traih' and imn-as...| th.ir pn.Iits. Tli.invy of the G.'niHse Lsl them In nliHtriiil tlii\,nt'. tian traile ami ciiptiir.' Vin.tiaii slii|i« uiit I at length llu'.iispin.s nf i!i.. tun opiiMii s I.Mke out in op.n war in lais. In Ihe v.ar |:l.-.|. (|antucuA.'iiia« (iitere.1 iiiin an allia'ii.e w itli Venice, ami Jnlned iiis forns in th..».. nf the VViietlans, wlin had al*.. cum lud.il an alliance with I'lt.r ihi Cn'mnninii,, kiiiif nf Arumm Nicholas l'l«aiil. mil- nf the al.l.Ni ailininils of the au'r a!i|i.-.-»rivi l« tnn' CniistaiiijiiMiil,. with the Venetian tim . but li(H..|,i|„ had •oitT.r.-.U.v.r.lv fmm a smrm. aiil \\\% primlnal nl.jnt w,,', all«in..i wli.ii he |.i;l i.annv,,) the in r( h.int- nien.if Veiii... s.if.ly Inln tin" Ilia, k S a. Cm- lacii/riiin, hoHi.i.r, had im . Iij.-.t lint tn t':ke Galala. ami. .\|s-. tiinf tn nnlve lni|«.ri.ii.i M fnmi I'isiini, he aiia.kiil tin- ti.ii.«.,i- inlnnr bv s.-» ami lami ||u s^viul! was ,|. f.al.il lit e.iii»-,.ui 11 f th.«.akm,, nf tin (ir-. k, „i,,| the lukewarmiiiMof the Veuetliuu. Iln.uii I'tlred 5U3 'f '*■ 'M. S' al^''' vi rt CONSTAMTmOPLE. 1S4S-1M& toKcgropont, to rffoctn Junction with theCatakii fleet; aou I'anno Dorin, who hail piiniueU him with « •iipcnor force. In n-ttirning to Uslata to piw the winter, sttirmwl tlie town of HcracieU on the Sea of Mttniion, wlirre Ciintaruieno* had colln'teii large mHtiKzInt-* uf provUiona. and carri)-)! off a rich Uxtty, with many wealthy Oreek«, who were cumpellfl to ransom them- aelvra by paying large iiima to thtfie captors. Cautucuzenoa was now benii-gift In Conataoti- Bopif. . . . Thf Uenotw, unuhir to make any inipn-SBlnn on the city, inili'mnlHctI thcnuelvta by ravaging the Urcrk tcrritorr on tlie Black 8ea. . . . Early In the year IMS.' Pi-tani rctunx'd to Cnnatantinople with tlie Cutalan fli<<'t. under Ponziu da 8antnpn<v, and a great buttle waa fought between the alliea and tlie Uentieae, in full rlew of C^oniitnniinople and Oalata. The icene of the conibut wna »!T the litlauil of Prote, and it rrceive<l the name of Vntchopli:igaa from iome sunken rm-kfi, of which the Qenoeae availed thrniselveH In their inanfEutrtea. The honour of a diiutitful and bliKxIy day resteil with tlie OeuiH'ne. . . . IlmuiaiHingultt'iltlieDelghSour- liond of Coniitantimiple, and Cantacuicnna, having nothing more to hope troni the Venetlun alliance . . . concludeil a imimi- with tlte ivpub- He of Oenoa. In thia war he lnul exp<iap<l the weakncM of the Greek enipir», hihI the detilne of the maritime fortv of Oreece, to all the alatea of Europe. The tti'aty contirmed ail the previous privilegea and encroachments of the colony of ualata ami oilier Uenoew I'-tiililishments In the Empire." — (J. Finlnv. Jlitl. of lite ItftuHtimnnd Orcfk Kmi>ir,». 7ltl^l«:i. hk. 1. ch. 2. ttt. 4.— The ntiri'tnent of tlie Ure<-k'< irom the contest dhl not ciieck the wnr Utwcin (iencia and Veiili-e mid llie oilier nllles of llie latter, which was •l>nlinlu^l unlll VXtX The OeniMite were defeiii.il, AuKiisi i9, \XiA, liv llio VriiitUns and t'atiiliiiiH, ill a greitt Imllle fii'.ii;lit near I..<>]era, Oil III!' iiiirllicrn coiint of .Sardinia. liMing 41 gallcvH iind 4.. 'Ml) or S.DIM) iihii. Tliey olitaineil their" revenge the next ynir. on the 4tb of XovemtHT. when I'sgiiJ- > Doria Rurpriaed the VcnetiHii admiral. i'ii<ui.< t I'ortolongo, oppoaite the I'^IhihI of tSupiei.za, »^ lie van preparing logo Into wiiiter-i|Uurteni. "Tlie Vimiianit Hustulm il not BO much a ilcfi at as a total iliiMi>mtitun\ iM weri'killeil; an eiiorni'xis niinilHr of prisonern. lex J'ly ciilculHteil HI d.iNHI. and ii lii^hly valiialilu Imoly In priziit and slori'ii. were t«kcn. " In June. l:|.Vi. tlie wiir was eiideil liV n In tily wliich excliideil Venice from all Klmk .S.t ixirtsetrept CafTii— W. V Hazlilt. //.W. ./ tlu " ReimWf. eh. |S»-ll»(r :t) CafTii— W. l". Hazlilt. //iW. ./ tlu Ventlian V. A. r«rk.r, 7V FL,U„fth4 World, Al.so IN p;i. Kjt^iu. A. D. 1453.— Conqueit bj ch« Turki.— Maiiomct II . M>n of Amunitli II came In the Olliiiian tliroiie, at the aire of tweiiiy one, In H'll "Tlie (iini|iiea: of ( iiiisiaiitiiiiiple was tlie lintt ol>Ji( t on wiiich his llioiigl:is were flxed at tlie oiMiiing of his niirii The nsolution Willi »lii( It III' liiul fnniied IliispTiriKweejpn'iw'd itself ill Ills Ki.rn reply to llie HniliaMiidors of llie Kiiiptr r •■iTirihi; him triliule if he woiild nnMUhie the pr.jiit "f In Idinif a f.rt on the Kiir'>|H.'iii «liiire uf ihe |li»|Kirtii4. wliiih. nt the lllnlall.e of ..iil\ live mili'<> fri.lti llie <!i|^llnl. woiilii |.'i\. Iiliii llie lomtiiniel «t the ltln< k S< .1 Me urdeoii llie tiiviiy«li. r ure !iiic| ilir<'»teiiei| %i fliiy alive any whosfaoiiM iare t<i bring him a CONBTANTINOPLE, 14(»-148t ilmflar meaafe a^aln. Tlie fort was ani.ili«1 la three montha and ganiioned witli 4UU Jimii^- • tribute waa eiacted of all vesseU that i««c<l, and war was formally declared hy the SiUtu Cooataotiiie [Cooatantine Palieoliigus, the lut Orwk Emperor] made the best preparnilDiu Ig hia power fur defence ; but he coiilil nmsiir uoir 600 Greek soldiers. " In onler to secure aid froi-i the P<>pe and the Itallana, Constaniine uniiti; himself with the Roman Church. A few hiindtnl trr.<. lis were tlien sent to bis aasistaiiee: hut, it the moat, he had only succee<led in manning; thi many miles of the city wall with H.iiiNi vtn, wbeu. In April, 14.t3, the Siiltiui inviFin] \x. The Turkish army was said to iiuniUr 'J.VI.O(iO men, and 430 vesMls were counti'il in the mixsm- panying fleet. A summons to fitirmulir wu answered with Indigiuuit refusal by Cimsiantiiic, " who had calmlr resolved not tii survive tlw fall of the dty, and the final a>wHi,li u( the furious Turks was made on the 'jvth nf Muv, \VA. The heroic Emperor waa slain among the lut defemlen of the gate of 8t. Komamw. sinl Uio janizaries mde over his dead IkmIv m thrr cliarged Into the streets of the f^illen Itomu capital. "The despairing ixiiple — nenabin. prlcsta, monks, nuns, huslatmls, whta tnd children — sought safety in the rliunh nf !i|. Sophia. A prophecy but been einulatni ilia; here the Turks would be am'steii liv an an«ti from heaven, with a drawn swoni; ami hllbtr the inberable multitude cniwdeil. in liii' eipK. tatlon of supernatural help. The ihiki loron fuUowed, sword In hand, siaiittliteriii); thute whom they encountered In llie Bin-et. T'ler broke down the doom of the ciiiin h niihsii't. and, rushing In. committed every art >A ninicitr tliat a frantic thirst for bliKiil aiui the ii:risiiji'tt passions of demons could Kii^rvevt. .\ll iIk unhappy victims were divldeil as •.\»\i-» smnni; the soullera, without regard to M.>>l .ir ranlt. and hurrioi off to the camp; and iIh' niiiihty catheilml, so long the glory of tin Climiiiiii world, soon presented only rrueis uf llu' iritiu of hell. The oilier (piariers nf 'he riiy were pluntleTcd by other divisions of Ilie ani;y. . . . About noon tlie Sultan made liix Irii.in|i|i>lrnt7 by the gate of St. IlomaiiiM, pawini; In ihi' lnnly of the Emperor, which lay coiuiuIkI :iii.<'iii;'.li't' slain. Entering the church, he or.u n-l u iiu>iU!i to aacend the liema and announce lo iln- .MumuI- mans that Ht. Sophia was now a iui>v|iii. c>>ii' aecrated to the prayers of tlie Inn- 1» lii v.rs. tie onlered the iHxIy of the Kniix mr ii I* wiuelii. Ilia head to be expoaeil to the pr. ';<l.'. ami <f' r wsnis 'o bi' aeut aa a trophy, to Ik mmi by tlw Greekii, !u the principal cil'iea r.f iii, iMtoman Empire. For three days the riiy v. ..i clunup to the Indeacrlbalile horrors of piili.-t- an^l tlif license of th" Mussulnir.n iml.liry F.iny ihoiiaand tierislietl during tlu- !>.i> k • ' '\if ci:, and fifty tliousand were ri'<lii.'-<l ! • -imry - C. V. FelUin, l)rtt*i, Anrunt .n.! H'ltri: fimrlh amnf, Int t. Aiwiii; <1 Pinl.v, Hill .if!h, lh:,i'.u-v --A O'nk Kmrnrafmrn "Tie to 14.'.). ! k 4. '« ■; E OiblMin. Drtlin,! and t'lM ./ (V li-n . ,■,-,11. M. (IH A. D. 1^3-litl.— The city resopuiat*!. •'«' rebuilt.— Creation of the Tiirkiin Stsmboal.- " Il was nec.-i-wry fnr .Mi.lmiiiii' -II I'.r.ivvrk- Consl.tnlinopie. in .■■der 1.1 n n I r ;i hi r»i'iul of the v/Jionuut Empltv. Tli< in-i illiii.c of « J24 CONSTAIITINOPLE, 14S8-148L nrthodnx Pstifarch calmed tb« mlnda of the Otwlu. and many who had emigTBted before the •ieite gnduallf returned, and were allowed to riaim » portion of their propertr. But the alow Increue of population, cauaed by a lenae of HCuritT and the hope nf min, did not latlafy the Sultan,' who waa determined to aee hia capital one of the greateat cities of the Eaat, and who kMW thHt it bad formerly exceeded Damaicua, Budail and Cairo, in wealth, extent and popu- htioD. Krom most of his subsequent conquests Moharomed compelled the wealthiest of the in- htbitanu to emifrrate to Constantinople, where be granied tlicm plots of land to build their hmun. ■ ■ ■ Turks, Orreka, Serriana, Bulgarl- tiu, Alhssiana, and Laaea, followed one another in quirk succession, and long before the end of hU reign Constantinople was crowded by a num- miuADit artlTe popiilatinn, and presented a more flnuriahui); aspect than it had done during the pre- ceding rrntury. The embrlllshment of his capital wu also tlic ohjii't nf the Hultan's attention. . . M>w|ucs. minarets, fuuntains and tomba, the (rmit "liji'cts of architectural magniflrencp tooDg the Milisiilmani, were oonstructeti in coxsnTcnoN: AROEirnin: repitbuc. erery quarter of tl>e Hty. ... The picturesnne lieauiy of the Sumboul of the present day owes most of lu artiflrUI features to the Othoman con- quest, and wean a Turkish aspect The Con- Btttfitlnople of the Hyiuintlne Empire disappeared with Ust relics of the Greek Empire. The trav who now desires to view the Tcstlges of a B\ . hotlne capltel and examine the hM relics or Bvxantlne arehltecture, must continue his travels eastward to Tn'bizond."—O.FInlay Hitl 'ili^ ,^"*i~ "** ^'*'* ^^Pirm, /hm'nt to 14.18, A*. 4, «*. 8, f«t. 7. A. D. iao7.-Threat«n«d bja Britidi iMt. See Tl'«M: A. D. 180«-I»(»7. CONSTANTINOPLE, Conftrtnc* ol (1877). He<! TlRBs: A. D. 1M«1-1877. CONSTANTIUS I., Ronuui Empwer. A. D 30.V-306 Conataatins II., A. D. 887-Ml CONSTITUTION, The battlaa of tha Mm- at*. Hee I'.nitkd Statics or Am. : A. D. 181»- 1813. and 1H14. ,.fP.?.?I''^yT'°'' OP ARAGON AND CASTILE (the old monarchy), bee Cortcs. Tub Eaki.y Spamuh. CONSTITUTION OF THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. Thenibjoincd text of the Coostitutiog of the Argpuilno itcpubllc la a translation "from the offlrial nlltino of 1M8." taken tmm II Napps woili on "The Argentine Republic," prepan^il (or the Central Argentine Commission on tlie Cen tentry Eiblbltlon at Philadelphia, tH76. AccoM Isj! to the "8tatesman'a Year-Book " of liflKi, there bare been no modUlcations since 1840: Parti. Article I, The Argentine Nation adopta the (edertl republican, and representative form of Gorrratnent, as established by the present Con- ■tltutkio Art. a. The Federal Oovemment shall maln- tsig the Annstolic Roman Catliolic Faith. Art. J. The authorities of the Federal Oovem- ment ahull reside in the city which a special law i.( t'nnirrfss may declare the caplul of the Re- [uMk. iubaequently 10 the cession by one or ranre of the I'roYtndal Leglstotures, of the tcrri- I >nr nimiit to be federalixcd. Art. 4. The Federal Oovemment shall arl- mlnlatertheeiDenses of the Nation out of tho rivcnue In the National Treasury, derlve<l from impiirt an(le>|>ortdi.lk<a, from tho sale and leane of Ike public lands, from postsf^; and frxim such other uxes as the Uencral OonRress may iquitaW) anil pm|>nrtlonahlv l»v ti|>on the p.-<i nil ai also, fn>m such loans and crediu as may t« ■Irrnvd !.y it in limes of national necessity or Ijr I til, rj.rta's of national utility. Art. 5. f^ach Province shall moke a Const It u i"r. !, r iiv If. Rccwdlng U) the republican .i-iire- -nlatlri. t)>tem. and the prin< li,|,.s. d.-cUratlons ; "?„'■'*""'**"'' "''• t;«nsfltutl<in; and whi<h 1 ■ti!> I pf'VKic for (ie<ure) MuoHpal (Jovcrtinieiit ' I ri»i«i! .-.lucation sn.! the « Imlnlslmti.ui „f |u,! ! «« I iHlMth.'si.c.mdilio'u the F«ler.il Govern- ' nw! mall guaranlni to e u-j Ppivineo tho exercise nv; i-njoymenl of lu InW. tlnni-. f^l'^nL'''& ^f*^"*- '■*'"""•'>« •'>•» Inter- TOt ta UK Provl«»au.£ i..-uii«e tUe rapublloui I form of Oovemment, or to repel foreign Invasion, i und nl«o, on application of ihelr constituted au- ' tlidriilea, should they Imvt; Ijeen deposed by sedition or by invasion fn)m another Province, for the purpose of sustiiinini; or re-csublishlng : them. j Art. 7. Full faith shall be frivcn in each Prov. ! ince to the public acU, and judlcUl pmccedingt j of every other I'rovlnce : and Congresa may by I general laws, prescrilie the manner In which such • nets and proceedings shall be proved, and the j clleet thereof. j Art. S. The citizens of each Province shall be I enlltlMl to all the risrhts, privileges and imniuni- ! tiea. Inherent to tli>' t itizens of all the several Provinces. The reclproeal extradition of crimi- nals between all the Pp)vlnces, is obligatory. Art. 9. Throughout the territory of the Nation, no other than the National Cuntnin Mouses shall lie Allowed, ani' they ahull be regulated by 'do tariffs sanetlone<l by Conitress. Art. la Tho drculatloii of all givida pnxluecd or manufactureil In the Republic. Is free within Its iHinlers, as also, that of all st)ecl,-» of mer- 1 hanillw whieh may be dispatched b^- the Cus- tom Houses of entry. Art. II. Such articles of native nr foreign pro- duction, us well as cattl.- of every kind, which p.iM from one Provinc to anoihei, simll bf free from ull transit-duiies. no<t nlxi the vehicles, venaeN or aiiimaU. which triniij..irl them; ami no tax. Ii I it Ir- what I'- may. eau be lieneeforward fnitiii^id up<m Ihiru on account of auch transit. Art. 12. V(«itls iKmni! from om; I'Mvlncc to nnoth.-r. sliall not Iw compelled to enter, anebor, I't pay iranjildiitieit, nor in any caae ean pntfer- etiifii lie irrantnl to one p<n over auoth-r, by any conimeri'ial litwsor regiila:lona Art. 13. N< T Pnivi ,,<•« may l,e admitted Into ihe N'liti.iu. hill no I'rovlnce sliall U- erected within til • territory ,,f any other IVivliice, or Provinces, nor say Pnivinco Ite formed by iha junctlou of various Pruvlucva, without the coa- 626 COKSnTUnOK : ARGKinTNB RIPUBUC. CONSTITUTIOX: AROSMTIin: RIPCBUc I !*, ■;i:- ■eat of the teglsktum of tlM ProitfiioM eon- cenwd, h well u of Coogma. Art. 14. All the InUliltanU of the Nation ihall enjoy the foUowing right*, acoonling to the law* which renUate their exerciae: rii., to labor ami to nractice all lawful ioduatry; to trwia ami naTlnte; to petition the autboritiea; to enter, remain in, travel over and kaTe. Argentine terri- tory: to publish their ideaa In the public- pnti without prcTioua cenaure; to enloy ami iliapoac of their property; to aaaociate for uaeful pur- po«c«; to profeaa freely their religioQ; to teach and to learn. Art. IS. In the Argentine Nation there are no tlnvea: the few which now exiat shall be tree from the date of (he adoption of this Constitu- tiuD, and a special tew shall regulate the imlcin- nity acknowledged as duo by this dcctei-atioD. All contracts for the purchase ami sale of persons Is a crime, for which those who make them. a« well as the noUry or functionary which author- Izcs lliem, shall be responsible, and the slaves wbn in any manner whatever may be intmducmi. shall be free from the sole fact that they ticad the ti-rritory of the Republic. Art. 16. The Argentine Nation does not ail- mit tlic prerogatives of blooil nor of birth; in it, there are no personal privileges or titles of no- bilitv. All its Inhabitanu are equal in presence of the law, and admissible to ufflcc without other condition than that of aincss. Enuaiity Is the basis of taxatioa as well aa of nubile- piata. Art. 17. Property is inviolalilo.snd no inhalilt- ant of tlio Nation can be deprived of it, save by virtue of a sentence based on law. The exproiiri slion for public utility must be authorized by Intv sod previously imiemnllled. Congress alone shall iinpoiiu ilie ctmlributions mentioned in Art. -4. No personal service sbsll be cxacteil save by virtue of law, or of a sentence founded on law. Every author or inventor Is the exclusive pro- prietor of his work, invention or liiscovery. for the term which the lawocconis to bim. The con- flsriilion of property it hem-eforward and forever, stricken from the Argentine penal-coile. No anne<l l>o<ly can make requiaitloiu, ixw exact as- sistance of any kind. Art. 18. No inhabitant of the Nation shall suffer piinisliment without a previous Judgment foundtil on a liiw poMol previounly to tiie cause of Juiltfmi-nt. nor be Juddiil by upecial commiaslonji. or withdrawn fmiu the JudKes designated l>r law before llie o|N'ning of the cause. No («ie shall beohllKeil U) U-sllfyairalDst himself; nor lie arrented. save bv virtue of a written oriler fnmi a compt tent authority. The defense at law both of the |H'rw>n ami his rigfau, Is inviolable. The "loniicll, pnvste papers and epistolary com- s|Hindenei-. are inviolable; and a law shall ddir mine III what coses, and under wliat Imputationii, tt M-arch nurrunt ran nnKt-ed SKainiitanil occupy them. Capital piini>>iinieiit for |iolill(sl causes as wi-11 as ev.-ry upecicsof torture and whippings! are nliolisliMl forever. The prisons of the Natliiii »h.>ill Ih- heallhy ami clciui, for the security, ami not for the puninliiiient. of the criminals deUiiied ill them, ami every measure which under pretext of precaution may mortify them more than such security requires. Hhall render responsible the Judge whoauthoriu-s it. Art. 19. Those private actions of men that In nowise offend public onier and morality, or In jurs a third party, betong alone to Uod, and are bernod the authority of the maghtrates Xo !» habluntof the Nation shall be c<im|>cil< I muo what the bw docs not ordain, nor be ilepnreii ol anything which It does not prohibit Art. JO. Within the tcnitory of the Niiin. foreigner* shall enjoy all the civil rights „f clil! sens; they can exercise Uieir industri<-<. con merceor profeaslona, in accordance with ib< Uwi own, buy and sell rvaU-statc ; nnvigato tlK< riv«j and coasU; freely jinifess llieir religion, mnl u... Ute and marry. They shall not be obii)f.-<i i« be- come citizens, nor to nay force<l contrihuiioitt Two year* previous residence iu the Nstiou aluli hereoutred for naturalizatiou, but the suthoritlcs cmn shorten this tcnn iu favour of bim vtw au desires It. under the allegation and piwif of ler vice* rendeml to the Kepubllc. Alt. at. EveiTT Argentine citizen U ohllgnl to arm himself In defense of bis country ami of tlUi Constltutioa, acooidlng to the laws whidi Cna- gras shall oidaln for the piirpuse. ami the ile- crue* of the National Executive. For die perial of ten years from the day ou which thiv nmy have obtained tiieir citizeuship, this MTviee sksU be voluntary on the part of the natunlinil. Art. sj. The |K>i>ple sliuli not dellUnitc dot govern savo by means of their Heim-*iitstiTef and Autltorilh'S. creatnl by this (■oustiiutioo. Kvery armetl force or meeting of pemous whicli shall arrogate to itself the rights of th.- [wihli. uud petition In tlieir name, is guilty of «<<litW Art. aj. In the event of lulerual conimmionof foreign attack wiilch miiflit place in jii)psrjf tlio practice of thia C>'ii4tltutlon, ami tlie fn-e action of llie Authorities created liy ii, the Pn,». inco or U-rriUiry where such dlsturli-im-.- eiiiu shall be decUre<l In a state of sieKe, nil conttitu- tiouol giiarant<-es being mesmliiie iiii.<|ien(lc<l there. Hut during such suapeiuion iht- Vrnt ilent of the Itepublic cannot condemn uor spply any punishment |icr se. In tfs|K-ct to iienooi, his power shall lie limited to arrestlun ssd tr- nioviug them frimi one ptace to suotlur Id tlw Nation, should they not prefer to leave .\rgt'n- tine territory. Art. af. Congrrss shall esUblUh the nfonnol existing laws in all branches, as also tin- trial by Jury. Art. as. The Federal Oovemment nliall fi>m«iit Ettnipean Immigration; and it esnmii n-slrict, limit, nor lay itay iui|«iat upon, the eutry upon Argentine territory, of sucli foreiijner^ lu come for the pur[HMeof cultivating the anil, iiiiprorin^ inanufuctun-s, ami Introducing and teuclilD); tlw arts luitl sclencim. Art. a6. TIm! navigation of the Interior riven of the Nation ia fnv to all tlaga. auhjri t cmly 1.1 such reguhoioua as the National Autli'tiiv nuy ilicUle. Art. a?. The Feilcml Oovemiiieni UMMignliD atnnetlien the iMinila of (x-aie ami 1 iiiinrrt* with fonijtn powers, liy meananf in-iiii. •! wliicli sliall In in conformity witli tlie primipii'. uf pub- lic law laid drwn in thIa Con*titiiti<in. Art. aS. The principles, riglits nml ).'u irartiti laid down iu the foregoing artiilfi. chiiuo' '« allere<l by any laws luteudol li> n-Kuln'r Ibrlr practicv. Art. 19. Congrrss cannot grant to ilir Eiwu- tlve, nor the provincial hglsliiluivs to ilii- t>fl»; ernorof I'nivlnoes, any "extraonliiiary faniliU'a, ' nor the " suiu of the pulilic p<iwer, nor ' te- nuncUtions or supremacies" by which the llvo, 520 m- COSBnTCnON: AKGEimnK RIPDBUC. CONSTTTUTIOW: AROKNTINE RBPUBUC. tnonror fartWM of tite ArfeaUiMt shall be at Uw mercy of ur GoTenniKot or perm what- em. Acu of tliii nature ihall be Irremedlabtr lull iiihI Toid, and ahall subject those who fnme, Totr. or iln them, to the nUos ami penaltligs in- cumil by tboie who are infamous trsiton to their country Art. 30. This Constitution can be rvfonaed In vIk'Ic or in part. Tbo necearity for the reform ilull lie ilrclarcd by Coofreas by at least a two- tliinN rnif : but it can only be accomplished by 1 onffDlloo called sd hoc. Art 31. This Coostitutloa. and the laws of the >'aliiiii which shall be maile in pursuance there- of, mill ill treaties made or which shall be made wiih Foreign Powera, shall be llio supremo law of the lnniT; and the authoritiea of every ProT- iscc shall be boiiml thereby, any thio)( in tlie Coo- nltuilon nr liwi of any ProvlDcc to tiie contrary Dutwitlutantling, excepting in the case of Buenoa- Alm. iu the trealies rallllod after the compact of Nor. mil. IU9. Alt. 31. The Federal Congress shall not dictate bwa nstrietlDi; the liberty of tlie presa, nor ea- Ubliih my fetleml Jurisdiction over it Art 33. The enumeration in this Constitution of certain r<KliU and guarantees, sliall not be cootirued to ileny or disparage other rights and fiianntecs. not enumerated; but which spring fmin the principle of popular sovereignty, suu tlM rcpuliliriiii form of OoTemment Alt, 34. The Judges of the Federal courta ihall nnt lie Juilies of ProTiocial tribunals at tlie ume lime: nor tliall tlte feileiai scnrice, ciril as veil an military, constitute a domlcil in the Prorince where it may be cxerclied, If It be not habitually that of the employ^; it being uniler- iioal by this, that all IVuvfnciai public'servlce Uoptlnntil in the Province where such employ^ may cantially reside. Art, 35. The names which have been siic- rcHJvcly i<l<>ple<l for the Nation, since the year l»IU up to the present time; viz., the United Pmvlaiva of the Hlo de la Plau, Argentine lie- public auil .Vrgentinc Confederation, shall henoe- (irwanl wrvc without distinction, (iHlcially U) dcsigiwie the Oflvemroent and tcrribiry of tlie I'rovinrea, whilat the words Argentine Nslion ihall lie employed in the making and sanction of Uk lawi. Part II.— Sactioo I. Article 3«. All legiilative powen herein jnnii-.! »lia;l lie veated in a CoogreM composed "1 i«'i llmnilHTi, one of Nitional Depiitie* and ihf oilier of Ueoaton of the Provinces and of the capiuL Chapter I. Article 37. The Chamber of Depiitiei shall be c<)in|H«e<i of representatives elccutt clire<-tly I; Ihf [leople of the Provinces, for which imr- |«»« wh on? ahall be c<>aaidere<l ai a sinirlv tlwloral ilUtrict, and by a simple plurality of TilM In the ratio of one for each 3().0UO inliabit- uiu, or for a fraction not less than 10,000. Art 38. The depuii.a for the flmt Ix-gisla turcflmll I,, nominated In the following pniiw tl.>n f„r III,. I'nivinceof Huenn Aires, twelve f.;r thai of (onlohs. six; for CaUmarca. thrte; l"rr1.nt.i. f„i,r, Entre-Kloa, two; Jujul, two; MewloM, three; Uioja. two; Salta. thrto; 8an- Bsf'. f ur, 8«r Juan, two; 8anta-F6, two; San LUM, Iwo; -- -■ ; aiK. .or that of Tucunin, tbna. Art. 39. For the second Legislature a general census shall be Ulten, and the number of Depu- ■ .."f •*«"'•«•<• by it; thereafter, this census shall he <iecennlaL Art. 4a No person shall b« a Deputy who shall not liuve altainol tha age of twenty Ave years, have been four years in the exercise of cili icnship. siul bo a native of the Proviucv which elfcu liiin, or a resident of it for the two years lmme<liulely preceding. t Art. 41. For the flrat election, the provincial legislature shall reguUte the methoil for a direct election of the National Deputies. Con- gress siiali pua a general law for the future. Art. 43. The Deputies shsll hold their place for four years, and sre re-eiigib'-i; but the House shall be nneweil each biennial, by halves; for I'hich purpose tlioae elected to the first Legisla- ture, as s<ion la the session opens, shall <lecide by lot who slwll leave at the end of the first period. Art. S3. In case of vacancy, the Oovemment of the Province or of the capital, shall call an election for a new member. Art. 44. The origination of the Ux biws and those for the recruiting of troops, belongs exclu- sively lo tlie House of Deputies. Art. 45. n has the sole right of impeaching before the Senate, the Preaident Vice Prcsiden' their Ministers, and the members of the Hiiprcme Court ami other inferior Tribunals of the .Nation, in suits which may be unileruken sir.iinst Hieiu for tiic improper diacliarge of. or tlelleiency in, the exercise of their functions; or for common crimes, sfter having heard them, and declared by a vote of Iwo thirds of the members present that there is cause for proceeding sgainst them. Chapter II. Article 46. The Senate shall be composed of two Senators from each Province, chosen by the Legislatures tliereof by plurality of vote, sml two fsDin tlic capital elected in the form preacribeil for the election of the Pri'sident of the Nation. Esch Senator shall have one vote. Art. 47. No person sliall be a Senator who shall mil have attained tlie age of thirty years, been six years a citizen of the Nation, enjoy an annual rent or Income of twi thoUHsnil hanl dollars, and be a native of the Province «•' ich clecu him, or a resident of tlie same for the two years inimedistely precedinir Art, 48. The Senat4irs shall enjoy their trust for nine years, and are indefinitely n- eligible; but the Senate aliall be renewed by thinis each three years, and shall decide by lot. as amm as they Ik- nil re-iinitiHi. who ahall leave at the end of the Unit and aectmd triennial periiHia Art. 49. The Viccl'resiilent of the Nation ahall lie I'resiiient of the Senate; but shall have 00 vote, < xcept in a case of a tie. Art. 5a The Senate shall choose a IVaident pft) lemporv who aiiall preside during the nliaence of tlie \ ice President, or wlien he ahall exercise the ortlce of Pn-siilent of the Nation. Art. 51. The S«-iiate shall have sole power to try nil irii|««rhmeut« prcsenleil by the llouac of Depiilleit. When sitting for that ptir|MMe they shall Ik' iiniler rath. \Vhen the President of tlie Nation ia tried, the Chief Justice shall preside. No iK'raon shall be convicted without the ttm- currence of two thinis of the members present Art. 5a. .ludgment in caae of im|ieai'hiiient shall not eiuud farther than to removal (rum 627 coNSTirtrrioN: aroentinb republic, constitution: argentine repubuc. nfflce, and disqualtflcstion to hold and enjoy any _oi /v . .. , ■ gallon U" U 'fV office of honor, truBt, or profit under the But the party convicted shall, nererthefeM, be liable to indictment, trial, judgment and punish- ment according to taw, before the onlinarv tribu- nals Art. S3. It belongs, moreover, to the Senate, to authorize the President to declare martial taw In one or more poinU of the Republic, In case of fon'ign aggression. Aft. 54. When any seat of a Senator be va- cant by death, resignation or other reason, the Oovenimont to whlcTi the vacancy belongs, shall lmme<ilatcly proceed to the election of a new member. Chapter III. Article 55. Both Chambers shall meet to oidl- nary wssion, every year from the 1st May until the 3(ltli September. They can be extraordi- narily convoked, or their session be prolooired by the President of the Nation. Art. 56. Each House shall be the judge of the fieri inns, returns, and qualiflcatloca of lu own members. Neither of them shall enter Into session without an absolute majority of Its mem- l)ers ; but a smaller number may compel absent memlH'nt to attend the sessions, in such terms and under such penalties as each House may es- tablish. Art. 57. Both Houses shall begin and close their wsHions simultaneously. Neither of them whilst in sessions can suspend iti meetings for more than three days, without the consent of the other Art. 58. Each Rouse mav make lu rules of pHM-eeding. and with the iimcurrence of two- tlilnls punish its members for disorderly behavior in the exiTrlse of their functions, or remove, and even ex|Ml ihem from the House, for physical or moral innipiwity occurring »ft<'r their Incorpora- tlt.ii ; 1)111 II majority of one almvo one half of the niemln'm present, almll suHlce to decide ques- tions of vcilunlary nnignatlon. Art. 59. In the act of their incorporation the Senators and Deputies shall take an oath to properly fulfil tli.-ir chnrp', and to act In all thinifs in conformity to the prescriptirns of this ConHtiiulion. Art. 60. No member of Congress can be In- alct<il. ludlrially Intermgatetl, or molesteil for any (>|iiiiion or discoume wlilrh he may have utKrni In fiilfllment of bis IxKislatlve duties. Art. 61. No Henator or IJeputy during the term fi.r which he may have been elected, shall bearnste.!, except when taken 'in flagrante' com- mlMloii (if some crime which merits capital pun- ishment or other drgrailinK sentence; an account thereof sliiill lie rendin^l to the Chamber ho be- lonifM 1.1, with a verluil process of the facta . Art. 6a. When a complaint In writing b«! maile liefopi- the onlinary court* against any Hj-nator or IVpiity each Chamlier can by a two thinia vote, sii.|M.rid the accu».il In hi* fimctions and Placi- him at the dispoajtioo of the competent Juilge for trial Art. 63, Kach of the Chamhera cao cause the Minlsli<rs of the Gxerutlve 10 come to their Hall to gii. siirh eiplaoations or Infonnatloo ■• nu be ciiii-tdererl movenlent. Art. «4. No member of CoognM can neelve any pom or eommlsalon from the Executive with- out the previous consent of bla rapactlTt Cham- 628 ber, excepting such as are to the line of promo- Art. 65. The regular ecclesiastics cannot be members of Congress, nor can the Governors of Provinces represent the Province wliicU thev govern. " Art. M. The Senators and Deputies shall he reinunerated for their services, by a compensation to be ascertained by law. Ch«pt«r IV. . ^'f'* *7* "^^ Congress shall have power _ '•■7^°.. ,*'''■•* "P"" "'<' Custom- Hoiws and ej. tabllsh Import duties; which, as well as all an pralsemento for their rollecllon, slmll Ix- unifomi throughout the Nation, it U'ingclcarlv unilirstdod that these, as well as all other natioiial oontrihu- liofis can be paid In any money at the just value which may be current In the respective Provinns Also, to establish export duties. 8. Tolaydirvct taxes for determinate pcriixis, whenever the com- mon defense and general welfare requir. it which shall be uniform throughout tlie teminrv of the Natl<m, 8. To Iwrrow money on the credit of the Nation. 4. To determine the use and sale of the National lands. S. To estahllsh and regutate a National Bank In the capital with branches In the IVovlnces, and with power to emit bills. 6. To regulate the payment of the home and foreign debts of the Nation. 7 T.i annually determine the estimates of the is'ational .Administration, and approve or rejeet the ao- couiits of exp«nscs. 8. To grant sulisiilies fmm the National Treasury to those l*rovinces whose revenues, according to their budgets, ilo not ml. flee to cover the ordinary expenses. 9. To ft>"i late the free navigation of tlie Interior rivit?, open such porta as may lie consldcre<l niressary cn-ate and suppri'sa Custom Houses. Imt without suppressing those which existed in each Province at the time of ita Incorporation. 10 To coin money, regulate tha value thereof ami of fonipi coin, and adopt a uniform system of « eights and measures for the wlx c Nation. II. To <lemt civil, commercial, pe-al and mining Co-lcs. but such Ccxles shall have no power to ilmnife loc.il iurisdlction ; their applicatCin shall Islonif to the Federal or Provincial courta, in Hceonlmice with such things or persona as may come umhr ihdr respective jurisdiction ; es|Ki'liillv. jreneml laws embniciiig the whole Nation, slialf N' |iii,s»eil upon naturalization and citizenship, suhj^rt to the principle of native citizenship; also ,iii.m bank- ruptcy, the counU'rfeiting of ciirniii momv mv\ liublic HtatedcH'umenta; anil siieli Uwi ii« nmy be rel|llir(^l for the estnlilMinunl of lri;il by Jury. 13. To regulate conmieriv bv buifl :iiid sen with foreign nations, ami lietwit 11 lii.' I'mv Inces. 18. To establish and rnruhil.' ib. ci mrsl IMisloffleesand lusit nmdsof the NhiImii H To llnally settle the National iKiiiniliiriii. (1.x ih.M of the Provinci's, cn-ate new Piovim . «, ami ili'- Icrmine by a B|iecial legislntlon, tl ri;ani«nt|nn and gorcmmenta, which such Nallonul iirritorlii as are liryond tlie limits aaslgneil to the I'rovluiY, should have. IS. To provide for tlir «.< iirilv "t the frontiers; preserve peaiefiil riliiibmi with the Indians, and pntinoie thilr ouivi n-lou u Calhollelsm. 16 To pMvlde all lliinirs eondu- cive to the pmspcrlty of the cinmtrv. to the kI- vancement and happlnesB of the l*ri>viMii>s. sad to the locreiie of enlightenment, ilecreelnif plsni for geiMnl aad uatvtnily lastrucUon. pn»uuUa| CONBTITUTION: ARGBNTmB RKPCBUC. CONSTmJTlON: AROENTINE REPCBLIC. taiduitiy, ImmlgntioD, the construction of niil- wiys, and navigable canab, the peopling of the Kattonal lands, the introduction and establish- ment of new industries, the importation of for- eign capital and the exploration of the interior riven, by protection laws to these ends, and by temporary concessions and stimulating recom- penaes. 17. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court, create and suppress public ofScei, fix their attributes, grant pensions, decree honors and gencnl amnesties. 18. To accept or reject the resignation of the President or Vice- President of the Republic, and declare new elec- tions: to make the scrutiny and rectification of the same. 19. To ratify or reject the treaties made with other Nations and the Concordats with the Apostolic See, and regulate the patronage of advowsona throughout the Nation. 20. To admit religious orders within the Nation, other than tho9e already existing. 21. To authorize the Executive to declare war and make peace. 22. To grant letters of marque and reprisal, and to make rules concerning prizes. 23. To fix the laul and sea forces in time of peace and war : and to make rules and regulations for the government of Mid forces. 24. To provide for calling forth the roilltia of all, or a part of, the Provinces, to ciecuto the laws of the Nation, suppress inaur- rectlons or repel invasions. To provide for or- ganizing, arming, and disciplining said militia, and for governing such part of them as may be empkivcd in the service of the Nation, reserving to tlicl*rovlnces respectively, the appointment of the cdrriKponding chiefs and otHcers, and tliv au- thority ij( tndning the militia according to the diiicl|)llue prescribed by Cinign-iis. 2!i. To p«T- mit Ibe introduction of foreign troops witliln lb" terriuiry of the Nation, and tlie goiuif iH'ymid It of tlie National forces. 2S. To declare mnrtlul law In any or various points of the Nation in csK of domestic commotion, and ratify or sus- pend the declaration of iuartial law made by the executive during the recess. 27. Tn exerriae ex- cluilve legislation over Oie territory of the Na- tional laprtal. and over such other plarri* acmiired I))' pun hase or cession In any of the I'rovinci'S, for llie i)ur|H)Sc of establishing forts, iiPM'nals, wan-Uouws. or otlier ntixiful national buildings. W. To make all laws and regulatious which slmli be m-o'iisary for carrying intu execution tlie fore- going powers, and all others vested by the pres- ent Cuui<titutltiu tn the Qovemment of the Ar- gentine Nation. Chapter V. Article M. Laws may originate In either of ilio lltiuMS of Congress, by hiiia presented by llitir luiinbers or by the Exwutlve, excepting those n-lmlve to the objecU treated of in Art. 441 Art. tf. A bill being apnrovetl by the House wbcniii It originateil, shall pass for diwussiDii I" the Dilur House. Being appniviil liy Inrth. it •hull iiHsH to tlie Exeetilivu of tlie Nation for his eiiuniimilon, and should it receive his approba- tion be xball publUh It as law. Art. 70. tvery bill not relume<l within ten workliiK It.vs by the Executive, shall bo ukeuas apiiniv,,! liy him. Art. 71, No bill entirely rejected by one Houw, can be presented again during that year. Bui ulii.uld it be only ampintrd or corrected by Uie retWng House. It shall return tn that wherein K'.:f:£trat;:d, and if limit) Um aJUlliuus ur cur- '* 629 rcctions be approved by an absolute majority, it shall pass to the Executive. If the additions or corrections be reiected, it shall return to the revising House, and if here they be again sanc- tioned DT a majority of two-thirds of its mem- bers, it iball pass to the other House, and It shall not be understood that the said additions and correctioiu are rejected, unless two-thirds of the membera present should so vote. Art. 7a. A bin being rejected in whole or In part by the Executive, he shall return it with his objections to the House in which it originated; here it shall be debated again ; and if it be con- firmed by a majority of two-thirds, it shall pass again to the revising House. If both Houses should pass tt by the same majority, it Kcomea a law, and shall be sent to the Executn-e for promulgation. In such case the votes of both H luses shall be by yeas and nays, aad the names of the persons so voting shall be recorded, as well as the objections of the Executive, and shall be immediately published in the daily-press. If the House* dufer upon the objections, the bill cannot be renewed during that year. Art. 73. The following formula shall be used in the passage of the laws: "The Senate and Chamber of Deputies of the Argentine Nation in Congress assembled, etc.. decree, or sanction, with the force of law." Section II.— Chapter I. Article 74. The Executive power of the Na- tion shall be exerclscii by a citizen, with the title of "President of the Argentine Nation." Art. 75. In case of the sickness, abNcncc from the capital, death, resignation or dismlssnl of the President, the Executive power shall l)e exer- cised by tlie Vice-President of the Nation. In case of the removal, death, resignation, or in- ability of the President and Vicc-ftesldentof the Nation, Congress will determine which public functionary shall then fill the Presidency, until the disability be removed or a new President be elected. Art. 76. No person except a natural-bom citi- zen or a son of a naturai-lxim citizen brought forth abroad, shall lie eligible as President or Vice-President of the Naliiin ; he is reiiuiriKl to liclong to the Apostoliciioman-Catliollc 00m- munion, and posxess tlie otlier qualifications re- quired to be elected Senator Art. 77. The IVsident and Vice Pnaldrnt shall hold office during the term of six years; and cannot be re-electetl except after an iuttrval of an equal period. Art. 71. The President of the Nation "hall cease in hi* functions the very day on whicli his period of six years expires, and no event what- ever which may have iut«rrupted It, can lie a mntlve for complelliig it at a later time. Art. 70. The Prcsl.ieiit and Vice-President shall receive a compeiinatlon from the Nntloual Treasury, which cannot Ik> altered during the Feriod for which they shall have been elected, luring the same peri<id they cannot exirelse any other office nor receive any other eimilument from the Nation, or aor of its Provinces. Aft. lo. Tlie Presldint and Vice I'naident be fore entering upon tlie execution of thiir ollires, shall take the following oath administered bv the Prtvident of the Senate (the first time by the President of the Constituent Congress) in Con- gress aasembiixi; "i tsuch an use; swuar ij CONSTirUTION : ABQENTINE REPUBLIC. CONSTITUTION : ABOKNTINE REPUBUfl Art. 8s. The election of the President aai 'reside-' -*"■--" " • ■■ ■ W i I God our Lord, and by these Holy Evangelists, that I will faithfully and patriotically execute the office of President (or Vice-President) of the Nation, and observe and cause to lie faithfully obBcrve<I, the Constitution of the Argentine Na- tion. If I should not do so, let Ood and the Nation indict me." Chapter II. Article St. The election of the President and Vice-President of the Nation, shall be made in the following manner: — The capital and each of the Provinces shall by direct vote nominate a board of electors, double the number of Depu- ties and Senators which they send to Congress, with the same qualifications and under the same form as those prescribed for the election of Depu- ties. Deputies or Senators, or olflcers in the pay of the Federal Oovemment cannot be electors. The electors being met in the National-caplul and in that of their respective Provinces, four months prior to the conclusion of the term of the out-going President, they shall proceed by signed ballow, to elact a President, and Vice- President, one of which shall state the person as President, and the other the person as Vice-Presi- dent, for whom they vote. Two lisU shall be made of all the individuals elected as President, and other two also, of those elected as Vice- Pri'siilent, with the number of votes which each may have received. These lists shall be signed by till- electors, and shall be remitted closed and scaled, two of them (one of each kind) to the President of the Provincial Legislature, and to the President of the Municipality in the capital, among whose reconls they shall remain deposited and closed ; the other two shall be sent to the Presiilent of the Senate (the first time to the President of th j Constituent Congress). Art. 83. Thj President of the Henate (the first tinii' that of the Constituent Congress) all the li»t« lieiug received, shall open them in the presi'iice of both Uouses. Four members of Congress taken by lot and associated to the Secre- taries, sliall Immediately proceed to count tlio votes, and to announce the number which may result in favor of oath cjindlilate for the Pn-gf- deniy and Vice-Presidency i,f the Nation. Those who have received an alwolute majority of all the votes in both cases, shall be immediately pro- claimed I>resident and Vice-President. Art. 83. In case there be no absolute ma- jority, on account of a division of the votes. Con- fTvM shall elect one of the two persons who shall iuve received the highest numlmrof votes. If the flrst majority should have fallen to a single penuin. and the soomd to two or more, Congresa shall elect among all the persons who may hav olitJiini'd the first and second majorities. Art. 84. This eh'Ction sball lie made by abso- luU> piurullly of votes, and voting liy name. If. on ciiumliig the first vote, no alisolutc majority shall have Tieen oblaine)!, a second trial slull be maiii', limiting the voting to the two |H'rsons who shall have olitainiil the greatest numlier of sultrages ut the Bret trial. lu casa- of an eiiuul number of votes, the operation shall lie repealetl, and hIhiuIiI tlie result lie It:.; same, then the Presl- drnl of the .Senate (the flrat time that of the Con- slitiiint ( iingreas) nhall decide It, No scrutiny or netilliaHiiu of these elections can he maile, unlcMi three-fourth parts of all the members of the L'uiigreaa hv priJKBt. Vice-President of the Nation, shall be concluae, in a single meeting of the Congress, and there after, the result and the electoral lists shall h published in the daily-preaa. Chapter III. Article 8& The President of the Nation hai the foUowhig attributes;—!. He is the supremf chief of the Nation, and la charged with tlit general administration of the countrj-. 2. Ht tsaues such instructions and regulations as mat be necessary for the execution of the laws of thj Nation, taking care not to alter their spirit with regulative exceptions. 8. He is the immediate and local chief of the National capital. 4. Ue partlcipatea in making the laws acconliug to tlie Constitution; and sanctions and promulgates them. S. He nominates the Judges of tlie Su. preme Court and of the Inferior FiHlcral tri- bunals, and appointa them by and with tlie con- sent and advice of the Senate. 8. He lias power to pardon or commute penalties against (iflccrs subject to Federal Jurisdiction, preceded by a report of the proper Tribunal, eiceptlnir in case of Impeachment by the House of Depu' ■». 7 He granU retiring-penaions, leaves of jljsence and pawnbrokers' licences, in conformity to tlie laws of the Nation. 8. He exere'ises the rigliu of National Patronage in the preseniutinn o( Bishops for the cathedrals, choosing from a ter- nary nomination of the Senate. 9. He granU letters- patent or reiains the decrees of the Coun- cils, the bulls, briefs and re'scripta of ilie Holy Romap Pontiff, by and with the consent of the Supreme Court, and mtut require a law for tlie same when they contain general and |Hrinaiieot dlspoaitlons. 10. He appotnU and removes llin- Istem Plenipotentiary and Charge d'AlTaires, b/ and with f'vj consent and advice of tin Senate; and himself alone appointa and lemuves tUe Min- isters of hia Cabinet, the officers of the ISicretary- ships. Consular Agents, and the ri'st of tlie em- ployes of the Administration vliow- numiiiation Is not otherwise ordained by this Coiuiiiuiioa 11. He annually opens the Sessions of t'oiiKreM, both Houses being united for this pur|».se lu tlie Senate Chamber, giving an account to t'ougreaa 00 this occasion of the state of the Nittiun. of the reforms provided by the Constitution, and recommending to ita consideration such ineaauiei as may lie Judgwl necessary and convcnic nt. 12, He prolongs the onlinary meetings of Cungreii or convokes It in extra session, wluii a (|iie»lkia of progress or an imixirtant Intenst mi ri'iulres, 18. He collects the renta of the Nation iiml de- crees their expenditun' in conformity to tin- law or estimates of tlie Public exixnsi's 14. He negotiate! and signs thoae trpatle,<< u( [x-aee, a( commerce, of navigation, of alliance, ut Imunda- ries and of neutrality, requisite to nutiuuua g(«id nlallons with foreign Iwiwers; lie nceives their .MinisU'n and adniltii their I'lmxiils. I'i lie Is commander in chief of all the sen unit laotl forees of the Nation. 18. He i"n(ip<. I'V aiiJ with the consent of the Si'nate. tlie bliili ii'llltsrjr gnulea in the army and navy of the Nation; and by himself on the field of liattle. 17. He dia- poaes of the land and S(« fnrce*, and lakes charge of their organization and diairilnition tc- coniiug to the requirements of the Niiiioii. ID. Hy tlie authority and approval of Conttreas. Its ik-i-lanm «.»r and gnwts letters of Biiir'jMi: aa4 630 CONSTITUTION : AHQBNTIKE REPUBLIC. CONSTITUTION : ARGENTINE REPUBUC. reprlnl. 18. B" and with the conient of tlie Senate, in case oiF foreign aggression and for a limited time, he declares martial law in one or more points of the Nation. In case of internal commotion he has this power only when Congress to in recess, because it is an attribute which be- longs to this body. The President exercises it under the limitations mentioned in Art 23. 20. He may require from the chiefs of all the branches and aepartments of the Administration, and tliruugli them from all other employ^, such reports RS he may believe necessary, and they arc compelled to give them. 21. He cannot ab- sent himself from the capital of the Nation with- out permission of Congress. During the recess be can only do so without permission on account of important objects of public service. 22. The President sliall have power to fill all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions, which shall expire at the end of their next session. Chapter IV. Article 87. Five Minister-Secretaries; to wit, of the Interior; of Foreign Affairs; of Finance: til Justice, Worslilp and Public Instruction ; and of War and the Navjr; shall have under their charge the dispatch of National affairs, and they ihall counter-sign and legalize tlic acts of the President liy means of their signatures, without which requisite they shall not \k etScacious. A law shall determine the respective duties of the Ministei's. Art 88. Each Minister Is responsible for the sets wliicli he legalizes, and collectively, for those which he agrees to with his colleagues. Art. 89. The Ministers cannot determine any- thing whatever, by themselves, except what ciin- cems the economical and admlnistra*ivc r<ginien of their respective Departme:ils. Art. 90. As soon as C'oujr'ess peuS. 'he Min- isters shall present to It a detudLif repoif of the State »f the Nation. In all that relates to tiicir respective Departments. Art. 91. They cannot be Senators or Deputies wlthnut realitning their places as Ministers. Art. 93, The Ministc-s can assist at the meet- lni.'4 of Congress and take part in iu debates, bu' ii.y cannot vote. Art 93. They shall receive for their services a cnmpeusaiion estalillshed bylaw, which shall not be Increamil or diminished, iu favor or against, the actual Incumbents. Section III.— Chapter I. Article 94. The Judicial Power of the Nation ihall lie exenlsed by a Supreme Court of Justin', ami liy >uih other inferior Tribunals as Congress - m»v estiilillsh wllliin the dominion of the Nation. Art. 95. The President of the Nation cannot In any ease whatever, exercise Judicial powers, i arrogate to himself any knowKilge of pending causes, or reopen those which Imve terminatetf Art. 06. The Judges of tin .'Supreme Court sad nf the lower Nallonal-Triliunals, shall ket'p , their pliiees quamdiu ae bene gesserit, and shall »K»lvi fur their servUcs • ctinipensation deter- ' mine.! l.y law, which shall not Iw diminished In snv Manner whatever during their continuance i " 'ilice, 1 Art. 97. No one con be a memlK-r of the 8u- 1 prime Court of Justice, imleaa he shall have h«.n I •a .Uuruey at law of the Watlon for eight years, j and shall possess the qualifications required for a Senator. Art. 98. At the first installation of the Supreme Court, the individuals appointed shall take an oath administered by the President of tlie Nation, to discharge their functions, by the good and legal administration of Justice according to the pre- scriptions ot this Constitution. Thereafter, tlie oath shall be taken before the President of the Court itself. Art. 09. The Supreme Court shall establish its own Internal an(f economical regulations, and shall appoint its subaltern employ^. Chapter II. Article 100. The Judicial power of the Su- preme Court and the lower National-Tribunals, shall extend to all cases arising under this Con- stitution, the laws of the Nation with the reserve made In clause 11 of Art. 67, and by treaties with foreign nations; to all cases affecting ambassa- dors, public Ministers and foreign Consuls; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; to controversies to which the Nation shall be Party; to controversies between two or more rovinces; between a Province and the citizens of another; between the citizens of dilTerent Provinces; and between a Province or ito citi- zens, against a foreign State or citizen. Art. tot. In these cases the Supreme Court shall exercise an appelate jurisdiction according to such rules and exceptions as Congress may prescribe; but In all cases affecting amba-ssadors, ministers and foreign consuls, or those in which a Province shall bo a party, it shall exercise original and exclusive jurisiiiction. Art. 102. The trial of all ordinary crimes ex- cept in cases of Impeachment, shall tenninate by jury, so soon as this institution be established in the Uepublic. These trials sliall be held in the same Province where the crimes shall have been committed, but when not committal within the frontiers of the Nation, but against International Law, Congress shall determine by a special law the place where the trial shall take effect. Art. 103. Treason against the Nation shall only consist In levying war against it, or In ad- hering to Its enemies, giving them aid and com- fort. Congress sliall fix by a special law the punishment of trea.s<)n ; but it cannot go b<>vond the iierson of the criminal, and r.' attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood to relatives of any grade whatever. Art. 104. The Provlno's keep all the powers not delegated liy this Constitution to the Federal Government, and those which were expressly re- served by special compacu at the time of their iuei rporation. Art. 105. They create the'r own local Inatttu- lliins and are governed by these. They elect their own Governors, theirliegislators and other Pnivlnilal functionaries, without iutcrveutioD from the Federal Government. Art. 106, Kach Pn>vince shall make its own Constitution in conformity with the dispositions of Art 5. Art. 107. The Provinces with the consent of ('(ingress can celebrate contracts among thcm- wlves for the purposes of administering ju.stlce and promoting economical interests and worksof cimimim utility, and also, can pass protective |.iw« fnr the pur«M»e with their own n-snuTm of promoting manufactures, Immlgntion, the dSl m l'< »! CONSTITUTION : ABGENTLNE RBPUBUtt CONSTITUTION : AUSTRU-HUNQARy. building of railways and canals, the peopling of their lands, the introduction and establishment of new industries, the import of foreign-capital and the exploration of their rivers. Art. io8. The Provincea cannot exercise any powers delegated to the NaUon. They cannot celebrate compacU of a political character, nor maltc laws on commerce or internal or external navigation; nor establish Provincial Custom- Houses, nor coin monev. nor establish Banks of emission, without authority of Congress; nor make civil, commercial, penal or mining Codes after Congress shall have sanctioned those pro- vided for in this Constitution; nor pass laws upon citizenship or naturalization ; bankruptcy counterfeiting money or public Statedocumenta '; nor u»y tonnage dues; nor arm vessels of war or m CONSTITUTION OF THE AUSTRH. HUNGARIAN EMPIRE.-l".7a g™!K couut of the Ausgleioh or airreement uiul.-r which the duality of Uie Austro Hungarian Em- pire was arranged In lmi7, sec Austiua : A 1) lS86-lSUr, and 1866-18S7. The following de- scribes the principal featuresof the constitutiouui orgiiiuzation of the empire: "The emperor has an absolute veto on all measuiea in all of the three parliaments after named. He can also •Iis»)lve any of them. The legisUtivo and a<l- ■.ini.<trali;c assemblies of the empire are four in number, viz. : (I). The Delegatlonen, whi( h is ilie imperial parliament (8). The Belchsratli and the Ik-ichstag, which are the parliaments for Austria pn)p<'r and Hungary respectively (3). The Landtag, which is the parliament for the prci mees of the empire of Austria. (4), Tlie Oemeinilerath or thi' Oemeindeausschuss, which are the coimriLs of the communes, but they have no legislative fuiietions proper." The Delega- tlonen. or imperial parliament of the d lal em- pire, "acts a.s one House, but meets In two cliamliers or bmiies, one for Austria and one for Hungary Kacli chamber lias 60 members, com- posed of 20 iiieiiiU.rs elected from Uie upper house of each part of the united empire, and 40 from the lower. It is electiil for one vcar only The chambers of the ini[wrial parliament niel't at the same time and In the same place alter- nately in Austria and Hungary, and. as a rule in file cities of Vienna and Buda-Pcsth They legislate for the united empire on (1) ''s foreign policy (2) its finances, (») lu army and navy and (4) for the affairs of Bosnia and Ilerzel govliia as they have no Landtag of tlieir own A luiiilsler of state for each of the first three of these niatU'rs controls Its departments, while the fourth Is under the management of th.' common finance minister. The ministers arc apis.lnted bv tJie emperor after consultation with leailers of partl(|s. The presidents of the Delegatlonen as also the vie presidenw, must be members of tlie 1 lumlK-rs, butlhev n-celve no ip.'clal salarv They are il,.,i.sl by tile members. Each chaiii bir meets siparaielv. and discusses the measures 4ud bills sulimltusl to it by the ministers of •h te, or by any i.ix of its memben. If both cbambers aitree upon il«. matter iubmitted to tlieni the emperors auiietion is obtained to it an.l It becomes law. If the chambers cannoi agree, after each of them has discussed the mat- ter tline times, upon writu-u communication from the olli.r, a session of both chambers Is convened, and the question i« decided by a raise •rmies, save In the case of foreign invadirm or of a danger so imminent tliat It admits of m delay, and tlien an account thereof must be im mediately given to the Federal Oovernnient- or name or receive foreign agenta ; or admit ww-I. ligious orders. " Art. 109. No Province can declare or makf war to another Province. Ita complaints must be be setUed by it. Hostilities de facto are acts oj civil-war and qualifiefl as seditious and tumultu' ouB, which the General Government must reoreis and suffocate according to law. Art. 110. The Provincial Governors ore th« natural agents of the Federal Ooverntmnt to cause the fulHIment of the laws of the Na-ioa: See AbokntinkUkpublic; A D. IStJO-lSDl 632 majority of those present, lu,, tliinis of tlie liiembers of the house must, liowevir, in i',,-, case be in atteiidunee. In the ordinary case tiio quorum of each chamber is 30 members. Tlic sittings of the chambers are public, but tliev may be private on the proposition of the prisi ileiit or of five members, and voted upon The chambers are convened by the writ of the em- peror. . . Kach chamber appoints 24 liulEes to hear and determine any et«ai-.s wlilch mav be brought against the ministers of tlie er„«n for breach of power. . . . Two p.r cent, being first •*'** jf """Sary. the balance of the ininiria expenditure is liorne in the proportion of TO mr cent by Austria and 80 per c, nt. by lluiiKaSr tlio former being the wealthier eomilrv 1 he Keichsrath [the Austrian purliaineutl consists of two hoiisis — one eall.^l tl,e irerr™ House, or VpiKT House ; the other .all, .1 tl,e Abgeordneten Hoii.se. I. e. the lIoi:se of l),.pu. ties, or the Lower Ilousiv It is ele. ted for m.x years. Tl> ilerren House is compose,! of a) 1 rimes of ilie imperial houac, wh,) are majors (2) Chiefs of noble houws, owning larire i^iLes nominated by the cmiM'ror, who, Isim; iiiice uomlnatal, are members for life, uinl their suc- cessors after them, and so tliis class, to some extent. Is one of hcretlitarv legislat,,rs. (:|i \rch. Iiishops and bishops with" the dinnltv of prjua. (4) Men who have distingiiislutl tliems, 1v,m In science, art, commerce, law, ,)r ni(Hli<in,', who are .lominiited by the enineror for life ,111 the advice of the ministers of slate. The'numlicr of members of the Upper Hous.' Is not Hxnl, but it Is aliout 21K). . . . Tl„. Lnw,.r or .\b- Kconineteii House is that of tli,,l, pull, » ilattd by the people, and cinsists of «.-,:) ni, iiLliers. It is elccUxl for six years. The p ,)pl,. vol,, for its members in four classes in tliei,- various prov Inces. The first class are the owners of l«rp? estates, who elect H!i members. . . , The sietmil class arc those who pay five ll,>rins of dlr,i t tsi- atlon in towns, and Iticliules all do, tors of the universities, whi'ther they pay taxi-s ,ir not The towns are gn>U|)ed so an to' give one mem- ber for each group. The groups iiee,l ii,.t be of eqiial size. Thiselass elecU 1 \h memls im The third class Is the chambers of commerte ami in. dustry, which eliTt 9^i inemt«Ts . . The fourth chtss an' the menilurs of llii' inimirv communi-s who pay five rtoriiis of ,lir,,t inxa- tlon. T' ey elect nil memliers. Tli,r,iiiinuiii,» for this purpose atv dlvidisl into groups of .Vki voters, anil a certain number ,)f coinmiiuisniske an ete-jtoral district. . . . The cfcctiuos aa- sat CONSTITDTIOK: AU8TRU-HUN0ART. all held on o^e day, and each class votes by itsdf in each province on a particular day. The communes vole first, then the citizens, then the chambers, and then the landowners, all on dif- ferent days. The election takes place in a pub- lic ball, where the voters gather ; and their names CONSTITUTION OF BELGIUM. being called over, if present, they go up to the presiding officer, and vote orally, or by a cai-d placwl by them in a box. If not present when "'"ed upon, thty can attend and vote later on " --J. P. Coldstream, The Inttitutioni of AuUria, On page 2804 of tbii work, under Ksthsb- U5D8 (BsLOiuu): A. D. 1882-1893, there U given some account of the revision of the con- ititution of the kingdom, in 1898, and the pecu- liar new features introduced in its provisions, relative to the elective franchise. The follow- ing ii a translation of the text of the revised conititution: Title I. Of the Territory and of iti DiTisient. Article I. Belgium Is divided Into provinces, there provinces are: Antwerp, Brabant, West- em Flanders, Eastern Flanders, Huinaut, Liige, Limburg, Luxemburg, Namur. It it the pn- rogative of law, if there is any reason, to divide the territory into a larger number of provinces. Colonies, possessions beyond the seas or pro- tectorates which Belgium miiv acquire, are gov- erned by particular laws. The Belgian forces appointed for their defense car only be recruited by voluntary enlistment. Article a. The subdivisions of the provinces can be established only by law. Article 3. The boundaries of the SUte. of the provinces and of the communes can be changed or rectified only by a law. Title II. Of the BelKiaas and their Rights. Article 4. The title Belgian is acquired, pre- served and lost according to the regulations de- termined by civil law. The present Constitution, and otber laws relating t:i political rights, de- termine what are, in addition to such title, the con- ditloDi necensiiry for the exercise of these rights. Articles. Naturalization Is granted by the legiilatlve power. The great naturalisation, alone, aasimllates the foreigner to the Belgian for the exercise of political rights. Article 6. Tliere is uc distinctloD of orders in th« SUte. Belgians ars equal before the law; they alone are admisslMe to civil and military offices, with surh excepti ms as may be established by law in particular cases. Article 7. Individual iilierty is guaranteed. No persnn can be prosecuted except In the cases provided for by law and in the form which the law prescribes. Except in the case of flagrant miidernisnor, no person can be arresteil witliout the onler of a Judge, which must be served at the time of ilie arrest, or, at the latest, within twenty-four hours. k.*".!?'* ?• •"*" Pe"<"> am be deprived, against hu will of the judge assigned to him by law. Article 9. No punishment can be esubllshsd or sppMi'd exrent by provision of law. Article 10. The domicile is inviolable; no (lonilclli,ir>- visit can be made otherwise than In U« cases pr,iv..led for by Uw and in ths form which it prescribes. Aide II. No u>rson can be deprived of bis pperty except for public use, in the cases and "planner esUbllshed by law. sad with prior CONSTITUTION OF BELGIUM. ol Article la. The penalty of confiscation goods cannot be imposed. Article 13. Civil death U abolished: it cannot be revived. Article 14. Religious liberty, public worship, and freedom of expressed opinion in all matters aia guaran teeil, with a reserve for the repression of of • fenses committed in the exercise of these liberties. Article 15. No person can be compelled to Join, in any manner whatsoever, in the acts and ceremonies of any worship, nor to observe Ita days of rest. Article 16. The State has no right to interf' re In lie appointment nor in the instellation c' the ministers of any religion, nor to forbid them to correspond with their superiors and to publish their acts under the ordinary responsibility of publication. Civil marriage shall always pre- cede the nuptial benediction, with the exceptions to be prescribed by law in case of need. Article 17. Teaching is free; all preventive measures are forbidden: the repression of offenses is regulated only by law. Public in- struction given at the expense of the State is also regul.ited by liiw. Article 18. The press Is free; censorship can never be reestablished: caution-money from writers, editors or printers cannot be required When the autlior is known and Is a resident of Belgium, the editor, tlie printer or the distributor cannot be prosecuted. Article 19. Belgians have the right to meet peaceably and without arms, in conformity with such laws as may regulate the use of their right but without the requirement of a previous authorization. This stipulation dees not apply to open air meetings, which remahi entirely sub- ject to police regulations. Article 20. Belgians have the right of associa- tion; this right cannot be subject to any pre- ventive measure. Article ai. It Is the right of every person to address to the public authorities petitions signed bv one or several. The ciUMtltuted authorities alone have the right to aJdross pe.ltions in a collective name. Article aa. The secrecy of correspondence is inviolable. The law determines who ara the agenw responsible for violation of the secrecy of letters cont^ded to the |«>st. Article ai. The use of the languages spoken In Belgium fa opilonal ; it can 1m? prcscHbed only by law, and only for acts of public auth- rity and for judicial traiisiwtions. Article 34. Noprevi<iusaiithorizatlonisneces- sary for the umlertakliig of proceei.ings against fiubllc officials, on arcount of acts in their admln- stratiun, except that which laeLactedcoacerninc ministers. Title III. O' Powers. Article 15. All pon-e.-s are derived frjm tba naiiim. They an- i-xcrHwd In the laauter pro- I scribed by the Constitution. 633 i m- ' CONSTITUTION OF BELGIUM. Article at. Legtslatire power ii exercised col- lectively by ttie King, tbe Ctuunber of Represen- tatives sad ttie Senate. Article 37. Ttie initiative lielongs to eacli one of tlie three branches of the legislative power. Nevertheless, all laws relating to the revenue or to the expenditures of the State, or to the con- tingent of the army must be voted first by the Chamber of Representatives. Article 38. The interpretation of laws by authority beloui;3 only to tbe legislative power. Article 39. The executive power, as regulated by the Constitution, belongs to the King. Article 30. The iudicial power is exercised by the courts and tribunals. Decrees and judg- ments are executed in the name of the King. Article 31. Interests exclusively communal or provincial, are regulated by tbe communal or provincial councils, according to the principles established by the Constitution. Chapter First.— Of The Chamber*. Article 3a. Members of both Chambers repre- sent the nation, and not merely the province or the subdivision of province which has elected them. Article 33. The sittings of the Chambers are public. Nevertheless, each Chamber forms itself Into a secret committee on the demand of Ita president or of ten members. It then decides by absolute majority whether the sitting on the same subject shall bt' resumed publicly. Article 34. Each Chamber veriflcs the powers of iu inumbera and decides all contests on the subject that may arise. Article 35. No person can be at the same time a meml)er of both Chambers. Article 36. A memlwr of one of the two Chambers who is appointed "jy the government to any salaried olltcs, except that of minister, and who accepts the same, ceases immediately to sit, and resumes his functions only by virtue of a new election. Article 37. At every session, each Chamber elects itji president and its vice-presidents and forma its bureau. Article 38. Every resolution is adopted by the absolute majority of the votes, excepting as may be directed by the rules of the Chambers in regard to elections and presentations. In case of an equal division of votes, the proposition brought under ddilwration is rejecteif Neither of the twoChanilwrs can adopt a resolution un- less the majority of its members is present Article 39. Votes are given by the voice or by sitting and rising; on "I'ensemble deslois" the vote is always Uken by the call of the roll of names. Elections and presentations of can- diilittes arc mode by ballot Article 4a E'ir>: Chamber has the rl^ht of In. quiry [nr investigalion]. Article 41. A mil can be passed by one of the ChsinlKTs only after having been voted article by Hrtiole. Article 4J. The Chambers have the right to amend ami to divide the articles and the amend- ments propoM'il. Article 43. The presenting of petitions In per- son to the Chamlwrs Is forbidden. Eiicli Cham- ber has ihi' right u> refer to ministers the (letitions that are aiidrtuscd to it Ministers are required to give explauatioQS wbeneTer the Chamber requires them. CONSTITUTION OF BELGIUM. neraber of either Chamber esq 'ImI to account for opinions en by him in the perform- Article 44. y be prosecuted o expressed or vo' ance of his dutii ». Article 45. No member of either Chamber cao be prosecuted or arrested in affaini of reiiri'Mion. during the session, without the authorization of the Chamber of which he is a menilwr eiceot the case be "de flagrant Jelit." No hiHlily con- straint can be exercised against a member of either Chamber during the session, except with the same authorization. The detention or tlie prosecution of a member of either (."Imralier li suspended during the whole session if tlie Cliam- ber so requires. Article 46. Each Chamber determines bv Iti rules the motle la which it will exercise Itt powers. Section L— Of the Chamber of Represents- tivet. Article 47. Deputies to the Chamber of Rep. resentati.es are elected directly umicr the fol- lowing conditions: A vote is conferred on citizens who have complete<l their 25ih year who have resided for at least one year in the same commune, and who are not witliin one of the cases of exclusion provided for by law. A supplementary vote is conferred on each citizen who fulfills one of the following conditions: 1 To have completed 35 years of age, to he married or to be a widower having legitimate offspring' and to pay to the State a tax of not less than 5 francs on account of dwelling-houses or build- ings occupied, unless exempted by reason of lili Srofession. 2. To have completed the age oj 5 vears and to be owner : Either of real property, valued at not less than 2,000 franca to be rated on the basis of the " revenu eudBstral,"orof a " revenu cadastral " proportioniil to that value' Or of an inscription in the great boolt of il.c pub- lic debt, or of a "carnet de rente IM^' " at the aavings bank of at least lOO fmncs of "rente." The inscriptions and bank books must have be. longed to the incumbent for at least two years and a half The property of the wife is assigned to the husband; that of children under age, to the 'ither. Two supplementarv votes are assigned to citizens fully 25 years' of age who are included in one of the following mws: A. To be the holder of a iliploma of liiglur instruc- tion or of a similar certifleatc of attenilniiie an t complete course of medium instnieliun of the higher degree, without distinction iKiwieii pub. lie and private establishments. II. Totillurto have filled a public ofBco. to oecu|iv or to have occupied a position, to practise or "to Imvc prac- tised a private profession, whieli iniplies the sup- position that the titulary has at least m average education of the higher degree The law ilc- terminoa these functions, posiiioiis ami profes- sions, as well OS, In given cases, llu- time during which Uiey shall have been oerii|ile(l or prac- tised. No person can accuniulaiu more than three votes. Article 48. The constitution of the electonl colleges Is regulated by law for eaeli piovince. The vote is obligatory and takes place In th« commune with exceptions to he determined by law. Article 49. The electoral law flics tbe nun- ber of deputies acconling to the popiilstloi;; Uiis uumher cannot exceed the propurtiun of s a- 684 CONBirnTTIOIT OF BELGIUM. deputy for 40,000 InhtbituU. It detennfaiM tita the qualiflcations of an elector and the mode o( the electoral operations. Article 50. To be eligible, it li necemty: 1. To be a Belgian by birth or to have receWed the "mod naturalization"; 9. To enjoy civil and poHticsl righU; 8. To have completed 3S yean of age; 4. To reside in Belgium. No other con- dition of eligibility can lie required. Article 51. The members of the Chamber of RepreseatatlTes are elected for four years. Half of tbem are changed every two years, according to the Older of the series determined br the electoral law. In case of dissolution, the Cham- tier Is entirely renewed. Article 53. Each member of the Chamber of BepresentatiTes receives a yearly indemnity of 4,000 franca. He is, besides, entitled to free travel on the State railways and on the " con- ceded " railways, from his residence to the city where the session is held. Section II.— Of the Stoat*. Article 53- The Senate Is composed: 1. Of memtjera elected in proportion to the population of each province, conformably to Art. 47; though the law may require that the electors shall be 30 years of age, the provisions of Art. 48 are ipplicable to the election of these senators. 8. Of members elc ed by the provincial coun- cils, to the number of two from each province baring less than 600, 000 Inhabitants, of three from each province having from 500,000 to 1,000,000 of Inhaliltants, and of four from each province hivini; more than one million of Inhabitants. Article 54. The number of senators elected directly by the electoral body Is equal to half the numlwr of the members of the Chamber of Represi'ntattves. Article <$• Senators are elected for eight years; half of them are changed every four years, according to the order of the aeries deter- mined by the electoral law. In case of dissolu- tion, the Senate is entirely renewed. Article 56. To be eligible for ekctlon and to rtmain a senator, it is necessary - 1. To be 1 Belgian by birth or to have received the " grande natumllMtlon"; 8. To enjoy civf ani rilitiral rlghU; 8. To resldein Belglu . • I.j8t 40 years of age; 8. To pay 1' » of the State at leaat l.aOO fran. xes. patents included ; Or to be 'o • or usufructuary of real proper Be! Kium. the cadastral revenue . |a at feast 12.000 francs. In the pr> .fhere th. numlKT of those eligible does not attain the pn portion of one In 8,000 Inhabltanta. the list is Mmplpu-d by adding the heavleat tax-payers of the pniviuce to the extent of that proportion. Utizens whose names are Inscribed on the com- plementary Mat are eUgtble only In the province where tlicy reside. Article sfl bla. Senators elected by the provin- cial couucils are exempted from all conditions of census; they cannot belong to the assembly wlilch elects them, nor can they have been a member of It during the year of the election, nor ilunn)t the two previous yean. Indem i'* *'' *°'^" receive neltlMr laltry nor -.*"'u'*v!'; 7^ ^'°f'i sons, or in their ab- "nc. the &lgf«n Princes of the branch of the tioysl family called to reign, ar« b/ rifht lena- CONSTITUnOlT OF BELOIUM. tor* at 18 years of age. They have a delibera- tive voice only at 25 years of age. Article S9. Any aasembly of the Senate which may be held outalde the time of .he session of the Chamber of RepreaentaMves is null and void. Chapttr II.-Of th* King and hia Miaiatera. Section II.— Of the Kins. Artlcl* 60. The constitutional powers of the King are hereditary in the direct, natural and legitimate descent from His Majesty Leopold- Qeorge-Christian-Prederick of Saxe-Coburg from male to male, by order of prinicgeniture, and to the perpetual exclualon of the females of their line. The prince who marries without the con- sent of the King or of those who, in his absence, exercise his powers, in the cases provided for by the Constitution, shall forfeit his rights. Never- theless he can be restore<l to his righto by the King or bv those who. In his absence, exercise his authority in the cases provided for by the Constitution, with the consent of both Chambers. ..'''' *'• ^^ <l*''>ult of male descendanto of his Majesty Leopold-OeorgeChristian Frederick of Saxe-Coburg, the King can name bis succes- sor, with the assent of the Chambers, expressed In the manner prescribed by the following article. If no nomination has been made ac- cording to the proceeding here stated, the throne will be vacant. Article 63. The King cannot be, at the same time, the chief of another State, without the consent of both Chambers. Neither of the two Chambers can deliberate on this subject if two- thirds at least of the members who compose It are not present, and the resolution la adopted only if It receives two-thirds at least of the votes cast. Article 63. The person of the King is Invio- lable : his ministers are responsible. Article 64. No act of the King can have effect If It Is not countersigned by a minister, who thereby, makes himself reapiiuslble. Article 65. The King appoints and dismisses his ministers. Article M. He confers the grades In the army He appolnto to the offlces of general administra- tion and of foreign relations, with tlic exceptions determined by law. He appoints to other ofHces only by virtue of express provisions of a law. Article 67. Ho makes the ruL'ulations and de- crees necessary to the execution of the laws, without power to suspend the laws themselves, nor to exempt from their execution. Article 68. The King commiimls the land and naval forces, declares war, makes treaties of peace, of alliance, and of conimerra. He an- nounces them to the Chambers as soon as the In- terest and the safety of the Stote admit of It. adding to them appropriate communications. Treaties of commerce and those wlilcli might burden the State or bind Helgiims imlivlilually become effective only after having rcceivtil the approval of the Chambers. No cession, nor ex- change, nor addition of territory can take place without authority of a law. In no case can the secret articles of a treaty be destructive to the open articles. Article 69. The King sanctions and promul- gates the laws. Article 70. The Chambers meet by right every year, on the id Tuesday In November, unleM iti 535 OONSTTTUTIOK 07 BSLOIUX. prevlouily lummoned by ths Kins. The Chtm- ben must remain in seHion tt MMt 40 dayi in eadi year. Tlie King declares tlie cloeing of tbe eeuion. Tlie King hai the right to call extra leuions of tbe CbsmlKn. Article 71. The King hai the right to dlMolve the Chambers, either simuitaDeou.Jy or sepa- rately ; the act of dissolution to contain a convo- cation of the electors withiu forty days and of tbe Chambers within two months. Article 73. The King may adjourn tbe Cham- bers. Tbe adjournment, however, cannot ex- ceed the term of one month, nor be renewed in tbe same session, without the consent of the Cbamt>ers. Article 73. He has the right to remit or to re- duce penalties prououcced by the judges, except those which are enacted concerning the min- isters. Article 74. he has the right to coin money, in execution of the law. Article 75. Ho has the right to confer titles of nobility, without power to attach any privi- lege to them. Article 76. He confers the military orders, observing in that regard what the Uw pre- scriljes. Article 77. The law Axes the civil list for the duration of each reign. Article 78. The King has no other powers than those formally conferred on him by the Constitution, and by laws enacted pursuant to the Constitution. Aiticle79. On tbe death of the King, the Chamlx^rs meet without convocation, not later than the tenth day after that of his decease. If tbe Chambirs bad been previously dissolved, and if the eonvoi'atlou had been fixed in the act of dissolution for a later date than tbe tenth day, the old Chambers resume their functions until the meeting of those which are to take their place. If one Chamber only had been dissolved, the same rule is followed with regard to that Charalier. From the death of the King and until his successor on the throne or the i«gent has takun tbe oatli. tbe constitutional powers of the King are exercised, in the name of the Bel- gian nation, by tbe ministers assembled in council kod under tlicir responsibility. Article 80. Tbe King is of age when he has completed his IStli year. He takes possession of tbe throne only after having solemnly taken, In the midst of the Chambers assembled together, the following oath: "I swear to observe the Constitution and the laws of the Belgian people, to miiiutain tbe national independence and to preserve tbe Integrity of the territory." Article 81. If, on the death of the King, his succe.ssor Is a minor, both Chambers meet in one bixl) for tbe purpose of providing for tbe regency and the guardianship. Article 8>. If It is Impossible for tbe King to reign, tlie niinlsttTs, after having caused that Inability to Iw established, convoke the Cham- bers Inimeiliately. Guardianship and regency are to he provided for by tbe Chambers con- vened. Article 83. The regency can be conferred on one person only. The regent enters upon his duties only after he has taken the oath pre- scribed by Article 80. Article 84. N.) change can be made in the Constitution during a regency. ooxroirruTioN op Belgium. ... ^^J!^* •* In case of » vacancy on tbe throne. the Chambers deliberating together, arrange pS vislonally for tae regency untU the meeting of nt-» Chambers, that meeting to Uke place withta two months, at the latest. The new Chainben deliberating together provide definitely for Uu vacancy. Section II.— Of the Ministers. Artid* 86. No person can be a minister who is not a Belgian by birth, or who has not re- ceived the "grande naturalization." Article 87. No member of the royal f»mll» can be a uilnlster. ' Article 88. Ministers have a deliberative voice In either Chamber only when they are memben of it They have free admission Into each Chamber and must have a hearing when tbey ask for it. The Chambers may require the pret- ence of minlsten. Article 89. In no case, can the order of the King, verbal or written, relieve a minister of responsibility. Article 9a The Chamber of Representatives has the right to accuse ministers n"d to r'\\m them before the Court of Cassation [.^iiicjl which alone has tbe right to judge tin m, the united Chambers reserving wh»t may be enacted by law concerning civil action by a psrty wronged, and as to crimes and miaderaeanoti which ministers may have committcii outside of th" performance of their duties. A luw absll dt. < mine tbe cases of responslbilltv, the penal. ties to be inflicted on V- ministers, iij the manner of proceeding against them, either upon the accusation admlttedl)y the Chamber of Rep. resentatlves, or upon prosecution by partlet wronged. ArticJe 01. The King may pardon a minister sentenced by the Court of Cassation only upon the request of one of the two Chaml)ers. Chapter III.— Of the Judiciary Power. Article ga. Contests concerning civil rights are exclusively within the jurisdiction of tbe tribunals Article 93. Contests concerning political rights are within the jurisdiction of the tribunals, with exceptions determined by law. Article 94. No tribunal can be established otherwise than by law. Neither conimlsilons nor extraordinary tribunals, under any denomi- nation wtutever, can be created. Article 95. There la for tlie whole of Belgium one Court of Cassation. This Court d.iei not consider the ground of causes, except In tha judgment of ministers. Article 96. Sittings of tbe tribuunls are puh lie, unless such publicity be dangerous m order or morals, and in that case the triliurmi dccltret it by a judgment. In the matter of political or press offenses, the exclusion of the |iulilic mutt be voted unanimously. Article 97. The ground of every juileraent It t~ be stated. It Is pronounctd in puhlic Mttlng. Article 98. The jury is estubli.'^lic'ii in ullctim. IdsI cases, and for political and pnsM olTensei. Article 99. The judges uf the pcuce and judTOS of the tribunals are appoiniiMi dinitly by the King. Councillors of tbe Courts of appeal sud presidents and vice-presidents of tlie (»urti of original jurisdiction are appninteil by the King, from two double lists, prcsi nua, r.nc bf thoM court* and the other by the provUicUl 6S6 CONSTITUTION OP BKLQIUlt Ooundlt. Councillon of the Court of CuMtlon in appointed bv the King from two double lUta, one presented by the Senate and the other by the Court of Cassation. In these wo cases the cudMstes whose names are on one list may also be Inscribed on the other. All presentations are nude public at least fifteen days before the ap- pointment. The courts choose their presider'* uid Tice-pre!idents from among their members. Article loa Judges are appointed for life. No judge can be deprived of bis position or sus- pended, except by a judgment. The displace- ment of a judge can take place only through a new appointment and with his consent Article loi. The King appoints and dismissea the public prosecutors to the courts and tribunals. Article loa. The salaries of the members of the Judicial order are fixed by law. Article 103. No judge may accept salaried olBies from the government unless he exercises tbem gratuitously, and excluding the cases of incompatibility defined by law. Article 104. There are three courts cf appeal in Belgium. The law determines their jurisdic- tion and the places in wiilch they shall be estab- lished. Article 105. Special enactments regulate the organizntion of military courts, their powers, the lights and obligations of the member] of such courts, and the duration of their functions. There are tribunals of commerce in the places determined by kw, which regulate their organ- iiatlon. their powers, the mmle of appointment of their membiers and the term of the Utters' duties. Article io4. ConCicts of jurisdiction are set- tled by the Court of Cassation, according to proceediL.gs regulated by law. Article 107. Courts and tribunals shall apply emeral, proTliiclal and local decisions and regu- lions only so far as they are conformable to tbelawa Chapter IV.— Of ProTiodal and Communal Institutiona. Article 108. Provincial and coirmunal instl- tutlohs are regulated by the laws. These law4 sanction the application of the following r -"nc;. •'"■>: 1. Direct election, with the ei is the law may establish in regard .e chle. of rninmunal administration and tl v- erament commissioners to the provincial umn- cils: 2. The assigning to provincial and com- munal councils of all which is of provincial and communal interest without prejudice to the ap- proval of their acts in the cases and according to the proceedings which law determines; 8 The publicity of the sittings of tlie provincial and Kimmunal councils within the limits established 07 law; 4. The publicity of budgeU and ac- eounts; 5. The intervention of the King or of the iepislative power to prevent the provincial uu communal councils from going beyond their powers and injuring the general welfare. Article 109. The drawing up of certificates of Mrth, marriage and death, and the keeping of the r-gisters, are the exclusive pntogativM of eoBuauaal authorities. Title IV, Of the FtiiancM, Artie!* no. No tax for the profit of the State •abe impoNd otherwiM Uu4 bj • Uw. No CONSTrrCTION OP BELOIUM. charge or proTinnlal assessment can be imposed without the consent of the provincial council. No charge or communal assessment can be im- posed, without the consent of the communal (muncll. The law must determine those excep- tions of which experience will show the necessity in the matter of provincial and communal impo- sitions. Article »i». Taxes for the profit of the State are voted annually. The laws which impose them are valid for one year only, unless renewed. Article iia. There can be no creation of privi- lege ir the matter of taxes. No exemption from nor diminut'"n of taxes can be established other- wise than b a 1a<.'. Article 113. Btyond the cases expressly ex- cepted by law, no payment can be exacted from citizens, otherwise than in taxes levied f3r the profit of the State, of the province, or of the commune. No innovation is made on the actu- ally existing system of the polders and the wateringen, which remain subject to the ordi- nary legislation. Article 114. No pension, nor gratuity at the expense of the public treasury can be granted without authority of law. Article 115. Each year, the Chambers deter- mine the law of accounts and vote the budget All the receipts and expenditures of the State must be entered in the budget and In the ac- counts. Article 116. The members of the court of accounts are appointed by the Chamber of Rep- resentatives and for the term fl.ied by law. That court is intrubted with the examination nnd the settlement of the accounts of the general admin- istration and of all the accountants for the pub- lic treasury. It sees that no article of the ex- penses of the budget has been exceeded and that no transfer has taken place. It determines the accounts of the different administrations of the State and is required for that purpose to gather all information, and all documents that may Iw I ;cessary. The general account of the State li submitted to the Chambers with the observa- tions of the court of accounts. This court Is organized by law. Article 117. The salaries and pensions of the ministers of religion are paid by the State; the sums required to meet these expenses are entered annually In the budget Title V. Of the Army. Article 118. The mode of recruiting the army is determined by law. The law also regulates promotions, and the rights and obligations of the military. Article no. The coptingent of the army is voted annually. The law that fixes It is of force for one vear onlv. unless renewed. Article 130. The organization and the power* of the gendarmerie are the subject of a law. Article lat. No foreign troops can 00 admitted to the service of the State, nor to occupy or past through iu territory, except by provision of law. Art e 123. There Is a civic guard ; itaorganl- latiou I regulated by law. The ofilcers of all ranks, up to that of captain at least, are ap- pointed by the g ards witi exceptions judged necessary for the countant*. Article 133. lue mobilization of the dvtc fuard can occur only by direction of Uw. 537 CONSTITUTION OP BELGIUM, Article 134. Military men can be deprived of tneir gnules, honors, and peniiona only in the manner determined by law. Title VI. General Prorisioni. Article 135. The Belrian nation adopts the colors khI, yellow and black, and for the arms of the kingdom the Belglc Hon with the motto- " L' Union fait l« Force " [•■ Union is Strength " ]. Article 138. The city of Bruss-ls is the capital of Belgium and the seat of ite Kovem- ment. ° Article 137. No on: U can be imposed except by law. The law also determines iu formula. Article 138. Any foreigner who Is within the tcrritiry of Belgium enjoys the protection ac- cor.ieo to persona and goods, with the exceptions donned by law. Article 139. No law, decree, or administrative regulation, general, provincial, or communal is obligatory until it has been published in the form prescribed by law. CONSTITUTION OF BRAZIL. Article 13a The Constitution cannot be aui. pended, either wholly or In part. Title VII. Of the Rerition of the Conititution ^ ^r*.''!f «3«- The legislative power ha, th, right to declare that there Is occasion for revisin. such constitutional prr '-ion a. It .le,ii;„„ta? After such declaration, me two Chainl., rs m dissolved. Two new Chamber., slmll then h^ convoked, in conformity with Artie !,• 71 Thi » Chambers act, in concurrence with tlie kinj on the pointa »ubmitt«l for revision. In 8u,l, Ja» the Chambers cannot deliberate unless twcMliinli at least of the members composing each one of them are present, and no change which dies not receive at least twothlrds of the votes in iti favor shall be adopted. ^ [TheremainlngArticles— 132-1:19— are "Tem- porary Provisions" and "Supplementarv Pro- visions, the latter speclfving certiiin suhjecU on which it is declared to be " neceaaary to nro- vlde by separate laws and with the Ijast noasi!, f delay. ] i-^^'iz m ! CONSTITUTION OF BRAZIL The following text of the Constitution of the United States of Brazil, adopted February 24, 1891, Is taken from a translation published in Bulletin No. 7 of the Bureau of American Re- publics, Wasliington : Wc, the rcpreaiiitatives of 'Brazilian peo- ple, united in constitutional cot.j,. iS, to organize a free and democratic regime, do establish, de- cree and pn)mulgate the following constitution of the Republic ot the United Sta'es of Brazil : Article i. The Brazilian nation, adopting as a form of government the Federal Republic pro- claimed November 15. 1889, constitutes itself, by the perpetual and indissoluble union of Its for- mer provinces, the United States of Brazil. Art. 3. Each of the former provinces shail con- stitute a State, and the former municipal district shall forin the Federal District, continuing to be the capitjd of the Union until the following arti- cle shall be carried iuto effect. Art. 3. In the center there is allotted as the property of the Union a zone of U.-tOO square kilometres, which In due time shall be laid off for the establinument of the future federal capi- tal. Sole p<trnyriii)/i.—\(teT the change of site of the capital, the present Federal District shall constitute a State. Art. 4. The States shall have the right to In- corporate themselves, one with another, sub- divide themselves, dismember themselves to join with others or form m. w Slates, with the consent of the respective local legislatures In two succes- sive annual sessions and the ajiproval of the national Congress. Art. S, It shall be the duty of each State to firovide. at its own e.tpensp, for the necessities of is government and administration ; but the Union shall extend asslstanre to any State which in cas<' of public calamity, shall demand it. Art. 6. The Federal (lovcmmentiall not inter- fere in matters pertaining peculiarly to the States, save: (1| To repel foreign invasion, or the Inva- sion of one State by another. (2) To maintain the federative republican form of government (3) To reestablish order and tranqulllltv In the States at the retiuebt ul the respective governments (4) To assure the execution of the laws and fed- eral decrees. Art. 7. It is the exclusive prerogative of the Ijnion to decree: (1) Duties on Imports from for. eign countries. (2) Duties of entry, .lepurture and Stay of vessels ; the coasting traife for nntionai articles being free of duties, as well as f.ir for- eign merchandise that has already pnid lui hu. port duty. (3) Stamp duties, save the nsiric- tlons itnposed by article 9, j- 1, No. 1. (Ji p,«tal and federal telegraphic taxes, tj 1, The Union alone shall have the power : (1) To establish banks of emission. (2) To create uiiil maintain custom-houses. S 2. The taxes decrewl liy the L nion shall be uniform for all the Statjs. i :i" The laws of the Union and the acts and ileeisinns of Its authorities shall be execuu-d throiigh.uit the country by federal officials, except that tlie en- forcement of the former may be coniniiti.d to the governments of the States, with the cnsent of the said States. Art. 8. The Federal Government is forl)iiiden to make distinctions and prefennces in favor of the porU of any of the States against tliosc of oiners. Art. 9. The States alone are coniju-tent to de- cree taxes: (1) On the exportation of nnrihan- dlse of their own pnxiuction. cii On hmiled property. (3) On the transmissioifof iiroji, rir. (4) On industries and professions, s- 1 The States also have the exclusive ri),'ht tiMleerec- (1) Stamp duties on Inslrumentserauniiiin;; from their respective governments and lui.sii.ss of their Internal economy. (2) Contrihiitiii,'. i.iiich- ing the'' own telegraph and iH.stul wrvicr. 638 Tlie - ,. -ts of the other States are e.\enipt from Ir... in the State whence tlicv are e.t- poiced. S ,1 It Is lawful for a Slat.- to levy duties on Importa of foreign giHxis orilv when intended for consumption In its own territory; but It shall. In such case, cover Into the federal treasury theamount of dutie8C(dleeted. S 4. The right is reserved to the States of est;ililishin(t telegraph lines between the different points of their own territory, and ! • (-.vren lln-a- x-.-.i tlinse of other States no"t served by federal lines ; but CONSTITUTION OF BRAZIL. the Tnlon may take posienlon of them when the general welfare shall require. Art. 10. The leveral States are prohibited from taxing the federal property or reveaue, or any- thioK In the service of the Union, and vice versa. Art. II. It is forbidden to th-- States, as well M to the Unions: (1) To Impose duties on the produc <■ of the other States, or of foreign coun- tries, i-. transit through the territory of any State, or from one State to another, as also on the vehicles, whether by land or water, by which thev are transported. (2) To establish, aid, or embarrass the exercise of religious worship. (3) To enact ex post facto Inws. Art. 13. In addition to the sources of revenue Kt forth in articles 7 and 9, it shall be lawful for the Union, as well as for the States, cumulatively or otherwise, to create any others whatsoever which may not be in contrsTention of the terms ofsrtick'sT, 9, and U, g 1. Art. 13. The rlcht of the Union and of the Stales to legislate in regard to railways and navl- Mtion of internal vriitcrs shall be regulated by fwltral law. Sole jxtraaraph.— The coastwise Uaile shall be carried on in national vessels. Art lA. The land and naval forces are perma- nent national institutions. Intended for the de- fense of the country from foreign attack ind the maintenance of the laws of the land. Within the limits of the law, the armed forces are from their nature held to obedience, each rank to lu superior, and bound to support all constitutional Institutions. Art. 15. The legislative, cvecutlve, an-' judi- cial powers are organs of the national sover- eignty, harmonious and Independent amons themselves. ° Art. 16. The legislative power is vested In the national Congress, with the sanction of the Presi- dent of the Itipublic. g 1. The national Con- gress is compowd of two branches, the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. § 8. The elections for senators and for deputies shall be held slmul- Uneously throughout the country. §8 No per- son shall be senator and deputy at the same tiiiie Art. 17. The Congress shall assemble In the federal capital oc the 8d day of May of each year, unless some other day shall be fixed bv law, without being convoked, and shall continue m session 4 months from the date of the openinu and may he prorogued, at'Joumed, or convoked m extr:„,r,l nary session. § 1. The Congress alone shall have the power to deliberate on the prornpition or extension of ita session. 6 3 Each legislature shall last for S years. S 8. The gov- ernor of any State in which there shall be a va- S M ' ^P"-'«'';'atlon, Including the case of Se ° ' "*" '^'"^"on to ^ held Ioh","! '?• ''"'"'. Chamber and the Senate shall S ';::'' ^'l":"' 'port and in public, uXss ddirr^. '"*?'''"'. "y ? '°"J°'''y ^-"e, aid shall deliberat, only when. In each of the chambers there shall be present an absolute majority of Us nfr^fhnL "-,'.'"-' ''b'" to verify and recog- Silrm'"''' "* ■»*">'«". to ch-bosc Ita own C ?o^ ^*T' to organize Ita Internal govern- ment, to regulate the service of Ita own Dollcc Art"!. ";^""?*' "" ""•° «<;retaries? ^ CONSTITUTION OP BRAZIL. * *■• *»• Piputles and senators, from the time ot ceivlng their certificate of election until a r*ri„ ."^L°°'. '*,'? °°' "^ arrested or proceeded against criminally without the permission of their respective chambers, except In the case of a flagrant crime, in which ball is Inad- issible. In such case, the prosecution being cai . r^ to exclu- sive decision, the prosecuting authority shall T^rl,}^ ?!'" "'^"^ to the respective chamber for ita decision on the prosecution of the -barge unless the accused shall prefer Immediate Judg- ment. ^ * „..^!t'i "•.?"!* ■"=«*>«" 0' the two chambers, on taking their seata. shall take a formal obllga' fa"thfuV" "' '° P^^°™ "Je'' du«es AJt!^l '\^^"^. ""^ "essions the senatore a- 1 deputies shall receive an equal pecuniary sf / and mileage which shall Ic fixed by Con , sj at the end of each session for the following .1. .1 • 'h I*," "'embe'" of the Congress, . .n tJie time of hla election, can make contracts ,*ith the e.\erutlve power or receive from it anv paid t\r'n;?;,rLTP!°'-r^.'l,l»:,Exceptfon''sto 039 All — ---- -^- .-."K.vj uitiii. g 1. Hixcepiions to this prohibition are: (1) Diplomatic missions (2) Commissions or military commands. (3) Ad- vancement In rank and legal promotion. S 2 ISO deputy or senator, however, can accent an appomtnr .it or any mission, commission, or command u ntloned in Nos. 1 and 3 of the pre- ceding paragraph, without the consent of the chamber to which he belongs, when such acrept-l ance would prevent the exercise of his legUla-' tive duties, except In case of war or such as Involve the honor or integrity of the nation. Art. 24. No deputy or senator can be presi- dent or form part of a directory of anv bank company, or enterprise which enjoys the favoii of the Federal Government defined In and br law. *ofo;joro^o;)A.— Xonobservanceof the pro- visions of the foregoing article bv any deputy or senator shall involve the loss of his seat. Art. 25. The legislative commission shall be Incompatible with the exercise of any other func- tions during the sessions. Art. 36. The conditions for eli-'bility to the national Congress are: (1) To be OMse.ssion of the righta of Brazilian citizenship md t j be registered as a voter, d) For the Chamber, to have been for more than 4 veara a Brazilian • zcn; and for the Senate, for more than 6 vi , 1 bis provision does not include thos ci' referred to In No. 4, article 60. 1 ^'*'j'7; The Congress slm!) bv special • ,s. lation declare the cases of el i , 1 Im ompetw. . Art. 38. The Chamber o' ,). luties shall J ■ composed of the representa . of the peo-Mc elected by the States aud the Federal District by direct suffrage, the n'presentation of the mlii- ority being g.--,ntle(f. § 1. The number of the deputies shad be fixed bv law in such a way as not to exceed one for each 70,000 Inliabltants and that there shall not be less than four for each State. 8 2. To this end the Fetieral Gov- ernment shall at once order a census to be t <Ken of the population of the Republic, which shall be rcviik'il every 10 yeara. Art. 29 To the Chamber belongs the Initiative in the adioiirnment of the legislative sewions and in all legislation In regard to taxation, to the determination of the size of the armv .ind nsvy m the discussion of propositions from the cxcul uve po ver, and in the dedslon to proceed or not ir.i. 'ID CONSTTrmON OF BRAZIL. coNSTmrrioN of buazxl. ;»1 II - f: In chnrces against the Preaidcnt of the Republic undpr the terms of article 58, and against the ministers of state in crimes connected with those of the said President Art. 30. The Senate shall be composed of citt- ccns eligible under the terms of article 26 and more than 85 years of age, to the number of three senators for each State and three for the Federal District, choaen la the same manner as tlie deputies. Art. 31. The mandate of a senator shall con- tinue for 9 years, and one-third of the Senate sliall be renewed every 8 years. SoU paragraph. — A senator elected in place of another shall cxerrise his mandate during the remainder of the term of the latter. Art. 3a. The Vice President of the Republic shall lie the pn^ident of the Senate, where he shall vote only in case of tie, and shall be re- plarrd in case of absenre or Impediment by the vice president of that body. Art. 33. The Senate alone shall have ths power to try and sentence the President of the Repub- lic and the other federal officers designated by the constitution, under the conditions and in the manner which it prescribes, g 1. The Senate, when sitting as a tribunal of justice, sliall be presided over by the president of the federal su- preme court, g a. It shall not pasa sentence of condemnation unless two-thirds of its membej be present S 3. It shall not impose other penal- ties than the loss of office and prohibition from holiling any otiier, without prejudire to tlie action (if onllnary justice against the condemned. Art. 34. The national Congress shall have ex- clusive power: (1) To estimate the revenue, and lix the expenditures of the Federal Government anmi.illy, and take account of the receipts and expindltures of each flnancia' budget. (2) To autliorizc the executive to contract loans and make otiRT operations of credit (3) To legislate in ncanl to tlie public debt and furnish meuas for its payment. (4) To control the collection ami (ilspositlon of the national revenue. (5) To regnliite Intematlon.'il commerce, as well aa that of the States with each other and with the Feil- cral District; to establish and regulate the c«l- letilon of customs duties in the porta, create or alKili»h wartUiouses of deposit (8) To legislate In reirurii to navijrntion of rivers running through more fhnn one .State, or through foreign terri- tory (7) To dctcniiine tlie weight value, iu- scrihtion, ty|>c, imd denomination of the currency. (») To create banks of emission, legislate in re- gunl to iliis eminslon and to tax it (B) To fix the Kiandani of weigliU and measures. (10) To deti rniine defliiiU'ly the boundaries of the Stales iH'twiTn each otlier, those of ths Federal District, and those of th? national territory with the ad- joining natio . (II) To authorise the Oovern- ment to declare war, if there be no recourw! to arbitmtion or in case of failure of Ihlx. ami to maki' pi'are. (I;') To decide definitively in reitani to tnnlles and conventions with fori'lgn Uutliiiis (l:ii To remove the capital of the I'nlon. (U) To exl.tid aid I" the Slates in the case referred to In artli I.- .1 (I.-.) To legislate in regani to fiilcntl pontiil and Uliirmph service. (18) To adopt tho niKi ssarv measiina for the protection of the fron tiers. (17) To llx every year the numlier of the land and naval forces. (IM) To maks laws for the crgaoizatioQ i,i the army and navy, ng) To fTut or refuse to forclf n foroat pumf tlirouf b the territory of the country to cnrry on mllltarr operations. (20) To mobilize and mske use of the national guard or local militia in tlie cosm designated bv the Constitution. (21) To declare a state of siege at one or more points in the national territory, in the emergency of an attjick by foreign forces, or internal disturhance, nnd to approve or suspend the state of siei;p pniclHlmed by the executive power or its rcspousilile nifena in the absence of the Congress. (22) To rcpiilate the conditions and methods of elections for fed- eral offices throughout the country. (2.1) To jej. islate upon the civil, criminal, and commercial laws and legal procedures of the federal Judi- ciary. (24) To esublish uniform niiturnlizati.m laws. (2.5) To create and almlish federal pub. He offices, to fix the duties of tlie same nuil designate their salaries. (26) To organize tlie federal judiciary according to tlie terms of ani- cle 55 and the succeeding, section H. (27) To grant amnesty. (28) To coimnute and pardon penalties imposed upon federal oBicers for of- fenses arising from their resimnsiliility. (29) Xo make laws regarding Government lands and mines. (30) To legislate in reg.inl to the miinici. pal organization of the Fedeml District, as well as to the police, the superior instruction and other services which in tlio ciipitiil may be re- served for the Government of tlie Vnion. (31) To govern by special legisintion tlios.' points of the territory of the Republic needeii f„r tlie esttiblishment of arsenals, other estnlilislimenn or institutions for federal uses. (H2) To settle cas«'S of extradition between tlie States. (;t3) Ti) enact such laws and resolutions as may lie nee.'i. snry for the exercise of the powi'rs In'tonning lo the I'nlon. (34) To enact the ornunle laws neeis- sary for the complete execution of the niniiri'- ments of the Constitution. (3.5) To pruMgucaud adjourn its own sessions. Art. 35. It shall belong likewise to the Con- gress, but not exclusively: (1) Towniihovenhc Constitution and the l:iws, and provide for neees- slties of a federal character. (2) To pnimote in the country the development of literature, the arts, and sciences, together with iinnilsra- tlon, agriculture, manufactures, nnd romiiien-e, without privileges sucli as would olwtniet the action of the local governments. (:i) To enate institutions of higher instniition and of liivh schisd education in the States, (ti r.i provide for high school instruction in the K.dmil Dii- triet. Art, 36. Save the exceptions named in article 27, all bills may originate. iiidHTertntly, in the Chiimlier or In ific S<'iiate, and may W iiilnsiiicwl by any of tlieir menilN-ni. Art. 37. A bill, after N inir pasmd in one n( the ch.imbera, shall lie suliiiillli.i 1.1 the other, and, if the latter shall n|ipniye tin- kumi', Ii slhill send It to the exeiulive, »lio, If he iippnne It, shall sanction and pMniiilifate il. {: 1 If, linw- ever, the President of the Itcpulilie ^hnll consider It unconstitutional, or contrary to the i.'i««lidlhe nation, he shall nfuse his HHiirlioii to the same williin 10 working days, coiuitoi fri'iii that »n which he recidved It (llie biill. and slmll nlurn It. within the same periisl. to the eiiiinlar In which it originated, with his r-asms Tt liiin- fusal. S 3. The failure of the exeeiiilve 10 «!.•■ nify bis dlsappnivftl within the uUive imined li) days siiaii lie cunsidcnti as an apimivai, and iu case bl« suictioo be refused afU'r Uu close of ths C40 OONBITI'UTION OF BRAZIL. leMlnn of the Congmt, the Prctldent ihall make public hU reaioni therefor. 8 8. The bill sent back to the chamber where ft originated shall be dlKuaaed and voted upon by call of names, ind iball be considered as passed if It obtain two-thirds of the votes of the membeis present ; ud, Id this case, it shall be sent to the other dumber, whence, if it receive the same majoritv, it ibaU return, as a law, to the executive to be formally promulgated, g 4. The sanction and promulgation shall be effected in the following fomis: (1) "The national Congress enacts and I nnctioD the following law (or resolution)." (2) "The national Congress enacts and I promul- gate the following law (or resolution)." Art. 38. If the law be not promulgated by the President of the Republic within 48 hours, in the cases provided for in g § 8 and 8 of the preced- ing article, the president of the Senate, or the rice president, if the former shall not do so in the lame space of time, shall promulgate it, making; use of the following formula: " I, presi- dent (or vice president) of the Senate, make known to whomsoever these presents may come, that the national Congress enacts and promul- gates the following law (or resolution)." Art. 39. A bill nnm one chamber, amended in the other, shall return to the former, which, if It accept the amendments, shall send it, changed to conform with the same, to the executive, g 1. In the contrary case, it shall go back to the amend- ing chamber, where the alterations shall be con »i.lcreil as approved, if they receive the vote of uro'tliinis of the members present; in the latter caie, Mie bill shall return to the chamber where it nriginnutl. and there the amendments can bo rejerled only by a two-thlnls vote, g 8. If the «Ii.r -i ns be rejected by such vote, the bill shall he s 1 iiiitted without them to the approval of the executive. Art. 40. Dills flnallv rejected or not approved, •Inll not l>e presented again in tlie same Icgisla- Uvr KMion. Art. 41. The executive power shall be exer- d«ed by the President of the United States of Bioiil. aa elective chief of the nation, g 1. The Vice President, elected simultaneously with the Preti.lont, shall serve In place of the latter In csae of impediment and succeed him in cose of tacaniy in the Presidency. ^ 8. In cose of im- PMllnirat or vscancv in the Vice Presidency, the (■llniring offli-ers, in the onler named, shall be nlW to tlie IVsldency ; The vice president of the S-niite. the president of the Chamber of IVpiiiie«, the preaident of the feiieral supreme 'H'LI:,,, ^ * ''"''* '""owlnif «>« the conditions of eligibilliy to the Presidenry or Vice Prrsldenry of the U,piibllc: (I) Must be a native <>' Hraill (J) Mii«t Iw in the exercise ,.f pnllticul rights. (S) .Mini be more than tH yesra of age. Art. ^a. In caae of vacancy from any cause in the Prisiiiency or Vl<» Presidency before tlie ex piralinu of the flrst 8 year* of the Presidential terra, a new election aliall be held. . **<• 43- """he Preslilent shall hold his offli>. S'lrln,. 4 yi'ars, and is not eligible for fe«lertl<>n lor th. m«t aueceedinic tenn 8 1. The Vice Prewienl who .ball (111 the l>rpsldency during thpjMl year of the Prwidential term shall not U' ellftihle 10 tlie Presidency for the next term of ttij I 'T . ' ' "" ^^ •*'"'■ "'"/ "» which hu I^Mclenilal term shall cease the Pnwldent shall, without fall, ccoae to exerGise the fuoctloos of 641 CONSTITUTION OP BRAZIL. his ofBoe, and the newly elected President shall at once succeed him. | 3. If the latter should be hindered or should fail to do so, the succes- sion shall be effected in accordance with 88 1 and a of article 41. § 4. The first Presidential terni shall expire on the 15th of November, 1894. A^- 44- On taking possession of his ofl3ce, tho President, in a session of the Congress, or, if it be not assembled, before the federal supreme court, shall pronounce the following ofBrmatlon : " I promise to maintein the federal Constitution and comply with iu provisions with perfect loy- alty, to promote the general welfare of the Re- public, to observe its laws, and support the union, integrity, and independence of the na- tion. Art. 45. The President and Vice President shall not leave the national territory without the permission of the Congress, under penalty of loss of office. .Art. 4«. The President and Vice President shall receive the salary fixed by the Congress in the preceding Presidential term. ^Art. 47. The President and Vice President shall be chosen by direct suffrage of the nation and an absolute majority of the votes. 6 1. The election shall Uke place on the first day of March in the Ust year of the Presidential term, and the counting of tho votes cast at the different pre- , cincts shall at once be mode in the respective I capitals of the States and in the federal capital The Cooness shall make the count at iU first session of the same year, with any number of memliers present g 2. If none of those voted for shall have received an absolute majority, the Congress shall elect, by a majority of votes of those present, one of the tw^o who, in the direct election, shall have received the highest number of votes. In case of a tie the older shall Iw con- sidered elected, g 8. The manner of the election and of the counting of the votes shall lie regu- IoUkI by ordinary Icgislotion. g 4. The relatives, lioth by consanguinity and by marriage, in the flrst and second degrees, of the IV'sident and Vice President shall bo Ineligible for the offices of President and Vice President, provided the said offldals are in office at the time of the elec- tion or have left the oHlcc even 6 months Iwfore. Art. 48. To the President of the Republic ■hall belong the exclusive right to— (1) Sanction, nmmulgste, and make puliTio the laws and reso- lutions of the Congress; issue (i<tn>e8. iuatruc- lions, htiil regulations for their faithful execu- tion. (8) Choose and dismiss at will the cabinet officers. (8) Exercise or appoint some (me to exercise supreme command over the land and naval forces of the rnltwi States of Hrajll, as well as over the lix-nl police, when callni to arms for the internal or exti'mal defense of the Union. (4) Oovem and (llnlrihutc under the laws of the Congress, acconling U> the neopssltlcs of the Na- tional Oovemmcnt, the land and naval forces. (5) Dispose of the offices, both military and civil, of a federal character, with the excep"llon« sperl- fled in the Constitution. ((I) I'anlon crimes and commute penalties for offenses subject to feiieral Jurisiilction. save in the coses mentlomtl In artl- cle 84, No. 9«, and article M. g 3. (7) Declsre war and make peace, under the pMvisJons of article H4, No 11 im n»c!«n' war at imrt- In case of foreign invasion or aggression. (») (Jive an annual statement to the national Congress of the conditlutt u( the country, with a reoommendo- ;/ *■' coNSTmrnoN op brazil. tlon of preaslDff provisions and refonn*, through a n-essnge, wli'.cU he ihall send to the secretary of the Stnatc on the day of the opening of the Icgiiliitive session. (10) Convoke the Congress In extra session. (11) Appoint the federal judges when proposed by the supreme court (18) Ap- point tlie meml)ers of the federal supreme court and miuiaUrs of the diplomatic corps, with the Bppn)vul of the senate ; and, in the absence of the C'linereas, appoint them in commlsatoo until con- Bidind by the senate. (18) Appohit the other incnil)ers of the diplomatic corps and consular airentii. (14) Maintain relations with foreign states. (15) Declare, directly, or through his responsible agents, a state of siege at any point of the natloual territory, in case of foreign ag- gnssiiin or serious internal disturbance. (Article «, No. 3 ; article 34, No. 81 ; and article 80.) (16) Set on foot international negotiations, celebrate nsn-ements, conventions, and treaties, always ad referendum to the Congress, and approve those niado by the States in conformity with article 63, Biibniitiing them when neoeaaary to the authority of the Congress. Art. 49. The President of the Republic shall be assisted by the ministers of state (cabinet offi- cers), agenu of his confidence, who sign the acu and pri'side over their respective departments into which the fe<leral administration is divideil. Art. 50. The cabinet minister* shall not exer- cise any other emnloyment or function of a pub- He nature, l)e ellgilile to the Presidency or Vice Presidency of the I'nion, or be electe<l deputy or senaUir. S>lt namgroph.— Any deputy or Sina- tor, who sliall accept the position of cabinet minister, shall lose his seat in the respective chiiiutpor, and a new election shall at once be held, in which he sliall not be voted for. Art. SI. The cabinet ministers shall not appear at the sissious of the Congress, and shall coni- nmiiicate with that body in writing only or by p<'r».itiul coiifirencc with the committees of the chambers. The aunual report of the ministers shall lie addresseil to the President of the Itcpub- lie, and distributed to all the memben of the Congress. Art. sa. The cabinet ministers shall not be TcspoHsihle to the Congress or to the courU for advice given to the President of the Kepulillr, y 1. They shall lie responsible, nevertheless, with respect to their acu, for crimes deOned In the law. ^ a. For common crimes snd those for whieh they are responsible tliey shall be prose- culi-il and tried by the fe<leral supremo court and for lh(w committed iolnlly with the Presi- dent of the lUpuWic, by the authority competent t«ludge this latter Art. 53. Tlie Ihtialdent of the United Sutes of Hraiil sliall Iw brought to trial and judgment after the Chamber of I)eputlcs shall have (Teeldcci that he should lie tried ou the charges made Bgalnst him, In the federal supreme c«urt, lu (he ease of romiiion crimes, snd In those of responsi blllty. ill the S<'nale. SUt paragrapH.— At amm as it shall lie dieiclod to try him on the cb«rg<-s hromflit. till- Pr.sldeiit shall Ih' suspended In the Meniw of the duties of his olBre. Art. 54. CriiiHs of res|Minsililllty on the part of the Preslihnt of the Itrpublic are such as are dlniUil against — (1) Tlie political existence of the I nloii. {••) The Conititutlun ani| th« r,.rm ■'! the Ffieral t»ovrnimeut. (8) The fr»>o exerrlse uf the (Miililcal jHjwers. (4) The legal snJoyiuGot ooNSTrrmoN op brazil. ^l^^nS^'V^ °! poittioa or Individual riihts (5) The Internal security of the country mi ti^ puritv of the administration. (7) Theeo,, titi! Uonal keeping and use of the public funds. 8) The flnancialTegisUtion enactej by the Cmztm 8 1. These offenses shall be defined In a sGecS law. § 8 Another law shall provide foTtSe charges, the trial, and the Judgment. 133 Both these laws shall be enacted in the first ksslon of the first Conness. H„^^' ?S .Tne Judicial power of the Union riisU be lodged in a federal supreme court, sittinir la the capltol of the Republic, and as many lS« federal courta and tribunals, distributed throuirh the country, as the Congress shall c!«ate, Art. sj. The federal supreme court sUali be composed of fifteen Justices, appointed unJer ths provisions of article 48, No. 12, from amomrtte oldest thirty citizens of well-known knowredm and repuutlon who may bo eligible to the S^Mte . i^' 5?*, "°* '«l*™' Justices shai. hold offlcs for life, being removable solely by iuclltlal sen- fence. 8 1. ^helr «ilaries shafl !«? L-A Z u", of the Congress, and can not be diminished S i The Senate sliall try the members of the fedeisl supreme court for crimes of responsibility sad this latter the lower federal judges Art. 58. The federal couru shall cluHMe their presidents from sm<mg their owu members and shall organise their res|)ectlvc elerieal cnrpi S 1. In these corps the appoinlnieut and ilii- missal of the respective clerks, as will as the fill- lug of the judicial oBlces in the t\-speilive juJ|. cial districts, shall belong to the presl.Uuts of the respective .oiirta. S 3. The Presidiiit cif the Uepublic shall apiwint from amount Hie iiierabeu of the federal supreme court the iittortiiy general ! of the Republic, whose duties shall be dedned by law. Art. 59. To the federal supreme court tbsll liehing the duty of — (1) Trying snd judirinitby original and exclusive juriailk-tion — (.ii Thi President of the Uepublic for eonmi.in crimes, and the cabinet minisU'ra In the ea»- < specifiea In article 58. (A) The ministers of ili,. dlplumatlc corps for common crimes ami tliosi' .■! ii»|m)mI- billty. (<■) Cases and disputes iH-iweiu the Sutes and the Union, or between the 8tul<s one with another. ((/) Disiiutes and claims lieiweru (of. eign states and the Union, or iHtwi-eii frireln nations ami the Suites. (<) ConHiels Istwefo the federal courts one with snollier, or l»lw,rn these anil those of tlie SlaU-s, as well as tliow lielween the courts of one 8ut* and those of amiUier ('.') Dci'tdlng. on appeal, i|Uesiloiis pMiiimuad upon by the lower federal courts iin.l irihunsls, as well as those nientioued in is I of tin- nrneiit article and In article fl(» (11) llevi.« lii;< iL,. pro- cmllngs of Hulshed trials, undir tlif proyiJuas of article 81. ^ 1. Deilnoiia of .•<i,iti- icurts la last app-al can b<' carried to tin fi-dentl supreoe court — (11) When the validity t Hpplhaif.in of the federal laws or treaties i« ■ illiil in i|m»tloa and ttiB derishm of the Sim. cinirl sliull be against the same. (A) When the viilililv "fiswi or acu of the govpnimenu.>r theSlalitdin^peCt t« tlie Constitution or of the fidiral hi«« Ucon- li'ste<l and the Stale court kliiill lia\i- .Iciiaeii In favor of the validity of the sets or I«wh In ques- tion. t( 3. In tlie canes w lileli Involve thi' sppll- ealinn v.t the laws of the Ht^i^i ?!,« ?«',»«! .-.-.tirt sliall cimsult the jurisprudence of the l<H'ai Iriba- nala, aod vice vena, tliu State court shall itiniltltt 642 OOMBTITUTION OF BRAZIL. (b*t of the fedeni tribunab when the interpreU- tion of the laws of the Union U involred. Art. 6a It ihall belong to the federal courts to decide— (o) Cues In which the plaintiff or the defendant shall rest the case on some provision of the federal C:k>nstltution. (f) All suits brought igiiiiit the Ooveniment of ibe Union or tlie na- tion*! treasury based on constitutional provisions, OD the laws and regulations of the executive pover, or on contracts made with the said Oov- einmeDt {e) Suits arising from compensations, cltims, indemnification of damages, or any others wliatsoever brought by the Qovemment of the tnioD against private individuals, and vice versa, (if) LiiiKations between a State and the dtizcns of snotiier, or between citizens of different States hariog differences in their laws, (e) Suits be- tweea foreign sutes and Brazilian citizens. (/) Actions begun by foreigners, and baaed either on contracts with the Federal Qovemment or ol conventions or treaties of the Union with other mil"'.: ig) Questions of maritime law and nsricatlon, whether on the sea or on the rivers snd lakes of the country. (A) Questions of inter- nstioDsl l«w, whether criminal or civil, (i) Po- litics! crimes. % 1. Congress Is forbidden to commit any part of the federal Jurisdiction to tlie Swto court*, g 8. Sentences and orders of the fciieral Judges will be executed by federal court olflcers, and the local police ahall assist tliem wlien called upon by the same. Art. 6i. The decisions of the State courts or lriliiinal.H in matters within their comprttncu ilisll put an end to the suiu and qurstiouo ex- cept as to (1) hatieas corpus, or (2) effpofs of a foniirmr dcccssed in cusca not proviiii-d for by conieiiiinii or tn-aty. In such cases there shall be voluntary recouno to the federal supreme court. Alt ti. The State courts shall not have the riowcr to inu-rvcnc in questions sulimltted to the federal tril)uua!», or to annui, alter, or siiniicDd the sentences or orders of these latur ; and retip- rwallv. the federal Judiciary can not inU^rfere In quostidiis submitted to the State cuurU, or annul titer, or suspend their decisions or oniers except to the cases jimTldr<l in this Constitution. Art. 63. Each Stote shall Im- governed by the [■..Mtiluiion and laws which it shall adopt, respect Wlnjrutwrvol for the couatitullonal prlnciiilesof the I nil in. Art. 64. The unexplored mines and wild lands IvlDK wltliln the Stau-s shall belong to these ^Uten r.HT,rttively ; and to the Union only as much tirrliory as may be necessary for the de- /inNM.f the fnmtlcrs, for fortiflcatlons, military Jiirk.. and fttleral railwaya SuU ,»r„gr„ph.- Tbe nutinnal nropertlea, not neccs«iry for the Zt' ; '^ '^ ?'""• ••*" P»" *° *^'- "''""••" of the Mai, , In whose territory they may be sltu- „ *^- *?• ,1"l'e States shall have the right to — I . ..n. lurl,. agrromenu ami conventions among (Aftld" i-^. No 18.) (2) Exrreiw In general any ^f^ilii (onsiltutlon. or Implicitly in its I'xprei Art. M. It Is forbidden to the 8uu-s to_(|) Kedi,. i„ rHi.gniie public do.iim.mt. of th? .i„i" '^'1 ""> "' '"* sutes, of a leirlsiatlvc ..lml,.,.,r,.iive. or Judicial character. <f) He m ta cumii. y or noi« issued by builu. wfil^ 643 CONSTITUTION OF BRAZIL. «rM.'i' ''^..'^ °' *•■* ''e<^«"l Oovemment (3) Make or declare war, one with another or S'ifn»7''r*'''-..<:}1^'"" «"« extradition of or ^f .hi P^r''?^,*'^.'^ J"^"* "' otJ"" States, or of the Federal District, in conformity with thi !rnicte4tr^.r'"='' "■"* "^ "^ •"'^j**^'- ro^lV.*f?l" ^"^jht r^frictions specified in the n?.?iL. l°^i J?""* ^'•« '*^''™' '»''». the Federal ™f ^..h^n", ' •* »1?""^ '"'^«="y by the munici- KJu-ttr in^the^^pr oTfepVb!.? pruteilL'-^ forexcl£..velyby5.e^Pul5!i^ ln^,fJh"" 1'''« States Shall organize themselves n such a inanner as to assure the autonomy of the municipal ties in everything that coucirns their peculiar hiterests. "^nu ,j!f^;f?-iJ}l^ following shall be Brazilian citi- zens: (1) Natives of Brazil, though of foreign parentage (father), provided he be not in the sfr- Ji^tn ^J.'"*'"''- <*l^'" "' • BrazilUn father, and illegitimate sons of a Brazilian mother, born in foreign part*, if thev take up their residence domiciFe) in the republic. (8) Sons of a Brazil- Ian father who may be in another country in the service of the Republic, although they do not make their domicile In Brazil. (4) Foreigners. T^ k'^P ^, f™,*" °'' '•'« "th of November 1889, shall not declare, within 6 month* from the time when the Con*titutlon enters into force their de»iro to preserve their original nationality! 5) Jore gners who possess riroperty (real estate) a Hrazil and are married to Brazilian women, or have Braz Han childitn, provided they reside in Brazil, unless they shall declare theif intention of not changing their nationality. (6) Foreiirn- crs naturalized In any other way. Art. 70. Citizens of more than 21 years of aire and "Igistered according to law, shall be elector*. Ss 1. The following *hall not tie regi*tered a* electora for federal or Stote elections: (1) Beg- gars (2) Persons ignorant of the alphaU't 18) Soldiera on pay, except alumni of the mllltarT schiwU of higlier instruction. (4) .MemUrs of monastic orders, companies, congregations or communities of wbataoevMr denomination, who are subject to vowaof oh.-<llencc. rule, or statute. which linplle* the surrender of indiviihml lilvrty be li il S^"* *'"' °^ ""' ** regUlend shall not Art. 71. The right* of the Brazilian citizen can be BU«peiided or lost only In the following cases: ? 1. The rights may tie suspended — (J) for physical or moral Incapacity. (4) Koreriml- nal conviction, during the ojieration of the sen- tence. « 2. They may In. lost-(,i) By naturali- zation in a foreign country. (A) By accetitanc* of employment or peti.lon from a foreign power witlioul iwmiission of the federal executive t} 8* The m.>aim of naruuiring l.wt rights of the Bral zllian citizen sliall Iw s|M',iil,d liv federal law. Art. M. Tlie I'onstitutlnn secures to Brazil- tans and foreljneni resliling In the country tb« nvlolalillltv of their righu touching individual llierty, arl wcurity and prop«-rtv. in the fol- lowing teriun: SI. No [lemon slmll lie forced to do. or leave undone, anything whatever ex- cept by virtu.' of Uw. i ». Before the law aU prm.r^ ,r.= ^.j.is!. Thr Republic docs nol fe«,« nlie privileg. a of birth, or titles of nobility, aiid anollshes all .listing honorary orders, with all tiMOr prerogative* and decontloas, as well as all fW* mm. lip CWNSTITDTION OF BRAZIL. heredlta^ and condllar titles. § 8. All persons and rellKtous professions may exercise, publiclr and freely, the right of worahip, and may asso- ciate themselves for that purpose, acquire prop- erty, observance being had to the prurisions of the common law. §4. The Republic recognizes only the cWII marriage, the celebration of which shall be gratuitous. §8. Thecemetcries shall be secular In character, and be manapoil by the numldpal authorities, being free to all religious nets for the exercise of their respective rites as reprds their members, provided they do not offend public morals or the laws. 8 6. The In- struction given in the public Institutions shall be secular. 8 7. No sect or church shall receive offlrittl aid. nor be dependent on, nor connected with, the Oovemment of the Union, or of the States. § 8. All persons have the right of free assoi-iatlon and assembly, without arms ; and the police force shall not Intervene, except to main- tain the public order, g 9. Any person whatso- ever shall have the right to address, by petition, the public powers, denounce abuses of the authori- ties, and appeal to the responsibility of the accused. § 10. In time of peace any person may, without passport, enter or leave the terri- tory of the Kepubllc,wlth his fortune and goods, whenever an(l however he may choose. §11. The house Is the inviolable asylum of the person ; no one can enter It at night without I he consent of the Inhabitant, except to aid the victims of a crime or disaster; nor by day, unless In the cases and in the form prescribed by law. g 12. The exi ri'sslon of opinion shall be free, in respect to whatever subject, through the press or through the tribune, without subjection to censorship, ■■aih one being responsible for the abuses he mi-y r.iininlt, in the cases and In the form prescribei; by law. Anonymous publications are forbidden. S in Cases of flagrante delicto alone excepte<l, no arrest shall bo matle, unless after declara- tion of the charge (save In cases determined by law), and by writU'n order of the competent authorities, p 14. No person shall be kept in prison without charge formally made, save the exceptions mentioned in the law, or taken to prison, or detained there. If be give ball, In cases where such is lawful. § 15. No person shall be conilcinned, except ''v competent authority, and in virtue of law already existing an<l In the form pre«rih«>d by It. g 18. The law shall secure to the airuneil the fullest defense bv all the re- courses and means essential to the same. Includ- ing the notice of the charge, delivered to the prisoner within Si houn anilsigiied by the pD- per authority along with the names of the accu- sers and witnesses. 8 17. The rights of proi>erty are maintained In all their plenitude, and no disanpmpriatlon shall be ma<le, except from nc- cetsltv „f public utility, and Imlemnlty shall, in such cases, be made beforehand. .Mines belong to the owners of the soil, under the limitations to lie ('Stslilislied by the law to encourage the devi'|i>pmi'iit of this branch of Industry, g 18. ('orn'»|x>nilencc underset is iuvioli-ble. g 10. No Senaliy shall extend beyond the person of the eliiKiuent. g m The penaltr of the galleys Is abolished, as also judicial tmnishmeut. g SI. The death |>rnalty Is abolished, except In the can i under military law in time of war. i 22 The babeiu oirpiu shall always lie granted when the individual suffera violence or compulsion, through Illegality or abuse of |iower, or considers coNSTTnrnoN op brazil. himself in Imminent danger of the same S 91 There shall be no privileged tribunal, exceot in such cases as, from their nature, belonir to sirnn.! rourts. § 24. The free exercise of any pfS slon, moral. Intellectual, or Industrial li ™»n tied. §25. Industrial Inventions Mong to Uinir authors, to whom the law will grant a InnnniMr privilege, or to whom the Congiv.ss wi!l>ivet rcasjmablc premium, when It Is desirahle u'malis the invention public property. § 36. To authois of literary and artistic works Is guarantied tiie exclusive right of reproducing them through the press or by any other mechanical process, and their helra shall enjoy the same right durini: the space of time determined by the law. § 27 ti^ law shall also secure the righte of prooertv in trade-marks. § 28. No Brazilian can be iWved of his dvll and political righto on accouot of religious belief or duty, nor be exenipuil from theperformanceof any civic duty, g 29 Those who shall claim exemption from any bunlcn Im. posed by the laws of the Republic on its ritlions on account of religious belief, or who shall occtpt any foreign decoration or title of nohilitv slull lose all their political rights. § 30, No tax of any kind shall be collected except in virtue of t hiw authorizing the same. § 81. The instituUon of trial by Jury Is maintained. Art. 73. Public offices, civil or mllltarv, ti« accessible to all Brazilian citizens, alwavsoWrr- Ing the conditions of particular cap.i.'ity fixed by the law : but tlio accumulation of remuners- tlonp is forbidden. Art, 74. Commissions, offices, ami poslt'oni not subject to removal are guarantied In all their plenitude. Art. 75. Only such public ofllciaU n» Iwvc be- come inllrm in the service of the nation sUsU be rctire<i on pay. Art. 76. Olflcera of the army and navy «h»ll lose their commissions only in ca.se nf oimitemo«- tion to more than 3 years in |)riHon, prdiiounccd in ludgment by the competent tribunals. Art. 77. There shall be a special murt for the trial of military offenses committiHl by suldierj or marines. § 1. This court shall be 'n>mp«m4 of a supremo military tribunal, whip« ,mberj shall hold their seata for life, and of lli. .iindU necessary for the formulation of the < Imrgc snd the Judgment of the crimes, g 3. Tlu' crCTnlis tion andi>owera of the supreme military iribumil shall he aetermlne<l by law. Art. 78. The enimieratiim of the riirhls and guaranties expressed in theConslilutininliicsnot excluile other guaranllcs i>n<l ri^tlilH. imI cnumtr- ateil, but ri'suitlng from the form of /jnviTiimcnt established and principles settleil by 8al<l t'unsll- tutom. Art. 79. The citizen ve«te<i with the funcliniu of either of tliese three federal p.)w.r> shall ncit exercis<> those of anothiT Art. to. Any part of the territory «( i\u- Union may bi- declared in state of siege aii.l ihicoBBtl tutlonal guaranties suipendiHl for a ib !. rrainiHl perloil, whenever the security of the lb'|iiibiic so demands in case of fonign sitgn'»>i"n or In- testine diaturbance. (Article S^i, Nn '.Ml ill The power to execute the alioye pnw i«iiiii mar, if the Congress be not In session ami tli<' (n iiiirr !"-• In Imminent peril. 1» !!m-.! h\- •.'.::■ ft-ifrs! executive. (Article 48, No. l.rj ^ •.'. in tlic exorcise of this [lower, durini; the state of sieire, tho executive shall be restricted lo tlie following 644 OOySTITXTTION OF BRAZIL. meuure* of repreMioii against penons: (1) To their detention m a place not allotted to penons accused of common crimes. (3) To bonisiiment to other parts of tlie national territory. S 8. As ■nn as the Congress shall have assembled, the President of the Republic shall make a report to that body of the exceptional measures which may bare been taken. §4. The authorities who (hall have ordered such measures shall be re- iponsible for any abuses that may have been com- mitted. Art. 8i. In criminal cases, trials concluded may be reviewed at any time, in favor of the condemned parties, by the federal supreme court, for the purpose of correetinff or of confirming the sentence, g 1. The law shall determine the cases ud the form of such revision, which may he Mked for by the condemned, by any one of the people, or by the attorney-general of the Repub- lic, ex olBcio. § 3. In such revision the penalties Imposed by the sentence reviewed can not be in- creased. I 3. The provisions of the present ar- tick' are applicable to military trials. Art. 83. Public officers shall be strictly re- sponsible for the abuses and omissions that occur In tbc exercise of the duties of their offices, as well as for the indulgences and negligences for which they do not bold their suburdinates re- «pon.<ible. Suit paragraph. — They shall all bo bounil by formal obligation, on taking possession of till ir offices, to discharge the lawful duties of the same Art. 83. Until revoked, the laws of the ancien regime shall remain in force, in as far as they sre not. explicitly or implicitly, Cf>ntriiry to the lyslem of government established bv nhe Con- ■titutinn, iiud to the principles laid dowi in the same. Art. 84. The federal government guaranties the payment of the public debt, both Internal and lurt'ign. Art. 85. The officers of the line and of the sn- Beteil cliisses of tbc navy shall have the same cumniis.siiins and advantage as those of the army of enmiipordlng rank. Art. 86. L. -v Brazi«Kn shall be bound to military service in defense of the country s J the t'linititiitlon, as provided by the federal laws. Art. 87. The federal army shall be made up of ei.ntinifcnU which the states and the Federal District are bound to fumisli, constituted in con- f<irnilty with the annual law regulating the num- Ikt ot the forces. $ 1. Tlie general orgaiiization of tlie army shall be detcnnineil by a federal law, in seciiniiiiice with No. 18 of article 34. ^ 8. The rnli.n shall have charge of me militarv in- •trudioti of the troops and of thn biglur military Instruiti.in. §3. Compulsory recruiting for mili- tary purpcises la abolishcil. |J 4. The army and navy shall lie made up by voluut"ering wlibout •iiiniieH. or, if this means be not sii»lcleut by I'll previiiusly detiTmlncd. The civwa for the luvy Khali lie made up from the rnvvs; scliooi, tile H-hiKila of marine apprentices, an 1 the mn- caanl nmrine, by means of lot. Art, 88. In no case, either directly or indi- rect y. iilnnc ..r in allUncc with another nation, •hall ilie I iiiu.d SUtea of Brazil engage in a war of con.|iiiT(i. . ^w**' * 'ribunal of accounu shall be Insti- "■'•' ■■•"""- auditing of the receipt lUuI iiufuiie Kcouiits and esaminlng into their legality before their preaentatloB to tbe ConctvM. The mem- U CONSTITUTION OF BRAZIL. hers of this tribunal shall be appointed by the President of the Republic, with the approval of the Senate, and can lose their seats only by sen- tence. .Art. 90. The Constitution may be amended, at the initiative of the national Congress, or of the l^M "v""** °' "'^ S"***- § 1- -in amendment sball be considered as proposed, when, having been presenud by one-fourth, at least, of the members of either house of the Congress, it shall have been accepted in three readings (discussions) by two-thirds of the votes in both houses of the Congress, or when it shall have been asked for by two-thirds of the States presented, each one by a majority of the votes of ita legishiturc, said votes to be taken in the course of 1 year. 8 2 The proposed amendment shall be considered approved, if, in the following year, after three discussions, it shall have been adof -.cd by a ma- jority ot two-thirds of the votes in the two houses of the Congress. § 8. The amendment adopted shall be published with the signutiircs of the prcsidenu and clerks of the two chambers and be incorporate<l into the Constitution ih a part of the same, g 4. No project having a t<.'n- dency to abolish . 1 federative republican form or the equal representation of the States in the Senate, shall be admitted for considcratio the Congress. Art. 91. This Constitution, after ap] -1 shall be promulgated by the president .1 the Congress and signed by the members of the same. Temporary ProTiaioni. Article 1. After the promulgation of thi.s Con- stitution, the Congress, in joint assemlil;. shall choose consecutively, by an absolute miijnrilv of votes in >he first balloting, and. if no ciitidiilati' shall rerelvp such, by a pluralitv In the second Imlloting, the President and Vice "President of the Lniti-l States of Brazil, g 1. This election shall beiu two distinct ballotings, for the President and Vice President respectively, the ballots for I'residcnt being uken and counte.|, in the first place, and afterwanis for Vice President. S 3. The l^esident and Vice President, thus elected shall occi:py the Presidency and Vice I'residencv of the Republic during the first Presidential term, g 3. For said election there shall 1h; no ineompatibiliiies admitu.'d. g 4. As six; n as said election shall be cnncludetl, the Congress shall consider as terminated iU mission in joint sc.s.si(in and, si^parating into Chamlwr ami Senate, shall enter upon the exercise of its functions us de- final bv law, on the 15th of June of the prt.s<'nt year, ai.d can not in any case be dis*i|ve(f ^ 5. In the rtrst year of the first legislature, among its prcpaiatory mi-asures, tlie Senate shall deslgi.atc the flrit and second tliini of its niemlirrs. wliose term of office shall reasi' at the end of the first and Bi\Hinil Syear terms. ^ fl The discrinilna- tion shall be made in lhre< ;i.sts. corresponiling to the three eiasw's, alli.tl;.g to them the senutors of each State and of the Federal District lUfonl. Ing to the nuinlier of votes received hv them respectively, so as to allot ta the thlnl fn llie lastayenrs the one receiving the highest liiinilier of votes In the Federal District and in e»i h StaU', and to till- other two-thirds the remaining two names in the order of the number of voioa re- ceiveii iiy tliem respectively. ^ 7. In ease of tic, the oldest shal'. be preferre'd, and if the ages are equal, the choice shall bo made by lot 545 CONSTlTCnON OF BRAZIL. Art. s. The State which, by tJ •> end of the tear 1893, shall not have adopteu Ita constttu- Hon. shall, by act of the federal legislative power, be placed under that of oae of the other States, which it shall Judge most suitable, until the State thus subjected to said oonstitatioD shall •mend it in the manner provided in the same. Art. 3. As fast as the States shall be organized, the Federal Oovenmient shall deliver to them Uie administration of the service* which belong to them, and shall settle the responsibility of the f>.'derei u J ministration in all that rcKtea to said •ervices and to the payment of the respective offlclals. Art. 4. While, during the period of organiza- tion of their services, theStates shall be engaged in regulating their expenses, the Federal Goveniment shall.forthis purpose, open special creditotothem, tmder conditions determhied by the Congress. Art. 5. In the Stetes which shall become or- Snlwd the classification of the revenues estab- heii in the Constitution shall enter into foree. Art. 6. In the first appointments for the federal magistrac/ and for that of the States, the pre- ference shall be given to the Justices and magis- trates of the higher courts of the greatest note. Such 88 are not admitted Into the new organiza- tion of the Judiciary, and have served 80 years shall l>c retired on full pay. Those who have CONSTITUTION OF CALIFORNIA.- For an account of the maht features of this roNSTmrnoN of Canada. served for less than 80 years shall continue ta receive their salaries until they shall be em ?l°I'f' 2ru'*l*'*i.'''"'™P»J' corresponding u, their leugth of service The payment of 8aliri« of magistrates retired or set aside shall be nud. by the Federal Government ^^ «#^ I' To D. Pedro de Alcantara. ex-Emperor 18th of November, 1889, sufficient to guarantr him a decent subsistence during his lifetin,/ "The Congress, at ito first session, s>wU fli th. imiountof saldL.:nsion. Art 8. The Federal Qovemirsnt shall acoulm tor the nation the house in which Dr. Be liamS Constant Botelho de HagalhSes died, and shaH have placed on it a memorial slab in mcmorv of that great patriot, the founder of the Ucpublic. Sols paragraph.— The vidow jf th. said Dr Ben- Jamin Constant sl,all Imve. du-!ng her lifetime. the usufruct of the said house. We oniir tlien ail the authoritius U> whom the recocnition and execution of this C.-natitution btlouijs, to exe- cute it aud have it executed and observed faith- fully and fully in all its provisions. Let the same be published and observed tliroughout the territory of the nation. Hall of tlic sessions of the National Constitutional Congnss in the city third of the Republic. See Bbazii,- lt)8»-i(j9i. singular constitution, see CauroaNU: 1877— looO. AD. a A\ P-4P!'::;:''''" Q"«>>«c Act. See Canada: CAt!?;'i"D-?;'»!^~'"'""'"^A^- See A.'^V°-8l?,V"'''°^'*- S-Cakaoa: a.^- T. '"'7-The British North America Act.— The history of the Confederation of the grov n<i.» of British North America, forming the jominion of Canada, Is given brieflv under Canada A I). 18«7. The following is the text of tilt- Act of the Parilament of Great Britain by which the Confederation was fonned and Its constitution established: An Act for the Union of Canada. Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, and the Oovemment tbenof : and for purposes connected therewith. WTii March. 1867. WiiKiiKArt the Provinces of Canada, Nova Scolbi Hiul New Brunswick have expressed their .l.sire to he federally united into one Domiiiloii under the Crown of the United I ae- dom of (In at Britain and Ireland, with a cofi rtltulion similar in principle to that of the United Kinjfdi.iii: And whereas such a Union would coniiiuy Ui 111,, welfare of the Provinces and pro- mote the int. rests of the British Empire ■ And Whenas on the .•sUli.ishr :it of the Union by aut lority of 'arliainent it u expedient, not only that tlie ( oiisiltiition of the I^egislatlve Authority In the Dominion lie provided for, but also that the nature of the Executive Government therein be deelHred: And whereas it is expedient that provision lie made for the eventual .iilm!=i!.^n inui liic L nion of other parU of Britlsli North Amertua. Be it tlietefors eOMted and decUied CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. 646 by the Queen's most Excellent Majesty, hv and with the advice and consent of ihf lonlj Spiritual and Temporal, and Con'nions iu iliis present Parilament Bsscmblt.ii. and by the authority of the same, as follows : 1. This Act may be cited as The British North America Act, 1807. 2. The provisions of this Act referring In Hit Majesty the Queen extend also to th,. h,.jrs an I successors of Her Majesty, Kinirs and ()ii, ,.n» of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ir, land J. It shall be lawful for th, Oun-n byanfl with the advice of Her Majesty's M.wt ilim.iur- able Privy Co-_ncil, to declare by rrmlaniati.u that, on aud after a day thendn aiiiKiiniid, not being more than six n-onths after tin. Ilil^.inl; nt this Act, the Provinces of Cnnaila. .N.na S.iiia, and New Brunswick shall form and tie one Dominion under the name of C'anadu: aiid on and after that da^ those three I'mvinc,.!! shall form and be one Dominion umicr that name acconlingly. 4. The subsequent provisions of tliU .Vrt shall, unless It is otherwise expressed ,ir iiiipli,..!, commence and have effect on ami aft, r tlie Union, that is to say, on and after tlu' ,lav ap- Pilntod for the Union taklngelleri in ihi.QiiWns rocliimntlon ; ami in the same pr-'vi^iims. «nli« It Is otherwise expn-sscil or Implloil, the name Canada shaM be taken to mean Canada as con- stituted under this Act. 8. Canada shall be diviile,! into four Prov- inces, name<l Ontario, Quebec, Nova -Niilia, and NrW BfiiiiSwick. 6. The psrU of the Province of Canada (as it exists at the passbigof this Act) which formerl; ooNSTmmoMr op cakada. XncMvtand I^ir'iament, CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. omstltuted reapectlTeiy the Provincei of Upper Caiuds and Lower Canada shall be deemed to be levered, and shall form two separate Provinces. The part which formerly coratituted the Prov- ince of Upper Canada shall constitute the Prov- ince of Ontario ; and the part which formerly constituted the Province of Lower Canada shall constitute the Province of Quebec. 7, The Provinces of Nova Scotia and New Bnmsvick sUall ha^e the same limits as at the pi ~ineof this \ct .. In the geiicral census of the population of Canada, which is hereby required to be taken in the year one thousand .u-ht hiinilrei and leventyonc, and in every tenth year thereafter, the mpcctive populations of the four Provinces shall be distinguished. 9. The Executive Government and authority of and over Canada is hereby declared to con- tinue and be vested In the Queen. 10. The pr isions of this Act referring to the Governor i '.iieral extend and apply to the Governor General for the time being of Canada, or other the Chief Executive Oracer or Ad- mlnintrator, for the time being carrying on the Oovemmcnt of Canada on behalf and in the name of tlie Queen, by whatever title he Is desiirnatrtl. 1 1. There shall be a Council to aid end advise in the Government of Canada, to be styled the Queen's Privy Council for Canada: and the persons who arc to be members of tlut Coimcll shall be from time to time chosen and summone<l hy the Governor General and sworn in as Privy Councillors, and membe.-s thereof may be from dme to time removed by the Governor General. J 2. All powers, authorities, and functions Thich under any Act of the Parliament of Great Britain, or of the Parliament of the United Kinjfdoni of Great Britain and Ireland, or of the Legislature of Upivcr Canada, Lower Canada Canada, Nova Scotia, or New Brunswick, are at the I'nion vested in or exerciseable by the re- spective Governors or Lieutenant Governors of thiMe Provinces, with tlic advice, or with the odvioe and consent, of the respective Executive Councils thereof, or in conjunction with those Councils, or with any numlwr of members tliercof. or bv those Oovernors or Lieutenant Oovemotu individually, shall, as fur as the same continue in extstenre and capable of being fserciscd after the Union in relation to the Gov- ornment of Cr.nnda, be veste<l in and exercise- olilc by the Governor General, with the nlvlce m with the advice and consent of or in conjunc- tion with the Queen's Privy Council for Canada or any incmlH'ra thenof. or bv the Governor (•eninil Indivi.luully, as the case fequiret, subject nrvenlicliss (except with ri'spect to such as exist uiidcr .\cis i,f the Parliament of Great Britain or nf Uie l'.-.rl hunent of the United Kingdom of Oneat Britain and Indand) to be aboQshed or •lUred liy ihc Parliament of Canada. 1 J. 1 hi' provisions of this Act referring to the tjovcrn,,r (..nenil in Council shall be construed asirfirrinff to the Governor Oenrrnl actine bv »nd»,th the advice of the Queen's Privy Council 14. It shall l>e lawful for the Queen, if Her MsJiMv thinks lit, to suthoriie Oic {kivrranr l^ucrnl from time lo time to appoint any person jr.";" I"'";"'''. Jointly or severally, to bo hU ueputy or Deputies within any pah or p«ru of 547 Canada, and In that capacity to exercise during the pleasure of the Governor General such of the powers, authorities, and functions of the Gov- ernor General as the Governor General de r.» 't necessary and expedient to assign to him or them, subject to any limitations or directions ex- pressed or given by the Queen; but the appoint- ment of such a Deputy or Deputies shall not affect the exercise by the Governor General him- l m *m? P^wef- authority or function. 15. The Command-In-Chief of the Land and Naval Malltia, sud of all Naval and Slilitory *orces, of and in Canada, is hereby declared U> contmue and be vested in the Queen. 16. Until the Queen otherwise directs, the **V» Go- mment of Canada shall be f»tawa 1 ;• There shall be one Pariiament for Canads conslsiing of the Queen, an Upper Fouse style' the Senate, and the House of Commons. . \ I Tl'* P'''''"*'ge8. Immunitie- and powet» to be held, eni, ed, and exercised jy the Senate and by the House of Commons, and by the members thereof respectively, shnll be such as are from time to time dcflni'd by Act of the Parliament of Canada, but so that Jie same shall never exceed those at the passi..; of this Act held, enjoyed, and exercised by the Commons House of Parliament of the United Kingdom of Gnat Britata and Ireland and by the members thereof. ll». The Pariiament of Canada shall be called together not Uter than six months after the Lulon. 20. There shall be a Session of 'he "arilament of Canada once at least In evei> year, so that twelve months shall not intervene Iwtween the last sittipj, of the Parliament in one Session and iU flrsf sitting In the next Session. at. The Senate shall, subject to the pro- visK.nso' this Act, consist of seventy two mem- bers, wh. Bhai; be styled Senators. 22. In relation to the constitution of the Senate, Canada s' '1 be deemed to consist of threedlvisiras — 1. ntario; 8. Quel)ec; 3. Tiie Maritime Provinces, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick; which three divisions shall (subject to the provisions of this Act) be equally repre- sented in the Senate ms follows: Ontario by twcnt.--four Semtors: Quebec by twentv-four SenatoiL ; and the Maritime Provinces by twenty- four Senators, twelve thereof representing Nova Scotia, and twelve thereof representing Now Brunswick. In the case of QucIh-c eai Ii of the twenty-four Senators repres ..tiling that Province s^iali be appointed for one of the twonty-four Electoral Divisions of Lower Canada spcel'tliMl In Schedule A. to chapter one of the Consolidated Statutes of Canada. 23. The qualification of n Senator shall be a* follows:— <1) He shall W of the ful". age of thirty years: (2) He simll be eltlicr a natural bon. subject of the Quwn, or a subject of iho Qu(rn naturalizci by iin Act of the Parliament of Great Britain, or of the Pnrilamcnt of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, or of the I.eglslature of one of the Provinces of Upper Canada, Lower Canada, Canada, Nova Scotia, or New Brunswick, l)efon> the Union or of the Parliament of Canada after the Union- m If.-, shfill l>e \i-gnHy vt rtiuitabiv seised as of ffehohi for his own use and Iwnelft of lamls or nements held In free and common socage, or ■elied or ponesied for bis own luo and benedt of CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. and Ctoiuwiu. CONSTITUTION OF CANADA if*'" }'■ r^*-f lands or tenement* held in franc-alleu or in roture, within the Province for which he is ap- pointed, of the value of four thousand dollan, over and above all rents, dues, debts, charges,' mortgages, ami incumbrances due or payable out of or charged on or affecting the same: (4) His real and personal property shall bo together worth $4,000 over and above his debts and liabilities: (5) He shall be resident in the Prov- ince for which he is appointed : (6) In the case of (Quebec he shall have his real property qualification in the Electoral Division for which he is appointed, or shall be resident in that Division. 24. The Governor General shall from time to time, in the Queen's name, by instrument under tlie Great Seal of Canada, summon qualified persons to the Senate ; and, subject to the pro- visions of this Act, every person so summoned shall become and be a member of the Senate and a Senator. 25. Such persons shall be first uairmoncd to the Senate as the Queen by warrant under Her Majcst -s Royal Sign Manual thinks fit to ap- prove, _nd their names shall be inserted in the Queen's Proclamation of Union. 26. If at any time on the recommendation of the Governor Gencrul the Queen thinks fit to direct tliat three or six members be added to the Senate, the Governor Oencral may by summons to three or six qualified persons (as trie case may be), representing equally the three divisions o"f Ciiniida, add to the Sinate accordingly. 27. In case of such addition being at any time made the Governor General shall n()t summon any person to the Senate, except on a further like direction bv the Queen on tlic like rcpommendntion, until each of the three divisions of Canada is represented by twenty-four Senators and no more. 28. The number of Senators shall not at any time exceeii seventy-eight. 29. A Senator shall, subject to the provisions of this Act, hold his place m the Senate for life. 30. A S«-nator may by writing under his hand addressed to the Governor General resign bis place in the Senate, and thereupon the same shall be vacant. 31. The place of a Senator shall become vaaint in any of the following cases: (1) If for two consecutive Sessions of the Parliament he fails to give his attendance in the Senate: (8) If ho takes an oath or makes a declaration or acknowledgment of allegiance, obedience, or ad- herence to a for(^gn power, or does an act whereby he becomes a subject or citizen, or entitled to the righu or privileges of a subject or citizen of a foreign power: (3) If In is adjudged bankrunt or insolvent, or applies lur the benefit of any law relating to insolvent debtors, or Iw- comi'S a public defaulter: (4) If he Is attainted of treiison or convicted of felony or of any in- famous crime: (.'5) If he ceases to bo qualified iu respiTt of property or of residence; provided, that a Senator shall not be deenie<l to have ceasetl to be mialilliii in respect of residence by reason only of his reoiding at the seat of the Govern- ment of t'liuiula while holding an olfice under "•at Government nquiring his presence there. 32. When a vaoancy liappins in the Senate by re«lgnati"U. death, or i.thirwisi'. the Goverrn'r tJeneral shall by summons to a fit and qualified ptrwD mi the vacancy. 548 3^ If any question arises respecting the qualification of a Senator or a vacancy la the Senate the same shall be heard and detcrmiuirt by the Senate. ^^ 34. The Governor General may from time to time, by Instrument under the Great Seal of Canada, appoint a Senator to be Speaker of the Senate, and may remove him and appoint another in his stead. 36. Until the Parliament of Canada otherwUe provides, the presence of at least fifteen -Sastors including the Speaker, shall be necessiiry to coo' stitute a meeting of the Senate for the exeieiw of its powers. J 39'j9"**''°°* '"^»*°5 tn ^e Senate sliall be decided by a majority of voices, and the .Speaker shall in all cases have a vote, and wliin the voices are equal the decision shall be deiracd to be in the negative. 37. The House of Commons shall, subject to the provisions of this Act, consist of one Immlred and eighty-one members, of whom <ii;lity two shall be elected for Ontario, sixty-flve forOutboc nineteen for Nova Scotia, and fifteen for New Brunswick. 38. The Governor General shall from time to time, in the Queen's name, by instrumiut under the Great Seal of Canada, sun.mou and call together the House of Commons. SO. A Senator shall not be capable of beinr elected or of sitting or voting .« a nienilxrof th« House of Commons. 40. Until the Parliament of Canada otherwise provides, Ontario, Quebec. Nova S<otia and New Brunswick shall, for the purpo.-. , o.' the election of members to serve in the House of Commons, be divided into Electoral l)i,tricu as follows:— (1) Ontario shall be dividi,! into the Counties, Ridings of Counties, Citle.i. parts of Cities, and Towns enumerated in the first Schedule to this Act, each wher«ir sh.ill be an Electoral District, each such I)istri<t m num- bered in that Schedule being entitled to ntura one member. (2) Quebec shall be divi.lci Into sixty-five Electoral DlstricU, compowil of the sixty-five Electoral Divisions into whirh Lower Canada is at the passing of this Ait divided under chapter two of the Consolidated Statutes of Canada, chapter seventy-live of the Con- solidated Statutes for Lower Canada, and the Act of the Province of Canaita of tlic twenty- third year of the Queen, clmptir on.-, or any other Act amending the .same in font' at the Union, so that each such Electoral Division sliall be for the purposes of this Act an Elciioril Dis- trict entitled to return one inember. (:!> Eachof the eighteen Counties of Nova Scoti i .^hall be an Electoral District. The County of ICalifai shall Ik) entitled to return two niVinlxrs. and each of the other Counties one meralMT ( 1 1 Each of the fourteen Counties Into which Xiw Bruns- wick is <livided, including the City iiml County of St. John, shall be an Electoral Disirict; the City of St John shall also lie a septiralc Klictoril District. Each of those fifteen El.ri. ml Dis- tricts sliall bo entitled to return one ni.inlier. 41. Until the Parliament of Canada other- wise provides, all laws in force in tin; several Provinces at tlie Union relative to thi' following matters or an^ of them, namely,— the qualiflca liotis iuid disquatitli Hti.iiis of iKmoii.-- to t* elected or to sit or vote as members of the Uouie of Assombly or Lefislatlve Aiivmbly la U>e CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. Bcmtt of CtMMKMU. CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. MTeral ProTinces, the Totera at electiona of such members, the oaths to be taken bv voters, the returning officers, their powers and duties, the proceedings at elections, the periods during which elections may be continued, the trial oi controverted elections, and proceedings incident thereto, the vacating of seats of members, and the execution of new write in case of seats vacated otherwise than by dissolution,— shall re- gpectlvely apply to electiona of members to servo in tL. House of Commons for the same several Provinces. Provided that, until the Parliament of Canada otherwise provides, at any election for a Member of the House of Commons for the District of Algoma, in addition to persons qualified by the law of the Province of Canada to vote, every male British subject aged twenty- one years or upwards, being a householder, shall have a vote. 42. For the first election of members to serve in the House of Commons the Governor General iIiaU cause writs to he issued by such person, in tuch form, and addressed to such returning officers as ho thinks fit. The person issuing writs under this section shall have the like powers as arc possessed at the Union by the officers charged with the issuing of writs for the election of members tj serve in the respective House of Assembly or Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada, Nova Scotia, or New Brunswick; and the Iletuming GlHccrs to whom writs ure directed undtr this section shall have the lik(! powers as are possessed at tlie Union by the oi^cers charged with the returning of writs for thi; election of members to serve in the same rtspiTtive House of Assembly or Legislative Assembly. 43. In case a vacancy in the representation in the House of Commons of any Electoral Dis- trict happens before the meeting of the Parlia- ment, or after the meeting of the Parliament be- fore provision is made by the Parliament in this behiilf, tlie provisions of the lost foregoing section of this Act shall extend and apply to the issuing and returning of a writ in respect of such vacant District. 44. The House of Commons on its first as- scmlilinij after a general election shall proceed with ,all practicable speed to elect one of its members to be Speaker. 4<}. In case of a vacancy happening In the office of Sptaker by death, resignation or other- wise, the House of Commons sliall with all practicable speed proceed to elect another of iu memlKTi to be Speaker. 40. The Speaker shall preside at all meetings of the House of Commons. 47. Until the Parliament of Canada other- wise provides, in case of the absence for any reason of the Speaker from the chair of the House of Commons for a period of forty-eight coMecutive hours, the House may elect another of its nieniliers to act as 8|>eaker, and the mem- fer »o electwi shall during the continuance of iiich absence of the S|>cakcr have and execute i« 'i',"'"' privileges, and duties of Speaker. ♦ I IT I""*^^*''"" of «t le<«t twenty members 01 the House of Commons sliall be necessary to consiituie a meeting of the House for the exercise or is powers, and for Uwt purpose the Speaker •nail !»■ n tkomMl as a member, ml ,Q''™t'ons arising in the House of Com- now shall be decided by a majority of voice* other than that of the Speaker, and when the voices are equal, but not otherwise, the Speaker aiiall have a vote. OO. Every House of Commons shall continue for five years from the day of the return of the Write for choosing the House (subject to be sooner dissolved by the Governor General), and no longer. " 51. On the completion of the census in the year one thousand eight hundred and seventy- one, and of each subsequent decennial census the representation of the four Provinces aball be re-adjusted by such authority, in such ni,-.nner and from such time as the Parliament of Canada from time to time provides, subject and accord- ing to the following rules: — (1) Quebec shall ra^Thil! ^»«l,''>'™f f of sixty-five members: g) There sliall be assigned tc each of the other l^vinces such a uuml)cr of members as will Dear the same proportion to the number of its population (ascertained at such census) as the number sixtv-flve bears to the number of the population of Quebec (so ascertained): (3) In the computation of the number of members for a ttovince a fractional part not exceeding one-half of the whole number requisite for entitling the Province to a member shall be disregarded but a fractional part exceeding ore-lia!f of that number shall be equivalent to the whole num- ber: (4) On any such readjustment the number of members for a Province shall not be reduced unless the proportion which the number of the population of the Province bor« to the number of the aggregate population of Canada at the then last preceding re-adjustment of the number of members for the Province is ascertained at the then latest census to be diminished by one- twentieth part or upwards: (.5) Such readjust- ment shall not take effect until the termination 01 the then existing Pariiament. 52. The number of riembcrs of the House of Commons may be from t.me to time increased by the Parliament of Canada, provided the propor- tionate represenUtion of the Provinces prescribed by this Act is not thereby disturbed. 53. Bills for appropriating any part of the public revenue, or for imposing any tax or im- pMt sliall oriiflnate in the House of Commons 04. It sliall not be lawful for the House of Commons to adopt or pass any vote, resolution address, or bill for the appropriation of anj part of the public revenue, or of any tax or impost to any -jurpose that has not been first recom- mended to that House bv message of Uie Gov- ernor General in the Session in which such vote resolution, addri'ss, or bill is proposed. ' 65. Where a bill passed by the Houses of the Pariiament is presented to the Governor General for the Queen's assent, he shall declare according to his discretion, but subject to the provisions of this Act and to Her Majesty's instructions, either that he ossente thereto in the Queen's name or that he withholds the Queen's assent, or that he reserves the bill for the signilication of the Queen's pleasure. 60. Where the Governor General assents to a bil! in the Queen's name, he shall by the first convenient opportunity send au authentir copy of the Act to one of Her Majesty's Prin.iniil Seerctarius of State, and if the Quieu iu Council within two years after receipt thereof by the Secretary of State thinks fit to disallow the Act such UiMlluwaucc (with a certillcutu uf the Secie- 649 ooNSTmmoN op cakada. OownuMnti, CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. ■iV tuy of State of the day on which the Act whi re(xived by him) being signified bj the Oovernor GeBeral, by speech or message to each of the Houses of the Parliament, or by proclamation, shall annul the Act from and after the day of such signification. 07. A bill reserved for the signification of the Queen's pleasure shall not have any force unless and until within two yean from the day on which it was presented to the Governor General for the Queen's assent, the Governor General signifies, by speech or message to each of the Houses of the Parliament or by proclamation, that It has received the assent of the Queen In Council. An entry of every such speech, mes- sage, or proclnmation shall be made in the Journal of each House, and a duplicate thereof duly at- tested shall be delivered to the proper officer to be kept among the Records of Canada. 08. For each Province there shall be an officer, styled the Lieutenant Governor, ap- pointed by the Governor General in Cnuncll by Instrument under the Great Seal of Cai. ia. 00. A Lieutenant Governor shall hold office during the pleasure of the Governor General; but any Lieutenant Governor appointed after the commencement of the first Session of the Parlia- ment of Canada shall not be removable within five years from his appointment, except for cause assigned, which shall be communicated to him in writing within one month after the order for hig removal Is mode, and shall be communicated by message to the Senate and to the House of Commons within one week thereafter If the Parliament Is then sitting, and if not then within one week after the commencement of the next Session of the Parliament. 60. The salaries of the Lieutenant Governors shall be fixed and provided by the Parliament of Cannda. 61. Every Lieutenant Governor shall, before assuming the duties of his office, make and sub- scribe before the Governor General, or some person authorized by him, oaths of allegiance and office similar to those taken by the Governor General. 62. The provisions of this Act referring to the Lieutenant Governor extend and apply to the Lieutenant Governor for tlie time being of each Province or other the cMt» executive officer or administrator for the time being carrying on the government of the Province, by whatever title Ub Is designated. 63. The Executive Council of Ontario and of Quebec shall be composed of such persons as the Lieutenant Governor from to time thinks fit, and in the first InsUnce of the following officers, namely:— The Attorney-General, the Secretary and Registrar of the I'rovince, the Treasurer of the Province, the Commissionerof Crown Lands, and the Commissioner of Agriculture and 1' 'blic Works, with in Quebec the Speaker of the Legis- lative Council and the Solicitor General. 64. The Constitution of the Executive Autliorlty in each nf the Provinces of Xova 8coti» and New Brunswick shall, subject to the trovlslons of this Act, continue as It exists at the nion until altered under the authority of this Act. ' 60. All powers, authorities, and fiinctinns whioh under any Act of the Parliament of Great Britain, or of the Parilament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Irelaod, or of the Legislature of Upper Canada, Lower Canada 01 Canada, were or are before or at tlic I'n'loB vesf<!d in or exerciseable by the respective Gov. emoii or Lieutenant Governors of those Pro». inces, with the advice, or with the advice and consent, of the respective Executive Councila thereof, or in conjunction with those Councils, or with any number of -nembers thereof, or bj those Oovemora or Lieutenant Oovernora in. dividually, shall, aa far as the same are capable of being exercised after the Union In relation tt the Government of Ontario and Quebec, rrapco tlvely, be vested in, and shall or may he ex- ercised by the Lieutenant Governor of Ontario and Quebec respectively, with the advice or with the advice and coui«'nt of or In cmijunciion with the respective Executive Councils, cir anv members thereof, or by the Lieutenant (iovermir individually, as the case reijulres, Bubitct never- thelesa (except with rp»p«'ct to such as exist under Acts of the Parilament of Great Britain or of the Parliament of the United Kiimiiom of Great Britain and Ireland), to be aliolislied or altered by the respective Legislatures of Ontario and Quebec. 66. The provisions of this Act, referrinr to the Lieutenant Governor In Council shall l>e lun- strued as referring to the Lieutenant Governor of the Province acting by and with the advice of the Executive Council thereof. 67. The Govcnior General in Council may from time to time appoint an admiiiistmtor to execute the office and functions of Lieuteiunt Governor during his absence. Illness, or other inability. 68. Unless and until the Executive Govern- ment of any Province otherwise directs with re- spect to that Province, the seats of Goveniment of the Provinces shall be as follows, niiinelv - of Ontario, the City of Toronto; of Qiiiliec,"llic CItv of Quebec: of Nova Scotia, the Citv of Halifax; and of New Brunswick, the Citvof Fredericton. 69. "^here shall be a Legislature for Ontario consisting of the Lieutenant Oovernor and of i^ne House, styled the Legislative Attsembly uf On- tario. 70. The Legislative Assembly of Ontario shall be composed of elghtv-two mcnilxrs, to lie elected to represent the eighty-two Electoral Districts set forth in the first Schedule to thij Act. 71. There shall be a Legislature for Qiieliec consisting of the Lieutenant Governor and of t«o Houses, 8tyle<l the Legislative Council of Quebec and the Legislative A8senil)lv of QiietHc. 72. The Legislative Council of Quelicc shall bo composed of twenty-four nicmlnrs, to lie ap- pointed by the Lieutenant Governor in the Queen's name, by instrument under the Gnat Seal of Quebec, one being a|ipointcil to n pres<nt each of the twenty-four Electoral I)ivi>iom of Lower Canada In this Act rcfi mil to, nn.l each holding office for the term of his life, m\W<< t!ie Legislature of Quebec otherwise provides under the provisions of this Act. 73. The quallflaitions of the I^ojrislaiire Councillors nf Quebec shall be the same as those of the Senators for Quebec. 74. The place of a Lr;:!slalivr- Co-j::!i;!.'f -f Quebec shall become vacjint In the cases, ■ mulatii mutandis' in which the place of Senator be- come* vacaot 550 coNSTmmoN of cakasa. ProDlneiat ( hu mrmmm U . CONSTITUTION OP CANADA. T5. When k Tseancy happeni In the Legli- Ittire Council of Quebec, by realgnation, death, or otherwise, the Xieutenant Oovernor, in the Queen's name, by Instrument under the Great Seal of Quebec, shall appoint a fit and qualified person to fill the vacancy. 76. If any question arises respecting the qualitlration of a Legislative Councillor of Quebec, or a vacancy in the Legislative Council of Quebec, the same shall be heard and de- termined by the Legislative Council. 77. The Lieutenant Governor may from Hme to time, by instrument under the Great Seal of Quebec, appoint a member of the Legislative Council of Quebec to be Speaker thereof, and msv remove him and appoint another in his stead. 78. Uutll the Legislature of Quebec other- wiie provides, the presence of at least ten mem- bers I if the Legislative Council, including the Speaker, shall be necessary to constitute a meet- lag for the exercise of its powers. 70. Questions arising in the Legislative Council of QucVc shall be decided by a majority of voices, and tlie Speaker shall in all cases have s vole, and when the voices are equal the decision ihtll be deemed to be in the negative. 80. The Legislative Assembly of Quebec iball lie composed of sixty -five members, to be elected to represent the sixty-Sve Electoral Dlvisiims or Districte of Lower Canada in this Act referred to, subject to alteration thereof by the Legislature of Quebec: Provided that it shall not be lawful to present to the Lieutenant Governor of Quebec for assent any bill for alter- tag the limlu of any of the Electoral Divisions or Districts mentioned in the second Schedule to this Act. unless the second and third readings of tuch bill have been passed in the LegisUtive Assemlily with the concurrence of the majority of the members representing all those Electoral Divisions or Dlntritts, and the assent ^11 not be given to such bills unless an address has been E resented by the Legislative Assembly to the ieutenont Governor stating tha it has been so passed. 81. The Legislatures of Ontario and Quebec rtspeetively shall be called together not later than six months after the Union. 82. The Lieutenant Governor of Ontario and of Queliec shall from time to time, in the Queen's name, by instrument under the Great Seal of the Province, summon and call together the Legis- lative .\s.sembly of the Province. 83. Until the Legislature of Ontario or of Queluc otherwise provides, a person accepting or hcilding in Ontario or in Quebec any office, commission, or employmeut, perma. it or tempiirary, at the nomination of the Lieuuoant Governor, to which an annual salary, or an" fee, allowiiucc, emolument, or ( -oflt of any kin-i or amount whatever from the l^rovlnco is attached, uiall nut be eligible as a member of the LegUla- "" -"tiiembly of the respective Province, nor ihsll he sit or vote as such; but nothing in this section shall make ineligible any person being a mcmlHT of the Executive Council of the respec- tive I Mvince, or holding any of the following ^ces, tliat Is to say. the offices of Attorney- OeneMl. becretary and Rejristrarof the Provtaee masurT of the Province, Commissioner of .^"S >'?,;„*'"' Commissioner of Agriculture ud Public Works and, in Quebec, Solicitor- Utneral, or shall dlaqualify him to eit or vote In the House for which he Is elected, provided he li elected while holdli such office. 84. Until the J. gislaturea of Ontario and Quebec respectively otherwise provide, all laws which at the Union are in force in those Prov- inces respectively, relative to the following matters, or any of thtm, namely.— the qualifica- tions and disauallflcations of persons to be elected or to sit or vote as members of the As- '*'",,/ "' Canada, the qualifications or dls- qualiflcations of voters, the oaths to be taken by voters, the Returning Officers, their powers and duUes, the proceedings at elections, the perioda during which such elections may be continued, and the trial of controverted elections and the proceedings incident thereto, the vacating of the seats of members and the issuing and execution of new wriu in case of seats vacated otherwise than by dissolution, shall respectively apply to elections of members to serve in the respective legislative Assemblies of Ontario and Quebec Provided that until the Legislature of Ontario otherwise provides, at any election for a member of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario for the District of Algoma, in addition to persons quali- fied by the law of the Province of Canada to vote, every male British subject, aged twcuiy- onc years or upwards, being a householder, shall have a vote. 85. Every Legisbtive Assembly of Ontario and every Legislative Assembly of Quebec shall continue for four vcars from the day of the re- turn of the writs for choosing the same (subject nevertheless to either the Legislative AssemUy of Ontario or the Legislative Assembly of Quel>ec being soonc' dissolved by tlic Lieutenant Gov- ernor of the Province), and no longer. 80. There shall be a session of the Legislature of Ontario and of that of Quebec once at least in every year, so that twelve months shall not intervene between the last sitting of the I . gisla- ture in each Province in one session and in first sitting in the next session. 87. The following provisions of this Act re- specting the House of Commons of Canada, shall extend and apply to the Legislative Assemblies of Ontario and Quebec, that is to say,— the pro- visions relating to the election of a Speaker originally and on vacancies, the duties of the Speaker, the absence of the Speaker, the quorum, and the mode of voting, as if those provisions were here re-enacted and made applicable in terms to each such Legislative Assemlily 88. The constitution of the Lecislature of of the Provinces of Nova Scotia and New each Brunswick shall, subject to the pmvisions of this Act, continue as it e.\ists at the V .don until altered under the authority of this Act ; and the House of Assembly of New Brunswick exi.<ting at the passing of this Act shall, unless sooner dissolved, continue for the period for which it was elected. 80. Each of the Lieutenant Governors of Ontario, Quebec, and Nova Scotia shall cause writs to be issued for the first election of mem- bers of the Legislative Assembly thereof in such form and by such person as he thinks fit, and at such time and addressed to such Keturning Officer as the Governor General directs, and «o that the first election of member of Assembly for any Electoral District or any sutxiivision thereof shall be held at the same time and at the same place* a* the election for a member to serve in th« 651 CONSTITCTION OP CANADA. at Pootn. coNsrmjTioK of canaoa. i >'•■ ] (- lu- lit; '3 ' Houte of Commoiu of Canada for that Electoral District 00. The fullowing proTlilont of this Act re- specting tlio I'lirliament of Canada, oumely,— toe provisions rt'lutioK to appropriation and tax bills, the recoinmcndation of money votes, the assent to biiis, the disallowance of Acts, and the signification of ilcaaure on bills reserved,— shall extend and apply to the Legislatures of the several I'rovinies as if those provisions were here reenacti'd and made applicable in terms to the respective Provinces and the Legislatures thent-f, with the sul>stitution of the Lieutenant Oo-i mor of tlie Province for the Governor G< .-al, of the Governor General for the Queen anu for a Sicretjiry of State, of one year for two years, and of the Province for Canada. 01. It simll be lawful for the Queen, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate and House of Commons, to m.alie laws for the peace, order, and good government of Canada, in rela- tion to all matters not con'-'ng within the classes of subjects by this Act .assigned exclusively to the Legislnturi's of the Provinces; and for greater certainty, but not so as to restrict the f generality of the foregoing terms of this section, t U hereby diclared that (notwithstanding any- thing in this Act) tlie exclusive legislative authority of the ParlUment of Canada extends to all matters ,ming within the classes of sub- jects next hereinafter eoumerattd, tliat is to say,— 1. Tlie Public Debt and Property. 2. The regulation of Trade and Commerce. 8. The rafsinjf of money by any mode or system of Taxation. 4. Tlie borrow^ing of money on the putdic credit. 5. Postal service. S. The Census and St«ti»tics. 7 Militia, MlUtaiy and Naval Servia', and Defence. 8. The fixing of and pro- viding for tlie salaries and allowances of civil and otlier ofiiccrs of the Government of Canada. 9. Beacons, Buoys, Lighthouses, and Sable Island. 10. Xuvigatiou and Shipping. 11. Quaniutiuc ami the establishment and mahi- tenancc of JI:irine Hospitals. 13. Sea coast am. inland Fislicri( s. 13. Ferries between a Prov- ince and any itritisli or Foreign country, or be- tween two Proviucc's. 14. Currency and Coin- age. 1.1. Hanliiiiir, incorporation of banks, and the issue of papir money. 16. Savings Banks. 17. Weights and teasurcs. 18. Bills of Ex- change and Promissory Notes. 10. Interest. 20. Legal Under. 21. Bankruptcy and In- solvency. 22. PatenU of invention and dis- covery. 23, Copyrights. 24. Indiana, and lauds reserved for the Indians. 25. Naturaliza- tion and Aliens. 26. Marriage and Divorce. 27, The Criminal Law, except the Constitution of Courts of Criminal Jurisdiction, but includ- ing the Procedure in Criminal Matters. 28. The Eatablislinuut, Maintenance, and Management of Penitentiaries, 29. Such classes of subjects as arc exprcwly exapU'd in the enumeration of the classes of sjbjecta by this Act assigned ex- clusively to the Legislatures of the Provinces. And any matter coming within any of the classes of subjecU enumerated in this section shall not be deemed to come within the ciosa of matters ut a local or private nature comprised in the enumeration of the classes of subjects by this Act assigned exclusively to the Legislatures of the Provinces. 92. In each Province the Legislature may ex- clustvely make laws in relation to matters coming within the datset of lubjecto next heriimfi enumerated; that Is to say,— 1. The ain.mlmei from tUne to time, notwithstanding anythloi: ' this Act, of the Constitution of the I'rovino except as regards the olBee of Lieutenant G<)> emor. 9. Direct Taxation within tlie I'ruviD( In order to the raising of a Revenue fur Pn vinclal purposes. 3. The borrowing of mont on the sole credit of the Province, 4. Tl establishment ond tenure of I^vinclal otBa and the appointment and payment of I'mvincii olUcers. S. The n.auagenient and siile of tli Public Lands belonging to the Province ami c the timber and wood thereon. 6. The cstablisl ment, maintenance, and management of puiiU and reformaU)ry prisons in and for the I'rovincf 7. The establishmjiit, maiuUnance, and niaium ment of hopuitala asylums, chariiUs am eleemoavnarv Institutions hi and for the Pmv Incc, other than marine hospitals. 8. .Murikina tastitutions in the Province. 9. Shop, s-iKml tavern, auctioneer, and other licenses iu uriiert the raising of a revenue for Provincial, loi.,il o municipar purposes. 10. Local vmU im undertakings other than such as are of Ui, following classes,- a. Lines of sU^am !ir (>tbii ships, railways, canals, telegraphs, ami othei wor'as and undertakings connecting tliu I'rovina with any other or others of the Proviuci* or ti tending beyond the limits of the l'r.n-ince ft. Lines of steamships between the Province and any British or foreign country, c. Such worki as, although wholly situate within tlic lYjvince are before or after their execution dedurcj lij the Parliament of Canada to be for tlie iiLnerd advantage of Canada or for the adviuitai;" of two or more o.' the Provinces. 11. TheS- corporation of companies with Provincial objects. 12. The solemnization of marriage in ilie Kiv- ince. 18. Property and civil rights in tbe Province. 14. The administration of jiwice in the Province, including the constituiinn, ui:ua. tenance, and organization of Provimial (jurts, both of civil acd of criminal jurisdicticm. and in- eluding procedure In Civil matters in tbose Courts. 15. The imposition of puiiLshnunt bv li..<, penalty, or Imprisonment for enforcing any law of the Province miuie in relation to any matter coming within any of tiic chisw s of sub- jects enumerated in this section. 10. OnetiUy all matters of a merely local or private nature iii the Province. 93. In and for each Province the Lc),'i>lature may exclusively make laws in a'laiidn to niuca- tion, subject and according to the following provisions: (1) Nothing in any such law 6h,,|| prejudicially affect any riglit or privilege with respect tc denominational schools which a-iv class of persons have by law in the Province at lb'; UnioiL (2) All the powers, privibx'' ■■, anJ duties at the Union bylaw eonfcrn if and im- posed in Upper Canada on the wjianitc scbooU and school trustees of the Queens itoman '. atboiic subiects shall be and the same are lnnbyci. tended to Uie dissentient schinils of tin (Queens Protestant and Koman Catholic sii ; (ts in Quebec (3) Where in any Province a sv-iim of separate or dissentient bcIiooIs exists b'v law al the Union or is thereafter establi.-.licil bv the Legislature of the Pnivinci-. an Htip-^il «ball bv to the Governor General in Council fmm any Act or decision of any Provincial authority affecting any right or privilege of the Prutestut 552 coKsnTcnoN op cakada. JwtMart ami Unooet. CONSTTnmON OP CANADA. gr Roman Catholic mlnoritr of Uo Queen's lub- ]ect« in relation to education: (4) In case any lucli Proviacial law as from time to time seems to the Uoremor Ocneral In Council requisite for the due execution of the provisioi i of this section li not made, or in case any decision of the Oot- emor Ge'.'''Til in Council on any appeal under Ibis acctiuo is not duly executed by the proper Pn)vinclal authority in that behalf, then and in oven' such case, and as far only as the circum- ttanops of each case require, the Parliament of Canada may make remedial laws for the due execution of the provisions of this section and of any decision of the Governor General in Council under this section. 94. Xotwithstanding anything in this Act, the Parliament of Canada may make provision for the uniformity of all or any of the laws relative to property and civil rights in Ontario, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, and of the proanlure of all or any of the Courts in those three I'rovlnces; and from and after the pascing of any Act in tlmt behalf the power of the Farlia- ment'uf Can-oda to make laws in relation to any matter comprised in any such Act shall, notwith- standing anything in this Act, be unrestricted; but uuy Act of the Parliament of Canada mak- iog pnirlsion for such uniformity shall not have em'Ct in any Province unless and until it is adopted and enacted as Uw by the Legislature thereof. 95. In each Province the Legislature may malte laws in relation to Agriculture in the ProviniT, and to Immignitiun into the Province; and it is hereby dcclan^d that the Parliament of Canadii may from ti'iiu to time make laws in re- lation » ' ^ ifriculturc in all or any of the Prov- hices, an., to Immigration into all or any of tlie Provinics; and any law of the Legislature of a Province relative to Agriculture or to Immigra- tion shiil! have effect in and for the Province as long ami as far only as it is not repugnant to any Act of the Parliament of Canada. 90. 1 ill. Governor Ocneral slvall appoint the Judges of the Superior, District, and County Courts in ciirh Pit)vincc, except those of the Courts of Probate in Nova Scotia and New Bninswii'k. 97. Until the laws relative to property and civil riiihu In Ontario, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, and tl.c procedure of the Courts in those Pnjvince.s, are made uniform, the Judges of the l'ourt.s of those Provinces appointed by the Governor General shall be selected from the resnective Bars of those I*rovinces. 98. The Judges of the Courts of Quebec shull I.e selected from the Bar of that Province. 99. The Judges of the Superior Courts shall hold ollice during good behaviour, but shall be rem.-vi;ilile by tlie Governor General on address of the Stniite and House of Commons. 100. I'he salaries, allowances, and perisions cf the Juil«es of the Superior, District, and County Courts (except the Court ,)f Probate in Xov;i Scotia and New Brunswick), and of the Adtnirilty Courts in cast's where the Judges therinr lire for the time being paid by salary, shall !ic tixi'd and provided by the I^liament of Canad;i. 101. The Parliament of Canada may, not- withst Hiding anything in this Act, from time to time, provide for the constitution, maintenance, •M organization of s general Court of Appeal for Canada, and for the eatablishment of any additional Courts for the oetter admiuistratiou of the Laws of Canada. 102. All duties and revenues over which the respective Legislatures of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick before and at the Union had and have power of appropriation, except such portions thereof as are by this Act reserved to the respective Ixgisiuturcs of the Provinces, or are raised by them in accordance with the special powers conferred on them by this Act, shall form one Consolidated Revenue Fund, to be appropriated for the public service of Canada in the manner and subject to the charges in this Act provided. 103. The Consolidated Revenue Fund of Canada shall be permanently cliarged with the cosU, charges, and expenses iuciilent to the collection, management, ajd receipt thereof, and •iio same shall form the first cliarge tlier on, sub- j'lct to be reviewed and audited in sucli manner as shall be ordered by the Governor General in Council until the l^arlfament otherwise provides. 104. The annual interest of tlie public debts of the several Provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, anil New Brunswick at the Union sliiill form the second charge on the Consolidated Revenue Fund of Canada. lOo. Unless altered by the Parliament of Canada, the salary of the Governor General shall be ten thousand pounds sterling money of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, payable out of the Consolidated Revenue Fund of Canada, and the same shall form the third charge thereon. lOO. Subject to the several pavments bv this Act charged on the Consolidated f{<'venue "'und fif Canada, the same shall be npjiropriateil by the Parliament of Canada for the public service. 107. All stocks, cash, bankers balances, and securities for money belonging to each P- .incc at the time of the Union, except as in this Act mentioned, shall be the property of Canada, and shall be taken in reduction of the amount of the respective debts of the Provinces at tl:c Union. 108. The public works and propcrtv of each Province, enumerated in the third scl'iedule to this .\ct, shall be the property of C'Miada. lOO. All lands, mines, minenil*. ami royal- ties belonging to the several Provinces" of ()>nadtt, No"'a Scotia and New Bninsv ic k -t the Union, and all sums thenduc or payntilc for such lands, mines, minerals, or royalties, sluill Ik loi^' to the several Provinces of Ontario. i^iicIh.c. X ,-a Scotia and New Brunswick in whicli tlie same are situate or arise, subject to any trusts existing in respect thereof, and to any interest oilier than that of the Province in the slitiie. 1 lO. All assets Co :.ected with such portions of tlie public debt of each Province as are assumed by that Province shall lielong to that Province. 111. Canada shall be liable for the debts and liabilities of each Provi.ice existing at the Union. 112. Ontario and Quebec conjointly shall be liable to Canada for the amount (if anv) by which the debt of the Province of Canaila ex- ceeds at the Union sixty-two iiiilli< n tivi- hun- (Inil t!in!!s::nd (inlh-rs, and sliull lu' cliarged with interest at the rate of live per centum per annum thereon, 1 i:i. The assets enumerated in the fourth Schedule to this Act belonging at the Union to 553 r H % «« ll-i coNSTmmoN of Canada. DMtamt the Province of Canada ihall be the propertv of Ontario and Quebec conjointly. 1 14. Nova Scotia gfiall be liable to Canada for tbf amount (If any) by wliich iu public debt cxciils at the Union eight million dollars, and ■Imll bf cliurged with interest at the rale o( five per centum per annum thereon. 1 15. New Brun«wlclc diall be liable to Canada for the amount (if any) by whiili iti pulilic debt ex<-eeila at the Union seven million diilliiw, and shall >«• charged with interest at the rate of live per centum per annum thereon. 1 lO. In case the public debt of Nova Scotia and .New lirunswick do not at the Union amount to elKht million dollars and seven million ilollara jCTiH.tiv.ly, they stiiilt respi-ctively receive by half-yeiirly payments In advauce from the Uov- emment of Canada interest at five per centum per annum on the dllTerence between the actual amounts of tlielr respective debts and such •timilaicd amimnts. 117. The several provinces shall retain all their respeclive public property not olhirwise dispipwil of in this Act, subject to the right of Canailii to lissume any lands or public pni|)erty reciiilnd for furtitlcations or for the defeuct of the counlry. IIH. The following sums shall be paid yearly by Ciinailti ti, the several Provinces for the »u|i|«irt of their Oovemmeuts and I-i^rlsla- tures: Onurio, el^'hty thousand dollars; Qu.Ih-c, seventy thou.sand (i.illars; Nova Scotia, sixty thousand dollars; New Rrunswick, lifty thou- Mild diilliirs: [toliill two hundred ami sixty thuusiiriil ilolliirs; iiml an annual grant in aid of each I'riiviiHi' hIihII Ih) made, e-jual to eighty cents per liiad. cif the population as asiTrtiiined by Ihr I iiisiis of one thousand eight himdn d and sixty cifie, and in the case of Nova Seolia uud New ItriiiHwi.k, by eiich subsequent di'ienniid cen.HiH until lli.' p.'pulalionof each of tliosi' two I'ninn.'.s aniounls to four hundred thousand souls, lit which rail- such gnuit shall thereafter remiiiu. «uiligMht sliiilllic in full .Siiil.ni.nt of all futnr.' ilciiiHiids on Canada, and shall Ik; paid li:Uryiiirly in lulvniiiv to eaih I'rovince; but llii<ioMiiimintof fiiniuliinlnill thduct fn,m sncli irriiiils, as ngiiiiist any Mrcivlnce, all sums chnrjinilil.. ns inler<«t on the I'ubllc Debt of that I''oviiirc Inemessof the several amounts stlim. l>.e.l 111 tills .Vet. 1 ll». .\iw llrunswick shall reciivi' bv half- yearly lull nil Ills ill Bilvance from CimaiVi, f.ir lhip.ri..,| of tin yi-ars from the Union, iin ud dilioiml !illo»j,ii.c of sixty thret! thousand dol- Kirs III rniirmm, biil ns long as the I'ublii liiM <if lliat rrovlini. rt-iimlns under B<'Vin inillioii iloll.irs M d.du.lion i <,un| tu the Interest ni tin. I'lr riritiiiii iHrHiinum on such dellclcii.y slmll !"■ Ill 1.1. fr..ni that allow»» j) of slxty-thrve Ihoiivo.il .|..lliirs. I2». All priynunlii to »» maile under this All, ..rill iliv, hiirge of linbillth-s crealid un.li r any Ail ..( ili. I'mviims of Canada, NovaSotla and .\.« Itrii.i.tti.k n.»|HKtlvi Iv. and nssuniid by fiiiiiii:., sii.ii, iiniil the IWIlamenl of 1 iiimd« oth.THi-s din lis, Is. made In such form and niiimi. r us nmy (rom llnie to lime Ih' onhnsi by the «...v, rn..r til II. ml in (ounell lUI. All nrll. lis of till. gn)Wth, prisliice. or lli.'iMiifiii't iifi' i.f M'-V :;*■!■ ::f thi- l*r;±v:!;- - I t* ff.m iin.l iilK r Hi.- Union, \k admitted }r«t- i'nll'i rai h of the otlii r I'rovlnces, COOTTmjTION OF CANADA 128. The Customs and Eiclie Laws of ~c Prortnoe shall, subject to the provisions of til Act, continue In force until altered by tlic P«i Uwnentof Canada. 1 28. Where Customs duties are, at the Unlet evUble on any goods, wares or nienlwiid|« In any two Provrnccs, those goods, wans an. merchandises may, from and after the Inion b Imported from onu of those Puvinees inio'th other of them on proof of payment of tin. Cuj tonu duty leviable thensm In the I'm; iiu-e o exportation, and on payment of su , hn\u! amount (if any) of Customs duly as is livi«bli thereon in the Province of importation 124. Nothing In this Act shull ulTiit tlu right of New Hninswiek to levy the lumb,., dues provided In chapter fifteen, of tilh- Dm,. of the Revlsoil Statutes of New Itniiih«i,k oi in any Act anu'iiding that act Ufore or uliir'tlK tnion, and not inen-asing the an'oiim i.f mui, dues; but the lumlK-r of any of ilie I'rnvim-ij other than New Uruuswick shall not Is- Mil.k-cuJ to such dues. ' 120. No lands or property In loin;inir to Canada or any Province sliall li^. li,il,|,. i„ J;,,.. tlon. 126. Such iwrtlons of the diitlis imd rt- enues over « liiih the n-siieiiive hci-luiiirM nf Canada, Nova Sioiiii, hiiiI New i;imi-.«i, k InJ JH'fore the Union power of npproiiriiiii..ii ;l, i^. by this Act reservid to the i.^pmiM- (i..viro incntsor Irfglsliitiires of the l'ro\iiii,, ,i,i,| iH dutlw and revenues ndsed bv tin m in m ,„hlan',T with the s|H'ciiil powers confirn d ii|i..ii ihnu i,.- this act. shad Iu each Proviiiie f..i-iii ( ..iwill dated venue Kund to Ih' appnipriati.l f,,r the public 8»'rvlce o» the Provim i-. 127. If luiy person iMiiig at llie ['a^^iiie .if this Act a menilu-r of the UegislaliM- ( ..iimij „( Canada, Nova Scolin, or New ItriiiiMii.k M whomaplaieln the Senate is olTiriil il.,s'ii,.| within thirty days Iheriufter, b\ uriiiiii: iimlir his land, addrrsm-d to the (Jovi-rnor (J. mml .if the Provim-e of Canadii. or to the l.-uiinitnt Governor of NovaSi-oiii, ,>r New ltniiis«i,ki»ii the case may Is), aceipt the Niim . In >ii,ill W deemed to have decliiiisl the same, aii.l :.in inr- son who, iK-ing at the passingof tlii. An ii'iium- iH'r of the I.«.gihlative Couiiiil of Nova N ..lis.r New Brunswhk, luiipts a plare in ili. Miaii- sliall then-by viwate his s<at Insmh l.i tii-lativi; Council. 12H. Kvery inendK'r of the Sin.ii. .r Ili.mir of Coninioiis of t'annda shall ls-f..i,- i.,kjiii; lii, Biat then In, take and sulisi rils- Is l,.ri- Ih. ti..v- ennir Oemml or some |Mrson aiilli..ii/. .1 l.v lilra, and every member of » LegMaiii.- i . .ni.il i* l.ejflslatiw- Assiiiilily of Hiiv |'r,,M,i,,. ,|uJl lie on- taking bis seat ilien-in, lake iiii.l -:il.sril« Ih' ore the l.ii nteiianl (ioM-rnorof ll.i l'i..ili.(r, or some iH.rsoii aiiiliorl/id bv liiiii, li,. ...iili of alleglaine eonialiinl In Ihe'liltli ;<. I,.,i.ili. tn this Act, and e\iry nii-nils-r of lli. .s.iuii. if Canada and every nirniln r of Hi. |. i'Uti<l • •oiim-ll of yihiiiv sliall ,il»o. !., |,.r, t..,iiiil,i si-al Ihenln. take and snlisi rlls- I., t.i. ih. (!..\. ernorOinend. or soiiie |Krs..!i uulli..ii/. I l.i lilm, tlie di'diirnlion of ipmliliralioii n.ii: ...i. ,1 in tliC same Sriii dide 121>, Kxn-pl ss othir«ls.. proiil Art, uil l.ii*. In r..ii.- ill ( aiiiiiia, N. or New Kriinswlek al tin I iii..n, aii.l of civil end rrlinlnal Jiirlwlhlinn, ui .1 lir tliU 1 I .Sfltiis niurti 1 .ill kj-al C54 OOKSnTUTION OF CANADA. Ootarte CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. eommtailoin, powen and authoriUei, and all aStixn. judicial, adminiatrative, and mlniitcrial, cxiDtiug theruin at tlie UniuD, shall continue in Onlarlo, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New liruns- wick respectively, as if the Union had not been maili', subject ncvcrthclcM (except with respect to such as are enacted by or exist under Acts of the rarlismcnt of Oreat Dritniu or of the i'urlia- mont o( tlie UniU-d Kingdom of Oreat Britain ud Inlniul), to Iw reimiletl, abolished or altered by tlie I'arliiuncnt of (.'anala, or by the Legisla- ture of the respietive I'roviuce, according to the authority of the Parliament or of that Legisla- ture iniiler this Act. lilO. Tntil the Parliament of Canada other- n i>e provides, all ollleers of the several IVoviuces luviiii; (lutieH to tiisclmrf^e in relation to matters ntbiT than those condn^ within the classes of sulijiHls liy this Ai' . aiuiigned exclusively to the U'cisliitures of the Pr,;vince8 shall Iw ollleers of Ciuiwln, and shall coutiuuc to discliarge the duliis of their respctive otlices under the same liiiliilitii'S, respouitiliilitics and penalties aa if the Union Iwd nut been made. 131. I'ntil the Parliament of Canada other- wise provides, tile (lovernor General in Council nmy (nun lime to time ap|H>int such officers as thi'OovirHorOeiiend In Council deems necessary or nropir for the elTectiud execution of this Act. I:t2. Tim I'lirliunu'iil and Oovenimeut of r.Hn;iila hIihII have all p<iwers iieo'ssary or propir fur |» rformiii){ the ol>lij;ailon.t of Canada or of nuy l'ro\iii(e thereof, 'is part of the Urilish Ijiipirc towards forelffn countries, arising uucUr iniiiirs iHtween the Knipire and such foreign countries. liM. Kilher the Kuglish or the French lati- fuaci Miuv Im> uhcI by any iH'rsou in the debates (if till' lloious of Parliament of Caimda and cjf the llousesof the lj'>[islatur(3 of CJueU-c; and Uiili th.jw liiii^mi>:iHsh'ill Ihi ust-d in the re«|H(t- Ive riH >nU ami Jiuirimls of those House's; and lillur "f tlios<' luodininis may \<v usihI bv nnv iHr>on or in uny ph udlnK or prmt'ss in or Issuing from loiy ( oiirt of Canada estnlillslied unchT this Ad. HMil ill or from all or any of the Courts of t^iii l«r The Ai Is of the I'urllmmtit of Canailii uu'lof liie l.eirisliilureof QueUr kIiuH be printed sti'l i^iliii'liiil ill IkiiIi thiiHe louKUages. I<'i4. I iilil the l,<'):islaturu of OntJirlo or of SUelHc i.llicrwiM' provhles, Ihi' I.h'Uteimiit juriii.rsof (liilurio and yuelsc iioiy eai li up- point iiiiihr the (inut Seal of the Province the lolloHMo; i.tlUen.. lo hold olllce durlnif phusure, tlmtistoxiv.- ilie ,\iior»ey (Jenerul, the Sei n ■ Uiry mil ltrti^l^:lr of the Provinec, the Tniw unrof ihel'mvinir, llu'Commisahmer of Crown IjimU mil the t oniiiil»,hiiier of Agriculture and I'uhlie Work*, mid. ill the caw of yuela-c. the Solieiinr (Hiienil. Slid may, bv order of the Liriih iiiiiii (tinernor In Coumll from lime to linn- prmrilie ths iliiths of thow ollleers and uf the w i.nil de|.urtmeiils over wlilrli they shiill fmu\, or to whieh they sliull belong, and of the e!!!,, r-t uml . i, ik« tli.reof , uiid iiiav aUi ho- poiiil oih. r ao.l uililitioiml onirers lo imhl ollhe (luriiiiT ] I, ,.M,ri , nnil iiniv fnuii lime to II prii" rill the .liiiieiof tliiHH' ollleers, ami of the venil ihpiirliiii iiln over wlileli thev shall pre- je or 1. »l,i, h they Hliall bilong."anil of the iiM.,, (. itii'I . i, tR-, liiereot. l;W, I mil tlu' l,,tUlBlure of Ontiirlo or (JutUi iiherwlK' provldos, all right*. |mwers. ■iili duties, functloni, rciponsibilitlcs or authori- ties at the passing of this Act vested in or im- posed on the Attorney General, Solicitor General, Secretary and Itegistrar of the Province of Can- ada, Minister of Finance, CommiHsioner of Crown Lauds, Commisaionerof Public Works, and Minia- ter of Agriculture and Heceiver General, by any law, statute or onlinauce of Upper Canada, Lower Canada, or Canatia, and not repugnant to this Act, sliali bo vested in or imposed on any ollicer to be appointed by the Lieutenant Gov- ernor for the discharge of the siime or any of them ; and tlie Commissioner of Agriculture and Public Works shall iierfonn the duties and functions of the olllce of Minister of Agriculture at the passing of this Act inipos<'d by the law of the Province of Ciinaila as well as those of the Com- missioner of Public Works. laO. Until altered by the Lieutenant Gov- ernor in Council, the Great Seals of Ontario and Quebec respectively, shall U' the same or of the same design, as tlioae uwil In the Provinces cf Upper Canada and Lower Canada respectively bi'fon- their Union as the Province of Ciiniidii. 137. The words "and fnim thenci! to the end of the then next ensuing Session of the Ix'g- islature," or words to the same elfect, usihI in any te'mnorary Act of the Province of Canada not explnil liefort! the Union, hliall be coiistrueil to extcn<l and apply to the next Session of Par- liament of Canada, if the subject matter of the Act is within the |)owers of the simie as defined by this Act, or to the next Sessions of the Legis- latures of Ontario and QinU-c nspectively, if the subject matter of the Act is within the ixiwers of the Kunie as defined by Mn .\et. i;W, From and after the Uidou, the use of the words" Upper Cuimila.'iiisleiid of "Ontario," or "Lower Canada" insUiid of "Qinlwr," in any de<il, writ, process, pleading. diKiiimut, matter or thing, shall not invalidate tlie sumi'. 1;M>. Any l*roclainathiii under the Great Seal of the I'nivliKT of Caioida. Usued liefore the Union to take ellect at a time wliii li is siibseiiuent to the Union, whether nialing to that Provlnee or to Uplier Canada, or to l/iwi-r Caiiaih, uiiii the scvenU nmltcra and tliliiL's Ihenlii proeliiimeil shall Is- and continue of like foiie aiul elfei t us if the Union had not Is-en iiiioli'. 140. Any priM'lamullon which Is autliorizetl by Biiv Aet of the Ix'gUhilure of the Pnivin, e of Caiimla lo Is' Issued under the Great Seal of tin. Province of Cuniida. wlnllor rehiiiiig to ihat Pniviiiieor to Upper Ciiiiiida, or to I.oHirCan- lula, and whiih Is not isxiieil Isfore the Uioon, may Ih' Issued by the l.ic iileiiaiit tiovi riior of Oiiljtrhi or of Qiiels'i'. ax iu Milijivt nialirr re Hulres, undir the (iiiai Sml ihereof; and from and .ifler llie Issue cif ^tn h I'lm laiiiiiHoii the same and Hie several iiialier^ and llilims therein pns lalined shall Is' and eiuiiliiiie of the like lone and elli-et in Ontario or Qinlsc as If the Uiihiii hud not Iweii iiiailr 141. The Peiiiteiiliarv of the Pnivlnir of iHiiiola fhnll. until Ihe I'ailoiiiieiil of Caiuula olherwiie pri>vii|es. 1k' and lontliiiie the PenileU' llarv i'f < liilnrhi and id Qii< Ihi . 142. The dl\i>ion and adjuslmeiit of the delils, iri'ililt. Ilabllilh't. pro|H'rties and asm'ts iif rppiT Ciitiuila atiil |.i>uer i'liiijitltt !^h!i!l Ih* !%- ferml In the arlillninienl of iliree urliilrutors, lii>!«ii by the Govi riiiiieiii nf Ontario, one by the Uuvcrument of tjiiilHc, luid oue by the u55 \m i t!^^:/ :li' CONSTmmON OF CANADA. «iw«j»«l»r» CONBTmmON OF CANADA. OoTcrament of Caoadn; and tlie selection of the Arbitratura shall not 1k' made until the Parlia- ment of Canada and the Logisluttires of Ontario and Quebec have met ; and the arbitrator chosen by the Oovemmcnt of Canada shall not be s resident cither in Ontarii) or in Quebec. 143. The Governor General in Council may from time to time onler tlmt sucli and so many of the records, iKmks, and documents of the Province of Canada ns lie thinks lit sliall be ap- propriated and di'livere<l either to Ontario or to Quebec, and the same sliall henceforth he the property of that Province: and anv copy thereof or extract tlieri'from. duly certilied by the officer having cliarKe of the original thereof shall be admitted as evidence. 1-M. The Lieutenant Governor of Quebec may from time to time, by I>roclamation under the Great Seal of the Province, to take effect from a day to In- appointed therein, constitute townsliins in tliiwe parts of the Province of Quelicc in which townships are not then already constituted, and fix the ineU's and iMunds thereof. _ 140. Iimsinuch as the Provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick have jolnej lu a declaration that the construction of the In- tcrcoliinial Itailway is es.sential to the consolida- tion of thi^ I'niiin of British North America, and to the asai-nt tiiireto of -ova Scotia and New Brunswiik, and have conseiiuently agn^cil tliat provision should lie made for its immediate con- struction 1)V the Government of Canada: There- fore, in onfer to give efft-et to that agreement, It sliall 1m' the iluly of the Government and Par- liament of (':iiinila to provide for tile coinnieiice- ment. within six months ofler the Union, of a railwiiy (■■iniie<ling tlie Hiver St. Ijiwrence witli the City (if Halifax in Nova Scotia, and for the conslriiclinri tliinof witliout intermission, and theeoinphtiuii tliereof withal! practlcal)le s|H'ed m\. ll >.liall Ik' lawful for tlie Queen, by and wltli till- adviie of Her Majesty's Most Honour- able Privy fiiiiiii il. on .\diln'»sesfrom the Houses of the I'arliaiiienl of Canaila. and fnini tlie Houses of the re»perlive Ugisialiires of the Colonies or Provineea of .Ni'wfoun.lliind. Prince EdwanI Island, ami lliitish Coluiiilila, to admit those Colonies i>r PniviiieeH, or any nf them. Into the Union, ami on .\ddre»s fMin'the Hmises of the Parliament of Canada to adinil ltii|H'rt's Ijiud and the North western Terriiorv, or either of them, into the I'lilim, on siieh terms nml cDndi- tions in each < a»e as arc in the .Vdilnsses ex- pn'SMil ami as the Quiin thhik.H lit to approve subJiK't to the pnivislons of this .Aet, niid the pnivjshin^iif any (Inhr in Cnuneil in thai la'half shall haveelTeet as If they had liei'n enacted liy the Parllumeul of the UiiitMl Kingdom of Onnl Uriliiin niiii In luml. 147. liie:i!Mof the admlaslim of Newround- land ami Prime Kdwaril Uliuid. ortltliernf them, eittli hIiuII 111' eiiiiih'd to u npnxntatliin in tlie »<-nule iif ( aiiiiila of four memlnrs. and (not- wltli«tHiii|iriv' iiiiyihiiig ill lliin Act) in ra.HM)f tlie ■wlniiHoiiiii ,,f Ni wfiiuiidhinil tlw normal num- t»r of .s, ,i,,i.,rs shall !»■ wveiity six and their niaxiiiiiMii niiiiilHr shall ]»• eighty two; but I'rinee lvl«;iii| Ishinil wiien admllteil shall lie deemed In In- enmpriiM'd In the tiilnl of the three diviiitrlis illlii wliich Cmiifilji {» fn ft>Uil..t; *.-: ii-r. con-iiiiiiiiui of ihe Siiale. divined by this" Act and Hcdiriliiiu'lv, afu-r the ailmlssion of Prince Uwanl Inliuid, whether NcwfouiHlUud is wl- 6o0 mittcd or not, the representation of Nova Scoti and New Brunswick in the Senate slnill, as v, canciei occur, be reduced from twelve to u members retpectlvely, and the representation o each of those Provinces shall not lie inen used a any time beyond ten, except under tin- pmi-l slons of this Act for the appointment of thre, or six additional Senators under the direetlono the Queen. A. D. i89i.— British North America Art Jo?'-— An Act respecting the Esialilishmcnt o Provinces in the Dominion of Canaihi. rjOrt Jtok, 1871.] ^^' WiiKREAS doubts have Ikwu entertained re spccting the powers of the Parliament nf Caosilj to establish Provinces In territories :i,i,iiiiui| oi which may hereafter be nilmitted. in,, tlw Do- minion of Canada, and to provide fur tin- rvprc- aentatlon of such Provinces in tlie s:ii.l I>arli«. ment, and It Is expedient to remove such dimhti and to vest such powers in the said I'lirliami-iii Be It enacted by the Queen's .Most Exolltnt Majesty, by and with the ailvlw ami ( onsent of the Loids, i -Irltual and Tempoml. am! Com- mons In this present Parliament assemliliil aaj by the authority of the same, as fiillows-' 1. This Act may lie cited for all imriiiisct u The Bri'Mi North America Act. ls:i. iS. 'l.j IMrllament of Canada niiiv fmni time to time establish new I'^)viIll•e» In uiiv iirriK.rin forming for the time lieing part of il,,". D.niini.in of Caniula, but not Incluiii-d in my I'mvim-e thereof, and may, at the time of sm li i>tiililisli- ment, make provision for the cnii^titiilinn m\ administration of any such Pnivlmv, mid f,,r tlie passing of laws for tile peace, nnh r lunl f;nn! (jovemment of such Province, and fur its n-pre- sentation in the said Parliainc-iit. 3. The Parliament of Caiiiiil;i in:iv fn.m lime to time, with tlie consent of the Li'-i-luinn- n( any I>rovince of the sidd Itdmini.m. iiirrense. diminish, or otherwise alter the limits ..f stuii Province, uiwin such terms and (..ii,liii,iris a. may be agn-ed to by the said l,<-i.|;iiun-, aul may, with tiie like consent, niaki- |in,visi,iii n specting the elTe<t and opemlimi of nrr, surli in crease or diminution or allenilliin nf ii rrilory in rt'latiim to any IVovlnce alTeeinl tlnn In 4. The I'lirilament of Caiiaihi iu;iv frun llnif to lime make provision fur tin- iiilmiMi-irilimi. IH-are, onler, and giKni governim-n! .f :i!:v iiri lory not tor the time U-iiig imiihii.l lu sny Province. n. The following Acts p.isseil l.v ih,. uid Parllamentof Canwla, and intiiiili d n"«|Ki livtly: " .Vn Act for the tem|K)r:irv civirMiniit ill liupert's Ijuid and the Nnrtli \Vi sti rii i, rrilory when united with Canada.' mid .\ii .\it to amend anil continue the All Ihlrlv twnaiililiirlv llm'e Victoria, chapter Ihn-e. iiml to isuMiJi nml provide for the goveriiimiTl uf tln' IVivlnoj nf Manltolia," shall Ui and In- ili. mil i.i liav« liirn valid and elfectuul fur all |iiir|i,.s. , »lni»» ever fnim the dale at whli h ih, v h«i«.iiiily h-e<-lve<l the asuent, in the l^iiii ii -. n im'. .if tiw (fovemor Uenenil of the said iinmiiiiin of Canada. O. Kxo-pt as provldtil liv the iliird Miilmiof this Act, it shall not 1h' eoiii"|Hieiil tiriln I'srlls- }r,:-t;t ,.f CiihrKlrx in aitrr tlir pnivi;: •:.. : :::r iwi nieiitliiiH<<l Act of the said Purliinunl inmhr as it relau-s t4i the Pnivliiee nf Mitiitilii. iT"! any other Act itctiikftcr esubUshiiig in w Prur- CONBTITTJTION OP CANADA. CONSTITUTION OF ENGLAND. beei in the uid Domtnion, subject always to tbe right of the Legislature of the Province of Xinit'iba to alter from time to time tbe pro- ritiuns of any law respecting the qualification of electors and members of the Legislative Anembly. and to make laws respecting elections in the said Province. A D. 1875.— Parliament of Canada Act, 1I75.— An Act to remove certain doubts with respect to the powers of the Parliament of CaDiula. under Section 18 of the British North imericu Act. 1867. [19th July, 1875.] Whereas by section 18 of The British North .America Act, 1867, it is pmvide»l as follows :— "The privileges, immuuities, and i«)wers to be held, cnjoywl, and exercised by the Senate and by the lioiiae of Commons, and by the memliers thereof respectively, shall l)e such as are fn)m time to time ileflncd by Act of the Purllament of Caiuida. hut so that the same shall never exceed thiise at the passing of this Act held, enjoyed, and excnisecl by the (Commons House of PaVlia- ment of the L'liiteii Kingdom of Great Britain sod Inland, and by the memlK-rs thereof. " And whrniis iloubts have arisen with rejjiinl to the pciviTof defining by an Act of thi' I'lirliament uf Cauaila. in pursuance of the said section, the said privileges, powers or immunities: and it is ripedient to remove such doubt . Be it there- fore iiiactcii by the Queen's .i!oht Kxccllent )!»]•-• V. Iiy ami with the lulvice and consent of l!if i rils .'ipiritiinl and Temponii. and dim- niHDv ill tills pn'M'iit Parliament mownilileil, and In tlie iiuiliorlty of the sanu-, iw follnws: — 1, Si lion IS iif The BrilUli Nurtli Anu'rica \i\ !-ilT. Is hereby ie|M'ale<l, witliout prijudice tu iiinlliini,' ilone" under 'hat section. lUiil the (lul.miii:; section .shall lie sulisliiuied for the jiitiMii -1 re|HaliHl ; — The privilev''s. iinniiiiiiticH, ;ind |«)»i r> to Ik> held, enjoyi'ii mid ixcnl'oil liy l.i' tknste and by the House of ('oiiinKiiis, anil J the mdiilum lliiriof ns|M(tivcly. shall Im' Mi. li :i< !irf friiiii time to time ilctinnl liy Act of .' I'^rli mil III of Ciuinda, but so that any Ai t : '.:,'■ I'ailiainiiil of taiiada ditinlnir "such [irivih x'r^. Iiiiniiinllies and powers shall not I'liifi-r :iiiy privilctfi'H. Imniiiiiities, or jwiwcrs ex- tiidiiii- iii.i»<' at the piiKsliii; nf such Act lield, 'iij 'Viil, anil ixirri-uil by the I'liiiinions House 'f I'iirlwniiiit of the Tnltcil Kliigdimi of (Jrent Hriuin ami Inland, and by (In- im niUrsthr n>of. 2. The .V(t (if ilie Parllaniiiii .if ('ainula I'.--.c| in the thinytlrst year of the niiin of her I'Pivnl Majesty, thaptcr twenty f-r iiilimled ■V.I .\i[ t.i nroviile for oathn to' \. ,« Udng a.liniiiMi ri'il in certain cases for tin- puipiisi's uf CONSTITUTION OF (OR FOR) THE~ CAROLINAS (Locke's), tne NoiiTii I aiio- .iN> A II IrtHIl- ltiu:|, CONSTITUTION OF CHILE. S,^Cmi.K .\ IP I«:l;t-1SM, anil INH.'i-lsui CONSTITUTION OF CLEISTHENES. See Athivs I) (■ .MU_.VI7 CONSTITUTION OF COLOMBIA. S..e (oi.oiimAS Statks: A. I>. l»3(l-lK«itl and 18M- l«ll CONSTITUTION OF THE CONFED- ERATE STATES OF AMERICA, ikf ' 'iffi' fcTAti-.3 or Aa. : A. Ii isdi (t-^bm - AST I C0H8TITUTIOH OF CONNICTICUT litJt-ibt Psadaaaatal Agmaaal of N«w either Rouse of Parliament, shall be deemed to be valid, and to have been valid as frcmi the date at which the royal assent was given thereto by the Oovemor General of the Dominion of Canada. 3. 1 his Act may be cited as The ParliameDt of Canada Act. 1875. A. O. 18M.— British North America Act, 1886.— An Act respecting the Representatiim in the Parliament of Canada of Territories which for tlie time being form part of the Dominion of Canada, but are not included in anj- Province. [25TII .IisE, 1886.] WiiEKKAs it is expedient to empower the Parliament of Canada to provide for the repre- sentation in the Senate and House of Common* of Canaila, or either of them, of anv territory which for the time Ix-ing forms part of the Do- minion of Canada, but is not included in any Province : Be it therefore enacteil by the Queen's Most Kxccllent Maiesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords Spiritual i\w\ Tem|)oral, and Commons, in the present Parliament as- sembled, and by the authority of the same, as foHows: — 1. The Parliament of Canada may fnmi time to time mike provision for the ri'pn'sentation in the Senate and Hoiw of Common., of Canada, or in cither of them, of any territories nhicli for the time ladng form part of the Dominion of Canada, bill are not iiicludisl in any Pnivlnce thereiif. 2. Any .\ct pa.s«cil by the Parliainciit of Canadii liefore the passing of this Act fur tho purpose mentioneii In this .\ct shall, if not ills- allowed by the Qinvn, Ik-, anil sliail tie decineil to have \nvo, valid and elfcctiial fniiii Ilic ilatu at which it receivisi the assent, in Her .Majisiy* name, of the Govcrnor-Ocnenil of Caiiada It" is hcri'by ileclan'd that any Act passisl by the Parliament of Canada, wlictlier iK'fore or after the passing of this Act, for the purpose niin- tioned ill this Act. or in The Uriiisli XurtU .\iiicrica Act. I^^TI. has ellect, iiotw itlisiaiiiling aiiythinv' In The HHtlsli Nnitli .Vinerica Act. 1N17. and tlic nunilMT nf .Senators or the nuiiiUr of -MeiiilM'rs nf the House of Cmiimnus spcriliid in the liLst nientiontsl Ait is incnasiil by the inini- Iht of .Snators or nf Miiiilsrs, as the ciim may Im', pmvided by any such -Vet nf the I'arliaiiiiiit nf Canada fnr llie n'pnsentalinn nf any pmvliii es nr lerrilnries nf Canada. H. Tliis.\(t mavlsTitiil as Tin Itriiish Xnrili America Ad. l.HNt\ Tin, An and Tlic Uiiii-li Nnrth .Vmerica Ail, l^T. ami The llriiisli Xorih Aiiierica .Vet. I^Tl, shall Is- cniistriiiil touillier, and may Ih' cited tnk'i Hier as Tl.<' liritisli Nnrtli Anieriia Aits. lKrt7 In 1s.n(1 Haveni, .S-c Connkcticit; A. !> I«;m-lfl,')9, and lii;l!l CONSTITUTION OF DENMARK, Sic SlAMllSAVIAN .HlAlhs iDl-XM \«K — ll KI.AMU): AD IS tit 1><TI CONSTITUTION OF THE DUTCH REPUBLIC, or the United Netherlandi. See Nktiikhi.amis a |i I.V«4-|.Vi.'\ CONSTITUTION OF ENGLAND.--t)ur Knglish Constitution was never maiie, in tlie sense in which the Constitutions of many other countries have Invn made. There never was ttiiv Ihonit-iit MiH-ii EiigiUliiiK'ii iliew nut iiieir political system in the shH|K' of n fomul dmu- nH'nI. wliether as the carrying nut of anv •helmet |N<litical theories or as the iniitatiuu tif 567 I I CONSTITUTIOIT OF ENOLAND ttw past or present lyitem of any other nation. There are indeed certain great political docu- ment*, each of which fomu a landmarit in our political history. There is the Great Charter Jjee Esolaxd: A. D. 12151, the Petition of Mght»[9ame: A. D. 1885-1628, and 1628], the Bin of Righu [aame: A. D. 1689 (October)]. But not one of these gare itself out as the enactment of anything new. All claimed to set forth, with new strength, it might Iw, and with new clearness, those rights of Englishmen which were already old ... The life and soul of English law has i ver been precedent ; we have always held thxt whatever our fathers once did UJeir sons Iiave a right to do again."— E A Freeman, The Onieth of the EnglM Conttitu- Hon, eh. a.— "It is, in the first place, necessary to have a clear understanding of what we mean when we talk about 'the English Constitution.' Few terms in our language have been more laxl . employed. . . Still, the term, 'the English Constitution is susceptible of full and accurate explanation: though it may not be easy to set it lucidly forth, without first ir.vestigating the archaeology of our history, rather more deeply ttan may suit hasty talkers and superficial thiiiki-rs. . . . Some furious Jucobins. at the close of the last centurv, used to clamour that there was no such thing as the English Constitu- tion, bei'auso it could not be produced in full written form. like that of the United SUtes. But an impartial aud earnest investigator may Mill satisfy himself tliat England has a constitu- tion, and that there Is ample cause why .she should cherish it. And by this it is meant that he will recognise ami admire, in the history the i laws and the institutions of England, certain i great leadiUK principles, which have existed from the earliest period of our nationality down : to tlie present lime; expanding und adapting ! themselves I ilie progress of society and civlf. '■ iiation, aiivM ing and varying in (fevelopment ' but still ess. iially the same in substance and ipint Til M- gn-at primeval and enduring princip! If the principles of the English Consti' n. .\nd we are not obllge<l to learn them (rum imperfect evideures or pre<'arious •pe<ulati(m; for they are imperishablv n-coitled In the Great Charter, and In Charters" and Stat- utes connecteii with and confirmatory of Mairna Chart* [i«« Esoi ksx>: A. D. K'I5]. ". . . These CONSTITUTION OF FRANCE. great primeval and enduring principlts of Constitution are aa follows: The govenu of the countnr hy an hereditary sovereign ing with limited powers, and bound to sum and consult a parliament of the whole it, comprising hereditary peers and elertive re •entatives of the commons. That without sanction of pariiament m tax of any kind ca imposed ; and no Uw can be made, repeal« altered. That no man be arbitrarily nm imprisoned, that no man's property or libei be impaired, and that no man be" in anv ' {lunishcd, except after a lawful trial Tfiil ury. That justice shall not be solil or d, lai hesc great constitutional principles can al proved, either by express terms or by fair ini cation, from Magna CarU, and its ." s„r, ment [the statute 'Confirmatio Cariarun Their vigorous development was ai.lnl attested in many subsequent statulen. tsimP in the Petition of Righu and the Hill of Rii;i I . . . Lord Chatham called these tlirw ■' Bible of the English Constitution,' to wh appeal is to be made on every gmvi. politi question."— E. 8. Creasy. liiie and lYmn the Eng. Contt. ch. 1.— "The fact thatourc stitution has to be collectetl from statute fr legal decisions, from observation of the coum conduct of tlie business of politics; tluit much what is written is of a negative w.rt, stati what vuo Crown and its mlnlstiTs cannot i that there la no part of it which an ..ninirh.t, Parliament may not change at will ; all iliis i puzzle not only to foreign jurists wlio are p pared to say, with Di Toc.;ueville, ihal i English constitution does not exist. liutt....i selves who are prepared to niaiiuuin that it i. monument, if only we can find it. of i„,|iti, sagacity. Those who prais.- it call It ti.iilil those who criticise it unstable "—.Sir W, Anson, The Laie and CuHotn af tht C„nii., pi. Also W: W. Stubbs, ContI Hi,t ,.f £„ in iU Origin and Derelopmrnt — II ilaHa, Chtul. Iluitof Eng.: Utnry Vll l<. H,o //_ E. May, Contt. llitt. <^ Enij., i:«()-lH«ii_l Gnelst, ni»t. of the Eng. C'oiuil — K Fi«t, The Eng. ,ntt.—yf. Bagehot, Thr h:„.,. C.nM- h. Boutmy, The Kng. C'oM<,_StT, also P,i i.i.\inc.<«T, Ta« E«ouia, and Cabwkt, Ta Enolish. rr CONSTITUTION OF FRANCE t ^•. Ri,'Z''r'^!i* Conititution accepted by 17»1 (.Irtr— Sk.ptkmukb) A. p. 1793 (or the Year One),-The Jacjbin Lonititution See Kranck: A. P. r!« (Jt nk — CkTOllEHI. ^uP ''?lu""J','" ^**' Three>.-The Con- •Wtution of the Directory. See Fran, r ; A I) iTvri (.l;>F.— Septkmmkk*. A. D. i-99._Th« Constitution of the Con- sulate. f=.-e Fka-Nck: a. t> 17l«(NovKMn|.:n- 1)K(KMBRH> A. D. 1851.— The Constitution of the Secot Empire. SeeFHANcK: .\. I). IN.TI-ls-, A D. iSia^^-The Constitution ofthe Rcstor- •tion SeefR.4Nrij: A U 1NI4 1 APHIi.-.It nk, A. D iS48._The CoBStittttian ofthe Second Republic, See FiuacK: A. U. 1848 (Apkil- _ A.p. I»75.i889.— The Constitution of tk Third Republic— The clniinntaiun of tli framing and ailoption In 1H7.1 of tli<' ('.mslituti.i of til). Third |{<.nubllc will 1h. foun.l narrsto under Kka.xck: A. I). lS*l-lM7rt TIim follt ing Is the text of the organic law of Isn. «iil the laUT amendatory and i.up|ili im mal ponct ments, down to July"l7, 1889. «< iriin«la!"l a.-*! edited, with an historical InlnKluc ti.m l>v Mr Charles P. A. Currier, and puliliKh,.! in Ihi AnmiU vf the Amen'ran AMttmii/ .f IWIi'.!! nnd HieitU »ienet. March. 1N93 ' li u nw- ilui-<-<i here with the kind pernilmion .f ttij President of tile AcademT, Profeaaur Edmuni J. James: rM CONSTITUTION OF FRANCE. 1875. Law on the Orguiizatioii of the Pol>- lie Power*. February »S. Article 1. The legislative power ig exer- dssd by two auemblies: the Chamber of Depu- ties and the Senata. The Chamber of Deputies ig elected by universal guffrage, under the condi- tioM determined by the electoral law,' The Mmpoeition, the method of election, and the powers of the Senate shall be regulated by a special law.' Art. 2. The President of the Republic is chosen by an absolute majority of votes of the Senate and Chamber of Deputies uniteii in Sational Assembly. He is elected for seven years. He is re-eligible. ■ Art. 3. The President of the Republic hag the initiative of the laws, concurrently with the members of the two Chambers. He promul- gates the laws when they have been votetl by the two Chamlwrs; he looks after and secures their execution. Ho has the right of pardon; amnesty can be granted by law only. He dis- poses of the armed force. He appDinis to all civil and military positions. He pre.si<les over national festivals; envoys and ambaiisaiiors of foreiirn powers are accrediteil to him. Every set of the President of the Republic must be countei>igned by a Minister, Art. 4 As vac.-mcies occur on and after the ppimuliriiliimof the present law, the President of the Kcimblie appoint in the Council of Minis- ters, •' "ouncilors (It state in ordinary service. Thet^ . Oors of Stnti' thus chosen may he dis- missed 'ly bv ilecree rinderi'd in the Council iif Ministe-., The Councilors of State chosen by vinue uf the law of .May H, 1872. canndt, iK'fore tlieixpinition iif their powers, lie dismissed ex- cept in the manner <leteriiiiii<(l liv that law. Atltr the dissolution iif the National Assembly! revnati.m iiiav be pronminced oidy bv resolu- ' tion of the Senate, AiiT j The IVsideiit of the Republic may. with till' advice of the senate, dissolve the Cli.imbir of Deputies In-fore the legal expiration of its t. nil, [In that ca«e tlio eleclonil colleges are suiiiinoned for new elections within the space of thrir moiilbs,]' Akt II. The Ministers are jointly and »ev. erally ( wilidaln-m. ) n'»i>onsible to" the Cham- bers fur the genei . policv of the government wl imlividually for thiir 1.. rsonal acts The Pnslilent of the Republic is ri'sponsible In case of hi«h treasion only,' Art T In ease of vacaiicv bv deatli or for »ii,v other reas..n, the two Chamlxrs assembled to.'fthcr imweed at once to the election of a new PreMilint. In the meantime the Council of .Min- liters Is invested with the executive |>ower.' Akt. n The Chaml)ers shall have the right br wpaniie resolutions, taken In each by an ab- to lite nmjority of votes, either tipim tlieir own i Initiative „r upon the request of the I'^sldent of ' the Kepublle. to <|pclare a revision of the Consti- tutional Laws necessary. After each of the two Ihamliers slmll Imv,. lome to this di-cl«ioii tliev "hall iios I ti.gilher ill National Aiwemblv to pn'i- , ^■"••t with the rivlsi.m. The acts .■•iTectinir ' nuslnn i.f the constitutional laws. In whole o- , I S.-'- Illw ,if V.»v»nil>f* 5(1. t*^?*. :r.fr.i ! ■ T,T„!n7"r'i '■"''"'•'■V ''*■ ""■' Auinwt J, is;s, ,„f„, I wfr., • '"""'""'I"""! law "f .Vuiniat U, ISM, j CONSTITUTION OF /RANGE. in part, must be bv an absolute majority of the members composmg the National Assembly. IDunng the continuance, however, of the pow- ers conferred by the law of November 20 1878 upon Marshal di MacMshon, this revision can take place only upon the initiative of the Presi- dent of the Republic,]' [Art. 9, The seat of the Executive Power and of the two Chambers is at Versailles.]' 1875. Law on the Organization of the Senate. February 34. [.Article 1,' The Senate consists of three hun- dred members; Two hundred and twenty-flve elected by the departmenu and colonies and seventy -Ave elected by the National Assembly,] [Art, 2, The departments of the Seine and £iorU elect each five senators. The following departments elect four senators each- Seine- Infen, ure. Pas-de-Calais, Gironde. RhSne Finis- lere, Cotes-du-Nord. The following depart- lints elect three senatoffl each; Loire-fnferieure loneet-Loire, Ille-et-VilalDe, Seineet-Oise' Isen-, Puy-de-D6me, Somme, Uouches-ilu-Rhone' Aisiie, Loire, Blanche, Malneet-Loire. .Morliihan' Doniogne, Haute-Garonne. Charente-Iiiferieure' Calvados, Sarthe, Herault. Basses-Pvrenees' Oaril. Avevron, Vendee, Onie, Oise', "Vosgcs! Allier, All the other denanmcnts elect twu senators each. The followmg elect one senator each: The Territory of Belfort, the three de- partments of Algeria, the four colonics Marti- iiiiiuc, Guadeloupe, Reunion and the Krench Indies,] [Art, 3, No one can be senator unless he is a French citizen, forty years of age at least, and enjoying civil and political rights] [.\RT. 4, The senators of the departments and colonies are elected bv an absolute majoritv and by • scrutin de liste', fiy a college meeting at the capital of the department or colony and composed: (1) of the deputies; (2) of the gViiernl councilors; (3) of the arrondissement councihirs; (•I) of ilelegaleg elected, one by each municipal council, from among the voters of the com- mune. In the French Indies the memliers of the colonial council or of the local councils are substituted for the general councilors, arrondisse- ment councilors and delegates from the niun'i i- pal councils. They vote at the capital of each district] [Art, 5. Thi' senators chosen bv the .\>sitn- hly are electeil l)y 'scrutin de li-'i ' luid bv an absolute majority of votes ] [Akt, 6, The' senators of tli and colonies are elected fur t uewiiblo by thinis everv llir U'glnning "of the rtrst sessioii shall 1h' divided into three sen. eijual number of senators iiid, ., ,.„„„ „. determined by lot wlii< li wries shall 1k' renewed at the expiration of the lir.tt and ae'cond triennial |)erli»ls. ] [.\«t 7 The senators elected by the .Vsseni- bly an' irremovable Vacancies by death, by n-slgnatlon, or for any other reason, shall, within the spiHV of two months, bo tilled by the Senate itself J ' Amended by roBslllullniuU law of Augmi 14 |nm • partments "S and re- At the jiartments ::iining an It shall b' •iw,Vrt.. 3«ii(lll,l«wor ■ r of July la, iw», infra. > KrpHalpd hf ciniitltutlonal law of June Jl, tSTD, oi/m ' Bv tli- isiimiliu .„n*l law of AustKi 14, ti»q. 11 mu pmrM^I that Arlli les I 10 r nf thia law nhmilil n<. hniii-r h»re«,..,ii.Mliil|..n»l eharai'ter; wd they w«c» r«>(«led by Uw law u( Iwvraibw V, IHM, mfru. 569 CONSTITUTION OP FRANCE. CONSTITUTION OP PRANCE r\: 1%' Art. 8. The Senate has, coocurrently with the Chamber of Deputies, the initiative and r^asing of l?ws. Money bills, however, must llist be introduced in, and passed by tlie Cham- ber of Deputies. Art. 9. The Senate may l)c constituted a Court of Justice to jud^e either the President of the Republic or the Mmisters, and to talie cog- nizance of attacks made upon the safety of tue State. Art. 10. Elections to the Senate simll take 5 lace one month before the time fixeil l)y the National Assembly for its own dissulutiou. The 8<'nate sliull organize and enter u|>on its duties the same day that the National Asse'ubly is dis.siil red. Art U. The present law shall be promul- gated only after the passage of the law on the public powers.' 1875. Law on the Relations of the Public Powers. July >6. Article 1. The Senate and iLc Chamber of Deputies shall assemble eaci' year the second Tuesday of .lanuary. unless convened earlier by the President of the Republic. The two Chani- bers coutinue in sessicui at least tlve months each year. The sessions of each Itegiu and end at the Siime time. [On the Sumlay following the opening of the session, public prayers shall he a(lilres.seil to 0(h1 in the churches and tem- ples, to invoke His aid in the labors of the Chanil)ers. )' Akt. ■.' Tiie President of the Republic pro- nounces the closure of the session. He may con- vene the t'li.imbers in extra sesoion. He must convene them if, di', mg the nrcss. an absolute majority of the nienilH'rs of euili ChamlKT re- ijuest it Tlu' President may adjcmru the C'liani- bt'rs. The adjournment, liowi-ver, must not exceed one month, nor taki; |>]:u.'e more than twire in llic same session. AiiT. ;t < )ne month at least Ixfon? the legal expiration of the jniwers of tlie Presiileut of ll Renulilir. the (hanilHTs must l>e called togctlii 1 in National Assi'mbly anil priKwd to the election of a new President. In default of a summons, this meetini; shall take place, as of riirht. the tifteenlli ilay l«fur>' the expiration of thosi' powei"s. In case u' tlu' iliatli or nsignation of tlie President of ilie Uepnlilie. the two (liam- Ixrs shall n^at-si'mlile iiiuneiliately, as of right. Ill eav the Ch.iinlier of Deputies. In eanse- c|Meiiee of Artieir . uf the law of Keliruary 'J.*!. IsT.'i, is dissolved at the lime when tlii' |m«i- cleui >• of the lieplllilie Iweonies vaealll. the elei'tural colleges shall 1h* convened at unee, and the Senate shall reii.s.s4'niltle as of right. All! 4. Every meeting of either of the two '. Iiambers whhh shall be lulil at a tiiiieotlur than the common session of Imih is illegal and void, except the case provided for ill the pre- ceding article, anil that when the Senate meets ■B a court of justice; and in this last case, Juili- clal duties alone shall l)e performed Art. ,5. The sittings of the SenaU^ and of the Chamber of Deputies are public Nevertheh'ss each ChamlN'r may meet in secret session, upon the requrat of a Ilxe<l number of its memliers, detemiliictl hv the ruli* U dwldr* !>v absnlutji majority whether the sitting sltsll b« returned in public upon the same subject. ■ < > , lh« law of rebruarr «. lira, fMpra • IHii iali il bjr »« ol Au«iK 14. IIM. tn/m. Akt. 6. The President of the Republic coo mimicstes with the Chambers by message which are read from the tribune by a Minisie The Ministers have entrance to both ClumlKr and must be heard when they ret^uest it The may be represented, foi' the discussiuri of specific bill, by commissioners desiguainl h decree of the President of the Republic. Art. T. The President of the Republic pn mulgates the laws within the month fnll.iwiu the transmission to the Government of tlie la finally passed. He must promulgate, with! three days, laws whose promulgaii • siiuH liav tieen declared urgent by an expre> ' ' in cac Chamber. Within the time fixed 1 iirniiiiilB tion the President of the Republic may. by message with reasons assigned, reipii'st'iif tli two Chambers a new discussion, whieli laniif be refused. Art. 8. The President of the Repulilie hcik tiates and ratifies tn-aties. He couiniuuiciti tliem to the Chamliers as so<m as the interests an siifety of the State permit. Tnalies el in-m and of commerce, treaties which involve n finances of the State, those relating to tia' pt-i sous and property of French citizens in fnni^ countries, shall become definitivi' only afti having bw-n voted by the two I'liainln in X cession, no exchange, no annexation of ti iritor shall take place excejit by virtue of a law Art. ». The Presideiit of the Hipulilii lai not declare war except by the previous awut the two ChanilK'rs. Art. 10. Each Chamber is the juiIl'o uf th eligibility of its memlx'rs, and of ilie leitality.i their election: it alone can receive tlifir resii iiatiim. Art. 11. The bureau of eaili ('liariilur i electeil each year for tlu' entire .sissimi. muI f.i every extra ses.sioii which iiiuy be hell 1m (or the ordinary sessiim of tin' folluuin,- jiar When the two ChumlM'rs meet tu;;.!li.r as National Assembly, their biinaii eiiii-i-t>ei t!i President, Vice-Presidents and .Seereto i. s i,f tli ^^^'nate. Akt. 12. The President of the liepiiWIi nu] lie impeached by llie CiianilxT of Itepmii - niily and tried by the Senate only. The Mmisiir may Ik' impeached by the (haiiilHr nf 1), initii- for olfeiicc's conuiiilted in the peril iriiiaiiic n their iliilies In this ease tliey are In.il \<\ Ihi Snate. Tin' Snate may be <on>iiiiiinl an'ur of ,liistiee. by a dieree uf the l're^ir|l ni ,if tin Hepnblie. ixinil in tin' t '.nineii "f .^IilJl-Il■r^ i try all per>ons aeeumd of attenipt^ ii|">m tli. safi'ty of the State. If priK'eiliire i» l.i :.'uii b; the ordinary ciairts, the deeni' eoiiveiiiiu' tb .Senate ma'. !»• issued anv time In'furr the t'raiii iug of a ilisebarge. A law shall ileitnniuc tl.' iiietliiMl iif proci'dure for the uceusalinii. ira auil judgment.' Art. 13 No member of either I'luinilMrniial Ik* prosecutefl or held n'S|>i»nsible on ;ireuuiiti' any opinions expressed or votes eu'.t lo liimi: the (lerformauct' of his duties. Art. 14 No memlier of either (liamlie shall, during the st-ssion, Ih' pro* 1 uleil er ar ri'sted for anv olTence or mlsileme^iaer. cscfp ofi the iiitthiirfly iif the ('hunils nif »ljiih lie it 1 ' The iHlfMu of the 8«lutt<> >i>ulitii <if « |>r»Hii.lMil. t<m Ttce-prMltlf^Dts. Ill aecivtarlfs wid tlire*- .luwtl.'ii. t" bunwinf thKOuunbm' nt I>v|>uUk U iIm' mIUc. rinF that tht>n« an dxht acvrstartM liist«ad uf sui > riud bj law at iipril tu. imt. 56U coNBTmrnoN of prance. CONSTITUTION OP PRANCE. member, unless he be caught in the reir set. The detection or proeecution of a member of eitber Chamber is suspended for the session, and (or its [tlie Chamber's] entire term, if it de- mands it 1879. Law RerisinK Article o of the Con* ititutional Law of February 25, 1875. Juneai. Article 9 of the constitutional law of February 25, 18715, is repealed. 1884. Law Partially Revising the Con- ititutional Laws, August 14. Article 1. Paragraph 2 of Article 5 of the constitutional law of February 25, 1875, on the OrganiZiition of the Public Powers, is amended as follows: " In that case the electoral colleges mfct (or new elections within two months, and tbc Chamber within the ten days following the close of the elections." Art. 2. To Paragraph 3 of Article 8 of the aunc law of February 25, 1875. is added the fol- lowing: " The Republican form of the Oovem- m»nt cannot be made the bubject of a proposed revision. Members of families that have reizned in France are ineligible to the presidency of the Rcpiilillc." .Vht. 3. Articles 1 to 7 of tlie constitutional law (if February 24, 1875, on the Organization of till- .Si'nate. shall no longer have a constitu- 'iouiil character.' AuT 4. P:iragraph 3 of Article 1 of the con- itituti il ■ !«■ of July 18, 187.'>, on the Relation of the I'.ililic Powers, is repealed. 1875. Law on the Election of Senators. August 2. •Vhticle 1. .\ decree of the President of the Rcpiililic, isKiied at least six weeks in advance, determines the day for the elections to the ienate, and at the same time that for [the choice of ilelcgates of the municipal councils. There must 1m' an interval of at least one month be- twiin the choice of delegates and the election of senatnrs. Art. 2. Kacli municipal council elects one ilelepite. Tlie election L without debate, by tetret liiillot, and by an alisolute majority of Tiites .\ft< r two ballots a plurality is sulllcu'ut. anil in ease of au e(|Ualitr uf votes, the oldest is Jrcliired ile( ted. If tlie Mayor is not a nienilH'r of tlie municipal council, he presides, hut shall not vote ' Hu the same ilay imd in the same way iin iiltemale is elected, who takes the place oltliedi leciite in case of refusal or inability to •erve ' The choice of the municipal councils slmll Dot extend to a deputy, a general councilor, or u amiiidi'isi'nicnt councilor' .\11 communal fleetiirs. Irii liidinit the municipal councilom. are flijrihle nillinut illstinction. .\rt. :1. In the communes when' a municipal fdnniiillee exists, the delegate and alternate •hill! 1k' eiioscu by the old council." Akt 4 If the delegate was not present at the ele<'!i(in, tile .Mayor shall wr to it that he is notilied within twenty-four hours. He must transmit to the Prefcc't, within Hve days, notice lit Ills III I cptaiue. Ill case of refusal or silence, lie is n [iliMiil by thi^ alternate, who is then |il.iiid upon the list as the delegate of the < 1- iuu;:i- ' ' VdiI ni«r thrrrfnrv hr amrnilnl hy onllnarr l(>Kiilii. Unn SwIllfl«l»Mf Il»,-Miil»T!l. 1*1, 1../™ ' Anii-ncli^ liy Art », law ,,r Divrmlur 11. I(M, infra Jw An. f l«w uj Frlipuar.v a<. 1K7». «|,ru. ■ »«» Art. «, law of llvcembrr », ISm, in/ra 3( Akt. 5. The official report of the election of the delegate ard alternate is transmitted at once to the I^refect ; it states the acceptance or refusal of the delegates and alternates, as well as the pro- tests raised, by one or more members of the municipal council, against the legality of the election. A copy of this offlcial report is posted on the door of the town hall.' Art. 6. A statement of the results of the election of delegates and alternates is drawn up within a week by the Prefect; this is given to all requesting it, and may be copied and published. Every elector may, at the bureaux of the prefec- ture, obtain information and a copy of the list, by communes, of the municipal councilors of the department, and, at the bureaux of the sub- prefectures a copy of the list, by communes, of the municipal councilors of the arrondisse- ment. Art. 7. Every communal elector may, within three days, address directly to the Prefect a pro- test against the legality of the election. If the Prefect doems the proceedings illegal, he may request thi.t they be set aside. Art. 8. Protests concerning the election of the delegate or alternate arc decided, subject to an appeal to the Council of State, by the council of the prefecture, and, in the colonies, by the privy council. A delegate whose election is an- nulled because he docs not satisfy the conditlon.s demanded by law, or on account of informality, is replaced by the alternate. In case the elec- tion of the delegate and alternate is rendered void, as by the ri'fusal or death of lioth after their acceptance, new elections are held by the municipal council on a day fixed by au onler of the Prefect.' Akt. 9. Eight days, at the latest, tiefore the election of senators, the Prefect, and, in the colo- nies, the Director of the Interior, arranges the list of the electors of the department in alplia- iK'tical order. The list is communicated to all demanding it, and may lie copied and published. No elect^ir has more than one vote. -Vrt. 10. The deputies, the memliers of the general council, or of the arrondissemcnt < oun- cils, who have been announced by the rcturniiij; committees, but whose powers have nut Imcu verified, an' enrolled upon the list of electors and are allowed to vote. \m. 11. In each of the three departments of Algeria the electoral college is compose,!: (1) of the deputies; (2) of the members of the neneral councils, of French citizenship; (it) of <li legates ( leeteil by the French memliers of each muni- cipal council from among the communal (lectors of French citizenship. Art, 12. The tiectoral college is presided over by the President of the civil tribunal of the capital of the deiiartmint or colony. The Presi- dent is luwistecl by the two oldest and two youngest electors present at the opcuing of the meeting. The bureau thus constituted chmwes a secretary from among the electors. If the l*resident is pri'veuted [fnim presiding] his place is taken by the Vice-Preslilent [of the civil tribunal], and, in his alisence, by the oldest jiittic: .\iiT 1:1, The bureau ilivides the electors in alphalietical order into sections of at leitst one hundreil voters each. It aptHiints the President I He* Art s. l«i» of Dminbrr », ism, in/ra. 501 CONSTITUTION OP PRANCE. CONSTITUTION OF FRANCE. >} i ' and Inipectora of each of these sections. It decides all questions and contests which may arise in the course of the election, without, however, power to depart from the decisions rendered by virtue of Article 8 of the present law. Art. 14. The first ballot begins at eight o'clock ia the morning and closes at noon. The second begins at two o'clock and closes at four o'clock. The third, if it takes place. l)egins at six o'clr.rk and closes at eight o'clock. The results i>f the biillotings are determined by the bun an and announced the same day by the President of the electoral college.' Abt. 15. No one is elected senator on either of the first two ballot.s unless he rtccives: (1) an absolute majority of the voU'S cast ; and <i) a number of votes ('([ual to one-fourtli of the total number of electors registered. On the third bal- lot a plurality is sulticient, and, in case of an equality of votes, the oldest is elected. AuT. 16. Political meetings for the nomina- tion of senators may take place confonnahlv to tlie rules laid down" by the law of June 0, 18tl»' 8ul)ject to the following conditions: I. Th'se meetings may Ik- held from the date of the elec- tion of delegates up to the <Iay of the election [of senators] inclusive; II. They must be preceded by a declaration made, at latest, the evening iK'fore, by seven senatorial electors of the arron- tlissement, and indicating the place, tlie day and the hour the meeting is to take place, and the names, occupation and n-sidence of the candi- dates to be presented; III. The muniiipal authorises will see to it that no one is admitted to the niei'ting unless he is a deputy, gem-ral ciiun( ilor, arr(indis.<U'Mu'nt councilor, delegate or cauiliilnte. The di'legiile will present, as a means of idintitirutinn, a certificate from tlie Mayor of bis ccminiune. the candidate a certifi- cate from the otlicial who shall liave received the deilaratiiin mentioned in the preceding para- graph.' Aht. 17. Delegates who take part in all the ballotings sliall. if llicy dcniiind it, receive from tlie State, upon tlie preseiilalion of tlirlr lellir iif summons, countersigned In the President of the elecloral college, a remuneration for traveling e.viKUses. which shall be' paid to them upon the Kinie basis and ill the siune manner as that given til jurors bv Articles 3."), DO anil iolloninL'. of lln' diirie of .lune 1*<, IHU, A pulilic administra- tive regulation shall ilelermini' the mithiiil of li.vin^ the amount and the metlio<l of pavment of lliis reniuniratiiin.' \UT. 18. Eviry ihlegate who. without law- ful reason, shall not laki' iiart in all llie hal- Icllii-s. or, having beei. hindeicd, sli.ili ml have given notice to the alteniate in siitllricnl season, sliall. upon the deinand i.f the puhli.- prcisrciilnr. I'l' imnlshed by a fiiii' of fifty Irani s by the civil IrilMinal of the capilal.' The same pc'nally may lu- inipiisi'd upon the atternate h ho. aflir liaviuir bi- tilii'd by Ii'Iter. telegram, or milici per- sniially ih livend in due st'ason, shall not have takrn part in the elntion. Am. III. Kvery altinipt at corruptiim by th.' enip|iiyni( nt I'f means enunienited in Articles 177 ami fiilliiuini.-, nf iln. I'l naj C.Kle. to infiu- I* ' • S... .\rt ". t'..v..f Iit.i'.riil.fr It. IsKi » 'IliiH Ui« Uah 1h...|i Mii.«'i-s^lt.il U\ A I l«si , ' I>«>n.' I.y iLvDH- i.f Ittn-fuitier 'J»I. isr5. • t*f thi' Ut'iiartiuui^t II r'r,7 i law uf June Sn, >Ia ence the vote of an elector, or to keep him ft voting, shall be punished by imprisonmeot from three months to two years, and a fine from fifty to five hundred francs, or hv one these two penalties alone. Article 4a^ of Penal C<xlc shall apply to the penalties impo by the present article.' Aht. so. It is incompatible for a spn.itnr be: I. Councilor of State, Maitre de licmSi Prefect or Sub-Prefect, except Prefect of Seine and Prefect of Police; II Menilierofi couru of appeal ("apiH-l,")' or of the tribuo of first instance, except public prosi'cut.ir at ! court of Paris; III. General Pavniast< r. Sp^ Receiver, official or employe of the ivnirali ministration of the ministries. Art. 21. The following shall not lie tlwi by the department or the colony ineludiil who or partially in their jurisdiction, during tin- n else of their duties and during the six inoni following the cessation of their duties Iir n-s nation, dismissal, change of residenei-. uV jtl cause; I. The First Presidents, PreM.liuts, a members of the courts of appeal Capiiel The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, E.vaniinini; istrates. and members of the tribunals , f tii instance; III. The Prefect of Polid-; I'r.fH and Sub-Prefects, and Prefectorial (Jiik ral St retaries ; the Governors, Directors of ilu- Innrii and General Secretaries of the (uloniis; I The Clilef Arrondissement Engineers ami (.'hi Arrondissement Hoad-Surveyors; V. Tin s,i« Iteetors and Inspectors; VI. The PriniarvNh Inspectors; VII. The Archbisho|K. lii-lnp, ai Vicars General; VIII. The ollieers of all >rr;«l of the land and naval force; IX. Tin- Ilivi-i, Commissaries and the Military Depiitv (..iim,! saries; X. The General Paynlastirs aiii ^|<•^i Heceive-s of Money; XI." The Su|i.iviv,r« Direct and Indirect Ta.xes, of Hi iri^tniiion Lands and of Posts; XII. The Guariliaus ai Inspecttirs of Forests. Art. 22. A si'iiator j'lected in sivi ral ili|iai nients, must ht his choice beknimii i. iln Pro dent of the senate within ten ilavs f..lln\iiiii; tl verifleathin of the elections. If a il,..i,v i,ii, maile in this time, tlie quisiiun is seitliil la I in open session. The vac;inrv sh.ill !«• tlj within one month and by the .sinie elwi.r Ixxly. The .same holds true in cav if an ii validated election. Art. 23. If by death or resignalimi llu' iiuu Ix'r of si'uators o"f a departnanl i» riiliini! 1' one half, the vacancies shall In lillnl within ll space of three months. unli-.s> lla- vuanrii occur within the twelve ni.uitlis pn niliu; 111 triennial elections. At the liriu- li\i.l f-r it triennial elections, all vacamii s >\iM Ik t;:ii which have (xcurred. whatcvir tluir iiuiiilii and date ' fAuT, 24. Theelection of >ciiat.'r-ilii'>.i;!i the National .\ss..|iililv takes plan in puhli hitting, by •'scrutjn de'll-ii ." ami bv .■m al'viut majority of votes, «h.-ilever tin nuialii-r ■•! W lotings. AiiT. 2.'5. When it is nice^-:in i" ilnt >u( cessors of senators chosen by \iriiii ol .\m]t of the law of Keliniary 24, 1x71. Ilie N imtt pTC ' S*-»- .^Hh-ir- ^. law ■■: i i'i,'(-nihi.r ■.-. i-'-i --: • Krane*. is illvldnl luui tneiilvntx ju.li.ml .Iwlrii-IM' Maeli ill w lileh th"r»* Is h iiiiir il''Mt>ti**t Tlt.-r.. nrr •ii'.ilii e.iurti* ill ,\lKeha nnil tln» eo(iiiiii«» Tli ir -tf i a^w (I'lll IN the Hlllirel! lurt lit apiieal ! i .lU t'nux Algeria oud llie culuules. f)Cl coNSTrnmoN of france. CONSTITCTION OF FRANCE. fiti. In the iuuuier indicated In the preceding Art. 26. Members of tlie Senate receive the nme salary as members of the Cliamber of Deputies.' Art. 37. There are applicable to elections to the Senate all the provisions of the electoral law lelatin/r: I. to cases of unworthiness and in- capiicitv ; 11. to offences, prosecutions, and pen- slties ; ill- to election proceedings, in all respects not lontrar)' to the provisions of the present law. TemporaiT Proriaioni. ; Art. '2S. For the first election of members of the Senate, the law which shall determine the date of the dissolution of the National Assembly shall flu. without regard to the intervals estab- lishiil bv Article 1, the date on which the Biunicijiil councils shall meet for the election of delegati-s and the day for the election of Sena- tots. Before the meeting of the mimicipal councils, the National Assembly shall proceed to the election of those Senators whom it is to Art. 29. The provisions of Article 21. by vhu'h an interval of six montus must elapse tetwoen the cessation of duties and election, shall not apply to otUcials. except Prefects and Sub-Prefects, whose duties shall have ceased either before the promulgation of the present law or within twenty days following. 1875. ^*^ °° *'" Election of Deputies.' November 3a Article 1. The deputies shall \>e chosen by the voters registered ; I. upon the lists drawn up in acconlancf with the law of July T, 1874; II. upon the supplementary list including those who have lived in the commune six niontlis. Regis- tration upon tlic supplementary list shall take place eonfomiablv to the laws "and regulations now governing the political electoral lists, by the committees and acconling to the forms established by Articles 1, 2 and 3 of the law of July 7. 1!<T4. " Appeals relating to the formation and revision of either list shall l)e carried directly Infore the I'lvil Chamber of the Court of Appeal (" Cussalion"). The electoral lists drawn up March 31, Wl^, shall serve until March 31, .\rt. 2. The soldiers of' all ranks and grades, of Ikith the land and naval fonea. shall not vote whin Iliey are with their regiment, at laeir post or on duty. Those wao, on election day. arc in private resilience, in non-activity or in possi'ssion of a n'lrular leave of absence, may vote in tiie commune on llie lists of which tliev are duly ivilistereil. This last pmvislon applies equnlly to ortleers on the unattachc.l list or nn tuc re- siTve list, -Vm 3 During the electoral peril"!, cinnilars hiA (ilatfonns ( ' ■ pn)f ession.s do fid "1 signed by ihi eandidales, placards and nmnifcstiH-s signed by one or more voters, may, after iH'iug deposited ^itli the public p.Tiseculor, be posted antl dis- triliuiiil without previoup authorization. Tin' di.strilniiii.ii of ballots is not subjected to this diln■^it ' Kvery publicor municipiilotlicinlisfor- l'ilu. 11 1.1 distribute ballots, platfonns and circii- ' Anti-Im '.'Ituid JS reiii'alml by law of Deceuitjer 9, ' N- -Vrii.l,- :r. law of Novenilier *>. IWS. infrn • V- r„rr„. til.- laws c.f June lU, 1*5, and Fiibnmrj- IS, !■*■ ' .Tifii.lMiir till- t.!f<'l4>rftl law. * Si. [i,.«,.vt>r. a UiM of lH>ceuber 80, It*Ttt, bjr which Ian of candidates. The proTisions of Article 1( of the organic law of August 3, 18TS, on the elections of Senators, shall apply to the elections of deputies. Art. 4. Balloting shall continue one day only. The voting occurs at the chief place of the commune ; each commune may nevertheless be divided, by order of the Prefect, into as many sections as may be demanded by local cir- cumstances and the number of voters. The second ballot shall take place the second Sunday following the announcement of the first ballot, according to the provisions of Article 65, of the law of March 15, 1840. Art. 5. The method of voting shall be ac- cording to the provisions of the organic and regulating decrees of February 2, 1852. The ballot is secret. The voting lists used at the elections in each section, signed jy the President and Secretarv, shall remain deposited for eight days at the Secretary's otlice at the town hall, wliere they shall be communicated to every voter requesting them. Art. 6. Every voter is eligible, without any tax qualiflcation,"at the age of twenty-five years. Art. 7. No soldier or sailor forming part of the active forees of land or sea may, whatever his rank or position, be elected a member of the ChamlK'r of Deputies. This provision applies to soldiers and sailors on the unattached list or in non-activity, but does not extend to ofticers of the second Wt ion of the list of the general staff, "or to those who, kept in the first section for having been commander-in-chief in tlie field, have ceaseil to be employed actively, nor to offi- cers who, having privileges acquiii>d on the re- tireil list, are sent to or maintained at their homes while awaiting the settlement of their pension. The liccision by which the olticer shall have been permitted to establish his rights on the retired list shall t)ecome, in this case, irrevocable. The rule laid down in the first paragraph of the present Article shall not apply to the reserve of the active army nor to the territorial army. Art. 8. Tlie exercise of public duties paid out of the treasury of the State is incompatible with the ollice of deputy. Consequentlv evetj ollieiul elected lieputy shall be superstnle^ in his duties if, within the eight days following the veritlcatiou of powers, he has not signified that be diM's not accept the oltiie of deputy. There are excepti'il from the |preci'iling provisions the duties of Minister. Tncier Secretary of State, Amlmssador. Minister l*leni|>ot('iitiary. Prefect of the Seine, Pre fed of Police. First Pnsident of the Court of Appeal t "cassation.") First Presi- dent of the Court of .\icouiil». First Pnsident of the Court of Appeal i'a|ipel ") of Paris, .\ttorney tJencml at the Court of .^|i|ieal (" c:i.ssation.") Xt- tornev (tei, ral at llie Court of .Vocounts, .\ttomey General lit tlii'Cipurt of .VppeaU "appid")of Paris, .\relibisliop ai\d ^i^llllp. Consistorial Presiding Pastor ill consisiorial di>lrii'ts whose capital has two iir more paMors. ( hiif liabbi of the Central icuisistorv. Cliiifliahlii of the Consistory of Paris. .\iiT !• Till re are also excepted fmni the prnvi>i.iiis of .\rticK' 8: I. titular professors of eliairs wliieli are tilled bv competition or upon the uotuiniitif'U 'if tiio IwmIIc.* whi-ro the vaejincy oc- curs; II. persons who have been charged with a teinpor.iry mission. All missions continuing more tliuii six nionllis ci-ase lo lie temporary sna a-e governed by Article 8 above. 503 •I I. i CONSTITUTION OF FRANCE. Art. 10. The official prewrrpg the rights which he hu acquired to a retiring prngidn, and may, after the expiration of his term of office, be restored to active service. The civil official who, having had twenty years of service at the date of the acceptance of the office of denutv, and shall be fifty years of age at the time of the expiration of this term of office, may establish his righu to an exceptional retiring pension. This pension shall he regulated acconline to the thini Para- graph of .\rticle 12 of the law of June 9. 18.W. If the official is restored to active s<rvice aft-r the expiration of his term of office, the provisions of Article 3, Paragraph 2. an<i Article 28 of the law of June 9. 1853. eliall apply to him. In duties where the ninlt is distinct from the em- ployment, the official, by the acceptance of the office of deputy, loaeg the emplovment and pre'- serves the rank only. Akt. 11. Every deputy appointed or pro- moted to a salaried public position ceases to belong to the Chamber by the very fact or" his acieptancc; but he may lie re-elccteil. if the office which he occupies is compatible with the ollicc of deputy. Deputies who become Ministers or Under Secretaries of State arc not subjected to a re-election. Akt. 13. There shall not be elected bv the arrondissement or the colony included wiiolly or partially in their jurisdiction, during the exercise of their duties or for six months follnwing the expiration of their duties due to resignation, dis- mis.s.il, change of resilience, or anv other cause: I. The First-Presidents, Presidents, anil mem- bers of the Courts of .Vppeal (•appil '): II. The Presidents, Vice- Presidents, Titiii;ir ,T(i(li:es, Ex- amining .Miigi.sirates, imd memlHTs of the tribu- nals of first instance; III. The Prefect of Police; I lie Prefects and General Secretaries of the I'rifeituris; the Govemrrs, DInctors of the In- tiTiiir. and (TeikTuI Si eretaries of the Colonies; IV. The Cliiif .\rronillssenieiit Engineers and Chief .Vrronilissenient Uoai I Surveyors; V The SehiHil Heiinrs iuid Inspectors; VI Tlie Primary Sihiml Inspectors; VII. The .Vnh- bishops, Risli, ,,s.iui.l Vicars General; VIII. The General Priymasters and Special Uecelvirs of -Moriev; I.X. The Supervisors of Hireet aud Indi- rect Taxes, of Kegistnition of Lands, and of Posts; X. The Guardians and Inspectors of For- ests. The Sub-Prefects shall not Ir> elected in any of the arrondissenients nf the department when- they perform their duties. .\HT. 13. Every imperative ni;iniiiite is null and Void. .\nT. 14. .Memt)ers of the Chamlxr of Deputies are elected by sinirlc illstriits. Each administra- tive arrondissem.iit shall elect one ileputv. Ar- ronilisMinents having more than KKl.iioo i'nliaMf- ants shall elect one deputy in addition for everv additional lUU.tKK) inhabitants or fnutlon of KXI.IHKI. .\mm(liss»'meni8of this kind shall Ih" divided into districts whose iHiundaries shall 1h' es- tablished liy law and mav Ixehiuiired nniv by law. Art. 1.5, Deputies shall Ik- chosen for four years. The ClianilKr is renewable integrally. AllT. 16. In ease of vacancy by death resig- nation, or otherwisi'. a new election shall U- held within three months of the date when the VaeaiKV imurriil. In e;iM. „f option,' the T»caacy shall be fllUd within one month. ■tore diitTicu * ''''""^ '^ ■*"■ el«t«<l from two <.r CONSTITUTION OP FRANCE. Akt. 17. The deputiei shall receive a soj. This salanr is regulated by Articles 96 ami a the law of March 15, 1849, and by the .m.vi.i of the law of February 16. 1872. Art. 18. No one ia elected on the first ha unless he receives: (1) an absolute maii.riiv the votes cast; (8) a number of votes cm,;, one-fourth of the number of voters rcfi.itci On the second ballot a plurality is sufflelent case of an equality of votes, the oldest is clared elected. Art. 19. Each department of Algeria eli one deputy. Art. 20" The voters living in Almria ii place not yet Made a commune, shall lien'. tered on the e ectoral list of the nearest ce mune. When ii is necessary to esubllsb elMio districta, either for the purpose of grnupi mixed commutes in each of which the niim' of voters sha!i lie insufficient, or to bring toL-pil voters living in places not formed into commui the decrees for fixing the scat of tliese liistri shall be issued by the Oovemor-General ur the report of the Prefect or of the General co manding the division. Art. 21. The four colonies to which km h.-ive been assigned by the law of Kebnian- : 1875, on the organization of the Senate, Vh choose one deputy each. Art. 22. Every violation of the proliiliti provisions of Article 3, Paragraph 3, cif i present law shall be punished tiv a tine of fn sixteen francs to three hundred frines. Xfvc theless the criminal courts mav ajiply .\rtit 483 of the Penal CchIc. The provisii.ns nf \r cle 6 of the law of July 7, 1874, shall anpi,- the political electoral lists. The deene nf .Ia"n ary 29, 1871, and the laws of April 10 i^: Jlay 2, 1871. and February J8, 1873 arr r pealed. Paragraph U of Article 1,5 ,.f ii organic decree of February 2, 18.5;'. is alsn r pealed, in so far as it refers to the law nf .May ■-' 1836, on lotteries, reserving, linwevcr. to' tl courts the right to apply to conviiiiil p,ri,i Article 42 of the Penal Ctnle. The prnvlsioc- , the laws and decrees now in foree, viith »lm the present law does not conflict, shall inntici: to tie applied. Art. 23. The provision of Article Ii if ;t present law by which an interval of six m. :i!l must elapw lietween the expiration of ilutiis m chrtion, sliall not apply to officials, cvnpt lYi fects and Sub-Prefects." whose duties .shall liav ceasc'd either before the promiilgatinn if t present law or within the twenty ilavs M; •« Ing it. 1879, Law Relating to the Seat of th Executive Power and of the Chambers a Paris, July 2». AiiTict.E 1. The seat of the Exerullve r.wf and of the two Chambers is at Paris. Art. 2. The Palace of the I.u.vi mhuri- an. the Palais-Bourbon are assigned, the first t.i ila use of the Senate, the eeciuid to that of tl;i Cliamberof Deputies. Nevertheless eaih if tlii ChamlK'rs is authorl/.ed to choose, in llu' eiivil Paris, the palace which it wishes tniKiiipr ' Art. 3. The variousparfsof the palani'ifVif sallies now occupied by the Si.nali' iitiil Chanilii of Deputies preserve theirarrangenienis \Vii.:i ever, according to Articles 7 and H nf the law I February 2.j, 1875, on the orgnni/niinn nf ik public iiowers, a meeting of the National Asmih- GG4 CONSTITUTION OP FRANCE. CONSTITUTION OF nUNCE. blj Ui es place, it «ball sit at Venailles, in the nretent ball of the Chamber of Deputies. Wbenever, according to Article 9 of the law of February 24, 1875, on the organization of the Senate, and Article 12 of the constitutional law of July 16, 187.5, on the relations of the public powers, the Senate shall be called upon to con- stitute itself a Court of Justice, it shall indicate the town and place where it proposes to sit. Art. 4. The Senate and Chamber of Deputies will sit at Paris on and after November 3 next. Art. a. The Presidents of the Senate and Chamber of Deputies are charged with the duty of securing the external and inter 'oty of the Chambers over which thev pres o this end the/ have the right to call upon the armed force arid every authority whose assistance thev judge necessary. The demands may be ad- dreswd directly to all officers, commanders, or officials, who are bound to oliey immediately, onder the penalties established by the law's. The Presidents of th; Senate and Chamber of Deputies may delegate to the questors or to one of them their ri^ht of demanding aid. Art. 6. Petitions 'o either of the Chambers c«D be made and prf ^ted in writing only. It is forbidden to presen nem in person or at the bar. .\RT. 7. Every lolatioi; of the preceding srtiile. every provocation, by spc'cches uttered publicly, or by writings, or printed matter, p<«t<.'d or distributed, to a crowd upon thi iiiblic »ay9, hanug for an object the discussion, drr.w- ing' up, or carrying to the Chambers or either of them, of petitions, declnrations, or addressi's — whether or not any results follow such action — shall be puni8he<l by the penalties enumerate<l in Paragraph 1 of Article 5 of the law of June 7,184s. Art. 8. The preceding provisions do not diminish the force of the law of June 7, 1848, on riotous assemblies. Art !*. Article 463 of the Penal Code applies to thi' cffences mentioned in the pn'sent l,»w. 18&4. Law Amending; the Organic Law* )n th- Organization of the Senate and the Elect.jns of Senators. December 9. Artk i.K 1. The t*enate consists of three hun- dred meniliers. elected by the departments and the ocilnnies. The present memlHrs. without iny dii-Iinction U'twcen senators elected by the Natimial Assembly or the Si'nate and "those elfttiii by the departments and colonies, main- tain their term of office during the time for whiili tluy have t)een chose'U. •UiT. e. The department of the Seine elects ten wnalors. The department of the Xord elects ?iEht senators. The following departments elect liie Hiiators each: C6te»-du-Nord. Finistt-re'. Gimnile, llle-et-Vilaine. I^iire-, Liiiri'-Inferieure. Pii.< lie lalais, Rhone, daone-et-Loire, Seine-lu- feriiiire. The following departments elect four lenatcrseach: Aisne. liouches-du-Rhone, Char- ente • Inferieiire. Dordogne, Haute - GaMnne, Isere, -Maine-et-Loire. Manche, Morbihan, Puy- de Dome, Sine-et-Oise, Somme, The following depannunts elect three senators each: Ain, Allitr, .^rdeche, Ardennes, Aube, Aude, Avev- ron. Calvados, Charente, Cher, Corrize, Corse, (■""■ d'Or. Creusi-. Dnuhs, DrAme, Eure. E-ir--- ft L<iir, Oanl, Gers, Herault. Indre. Imireet- piire. Jura. Undes. Loiret-Cher, Haute Loin, I^iret. Ix)t, Lot et- Garonne. Manie. Haute-Mame, Mayenne, Meurthe-et-Moselle, Meuse, Niivre, Oise,Ome,Baaie»-Pyr«n&g, Haute-8a6ne, Sarthe, Savole, Haute-Savoie, Seine-et-Mame, Deux- Sivres, Tarn, Var, Vendfe, Viennc. Haute- Vienne, Vosges, Yonne. The following depart- ments elect two senators each: Basses- Alpes, Hautes-Alpes, Alpes-Maritimes, Aiiige, Cantal, Lozire, Hautes-Pyren^es, Prr^nees-Orientoles, Tam-et-Oaronne, Vancluse. "The following elect one senator each : the Territory of Belfort, the three departments of Algeria, the four colonies: Martinique, Guadeloupe, Reunion and French Indies. Art. 3. In the depariments where the num- ber of senators is increased by the present law, the increase shall take effect aa vacancies occur among the life senators. To this end, within eight days after the vacancy occurs, it shall be determined by lot what department shall be called upon to elect a senator. This election shall take place within three months of the de- termination by lot. Furthermore, if the vacancy occurs within six months preceding the triennial election, the vacancy shall be tilled at that election. The term of office in this case shall expire at the same time as that of the other senat'.fs belonging to the same department. art. 4. No one shall be a senator unless he is a French citizen, forty years of age, at least, and enjoying civi! and political rights. Mem- bers of families that have reigned m France are ineligible to the Senate. Art. 5. The soldiers of the land and naval forces cannot be elected senators. There are excepted from this provision: I. The Marshals and Admindsof Fmnee; II. The general officers maintained without limit of age in the first sec- tion of the list of the general staff and not pro- vide)! wit h a command ; III. The general olflcers placed in the second section of the list of the general staff; IV. Soldiers of the land and naval forces who belong either to the reserve of the active .irmy or to the territorial army. Art. 6. Senators are elected l)y'"scnitin de liste." by a college meeting at tlie capital of the department or colony, and composed: (Dof the Deputies; (2) of the General Councilors: (3) of the Arrondissement Coimiilors; (4) of delegates elected from among the voters of the conmuine. by each Mimicipal Council. Councils c<iniposeil of ten nienilHrs shall elect one delegate. Coun- cils composeil of twelve members shall elect two delegates. Councils composed of si.xteen mem- bers shall elect three delegates. Councils com- posed of twenty-one members shall elect six delegates. Councils composed of twenty-three memliers shall elect nine delegates. Councils composeil of twenty-seven menilwrs shall elect twelve delegates. Councils ciimposed of thirty memlwrs shall elect fifteen delegates. C^nmcil8 composed of thirty-two members shall elect eighteen delegates. Councils composed of thirty-four members shall elect twenty one dele- gates. (Vumeils composed of thirty-six memliers or more shall el;'ct twenty-four delegates. The Municipal Council of Paris shall elect thirty delegates. In the French Indies the members o'f the IcKal councils take the place of Arron<lisse- ment Councilors. The Municipal Council of Pfiitliohi-ry shall cit-ct five dcU-gatcs. The Municipal' Council of Karikal shall elect three delegates. All the other communes shall elect two delegates each. The balloting takes place at the capital of each district. r 565 CXJNSTITUTION OP FRANCE. CONSTITUTION OP PRANCE. I i ;1 : 1 i ■ ■ -f . Abt. 7. Membon of the Senate arc elected for nine yean. Tbe Senate Is renewed every three years according to the onlcr of the present series of departments and colonies. Art. 8. Articles 3 (paragraphs 1 and 2), 8. 4, S, 8, U. 16. 19 and 23 of the organic law of August 3, 1875, on the Elections of Senators are amended as follows: "Art. 2(|>amgraph8 1 and S). In each Municipal Council the election of delegates takes place without debate and by secret ballot, by ' ' scrutin de llste " and by an abso- lute majority of votes cast. After two balloU a plurality is sutticieut, and in case of an equality of votes the oldest is elected. The procedure and method is the same for the election of alter- nates. Councils having one, two, or thri'c dele- gates to choose shall elect one alternate. Those choosing six or nine delegates elect two alter- nates. Those choosii twelve or fifteen dele- gates elect three « es. Those choosing eightee- or twenty-one u gates elect four alter- nates. Those choosuig t entr-four delegates elect five altcmute.s. The Municipal Council of Paris elects eight alternates. The alternates take the place of delegates in case of refusal or inability to serve, in the order deU'nuined by the number of votes received by each of them. Art. 3. In communes where the duties of a Munici- pal Council are performed by a special delegation organized by virtue of Article 44 of the law of April 5, 1884, the senatorial delegates and alter- nates shall be cluraen by the old council. Art. 4. If the delegates were riot prest'Ut at the election, notice is given them by the Mavor within twenty-four hours. They must within Ave davs notify the Prefect of their acceptance. In cim' of declination or silence tliey sliall be re- placed by the alternat s. who are tlien placed upon the list as the delegates of the cmnniune. Art. .5. The offlcial report of tlie elietiou of delegates and alternates is transinitttii at once lo the Prefect. It indicates the ae<-eptanee or deilinatimi of tlie delegates and alternates, as well as tlie protests made bv one or more meni- iK'i^of the Municipal Council against tlie legality of flic ilectiiiii. A i-opv of this oltieial report is posted on the di«ir of" tlie town hall. Art. 8. Protests concerning the election of dcleirates or alternates are <ifeided, subject to an ajipeal to the Council of Suite, by the founcil of tlie Prefecture, and, in tlie colonies, by the I'rivy Council. Delegates whose I'liTtion is set aside because tliey do not satisfy the conditions drnianded by law, or because ofiiifoniialitv, are replaced liy the alternates. Incase tlie election of a (hlegate a- ' ' an alternate is niiihred ■ ihof bothaft<'r their Id liy the Munici- '•ree of the Pre- •gins at eight noon. The loses at four Si,- void, as by the acceptance, n; pal Council on u feet. Art. 14. Tl o'clock in the mornii.f, seeoihi begins at two o'l o'clock. The lliird Ingiiis at seven o'clink and closis at ten oel.K k. The results of the l>al- lotings are determined by the bunau ami an- nounced iininediatelv bv' the Prtsiilcnt of the electoral colli'ge. Art. 'ifl. Political nii'etings for ilie nomination of .si nators iiiav lie held from the date of tile promuliration of tfie ileene kuiii- moiiiiig the electors up to the day of the election inclusive. The declaration prescrilied bv Article 2 of the law of June »), 1881, shall be "made bv two voters, at least. The forms and regulatioiis of this Article, h well as those of ArtI shall be observed. The members of Parlii elected or electors in the department, the torial electors, delegates and alternates, an candidates, or their representatives, niav be present at these meetings. The niiin authorities will see to it that no other p is admitted. Delegates and alteriiutt's present as a means of identification a iirti from the Mayor of tbe commune; can<!iil;r their representatives a certificate from tin- ,, who shall have received the declaniiimi tioned in Paragraph 2. Art. 19. Everv ntt at corruption or constraint by the einplnv of means enumerated in Articles 177 and f'u ing of the Penal Code, to influiiice the vu an elector or to keep him from Mitinjr, sin punished by imprisonment of from time m( to two years, and by a fine of from fifty !: to five himdred francs, or by one of these p ties alone. Article 483 of the Penal ( .ule i; plicable to the penalties provideii f,,r hv present article. Art. 23. Vacancies c:iiis,', the death or resignation of st'iiators shall lit within three months; moreover, if the vai occurs within the six months pnreiinii; triennial elections, it shall be fliled ut tliosi tions. " Art. 9. There arc repealed: (1) .Vrtielis 7 of the law of February 24. 1875. on the ,,ri zati.m of the Senate: (2)" Articles 24 and 2.MI law of August 2, 1875, on the eleetiuus of , tors. Temporary Proviiioo. In case a special law on parlinment.irv iui patibililies shall not have been puss.".l at date of the next s»>uatorial elections. .Vrlidi- the law of Xovemlxr 3(1. 187'i, sliall appl those elections. Every olficial aireitnl hv provision, who has had tweutv vi urs (.f sir and is fifty years of age at tiie'ihile uf hi: ccpta'ice of the office [of senator), niav e«tal his r.ght to a proportional ri'iirinL' i»ii- which sliall be governed bv the ihinl parjti of Article 12, of the law of'juiie !» \-y-i 1885. Law Amending the iiiecto.. ' . June 16. [Article 1.' The members of the (ban of Ih'puties are elected by ■ scniliii ih li.^Il. Art. 2. Each depiartment elects the nun of deputies assigned to it in the table' imuvxv the present law, on the basis of one (li|iiitv seventy thousand inhabitants. forei;;n rvsiih not included. Account shall be taken. 111 theless, of every fraction smaller tlj.in nvi thou.sand.' Each department ihits at t three deputies. Two deputies .ire a>sii:urt the territory of Belfort, 8i.\ to .Vlu'eria, aud to the colonies, as is indicated by the taMi . 1 table can be changed by law only. Art. 3. The department forms a sinirle t toral district. 1 AUT. 4. Members of families that have ri'ii.' in Fnince are ineligible to the t'lianihef Deputies. Art. a. No one is elected on tlic lir-t ha unless he receives: (1) mi absoltiie niajnriiy ' .\nlcle« l.a outl A reiM'uled In- (lie law ,'f »lir^ J 3. l^j, in/m, " ThiH table may lie f.nin'i in the PuU*ti>i 'W I twelfth aerini. No. I5.51S ; Ulul in the Journal ' •pctfl June ir. iMhfi. p. !»r:i. ' I. f., fractions of leas tliau TO.OiO are entitled t dsput}'. oGG CONSTITUTION OP FRANCE. CONSTITUTION OP OEIUIANT. UieTotes cut; (3) a number of votes equal to one-fourth of the total number of voters regis- teied. On the second ballot a plurality Is suf- drient. In case of an equality of votes, the oldest of the candidates is declared elected. Art. 6. Subject to the case of a dissolution foreseen and regulated by the Constitution, the general elections take place within sixty davs preceding the expiration of the powers of the Clumber of Deputies. Art. 7. Vacancies shall not be filled which occur in the six months preceding the renewal of the Chamber. 18S7. Law on Parliamentary Incompati- bilities. December 26. Until the passage of a special law on parlia- mentary incompatibilities, ^Articles 8 and 9 of the law of November 80, 1875, shall apply to senatorial elections. Every offlcial affectod by this pnivision who has had twenty years of sef- Tjcc ami is tifty years of ape at the time of his acceptance of the office [of senator], may estab- lish bis riiihts to a proportional retiring pension, which sliall be governed by the third paragraph of .\rti( ie 13 of the law of June 9, 1853. 1889. Law Re-establishing Sinrie Districts {or the Election of Deputies. February 13, Article 1. Articles 1, 2 and 3 of the law of June 16. 18.85. are repealed. Art. i. Members of the Chamber of Depu- ties are tltcted by single districts. Each ad- miuislnitive arrondissement in the departments. aij.l eu( li municipal arrondissement at Paris and at Lyuus. ele<ts one deputy. Arrondissements uliiise population exceeds one htmdred thousand iiihaliitauts elect an additional deputy for every fine liuiulred thousand or fraction of one hun- dn:d tkiiusand iiilmbitauts. The arrondissements are in this case divided into districts, a tabic' of vbicli is annexed to the present law and can be chanseii by a law only. ' TliiN tal>te nuy tie found tn the Journal Offlcirl fnr F'linian' 14. VVi. pp. r» and foUowtng ; and In the Bulle- tin d€t Lots, twelfth aertea, Xu. :M,479. Abt. 3. One deputy Is assigned to the terri- tory of Belfort, six to Algeria, and ten to the colonies, as is indicated by the table. Akt. 4. On and after the promulgation of the present law, until the renewal of the Cham- ber of Deputies, vacancies occurring in the Cham- ber of Deputies shall not be filled. 1889. Law 0.1 Multiple Candidaturei. July '7- Article 1. No one may be a candidate in more than one district. Art. 8. Every citizen who offers himself or is offered at the general or partial elections must, by a declaration signed or countersigned by him- self, and duly legalized, make known in what district he means to be a candidate. This de- claration is deposited, and a provisional receipt obtained therefor, at the Prefecture of the department concerned, the fifth day, at latest, before the day of election. A definitive receipt bliall Iw delivered within twenty-four hours. Art. 3. Every declaration maile in violation of Article 1 of the present law is void and not to lie received. If i' larations are deposited by the same citizen ' nore tlian one district, the earliest in date is le va.id. If they bear the same ilate, all are Art. 4. It is fcirluciclen to .sign or post pla- cartis, to carry or ilistrilmte ballots, circulars, or platforms in tlie iiiii-nst of a candidate who has not conformed to the renuireinents of the present law. Art. 5. Ballots Ixaring the name of a citizen whose c.indiiiucy is put forward in violation of the present law" shall not tie included in the re- turn of votes. Posters, placards, platforms, and ballots posted or distributed tti support a candi- dacy in a district where sucli camiidacy is con- trary to the law, sliall be removed or seized. AiiT. t>. A fine of t<n tliousand francs shall be imposeii on the candidate violating the pro- vinious of the present l.iw, anil one of five thou- sajid francs cm all persons actiug in Tioiatiou of Article 4 of the present law. no an- ("utitled to t CONSTITUTION OF GERMANY. t3th-i7th Centuries.— The' Old (Holy Ro- Dini Empire, — The Golden Bull. See Gek- >HNv: A 1). I12.i-I152; 1347-14»3- and Diet, TmK liKUMAMC. A. D, 1815.— The Confederation. See Oek- SANV: A. 1). 1814-1820. A. D. 1871.— The New Empire.— On the 18th day .if .lanuary. 1871 ; at Versailles, Kinir William <jf Prussia assumed the title of German EmptMr. On the 18th of April following the Empinr issued a proclamation, by and with the ciuwut cif the Council of the Gorman Confeder- a!i"ti. ami of the Imperial Diet, decreeing the al'liticin (f a constitution for the Empire. See Gkumvnv; a. I). 1871 (J.vxL-.vRY) and (April). Tli> filli>vvinjr is a translation of the text of the Oiistiiiiti.iii, as transmitted bv tlic American Miiii-ii r at licriin to his Oovemment : Hi- Majesty the King of Prussia, in the i..ihi' • f liu- Xiirth German Union, His Majestv tlir Kiiii: af Bavaria, His Majestv the King of » ttrtcinlHrir, His Hoyal Highness the Grand liiikr iif Ilailcn, and 'His Uiiyal Highness the brauj Duke of Ilesse, and by Rhine for those part.s of the Graml Duchy of Hes.se which are situated south of the .Main, conehule an eternal allianci' for the pn.teetii.uof the territory of the confi 'cniiiiin. and of tlif laws of tlie same, as well a fur the iiromotion of the welfare of the CJennan peoplf. Tiiis eonfederation sliall bear the name of the German Empire, and shall have the followinir cnustitution. I. — Territory. Article 1. The territory of the confederation shall eonsisi of thr States of Prus.sia. with Lauen- burg. Bavaria. .Slxiiuv, WUrtemlierg. Biiilen, Hesse. Miekli nliurft-.Siliwerin. Saxe- Weimar, Meekleiiliuii:-.Si relit/.. lUdenlmrg, Brunswieli, Saxi -Meininjten, Sa.\e-Alteuburg, Saxe l^r.'jvri Goiha, Aiihalt. 8ehwarzl>urir - IJudoNli. , SehwarzliiirL' Saiilersliausen. \Valil( ek, Heus . 1 1 the elder I'r.mili. iieu» of the youni;er branch, Miaunilmrt Lijipe. LipiK". Liibeck, "- len, and lianitiurtr. II. — Legislation of the Empire. Article 2. Wiiliin this lirritory the Empire shall have the right of legislation according to the provisions of this coustitution, and the laum 5G7 L * !i if if I i< i ! '■■ 1 CONSTITUTION OP GERMANY. of the Empire »hsll takp precedence of those of ench individual «tatc. TUe laws of the Empire shall be rendered binding by imperial pr.K-lama- tion, such prnclaiiiation to lie piihlishrd in a Journal devoted to the publication of the laws of the Empire, (lleicbBgcsetzblatt.) If no other p<ri<Hl shall be designated in the published law for it to fake effect, it shall take effect on the fourteenth day after the day of its publication in the hiwjoumal at IJerlin. Article 3, There is one citizenship for all (Jernuiny, and the citizens or subjects of each state of the federation sliall be treii'ed in every other state thereof as natives, and shall have the right of liecoming permanent residents, of carry- ing c.n business, of tilling public olHces, and may acijuire all civil rights on tue same conditions as tliose lM>m in the state, and shall also have the same usage as regards civil prosecutions anil the protection of the laws. No German shall lie limited, in the exercise of this privilege, liy thi- authorities of his native state, or bv the authori- ties of any other stale of the confedeniiion. The regulations governing the care of piiu[)ers, and iheir admiwion into the various parishes, are not affected liy the principle enunciiiteil in the first piiragraph. In liki' manner those treaties shall nniain in force whii h have N^en concluded bitwetu the various stalls i.f the fedemtion in relatiou to the custiHly of persons who lire to be banished the cure •")f sick, and Ihi' burial of dCv-eaM il eiti/ens With n'giir.l to tlie n ndering of military 'vice to the vi^rious states, the neces.«,iry I M Iw passed hereafter. All (}ernuiiis counlries shall have einml claini'. ii| iiicn .,f the Kmpin'. Article following miilters shall be un<lir the siou of the Knipire ami its legislature: 1. The privilege of carrying on trade 111 iiii,re ilmn one plaie, doniolie alTairi and matters n lating to the seiilenieni ..f natives of niie stall' ill i!i<' territory of aiiutliiT; the right of lilizi'nship. the issuing and ev inatioii' of pa.ssports; «urveillauee of f.iniL'iHTs anil of maiiufailiiri s. together with iiisiiraiiee business, so far as tli.se matters are imt alrea.lv pnivided for by anil 1.- :i .f this eonstitiiti..ii. lili Havana, howevi-r. e\i liisive .if cl.imestir affairs and mat^ ters relating ti. ilie wttlement i.f nativ.suf m,.. etatii in the t. rrilory of another.! and likewise mailers n laiingtoe.ilimizati.m aiiileiniu'nition to fori'igu ciuiiitriis U. Ij'gislati.m eoiieeminir custiiius duties ami e.itiinierce, and such iiii|nis|ii as are to Ih' applied i.i the usis of tin Knipire a. liegulalion of Wrights ami tin asiins i.f the loiliagi', lo^'ilher with the iiiiissi..ii i.f fiiii.hd ami unfunded p.iner 1111 v 4 Hatikinir regu- lalii'hs in giiii ml. .-i. I'ulents fi.r itiventi..iis tt. Till' prnteilion of literary prnperti' 7. Th- orL':iiii/.iti.in of a general sysleni >•( pri.tntion foriii rmaii trixlein foreign e'ounlries, of (iirnian navig.itiiiii. and of the Gennan thig on the hiirh seas, liki«i«e the organi/atlun of a gi tii ml consular nprrsfutal inn of the Kinpire H Kail- way iiLitters. i»iili),, t in llavarialn the pmvisions of anil le -lit.) ami the (onslruction of nieans of (ommuiiicalioM by land and water for the pur- |M>»es of home d. Ii'iisi' and of general lommen-e '.* Itaftiiig ami iiaviga'iod iiisin thosi^ Waleni which are (oninintl tn Heverri) .Stittes. attd !!:e condition lit suih Haters, as likewise river and other water dues |ii l',,.ia| ami l<li graphic but iu ItavnrU aud Hungary these shall affairs, coNSTmmoN of Germany. be subject to the provisions of article .12 ] Regulations concerning the execution i.f ju,lici. sentences In civil mstterg, and the fiiltillnunil requisitions iii g»neral. 12. Theautlieiiti,,ui„ of public documei.t.8. 13. General !egi.slai,„ regarding the law of obligations, criminal i-in commercial law, and the law of exchange lit, wise judicial proceefilngs. U. The inmr. army and navy. 1,5. The surveillanee „f ,]] meilical and veterinary professions. 16. Tl press, trades' unions, Ac. Article S. The legislative power nt it Empire shall be exercised by the fedenil cudij and the diet. A majority of the votes ..f boil houses shall be necessary and suffleient f,ir ih, liassage of a law. When a hiw is |ir..|,..Hil ii relation to the army or navy, or to the imii,B,l specified in article "ai, the vote of the iin'si'lin, otticer shall decide; in case of a liilT. r.n.i' .. opinion in the fedemi council, if sai.i v.iti- -l^ lie in favor of the retention of tlie eiistin- arrangements, ' ' III.— Federal Council. Article 6. The feileral council shall ivinsist 1 ! the npresentatives of the states of tlieinnfcl,.,! tion, among whom the votes shall he ilivi.1,,1 ij such a manner that Prussia, includim; the f.inii'^ votes of Hanover, the eh^ctorate of |li>s' \ii. stein, Xas.saii, and Krankfort shall hav.' K v.,tn Bavaria, 6 votes: .Saxony, 4 votes; WHrt.iiil»r' 4 votes; Baden, I! voles ;'ness<', a v.iti s; Mukiia- burg-.Schwerin, J voles; Saxe- Weimar. 1 v. v -Mecklenburg-Strelitz, I vote; Oldenl.ur- lt.,if' lirunswick, i votes; Saxe..Meiiiiri^'i a. 1 v.itrj Saxe-Altenburg, 1 vote; Saxe-t'olnir.- (i.ilw, i vote; Anhalt, 1 vote; Schwarzlmrg l!ii.l..i,t.iiir 1 votcSchwarzhurg-Sondershaii-iii, 1 v..ii'.W,.;. deck, Ivote; Keuss, ehlerbram li. 1 v.t. . l!,.;,... younger brunch, 1 vole; Schaiiiiiliiir-li i.i|.|... i vote; Lippe, 1 vole; Luls'ik, I v. it.-, Ilriniiii!l vote; llambiirgh, 1 vote; total ."iSvi.tis Ejrh memlsr of the lonfedemiioii shall aii|i..iiit m many delegates lo the fedemi (..iiii.il :i< ii Im voles; the total of the votes of eai li stale ijiiill. however. Ih' east hv only one dele:; it. . Article 7. The feilera"l eouneil shall lak.MOlin upon— 1. The measiin-s t.> }<•■ |.r.i|i.i^.l t,.!li« did and the resolutions iKisse.l by tli. sime, i. The general pnivisions and n.gul.'iti.ins ii,,,,MrT for the exiHUthmof the laws of the Km|ii^ si fur as no other provishm is ma.i.' by vii.l l,-. a. The defects wlihh may Is- ilisi u'n nil in m exciiilion of the laws of "the Kiiipiri . .r .f ilie pmvisi.ins and ngulations hen ti.fi.r. in. nii.im.l Each memtH'r of the confeilenlioii slj.ill havelln right III iiilrisluce inotions, ami ii shall lie iln duty iif the prisiding olllcer l.i sul.mir !|]iml..r delilHmlion. I cgishitive action shall l.ik.'|.U» by siinph. majority, with the e\i. |.ti..iis ..f tt» provisions in articles ,5, a*, aii.l > V .t.-« n.it n.pnsi.nlid or instnictisl shall m.l Is ...uuinl In the case of a tie. the vote of tin |insi.liiij otilier shall d. eide When li L'islatin' sni'ii upon a subjM't which diss not atTeet. lucopliiit to the provisions of this const 11 lit i.m, Ilie wli.k Knipiri' Is taken, the v.iies of ..iilv lh..«i' uLiik of the ciinfiideraiion shall In'couiiIi.I nhiihulijU Is' inleresUsI in the nwller In i|iie«ti.iii Article 8. The fisleral eouneil sliull s|i|ii.iiil fr-ti: :!x ::v:; nw.Hi!ii-r* in-f«haiivi;i :-.•:■;!■•■-—- I Oil the army and the fiirlllleaiii.il- .' tta naval alTalrs. !t On duties and ta\. « I Ot comuirrce and trade. 9. Ou railr.ia.!< )>»! f.8 CONSTITUTION OF GERMANY. C0N8TITUTI0N OF GERMANY. i^cM, and telegraphs. «. On the judiciarj-. 7 On accounts. In each of these committees thore shall be rcpiesentatives of ot least four sutes of the confederation, beside the presiding ottlrer, and each state shall Iw entitled to only one vote in the same. In the committee on tlie araiv and fortifications Bavaria shall have a per- niauent seat ; the remaining members of It, as well as the memlwrs of the committee on naval iffairs, shall l)e appoint^'d by the Emperor ; the mi'DilKTSof the other committees shall beelMtiil by tlic fnlirai council. These eommitties shall be newl.v formed at each session of the federal oiumil, v. c, each year, when the retiring mem- bers shall again Iw eligible. Resides, there shall be appoiiileil in the federal council a conimittw on fiin'iijn affairs, over which Bavaria siiall pre- siile, til W composed of the plenipotentiaries of the kiuiilomsof Bavaria, Saxony, and WUrtem- berit. iiuil "f two plenipotentiaries of the other gtstes "f the Empire, who shall l)e eleited sunuallv by the federal council. Clerks sliall lie pliKivl at tlie disposal of the committws to |>er- forai the necessary work appertaining then-lo. Article 9. Each member of tlie federal coun- cil sliall have the right to appi'ar in the diet, and Miall Ih' heanl there at any time when he shall so wiuesl. to n pri'sent the views of his unviTii- mrQt. even \vli< 11 the same shall not have l»i'n jilopieil liy tlie majority of the council. Nobody ihall !»■ at the same time a memlierof the federal i.muiil anil of the diet. Articlt 10, The Eini>eror shall allonl the iiW'iniirv iliiilomatic protection to the meiulHTs ,.f liiifi.'liTjii rouiicU. IV.— Presidium. Article II. The King of Prussia shall In' the pn-^iiliiit of llie I oiifeiteration. and shall have till- litle "f (ierni^iii Emperor. The Eiii|Mriir shall nprcMiit the Kiii|)ire nmoni;imli<<ii'<. drclare war. and rniicliiilt' {H'tice in the name -if the Minr, I'lilir into alliances and other eniiveiiiiiiiis Willi ft'n-iirii t ouhlries, accredit enil>a!*s:idi>rs. iitid rinive thcni For a declaration nf war in ilie naim 'if llie Knipln'. the coiisi ut of the federal ixunii! sliall Is' n'i|uireil. exii'pt in ca.se of an ait.ic k ii|inii the territory of thi' confederal i.ni nr it<rii;ii.l.s Si far as treaties with turt iiiii coiiu iriispfer 111 mailers which, lu'eordiiiit to article 4 .ri 111 Ih- reiiiiLiteil by the le^'lslaliire of the tiiipii ■. Ilh- loiiseiit of the federal council shall In iii(iiinil furtlieir ratillcation, and the approval .it the iliit shall lie necessary to ri'lider them vali.l Article t2. The Emperor shall liave the right luruiiviiii till federal council and the diet, and t<ni|i.ii, ailjuiiru. and ch>se them. Article 13. The convoeatliui of the fcderul r iiiii il and llie diet shall take iilai e annually, and tlir finliral council may !«• called together for the Jiriparatliui uf business without the diet . the Uttir. Ihiivever, shall not li«> eunvokitl without till- fi-tli ral iiiuncil. Article 14, The convueallon of the fislenil ceuniil shall take platv u noon a* deiimndiNl by onr tliinl uf its members. Article 15. The ehauecllor of the Empire, who •liaP lie spixiinltsi liy the Eu>|ienir, shall preside In the federal council, uid •upervUr the conduct n! !!i hutir„-.=! Thp rhanr»=!li-.r .-.f ?!-,<= Emr-!r*> ■lull k*vt the right to deleratc the power to nprrwnt Um to any mamSer of the tedual eoiudl bv of 01; I Article 16. The necessary bills shall ]>e laid before the diet in the name of the Em|>eror, in accordance with the resolutions of the federal council, and they shall be represented in the diet by niemlH'rs of the federal council or by special commissioners appoiute<l said council. Article 17. To the Emperor shall Ijelong the right to pri'parc and publish the laws of the Empire. The laws and regulations of the Emperor shall be published in the name of the Empire, i<ud niiuire for their validity the signa- ture of " . ' 'nceHor of the Empire, who tliere- '■'■^ r.-s,".i, Ible for their execution, icle iS, ii.e i-;!! --ror shall appoint the s I'f the Ei.i;ii.'e, 1 ■ uire them to take the 'f I'liijianie, iiid ,-iniss them when neces- 811 ■ uiiiciuU ai.poi; ted to an otHce of the El .-,' '1 trimi ■.•11 )f tl states of the confedera- tio.. ■:<'' e .> he rame rights to which they were entitledir thci.- lative states by their ortlcial position, provided no other leijislative provision shall have been made previously to their entrance into the service of the Empire. Article 19, If states of the confederation sliall not fullill their constitutional duties, pro- ce<'iliui.'s may be instituted against them by mili- tary execution. This execution shall lie onlered by the federal council, and eiiforttd by the Em|ieror. V,-Diet. Article 30. The meralH'rs of the diet shall be elected by universal sutfrage. and byiiirect secret ballot I'ntil regulated liv law, which is re-«rved by section '> of the election law of .Mav 111, 1W19 (fluude-L'esi'tzlilatt, IStlU. .section 14").'l 4^ dele- gates shall Is'electisl in Havana. 17 in Wuriein- berg. 14 iu Haden. in Hesse, south of the river Main, and the total ii'imlKTof delegates sliall be -.is-i Article ai. OlUciuls shall imt rei|tiin' a leave iif aliv nee ill onUr to enter the dill When a ini-iulier ot the diet accepts a salaried olliee ■>( the Kiiipire, or a salaried olHn- in one of the stales of the eunfeileration, nr aece|>ls any olliee if the Knipire, or of a state, with whii li a IiIl'Ii rank or salary is coinieeteil, he shall forfeit his si-:it and vote in the diet, but may recover lii» place ill the same by a new election. Article 33, The"iiriKee.iiiigs of the dii t .-hall Ih- imhlii'. Truthful reports of the procee.lings of tile imlilic si-ssioiis of tile diet iliall subject those making them to 110 respoiisiliility. Article 33. The diet shall have the richt to propose laws within the jiirisilictioii of the Empire, and to refer pctilious addressid to it to the federal council or the cliaucellor of the Empire Article 34. Each li k'Islallve periisl of the diet shall last time years The diet may 1k' ills- iioheil by a nsoliilli 11 of the federal council, with thieiillMllt of tin ElupeMr Article 3J. Ill the cus<> of a dissolution of the diet. iie» elections shall take place within a inriisl of IM) days, and the diet sliall reassemble within a iH'riod of Ui) days after the dissolution. Article at. I'nless by coiis< iit of the diet, an adjournment of that Issly tlull not exceeil the IH'riisl of UU days, and shall not be n'peated during the same seiaion, without such cuiistnt Article »7 Tlw -iict »h»U cn»i5!lr.e !:-,!:: ;h« legality of the election of Ita members and drctda tliereuii It ahall regulate the mode of traniact- tog bm tm aa. and ha owa diadpUae. by eatabtlaii- ^ 669 L i ■•■ CONSTITUTION OF GERJIANY. tog rules therefor, and elect its president, vice- presidents, and secretaries. Article 28. The diet shall pass laws 1<r absolute majority. To render the passape .if laws valid, the presence of the majority of the legal numtier of members shall be required. When passing laws which do not affect the whole Empire, according to the provisions of this con- stitution, the votes of only those members shall be counted who shall have been elected in those stales of ilii- confederation which the laws to be passi-d shnll alTecf. Article 29, The members of the diet shall be the representjitives of the entire people, anti shall not lie subject to orders and instructions from their constituents. Article 30. No memlwr of the diet shall at any time suffer legal prosecution on account of his vote, or (<n account of utterances made while in the performance of his funilions, or lie held resnonsible out.side of the diet for his actions. Article 31. Without the conM'iit of the diet, none of ils inemlHTs shall Ix' tried or puniKhed. duriuit the session, for any offense committed, except when arnsted in the act of ctmimitting theoffeus*', or in the courw of the following day. The same rule shall applv in the case of arrests for debt. At the n'ciuest of tlu >.iet, all legal proceedings instituted against one of its mem- bers, and likewisi' imprisonment, shall be sus- pended liuring its 8<-8sion. Article 3a. The mi'mUrs of the diet shall not lie allowed to draw any salarv, or be compen- siitnl as such. VI.— Cuitomi and Commerce. Article 33. tienuaiiy >liall fonn a customs anil conimcn ial union, having a common frontier for ilie colliction of ilutics. Sudi territories as cannot, liy nason of their situation. 1k' suitably embraci-il within the said frontit r. shall In. excluded It shall lie lawful to intn«luie all anil lis of c.imniiTce of a state of the confe.lera- tion into any othir stale of the confederation, without paying any iliity thereon. ej(..|it so far as suih artidis are'suliiiV; t.> taxation theniii. Articif 4. Till' llansiatir towns, llnmen and llanilMirg, shall remain free ports out.si.le of the common boundary of the ciislonis union, retnininif for that purpose a dlsiriit of tlii ir own! or of the surroundiiiK tirritorv, until Ihev shali ifiiuist to W aiimltted inlo the Niid union! Article 35. The Kmpire shall have the exclu- sive iniwer to legislate concirninif evcrvlhing relating to Ihe customs, the taxation of salt and tobacco manufariund or rais.1l in the territory of the confedenillon : lonierning the taxation of manufactund lirandv and N-er, and of suitar and lirup prcpariil fnin (h-i'Is or other domi-slic pro- ductions. It shall have CXI liisive powir lo hid,, late conicrnin« the miilual proteition ..f taxes uponartichsof n.nsumption leviid in lhcs.-vcral sUtes of Ihe Empire ; nirainst emlM'^zlen t ; as Well as <iincemln){ the measures which are ri'nuired. in granllnjf inemplion from Ihe iMiy- ment of duths, for llie wi .irilv of the cmmon cusiomsfMntier In lUvaria. <VUrteml«Tg, and Bwlin. Ihe matter of Imposing duties on domes. lie hrinily and Ut-T is n «,rv.s| f,.r the hgislalure of each country. The stales of the . onfeileration •hall, however, endeavor to hrtiiir alsmt unif.inii ii si»Uti.iii ri mihliiiu iiietniniionot tin M^artii lei. Article 3*. Tl. im|««.init of dmies and Kdies ua artlcUn uf luuauutpllon, and Iheiollec- CONSTITUTION OP GERMANY. tlon of the same (article 85,) Is left to earh si of the confederation witliin iu own tiriiturt far as this has been done by each state hiretoff The Emperor afaall have the supervision nf institution of legal proceedings by olIicinls(.f empire, whom he shall designate as adjiimi. the custom or excise ofBcei, and boards ef dj, tors of the several states, after hearinj 1 committee of the Confederate Council on oust., and revenue*. Notices given by these otiicial, to defecu In the execution of the laws of i Empire (article 85) shall be submitteil to i confederate council for action. Article 37. In taking action upon the ni and regulations for the execution of the \„^ the Empire, (article 35,) tlie vote of the pn«ii|. officer shall decide, whenever he shall |ir.,ii,iun for upholding the existing rule or ngnlati..ii Article 38. The amounts accruing fmma toms and other revenues designated in artii Ir of the latter, so far as they are subjei t to leji lation by the diet, shall go to the treasumf 11 Empire. This amount Is made up of the t .1 ri'ceipts from the customs and other revcnuf after deducting thertfrom— 1. Tax iimiM, lions and reductions In conformity wiiii exi«tit laws or regulations. 2. Keimbursinii nl> ', taxes unduly impos«Hl. 8. The costs fm (,,]],, tion and administration, viz. ; ,1. In tin- iliiar ment of customs, the costs which are n uuir. for the protection and collection of cust.m,. . the frontiers and in the frontier liistriit- '. I the dejiartment of the duty on salt the o«! which are used for the pay of Iheoillierseharj!. with collecting and controllinK lhesi. .lurii » in ik saltmines, c. In the departineni of iliiii,<,.| b<.etsugar and tobacco, the com|ii riviii,.n »hid is to 1m' allowed, according to the n vhiiiinii n the confederate council, lo the sei.ril >t«li governmenis for the costs of the cIIiiUmu these duties r/. Fifteen \wr cent, of the i.t;, receipts in ihe departments of tlie ntln r .luiin The territories situated outside of the e.mrii.: custoi frontier shall contribute to the u|ntisi of the Kmpire liy paying an 'aversufn.'a «imin| acquittance ) Bavaria, WOriemti.rir. nn.l l!«.l.i •hall not share in the n'venius frni .liiiiis .n liquors and lieer, which go inlo the tmisurv.l the Empire, nor In the corresiHiniiing |«.rtioo •! the aforesaid ' avenum. ' Article 39. The quarterly statements t.i !« regularly made by the n'venue olllnn. nf <\« federal slates at the end of every .|Tiiirter, i.l the Dual arttlemenU (to lie made lit the en,! f the year, and after the chwing of the seci.iic! b<»ik«)of the receipts from customs, wliiihluii' lieiHime due In Ihe course of the quartrr it during Ihe flacal year, and the n'veimn et Ik treasury of the Empire, according lo srtli Ir :i- sball be srrang«l by the Iswrds of ilimi.n of the federal stales, alter a previoiHuamitisiin in general summaries In which evirv liiiti i-. M tie sliown sepaniU'ly ; these siimnmrii s «liiti ■• transmitted in the federal committee on nrroun> The latter provisionally Axes, everv three mwtlif. taking as a basis these summaries, the smiiucl due lo the treasury of the Empire fnni \\w \Tt^t^ ury of each sUte, and It shall Inform tlie fi.lfrd Council and the fetleral Hiates of this sit ; (u^tbl^ inon*. U shall SUbRlit to the fe:!rrs! e-.^llSlil annually, the final statement of lln «' :imeuiil>, with its remarks. The fi-deral couuill tUU »(1 uiHiu the axiag of itieie MuvtuiU. 5711 CONSTITUTIOK OF GERMANY. CONSTITUTION OF GEIIMANY. Article 40. The terms of the ruHtoms-uDioa tieatv "f July 8, 1867, remain in fcirce, so far as thfv liave not been altered by the provisions of this cnnstitution, and as long as the^ are not ilterrd in the manner designated in articles 7 and 78. VII. — Railway*. Article 41. Railways, which are consi i red necessarj- for the defense of Germany or for pur- poses of freneral commerce, nmy Im' Imilt for the iccount of the Empire by a law of the Empire, even in opposiiion to the will of those members of the confederation through whose territory the nil'. >iil9 run, without detracting from the rights of tlie sovereign of that country ; or private perwms may be charged with their constniction ud nwive rights of eipropriation. Every ex- iitin^t railway company is bound to permit new niln>ad lines to be connected with it, at the eipensc of those latter. All laws granting fiintinir railway companies the right of injunction igaiDst till' building of parallel or competition lines HD' liereby iiluilisbed tlmiilghout the Empire, without ilctrirneut to rights alremlv iicquired. Such riL'ht of injunction can hencefortli not be granted in conccHwions to Ih* given hereafter. Article 42. The govenuuents of the federal «t»t<-» lilml themselves, in the inten^t of general comnn-riT, to have the German railwiiys managed waiinifinn network, and for this purpose to ball' the lines constnu ted and e(|Uipped accord- iii(r to 11 uniform system. Article 43. Aeconlingly. as soon as possible, unifonii urrangemeiitN as to maimi^enient. shall bf niHili'. iiiidcBpecially shall ntiilMrin regulations beiu-lituted for the police of tlu- niilronds. The Empiri' sliiill taki- can' tlnit tlii' administrative nllii. rs 'f tlir niilw ,iy Imes keep tlie Mad* iilwiivs in Mil h .1 eonrlitiou hs is reijuiri'd for public Iffir ty. and that they 1h' eiiuip|H(l with the unwary rolling stink. Article 44. Railway companies an' Isnind to fft^lilish such pHH.senger tniiii.'i of suitable tei.K'iiy as may 1h' n'<iiiired for onliiiury travel, 111(1 fir tl'e establishment of harmonizing sched- ulcBiif travel : also, to make provision fc>r su' ' frpii'l}! trains as may 1h' necessary forcommerci piir]""«'9. anti to establish, without extra ren.u.. rnij.in, ortlres for the dire<'t forwunling of pas ttnL-iTHaiui fnight trains, tola- transferred, when ni'ii'ssary. from one naid to another Article 4S. The Enipiri' shall have ( "nttol cavr the tarilT of fan's. The same shall ■ nleavor tiiiaiiv— 1 lidform ngulalions to In- s|M'edily intriHiucfil on all (German niilway lines, ',V The I«n!l to lie nduied anil made unifonn as far as Hissilili', mid partli'ularly to cause a nduitiou of the tiirilT for the transport of ii>al. coke. »'»»l. minirals. stone, salt, iriide iron, tnantin'. M'l MMiiliir articles, for long dlstaiii'is, as de- niaD'li i ly the inten'sts of agrii ultiin' and ImliKlry, and to introduce a oiii' penny tariff u »>'n »• iiriMticable. Article 46. In case of distress, especially iu cax uf an ■ ilrai>nllfiarv rise in llie priit- of "pni- vi»l"ii» it shall Im' the iluty of the railway com- puiii-slo ailuiit tem|>oraril"y a low special tarilT, til t» tixid Iry the Emperor, on motion of the nimiifteut niinmiltee, for the forward'ng of fTsiu, Hi'ur. vegetables, and fKitatiH's. This Uriil sii.iii, however, not be less than the lowest ««■ f,,r raw pnsluce eiisting on the said line The fureguiiig prurUluBs, and thoic of articles 4S to 45, shall not apply to Bavaria. The imperial government has, however, the power, also with regard to Bavaria, to establish, bv way of legislation, unifonn rules for the construction and equipment of such tailwavs as may be of importance for the defense of the country. Article 47. The managers of all railways shall be required to obey, without hesitation, requisitions made bv the authorities of the Enipirc for the use of their roads for the defense of Germany. Particularly shall the mil- 'arv and all niaU'rial of war be forwarded at uniform reduced rates. VIII. — Mails and TelcKraphs. Article 48. The mails and telegraphs shall be organized and managed as state institutions throughout the German Empire. The legislation of the empire in regard to postal and telegraphic affairs, provided for in article 4, does not extend to those matters whose regulation is left to the managerial arrangement, according to the princi- ples which have controlle<l the North German administration of mails and telegraphs. Article 49. The receipts of mails and tele- graphs are u joint affair thmughout the Empin-. The exfwnses shall Ix- paid from the general n-ceiiits The surplus goes Into the treasury of the tmpln-. (Section 12.) Article 50. The Emperor has the supreme supervision of the administration of mails and teligniphs. The authoritii's appointed bv him are in duty liouiid and aiithori/.ed to s<'e that uniformity be established and maintainid in th» organization of the adtiilnistmtion and in tne trinsai'tion of business, as also in regani to the qualitleations of employes. The Emperor shall have the power to malic general administrative rei;iilations. and also exclusively to regulate the n-latious which an' to exist iHtween tlie iswt and telegraph olHces of Oermanv and those of other countries. It shall Ih' the duty of all olHiers of the post ottlee and telegraph department to oliev imperial onlers. This obligation shall he included in their oath of olHce. The appomfment of s'-'wrior olHcera (such as dln'ctors. counselors. ' sup«'rintendents,) as they shall lie renuinil •■ administration of the niails and telegraphs, varii us districts ; also the appointment of i of ihe posts am! telegmph ; (such as ...siM'ctors or comptnillers.l acting for the afore- said authorities iu the siveral dlstriits, iu the capacity of sujiervisors, shall be maile by the EmiK'ror for the whole i.rritory of the (JeVman Empin', and these ollii ers shall take the oath of fealty to him as 11 part of their oath of otiiie. The govemnunts of the several states shall lie informeil in due time, by means of im|>erial con hrnialion and olHi iai publication, of the afore- mentioned appointments, so far as they may nlate to their territories. < liherotncers nMiuired bv the de|>artiiient of mails and lelegniphs. as also all olllcers to tie eniployisl at the various St itions, and for technical purpiws, and heiico olflclatiug at ithe actual cent«'r« of communica- lion, i.Ve., shall lie apiHiluted by the n'a|H>ctivu governments of the states. Wnen- then' is no inde|M'ndent ailminislration of inland mails or telegraphs, the terms of the various treaties arv to la* enforceil. Article 51. In aaslgoing the surplus of the post olllce department to the tn-ssury of the Empire for general nurisisei, (article 4tt.) the following procvvding la tu bo observed iu cod- u\ L » - K ft CONSTITUTION OF GERMANY ■ideration of the difference which has heretofore existed in the ^' ■« n-ceipts of the postotBce department!! of the several fcrritorics, for tlie purpose of securing a suitable equalization dur- inif the iH'riiMl of transition below named, Of tho post-olHce surplus, which accumulated in t'.e several mail districU during the live years f-om 1801 to 1863, an average yearlv surplus shall be ooinputed. ami the share which every w'pamte mail district liiw had in the surplii, resulting therefrom for the whole territorv of the Kmpire sliall be lixcd upon by a iH'rcentiitfe. In acconl- am-e with the proporlion thus made, the sevi'ral states shall be creiiited on the account of their otiier contributions to the cxpeuM's of the empire with their quota accruing from the postal surplus in the Empire, for a pf'ri.xi of eight years subse- quent to their entr.ince into the post-oftice departmeiit of the Empin\ At the end of the said eight years this distinction shall cease, and any surplus in the post-oiUce department shall go, without division, into the treasury of the Empire, according to the principle enunciated in article 48. Of the ((uota of the postcitllce department surplus ri'sulting during the afon'- mentioned period of eight years in favor of the llanseatie towns, one-half shall everv year 1)<> placed at the disposal of the Emperor, "for the purnose of proviiling for the establishment of unifiirni post otiices iu the H.inseatic towns. Article 52. The stipulations of the foregoing articles 4S to .'.1 ilo net iippiv to Havana and Wdrtenibirg In their st. ad the followingstipu- lation sha!l Im' vali.l for Ihise two states of the confederation. The Empire alone is anthori/i>d to legislate upon the |>rivileges of the piwt-ol'ic e and telegniph departments, on the let'al posiii.m of lioili iiistilu ions Inward the public, upon the f ninlving privilege an 1 rili's of iwwtage. ami uiwrn the oialilishnicnt of rates fur tclii? . Iiic eorres- poiidiiiee into Uan.«eatic town E.xrlusive, hnwever. uf mauat'erial arningements. and Ihc tlsiiig (.f tarilfs for internal ii>mmiini( ation within Havana and Wilrtembenr. Inlliesanie manner the Eiii|iire shall ngnlate pnsial and telegraphic eomniuiiication with f.tn i:;ii couu- trii'S, excepting the inimediate coiiirnuniialinn nf Bavaria and Wiinenilierir with their iieiu-hboring •tales, not belonging to the Empire, in regaril to which reu'iilation the .Htipidati iis in articli 4» of titr postal tn'aty of XoviiiiIm . JU, IxtlJ, ri.,,,,,; , in force Uavaria anil Wilnetnlier:.' shall not sliari' in the postal ami teleuriphic n , eipts which Islongtoth. tnasuryof the Empire. IX, — Marine and' NaTigation, Article 53. The navy of ilii- Empire is a united one, under the supreme <'omiiiatid of the Emperor The Emperor Is chargi-d with its organiialloH ami arrangement, and he shall appoint thi' olll. .rs and otneials of (he naw ami in his name these and the seami'n Arr to Ih' ■worn iu Thi' harlnir of Kiel and the harlkpr of the lade are imperial warharlKim. Theexpeudl- luri's required for the esUibllshmcnt and main- tenance of the navy and the institutions i-onneeted therewith thall Ik< defmTe<l from the treaaury of the Emplr«. All wa faring men of the Empire, inclu<llng machinbt« and b'nds employed in oliip buil.lliig, are exempt from aervlce in the army, but obllgtsl to lervc In the imperial na»y. The apportlunmrnt uf m^n ;•-. •upply the wanU of the navy aliall he made acconllas «o ««• •ctual leafariliv population. 67i CONSTITUTION OP GERMANY. and the quota furnished In acconlance herew by each state shall be credited to the ar account. Article 54. The merchant ve8-...ls of all sta of the confederation shall torm a imiirl ,„ mercial marine. The Empire shall deterrain,. 1 process for ascertaining the toimageof sei •„! vessels, sliall regulate the issuing of tomiv certificates and sea-letters, and shall tix the !■' ditions to which a permit for cotnni.imliu , sea-going vessel shall be subject. Th.' inercua ves-sels of all the states of the cor}f,.,l,.rjti shall Ik." admitted on an equal footing to t harbors, and to all natural and arfidiial wau cours.-sof the sever , 'atesof theconfe.leratin and shall receive the same usage theniu T liuties which shall be collated from se^ oi, vessels, or levied upon their freights, for tlif u of naval ins'itutions in the harliors. shall n exceed thi' amount reiiuinHl for the iiwintVnaii and oniinar;- repair of these institutions 1 Iq a natural water coursi's, duties are only to lie livi, for the use of special establishment^ »,; serve for facilitating eoniniercial i;,tirn)uri These duties, as well as the duties for naviiratin such artilicial chamiels, which are prop,.nvi the state, are not to excivd the amount nenr, for the maintenance and orilinary repair 1! it institutions and establLslimenis. Tli>-. ruli apply to rafting, so far as it is carri.'l ,ju „ navigable water-cour.sts. The h-vvii;- „[ .,!!i, or higher duties uiiou foreign ves'siU ,ir thri frei^rhts tlian those which are paid In lii,' v,«^] of the federsil slates or their fnigliis ,|,h, n, U'long to the various states, but to tin .Knipin Article 55. The Hag of the war an.l i.utiIuu navv shall Im' black, wliiti:, am! red. X. — Cooauiar Affairs. Article 56. The EmpcMr shall hiv- t!i supervitiou of all consular alfairs of tin'lJi-::!,:; Enijiire, and he shall appoint ronsiils. aft.r In j ing the committee of the t,;l,r.i\ c.nin.i; .; commerci.' and t rathe. No new stall- roi.siilatwari to l)e established within the jurisiliiiiuu nf th. (Jerinan consuls. (.}erin.in consuls sliall iHrf-rii; till' fuuclions of state consuls for tin- slat.* o! thecoufeili'rjitioniiot represintril in Ih. ir.!i*;ri! -Vll the now existiiii state (onsulali s slull l« abolished, as so.ni us ilii. on;aui/aiion nf tk German consul.iles shall Ik' i ipleii.,1, in ,11, In manner that the lejiiesiiiiation of tlie s..|urau- inleri'sisol all the l^i-dera: stati's shall 1k' mvi.- niicd by the federal council as secunsl li\ iW (SiTMUin consulates XI. — Military Affairs of the Empire, Article 57, KviTv (rerman is smI.j,,,! t.ituili tary duly, and in the iIIm harire .1 •Iu. duivao substitute can 1k' aiei'piiil. Article 58. The costs and the liii,-.liu nf jil the military system of the Empire an to I* bonie e.iually by all the federal states mul tliiit lubjiits, and no privileges or ni.jlestaii.ins to the several states or cla.sses are a.liiiis,itil« Where an equal distribution of the Inmleuji can- not be effecmi "III nalura' without pnjuiiire tc the public welfare, affnln shall lie equaiizid bv legislation In accordance with the principles J( justicv. Ariicit 59. Every German capable of l»«riiif anna shall serve for seven yi-ars in t le «t3uUiii| 8fr::y, ofrilnariiy fmm the ead..f ii.s iw<ii!i.;iiB the beginning of bis twenty -elgiith vear, tin first UtTN yeii-s in the army of the deKl, Nw UK CONSTrrUTION OF GERMAXY. COXSTITUTION OF GERMANY. (our yean in the reaerre ; during the next five rears be sbftU belong to the militia. In those itatesof theconfederati" in which heretofore a longer term of service liian twelve years was required by law, the gradual reduction of the required time of service shall fake place in such a manner as is compatible with the interests ami the war-footing of the army of the Empire. As reifitds the emigration of men belonging to the fosiTrc ocly those provisions shall be Tu force wliifli iipply to the emigration of members of tlie militia Article 60. The strength of the German army <n time of peace shall be, until the 31.'«t D«Traliir. 1871, one per cent, of the population (if IS67. ami shall be lumished by the several tedcral stalls in proportion to their population. In futuR' the strength o' the army in time of peace shall flx"! by legislation. Article t». After the publicntion of this con- stitution the full Prussian military system of legislition shall Iw introiluoed without delay tlmiut'liKUi the Empire, as well the statutes tliemsi'lvi'S as the re?".lations, instructions, ami onliuances issued fo' heir execution, explana- tion iir completion; thus, in particular, the military |>enal code of April 3, 1845: the military onlrrsof the penal court of April 3, 184.); the onlinanre cuneeniinB the couitsof honor of .luly Jl, l!*4;i: the rcfiulutions with respect to recruit- ini:. tinii' "f si'rvicf, mat'trs ri'lating to the afTioe liiiil stilisistem-e, to the quartering of tii»ip<. iluiins fur iiaina|.rc's. inobili/iiig, Jcc. , fur tim«> <'t' piaee ami w.ir. Onh-rs for the attend- anre 'if the military up»>:i religious .si-rviees is, iiimivi r. « xrhidiil. When a unifonu uruMiii/a- tiiin cif tile tlirinnii army slmll Lave Ihiu 1 .-itah- Ijjhni, a cnriipr.lieiisive military law fut tlie EinpiD' nliall tK' suhmitie<l to the diet and the fiiliral niiinril for tliiir action iu aeeoniaiice with tiii'('iii«iitution. Article 62. For the purpose of ihfmyin:^ tlic .ipiiws iif the whole (Jermiin army, ami tin- iii*lil:iii'ins eniiiieiled ilMTi'witli, tlie sum of '2'2'> !n ' liini'ln-d and twentytive) tlialcrs shall 1h> pUtil at tl]i' cl,.p.iBal at' till' Emperor until the ;)I»I nf IhciiiilKT. 1871, f.ir each man in tii" arm V" 'in th'- piaie foi:tiiii.', i,i-i'inliinr to urtiele 6'i iNvMfti'ih r.'.) Aft-r till' ;llst of D.eein. I»T, l-ri. tia' puymenl "f tln-M' eoritrilMiti'ins of Ihr -iviral ^latrs tu tl"' iiiiprrial Ir .i-uiy must li-i 'iitinwiil. Til.' slniij-lii of till' anny'iiiliini' 'if [I- lice, wliich luis lie, 11 tciuiM rarily tlxi'l iu ■ini'lellii. shall iM'taki'Ti iisa basis f'Ti'iiliMihitiiiir llii-x' ;ini' nts until it shall InmiMiT'iI bv a law "t the Kni|Mre. Tlie expeiMlii lire "f I his 'sum l.«r till' r i|olf :irniy of the Empire ami il'^ i-Malilish- mi'UI* »hail hr di'termiiUMl liy a liii'li.'it Ian In il'-iirniuiini:tli,'bnd;:i't of iiiiiiturvexiMii.llture,, ±<- laivfiilly rstablished oriiaiiizali'in of the iai|n'rlal iirniy. ii\ aeronlaiii-e with this euiistitii- li"!i. r\\M he takrn as a lM«i-. Article 63. The total land foree'if the Knipire >lii!l f.'riii "lie army, xvhieli. iu war ami in peace, -riul h uri.lir the iinniiiaml of tiie Ein[M'Mr. Till n .liimrits. Ai , thMiiirli'iiil the whole Uer- mm inny ^h ill Iv, ar eoi.tiiiU'ius numlH'rs Tlie pniipil ,,.|,is 1,11,1 the cut of the gannents of '!i' H.'yal I'ruwian army shall wrve as a paltrm t'|rtliiri«t'if the army. ' It i> left to i'otnmH>|iii'r» •1 I'liiiiur'nt limit to oht«»e Ihe external • •Mii-i .'.kinleii, Ae It nhall 'le the dutv aU'l lUf riih, .if the EmiKTor to take care 'that. throughout the German army, all divisions be kept full and well equipped, and that unity be established and maintained in regard to organiza- tion and formation, equipment, and command in the training of the men, as well as in the qualifi- cation of the offleers. For this purpose the Emperor shall be authorized to satisfy himself at any time of the condition of the several contin- gents, and to provide remedies for existimr defecU. The Emperor shall determine the stn-niftli, com- position, and division of the contingents of the ■niperial army, and also the organization of the militia, and he shall have the riglit to designate garrisons within the territory of ilie confedera- tion, as also to call aiiv portion of the army into active service. In order to maintain the iieces- sary unity in the care, arming, and equipment • . all triHips of the G^niiun armv, all orders here- after to \>e issued for tlie Prussian armv shall be communicated in due form to theconiniamlers of tlie remaining contingents tiy the committee on the armv and fortifications, provided for in article 8, No. 1. Article 64. All German tnwps are bound implicilly to otjey the orders of the Enijicror. This olibgation sliall lie included in Uie uatli of allegiance. Tlie commander-in-chief of a eon- tin;Tint. as well asall ollicersconimamling tnn'iis of more than oner.inlinirent, ami all eommamiers of f'lrtresses. shall be appointed liv tlie Emperor. The oltieers appointiil liy thi' EinpcT'.r shall take the oath of fi'ally t" him. Tlie app'iintnient of gi'iiera's, or of ulli'-ers perfurming the duties of generals, in a eoutiiigeiit force, siiall lie in each ease subject to tiie appr'ival uf the Emperor. Tiie Emperor has the right witli nganl tu the transfer of otiicers, witli or with'iut prumotion, tu p'..;itiuns wliicli an' to lie rtlhil in t hi' service 'if till' Empiri', l>e it in the I'rii.s.-.ian army or in iith'T euntinirenls, tu select fmni tlie "tlliirs 'if al! til iiiliiii;'nts of tlie army uf the Kiiipiri- Article 65. The rit'ht tu imild furiri's.s«-s within the tirritury uf tiie Enipiri' shall lulong to till- Eiiipiror. whu, aeor'Hii.' Iu seitiun 12. shall .ask fur tin- apiirupriatiun uf th.' iieiissarv 111. aiLs r.''|iiir.'i fur that piirpuM', if nut already im lu'l'-'i in Ilie ri'i.Milar a|>|>,.'|iriatiuti. Article 66. If nut otiurwisi' siipiilalcl. the prinei'suf the Empire ami tin- si-nat's shall a |ip"int theotlicrs uf ihiir n-spi-itivi' euiitliiv'' nl». sub. jeet tu the re-tririion 'if artieh- lit Tley an- tile chiefs of all the truups In I'liiitiii:; tu their respective territ'iries. aiel an' iiiiitli'I tu the hum li-s connected tlienM itii, Tli'\ shall have • 's| iaily tlie riiilil t.' Iiuhl iti>p"'ii"n-' at any ti'ii'', aii'i reeciv. Insi'li.* the regular ri'iiona .ami anmeiiH'eiii'iiis uf i haiices f,ir piililieali'in, tine'ly iiil.'riii.iliuii "f all pruiiiuli'iiisaiii appuint- 1111 nts I'.ii.' rniiii: lliiii' n'-piTiive c-uiitingents. Tiny shall aK'i have the rivrht t'l 1 iiipiuy. for pulire piiipiisis, h"! uiily ilnir uwii truups but all utlirr 1 'iniiiu'i lit-, "f [',if army uf tin' Empire who af slatiiin''i ill tin ir n-speitivi' tiTrit'iri's Article 67. Tin- urn \pimhi| p'lrti'.ii uf 'lie militiiry a|iprupii itiuii siiill, umlcr no clniim- staii'i s. fill t'l tlie siiar'' uf a sinclc guviriimi'iit. but at all tinii s t'l Ilu' treasury uf ilu- Knipiri' Article 68. The Em|ienir shall liav tlie power, if the iiiiblic security of the Empire demuielsit. t" 'leeiar" martin!" law in auv part thereof tiutil theiiuhiicationof a law regulating the gmumls. the form of announcement, and the etiects of siieb a declaration, the provisions of the 57;i coNBTmrrioN op oermany. PniiiUa Uw of June 4, 18S1. shall b« lubatitated therefor. (L«wi of 18S1, page 431.) Addition to wction XI. Tlie proriaions contained in this section shall go into effect in Bavaria as provided for in the treaty of alliance of November 2a, 1870 (Bun- desgesetzblatt, 187i, section 9,) under III. section 8, in Wttrtemberif , as provided for in the military convention of November 81-25, 1870, (Bundes- gesetiblatt. 1870, section 688.) XII.— Finances of the Empire. Article 69. All reciipu and expenditures of the Empire shall be estimated yearly, and included in the financial estinwte. The latter shall be tiled by law before the beginning of the fiscal year, according to the following princi- ples: Article 70. The surplus of the previous year, as well as the customs duties, the com- mon excise duties, and the revenues derived from the posul and telegraph service, shall be applied to the defrayal of all general expendi- ture. In so far as these expenditures are not covered by the receipts, they shall be raised, as long as no taxes of the Empire shall have been established, by assessing the several states of the Empire according to thiir population, the amount of the assessment 10 be fixed by the Chancellor of the Empire in accordance with the budget agreed upiin Article 71. The general expenditure shall oe, as a rule, grantid f(ir one vear; they may however, in special eii,se». be granted for a longer [jeriod. During the pi riiwl i>f transition fixed in Article 80, the flnniuial estimate, prnp- eriy classitied, (if the expenditun-s (if tl.i- armv shall IH- laid iM'fore the federU council and the diet f(ir their informatidn. Article •ji. Xn annual report of the expen- diture (if all the receipts (if the Empire shalllH' rindcrcd lo tli.< federal oduucil and the diet thniiiifh tile Clianiell.ir (if the Empire. Article 73. In caws of extraonlinary re- Hiurcments. a hian may Ih' contracted in aecdpl- anie wi'h tlic laws nf iIr. Empiri'. such loan to be granted liv tlie Emjiire. Addition to iection XII. .'rtiilcsrtO and Tl apply to the expenditures for the Uiivarian arniv (mlvaecdnling to the pm- vi.sidiis of 111,, addiliofi to sicii.m .\l of tlie treaty of .NovcnilKT -a. IHVil; and article 7\i only so far as is r((iiiire(l to inform the federal coiinVil and the diet of the assignment to Havana of the re(iiiired sum for the IJavarian arniv. XI II. -Settlement of Disputes and Modes of Punishment. Article 74. Every attempt asainsi the exist- ence, the integrity, the seeuritv, or tlic eoristiiu. lidiidfthe Herman Empire; flnallv. aiiv of n«e iiimmilteil ajrainsl the federal ■(mihk il the (llcl. a rncnilLTof ihe federal ((.iin.il, orof ihe diet, a niav'istrate or jiulillc dtll( i.il of the Km- C0N8TITCTI0N OF ITALY. pire. while In the execution of his duty or reference to his olfleial position, by word ing, printing, signs, or caricatur«8, aha judiciallv investrgated, and upon convi punished in the several states of the Kit according to the laws therein existing, or v shall hereafter ejiist in the same, sccordii which laws a simiUr offense against any the states of the Empire, ita constitutidn ] Isture. memben of iu legislature, authoriti otScials is to be judged. Article 75. For those offenses, speciBf Article 74, against the Qerman Empire w if committed against one of the states of the pire, would be deemed high treason, the sup court of appeals of the three free Hang towns at Lubeck shall be the competent d Ing tribunal In the first and last resort definite provisions as to the competency and : proceedings of the superior court of api I shall be adopted by the Legislature of i Empire. Until the passage of a law of I Empire, the existing competency of the o In the nspective states of the Empire and provisions relative to the proceedings of I ; courts, shall remain in force. I Article »6. Disputes between the diffe i states of the confederation, so far as tliev j not of a private nature, and thenfnre in I decided by the competent authorities nhal j settled by the fe<lera( council, at the re.iui- I one of the parties. Disputes relating to cm tutional matters in those of the states of confederation vhose constitution c.iiiiaiiis provision for the .settlement of such diircnn shall be adjusted by the federal cduniil, at re.juest of one of the parties, or, if tliis cann.ii ddiie, they shall be settled by the leirislai j jKiwer of the confederation. j Article 77. If in one of the stat. s . f confisleration justice shall be deTii(,l, and sufficient relief can be procured by i( "il m( I ures, it shall Ik- the duty of the federal (.mi to n-ceive substantiated complaints c.nura denial or restriction of justiw. wiiiih urc to judged according to the constituiioa an.j existing laws of the resiwctivt; stales (.1 confederation, and thenupon to obtain judi< relief from the confederate gdvenmieni in ! mallei which shall have given risi' t.i itn'.i plaint XIV.— General ProTition. .Vinendnients (if the constitution kliall Iw ma by legislative' enactment. They shall 1* n sideted as rejected when 14 Vd. < m 11 against them lu the fwleral cuineil Tlif pi visions of the constitutidn ..f li.e Kniplrc which lived righ's of individual »i ,1 s .f t (■(.nfedenii.in are eslHlilished in ih.ir r.lali to tlie wliole. shall only Ik' nKKlith.l wlili [ cdiisenl of iliat slate of "the confudcratiiinwU is iiniiiediately concerned. b^ia^ CONSTITUTION OF ITALY. The kingdom of Italy is governed under the consiiuiiioii gi iiiol In imh, ),,• t harles Allirt, tx> hU Sanliiiiuii siihlects. Tlie fcHn-.vi:!-- trm;-- l.'itiim, by Drs. Mml-jiv and l^lWe, of ifi,. luj. verslty of IVonsyhauia, is from the " Annals of the Ameri(»u Academy of I'olltlciU and Social tVienee,' Novemlier, li*M. Theconstilulionhi no jirovision for its own amendmcni . Iml m.> liHriiii Jiirisis hdid that it fan U ..1.,. li.i..! s rarilanieiit. with the king's approval V«t.i the translators nniark iu their hisi..rl.al ii troiiuctiou, an immutable et.nsii.iin.u U a coNSTmrnoN of italt. iMtniment "contrary to the true conception of an or^nic law. As a matter of fact several provi»i"Ms have been either abrogated or ren- dered null and void through diange of con- ditioiii. Thui the tecond ciauae of Article 28, requiring the previous consent of the bishop for the printing of Bibles, prayer books and cate- diisms, baa been rendered of no effect through lubaequent laws regulating the relations of rhurch and State. Article 76, which provides for the establishment of a communal militia, has been abrogated by the military law of June 14. 1874. The fact that no French-speaking provinces now form part of the kingdom has mwie Article 62 a dead-letter. 8o also Articles (3 and 5S are no longer strictly adhered to. At all events their observance baa been suspended (or the time being. " The translated text of the Constitution is as follows: (Cbsries Albert, by the Grace of God, Eing of Sardinia, Cyprus and Jerusalem, Duke of savoy, Genoa, Monferrato, Aosta, of the Chlablese, Oenovese and of Piacenza ; Prince of Piedmont '.id Oneglia; Marquis of Italy, Saluzzo, Ivrea, Susa, Ceva, of the Maro, of Oris- tano, of Ccsaua and Savona ; Count of Moriana, Geneva. Nice, Tenda, I{omonte, AstI, Alexandria, Gofenno. Novsra, Tortona, Vigevami and of Bobliio; llanin of Vaud and Faucieny; LonI of Vercelll. I'iniTolo, Tarantasla, of the LonuUina mil i>f till' Vallcv of Sesia, etc., etc., etc.) With the liilellty of a king ami the affection of > lutlier, we are alwut to-day to f ulllll all that we promised our most Ix-lovcd subjects in our procliimatlon of the eighth of last February, »herel)y we desired to show, In the niiilst of the eitriiiinlinary events then transpiring through- out the cnuntry, how much our cuntidente in our siilijiits intreawd with the gmvity of the fituatioii, iiml how. oi^nsulting (inly tlieimpulse (if our liciirt. Wf Imil fully determined to make llirlr roiicliiioii ii.nforin to the spirit of the times an.l to the Interests and dignity of the nation. Wf, lielleving llmt the liroad ami permanent representative luslltutiims established by tills fumUmentttl statute an' the furest means of ceminling the Uinds of Indissoluble affeetion that bind toourrniwn a pwple that has so often glrin us ample proof of their faithfulness. oMlcnce iind love, have determined to simetlon aoil promulgate this statute. We believe. furtlur. thiit (itid will bless our grenl intentions! •Oil that this free, strong and ha'ppv nation will erer«hii\v itself nicre des<-rving of Us ancient fame ami thus merit a glo.ious future. There- .'ore, We, with our full knowledge and royal authorllv ami with the advice of our Council, have ..nliihied and do hereby onlalu and deelare In tone the fuiiilamvntal perpetual and IrreviKa- We siiilule ami law of tlie monarchy as follovs- Article I. The Catholic, Apostolic ami Iloman relliiloii is the only religion of the State [see U«- of the Papal Guarantees, under P.tPACV A I> INTO (p,ige 2478)1. Other cults now ex IKlnii are tolerated conformably to the law. Article a. The Stale is governed by a repre- leniailve monarchical government, and the thtom- 1> herHitarv :^ccfiM!ng t<i t!ir Si»ljr Uw Articis J. The legislative power shall be exer- cjjfd collectively by the King and the two Uambert. the S«nat« and Uia Chamber of Ufputles, CONSTITUTION OF ITALY. Article 4. The penon of the King If Mend and inviolable. Article 5. To the King alone Lelongt the executive power. He is the supreme head of the State; command* all land and naval force*; declares war; makes treaties of peace, alliance, commerce and other treaties, communicating them to the Chambers as soon a« the interest and security of the State permits, ic<<ompanying such notice with opportune explanations; pro- vided that treaties involving flnancUl obligations or change of State territory shall not take effect until they have received the consent of the Chambers. Article 6. The King appolnto to all the office* of the St 'e and makes the necessary decree* and regui -lon* for the execution of the law*, provided i -at such decree* do not suspend or modlfjr their observance. Article 7. The King alone sanctions and pro- mulgat 1 the lawa Article 8. The King may grant pardon* and commute sentences. Article 9. The King convoke* the two Cham- bers each year. He may prorogue their session* and dissolve the Chamber of Deputies, in which case he shall convoke a new Chamber within a period of four months. Article 10. The initiative in legislation be- longs both to the King and the two Houses. All bills, however, imposing taxes or relating to the budget shall first be presented to the Chamber of Deputies. Article n. The King shall attain hi* majority upon completion of his eighteenth year. Article 13. During the King's minority, the Prince who is his nearest relative in the order of Burcession to the throne, shall be regent of the realm, provided he lie twcnty-ono years of age. Article 13. Should the Prince upon whom the regency devolves be still in his minority and this duty pass to a more distant relative, the regent who actuallv takes offlce shall continue in the same until the King becomes of age. Article 14. In the absence of male relatives, the regency devolves upon the Queen-Mother. Article 15, In the event of the prior (leccasa of the tJueen-Mother, the regent shall lie elected by the legislative Chamliers, convoked within ten days by the Ministers of the Crown. Article 16. The preceding provisions In refer- ence to the regency are also applicable In case tlio King has attained his majority, but is phy*- Ically iueii liable of reigning. Under such cir- cumstau< . ■., If the heir presumptive to the throne be eighteen years of age. he shall be regent of full rijtht. Article 17. The Queen-Mother has charge of the education of the King until he has com- pleted Ills seventh year; from this time on hi* guardianship passes into the hands of the regent. Article 18. All righu pertaining to the civil power In matters of ecclesiastical benefices and in the execution of all regulations whatsoever coming from foreign countrie* shall bv exercised by the King. Article 19. The civil list of the Crown shall remain, during the present reign, at an amount ftjual !•) tiit? svrfftge vt the same for the past ten years. The King shall continue to have the use of the royal palaces, villas, gardens and their appurtenances, and also of all chattels in- tended for the use of the .^rown, of wbicb • ii«< ■JK ii. CONSTITUTION OF ITALY. ipeedy ioTentory ■hall be madr hy a respoosible iture thi pre- il be fixed for t Legislature lo the throne. lie King pos- n) his private whicli he mav tttion Mr gnuui- The King may y either by deed ! * ministerial department. In t scribed dotation of the Cronr tl»e duration of each reign by sul)se()uent to the King s ac' Article ao. The proper! ^ sesses in his own right, si patrimony, togetlier with acquire title eitlier for a r tously in the course of his dispose of his private pati or will exempt from the pr.v isions of tlie civil law lis to the amount thus disposable. In all oilier cases, the King's patrimony is subject to the lawstliat govern other property. Article 3i. The law shall provide an annual civil list for V. heir apparent to the throne when he hiis attained his niajority. and also earlier on occasion of his marriage; for tlie allowances of the Princes of the royal family and royal 1)Ij<h1 within the speciUfd conditions; for the dowries of the Princesses and for the dowrit's of the Queens. Article 33. Upon ascending the throne, the Kiiij shall take an oath in the presence of the two (hanilK'rs to observe faithfully tlie present constitution. Article 23. The regent before entering on the duties of tliat otflce. -. ill swear tidelity to the King and faithful ohsi tvaiice of this consti- tution and of tile laws of tlic State. Article 34. AH the iiilialiitaiits of the King- dom, whatever their rank or title, shall enjoy equality iK'fore the law. All shall e<iually enjov civil and political riglits ami In- eligible to civil and military otBce, except as otherwise provideil by law 'Article 35. All shall coiitriliute without dis- criniiiiaiion 1 . the bunlriis of the State, in pro- p(.»rtlnn to tln'ir [)oss4'Ssioiis. Article 36. liHliviilual lilierty is guaranteed. No one shall be urnsted or brought to trial ex- cept in rnsis iinivid.'d for and according to the fortns I^rl■^(■riU■^l bv law Articles?. I'liednniic il.> shall be Inviolable. No lioiHe sean-h sli.ill takr place except in the end .rcenient of law anti in 1 lie manner prescribeil by law Article 38. Tht! press sli.ill be free, but the law may suppress abuses of this freedom. Ni-vi-rlheless. IJibles. catechisms, liturgical and pru.r books shall not be priiili-d without the previous consent of the bishop Article 29. I'roperty of all kinils wliats.M-ver shall !»■ iuMolable. In all cases, bowever, where the public Wflfarc. legally asccnaine.l, d< iiiaiids it, property may lie iinideinriiil and tiansfc rml in >vli.ilc or in part after a just iiiilemnily has tieeu paid aei-ording to law. Article 30. No tax shall lie levied or collected without iln> eohseiit of the fhainbers anil the samtioii of the King. Article 31. The public debt is guaranteed. All oiiii:r„|j,„„ i„.i «,.,.„ ii„. st^tp n,„| (^ credit- ors shrill Ih> inviotui/l^ Article 33. The h/tlii to peaceful assembh , williou; arms, !;-. ,<eogiii/ed. subjict, however, to the laws that may regulate the exin-iscof this privileir,' iii tUt> jriterest of th-j 'lublic welfaj;^ Ibis privileu' is not applicable, however, to meetings in public places or places ojieii to the public, which shall remain police law and ri'gulntion entirely siitiject to CONSTITUTION uP ITALY Article 33. The Senate aiuU be compote members, having attained the age of 1 years, appointed for life by the King, wit limit of numbers. Tbey shall be selected the following categories of citizens: 1 j bishops and BUhops of the State. 3. The F dent of the Chamber of Deputies. 3. Depi after having 8erve<i in three LeKialatutw after six years of membership in the Chaml* Deputies. 4. Ministers of State. .'5. tjecreu to Ministers of State. 6. Ambassadors 7 voys Extraordinary after three vinr^ of . service. 8. The First Presidents'.! t\K Cn of Cassation and of the Chamber of Accou 9. The First Presidents of the Courts of Apt 10. The Attorncy-Oeneral of the Courts cif i sation and the Prosecutor-General, after years of service. 11. The Presidents of Chambers of the Courts of Appeal after tl years of service. 12. The Councillors of Courts of Cassation and of the Chamber of counts after five years of service. 13 The Tocates-Ocneral and Fiscals-Oeneral of theCoi of Appeal after five years of service 14. military officers of tfie hind and imval foi Willi title of general. Major-generals and n admirals after five years of active service In capacity. I,'). The Councillors of State s five years of service. 16. Tlie menil)ers of Councils of DIvishai after three elections toti presiileney. 17. The Provincial Govirnoisi tendenti generali) after seven years of strr 1^. Members of the Iloyal AcHilcmy of .S-ie of seven years standing. "l9. Ordinnrv member tlie Superior Council of Public InstVuclion ai seven years of service. 20. Those who iiytl services or eminent merit have doiu' honor their country. 21. Persons who, for at le three years, have paid diri'ct propirtvoroccu tion taxes to the amount of 8,(KKI lire Article 34. The Princes of tlie Itovul Fait shall be memliers of the Si'iiale "riii v »1 take rank Inimeiiiately after the I'resiileni" Ti shall en'er the Senate at the age of twemjH and have a vote at twenty live. Article 35. The President and Vice Preside of the Senate shall lie appointed by the Kii but the Senate chooses fnmi anioTii; ||» inemt>ers it-s secretaries. Article 36. The Senate mav be < iin«tituiivl High Court of Justice bv decree of the Kl for judging crime? ,f high treason aii.l i\iitni| upon the safety of the State, also fur tryl >liiMsters placed in accusation by \\w fliailil of Deputies. When acting in this ciipndty, t Senate is not a political IhmIv. It shall rot III "iciiipy ilmdf with any other judiiial m«il( I ban tlmsi" for which it was convened: anyrli anion Is null and void. Article ;7. No Senator shall be iirrested e repi by virtue of an order of the S imte. iinle Incases of Hagrant commission of rriine T; Senate slutll lie the sole judge of the Impute misdenx aiHirs of lljt inemlKrH. Article 38. I.,<>gal doriiments ns 10 birtb marriages awl deaths in the Koval Family «lu be prest'iited to the Senate and deposiusl bj tti Ixsiy aiixng its archives. A'rticle 39. Th*" rhH-tiv- Chairi'-^ r i* •----tip^ of deputies chosen by the ek'ctorul collegei 1 provided bylaw. ['The election law loDg I force was that of Decemtier 17. Ifido. wbloli »i subsequently modified in .Inly l^T') sod I 57ti II CONSTITUTION OP ITALY. MiT, 1877. Id January, 1889, a compreheniire electorel reform wu inaugurated by which the electoml age quallQcatioa was reduced from twentyfive to twenty-one years, and the tax riliDcatioD to an annual payment of nineteen eigbty centesimi as a minimum of direct nies. Tills law introduced a new provision re- quiring of electors a Icnowledge of reading and writing. It is an elaborate law of 107 articles. The '-revisions relating to the elections by genei ticltet were further revised by law of Jl^v 1 .id deertc of June, 18b3. and the text of tc; wliole law was co-ordinated " ilh the preced- ing laws by Royal Decree of Septf inber 24, 1888. it was again modidcd May Stb, 1891, by the iboUti'.p of elections on general tickets and the creation 'f a Commission for the territorial dirisicin of the country into electoral colleges. Tbe number of elect- •*] colleges is at present fiieil «t 508, each electing one Deputy. Twelve trticies of this law of 1882, as thus ameutl d, lure li«en again amended by a law dated June 28, 1^193. prescribing further reforms in the cot- '.rol and supervision of elections, and by law of July 11. lfl)4, on the revision of electoral and registration lists." — Footnote.) Article 40. No person shall be a member of the Clianiber who is not a subject of the King, thirty vears of age, possessing all civil and political rit'lits and the other qualifications re- quireil by law. Article 41. Deputies shall represent tbe nation - large and not the several Provinces from which they are chosen. No binding instructions nav tlierefore Ik." given by the electors. Article 42. Deputies shall be elected for a ttrm of tivi- years; their power ceases ipso Jure ut the t.xplraiiiin of this iwriiKi. Article 43. The President. Vice presidents and Si-"\iarii 9 of the Cliambir of Deputies shall be ih(.a.|] frcini among its own nieniliers at the be- i'iiiiiiiiir of each session fur the entire session. Article 44. If a Deputy oeiises for any reason JTliMsiK-vcr to perform his duties, the electoral nilire tiiat cIhwc him shall Iw convened at once »|r.>((il with a new election. Article ^5. I>«>putles shall be privilecid from irTKt ■Innni; the sessions, except in oases of Ijitrant lonimission of crime; but uo Deputy mu ■ III. oriHi^lit to trial in criminal nnitters with- out till ]irevii>iis consent of the Chamber. Article 46. No wammt of arrest for debts may !»■ cxeeiited nfrainst 11 Deputy during the lessionsof tlft. Cliainlier, nor within a period of Iht\i' Weeks prei eiliiTg or following the same. I ■Tliis article baa lieen pnictlcally abolished by ihe Manrini law of Deeinilier 6. 1877, doing «Kiiy with [H-rsonal arrest for debts. "— Foot- null' ] Article 47. The Chamlwr of Deputies shall have |»nver to impeach Ministers of the Crown snd t„ liring them to trial before the High Court of .lusIilT. Article 48: Tlie sessions of the Senate pnd lliaiuthTof Deputies shall begin and end nt the anie tlnie, and every meeting of one Cusmber, «t a time when the other, is not In session, Is II- •(tal and its acU wholly null and vokl. A'*'''!* 49. Seiiaturs and Deputies befi.re en- leflng upon tbe duties of their office shall take uiosih of fideUty to tbe King and swear to ob- •trve fsi jfully tie Constltutron and laws of tb« BUI* tod to futam ttwir duties with tiia joint ^ R- CONSTITUTION OF ITALY, welfare of King and country aa the sole end In view. Article 50. The ofBce of Senator or Deputy does not entitle to any compensation or remuneration. Article 51. Senators and Deputies shall not be held responsible in any other place for opinions expressed or votes given in the Chambers. Article 52. The sessions of the Chambers shall be public. Upon the written request of ten mem- bers secret sessions may be held. Article 53. No session or vote of either Cham- ber shall be legal or valid unless an absolute majority of iu members is present [This article is not observed in actual parliamentarv practice. —Foot-note.] Article 54. The action of either Chamber on any question shall be determined by a majority of tlie votes cast. Article 55. All bills shall be submitted to committees elected by each House for pielimi- naiy examination. Any proposition discussed and approved by one Chamber shall be trana- mitted to the other for iU consideration and ap- proval ; after passing both Chambers it shall be presented to the King for his sanction. Bills shall be discussed article by article. Article s*. Any bill rejected by one of the three legislative powers cannot again be intro- duced during the same session. Article 57. Kvery person who shall have at- tained his majority has the right to send peti- tions to the Chambers, which in turn must order tliem to be examined lyr a committee; on report of the committee each House sliall decide whether they are to be taken inU) consideration, and if voU'd in the affirmative, they shall be referred to the competent Minister or shall be deposited with a Government Department for proper action. Article jS. No petition may be presented in person to ei.hcr Chamber. No persons except the constituted authorities shall have the right to submit petitions in their collective capacity. Article 59. The Chambers shall not receive any deputJition, nor give hearing to other than their own members and the tlinlsters and Com- missioners of the Government. Article 60. Each Chamber shall be sole Judge of the qualifications and elections of its own members. Article 61. The Senate as well as the Chamber of Deputies shall make its own rules and regu- lations respecting its methods of prooeilure in he (.trforniauce of its respective duties. Article 63. Italian shall lie the official lan- guage of the Chambers. The use of French shall, however, be perndttcd to those members coming from French sneaking districts an ' to other members in reiilying to the same. Article 63. Votes sl'mll lie taken by risii by division, and by secret ballot. The latter n^ uod, however, shall always l)e employed for t; j final vote on a law and In all cases of a personal nature. Article 64. No one shall bold the offlce of Senator and Deputy at the same time. Article 65. The King appoints and dlimlnes bis ministers. Article 66. The HInisten shall have no vote iu ellher Chamber unless they are members thereof. They shall bare entrance to both Cbambeni and must be heard upon request. Article 6f . The Miniiten shall be retpontible. Law* and decreeaof tiM (OTMumtnt thall not L I ri.iii ) ■ m V '■< f m^ CONSTITUTION OF ITALY. take effect until they shall have received the signature of a Minister. Article 68. Justice emanates from the King ami shall be mlniiuistered in his name by the Judges he apiMints. Article 69. Judges apjiointed by the King except Cantonal or District Judges (di manda- Juento), shall not be removed after three years of service Artirl- 70. Courts, tribimals .nd judges are retain. , at present existing, Xo modifica- tion shiL.i be intrcHluced e.\ce|it by law. Article 71. Xn one shall lie taktn from his ordinary legal jurisdiction. It is thcrcfurc not lawful to create e.\traordinary tribunals or com- missions. Article 72. The priH-i-edinirs of tribunals in civil cases and the hcarings^iu criminal cases shall l)e public as provided by law. Article 73. The intcrpri'tation of the laws, in the form obligatory upon all citizens, belongs exclusively to the legislative power Article 74. Conununal and provincial institu- tions and till' Ixiunilarics of the coninmnes and provincis shall lie regulated by law. Article 75. The military conscriptions shall be regulatiii by law. Article 76. A commimal ndlitia shall be es- tablished on a basis tixi^d by law. Article 77. The State retains its flag, and the blue ciH'kiide is the only national one. Article 78, The knightly order now in exist- ence shall U' maintained with their endowments, whii li shall not be used for other purposes than those specified in the acts bv whiiu thev were CONSTITtlTI' . OF JAPAN established. The King may create other ord and prescribe their constitutions. Article 79. Titles of the nobility are guar teed to those who have a right to thenj 1 King may confer new titles. Article 80. No one may receive orders tit or i>ensioDS from a foreign iwwer without 1 King's consent. Article 81. All laws contrary to the nroi ions of the present constitution are hereliv ah gated. Given at Turin on the fourth day of Mardi the year of Our Lord o le thousand ei-lit hi dred and forty-eight, and of Our lid -a 1 eighteenth. Traniitory Provisions. Article 82. This statute shall go int„ ,.ff, on the day of the first mwting of th.- Cliami,. which shall take place Immediatelv alter t elections. Until that time urgent pu'hli, «,rvi shall be provide<l for by royal ordinaiK ,-* , cording to the mode and form now in vnin ex<-eptin^'. however, the ratifications I ri-c trations in the courts which are froni nun- abolished. , *^t'.*'* *3- lo the execution of this slam the King reseives to himself the Hdit to ma the laws for the press, elections, conuuiinal mi tia and organization of the Coiiiuil nf siai I ntil the publication of the laws for the mr the regulations now in force on this .1 hif remain valid. ' Article 84. The Ministers are cntrusiiil wit and are responsible for the exi-cutini, ami li observance of these transitory provisions. This text of the Constitutioi . ailgatcd by the Kniperor, February 11, "H:^!) „„ » p„ui. idilet published jt Johns Kopk . .niversitv: Chapter I. Article I. Thi> Kinpire of Japan shall be reia:ne<l overand governe.l bv a line of Emperors unbroken for agj's eternal. Article 11. The Imperial Throne shall Ik- suc- ceeded to by Imperial male descendants, acconl. ing tothe provisionsof the Imiicrial IIousi' Law Article HI. The Emperor is sacred and in- violalih-. Article IV. The Emperor is the head of the h- :>ire, combining in Himself the riithts of sov- er. .^nty, and exercises them, according to the pnivisiims of the present Constitution, Article V. The Eiu|)eri>r exercisi-s the legis- lative power with the consent of the Imperial Diet, Article VI, The Emperor gives sam-tion to laws, and orders them to be promulgateil and executed. Article VII. The Emperor convokes the Im- IM-rial Diet, oiK-ns, closes, and prorogues it and dissolves the House of Hepresentatives Article VIII. The Emperor, in conseqiienco of an urgent necessity to maintain public safety or to avert public calamities, issues, when the ImixTial Diet is not sitting. Imperial Onllnances in the plaix- of law. Such Imperial Ordinances are to b.- laid iwf.-^ro tl,^ luiptria! Diet at its next session, and when the Diet drx's not approve the said Ordinanci-s. the Government shall declare them to be invalid for the future. CONSTITUTION OF JAPAN. 578 Article IX. The Emperor issues .ir cau* to be issued, the Ordinances neces,sarv f.jr tl carrying out of the laws, or for the iiiaiMi.-naii, of the public peace anil order, and for tli,- up motion of the welfare of the subjei-ts Dm t < Inlinance sliall in any way alter anv of the i.\i. Iiig laws Article X. Thi Emperor determines the u ganizatiou of the different branches of th.a. ministration, ami the salaries of all civil an military ofBcers. and appoints ami dismisses ili s.-iine. Exceptions especially provi.hil |,,r inth present Constitution or in otlier laws sliall lit i iicconlance with the rt-spective provi^inusd^ai ing thereon I, Article XI. The Emperor has the siiim>m command of the Army and Navy Article XII. The EmiHror'determim-s th organization and pea<T stjmding of th. .Vriiivam Navy, Article XIII. The Emperor declares war makes peatv. and concludes treaties. Article XIV. The Emperor proclaims !h( law of siege. The conditions and elTi-.i^of ihi law of sic)n- shall be determined by hi« Article XV. The Emi>eror <o'nfi rs title nobility, rank, onlers, and other marks of Imaor Article XVI. The Emjieror onlers amni-str pardon, commutation of punishment, and re habilitation. Article XVII. A Regency shall he institiit« In conformity with the provisions of the lnii»rii House Law, The Regent shall exercise the powers appertaining to the Emperor in I lis nsme. COXSTITUTION OF JAPAN. CONSTITUTION OF JAPAN. Chapter II. Article XVIII. The conditloiu Decenary for boin); a Japsneie subject shall be determineu by law. Article XIX. Japaoeie subjects may, ac- cording 'M qualiflcadons detemuned in law or ordinances, oe appointed to dvil or military offices equally, and may fill any other public Offi.TH, Article XX. Japanese subjects are amenable to MTvice in the Army or Navy, according to the provisions of law. Article XXI. Japanese subjects are amenable to the (liity of paying taxes, according to the provisions of law. Article XXII. Japanese subjects shall bare tlie liberty of aUxle and of changing the same within tlie limits of law. Article XXIII. No Japanese subject shall be arasted. detained, trie<i, or punished, unless ac- conliutr to law. Article XXIV. No Japanese subject shall be deprivolof his right of being tried by the judges iletennincd by law. Article XXV. Except in the cases provided for in the law, the house of no Junauese subject shall be entered or searched without his con- scut. Article XXVI. Except in the cases mentioned ia the law, the sicreoy of the letters of every Japaiii"*!- subject shall remain inviolate. Article XXVII. The right of property of fverj- Japanese subject shall remain inviolate. .Measures necessary to be taken for the public btnetit shall bi' provided for by law. Article XXVIII. Japanese subjects shall, within limits not prejudicial to peace and order. auil II' t antiigonistic to their duties as subjects, tuj'iy frcidutn of religious belief. Article XXIX. Japaneiie subj ots shall. within the limits of law, enjoy the liberty of spiTih. writing, publication, public meetings, auil a^soeiations. Article XXX. Japanese subjects may present petitiiins, by observing the proper forius of re- sp«i. and by complying with the rules specially pruviiliil for the same. Article XXXI. The provisions contained in thi' pnsint Chapter shall not affect the exercise o( the powers appertaining to the Emperor in timrs of war or in casi's of a national emergency. Article XXXII. Each and every one of the provisions eoiitained in the preceding Articles of the present I'hapter, that are not in conHiet with the laws or th ■ rules and discipline of the .\rmy ami .Navy, shall appiv to the officers and men of the .Vrmy and of the^avy. Chapter III. Article XXXIII. The ImperUl Diet shall consist of two Iloutes, a House of Peers and a Hnise of Representatives. Article XXXIV. The House of Peers shall, in an cmlancH; with the Onlinanee courerniiig the lliiise of Peers, be composed of the memlH-rs of the Imperial Family, of the ortlers of nobilitv, and ot those persons who have been nominated ;„t:rp:,-. ^,Y !}.(. Empcnir. Article XXXV. The House of Representa- tives shall be composed of members elected bv the people according to the proTiaioni of the Law of Election. Article XXXVI. No one can at one and the same time be a member of both Houses. Article XXXVII. Ever)- Uw requires the consent of the Imperial Diet. Article XXXVIII. Both Houses shall vote upon projects of law submitted to it by the Government, and may respectively initiate pto- i ects of law Article XXXIX. A Bill, which has been re- Iected by either the one or the other of the two louses, shall not be again brought in during the same sessioi Article \i^. Both Houses can make repre- sentations to the Government, as to laws or upon any other subject. When, however, such repre- sentations are not accejited, they cannot be made u second time during the same session. Article XLI. The Imperial Diet shall be con- voked every year. Article ^Lll. A session of the Imperial Diet shall last during three mouths. In case of necessity, the duration of a session may be pro- lougetl by Imperial Order. Article XLIII. When urgent necessity arises, an extraordinary ii"!«.ion may be convoked, in addition to the ordinary one. Tlie duration of an extraordinary session s'.all be determined by ImjKrial t)riler. Article XLIV. Tt opening, closing, pro- ioniration of session, and prorogation of the Im[M'rial Diet, shall be effeeted simultaneously for both Houses. In case the House of Heprc- sentatives has lieen ordered to dissolvi-. the House of Peers shall at the same time be prorogued. Article XLV. When the House of Hepresen- tatives has been ordered ti. dissolve, lueinbeta shall Iw caused by Iniperiid < 'rder to Im.' newly eleetetl. and the new House shall be eiinvcked witliin tive months from the day of 'lis.s(iluii<)u. Article XLVI. Nodebat"ean !» o|K'ned and no vote can be 'aken in either House of the Im- perial Diet, unless not less than one-third of the whole number of the mcmbiTS thereof is present. Article XLVII. Votes sliall be taken in both Houses by absolute majority. In the case of a tie vote, tlie President shall have the easting vote. Article XLVIII. The delilierations of both Houses shall be held in public. The deliberations may.liowever.upoudemaiidof theGoveniment or bvfesolutionof thellousi .bebeldiiiseenlsittini:. 'Article XLIX. Both House's of the Imperial Diet may respectively present addresses to the Empe'ror. Article L. Both Houses may receive peti- tions prewnted by subjects. Article LI. Both Houses may enact, besides what is provided for in the present Constitution and in the Law of the Houses, rules neces.sary for the management of their iutenial affairs. Article Lll. Xo menibei of either House shall be held res|xmsible outside the respective Houses, for any opinion uttemi or for any vote given in the House. When, however, a member himself has given pidilicitj to his opinions by nublic speecli. by docimients In printing or in iting. or by any other similar niei.ns. he shall, .:. the matter 'leamenable to the general law. Article ulll. The memliers of both Houses shall, durins the srswion, be free from aireiit, unless with iIk' consent of the House, except in cases of flagrant delict j. or of offences count cted with a sta of internal commotion or with a foreign trouble. 579 L I' n H ? ■-■ •^■^'! mi m CONSTITUTION OF JAPAN. Article LIV. The Mlniitem of Sute and the Deli-gate« of the Guvernment may, at any time talte scats and speak in either House. Chapter IV. Article LV. The respective Ministers of State shall give their advice to th..' Emperor and lie responsible for it. All Laws, Imperial Orilinances, and Imperial Hescripts of whatever kind, that relatr to the affairs of the state, re- quire the couutersignuture of a Minister of State. Article LVI, The Privv Council shall, in accordance with tlii' provisions for the orpaniza- tton of the Privy Council, deliberate upon im- portant matters of State, when they have been consulted by the Emperor. Chapter V. Article LVII. The Judicature shall be exer- ciswl by the Courts of Ijjw accordini; to l-,w in the name of the Emperor. The ori;aiiizutiim of the Courts of Law shall be determined bv l.iw Article LVIII. The judj:.ssha!lbe»p"point..d from among those who possess proper qualiti- catious accorriinjr to law. No judjje shall be deprived of his iH)sition, unliss liv wav of crimi- nal senteme or disciplinarv punishment. Uulis for disciplinary punishment shall be determine.1 by l;iw. Article LIX. Trials and judjrments of a Court sh.dl be conducted puliliiiv. When, liow- ever, there exists any fear that such publieitv niav be frcjudieial to pwice and unliT. it tii tli'e niaintenanee ,if piiliji,- nioralitv, the publir trial may be suspcndi-il liv provision of law or bv the diiisiim or the C.iurt ..f l,;iw. Article LX. All uiatt.rs tli;it f;,|! wi-hin the competency of a spieial Court shall be siK-eiallv providiil for by law. ^ Article LXl. N'o suit at law. whiili relates to n-liis all.L.'ed to have been infringed by the lejal measures of the exeeiitiv,> aiitlioritic s" and whh'h shall eoiiie within tin- e.nnpeteney of the Court of -Vcliiiinisiralivc Litiirati est.ahlisheil by law. shall be taken e by a Court of i^iw. Ml specially 'guiiauee o'f Chapter VI, Article LXII. The imposition of or till- luchlirie.ition of the rates .of ai one, shall lie .leierriiined bv law. Ho sueh admiiiistraiive feesor oihen-eveniK ni'W ta.x exisliii:.' ever, all liaviiu: the iialureof conipiMifjition shall not fall uitliin the eatejr.iry of the above elausi-. The raisin ' of national loans and the contracting- of oflierlii bilitiestotheeharu'e of the N'atio;,;,| Treasiirv exrept those that ar.> proviMnI in the H<ul",'t shall rei|iiire tln^ consent of the Imperial Diet ' Article LXIII. The taxes l.vi,,! at present sli all, in S.1 far as thevar.' not rem.»lelle.| bv new law. be co,,eet,sl aeconlini: t.. the ol,l svsteni. Article LXIV. The,x,„.„,lit„reand revenue of the >tate re,|ii,re the consent of the Imperial 1) et by imans of an annual Hudt'et. Any and all expenditures ..verp.ussirm the appropriations set f.irth in the Tilhs and I'ari!;raphs of the «udi,'it.or that are not providctl for in the Bud- get, shall subse(|uentlv reipiire the apnrobation of the Imperial biet. Article LXV, The Budget shall be first laid before the House of Uepn-sentatives Article LXVI. The expenditures of the Im- 580 CONSTITUTION OF JAI'A.V perial House shall be dcfra-ed everv veir the National Treasury, ace .-ding to the r axed amount for the lame, and shall nut , the consent thereto of the Imperial Di, i ,. in case an increase thereof is found iicdssn Article LXVII. Those already live.iT dilutes based by the Constitution upon ||„. ers appertaining to the Emperor, and «u( pcndituri'S as may have arisen bv the c ff, law or that appertain to the legal" oblieati, the Government, shall be neither reje.ieil „ duced by the Imperial Diet, without the c„ rence of the Government. Article LXVIIl. In order to meet speci quirements. the Government niav ask the c„i of the Imp«"rial Diet to a certain aiiH.iint ( ontinuing E.vpeuditure Fund, for n mm, fixed number of years. Article LXIX. Inonlerlosupplvdilicin which are unavoidable, in the Budm t ii, meet reqiiin-ments unprovided for in the « ,, Keserve Fund shall be provide<l in tl:. Biu'l, Article LXX. When the Imperial Hiet not be convokisl, owing to the external r ii nal condition of the country, in case of ur 11(1^1 for the maintenance of public safctv Government may take all neces.sarv tiiia' mciisures, by means of an Imperial Onlini In the case mentioned in the pri cedinL' (K tne matter shall be submitted to the Inn, Diet at its next si'ssion, and its approbations be obtained thereto. Article LXXI. When the Imperial Diet not voted on the Budget, or when th ■ lii,) has not been brought into actual existeim Government shall carry out the Budiiet et pn-cedini; vear. Article LXXII. The final accoimi ,.' cxiienditurcs and nn-enue of tin' .stale -li,i; verified anil <-onfirnicd tiy thi Hoanl ,1 \;„ I and it shall 1h' submitted"tiy the (ioveniniii' ' the ImiM'rial Diet, together with the r. i,..rt ' verification of the .said lioanl. The or-.mi/r I and competency of the Board of Aiulft -l,;,l| I determiui'd by law separately. Chapter VIL Article LXXI II. When it has l^-eonie mr I sary in futiin.' to aim-nd the provlsi.ms .if • pres.'ntC(mstitiition, a project toiliai etfrttsli be submitt.-d to the Imperial Di< t by In, jut Order. In the above , .,,se, iieiilier If iim- e o|vn the debate, uiilcs m.t less ihau iH,.!liir ot the whole numlK-r of members an' prisrt and no amendnieiit can be passeil unless „ n jontyof not lessthan two-thirds ,,'f th. iiemlK lircsent is obtaiiie.1. Article LXXIV. X., nio<liticaii..n ..f •! Imperial Ibm.s.' I.a« shall !..■ rcjuind h>U-.:: niittc-il to the delilieration of the Imperial fii, No pr.ivisioii of the present Con.stituti.'ii ran 1 nnslifi.-d bv till. Imperial House Ijiw Article LXXV. No m.»|itlcati..n can 1* i: tri<lMce(l into the Constitution, or int.. thelniji rial House Law. during the time of a Hix'en.T. ArtK ie LXXVI. Existing legal . naetim-iit such ii-s laws, n'gulations, orilinaiins, ur h whatever names they mav be callnl. sleiil. so f. ■A.t they do iK-l cinllict with thr pr, .,. hlC.i.itit; tion, continue in force. All existing cntractsc orders, that entail obligations ui>on the 0.}ven inent, and that are connected with ex|«ri(litiii shall come within the scope of Art. LXVIL CONSTITUTION OF JIEXICO. CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO. CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO. The following tnuiBlatcd text of the Constitu- tionof Mexico i» from Bulletin No. 9of the Bureau o( the American Republics, published in July, 1891: Preamble. — In the name of God and with the authority of the Mexican people. The reprewn- lativfs of the different states, of the District iinii Territories which compose the Republic of Mexico, called by the Phin priK-lainied in Ayutla the 1st of .March, 1H54, amended in Acapuico the nth (lay of the same month ami year, and by the summons issued the ITtli of October, 1B53. to ivnstitute the nation under the form of a popular, rfpriscntative, demi*'nitic rcjiublic, exercisin); the powers with which they are invested, comply witbllie n'(|Uirement8of their high office, decree- iue the following political Constitution of the .Mixicin Ripiitilic, on the indestructible basis of its Itfiiiniate in<ie|>endence, proclaimed the 16th of Stptfinlier. IflU, and completed the 2Tth of Seplt'iulKT. IHJl. Article i. The Mexican people recognize that the rights of man are the basis and the object of social iiisiimiinus. Consequently they dechire that all llu- hiwsand all the auihoritiis of the country iiiu>t r(•^|)ect and maintain the iriiarantecs whiih iliv pnsint ('crn^tituti<l^ establislie Art. 2. In the Republic all are Ixr Sl;ivrs who s*-t f<M>t upon the national iMfviT, tiv iliat act ahme, tluir lilnrty, ' »ri:;ht to the protection of the laws. Art. 3. lii-truction is free The law slinil ilelirtiiiiu'what professions n -luiroa diph»niii f'T Ibi irr\( riise, and with what recjuisites they must bci-MUil. Art. ^. Kvery man is free to adopt the pro- ffs\i< II. iniliislriiil pursuit, or occitpatiou wiiicli suissiiijii. the sinie Ikmiil' us. ful ami huunnililc. au.l li I av;iil himself of iis |.i.»luit.s. Nor shall any vur U' hindered in the e.\iToisi' of such pro- ft'.i'>ij. iiKlustrial pursuit, or oci-upation, unless I'V ju'li( ial siutence winu such e.\ercise atiaiks the ri;:litsof a third parly, or bv i;overnmenial n'solulion. die talcd in terms w hi. Ii tlie law marks out, whin it oll.iiils the rit'hts of s<.iiety. Art. 5. No line ~hall !«■ olili::iv| to give per- s.iii;u -ervices nithout just compensation, and with iiit liis full consent. Tlie si.ite sliaH '-it jm r- mit any efinlr.ac'. pait. oraL'reement !•. '.learrii d int.nllVit HJiich has for its object theuiinimilion. li'ss. (ir ii revocable sjicriliie of the liUTiy of man. whi'lier it lie for the sake of lalior, education, or a rt iiiritMis V4,^v. Tlie law, ctni.s«.ijm-ntly, mav U"' rn'iriize monastic orders, nor may it larmit th. ir istahli.shment, whativer may bo liie lie- ii'iiiiiuaticn or c.lij.vt with which they 1 laim to !«' f"nneil.* Xciilier may an agreement !»• per- iiiitt.il in which anyone stipulates for liis pro- strii.iiiin or liauishin'ent. Art, 6. The expression of ideas slndl not be theelije.t of any judicial or adniin'sirative in- <liii>iiii 11, except in case it attacks morality, the riirlita i,f a third party, provokes some crime or misiltuuaiior, or di.stiirlw ^.tblic onler. Art. 7. The lilnrty to write and to publish writinirs on any subject whatsoever is inviolable. >••! !:iw cr sDThority sImH tr-tabii=h previous ccn- ^"re, uiir reijuire security from authors or printt rs, * Tlii« wntTOce » u Introduced Irto the original art k-le »pt,.mbM aj, i>n, with other lew Important nueud- melit«. nor restrict the liberty of the preee, which has n« other limiu than respect of privati; life, morality, and the public peace. The crimes which are committed by means of the press sliall be judged by the competent tribunals of the Federation, or by those of the SUtes, those of the Fe<IerBl Dis- trict and the Territory of Lower California, in accordance with their penal laws.* Art. 8. The right of petition, exercised in writing in a peaceful and respectful manner, is inviolable; but in political matters only citizens of the liepublic may exercise it. To every peti- tion must be returned a written opinion by the authority to whom it may have been addressed, and the latter is obliged to make the result known to the petitioner. Art. o. No one may be deprived of the right peacefully to assemble or unite with others for any lawful object whatsoever, but only citizens of the Republic may do this in order to' take part in the political affairs of the country. No armed asM mbly 1ms a right to delilterate. Art. 10. Every man has a right to possess and carry arms for his security and legitimate de- fence. The law shall designate what arms are jirobibited and the punishment which those shall incur who carry them. Art, II. Every man has a right to enter and to go out of the "Republic, to inivel thro.'irh its territory and change his residemc. without the niiessityof a letter of security, passpi'rt, safe- condiici. or other similar rctpiisitc. Thi exercise of this riiilit slial! not prejudice he legitimate faculties of the judicial or udmiiiislrative au- thority in cases of criminal or civil responsi- bility. Art. 12. There are not, nor shall then' be recognized in the Hepublic, titles of nobility, or |ircrogatives. or hereilitary honors. Only" the I pie. legitimately represented, may decree reconiiienses in lionor of those who may have rcnilcpd or may render einiueut services to llie country or to hiimaiiily. Art. 13. In the .Mexican Republic no one m.iy be ju.lcedby spe( ial law nor by special tribnnaN. No p< isou i>r corporatioti may have privih 1:1 s. > '■ enjoy emoluments, which are not conipt ii^a- Ii- .11 for a public service and ari- establish. -I by law. .Martial hiw may e.\ist only for crim.-s auil olTences which jiave a ilclinite connecti. 111 with military discipline. The law shall determine with all clearness the cases include.l in this ex- leption. Art. 14. No niroaciive law shall be enacted. No one may Ik- jinU'id or sentenced e.\ccpt In- laws made prior to the a.'t, and esactiv applica- ble to it, and by a tribunal w hicU shall Lave been previously estalilislieil by law. Art, 15. Treaties shall never be made for the . .vtra.litiou of political offen.lers. nor for the ex- tra.iili'iEt of those violators of the public order who may leivu held in the country where they committed the olTitice the position of slaves; n.ir airnt-ments or tnati.s iu virtue of which may be altered the guarantees and rights which "this Constitution grants to the man and U> the citizen. * This article was amended May IS, 1S3S. by Introducing the last Kfnleiiee as a subfiUtuTe for the foUowinic : " The erimes .>f the pretM shAll b« judsed by one jury wbicfi at- XvstM the fact and by another which appUas thd law and dtial^sattis tho punlHUneBl." 581 I i It I r I 1 ' -; CONBTITTTION OF MEXICO. Art. l6. No rne may be im.leited in Us pcr- •on, family, dumictle, papc rs and poaaessions, except in virtue of an order written l,y tlie com- petent autliorily, wliicli sliiill eaUblisli and as- siirii tlie legal ( i ise for the pnx-eedings. In the cane of in flagrunie delicto any person may ap- prehend the offender and his accomplices, placing them without delay at the disposal of the nearest authtirities. Art. 17. No one may be arrestc<l for delrts of a purely civil character. No one may exercise violence in order to ri'claim his rights. The tri- bunals shall always Iw prompt to ailmiuisUr justice. This shall lie Rratuitous, judicial costs beiu»5 conseiiucnlly alH)lished. Art. 18. Imprisonment shall take place only for crimes wliiili deserve corporal punishment. In any state of the process Ju which it shall ap- p<!ir that such a pimishment mJKht not \k im- pcis< cl up.)M the accused, he shall be s<a at lil>t'rty uiiiler bail. In no case shall the imprisonment or ilitentiou 1k' prolonged for default of payment of fees, or of any furnishing of money "what- ever. Art. 10. No detention shall exceed the timi of three days, unless justified by a writ showing cau.se of imprisonment and other reiiuisites whieh the law establishes. The mere lap»e of this term shall reniler responsible the authority that orders or consents to It. and the agents, ministers, war- liens, or jailers who exi-cute it. Auv nudtreat- ment in the appri'hension or in the confinement of the prisoners, any injury which may !«• in- ttlcUHj without Ileal gnmnd, any tax or cnrilri- bution in the prl.~.»<, is an abuse which the laws mu.st correct aud th. authorities severallv punish. Art. JO. In every 1 riininal trial the accused shall have the folliiwini; guarantees: I That the griiiinds of the proci ediiigs and the name of the ariusir, if there slialllK'ime, shall lie made known 111 him. II. That his pn^paratorv declaration shall Ih' taken within forty-eight hours, counting from the linu' he mav W placed at the ilisiMBal of ilie judge. III. That he shall !»• ci.nfnmted with the wllnesses who testify against him. IV. Tliat he shall lie furnished with the data which he nnuins and which appiar In the pMi-t'sg In onler to prepare for his defence. V. Tliat he shall be heard In defence by himself or by coun- sel, or by lx)lh, as he may desire In i'as<' he should have no one todefen Ihini, a list nf tiilldal defenders shall U' presented to him. in order thai he may choose one or more who mav suit him. Art. ai. The application rf penalties pMiHTly so called Ixliings exiluslvely to the jiidieial an thorily The piililiialor.ulndnlstralive aulhori lies may only im|H>sr fines, at e.irr>clion. tu the extent of live hundriHl dollars, nr imprisonment to the extent of one month, In the caws and man ner which the law shall expresslv delermiui' Art. aa. I'unishmcnU by mutilation sml In faray, bv branding, flogging, the tmstluado, tortun- of whatever kiml, excesalve Hues confis- caiion of pMperty, or any other unusual orextra- onlinary |>eiutlties, shall lie forever pMhIMteil Art. aj. In onler to abolish the |H-naltv of lii'iilh, the ailminlslretive power laeharKinl loei- t iblish, as BiK.n as |»wsible, a |>enltentiary system In the meantime the ju nalty of death shall Iw alsilisbed for |>olitieal oltinees, and ihall not lie e>ti-iu|eii to other eases thsa lrt-*s.--i! d'irlrtg fi>f Jlgn war, highway n.bUry. armin. parricide bomlcWe with trcach«Ty, preiuedlutiou or ad' n ' 581 CONSTITUTION OP MEXICO. vantage, to grave oilencea of the milltarv 01 and piracy, which the law shall define Art. 34. No criminal proceeding mav 1 more than three instances. No one shall [« t twice for the same offence, whether by the ii mcnt he be absolved or condemned. Tin- n tice of absolving from the instance is ahulisl Art. 25. Seafed correspondence wlii,h cii lates by the mails U free from all registr%- ■ violation of this guarantee is an offence wl the law shall pun^^h severely. Alt. a6. In time of peace no soldier nmv mand quariers, supplies, or other n'aliirpif« service without the consent of the prupriri,,r time of war he shall do this only in the man prescribed by the law. Art. 37. Private property shall not In- propriau-d without the consent of tl nmr cept for the sake of public use. and wiih pri-vii imlenmlflcatlon. The law shall delirmiu, ih,. thority which may make the apiiroprinlion » the conditions under which it may !»■ chit out. Xocorporation, clvilorecclesia'Mi,,il wl, ever may be its character, denominMiun. .ir 1 ject. shall have legal capacity to aiiniin^ in i. prietorship or admiid.^ier for itsilf n -il i-«t, with the single exception of edifices di «tiuiii'i meiliately and din-ctly to the si-rviee nu.l olii( of the institution.* ' Art. at. There shall lie no nioncip,,|i,.s 1 places of any kind for the sale of privileirid t... nor prohibitions under titles of pruli. ti.,ri to i dustry. There shall be i xeepteil imlv i' ,,, .i. live to the coining of money. t„ ihu ii"iiiil.». ai'd the privileges which, for a limited tiin, . iln- l,i niay concede to inventors or perfectnrs .rf >.* inipMvemeul Art. 39, In eases of invasion, grave ilismr anceof the imlilie jieace, oranv other i,im-««Ii;i siK^ver which mav pliu^e siK-ietv in gn mI i1:u. • or eonlliil, only the President of ili,- U, piilili, ciiiicurrenee with the t'ouiicil iif .Miiii>i,n) at withthcapproliationof theCongressi.filieliitu and. in the recess theriKif, of the |k rmum nt ili in tation. may susiHnd the guaraiitns i-iaMi.li. by this Constltuthin, with the cxiepliuii cif iIub which assure the life of man; but surh susi»i Sinn shall be made only for a liiniieil tirm li means of general nrovlsiims, and wiiliciit tmo Umlteil to a determined penon I f t lie «ii«|ieusj<i should take place during the M-ssimi ..f ( ■,mim (his iHsly shall cnnceile the »ulhori7jiti..u« »lilc, it may eslerin necessary In onlir lluii iIm- Kutu tivc may meet pro|K'rly the sltuati.in If 11, susiHiisiiin should take place ilurin>: tin- nrw the iMTinanent deputation shall iouvnk.ilii(i.ii gress without ilelay In onler that ii iimv nuki the authorizations. Art, 30. Mexicans are— I. All 'li'w Nra within or without the Hi'publle, nf M. »lian |«ir ents. II, Kori'lgnera whoari'naMirali/iil Innm formily with the laws of the Kediniii.,ii III Foreigners whoacouire real estate In Ih.' l[i|iulJn or have Mexiimn cliildren; providiil ilu-v Ai W manifest their molutinn to preserve ilairnslitni allty Art. Jl. It Is an obligation of everj-.Mixlinii- I To defend the indetN-niienre. III. i' rnt.irr, Ihf himor. the rights and InteniiU u' i.i- i..iintrv II ToiimlHImtvforthe public ts!^.;:=5 -sKfl! ofUeFVdCTatlon aaof the t«Ute sud iiiuiilil|itlity •Im Arttcl* I of AddlUoM lu Um (.XwUtuUga CONSTITXrnON OF MEXICO. CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO. in which he reside*, in the proportional and equi- Ubie manner wliich the laws may proTitle. Art. 33. Hezicans sliall be prelerred to (or- cignera in equal circumstances, for all employ- menu, charges, or commissions of appointment by tlw suthoriues, in whicii the condition of citizen- ibip may not be indispensable. Laws shall be is- (uedti' improve the condition of Mexican la borers, icwanling those who distinguish thtmselves in toy science or art, stimulating labor, ami found- ing practical colleges and schools of uru and tnuU's. Art. 33. Foreigners arc those who do nut po88i'98 llic qualifications detemiim'<l in Article SO. Thi'y have a right to the guarantees estab- liiiiwl liy . . . [Articles 1-2BJ of the present Con- stitution, except that in all cases the Guvenimeut hutbe right to expel pernicious foreigners. They tK under obligation to coutributv to the public eilwDM'!! iu the manner which the luws may pro- Tiile, and to obey and respect the institutions, Isws, und authorities of the country, subjecting tbemst'lves to the Judgments and sentences of the tribunals, without power to seek other protection than tbut which the laws concede to Mexican citiU'ua. will!, Art. 34. Citizens of the Republic arc all those lianng the quality of Mexicans, have uImi tlif following qualitications: I. Eighteen yinrs of «>:i' if married, or twenty -one if not murriid. II. .\tt houcKt means of livelihcHHi. Art. 35. The prewgatives of the <ilizen are —I. Tu vote St popular elections. II. Tlie privi- lege of iH'ing Toted for for any ofHre sulijtct to popular election, and of lieiug selected for any oUier employment or coinmission, having the quaiiticationiicstaliliiihcd liy law. III. To asso- tiate to dinciiits the political aSalrsof the country. IV. To lalie up arms in the army or iu tlie u'a- tioual guard for the defence of the liepublic and iuin!itiluti(ms V. Tu exercise iu all coses the riglit of [it'tiiinn. Art. 36. Everv citizen of the liepublic la under the following obligations: I. To be inMribed (m tlie niuiiiciiml roll, stating the property whi> li Iw has. or the Industry, profession, or labor by vliich be Kiilmisls. II. To enlint in the national (uani. IU. To vote at popular elertiuns iu the (li«lriit to which he belongs. IV. To discharge llie tlullia of the olHces of |>opularelectiou of the Fnli-ration, which In noease shall be gratuitous. Art. 37 The character of citizen is lost— I. Br iiatunili/atlon In a foreign country. II. Uy KTving ollltially the government of another couii- trToramiiiing its drcoratiims, lilies, oreinplov- mmiH nitiiout previous pemiiiuion from ifie IVIcral t'ongnss; excepting literary, scliutiUi , sni! huinaiiitariau titles, which may Vie acceptol fnrlr. Art. 38. The law shall prescrilie the casi>a and tlw form In which may lie lost or sus|ieuiieil the riitliu of cliiicnsldp and tiie manm'r in whicli thfV iiuy Ik' regaim'd. Art. jg. Tlie national sovereignlT n-aidi'a fa- Mtially ami originally in the |MH>plc ' All public powfrimaimli'sfnim thi' (x'ople. and iainntitiitnl for iliiir Ih iM'Ilt. The pvople have at all times tlw iiuiliiual)!). right to alter or modify the for • "f Ihdr government. Art 4a T M?jlrari propk Vulualarilr cun Mliute ihemK.es a demortmtic, fedemt. repre- irnutive r< t>ubllc, compuied of Hlstes fit* and •ownigu iu all that cooMnH their latvnuU (or- emment, but imited in a fedetation established according to the principles of this fiudamental law. Art. 41. The p<~ople exercise their sovereignty by nieanii of Federal olticers iu cases lielonging to the Federation, and through those of the States iu all that relates to the Internal affaire of the States within the limits resjiectiyely established by this Federal Constitution, and by the special Constitutions of the .States, which latter shall in no case contravene the stipulations of the Fed- eral Coni|>act. Art. 4a. TheXationalTerritorycomprisesthat of the integral parts of the Fedenition and that of the uiljtttvut islands iu both oceans. Art. 43. The integral parts of tlie Federitlon are: the States of Aguascalientes, Colinm, Clda- piis, Chihuahua, Durango, Guanajuato, Uuerrero, Juliscti, Mexico, Michoacan, Xuevo Leon and Coabuila, Oajaca, Puebia, ()ueretan>, San Luis I'otosl. Sinoloa, 8<Juora, Tafiasco, Tumaiilipas, TIa.seala, Valle de ilexico, Veracruz. Yucatan, Zueatecaa, and the Territory <if Lower California. Art. 44. The StJites of Aguascalientes, Chia- pas, Chihuahua, Durango, GuerriTo, Mexico, Puebia, IJuereiaro Sinaloa, Sonor.i. Tamaulipits, and the Territory of Lower California shall pre- serve the limits wliich they now have. Art. 45. The States of Colinm and Tliiscala shall pre8«TVe in their new character of States the limits which they have had as Territories of the Federation. Art.'46. The State of the Vulley of Me.\lco shall lie fomietl of the territory uctmillv <om|i.i8- iiig the Federal Uistriet, but tiii' eri'ctlon inin a State shall only have effect when the supreme Federal authonties are removed toamitlier place. Art. 47. The State of Nuevo Leon ami Ciai- huila sliall comprise the territory which has lie- longed to the two distinct States of whicli it is now fomieil. exo'pf the part of tlie hacieiiila of lionaiiza. which shall be reiucorp<inited in Zaeate- CHS. on the same tenns in which it was liefore its iui'or|Hiration iu Coaliuila. Art. 4>. The States of Guanajiialo, .lulisco, Michoacan, t)ajaca, San Luis Potosi, Talinsco. Veracnii. Yucatan, and Zacatecos slitill neover the extension and limits which tliev h:i<i on the •Slst of IXiimlHT, \H.\i, with the alterations the following Article establishes. Art, 49. The town of Contepec. whi< h has lie- longed to Guanajuato, shall be incoriionited in Michoacan The municipality of Aliualulco, which Inis Is'longeil to Zacutecas. shall lie iueor- IMirated in San Luis I'oliwi. The municipalities of llJo'Cnllenleand San Francisco du los Adanies, which have Is-longi'il to San Luis, as well as the towns of Nueva Tlttsciila and San Amin-s del Teiil, whicli have Islougeil to .lalisiii, shall Ik' Iu- corpomtetl in Zaeali-cas. Tlie itepartinetit of Tuxpan shall continue to form a part of Vcm- cruz. The eanton of lIuinianKnlllo, whleh has Is'longed to Vi-racruz, shall lie iuoor|M>ralitl Iu Taisiseo. • •llmliln ilw twriitjf tour Hiatn whk'li af» mentiumal In tills «*<elion tlii-n' usth \w**u crMUtsl subMsiiitHitlx, »'■ ennliiiK to xxts-utivt* (Ircrw* lasum) ta atvomiiae*. wltli tin- ruuatiiiition. tliv r"ur fiiUowinit : XXV Tttst of t'smi»'4 Its, a^iaratwl from Yucatan XXVI tim; ..r r.Mi.t.tU. M4«uatM] riuu, ^t*.-»« ij^^m. XXVII TtislorHkUlcu, lnlMTlU<r)r'<ftlMa»-lnitHI«b> at Metleo, whicli fonwHl ttM ssoond mllltanr dlatnri XS VIII That <>r MneMos, In Mttton oho of the aaelMI ■ut« irf M«Uv, wUok turtM* Ito IkMBlliUirr dMtnst. 683 !! if i * •I CONSTITtrnON OF MEXICO. . ^:. 59- The supreme power of the Federation It diTlde<i for iu exerciie into legislative, execu- tive, and judicial. Two or more of these p<>wen shall never be united In one person or corporation nor the legislative power be deposited in one in- dividual. I ^'*' f'.T''* legislative power of the nation UdcjKwited in a general CongresK, which shall Ik; dlvlilnl Into two houses, one of Deputies and the other of Senators.* Art. 52. The House of Deputies shall be com- pose.! of represcnutives of the nation, eleited in their entire number every two years bv Mexican citizens. Art. S3. One deputy shall I>e elected for each forty t huusand InhabitauU, or for a f riicticm which exctcls twenty thousand. The territory In which the population is less than that detennined in this article shall, nevertheless, elect one deputy. Art. 54. Foreuch deputy there shall be elected one alternate. Art. 55. The election for deputies shall be in- diri'Ct 111 the lirst lleg^M•. ami bv secret ballot in the manner which the law Bhslfpri^rib*'. Art. s6. In onhr to he clljtilile to the position of :i deputy it is re<|Uire<l that the camliilate be a Mexinin citizen In the enjormentof Ms riglitit- that he k' fully twenty. rtve years of age on the day iif the opening of the se»»iun; that he lie a re»i.|eut of the State or Territory which makes the ilerilon, uikI that he lie not an ecclesiastic. HoidfiH'c is not loot bv absence In the dlwhargij i>f any public truiit iH's'towi.l by (xipular cle<iion. Art. 57. The positions of Dipnty and of Slim- tor lire iiicompatilile » iih anv Federal commission or ollice whatnoevcr for which u salary h received. Art. 58. The IVpiiilcs and the Siimtors fnim \Ur clay of their election to the duv on which th. ir trust isconcliiihil, may iiotaccejit anv com- mi»»i..ii..rolllc.. olfcr.d by the Federal fcxecu- tlve, for whhh a s.ilary ls"rcciived. except with the previous licenscof the r< >i|Hrtlve house. TIh- Mill.' re.|uifite» arc nee. s.Kary for the alteniat.'n of l>e|uiiiesan.l Siiai.irs when in the excniseof thiir fum lions A. The .Seual.' is coinpo*d .if two .Senators for each .Siale ami two for the Kisl- eral l»i.slrl.t. Th.' elecli.m of .Senators shall Ik- indirect In the tlrst decn. The U'trishiture of ea. 1 Mate shall il.< laiv , le.tcd the (KTHon who shall li ive .iliiaiiicil the alisoluii- majority of the Vnt.sia-t. or shall eliit from unioiii; thoM- who shall luive olitulmd Ihc relative majority in the manner which the . I.etoral law shall p'riwrllie for c»< h Senator there simll U- eli-cte<l an all.rn- ate, H. Vbf .Senate shall lie renewed one half every two v. ar- Th<' .S. milors iiam.d In th.' wcoud place sh.iil >;„ out at III.' . n.l of the Ami iwo )car«. and ihin-aftertlie hail who have held I'lnger, (', The shiii.' i|UuliIlcalionsiire niiiiired fora Senator as for a Ik i.iity, excpt that .if a;;.- whh h iiiiut lie at host thirty years on the day of the .tHiilinr 'if the sewiou. 5». The l»i.putii-sand Si-iiatorsare privi ' r..m arrest for their oplnhiin manlfMt.il in I-. rformaiice of their iluth's, «n.| shall never be Malile to !h- callnl to ac. auit for them Art. «o. Each house W A lu,|gi. of lUe eke tion of its meiiilH'ra, ami -liall solve 1 Willi h may arise regarding them CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO. Art. 61. The houses may not open their sm- slons nor perform their functions without vS presence in the Senate of at least tw., thirds ,»! fn the Hou« of Deputle. of more than Z-^, of the whole numhr of their members, hutth«P presentof oneor the other body must mw™ the day indicted by the tow and ..imHt^ attendance of abwnt members under r^asZ which the law shall designate. ** Art. 6a. The Congress shall have ea.li vat two periods of onllnary sessions: the first vM may be pron.guiKl for thirty days, shal'l 1^; on the l«th of September anj end oi nTm,") December, and the second, which may |». ml rogiied for fifteen days, shall biggin the Isf „f April and end the hist day of May Art. 63. At the opening of the sessions ,.f tU Congn« the President of the Vnio,, shall '* present and shall piwnouncc a discourse iiiwl,i,'h he shall set forth the state of the eounirv Tl,° ^ms " ""^ ^""^^^ »'"" "^P'y '"'ginml Art. 64. Every resolution of the Conjin-MfLall have the character of a tow or .Iccrec. Tlie ht, and drerees shall be communicated t.ithe E«.', / tlve, signed by the Presi.lentsof IkhIi Imuy,.,,! by a hecretary of each of them, «i„| shaii ,^ promulgateil in this form : "The Conjr,s,„f ,1., tnlted States of Mexico decrees:' (Text ,.t ,,', law or ih-cree.) Art. 65. The right U> inlttote laws or (Imt,,. Moiigs: I. TothePn-sidcntoftlu-l-„i„„ n To the Di'putles and fk-nators of the ir, i„ r ,1 ( „« gress. III. To the UgUtotnns ,if il„. >,,,,,,. the Hcipiil.llc, by the U-gislaluns of tl„ v,.<., or by deputations from the Mini.', shall iiav. jm' incdnit.ly to a committee. Tims, „l,i,h Ilw I K-putns or the Senators limy pnsintshilll,-, ill. J.'ct..l to the pnHvdure which tin- rules ,.f ,i,.|ov may pres< rilM'. Art. 67. Kvcry bill which shall W rei.,:,! a the Iliiis.' where it originated. In fun- i,:„.iu>. -, thclhcrhoiisi', shall n.il upiin lie pn„iiN.l fljr lug the wsjii.ins of that year. . Art. 6i. The second |«-ri<«l of s.ssi„u!i skj] IH- <h-stiii,H|. in all pnf.r. n,-,.. to the . .viii.ii«ti,.!i <if iiii.l a.lii.n U[>.in the estliumesof the i„||„i,i,. tiscal year, to i>iu»liig ihc ii.veMarv a|i|ir<.|,n4 tlons to .-over the some, ami to tlie'iviiuliaiinj the iloubts .'_I!!l."IWf^ '""" "' "^ *nielm «■• as foU.»i •• Th. tfmnMf. wkiek shaU be dfMMaslMiavl Ciin«re« o? tte If the a.-, ounts of the past year, which the tv, j tlvi- shall jin'M-nt. Art. 69. Th.- lust day but on.- ..f tin dr-t IHriisI of s,s,|,,nH the Kxcullvi- shall yp <nr u th.' Il.ius,. of I), pull.-, the hill of a|.|,r.|riiiii.iia f"r the ii.-»l y.-ar foHowing and li.e a...i lOts .f Ih.. pn-r.-.liiig year Ifcith shall pass |„ , omi. mltt,-,' of live Ib'pn-N-iilativcs »p(«.i„ie.| m, iL, satin- day. whii h «liall Is- und.r ol.l:,-riii,,ii ion iiinlm- mill chKuiiients, ami iiri sem a ^ imr) .a Ih.^ni III the siuiin.l m-ssIoii of the weoml |»ri..| Art. 70. The formatU.Hof the laws iii,|,.|!l» .Icini-s may liegin ln.lls«riinlnately ia . iikr if the two h.Mises, with the exception".. f lulls wind tn-«t of loans, taxes, or linixiats. or i.f the b- criililug iif tr.H)|)s, all of whi. h must Is- .liscuwl Urst In the House of Deputies. Art. 71. Every bill, theeimslderati..n..f»hiilj vTw"' I**""* exclusively t.) one .if ili. Ii..u«> shall liT iiiiM UmnhI sueueaairely iu t»iiii. me nn •>f ih-liaU' bring obarvetl with ^fi r. mi. t.. iIk form, the Intervals, and manner of pM.r<shB<ia diwuMloMaiHt voting. A A Mil hadim Uti 684 CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO. CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO. ippiored to the bouM where It originated, *h>U put for lt< diKiudon to tbe other house. If the Utter body ihould spprove it, it will be remitted to the Ezecutire, who, if he Bhali iiare no ob- wrntiona to main, sfaaU publiih it immediately. B. Every bill ihall be coniidered ai approved by the Executive if not returned with obeerrationg to the house where it originated within ten worl^. iag liars, udIvh durins tiila term Congreai (ball hare cloaed or suspended it* aesiiona, in which case the n'tum must be made the flret wortcins dav ou which it shall meet. C. A bill reiected whollr or in part by the Executive must be re- turiH-il with his obscrratlons to the house where It originated. It shall be discussed again by this body, ana if it should lie conHrmed by an absolute majority of votes, it shall pass again to tbe other bouw. ' 1 f by this house it should be sanctioned with the same majority, tbe bill shall be a law (ir iliTier, and shall be returned to the Executive fur |irt>mulgatioa. Tbe voting on the law or de- rnee shall be by name. D. If any bill should be rtjeiteti wholly in the house in which it did not oriinnate. it shall be returned to that in which it oriiiinalc'l with the observatiiins which the former tliall hari' inaiie upon it. If havlnir iiit'n examined ani'w it «hould lie approved by the aliaohite ma- jiiritr of the memliers present, it shall be naurned 111 the house which rejecte<l it, which shall UKuin t:ik'' it intiiconaiileratidu, and if it ahixihl approve it liy till' mime majority it shall pasa to the Execu- tjviv ti) he treatol in acconiaiu^' with division A ; tHit if it should reject it, it shall not be presented u.M until the following sessions. E. If a bill sh .iilil 1k' n^jicted only in part, or modideii, or ^H^irl' aii'litions by the house of revision, tbe ntn diw'ussion iu the house where it originated shall treat only of the rejected part, or of the umi'ndnients or additions, without being able to slur in any manner the articles aiiiirovej. If the al'liti'inAoranieiidnients made li> tlie house of ri'ii«i"ti sliiiuM lie approval by the absolute ma- J' rily "f llie voles presint iu the house where it ortk'inali'il. the whole bill shall l>e pusseil to the KmiuiIh', III lie treatvtl in aeconlunc-e with di vl-i.in .V Hut if the adiiitions or nnieiidnients lii.ilf liv till' housrof revision sboulil Ih' n-Ji-ctwl In the niaji'rity of the votes Iu the I'liuae where ii "tidnati d. they shall lie returmil In the former, i" •l^l^r iliut tlif n'ssiins of the latter iimy !»• '..vH into I'onsiileration: and if liy tlie alakilule roaji>riiy of the votes present saiil additions or aiiMiiiinnnts shall Ih- ri'jecteii in this second re VIM >n ilii' liill, in so fur as it lias U-en aiiproriil In Imlii hiMiM'B. sImII Im- passed toihe Kxerutivi'. 1.1 Is- in-niid In ncitmUiice with division A; but it 111! Ikiuw of revision shouhl insist, by the ab •■■liilf maj.irlly of the voU-s present, on said ad diii.insnr aiiii'iitliniiiis. thi< whole bill shall not Ik .u'alii iinaented until tlie following si'ssioiis. uiiI'Mlspih lioiisesagn-e by the absadute majority "I tin ir nitinlMTs presi'nt that the law or ilecrve tliall (v i«Mie.l mililr With the arlirlrs spuroved. iirt'l tliuf ilif |iaft» Mtlilisl tir anieiiiled siiall Im' n'- • rMd t'l Isexainlned ami vnUil Iu the fidlowiug »'»i"ii« K. In llie interpretalhm. ainriidment. '<' n |» al of the Uws or decrees, the rules estali- Iflu^l tor iluir formation shall be oliwrve<l lV.!li Imiivs iliall reside in the same phiiiv ami liii \ sliali not remove to anoUier without Brut «<f<i-iiii( lo thv removal and on the time and tmuu-t .if nuiking it. designating the same |iulnl l>r ihe iiMvtIug of both. But If both boutes. agreeing to the removal, should differ ai to time, manner, or place, the Executive shall terminate the difference by choosing one of the plate* in Suestion. Neither house shall suspend its sea- ons for more than three days without tbe con- aent of the other. H. When tbe general Con- gress meets in extra sessions, it shall occupv itself exclusively with the objector objects designated in the summons: and if the special business shall not have been completed on the day on which the regular session should open, the extra sessions shall be closed nevertheless, le.iving the point* pending to be treated of in the regular session*. Tile Executive of the Union shall not make ob- servations on the resolutions of the Congress when this body prorogues its sessions or exereises func- tions of an electoral body or a jury. Art. 7*. The Congress has ixjwer — I. To ad- mit new States or Territories into the Federal Union, incorporating them in the nation. II. To erect Territories into States when they shall have a population of eighty thousand inhabitants and tlie necessary elements to provide for their polit- ical existence. III. To form new Mtaies within the limiu of those existing, it being necessary to this end — 1. That the fraction or fractions which aslied lo tie encti-d into a State shall number a population of at li'ust one lumdred and twenty thousand inhabitants. 2. That it Himll be proved liefore Cougri'.ss I hat they have elements sulticient to provide for their piilitical existence. 3. That the Li'gislatunsof the States, the territories of which are l^' question, slmll have been heard on tlie t'X|M'diency or biex|)<ilieiiiy of the es''>blish- ment of the niw Slate, iiml tliey sliall be diged to make tbi Ir n'pi.rt witliin six months, counted fnini Ilii' d.iy on wlilili thi' <'ommunicaiion re- lating to it shall Imvr iM-eu remitted to them. 4. That llie Exi-cuiire of the Fi-denillon shall like- wise lie heard, wlio shall siiid his report within Bt^ri'ii days, couuii'd from the ilute ou which he shall have Im'cu asiiisl fur it. Ji. That the estab- lishiiunt of tlie new Slate shall have iK-in voted for liy two thiriN of tho Deputies and Senators im'stul iu thiir n vjiedive houses. B. Thai the resolution of l'oiii;n»s shall h .vc be<'n ratillwl by the luajority "f the U'gislalun's of the Slates, afler examining' a copy of Iho priKwilincs, pro- vided that the I,<'i:i'<latures of the .states whose lerritorvis iu iiuisii.ui shall have given tlieircon- s»'nt . If the Ucislaluns of the Slates whose territory U In i|iii'»iiiiii sliall not have civen their lonsini. the nil ill. alii. ii iiii iill.nieil in Ihepreced- luir elaiisi' iiiosi Is- m.iiie liy t«ii thirds of the l>ei;islatuns .if the .iihir Males .\ The exclu- sive puwers.if il» lli.ii«iif |)i |>ulie»an— I To eoiisiitute ilsi If all Kiel t.iral I idlege in onler to exercise the |i.>«er> whiili tlie law may tissiitn toil, in n'«|H'i I t.i Hie I III Ii. Ill of the I'onKliHi tional Pnsidi 111 of the Itepiililic, .Magistrates of the Siipnine t'..iiri, ami .NMialors for tile Federal IHstrici 11 T'l judjie ami decide U|h)n the res- iiCiittiiiHis which the i'resident of the Ih pulilic or the .Mai!i«iraie« "f liie Supreme Court of Jus- tlO' mar inalii Tin' »ame jmner Udongs to it iu treatlnir of lii'i'lis.i .. In ited br the Hrst ill. To watch over, by iinaiis uf an lns|iei'ting emu mituv from lis own ls»lv. liie exact |Hrforniaiice of the hllsitii.iuiif llie chief j^iiillUir«liin iv fn ap|«<liit Ihe prineliHil olllcers and other euiployis of the aanir v To conatttiite Itself a jury of I functlouaries of whom To \ acouaalhin, for the higli Artl«'le ma uf this Coiiatltutiou trrau 686 'I coNSTmmoN of Mexico. raamlne the accounU which the Executive mutt prewDt annumlly, to tpproTe the annual estimate of expeniet, and to IniUatethe taxea which in iu Judgment ought to be decreed to cover thrte ex- pense*. B, The excluiire poweri of the Senate ••«—«■ To approve the treaties and diplomatic conventions which the Executive may make with fortien powers, ii. To ratify the appolntmenU which the President of the Republic may malce of niinisfers, diplomatic arents, consuls-general superior employes of the Treasury, colonels and otlier superior officers of the national array and nnvT. on the terms which the law shall provide III. To authorize tlie Executive to permit the de- parture of national troops beyond the limiuof the KtpiiWic. the passage of foreign troops through thi- niitional territory, the sution of squadrons of (ithir powers for more than a month in the waters of the Republic, rv. To give its consent In onlcr that the Executive may dispose of the national ijuanl outside of their respective States or Terrilnries, determining the necessary forre V. rodeilare, when the Constitutional legislative anil excrutive powers of a State shall have dis- npiH-antl. that the case has arrived for appoint- Init to it a provisional Governor, who shall call ekTtii.ns in conformity with the ("onstitiitlimal laws of the sai<l Slate. The appointment of Oov- enior sliall U- made by the Fiwieral Executive with the approval of the Senate, and in its re- i cesses with the approval of the I'emianent Com- I mission. )inU\ functionarv shall not t,e elected i Constitutional Oovemor at the eleetlons which are lm<l In virtue of the summons which he shall l«ii,.. VI. To .leei.le political questions which may arise lietween the powers of a State, when any «S tliei-. may api^-ar with this purpow' in the Niiate. IT vi. -n on aiwunt of said (|Ue»tiiiiis f(in- BtituiiiitiH; <ier»liall have Iwen interrupteil diir- llii: ,-1 iMiitl .1 „f arras. In this case the .Senate shall iliiuile its ri'SdIuiion, Mng sulijeet to the gineriil ConMitiiiion of the Repiil.li,- and to that of iliiSi,iti', The law shall nifulalettieexenlse of iliiH |M,«(r anil that of the preieillntr vit Ti>r.iii»titiite itwlf a jury of tuilvment In acconl. anie «itli Artiile 10.^ of this Cnnstitiition C Eaih nl the hiMises may. withmit the interven. tioii (f the oilier — I. nictate iiiinomie resulu- tiimn relative to its Internal recinien ii Com- muniiHte within Itself, ami with the Executive of the I ni.in. hy means of ciimniliteeH fnim its own l«Hty. III. Apiwilnt the empli.ves of its wi niarvship. and make the internal ri'trulatlons fi't ilie same IV Issue summons for extnior- .lin.iry ilin-llons. with the nlijeet of Itllliiit the v.ii .1111 Us iif their re»|M-ctlve inemlK'rs |V To nvMl.u.. iletlnltely the limits ..f the Siaii-« ter- iniiiiiiiiif till' ililTereni es whli h mav arise l»-twei n thiiii n hitive til tlie demarcatlnnof their niiMii. ivelirrttMr|e.,,X(ept wlien thew illffli uiti, .Imve a n.iii, i,ilmi«rhameter V To ehanifc ilie rt»|. •Iiii. ent Hie .iipri'me powers of the Fnlenitii.n. M. r.M.tahlKlithe Internal onlerof the Feileral IHstriit ami Territories, takinir as a liasts that the eiii/eiis shall ehcsise liy pcipular election the |H.I Heal nni ilelpal. and Judicial aiilhoritles. and .le.tjtniitinir the taxes m-ci>«sary to cover tlieir I..aIeMHnillture VII Toapprovethecimates »f till- l-eileral exiiendlliire. which the Ex« utlve mii.l «n„„s!!v pr,.s.nt to !• ,r..! <.. iminM- fhr niysMry taxes In cover them. VIII To eive rule, under whirh the Executive may make I.Vans on the credit of the iiatlon , to approve siUd luaos CONSTITUTION OF .13X100. and to rea)gnlie and ordsr the payment of tin national deK IX. To ettabUsh uriffs on fo? clgn commerce, and to prevent, by means of general laws, onerous rertrictlons from beinir n! Ublished with reference to the commerce li tween the States. X To issue codes, oblint„„ throughout the Republic, of mines and commen? Kwnprehending in this last banking institutioM.' Al. To create and suppress public Feileral em plovments and to esUbfish, augment, or rtiminii the r salaries. XII. To ratify the appointmenu which the Executive may make of ministers ilio! lomatic agents, and consuls, of the hiirhir em ployfe of the Treasury, of the colonels ami other vff7*Z "*«■" »' 'he national army and narr AIU. To approve the treaties, contracts, or din; lomatic conventions which the Executive nar ""HK PI To declare war in view „f the lUii wnich the Executive may present to it JV To regulate the manner in which letters of mamu. may be issued ; to dictate laws accoittlnK to whici must be declared good or bad the prizes „n »» and land, and to Issue laws relating to maritime rights in peace and war. XVI. To permii nr deny the entrance of foreign troops into the ter- ritory of the Republic, and to conmnt to tbe station of squadrons of other powers for more ihin a month In the waters of the Repiililir XVII To permit thodepartureof national tri«u.s Wns\ the limits of the Republic* XVllI Tn'raije and maintain the army and navy of lii,. fnion vVl-''V*''"'"'* "*'■'' '"■g»ni««tioii an,! wrvin.' \l\. To establish regulations with the ii'iriviee of organizing, arming, and dlseipliniiiL' tlir na- tional guard, reserving n-»pectively tntl.iciiizeM who compose it the app<ilntment of the ii,niraaii.l ers and offlci'rs. and to the Slates the |ion,r nf I instructing it in conformity with the ilisciiilirif ; prescrilKiIby said regulations. XX Tirini-j consi-iit in onler that the Executive vm\ loninj the natiiinal guard outside of its riB|>ii live Slates and Territories, determining the iiiiivsary force. XXI. Todlrtale lawsonnatunillzaii.in. i.'.Ionira. t on. and citizenship XXII. To ilii i„i,. ];,«, uj the general means nf inmraiinicatioii :iii,| ,.ii tlie post-offlreand mails XXIII. Tiiestahli.limlnl! Hxing the conditions of their operation, to ,lri,r- inlne the value of foreign monev. ami .lImp! t ginenil system of wcighu and miiisun , X.XIV 111 fix nilea to which must lie suhiort iIh- .otu- patliin nnil sale of nubile lands ami the |,riff .if these lamis XXV'. To grant |ianlons for rrimn cogni/alile by the tribunals of the Kiil. mti.in. XX\ 1 Til grant rewanlanr recoiii|«ii«i> Tirimi- 'vv'.^r'''*'" "■"''''"■'''""'•■ <^""" " or Immanitv, -X.WII To pMnigiie for thirty "uorkini; il«i< llicllnit |«-rii«liif llsonlinarvs.'ssl.iiH X.WIIl To form riih- f .r its Internal n»tulaiion. to take the im-essary iiieasuo's to ciiin|N'l tin- iiiiiiiilaoiT of alwiiit memlM'rs. and to correct the fiinlin ..r omtasi.inB.ifthiMi- present. XXIX T.. «|.|«iiiit and remove fnt-ly the employes of lt< m , n larv ship and those of the chief auilitop.lilj., nhiih shall lie ..rgauizMl in acr.-nlame «itli lln- p^► vUiiins of the law. XXX. To make all Isw» wlileh mav lie necessary and pmiMT to rrmlrr effcflive the forrgoing ° powers ami ail olhen graiitiil hv this Coualllution and the aiithorilin of the I'nlon t • AmeikW by Htnina 11. Ckuse HI . AHklf n. o< ito law ,.f iiu. isth "f N.»railiw, IW4 • IW n«|>«iiiic this Artlrk- Uw mMiiIoim a n SKI !• « Artk'l* ni ti( tb> law .if tW IMk <■( Mortakw. tintir atd. 580 CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO. C0N8TITXJTI0N OF MEXICO. Art. 73. During the receu of CongreH there ■lull be a Permanent Deputation compoied of twenty-nine memben, of whom fifteen shall be Deputie* and fourteen Senaton, appointed by tlwir respective houiei the evening before the clow of tlie sesaiona Art 74. The attributes of the Permanent Deputation are — I. To rfve its consent to f lue of the national guard In the cases mentioned in .Article 73. Clause XX. IL To determine by itielf. or on the proposal of the Executive, after bearing him in the first place, the summons of ConjrrrM, or of one house alone, for extra sessions, the vote of two-thirds of the memlK-rs present beini necessary in both cases. The summons ibalf ileslgnate the object or objects of the extra iFWons. III. To approve the appointments which are referred to in Article 85, Clause HI. IV, To administer the oath of office to the Presi- dent of the Republic, and to the Justices of the Supreme Court, In the cases provided by this Constitution. • V. To rept)rt upon all the busi- new nut disposed of, in order that the l^^gislaturo whirh follows may immediately take up such nnllnished business. Art. 75. The exercise of the supreme execu- tive power of the Union is vested in a single iiKl!vitl\ial. who shall be called " President of the Vnited !<t»tes of Mexico." Art. 76. The election of Pri'sident shall be imlireot In the Urst degree, e'\i. '>y secret ballot, in nuch iniuiner as may be |-rt:scribed by the (lectiiml Inw. Art. 77. To be eligible to the position of President, the candidate must t>e a Mexii'iin cltl- wn by liirth. in the exercise of his rights. U- fully thirty-live years ohl at the time of the elt-c- tiiiii. not iN'long to the ecclesiastical onier, and mvU- in the country at the time the election is hrU Art. 78. The President shall enter upon the ptrfciniiiince I if the duth-sof his ottire on the first c>( iKrinilHr. mill shall ciuitinue in olllce four Tnim. I»ing eliirible for the I'lmstltutiopul |>eriii<l immi-ili;itely folhiwing; b,it he bIihII n-main in- mpalilr tlureiifter to iKi-ujiy the imwiiiency by i new I li rtiiiR until four years shall have passetl, fiiwniiiig from the day on which he cciuhiI to pert nil lii'< functions. Art. 79. In the temporary default of the I'rcsi- Hrtii "f till- Kepiiblic, and In the vacancy In-fore till- iiiMiillntion of the newly-clMti-d Pfesiilent, Iherili/in who may have m'rfornuil the Jiities of IV-KMent or Vlce-I'tesiclent of the .Scniilc, or III llie I'ermiiiHMt t'onimission in tlie perlodH of rHi"»i, iliiriiig the month prior to that in which Hill ilef;iiilt iHiiy have oceum'd, shall enter uinin thii\ini.<- iif the cxenitive power of the Tnion. k. The l're«hlcnt and Vlce-l'ninliient of the t*cn iltaii.li.f the Permanent Commission shall not he nfliriiil to those ofllces until a year after Ininnir In M them. H. If the period of sessions Kf Ihr Simte nr i.f the Permanent (.ommisslon tliiill 1. i;in in tlie WKimii half of a month, the ile!»ull .( tlie Pn-sident of the Krpubllc shall lie roven-il I.; the l>n'si(ient or Vice-1'resldrnl who msy luive »(HkI In the ttenate or in the Perma- otiii ( iininiiMhin during the Hrst half of the said ""•"" ' ThrHruatran.i Ihr Prrmiiiieiiil will- miKii.ii ,hiill nnew. the last ilay of each month. !*• ir l'n.iihni» and Vice-I*rBaldenu. Tor iIm-s* > AawntesM of aopiwBtwr ». IRI, Art 4. office* the Permanen. Commiision shall elect, alternatively. In one mantb two Deputies and in the following n-inth two Senators. D. When the office of President of the Republic is vacant, the functioii^ry who shall take i» constitutionally as his substitute must issue, within the definite term of fifteen days, the summons to proceed to a new election, which shall be held within the term of three months, and in accordance with the provisions of Article 76 of this Constitution. The provisional President shall not be eligible to the presidency at the elections which are held to put an end to his provisional term. E. If, on account of death or any other reason, the func- tionaries who, acconling to this Inv, should take the place of the President of the liepublic, might not be able in any absolute manner to do so, it shall be taken, under prcfletemiined conditions, b^ the citizen who may have been President or \ ice-President of the Senate or the Permanent Commission in the month prior to tliat in which thev discharged those offices. F. When the office of President of the Republic shall become vacant witliin the last six months of the constitutional period, the functionary wlio shall take the place of the President slntll terminate this period. O. To lie ellgilile to the position of President or Vice-President of the Senate or of the Permanent Commission, one must be a Mexican citizen hv birth. H. If the vacancy in the office of Presi- dent tif tlie liepublic sliouid occur whin the Senate and Permanent Commission arc perform- ing their functions in extra sessions, the Presi- dent of the Commission shall fill the vacancy, under conditions indicateil in this article. I. The VicePn-siilent of the Senate or of the Per- mamiit Coniniission shall enter upon the pcr- fomiuiice of the functions which this Article confers upon thciii, in the vacancies of the office of Presiilent of the .S-nate or of the Permanent Commission, and In the peri<Kls only while the iniirtMlinient last.s. .1. The newly elected Presi- dent shall enter U|)on the ilischarire of his liuties, at the latest, sixty days aft -rtliiit of theeh'clion. In case the llousi' of Deputies shall not Ik- in session, it sliail lie convened in extra s<ssioii. In onier to make the conipiitntion nf votes within the term nientiuneii. Art. 80. In the vacancy of tin- ulHcc of Presi- dent, the iM-riiHl of the new ly elected President shall Ik- coinpiitiil from the first of iMi enilxr of the year prlur to lliiil nf his election, provhiiii he may not have taki n pnsscssion of his office on the ihite wl ■ h .Vrlirlc TS ililerniines. Art. St. Thcoillciof Pnsiihiit of the Vnlon may luit lie reslcmd. ixccpt for grivc caim-. ap- proved by Ciinitri'vi, iN-fore whom flic resignation shall !«■ pnsciili'il Art. 82. If for any rias.111 t'le election of Presi- dent sirill nut have iKin niiule .ind published by the first of IHieiiilMT, m which the transfer of the oflice slioulil 1" iniiih', or the President-elect shall not have In en ready to enter upon the ills- ( harireof his duties, the term of the former Presi- dent shall (lid lie \ I rt lie less, and the supn iiii- cxi-tulivi |iiiwi r sliiill Ik- depositeil provisionally in the fiiiiiiliinarr to whom it belongs acconling to the ;ir'ivi»liins' of the reformisl Article 71» of thUC«!!M!!!!i!!i;!: Art. S3, The Pt4>si(h'nt, on taking poaaessiim of hU oftiie, shall lake an oath li<>fon< Congress, and In Its recess lN>f<in> the IVmmncnt C< mniis- sion. under the fulluwing formula; " I swear t« 587 '.Hi i pi f ?4'' CONSTITCTION OF MEXICO. perfonn loyally and patriotically the duties of Piwildent of the United States of Mexico, accord- ing to the Conatitution, and seek in everything for the welfare and prosperity of the Union. " • Art. 84. The President may not remove from the place of the residence of the Federsl powers, nor lay aside the exercise of his functions, with- out grave cause, approved by the Congress, and in iu recesses by the Permanent Commission. Art. 85. The powers and obligations of the President are the following : I. To promulgate ami execute the laws passed by the Congress of the Union, providing, in the administrative splure, for their exs' observance. II. To ap- point and remove freely the Secretaries of the Colilnet. to remove the diplomatic agents and sunerior employM of the Treasury, and to ap- point and remove freely the other employes of the Union whose appointment and removal are not otherwise provided for in the Constitution or in the laws. III. To appoint minisu-rs. diplo- matic agents, consuls-general, with the approval of Congress, and, in its recess, of the Permanent Commission. IV. To appoint, with the aproval of Cimgresa. the colonels and other superior offi- cers of the national army and navy, and the su- perior employes of the ta-asur)-. V. To appoint the othiT officers of the national armv and navv, ncconllnK to the laws. VI. To contn)! the pe'r- m.ment armed force by sea and laud for the in- t.-nml security and external defence of the Fed- enition. VII. To control the natio.ial guard fcr the same objects within the limits eslubliHliiii by ArtUle 72. Clausi. XX. VIII. To deihiri' war in the name of ilie United States of Mexico, after the passuige of the necessary law by the Congn-ss of the Union. IX. To gnmt letters of maniue. Bubjiit to iMises flxi-d by the Coiii:res..4. X. To iliriit iliplomatic iiegotintinns and make treaties with fonign jxiwcrs. sulmiittiiig them for the riiliticaliou of the Keileral Congress. XI. Tore ci'ive ministers nnd otIiiT envoys from foreijiu |M)wers XII. To convoke Congress in extra ms- 8ioii.< when till' IVrinanent ConiinU. ion shall con- sent to It XIII. To furnish the judiiiul jxiwer with that assistance whirh may Ik' iieeissary for the priini|>t exercise of its functions. Xl\'. To op<n all classi-s of ports, to e.stalpllsh niarilliiii> and frontier custDm-houses and disl^rnale ihi ir situation. XV. To grunt, iu nceurdamr with the laws, pardons to criminals seutenceil for <rimes within the Jurisill.tion of the Kcih ral tri luinals. XVI. To grant exclusive iirivilit'is. fur a lhnite<l lime ami aeconllnsr to the proper ia», I" discovinrs. inventors, or perfceters of any liranrh of iiulnstrv. Art. 86. For the dispatch of the business of till' adiiiiiiistmtive department of the Fe.lerillon tliiff shall lie the number of Secretaries whii li till Con cri'ss may establish by a law, wlii.li shall pr..vl,lr for the distribution of business and pn ■ scriU- what shall lie in charge of each .SH-relary. Art. 87. To In- a Secretary of the Cabinet It s n.|iilred that one shall U- a Mexican eitiien by l.irtli. Ill III., ixercis.' of his rights, anil fully twenty livr vi-ars old. Art. 88. .Ul thr n'gulations. decrees, and orders of the I'n slihnt must \w signeil by the h.'eretary of the Caliiiiii wl„, Is In charge of the deiiart- nirni i,i which the mhj.j-t ti..!..:.gi Wllhou! this requlsiU' they shall not lie obeyed ^Rw tbs Anmailnwtt ud Additlou of a^Mwiitar S, CONSTITUTION OF JfEXICO Art, 80. The Secretaries of the Cabinet u soon as the sessions of the first peri™l shall h! opened, shall render an account to the ConmM of the state of their respective departments " .1 ^?j'**- The exercise of the judicial [xmerof the Federation is vested in a Supreme Omrt n Justice and in the district nnd circuit ci.uns Art. 91. The Supreme Court of Justici. ,,w be compose.! of eleven judges, four su|« rniT cranes, one fiscal, and one attomev-gemral Art. oa. Each of the members of tli,. Sunivm, Court of Justice shall remain in office six y.are -Z his election sluill be indirect In the Hrit Av'-nr under conditions esUblished by the eleiinMll,! Art. 93. In order to Ik- electe.l a mimlierot the Supreme Court of Justice it is necis.s.irv ilai onelH" leariie.1 in the science of the law in the judgment of the electors, moiv than tliirtv-Sve years old, and a Mexican citizen by hinli in ,|„ exercise of his rights. Art. 94, Thememl)ers of the Supn ni. I ,,.« of Justice, on entering up<m the exen ixuf tlir- charge, shall Uke an oath iK'fore Coii-n** ani in its reo'sses, before the PermaneniC.mmissiin in the following form; " Do vou sw.ir 1.1 r,. form loyally and patriotically the char •. ,.f M ,- Lstrale of the Supn-me Court of JiiMi,,. ,i,i,"i, the people have conferral upon vou iiiioni.iniiir with the Coiistitutiiin, .s.-..kinit in eviTviliiiii:iiK 1 welfare .and prospi.rity of the liiioii ■• ' » I Art, 95, A menilH'rof the Siipnim. Ciurt.it i Justice niuy nsign his othce only lor i;r;in(ui„ I approveil by the Congri'ss. to vi'lionuhc n-,i' la- ! tlon shall lie presenteil. In tin- n.. ,■„,.< ,,f ,|^ , Congri'ss the judgment shall Is. nn.l. n.l !,v iIk j Peniianent Commission Art, 96, The law shall istalilish and orcauift j the rireuit and district courts 1 Art. 97. It Ix'lonL's to the Fi-il. r.il iriliuniiLito I take .■.n.'iiizaiiei' of— I. .VII c"nir..v..r«i.v wiiicii ; may ari..e in reganl to the tiiliilimiii .m,! m.'i. cation of the Fediral laws, i xci pt :ii line,,' in which the application airicts only privuir in- len-sts: such a case falls wiiliin tin' 1 |.,i,Kt of the liM'.'il judges and trilninals of !|„ ,,111.11 onliTof the States, of thr Ffihral Hisiri.l and of the Territory of b.wer Califoni,, H .U! cttsis tM'rtaiiiIng to niaritiiin- law 111 Tli.« In whiili the KiHliration may Iw u pirty IV. Tliosj' that may ariMlstwiiii'i woor iii'.ri' Slaw V. Thox- that may arise Imiwciii i Mali' and one or luori' citiiensof uiioilnr Si:ii. VI tivil or criinin.il nist's that iii,iy arise iiiuli r in iiirt wiih f.irei'.-n powirs. VII. Ciu-smrMirtiinj.-'lIp' loiiialie am Ills ami consuls Art. 98, it b. lolics to till' Supr.111. CliR.il Jiistiif, in ihe llrsi instance, to t,ik. . ..i'liiciiu* of coiitroyersiis whi,h may arisi' IstHni, .iiu State and anolliir, and of' those iu nhi.li lie Union niiiy 1h' a parly Art. 99. It ImIoiiu's also to the Siipnun ( ..i,n of Jiislii I' to deteniiiiie the ipii siioiis of jun«lii' lion whii'h may arise Isiwisn Ihe K. i.nl !P.' buiials. Isiwien thes«- ami ihox- ol iln sim™ orls'iwiH'ii till' eiMirtsof oiii- Siati- ati'l n. s .'1 anoihir Art. 100. Ill the otiicr rases coaipr. hcii'li'lio Artirli- UT. th,' .Supri-nii' Court of .lii.ii..'sl,alll» l| l-olirt of npp...i! ,'r, rrtliifr ::f la-:! r-.t^-.rt :i:~.".:rd- Ing to the giadiiatiiin wliii h the law inav iimki'll the jurisilii tioiiof Ihi' ilniiit and .lisirill miirti .'.S.S » AddltkHis Iu tli» l'>iul|iutk«. li)Tt<'ml>'r & l<n coNBimmoN OP mexico. CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO. Art loi. The tribunals of the Federation nhall decide all que«tion> which arise — I. Under laws or acta of whatever authority which violate in- diridual guarantees. II. Under laws or acts of tbc State authority which violate or restrain the giircrelgnty of the States. III. Under laws or aru of the State authority which invade the ipliere of the Federal authority. Art. 102. All the judgments which the pre- rniini; article mentions shall be had on petition lit the aggrieved party, by means of judicial iiiucMiiings and forms which shall be prescribed Iv law. The sentence shall be alwavs such as 111 affect private individuals only, limUing itself tn ilifrtiil iind protect them in the speciiil case to which the process refers, without making any pL-niT..! <li'claration respecting the law or act whiib pivc rise to it. Art. 103. The Senators, the Deputies, the mem- licre I'f the Supreme Court of Justice, and the S^n'taries of the Cabinet are resiwnsible for ihc cDminon crimes which they may commit dur- ing' tlii'ir tinns of office, and for the crimes, mis- iliWaiiiirs. and negligence into which they may fill in Ihi' |>erformance of the duties of said olBce. TIh' (Jiivirnors of the States are lilicwise respon- hIiU- fiir the infraction of the Constitution and Kiihnil Ihws The President of the Itepublic is al*p r*p<>nsible ; but during the term of Ins office he may 1h' accused only for the crimes of treason ai.'aiii.-t the country, express violation of tlie l.iustitution. attack on the freetlom of election. anil er.m crimes "f the common onler. The liicli fuiutii>naric'S of the Federation sluill not eiijov any('"Usiitutiooi|i privilege for tlie official crimes. miiaUnuaUMrs, or negligence int4i which they may fall in tin- |Hr(iirmance of any employment, "office. I r pMlilii' commission which they may have ac- (r|iinl iluring the |K'rio<l for whicli, in conformity niih the law, they shall have been elected. The Mine shall hap(>en with respect to those common I rimes which they may commit during the per- fiirnianci' of said employment, office, or commis- .M.m. In onlir that the cause may t)e initUted whin the high functlonarj- shall have retumeil imhe 1 xereise of his proiier functions, proceeding should lie undertaken in accordance with the pMvision of Article UH of this Constitution. Art. 104. If the crime should Ih' a common one, the llouse of Hepn^entalives, formi'd Into I );raud jury, shall declare, by an almolute ma- Jorily (if V(iti"s, whether there is or is not gMund M proceed against the accused. In the negative csM'. there shall be no ground for further pro- ceedings, in the afflnnativi, the accumHl shall lie, liy ihe .said act. deprived of his offiie, and •uiijecteil to the action of the ordiuary tribunals. Art. 105. The house* shall take cognizance of ntfli ial erinies, the House of Deputies as a jury iif aci iiaulion. the Senators as a jury of judgment. Till Jury iif accusation shall have for its object til ihilari', by an absolute majority of votes, » hi till r the accused is or is not culpable. If tlie ihi'larai Ion should be absolutory, the fuiic- ti.narv shall continue in the exenrlae'of his office ; if it ihiiiihl !»• condemnatory, he shall be imme- (liatelr ill priveil of his ulBce, and shall be placed ■I tile ilis|M»al of the Senate. The lalh'r, fonneil intiia jury of judgment, and, with the pieaence nf ih- ;r;tr,!!>ai Sir! of the socaser, if there should t* one. shall proceed to apply, l>y an alMolute nMinriir of Tot«a, tlM punlaUMnt which the law ile«i|fuites. Art. 106. A judgment of responsibility for official crimes having been pronounced, no favor of pardon mav be extended to the offender. Art. 107. "fhe responsibility for official crimes and misdet ^.eanora may be required only during the period in which the functionary remains in office, and one vear thereafter. Art. 108. W'ith respect to demands of the civil order, tliere shall be no privilege or Immunity for any |>ublic functionary. Art. 109. The States shall adopt for their In- tenial regimen the popular, representative, re- f)ublican form of government, and mav provide n tlieir respective Constitutions for the reelection of the Governors in accordance with what .\rticlc 78 provides for the Presiiicnt of the Republic, Art. no. The States may regulate among thenist'lves, bv friendly agreements, their re- spective boundiiries; but those regulations shall not lie carrieil into effect without the approval of the Con,i,'ress of the Union. Art. III. The States may not in any case — I. Form alliunc>es. treaties," or coalitions with nnolher State, or with foreign powers, excepting the conlitiou which the frontier States may make for offensive or defensive war against "the In- dians, II. Grant letters of marque or reprisal. Ill, Coin money, oremit paper money or stamped paper Art. 113. Neither may any State, without the consent of the Congress of "the Union; I. Es- tablish tormage duties, or any port duty, or impose ta,\es or duties upou importations or ex- portatious II, Have at anv time permanent triKips or vessels of war. III. .Make war by itself on any foreign power except in coses of invasion or of such inmdnent peril as to admit of no delay. In these cases the Statu sliull give notice iinnieiliately to the President of the Re- public. \rt. 11^. Each State is under obllgattou to .iver without delay the criminals of other States to the authority that claims Iheni, Art. 114. The Giivernors of the States are obliged to publish and cause to be obeyed the Federal laws. Art. 115. In each State of the Fi'deration en- tire faith and credit shall lie given to the public ai'ts, reconis, and judicial proceedings of all the other States, The Congri'ss may, by means of general laws, prescriln' the mariner "of proving said acts, ri-cords, and proceedings, and the effect thenof Art. 1 16. The powers of the Union are' liound to protect the States agaii'st all invasion or ex- ternal violence. In autv of insurrection or in- ternal disturbann- thev shall give them like pro- tection, pMvideil the l^'gislature of the State, or the Executive, if the lA'gislature Is not in session, shall reques' it. Art. 117. The ptiwers which are notexpressly grnntisl by this Constitution to the Federal authorities are understood to be reserved to the States. Art. Its. No person may at the same time hold two Fiileral elective offices: but If eli-cted to two, he ma^' choose which of tliem he will till. Art. 119. No payment shall be made which t* not comprehended in the budget or determined by a suljarqumt law. Art. lao. The President of the Republic, the meulieni of the Supreme Court of Justice, the Deputies, and other public olUccn of the Fedcnt- 689 I CONSTITUTIOK OP MEXICO. Hon, who an chown by popuUr election, shall recelre a compeniation for their eerTice*, which "»J' jMdetennlned by law and paid by the Fed- eral Treaiury. Thia compeniation may not be renounced, and any law which augments or di- minishes it shall not have effect during the period for which a functionary holds the office. Art. lai. Every public officer, without any exception, before Uking possession of his office, shall take an oath to maintain this Constitution and the laws which emanate from It.* Art. laa. In time of peace no milltanr au- thority may exercise more functions than 'those which have close coimectlon with military disci- pline. There shall be fixed and permanent mill- taiT commamis only In the castles, fortresses, and magazines which are immediately under the government of the Union ; or in encampments, barmcks, or depots which may be established outside of towns for stationing troopa Alt. laj. It belongs exclusively to the Federal authorities to exercise, in matters of religious worship and external discipline, the interrention which the laws may designate. Art. 114. The States shall not Impose any duty for the simple passage of goods in the internal commerce. The Oovemment of the Unir alone mav decree transit duties, but only with respect to foreign goods which cross the country by In- ternational or Interoceanic lines, without being on the national territory more time than is nec- essary to traverse it and depart to the foreign countrr. They shall not prohibit, either directly or Indirectly, the entrance to their territory, or the departure from It, of any merchandise, ex- crpt on police grounds; nor burden the articles of national production on their departure for a fori'ign country or for another State. The ex- emptions from duties which they concede shall be general ; they may not be decreed In favor of the producu of specified origin. The quota of the import for a given amount of merchandise shall 1)6 the same, whatever may have been its origin, and no hrarler burden may be assigned to It than that which the similar products of the political entity in which the import Is decreed bear. The national merehandlse shall not be sub- mitted to definite route nor to Inspection or reg- tatry on the ways, nor any fiscal document be demanded for iu internal circulation. Nor shall they bunlen foreign merchandise with a greater quota than that which may have been permitted them by the Federal law to receive. Art. ta$. The fortt. military quarters, maga- lines, ai-d other edifices necessary to the govern- CONSTTnmON OF NORWAY. ment of the Union shall be under the immedlu. Insnection of the Federal authorities. ^ Art. ia6. This Constitution, the laws of thi Coagnuot the Union which emanate from''^ and all the treaties made or which shall be „i. by the President of the Republic, with tl- ^ provalof Cpngrets shall be the supreme uw S the whole Union. The judges of each Stale »l,,n begiiided by sai.i Constitution, law, and treaiS in spite of provisions to the contrary which uut appear in the ConsUtutlona or laws of thl States. "* Art. ia7. The present Constitution mar t* added to or reformed. In order that ad.litiou or alterations mav become part of the Constim. tlon. It is noulred that the Congiess of the Inion by a vote of two-thirds of the members pivsem' shall agree to the alterations or additions oA that these shall be approved by the maioritvof the Leglshitures of the States. The Congrei the Union shall count the votes of the Lcifillatuia and make the declaration that the reformj or additions have been approved. Art. 138. This Constituti .1 shall not lose ia force and vigor even if IU observance be inter nipted by a rebellion. In case that by nnv pub. lie disturbance a government contrary "to the principles which It sanctions shall be rstiblished as soon as the people recover their litM-rty iuob^ servaoce shall be reesUblished, and In accordance with It and the laws which shall have been a- sued In virtue of It, shall be judged not onlj those who shall have figured in the govcrament emanating from the rebellion, but also liiosewbo shall have cooperated with it. AddiUont. Art. I. The State and the Church are iode- pendent of one another. The Congress mar not pass laws establishing or prohibiting anv reliiion. Art. a. Marriage U a civil contrait. ' This snj the other acU relating to the civil state of persons belong to the exclusive jurisdiction of the func- tionaries and authorities of the civil order, witlim llmlW provided b- 'he laws, and thoy shall have the force and vai ^^oh the some attribute to them. Art. 3. No religious institution mav scquirt real estate or capital fixed upon It, with'the msk exception established in Article 37 of thii Cm stitution. Art. 4. The simple promise to speak the tniil and to comply with the obligations which have been Incurred, shall be substituted for the re llgious oath, with iU eilecU and penalties. STAtF',F'^'°''.°'' "EW YORK STATE,— Itt levcral rcTitioni. See Nkw York: A. D. 1777, 1821, 1846. 1867-lwi. a,«i 1bv4. °. ^W 1^' 1814, ... a constitution was grante<l to Norway. The Fundamental Law of the constitution (OrundlOv), which almost every peasant farmer now a days has framed and huni up In the chief rtom of his house, bears the date the 4th of November 1814. "—C F Kearr V'«r- ».(#..«</ <*« AVrtf^«M. cA. 18. -The following M the text of the constitution as granted In 1814 CONSTITUTION OF NORWAY. •as* tiw AddiUoM ot a*pi«BiMr M, lan. 690 Titit I. Article 1. The kingdom of Norway It t tm. Independent, undlvlslble, and Inalienable ita», united to Sweden under the same kinR. The form of Iu government U limited, hcredltsry, ana monarcfaia',1. S. The Lutheran evangelical religion thill continue to iw the ruling religion of the kin; dom; tboM of the inhaUtanU which profe« It coNSTiTxrrioii of norwat. CONSTITUTION OF NORWAY. uv bound to bring up their children in its tenet*; jMuita and monaitic orders shall not he pro- bibited in the kingdom. The admission of Jews into the kingdom shall always be, as formerly, p^bibited. ^^^^^^ Article 1. The executive power is declared to be in I lie person of the king. 3. The king shall always profess the evan- gelical Lutheran religion, which he shall main- fain and protect. 3. The person of the king is sacred : be can neither be blamed or accused. 4. The succession is lineal, and collateral, «ucb as it is determine<l by the order of succes- sion decreed by the general estates of Sweden, and Mnclioned by the king in the Act of the a6th ifleptemher 1810, of which a translation is an- neii'd to this Constitution. Of the number of legitimate heirs, is comprehe-Jed the child in 's mother's womb, which, as soon as it shall l>e bum. after the death of its father, takes the place irbich is due to him in the line of succession. When a Prince, heir of the re-united crowns of Xorway and Sweden, shall lie bom, his name, mill the (lay of his birth shall be announced at the tirst Storthing, and inscribed in the registers. 5. Shcjiihl there not \>e found any prince, a leritimale heir to the throne, the king can pro- pose bis successor at the Storthing of Norway, md at the same time to the states general of Snellen. As soon as the king shall have made the proposition, the representatives of the two nations shall choose from among them a commit- tee, invested with the right of determining the t'lertion, in case the king's proposition should not, by the plurality of voices, be approved of iiep-,ir;itcly by the representatives of each of the cciuntries. The number of members of this com- mittee, shall be composed of an equal number of Norwegians and Swedes, so that the step to fol- low in the election shall be regulated by a law Tthiih the king shall propose at the same time to the next Storthing, and the states general of jweilen. They shall draw by lot one out of the committee for its member. 6. The Storthing* of Norway, and the states general of Sweden shall concert to fix by a law the king's majority ; if they cannot agree, a com- mittee, taken from the representatives of the two nations, shall decide it in the manner established bT anirle 5th, title 2nd. As soon as the king !h»ll have attained the vears of majoritv fixed by the law, he simll publicly declare that iie is of •get 7. When the king comes of age he shall take into his hands the reins of government, and make the following oath to the Storthing: " I swear, on my soul ami conscience, to govern the kingdom of Norwav conformably to ito constitution and lairs. ' If the Storthing is not then ass«mble<l Ibis oath shall be deposited In writing in the OTinril, and solemnly repeated by the king at the tirst Storthing, either vivi voce or by writing, hy Ibe person whom be shall have appointed to this effect. B. 'The coronation of the king shall take pUce whenbe i> of age, in the cathedra! of Dmnthcfm. ^^ aulaaal sMsmbljr, or gaosral MtoMs of toe kinc- h.*«,lfr,°' '^' "'"Ihlnif. ISth July IMS. and «uictlon«1 •I'S. i^'V'rft** tl»t th. UBf Is major on arr<Tiii( « iM •« of ei(titno jraars. at the time and with those ceremoniet that iball be fixed by himself. O. The king shall pass some time hi Norway yearly, unless this is prevented by urgent cir- cumstances. , lO- The king shall exclusively choose a coun- cil of Norwegians, citizens, who shall have at- taine<l the seventieth year of their age. This council shall be composed at least of a minister of state, and seven of'-r members. In like manner the king can create a viceroy or a eov- emmcnt. The king shall arrange the affairs between the members of the council, in such manner as he sfc i consider expedient. Besides these ordinary members of council, the king, or in his absence the viceroy (or the government jointly with the ordinary members of council) may on particular occasions, call other Norwe- gians, citizens, to sit there, provided they are not members of the Storthing. The father and son, or two brothers, shall not, at the same time, have a seat in the council. 11. The king shall appoint a governor of the kingdom in his absence, and on failure It shall be governe<l by the viceroy or a governor, with five at least of the members of council. They shall govern the kingdom in the name and behalf of the king; and tlioy shal' observe inviolably, as much the principles cor .ained in this funda- mental law as those relative precepts the king shall lay down in his instructions. They shall make a humble report to the king upon those affairs they have decided. All matters shall be decided by plurality of votes. If the votes happen to be equal, the viceroy or governor, or in their absence the first member of council, shall have two, 12. The prince royal or his eldest son can be viceroy ; but this can only occur when they have attained the majority of the king. In the case of a govenior, either a NorwegUn or a Swede may be nominated. The viceroy shall remain in the kingdom, and shall not be alloweid to reside in a foreign one beyond three months each year. When the king shall be present, the viceroy's functions shall cease. If there is no viceroy, but only a governor, the functions of the latter shall also cease, in which event he is only the first member of cotincil. 13. During the residence of the king in SweiUn, he shall always have near him the minister of state of Norway, and two of the members of the Norwegian council, when they shall Ik- annuallv changed. These are charged with similar duties, and the same constitutional responsibility attucbcs to them as to the sitting council in Norway ; and It is only In their pres- ence that state affairs shall be decided by the king. All petitions addressed to the king by Norwegian cltizeus ought, first, to be transmitted to the Norwegian council, that they may be duly considered previously to decisions being pro- nounced. In general, no affairs ought to be decided before the council has expressed an opinion, in case it should be met with important objections. The minister of state of Norway ought to report the affairs, and he shall be re- sponsible for expedition in the resolutions wbioh snail have been taken. 14. The king shall regulate public worship and ita rites, as well as all assemblies that have religion for their object, so that ministers of re- ligion may observe their forms prescribed to them. 5U1 CONSTirUTION OF NORWAY. in. The king can gire and sboUsh ordhumcet which respect commeroe, the cu8tom-hoiue, niunufncturei, and police. They shall not, how- ever, be contrary to the constitution nor the laws adopted by the Storthing. They shall have pro- visional force until the next Storthing. 16. The king shall in general regulate the taxes imposed by the Storthini. The public treasurer of Norway shall remain in Norway, and the revenues shall only be employed towards the expenses of Norwxy. 17. The king shall superintend the manner in which the domains and crown property of the state are employed and governed, in the manner fi.\c>l by the Storthing, and which shall be most advantageous to the country. 1 8. The king in council has the right to par- don rrimir-'s when the supreme tribunal has prnimunced its opini m. The criminal has tlie choiie of receiving pardon from the king or of submitting to tlic punishment to which be is condemned. In the causes wlilch the Odelsthing would liave ordered to be carried to the Itigsret, tliere erui be no other pardon but that which simll liberate from a capital punishment. lO. The king, after having heard his Norwe- gian council, shall dispose of all the civil, eccle- siastic, and military empl' .lents. Those who assist in the functions shall swear olKii.ence au(l tiilelity to the constitution and to the ki'ig. The Iirinres of the royal family cannot be invested with nuy civil employment; yet the prince royal, or his eldest son, may Iw nominated viceroy. m). The governor of the kingdom, the minis- ter of state, other meml)ers of council, and those eniiiloyed in tile functions connected with thi-se oltlcis, the envoys and consuls, superior magis- tnites, civil anil ecclesiastic commanders of regi- nients. and othiT military bodies, governors of firrtresses, and commanders-in-chief of sliips of war, shall, without previous arrest, be dejiosed by the king and his Norwegian council. As to the iH'iislon to be granted to those emploved thev shiill l)e deciiled by the first Storthing." In the mean time, they shall enjoy two-third parts of their former salary. The others employed can only lie susix^nueii by the king, and thev shall afterwards lie brouith't Ufore the tribunals, but cannot lie deposed excepting by order of an arrest, and the king enn:ii>t make them change their situations contrary to their will. 21. The king can confer orders of knighthood on whomsoever he chooses, in rewanl of dis- tinguished services, which shall be published; but he can confer no other rank, with the title, than that which is attached to everv emplovment. Anonlerof knlchthooii does not liberate the per- son on nliom it is conferred f mm those duties common to all citizens, and part'^ular titles are not conferrc<I in order to obtain situations in the state. Such persons shall preserve the title and rank attache)! to those situations which thev liave occupied. No person can, for the future, obtain personal, mixed, or hereditary privileges. 22. The king elects and dismisses, whenever he thinks proper, all the offlcent attached to bis court. 23. The king is commandei -chief of all the force*, by «s-s sn-l land, in ihr kifigjum, and thete cannot be increased or diminished without the consent of the Storthing. Tbey will not be ceded to the service of any forei|tn power, and troops belooging to » (oni(n power (except CONSTITUTION OP NORWAY. auxiliary troops In case of a hostile invuiog caimot enter the country without the consent o the Storthing. Durins peace, the Ni]rwcr|« troops shall be stationed In Norway, ami not {, Sweden. Notwithstanding this tlie kmi; nui have in Sweden a Norwegian guard, eomp,«f; of "volunteers, and may for a short time, nut n CJtiiing six weeks In a year, assemble truops i, tile envin of the two countries, for exercisioj but in case there are more than 8,000 men. com posing the army of one of the two countries, thu cannot in time of peace enter the other.* Th, Norwegian army and gun-boats shall not be mi ployeil without the consent of the Stonhini; The Norwegian fleet shall have drv (i(Hks, and during jK-ace its stations and harlxnirs in X..r way. hhips of war of both countries sliail 1* supplied with the seamen of the other, m hanti they shall voluntarily engage to serve. Tit landwebr, and other Norwegian furci-s, vUci are not etdculated among the nunilxruf tmopi of the line, shall never be employed biyonj tit frontiers of the kingdom of >orwav. 24. The king has the right o'f assemblin troojis, commencing war. making peace, concluj- ing and dissolving trtaties, sending ministers to and receiviuK those of, foreign courts. Wlienht begins war he ought to advise the council o! Norway, consult it. and order it to jireparc u adiln-ss on the state of the kingdom, nlntive ". its flnantvs, and propi-r means of definif. On this the king shall convoke the minister of state of Norway, and those of the council of !S»-iilia, at an extraordinary osst'inlily, when he »lall ri^ l)lain all those relative circumstances tliat ou;li; to lie taken into consideration ; witli a npresenu. tion of the Norwegian council, and a similar ok on the part of Sweden, upon the state of the king- dom, shall then be pres»'nu-d. The kiut' sliiill ikii require advice upon these objects; and eiicli slull be inserted in a register, under the responsibilitr iinposeil by the omstitution, when ilie kinjtsliail then adopt that resolution which he juclces niusi Iir<)|)er for the beueflt of the state. 2n. (In this occasion a'l the memliers of coun- cil must lie presimt, if not prevented bv some law- ful cause, and no resolution ought to'lx- .i(l"piri unless one half of the members are n.c-sent. In Norwegian affaiis, which, accordi' . the HI- tcenth article, are decided in Sued > rwilu- tion shall lie taken unless the iiiir.' .f state d Norway and one of the member council, or two nieinlwrs, arc present. 20. The representations resp<..ting employ- ments, and other important acts, exee|itiu(; tiioit of a diplomatic and military nature, |mi[wririo calle<l, bIihII lie referred to the cnumil bv liim who is one of the inemliers in the departmeni charged with it, who shall acconlingly draw up the resolution adopted in council. 27. If any member of council is prevemed from appearing, and referring theaffain wliicli belong to his peculiar department, he shall be rt- placed in this otUce by one of the others sppointW to this purpose, either by the king, if penoiially present, and if not, by him who has precedence in the muncil, iointlr w"ith the other memlier* com- posing it. Should several of these be prcvcDtcil • Tin law of the 8torUUii(, Uh Jul7 1*16. bwi. Hal troopfl of tho lliw ■hall be «mplo]red bejrotul ttie rrunlMl of the kln«dom, and tlw latarprautlon gtyu b; li u Uiii lav la, that troon of tb* lias shaU b* amplureii btjiai Um fruBllan of th* two "-f*™-! 592 CONSTITCTION OF NORWAY. CONSTITUTIOII OF NORWAY. tmn appearing, M that only one half of the ordl- jorr number ii present, the other employed in tlw'offlcea ihall in like manner have right to dt in council ; and in that event it itiall be after- nrdf referred to the king, who decides if they ouuht to continue to exerclae tliia office. 28. The council shall keep a register of all iffain tbat may come tinder its consideration. Every individual who sits in it shall be at liberty to frive bis opinion freely, which the king is obliged to hear: but it is reserved to bis majesty to aitopt resolutions after he has consultea his own mind. If a member of council finds that tbe liinf^'s resolutinn is contrary to the form of {OTeroment, the luws of the kingdom, or in- jurious to the state, he shall consider it his duty to oppose it, and record his opinion in the register seconlingly ; but he who remains silent shall be presumed to have agreed with the king, and shall be responsible for it, even in the case of be- Id; Inferred to at a future period -, and the Odels- thine is empowered to bring him before the Rlrs'ret. 29. All the ordera i88uc<l by the king (mlli- tarr nffiiirs excepted) shall be countersigned by the' Xcinvegian minister of state. 30. Krsolutions made in absence of the king, br the council in Norway, shall be publicly pro- rlaimcd and signed by the viceroy, or the gov- jraor and council, and countersigncil by him who shall h.ivo referred them, and he is further re- spiinsihle for the accuracy and dispatch with the red^ter in wliich the resolution is entere<l. 31. All representations relative to the affairs of this country, as well as writings concerning them, must lie in the Norwegian lai;^uage. 33. The heir-apparent to'tlie throne, if a son of the reifcnini; king, shall have the title of prince Mval. the other legitimate heirs to the crown shiill be ealle<l princes, and the king's daughters priufrssea. 33. As soon as the heir shall have attained the age of eij^bteen, he shall have a right to sit in council, without, however, having a vote, or aar .. i»insil)ility. in. No prince of the blood shall marry with- out prnnis^iou of the king, and in case of con- inivintion, be shall forfeit bis right to the crown of Xiirwiiy. 3!i. Tlif princes and princesses of the royal family, iilutll not. so far as respects their persons, be biiunil to appear Ix-fore other Judges, but tie- tore the kiiiir or whomsoever he shall have ap- pointeil for that purpose. 'M\, Tlie minister of state of Norway, as well ai the two members of council who are near the kine. shall iiave a seat and deliberative voire in the Swidisli council, where objects relative to the two kinirdoms shall be treated of. In affairs of this nature the advice of the council ought al»i to In. underattxid. unless these require quick dispatch. 8<i as not to allow time. 37. If llie king happens to die, and the heir to the throne is under age, the council of Nor- way, and tliat of Sweden, shall assemble, and mutually call a convocation of the Storthing in Xorway and Diet of Sweden. 38. Although the representatives of the two iiii<i...iii» should liave assembled, and regulated the admtaistration during the king's minority, a miincil composed of an equal number of Nor- ^i-^'ian and Swedish members shall govern the (ugdoms, and follow their fundament^ reuipro- ■Jt eal laws. The minister of state of Norway whi sits in this council, shall draw by ballot in order to decide on which of its memben the preference shall happen to fall. 39. The reguUtion* contained In the two lost articles shall be always equally adopted after the constitution of Sweden. It belongs to the Swed- ish council, in this quality, to be at the head of government. 40. With respect to more particular and neces- sary affairs that might occur in cases under the three former articles, the king shall propose to the first Stortliing in Norway, and at the first Diet in Sweden, a law having for its basis the principle of a perfect equality existing between the two kingdoms. 41. The election of guardians to be at the head of government during the king's minority, shall be made after the same rules and manner formerly prescribed in the second title. Article 5th. concerning the election of an heir to the throne. 42. The individuals who in the cases under the JJHIh and 39th articles, are at the head of gov- ernment, shall be. the Norwegians at the Storth- ing of Norway, and shall take the following oath : " I swear, on my soul and conscience, to govern the kingdom conformably to its constitution and laws;" and the Swe<les shall also make a similar oath. If there is not a Storthing or Diet, it shall be deposited in writing in the council, anil after- wards repeateil at the first of these when they happen to assemble. 43. As soon as the governments have ceased, they shall be restored to the king, and the Storth- ing. 44. If the Storthing is not convoked, agree- alily to what is expressed in the 38th and 30th articles, the ' 'iremc tribunal shall consider it as an imperio' duty, at the expiration of four we«'ks, to I a meeting. 45. The charge of the education of the king, in case his fatlier may not have left in writing instnictious reeanling it, shall be regulated in the manner laid down under tlic 5tb and 41st articles. It is held to be an invariable rule, that the king during his minority shall learn the Nor- wegian language. 46. If the masculine line of the royal family is cxiiiict, and there lias not lieen elected a suc- cessor to the throne, the election of a new ilynasty shall be proceeded in, and afttrthe man- iiir prescribed under the .'ith article. In the meau titne the executive power shall be exercised agreeably to the 41st article. Title III. Article 1. I.*gislative power Is exercised by the Storthing, which is constituted of two houses, namelv, tlie I.jiirthing and Ddelsthing. 2. S'one shall have a right to vote but Nor- wegians, who have attained twenty-five years, niul resided in the country during five years. 1. Th<i«e who are exercising, or who have exer- cised functions. 2. Possess land in the country, which has been let for more than five years. 3. A'e buriresses of some city, or possess either in it. or s<mie village, a house, or property of the value oi at least tiiree hundred bank crowns in silver. 3. There shall be drawn up in cities by the magistretes, and in every parish by the p'ublto authority and the priest, a register of all the in- 593 Ill, 'i?[ ■ijrii 3. •igii li:in arc 't .* CONSTITUTION OF iVORWAY. habitants who areTotere. T,>y xhall also note in It without delay, tlioae chi.u) i which m*y •ueoessivfly take place. Befcjic i- ing iugcrilH-d in the register, every onu shall take an <iBth, be- fore the tribunal, of fldelitv to 'lie -onstitution. 4. Hightof Totingi»sii«iH'n'i, t .■ the follow- iag cases: 1. By the ac< ■isatiou . f iiime Iwfore a tribunal: 2. By not attaining t'.ie propter age; 8. By insolvency or baiikruptc laiti'. creditors have obtainetl their payment In ■ !i' I • aless it can Ix' proved that the former h;is ' • n from lire, or other unforeseen events, rt. The right of voting Is forf ■;: .1 . ivelv: 1. By condemnation to the hi n- ■ of co.--, rtion, slaviry, or punishment fordtfa . .lorv 1 uik lage: 2. By acceptance of the trv,.' i it Bower, without the consent i.: •■ nun y obtaining the right of i u -ii a :. ■ country. 4. By conviction c! .>■, ;i.;-'uri and sold votes, and having \j).ni in mut one electoral 8s.sembly. O. The electoral assembli^ iii, i,. . , hild every three years, and si \ ':i, -I: ' ■ t, i euil of tlie month of Dcc-^nil. r 7. Klectoral assemblies f'i ' l br LiM f(.ri. country, at the manorhou.-' ' •!..■ ]y.,'.i<. •', church, towuhull, or some ,'li • .i' (.'u i , the country they shall 1h- il.re i i Dy . :; .• minister and asiiintants; and in t rns, bv .,■ ti- trates and sherilTs: election shiul w made ..: . • order api>cinted I- the register>' Pisro'^s i i; cemiui: Ilie right -f voting sliiill W decided h\ the dir( tors of the assembly, inmi whose jud^'- ment ■.n. apjn m1 may be made t.i -..le Worthing. 8. Before proceeding to the iliTtlon. the con- stitution shall Ik' read with ;i loud voi(f in the I ities, by the first magistrate, and in the country i'>' Tlii- ( unte. !». In lities. an elector shall he cliostn bv fifty eli:;il>li' inhabitants. They shall aswinlile eight iliivs after, in tlie plaei appointed by tlie niagis- tnii . and eh. lose, either from umouastiliemselves, or from oiliers who are eligible in the department of tlicir lid tioi), a fourth of liiiir uumin-r to ^^it at tin Slorlhiiig, that is after the manner of three to si.v ill elioosing one; seven to ten in electing two; ileven to fourtei-n in dioosing tiin-e, and lifteen to eighteen In electing four; which is tlie greatest nuinlH-r |K'rmitted to a citv to semi If thesi eon.sist of less than l.W eligible inhabitants, they shall send the electors to the nearest citv to vote conjointly with the electors of the f<irlner, ^» lien the two shall only be considen-d as fonning one district.* lO. In each parish in the eouutrv the, lii:ib|e inhabitants shall choose in proportion u< tluir nil :il)ir electors in the following iiianni r. iliat is to say, a liundred may choose one; two to thri-i- huiulred, three; and so on in the same prop, r lion.t Klectorssliall assemble a month after in the place appointe.1 by the bailiir. and .liiMise, eitlier from amongst themselves .ir the others of • .\ law loiweil Mil Ffhruary IKIB mnlalns this anifn.l- lii.-Ml Tuwitv ttveeleeliirauKlmureslmll no: el«tiii..r<> I laii Ihr.i- r.-|,r.^-ntalivrti. whieh Khali b-. a.l inl.nm til- cival-sl n .niber which the Iwilml.-k can ivud .111,1' omwiiueiilly rut ..f whlih the numlier ..f re|irv«.ntalire« In the e..uiii> which an slity^ue, shall be .liniinuhisl fn.Tii ftftv I dflylhrw ..u~.r-. ♦ if full. f- .■■i..rtl.iiiini iiiaa- 'vrr thd nuiulier <.r n-pre- ■enlallvn. ..f [..wns f r..m an lner«w of MmulaUtai (.h.niia •m.Minl to thirty, Ih- name Rtorthlnu nfiafi liave rlirlil I.. •lUnncnl ..f new tli- n.iniher of nfprewnlallnni „f tho e.>UDtr>-. ID the mariwr Bie,l liy Ihf prlmiule. of the con- rltuth«, whk-h •hall be hel.i aa a rule lu future CONSTITUTION OF NORWAY the bailiwick ellglMc, a tenth of their own nuir Iwr to sit at the Storthing, so that five to foun» may choose one; flftwn to twentv-fnu, „. choose two of them; twenty-five w> iliinvf™ three; thirty -five and beyond It, four. Tlii'stoh greatest number. " 1 1. The powers contained In the 9th and 'iit articles shall have their proper fot»e an.| Hff>' until next Storthing. If it is found timt iCl presentatlvcsof cities constitute mon'orle«,ii™ one-third of those of the kingdom, the St<,rtlii7. OS a rule for the future, shall have right t . 1 ,1," these powers in sucli a manner that rii.h,,-' fives of the cities may join with tli.ji ..f it, country, as one to two; and the toful number,' representatives ought not to be under swosr five, nor alnive one hundred. 12. Those eligihie, who are in the c, .ntn ami are prevented from attendinc bv si.-knei mililarv service, or other propii -,:i.s„iu nr transmit their votes in writing totli.,-- wlindiivc; the elirtoral assimblies. before their •■rminati* • ;? 1 person can \k chosen a n prfwntariTt is thirty years of age, an 1 Imsrwiurf . n .tars in flie country. 14. The memU-rs of council, tiivw omt- )t«! in flu ir offices, ollleers of the court, ami it- in- sioiiers, shall not !«■ chosen as repnseutativA m. Individuals chosen to Is- ri p^•sentali^« an- obliged to accept of the electi.in. unless [itv ' eut.d by motives considereil lawful by fluflHi • IS. wh.«e jiirlgnient may Ih' sulimit'le.1 lu th« .lecisi.m of the Storthing. A pers..n wW hi, apj>earetl more than once as represei lativi- a: i- ordinury Storthing, is not obliired f.i am-ni .if rt- electi.m for the next ordinary Si.irtliini'. Ifl. 'ji reasons prevent a n-presitifative from ai)|..nnii; at the Storthing, the person wh.i after bimlui most votes shall take his place HI. As so<m as npresenfatlvcs have i.ts eleete.i. they shall n>ceive a writing in thtn.ui try from the suiH'rior magi.>irate. iiinl ii. tivtitirt fr..m the magistrate. als("> fr.nu all tli.fl..i„»i a^a pr.Lif that they have Imih il.ite.l intli.-.niaii- n.T prescrilK-i| by tl,.' constiiutioii. Tli.' St.irii- ing sli.ill iu.lge of the h'L'ality f Ibis auil...riiy 17. .VII repres«'ir,alivrs liav, a rit'lit l..(laiit an inilemiiitication in imvellini: i.i nml n-iuraioj from the .^torihing; as w.-ll as Miii-isteii,r.l'^. inu the peri.xl they shall have reiimiiii-.l tlien-. 18. During the journey, ami ntiirn .f n-pi*. senfatiM-s, as well as llie tiiii.' th. v iiiav Lave attended the Storthing, tli.y ar.' ixi-inpt"! fno arrest; unless they ■;[-.■ -.i/.-.l in Mniie tij/nuii anil publii iiet. and .nt .'f the Storiliinirtli. ; »y; not ill- ns|...nsible f.,r the opinii.n^lh-y may In' declared in if. K\iry one is iH'un.i t.i ninf'ts. himself to file opl. r establisheii in ir 10. Heprewntafives, chosen in the manaT alxive d. eland. iom|)os<.' the ."'tTtliiug of ■.in klnirdoiii of Norway. SO. The otHiiiiig of the ^"torthiug sta2 be ina.h- the first lawful day in the m. .utli of f ■ ■-»■ ary, every threi- \iars, iii the capit il nf fbi t;:j- d.im, unless th"'kiiig, in extrai.r liiiiry rir.;'im- Btanees. by fon'iirn invasion or iiini:ii.-i.«i»'li»'a«. fixes on some <ilhercity of tl.,- Lintiinn, Sua chanste ought tlien to lie ear!, ann.u.-: ..!. m1. Ill e.Mnioriiiiiary -.-asi-s, '-n- M:^_iiasiijt right ..f as.si-mbling the Storiliing witli-iuiB- «|H-el to the or.ii'iary time. Tl.e king wilhhf!; cause t.. be issu. d a pna-lamatinh. wliidi i- 1 '- read in all the [Tiucipal rhuri i ■ - six w.-t«,- .. 594 COXSTmJTION OF NORWAT. least prevlou* to the d»y fixed (or the suem- bliii; o( memben of the Storthing at the pUce a'i. Such extnordlnuT Storthing may bedis- lolveil by the king when he shall Judge fit. S3, Members of the Storthing shall continue in the exerctae of "heir office during three con- KCUtiTe years, as much during an extraonilnary a ADV oViitnary Storthiog that might be held juriog this time. 24. If an extraordlnury Storthing is held at a iimf when the ordlnar>- Storthmg ought to as- stmble. the functions i>f the first will ceant, as soon »» the second shall have met. 25. The extraordinary Storthing, no more llmu the ordinary, can be held if two-thirds of the members do not happen to be present. 20. As soon as tlie Storthing shall be organ- ized, the king, t>r tlie person who shall be ap- iminli'il by him for that purpose, shall open it by »n lulcln'sia. In w liich he is to dt-scribe the (itate of llje kingdom, anil those ob.j< its to which In- di- ml« the attention of the Stor.hing. Xo iKliU-r- atidnoujiht tc take I luce In tlie king's pres.!iie. TheS'torthiag shall choose Iroin it«memlH'r» "ue- (ourlb pan to form the Lagthing. and the other tbiwfoiinh.sto constitute the Odelsthlng. Kiieh of these li"ii»es shall have its private mietings, ami rioniiiiiiU' its president and s< retary. 27. It liolongs to the Storthinir —1. To make ami al«ilish laws, establish impc ■■ts. taxes, cu.-s- tiini'liouses, and other piililir actK. which shnll. however, only exist until the 1st ul .July of thut year. ^ lien a new Storthini!- shall I"' ii.s.'«-inlili-il iinliss this last Is expresi*!. rii.i'.».il li^- th.-m 2 To make loans. Iiy meaii.s of tli credit of the slate. 3 Towaii i Viver the finaiu. -.of the state. 4 To grant sums iieressar/ for it» i .\pens«"s. H T"!i^ 'he vearl> vrant for the ii intenar.ce of !li>' kini! anil vici r .y, and also d i|m ages <if the r ..il taimily; whicli oui;ht not. however, to con- ► -: h Isiicied property. 8. To exhibit the regis- tiTiif the ^lttin^' council in Xorwiiv. ami all the re|Kins. ami public documents (tiie nffnirs of luililary ronimaiul excepttHl;. andcfrtibr«: c^pii's, iT extracts of liiv r(i:i«!vr8 kept by tin- ministers ofttiiteand mcmlurs council neiir the king, or tlie pullic di lunients. -i tiiili shall liai e lieeii pm- iluu"! 7 To .ommiiiiiciie wliiittviT .n-aiii-s ilie kmi: slivll have concludei! In the mime of tlie M.itewith i Teigri powers, excepting secivt arti- rlis. "iri'inli-i! these are not In coniri\dirr'.on >viih lie tiiililii articles. H. To require all individuals Il ap[)eiir ti fore the Storthing on aifairs of state. the kills.' iml royal faniiiy excepteil. This is not. howevt r. iippIicahU' to llie princes of tlie royiil hinily. as tin y an- i.ivesteii with othrTollloestliuu til if vici r. y. 9. To examine the lists of |m>- v;-: >uh1 pi'tiMons; auo to niakr su li ultenitlous ..- -hull be jiiilgiil net i-ssary. 10. Ta tiaim- five ri-.wr-i, who an' annually to exniiiiiie Ihe ac- iiiMiv< f tlie stall . and piihli-ih printitl i-xirae'.s 1 5 t;iist', which are to bi' n'Uiinn! in ttu- ri-vi-H-rs di*Mvery year Ikfure the 1st of Jul U To ^ ' mViw fi,r>:igiiers. <. Ijiws ought first Ut Ix' propoBt-d to the o -thing, either by its own nu-mlurs or llie £.iv, I ijmt.n^^ IhrtlU uh 0!*.t' '. ? i *- lit: me JU t^* - ' f COU!!- (ii If the proposition is accepti-d .iliall In •<!:• • 'lie Ijigthing, who approve r reject ;■ w: the last case return it Bcroinpani-d wi- rks These shall be weighfi by the «)deis wbich let* the pruiiowd law asiile, or CONSTITCTION OF NOBWAT. remits it to the Lagthing, with or without alter ntions. When a law shall bare been twice pro- poseil by the Odelstbing to the Lagthing, and the hitter shall have rejected It a second time, the Storthing shall assemble, when two-thirds of the votes shall decide upon it. Tliree daya at least ought to pass between each of those delib- erations. 29." When a resolution proposed by the Odels- thing shall be approved by tlie L,agthlng, or by the Storthing alone, a depututlon of tiiese two houses to the Storthing shall jiresent It to the king If he is present, and If not, to the viceroy, or Norwegian council, and req„; 3 It may receive the royal sanction. 30. Should the king approve of the resolution, he subiicribes to it, and from that period it is de- clared to iJdss Into a public law. If he disap- proves he returns it to the Odelsthing, declaring tliat at this time he does m t give It his sauctiim. 31. In thise%'ent, the Morthing, then asi m- bled, ouglit to S'lbmit the rtiiolution to the king, who may proc-ee.i in it in the same manner if the first onimarj- Storthing presents again to him the sauw resolution. But if, after reconsideration, it is still aii pted by the two houses of the third ordinary St- "thinir. and afterwards submitted to the king, wi •> shall have been intnateil not to \ltlih'ld hi- Niuctiou to a resolution that the Stortiiing, aft'-r the most mature deliberations, belii ^' H to tx- ii> !ul: It slial' a. .^lire thestn'ngth of a , >v, I'veu uld it nut ii i-ive the king's sigiiaiiire liefnrt ,»■ dosing - the Storthing. 32. The Ston ling shall ^ as long as it shall be jtidijud tieces-ary, but ' l>eyond three mouths, without tlie king's i issiou. 'When the businrss is finished, or after t has assembled fur th- time fixed, .t is dis8olvt<i by the king. His Majesty gives, at the same lime, his --luc- tiiin to the ileerees not ain'ady decided, eltl" r In (orrolKir.itingornjecting them. AH those not ex- pressly siuictioneil are held to be n'jected bv him. 33I Ijiws are to be drawn up in the Norwe- gian language, and (those mentioned li< Slr.i ar:l- ele excepteil in name of the king, under the sea! of the kiuu'doin, and in these terms -"Wc. lii lie ^t known, that there has lieen sulmiitte' us a decree of the Storthiu ' '<if such a uatei thus expnsstHl (follows the r- lutton; »\"c have areepted "nt sanctioned as \t^^ the - ■ decree, in giving it our signature, and seal ( ' m kihg- 'ioin," 34. The kiuirs sanctiim is not nece»-.ry to the resoluti'tiis uf 'lie Slorlhiiig. by wiiicli Uw h-i^i.'- hitive l««ly,- Deelari ? itsidf"or.'ani/.r.l as ,a nbini.-," <• . Mnling U' the coutituu n .'. ,.^ulii! - - internal pi, ice. 3. .\iee| or re- jects win^ if present in. 'nbers. 4 •-ejeels judgments relai; to disj iiig eUwtums. .'1. Xatumiijes f And in short, tin. resolution !>y wh: tliirg »>nlers soiiif niemii--T • '■. '.re ;h" ■ribunal- ."15. Ti. stonlii-.g can r lie siipieni.' tribunal in jiuli ■Mi, TheStonhinL- -11 1. 01- n doo-«. and it" l.-j.,:.ij, f.\-i-enting ■ ure shall liave Ik. VI lies. 37. Win. ever n the .-'li.rtliing. reii. h?.-li treason t.mM cou ', inrms ur • » resjieet- jn--n. 6. u tjit iMels- i to appeal of nan^: ihe a. »l I Men i Hs sittlnL's with -hall lie prictiMl :.ii I pub- wlu'ri . nmrrarv nieaa- 11 -i 1. 1 ill- l.irality of le««» iite U:iertT anst safety of > himactf ir'illty t>l an net of , .h. iOun' V y,*o CONSTITUTION OF NOBWAT. Titl* IV. Article 1. The memben of the T^ gtMwy toi iupreme tribunal compodng the Rinrat, Judge in the flnt and last Instance of the anin entered ■■■ •>■■« uawv niaiA sown suvMBMW \ii UIV nil»irW CUiVIVU upon bf the Odelsthing, either agalnat the mem- bers of council or supreme tribunal for Crimea committed in the exercise of their offlces, or •ninst the members of Storthlnc for acts com- mlttMi by them In a similar capacity. The presi- dent of the Lagthing has the precedence in the Hlirsn't. 2. The accused can, without declaring his mo- tive for Ml doing, refuse, even a third part of the members of the Rigsret, provided, however, that the nunilierof persons who compose this tribunal be in>( niluceti U> less than Ofteen. j the code concerning sedition shall li.ivf bt 3. Thf supreme tribunal shall judge In the ! f""' aloud three times by the civil auihoritiw luipht not til hi* (viintuiai*il iif ft O. The libertv of thi* nrf,a« «huli k.. ..„.' CONSTITUTION OF NORWAY. have taken cognixanoe of the charges directri •gainst them. Torture shall never talic place 6. Laws shall have no retro-active effect T. Fees due to offlcers of Justice are nut to ba combined with renta payable to the public ti»». UFT. "■ 8. Arrest on^fht not to take place exceptine is caaee and in the manner fixed by law. IHeni arreata, and unlawful delays, render him who occasions them responsible to the person anviinl Qovemmcnt is not authorised to employ railli»rT force against the members of the stale, Imt uo. der the forms prescribed bv the law«, unim u asacmbly which disturiK the public tt»ii,,uiiiitT does not instantljr disperse after the articles ut the code concerning sedition shall have been mail nlikii/l tKawua •IsBvoa lk» »\t.^ _l_:l ■_ • • O. The liberty of the press nhall he eiub- lished. No person can be punished fur s wrii- ln» he has ordered to b«: printeii or publljheil whatever may be the contenu of It, unlew lie has, by himself or others, wilfully dcdaml ur prompted others to, disobedience nf the law, contempt for religion, and constitutional lowers and resistance to their operations: or Lai ad- vanceil false and defamatory acrusalloriK ai:»ii«t others. It is permitted to every one to apeak frivly his opinion on the a>lminlstration ../ the •tale, or on any other object whatever. 10. New and permanent mtrictlou „n tht freedom of industry are not to be granieil in future to any one. 1 1. Domiciliary viaiU are prohibited, eictpi- ing in the cases of criminals. la. Itefuge will not be granuii t«i thost wijo shall Im' bankrupts. 13. No persim can in any ca«' forfeit Lit lauiieii proiH'rty, and fortune. 14. If the Intereat of the suu- n'.|ulre« ibit anv one should sacrifice hl»movealil.'..rlmmi.vf. ahip pmiieny fur the public lienelit, In- .liall !« fully Inifeniiiltliil by llie imlillr tti'naiii .. 15. The I'liplul.'as well as the reveiiinn „f tit ilomalns of the rbun-h, can 1h- nppliiil ,mlv tvt last inatance, and ought not U) be composed of a IriWiT numU-r than the resident and six assesson. 4. In time of peace the supreme tribunal, with two superior offlcers appointe<t by the king, constitiiti'SH trilmnal of the second and last re- sort in nil military alTairs which respect life, hon- our, iuul loss of llberiy for a time beyond tlie spine of three months. a. The nrrests of the supreme tribunal shall not ill liny case be calle<l upon to be submitted to revisiil. O. Xii person shall Iw uarae<l memU-r of the supreme tribunal. If be has not attained at least thiriy years of age. Title V. Article 1. Employmeuts in the states shall Iw I'onferreil only on Norwegian citizens, who pro- fess the Ev«ngelie»l I.ulhenin n^llglon — have iwom fidelity to the conKtitutiou and king, spi-ak the Isiitrunge of thi eoimtry, and an-,— I. Either lK)m In the kingdom of ptireuts who were then subjects of the sinle. 2. Or Uirn In a foreign iiiuntry. their father tiiiil mother l»lng Norwe- glims, rind at that |HriiKl not the siilijects of another slati'. ;) Or. nhooii the ITth May, 1«U, had a iMTiiiiiii.-nt nsidi nie In the klngdi'un, and i domains ot the church, can 1h- nnplied ,mlv U dl. not nfus.- to take an oalh to nmluuilii the I the Intensta of the clergy, and the i.r.-.m-riiv ..f '',"'•„'"■' ","'■"' •'>'"■"'')•• ■• Or wholu future i.uhlir Instrticli.m. The ph,p,.rty of !• nev,.Viit shall remain len yi-ars In the kingdom. .V Or lniiltiit<.,n>.i,.iiiw.„.«.,i..'..ir.-i.. >. .,i.^ .:. who have lieen iiaturallxed by the Stonhlng. Foniirners, however, may Ik- nominatiHl to these ottlclal iltunllons hi the university and colleges, as well as til thinH- of physicians, and iiinsuls In a f.inign country. In o^ler to succeed to an office in the su|ierior tribuiml, the |H-non niukt be Ihlrly years old; and to fill a place In the In- ferior maifistracy,— a liiilge of the tribunal of first Instaiire. or a public receiver, he must lie twiiiiv five 91. Norway ■'.« not acknowleilge herself ow- mg any other debt than that of her imii 8. .\ iHW general ei«|e, of a eiril and criminal ■aiuh-. >liall first \v publisbetl. or. If that 's lin- pracil.able. at the secMni onlinary Htorliiing Meanlline. the laws of IIh- state, as at pmrnt ex- tetlnu. '•hall pn-serve their etrerl, since they are not eontrary to this fundamental law. or pMvl- sional ordinances puliltslie<i in the Interval. IVr- mam-nt taxes sliall continue ki be levie<l until next MtiirihInK 4. No|>r>'<<'<'<lnKdisprnaallfln. Irtlercf respite, or teiil!:;!!i-.n- i!j^;j ^ iffnaicd after the mw (rnenil cob' shall lie publiahril. a. No peraiiiis can be ludgml hut in conformliv to Hm- law. or be puoUfiml until » tribunal shall ■ •" j'i"p-.«j "I iw iKM'trui nslitutionsshall beemployeil only forlle irppiSt. to. The right of the (lower of ri'ilrmpiim calliil (Nielsr«'t*, an'l tliat of iKniBi'ssi. .n. calW AfiKlesret (fathers right), shall eiist I'lmini- lar n-gulatlons, which will riinler thew ..f ulil' ity to the stales and agriculture, shall !«• cletfT' mini'il liy the first or a«'<'oiid Worthiuk'. 17. No county, Itanrnv, majorat or ■ tM coniniis "t sliall la- created 'for the fuiuri' IH. Every citlien of the slate, wiih.nit re- >;ard to lilrih or fortune, shall U'eqiisllv > l.liM during a partleiilar [M'riisl, to defeii.l 'hU ivun- try } Till' a|ipllcallon of this pnnciiile awl iu ri'st rid Ions, as will as the i|uestliin of uMirtain- Ing to « hat iioint It Is of K-neflt to Ihi- (..iiiilrv. that this obligation should ceaai' at the »»'!• 'f Iwenty-Hve. — shall lie aliaiidomil to the c|.-,|.t.>ii 596 •la rinuroT ilv righl n» ■■olelsnt. iii-i,ii.«» •( • lamlhr to «h<.in errlaui Imils nrldnaUjr i«ri«in<-l. i-m r*r|a|ia aivl relskr |« mi 'ssIim irf ibv aaiu.'. ,->.-n sfi.^ Hi* Ifm tit n-BlurW*. iini>l,le<l tktmr UirIs an- n-cfr.-n's. Ilw lit iIm- ml,' ..f iiir rsmlljr: ihsi K. if f.r .•..m« yn SHeeeMlvFlir ilwy .hall hsn- jiHlliisllr iii»l' rrwr rmikm r4 Ihwrtr rljrhl Tfc{9 gugi^,a.. •slun-.n" '-«-i-*'* ia liw pnwnw o( amnnnu*, Am. hoomi. allsrn IM PP SSSI I IS !•• ItHltf uallT* KM. •rauil t B«srv iwrsnn is nhU««<i la sar** m>ia i«Mi;->asM issMy-lkfw sMl aitf aAar OONSTITCTION 07 KORWAT. coxsTrnmoN of Prussia. (f the flnt orHoMTj Stoithiiif , After the j ihall tare beep Utebargei by a oommittre; in the ■eintli&e, rigorou* effort* thkll preterre their effect. 10, Norwaj ihall retain her own language, ber own finanoea and coin: inititutiont wblcli itell be detennined upon by lawi. 90. Norway haa the right of baring her own ttg of trade and war, which ilull be an union flag. 31, If experience abould ihow the neceiaity of rhanjclng lonie part of thii fundamental law, « proposition to thu purpoae shall be made to an ordinary Storthing, published and printed; and it only pertains to the next ordinary Storthing to decide if the change proposed ought to be effectual or not. Such alteration, bowerer, ought never to be contrary to the principles of this fundamental law ; and should only have for its object those modifications in which particular regulations do not alter the spirit of the consti- tution. Two-thirds of the Storthing ought to agree upon such a change. Christians, 4th No- vember, 1814. See 8cAKDniaviA.\ Statxs (Nob-, WAT): A. D. 1814-1815. CONSTITUTION OF PLYMOUTH COLONY (Compact of the Pilgrim Fathers). SeeMAaaACHCSBTTS: A. D. 1990. CONSTITUTION OF POLAND (The old). See POLA.ND: A. U. I.i73, and LKS-lft-iS. ... (of 1791). 8«e PoLAXD: A. D. ITtl-lTOa. CONSTITUTION OF PRUSSIA. The following text of the ConatltuUon grants] br Fmlrrick William, King of Pruasia, im the silt of Januar}-. IMO, with aiibamiuent altcm- Uima. i* a translation mailr by Mr. Charles I/ivr. an<l puliliahcd in the appendix tn hia Life of Prinre BUmarck, 18S5. Wg. Frrderirk William. *c., hereby prticlaim tail givv III know that, whereas the C'nnstitii- tion of ilii- PniMian Slate, pnimtilgated bv us Article 1 1. — Freedom of emigration can only be llmiuni bv the State, with reference to military si-rvire. .Migration fees may nut be levied. Article 12.— Krcedom n{ religious confession, of meeting in religious societies (Art. 80 anil 81), and of the common exerrise of religion In private and public. Is guaninleed. The enjoyment of riril Hiiil nolilleul riglils is imiepenilent of re- K'llef, yd Ihr duties of a citizen »r a sub- ^ ___ llglims t hi .Mil Deeemher, liii*. VuiVjVrt'to revision Jw-t nuiv not li- Impaired by tlie exercise of re- lii' nrilinarv course of legislnllon. and recog- "g]<'»* lllierty. Article 13.— Religious and clerical societies, whitli have no corimraU' riglilK, can only acquire thiwe riifhls by ajieelnl laws. Article 14.— The Chrislinn religion Is taken as the Iniois of Ihmie Suie inslilulions whirh are coniiecletl "i'li the exercise of religiun — all re- ligion* lll« ,• guaranteed by .\rt. 13 notwith- staniling. Article 15. '—The Protestant ami Itoman Caili- "lie t'liuwhes, as well as every iilier religious soclelv, regulaU- anil administer lb. ir own affairs In an Independent manner, and renmin in posses- sion anil enjoyment of llie institutions, founda- tions, auil niiineys iiiiemiiMl for their purposes of publir wiinhip (ilueallnn, ami charity. Article 16.*— Inieniiurw Mween religious socielii^s iind lliiir «U|M-ri<ir)< alinll li.' umilmtnirled. The making publir of Cliiin li nnllnanrea is only suhjeet to tlioae nutririiunt iniiHuvil i.ii all hIIiit |>uliii('iitiMn<i. Article 17. — .V ai^eclal law will U- pasaeil wllh r««|i<Mt to ( liunh patronage, ami tu the romlltiona on whirh it may lie aUilithnl. Article il.»— .VN.Ii.lieil is tlie right of nom- iiialing, pri>|M«|iig. elcitini! ami contlmiing. in the mailer of iililKiliilmi'iin In enleslaslieal (MMla, ill ao far n* il Inloiigii to the Mute, ami is not baa<ii oil palroimge or special h'gal lilies. Article 19.— Civil iiinrriage will lie inlnatureil In areorttanri' with a •lorlat law whirh ahall alao regnlalr ihi> killing of a 1 Ivll n-glsler. Article ao. — Scletm' and iiadorlrim'S are free. Article at.— The educalion of youth shiui lie siifflrienily rated for by loilillc srhiNils. Par- enis ami tlirir suballtuUM may mit leave llielr ihlHr-..-. ..!■ 3::!f5t- 'll'tw.t >ftS? pillKTitkHi {rfr. s('rih|.il for llie publir rnlk-sebiiuia niinl liy iNith Chambers of our Kingdom, haa bren MibniitUil to the piesrrtlieil revision; we luvr finally e^tablisbiil that Coualiluliii in sftiwment with both Chambers. Now, li.v'rf. fi)^. we pmmtilgate. as a fundamental law of tl» Stale, aa follows; — Article I.— .VII parts of the Monarrhy In its pruriit ( \lent form Ihe Prussian State Terrilorr. Article a.— The limits of this Stale Territory can only lie altered by law. Article 3.— The ( onsliiulion and the laws de- trraittio iiiiilir wimt eonilitions the quality and rttil h.-li!« of a IVussian may be acquire*!, exer- dinl. iin.l rorfrlted. Article 4.— All Prussians are equal lieforp the law ( liMi privileges there are none. Public nfflorr subject to the nmditiona ini|i<>Mil br hw, lire ri|uiillv accessible to all who are lom- prtrnt to hold them. Article 5.— Pi'Monal frei^dmii is giuranletMl. TV (.imi« ami romlilkms umier whirh any llmi- ttiloii iliin-of, esne<-lally arrest, is pi'rmiaaible. »ill Ih' .litermlnnl by law Article 6.— The domlrlle Is Inviolable Iniru- lioi Slid tearrh therein, as well aa the seding of lniir» mill papers, an' only allowe<l tn legallv a'llli.iras.'a. • ' Itlt'i rsM'a. Article 7.— No one mar he deprived of hisUw. ful Ju.li;. Kirepliooariribunals and exiraordl- mt\ rotiiiiiiaaiiun aw inatimisaibie Article S.— Piinislimentscaoonly be threalened tlnflirtiHl aeoorllng to the law. Article ».— IVopertv is inviolable, Itcan only » Uij.n 01 rurtatled fMm reusnns of public weal ••i i'»iiedienrv. ani| In retitm fnf atiiiybirT noffi- pemaiion which. In urgent cases at lenM, shall t» eieil hrfiirehand uf Article io.-( Iril death and n>«fleoalkin H' >- ny, as pUDlshioeata, are not poMlMe. • a«Mi«rt hf Ike ralklafra o( isn, a»l br Ike art o( m wktek r«|i*aM than Ise lleaeiwi A. b. Itn Iw. 697 i'f'" \t coNSTmrnoN of prcssia. Articit M.— Everr one ihaU be m libertr to fire inttructioii, and etttbllih iiutitutioiu for doing lo, providing he ihall hare Kiven proof of hi* moral, KieDtiirc, and technical capacity to the State authorities concerned. Artida 33.— All public and private inatltu- tions of an educational kind are under the super- Tislnn of authorities appointed by the State. Public teachers have the righta and duties of State arrvants. Article 14.— In the establishment of public folk'Srhmils.* confessional differences shall re- ceive the greatest possible consideration. Re- ligious liistrurtlon in the folk-schools vlll be superintended by the religious societies con- cerned Charge of the other (external) affain of the folk-schools Iwlonga to the Parish (Com- mune). With the statutory conncratlon of the Commune, the State shull appoint teachers in the public folk-ichoiila from the numlier of th<i«v quaflfleil (for surh posts). Article 35.— The means for establishing, main- taining, and enlarging the public fiilk-sch<Kjls shall lie provided by the Communes, whirh nwy, however. l)e assisted by the StaU- In provrn cases of psMchlal Inability. The obligations of third nersons — ^ased on special legal titles— remain in force. The State, therefore, guaranttn's to teachers In folk-schools a steady Income suitable to local drrumsunces. In public folk-schiK)ls education shall be Imparted free of charge. Artida 36.— A spechl law will reguUte all matters of cilucation. Articit 37.— Every Prussian Is entitled to vx- pn-ss his n|iinlim freely by word, wrillog, print, or nrtUtli' n pn'srntat'ion. Censorslilp may not lielntroiliiiiil; every other lestrlrtlim on fn'rdom of llii' I'rcM will .inly lie lnip<Hieil by law. Article 38.— I Mfences comniitte<l by WfirtI, wriliiig. prim, or iirtlsllt rroresentation will lie punUbiti iu Hci'onUnre with the general penal cikIiv Article 39.— All Prussians sre entltle<l to meet in I'liwed riHiniB. ix'scefully anil unarmnt. with- out previous iM'nnl>.4lon tnttn thi autboritle* But thin provision iloes nut apply In o|ien-alr inriltiurs. which are suhjiMt III till- 'inw with it-- siNii 1.1 previous permission frum ih.' autbnrl' Ill's Article 30.— All Prussians have ihr right to assemlili' (III sorlelles) for such piiriuitirs aailu imt contrsvi'iie the |ienal Isws. The Ihw ivIII n-gu- Ule, with s|iecUI regani to the preservallo'i nf public siiiirlty, the exerrtw of tin. right guaraii twil l)v tills mill till- pni'i-illiig article Article 31. -The law shsUileliTiuliie the cou iltlloiis iin which ciiriMirale rights may be granted or refiiHiHt Article 33.— The right of petitioning iMlonns 111 nil I'riiwlnna Petlliiins uinler a nilliTtlVf name are iinly |H'nnllteil In auilmrillra ami mr iHiralliiiK Article 33.— The privacy of lellers Is InvlolH- blr I'lic iMMTTWiry restrletliins of this right In real's .it wnr and m rrimlnal Inv-vtlgallmi, will lie ileiermlni'il liv law. Article 34. —All Prussians are liound to In-nr amiii The ixiinl and manner of tbia duly will be Itxi'il by law Artide «.— The armr r=-jr,pi1«Ri s!! s^-ft-rH ^tbestauinug army ami the Lawlwebr llerri- V n ies e t u .1 *We eaaeol iransisii CONSTITUTION OF PRUSSIA torial forces). In the event of war, the Kin* ru call out the Landsturm In accordance with tb(U» Artide 36 — The armed force (of the latiom can only be employe*! for the supprewilon of jj. temal troubles, and the execution nf iIr. ]„, ;. the cases and manner speclfled by sislute an.irm the requisition of the civil authorities ' In ih, latter respect exceplmns will have In In. Hhm mbied by law. " Article 37.— Tin- military j iiiliclarv nf the srnir is restricted to penal nisltiTK. uuil will u n-j,,' Isteii by law. Provisions with regsr.l i„ niili urv discipline will remahi the subject nf srHriil ordiuani'es Article 38.— The armed force (of ilic mtioiii may not deliberate either when on nr off limv nor mav It otherwise assemble than wlun i,>a. manded to do so. Assemblies ami imi-tinirs of the Landwehr for the purpose nf disciisaim; mjij. tary institutions, commands and onliimuci-j at forbidden even when It Is not cslleil mii Artide 39.— The provisions of An- ,', j» 3", uiid Sa will only apply to the arniy In „ f„ i>» Ihey do not conflict with inlllinrv laws tai rules of disi'iplin" Article 40.— The eBtal><lshmt'Qt nf fi luUl tm. ures is forlili:.ien. The Feudal Ininii «iill nut. lug with n-spiit to surviving flefs hIkiM t». ,|i,. solveil by Uiw. Artide 4t.— The provisions of .»n 4iii|oiio( apply 111 {'Mwn llefs or to Iinu-Muti tiet. Article 43.— AlmlUhed wllhniit iniiii«.|iMii,,^ In acconlaui'e with siieila' laws psM..!, nr- 1, Till" exercise or transfer of Juiliclal |i..w, 1 ,,«. iiertiil with the imsseaslou nf iirtiiiii Iji^i< ici. gi'iher with the diifs and exini|iiiciii« «,,riiiii|[ fmm IhU nht; 2. TlM'iililliraiinii,iiri»iiiL-fr« pstrinrclial jiirisilicllnn. va-ssnTiiiic. uml fumiirtu mill inuling InstitutioUH. Anil nlih ihrs.. nzhii »Tf nUialmllsheil the iimiitcritirvici naml luinliii, hitherto therewith ciinniTted. Artide 43.— The i«rsiiniif the Klugisln4.U- We. Article^.- The King's Ministers jin n»|i<iiiii ble All Oiivemment ads nliMiimeiiiiin j .( ibt King reiiulri' for their viilldiiy the iiiipn.val.f 1 Minlmer. who thereby assui.ien n •pniisiWIitr 1 « them Article 45.— The Klug alniie I* U:\,t\,4 villi execullve |i.iwer He ap|Hiiiit> mil iii»Diiim Minlnlew. He unlets the |'r..iimlgiiiii.ii ,.f L-.»», anil issues the neo'ssary iinliii:iiiii'. f.r iln-lrrtf CUtintl Article 46.— The King Is ( .immiiiiii. r lis t'!i»( nf I In- «rm\ Artide '47.— The King tllla nil |w.i« In ilir anuv, tts well as in nllii r bniiiilits ..f -he vii, wriliT, III so fr as nm niherwin.' nrUiiwI H lii\» Article 48.— . lie King has the rinlil I'xlniur war ami nuke |M-n<-<'. ami In cmilu'li' 'Hlwi tri'Hlies with fnn'litn gnvrmnH'ntii The liitri r<'i|iiire '.ir their validity IIm' snwtil •<( tin ! Iwm Is-rs in sn far as |l,.y sri' 1 nninMn Ir.l !n'»U<« 1 Impiisi' hunleiis on tlie Ntale. nr nhllmiii'SH '« itK iiiilividiial sulijei'in. Article 49.— TTh' King hss iIh- ru'lii 1 ' \'U dun, ami to mitigate puulshnu'Ri IImi 11, fai'iir of a Minister cmHlemueil fur lii« 'ittii*! m-u. ihhi light ran nnir t« iXiTaM-.i ..1. :;,. r....;:.; -f thai Cnalblier whence his Indli'imrM einsiutei Only by s|ierlal Uw i-an the KIuk ■u)ipR«ia ijttillee tiresilv Inatltuteit r.Ds CONSTITUTION OP PRUSSIA. CONSTITUTION OP PRUSSIA. Artidt SO- — 1^* K^S ■»*7 confer orden and other distinctioni, not ourring with them priTi- legea. He ezerclMi the right of coinage in ac- coidance with the law. Article 51.— The King conrokee the Cham- ben, and cloaei their leidoni. He may diMoWe both at once, or only one at a time. In luch a OK. however, the elector! muit be auembled witblo a period of flO days, and the Chamben lummoned within a period of 80 daya retpect- >«lv after the diiaolution. Article 5a.— The King can adjouin the Cham- ben But without their aaaent thia ad]oum- meDt may not exceed the ipacc of 80 dayi, nor be repest'od during the lame ieaaion. Article 53. — The Crown, uccunling to the hwt iif the Royal Home, u hereditary in the mile line of that Houie in accordance with the Uw uf primngeniture and agnatic aucceaiiou. Article M.— The King atulns hie majority on completing his 18th year. In preaence of the uDiit^l C'Uambere be will take the oath to nb- lerre the Constitution of the Monarchy stead - futir and inviolably, and to rule in accordance vilb'il and the laws. Article 55.— Without the consent of both (hsmlien the King cannot also be ruler of for- cifin n-alnis (Keiche). Article 56.— If the King Is a minor, or is oibrrwiar lastingly prevented tn>m ruling him- ►If, the Kegenry will lie umlrruken by that agnalt'lArt .V))whohasaltaine<l bis majority and ttuiibi ni'srrst the Crown. He has immediately to n>nvi>k>' the Chambers, which, iu uuiliii M-ssitiu. will (leriile as to the neressity of the Kegency. Article 57.— If there ttv no agnate of age, and if DO li gal pruriaion has previously beeu made (or«ii(li B r<intirgency, the Minlstrv of tState will ciiDvciJH' the Chamljers, wblih shall then eh-rt a Krifi'iil In uultitl sesiiiiin. And until thuassunip- tiiiii "f llii' Iteifency by him. the Minbtrj' of Stale will cniiiliict the Oovi-mment. Article 58.— The Itegent will exercise the p»w iT»inw»ii-<l In tlie King in !)'>' latter s name ^ and. allir iiLitituficin iif the Iwirimy lie will take an mill In lure the unitid ChamUra to ota-rve the ( iistituiiiin of the Monarchy st4«4lfaslly and In li^laMy. and to rule in acennlance with It and ihi laHfi. Tnlll this oath is taken, the whole Minijln- nf State for the time being will remain ti«|iun>iili|(> for all arts iif thi' (Joveniment Article S9 — To the Crown Trust Fund apper 'al:i»llii annuity drawn from the income o( the I' h<liinndih>nuiliu. Article to.— The MIniaters. as wrll as the Kiate .'ffliiaU nppi>lnle<l to repnwnt them. hav<' ani>iu I (Mik I ImmlH-r. and must at all linn's \» listemil I" HI (ii|iiHil tjirh ChanilMT can deiimud llw |.n«Mii ,,f the Minister*. The Minlnler* un' <m\\ luiltliil til vote In one or otiwr of IIm' Chain Ivn a bin members i>( it. Article «!.— On the ivaolutlim of a I'hnmlii'r Ihr MinUters may lie imiirarhiil fur the i-rlme uf InMnelng the i tmstilulliin. nf brtUry. and nf trrwm The defisioa of aueh a caae lies wlih it» suprrnw Tribunal of the Mmiarrhy sitting In luiif.1 hmates. Aa long as two rtupreror TrI- buiuU I'ueitat, tl.ey ahall unite for tlir aUivi- '"''"?!.. fuflw' •••••lla as u> matU'r* nf n- :,. ssKiiliij , (( riiuiuaii pfuwdure (Uirrvu|>i>ui, and puutslmirnu, ai« raarrved for a siiecial hiw Article ••.—The leglaiaUve power will he ex tn ImhI la rummuo by Uw IUb( aad by twu duuB- hers. Every law requires the aaaent of the King and the two Chambers. Honey bills and budget! shall first be laid before the Second Chamber : and the latter ti. e., budgets) shall either be wholly approved by the Pint Chamber, or rejected alto- gether. Artidt 63.— In the event only of Its being urgently necessary to maintain public security, or deal with an imuaual state of distress when the Chandlers are not in session, ordiuancea, which do not contravene the Conatltution, may be Issued with the force of law, on the reaponJ- bility of the whole Ministry. But these must be laid for approval liefore thu Chambers at their next meeting. Article 64.— The King, as well aa each Cham- ber, lias the right of propoaing lawa Bills that havu liein rejected by one of the Chambera, or by the King, cannot be re-introduced in the same aesslnn. Article! 6s-M.— The First Chamber is formed by royal onllnanci-. which can only lie altered by a law to tw liisiied with the app'mval of the Chambers. The First Chamber is composed of uiembei^ appi>inte<l by the King, with heredit- ary rights, or only for life. Article 69.— The Se< oud Chamlier coiuists of 4-to tuemlx-rs • The elettoral districU are de- tiniiined by law. They may consist of one or umn' I'lrcles (Ammdissements), or of one or more of the larger towns. Article 70.— Kvery l*russian who has com- plitdl hU 2.'5th year il. e . attained bis majority), anil i» ca|ialiU' ipf luklni; imrt In the elections "of the Coiiinmni' nlure he 1h domiciled. Is entitled to net Hs a primary voter (l'r*tthleri. Anyone who I.H rnliileil l.i lake part in the election of several Communes, can only exercise his right aa primarj' vntt-r ;.i otic ('omniiiue. Article 71.— For every a.Vl souls of tlip popu- lillon. one (se<'ondary) elector (W-ihlmanni ahall lie choM'n The primary voters lall Into three cliiHMK. in pM|xirtliin In the amount of direct taxes Ihry pay— and iu such a manner as that each claM will nprewnt a Ihlnl of the suinlolal nf the taxes paid by the priinarv voters. TItlj Kiiin-tiital l» nckiiniil — (a) by IVirishes, in caae • (iinimuiie lines mil fiinn of itself aiirlmary ictnrd district (In by (linvemmeuti IMstrlcta lliextrkc), in i-niK' the primary- elvcliiral district ron- sIstHiif sivi rail nmniiiiKi! The II ml cbjis consist! nf lliiiiM- priniiiry vnters. hiirh.nt In the scale of taxatinn. nlm imy u third nf the mial. The sec- ninl class iiiii«l»i« nf thioH- priinsrr vntcrs. nelt hii;hest In the ainlc. «liiw luxis t^irni a sci-ond thinl of the n hnlc, and llii- thinl cliuw Is miule up nf the nniuiniiii; tax piiytra ilnwint In llic m-ale) whn cmirilmte the .tliir thini nf the whole. Much iUt» xnli'K a|<nrt. and fnr a tlilnl nt lb* set iinil:iry eli'ctnta. Thenc classes may lie diviiled liilii si'vi ml vnting seclinus. none nf which, how- ever, niii'-t Incluili mure than ,VN| iirimKry viitrrt. Tile stiniiiliiry voters an elerteil in each cUat fmni the uiiinlHT if the prtmorv voters iu their district, mtluiul nimni to tlie classes. Article 7».— Till ilcpiities atr elected by ib« nwnilary vntcn Ihiallswlll be regulated by all ehntn'r;!! Irw, which must siso make the iieevs- snry |irnrl«lnn fur tlioae cities wlicre flour and siniiiriiKT liuiira UT ievioi instead oi direct iaze& • owtnallr wi nnir s niimhw »hlek. lb ISM. *aa torrsMnl li) « (..r lb- IVIai'l|WlH< <>r Hu !■ IWt bf m (uc Uir aa-waart iwuvians 699 •'Mil J; n CONSTITUTION OF PRUSSIA. Artielt 73.— The IcgUUdTe period of the Sec- ond Ctuunbn- to fixed at three jmn. Article 74.— KHsible ■• deputy to the Second Chamber to ererj PruMton who hu completed hto thirtUth year, haa forfeited none of hto drll righta in oonie<menoe of ■ valid Judicial lentenre. aad baa been aPruialan lubject for three yeart. The president a.iil member* of the Supreme Chamber of Accu'inta (-annot alt In either Houk ol fbe Diet (LanJt.f;;. Article 75.— Aftrr the lapae of a legUUtlTe period the ClmmUTj will be elected anew, and the Mine in t'le event of <li<aolution. In both cBseg, prevloua members are re-eligible. Article 76.— Both Houies of the Diet of the Monarchy aball be regularly convened by the Kini; in the period from the Iwginningof Novem- Iwr in each year till the miilille of the following January, and otherwiae aa often a< circumstances riciuire. Article 77.— The Chambers will be opened and cIixkhI by the King in person, or by a Minister appoinU'ii bv him to do ».>. ut a combined ait- ting iif the Chambers. Both Chambers aball be sim'ultaneoualy convened, openeti. adjourned, and cluaril. If one Chamber is dissolvnl, the other shall be ut the same time prorogued. Article 78.— Each ChamlKT will examine the crpfientlala of Its memhera, and tieciile then-iipon. It will tTX>'late Its own onlemf liuabi'-asanil dls- ciplinv liy ^(HKrial onliuances, and elect its prcjl- dent, vici preaidcnta. and oBlce-bearers. Civil servants require no leave of absence In ortln- 'o enter the Chamber. If amemtierof theChan.i< • acct |ita n salaried olBce of the State, or la pm- motiil In the service nf the State to a post Involv- ing hlK>ier p«nk or Incn'UKc of par. he shall lone his seat ami vote in the Cliamlier. and can only re<'tiver hia place In It hy re-election. No one can lie memlK-r of Ixiih CliamlK-ra. Article 79.— The aitllnga of iKith Chambers are pul)llc. On the motion •<( lia prraMent. or of ten menilMTs, each ChamlxT umy meet in private sitting— at which this motion will then nave to lie <lle<u<se<l. Articla 80.— Neither of 'le Chamliers can pass a nxiliitlon unless there he present ,1 majoritv of thi' legal numlier of its memlM'm Encli Clmmlx'r |»isar« lis reaolutlona by absolute ma- jority of votes, subject to any exceptions that may l)e determlnril by the onler of bualness for elections. Article ll.—Eat'h ChamlK-r has the bcparale riirht of prrsa-nllng lolilrfwu-s to the King No one may In |H'r*iin priM'nl to the Chnmlieni. or to one of ihem, a peiliion or mMreia. Eiidi Chamber can transmit the communlcaliona maib' to li to the Ministers, and demand of them an su»»ir to any grievani-es thus coM\eye<|. Article Ir— Each Chsmber is rnlltlisl to ap- point commlMlons of ini(uiry into facts — for tta own Inronnation. Article Ij.— The members of both ChainlH-rs are nprew-n la lives of the whole people Tliiy vote aii'oriltng lo their simple convictions, an<°l aiv not iKiund In' commissioua or instructions. Article 14.— Kiir their votes In the Chamber they call nevi r lie callril to account, and for the opinions they expn-ss therein they can onlv \m rallnl (J, !K-<---..ir,? wl'hin i.iir Chambrr, in vfrtuc of the order fif iMHineaa. No member of a Cbamlier can. without Its aaarnt, lie had up for examlnalliin, or lie am-sinl during the Harihi- CONSTITIJTION OF PRCS8U. mentai7 aewion for any penal offri:ce, unlesa b< be taken In the act, or In the coarse of the fo|. lowing day. A similar atient shall be necrsurr in the case of arrest for debts. All criraini proceedings against a member of the Chamber and all arrests for preliminary examination, or civil arrest, shall be siupended during the Pu. liamcntarr session on demand from the Chsmbfr concemea. Article Sc — The members of the Seromi Cbamlier shall receive out of the Stale Tn^urr tia veiling expenses and daily fees, acconling t,u statutory scale; sod renundation thereof thall be inadmissible. Article 86.— The Judicial power will be exrr- ciseil in the name of the King, by Indepeoiimt tribunals subject to no other authority but list of the law. Judgiaent shall be exi>ciite<l in ibe imnie of the King. Article 87.— 'file judges will be appointeil f ,r life hy the King, or In his name. Thev can railr be removnl or temporarily suspended from olh.i by JudlcUl sentence, and for resviis fowieen by the law. Temporary siupension from ollioe m.'- ensuing on the strength of a law), and Invuluntarr transfer lo another place, or to the retired li-t can only uke place from the causes ami In iW form mentlnnc<l by law, and in virtue of a ju.liiiil si'ntence. But ti. esc provisions do not applv to cases of transfer, rtndered necessary by ihaiiL'fj In the organisation of the courts or their .llsiriits Article 88 (ili-litlua). Article 89.— The organisation of the tribunaii will onlv lie determined hy law. Article 90,— To the Judicial offlce ..nly tb.w can 1h' appolnleil who have qualified tin inii.h>! for It an prescrilieil by law. Article 91, —CourU for special kir. l.i..f nJair. and in particular, tribunals for trade ami c 1;: mi rce. shall lie eslablishe*l by itatuti- in tb.- places where local neeils may requiri' ilii m. TL organisation and Jurisdiction of auih (oims. ,i» well as their procedure and the appointment f their momliers, the special sta'us of ihi. laitir and the duration of their ofllce, will b<' ilctermlQe'l by law. 'Article 9a.— In Prussia there shall only Iv 'u aiipn-ine tribunal. Article 93.— The procee<iings of the civil m.I criminal courts shall be public. But tlie piiMi. may tie excluded liy an openly declan-tl n ...lull .0 of the court, when onler or goml ni..Ml» nuv ««fm endangered (by their ailmlttancei. In oil; t rnmn piilillcily of proceedbigs can I'uly In' liml'. i by law Article 94.— In criminal cases the guilt of th' aci'uwil aliHll lie delcrmin<^l by jurMiHii. m •" far aa esnpilons are not delerinliiiil I'V n ii" iasue<l with the previous assent of tii.i n.im- lars The formation of a Jury.coiirl »h4il It n'giilateil by a law Article 95. — By a law issueil with tin- prrri. oua assent lif the Chambers, there may l» niab- llshi^il a sp<Hia! court whereof the j':i- .viidia •hall Include the crimes of high treawu. « wfU as those crimes against the Interns! anl . tTrmt. security of the Htate, which may he ;i!uiL-n<-.l ' it by law. Articla 96.— The rompetrnrvof the 1 urtauJ of thr .'i^iluinUtrallVe aulliorilira aiino :» iit-r. rainol by law Conflicts of aullioritv I«i»itb the couru ami lite a<lmlnlslnitive autho'riiM kIisII he sellkni by a triliunal appuintv<l li.v la<r GOO CONSTITUTION OF PRC88IA. CONSTITUTION OP PRUSSIA. Article 97. — A law ihall detennine the condi- tioiu iiii vhich public, civil, and military officials mar he aueil for wrongs committed by them in eimtling tlieir functions. But tlie previous assent of olBcial superiors need not be re- uurttetl. Article 9S. — The special legal status (Rechts- rerbultuisst') of State ofllciaU (including advo- CHi('4 anil Milicitors) not belonging tu the judicial fki>. »lwll III' determined by aliiw. which, with- out iv«lrii'iiug the Oovemmtnl in the choice of its executive agents, will grant civil serrauts pr>|ier pmtection against arbitrary dismissal from their posts or diminution of their pay. Article 99. — All income and expenditure of the State must Iw pre-estimateil for every year. suit I" prewntpii in the Uudget. which shall Ik anuiiaily tixe<l by a law. Article 100. — Taxes and ilues fur the 8late Tn i«urv iiinv ""'y ''* raised in so far as they fhall liave In-eu in'luded in the Budget or or- (l:mn-'i l>y siM*cial laws. Article lOi. — In the matter of taxes there must Ih' no privilege of persons. Existing tax- laws >lmll lie subjected to a revision, and ull siii'li privileges al)olislied. Article loa. — .Slute and Communal otHcers ran oalv levy dues itn the 8tn>ngtli of u law. Article 103. — The contracting of loans for the J^tiieTnasury can only Iw effeeled on the streniclh < f a Ian : anil the sanie holds giHxl of guanuilees iQviiUiiic a Inirden to the State. Article 104. — Budget tmiisgreiuioiM remiire milixiiiient appnnal by the t liunilHrs. The Biiil- p t will Im' examinetl and Hudile<i by the Supreme tbaml«Tiif Accounts. The general Budget «i • I. Hints of every year, including tabular statistics if the Xatiiiuai Debt, shall, with the comments iif tbe Supnnie Chamlier of Accounts, lie laid Ik fiirv the Chambers for the purpose of exonerat- in.' the (eivemment. .V special law will regulate l:i"i«tnl<li''liiiirnt and functions of the Supreme i irimluT t'f Accounts. Article 105.— I iie npn-wnlation and ndminis- t-iM 11 lit the ('iiniiniiiiiH .\rniiidiMM'nieulsHiid I'ruvimis of the I'ruasian State, will lie deter- nii:te>l ill lUtall by special laws. Article 106. — Laws and onlinances becoiu> linilini; after having lieen published in the fonn [ rescrilsHl by law. The examination of the valid i.y nf pM|H'rly promulgatiti Royal onlinances i- niil within the competence of the authorities, but of the t'liamliers. Article 107.— The Constitution may he altered )> <irlin»ry lefislatlvc means: and such altera- li.iii slmll menly n-uiiire the usual absolute nia- tihiy In laiih I'haiiiis'rs on two divisions (ot the UmmM Is-twivu which there must elapse a (HTioil et at Itiat twenty-one days Article ie>.— The meinlN>rs ot both (^hamlirrs. tinl ill Stut olHcials. shall take the oath of fealtv snil iiliedience to the King, and swear conscieutl- emiy to olnerve the Conslltullon. Tlie army will nut take the oath to the Ci^iwtltutlou. Article 109.— Existing Uxes and dues will Continue to In' raised: and all pnivlaloDS of ex- litiBn Matiile-bouks. single laws, and ordinances, wlileli iln not contravene the pment Cuoalltutiou, will remain In force until altrmd by law Articie i IS,— Ail autburiliea huMiDK appoiui- ni-nii In virtue of ailiUng laws wlu continue tkeir activity pmdiag the laiM of urg Mic laws iDNtluK them. Article 1 1 1. — In tbe event of war or revolu- tion, and pressing danger to public security therefniin ensuing. Articles 5, 8, 7, 27, 28, 29, *), and 36 of the Constitution may lie suspended for a certain time, and in certain districts — the de- tails to be determined by law. Article i la.— Vutil issue of the law contem- plated ill .Vrtieli' 26, educational matters will be contriilliil In- the laws at present in force. Article 113.— I'rior to the revision of the criminal iinle. ;i spt-ciul law will deal with ollences i-oiiiiiiiiied by word, writing, print, or artistic r preM-iitiition' Article 114 I'll'Jia/iii'). Article 115-— lutil issue of the electoral law conteinphiteilin .\rtiele7i. the onliimnce of 30th May. 1M4». touiliinir tin- return of deputies to the Seeimd ('liainlN>r. will remain in force; and with this onliimuee is .iwociated the pnivisinnnl cli-ctiinil liiw for elections to the Siioiid Cham- lier in lie- lloheuzolleru Principalities of 3(nh April. IV.i Article 1 16. — The two supreme tribunals still existing' ^hall lie conibiued into one — to be or- gauivil liy a special law. Article 117.— Till- claims of Slate olflclals ap- poiutitl iH-fiiri' till promulgation uf the Constitii. tion shall la- taken into s|H-ciul consideration by till ( ivil S rvant Law. Article 118.— Should changes in the present Ciiiistiiiiiion !«• riihien-d iieivssnry by the Oer- iiiaii Ki'di ral CnHsiiiiilion In lie drawn up on the basis of the I>mft iif •-Htili Mav. isw, such altera- tions will Ik- lit! neil I'., the Ring; and the onli- uaiic.?. til this I iTict laiil Isfon- the ( hamliera. at their first iiievtiiig. The CliaiiilH-rs «lll then have to decide whether the chunges thus pro- visionslly ordained harmonise with the Federal Constitution of (teriiiany. Article 119.— The Royiil oath nientloueil in Artirle .'>4. as well m the" niilh pn'strilKii to Iw taken by ls>th CliaiiilN-rs ami all State olHcials. will have to Ih' tendered inimtsllHtely after the leiilslative revisinn of the pri'scnt Constitution (.Vrtlehs 6i and iKHi In witness whereof we have hereunto set our signature and seal. Given at Cburlottenburg. the 31»t January, ^.V) (Signed) Fhikphii il W1UHKI.JI ' In loiinertion with .Vrtide 44 the cours<' of do. iiiestic and parliamentary imlitics drew forth the tollowimt m-eliimtorv liestript from the Uerinaa Km|H<Mr uiiil King i">f I'russia. in IWJ;— -The riKht iif till King to conduit the (ioverument and |M>liev of I'russTa aiionlinkt to his own discre- tion fs limited l>v the t onstltiition (of January 31, l«,'W)i. but not alHilisheil The tiovernnmitact* (documeutHryi of the Kiiiir riiiuin' the counter- signature of a MinNler. nml, as was also the case liefore the Cotistllutioii was issiieil. have to be repn'stnted by the Kiiik's .Ministers: but they Iievertlieli-SK remain Ooveriiiiieiit ai-ls of the King, from wliixtdecisliiiis they nsiilt,and who thereby constitutionallyexpn'SseshUwilland pleasure ft Is therefore not admissible, and leads to obscura- tion of the eonstltutional rights of tbe King, when their exeri'lse is so s|>oken of as If they emanated fnim the Ministen for the time being'respoiulhle for iiieiii. auil not rioiii the Kiug hiiuself. The Couslltii'lon of I'ruista Is the expreailua of th* monanhlcal tradition of this country, whoee de- velopment Is baaed on the living and actual re* 601 CONSTITUTION OF PRUSSIA. latlotn of Ifi King* to the people. ThcMreUtlona, moreover, do not admit of \ielnK tr«n»ferred to the Mlntaterg appointed by the King, for they at- tach to the per«on of the King. Their prewrva- tlon. too. Is a political nece«8ity for Pniiaia It is, therefore, my will that both In PruMia and In the Legtalatlve Bodie» of the realm (or Reich), there may be no doubt left as to mr own consti- tutional right and that of my successors to per- sonally conduct the policy of my Government; ami that the theory shall always be gainsaid that the [doctrine of the] invioUblllty of the person of the King, which lias alwavs eilsto<l in Prus- sia, and is enunciatetl by Article 48 of the Con- stitution, or the uecessitv of a responsible counter- signature of my (Jovemraent acU, deprives them of the character of Royal and lndep«"n<lent deci- sions. It is the duty of my Ministers to support ^^^1^'^^'^}?^ OP THE ROMAN BT?2,*'.?.'^'I"T'°'' ^^ "^HE ROMAN RE- PUBLIC. See Home: B. C, .100, to B. C 2H6 also fOMITIA CE.NTrRIATA; CoJIITIA Cl RIATA ! ( ONBILS, HoMA.\ ; Co.XBlLAB TlUBCSES ; SWJATE ROMA.N; PutBKlAJCS. CONSTITUTION OF SWSDEN. S.T,£?°**^"*!2?' '*5'"* »'y P'?'e«i''R them from doubt and ob«:urstlon. and I expect Ih^ mZ from all htate servanu (Beamten) who have tZn to me the offleUl oath. I am far from wbiSJ ° mpairthe freedom of elecUons, buin ih.ciJo? those officials who are lntruste<l with the oxh- tlon of my Government acta, and tn«r. i(,i.r,fo"' In conformity with the disciplinary" law wjj; he r situations, the duty solemnly i.n.Krtak™ by their oath of service ateu applies to the nnre-.ni/ tlonby then, of the polty of my 0.,S™, during election times. The falthfGl ih rfcirman™ of this duty I shall thankfully ackno'w"^,™ "n^ I expect from all ofBcUls that, in view of thS oath of allegiance, they will n-fraln from nil ari tation against my Government also diirin« f W '.'."■"■^T •'"'■"''• J»nu»"7 4. ISHU.-WiLiiELM \o!< Bismarck. To the Ministry of Stau' CONSTITUTION OF SOLON s» Athekb: B. C TM. ^ CONSTITUTION OF SPAIN (i8iai. Sr Spain: A. I). 1H1+-1S27 (i«6o). ."..sp.rT See ( oRTEs. ' ■ Four fundamental laws account for the pres- ent political constitution of Sweden: the law concerning the form of govimment (legerinirs- fomien) dsti^l .Iiine 8. IWW; the law on represen- tation (riksdagsordnlngen), June 22. 1H68 the order of s'.icoewion (successions-ontningen) Sep' 2«. IHIO; and the law on the liberty of the preai (tryckfribcU'fnronlningen). July 16, l!*12 The union with Xi.rway is regulate<l by the act of union (riksaktenl, Aug 6. 1815. .'. The n- primnlation of the nation, since the law of Jun^ •— . 1«««, n'Bts not as foniurlv on the division of Jtie n.iilon Into four onli-rs, but on election onlv Two . Iianibers. having equal authority, coniixic the ilii t The members of the flrst chamlier are fltcte<l for nine years by the ■ landstingen ' (si*- ne« of provin<-lal asM>mblles) and by the sta'ls- fullmftkilge ■ (municipal counsellors) of cities which do not sit in the landstlng .■—/..i/w', ' ^"'^'^*"-:'f I'"'H*'nl Sfifitei, e, 8, fiji. H*i-M.11 — "The First Chamtjer consisu (IWii i,f 147 iiKiiitiers, or one deputy for every ;«l.(i>Ml .,f the p.pulation. The ehrtlon of the memU rs takes pla.-.- by the •Un<lstlngs,or proviiuikl nprr- mniatlons. iH In number, awl the municiiml cor liMmilonsof the towns, not already re|.r.«nt«l in the; Undoings, Su.kliolm, OOt'eberg Malmn and NorrkOping. All memb<r» of the Mmt I hanit»-r must he above 85 years of ai-e, and must have |H>»wsse<l for at least thrw yean n.,-. vlous to the election .lth.T n-al pr..p..rtT to the laXHl value ol mi.im kroner, or 4 444 1 or an ' BHiMial iii.„me of 4.ll'lll kriuier, or 288 ' They ar.. elc. ted f..r the irrm oi nineyears. and obtain no [wyment for tlKlr services. The .Se.x«d Cham- ' U-r .xmsisu (.\iitunin INt«» of t» inemln-rs <.f whom 78 are elected b • the towns an<l 148 l.y the ! rural .ll.trirt^ one reprr= , ..„)v^ Mi>s fri-Jrord ' f..r every 10 OOO of the ,H,pu!atlon of lowu* one Li'..«T. ' [^"""W' ;" f"™l Jl«rict, of under «U.OW laliabltaiiu, and two fcr rural disiilcu of CONSTITUTION OF SWEDEN. over 40.000 inhabitants. All natives of Sw«ta aged 21 P^wessing real property to ih,. ,,ae,i yalue of i.Ono kroner, or 56 1., or fartninir ' r a perioil of not less than Ave v.ars Inii.l.,! propjrty tothj taxed value of 6,iiiHi kpin.r r 838 I . or paying im^me tax on an aiiuii:i; in come of HOO kroner, or 45 1. , are elc.tor> :m\ nil natives, agiKi M, possessing, an.l havini; iv* sesmil at least one year | revious to the . lii-ii,,,, the same <iuallflcatlons, may U- clc.te.l nuiul.N of the Second thamber The niinilMT .f nujii fl«l electors U> the Sec-ond C'hamher in 1-<B<I wm 2(*(<,0»8, or 6.0 of the population; onlv ll»'<li« or 88.5 of the electors actually vnttnl In tie smaller towns and country districts ihf clirtiun may either be direct or Inillrect, aoconling !.■ tht wish of the majority. The elwlion U f,.r the term of three venrs, and the meniJMr. ..Innla salarif^ for their services, at the rat.' nf l.-Jiw kmner, or 87 I., for each session of f.uir iiionlli« be.ides travelling expenses. . . Th,. nifniNn of Ixith Chambers are electe<l by Iiali.t, tx.ih in town anil countr)-."—.Sf,i/«,M,ini )"»vir.V.,/l, l««| II. m'i — •■ Th.' Diet, or KIkadag. aawmlilti ev^^ year, in i>r<llnary session, on the l.Mhurjanuatr or the day following. If the IS'h it a h< ll.ls • It may b«. convoknl in extraordinary seailim liv ihf king In caM) of the decease, alisen' .■, ..r iftnr* of the king, the Diet may lie convoke.1 .itMur dinarily by tht Council of Sta-e. or ev.n, i\ lliU Utter neglects Ui i|o so, by the tribunals .f ireona instance. The king m»v dissolve the t»,. <h»n- liers simultaneously, or one of then aloiii'. dur Ing the onlinary seaai^ins. but Vie n< v Dii-t v- teniWes after the three months of the dlssolut' in. Mid can r.nly be. dls«>lved kgain f"iir m.-nthi after resuming its sitting. Tlie kin;i (li*.|v,i thi exirnurUiuary atsajon when be linnu iir^prr _ . The Diet divides the right . f lnillsii»8 with the king: tbeenotent of the syn<«l is necn- sary for rcclMiMUcal Uwi. . . . Every thrts UU2 CONSTITUTION OP SWBDEK. CONSTITUTION OF SWEDEN. reiui the Diet name* a commiiiion of twraty- lour memberi (twelvo from each chamber), cburged with the dutv of electing liz penons wIk) are coromiaioiied under the presidency of the Procureur general of the Diet to watch over the liberty of the preia."— O. Demombynes, Con- gitiili'int Euroitiennes, t. 1, pp. 84-90.— The fol- en'.Dg ii the text of the Conititutlon a< adopted li IdSl). the lubiequent modificationi of which ue indicated above: Form of goTemment adopted by the King and the Estaui of the Swedlih Realm, at Stoclcbolm, on the 6th of June, 1809: together with the Alteraiion* afterward* introduced. We fharles, bv the Orece of God, King of the 8w«ie«. the Goths, and the Vandals, ic. ic. 4c. Heir to Norway, Duke of Bleswick-Holstein. £iu>rnMm. and Ditmarsen. Count of Oldenburg uitl IH'Imenhorst, Jcc. &c. ic. make known, that hSTing unllniitetl confidence iu the estate* of the rtslni. rharged them with drawing up a new form nf icovemnu-nt, as the perpetual ground- work of the prosperity and independence of our common native land. We do hereby perform a dear nml |ilett»ing duty In promulgating the fun- dsmcniiil law (which iiaa been) upon mature de- lilnnition. framc<l and atiopted by the estates of the O'ttlni, and presented unto 'I's this day, to- jtrlliir with their free and unanimous otfer of the Sweilish crown. Having with deep emotion >n<l an atlcciionate interest in the pMsiierity of « nation which has afforded Vs su striking a'pronf of roDiiiience and attachment, complleil witii llieir nM|iiest, We trust to our endeavors to pro- mote its happiness, as the riH-iprocnl rights and iluti"i> of the monarch and the subjects have 1»TD marked so distinctly, that, without en- rnmliment on the sacre<i nature and power of nwji.ty, the constitutional lilwrly of the [teople in IIP iti'CtMl. We do therefore lien'by adopt, ismlioa. and ratify this form of government, larli as it follows here: — We the underwritten representatives of the SwclUh realm, counts, barons, biKho|)s, knights, ix>lil<'4. ('lereymen, burghers, and p<'aaanta, as- frmtilcil at a geneml Diet. In behalf of ourselves tmliiiirlirethrenathome, IViherfhy make known. tliai. having by the late change of government, to •lliih we. the deputies of the Swedish p^'ople. f«n- ..iir i.nanlmous assent, exercised our righU iidlrawini! up a new and iniptuTe<l constitution, wf have, in repealing those fundamenul law». wbkh ilown to this day have Ix'en in force niort- it km: viz., —The Form of Government of the Jl«i . f .Vujtust 1772, the Ait of fnlon and Se- .■uni\ . ..f the 2Ut of Febrtiary anil the Sil of .Vpril I7S9. the l>nlinano> of Diet, of the 34th of January 1«17, ai well as all th<*' laws, acta, •utulm. ami resolutions ciinipn'heniled umler i1k> ileiioiiilnation of fundanienttd laws ; — We hsvi- Ki-iK.lvii) to adopt for the klngiiom of Swe- den aoil lia lirpendencies the following cimstilu- tion. wbii h fMm henceforth shall be the chief fuiHianirnul hiw of the realm, rearrTing to t»ur- Kiv«. I,ef„rr the expiration of the present IMet, w nmsi.lir the other fumlamenul laws, men- Uomil in the Mth article of this constitution. Articia I. The kingdom of Sweden shall U- fotrrtieil l.y « king, who shall be heivdiury In that ..nJer of auPTMainr. whl<h «hp t^fv.f^ wl!! ' tunhrr hereafter determine. I ». TTh' king shall pmfeia the pure evangelical | faith, such u U cuotolacd and declared In the I Augiburgian Confesdon, and explained in fba Decree of the Diet at Upaala in the year 1598. 3. The majesty of the king shall bo held sacred and inviolable: and bis actlona shall not be •ubtect to any censure. 4. The king shall govern the realm alone, in the manner determined by this constitution. In certain cases, however, (to be specified) he (hall take the opinion of a council of sUfe, which shall be constituted of well-informed, experienced, honest, and generally-esteemed native Swedes, noblemen and commoners, who profeaa the pure evangelical faith. 5. The council of state shall consist of nine members, vix., the minister of state and tustice, who shall always be a member of the kiiig's su- preme court of Judicature, the minister of state for foreign affuirs, six counsellors of state, three of whom at least must have held civil offices, and the chancellor of the court, or aulic chancellor. The secretaries of state shall have a seat and vote in the council, when they have to report matters there, and in cases that belong to their respective departmenU. Father and son, or two brothers, shall not be permitted to be constant memliers of the council of state. «. The secretaries of sUte shall be four, viz. — line for military sfTaIrs; a second for public economy, mining, and all other affairs connected with the civil and Interior administration ; a third for the finances of the realm. Inland and foreign commerce, manufactures, &c. ; and the fourth, for aflaira relating to religion, public educatioi., and charities. 7. All affairs of government shall be laid iH-fore the king, ami decideil in a council of stale: those of a ministerial nature, however, ex- cepted, concemlng the relations of the reahn with foreign powers, and matters of military command, which the king decides in his capacity of commander-in-chief of the land and naval forci'S. 8. The king can make no decision in matters in wliiili the eouncil of state are to be beard, un- less at least thn-e counsellors of state, and the secretary of state whom it concerns, or his deputy- 8."crctary, are present — All the members of the council shall, upon due notice, attend all deliber- ations ileemeil of importance, and which concern the general nilministration of the affairs of the kingi'.om. sinh as iiuestions for adopting new statutes, n-pealiiig or altering thos<> in existence, intriHlucing new institutions in the different branches of the ailiiiluistration, ijtc. O. Minutes simll U' kept of all matters which shall come U'foro the king in hia council of state. The mlnisU'rs of stJite. the counsellors of sUte, the aulic chanirllor, and the secretaries of state or ilemityMtntarles. shall Ih> peremptorily bouiul to deliver their opinions: it is, however, the pre- rogative of the king to decide. Should It, how- ever. unex|iectedly occur, that the decisions of the kine are evidently contrary to tlie nmstitu- tion and the common law of tne realm, it shall in thai rase 1m- the duty of the members of the council of state to nuke spirite<l remoDstrances against such decision or resolution. Unless • ilifferi'nt opinion has been recorded in the niin- utes(for then the counsellors pnteot shall be con- sttlrfT-r! ni ioving advised the king to the adcnicd measun I the members of the council (hall be n-spoitsible for tbcir advice*, i« enacted io th« lUflth article. COS CONSTITUTION OF 8WEDBN. 10. Necettary Inforniktiona haring been de- manded and obtained from the proper boards, nuthurtttei, and functionariea, the alhin for de- lilicration shall lie prepared by the secretary of state and eight sliilful and impartial men, con- sisting of four nobles and four commoners, In oriliT to their being laid before the king in the iduiicll of state— The secreury. as well as all tlic other memlK'rs of this committee (which are Momlnatcd by the klnjr) for preparing the general atTiilt* of the kinploni. shall upon ull moasions. when so met. deli vur their opinions to the minutes, "liich shall nftcrwartla be reported to the king UD>I the council of state. 11. As to the management of the ministerial nITiiirs. they may W prcparetl and conducteil in the manner whiih apix-ars most suitable to the kin^'. It oppertaius to the ndnister frtr foreign affairs to lay Huch matters liefore him in the presence of the aulic chancellor, or some other meml)er of the council, if the chancellor caiuiot nttenil. In llio absence of the minister of state this duty ilexul.'es upon the aulic chancellor, or any other memlier of the council of state, whom his majisty may ap|H)int. After haviug ascer- talutMl the opinions of these otflcial persons en- tennl in the minutes, ami for which they shall Ik- resiHmsilile. the king shall pronounce "his de- cision in their prusenee. It shall l)e the duty of the aulic chancellor to keep the minutes on these o<-casiims. The king shall communicate to the eouneil of state the information on these topics as may lie necessary, in orilcr that tiny may liavi' a general knowle<]geevenof thisbrandi of the :t4lniiiiistratiim. 12. The king can enter into treaties anil alii- anci'S with foreign powers, after haying ascer- taiueil, OS enacleil in the pn>cefling article, the opiiii.in of the minister of state for foreign af- fairs, and of the aulic chancellor. 13. When the king is at lilwrty to commence war, or conclude |M'ttce. he slioll conx'oke an ex- tnuinlinary council of state: the ministers of state, the counsellors of state, the aulic chancel- lor, aiul the secretaries of state; and, after having e.\|ilKhuHl to them the circumstances which re- quiri' their consideration, he shall desire their oninlons lhere<m, which each of them shall in- dlyidually deliver, on the responsibility iletliH'<l In the 107th article. The king shall thenafter haye a right to adopt the resolutions, or make sudi decision as may appear to him most bene- ficial for the kingdom. 14. The king shall have the supreme com- mand of the military forces by sea and land. 15. The king shall decide In all matters of mitiury command, in the presence of that min- ister or iiHlcer to whom lie has entrusted the gi-niml management thereof It shall be the duty of this iierson to give his opinion, under reaponsli.llity, ujion the resolutions uken by the klnu, and in case of these being contrary to his advice, h. shall be bound to enter hisobjei'lions aiKl 0'i,ns«-l In the minutes, which the kinitmust nmlirni l>y his own signature. Should this min- ister or oliiclul Iierson And the resolutions of the kiuij to lie of a ilangerous tendency, or founiletl ■"1 niisuken or erMneous principles, he shall ad- \ !■«• his majesty to convoke two or more military .1 Hi-er" of a superior rank Into a c<«;t>rl! of war Till- klug shall, however, lie at lib . y to comply « ith or to rvject this pMpoaillon (or a CDuncilof Mar uud if approved of, luj may lak* what no- CONSTITUTION OF SWEDEN. tlce he pleases of the opinions of such coundl which shall, however, be entered in the muiutet 16. The king shall promote the exercise r,( justice and right, and prevent partiality and lo. iustice. He sliall not deprive any suliject of life, honour, liberty, and pn)pcrty.'witli(,ut pit vious trial and sentence, and in tliat onlir which the laws of the country prescribe. He shall not disturb, or cause to be disturbed, the|iea(v.,f anr individual in his house. He shall ncit banish any from one place to another, nor constniiu. urcauw to be constraine<l, the conscience of any Imi shall protect every one in the fri-e ex. n ix'df hit religii.n, pnivideii he dix-s not thin-hy disturb the tmiii|Uillitv of six-lety, or occasi.'.ii public iilliniv. The king shall cause eyirv i.ncio be ; tried in that court to which he pmiHrlv Ulunn 17. The king's pn-Mgative of iusii<V»hall'be iiiyestiKl in twelve mm. li-ame<l In tin- law. sii iiolilis, and six conmioners. «lin Imvc shiiwn kncovjedge. ex|>erience, and intt-L-rily in judicial in.itlerK. They shall lie Btyle.1 ciMinssllors nf justhc. and constitute the kings supnme coun of justice. 18. The supreme court of Justin- slmll tab coi:nizan<-e of |>etitiiins tothe king fi.r rancrllini sinteuct-s which have obtaim-d leirnl f.ircr an5 granting extension of time in 1,-iwsuiis. wlicn it has iH-en. through some cinumstances, f.irfiiitil 11K If information Ik- 8<Higlil hy jndci-s or c'lurts of justice concerning the pri.JHr iiii,r|irf. tatlcui of the law, the explaimtinn thus ri-ijuiml shall lie given by the said supnim- mtm 20. In time of pt-oce, all ca.s.s n firrwl from the niurts martfad shall liedeci(h-il in the supreme (-iiurt of justice. Two military otlii-. rs nf » ju- lNrlor<legrtT. to lie nominate<i by tin- kiiii:. shall. >y|th the responsibility of judges. ;iiii-t:d anj have a vote in such cases in the siipn nu: ("urt Tlie nundar of judges may not. lio«i vi-r. uci-ed eight. In time of war. all such raws shall be tri(-d as i-iittcU-d by the articles of w.-ir 21. The king, shoulil he think tit to attend, shall have right to two votis in eaus<s dwided by the supreme court. All ipusiions c-i .miming explanations of the law simll Ik- n |«.rt*il to hitn. ami his suffrages counted, even tlmuirli In- should not have attendinl the delilK-rations of ihi court. 22. Causes of minor importani i nuv U- di- cliled in the supreme court by rtv.- ni.mUrs. or even four. If they are all of one oiiiuiun, hut .'a caus<-8 of gn-ater consciiiu-nce seven munsi-llors at least, must atti-nd. Jlon- than lifht membetJ <if the siipn-me i-ourt. or fotir noldeniiu and four coinnionera. may not Ik- at one tin ■ in active servii-i- 2.I. All the di-cn-es of tin- snpn'iue (smrt of iu.stiii-shall issue in tin- kings imw. sod under bis hand and seal. 24. The cases shall !«■ pniiareil In the " klngi Inferior (iiurt for revision of jmliiiary affaln. ' in order to la- iuld Iwfon-, or pnslucfd lu the sut»n-me i-oun. 25. In criminal eaa<-« the kint; hna n ri{,-fat to grant (lardon. to ndtigate capital punishment. and to restore pro|H'rty forfeimi to tin crown lu applications. howeVer. of this kind, the > iin-me court shall U- heanl. and the kini! pvr Lis decision in tlu- council of sute 30. Whcti matters of Justin- arc :ai:i brf.-fr the (-ouni-il of state, the minister of aiair and justliv. and. at h-asl. two counselton nf atste. two members of the supreme court, and tiieckta- 604 coirarrrcnoN of swbden. CONSTITUTION OP SWEDEN. (dlorof lattice (hall attend, who mu«t all delirer their opmioni to the mioutei, according to the pneral instructinn for the memben of ue coun- cU of itate, quoted in the 91st article. 27. The king ihall nominate, aa chancellor of juitice, a ]uria-GODault, an able and impartial mail, who haa prerioualr held the office of a ludgt. Itihall be bia chief duty, aa the highest iegu ofllcer or attorney eeneral of the king, to prosecute, either personally or through the offl- cm or flscals under him, in all such cases as con- cern the public safe^ and the rights of the crown, on the king's behalf, to superintend the adminia- tntion of justice, and to take cognizance of, and cortwt, errors committed by fudges or other legsl ofBcers in the discharge of their official dutiet. 28. The king, in his council of state, has a light to appoint native Swedes to all such offices and plscrs within the kingdom for which the king'srommissions are granted. The proper au- tborilirs shall, however, send In the names of the candiilstes to be put in nomination for such employments. The king may, likewise, apjraint foreigners of eminent talents to military offices, viihout. however, entrusting to them the com- mand of the fortresses of the realm. In prefer- ments the king shall only consider the merits and the nbilities of the candidates, without any rfinni to their birth. Ministers and counsellors of Mall' and of justice, secretaries of state, judges, and all i>tlier civil officers, must always be of the putT. vvariiielical faith. 29. Th' archbiahop and bishops shall be rlrfii-d a» formerly, and the king nominates one o( tlir three candidates propostil to him. 30. The king appoinU. as formerly, the in. cunilients of n?ctones in the gift of the crown. A< to the ronsistorial beneflces. the parishioners ahall be maintaineil in their usual right of election. 31. Citizens, who nrr free men of towns, shall ny>\ tlielr privilege as heretofore, of proposing to the kin){ three candidates for the office of bur- gomaster or mayor, one of whom tlie king selwts. The aldermen sod secretaries of the magistracy of !^icK khcdiii shall be elect,'<l in the same manner 32. The king appoints envovs to foreign couru and the timcers of the enilmssies, in the piwem* of the minister of state for foreign af fairs and the aulic chancellor 33. U'hen offices, for whiih candidates are p^lIwl«<'i. are t) lie tilled iip, the members of tlie coundl c.f <t«tc shall deliver their oiduions on the Quajiili aiioiia ami merits of the applirants. They Uiall il*' have right to make resiiei cful remon- itrsnii 1 i.^aiiist the nomination of the king r>'- llH*lln>' -.iher offlct-s. 34. Thi- new functionarier cnated 1)V this cnn8tiiM!i,i:i, viz — the miniaters iird counndlora of (tat. and counsellors of Juhtiie. shall Ix- paiil bi lhi<mwn, and may not liidd am otlier civil olfiocs 1 he two mlnistei* of stale are tlie liiirlieat funitionanes of tli- realm. The counsellors of »<.•». »h«ll hold the rank of generaia. nml the fiiiiiw Il..r» of justice tlial of lieutenant generaia. !W. The minister of slate for foreign affnits. l!u- 1 ..unsillors of stale, the presiilenta of the pul.li.- In.iinia, the grand governor of 8l<M'kholni, tlit diniiiv voremor. and the eblef niairialraSi- "t [...Hit ill tlie city, the aulic chancellor, the cliauei-lliir iif justice, the sei'reuries of sUle, tin liMVeriinri i.r lord. lieutenants of provinces, fclJ nianOwia, generals and admlraU of all de greea, adjutant generals, adjutant in chief, ad- jutants of the staff, the governors of fortreiaea, captain lieutenants, and officers of the king's lif« guards, colonels of the regiments, and officcn second in command in the foot and horse guards, lieutenant-colonels in the brigade of the life regi- ments, chiefs of the ariillery of the royal en- gineers, ministers, envoys, ana commercial agent* with foreign powers, and official persons em- ployed in the king's cabinet for the foreign cor- respondence, and at the embassies, as holding places of trust, can be removed by the king, when he considers it necessary for the benefit of the realm. The king shall, however, signify his determination in the council of state, the mem- bers whereof shall be bound to make respectful remonstrances, if they see it expedient. 36. .ludges, and a'll other official persons, not included in the preceding anicle, cannot be sus- pended from their situations without legal trial, nor lie translatetl or removed to other places, without having themselves applied for tliese. 37. The king has [Miwer to confer dignities on those who have served their country with tldelity, bravery, virtue, and zeal. He may also promote to the order of counts and barons, (lersous, who hyen.iiieiimerita have deserved such an honour. Nobility and the dignity of a count and baron, graniitf from tiiis time." shall no longer devolve to Buy other tliau the individual himself thus createil u noble, and after him, to the oldest of his male iuue in a dirv<'t desceudiug line, and this branch of tlie fiiniily licing extinct, to the nearest male deaceudaut of the ancestor. 38. All despatches and orders emanating from the king, excepting such as concern military af- fairs, shall lie countersigned by the secri'lary who has submitted Ihein to the council, and ia rea|)on- silile for tlieir Udng conformable to the minutes. Should the secretary find any of the decisions made by the king to !»■ contrarv to the spirit of the constitution, he shiill make his remonatrancet resiHtting the same, iu tiie ouncil of state. Hhould the king still persist iu his deh'miinatfon, it shall then Ik- the duty of the si'cretarv to re- fuse- his countersign, uiiil resign his place, which he niav not reaiime until the eMatesof the realm shall nave examined anil upproveil of Ids con- duct He sliall, however, ill the mean time, re- ceivi s salary, aud all the fi-es of hia olHce a* foniiiTlv, 3U. If the king wialiea to t'o abroad, he shall eoniiimnicateliisreaolutioii t.i the council of state, in a full aaiH'iuldy. and take the opinion of all Its inemlKTK, na eimitiii in the Iiiiilh article. Dur- ing the almenie of the kiiit he iniiy not interfere with the goveninieiit. or exeni.*' the regal iMJwer, which aliall Ih- carrieil on. in Ida name, by the council of alate; the council of atatecanuot, how- ever, confer ditrnities or create ctiunla. liuroDS, and knights: iiml nil olllcera appoint)')! bv the coiiiu'ii aliall only Indd their places a)l interim. 40. 8liould th)> king be in such a state of health n« '.. to' inrapable of attending Ui the af- fairs I I III) kingdom, the council of state shall coiidiu: til'- .I'imiiiistration, as enacted In the pre- ciiiing .irtiiie 4 1 . Tlie kinic aliall lie of age after having com- ii!.!i-d <!i.'h!.t!! y.-ara ShiiiiiiJ !!::■ ktr.g^ ilW bf- foD' till' lii'ir of ilic irown has altaineil this aga, llie gov) riiiiii'iit ahall In' cimducteil by the coun- cil of aiHii'. ailing with regal (nm'er and au- thority, iu the uamvuf the king, until the cstatM 605 CONSTITUTION OF SWEDEN. •f the raslm ilull bare tppoittted a provliional riTenment or ngtacj: and the council of Mate eoloined itrictly to confoim to the eiuctmeot* of tUa conititution. 42. Should the melancholy erent take place, that the whole royal family became extinct on the male aide, the council of state ihall exerdia the soTernment with regal power and authority, until the esute* have choaen another royal bmue, and the new king ha< taken upon bimielf the government. All ocrurrenrea or thingi having reference to the four but article*, shall be deter- mined by the whole council of state and the sec- retaries of state. 43. When the king takes the field of battle, or r<>paire to distant porta of the kingdom, he shall constitute four of the members of the coun- cil of state to exercise the government in those atrairs which he is pleased to prescribe. 44. No prince of the royal family shall be permitted to marrv without having obtained the consent of the king, and in the contrary case shiill forfeit his right of inlicritiince to the king- dom. lK>th for himself and descendants. 45. Neither the crown prince, or any other prince of the royul family, shall have any appan- age or civil place. The princes of the blood may, however, liear titles of dukedoms and principali- ties, a,t heretofore, but without any claims upon those pn>vinces. 40. The kingilom shall remain divided, as heretofore, into govemmenu, under the usual provincial adminiHtrations. No governor-general slinll. from this time, Ix." appointed within the kiiigilom. 47. The courts of justice, superior as well as inferior, shall administer Justiec scronling to the laws nn<l statutes of the realm. The provincial governors, anil nil other pulilic functionaries, shall ixenlw the ofllres entrusted to them accord- ing to existing regulations; tliev shall cbi'y the orders of ili,- kiiij:. ,ind lie rrspiinsihle to him if any not in doiie eontnirv to law. 48. The (ourt of tlie king is under his own iniinHgoinent, ami hi' niiiv at his own pleasure ap- p<«nt or distharge all his officers and attendanta there. 4U. The estaiis of ilie nnlm shall meet every fifth year. In tlie de<Tec of everv Diet the day •h.ill Ih- lixeil for the next nuftlngof the estates. The king niiiy. however, convoke the estates to an fXtni.iriliimry Diet befipfc that time. no. The IHets shall bo lield in the capital, ex- cept Hlii'n the invasion of an enemy, or some other iin|Nirtant impediment, may render it dan- gerous for the safety of the representatives. ftl. When the king or council convokes liie estates, the |H'rio.l f.ir the commencement of the l»i<t shall he suh«.<iuent to the thirtieth, and williin the fiftieth dav, U> reckon fn)m that day whin the summons has been pmclaimed in the chiirclies of tlie capital. rt2. The kiniT names th;' speakers c-f the nobles the hnrirhers ami the peasanu the archbishop '"^l^xinjnies. the constant kpetikernf the clergy, realm «hal?, immetli- rtJI. The (Slates of the al.Jy after the o|K'ning of the Diet, elect the different < ommittees. which are to prepare the af- fairs inundel for Ihiir consideration. Such com- - . 3 ..„3! — ^ ,n, — n •--nsttt'.:-r-::::t com inittee, wlilch sliall take cognizance of uuestton* conreming pr .pt«d alterations in the fundamen- tal law* n port tliereuiion to the representatives. CONSTITUTION OF SWEDEN. and ezamioe the minutet beU in the council ni state ; — • committee of ilnaaeea, which shsH ,, amtae and report upoo the Mate and managemat of the rcTCDues : — a oommlttce of taxatSn f» regulattof the taxes j — a committee of the W fortoaulrtof into the administraUon of tbe^ S&?. ^ ""!^ bank ; - a Uw committw l„ fnfflXcffir^^aterir:: a committee of public grievances and matten' of economy, to attend to the defccte in public in sUtuUons. suggest alterations, 4c. 54. Should the king desire a special conmit. tee for deliberating with him on such m«tt«r> u do not come within the cognizance of anv of th. other committees, and are to be kept leciet th, estates shall select It. This committee shall boiT ever, have no ripht to adopt any resolutlonk. but only to give their opinion on matters lefcrred to them by the king. 55. The representatives of the realm shall not discuss any subject in the presence of the kioir nor can any other committee than the one men- tioned in the above article hold their dellben. tlon* before him. 56. General questions startetl at the meelinn or the onlers of the estates, cannot be immelfi. atelv discussed or decided, but shall be referred to the proper committees, which are to give tbeir opinion thereupon. The propositions or rennrt of the committees shall, in the first Instsnce witlumt any alteration or amendment, tie referred to the estates at the general meetings of all tie orders. If at these meetings, observations should be made which may prevent the adiipii.u of tbe proposed measure, these objections »li:ill beom- municateil to the committee, in onler to its beinr examine<l and revised. A proimsitlon thus pre pared having been egain -eferreil to the estates, it shall remain with them to ailopt It. with or without alterations, or to reject it altogether Questions concerning aiteraiions in the fundj^ mental laws, shall !»:■ thus treated: — If the con- stitutional committee approves of the sugpestion of one of the representatives, or the rommitle* reports in favour of or against a niea.*ure pw. posed by the king, the opinion of the commifee shall be referred to the estaU-s. who mav dincusj the tonic, but not come to any resolutioii during that Diet. — If at the general miTtinjrs of the orders no observations are made against the opinion of the committee, the iiui'stion lUisIl be postpone<l till the Diet following, ami then be ile- elded solelv by yes or no, as enactiil In the 7'ith article of tlie onliiiance of Diet.— If, on the con- trary, objections are urged at the general meet- ings of the orders against the opinion of tbe committee, the«»' shall be referretl bsik for its re- consideration. If all the orders tie of one opinion, the question shall be postponiil for final decision, as enart<Hl above. Should again a particuUr onler dilTer from the other onlera. twenty mrm- liers shall lie electeil from amoni; everv onler. mi added to tlie committee, for ailjiuting the dil!iT ences. The qucation being thus prepared, shall be dedde<l at the following Diet. 57. The ancient right of the Swedish peopk, of Imposing taxes on themselves, shall be eier- dan! by the estates only at a general Diet, 58. The king shall at every I>iri lay before the committee of finances the state of the rer. enues in all their branches Shoubl the crown have obuincil subsidies through trcatici with for OOG coNsnrcTioN op swxden. (i|a powm, tbcM tball be vxptelmd in the luual WW. 09. The king iball refer to the dcHaion of tUi committee to determine what the (OTemment mi7 require beyond the ordln«ry tuation, to be niied by en eitraordinary grant 60. yo tazee of any deecrlption whaterer can be increued without the expreie ooneent of the (lUtes. The )dng may not farm or let on leaw the revenues of lUte, for tlie lake of profit to hinuflf and the crown ; nor graat monopoliei to printe imllTiduals, or corporations. 61. All taze* ihall be paid to the end of that ttnn for which they hare been impoeed. Should, however, the estate* meet before the expiration of that trrm, new regulations shall take place. 62. The funds required by goremmrnt hav- tag been ascertained by the committee of finances, it thai) rest with the estates whether to assign propiinionate means, and also to determine how the various sums granted shall bu appropriated. 63. Besides these means, two sdeuuate sums shsll be Ti.iol and set apart for the disposal of the king, after he has consulted the council of Hate.— for the defence of the kingdom, or some other important object; — the other sum to be ilepo«ite<l in the national bank, in cose of war, ifter the king has ascertained the opinion of the council and convened the estates. The seal of the onler for this latter sum may not be broken. nor the money be paid by the commissioners of the bank, till the summons to Diet shall have been (lulv prixlaimed In the churches of the capital. 64. The onlinary revenues of the land, as veil H the eitraordinarr grants which may be voted by the esutes, shall be at the disposal of the king for the civil list and other specified purposes. 65. Tlic above means may not be applied but fur the iinsipicd purposes, and the council of itsle shall lie responsible if they permit any deviaticin in this respect, without entering their rfmiinslraiKf s in the minutes, and pointing out what tlic <iin»tltuti(>n in tliis case onlains. 66. The funds of amortissemeDl r national debt, shall remain, as heretofore, under the suikt- intendencc and dipectionof the estates, who have puaraatwsl or come under a rcsptmsibility for the national ilclit ; and after having received the report of the committee of flnancrs on the affaire of thill cstal>li8hment. the estates will provide tliMiigh a »|H'clal grant, the reiiuisito means for psvini! the capital as well as the interest of this debt, in (inler that the credit of tlie kingdom may be niaiDUinctl 67. The .l.nuty of the king sliall not attend the meetinL'Siif the directors or commissjoiuni of the funds of amortissement, on any other (Kcasion tlian when the directors are disposed to take his opinion. 68. The means assigned for paying off the Mliounl debt shall not, under anv pretence or concliiion. be appropriated to other" purposes. TO. Minuld the estates, or any particular order, entertain doubts either 'o allowing the frsnt prop,»i,M by the committee of finances or u to the participation In ths taxes, or the prin- rtples of the management of the funds of amor- tweraent, thi'se doubts shall be comraunlcated to Ae committee for thHr f-.:rth^r comtdefatiun.- U the committee cannot coincide in the opinions »( lit esutt.«, or a single order. It shall depute lome members to explain circumsuncea Should IMsurdir still persist in It* opinion, the question CONSTITUTION OF SWik. JN. shall be decided by the tewlutlon of three oMen, If two orders be of one, and the other two of a different opinion, thirty new memben of eveir orjli . Bhall be added to the committee— the com- mi « shall then vote conjointly, and not by ordets, with folded biUets, for adopting, or re- jecting, unconditionally the propodtion of the committee. f O. The committee of taxation shall at every Diet suggest general principles for divldfaig the future taxes, and the amount having been fixed the committee shall also propose how these are to be paid, referring their propoeition to the con- sideration and decision of the state*. 7i. Should a difference of opinion arise be- tween the onlere, as to these principle* and the mode of applving them, and dividing the taxes; or, what hardly can be presumed, any order de- cline participathig in the proposed taxation, the order, which may thus desire some alteration, shall communicate their views to the other repre- senutives, and suggest in what mode this altera- tion may be effected without frustrating the general object. The committee of taxation hav- ig again reportol thereon to the estates, they, the estates, shall decide the question at issue. If three orden obiect to the proposition of the com- mittee, it shall l)e rejected. If, again, three orders oppose the demands of a single order, or if two be of an opinion contrary to that of the other two, the question siiall be referred to the committee of finances, with an additional num- ber of members, as enacted in the above article. If the majority of this committee assent to the proposition of the committee of taxation, in those points concerning which the representatives have ! ilisagreed. the proposition shall be considered as I the general resolution of the estates. Should it I on the contrary, be negatived bv a majoritv of votes, or be rejectcil by three orders, the com- mittee of taxation shall propose other principle* for levying ami dividing the taxes. 72. The national bank shall remain, as tor- mi-riy, under the superintendence and guarantee of the estates, and the management of directore selected from among all the onlers, accordinv to existing ri'gulations. The states alone can issue bank-notes, which arc t. U- recognizeti as the circulating medium of tin tvalm. 73. No tnmps, new tuxes or imposts, either in mom y or kind, car lie levied without the vn|. untary n.sent of the estates, in the usual onlsr, as afore^.aid. 74. The king shall have no right to demand or levy anv other aid for carrying on war, than that contribution of pmvisioiis whicli may be necessary for the loidntenunce of tiic tro..ps 'dur- ing their march throii(:h a province. These con- tributions shall. honever,lK' iiiuueiiiatelv paid out of the trcasuri-, according to ilie fixed "price-cur- rent of provisions, with an augmentation of a moietv. according to this valuation. Such con- tributions may not be demanded for troops which have 1h-"ii ijuartered in a place, or are employed in military openttions. in which case they shall be Biipp'ii-ii w , it pMvisions from the magaiines. 73. Tlic ;in;mnl estimation of such n-ntes as are paid in kin<t sliall be fixed by deputies elected froni amr.nf ail the orders of iJie estates. 76. The ki'ie cannot, without the consent of the estates, coutnut l.ia'is within or without the kingdom, nor burthen the land with any new debU. 007 CONSTITUTION OF SWEDEN. CONSTITUTION OF SWEDEN. Wi 77. He ciumot alto without the conaent of the rauU'a, Tend, piedse, mortgage, or in any otlitT way alienate aomain*, farma. foreau, narlis. pri'SiTvi'* ;>f ffsmt'. ni*.«iows, paiture-lanu, li»h- erif», snd other npptirtenancea of the crown. Tlii«' shall lie managed according to the initruc- tiiMis of the ettateo. 78. No (Mirt nf the hingdom can be alienated tliniiijih side, murtgat^e, donation, or in any other »av wluitever. 7i>. No alteration can he effected In the atand- aril value of the coin, either for enhancing or detirionitiug It, without the conwut of the est:ltt'S. tM. The land imd naval foroea of the realm aliiill remain (>n the same fooling, till the king ni. I the estates may think pro|)ei to Introduce atMiii- other principles. No regular troops can lie r:ii-..-.l. withitut the mutual consi-nt of the king anil the estates. 81. This form of government and tlie other fiiiiil:iinentiil laws cannot lie altereil or repealed, wllliout the utmniinoua (:i>usi-nt of the king and the estati s. Questions to this effect cannot lie brought forwani at the mwtlngs of the orders, hut must be referred to the constitutional cfim- nilttei'. whose province it Is to suggest such alter- atiiins In the fundamental laws, ^g may b<' d«vnie<l iieies-Hjiry, useful, and practicable. The estates may uot decide on such pronoaed alterations at till- same Diet. If all the orders agree about the aliiration, It ^hall Im- aubmitted to the king. tliriMigh the KjH-akers, for obtaii:lng Ids n>val sanction. After having ascemlned the npinion of the rouncil. the king shall take his n-solution, rind loininnnii.ile tu the eataU-s either his .tppro- ba'ion or reasons lor refusing it. In the event of till kinit lirii| (isiuvt any alteration in the fiuida- nil iital laws, he slia)'," after having taken the ii|ii;iicin of iiie iiiuii .i. deliver his proposi'lon tn the estates, '.vliii shall, withnut discussing ii. HKaiii refer It to the constitutional comiaittee. If the I iimmlttee coincide In the pri>|K».itinn of tlie king, the iniestlim shall renniin till nex' Diet If again the euiumittee Is averse to the pru|i<'sitlon of the king, the estates may either njeri 't im- iiii'lialely or iiiljinirn It tn'the fallnwiug IMet. Ill the ease of all the onh'rs appr.ivlng of the pri'imsltiiMi. they shall reijue^t that a day be ap- pointed to declare their consent lii the pri-senir if Ids inajisty, or signify their disappniliation tlirii:n;h their hiK-akers. 8!I. VVhiit the estates have thus unauinniuily ri-Milvnl anil the king sauctiDned, conc-rning iilteralmns in the fundamental laws, or the kini; lias iiriipiised and the estates appniv.d of, shall fir tlie futiiH' have the force and i ITecl nf a fun dunii-ntal law. 8JI. Xii eiplanatliin of the funihimental laws may lie eslalilisheil by any other nn-k' or onkr. than that prescribed by tlie tan prreeiling art! ('.'■<. Laws shall be applied acconllng to their lili-r;il SI use. 84. \\ lien the constitutional committee find nil ri asnii fur apprDVing of the propoaition, made bv a ripn Mutative concerning alteratiuus or e.x- planatjiins nf the fundamental lawa, It ahall Im- til- duly nf Iheennimittee to communicate to him. at lii»ni(Me«t, theirnpini.in. which the pfoposerof till- resiilutinn may publish, with blaown motion, unil under the usual n>i<|ionaibllitT of ■uthon. 8A. As fundamental lawa <if the preaent form of jinvernment, tlu-re shall lie conaldeied the ordi- luiu d' in In •■ '■ shml Iw luV ' 'e I 1?. »li". I'f Ilieci.un ii'ilan-eithrt -s fur uitlilioU- • 111 prii|«iii,- atv •ifter hmingcen. nance of iMet. the order of auccession, unj ^ act cnuctmiiig univenaal lilierty of tlie |,re«i, 8H. By the liberty of tlie prt.w is iiiiilemtoiiii the right of every 8wediab aubjeci in pnhli,), |^ w ritings, without an; impediment from the mv ernment, and witboui lelng responalble fortiien. except before a court uf Juatlce, or lialile to pm. ishment, unies* 'heir contents be ennirurr to i clear law, maile for the preaervatiim of p„Mi( peace. The uilnutea, or pnit<K-ols, or the pro. ci-edings. may lie published In any cas.-, nr|.pt. ing the U'inutea kept in the council nf nau- ,^ liefore the king in ministerial affairs, an.l ting matters of military cocmanil . nor ni.iv tlw reeonla of the bank, and the oft.ii' nf tlu- 'fiimij of amort issement. or national detn Im- iirinii-.l 87. The estates together with the kiuy luv, the light Id make oew and repeal oM UWs. h this view such <|Ui-siiiin8 must be pmpiseil a| iIk general meetinu's nf the order? ' th" , .latiii and sliall lie ilccliled by them, aff iviriL tjkia Ihi; opinion of the law commit' the 56th article The pror ndttMJ, through the B|)ea' .-< after having ascertuine ' • cil (if state loid supreiia' > his royal approbation, n iiiL' It. Shnidd the kin ulieration in the laws, hi .. ui^wu. suited tie eniiin il of state ami supn me miirt, rifcr his pnipin-rum. together with tlu!r.,;,inin to the delilM-raii 11 nf the stales, whn. afiir lijt Ing reci-i veil the ri jinrtnf the lawciiEiiinitiie,jh.i!I I'lclde on the piiut. In all sm li . iKiinu^ Iht r.solutinh (if three nrders shall Is- (.ii^iilern! as the reaolutinnof ihee.-tatesnf the naini If iw orders are opimsed to the oiher twn. tin- |iM|i.»i lion is negatived, and the law i> i,, tiiiaiii i.- loriiierly. 88. The same course, or niiKlt i f i-Mn-eiJici: shall ln-.ilix r\(il inexplainingtlii (ivil.eriui:i.-i: and t-( rh-siastieal laws, as in inakin;; tin -< F.\ iilanatiiins (-nn(-erniin.' the prnpir ^ur. uf •■.■ law given by the siiprtnie nmrt in ihe iiaiuc ,! the king, in the Interval Iniwo n tin- Diiis. mt \k rejected bv the stairs, and shall in t u'tfi wanls !«.■ valid, or eit(sl by the cniirts "! jimim tun' 8l>. At the general mtt tini;s nf tin iiriiit> • '. the eslat(s. iiueslions may In priiiMiiiTl fnr:,'ii-r in;:. e.\|ilaininu. repealini ami i-siiii.:; urls ni cerning publir ecnnnii'V. and the priuii|ili> ■ piiblii- iiistitiitinnsiif any kind wiay lie ilisu*,i TIk-sc ijuestiniis shall aitirwanlsli. n fem^i • the riiriiinittee nf iiulille L'riiVaiieis ai.'l nncn.: eal :ilT;.irs, nnd then 'v siiliuiit ■•d In Ilw ilirisi' l of till king, in a <.iuneil nt state. When '.U kiiii; i^ pleased to invite the estates t" ililibn'i wi;h liini nn iinestiniis cnni-i rniii.- tin yimrs! adinini-itnitini,. the same nnirsi- shall !«■ .ii!it: -'. as is prescrilHsl fur .(iieslieus eninerjini; iht laws 1M>. During tin- di liUratiniis nf tin- urilirs. nr till ir commitirt-s. im i|iiestinns shall K i n'pme! but in the way t-xpri-ssiy pn-sdiUii liy iliisfur ilanii iilal law. cnneemfnc < iilii r ap|>"iiiiins t reinn\i:ig of ntll.-ers. dceisini.'i and ri ^' Inline*'! the gnvi rnmcbt nnd enurts nf la", anil the oil duet nf private indi-iduaU n:;;! i..rr-.;.r::!i;i!is, Ol. When the king, in sm h ('i.-sh m tin*; mentinii. -I i.i the 8Ctu "urtiele. is alis<-ai fmmtlif kinirihiii. longer than twelve month-, tla oiunri; shall convoke the e«i ites In a general l>iet ami 608 COXSTITCTIOX or SWEDEN CONSTITUTTOK OF SWEOKX. ciiuf the Kiinimoni to be prnrlaimrd ni'tinflt- M«n cia^ • f ">"> 'lie above time in the churchei of the Vapitul, au4l speedily afterwitrd* it the other parts of the kingdom. If the Ung. after btin; ini'unned tLenof. duea not return Ui the tiaitiloni. tlie estates shall adopt cuch meaaures HI tiiey deem moat benefldal for the couotn' 92. 1'he same shall be enacted in case oi utj distax' or 111 health ut the king, which might t>re- v(Dt bitn from atteotllng to the afTaiia <>f the kincdum for more thac twelre months. t>;l. When the heir of the crown, at the i.<- ct'iMMf the king, is under age, '.ho (nunclt of slaii' (hall Issue summons to the reproaentatiTrs til mirt. The estates of the realm anall hare tlu- ni'lii. witliuut regard to the will of a deceased tiof nmci-ming the a<lministrstic>], to appoint (int'or several guardiaut. t<> rule in the klLg's uune. arcording to this f undamvntal law, till the kin^ Utiimes of age. M. Should it ever happen that the royal family beoomr extinct In the male line, the council cf ^l,■ltl■ »h«ll convene the estates, m elect another p'ja! family to rule comformably to 'his funda- i;irrii!i| law. iW. [Should, contmrr to expertatinn, the coun- 111 if stale fail to cnvoke the estate*. In the .t-ni prescribed by the 91 »t, iJM. and U4th articles. It 'ball he the positive duty of (he directors of ;!.i' hdiiae of noblis. the chapters thit>ughcut the kingdom, tlie iimgistra'es in the o-pitar rrn* the fiiremorsin the pmviiices, to give pu. ! i.. "I's 'hen- if. in onier that election* of deputu " j the 'lii't niay forthwith take place, anil the estates .-.mhle to pmltTt their privileges and rialits of '111 iiiigdoiii Sii Ii a Diit nhall l>e op<'netl on ■.111' r'tieth ilay fr in tliat iM-riod when (Jie coun- lil'f v.ate hail pri«lairaeii the summua< i.i the rlnrihisof the capital Ott. The estatM shall at every Di< appoint in ifflur, distinirui-beil for integrity and learning in ■ill' law. to winh ^ V. r as their deputy, the con- ilurt of the jiidife!* li other official" men, and ■villi sliiiil, in !i):al .mltr and at the proper court, .rnil.-R 'hose who in the performnnoe of their •!in-«havi. U-tri'cil negliiinre and partialitv. riliehavf.iiinmi iaiiy illegril act. Heshall. Iwwivir t>flialilet«i ■ »ainen-»|><incilillitya»the h"v tin-w r.ln-s for pui -ic (mmecutor* in seiicral S»7. This ik|iuiy or a-tumey-giiieraf of the fsia'fs shall tie chosen by twelve "lectors out of evfr\- onier. Od, The electors shall at the saiu- :lnie they cbi me (he said attorney-general, eU-ot a ptrsm !«»wiis»iiig equal or aimlliar ijualities to aucceetl aim, in rase of his death Ix'fore the n<-xi Hiet. ttW. The attorney-general may, win uever hi pkasis. attend the aeaaio.ns of all tlie superior uid infi-nor i-ourts, and 'he p'liilic olRies, and ilull have free access to their reconls uid mln- lilcs; ami the king's iilllcers shall be ".mund to pre liiiii every aMistinn' 100. The attorney-general uhall at 'jvery Diet pt<-6i-!it a n-port of the performani-e of his ortic e, Ml.laining the state of the a<lminiatratliin of j is- ** ill the land, noticing :( ■• (".i f ,ta in the eiist- itf laws, and suggestlni' ii. «- Improvements. Hpsliall also, at the end ' ewh '"ar. publish ;i ftf^i '. 1 i»>ak'mt-ijt coueer: nr tin . 101. Should the supn . ■ . oun, or any of lis mfmliirs, from interest, punWlity, or Drgllgenu-. Judge so wrong that an indivlifual, contrary t.. at and evidence, did lose or miirht have lost life. lib" -ty, honour or i sh.iil he bouml. ai authorised, toarraii. hiw» of the reain; lOa, This CO perty. iie attomsry-goietttl the cham^»'!7or of justice he guilty >'Cording to the the court ii ' r mcnti'ined. is to be (I minated the court „f Justice for the reulm, and dl beformed by president in t'i» suiwrior n jrt of Swea. tlie iidents of all ■ piildic boar's, four neainr memliers of the coum il of sute, the highest com- mander of the troops within the capital, and the r< mmander of the s<|uailron < ' he fleet statioiieft at the capital, two of the senior raecibers of llu- superior court of Swea, and the senior member of all the public manis 8l-iuM any of the officer* mentioned aNivt- decline attending this court, he shall be le^alh resj .nsible for such a ofglcct of duty After trial, the Judgnicnt shall lie publicly •.:iiiounceil: no one can alier such a sentence. Tie kinfi may, however, extend par- ion to tlie guilty, ' .1 not admitting him any more into the «-r\ in- of the kingdom. 10;i. The '-«t it.ssliill at every Hiet ni ininate a jir oftweh ineralx r» from out ,f i ich order, for li. ■ idingif .1,.- niemliersof thesui ; iiiecourt of justici? hr.ve iltvrved Ui Ml their niportant iilaces. or if any luimbcr, "iihoul ii .-inir been legally convicted lor the tuiilu meniiinnd in the aliovi- artides. yet oueht to be rennn.i! from Ollllf I04. The estiito* shall not resolve ih :i».!ve» into a 1 o'irt of justice, nor enter into anv -iieclal exami'.ati a of th-- ilii rec* Terdicts. ruW/)utton» of t!i- ^ iprvme < ir'. lOo. T!.,- con:,' i;tioti» .1 . mit'ivBhi.'lhave right to ieiniind i) . iiiim,. . ' tlit coiini; if state, eicipt tliose wlii.h couci rn m '.islerial • r foreitn affairs, ur.i'.ii'Hr.rs of niilitory omairii.l. wbicli may only be r ■• iraiinlratcil as far a* time h.ivc » refirencc to giinerully l.i iwn evints '1 ecifled by the coN.miute. lOB. Siiould the committee End from these minute* that any member if the council of state has openly acte-1 against the clear dictate* of the coiistitiition, or advised any ii friiiwmen'i either .if the Mini- 'ir of the other la« ., of the realm, or that he hiui uiittiii to n'r.ioii«tr«te against such a violation, .r rauwfi and i -omoted It liv wilfuUv cofKvaling any infonnation the committee shall onier the attorney-general to Institute the proper procwliiiirs Bcai:!.st the guilty. 107. If the mstitutioual committee should llnil that any or ,'iil the members of the council of state hftvc jot consulted the real Interest of the kingdom, or that any of the secreMries of mat" have not perfoniuil his or their otticial duties with Impartiality, miivlty. and skill, the com- niitui' ..l.ill reiMirt it to 'he estates. »ho, if they deem It :u-ieii«ary, i.iay siKnify to tin king thefr wish •■' !iavlng'tlio«e n-nioveil, who may tbtu have given diasiiiisfactioii. QuesUoiu to this effect may Ih> liruight forward at the general meetings of tlie orders, and even be proi>o«eil by any of thi- coiuiuitt«-«. Th'-»c caimot, however, lie decideil un;i! the constitutioiuf committee have delivend their opinion. lOM. The estates shall at every Diet ippoint six individuals, two of whom must be learned in the law, besides the att' mey-general. to watch over the liberty of the pr -ss. These deputies sliall lie bound to give tit, \i -iplnion as to th>. legality of publieatium, if -..h 'u •rquesteil by the auUiora. 1: -< I'l [h.Ii -a shuil be choaen by six electors out if evetj oiiltr. 60',' CONSTITCTION OF SWEDEN. lOQ. DIeti may not l>it long>r than three nionll» fmm the time that the king haa informed the represn'titativei' o( the flatc of the tevenuea. 8lioiil<l. however, tlie eatatea at the expiration of that lime not have concluded their delitieratioM. thev may demand the Diet to be ,-imloDKe<< for anotliiT month, which the kins nhiiil not refute. If nffain. contrary to ex|)ecUtTon, the i-«t«H'« at the exniraiion of lliia ti'rm have not regulateil the civil lUt, the kins •hall diaMilve the Diet, and taxation ctintinue in its former stati till the next nieetinK of repreaentatlvea. 1 lO. No representative ahaM l>e re«ponai))le for any opinion uttered at nieetinK* of the onlera, or of the commilteea, iinleM liv the express per- niiwi'Mi (if at least flvesixths of his own "nier: nor run a renri'sentative !«• Imnislie<l from tlie Dili Shoulil any indiviituiil or IkkIv, either civil or inlliinry, endeavour to offer vliilrnce to the esliiie'., iir to any indlviiliinl n'preo'iitatlve. nr privtiMiie til Interrupt and ilUturli their dellU'ra lioiiH. It sliiill Im! c<>nsider»<l as an act of ireawiu. and It n>it« with the estates lo take leital ctiirni ziiiMi- (f Hui'h nn olTeiice lit. Slii.idil any reprpsenutlve. after Imvinir announced hlniMlf as suih. W Insulteil. either at the Milt or (111 hU way to or from the siiiiie. it shall Ih- puiilslicti as a violation of the iwace of th. kini! 1 Itf. N.) otflctal |>erson iiie^ exerclM' hia offl ciulnuihurlty (his authority '.I thai caiHu-ity) In CONBTmmON: SWrrZEhLAIfD. Influence the electlona of deputies to the Dl«t under pain of loalng his place. 1 13. Indiriduart elected for regulating tlw taxation shall not be retponaible for their lawful deeils In this their capacity. 1 14. The king ahall leave the estates In m dIsturlNil possession of their lilM'rtles, privllfn, and Immunities. Modifications which the pr,! perlty of the ri'ttlm may demand can niiv be done with tile general concurrence and cimwm of the estates anil the sanction of the kinjt X.if can any new privileges be granted to nne .irln without the consent of the other, ami ih.' muc tion of the soven-lgn. This we have conflrmed by our ii.initu ui,[ seals, on the sixth day of the month c.f .luni' in the year after the birth of our L-ml one tln.imnd eight hiindn'<l and iiini'. On iM'httIf of the Nobles, M. Ankarsvar.1 (it iM'lmlfof the Clergy, Jac. Ax. Lind" (in hehalf of ihe Iturghert, H. N Hehwiui in, l» half of the PeasHntry, Ijira Olssiin. ."«|Haliirs The alKH-e form of governmeut «!■ Imv.. n..t only acknowliHlireil Ourselves, hut i|.. hIn. (..id innnd all ntir faithful subjects to ciUy it. i,,,,,,, tlrniatiiin i^f which, we have thenici ttHl'j..| ,.« iiiamial siunatun' and the seal of the rralm In the ciiv i.f iiur royal n-sldence. StiKkhnlm, ,,u ti, sixth ilay of the month of June, in tin- vnir iftfr the birth of our Lord one thuuianil elidn liun dreil and nine C'luiiLis CONSTITUTION OF THE SWISS CONFEDERATION. Aflir the S<inilerhund secession and war of 1H4: (,«,. SwtTZKIil.AMI: A I> INrt-t-IMNl. the iHhk ..f drawing i<i> a Constitution for tlie Con full nu y was xmlided In a fimmiltee of f.,urteen nunilH-m, and tlie work wa« finished on the 14lh of .\pril. \«iH 'The pmjiit wan submitted lo the Caiiiiini, and accipteif at onc<' liv thirteen ami a half, others Jnlmd diirinif Ihe" summer, anil the new Constitution wm llnallv promiiliraled with the assi'nt of all on the I'j'th Spteni'ier llenif anw the stvinlh and l:i»t pliane of the < ■•nfeilerallon. liv the adoption of a Fe<hral Con stitulicin for the whole of Mviltj. .land, Ulnir the lirM which waaelilinly the work of Muitii. with out any foreign Inlliii'iice. although Its auiliom had >.tudli-<l that of thi' Initinl Stales It w».H natural thai, as In princess of time coniiiiirei' and industry wen- devilo|»Hl. and as Ihi- dlfter . nrei. lHtw.-.n the hglslsllon of the various ( an tout iMiaiiie more appan'ni. a revision of ih.- llr»i nally .Swiss Confeihratlon sli.Mild lie mits wiry Thl« was pni|iiis>nl laiih In 1x71 and l"Ti but till' partlians of a further rentralliatlon Ihimifh •uii-eisful In the Chambers, were defeateil Uj>..ii an appeal to the (mpular Voir on the IJth of May |x,i by a majority of U tween «ve and six lli.'iinaud. and by lhlne< ii Cantons lo nini Thi i|iii'»il.in was. however bv n.i means si'tlh.i. and III l-fTl « n< w pri>jeet of revls|..n more ae ceplable to ||,|. parliwin^ of cantonal lnile|M'ud eu.e, was adopt.. I \.y ii,,. |».,,p|p ||„. numlam laing Wo.iw, to lUNdis Th. Canton, w.r.' i al")ut two 111 oil.- In favour of the n-vlahm Hi '■ •(.•claring for and Tj aitalnsl It ThIsConiiliu tim bean dale the JIHl, May l'«74 and has alniv ' Iwn a.iile.1 to snd allenii In cerlaln lianlcuUrs j — !Ur r o Adam* and C U I'uuubighaiu Th- i Siriu i'''nfr>lert%tiiiH, ek I — 'Hlnc.' IM". SwIlteHand has U-en a feileral stale, i .nsiitioj of a central authority, Ihe Huud. snd lU .niirt ami hlx half states,' the ('anions, to f,.r.in jiowers she pr»'S»'nis an united fmiii. «hli. jwi Internal [Killry aUows to each Canl.ii » Utc amount of Indeix-ndenc' The liaoU .f »!; h'Blslaiive ill vision i« theCommune i.rliiiiieii,!. corr.»|Kindlng in some slight deirnc to ilir Km; li»h I'arish The Commune In Its liifUl.iiiv, j-i aiimihlslratlve a.|i,it or ' Klnwohm r.;ini. ii>.l, IscomiHwetl of all tin- iiihabltams of «('..niini.ii. It is ».lf governing and has the loiitr.l of \\r |iM-al iKilice. It also ailmlnUt.'rs all niatlir«c-.« Ii'-t.il with |>auperi>in, .•dmallon .aninr. jc.l fiitM'ral regulalhius, ih.- tin- lirlirn.li- ihf nmtil* iiaiiir of pntillc |Mac. and trusl.-.'shlpi A! till' head of th,. CommuiM' Is the Ii. m. in.lrmih or < oniniuiiiil < oumll whose nn iiib. r» in 1 1.- i.'l fMm Ihi Inhabitants for a Hied |ur1<»l h u pnslili'il over by an Amnuinn. or .Ma\ r or Pri« d.iit .VIkivc ilH'Commuiii'oii i In imi mlio^ •isle lonw" Ih. Canton KsnU .f 'li. 1» Cantons and H half Cantoim l» a tovini!.-!! >i>i<- «hiBM- iirivlh Ki.« are neverhili-w llinli.-! I v •)»■ K.iieral Coiislllutloii. iwrtl.ularlv a« nirsnli li'tfal and military matters th< Consiii'i'i •« ii«' diHn.-s Ih.' e»ti-nl of larh Canton and n" |i.nl « of a ( aliton Is alloweil i.. si.i.li. and J'iii Krlf to another Canton (.egislstlvi' |».wrr l«(ii the hands of the V. . , In the polli|,sl ••iu» of the Word 111. Volk consists of sll Hir S«l«i livinir In llu l anion, wholmve pasad thilijii'li vear and an- not undiT dlsaiillliv from ■ rirnr .f imiikrupiry The mtlug on llu- pari .f ilx- IHiipte deals miMlly with allerallo«« in llirisc lonal coosiitullou. irvatlea. I«w» declsluns "! tbs UlU CONBTmmON: SWITZERLAND. C0N8TITCTI0N: SWITZERLAND. flnt CooitcU inTolTiiig expendituiw of Fn. 100.000 isd upward, and other deciiioiia which the Cooocil ooaaiden advteble to lubject to the pablic TOte, which aJao detemiiiiei the adoption of prapoiltkHU for the crestton of Dew Uwi, or the alteration or ■bollttoo of old onn, whrn lurh t pkUicite ii demanded br a petition ligned bj SMO Toten . . The First Council (Gi Ilith) it the bigbeat political and adminiatrative powrr of the Canton. It corretpondi to the -Clutinber ' of other countriea. Every 1,800 in- haUtaotiof an electoral circuit tend one mi'm- ber. . . The Kleine Hath or epeclal couoril (oormpoDiling to the ' Minlaterium ' of other (ogtioentiil countriet) it coni|Hiae<i uf three meni- ben •ml bu three proxies. It is chiiaeu by the Fini I'oiiiu'il for a period of two yean. It su periDb'DcIa all cantonal inatitutiona end c<>ntn>la tbe variiiua public boarda. . . . The |MipulatioQS of lhi'22 sovereign L'an'iios ronstltute toiri'thcr the folss ConfeJeration. " — I*, llauti, fHilrh »/ llu C'liulitutum of Smturiand (in itrifklaiult Tbt' following text of the Federal Constitution of the ^>wias Cunfetleratlon is a translation from panllt I FifDch anil Uemian texts, by Professor jUlxTt Ilushnell Hart, of Harvard CollcKr. It ippranil uriginally in " Old 8outli U-adeta, " No. W. iii>l in niiw reprinted under |M>nni»«iou from Piiifriai>r Han, who hat nuiat liiiiilly reviaed hia inuulmiiiu tbroutfhout and lutriMluceti the Inter uwuilciiriita, to July, IMM. la the Namt of Almifhty Cod.— Tba Swiaa Coafcdcratioa, desiring to rontlrni the alliani-e uf ilir (Duft'ileratva, to maintain and to |iromot<' tb( uuity. atrengib. and honor of the Swiaa uii<'ii liaa adopted the Fifleral Couatltutlou fi'll'miiii: Ckapttr I. Central ProTiaioaa.— Amticle 1 Till- |»..,iU» of tlif Iwi-iity-lwo BiiviTi'lgn Can i<<u>i>f SwIUerUiui, uulteil by tliia pr*-arut atli anif. viz Zurirb, Hern, Luzem. I'ri. Si'hwyz, I'Diirn allien (I'pper and Lower), (ilarua, Zug, Fnilmri;. Solotbum. Basel (uriiau and rural), NhatriuiiiM'ti, Alipeniell (the two lUiodeai, Ht Uilliii Oriaona. Aargau, Thuriisii, Ticiuo, Vaud. Valaii Ni'iirbltel, and (ieneva, form In their ewinir the Swiaa Coufederetiou Akt %. The purfHiaeof the ConfeileratloniB. Ill aiuri' llii' indelM'udence of the eountry againat (in^lmi iiailiina, to malnlain (m'mv ami order «Hliii; 111 iimtert tlH< lllieny and the righU of !br t'imfiili atea, and to fiister tbetr eonmuin ai-IIirr .\HT ■>■ The Cantons an' aoverelgn. so far aa tbrir kiM n igiiiy la not liuiited liy the Fednl (tisititunnii, and, aa aurh, they etenW all ilie rtifbt* hIiIiIi are not ilelegaliil l>< the fnleral ,riiv¥mnH!iii .Vkt 4 All (Swiaa are r<|Ual liefnre tin- law lnHwj|j,rlmiilUierralvne.;lHr IK lli-al ile|«ui| rtiu iiiir privllpites of place, birth, iierwHia or f«mil)r« .Vkt % The Confetiereiioii guitraiiuie* to the ' :iii!i.in ihnr terrtUiry. Ih-ir sovereignty, wiibUi till \mm, iiti'il liy Article ii, their t'ouaiilutiona, tbr lil« ri\ and rlihla of the |Mo|>le. the ronsij \\kXM,x\ riifliia of diltena, ami thi- righu and [«i»iTi kUIi'Ii the |>eople have i-onferre<i nn ihi« m aiihorily .Vnt •! Tlie'CaatoosaiT bounl Uiaali of Uh- n^ffij, r»!i„ii i|„. (uMiuity of thelrC-ntlllulioua Tlii» KiuuHiiiy |> acnintrd. provided ii' that tlie Conatitutioni coutaUi nothing contrary to the proTitlont of the Federal Conadtutlon. (6) That they aature the exercite of political righU, ac- cording to republican forms, repreaentative or dcmotratic. (<■) That they have betn ratified by the people, and may be amended whenever the majority of all the citizens demand it. Art. 7. All separate alliances and all treaties of apolitical rhanirter liet ween the Canton: are for'.fdden On the other hand the Cantooa have the right to make conventiuna among themaelvea upiu! legialative, adniiniatrtttive or judieUI sub- jects; in all case* they aimll bring such conven- tions to the attention of the federal oltlcials, who are authorized to prevent their exwutioii. If they coiiliiiu anything contrary to tlic Confederation, or to the righU of iiilier Cantona. Should auch not lie the caai-, t!ie covenanting Cantona are autbi>ri>:e<| to reifuin' the co<%|K-retlon of the fed- eral olUciala In carrying out tlw convention. Aht. 8. Tile Confeileraliou haa the mile right of ilechiring war, of making |>eiRe. au.l of con- cluding allL i-v* and treiiliea with foreign pow- en, purticuUrly tn-iitiea relating to tartlta and commerce A«T. I». By exi-eption tl>- Cantona preserve the ri):ht of concliiiling treatiia with foreign powers. naiHH'tinv the ailininistratioii of public jiroiierty, ami iMinleriinil |K)lii-e Intcrcourae. but auch tn-aiien shall contain nothiuk; contrary to the Coufeileratiiiu or to the riirhlx of other Cantona. Akt 10 Oltlcial Inlercounu- lietwet-nCantona and fori'lgii govemnieuta. iirlheir reiireaeutatives. aiiall take place thn.iiKh the K»ileral Council. Nevenhelesa, the Clintons ni»v Correspond dl- reetly Willi the inferior MtHnala anil olUrera uf a fiinign Mate, in n'gani to tb. aubjecta enu- inerntiil in the pivceding article. Am 11 No military capiiu aiiona ahall be niiiili' ■Vht r.' Nil meralH'n of tin de|H>nments of the feihral government, civil and military otH- clalaof the Confeileration. m fiileral reptvaenla- livea or commisalonem. sliall receive from any fiinlgu giivernmenl any iMnaion. aalarr. title, gift, or liiiiireiiou .Such |ieraons, already in IHxaraalon of in-naiinia, titles, or iktonilona. must rehouniv the cnjovnicnt of iHiiaiuna ami the liearlutf of lltlia and ilecnrnli.iMa iliiriim their term of olfliv Nevertheliaa. inferior oltlciula may !»■ aiithoriziil liy ■!»• Ftilirul Cnuiicil to colltinile in the Melpt lleuaiiilla Nn licco ratliin or title coufirntl by a foniitn goveriiiiient ahall Ih' Imnie ill tlif feili-ral army Nn olfli-er. mm comniiaainniil nlHci r. or anldier ahall t 'fpt auch illatiiictinn .Vht U< Till' Cnufeiieretion liao no right to klip up II aiHiiiliiiki army Nn Cituimi or Half (anion ahall. willmiit ilie |H-mii«aiiin nf ibc feilirul ginininiiiil kii p up ii atauiliiig fnrce of niori' tliHii llini Inindrisl men. the iiiouu>m1 lailiii' |i;cnil»<'<»"''' I !■ <>oi iiii'liiile<l In this nunilar .\ki M III riuMorilitTeniicianrisinglK'tween t^aiilniiK. Ilic Sliili'a fthidl alaitaln frnin violetii^ and fi'iiiii nmiini! Iltenwlve*. they alinll aiilniilt tn the ilii iaiiiii In U> takcii u|nin aiich iiHTen'tii-ea by the CnllfederatioU Akt 1.1 InioBiof aiidileii lUiik'er nf fnrrlgu iiitaik till' authorities of ilie Csiiion* tbri-aieneii aliall nipieal the aid of other members nf the I onfiiUraiiou aihl ahall lmiue<llalely Dot If y the fnieral gnvemnient the aiiliaciiueui action of uu coif BTITUTION : 8W1TZIRLAND. Armti and Mint. i 1 the utter ih*]! not thereby be precluded. The Cantona summoned are bound to giTe aM The expenaea ahall be bome by the Confederation. •. ^"^ " ^° "*' "* '°«»™«1 diaturbance, or If the danger is threatene<l by another Canton the authoritiea of the Canton threatened ihall ?lve immediate notice to the Fnlenil Council, in order that that body may take the meaaure* Moeaaary, within the limiu of Itx powpr (An. » ' "I.*" *"• "'• *"■ ""y •iimm<in the Federal Aaaembly. In extreme caaea the authoritiea of the Canton are authorized, while giving Immedi ate notice to the Federal Council, to aalc the aid of other Cantons, which are bound to aiToril aurh aid If the executive of the Canton la unable to call for aid, the federal authority having the power may, and if the aafety of Switzerland Is endangered ahall. Intervene without reijuiaitlon. In case of federal intervention, the federal authorities shall take care that the pmvislons <if Article 5 lie observed. The expenses shall be borne bv the Canton asking aid or ucrasioning federal faitervention, except when the PVderal Aaaembly otherwise decides on account of special clreumstances. A«T. 17. In the cases mentione<i In Articles 15 and 19. every Canton la Iwunil to affoni undis- turhe<l (HMMge for the trr«ips. The tmops slmll immediately lie placni unler fe<leral command Art. in. Every 8wiss is l»im<l to perfnrni mlMTary service. Holdiers who lose their lives i>r auf/erpermam-nt Injury to their h«-alth. in wu aequem-e of fe.ler»l service, an- enlitle.1 to aid fmm the Confoientiiin for themselves or their families, in casi- of need. Each soldie' almll ret-elve without expense his flr«t e<iulpmenl clothing ami anns The wmpon remains in the hanils of the soldier, under ronilitlons wlilcli shall be prescrilM-.l l.y f.^leral lerislation. The Con- frderatiiin hlinll enai'l uniform pruvisionsastoan exemption tax AliT. IS. The feilrral arm V Is comikMil (,<) in the rantonal military corps (»» t»f all Hwl« who ilii not lielonit to siiili military eoriis, but are nevertlieleM IJalile to mllltNr\' service. ' The Confiileration exenises iiHitnirnver the amiv and the iiMterial of war pruvldeil by Uw In cases of dangir. tlie Confe.leratl.in hu also the exclusive ami direct control ..f men not In. Iu<te,l In the fnleral army, ami of nil ,,i)iit niiliiarv resimrces of the (ant.inH Tl..' ( snlom. have authority over the nillltiiry for.'es ..f tin ir terri torv. so far as Ibis ri^ht' is mit llnilt.'.l t.y the Fcleml Cimatitution or laws Anr !» The Uws „n the oriranixalion of th.- army are paa«^| by th,- Confeilerallon TIm- .nforcrment of military laws In the (Hiifvis is lntni.i.Ml I., ibe .'anu.nal ..mcials. within limits wh . h •hall lie Axe.1 by fe<|eral LgbUlioii .ml un.l<'rihesu|iervislonofthe('onre<leratlMn .Mill tary lii.tni.ii,«, „f ev.ry kimi |M-rtaln« to tl,e I ..<.r.-|.ral|..n. The same applks to the smiInK ..f lr..,|~ The lumishi i« ami malnl.iwmv of clotl.lMif itml .>|ulpment is within llw power ..f tbetaiil.Mi. iMit the ti,nt.M» shall Iw cre,lil.-.| with th.- e«|»fiiM Ihenf.ir, ar<-..f,lli,g t„ » p.^,, latlon t.i U- .'.i«l.li.|„H| bv f,.,|eral l<Ki»Utiou Art ai <*,, f,r ». military rens-ms <l.i ii,.i prevent Ik.lles „f ,n„,« ,|„|| >^ t„n,r.l .,„i „f the Botfii.-rs of the same < anuma The .'.wiiii.i.l ,?J, '^ .'"" ' "' '""'»"' "'- malnlename of their elTectlve .inngfh llie *pt».|nttiient ami promotion of .•iHi-.-m ..f these hialirs of troops, COK8TITUTION: BWITZERLasd belong to the Cantona, subject to genenJ nmn .ion. which diall beeaubliJ^ by O^lZt^^Z u^Il *?; 9^ payment of a ieaar.n»blt |„,i™ nlty. the Oonfederarton ha. the right u.ZZ acquire drUl-grouBd. and buildings inte„,|.7, * miflUiT purpoae^ within the CaStnr,,. ^.IC, with the appurtenanoe. thereof The teS, ttaj^hidemiJty diaU be wttled by MenlhXu- Aw. n. The Confederation may r.,iu,n,,- at Ita own esMBse, or may ai.l by sul«i,lie, rab-' He work, which concern Switxerlaml „r,„. siderable part of the country. For thi, >>„,«.!. it may expropriate property, on |w,ni,„t .*. reMooable indemnity. Further ena.tm.iit. „„.„ 612 The Federal ASMmbly may f.irhi.1 ,,„hlio w„rk, which endanger the military inten..!, „f ,|,e (• ,„ federation. Art. M. The Confederation has i he riifhi.f superintendence over dike and foit-t .M.liee n the upper mountain reriiina. It m»v.'j»ner,t, in the straightening and embankm.-tit ..f t,.nvotI which they riae. It may preacribe th.. reK»|„i„u necessary to aasure the malntenan.v ,,f ih«. works, and the nreaervation of existini; f„rr«t, ':", ^. J"" ConfederatLin has p,.«er t„ inake legislative enactmenta for tii.- r, ifulatl,* ,f the right .if flahing ami hunting, |.,rtin.l.rlr with aviewtoihe pmervationof the h.rire irsnif ill the mountains, ss well aa for the i.r..i,rti,.ii .( hlMs useful Ui agriculture ami fon^irj Art. !89 Ix-gislatkin upon th.. .■..n.irurtim ami ..{H-ratlon of railromis is In the i.M>in.T..f the ('onr.Nierati>«. ^.".T . '■'? ^"^ Confederati.in lias the ritflii . . establish, bivides tbeexlating l'..lvt.-, hiii, S h..! a Federal I nlverslty ami otlier in.iiimi..n. ..f higher Inalructhm. or t.. sulmidire iii«iiiuii..n. , ( such nature. The Cantons pr..vi.|,- f,.r ..nnun nstnution, which shall be sulfl. i. nt xn.l ^ui lie place.1 excluslvelv under the .|ir.-.ii..,i„f .hf aecular aiithtirity. It b compiil».rv ,in.| in ih. nubile schoils. free The piihlle „ h.«.|. sh,l| be such that thev may tie frei|iii'tii.M Lv iIm' i.1 hirenii of all n'lliri.ius sects, wlihi.m „„• .(Ten.- to th..|r fr<.eih>m .if cmsclence .>r ..f l«li,f 'ni. C"nfe,lerali.m shall take tli.. m..t-.«n m.-w.,r.i against such Canums as shall n..i fulfill i|„» duties. Art » Thecust.ims an. in th.. |.r..\iu.T ' tlie r.inr«lerBti.in. It may levy .•».i..ri «i,t ic |i.irt duties Art 8» The cillecii.>n ..f th.. (. I.ml m. tiims shall lip regiilale.! a.iM.nliiic i.. ih. f li.wimt principli-s 1. I>uth-s o.i lmtH>rt> .n M»itftiiii WH^ssary f..r llie manufailims s>i.| >.^n. uli.irr ..f the diilitry shall U. t«»..,l «» !,.« „ |.„| ble (*| It shall he the same with ih.' m.„«!m •if life if\ |,uxurii.s shall lie siil.|iii.-,l i.. itr highest duties I'nkwi tlii-r.. sr.- iiii|.er-iiivf -i-aMins to tlie ...wtrarv. the*. pri«,i|.l.. Ji»ll !» <iliaerv(.<l slao in the rom'lusl.in ..f irmiM .f .'.immenv with foreign (Miweis. i Th.- ,luiw on e>|iiirta shall ahai he aa low as |»««il.l.^ I The .listoms legislatl'.M shall Imlii.le -nKiUr pmvisiiins f..r the ...intiMiiaii.vi.f i..|iiiii>'ni>l!in.l market inten.irtirM. acpwi the fr..iiti,r Tb» sin. re provisions .to m4 prevent the i ..ntnlefs ll.in from making teminirarv enrpii >inl [.r.rt ahins, under extraordinary ilrrumslan. «» CONSimTION: SWITZERLAND. CiMtoNU and Exci»e. CONSTITUTION: SWITZKRLAin). A»T. 80. The proceeds of the ruMomi belong 10 the Confedermtloo. Tiie indemnity ceair- which hitherto l.u been paid to the Cmnttrai for the redcmptioD of cuttonu, for road and bridre tollt, custom* duties and other lilw dues. By (iraption. and on account of their interDational alpine nnuls, the Cantons of L'ri, Orisms, TIcino, tod Vslsis rrcciTe an annual indemnity, which, couidcring all the circumstances, is tlxed as fol- lom: L'ri, 80,000 franca QriHins, 200,000 ftucs. TIcino, 300,000 fnuir<. Valaia. ,'W,000 {noes. The Cantons of l'ri and Ticino slull re- oelTe in sdditinn, fur rlearin;^- the snow from the Ssint Ofltthard road, an annual indemnity of W.IKMI francs, so long as that road shall nut be Rplaied by a railrosid. Aht 31. The freedom of trade and of industry ii ):uaninleeii throuchout the whole extent of the I'linfedrration. The folliiwinit suhjerts are cKvptni: III) The salt and i;un|H>W(l<-r monopoly, liir ffilrml customs, im|i<irt clii'ica on wines and .iiIht »I'I'^«•"'"• li'iuors, siiil iplher taxes on om- iamplii>a expressly pt-rmitti-il by tlw Confcilrra- tloo, sceording to article 83. (t) [Added bg AmntdMiU eflkf. 22, IHM] The manufacture ■aJ iaie of alcohol, under Article 38 Ui). (c) [.<<UirfAy AmendmeiitofVtf. 22, IteU. ] Driukiog phcrs, and the ictail trade in spirituous liuuon; hut nerertheleas the Cantons may by legislation nbjet't the busioeaa of heepini; drinking places, sad the retail trade in spirituous lii(Uors. to such imrirtiiins ss are reuuited for the pulillc welfare. \/t\ UirOjiMlIf iH)] Measures of saaitarr pollf^' sploM epidemics and cattle diseases, (r) [ Itrigi »Mii ifi| iVoTisioas in regani to the exercise of tnirt sn'l manufactures, in ifganl to taxes iin panl thiTpnn, and in regani to the police of the ■mil. Tliese proTishins shall nut iimtaln snv thiii[t rontrarr to the principle of fiMiioiu of tmiV ml maoufacture. Art .1-.' The Cantons are aulhorirj^l Xn ni|. Vet till' im|Nirt duties on wines anil olliir spirit- siiut liiiiiiira. proviilrtl in .Vrtiile III i.ii, slwavs SBiit'r till' roltiiwing rentrit'tionK {■) The inlln-. tl»n iif iluM- ImiMirt iluli<-« ahall iu mi Kim- ini pnir iniiinpiirtslliin: i-iinmn'ne simll !»■ ob- *rir!iil iia lltlli' »• (Mauiililv and slmll not lie burlrmii with siiv Mthrr dues. {h\ If ihrsrlirli's hBi«iniil fur conaiimplion are n'Cx|>ortni fMni thf I .int..ri. tlir duties iitiiil i<n ini|Hinntii>n Khali he n fiiiiiliil. wiiliuut fiirlliir ilmrifi" I'-i IVi iluris i-f Swiss oriittn slmll In' U-m liunlcmit than thmp of fiiiflKn I'liuntriiit. «./) Tlie exInlinK iui- pirt iluii) ( on wines and otiii-r •plrltiinti* lii|iiiirs of S»iM oriitiu shall nut U- Inrreawil by tlie ('sniimi whii h slnaily levy ilicm Sm h iliitiis ■lull n.>t li» I'stablitbrd U|>iiii >iii'b nrliila* by l'»iiiim« which do not m pumiiI lolliii ilimi III Thi Uk< ami ortlinamvs i>f ilie CiiiiiiinK mi ih.' iilli iili n iif imiHin dmi<» >hall. iM'fun- iliclr lfm\t Iniii iffiH't. U' submittal to llie fi-tti'ral 5 iiirmmnt fiir approval, in oniiT Hint It m«v, iii-i^«i«rv. rauie the cnfonvmeut of llic prr inliiiil |iruvMi«s All the Ininort iliities now Irritnl liy ilir Cantons, as wrll si the •imilnr dutiM k> itil by I hr Communes, shall cease, with- iwl Inilemnliv. at llie emi of the year l-'tlii Asi .IJ .Ih [Amttulmtnl nf thf «.!•«»«] Tb. ( ..hriilrraliou is authoriint by Icicislalion to •sill' nviiUtlims for Ihi- maniifai'tun' sni sale i<f slnilial In this legtslatinii ihoM' pnidui'ts »hlih sri' Inti-nded fur ei|Hirtalion. ur which h»»f turn subjected to a prucrsa rxrludin( them from use as a beverage, shall be subjected to na Ux. Distillation of wine, fruit, and their by- producta, of gentian root, juniper berries, and simiUr pioducta, is not subject to federal iegishi- tion as to manufacture or tax. After the cessa- tion of the import duties on spirituous liquors, provided for in Article S> of the Constitution, the trade in liquors not distilled shall not be sub- jected by the Cantons to any special taxes or to other llmiutiona than those necessary for pro- tection againat adulterated or noxious beverages. Nevertheless, the powers of the Cantons, defined in Article 81. are reuined over the keeping of drinking places, and the sale at reUU of quanti- ties less than two liters. The net proceeds re- sulting from uxatlon on the sale of alcohol belong to the Cantons in which the tax is levu .1. The net proceeds to the Confederation from the in- ternal manufacture of alcohol, and the correspond- ing addition to the dutv on Imported alcohol, ate divided among all the ('anions, in proponion to the actual popuUtlon as ast-eruined from time to lime by the next prrce<llnK federal census. <)ut of the receipts therefrom the Cantons must expend not less than one tenth in combating drunkenness in its causes and elfecU. [For ad- ihrii.iuil artiflf uf t\i» AmeiulmenI we Tempnrarj/ /Vr.n»»V.iM. Artieie6. at iKe emi ajT (Aw Coiulitu- ll;„] \«T 83. The Cantons may require proofs of ci>ni|M-iency frim those who desire to practice a liU'iiil pnifrssion. Provision shall lie maile by fiileml legiHlatlon by which such persons may I btalii certltleates of c<im|M'icncy which shall be Milid throughout tin- Confi'tierBtion. Akt. S4. The Confeili-nition has power to < .isct uniform provisions as to the lah<ir of rliil- iln'u in factories, ami as lo the durstion of Islior li-Xiil for mliilla tlierein. and as lo the pr<i|e<'tiiin of workmen against the oiirralion of unbealthy Slid dangerous manufactures The transaclimis of emignilion stents ami of organliitllous fur insiirani-e. not insliluml by the Stale, ntv «ub- Jill lo federal su|>erviHion and legislslion. .Vht aidl) lAmfiiilmriit ••/ Ikf. 17. 1M»|) ] The Confetleratl.m sliall by law iiMviile for in- »iir»iiii' airaimtt ulckneiw ami sccMenI, with due rii;«nl for existing «lck Ihih Hi fiimln The Cun- federatbin may n-quirr |ianicipation tber<-in. either by all persons or by particular ciassen of Ihe popuUtion. .\bt iH. The o|>eiilin; I'f Bsming Iioums is forbidden Thiw which nnw exist shall be cIiis<hI IVt 31, IX7T The eoiiei asiuna which m!iv have tavn icniiitMi ..r n iiewtii aini-e llie !»•• j;iimlnit of the vesr Kl an- ile< Isriii Invalid. Tlie Ciinfiib'mlion nisy «l«i take necessary nH-asurea cominiinit lotteries Akt *t The piists ami telegraphs in all Sw llrerlsml *iv cniilMlltii by the Confeiierallou The immiila uf Ihe |«»ls Slid tetegmplis iH'lonir III the fi-iieral treasury. The rates shall, for all parts of .SwitterUuiii, Ik- lileil stconling to Ihe aanie prim iple ami as fairly as |i<«sible. Invio- lalih' a-cn-iy uf leiu-rs and lelegmms Is gusrsn- H-e.1 Anr M The Confederation rXertiaes general overvliflil over those roads slid bridges In the nisinteiisiice of whith it is inieri'stni The sums due to the Cantons nienlionni In Article 8ll, on airount of their International alpine mads, shall lie h'taiiieil by the feileral Koveriiment if such mads are not kept by them in suitable I'TilHiin 6i:t COKSTITUTION: SWITZERLAND OUmit^t,. CONSTITUTION: SWITZERLAND. A*T. 88. The Confrdention nerdaet all the cxcliuire righu pntainioK tu coinage. It hai the iole right of coloiog niooer. It mtahjUhe* the monetary tyatem, and may enact |in>rUi<)na if Decenary, for the rate of exchange of foreign coina [A«T. SP. (Ahr^tgntid hf the artiele /nltoirinf if). The Cn<\ff<Umlinn hae the /irnwr to nutke by Inir yrneral iirariuaiu for the ueue itnd rrdem/ition of hitni nnta. Hut it thiiU nnt create any monop- '•la for thr imiif 4,f bank note; nor make iiieA nitttie a Ufful trnttfr. ] Art. 89. Ul'iUtil'itt far former Art. 89. aihpted f)rt IS. isftl ] Thf Confeileratiou ha» the exrlunlve power to Lssui- banii notes and other lilte currency. The ConfiHlenilion mav exerriH- tlie exclusive |>ower over the i»iie of Imok notes through a NiitionHl liniili carried on under a s|N-cial deiwrtiiieiit iif tidmiui.strutiou; or it may amign the right !■> n ceiilnil joint Riock Imiik I'len-ufter to tu. ireatnl, whirli sliull lie ailuiiiiiMtend un.l. r tlie oHtperution ami iiuim rrisiou of ili,- Cn,. feileration; Iml the privilege to uke over the hank, hyiMyingacompennntlon, shall be retained The liatik im»*<m.,1 ,,f ilie exclusive right to i<wue noti* klinll liHve for in iliief function lon'KiilHte the ciriulallon of mouev in Switierhu l and to facilitate exchiiiiv.v to the Canl.vns sliiill U- I>aiil at least !».. tliInU of the net pn.tlts of the Iwuk lieyond a reasonalile interest i>r n n-ason- Hlile ilivideixl l<i the stocklHilden. and tli.- oeces sarv transfers to the nierve fun<l Thr laink ami its lirau.hea shall D<>t }<i- suliji^eteii to t»x«- tliin liy tlie < 'anion. The Confeileralioit <d«il Hot make Uink imti-n au,| ,,il,er like lurrtaiv |l>ifal lender, exi-. pi in urt-enl neeil in time nf Iwar Tlie primi|wl oill,, ,.f ilw Iwuk an.l tl,, details ■ if ilsorifani/alioii. »<• will as in general the larryint inti. .tr..i thi. artitle. sluill lie deter- mini'd liy fi^ili mI Inw Aht 40 Thr ConftHlemtion tixe, the stand unl of weighu iind nieii-.ure!< Tlie Canton., iindir ItK »u|..rxi.ion of i|,,. Confi^.lerallon euforre the law, ri l.iiioi: ih.nlo Amt 41 The niantifaetiire anil the sale of ! puii|«iwder IhMughoiii S«ili:erland iiertaiu ex ilusively to the CoufeiUriiiioi, I'ow.ler. use.1 I for hhi.iint' and iiol siitialile for slKaitiug am ' Uol Inehided in the niono|io|y i Aht 4-.' The e«|»'niliiur™of the ('..nfeilera- ' lion ar.- met as f..llow, ,.., um of ii„ jm'.ime from f...l.ral pr.i|»rtv I'o iliil of ||„ pn«.-.ds of the fethral eii>toiiia le\i.-.| at tile ?«wls« frontier i^i iMit of the pr<s-...-.ls of ibi- ihms and telegraphs (,fi Out of the |.n.-.,.,|.of il,,. IM.w.ler raono|n.ly i,, Uul of half of til.. t'MM r..e«ipls from the tax on military etempiions levil,! hy the Cautoiia ( <•( • Mil of the ■'.•nlhliu li.'n. of the (anion, which shall la- deienniWHl \'\- Uii,n[ leglMlatlon wilh s|h.< ial rrfen-im to llieir wi'allh and laxalile rewiurces Aht M Kvery eltljen of s (anion is a f<wlas eiti«en As such lie may partieiiiate In the plaii' when he I. donilrd.,! in all fettrr,! eliiiions and |s.pular voles after having duly proven hi, .pialiii.alioii as a voter No nrni,;, >Mi e«en-l«' |H>liii.al rigbu In more than oi»- ( .inloii TIh .Hwi». .ettl.-,! •. , . itl/en oui«|.|, hi, n»ll»e (anion enjoy, in the p|»,., wlier. !»• !• doinii llr.1, all tin. rights of the liiiiens of the ( inton iiieliidlng ,11 the rights of the .■ommunal ■ iilxrn l>artlel|>«ii..n in munhliial aiei .of |H.r»U' pro|».ny. and tbe ri«bl u, vote uj.« purely muoidpal aSain. are excepted from ludi riehta. unless the Canton by legislation S otherwije provided. In cantonal and conitnuMi afTaln, he gains the right to vote after a Mi dence of three montba. Canttmai laws relatin, to the right of Swiaa citizens to settle outsi.lf iiw Cantons in which they were bom, ami t(, vcii, on communal questions, are submittal f,,r <Z apnroval of the Federal Council. Am. 44. No Canton sUll expel fn„„ j,, ,„. rtUiry one of it* own citliens, nor deprive l,ua„t his righU. whether acquired hv birili „r v,,u shall fix the conditions u|Hin which f,,r,.i,.n,» i may lie naturulixed, as well as thiw upon wluck i a ^^wiss may give up his citizenship in „r,|,.r |,, j obtain naturalization in a foreign eoimirv A«T. 4.'i. Every 8wiss citizen ha, llii'ri^lit t ■ settle any whert.- in Swiss territorv, on ,„u,iiii„n ' of submiltiuga.frtiacaleof origin, ..ra.iraiUr ' diHumeni By exception, seltlein.ni mar I* nfuM-d to or withdrawn from, tlios,. «|",, ,j eonaequenn- of a |)enal conviction, are ii..t ,.|iii tle.1 to civil rights. In aildition. B.til, m. nt m.>r la- withdrawn from those who hav«' Is-m ri|,a- ■•illy punished for 8..riou» oltens..s, mid aU. fp.m Ihiste who iM-nuaneutlv i-oiiie U|H>n tlie i lur-i . f public charily, and to whom their (ommnii, .r Cant.« of origin, as lb.- case mav l» m,,,, BUIBeieni succor, after th.<v have ix i n ■!h. •a] v asketl to grant it In tb.' ( ani..ii, «li,rv'il,- p<»icar»- relieved in tlieir place of nM.|,u<, lU |"Tinia»l.in to settle, if It n-lai.-. to . iii„„4 ' the C'am.«. any !»• i-..u|*M wiih tU ,. nliii-i tli,it lh.'y shall la- able to work, and that ;i,. shall not. in their former d..niicil,. in tl„ i u: of origin, have |>eniiaueul ly Isionie :i • liariv . ; (iiililic charity Every exi.iilMon on u.i^.iitii , ' poverty miisi !*• appMve<( lie i|„. i;. i,miiiri • of the Canton of .lomi, ij,..' „„.| |.t>vi..u».. aniiouiKf)! to th,. govemntrni ..( 111. ( .mi.ii ,• origin A ( anion in whitli a .s<\i„ . .tul.li.b,., , his domiiile may not reiiuin- ~iiiriti n "r m 1 !«««■ any s|Ki'ial oblimtions for .... h iMaLli^i nient In like manner the ( ..ininnn.. .inu- ri>)uire fMm Mwiss domiiil.-,! in lb ir i.rrit m olli.r contnliuilons than tli.,«- nhi, h tb.v n.piire friHn their own »iitijeeis A It I. nl l.is shall ralahlisli thi iiiaximuni fee to I, paul i|«- Clianrery for a i^rmit lo settle Akt 4fl IVr,..ns s.tiled in iswii/.rlaiul atr aa a niie siiliieete.1 1,. i|„. jurixlii iio,i :,i„| L-si, latimi of their doiuliile ill all ilmi i-riaiii. t their personal statu, ami pro|Mrn ri.'lii, Tlr Confe.1. niii4.n shall li\ law iimk. tli. pr.vni^i, ii.i-.-sN.ry for the applhaiion of i|,h priiHii* awl for tile priveutioii of donlile |«» iti-n .f . liiii.n Aht 47 A ftsieral law sluill .«tal.li.li itir distlBt'tiou latwi-en seltleiiieui ami i. in|«nri resi<lenii- ami sImII if the same iini. iii..k. lUr r»gul«ii>ins lo wtaK h .swis, len.i^.ran i.v„|Mit» shall U Miliji-cted aa to tlMir jioliij.al tti-lit. ami tlM'ir livil righu Am 4« A fe,tml law shall pM. il. ( .f ik n-gulall.« of Ihe e«|«'tHes ot iIm l! Ii,,, tftl liiinal of ittiliireni lunaau uiiiensti. i ■ rnr Canton who have r»lim III or di-: m iuoihet Canton Aht 48 rrewtom of r..n«i-ieii.. «o<l uliff li invi.i|al«le Xo (a-ratn •nn Is- ronsirHiiK^I '•!•»» part in h rrligioua »«-tH> lo alli ii<l n iurt-us in structlun, lo iwrlunu a fttllgluut riti • r t.. incut AH CONSTITUTION: SWITZERLAND. CONSTITLTION: SWITZERLAND. nmKiri«« of any kind whatever on account of re- {fioui opinion. The penon wtiu exerciaes the paRDt'i or guardian's authority luu the right, coofonnably to tlie principle* above stated, to RfuUle the religious education of children up to llir age of fixt^en conipletetl years. The ex- trdw ui civil or political rii;btii shall not be ibridgnl by any provisiona or euDdillons wbat- erer of an ecclesiaaticai or religious liind. N'o pcriuo •ball, on account of a religious lielief. itleiue himself from the arcomplUhiueut of « civil duty. No person is bound to pay taxes of wbicli the prorecds are specitlcally a|ipn>priate<i totlH' actual expenses of the worship i>! a n-lig- loia l««lv to which he does not IkIoU);. The drtsilt <>/ the carrying out of this principle are nwrred for federal legislation. A«T 50 The free exercise of religious wor- ■Up is ^'uaranteed within the limit.4 compatible with |iul>li(' i>r<lcr and giMMl morals. Tlie (.'aiitnus udtlirC iiiifedeniliou may take suitable nicasun'S (i>r the pn«>rvalion of public onler and of (Maiv between the members of dilTereut n-ligious Ixulies. ud sliH) sgaiiist encrottcltiueuts of i-cclcsia»tical lutborilics u|Min the rights of citizens uiiil of the !>utr C'liitestsiu public anil private law. which uiwoutiif the formaliiiu or the divisimi ii( n-- lifiiiun iHidies. may be brought by a|j|M-Hl lH'fiir<' tor i^xnpetent federal authorities. No bishopric iliall U' errand upon Swiss territorj- without the ootrnt of the C'onfeiteratiou. AtT .M. The onler of the Jesuits, and the so rirliri affiliated with them, shall not Is' rcceivet! iotiisii.r part of Swit/erlniid . and all action in cliunli uiil N'liiail Is forbidden to its nuinlsTs. Tbiipniliiliition may Ik- extended also, by federal iinliiuuiv. to other religious onlers, the a<'tioii .if which i* itangenms to the state or illslurln tlir pMUf lietwM-n si-i'ts Akt VJ. The foundation of new <tinvent.ior rrli|ri<>u» onieis, ami the reestablisliiuiut of tliiM- which hare lieen suppreswd. are forbidden Ait IU The civil status and the koping of m>>rl< thereof is subject to the civil authority TV C'lnfederntion shall by law enact ditailitl pt<'Ti>iiinii upon this subject. The coutMl of fitcn iif liurial is subject to the civil authority I >b*II take care tliat every deceaseil |H'rM>u may lir i!pn-tiilv ijitcrri'il Aar M The right of marriage is plai.il ^Sikt iIk- priiH-ctiou of the (onfedenitiou No -unluiinii iipon marriage shall Ih base<l u|u>n uvuiisii crouiuls, nor U|hvu the |»iverty of eitlH r of the ii>utraitauls. nor on their coudU(t. nor on •HI 'ihen iinaiilemtion of gi»«l onler .V iiuirriaire <.«tr».te.i ilia Canton or In a fonign coimtrv. r.wf"rra«l'!y to the law whli h !•< Ilnre In foni ■Ml !«■ riHogiiiieda* valiil thMughout the I on (n|.r»lion Ity marriage the wife acipiins llu- rmuiM)ii|> of tier husband Chihlri'U Ismi Ik- fiTf 111. marri«if<- are made legitimate be tlic wlne.|ii.iit marriage of ihiir paniiis N'o tai u|>i(i ii.lmi..iiin or siudlar tax shall lie hvled upi« eiih. r |.»rty to a marriage A»T .'>■ rile fre<Hloni of the pr<'M is guar- eriicl \i ki rllicleaa tlie ( anions by law cim< t »» raire.iiris ii<-<-eaMry for the suppression of •ixttM Stiih laws are submllle<l for the ap- pnni, f 111.- Krih-ml Coumil The (onfi-ibra Iw iiisi mail iM-nallies for the »uppn'*.ion of |4in> oR.'i.aei illni'inl against itorlt«aiitli..ritie» AST M Ciutens hav.' the nght of f.irming •""Uuoos, pruvUcd thai Hwr* be In the pur- pose of such asscx'iations, or in the means which they emplov. nothing unlawful or dangerous to the state. The Cantons by law take the meaa- ures necessary for the suppression of abuses. Art. 67. The right of petition is guaranteed. Aht. 5H. No person shall be deprived of hi* constitutional Judge. Therefore no extnuirdinary tribunal shall Ik- tratablished Ecclesiatical Juris- diction is abolishetl. Art. 51). Suits for |HTsonal claims against a solvent debtor having a domicile in ^*witzerlaDd, must be brought befon- the Judgi- of his dom- icile: in conseuuence, bis pn.perty outside the Canton in whii'h he is domiciliil n'lav not l)e at- tarhi-d in suit.* for personal claims " Neverthe- less, with refiniiii- to foreigners, tlie provision* of inu^mational Inaties shall not thir.b\ lie affected. Inipri»inui.'iit for debt Is alsilishtd. -Vrt. 60. .VII the I'untons are Imunil to treat the citizeus of the other confederated Mates like those of their own fitate in legislation and in all judical proceeiiings. Akt. 61. Civil judgments dettnitely pro- iiouiiceil in any Canton mav lie exi-eutt-tl any- where in ."«witzirl:iiiil .\mt. 62. The exit duly on pniperty ftralte fiiraiiii ] is alsilisliiil in the interior of '!*wiizer- latnl. as will as the right of ndi nipiion [limit lie ntniit) by citizens of one Canton against tlii»e of oilier confi'ilernliil States -ViiT 6:1 The exit duty on |iri>|ierty Im aliol- i.-hi-.l as rciHits fnnign countries, provided re- cippicity Is' ol«M*rvi-ii, -Vkt W. Till- Coufiiieration ha.« power to make laws On k ^al competiiicy Ounll legal questions relating to loniiiiene and to tniiis- actions alTecllug chattels .l.uv of coiumin lal ol>- liiralions. incliiiiini; loniniercial law and Ian of exchangei I >ti literary and artistic co|iyright. Ontlie protection of new patti rns and forms, and of invention* which iin' represented in nioilels and an' capable of industrial application. (.1/11./.././,. ../ ..f A.- ■Jip issT ] 1)1, ti„. i,.,,ai rolliition of ililin and on liaiikr»|>tcv Tlii- ad- niiiiistratioii of luslice n iiiaius willi the Cant. ns. Kin- as affei'teil In the powers of the Keileral liiurt. [^.\KT 6."!. (.V>r'iij,ilfl 'y Am, liilment nfJiituiQ, l**.!! ) Thfilfilth liil,llljHnit'4liJinl i MKrDirltU ih* pr'*rint>tun-f mittt'trjf l.i^r in titn* of ir.ir $fHiU tr ontrrt'f ' .'r/*.r,i/ ;.....«/. ...eft/ l« /lA-'/(j//e«/ j Ant 6.1 1 li'...,</(/.r'.f ■•f'.//.f.f SO. IxTtt ' No deatl. iK'iuilty shall In pmiiounceil for a |hi!ltlcal crime. Ci>r(H>ral puLiishment is ulHilinlii<l Aht 6*i Tile ( oufideralion by 1»« tile* the limits wiiliiii uhiih a >wi'ui citizen may Is .ie- priviil of lii« iioliii. .il rik'hts Akt tIT Till tihfr.li ration by law pnivides for the cnlMililioii of ai nise't prrsou.i from one Caiiloti lo niioilii r, m virlln hso. exlrailition shall not Is- iiiailc ohlit-.iiory for political oHeiisa's and olTeuM-K of till jir*-H.'« .Vkt tV" Mia'iiri" are taken by federal law for till iiiioris.ration of |i< rsniis without country llli illiallll /.« Ill nliii for the prevention of new ca.'oi if that imiure Anr (IW l,egi>latii>u concerning luissures of sanitary (Hilice sgainsi epidemic and cattle dis- ISM'S i.tusing a coinnion danger, is included la till ih.wirs of tlie Coufeileratlou .Vht T'' The Confeiieratlou has power to ei|Hl from its territory forvigoers who eiidaafer the tulvmal or eitcmal safety of SwitierUnd Cl(> — t coNsxmrno.V: switzeulaxd. Frdrml ClMMCO. |i *. i ■■::! Chapter i I.-A«t. 71. With th* merT.tioa , »i?*. ^^^ °\ ^ P*°P'* »"•' "' the CantoM (Article* 80 ami 181), rhe ■uprrme authority of the Coafederatlon la exerdaed by the FetlenU Aaaembly [ AMemblfe fMinUe : Buodeavemmm- lung] which mnaUu of two aectlona or councila. to wH: (A) The Xatlooal Council (B) The Council of SutM. Art 75 The Xntlonal Council [Conaell .■Sational; .Natloualrath] la compuaed of reoie. aentotlvea of the Swlia people, choaen in the imtlo of one nwmber for each 20.000 peraons of the total populaU<m. Practiona of upwanla of 10 000 peraon* arc reckimril aa ao.OOO. Every Canton and In the dlvldrtl Cantona every Half Canton' cbtNMea at leaat one n'prparntative. Akt 78. The eU-t'tiona for the Xatlonal \?!f.'""",*'?, •","*'• ■'"»>«•? •» hehl In fe<lenil eleoioijil dirtrlcta, which in no caae ahall be formed out of jwru of dllTrRnt Canu>na. Airr. 74. Every Swim who haa completed twenty yea™ of age. and who in addition la not excluded from the riphta of a voter bv the legia- latlon of the Cnnton In which hi- la domiciled haa the right to vote In election* and popular votea Xeverthel,-**. the Confederation f>y law mav establWi uniform regulation-, for the exerciae of auch right. AKT. 75. Everv l«v Swl.* citizen who ha* the right to vote I* i-ligif,Ie for inenilierahlp in the Aatlonal Council. Akt. 78. The Xatlonal Council I* clio*,-n for three yean, and entln-ly r.n,-w,-d at each general elei-tlon. Art 77 Ui-preiK-nlative* to the Council of State* member* ..f the Fderal Council, an.l offlriaUappointwl by tlmt Council. »halln..t at the «ime time U- memU-nt of tin- Xatlonal Council Akt 7X The Xatlonal Coi.ncllchooae* out of il» o» „ numUr. for each n-guUr or extnu.nllnarv wwloii. a l»r<-«i,l.nt nn<l a Vice Prt-sld.nt \ menilH-r who ha* liehl || fflee of |'rt-»ident during a n-gular «-«.i..n Is Im-llgible clth.-r at lr.-.lden>or \ ice l'n-.|,l< nt at the next regular r.'*","i' T'w "mt" ni< iiil«r m«v not Ik- Vli-e- I r.»l.lent during lw„ cmwuiliM- n-gular «.•*- ;."".■ " '"n tl'i- vole, .ir.. ,,|uiillv <llvld(-.l the Iri-.ldeni h,» . nisling vol,, iu election, he voles In ihe name manner a* oiher menilieni I nllJii ™ 1 "*"'"' ""■"''"•'» '•' "«• Xatlonal loom II n-<-elvea<-onnH-n«iiion out of thefwlernl tn-aiury fA''^J*,' The (o„„H| „f Slate* [Con«ll ,1,-* Elat« SUnderaih) con.Ms of fortv four r.-i.r,-. •.-ntatlv,.,,,f i|,eC:,i,i..(i,i Each<aiil,.DapiM)lnU "; ,7r>p*'"'>">'V In IlK- dlvld^l Canton., • HI b llntf State rb<>a«<< one Art m| The iim nilK-r* of the Xatlonal Coun ill and thine of ih,. |.„h.n,| c„„n,.|| n,ay not bi- n-prewniative* In the C.Minetl of Sutra. Art »i TlH-Comullof StaU-*chi»«e«outof lUowii iitimlj.r for emh rig.ilarorexir»or.||n«rv JW.IOII H |»ri.|,|eni an.1 a VI.-.- »*n-.i.bnl X. Ithir the I'r.-.lilent n..r th.- VI.e l'n-»l.|enl can tw chiwn fn.in anxm*; the n-im-aenialive. of the ( «iii..n fft,m whi. h Ihe I'r.-.i.leni hai. h.-enc»«i«n lor ihi- n-gular M-miou next pn-c-dlng Ifa-pn *ntallv.Hi ,,f Ihe »anH- Canlou .n.iiii.t .Kcuny the IK-ltion of VLelVsiden. during ^J,\^Z --.Olive regular «^)..„, wi.,-,, ,he v„i,.. are .(ually .||vlde.| Ibe IT.-,i,|enl l..,«.„i|i,rf vole «b.r',!l;':ter""'* '" ""■ """ "'■"'»'""'«'« CONSTITUTION: 8WIT2E!U..\.ND B.^_^ Reprwentatlvea in the { ,„,n(-il Statea i^tb • compenaatlon fmm the (■„„" -Ji^ri*!_ ^^ ^•"°»»' Council an.l the 7 '^il.?*%!."?°^'»" ^ iubjecu which pretent Comtitutiaii place* within tlw r, petence of Xix, Coofedentioo. and which ai* aadgned to suit oUter federal authority „ff^'; ** -'"•••"•>J~U within the Amv*xn ,'i .'• f**V»°»^»'«»n'««tlonofa„,|,k.rt of fnleral authoritlea. 9. Uw* an.|-„nllM„,; I'ihI'''!^'' 7ii'='',''y "•" fon.tltutlo„ areX within the federal competence. 3 Th.- Li, and corapeniatloa of member* of tl„. f„i, ' governing bodle* and of Ihe Fcleral ( hano n thecreatfooof federal offlcca an.l tl eiermr atlon of ..lariea therefor. 4. The .1. , li.mTi Fwleral Council, of the Federal Coun, ,...,1 „ " Chancelkir. and alaoof the Comman.l.r in .ti of the Meral army. TheConf.-<l,-n.ii,.n ni«v i law aaalgn to the federal Aaaembly other p,,,,, ofe rnhm or of conflrmatloo. 5. AIII^h!™ ,, treatle* with foreign power*, ami .!», ;,, approval of treatle* maile by the (ai,,„ between them«-lv,-. or with foreign .>,«,r. neverthele** the treatlea made by the (u,i„„ shall be brought before the Fdeml .V^-ml,;, only in caae the Federal Counclloraii.nhirlsn'.i- proUsU. «. Meaaure* for external *ifetv , alao for the maintenance of the ln,|, i»ii|,r.,. and neutrality of 8wita-rlan.l ; the .WUw,., of war and the concluakin of .»a.v : Th^ guaianty of the Con»tltutl..n an.l of ih. tenjt„ri of the Canton*; Intervention in ens., men,, i •Vu ??^°*''.= nH**""-" forth.- li,iern»lttf,n of Swltierland. for the malntenaii.-.- ,.f n-»cvM,\ order: amnesty and panlon. M .M,.,.„r,.. f,., the preiervathm of llie C..n«tltulloii, f.^rrmviu- out the guaranty of the cantonal ...nsiiimU.' an.l for fulfilling fe«ler»l ..bllg«ii„i„ -i t;,- IH.wer of controlling the fcleral ariiiv M Tli- determination of the annual hu.U'. i, ih,- amlit ( l.iibllc account*. au.l fdend octllnaii.v* ..mh. ■ lxlngl.»na. 11. The *u|M>rinteii.leii(e uf fr-l.rj ailmliilairatlon and of f.-deral coiiriH li lY. teaU again*t the ile<<l*lona ..f the K.-,l.ral I .uu, 1 up.in a.lmlnl*tratlve ('»nni(-ia , \rt 111 i M C.mflicU ..f luriwllcthm lietw.-t-n f.-.lenl »iitli.n li.;*- 14, The amendnu-nt of the fe-lirilln: atitutl.m. Art. 88. TbetwoC.>unelUBM.-ml'l.-«nnu.llr In regular arMl.in upon a .lav !.. I«- flx,.| br th? •tamllng order*. Tliev an- ...m.ii..| in W.n iH-i«lon bv the FedenI C.mnell ii|.,ii ih.- re.|i...: ellbi-r of one fourth of the iii.iiil>>r. u( ■!:? Xatlonal Council. .)r .>f five Caiii.-m. Art 87. In either Coum-il a ,ii..rura i. . maj.irity of the U>Ul numU<r of it,. m.-mWrt Art 88. In the Xalkmal C.ium 11 aa.l in it»- f ouiicll of Blaleaa nial.irily of ih.«e vutioi; i. n-.iulrr.l * .\rt 89, Federal law*, ena<'tni.'nt«. iixl iw. Iiitbin* ahall be naaae.1 .miy by ih- ijn.nwDi f the two Council*. Feilerai law. .li.ill !»■ nil- II11II.-.I (or aoi-eptance or rej.-<iioii Ih it,. |»-..|.|. if Ihe ileman.1 i. ma.le by ;«p inf i >„i.r. r by eight Canlona. The mn'i.- pitii. ,|.|,- »p|il»^ to federal rnoiulhin. whi.h ha>. » i-enrr.. application, an-' which an- ih.i t .iii uttta iiatuh- Art. 80 Tlie C-Mifeiler»Il,.ii ►lu.li t-v 1»» eatablUh the f.irma aad Interrala l-- tn- utaenrd Iu (nipuUr vote* 616 CONSTITUTION: SWITZERLAND. CvuncU. CONSTITl'TION: 8WITZEHLAND. AST. 91. Member* of cither Council vote irttbout inftnictioiu. Act. 93. Each Council Uket action wparatelr. But in the cue of the electiona tpecifled In Aitkle 89 g 4- "' pardon*, or of decining a con- lUct of jurladiction (Art. 83, g 13), the two Coun- dk meet in joint *e**ion, under ti>e direction of tlie Preiident of the National Council, and a dtciiioa i* made by the majority of the member* of both Cuundl* preaent and voting. Ait. 03. Meaiure* may originate in either Council, and may be introduced oy any of their mrmbers. The Canton* may by correapoodence eurcite the aame right. An.M. Aiarule, the aitting* of the Council* ire public. Ajit. 95. The supreme direction and executive authority of the Confedrration is exerclaeti hr a FedemI Council [Conaeil fC-denl; Buudearuili], coiiipiMnI of seven mi'mbets. Akt. »«. The memU'rs of the Pi-<leral Council IR chiWD for three yean by the Councils in Joint H'wion from among all the Swiss citizens tllirible to the National Council. Rut not mure Iban out' nu'Uibvr of the Peilcnil Council shall lie cbmrn fmm tlie same Canton. The FcdemI CiHiiK'H U I'luwn anew after each election of the Nationiil Council. Vacancies wliteh MTurin tlie Cdurm- (if the three years arc flllwl at the lirst rnwini; M^'-ion of tlie Feiieral Assembly, for ttie miwiuiliT ii( the term of oftice. .Vrt 97. The memlMTs of the Federal Coun- ril uluill not. during their term of oflli-e. iKX-upy «iiv iithi r otflce. citlier In the wrvlo- of the Con- (nlrration or in n Canton, or follow any otiier pursuit. XT exirciae a nnifciaion. Art W. Til.' Fi-iKrul Council is presided onr liT the I"reiildeiit of the Contnleratiiin. TlH-re i» II Vice I'ri'sident. The President of tile Cimficliniliiiii mill Ilie Vlc<' l*niiiilent of the Fiilmil t'ciuiieil uri' chowii fur ime year liy the F'^lirul Amu-miily from auioni; llii' iiiemlx-n i>f till C'luiii'il. The retiring l'n-i>iilent shall n<ii In- ilico-ii an I'n-nldent or Viii- I'niiideiit fur the rrur Hisiiiiii: The saiiir iiiemlKT nliiill iii>t hnUi il«- I'ttlir tif Vice I*re»ldeiit during twti iimiieeu tiif viars. Akt W The Presldeiii of tlie Coeifrtlemtlmi tn>l tilt' oilier memtien nf tile Keileral Ciiuiiril hMivt !in aiiuual sulurr fmni the feiieral Irt-nMirv Akt 1011 A iiuorum of the FedemI Council ^■l!lll»l»..f fc.iir nieinlK'nt. AKt IiPi The iiienilii'n of the Fiili'ml Coun- fil hair ihf rl),'!il to «|H'i«k liiit ii.t to vme In filliiT liiiiiM- iif Ihe FetlemI Aweiiiliiy. anil »1»>> tin rii'lil 1.1 nuke nuitintis on ilie subject under l-'HtititTlIioll. .\in \'r> The tu'wei* ami the ilulk'sor the F.iliral t iiiiiicil, within the liiiilla of IhiaCiiii ►litiiii .11, are |mrtieul»rly the f.illowlnii 1 ll omliM t» f.'.li'ral iitluirH. eonfurmalilv to Ihe law » «ii.| r.«..|iiii,,n, iif til,. i',m(e.li'raiioii i It t ik . tun- that till' I iHisiiliiiiiiii. feiler.il lai«« »ii.l ..r.liiiaiH-e^. anil aU. the |.riivi«iiiiii, iif fml irji r.iiii'iin|,iis, Ih .iiMervi.t!. iiinni it» nwii !:.i!uiivi .ir ti|mn complHlni il taken iiietuun's i'..»«iir> I" laiiM. Jiem- inwrumenu !.. lie oli >'?>"l. iiiiU'w. Ihe I'onsidenuiiin of nniniw He ' "t! tilt' .iilijiMt" which slmulil tie tiriiu«ai \r!,v- ttto l''.n|enl Ciiurt. n(i-.inllnfr t.. Annie M s ll i«|i,i, isn- that tlie guaranty t.f the muitmid uiuMltuttuas be ubwrvi^l. 4. tt Intiu- duces bills or resolutions Into the FedemI Assembly, and giyes its opinion u|K>n Ihe jiro- piMal* submitted to it by the Council* or the Cantons. 5. It execute* the laws and reaolu- tions of the Confederation and the judgments of the Federal Court, and also the compromises or decision* in arbitration upon disputes lietween Cantona 6. It makes those appointments which are not asaigned to the Federal Assembly. Fed- eral Court, or otiier authority. 7. It examines the treaties made by Canton* with each otiier, or with foreign power*, and npprove* them, if pniper. (Art. 8.1, J H.) 8. It watche* over the external interenta of the Confederation, parti, .i- larly the maintenance of its iutemalional nla- tlons, and is. in general, intnuted with foreign reUtious. 9. It watches over the external safety of Switzerland, over the maintenance of intle- pendenif and neutrality. 10. It watches over tile internal safety of the Confederation, over the maiiilenance of peace »nd onli-r. II. In case* of urgency, and when the Federal Aiiaem- bly is not in session, the Fi^ieral Council haa power to raise the neeeitiiary tr<H>ps and to employ them, with the reM'r\-ation llmt il Khali lniim.tlhitely summon the ('.aincils if theniimlier of IriMiim e.\i'eitU two llumiMiud men. or if they remain iu arms more than tlinM" weeks. U. ft nilminiiitera Ihe military esiulilisliiiient of Ihe Confitleration. ami all other liraurhes of aiimin- tstraiion eommittetl I.) the Confetleratiou. 13. It exauiiiuii mull laws ami onlinances of the Cantiiiis as miisl lie kiilimittitl fi.r its approyal : ll eveniM'S xiiiMrviviim >>ver Mich ilepiinnients of the lanloiial a.liiiiniMlralinn ii« are plaitti uniler it, ffinlMl. 14. Il ailmiiiim.ni the fiiiaiui's of tlieCoiiffih'niIiiiii. iiitrotluie'i the liiiilk'el. ami Kiiliiiiits nec<iunt.t i.f nt'eipis and eX|H'iiM'A. l."i. It siipervi.'ies Ilie i ..iniiict of all Ihe iiWi ials anil eiiipliiyees of ilio fiiler.il ailmiiiixiraiiiin HI. It .■iilimiiii to the Federal Awinilily at each reufular M'«»ii.ii an aiT.Miiit of its ailmini.siraf..ii aiui a ri|"irt I.f the riiiiilitiiiii i.f the Conftili r.ilinn. Internal a* well as external, ami calls iitteiiii.m t" the mi'a"iin's « liieli it deems desirable fi.r the pMiiiiiliiiti .it th.'ueiii ril wi'Ifan'. It als<i makes siHi'ial ri'iuiris nlieii tlie Fiilenil Assembly or ellh.r i'.iiiiieil ri'.|iiiri s it .\iiT. lo:t Till' liii-iii.'x. of the Ft'.liral Coun- cil is tlistriliiili.l III .i.'partiiients ani..nir its memliers Tlii-. .Ii<iriliiiii..ii lias 'In iiiirp<n<«' only of fai'iliiatinL' tin i xainiiiatinn aii.l il.'~pnli'li of liiisiiiess. iltsisi.iiis imaual.' from Ihe FisKral Couticii as iihiiiL'te aMth>.rit\ AliT U>i Tit" Ktsln-al Couiuil miil its .le- pnriiiit'tits |i:i\e [kiwer t" tall ill esiierts on »|Hs'ial siil.jit t - Ajrr Io"i A Ke.li'riH liiiMiry (('liant'ellerie fi'slerale, lliiii.l. «kaii/lii! ;,i the tieii.l ..f wliieh I- plai'. I till Cl.amt ll..r ..1 lli.' t'..!ife.h'ratiiiii, . ..iiiltii l> th. si-.-ri'taiy s l.t|..iiirvs fi.r the Fed'-ral .\«»<'lii!il\ an.l tin I'.il.'ral luiiluil Tile Cliall isil.ir i- < li..»i'!i III thr I'ech'f .1 AiuMinlily f.ir !hi! term ..I Ihn-i j.nrs, at the same lime as t!i.' F.'.l i-ral t'.iiiii.il The I'Imiirerv is mi-lrr ihe spfrial siilK ivisii'ii ..f tile I'Vileral r..iiii' ll A fi.lerul isiH sliuil pnivbi)- fur tut- tirgauiuiioii of me t 'hrtii-erv AiiT imt Tten- shall lie a Fisleral four: ■ Tril.ioii; fish>-ii. nuiiiliagerlcht I foi the lui niiiii«Tniii..ii.it juniice iu fislerai conn nis There Mmll I., murevver, a jurv for (rimtnal vmnt. ,Arl Ui i I i ♦ii; OONSnTCnON; 8WITZERLAKD. Oaart. '■'W \ m-^**-, i"- ^^ membew and slternatm of the rtOunl Court ihall bechoMn bribe Fedenl A>- jemblT. which ifaaU uke can Uut aU thrae m- tiMMllaoiuanaarareprMeiitedthefeiiL A Uw »«1 eMablbfi the orguUndoo of the Federml i/ourtandof iunctioiu. the Dumber of ludcei •iMl alteniMes. their term of olBce, and tlwir ■alary. w^i"- .*??• A?' ^''*" «'»•"'' eligible to the Hatiooal Council may be cho«>n to the FedenU ^'i •i.'^S.* J"^!?" "' the Federal Awmbly and of the Federal Council, and offldali appointed by thr«e authoritie*. ihall not at the aamV time Wonu to the Federal Court. The memben of the Fwlcral Court ahall not. during their term of office occupy any other olBce, either In the •ervlce of the Confederatiun or in a Canton nor engage In any other punuit, nor practice a pro- A"T- lO* The Federal Court organlies Its own Chancery and appoint* the o(BcUl» theim>f. Abt. 1 10. The Fwleral Court htu Juriwllction In civil lulU: I Between the Confwleratlon and the tantonn. i. Between the ('(mfnletn- lion on one part and corpomtions or Indlviduali on tJie other part, when inch oorporatlona or ImlivlduaU are plaintiffi. anil when the amount involved i» of a decree of lni|M.rt«nce to lie determined liv fnlenil legiaintion. 8. IJetweeii Cantona 4. Between CnnuuM on one part and corp..nitloniiorindividuiilii..n the. .ther part when one of the iwrties ilenmmU it. anil the amount in- volvwi is of » degree of ImportaiK-e to be de. termlpe<l by fe.ieral legislation. It further hut Juriwlirtion In tultt concerning the stntut of ixrwms not lubjern of nnv government (heimiilh- l'»«t). and the contllem which arise U^twecnl'imi- mtmeii of dilTen'nt (.'unions respecting the rlBlil of local citiienshlp. [Dmit de cite 1 Aut hi. The F.ileral Court Is bound to give juilguK'nl in other cases when both parties ugrei- to nlii.le by its decision, and when th.' uuK.i.ut mrnlv.d is of a degn-e of Importuncv to iH' ileteniiined liy fisleml legislation. Art. Hi. The Ke<ler»l Court, assisieil hv « lurv to dwide u|«.n cjuestions of tai t lias i rfm- inul Jurisilietion in: I. (««., „f |,i„|, tr.a«.n agiiin«tthe( „nfeder»ti,.ii. of reliellionor violence agaiii.t fed.nd uutli.iritiea. •.. Crimes und mis- deiiieunon against tile law of nations. 3 politi- cal crimes and nilstlemeanors which ar.-tliccini«« or the n-siilt of dUmrl.iiiic<.8 whidi ,«-,.„,i,„i «iTii.-.l f.-,leral inlervenlloii. 4 (•„«., „^,,,i;,«t olH. iiils ai.|«.inte.l by a f.-.ler»l autti.iritv « liere suili .luiliority rel.eal.^ tli.rn to th, ' Ki.lemI Akt 1I:| TlicFederuU ourtfiirtlierlmsiuris .l.ctioii 1 Ovcr.-onflict^of turts.llcli»nl»tw.en fe.leri.luut!i.«1tle. ..done pun aii.l .,inton«i au llic.ritieH,.ntheotl„riwrt • I li,|,ui,» (»..»,-,.„ (auto,,,. w|„.n, U.I, ,|i., .re ,.l>..n iiu..^ .„ of piil.lK- law .t (..m; Hunts ..f vlo|»ti... .,f the ...ii»tilulional rii;hts .f citiiseiia «imI . plaiiiK ..f iiidivLliial. f,.r .he vinUtl.m .,f . .'. i-or.|.,l« ,.r treaties C.nlli.t, ,,f s-lmlnl.lraliv.' iurt«ii.ii,.ii are r.s«-rv..d. and are to i« •.itl.d 111 a iimnmr prrs, rilstl l.y fderal le>[i»lali..n In all the f,.B. menti.m.-.l .asesthe Fe.ieral Court shall api.tythf !„»» |„uj»,| t,y „„, Pnipn,! j^,. Niiil.lv nn.| tl,.,M, resoluilons of the AsM'mhIy which liav.- a g, nerd lm|».rf It .hall In like "■"""*',',' f"">' ""r. ati<-. »i,i,h shall have been mlltl.^1 t.y tiw Kderal Asi^inl.ly COirSTITPTlON: 8WITZERUND. Amr. 114. Beddat the cam ipeclfleil i. ahi clM 110. lU. «Kl 11«. tb. Coofel^li:SS.t?T of the Federal Court; in particular. It m«^ to that court powen intanded to Insure ^J^ aSu^M.'* "■" '"'• P""W«J for iJ A«T. 115. All that relatea to the locatlmi «» the authoritiea of the Confederation uTVubU for federal kgtelation. ""'**» Art. 118 The thne principal langusn, ■poken In 8*^r tend. German.'^ f^,>n Moi *"' "**'~'' l»n»ua«ea of the Confedenl; Art. 117. The ofHcUla of the Confe,ler,ti,« are resp.mslble for their cond.ict In .,(«,-, ? federal law shall enforce thU responsibiliiv CtapUflll. UT%mfourarh^a/,r^ui, Art. US. Ametulment it tturtii tkrmigh ik, fnrm* nqHindfar ixunngftderal kiir. Art ISO. When rilMrr Cuuitnl „f ih, fi*„( A-rm/Jii nutrt .t rrmdiition /«• amrn.lmnt ..fih, Fflrral lonililiitioH and tht other CmwiAn m* agrtf; or vMen f^i/ thnutnrid Stri- r.,(,r$ J,. maml ,tinfn<t>nfHl. tSt ifwMion vhetSer tk* AViinl O'lutiliition oughi to ht amtmhd i,, in rilhr n» tubrntllfil to a rote of tht SmMfeofAe. T,Mmui,..t rvK If I a either cut tht rmyoritv of lluSnm «fi«/« itho „,tt pronmnet in the .ijtrm,!,', there nhnll be ,t neie eieetion of both Oiviu-iUf.,rtU l>'in>"»'"fprei>iinngamen<t)nenlt. Art l-.'l. The amended n<leml Cwmim,.. nh.tll be ,n font vhtn it hu been lut.i.M l„,\, rm^po^ly of y,rit, eilitent vho t.ile f»rt ., ,', fitt thereon and bft ,« »Hy,'nVy of the ■'<l„t„ / tiMiing ../. ,1 nufforilD of ihe Sl„i„ !/„ «,,, „/ , HalfOinton .* cuntnl lu half ,i rote. Th, n.n ■ of the i>oio,l„r fvrfc in r<ieh Canton u nomilertd ■■, be Ihe t>-le of the Stm. ] Art. 118. [Aitb^iulimrt of Jiili/r,, iHi.i,'! fv Ki.lcral C.mstilution may at"any iiiiii- Is-snun.l.^i as a whole or In part. .Vkt. UB. [ Amendment of Jiiffi ^ \ii)\ ] (Vn eral revision is sirured thmiigii ih.' fi.r'niii i* .|uln>.| f..r passing the federal la«s .\kt 1*1. When either Couiiiil.if the F"lrrtl A»s.-iiilily |>asM-s a resolution for gemnii rvvi,i,ii aii.l the ..tiier ('..iincil d.ss n..l 8»rr.T: ..r wh,a flftv tl' laami 8wiaa v.rtcrs .lemaii.1 g.n. ml i- vlsloii . .jue^Uon whether there shall hr smh a ri'vlslon must, to either otte. b.' siibmiite.1 :o the iK.iiular v..t«. ,.f ihe 8niss |-„|,K- If a eith.r .,.«•, the niajorilv ..f ll»' S« i«) ritii,j who Vote oil the .|<iestiou proiioiin.i- in th> vS' mative. ther.' shall he a new i !.■, li. . • i-,t'j ( .xincils for the purpose of prepariiijf a kf »i: n-vlsion. • Art. IJl. [.4m<n>(iiKnf ofj'ilti .'. isill ) .«[» <l(lc amendments may U- brought f..r»nril HiLer lhr..iii'h a Hr..p,».ltion i.f the I'.-opl.. | V,.lk«i!fr gungl (Initiative) ..r bv Ke.|.-ul li-^.i-,aii„n i """P"*'"™ c.f the People means a .lemsal ^u^ |s.He<l by Ifiy thousand Swiss voters .f-'i. fof sus|M-nslon. ri'peal. ,^■ all.rali.m o' i|h-.ui- i ir tich-. ..f tlie Feileial (•.institution If !.v msw of Ihe m.'thisl of Proi»«iltlon of ih- l'.p;' "•'i''™! .lilTirrnt subjects are brought f..rw«rl Hthcr f.ir iltcrathin or for lm-.>ipoiiii"n ini.^tbe FnlernI Constitution, each .me of tli-u- m-^ntw subjects must be presented In a lepars^ IchimJ 018 COMtriTrU'liON: SWITZERLAND. for t popular Tote [InitteUTbrgehren]. The de- Btod for » popular Tota may >ake the form dtlwr of a icqueat io gencTBl h-rmn, or of a detnite draft If luch a demaitd be roaile lo the form of a requcat in gaieral terma and the Councils of the Federal Aieemblj agree thereto, the Mid Council* ahall thereupon prepaiv a medHc amendment of the purport indicated by thoM tiking amendment: and such speciflc unrndmeDt ahall be submitted to the people and t« the itaK-B for their arceptanre or rejection. Id due the Councils of the Federal Assembly do DM »fnv tlier»t<). the question of speciflc amend- oeDt sliall tlien be subjcctetl to tlie people for n popular rote; and in case the majority of the itwiis Totan vote therefor, an amendment of the purport iuilloiu-tl liy tlic vote of the people sImM then be prepaml by the Fiilenil Assembly. In cue tlie request simll take the form of a speciAc drift »n<l the Fe<leml Aaxemhly agree thereto, the draft is then to be submittal to the people iodllie States for arreptance or rejection. If the Fwleml Assembly sliall not ajrree tliereto it Dsj either prepare a substitute ilmft for itaelf, or it may propose the rejection of the propo- ■itioa. The proposition u> reject such substi- tute draft or propoaitlon shall lie submitte<l to the Tote of the people and of the States at the ■me thne with the general Proposition of the Pwple. Abt IJJ. [Amfmlmtnlofjti'y W^tlA The pmcnlure upon the Pniposition of tlie People ■ml ihf |Hi|iular voles concerning amendment of the FniiTsl Constitution, shall lie regulatetl lu drtsii hv a Fnleral Ijiw. AsTliS. [Amendment of Julg S,\H9l,] The saitodcii Fwferal Constitution or the specific' smeiidnients profHiaed. as the caae may lie. shall ^.■ in fiinr wl»n atlopted by the nuijo'rity of the .■iwiM iili/.<'ii« who take part in the vnte then-»n sad liy a iiuijnrity of tlie Cantons. In niakinir up Ibe iimjorlly of the 8taU-s the vote of h iiiilf of csfli Caiit.in is rounted as half a vote. The twult nf tlir iMiiiular vote in each Canton is cuBiidrri'tl In lie the vut« of the stale. Temporary Pro*iaioaa. Aurin.E 1. Tin- |in«in.[- ..f ilif iMwu and cu-itdiiui uliall Ih' cliniinl u|i..n llip (ireM-: t liiitiit. until suih time Milir I "iifi.i, ration shall take ujkiu itself tlie milit:ir> I xjHii'i.'s up to this lime liorne ')v liie '*" Federal fe^'islatlon shnll provide tie- iklr. that the loss which iiiav N- iKcaaloniil to thr nnmici-* of certain Cantons bv the mini of the chsfi,'!-. vililcU remilt fmiu Ar;i<li» Jil. 30. iJ6 iS^. an.l 4'J (i). shall fall upon nui h Cantons i«j k-nuiiislly. and shall not attain iu full effiHt Wl «!t.r a transition peri(»l of s.inie veam Tkm' ( »ntons which, at tlie goinjf into effect of Annie M uf the Constitution, have not fultllled CONSTmrnON: united STATEa the miUury obligations which are Impoaed upon them bv the former Constitution, or by fedeiml tows, shall be bound to carry them out at their own expense. .«f"T .? """ provisions of the federal kwa ana or the cantonal concordata, consthutions or <»>««nal laws, which are contrary to thia Con- stitution, cease to have effect by the .•Mioplion of the tonstliution or the pubUcation of the Uw* for which it provtdea. Art. 8 The new provisions ttlating to the organiiation and Jurisdiction of the Federal Court take effect only after the publication of federal Uws thereon. Aht. 4. A delay of five years Is allowed to Cantons for the establlahment of free instruction in primary public education. (Art. 27.) Aht 5 Those persons who practice a liberal profession and wlio, before the publication of the fe<leral law provide<l for In Article 88, have obtained a certiflcate of competence from a Can- ton or a joint autliority representing sevend Cantons insy pursue that profession throughout the Confederation. Art «. [Aiuendmenl of Jke. JS, 1885. For the riin.umlee of thu ameiulmetU rte artiele 83 ',".'/• 'f*'"'''™' 'aw for carrying out Article ii (li) lie passe<l Inforc tiie end of 1890. the im- iKirt duties leviH on spirituous liquors bv the Cantons an<i Communes, accunling to Article 32 <cas«' on tlie golnif into effect of such Uw. If' in such case, tlii- Hlians of anv Canton or Com- mune, out of tlie sums lo Iw divided, sif uot 'iifllcient to equal tliu avt^raire annual ret pro- <wii< of tlie ta.\.-s lliey have levied on spirituous liquom In the years ISHtl to Ii«4 inclusive, the Cuiitoiis and Coiiiiniines affecteil shall, till the i-nd of IHWt, receive the aintiunt of the defiriemy out of 111,, amount which is to b<' divided amoni the oilier Cantons according to noi>ulati<m' and tlie reiiMinder only shall lie divliliHl among such oilier Cantons and Communes. acc<inling lo popu- lation. The Coiir(.<lersli(.n sliall further provide liy law (hat for such Cantons or (Ninimunes us msy suffer flnuncial loss liiniuKli the effect of this Hniindnienl. kucIi Iimx Khali not come uium lliem immediately in its full e.\tent. but gnuluallv up lo tlie year IHM. The indemnities ilierehv liiaile iiei-essary shall lie pn^vlouslv taken out of 'the net pna-<H.<lsdei.ii.'iialrtl in Arii. leS.'iiii, |iHrak'raph4. Thus res4>lveil by Ilie National Couniii lo be subinilleil to the p.i|mlnr voir of the .Swiss IMH.nle and of the Caiilous. ll.ni. ,Iaiiuary 81, '"i: Zleitlir. i'n'siileiit .SIi(i-«k. .S'cn'ta'ry. Thus n«.|v,d by the Council of States, to l)e subinilleil to the iiopul.ir vote of ilie Sulk, |)eople and of ilie Canloua. Hern, ,laniisry 81, 1H7. A. Kopp, I're,. lent. J.-L. Lutsiher! See', retard'. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. A. D. I7«i.-Th« Articlaa of Coaftdaration. !w I MTKi, Statks or An. : A. D. l777-t7Sl, uil I , '<;i- 1 7«7, A D. I7l7.i7l«. a«d 1791.1S70.-A sketch »l 1.1.- liLiory of th.. framing and adoption of the FrUrr,! ( msiiiuiion of the Vnite<l Suteswill N- tOUD.! Mldrr ChitRD STATI.B OF Ah . A I). l.V «„1 I7S7-!7H». The following test of the ""rf-'i! nuirumeL I, with the subsequent siuvud 619 mcnts 1.1 ii, i<i otui prepare<l bv Profras<ir .Vlliert Hunhni II Hart, ami is the result of n csrefi^ coni- iiarison with tin- .riginal iiMnuscripts. preservixi In the Si.itt ile|ianmeut al Wanhingtoi) ■ It ie inlendi<l lo \v almoliilely e«scl In word spelling. capitali<alloi! and puin iuation A few Readings ami paragraph n uiIm rs. Insertetl for nmvenience of n'fennce. »re indicated by brackctn " "Those parts of tlie Cuustitutlon which weri' temporary in CONSTITUTION: UNITED STATES Omgnm. CONSTITUTION: INTTED ST \TES u their DSturv, or which h«Te been uperaeded or 1 kitemi by Ut«r amvoiiineDU. aiv Included witb'n I the »ljfn» [ ]." This text, originally printed in the ■■ American Hiatorr LeafleM." la rfpmdiictil with Pr-feaaor Hart'BConaent. The paraifraph- i tng liaa l>een altered, to ecooiiniiie apact but it i« otherwise eiactlv pepnKlii' r<l " We the PEoPLE'of the l'iiit<-.i 8iai<s. In Order to form a more perfect riii.in. ininlillah Jua- tice. insure donieatic Tramniility, provide for the common defence, pmiix'li- tlie fritietal Wel- fare, and urciire the Blr!l»ill^» of Liberty ii ouraelvea and our Hc«lerity. do onlain and e«- tabliah thia Conatltution for the United Slaten of America. Article I. StftioH 1. All Utrialatlv.- Powem herein vranted ahall be Te»t«il in a fimif"'* <'f theUiiite<l States, which uliail consist of » S»-iiale and House of Ki'pn'sinlntivrs. snini 2 1;! 1.] The House of K<i>res<ntatlvf» simll tw roni- iMMiHi of MenilsTs rhiwii every se<on<l Year by tlie People of the wvcral mates, and the flectora In iiicli State shall have the (iualili- cations reiiuliite for EU-ctorsof the most nmner- oils Branch of the State U'(fi»latun>.» IS-'l Nci Person shall lie a Kepreaentative who shall ii.il have attained to the .Vije of twenly-Hve Years, and U't'U seven Years ,> Citizen of the Unlteil States, and who slinll not, when elei'twl, lie nn InlmliitMiit of that State in whieli lie shall lie chiiM'n. 1? » 1 Hepresentiitlves anil ilinrt Tuxes shall Iw aplMirtinmit anionn the seviral States which may lie iihluiiiil within this Union, aceonling to tlieir n-spntive Numbers, [which slmll U- delprniimil liy aililiUK to the whole Nuinla-riif free l'ers<iiis. iueliiiling tliiise Isiund to SiTviie fur II Tenii of Years, and i xcltiiling liiiMiOis niil tiiMil. thni' fifths of all other Per- Kc.ii«14 The actual Enuniemtiiin slmll lie liiinle wiiliin ihne Yeiir* lifter the first Mi-etiiiir of the Convress of the liiiteil ."States, and within every sulivquent Tenu of ten Years, in such Manner a* thev shall hy Ijiw ilinel The XuiuUr of Uepn-sentatives" fhull nut excii-*! mie fur every Ihirtv Thoiisiinil, but enih Slati' sluill liave at I.i i.'t Hill- I!i iiriMiitatiM-; ['iiiil until such euu- lieriliim sliuil !"• iii.nle. the State of New Iluiiipihin-Kliiill Ihi niiiliiltoi hiise tiiri'f'. Masaa- iliiwlls ei^thl KhiKle |sliii.,l atiil I'r.iviilence Pi;imatioii« line, ('(iniiectii ut live Ni'vYork six. >•■«■ .IirMV fi'ur. I'eiiiisvlviiniii eit'lit. INliovan- one. M.iryfaiiil six. ViiL'iui:i tin. .Nnrih tamlina five. .Soiiih t'anilina live, uiul (Jenriria iline J5 (;; 4.) When vii iini ii s liiipJM n in tin UeprtM-n- f:iliori fmni anv State, the Kxeeutive Auihnrity Ihen-of ■•hiM is«iie Writs uf Klerliim t.i fill sueli Vmaiii i.» l-i •"> 1 The II. ms.- nf ItepreM-nta- tive, sliall I hiiHi-ilitir S|M-aki-ruud iitlierOtfi<ers, and shall luM' thi' ~ile PnHemf Imiaaehnient. .Seri,,.'. ;t \i \ \ ThiS.-ualeiif theUnileilStates shall Is- iiPiiiiiiTOil nf two Niiatora fnmi eai h Slate. ih.™ii In llie Leifishiture thereiif. fur six Yi-ars. ami laeh Senatnr shall have nne Vnte U '.' I linitiKliatily after thev shallU aasenilileil 111 t ..iiMiiut 111 f the first fchctinn. they shall Isilividiil MS ii(iially us may Is- into thni- 1 lasses The S<-at-> nf Ihi- SiiHtiirsnf Jill first (lass shall Is- vaiati'il al tlie KxpirLii ii nf the B«'c<in<i Year, of tliesttnniK la«sal the Kxpirationof the fmirth Y'ear. and >if tin ihinl (lass.it the Eipiraiimi nf * Mi.iijitlsil I'V l''<nn><**titli .Xmcniliiit-nl ♦ Hu|H rsfslisl lit Fiiiirlertith .Xmeetllticat. X Twaisirary cfauae the alilh Vear. so tluit niic thinl ni:iy Im- ilmw-a every second \ ar; and if Vaiaiides liapinn hr Realsnation. n; nth.rwiae, .turi;!*; the Kii.s, ,',f the Legiahiture of any State, the F.x.n utiw then>o( may make temporary Appointniinis until the next lurting of the Legialature. whii || siisU tbenfi'laucb Vacaneiea. [^8] No Persnn sliall be a Senator who ahall nnt have attain -'I tii ihi- Age of thirty Y'ears. and lieeu nine Years a Citi len of the Tniteil States, ami who kIiuII nn. when ekcttnl. lie an Inhabitant of that Mali- for which he shall lie chown. (£ -1 ] The Yin Prealdent of tlic Uniteil Statea shall Is- IV-siiloct of the Senate, but shall ha>'e no Vote, uuli-sstlirv be equally di' ided. [§ 5.) The S-niilc blall chuse their oil r IXBcers, and aUi a ["ri-siili-ni pro tcni|sin', in the Absence of the Vin ["rKi ■lent, or when he abail exercise ihi- iifflit n! Presid. ni nf the UJted States. l^ii| TL ^' nnle sli:ill have the sole Power tn Iry all lui pi achnients Wh.n sitting fur thai I'liri w, they shall 1»- i ii < lath or AmrinBlinn Wh. n tls- IVsldent nf tin liiited Suites is trinl tlii- ( liivf Justice shall pnsidi-: And Di l'ir~m >li:.l'i bt 1 iinvicled witlnmt the Iniieiirieiieenf tm. ilirli nt the Menilars pn-sent. J;; '..] .Iiili-niin; in Caseaof inipeiK'iinii-nt sli:il] imi t-\iri:il fiintifr than to removal from titilee. and ilisiiiialitiriiiinn to hold and i i.joy any Olhi e nf h.ni r. Triw nt Profit tiuilir the Un'ltiil States !i i: ilu |';mr convicted shall nevertheleas Is- li;il '. iinl ^iihjirl to Inilietnient. THal. Judj-'nieut a:i.l rii:i!.!i ineiit, aceonling to Law. .Sii-ri../i 4. |? 1 ] Tlii- limes, Plai-'-s and Manner i if hnlilhii: Kl. iii.ii. fnrSiiatoi-. and Hi on-sentativi-s, sliili U pre serils-d In ea<h Stan- by the L<v'i'>laliir- iliirnif htit the Congn'ss may at any linn- I'v l.:nv nuilif or alter such Kegulutinns. exis-pt a« t" iln I'lurt of cbusingSeiiators. [i'i] Tin t niiL-ri">li:ili insemlile at least onci' in i-M-rv \ i ar, :.iid mhIi Mifting shall la' on the first .Mnii.|:i\ m Isn-ni- Is-r. unless they shall by Ijiw app..i;ii a ilillinii; I)av, .Sie/iV.« Vi Ul| l-jiih l|..ii., ,li:ill Ik the Judge of the Eleitinns, IMiinw ai^l (iuslifi catiniisi.f its own Minilsrs, ami a M ij-n!> -if eat-h shall eniistitiile a (jiinrnm l<>il< liii-iai-H, but a smaller NuiiiUi may ailj.'uni Iniu ila.v to day, and mav Is- uiillinVi/eil 1" i.iii|"l its- Atteiidanie nl ufisent Menilii r-, ill Me h Miniu-r anil under .-'Ui h Penalties as e:ii ti Hmum iiwr i.in- -ill , li'i \ Kiieh llnUM- ma. ■!. ti naiiirlls- Uiii'. > "f its Pnstisliiii.'s. |.!iiii.li i't^ M' nJ-i r» f.ir ilistirilerly lieliaviiiiir. uid wiili ilu ' nf twii thirds, eX|Ml a ,Mi iiiUr | liouse shall ki'tp a .Intiriial nf ii» 1 and fmni time In time piiMi^h ilu ni ! ingsuih Parts as may ill till ir Jii-lji I ^ecns■y ; iinil till- Vi-iU and Na.\> nt III- M- inlrn nf eitlier l|nus<- on aiiV i|iie«iiMii -I, ,il ii !ls I)i-sin'iif nlll fifth nf Ihns. 1'ris.llt 1-. •l.lil«l nn the Ji.iirtial (j 4 1 Ni itlii r 11- u- a.innir the Stssinii nf CnnKnss, shall, wiili-.iH il" ' 'B- si-nt nf the iither, ailjiiiiru fnr iii' i' ilim iliiw days, linrt.ian) nther Plan than liu! m »l*t the twn llniisa-s shall Is- sittini: -Si'i ■> IS If 1 1 Till- .-s iiainrs and Uepn-M nlatlvi-^ sliail n.ii« a Ci'mpensatlnn fnr their Sir\li.- i • l« ""^r^ tainiil liv Uw, and iHiid mil • f il-' Tr.-a»ur; A the UnitiHl Stall's. They shall in all i ixv il- leptTreaaon, Kelnnv and Hnuili.l ili. I'liuv. 1.1 privileged fniin v-n-Kt iluriiii; il anee ut the .S-asi -i; I 'heir n-nisit and in going to ami nttirnliij; ?r..ii, liji rr.[uv Uli .link's, X.ipl . .iuiir ir .MiinJ . Il.-uin, 6:i<> CONSrrnmOK: UNITED STATES. Congnm. CONSTITUTION: UNITED STATES. tad for any Speech or Debate lu eitlier llouae, tbrr iball not be questioned In any other PUce [i 1] No Senator or liepreientative ahall, dur- Ity the Tlnw for which h? \»a« elected, be ap- poioU'd tu any civi! UAl<'e uudt-r the Authurilv of the- United 8tates,whl<'hiilmll have been createtf. p'lbe Emoluments whertofbhall h&re been in- cn'a9»i diiriui; such time ; uud uo Perwin holding tov iMiv under the United tflates. shall be a Mrmber of either House during his (.'omiuuauce InOtScT. .•iWi</« 7. [JS 1.] Ali Bills tor raising Revinue shall originate in the Houw iif Itepre- lenutives i but the tk-nate nwy proiHUie »r concur with Aniendmenta as on other Bills, [i i.] Ever}' Bill which shall liare parsed the Ilouse n( l(rpn-seulatives and the Senate, shall, tiefore It bfi'ome a Ijiw. l)e prcwuted to the President .->f the I'niliil States: If he approve he shall si^n it. hut if nut lie shall ntum it, with his (Ibjec- tion.'i to that House iii which it sliall have urigi- iMte<l. »lio slutll cuter the Olijectiims at large on till ir Jiiunial, and pnKvwl In n'<'oU8idiT it. If dftiT such Keconsideration two thirds «t iliat iJouM .'•linll agnt' *o pass the Bill, it shall Uaciit, luiritliirwith the Objections, to tlicotliir Hl>u•^e, ))v whii'U it shall lii^cwise Ite recitUKitlt-rfd, mul if ap|in>vc<l by two thinis of that House, it sliall liniiima Ljtw. But in ull such CaM-s the Votes if lutli Houses shall U ilctemdned l>r yeas and Navs, ami tile Names of the Persoiis'volini: for uiil a^taiiist the Bill shall Is- eut^'nil on I he Jour- naiof cm h lloum- n-sjHHiivcly. If any Bill kIiuII nal In' nluniiil liy tiie I'resiilinl williiiitcu l>ay» lMiiiilay>iexa'pti*«l I after it shall have U-i-u pri-- K'hIiiI to him, llie same shall )> a I.,aw. in liUc Mauuir asif he had signed it, unless the ('oiign'u liy 1 111 if Ailjouriiment prevent its Ketiini, iu s'bii it t'a.se it sliall not Ilea Law. I> !i.] Every iinicr I{e»i.lutiou. or Votr to which the Coii- <-i:rn Ull- of tlu' >S'nate ami House of lU'pn-seiila- rivi's nmy 1h' miTssiiry (cxi-ept on a ijuestion of .Viljoiinmieull slwll Is' presented to the I'n-sident I'f the liiileil Slates: luid Ivfore llie same shall laki Klfn t, shall !»• upproveil l>y liim. or lieiug >lix;p|<rovi.<| liy him, shall U' repasai'd by two ilitnl'. of the Senali' and House of liepresenta- livi.. ai'conling to the Uules and l.iiiiitationx lin-M rilsil iu the Case of a Bill .Srrti^n n The luii^'nss shall have Power [J 1.] To lay and col- W't I'axes, Duties, Imposts and Exi ist's. to (wy tls- IVMs and priivide for the common Ih-feuce uit pueral Welfare of the I'nitetl States. Iiut all DiiUK Iin|Kists and Excises shall lie uniform tlmuiL'liout the United States. U- ) To txir- r.» .Moiiiy on llie creilil of the I nited StaU-s Ij :l I To regulate foninierce with foreign Naii.iiis, and among the several States, and witli ilie liiiliati Trilies: [i *\ To establish an uni f.nu llule of NaluriilUation, ami uuilomi Laws i>u ilii- sulijnt of Baukruptcies throughout the Iniii'l Stall* H j 1 To coin .Money, regulate till' \ alue thereof, and of foniifu C'oiu.'aud tix the .siLmianl of WeightH and .Mea.sure», I ^ « 1 To |r"U.lr for the I'uuishmeiii of .'ounlerfeitiiig llie .Niuritii-a and current t oin ot the United Statm, U T I To et'ablisb Post ( IIHces and immI Ihiads. If") Til promote the Proitresa of Seiemr and utrful Arts, by securing fiir liiiiiteil Times to .'.uthiirs and Inventurs the :exciusive Uinht to tliiir resistiive Writings and IMxHiveries. |^ 1) ] T" I'liustituU! Tribunals inferior to the siipn'me li'uit, 1^ 10 ) To jeflne and punish Piraeies ml FiUuirs tHimmittctl on the high Seas, and Offences against the Law of Nations: [^ U.I To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and lieprisal, and make Kules concerning Capture* on Ijiml and Water: [^ 12. J To raise and aup- |sirt Armies, but no Appropriation ot Money to that Use shall be fur a longer Term than two ^ears: |^ 13.] To provide and maintain a Nary; [S 14.1 To make Uuh-s for tlie Itovernment and tegulation of the land and naval Forces ; [S 15. J I To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Lawri of the Union, suppress Insurrections I and n-iK-l Invasions: [S l*-] To provide for or- ganizing, aniiing, and diseiplining the Militia, and lor governing such Part of them as may lie j emphiveil iu tlie Service of the United States, I ri'servlug to the Slates resiKciivelv, the Appoint- i nient of the Offlcers, and the" Authoritv of I training the Militia aiturtliiig to tlie discipline , pl-scrilieil by Congress: (S IT 1 To eiercisi! ex- clusive Le(ii»lutioii in all Cases wliatsm-ver. over i such District (not exceeiliiiL' ten Miles square) as may. by I issiiin of panieolur States, and the Aeeeptaiii-e of lonKrew. lieconie tlie Seat of the I IJovemniint of tlie Uiiitnl States, and to cvercise I like Authority over ull Places purchased by the ( oumiit of the Legislature of the State in wliich the same shall Is-, for the Krection of Forts, I .Magazines. Arstuals, dm k-Yanls. and other ueed- I fill Builduigs:— .Vud [■: 1"* ! To make all Laws I which shall Ix' necessary .mil pM|ierfor carrving into Execution the fofeitoinit Powers, ami all I other Powers vestiil by thi:^ Coustiiiition in the i tiovemment of the Unitiil States or in unv IK'- I partmeut or Officer thereof S.-r,;n ». (^ 1 ] I [The Migration or Im|iortalioii of siiili Persona as any of tlie States uow existing sliall think I pM|N'r to admit, shall not lie pmbibited liy tlie I (ongn-ss prior bi the Year one thoiisand iight I luiuiirisl and eight, liut a Tax or duty may Ih> I iiii|His<Hl on siieii Importation, not exceeding leu I dollars for eaih Persim.]' IS 2.1 The Privileug I of I'-e Writ of Halieas Corjius slinll not !»■ siis- I |K'i ed. unless when in Citsi-Kof Uelielliou or In- I vasiiin the public Safety limy require it [S S ] I No Bill of Attainder or ex pi«t fuito Ijiw shall Is' passeil.f li-i] No Capitation, or other ilirei't. Tax shall Ik' laid, unless in Pro|i<irtiou to ! IlieCcnsusor Enumeration heniii ti«fon>ilin'ili'd ' to b<' taken. [J.'i.] No Tax or Kuty shall !«• laid on Articles exiMirtiil from any .•slaie [j ti ] ^ No I'n'fen'iice shall lie given by auv liei;ulaiiou ; of Commeric or Beveniie to tin Ports of one State over those of another n.T shall Vi-sm-Ib IniuiiiI to, or from, one Slate, la- oMigiil to enter, clear, or pav Duties in uiiotlii r [;: T ] No , Money shall fx- drawn from the Treasury, but iu CoiLsequence of .\|ipropriations maiie by Ijiw ; unit a regular Statement ami Aieoiiut of ilie Ih- ceipts and Kx|M'nilitun's of ull pubMe Money I sliull Ik' publisliiil from time to time [ji M ] No Title of Nobilily siiull Is- grunted by the United States .Viid uo IVrxm holding any Ottlce of Prolit or Tni»t under them, shall, witliout theConsi'iii of tlieCoiigrt'ss. aiveptof any present. Emolument, oitlee, or Tith', of any kind what- ever, from any King. IMuce, or fon'iirn Slate. { Srrtini, W [■! 1 ] No Slate shall enter into any Tnaly. .\IIUniv, or Confedenitiou . grant Let- ters of Marque and ib'prisal: coin Money: emit Hills of Credit : make any Thing but gold and •TrtnpiirarT pmrlsioB * Ef tiMMlisl hjr lti«> nm eltfbt ,Vnu*niliiieal«. S CxteodMl by NUltli and TrDlta Aiueii4lu«lls. 021 CONSTITXrnON: UNITED STATES. j^^JJf,^^ CONSTITUTION : UNITED STATES. lilTer Coin a Tender in Payment of DebU: pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any TiUe of Nobifity. [S2.] No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Imposts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing iU inspection Laws: and the net Produce of all Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on Importa or Exports, shall be for the Use of the Treasury of the United States; and all such Laws shall be subject to the Revision and L'ontroul of the Con- gress. [^ 8.] No State shall, without the Con- sent of Congress, lay any Duty of Tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into any Agreement or Compact with another State, or with a foreign Power, or engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such Immi- nent Danger as will not admit of delay.* Article 11. SKtion 1. [g 1.] The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the Term of four Years, and, to- gether with the Vice President, chosen for the same Term, be elected, as follows (^ 2.] Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legis- lature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors. equal to the whole Number of Senators and Representatives to which be State may lie en- titled In the Congress: but no Senator or Repre- sentative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the l'nite<i Stales, sliall be ap- pointed an Elector. [The Electors shall mwt In their respective States, and vote by Ballot for two Persuns, of whom nne at least shall not tie an Inhabitant of the same State with tlieniM'Ives. And they shall make a List of all the Persons voteii for. and of the NumU'r of Votes for each ; which List they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of the Oovemment of the United States. dlrecU'd to the Pn-sldent of the Senate. The President of the S<nate shall, in the Pi 'sence of the Senate ami llnuse of Re- presenti.'..vi's. open all the Certiftrati-H. and the Votes shall then lie counted. The Prrson hav- ing the greaU-st Numlier of Voles shall be the President, if such Numlwr be a Majority cf the whole Numlier of Electors appointed; and If there be more Hum one who have such Majority, and have an equal Numlier of Votes, then llie House of Bepn'sentat'-.s shall Immediately chuse by Ballot one of them for l*re«l(liiit , and if no Person have a Majority, then fmm the live highest on the List the said' House shall in like Manner chuse the President But in cliusing the Pn-sident. the Voles sliall be taken liv Slates, the R<-presentalion from each Stale lia'ving one Viiic; A quorum for this Purpose shall consist iif a .Memlier or Memliera from two ihinls of the States, and a Majority of all the Stales slinll be iHTi'«»ary lo a Choice. In every Case, after Iho CliMiceof Ihe l*resident. the Person having the greatest NumluT of Voles of the Elect. irs shall U- the Vice President. But if lhen> should re- main two iir moH' who havi' equal Voles, Ihe Senate shall I'liiise fnim Ihem Iit Ballot Ihe Vice l-residentj* [i H ] The Congnss may deter mine the Time of < hilling the Electors, and the l»ay on which lliey xliall give llwlr Voles, which l»ay shall b.- ilie name tlmiughoui the United •EnemlMl by Thlncrnih. rniirtiwnib and nftomth anradniMits. « Ba p arSB fa d hy tSreifti; Aro«p.-lr.w«!, Statea. [§ 4.1 No Person except a natural be Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at t time of the Adoption of this Constitution sh be eligible to the Office of President; neitt shall any Person be eligible to that Offlic »; shall not have attainea to the Age of thirty i Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident with the United States. [8 5.] In Case of the H moval of the President from Office, or of 1 Death, Resignation, oi Inability to <li8char(re t Powers and Duties of the said Office, the Sar shall devolve on the Vice President and t Congress may by Law provide for the Case Removal, Death, Resignation, or Inaliilitv W of the President and Vice President. dtVlaiTi what Officer shall then act as President, ami lui Officer shall act accordingly, until the Disabilli be removed, or a Preaklent shall be electe [Si 6.] The President ahall. at suted Times r ccive for his Services, a Comnensalion, whi( shall neither be hicreaaed nor diminished durit the Period for which he shall have liccn cIpckk and he shall not receive within that IVriixl an other Emolument from the United States nr ai of them, [g 7J Before he enter on theExeci tion of his Ofllce, he shall take the fi.llnwio Oath or Affirmation:—" I do solemnly swear i. "affirm) that I will faithfully execute the (iillc "of President of the United States, and will i "the best of my Ability, preserve, protect an "defend the Constitution of Ihe United Statea Htction 2. [ii 1.1 The President shall Ik- Cm mander in C'hief of the Army and Naw of th Unlte<l Slates, and <if the Militia of the severs Slates, when called into the actual Service nf ih United States; he may require the (iiilnion ' writing, of tka principal Officer in . mi h nf ti executive Departments, upon any Sulijeei nl.n ing 10 Ihe Duties of their respecfive ditids, m he shall have Power to grant Itipriive* ,iiii Panlons for Offences against the rniidl State* except in Cases of Im|>eachment. (ii) H shall have Power, by and with the AdvieL an. Consent of the Senate, to make Tn.iiies. pm videil two thirds of the Senators prewnt cunur and he shall nominate, and by and with the \i vice and Consent of the Senate, shall appi.in Ambassadors, other public Minisleni and I'nn sills, Judges of the supreme Court, and all mlip Officers of the United Suies. whose Appulut ments are not herein otherwise provideil fur, an. which shall be esUblUhed by Law: but tbi Congress may by Law vest the Appiintmeni ol such Inferior omcen, as they think proper, it Ihe Pn-sldent alone, in the Courts of Uw. or li the Heads of DepartmenU. (#8.] The Prrsi dent shall have Power to (111 up all Vacaticiei that may happen during the Recess «f the !<rn ale, by grantlnit Commiaalons which shall riplr« at the End of their next Session. .Sn-'ion 8. H( shall from time to time give to the Conimt In. formation of the State of the Union, ami reciira- mend to Ihelr Conslderatlou such Mi'ssiires u be shall Judge necessary and ex|ietllent. lie may, on extraiinllnary Occasions, coovenrliotMIoiiwi, or either of them, and in Case of DimKreemeDt lielween them, with Hesnect In the Time ol Adjournment, he may ailjoum them >n lucb Time aa he sliall think pnip<-r: he shall rerelvg Amtiasiadors and other public Minisirn: b« shall take Care that the Laws be fsithfiilly fie- cuted, and shall Commission ail the Offieen of tbr l-ftilcd States. SccHm t Thu pfvjitirii. C22 CONSTITUTION: UNITED STATES. Judiciary. CONSTITUTION: UNITED SVATES. Tlce Pre«ldent and all civil Offlccrs of the United States, shall be removed from Offlce on Impeachment for. and Conviction of, Treaaon, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdcmean- on. Article III. Section 1. The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one su- preme Court, ami in such inferior Courts as the Congress may (mm time to time ordain and ntablish. The Judfes, both of the supreme and Inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behaviour, and shall, at stated Times, re- ceive for their Services, a Comp.'ns«ti<ni. which ihall not be diminished during tin ir Continuance in Offlce. Section 2. [§ 1.] The judicial Power slall extend to all CWs, in Law and Equity, •rising under this Constitution, th« Laws of tfie rnitsd States, and Treaties ir.ad", or which shall be made, under their Authority : — to all Cases affecting .Vmbawadors. other public Ministers ind Consuls : — to all Cases of admiralty and mari- time Jurisdiction; — to Controversies' to which the United SUtes shall be a Party ; — to Cottro- lenlei between two or more States : — between t Stale and Citizens of another State ; • — betwei-n fiiizens <i( dilTerent States.— Iwtween Citizens of tlie same State claiming Lands untler Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreiirn States, Citizens or Subjects [^ a,] In all Cases affecting .Vmbassa- don. oilier public Ministers and Consuls, and thow in which a State shall !)<• Party, the supreme Court shall have original Juris<llctl()n. In all Uie other Cases before mentioned, the supreme Court ihall have appellate Jiiris<licti.>n, Iwth a* to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under »ii(h Itegiilations as the Congn«« shall make. [^ 3.] The Trial of all Crimes, except In Ca«-« of Impeachment, shall be bv Jury ; and suih Trial shall be held in tlic State where the said Crimea shall have N^eu committed; hut wbfn not committed within any State, tlie Trial shall lie at such Place or Places as the Congress may liy Law have ilirecte*!. Strtion 3. [^ 1.] Treason amlnst the Uniteil States, shall consist nnly in 'vying War against them, or in adher- iDf '.1 their Enemies, glvinv' them .Vlil and Com- fort Xo IVrwm shall be convicted of Treason unlfMon the Testimony of two \Vitne«8<'s to the ■me overt Act, or on C'onfession in o|Hn Court. [ii] The Congress shall have Power to ile- clart the Punishment of Treason, but no .\tlniii- (ter of Tnason shall work Corruption of niiH«l, or Forfeiture excipt during the Life of tlie Per- «on attainted. Article IV, Sfelion 1. Full Faith and Credit •hall be given in each Mtate to the public Acts, liiwrdB. and judicial Proceedings of every "ther State. And the Cnngrt-n may bv general U»i nreacribe the Manner in willed siicli .Vela, Rwxinla iiiHi IVoceeillngs shall Ik' proved, and the Iff,., t thenuif. .Srefi„,i a Ul) The CHI- KM of I seh t4tate shall be entltlol to all Privi- kff* snil Immunities of CItlr.ena In the several CUIitJI [i'l] A Permm charged in any stale with Treiwin. Felony, or other Crime, wlio shall rff from Justice, and he found in another State. •hail on IVmand of the executive Authority of ihrSuie from which he fled, he dellvewl up, to ijrrmoveil to the State having Jiirisillction of ihe^lrime [J 8.) [Xo Per son held lo StnicB ■uliwM hj FjurlMetli AmMHlmeot or Labour in one State, under the Laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or Regulation therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, but shall be de- livered up on Claim of 'he Party to whom such ^rvice or Labour may be due.]* SettionS. [S 1 ] Aew States may be admitted by the Congresa Into this L nion ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the Junction of two or more States, or Parts of States, with- out the Consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as f the Congress. [S 8 1 The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respect- ing the Territory or other Property lielonging to the Lnlted States; and nothing in this Constitu- tion shall be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of any particular Mate. Section 4. The United States shall guar- antee to every State in this Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each of them against Invasion; and on Application of the Legislature, or of the Execuiive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic N iolence. *"'«'• V. The Congress, whenever two thirl i of both Houses shall deem it necessary shall propose Amendments to this Constitution' or. on the Application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall call n Conven- tion for proposing Amendmenta, which, in eitlier Case, shall be vali I to all Intents and Purpiws, as Part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of tlie sevenil States, or by Conventions In three fourths thereof, as the one or the other -Mole of Itatiflcation may lie proposed by the Congress; Provided that [no .\mendment which may be made prior to the lear One thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner alfcct the first and fourth Clauses In the Ninth Section of the first Article; andlt that no State, without iU Consent, shall tie deprive<l of its equal Suffrage In the Sen- ate. Article VI. [g 1.1 All Debta contracted and Engagements entered Into, before the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, at under the Confederation. t fS2.] This Consti- tution, and the Uws of the t nit«l States which shall lie made in Pursuance thereof: and all Treaties made, or which shall lx> made, under the Authority of the United Stales, shall lie the supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in every State shall In- Imund tliereliy, any Thing In the Constitution or I.aws of any Stale to the Conlmry notwIthslHmling. [^3.1 The Senator! and Representatives before mentioned, and the .Memliers of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial Officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall he hiund by Oath or Afflrmation. to support thii Constitution: b.il no religious Test shall ever lie n>quireil as a Qualification to any Offlce or public Trust under the United States. Article VII, The Ratification of the Conven tlons of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same. 'tuneneded to ThlrtMntli * T«*iilnir«ry uruvMvli. t BstMiM \t rmtnmmtk ■•etioai. C23 mm CONSTITUTION: UNITED STATES. AmmdmmU. CONSTITUTION: UNITED STATES r' SI ! Done Id CoiiTention by the Unanimous Cou- ■ent of the States present tbe Seventeenth Day of September in the Year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and Eighty seven and of the Independence of the United States of America the Twelfth In Witness whereof We have hereunto subscribed our names. Go Washihotos — Presidt and deputy from Virginia. Delaware. Geo: Read John Dicliinson Ounning Bedford jun niclurd Bassett Jaco: Broom New IIampsuihe. John Langdon Nicliolas Oilman MABSACniSETTS. Nathaniel Oorliam liatua King Maryland. James McHenry Dan of St. Thos. Jenifer Danl Ciirroll Connecticut. Wm. Saml. Jolmson Roger Sherman ViBOINIA. John Blair — 3f les Madison Jr. New Yo.iK. Alexander Hamilton NoHTH Cabolina. Wm. Blount Kichd. Dobbs Spaigbt IIu WilliuniNou New Jkusky. Wil; Livingston Wm: Palcrson. David Brearlcy Jona: Dayton Soi'TH Carolina. J. Kutlrdee, Charles Piuckney Chiirlcs t'otesworth Pierce Butler. Pinikuey Peskbvlvania. B Fntnklln Thos. Fitz Simons Thomas Mifflin Jared Iii^ersoll Robt. Morris James \\ ilson. Geo. Clymer Gouv Morris Georuia. William Few Abr Baldwin • ARTICLES in addition to and Amendment of the Constitution of tliel'nited States of America, f)ropose<l l)y Congress, anil ratitled by the Legis- atures of the several States, puninn't Ui the llfth Article of tiie original Cunstitiitiiin.| [ArticI* I.] Congress shall make no law re- sp-^'ting an establislimeut of religion, or pn>- liiliiting the fn-e exercise thereof; or abridging the fri'i-dom of siieech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to (H'tlliou the Government for a redress of grievances. [Article II.] A well regulaud MilltU, > Ing necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and Itear Arms, shall not be infringed. [Articit 111.1 Ko Soldier shall, in time of peace lie quartered in any house, witliout the consent of the Owner, nor In time of war, but In a manner to lie pn'MXlbed by law. [ArticIt IV.] 1'he right of the people to be ■ecuiv In their {lenont, houses, iwiwrs, and effects, •gatost unreasonable soanbes and aelxures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall Issue, hui upon probable cause, supinirtcd by Uath or afllri. ation, and particularly describiaf the place to * llMn slfBatiina kar* bo olkar la(al tars* Ihaa Ikat «Thla bMdlaf a|i|>Mra only la tho jatat mahillaa ittl>. ulltUm th« am (M auMadniMts. be searched, and the persons or things to seized. [Article V.] No person shall lie lui.l to ansi for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unl on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Ju except in cases arising in the land or luvul fon or in the Militia, when in actual .sirviie m ti of War or public danger ; nor shall luiy |i. r be subject for the same offence to Ih' twiir ] in jeopardy of life or limb; nor sliuU Inn pelled in any criiniual case to Ik' a wiio against himself, nor hv deprived of life, liliei or property, without due pnnrss of law, shall private pro|)erty be taken l"r imljlici; without just compensation. [Article VI.] In all criminal iinisenitions accused shall enjoy the right to a s|ii-.-.ly ; public trial, by an impartiul jury >if '.ln^i and district wherein the crime shall liave l* comraittetl, which distriit sliuU have Uni | viousiy ascertained by law, and to lie iufuni of the nature and cause of the uccuf ation. to confpontetl with the witnesses Hi;ain»t him; have compulsory process for obtaiiiiuu' witnes in his favor, and to have the Assistauee of Coi sel for his defence. [Article VII.] In suitsat comimm lav. «li the value in controversy shall exeeeil t«ii dollars, the right of trial bv jury shall In f served, and no fact trieil \>y ujury shall othcrwi.se re-examined in any I'mirt of Vnite<l States, than according tu the rules of common law. [Article VIII.] Excessive bail shall not require(i. nor excessive lines iinoosiil, uir it and unusual punishments iiitlii ted [Article IX.] The enumeration in tlie I stitutlon, of certain rights, ..hull n ■■ i«- eoiistn to deny or dispanigi o'.ner>; f luine.l hy |H'o|ile. [Article X.] The imwers not deleirateil to United States by the Constitutiou. unr proUlx by It to the States, are reserved to the ptutn spectivelv, or to the people.* [Article XI.] "^he Ju<li(ial power oi Inited States shall not lie loiistriieil to extend any suit in law or equity, comiiienieil or |ini I ii'ti'd against one of the United Staler by Citin of another Slate, or by Citizens or SiilijitU any Foreign State.f [Article XII.] The Electors tliull mnt their respective states, and vote liy hallot President ami Vic-ePresidert. one of ulioiu, least, shall not be an inliiibilaiit of tie -ume«l with themselves; they slmll luuiiein iheirliill the person votinl for as Pnsideiil. anil in ilisti; Imllots the perwm voleil for as Viee l'r<siJe and they shall make distinct livis of all [kt* voted for as President, and of all jursons vn for as Viir President, ond of the iiuinlur votes for each, which lists they shall siitn i certify, and transmit wai. 1 to the si«t of i government of the UniU'd States, liimteiltoi President of the H«-uat4' ; — The I're.iiienl of Senate shall. In the preteuir of the Stuatn Houie of Repreeeotativrs, ojieu all the > t rtiti<;i »ud the votes sliall then Ix' lounteil.-l person having the greatest niiinl«'r "f votes President, shall be the PresliUiil. if «»' li n"" • AmradiDMiU First to Tenth sppxsr in h«' l»hitonMJ«a.t,IW A t> 17*1 I t Ptwlalowdto C24 TED STATES 1 or things tobt C0N8TITUT1OX: UNITED STATES. be t majority of the whole number of Electon ippointed; and if no perton haveiucb majoritj, tiien from the penont having the highest oomben not exceeding three on the list of tbose TOt«d for aa Preaident, the Houae of Repreaenta- tiret ihall chooae immediately, br ballot, the Pretident. But in chooaing the President, the Totei sl»ll be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote : a quorum for thU purpose shall consist of a member or mem- bers fnim two- thirds of the statea, and a majority of til tlic statea aball be necessary to a choice, jjid if tlic House of Representatives ahall not choose a Tesident whenever the right of choice sbill devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-Presi- dent ihall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the fttiident— The person having the greatest Dumber of votes aa Vice-President, shall be the ViaPresident, if such numl)er be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed, and if DO person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-Presi- dent of the I'nitcd States.* Article XIII. Section I. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except aa a ptmishment fur crime when.'of the party shall have been duly convicted, sliull exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. Uteliiin i. Congress shall have power to enforce tbii article bv appropriate Irgislutiun. t Article XtV, Seetion I. .-Vll p»T»ins bom or Dtluralizeil in the Uuitpil States, anti subiic t to the jurisdictinn thereof, are citizens of the Uiiii^l States and of the State wherein tlioy reside. Xo State shall make or enforce any liiw which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States: nor shall any State Jeprive any person of life, liberty, or pnipj'rty, without line pnK'css of law : nor deny to any person niihin n* jurisdiction the equal protec- tion of ihf hiws. Hreliun 3. Uepn'-wntatives ihall be apportioned amon^ the several States CONSTITUTION JF VENEZUELA. according to their respective numliers, countiij^ the whole number of persons in each State, ex- cluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of e'-viors for President and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the Execu- tive and Judicial officers of a State, or the mem- bers of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male Inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty -one years of age in such State Section 8. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or elector of Pi ;sident and Vice P-^sident, or hold any office, civil or military, under tlic United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or aa an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Con- stitution of the United Statea, shallhave engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof, ut C •Qgrcss may by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability. Seetion 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, Authorized by law, including debts in- curre<l for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave ; but all such de'its, obligations and claims shall be lield Illegal ..nd void. Seetion 5. The Con- gress shall have power to enforce, by appropri- ate legislation, the provisions of this article.* Article XV. Seetion 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition ofaervitiide. — Seetion'i. TheC'ongrvssslmll have miwer to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. " — f CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA. The following text is taken from Bulletin No. Wof the Uureiiu of Ibe American Republics: Article l. The States that the coustitution of Marrh ». l!«M. declared independent and unlteil 10 form the Venezuelan Fe<leration, and that o:i April 37, IH81, were denominated Apure, Boll- »«r. B«r(|uisinieto, Barcelona, C'amliobo, Cn- ]*<ln, Cunmiia, Falcon. Guzman Rlanro, Ouii rlf", Oiuiyima. GuzmAn, Msturiu, NuevaEsparia, Pmtuuuesa, Tichira, Trujilh), Yaracuy, Za- Okira, ami Ziilia are constituted Into nine grand polltlcsl liodles, viz : The State of Bermudez, com- puted of Uarc<>iona. Cumani, and Maturin: the litate of Minuxk, compoeed of Bolivar, Quzm&n • PnrlalmMt to Iw In torn »rpt. «. 1NM. fcarsi or A».: A. 1). i(« (JamjiaM.l Blanco, Guiirico, and Xiieva Esrarin; the State of Caraliolio. composed of t'liml'olio and Nirgua; the State of Zainont, coiiiposeil of Cojetles, I'or- tiigiiewi, and Ziunoni: the Slate of Larn, com- ptuwd of Hiirquli-liiielo and Ynmcuy, except the ilepnrtnient of Niriiua: the State of Ixis Andes, composed iif Guzman, Trtijlllo, and TAchlraj the State of Bolivar, composed of Ouayana and .\purr: the Slate of Zulla, and also the State of Falcon. And they are thusconstitutedtoeimtinue one only nation, free, sovereign, and independent, imder the title of the United States of Venezuela. • Proclslnivd to h« In force July W, IMa [8m Vsmn 8TAT1S or Aa.: A. D. IHMt-lMI (DacnaEa— AniLJ; laas (Jexti. and INas-IHCr (OrDiaaB-NAacnv] * Pniciaimrti to be in forrti Mar. SB, I8fe. iSoe V*ma BtAtn ur An,: ▲. D. 1M»-Iim).] 62(i CONSTITCTION OF VENEZUELA. COXSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA III- li :il Art. 3. The boundaries of these great States arc determined by those that the law of April 28, 18.56, that arranged the last territorial division, designated for the ancient provinces until it shall be re-formed. Art. 3. The boundaries of the United States of the Venezuelan Federation are the same that i' 1810 belonged to the old Captaincy-CJeneral of Venezuela. I Art. 4. The States that are eroupei' tc-rether ito form the grand political biKiies will be called Sections. These are equal among themselves ; the !constitutions prescribed for their internal organ- ism must be liarmonious with the fedeiative principles . stal'.ished by the present compact, and the sot iirnty not delegated resides in the State withoi. any other limitations tlian those that devolve from' the compromise of association. Art. 5. These are V^enezuclans, viz; 1st, All persons that may have been or may be bom on V'enezuelan soil, whatever may be the nationality of their parents; 3d, The cliildren of a Vene- zuelan father or mother that may have been bom on foreign soil, if they should come to take up their domicile in the countrv' and express the desire to become citizens; 3a, Foreigners that may have obtained naturalization papers; and, 4th, Those bom or that shall be bom in any of the Spanish- American republics or in the Spanish Antilles, provided that they may have taken up their residence in the territory of the Republic and express a willingness to become citizens. Art. 6. Those that take up their residence and acquire nationality in a foreign country do not lose the character of Venezuelans. Art. 7. Males over twenty-one years of age are quaiifled Venezuelan citizens, with only the exceptions contain.-d in this "onstitution. Art. 8. All Venezuelans are obliged to serve the nation according t.> '.he prescriptions of the laws, sacrificing his property and his life. If necessary, to defend the country. Art. 9. Venezuelans shall enjo; , in all the Slates of the Union, the rights and Immunities Inherent to their condition as citizens of the Fed- enition, and they shall also have imposed upon them there the same liuties that are required of those that are natives or doniirile<i there. Art. 10. Fon-ign. r» shall enjoy the same civil rights as Venezuelans and the siime security in tlieir iM-rsons and pniperty. They ran only take advantage of diplomatic means In accofiiance with public treaties and in cases when right |ier- mits it. Art. It. The law will determine the right ap- nlicable to the conilltion of fonlirners, accord. Ing as they may be domiciled or In transit. Art. 13. The States that form the Venezuelan Fedenitliin reeipriH^ally recognize thrlr n'spt'itlve autonomies; they are iieelan'd ecjiuil in poliiical entity, and pn'iervc, in all its ph'nitndi', tlie sovereignty not expressly delegated in this con- stitutiim. Art. 13. The Sta'es of the Vi'nezui-lan F'-iler- atlon oblige theiiiM'lves — 1st, To organize them- selves in neconi wlfli the principles of popular, eli-ctive. federal, representative, altemallvi-. and responsible government; 2d, To establish thi fundamental n'gulations of their Interior regu- lation and Kovernmcnt in entin- ii)nformit) with till' principles of this constitution; 81I, Todt'end llivtiwlvt'M air»!n«t »i) rlniencB ths- »Jir»!stFne *!ip iuiiloiial iudependence or the integrity of the | Venezuelan Federation; 4th, To not allena a foreign power any part of their terriiorv to Implore its protection, nor to establish or tivate political or diplomatic relations with t nations, since this lost is reserved to tlie Fi< power; 6th, To not combine or allv thems with another nation, nor to separal'c thcms to the prejudice of the nationalitv of Vme; and her territory; 6th, To cede to tlie nutii.i territory that may be necessary for thi' Fe district ; 7th, To cede to the Govemraent ol Federation the territory necessarv fur tlie tion of forts, warehouses, shipyards, ami 1 tentiaries, and for the construction of 1 edifices indispensable to the geneml ndniini tion ; 8th, To leave to the Govimmrai ol Federation the administration of tlie Ania: and Goajira territories and that of the itl which pertain to the nation, until it may lie venient to elevate them to another niuk ;" 9th reserve to the powers of the Federation all 1 lative or executive jurisdiction conciTiilu); 1 time, coastwise, and fluvial navigation, and national roads, considering as such those exceed the limits of a State and lead to the 1 tiers of others and to the Federal district; 1 To not subject to co.tributions the pnxluci articles upon which national taxes are irapi or those that are by law exempt from tax Ix they have been offered for consiin'ption; 1 To not impose contributions on cattle, effect any class of merchandise in transit for auc State, In order that tralflc may lie alisuli free, and that in one section the consumpiin others may not be taxed ; I'.'th, To not prol the consumption of the products of other Si nor to tax their productions with greater fn or municipal taxes than those pulil on pnid raised in the locality; 13th. To mil estiil maritime or territorial custom-houses for tlie lection of imports, since there will !»■ nati ones only; 14th, To recognise the rielil of i State to dispose of Its natural prNliictn: 1 To cede to the Oovemment of the Feilcrj the administration of mines, pulilir lauds. salt mines, in onier that tlie tirst m:iy In- n lated by a system of uniform \v(.rkMii;auil the latter may lie applied to tin Ntictitdf I)eople; 16th. To respect the property, arvi and forts of the nation; ITlli. To loinpiv' and cause to be -omplled willi ;inil cxecuiiil Constitution and I'tws of tlii' fnh 'iiionaod decrees and oniers that the ficli nl powir tribunals, and courts may i\|i<ilili' I'l ii» their attributes and li'unl fuiiiltiis; ISih. give entire faith to ami to cause to In- coni|i with and executed thi' pulilii ai l" iiml jml proceilures of the other States; IMlli. Toon ize tlieir tribuimls and courts for tlie adinini' tion of justice in the State and to Imve for al tlii'in tlie siimi' siilislantive civil and rrini legislation and the sanii' hiws of i ivil and cr nal prcHcdiire; '.litli. To present jiidL'esfor court of appeals and to siilinilt to tliedecWo this siipn-me tribunal of the Stiitei; ','l«t, incori'onite the extradition of i.-iniinals a political principle in t'lelr nspniivi Const tlous; i.'il. To establish 'lirei I anl pui'lif frage in |.opulur ele tii.ns. iiuikiiii: it "Mipii and endorsing It in the electoral nirislrj' vote of the Buffiagist must lie east in Bnd pu'-lle seSal.Hi of tlit- n'-j".*'' '■"-'■ '■-■-■'■'■ will lie lusK'ribeil la tlic registry boots thai 626 CONSTITXJTION OP VENEZUELA. CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA. b« prewiibea for electiani, which can not be subintuted in any other form, and the elector, for bimielf or by another at hU request in case of impediment or tlirough ignorance, will sign .the memorandum entry of his vote, and without tbia requisite it can not be claimed that in reality he has voted ; iiSd, To establish a system of pri- mary education and that of arts and trades : Mtb, To "eserre to the powers of the Federation the Uwsand provisions necessary for the creation, conserTBtion. and progress of general schools, colleges, or universities designed for the teach- ing of the sciences; 25th, To not impose duties upon the national employes, except i:. «he q 'al- itr of citizens of the State and insomuch as these duties may not be incompatible with the national public service ; iMth, To furnish the proportioual contingent that pertains to them to compose the nstional public forces in time of peace or war; 27tb, To not permit in the States of the Federation forced enlistments and levies that have or may have for their oLjCct an attack on liberty or independence or a disturbance of the public order of the Nation, of other States, or of another Nation ; 38tb, To preserve a strict neu- trality in tiie contentions thai may arise in other States; 2Sth, To not declare or carry on war in any case, one State with anotuer ; aOtb, To de- fer and submit to the decision of the Congress or the High Federal Court in all the controversies that may arise between two or more States wlien they can not, between themselves and by pacific measures, arrive at an agreement. If, for any csuie, tbcy may not designate the arbiter to whose decision they may submit, they leave it, la fact, to the High Federal Court; Slst, To recognize the competency of Congress and of the court of appeals to take cognizance of the cr -< es that, for treason to the country or for the ii i c tion of the Constitution and laws of the Fe-.. ra- tion, msy be instituted against those *'.at exer- ciiie executive authority in the Str.ies, it being their duty to incorporate this precept in their constitutions. In the e trials the moties of pro- ceiiure that the general laws prescribe will be followed and they will be decidwi In consonance with those laws ; '33d. To have as the just income of 'lie States, tvo-thirds of tlie total product of the impiist collected as transit tax in all tlic custom- liouM'S nf the ]{epublic and two- thirds of that col- kvtiii from mines, miljlic lands, and salt mines administered by tlicFeiieral Power and to distrib- ute this income among ull the States of the Frd- eratlon In , n)portlon to t!ie pcipulHtion of eacf . 8;i<l, To H'serve to the FciUtsI Power the amount of the .hinl part of Ibr income from transit tax. the prixlurti in of mines, public Umls. and suit mines, to Ix- invested in the iniprovenient of the country ; 84th, To keep far away f nun the fron- tier those individuals that, tlirougli piilitlrul nujtivi's, take refuge in a S. ite, provided that till' Stale interestetf requests it. Art. 14, The nation guarantees to Venezue- lans: 1st. The inviolability of life, c,.^; al pun- liliincnt Iwlng abolished In spite nf anv law that estiililishcs it; 2d, I'rorerty .with all its attri- butes, ritrlits and privileges, will onl. be suh- Jeeieil Id ciintributions decreed by 'legishitlve auth.rltv. to Juilicisl decihiim. and to be taken for public works after ipdemnitv and condemna- tion: !'•!, The Inviolabillt;' and si'crccy of cor- r-.spr.n.i.Tiio and olittT priv.ile 1>»ih-i». '4lii. The domrttlc hearth, that can ih>*. be approached ex- cept to prevent the perpetration of crime, and this itself must be done in accordance with law: 6th, Personal liberty, and consequently (1) forced recruiting for armea service is almlished, (3) slav- ery is forever proscribed, (3) slaves that tread the soil of Venezuela are free, and (4) nobody ia obliged to do that which the law does not com- mand, nor is impeded from doing that which it does not prohibit; 6th, The freedom of thought, expressed by word or through the press, is with- out any restriction to be submitted to previous censu'». In cases of calumny or Injury or preju dice J a third party, the aggrieved party shall have every facility to have his complaints inves- tigated before competent tribunau of justice in accordance with the common laws; 7th, The lib- erty of traveling without passport, to change the domicil, observing the legal formalities, and to depart from and return to the Republic, carry- ing off and bringing back his or her property; 8th, The liberty of industry and consequently the proprietorship of discoveries and produc- tions. The law will assign to the proprietors a temporary privilege or the mode of indemnity in case that the author agrees to its publication; «lh. The liberty of reunion and assembling with- out arms, publicly or privately, the authorities being prohibited from exercising auy act of in- spection or coercion; 10th, The liberty of peti- tion, with the right of obtaining action by reso- lution ; petition can be made by any functionary, authority or corporation. If 'the 'petition shall be made in the name of various persons, the first five will respond for the authenticity of the sig- natures and ail for the truth of the assertions; 11th. The liberty of suffrage at popular elretious without any restriction except to males under eighteen years of age; 12tb. The liberty of in- struction will be protected to every extent. The f)ublic iMwer is obliged to establish gratuitous nstructlon in primary schools, the arte and trades; 13th, Relf^ouslilierty: 14tb. Individual security, and. therefore (1) no" Venezuelan can be imprisoned or arrested in punishment for debts not founded In fraud or crime ; (2)nor to be obliged to lodge or trier soldiers In his house; (3) nor to be Judg. I by siH-cial commissions or tribu- nals, but by his natumi judges and liv virtue of laws dictated before the commissi.m ot tlii' crime or act to be judged; (4) nor to l)e iiii| risoued nor arrested withuut previous siuumary infonuution that a crime meriting corpomi punishment has been committed, iind a vtitten order from the functionary tliut orders tin iinprlsouiiu'ut. stating the cause of arrest, unli ;« the person ma; be caught in the commission of the crime. (5) nor to be placi'il in solitary confinement for any cause; (6) unr to lie obllgeil to give evidence. In criminal causes, against liimself nr his MikkI re- lations within the lotirtli degree of consiuiguiuity or against bis relations liy marriage within the s«'('oii<l iligre or Hgaliisl busliaud or wife ; (7) nor til it'inuin iu prlMiu wlun the reasons that ca»s<-.l till' iniprisonniiiit Imve bi-en diasipatetl; (S) nor I" lie seiitenciii to corporal punisliment for more !li:in ten years; (9) nor to ri'niaiu de- prived uf bis liberty for political reawms when order is reSstatilishecl. Art. 15. Kquulily : in virtue of which (1) all must Ik' jiiiieed by ti:i' very same laws rinil sub- ject to c'laal dutv, service and contriliutions: i'i'i till lltlt'S of uoliiltiy heritlilaiy ti<'ni>i!>. uud distiuctlutu will be conceded nor employmcLU 02 ! ' M rONSTITUTION OF VENEZTELA. or "< the (aUries or emolumenti of which ecu. >' after the termination of lerTice; (8) no other olSdal ulutation than "citizen" and " you " will be given to employ£« and corpora- tions. The present enumeration does not im- pose upon the States the obligation to accord other guarantees to their inhabitants. Art. i6. The laws in the Sutes will prescribe penalties for the infractions of these guarantees, establishing modes of procedure to make them effective. Art, 17, Those who may issue, sign, or exe- cute, or order executed any decrees, orders, or resolutions that violate or in" any manner infringe upon the guarantees accorded to Venezuelans are culpable and must be punished according to the law. Every citizen is empowered to bring charges. Art. t8. The National Legislature wiil be com- posed of two chambers, one of Senators and another of Deputies. Art. 19. The States will determine the mode of election of Deputies. Art. ao. To form the Chamber of Deputies, each State will name, by popultr election in ac- cordance with paragraph 23 of Article 13 of this Constitution, one Deputv for each thirty-five thousand inhabitants and; another for an excess not under fifteen thousand. In the same man- ner it will elect alternates in equal number to the principals. Art. ai. The Deputies will hold office for four years, wlien they will be renewed in their en- tirety. Art. 33. The prerogatives of the chamber of Deputies are: First, to examine the annual ac- count that the President of the I'nited States of Veneztiila must render; second, to p.isa a vote of ceiisun- of the Jlinistors of the Cabinet, in wliiih event their posts wil' be vacant; third, to lii'.ir fhartris ii;i;>inst the persons in charge of the (illlce of the National E.^ecutive for treason to the I'imntry, fur infrartion of tlie constitution, or for ordinary crimes; niriilnst the ministers ami other National employes for infraction of the Constitution and laws" and for fault In the dis- charge of their duties according to article ".> of this constitution and of the geui^ral laws of the Kepublic. This attril)Ute is pn'ventative and neither contracts nor diminishes tliost' tliat other autliorities have to judfre and punish. Art. 33. When a charge is instituted by a Deputy or by any corporation or individual the follow uu; rules will be observc<l: (1; there will be ap|Miint«(i, in s»'cret session, a commission of three deputies; (i) the commission will, within three days, remier an opinion, de'laring whethc r or not there is foundation for Institutinff n cause ; (3) the Chamber will consider the in'onnalion and decide upon the cause by the vote of an ab- solute majority of the membere pn'wnt, the accusing Dtj)uty alistaining from voting. Art. 34. The declaration that ihere is founda- tion for the cause operates to suspend from olllec the accused and incapacitates him for the dis- cbarge of any public function during the trial. Art. 15. To form this Chamber each State, through lU respective legislature, will ele<t three principal .Si^nators an(l an equal number of alternates to supply the vacancies that may oc- cur. Art. 36. To be a Senator it is required that he ■bail be a Vcuczuttaii i>y birth aiiti Ihtrly year* of age. CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA. Aft. 37. The Senator* will occupy their posu for four Veara and be renewed in their entiretv Art. 38. It is the prerogative of the Senate to aubatantiate and decide the cauaes initiated la the Chamber of Deputies. Art. 30. If the cause may not have been con- cluded durine the leasiona, the Senate will con- tinue assembled for this purpose only until the cause ia finished. Art. 30. The National Legislature will assem- ble on the 20th day of February of each rear or as soon thereafter aa potaible at the capital of the United SUtes without the necessity of pre- vious notice. The aeaaions will last fo"r seventj days to be prolonged until ninety days at the judgment of the majority. Art. 31. The Chambers will open their m- sions with two-thirds of their numlMr at least; and, in default of this number, those prewnt will assemble in preparatory commission and adopt measurca for the concurrence of the ab- sentees. Art. 33. The sessions having been opened ther may be continued by two-thirds of those tliat may have Installed them, provided that the num- ber be not less than half of all the momben elected. Art. 33. Although the Chambers delihcrate separately, the* may assemble together in the Congress when the constitution and laws proviile for It or when one of the two Chamtiers may deem it necessary. If the Chamber tliat Is in- vited shall agree, it remains to it to fix tie day and the hour of the joint session. Art. 34. The sessions will be public ami secia at the will of the Clumber. Art. 35. The Chambers have the rif;ht: ilito make rules to be observed in the sessions and to regulate the debates; (2) to correct infractors; (3) to establish the police force in the hall of ses- sions; (4) to punish or correct spectators who cre- ate disorder; (.5) to remove the obstacles to the free exercise of their functions; (8) to command the execution of their private ..solutions; (Tto judge of the qualifications of their nieniliers ind to consider their re.signotions. Art. 36. One of the Clw ' < c.n -t su' pond its sessions nor change its , < with- out tlie eonsi'nt of the oth sacree- nient they will reasaeml'' ■xecute that which the majority Art. 37. The exercise ic func- tion, during the sessions, ..ulile v'' those of a Senator or Dei..^. he lai specify the remunerations tliat the nieniKi 1 tlie national Ix'gislature shall n'ceive for iliiir B»'rvieea. And whenever an increase of s:ii(l n-- niunerations is decreiKi, the law that samli.rsit will not liegin to be In force until 'he folh^wiiig pcTirni when the Chamtwrs that sanctionid it shall have l)een renewed In their entirely. Art. 38. The Senators and Deputies shall en- joy immunity from the 20th day of Jaiiu.iry of each vear until thirty days after the doM' of the si'sslons and this consists in the suspix.^ien of all civil or criminal proceeliug. wlmuvir may be its origin or nature ; when any one ^l^ll perpetrate an act that merits corpond piiii-h- ment the investigation shall continue until ttie en<l of the summing up ami shall remain ia '>.>> state wliile the term of immunity coiiliiiuis. Art. 39. The Congress will lie pn-siiifii cvtr by the President of the Senate and the presiding G28 CONBTITUTION OF VI UELA. CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA. ofllcer of the Chamber of Deputiei will act u VIce-Preddent. Art. 40. The memb't* of the Chambers are not reipoiuible for the opiniona they ezpreaa or the diacoune* they pronounce in session. Art. 41. Senators and deputies that accept of- tce or commission from the National Executive thereby leave vacant the posts of legislators in the Clumbers to which they were elected. Art. 42. Nor can senatoia and deputies make coitrafts with the general Government or con- duct the prosecution of claims of others againsi. it Art. 43. The National Legislature has the fol- lowing prerogatives: (1) to dissolve the contro- tcrsies that may arisie between two or more States; (2) to locate the Federal District in an unpopulated territory not exceeding three miles iquare, where will be constructed the capital citr of the Republic. This district will be ncu- tnu tcrritorr. and no other elections will be there held tban those that the law determines for the locality. The district will be provisionally that which the constituent assembly designated or that which the National Legislature may deaignate; (8) to organize everythmg relating to the custom-houses, whose income will constitute the treasure of the Union until these incomes are lupplled from other sources; (4) to dispose in eTervthing relating to the habitation and security of ports and seaeoasts ; (5) to create and organize the postal service and to fix the charges for transportation of correspondence; (6) to form the Sational Codes in accordance with paragraph 19, article 13 of this Constitution ; (7) to flx the value, type law, weight, and coinage of national money, ud to regulate the admission and circulation of foreign money ; (8) to designate the coat-of -arms and the national Hag which will be the same for all the States; (9) to create, abolish, and fix sala- ries tor national offices; (10) to determine every- thing in relation to the national debt; (11) to contract loans upon ••'e credit of the nation; (lil to dictate necessary measures to perfect the cen- sus of the current population and the national itttistics; (13) toannuallv flx the armed forces by sea and land and to dictate the army regula- tions; (14) to decree rules for the form»tionaud •ubsiitution of the forces referred to in the pre- ceding clause; (15) to declare war and to require the >ati<)nal Executive to negotiate peace ; (1«) toiatify or reject the contracts for national pub- lic work.s made by the President with the ap- proval of the Federal Council, without which requisite thev will not be carried into effect; (18) toannuallv flx the estimates for public expcnsj's; 1I81 to promote whatever conduces to the pros- perity of the country and to its advancement in the general knowle<lge of the arts and sciences ; liti) ui fix and regulate the national weights and measures; (41) to grant amnesties ; (22) to estab- i»h, under the names of territories, special regu- laiinns for the sovemment of regions inhabited by uu. "Tuiuered and uncivilized Indians. Such territorus will l>e under the immediate 8up«'r- vision of the Executive of the Union; (23) to eitabjisli tlie modes of procedure and to desig- nate the p<naltles to be imposed by the Senate in the trials originated in the Chamber of Depu- tes; (24) to increase the basis of population for the election of deputies; (25) to permit or refuse 'he sdmission of foreigners into the service of uie Republic ; (2«) to make laws in respect to re- uremeots from the military service and army pensions; (87) to dictate the law of regpoiuibiUtT on the part of all national employes and those of the States for infraction of the constitution and the general Uws of the Union; (88) to de- termine tne mode of conceding miUtanr rank or promotion ; (29) to elect the Federal Council pro- vided for in this constitution and to convoke the alternates of the senators and deputies who may have been chosen for it Art. 44. Besides the preceding enumeration the ^atlonai LegisUture may pass such laws of gen- eral character as may be necessary, but In no case can they be promulgated, much less exe- cuted, if they conflict with this constitution which deflnes the prerogatives of the public powers in Venezuela. Art. 45. The laws and decrees of the National Legislature may be proposed by the members of either chamber, provided that the respective projects are conformed to the rules esublished for the Parliament of Venezuela. Art. ^6. After a project may have been pre- sented, it will be read and considered in order to be admitted; and if it is, it must undergo three discussions, with an interval of at least one day between each, observing the rules established for debate. Art. 47. The projectsapproved in the chamber in which they were originated will be passed to the other for the purposes indicated in the preceding article, and if they are not rejected they will be returned to the chamber whence they originated, with the amendments they may have under- gone. Art. 48. If the chamber of their origin does not agree to the amendments, it may hisist and s«ud Its written rensems to the other. Thev may also assemble together in Congress and delib* r- ate, in general commission, over the mode of agreement, but if this can not be reached, tlie project will be of no effect after the chamber of its origin separately decides upon the ratification of its insistei Art. 49. U, •. le passing of the projecufriini one to the othe. -hamber, the days on which thev have been di usscd will be stated. Art. so. The law reforming another law must be fully engroosed and the former law, in all its parts, will be annulled. Art. 51. In the laws this form will he used: "The Congress of the United States of Venezuela decrees. " Art. 5a. The projects defeated in one legisla- ture cannot be reintroduced except in another. Art. 53. The projects pending in a chamber at the close of the sessions must undergo the same three discussions iu succeceling legisiutun'S. Art. 54. Laws are annulled with the same for- malities established for their sanction Art. 55. When the ministers of ibinet may have sustained, in a chamber, the um onstitutiim- ality of a project by word or In writing, and, notwithstanding this, it ma;- have been sanctioned as law, the National Executive, with the affirm:i- tlve vote of the Federal Council, will suspend its execution and apply to the legislatures of the States, asking their vote in the matter. Art. 56. In case of the foregoing article, each State will represent one vote expressed by the majoritv of the members of the legislature pres- ent ami the remit will be sent <r> the Illgh Fed- eral Court in this form: " I conlinu " or " I re- ject" 629 fel,'- : ? ,,,» CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA. Alt. 57, If a majority of the leglilsture* of the States agree with the Federal Executive, the Hiffh Federal Court will coDfirm the auapension, and the Federal Executive himielf will render an account to the next Congreaa relative to all that has been done in the matter. Art. 58. The lawn will not be observed until after being published in the solemn form estab- lished. Art. 59. The faculty conceded to sanction a kw is not to be delegated. , Art. 6a. No legislative disposition will have a retroactive effect, except in matters of judicial procedure and that which imposes a lighter nen- alty. Art. 61. There will be a Federal Council com- posed of one senator and one deputy for each State and of one more deputy for the Federal District, who will be elected by the Congress each two years from among the respctive repre- sentations of the States composing the Federation and from that of the Federal District. This election will take pla-%in thi- first fifteen days of the meeting of Congress, in the first and tliird year of the constitutional period. Art. 63. The Federal Council elects from its members the President of the United States of Venezuela, and in the same manner the person who shall act in his stead in case of his temporal or per- manent disability du'-ing his term. The election of a person to be President of the United States of Venezuela will is not a member of the Federal Council, as n 1 .1 as of thost who may have to act in his stead in case of bis temporal or permanent disability, is null of right and void of efficacy. Art. 63. The members of the F deral Council hold office for two years, the same as the Presi- dent of the United States of Venezuela, whose term is of equal duration; and neither he uor tUey can oc reClecte<l for the term immediately succeeding, although they may return to ocoupy their posts as legislators in the chambers to which they belong. Art. 64. The Federal Council resides in the district and exercises the functions prescrilx.Nl in this constitution. It cannot delil>erate with less than an absolute majority of all its members; it dictates tlie interior regulations to be observed in its deliberations, and annually appoints the person who shall preside over its sessions. Art. 65. The prenigatives of the President of Venezuela arc: (1) To appoint anil remove the cabinet ministers ; (2) to preside over the cabinet, in whose discussions he will have a vote, ou<i to inform the Council of all the matters that refer to the General Administration ; (8) to receive and welcome public ministers; (4) to sign the official letters to the Sovereigns or Presiileuts of other countries; (5) to order the execution of the laws and decrees of the National Legislature, and to take care that they are complied with and exe- cuted ; (6) to promulgate the resolutions and de- crees that may have li'en pn>|)osed and received the approl)ation of the Federal Council, in con- formity with article 66 of tliis constitution; (T) tu organize the Fe<leral District and to act there in as the chief civil and political authority estab- lislieil by this constitution ; (8) to issue registers of navigatlcm to national vessels; (9) to render an account to Congress, within tiic first eight days of its annual session, of the eases in which, wlih the approval of the Federal Council, he mav have exercised all or any of the faculties accordetl CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUEU. to him in article 66 of this compact; (10) todi charge the other f unctiooa that tbe national lai entruat to blm. Art. M. Beddei tbe foregoing prerogstive that are personal to the president of tlie I'Ditt States of Venezuela, he can, with tbe delibeni vote of the Federal Council, exercise the folloi ing: (1) To protect the Nation from all eitetii attack; (2) to administer the public lands, mine and aalt mines of tbe States as their delegate : ( to convoke the Nationa. Legislature iu its regi !ar sessions, and In extraorainary session wIk the gravity of any subject demands it; (4) 1 nominate persona for diplomatic positions, coi suls- general, and consuls: those named for tb first and second positions must be Venezi elans by blnh; (5) to direct negotiations and celi brnte all kinds of treaties with other nation submitting these to the National Legislature; (i to celebrate contracts of national interest i accordance with the laws and to submit tbei the legislatures for their approval : (7) to nomii ate tbe employes of hacienda, whicli nominatiot are not to be made by any other autkoritv. I is required that these employes shall bcVem zuelan hj birth; (8) to remove and suspemi tn ployes of his own free motion, oniering tlif ni t be tried if there should be cause for it; (9| I declare war in the name of the Republic whe Congress shall have decreed it; (10) in tlie cm of foreign war he can, first, demand tnm tfa States the assistance necessary for the nation! defense ; second, require, in' anticipation, lli contributions and negotiate the loans (lecninl b the National Legislature; thin], arrest or exiK persons who pertain to the nation with M^hic war is carriea on and who may Ik? jpiHiseil t the defense of the country; fourth, to siisik-b the guaranties that may 'be iucompatihle wit tlie defense of the country, except tliat of life fifth, to select the place to which thi' (Jemra Power of the Federation may be provisional! translated when there may be grave rciisoas I) It; sixth, to bring to trial for treason th country those Venezuelans who inay be, in id manner, hostile to tbe national defense : si'\ entli fi) issue ragisters to corsairs and private! it scribe the laws that they must ' ii «,.. - of capture; (11) to employ the pu' and the powers contained in nunilK'rs 1. 1 of the preceding clause with the oljjcct of ri*s ta >lisliing constitutional order iu case of arum insurrection against the institutions of tlic Nation (12) to dispose of the public force for thf pur pose of quelling every armed collision Ikiwwi two or more States, requiring them to lay dowi their arms and submit their controversies to il» arbitration to which they are pliniireit by mini ber 80, article 14 of this constitution; (I3i t. direct the war and to appoint the |xrs<m wbi shall command the armj ; (14) to organize <lii national force in time of t>cace; (l.Ti to comvi general or particular exeniptions; (10) toilff™ the territory designate! for tlie Fciliral Distnc when there mav he reasons to appnhcml that 1 will be invaded by liostile forces. Art. 67. The President of the Vniliil Slates Venezuela shall have the ministers for hiscabiut tliat the law designates. It will deieniiint thel functions and duties and will organize thei bureaus Art. 6S. To be a minister of the cabinet 11 1 required that the pcnon shall be twenty-liTi G30 coNSTrnmoN of Venezuela. CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA. nut of ue, kVenasuelan by birth or fire year* of Dttun^tion. Art 69. The mlidsten are the natural and proper organa of the Preaident of the United Statet of Venezuela. All hia acta must be tub- ■cribed by them and without aucb requisite they will not M complied with nor executed by the tuthoritiea, employeea, or private pertona. Art 70. All the acta of the miniaten must be confonniedtothiaConatitutioDandtbelaws; their penonal reaponaibiUty ia not saved, alth-jugL tbey may have the written order of the President. Art. 71. The settlement of all business, except .efi»'U alfairtof the bureaus, will be deter mined in the council of ministers, and their re- ■ponsibiiity is collective and consolidated. Art. 72. The ministers, within the five first acMions of each year, will render an account to tbe Chambers of what they may have done or propose to do in their respective branches. Tbey vill also render written or verlnl reports that mar be requested of them, reserving only that which, in diplomatic affairs, it may not be con- venient to publish. Art 73. Within the same period, thev will present to the National Legislature the estimates of public expenditures and the general account of the past j^ar. Art. 74. The ministers have the right to be beard in the Chambers, and are obliged to attend wben they may be called upon for information. Art. 75. The ministers are responsible: (1) for treason to the country; (2) for infraction of this Constitution or the laws ; (3) for malversation ot the public funds; (4) for exceeding the estimates in their expenditures; (5) for subornation or bribery in the affairs under their charge or in the nominations for public employees; (6) for failure in cumpliancc with the decisions of the Federal Council. Art. 76. The High Federal Court will be com- posed of as many judges as there may be States of the Federation and with the following quali- ties: (1) A judge must be a Venezuelan by birth ; (2) be must be thirty years of age. Art. 77. For the nomination of judges of the High Federal Court the Congress will convene ou the fifteenth day of its regular sessions and will proceed to group together the representation of each State from which to form a list of as many candidates for principal judges and an equal number of alternates as there inav be States of tbe Federation. The Congress, in tlie same or following session, will elect one principal and one alternate for each State, selecting them from tbc respective lists. Art. 78. The law will determine the different functions of the judges and other officers of tue HiRh Federal Court. Art. 70. The judges and their respective alter- nates will hold office for four years. The princi- pals and their alternates in oftlre can not accept during this period any o.rice in the gift of the eiciutive without previous resignation and law- ful siceptance. The infraction of this disposition will be punished with four years of disability to bold public office in Venezuela. Art. 80. The matters within the competence of the I.'Vh Fede al Court are: (1) to take cogni- zancf f civil or criminal causes that may lie in- stitu:. (I against diplomatic offi(<ers in thdse ca8<'S l*riuiiied by the law of nations; (2) to talte cog- nizuuce of cause* ordered by the President to be Instituted against cabinet ministers when ther may be accused according to the cases provldea for in this Constitution. In the matter of the necessity of suspension from office, they will re- quest the President to that effect and be will com- ply ; (4) to have jurisdiction of the causes of re- sponsibility instituted against diplomatic agents accredited to another nation for the wrong dia- charge of their functions; (S) to have jurisdiction in civil trials when the nation is defendant and the law sanctio,. ■ it; (8) to diasipate the contro- versies that may arise between the offlciaU of different States in political order in the matter of jurisdiction or competence; (7) to take cogni- zance of all matters of political nature that the States desire to submit for their coatideration ; (8) to declare which may be the law in force when the national and State laws may be found to con- flict with each other; (9) to have jurisdiction in the controversies that may result from contracta or negotiations celebrated by tlie p- jsident of the federation ; (10) to have jurisdiction in causes of imprisonment ; (U) to exercise other prerogatives provided for by law. Art. 81. The Court of Appeals referred to in paragraph 20, article lb of this Constitution, ia the tribunal of the states; it will be composed of as many judges as tliere are states of the federa- tion, and their terms of office will last for four years. Art. 8a. A judge of the Court of Appeals must have the following qualifications: (1) he must be an attorney at kw In the exercise of bis profession, and must have had at least six years practice; (2) he must be a Venezuelan, thirty years of age. Art. 83. Every four years the legislature of each State will form a list of as many attorneys, with the qualifications expressed in tlie preceding article, as there are States, and will remit it, duly certified, to the Federal Council in order that this body, from the resi)ectivc lists, may elect a i'udge for each State in the organization j' this igh tribunal. Art. 84. After the Federal Council may have received the lists from all the States, it will pro- ceed, in public session, to verify the election; forming thereafter a list of the attorneys not elected, in order that from this general list, wliiob will be put)lished in the official paper, tu er- manent vacancies tliat may occur in the C i of Appeals may be filled by lot. The ten jrarj- vacancies will be fllied according to hi" Art. 85. Tlic Court of Ai)|x>als will liave the following priri gatives: (1) to take cognizance of criminal causes or those of respousil'ility that may be instituted against the high functionaries of the different States, applying tlie laws of the States themselves in matters of responsibility, and in case of omission of the promulgation a law of constitutional precept, it will apply to tbc cause in question the general laws of the land: Vi) to take cognizance and to decide in cases of appeal in the form and terms directed by law ; (3) to annually report to the National Legislature the ditticulties that stand in the way of uniformity in the matte of civil or criminal legisln'c.ou; (4) to dispose of the rivalries that mtiv arise between the officers or functionaries of juJicinl order in the different States of the federa- tion and amongst those of a single State, pro- vided that the authority to settle them does not exist in the State. 631 coNSTmrnoN op Venezuela. CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA. Art. 96. The Ntdoiwl ExecutiTe U exerdied br the Vedenl Council, the President of the United States of VenezueU, or the person who fills his TMsndes. in union with the cabinet min- isters who are his organs. The President of Venezuela must be a Venezuelan by birth. Art. S7. T !uactioos of National Executive can not be exercised outside of the federal district except in the case provided for in numbers, para- onph 10, article 66 of the Constitution. When uie PresideDt, with the approval of the Council, shall take command of the army or absent him- self from the district on account of matten of public interest that demand it, be can not exercise any functions and will be replaced by the Federal Ci>unc!l in accordance with article 63 of this Con- stitution. Art. 88. Everything that may not be expressly assigned to the general administration of the na- tion in this Constitution is reserved to the States. Art. 89. The tribunals of justice iu the States are Indepcndrnt; the cituses origuateil In them will 111' cnnc'ludc<l in the same Slatos without any otii- r review than thnt of the Court of Appeals in tlic cases provided for by law. Art. 00. Every act of Congress and of the Nations! Executive that violates the rights guar- anteed to the States in this Constitution, or tlmt attacks their independence, must be declare<l of no effect by tlic High Court, provided that a ma- jority of the legislatures demands It. Art. 91. The public national force is divided into naval and land troops, and will be composed of the citizen militia that the States may organize according to law. Art. 02. The force at the disposal of the federa- tion will be organized from citizens of a contin- gent furnished by each State in proportion to its population, calling to service those citizens that should render it according to their internal laws. Art. 93. In case of war the contingent can be augmented by bodies of citizen mflitia up to the number of Eien necessary to All the draft of tha National Government. Art. 94, The National Government may change the commanders of the public force supplied by the States in the cases and with the formaliti("9 provided for in the national military law and then their successors will be called for from the States. Art. 95. The military and civil authority can never be exercised by the same person or corpo- ration. Art. 96. The nation, being in possession of the right of ecclesiastical patronage, will exercise it as'tlie law upon the subject may direct. Art. 97. The Government of the Fedemtion will have no other resident employees with juris- diction or authority in the States than tliose of the States themselves. The otlicere of hacienda, thvi-se of the forces that garrison national for- scs, arsenals created by law, navy yariN, and 'iiiitiiU'd ports, that only have juriMirtion in matters peculiar to their respective offices and within the limits of the forts and (|uariera tl]:it they command, are excepted; but even these must l>e subject to the general laws of tliu State in which they reside. All the elements of war now existing belong to the National Government ; nevertheless it is not to be understood that the States are pn 'hibited from acquiring those that they may need for domestic defense. Art. 98. The National Government can not lUtion troops nor militaiy otUcen with command G32 in a State, although thejr mar be from that or another State, without penniMon of the govern- ment. of the State In which tha force is to b« stationed. Art. 09. Neither the National Executive nor those of the States can resort to armed interven- tion in t.!.e domestic contentions of a State: it ii only pe.mitted to them to tender their good offi- ces to bring about a pacific solution in the cate. Art. loa In case of a permanent or temporary vacancy in the office of President of the United States of Venezuela, the States will be immedi- ately informed as to who has supplied the va. cancy. Art. loi. Exportation in Venezuela is free and no duty can be placed upon it. Art. loa. All usurped authority is witbout effect and its acts are null Every order granted for a requisition, direct or indirect, bv armed force or by an assemblage of people in su ) ' v ersive attitude Is null of light and void of efficact'. Art, 103. The exercise uf any function not con- ferred by the constitution or laws is prohibited to every corporation or authority. Art. 104. Any citizen may accuse the em- ployees of the nation or the States before the chamber of deputies, before their respe* ive m- periors in office, or before the authorities desig. nated by law. Art. 105, No payment shall be made from the National Treasury for which Congress h.os not expressly provided in the annual estimate, and those that may Infringe this rule will bt "ivilly responsible to the National Treasury for the sum'j they have paid out. In every payment from the pul)lic Treasury the ordinary expensis will he preferred to the extraordinary charges. Art. 106. The offlcesof collection and (lishurso- ment of the national taxes shall be always » juir- ate, and the officers of collection may disburse only the salaries of cheir respective emiiloyets. Art. 107. When, for any reason, the eiiiniate of appropriations for a fiscal period have not li (n made, that of the immediately preceding period will continue in force. Art. loS. In time of elections, the public na- tional force or that of the States themselves will remain closely quartered during the holding of popular elections. Art. 109. In intematiojal treaties of commerce and frienifship this clause will l)e inserted, to wit , "all the disagreements between the contracti.ng pariies must be decided without an appeal to war, by the decision of a power or friendly powers." Art. no. No individual can hold more than one office within Jie gift of Congress and the National Executive. The acceptance of any other is equivalent to resignation of the first. Olllcials that arc removable will cease to hold office upon accepting the charge of a Senator or Deputy when they are dependents of the National Executive. Art, III. The law will create and designate other national tribunals that may l)c neeessary. Art. Iia. liational offlcera can nut aeei'pt gifts, commissions, honors, or emoluments from a f(<r' eign nation without permission from the National Legislature. Art. 113. Armed force can not deliberate; it is passive and obedient. No armed body can make requisitions nor demand assistance of any kind, but from the civil authorities, and in the mode auu form prescribed by law. CONSTITUTION OP VENEZUELA. CONSUL. Alt 114. The Nation and the States will pro- mote foreign immigration and colonization in ac- coniani'i' with their respective laws. Art. 115. A law will regulate the manner in which national ofncera, i>on taking charge of tht'ir posts, shall take lue oath to comply with their duties. Art. 116. The National Executive will negoti- ate with the Governments of America over treaties of alliance or confederation. Art, 117. The la w of Nations forms a part of the Nations! Legislation; its dispositions will be ipeciall^ in force in cases of civil war, which can be terminated by treaties between the belligerents wlio will have to rt8|x;ct the hum'uiturian cus- toms of Christians and civilizet* cations, the guarantee of life being, in every 0, inviolable. Art. 118. This constitution cr c-pformedby the National Legislature if ti) gislatures of the States desire it, but there 1 ' never be any reform except in the parts upoi. which the ma- jority of the States coincide ; also a reform can be made upon one or more points when two- thirds of the members of the National Legisla- ture, deliberating separately and by the proceed- faigs established to sanction the law's, shall accord ■•; but, iu this second case, the amendment voted jail be submitted to the legislatures of the States, ami it will stand sanctioned in the point or points that Diay have been ratified by them. Art. no. This constitution will take effect from the day of its oRlcial promulgation in each btittc, and In all public acts and olUdal docu- ments till re will be cited tht date of the Federatii to U-gin with Febrojiry 2U, IH.W, and the .,,te of the law to b< .'in with March Art. 130. The constitutional period (or ' 1 olHces of the General Administration of th, pub'ic will continue to be computed from Feb. u- ary 20, 1S82, the ilutc on which the reformed constitution took effect. Art. lai. For e-ery act of civil and political life of the States of the Federation, its basis of IKtpulation is that which is determined in the lust census approved by the National Leitis- lature. Art. 122. The Federal Constitution of April 27, ISSl, is repealed. Done in Caracas, in the Ptlace of the Fe- ■■ i^egislative Corps, and sealed with the s< Jongress on the Uth day of April. 1891. ' •,. „ year of the Law and the 38rd year or' .;',■■ eration. (Here follow tl.. atures of the Presidents, Vice-Presidents, a^'d Second Vice-Presidents of the Senate and Chamljer of Deputies, together with those of the Senators and Deputies of the various States, followinl by those of tlii Pioideut and the ministers of his cabinet.) See VtNEZU- EL.v; .\.. D. l»6a-lS92. CONSTITUTION OF THE WATAUGA ASSOCIATION (the first Western An -^rican Commonwealth). See Tkn.nesbee: A. D. nO'J- ITTi. CONSTITUTIONS OF CLARENDON.— The "Constitutions of Clarendon" were a series of declarations drawn up by a council which King Henry 11. of Englantl convened at Clarendon. Dear Winchester, in 1164, and which were in- tended to determine the law on various points in dispute between the Crown and the laitv, on one siili. and the Church on the othe.. Tte issues in question were those which brought Henry iulo colli.sion with Thor- t Becket, Archbi.« ip of I'anteibuiv. ThegeL. ' provisions emb ' lin the Coustftutions of Clarendon ' ' would be scarcely challenged in the most Catholic t ry in the world. 1. During the va ai;cyofaL .. jli- bishoprie, bishopric, abb^y. 01 prior;, of royal foundation, the estates wc. e to '"■ in tiie'custody of the Cniwn. Elections to these o.efnuients were to be held in thr -oval chapel, r,:, the Lssent of thekingandc lu!:. 2 Inevt. Sittowhicha clerk was a pa- ; 'oceediugs » 1 •> to commence before the kuifc ,„ jtices, and these justices were to del iile whether the case was vo be tried before a spi- lal or a civil court. If it was referred to asl.iuuial court, a civil ofBcer was to attend to waleh the trial, and if a clerk was found guilty of felony the Church was to cease to protect him. 3. No tenantinchief of the king, or officer of his household, was to be excommunicated, or his lands laid under an interdict, imtil appli(..tion had been tint made to the king, or, in his absence, to the chief justice. 4. Laymen were not to be indictcHl in a bishop's court, either for perjury or other similar offence, except in the bishop s pres- ence by a lawful prosecutor and with lawful witnesses. If the accused was of so high rank that r.n prosecutor wt/uld atpcnr, the bishop might require the sherilf to call a Jury to inquu^ into th" case. 9. Aicbbishop- jiahopa, and otiier gnat persons were forbidiii n to have tin- realm without the king's permissiou. 0. Ai)|>eals«ere to be from the arcudeacon to the bishop, from the bishop to the archbishop, from the arclibislinp to the king, and no further; that, bj the niug s mandate, the case might lie ended in the arch- bLshops court. The last article the king after- wards explained away. It wus one of the most essi'ntial, but he wus unable lO maintain it : and he was rash, or he was ill-advised, in raising u second question, on which the pope would natu- rally be sensitive, before he had disposed of the first." — J. A. Froude. Life anil Titmnf Duktt pp. 31-33.— Sec Enola>d; A. D. 1102-1170. CONSTITUTIONS, Roman Imperial, t . Couns Jtnis Civilis. CONSTITUTIONAL UNION PARTY, The. See Csited St.vte8 of Am. ; A. 1). ItJOO (ApiiiL— November). CONSUL, Roman.— ^Vhen t'le Romans had rid themselves of thiir kings and establishtHl a republic, or, rather, an aristocratic government, "the civil duties of the king were given to two magistrates, chosen for a year, who were at first called 'pratores' or ge'nerals. 'judices" or judges, or consules (cf. con ' together ' and salio ■ to leap ') or ' colleagues. ' In the matter of their f)ower, no violent deiiarture was made from the mperiumof the king. The greatest lindtalion on the consuls was the short period for which they were at the head of the state; but even liere the" were tli.mght of, by a fiction, as voluntarily abdicating at the expiration of their term, and as nominating their succes.sors, although they were required to nominate the men who had already been selected in the 'comitiacentuiiata. ' Another limitation was the result of the dual character of the magistracy. The imperium was not divided between the consuls, but each possessed it a full, as the king had before. When, thcrcf e, they did not agree, the veto of the one prev <id over the proposal of the other, and there w .. no 633 CONSUL. CONVOCATION. ! i ! •Ptlon."— A. Tighe, Detelopment of the Roman (hint., eh. 4. — "A» Judges, the consulii occupied altogether the place of the kings. They decided the legal disputes of the citizens either personally or by deputy. Their criminal Jurisdiction was probably limited to the most important coses. ... In the warlike state of the Romans tlie military character of the consuls was no doubt most prominent and most Important. When the consul le<l the army into the field he possessed the unlimited military power of the kings (the i-nperium). He was entrusteil with the direction of the war, the distribution of the booty, and the first disposal of the conquered land. . . . The oldest designation for the consids, therefore, was derived from their military ()uality, for they were (.ailed pnet^irs. that is, commanders. It was, how- ever, precisely in war that the division of power among two colleagues must often have proved prejudicial . . . and tlie necessity of unity in the direction of affairs was felt to lie indispensable. The dictatorship served this purpose. By decree of the senate one of the consuls could lie charged with naming a dictator for six months, ana in this offlcer the full power of the king was re- vive<l for a limite<{ period. The dictatorship was a formal suspension of the constitution of the republic. . . . Military was substituted for common law, and Rome, during the time of the dictatorship, was in a state of siege." — W. Ihne, Hint, of Kumf. At. 2, rh. 1, and bk. 6, 'A. S-5.— In the later years of the Roman empire, "two consuls were created by the sovereigns of Rome and Constantinople for the sole purpose of giving a date to the year and a festival to the people. But the expenses of this festival, in which the wealthy and the vaiu a»pire<i to surpass their predecessors, insensibly anise lo the enornioiii sum of four score thousand pounds; the wisest Knators derlinol a useless honour which in- volvetl the certain ruin of their families, and to this ri'lurtance I should Impute the frequent chasms in the last age of the consular Fasti. . . . The succession of consuls finally ceas<Kl In the lhirte«'nth year of Justinian [A.D. 5411 whose destKitic temper miitlit lie gratified by the final extinction of a title which admonisheil the Romans >if theirancient freedom. Yet the annual consulship still lived in the iiilmis of the people; tliev fondly expe<'ted its speedy reslomtion , . . an<l three centuries elapsed after tlie death of Justinian before lliat olisolete dignity, which had lieen suppressed by custom, cmild tie alKilished by law. The imperfect moile of dls- tinguisliing each year by the name of a magistrate was usefully supplleil by the dale of a permanent era. "— E. Uiblion, Ikrti'iif nnd hMUnflhr Itimuin Unifrire. rh. 40.— "There were no consuls in Ml and Xn. The Emperor held the oltlce alone In ."MM, and with a colleague in SiU. Bt'lisarius was sole iiiiisul In .W.T The two following years, hav. ing no consuls of their own. were sItTikI the First and .'v-cond after the Consulship of Ik'lisarius. John of Cappadocia gave his name to the ytar .1«H, and the years .■«» and MO had again consuls, though one only for each year. In .%4l Albinus Tiaslllus sat in the curiile chair, and lie was prac. ticall) the last of the long list of warriors, oraton. ilemairoguea, courthrs, which liegan (in the year R. C. ) with the names of Lucius Junius .VW iirutus and Luciiii inriuiniUH (v.tiitttiius. Ail the rest i.f tlic years of Justinian, twenty four in number, wer« rvckuoed «« F»«t Cousulatum BMllil."— T. Hodgkin, liali/ and Her lumikr, bk. S, eh. 14.— See. alio, Rome: B. C. S09 CONSULAR TRIBUNES, Raman!- Tlie plebeiani of Rome having demanded admissiciu for their order to the coniulship, a compnimiw wBi arranged, B. C. 444, which scttkil tlmt thereafter, "the people ihould t)c free to eleoi either consul* — that ii, patricians accunling tn the old law — or in their place other officers under the title of 'militarr tribunes with consular power,' constating of patricians and plelielaiis. . . . It l( not reported in what respect the iiffirmi competency of the consular tribunes was to differ from that of the consuls. Still, so muck is plain, that the difference consisted not alone in name! The number of the consular tribunes was in tlie beginning fixed at three." — W. Ihne, Ilitt .Y Rmu, bk. a, eh. 11. CONSULATE GOVERNMENT OF FRANCE, Th«. See France: A. D. 17W (November— Dbckmbcb). CONTINENTAL ARMY.-" The Con- tinentals " of the American Rerolutioa, Se UsrrBD States of Am. : A. D. 177.5 (M.»v- AUOl'BT). CONTINENTAL CURRENCY, The, $(e Cnited States or Am. : A. D. t7S0 (JA.NtAKT— April). CONTINENTAL SYSTEM OF NAPO- LEON, The. SeeFRAKCE: A. D. IWIl-IMK!, ami 1806-1810. CONTIONES, OR CONCIONES.-The contiones, or conciones, at liome. were nsseinhlics of the people, "less formal than the lomiiia." held for the mere purpose of discussini; pulilic questinns. and incapable of passing nuv liindim; resolui: 'I "They could not lie ciilleil tll^'l■tllrr by any iKKly except the magistrates, mithirlud every man the liberty of speaking in ihim, of making proposals or of declaring his opininn; . . . but even in this limited manner pulilic questions could be di*cus*e<l ami the peciplc could be enlightene<l. . . . The custom of dk. cussing public questions in the contiomit Ucame general after the cumltia of the triliea hai! obtained full legislative competency "—W. lime. //<■»<. (/ Rome.bk. 8, eh. 1.— See, also, CdsiiTU CrRIATA. CONTRABANDS.— In the early part of the American civil war of 1861-4H, escaiml jlsvej were called contrabands, fleiieral HuiIit havim declared them to oe " coDtrahniui uf «iir. ' n^ Cnitkii States or \h : \. D l^'il Mwi CONTRACT-LABOR LAW. Sr Imhi OHATION. CONTRBRAS, BatUe of. See Mexico: A. I). 1847 (March— SKrTEMiiKR). CONVENT. See Monasti iiv. CONVENTICLE ACT, The. Se Kn. land: a. n. 1M3-1MV CONVENTION, The French National, of the freat Rerelution. See Fkanck a !• i:»J (.VrorsT), and 1799 (SRPTEmiKii— Ncukmiikk . to 17»S (OCTORIR— D(CRIinKII). CONVOCATION.-Thr aasrmbllis of !be clergy In the two rTclesiaallcal prnvimi* of England are calle<l the ConviKatloii nf Csnler bury and the Convocation of York. The forrair, which is the superior Nidy, frequently nwlves the name of Convocation, simply. Itis c<in«li iuied uiMiu tile niiaiei of Parliaimni. uii'i is. iii fact, the Parliament of tlie Church of Knitlaad It has two Houses: the upper one cuiuistinK <>( C34 CONVOCATION. CORINTH. tbe Arcbbiabop and hii BUbopa; the lower OM compoKd of deani, archdeacons and procton^ representing the Inferior clergy. The Convoca- tion of York has but one House. Since 1718 CooToration hasponeued slight powers. CONWAY CABAL. The. See CnmB States of Asi. : A. D. 1777-1778. COOK'S ISLANDS. See Poltnksia. COOMASSIE, BumioK ot, See England: A D. IH-3-1880. COOPERATION. See Social MovBxcim. COPAIC REEDS. SeeBocoTiA. COPAN, Ruins oC See American Abori- 8IXES : Mat AS ; and Mexico, Ancient. COPEHAN FAMILY, The. See Ameri- ca!! .Vborioises : Copkhan Family. COPENHAGEN : A. D. 1363.— Taken and pillsged by the Haasaatic Learne. See Scan- DiXAViAS States: A. D. 1018-1897. A. D. 1658-1660.— Swedish siecet. See Scandinavian States (Swedbn) : A. D. 1644- 1W7. A. 0. 1700.— SmrcjdcrtoCharles XII. See StAMUNAViAN States: A. D. 1687-1 ;w. A. D. 1801.— Bombardment by the EnKlith Icet. 8« France : A. D. 1801-1802. A. D. 1807.— Bombardment of the citj by the English.— Seizure of the fleet. See Scah- DiSAViAN States : A. D. 1807-1810. COPPERHEADS.— Durini; the American Civil Wsr. the Dprnocratic Party in the Xorth- trn States "comprised two well-recognized cl««»ii! The Ami' War (or Peacet Dcmucrsts, commiiiilv called ' Copperbewls, ' who srmpa- ihiiKl with the liebcllion, and opposed the War for the I'nion ; and the War (or Union) Demo- emu. who favored a vigorous pruaerution of the War for the preservation of the Tnion." — J. A. Logan, T>ie Ureal Ci>n*i>iraey, p. 674, foof-n<ite. Sot, h1«), Udited States or Am.: A. D. 1864 (OrroBEii). COPREDY BRIDGE, Battle of. SeeENo- USD: .V D. 1644 (Jam-aht— Jri.T). COPTOS.— DestroTcd by Dioclttlu. See Alixaxdria : A. D. 896. COPTS, The.— The descendanU of the an- cient Eii.vptiau race, who form to this day the larpT ivirt of the population of Egypt. See EotfT: Oriain or THE Ancient People. COPYRIGHT. See Law. Common: A. D. IIKB: mill Law, E<jI'ity: A. D. 1875. COR, The. See Ephah. CORCYRA. See Koretra. COR DAY, Charlotte, and tha assastina- tiSB of Marat. See France : A. I). i;9«(,Tilv). CORDELIERS. See .Mendicant (»ri.ek». CORDELIERS, Club of tha. SeeFuAME: K 1) ITHO, CORDOVA (Spain): A.D. 7lt.-Snrrender to tks Arab-Moors. SeeSPAiN: A l» Tll-Tl.l A D. 756.1031.-The Caliphate at. sec HAmi)lr.TANCoNV|DKSTANuEMPIIIK: A. I) 7.")6- ll«l. AD.ia]s.-CaptBrabytha KlnrefCastite. ewJiPAiN; A. 1). I»ia-t488 CORDOVA (Mesico), Treaty of. S« .Mex- l<" \ I) 1H3II-181KI, CORDYENE. s.^ Qordtene. COREA. «-!■ KottCA COREISH, KORBISH. See .Mahometan u>li((i tsT A.10 Empikb : A. O. SOIMIS'il. COREY, Martha and Giles, The execution for witchcraft oC See Massachusetts: A. D. 1692. CORFINIUM, Catar'a Captnre of. See Rome: B. C. 80-49. CORFU, Ancient. See Kobetba. A. D. i3i6-i88o.— Sine* the tall of the Greek Empire.— Corfu was won bv the Venetians in the early years of the Lat{n conquest of the Greek empire (1216), but was presently lost, to cumc back again into the poawssion of the re- nublic 170 years Uter. " No part of Greece haa been so often cutoff from the Greek body. Under Prrrhos and Agathoklta, no less than under Slichael Angelos and Roger, it obeyed an Epelrot or Sicilian master. . . . At last, after yet another tujnof Sicilian rule. It passed for 400 years [1886- 1797] to the great commonwealth [of Venice]. In our own day Corfu was not added to free Greece till long after the deliverance of Attica and Peloponntsos. But, under so many changes of foreign masters, the island has always re- mained part of Europe and of Christendom Alone among the Greek lands, Corfu has never passed under barbarian rule. It has seen the Turk only, for one moment, as an invader [see TtTBKs: A. D. 1714-1718], for another moment as a nominal overlord."— E. A. Freemau, //»'«- torieai Otog. of Buropt. p. 408.— See Iohlan Isl- ands: To 1814. CORINIUM.— A Roman city in Britain, on the site of which Is the modem city of Cirences- ter. Some of the richest mosaic pavements found in England have been uncovered there.- T. Wrieht. Celt, Soman and Saxon, eh. 8. CORINTH.— Corinth, the chief city and state, in ancient times, of the narrow isthmus which connects Peloponnesus with northern Greece, ■ ' owed everything to her situation. The double sea by the isthmus, the confluence of the high road of the whole of Hellas, the rocky citadel towering aloft over land and sea, through which rushed — or around which flowed — an abundance of springs; all these formed so extraordinary a commixture of advantages, that, if the intercourse with other countries remained undisturbed, they could not but call forth an important city. As In Argolis, so on the Isthmus also, other besides Dorian families bad in the days of the migmtion helped to found the new state. ... By the side of the Darian, five non-Dorian tribes existe<l in Corinth, attesting the multitude and variety of population, which were kept together as one slate by the royal power of the Hersclids. sup- ported by the armed force of the Dorians. In the ninth century [H. C.) the royal power passed into the hands 01 a branch of the iJeracliilie de- riving its descent from Bacchis [one of the earliest of the kings] : and It was In the extraordinary genius of this royal line that the greatness of the city originated. The Bacchiads opened the city to the immigration of the industrious settlers who bopetl to make tlirtr fortunes more speedily than elsewhere at this meeting pointof all Greek high- romls of commerce. Tney cherished and ad- vanced every Invention of importance. . . . They tiHtk commerce into their own hands, and es- talilished the tramway on the Isthmus, along which ships were, on rollers, transported from -t... g-.;'f ;.-. t»„= .-.shsr XhrJ f-'QVcrtcd the gulf which had hitherto taken Its name from Crisa Into tbc Corintfaiaa. and saeurad Its bhtow 635 ■It COMNTH. blet bv means of the foitifled place of Molycria. . . . They continued their aarance along the coaat and occupied the moat important points on the Achclous."— E. Curtius, l/itt. of Grtfee, bk. i. eh. 1 — Sfe, also, Traue- Ancik.nt. CORINTH. lation within and without the Peloponnet conununicated with each other more in aom times by land across the isthmus than by m But when the Hellenes became mnre practued navigation, the Corinthians with their sliips n B.C. 745-735. — Cenatitntional RcTolutioo. j down piracy and establbhed marts outothsidi —End of Monarchj. — The prjtancs.— Com- and tlirough this influx of riches tlieir city mcrcial progress. — A violent contention whicii Hrose between two branches of the Bacchiadie " no doubt gave the nobles of Corintli power and opportunity to end the struggle by a iliange in the constitution, and by the discontinuance of the monarchy; this occurred in the year 745 B. C, lifter eig'lit generations of kings. . . . Yet the place at the hend of the commonwealth wa:) not to be entirely taken away from the ancient royal linuse. A presiding chief (a prTtanis), newly electeil each year by the whole nobilitv from tlie memlK'rs of the royal rait-, washenceforwanl to conduct the government 'see Prytakis]. It was n peculiar arrangement which this chaiigi' iutro- duceil into Corinth. We may assume that the sovereignty was transferroii to the nolili.s col- lectively, or to their rtpresi'ntative. Thi.s repre- sentation seems to have been so regulated that each of the eight tribes sent an equal nunilHT of members to tlie Oerousia, i. e. the council of elders. . . . But the Urst of these eight trilK's, to which belonj^ed the royal family, was iirivi- leged. From it was chosen the head of the state, an otlice for which only a Bacchiad waH eligible — that is, only a memU-r of the old myal house, wliieh tiH>k the foremost place in the first tribe. This rian of the BHCchladtt; is miid to have contaluwi 800 men. 'They were numemin and wealthy,' says Straljo. Accimlingly the royal house (iid not exclusively retain the flrst rank in tlie state, but only in conjjni-tion with the families conneeted with it by kiiiiireti and r.ivv. . . . The new constitution (if Corinth, the government by nobles, under the dynastic presi- dency of one "family, liecamc a tvpe for other cantons. It was a Corinthian of tlie Bacchhids who, twenty or thirty years after the intnxluc- tiou of tiie prytanes, regulated the oligarehy of the Thebaus and gave them laws (aliout 72,1 B. C. ) . . . The fall of the monarchy in Corinth at Urst brought with it disastrous consequenri* for the [Kiwer and pn-stigc of tlic rommonwealtli. The communities of the Megarians — either lie- cause the new government made inereaiM'd ile- mauds u|)on them, or liecaiise they iimsidered their allegiance hail ceased with the res.>utlon of iimnarchy, and tliought the moment was favour- able — desertnl Corinth and asserted their free- dom. The five communities on the isthmus unitdl together around the territory of Megara, lying in the plain by the Saronic Gulf, when the majority of the lioric tribes bad lettled; the city of Megara. in the vicinity of two ancient fortreaaca . . . became the chief centre f the communities, ni'w associated in one c inon- wealth. . , . The important progress of > rinth under the prytany of the BaccbiailB w >'• not due to successes up<m the mainland, hut in an- other sphere For navigathm and commeree no canton in Hellas was more favourably sltuatiil I.yinT on tlie neck of the Isthmus, it extended from sea to sea. an advantageous position which hwi indeed first attracted the Phonlciana thither in ancient times. . . . Corinth, aays Thucjr- dkieii. was aiwayn from liir first a rrntrs of coauwrtx, and abouutlwl In wmUUi : (ur Um popu- came very powerful." — M. Duueker, Uitt Ureref, bk. 3, eh. 3 (r. 8). B. C. 509-506.— Opposition to the desire Sparta to restore tyrannj at Athens. S Athens: B. C. SOO-flOiS. B. C. 481-479. — Conrreia and orgaoixi Hellenic union against Persia. .See Ukeeci n. C. •t.'<l-47H. B. C. 458-456.— Alliance with iEgina in ui successful war with Athens and Megara. S Urkeie: li. C. 4.W-t56. B. C. 440.— Opposition to Spartan interf« ence with Athens in Samos. .s-c Atu£.\ B. C. 440-4:17. B. C. 435-432.— Quarrel with Korkyra.-li terference of Athens. — Events leading to tl Peloponnesian War. t$ee Queeck : 1! c 4;;: 43'J. B. C. 43a.— Great sea-fi|^ht with the Ko krrians and Athenians. tM'e GiitErE: li ( 432. B. C. 439-^37.— The Peloponnesian Wsi aea-fights and defeats. — Fruitless aid to tl Mitylenseans. SecUiiF.ECE: II ( '. 4'^'.M'.>: B. C. 431.— Opposition to the Peace of Nii ias. See (Ihekck: B. C. 4il-llH. B. C. 415-413.- Help to Syracuse agsiai the Athenians. %w Syracisk: li. C 4i:>-41 B. C. 395-387. —Confederacy against Sptni —The Corinthian War.— Battle on the Ni mea.— The Peace of Antalcidas. N c (iiiEui 11. C. 399-JW7. B. C. 368-365.- Attempt of Epaminondul surprise the city. — Attempt of the Atbeniu NeOltEKlK: B. C. 371-;l«J B. C. 337.— Congress of Creek states ton knowledge the hegemony of Philip of Mati don. Se CtRKKCE : B. C. 3.".T-;WI1 B. C. 344.— Capture by Antigonus Gonaiu king of Maccdon. See Ma> i.honu. .V> : B t a77-'.'44 B. C. 343-146.— In the Achaian Lea|o 8«'.OnEF.CE; B. C. '.'NO-llB B. C. 146.— Sack by the Romasi. S OliEKiE: B. C. 2H(t 14fl B. C. 44.— Restoration by Cesar.- "1 the desolate land of (JnciT. ('n'«.ir. l»'«idi'» dlbi plans. . . . busied himself nlmvc all with II restoration of Corinth. X"t only »»» s M siilerablc burgess colony enniluclnl Ilcitliir, bi a plan was projected for eultiiii; thnu^h ti isthmus, so as to avolii the <l;oiK'>'rtiiiii cinui navigation of the PelopimneMiit ami to mat the whole traffic Iwtween luilv ami .^'Is P* throtiirh the Corlntho Sanmle itulf."— T Momn sen. Hill. </ /*<w, hk \th. 1 1 - " Ciesar ienl I Corinth a large numlM'r of freedmen. nml oil" settlers Were' afterwartls si-nl by .Vupntun. In It is certain that many (Jrerks c.imv to ll<» I the new t.'orluth, for "it became a (inik t"»i Corinth was a mass of ruins wtirn the new tr tiers came, and while they were n in..vliiy ll rubblsli, they grubbed up llu' Iniri^il pl»i<' where they found a great numtur of iMirtbi Agurm and kruuiie urns, wiiiiii lii'V ►!■: : a hifil price and filled Rome will then - 630 CORmTH. CORPUS JintlS CIVILI8. 0. Long, Dtilint (^tkt Raman StpuiUe, t. S, eh. H.—" Corinth tapldly rote under these auipicei, became a centre of commerce and art, and took the lead amunc the cittea of European Hellas. Here wu established the seat of the Roman government of Achala, and its population, though the representations we have recelTed of it are extravagant, undoubtedly exceeded that of any Grecian rival."— C. Merivale, Hit. oftht Bmani. eh. 40. A. D. 167.— Ravaftd by the Goths. See Goths: A. D. 25S-287. A. O. 39c— PInndtrcd by the Goths. See GoTire: A. D. 895. A. D. 1 146.— Sacked by the Nomans of Sicily.— Abdnction of silk weavers. See BiiA.NTi.NE Empirk: a. D. 1146. A. D. 1445.— Destruction by the Tnrka.— The fortifications of the isthmus of Corinth were itoniu'd and the Pelopomiesus invaded by Amunith 11. in 144JS. -Corinth itself, a city laoctilied by its antiquity, by Its sods, by its aU. by the beauty of iu women, bv Its foun- tains, its cypreaaea, its very ruins themselves, whence its unrivalled situation tiad always re- iton'd it. fell anew, buried In its flames, by the bands of Touraklian, that ancient and ambitious rizier of Amurath. Its flames were seen from Albt'Ds, from ..Cvina, from Lepanto, from Cy- tbriva. from Piuilus. The Inhabitants, aa also tliciM.' of Ptttras, were led Into slavery In Asia, to tlie nunilM^r of 60,000."— A. Lamartine, But. of Turk^, l>k. 11, tet. 10. A. 0. 1463-1464.— Unsucctssful sieceby th« Venetians.— Fortification of the Isthmus. See Gbekik: a. D. 14,'»-U79. A. D. 1687.— Taken by the Venetians. See TlHKs: A. U. 16»4-1696, A. D. iSaa.— Revolt, sicn and capture by the Turks. SceaHCEcK: A. D. 1831-1H29. CORINTH, Miss., Siere and Battle. See TxiTKU Statkb or Am.; A. 1). 1883 (.\.pril — May: Tennebske — Miniikkippi), and (Skptkm- BtR— (hTOUKR: MlKSIMIPPI). CORINTH CANAL, The.— "On Sunday [Aut'iist «. ISBS) the canal acnms the Isthmus of ("rin'li — (projected by Ciesar — see Rome: B ('. ^^A^] begun by .\er<i, and completed. mnrly S.IHW yciini laU'r, by a Orifk engineer. M. Mat>as — WHS opt'nr<l by the King of Greece, villi sUaniiHl through the canal In his vaciit. HT'inipftniol by a pmoesslon consisting a\ four timk lorpcilo- boats and other vessels. Including ilirir Enirliah men-of-war and an Kngllsh i\n- ['all lituwi. The canal . . . will Ik- prncticable f'Tnll liiit the largest vessels."— TAn Hinttatur, .4'.'; Vl is|m. CORINTHIAN TALENT. S.-e Talent. CORINTHIAN WAR. The, 8e« Greece: B (' :imi ;in7. CORIONDI, The. See Ireland. Trires or CORITANI. OR CORITAVI.-A British trill. «hirh <ic<Miplc<l the lower valley of the Tmh Hiiil Its vicinity. See Britain, Celtic TiiinK« CORN LAWS (EocUsb) aad thalr repeal. S' TmiKr I.WIIBLATIIIN (Enoland): a. I). lM!-,.w.,w ..j:.fi_.H.»9; tH4»; ^y,.\ 5«4,viS4§ CORNABII, OR CORNAVII, The.-An uiiUul Urilish tribe which dwell near the mouths 63; of the Dee and the Mersey. See Britain. C«li TIC Tribes ^— *■ CORNELL UNIVERSITY. See Educa Tios^ Modern: America; A. D. 1868-1886. CORNWALL, Duchy of.— M illiam the Con- queror gave to his brother Robert almost the whole shire of Cornwall, out of which, says Mr Freeman, "arose that groat Earldom, and after wards Duchy, of Cornwall, which was deemed too poweriul to be trusted In the hands of any but men closely akin to the royal house, and the remains of which have for ages formed the appanage of the heir-apparent to the Crown." — See, also, Wales, Prince of. ,.f °'*A^^^^'S, Chares. Lord.-In the War of the American Revolution. See United States or Am. : A. D. 1776 (Acoust), (Septem- FSi"*^**^"""""' : 1**> (Pebruahv— AuocsT)- 1780-1781 : 1781 (Janiaby-Mat) ; 17»l (Mat- October) Indian administration. See India : A. D. 1785-1793 Irish administra- tion. See Ireland: A. D. 1798-1800. CORON, Battle of (B. C. aSi). See IUcb- DONIA, &c. : B. C. 297-280. CORONADO, Expedition of. See Ameri- can Abobioines : PUEIII.OS. CORONATION.— The royal consecration in Its most perfect form included both corona- tion and unction. The wearing of a crown was a most ancient sipi of royalty. Into the origin of which It is uscliss now to inquire: but the wilemn rite of crowning was borrowcil from the Old Testament liy the Byzantine Ca'sam; the second Theodosius was the flrst emperor crownwl with religious ceriMnoiiies In Christian times. The introduction of the rite of anointing is lesa certainly asrertaiiied. It did not always accom- |j«ny coronation."— W. Stubbs. Comt. JJc^l. 0/ Eng.. (h. 6, tet. 60. CORONATION STONE. See Scotl.and : 8t« ^th CENTrRiEs ; also, Lia Fail. CORONEIA, Battles of (B. C. 447 and B. C. 394). Kec Ghkkce : B. C. 449-445 ; and B. C. CORONER. See Law, Criminal : A. D. 121S ami 1276. CORPS DE BELGIQUE. See Unitu States OK Am.: A. D 18H4 |0( tohkh). CORPUS JURIS CIVILIS, The.— "The Corpus Juris Civijis repn^wnis the Roman law in the form which it assnnuil at the close of the ancient |)eriod (a tliousiinil years after the di'ceniviral legislation of the Twelve Tables), and through which inaiulv it has acted upon nuxlem times. It was coniplliil In the Kastcrn liiiman Empire ithc Westirn ccasiil in 470 A. P.) under the Em|H'ror Justinian. . . . who reigned 527- 565 \. I). The (ilan of tlie work, as Isid out by [his gtcHt Inwnunlster] Trilwnian, included two jirinclpHl parts, to Ik! made from the constitu- tions of till' Koiiinn eniiH'mrs, and from the In-allsis of the Koinaii lawyers. The 'iHinstltu- lloms' ilaw iiiteranirs) of the emperors consisted of— I. 'OMlli.ms.' proiwisiils of law, subiiitted to anil lulopliil by the Si'imte : 2. 'Edicts,' laws Issiii'il illn'clly liy the em|>eror as head of the stale; 'i. 'MsmlnU,' Instructions aililressed by the tiniieror to high orticvrs of law and justice; 4. ' IK'cri'ia.' de<'i«liins given by the emperor in case, iimuf ht before him by gppeni of olherwiw ; 5. 'H.- 'ipta.' answers returned by the emperor when t^ ..lultcd on i|ucstions of law by partlN la CORPUS JURIS CIVILIS. • toit or by nagiitntat. . . . Three or four eol- leettoni bad uStiAj been made. In which the moat important conatitutiona were aelected from the maaa, preaented in a condenied form, and arranged according to their lubiecta. The laat and moat elaborate of theie collections was the Tlieodosian Code, compiled about a century before the acceision of Juitinian; it ii still in great part extant . . . The new Codex Con- stitutlonem, prepared in little more than a year, was published In April. 529. The next work was to digest the treatises of the most eminent law writers. Thirty-nine were selected, nearly all of whom lived between 100 B. C. and 2S0 A. D. Their books (2.000 in number) were divided among a body of collaborators (sixteen besides Tribonlan), each of whom from the books assigned to him extracted what he thought proper . . . and putting the extracts (0,000 in all) under an arranged series of heads. . . . The Digest — or Pandects (all-receiving), as it is also called from the multiplicity of its sources — was issued with authority of law, in December. S33. . . . While the Digest or Pandects forms much the Urgest fraction of the Corpus Juris, its relative value and importance arc far more than pmportiunate to its extent The Digest is, in fact, the soul of the Corpus. ... To bring the Codex Constitutionem into better conformity with the Digest, it was revise<l in 534 and issueil as we now liave it in Novcmiier of tlmt year. . . . The Corpus Juris includes also an elemen- tary text-book, the Institutiones (foun<le<l on the ' institutiones ' of Oaius, whn nourished about 150). . . . The Institutes, Digest and Cinlex were given, as a t-oniplete Inxly of law. to the law wIioiiIb at Constantinople. |{<>me. Berytus. Alexandria. CnsareA, to Ik* stiiilieil in their' Ure year*' ciirrtoulum. In the courts it was to super- seile all carliur authorities. . . . Later statutes of JuHtinian. arrnuKeti in onler of time, form the Novels (novellae constitutlone," most of tlirm in Greek), ttie last component of the Corpus Juris." — .1. Ilmlley. Int. ^' Hixruin hiif, lift. 1. Ai.sii IS :' J. E. (loudHinit. The PmiiltfU. CORRECIDOR. l^tte .Vi.rALUE. CORSICA: Early history.— " The original inhabitants of Corsiea are ~iippo«i-il to Tiave been Ligurians. but at a very early p< nml the people luiil eoinmerrlKl Intercoiirsewitli Spain, loniaaiiil Tu»'any. The Island wassulMiiiicntlv Hcruplinl liy IIk ('artliaginiaiis. who. Ii.nvevef, were eX|H'lled liy the Itomaiis iliirinir Hie Hrst Puiilo war. A few years later Corsliii came under the dominion of Itiine, and that sway whs nominally mainiainiii until the ilownfall iif the Empire. It tlien fell uniler the dominion of the Vandals, and aft<-r their expul«i<in oniiril nuc- ceasively the rule of the (iotlin. the Saracens and the Pisans, and finally of the Oinoew. It caim- into the ixisaession of the latter |H'ople In tin- year 1120. I'Isa sulMHtiuently imule several attempts to drive out lier rivals, but thev wen; in the end void of results. Hut In \i*H, thnoa. bavins '<ustainiKl great l(Mses in the constant wars fn which she was engagcti, wa.s induuti to surrender the ailminlstration of Corsica and uf her colonliit In the Levant to a corporation known as the liimk of St Oeorge. PVom that time the Island was ailministennl hy governors appointml by tlie liank of St (Jeorire. almost preclselv in the manner in which, in l^nglancl. up to isav.'the East Indies were ailministere<l by an 'imperlum CORSICA. to impeik).'"— O. B. Malleaon, «tirfi>. ft— Otnom mioij, eA. S. A. D. iS5t-tS59.— Rarelt aninat the Gtao- •M rait, and rc-anbjtetiea. See Okroa: a D lSa8-lSS»; and FlUIICC: A. D. 1547-1559 A. D. 1730-1769.— Th* Strarele for inde- pmdenct.— ReouuiM of Kin^ Theodore — Til* PaoIU.— CcMioo to Prance.— The revolt of 1558 was renewed in 1584, but ended in IHT upon the death of its leader, Sampiero. For the next century and a half, Corsica remained in- actiT<); " depressed and miserable under renewed Genoese exactions and tyrannies, but too exhausted to resume hostilities. In 1729. how- ever, fighting again broke out, suddenly rouied by one of the many private wrongs then pressing upon the lower ordera, and the rebellion loon spread over the whole island. It was well ori^n- Ized under two leaders of energy and ability and was more determined in its measures thu ever. . . . Genoa had recourse to the emperor of Germany, from whom she bought several thou- fani. mercenaries, who were sent across the aea to try their skill upon these unconquerable islanders. . . . The courage and chivalry of his insular foes . . . won for them the regard of the opposing General Wachtendonk: and, ehieflr through his mediation, a treaty, supposed to be favourable to the islanders, was nmduilcd Itetween Genoa and the Cortc Icfe-ialative ssserably in 1732. Wachtcndonk remained in the island another year to see the treaty carried nut, and in June, 1734, the German general returned to tiig own country. . . . But he had scarcely retited before the treaty was broken. Oenoa be^ anew her system of illegal arri'sts ami atlempied assassinations ; and, once more, the pinpk' arine under Hyacinth Paoli, an obscure nalivi' of the little village of Morosaglia, hut a man <if spirit and talent, and a scholar. Under the dimtion of tids man, and of Oiaiferi, his ( cilUanue. a democratic constitution, in tlie hiRhist ilmnt prudent and practical, was framed for tb« Coreican people. . . . Early in the next year occurred a .'ranjte and n)nisntir iidventuiip in this aiiveutureiul country. A man. h.ind«)r anil welKlresseii, surrounded hv ohHiiuious courtiera. and attended hy everv luxury. Ijiii.li'd in the island fn>m a veswd well fiirni'<lji'd with gold, ammunition, and arms Tliis ni;in whs > German ativenturer, llan^n Tlninlori' vmi Ni-u- hoff, who, after a romantie youth, hwl smldinly ctmeeived a desire to iH-come kin;: uf (■-ir*ii.^ He was a man of great talent and \« rv imI fascination, of gooil judgment, and cntlMi^i.utic disposition. He had fallen in hm- wiili the hravi'ry and determination of the (ursicniis. iiud longed ^) head smh a nation. He h:iil put him- self into communii ation with t<'e lendini; i«l;iml ers ; and. having really some llltu iulluriiivsi the continental courts, penuadeil thei.i lliat lie hml much more. He olTered to oliinin sutl^ assistance from foreign ixdentales. liy lii» |"' suasions, as shoiihl eneetiially oukI liie (ii-ii'ife. and. In return. rei|iiest4sl ilie' crown of Corsii-a. His geniuM and liisentliusissin wen- Mi;,'ri-.tl. afiil his promiws *o ds«r.ljng. that, aftir some Invi- tation, the jMior I'onii-ans, in tin Ir di»|'iir. seiied up<m this last strawy and In M.in h. IMO. Theodore was c^>wnl•d king. His cm rii»ns fnr the good of this country were uiilirim: lie •tiabllsbed manufactun's and pMinoted wiiti ail hto power art and commerce, at ilie muic liaie 638 CORSICA. that, with all the force of hb genloi, he endesTound to penuade foreign power* to lend tbeir asitetaooe to his new lubjecta In the Beld. Hii ityle of liTins meanwhile waa regal and iumptuoui. . . . Towanla the concluaion of his lint year of loTereigiitr, Theodore left Corsica on 1 continental tour, with the avowed object of hatteningtlie promiaed auccour. In two years be returned, bringing with him three large and several smaller war vesaels, handaomely laden with ammunition, which had actually been raised by means of his tclcnts and persuasive faculties, chiefly amongst .e Dutch. But, mcanvliile, tl.'; Corslcans had had ether affairs to which to stteud. France had interfered at le re- quest of Genoa; and negotiations were naively going on, which the arrival of the pseudo-king coulj only interrupt T'.teodore, althougli now K well attended, found himself unheolcd ana disregaifded; and after a few months was forced to leave his new Icingdom to its fate, and to return to the continent. Five years later, in 1743. he again returned, again well equipped, thistim'- with English vessels, but with the same ill succt- . Convmceci now that his chance was over and his dream of royalty <li -troyed, Theo- dore retnned to England wi' i sore heart, •pendinjr liis remaining years ii, .s asylum for dethmniil kings and ruined an irurers. His tomb may be seen in Wcstminsttr Abbey, For thenexi live and twenty years the war continued between Corsica and Genoa, still fought out on the blood deluged i)la ns of the unhappy little island. But the republic of Genoa was now long past her prime, and her energies T-ere fading Into ienility ; and, bad it not been for the ever- incn'asiiii; assistance of France, her intrepid foes »ould loujt ere this have got the better of her In M,iy. 176S. a treaty was signed between Of noii unii France, by which the republic ceded her ti.nv enfeebled claims on Corsica to her ally, »nd left her long-oppressed victim to light the contist nut with the French tnmps. During thii liine. Ilrst Oaffori, then Pasfjualc Paoll, werv the leaders cf the people. Gaffori, a man of refinement, and a hero of skill and intrepidity, was murdered in a vendetta in K.W, and in 1755 Pi*iuiile, youniest son of the old patriot Hyaemih Paoll, left his position as officer in the .Nf;i()«iiiiau service, and landed, bv the general drtire of his own people, at Aleria' to underuke thi' cimiraimd of the Corslcan ariny. . . . Fn)ni li84 to 1798 a truce was concluded between the ft** . . . In August, 17«S. the truce was to ni>ln\ iMit. before the appointed day had »mve,l, in army of 20,000 French sudUenly iwiiop.-<| down upon the luckles" island. , ., ft was a li.ip,l(SB struggle for forxica; but thi benium of the undi unted people movi,l ai Eun)pe to symimt'.j. , . , the Corslcans a. nw ^(it il,e iH't-er of their fonnldalde fcH', at the BrhU'e of Uolo, in the taking of llorgo, and In utber leaser oitions, , . Meanwhile, the cmintrv wm In-ing destroyed, and the troops w^'mmi; ixUamted. . . . Th. Ulile of I'onte Suor,,. ,m the 9th of May, 1789, at oiut- ami Wrevrr .iiiiiil.lUieil the torsican cause, Alter this victory, the French rapidly gained P"*^""- "f the whole island, and shortly afUT- wsnl«the»trii|fgle was atmndoned. . In tlu< an., y,,o. iTr.S, Xapolein Ituonaparte was l«)m tailH houij. <Hii of the Place du Man-he at ajscdo 1 was Uirii,' he said himself iu a CORTEa letter to Paoli, 'the year my country died. ' "'— O. Forde, A Ladi/'t Tour in Conica, r. 3 cA 18, Al:<o is : P. Fitzgerald, Kingtand Queen* of anllour, eh. l._ J. Boswell, Journal of a Tour to Corniea. A. D. i'rf4.-Conquett by the English. See France : A. D. 1794 (March-July) A. D. 1796.— Reoccupied by the French. BeeFuASCE: A. D 1796 (September). CORTENUOVA, Battle of (1236). See Itai.v: a. D. llKJ-li'SO. V o / ^o CORTEREALS, Voy.gei of the. See Amkkua : A. I), irm. aS?'?M.?^\?^'*''ANDO. See Mexico: A. D. 1519 to 1521-15a4. CORTES, The early Spanish.— The oli monarchical constitutions of Castile and Aragon.— "The earliest instance on record of popular representation in Castile occurred at Burgos, in 1189; nearly a century antecedent to the celebrated Leicester parliament. Esich city had but one vote, whatever might he the number pt its representatives. A much greater irregu- larity, in regard to the number of cities recuiFet. to send d»puties to cortes [the name signfying court ] on different occasions, prevailed n Cas- Ule, than had ever existed in England ; i .ough previously to the 15th century, this does not seem to have procee'ied from any design of in- fringing on the liL.rtics of the people The nominatior .f these was originally vested in the householders at Iprge, but was afterwanls con- Oned to the municipalities.— a most mischievous a teration. which f abjectcd theirelection eventu- ally to the corrupt iutiuence of the crown They assembled in the same che.mber with the higher oruers of the nobility and clergy, but on (lues- tions of moment, retired to deliberate by them- selves. After the transaction of other busiiess their own petitions were pre«-nted to the sover- eign, ami his assent gave them the validity of laws. The Castilion commons, by neglecting to make their money granU depend on corri'spond- ing concesshms from the crown, ' inuuisheii that powerful check on its operations so bene- flciolly cxertei! m the British parliam ,. but in vain contended for even there till a i.nich later iKTimI than that now under coiisi,|,.ratloH Whatever may have Ik>iu the rijrht f the no- bility ami eleri'v to attend in cortes, jieir sanc- tion was i.of deemeii essential to the valiilitv of legislative acts; for Mieir presence wa,< not e'ven roiiulrcd in many assemblies of the natiim which occurred in the 14ti. ami l.ltli crnturies. The extraordinary power thusconimituil to the com- mons mas. 11 the whole, uiifavoraldo to their liberties. It deprived lliem of tlie sympathy and cixiperalion of the gnat orders of the slate, whose aiitliorily alone could he . nabled them to with- stand thi' encroiK imentf 'litrary (lower, and who. in fait, did event, esert them in their utnuwi need . Tlie gonese cortes was comiKwd of four Imimhi ,. or arms; the ricos hoi ires, or tn at 'larons; the lesst-r nobles, com- prt'liemlini,' iIh- knights; the clergy; and the common- The nobility of every denomination were eiiiitliil to a wat in the legislature. The ricos honilTi » wi n- allowed to appear by proxy, und s ^i!n!lar privi'.e'.'e n ax en (ovit! h^'h^rnni'si heiri'sses. The niiin,«r of fhlslKKlv was very limited, twelve of them constlliiting a quorum. The arm of the ecclesiasllcs embraced an ample C30 CORTES. COUTES. delegation from the inferior as well u higher clergy. It ii affirmed not to hare \^ven a con:- ponunt of the national legislature until more il«>a a century and a half after the udinissio-.. of the commons. Indeed, the intluenoe of f.ie church was much less sensible in Aragon )jan in the other kingdoms of the Peninsula. . . . The com- mons enjoyed higher consideration and civil privileges. For this they were perhaps somt- wh : indebted to the example of their Catalan neighbors, the influ jnce of whose democra*'. in- stitutions naturall)' extended to other parts of the Aragonese monarchy. The charters of certain cities accorded to the inhabitants privileges of nobility, particularly that of immunity from taxation; while the magistrates of others were permitted to tak<' iheir seats in the order of hidalgos. From i very early periixi we find them e.nployeil in offices of public tr.ist, and on important missions. The epoch of their ailmis- sion into the national assembly is traced as far back as 1133, several years earlier than the com- mencement of popular representation in Custih. Each city liitd the right of sending two or more deputies selected from persons eligible to its maf;istracy ; but with the privilege of only one vote, whatever might be the numlMT of its depu- ties. Any place wnicV lad been oniie represented in cortes might alw,.js claim to 1m> s.. By a statute of 13()7, the convcwation of the states, which had iH-en annual, was declared biennial. The kings, however, paid little regard to thi"! pro\ision, rarely siiniinouine them e.\rept lor some specilie ijecessity. The great <aiccrs of the crown, whateviT might Ik- their pi'rsonal rank, were jealously cxiluileil fr.>m their delib- erations. ... It was in the ixiwer of any mem- iK'r to defeat lln' p:i«.sage of ii bill, by opposing ti> it his veto or dissent, formally regislerol to that effect. He niiiilit even interpose his nega- tive on the priiceediiiiis of the house, iiul thus put a stop to the prosi'eutiou of all further busi- ness during tlii' session. This anomalous privi- lege, trnnsceiidlng even that elaime<i in the Polish diet, must have iH'eii too invlilious in its excreis<', and too i«Tnieious in its consi'ciuences, to have lieen ofte: resorted to. This may be in- ferred fn>ni the fuet that it was not formally ri'- r.'aleil until the reign of Philip || . in l.TOJ, . . . The cortes exereiwd the hii;li<'st functions, whethe. of a delilK'rative, legislativr, or judieiid nature. It had a right to !h' coiiNiiliecf on all matters of importauee, espeeiallv on those of peace and war. No law was viiliil. ni> tax eoiilil be i,..l)osi li, without its ciui.wut ; and it earifully ])n)\ided for the appliontion of tin- revenue to its ilustined uses. It di terinined tlii' Murtssion to the crown. remove<l obno.xious niinislirs, ri'- fmmd the household and domestic exiH-nditure <if the monarch, and exertisiil the iiower, in the most unn^wrved manner, of witlilioldlng sup- plies, as Will as of resisting what it ngardeti a* an enepuiihinent on the lilHTIiis of the nation. . . . The statute-book aHimls the most uiuHjuivo- eal evlileiiiT of the tidelity with which the guaniiansof the realm diM-harired theliich trust ri'pivsed in them, in the niinienuiH enaetnients It exhibits for the seeuritv l«nli of |H'rson and liro|M'rty. Almost the llrst piiire which meets the eye In this veiieMlile reeord eontjiios the (ieneivl Privilege, the .Manila Charta. as it has iH-en well deuomiimled. of .\ragon. It Wu Kruuted by Peter the Ureat to the cortit tt Skrs- goasa, in 1388. It embraces a variety of visions for the fair and open administratlo justice; for ascertaining tlie legitimate no' intrusted to the cortes ; : or the security of p erty against exactions of the crown; anil fm coiiservation of their legal immunities to the nicipal corporations and the different onier nob'litv. . . . The Aragonese, who rijrlitlj eurde»f th» General Piivilege as the broa basis of their liberties, repeatedly pni;urei eonflrmatiou by succeeding sovereigns. . . judicial functions of H cortes iiave not 1 sufficiently noticed by writers. Tlay were tensive in their operation, and gave it tlic d of the General Court."— \V. if. Prcs<ott, i of the litigii of Finlinarut ami .luilnlla, inti If ft. 1-2. — " Castile Ixire acloseraualogvtol land in its form of civil polity than t"ninr even Aniiron. But the frequent disonlirs ol governing and a tiarl)an>ns state of niau rendere<l violations of law much nicmt ciiiitii and flagrant than they were in Eii.L-l:in>l ui the Plantagcnet dynasty. And be.M.l.s tl practical mischiefs, there were two essential fects in the constitution of Castile, Ilin iu:.'li b I perhaps it was ultimately subverted. It \ ai those two brilliants in the coronet of liritisli erty, tlie representation of freehol.lers amone commons, and trial by jury. The corns of ( tile became a congress of deputies fruru a cities, public 8pirit(Hl, indeed, and iiilnpi.l we And them in Imd times, to an eiiiini iit di i; but too much limited iu numlHr. iiiul l.m uiu nected with the territorial aristiMTi(\ , to m: tain a just balance against the crow ji' ... I haps in no European monarchy exe> pt niir ( was the form of goveniment" more intcnsl than in Aragon, as a fortunate ti rnpeniiueui law and justice with the 'oyal aiitlioiily. Blaneas quotes a noble passage frcuii tlif art! cortes in 14"il. 'We have always lu.iniuf time, and it is found by exixTienii'. iliat mt the great barrenness of "this land, umlliic |«ui of the realm, if it were not for tin li!nr thereof, tlie folk would go heme tci live ! abide in otiier realms and lands m rr fniiif This high spirit of freedom hud In.' aiiiiiu the Aragonese. After several CllllIl-l^ with crown in the reign of James I., nut t.. i;.. hail earlier times, they c<mipelled IVter III in 1 to grant a law called tlie Genenil I'ruiliic. Alau'iia C'lmrta of Aragon. and perli ii'> a in full and satisfactory basis of civil iil" rty i ourown." They further "eslalilislul « |i.)>il rinlil of maintaining lli^ir liliirlii« I'V ar Tills was contained in llie I'Hvilei;. of I'n granted by Alfonso III. in 1'.'-<T. allc r a vi.il eiiiilliet with his sulijeels; !i'il whiili wis af wards so completely alKilislied. iiiid i veii iTi cutiil from the ri-conlsof tlie kin.;'liiiii tli.it iinvLse Words have never lien reinviinl . That watchfulness over pulilie lilnrty wli originally belonitiil to the arisi.Hruv of ri hombres . , . and which was afierwiirls nii tained by the dangenms Privilege of I uimi. came the duty of u civil magistiati ulin«i ul and functions an- the most plea-iiiL' fialim the constitutional history of Arai-'n TlifJ ti7.a or Justiciary of Aragon has Imn tpainl Slime writers t)s a sort of l|^lln!■•l•'ll^ mai^istn . . . But I do not iK'rceive lluit In* tuii.ii were. In any essential n'»|H'el. i1iiT.mii I.' tllUM ol tiu) Cill«{ Justice of Kuglaini. liiviil 640 CORTES. COSSACKa fmm the time of Edward I., among the ju'^gcs of the King's Bench. . . . All the royal as .veil u trrritoiial judges were bouD<'. t:^ ."vplj for his opinion in caae of legal difficulties arising in their courts, which he was to certify within eight days. By subsequent statutes of the same retga ii vas made penal for any one to obtain letters from the king, impeding the execution of the Justiza's process, and they were declared null. Inferior courts were forbidden to proceed in any busia-'ss after bis prohibition. . . . There are two parts of his remedial jurisdiction which de- serrc special notice. These arc the processes of juris firms, or flrma del derechio, antf of manifes- itiiin. The former bears sorne analogr to the writs of ' pone ' and ' certiorari ' in England, through which the Court of King's Rench excr- lises Its right of withdrr.wing a suit from the jurisdiction of inferior tribunals. Bu:, the Ara- jTon,...' juris flrma was cf more extensive opera- lion. . . . The procesi. termed manifestation •ffonied as ample security for personal liberty as tiut of juris tirma did foi property. " — H. Hallara, Tilt MiMU Aga, eA. 4 ' •. 2). — For some account of the hns of the old . institutional liberties of (■«8!ilc and Aragon, under Charles V. , see Spain : .V. P. 131*-15i3. — " The councils or meetings of iIk bishops after the reconcjuest, like the later I'liumils of Toledo, were always ' jussu regis,' Mil were attended by counts and magnates 'ad Tiileniium sine ad audiendum verbura Domini.' Bu*. when the ecclesiastical business was endetl, it was natural that th>> la" part of the asst-m- I'ly should discuss the affairs of the kingdom 311(1 uf tlie people: and insensibly this after- part of the pr<K-ee(lings grew as the first part •liminiiliiil in importance. The exact date when ilii- Council merged Into the Curia or Cortes is ilillicult to determine; Hefior Colmeiro takes liio sousmcd Council of Leon in WHt s tlie irue stnrting-point of the latter. 'Tli early nimaR of Spain was eli'ctive, and the accla- wtion ( the assembleil people (plelis) was at least theoretically necessary to render the king's iliYti II viilid. "The pusence of tlie citizens at ill' I rtes or Zamora, though stated by Sando- val and Monies, is impugned by Senor Col- meini; but lit the Council of Oviedo in 1115 were presenl bishops of Spain and Portugal 'cuin principibiiH ft pli^be pnie<lirtae rcgionis,' ami these biltir also suliscrilied the Acts. Still, thouiih 1 n-»-ni a id making their influence more and mori' fiit. tb re i« no rcrnnl of a true repre- «entation of cities until .Vlfonso IX. convoked tbe Cortes of Leon in IIHH, 'cum iirchiepisicopo, ft epis<d|ii.s. et :nagnntiliu» regni mel et cum fle<tis civihus t x singulis civitatlbus ' ; from this time the three estates— clergy, nobles, citizens -^weru always repreaente<l lu the Cortes of Leon, Unfiirtuiwtely, the political development of Cas- tiUedid not synclironlsc with that of Leon, In pneial, that of CaitiUe was fullv half a century later We pas* by as more tlian doubtful the illeged imsence ol citizens at BiirgiH in llSIt; the iimjores civitatum et villnruin ' at the Cortes of Carrion in 1188 were not ilepiiiii-s, but the jud(!es or governors of twentv-efght cilieM. It li not till the united Cortes of biith kingdoms met St Svillr In 1S50. that we find true repn>. wntatii.n in Caslllli., CMtille was always nv.m- lemial than Ijon. It is in this want of simul- isneous development, and in the presence of pri»lliged classes, that we llnd the germ of the 41 041 evils which eventually destroyed the liberties of Spain. Neither the number of deputies nor of the cities represented was ever fixed . at Burgos, in 1315, we find 800 deputies (procutadores) from 100 cities; gradually the number sank till seven- teen, and finally twenty-two, cities alone were represented. The deputies were chosen from the municipality either by lot, by rotation, or by eection; they were the mere spokesmen of the city councils, whose mandate was imperative. Their payment was atu.it by the cities, but after 1422, by the king; and there are constjint complain'j thut the salary was insufflci(;nt. The reign of Juan II. (1406-54) was fatal to the liber- ties of iJastille; the answers to the demands end petiti.>n8 of the deputies were deferred; and, in act, if not in form, the hiw that no tax should be levied without consent of the Cortes was con- stantly violated. Still, but for the death of Fnnce Juan, in 1497, and the advent of the Austrian dynasty with the possession of the Low Countries, the old liberties might yet have been recovered. . . . With the Cortes of Toledo, in 1538, ended the meeting of the three estates. The nobility first, then the clergy, wcnj elimi- nated from the Cortes, leaving only the proctors of the cities to become servile instruments for the purposes of taxation."— W. Webster, Hetieu) of Culmtiro't " Cori . de lot Antiguot Reintf de Leon y de dMilUi " Aeademy, Aug. 16, 1884) CORUNNA, Battle of (1809). See Spaln: .V. D. 1808-1809 (AcocsT-^AXi-ART). CORUPEDION, Battle of.— A battle fought in western Phrygia, B. C. 281, in which Lvsim- machus, one of the disputarts for Alexander's empire, was defeated by Seleucus. and slain.— C. Thlrlwall, Ilitt. of Greeee, ch. 60. CORVEE.— Oneof the feudal rights possessed in France (under the eld regime, before the Revo- lution) " by the lord of the manor over his sub- jects, by means of which he could employ for his own profit a certain number of their days of lalM)iir, or of their oxen and horses. The ' Cor- vee a volonte.' that is to cay, at the arbitrarr will of the Seigneur, had been completely abol- ished [before the Revolution] : forced labour had lieeii for some time past confined to a certain iiumlK-rot 'lays a-year. "— A. de Tocqueville, On 1,'ic Siite oj Sofietj/ in France before 1789 note 4 K. (/.. 400). CORVUS, The Roman. See Pt.Nic AV*R, The First COS, OR KOS.— (^ .• of the islands In the -Egean called the Sporades. uear the Carian coiist of Asia .Minor. The isUnd was sacred to Asclepius, or .E.sculipeiis. and was the birth- place of thecelebrattHl phytician Hippocrates, as well as of the painter .ijiefles. It was an .Colian colonv, but joined the l)oH-u cimfeiU'iicv CO'SIMO DE' MEDICI, The atce'nduicj at Florence of. Se-e Florence: A. D ll"Jj- 1464 COSMOS, COSMIOS, COSMOPOLIS. S«' Dr.Mti'Hoi. COSSACKS, The.-" The origin of the cos- sack tribes Is lost In the obscarity of ages; and many celetirated historians are still divided in ojiinion as to whence the term Cossack, or rather Kosaiiiie, is properly to be derived. This woni. Indeed, is amerptlhle nt «n muny rtymi>!.".ij!i id explauations. a* scarcely to olTer'for'anv one of them deciiled grounds of preference. " Every- thing, however, would seem to favour the belief i^i; a- COSSACKS. that the word Cowsck, or Eoaaque, wu In much earUer uae in the vichiity of the Caucasus than In the Ukraine. . . . Sherer, in his 'Annals of Ruiria Minor,' (La Petite Russie,) trace* back the origin of the Cossacks to the ninth ce. *ury ; but he does not support his assertion by any facta clothed with the dignity of historical truth. It appears certain, however, that the vast pas- ture lands between the Don and the Dnieper, the country lying on the south of Klow, and trav- ersed by the Dnieper up to the Black Sea, was the p-incipal birthplace of the Cossacks. When, in 1343, Batukhan came with 500,000 men to take possession of the empire which fell to his shr.re of the vast inheritance left by Tchingis Khan [see Mongols: A. D. 1329-1394], he extir- pated many nations and di8place<l many others. One portion of the ivomans flying from the horrors of this terrific storm, and arriving on the borders of the Caspian Sea, on the banks of the lalk, (now Ouralsek,) turned to the left, and took refuge between the embouchures of that river, where thev dwelt in small numbers, apart from their brethren, in a less fertile climate. These were, incontestably, the progenitors of the Cos- sacks of the lalk, 'wh.> are, historically, scarcely important enough for notice. ... At the approach of this formidable invasion towards the Don. that portion of the Kumnns located on the left bank took refi ge in the marshes, and in the numerous islands t jrmcd by that river near its embouchure. Here they found a secure retreat ; and from thence, having, from their new posi- tion, acquired maritime hnbits and seafaring ex- perience, they not only, themselves, resorted to ftiracy as a means of existence, but likewise en- isteif in a formidable confederacy, fur purposes of rapine and pillage, all the roving and discon- tented tribes in thru surrounding neighbour- hood. Tliese latter were very numerous. The Tartars, ever but indifferent seamen, I ad not the courage to join them in these piratical expe- ditions. This division of the Romans is in- dubitably the parent stock of the modern Cos- sacks of tlie Don, by far the most numerous of the Cossack tribes: by amalganmtion, however, with whole hosts of Tartar and Calmuck hordes, lawless, desperate, and uomailic uii themselves, thej lost, in some degree, the primitive and deeply marked distinctive character of their race. The Komatu of the Dnieper offireil no more energetic resistance to the invading hortles of Batukhan than had been sliown by their brethren of the Don: they dispersed in various directions, and from this people, flying at the advance of the ferocious Tartars, dWended a variety of honles. who occasionally figure in histor\' as distinct and independent nations. . . . ITIiey] ultljnately found a permanent resting-place in the wild islet* of the Dnieper, lielow the cata- racts, where dwelt already a small number of their ancient compatriots, who had escu|H'd the general destruction of their nation. This spot became the cradle of the Coiaack* of tlie I'kraine. or of the tribes known in after times as the I'ollsh Cossacks. When Ouedynum, Orand Duke of Lithuania, after having defeated twelve Kussian princes on the banlu of the PiCma, conquereil klow with its depeiidencies in 1820, the wander- ing tri'jes scHttered ',>ver the steppes of the Ukraine owned his allegiance. After the vic- tories of Olgierd, of Vitold, and of Ladialaa ImgeUun, over the Tartan and the Ri COTARH. larg« bodlM of Scythian militia, known tubie quentlv by the comprehensive denominatioa o CoaiacEi, or Koaaques, served under these con querors: and after the union of the Grasc Duchy of Lithuania with Poland, in 138A. thej continued under the dominion of the grand duke of Lithuania, forming, apparently, an iuternieili ate tribe or caste, superior to the peasautn- am infe-ior to the nobles. At a later perioii, whei the Ukraine was annexed to the Polish crown they passed under the protection of the kinns o Poland. . . . Although there may, doubtless exist several species or castes of Cossacks, andtc whom Russia in order to impose on Europe, i pleased to give as many different naiues, rei there never have been, nor will there ever be properly speaking, more than two principa tribes of the Cossack nation, namely tlie Cos sacks of the Don, or Don-Cossackt, and tlie Cot sacks of the Black Sea, known in ancient timei as the Polish Cossaclis, or Zaporowscy Kuzacr . . . The Cossacks [of the Don] . . . Imve ren dered signal service to Russia, which, ever sina the year 1549, has taken them under her |irutec tion, without, however, the existence of anj official act, treaty, or stipulation, rnnfirmini their submission to that power. . . The Don Cossaclts enjoy a certain kind of lilnrty and independence; they have a hetman, attuniiin, oi chief, nominated by the Eniperor of Ru.s«ia: and to this chief they yield an obedience more or less willing and implicit ; in general, tlu y nre com ma. '.cd only by Cossack officers, who take equal rank in the Russian army. They Imve a sipa rate war administration of their own ; ulllioiigh they are compelled to furnish a stated nuiiilxrol recruits who serve in a manner for life, iuasmucb as they are rarely discharged before att:imiug sixty years of age: on the whole, their (onditiuii is happier than that of the rest of the lius.siaii |K>pulation. They belong to the Greek Hussiui church. The existence of this small npublic ol the Don, in the very heart of the most despotic and most extensive empire in the world, appean to constitute a problem, the solution i]f whi'-li is not as yet definitely known, and the ultimate solution of which yet remains to U' asiertaiiied." — H. Krasinski, The Otrnflc* of tht VknUut.ch. 1. —The Cossacks of the Ukraine transfcrreil theii allegiance from the King of Poland to the I'zaroi Russia in 1654, after a revolt led by tlieir hetman, Bogdan Klimelnitski, in which they were assisted by the nelgiiboriu;.' Tartars, and which was ac- companied by terrible scenes of sluu)i;hter and destruction. See Poland: A. I). llH»-lt)i4. COSSiEANS, The, See Ko»».«am' COSTA RICA: A, D. 150J.— Discovery b; Columbui. See Amehic.v : A. 0. 14ilH-l.V)V A. D, I8i3-l894.— Independence of Spiin.- Brief anaexatioD to Mexico.— The failures of federation, the warsandrevolutionsof Central America. See Cknthai. Amkiiica : A. 1>. IS'.M- 1K71 ; 1»71-1885, ami 18S8-1894. A. and the [ ABAOl-A: A.' I). ItifiU D. 1850,— The Clayton Bulwer Treaty the projected Nicaragua Canal, ^v Nic- COSTANOAN FAMILY, The. Sec Amiw CAN Aboriuines: Costanoan Family COSTER, Laurent, and the inventioa of printiur. See Pkintino: A. D. 14;ii>-l4«a, COTARII. See Sl&vsbt, Meducvai i»ii Mui< n: BuoLallD. 642 COTHON OF CARTHAGE. COTTON MANUFACTURE. COTHON OF CARTHAGE, Th«.— • ' There mn two Und-locked dock* or harboun, openir j tlw one Into the other, and both, it would aeem, the work of human bands. . . . The outer harbour wu rectangular, about 1,400 feet long and 1,100 bioad, and wai appropriated to mercluuit venela ; theinnerwai circular like a drinking cup, whence it was called the Cotbon, and was reserved for diips of war. It could not be approached except tluuugh the merchant harbour, sod the entrance to this last was only 70 feet wide, and could be doled St any time by chains. The war liarbour WIS entirely surrounded by quays, containing ■epsrste docks for 280 ships. In front of each dock were two Ionic pillars of marble, so that the whole must have presented the appearance of s splendid circular colonnade. Right in the centre of the harbour was an isUnd, the head- qusrtersof the admiral." — R. B. Smith, Carthage ni th* Carlhaginiant, ch. 30. COTSETI. See Slavebt, Heductal akd MODIBN: EnOLAND. COTTON, Rer. John, and the colony of Massachusetts Bay. SeeMAaBAcm;aETT8:A.D. 1«31-1638. COTTON FAMINE, The. See Ekoulkd: A D. 1861-1865. COTTON-GIN : '£li V'hitney's invention and its effects. Sei.- Unit.kd Statks of Am. : A D. 1793 and 181H-lttil. COTTON MANUFACTURE: The great iiTcntions in spinning; and weaving. — ' ' Cotton bad bei'n used in the extreme East and in the ex- treme West from the earliest periods of which we bavc any record. The Spaniards, on their dlscuvery of America, found the Mexicans clothed in cotton. . . . But though the use of cotton had been known from the earliest ages, both in India and America, no cotton goods were imported into Europe ; and in the ancient world both rich and poor wei ^ clothed in silk, linen, and wool. The induMrious Moors introduced cotton into Spain. Many centuries afterwards cotton was lm|xirted into Italy, Saxony and the Low Coun- triw. Isolated from the rest of Europe, with little wi^alth, little Industry, and no roads; rent by civil cummutions ; the English were the last people in Europe to introduce the manufacture of cotton goods Into their own homes. Towards thecloaeof the 16th century, indeed, cotton goods *tre occasionally mentioniKl in the Statute Book, and the manufacture of the cottons of Manches- ter was rcgulatrd by Acta passed in the reigns of Henry VIH., Edward VI., and Elizabeth. But there seem to tie good reasons for conclud- ing that Manchester cottons, in the time of the Tudors, were woollen goods, and did not consist of cotton at all. More than r. century elapsed liefore any considerable trade in cotton attracted the attention of the legislature. The woollen manuf;icturiTS complaint that people were dress- ing their children in printe 1 cottons ; and Par- liament was actually persuiided to prohibit the introduction of Indian pri ited calicoes. Even an Act of Parliament, ho»;i ver, was unable to eitluKuish the growing taste for Indian cottons. ■ . . The taste for cotton led to the introduction of calico-printing in London ; Parliament in order to encourage the new trade, was induce<i to •suction the importation of plain cotton clotha from India under a duty. The demand, which WIS thus created for calicoes, probably promotetl their manufacture at borne. ... Up to the mid- dle of the last century cotton goods were really never made at all. The so-called cotton manu- factures were a combination of wool or linen and cotton. No Englishman had been able to pro- duce a cotton thread strong enough for the warp. . . . The superior skill of the IndUn manufac- turers enabled them to use cotton for a warp ; while clumsy workmanship made the use of cot- ton as a warp unattainable at home. In the middle of the 18th century, then, a piece of cot- ton cloth in the true sense of the term, had never been made in England. The so-called cotton goods were all made in the cottages of the weavers. The yam was carded by hind ; it waa spun by hand ; it was worked Into cloth by a hand loom. . . . The operation of weaving was, however, much more rapid than that of spinning. The weaver consumed more weft than his own family could supply him with; and the weavers gen rally experienced the greatest difficulty in obtaining sutticient yam. About the middle of the 18th century the ingenuity of two persons, a father and a son, made this difference more apparent. The shuttle had originally been thrown by the hand from one end of the loom to the other. John Kay, a native of Bury, bv his in- vention of the dv-shuttle [patented in 1733], saved the weaver from this labour. . . . Robert Kay, John Kay's son, added the drop-box, by means of which the weaver was able ' to use any one of three shuttles, each containing a different coloured weft, without the trouble of taking them from and replacing them in the lathe. ' By means of these inventions the productive power of each weaver was doubled. . . . Carding and roving were both slowly performed. . . . The trade was in this humble and primitive state when a series of extraordinary and unparalleled inventions revolutionised the conditions on which cotton had been hitherto prepared. A little more than a century ago John Hiirgreaves. a poor weaver in the neighbourho<xl of Blackburn, was returning home from a long walk, in which he hau been purchasing a furthur supply of yam for his loom. As he entered his cottage, his wife Jenny accidentally upset the spindle which she was using. Uargreaves noticed that the spindles which were now thrown into au upright position, continued to revolve, and that the thread was still spinning in his wife's hand. The idea im- mediately occurred to him that it would be pos- sible to connect a considerable numl)er of up- right spindles with one wlieel. and thus multiply the productive power of eiich spinster. . . . Har- greaves succeeded in keeping his admirable in- vention secret for n time ; but the powera of his machine soon became known. His ignorant neighboura hastily concluded that a machine, which enabled one spinster to do the work of eight, would throw multitudes of persons out of employment. A >-' j broke into his house and destroyed his machine. Hargreaves himself had to retire to Nottingham, where, with the friendly assistance of another person, he wua able to take out a patent [17701 for the spinuingjenny, as the machmc. in compliment to hi industrious wife, was called. The invention of tlie spinning-jeimy gave a new impulse to the cotton manufacture. at the . . . yarn spun by the Jenny, like that which had previously tieen spun by hand, wag neither fine enough nor hard enough to be em- ployed as warp, and linen or woollen threads had conseiiuently to be used for this purpoee. In 643 i COTTON MANWACTUnE. the TMT ye«r, bowcTer, in which Harfn^ave* noTcd Rom BUckburn to NottlDEham. Richard Arkwrigbt [who began life as a barber's anlatant] took out a patent [1769] for hia itill more cele- brated maraine. . . . ' After many yean intenae and painful application,' he inTented hia mem- orable machine for spinning by rollers; and laid the foundatlona of the gigantic industry which haa done more than any other trade to concen- trate in thla country the wealth of the world. ... He passed the thread over two pain of rollera, one of which was made to revolve much more rapidly than the other. The thread, after paaaing the pair revolving slowlv, was drawn into the requisite tenuitv by the rollen revolving at a higher rapidity. By this simple but mem- orable invention Arkwright succeeded in pro- ducing thread capable of emplojrment aa warp. From the circumstance that the mill at which his machinery was flnt erected was driven by water power, the machine received the somewhat inappropriate name of the water frame; the thread spun by it was usually called the water twist. Invention of the spinning-lenny and the water frame would have been UBefess if the old system of hand-carding had not been superseded by a more efficient and more rapid process. Just as Arkwright applied rotatory motion to spin- ning, so Lewis Paul introduced revolving cylin- dera for carding cotton. . . . This extraonlinarv series of inventions placed an almost uciniiletl supply of yam at the dinposal of the weaver. But the macbiniry, which had thus been introduced, was still incapable of providing yam fit for the finer qualities of cotton cloth. . . . This defect, however, was removed by the ingenuity of Samuel Crompton, a young weaver residing near Bolton. Crompton succeeded in combining in one machine the various excellences ' of Arkwright's water frame and Hargreaves' Jenny." Like the former, his machine, which from its nature is happily called the mule, ' has a system of rollen to re- duce the roving: and like the latter it haa spin- dles without bobbins to give the twist . . . The effects of Crompton's great invention may be stated epigrammatically. . . . The natives of India could spin a pound of cotton into a thread 111* miles long.' The English succeed in spin- niLg the same thread to a length of 180 miles. Yam of the finest quality was at once at the dis- posal of the weaver. . . . The ingenuity of Har- greaves. Arkwright and Crompton had been exercised to provide the weaver with yam. . . The spinster hod beaten the weaver. . . . Ed- mund Cartwright, a clergyman njsiding in Kent, happened to be staying at MatUxrk in the sum- mer of 1784, and to be thrown Into the company of some Manchester gentlemen. The conversa- tion turned on Arkwright's machinery, and • one of the company observed that, as soon as Ark- wright's patent expired, so many mills would lie erected and so much cotton spun that hands would never be found to weave it' Cartwright replied ' that Arkwright must then set bis wiu to work to hivent a weaving mill. ' . . . Within three yean he had himself proved that the in- vention was practicable by producing the power- loom. Subsequent inventon improved the Idea which Cartwright had originated, ami within fifty yean from the date of his memorable vi«it to Matlock there were not less than 100, UOO power- looms at work in Great Britain alone. . . . Other Inventions, less generally rememlirred, were COUNT AND DUES. hardly less wonderful or leia beneflclal than thescL . . . Scheele, the Swedish philoaopher, discovend in 1774 the bleaching properties of chlorine or oxymuriatic add. BerthoUet, the French chem- ist, conceived the idea of applying the add to bleachinc cloth. . . . In the same year in vliich Watt aoa Henry were introducing the new acid to the bleacher. Bell, a Scotchman, was larioir the foundations of a trade in printed raliooe^ ' The old method of printing was by bl.:olu o( sycamore.' . . . Thia clumsy process wax super- seded by cylinder printing. . . . Such are tie leading inventions, which made Great Britaio in less than a century the wealthiest country in the world.'— 8. Walpole, Hi*t. of Eng. from 1815 r. 1, th. 1. Also in: R W. C. Taylor, Intnd. to a But of the Faetory SgUem, eh. 10.— E. Boines. Uitt oftht Cotton Manvfaeture in Oreat Britain.— ii Ure, Th« Cotton ManvfacturttfOrtat Britain COULMIERS, Battle of (1870), See France: A. D. 1870-1871. COUNC4L BLUFFS, The Mormons at See HoRMOHtsic: A. D. 184(^1848. COUNCIL FOR NEW ENGLAND. Set New Englamo: A. D. 1680-1628; 1621-1831 and 1685. COUNCIL OF BLOOD, The. SeeNsTBui. lands: a. D. 1567. COUNCIL OF FIVE HUNDRED, Tie Athenian. See Athens. B. C. SI 0-507. . . The French. See Fbahcb: A. D. 1795 (Jckb-Sep- TEMBEB). COUNCIL OF TEN, The. SeeVtMcx A. D. 108d-18I». COUNCIL OF THE ANCIENTS, The. See Prance: A. D. 1795 (June— September) COUNCIL, THE PRIVY. See Privt CoUNCtl-. COUNCILS OF THE CHURCH, General or EcumenicaL — There are seven coiinciU ad- mitted by both the Greek and Latin churclifs as cecumenlcal (or ecumenical) - that is general, or universal. "1110 Roman Catholics recognize thir- teen more, making twenty in all — as follows: 1. The synod of apoatles in Jemsalom. 2. The firat Council of Nice, A. D. 825 (see Xicai, The First CotTKca,). 8. Constantinople, A. D. 881. cil of Ephesus, A. D. 481. Chalcedon, A. D. 451. 6. of Constantinople, A. D. Council of Coustaothiople, A. D. 681. second Council of Nice, A. D. 787. fourth Council of Constantinople. A. D, 10. The first Lateran Council, A. . 112!t. The second Lateran Council, A. L. .^39. The third Lateran Council, A. D. *17l). The fourth Lateran Council, A. D. 1215. The firat oecumenical sy^od of Lyon. A. D. 124iS. 15. The second cecumeniral synod of Lyon, A. D. 1274. 16. The Synod of Vienne in Gaul. A. D. 1811. 17. The Council of Coniitann, A. D. 1414 (see Papacy: A. D. 1414-1418). 18. The Council of Basel, A. D. 1431 (M« Papacy: A. D. 1481-1448). 19. The Counril of Trent A. D. 1645 (see Papacy: A. I). 1537- LVIS). 20. The Council of the Vatican. A. D. 1869 (see Papacy: A. P. 1869-1870). COUNT AND DUKE, Romas.-Origia of the titles.- "The defence of the Roman empire was at length oommitted [under Constantine and his succesaon] to eight masten-general of Uis The first Council of 4. The first Coun- 5. The Council of The second Council 653. 7. The thinl 8. The 9. The 11 12. 13. 14. 644 COUNT AND DUKE. COURTRAl. etra! nod Infantry. Under tbeir orders thirtv- Dtc i iury conunanden were stationed in tbe pioTiiioes — three in Britain, six in Oau], one in Bpsin, one in Italy, five on the Upper and four on the Lower Danube, in Asia eight, three in Egypt, and four in Africa. The titles of Counts ind Dulles, by which they were properly dis- tioguisbed, have obtained In modem languages ■0 Tery different a sense that the use of them may occasion some surprise. But it should be ncollt'Cted that the second of those appellations if only a corruption of the Latin word which wu indiscriminately applied to any military chief. All these provincial generals were there- fore dukes ; but no more than ten among them vei¥ dignified with the. rank of counts or com- panions, a title of honour, or rather of favour, which bad been recently invented in the court of Constant ine. A gold belt was the ensign which disiineui.'-la'd tiie office of the counts and dukes." — E. (iibbon, Deelint and Fall of the Soman Em- pin. -A. 17. — "The Duke and the Count of modem Europe — what rje they but the Generals and Companions (Duces and Comites)of a Roman province ? Why or whjn they changed places, the Duke climbing up into mich unquest' med preeminence over his former superior the C ount, I know not, nor yet by what process it was dis- covered that the latter was the precise equiva- lent of the Scandinavian Jarl." — T. Hodgkin, Iluii/iiiid lf>r Inriidert, bk. 1. M. 8. COUNT OF THE DOMESTICS.— In the orgauization of the Imperial Household, during the Liter period of the Roman empire, the officers called Counts of the Domestics "com- maniled the various divisions of the household troops, known by the names of Domestic! and Protectoros, and thus together replaced t. Pnetorian Prefect of the earlier days of the Empire. . . . Theoretically, their duties wo"ld not greatly differ from tlioVt- of a Colonel in the Guanls," — T. Hodgkin, Italy and Uer Intadert, ik. 1. th. 3. COUNT OF THE SACRED LARGES- SES.— In the later lioman empire, "the Count who bad charge of tlic Sacred (i. e. Imperial) Bounty, should have been by his title simply •he Grand Almoner of the Empire. ... In practice, however, the minister who took charge of the Imperial Largesses 1^ to find ways and means for every other form or Imperial expendi- ture. . . . The Count of the Sacred Largesses was tberefore in fact the Chancellor of the Exehei|iier of the Empire-. "—T. Hodgkin, Italy t'ld Ikr Inrnderi, bk. 1, rh. 8. COUNT OF THE SAXON SHORE. See 8axo.\ SnuRE. COUNT PALATINE. See PAijkTiNE, COIXTS. COUNTER.REFORMATION, The. Sec PAP.tfY A. D. 1534-1540; 1.537-1563; 1555-1603. COUNTRY PARTY, The. See England: A. i>. i8;ij-i67a COUP D" ETAT OF LOUIS NAPO- LEON, The. See Franck: A. D. 1851; and W51-1M2. COUREURS DE BOIS.-"Out of the waver trade [in the 17th century] rose a huge evil, baneful to the growth and the morals of CssaiU. All that was most active and vigorous m the colony took to the woenis, and esesped from the control of intendanU, councils and jirieits, to the savage freedom of the wilderness. 645 Not only were the possible profits great, but. In the pursuit of them, there was a fascinating element of adventure and danger. The busK rangers, or coureura de bois, were to the king an object of horror. They defeated his nlans for the increase of the popnUtion, and shocked his native instinct of discipline ami order. Edict after edict was directed against them; and more than once the colony presented the extraordinary spectacle of the greater part of its young men turned into forest outhiws. . . . We hear of seigniories abandoned: farms turning again into fwesU; wives and children left in destitution. The exodus of the coureurs de bois would take at times the character of an organized move- ment. The famous Du Lhut is said to have made a general combination of the young men of Canada to follow him into the woods. Their plan was to be absent four years, in order that the edicts against them might have time to relent. The intendant Duchesneau reported that 800 men out of a population of less than 10,000 souls had vanished from sl^t in the immensity of a boundless wilderness. Whereupon the king ordered that any person going into the wooi£ without a license shotild be whipped and branded for the first offence, and sent for life to the gal- leys for the second. . . . Under such leaders as DuLhut, the coureurs de bois built forts of palisades at various points throughout the West .ind Northwest. They had a post of this sort at Detroit some time before its permanent settle- ment, as well as others on Lake Superior and in the Valley of the Mississippi. They occupied them as long as it suited their purposes, and then abandoned them to the next comer. Jlich- illimackinac was, however, their chief resort." — F. Parkman, The Old Regime in Canada, eh. 17. COURLANO, Christian conquest of. See Ln'osiA; 12th-13th Centuries. COURT BARON. See Manobs. COURT CUSTOMARY See Manors. COURT-LEET. See JIanors, and Sac and COURT OF CHANCERY. See Chancki.. I.OR. COURT OF COMMON PLEAS. See Curia Regis. COURT OF HIGH COMMISSION. See England: A. D. 1559; and A. I). 1686. COURT OF KING'S BENCH. See CtnuA Regis. COURT, SUPREME, of the United State*. See :irpREME t'ornx. COURTRAl : A. O. 138a.— Pillaged and burned by the French. See Flanders: A. D. 1382. A. D. 1646.— Siege and capture by the French. Sec Netherlands: A. D. 1645-1646. A. D. 1648.— Taken by the Spaniards. See Netherlands (Spanish Provinces): A. D. J847-1648. A. D. 1667.— Taken by the French. See Netherlands (The Spanish Provinces): A. D. 1667. A. D. 1668.— Ceded to France. SeeNETHiR- L.vNDs (Holland): A. D. 1668. A. D. 1670.— Restored to Spain. See Nm- t:ii_\. The Peace ok. COURTRAl, The Battle of.— The battle of Courtrai (July 11. A. l>. 1802), In which the OOURTRAt baroDt ud kolghti of Fnnce wen feufullj slaughtered by the sturdy burghers of FUnders, was loinetimes called the Day of the Spurs, on account of the great number of gilt spurs which WAS taken from the bodies of the dead. Hee Flandrks : A. D. 1899-1804. COURTS, English Crimmal. See Law, CniMiNAt. : A. O. To««-187a, and 1383. COURTS OF LOVE. See Pbovksce: A. D. w^-iim. COU'i HON, and the French RcTolutionary Committee of Public Safety. See F^canck : A. I) 1793 (JcNE — t)cTOBKiii. to lTl)4(.Iiiy|. COUTRAS, Battle of (is87>. tivv Fka.vce : A. D. 15«4-15W>. COVAOONGA, CaTe of. Sec Si-ais : A. P. 713 -;87. COVENANT, The Halfway. See Boston : A. D. 16.')r-l«rt9. COVENANT, The Solemn League and. 8c'f Enoland: A. D. 1643 (July— Septesiiikih. COVENANTERS.— The naiiip civeii to the signers and supporters of the Scottish X:itiimiil Covenant (see Scotland : A. D. IXil, l.Wl hikI 163S). and afterwards to all who adhered to the Kirk of Scotland. The warof Montrose with the Covenanters will be found narrated under S< ot- LAXD: A. D. 1644-1645. For the storv of the per- secution which they suffered under tlie restored Stuarts, see Scotland : A. D. 1660-1666 , 1069- 1679 ; 1679 ; and 1681-1680. COVENANTS, The Scottish, Sec Scot- land: A. 1). 1.5.57-1581 ; and 1638. COVODE INVESTIGATION, See Ks."- B.48 : A n. 1860. COWBOYS.— During the War of the Ameri- can Kevolution, " there was a venal and blo<i-Jy Oct which hung on the skirts of the British army Will known a.s Cowlx>)s. They . . . came li.ive tliei, name from their cattle-stealir — (' W. f;;iintt. nr Setr Eng. Jlitt., t. 2, p. b,. — >ie. iilsD. United States of Am.: A. D. 17b\/ (.\I (iI--iT— Septkmheb) COWPENS, Battle of the (1781). See United St\tes ok Am.: A. D. 1780-1781. COXEY MOVEMENT. See SocialMotk- MKNTS : A. I). 1894. CRACOW: A. D. 1703.— Taken by Charles XII. of Sweden. See ScOi'Dinavian States (Sweden): A. D. 1701-1707. A. D. 1793-1794.— Occupied by the Russians. — Rising of the citizens.- Surrender and ces- sion to Austria. See Poland: A. U. 1793- 1796. A. D. 1815.- Creation of the Republic. See Vienna, The Congress of. A. D. 1831-1846.- Occupation by the Aus- trians, Russians and Prussians. —Extinction of the Republic— Annexation to Austria. See Al-STRIA : A. D. 1815-1848. CRADLE OF LIBERTY. See FANXtnL Hall. CRAFT-GUILOS. See Ocilm, Medieval. CRAGIE TRACT, The. See New York; A. D. 1786-1799. CRAL.— KRALE.— "The princes of Servia (Oucauge, Famil, Dalmatics, &c., c. i-i, 9) were styled ' despots ' in Oreek, and <>al in their niitive idiom (Ducange, Oloss. Onto., p. 751). Tliat title, the equivalent uf king, appears to Iw of Sclavonic origin, from whence it has been borrowed by the Hungarians, the modem Greeks, 046 CREMONA. and erea br the Turks (Leunclaviua. Pandea Turc., p. 422), who reserve the name of Psduiui, for the Emperor. "—£. Gibbon, Dtelint and FM of tht Roman Empin, eh. 68, nott.—Six, alio Balkan axd DainTauM States: A. D latil 1856 (Servia). CR'-VNOCES. See Lake Dwelunos. CRaNNON (KRANNON), Battle of (B. C. 333). See Greece: B. C. 828-822. CRAONNE, Battle of. See France: A D 1814 (.Ianuary — March). CRASSUS AND THE FIRST TRIUW. VIRATE. See Home: B. C. 78-68, to5T-.52 CRATER, Battle of the Petersburg. $<« t'Nn-ED States or Am. : A. D. 1864 (Jclt VlRGINL\). CRATERUS, AND THE WARS OP THE DIADOCHL See Macedonia; B C 828-316. CRANGALLID^, The. See Hii ruli : ' CRAYFORD, Battle of (A. D, 4571. iv'e Enoland: A D. 449-473 CRECY, Battle of (.346). Si- Fmsd- A. D. ).S:J7-136(l. CREDIT MOBILIER, French.-.\ ^m,u banking corporation formed in France i:i \<,i, which caused a disastrous indatiou uf cn-dits. CREDIT MOBILIER SCANDAL. -On the meeting of the Congress of the liiitt-il Stales ill December, 1872, attention was calleil liv the Speaker to charges matle in the pn'cediiig can- ▼ass " that the Vice-President, the Viie.i'rcsi- dent elect, the Secretary of the Treasury, several Senators, the Speaker of the House, ani a large number of Reprp'-«ntatives had In-eii bribed, during the years 1867 and 1868, by pn-stuts of stoc!" - ■ corporation known as the Credit Mobi- lier [otganized to contract for building the I'nios Pacific Railroad] to vote and act for the benefit of the Union Pacific Railroad Company. On hii motion, .^n Investigating committee was ap- pointed, L. P. Poland, of Vermont, being cliair- nian. The Poland Committee reported February 18th, 1873, recommendhig the expulsion of Oakei Ames, of Massachusetts, for ' selling to membeis of Congress shares of the stock of the Credit Mobilier below their real value, with intent thereby to influence the votes of such niembere,' and of James Brooks, of New York, for receiving such stock. The House modified the pniposed expulsion into an ' absolute condemnation ' of the conduct of both members." — A, Johnston. Hitt. of Am. Potitiei, pp. 219-220.- /Jcp/. oflxUd Com. (42(i Cong., 3rf km., //. R. rtpt. w>. 77). Also in: J. B. Crawford, The Credit JiMlitr of Am. CREEKS,— Creek Wars. See Amirica.<( Aborigines; Mcskhooean Family ; also I'NrrsD States of Am.: A. D. 1813-1814 (.Uoisi- April), and Florida: A. D. 1816-1811^ CREES, The. See American AnonoiNia; Algon<)uian Family. CKEFELD, Battle of. See Germany; A. D. 1758. CREMA, Slcgt of (1150-1160). See Itaiy; A. D. 1154-1183. CREMONA; The Roman Colony.— Siegt by the Cauli. See Rome; B C. 2t).5-l»l. A. D. 69.— Deitmction by the Flavians. See RoMS: A. D. 89. A. D. t703.— Defeat of the French, See It ALT (Savor axo PntDMoirr); A. D. 1701- 1718. CREOLE. CRETE. CREOLE.—" Id Eoiopa It li Terr common to ttticli to the term Creole the ides of • particular complexion. Tbia ia a miatake. The deaignatioo Cnoie [in Spaniah American tesloni] properly tielonga to all tbe natlres of America bom of parcDt* wbo bave emigrated from tbe Old World, be thoae paienta Europeana or Africana. Tbere lie, therefore, white aa well aa bUck Creoles. . . . Tbe term Creole is a corruption of the SpiDish word 'criollo,' which is derived from 'criir,' to create or to foster. Tbe Spaniards apply tbe term ' criollo ' not merely to tbe human nee, but also to animals propagated in the colo- niea, but of pure European blood : thus they have Creole bones, bullocks, poultry, Jkc."— J. J. VonTbcbudi, TVateb in Ptni, eh. a, andfoot-noU. —"The term Creole is commonly applied in Ixuks to tbe native of a Spanish colony deacended from European ancestors, while often tbe popular scceptation conveys the idet of an origin partly African. In fact. Its meaning varies in different times and tegions, and in Louisiana alone has, ud has bad, Its broad and its close, its earlier ind iu later, significance. For instance, it did not here first oelonj to the descendants of Spsnisb, but of French settlers. But such a meaning implied a certain excellence of origin, ud ao came early to include any native of French or Spanish descent by either parent, whose pure non-mixture witli tbe slave race entitled him to social rank. Much later the term was adopted by, not conceded to, the natives of European-African, ur Creole-African blood, and is still so used among themselves. At length tbe spirit of commerce availed itself of the money value of so honored a title, and broadi'Dt'U its meaning to take in any creature or thing of variety or manufacture pevuliar to Louisiana, that might become an object of sale, u Creole ponies, cb jkens, cows, shoes, eggs, wsgons, baskets, cabbages, ei.. . . . There are no English, Scotch, Irtah, Western, or Yankee Creoles, these all being included under the dis- tinctive term 'Americans.' . . . There seems to he no more serviceable definition of tbe Creoles of Louisiana or of New Orleans than to say they ire the Freoch-speakinfr native, ruling class. -0. E. Waring, Jr.. anu 0. W Cablo, Ut. and Promt Condition of A'eu Orlearu (Ter ' Ceniut cfthe r. .«., ». 19^. 218). CREONES, The. See Lhitadi, Celtic Tubes. CRESCENT, The Order of ♦he.— A Turk- iih Order instituted in 1799 by tbe reforming lultan, Selim III. Lord >felson, after the vic- tory of Aboukir, waa tbe first to receive this decomiicn. CRESr'' IN VALOIS, Treaty of (1544). See Fkahce: A. D. 1832-1547. CRETAN LABYRINTH. See Labtbdjths. CRETE.— "The institutions of the Cretan itste show in many poinU so great a similarity to these nf Sparte, that it ia not surprising if it leemed to tbe ancients as though either Crete were a copy of SparU or Sparta of Crete. Meanwhile this similaritv may be explained, apart from hitentional ImitatioD, by the commu- nity of nationality, which, under like conditions, mat produce like institutions. For in Crete, as m Laninia, Porlans were the ruling people, who had subdued the old inhabltanU of tbe island ud placed them in a position of aubordination. . . It is, howerer, beyood doubt that settle- m'-nts were made in Crete by the Phoenlciani, and that a large portion of the island waa sub- ject to them. In the historical period, it is true, we no longer find them here; we find, on the contrary, only a number of Greek states, all moreover Dorian. Fach of these consisted of • city with its surrounding district, in which no doubt also smaller cities m their turn were found standing in a relation of subordination to the principal city. For that each city of the 'ninety- citied or ' hundred-citi d ' isle, as Homer calla ft, formed also an indcpt ,<tent state, will probably not be supposed. .., '^dependent states our authorities give us reason to recognize about seventeen. The most important of these were in earlier times Cnossus, Gortyn and Cydonia."— O. SchOmann, Antiq. ofOretee: The Stale, pt. 8, eh. 2.— See Asia Minor: The Greek Colonies. B. C. <S-M. — The Roman Conquest. --The Romans came into collision with the Cretans during their confiict with the Cilician pirates. The Cretans, degenerate and half piratical them- selves, had formed an alliance with the profes- sional buccaneers, and defeated, off Cydonia, a Roman fleet that had been sent against the latter, B. C. 71. They soon repented of the provoca- tion they had offered and sent envoys to Rome to buy peace by bcavv bribes; but neither the penitence nor tbe brlLes prevailed. Three years passed, however, before the proconsul, Quintus Metellus, appeared in Crete (B. C. 68) to exact satisfaction, and two years more were spent in overcoming tbe stubborn resistance of tbe island- ers. The taking of Cydonia cost Metellus a bloody battle ana a prolonged siege. Cnossua and other towns held out with equal courage. In the end, however, Crete was added to the conquered dominions of Rome. At the last of tbe struggle there occurred a conflict of jurisdic- tion between Metellus and Pompey, and their respective forees fought with one another on tbe Cretan soil.— T. Mommsen, Hitt. of Burnt, bk. 5, ch. 4. A. O. 833.— Conqneat by tbe Saracens.— "The reign of Al Hakem, the Ommiade Caliph of Spain, was disturbed by continual troubles; and some theological disputes having created a violent insurrection in the suburbs of Cordova, about 15,000 Spanisli Arabs were compelled to emigrate in tbe year 815. The greater part of these desperadoes established themselves at Alexandria, where they soon took an active part in the civil wars of Egypt. Tbe rebellion of Thomas [an officer who disputed the Byzantine throne with Michael II.], ond the absence of the naval forces of the Byzantine Empire from the Archipelago, left tbe island of Crete unpro- tected. The Andalusian Arabs of Alexandria availed themselves of this circumstance to invade the island and establish a settlement on it, in the year 823. Michael was unable to take any measures for expelling tbe invaders, and an event soon happened in Egypt which added greatly to the strength of this Saracen colony. The victories of tbe lieutenants of tbe Calipli Almamum compelled the remainder of the Andalusian Araba to quit Alexandria; so that Abou Hafs, called by tbe Greeks Apocbaps, joined his countrymen in Crete with forty ships uctcni'lncd tu make tbe new settlement their permanent home. It is said by the Byzantine writers that they commenced tneir conquest of the island by destroying their fleet, and oon- 647 CRETE. CROWN or INDU. ■tructing a itronc fonifled camp, luirounded by •n immenie ditcn, frnin which it reccired the name of Chandak, now corrupted by the weiteni nationi into Candla. . . . The Saraceni retained powe«ionof Crete tor 18S veart. "— O. Finlny, aM. of tht Bgtantine Bnptre.Jhm 714 to 10S7, »*. 1, e». 8.— During the rtay of these piratical Andaluiian Arabs at Alexandria, "they cut In pieces both friends and foes, pillaged the churches and mosques, sold ttho^'. 0,000 Christian captives, and maintained their siatioD in the cap- ital of Egypt till they were oppressed by the forces and presence of .Mmamon himself. —£. Qibbon, Deelim and Fall of t/i» Boman Empire, ch. 52. Also in: S. A. Dunham, nitt. of Sbain and Portugal, J*. 8, eh. 1. A. D. 061-063.— RtcoTtrj from the Sara- ccas.— "In tbe subordinate station of great domestic, or general of the East, he [Nicephorus Phocas, afterwards emperor, on the Byzantine throne], reduced the island of Crete, and extir- pated the nest of pirates who had ao long defied, with impunity, the majesty of the Empire. . . . Seven months were consumed In the siege of Candia; the despair of the natire Cretans was stimulated by the frequent aid of their brethren of Africa and Spain; and, after the massy wall and doutile ditch ha.l been stormed by the Oieeks, a hop<'le8s coallict was still maintained in the streets and houses of the city. The whole island was siibiiunl in the capital, and a sub- missive people accepted, without resistance, the 'aptism of the conqueror "—E. Oibbon, Dtelins iintt Fallfftht Human Empire, cA. 52, A, D. IS04-1305.— Acquirad by the Vanf tiaoa. See Btxantinc Empiiuc : A. I). 1301-1209. A. D. 1645-1669.— Tht long aicra of CaD- dia.- - Surrender to the Turks. »ee Tcua: A. D. 1645-imW. A. D. 1715.— Complete Expulsion of the Venetians by the Turks. S«-r Tvrks: ,\ n. 1714-171S. A. D. 1S66-1868.— Unsuccessful revolt.— Stmnle for independence.— Turkish conces- ■ion ofthe Ornnic Regulation. 8ec Greece: A. D. IWIi-KJtri. CRETE, Party of tbe.-Cr«toia. See rRAJtra A. .) 17«^(ArRn.) CRIMEA. OR CRIM TARTARY: Early bistorf. *r Tacrica; al»<i Bospdri'i. Citt AND Kl.-VllIkiM. 7th Century.— Conquest and occupation by the Kbaaars. Str Khazahd iath-i]th Centuries.- Genoese commercial colonies. SeeGKMoA: A. I). 126I-121M> i]th-i4th Centuries.— The khanate to Krim. SeeMoNunLS: A. D. t2.'iH.|3U|. A. D. 147].— Cooqueat by the Ottoraan Turks. »«• TtTiEs (The ()tto»ia.\») A I) 1491-14^1 A. D. ini.-Bspcditloa of the Khan to Moscow. —The city stormed and sacked. See Krwu: A. D I9«»-I571 A, O. 1735-1731.— Russian invaaioas and fruitless conquests. Sve Hihsia: A I> 173.5- I7:t9 A. D. 1774.— The khanate declared inde- pendent 01 th- ~^ • - ■ ■- r74 •endtat oftht Portt. St%TriiKi A I) l7nH- A. p. I776-I7«4.-Thc process of acouiaitieo by Ruasi*.— Pi4Ml recognitioa of RhmIwi soTcrcinty by th* Soltaa. BeeTiniii:^] 177^17¥8. A. D. 1853.1t5s.-War of RnaaU with Tb key aad her alUea.— Sierc of ScbaatopoL Si Bcsau: A. D. 18««-18a4, to 1884-1856 o CRISIS OP il37, The. See Uhtted Stati OF A¥. : A. D. 1^1887. " CRISIS OP 1857. See TaBirr Uoisuno (UnrrED Statbs): A. D. 1846-1861. CRISSA.— CrisaMta or Sacred War Se Dblpbi. CRITTENDEN COMPROMISE, Thi See UmTSO STATBSor Am. : A. D. i860 (Dicxn BER). CROAT ANS, The. See Amsrica: A D 1587-1590. CROATIA : Tta Ceatory.- ScIaTonic m cnpatioa and aettltmcat. See Balka.n axi DAirtTBiAjf StATia, 7th Cbmttjrt (Sxrvu Croatia, Boawu, rrc.) A. D. tioa.— Stttjectien aad aanexatioa ti Hnncary. See Huhoart: A. D. 973-1114 A. O. i<76.— Traasfsrred to the Dukt Styria — Military coloaisatioa. SeeUraaAXT A. D. 1587-1801 CROIA, Turkish maaaacre at. SeeORxirx A. D, l«4-147l>. CROMLECHS. — Rude stone monumenu found in many pans of the British IsUml* France, and elsewhere, usuallr formed bv tlirw or more huge, rough, upright stones. Wlia 1 still Urger stone lying flatly upon them. In France these are calltd Dolmens, Tiny were formerly thought to be " Druids nltan, " to wUich notion they owe the name Cronilutlii : Imt it ii now very generally concluded by iircliitoldpsu that they were constructed for Imrial iIiaiuIkr. and tlmt originally, iu most cases, ihiv vm covered with mounds of earth, fonnhiK '''<^ "f'l known barrows, or grave mounds, ur tumuli - L. Jcwett, Orat* JImndi. Also in: T. Wright, T^e Celt, tlu. liMn<inmd th4 Saxon. — Sir J. Lubbock, I'rehutoric Tina. eh. 5— See, also, AMORrrsa CROMPTON'S MULE, The inveotioa of. See Cotton MANCFACTUREa CROMWELL, Oliver.— Campaigns ssil Protectorate. See Enoi,anu: K I) 11144 u 16.'>8-lfl«0: and Ireland: A. D. ltl4U-Iir.ii CROMWELL, Thomaa, aad the supprts- aion of the Monasteries. Sec Knoi.v.m> .\ Ii 1535-1989. CROMWELLIAN SETTLEMENT OF IRELAND. HeelHELANIi \ U Km;) CROMWELL'S IRONSIDES. S^t Eiia- i.ask: a 1) 1648 (Mat). CROSS, The "True."— Its capture by tht Perslaaa aad rscoreiy by Heraclius. !^ KoMR: A. D 869-628; anil Jerisaueh: K. D 615 CROSS KEYS, Battle of. t«<<t' Ixrrtn .SiATtis or Am, : A D, 1869 (Mat-Jisk Vis (IISIA) CROTON.-KROTON. See Stbakio CROTONA, Battle of (A. D. 983). Sw lTALT(S<>ITnRRN): A D, 800-1016 CROWN, The irea. See LoMHiaor, Tn iRiijf Crown or. CROWN OF INDIA, The Order of Iks- An order, for women, instltutr<l lijr (jureo Vic- toria In 1870. C48 --^ CROWN POINT. CRUSADES, Vm. CROWN POINT|: A. D. im.— Fort bnUt brth* Frmcb. See Cuhadjl (New Fbaxck): I D. 1700-17M. A. D. 1755.— Ea|li*h Expedition m«ui»t. gee Cahasa (Nbw Fbaxce): A. D. 17SS (Sep- TIMBU). A. D. 1759. — Abandoned to the EncUtli by the FrcncB. See Cakada (New Fbahce) : A. D. 1759 (JULT— ACOOTT). A. D. 1775' — Sorprise and capture by the Americaaa. See UnrrEo States or Am. : A. D. 1775 (Mat). CROWS, OR UPSAROKAS, The. See AVERICAH Aborioimbs: Siodan Pamilt. CRUITHNICH.— CRUITHNIANS.-The Irish name of the Plcti and Scot* of ancient Ire- UnJ and Scotland. See Scotland: Tm Picn CRUSADES: Causes and introductory c*(ott.— " Lilce all the great movements uf man- kind, the Crusades must be tracinl to the coiuci. di'Dce >if many causes which inlluencetl men of Tiriuud nations and discordant feelinga, at the lanii' pvTiitd of time, to pursue one common enil with their whole heart. Religious zeal, the fashion of pilgrimages, the spirit of social de- Telopment, the energies that lead to colonisation or r<mi|m-!it, and commercial rvlationit. only lately eitcndcd so widely as to tntlucnce public opinion, all sudilculy received a deep wound. Ever}- class i>f ixK'iety felt injured and iusull«<l, and unity of ni'tiou was cn'al«il as if by a divine im- piilst' The movement was fucilltatcd by tlie rinunistuurc that Europe Iwgan to adopt habits of onltr just at the time when Asia was thrown inio a state of anarchy by the invasions of th» hiljouk Turlia. Oreat numlM-rs of pilgrinn huil aln.HVS piuiMHl tlirough the Ryzantine empire to visit the holy phices in I'alestiue. We still pos. sewi an itinerary of the road from Bonleaux to Jerusalem, bv the way of Constantinople, written in the fourtii centurv for the use of iiil^rims. Tliouirh tlie disturbed and inipoverislinl stjite of Kiiropi'. after the fall of the Western Empire, (liiniiii«heil the number of pilgrims, still, iven in timi'sof the greatest anarcliv. ninny passed an- mislly through the Eastt-rn finipire to Palestine. Till' iinpniveiiient which liawned on the western nations during the eleventh century, and the aucim iiti'il I'limmerce of the Ilalluns,°gave aiidi- li"i;al iiii|n>rlance to the pilgrimage to the East AImui the year lIHVl. during the reign of Con. »t.intiiii' X , an army or camvan cif siven thou- K\ii\ pil.-riiiispasm'd through Conslnntinople. led I'v tlie .Vri hbishop of Mentr. and four bi«hops I'lii y made their way through Asia Minor. « hlih WIS tliei under the Ilyzantlne goveriiineni ; but in till' iiilghtkiurhood of Jerusalem tho\ were »l tiukul hy the liedouina, olid only siivcit fMm ilr-iniition by the Saraivn emir of Idindit, wli.i li««!. iml to their assistance. Thes.^ pilgrims an- ^pirl..i I., 'lave lost 3.(KM) of their nunilH-r. without tielng able to visit either the Jonlan or III.. Iiriel Sea The Invasions of the Seljouks l*r Tt ims (The ^*KUn•K»): A. D 1073- liKh!] in. n ;iwi| the disorders in Palestine In the tiar loTU tlie Seljoult Turks look |)os«.-ssh>ii of I JiTiiwli 111. and immediately commenoHl lianiss \ Ici- the pilgrims with unheanl-of esaotiotis Tho j .~r.ra,^ir.i U*i\ la gnterHl vieHwI tilt- iMigrinis w iiii [ hv.'ur, as men engaged in fuiniling a pious duty, or pursuing lawful fain with pralsewurthy { industry, and they had leried only a reasonable toll on the pil^ritns, and a moderate duty on their merchandise; while in consideration of these imposu, they had established guards to protect them on the roads by which they ap- ly places. The Turks, on the contrary, acting like mere nomads, uncertain of proached the holy places. retaining possession of the city, thought only of gratifying their avarice. They plundered the rich pilgrims, and insulted the poor. The relig- ious feelings of the Christians were irritated, and their commerce ruined; a crv for vengeance arose throughout all Europe, and men's minds were fully prepared for an attempt to conquer Palestine, when Peu-r the Hermit liegan to preach that it was a sacred duty to deliver the tomb of Christ from the hands of the Infidels." — O. Finlay, Hut of the Bytantint arid Orttk Emjnrei, bk. 8, ch. 2, ttt. 1. A. D. 1094.— The Council of Clermont.— Pope I'rlian II., one of two rival pontiffs then contending for recognition by the Church, en- tered with great eagerness into the movement stirred by Peter the Hermit, and gave It a powerful impulse through his support, while obtaining for himself, at the snn,.- time, a de- cisive advantage over his competitor, by the popularity of the agitation. A gnat Council was c<mvcned at Ilneenza, A. U. l(Ht4. and a s<'Cond at Clermont, in the aiitiiinn of tlie same year, to deliberate ujion the action to be taken. The city of Clermont could not contain the vast multitude of bishops, clergy and laity which ossomliled, and an army of liiany thousands was tented in the summndlng eounti-y. To that ex- cited congregation, at a meeting in the gnat sijuare of Clermont, Poih' Urban addressiil a speech which is one of the notable uttemiices of history. "He lugan by detailing tlie mi8«'ries eiidund by their bretlifen in tlie Ilolv Land; how the plains of Palestine were desoWnl by the outnigeous heathen, who with the sword and the tln-bnuid carried wailing into the dwel- ling's and Haines Into the possessions of tlie faithful; how Christian wives and daughters Were deflU'd by pagan lust; how the altars of the true GihI wen' ileseeratiil. ami the relics of the saints trmM. 11 iiudi r f.N)t. • You,' continued the eliM|uent p..iiliir land I'rban 11. was one of tile ni.«t elo.iiiciit iiii'ii of the ilayl. voii. who hear me. and who have neiived the true faith, and Imoii endowed by iJ.hl with power and stn-iigtii. and gn-atin-ss of .soul. — whom- uiires- tors have Ihiii the prop of Christendom, and wli.w kings li.ivo put a barriir ai,'ain..it the prog- ress of the iiitiili I. — I rail upon you t.. wipe otT these linpiiritii -, fn>ni tlie face of the earth, and lift your oppnsv.l fi How Christiana fmm the depths into wliiili liny have laen tmiiipled.' The warmth of tlie pontilT eoniniunleated ilHi'lf to the crowil. and the inthusiasni of the peiiple lir.ike out sivi ml limes ere he concluded Ills iiddns" lie went on to portray, not only the spiritual but tlii' tein|<iinil advaiitagea that would ai 1 rue to tliosc who tisik up amis in the »4'rviii. lit the eni«< P.ilestine was. he siii.i. a Inii.l ll.iwing with milk and honey, ami pniLuis in the sight of 0«d, as the ^lene of the grand events whiili luid saved mankind. That laud, Ih' pmnilsed. should \»- divldeil ainouv them. Mon-..nr, liiej slinulii have t'liii panloii lor ail their offences, eitlier against O.nI or man. '(io, then,' he added. ' in expiation of your slus; and 04 <J /;h CRVBADES, 1O04. Ptttr th* BTmft. CRU8ADI8. lOte-lON. go Mnucd, that after thii world ihall have PMMrt awar, Imperithable glory shall be youn m the woiid which it to come. ' The enthuiiann waa no longer to be reetrained, and loud ihouta fattemipted the speaker; the people exclaiming a* if with one voice, 'Dieu le veult! DIeu le Teult*' . . . The newi of this council spread to the remotest parts of Europe in an incredibly short space of time. Long before the fleetest horseman could have brought the intelligence. It was known by the people in distant proTtnces ; a fact which was considered as nothing less than supernatural. But the subject was in every- body's mouth, and the minds of men were pre- pared for the result. The enthusiastic mere'y asserted what they wished, »iiil llie event tallied with their prediction. "—C. Mackay, Mtmtnrtvf Extraordinary Popular Dtluttont; Th* Crumda, (e. 3). Also IN: H. H. Mllman, Ilitt. nf Latin Chrit- tianity^ bk, 7, ch. A. A. D. 1094-1095. — Peter the Hermit and his appt ' — "About twenty veHni after the • 11- aueat of Jerusalem by the Turks, the holy sepul- Ire was visited by an" hermit of the name of Peter, a native of Amiens, in the province of Pieanly !-> Franre. His resentment and sympathy were v'XCittHi by his own Injuries, and the oppression of the CbVistiiin nnine : he mingled his tears with those nf the pHtriiinh, and earnestly imiuirt-il. if no hopes of relief oould he entertjilmtl from the Greek einpen)r8 of the Ea.*t. The patriarch e.x- pose<l the vices and weakness nf the siircessors of Constantine. 'I will muse," exrlnimeil the hermit, the martial natlnns nf Eumpe in rour cause ; ' ami Europe was oliedient to the call of the hermit. The astonlsheii patriarch dismisseii him with epistles nf cnillt and eninplaint, and no s<H>ner did he land at Il<irl. than i'eter has- teiieil t(i kiss the feel nf the Knman jinntiff. His Btiittip' wnssniiill. Ills appenninee ccinlemptilple; but Ills eye was keen iiinl lively, anil he inm- sessiil timt veliemenee nf »|Heeh whieli seli|nn> fails tn Impart the (Hrsuaslnn nf the sniil. He was Isirn nf a );intlenians family ifnr we must now ailnpt a niiMlern lilinnil. and his niilitarr BC'rviee was under the neii;lilHMirin>r eniints tif linuln^riie, the heroes nf the ttrit erusiide. In- vignrated liy the apprnluitinn nf the |HmtifT. tills Zealnus mlsslnnary tnivenM^I, witli xiMid and sueeess. the prnvinees nf Italy and Frame. Ills diet was absteniiniis, his prayers Inni^ and fer- vent, and the alms whli h he received with nne hand, he distrilnited with the other, his liead was liari'. his feit nakiil. hi* meHnre Isxly was wrapt In a enarsr Karnient : he Tinri' and dl« i)!iiyic| n weiithly <riieillx; and the ass on wliii li lie rn.|i- was sani'IIHe<l ill the iniMie eve liy the s< r\iii' nf the man nf ()i»| lie pn'iielied in in- niiinenilile emwds lu the elnm lies, the «tnil«. and the hinhways When he palhtil the Siiireriiii;s nf the native* anil pllirrinis nf Pales- tine, t very heart was melted tn l'<impasslnn ; every lin-H«l ulnwcil with liidiitnatlnii, when he challeiiceil the wnrrinrs nf thi- a^r tn defend their lirethn^n and nseiie their !*avliiiir: his i^nnrance nf art and langiiaKe was enm|N'nsutis| by sIkIis and tears, and ejiu ulallniis; and I'eter stipprieil the defleleuer nf nasim hy Intid and freipient appeals tn ( hrist and hia'Mother. tn Uie NiiiiU and HiiMels )»f imraiiine, isiih wiioni iie bad (>era«nallr rnnversed The ninst |Hrfei t orator uf Atluuia luight have envied the lucceaa of hi* eloquence; the rustic enthusiast inipin the passions which he felt, and Christendom ei pectcd with tmpatieooe the oouosels and decree of the supreme pontiff."— £. Oibbon, Decline an, FcM of th* Raman Empir*, eh. 08. Also IK: J. C. Robertson, IStt. of the Chritliai Churth, bk. 6, eh. 4 (v. 4). A. D. 1096-1099.— The First Great More mcnt. — The first army of Crusaderti to §tt ou on the long march to Jerusalem was a mob men, women and children which had no patience to wait for the organized movemeoto the military leaders. They gathered in v«j numbers on the banks of the Moselle and thi Meuse, in the spring of 1096, with Peter thi Hermit for their chosen chief. There were nim knights, only, in the swarm, and but few win had horses to ride, or efficient arms to bear. provisions to feed upon. Knowing nothing and therefore fearing nothing, they marchii away, through France, Germany, Hungary m beyond, begging food where they cotilil am ■ubsiating by pillage when it neoleil. A linigli called Walter the Penniless led the van, am Peter followed, with his second division, liv 1 somewhat dilTerent route. Wa'ter escapetl ieri ou» trouble until he reached t'\c country of tin savage Bulgarians. Peter's nseless niob pm yoked the just wrath of il.e Hungarians In stiirniing the small city of Semlin ami sluyini 4.(i<s) of its inhaldtanta. The route of lic.ili »ai lined with the bones of thoiisamls who p< ri»hN of hunger, of exposure, of disease, and tiy ihi swords of Hungarians and Bulgarians .v'thin! ami a fourth host of like kind fnllnwiii in llirii wake, led by a monk, Gotschalk. a nrii st niin'.ni Volkmsr, and a Count Emieon. 'rlicse ttiT.r ized even more all the countries thmugli whiili they pawHHl, — especially where Jews win i. be hunt<'<t and killed. — and »en> ilesinivil ir Hungary to almost tlic last man. I'lit'r !itil Walter reached Cnnstantlnnple with IiHiumf,.! Inwers, It is said, even vet, after all «li" I™1 fallen by the way. Still nfiisliig tn wiiii 11 the lielter appolntetl expeditiniis tli.it «rn- ic progress, and still appalling eastern ('liri>t>'n dnm liy tlnlr lawless barharille». tliev |in»M'i Intn Asia Minor, and their mlsiralile earn rsi* 11 eaine to an end. Attacking the Turks in tli( city of Nleiea, — which had Is'innie tlic capital nf'the Seljouk sultan nf Hoiini.— tluy vm beaten, muted, srattered, slaUL'hterid. uniil liandv 8.000 nf the great ho-' iped (i| the llrst Cnisailers," says Uihi am.iKH) hi.l alnady perished befnri' a single city »:nri"minl frnni tlie InHdels, — la'fnre their gnivir nnd iiirr nnlde bn'thren had cnmpleted tin' pn|'iM!i":n nf their enter|)rise" Meantime the kiiii:lil«an.l princes nf the crusade hai, gatlieri.l ili> ir arniici and Wen- nnw (in the suininernf imal' 1* k'iimini; In mnve eastwaril, by dilTi'rent ^lul■•« N.tinf nf the gwater sovereigns nf Kiini|M Imd 1 iili«tnl In the iinderiaklng. The ihlefs nf nne »rm« ment were Oislfrey de tUmiliin, diik.' of tbf l^iwer birrnlne, or Brabant ; hii bpihirs. Eii>tac(>, count nf Ikiulogne, and llaldwin hi) cnusin, Baldwin de Ihmrg, with Baldwin, omnl nf Halnaut, Ihiilon de Cnnlx, and nihir knlfbu eilebrated In the "Jerusalem IKdlvenil ' "( Tasso This expeditinn followed nesrljr tb« Piilir nf I'l iir (he lieriilli, ilirmmii iiUniiTT and Bulgaria, giving hostages fnr iu imlrri; iniiduitaud wUwtngthe guud-willnf tliosrcoua f.r,n CBIT8ADE8, 1000-lOM. JtnuaUm DtUvtnd. CRUSADES, 1101-1101. Iriti, even mmddened u they wen by the fore- •oiiig mobt. Another larger following from fnaet wu led by Hugh, count of Vermandoii, brother of the king of Fiimce ; Robert, duke of Konnandy, eldect ion of William the Conqueror; ^pben, coiut of Bloii, the Conqueror's lon-in- hw, and Robert, count of Flanders. These took the road into Italy, and to Bari, whence, after ■pending the winter, waiting for favorable weather, they were transported by ships to Greece, and pursued their march to Constanti- nople. They were followed by a contingent from touthem Italy, under Bobemond, the Nor- nun prince of Tarentum, son of Robert Ouiscard, ■nd bis knightly cousin, Tancred. A fourth amy, gathered in southern France by count Raymond of Toulouse ami Bishop Adhemer, the tppointed legate and represenutlve of the pope, chose still another route, through Lombardy, Dslmatia and Macedoiii:!. into Thrace. On patting through the terriiuries of the Byzantine •mperor (Alexius I.), all the crusaders experi- tnnd bis distrust, his duplicity, and his cau- tious ill-will — which, undiT the circumstances *cre natunil enough. Alexius managed so well tbst be extorted iron each of the princes an tcknowledgment nf his rights of soTereignty OTer the region of their expected conquests, with u oath of fealty and homa/fe, anil lie pushed them across the Bospliorus so adroitly that no two had the opportunity to unite their forces under the walls of Constantinople. Their tirst undertaking in Asia [May and June, A. D. 109*] wt8 the sic'^e of Nicica. and they brieaguen-d it with an army which UililK)n Im'IIi'Vcs to have b«n never exceeded within the compass of a ■ingle rump. Here, again, they were mastered by thecimning diplomacy of the Greek enii>er(ir. Wh<n the aultan of Roiim yielded his capital, be wa» |iirsu«de<l to surrender It to Alexius, ami the iniiHriiil lianner pnitectetl It from the rage of the Jiiuoinrtled crusaders. But they revungeti Ihrniwlvts (>u the Turk at Dorylietiui. where he ittafkcil tliim during their auliwquent miircli. ud wlun' he sufTertHl a defeat which cmli'd all Sghtin).' in .\-iia Minor Baldwin, limtluT of Ondfri'v. now iniprovnl his opiKirtuiiilits by itralinc awny from the iirniy, witliii fi» Imu- dml knik'hls and men, to make roni|ii. <> n his ownaiTount^ with such suiiiss that , , m tlie fitynf Eili'ssa, with a sweep uf coHutry mound It. u»l fimndiil a iirincipality which nultaiMi .1 f<.r hsif a milury. The nut fared on. nmiiiijj no oprxwlidM fnifn infidel swi.nls, but nickcniuK' and dTlni; liy IlKiimands, fnm. heat and fmm want of ««iir and fmnl. until iliey came to .\ntiocli. Thiw, llir Turkinh emir In commaml. with n •tout trarrlxm of honie niid fiml, had pripariil forsjiiililKirn defencr. anil he liilil the iH'xiitfvrs SI bay ( T «ven immtlis, while thev Rtarvrd In thfir ill Kupiilieil cnnipM The citv was diliv- mdlolliini liy a tmltur. at Irugtii. hut prince Biilii'mnnil ihc <r«fty Nonnan. seciircd the liene- 8t<if the truiwintii liiuiself, and fiirced hiscciin- P«IH"!s to (DUittle til liini the siivcniitntv uf .intiiH-h. The »ulTeriiig« uf the criisnilera' did not (nd with the takiiiv of the citv They b^'ll)tlll faniine anil iH-stilenre upon tliienisel vi"s upw liy their greedy and sensual tniiulgence, lad Ihry were soon under siege In their own :=.„, :,y li ^reat army which the Turks iiiui l«'U)tlit aitsinst them. Death and deserHi.n •fff in fl»«lry to thin tbeir wMted ranks The ■urrlTora ■wen in gloom and detpair, when u opportune miimcle occurred to excite them ureah. A lance, which viaiona and apparition* Mitifled to be the rery spear that pierced the Redeemer'! aide, was found burled in a church at Antioch. Under the atimulut of this amaz- ing discovery they saUied from the town and dispersed the great army of the Turks in utter rout. Still the quarrels of the leaden went oo, and ten months more were consumed before the remains of the Latin army advanced to Jerui»- '«•"•„ I' was June, A. D. lOW, when they saw the Holy City and assailed its formidable walla. Their number was now reduced to 40,000, but their devotion and their ardor rose to freniy, and after a siege of little more than a month they forced an entrance by storm. Then they spared neither a«e nor sex until they had killed all who denied the Savior of mankind — the Prince of Peace.— E. Gibbon, Decline and Fail of the Rmaan Empire, eh. 68. Also in: J. F. MIchaud, Hiet. oftht Cntmdee Mr. 1.— W. Besant and E. H. Palmer, JenitnUm, th. 6.— C. Mills, //»»(. of the Cnuada, eh. 8-8. — See. also, Jercbalem: A. D. 1089 A. D. I0M-Ii44.-The Latin conauetta in the eaat.— The Kingdom of Jcni*<Uem. .See Jercsaleu: a. I). 1(199-1144. A. D. II0I-II03.— The aiter-waTc of the firat mowement. — "The tales of victory brought home by tlie pilgrims excited the most extrava- gant expectations In the minds of their auditors, and nothing was deemed capable of resisting EiiroiH'au valour. The fxiix' called uponall who had taken the cross to perform their vow, the em[H'riir Henry IV. had the crusade prearheil. In iiriler to gain favour with the clergy and laity. Many primes now resolved to visit in" person the new empire' foumlcd In the East. Three great armies iis-sembleil : the first in Italy under the arclil.i«liiip i.f Milan, and tlie two counts of Hlamlnite; the second in France under Hujtli tlio (Jreat and Stephen of Blois [who had deserted their commdes of the first exiHHlitiim at Aiiliiu h, and] whom shanu'and remorse urged to perform their vow, William, duke of Ouienni- and count of Poitou, who mortgaged his territory to William Uufus of England to nroeiire funds, the count of Nevers, the duke of Hiircimilv. the bishops of Laon and Soissons; the thinl in (Jer- niany. luiiler tlie bishop of Sall/lmrg. the atied duke Welf of Bavaria. Conruil ilie niusti r of Hie horse to the emperor, and many oilier knights and nobles. Mu also, ilie margravine of .tnstria, ileclariil her resolution to share the toils and iliuiirers of the way. ami pay her vows ai the to,.,li of Christ Vast numbers of women of all ranks aecom|ianle<l all these armies, — nav, In that of the iliike of Ouienne. » ho was inferior to none In valour, but united to it the qualities of a troubiuloiir and glet man. there apwared whole t^^lps of young women. The Italian pilsrims Were the ftpit to arrive at Constantinople. They set out early in the aiiring, and took their way throu^'h Carinlhia, Hungary, and Bulgaria. Though the evcesws commltiiil by them were great, the emperor gave them a kind recvplion, and the most prudent and friendly mlvlce re «I>ectlng llieir future progress. While they niHMie at Constantinople, Conrad and the cniint ot iJlois, snd the duke of Hurgimdy, arrived, and St Whitsuntide they all passed over, and en<-amptd at Nicouedia. With Ignorant fatu- 651 CRUSADES, UOl-1103. St. Btmard't Pnachinii. CRUSADES, 1147-1149 It/, and agaiiiit all cxperiencsd adrice, the new Crusaders reiolred to direct their march to Bag- dad and to overthrow the calipliate. The flnt body which adranced wai cut to pieces by the Turks on the banks of the Hslys, and only a few thousands, out of more than one hundred thou- sand, are said to have made their escape by des- perate 8lght. The second and third armies were met successively by the victorious Moslems, before they had advanced so far, and were even more completely annihilate<l. The latter body contained, according to the clironiclurs of the time, 150,000 pilgrims, of whom scarcely one thousand were saved from slavery or ueatli The men fell under the swonis of tlic Turks ; tlio women and girls, in great numbers, flnislit'd out their days in the Iiarems of the East. Out of the wreck of the three vast armaments a slcna, ■ column of 10,000 men was got together after some weeks at Antiooh and led to Jenisnlem (A. D. 1 103). Most of these perished in subse- quent battles, and very few ever saw Europe again. "Sucliwitsthc fruitless termination of this second griut movement of the West, in which perhaps a third of a million of pilgrims left their homes, never to revisit them. — T. Keightley, The Oumdtrt, eh. 2. Also is: J. F. Michaud, Iliit. nf tht CnMnlct, bk. 4. A. D. It04-ltli.— Conquest of maritime cities of Syria and Palestine.— Destruction of the Library of Tripoli. — " The prosperity iiud the safety of Jerusalem appeared closely connected with the conr{ucst ot the mnritinie cities of Syria and Palestine: it Ix-ing by tlirm nione that it could receive succour, or estiilillsh prompt and I'lisy commuuirnlions with the West The maritime nations of EurojM' were liitirrsti'd in siroiiiling, in this instance, the enterprims of the kinii of Jerusalem. . . From the iwrioil of the first crusades, the Pimns and the (ttiiiH-sc had constantly sent vessils to the seas of the East ; and their lleets had aided the Christians in several eipeilitioiis u.i;aiiist the .Mussulmans .\ (' niH-se fl«t had ju.«t arrived in the seas of S<- ,a when "t •:ildwin undertook the siege of I'toleiimlis ^.Ven-) file Genoese wen- invited to assist in tins con- quest: I ut as religion was not the prinriple to bring tin m into action, they reiiulnil. in return for their iissistanee and llii'lr labour, that they sliould Inite a third of the liooty : they lilicwise stipulated to have a »< parale ehiinh for ilinn s< Ives, and a national factory and triliunal in the eonijuereil city. ItolcmaVs "wasbesictfcil liy land ami sea. and after n lilomly nsist.inic' of tiventy d.iys, the iiihaliitants and the gurrisiai pMposell to'surrender, ami iniploreil tlie ilen\eri<y nf ||||, r iniiueMrs. The elty i)|M'ne<l its gates to tin- (hri.stians, ami the ilihaliilnnts pn'panii to dc part, taking with them whatever they deeineil most valuable: but the GeniH'se. at the sl^'ht of suili riiii Ixmty, palci no respiK't to the capitula- tion, and iniusaered without pity a disarmed and defiMd'less people In conseiiueiiri' of tlds victory, si'veral places which the KL'vptians still hrlil on the coasts of Syria feil into the lisnds of the Christians." Amoiiir thos<< was the citv of Tripoli. •■ Itaymond. Count de Si Oilles aiiii of Thoulousc, one of the companions of (liHlfrey. aflir having wsndenil for a Iohl' time aliotii AM. ha>i died tn-folt- Itiis plix c. oF nhiih he lind cumnience<l tlir siege. In inemorv of his exploits In the Unit crusade, the rich territory of Tripoli 652 was created a county, and became the inhrritance of his family. This territory was celebrateii for its productions. . . . A library estalilislicj in thii city, and celebrated through all the East, con- tained the monuments of the ancient literature of the PersUns, the Arabians, the Egyptians, and the Greelts. A hundred copyists were there con- stantly employed in transcribing inaniiscripti. . . . After the taking of the city, a priest at- tached to Count Bernard de St. Oilles. entered the room in which were collected a vast miinlKTof copies of the Koran, and as he declared tla- lilimrr of Tripoli contained only the impious Inioks of Mahomet, it was given up to the flames Biblies, situated on the smiling ami fertile shorei of Phoenicia, Sarepta, where St. Jerome saw still in his day the tower of Isaiah: ami iitryius. farao IS in the early days of the elmreli f.ir iti school of eloquence, shared the fate of Tripoli, and became baronies bestowed upou (hristiao knights. After these conquests, tlie Pisins. tlie Genoese, and several warriors wlio hail f.illij\\iij Baldwin in his expeditions, returneil into Kumpe: and the king of Jerusalem, abaminii'l l>r ihew useful allies, was obliged to employ the fin^ which remaineil in n^puising the invasi.iiis .f the Saracens." — J. F. Michaud, Ilitl. of the Cmudtt r. 1. hk. !i. A. D. 1147-1149.— The Second Great Mort- ment.— Duriu); 'lie reign of Fiilk, the f.iurtii ki'' - of Jerusali !^ the Latin power in Palestine at 1 iH'igliboriiiir territories Ix^-an to be ix-ri- ousn siiaken by a vigorous Turki>li |irimt naii'i'd Zenghi. on whom the sultiin Mahmeud had conferred the govomineiit of all tli, 1 'UMrv west of the Tigris. It was the lir-t lini,' >iri« the coming of the Cbristiaiis .if ih. W.-t tint the wliole stri'ugth of Islam in tb:il rei-iuii had iK-en so nearlv gathered into oni' -.trmiL' liaiid, to lie us«(l auralnst them, and they Mt the ellrd speedily, lieiiig tlieinsejves weakene^l by mint iiuarrefs. In U4:i Kiiiir Fiilk ilieil, Uavin,: ibc CMwn to a voung son, IJalihvir III .— a Imy of llilrtwn, whose mother goverinil in hi> lume The next year Zentilii eapturiil lie ini|i"rtant city of Edess.!, ami const irnat ion \\:i-, luclmiii by his suci'essi s Europe was lie 11 :i|i;ir:i!nl to for help aura ' i the advaiieiii:; Turk, uinl the call fnmi .ji alem was taken up by m ikr uaril of Clairvau.v. th.' irresistilile I'niliii.iiut. whose influenei' aecompli^hed. in bi« 'ine . what- ever he willed to have done. .Iii»l li I'l . mitury after PeliT the Hermit. St liernanl pniileilt Second Crusade, and with almost ei|ii;il iiTirt. notwitlislanilini: the Ixtti r knonlnl^i n iw |»«- sessed of all ibe hardships ami piriis n! the expi'ditton. This time, royalty lo'.k tl;e iijii King Conrad of Germany eoiTirnanili'l a I'real army from that eoiiniry. ami unotler ImsI ful- loweil King l.oiiis VII' from Frame lietli armies nnmheil down the Daniilu i.i ( Hiistanti- iiople, in the sumimr of 1147 .Vi the -ame inoini lit King linger [of Na|ih»|. «itli liii ll'it. ntta1k.1l, not the Turks, Imt tin (;r..k wi|"rt tinvin of llie MoD-a Manuel ['le- lly/a!;'inf emperor] thereupon, eonvineeil tliii ilie lirirt annji-s wen' designed f ir the ili'Stnn le ri el hil empire in tlie flrst plaiv. with the irii ;i|e«i 1 jer tioiis. got together Insips frinn iili l.i- pnoiiiert. and intered lutoa half alllaiiee wilb tin Turku of Asia Minor. Tile lllistiiii-r aiei iii t< . i.i>^ i^a Increased by the lawless conduct of tie liirtiiM hordes, the Greek truups attacked tiuiii mon CRUSADES, 1U7-1U9. Kidtard aeaintt Saladin. CRUSADES, nSS-llW. thu oDce; whereupon Duin;roui voices were niied in V>uii'i bexlqiurten to demand open wir tgiimt the faittueu Greeks. The kings were mlly agreed not tv, permit this, but on uriTing in Constantinople they completely fell nut, for, while Louis made no secret of his warm friendship for Roger, Conrad promised the Emperor of Constantinople to attack the Nor- mans as soon as the Crusade should be ended. ThU was a bad beginning for a united campaign in the East, and moreover, at every step east- wani, new difficulties arose. The Oerman army, broken up into several detachments, md led without ability or prudence, wa« attacked in Asia Minor by the Emir of Iconium. and cut to pieces, all but a few hundred men. The French, though better appointed, also suffered severe kuKS In that country, but contrived nevertheless, to reach Antioch with a very considerable force, and from thence might have carried the project »liicli the second Baldwin had conceived in v -in, namely, the defence of the northiastcru frontier, upon which, especUlly since Zenki [Zenghi] had made liis appearance, the life or death of the Christian states depended. But in vain did Prince itaymond of Antioch try to prevail upon King Louis to take this view, and to attack with- out di'lay the most formidable of all iheir aiiver- jaries. Xoureddin [son of Zenghi, now dead]. Louis would not hear or do anything till he had tea Jerusalem and praye<i at the Holy Sepul- chre. ... In Jerusalem he [King Louis] was weloomi'ii by Queen Meliaendc (now regent, during !»'r son's minority, after Fulco's death), vith praise and gratitude, because he liinl not taken part in the distant wars of the Priuc-e of Anilcich, but had reserved his forces for the detincc of the holy city of Jerusalem. It was now nsolved to lead the army against Daroasrus. Ihi' cinly Turkish town whose Emir had always ^fuaed to submit to either Zenki or NoumlJin. Xer.^rthelcss Noureddin instantly coUectt 1 all bis available forces, to succour the besieged town." But he was spared further exertii.ri by the ji;ilciu« disagreement of the Christians, who lipinwi to take thought as to what should lie done wiih I)iiraa»cu» when they took it. The Syrian bamim conclujed that they woiiM prefer to leave the ritv Id Turki8li lianils, and iiy f <chcrous manciiivres they forced king Louis to ,aise the liejTt "The Oerman king, long since tired of his ixiwiTiess position rt'tumeif home in the sutunin of 1148, and L i». after much pressing. slaved a few months !• r. and reached Eun>po in the following spr he whole expe<iition hud been wn ithout honour and without ri'sult, by i ,t wretched personal r»sinns. and the most nw and selllsli poll(;y. '" -II Von .Sybel, Uitl. » ,d Literature of llu Cru- «<(«. ch. "• "So ended in utter ahame and liiniimlny the Second Crusade. The event SH-meil to give the lie to the glowing promises ami pr..pliecles of 8t. Bernal^. 80 vast hail been the ilnin of population to feed this holy var that, In the phrase of an eye-witnem, the cities and i-astles were empty, and scan-ely one man was left to seven women , and now It was known that the fathers, the Husbands, tlie sona. or the brothers of these miserable women would see '".eir earthly hnmea no more The crv of Miuiah charged Bernard with the crime of •rmllng them forth on an emnii In which tliey "' ' ' absolutely nrthlBC and had rcapeil only kadUoi wretchedneai and disgrace. For a time Bernard himself was struck dumb: but he soon remem- bered that he had spoken with the authority of Ood and his vicegerent, and that the guUt or failure must lie at the door of the pilgrims. "—O. W. Cox, The Cnuadei. eh. 6. A. O. 1187.— Tht lou of Jertualem. See Jbbubalui: a. D. lUi>-n8T. A. D. itS8- 119a. -The Third Great Mort- ment. — When tba news reached Europe that S'^ladin, the redoubtable new champion of Islam had expelled tne ChristUns and thri Cross from Jerusalem, polluting once more the precincts of the Hoij Repulchre, the effect produced was something not easily understood at the present day. If we may believe historians of the time, the pope (Urban III.) died of grief; "Christians frrgot all th? ills of their own country to weep over Jerusalem. . . . Luxury was banished from cities; injuries were forgotten and alms were given abundantly. Christians slept upon ashes, clothe<i themselves in haircloth, and expiated their disorderly lives by fasting and mortiflca- 'ion. The clergy set the example ; the morals 01 the cloister were reformed, and cardinals, con- demning themselves to poverty, promised to re- pair to the Holy Land, supported on charity by the way. These [lious reformations did noi last long , but men's minds were not the less prepared for a new crusade by them, and all Europe was soon roused by the voice of Gregory VIII., who exhorted the faithful to assume the cross and take up arms.""— J. F. MIchaud, Hitt. of the Crumiie; it. 7.—"" The empenir Frederic Barba- rossa and the kings of France and England assumed the crosj : and the tardy magnitude of their armaments was anticipateii by the maritime states of the Mediterranean and the iKcan. "The skilful ai?d provident Italians first eri'uarke<l in the ships of Genoa, Pisa, and Venice. TUev were speedily followed by the most eager pil- f;rim8 of France, Normandy and the Western sles. The p werful si,ccour of Flanders, Frise. and Deuniarlt Slled near a hundred vessils; and the northern warriors were distinguished in the field by a lofty stature and a ponderous buttle- a.Te. Their increasing multitudes coulii no longer be confined within the walls of Tyre [which the Latins still held], or remain olK'dlent to tlic \oke of Conrad [Marquis of Montferrat. who had taken command of the place and repelled the attacks of Saladin]. Thev pitied the niisfortiiues and revered the dignity of Luslgnan [the nominal king of Jerusalem, lately captive in Saladin's hands], who was ndeased from pri.sou. |MTliaps to divide the amiv of the Franks. He proposed 111" recovery of ftolemals, or Acre, thirty miles 1 1 the south of Tvre : and the place was first in- vesU-d (July. lis»] by iJ.tXM) horse and 80,000 fiKit under his nominal command. I shall not expatiate on the story of this memorable siege, wl.. 'istiil neur two years, and consumed, in a narrow space, the forces of Europe and Asia. . . At the «)iind of the holj trumpet the Moslems of Egypt, Syria. Arabia, and the Ori- ental provincx'S asaembied uniter the siTvant of the prophet: his camp was pitche<t and removed within a few miles of Acre: and be lalxmred, night ami day, for the relief of his brethren and the annoyance of the Pranks. . . In the sprine of the B<'Cond year, the royal fleets of France and Kniilaud cast anchor in the bay of Acre, and the liege was mure vigorously ptutecuted by tht C53 CRUSADES, 1188-ll»a. CRUSADES, lSOl-1203. »1 jonthful emulatton of the two i ig«, Philip Augiutui and Richard Plantagenet. After everjr resource bad been tried, and every hope wa« ex- haiuted, the (hfeodera of Acre lubmltted to their fate. ... By the conquest of Acre the Latin Eowen acquired a strong town and a convenient arbour ; but the advantage was most dearly pur- chased. The minister and historian of Saladin computes, from the report of the enemy, that their numbers, at diiferent periods, amounted to 600,000 or 600,000 : that m.ire than 100,000 Chris- tians were slain ; that » r greater number was lost by disease or shi; ,t''k." On the reduc- tion of Acre, king Philip Augustus returned to France, leaving only 500 knighu and 10,000 men behind him. Meantime, the old emperor, Fred- erick Barbaroasa, coming by the landward route, through the country of the Greeks and i^sia Minor, with a well-trained army of 80,000 knighU and 50,000 men on foot, had perished by the way, drowned in a little Ciliclan torrent, and only 5,000 of his troops had reached the camp at Acre. Old as be was, (he was seventy when he took the cross) Barbarossa might have changed the event of the Crusaile If he had reached the scene of conflict ; for he had brains with his valor and character with his ferocity, which Richard Ctrur de Lion had not. The latter remained another J ear in the Holy Land ; recovered C'lesarea and affa ; threatened Saladin in Jerusalem seriously, but to no avail: and stirred up mure and fiercer quarrels among the Christians than had been customary, even on the soil which was sacred to them. In the end, a treaty was arranged which displease<l the more devout on both sides. 'It was stipulated that .lerusalem and the holy sepul- chre should be open, without tribute or vexa- tion, to the pilgrimage of the Latin Christians; that, after the demoliliun of Ascalon, they should Inclusively possess the sea-coast from Jaffa to Tyre; that the count of Tripoli and the prince of Aotioch should be comprised In the truce ; and that, during three years and three months, all hostilities should cease. . . . Richard embarked for Europe, to seek a long captivity and a premature grave ; and the space of a fi'w"montlis concluded the life and glories of Saladin."— E. aihlH)n, Dftliiu and Full uf the Hi»iu\n Kmptrf. M. 59.—" A halo of false glory surrr>unds the Third Crusade from the associations which connect it with the llon-liearied king of England. TheexplnitKcrf Kklianl I. have stirred to enthusiasm the dullest of chronicUTs, have furnished themes for jubilant eulogies, and have shed over his life that glamour which clieats even solH'r-minded men when they read the story of hispnitotype Achilleusinthe taleof Troy. . . . When we tirm from the picture to the reiilliy, we nhull see in this Third Crusade an enterprise in wliich the flery zeal which does something to- wanls reilc-eming the savage brutalities of ()o<l- frev ami the lint crusaders is displaced by base anci sonlld greed, by Intrigues utterly of the earth earthy, by wanton crimes fMni which we might well suppose that the sun would hiile away its face; and in the leaders uf this enterprise we shall see men in whom morall.v there is scanrly a single <iualilr to nlleve the monot4)ni>'iH lilackness of their infamy; in whom, strategicnily. a very little generalship loim-s to tlie aiil of a bllnil \:r.iU: f.-.rrs ■•_<; W (V.I, T'rr O'^-vifS. ffr. T. Also m; .Mrs. W. Busk, JinJiaeral flipM, Em/iefy>ri, Kingt and Vnuader$, bk. i, ch. 18, and M. a, eA. 1-8. A. D. 1196-1197.— Tha Feuth Espeditit — A enuading expedition of German batvna a their loUowen, which went to the Holy Lsi by way of Italy, In 119«, is generally counted the Fourth Crusade, though some writers lo upon it as a movement supplementary to t Third Crusade. The Germans, who number some 40,000, do not seem to have been wclcom by the Christians of Palestine. The latter ni ferred to maintain the state of peace then pi vailing; but the new cnisaden force<l hwiiliti at once. SaUdin was dead; his brother Saphad accepted the challenge to war with prompt vig and struck the flnt hard blow, taking JafTa. «^ great slaughter, and demolishing its furiific tions. But Saphadhi was presently defeated a battle fought between Tyre and Sidon. ai Jaffa was recovered, together with other tow and most of the coast But, a little later, ti Germans suffered. In their turn, a most demon izing reverse at the castle of Thoron, which thi besieged, and were further disturb-d, m tl midst of their depression, by news of the dea of their emperor, Henry Vl. A great part them, thereupon, returned home. Those who t remained, or many of them, occupied JiiSa. wbe they were attacked, a few months later, and ci to piecea— G. W. Cox, T/te Crumtt,; ch. 8. A. D. IM1-1303.— The Fifth Movement.. TretchetT of the Venetians.— Conquest 1 Constantinople. — "Every travelh-r rviuraii from Syria brought a prayer for immediate hel from the survivora of the Third Crusaile. was necessary to act at once if any iMirtion cvt of the wreck of the kingdom of Jerusalem wei to be saved. Innocent the Third, and siime, 1 least, of the statesmen of the West were ful! alive to the progress which Islam had mac shice the departure of the Western kings. 1 1197, however, after Ave yearsof weary waitici the time seemed opportune for striking a ne blow for Christendom. Saladin, the gnat Sultai had died in 1193, and his two sons were alixiJ quarreling about the partition of his cnipin The contending divisions of the Anili .Mojin were at this moment each biddim; for the lU] port of the Christians of Syria. The othi r grw race of Mahometans which had threatent Europe, the Seljukian Turks, had maile a bi in their progress through Asia .Minor . Otlier special circumstances which rendered tb moment favourable for a new crusade, eon bined with the profound conviction of the lUtei men of the West of the danger to Chrislenilm fMm the progress of Islam, urged W.'«t« Eunipe to take part In the new enteriirise. Ti reigning Pone. Innocent III., was ilje gret moving spirit of the Fourth Crusade. ' 'Th pipular preacher of the Crusade was found in > ignorant priest nameil Fulk, of Neuiily, whoi success in kindling public enthusiasm wi almost equal to that of Peter the Hermit. Vu numbers Umk the cross, with Tlieolisld. com of Champagne, Louis, count of Ulois and ( hai tres. Simon de Montfort, Walter of Brienni Baldwin, count of Flandera. Hugh of St. Pa Geoffrey de ViUehaidouin. manhal of C'hanipagii anil future historian of the Crusade, ami man other prominent knights and princes anmng ih IradrfS. The yming count of ChaiiiMiSr -'^ the chosen chief; but he sickeneil and died an his place was taken by Ekmlfsce. marciuis r MoDtferrat, It was the decision uf the Icailei 054 CRrSADES, 1201-1903. Taking of Cont\.nUHO/ilt. CRUSADES, 1213. thit the expedition should be directed in tiie flret initance sgainit the Moslem power in Egypt, and tbst it should be coQveye<l to the attack of Egypt by sea. Venice, alone, seemed to be able to lurnish ships, sailors and supplies for so great s movement, and a contract with Venice for the lerrice was concluded in the spring of 1201. But Venice was mercenary, unscrupulous and treacherous, caring for nothing but commercial gains. Before the crusaders could gather at her port for embarkation, she had betrayed them to the Moslems. By a secret treaty with the sultan of Egypt, the fact of which is coming more and more conclusively to light, she had undertaken to frustrate the Crusade, and to receive import- sot commercial privileges at Alexandria as com- pensation for her treacherr. When, therefore, in the early summer of 1202. the army of the Crusade was collected at Venice to take ship, it encountered difficulties, discouragements and ill- treatments which thickened daily. The numl)er SMembk'd was not equal to expectation Some hsd gone by sea from Flanders; some ;iv other routes. But Venice hnd provided tran.Hport for the whole, and inflexibly demanded pay for the whole. The money in hand was not equal to this claim. Tl:e summer was lost in disputes lad attempted compnimises. Munv of the cru- isdrra withdrew in disgust and went home. At length, in defiance of the censures of the pope sod of the bitter opposition of many leaders and followers of the expedition, there was a bargain •truck, by the terms of which the crusaders were to assist the Venetians in taking and plundering the Christian city of Zani, a dreaded commercial rival ou the DalmHtlan coast of the Adriatic, be- loniriiig to the klug of Hungary, bimaelf one of the iiromoters of the very crusade which was now to be tume<l against him. The infamous compact was carried out. Ziira was taken, and ic the end it was totally destMycd by the Venetians. In the meantime, the diHinied citV was occupied by the crusading army through the winter, while s ilill more perfidious niot was Iwing formed. Old Dandolo, the blind doge of \'euice. was the BMter spirit of it. He wn« hel|,,.a by the in- fluence of Philip, one of the two rivals then fighting for the imperial crown in Oerinany and Italy. Philip had niarriol a daughter of Isaac II. lAngelos), made emperor at Constantinople on the fall of the dynasty of Comuenus, and that feeble prince ha<l laU'Iy Iietn <lethrooed liy his bmlher The son anil heir of Isaac, nanieil Alexius, had escaped fniin Constantinople and h«d made bis way to Philip imploring help. Either Philip conceived the idea, or it was sug- gmted to him, that the armament of the Crusade raighl be employed to place the young Alexius ou the throne of his father. To the Venetians the sihenie was more than acceptable. It would fmstrsle the Crusade, which they hiul pledgetl ihemsrives to the sultan of Egypt Ui accomplish ; It would satisfy their Ill-will Uiwards the Bv- tantiucs, and, more imfHirUut than all else, "it »<'uld (jive them an opi>onunity to wcure im- mmuralde advanUges over tiieir rivals in tlie ?riat traiie which Constantinople held at com- mand. The marquis of Montferrat, commander "I the Crusade, hud some grievances of hin own Y"'' "'iiie umipitioiis of his own, wlilcl. miule him lavnralilc to the new project, ami he was easily »"u to it. The three influences tbuscomldiieil — *«« of Philip, of Ihwdolo, and of Montferrat — overcame all oppodtlon. Some who oppoied were bribed, tome were intimidated, lome were deluded 'jy promisee, acme deserted the ranks. Pope ^nn JcentremonstTBted, appealed and threat- ened in vain. The pilgrim host, " changed from a crusading army into a flUbustering exi^dition, " set sail from Zara in the spring of the year 1208 and was Unded, the following June, not on the shores of Egypt or Syria, but under the walls of Constantinople. lu conquest, pillage and hrutally destructive treatment of the great city are described in another place.— E. Pears, Th$ fall of Cojutnntinoph, eh. 8-18. Also nj : Q. Flnlay, Hut. of the Bymntine and Orttk Emptrtt, 716-1458, 4*, 8, eh. 8.— E. Gibbon Dfthru and Fall of the Roman Empire, eh. .W — bee, also, BTZAKTisit Ekpou:: A. D. 1208-1204 A. D. iaoi.i283,-AKainst the heathen Selal vomans on the Baltic. See Livonia: 12TH-18Ta Cehtctwes; and Prussia: ISxHCENruKT 8ee*-A?B "^k"*'-*'""' *"• *""«^""- A. D. laia.— The Children's Crusade,— "The religious wars fostered and promoted vice- and the failure of amy after army was l<H>kea on as a clear manifestation of God's wrath against the sins of the camp. This feeling was n)use<l to lu highest pitch when, in the year 1212, certain priests— Nicolas was the name of one of these mischievous madmen — went almut France and Germany calling on the children to perform what the fathers, through their wickedness had been unable to effect, promising that the dea should be dry to enable them to march arross: that the Saracens would be miraculoi.sly stiicken with a panic at the sight of thet.i; that G(xl would, through the hands of children only whose lives were yet pure, work the recovery of the Cross ani the Sepulchre. Thousands— it is said fifty lliousand — children of both sexes re- sponded to the call. They listened to the im iiassioned preaching of the monks, believed their lying miracles, their visions, their portents, their references to the Scriptures, and. In spite of ail that their parents could do, rushed to take the Cross, boys and girls together, and streamed along the roads which led to Marseilles and Genoa, singing hymns, waving branches, reply- ing to those who asked whither they were going • We go to Jerusalem to deliver the Holy Sepul- chre,' and shouting their ndlving cry, ' Lonl Jesus, give us hack thy Holy f'ross.' 'They ad- mitted whoever came. ptMvlded he took the Cross; the infection s|ii.ad, and the children could not lie restrained from joining them in the towns iioil villages along their mi Their miserable parents put them in prison, they es- caped: they forbade them to go; the children went in spite of prohibition. They ha<l no money, no provisions, no leadere; but the charity of the towns they pas»<'d through supported them. At their reiir streamed the usual tail of camp followers. . . . There were two main bodies. One of these directed its way through Germany, acroas the Alps, to Genoa. Ou the road they were robbed of all the gifts which had \kvu pre- sented them; they were exposed to heat and want, and very many cither di«l on the mareh or wsndered away from the road and «n '.s rajno lost to sight ; when they reached Italy they dis- persi'd about the country, seeking 'food, were strip|ie<l by the villagers, and in some cases were reduced to slavery. Only seven thousand out of Mtii^«^l OOU ^m CRUSADES. 1313. ^iv^jg^ CRUSADES, 1818-1839. it:i their number arrired at Genoa. Here they stayed for aome days. They looked down upon the Mediterranean, hoping that its bright waves would divide to let them pass. But they did not: there was no miracle wrought in their favour; a few of noble birth were received among the Genoese families, and have given rise to dis- tinguished houses of Genoa: among them is the house of Vivaldi. The rest, disappointed and disheartened, made their way back again, and Sit home at length, the girls with the loss of eir virtue, the boys with the loss of their l)e- lief, all barefooted and in rags, laughed at by the towns they went through, and wondering why they had ever gone at all. This was the ena of the German army. That of the French was not so fortunate, for none of them ever got back again at all. When they arrived at Marseilles, thinned probably by the same causes as those which had dispersed the Germans, they found, like their brethren, that the sea did not open a path for them, as had been promised. Perhaps some were disheartenetl and went home again. But fortune appeared to favour them. There were two worthy merchants at Marseilles, named Hugh Ferreus, and William Porcus, Iron Hugh and Pig William, who traded with the East, and had in port seven ships, in which they proposed to convey the children to Palestine. With a noble generosity they ofTeretl to take them for nothing, all for love of religion, and out of the pure kindness of their hearts. Of course this offer was accepted with Joy. and the seven ves- sels laiien with the happy "little Crusailers, sing- ing their livmns and dying their banners, sail^ out from Marseilles, bound for the East, accom- fianied by William the Good and Hueh the Pious, t was not known to the children, of course, that the chief trade of these merchants was the lucra- tive business of kidnapping Christian children for the Alexandrian market. It was so, however, and these respectable tradesmen bad never be- fore mode so splendid a coup. Unfortunately, olT the Island of St. Peter, they encountered bad weatlier, and two ships went down with all on board. What must have been the feelings of the philanthropists. Pig William and Iron Hugh, at this misfortune f Thev got. however, five ships safely to Alexandria, und sold all their cargo, the Sultan of fairo buying forty of the boys, whom he brought up carefully and aiiurl, intending them, doubtless, for bis best soldiers. A dozen refusing to change their faith were martyred. None of the rest ever came back. Nobody in Europe seems to have taken much notice of this extraoniinary episode."— W. B<'. sant and E. H. Palmer, Jeriimltm. eh. 18. Also in: J. H. Micliaud, Hut. nttht Cnu,uU*. app. no. 88.— O. Z. Gray, The Children f Cn- tade. A. D. 1113.— Afaintt the Moors in Spain. See Spain: A O 114«-1382 A. D. Iii6-iaa9.— Tht Sixth MoTimcnt — Frederic II, in Jerusalem.— For six years after the betrayal of the vows of the crusaders of 1303- 1204 — who sacked Constanllnoplc instead of reacuing Jerusalem — the Christians of Palestine were protected by a truce with Saphadin, the brother of Saladin. who had succe<'ded the latter in power. Itustililies were llieu rosiily provoki'd by the always fcwilsh Ijitlns. and they soon found theniselvps reibued to sore straits, calling Bpoa Europe fur fresh help. Pope Innocent III. did not icruple to second their appeal. A ni crusade was preached with great earnestness, t a general Council of the Church — the Fourth Lateran — was convened for the stimulation it. "The Fifth Crusade [or the Sixth, as mc commonly numbered], the result of this i«9ol tion, was divided in the sequel into three ma time expeditions: the first [A. D. 1316] consi ing principally of Hungarians under their kin Andrew: the second [A. D. 1818] composed Germans, Italians, French and English oobi and their followers; and the third [A. D. 123 led by the Emperor Frederic II. in person. Thoi^h the King of Hungary was attended i the flower of a nation which, before its co version to Christianity, had been the scour and terror of Western Europe, the arms of th monarch, even aided by the junction of numi ous German crusaders under the dukes of Ac tria and Bavaria, performed nothing worthy notice: and after a single campaign in I'alesiio in which the Mussulman territories were ineffw ually ravaged, the fickle ALdrew dcsene<l ti cause and returned with his forces to Europ His defection did not prevent the duke of .\i) tria, with the German crusaders, from remainin in concert with the King of Jerusalem, liis barot and the knights of the three religious order for the defence of Palestine; and, Tntliefolloi ing year, the constancy of these faithful clisi pions of the Cross was rewarded by the arriv of numerous reinforcements from Germany. . . It was resolved to change the scene of inrti from the narrow limits of the Syrian shore the coast of Egypt, . . . and the situation i Damietta, at the mouth of the Nile, pointed oi that city as the first object of attack." After siege of seventeen months, during wliioh boi the liesieged and the liesiegers suffi'reil horribl from faimne and from pestilence, Damietta wi taken (A. D. 1319). Nine-tenths of Us iwpul tion of 80,000 had perishe<l. " Both ilunnit tl siege and after tlie capture of Damietta. the ii vasion of Egypt had nlled the inUiiels witli eoi sternation : and the alarm which was hetrayed : their counsels proveii that the eru.saderi. ; choosing that country for the tlieatn' of oner tions, had assailed the Mussulman power m i most vital and vulnerable point. Of the t« sons of Saphadin, Conullnus and • amel. wt were now uneasily seated on the tlinvnesof D; inascus and Cairo, the former, in despair of pn serving Jerusalem, had alreaily demolishtil i fortifications; and the brotliefs scri'i'il in n peatedly offering the cession of tlie lioly city m of all Palestine to the Chri.itians. upou the sing condition of their evacuating Eirypt. Evei object whicli had been ineffectually'pnipo9e<i i repeated Crusades, since the fatal battle < Tiberias, might now have been gloriou.sly ol tained by the acceptance of these terms, and tl King of Jerusalem, the French and Knitlis leaders, and the Teutonic knight.'i. all eagerl desired to embrace tlie offer of theSultuns. Bi the obstinate ambition and cupidity i>f the sui viving papal legate. Cardinal Pelairius. of tt Italian chieftains, and of the knights of theothi two religious orders, by hoUlliig out llie ric prospect of the conquest and plunder of Egyp' overruled every wise and temperate arj!uui<ul i the Christian councils, and produced a rejectio of all compromise with the infidels After winter of luxurious InacUoo, the legate led tii 056 CRUSADES, 1S16-132S. SLLouitM CRUSADES, 1248-1254. eroMding boat from Dunietto towud Cairo (A D. ISSO)." The ezpediUoo waa aa diaaa- tiDua in iu nault aa it waa imbecile in iu leader- lUp. The whole anny, caught by the riaing of the Kile, waa placed in so helpleaa • aituation that Itwugladto purehaaeeacapeby theaurrender of Dtmiettt and the evacuation of Egjrpt The letnat of the greater part of theae cruaaden did not end until they had reached home. Pope Honorius IIL (who had aucceeded Innocent 111 in 1218) itTOTe to ahift reaponsibility for the Mure from hia wretched legate to the Emperor Frederic 11., who had thus far evaded the ful- llment of his cruaading promises and vows twiog occupied in atrugglea with the papacy At length, in 1228, Frederic embarlied for Palestine with a an';ill force, pursued ly the maledictions of the pope, who denounced him for daring to assume the Crosa while under the litn of the church, aa much as he had denounced him before for neglecting it. But the free- tUnking Hohenstsuffen cared little, apparently, tad went his way, ahunned scrupulously by all pious souls, including the knights of Palestine, eicept those of the Teutonic order. With the help of the latter he occupied and refortifled JsSa «nd succeeded in concluding a treaty with the Sultan which restoretl Jerusalem to the Christians, reserving certain rights to the Ma- hometans; giving up likewise Bethlehem. Naz- areth and some other places to the Christians, ud securing peace for ten years. Frederic had married, a few years before, for his second empress, lolante, daughter and heiress of the titular king of Jerusalem, John de Brienne. With the hand of this princess, he received from her father a solemn transfer of all his rights to that shadowy throne. He now claimed those tights, and, entering Jerusalem, with the Teu- tonic knighu (A D. 1229), he crowned himself ittkins. The patriarch, the Templars and the Hospitallers refused to Uke part in the ceremony ■ the pope denounced Frederic's advantageous treaty aa soon as he had news of it. and all that it gained for the Christians of Palestine was thrown away by them as speedily as possible — Major Procter, Ilitt. nf ttie Vnimdeii. eh. 5, tert 2.-'Xo Crusader, since Gcxlfri'v de Bouillon W effwted so much as Frederick the Second! what would he not have obtained, hail the Pope, the Patriarch and the Orders given him ^ir huirty cooperation ? "-T. L. Kington, *•„"• "38-ia«o.— Againat the Bogomilea. we Bai.k.\.n AjiD Dani'hi.v.n 8t.\te»: 1>tu-1«tu Ce.\tikies (Bosnia, etc ) ,.*•_"• }'*'■— The Invasion of Palestine by the Carismians. See .Iercsai.em: \. I), vui A. D. i248-iac4._ The Seventh Movement, -tipedition of Saint Louis to Egypt.— Tlie Seventh Crusade was undertaken, with little aid ..........v ...,a ,iu,i,.iiuKrfi, wiiu mile aid irora other countries, hy the devout and wonder- fully Christian-like young kinu; of France, Louis v'*! T'"''' atuonl*ed. and known in historv u »t. Louis. "He carriiHl It out with a nicked fj?^' ,!"r"'»''ed by the feudal cliivalrv and hv «e reliRious and military onlcrs dedicated to Uie service of the Holy Lanrl. The Isle of ^-yprus was the trrstinir-place app<itnt/>d f..i- all |W r.ira-s of the expedition. Louis arrived Were on the 12th of September. 1248. and reck- «W upon remainhig there only a few davs; for It was Egypt that he waa in a hurry to reach. 43 Tlie Chri^ world waa at that time of oplnioa that, to deliver the Holy Land, it waa necesaarr flnt of aU to atrike a blow ..t blamism in Egypt wtereta lu chief strength .edded. ButaoiiSy had tile cniaadera formed a Junction In Cyprus when Uie vicea of Uie expedition xdA tiie weak- nesses of iu chief benn to be manifeat. LotJa. unshakable hi hU reflgioua zeal, was wanting to «'«" '<!"«« «nd fixed resolves as to tiie caring otitof Ua deaipL ... He did not suroS iS winnhig a naajority hi tiie council of chiefs over to hU opinion aa to tiie neceaaity for a speedy departtire for Egypt; it waa dedded to paastSe winter hi Cyprus . . At Uat a start wST^ade from Cyprus in May. 1249, and, in spite of vio- knt gales of wind which dUpersed a large num- ber of vessels, they arrived on the 4tii 5f June before Damietta. . . Havtag become mas- ters of mmietta, St LouU and tiie crusaden committed tiie same fault there as hi Uie Isle of Cyprus: they halted there for an indefinite time. They were expecting fresh crusaders; and tiiey spent the time of expectation in quarreling over the partition of tiie booty taken hi the city They made away witii it, they wasted it blindly. . . . Ijmis saw and deplored these irreguhui- ties without being In a condition to stop them At length, on the 20th of November, 1249 after more than five months' taactivity at Dainietto the crusaders put themselves once more in motion, with the determtoation of marching upon Babylon, that outskirt of Cairo, now called OW Cairo, which tiie greater part of them, m their ignorance, mistook for the real Babylon and where they flattered themselves they would find immense riches, and avenge the olden suffer- ings of the Hebrew captives. The Mussulmans had found time to recover from their first fright and to organize, at all pointa, a vigorous resist- ance. On tiie 8th of February, 1250, a battle took place twenty leagues from Damietta at Mansourah ('the city of victory'), on the right bank of the Nile. ... The battle-field was feft that day to the crusaders; but they were not allowed to occupy it as conquerors, for, three days afterwards, on the 11th of February 1250 the camp of St. Louis w,>s assailed by clouds of Saracens, horse and foot. JIameliikes and Bedouins. All surprise had vanishe<l, the JIus- sulmans measured at a glance the numbers of the Christians, and attacked them in full assur- ance of success, whatever heroism tliey might display: and the crusaders themselves indulged in no more self-illusion, and thouitlit only of defending themselves. Lack of proVisions and sickness soon rendered defence almost aa impos- sible as attack; every day saw the Christian camp more and more encumbered with the famine-strieken. the dvinc, and the dead: and the necessity for retreating became evident." An attempt to negotiate with the enemy failed, because they insisted on the surrender of the king as hostage,— which none would concede "On the 5th of April, 1250, the crusaders decided upon retreating. This was the most deplonible scene of a deplorable drama ; and at the same time it was, for the king, an occasion for displaying, in their most sublime and attracttvo traits, »1! the virtues of the Chri.s:i:m. Whilst sickness and famine were devastating the camp, Louis made himself visitor, physician and comforter; and his presence and his words ezereise<i upon the worst cases a searehing influ- 657 CRCSADES, 1348-1254. St. UmU at Turn. ■ CRUSADES, 1270-1271. li.='.S: ence. . . . Whan the Sth of April, the dar fixed for the retremt, had come, LouU hinuelf waa ill and much enfcibled. He was urged to go aboard one of the venelt which were to descend the Kile, carrying the wounded and the most luSering; but he refused absolutely, saying. 'I don't separate from my people in the hour of danger.' He remained on land, and when he had to move forward he fainted away. When he came to hinuelf, he was amongst the last to leave the camp. ... At four leagues distance from the camp it had just left, the rear-guard of the .-rusaders, harassed by clouds of Saracens, was obliged to lialt. Louis could ro longer keep on his horse ' He was put up at .i house,' ■ays ioinviUe, ' and laid, almost dead, upor the lar of a tradeswoman from Paris; and it was b.'lieved that he would not last till evening. The king, in this condition, with the whole wreck of his army,— only 10,000 in number remaining to him, — were taken prisoners. Their releas" from captivity was purchased a mouth later by the surrender of Damietta and a ran- som-payment of 500,000 livres. They made their way to St. Jean d' Acre, in Palestine, whence many of them returned home. But King Louis, with some of his knights and men- at-arms — how many is not known — stayed yet In the Holy Land for four years, striving and hoping against hope to accomplish something for the deliverance of Jerusalem, and expending "in small works of piety, sympathy, protection, and care for the future of the Chnstian popula- tion in Asia, his time, his strength, his pecun- iary resources, and the ardor of a soul which could not remain idly abandoned to sorrowing ever great desires iinsntisfle<l." Thu good and f)i()us l)ut ill-guided king returned to France n tlie summer of Vi'A. and was received with preiii j'>v.— F. P. Ouizot, P^piilirllitt. of France, eh. IT. -Vlso IN: Sire De Joinville. .Vemoirf of Sunt L"uii, pt. •,' — .1. F. .Mielmud, //i»f. ofl'/.e Vr. tad,,. hU ia-14. A. D. lasa.— The moTement of "the Pat- tors." — On tlie arrival in Fnmee of the news of the disastrous failun' of Aiiiit Louis's e.x ['edition to Egypt, there (H-eurred hii mitlMiak nt fiiimti- cisina.1 inaeasate ns tliat of tlieeliildnn's eniviide of forty years before. It wiis siiid in li.ive originated with a Ilungariaii nunied Jiiiolp. "ho began to proclaim thatC'hrist n^jeeteil tin' icreat ones of the earth from His serviei, and tluil the deliverance of the Holy City must l>e iKe.mi- plislied by the poor and humble. •Slieph. n's left tlieir flocks, labourers laid down tin' ii|..iii.'ii, to follow his footst<'ps. . . . The mime cifi'ar-lDrs was given to these village cnisadirs. ... At length, assembled to the numlier of niori' than ll».<KH). these n-<iouhtable pilgrims lift l':iiisniid divided themsi'lves into several tronp.s, tn n pair to the ci»«t, wlieni'O they were toenilmrk lyr tlie East, The city of Orleans, which lii\|i|Hiieil to 1m' in their passage, became the tlieiitre I'f fright- ful disl)^lers. 'The progress of tlieir eii(irinities at length cn-atwi seriouif alarm in the gnvem- ment ami the magistracy; orders were sent to tin,' pnivinces to puraue and dis|H'rse tlies<' turbu- lent and seditious bands. The ni"si iMimi'mus assemblage of tlie Pastors was H.xed to take place at Bourges, where the 'muster of Hungary' [■Jacob] was to perform miracles ami iiiinmuni- cate the will of Heaven. Their arrival in ttiU city was the signal for muiJer, fire and pUlai The irritated people took up arms and imrcL against tliese disturbers of the public pea thev OTertook them between Mortrmer a VilleneuTe-»ur-le-Cher, where, in spite of th numbers, they were routed, and received i punishment due to their brigandages. Jacob I: his head cut off by the blow of an axe ; maDv his companions and disciples met with death the field of battle, or were consigne<l to piini ment; the remainder took to flight. "--J Michaud, But. of the Cnuada • U. A. D. 1356-1159. — Aga. celino Rcmano. SeeVEBOKA: A. 1 . •.Jb.j-l>,")i». A. D. I3;ra-i37i.— The iaat undertakings Saint Louis at Tuoia. — Prince Edward Paleatine.- "For seven years after his return France, from 1254 to 1261, Louis sienied tothi no more about them [the crusades], anil tlierc nothing to show Ihat ne spoke of them ercD his most intimate confidants; but, iu spite of apparent calmness, he was living. h.> far as tli were concerned in a continual ferment imagination a' internal fever, even flatten himself that s ae favorable circumstance woi call him back j his ii ierrupted work. . . 1261, Louis held, at Paris, a Parliament, atwhii without any talk of a new crusade, nieasu were taken which revealed an ideao' it. . . . 1263 the crusade was openly prcaclieu objections, all warnings, all anxieties came nothing in the face of Louis's flxed iiha a pious passion. He started from Paris i>u the V of March, 1270, a sick man almost alnaily, t with soul content, and probably tlie imh < without mis.i^ving in the midst of all his co rades. It was once more at Aigues-Mortes tl he went to embark. All was as yet dark a undecided as to the plan of the expeditiuti. Steps were taken at hap-hazani with full tr in Provuience and utter forgetfulm isthat Pm (iencc does not absolve men fnuii furesii-ht . I' was onlv iu Saniinia, after four cl:iv> halt ( igliari. ttiat L,oui8 announced tn the diii-fs the crusiade. assembled alKianl his ship, • 'Mount joy. that he was makiiii,' fur Tunis, a that ttieirChristian work woiihl coiiiuKiiri' the The king nf Tunis (as he was tlieu lallnli. > liaimned Mostjinaer. liad for some time lieen ta ill'.' of his desire to iK'come a Christian, if (ivuhl lie etEcientIv protected ugaiiist thesi'litii of his subjects. Louis welcomed with iraasp till' prospect of Mussulman coiiversi.ni- Ihit im the 17th of Julv. when the tlei t arriv Icfore Tunis, tlie adniinil. Klorent ih- Varenn prcrl>al)Iy without tlie kiiivr's nnler-, .iml w that want of reflection which was cuu-pifu.'us each step of the enterprise, imincliali Iv t^^ possession of the harlmr and of some Tunisi ves-si'ls as prize, and si'iit wonl te the kiiii' ll he had imly to support him ami tint tin- il eiuliarkationof the lroo| < ndght !»• etTeitc'! w perfect safety,' Thus w ir was comimui . .1 the very first moment against tlie .Mu»«u!iii prince whom there had been pnuiiix "f -'•>i iM'fore long a Christian, At the enl "1 if; night, after some fight Ix'tweeu the Tuiiisii and the crusaders, so much political aiil niiUti blindness produced it^ nutiinil ((.ii>niiiini' The re-enforcements proniisi'd l' i.oiiis li.r brother Charles of Anjou. kin.u' "f (''icil.»- " not arrived; provisions were fallini: short. £ the heats of an African summer were worki 658 CRUSADES. l>7a-1971. TUMKt. CRCSAOES. hkToe amoant the umy with luch npidtty that before long tnen wu no time to burr the dead ; but ther were cast pell-mell into the ditch which iunounded the camp, and the air wai tainted thereby. On the 8d of August Louis was ttticked by the epidemic fever." On the 25th of August be died. His son and successor, Philip III., held his ground before Tunis until Korember, when he gladly accepted a payment of money from the Tunisian prince for with- dnwing bis army. Disaster followed him. A itorm destroyed part of his fleet, with 1,000 or 5,0(X) men, and sunk all the treasure be bad received from the Moslems. On the Journey home through Italy his wife met with ^i. acci- dent which ended her life and that of her prema- turely bom child. The young king arriVed at Paris. Hay, 1271, bringing the remains of Ave of Us familv for burial at St Denis : his wife, hif> iOD, his father, bis brother, and his brother-in- Uw,— sU victims of the fatal crusade. While Fiance was thus burying tlie last of her crusad- ers, Prince Edward (afterwards King Edward I.) of England, landed in Syria at the head of a few hundred knights and men at arms. Joined by the Templars and Hospitallers, he had an army of 6.000 or 7,000 men, with which he took Naza- letli and made there a bloody sacrifice to the memory of the gentle Xazarene. He did nothing more. ' Being wounded by an assassin, be ar- ranged a truce with the Sultan of Egypt and returned home. His expedition was the last from Europe which strove with the Moslems for the Holy Land. The rhristiaos of Palestine, who still held Acre and Tyre, Sidon and a few other coast cities, were soon afterwards over- whelmed, and the dominion of the C'escent in Syria wai; undisputed any more by force of arms, though niauy voices cried vainly against it. The spirit of the Crusades had expired. — F. P. Guizot, Fibular Ilitt. of Frnnct, en. 17. Also ih : J. F. Michaud, Hut. of the Crtuade; bk. IS. A. D. 1191.— The end of the Christian King- dom of Jeruaslem. Sen Jekus^lem: A. 0. Ii91. A. D. 1399.— The last campaign of the Templars.— " After the fall of Acre [A. D. 1291) the headquarters of the Templars were established at Limisso in the island of Cyprus, snil urgent lctt€-s were sent to Europ<> for succour." In 1295, James de Molay, the head of theEnelish province, became Orand Master, and sonn after his arrival in Palestine he enterci iiiti) tn nlliance with Ohazan Khan, the Mongol ruler of I'c rsia, who hail marrietl a Christian princess of .Vrincnin and was not uufricmlly to the Cliristians, as against the Mamelukes of Egypt. with wlioiii he was at war The Mongol Khan invited the Templars to join him iu au expeditiou ag;iinst the Sultan of Egypt, and tlicv did so in the spring of 1299, at Antiwh. "An army of *J,i>«J men was placed by the Mogul emiwmr umicr the command uf the Qraud Master, and the ccimbined forces moved up the "alley of the Onintis towards Damascus. In a great hattle fnu.'iit at Hems, the troops of the sultana of I>aniu.««u8 and Egypt were entirely defcauti and pursuni with great slaughter until uiirlitfall. Aiipp.1. Hems, llsmaECUs, and all the principal cities, surrendered to the victorious arms of the Mhl'uIs, and the Templars once aeain entered Jerusalem iu triumph, visited the Uoly Sepulchre and celebrated Easter on Mount Zion." Tha khan sent ambassadors to Europe, offering ths possession of Palestine to the Christian powers If they would give him their alliance and sup- port, out none responded to the call. Ohazan Khan fell ill and withdrew from Syria; the Templars retreated to Cyprua once more and their military career, as the champions of the Cross, was at an end.— C. G. Addison, JVk* Knightt Temj^n, eh. 6. Also ik: H. H. Howarth, Hitt. of the MmooU, pt. 3, eh. 8. Effect! and coiuequencet of the Crusade* in Europe.— "The principle of the crusades waa a savage fanaticism ; and the most import- ant effects were analogous to the cause. Each pilgrim was ambitious to return with his sacred spoils, the relics of Greece and Palestine; and each relic waa preceded and followed by a train of miracles and visions. The belief of the Catholics was corrupted by new legends, their practice by new superstitions; and the establish- ment of the inquisition, the mendicant orders of monks and friars, the la^t abuse of indulgences, and the final progress of idolatry, flowed from the baleful fountain of the holy war. The active spirit of the Latins preyed on the vitals of their reason and religion; and if the ninth and tcLtU centuries were the times of darkness, the thirteenth and fourteenth were the age of absurdity and fable. . . . Some philosophers have applauded the propitious influence of these holy wars, whicu appear to me to have checked rather than forwarded the maturity of Europe." — E. Gibbon. Decline and Pall of the Runaa Empire, eh. 61. — "The crusades may be con- sidered as material pilgrimages on an enormou* scale, and their influence upon general morality seems to have been altogether pernicious. Those who served under the cross would not indeed have lived very virtuously at home; but the confidence in tneir own merits which the prin- ciple of such ejipeditions inspired must nave aggravated the ferocity and dissoluteness of their ancient liabits. Several historians attest the depravation of morals which existed, both among the crusaders and in the states formed out of their conquests. "—II. Hallam, The MiddU Aget, '■h. 9. pt. 1. — ■' It was not possible for the crusaders to travel through so many cotiuiries, and to behold their various customs and insti- tutions, without acquiring information and im- provement. Their views enlarge<l; their pre- judices wore off; new ideas cnmdeil into their minds; Hiiil tliiy must have been sensible, on many occasions, of the rusticity of their own manners when compared with those of a more polisheil people. . . . Accordingly, we discover, soon after the commencement of the crusades, greater splendour in the courts of princes, greater pomp in public ceremonies, a more refined taste in pleasun- and amusements, together with a more romantic spirit of enterprise spreading pradnally over Europe; and to these wild expe- ditions, the effect of supen<tition and follv, we owe the first gleams of light which tended to dispel l)arl>arism and ignorance. But the bene- ficial consequences of the crusades t<x)k place slowly ; ihcir infiiii'nco upon the state of property, and. consequently, of power, in the different kingdoms of Europe, was more immediate as Well as discernible. '— W. Robertson, iexeofths Prwjrttt of Soe. in Europt, $eet. 1.—' The cru- 659 CBUBADE8. CfMiiaml MdM an not, in my mind, either the popular ddiulona that oar cheap llteratuie bai determined them to be, nor papal oooipiraciet againat kinga and peoplea, u they appear to the Proteatant controTerdaliat; nor the aarage outbreaka ot expiring barbariam, thirating for blood and Blunder, nor volcanic ezploaiona of religioua itolerance. I believe them to have been, in their deep aourcea, and in the minda of their beat champions, and in the muin tendency of their resulta, capable of ample justification. They were the flrtt great effort of medieval life to go beyond the pursuit of (elflah and laolated ambitiona; they were the trial-feat of the young world, easaying to uae, to the glory of Ood and the benefit of man, the arma of ita new knighthood. . . . That in the end tbey were a benefit to the wurUl no one who rrads can doubt; and that in their coune they brought out a lore for all that ii heroic in human nature, the love of freoiom, the honour of prowess, sympathy with sorrow, perseverance to the last and patient endurance without hope, the chronicles of the age abundantly prove; proving, more- over, that it was by the experience of those times that the forms of those virtues were realized and presented to posterity. "— W. Stubbs, StTtntetn LeeU. on the Study of Medimal and Modern Hint., leet. 8.— "Though begun under the name and influence of religious belief, the crusades deprived religious ideas, I shall not say of their legitimate share of influence, but of their exclusive and despotic possession of the human mind. This result, though undoubtedly unforeseen, arose from various causes. The flrst was evidently the novelty, extent, and variety of the scene which displayed itself to the crusaders: what generally happens to travellers happened to them. It is mere common-place to say, that travelling gives frce<l<>m to the mind; that the habit of observing different nations, different manners and different opinions, enlarges the ideas, and disengajfes the judgment from old prejudices. The same thinsr happened to those nations of travellrri vm,, " ,\ been cslini ;! e crusaders; their minds were „peued and rai8e<l by having seen a multitude of different things, by having become Bcquainte<l with oilier manners than their own. They found them- selves also placed in connexion with two stales of civilization, not only different from their own, but more advanced— the Greek state of »<x;ietv on the one hand, and the Mussulman on the other. ... It is curious to observe in tlie chronicles the impression made by ;be crusjulers on the Mussulmans, who regarde<l them at first as the most brutal, ferocious, and si.. -id bar barians they had ever sf-en. The crusaiK . ■ on their part, were struck with the riches and elegance of manners which they observed among the .Mussulmans. These first impressions were succeeded by frequent relations between the Mussulmans and Christiana. These became more extensive and important than ia commonly believeil. . . . There is another circumstance wliich is worthy of notice. Down to the time of the crusades, the court of Rome, the centre of the Church, had iK'en very little in communi- cation with the laitv, unless through the medium of ecclesiastics; either leeal-." sent bv the court of Home, or the whole body of the hishops and clergy. There were always some laymen In direct relation with Rome;' but upon the whole, CRCBADE8. It waa by meana of charchuMB that Rome any communtcatkn with the people of diSei oountriea. During the cmiadea, on the contn Rome became a haltinf -place for a great pon of the cruaadera, either In going or retumi A multitude of laymen were spectators of polii^ and ita manneit, and were able to disco the ahare which peraonal interest had in reliiH diaputea. There is no doubt that thisnei acquired knowledge inapired many minds a a boldneaa hitherto unknown. When we c aider the state of the general mind at the fern ation of the cruaadea, eapecially In regard eccleaiastical matters, we cannot fail to be stn with a singular fact : religioua notions undcrv no change, and were not replaced by contrsrj even different opinlona Thought, notwithsta ing, had become more free; religious crp were not the only subject on which tlie bun mind exercised iufacultiea; without abandon! them. It began occaaionally to wander from the and to 'ake other directiona. . . . The sm state of aociety had undergone an analngc change. . . . Without entering Into thediu ... we may collect Into a few general fa the influence of the cruaadea on the social sti of Europe. They greatly diminished i number of petty fiefs, petty dc nains, and pel proprietors; they concentrated propertv a power in a amaller number of hancfs. It fs fn the time of the crusadea that we may observe! formation and growth of great fiefs— the eii ence of feudal power on a Targe scale. . . Tl waa one of the most important results of t crusades. Even in tboae cases where sm proprietors preserved their fiefs, thev did t live upon them in such an insulated state formerly. The posaessors of great flefs beciti so many centrea around which the smaller oi were gathered, and near which they came live. During the crusades, small propriiu found it necessary to phice themselves in i train of some rich and powerful chief, fn)m kIk they received assistance and support. Tli lived with him, shared hia fortune, ami pa-w through the same fadventures tba* tv did Wh the crusaders returned home, this social spir this habit of living in intercourse witli siiperi( continued to subsist, and had its influence on t: manners of the age. . . . The extension of tl great flefs. and the creation of a iiumlHT central points In society, in plaoe of the gent r dispersion which previously existed, were tl two principal effects of the crusades, eoiisidin with respect to their influence upon fruilalisr As to the inhabitants of the towns, a result the same nature may easily be peneived. Tl crusadi's created great civic communities. Piti commerce and petty Industry were not stiffii in to give ri.se to communities sucli as the irre; cities of Italy and Flanders. It was coninKn on a great scale — maritime commerce, iim especially, the commerce of the Ea.«l and Wi» which gave them birth; now it was tlie crusadi which gave to the maritime commerce tt greatest impulse it had yet tvceive.1. On tt whole, when we survey the state of s<Kiety i t^>c end of the crusades, we find that the nior( meut tending to diasolution and dis|K'rsion. tl movement of tinivcnwl localiiati.-.n (if I msy !; allowed such an expression), had ceased, and ha been succeeded by a movement in tlie i-ontrar direction, a movement of centralizatiuu. 1 it; 660 CRUSADX8. dUngt tended to mutual approsiiiution; mukll tbingt were sbeorbed in great one*, or gatberad lottod them. Such wai the direction then taken by the progreia of loclety."— F. Quizot, But. 0/ Oitiluation, itet. 8 (v. 1). A. D. ijSj.— Th* Bishop of NonHdi's Cmiadt is FUndtra. See Flandbrs: A. D. iM. A. D. 1430-1431.— Cmaadc anliut th« Hno* titei. See Bohemia: A. D. 1419-1484. A. D. I44>i444-— Chriatian Europe agaiut tbe Turka. See Turks (Thb OrroifAxa): A. D. 1403-1431. A. 0. I467-I47I — Cruaade Inatintcd by tht Pope akainat Goorce Podicbrad, kinc of Bohemia. See Bohemia : A. O. 1438-1471. « CRYPTEIA, The. See Ertptua. CTBSIPHON.— "The Parthian monarch*, Ute the Mogul lovereigns of Htndoetan, delighted is tbe putoral life of their ScythUn ancestors, ud the imperial camp was frequently pitched in tbe plain of Cteaiphon, on tbe eastern banks of the T ris, at the distance of only three miles fiDC .'ucia. The innumerable attendants on lull- jd despotism resorted to the court, and tbeh... vilUre of Ctesiphon insensibly swelled into a great city. Under the reign of Marcus, the Roman generals penetrated as far as Ctesiphon ud Seleuda. They were received as friends by the Greek colony; they attacked as enemies the Mtof the Parthian kings; yet both cities ex- perienced the same treatment. The sack and conflagration of Seleucia, with the massacre of 300,000 of the inhabitants, tarnished the glory of the Roman triumph. Seleucia, already exhausted by the neighborhood of a too powerful rival, sunk under the fatal blow; but Ctesiphon, in about thirty-three years, had sufficiently recovered lu itrength to maintain an obstinate siege against the emperor Severus. The city was, however tsken by assault ; the king, who defended it in pereon, escaped with precipitation: 100,000 cap- tives and a rich booty rewarded the fatigues of the Roman soldiers. Notwithstanding these mis- fu::anis, Ctesiphon succeeded U) Babvlon and to Seleudu an one of tbe great capitals 0? the East " -E. Gibbon, Deeline and Fall of the Rinnan Em- pin, fh. 8— In 637 A. D. Ctesiphon pa8se<i into the possession of the Saracens. See Mahomet uj Cos(jfE.sT .»SD Empire: A. D. 633-651. Also ix: O. Rawlinson, Sizth Great Oriental Momrrhy. fh. 6— See. also, Medain. CUATOS, The. See Americ.\n Aborioixes : P.»)ii'As Thibes. CUBA: A. D. 1492-1493.— Diacovery by Columbus. Sec America: A. I). 1493; and ItJw-ltUO. •*■ 9- '5"-— Spanish conquest and occupv tion of the island.— "Of the islands, Cuba was the seoiimi discovered ; but no atU-mpt had been iMifc to plant a colony there during the lifeUme or Columbus; who, indeed after s'lirtlng the whole extent of its southern 00, -■ -tied in the conriction that it was pa. t .,f t:,,- ,., utment. At tength in l.Ml, Diego, tl- .<on ai.d successor of the admiral,' who still maintRine.: ?iie seat of government in Hispaniola, fir ; , the tnlnes much eihauBied there, proposed to occupy the neieh- bour.D.. ...hml of Cuba, ur Fcraandina. a« it is «lled. in compliment to the Spanish monareh. ne prepared a small force for the conquest, which he placed under the command of Don Diego CUBA. Velaaquei. . . . Velasquez, or rather hla lieuten- ant Manraex, who took the office on himself of scouring the oountir. met with no serious oppo- sition from the inhabitants, who were of the asms lamUy with the effeminate natives of HIapaniola. " After the conquest, Velasquez waa appofaited governor, and esubUshed his seat of government Sf" ,V°;^° "" southeast comer of the island. — W. H. Preicott, CtmquM e/ Itnieo, bk. 2, A^%.f. ^ ^"^^ *«»** <*»»^ •■» 1 i^?" »5M-i«S«.— Slow dtrelopracot of tht lsl«Bd.-Capture of Hsvans by ths EntU™ -Discontent with Sosnish rie.-CoMpira; ciesof rerolntion.— -VeUsquez founded many of the towns of the islandrtfe first of whichTM Baracoa, then Bayamo, and in J314 Trinidad, Santo Espiritu, Puerto Principe; next, in 1615 SantUgo de Cuba, as alao, in the same year. th4 town of Habana. . . . This period (1511-1607)18 particularly interesting to the general reader from the fact that in it the explorations of Her- nandez de Cadoba and Griialva to Darien Yuca- tan, etc were inaugurated, — evenU which had so much to do with the spread of SpanUh rule and discovery, paving the way as they did for the exploration of Mexico under Hernando tortes, who, in the eariy history of Cuba, tic- ures largely as the lieutenant of the Governor Velasquez. . In 1524, Diego Velasquez died, — his death hastened, it is said, by the troubles brought upon him by his disputes with his insubordinate lieutenant, Cortes. ... In the history of the Improvement of the island his government will bear favoi^ble comparison with many of the later governments; and while that great evil, slavery, was introduced into the •aland in his time, so also was the sugar cane ■ • \ \P '" ''^' """^ seems to be nothinit specially striking in the general history of the Island, If we except the constant attacks with Are and sword of the ' fllibusteros, ' or pirates of all nations, from which most all the sea-const towns suffered more or less; but in that vear there arrived at Santiago de Cuba a man destined to play an important part in the historv and discovery of the new world, and named as Provincial Governor of Florida as well as of Cuba,— I allude to Hernando de hoto, who brought with liiin lu large vessels, prepared and titted out e.xpre.islv for the conquest of the new Spanish territory of'Florida After much care and preparation, this e.xpe dition started out from the city of Habana the 13th of May [see Florida: A. D. ISSS-l.VtSl' ... In this perimi, also, wm promulgated that order, secund, it is believed, by the uoble efforts of Padre Las Casas, prohibiting the enslaving of the aborigiues; while, also, such had become its importance as a town, all vessels directed to and from Mexico were ordered to sU)p at Havana. In the periwl of years that elapsed from 1007 to 1763, the island seems to have been in a perfect sute of lethargy, except the usual changes of its many Governors, and the raids made upon it by pirates, or by more legalized enemies m the form of French and Engl'sh men-of-war. la this latter year, however, occurred an event of much import, from the fact that after It, or upon its occurrence, the Government of Spain Was led to see the great imporUncc of Cuba, nnd particularly Havana, as the 'Key to the ^ew m 661 CUBA. World,' — thla event wu the tMogot Hsvans bj the Engliah. On the 6th of June, 1702, there arrived off the port of Havana an English ■quadron of 33 ships and frigates, with some 200 transports, bringing with them a force of nearly 80,000 men of all arms, under command of the Duke of Albemarle. This fonnidable arma- ment, the largest that America had ever seen, laid siege to the city of Havana, whose garrison consisted at that time of only alwut 2,700 regu- lars and the volunteers that took up arms imme- diately for the defense of the place . . . The garrison, however, made a very gallant and pro- longed defense, notwithstanding the smallness of their numbers, and finally, surrendering, were permitted to march out with the honors of war, the English thus coming into |)os8e8s!on of the most important defences on the coast, and. subsequently, taking possession of the town of ttatimzas. Remainmg in possession of this por- tion of the Island of Cuba for many months (until July 6, 1783). the English, by importing negro labor to cultivate the large tracts 4)f wild land, and by shipping large quantities of Eun>pean merchandize, gave a start to the trade and tmlllc of the island tliat pushed it far on its way to the state of prosperity it has now reachejl ; but by the treaty of peace, at Purls, in February, 1763 [see Seven lears Warj. was restored to Spain tlie portion of the island wrested from her by the English. ... In this [H'riiKi (1762-1801) the island made rapid ad- viitires in imprrvveinent and civilization, nmiiy of tlir I'aptainsOemTBl of this period dohig much to Improve the towns and the people, iH'Uiitifv- liiir the slnt'tn. ertrting buildings. et<- In l7(i:i. a large einigratliin tixik plaie fn)m Kloridu. und in 170.') the French emigrants fMin Santo Ikimlngo came on to the island in large iiuinlnTN. . . . From W>\. rapid inrreaM' in the pMs|Mrlty of the islauil has taken place. .At various tlnie» insurrections, some of thini quite serious in their nature, have shown what the natural desin- of the native population is for greater privileges anil fri'edom. ... In 1"<2;1. there was a wxiety of 'soles. ' as It was lalled. formed for the pur- pos<' of fneing llie island, having at its head youug I) Francisco Lenius. and having for its preteit thai the island was alu'iit to Ik' sold to England. In IM'.II. there wa- lisiovered the conspiracy of tlie Hluik Eagle. a> it was ealli-ii (.\gulla Ni'gnil, an alliinpl on the pjirt of the tHjpulation to obtain their fn riloni, some of the Mexican M'tthn in the island iHlng prominent in it The Insurrection, or attempt at one. by the blacks in 1H44, was n-markable for Its wide- spni' 1 ramitlcalions among the slaves „( the Island, as well as its tliorough organi/ailon.— ■ tlie intention Iwlng to niunlir all the w liitis on the Island Other minor in«urn-eiiiui» tliiTe were, l.irl it remained for Narciso I,ii|m/., with a fonc- of some WKI men. to make the most ini (•orlant nitemiit [\>V)\\. in which he hist his life, to friT the island "—S llarani, Cufci viiK/Hh anil friiril, ,,,, .V47 .VIO Ai.Ko IS M M liallou. tlt'l nfCKi, fh. 1-3 — I.ord .Mahon iKarl StanlmiM). " //i»r ,.f fr,„. 1:1:1 17N3. .-A ;|M ir 41 -.1 F.nlicl,. //iW ,.f iU hit, ir.ir, r X ,,,< .MW-BHrt — |) Turnl.ull. Tk/m. th ti-'H A. D. il4S-iSte. — Acquisition co*tttd b^ the ilaTC-power in the United Stkttt.— At- ttapttd purcfcMc.— FiUbuMcring tchaoMS.— CUBA. The Ostcnd Manifesto.—" When the !«n colonies in America became independent. abolished slavery. Apprehensive that tii publics of Mexico ana Columbia woulc anxious to wrest Cuba and Porto UicD Spain, secure their independence, and iiitni into those islands the idea, if they did not t lish the fact, of freedom, the slave-masters [0 United States] at once sought to guard aj; what they deemed so calamitous an eviin ' But after the annexation of Texas, there n change of feeling and purpose, and Cuba. being an object of dread, became an ohj,, vehement desire. The propagandist.s. .stni ened and emlnddened by that signal triui now turned their ey^ towards this Uau ' isle of the sea,' as the theatre of new ex|i| and they determined to secure the ■ gi ui ol Antilles ' for the coronet of their great and i; hig power. During Mr. Polk's adniini.^tn an attempt was made to purchase it, and th,' of $100,000,000 was offered thi^refor IJm offer was promptly declineil. What, linw, could not lie liought It was detemdncil i<> 1, and filibustering movements and expecliiion, came the order of the day. For no s.H,iiir President Taylor inaugiirated than lit f, movements on foot in that direction ; am August, 1N49. be Issued a prcK'lamalion. all Ing his Ix'llef that an 'armed eX|MHiiii,.u Mng fitted out 'against tuba or fune ,.( provinces of Mexico,' and calling upon all ; citizens ' to discountenance and prevt n' any enterprise.' In 18.11 an exiHiliticm, ciin«i.tiii some ,V»0 men. saileti fmm New (Irli uis u Lopez, a Cuban adventurer. Hut tlmunl effected a lamling. it was easily di (i;ii. li, au leader and a few of his followers wi ri' c xic u SiKin afterward, a scent a»s<Miati 11, ^n lts«'lf the Oriler of the Lone Star. w:i^ f,.ni,i- several of the Seiuthem cities, hiiviuj; a >iii objcHt In view; but it attnictecl liiile- notiir Hceoniplishi \ nothing. ... In Aui.'ii^t. 1 Pri'slelenl P.eree Instructicl Mr, Marc\ liUS tiiry of State, to direct H'lchanan. .Mawii Soule''. ministers n'siMctlvely at llii' e^iiirf London, Paris and Mailrid. to ronvnK' In s Europitin city and confer with eac h other lu ganl to the matter of gaining (iiha toth< I'd States. They mil aci'onlinglv, in u. icls (Mend. The results of their efi Ills rail us i pnblislied in a manifesto, in wliii h tjji rei: are set forth for the acquisition; aiicliheilnl tion was made that the Union lonhi 111 vcrct re|">se and security as long as I'uIki i> licit liraeecl within Its iHiundaries. ' Hut iIii- f source of anxiety, the rontrolliug nioiivi. the aiiprehension that, unless so unnexol wdulil ' Im' Africanized and IxHomr a mihuiI iKiiningo,' thus 'seriously to eniiaiiLir' Union "This painr attracted gnat iitn iill'ii caused niiieli astonlsliinent It was a! tirvt eelnsl with incn'dulity. as If tin re had !• • 11 • nilstak* or linpewllion praetlseil lini ll was no mistake . . It was ihcchlilii nn u! ami' of the I'onfen'iice. and ii mciiid the dorsemeul uf Mr Plene and hi- ailminwnit The IVmcMTatie natioiMl nmvi iiiiun» if Is.V) of 1M*J were quite as explicit as were- iliesutl ..• tJM. (fctf^nd msr.lf*~t- ' tii f>i?"T -f ;'■- ~-i- lion of Cul*"— H Wilson, lliH .'/ lU , einif t'alt of lAt Slatt J\»etr in Amtrita. t M. 47. cr.L' When thf Spanish luiicpendem. the? naive that iln> re. lumliia Would be Porti. liioi. from Dvv, aud ininHluce hoy did not isiab- ave-niiiateR [of iije ; to (juurd acaliat Dus an ivcrit Pcxas. thiTe wa« i e, and t'lilia. fn.m came an olijirt of gandist.s, stnni'ih. It signal iriuni|ili. nh this iH-autitui ! of new ei|.|i)iis; e the • pvm of the fir gri'at aud irriM. !k'« Hdiniiii.'.tratioa laselt, and 111,, sum ther.-for, liiii the What, howivcr, •temihiiil lo Mial, nd ex|niliii,,ns hf. ■'or no s»M,iiir waj 1 than li. f„nnJ dinnioi!; mul. in K'lanialioii. atlinii. 1 expcdiii.'U vat tia or Hinu' of tlie llnv upon all pkd I liri'Vi lit any <uoli ition, roM«ist'iiii of ew ((rlriii« uitler Hut thouiih ii y il.fi-ai.d, iiu.l hi em u.ri' ixiiiii,.! swH'iaiO'ii, >uliije ur. w;i^ forti.nl in i. hiivjiic a >iim!ar d little iioii.v and In Aiis.Mi-1. 1«.>J, •, Many, liL^S-irf- laiiaii. Mason aui at I lie eourts of I convi no in s'lne I I'ai h oihor iu ff- Culia totliol'nitij Iv, ill H, toirr, tt ffilil« rail. 'IIS «!■!<• w hit li till' n-aM'Ui a; and llieiiiuin- eoiild ni'Vi r lujor .» Culia is not tm- 1. ' lllil till' (TMll dliug iiioiivi. UK i t(o uiii)*'\ii! httr 'onif a siTonit >«a lo enilankiir tlir ^n'lit iiiiiiili.'iiiiml ft \>a!> at HM If' ii're liad Ixiisonie •d . . Hmi llnre lie delil« rite utiir t M'l in.l till' ID- li« aiilllllilslnittoll- •iiiloiis'if iNVtund M Were (lieautlion tr-T .-f ;!» v-i'iis lliit if iU ft* IH Amtrva. t t. CUBA. A. D. 1850.— The Case of the Black War- figr,_One of the irritations that excited feeling in the United States against the Spanish author- ities In Cuiit. aa cauied, in 1850, by the seizure, at HsTana, on purely technical grounds, of the steamer "Black Warrior," which touehed at the port for panengers and mall Her cargo was confiscated and a heavy fine levied on the ship. Indemnity for the wrong to the owners vM only obtained after live years of controversy. A D. 1863-1895.— In his book, "The West lufliir"-"! ■■.•' Spanish Main," published in 1859, Mr. Aiitlii i" Trollope descrilxMl the situation of the C iba . under Spanish rule by saying: "At pr(>s(it tl T have no national privilege except tl lit of I.' dergoing taxation. Every ofHce is ' ■ t)v 8 Spaniard. " Of course, there was deep- Mat«<i v' ^content, and many insurrectionary at- teiiipts; but "it was not till the end of 1N6.5, and after protracted efforts on the part of the colo- nists, that they succeeded la obtaining the ap- pointment of a commlasloo to ini|uire Into the cauK's of their discontent." Nothing came of it: and the Cubans then "set themselves to deriiH' plans for freeing their Island fmni the crushing dominion of Spain. ... In the month of August, 1868, it was determined that an rtnimary should be sent through the various districts of the Island, with the ostensible pur- po« of arranging agencies for a Journal newly- establishnl at llavannah, but in reality to ^itiiie the state of public opinion, and see upon what assistance an Insurrectionary movement iniilit rely, , , , The revolutlou in" the niutlier- C'liinlry In September, IHH8. which drove the llourluMi dynasty from the throne. s<rms to have |iriii|ilt«t<il tlieinsurreetiiin In I'ulia. . . . The llrtit liop<' seems t4) have been that the new Gov- irimiiut would aniellorati' the coinlition of tlie I'liniy. In which still a not unini|>ortanl party tiuac to the desire for suih reforms ai* woultl malile them to remain connected with the coun- try of which they ha<l so long formed a part. Thi« hope was (ll4ap|Hiinte<l. and the insurgents ilid not wait hing Iwfore they took action The s! imlanl of revolt was at length raiseii by Carlos Manuel de I'espedcs, on his estate of DeniajaguH, lit a short distance from the town of Yani, in the lastorn di'fiartiiient. t'esjx'des was known as an iilili lawyer and wealthy planter , iitnl he was not >! iw in ulliaetiiig III himself a res|H'i talile fol. liwiiii: .\t rtrsi lie found lilmstdf at the hemi of Itiil a small iiiunber of pairiots. and all Ills more trtisiworiliy slaves, the latter of whom he iilier- atisi on ilie spot. He was soon Jnilleil liv his rriiml .Xirullera, and ttie two then decided that lliov wiiulil never abAiidoii tlie i-ause till thev liaii fris'ii th.- Island from K|miilsh ride ninl n ii. iIitihI It iiide|M"ndent." — A1/i>iAk»v/A UirinF ll>l. W-\. — The struggle for Cuban liiile|»iidenee lliiis iM'iriin was umlntalneil for ten years, with I 'lis. i|iiiiin'» terribly destructive Iii the pron- 1» ritv of the Islaml. The contest had Utile of 111' I haraeter of civilized warfare, on either side. .\tii.iiig lis incidents was one that causini great ■ M iteinenl In the Tnlted States. An .Vmerlean •taniir. tile Virglnius, Captain .losenh Fry, t.Kik ' !i a earKo of war material for the CuImii Insur t iiu. ai I'lirt ail l*rlnce. in Octotier. l^TH She IS .Mrtaken on her voyage to the island tiy the Spanish gun boat Tornado, eaplurisi ami taken ' ' Ninliago de Cuba Then' Captain l-'rv and liii! irt'w wcrt trk.>d by court martial auil cuu- CULDEES, demned to death. The Captain and flfty-two of his men, with four insurgent chiefs who had taken passage on the Virglnius, were summarily shot. Ninety -thret! more, under sentence, were saved by the vigorous protests of the captain of the British steamer Niobe, which arrived from Jamaica in time to interfere. Much as Ameri- cans were horritieil and e.\cited by the deed, the American government could not call the Snan- ianls to account, since the Virglnius was unlaw- fully engaued, and her < aptors had a technical riirht to the savage pt'naity they exacted. The Rniiie savagery of spirit appears to hiive been exhibited throughout the war. In 1878 it was practically terminated, by an agreement cuUeil the Treatvof El Zanjon,' under which Maximo Ooniej, the Cuban military leader, abandoned the struggle and n'tireil to San Domingo, The treaty gave representation to Cuba in the Span- ish Cortiw, and i(rovidi<l for various apparent reforms Ui llie government of the island. Accord- ing to the Cubans, litth' has been realized from them. Thev are said to have simply given new iiiinira to o(d evil- nIhvitv, however, which had been praclii ally dislroyed by the war. was formally alioUshed by a decree of Octi ilar 7, 1H86, after having bt'cn, in" |8m(i, ri-duced to a prepara- tory system of " patrt>nai.'e. " Discontent has tieen stitadily spreadlne anew, since the pnieti- cal outcome of the treaty of El Zaniou iH-gan to be uiulerstiMMl, and the standard of revolt was aiiain raisid by .Maximo Gomez, In February, \x\)'^. The war thus ri"pened seems likelv to be more determined and ciestructlvi; than before. lf%lti' CUBIT. The,— "The length of the Egvptiun fi>>t is . . . shown to be e(|ual to l.oi.s I'iliiiliBli foot, or 12.16 Inches (USONtl metre! aud the cubit lo IX 34 English Inches, or u.4«3 metre. This cubit was Identical wiih the I'linniciau or Klym- pie eiiliit, afterwanls adopted in Gret-ce. , , . The second of the two Egyptian cubits was the royal cubit, or cubit of Menijihis, of seven palms or twenty-eight diirits, . . , The mean length of the Egyptian roval cubit Is . . . nseertaiueil to be 2tl.fl"7 English inches, or 5J5 uiiii. . . . The fact that Moses nhvavs nnntions the Egyptia.i measures ... us well as the Kiryplian uelghta provesthiit the llilin WM.riL'iiially brought I lii'ir ueiulits and iiiea-iiris from Egypt . . . Iu hisdlsserlalioii on eiiliiis, Sir Isiiiie Newton slate* grounds for his opinion that the siii nsl eiildi of the, lews na«i'i|ii:il lo 'J4. 7 ol our iiii lies, and that the royal ciiliil of Memphia was equivalent to tlvr-aiktlis of iliix xaerni ,lew ish iiibil, or 30 6 Inches"— II. \V Chlsholni, »<« tht Srifiiet of HV/.;'"".','"'"' Mion'irh.ij. ,-h 3 CUCUTA, The Convention of SecCuLOM- IIIAN STATts .\ |l l'<IH-l«!ll» CUFA S.I ilrssoH*!! Hill Kir.\ CUICIDH. The See Tr \tii. The. CULOEES. The -It usid to beset forth bjr rrlit: lolls hi-loriiiiis that the t iiUltss were an an- cleiii ri.liL''nus fraternity in Scotland, iirobably foiiiidi d liv Coliiinba tliesnintly Irish nilsnionary of the sixth ceiilu iinil hstrlog lis nriii.ipal s<.at ill loiia : that they "w.e the liitlns of Scotland in a dark and superstitious age" ; that they •tnigiiiisi tor •evernl ceiitiirits airninsi lb* error* aiidthe opitriMwIve priiensloiis of Home The facts galherisl by Dei.n l<ei\es niul pub- lished iu 1H04. Iu hia work on the "Cukleesof CC3 It c,3 t- ^; CUMBRIA. the British blaoda," supported by the more recent studies of Mr. W. F. Skene, are now iren- eraily accepted. Says Mr. Skene, {Celtic Seat- land, bk. 3, cA. A) : " It is not till after tlie ez- Suision of Uie Columban monks from tlie king- om of the Picts, in the beginning of the eighth century, that the name of Culdee appears." Mr. Skene's conclusion is that the Culdevs sprang from an ascetic order called Delcolc or Oo<l-wor- shippersi that in Irish the name l>ecame Ceile De, thence comipted into Culdee; that they were hermits, who became in time aasnrlated In com- munities, and were Anally brought under the canonical rule of the Roman church, along with th€' secular clergy. CULEUS, The. Bee Amphora. CULHUACAN. See Mexico, AsctxnT: The Toltec Empire. CULLODEN, Battle of (1746). See Scot- land: A. D. 174V1746. CULM, OR KULM, Battle of See Qer- MAKT: A. D. 1«13 (Al-orsT). GULP'S HILL. See United States or Am.; a. D. 1863 (.TrsE-Ji'LT: Pessstlvania). CULTURKAMPF, The. See Qermant; A. D. 1873-1887. CUMiE.-CUMiEAN SIBYL, — "Earlier than Tin B. C though we do not know the precise era of Its commencement .there eilsteii one solitary Orecian estahliitbment in the Tyrrhe- nian Sea, — the Campaninn Cumie, near Caix' Misenum ; which the more common opinion of chronologlsts supposed tu have been founded in 1090 B. C. and which has even been carried bark by some authors to 1139 B. C". . . . Cuma>. situ- ated on the neck of the peninsula which termi- nates in Cap<- Misenum, occupied a lofty and rocky bill overhanging the sea and dilllcull of srcpw on the land »)de ... In the hollow nxk umlir the very wnIIk of the town was sItuHli-d the cnvcm of the prophetic Sibyl, — a parallel iiid reproiluctlon of the Oergithlan Sibyl, ne.ir Kyme In .Kolis: in the linnimlate neighUirhiH^I, tiv), stood the wild womb iind dark l«ke of .\Ter- niiH, ronwrrated to the nulitiTmnean goiU, and oflirini: nn establishment of priests, with cere- monii-x evoking the dead, for purposes of pr<v phiTV or for solving doubts nnd inysteric« It wii» tiiTi' that Ctrtviiin iniHgination liK'aliiwI ths CimmeriHris and the futile of Odysseus " — O. (Jrote. Iliit iff iimrt, }il. 2, rh 'ii —See, also. SlRTI.S CUMANS OR KOMANS, The. See IIiN- OAHY .\. I> Ill4-l;l(ll. CUMBERLAND COLLEGE, SeeKincA- Ttos, Moii|.:hn Amkkii a .V. D 17(I1»-1hi»4. CUMBERLAND GAP, The capture oC — .Sk^ikmukr : Tb.nnksskei. CUMBERLAND ROAD. Sec Cmted SUTKS OK \H. A. I) l-MW-^ldia CUMBRIA: The Britithkincdora.— ' The llritons of Cumbria iiciiipy a tolerably large spoei' on the map, but a very sinall <me in history : — ihiir annal'J have entirely perishiil . — and nothing 'luuientic remains coucerning them, eiiept afew paNsages. . . . itonuiiiie would fur- nish mort' , for It was In Cumbria that Khyderc, or Kuderic the magnlflcent. is therein represented |j> have n-lun'-Ml. h'm! Merllti to hav** propbesie?!. Arthur held Ills roiirt in merry Carlisle, and Perf«liir, tht* I'rinif of Smisliine. whtwe name we find amongst thf primes of Stralhclyde, it 864 CLTrailFORH WRITING. one of the great heroea of the ' Hablnoglon,' Ules of youth, long preterred by traditloi amongst the Cymri. These fantastic persona»« however, are of importance in one point "f rg, because they show, what we might o; rvi» forget — that from the Ribble in Lanca ire „ thereabouts, up to the Clyde, there mst.l , dense population composed of Britons, who pre served their national language ami cusuinis agreeing hi all respecU with the Welsh of tb present day. So that even in the tenth centun- thr ancient Britons still Inhabited the greail- par! of the western coast of the island, howect- much they had been compelled to yield to thi political supremacy of the Saxon invaders. Thi ' Regnum Cumbrense ' comprehended many dis tricta, probably governed by petty princei o' Regull, in subordination to a chief monarch ( 1 Pendragon. Reged appears to have been snme where in the vicinltv of Annandale. 8traihclvil( is of course the district or vale of Cly<lesd'al<' In this district, or state, was situated Alcluril or Dunbritton, now Dumbarton, where tbt British kings usually resided ; and the vbolt Cumbrian kingdom was not infrequently calleii Stratliclvde, from the ruling or principttlstst) — F. Palgrave, Hittoty of the An;/l<i-S,ixoa: rS 11.— Cumbria and Cambria {Wales i. tlie tw. states long maintained by the Britons, nirairisi the Ancles and Saxons, bore. In n'slity. thi' same name. Cumbria being the more com-ot forni "f it The earliest development of the so^ralliil Welsh puetrv seems to have been in Ciindiriii ralliir than (n Wales. Talieaen and Aniiirin nrrrCun', iirian barrls. and Arthur, If any historirnl pirviii age stands liehind his kinglv shadow, una ppj|, ably a Cumbrian hero — J. Rhys, <i^^> llrilniii A'so l!»: W. F. Skene, The Four Aufif.t Hn ,» iif Watee. — See. also. Ktmht. Aultde, and Scotland: l(>TH-llTn Cektiuiks CUNARD LINE, The founding of the, »v^e Stkam Navkiation: On the (Hi- an CUNAXA, Battle of (B. C. 401 1, See Ptn BIA » C 4(il-«(S> CUNEIFORM WRITING.-Tli,<li«p.ft. eniplovf-d for the written languages if nn ir Uiiiirlonia aild Assyria have hi-i-n lullnl (uor form, from the Latin cuneus. a WHipc, heosu* the marks compiiKlng them are wnlgi- »hap,Al .Ml knowledge of those ehararters an.l ■ f tV Inngnagcs expressi'd in them hati l».i' 1 '«t f"r many renturies. and its riocnt re<"v, n nunc if thii most marvelous aehie'etninti' nf our ni}- "Travtlers had discovered inwripli"iiHrm:nir„| 'n cuneiform, or. ns they were also lernii-"!. ;irrit leailed i liaraiters. on the riiiii"! nioiiiiiiiciiu if I'ersefiolis and other aneient sites in I'iNii The ins< riptions were in tliris- ililTeniil synlinH of ciiiielform writing; and sinee llie IhrtikimU of Inscription wen' always planii side l.y »iiii- It was evident that they repri-»<nt<d dilTimil versions of the same teit, , , . The ilue to thr derlpherment of the Inscriptions was Hrst ili* ^over^^l bv the successful guess of a (lemmn scholar. tJnitefenil. OMtefemi noticed that tbo Inscriptions generallr began with thn-e or U\j wonls. one of whiih varietl. while the olhin remained unthaiigej. The variable wonl biul three forma though the snme form alwsy« sp peare'-i on the same n>'«U!nent nr<\\rtfm. theri'fore, ronjeetiireil that this woni rrpr<'ieiitf<l the name of n king, the wonls whirh fKllowt^i it being royal titlea" Working on this 1 "ujeit i CUNEIFORM WRITINO. CCWA. are, be Identified the three names with Dariiu, Xerx-'» »nd Artsxerxes, and one of the suppoised tltlei with a Zend word for " king," which gave him a coneideraWe part of the cuneiform alpha- het. He waa followed In the work by Bumouf, Laaarn and Sir Henry Rawlinson, until, finally, Aiayrian inacriptions were read with " almost as much certainty as a page of the Old Testament. " —A. H. Sayce, Frtth Light from t/ie ancient nonnrwntt, eh. 1. CUNIBERTUS, Kiog of the Lombards, A. I). 691-700. . CUNIMARE, The. See Amibicam Abomo- isEs: OiCK OR Coco Group. CURDS. OR KURDS, The. See Cardcchi. CURFEW-BELL, The.—" Except from its inSuence upon the imagination, It would be lurdly worth while to notice the legend of the curfi'wbcll, so commonly supposed to have been imiioawl by William fthe Conqueror] upon the English, as a token of degradation and shivery ; but tbi' ' squllla dl lontano, cbe paja 11 giomo planger die si muore,' waa a universal custom of police throughout the whole of mediaeval Europe. not unconnected with devotional feellLj." Sir F. Palgrave, llitt. of Xormanily and Bng., r. 3 f. 637.—" In the year [1061] after King Henry s deatli [Henry I, of France], in a Synod helil at Caen by tile Duke's authority [Duke William of Ximnanily. who Iiecame In 1086 the Contiuiror and Klnit of England], and attcndoil by Bishops, .\l)t»ils, ttuil Barous, u was ordered that a bell ihiiulil lie rung every evening, at hearing of wliiih prayer should be olIere<r and all people •hould get within their houses and shut their doors. This odd mixture of piety and police weras 1,1 lie the origin of ihe famous and mis- rcpniieiited Curfew. Whatever was Us objert. i! waa al It ist not ordained as any special hani- (liip III! William's English subjects. "—E. .V. Free- mm. Ilitl.iiffheyurmanConquul of Erui eh 12 KTt :lir. 3). CURIA, Ancient Roaum. Set; CoifiTiA OlRI M « CURIA, Mnaidpal, of the later Roman em- pire.— Oecurionei.—" It is only necessary In this work to describe the seneral type of the municipal organization wblcli existed In the prov- Incps nf the iloman Empire after the time of Constautine. . . The proprietors of lanil in the Koinan provinces generally dwelt in towns and dlics. aa a pmtectlon agabLit brigands and man- •teal.™ tvery town Imil an aKri<'ultural dis- trill which formed its territory, and the Uinded propil.'li.rs constltuteil the municipality The whiili' liK-al authority was vesu-d In nn oligarch- ical *Miate called the Curia, consisting pnSiMlily of one liundred of Ihe wealthiest landed proprie tors ill the city or township This body elinted tbe municipal authorities and offlcers, anil Hlleil up Tacancles In lu own hodr. It was thrrefori' Independent of the proprietors fnim among whom It waa Uken, and who» interests It ought to hare represented The Curia— not the Nilv of landeil iiMprietors — formed therefore the ft'man municipality. The Curia was usetl by itf mperial government ai an instrument M WtX pitortlon."— O. Flnlar, Ortte* t/»,frr th, *>wiw.jA. 2, ««•<. 1— "When the proijrewi of Ssa. tynr.r.j fi^.^ aiistost Sapprd the Tig.",r ..f •nclelj-. the decuriooea [roemben of the mi.'nici Psl niriir, called, alto, rurUlcc] . . bring held JotaUy rcspuulble (or tiie taution, became the 005 jeriest ilaves of the empire. nesponslMs jclntlr for the taxes, they were, by the sar.ie token, re- sponsible for their colleagues and tueir succcseors ; their estates were made the securities of the im- lierial dues; and If any estate was abandoned by Its proprietor, they were compelled to occupy ft and ineet the imposu exigible from it. Yet they could not rcllnijulsh their offices; they could not leave the city except by stealth ; they could not enter the army, or the prir 'hood, or any office which might relieve them ,m municipal func- tions. . . . Even the children of the Curial were ndscnbed to his functions, and could engage in no course of life Inconsistent with the onerous and Intolerable duty. In short, this dignity waa so much abhorred thai the lowest plebeian shunned admission to It. the members of it made themselves bondmen, married slave-women or Joined the barbaric hordes In orucr to escape It- and malefactors, Jews and heretics were some- times condemned to It, as an appropriate penalty for their olTenaes "— P. Godwin, ifitt. ofhancf Ancient Gaul, bk. 2. eh. 8. Also i.N: T. Hodgkin. Italy and her InmiUrt hk. 3, eh. 9— F. Guizot. Uitt. of Citilinuion r 8 (r. 1, Fra)iCt),leet. 2.— See, also Rome: A. D 36.1-879. CURIA, Papal.— Collese of Cardinal*.- Consistory.—" The Court of Rome, commonly ciilleil the Roman Curia, conslsteil of a numlier of dignified ecclesiastics who a»slste<l the I'ope In the executive ailmlnistratlou. The I'ontirf's mor>' intimate advisers, or. as we should say his privy council, were the College of Cardinals [see PapacV: a. D. 10,W]. consistinit of a cx-rtain numlier nf cardinal bish<i|is, cardinal prlents, ami canlinal deacons. The i .irdinal deacons, at first -I yen and afterwanis foiirt»H'n in nunilsr, wen' originally ecclesiastics appointed as overseers and guardian.^ of the sick and poor in the ilitT.rent districts of Riinie. Equal to them in rank were Ihe fifty cardinal priests, us the chief priests of Ihe principal Roman churches were calltKl; who, with the cardinal deacons, formed, in verj- early tiiii.s, the presbytery, or s<niite of the Bi.shop "I Rome . . According In some authorities, I iinlinal bishops were Instituted In the Ulh cen- tury; according to others not till the lltb. when seven bishops of the diiKews nearest to Rome — Ostla. Porto. Velitrae, Tusculum. I'neneste, Tibur. and the Subinea — wire adnpliil by the Popi' partly iis Ills ossistant.s in the service of the Laleran. and partly In Ihe general ailiiiinlslration of Ihe Church In priness of time, the appoiul- iiient of such eanliiiiil bialiopa was exteniled not only 111 the n-»t of Italy but also to foreign countries Though the youngest of the canllnals In ixilut of time, canllnnl bishops were the liigli est In rank, and enjoyed iIh- preeminence In the Ciillege. Their Iltli-s were derived from their iliiKeses . But they were alto called bv their own names. Thi' nuinU'r of the cardlimfi was iiiileflnlle and varying. The Council of Hash' endeavoiirtil to restrict It to 24. But thia was not carried out. and Pope .SIxtut V at lenifth fixed the number at 70 The Council called the Consistory, which aiivlard with the Po|)e Nith In temporal and ecclesiastical niatlera. Was onllnarily pnvale, and confined to the car- diliaii- »iuiie . lliuugii oil rairaoniinary occatioua, and for lolemn purpiiaet of itate. at In the tudlrncei of (ofclgii anitiamadon, Ac, othw pri'latet, and eveo dittluguitbed laymen, mlgbl I'd CVNA. CYN08CEPHALE. ■ppesr In It."— T. H. Prer, Bitt. of Modern E'irom. V. 1, p. 88. CURIA REGIS OP THE NORMAN KINGS.— "The Curia Rerts [under the Nor- mmi Kiogt of England], the giiprcme tribunal of judicature, of which the Exchi'i|uer was the flnaorial department or aeaaion. wa« ... the ctiurt of the king sitting to admlniiter juatice with the advice of his counsellors; those coun- sellnts being, in the widest acceptation, tlie whole body of tcnants-ln-chief. l)<:t in the more limited usag" t'\c gnat officers of the household and speclttT ; api>ointed judges. The great gatherings of the national council may be re- fnnled as full sessions of the Curia Regis, or the uri:t Regis as a perpetual committee of the uatiiiniil council." — W. Stiibbs. Omtl. Hint, of Eii;i.. <■>!■ 11, teet. 187.— "Not long after the granting of Magna Charta, the Curia Rt gis was perinaiiently (lividc<l into three committees or ciiurts, cacli taking a certain imrtion of the busi- ness: (1) Fiscal matters were conflneil to the Exchequer: (3) cirll disputes, where neltlier the king's interest nor anv matter savouring of a criminal nature were involve*!, were decided in the (•mimon Pleas: and (3) the court of Kings Bench retaine<l all the remaining business and soon »c(iuired the exclusivi- denomination of the ancient Curia Regis. But the same staff of judges was still retained for all thrt-e courts, with the chief justiciar at their head. Towanis the end of Henry III.'s reign, the three courts received each a distinct staff, and on thealKilition by Edward I. of the office of chief justiciar, the only remaining bond of union Mag severeil, they l)ecame completely separBtp<l. Is<>me trace of their ancient unity' of organization always survived, however, in the court of Exchei|u'er I hiunlHT: until at length after six centuries of independent existence they were again united by the Juilieature Act. 1(*TU. Together with the Court "f Chancery and the Protmte, Divorce and Ailmlnilty courts, Ihcv now form divisions of a ciinHiilidaliil High t'ourt of Justice, itsi'lf a branch of the Supreme Court of Judicature." — T P. Taswell Langmead, Knj. CmM. Hint., p. IM— ■The Aula Regia, or Curia Regis . . . has lieen descrilHtl in various and at tlrst sight coatrailictory terms. Thus it has l)een ealle<l the highest Law I'ourt, the Ministry of the King, a Legislative Assembly. 4c. The apparent In- consistency of these descriptions vanishes on closer inspection, and throws great light on me- dieval history. For the Curia Regis ,>o8sesaed every attribuU' whiih hai I vn ascribe<i to it ' — A V. Ulcev, Tfii' I'riry Onu, U, i,t. I. !<ee, al*i. Law, Common: A I). HWd-U.'H, and Law, Ckiminai. A I). lii«(l-ia:s, CURIALBS. See CfHlA, MtrwiciPAt,, CURtOSOLITiB, Tha. See Vbnkti or Wt.nTKItN (IaII.. CURTIS, CtOfK* W., sad CiTil-Strric* Reform, See Civil SkRvicr Hbform li tii« I'siiKO Statics. CURULE JEDILES. See Romk: B. C. 404—492 CURULE CHAIR, -!n ancient Rome, 'certain high offices of state conferred upon the holiler the right of using, upon punllc i« < ii^iiiiin, oil iviiry i liair of petiiliar form. Tliis cimit was termed Sella Curulls. . . . This was somewhat in the form of a miNlem camp-stunl. "— W. lUiuiay, Manual of RmnanAhUg.. eh. iaikdi. CURZOLA, Bktti. of (laoS). See Oi^toi A. D. 1261-1299. CUSCO : The Capital of the locas of Pen See Peru: A. D. 1538-1548. CUSH.— CUSHITES.-" Genesis, like tiie Hebrews of later date, includes under the name of Cush the nations dwelling t« the Sf)uth. the Nubi.ins. Ethiopians and tribes of South .\rabia. " — .M. Duncker, Ilitt. of Antiquity, bk. 2, th. 1.— See, also. HAMrrES, and Arabia. CUSHING, Lieutenant William B.-De- ■truction of the ram Albemarle. See Untted Statksop Am.: A. D. 1864 (Octoueu: N'ortb CaholixaI. CUSTER'S LAST BATTLE, SeeUxiTED Statk« - Am.: A. D. IMTIl. CU£ MS DUTIES. SeeTAiiiKF CUSTOMS UNION, The German (Zoll- Terein). SeeTARiKf : A. I). WAi. CUSTOZZA, Battle* of (1848 and 18M1. Sec iTAi.v: A. I). 1848-1849; and I8«a-1M««. CUTLER, Manatieh, and the Ordinance of 1787. See S'oKTnwEBT Tkriutoky dp iue v. S. : A. 0. 1787. CUYRIRI, The. See Amkiucan Auobkii.nes OiTK iiK CiKo Urocp. CYCLADES, The.— SPORADES, The,- " Among the Ionic portion of Hellas are to lie reckoned (l>esides Athens) Eulxea, and the nu- merous gn>up of islands ineluiled between Ihe southernmost EulKean pnmiontory, tin easiirn coast of Peloponnesus, and the niirthwtsitrn coast of KHite. Of these islands some are lu lie considered as outlying prolongations, in a siiuth easterly direction, of the mountain system u( Attica; others of that of EulKea; while" a certain numlK'r of them lie apart fmm aither system, aui 8<'ein referable to a volcanic origin. 1*ii the Urst class iK-long Keos, Kytlmus, Seriphus. I'lmleiMn ilrus, Sikinus, Oyarus, Syra, Parns, ami AntipH- ros: u> tile secon<l class Androa, T^nns. M\ kiiin.i, Dflos, Naxos. Ainorgos; to the thinl class Kimo- lus, >If los, ThCra. These lslan<ls piLs.se<l aniiini.'!>l the ancients by the general name of the ( yc Imlii and the Sporades; the former denoininntiub \w\in ctmimonly understo<Ml to C(>mpri8(> Ihiise wUith immediately surroundisl the sacred islauil 'if IKilos,— the latter oelng given lo those which lay more scattered and apart. Rut the names m not appliol with unlfomdty o' steailines«evonin ancient times: at present, the whole grniiii >re usually known by the title of Cyelailes — (J (>rote."//Mr (/ (Irttft, pi. 3, fli. M ''YDONIA, Battlet and liege of iB. C. 7>- 68). Se Cretk: H. C. 88-6« CYLON, Coatpiracy of. S<-e Atmkns: B C CYMBELINB, Klafdem of. S< e roLcnu TRR, llHIOtN OF. CYMRY. The. See Ktmrt. Thk. CYNOSARGES AT ATHENS, The. S<« Gymnasia, UnKKK. CYNOSCEPHALiE, Battle of (B, C, 3«4'. —The t'«itle In which I'elopldas. the Thebiui patriot, friend and colleague of KpninlmmilM, was slain It waa fought R. C. .W4. In ThMnsIt, near Pharsalus. on the heights ealleil CyiiiKcep halw, or the Dog's Heads, and dellvenil the Thes'wiian rities from the e cnsMiimciii-i "F iim tyrant of Phcr» — C Thirlwall, //u( ./ Ormi, (X 4(1 (B. C. 197). 8«« Quaes : a C, ati-14t. ma t^^ CYN0S8EMA. CTNOSSEMA, NanU battle of.— Two suc- eeMlTe naval battles fought, one in July and the wcood in October, B. C. 411, between the Athe- nians and the Peloponnesian allies, in the Helles- pont, are jointly called the Battle of Cynossema. Tbe name was taken from the headland called Cynossema, or tbe ' ' Dog's Tomb, " " ennobled by the legend and the chapel of the Trojan queen necuba." The Athenians bad the advantage in both encounters, especially in the latter one. when they were Joined by Alcibiades, with re- enforcements. Just in time to decide the doubtful iiirtunesof the day.— E. Curtius, Iliit. of Greece, ilc 4, ffi. n. See Oreecb : B. C. 411-407. CYNURIANS.The. See Kt. ;rian«. CYPRES DOCTRINE. Seet,AW,EoiiTT- A. 1). l««l. CYPRUS: Oririn of the name. — "Tht Oreek name of the island was derived from the tbuDilAnce in which it proiliiced the beautiful plant (' Coplicr ' ) which furnishes the ' al-benna,' coveted throughout the East for the vellow dve wblch it communicates to the nails. It was rich In mines of copper, which has obtainer'. for it the nsme by which it is known in the raodem Ian- guajresoftheWeat."— J. Kenrlck. /"flffniWa, cA. 4. Early Histoiy.—" The flrsi, authentic record with regard to Cyprus is an inscription on an Egyptian tomlwtone of the 17th century U. C, imin which it appears that the island was cimciuered by Tliothmes III. of Egypt, in whose reign the cvmlus of the Chililren of Israel is iuppi>s<'d to Imve taken place. This was no doubt interiiir to the establishment of any Oreek c<il<i- nits, nnd nrnlialily. also, before the Pha-nici.ins hul W'ttliil in the island. ... As appears from Tari.mn inscriptions and other reconls, Cyprus became subject successivilv to Egypt, as Just mentioneil. to Assyria, to tgvpt again in .168 B. C. when It was'ctiniitH-red fiy Amasis. and in M5 B. ('. to Persia. .Meanwliife the power of the Greeks had been Increasing. , . . "i.iecivili- rati.in of tlie West was «b lut to assert itself at .Marathon and Salamis: and Cyprus, In-ing mid- way tietween i~jt and West, could not 'ail to lie Inrolvwl in the coming contilct. (>ii the occasion of the Imilr revolt (see Pkhsia: H. C. 531-49,1] tlic (ircik clement in Cyprus showeil its strenglii : KDd ill Wi II. C. the whole island, with the single nrf|ii|c)n of the t'luenician town of .\niathus. t(»ik part with the lonians in renouncing the sullmriiy of the IVrsian king." But in the war whldi fiillowi'd, the Persisns, aided by the Ph(e- nlfians of the mainland, rc-conquered Cyprus, ami Ihi" Cyprian Greeks wen- long disheartened. Tliev rer<ivered their courage, lioweyir. almut 4111 n C. when Evagoras. ,» Oreek of the royal house of Teucer, matle himself master of Salamis. and linnlly established a general sovereignty over the island — oven extending his power to the mainland and iubjugating Tyre. "The reign of Evngnras is perhaps the miist brilliant period in I lie history of Cyprus. Before his death. whirh twk place In 8i4 B. C, he had rals«i the lilsnil from the position of a mere <lependency of imp nr other of the great Eastern monarchies, had wined for it a place among the leading sutes of Oreeee, and hail solvc<l the i|uestion as to which division of the ancient world the Cyprian people K'Ji.i U aMiijueil. ruuaei|iientiy when, some forty yesrs laUT. tbe power of Persia was shal •fri'i • V Aleiander the Great at the battle "f iiiut, Un klags of iJm UlaiMl hMtcned lu offer CYPRUS. him their tubmistion ai the leader of the Oreek race, and sent 120 ships to assist him in the siege of Tyre." After Alexander's death, Cyprus was disputed between Antlgonus and Ptolemy. (See HACEDoifiA: B. C. 810-801.) The king of Egypt secured the prlxe, aud the Uland remained under the Greek-Egyptian crown, until It passed, with the rest of the heriUge of the Ptolemys to OaRomana " When the [Roman] empire was alTldec" on the death of Constantine the Great, Cyprus, like MalU, passed Into the bands of the Byzantine Emperors. Like Malta, also. It was exposed to frequent attacks from the Arabs; btit, although they several time* occupied the Island and once held it for no less than 180 vears, they were always expelled again by the' Byzantine Emperors, and never established themselves there as flrmly as they did In Malta. The crusadet arst brought Cyprus into contact with the western nations of modem Europe."— C. P. Lucas, Ilitt. Oeog. of Brititi'i Colonia, teet. 1, eh. 8. Also in: R H. Lang, Q/pnu, eh. 1-8.— P v^on Loher, Cgpriu, eh. 12 and 80.— L. P. Dl Cesnola, Cmnu ; if ancient eitiet, dU. B. C. 58.— Annexed to the Roman Do- minions. — "The annexation of Cyprus was decreed In 696 [B. C. 58] by the people [of Rome], that Is, by the leaders of the democr-cy, the support given to piracy by the Cyprio'ts '.King allege<l as the offlclal reason whv that course should now be adopted. Marcus" Cato, intrusted by his opponenU with the execution of this measure, came to the island without an anii.\ tint he ha<i no need of one. The king [a linilliir of the kingof Egypt] took poison; the Inhiibltants submitted without om-ring resist- ance to their IneviUble fate, and were placed under the governor of Cillcia."— T. Mommsen. Ilitt. of Romf. bk. 5, eh. 4. A. D. 117.— Jewish insurrection.— "This rich and pleasant territory [the Island of Cyprus] had clTordetl a refuge to the Jews of the contin- ent through three generations of disturbance and alarm, ana the Helirew race was now [K. I). 117] probably not inferior there in number to the native Syrians or Oreeka On the Brst outburst of a Jewish revolt [against the Roman domination, in the last year of the reign of Trajan] the whole island fell into the hands of the Insurgents, and liecame an arsenal and rallying point for the Insurrection, which soon spread over Egypt, Cynnc and Mesopotamia. The leader of' the n-volt In Cyprus bore the name of .\rteinlon, but we know no particulars o5 the war in this (|usrter, except that SMO.ttOOof the native popu. latii-i is said to have fallen victims to the exter- minating fury of the Insurgents. When the rebellion was at last extinguished in blood, the Jews were forbidden thenceforth to set foot on the island; and even If driven thither by stress of weather, the penalty of dealli wiw mercilessly enforced. . . . 'The Jewlsli jxipulailon of Cvre- naicaoutnuml)ered the natives. . . . The hostility of the Jews lu these paru was lesa directed against the central government and the Roman residents than the native race. ... Of tl'es* S'Jd.iHSi arc said to have perished. "—€. Merivale. //i«r. of the Himone. eh. 69. A. 5. iioi.— Coaqntst br Richard Ciaur da Lton.— FoundiUK 01 tha Latin Ktlofdon. — During tlie civil strife and confusion of the last years »t the C^omuenlan dynasty of emperors at CoDstautlDople, oo« of tbe members of Um (aalljr, 667 ?■* fr CYPRUS. CYRENAICA. the ■OTereigntr of emperor, With ! Iiaoc Comnenoi, lecured Cypnu and awumed the title of emperor the alliance of the king of Sicily, he defeated the Byzantine forces aent against him, and was planted securely, to all appearance, on his newly built throne at the time of the Third Crusade. Circumstances at that time (A. D. 1191) gave him a fatal opportunity to provoke the English cru- saders. First, he seized the property and Im- prisoned the crews of three English ships that were wrecked on the Cyprian coast. Not satisfied with that violence, he refused shelter from the storm to a vessel which bore Berengaria of Na- varre, the intended wife of King liichard. ' ' The king of England immediately sailed to Cyprus; iind when Isaac refused to deliver up the ship- wrecked crusaders, and to restore their property, Richard landed his army ami commenced a series of operations, whi<h ended in bis conquering the whole island, in ^vhich he abolishe<i the adminis- trative institutions of the Eastern Empire, en- sl.iving the Oreek race, introducing the feudal system, by which he riveted the chains of a foreign domination, and then gave it as a present to Quy of Lusignan, the titular king of Jerusalem, who became the founder of a dynasty of Frank kings in Cyprus."— O. Finlsy, lliit. of the Bytan- tine and Qreik Empire*, fnm 718 to 1453. ft*. 8, e/>. 3, teet. 1.— Before giving Cyprus to Ouy of Lusignan, Richanl had sold the island to the Templars, and Ouy had to pay the knights heavily for the extinguishment of their rights. Uiehanl, therefore, was rather a negotiator than a giver in the transaction. — W. Stubbs, iSewnltm Ijtett. on the Study of MeriimiU and Modern Hit- ton, left. 8. A. D. 1193-1489.— The kingdom under the house of Luiinian. — "The house of Lusignan maintained itself in Cyprus fnr nearly three cen- turies, during which, altliougli fallen somewhat from the blessedness wliicli h;iil iHi'n broken up by Isaac Comnenus, the island seems to have re- tained so much fertility and prosperity as to make its later history very dark by contrast. . . . Ouy, we are told, recelvHl Cyprus for life only, and did homage for the island to Uichard. Ashe already bore the title of king, the inn'stlon whether he should hold Cyprus as a kingdom does not seem to have arisen. . . . On his ileath. in April, 11B4, Richanl putting in no claim for the reversion, his brother. Amalric of Lusignan, constable of Palestine, entered on the posst'ssiim as his heir . . . Anmlric succeeded to the crown of Jerusalem; the crown of Jerusalem, which, after the year 1260. iMM-amc permanently united with that of Cyprus, was an Independent "rown, and the king of Jerusalem an anointed king : the union of the crowns therefore seems to have pre- cludiKl any (juestlon as to the tenure bv which the kingdom of Cyprus should be held. . . . The homage then due ui Richanl, or to the crown of England, ceased at the death of Ouy."— W. Stubbs, Sntnteen Ijeett. un tht Study of Mtdiatal and Vodern Ilitt., leet. 8.— See. also, Jkbubalcu : A. D 1391. A. D. 1191-1310.- The Kaichta Hoepitallert of St. John. Hec HoarrrALucM or St. John : A. 1) 111»-13I0 A. D. I4l9>is70.— A Vcaetiaa dcpeBdency. — The laal nigulug kiuv of Cyprus was James II . a bastard brother of Queen Charlotte, whom he drove fmm the Cypriot throne in 1464. This king married a Vcueliau lady, Caterina Coniaro, in 1471 and w«» declared to be " the sonin-li of the Republic." The unscrupulous republic said to have poisoned its son-in-law in order secure the succession. He died in 1473. and son, bom after his death, lived but two yeai Cyprus was then ruled by the Venetians f fifteen years in the name of Caterina. who tiiul renounced her rights wholly in favor of the r public. After 1489, until its conquest by tl Turks, Cyprus was a Venetian depeudoncy, form as well as in fact, but tributary to tl Sultan of Egypt.— W. Stubbs, Sttentren Urtt. i the ^udy of Mediatal and Modem Hint , krt % A. D. 1570-1571.— Conqucot by the Turk See Turks: A. D. 1566-1571. A. D. i8ai.— TurkiiA ouuaacre of Chri tiant. SveUllEECE: A. D. 1831-1820. A. 0. 1878. — Control turrendered.by Turki to England. See TrnKs; A. I). Imth, Xt TREATIES or 8aH STEFANO AND BkIII-IN. CYREANS, The. Sic Persia: B. f 4111 400. CYR ';NAICA. — CYRENE.— KVRENI —A city, growing into a kingdom, whicb wi founded at an early day by the Greeks, im ili: projecting part of the coast of Libya, or nurtlni Africa, which lies opposite to Gnnce. The tlr settlers were said to have been fmm llji' litt island of Them, whose people wen' U\A m enterprising. The site they chose "was of a unusual nature, especially for Islanders, anil la several miles away from the stM, the sli.ircs i which were devoid of natural boys for anchoi age. But, with this exception, every adwiritaj was at hand: instead of the narcow smny ni of their native land, they found the nio^t firtil com-flelds, a broad table-land with a Iji -ilthy gi mosphere and watered by fresh spriiii;^; :i ncl wooded I'oast-land, unusually will :iiiu|iicil h all the natural products which tlit- llillfuf deemed essential ; while in the backgniuuil spA* mysteriously the desert, a world pas,sinir tin- com prehensionoftheHellenes, out of which the Libya tribes came to the shore with horses and ram'ilf with black slaves, with apes, parrots ami otbr wonderful animals, with dates and niri' fruiti . . . An abundant spring of wiilir ulxirr tb shore was the natural point at whlili tlu' Iimwi men of the deserts and the mariucrs a-w mlilni Here regular nieetinits iMt'amc custiuiiarv Th bazaar became a permanen' markit. uml lb market a city which arose on a gmml unit bniad and lofty, on two rocky hiitthts, whid Jut out towards the sea fn)m the pliiuaii of tin desert. This city wascalliil Cyrcne. . . . Ijirifi numbers of pupi'datlon 'nimigfatiHl from I'ntf the islands and Peloponnesus, k lar>.'i' ainoiiu of new land was pan-elled out, the Libyans wen driven back, the landing-place Wcaiiie tbe |»r of Apollonhi, and the territory occupicil bv tbi city itself was largely extended. Cyretie I* come, like Massalia, tbe starting point <>f a i:n>u| of Bcttleuients, the centre of a small Unta' Barca and Hcsperides (afterwanis inlltii Ik'rr nice] were her daughters. Gradually a nstioi grew up, which extended Itself and its agricul lure, and contri«<d to cover a large liivislon African land vlth Hellenic culture Thi« w» the new eiB which commenceii for Cyriiu- »ill the relgo of the tbint king, the Battus »bu. or accour of the marvellously rapid riie if ht klofdom, waa oatebrated a* ' the fortunate in si 668 CYRENAICA. DACIA. Bellu. The Battiada [the family or dynasty of Battus] were aoon regara»d as a great power. " — E. C'urtius, Hi4t. ofGretct, bk. 2, M. 8. — Cyreualca became subject to Egypt under the Ptolem\< »nd was then usually called Pentapolis, from t fire cities of Cyrene, Apollonia, Arsinoe (foi merly Teuchira), Berenice (formerly Uesperis, or Hesperides) and Ptolemals (the port of Barca). Later it became a pro .uce of the Roman Em- pin-, and Anally, passing under Mahometan rule, tank to its present state, as a district, called Burca, of the kingdom of Tripoli. — Cyrene was esiK-cially famous for the prtxluction of a plant called silphium — supposed to be assafortida — OD which the ancients seem to have set an extra- ordinary value. This was one cf the principal sources of the wealth of Cyrene. — E. H. Bun- burv. llitt. of Ancient Gf*/., eh. 8, teet. 1, and eh. 12. »<•<. 2. B. C. sas-— Tributary to Persia. Sec Egypt : B C. 52J5-:»2. B. C. 332.— Absorbed in the Kingdom of Egypt by Ptolemy Lagus. See Eovpt : B. C. B. C. 07.— Transferred to the Romans by will.— "In till- middle of this reiirn [of Ptolemy, called Latliyrus. king of Egypt] died Ptolemy Api"n, king of Cvrene. He was the half-brother of Latliyrus anil Alexander, and having been raaile kiug of Cyrene by his father Euergetes IL, he had there reigned quietly for twenty years. Biing Ixtween Egypt and Carthage, then calle<l the Kdiiian province of Africa, and having no anny which he could lead against the Koman lii;ion.«, he hail placed himself under the guar- <li:in.>hip of Home ; he had bought u truce during hi.- lifetime, by making the Roman |H'ople his heirs ill his n ill, so that on his death they were to Imve his kingdom. Cyrene had Ixvu part of Eirypt for above two hundred years, and wa.s usually govrued by a younger son or bnither of the kiiig. Butontlie death of Ptolemy Apiou, the Roman senate, who had latterly been grasp- ing at everything within their reach, claimed hi* khiKdom as their inheritance, and in the flatter- ing language of their decree by which the coun- try was enslaved, they declared Cyrene free."- 8. Sharpe, Hut. uf Egypt, eh. 11. A. D. 117.— Jewish inturrection. See Ct- PBia: A. D. 117. A. D. 616.— Destroyed by Chosroes. See Eovpt; A. D. 616-«28. 7th Century.— Mahometan conquest. See M.vnoMETAX CoN<jiE8T: A. D. 647-709. CYRUS. See Peiish : B. C. 54a^21, aud Jews : B. C. 604-oy«. and .iST. CYRUS THE YOUNGER, The expedi- tion of. See Persia; B. C. 4ni-40o CYZICUS: B. C. 411-410, Battles at. See Greece: B. C. 411-41)7. B. C. 74.— Siege by Mithridates.— Cyzicus. which had tlieu become one of the laritest and wealthiest cities of Asia Minor, was besieged for an entire year |B. C. 74-73) bv Mithridates in the tliird Jlithridatic war. The Roman Consul Lucullus came to the relief of the city and suc- ceeded in gaining a position which blwkaded the Iwsiegers and cut olT tiieir supplies. In the end, Jlilliridates retreated w ith a small renmant only', of his great armament, and never recovered from tile disitster — G. Long, IkeliiK uf the limian Itii'itbUr, e.'i.ch.\. A. D. 267.— Capture by the Goths. See Goths: A. I) 25S-267. CZAR, OR TZAR See Hissi.v: A. D 1547. CZARTORISKYS, The, and the fall of Poland. Si'c 1'oi.am): A I) 17ii:t-1773 CZASLAU, OR CHOTUSITZ, Battle of (A. D. I742>. See Austria : A. I). 1742 (Jaxu- ahv — Mxv). CZEKHS, The. See Bohemia : Its peopls. D. DACHTELFIELD, The. See Saxoss; .V. 1) 772-!<il4. OACIA, The Dacians.— .\nrlint Dacia em hniiii the ilist.ict north of thi' Danube iMtwcen tlie Tlieiss aud the Dneister. " Tin- Dacians [at tlie time of .Vugustiis, in the lost half cciiturv B (' ] ixiiipietl the whole of what now forms the wiutlieru part of llungiry, the Hanat and Trannylvania. . . . Tlie more pniminent part which iliey tiencefortli assumed in Roman history was prohalily owing principally to tlie immediate pr"\lmily in which they now found tliem.selves I" the Koman frontier "The (jiiesthm of the re- Uil.in ill which the Dacians stood to the tJetie, •*\\m »e tlnd in possi'ssiim of these same couii- tri.sat an earlier [mtIoiI. was one on which there i\i»ie.| cniisidi'rabic dillcrence of opinion among amiiut wriirrs: but the prevailing coucliishm was that ihey verv only different names applied to tlie same p<i>plc. Even Strulni, who descrilies ilieni as liistiiut. though cognate trilx-s. states Unit they spoke the H«me language. Ac""r!i"g In his distinction the Uetje occupied the more • •4.1;; tedious, ad joining tlie Kuxinc. and tlie l>aeiiiii8 the western, bonli'rinit on the Oer- null's _E. H. ■'anbury, llitt. vf Ancient Ocvij., <'■ •:■>. Hd. 1. A. D. i02-io6.—Trajan's conquest.— At the lieginning of the serond tenliiry. wlunTnijan connuen'd the Dacians and added tin ir country to the Roman £iii|iire. "lliey may be loii-ideri'd as lacupying tiie br.iad l)|.«k of land iKiiiiidcd by the Theiss. tlie C:ir|iMtliiaii.«, llie lower Danube or Ister. and tin I'ruili. ' In his Hrst campaiL'n. A. D Io2. Trijan pinilraliil the country to the li.ari of iiuMlirn Triiisyhaula. and forced the Dacians to give him liaillc at a lihice cailid Tap;c. the site of whieli is not known, lie nmted them with miiiii slaughter, as tliey had been routed at the siinie place, Tapip, sixteen years before, in one of the inelTectual campaigns diricteil by Domitian Tliev Sub- milled, anil Tiajan istablished strong Uomon iicwis In the country ; Init he liails<iircely ri'ttched Itiiiiie and cehbnueil his iriiiiiiph tliefe. K'fore the Daiians were lU'ain in arms In tlie spring of the year IIM. Trajan repaired to the lower Daiiiilie in jHTson, onie inori', and entered the Iiarian country wiili an overwhelming force. Tliis time tlie subjugation was ctmiplete, and tb« Romans cstahllshcil tliclrwciipation of the coun- tn' by the founding of colonies and th" building of roads. Dacia was now made a Roman prov- ince, and ' ' the language of the Empire became. CG9 ill •■•i; PACIA. DALRIADA. and to tUi day lubttantUlIy tenuklni, the luk- tional toD^e of the inhabitant*. ... Of the Dadan province, the laat acquired and the flnt to be Runendered of the Roman poneaions, if we except lome transient occupationi, aoon to be commemorated, in the East, not many traces DOW exist: but even these may suffice to maric the moulding power of Roman civilization. . . . The accents of the Roman tongue still echo In the valleys of Hungary and Wallachia: the de- scendants of the Daclans at the present day repudiate the appellation of Wftllachs, or stran- Sers. ami still claim the Danu- of Romdni. — C. lerivale. Hint, of tlu Roman*, eh. 63, A. D. 270.— Given up to the Gothi. See O0T118: A. D, 268-270. 4th Century.— Conquest by the Hunt. See Goths (Visiooths): A. D. 876, and Huns: A. D. 433-4.'i3. 6th Century.— Occupied by the Avars. See AVAKS. Modern history. See Balkan asd Danubian STATEa DACOITS. See Dakoits. DACOTAS. See Amehica!« Aborigines: 8ioi'.\.N Family, and Pawnee (Caddoan) Family. DiECSASTAN, Battle of.— Fought, A. D. 603, twtween the Northumbrians iinii the Scots of Dalriada, the army of the latter Iwlng almost wholly de8tr(>ytd. DAGOBERT I., King of the Franks (Neus- trU), A. D. «2»MW!*; (Austrasiai, 622-633: (Burarundy), 63iM{:W Dagobert II., King of the Franks (Austrasia), A. I>. 673-678 Dagobert II!,, King of the Franks (Neustria andSurgTindy), A. I). 711-715. OAHIS, The, See Balkan and D.kncbian Stai-ks. 14t»-1»tii Centi'Uies (Servia). DAHLGREN, Admiral John A.— Siege of Charleston. See I'NiTEn States ok Am. : A. I). IWW (.IlLY, ilUll .\l"(lU8T— DECKMBKH: S. t'ARO- LISA). DAHLGREN, Ulric— Raid to Richmond. See Uniteo States of Am.: A. D. IStW (I'eii- RCAKY— March : Virginia). DAHOMEY. Tin- African kingdom of Da- hoiuiv was siilijuu'iilcd liy tlic Fn-mh in l'<l(2-t, the king o.xilid tii .Martii'iiiiuc. ami the country ori?anl/.c<l milcr tin- name of "the Colony lif PalKMiifV .111(1 l>ei>enticnci<*M." DAKOITS. - DAKOITEE, - The I>ak lits of Imiia. wliii were suppresscil siMin after the Tliuv'i. were ■ niljlicrs by profewidn. ami even by liirlli " Dakuitee "was eslabli^ahiil npon a liriiiul liasis of lienMlltnry ea.Hle, and was for the must p;irt an organic slate of siH'iety. I have always folliiwwl the trade of mv ani'esturs, l>akiiit^e.' said Luklia. a notnl f>akiiit. who 8iil)'u'(|iiently iH'came approver." The hunting d'lwii of tile Dakoits was begim in lM.'|x. under th<' I lirectii m of Colonel Sleeman. who had alreaily hunted dnnn the Th\ig8.—.I \V. Kaye, The Ail- minintr.itin)! nf the Kmt IniUn (\>., pt. 3. ek. 8. DAKOTA, North and South : A. D. 1803.— Embraced in the Louisiana Purchase. See Lori-iANA A r» i:»H-lHii8. A sion, to SSi-zSiga.., .. ,..vwu..u. Territories. Ser Wisconsin : K. D. iNitvi^m^. A. D. 1889.— Admission to tb* Union. See Uniteu States OF Am A I> lH8V-lMUtl. \.. D. 1814-18^8.— Partly joined, in succea- ■n, to Mi-:*Tigan, Wistoaiin, and Iowa 670 OAKOTAS. See Axebicah ABoaiam 610DA11 Family and Pawxxk (Caddoan) Faiiii DALAI LAMA. See LaitAa OALCASSIANS. — The people of Nor Munster figure prominently under that name early Irish history.— T. Moore, Hiit. of InUin V. 2. DALHOUSIE, Lord, The India admini tration of^ See India: A. D. 184&-1849' im ri6; and 1852. JALMATIA — "The nai row strip of land ( the eastern side of the Hadriatic on whirh tl name of Dalmatla lias settled down has a bistoi which is strikingly analogous to Its scener\-. As the cultivation and civilization of the lai lit.. patches, as harbours and cities alterna witii oarren hills, so Dalmatla has plaved a pa in history only bv flu and starts. This litfi kind of history goes on from the days of Gre« colonies and IlTyrian piracy to the lit vi between Italv and Austria. But of conunuoi history, steadily influencing the coutae of tb world 8 progress, Dalmatia has none to show. "- E. A. Freeman. Sulgeet and Neighbour Lamlt, Venice, pp. 85-S7. Also in : T. O. Jackson, Dalmatia. the ^imi nero and htria, ek. 1-2.— Sec. also. iLLYKicr op the Romans: Salona: and Balkan ax Dancbian Stated 6th-7th Centuries : Slavonic occupation. S« Slavonic Peoples: 6th and 7th Ckntihie! also, Balkan and D.anubian States: 7tii Ce.\ TVHV. A. D. 944.— Beginning of Venetian Coo quest. See Venice: A. D. 810-961. A. D. II03.— Conquest by the king of Has gary. See Hinoary: A. 1). 972-1114 lAth Century,— Conquest from the Venetian by Louis the Great of Hungary, SMe Hex GARY: A. D. 1301-1442. i6th Century.— The Uscocka. See I'mdcKi A. D. 1604-1696.- Conquests by the Vent tians. See Tihkb: A. D. 16(i4-ltt»! A. D. 1699.— Ceasionin great part toVenici by the Turks. Si'c Hinoary : Iftsl !iii)9. A. D. 1797.— Acquisition by Auv;ria. S(i France: A. I). 1797 (May— Octohkui A. D. 1805.— Ceded by Austria to the kinr dor., of Italy. S<'e Germany: A. D Isii.VlS!* A. D. 1809.— Incorporated in the Illyriai Provinces of Napoleon. SecOKUMAXV A I» 1809 (.liLY— September). A. D. 1814.— Restored to Austria.— Ausir.i recovered iM>sses8ion of Dalmatia niuhr lliear nmgements of the (Ungreas of Vienna. -♦ DALRIADA.— "Adl8trlrtforniin>rllieti"nh oast corner of Ireland and comprising llie iinrit half of tlie county of Antrim, was called Hal riada. It appears to have Ix-en one of the carlicsl Si'ttlrmcnts of the Scots among the Piets of I Isiei and to have derived Its name from Its supiHued founder Calrbre. siimametl Hlghfli«<la <ir Hiaila. It lay exactly opposite the peninsula nf Kinty-f: and from this Irish district the coir y ■•( sinis, which was already Christian [flftli iintury] pussMl over and settle<l In Kintyre iiml in liie Island of Isla" — estnlilishlng a Sioii h Piilriiula. — W. F. Skene. I'tltir Seotl.iml. Iii 1, M -i- Fur suuie tti'i'tiunl uf (he Scotch Dalrituia, Ht) Sco'ii.AM); 7th Cknti RV. DAMARALAND. See QEKMtN 8UITH "F.ST Al nil A. DAMASCUS. DAMASCUS, Kingdom of.— The kingdom ofDunaicut, or " Armm of DunMcui" as it wm entitled, waf formed loon after that Syrian region thiew off the yoke of dependence which David ■nd Solomon had impoaixl upon it. "Rezon, the outlaw, waa ita founder. Hader, or Had"^, ud Rimmon, were the chief divinities of the - ace, ud from them the line of iu kii^gs derived their names,— Hadad, Ben-hadad, Hadad-czer, Tab- rimmon."— Dean Stanley, LeeU. on the Hut. of ihiJeveuh CAiiiTA,fcc<. 83.— "Though frequently captured and plundered in succeeding centuries tif Egypt >i>d Assyria, neither of those nations WW able to hold it long in subjection because of the other. It was probably a temporary repulse of the Assyrians, under Shalmaneaer II., by the Dtmasceoe general Naaman to which reference U made in 2 Kings v. 1 : 'by him the Lord had giren deliverance unto Syria.' . . . After the Seat conquerors of Egypt and Asia, each in his y, bad captured ana plundered Damascus, it was taken without resistance by Parmenio for Aleiuider the Great [B. C. 3331. In it Pompey ipent the proudest year of his life, 64 B. C, dis- tributiDg at his pleasure the thrones of the East to the vassals of Rome. Cleopatra had received the city as a love-gift from Mark Antony, and Tilxrius had bestowed It upon Herod tlit Great, hcfiire Aretiis of Petra, the father of the princess whom HcrtMl Antlpas divorced for Ilerodias' sake, uid the ruler whose officers watched the city to prevent the escape of Paul, made it, we know not how, a part of his dominions." — W. B. Wright, Ancient Citiei, eh. 7, A. D, 634.— Conquest by the Arabs. See .Mahometan Cokcjuest: A. D. 6;J3-83«. A. D. 661.— Becomes the seat of the Cali- phate. See Mahometan CoxQiEST: A I> 661 A. D. 763,— The Caliphate transferred to Bagdad. See Mahometan Conoiest; A V) :83. A. D. 1148-1317.— Capital of the Ataber and the Ayoubite sultana. Sec Saladin, Tub EiiriKE or. A. D, 1401.— Sack and massacre by Timour. S»e TiMotK. A D. 183a.— Capture by Mehemed Ali. SeeTvuKs: A. D. 1831-lHlO. DAMASUS 11,, Pope, A. D. 1W8. July to August. DAMIETTA: A. D. iaio-i320,-SieKe, uptute and surrender by the Crusaders. See CRfSADES; A. D. 1216-1229. A D. 1249-1250.— Capture and loss by Saint Louis. 8<'e ("RtdAPEK: A. D. ! 'i>'-12.'i4. A. 0. 1353.— Destruction by ■ e Mamelukes. -■'Two years after llie delivi ice of the kiug [Stint Louis], and whilst he >s still in Pales- tine, the Mamelukes, fearing iresh invasion of the Franks, in order U) previ^nt their enemies from taking Damietta and fortifying themselves In that city, entirely destroyed It. Some years »ft«f, iw iheir fears were not yet removed, and tie lecond crusade of Louis IX spread fresh «l»nn« throughout the East, Me Egyptians Miued immense heaps of stone to be cast into the mouth of the Nile, in order tlmt the Christian flffU might not be able to sail up •!»• riv?r since that period a new DamietU has been built •t • unall dUtance from the site of the former t.;:LL?!'P'»»»"'' J**' "/**« 0"*i*». a*. i4. DAMNONIA. See Bkitaoi ; flra Cbmtcbt. DANTZIC. DAMNONII. OR DAMNII, The. See Dumoini. -PAMOISEL. — DAMOISELLB. - DON- ZELLO.— "In medisval Latin 'domicella' is used for the unmarried d jghtcr of a prince or noble, and 'domlcellus,' contracted from dom- nicellus, the diminutive of 'dominus,' for the ^' Thf« words are the forerunners of the old French 'dimoisel ' in the masculine, and 'damoi- relle in the feminine gender. Froissart calls Richard, prince of Wales, son of Edward: Me ietine damoUil Richart.' In Romance the word is todiflerently damoisel' and 'danzel,' in Ital- ton donzello. All of these are evidently titles under the same notion as that of child and enfant, of which the idea belongs to the knighu of an eariier period."— R T. Hampson, Oriainei Putneia, p. 328. S^S^iS^' '^''•- 8eeAKooa.-AROOLi8. ,0?-**'^'*'° PLAGUE. See Plaoce, A. D. 1374. DANDRlDGE.EnKarementat. See United States of Am. : A. D. 1863-1864 (Decembeb- APRn, : Tennessee— Mississippi). DANEGELD, The,— "A tax of two shillings on the hide of land, originally levied as tribute to the Danes under Ethelred, but continued [even under the Plantagenete], like the income tax. as a convenient ordinary resource."- W. Stubbs Tht Ekirly PlanUigent' ,, p. 53.— See England- A. D. »79-1016. T^?d^Ahf^°^' °^ danelaga, or DANELAU.— The district in England held by the Danes after their treaty with Alfred the Great, extending south Ui the Thames, the Lea and the Ousc ; north to the Tyne : W" st of the mountain district of Yorkshire, Westmorelaml and Cumberland. "Over all this n-gion the traces of their colonization abound in the vil- lages whose names end in by, the Scandinavian equivalent of the English tun or ham."— \V Stubbs, Cnut. HiH.ijfing., ch. 7, »ect. 77.— See also, England: A. D. 853-880. DANES AS VIKINGS. mans.— Northmen. In England. See England: A. D. 85,'>-880 97»-10l6. and 1016-1042; also Normans A D 787-880. In Ireland. Sec Ireland: 9th-10tii Cen- turies. See, also, Nor- DANITES, The, See Mohmoni9.m: A. D 1830-1846. DANTE AND THE FACTIONS OF FLORENCE. See Florence: A. I). 1'>«.5- 1300: and 1301-131:1. DANTON AND THE FRENCH REVO- LUTION. SeeFiiAXrE: A. D. 1791 (Octoiieh), to 1793-1794 (November— JtsE). DANTZIC: In the Hanteatic League. See Hansa TowNf. A. D. 1577.— Submission to the king; of Po- land. SeePoLA.ND; .v. D H74-l,'(P'l. A. D. 1793.— Acquisition by Prutaio. See Poland: A. U. 1793-1796. A. D. i8a6'i8o7.— Siege and capture by the French. See Obkuany: A. D. 1807 (Febkuaut — JCSK). A D. 1807.— Declared a free state. See Germany: A. D. 1807 (June- Jclt). A. D, 1813.— Siege and capture by the At- liea. See Germany: .\ I) 1813 (Octobkr— Decimiier). C71 DAKA. DEBT. DARA.— One of the capitals of the Parthian klnits, the site of which has not been identified. DARA, Battle of (A. D. 529). See Pe^isia: A. D. 228-827. DARDANIANS OF THE TROAD. Soe Tiioja: and Asia Minor: The Oreee Coloxies; also, Amohites. DARIEN, The lathmui of. See Panama. The Scottish colony. Sec Scotland: A. D. 169.'V-lflO». DARINI, The. See Ireland, Trides of KARi.Y Celtic iNnABiTANTs. DARIUS, King of Persia, B C. .521-4X6 Darius II., n r. 4>.V4(r) Darius III. (Codomannus), B. C. 3:i(i-:!:)l. DARK AGES, The. The historical period, sooalled, is neiirly iilriitical with that named the Middle Ai:is, Imt sliorlcr in dtirutiim. perhaps, by a century or two. .Sc Middlk AiiEs. 'DARNL'EY, Lord, The murder of. See Scotland: A D. l.Wl-l.W^ DARTMOUTH COLLEGE and the Dart- mouth College Case. See Ediiation, iloo- EitN : Amkuil'a: A. I). 1754-1769. DAR-UL-ISLAM AND DAR-UL-HARB. — "Tlie Korin diyide.i the world into two portions, the House of Islam, Par-ullslam. and the House of War, Dnr-ul-harh. It has jienorally been represented by Western writers on the ill- stitutes of Jlaliomc'tanism and on the habits of Maliometan nations, that the Darul-harb, the House of War, comprises all lands of the nds- beliercrs. . , . There is even a widely-sprciid idea among supertieiiil talkers and writers that the holy hostility, the Jehad [or Dhihad] of Mussulmans aeanist mm-Mussulmaus is not limited to warfare l>etween nation and nation; but that ' it is a part of the religion of ,viry Maliometan to kill as many Christians :is pos- sible, and that by roimting up a certain num- Ixr killed, they think themselves seiure of heaven.' But careful historicul investigators, :ind statesnu II long practically conversant with Mahometan popuhitiims have exposed the fallacy of su"h charges against those who hold the creed of Isliim. ... A country which is under Christian rulers, but in which" Mahometans .are idloHcd free pnifessiou of tluir faith, and peace- aide e.\ercise of their ritu:d, is not a portion of the Housi'of War, of the Dar-ulharb; and there is no religious duty of warfare, no .Iihad. 011 the jiart of true Mussulmans against such a stativ 'i'his has lieen of late years fcirnially lietennini'd liy tlie chief authorities in Mahonu'tan law with rrsiiect to British India." — f<ir E. S. Creasy, ///»r. ofthf Otr>m,in Turku, eh. C. DASTAGERD.— The favorite residi' of tlie last great Persian king ancl concpnror. Clios- rois (A. I). 5lK)-fl28), was fi.xed at Dastagenl, ■ r .Vrtemita, sixty miles nortli of Ctcsiphon, : ml east of the Tigris. His palaces and pleiLsure grounds were of extraordinarj- magnitleenee. — E. (lililioiL Dfclinf and Fall nf the Roman Km- }»■;. ,-h. 46. DASYUS. See India: The aroriuinal in- HAIUTANTS. DAUPHINS OF FRANCE.— DAU- PHINE.— In 1340, Philip VI., or Philip de Valois, of Prance, nei|Uired by punhase from IIuiiiIm'iI II , rount of Vienne, iiiu sovereignty of the pn>vince of Daupbine. TIds principalily Incniue from that time the appanage of the eldest sons of the kings of France and gave them their nMuIlar name or title nf the Daii] The title in question had been borne b courts of Vienne (in Dauphin^), "on ac of ihe dolphin which they carried uiion helmets and on their armorial liearin^s. De Bonnechose, Iliit. of France, bk. 2, eh. 2 note. Also in; E. Smedley, ITitt. of Fraim, eh. 9. — See, also, Bl'ro'chdt: A. D 1127- DAVENPORT, John, and the foundii New Haren Colony. See CoNNt ■ tc ct 16»<, and 1639. DAVID, King of Israel and Judah, Jews: The Kingdoms of I8R.\el A.sn Ji and Jeri'salem: Con<jl'E8T. ic. . D«Ti King of Scotland, A. D. 1124-11.'>:1 I II., 1329-1370. DAVIS, Jefferson.— Election to the F dency of the rebellious " Confederate Sta S<"e United States of Am.: .\. I). l(«!i 1 RCART) Flight and capture. Sr In St.\tes OP .\M. : A. I). 186.5 (Apuii.— Mwi DAVOUT, Marshal, Campaigns of Germany: A D. 1806 (OcronKni: isikj. 18<>7 (Feiiriakv — JfNEl; also 1!ism.\ a 1812; and Germany: A. D. 1812-1X13; (.\fnfST), (October— December). DAY OF BARRICADES, The. France: A. D. 1.V4-1.5S9. DAY OF DUPES, The, .S . Ftiance: . 1630-1632. DAY OF THE SECTIONS, The, Fr\sce: a. I). 179.') (OiTor.KU— Df.i tMiif DAY OF THE SPURS, ^ee I..1 in Battle ok. DAYAKS, The. Ssce Boicmo DEAK, Francis, and Hungarian nat ality. iS'e .\i iTiiiA : A. D. IWiil-lMir. DEAN FOREST.— Tlie •■H.y;il Fore; Di^an," situated in the so«th\ ,«tini iiTiL-Iio county of Gloucester, Eiiglaiid. I«i««u Severn and the Wye, Is still so .xteiisivi' ili covers some 23, (HK) acres, though iiiinli nil from its original dimensions Its o.iks ;ei Iron mines have played important parts in Bi history. The latter were worked hy tli. Hni and still give emph rment to a lar^'e i;iimiIi miners. The fonner wen' thnuglit to It- w si'niial to the naval power of Euirlan I tl1.11 destruction of the Forest is s;iifi to iLive Imi of tlie special duties ]irescrilieil to ilii. Sp: Armada. — J. C. Brown. Fini'tA •■/ Hi.i'. DEANE, Silas, and the American trai tions with Beaumarchais in France. Unite.) St.\tes OF -Vm. : .\. D 177ii-I7Ts DEARBORN, General Henry, and the' of i8i>. See United St atis ok .\m : .\ 1812 (.it'NE — OcTonER). (Sei'Tkmiii k— No IIERI; .V. I>, 1813 (OlTOUER— XOVKMIIKR) DEBRECZIN, Battle of ii849>. S.i' thia: A. I). 1848-1M49 DEBT, Laws concerning: Ancient Gi — At Athens, in the time of Solon (ilili nnl B. C.) the Thetes— "the cultivating' tea metayers and small proprietoiN of tlie ci" . . . are exhibiteil as weii:lied down In and dependence, and driven in lar.i' iiin out of a state of freedom into slavery - whole mass of them iwe are toMi h. in.' in to the rich, who were proprietor- oi \'w sr- part of the soil. They li:id litlier liorr money for their own neii'ssltii>, 1 r tley I the lauds of the rich as di |n udeiil u niiuts. 672 ■ _ Sr.' Ftiante: ad DEBT. big a stipulated portion of the produce, and in thb capacity th^r were largely in arrear. All the calamitoua effects were here seen of the old binh law of debtor and creditor — once prevalent In Greece, Italy, Asia, and a large portfcn of tlie worfd— combined with the recognition of slavery u a legitimate status, and of the right of one man 10 sell himself as well as that of another man to buy him. Every debtor unable to fulfil his con- iract was liable to bo adjudged as the slave of his creditor, untilhecouldflndmcanseitherof paying it or worlting it out ; and uot only he himself, but his minor sons and unmarried daughters and sisters also, whom the law gave him the power of selling. The poor man thus borrowed upon the security of his body (to translate literally the Greek phrase) and upon that of the persons in bU family. So severely had these oppressive con- tracts been enforced, that many debtors had been reduced from freedom to sfavery in Attica itself.— many others had been sold for expor- tation, — and some had only hitherto preserved their own fi-eedom by sefling their children. . . . T" their relief Solon's first measure, the memoraMe Seisachtheia, shaking off of burthens, was (liri'Cte'" The relief whicli it alTorded was compltti' r d immediate. It cancelled at once all those .-ontracts in which the debtor had bomiwi'<l on the security either of lii>: person or of his land: it forlmde all future loanj or con- tracts in which the person of the debtor was pledged as security : it deprived the creditor in future of all power to imprison, or enslave, or extort work from, his debtor, and c inflned him tonn (ffcctive judgment at law authorizing the siizun' I pf tlie pniperty of the latter. It swept off all ihc numerous mortgage pillars from the landed pnijiirtiis in Attica. Icivinc the laud free from all p;ist claims. It liberated and restored to their full ritrhts all debtors actually in slavery imder previous li^'al adjudication: and it even provided the means (we do not know hnw) of re-purchas- ins in foreign lands, and bringine back to a rene'ved life of liberty in Attica, maiiy insolvents who had l)een sold for expt)rtatiiin. " \nd while S.i|on for'oad every Athenian to pledge or sell his own [HTson into slavery, he tcnik a step farther in the same direction by forbidding him to pKil^re (ir sell his son, his "d .ughter, or an luira.irrifu sister under his tutel,i;,'e — cxceptini; only ihi' case in which either of tlie latter might be detected in unchastity. . . . One thing is never to be forgotten in ri'gurd to this ineaiiure, combined with Ilic concurrent amendments introduced by •Solon in the law — it settled finally the question 10 which it referred. Never again do we hear of the law of debtor and creditor as disturbing .Athenian tranquility. The general sentiment which grew up at Athens, under the Solonian monej- law and under the democratical govern- ment, was one of high respect for the simctity of contnuts. . . . There can be little doubt tha ■andrr the Solonian law, which enabled th. creditor to seize the property of his debtor, but g»vehim no power ovjr the person, the sysU'm jf money-lending assumed a more beneficial character'— O. Grote, Uitt. of Oretet, pt. 2 eh Anciea: Rom*n.— ' The hold of the cre<iitor »M on the person of the debtor. The obliga- Uon of a debt was a tying up or binding, or bond- «ge, of the person: the payment was a solu- Uoo, a loosing or release of the person from that « ^_ 01 DEBT. bondage. The property of the debtor was not a ple^Vre for the debt. It could be made so by »ri'- ■' agreement, though in the earliest law .11 ly oy transferring It at once to the ownersliip (■ * le creditor. Without such special agree- mciit, the creditor whose debtor failed to pay could not touch his property. Even when the debtor had been prosecuted and condemned to pay, if he still fai'od, the creditor could not touch his property. He could seize his person — I speak now of the early law, in the first cen- turies of the republic— and after holding him in rigorous confinement for sixty days with opportunities, however, either to pay himself or get somebody to pay for him. if payment still failed, he could sell him as a T-ve, or put him to death; if there were several creditors, they could cut his body into pieces and divide It among them. This extreme severity was afterward softened; but the principle remained long unchanged, that the hold of the creditor was on the (lerson of the debtor. If the debtor obstinately and to the last refuseil to surren- der his property, the creditor could not touch It. —J. Hadley, Introd. to Roman Late, Uet 10 ™"J?"^^„'^* *"' ■"" "' ""« Samn'te war IB. L. d26-304J, but in what year is unceriain there was passed that famous law which prol hihited personal slavery for debt. >'o creditor might for the future attach the person of his debtor, but he might only seize his property and all those whose pe"rsonal freedom was pledged for their debts (nexi), were released from their liability, if they could swear tlmt they had propertj- enough to meet their creditor's i-emands. It does not appear that this great alteration in the law was the work of any tribune or that it arose out of any general or deliberate desire to soften the severity of the ancient prac- tice. It was occasioned, we are told, by one scvndnlous instance of abuse of power on the pa-c of a creditor. ... But although personal slavery ft.r debt was thus done away with, yet the cooseouences of insolvency were much more serious at Rome than they arc in modem Europe. He whose property had once lieen made over to his crcditore by the prstor's sentence, liecame ipso facto, infamous; he lost his trilie. and with it all his political rights; and the forfeiture was irrevocable, even though he might afterwards pay his debts to the full; nor was it even in the power of the cen.sors to replace him on the ndlof citizens. So sacred a thing did credit appear in the eyes of the Romans."— T. Arnold, Ilut of Hume. eh. 83 (r. 2). ' In England.—" Debt has Iieen regarded as a crime by primitive society in every part of the world. In Palestine, as fn l^lme, the creditor had power over the person of he debtor, and mis- fortune was commonly treated with a severity which was not always awarded to crime [Levit XXV., 89-11, and 2 Kings iv., 1]. In this country [England] the same system was grad- ually intnxiuceil in Plantagenet time*. The creditor, who had been previously entitled to seize the goods, or even the land of the debtor, was at last authorised to seize his person. In one sense, indeed, the Enelish law waa. in this respect, more irrational tlian the cruel code of the Jews, or the awful punishment [death and dismemberment or slavery — Oibbon, ch. 44] which the law of the Twelve Tables reserved for debtors. In Palestine the creditor was, at ^i ■.\ •-■ .t. Jfl gj 1 i if Pi tr. 4^ f & * m DEBT. DEBT. leatt, entitled to tue Mrrlce of the debtor or of bU children, and the slave had the prospect of an Insolvent Debtor's Relief Act in the 8ab- 1>atical year. Even the law of the Twelve Tables allowed the creditors to sell the debtor into slavery, instead of resorting to the horrible alternative of partitioning his body. But in England the creditors had nn such choice. They had nothing to do but to throw the debtor into prison ; ancf by his imprisonment deprive them- selves of the only chance of his earning money to pay their debts. A law of this kind was intolerable to a commercUl people. The debtor languished in gaol, the creditor failed to obtain payment of his debt. When traiie increased in Tudor times, the wits of legislators were exer- cised in devising some expedient tor satisfying the creditor without imprisoning tlie debtor. The Chancellor was authorised to appoint com- missioners enipowercil to lilvide the debtor's property among the creiiitors. By an Act of Anne the debtor who compile \ with the law was releaseti from further liabll. /, and was prac- tically enabled to commence life anew. In 1826, a debtor was allowed to procure his own bank- ruptcy; while in 1831, commissioners were ap- pointed to carry out the arrangements which had l)een previously conducted under the Court of Chancery. The law of bankruptcy which was thus gradually developed by the legislation of three centuries only applie<l to persons in trade. No one who was not a trader could become a bankrupt ; the onlinary debtor became as a matter of course an insolvent, and p.<i8sed under the insolvent laws. The statutes, more- over, omitted to give any very plain definition of a trailer. The distinction tx-twetn trader and Don trader which had been gradually drawn by the Courts was not hosed on any very clear prin- ciple. A person who made bricks on his own estate of his own clay was not a trailer; but a person who bought the clay and then made the bricks was a trader. Famurs, again, were exempt from the Imnkrupti y law ; but f-;;- erg who purchased cattle fur .sale at a profit ■ re liable to it. The possibility, moreover, of a trader iM'ing maile a bankrupt depended 0:1 the sire of his nusiness. A petitioning crediior in bankruptcy wa.s reijuireil ti> hv a jwrson to whom at least £100 was due; if two (lersons petitionetl, their debts were required to aniount to £150; if more tlian two persons [wtltioneil, to S'HW). A small shopkeeper, therefore, who could not hope to obtain credit for £800, £150, or £100. could not lieiome a bankrupt: he was forceil to iM'come su insolvent. The treatment of the ins<>lvent was wlinlly dllTsTent from tliat of the bankrupt. The liiiukruptcy law was founded on the prin- ciple tlukt the goods and not the person of the dibtor should be liable for the debt; the insol- vency law enabled the person of the debtor to be seized, but provided no machinery for obtaining his gooda. ... Up to 1838 the first step in insol- vency was the arrest of the debtor. Any person who nude a deposition on oath that some other person was in debt to him, could obtain his arrest on what was known as ' mesne process. ' The oath might possibly be untrue; the debt .'itight nut *;c d-ac; tiic warmnt issued on the sworn deposition as « matter of course. But, in addition to the impriionnient nn mesne process, the insolvent could be imprisoned for a further period on what wu known as ' final process. ' il ]mn ImprlKnunent (» meme prooeia was the cou which the creditor took to prevent the Highi the debtor: imprisonment on final prooi'ss 1 the punishment which the Court awaniwi to crime of debt. Such a system would have U bad enough if the debtors' prisons had Wn « managed. The actual condition of these prin almost exceeds belief. Dickens, imleeil. I made the story of a debtor's Imnri.si inrocnt the Marshalsea familiar to a world of nwk . . . The Act of 1818 had done somethlni; III m gate the misery which the Uw occaslouiil 1 Court which was constituted by li nleiu 50,000 debtors in 18 years. But large numb of persons were still detained in prisi^u forde In 1827 nearly 6,000 persons were committeil London alone for debt. The Common I.aw Co missioners, reporting in 1830, decland that 1 loud and general complaints of the luw of ioj veney were well foundeii; and CmtiTilium, 1838, introduced a bill to abolish iriipriM>nmi for debt in all cases. The Lonls win nut p pared for so complete a remedy ; thiy ilccliii to aboluh imprisonment on final pruoesit. or exempt from imprisonment on mesne prnce persons who owed more than £20. iinii who i\ almut to leave the country. Cottenhnm. ilis. pointed at these amendments, decide' enln^ his own hands by Institii -t inquiry. He appointed a coinmi which reported in 1840, and whiil the abolition of imprisonment ou and the union of bankruptcy iinil iiitil In 1841, in 1843, in 1843, and m 1K44 (Otii'i.lu introduced bills to carry out this ri pnrt T bills of 1841. 1842, and 1843 were Inst. Tin t of 1844 was not much more successful lirouc am declared that debtors who refisiil t" J close their property, who refusiil tu un*>« questions about it, who refused to give it up. who fraudulently made away with it, ;is will debtors who hail been guilty of gniss t-xtnn gance, deserved imprisimment. 11' intr»lui an alternative bill giving tlir Court iIim riti"iia power to imprison them. The Lnnls. In wilde: by the contrary counsels of two .such gtvM la yers as Cottenham and Brougham, iltiiiled referring both bills to one Selii • {'cimmitti The Committee preferred Br ,, sham's bi amended it. and returned it to the ilousi- Tl bill liecame ultimately law. It enaWwl !«i private debtors and traders whose tlel amounted to less than the sums named in t Bankruptcy Acts to become l)ankrupls; «nd abolished imprisonment in all cases wucri' t debt did not exceed £20, '--S. Walpole, Htit Bnq.from 1HI,5, th. 17 (c. 4). In the United Stktet.— "In New York. I the act of April 26, 1831, c. 300, ami which we into operation on March 1st, 1832, arrest ai imprisonment on civil prweas at law, and on ei cution in equity founde<l upon contract, wi- abolished. The provisio.] tmder the act was n to apply to any perr-^n who should have lieen non-resident of the state for a month prcoedii (and even this exception was abolished by ti act of April 25th, 1840); nor to pnMwdings for a contempt to enforce civil remeiliis; nor actions for fines and pcmiUies; t:-r '•'• -'■"' founded in torts . . . nor on promises to marr or for moneys collected by any public officer; for misr';uduct or neglect in offlce, or in any pt feuionai employment. The plaintiff, howe?« 074 « DEBT. to tDj tult, or upon any judgment or decree, m«T «pply to a ]udi;e for a warrant to arrest the defendant, upon atlldavit stating a del)t or de- mand due, to more than |30; and that the de- fendant is about to remove property out of the jurisdiction of the court, with intent to defraud hia creditors ; or that he has property or rights Id sction which he fraudulently conceals; or public or corporate stock, money, or evidences of to assign or dispose of his property, with Intent to defraud his creditors ; or has fraudulently oon- tracteil the debt, or incurre<l the obligation rc- ipecting which the suit is brought. If the judge (hall be satisfled, on due examination, of the truth of the charge, he is to commit the debtor to jail, unless he complies with certain prescribed cnnilitlons or some one of them, and which arc calculatcil for the security of the phiintilT's claim. Xor is any execution against the Inxiy to l)e is- «ue<l on justices' juilgments. except In cases essentially the same with those above stated. ... By the New York act of 1S46, c. l.'iO, the defendant is liable for imprisonment as in actions for wrong, if he Iw sued and judgment pass against him in actions on contracts for moneys leceivol liy him (and It (.pulies to all male per- sons) in a fiduciary characti. The leirislature of Masicicliusetts, in l^U anil lS4i. essentially nlxil- Ishol arrest and imi'.risonmint for debt, unless on pn«if that the debtor was alH)ut to abM-ond. As early as 1790, the c institution of Pennsylvania establUheil, as a fundament4il principle, that debtors should not be continuiKl in prison after •urreniler of their estates in the mixie to be pre- scrilvd by law, unless in cases of a strong pre- «iira|iii()ii of fmud. In February. 1819, the leg- isbiure of that state exempted women from arrest and imprisonment for debt : and this pro- vision as to women was afterwards applied in Xew York to all civil actions founded u|)on con- tract. . . Fenialis were first exempted from imprisonment for debt in Louisiana and Jlissis- sippl ; and imprisonment for debt, in all cases fri'e from fraud, is now abolisheil in each of those states The commissioners in Pennsylvania, In their report on the Civil Code, in January, 183.5, reeommendeil that there l)e no arrest of the Inxiy o( the debtor on mesne process, without an atll- davit of the debt, and that the defendant was a non-resident, or about to depart without leaving sufficient property, except In cases of forve, fraud, or deceit, vcrifletl by affidavit. This sug- Mtion was carried Into effwt bv the act of the leitislature of Pennsylvanlaof July 12th, 1842, en- titini • An Act to abolish imprisonment for debt, and to punish fraudulent debtors.' In Xew Hanipshin'. imprisonment on mesne pnwess and eiecuiion for debt existed under certain ciualirt- catinris. until December 23, 1840, when it was abolished hy statute, in cases of contract and debts .lecrulng after the Brst of March, t*Jl. In VennoHt, impriaonment ^)r debt, on contracts made after first January, 1839. Is aboli.slied, as to resident citizens, unless there be evidence that they are about to abacond with their property: so a!i>, !hp eiceptloa Iti Mississippi applies to cases of torto, frsudi, and meditated conceal- ment, or fraudulent disposition of property." —J. Kent, Chmmetitaria on Amfrictm Lnir; tt-h 0. W. Htlfim, Jr., ». 3 {Jovt-/iok).~-ln lei DECLARATION OF PARIS. many (tate* the Constitution provides (A) that there shall be no imprisonment for debt: Ind C. 1. 22: Minn. C. 1, 12: Kan. C. B. Ru. !«• Md. C. 3, 38; N.C. C. 1, 16; Mo. C. 2, 16; Tex. C. 1, 18; Ore. C. 1, 19; Nev. C. 1. 14; 8. C. C 1, 20: Oa. C. 1, 1, 21; Ala. C. 1,21; Bliss. C. 1, 11 : Fla. C. Decln Rts. 15. (B) That there shall be no imprisonment for debt (1) in any civil action on mesne or final process, in seven states- C 1, 15: lo. C. 1, 19; Neb. C. 1, 20; Tenn. C. 1, 18: Ark C. 2, 16; Cal. C. 1, 15; Ore. C. 1, 15; Ari*. B. Rts 18. (2) In any action or judgment founded upon contract, In three states: N. J C 1. 17: Mich. C. 6. 83; Wis. C. 1, 16. (C) In six, that there shall be no Person imprisoned for debt In any civil action when he has deli ered up his property for the benefit of his creditore in the manner prescribed by law: Vt. C. 2, 83; R I C. 1, 11; Pa, C. 1, 16; III. C. a, 12; Ky. C. 13 19; Col, C, 2. 12, , , . But the above principles are subject to the following exceptions in the several states respectively: (1) a debtor may be imprisoned in crimiunl actions: Tenn, So (2) for the non-payment of fines or penalties imposed by law: Mo. So (3) generally, In civil or criminal actions, for fraud ; Vt, , R. I, , N. J. , Pa, , O. , Ind 111., Mich,, lo,. Mlim., Kan., Neb.. N, C Kv Ark. Cal.. Ore, Nev.. C(d,, 8. C, Fla., Ariz! And so. in two. the legislature bus power to pro- vide for the puidshment of fraud ami for reueh- iug property of the debtor concealed from his creditors: Ga C. 1.2, 6; La. C, 223. So (4) ab- sconding debtors iniiy l)e imprisoned : Ore. Or del)toi-s ,',) 1:; cases of lilxd or slander: Nev. (6) In civil cas.s of tort generally: Cal,, Col. (7) In cases of malicious mischief": Cul. (8) Or of breach of trust: Mich,, Ariz, (9) Or of moneys collected by public officers, or in any professional employment: Mich, Ariz,"— F. J, Stimson, Am. Sl,itiite Lair : Digest of Const » anil Ciril PuUie Statutes of all the States and Territories relating to Persons and Proiierty, in force Jan. 1. 18x6 art. 8, DECADI OF THE FRENCH REPUB- LICAN CALENDAR. See Fh.\ncb. A D. 1793 COctobeh), The new republican calendar DECAMISADOS, The. Sie Spaln: A D 1814-18'27, DECATUR, Commodore Stephen.— Burn- ing of the "Philadelphia." Sec B,m!ii.\rt 8t.\te8: a. D 1.80:1-180.5, , .In the War of l8ia. Sec I'siTED States of Am. : A. D. 1812- 1813: 1814 DECCAN, The. See Lndia: The Name; and Immiobatios and coNijrESTS or thb Arvas DECELIAN WAR, The, See Greece: B, C, 413, DECEMVIRS, The. See Rome: B. C. 431- 449. DECIUS: Roman Emperor. A. D. 249-2.M DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE (American). See I'sited States of Am, : A, D. 1776 (Jancary— Juke), and (Jilt): also, Inde- PENDKNTK IIaI.I., DECLARATION OF PARIS, The.— "At the Congress of Paris in 1856. subsequently to the conclusiion of the treaty, which eudtdlhe Crimean war [see RrssiA: "A. D, 18.%4-1856]. s declantlon of principles was signed on April 16th, by the plenipotentiaries of all the powers represented there, wliich contained four articlaa. IrtlP ■t j»l W' •#i 675 t ^§ V:i DSCLARATION OF PARIS. 'Vint. PriTsteerinc li uid remain* aboliahed. BecoDd, The neutnl Sag ooren enemiea' soodi, with the exception of cootmband of war. Thiid, Neutral KOodi, except of contraband of war, are not liable to capture under an enemy's flas. Fburth, Blockades, to be binding, must be effective — that is to say, maintained by a force really sufflcient to prevent access to the coast of the enemv. ' The adherence of other powers was requested to these principles," and all joined in signing It except the United States. Spain, and Mexico. The objection on the part of the United States was stated in a circular letter bv Mr. Marcy, then Secretary of State, w'-'> •' maintained that the right to reaort to privateers la as incon- testable as any other riebt appertaining to bel- ligerents: and reasoned that the effect of the decbration would be to increase the maritime preponderance of Oreat Britain and France, with- out even lieneflting the general cause of civiliza- tion; while, if public ships retained the right of capturing private property, the United Sutes, which had nt that time a large mercantile marine and a comparatively small navy, would be ile- Srivedof allmeansofreUlUtion' . . . The Presl- ent proposes, therefore [wrote .Mr. Marcv] to add to the Drst pro{ioaltinn oontainiil In the di-rla- ration of the Congress of Paris the following words: 'and that the private property of the subjects and citizens of a belligerent on the high aeas shall be exempted from seii .r. by public armed vessels of the other belligerent, except It be contraban<l. ' . . . Among the minor stati-s of Europe there was complete unanimity ami a gem>ral readiness to aceept our ameniimrnt to the nilo ': but England 'ippiKKsl. and the of- fered smrndraent «•«« sulme<|uently withdrawn. "Events . . . have Khown that . . . imrnfusal to acrept the Derlnrntinn of Paris has brought the world nearer to the principle* which we pro- poseti, which lieoime known as the ' .Marey amendment for the Hlmlitlon of war ag«ln»t pri- vate property on the seas.'"— E. Schuyler, AmertMn IHnnmnfg, eh. T. Also tn : F. Wharton, Digttl nf llu- Interna- tinnal Mw nf Iht {' .S., eh. 17, ifel »42 (r 8).— H. Adams. llUtorieal K—ay; eh. 6. — See. also, PlUVATBIIUI. DECLARATION 0<' RIGHTS. See Enq. l.AMi; A. I>. HW»(.Iani AHV — Fkiiki AKVi. al*) Viiikima: .K. I> ITTtl. DECLARATION OF THE RIGHTS OF MAN. S<-<- Khamk: A. D. ITW (Ai<i.-0«t I. DECLARATORY ACT, Tht. See UiirrxD BTA-moF Am : A. Ii rwj DECRSTA, Romu imptrial. See Corpi s Ji-Ms Civii.ia. DECRETALS, Tha Falsa. See Papacy: A. n H3H-H47. DECUMiB. See VftmoAi. DBCUMATBS LAND. He* Aohi Dxct-. MATE*, also Al.RMANNf; and Sprvi. DECURIONES. Sei' Cihia. MixiriPAi 'ir THK LAIKR KoMAN EmpIHP. DEDITtTIUS.-COLONUS.-SERVUS. — •'The iKwir Provincial (i>( th.' pnivim'c* of thr Roman empire at the time nf itie hreaklnic up In the (Iflh ifnturyl who coiild not Hv to the (Ji.iha because his whole property was lii land, hiinicl to deapalr by tlie Ui gsUierer. W'>u)<l transfer Uiat lanl to some wealthy neighbour, appar- «itly on condition of rpoHvIng a small life •aauity out uf it. IK was then called tbs DcdlU- DEIRA. tius (or Surrendenr) of the new owner, towinli whom he stood in a poaition of a certain denn of dependence. Not yet, however, were his inr rows or those of hia family at an end, for the tax-gatherer still regarded him as responsible for his land. ... On bis death his sons, who had utterly lost their paternal inheritance, and ttill found themaelve* confronted with the claim for taxes, were obviously without resource. The next stage of the process aocordlnglv was that they abdicated the poaition of free citizens and Implored the great man to accept them aa C'oluoi a class of labourers, half-free, balf-rDalsved' who may perhaps with sufflcient accurarv be compared to the serfs ' adscripti glebie ' o{ the middle ages. . . . Before long they liecame mere slaves (Servi) without a shadow of riKbt or claim against their new lords."— T. Holgkin Itnly and htr Invaden, hk. 1, eh. 10 —With the "Increase of great estates and simultaneous in. crease in the numlier of slaves (ao manv l!<>thi were made slaves by Claudius [A. D. 26(<-270] to give one instance, that there was not a ili«trirt without them), the small proprietors could go longer maintain the fruitless struggle, and. aa a cUss, wholly disappeared. Some, no doulit, be- came soldiers: othere crowded into the alresdr overflowing towns; while otbera viduntarily re' aign<><i their freedom, attached themwivestothe land of some rich proprietor, and hecume bi< villeins, or coloni. But this was not the chief means by which this class was formal an.l in- creaaed. . . . After a successful war ihcie nerfi were given ... to landed proprietors withnut payment: and in this way not only was the clan of free peasants dlminislie<i or altoireiher At stroye<l — a happier result — the slave avatem w«i directly attackni. The coloni thematdves were not slaves. The codes dinrtly distinguish them from slaves, and In several imrx-rlal ronstittitinni they «re called 'ingenul.' They couM contrart a legal marriage and could hold pmnertv. On the other hand, the coloni wer>- like sfavet in that they were liable to personal punishment ... A colonus was Indlssoluhly atlarhiil lo the land, and could not get quit of the tie. even hr enlisting as a soldier. The pmprielor eould »ll him with the estate, but had no power whstevrr of selling him without It: and if he sold the estate, be was compelled to sell the cidoni al'ni; with it. . . . The position nf these villeins »M a very miserable one. . . . These cidonl in (Jsul combined together, were Jidnol liv the free iieaaanta still left [A. I>. 387]. whose l.it wu net less wrrlrheil than their own. and fonninir into numenius lianda, aprea<l llirmsilves iiver Ihe rountrv to plllsge anil ilealmy TIm y wri» called )iagnuilir, frnm a Celtic wonl niesnint a mob or riol4ius aasemhiy; and iiniirr tliis iisnir recur often In the course of the neat irnlurf both In (laul and Spain "—W T .\nioM. V» Rnman t^yttm ^ Pronneinl Adminulriilii'ii. eh. 4. DEEMSTERS. See Manx Kt!<oi>oH Tm DEFENDERS. See Ihklano .\ H I7«4 DEFENESTRATION AT PRAGUE, Tha. See BoHismA A. I). 1(111-1(11'* DEFTERP'RS. See St blimi Poara. DEICOL>. , Tba. See Cildees OEIRA, Th» k{ss4«ffi of — i>n» .-? !!« k!ar doms of the Angles, covering what la now lalM the East RIdInf of Yorkahlre. with snnir trrri tory ba/oKt It. ■mhImis It was ualted wlik 678 DEIRA. DELAWARE, 1838-1640. the Ungdom of BernicU, north of it, to form the cmter kingdom of Mortbumbrt*. See Eso- Lkb: a. D. S47-488. DEKARCHIES. See Sfakta: B. C. 404- 403 DEKELEIA.— DBKELEIANWAR. See Oriece: B. C. 418. DELATION.— DELATORS. — Under the empire, there was loon bred at Rome u infa- mous clau of men who bore a certain reiemblance — with signiflcant coatrasts likewise — to the •Tcophants of Athens. They were Itnown a* iMlators. and their occupation was delation. "Tbe delator was properly one who gave notice to the fiscal offlcers of moneys that had become due to the treasury of the state, or more strictly to the emperor's flscus." But the title was ex- tended to informers generally, who dragged their fellow citizens before the tribunals for alleged TioUtinns of law. Augustus made delation a profewion by attaching rewB«l« to tlie informa- tioD given against transgressors of his marriage laws. Under the successor of Augustus, the nillen .ind suspicious Tiberius, delation n-celved its greatest encouragement and development. "According to the spirit of Roman criminal pro- cedure, the informer and the pleader were one snil the same person. There was no public ac- cuMT. . . . but the spy who discovered the dfllmiuency was himself the man to demand of the iiiuite, the pnetor or the judge, an oppor- tunity of proving it by bis own HtHiuence and iigtrriuity. The odium of pnisa-cution was thus remiiveil from the government to the private dflstor."— C. Merivale, lli»t. I'f thr Riimant. fh 44 -See. iilso, Rome: A. I). 14-87. DELAWARE BAY: A. D. 1609.— Dit- nvtrtd bjr Henry Hudcon. S<t< .\MERir*: A I) IWW. Tht error ptrpctnated in its name.— "Al- m<*l cviry writer on American hi.Htory that I luvi' met with appears to have taken pains to perpetuate the »tereotv|)e<l emir that ' Lord l>ela- warr tourheil at this bay in bis passage to Vlr- finln iu 1810.'. . . Lo'nl I>elawarT himself, in U( Ititrr of the 7th of J\ilv, 1610. giving an KHiiiiul of his voyage to Virginia, not only mskiM 110 mention of that I«y, or of his ap- pMwdiing It, but expressly spi-aks of his first wu hing the American coast on the ' 6th 'f .Tune. St what Iline we mailr Innil to tlie wuilb" nl of our hart>or. the ( 'liesiopiock Hay ' The first Eunip.an who is really known to have entefwl llu' Iwv. after Hudson, was Cant. Samuel Argall [July 16I0J. The name of I^.nl IH-Iawarr, n(>»i\(r. seenu to have t)een given to the Iwv ««in«ft anls bv the Virginians "—,1 U BttMi- lies.1, //»( ./ Me ititU of X Y , r 1 . ,1/71. , ,u^, I) DELAWARE: A.' D. l6jo.i6]i,-Th« patch occapaacj «nd Brit lettlement.— The Up" <tli nipt at M'ttletnent on the mijiwan- was n».li' In the Dutch, who rlnime<l the country In Tight III lluilsiin's dianivery ami Mev'« explora- tion iif ilie Bay, mHwithalanding the'hroail Eng- lljh ilslni. which covered the wlioie of it as part nf an in.li tliiile Virginia. In l«a«, pumuanl to Uie patroni onltiuuin< of the Outrh West India *';]^'P«ny, which opened New Netherianil terri |f*T -• r-iivntr jturrhaami. -Samtic! OinitTi Ami »an)ii(.| nhimmaprt, both diirctfimof the .\msler Mm Chamber, latrgalmxl with tlie natlven for u* soil frwn Calx llraiopeo to tbe muutli uf DeUware river; in July, 1680, this purchase of an estate more than thirty miles long was ratified at Port Amsterdam by ifinuit [then Governor of New Netherland] and his council. It Is the oldest deed for land in DeUware, and comprises the water-line of the two southern counties of that state. ... A company was soon formed to colonize the tract acquh^ by Qodyn and Blom- maert. The flm settlement in Delaware, older than any in Pennsvlvania, was undertaken by a company, of which Oodyn, Van Rensselaer, Blommaert, the historian De Laet, and a new partner, David Petersen de Vries, were members. By joint enterprise, in December, 1630, a ship of 18 guns, commanded br Pleter Heyes, and laden with emigranta, store of seeds, cattle and agricul- tural implementa, embarked from the Texel, Mrtly to cover the southern shore of Delaware Bay with fields of wheat and tobacco, and partly for a whale fishery on the coast. . . . Early in the spring of 1681, the . . . vessel reached its destination, and Just withto Cape Henlopen, on Lewes Creek, planted a colony of more than thirty souls. The superintendence of the settle- ment was Intrusted to Glllls Hoeset. A little fort was built and well beset with palisades: the arms of Holland were afflxed to a pillar; the country n'celve<l the name Swaanendael ; the water that of Oodyn's Bay. The voyage of Heyes was the cradling of a state. That Delaware exists as a separate commonwealth is due to this i-olony. .\cconiing to English rule, occupancy was neces- sary to complete a title to the wilderness ; ami the Dutch now occupleti Delaware. On the Sih of May, Heyes and llosaet. In behalf of Gtxivn md Blommaert, made a further purchase fnim'ltulian chiefs of the opposite coast of Cape May, for twelve miles on the bay, on the sea, and in the interior; and, in June, this sale of a tract twelve miles square was formally atlesteil at Manhat- tan. Animated by the counii;e of Oodyn, the patnioiui of Mwaanenilael fltt«tl out a second ex- p-dltlon under the command of De Vries. But, fiefore he s«'t sail, news was received of the de- struction of the fort, and the murtler of ita people. Haaaet, the commandant, had caused the death of an Indian chief; and the revenge of the sav- ages was not ap(ieaaed till not one of the eml- grants remnlnHl alive. De Vries, on liiH arrival, found only the nilns of the house and lis imli- sades, half consum»l by fire, and here and Ihera the bones of the colonists." — G. Bancnift, //•«< "flht r. S.pt. 8. M. 18 (r. 1). AlJlO IN: J. R. .Y r, r. 1. M A, D. i6jt.— Embraced in the Marylaad ruit to Lord Baltimore, (tee .Mamtla.io: D 1683. A, D. i6m— Embrsctdlathe Pklalioe grmnt of New Albloa. t*ee New Ai.nioN. A. D. i63*-i64o. — Tht pUutting of tbo Swedish colonr, — " William Uaaelinx, a dis tingulshed merchant In Stockholm, was the first to propose to the Swedish eovernmenl a arhen.e fur planting a n<k>ny in America. He was a nstlve of Antwerp, snd had rr«lde<l in Spain. I'lirtiiiral and the ,\iore«. at a time when the spirit of foreign adventure pervaded every cl«i« of aocietjr ... In the year 1634 be pro|N«ini I.I Ih.' ,sw»1t>h liHHwrv'L. Ouaiavua Adoiphua, u pliiii for tbe ornoliation of a trading com- pany, to extewi II* operatinni U) Asia. Africa, Aiuerlctt tad Ttm MafeUuila. . . . Whetbef Brodheail. Ilitl. of t/u Hhitt of (J77 DELAWARE. 1618-1640. CHelinx had ever been In America is uncertain, but lie liad, loon after the trganization of the Dutch West India CompanT, some connection with it, and by this and other means was able to give ample information In relation to the country bordering on the Delaware, its soil, climate, and productions. . . . His plan and contract were translated into the Swniish Ian- puaifc by Schrader, the royal intt-rprettr, and published to the nation, with an aiidress strongly appealing both to their piety and their love of gain. The king recommended it to the 8tet«s, and an edict dated at Stockholm. Julv 3d, 1636, was issued by royal authority, in which people of all ranks were invited to Vncouraire the pro- ject and support the Company. Books were openrti for subscription to the etoik . . . and Oustavus pledged the royal trvasurc for its sup- port to the uiiiount of 4im\u()0 dollars. . . . The work was ripe for execulion, when the German war [the Thirty Years War], and afterwards the king s death, prvveuted it, and rendered the fair prospect fruitless. . . . The next attempt on the part of the Hwedes to plant a colony in America was more successful. Dut there has lieen much difference among hbtorians in relation to the period when that settlement was made. ... It a owing to the preservation, among the Dutch recnnls at Albany, of an official protest issuetl by Kieft, the Governor at New Amstenlam, that we do <-ert»inlv know the h«pde« were here in thespringof ltf38. I'eter Minult. wliocfinducttil to our sliorc the first Mwtiljsh colony, had been Commercial Ag«-nt, and Diret^tor General of the Dutch West India Company, an<i Governor of tlie New Netherlands. . . . At this time Christina, the infant daughter of Gustavus Adolphus, had atcendcti tlie thntne of 8we<len. . . . C'luler the direction of Oxenstiem, the celebrate<l chancellor of Sweden, wliose wisiiom oud virtue have shed a glory on the a^e in which he livt'<i, the pat4-nt which luui been grnuteii in the relKn of Uustnvus to the company furnn'*! under the influence of I wvlinx was renewed, and its privileges extendeil t» the citizi'us of Germany. Minuit. being now out of cniplovment, and prol«l)ly deeming him- self injunil by the conduct of the Dutch Com- pany [which hail diaplaceil him fnmi the gov eruorstilp of the New Netherlands, through the iutiuenre of the (Mtrooiu, and ap|Niinte<i Wouter Van Twiller, a clerk, to sucinil hini], Imil detemdned to offer his services to the cMwn of Sweden. . . . Minult lahi U'furc the cliun cellor a plan of proreiiun', urntl « settlement on the Delaware, and offen-d to conduct the enter|irise. Uxenstiem npreaen'ed the caM' to the queen . . . and Minuit was co.-nmlMlnnnl to <-<>mmand and direct the expetiition."— II Ferris, Jlul i>/' Iht Urigtmil Stlllrmtnti on tht /W.iwurr. pi I. rk. a-a, — ■' With two ships laden with pM- vlaioiui and other supplies reijulsile for the Mtlle nieul of einlgrsnis In a new country, and with tifiy eohmlsu, Minult sailed from Sweden late in 1607, anil entered IV'Uwarr Bay In April. 183H II" fiiuml ilic coiiutrv as Iw ha<f left it. kjiIkmii wliite luhaliitanis Minqua Kill, now Wilinlng ti.n. was seleetMl as the phu-c for th«' flrst settle- incnl, when' he iNiught a few acres of land of (lie natives, landiir his eoliHiiats ami stores. eri'ct<Hl a fort. uihI U-gan a small nlauinilun H" JiHii cowlucieit Ills cnterpriM' wlili some m^-tvi\\ tliiit he might avoid eo|llal<in with the Dutch; but the watchful eyes of tlieir sfenu suuu dU DELAWARE, 1640-1656. covered him, and reported his presence to \ director at New Amsterdam. Kieft [succeasoi Van Twiller] had just arrived, ana it lieca one of his first duties to notify a man whn h precede)] him in office that he was u trcspaa and warn him off. Minuit, knowing timt K{ was powerless to enforce his protest, Ixingwi out tnmpa or money, paid no attentiua to 1 missive, and kept on with his work. . . . | erected a fort of considerable strength, nam Christina, for the Swedish queen, and ^arriwm it w'.th 34 soldiers. Cnilerstanding the i harac of ihe Indians, he conciliated their sacliems liberal presents ami seeuntl the trade. In a fi months he was enableii to loed his ships wi peltries and despatch them to his pntronA. The colony hail to till appearance a pniralsi future. . . . Within two years, however, th prospects were clouded. The (.'onipanv h fuileii to send out another ship with sui>|>lfi'9 a merclundise fur the Indian trade, t'rovisin failed, trade fell off, and sickness began to pi vail. . . . They resolved to remove to Manhaiia where they could at teast have 'emiU)!li ima On the eve of ' breaking up' to carry tliiir n olution into effect, succor came frimi au ii expected quarwr. The fame of New S«icl,. B» the colony was called, of its firtilc- Ian and profitable trade, hail reached iitliir iiaiic of Europe. In Holland itwlf a cnnipaiiv w formeil to establish a settlement unili r ilrV pa ronageof the Swedish Com|ianv." Tlii> |)ui( company "freighted a ship with ci>I.Mii<t« ai supplies, which fortunately arriviil wliiii il Swedish colony was ab<mt to lie lirokiii upai the ii)untry abandoned. The «pirii« of n Swedes were revived. . . , Tiiclr projiiliil t moval was indefinitely deferred and llnv m tinueil their work with fresh viifor. Tlu'llm, colonists werv locateil in a s<ttienicut by ilm wlvm, only a few miles from Furt ( lirinin They were loysl to the S»-e«h's. . . In il autumn of the same year, 1840, I'etcr Ij.illifn. are. who had Im-n ap|Hilnte<l depiilr f»tim of the colony, aud Jfix'ns Kllng. »rrivi'.| (m Sweilen with thn-e ships laden with pnivisim and merchanillse for the stntitiMiil in|nni«t They alwi brought out a considcrabli' c»nipu (if new emigrants. New Sweden wb« uhw w« established and proapenius Mun- lawlt «ri Uiught, and new settlements were niiuli' PrU Minult dieil the fiill«wlug year "— «!. \V. ScLu; ler, lM»nitil Xeif York, r I, inlroil , ttft l! Also IN: I. Acrelius, Ilitt of Xni St«li (/Van. Ifitl. S>e. Mrm , r 11) M 1 — /»w nl. lirt fc. (U. Hilt, of S. r, r IJ— (! R Km A»i» Svnirn iXiirnilitt aiut Critii-fil lliit of Am t. 4. M. •). — J ¥ Jameson. WilUm ruihi (hiinrtof Ihf Am. Hint Amm . r '.' .„. Hi A. D. 1640-164).— Intruiioos of thtEnfiii from Now Havoo. Siv Ni.w jF.Hr>Kr .\ I ltH(>-'i».V A. U. I640>l6s6.— Thcitmnl^hctwttntb Swodoo OM tht Dutch and Iht Snal vicler7< the lotlor. — ■■ The lS«e.h»ll| ciiliMi\ frin 1 such im|M)rtance that John I'riut/. » lii iiiiiuni cokioel of cavalry, was sent oul in KM'.' »» f"^ emor. with onlers fi>r developing indiixrv ao trade lie took pains to itminiaiiil ilic iii">itli' t!H> river, aitlioui'h ih;- Duicti hs;! •'!tsi'!!*l!*' Fort Nassau on itseasu-ni Iwuk, anil the .''wiili* settlements were on the wealeni hank eiclii^irrl) CulUaimia aruae betwtwji tlw Duli:h sad 11 678 DELAWABE, 1640-16M. DELAWAKE, imi-170t. gwedei, and when the former put up the arms of the Statcf OenenU on the completion of a pur- cbtae of landa from the Indiana, Printz in a puiioD ordered them to be torn down. The Swedes gained in atrength while the Dutch lost (round in the rlcinitr. ^ 1<M8 tlie Dutch attempted to build a trading post on the Schuyl- kill, when they were repulaed by force by the Bwedes. Individuals seeking to erect houses were treated in the same way. The Swedes in turn set up a stockade on the disputed ground. Director Stuyvesant found it necessary in 16.51 to go to conli-r with Printj; with a view to hold- ing the country a.i;aiDst the aggressive English. The Indians were called into council and con- tirmed the Dutch title, allowing the Swedes little more than the site of Fort Christina. Fort Cusimlr was erected lower down the river, to protect Dutch interests. The two rulers agreed to be friends and allies, and so continued for three yean. The distress of the Swedish colony led to sppeala for aid from the home country whither Qovemor Printz had returned In 16,M help was given, and a new governor, John CUude Kyslngb, marked his coining by the cap- ture of Fort Caaimir, pretending that the Dutch ^Vest India Company authorized the act. The ODJy revenge the Dutch could take was the seizure of a Swedish vessel which by mistake rsn into Manliattan Bay. But the next year onlrni rame from Holland etposlug the fraud of Rysiugh, and directing the expulsion of the Swedes from the South Riv A tlii't was oriiiuiizeii and Director Stuyveaant nitiventi Fnrt Caaimir without flring a gun. After somi' psrliy Fort Christina waa also surreudert-il. Such .Swr<les as would not take the oath of alle- iriuii'e to the Dutch authorities were sent to the Lome country. Only twenty persons accepted tlMM«th, ancl of three clergymen two were ex- priliil. and the thini escapt-d like treatment by till' nuihien outbreak of IndlaD tn>ubles. In ICM till' iitates Oeneral and Sweden made these trsDKiu'ttons matter of international discussion. The Swedes preaent»Ml s prnk-st against the action of the Dutch, and it was talknl over, but the msttrr was Anally dropped. In the same year tbr Wiwt India (ompany sold iu Interests on the S.mth Hiver to the city of AmsU'rdani, and the colmy of New Amstel was erect«-d, so that the tuthiiritv of New Netherland waa extinguished. " -E. II lioberu, AVw Tork. e. 1, rA. ; AlM> IN : E. Armstrong. Inlrod. t» tk* Rttord tf Vj^Utmi (Ihst. Sue. of Ana. Memoir; r. *),— B. Firrtt, Uitt. of Iht Original StttlmuiiU on tht Mimn. pi. 1, cA. 8-7.-8. Hazard, AntuUi ../ PniH,i>p. ti-99».—liepl. of ;Kt Amieniim Ch.iiiilkTu/ Iht W. I. tJi, (Ones. rtUttir* to (\M Uul .f.Y r. f. \.pp JW7-«4fl) A. D. 1664.— CoaquMt by tha Bnfliih, and aaaeaation to New York,— "Five days after the < spiiulathm of New Anulerdani [surrendered liy the Dutch to the Eagllab, Aug M. IflM— •fi :<£W Yowi: A. D. 1664] Niwfis. with Cart •riftht and Maverick . . . commiMiooetl llwir eoileainie, Sir Robert Carr, to «o,' with three •hips and an odequate military fonv. "and n-- du<T the Debware ietUemuita. Carr Whs in- •irui'lril to promise the Dutch thu pommmIiui of sii iiM-ir property and all their preaeot privileges. _"b1v that they change their maatera.' To the Bwnlr. |h> was to ' rpmoostratc their hapjiv ictura uader ■ mooarabioal guverMBeat, aad Us majeatr's good inclination to that lutlon.' To Lord Baltimore's officers in Maryland, he waa to declare that their proprietor's pretended right to the Delaware being 'a doubtful caae,' nnaaci sion would be kept for the king 'till his majesty is informed and satisfied otherwise.'. . . The Swedes «-r>> soon made friends," but the Dutch attemptea LOctober] some resistance, and yielded onlv after a couple of broadsides from the ahipa had killed three and wounded ten of their garri- son. "Carr now landed , . and claimed the pillage for himself as 'won by the sword.' Assuming an authority independent of Nicolls, he claimed to be the ' sole and chief commander and disposer' of all affairs on the Delaware." His acts of rapacity and violence, when reported to his fellow commissioners, at New York, were condemned ami n-pudiatetl, and Nicolls, the presiding commissioner, went to the Delaware in persim to displace him. " Carr was severely re- buked, and obliged to give up much of bis ill- gotten spoil. Nevertheless, he could not be pe» suadt-d to leave the place for some time. The name of New AmsU>I was now changed to New Castle, and an infantry garrison established there. . . Captain John Carr was appointed commaD<ier of the Delaware, In subonlination to the government of New York, to which it waa annexni ' as an appendage ' ; and thus affairs re- niaine<i for several years."— J. H. Brodhead Jliil. oftlu Sf.itt «/ A r , r. 8, cA. 2. A. D. 1673.— The Dutch rccooqncat. See Nkw Vobk: A. D. 1678. A. D. 1674.— Final recovery by the English. Se«- Nktberi.a.nds (Holland): A. 1> 16T4 A. D. 1674-1740.- In diapute between tbo Dukt of York and the Proprietary of Maryland. —Grant by the Dnka to WUUam Pcna. See Pesnsvlv.«nia: a. D. 1882; 1BS5; and 1760-1787. A. D. 1691-1703.— The practical independ- ence of Pent 'a " lower coantica " acquired. —"In .\pril, 18»1, with the reluctant consent of William Pfun. the ' territories. ' or ' h>wer coun- ties,' now known as the State of Delaware, be- came for two yean a government by themselves under Mnrkhani. . . . The dIsturlNtniv by Keith [see Pes>bvlvakia: A. D 18»«-18i>6] creating questions as to tlie administration of Justice, condnui'd the disposition of the English govern- ment to subject Pennsylvania to a royal com- mission ; ami In .\pril irtW). itenjanilii Fletcher, ap|>olnte<i governor by William anil M.irv, once more unlt«il IKIaware to Peniuylvania.''' But Penn. restori'd to his authority 'in 16M, could not resist the lealounies which tended s« strongly to divide the Itelawari' territories from Pennsyl- vania pro|ter. " In 17IHI. PennsylvanU convened Its leglsla ire apart, anil the two colonies were never again unltitl. The kiwer counties became almost an liidi'io'Oiient republic: for. as they were not inrludiii iu the ch^.ter. the authority of the pMprieUry over them waa by sutrerani-e only, ami the exet'ullvr power Intnisted to the govenior of Pennsylvanlit was lot) feeble to re- strain III!' |Miwer of their |M-ople. The leglsla- liiri'. the tribunals, the sulKmlinale executive offlii n of Delaware knew little of external ocw- IMl — O Bancroft, //irt. of tht V. S. {autker'i Lutt rfrimnn)^ ut M /-A 'i ip %\ — The question of jurisilicliouover Di'lawaiv was involved thrungh- out In the boumtarr dispute between the pro- prietaries of Penusvlvaoia and Maryland. Sw PKlitiaTi.vAiiu A D. lIMi aMi ITW-ITCT. f '-m iuJi 079 DBIAWARE. 1760-17M. DEL08. 1 1 '".i A. D. iTte-tTM.— The qnettion of t«sktion hj Parluuncnt.— Th* Stamp Act and it* re- pcaL— The Dadantoiy Act.— The First Con- iittental Cooktcm. See United States op Am. : A. D. n«0-1775; 1763-1764: 1765; and 1766. A. D. 1766-1771.— Opening event* of the RevelBtioo. SeelNiTEDSTATEBor Am. : AD. 1766-1767 to 1774; and BovroM: A. D. 1768 to 1778. A. O. 1775.— The bcfinniDK of the war of the Amencan ReTolntion.— Lexington.— Con- cord.— Action taken on the new*.— Ticon- ^•rp»a.— The lien of Boeton.— Bunker Hill. — The Second Continental Coop-eaa. See CsiTED States OF Am. ; A. O. 1775. A. O. 1776.— Further introduction of *la*e* rrohibitcd. See Slavery. Nkoro: A. D. 1776- ms. A. D. I776.1783.— The War of Independ- cnce.— Peace with Great Britain. See United States of A.». : A. I). 1776 to 17»8. A. D. 1777-1779.— Withholding; ratiScatioB from the Article* of Confederation. See United States of Am. : A. D. 17«l-17Mfl. A. D. 1787.— The adoption and ratiCcation of the Federal Conititution. See United State* of Am. : A. D. 1787. and 1787-1789. A. O. 1861 (April).— Refueal of troop* on the call of President Lincoln. See United States oF.\M : A. D. IMl (.Vpkil). DELAWARE RIVER. Washinrtoa's pas- •an of the. St'e United States of Am. : A. D. 17'(H777. DELA WARES, The. See American Abo- lUiiiNKS: Delawahes. DELFT: Assassination of the Prince of Orange (15841. See N etherlandh : A. L>. 1581- 1584. DELHI: nth Century.— Captnre by Mah- moud of Gasna. St Ti'RK!i: A. I). UW-1188. A. D. ii9a-iS90.— The capital of the Mame- luke or Slave dynasty. S«' India : A D. 977- 1290. A. D. 1399.— Sack and massacre by Timour. See TlMoi-R. A. D. 15*6-1605.- The founding of the Mo- gul Empire by Babar and Akbar. S<f India: A. I>. I899-1<H)5. A. D. 1730.— Sack and ma**acre by Nadir Shah. S.ffNi>i\: A l> lrtrt-.'-174H A. D. 1760-1761.— Taken and plundered by the Mahrattas.-Thcn by the Afrhans.— Col- lapse of the Mogul Empire. See India: A. I). 1747-1761 A. D. i857.-The Sepoy Mutiay.-Massacre of > ropean*.— Explosion of the magaaine.— English siege and capture of the city. !S4i> India: A U. 1857 (.Mat— AiousT) and (Sine— SErTKMBr.K). DELIAN CONFEDERACY. H<'eURU(E B. (• 47N-i:7. and Atiienk U C 466-454, and after DELIAN FESTIVAL. See I>eu>«. DELIUM, Battle of (B. C. 4*4i.-.\ Mriout defiat •iiffenil liv the Atlu'iiiaim in llw l*i>l.>ii.>n- neolan War, H V 4S4. at the hamU (if the The- ban* and other Ihpotiaa*. It wai i-nnnmiiirnt 'ty--^ fhrf' irrlliifr tjr ihc Athmiana of ih.- o.i-.. tian lemplriir IVIIiim — a temple of Apollo — im the MS (i.ait, alniiit live miles fr.mi Tauacnt •U;h they furtUsil and toKnded 10 hold. After the defeat of the army which was returning from this exploit, the nrrlaon lefi at Delium vu be- sieged and mostly captured. Among the hon. Iltes who fought at Delium was the philosopher Socrates. Tne commander Hippocrates «u sUin.— Thucydides, Hitloiy. bic. 4, leet. 89- "vi Auo »: O. Grote,irM(. 0/ Oretu, pt. 2 ch Si —See Orbmb: B. C. 434-421. DELOS.— Delo*. the smallest Uland of the group called the CychKle*, but the most import- ant In the eye* of the Ionian Greeks, being their sacred Isle, the fabled birthplace of .\p„iro and long the chief seat and center of his wnrsliip "The Homeric Hymn to Apollo prewnts to ui the island of DJIos as the centre of a gnat peri- odical festival in honour of Apollo, celebrated lij all the cities, insular and contlnentnl, of the Ionic name. What the date of this hvmn Ih, ve have no means of determining: thucvdidfi quotes it, without hesitation, as the pniduction of Homer, and, doubtless, it was in his time universally accepted as such,— though in(«iini critics concur In regarding both that and the other hymn* as much later than the Iliad aod Odyssey, tt cannot probably ite later than m B. C. The description of Uie Ionic visitors prp. sented to us in this hymn Is splendid and imp,«. ing; the number of their ships, the displav of their flnery, the beautv f their wmnc n.' ilie athletic eihibltlons as v,''i as tho m»t<>ifs ot song and dance,-- all these are repn-wnuil u making an ineffaceable impression on ilie vpn- talor: "the assembled lontans l<H>k iw if ihiT were beyond the resch of old airi- or diath!' Such was the magniflcence of which Iii^lo-i «ii the peritxllcal theatre, and which ciIUhI forth ilie voices snd poetical genius not merely of iiim-nmt bards, but also of the Delian mafdcn.. iu Ihe temple of Apollo, during the century iircicdini 560 B. C. At tliat time it was Ihe ijrrat (i-i}tr»l festival of the lonians In Asia and Europe _ O. Orote, Ifitt. of iirttft, pt. i, eh. I',' — liurini! the war with Penis, I)elos was mwW \\v rora- mon treasury of the Greeks; hut Athens subsf. uueotly took the custody and manapnunt •■'. the trraaury to henelf and reduced Dij.w to t dependency. The laland was long lhi> wnt of iin extensive commerce, snd Delian lironie ku ci( note In the arts. B. C. 400.— Spared by the Persians. Oref.cE: ft. C. 49(1 B. C. 477.— The Delian Confederacy. Okkeck: M C. 478-477; sndATiiK.vv II ( VA, and after. B. C. 4A<-4S4 (')■— Removal of the Conlcil- eratc treaaory to Athens. See Atiik.nh: B c. 46e-4.>4 B.C. 4«S-4*'-— PuriScations.-." Inthemid«t (if the loases and turmoil of the ri'(lo|>onni»iHn] war It had lieen detennined [at Allien"] loolTir a solemn testimony of homage to Apollo nn IMi<i, [B r. 4W] — a homage doulitleMctinnci till « ill) the complete cessation of the prstllin.i-. which had lasted as long as the flfth }'rar of ilic *sr. The solemnity consisted In the renewed coinecrs tlon of the entire island to the divim- (ilver nf irrare ; all the cotllns nmtaining hiim.'iii renisini Mng removetl from Dcloa, and l{hiniiiiip|i"inl«d U> be henceforth the sole Imriul nlm. Tlii« noiemnity auppiementrtl the an l.'rnKrIy pir formed by the onlem of Pislstratus, snd it w«i do' !itle*a In the present Instniire also IntimH, by /tieans of a brilliaut renewal u( the Ikllsa Sw See 4(i*- G80 DELOS. DEMICKGI. oclebntfcin, to (trengthen the power of Athens In the ishuul aea, to give a festive centre to the Ionic world. . . . But the main purpose was clearly one of mo- Jitv and religion. It was in- tended to calm and edify the minds of the citi- icns."— E. Curtius, Hiit. of Oreete. bk. 4, eh. 2. —Three yeara later (B. C. 422) the Athenians found some reason for another purlttcatinn of Delos which was more radical, consisting in the (xpuUioQ of all the inhabitants from the island. The unfortunate Delians founil an asylum at Adramyttium in Asia, until they were restnred to their homes next year, through the influence of the Delphic oracle. — Thucydides, History, bk. 5, leet 1. B. C. 88.— Pontic Muaacre.— Early in the irst war of Mitbridates with the Romans (B. C. i»). Drios, which had been made a free poit and had become the emporium of Konian commerce in the east, was seized by a Pontic fleet, and pillnged, 80,000 Italians being massacred on the Island. The treasures of Delos were sent to Athens and the Island restored to the Athenian contnil.— W. Ihne, Uitt. o/Jiome, bk. 7, r/.. 17, B. C. 69.— Ravaced bj Pirates.—" Almost under the eyes of the fleet of Lucullus, the pirate AtliincHlorus surprised in eat [B.C. UU] the island of Di'los. destroyed iU far-famed shrines and ti'raples, and carried off the whole population luto nUvcrv. " — T. Mommscr, Hut. of Rome. bk. 5, th. a. Slave Trade under the Romans.— " Thrace and .Sammtia wen: the Guinea (.'oast of the Itimans. The entrepAt of this trade was IHO.w. • Iiirh had been made a free ix)rt by Home after the nmquest of Macedonia. Stralio tells us that in one day 10.000 slaves were wdil then' in open nisrkel. "Such were the vile uses to which was put the Sacretl Island, once the treasury of Ort^Ki','— H. a. Llddcll. Hut. of Ronte, bk. .'5, eh. 4». DELPKI.— KRISSA (CRISSA).- XIRRHA(CIRRHA).— "In tliosi' early times « hi n llie IIiiMieric Hymn to A|k>II(i was eomposeil Iht'iiiwu (if Krisaa [Jn PhiN-is, near Delphi] ap- liears to have been gri'at and powerful, poaseiw- injr all the broad plain iM'tween PamassuH, Kir- plus, and the gulf, tu whli-h latter It gave Its name. — and |Kis»es.Hing also, what was a pmperty not li«« VHluable. the adjuining sanctuary nf iVthii itielf, whlrh the Hynui identines with Krissa. niit indicating iHdphi as a separale place The Krisi.a'nns, duulitless, deriveil gri'at pniHts from till numlKT of visitors who came In visit Ih'Iplii, l«'ih liv liiiid and by sea, ami KIrrha was nrlgin- iily only the name for their seaisyrl. (Jraduiilly, h"»rvir. the |»>rt ap|H>ars to have grown In liii- I.naii.e at the expense of the town; . while at llie siune time the saiictuarv of I'ytho with Its aimlni.iraliirs expandiil into ihe town nf Delphi. anil laine In claim an Independent exlsleni'e nf it«i'»n . In addilhm to the aWive facts, al- n-adv Miffl.leiil In tliemst'lves as seeds nf ijuarrel. »!• «rc tnhl that the Klrrhwans abustsl their piwi- ti 'n as mastera of the nvenue to the temple by w.->. and levied exorbitant Inlls on the visitors «hH liiniled then-. . . . Besides such offence uwlnsl the general Qrrrlan public, they ha.' also •^r'Mff>n: the rnmiiy nf tii,lr Hin* Uii neigliUMin 111 n.iirages u|)on woineii. Pluslan as well as Artiliin who were nluriiing fMm the temple. Thus stood the ca«v. apparvolty, about 589 B. C, when the Amphiktyonic meeting interfered . . . to punish the Kirrhieans. After a war of tea years, the first Bacred War in Greece, this object was completely accomplished, by a joint force of Thessalians under Eurylochus, Sikyonlana under Kleisthenes, and Athenians under Alk- mieon ; the Athenian Solon Iieing the person who originated and enforced, in the Amphiktyonic council, the proposition of lnt»rference. KIrrha . . . was destroyed, or left to subsist merely as a landing place; and the whole adjotolng plain was consecrated to the rielphian god. whose do- mains thus touched the sea. . . . The fate of KIrrha in this war Is ascertained: that of Krissa is not so clear, nor do we know whether it waa destroyed, or left sulmisting in a position of ta- feriority with regarrl to Delphi. From this time forward, the DelphUn community appears as substantive and autonomous, exercismg in their own light the maiugementof the temple; though we shall find, on more than one o<t:asion, that the Phocians contest this right. . . . The spoils of KIrrha were employed bv the victorious allies In founding the Pytliiiin Games. The oc- tennial festival hitherto" celebrared at Delphi in honour of the god, iiiiluding no other competi- tion except in the harp and the pwan, was ex- panded into compn>liensiyn games on the model nf the Olympic, with matches n<it only of music, but also nf gymnastics ami chariots,— "i-ilebrated, unt at Delplii itttelf. but on the maritime plain near the ruined Kirrha.— and under the din-ct su|>erinU'ndeneeof the Aniphiktvons themstdves, . . They were celebrated in the latter half of ^ulnmer, or flmt half nf every third Olympic year. . . . Nothing was coufernil but wreaths of laun I. '•— G. (irnte, /lift, of lirftct. i>t. 2. eh. 2X._See, also, Atiikni.: U. 0. 6I0-V>«1: PvTHO; Okacles ok the Ukeeks; and Ami'iiiktyom( CorNciL. B. C. 357-338.— Seiaure by the Phociani.— The Sacred Warr —Deliverance by Philip of Macedon.— Warwith Amphissa. SeeliHEECK: H. V. s-ir-sw. B. C. 979.- Diacomature of the Gault. See Gails: U, C. •.'WU27H. DELPHIC ORACLE. The. See Oracles OF TMK ItllKKKS DELf HlC SIBYL, The, Sie Siuvu.. DEMES.— DEMI. Sn l'iivi..E; alsn. Atii- knh: H C Mo-IoT, DEMETES, The.— One nf the irll. s of an- cient Wlllit >ii' DlltTAIN. t Kl.TIl TliniKS. DEMETRIUS, the Impostor. Se Kissia: A. D l.'):);!-!!))*.- Demetrius Poliorcetea, and the wars of the Diadochi. See .Mack- Iminia: H C ;n.V:llo. :iln-;ioi; Blsn (iKKKCE: H. (' .HOT- lit; : ami l(niinK«: 11. C !to,-i-;t(i4. DEMiURCI. -COSMOS. — TAGOS OR TAOUS.— Of the less n.nunnn titles applied aninii;: I 111 amiiiit (in'eks tn their supreme majrlMli iir«, ao' "(nsmos. or Insmios, and Tak'iis i-ianifying ,\rninirir ami tnuimamUr), llie fnrmer nf which »■ timi In Vtvie. the latter III the Tliessalhiii cities With the fnrnur we ■my cnmparr' the title nf Cosmiipolls, » hkli waa iu u.^e amnnif the Kpineplivriaii I.<HTlans. A mnp' fri'ipient title Is thai n^ Demlurgl. a name HJiicii Mt-iiis tn jii.|iiy a eniistitiitinii no innger idlicarrhical, but Ahlcli liestnHed certain rignia nn the Demos. In the tiim' nf the Pelonon- uesian war magistrates nf this kind cxIatM In G81 DIlOUBOl nil and in tba Arcadian Mantinma. . . . The title ia declared bjr Grnnmariane to bare been commonly uied among the Doriani. ... A rimilar title la that of Donuchua, which the ■npiema magiatratea of Theapia in Boeotia aeem to have bona. . . . The Aitjmi at Epidaurua and Argoa we hare already mentioned."— O. SchOmann, Antiq. of OrttM: Th» 8taU, ft. %, tk. 5. DEMOCRATIC, OR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLICAN PARTY OP THE UNITED STATES. See Uxited Statbb of Am. : A. D. 17S0-1T93: 188S-1888-. 1849-1848. DEMOSTHENES, the reneral at SphM- teria aod at Syracoa*. See Orebcb: R C. 4S9, and Straccw: B. C. 415-418; and ATRBiia: a C. 415-418 Decdoathcnea the ernter. The Phillipica, and the Death of. See Orbbcb : B. C. 857-388. 851-848, and 8a3-«a3; and Ath- na: a C. 85IM88. and 8S6-833. DEMOTIC WRITING. See Hiebo- OLTPRICe. DEMUCHUS. BeeDcinuBOL DENAIN. Battle of (171a). See Xsthkr- Lunw: A D. 1710-1718. DENARIUS, The. See Ae. DENDERMONDE.— Surrender to the Spaniarda (15S4). See NETUiRLANDa: A. D. 1884-1.5^. DENIS, Kincof Portugal. A. D. 1379-1888. DENMARK. See 8cAKDtNAVT.\!« Statu. DENNEWITZ, OR lOTERBOGK, Battle oL See Qernaxt: A. D. 1818 (SErrBXBER— October). DENNIKON, Peace of (1531). See Swrr- zcrland: .V r>. l.V<l-1«4M. DENVER, The foundinr of. SeeCoLORAOO: A. I) 1H<J6-1878, DEORHAM, Battle ol.— Fought A. D. .177, nnar n»tli. Knt'lHiiil. Mween the iDvadiiiK West Sa.\on8 mid Ilic Britons— ,1. R. Qreeo Vir Viik- Dfe PAUW UNIVERSITY. See Emj. CATios, MuuEK.s ; Amerk A : A. I). 1768- INRJ DERBEND, Paa* of. See .IrHoiPACH. DERBY-DISRAELI MINISTRIES The. See EN<ir.AHD: A. D. 1M1-18.W: 1858-18.W; and 188H- 1H70. DERRY. See Lojuhikderbt. DE RUSSY, Fort, Capture of. See Uicited States or An.: A. I). 1M64 (Mahch— Mat: LOIIMAXA). DESERET, The propoaed atate of. See Utah A P. 184I>-1S.'10, DESMONDS, The. «<■<■ CtERAi ntxEK DBSMOULINS, Camille, and the French Revolution. See Khanie A. I), 17m» (Jii.t)- 17WI, l7l«(Aluc»T), to 1798-17IM (Noveii»EH— DESPOT OF EPIRUS.-'The tiile of desiH.l, by which they (the medlievnl prinrei of EpIriM] are Kenerallv dlattni;\iiKlir<l, waa a Byzanlinr honorary diallnction. never iHime by the t-nrlirr nipinm-'n of the family until 11 had been r.mferre,! on them by the Qreek Emperor." —(J Fliilay. llitt. of Orrttt fr-m if ronovft bf the Cnitatlen. ck. 8, mtt. 1.— See Erta(;i: A. D 1904-18.10 DESPOTS, Creek. H»i Tnuirw. !tal- iaa. ^^-e Itai.t: A 1). ia.*lO-15»0 DESSAU, BatUa of (i«a4). See Oumairr. DETROIT. DBSTRIBR&- PALFREYS.-" A cart. liere or man-at-arma waa accompanied by on* ' Deatriero ' or itrong war-borae, and one or two aometimea three, mounted aquirea who led thi animal fullv capariaoned; or carried the helmet lance and ahieldof their maater: theie ■ Deatiini' ('rich and great boTMa' aa Villani calla tbemL were ao named becauie they were led on ih« right band without any rider, and all ready for mounting: theiqulre'i horaea were of an in^rior kind called ' Ronzini,' and on the ' Palafreni ' or palfreyi the knight rode when not in battle" — H. E. Napier, tlortntint BMory, ». 1 1 68& »■•'.?. DESTROYING ANGELS, OR DAN- ITES. See MoRXOimM: A. D. 1880-1846 DETROIT : Firat occnpicd by the Coureui de Boia. See CoiTRBCRa db Boia A. D, 1686-1701.— The «rat French fottt.- Cadillac'a fonndiuK of the city.— At tbe beginning of the war called "Queen Anne'i War "(1708) "Detroit had already been esub- liahed. In June, 1701, la Mothe Cadillac, with a Jetuit father and 100 men, was aent tu con- •truct a fort and occupy the country; Uence he la spoken of as the founder of the city. In im a fort Icalled Fort St. Joseph] had been con- structed to the south of the present city, where Fort Oratiot now standa, but It soon fell into decay and was abandoned. It waa not the tit< selected by Cadillac. "—W. Klngaford. llut rf Canatla, r. 8, p. 408.— "Fort St. Joseph wu abandoned in the year 1888. The eaulilishment of Cadillac waa destined to a better fate iind soon rose tfl distinguished Importance anidnR the westert. outposts of Canada."— F. Pttrkman. TA* Corupirofg nf Pnntint, », 1, p. 818. A. D. I70I-I7SS.— Importance to the Freach. See Canada: A. I). 1700-1785. A. D. 1713.— Siecc by the Foxes and Mas- aacrv of that tribe. See Canada: A. I) i;il- 1713. A. D. 1780.- The French stttlement whni aarrendered to the Enrliah.— "Tlio Krcncli ii. habitants here are settled on lioili sides. )f the river for about eight miles. When I tixiii pot- session of the country soon afUT tlio surren- der of Canada [see Canada : A. D. 17(to]. they were atiout 8,500 in number, there iK'Introeir 500 that bore arm* (to whom I adininittcred oaths of alleiilance) and near 300 dwi'llini; Imum. Our fort here ia built of stookadcx's, is «lKiut 2J feet high, and LSOOyardalncircumfen'mr. . . The Inlmblunia raise wheat and other itrain In abundance, and have plenty of cattle, Iml they enrich themsadves chiefly by their trmie with the Indians, which Is here very larKvand luenitive." —Major 11 Rogers, Conntt A«t. of S. Am., p. 188. J y A. D. 1763.— Peatiac'a Siege. See Pontiac'i War. A. D. I775-I7I3,— Held by the Britiik throughout the war of Independence, sm UiirrED States or A¥. : A. D. 1778-1T7*, Clare's coNqrEsr. A. D. tlot.- Made the iMt of foreraatat of the Territory of MicUna. Bee Imdiaxa: A. D. 18UO-1818. A. D. llts.—Th«Bwrea4af ef General HsU. See I'srrcD »«tatiu or Am A P I»1?-;J'^ October). A. D 1113.— Americaa recercry. Unrnu) Htatm o» Am. : A. D. IB1»-1B1I. 682 DKTTmOEN. DBTTINGBN, B«ttl* of (1743). See Aue- Ru: A. D. 1748. DEUSDBDIT, Pf», A. O. «1S-«18. OBUTSCH. Oriiia of the iwine. See Oukaut : Thb matiokal maio. DEUTSCHBROO, B«tUe of (XAaa). See Bohhoa: a. D. 1419-1484. DEVA.— One of the Roman gurffon towni in Britain, on the dte of which it modem Cheiter, liking iu name from the caatra or fortified itatioL of the legiona. It waa the station of tlie 20th legion.— T. Mommaen, BM. of Rome M. 8, M. 5. DEVB-BOYUN, BatUa of (187S). See Tnuu: A D. 18n-1878. DEVIL'S CAUSEWAY, The—The popu- Ur name of an old Roman road in England which nio-i from Sllcbester to London. DEVIL'S HOLE, The ambnacade and ■attacre at.— On the 18th of September, 1783, during the progreia of Pontiac'a War, a train of wigoni and packhones, travening the Niagara portage between Lewiston and Fort Schloaaer, giitrded by an escort of 34 soldiers, waa ambus- caded by a party of Seneca warriors st the place called the Devlrs Hole, three miles below the Niagara caUract Seventy of the whites were ilain, and only three escaped.— F. Parkman, The Cmmratv cf J\>rUitie, eh. 81 (r. 8). DEVON COMMISSION, The See Iu- lasd: a. D. 1848-1848. DEVONSHIRE, in th« Britiah ace. See DciUiOKII. DE WITT, John, the adminittration and tktmnrderoC SeeNrrBKBLAsos: A. D. 1851- 1««0. to 1673-1674. DHIHAD. See Dab rL-IsLAM. DIACRII, The. See Atbens: B. C. 594. DIADOCHI, The.— The Imrawllate successors of Al.xaniler the Great, who divldiil his empire •re Mmetimes so-called. "The word clmilochi mesM 'successors,' and Is used to include Aa- llgonus, Ptolemy, Seleucus, Lvsimachus, etc — ■be sctual companions of Alexamler."- J. P. Xahaffv, Story of AlfMiuttfi Empire, eh. S — SeeMACF-noNiA: B. C. 83.'(-316. DIAMOND, Battle of the (1795). See Ire- USD: a. I). 179.VI7W1. DIAMOND DISCOVERY IN SOUTH AFRICA (ia67). SeeORKjCAs. DIAMOND NECKLACE, The aifair of tit. .Sr Fra)«c«: A. 1). 17(»4-17«5. DIASPORA, The.— A name spplle<l to the Jew* scattered tlmiutfhout the Ruinan world DIAZ, Porfirio, The Mexican pratidancr d Nf Mexico: A. I>. 1867-1888. DICASTBRIA.— The great popular court r iury, In ancient Athens cnlknl the Hrlliea, or Hfli»«t« consistlnK at one time of six thousand cbiwii ritiiens, was divided Info ten sections, ctllcj Dicasteria. Their places of meeting als<i ow the Bame name — O. F. SchOmann. Anlio. itlrr'^r,: The State, ,4. 8, eh. 3. -See Atbcn* B (• \ i-jai. DICKINSON, John, in the Amtricaa Rtro- wtioa. Si^ rNiTED-SxATasor Am. ; K I> 1767- 17W; n74(.SKPTgMBKK); 1778 (JcLT). DICKINSON COLLEGE. Koe Ei.rrA- Tins. Muiinix .\uitu|i4: A. D. ITflB IRMi, DICIAIOR, Roman. HteCovsi-m Rum.k BIDIAN LAW. The, (*ee Ottm, " Fan! m», UiiiiAx Law». Drar OIDYM.SUM, Th« oraal* o£ SeeORACua OFTH* OBBBKa OIBDBNHOFEN, Battle of (1639). See Oebmaht: a. D. 1684-1689. "' °'^**PE— Bombardment and deatnictiea - an EncUah fleet. See Frakce: A. D. 683 .K °'^? ATRL— The day* on which the Romana thought it unlucky to undertake busineat of taportance-for example, the day after the Calends^ Nones and Idea of each month — were railed Dies Atri.- W. Ramaay, itanwU of Soman 8ee°fcffd\'^°'" "•'^'•-D'- F.^ DIET.— 'VAn assembly, council, . . . Parlla- ?*°k: J,- ■ ^* peculiar sense of the word un- doubtedly arose from a popular etymology that connected It with the Ut. 'die* ' a day esp a set day, a day appointed for public businoa- whence by exteiision, a meeting for business, an assembly. "-W. W. Skeat. Et^notofical diet! The Germanic— • The annual general coun- cils and special councils of Charles the Great did not long survive him, and neither his descend- ants nor their succeasors revived them. Ther were com|)elle<i, to be sure, both by custom and by policy to advise with the chief men of the kingdom before taking any important step or doing anything that depended for success on their consent and cooperation, but they varied the number of their counsellors and the time ptace, and manner of consulting them to suit their own convenience. Great formal aasembliea of counsiellors summoned from all parts of the realm were termed Imperial Diets (Reicustage): sma I, or local, or informal asaemhlles of a sfmi- lar kind were known as Court DieU (Hoftage) Princes ind other royal vassals, margraves, pals- graves, finive-i. Iwrons, and even royal Dlenst- mannen were indiscriminately suminoned, but the Diets were in no sense representative bodies until the Great Interregnum [aecOEBMA.NY: A D ISTMHaral when certrtln cities acquliwi such Influence in public affairs that thev were Invited to «<n(l dilegates. The tirst Diet "in which they participated was held at Worms in Februarv li.M. b.v King William of Holland. .Most of tte cities of the Rhenish League were there repre- sent.ll, and tliey constituteil an important factor of the amrinbly. The affairs (A the church shannl attention with temporal affairs In the Diets until the Popes sueceeilwi in making good tlieir claims to supremacy in spiritual matters. Thereafter they were altogether left to synods and church councils. . . . Iniiterial DIeU and Court Diets continued to Xk held at irregular intervals, whenever and wlienver It pleased the king to convene tlii-in, but Imperial Diets were usually held in ImiHrial cities. These were not such lietemirenouB H^s<>mblies as formerly, for few rovnl vassals. ..m, pt princes, and no royal Dienstnmnnen whatever were now invited 'to atten'l linives :uid barons, and prelates who Were ill I princes, continued to lie summoned. but the miinlKT iiml InllueLce of the Graves and barons in the Diets steadily waned. Imperial eltlts were for many years only occasionally a«ke<l to participate, that is to say, only when the kins had ciiioowl need of their g«o<I offices, but in the latter half of the 14th century tliev began to be regularly summoned. Imperial DIeu were so frequently held during the Huialte DIET. DINAN. War ud themfter, that It became pretty well lettled vhat persons aod what citiea should take part in them, and only those pern' jS and those cities that were entitled to tak? part in them were regarded as Estates of tho realm. In the ISth century thty developed Into three chamliers or CDllc^ris, viz., the College of Electors [see Oer)i.\.vy: a. D. 1125-1152], the College of Princes. Oraves, and Barons, usually call«l the Council of Princes of the Empire (Relchsfnrs- tenratb), and the College of Imperial Cities. The Archbishop of Hentz presided in the Col- lege of Electors, and the Archliishop of Salzburg and the Duke of Austria presided alternately In the Council of Princes of the Empire. The office of presiding In the College of Imperial Cities devolved upon the Imperial city in which the Diet sat. The king and members of both the upper Colleges sometimeit sent deputies to repre- sent them, instead of attending In person. In 1474 the citiea adopted a raethixT of voting which resulted in a divis'-n of their College Into two Benches, called the Rhenish Bench and the Swabian Bench, because the Rhenish cities were conspicuous members of the one. and the Swabian cities conspicuous members of the other. In the Council of Princes, at least, no regard was had to the number of votes cast, but only to the power and influence of the voters, whence a measure might pass the Diet bv less than a majority of the votes present Having passed. It was proclaimed as the lav of the realm, upon receiving the king's assent, but was only effective law in so far as tlie members of the Diet, present or absent, assented to It. . . . Xot a single Im|K>rial Diet was summoned between 1613 and 1840. The king held a few Court Diets dur- ing that long interval, consisting either of the Electors alone, or of the Electors and such other Princes of tlie Empire as he clio8<> to summon. The ccmilitions of memlM>rsliip, and the manner of voting In the College of Electors and the Col- lege o' Imperial Cities n'mained unchangetl. . . 1 '■"< limg »tn)ve In vain to have their voies i i;nized ns of equal weight with the others, but the two up|ier Colleges insisted en iegardiog them as sumnioni'd fur consultation only, until the Peace of Westphalia s»'ttled the matter by declaring that 'a di'ilaive vol4' (votum ilecisivum) shall belong to the Kree Imperial Cities not less than to the rest of the Estates <if the Empire.' Generally, but not always, the tense of each College was c.xpnsseil bv tile mujiirity of votes east. The IVare nf ^Vcst- phslia prcivideil that 'in relipuus mattirs ami all iilher business, when tlie ^stuti'S cannot Ik' considered one IkhIv (<'orpus), as also when the Calholic Estates and those of the Augsburg Con- feasion go Into two parts (in duas partes eun- tibus), a mere amicafile agn'ement shall settle the dilleri'uces without regard to majority of votes' When the 'going into parts, (itio in partes) t(M)k place each ('i)llego dililierateil in two bixUes, the Ciirpus CathiiHi-tinim aii<l the Corpus Evangelirorum. Th.- king no hingiT attendetl the Imperial Diets In (lenon, but sent ciiinniisKioiiers insteatl. and It was now tlie e<>ni mon practice of members of both the upiier C<il- leges to send deputies to represent them. — SH. E. T'jfticf, i^ltk tf the licrmitnic Cotatitiitwu, cA. 4, 5, ami 6. — "The establishment of a perma- nent <llet, attendeil. nut by the electors In person, but by tlusir ivpnwuutlvet, ii one of the mott itilklDg pecuIUritiei of Leopold's reign" (Leopold I., 195'7-1706). Thii came about rather accidnt- ally than with IntentloD, as a consequence of the unusual piDlonntion of the session of a genetil diet which Rudolph convoked at Ratisboo, gnoo after his acoeMlon to the throne. "'Soduht new and important objects . . . occurred in tlw course of the deliberations that the diet vu unusually prolonged, and at last renilind per. petual, as it exisu at present, and distinjjulslwt the Oermanic constitution aa the onlv one of iti kind — not only for a certain length "of time, u was formerly, and as diets are generally helil la other countries, where there are national stata; but the diet of the Oermanic empire was estsb- lished by this event lor ever. The diet acquired by this circumstance an entirely difTeri'iu funi. So long as It was only of short durati< n. it vu always expected that the emperor, :>- will ii the electors, princes, counts and pn i *, if not all, yet the greatest part of them, sh. aid aiicnd in person. ... It is true, it had long lieeu cut- toinary at the diets of Qermany, for tlie sum to deliver their votes occasionally tiv moans of plenipotentiaries; but it was then consiilind only as an exception, when'os it wiu« mm eMahlLshed as a general rule, that all the staus slmulil stni their plenipotentiaries, and never apjicir tiiem- selves, . . . The whole diet, tliercfcin-. Im|«r- ceptibly acquired the form of a icin).Tes.i, con- sisting solely of ministers, similar in a irreat degree to a congress where ?"veral pnwirs .>«Dii their envoys to treat of pi'ace. In otlu •• n siwta, It may be comparetl to a congress hiM ir ilit name of several states In per|>i'tu:il Mma with each other, as In .Switzerlanil, the Inited Pn>vinci.-s, and as some A'liat of a similur nature exists at present In North Amerie^i: luit wiib this difference, — that In Germany the uswraWj is held under the authority of' (ini- tiimnui supreme heail, and that the meinlxTH ijn out appear merely as deputies, or n'lmwnlaiivei Invested witli full power »iy tlair priniipalf. which Is only tlic case with the iiii|«ri:il riiia; but so tliat every member of the t»i> .Minrinr colleges of the empire Is himself un m timl »i\a- eign of a state, who permits liis niiuisier to diOiver his vote in his name ami ciiilr :iccimi' Ing to his prescription.'" — S. A. Diinliam. /W *'f thr (rrmuinif hmpire, bk. 3. rh. 11 c :li — iy^4- ing Pnttrr'g Hiit'Tiail l)ml"imuiil if tht Oer viiinir ('"Mf. )— Of the later Diet, of Ih. (nniwnic Confederation, something inav l>e K :>rniil umlrr Or.IIM.\.NV: A. D. 1814-IWO. iind lH4f< (Makcb- Septkmugiii. • D 1 F F I DAT ION, The Right of. S.>e Laxiv rRIKUK. DIGITI. Si'e Fotrr, TiiK Roman. DIjON, Battle at. See Bi'Hui'miu.\8: A. D 5U«i. DIJON, Oricin of,— Dijon, the old rapital of the Dukes of Burgundy, was originally u <tn>ii| camp city — an " urbs quadrita' — nf Ihi' Ro- mans, known aa the Castrum DivimiinM-. In walls were 30 fe<'t high, 1.1 fiit thick. asJ atrengthene<l with 33 towers. — T. IhKljllua, lUUii iiiiil Her Innulm, bk. 4. fh It. DILEMITES, The. tne Ma'Iouictax Coi qttoT. A IJ. StLVW.") DIIIETIA. See Bhitaim : 6tb Cixti-ht DINAN, Battle of (1597). S'e Fhaxcs A. D. 1S93-1SIW. G84 DINAHT. DISCIPLES OF CHRIST. DINANT, Dettnictiun of.— Some young men of Dinant bavinff caricatured Duke Charles the Bold, of BuTcundy, in the coune of hU war with Li^ge (to the bishopric of which Dinant iKlooged), he took the town, in 1466, sacked it, tied WM of the citizens In pairs and drowned tliem, hanged many more, and made slaves of the surTiTlng men. Then ho burned the city suil removed the materials of which it had been built.— J. ^ Kirk, CharUtthtBM, bk. 1, eh. 8-9. Also m: E. de Honstrelet (Jobnes). Chroniela, ik. S, eh. 188-189.— Philip de Commines, Me- ■■ir; bk. 8, eh. 1. DINWIDOIE COURT HOUSE, Action at. Sn' United States or Am.: A. D. 1863 (Uabcb — Aphii. : ViRoiRiA). DIOBOLY, The. Pericles "was the pro- poser of the law [at Athens] which instituted the 'Dioboly,' or free gift of two obols to each poor citl:eD, to enable bim to pav the entrance-money at the theatre during the Dionyaia."— C. W. C. Oman, Ui»l. of Great, p. 871.^— See Athknb : B C. 435-481. DIOCESES OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. —•The civil government of the empire was dis- tributed [under Constantine and his successors] iDtothirtcen givat dioceses, each of which equalled tbeju.itme! ire of a powerful kingdom. The first of tbeke dioceses was subject to the juris- diction of the Count of the East. The place of Augustal Pnefect of Egypt was no longer fillwl l)T a Roman knight, but the name was rctaimtf. . . . The eleven remaining dioceses — of Asians, Pontica, and Thrace ; of Macedonia, Daciii and Pannonia. or Western lllyricum: of Ituly and Africa : of Gaul, Spain, and Britain — were ^overnitl by twelve vicars or vicc- pnifiits.' — E. Gibbon, Dteline and Fall of the Rmiiiii Empire, eh. 17. — Sec Pbjetoriak Pb.e- rElTB. DIOCLETIAN, Roman Emperor. See Kcime; a. D. 2»4-30.'5 Abdication.— "The certniiiiiy of his abdication was performed in a •natious plain ahoutthrre milc» from N'iconinlia [Slay 1, k. D. !«W]. The Empiror ascended a lofty tlirone, and, in a speech full of n-ason and | iliiriiity, declared bis intention, both to the people ami to the soldiers who were assembled on this I fitraonlinary occasion. As soon as be had j ilivcstcd himself of the purple, he withdrew ' fnmi the gazing multitude, and. traversing the j cily in a covere<l chariot, proceeded without | lielay to the favourite retirement [Sal(>na]^whirli \iv liaii chosen In his native country of PttlmH- tiii. — E. (jibbon, Deeline nnd Falli'ifthi Ilomnn F.ihiurt, eh. I.S. — See, also, Salona. DIOKLES, Laws ot.—K code of laws frameil at MvracuHe, inunrtliatelv after the Athenian •iiili', by a eoniniiwion of ten citizens the chief of wliom was one Diiiklra. Tliese laws were fxlinituislied in a fi-w ymrs by the Dvonisisn I; ninny, but reviviil after n liipseof siztv veam. Till code is "also said to have been copied in Viiri-iH other Sicilian cities, and to have re- iiiiiiiiitl in fiirce until the absorption of all Sicily mull r the dominion of the Komans."— O Orote. i 11, -t ..fDrrree. pt 2, eh. HI. \ DIONYSIA AT ATHENS.-' The four I I" '!|"il Attik Dionvslak festivals were (I) the j r V-..4 Mikrit. the Lraner or Rural DiiiuvHia ; (■.'' 'ill- Diunysia I..enaia: '3) the Anthesteria' and i4i ihc Diiinvsia Megala. the Greater or City Diouraio. The Hural Dionysia, celebrated yearty in the month Posideon (Dec. — Jan.) throughout the various tonnships of Attike, was presided over by the demarch or mayor. The celebration occasioned a kind of rustic carnival, distinguislied like almost Bakchik festivals, by gross intem- perance anu licentiousness, and during wbicb slaves enjoyed a temporary freedom, with licence to insult their supenors and behave in a boister- ous and disorderly manner. It is brought vividly before us In the 'Acharnes' of Aristophanes. . . . The 'Anthesteria. or Feust of Flowers, cele- brated yearly in the month Anthesterion (Feb.— March), . . . lasU'd for three days, the first of which was called Pithoigia, or Tapbarrel-day, on which they opened the casks and tried the wine of the previous year. . . . The DionysU Megala, the Greater or Citv Dionysia, celebrated yearly in the month ElapheboHon (March— April) was presided over by the Arehon Eponymos, so- called because the vear was registered In his name, and who was first of the nine. The order of the solemnities was as follows : I. The great Fublic procession. ... II. The chorus of Youths. II. The Komoa, or band of Dionvsiak revellers, whose ritual is best illustrate<l in 'ililton's exqui- site poem. IV. The representation of Comedy and Tragedy ; for at Athenai the stage was re- ligion and the theatre a temple. At the time of this great festival the capital was fill -d with rustics from the countrv townships, and ..irangers from all parts of llelfas and the outer world." — R. Brown, TTie llreat Dioniitiuk Myth, eh. 6. DIONYSIAN TYRANNY, The. SeeSvRA- f USE : B. C. 3»7-3««, and 344. DIPHTHERIA, Appearance of. See Pl.AllfK: l.STH CKXTIBT. DIPLAX, The. See I>eplim. DIPYLUM,The. 8eeCEii.\Micus ok Athens. DIRECTORY, The French. See France : \. D. 179.'5 (Jl'NE- SEPTKMIIE") ; (OCTOHER- DECEMnEH) ; 17»7 (SEI'TEMBKH). DISCIPLES OF CHRIST.-" This body, often called alsii Christians, was one of the re- sults of the great revival movement which began in Tennessee and Kentucky in the earlv part of t!:e present century. Rev. 'Barton W. 'Stone, a Presbyterian minister who was prominent in the n'vlval movement, withilrew from the Presby- terian Church, and in 1(<04 organized a church with no other crtcil than the Uilile and with no uunii- but that of rhristiiiu. One of his objects was to find a basis for the union of all Christian believers A little later Thomas and Alexander Catnplx'll father ami son. who came from In-- lunii. where llie fmnier bail been a Presbyterian minister, orpiniiciil union s<icictles in Pennsvl- vania {'Imncinv- their views as to liaptishi, they joined the Riilstoiie .\s,so<iationof Baptists. Shortly after, when .\le\aiider I'ampbell was eharicMl with not being in harmony with the creeil. lie followed the Burch Run 'Church, of which he was pastor, into the Malioning Baptist AssiH'iation. which, leavened with his teachings, Booii ccaseil to lie known as a Baptist aaaocia- tion In IN'.'7. after some com>s|)oiiilenee with Rev H \V. Stone ami his followers of the Christian Connection, then' was a union with a larite nunilii r of congregations In Ohio. Ken- tucky, and Tcniiessn'. luid the orcaiiixiition vari- oiislv known as ■ Piseipies of riirist and ' Chrisimns' [also, popularly ilesiirnnteil Camp- billites'l is the result."— H.'K, Carroll, lieligiimt of tht " •' ■ '■' Foreiiof tht V. S., eh. 18. 685 DIcUNHERITKD BARON& DISINHERITED BARONS, Tht. Sca Boonjuro: A. D. 1883-1888. DISRABLI-DBRBY AND BEACONS- FIELD MINISTRIES. See Emoland: A. I. 18S1-1883; 18S8-1880: 1868-1870; and I8T8-I881). DISRUPTION OF THE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND. See Scotland: A. D. 1848. '"SSBNTERS, OR NONCONFORM- ISi'S, Enclith: Fint bodies orruiued.— Penccotioiu under Charle* II. and Anne.— Remotral of DiMbilitici. S<-e Etioland: A. D. 1650-1586; 1663-1665; 1672-1673; 1711-1714: 1827-1828 DISTRIBUTION OF THE SURPLUS, The. See United States or Am. : A. D. 1835- 1837. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, The. See C01.UM111A, The District of. DIVAN, The. See Scbi.ime Porte. DIVODURUM.— The Gallic nnme of the city afterwards calle<l Mediomatrlci — now Metz. DiVONA.— Modem Cahors. See Cadirci. DIWANI. Sec India: A. D. 1757-1772. DIX, General John A.: Meuaee to New Orleans. See Unfted Statf* or Am. : A. D. 1860-1861 (Df.cember— Fkbri-aby). DIEM, OR JEM, Prince, The Story of. SeeTiRKR: A. D. 14l:tl-l.')30. DOAB, The English acquisition of the. See India: A, D. I79t<-1«0.'>, DOBRIN, Knirhts of the Order of the Brethren of. S<t' I'hissia : 13Tn C'ENTrRv. DOBRUDJA, The.— The peninsula formed brtwwn the Ditnube, near its mouth, and the Black Sea. DOBUNI, The.— A trilte of ancient Britons who lii'lil a region In-twcen the two Avons. See Britain. C'ki.tii- Thiiies. DOCETISM.— • We note another phase of gnosticism in tlie diM-trine so directly and warmly comhatMl in the epistles o^ .John:" we refer to docetism— tliat is, the theory which refuse<i to recojriiize the reality of the liunmu IkhIv of Christ."— E. Ueu»s, 'Ifint. „/ Chritlian ThitiUigy in the A/i-MtuUe .V/f. p. 323. OODONA. See Hellas. DOGE. See Vknuk: A. T1. 6B7-S10. DOGGER BANKS, N M Battle of the (1781). S^T Netiikhl.inu ill.vxu>: .v. 1). 1746-17M7. DOKIMASIA.— " Ail istmtes [in nnrient Athens] whether electei' ■ eheirotoniu or hv lot. wen- e( in|H<lleil. lief(. enlerine U|Mm their ofllie, to suhject thenisi'lveH to a l>o|vimasin. or scrutiny into their tllnev. for the iMmt "— (). K. Schumann, Anliu.'ifdn.ft: The Sl.itr nl 3 ch 3 DOLICHOCEI^HALIC MEN.- a term used in ethnolotry. signifyinif " ioni: hinded." as distinf^uishini; one clii>s'or skulls nnioni; the it'nmins of primitive men. from ano'.lier elnss called linichvei'phalic. or "hmadheinl" " DOLLINGER, Doctor, and the dogma of Papal tnfallibilitT. See Papaiv: A. U ICfiU- 1870 DOLMENS. S<'0 CitoMi K) IIS. DOMESDAY, OR DOOMSDAY BOOK. See ICmii.a.nii: .\. 1) KKVKWH, DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, The. St Hayti: a. I). 1*»4-1KM(I. DOMINICANS. Srt- Mfnmi A.NT Oiior.i::.; also. Inui isitio.n: A. I). U'o:t-|.VJ.">. DOMINION OF CANADA-DOMINION DAY. Se Ca.Naua: a. 1). 1867. DONEL80N. DOMINUS. See iMmtATOK, Final Sig!!i ncATiON or m Roman Trnjc DOMITIAN, Roman Emperor, A. D. 8|.M DOMITZ, BatU* of (1435). See Oermaxv' A. D. 1684-1639. DON JOHN OF AUSTRIA. Set .Ions (Dt>N) or Austria. DON PACIFICO AFFAIR, The. Se, England: A. D. 1849-1850; and Greece: A D 1846-1850 DONALD BANE, King of Scotland, A D 1098-1098 (expelled during part of the period by Duncan If.) DONATI, The. See Florencb: A. 0, 1385- 1800. and 1801-1313. DONATION OF CONSTANTINE. See Papacy: A. D. 774 (T). DONATION OF THE COUNTESS MA- TILDA. See Papact: A. D. 1077-1 Kli DONATIONS OF PEPIN AND CHAR- LEMAGNE. See Papact: A. D. 75,v::4 DONATISTS, The.—" The Donatist contro. versy was not one of doctrine, but of evrlesiaj. tical discipline; the contested election fir tlie archbishopric of Carthage. Two competitors, Cecllius and Donatus, £td been coneurrcntly elected while the church was yet in a deiire^sd state, and Africa subject to the tyrant .Ma.\i'a- this [A. D. 806-312]. Scarcely had CoiiMuutine subdue<l that province, when the two rivals referred their dispute to him. Constantine. who still publicly professed paganism, but Imil shown himself very favourable to the Christians, insti tuted a careful examination of their resiwotive claims, which lasted from the year 31-.' to 31.5, and Anally decideil in favour of t'eciliu-. Fimr hundred African bishops protested H^t.iinst this decision: from that timn they were ilesitrtuiltd by the name of nonatUta. ... In eoiii|iliiince with an order of the empenir, solicited liv I wi- lius, the property of the Donatisis « .is' siizol and transferred to tiic anla»:<mist IhsIv of the clergy. They revengefl themselves by p'riniouiiv niit sentence uf excommunication ajrainst nil ihi- nA of the ChristUn world. . . . Persecution in one side and fanaticism on the other were ptr- IK'tuatcd through thn-e cei;turies, up to tlic |icri.>l of the extinction of Christianity in Afrini. The wandering preachers of the Doniitic! Uk\v>h had no other means of living than lln' iilnis of their tliK-ks. ... As might \v cxpn inl. ihiv outdid each other in extniviigance, nini smin i:;;\i. intothemost frantic ravings: lhoiisiiiil>.if |ii:u aiit.s, drunk with the efliKt <if these iXnrt.iiioiH, fonMHik tlieir jiloughs and thd to tlje cIim .'-!.< if lietulin. Their bishops, a,s»iiiiiingtlie lit liifiii|i- tuins of tlie saints, put themselves at tlieir ln^fl Hiid thcv rushed on«anl, carrying ilcalli :iimI ■!■ il- lation into the adjacent proviueii.. tliev wire ilistingiiishcd by the name of (in unmlii ritk: -Vfrlca was ilevastated liv their ravnircs. — 1. 1 I., de Sismoiidi, Fall iif die liimni' Kn.j.ire. ■* 4. Ai.s«> i.\: V. Schaff, llitt. of (/„ rhr-,i„ii fhuirl,. 1: •> .-//. 0. DONAUWORTri : A. D. 1632.- Taken by Gustavus Adolphus. See Uekmanv a 1' ItWI-l&W. A. D. 1704.— Taken by Marlborough. >■•■ Uerma.w: a. I). i;u4. OONELSON, Fort, Capture of v iMitn States OF Am. : \. I). INliJ (.Iani ah\ J:.!!!!! ART: KKNTt'CKY— TENKEStiEK.. r.86 DONGAN CHARTER. DONGAN CHARTER, Thi. See New Tom (Cm): A. D. 1886. DONUM. See Tallage, DONUS 1., Pope, A. D. 67«-«78 Donna II, Popt, A. D. lft4-»76. DONZELLO. See DXmoibel. DOOMS OF INE, The.-" These laws were lepubliabed by King Alfred aa 'The Doonia of Ine ' who fine] came to the throne In A. D. 088 Id their flnt clause they claim to have been teconletl bv King Ine w 1th the counsel and teach- ing of Ills father Cenred and of Ilrdde, his bishop (who was Bishop of Winchester from A. D. 676 to 705) and of Eorcenweld, his bishop (who obtsinrd the see of London In 675): and so, if pnaine, they seem to represent what was settled customary Itw In Wesaex during the last half of tho seventh century. "—F. Seelwhm, EnglM Vitlaiie Cummnnity, eh, 4. DOOMSDAY, OR DOMESDAY BOOK. gte Enuland: A. D. 1085-1006. DOORANEES, OR DURANEES, The. See India: A. D. 1747-1761. DORDRECHT, OR DORT, Synod of. See DoRT: also, Nethebla.nds: A. D, 1608-1619 DORIA, Andrew, The deliTcrance of Genoa by. S'e Italy: A. D. 1527-1529 DORIANS AND lONIANS, The.-" Out of ilie jrrt lit PeloDginn population [see Pelasgi- AS«], wliic-li covcrwl Anterior Asia Minor and the wlioli' European peninsular land, a younger Hopli- hail issuetl forth separately, which »e find from the first divided into two races. These nuin raees we may call, according u> the two dialects of the Greek lanifiiage, the Dorian and tlif Ionian, although the«' names ure not Ketier- ■ llf (iLiiiil until B ln*..« . t- 1 . 1 f . «Jlr ii«<l until a laur p«-rio<i to desfgnafe rii'c : nation. No dM:"'in of livisiiiii (if the Hellenic nation, .^i, iin;- 10 tliomugh a bearing could have taken -e unU-ns »c<oinpani«l by au early Unal separau. We aiwiinie that the two races parted company will].' yet ill Asia Minor. Due of them settles in the niuiintaincantons of Xorllicrn Hellas the oilier alniijt the Asiatic coast. In the latter the hiit.mc mnvement b«-ginE. Willi the aid of the in of iiavi)fation, leanit from the Phonieiaiia the Asiatic (Jreeks at an early jicritxl spread over the «ea; (lonicsticating tliiniklves in low.r Egypt in ciiintnis colonized by the Phienieians, in the whole .Xnhipelago, fn.m Crete to Thrace : and Inmi their origiual as well as from their subse- quint M-als m-i.il out numerous settlements I.. the cwsi of Kimipean Grceee, first from the Ei.st side. imM. iifler coiKjuering their tiniiditv, also uliMijr in ilie (..initry, beyond Capo Malei fmni the Wesi. At tlrst they land as pirates ami iii.-n:ip. ihcn proceed to permanent settlements apM- :ii„l straits of the wa, and by the mouths efnv.r>, wli.re thiv unite with tl'ie I'elasitiim Pjipula^ioii, The (lilTereLt ixrimls of tliis col... BiMtioii „,.Hy be jmlge.1 of by the forms of aiviiie uor>lMp, and by the names umlcr «lii<U lite mnntinie trit«» were called l,v the iialiv, s • h.irru.i,>t appearance is as Cariaus; as Leli-cs tOeir iiilliunee is more iH-neliceut and ihtiiui oral -l>r. E. Curtius, :iM.,.f (hw,. U. 1 ,', ».-I)i ihe view of Dr, Cunois, the later nili:ni Km of Ionian trilies from S.'ithern tin-.ee to ' her«,u:,f .\-4n MlQ..f,-- whic.i i...in .a„i..ui.ie.i totoric fact.- was really a ntuni -into the i oome „f ,in,ir ancestors '■_" the nmient home ' M the irreat Ionic race, " Whether that lie the I iret vitw or not, the movement in question «a« DORIANS AND lONUNS. connected, apparently, with Important moTo. mente among the Dorian Greeks in Greece itself. These latter, according to all accounts, and the JJjpeement of aU historians, were long setUed fai Thessaly. at the foot of Olympui (s^ Greece: : ^' ii?.**,*?"'*i- " "" *'^'« »*»«» "»e»r moral and pollUcal development began ; there that they learned to look at Olympus as the home of the gods, which all Greeks afterwards learned to do from them. ■• The service rendered by the Dorian tribe,' says Dr. Curtlus. "lay in havlnir wried the germs of national culture out of Thessaly where the Invasion of ruder peoples disturbed and hindered their farther growth, into the and towards the south, where these irerms rt«eived an unexpectedly new and grand de- velopment. . A race claiming descent from Heracles united itself In this Thessalian coast-dis- trict with the Dorians and established a royal dominion among them. Ever afterwards Heme- lidiB and Dorians remained together, but with- out ever forgetting the original distinction be- tween them. In their seau by Olympus the foundations were laid of the peculiarity of the IJorians Injjolltical oi-der and social customs; at the foot of Olympus was their real home."— Themme, bk. 1, ek. 4 —From the neighborhood of Olvmpus the Dorian;^ moved souUiwards and found another home in 'the fertile mountain- recess between Pamaiisus and OJta, the most ancient Doris known to us by name " Their final movement was into Peloponnesus which was "the most important and the most fi'rtile in consequences of all the migrations of Grecian raws, and which continued, even to tlie late^t periods to exert its infiuence upon the Greek character. " Thenccforwanls the Dorians were the dominant race in Peloponnesus, and to their chiefl state, Lacediemonia, or Sparta, was generally con- ceded the headship of the Hellenic family. This Doric occupation of Peloponnesus, the periiKlof which is supposed to have been aliout 1100 B. C no doubt caused the Ionic migration from that part of Gn-ece and colonization of Asia Minor.— C. O. Mnller, Hint, unit AnUquitiet of the Vort'e nice bk I. eh. 3.— Tiie subsequent division of the Hellenic world between lonlans and Dorians is thus defined by Schomaiin: 'To the Iiuiiaua belong the inhabitants of .\ttica, tlie most im- portant piirt of the population of Eiibivii, and I the islands of the Jjgean included under tho common name of Cyclailes. as well as the colo- nists Ixith on the Lydian and Carian coasts of Asm .Minor and in the two larger islands of Chios ami Tamils which lie op|>o.sile. To tlie Dorians witliin tlie I'eloponiies<> lulonjr the S|ianans. as well us the dominant poiitihilions of Argos Sieyon, Philn-, Corinth TnKZciie and Epiifau- riis, tov'etlur » ith the islanil of .-Ejrina: outside till' PiliiiHiiiiKsc, but nearest to it. were tlie Megariil. and the small 1/orian Tetniiolis [also called IVntapoiis and Tripolis] near .Mount Par- nassii.i; at a ifrcatir distance were the majority of the scattered islands and a large portion of the Ciiri.in coasts of Asia Minor and tlie ncithliourinir islands, of whi.li Cos and HIiimIcs were the most important. Filially, the ruling I'ortion of the Cntan populution'waa of Itor- iim .Icseeni — G. F. t^chOmann, Anlirpiiti.M nf ',r„,; . r/ir St.llf. pi. 1. rf. l.—Mj.,., „],,;, (iKKtcE: The MiottATioNs; Asia Mi.vou: Tub Gkeek Culomes; UKHACLlUik : bPAKTA; and J^uUA.ve. 68/ DORIS AND DRTOPIS. DRESDEN. DORIS AND DRYOPIS.— ■■ The little terri- tor7 [tn ancient Qieece] called Doris and Dryo- ^ occupied the KUtoiTn declivity of Mount u!t>, diTiding Fhokls on tlie north and northwest from the .£tolians, .fnianes and MalianK. That which wa» called Doria in the hiatorioal times, and which reached in the tlmtM ot Herodotus nearly as far eastward as the Muliac gulf, is said to have formed a part of what had been once called Dryopls; a territory which had coi-iprised the summit of (Eta ai far hs the Sp« rrhius, northward, and which had been inhabiteil bv an old Hellenic tribe called Dryopes. The Dorians acquired their settlement in Diyopisby gift from H^raklSs, who. along with the Maliaos (s» ran the legend), had expelled the Orvopes anil com- pelled them to flnd for themsi ■, . •« new seats at Hermione, and AsinS, In the Argolio iH-ulnHula of Peloponnesus, — at Stym viid Karystus in Euboea. — and in the island of Kythnus; it ia mly in these five last-mentiom'd" places tha; history rocognlies them. The territory of Doris was distributol into four little townships, — Pindus, crAkvphas, Boeon, Kyrinion and Erineon. . . . In itself tills tetrapolia fc> so invigniflcant that we shall rarely find occasion to mention it; but it acquired "a factitious consequence by being regarded as the metropolis of the great Dorian cities in Peloponnesus, and receiving on that S-ound special protection from Sparta." — G. rote. Hill, of Orttee. pt. 2, eh. 8. Also m: CO. Mailer, llitt. and Antiq. of the Doric Race. bk. 1, eh. 2.— See also, Dobiaxs awd lOJttANS. DORMANS, Battle of (1575). See Fbabcb : A. I). l.'iTS-l.'iTe. DORNACH, Battle of (1499). Bee Swttzeb- lASD: A. 1> 1396-1499. DORR REBELLION, The. See Rhode Island . A. I). 1841-1843. DORT, OR DORDRECHT, The Synod of. — "In the |ii« I'liiintries the aupr» ne govtni- ment. the states-general, interfercii [in the Cal- rlnisti'" iimtrovrrsy], and in the year 1618 convoki l till' lirsl and only synod iH-arinj; some- thing of iIk' I'li^inu'tir of a general council that has been ■onvincd by protestants It as-scmbled at Don. anil <nntinue<l its sittings from Novem- ber till May following. Its business was to decide the qiiiiitions at Lssue betwii n tlie Calvinists and Armiiiians; tlie latter pany wire also termed rcinonstranta. James [I.] wa'? ri'nuestid to -"nd over ri insinlatives for the Knglish C'hurih and chose four i!i vines: — Carlton liishop of Llaniaff, Hall ii> in of Worcester, afterniir is bishop suc- cess! v. ly of Exeter and Noru li. Uavinant aftirwii'riis bishop of Salisbury, an I I'.. S Wiinl of Cambridge. They were nieii o( leariiinir iim! miNlenition. . . . The history ■ ? tliis famous syuoil ia lolil in varioiLs ways !'> deeisions wen' In favour of IheiliM-trines termi-.l 1 alvinislir, and the nmonstraiitu were exp<ll ■■! from llollaml . . Tlie majority Kin- rv ;. 1 li.irgiil bv the otlier INirty with linviiig IkiuihI tlifiiiM-ivtii ii\' an 0;itli iH'foi* tbry tuli-nil up<in busini-ss. to 1' deinii the retnonstrants "— .1 IJ Marsden, Hi- of Ktrlii Pnnl'iin. p 329 —See NETnEHUkSlw-: A. I) l'«(i:i-16Ut DORVLAEUH, Battle of lioo? See Cnr 8.MUS A. 1) 1IIW1-1IW9, DOUAI: A. D. 1667.— Taken by the French 8"^ Nethbblakds (The Sr.v.vuu I'hovtkcec A i> 1667 A. D. ti68.— Ceded to Frmacc. See Nrren. LAi(M(HoLLAin>): A. D. 1668. A. D. 1710.— Siege and captore by Marlbor- ot^[h. See NBTHXaLAKUS: A. D. ITlO-iTi; > DOUAI, The Catholic Seminary at. See EnoLAKD: A. D. 1573-1608. DOUBLOON. - DOBLON. See SPANin Conta DOUGHFACES.— The "Missouri Compro- mise," of 1880. in the United .States, -wm 4 Northern measure, carried by Northern yot««. With some the threats of disunion wrri' a suf- ficient influence ; some, whom in the drlmti' Ran- dolph [John Randolph, of Virginia] called doughfacee, did not n^ even that. . Tlim haa been always a singular servility in the cliar. acter of a portion of the American people In that class the slaveholder has always fnimd hii Northern servitor. Randolph flnit gave it 1 name to live by in the term doughface. "—W C. Brvant and 8. H. Gay. Popular Uitt. .ifthe V. .-" V. I. pp. 271 and 294. DOUGLAS, Stephen A., and the doctriie of Squatter Sovereignty. See Vmthd St.mk or Am. : A. D. 1854 Defeat in Presidentiil election. See United States or Am : A D 1860 'April — November • DOURO, Battle of the (15801. Sec Pon- tloal: a. D 1.'57»-1580 . .Wellington's p«»- ■age of the. See Spain ; A. D. 1809 (Febrciei — JCLTj. DOVER, Roman Origin of. ScePrniui DOVER, Tenn . Battle at. s. xttid States OF .Vm. : .\ 1> i^'-'- Fkbbiauv-.m'ril Tennessj : DOVER, Treaty of. N-e Esoland: .v D 1668-1670 DOWLAH. Surajah, •: J the English in India. S,i- India: A D. lT55-i:.", auil 175: DRACHMA. 8e<' Talent DRACONIAN LAWS See Athenv li C 624 DRAFT RIOTS, The. Seo New Yoki (Crrvi: .\. D 1^63. DRAGON. -PENDRAGON.- .\ title » me times givi-ii ih Wi Ish poetry to a kiiii: "r W'st military leader Supposed to Ix' iliriMil frn the tigiin' of a dragon on their flags, n liidi ibn borniweil from the Romans See CimisKH DRAGONNADES, The. ^iv Kha.v.e A. 1) 16.H1-1698 DRAKE, Sir Francis. Sr. AMf :uii i .\ I' l,5:-'-l.'i«<l: anil Kmh, AMI A 1> 1.>M.>- DRANGIANS, The. See Saua.m.hx- DRAPIER-S LETTERS, The. See If Lanm .\ 1>. 17->J-1724 DRAVIDIAN RACES. Sec Triu.MA> Raik'. also, India: The AnoNioiNALisnAiin DRED SCOTT CASE, The. Si. Isird States ok Am. : .\ I> IH.*!? DREPANA, Naval battle at, 3 C :« 6«i I'l .VI. Wab. Tuk Fihpi DRESDEN: A. D. I750.-C»pturr aadiK- cupation by Frederick the Great. >.i. OtK MANY A. 1) 17.')B A. D. 1759-1760.— Capture >t the Austriasi —Bombardment by Frederick N-t (-i RXiSC A 1». 17.W (Jllv — .NovKHiii.Ki. ;ii"i i" A. D. 1813.— Oectipied by the Pnissismtiri Ruattaai.— Taken by the French. -Invests by the Allies.— Great battii- before the atr fi88 DRESDEN. udTicteiyfor Napoleon.— French rereraei.— St Cyr*! rarrendcr. SeeOERMAST: A. D 1813- 1813; 1818 (Aprii^Mat): (ArocsT); (Skptbh- BB— OCTOBBB); aud (OCTOBEB— DeCBMBGII). DREXBL INSTITUTE. See Education, MoDEsa : Amxrica : A. D. 1824-1898. DREUX, Battle of (1563). See France: A. D. 1560-1568. DROGHEDA, OR TREDAM, Cromwell's mawacre at. See Ireland: A. D. 1649-1650. DROITWICH, Origin of. S«* Saus.«. DROMONE.'.— A name given to the li;-ht Mlleys of the Byzantine empire.— E fiibtron, icdineiind Fall of the Homan Empire, eh. 53 DRUIDS.— The priesthood of a religion wiiich eiistcd among the Celts of Gaul am! Britain be- fore they wf-re Christianized. " Greek and Ro- man writer* give us very little information on this subject »nd the eariy \\. sh records and pixtry none at all. Modem Wel^h writers have, L.wever, made up for this want in their genuine litirature by inventing an elaborate Druidical lystem of religion and philosophy wl)':h, they fretend. survived the introduction of Christianitv and was secretly upheld h^ the Welsh liards in the .Middle Ages. This ><-.. Druidi. imncisture lias found numerous adherents." — V K SuUi- ■sm. Artielt. " O'fii- Literaturf," En- ,■-. lint. "':iy, alludint m the Druids' pmliUction for .mif oak. mlds the words: "ut iii<; ppellatl q, lue InterPfMtione Gneca possint hruidie via i'. . . H» lie possessed knowledge enough of tlie Gaulish la. "lagc, he woulii have seen that it supplied an i » lanation which rendered it neeillissto have m urse to Greek, namelv in the native word ' dru, ' which we hav e in ' Pr ineme- ion.' or the sacred Oak-grove, iriven bv Strabo as the name of the place of a»s< mbly of the Oa- latiaos. In fact, one has, if I am not mistaken, been .skeptic "vith regard to this etymology, not so niuili on phonological grounds as from failing exactly to see how the oak could have given its name t" such a famous- rganizat ion <lhedriiidic one inu>,t be admittea !•> have li- But the parallels just indicated, u.s showing he impiirt- sicecif the saer- I tree !n the worvi -.f Zeus and the gmls rej 'sentini.- him am g nations other than the Ga*k 011 help 10 throw light on this point. Ac<-. lingi • theetv- bete alluded to, the Drui. - would he tli'i of the god assoeiateil or 1(1 .tided -vith ! at is, as -^e are toM, thi ..ine who Were famtlinr wii ' ihe Greeks, to gtaml In liHulish the< iogy that Xf This harmi' Izcg thor Ih. •me •gy su .ik; : to ,gy , in ■ of th. i-Jved known alKni- the Dr Ufr:.\'m. on Hie 11 Our traditions ai» evi lentiy dt tianitv ,id lonj; I>nii(l< .ire repr- crjjuriirs, tod ; i>be<l i of « ton' Str.!- lirocii but • MUl' DUBRI3. the Loire. . . . After the conTenion of Irelaiul W8» accomplished the Druidi disappear from history. Their mystical powers were trsnsferred without much alteration to the abboM and bishops who ruled the 'families of the salnU.'"- C Elton, Orieint of Englith Hitt., eh. 10. Also IN : Julius Ciesar, Oallie War. bk. 6 eh. 18-18.— Strabo. Geog.. bk. i.eh.i,teet. 4-6— For an account of the final destruction of the Druids see BRiTAnt : A. D. 61. DRUIDS, Order ot See iKstJKASCE. DRUMCLOG, The Coveoanters at. See Scotland; A. D. 1679 (May— June). DRURVS BLUFF, Battle of. See Unitkd States or Am.: A. D. 1864 (Mat: Virgikia) The Armt or the Jamxs. DRUSUS, Germanic campains of. See Germany: B. C. 12-9. DRYOPIANS, Thj.— One of the aboriginal nations of ancient Greece, whose territory was in ^s valley of the Spercheus and exu-nded as far as Parnassus and Thermopvte ; but who were after- wanls widely dispersed In many colonies. It is, »«ys C. O. MilUer. "historically certain that a great part of the D'Tophins wereconsecnitcd ass subject peopV be P)-thian Apollo (an usage of ancient tlijcs, of which there are many instances; and that for a long time tliev mt- d as such."— //i>r. and Antiq. of the iMrie Ract, l,k. 1. eh. 2— See. also, DoRis; and P , 'toDCLL DUBARRY, Countess, Ascen^l-ncy of. See FntNc A. D. 1723-1774. See Ireland: Oth-Ioth See Poland: "7«7). iio set igan ti ' lie posi! ul iu tiie fo-nier. V with II that is - -.1. Rh -. //,w.. .' ' m. Ue(. 3, pt. 2 - .iui:,h and Irish Dnii.ls im a time when Chriij- ■en- ..blish.i!. These insuliir ■nt< ^ as Im i j little lietfer than ir ignity is as much dimiii- {Kiv> . r (if the king is exaggerated, •har* h or Belshazzar with a trxH>p his c ■nan : but his Druids are ^;i.: 1 n,i.5. ...t, - . . . The Druids of •'?■ ^'-;— - - w=ik; : ir. %.-.-.rirt .ind i;,.iii *i»i wori golden collar- and bracelets: '!»trin<-k may have lieen much the iiKnrof V »4»ith8avers bv the Severn, il>clri-bmt^;ieloe Mi k- rustic wizards by 689 DUBH CALLS. Cs;XTI KIES. DUBIENKA, Battle ofdT A i> i 791-1792. DUBITZA: Taken by the » -strians See 'RKS: A. D. 1776-1792. E BLIN: The Danish Kingdom. S<>e TrE. >ND; 9TH-10THCENTt7RrES; also >•' 'KMANM — XoBTHMEN: 8TH-9rjI Cl STIRIK" A. D. 1014.— The battle of Clontarf and the 5 real ^•feat of the Danes, ^.c Ireland: . D. 4 A. D ; 170.— Taken by the Normao-Enrlish. Seclm ^D: A. D. 1169-117- A. D 1646-1640.— Sieges m the Civi War. See Ireland: A. D. 1646-1649. A. D. 1750. — The importance of the city. — •' In the middle of tin- 18th century it was in dimensions and populai 'he second "citv in the empire, containing, accor.i ,ig to the most trust- worthy accounts, between 100.000 and 120.000 inhabitants. Like most ihin^s in Ireland, it presented vivid contrast anil strangers were eijually struck with the ' mwds of beggars, the inferiority of the inns, the sii»alld wretchedness of the streets of the old town, and with the noble proportions of the now quarter, and the brilliant aiid hospitable so< ty that inhabited it. The Liffey was spanned hy "four bridges, and another on a grander scale was undertaken in !7j3. St. Stephen's Green .■« considered the liirgest square in Kurope. T quays of Dublin w ire widely cclebr»te<l. " — W II. Lecky, Bitt of Eng.. IMA Ctnttiry. th. 7 ir. i). DUBRIS, OR OUBRiG.— The Roman port oil ir.c ca^i coast of uril&tu >«iiloh is uow knuwu a- Dover. In Roman times, as now. it wa.s tl.' principal Isndlng-plsce on the British sid of she channel.— T. Wright, (Mt, Roman a< btiion, eh. 8. ■f^i TWUm DUCAT. DCRHAX. DUCAT, Spaaith. B«r SPAimR Conn. DUCES. See Cockt ako Dukb. DUDLEY, Thomai, aod the colony of Mat- •achuMttt Bay. 8«e Mamacbcutts - A. D. l(i2b-tflW), ud after. DbFFERIN, Lord.— The Indian admiaic trationof. Sra India: A. 1>. 1HNU-I8M8. DU GUESCLIN'S CAMPAIGNS. See Franck: a. I>. l.S«U-tS80. DUKE, The Roman.— Origin of the Title. 8ei' CofN r A^D OrKS. DUKE'S LAWS, Tht. 8ee New York: A. D llMU. DULGIBINI AND CHASAURI, Tbc- " These people ftril>eii of tlie anrient (Jemiann) first resiiletl near tlie liewl of the Llp|w. and tlien removetl to the at'ttlemi'iits of the t'baniavi and the Anirrerarii who bad I'ipelled tlie Bnicterl" — Tacitus, Urrmanji, rk. 84. Orford Iniiu., note. — Bee, iilwi. Saxons DUMBARTON, Oririo of. 8ee Ai.ri.TDK, DUMNONIA,OR DAMNONIA, Tht kinr dom of. See Knola-id : A, U. 477-A37. OUMNONII, Tht.-" It is ... a remark- al>le elniiiiKiance that the Diimnnnil. wbum we fliKl in tlie tlnir of Ptolemy ixx-iipvlnit the whole of tbesoiiihwi-itern extremity of (Britain. Inrliid- ing lioth IK'Ton.ibin' and Cornwall, and wboiuunt therefore have iMvn one of the modi powerful na- tiona in the islaiHl. are nerer once nientionetl in the hixory of the eonqueat of the country by tlie l<<>man<: nor it their name found in any writer Ix'f.in' l*toleiny. . . . The ronjerture "of Mr Hiiili' I'lwte . . I lint they were left in nominal iiide|«ii'lince nniler a native kinff . . . appear* to nie liliflilv pniliiihle ■ — K II Miinliury. //i»f. <'f AuriiHl ».'.<»/ , c*. a.H, wit II — Then' appear* lo liiivi- lierii n northern liranrh of tin' Diimnonii or liiininonil, whii li lii'ld an ext<'M«ivi' lernlory im III!' I'ly.le ami ilii- Korth. See Hiiitain. fKi'- Tn Tiinif." DUMOURIEZ, Campaicnt and trtatoa of. 8>iKn»Mh- .\ l> 1792 iSH'TK.MHf.K— 1>K( KU iimi. Kti-,'-i:i):i ; niid ITlcliKh HHiAHv— .\pnii i. DUNBAR, A. D. 1196.— Battlt. .^ee s<ot i.AM> .V II r,M«i lHl^.^ A. D. 1339.— Siere.— The fortrewof Dunlnr. jM'^iiiti^l In ilie KnffliKh imilir the Km' of Salia hiiry in 1*W. was «ucci"t"fiillv defrniliil in the iiliH4'nr<- of the irovi'mor. tlii- f".rtrl of ^1 irch Ity liM wife, known aftrrwiinU in S-titrh hi^tury and inelitlxii w " Itliirk .Vuiiio iif Miinliar ' A. D. 1650.— Battit, s.i' ,H<im.AM> .\ |i lrt.'>ii i^iii-iKMnkh) DUNCAN I., King of Scotland. .K D vm Ji>t» . ... Duncan II., .\ l> HHM liH« DUNDALK. Battle of li3it>. .Sr Ikki.a.mi .\ II laii 111" DUNDEE iCLAVERHOUSB) AND THE COVENANTERS, n., s,oti «-«ii A l> mTU iM«v .liMi; Irt-'l IIIW, an.t H«Nlt(.li I VI DUNDEE : A. U. 164J. Pillaftd by Moo- troae "v.. s.„T, ,M, \ I) iml IMS A. D. 1651. — Storm and Maaaacrc by Monk. ^•^■ fMoIl.ASIl. A ll lUI (Al'l't'xl— Sikl-TKM. IlKR). DUNES. Battle of the ti6it\. Hm Kau. i ',ttu. 1 \Mi A. 11 ia%-i in.v> DUNKARDS, The "Tlie PunkanU. or ti' ni.tu lluptiMn, ur Uri'tluvu, are of Uerman origin, rnd trace their beginninc back toAlrtia der Mack, of SchwartMnau, (Mrmany . . Ig 1719 moet of them got together and camr i<i the United State*, eettling in PtnnsvhimiA, where their drat church waa organi/.i'<i i:l>.,ut 1738." — H. K. Carroll, Beliaimu t'l/rrm ..( /L L.S..rh.\9. DUNKELD, Battle of. 8ee S<oti<vd A. U. 16H9 (Ai<aKT). DUNKIRK: A. D. idai.-Untuccesifn! aitrt by tht Dntch. 8ee Metherla.nu'- : A li 16aT-I688. A. D. 1646.— Sicfe and Capture by the Frtnch.—Impoftance of the port.— It* harbor- ace of piratei. Sec NKTiiKRi.AMm : A l> 1M>- A. D. 165a.— Recovered by the Spaniirdt. See Frame: A I). 1(B8. A.D. 165S.— Acquired by Cromwell for Ear- land See K.NULA.ND : A. I). lfl.V)-lil.> aud FRASrE : A. I) ltt.W-l«.W A. D. iMa.— Sold byCharlet II. to Frtact. SeeEiioi.AND: A I). IHAS A. D. 1713.- Fortitcatioat and harbor dc- ttreytd. Seel'THMBr A. I). I71'J-ITl:t A. D. I7a>.— Dtmolition of fortificatioai aiain atipulattd. See Aix-la I'iiai-m.ik The CoMIHKXll. A. D. 1763.— The demolition of fortilSct- tiont pledged once more. .See Skvln Vi:a» War : The Tkeatie«. A. D. 1793.— Untucceaaful eiege br tht Englith. See Frame: A. I>. 17».'l i.Ih.t- 1)E(EIIUERI: I>RIHtHKl>« f:. THE WaH » DUNMORE, Lord, and the end <■' royal roeemment in Virginia. Stf Vik<.im<. .a I) "77.%: and I77.V177fl DUNMORE'S WAR. S.^ iiitio ,Vaiu:t. A l» 1774 DUNNICHEN. Battle of (A. D. 685 h.^ SlOTI.ASIl 7tI1 t'KNTlRT. DUPLEIX AND THE FRENCH IN INDIA. Se<' Imma a I> 174:i i;v.' DUPONT, Admiral Samuel f. Niral attack on Charleiton. See Initium Aiixir Am.; a. I» 1h«!I (.Vphii — S<ii th i iko: i\»> DUPPEL, SiegeBndcapturcor'1864 <vr Okrmant : A II l>«ll I'-'ltl DUPPELN. Battle of ( 184I1. s . v ,m,<. KAVIAN SUTEB lIlKNMAIllil .V I> i"l> I"".' DUPPLIN MOOR. Battle of 1331 vr S<..Ti,\M. A ll i:w.J-i:i:n DUQUESNE, Fort, .-v • I'itt-hi 11. 11 DURA, Treaty of.— The hiiiiiiliiitink; tMij of iieai'i' iniii'luili'il «ilh lln' rir«;,iii- A |) Hit.), nflir tlie defial and dinlli Mf ihi lliiian eiiiixror .lulian, liy hU micieiwir .1 >il»ii -<1 lUwIiiiMiu. SitHlh linal UniKlnl If ■.iir'*j, fA 111 DURANEES, OR DOORANEES, Th<. He.. Imih a 11 1:4; Will DURAZZO, Neapolitan dynatty of. ^'t Itai.ycs.ithhisi A H l.MIi litw, l;l«rt UU aiHl Itaiv : A li I4ti! 144; DURBAR OR DARBAR.-An «n.|in.r n»>m in lh>' imIhh of hii Ij«iil IihIIhii priiio llrtiri- Hpplif.fl to n f-trrnai aiulif'iH''' "t I'-o-* given liv tl»' uoviTiior i'l nernl of Imlii "t b' f till liHtil-e Iiriiii-i-« ~ t\nluru th.-fi mC^ DURHAM, OR NEVILLE'S CROSS, BAltle of 'A. D. 13461. See Sioll AM< \ 1> llDi8-t87U. 890 DUROBRIV^. DUROBRIVA.— A name given to two Ru- nun towns in Britain, one of wliich lis« been Uentiflcd witli modem Rochetter, tlie other with the town of Caitor, near Peterborough. OUROBRIVIAN WARE. 8ee Caitok OUROCOBRIV^.— An imporunt marltet- town in Roman Britain, suppowd to have been iltuated at or near modem Dunstable. — T. Wright. Vflt, JbmuiH. and timon, eh ft. DuROTRIGBS. See BKiTAtx, Celtic. DUROVERNUM.— AKnmantowninBritiOn. Idenllfled with the modem Cautcrburr. DUTCH COMMERCE, .see tiuDB; and Ea»t Irdia Compakt, The Dvtch. DUTCH EAST INDIES. See Mai.ay Akihipblaoo. DUTCH GAP CANAL. See Uhitkd »TA m or Am. : A. D. 1HA4 (Avourt : Viruinia). DUTCH REFORMED CHURCH. See REroRMED CHCmrii. DUTCH REPUBLIC. Tha Conatito- doo aad dtcisrtd indtp«Mtact of tha. See EARTHQUAKE. NETBOWLAKoa: A. D. 1577-1581, and ISSi* DUTCH WEST INDIA COMPANY. Sea N ew Yi >RK : A. D. 1821-1640 ; and Brazil : A. D. liliHWl. DUTCH WEST INDIES. See Waar I.MIIKX. DUTLINCEN, OR TUTTLINGEN, Bat- th of ( 1643). See Okrii aht ; A. D. 1«43-1)M4 OYAKS; The. See Mai.avas Ka. e. DYRRHACHIUM. See Koretra ProTokiag caaaa of tha Paloponncaian War. See Oreeck : B C\ 4S.'(-i32 B. C. 48. — Caaar'a Revaraa. See Rome: B. C. 48. A. D io«i- loSa.— Sicfe by Robert Gniacard. See Btzantine Empire : A. U. 10W1-108.V A. D. 1304.— Acquired by the dcapot of Epirus. Sec Ei-iRis : A. D. 1204-1350. DYRRHACHIUM, Peace of. 8eeGBEEC«: B. C. 214-14« -*»».■. DYVEO. See Brit air . «th Centcrt. EADMUND, EADWINB, ETC. Sec Kd m sn. ETT. EALDORMAN. — "The rhleftaln* of the tnl mttlt'n In our own iiiUnd Imre no higher titli' ih»n Ealdonnan or Heretoga . . . The naiiK' i>f Ealiliirman is one of a Urge claw: •innriir II primtlivr pmpjp tfe Implies rommaml ami riiinniand implicii age; benre In a somewhat Uirr «U(«' i>f liuiiftiaiti- the riden are simpiv the riilrrn and tin' rhlent arc the highest in rank. wiihout »ujr lliouglit of tlie number of year. «liii h ihi'y niiiy n-nlly have llviil It la not |Hr- ftiilv dear in what the «utli»rit> >r dignilT of III. King eiietnleil iti.ii nf \\w Knhliimian Km 11 the Kmallrst Kit l.im w«« prolwlily fomieil li> ilw uiikin of the .ii«iricl« of M-vrnl Kaldor- nun ■— K. A. Frtvnwii. .V<>rm<in (xnywraf. eh H, »••' 1 —-The organlutliin of the xhln- wan of niMi li till' same rhararter h> lliat of tlH' hiimlml '.11 h "hire ointainlni;. Imwi-ver. a numlnT of liMi"ln'<lii]. hut It waa rnlil by an ealdornian aa «. II ii« by a gerefa. and In a<ime mliiT n-«|H'<'t» U.n ■ viiWrn-e <>f lt» previno. I'lialrnn- aa an In i|i|"ii.liiil unity. Its giin.ii was ii.>i .,nl\ ihr » ir iri "ii>l but the folrgrniot alao. the aaiM''tiil)ly i.f ilii- jniiplr; Its ealilomuih ciimiiMndiHl mlt ' till r. Iv iIm' mllilary Umv of the huudmU. Iiiil 111.' I..nl« nf thr franrlilai's and tlie rhiirih v«««al« unh ili.jr mill Ita grrrfa or ahi-rilT iiiII.m n-.! 111.' tlMnl an Millaa tlie liiml lni|>.wtH ll> i-al .I'niiiii naa one of the king'a witan The i-al il'.riiiNn. the prilli-ep* of Tafltux. ami prihi'e|m, i-r ».itrap«, or aulireguliis of |h.(|i'. tji,. ,Ui\ of til. I alin I hninli'Ifni and the rnmi's of ihi' Nor timn«. ».« .iriifinallv eIrrttHi In IIm' ifinenil a» wiiil.ly of the nation! Th<' liemliurv prin ii|'li' .ippeam hoirrrer In thf r-rly (Iava'..f ilir kini."l..m aa w. II aa in Ibone of t^lwanl'llii' Cm (•■"■T. in ih«. laite of an iiwlir klngilom lirinit •iiiHXiil lo a grralir Ihi' old mval dvnaalv "I iiK ti. hare ronitniinl lo hand down liii deli' (:»ii-.l aiilliority from father I" i..n The iindiT '"■«- "f llwiiiia thiia iiintuni|.ii to ail a* eal il.'fimn uwler Merria for a i-eiiliirv atnl lli.- Ml.l.rm«n«hlp of the tiyrwaa or fen ii.iinirvim 11 a^iu. Ilkcwiai! la have bv«u htn-dltarT ' Th.' title of ealdormar <• -iius much older than the I'Siiaiing division of alores, nor was It ever the nil.' for everv shin- lo have an ealdormnn to It M'lf aa it had Ita alii-rilT. . . . But each iihire waa under an ealilornian. who sat with the "li'riir and liUliop in Ihr folkmoot. received a llilnl part of the proHla of ihe jurisdiction, and mimiianiii<'il the niiliury fonr of the whole ii,- viainn. Kn.m the latter I'hantcter be lieriveil the name of hentoga. leader of ilii. h<mt ('here '). or iliu. which Ih occaaioiullv fc'lvin him in cliar- I.Ts ■_«• Sliihlia. OiHtl'. Ili.t of Knn rh S t,,l, 4H-4» ... EARL. —"Tlie title of earl hail U-gun to •iijiplaiit that of I'liMorman in ihi-rilKn of Kth«'l- ri'.l . and the L>ani«li jarl. fmm whom ll« uae in IhU wiiw waa Imrrowed. aeeina to hnve lieen more certainly conuM'teil bv the tie of lomilntus with hia king than the Anglo Saxon lalilumian iiMii lie aupiHMiil III have Ui.n "— W. Siuliln. '■'ii«f llinf nf Kh.i . i-h B. „fi_ fl« _(*!•.'. hI».. Komi, and Kai.i>iihm«n EARLDOMS, English: Canute's creation. Sii- Kmii »mi .\ |> T011I-I04J Th* Norman change. .*tii' Palatine. The KMoi.taii ( oiNTiKa EARLY. General Jubal, Caapaifaa ia the Shenandoah. Si.' I mtkii Statu* or .\«i .\ l> I-WM |M»V— .llNK ViRolNIAl. (,llLV ViKoINU — MaHVI.a.NIiI. I.Vl'oroT — IKTonKN Vi M«i. ami l'<fl.5iKEnRiAH\ — March Vir olMti EARTHQUAKE: B.C. 4«4.-Sparta. S.v MtwfAiAN WiH. Thk Thirii A.D. Ii5.-At Aatloch. See Antioth a I» ti* A. D. 3«s — In the Roman world.— In the ail. mil i.ar of Ihe nlun ..f Valinliiiiaii aiul Valina[A II a(W|. on the momiiu of the ^lat day of July. Ihe greater |iart of the lioninu w.irlil was shaken In a vlnk'tit •nij ij.wini.ilve larth.piake The lmp^'•■l..n « an lonimiiiiiialnl I.. I 111' water*; thi- alHinii of ilie Miillli'miniiin wen' left ilry by ilie aiiildiit ninal of IIh' aia. But the tkle suou relumed with Uw weight GUI SARTHQCAKE. EBIONISM. of u ImnMiMB lud biMiidble delnge, whirb WM mtcrIt felt oo the comU of Sidlr, of Dal- matia, of Cmec« aDd of Egypt . . . Tba city of Alexandria annually oommeoiorated the fatal day on which SO.OOO prnon* had loat their lirn In the inundation."— E. Oibbon, Dtdiiu and /hA tiflMt Roman Empire. eA. 9t. A. D. 5«6.— la th* niga of Jvatiaian. See AimocB: A. D. 536: altu, BERTTva A. O. iA9«.— In Jaoaiea. See Jamaica : A. D. 10M. A. D. I7SS-— At Liaboo. See Lhboh: A. D. 1753. A. O. Ilia.— In Venesoala. See Co'x>iibia3I BTATia: A. D. 1810-tt<l». EAST AFRICA, Britiah and German. Sre Afhica: A. D. 1(»4-18»1. ISW, and I81« ; aim, Ire.i. EAST ANCLIA — Thr kincdom formnl in Britain by the Angle*. Norfolk and ttuffolk (North-folk and S*outhfolk). EAST INDIA COMPANY, The Oateh : A. O. i6o>.— Ita formation and Srat eotcr- priaea. .4<« Nethkrlakds: a. I) 1SI»4-I)I«I. A. O. 165a.— Settlement at Cape of Coed Hop*. See Si.iTH AmifA A. D. fw«-lN(i«. A. D. 1799.— Ita diaaolntioa. See FnANrs: A. D. l<W(Si:n'CMBKR— Otober). EAST INDIA COMPANY, The Enflieh: A. D. 1600-170*.— Ita rlio and early nnder- Ukinra. See |!<i>ia: A. I>. 16iii)-irira. A. D. 177].— Conatitutien of the Company changed. S.* IsniA : A. I» KTn-iTTH. A. U. ili3-it33.— Deprived of ita monopoly •f trade. Sec India: A. I). IM-jainaa. A. D. il56.— The end of ita rule. See In- DIA A. D 1M3H EAST INDIA COMPANY, Th« Fr«wb. See ImiIa: a 18«.Vi;48 EAST INOIES.-llintliMtan. Farther India. an<l (he Malar Ar<'lilt>'lA|f<>wpre va^uelr known in nie<ti«ral tlmefi a* the ImiHii. After theearly * ••ierican dltroTerien, then ■iippdned to lie pirt of the lamF regiiin, Iher were lilntiniruiibed aa the Raat Iiidh-ii. anil the'nnme hix laiit«-<i. EAST INDIES, The Dutch. See Maijit Ah< HIPBLAilO : DlT«H Ka«T InIIIE* EAST INDIES, The Porttineae la the. 8e«- India A l». 14B«-I.V«. EASTER ISLAND. Hee Poltkb^ia EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO. Hee Malat AnrHipRI.Aiin. EASTERN CHURCH. The. See ( bris- TIAMTV A l> a!«i-l(t,VI EASl. AN EMPIRE, The. See lioME; TIT •»«•. anil Hrr<!<iifNR EMriRC. EASTERN QUESTION, Tb«.-The flnt OniMion iin whi<-h the pniblenii of the Otttiman •ni|>ir<- re<rlr,'<l the name of tlie Kaatem Hw^ tkm mn-m* Ui hare Uvn that ronnerli-,1 with the re»"il -if Mehemrt All in liWI (are Ttrri : A. D. imi |i««i, M <liiii!.>t. Inhia • Mrmiiira," when ref,rTin< In that rnnipllratlon. etnplora the term. *i»l ninarku ' I wr tlie Kaatem giieatinn. for thi> wa* In fmi the niune riven hv all tlie WiirM t<> *he quarrel between the Mulian Mahmoud. a~! h!« subl!-! !be Psrha ;;• JtsTpt Mrh«Bet All Whr naa thin Kninillnr tllle applied to a I'w-nl r.mlent ? KifTiii in i«-t the whole (MIo- ■urn empire The nttoman empire I* b<H the entire Eaat The nbellkm, eren the dlamemher. ment of a proTiDoe, caaaot compriw the h\e of a aoTerelgnty. The neat aUtea of Wcsuth Europe haTe alternately Mat or arouired. eiibrr by internal diaaenafcm or war. conaiderabic terri- toriea: yet under the oapect of thew cimim- atancea no one haa apoken of the Vinten auettion. Why then haa a term never iihiI ig le territorial criaea of Christian Eumpr, lirrn considered and admitted to be perfectly naiuni! and legitimata when the Ottoman empiie is in argument T It la that there la at present in the Ottoman empire no local or partial question, ir a shock la felt In a comer of the edilire. if a single stone la detached. :ae entire biiildinf appears to be, and is In fact, rendr to fall. . The Egyptian question waa in 18)W the qiirstion of the Ottoman empire Itself. And the iiuratinn of the Ottoman empire ia Ui reality thr Knstrni question, not only of the European but nf tbe .Vaiatic Eaat: for Asia ia now the theatre i)f the leading ambitions and riTalries of ihe grtM powers of Europe: and the Ottoman ein|>iiT i^ the highway, the gate, and the krv nf A»ia "- F. P. Ouiiot, Mtmoin to lUuMnU'ih- lli,i„ry ,,f .Vf (hen Timt, t. 4. p. SSS.— The nevenl woj. sions since IS40 on which the Eask-m (^miiii.iii haa troubled Europe may be found lumtnl under the following captions: Ri'mia A D IM.'iS-tS.'M, to 1854-1856; TlRKS: A I> IMI- 1877. 1877-1878. and 1878; alao Bai.k.*!« axd UAXt-aiA!! Statbsl — Among Englikh wriirn. the term " the Eastern Question " ha* *<i|,iini| > larger meaning, which takes In queaiimn cm- nect-d with tlie advance of Kuasia u|>i>n ilir Afghan and Persian froatiera— Dukeof Arnvll. n* Eiutrm Oumtion. — See AraHAiiiKTAX : X'l) 186»-188l. BATON, Dormui B., aad CiTil-Serrict Reiiana. See Citil-Srbvicb Kepohb id tu I'NrrBit Statbb, EBBSDORF, OR LUNBBURG HEATH, Battle oC— A great and ^Mstmu* Iwtile of thr Germana with the Danea, or Nortlinu-n, (oatM Feb. S, 880. The Qcrraana were terrihlr beairr.. anil nearly all who surriTed the flght were ixi-pi away into captlTity aad slaTerr. Tlie nUm tv- celved " martyrs ' hooours : ami theln oniineiiHin. tiim waa celebrated In the Hachaen IhikI <-himlir< till comparatively recent times. An unciaiiip J anrmw wasctcated throughout Saxunv by lliix'*. lamity, which, for a time, eihausted llie i imntrv . — Srandinaria aad Jutland and tlie liiiliir i^U reanufided with exultation."— (*ir K IMimvc, Hut of Sormamhi ami Knfhntl. M 1. i-A 4 EBBSFLBBT.— The supiioactl llrot lan'llii(. pla<<e III Britain of the Jtile*. umirr li>niri->i. A. I>. 44Bur 450, when English hUtnrv. w i.i<: llsh, beyina It waa also the lamlint pUi^ . \ D 507, of Augtistiac and hia fellow nilwii>tt«Hr* when they entered the Wand l» un<lrn»ke ilw I nnversioo nf Its new inhnbitania toChri'tmtiitv See KM»l,AKti 44t»-47» ami WT-IKV BBENEZER AND AMANA COMMUNI- TIES. S«r IkM lAl. MovBaENTii IMl ("M BBBRSBURC Battle of. fee iiitNM«n A. U IMW (jARt ARV-Jl XE). BBIONISM.-The heresy («. |.nn<lnl> >( > aert of Jewlab Chrtatlan*. whirh aprinul umir- =*h=Tt -«<«t=4'^r!¥ in ifrr ^rifftti. ih;^:. -:"-' "--fH rrnturiea ■ Tne rhanuteriatli m»rK« nl Khi..ii. i>m In all its forms are dritnwinilini nf 1 hn> liaolly tothsleeelof Judakni; llir prnmiV •>( G02 EBiomsM. BCUADOR Ibe uaireiwl and perpetumi Tallditr of the MiimIcUw: and enmItT to the apostle Paul." The name of the Ebiooitea came from a Hebrew wonl ligniiVlDg "poor."— P. Schaff, Hitt. oftht CkriMiaH Chunk, tuond period, eh. 4, tfl. VS. EBLANI, Th*. See Ixuisd, Tbibes or UkRLY ClLTIC nfaABIT\2mu EBORACUM, OR BBURACUM. — The miUiary capiul of Roman Briuin. and after- wania nf the Anglian klncdomt of Ddra and Norihumbria. Id Old Engliah ita name became Eorfurwick, whence, bjr further corruption, re- iultr<l the modem Enslkh name York. Tlie city wta one of conaiderable splendor In Roman timet, coouining the imperial palace with manv t«mplea and otJier impotlng buildinga. Bee Emglakd: A. D. 4S7-48S. EBURONES. Daatnictien of tht.— The Ebttninei were a strong Oermanic tribe, wlio ocriipicd in Cvaar'a time the count rr between Ui-fv and Cologne, and whose ancetton were ■hi to hare formed part of the great migmnt hnrcle of the Cimliri and Teutones. Under a Tuung cliicf, Ambiorix, tliev had taken >he lead Id till' formidable revolt which occurred among the Ik'lgic trilie*. B. C. M-SS. Ciesar. when he had nuppreaseil the revolt, determinetj to bring dniructlon on tlie Ebunmri, and lie executed hia purpose in a ainguUr ninnner. He rirruliite<l spnii'lamHtlun through all the neighlH>r1ng part* of Oaul and OenuHny, ilerlnring the Ebiinnes to be traiton to Konie and outlaws, and ottering tbrm and their goods as common prey to any who would fall on them. This drew the sur- rouniling barbarians like vultures to a feast, and tiir wretched Eburones were ai»n hunted out of eil«<:)re. Their name diaappeare<l fn)m tho aamlaof Qaul.— C. Merivale, IIul. iiflhtHomam, tk. W. A I JO IK: Ciwar, Gnllit Wan. Nt. 5, M. aV-W; U. t. rh. 1-84.-0. Long, liflinf nf Iht Homaa gemiNir, r 4, i"*. IS-U — ^S■^•. al»<>. Bki.(I.C ECBATANA.— "TIm- Moutlum Ert>ataaa or Af listJtiia.— which the Mniet an<l Persians them- »lvr« knew aa Hagmalin. — was situated, as we Ictm from Polyblus and r>li>iloru>, on a plain at till' fiKil of Mount Unwiea, a little to the enst of the ZagToa range. The notices of tliew aullmra . . . and othera, render it as nearly iir. tain 114 possible that the site wu that of tho mi>l.m town of Hamatlan. . . . Tlie Meomn npiial has never yet sttrarted a scientillr ex- pfliiii.n. . . . The chief citr of northern Media, whii h liiin> In later Umes tlie names of Gau, OaiwB. nr Canxaca, ia thought to hate Ihyh also cslliil l>balana, ami to have betm iHcasioaally ml»i»kin by the Oreeks for the soutliem or niil capital —O. Rawlinsuo, Krt Urtiit Monarrhif.- Mm,,,, fh. X. KCCBLINO, OR IZZILINO DI RO- MANO, Tk* '.jmaay of, Mtf the cniMrfe aniBtl. !tee Vbmixa: A. I> l'ja«V-l3.'W BCCLESIA.— The grnrral Irgl latlve assen % iif .Itliena in anrlrnt Athrn* and 8paita. — 0. F. HchaoMaa, AtUia. </U.-m«v. Th* Slotf. pt. S. , kCLLBSIASTICAL LAW. Hee Law, ECCLBSIASTICALTITLRI BILL.TlM. Kf l'«P«rT A. I». IMO. cCEHI, OR iCENI, TiM. i<ee BRiTam : .V l> Si CCCBERHT. Ktaff af WtMM, A. (WO- ECKMOHL, B«ttl« o£ See OsxiuiiTr A. D. 1809 (JaxcAitT-JiniB). ECNOMUS, NanU tattte of (B. C. acA. See Pumc War, Thb Fikw. '^ ECORCHEURS, Lea.— In the Uter period of the Hundred Veaia War. after the death of the Maid of Orleana, when the Engliah were being driven from France and the authority of the king was not yet eaUbliahed, lawless violence prevailed widely. "Adventuren spread them- selves over the provinces under a Dime, 'the Skinners,' Lea Ecorcheura, which sufflciently be- tokens the savage nature of their outrages. If we trace it to even lU mildest derivation, strip shirts, not skina."— E. Smedley, Hitt. of r pt. 1. th. 14. 3< J BCTHESIS OF HBRACLIUS. SeeMoHO- nRLiTB CotrrxovnuT. ECU, The order of the. See Botnmoit. Tub ■orsB or. BCUADOR: Aboriffiaal inhaMtaats, See American AnoBionEa: Akdesians. The BboiisriaBl Unrdom of Quito aad it* cooooeat bjr tho Pemviaas aad th* Snaaiardi. —'■Of the old Quitu nation which inhabited the highlands to the north an>*. south of the present capital, nothing is known to tradition but the name of its bist king, Quitu, after whom hia siib- tii t» were probably called. His domains wtre liivsde<l and conquered by the nation of the Cama, or Csrana. who haii come by aea in balsas (mfts) from narts unknown. These Caras. or Cnrans, eatnblialieil the dynasty of the Scvria at Quito. aiHl exu-o<led their cimquests to the north and south, uutil checked by the wariike nation of the Pundias, who inhabited the present district of Kiolmniba. ... In the reign of Hualcopo Duchi- ctla, the 18th Scyri, the I'enivisn Incas com- menced to extend their conquests to the north. . . . About the mMdle of tlie ISth centiirv the Inca Tupac YupanquI, father of Huaynacapac, Invaded the dominions of the Scyris. and after many bloo<ly battles ard sieges, conquered the kingdom of Puniha and returned in triumph to Ciiiro. Hualcopo survived his loss but a few years. He is said to hsve died of grief, and was kUiTceded by his sim C'acha. the 15th and last of the Scyria Cacha Duchirela at once set out to rcrover hia paternal dominions. Altlioiigh of ftthle health, he (Kims to have been a man of great enercy and Inlrrpiilitv. He fell upon the garrison which the Inca had left at Mix-ha. put it to the sword, and rnieriipied the kingdom of Puruha, where he wan re<'elre<l with open arms. He even carri«il hia l"«in"r» further south, until chirked by the (aftan-s. Ilii nhaliltanla of what IS now th,- diatrii't nf Cm-ma. who bad vnlun- urily aulimitteil tn the Inca. and nx'- drtalneil the net ri until lliiaynacapar. the grveuvl of the Inca dynasty, came to their rescue ' On the Jilain of Tiocajaa. and a/ain on the plain of iatuntaqui. griMt battles were fought, In lioth of whkh the Scyrt was beaten, and la the hut of « liirh he fell. ' " On the very flekl of hattle the faithful Caranquis pmclaimnl Pacha, the daugh- ter of the falh-n king, as their Scyri Huarna- raniii- now n'gulateahls conduct by p«>Bcy. ' He nnli ml Itie deail king to be hurieif with all the liciimrs due to royally, and maile olTers of mar- riaire Ui y"Ui<g Parha, bv whom iie was not re- fiiMil . . . Tlie Issue of the marriage was Ala> huall|>a, the last of the native rulers of Pent. . . A* pnidMit aod highly poUtk aa tka oa» 6M M '■! '.'« 111 ECUADOR duct of Husynacapac h genenllj reputed to hare bren, ao imprudent aod unpolitiv wu tlie divUion of the rnipire which In- nude on his death bed. bequrathloK bin paternal dominion! to bis flrst-bom ami undoubtedly le^timatf son. Huaacar, and to Aubuallpa' tbi' liinKiloin of Quito. He might have foreseen llio evil conse- qiiencea of such a partitiou. His death tooit pliKf about the year I53S. For 6vt or seven Jcars the brothen llvol In |>eare. " Then ()uarn-ls anw. leadl'ti; to civil war, reaultinv in the de- feat and dentil of Huaacar. Atahuallpa luul just become niaiit< r of the wenkenetl and shaken em- pin- of the Incas. when the invadinf; Spanianls, under Hjiarm, fell on the d<H>me<l htud and nuule Its riches their own. The cominest of the Span- lards dia not include I lie lilnKdom of (juilo at flnit, hut was extended to the latter in 1538 bv Ki'iMstian ile Bt'nulcH/nr, wlumi I'izarro had put in command of the Port of San Miguel. Kxcited by stories of the ricbe« ..f Quito, and invited liv ambassadors from the • uBares, the old enemies of the t^uitii trilws, Ik-uuleazar, " without orlers or |N-nniMiion fnmi i*izarro . . . left San Miguel, at the head of ulH>ut 150 men. His si-iiinii iii command was the monster Juan de Ampudia." The fate of Quito was ajniin decide<l on the plain of Tiiicnfas, when- Uuminagui. a tldef who luul seized tlu- vataut throne, mwh' a desperate hut val resistance. He iralned time, however, to remove wlutever treasures lUert- may have be«'n at Quito lN>yoiid the reach of lu nipaiious con- uuenirs.nml " where lie hiil Ihi'in is » secret to the present day. . . . Trnilitlium of the (fp'irt tri'iuures hidden in the mountidu!. hv Kuiniftaitui HTf eajierly repeated anil lielieveil iit (Juito. ... Hiiviii): n'moved tlie jtol.l and killeil the Vir^cins of the Sun. and thus plaiid I wo i>lijeet« mi eam'rly coviteil liy the iiivuders U'Viiud tlieir ri-iMli. UiiiiiiAaKui wl •!"■ to the town, and ev;i. iiutid It with III! his tmops and folhiwers. It u.nilij Im- illtBcull til ili-M rilM- ilie raire. mortilicaiion uml tle»pair uf the Spnnlanls. iin finding smoking ruins lustiiul ..f tin- tre»sun>s which they ha<l ej |Hct«il. . ThiiusaiiilsiifiiiriiH'ent Indians wen- saeridml to tlieir di>ap|uiiul<tl cupidity. . Kverv niKik ai'd riiriier nf the pn.vlmv «»« scarcheil. Iiul only lu the sipulchriM Mime little l!>i|il was found . . . Of the niicieiii liuildinftsof <iulli stiiiH' was left uiKin Ilie titln-r nnddeep exi-nVBii.ins wen- made under tlieiii tu «« urth for hidden tmisun'ii llemv then- is im veHliai- left at Quito nf Its I'lirmercivilJiMtion. nut ii ruin, imt a wall, not u slnne to w liit h the IrudilinHs nf the pant mlirht elinit . . <hi the 'iHth nf AiiKUst l-VK tin- Spaiiisli village of tJuito [>„u F'niiiei«-n de Quito) was fmindiil "— P llasaaun-k. /■'mr Venn iiiiuiiu/ Siuinim/i Aiitrrifiiiis, M 18. .Vl.so I.N \V II I'n-aeiitt. Hint iifCmu of Ih-ri, U ;l, M. ■.» I, h. iiwIeA. 1» (r »).' In the empire of the lacu. Se.> I'tnt Tiik r.MI-IKK or TMK 1m as A. D. 154a.— The Attdicncw of Qaite etub- llthed. Se .'tl IIIKM IAS A. O. i*ai-i8s4. -EmaacipAtioa of ilaTtt, S.I- Coi.dMnn^i >r»rK» A I> iw.'l \-*M A. D. Ilia-|888. -Confederated with New Granada and Veneiuela in the Colombiaa Republic. -Diteolution of the Coafederac*.— The rule of Flaras,— In im-j-j - ii.,. i>rT!vi!:t-t- s^r «^iii.i«»« Itienrp. ruti-il Into Ihi t'olnuiliian He puiilir Isw' ('i.l.iil||||(!( r^TArKs A I) IHIIJ- IMtJJ It was now divided Into thn* de|>art EODAS. menu on the French STitem : and the snntheni misttof tiiese receive<l its oamefnim tin Kiiuator (Ecua(h)r) which passes thruufth ii Sl,„nlv after Venezuela had declared itself ,n.l, |»uil ent of the Colombian liepubiic [IH'.'ii — J,. almvel, the old province of Quito did Ilie wmi- and placeil lu fortuaet in the hands nf „w i,f Bolivars lieutenanu, named Klores. The imnu of Ecuador was now exu-nde<l to all ihn-i-il, iian menu. Flim-s exenised the chief HUtlmriiv f„r IS years. The ci jsiitution limiteii ti„. |Vm. dency to four: but Flores nuule an ttmiiii:iiii,iit with one uf his lieuU'nanls called li.Ka Ku, rt, by which they sucoeedetl each nllii r. tl,.- ..ii; (foing President liecoming gnviriinr ..f Hutu qiiil In IMS Finn's foum! liini.s.|f ,ir,;„|, enough to Inipnive u|h>ii this system. Ih- ,allnl a < vention. which n-formiHl 'the iimMiiuti,.iiiii a n-uctionary sense, and named him dii i,ii..r f,.r ten years. In im.T the lilM-nil n-iiiiinn Im.) m^. in all over Cnlombhi; anil it sism lur.-iin,- |.,. I simng for Flnn-s. Even his nwii ■.upimrtirs I Is'gan to full him. and he agniil t.i .|iiii ii„. ! inuntry on la'iug paid an indenuiiiv nf ^^hiimi i During the next 15 years Eciiaihir'wiis imuM,,! , liy the plots and attempts of Flon-» In n ciiii liu I liwt power. Ill l.N6(l. with Periiviiui |„li. h ! sucifediil in pUcinic ow nf hi, |,:,riy |(r Mnn-no. in liie pn>sidency. and lie. luin-Mlf I,. came goveninr of Ouayao'uil. In Aucn-l. lx;v .Mon-iiii uiiK UMassinaleJ.— K J I'jnu. //„( </ A'«r../».j/. (;,l4,Hir: /./p. '.Jol-'.'.V.' — Afi, r llif assasaintiiinii nf President .Mon-iin. ■ iln ,u-tst Biuei-etli-d in x-aling Dr .Vntnnin lt,i-r,rn la till- pnsi.lential chair liy a |K'ueefiil uin! ..ur- wlielining election. .' Against hi^ ^.inrii meiil tlie lils-ral party made a nvi.liiti.,ii su,! S'litemlM-r yi. IHTtl, siie^-eeili-tj in liriMi.i liim fmiii |Hiwer. seatinu in Ids iilan-iii m ril V^n^i. I lie Veinteniilia, wlio was oiienf ll«rrern,,.il)i.c!,. j IniuiuI In him 'y many tie, lli 111II.-.I ui i nluilient conveiii'nn at' Anilwln, in !••> -.Uiitli j named Idni Pn-sident ttd inli-riiii. ami fr:iiiir<i > cniistitutiiin. the n-pulilicaniMH nl w In. Ii 11 i. ^lif tlrull to (liid I'niler Iliii. he w:i, , I, , i.-,| |'ri,i dent f r fnur ye«->, lirminaiintf ^loili .Vuiru-) 1W<',', wllhout right of r> elieti \..|.| aliir an interval of fnur venr^ — (! K. { Ininii. /i/( ■•». lil'",ul;rlSrluttr'/-:j- /)..■ 6(1. I' •> Cft ■ . I.j •Ji( .*«. , r :ii ~ Ph«lileiit Vi iiiti inilli «i»il |Miwer as a Dii Inlnr, liy a pmnun. iiimi in.-, A|iril Ii. IH".'. Iiul mil \»iir"eii,iii-i| and In «ii, i.nr lliriiwn in IhkI S..n..r .Ihm- M 1' ( ,wiiiiifl.i was tlien ehnsen ISix i^innal PriM.I. nl, uml in Fi liruarv. 1hh4, he waselnled I'riii.l. m l-j lis ■ .•'gislative luslv Hi- »iW i.llenr.li'1 III I** liv linn .VntonioFUin-s — .v,!/..,,,,.., « l',,ir.i..< 1*0.1 ECUMENICAL. OR (ECUMENICAL COUNCIL. — ,V general nr unlu r-il i nmi .1 lilt t'lirislian < hunh See (oimii, ..» riu (ill HI II BDOA8, Thc.-'The rhiif d. |i..-ii ti,, .f tlM- Nnrsi- iiiythnlnKy an the fjiiernr >.i. iiiiin.l* Eiidai|Hstr;i and ihi Ymiuger ir Sn.-it. . l..l.la (priis< I In lielundii Kdiia iiii an, ti-.ii liniiiil mother and snnie think this apiH llmi-.n nfm to Ihi- aneieni origin nl IIm' niulu 1, 1 ■iiUn» tui.i!^ <--^,(iw| ii »!Hi ihr ilnliaii Xnh id Ilie Norse >lile' (Swedish ' m li ' I.- l,ni»' - Ii II Aiidertsiu, A"". Vjilh.U.^^, ,h T - Tl«- Word bhla is wver found at all lu am of Ult Gl)4 EODAS. dit.'ectt of the Old Northern toDgue, nor imlitil in toy other tongue known to us. The Unit time it if met with i* in the La; of lUgh, wherr it i« Uied as a title for gre-t-gmndmothcr, and from this poem the won! ia cited (with other termn from the same aourcc) in tliu collection at Iheendof Scaldacaparmal. How or why Snorri's book on the Poetic Art came to he called Edda «elmTe no actual teatimony. . . . Snorri'swork, fSji'iially the lecond part of it, Scaldw-aparnial. handed down in copieaand abridgmenu through the Middle Age*, waa looked on aa aetting tbe ttaoilani and ideal of poetry. It seems to have kept up in<teed the very remembrance of court- piietrv, tliu memory of which, but for it, would otherwise have peruhed. But though the medi- KTsl i>oeU ilo not copy Edda (i. e. , Snorri's rules) tbev coiutautly allude to it, and we liave an un- bn>ken series of phrase* from 1340 to 1<MU in which Edda is used as a synonym for the technical laws of the court-metre (a use, it nwy be observed, eniin ly contrary to that of our own days)." — 0. Vigfiiason and F. Y. Powell, Corptu Awftnim BmnU, r. 1. introd., tvt. 4. EDESSA (Macedonim).— Edesaa, or ^ga!, tbf ancient Macedonian capital, "a place of primitln- antiquity, aeccr.ling to u I'hrygUu I.>,'iii.l the site of the gardens of Midax, at the nnrtUem extremity of Mount Benntua, when> the Lydius comes forth ft«m the niouutaius. . . . .tpe was the natural capiul of the land. With in f.iimilali>)n the history of Macedonia IumI its luirinniiiif ; .£gic ia the germ out of whioh the Ma. I'doiiian enijiire grew."— E. Curtius, Hint. „/ Urnff, bk 7, ck. 1. — ttee. also, M.\CKI>oxi.\. EOESSA (MMopotamiai. 8e<-(>*Biiu:NE. The Church. Sec C'hriitianitt: A. U. 33- lUI and IINt-ai'J Tbe Thcolo^cat School. Hi-e Nkstokianh. A. D. a«o.— Battle of. See Peiui.\: A. 1) A. D. 1097-iiM.— Th« Frank principality.— Ou the man h of the srmiesof the First I'rusade. M thi y apiirnaiht^tl .Syria, lialdwin. tliealile self, ikhaiid aelf'Willi.d lin>lher of OiHlfri'V of liouii- l"n. li'ft the main lH«ly of the crusaders, with a l«ud of foUowers, aiiil moved off eastwanln, •"king the priies of a very worldiv amhitiun' •mi leaving his devouter i-onmules to ri'siiic tiie It'ily M'pulchre without his aid (>i»ii fortune nwpinliii hisent<'r)>ri!u*anciheae('iin'<l |>iiMeMi..ii "( tl»' important city of Edeasa. It wax goveriii^il tiy ■ tiirek prince, who ownl allegiance to the lUi.ii.liiH' rm|M<n)r. but who iwlil tribute to Hie Turk. Ii adsiirremlenHlt.ii'oii/.uii.oiicofthc piuriiUof Mairk miah. In the year lOMT, but diir iiiK til.- i-iiiittiiia ,f the Turks and Marmriw in !l« iionh of hyria it had recf>vere<t lu inde|» ml II. 1 lUlilwlu now sullied the honour of (lie Kmiiks, by exclllngihe iM-ople to munler their pivenii.r The<i<lon>. and relxl ugiiinnt the llv/aii tiw nuiliority (other historiaus say tluit he wn» piilty of no more than a passive |HTiiii««l.>ii of lliew seta] , he then U«ik |K<sapssion of ihe pla<t- In hi', own iiame ami founded the F'rauk |irin- ei|.«lilv of Jjiettsa, whith lantetl aUmt 4T veam -<• Unlay, Ihtl ,<( Ityftnltiu .tntl (Irnk Km- lor-. A D T19-141W. At 8. M 3. »<•/ \ -f*^. at, ■•B!-x»r*s A- !>. t-WS-KtSB. aadHiT lliS; tlSi'.jKHl SALEM: A. I> lUIW-1144 EDGAR, Kiag of Scotland, A D tii»N-llUT Edcw, King of WttMS. A. U. »aei-»T3 095 EDIXBLKGH EOGECOTE, Battle of. See Hakbcbt, Battle ok. EDGEHILL OR KEYNTON, Battle ot (»ee t.\OL.\KD; A. D. 1642 (UcTUBEU— Decbm- BEK). EOHEL SeeADEL. EDHILING, OR ADHILING, The. See Ethelino. EDICT OF NANTES, and ita reTocmtioa. S>e« Fhance: A. I). 1.5»»-1,599, and 18W1-16JW EDICT OF RESTITUTION, The. See Oekmanv: a. n. 1627-1621). EDICTS, Roman imperial. See C'orpiti Jl'HIH ClVILIB. EDINBURGH : Oririn of the city See Enula.nu : A. D. 547-633. iith Century.— Made the capiul of Scot- land. be<>.S(iyrL.tSD; A. I). IJA^IWS A. D. 1544.— Destroyed by the EnKliah. Secbci)TL.vM): A D. 1544-154S. A. D. 1559-1560.— Seized by the Lorda of the CongreKation.— The Treaty of July, is6o. See ScoTLA.NO: A. D. l.'ijO-I.^tO. A. D. i57»-«573-— In the ciWI war. See tHoTLAM): .\. I). 1.170-1573. A. D. 1637.— Laud'* Liturgy and the tumult at St. Gile*'. See StoTLA.tD: A. D. Iti^l7. A. D. 1638.— The aiKninK of the National Covenant. .See .StoT'.AM): A. 1). lil:t>*. A. D. 1650. — Surrender to Cromwell.— Siege and reduction of the Caatle. ^iee S<i>tl.*kd a. I> llkV) (SeptemukhI; and 1631 (AllilHTI. A. D. 1688.— Rioting; and revolution. See Son A.M>: \. 1). lOMtt-inud ^- "■ 'W— Th« city at the time of the union.— ■hiiuiburgh. thoUKli »iill but a small U)wii, i-xcited the adminiiion of tn;vellers who weh- acijuainteil with the greatest cities of EuKluiid Hiiil tlie ( ontineut : nor was their adnd- ration entin Iv due to the singular U-aiitv of its situation Thi- ijtiaint architecture of the older lii>use»— which Minietlnies nwe to the lieiulii of nine, ten or eleven BUiries — iiideeil, carrieil b.ick the mind to verv l«rl>aroiis times; for it was ascriUil to tlie tfesire of 1! |Hip»lmion to live as near as possilile to ii„ protidion of the castle. The tilth of tlw strifts in the earlv years of the l^•lll ceulurv was indesirilialije. The new i|iu>rter. «h!cl w strikes cviry slniiiger by its spacious svninictrv. was not Uguh till 111. liilt.r halt of tlie l><tli century, but as earlv i TW m, KhKlisli IraMlhr de8< rilail the llh net as the MateliesI siriit in the World t nder the Intluence of the Kirk the pillillc I, 11 rs of tlie town Were nuirkcd by mm li dn'iiiii, and even austerity, but the |si|iuhnf Mill iniisually sus<vptili'lc of tierce poiiiicul 1 nlhuiiiisni. anil when ladteil they Win c.\lri iiiely loniililalili V city guartl. coiii|H.s<d chiitiv III llin-c Highlanders, ariiuti anil lilsi ipliii.nl like rigiilar soldiers, and pUvd under the control of the magistrates, was es- tublishid in ItllXI. and It »:» not tiiially aliul- ishcil till the pri'Miii ci-ntury. Edinlmrgh, at till Isginning of th>' l"<ili lintury. mis nwie than twill' as large as any other 'scmch town. I:^ iini-iiiation ,it thr tinu '..f the uiiioh siiniiliy csciciliil llo.iHMt, Willie thai of lilaagow was nut qiiile I.I.IHNI. that of l>unde<- not ijnilc III.INM), Hiid that of Perth aUiut 7.(IIN) — \V. E || L('<>ky //I'f i<f AV )'< (Ac im liHturf, ik. 3(r, «), KDINBCRGH. A. D. 1736.— The Portcens Riot— "The dr- cumMancc* of the Purtrou* Riot are familiar wht'fever the Engliah tongue i« spoken, becauie they were made the dramatic opening of one of hi* flne*t storie* by tliat admiimble geniui who, like Sbakespvarc in his plays, hat conveyed to plain men more of the spirit and action of the past in noble fiction, than they would find in moat profea«e<l chronicles of fact. The early scenes of the ' Heart of Midlothian ' are an accu- rate account of the transaction which gave so much trouble to Queen Caroline and the min- ister [Walpole]. A smuggler who had excited the popular imagination by his daring and bis chivalry was sentenced to be hann-d : after his execution the mob pressed forward to cut down his iKxIy: Porteous, the captain of the City OuanI, onlcrcd his men to Are. and several per- sons were shot dead ; he was trieil for murder, convicted, and sentenced, but at the last moment a reprieve arrived from London, to the intense indignation of a crowd athirat for vengeance: four days later, under mysterious rin,{lea(ters who could never afterwards be discovered, fierce throngs suddenly gathcreti together at nightfall to the beat of drum, broke into the prison, ilraggnl nut the unhappy Porteous, and sternly banged him on a dyer's pole close by the com- miiD place of public execution. "—J. Morley, H'.iZ/x^, <•*. ». .ViJ» m: J. McCarthy, But. of tht fhur (irorgf*. rh. U (r. 8). A. D. 1745.— The Yoanc Prtttadcr ia tht citjr. See Scotlasu: A. I>. I74a-17«. A. D. 1779.— No-PoMiy riot*. Bee Eholakd : A. D 1778-1780. • EDISON'S INVENTIONS. S«e Ei.bc- Tiili AL DlSLOVtKT : A. D. lMl-1880; 187S-18M. EDUCATION. BDMUNO IRONSIDE. See Englaso A. O. »7»-101«. BOMUNDS ACT. See Utah: 1882-1sb3 BDOaUTBS, OR IDUMEANS, The.- "From a Terr early period the Edomitcs wen the chief of the naUons of Arabia I'ctrsa. Amongst the branches sprung, acconilDg; to Arab tradition, from the primitive Amalika, they correspond to the Araun, and the poatoritj Jf Esau, after settling amoogat them as we Ii«t« seen, became the dominant family from which the chiefs were chosen. The original hiihitation of the Ednmites was Mount 8e1r, whenrc ihrr spreatl over all the country called by the (ireeki Qebalene, that Is the prolongation of the mnuD- tains Joining on the north the land of .M<iab, into the Valfey of Arabah, and the surr«iiu<liiij heights. . . . Saul successfully fought the Edomites; under David, Joab and Abi^luii. hii generals, completely defeated them, and David place<l garriM>ns in their towna. In their |Kini of Elath and Eziongelwr were built Ike Reeit seut to India by Hiram and Solomon. . . . .\fier the schism of the ten tribes, the Edomitrs re. mained depenilent on the King of Judah."— F. Lennrmant, Munualof Anritnt JIM. of the Rut, M. 7, fK 4. — See, also, Nabatbbans; J'kwk: Tax Eablt Hebrew HitroKV; and Amalekites EDRED, Kiof of Weucx, A. D. IM7-9.'>.) BDRI8ITES, The.— .\fter the n-voli of Moorish or Mahometan Spain from the calliihste of Bagdad, the African provinces of the Mot- lems assumetl independence, and several livuu. ties became seated — among tbem that n\ the Edrisites. which f(>und('<l the citr ami kini;<iiim of Fes. anil which reigned from \. I). f.MI t,i IW7.— E. Gibbon, Xkclint niul F\iU ofth, ll,„mn Rmp.fh. S3. — See, also, Mabohktam CoMuitn: A. D. 715-750. EDUCATION. Ancient. EcTpt.— "In the eduiatioD of youth [the Egyptians] were panlciilarlv strict; and 'they knew,' says Plato, 'that children ought to lie earlv ucustoinett to such gesturen, looks, and motluns as are deo'nt and pr>|<er; and not to be suffered either to hear or learn any vrnaea and wmgs otluT than those which are calciilati^l to inspire them with virtue; ami Ihey ronai-c|Urnlly took rare tlmt every daufv and iNle Introiiureil at their feasts or sacrillces should l>e subject to eer tain regulations. '—Sir J. O Wilkinson. Tht .Viinnrrt tii>4l Cvlonu "f Iht Anritnt Egj/Jitians, r. 1, /). «31,— "Tlie chlldri'n were educated ar conling to their slall>'n nod their future poaitlim in life Tlwy were kept In strict sulijecllon by their parents, and respect to old age was par- llruhirlr Inculcated , the chlldn-n of the priests were ealucatttl verr thoruugbly in writing of all kinds, hlrn>)tlyphfr, hieratic, and demotic, and in llie sclrnii-s of astronomy, matliematics, etc. Th»' Jewish deliverer Moses was educated after the manner of the priesta, awl the 'wisdom of the Kgrptians' became a proverbial expression ainoiiir the outside naticma, aa Indicating the utmost limit of human koowletlge "— K A. W. Hudge. Tht IhttUtn on Ih4 Silt, eh 10— "fm the e<iucatl<in of tlw Egyptians, Utodonu make* the followiog mutfks:— 'The cblMrea of the priesu are taught tw3 different kinds of writlnir. — what is called the sacred, and the mon- (••m ml . and they pay great attention to geoinciry unJ arithmetic. For the river, changing the a|iprar ance of the country very materially every ym. is the cause of many and various iliaruwiuDt among neighbouring proprietors alwtil the 11 tent of therr property; an<l it would \v diiflrult for any person to decide up<in their claims with- out geometrical reasoning, founded on m tiial ol> servation. t)f arithmetic they have alsn fn <|iirDi nee<l, both In their domestic economy, aii'l in the applicatiiii) of geometrical theorems. Ixal'lin In utility in the cultlvatloo of aatMnomlcni utiiiiin. fur the iinlenaod motiona of the star* iirr ob- served at least as industriously by the Kk'.vpiiani aa by any iieople whatever; and thev kii']' "•■■•ifil of the motiona of each for an Inemlihli- iiumhrr of yean, the study of this science haviin: Iim-d. from the remotest times, an object «f naiiiHul ambition with them. . . . But the generalitr nf the common people learn only from thiir pait'Dti or relatiooa that which is required for the rirr- else of their peculiar profeasiona. :i f>-« nely b?iBg t«ijch( urtiiiog "f Mtenit""' anJ those principally the better class of arttlirrn.' Hence it appran they were n»tconllii<<l inaar pnrUculat rule* in the mode of c<lucstlui; their chlldna, and It depeaiisd upon ■ iMftDt tu ch«t«s 696 BDUCATION. EDUCATION. the degree of inatniction he deemed most lult- tble to their mode of life and occupMtoiu, u imoosotbeTdTillndiiatioiu."— SirJ. O. WUkio- ■OD. Tki Maimtn and Cuttcmi of the BgypHnnt t. I, pp. ITO-lTt.—" -There U nothing like being >icribe,'the wiMny; ' the ecribe gets all that is upon eaitli. ' . . . The tcrlbe to limply » man who know! bow to read and write, to draw up adminiattatlTe formuUi, and to calculate inter- est. The instruction which be baa leoeived to a Decenary complement of bto position if he be- ionm to a good family, whilst if he be poor it enables him to obtain a lucrative situation in the administntion or at the house of a wealthy per- ioiuge. There ia, therefore, no sacrifice which tlR> smaller folk deem too great, if it enables them to giTe their sons the acquirements which ma.r raise them above the common people, or at least insure a less miserable fate. If one of tJiem, in hia infancy, dtoplays any intelligence, tbey send bim, when about six or eight yean old. to the district school, where an old peda- gogue teaches him the rudiments of reading, wntiag. and arithmetic. Towards ten or twelve years old, they withdraw him from the care of this first teacher and apprentice him to a scribe in some offlcc, who undertakes to make bim a 'learned scribe.' The child accompanies his muter to hto ofllce or work-yaid, and there pusses entire months in copying letters, circulars, legal dix-unienu, or accounts, which Le does not at finit uuderetand, but which he faithfully remem- bers. There are books for his use full of copies taken from weliknuwo authura, which he studies perpetually. If be requires a brief, precise re- l><>rt. tbto is how Ennana worded one of hto: — ' 1 reached Elephantine anil accomplished my mi»«i(in. I reviewed the infantrv ami tliv cbariot fildiers from the temples, ta well as the servants BD(I subordinates who are in the houses of Phsr- ai:h s . . . olflciato. Aa my journey to fur the miriMise of making a report in the presence of Lis Majesty, . . . the course of my business is aa rapiil Hs that of the Nile ; you need not, there- (on>, feel anxious about me.' There is not a »ii|>rrtluous word. If, on the other hand, a pe- titit>D in a nnrtical style be requiiiHl, see how Pintotrit asked for a holiday. ' My heart has Itft me. it is traveling and does not know how to return, it sees thmphis and hastens there. W.iiilil that I were in its place. I remain here, Imiv fiillowing mv heart, which endeavours to driw me tuwanis Memphis. I have no work in haiKl. mv heart to tormented. May It please the fr»l l*tah to lead me to Memplils, ami do thou Kr«nt that I may be seen walking there. I am at leisure, my heart to watching, my heart Is no liiuiier in my bosom, languor has seizeit my lliiilw; my eye to dim, my ear hanleue<l. my v.ilif fwble. It Is a failure of all my strength. I pmy thee remedy all this.' The pupil copies SDil rt'cople*. the msster inserts forgotten wonis, ri>m>cu the faulU of spelling, ami draws on the in^ririn the signs or groups unskilfully tractil. Wli.n the book to duly finished and the appren tiie can write all tlie formulas from memory, IH'Hinns of phriaes are detached from them, «l>i<h he must Join together, so as to combine new fnrmulas: the master tlien entrusu him *:!:i ihr mmpositioil „t a few telten. greiiualir Itx-nasing the number and adding to tlie ilitll (u ties As soon aa ha baa fairly raastensi the orlttiary daUjr IOuUm hto aduoUon to ended. and an unimportant post to sought for. He ob- tains it and then marries, becoming the head of a family, sometimes before he to twenty yean old; he has no further ambition, but to content to vegetate quietly In the obscure circle where fate has thrown him."— G. Maspiro, life in Aneient Egypt and Auyria, eh. 1. — "In the schooto, where the poor scribe's child sat on the same bench beside the offspring of the rich, to be trained in discipline and wise Teaming, the raaa- ters knew how by timelv words to goad on the lagging diligence of the ambitious scholan, by holding out to them the future reward which awaited youths skilled in knowledge and letters. Thus the slumbering spark of self-esteem waa stirred to a flame in the youthful breast, and emulation was stimulated among the boya The clever son of the pjwr man, too, might hope by hU knowledge to climb the ladder of the higher offices, for neither his birth nor position nused any barrier, if only the youth's menul power justified fair hopes for the future. In this sense, the restremu of caste did not exist, and neither descent nor family hampered the rising career of the clever. Many a nmnument consecrated to the memory of some nobleman gone to hto long home, who during life had held high rank at the court of Pharaoh, to decuratetl with the simple but laudatory inscription, 'Hto ancestors were unknown people. ' It is a sattofaction to avow that the training and instruction of the young interested the Egyptians in the highest degiw. For they fully recognised in thto the sole niV«ns of cultivating their uatinnal life, and of fulfilling the high civiliilug misbion which Providence seemeil to have i)lacvd in their hands. But alHive all things they reganled justice, and virtue bad the highest price in their eyes. "—U. Brugsch- Boy. Hiet. of Kiiupt under the Pharaoh; t. 1, p. i2. Babylonia and Assyria. — "The primitive I'lialileans were pre-eminently a literarv people, and it is by their literary relics, by the scattered (X)ntcuts of their libraries, that we can know and judge them. As iH'fitted the inventors of a sys- tem of writing, like the Chinese they set the highest value (m education, even mgh exam- luationH mav have Iweu unknown miong them. E>lucHtliin. liDWever. was widely diffused. . . . AssurlMtni-pal's lilirnrv was o|K'n to the use and enjoyment of all lii.t siilijects. auil the syltoluries, grammar!*, lexii-ous, and reatliug-lxxAs that it conlaim-il. show the extent to which not only their own languuijc wan studied by the .issyrians. but the dealt lauifiiage •>( ancient .\ccaii as well. It became as fashiimalilc to (i>ni|KMi- In this ex- tinct tongue iM it is niiwa-ilays to display one's pMflcieucy in Latin prose, aiid ' ili)g-.\cn«li«u ' was |H'r|M'tmtiHl with as little reniowe as 'dog- Ijitin ' at till' iinwnt time. Dnc of the Babylon- ian cylimlent fnunit by Ueneral di Ccsnola in tba temple ircasuri' of Kiirium. which probably be- long* |M the iK'ri'nl of Nebiichaiinezzar's dynasty, has a li'Ki'Oil nlilcb endeavours to imitate the inscnptiiins of the early Accadian princes; but the Very finl wonl, by an unhappy error, be- trays the insuHtcient khowle<lgr of the old Ian- image iMWnesseil by Its composiT. Besides a knowliilge of A(-caillan, the iilucated Assyrian «»!« n-iiiiinii to have also a kiiiiwinigv ot Ara- maic, wliich had now U-come the ' l.ugua franca' of trade and iliiiliimacr ; and we find tlie Rab- shakeh (liab-sakki), or prime mintotcr, who was 697 EDUCATION. EDUCATION. imtaninitHeteUah by Srnnscherib, acquainted with Hebrew a< well. The Knunmatical and leiicsi works In the library of Nineveh are r«- pecially intereitins. as being the earliest attempts of the kind of whfrh we know, and it is curious to find the Hamiltonian method of leaminj; bngusses forestalled by the scribes of Assur- bam-pal. In this rase, as In all others, the fltst enquiries Into the nature of speech, and the first grammars and dk-tlonaries, were due to the nv- ceasit V of comparing two languages together : It was the ArradUn which forml the Semitic As- syrian or Babylonian to study his own tongue. And already in these flrat efforts the main princi- ples of Semitic grammar are laid down clearly and definitely." — A. H. Sayee, Hih^loni-iii Lihrii- tun. ftp. 71-72. — "The Babvlonlans were the Chinese of the ancient worfd. They were es- sentially a reading and writing people. . . . The books were for the most pnrt written ui>on clay with a wooden rwil or mctnl stylus, for day wiis cheap and plentiful, luid easily impre8.>ie<l with ;e-»liaiH' " "' were compostil. But besides clay, papyrus und the wpdge-sliaiHMl lines of which the characters possibly also (mivhmcnt were employt-d'as writ- ing materials. . . . The u»e of ciavfor writing purposes exten<le<l. along with Bal>y!<inlun cul- turr, to the ni'iglilNiuriiig populations of the East. ... It is aatoniiliing how much matter can lie comprewe<l into the compass of a siugle tablet. The cuneiform sviitem of writing allowi-il the use of many abbreviations — thanks to its • ideographic ' nature — and the characters wcr- fn'nuc-ntly of a very minute size. Indee<l. »o minute is the writing on nuny of the Assyrian (as distluguishcd from the Babylonian) tablets tliat it Is clear not only that the Assvrian srrilM-s iind reailers mint hiive licen dcifdeillv short- siicliled. but also that tlier must have uiaile use of m.ik'oifying gliMw'H. We mtsi not U' surpriseil, tli<nfiire. to Iftirn that Sir A. H. I.,nyanl ilis- cipvinnl a crystal lens, which had Nr'n tumcil on a liitlie. U|Kin tlii- site of llie gr<-at lilirary of Xin**veh. . . Tt» Irarn tlie cumlform svllatmry WHS a task of much time iind lnN>ur Tlu' stii- diiit was acconlingly pmvidiil with vuriou.* means of nwistancc. Tlic >'liiir»< li rs of tin- syl- laliiiry 1 were classitled iiml niuiitsl. tiny were further iirranged ai-c>)nliMi to a uriiiiri onler. whii'li jHirtly <li'[K*ndfd oti tlu- nunilHTof wedges or lines iif n hicli cHcli nuscumiiovd. .Mon'over. wliat wi- may term diclioUiiries were iimipileil. To liaru the signs. !n. vever. with llieir mul- titiKlliioiis phoni'lic values ami idtsiirmpliie sii; nitiiatiniis, was not the wlioleof the lalsHir wliieli the llalivloiiian Isiy liail to ncc-nniplish The cum ilMrin s\ >leui of wrilinir, along with the ciil- tiiii' Willi li )iail pnsluod it. liml In-en tlie inveii- lioh nf the lion St'iuilie .VieHilo Siinierian niii. froir .I'umi it Imd Ins'n iKirrowisI by the S<>miles In N jiiitii Imiiiistbesvlluliary unili'meut further miHlitleaiioiis and adAiiions. but it Isire U|ioii it to the l.i-.t till' stamp of its alien origin. On this account alone, therefon-, the llabyloi ' . studenl who wished to acquire a kliowleu, reaaling niid writing was otiliBe.1 to lean the .ni lau- jiiiaife of the older )K>piiliition of ||„ aintry Then- was. Iiowever. Hnolher reason w i.. 'i even inon- im|M>rativelv obllgisl him to sti,dy the rtflief limswr. .\ iarjrr pninnrtion of tiir in ch'ni Ittenitim'. mon' esiwially that whiih «•■ lalcsl to n'lliiiiiussiilije<'t'<. was written In Viiado Hunu'rian Kveu the law cases of earljir times, which formed precedents for the Uw of a later age, were In the same language. In fact, Accaili). Sumerian stood in much the same relation tci ilu> Semitic Babylonians that Latin has stood to the modem inhabitanta of Europe. . . . Ib'siiU.) learning the syllabary, theivfore, the BahylnDian boy had to leara the extinct language of Arnd and Sumer. . . . The study of foreign timeim naturally brought with It an inqulaitlveneKs ulmut the Unguages of other people, as well hs a ium- sion for etymology. . , . But there wen- nihtT things besides languages which the Toiimr stu- dent in tlie schools of Babylonia and Aiisyriavaa called upon to leam. Oeography, hist'orv. the name* and nature of planta, blnls' animals, and stones, as well as the elements of law awl n-. Ilgion, were all objects of inatruction. The Ilrit- lab Museum pos se ss es what nuy be callcl the historical exercise of some Babylonian 1a<l in the age of Nebuchadnezzar or Cyrus, iiinsi!,! ing of a list of the kings behinging In if the early dynaaties, which he hailbeen rii|iiinil to leam by heart. ... A considerable iiM|sir tion of the inhabitants of Babylonia coiilil n-nil and write. The contract tablets are written in a variety of running hands, some of nhii h an- as Imd as the worst that passes through the ni >i em |K>st. Every legal d(X!ument reipiin.l ilir signatures of a numlier of witnesses, and imttt (if these were able to write their own namfs. . . In Assyria, howerer, c<lucatiiin wiis by n i means so widely spreatl. A;iart from the iifiptr and professional classes, including the nun I'f busiiieHS, it was confined to a "P*''''»l '""l.t' "' men — the nubile scribes. . . . Tlien' was nom- of that ieaioiis excliuion of women In aiiriitit Babylonia which characterizes the Fjihi nf t.: day. and it is imiliable that iHiya and ifirls pur s>ie<l their stiiiiirs at the same schools I'lie i-il)|. cation of a cliilil must hare begun earl\ — X II. Havce, Siaal Lift amnng the /t;'-»/.//ii.ii.«. ch. 8 ■ Chinm. — "It is not, perhaps, generally known that Peking contains an .iM-ient iinivi r-.iiv : f >r though certain buihiings i-oniR-<'te<l with ii luv- lieen fn-i|uciitly descrflied, the instiliition ilM-lf has lN'4'n Imt little notlcisl. It gives, iiiilei.i|.>aif)ti: signs of life that It Is not surprising it slmulil hi- overlisikeil. . . If alocal sltiialinii IsileeiiiiiUn essi>ntl»l eleiTii-nt of iileiitlty, this iilil iiiiiveroity must yielil the palm of age to iiianv In Kunin, for In its pri'M-iit site It dates, al n.ost, only fr-iu the Yuen, or Mongol, ilynaMv. in iii<- iH-iriniiiui; of tilt- iourteenth ei-ntiiry. Ibit a-, an ini|« ri,il institution, having a Hxisl organi/Mtiim ami lif inite (li.jct ts. it carries its history, or at li i-t its m-di^n-o, Imck to a pertisl far iiiti-ri-ir t-- tlw foiiniling of the (ireat Wall .Vni -iiirlhe lli';:u latiiiiis of the Mouse of ('how, wliii li tlouri-he-i :i llioiisnii'l yeai'i liefin- the (. hristlnii en. v\- nii»-t witli ii alrcHily in 'nil blown vigor, aii'l iinli riln- idi-iitiral name 'vhi h I', now iM'ari.. that of K-i"l» /ekien. or ■,Hehi«i| f..r t'le Sons.if tin- Kmnm- ' It was in 'Is glory Is fore the liclil "f -lew'' i!awnis| on (lnv<v, '»ni| when l'ytliairori« and Plain were pumping :heir sjiri-is from tin- i>rii-«i» of IIeli.i|Hilis And It still exists, but it i« «i>ly an emtssliinent of life in det.:h:' Us halls an- tairolM, aiHl its officers living mummies In ihi- j:tth liis.kof :;,. t 'ii.,wtei>r<- Tutes li. T. i :i -n diiction par (-/loiiar<l lilni). we find (In- fumtmni of thelleitila nf (he Kwntsrekien lai'l .l.'»ll»ith« gi«»l deal of inluuleonui The presldriits wertW 0U8 KDCCATION. AneitHt KDUCATIOy. ■dmoabh the Emperor of that whkb la good and jiut, and to inatruct the Sona of the State In the •three conatant virtuea' and the ' three pnctlcal duties '—in other worda. to siTe a ooune of lee- turai on moral philoaophy. TTie rice-presidenta were to reprove the Emperor for hi* faiilu (L e., to perform the dutj of official cenion) and to dia- dpline the Sona of the State in the Kiences and irti— >ii., in arithmetic, writing, music, arch- nr, horsemanship and ritual ceremonies. . . . The old curriculum is religiously adhered to, but greater latitude is given, as we shall have occa- don to obserre, to the term 'Sons of the State.' In the lUvs of Chow, this meant the beir-appat«nt, Erinces of the binod, and children of the nobility niltr the Tataing dynasty it signifles men of drfectire wholarship throughout the prorinces, who purchase literary degrees, and more speciflc- illy certain indigent studeuts of Peking, who sreaiile<t by the imperial Iniunty. The Kwotsze- kien a located in the ni)rtlieiiiiu-m angle of the Tsrurrity, with a temple of Confucius attached which is one of the flnest in the Empire. The Diain riMnre (tiiat of the temple) comiists of a sin- gle Mnry of imposing height, w ith a porcebtin tiof of tent like curvature. ... It contains do seats usil comers are ex|>ecte<l to stiuiii or kneel in pTMcniT! of the Great Teacher. Neither rtoj-s it biisst annhing in the way of artistic decoration, nor eibiblt any trace of tliiit neatness anil taste which we look for in a sncnii iiliup. Perhaiis ita Tsit area is liesigoetily left to Jiiiit and emptiness, hi cnlir that nothing may intervene to disturb the mind In the contemplation of a great lume whii h ri-ci'ives the homage of a nation. ... In ill n.lja<rnt block or s(|iiare stands a pavilion known »s tht- 'Imperial Lecturen«ini." Iiecaime ItiiimumlM'nt on each occupant of the Draeon throni- to go tbcrt- at least once in hin lirrtiini- to bttr » ilisc.urse on the nature ami nsiMinsihiliiies of his ortlce. ... A canal spanwii by marlile briiliri's imirclcs the paviHon. ami arches of glit- leriiic |>.)nelain. in rMillent r.pair, ailorn the pomi.ls. Hut peither Ihi'te nor the pavilion it- <elfr..n«Iitiite8 the chief attraction of the place IwliT,! hinitcorrichir which eniloncs the entire »piirr limy lie B«'n as many ns one humlreil and riithiv iuoct>luinnsof iimwive granite each In- <crilie.| with a portion of the cam.nicnl iHH.ks Tli<«f nri'the '»<lone Claitsicii'— the entire 'Thir- twii. whi.li foniK .| the staple of » Chinese oiii- iiiii.n tuinKhcriMiiiihrimtlina iimtirialsiipposiil ti)l« iniiHTlBbal.le. Amoiiii all llic rniversities imli.' «,,rhl. tlie Kwiitazekien is iinii|iic in the pi»«.*,it,n nf »ii< li a litirarv. This |h n.il im\nt\ the. .Illy sl.me lihrarv extant — Bii..||i.r of eiiiiai Mtiiil Uin,' foiiiKl at ,>»ini.'anf«. tl.i' ancient capi isi.if ih.. Titnt!*. Hut, thut t.Ki. was the proiiertv 01 Ih" Kwotsiekh'n ten centuries aifo. wliin .>4iii pn wi. the m-at of empire. The • ScIhhiI for Ih. s..ns of the Umpire ' must nintls foUow the mi.TTitionsof tlieniiirt; ami tliat library, costiv >iii KAs. iH-ingt.si heavy for transiiorirtilun (t vwih...ii.-ht beat t.. «upplv its place by the new ftfiii-.i, «hich weliave l)f.n dewribing In iMii! "f Die temple stamis a fort-st of •iilumin ,>f «m K inferior intere»t Tliev «irthn-e hiimirt'.l soil i«. my in numU r ami contain the univer. It^rull „, hom«.. a com|ilele list of all wlio simr ■- ■■ ■.■••!:!i-- If the inslitiiiiou Uv.- Hilaimti lo Ihe 'i.-nitv ..f thed(K-l..rate AUow to each an «irrHi;,M,( two hundred iiaines, ami we have nn a-aiv , .f .|<ict4irs siity tbtmaaud st rong ! , Bv t he 6t)0 doctorate I mean the third or hlgheat degree.) AU toe«i received their investiture at the KwoUie- Uen, and, throwing themaelvea at the feet of iu prerident, enrolled themaelvea among the • Sona of the Lmpire.' They were not. however — at least the most of them were not— in any tiroper sense alumni of the Kwotsaekien, having pirsued their studies in private, and won their honors by public competition In the halls of the Civil-serv- i~. ^"'. .^ ^'^ There b an immense arro occupied by lecture-rooms, examination-haila and kxlKing-apanmenU. But the visitor is liable to unagine that these, too. are consecrated to a monumental use -so rarely is a student or a pro- lessor to be seen among them. Otdinarilv thcv are as desolate as the lialls of Baalbec or Pal- ■"/rS- J° f«it this great schcx.l for the 'Sona ot tbe Empire has long ceased to be a seat of instniction. ami degenerated into a mere append- age of the civil mrvice competitive examinatlona on which It hangs as a dead weight, corruptinir and delwsing instead of a<ivancing the standard of national .Klucation. — W. A. P. .Martin Tht tAin». Ihfir tkiuentitm. Philomphy and Ittlert, Peraia — "All the best authorities are aKree<i tiiat gr.ttt pains were taken by the Persians — or, at any rate, bv those of the leading clans — in the ediuation of their s.ins. During the drat Ave yeara of lii. life the boy nmaininl wholly with the women, ami was 8<-arcelv, if at M seen by his father. After that time bis training com- memvd. He was exiiected to rise l-fore dawn and to appear at a i-ertain spot, where he was exercised with other Ixiys of Ids age in runninir slinirinir stones, sh.Hiting with the Uiw. ami throwing the javelin. At seven lie was taught to rtdc, and soon afu'rward he was aHoweil to begin to hunt. The riding included, not <inlv the <inlinary manairenient of the horse, but the power of jiimpinit on and oir his l>a<k wlieu lie was at »p<iil, and of 8li<M)tin« with the liow ami throwing the javelin with unerring aim while the horse w.is still at full galh.p. The huntinir was conducted by sUte-olticers, wIid aimed at fonning by its means in the youths iDinmitted to lliiir charge all the ijualiths m-etlwl in wjr The lioys wen- made lo iMvir <\trenii's i.f h,„t ami cold, to (Mrforni long marches, to en >s» rivers without wettinK their weapons, to sl.np in llie o|H'ii air at niirhl. to W content with a nincle meal In two davs, ami to supjiort tlieinsilves oivasiiinally on thf wil,| pn«liict«of the country, acnnis, wild |«ars ami the fruit of the ten>liinth- tnr (In days »li. n thir.- was no hunting they paiiiM.ll ihrir inoniiMi.'» in allihlic ixircises and cont.-sts with the Ix.w or Hit- javtlin. after which they diiinl simply on the plain f.KHl inenthmed alHive as ihiit .>r (In- niin in the earlv times, and thi'n employ. d l!iini«.lves duriiii: llie afternoon in (a'inpnii..iis nitanhil as not illilH'ral — for in- stance, in till' pursuits of a^rriciilturi', plttnting iliu'iriiiL' for r.«.i», and the like, or iu ilie eon- striiition ,.f arms and hunlini; implemenu, suih as mis .Old spriutf.-s. Ilanlv and teiiiiwrate habits Ising M-ciiriHl by this training, the in.lnt of morals on wliiili their pniTplora mainly In- Msliil wiis the rigid olmervan<.|' of truth, (if ii|. lellei'tiial education they bail but iliili. Jt m- !•.•« lo tiave iH-eu no |ian of the n-guiar training of a I'lTsiaii yoiiib that he shoiilii leani to read. He w^as irlv.n ri'liiioiisnothiiuiand a ivrtain iimoiin: of moral knowledge by means of legeudary IDUCATION. EDCCATION. poems, iu which the dcedi of goda >ad heroM were let before him by hii teachen, who recited or sung them In hli preeenoe, and afterwuda re- quired him to repeat wtiat Ite luul lieard, or, at any 'rate, to gire aome account of it This educa- tioo continued for fifteen years, commencing when tlie boy waa fire, and terminating when lie readied the age of twenty. The effect of tills training wss to render tlie Persian an excellent soldier and a most accomplished horseman. . . . At fifteen years of sge the Persian wss con- sidered to MTe attaiiMd to manhood, and wss enrolled in the ranks of the army, continuing liable to military service from that time till be reached the age of fifty. Those of the highest tank became the body-guard of the king, and these formed the garrison of the cspltsl . . . Others, though liable to military serrice, did not adopt arms ss their profession, but attached themselves to the Court and looked to cirll em- ployment, as satraps, aecretarlea, attendants, ushers. Judges, inspectors, messengers. . . . For trade and commerce the Perslana were wont to express extreme contempt. "— O. RawUnson, l%t /Vw Orsof JfonartUf of tke Aneunt Eatttm Warld, e. », pp. 3aB-M3.— After the death of Cyrus, according to Xenophon, the Peislans de- generated, in tM education of their youth and otherwise. "To educate the youth at the gates of the palace Is still the custom," he says: "but the attainment and practice of tiorsemsinship are extinct, because they do not go where they can (ain applause by exhibiting skill in that exercise. V'licreas, too, in former times, the boys, hearing rausfs Jiatly decided there, were considered by timt means to learn Justice, that custom is alto- gcllier nkrred . for they now see those gain their causes wito offer tlie highest bribes. Formerly, also, boys were taught the virtues of the various prtMluctionsof the i-arth, hi order that they might use the fierviceat)le, and avoid the noxiiAis ; but now they wvui to be taught those particulars that they may <lo as much liarra as nissible ; at least tlH-rc are nowhere ao many killeu or iiijiirvd by poison as in tliat country." — Xenonlion. l)/m- podia and IMknif; tram, by J. S. n'atmn and U. VaU. i>i>. art-atM Jndssa. — "Aroirding to the stalrnirnt uf Jo- sephus. Muses luul already preMTilHil ' that buys should learn tlie nxwt important lawn. IxKsuse that U the best knowlctlgi- aud the ruuiu' of pros- |M-rity.' ' He comnuniltil tu instruct childn'n in tlic elements of Ituuwled^e (n.-a<linK ami writ- ing), to teach them to walk accnrcliug to tlie laws, and to know the dee<ls of their fiinfutlifn. The Utter, that they might imlute them, the fonm'r, tlut growing up with tiie laws they might not transgress them, cor have the excuse of ignorance.' Joaephus repeatedly cnmmeniis the zeal with which the instruction of the voung was carried on. ' We take moat pains of afl witL tlif instruction of children, anil esteem the ob- servance of tiie laws ami tlH- piety oorrespMuiiing with them tlie moat important affair of our whole llfi' ' 'If anv line shouki oucstiun one of us uin- nrnhig the Uws, he would mote easily repeat all than his own name. Since we iram llicm from our lirM iiiust'iouiiness, we havi* tliuiii, ss It were, eugravt'u on our souls; and a traiiatfression 1= rare, twit the averting of pUiil-itiiin-Hl mij?-)*il bir ' In like cianner does Pnllo pxpniw himself : ' Since the Jews esteem llieir laws as divine revc- lathwa, and are instructed in the knowledge uf them from their earlieM youtl^ they bear the Image of the Uw in their souls.' ... In vhw of all this testimony it cannot be doubtt^l, tlut is the drdea of genuine Judaism ooys win- iraa tlieir tenderest childhood made acquaiuttil with the demands of the law. That this education is the law was, in tiie first pUce, the duty and taak of parents is self-evidenL But it appcara. that even In the age of Christ, can- was alw taken for the Instruction ol youth by ilu- tnc- tion uf schools on the part of the comiiiuiii' v The later tradition that Joahiu ben Uanila'iJititt the son of Oamallel) enacted that teachcn, of Imn . . . should be appointed in eveiy proviwi' ami in every town, and that chlMren of I lie anv uf sii or seven should be brought to them, is l>v m meana incredible. The only Jesus ilie «.« of Gamaliel known to hiatory U the hi^h pritst uf that name, about 68-49 after Christ. . . . Ii niun therefore be he who Is Intended in the alaivr mv tice. As his measures presuputise a M^nitKliat longer rxistence of boys schools, we inav «iili. out hesitation transfer them to the see iif'riiri< even though not as a general and esiubli.shiil m- atltution. The aubject of instruction, us ainaj; appean from the above passage:) of J.Mpljua and Phllo, waaaa good as exclusively ilic law For only its inculcation In the yiiutl'iful miuii and not the meana of geurnti e<luctiti<iu. via tht. aim of all this zeal for the iiistrui ii«D of youth. And indeed the earliest iiistruciion «u in the reading and inculcation of ihc lot of scripture. . . . Habitual practice ni:H baiul in hand with theoretical Instruction. For ilii>ui;ii children were not actually Imund to fultil tW law, they were yet acrustonied to it from thrir youth up."— E. 8chQn-r, Hittwy ./ tl„ Jt^ruk nopU in tht time of Jttut Chritt, r. i. ;<ji. i'Jd. —In the fourth century B. C. the {"iuk il i.f M- enty Elden "instituted rrgiilurly npiu'inied readings from the Law ; i« every stibbaih ami on every week day a portion from' tlic I'lniaiiucli was to be read to the assembli'l con^ < caiiua Twice a wi-ek, when the coinitri. |nc.|.i. (an» up from the villages to market lii'thi m i^-lilaiur- ing towns, or to appeal at the courtn <'( j mm. some verses of the Pentateuch. bo«i\,r tr« were reail publicly. At first onlv th.' I.ani«t were allowed to read, but at last ft u:ih Imilieil upon as so great an honour to Ik lom; in thr reaiiera, tliut every one attrniptid nrdi^jriil in do so. Unfortunately tlie cbunu |< r> in uhiili the Tonh was written wen' luinllv nail.il<lr Until that date the text of the Tomh In.l lurn written In the ancient style wiih I'limiiiian or old Babylonian charaflers, wbiili iMiililuoIr be decipbennl by piuctisetl M-riUv.. . Fnim the constant eadiug of the Ijiw, llnn- ar<« amimg the JuiheaDS an intellectual ariivily and vigour, which at last gave a aiM-cial ciiaractfr to the whole nation. The Tomb !«< ;iim ilirir spiritual and intellectual property, uiui ilKtruan inner sanctuary. At this lime "tl»rf spninu up other important institutionji. num. !y •« In**. where the young men could stiun.Iiilr liuirat dour snd increase their knowb'<lk!i 'f tin I.aa and its teachings. The iutellectiial InuUm uf tile |)eoplc continually enjoiixd mi il" fi»i«!! generation, 'Bring u|i s great nuiiiy di^ipln' AntI what tl«ry cajulord 3t> sin :;i".-'y '!»■? themselves must have asslsteil I" an'oniplali One of these ndlitlous scIhs.U ill. Ih \Va«llwa« piubaUy csUbliabcd iu Jerusalem rUc tcadi' 700 EDUCATION. Plata and ArUtolU. EDUCATION. en were oiled KtibM (lopheriin) or wbe men tbe ditdplea. puptla of the «i«e (Talmude Cha- eturnim). Tbe wlae men or mibei had a two- fold work; on the one hand they had to explain the Torah, and on the other, to make the laws tppUcable to each individual and to the commu- nity at larae. This lupulementary ioterpreU- tim wa» called 'explanation' (Midrash); it was mrt altogether arbitrary, but rested upon ceruin rult-s laid down for the proper interpretntion of iIht law. Tbe supreme council and tbe liouscs of Inmittg worked together, and one completed the othir A hardly perceptible, but must import sst morement was tbe result : for tbe descend tnu uf the Judmns of that age were endowed with a chancteristic, which thcv might other- wine have claimed a* inborn, the taleut for rc- vsrch and the intellectual penetration, neede<l for tumbig and returning wonis and daU, Ui onlcr to dbcover some new and hidden mean- ing."— H. Oraetz, UM. nf the Jtin, r 1 cA 20 -ScbooU of the Prophets.—'- In hia ISBmuel'si time we first hear of what in modem phraseology at called the Schools of the PropheU. What- f ter be the precise meanio,; of the wculiar word, wiiich now cnme first into use as the designation of tlii-se companies. It U evident that their im meiliute mission cunsiiiti^l in uttering religious hymns or sougs, acconipnnled by musical instru- ments—psaltery, ubret. pijie ajiil harp, and cym- lisls lu tliem, as in the few solitary instanres of their predecesson, the characteristic element wss lUiit the silent seer of visions found an articu- l»l<- vokv, gushing forth in a rhythmical flow, wliii h St once riveted the attention of the hearer The*-, or such as these, were the gifu whicli umler Samuel were now organized. If one may •sy so, into a system. "—Dean Stanlev, Ltet: on tin llift. of the Jtvith Churrh, leet. IH.' Greece.- A description of the Athenian educa- ti..n of tlie young is given by Plato In one of his .imloirues: "Education," he says, "and a<imoni- 11.11 nimmence in the first years of childhood «n.l l;i»t to the very end of life. Mother ami miiv Hiid father and tuUir are quarrelling almut ih. Iiiiiinivement of the chihl as soon as ever he i» uliU- to uiKleiatand them : he cannot say or do •n.Mliinif wiihout their setting forth to him that t lis IS juHt and that U unjust; this is hoiKiunible tliat la dishonourable; this is holv. tliat in unholy d» this and abstain fmm that. And if he obeys' well and giMid; If not, he is straightened by thnats and blows, like a piece of warpetl wood At a later stage they send him to teacher*, and fiij"m them to see to his manners even more than to 111. nading and music; and the teachers do as llii\ uri' desired. And when the Ixiv has leameti Ills I. Iters and is beginning to underitand what is wniti'n, as before he understood only what was •pokin, they put into hia hands the works of great p<|«t» which ht reads at s«hool ; in these ar« con tainol many admonitions, and many tales and [iraises and encomia of ancient famous men, «biih he Is required to learn by heart, in order hat be may imiute or emuhte them and desire !.■ iKwrne like them. Then, again, the tea. hers of the lyre take simifau' care that their voung dis- ciple Is temperate and geu into no mischief; and wben they have tMight him the use of the lyre, "*>' '•'=«''=»lu«r him lo the pociM of oUier e»«l- , rk!.'^^ *•«;"•»»» lyric poeu; and these ! ifj*» •" ?"^' *^ ""k* *^r harmonies and ! riiythiia itiUte foailkr to the chiUieD. in order j 701 that they mar learn to be more gentle, and har- monious, and rhythmical, and so moie fitted tor speech and action; for the life of men in erirv part has need of harmony a. id rhythm Then they send thein to the master .' gymnastic, in order that their bodies may better minister to the vir- tuous mind, and that the weakness of their bodies may not forci- them to play the coward In war or on any other occasion. This U what is done by tnose who haVB the means, and those who have the means are the rich ; their children begin edu- cation (Mwnest and leave off latest. When they have done with ma.sters, the state again compels them to learn the laws, and live after tlie pattern which they furnish, ami not after their own fan- ciei, ; anil just a^ in learning to write, the writing- master flrst dniws lines with a style for the use or the .voung Uginner, and gives "him the tablet «id makes him follow the lines, so the city draws till- Uws, which Win" the invention of good hiw- givers who were of old times; these are given to the young man, in onler to guide him in his cm- duct whether as ruler or niled ; and he who trans- gresses tlii-ni is to be corrw tid, or. In other words culleil to account, which is a term usi-d not only in your country, but ahm in many others. Now when tliere is all thU care alxiut virtue private and public, why, Socrates, do you still wonder and doulit whether virtue can be taught ? "—Plato Pntaijonu {Diiilogtia ; tmu: hj/ Jovtll, r 1) — The iileas of Aristotle on the subject are in the following ; • • There ran ln' no doubt tliat children slioiild be taught those useful things which are rvally n.'cessary. but not all things; for occuiia- tions are divided into liberal and illilieral ; and to young children should be lniparte<l only such kinds of knowledge as will U' useful to them w ithout viilgariring them. And any occupation art, or scienci-, which makes the Uxly or s«)ul or mmd of the freeman less fit for the practice or exercise of virtue, is vulgar; whervfore we call those arts vulgar wliKli tend to deform the UkIv and likewise all paid employmenU, for they ab- «<>rb and degrade the mind. There are aUiaoine lilH'ral arta quite proper for a freenutn to ai'iiuire but only in a certain degn-e. and if he attend to them t(Hj cUisely. In onler to olitain p<Tfe<il,>u in them, the same evil effects will follow The object also which a man sets tn'fore liim makes a gn-at dUTen-nce: if he does or learns anything for his own sake or for the sake of his friebcN or with a view to excellence, the action will not ap- pear illiberal ; but if done for the sake of others, the very same action will lie thought menial and servile. The reivived subjecu of instruction, as I have alreaily ninarkiil. art partly of a liU'ral and partly of an lllilierHl character " Thi' custom, ary branches of iiluoatioii an- In number four; they are — (1) reading and writing, (J) gymiuutlc exercises. (3) music, lo which is sometimes addetl (4) drawing. Of these, reailing and writing and drawing are regarded as useful for the purposes of life in a variety of ways, and gyiiinaatic exer- cises are thought to infuse cmiragc. Conci'ming music a doubt may lie ralse<i— in our own dav moat men cultivate it for tlie sake of pletuurv but ,)riginally It was Included in education, bc- causi' nature herself, as has been often said, re- quires that we should be able, not onlv to work well, but to use leisure well: tor. as f must re- prat once «nd again, the first principle of all action Is kisutv. Bo<'. arc required, but lelaut« i* betU'r than occupation ; and tlwivfoiti the que*- EDUCATION. antk SdkooUif. EDUCATION. ItoD muft be Mk(d in good eunett, what ought we to do when >t leisure t C1e«rI.T we oug^it not to be >mu*ing ounelvet, for then unuiement would be tlH- end of life. But If this is in- cnnrriTftble, ind yrt smld aerious occupations •muwmrnt i!< Dfedi-d mon- than at other timet (for bf » ho is hard at work has need of relax- ation, an<t amusement gix's n'laxatioD, whereat ocrupatiim is always at 0(>m|>aaie<l with exertion and rffort ). at suitable times we should introdure amusements, and they should lie our meilicinet, for the i-motion which they create in the soul is a relaxation, and from lli'' pleasure we obtain rest. ... If is clear then lliat there are blanches of learning and nlucation which we must study with a vi«-w to the enjorment of leisure, and thewarr i-ibevaluett for tWir own sake; whereas thow kiniis nf knowled^ which are useful in busiiK •.« »rf to be d«»-m«l ni'cessary. and exist for the sake of othe- fathrrs admitted mi round cither of f ncit necessary. >t manner as n'wl'' i in money-mak,. hold, in the m politicHi life, nc correct iudgmi lib ngi. And therefore our >lo p-liieation. not iin the V salt/ or utility, for it ed ''seful in the same 1 >.iDf, which are >i.->efiil inaitement of a honse- of knowledge ami in .rawing, useful for a more the works of artists, nor • ■^ain like gymnastic, which gives health and tfrengih: for neither of these is to be gained from music. There remains, then, the use nf music for intellectual enjoyment In leisure; which api)ear» to have been the reason of Its in- tmluction. this being one of the ways in which It is tliought that a freeman sliould pain his leisure. . , . We are now in a position to say that the ancli-nts witness to us: for their opinion mar )>e gathcreil from the fact that music is one of the rec<-ive<l and traditional branches of e<lucation. Further, it is clear that children should be in- Mnirti'il in some useful things. — for example, in reading itnd writing. — not only for their useful- ness, but also because mnnr other sons of knowl- e<lge are acqulrett through them. With a like view thev may he taught drawing, not to pre- vent their making mistakes In their own piir- ch»se«. or in onier that Ihey may not he lni|i<ise<l uium in the Imying or selling of articles, but rather t)ecause it makes them judgesof the beauty of the human form. To be always seeking after the useful does not become free and exalted <<<>uls. . . , We reject the professional instruments ami also the pnifessional mode of education in music — ami by professional we mean that which is itdopted In cont»-sts, for in this the |wrforroer practises the art. not for the sake of bit own iniproTcment. but in onier to give pleasure, and that of a vidgar tort, to hit hearere. For thit reason the execu- tion of such music is not the part of a freeman but of a paid performer, and the result is tliat the performers are vulgarized, for the end at which they aim it bad. "— Arittotle, l\)lttie* (Jmrtllg TrivisMinn}, hk. 8.— "The most tttlking differ- euce U'tween early Oreek educatioa and ourt wat unilouliledly this: that the physical development of boys was attended to in a special place and by a sp<-eia] master. It was not thought tufflcient for them to play the chance cames of chlldhoud : tlM-y underweot careful bodUy tntining under a verv flxed lyitem. which was detenniiMd by the athletic rontetu of after life. . . . When we com- Cre what the Oreekt afTorded to their boTs, we d It divided into two cuntnMd kinds of exer- cise: hunting, which was practised bv the Spar- tans very luenly, and no doubt also ■ y the Eleaos and Arcadians, as msy be se i. (n)ni Xenophon's •Tract on (Hare) Ilimiink-'. snd gymnastics, whiili in the case of boys ». -,• ru- ried on in the to-called paUettra, a tort .i ..peg. air armnasium (in our sense) kept by |,n\ nti. in. divtdtuls aa a tpeculation, and to which tin Iwiyi were sent, as thev were to their ordinan - 1)..,' matter. We find that the Spartans, w,<> I, ample icope for hunting with dogt in iIh' t! . and coverts of Mount Taygetus, rather il'-^,- . mere exercises of dexterity in the paUestrii jii-r as our sportsmen would think very little of ^l. ..| ing houn in s gymnasium. But those lirerk^ ;i.> lived in towns like Athens, and in the mid^i nf i thickly populated and well-cultivatiMl ciiunir)-, could not possibly obtain hunting, and tlien-fn'ri' found the most efficient aubttitute. Still no Hn<! them very fsr behind the English in their kirns i edge or "taste for out-of-door games. ... The Greeks ha<t no playgMunds Iwyond the nslsstrs or gymnasium: thiey had no piaygroiiDils in i>ui sense, and though » few proverlm spi-sk of swim. ming as a universnl accomplltliiiu-nt which Imvi leamnl. the tileix-r of Oreek literature on tbe subject makes one very suspicious aa to the ki-n- erelity of such training. . . . lu one point, cer- tainly, the Oreekt agreed more with the nvulrni Engfith than with any other civilised iistion. They regarded tport at a really s— ' ■"« thinit. . . . The namea applied to the ex« • ,.Iii«« indicate their principal uses. Pal«^. , means i wrestling phfv ; gymmwium originally a plan' fnr naked exercise but the word early lo"t this ecu- notation and i ime to mean mere pbyaital train, ini: . . . Inirder to leave home aiid ri-:u h ih( paiiestra safely at well as to return, (Sr. . k hnij were putundir the charge of a jinKlagoKiii- iniio way to be ideniifled (as it now is) k ith asilioimiu ter. . . . I think we may be Justified ill a«srniB|: that thesiiidv i f '!«• epic poets, espt-ciallv if ibf Iliad and (JiIvsk y was the earliest intrlii-itiu: exereise of scn<Hil)>i>yt, and, in the case of (airly educated parents, even anticipateil the learri j<i( letters. For ilie Utter is never spoken of »• ; sn of emother'sor ' liome educatkm. Kemlinewu not so universal - so necessary as it now l« We may assume mat ts>oks of Homer wire nml or reciteii to gmwing boys, and that tlnvw. rr encourage<l or requirml to "learn thcni off liy In . • This is (juite certain to all who cttinmli- ju.-iiv the enormous Influence ascribed o Honnr. soil the principles assumed by the Greeks to hate underlain his work. He was universiiliy cnn- si<lered to lie a moral teacher, wh'^ae cbaracten wereiirawn with a moral intent, aud for the pur- pose of exsmple or avoidance. . . .\i-<'oi'lingly the Iliad and Odyssey were suppoixd !<• contain all that was us<'ful. not only for (;.«lliniia. but for life. All the arts and sciences were to heifc- rive«l (by InterpretatitHit from these sacn^l triu. ... In early days, and in poor towns thi- piste of teaching was not well appointed, nn-. v«nin many phicea. teachluc in the open air ) : 'a!M. . . . This wat . . . ;i.<e .,n "M hedge »iioi lis nf Ireland, and no iloiii ■ .' frcotland too They slso took advantage . ipeciai' • In hot wesili-r >}l to.onnades, or shady >meri .uiong public ^lild- Inga. as at Wincbeaiei :<.c ummertcrmwas'silfd ddatcr-time, fmm a simiiar pracliix?, even i" iu«; wealthy fouodatioD, of instructing in theclointrn On the other haod, pmperly apprmtcd iclioub is 702 EWTATION. n>* Onek ackooi-room. EDUCATION. ciDK iWe to* m werr f ui Disked » iui Home taate, and . ordiog to -faditlonal notiou. . . We BUT K tUK that lere werr no tablet or dtsl>- Birt tirniture beiii • <'.nuiual in Greek liouw» it » i* the univer- ruitom. while n-i; log or wriiiiiif. to hold ti look or roll on the knee — to • iin lnc<>nvii.,^nt thiiiif to do. but still oimDt' . In ihe Eaat. There are some inteieatlii ,• lenience*, civen for exerciae in Greek and Latin, in the littU' known ' InterpreMnwnta ' of Dosi- tbeus. now e<i •<•! and explaiiii<l by German H-bolara. The i rurv of the boy in ; bus ile»rrib<'d, in imrallel Umk and Latin: ' Fir»t I salute the rn«m. r. who returns my salute: G<>(xl morning. martrr; tf'xl morning, school fellowa. Give me my plai-<- my luat, my stool. Sit eli«er. Move ii| iliai way^ Tliia is my place, I took It lir^t.' This mixture of iMiliteni-xiand wrangling it an us- in.:, an 1 no iloubt to lie found in .ill agea. It «.-rni» <mt the seats were moTable. . . . The u.u.ii "UinliTislon of edur:ttion was into three i rt-i, litters. . iiHliiiling reading, writinjr. li.injr. and leamiu); <ii rhe p<K-l»: music in the . ^irsunse, imludin); iii:in>j and playing on •i ri'. and lastly g.v ..luiKtic. which iuHiided <U.i. it . . It is saiil ilmt at .-parta the e<lu- (:iii..:i lu reading and writing wa» ni>t thought ueiesvirj-. and iberc have I'-en lonif discussions .tmon,: till' li-iriiiil whetL the ■ rdinirv Spar- 111, in . la»i.i< 1, .lays wm :■. .■ to read NVe t\nd tint Aristotle adds a foiir-;, -ubjcct to the thiee al. I lamei! — (Ir'iMiu- m itich lie thinltii requi- >i!. \" mu^' !i e:mlile the educateti inan to ju.i^ .iiihtl' .1 worWaof irt But there is no iHi i. : I ■ of a w id. diffusion of > r vwing or paint- \uf ipr. .1.- the f)ri •!;.«. ts amon^; ii», . . . Later ID ,:i, I ■; the kumi.! i. rlueni-es of Alexandria, bikI tir. ,,;ii,l profesMiriaie of Roman days, sub- Jiil- imiltlplie<l witJi the deilii.e of mental vig.Hir .-iiHl spontaneity of the ag, ami children \Kti:m lo lie pestered, as they now are, with a c|uantily of Kubjecto. all tljought necessary to a Iir..iMr«iuiaiioii. and awordingly all imperfectly a..(uire<l. Thix wiw called the encvclinil edii- cation, which is preserved in our Encvclopnnlia (knowledge It included. (II grammar.|2)rbeto- nc. .:)i dialccnc, (4) arithmetic. ,3) mu^ic, (8) ge- "ineirv, (7) astnmomv. and these were dlTideil ini.. the earli. r Trivium, and the later Quadrl- .1,;,,, —J. p. Mahaffy, Old Orttk m^catiun. cA ; . - 'Reading was taught with the greatest pniii.i. the utmost care was Uheu with the In- toiwllon of the voice, and the articulation of the tliroBt. We have lost the jiower of dUtinguish- iDi; lietween accent and quantitv. The Greeks di.1 not ai'ijUire it without long anil anxious train- ing .f the ear and the vocal organs. This was the limy of :he phonascus. Homer wa« the com- mon study of all Greeks. The IlUd and ().lv». ipt » ere at once the Bible, the Shakespean- <iie R'i'inson Crus<»'. and the Arabian! XighUof liie He Uenic race. Ixjng paataget and indeed wl. le t>*ik.s were learnt by heart. The Greek, a-s a rule, learnt no language* but hit own. Next to nrwling and repetition came writing, which was canfiilly taught Compoaiti.'u naturally fol- lowed, and the burden of correcting exercises whieh still vei^hs down the backs of schoolmas" tem. dau-o -r,,, . U.aM early timet Closely con- nect-,; -Aith --4 Ues an-i — rftin? t-Hr art of ^e<•t•l^lll;^^ «, i ;h,. itcienoe of numbers leads us «ki .- i>: miinc Plato coniidere<l arithmetic as Uif Le,i spur to • ilMpjt and uniiutructm] spirit : we see from the Platonic dialogues how mathe- mati.nl problems employed the mind and thoughU of ji.ijug Athenians. Many of the nioredirticult aritiimetical operations were solved by geomet- riciii methods, but the Greeks carried the art of teaching numbers to considemble refinement. Thev used the abacus, and had an elaborate method of flnger reckoning, which waa service- able up to 10,000. Drawing wna tiie crowning accomplishment to this vestibule of training. By the time the fourteenth year wns completed, the Greek Ixiy would have begun to devote himself seriously to the pre. tice of athletics. "—O.Bniwn- ing, An I„tra,i„eti.,„ t.,the Ilitti.rg „f K(lur„u„nnl Th(r>nt: eh. 1.—" It hus sometimes N-en imagineil •hat in Greece ai'pMrate oliflces were not erected as witf, us expressly for s( limilhouses, but that both the didaskalos and the philosopher tought their pupils in field*, ganlens or shadv groves. But this "IS not the ciminioii pnci' " though many who. Imasters appear to liav ■ j, , lo other place wherein to assemble their jn., : . than the portico of a temple or son ■ she'ured . orner to the street, where in e,\K ■ of the diu .if businesa and the throng of paswmiers the worsh ip of learn- ing w;ls publicly pi-rfonticd. . . . Butthesewere the «' !)(M)ls of the hiimliler classts. For the chil- dren of the noble ..iii.! the opulent Bpucious structures « .re raised, and f umishi-d with tallies, desks.— for tliat pec-ilkr species of grammat. ion which n-smlil<d the plate cuplioanl. can have be<'n v. bing but :i desk,— forms, mil whatsoever els.- th. ir studies required, Meniion |g made of a school at Chios which contaiiui one hundred and twenty l»iy«. nil of whom sav, .me wen- kilhil br the falling in of the ri«.r . . The apparatus o'f an ancient school was s.imewhat complicated: there w-re niiitliematicul iniitrunieut.s, glol>. maps, and charts of the heavens, together witii lioards whereon to trace geometrical tigures, tab- let*, large and small, of box wikxI, fir, or ivory, triangular in form, some folding with two, and others with il ny leaves. Ixxjks loo and paper, skins of ii.-»rchment, wax for coverinir the 'ablets] which, if XV nuiy believe Aristophanes, people s<inietime« fiti wher tliey were hungry. To tha " I mlera, ree<I-pens. (len-cuses, ' and last, though not least, the ■ 1 J the steady use of all theso iie-e schools were not pro- n.ey were private specu- lati.ns. and each :iiaster was regulated in his char^en by the ripntaiion he had acquired and the f'liiu les o," !:U pupils. Some appear to have Iieeii . xtiemeiy moderuie in 'heir demands. . . . The earliest task 'o lie performed at school was to gain a knowiedte of the Greek characters, large and small, to -jmII iex». next to reail. ... In teaching the art of writing their practice nearly resembled ourown. . . . These things were neces- sarily the first step in the first claaa of studies, whieh were denominated music, and compre- hended everything connected with the develope- meut of I he mind: and they were carried to a cerr.iin extent before the second division called gymnastica was commencoi They reverted the plan commonly adopted among ourselves, for with them poetry preceded prose, a practice which, (oOperating with their susceptible temperameot, {-.r.jcsif.-) i!p--.n th? Haff-r-na! mioti that !ui«gin«- tive character for which It was preeminently dis- tinguislied. And the poets in wboae works ther were first initiated were of all Um most poettou. ab-. v». i\. :« ■■'(i. p.n k' U > ■< r.l 1' f ■ tbn Vtl vie ■ St 70S IDCCATIOX. Tninimg. EDUCATION. the tutbon of lyTtcal »ad dithTTMiibic piece*, •elertioiu from whoM renei tbej committed to memory, tbu* >rqutrlog early a rich etoie of •enlrDcee umI imaKery ready to be adduced in argumi-Dt or illiutration. to fumiah familiar allu- ainiu ur to be wuveD into tb« texture of tbeir •tyle. . . . Among tbe otber brancbe* of knowl- edirr moat nfc«*aary to be atudiod. a^d to which thi'V applied tbemaeWea nearly from the outlet. «ai arithmetic, without aome inkling of which, a num. in I'Uto't opinion, could icarcely be a citi- ten at all. . . . The Importance attached to this brunch of education, nowhere more apparent than ill the dialogue* of Plato, f uriiUhe* one pn»f that till' Atlii'iiian* were preSmin. otiv men of bu*lne«*. who lu all their ailmlnMion for the good and Iniiiitirul never lo»t »igbt of those thing* which promote the comfort of life, and enable a man effectually to perform hi* onlinary .lutle*. With the laine view* were geometry and antronomy piiniietl . . . Thrfrnportam-e of miulc, In the I education of the tireelu. I* generally under»to<xl. It was einplovcd to effect neveral purpoae*. FInt. to KMrtb and'nMillIfy the Hercene** of tlie national character, and im'pan- the way for the leiaon* of the iMK-t*. which, d.llveml amid the aoundlng of nielodiou* atriugn, when the toiil wa» rapt and el-ratnl by harmony, by the eicitement of iium- iH-ni. by the magic of the »we<te*t anaocialion*, took n'tlrui bold ui>on the mind, and generally n liiiueil it during life, S.i-ondlv. It enabled the clllieu* gracefully U) perform their part In the amuaenieuU of fcx-lal life, every |)er»>n lieing in bin turn callwl upon at enUrtalnmeiit* to alng or plav upon the .yre. Thirdly. It »a» uece«*ary to iiKilile them to join in the aacnil choruie*. ren- il< rh^\ fr»H|Uinl fiy the piety of the nUte. rnd for til. ■Iiie |»Tfonim'ii<r In old itge of many offlceaof r> liirion, the MM-rrdotnl ilunwter txlouglng nion> or U-»» to 111! till litiieu* of Atbenx Fourthly. a< much of tlie li-arning of a Oreek »a> martial and <li'»lgn<'<l to At him for ilefending hi* country, he niiurnil Home knowltKlge of mimic that on till' rteVi of liatile hU voice might barmonloiuly mingle wi;>i iIkiw of bin countryim'O. in chaunt lug t!»*e atirrlnii, lm|Mtuou». abil terrible nie'.o- ilim, called p«aii». wlili h im'citliHl tlie tlrnl tbock <>( tight F<ir Home, or all of tlietie rea»on«. the »< lime of inuaic U'giin to !»• iultlvaHil among till' Ilellenea. at a jiertml nlmiint U-voiid the reach even of tradition —J A f*t John. Thr Urll"u: U 2, r* 4 —•■In thinking of tJreek eilucatlona* fi.niUbing a |>oMilih- nii«tel for uannalerns. there !• one |x>lnt wliii'h It I* Important to bear In mimi Or<ek iHiuii.tt.'ii w»« InU'nileil only for the few. f..r the wealthy and well Imrii I |ion al' oth> r*. uix'U ulavea. Inirlwrlauii. the working and trailing I liiuu * ami geiM'rally U|Min all |ierw>us «|ieiiditig tlii'ir live* In puraultiif wealth or any private enda wlialaoever. It woulil have ipemeil loin thrown away Kven well Imm women wen' gem-rally e>i ludeil fMin iiii*t of It* Ixurfltii Tin «u!iliiU of iilutatlon were the aona of full rlllieiiii, tlieni aelvi-* preparlor ••• Iw full rttllen*. and to e»er ri« alllhe fun< tof aucb The dutle* of iuch C-rwinii were conipletrlv •iimiiuil up under two 'aili. ilutie* to the famllr and <liitl>-« to tbe Htate, or, a* tbeOn-t-kaaald, ■e'luionih' ami (miIIi b al dutte* The free citlten not only acknowl edgni DO oUwr dutle* lieahie* th'-ae, hut be looked down u|«>ti |N'r«on> who kiugbt wH'upatlon In any otlwr aphere iKii'iiomr an<l I'olltlca, huw- ever, weie very couprelMiiMlve tcima Tbe tut- mer Included tbe three reUtkma of hushud to wife, father to children, and maater to alavrtaod Eropert J ; tbe latter, three public function*, legU- itire, admlnUtratlve, and Judiciary, .\ll ix-cu- pationi not included under these *ix hiailithe nee citizen left to ilave* or resident fonl^ners Honey-making, In the modem aenae, he di'iiiiMil, and. If he devoted himaelf to art or pbiKisophv, be dhl *o only for tbe beneBt of tbe State -t Itavidaon. Aritt-ttt, M. 1. (A. 4.— Spartan Trais- ia(.— "From hi* birth every Spartan l»l"iii.'f,l to the ataU". which decided , , . whether In wu likely to prove a UMful member of the com muulty, and extlngulRbeil the life of the oiillr or defomted Infant, To tbe age of «i-vi n |ii.«, ever the care of the child waa dulegatiil in In natural guardian*, yet mil «o a* to \w left nli'illv to their diwretlon. but aublect to certain ■ «t,ili lUhnI rub's of treatment, .'hlch guanltti ai:ain«t every miac-hievou* indulgeni-e of pari'ntnl iimli-r nes* At the end of seven year* tiegaii a I.hik coune of public discipline, which grew i . .ii>iaiitlt mori' and more ai-ven- a* tbe iKiy a|ipr<>a>lutl towant manbooil The education of tin- v.iunii wan in some degree the business of all Ihi il.ier citizens; for there was none who illil noi iiia. tribute to it. If not by his a»-t!ve Interfi nui-^, at least by bin presence and iiwiieetioii Bui It wa> placeil under the e«pe<ial aiilK-rlnti'iuleiu . . ( sii offli-er selei till from the men of moi.1 a|'|iniri-.l worth: and he again chose a niimlar of \'<iilh«. Just past the age of twenty, and who in.nt enil neti'ly united courage witb'dlscretion, i.m xini*- a more imnieiilate iiimiiiauil over the i laiw- iiii" which the liova were illvideil. Tbe leaili r .if imh claaa dln'cte>l tlie simrts and '.osIlh of liii .V"unii tn«'p. and punlslieil their offiiicen wiih iiiilitanr rigour, be' was himself responsible I.. lii-.rlilin for llie lii.Kle In « hlch he di9i'hargi'.l hi. .ifflc-r Tlie S|iartau iilucation was simple In l'« "lijiii> it was hot tlie result of any general view if Iniinao nature, or of any attempt to unfold li-im.ui i-apaclttea It aiineil nt trainlnii men olin mn i. live In tlie midst of diltieulty and ilaiiiiir, ami «lii< could only lie safe themw'lves while tiny hrM rule over others The citizen wan to l» al»«i» really forllH' defence of himself ami hU ■ouuIrT at home and aliroail. and he was then f.r.- i.'l* eijuallv fliteil to conimatid and toiiln) Ili-lxK bis inliiil, and bis i hanuter were formi.l fir tliia pur|iose, ami for no other and heme tin Spaftaa system, makli.g illn'<-lly for Its main en.l awl n j'ei ting all that was fonlgn to |i. atiaim '1. "Ulna ; Its i-.wn spheri' to a iierfecllon whii li it l» Im possible 11"! to ailmire The yoiuiK ^|«rt*i was |M'rliap> unable either to rewl or wnii W i M-rcil) piMiai'aiM'.l the elements "f am "f lln ; arts or Mfaiiees by which smlelv i« i urii bnl iit ' a-lorniil but he could run h-ap «r.»ll>-, kutl the dUk, or the Javelin, a.i.l wh-1, •\,r\ .tbfr weaiHin, with a vigour and aglMti, ami gnn ' which Wet*' no when- •lirjiHS-^l These hiwurtr ' wen- aiMompllahimnts to U- li-snil lu nm \ Orwk palirstra he nilittit lii'l many rt'tW inaii I that he could do, but frw i-oiild appr.wi h him la : the flmineaa with which he was la'iKlit i •■ »ii!T.-r ' From the tender age at which he hf: hit imnhrti lap for thi' public si-hools his life wm ..iiroiii llnueil trial of i>atb-n«T f.sirse am! » anU far. and this iKiaslonalW withlield, s lUlil -I'M* without any ilianie In the depth of m'nirt sM of re.il», which Tie himself gsllien.. f" m lb» KurulM. Wows rlcbatt(«d with hU > mrkh*. 704 EDUCATION. >W»ae»oo < M«rM. ZDUCATIOV. ilripe* inflicted bj bit goTeraM*, mon by way of rxercite tban of puuiihrneat, inund htm to crrryfonnof paintnahardihip. . . . TbeMuiM wire upproprUtcly hoooured kt Spiuu with » arriflce on tlie ere of > battle, and the unioo of the tpear and the lyre waa a favourite theme with the Laconian poeta. and thoae who aaog of Spar- tan ruitoma. Though bred in the diaeipline of ihr ramp, the young Spaitan^lUu the hero of the I liwi , wa* not a itranger to muiic and poetry. He vM taught to iing, and to play on the flute and the lyre: hut tile ttraloa with which hia memoiT vu irtnml, and to which hia roioe waa formed, win- riibrr lacnHl hymna. or breathed a martial •liiiil ; and it waa becauae thry rhrriabed luch ■rniimenta that the Homeric layt. If not intni- iluml by Lycuraut, were early welcomed at Sparta . . . Aa toeae muaioal etercine* were ile- ■ignnt to cultirate. not •» much an IntellM-tual, u » moral taatv : ao it waa proliahly lew for the laiK' '>( aharpenlng their ingenuity' lbi>n of pn>. moling preaence of mind, and promptneaa of dni»lon. that ll»e biiya were led into the liabit of iiMwrrinK all i|Ue<itlona propoMil to tbeni. with > n .-lily. iKiiiilfii, lei. rntioua Im'Vlty, which wm ■ [irovirMal rlianu'lcriatir of Spariaa convrrsa- lion Kilt th< le««in« which were inont •tiiiii .iu»ly liKiilcaleil. more inileiil Iiy example Ilmn bv pnii-pt were thoae of inodeatr. olieiliemv. aoil ri'viniice for »gr mui rank , for thcti' wen' .be .(iialilii'i oil which, aliove all utlien. Ilie ataliililv .■( 'Ill I'oiiiinonwialth reptaieil. The gait nnil I<a4 of llie Spnrtaii voutha, aa they named aloiii; till »intii<, olxervi'il \.-nopboD. breathiil modtiity iml riMMTVi- In tlie preae-jir of their elder* they >\<n' IniKlifiil aa Tiri(ini and tilent aa •lalueii. MM n lull a <|iii->tion wa I put to them. . . tn irtiili tin- n-»i«Ht for lli< fawa. which ^•ll^len1i til. r>|i«rt«n nvirw to irnovation at hoiiu', wii* liiili- "■ tban tnotlu- form of tliat awe with Hliiih liitrarly li«i.i'> itianirol him for tin- miiKia- tni.'. ami the hiiimI With lhl» InUng wan in liuiii. Iv rLtinwItil thai <|Uirk ami ilii p m'tiw <if <bMiu . whk li •hrank fmiii illalionoiir n» the in<ni Innlful of evila, and rtmliliil him to nicit death -■ lainily, when he >aw In it the «i|| ,,( hi< ' iiiilrv — (' Thirlwall, IlitI „flin,<;, r 1. M N - Frtc-School Idcu in Greece— It taa pri'va iriii <'|>tiiiiin that loniniou wtuaiU. aa we now luvt ilwiii, win Vimriran invinti'iii N..|iu (■.Uii. M. it ia aawnol taxini; all in i.nler Ihit all rii»> 1.- i:iiiKlit can Ulnireil lauk fiirllier limn In Iii.nrl\ l;i\»aof MaaNM'hilM'tta TI'o*- who ,1, ny tin* a•^« rl li n an- Ci .ntent w iih nhow lui; w innlhini; "f till- »in in .Si'>landnnit()<'niiaii\ ;■ );t'ii>'r:iti.in • r t».i liefnre iIm- laiidini: of iIm- ('1\ nioiitli |.il Irini« TIb' iniih l«. lumever. that. a« iiiiii h .if 'ijir filial nit ia now < retliteil I,, the aii< ii lit lin-il.,, xiinelhini; of oiir itlurall. ■.»! wixi.nii " iiKli! t.i l«- Two I iniurlaa a(o liMiii !..« kc ■.« •lul.li (I. litlial wrilir wa« Invllnl I.. .Imw ii|i • ■■■li ••! fiiiiilanHnlal l.i»« f..r lUe imw i.il..iiy .(I .^^'lmu. anil in like iiianinr iisnrr ibnii S.:i<»i ir.r. ;i^,; Charoiiilaa, a iiia«iir .if » •iinilur ivix It. M.ii.-tia iinrrU. waa i'alle.1 t.. a >iiiillnr liiak Till. «.i, I.I frame ««»rieaof alaiiiiis f..r llw »(..> ifiinHii, .if a Oreek colon; foiiiiiltil alu.iit 4W H I 111 the fiait of llafy Tliia iiilmii »4, Tliitn. ami ronapiriioua among the •iia.iiiu iii< »f I lla^.mlaa waa the following 1 haMmlii. •M-i a law tinllke IhiaH. of lawifivrra liefon ktm f .r be enatb'd that the MMia of ihi till fm •!, ,nh| all leam Irttera (or whtluir. the city making payment to the teachan. H« thought that the poor, not able to pay wages themaelTea, would utberwiae fall of the beat trdn- ing. He counted writing the most important atudy, aud with reaann. Through wriilng. most thiaga In life, and those the most useful, are ac- compllahed — aa ballota, epiatlea, lawa, corenanta. Who can sufficiently pralae the learning of let- ters ? . . . Writing alune preaerrea the moat bril- 11?5' "«»«'"'"•» ot wiae men and the oraclea of goda. nay pbiloanphy and all culture. All these things It alone bauds down to all future genera- tlona. Wherefore nature ahould be viewed aa the aource of Ife. but the source of living well we should consider the culture deriveil from writ- ing. Inasmuch, then, aa Illiterates are deptlved *_?"*•'*'""'• ''I'SfJudaa came Ui their help, Judging them worthy of public care and outhiy. ormer legisUum hail caused the sick Ui be at- j tendwl by phvaiciana at the public exnense, think- ing their laaliea worthy of cure, lie did more, for he cureil souls afflicted with ignorance. The iliK-tore ( f the Ixaly we iiray that we nuiy never iH-tni. while we would fain aliiib- for ever with tliiaM- who minister to the mind dlaeasetl. '— Thia extract la fmm the • Biblloihcca lliatoricaof OiialoruaSiculusdlook x. ;i lai. who was Houriah- iiig at the birth of fbriat and waa the most paiualaking chronicler of the Augustaii age. The legislation Is worth uotii* for mon- ibun .me reason. It rebukes the aelfconceit of thoae who hold that th^- eiliication of all at the < Imrge of all ia an i.lea lami in our own time or coun- try It hna aUi lict-n ntningelv unnoliceil !iy hiatoriant who ought to have li'pl It Iwfore the |i,...|.l,. —r*,. Xition. M,in-h U. l»»i. III. jai*- •iM — Socratsaand the Philosophical Schools. — ■ liefore tlie ri»>: of phil.atophy, the teiiclurof llie (Hiiple had Iwn the rhaiiao'le. or piitilic nriliT; after that event he grailiiullv givia place lo the aophiat I one who niakia wlaei. or, im he later with more nualetty lalla himxlf the philoaopher ( lover of Wiailoni) The hi>lory 111 <tn-.-.T for .rnturiea i«, on ila inner ai.l.-. a hiatory of the alruggle U'tw.in whiit the rlmp aiale reprewnla and what the phil.Htopher n |in- ai'Ula. Iietwi-in |i..[iiiliir tni<li'l..ii an.l c.iniii.in aeiiae .in the .me Iminl. ami inili%iliii ' .pinion Hii.l philiMO|ihy on the oili.r Tlii' Irui-iii n from tin- llr.t to tii.- •■■..iiil ..f tlieae niuilal ciui- liili.iua Wiia aii'oinplialii<.| for llie w.irl.l .nice for all. Iiy thi<;r»-.k» — T Haviilxm .\ii,l.,iu .U 1. fh .V— Tliiri i» ii.i iiniaiiie ..ii mnnl ..f a philinoiilirr wh.iw iuiih.rtiiiice na a tliiiikiT l< mi < loxly iK.iiii.l lip with the laraoiialilv of Hie man aait waaiii llmiiiai. .if •fcH-ratea )li» teaching »a« n..| .if a kiii.l t.i !«■ .lin-ctlv imparlcil and faithftillt Imii.li.l .i..wii. Iiiii (.iiifil.inly la- left to I'Mj.ak'al. it~ It fm ly I'V ..tirriiig up oihern to a •Imilar ".If ciiliunv ' . . The v.nith ami eariv iiianh.ioi ..I '..«mli« fall In Hie .mait lirilliant |«rt.<|..li- ..in hi»li.ry Itom itiirlug the lam ytart of ilic I'miaii war In- waa a mar nm- i.-iuprary of all tli.na' gnat men who ii.l.iniid the aij.of IVri. le. .\a «clti( f .\tlHti« be i.iiil.i inj.'V the opiairiuoitlea altonliil liy aiily. wliiih unii.il every iiieaua of culture liy lt« un- rtvallci fertility .1 tlmiight l*o\erty ami |..w lilrili «. n tint •letiiler olwlHcii" in ihc'.Vlliena of |Sni I. . !*aniti« ii.i .l.iubt, la-gali life liy iiiniiiiiC Ilia falliir • tr.. '. . . which he prob- alily m >i r pruiiival. ami la rtainly «ain gave up. He ivuai^tert-d it to lie lii« K|M'ctal calling Xa labour ',»') IDCCATION l%t FkiUfOfhiml SduioU. EDUCATION. for thr morsl and intellectiul impntTement of binurif tod othen — ■ cunviction which h« fril (n atninsly that it appearwl to him in tlir liirl't of a liivlde nveUtion. Mom>viT bv wu con- tinni'il in it by a Delphic uracic, which, of coiirw. miut D«t bp reganivii aa tlie cauae uf. >>iil rnthvr as an atlditmnal tupiHirt to hit rr- fonninfi leal. . . To lie in<ir|M>n<lent, he Irieil. Ill«- the (tods, to rise <u|M'rfor ti> bia wants; ami liy mrefully prartisini; self-denial and aldtenii- niiiuieits, he was really able to lioast that hit life WM more pleasant and more free from tnmblcs tlun that of tlie rest of maiikiml. Thus be was nlile to devote his whole |>ower» to the service of olliers. without askini; or tuliing rewani: ami tbiM Ilk lierame so eDKRHyKHl by his laliours for his lutive city, that be ran'ly |>ssse<l its iKiuud ariea or even went outside its frutes. He ilid not, h,i\vever, fwl himsi'lf calk-d u|>on to tal(i' iwrl in tlie iiffslni of llie state. . . . .ny one convince"! Ha he was. that care for oni-'a own culture iiiunt pn'i'i'de cnre for public liiisiuess, and that a IborouKb knowliilfre of wlf. to^tether with a divpiind ninny alileiiexpt'rienif, whs a neeesaary comllticm of pulilic activity, must have tbouirlit IImI. to iihunle iiuiividuala liy lutluence. was Ilie mon- pn-aainit neetl, and have held that be wait doiuK his country a lietter service by eilii ratiiii; slile staU-smen for it, than by actually diacliarKing a statesiiun's duties. AcrordinKly. Nocnites never aimeti at lielnit anythinit but a priviile citizen. Jiiat as little was be desir oiii of lM>inK a pulilic tcHclier like the Sipbists III' not only look no piiv, but lie itave no me- tbiKlii'iil co'uriH' He did not nrofesa lo teach, but lo li arn in ci>mnion wltli olbers. not to force bi'<<'>>nvb'tion*u|ion liietn. but lo examine theirs; not iM piiKs liie Iriitli tlial came to Iwnd like a coin fn oil from tlic mint, but to stir up a desire for iriiib mill virtue, lo |i<iinl out tlie way lo It. tooMrlliniw what wiu spurious, and to seek out n-ul kii'iMlitlKc Nevir weary of talklnK. he »»« on Ibe liDik out Tor every op|M>rtunlty of ([Ivlm; nn inainictlve and moral turn to the 'con verwilli'ii Day liy diiy lie whs alKXit in the markit and pulilic proiiiciiadia in Bclmols iinil work>bo|M. cier nwly to converw with friends or alriitiiffTa. with < ili/iiis and foniiEUers. but alws>» iinpariHl to biid Ibrin to biitbi rsubjci ta. ami wliiUt thus 111 biobixbcr callinK MTvini; (iol. Ih' whs |H'rsuaibii lliat he was alxi > ivIuk bia country In a way that no on«* t-lae cnuii] do I>i'< ply aa lie deplon-d the ibiline of lilmipllni' awl iVluintioii in Ilia nallvi' ritv, be Ml Iliat hi- <oultl <lr|N'tid but llille on ibe Soplilata ilii- moral liaibrn .'f bis day Tin- atinullve |hiw era <>( hit dlM-ourar won for him a lirtle of adfulrerv for tlie in<>«i part con»iatini{ of vouiin men <<< family ilravtii to him bv Ibe m M \ariiil Ittotivii. aisniltu^ lo lilm iu vaWousrelalitiiia. and oHHiut; to lilni. Boiiii' for a loii)ii r. olli ra dr a abortiT lime K'>r his own part, Ih* maile it Ida li(laliii'«i not only to educate tbeae friends but to advla«- iIh'Ui In evi rvtiiint!, even iu w, rhily iniiler* Hut out of ibis cbaniiinv. ami in |iart |.«m'lv rixuiet'led. toclely a no ieiia was i(ntdu iilly foriniil of de<'ide<f admirers. — a ,"<<Hralb' s* teh'l Htiiiii He niuat itiiialiler unlteii far b*as l<> 1 t 'iiimou •■ I i'f ilia iriiiea than by a common l"vi- f,,r iIh- iiiTSiai of S.»T»lea ■ E Zeller S ■' ilrt in.l l\, .Srr,ilif .VAr»W« i* X — So Hlufv I'tcrpi In Alliens do «e bear of a pbilo •••I'liii Ualy wllb I'lubiwiiieios, k(at tucCMliua, and the other rights of a coi^poratloo. This Met. which has never since died out of tlie w.irld. was due to I'lato, who bequeathed liia L'.inlrD .mil aiipointmenu in the place calleil sdir the hero Hekademut. to his followers. But \u- was obliKeil Iu do it iu the oulv form |K's.'<il>|i. xt Athens. He made it a relighms foiiml.-iiioti og the basU of a fixed wuiship to the Mu~ s The head or t>resident of Plato's 'Aasociaticin nf the Muaes.' was the treasurer a d manaitir ,>f Hk common fund, who inviteil )('lests totlitir fisala. to which each nu'mlxT coniriliiiteil lii> shair . . . The memliers had. moreovir. a rii'hi i.. attend lectures and use the library .ir stiiutidc ap|>oiiitiiieuts. such as iiiaiia, which iMliriL-ni to the SI biail. It wastbis emlowinenl on a n'lii:iiiiu liasik which savt><l the income and i><niiii>ii uf I'lato a school for centuries . . . Tlii> iliin it tlie tint Academy, so often imitateii in mi miwt lamia, and of which our collekea an- tin- .llm^ deaia'ndaul.s. . . The aihiail of Plato, tiiiu gyv emeil by Xema-mtea, beini; the lN-i|Urst <tf as Athenian citizen who understaMal the law anma never to have Iwen assailed Tin aili'«,U ,,( Epicurus and Zem> were |<erhapa not mi nt-nf niM^I. But that of TlHiipbmatu.^, |h rliaps the niiNti crowdtil, certainly the mimt iliatniriiv t.hiio Maceilonian, this was tlie schiail uhii h vrai exiliil. and which oweil its rebabiliiaiinn Qot only to the lejfal di-cision of the courta, luit >till luorv to Ibe larvi' views uf King Deiiiitriiin. wU<> would not loiirrte the perseeullon of <>pinii« Hut it was the other Ih'inetrius. the phil<~>|>lirr, the pupil of Ariatotle, the friend of Tlii'i'lirnvut. U) whom the BchiHil owihI iiii«t, and to mIkiiu Ibe world owes most in the matter of iiiiivumt and acaiiemiea. next after I'lato Kor ll.i^ wat the man who tiaik care, durlUK lii< I'Mieitonte of Athens in the interi'St of (.'aaiuelir i" i <tal> liab a gnnlen and ' |N'r1|>atos' for tin I'l rliiattiic schiail. now under Tlieophrastua It i> n markable that Ibe Stoic s<-iiiail — It tia> ilu xlvxl of sliena — did nol eatabliab a Imal r'iiin'laii.« or Biicci'sslon. Imt lauKht in pubU< pl.i>"> onk aa the l*alntiil I'onico In Ibia iln- I > iit< >I i « of the I'onb cniinsout llenci' llir »iii ivwing de|>ended Ujam Ibe Keniua ,if tin- li-.uli r -.1 P MalMlTy. I'l-nk l.ifr iii„t Thfu.jhi. ,', 7 -.\n account of Ibe Academy, tlie l.ynuni . '■ aill lie fiiiiiiil under the caption <iTM>.vai \ UaiTtr- •itjrof Atbtat.— "Somescholan iiiii> •i'>uU If then' was anvthinK at Albeiin nlii>li roiilil answer to the (olk'Ke l.ife of niiabni linn" la ili-ed It niiiat lie owmai tlul lomial ii|.i,irv i" niarlv aiUnt on the sul>]e<'t. thai am ii m orltrr* take little iiotiia' of it. and aiicb cvi.li n. i h u *t liiive an' drawn nimia't enliri'ly fnaii i ■" ri^-a "f biix ripti^ma on the tnarbje talilrl". alu. h »i-r» covend with the rulna ami the i|ii"l ol itr* illi one after anoibrr came lo jitihl In r<< i in ilaii. t" ».|d fnab paifea In Ilii' ator* "I iliv ym Happily tbi'V are Uilb nun»'r<iii'< tint It n,;llir and iiiliy !»' aln-adv pleia-.! IokiIIu r iii m -rVt wbbli exieiiila for ivnlurlia Tiny af liti,«» lo Kpiurapbli aliidenia sallie ni-mli «l'i. I. 'iial wllb 111.- ■"■ciilli-il Kpbil.l. »ilb III. . ■!.- 'Iial la. lual paaoliiK liilo itmnlioial firnl , < •!»•• rial dU'itilllle «». pMt tiled li.V iIm >UW !■• fit llH'ni for tlw rea|ailialbillll<'a of ,ii,i. llfc It xaa a Nallonal «yaieni «itli i ii'ii'> W'W tralnliiir. tin- leaibera were meiiil«r».! iH. i iril Hirvbv, Ibe renlalera Were pul'lu .|.» imiBla. and, aa sucU, Ulougeil Ui Ihe Anhli. • il il» 7(Wi XDCCATION. n« UniiMrttty o/AIUm. EDUCATION. Bute. The earUer imerlptlona o( tbe mte* d*te fmm the period of lUcedooUm uoeiMleiicy, but io much euiier timei there had been fomu of public drill pmcribed for the EpbebL . . . We tad from a aeoee, which, if genuine, dater eveu fmm the dajn of Periclea, that the jroung men of Coa were allowed br special favour to (lure tb« diicipline of tlie Athenian Epbebi. titxin ifltTwartln other* were admitted on all (ides. Tbe aliens who bad gained a competence a* mer- chanu or as banliers, found their khu welcomed in tbe rank* of tbe oldest families of Athens ; ■trangers floclud tbither from distant countries. Dot only from the isles of Oreeoe. and from tbii coMt* of the .Cgean, but, as Ilrllrnic rullure nude iu way tbrougb the far East, studeou eTeu ot the Semitic race were glad i» enrol their namra upon tbe College registers, where we may ctill uv ibem with the marks of their several naiidu aliiii-a affixed. The young men were no longer, like aoldier* upon actual service, begiuniug tln'sdy the real work of life, and on that account, perhaiw, tbe term was shortened fn)ni the two vrar^ to onei but the old asMxialions lasted on for agea, even in realistic Athens, which in rarlv politics at least bad matle so clean a sweep The oiitwanl form* were still prwerveil, the •oltlier's drill was still enforced, and though many aootlier feature bail lieen added, tbe whole innliiutioa lM>re upon Iu face tbe look ralliiT of • Miliury College than of a tnilnbig iK'lii>>l for a M'bolar or a statesman. The College year began ktimwhat Uter than the opening of tlie cTvii Tear, and it was usual for all the students to nuiriiMilate together; that is. to enter fonnallv their names upon the registers, wblrh wen' mpiitl afterwards upon the marble ubieu. of n lilch large fragments have surrired. . ' To put Ihe gown on," or, as we should say, ■ to be a 'ununao,' was the phrase which 'stniHl for Inic a member of the College: and tbe gown. ti>>, nuof black, as oonmiunly among ourselvra Dili I'bllostratua tells us. Iiy tbe wav. that a lUange was maile from black to white at tbe pr..iiipilng of llemdes Altlcus. the munitlceut au'l learue<i sublect of llie Antonlnes. who was It iiwuy years the prrsliiing g>-nlii» of the Inl- iir»ity of Atheiu The fragninit of an inacrip- li.ai latily found curiously rontlrnm and supple- iiients the writer's sUlement Tlw niemhen I'f the College are spoken of an ' frieuil*' and nii'Mmates'. ami It is prolmble iImi nxmv form (•f lonventual life prevailed among tlirni. with- I'lil Khirlt tbe drill ami suiM-rvialon. wbiib are r..ii.i*nlly implied In the inai-ripliona. ti.iild x-nriTly have lieen enforced by llie olllrlaU Itiit «■' kiiow mitbing of any pulillc liuildlng* for tilt it UM- nave Ihe gymnaaia, whirli in all tlretk t.mii. wire th«' centres of eilmalioiial routliii'. mi. I of Khiib \hrn- were aeverNl well known ut Ailu'us . Tlie Collegedid not try to nionoim. Ii»' the education of its ■tudenlri It liml iftlnnl Iu own lulors or inatnirtor*. Imt tin v "•It k.pt for humliler drill , it di.l not evin f.^r > i>>ii< time keep an organUt or itioiriimsti't of luimn. It Bint ila •ludenU out for leacblnii In phihw.phy ami rlu-toric and grammar or. In it »"r,l for all iltp larger and mote lllxml uliidie* N'T .liij it favour any •(N'l'lal x't of icmia I., ili.' f»i lii.ioii of tbe reiii ■ li em-ouraged Inipanlnlh xlltlH xlM.ilaof blglierlbotight Tlie lli'wl 'I 111' CoUegr liehr the lltir of Coamrteii. or of hitor ^Thc lirctof, ap|iututvd only for a t year by popular election, was no merely hononiy head, out took an important part u the real work of education. He was sometimes clothed with priestly functions. . . . The system of edu- cation thus deacrilietl was under the control of the government throughout. ... It may sur- prise us that our information comes almost en- tirely fnini the Inscriptions, and that ancient ' writer* are till nearly silent on the subject. . . . Hut there was little to attract the llterarv circles I in arrangemenu so niecbanical and formal ; there was tiHi much of outwani pageantry, and too little of real character evolveti. — W. W. Capea, CmterHlj/ Lifr in Aufient Athrm. eh. 1.— J. H. Newman. Uiuturinit Sktifha. ch 4.— The reign I of the Emperor Jiutiuian "may be signaliwil as tbe fatal epoch at which several of the noblest I iiutitutloiis of aiitii|uity were alxilisiietl. He ; shut tliif M'liixiU of Athens (A. 1). .ViUi. in which ; an uninlemipteil aurceialon of pbiloMiphers. sup- I |iorte<l by II public stijiend, had taught the d<«- j trine* of Plato, Aristotle, Zeno, and Epicurus, I ever slure tbe lime of the AnUininen They ■ wen', it ia true, mill attachetl to paganism, and even to the art* of magic." — J. C. iL Jc Ejiamondl, , K:M i>f Ihr liiimin A'liiinrr. r. 1. eh. tU — See ' Athexh: a ,V» Alexandria. — " Itohiuy. upon whom, on Alexanders death, <leVolve<l the kingdom of Egypt, supplii-* ua with the lir»t great instance of what may !»' calli-d the i-*tal>lishment of Let- ters. He and Eumeni>s may lie consideml the lint founder* of puhlir lilirnrir<.. . A library, ' however, was only one of two great coun-ptions bnitiglit into etei-utiou by the Unit Ptolemy; ; and a* the tlr»t wnn the' emlmliuing of dead f renin*, »o the M'Cond was the endowment of Iving Ptolemy. . . pmnipted. oratleaul, encouraged, by tlu' n'lebrateil IVuietriu* of Pha- i leriiK. put into execution n iihin for the formal endowment of llteraliin' anil »<-ienre. The fact luilittl of the poKM-saion of an ininieuse library M't'mwl aulHclent to nnder Alexandria a I'nlver- •ily. for what could U' a gn-aler attraction to the atudent.1 oi all lands, than Ihe opportunity alT'inled them of inielle<-tuul coiivenx'. not only with the living, but with the deaii. with all who hail anrwiien' at any time thrown litfht U|Kin any subject of lui|Uiry? But Piolemv ileier- mined that hi* teaiben of knoaleilge aLould be i a* stationary iilid a* |H'rnianent as hi> laaik*; so, ■ n-solvlng t'l make .Vlexaiulria the »enl of a 't^l'i i ilium tJemrah',' be fiMiiided a College for i:» ilomlcile. and emlowed llial College with ample nveuue* Hen'. I < onaiiler. he iliil more than ha* lat-n commonly il"iie till mmlern time*. It n'tpllria iiMlaiilernMe knonle'liii of metlieval l'ni%erailies to In- entitle*! io tfive All opinion, as n'gnnla (leriimtit I'r liialauee, or Poland, or r«pnin I'lil, n» far ris I linve a right to sfteak. Bill b an enilowiiieni lia> U'tn ran' down to ttw aixtiiiiili ieiitur\ an well ua lirfore i't<i|emy, T'lretuni to tin- .Alexandrian College It waa inlliil the MiMiim, — a name Blnce appnv pri:<ie,| I'l Hiii'iher iiiatituiion eoiiniH'teii with the Biata'tMieiHi' There was a i|uarter of the em «.! iliaiimi fnnn tin n-at Ih .\lexaiidria, Ihiit li l> BoiiU'timea BIKiken of aa a auliurli ll w,i« pleiiBHnllv •iliMiteil on tbe water aeilge awl hii'l la^ n M't aalili lor omanienial bulliiiuga. anal »ii« Innraeil liv itrove* of trees Hen' stiaal tlie rota! pnlao'. Inn the theatre and araphl- tbtatrv. lurv iIh.' (>iuuasia and stadium , ban I 707 BDVCATIOM. EDUCATION. the fuBona Sermpaum. And hen it was, ckae npon tbe Port, that Ploleiny placed bia Ubnur aod CoUece. Aa might be auppoaed, the build- ing waa wmthy of ita purpoae; a noble portico stretched along ita front, for exerdae or conver- aation. and opened upon the public rooma de- voted to diaputationi aod lerturea. A certain number of Profruora were lodged within tbe preriorta, and a bnndiome ball, or refectonr, waa pniTlded (or the common meal. The Prefect of tbe bouae waa a priest, whose appointment lay with the govemnifiit. Over the Llbrarj a dig- nified pvrsDn presided. ... As to the Pmfes- sort, sc> liberal was their maintenance, that a philosopher of the very age of the flnt founda- tion ralir<l the place a ' bread baaket,' or a ' bird cnop ' ■ yet. In spite of accidental exceptions, so careful on the whole was their selection, that eri'n six bumlrril years aftrrwartls. Ammlanus (lewrlties the Muaru'm under the title of ' the laat- Idk itlxMie of illstingulshrd men.' Philostratua, tiH. "Ixuit s crntury before, calls It 'a table pilliiriiiK '"iretber n-lebrateii men.' ... As timi- wi'iil "ii new Collrirrs were addeil to the oriitiniil .Muarum: of whii-h one waa a founda- lioii of the Emperor Claudius, and calleil after his nuiiir . A itiTerslty of teachers secumi an iilmnilaixt of stutlrnts 'IIItlM-r, wyii C'hvo, u to a public emporium of polite litirntiirc ion(r»«'P«led. fn^n cTery part of the world, yoiiihful students, and at waili d the lertiiri'ii in Grammar. Khelori<-. l*oetrT. I*hil<imi|>iiT, Astmn- omv. Munir. Molk-int'. anil other nrti nihI arj. en<T«\ sihI hi-ner pro<-e«lv<l. ns It woiiM ap- |>e«r. tlir invHl I hriMian writcn nnil diMtor'), ('linient. oricin. AnnioHuit hih) Atlmnn- •ilia Si (fO'Cory Tliaiini»tiiriru«, in tlw tlilnl ivniiiry iiihv I»- aililnl; hr i-nitu- arrow .\«» Miimr ttiiil Syriti fntni Ponltw, a>4 to a placf. ^«*ii lli^ ti;llrH-'«»kf nf Nv^Wrt. "to Wllil'll VOUhi: lllrn from »ll piirts hhiIhtmI logi-llifr. wlio wm- sp- ll|>illl.' til. IllMhl'H to IllliiOHipliy ' .\» III tin- Hiilijii t« laiinlil in till' MuM'uni. Cave hitknlrrnily tniiiiii nitol till' priiiri|ml hut lit' liiin not i lour Jii«tiri' to till' {Hriiliiir i Iwinu ti-r "f thf .\ii'\aii- ilriiiii 'uliiK'l Kpiii till' tiiiH ilmt hIi'Ihi- (JoI out of till' linniii* of thi' pun* <«n-«lii4. into tlioae of « iKivvi r wliii-li lm<l II talent f.tr ailiiiiiitMrti- lloM, 11 U-iaiiu' li'»» tliiiiri'lii'ul. ntiil liori' mori' ilialiii'ih it|H>ii ilHIniti- iiiiil lanirllili' ohjwtn Kutptlitii .\ntii|iiitii'» Wirt' Invrntimttil at l«-nat li\ III.- illiu ipli'H of till' Kityplain MHrn-tho, friiuni.-nl.. of hIiimk* liintor) an' i-oiiatitenil to r.'- maiii. wliil. ('.iitlmifinlaii' niHl Ktriiwan liml :i phi.'.' in till- «tiiilini of till' (Iniiillnn ('.'ll<'k.'i Till' Miw iim waa oililinit.il, moniivi r. for ii« irrainiimriaiiii. il«' w.irit of ilrpliH>Hlioii ' ilr Mr tris -till nlTopI^ matter of thoiitclil <o i Ihini; Priti»«i.r .'f i'\foril. ami .\rlHtarrhiia. lUi- tlif Atlii'iihin tViM lan. ban aliiiont iM-ronie tlii' iii' k ■»■>•' I >r I 1 rttir Yit. cniincnt as is tli>> \U \ ar»lri.iii iM liiiol in Hh'w •lepaniiii'nlii of mii'iii. U« l:iMit' r'*i« •till nioft' wi-iin ly u|Min its pr» nrii'iit y III iiii-ilti-tm- anil mathimati<-« Ani-iii;: tia pliy-trtariM m tlH> ii-li'liratiil tiitli-ii. w*Hi WKM atlrw-li'l iIiIIIhi fnan I'lrmaiu* anil we are liilil t,y a »rH-r .f thi' foiMtli n-ntiiry ilial in I4U 111114- till- >.r\ fa<« o( a pbya^-tan ImTtsc •lihli.'il .11 ,Vti'ii.iii'ltia. mum an i-»liien«T of hat •11.1111- Hhlili iiiana-il.il fiirtlirr trstlmiinlal .V> lo Maltwmali.a It la aDinrlpnl to nay tlurt. of four lirt-Hl am iriil uaim-a oil wlMini Ihr m<al- em wlfuii' is fiHiii,ti-il ttirti- taaw fruai Akaaa- drfa. Aichlmedea hidced waa a SyrMusan; but the Muaeum may boaat of Apothmlua of Pern, Diophantua, a natiTe Alexandrian, and Euclid. wlKMe country la unknown. To these illustri- ous namea, may be added, Eratoatlienea of ( 'y reat, to whom aatronomy baa obligationa so coiiiuiler' able: Pappua; Tlieao; and Ptolemy, saiil to be of PeluHum, whoaa celebrated system, railed after him the Ptolemaic, reigned m the Hlumlt till the time of Copernicus, and whose Oeng. rapby, dealing with facta, not theories, is ia repute atill. Such waa the celebrated ' Sluilium ' or Unleeraity of Alexandria: for a whlli> in the coutae of the thini and fourth centurim. It wu subject to reverses, principally from war. The whole of the Bruchion. tbe quarter of tin- liiy in which It waa aituated, waa given to tbr tlmiu'ii: and. when tlllarioo came to Alexandria, the holy hermit, whose rule of life did not sulTi-r him to lodge In cities, took up bis lodfcmi-nt with s few solitaries among the ruins of its iiliflii-s. The schools, howerer, and the library i-ontiiiin-ij; the library was reserved for the Caliph Oniari famous Jiiilirnient ; as to the schixils. I'vin m Ute as the twi'lflh ci-ntury, the Jew, K<>njainiu nf Tuilrla. givn us a surprising re|H>rt of vliat be found iu .\K'xandrin." — J. H. Newman, //..(..r- if)il Sl-rt'-lirt : Hifinil Piyignmof I'nirrrnlh'.'h. H. — "In the thrfecenturit.s which Intrrvi-mil he- twe<>n .Vlexanili-r and Augustus, Atlii-na wu I>re«niim-ntly the training schtail for plill.»..i.hT, IUkhIi's. on tbi- other band, as tlir only (Irnli state nf polillrni imiHirtanrc in wliirh a rapi r nf Kraiiil and diirnltlcil Rctivity was o|m'ii fcirihc orator. dlalini;iiiahed Itself In the study i.f i-lo. (Itn-iKt-, wliili' .\lfxandria resttsl Ita fam'i- ilii.-i!y on the i-xii'lli-ncv of its instruction In I'hll'.l.'i'y and Mrdli'ine. At a subM'i|urnt (H'riol thf last iiii-ntioniil Inlverally olitaiiuil even ttrrait-ri. Iili- nty as havinif ^ivi-ii birih to n wIiimiI of phil "»• phi-rs » (ill I'lidi-avontl t*i ronililni' Into » «|i(iin of tluiMi.iihIr diH-trini- tin- nirntal w ii-iuv 'f KuroiH- with till- niori- •plrilii.-il nilndnl ;iii.l pni foniHlly human n-lluiona of ihr Ka»t In llj.- Ihird iiMitury Ali-x.indria lai-ami' ion»|ii. uchkh till' luailiiiiarlint of the Ei-lii-tirs and \i-.i I'lii.i niiitK. "— E Kirkpatriik. Hitft I>,n)"fm,:i ./ S'lfirri-- Itt»ti 'trti"H ttdirttiirt's Am. J"ttr:i,t! f hjl-r.>t,..„, r i4. /'/. ■»«tl~-tfl7>. Home. — ' If we raat a Unal itlanre at tin -lUn tioii of iiliiriiilon. we hIiuII tIniT liiit llltli- to wy of it, aa fur aa n-irnnU till' ihtIimI U'f.'r. <i'.r> In the h'puliliran tiniea tin- alnte di.i not tr-uhle llailf ^ilu.iii tlielraininiiof voulh afi w priiiMt- ■ry n-i-iibiiion. ». re laid ilown, and the r. .1 lift I., pntale individuals Thii* no iiiiMir iii-.!™- lion \i;i« iriviii, piilillr HrlnNtU tlien- wir> I'ut oiiK ii« priviiie iiiii|ertalilni{4 f. r the "ike ..f tin- ihihii.iii'f ilieriili All deia'ndnlon lli.-fiiliif, hiM iH-r^. mil i-liariu'li'r atid till- Hire laUi 11 !'« tin- niotlii r ill i-ilurntiou dwiileil lie- iIi-m lopni. n! "( the 1 hilil - dl>|Hwllh.n ll<«ik« tin n- w.n- h -ti-. and then f. .re they i-oidd not Im- put iniotht li.iii-U of rliildnn .V few riig>rtil In inua, iiurh -ii ^wm> of tlH- Kiilii and Arval lirolliirs. with the . iik'» in Keweiinine verae. siinic on feativuU aii'l .it '■•ei <|u<'ts. tornieil the pia-iieal lileralur. .V i\'M would hear, lattiles. Ilie illrKeii. 'f tii. niinil versMi I'omiaaH-illiy women In honour "ftl»'<l> el, and Munetiinrs. ti>i. the Iiulille pHnei-\ n- • pr.' nounceil on tin ir ile|iartiHl relatiiris. a ilt>lii»n"a ammlml to women rIm> from the time of < ninil Ilia Wbatcvi-r was laiiitht a l« v I v I tile 1 •« 708 lOCCATIOM. Biother, or seqolnd extonullr to the houw, wm calculated to make the RomaD ' Tlrtiu ' appear In bli eye* the bigheat aim of Ua ambition ; the trrm iDcludinf •elf-maitei7, an nnbendtng flrm- mta of win, with pMieoce, aod an iron tenacity of purpoae in canjins through whatever wa* oaix acknowledged to be right. The Oreek pa- Intra and lt« netted combatanta always leemed •trange and offeniiTe to lioman eyec. In the repiibliran times the ezecciaesof the symnaaium vrro but little in fashion; though riding, awim- ming. and other warlike ezerciaes were Indus- triouily pmctlaed, as pn-paratlons for the cam- paign. The stare ptedagogus, aasignetl to young proplr to take chargp of them, tud a higher poal- tiun uitli the Komans than tiie Oreeks; and was not alliiwnl to let his pupils out of bis sight till their twentieth year. The Latin Odyssey of LItIus Aoilniniriu was the srbool-book first in use: and thia and Ennius were the only two works to create ami foster a literary tnMe before the ileatruction of Carthage. The freetlinan Up. Cnrvilius waa the flrst to oiien a school for hlKber e<liication. After tills the Oreek language and literature i-anie into the circle of studies, and in couwiiuence of the vara in ^ilcily, Maredon, and Asia, families of ilistinctioii kept slaves who knew Ureek. Teschers quickly multiplied, and were either liberti. or their descendauls. Xo freebom Itonian would consent to lie a paid teacher, for that was held to iw a de)nsdation. The Ureek Ian- pmitf remalneil throughout the classical one for Bimiaii.»: they even made their children liegin Kith Homer A«. by the wveiith century of the repulilic, Ennlua, I'la'utiis, I'acuvlus.aud Terence, bail alreaily becoRie ol<l poets, dicutiotu were ([iveip to «cbohnt from tlieir writlii)fa. The inter- nri't.ition of Virgil began under Augualun. and iij tlii» time the younifir Koniaiis weri- renortliiif to Aili'iiH. KIiihIcs. Apollonia. nml .Milvliiie. in oriir 1.1 make pri>greu in tireek rhetoric niid pliil'~opli,\. As Konmn notions were IiumiI en lire!) oil lb)' practical and the uaefid. uiii«ic was iirvlii lid as a imrt of iilucation. while, an a ion- lni.1. I«.y« were cuni|H'lliHl to Irani tile la»» of 111.- iiiilii- tallies by heart. I'lceni, who bail ■(.'lit iliroiiL-b this iliM-lnlinc with otiier I i>vi> of bi< liim-. I'ifniphtinaof the practice bavim; lieKun to Ih- ml ai.iib -, and Meipio .fimilianiiH lieiiloreil. a» nil evil omen of degeneracy, the mndini; of \i-'\» iiiid Kirl^t 111 the acailemies of arton. where tlHv I. ami ilaminx and alnKinit. iiiconipaiiv with yi'tiiu' women of plea-oire. In one of thiiH'ac'hooU •en- to lie fouml Hi many as hve hundnil yoimi; perxiii-. all lieing iiwlrui>i<-<l in |i.wtiiri"» and oi"li..inof the most shandoiied kind i >n the iillii T hanil. the gymnaslic e»trci»e«. which had ..nil « rvi-d the younK men ana iraiuini.' for war. f.ll ml., illsuae. having naturally Uhiuh. olijcct li-M loiil liiirilenMime. now Ihat.'umb r Anituniua. n.. ni..re Koman citi/eii.« cb.iae to enlial in the it III in still slavery was. and continui.l t.i In . till f..n>m.«i i-auM' of the depravation of voiitli. •n.t ..f iHi .vil eilucallon . . It was no longer the Mi..||iera who eilucaled their own chllilren thi y li.id iiilther liiillnation nor raiiacilv for mn li iliity. I..r niotbera of the utamp of ( ornella ha.l iliwi.) eared Imnu.<lialelv on its birth, the child •n-iiitnisteil toa tJreeh female slave, with si.uie mall »lave often of the worst description, to help ker The young Itoman waa not e<|iicate.l in I hi- constant ci.inpanlonshlp of ymithi of hit t>wu «({«, under rt(ual illscipllnr surrounded by EDCCATtON. his father's aUret and parasites, and alwan accompanied by a alave when be went out, he hardly received any other impressions than such aa were calculated to foater conceit, in- dolence, and pride ta him."— J. J. I. DOllfaiger. Th* OentiU and th4 Jev, ». 8, pp. 970-881.— HiKher BdncaUoa nader the Bmpirt.— "Be- sides schools of high eminence in My tilene, Ephe- sua, Smyrna, SIdon. etc.. we read that Apollonia enioyed so high a repuution for eloquence and I political science aa to be entrusted with the educa- tion of the heir apparent of the Roman Empire. Antiocb was noted for a Museum modellnl after that of the Egyptian metropolis, and Tarsus boastetl of Oymnasla and a University which BtralK) does not hesitate to describe as mote than rivaling those of Athens and Alexandria. There can lie little doubt that the pbilosophere, rheto- ricians, ami grammarians wlui swarmed In the princelv retinues of the great Koman arishK-racy, and whose schools nbuuniled in all the most wealthy and iKipulous cities of the empire east and west, were preparr<l for their several call- ings in some one or other of these institutions. Straljo tells us . . . that Home was overrun with .Vle.\andrian and Syrian grammarians, and .luvenal descrities one of the (julrites of the ancient stamp as emigrating in slieer disgust fMm a city whicli from thesis caum-s ha<l U'come thoroughly and utterly Ureek. . . . That exter- nal indiici'meiitu wire held out amply siilHcieut to |iri'\ail u|Kin [Mmr and ambitious tnen to iiualify tiieniM-lvcs at some cost for vocations of thi.4 descriplion i» evident from the wealth to which, a* we are told, ninny of them nine from extreme indiifeiuv an.l olisciirity. Siietoniu*. in llie still e\taiit frau-meiit of his essay ile cliiris rliitiiriliim.' after alliiiiing to the imnienst- nuin- In r of pn.fessorx ami ihntors met with in Itonie, ilniwit iittenliiin to the frei|(ieucy with which in- ilivi.liialH who had dLstingiiished thcniM-lveH as till, liim of rhetoric liiul been elevateil into ibe M null', and ailvaii<-ed to the hi^ihcM ilii,'nitii'>i of tile ►tate That the Iir.ife»sion of a |iliili.logist wa« .«-<!i»ionallv at least will rx inniiiratini is e\iilcnt (niin tlie facts ni-onled liy ihe wime author In bis w..rk '.le cinriii >:miiiiiiaiiii9 ' met. II lie thire mi'iitioiiii that liiire wire iit one time upwani* ..f tw.-nly «i II attni.ii.l -^h.n.ls lievoieil to thiit niil.Jiirat K.mie. aii.i tliat one fiirtuniite iuiiiviiliial. H Hiiiimiin* I'alainioii. ile- rivinl four huii.lre.l iIioiikiihI i«.>i.neH, or con- si. hralily alhiVf thr.-e Ihoii-uind a y. ar. fnuu in<,tnuii..n in |'liilol..i.'y ah.n. .IiiUik Caesitr i-oiifem.l the 1 iiiii iisliip. toir.ihcr wiih large l>oiiiiiir4 ill III..I1I \ . uiiil iiiiniunity from piilillo liiirilii ns. on ili«iini:ui«lii'<l riiitoricianA ami phi. I.i|.ii:i*l*, in orii.T to cin'ounu'c their preseii.e at Uonii Tliiit liuii\iiiiial» wli.' thim •iij.iyi'd an inronii'n.'l iin.iily IkI.iw the n vi uui'« of au Knitii^ii lli»lioprlr win- n.it. as the name might l.ii.l ii« I., iiiiiiiriiii'. iinp|..y.'il in tiuchiug Ihe itri i.li'iiu of k'l'iniiiiar. but possenw-d mnsiileralile pr. 1. 11^1.11. 1.. thai liik'lii r and nmri' thoughtful Hiar.ii I. r of iln- w liolar which it has Unn re- MTv.il t..r ni.nl. rti Kiin.pe to exblliit In iHrfer- Hon i-. n..t iiiK in ii«ilf highly prolmble, but «iip|Hirteil by t)ie ilUtlmieHt olid iii.ml iiniin- |ieaihal'le evidence. H«-m-<a tell» u> ilial history Hiu aniongiit the subjriia profeua.i bv gram- MmnaiiK. aii.i I'ici TO rt garil-- iln- nioal l)i.in>ngh an.l nrtiiiil |Mrnpii..|i ..f all il.:.l pi rlain« I., ilie •pirit dud ludivliliiality ..f llu author aa an la- ru'j ^m EDUCATION. MiMk Age: EDUCATION. diapranble requtiite In tbow who undertake to give inatnirtinn In thl« iubject . . . The ginni- matirl a|>|M-ar to h»ve occuplfKl a pocitiim very cUwely aualugou* Ui that of the teachera of colle- giate Khooto In England, and the grmnaalal pro- feMori in Germany. "—E. KIrkpatrick, lUU'l Ik- rrlopneHt of Ifiipefitir Intlnietion {B*nutrd'i Am. Journal of Eiwatioo, t. 34. pp. MIM70. McdiaTsl. The Chaos of Barbaric CoBqnctt.— "The utter confuaion aubattjuent upon the downfall of the Kiiinao Empit« and the irruption of the (Jtrnianlc race* waa caualng, by the mere bnitc foni- of I'lrt'umataniv, a gtadual extim-tion of MlioUrHliip l(«i iK)werful to lie arrcated. The ti-arhiiig i>( gramnmr for eccle»ii»»tli-iil purpiws »•«« iiiaulilrlent to check the InHueuir of many <'au«-8 leading to thia overthrow of leamiug It waa inipoaaible to communicate more lliau a mere tini'turv of knowlitlge to atudeuU aepa- ratwl fnini the rlasaii-al trndilion. for whom tho antcci-'lent hiatory of Home waa a dead letter. The nieaniuK of Latin wonla ilerlve<l from the Ureek wa* Tost. . . . Theological notlona. gro- ti'Miue and clilliliah iM'yontl deacription. found their way into etymolojfy ami grammar. The tlm-f iMTKiua of the Trinity wen- dis<i>vi-ml in tile virli, and mvulie nuimiera In tin' parts of ain-ith. Thua aiialytlcal atudlea like that of Ian- >;uai:e came to lie regarded a» an ojien lleld for the exeniae of the mythologlalug faiuT ; ami ely nuilogy waa reilu- I'd to a avMem of ingiliinU!! punning; . . Virgil. Ilie only clajMlc who re tuiniil dii>tinrt and living |K'nioiiality, pa»i(e<l fnmi |niel to iihlloaopher. fMm philowipher ti> Mliyl. fniiii siliyl t<i inagiiian. by aucivK^ive hi.'ik'i'sof tranamutalion. aa the truth nlN>ut him ri « iiiiin- dim ami tlie faculty to apiirelicml III) wiukeiietl. Kiirmliig the ataple of nlucnlion In the M'liiiola of the i:mniiiiarian», and meia- m'lrplioM'd by the viilirar conMiouaneu Itiio a wizard, he w'aititl ou the cxireme verge of tln' dark agea to take Diinli- l<y the liaml. anil liail him. aa the tvpe of human nwiMin, IhMuiih the realiiu of Hell and I'urgalory —.1 A WymomU. lit lull— linn' in llnljt : ll>r Uinmlnf I ••irnimj.t'h i Caul: ath-5th Ctoturita.— " If lii>iiiutiou> rould ilo all, if lawa aupplitil an<l the iiuann fur- lit^heil to MK'iety I'liuld do everything, the in lellntual atale iif Oaullah civil MK'iely at thia c|"icli |4lli ">lh cinluri™) would have Intn far aiilnrior tn that of the nligioiM wniily The Urol, in fuel, aloni' |ioMeM<il all the in!<iituti4in>i pnipiT tti M'l'ond the ili'Veloptneiit of iiiind. the prni;rt"i)i and empire of IdeaA I^tl1lll^ t«aui ua<t iciMfi-)! with large a<lioolii The pnuiijiul wer> thiHi' irf Trivea. Uonliaim. Aiilun. lonlmiM- I'liiiiiTH. l.jiina. NarlmniK. .\rlii«. .Murmilli" Vi* niie, ll4'Minv*)fi. Ac Suiie were very aiieienl . tliiMi' cif Mar-Milieu and <<f .Viiltin, fur itanipli', dalfl from tin- tlmt nnlnrv Tlii y win- taunlil philinophy. nii'iliiine. jnrUpnuliMii llirraliin. friiniiiiiir. atlnilogy. all lite m ii-mi-ii of the atfe II ll» irn Mttr |i«rt of iIh-m- m IhmiIn. lutie«-il. they »l ttr->l laoglit oiilv rhrlorii and ifraiiimnr Imii t iunr<N till- fiuirtii ntiiiir) p^.lt••»..r» of phi- liniiphy and liiw Mtn- it>i\Hlitrt !nir<Mi(Mt.tt N'll iMitv were llteM- mIuh'U llunuftMi.. iili'l pT" vldinl with many eliuir*. but ilie em|i<rr(i (on- Ihiiiall)' look Hie pnifcMiora I't new iiieaoiirf* Ini" l:i>iir Till Ir InlereiU iir< . fMiu t miaHin Um to Tlieo>l<a>iua Ike youu^er. the aubjeit of r; fnN|uent imperial conatltutiona, which aonuiinm extemled, aunietimea coadrmed their privilem'a. . . . After the Empire was divided amoui: luaiiy masten, each of them concerned hiniHelf i:iilk'r more about the proaperity of bia atatvs aul ilw public eatabliahmenu which were in tliitn. Thence aroae a momentary amelioration, of n hieli the achoola felt the effecta, particularly tli<«e of Oaul, unih'r the adminlatration of ('oii>i.'iiitiiu (iorus. of JiilUn. and of Uratiati. By Ilii- >.\,W of the ai'liiMila were, iu general, pla'inl ..iher analogous exiabliahmeuta. Thua, at Tn' v< ■. i ln.rr waa a gniiul library of the lm|ierial palm < . i .la- cvmingwliiehnospecial information ha> riuiluti ua, but of which we may Judge by tin .litaijj which have reaclie<l ua contvrning that of ( im. atantinople. ThU last had a Mlirurian aii'l m ..'i acrilK'a couatnntly ca'ciipied — four fur i in i k lii.i thn-e for Latiu. They «-opie<l In-Ill ;iiiri- iii ami new worka. It la prolmlile tliat tlu -unii- iiiMiiu- tion exiatnl at TrJvea, and in the gri-:ii iuui,v of Gaul, t'lvll aoclety, thiMi, waa pnoiili-l «i;|i nieaiia of inatruetlon and iutellei<iim| ili vi|.i|i. iiieut. It waa not the aaoie with n liciuui mi. clety. It liad at thia e|HKh no ln.-titii1iuni»iH-,i. ally devoted to teaching; a itiil not retiivi tmiu the atate any aid to thia piirticiilar aim i l.rit tiana. aa well aa othera. could fn-ipienl tin pi-lilic fclioola: but most of the profenwini «•!• ^liil pagana. ... It waa fur a long 'iiiie in iln in- K'lnor claaaea. amoni; the p<'op!i' tli;il i lira- tiaulty waa propagateil. eaiM'cially In tin- limili. aud it waa the KU|"riur claiwea wlii. h |..'l"»iil tlH' great aiiiiHiln. .Muni-ver. it v.iin h ir llnnilil tile commeneeiinul of the fuurlh ciniun Hut the Chrialiaiia ap|H-an-<l there, ami the m t.ui tiw in numlier Nu otlar tou i-e oi minlj mi>.[«ii to thi'in The entalilisliiiienLs Hlii'h .1 little afterwanla. iMtaiiie, in the I'brisiiiia rliun !i. ili» refuge and aaoetiiary of inatriiiliun. Iii< ni-iua- terlia. were hunily commemiHi iu tln' 1. i-il. h waa only after the year ■W» thai llu i« . lirit were fonn-htl by St Martin — urn 11' l.ik-uiif. Hear l'uitier!<. tlie other at .Nlunnuiiii, r> ii-ir T-air*. and they wen' lii vutitl rather t" r. lifi^m eunteniplati<in than lu teaehiuK .\i>> iinit .vhool. anr >|HK'ial i;iKlituti<in <livnir.| 1.. lUt ■ervire and to the pmun-iw uf lnilli-i «:i« at that time. Iheri'fore. « anting !•> Ilif < liri-luia . .VII iliinga In the tlflli ivninry aiiiM iW decay uf the civil xhooln rii'i^'nleni|..ir4iie.iua writiTi. .•'idunlua A|iolliiiari» and Mawi nlua ClaudlanUK. fur example, depl.-re ii ii. . v, r\ piifc Mving lliat Hie young iinu iiu Lmuit ^t.ilml. tlmt prul.iuMir* wen- wllhuul pnpil-, 1I1.1I « auor litnirui^liKl aii'l »a» U'lui: l-"t li » ■• '•• peiiaiiy till \uiiiig men uf Hie !iiii«ri.r . I ii»r« » liu trti|iit uinl ill. »« Ini-ilf. I'lil 111. ~ »i h' In rapid iliM>iliiliun The w li ' Hlth lllelti llle ll-nlltlltiuIlN Mill e»l^li<t I' «. n »-iiu — llle auiil hail i|;iiiiiHl ilii l"«!'. iniiiiiTliiui aap>Ht of t'hrialinn -"»i'l.» » ditfen 111 InatitiitioiiH Ut'in I" r'v I* r-nulated am-ai.; IU« ('hri»ii»«»u' '>.'» I.iiiriilaiiun uf tlie i-riaier |i--rii..ti .1 'i- iiiuniulerii* uf iIh- > ullum pT-mi" ■ > tin ttn.1 half uf 111. tilili ..111.11. iiiuna»terie«u; tl»' •..illl|..r lialll «if> I 111 inil t. li.Nil< ..f I lin»li.ui'!x ii « 1^ 111' illtt 1I.'<'IiimI men nitililalt-.l. .Ilm ii«m-.l i tu ii ili.r Tii .. ».ry ami to Tlw l.irm .:• Ill rbt - Mai .■hi 4 »a» fiuni llume Ihii tii » iilea». liarini ti.' mfh'*. beri'Mii. «.r<i«Bi lorth !'■.» ni- lii. 'Uii .f Ihi' alilh ivulm. cvel^lhlu^ l» .Ujut"!- Tin EDUCATION. IrUk SdiooU at tite ilk and KM* CnihirMa. EDUCATIOX. there an do kMicer civil kImmIs; eccleiiastlcal MliooU alone suMlit Thow great municipal Kboula of TriTct, of Poitiers, of Vienne. of Bur- ilcaux. Ac, have diaappeared ; In their plan- |i:>\ r ariwn arhoola called cathmlral or eplacopal lu'liiioU. becauae each epiicupal see had lU own. Tilt' cathedral acfaool waa not alwara alone : wc liiiil In certain dioceaes other achoola, of an un- irrtnin nature and origin, wrecka, perhaps, uf h<iiu' undent civil school, «hich, in becoming ■111 t:iiiiiirplioacd, had perpetuated iticlf. . . .The iMi'-l rtouriaiilng of the eplacopn! schools fmni tia' nixth to tlie middle of the cif^hth century »ir»- Ihoae of: 1. Poittera. There were manv mIkxIs In the monaateriea of the dioceae at Pol liin Itself, at LiiUKe. at Analon, dec. 2. Paris. :! Ij-Mana. 4. Bourgea. 3. Clermont. There nu another school in the town where they t:iui.'ht the Tbeodosian code; a remarkalile cir- < iiiiistance. which I do not find elsewhere. H. V'ii'une. 7. CliAlona-surSaoiu'. M. Arkn. 0. Uap. The moat tlouriahing of the monastic schools of till' wHK' epcx'h were those of: 1. Luxeuil. in Fniiiilii'-l'Diiile. 2. Fontcnolle. or 8aint Van- ilriili'. iu NoniuUMlyi In which were aNiut HiNl stiiili'Uta 3. Hlthiu, iu Xormandv. 4. Saint MittanI, at S<>iaaona. i. Lerens. It were eany to I xteud this list : liut the pniaperlty of monastic Mlicxla waa aubject tu j^reat viriiiiiltudeti; tliey III ari»hi'd unier a diatiuguialieti abUil, and do- (liiii^l under his sun'eaaiir. Even In nunoerieit. Hilly was nut neglef-tetl ; that whii'li Suint ( t'xiire fiiunded at Arlea contained, at the eiini- iiuuirment of the sixth cvntur}-. two huudreil Dun». for the niimt part occupies! in copylui; l>>>ks. sometimes n'ligioua Ixjuks, sometimes. |ir.il«lily, even the works of the ancients. The nil laiiior|>lHnis of civil schools into ecclesiastUa! MiKKila waa compl-'te. Let us see what was laiiL'lit in them. We aliall often dud In them she iiaiiiraof si^'-m-ea formerly profe<ae<l in the mil mliiails, rhetoric, IukIc, frrammar, )r<'ome' !rv aatrology, Jtc , but theni' wen- evliliiilly no I iii:rr taiiirht except iu their relullonn In the I'l Pk'> This ia the foundation of the Ihoiniriinu :ill WHS turned into commentary of the .Srip- I in J. hittorical, philoaophical. allefrorical. moral. I iiiiiientary. They deoired only to form iirie>tit. > ! -iiiilH">. H halwiever their nature. «ere ilinn tetl ! " inis this result. Simellmes tlity weut even '■irlliir they n>je<'ted the prufaui M'.e lid's tlieiii- x:»n. ■< iialvver miKht U the lue nuileof them.' — K (iiii/iil. UiBli'm "f CirilitiitioH In thf FrtHfh I ■iti-H. - '.'. I,rl 4 iinil 16. Ireland.— Scotland.— Schools of tona.~l'op I.; If iin.Minu n-pr-w at .St Patrirk as fnuiHl. 1 .. lit least a liuiulntl monasteries, slid ivrii lii M who ttiiiaiiler Ibut lite Kreuti'r oiimlK-r of '■■■ Iri^li i-oIIik™ •vn- tainfif h\ M» fiillnwem :>: ' r Ilia di-alb admit the fact of his haviiii; ■■* < : il^lll1l all epiMCo|ial tlionaatery and wIiiniI al .Xnn.nih, where lie aoil hU i lerity •■«rTli'>l out the vii... rule of life that he hiwl si^'ii foilimiil In the • i ifiiesofUauI Tlu'scliool. ul'leli foriiu'il I i --ion of »b«' Cathinlral evlalilialihieiit »«»mi I - I iin|Nirtaiier Uildaa taU|{ht here for i«>iiii' > Ufore Joining »l t'ailia- at l.luiuarviin , [leiMfs* of time tlie nuinlwr of aiiitti'iii-., iiatt'.e autl fori'Ign, a» iuereaaiil that ilie 1. mi. rally, as we may justly call It, wa« .lixlilco ii'i lliree |wrta. one of '.r|i|t<h waa tle^oteil en ii?>i\ losliHlentaof the Anglo Sasonraie Oraiii" t f Um- suppurt uf the acbuula were iiuide by tiie IrUli kings in the eighth centurr ; and all through the tn>ul>loua times of the ninth and tenth centu- ries, when Ireland was overrun by the Osnea, and so many of her sauctwariea were given to tha Haines, the succession of divinity professors at ArmaKb remained unbroken, and has been care- fully tnu'eil by Usher. We need not atop to de- tennlne how many other establlahmenta aimiUr to those of Armagh were really founded in the lifetime of 8t. Patrick. In anv case the rapkl extension of the monastic institute in Ireland, and the extraordinar}' unlour with which the Irish oenobites appHiHl themselves to the culti- vation of letten remnin umliapuletl facta. ' Within a century after the death of St. Patrick.' saya Bishop Nii'iiolson. 'the Irish acmiiukries bad ao i inen-aaiil that most parts of Euro|>e sent their ' eliililnn to N' e<lucated here, and drew thence ; their lilsho|>s and teachers.' The whole country i for miles round Ijiglilln waa deuominatetl the ' land of sidula and m-holars.' Bv the tinth cen- tury Amwgh could lawsl of 7,001) students, and llii- scbiails of Cashel, Dlnilaleathglius. and Lis- more vhsl with It In ri'iiowu Thisextruordinary niulilplicntion of monastic seminaries and schol- ars limy Ix' ex plained partly by the constant Imml- gnilion of British refugn-s 'wlio bniught with them the learning and nligious observances of their native cloisters, and partly by that aacred ; and Irresistible Impulse which animates a newly converted |H'ojilt' to heroic aciii of sacritice. In In-)und the infant chiirth was not. as elsewhere, ' watensl with the liltaxi of martyrs. . . . "The j Imnls. who were to !«• found in great numliers aiiiDiig the early converts of St Patrick, had also I a loiisiiliralile shari' in diniting the energies of I tlii'ir eoiinlryinen to hilelleetual lalxiur. "They I forineil the leamisl class, and on their ctiiiverwiou I to Clirisiianity were readily disposed to devote I tlieiiiailves to the culture of sacred letters. . . ^ ll would Im' iiii|>oiwilile. within the limits of a ! single chapter, to notiee even the names of all I the Irish Mala of liiiming. or of their most cele- j liraliil teachers, e.ery one of whom has his own leKi'iiil ill wliieh siiinsl and immmIc ta'auties an' to N' foiinii bhndiil together One of the earliest { monaaiii sehisila was that en-cteil by Ends, prince I of nrgiel. In thai uisiern Manii calliil fnim the I Willi tlowers Willi h I'veii still cover lis nskv soil, j Aran of the-Klowi rs. a name it afteru arils ex- I clianv'iil for that of Ar.n iia luomh, or .'irauof- I the Saints. . A little later St Kiuian founded lii-s ^real siinN'l of ('lonanl. whence, says I'slier, , issiii'il forlli a sirnini of Niints ami distors. like i the tini k wiirri'Ts from tlie wisalen horse. ■ Tills ilrs-ilaii' wiidrniess WHS siwii |HMiple<l bv his (list iplrs. « ho ah' said i.i have numliensi 8,0<k), of wlioin the iwelie iii.wi eniipeiit an- often termed till- 'TwiIm' .\|>os||is ..f Inland. . . . Among lliriii iii'iie Win' mon' fiiiioiis iliaii St Culumlm, .■>! Kieriii uiiil SI llniiilaii The tlrat of theae is Itiiuwii I.. iMTV Kiiiiiish nadir as the foiindrr of l.iim anil Kier.iii. tin rar|M'iitet s sou. aa he ia iiilliil, Ismiinely li'sa reiiowiiiil among lilaown itiiiiiirviiii n , ll W'ts ill the year .Vl>'t that .St. ( . iliiiiiUi. after foiiiiilini; the niiiuisterii's of iNiire- ( iiUait'h Hihl Itaiitiia^rh in hi: native ianti. and im iirring tie' eumiiy ><f one of the Irish kh:gs, iliii riiiiiieil on innslnn over into Stoiland in oiili r I" |>ni" h Itie faiwi to the .Northern Ilcta .Xni'inpanii'it I'v twelve i niiipunions. Ii" passed the ( liaiiiii I ill -i null' wiiki r Unit covensi with skins :iiid laudid at Port ua t urrachan. un a s(>ot Til BDUCATIOIf. dbarlMMaiM'f ac'Mt of A« Palaet. KDCCATION. BOW naikad by • Imm> of hun eoaiol ftooea. OouUl, kiof of the Albanlu Soota, fimntcd bim the Wud of t Hi. or Al, httkcrto occupied by tlie Druida, and thm ba cfcctod the mooaitery which. In time, became the mother of three hun- dred reli^oui bouaea . . . lona. or I-Colum-kil, aa It waa called by the Irlah, came to be looked on aa the chief aeat of learning, not only In Britain, but in the whole Weatera world. ' Thither, aa tf'm a imt,' aaya OdoneUua, playing on the Latin na-ne of the founder, ' theae lacicd dovea tiiok thrir flight to every quarter. ' They atudied tlie clHMlra, the mechanical arta. law, hiatory, ami pliraic. They improved the arte of hui- lian<irr and horticulture, aupplied the rude peo- ple wrfiom Ibry had undertaken to ciTlllae with pl<Mii;lislian>s and othrr utenalla of labour, and taiiL'lil them the iiae of the forge. In the myalerie* of wliloh every Iriah monk waa InHlructnl from his U>>'h(><al. Tbrv lnu»(i'm'<l to their new horora all the Ipaming of Armagh i>r C'lonanl. In everj- rollece of Iriah origin, l>y whom- iiirvrr they wi-re munded or on whatever aoil they flouriiihiil, nrp thua aee itudy bleD<le<l with thc''<lutit:a of the miwiionary and the ciruobite. Tliey were rrlijrioua tiouaeo, no doulit. in which tbo-elebratioaiif the Chuirh office waa often kept up without intenniiiainn by dav ami niglit ; but they wet* als>> leminarien of learning, wherein aarrt'il iind profane atuilien wen* eiiltivatni with e<|iinl siirn'M. Not only theirown nioiiaaterien but thoM' of every Enrttin-an etmntry were enrirhe<l witJi tiieir itianiiM-nptH, ami the reaeanhi-a of niolern lilliliopoliKt* arc eontiniialiv diiiin:-rring fMh) Oeriniin or itulinn lilimrie* a ilorBee. or an OvI.I, orn f<»i'riil C"o<hx wlii»u lri»h ghwabetrava the hiin.l whleli Iracetl ila (ielicateletters. "— .V. f, Pranr. ''hrixliitn S'ftii*U 'iiiit Sth<ttitrM, rh. *2. Charlemagne.— " If tiiere ever wua a man »lio liy lii» r .TV niitiinti enilowmenta noared alxive otlicr nidi, it hii« t liarleniu itiie. Ilia life, like Ills hiiiliiri'. wiif ii'loxMil Time never Mvnie<l waiiliMif li> liiin f"r nnylhiiiic that lie villeil to areoihplihh. Hiitl liiiHnif lii^ im wnn cHmpaiun agniiiHt the Siixoiia nnit l.onilninU. he ituilriviil to get ielMiire eiiotiirh to Htuiiy gniinnmr. niiil render hlinaelf toleralily prolli lent aa ii l.»tln wrili-r In yrtims awl vefw lie foiiml hia tutor in Ilie <llli-!i that he n<Ui|Uere<l. Wllen lie U' i»"ie iiiiikter of IMaa. he i;alne<l the nrvirei of r r of I1»«, whom be let over the rulaline M h<nil. wnlch hnii exi»le<i even under tlie .Me ro\iiii;itin ktn^s. thoui(h aa yet it waa f.tr fi.itii eiij"viiu.' the fame to whleti it ««a aft> rwunla mI».| tiv the leaehinjf of .\hiihi He |x'«-«— «.i the lift of liiraluK eiMiiiiea inl'i 'rien.la. ami 'li-ia (Inn to hia rourt the famoua hia.orian, faiil VVariH Trill, ileai-on of tlie Chnreh of l<>>nii , uho bii'l pre\iMii«|y acted aa Mtntary to IMilier. king of thr I.,>nil>«r<la. . . Another Italian aeholar. Ht I'ioillniia. of .\iiiiileja, wna <>>n\ei| Into the wrilie of the Fralikiall aovenlKn nfter Ilia run ijiKai <if Khiill. I Wi.l not <utv that he una l>oiii-hl. Iiut III- »«« iirtaialy |>aii1 (•<T by it lurue grniil of eonltMaled lerrilorv niinl' >ver hv ill plnliia 111 I'le Vinenilite I'ltnliliiia, li -vsUrMr llie art i'f L'ratitiii;ir ' Hut intuenf tlii'n- lear!.."*! ;i»-r- aoiiiii:!^ »rii ih >;iiii<l to tA|>e ao Urjji r. part In thm ri \i\n\ ..f li.tniini; whlrh maile 'hi- glory f (Imrienw^iie D rt ign. aa our own eountrynmii Ah iiiii It waa in 7K1, on oe<'a«ion of the lting'« aiKMi.l vUit to llalv, that the meeting tuk pliu-r at I'amm. the irault of which waa lo fli the Engliah aehofaw at the Ftankiik court. HaTiDg obtained the oonaent of hIa own Mahrp and ioTrr- eign to thia arrangement. Alcuin came over to Pmnoe in 788. bringlnf with htm aeveral of th« beat adiolan of York, amoag whom were Wim, Fradegia, and ^gulf. Charlemagne reiHlved him with Joy, aM aaaigned hha three ahlieyi for the mawtenanoe of hunaelf and fala diaiiplrt, thoae namely, of Ferritrea. St. Lupua nf Tnaea. and 8t Joiae in Ponthleu. From thia tinie'.\|. cuin held the flrat place in the literary atnlrty that aurrounded the Fnuikiah aovere'ii'ii. iii»j filled an office the dutiea of which were a» vut aa they were Tarioiu. Three great worku ai unce chimed hia attention, the correction of the limr. gical hooka, the direction of the court neaih niv. and the eatabllahment of other public « lii>ili thruugliout the empire, . . . But it waa iw hiMil of tlie Palatine arhool that Alcuin'a iiilliiime waa cbieHy to be felt in the restoration of Utii n. Charlemagne preaente<i lilmaelf aa hia ltr<i pupil, together with the lh~v' princes. I'eplii, Charlr*. and I»ula, hia alalcr OlaU ami bla ilaiiiiliirr Hiebtriide, his councillori AdaUnI ami .\ni;i|. Iiert, nnil Eginhard hia secretary. Sueh IIIik trii'us Bchoiars soon found plenty to iniitnte tlirlr example, and .\lcuin saw himself ralle<i in lo lecture daily to a goodly cMwd of hiiiliiipi, iioblea, and coui tiers. The king wiaheil lotnni. form his court into a new Athens pnfenihU' to that of aneient Qreece, in so far as the ilxirliw of Clirlat Is to lie preferreil to that of |>Ul» .Ml the liU-ral arta were to be taught there, li it in aiieh a way a« tliat each should liear rtfeniiie l<< reliKion, for this waa reganletl lu the Itiul eml of of all learning. Qrammar waa sliiiHeil in nnlrr better tu iiiiilerstand the Holy 8cripture'i ami in traiiacrilie them more correctly; muaie. to whiih much attention was given, was chietly i-onlini'l to the eeeleaiHalicul chant; and it wai priw i|>ally to exphiin the Katliera and n fiitu erron i nnirirr to the faith tiiat rhetoric and (lh«le<'tii'H viri; Ktiiilie<i. 'In abort.' says Cti'vier. 'the lli.iiiL-ht Iniih of the king ami of'the scholar who lalmur I with liini WHS to H'fer all thinga to p Hiii< ii nothing U-Int; ■'onaiilerinl aa truly noful v>!ii,|i iliil not U'ltr Home reiali.in to tliat eml .\'. lirtt .\hiiiii alloneil the atudy of tiie i hi»«ii' piult, itiiii lit hia iMiyhiwal. as we know. In- hail I < ' !i a gnaler ri'iuie'r of Virnil ih»n of the Si ripnma. . . The autimrs wliiate atudy tharlenin,:rii Hiiii .\h tiln (lealretl to promote, were iioi m, iiiiiili Viruil mill Cieero, aa St. .lero;.ie aii.l >t .Vii.'iii. line, iiiel Clmrh'iimifne, In hia exteMhue iiilniiri- lion of lhi>M' KHtlura, gave utternuiv to iln »i>l> liiat he limi a dozen such nxn at bin loiin Tin) 'llty of tiod' was read at the royiil la' !■ i:i'l the ipiiatlona Kiiln'sai'ii hr the court -.lU'li ii!* i<i their miater tiiroeii "liber on tlie oli»i viriM.« f iioir Writ than the illlHcullirii of pro»>lv In one thintf. however, they ln-traye«i n i l,i»*i' l.i-ir, anil Itmt »ni In their lieleelloii of huniii Tbe Itoiitl .Veaiieiiih iana all re]oii-e<i in wniu' Vtrrirjr iioiilirli|int, .\l.uin w«a Flarins; .\ngii|Hrl. II" nwr. hill (harlemaitne hlni««'lf aih.jileil ihe nute n.-riiiiurnl npiH-IUilon of Ihiviil. The e»,'eniv«s »ilh Hhh h tills exttnorimary man applieii hliS' ailf to itri|iilre leaniiog foi himself, »iid to tl- lend It throiii;hout his iloniinloiis. la truly ailinir' able, Winn «e r>-ineiiilier the eiwirmoim la'outa In wliieh be wa^ loiiatanlly enifsgeil - .'. T, I • tne. ' ') •^tlMi, .r/K.«'a :iHtt .VA.*ir«. i-A 5 !««, also, KCBUOI. or TUK I'aU^CB, CHAaLKUAUMa :i-' IDUCATION. at* ■ ' EDl'CATION. Kaffl*a4: Kiac Alfred.— King Alfred "nUi- ! (Rd round him M U« own court thv ions M bU < U'lillity to rereiTc, in coniunctkn with hii own I'bililren, a lietter education than tlifir piuenu viiukl he able or wUlinc to fire them in their ,,wn hi'inehoWa To thh aaaemblafe of pupils AsM-r lias attached the name of ichoul, and a Uolrnt controTei»jr ouc» illatnrted the llterarj- n orlil concerning the tone in which the woril nan to be undentmal, anil whi^Uier it wa« nut iln- licfrinning or origin of a learned Inatilution Mill I'llMlng. In •iM'iiking of till* aubji-rt, Am<t li^i> taken (Hcasion to rnumemte nnil dew-rilw ibv ihililn-n wlio wrn- liorn t4> Alfred fn>ni hii wlfi- I KNnitlia. daiightrr of Ktlirln-il the ' UIk.' alilcr- | ii:aii of the Uuni. and a uohlv of gnvt «i-alili j uiil Intluenc-e In Mrrcia. The Mm! auil dsuirli tir" Mivii Aiwr, ' uliirh briiail by bl< wifraUit)' ! uii iiiioiii'il. wirr El!."ll1<'«l tbeilifcki, aftrr wbiuii ciiiii' l^lwiinl. then Klhelgiva. then Etlu'liwiibu. •ikI Kthvlwenl. beiiiilcii tbiMe who died in tbtir lufmirr, one of nboin wm Kilmuiul. Etbi'Idttl. viirn •ill' arrived «t a niarrbiKi'alib' aire, wax i iiniird l<>Elbeln-<l. <'irl uf Mirciii; Ktbrl^lvu was | il-'<lii-.iir<l til tiixl. ami ■uliiiiitte<l to the rulra uf j a mi'Oiwtic life: Etlirlwi nl the youogeiit, by the | IMviiie ctiuiiM-l* and admirable prudence of the \ iiiiiir. « aa ivuaigneil to the aeboola of leandni(, «lii'rv, with the tbildreii of aliiiimt nil tie u<i i liiliit of the country, and inanr ulwi hbi' »er<' j Dot iiolile. be pnM|ien-d under the dllii;ent can- niliMeaehers. IhNikitinlMnhUDguagiii, uanitlr. | in Ijilin and Saxon, were rea<l iii the xlxail [ Tliiy alw leanM-<l to write; to that, liefore ihev ; am'' o! an age to practite maoly una, uanirlv liuiitiug and aurh other puraulu'ai befit noble imn. tiiey bei'ame (tudloua and clever in tlK lib- rnil arta KtlwanI and Etbelawitlia were lireil up iu the king a court, aiui rvceiviHl gn-at alien lion from their MTvaiita and nuraea: nar, thev toiiilnue to tbla day, with the love of alf aUiul llina and abew altability, and even gentleiieaa, toaarda all. both forrigiiera anil nativea, and are in I iHuplete aubiection to their father i nor. nmoni; till ir other atudiea which ap|ieruin to Ibia life and are dt for noble youtba, are tbev auffemi !■> JAM tlitir time blly and uiiprotltaViv, wllbmit iianiing the llbenrarta, for they have carefully linriied the I*ialma and ttezon l>iH>ka, ea|Mi'ially lUi' Saion Hoeina, and are continually iu the Uliil of making uae of liia>lu.' The arluMila of karninii. to which Aaarr alludea in thia paaaum-. a« |..rnied for the uae of the king'a cbildr-n and till' »ina of bla noblra, are again mtniioiHil elae- Kluri' by the aanie author, aa 'th^< a. bi«d which 111 liad aliiilioualy colliiU'd togettHi, conaiatiUK ■ fiiuni > 'i|h> iirbillty of hia own nation and ill 9 iliiid iMUaagr, Aaarr ajieaki of the aona of till iioliiliiv who Were bre«l up In llw royal hoUM' lii'lil It Uilear, tlien, from theae ex|in-««lonti Hal ilie kiiig'aexertiooaloapread leaniing anioiii; bit iiohU a and to educate hia own children, m re • I a nil*! active and penoiutl nalun'. uni-oimecte.' a nil any inalltuiiona of a mon- iiublu clmradi r till xlioiil was kept In hia ohu houaebold and till 111 « iiulillc aeat of b^amhig. We may iH-r lia|i» alduce theae rxprrMl.ma of Aaaer i* n'lillli': iiiK uualnat the iiotinn, that an I iiiTcraitv or I'.ililir .Seniiunry if l/e*ni> g eilst4it in il>e il»y» if Alfml T'jiiugli it la luoat pr<>)>able that iJi. ai'it.jl nionaalerira, and other aix-ii "a of mouka rihi 1 liiirebnun. « nuld employ a portion of t^^■ir l-ti> lime in teaching yiv it. anil ppaecuting tiwh own atudiea ; j'et there la no proof that an author' lied aeat of learning, auch a« the Vnitrrnltiea of Oxforii or Caniliridge, exlal«t! In England, until many hundred yeara r.(ter tlie tfmeofAlfred." — J. A Gilea, HjhimI Tiiuuia Alfnd Iht Great, M. II. Saracaoic and Mooriib Icammr.— "Erenaa earlv aa the tenth irntiry, pewiua having a taata (or learning and (or elegant amenitiea found tiieil' way into ^pain froin nil adjoining counlriea: a limctii-e in Miiliix-ijuent years still niori' indulged In, when It U-came niuairattil bv the brilliant suc- c.a»o( Uilliirt, will. . . |<aaa<Ml from the Inddel Inlvemitv of lonlo>tt to the iMipacv of Home. Tlie kimlif.i of the \\e»t carrieil out the prt'ci pu of All. the fourth fcuceMuirof Moliainnnil, in the patronage of liiemiure. Tbey eaiBblialicl libra- riea ill ull till ii chief tow!i.H;"it ia aald timt uot fewer thnn mvinty wiTi' iu exiatelicr To everv nioMiue vtnautluclied a public aciioil, in wbicb the children of tlii- |Hior were taught to read and write, mill lu»lniciii| intlie preceptaof the Koran. For tboM' in eaaiircirriiniataiicTa there were acad- emic, usually amiiniil in t»i nty-tive or thirty apunmcniii, cui h cuUulated (or iiccommoiluting four aliideutK; the lU-uiU'liiy 1« iiiB pniiidiHl o»-er liy a rector In Ciirdovii. (imi'mda, and other L'reat cities, there «<re uiiiieraitiea (riouently uiiiler the au|N'rintendence ii( Jews, the .Moiiam- unslun muxin. iM-iug Ihui the real h.iniiu)[ of a man la of more public <iuiiortance than iiuy par- ticular ni||gioiia opinions be may entertain Iu tbla this- followid the exaii.ple of the iVslutii; klialif. llaMiin .\lmacbiil. « lio i.i iuhIIv coiiferrrti tliesii|K'rinleiii|en(S'iif hisM'hoolaon John Maaue, u Neaioriun t'briatian Tlie .Mohammedau lilar- alltv was in atriking > ontnisi wiib the intoleriuice of Eur<i|»- . . Ill the iinivi rsitiea aoiiie of the profi-aaon of |Milite llterulure gave leiturea on Arabic classical works; ollnnt tau,:hl rlieloric or coni|NMitiiin, or matbemuiic^. or uslniimmy. Kmui these inalitutioua many if the pnictii.Taob- stTVisi in our colleges »• n derlvcil Tli-y held t'uninHnceu.ents. at whhb isHina wen- nad and orations dilivensl In pres»'iice of the public. Tlicy iind also, in addition to tliiae scbiMilsof gen- eral learning, profeaaioual ones, purtiiularly for mnliclne AVIIb a pride |H'rliaps not ulioKitber lurxi'Uaable. the .\ml>ians Ismsti'd of Ilieir lan- guage as laluif the niiwt |»rfict a|><ikeii by mau. It ia iioi ilieii stirprisinit Ihal. in the .Vrobhtn MbiNila, gttnl nllention was paid to tlic atudy of language. Slid that so ni.;iiy islebnil.il grainmur- iana Were priHluctsl lly ibi-si' ai liolnrs. dliilon- aries. aimifar totbiM' now in list', werecompoaeti; tlieir coplousut ss is indicated iiy the circuiiulancc that one uf tlicin iiiusisiid of sixty volumes, the deliniiion of each noni Ihilii illiiairatisl or sua- tainid iiy iin lalions imm Anili nutbora of ac- kill w I- .iirnl 1' 1 ;;ti nicy had alao lexieous of tinsk. I.iiii llclinw . and cvcbiiH-difta such a* tin lli-i •rji :il lliitimwry lY f^k'mfs of .M... Iiaiiiiiiiil lliii .VIslullah. of tiranada " — J W I>ia|Hi //iW .." '. Inl'" i-liiiil O'tii-pii.ri.t -f Kiir.,ii,,r i .' . - TbcSarai-enIr kinirsfiTiiu-d libr:irii- .■( iiii(.^ ,i''- l<s| sUe and nutnlsr Tliat of Ilaki i>> anioiin |o liiai laa) voltiiiiea. oi nldch ■H wen- ciiiploynl in the men- calabiitue I'p- waniaiii To publii liorarira wer- esiahilslusl In hiA domiuiona IIMI.INIO vuluniea were ciniU-ivd in the library of s'aiM. and were fnsi lei i to the aiiidloiia citizen. The laate of the » ui i< Ign communicitcd itaeif to tbu aobject. and i, prieat* ^10 KDCCATION. flehoohmtn Mtd ackolatMettm. EDUCATION. loctnr decUrrtl that hli books w«ic Mlffleirnt to kwl xn raineU. Nor weie the Sumcena k-u at- t4Dtl^ •* to the fouDilntloD of irboftliaod collews. Eighty of tlw latter Inatitutiniu adorned Conk)Ta In the rrlipi of Hakem : in the flfteeoth prntury flftv were wattmcd over the dty and plain of Oranatla. 200.000 dinara (about £100.000 tter- Ung) were Mp«'niled on the foundation of a lingle colTeee nt Baishilail It wiu endnwetl with an anniiiil n'rrntir of lS.(i>iOdlnan. ami waa attended by (I.IHMI dliiilinU. The prince* of ilie liouae of o'meyn li<aioure<l the SpanlUi aeadeinii* liy their pirm-iu'e and •ludiea, and t'onipele<l, i- i without •ufe«>s for llir prize* of learning. Niimrroua nolic"!-! for the purpose of elementary instrur'i.n wi-n iindeti by a long aerietnf monnnliR. . Id this manner tne .Vrnhlana, within twi . < i ntiin «, eonrtnitied an apparatua for mental imiirorp- nwnt whieh hlther«o Imd not been eiitialleii wve in .Vit'Xnmlrin. ami to which the ( iiireh. after rulirif tlie IntelU-ct of Eun>pe for uiorr than Hve huii.ln •! VI ura, could offer no parallel." — Thr In- tfllffl-i.it'llrriml </ thf MiiMlf Ai^f ( Wrutmiiultr Jirru 'r Jilitvmy, 18*tfl). Scholasticiam. — Schoelman. — In the later tlnK-i if the Kiiinnn i mpire. "the Ioh of the dig- .lily of piiliticnl fri't'ili'in. the want of the iheer- fuliieiui of ailviiui in^ pr»K|M'rity, anl the aubstltu- lion if the leMpliilcMopliicaUtructureof the Latin luntituige for the delicHli- intellectual mechanism of the Greek, fixed and avi^nnented the prevalent feebleness nnd bartenneas t>f intrlli ct. Men for- got, or feared, to consult nature, to wek for new truths, to do what the great liisunvrnT* of other fli..i'» had iliine; they were content to consult libmrits. to study and defend old opinionn. to talk of what great geniuses had snid. They Hougbl tlieir pnlloaopny In accn'dited Ireiilisea, and dared not question such doctrines at they there founil. . . . In the mean time the I liristian nliglon had liecome the l<>ading subject of men's thoughts, and divines liaii putforwanl its claims to Ih'. not merely the guiile of men's lives, and the means of n-conciling them to their heavenly Master, but also to be a Iliiloanphy in the widest seiiM' in which the term had been umiI , — a con- siotent specuUtivc view of man's condition and nature, and of the world in which he is plnce<l. ... It was held, without any n-gulating prin- ciple, that the philonopliy which ha<l Ixrn l>e- i|Ueallied to the world by the great gi i'iii»«-s of hriitlH'n antiii'.iily. nnd the philosophy « Iiich was dciluceil from, nml Implied hv. the'Ri'velations made by Oixt i<i man, must W identical; and, then-fore, that Theology is the only true philosn- phT. . . . Tills view was c<inlfrme<l by the ontnion whiih prevailed, concerning the liature of philosophical tnith: a view supported by the Ihwry of Plato, the practice of Aristotle, and the general propensities of the human mind : I mean the opinion tliat all science mav be obtained by till- line of n-asoning alone;— tliat by analyzing and combining the notions which common Un- giiage brings liefore us, we may learn all that we can know. Thus Logic came tn Incluile tb<' wlioleof Science: and acconllngly this AlielanI esiiresaly nuintained. . . . Thus a Universal Hclence waa eatablishetl, with the authority of a Religious Creed. Its universality restetl on er- rimeoiis viem-iof the relation of w.irdsami truth, its pretensi./F.j as a science were admlttetl by the servile teM;.<i of men's intellects; and its re ■flaua autliuiitjr was assifced it, by makio^ all truth part of rellfion. And •■ Religion claimed aiaent wtthln her own Juriadictloa under the must solemn and Impentnre auiction*, Philnsophr shared in her imperial power, and disw-nt fMm tlH-ir doctrinea waa no loager blameless or allow- able. Error became wfcked, dlsaent Unmt heresy; to reject the received human doctrinn. was nearly the same aa to doubt the Divlm- dechiratlons. The Bcholaatic Philosophy clainMl the assent of all belleTer*. The exterasl form, the details, anl the text of this Philosopliy. wire taken, in a great measure, from Aristotle . tlii>ii|;li, in the spirit, the pixril notions, and the atvl; of interpretation, Plato and the Platoni^in linl no inconsiderable share. ... It does not Ixlnni: to our purptise to consider either the theolnuii-,! or tlie metaphysical doctrines which form so lnr|,'r a portion of the tn-atisesof the schoolmen IVr- haps It may hereafter appear, that some liclit ia thrown on some of the questions which Imvi- iie- cupietl metaphysicUns in all agi-s. by thai I'mm- Inatlonof the history of the I>r(igre.Jiive .><i imo-i In which we are now engaged; but till »>- nrc able to analyze the leading contn>venle» of ilii, kimi. It would be of little service to niKak of them in detail. It may be noticed, however, iliat many of the most prominent of them refir tn ilie great question, 'What is the relation lietwira actual thing* and general terms T' t'erliupn is modem times, the actual things would Im> m<n commonly taken aa the point to start from hii'I men would begin by conaidering how cI»im'<i and universal* are ubtainni from imlividimls But the sclioolmen, founding tlieir s|ieeiilnli>iii« mq the received modes of considering such siiliji-rK. to which Imth Aristotle and Plato Im.l i,n tributeil, travelled in the oppoaite direclin'i. aii.l enileavore<l to discover how iwlividuaU «i n- ili - duce<l from genera and species;- what ».-» the I*riiicinle of Individuation.' This whs v:irioii»lr statetl W different leasoners. ThusUoniiviniuii solves the dlfflculty by the ahl of tlie Ari>i<<ii'liao distinction of Matter and Form. Tlie imliviiiual derive* from the Form the pni|H>rty of luinit something, and frt>m the Matter the proix-rty of being that particular thing. Dunn S-oiii^. tlir gri'st ntiversary of Thomas .\iiiiiniu< in il Ii'cr. pUctii the principle of Individuation in sirr tain determining positive entity,' whiili hioM III »l calle<l llRK-c-eity or 'thisnes*.' Tliiiii nn in dividual man U Peter, because hU liiuii.iiiitr is eombiniil with Petreity.' The forii- of nlistrnit terms la A curious uiiestion. and some n iimrlial>l« experiments in their use bad been nin>le bv thr Latin Aristotelians before this time. In ilie nam' way In which we talk of the quantit^v ami i^mli'r of It tiling, they spoke of its 'i|uiiliiity. ^^'r mav conuder the reign of nu're liispuliiii'Hi a« fully established at the time of whicii we sn- ii"if speaking {the Middle Ages]; andtheonlv i>iriil"f philosopliy henceforth studied waa one In hIiuIi no sound jihvsical sc'ence had or eoulil li;ivi- i p:*!*."— W. ' Whrwill, //(•»«. of Ihf lu'li'llH Srirnfft, hk. *. ■'>! 4 (t. 1) --••Scholaslii i»ni wis philosophy In tlie service ot established uml a< i-eptiii thiHihigiral doctrines. . . . M.r. par ticularly, SehoMsticisni was the rrprmiuciion "t ancient pfaihaophy under the coutMl of n " li-fi astiral doctrine. . . The name of S li"l.o'ii''« (doctfires srholsstlel) which was givin t.' lli<- teachers of the septeinliberalessrtea[wvcii lil«nl arts] (grammar, dialectic, rhetoric, in iIm- Tr. vium, arithmetic, geometry, music and uiros 714 EDUCATION. HI— of EDUCATION. ,iiny, in the QuadriTlum), or at leaat mme of tbem, in the Cl<>i«ler8clinoto (inuided bjr Ciuirle- uMKne, M klto to teachen of tbcolugy, wm >f ter- w«nU giren to all who occupied theiiiwWea with tbv irirncn. Mid eapcclallr with |riiila*ophy. . . JohannnHratu*, or Erlgeoa (ninth coituiT] hi tlir earllvtt noteworthy philaaoplier of tbe Ifk'hiilaitic period. He waa of Sootttah nation- alitr, but waa probably bnm and brought up in Irrlami. At the call of Charlea the Bald he «mi- cntrd to France."— F. Ueberweg, IIul. of PM- Imiphp. r. 1. pp. 855-484.— "Scholaatlcltm. at the la«t. from tlie pnidlgioua mental actirity which it kept up. lircane a tacit unireml insurrection iipiiiut authority: it waa the iwelling of the (Htan lirfore the itorm. ... It waa a dgn uf a crrst awalivnin); nf the human miiHl when theo- luirinnii lhout;ht It both their iuty and their prIvik-KP to philoaonhize. There "waa a viiat waale of Intelk-ctiial labor, but Mill It wni Intel- Irrtiial labor, ami. aa we ahall tee, it waa not In the fD«l unfniltful. "— C. J. Still*, Stuitir* in Mnlit- ml IlitliTji, eh. 13.— ■■8cholaatirUm hati Its hour of (tlory. its enuille doctors. Its elo<|iirnt pro- fnaors, chief amonx whom was AlielanI (107^ 11431. ... At « time when priming did not ex- ist, when mauiiM-ript copies wrre rare, .■» ti>achi-r Till) combined kruwlnljte with the (rift of speech was a phenomenon of incomparable interest. aiMi •tiidrnts flocke<l from all partaof Europe to take Sllvanut^' of his liH-liin-s. AbelanI is the most brilliant reprenentntivr of the schoUatic peda fogy, with an oripinal and personal tewlencv townnis the emancj{Mtion of the mind. ' It (a riili<'uloiis.' he said, 'to preach to others nlmt we can neither make them understand nor under •tsuil ourselves." With mi>n> bokineas than Saint AnM'Im. he applinl ilialectics to theology, and sttrnipte<l to rraaon out the grouodaof his faith. Till- seven liberal arta conatTtuted what may lie fsllnl the secondary Inatructlon of the Miilille Ap-, such aa was given in the rlaiistml or con- Tt-ntual schools, and later. In the unWenities. The lilieral arts were ilistribiite<l into two courses of »tuiiy, known aa the ' trivium " and the ' (juad- rivium.' The 'trivium' comprlse<l grammar (Utin giamitur, of course), dialectlc-s, or logic, •nil rhetoric : aiwl the ' (|uattrlvium. ' music, arlth. metii'. geometry, and aatronomy. It is im|Mirtnnt lo tmte the fact that thia programme roiiiains only nlwtnu't ami formal studies, — ih) n-ul an<i nmrn-ie studies. The sciences which teach us to know man and the world, such aa history, eiliiiii, the phyaicnl and natural sciences, were oiniittil and unknown. »Mve perhaps in a few con- vi-n!«of the Benedlctiiiea. Nothing which can tnilt i-iiucate man, ami devekip his faculties ass «h..lf. inlisu the sttention of the Middle Age. From A course of stuily thus limltisl there might come tkillful rvasoner* ami men formiilnblc in sririiment, but never fully ileveloped men. The nn-iliinU employed in the'ecclesiaalicai sclioolsiif iht- Middle Age were In accord with the spirit of tin- iliiu-a, when men were m>t concemiil aNxil lllx-rty ami intelk>ctual freedom: ami when they thi>ii|iht more about the teaching of dogmas than aliout the training of the Intelligence. The teachers n-clted or read their lectures, ami the piipilt k-amed by heart. The diadpline waa harsh Corrupt human nature waadlatrusti-<l. In l-WI. puplla were forbiddra the uae of benches •nit rhsirs, on the pretext that such high seats were an encuurafcmmit to prfcle. For securing obedlenoe, corporal chaatiaements were used ud abuaed. The rod la in faahion in the flfteenth aa It waa in the fourteenth century. ' There la no other difference, 'wya an historian, 'except that the roda in the fifteenth century are twice aa k»f as those in the fourteenth. ' "— O. Ccmpayr^, Tin llif. of ndagajii: IntHM. bf W. U. A»a«, ek. 4. UaiTMsiti«a.Tli«ir RIm.- Abcliwd.— " Up to the end of the eleTenth century the Inatruction was, speaking generally, and allowing for tranai- tory periods of revival, and for a few excep- tional schools, a shrunken survival of the old ' trivium et quadrivlum. ' The lessons, when not dicuted ami learnt by heart from notes, were got up from bald epitomes. All that wasuught, more- over, waa Uught tolc'ly with a view to ' pToiis uses. ' Criticism dill not exist . the free spirit of specu- lation could not. of course, exist. ... As we approach liie periixl which saw the birth of those institutions known aa !Studi.i Ihiblica or Oenrr- alU, and ere long to be known aa ' universities,' we have to extend our vision and recognize the circumaUncea of the time, and those changes in the tocial conilition of Eimipe which made great central achoaila poaaible— achiKila to be freqiienUil not merely by the young ecciiiiiastic, but liy lay- men. Among other caiiaes which led to the ilff fusion of a demand for education among the laity, was, I think, the institution or n-firganiration of municlnalities. It was about the en.l of the elrvcntli century that the civic Communes (Com- munittl liegan to w-vk ami obuin, from royal and otiier authorities, charters cf incorpointion con- stituting their internal government and confer- ring o-rtiiiii freedoms and privilegi-s as against the cncMiichmeiit of lay and et'clealastical h-iidal baroiia. . . . ANiut the same time, an(l some- what prior to this, trade guilds had Uf n formol In many cities for mutual protection, the advi>nc<'- ment of commerce, and the internal n-gulatloii of the various crafts. There Immediately followetl a draire for schools in the more important com- mercial towns. In Italy such schools afvv la R4il(igna, MiUn. Brescia, and Florence; and in Germany they arose in I.Qbeck, Hamburg. Bres- laii. Nonlhauaen, Stettin, Ijeipaic. ami Mlm- lierg. The <listinclive charact<-ristic of tlieso city schools was, that they do not seem to have been under the direct control of the Church, or to have been always taught by priests; fur- ther, that tiM' native tiingue (tjlerriutu or Italian, as the caite might lie) was Uught. Reading, writing, and a little arithmetic seem to have fomiiiT the staple of the instruction. The cua- timi of <lictnting. writing down, and then learn- ing by lu-art what was written — universal in tlie schools of the preceding centuries — waa, of course, still followed in tlieae burgh ichoola. Thia niaiom was alinoat Inevitable. . . . The in- crcascil communication with Africa uml the Eaat through the Crusades hail Introduced men to a aundard of learning among the Arabs, unknown In Euni|H'. Outside the school, the onler of chlv- airy had Introduced a new ami higher ethical apirit than had lieen known In the previoua cen- turies Civic communities and trade guilda were forming themselves and seeking charters of In- c«rp<iration. Above all. the Crusades, by atlmu- Istlng the aniour and exciting the intellecu of men, hail iinai-ttkHi oM oonventhio by bringing men of all ranks within the sacred circle of a com- mon enthusiasm, ami Into contact with foreig-,; civilliatluoa. The deaire for a higher eduokUon, s: ^\. 71o ss.* EDUCATION. The influ«nc€ of Aboard. EDUCATION. and the impulae to more profound InTestigation, that characterized the beginning and courae of the twelftli century, was thus only a part of a widespread movement, political and moral. . . . While the Romano- Hellenic achoolshad Ion; dis- appeared, there still existed, in many towns, ipisropal schools of a high class, many of which might l)e regarded as continuations of the old imperial proriucial institutions. ... In Bologna and Paris, Ilheims and Naples, it was so. The iirt ) curriculum professed in these centres was, for the time and state of knowledge, g(X)d. These schools, indeed, had never quite lost the fresh impulse given liy Charlemagne and his successors. . . . Acuirding to my view of educational history, the great ' studia publica ' or ' generalia ' arose out of them. They wen- themselves, in anarrowsensc, already 'stuclla publica.'. . . Looking, first, to the germ out of which the universities grew, I think we must siiy that the universities may be regarded as a natural development of the cathe- dral und monastery schools ; but if we seek for an citernal motive force urging men to undertake the more profound and independent study of the lil'inil art.s, we ciiu Und it only in the Saracenic M'liixils of Biigdud, Babylon, Alexandria, and {'orilova. ... To fix precisely the da«e of the rise of the first specialized schools or universities is impossible, for the simple reason that they were not founded. . . . The simplest account of the new university origins is the most c<)mK?t. It would appear that ci'rtain active-minded men of marked eminence began to give instruction in medioal subjects at Salerno, and in law at Bo- logna, in a spirit and manner not previously attempted, to youths who had left the monastery and cathi'dnil scIimiIs. and who desiretl to equip themselves for professional life. Pupils Hocked to them: and the more able of thesi' 'tudents, tiridiiig that there was a public demand for this higher speelallzed instruction, remained at heaii- (oiarters, an<l tlieiiiselves became teachers or (liK'tors. The Church did not found universities any more than it founded the order of chivalry. They were founde<i by a concurrence (not wholly fortuitous) of able men who bad something they wished to t( ach, and of youths who desired to leani. None the less were the acquiescence and protirtliin of I'hurch and Stale necessary in those (lays fi>r the fostering ol these infant semiuaries. . . . Of the three great schools which we have named, there is ■ufHcient ground for believing that the lirst to reach such a dex "opment as to iniiileitto the name of a studium generate or luilverMlty was the ' Sehola Salernitaua,' although it never was a university, t<>chnlcally speaking." — S. S. Laurie, Hint imiitiirln Gimtitution of I iii- r.r»i7i'.«. Uct. 6-7.— "Ideas, till this time seat- tend, or watched over in the various ecclesiastical seliools. iH'gan to converge to a common centre. Till' great name of Vnivenity was recogniBe<l in till' cHpilal of France, it the moment that the Kh'neh tongue had iH'come almost uulveraal. The' ecinquests of the Normans, and the first cru- sade, ha<l spreiul its powerfully phllosophle idiom ill every direction, to England, to Sicily, and to JiriiKuleni. This rlrttimstancc alone 'loves' d FraiH-e, central Pram*. I>»ris, with an immen' at- tractive power, lly decrees, Parisian Kreiu-ii be- came a proverb. Keiidalism had found it* political centre in the Myal city ; and this city was alxiut to Is'come the capital of hunwii thought. The be- giuuef ul Ihis revuiultoii was not a pricat, but a handsome young man of briUUnt talents, ami- able and of noble family. None wrote love verses, like Lis, in the vulgar tongue ; be sang them, too. Besides, his erudition was extmordi- nary for that day. He alone, of his time, knew both Oreek and Hebrew. May be, he had studied at the Jewish schools (there were many in the Sout'.), or under the rabbins of Troyes, Vitry, or of Orleans. There were then in Paris two leading scliools: the old Episcopal sciiool nf the parvis Notre Dame, and that of St. Oeneviivc, on the hill, where shone William of Champiaux! Abelanl joined his pupils, submitted to hi'ii his doubts, puzzled him. laughed at him. and iliised his mouth. He would have serveil Aiiselm of Laon the same, had not the professor, biini; a bishop, expelled him from his diocese, lu iliia fashion this knight-errant of logic went on. un- horsing the most celebrated champions. He him- self declared that he had only reuounceil tilt and tourney through his passion for intellectui' . .,n\- bats. Henceforwanl. victorious and win. it a rival, he taughtat Paris and Melun, the ri'>iili'iici' nf Louis-le-()ros, and the lords flocked to lu-ar him; anxious to encourage one of theiiiMlvrs, who hud discomfited the priests on their iiwu ground, ami had silenced the ablest ch'rks. Alxl ard's wonderful success is easily exphiineil. All the lore and learning which had Iti'eu Biiinihircil under the heavy, dognnuical forms of ilirictil instruction, and hidden in the rude Latin nf the middle age, suddenly appeared arniviil in the simple elegance of anti(|uity, so that men sii mini for the first time to hear and recognise a liiimaii vrice. The daring youth slmpUfled and explaiiinl everything; pn^sentiug pbiUisophy in a familiar form, and bringing it home to mens busnms. He hardly suffered the obscure or su|ieniatii- ral to rest' on the hardest mysteries of faith. It s<'emed as if till then the Church had lis|.i'il ami stammereil; while Abelard spoke. All«a>niaiie smooth and easy. He treati-d ri'ligiim iniirti'- ously and handled ler gently, but she niiltiil away in his hanilr Nothing embarras-seil the fluent S|ieaker: he re<luce<t religion to pliilimi. phy, and morality to humanity. •C'riiin',' ho said, ' con.si.sts not in the act, but in the intm. tion.' It followed, that there was mi sm li tliiug OS sins of habit or of ignorance— 'Tiny who crucifitKl Jesus, not knowing him to have been the Saviour, were guilty of no sin ' What is original sin f — 'Less a sin, than a punishnunt.' But then, wherefore the redemption and the pa» sion, if there was no siuT — 'It was an ai tof \\nK love. Ood deslntl to substitute the law of Inve for that of fear.'" — J. Michelet. J/itloryf thmrt. r. 1, A*. 4. eh. 4 — " It Is dlHIcull, by a im ri' luru- sal of Altelnnl's works, to uudentaiid the rlTirt he prixluiitl ujKm his hearers bv the fnne of hit argumentation, whether sludleil or liii|iroviv<il, and by the anlor and animatluu of his elmiurnre. and the gracv and attractiveness of his inrson. But the testimony of his contem|M>raries is iiiiani. moui; even his adversaries theiiiselvcs reiiilir Justice to his high oratorleni qualities Nnutw ever reasoned with more subtlety, or handlnl the dialectic tool with more athlreas; and assurnlly. something of these qualities is t<- be found In llie writings be has left us. But the intense lifi . tin- enthusiastic arthir which enlivened hisdisCKirsi'i, the beauty of his face, and the chann of hii voice cannot Iw Imparted by cold mttnu«i rti'in U«i(4ie, wiiuK name is inieparabiy linKi'i "uii 71G BDUCATION. Latin Languagt and Ltaming. BDCCATION. that of her unfortunate huiband, and whom Charles de Rfmusat does not hesitate to call ' the first of women ' ; who. in any case, was a superior person of her time; Heloise. who loved Abelard with 'an immoderate love,' and who, under the veil of a ' religieuse ' and throughout the practice of devotional duties, remained faithful to him until death ; Heloise said to him in her famous Utter of 1136: ' Thou hast two things especially which could instantly win thee the hearts of all women : the charm thou knowest how to impart to thy voice in speaking and singing.' External (rifts combined with intellectual qu^ities to make of Abelard an incomparable seducer of minds nud hearts. Add to this an astonishing memory, 11 knowledge as profound as was compatible with the resources of his time, and a vast erudition which caused his contemporaries to consider him a master of universal knowledge. . . . How can one be astonished that with such qualities Abel- ard gained an extraordinary ascendency over his UL'i'; that, having become the intellectual ruler iinil, as it were, the dictator of the thought of the twelfth century, ho should have succeeded in attracting to his chair and in retaining around it thousands of young men; the first germ of Uu«v assemblages of students who were to constitute the universities several years later ? ... It is not alone by the outward success of his scholastic apostolate that AbelanI merits consideration as tlie precursor of the modem spirit and the pM- iiioter of the foundation of the universities; it is also by his doctrine, or at least by his method. . . . Ao one claims that Abelard was the first who. In the Middle Ages, had hitttxluced dialect- lc« into theology, reascm into authority. Ir the iiinlh eenturv, Scotus Erigena had already said: •.\utiioritv is derived from reason." Stholustl- cisni, which is nothing but logic enlightening theology, an effort of reason to demonstrate donnia, had begun before Abelard ; but it was lie who gave movemeut ami life to the metlKnl hv linding it his power and his renown.'"— G. Coni- I'lvre, AM)iril, pt. 1, eh. "i-S. Latin Laoguace.— "Oreek was an unknown ti'iiKue: only a very .'ew of the Latin classics re- iilved a perfunctory attention: Boethius was pr. ferred to Cicero, and the Moral Sentences iivrilH'd to Cato to either. Htiles couched in liiirlmrous Latin verse were committed to mem- iry. Aristotle was known only in ineorrect Latin translations, which manv of the taught. imd some of the teachers probalily, supp.wed to !h' ihi' originals. Matters were not mended wlii'U the student, having passed through the pnlimlnary course of arts, ailvanceil to the study of the sciences. Theologv meant an acciimlni- niK e with the • Sentenci's" of IVter I^mlmnl <.r lu other cases, with the "Summa" of Thoniu!* A'lUlnas; in medlelne, Oalen was nn auihoriiv fnnu which there was ni> np|HMd. t)n everv hUiv the student was fenenl round bv InidllioiiM un.l prejudices, through which It wiis Impossible to break. In truth, he had no means of knowing timt there was a wider and falnr world Ivi vond. Till the classical revival eanie. every die:i.le made the yoke of prewriptlon heavier, "and each t'l iH'ratlon of students, thenlore, a fwbler <(.pv f the last. "—C. MeanI, Marlin l.ullur nmt the i:.i„rmnli,m. th. 8.— "What at flmt lia<l lui-n ' >i rvwiiere a Greek became In Western Euro|«' ' - "in rs'llgttm. Thr discipiinc of Unma liiuin- ' lined the hotly of doctrine which the thought of Greece had defined. A new Latin version, super- seding alike the venerable Greek translation of the Old Testament and the original words of Evangelists and Apostles, became the received text of Holy Scripture. The Latin Fathers ac- quired an authority scarcely less binding. The ritual, lessons, and hymns of the Church were Latin Ecclesiastics transacted the business of civil dei>artments -eciuiring education. Libraries »_ere armories of ti.e Church : grammar was part of her drill. The humblest sch.jlar was enlisted in her service: she recruited her ranks by found- ing Latin schools. • Education in the rudiments of Latin,' says Hallam, "was imparu-d to a grt'ater uuml)cr of individuals than at present;* and, as they liad more use for it than a^ present, it was longer retained. If a boy of humble birth had a taste for letters, or if a bov of high birth had a distaste for arms, the first step was to learn Latin. His foot was then on the ladder He might rise by the go<xl oftices of his family to a bishopric, or to the papacy itself by merit and tlie grace of Grxl. Latin enabled a Greek from Tarsus (Theodore) to become the founder of learning in the English church ; and a Yorkshire- man (Alcuin) to organize the schools of Charle- magne. Without Latin, our English Winfrid (St. Boniface) could not have been apostle of Gernmuy and reformer of the Prankish Church; or the German All)ert, master at Paris of Tiiomas Aquinas; or Nicholas Bn-akspeare, Pope of Home. With it. Western Christi'ndom was one vast field of labor: calls for wlfsacriflce, or offers of pMniotion. might come fn)m north or south, fnim east or west. Thus In the Middle Ages Latin was mailc the groundwork of educa- tion; not for the beauty of Its classlcul litera- ture, norliecause the study of a dead language was the Ih^si mental gymnastic, or the only means of acqidring a masteriy freedom In the use of living tongues, but because it was the langiiago of e<lucateil men throughout West- ern EunijH'. employed for public business, litera- ture, phihisophy, and selen.e; alK)vc all. In G'«r« pMvidence, essential to the uidty. and therefore enforced bv the authority of. the West- ern Chunh.'— C. S. Parker, Umiy ,„, tht Hit- torj/ of t'liim,;it EilnMti,m {quulrd 'in Dr. llenty Biniitnlt •• l,ithi: tjuui^t and Tlmnghtt on Stiiifiiniiiiil Ciniihii-t," p. 407). France,— "The countries of western Europe, leaveniHl, all of them, by the one spirit of the feudal and eutholii- Middl.> Al-c, formed in some seUBi' one community, ami wire more assiK-iated than they have thin slme the feudal and catholic unity of the .Middle A«e bus ilLsappeaad and given pl.ue to the divliled ami various life of inixlirii Europe. In the iiiiillieval community Knuice helil the tirst place. It is now well known that to pl.iiv In till' I'lth irnturv the revival of liitilli. iiial lite and the reestalilishment of civ- ilisulioii. and to tnat tlie periiKl between the .'nh iiuiiiry. w hen iineient elvlllsation was ruined , by the liailiarlaiit. and the l.lth. when the life and liilelliit of llila elvillsation reappeanil aiut tniusf.iriiiiil ilii> worid. as one chaos, isamislake. I The (liaos ends alKiut the loth century: In the j mil there truly comes the first reestalilishment I of elvillsiilion. the first n'vlval of intellectual life; 1 Uie prinilpal cintri' of this n-vival Is France, ita I eldef monuments of literature ntv In the French j i.iiiguu^e. iis liiii T iiiouunieuts of art are the i French catbedrals. This revival fill* the Itlth and ■flJ il7 EDUCATION. The rniirrwYy of Pari: EDUCATION. 1 3th centuries with its activity and with ita works : all thi-] time Ftance has the lead ; in the 14th cen- tury the lead passes to Italy; but now comes the commencement of a wholly new period, the period of the Renaissance properly so called, the beginning of modern European life, the ceasing of the life of the feudal and catholic Middle Age. The anterior and less glorious Renaissance, the Renaissance n-itliin the limits of the Middle Age itself, n revival whirh came to a stop and could not successftdly develope itself, Init which has yet left profound traces in our spirit and our liter- atun'. — lliis revival belongs chiefly to France. France, then, may well serve as a typical countir wherein to trace "the mediieval growth of intel- lect and learning ; above all she may so stand for us, whose connection with her ia the Middle Age. owing to our Norman kings and the currency of her language among our cultivated class, was so peculiarly close; so close that the literary and intellectual development of the two coimtries at that time interndngles, and no important event can hapi>en in tliat of ihe one witho\it straight- way affecting and interesting that of the other. . . . With the hostility of the long French Wars of Edward the Third comes the estrangement, never afterwards diminishing but always increas ing. '■ — M. Arnold, Schools and Cnireriiitie* on the Contiiifiit. eh. 1. — University of Paris. — "The name of Aljelard recalls the European celebrity and immense intellectual ferment of this school [of Paris] In the 12th centnrj-. But it was in the nrst year of the following century, the 13th, that it received a charter fn>m Philip Augustus, and thenceforth the name of University of Paris takes Ihe place of that of 8<'liool of Pans. Forty-nine veiirs later was founded University College, t)x- ford. the oldest lollege of the oldest English Uni- versity. Four iiations coniposed the tniversity of I'aris— the nation of France, the nation of I'icanix the nation of Normandy, and (signal mark of the close interi'ourse which then citisteil iKtween Frame and usi ) tlie nation of England. The fiMir naliims united formed the faculty of arts. Tlie fiicultv of theologv was creaU'd In li.*>7. that of law in 1271. that of medicine in 1ST4. Thiiilogy, law. and medicine had each their Than ; arts had four Pncuralors, one for each of the four nations composing tids faculty. Arts elected the nctor of the University, and had possession of the University chest and anhlvis. The pre emimnie of the Vacuity of Arts indicates, as in- deed liiHS the virv di'Velopmciit of the Univer- sity, all Idia. grailually Rtreiicilicnlnu itself, of a lay instnictlon to he no longer absorlied in llie- oloKv. but separable from it. The growth of a lay and niislern spirit in society, the prepcm dirarice of the cmwn over the papacy, of tiie civil over the ecclesiastiral [Hiwer. is the gnat fealim' of Frenrli history in the 14th century, and to this cc ntiiry iH'limgs the highest ilevilnp- meiii of ilie Iniverslly. . . The Imixirtance of Ihi' I'nivirslly In the IXthand 14th <'eMluries\vfis exiraiitilinary. Mi ns minds were ixisseswil with a wciiidirful real brr kuowleilgc, or what was then tliouirltl kniinlitlge, ami the University of Paris Was the gnal fnunt fMin which this kni>w!- edge issueil. The Iniverslly and those de|K'nd- lug nn It nnide at this time, (t is said, actually a third of the iBipulalInn iif I'arls; when llie Uni- versity went on a stilenin imm a^ion in pnMession fu Sdnt Lk'td". the he'id "f the !-r"»eess!on. it Is •■id. had reached ^i. Denis before the cnt' f It had left its starting place In Paris. It had im- munities from taxation, it had Jurisdiction of its own, and its members claimed to be exempt from that of the provost of Paris : the kings of France strongly favoured the University, and leaned to its side when the municipal and acaileniical authorities were in conflict; if at any time the University thought itself seriously aggrievicl, it had recourse to a measure which threw Paris into dismay, — it shut up its schools and sus- pended its lectures. In a body of this kind the discipline could not be strict, and the colli .,•(.) were created to supply centres of discipline w hii li the University in itself, — an apparatus merely nf teachers and lecture-rooms, — did not prmiile. The 14th century is the time when, one after another, with wonderful rapidity, the French col- leges appeared. Navarre, Montaigu, Harcinirt, names so familiar in the school annals of Fninre, date from the first quarter of the 14tli century. The Colhge of Navarre was founded liv the queen of Philip the Fair, in 1304; the C'olli'iie of Montaigu, where Erasmus, Rabelais, and Igna- tius Loyola were in their time students. »»$ founded in 1314 by two members of the 'aniily of Montaigu. one of them Archbishop of .iomn. The majority of these colleges were fou.iiUil liy magnates of the church, and designed to niaiii- tain a certain number of bursara, or scholars, during their university course. . . . Along with the University of Paris there existed in Kraaie. in the 14th century, the Universities of Orltanii, Angers, Toulouse, and Montpcllier. Orleans was the grei ♦ French school for the studv of the ( nil law. . . . The civil law was studiously kipt away from the Unlveraity of Paris, forfiar it shotdd drive out otiier studies, and especially the stuily of theology ; so late as the year IfiTl* ihi 'e was no chair of Roman or even of Fniii li law in the University of Paris. The strength nf this University was concentrated on tUeoIoL'v and arts, and its celebrity arose from the multituilcnf students which in these branches of iustruiiina It attracted." — M. Arnold, S-hm-U unit I'nmr- rilumm the Continent, eh. 1. — The Sorbonne.— The University of Paris acquired the ii.itin- nf "the Sorbonne" "from Rolwrt of SorlKni. aiilic chaplain of St. I»ui9, who established oin' of the 03 colleges of the University. . . . The iiaiin' nf Sirlsmne was first applleil to the tliii'l"airal faculty onlv ; but at length the whole I'liivc r>ity n-ceivisi this dc -dgnation. ' — J. Alzog. .U.in«.i{./ I'liirernil Church Ilirtory, r. 8, p. 'ii.f'"t ""l>. —The Nations.— "The "pri'clse date o( liu- "t- L'anization at Paris of the four Nations uhiih midntidntsi themselves there until llie late -I 'lay« of the university esinilH'S the most niiimii' re- searrli. Neither" for the Nations nor fur iln Ku- ulties was then' any sudden lilosaiaMiiiL'. tint rather a slow evolnllon, an Inwnslbli' |mp;ii iiion for a detlnlte cundltion. Already at llie el -i uf the twelfth o'niiiry there is mention in luiili la- piirary iIim iiiucnts of the varlcms proviiii i - "f thes(inKiliif I'aris. The Nations are iiniitii'iied In Ihe bulls of Ori'gory IX. (1231) and .if tiiii"- cenl IV. (I24.">). In 1245, they already eliit liu Ir altendanls, the U'lidles. In 1241>. Ihe <\i>o mtj of the four Nations — France, Picardy. N"f- mandy. and England — is proved by their ciuar- rels over the election of a rector. . " . Inlii ilie definitive conslliulion of the Fscultiis. Ihit n. until !37<> I'r I'J'i'O. the f<>ur Niiiions Inilu'liil the totality of students and masU'rs. .Vlt< r tne •18 'Hi KDCCATION. " ml study 0/ Roman Lata. EDUCATION. formation of the Facultiet, the four Nations comprised only the members of the Faculty of Arts and those students of other Faculties who had not yet obtained the grade of Bachelor of Arts. The three superior Faculties, Theology, Medicine, and Law, had nothing in common thenceforward with the Nations. ... At Bo- logna, as nt Paris, the Nations were constituted in the early years of the thirteenth century, but under a slightly different form. There the students were grouped In two distinct associa- tiims. the Ultramuntanes and the Citramontanes, the foreigners and the Italians, who formed two universities, the Transalpine and the Cisalpine, each with it« chiefs, who were not styled pi jcu- nilors but counsellors; the first was composed of eighteen Nations and the second of seventeen. At Piiilua twenty-two Nations were enumerated. Montpellier had onlv three in 1339,— the Cata- lans, the Burgundians, the ^rovenpals; each subdivided, however, into numerous groups. Orleans had ten: France, Germany, Lorraine, Burgundy, Champagne, Picardy, Normandy, Touraine, Quyanne, and Scotland; Poitiers had four: France, Aquitaine, Touraine, and Berry; Pniiiue had four also, in imitation of Paris; Urida had twelve, in imitation of Bologna, etc. Bui whether more or less numerous, and what- ever their special organization, the Nations in all tlie universities bore witness to that need of asso- ciation which is one of the characteristics of the Miil'lle Ages. . . One of the consequences of tliiir orjfanization waa to prevent the blending and fusion of races, and to maintain the distinc- tion of provinces and nationalities among the pupils of the same university. "—0. Comuavre .I'W.in/, ;)?. 8, M. 2. ^ Italy : ReviTcd Study of Roman Law.— " It Is known that .lustiuian eojiblir.l e i in Rome a 8<li(H)l of law, similar t. tlios" .if Consuntinople and Berytus. When Komi ci .ised tt. V subject 10 ByzHutine rule, this lawschool seems lo have Ui n tnmsferred to lilavenua. where it continued to keep alive the knowle<lge of the Justinian svs- t< ni. Thai system continued to be known and 11-1,1, from century to century, in a tradition n. V er wholly Interrupted, especially In the tnc ■lis of Xoriheru Italy. It seems even to have j» III trilled lieyond Italy into Southern France. Bui .t was dentlued to have, at the beginning of Mie twi Ifth century, a very extraordinary revival. Tills n vival was part of a general movement of il" Kuni|M.'an mind which inukes Its appcanince »t Hint epoch. The darkness which si'ttled down 111 lie world, iit the time of the Imrlmrian inva- ■iiiK. had its midnight in the ninth and tenth 11 iitiirii ». In the eleventh, signs of progres.s itiicl liiipruvenient 1m tfiu to show themwlveii. Ik'coiu- iii< iiioie (llsllii.t towimli its close, when the IK rioil uf the I'rusiules was o(H'iilng upon Europe Jii-l lit this time we find a fu u* s*hiKil of law < Mihlishctl In BoUigim. ami fn-quentcl by luulti- tiiilis of pupils, not only fr, i all parts of Italy. Iiiit froiii Uermany. France, and other countrii"». Ill basis of all Its instruction was the Corpus .liirl« fivllls [w,. (owis JiHls I'lviLls], li< ti ; 111 rs, who conslitutc a series of distini.'ui,shiil ) I ^U extending over a ci'uturv and a h.ilf. ili-. I'd thein»*'lve» to the work of expounding the ■lAt and elucidating the nrinciples of the Corpus Jiin«. and especially the Digest. Fmm the form ■"•■■• Tiita Ihrv rrconicd aDiiTisndeil iii.»ii ilie n- suits of their studies, they have obtahied the name of glossators. On their copies of the Cor- pus Juris they were accustomed to write glosses, i. e., brief marginal explanations and remarks. These glosses came at length to be an immens3 literature. . . . Here, then, in this school of the glossators, at Bologna, in the twelfth and thir- teenth centuries, tlie awakened mind of Europe was brought to recognize the value of the Corpus Juris, the almost inexhaustible treasure of jur- istic pnnciples, precepts, conceptions, reasonings, stored up in it.''— Jas. Hadley, Inlrod. to Uoi.uin L,iw Uct. 2. -University of Bologna.-' In the twelfth century the law school of the University of Bologna -lipsed all others in Europe The two gaat brunches of legal study in the middle ages, the Roman law and the canon law began in the teaching of Imerius and Gratian at Bologna in the first half of the twelfth century At the begmning of this century the name of university first replaces that of school ; and it is said that the great university degree, that of doctor waa first in.5tituted at Bologna, and that the ceremony for conferring it was devised there. From Bo- logna the degree and ita ceremonial travelled to Pans. A bull of Pope Honorius, in 1220 saya that the study of • bima; litene ' had at that time made the city of Bologna famous throughout the '■0£}<i- Twelve thousand students from all parts of Europe are said to have been congregated there at once. The different nations had their colleges and of colleges at Bologna there were fourteen These were founded and endoweil by the liberal- ity of private persons; the university professors the source of attraction to this multitude of stu- denu. were paid by the municipality, who found their reward in the fame, business, and import- mice brought to their town by the university The municipalities of the great cities of northern ami central Italy were not slow In following the example of Bologna; in the tliirteenth century Padua, .MiKlena, Piacenza, Parma, Fcrrara had each its university. Frederick II. founded that of Naples in 1224 ; in the fourteenth century were addwi thosi' of Pa via, Perugia, Pisa, and Turin. Colleges of examiners, or, as we should say boards, were created by Papal bull to e.vamiue in theologv, and by imi)erial decree to examine n law and meiliciiie. It was iu these studies of law and medicine that the Italian universities were chiefly distinguisheil."—>t Aruolil, S/„>,.la mill Cnicrsituii uii tin I'unliiuiit, cli. 9.- '■The Bologna schiHil of jurisprudeiau was several times Ihreuteueil with total extinction, In the repeated dittkiilties with the lily the students wouhl march out of the town, liouuil by a solemn oath not to nturn; and if a compromise' was to 111- elleeteil, a papal ilispensatiou from that oath must first lie ublaineil Gemrallv on such oc- casions, the |irivll|.>;i, ,,f ilii. universitv wen' re- alHrmeil ami often inlargeil. In other eases, a iiuarnl 111 twiiii ihc' pope and the city, and the ban plaieil over the latter, obliged the stuileiils to leave; and then tile elty often planned and furtlieix'd the removal of the universitv. King KriiLric II.. iu 1220, iluriiig the war against llulogna. dissolved th.. sehoolof jurisprudence, which seems to havi' been not at all affected tlienbv. and he formallv recallnl that ordinance in the following year. Originally the only schixjl Iu Bologua was the scIhhiI of jurisprudence, and ill counectiou with it ahiue a universitv nuild >m fiiriiieii. . . puiiseijuently eminent teachers of medicine and the liberal arts ap|>eared, and their II 5, »ll ria EDUCATION. JTedtevol ttaUcn UnivenitiM* EDUCATION. m r' 111 pupils, too, sought to form a untvenity and to choose their own rector. As late as 1295 this in- novution was disputed by the jurists and tnter- dictwl by the city, so that they had to connect tlivmsclves with the university of jurisprudence. But a few years later we find them already in possession again of a few rectors, and in 1816 tlicir right was formally recognized in a com- promise between the university of jurisprudenie and the city. The students called themselves • pliilosophi et medici ' or ' physicl ' ; also by the common name of 'arttstJE.' Finally a school of theology, founded by pope Innocent VI., was ■>'Me<l in the second half of the 14th century; it was placed under the bishop, and organized in imitation of the school at Paris, so that it was a ' universitas magistrorum,' not ' scholarium. ' As, however, by this arrangement the students of theology in the theological university had no civil privileges of tlieir own, they were con- sidered individually as belonging to the ' artistte.' From this time Bologna had four universities, two of jurispruilence, the one of medicine and philosophy, and the theological, the first two jiaving no" connection with the others, forming a unit, and therefore frequently designated as one university. "—F. C. Savigny, Tfie L'niTenitiet of tlie Midtite Aget (Uirnnrd'i Am. Journal of Edu- cation, r. 23. pp. 278-279).— Other UniTertitiet. —"The oldest and most frcijuunted university In Italy, that of Bologna, is ri'presentcd as hav- ing flourished in the twelfth century. Its pros- pe"'y in early times depended greatly on the perw)nal conduct of tlie pnneipal professors, who, when they were not satlstied with their entertain- ment, were in the habit of seceding with their pupiU to other cities. Thus high schools were omncd fmm time to time in Modena, Reggio, and cWwliire by teachers who broke the oaths that IniuimI them to ri'side in Bologna, and fixed their centre of education in a rival town. To make such temporary changes was not ditflcult in an age when what we have to call an university, consisted of masters and scholars, without col- lege buildings, without libraries, without endow- ments, and without scientific apparatus. The technical name for such institutions seems to have Imm 'studium scliolariuni,' Italianised into ' studio ' or ' studio pulibllco.' / mong the more permanent results of these secessions may l)c mentioned theestal)llshment of tlie high school at \ henza by translation from Bologna in 1204, anil the opening of a school at Arezzo under similar circumstances in lai."!; the great Univer- sity of Padua first saw llie light in conse(iuence of nolltical discords forcing the professors to quit Bologna for a season. The first half of tht tlilr- teeutli century witnessi'd tlie foundation of tlicBe 'stiiill'in coiislderable numliers. That of Ver- celli was opened In 122«. the municipulily pro- viding two certified copyists for the convenience of students who mlglil wish to purchase text. books. In 1224 the Emperor Fn-<lerick II., to whom the south of Italy owid u precocious em Imiice in literature, establishiil the University of Niiples by an Ini|H'rial diploniii. With a view to n>niliring It the chief seat of learning in his ilominlons, he forbaile the subjects of tlie Regno to fri'ijuent other schools, and RMppresscnl the University of Bologna by letters general. There- upon BoUiirna joined the Loinlmrd Leaffuo. de- lii il the Emperor, and ri'fuBid toelose the schools, will 1 numbered at tli;it pcrinil alu.ut ten thou- sand students of various nationalities. In 13!!7 Frederick revokwl his edict, and Bologna n- mained thenccfoi ward unmolested. Political and internal vicissitudes, affecting all the Italiau uni- versities at this period, interrupted the pros pcrity of that of Naples. In the middle of tlit thirteenth century Salerno proved a damjirous rival. ... An important group of ' stmli pub blici ' owed their origin to Papal or Imperial char ters In the first half of the fourteenth eiuturv. That of Perugia was founded In i:W7 by a Biill of Clement \ . That of Rome dated from VM, in which year Boniface VIII. gave it a c.jnstl tution by a special edict; but the trauslaiimi ul the Papal See to Avignon canoed it to fall intc Iiremature decadence. T' • University . f I'isa lad already existed Tor soi years, when it re celved a charter in 1348 from Clement VI. Thai of Florence was first founded in 1321. . , . Tbi subjects taught In the high schools were Canoii and Civil Law, Medicine, and Theology. Tliest faculties, important for the professional ciluca Hon of the public, formed the staple ..f thf academical curriculum. Chairs of Rhetoric. Phi losophy, and Astronomy were added acconling tc occasion, the last sometimes Including the Ktuilj of judicial astrology. If we enquire liow tbi humanists or profissors of classic literature wers related to the universities, we find that, at flrsi at any rate, they always occupied asecuml nink The permanent teaching remained in the liumh of jurists, wlio enjoyed life engagements at a high rate of pav, while the Latlnistsand Ore lam could only aspire to the temporary occupaticmol the Chair of Uhctoric, with salaries consiilemlilj lower than those of lawyers or phyiilcian> "— J, A. Syraonds, Renaimince in Italy : tin Hi ri ml o^ Lenrn ;, (It. 8. — "Few of the Italian ui'-ersi ties show themsi'lves in tlieir full vigour .ill tlu thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, wlicii tlie In creasi- of wealth rendered a more systematic rati for education possible. At first tliere Here gen crallythreesortsof professorships — oue fnr eivi law, another fi t canonical law, the third f >r me<li cine; in coupm of time professorships of rlieturio of phiiosopliv, and of astronomy were aiMeil. tin last commonjy, though not always, iihiitiialwhl astrology. The salaries varied greatly in ilillir ent cases. Sometimes a capital sum was iiai'. down. With the spread of cultun- cunipctliiui became so active that tlie dllTereut unhersitlei tried to entice away distinguished teaclu r» frn one another, under" which circiimstamen Iinl..i;n: is said to have sometimes devoteii the half of Iti public income (20,IHK) ducats) to Hie uuiversitv The appointments were as a rule niaile only fm a certain time, sometimes for only liiilf a year, §• that the leiwhers we.t! forieil to leail ii wander lug life, ' ke actors. Appointments fcr life m n lioweviT, not unknown. . . , Of the chairs nhkl have iH'en meiitioueil, that of rhetoric was is peclally sought by the humanist ; yet It ilepi nile( only oii his familiarity with Hie malterof aiiciiu learning whellier or no lie could aspire M tin* of law, mciliciiie, philoBopliy. oraslrMiioiiiy, Ti* inward conilitions of the seiciici' of tlie ilay lur as variable as the outwanl conilili'iis "f Ih teacher. Certain jurists and physicians n(civui by far the largest salaries of nil. llie f'lrmc cliietly IIS coiisultinir lawyers for llie suits am rliilliipt iif Ijie male uhlcll'l'lliployed tllein . Persoimi liitercoiirsi' iKtwwii the teailn r« am the taught, public dispiitatloua, the toustanl u» r^o EDUCATION. Utdiaval Oerman Vnivertitiet. EDUCATION. of Latin and often of Greek, the frequent changes of lecturers and the scarcity of books, gave the studies of that time a colour which we cannot represent to ourselves without effort. There were Latin schools in every town of the least import- ance, not by any means merely as preparatory to higher education, but because, next to reading, writing, anil arithmetic, the knowledge of Latin wiis a necessity; and after Latin came logic. It is to Ixj noted particularlv that these schools did not depend on the Church, but on the municipal- ity; some of them, too, were merely private en- terprises. This school sysU'm, directed by a few distinguished humanists, not only attained a re- markable perfection of organisation, but became an instrument of higher education in the modem sense of the phrase.^'— J. Burckhardt, T/u Citili- mttiun of the Period of the lienaiuance in Italy. r. 1, ft. 3, eh. 5. Cermanjr.— Prague and its Offspring.—" The earliest university in Germany was that of IViguc. It was in 1348, under the Emperor Charles IV., when the taste for letters had re- viled so signally in Euroiie, when England may be said to have poasi'sscti her two old universi- ties already for three centuries, Paris her Sor- twiine ain-ady for four that this university was erected as tlie first of German Universities. The idea oripinuted in the mind of the Emperor, who was educated in Paris, at the university of that town, and was eagerly taken up by the towns- people of that ancient and wealthy city, for ttiey foresaw that afliuence would shower upon them If they could induce a numerous crowd of stu- ilt-nts to flock togetlier within their walls. But the Pope and the Emperor took an active part in favouring and authorizing the institution; thoy willinglv granted to it wide privileges, and niiidu it entirely iii<lenendent of Church and Stale. The teaching of tlie professors, and the sttulies of the studc.its, were submitted to no ciuitrol whatever. After the model of the Uni- vir!.ity (if Paris, they divitled themselves into .lilleriMit faculties, and made four such divisions — one for divinity, another for medical science, :i tliiril for lew, and a fourth for philosophy. Tliu last order comprised those who taught and Ifuriied the flnc ar.s and the sciences, which two clipartmcnts were separate at Sorbonne. All the German universiti :^s have preserved this outward constitution, and 'a this, as in many other cir- cumstances, the prt.-v-dent of Pragun has had a liK'vailing influence on her younger sister insti- tutions. The same thing may be said particu- larly of the disciplinary tone of the university III other countries, universities sprang from rigUi clirical and monastic institutions, orkire a more or leas ecclesiastical characUT which imposed upon them certain more retired habits, and a •evcrir kind of discipline. Prague took from the lieginning a course widely differi'nt. The stuilents, who were partly Germans, partly of Slavonian blood. enioye<l a boundless liberty. Tliiy lodged in the houses of the townspeople and by their riches, their mental superiority, and their number (they are recorde<l to have tfin as many as twenty thousand 'u the year Uiitf), liecame the undisputetl masteri of the city. The professors and tbo inhabitanU of Prague, far from checking them, rather protectol thj pnrogatives of ilie st ii|ent«. for thev found oui luat ail their prosperity depended on them. . . . >ot two generations had passed since the erec- tion of an Institution thus constituted, before Hubs and Jerome of Prague began to teach the necessity of an entire reformation of the Church The phenomenon is characteristic of the bold spirit of inquiry that must have grown up at the new Iniversity. However, the political consc- ciuences that attended the promulgation of such doctrines led almost to the dissolution of the Lniversity itself. For, the German part of the students broke up, in consequence of repeated ". if ^°"' quaTels that had taken place with the Bohemian and Slavonic party, and went to Leipzig, where straightway a new and purely Ueriiian Lniversity was erected. While Pras.-e became the seat of a protracted and sanguinary ■war, a great number of Universities rose into existence around it, and attracted the crowds that had formerly flocked to the Bohemian capi- tal. It appeared as if Germany, though it had received the impulse from abroad, would leave all other countries behind itself in the erection and promotion of these learned insti.jtions for all the districts of the land vied wiih each other in creating universities. Thus arose those of Rostock, Ingolstadt, Vienna, Heidelberg Co- logne, Erfurt, Tubingen, Greifswalde, Treves, Mayence and Bales — scliools which have partly disappeared again during the political storms of subsequent ages. The beginning of tlie six- teenth century added to them one at Frankfort on the Oder, and another, tlie most illustrious of all, Wittenberg. Everyone who is acquainted with the history and origin of the Reformation, knows what an importunt part the latter of these universities took in the weighty transactions of those times. . . . Wittenberg remained by no means the only champion of Protestantism At Marburg, Jena, KOnigsberg, and Helmstadt, universities of a professedly Protestant character were erected. These schools became the cradle and nurseries of the Reformation."— TAe rnirc-. ntUtofOfrmaiiji (Dublin Unirxrrity Mngati.,e t 48, pp. 83-«5).— "The German universities of the fourteenth and fifteenth centiries were founded in the following order: Prague, 1848; Vienna 1388; Erfurt, 1893; Leipsic, 1409; Rostock, 1419; Grelfswald, 1456; Freiburg, 1437; Ingolstadt 1472;Tabingen, 1477; andSlayence, 1477. Thus, it will be seen that they were established in quick succession — an unmistakable proof of the growing scientific interest of the age."— F. V. >'. Painter, IIii>t. of Kiumtion, eh. 3, uet. 5 (k). Nethtrlands.—" 1 raditioQ n^Kirte tliat a school had . . . lieen fo.^ded at Utrecht, by somi- zeal- ous missionary, in the time of Charles Martel, at which his sou Pepin received 'his education. Ilowi ver tills may Lave been, the renown of the Utrecht SchiKil of St. Martin is of very ancient date. . . . During tlie i.ivasion by the Normans, this scIkkiI at Utrecht was suppressed, but was reestablished In 917, and regained itf former re- nown. The Emperor, Henry the Fowler, placed Iierc his three sons, Otto, Henry and Bruno, to lie eilucated, of whom the lasi, became afterwi..u archbishop of Cologne and archduke of Lottring- en, nnd was noted for hit extraordinitry learn- ing and friendship for the poet Prudi'nfius. .it the lieginning of the 12th century, Utrecht pos- M'ssed DO lesc than five flourishing schools, sev eral of which hod each a ' rector ' in addition to the prip«t« who hs.i thp gpnrra! or-ntrol. At aliout the same time, several convents bocam* distinguished as educational institutions, esped- |i|^ EDUCATION. Uediavat EnglWi Uniwrtitiet. KDUCATIOX. ally those of Egmond, Nymwegen, Mlddleburg, in Zealand, and Aduwert, near OrOningen. In Holland, as in Belgium, in addition to the schools that were attached to the cathedrals, convents, and chapters, there were established in the course of the twelfth century, hy the more wealthy communities, public schools especially designed for the instruction of the citizens and laity. It is also worthy of notice that the authority to open such scliools was always derived from the counts — by whom it was conferred, sometimes upon the cities as an especial privilege, and sometimes upon merely private persons as a mark of particular favor. The jurisdiction of the feudal lords was the same here as in Bel- gium; but while in the latter country, with the exception perhaps of the elementary schools in some of the cities, the rinht of supervision everj-- where devolved upon the chapters, instruction in these public schools of Holland was wholly withdrawn from the clergy, and they were made essentially secular in their character. The privi- lege of tlius establishing schools was conferred upon some of the cities at the following dates ; Dort, bv Count Floris V., A. D. 13iX); the Hague, 1322 — "Levden, 1324 — and Rottenlam in 1328, by William III. ; I>clft and Amsterdam, in 1334, bv William IV. ; Levden again, 1357 — Haarlem, 1389 — Alltmar. 1398 — Hoom, 1358 and 1390 — the Hague, 1393— Schiedam and Ondewater, 1394 — and Uotteriiam, in 1402, by Albert of Bavaria. These schcxils, adds Stallaert, on the authority of Buddinjrh, were generally stvleil 'School en Schryfambarht,' 'Schoole en Kos- tern,' (school and writing offices, schools and clerks' houses,) and the • Schoolmijsters ' (school- mastirs) were looked upon . s professional men or (raftsmen — as wus the case also in Belirium, where tlu y formi'd distinct guilds and frater- nitiis. Tlli'sc public schools of Holland were divi.lid into 'largo' and 'small' sc' xils, (groote en bijsclioiilen,) Latin being taught in the first division. The institution at Zwolle. attaineii spe- cial notoriety in the fourteenth century, under tile direction of the iel( lirated .lohau t'ele. Ac- cording to Tlionias & Kiiniiis and Tin Bussche. its piiiills iiumlH'red about a thousand, gathered from lloUauil, Belgium, and the principal pro- vim-.-s of Germany." — I'liHir Iu'lr'n-ti'm in Jlnl- l.iml i,lt<iriiiird'i .ill). J'liirmi! "f K'l'initi'iii. r. 14). England. — Early Oxford.— "The ruivirsity of Oxford did not spring in'" biingin any par- tiewlur year, or at the bidding of any particular foundei-: it was not establislii'd by any fiprinal charter of incorporation. Taking its rise in a small anil obscnie association ol tiarhers and liarners, it developed spontaneously into a large and important bcxiy, long lieforelts existence was reeogiiiscd by pVinee or by prelate. There were certainly si lioiils at Oxford in the reign of lliiirv I, but the previous hi.storv of the place dots "not throw much light on tlieir origin, or explain the causes of their popularity. The town seems to have gri>\vu up under the shadow of a hinini-rv, which is said to have Imtu founded by St Frideswyde us far buck as tin.' eighth ciiiturv. Its authentic annals, however, Ingln with the year 912, when it was (Hcuplc^i aiul aimexed by E<lward the Folder, King of the West Saxons. . . . Oxfonl was consideri'd a place of gnat strategical itnpurlatit-v hi the cleVeiHli Orii- lury. Its position on the Ininlers of Mi'rdaaml Wcbsex ri'udered It also particularly touveuieul for parleys betv Kngliahmen and Danes, and for great nation: mblies. . . . Retaining for a while its rank as one of the chief centres of political life in the south of England, ami as a suitable meeting-place for parliaments and synods. Oxford became thenceforward more ami more distinctively known as a seat of leaniiiig and a nurserv of' clerks. The schools which ex- isted at Oxford before the reign of King ,lohn, are so seldom and so briefly noticed in contem- Eorary records, that it would be diUlcult to show ow tliey developed into a great university, if it were not for the analogy of kindred institutions in other countries. Tliere can be little diaibt, however, that the idea of a university, the sys- tems of degrees and faculties, and the nomen- clature of the chief academical oHleers, were alike imported into England from abroad. . . . In the earliest and broadest sense of the term, a university had no necessary connexion with schocds or literature, being merely a comintniitv of individuals bound together by some more or less acknowledged tie. Kegarded collectively in this light, the inhabitants of any particular lun-n might 1k' said to constitute a university, and iu point of fact the Commonalty of the town nun of Oxford wa.^ sometimes descrilK-d as a univer- sity in formal documents of the midiUe aijes. The term was, however, specially applinl to the whole 1k«1/ of piTSons frequeiuiae the schools of a large studium. Ultimately it came to be employed in a technical sense as synnny- mous with studium, todenote the institution itjitf. Tills last use of the term seems to Ih' of Kni;Ii5h origin, for the Uinversitvof Oxfonl ismeniiimeJ as such in writs and ordfnances of the years l',':}"*, 1240, and 1253. whereas the greater scat of learn- ing cm the bauks of the Seine was. until the year 1-203, styh'd 'the University of the Masters'' ur 'the University of the Scliolars,' of I'aris Tht svstem of academical degrees dates fniin tlit si'cond half of the twelfth century '—II (' M. Lyte. .1 Jlittori/ -if till- I'metrnitii iff Off^'nl. r],_ I —" In the early Oxford . . . of the tweltili ;iiid most of the tliirteenth centuries, colle.'c * witli t'leir statutes wire unknown. The Vnivi r^iiy was the only corporation of the learned. mii'I -he struggled into existence after hani tii-liis with the town, the .lews, the Friars, thi' I'apal mart-. The history of the University iH'gins »iih the ! thirtiinth century. She may \k sidd tn have come into iK'iug as .soon as she possessi'd inmnwn funds and rents, as siMjn as thies were as-iL-iail. or lieiu'factions contributed to the niainli n nici-of scholars. Now the first reconled fine i- ih. i«y- inent of fiftv-two shillings by the t.iwii-iiicn "f ( Ixfonl as p"art of the coinpei'isiition for the Ikiuit- ing of certain clerks. In the year 1-14 the I'apal Legate, in a letter to his 'iH'l.ive.l s.^iis in Christ, the burffcs-ses of Oxford.' bade the ni ei- cusethe 'scholars studving in Oxfonl' h;ilt the rent of their halls, or liospitia. for tin' spaei' of ten years. The buru'hers were also to ilo piu- ' aiiei'. an 1 to feastthi' poorerstudentsomea year. but the important point is, that they Inid I" pay that large yearly fine • propter suspendiuni i Uri- i coram— all for the hanging I'f tin- ihrks, ; Twentj-six years after this decision of the le- gate, HolK'rt Orossteste, the gnat liishop of Lincoln, organized the pavmeni aiul di-trilmtinn i.f Hi,, fine, and foimdci! the first of <!-.■ '!"-'«■ the chest of St. Frideswvde. These clasis were a kind of Mont de Hutu, and to found tUtiB mdmMk . ' MIWbiB EDUCATION. Oxford in M« ItulMt Aget. EDUCATION. va* at flnt the favourite form of benefaction. Money wa« left in this or that chest, from which students and masters would borrow, on the se- curity of pledges, which were generally books, cups, daggers, and so forth. Now, in this affair of 1214 we have a strange passage of history, which happily illustrates the growth of the Uni- versity. The beginning of the whole affair was the quarrel with the town, which in 1309, had banged two clerks, ' in contempt of clerical lib- erty.' The matter was taken up by the Legate — in those bad years cf King John, tlic Pope's viceroy in England — and out of tlie humiliation of the town the University gained money, privi- leges, and halls at low rental. These were pre- cisely the things that the University wanted. About these matters there was a constant strife, in which the Kings as a rule, took part with the University. . . . Thus gradually the University got the command of the police, obtained privi- leges which enslaved the city, and became mas- ters where they liad once been despised, starve- ling scholars. . . . The result, in the long run. was that the University received from Edward III. 'a most large charter, containing many lib- erties, some that they had before, and others that he had taken away from the town." Thus E<lward granted to the University ' the custody of the assize > bread, wine, and ale,' the super- vising of measures and weights, the sole power of clearing the streets of the town and suburbs. M.ircover, the Mayor and the oliiof Burghers were condemned yearly to asort of public pen:ince and humiliation on St. Scliolostica's Day. Thus, by the middle of the fourteenth century,' the 'trife of Town and Gown had ended in tlie complete virlory of the latter." — A Lang. Oxford, ch. 3.— "To mark off the Middle Age from the M<«UTn Pcriixi of the University is certainly very ditfl- eult. Indeed the earlier times do not form a linniogeneous whole, but appear perpetually sliifting and preparing for a new stale. The main transition however was undoubtedly ab<iut till- middle of the fourteeut'- centurv ; ."ind the Hiforniation, a remarkable vrisis. did but con- liiiii what had bi-en iu progress for mori than a <i'nlnry aii<l a half: so tlr ' tiv VkUWt Aw of till' Vnlversltv conlaiiie ' -t)., century, nuil barely the former lurteeutli. There is no (|ui ,riug this Miildle Age the Engi > w^re dis- tiu!:in.shed far more \ w»rt!» by em TL'v and variety o. i,ater '..les ( iniiot prwluco a concen. i men i leiit in all the learning and science of the ai. such as Oxford and Cambridge then poured lorth, niiirlitilv influencing the intellectual developc- 111! Ill of all Western Ohristeudoin. Tlicir nanus itiilicil may warn us against an undlseriiiiiiiatiuir ili-Ii'inigement of the Monasteries, as 'hotbeds of ii'iioraiice and stupidity'; when soniauv of those worthies were monks of the Beiiediiiiiie. Fran- fisian. Dominican, Carmelite, or reformi'il Aii- puslinian order. But in consequence of this sur- passing celebrity, Oxford became the fix-us of a prodigious congregation of students, to which nothing afterwards Iwre comparison. "The siune was jirobably true of Cambridge in relative pro- portion. ... A tolerably well aiitlientieated ai(ount, attacked of late by undue scepticism. tUr.« [Dip number of] those of Oxfohl at ihirty tliiaisand, in the middle of the thirteenth century. The want indeed of contemporary evidence inust make us cautious of yielding absolute be- lief to this: in fact we have no document on this matter even as old as the Refcmation. . . . Not only did the Church and the new orders of Monks draw great numbers thither, but the Universities themselves were vast High Schools, comprising boys ami even children. It is not extravagant, if Cambridge was not yet in great repute, to imagine rtfteen thousand students of all ages at 0.vford. and as many more attendants. Nor was it at all difficult to accommodate them in the town, when Oxford contained three hundred Halls and Inns: and as several students dwelt In one room, and were not careful for luxurv, each building on an average might easily ho"ld one hundred persons. The style of Architecture was of the simplest and cheapest kind, and might have been easily run up on a sudden demand: and a rich flat country, with abundant water carriage, needed not to want provisions. That the numtiers were • ist, is implied by the highly respectable evideme which we have, that as many as three thousand migrated from Oxford on the riots of 1209; althougli the Chronicler ex- pR'ssly states that not all joined in the secession. Ill the reign of Henry IIL the reduced numbers are reckimed at fifteen thousand. After the middle of the fourteenth century, they were still as many as from three to four thousand; and after tlie Reformation they mount airaiu to five tliousjinil. On the whole therefore the computa- tion of thirly thousand, as the maximum, mav seem, if not positively true, yet the nearest approximation which we can ex'pect. Of Cam- bridge we know im more than that the numbers were miieli lower than at Oxford, . . , While in the general, then' was a substiuitial identity be- nveeu the scholastic learning of Oxfonl and of Paris, yet Oxford was more eager in following po>itiveseieiiee: — and this, although such stu<lie8 were disparaged by the Ciiuroh, and therefore by the public. lnde<d originally the Church had been on the opposite side, biit the speculative li-mUncy of the times had carried her over, so that speculation and theology went hand iu hand. In the middle of the thirteeiilh centurv we mav name Koberl Grossetcste and John Basingstocli, lis cultivating physical science, and (more re- markable still) the Franciscan Uo);cr Bacon: a man whom the vulgar held to be ei|ual to >Ier- lin and Miiliael Scott as a niaL'ician, ami wIkuu posterity ranks by t lie iiolilest spirits of the lif- teeiilli and sixtceiilh centuries, in all branches of positive science. — e.vecpt theology. AbioL'raphy of Hogcr B.ieon should surely be written ! \'ufor- tiinately. we know- notliiiiir .is to the influence of tliese men on their tiiiies, u<ir Ciiii we e\rii learn wlieilier tile University itself w.isatall intereslud ill tlieir siiiilies. . . . We ii.'ivc ... a strange testimony to llu- iiitenst wiiich in tlie begiuuing of till' foiirieeiith eeiitiiry llic mass of the stu- dents look ill the speculation of their elders; for tlie street nws were carried on under the banners of Noiiiiinilists and Healists. . . . The coarse and ferocious manners prevalent in llie Univer- sities of the Midille Aires are every where in siuLMilar contrast to their intellectual pretensions; but the Universities of the Continent were peace- ful, decorous, dignitied, — compared with those of Kiiglaiid. The stonns which were elsewhere tn-caskfUal. wefeat O.\ford the perniaucul attnus- iiliere. For nearly two centuries our 'Foster iluther ' of Oxford lived iu a diu of uninterrupted ' I. 23 M EDUCATION. Cttmtridge m Me lliddlt Aga. EDUCATION. (urioiu warfare; nation againit nation, cchool againat idiool, faculty agalnat faculty. Halls, and ilnally Colleeea, came forward as combatants ; and the ITnlvenity, as a whole, against the Town; or against the Bishop of Lincoln; or against the Archbishop of Canterbury. Nor was Cambridge much less pu^acious."— V. A. Huber, TheEng- lith Vnittrtitiet, v. 1, eh. 8. — Cambridge. — " Various facts and circumstances . . . lend probability to the belief that, long before the time when we have certain evidence of the exist- ence of Cambridge as a university, the work of instruction was there going on. The Cambori- turn of the Roman piTiiKi, the Grantebrycgr of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the Grentebrige of Domesday, must always have been a place of some importance. It was the meeting-place of two great Roman roads, — Akeman Street, running east and west, ard the Via Devana, traversing the north and the south. . . . Confined at first to the rising ground on the left bank of the river. It numbercil at tnc time of the Norman Conquest as many as four hundred houses, of which twenty- seven were pulled down to make way for the castle erected by William the Conqueror. . . . Under the castle walls, with the view, it would seem, of making some atonement for many a deed of violence and wrong, the Norman sheriff, Picot by name, founded the Church of St. Giles, and instituted in connection with it a small body of secular canons. . . . The year 1112 was marked by the occurrence of an event of consid- erable importance in connection with the subse- guent history of the university. The canons of t. Giles, attended by a large concouree of the clergy and laity, crossed the river, and took up their abode in a new and spacious priory at Bam- well. . . . The priory at Barnwell, which always ranked among the wealthiest of the Cambridge foundations, seems from the first to have been closely associated with the university; and the earliest university exhibitions were those founded by William de Kilkenny, bishop of Elv from 1354 to 1257, for two students of divinify, who were to receive annually the sum of two'marks from the priory. In the year 1133 was founded the nunnery of St. Rhadegund, which, in the reign of Henry VII., was converted into Jesus College; and in 1135 a hospital of Augustinian canons, dedicated to St. John the Evangelist, was founded by Henry Frost, a burgess of the town. ... It was ... a very important foun- dation, inasmuch as it not only became by con- version in the sixteenth century the College of St. John the Evangelist, but was also . . . the foundation of which Peterhouse, the earliest Cambridge college, may be said to have been in a certain sense the offshoot. ... In the year 1229 there oroke out at Paris a feud of more than onlinary gravity between the students and the citizens. Large numbers of the former mi- grated to the English shores; and Cambridge, from its proximity to the eastern coast, and as the centre where Prince Louln. but a few years before, had raised the royal standard, seeins to have attracted the great majoritv. . . . The university of Cambridge, like tliat" of Oxford, was modelled mainly on the university of Paris. Its constitution was consequently oligarchic rather than democratic, the government being entirely in the hands of the teaching boiiy, while the buchelurs miJ uudergraduates had no share in the passing of new laws and regulations. "—J B. MulUnger, A EUtorn ef the Vniterntt^ of Cam- bridge, «A. 1-2.— "The earliest existing college at Cambridge is St. Peter's, generally called Peterhouse, historically founded A. D. 12,57. in the reign of Henry lU. The Universities are known merely by their situation; as Oxfonl, Cdinbridge, Durham, St Andrews'; but caili college has a name, accordiiig to the taste of itt founder or first members. These names may be divided into two classes, those named from the founder, as Pembroke, Clare, Oonville and Caiua (this had two founders, the restorer l>eing Dr. Kaye, who Latinized his name into Caius,u1<vavs pronounced Keys), King's (from King Henry VI.), — Queens' (from the queens both of Henry VI. and Edward IV.), Sidney Sussex, and Down- ing; — and those named for beatified persons and objects of worship,— St. Peter's, St. John's, St. Catharine's, St. Mary Magdalene, Corpus Christii Emmanuel, Jesus Chrisvs, Trinity and Trinity Hall. The apparent impiety of these names, which in one case of an ancient name now chanced, was absolutely revolting, entirely passes oil with a few dsTs' use. St. Catharine's soon bee niej Cats, and St. Mary Magdalene U always i Llled Maudlin. You readily admit the superiority of Trinity over Corpus ale ; go to see a friend who lives on Christ's piece; and hear with regret, that in the boat races Emmanuel has been bumpeil by Jesus; an epithet being probably pretiied to the last name. These names of course were plven in mon. oh times,— Trinity oy Henry VIII., but all the colleges except one were founded 'lefire the reign of James I. . . . The seventeen col. leges . . . are distinct corporations. Their foun- dations, resources, buildings, governing autliori- ties and students, are entirely separate from each other. Nor has any one college the least eontrol in any other. The plan, however, is mueli the same in all. The presiding authority is in most cases called the Master, or speaking more ucner- ally, the Head; while the net proceeds of iill the college funds — for the vast wealth supposed to belong to the University really is in the hands of the separate colleges — are distributed among certain of the gr^uates, called Fellows, who with the Head constitute the corporation. Tliese corporations give board and lodging on various terms to such students as choose to enter the eo|. lege and comply with its rules, in order to re- ceive its assistance in obtaining the honors of the University; and each college offers Its own pe. culiar inducements to students. . . . The whole body of the colleges, taken together, constitutes the University. All those who after residing seven rears at some college, have taken the de- gree of Master of Arts, or a higher one. ami keep their name on the college lists by a .small pay- ment, vote at the University elections for mem- bers of Parliament and all other ollleers. and manage its affairs. . . . The colleges, at certain intervals, present such students as comply with their conditions to University authorities for ma- tritulatlon, for certain examinations, ami fur liie reception of degrees; and until one receives the degree of Master of Arts, he must renmiii u mem- ber of some college, not necessarilv one and the same, to hold any University privileges. .Vfter this stage, he may, under certain conditions, break up all his college connections, and yet remain la the University.' —W. Everett, Onths Cam., led. 1. Spain and'PortnpU. — "Salamanca was found- eil in the tSth centuiy, and received Its statute* 724 EDUCATION. Idtat 0/ Kaielait, EDUCATION. In the year 1432, out of which wag developed the (oUowiot; coDMitution. The rector, with eight 'conilUarii,' all students, who could appoint their ■uccesaors, administered the ul versity. The doctors render the oath of obedience to the rector. The 'domscholaster' is the proper Judge of the ■ohool; but he swears obedience to the rector. A bachelor of law must have studied six yt„.s, and after five years more he could become licen- tiate. In filling a paid teachership, the doctor was chosen next in age of those holdmg the diploma, unless a great majority of the scholars objected, 'a which case the rector and council decided. This liberal constitution for the scholars is in harmony with the code of Alphonzo X., soon after 1250, in which the liberty of instruction was made a general principle of law. This constitution con- tinued in Salamanca into the 17th century, for Retes speaks of a disputation which the rector held at that time under his presidency. Alcala university was established by cardinal Ximenes, in 1510, for the promotion of the study of the- ology and philosophy, for which reason it con- tained a faculty of canon, but not of civil law. The center of the university was the college of St. IWefous. consisting of thirty-three prebendaries, who could be teachers or scholars, since for ad- mission were required only poverty, the age of twenty, and the completion of the course ol the preparatory colleges. These thirty-three mem- bers elected annually a rector and three council- ors, who controlled the entire university. Sala- ried teachers were elected, not by the rector and council alone, but by all the student*. It had wide reputation. When visited by Piancis I., while a prisoner of Spain, he was welcomed by 11,000 students. The Coimbra university, in Portugal, received statutes in 1309, from king Dionysius, with a constitution similar to those just mentioned."— F. C. Savigny, T/ie Unicern- lift of tht Middte Ago {Barnard't Am. Jourmil of Education, t. 22, p. 824). Renaisiuice. "Modem education begins with the Itenais- sance. The educational methods that we then begin to discern will doubtless not be develooed anil perfected till n later period; the ' doe- 's will pass into practice only grad . and V he jreneral progress of the times. ' rom the sixteenth century education is in p>. sion of its essential principles. . . . The men of the sixteenth century having renewed with classical aniiijuity an intercourse that had been too long intirrupted, it was natural that they should pro- rose to the young the study of the Greeks and the Uomang. What is called secondary instruc- ticm really dates from the sixteenth century. The crude works of the Middle Age are suc- c«cltd by the elegant compositions of Athens anil Rome, henceforth made accessible to all thruuKh the art of printing; and, with the read- liii.' of the ancient authors.there ri'appear through till' fruitful effect of imitation, their qualities of lomctness in thought, of literarv taste, and of tligauce in form. In France, as in Italy, the nivtional tongues, moulded, and, as it were, con- sirrated by writers of genius, become the instru- ments of an intellectual propaganda. Artistic fciste. revived by the rich prodtir'ts of a race of incomparable artists, gives an extension to the imrizon of Ufe, and creates a new class of emo- lions. Finally, the Protestant Reform develops Individual thought and free inquiry, and at th« same time, by iu success, it imposes still greater efforts on the Catholic Church. This is not say- ing thatevervthing is faultless in the educational efforu of tlie sixteenth century. First, as it natural for innovators, the thought of the teach- ers of this period is marked by enthusiasm rather than by precisioa They are more zealous in pomting out the end to be attained, than exact in determining the means to be employed. Be- sides, some of them are content to emancipate the mind, but forget to give it proper direction. Finally, others make a wrong use of the ancientt; thev are 1 > much preoccupied with the form and the p ity c' language; they fall into Cice- romania, and it is not tneir fault if a new super- stition, that of rhetoric, does not succetd the old superstition, that of the Syllogism."— G. Com- pavre, Tht Hi*t. of Pedagogy, eh. 6 {.ttet. 92-93). Rabelai«'Gar«uitu«.—Kabelai8' description of the imaginary education of Gargantua gives ua the educational Ideas of a man of genius in the 16th century: "Gargantua," he writes, "awaked, then, about four o'clock in the morning. Whilst they were rubbing him, there wes read unto him some chapter of the Holy Scripture aloud and clearly, with a pronunciation fit for the matter, and hereunto was appointed a young page bom in Basche, named Anagnostes. According to the purpose and argument of that lesson, he often- times gave himself to revere, adore, pray, and send up his supplications to that go<Hl God "whose word did show His majesty and marvellous judg- ments. Then his master repeated what had Iwen read, expounding unto him the most obscure and difficult points. They then considered the face of the sky, if It was such as they had observed it the night before, and Into what signs the sun was entering, as also the moon for that day. This done, he was appareled, combed, curled, trimmed and perfumed, during which time they repsated to him the lessons of the day before. He himself said them by heart, and upon them grounded practical cases concerning the estate of man, which he would prosecute sometimes two or three hours, but ordin.j11y they ceased as soon as he was fully clothcil. Then for three good hours there was reading. This done, thcv went forth, still conferrine of the substance "of the reading, and disported themselves at ball, tennis, or the 'pile trigone,' gallantly exerci.sing their bodies, as before thev hail done their minds. All their play was but In liberty, for they left off when they pleased, and that was commonly when they did sweat, or were otherwise wearv. Then were they very well dried ana rubbed, siiifted their shirts, and walking soberly, went to see if dinner was ready. Whilst they stayed for that, they did clearly and eloquently recite some sen- tences that they had retained of the lecture. In the mean time JIaster Appetite came, and then very orderly sat they down at table. At the be- ginning of the meal there was read lome pleasant history of ancient prowess, until he had taken his wine. Then, If they thought good, they eon- tinu'>d rcajling, or l>egan to discourse merrilv to- getl ; speaking first of the virtue, propriety, elBca..y, and nature of all that was served Ui at that table ; of bread, of wine, of water, of salt, of flesh, fish, f liu, her.'s, roots, and of their dressine. By leans whereof, he Iramcd in a little time all'the passages that on tl.ese subject* are to be found in Pliny, Atheuteui, DtoKondeik :'^. 1''-, ? 1 .1 if *^* 'J iFMv EDUCATION. Btnaiuance in Qermany. EDUCATION. I Juliut, Pollux, Oalen, Porphyrius, Oppian, Poly- bitu, Hellodoros, Aristotle, (Elian, and otbora. Whilst they talked of these things, many times, to be the mope certain, thev caused the very bf>oks to be brouglit to the table, nnd so well anil perfectly did he in his memory remin the things above said, that in that time there was not a physician that knew half so much as be did. Afterwards they conferred of the lessons read in the morning, and ending their repast with some conserve of quince, he washed his hands and eves with fair fresh water, and gave thanks unto dod in some tine canticle, made in praise of the divine bounty and mimiticencc. Thisdone, 'hey brought in cards, not to play, but to learn a tliousand pretty tricks and new inventions, which were all grounded upon arithmetic. By this means 'le fell in love with that numerical science, and every diy after dinner and supper he passed his time in it as pleasantly as he was wont to do at cards and dice. . . . After this they recreated themselves with singing musically, in four or five parts, or upon a set theme, as it best pleased them. In matter of musical insiniments, he learned to play the lute, the fpinet, the harp, the German Hute, the flute with nine holes, the violin, and the sackbut. This hour thus spent, be be- took himself to bis principal study for three hours together, or more, as well to repeat bis matiitiuttT lectures as to proceed in the book wherein he was, as also to vr'" handsomely, to draw and form the antique i ' Koman letters. This being done, tliey went o f their bouse, and with tliem a young gcntlenmu of Touraiue, named Gynmast, who taught the art of ridiii;;. Changing then his clothes, he mounted on nuy kind of horse, wliieh be made to bound in tlie air, to jump the ditoli, to leap the palisade, and to turn short in a ring both to the right ami left hiiiid. . . . Tlie time being thus Ix'stowed, and himself rublK'd, cleansed, and refreshed with other clothes, tliey returned fair and softly; and passing through certain meadows, or other grassy pliues, Nehelii the trees and plants, comparing them with what is written of them in the btKiks of the ancients, such as Theoplimstus, Uioscori- <U's, Marinus, I'liny, Nicamler, Jlacer, and Galen, and carrieii home to the house great handfuls of them, whereof a young page called Hhizotomos bill charge — together with hiH'S, picks, spuds. pruniug-Univcs, and other instruments reijuisite for lierlKirising. Being come to their li«lgiiig. whilst supiH'r was making ready, tiny repeat! cl certain pas.sagcs of that which had been rend, and then sat down at tal)lc. . . . During that n'past was continued the lesson rea'i at dinner as long as they thouglit good: the rest was spent in go'xl discourse, learned and profitable. After tluit they had given thanks, thi y set themselves to sing musically, and play uixmi harnxaiious in struments, or at thost' pretty sjHirts made with cards, dice or cups. — thus niade merry till it was time to go Ui bed ; aial sometimes they would go make visits tmto learned men, or to such as had been tnvellers in stninge countries. At full night they went into the most (i|K'n place of the house to sec the face of the sky, and there iKheld the comets, if any were, as likewisi! the figures, situaticms. aspeets, oppositions, and coniunetions of the .stars. Then with ! i.smasterdid lie liriefiy reeapituUte, after the manner of the Pytbagof- tans, thiit which he had read, seen, learned, done, and understood in the whole course of that day. Then ther prayed unto God the Creator, fallin? down before Him, and strengthening their faith towards Him, and glorifying Him for His bound- less Imunty ; and, giving thanks unto Him for the time that was past, they recommemled them. si'lves to His divine clemency for the future. Which being done, they entered upon their rc- po.se "—W. Beaant, B 'innt in linbetain, in, 30-23. Germaoy. — "The schools of France and Italy owed little to the great modem movement of tliV Renaissance. In both these countries that niovi- ment operated, in both it produced mighty re- suits; but of the otScial establishments fur iu. struction it did not get hold. In Italy the mediteval routine In those establishment; n't first opposed a passive resistance to it; presently came the Catholic reaction, and sedulou.sly slnit it out from them. In France the Henaissiiice did not become a power in the State, ami \\w routine of the scbfwls sufficed to c.\eluile the new influence till it took for itself othiTclian nels than the schools. But in Germany ilie Renaissance lucamc a power in the State;"iilli(il with the Ref rinatlon, where the Reformntion triumphed in t Jerman countries the Renaissince triumphed with it, and entered with it, into the public schools. Melancthon and Erasmus wi re not merely enemies and subverters of the iloniiu- ion of the Church of Rome, tliey were einim lit humanists; and with the great but single <X(i p tiim of Luther, the chief German refonuers wire all of them distinguished friends of the iiiw classical learning, as well as of I'rotestaiiti-Mi. The Romish party was in German couiitrii > ilie ignorant party also, the party untouched by tin- humanities and by culture. Perhaps oiu' naMin why in England our schools have not li.el tin life and gniwth of the schools of GerniMiiv and Ilollanil is to lie found in the separation. \\\'.\\ us, of the power of the Reformation aiil tin- power of tlie Renaissance- Witli us. too, iht Reformation triumphed and gtit possis>ioii u( our r.chools; but our leading reformers wi-rc not at the same »ime, like those of Germany, the na- tion's leading spirits in intellect and euiinri-. lu Germany the best spirits of the nation wen- tin u the reformers; in England our best .■•iiiiii-.— IShaks[)eare, Bacon. Spenser, — were men ot tlie Renaissance, not men of the Reformation, and ur reformers were men of the second onhr. The Reformation, tlierifore, getting Indd of the schools in Englanil was a very dilTerent forci-. a forie far inferior in light, resources, and prov peets, to tlie Reformation getting hold of the schools in Germany. Hut in Germany, m vir- theless, as Protestant orthodo.vy gn w ]iiliili<d like Catholic orthtnioxy, and as, in eonsi-niifnee. Protestantism flagged and lost the powirfcil im- pulse with which it started, the selend llai'Vid also, and in the middle of the last c iiitin.v the classir.il t>. 'ing of Germany, in spile of a fe'v honou mnies like Gesiier's, Erm sii's. and r yne's, ..cems to have lost all the .'■pirit and power of the lOth century humanists, to h.ive lieen sinking into a mere church appendiL-i . and fast becoming torpid. A theological slinliiit, making his livelihood bv teaching till he could get appointed to a parish, was the usual sdioi I- master. 'The schools will never \k better.' said their great renovator, Friedrich August Wolf, the willkiiuv.ucrllii; of lloo.i r, • b<)loug a.s tin ^. h-»ii masters an theologians by profession. A theolug- 720 EDUCATION. Re/ormatiirx and iCducotion. EDUCATIOX. leal coune In s uniTerslty, with its smattering of classics, Is about as good a preparation for a classi- cal master as a course of feudal law would be ' AVolfs coming to Halle In 1783, invited by Von Zodlltz, the minister for public wnrskip undi-r Frederlclt the Great, a sovereign whose civil pro- ject, and labours were not less active and remark- able than his militarj-, marks au era from which the classical schools of Germany, reviving the dor- mant sparlt planted in them by the Renaissance, awoke to a new life."— M. Arnold, SehaoU ami Vnitertitiet on the Continent, ch. 14. — It is sur- prising to learn " how much was left untaught, in the sixteenth century, in the schools. Geog- rapliy and history were entirely omitted in every SI heme of instruction, mathematics played but a subordinate part, while not a thought was be- stowed either upon natural philosophy or nutunil history. Every moment and every iffort were £iven to the classical languages, chittiv to the atin. But we should be overhasty, should we conclude, without further inquirv. that these branches, thus neglected in the solio()ls. were there- fore every where untaught. Perhaps they were' reserved for the university alone, and there, too, for the professors of the philosophical faculty, as is the case even at the present daj with nutu- nil philosophy and natural historv; nav, logic, wliich was a regular school study in "the si.\- titiith centurj-, is, in our day, widely cultivated .11 the university. We must, therefore, in order t" form a just judgment upon the range of .sub- jilts taught in the sixteenth centurv, as well as upon the methods of instruction, "first cast a irliince at the state of the universities of that period, especially in the philosophical faculties. .V prominent source of information on this point i« to be found in the statutes of the I'niversity of Wittenberg, revised by .^lelanethon. in the yiiir 1545. The theological facultv appears, by these statutes, to have consisteil o"f four profes- sors, who read lectures on the (>ld and Xew Testaments,— chieliy on the Psalms, (Jenesis, Isaiah, the Gospel of John, and the Epistle to the Romans. They also taught dogmatics, coni- niinting upon the Xicene creed and Aut'ustine's IxKik, 'De spiritu et litera.' The Wittenberg lecture schedule for the year l.'ifll, is to the siuiie elli I • ; only we have here, Ix'sides e.\egesis ami ilogi:.,>tics, catechetics likewisi'. According to tlie .•^latutes, the philosophlenl facultv was com- 1>..M(1 of ten professors. Tlie tirst \Vns to read npoii logic and rhetoric; the .second, ujion pliys- i<>. and the second biKik of Pliny's natural liis- ti'iA ; the third, upon anthniitic and the ' Sphere ' uf .lohn de .Sacro Husto \ the fourth, upon Euclid. till' 'TlieoriiB Planetarum' of IJurbiich, and I'tolcniv's • Almagest ' ; the fifth and si.\th, upon til" L:itui pix'tsand Cicero; the seventh, who was till- • Pedagogus," explained to the younger class. I.:itin Gnunmar, Linacer 'de eniendata structuni I.atini siTmonis,' Terence, and some of Plautus; till eighth, who was the 'Physicus,' explaimd i Aristotle'3 ' Plijsics and Diosc'orides ' ; the ninth ' gave instruction in Hebrew; and the tenth re- viiwed the Greek Gnunmar, read lectures on tireek Classics at intervals, also on one of St. j Paul's Epistles, and, at the same time, on ethics. ■ ■ . Thus the philosophical facultv apjuars to h.ivp ix-en the most fullv repn'wntcd at Wit- ' teuherg, aa it included" ten professors, wliile till- theological had but four, the medical but three. ... We have a . . . criterion by which o judge of the limited nature of the studies of that period, as compared with the wide field •which they cover at the present day, in the then almost total lack of academical apparatus and eiiuipments. Tlie only exccp' n was to be found in the case of libraries; out, how meager and insufltclent all collections of books must have lieen at that time, when books were few in num- ber and very costly, will appear fror.. the fund, for example, which was a.'-signed to the Witten- berg library; it yielded annually but one hun- dred gulden, (about 803,) with which, ' for the profit of the university and chieflv of the poorer students therein, the library mav \)t adorned and enriched with Inxiks in all the" faculties r d in every art, as well in the Hebrew anc' teek tongues.' Of other apparatus, such a dlec- tions in natural historv, anatomical n. -i .as botanical gardens, and the like, we find jien- tion; and the less, inasmuch as thei as no need of them in elucidation of such lectures as the professors ordinarily gave. When Paul Eber, the theologian, read lectures upon anat- omy, he made no use of dissection.'— K. von Hiiumer, Viiinnitut in the t^ixteeuth Ctuturi) Uliintiird'e Am. Jutinuil uf Editeution, r. 5, /iji .■;;)5-54 -Luther and the Schools.—" Luther ■ ■ . !■ h l:at, to strengthen the Reformation, it was reij.isite to work on tlie young, to improve the schools, and to propagate 'througliout Chris- tendom tlie knowledge necessarv for a profound study of the holy Scriptures, "fliis, accordint'lv was one of the objects of his life. He Sfiw it in particular at tli< period which we have reached and wrote to thi councillors of all the cities of Germany, callinir upon them to found Christian scliools. 'Dear sirs,' siud he, 'we aunuallv e.\- piud so mucli money on arquebuses, roads', and dikes; why sliould we not spend a little to give one or two schoolmasters to our poor children? GckI stands at the door, and knocks; l/ussed are we if we open to him. Xow the word of Gmi abounds. O my dear Germans, buv. buv. while tlie market is ojien before vour'hou.sls Buy yoursi'lves witli the ' Idren.' iciuinues Luiiier, still addressing tlie maj,. lis; 'for many parents are lilie ostriches; thiv aie har.lened to- wards their little oms, and sarisiii d with li;ivlng hiid the egg, they care nntliing lor it af, ;-.,aids. The prosperity of a city docs ii^it cc-i<i.,t iic. n \\ .a heaping up great treasures, in build! str ug walls, in erecting splendid mansions, iu 1ios.m'ss- ing glitlering arms, V admen fall u, a r its ruin will only be the , i ■■. The' trui ,\ .ilth of a cilv. its s,ifcty, am' tp nu'tli, is tc have many learned, serious. .oftliy,"well-i;!ueated citizens. Am! «liom must we blame bi-cause there are so U\\ at jireseiit, except you magis- trates, who have allowed our youth to trow up like trees in a forest';' Luther jiarlicularly iu- sistcil on the necessity of studving lilemturt'and languages: ' Wliat use is !liiie, it may be asked, in Icarniug Latin. Greek, and Hebrew; We caii read the Bible very well in German, AVithout languages,' replies lie, 'we couhl not have re- ceived tlie gos|K'l. . , . Languages are the scab- bard that coulains the sword of the Spirit ; they are the casket that guards tlie jewels; they are the vessi'l that holds the wine ; and as the gospel pays, ih.-.y are the baskets iu « hieli the loaves and fishes are kept to feed the multitudi. It we neglect the hinguages, we sliall not on'" eventu- ally lose the gospel, but be unable t ipeak or I' 2! i'f~* k\^ ^Ij 727 '^'^W v<m EDUCATION. Brethren of fke Common Lot. EDUCATION. write in Latin or in German. No sooner did men ceaie to cultivate them than Cbriitendom de- clined, even until it (ell under the power of the pope. But now that Ungiiages are again honored, they ihed auch light that afi the world ia aaton- tahed, and every one is forced to acknowledge that our goapcl ia almost as pure as that of the apos- tles themselves. In former times the holy fathers were frequently mistaken, because they were ignorant of languages. ... If the languages lud not made me positive at to the meaning of the word, I might have been a pious monk, and quietly preached the truth in the obscurity of the clDistcr; but I should have left the pope, the sophists, and their antichristian emoirc still un- shaken. "—J. H. Merle d'Aubigne, Iliit. of (he Reformation of the 18rt Century,bk. 10, eh. 9(r. 8). — Luther, in his appeal to the municipal magis- trates of Germany, calls for the organization of common schools to be supported at public cost. "Finally, he gives his thought to the means of re- cruiting the teaching service. ' Since the greatest evil in every place is the lack of teachers, we must not wait till tliey come forward of themaelves ; we must take the trouble to educate them and pre- pare them.' To this end Luther keeps the best of the pupils, boys and girls, for a longer time in school ; gives them special instructors, ar ', opens libraries for their use. In his thought no never distinguishes women teachers from men teachers: he wants schools for girls as well as for boys. Only, not to bunlen parents and divert 'children from their daily labor, he re- quires but little time for school duties. . . . ' .My opinion ia [he says] that we must send the boys to school one or two hours a day, and have them learn a trade at home f >r the rest of the time. It is desirable that these two occupations march side by side.'. . . Luther gives the first place to the teaching of religion : ' Is it not reaaou- able that every Christian should know the IK-spel at the age of nine or ten?' Then come the lan- guages, not, as might lie hoped, the mother tongue, but the leame<l languages, Latin, Oreek, and Hebrew. Luther had not yet been sufScicntly rid of the old spirit to comprehend that the language of the people ought to be the basts of universal instruction. He left to Conientua the glory of making the final aepamtlon of the primary school from the Latin achool. . . . Plirslcal eieicites are not forgotten in Luther's pedagogicHl regulations. But he attaches an eapeclul importance to singing. ' Unless a schml- mastiT know how to sing, I think him of no ac- count. ' ' Muaic' he says again, ' is a half disci- pline which make* men more indulgent and more mild.' A' the same time that he cxteoda the programi-.- of studies, Luther intriKluces a new spirit Into methmls. He wishes more lib- erty and more Joy in the school. ' Solomon,' lie says, 'is a fnily royal schoolmaster. He dws nut. like the monks, forbid the young to go Into the worid and t)e happy Even as Antrim said ; "A young man turned aside from the worlil It like n young tree made to grow in a vasi-." "The monks have imprisoned young men like binis in tht'lr rage. It Is dangerous to isolate the young. ' . . . l>o not let oiirsclvea imagine, however, that Lulher nt once exercise<l a decisive influence on the carrKnt «hira!l;-.n "f hiadsiy. \ fear !«^Jkio!9 wire founiletl, called writing schools; but the Thirty Years' War. and other events, interrupted Um uuvement of whlcli Lutber bat the honor of having been the originator. , . , In the first half of the leventeentb centurj , Ratich, a Germun, and' Comeniua, a Slave, were, with very differ'- ent degreet of merit, the beirt of the educational thought of Luther. With tomething of the charutan and the demagogue, Ratich devoted hit life to propagating a novel art of teacbioi;. which he called didacttct, and to which he at- tributed marvels. He pretended, by his method of languages, to teach Hebrew, Oreek, and Latin, in six months. But nevertheless, out of many stmnge performances and lofty promises, there issue some thoughts of practical value. The first merit of Ratich was to give the inothtr tongue, the Oerman language, the precriUnie over the ancient languages. "—O. Compayre The But of Pedagogy, eh. 6 (teet. 130-134). Nethcrlaada, — " When learning began to re- vive after the long sleep of the Middle Ages, Italy experienced tne first impulse. Next came Germany and the contiguous pro vlncesof the Low Countries. The force of the movement in thtse regions is shown by an event of great imiwrt- ance, not always noticed by historians. In 14(H), there was established at Deventer, in the north- eastern province of the Xetherlands, an associa- tion or brotherhood, usually called Bretlireu of the Life in Common [see Brbturen of the Common Lot]. In their strict lives, partial com- munity of goods, industry in manual lalH)r, fvr- vent ifevotlon, and tendency to mystiiiam, tlif-y bore some resemblance to the modern Moravians. But they were strikingly distinguished from the members of this se<:t by their canu'st cultivation of knowledge, which was encouraged among ihim. selves and promoted among others by sclii»>l8. both for primary and advanced (Hliicallon. In 1430, the Brethren had established fortytive branches, and by 1460 more than thricr that number. They were scattered through iliHinut parts of Germany and the Low Countrits, rwh with its ichool lubordlnate to the heaii cullece at Deventer It wat in these schools, in tM middle of the fifteenth century, that a few (ler- mans and Netherlanders were, as Hallain sayi, routed to acquire that extenaive knowledge of the ancient languages which Italy as vet delu- sively nostetseu. Their names should never be omitted In any remembrance of the revival of letters; for great wat their Influence iipua tub- sequent timea Chief among these men wei« Weiacis, of Oronlnven, 'one of those who con- tributed most steadily to the puriflcatinn of re- ligion ' ; Hegius of Deventer, under whom Eras- mus obtained his early e<lucatlon, ami who probaoly was the flrtt man to print Qnek north of the Alpi; Dringeberg, who foun(le<l a f,<xA school in Alsace; and Longius, who prenlded over one at Munster. Thanks to the inlluiiire of these pioneers in learning, education had iiisile great progress smong the Netherlanders by the middle of the sixteenth century. . . . We have the testimony of the Italian Ouiccianiini to the fact that before the outbreak of the war with Spain even the peasant* in Holland cmild rtwl and write well. At the war went on, the people thoweii their determination that in this niiiur there should be no retrogression. In tin nr>.t Synod of Dort, held In l.'S74, the clergy expn ^mJ thrlr Opinion upon ilit- Stiiijn-t ItV p4*,!-!s ft ■■-- lution or ordinanrf which, among oIIh r iliiniii, directed 'the se.vanu of the Church' to ritia froB Um mailttiatet la every locality s penult' 728 EDUCATION. TKe VnivtTMitt 0/ Ltyden. EDUCATION. ■ion for the •ppointment of acboolmMten, and an order for tbetr compenaation as in the pait. Before many yean lisd elapied the civil authori- ties began to establish a general school Bystem for the country. In 1583, the Estates of Fries- land decreed that the inhabitants of towns and Tillages should, within the space of six weelcs, provide good and able Reformed schoolmasters, and those who neglected so to do would be com- pelled to accept the instructors appointed fur them. This seems to have been the beginning of the supervision of education by the State, a system which soon spread over the whole repub- lic. In these schools, however, although tboy were fostered by the State, the teachers seem, in the main, to have been paid by their pupiU. But as years went on, a cliange came about in ibis part of the system. It probably waa aided bv the noteworthy letter wUch John of Nassau, the oldest brother of WillUm the Silent, the Diible veteran who lived until 1606, wrote to hU tim Lewis William, Stadtholder of Frieslaud. lu this letter, which is worthy of a place on the walls of every schoolhouse in America, the gal- lant young stadt-holder is instructed to urge on the States-General 'that they, according to the example of the pope and Jesuits, should establish free schools, where children of quality as well as of poor families, for a very small sum, could be well and christianly educated and brought up. This would be the greatest and most u«fiil work, and the highest service that you otmld ever accomplish fur God and Christianity, and r8|ieclally for the Netherlands themselves. . . . lu summa, one may jeer at this as popish trick- cry, and undervalue it as one will: there still 1 iialns in the work an inexpressible benefit. .^ Hers and patriots thus educated, with a true knowledge of G<xi and a Christian conscience, Item, churches and schools, good llliraries, IxKiks, ami prhiting-presses, are Ix'lter tlian all armies, arsenals, armories, munitions, alliances, and trea- tii'S that can bo had or imagined lu the world.' .Such were the words In which the I'atriarch of tlie Nasaaus urged upon his countrymen a com- mou-school system. In 1609, when the I^ilgrim Fathers took up their residence In Leydon, the ncliiiol had become the common ph)|K'rty of the l«'"|ile, and was paiil for among other municipal cj|>cu»es. It was a land of schools suimorted liy the State — a land, according to JiDtley, •wliere every child went to school, where almost cvt ry liiilivldual Inhabitant could write and reail. w lure even the middle classes were pn)flrient In iii:tlliematlcs anil the classics, and cnuld sixuk twii .ir more moilcrn languages.' Dm s anv reader li.iw ask whence the settlers of I'l' iiouth. wlio came directly from llnlliiiid, and ihe other sit- lliTH of New England ohow! I'urilun bnthreii wi n- to lie founil In Ihoiisanda timiugliout tlie I'm. U Itepublir, derlvetl their Ideas of schools fir-t directed, and then suppurted by lln' Stall?" — Leyden University.— 'To comiiietiiumte tliede- liviranreof l^'yden from the !<piinl»li sleire in l'>;i IXC Nktiiehi.ands: A. 1). 1,'5T3-1.17-1). ''anil a- a nwanl for the heroism of the citizens, tlie I'linie i.f Orange, with the consent of the E» I 111 1 I.f the province, founded the University uf I'Vd.ti. Still, the figment of allegiance' n- !!;::!!:i:!, tln' l-.r.ij-.!.-. WFr? only Sglii!;!;; f f Ilr-if crii.t ii III iiMial rights, and so wen' doing their dot V ti' Ihe wivercign. Hence the chsrier of the um(- rir>iiy rau In the name of Philip, who was credited with It* foundation, as a reward to hil subjects for their rebellion against his evil coun- sellors and servants, 'especially lu consideration of the differences of religion, and the great bur- dens and hardships borne by the citizens of our city of Leyden during the war with such faith- fulness.' Motley calls this 'ponderoiu irony," but the Hollanders were able lawyers and in- tended to build on a legal basis. This event marks an epoch in the Utellectual history of Holland and of the world. . . . The new univer- sity was opened in 1575. and from the outset took the highest rank. Speaking, a few veara ago, of its famous senate chamber, Nie'buhr called it 'the most memorable room of Europe In the history of learning.' The first curator was John Van der Does, who had been militarv commandant of the city during the siege. Hfe was of a distinguisheil family, but was still more distinguished for his learning, bis poetical genius, and his valor. Endowed with ample funds, the university largely owed its marked pre-eminence to the intelligent foresight and wise muniticenee of its curato'ra. They sought out and obtained the most distinguished scholars of all nations, and to this end spared neither pains nor expense. Diplomatic negotiation and even princely mediation were often called in for the acquisition of a professor Hence it was said that It surpassed all the universities of Europe lu the uunilier <if its scholars of renown. These scholars were trciteil with prineelv honors. . . . The 'mechanicals 'of Holland, as Elizabeth called tlii'm, may not have paid the accustomed wor- ship to nmk. but to genius and learning they were always willing to do homage. Space would fall for even a brief account of the great men, foreign ami native, who illuminated Leyden with their presence. . . . But it was not alone in scholarship and In scieutlHc researeh that the University of Leyden gave an lra|)etus to modem thought. Tlieological disputes were developed there at times, little tempesU which thre>atened destruction to the institution, but they were of short durathm. The right of conscleuci; was always resiKKJled, and In the main the right of full and public discussion. . . . When It was settled that diwtentcrs could not Iw educated In the English universities, tliey Hocked to Leyden in great numlKTs, niakiuir tliat city, next to Edinburgh, tlieir chief nsort. Eleven years after the o|>eidii>r of the Uulversity of Leyden, the Estates of dciiuM iriiic Kriesiaml. amiil the ■lin of war, foiiiidc.i llie Lidversity of Francker, an iiistltiiii.M wliiili Has to U'ccmie famous as till' lion f .Vriiiiiiiiis. . , . Both of these uni- versiliis Were |ur|i.tiiiilly cndowe<l with the iiriHtrds of till' erilixi isiical property which had Ihiu roMti»(ait.| iliiii ,' the proirn»s"of the war" —1) Caiui'li. II, 7'/r. I'lirit'in in UMiml, Eng- I lit.'l. ,n„l Aii,ii'i';i, eh. S. 'Jn. „/„/ 3, j En|r|and.— " 111 ronti'mplatiiig the events of ; tlie tjlie.nili and sixtiiMith centuries. In their in- ' tlueiicc on KiiL-liili civilisation, we are reminded once more of the fiitiliiy of certain inislem n'tpiralions No amount of Universjtv Conimla- sions. not of wellnieaiit reforms, will clmiige t lie iiatUH' of Englishmen It Is lin|HHuilile, by dislriliiitionsof Uidversitr prizes and pMfessiir- ruS\". !■• atintct int" ti:c carrcr .;f icttcri that pn.|i.irilon of Indiis'ry ami ingi'iiuity which, in Oi rinany for ixaiiiple. Is devoted to the scho- lastic life. Politics trade, law, sport, religion .'It # -'ii *•■ §{ m ■■'*!ti EDUCATION. CoUt and ai. Plaul'l School. EDCCATION. will claim their own in Ihigland, lust a* they did St the Revival of Letters. The illustrious cen- tury which Italy employed in unburying, appro- {)riating, and enjoying the treasures of Greek iterature and art, our fathers gave, in England, to dynastic and constitutional squabbles, and to religious broils. The lienaissance in Englani'. and chiefly in Oxford, was like a bitter and cliangpful spring. There was an hour of genial warmth, there breathed a wind from the south, in the lifetime of Chaucer; then came frosts and storms: again the brief sunshine of court favour shone un literature for a while, when Henry Vni. encouraged study, and Wolsey and Fox fcmiiiled Christ Church and Corpus Christi Col- lo^'f, once more the bad days of religious strife returned, and the promise of learning was de- stniyed. Thus the chief result of the awakening tlioiight of the fourteenth century in England was not a lively delight in literature, but the ap- pearance of the Lolliirds. The intensely prac- tical genius of our race turned, not to "letters, but to questions about the soul and its future, about property and its distribution. The Lol- lanis were put down in Oxford : ' the tares were weeded out' by the House of Lancaster, and in the process the germs of free thought, of origin- ality, and of a ratiocrj e<lucation, were de- stroyed. 'Wyclcvism did domineer among us,' ■ays Wood; and, in fact, the intellect of the Uni- versity was absorbed, like the intellect of France during tlie heat of the Jnnsenist controversy, in defending or assailing ' 367 damned conclusions,' drawn from the Inrnks of Wyclife. The Univer- sity ' lost many of her children through the pro- fession of Wvclevism."'— A. Lang, Oxford, en. 3. — Colet and 'St. Paul'* School.— Dr. John Colet, appointed Dean of St. Paul's in l.%5, " resolved, whilst living and in health, to devote his patri- mony to the foundation of a school lu St. Paul's Churcliyard, wherein 153 children, without any restriction as to nation or country, who coidil already ri'ad and write, and were of 'giiod piirts and capacities,' should receive a sound Christian education. The ' Latin adulterate, which Igno- rant blind fools brought into this world,' poison- ing thereby ' the old Latin speech, ami the very Roman tongue use<l in tlie time of Tully and Salhist, and Virgil and Terence, and learned liy 8t. .lerome, St. AmbMse. and St. Augustine.' — all that 'abusion which the later blind worlil lirnimlit In, and which may rather lie culle<t Ulutlimture than Literature,' — should Ik- ' iitter- Iv iiliaid^hed and excluded' out of this mli>Hi|. The ( liililren shoulil he taught goixl litenilim'. IkiIIi Laihi and Greek, 'such authors that have with wlmliim loinvd JMire chaste elmiuince' — •»|Hi hilly Christian autlinrs who wrnle tlnlr wlwhiin In clean and chaste l^itln. whether In pMse fir verw', fur,' said Colet, 'my Intent is liy this'<ihiHil specially to ineri'ase knonledge. and worshipiiini; nf UimI and Our Lord .lesus Christ, and gtssl Christian life and manners in the chil- dren.'. . . The building nmsisted of one large room, ilivided into an upwr and lower sc^hool l)y a curtain, which could in' ilniwn at pleasure; and the ehariie of the two scIiihiIs devolvwl u|«m a hlirh master and a sub-master respectively Till' fiirnis were arrangoi so as each to scat six- V*!'*! tstya. tinit Wert* prfivliliH) f*ach w|Ui h ni{w><l desk, at which the head-lioy sat as presldwit The tiiiildlni; also enilinKrd an entninee-iinrch iud a li te chapel for divine servirt, Uwelllug- houses were erected, adjoining the school, for the residence of the two masters ; and for their support, Colet obtained, in the spring of isiii, ^ royal license to transfer to the Wardens and Guild of Mercers in London, real property to the value of £33 per annum (equivalent to at least £580 of present money). Of this the headmuiiler was to receive as his salary £35 (say £3.'>(i) and the under-master £18 (say £180) per annum. Three or four years after, Colet made provision for a chaplain to conduct divine service in the chapel, and to instruct the children in the Cate- chism, the Articles of the faith, and the 'Ten Commandments, — in English; and ultimately, before his death, he appears to have inereused the amount of the whole endowment to t'123 (say £1,300) per annum. So that it may lie inn- sidered, roughly, that the whole endowmeut. in- cluding the buildings, cannot have represented a less sum than £30,000 or £40,00t nf presint money. And if Colet thus sacriUced bo iiiiKh of his private fortune to secure a liberal (an 1 it I must be concoled his was a liberal) proviiticin for I the remimeration of the masters wboshoiiM e<lu- I cate his 153 boys, he must surely have had deiply at iieart the welfare of the boys themselves. I And. in truth, it was so. Colet was like a father to his schoolboya ... It was imt t« I be expected that he should find the ^eliinil- lxK>ks of the old grammarians in any way ailapt- ' ed to his purpose. So at once he set his learned friends to work to provide him with new ones. ; The first thing wanted was a Latin Granimai for beginners. LInacre undertook to pniviile \ this want, and wrote with great pains and j labour, a work in six books, which afterwards came into general use. But when Cnlet «iw it, at the risk of displeasing his friend, he ; ; it altogether aside. It was too loni; anil li<> learned fnr his 'little beginners.' So lie ii>n- I dense<i within the compass of a few pugtn two little treatises, an 'Accidence' and a Syntax.' in the preface to the first of which nei'nr the '. gentle words (luoted above. These little iMi.ks, after receiving additions from the hands uf Km»- mils. Lilly, and others, finally becami' ^lencrillv I adopted and known as Lilly a Grammar Tlid rejection of his Grammar seems to have \mn a sore (Hiint with LInacre, but Enisniiis t"ld Cnlet not to Ik' too much concerned alsiul it. . . . Erasmus, in the same letter in which lu' spoke (if Llnaere's rejected Grammar . . . put on pa|*r his niitlons nf what a scli(M>ltiiaster oiii|;lit in In', and the iH'st methisl of leochlni; Ihivs, wliii h lie fancied Cnlet might not alUigether appmve. a* he was wiint wimewhat mure to despise rlido- rie tliin Erasmus did He staled his "piiiioa that — • In nnhr that the teacher iiililit In tlior- iiu^hly up to his work, he slunild not merely )ie a mas er of one particular brum li of stmly lie should himself have traveUeii liiniiigh tlie wliule circle of kniiwledge. In philnsophv lie slemlil liii\e studliHi I'hitoand Arlsiotle. I'lieophraslus and Plotinus; In Theohigy the Sacred Siriiiiiin s and after them Origen. Chrvsoatoiii. mul ll.Ml among the Gri-ek fatlwrs. and Ainlin*' aiiJ h- i mine among the Latin fathers. aiiuinK lit |'"<ti, . Ilomei and Ovi,; ; in geography, whiili i« ^ry ; ImiMirtant in the study nf history, I'lMnimnim I Melji. Ptolemy. Pllny, Htrnlio He sholll I kllotV I what ancient names nf rivers, mountains, . oun- I tries, cities, answer to the inislern ones, and the { lauie of lrv«s, aulinalt, lustruuienu, clutbei, sail ;}() EDUCATION. n< Jautt Ttadien. EDUCATION. genu, with regard to which It la Incredible how ignorant even educated men are. He should take note of little facts about agriculture, architect- ure, military and culinary arts, mentioned by different authors. He f,houId be able to trace the origin of words, th'ir gradu'<I corruption in the languages of Condtantinoplc, Italy, Spain, and France. Nothing should be beneath his ob- serration which can illustrate history or the meaning of the poets. But you will say wha :» load you are putting on the back of the poor teacher! It is so; but I burden the one to relietre the many. I want the teacher to have iraversejl the whole ranee of knowledge, that it m.iy spare each of his scholars doing it. A dill- gent and thoroughly competent master might give boys a fair proficiency in both Latin and Greek, in a shorter time and with less labour thiin the common run of pedagogues tc' ■ to teach their babble. ' On receipt of this . olet wrote to Erasmus: . . . ' " What! I shall not ap- prove I" So you say! What is there of Eras- muss that I do not approve?'"— P. Seebohm Th* Orford Hfformerii. ch. 6. — Ascham and "The Seholemaater." — Roger Ascham. the friend of Lady Jane Grey and the tutor of Queen Elizabeth, was bom in l.'ilS, and died in l.'!S8 "It was partly with the view to the Instruction of his own children, that ho commenced the ' !l<rhole-master, ' the work by which he is most and Iwst known, to which he did not live to set the l«»t hand. He communicated the design and impiirt of the book in a letter to Sturmius. In width he states, that not being able to leave his sons a large fortune, he was res<jlve«l to provide them with a preceptor, not one to be hired for a great sum of money, but marked out at home Willi a homely pen. In the same letter he gives his reasons for employing the English language the capabilities of whioh he clearlv perceived anil candidly ackuowle<lgcd, a high virtue for a mm of that age. who perhaps could have writ- ten Latin to his own satisfaction much more easily than his native tongue. But though the benillt of his own offspring might be his ulti- miile object, the imnmliate (K-caslim of the work WH« a conversation at ("cell's, at which Sir Rich- snl .Sickville expresstnl great ln<ilgnation at the •everlties prncticwl at EU)n and other great Mli.mls, HO that l>oys actually ran away for fear of inerclli-ss flagellation. This led to the general sul.JKt of schiNil discipline, and the deft'cts in the then fHtalilished modes of tuition. Aiicham n.im iiling with the seiitimenu of the companv, iinl iimeeeding to explain his own views of lih- prnvriiient, Sackvllle requestetl him to eoiiiinlt lii* "pillions to p«p,.r and the ' SoholemaHt.r ' »i» the result It was not published till 1(170 J;!; ■ ■ . quote a few passaws. which throw light upon the author's gcnxl sens<' and giK«| uaiure To all violent ct*reion. and exin'nie liuiiMiment, he was derldediv opposed: — • I i|,i «:r>,;.,iy»he. ■Willi all goil s<fnM,l.mai.ler« In all ihi .,■ points, to have children brought to go.><| l>trf..in.ss iu leiimliig, to all honestv in man- HIT, i„ iiuve all faults righllv amend.Hl. and evirv \kv wverely correcU'd, but for the order sii'l way that leadelh rightly to thew points, we •oinrnhat differ.' 'Love is Mter than fear. KinileiieM than beatiui. to lirinj up s child iini.iiy in learning. ■ 1 do Mture you there Is D" »m h wheUtoiw to sharpen » )H«»1 wit, anil •ocourage % will to learning, ai ii praite ' The scholar is commonly beat for the making when the master were more worthy to be beat for the mending, or rather marring, of the same- In?"?^'' '"'"'J' *'■"«» '^'•'K a* ignorant as the cmid what to say property and fitly to the mat- ter. ... ' This will I say, that even the wisest of your great beaters do as oft punish nature aa they do correct faults. Yea many times the bet- ter nature Is the sorer punished. For If one by quickness of wit take his lesson readilv, another by hardness of wit taketh It not so speedily the nrst is always commended, the other is com- monly punished, when a wise school-master should mther discreetly consider the right dispo- sition of both their natures, and not so much wdgh what either of them is able to do, as what either of them is likely to do hereafter. For thl» I know-, not only by reading of iKwks in my study, but also by experience of life abroad in the wor d, that those which be commonly the wisest the best learned, and best men also, when they be old, were never commonly the quickest of wit wlicn they were young. Quick wiu commonly be apt to take, unapt to keep. Some are more quick to enter speedily than be able to pierce far. even like unto oversharp tools whose edges be very soon turned. ' "— H. Cole- ridge, lii-H/ntpliiii Bnrnilii, pp. 328-380 Jeauit Teaching and Schoola.— '■ 'The educa- lion of youth Is set forth In the Formula of Ad- priival granted by Paul lU. in 1540," to the plana of Ignatius Loyola for the foundation of the So- ciety of Jesus, "as the first duty embraced by the new Institute. . . . Although the new re- ligious were not at once able to begin the es- tablishment of colleges, yet the plan of those afterwards founded, was gradually ripening in the sagacious mind of St. Ignatius, who liMiked to these Institutions as calculated to oppose the surest bulwarks against the jirogress of heresy The first regular college of the Society was that establisheil at Oandia in 1546, tliroiigh the zeal of St. Francis Borgia, thini General of the StHiely; and the regulations by which it wat governed, and which were emlHHiie<| in the con- stitutions, were extended to all the Jesuit col. leges afterwards fouiideil. The studies were to include theology, both positive and sclinla-itic a* well as grammiir, piK-trv, rlntoric. and philoso- phy. The lourse of philosophv was to lust three years, that of theology four: and the rrofrssora of Philosophy were eiijoine.1 to tn-at their sub- ject iu sueli a way as to dispose the mind for the study of Iheolotfy, Instead of setting up faith and reiisoii in opposition to one anoiher The theology of St, Thomas, and the philosophv of Aristotle, Wire to lie followed, except on those points where llie teaching of the latter was op. poM'iltotliel'.iil.ilIc faith. "—AT. Drane r/irii- ^,(/, .Sr-,',,,. ./,,„„/ v-A,.A„.,y,, 7i(H,_"ABearlvnsthe mlddleof the sixteenth century . . . [theScH-lety of Jesus] had several colleges In France, partiru- liirly those of liillom. .Mauriac, Kodez. Tournon and Piinilers In l.WI it secured a fimting lii Paris, notwithstanding the niilstan.-e of the Par- lliiiii. lit. of the university, and of the bishops theniwlvi-s. A hundriKl years later it counted nearly fourteen thouMiid pupils in the pMvince of Paris alone. The eoltege of Clermont, in 1«.->1 e'lroUeil mi-.Tv !h.iii iw:. th-->iiisnd }-.tiii» tnrn. Tlie middle anil higher elaases assureil to Oir col- leges of the s<K-U-ty an everinereaslnir memlivr- shlp. At the emi of the seventeenth century, 731 EDUCATION. SducU <n modem JBurope. EDCCATION. the Jeauits could inicribe on the roll of honor of tiieir classes a hundred illustrious names, among others those of Condi and Luzemboure, Flichier and Bossuet, Lamoignon and Siguier, Descartes, ComeiUe, and Moliire. In 1710 they controlled six hundred and twelve college* ^d a large number of universities. They were the real masters of education, and they maintained this e<lueational supremacy till the "nd of the eigh- t< ' ill century. Voltaire said of these teachers: ' Tlie Fathers taught me nothing but Latin and nonsense.' But from the leTentcenth century, opinions are divided, and the encomiums of Bncon and Descartes must be offset by the severe judgment of Leibnitz. ' In the matter of educa- tion,' says this great philosopher, ' the Jesuits have remained below mediocrity." Directly to the contrary. Bacon had written: ' As to what- ever relates to the instruction of the young, we muHt consult the schools of the Jesuits, for there can be nothing tliut is better done. ' . . . A per- manent and characteristic feature of the educa- tional policy of the Jesuits is, that, during the whole course of their history, they have delib- erately neglected and disdained primary instruc- tion. The earth is covered with their Latin col- leges; and wherever they have been able, they have put their hands on the institutions for uni- versity education; but in no instance hnvo they founded a primary school. Even in tbilr estab- lislimcnt for secondary instruction, the) entrust the lower classes to teachers who do not belong to their order, and reserve to themselves the dlreciion of the higher classes. " — Q. Compayri, Ilitt. of Pedtigixiy, pp. 141-U3.— See, also, Jesu- its; A. D. l.'UU-l.l.'HJ.— "The Jesuits owed their fcuccess partly to the very narrow task which the; set themselves, little beyond the teaching of Latin style, and partly to the careful training which they gave their students, a training which often degenerated into mere mechanical exercise. But the mainspring of their induence was the manner in which they worked the dangerous force of emulation. Thiw pupils who were most distinguished at the end > f each month received the rank of pnctor, consi>r, and deciirion. The class was divided into two parts, called Romans anil Carthaginians. Hrtiks and Trojans. The students sat oppcMi. lacb other, the master in the middle, the walls were hung with swords, speaM and shields which the contending parties carried off in triumph as the prize of victory. These pupils' contests wasted a ^reat deal of time. The Jesuits establisheil public school fes- tivals, at which the pupils might lie exhibited, aii<i the parents flattered. They made their own rcIkmiI lHK)ks, in which the requirements of good t< aching were not so important as the religious oljjictH ! the order. "They preferred extracts to whole authors; if they could not prune the dawics to tlii'ir fancy tiny would not read them nt all. What judgment are we to pass on the Jrniiit tea> liing as a whole ? It deserve* tiraiw oil twiiaccoiiiits. Klnt. ii mainlaiwd the dignity of lilrralure in an age which wo* too liable to lie lulliK'iu'iil liy consiiTerattoua of practical utility. It nialiitaini'd the study uf Greek in France at a higher level than the I nivenily, anil resisted the asxa' It* of ignorant parent* on the fortress of Ilellcntun. Secondly, It seriously ut Itiu'lf to liiidi'.-stand the nature and character of tlie Indi- vidual pupil, ami to suit the manner of etiucatiou to tlu) mlod that wa* V) receive it. Whatever I may have been the motive* of Jesuits in gainiog the affections, and securing the devotion of tlie children under their charge; whether thiir de- sire wa* to develop the individuality whi( h tbty prolKd, or to destroy it in its germ, and plant a new nature in its place ; it must \k admitted that the loving care which they spent upon their charge was a new departure in education, and has become a part of every reasonable system since their time. Here our praise must end . . . They amused the mind Instead of strtnirth. ening it. They occupied in frivolities siuhaj Latin verae* the year* which they feared misht otherwise be given to reasoning and the arc|uj. sition of solid knowledge. . . . Cehthniiiil as the Jesuit schools have oeen, they have mvid much more to the fashion which tilled theiu with promising scholars, than to their own cMilli'tice in dealing with their material. . . . They hare never stiKid the test of modem criticism. ' Thty have no place in a rational system of mmlcni education." — O. Browning, Introd. to tin Uiti, of Educational Theoriet, eh. 8. Modem : European Countries. Auatria. — " The annual appropriatious passed by Parliament allow the minister of puUic in structton 88,807,774 for all kinds of piililic cdu. cational institutions, elementary and siinnJaiy schools, universities, technical and art s('hc«)l8, museums, anil philanthropic institution*. Gen- erally, this principle is adhered to by the staii'. to subsidize the highest institutions of lianiin;,' moat liberally, to share the cost of muintuluiug woinj. ary schools with church and coninuinily, uml to leave the burden of maintaining elinuntaiy schools almost entirely to the local or roiunnnal authorities. ... In the Austrian pulilic s< hmili no distinctions are made with tlie pupils as re- gards tlii'ir religious confessions. The si lim)U are open to all, and are therefore coninmn t.i\mM in the sense in which that term is eiupli'Mil with us. In Prussia it Is the policy of tlietinveni. ment to separate the pupils of differiMit reli);iiiu» confessions in . . . elementary, but not ti>»t pa- rate them in secondary schools. In Austria and Hungary, special teacher* of religim f.ir the elementary and secondary schwils are 1 1, i i'lyed; in Prussia this is done onlv In si'comhiry selnKiU. while religion Is taught by the sei uliiV ten hen lu elementary schixils. This Is a very vi; il (lit- fm'nce. and shows how miieli iicari riln Au-lrian schools have come to our Ideal of a (ciiiMKin schiKil."— L'. 8. Comm'r of Education, lin'^rt, 1881»-0t). pp. 4fl.5-46e. Belgium.— " The treaty of Paris, of Mnn h31), 1814. lixed the iKiundarlfs of the XetherlamU, and united Holland and Beltrluni. In ihi se new circumslunces. thesysleiii of pulilic iiislrnelloD iH-cBiue the siilijeit of much dllHcultj lutweeo llie t'alvlnists of the norllieru provinces iiii'l the Calliolics of the southern. The !.'• 'veruinent therefore underti«)k llwlf to manage the orirani- xation of the system of iustructlou in its thn-e grades. . . . \VlllliUii I. disirtil to five the lUl- giuns from French liilluence. and with tliisilijcol Hiloptid till' injiiiliiioua measure of aitiinpling to forie the I)utch language upon lliein llealw endeavond to familiarize them with PnlisUint ideas, and to this end determined to gel the lare of religious Instruction exclusively into liie i>au>i> of tlie state. Hut the clergy were eiieri;' tie hi asKrting their rights ; the beildnes* of the IklgiiS 732 EDUCATION. Bngtand. EDUCATION. deputies to the SUtes-General increased daily ; and the project for a system of public and pri- vale instruction which was laid before the second chamber on the 26th November, 1829, was very unfavorably received by the Catholics. The government very honorably confessed its error by repealing the obnoxious ordinances of 1825. But it was too late, and the Belgian provinces were lost to Holland. On the 12th October, 1830, the provisory government repealed all laws restrict- ing the free<lom of instruction." (For some particulars of the later history of the educational luntlict in Belgium, see Xktiibklands: A. D ls:iii-1884]. —/•«//.•(> ImtmetiuH in Iklgium \liimanli) Aiiurirun Journal of Educatiun. v. 8 Denmark.—" Denmark has long hem noted for the excellence of her schools. . . . The perfection ;ii:d extension of the system of popular instruction (late from the beginning of the eighteenth cen- tury, when Bishop Thestrup, of Aalberg, caused 6 parish schools to be established in Copenhagen p 1 when King Frederick IV. (1899-1730) had 24(1 schoolhousi's built . . . Christian VI. (1730- 1740), . . . ordained in 1739 the establishment of ciminion or parish sch(Kjls is every town and in evury larger village. The branches of instruction were to be religion, reading, writing, and arith- initic. No one was to be allowed to teach unless 111- !iad shown himself qualilicd to the satisfaction 1.1 the clergyman of the parish. . . . Many dilli- culties, however (especially the objections oi' Uie landed proprietors, who had their own schw.ls on their estates), hinJen^d the free development of tlie common school system, and it was not until 1814 that a new and more favorable t ra was inaugurated by tlic hiw of July 29 of that year According to this law the general control of tl ,■ schools is In the hands of a minister of public in stniction and subonlinatc su|,erintvndents for the several departments of the kingdom."— £(/«/-<i. tiun in Denmark (C. S. Bureau of Ediiealivn, "irciiUir$ of Infvrniiitiun, 1877, no. 2), pp. 40-4l' — "Withapopuhition in 1890 of 2,18.5,1.'>7, the pupils en. 'led In city and rural schools in l>en- murk numbt.. _d 231,9^0, or about 10 per cct. of the population receivInK the foundation U au iducatfon. In 1881 the llliteratct to 100 recruits numbered 0.36; In Sweden at that date, ll'e per itut. was 0.39."— C. S. Comm'r of Education /i;»'rf, 1889-90, n. 523. England: Oxford and Cambrida;e.— "Oxford iiiiil Cambridge, as establishments for educat;„n KMisistof two parts — of the I'niversitv proper and of the Colleges. The fc-nier. original ami IS.* iitlal. Is founded, controlled, an>I privileged by piililie authority, fortheadvanUge of the nation. Til.- lalU'r, accessory and contingent, are cri'ated renulaled, and endowed by i-rivute munlllcen(\e ]»' lUe InU'rest of certain favc ud Individuals Tune was, when the Colleges dil no' exist and tlie Lnlverslty was there; ami wi re tlie Coli^t'is iiKiin ahollsliiNl, the I'niversity vould rei-.aln euiire. The former, founded sole.'y fur ediu-i- tioii. exists only as It acccmpllslies the ,tid of its insiitution: the latter, founded prlneipallv for ahuHiit ai..l habiuilon, would still exist, 'wire nil education abandoned within their walls. The I ni\ersity, tn a national establishment. Is ueces- »arily o|H'n to the lieges in general; the Colleges, =■- i-.ivatc institulioUi^ might uuivenutily do, us some have actually dime — close their gau's ui«>n •U. except their fouudatiuo members. The L nl versities and Colleges are tlius neither identical nor vicarious of each other. If the University ceases to perform Its functions, it ceases to exist; and the privileges accorded by the nation to the system of public education legally organized in the L niversity, can not, without the consent of the nation— far less without the consent of the academical legislature — be lawfully transferred to the system of private education precariously organized in the Colleges, and over which neither Uie htate nor the IJniversity have any control They have, however, been unlawfully usurped, through the suspensioi f the University, and u """■'P'*"'"' of its functions and privileges by the Collegial bodies, there has arisen the second of two systems, diametrically opposite to eacl other. —The one, in which the University was paramount, is ancient and statutory; the other in which the Colleges have the asfviidant, is recent and illegal.— In the former, all was subservient to public utility, and the interests of scieui u ; in the latter, all Is sacrificed to private monopoly and to the convenience of the teacher. . In the original constitution of Oxford, as in tiiat of all the older U iversities of the Parisian model the business of .nstruetion was not confided to a special bixlyof )irivllege<i professors. T',|. Uni- versity was go\ . rued, the I niv( rsity w lught by the gmduates at large. I'tofessoi hister, Uoctor, were oriirinallv synonvnious. l^verv praduute had an equal right of teaching publicly in the 1, niversity the subjects competent to h{s faculty, and to the rank of his degree; nay every graduate ineurnd tlie obligation of teaching publicly, for a certain period, the subjects of hU faculty, for such was the condition involved In the gr-.nt of the degn-e itself."— Sir Wm. Ham lllou, /JitdimiDiit on PJdIiiuiphy and Literature, etc.: t:i»nition, ch. 4. England: The "Great Public School*."— \ .lat is a public school In England? "The question is one of considerable dlfllculty. To some extent, however, the answer has been fur- nished by the Koyal Commission appointed in 1861 to hKiuIrr; Into the nature and application of the eii<lo»mentsaiid revenues, aiul Into the ad- ministration and management of certjiin si)eeitled colleges and 8<:1khi18 commouiy known as the I'ublic Schools CommUsiou. Nine are named in the Queens letter of appointment, viz., Eton, \\ Inchester, Westminster, the Cliurterhouse, St. Paul's. Merchant Taylors', Harrow, Kugby, aud Shrewsbury. The reasunj pmliablv which sug- gesU'd this seleciion wire, that the nine named fou latiotishadinlluidursi of einiuries emerged fiom till- nm».s of enilnwed grtiminarseliool'-;. and hail niiiile f,ir tliinisi Ives a piwilion wliiih justl- tiei' their being plaeid iu a distinct <-ate ,ipry, and cla^sw-d as • public schools.' It will be seen" as wo priKeeil thai nil tlie.se nine he ,e certain fi-atures In niimni.ii, distinguisliini' iliein from the ordi- nary graiimmi si-liiHilsv iiiche.xi.st In almost every loimtry t.iwn in England. .Many of tin.* latter an- now waking up to the ri-iiulrenu-nts of the new time and folluwing the example of their mure illii.strious sisic-rs The most notalili- exam- ples of this revival are smh si limils as lliiise at .Slii-rborne. Oiggk-sw lek, and Tiinnridge Wells, whii-h, while reinoih-lling tlii-nm:lve8on the lines laid down by the Public ScIkhiIh CimiiiiMnncrs. an- to some extent providing a tralwlng more ttilaptiKl to the means and reiiulremeiits of our middle cluwt la the nineteenth century than cm 733 EDUCATION. 71u p*vj( Engiitk Pultic SdlooU. EDUCATION. 15 j;4' liiWl be found at nnj of the nine public icuooli. But twenty years ago tlie movement which has since made such astonishing progress was scarcely felt in qiiiet country places like these, and the old enilowments were allowed to run to waste in a fashion which is now scarcely credible. The same impulse which has put new life into the endowed grammar-schools throughout England has worked even more remarkably in another direction The Victorian age bids fair to rival the Eliza betiian in the number and importance of the new schools which it has founded and will hand on to the coming generation. Marlborough, Halleybury, Uppingham, Hossall, Clifton, Chel- tenham, liadley, Malvern, and Wellington Col- lege, are nine schools which have taken their place in the first rank. ... In order, then, to get clear ideas on the general question, we must keep these three clas-ses of schools in mind — the nine old foundations recoiinized in the first in- stance by the Royal Commission of 1861 ; the old foundation!) which have remained local grammar- schools until within the last few years, but are now enlarging their Ixiunds, conforming more or less to the public-school 8y.stem, and becoming national institutions; and, lastly, the modern foundations which started f-om the first as public schools, professing to adapt themselves to the new circumstances and requirements of modem English life. The public schools of England full under one or other of these categories. . . . We may now turn to the historic side of the ques- tion, dealing first, as is due to their importance, witli the nine schools of our first category. The oldest, and in some respects iiiost famous of these, is Winchester School, or, as it was named by its founder William of Wykclmm, the College of St. Mary nf Winchester, founded in iSSii. Its constitution still retains nuich of the impress left on It i)y the great Bishop of the greatest Plan- tagenet King, live centuries ago. Toward the enil of the fuurtiTnth century Oxford was already the center of English e<lucation, but from the want of gmniniar-schools Imys went up by I-un- dreds untaught in the simplest rudiments of learning, and when there lived in private hostels or lodging-houses, in a vast throng, under no discipline, and exposed to many hardships and temptations. In view of this state of things, Wil- liam of Wykeham foimded his grammar-school at Winchester and his college at Oxford, binding the two together, so that the school might send up properly traine<l scholars to the university, when' they would Iw received at New College, in a suitable acmiemlcal home, which should in its turn furnish governors and masters for the school, . . . Next in date comes the n>yal fiun- dation of Eton, or 'Tlie College of the Bli sed Maiy of Eton, near Winiisor. ' It was foiin<led bv Henry VI., A. I). 1446, upon tlie model of Winchester, witli a collegiate establishment of a pn)Vost, ten fellows (roluced to seven in the reign of Edwanl IV.), sevc.ty » " olars, and ten chap- Uins (now reduced to two, ,ho are calliHl ' con- ducts '), and a head and lower master, ten lay clerks, and twelve choristers. Tlie provost and fellows are the governing body, who appoint the head master. . . . Around this center the great ■chool, numl)ering now a tliousand iHiys, has fsthered. the cdjleee. however, stil! T<'t*|nlne lt» own separate organization and traditions. Be- (liles the splendid btiildin^ and playins-flelds at Eton, the college holds real property of Hie yearly value of upward of £20,000, and fortv livinge ranging from £100 to £1,200 of yearly value. . . . The school next in date stands out in sharp con- trast to Winchester and Eton. It is St. Paul'! School, founded by Dean Colet. . . . Shrews bury School, which follows next in order ol seniority, claims a royal foundation, but is Ic reality the true child of the town's folk. The dissolution of the monasteries destroyed also th( ser^inaries attached to many of them, to the great in] try of popular ^ucation. This was spe cla ly the case in Shropshire, so in 1 Wl the bailiffs, burgesses, and Inhabitants of 8l;rewsbury and the neighborhood petitioned Edward VI. for a grant of some portion of the estates of the rtis solved collegiate churches for the purpose n\ founding a free school. The Kiii,<r conscntid and granted to the petitioners the apprnpriiiii d tithes of several livings and a c.larter, but di.i: before the school ivas trga'nized. It was in abiv hnce during Mary's rMgo, but opened in the fourth year of Elizabeth, 1562, by Thomas .Aston , . . We have now reached the great group ni Elizabethan schools, to which indeed Shnws bury may also be said to belong, ns it was noi opened until the Queen had been three years or the throne. The two metropolitan sch'iols oi Westminster and Merchant Taylors' were in fari foimded in l-IBO, two years before It opening ol Shrewsbury. Westminster as a roj„i ."onndatiot must take precedence. It is a grammar srhno attached by the Queen to the i'ollc?iitf chiirol of St. Peter, commonly called Westniinstor .\b bey, and founded f,>r the free education of fortj scholars in Latin, Oreck, and Helmw Tin Queen, with characteristic thriftiness, proviili< no emiowment for her school, leaving the cost ol maintenance as a charge on the gemnd nv. nucs of the dean and chapter, which indei-d were ili<> a as now, fully competent to sustain the Imrilcn. . . . Merchant Taylors', the other metropolitan school founded in l.')60, owes its ori^rin to Sii Thomas White, a memlier of the Court of .\ssist- ants of the company, and founder of St. .John's College, Oxford. It was probablv his promise to connect the school with his college whidi in- duced the Company to undertake the task. . . . Sir Thomas White redeemed his , roinise liy en- dowing the school with thirty-seven fellowsliips at St. John's ( i>llege. . . . Kugby. or tlie fret sch(K)l of Lawrence SherifT, follows next in order, having Ix'en founded i.. 15tl7 by Ijinrenee SlurilT, grocer, and citizen of London, His ' iiiien'' (us the <locuinint expressing his wishes isealleillile- dares tliat his lands in Kugby and lirownsovir, and his 'third of a ,>asture-grounil in (iniy's Inn Fields, caMeii Conduit Close,' shall 1m' applied tn inaintain a free grammar scliool for the ( liildrcn of Uugt)y and Hrown8<iver, and the places adjoin- ing, and four p(H>r almsniin of the same jiarislies. These estates, after providing a fair solioolhony' and residences for tlie master and alinsinf n, at first prcHluced a rental of <mly CU lUs 4i| In due time, however. Conduit Close Ueanie a |i:ir( of eentnil l,<>ndon, and Unghy Sc Inxil (lie oi\nri of eight aer-s of houses in and about tlie present I,jtmb's Conduit Stn'et. The income of the whole trust property amounts now to about I'tl.tKW, ol which £2.M Is expendeil on the maintenance ol the twelve slmsmi'U, . . Harrow School wai founde<l In I.")7I, f<mr yean latter than Uugby, bj John Lynn, a yeoman of the parish. Ho wsi owner of certain (null esUkte* In and about Uir 73-1 EDUCATION. ih«,^^ir,<rf« EDUCATION. row and Barnet and of others at Paddtagton and Kilbura. All these he devoted to public nur- poses, but unfortunately gave the former forthe perpetual education of the children and youth of the parish and the latt -r for the maintenance and repair of the highwa-rs from Harrow and Edee- ware to London. The present yearly revenue of the school estates is barely over £1 000 while that of the highway trust is nearly £4.'0OO.' But taough th " poort St in endowments, Harrow, f roni lU nramess to London, and consequent attrac- tions for the classes who spend a targe portion of their year in the metro, lis either In attendance !? V''''?,™e°t. Of for pleasure, has become the rival of Eton as a fashionable school. Last on the list of the nine schools comes the Charter- house (the Whitcfriars of TLoCKeray's novels) It may be fairly classed with the Elizabethan schools, though actually founded In 1609 after the accessi-n of James I. In that year a substan- tial yeomi; .. Thomas Sutton by name, purchased from Lord Suffolk the lately dissolved Charter- house, by SinithJield, and obtained letters patent empowering him to found a hospital and school on t,he old site. "-T Hughes, 7%? PuUie &hool» ofbnglandiA. Am. Itev., April. 1879).— Faeginr -"In rougher days it was found, that iu TarKi- schtmls the stronger and targer boys reduced the smaller and wealitr to the condition of IleloU Here the authorities stepped in, and despairinir of eradicating the evil, took the po-er which mere strength had won, and conferred It upon the seniors of the school — the members, that Is of the highest form or forms. As in those du'v.s promotion was pretty much a matter of rotation' every one wlio remained his full time at tin' •chooi, was pretty sun- to reach in time the <iomin- ant class, and the humblest fag looked forward to tlic day when he would join the ranks of the ruling aristocracy. Sleanti.ne he was no longer at the beck of any stronger or ruder classfellow Hi.s ■ niiister ' was in theory, and often in practice' lis bi'st protector: he imposed upon him very ik( ly what may l)e called menial olBces — miidV liim carry home his 'Musie'- field for him at -d.krt- brush his coat; If we are to believe s.Ikk.1 myths and traditions, black his shoes, anil < V, 11 lake the chill off his sheets. The boy, how- i v.r, s;.w the son of a Howard or a Percy simi- larly (inployi-d by his side, and In cheerfully siiliiiiilliiig to an ancient custom, he was but fol- low lii«„„t the tendencies of the age and •la.ss o whi,. , he lH.|on|^ed The mere "bolitioii of the riL'ht of fagging, vague and undefiu.d as were tlie duties attacheil to l(, would have been a loss rather than a gain to the oppressed as a clxss It would merely have substituted for Ihe Misting law, imiM'rfect and anomalous as tli.it law might be, the licence of i.rute force and iIr. iloniinion of Iwylsh trueulence. . , . Such wis more or less the state of things when he i,', w horn Lnglish education owes so Incalculable a Ucbt. was placed at the head of Kugby School . . It was hoped that he who braved the anci r of his order by his pamphlet on Cliunh Keform — at whose bold and uncompromising laiiuuiiKe bishops stood aghast and ourtly nobles nnioii- strated in vain — would make short work of sncient saws and medisvsl traditions- that a ftvoluUnn In wbool life was at hand. And lluv , were not miiUken. . . . What he did was I •eiJc on the really valuable part of the e»lslin« lyitem — to inipln it with that new Ufe. and those lofJer purposes, without which mere In- St tiitions, great or small, must, sooner or later witlier away and perish. His first ,U=p was U> fj'' »!? '""?<"*»'>' c'lange in the actual mtchln- .'ry of the school — one wlich, in itself, amounted to a revolution. The hisrhest form In the sch^ was no longer open to all whom a routine pro- motion miglit raise in course of time to its level. m L^^- *" '■*'"''''".' '""•''«")• "ere the only ■'sixth for? J"=''.«';r''u ■^■"^ °ew-modelli si-xth form were told, that the privilcirea and powir, ^.,neh their predecessors hJETenof^d for tl^y ^ ;.«. ?o'/° ^M 'f '^'l'""" '^^ but thTt t cj ^^, re to Iw held for the cojimon good as s hilhl^"'" "l'^ '"''"'"■ents of .-utiesandiTpoS! sibihties such as any one with less confidence ta those whom he addressed womd have hesitated mitTf '^"^^' ^:*^« ""'1 Pi»inrthat wiS out tlu-ir co-operation then was no hope of keeping ,n check the evils inherent in al^ie°y of boys. Tyranny, fals,.h.Hx , drinking Tny^ spirit, coarsi-iiess, seltishne'. -the evil spirilts that infest schools -these -aey heard Sunday after Sunduv put in their true light by a maiei- tic voice ana a manly pre.s.„,.e, with words ac- icnts ami manner which would live in their mem- ory lor y.i.rs; but they were warned that, to l^J^'Z u" l.r?";""' *'r "''"8 more was needed than the M.tehfulncss ot masters and theeuerKV of their chief. They tliemselves must use tS arge po^yers, entrusted to tli»m .'-i n^eognitlon of the principle, or rath.rof th. fact, thatlnalarge wc ety of boys some must of necessity hold sway o ke,,, down in tliemselves and those aboit 'I .'in, prineiples and practices wliKh are ever of all that is fair and noble in such institutions iJr. Ai.old i)ers<.v,.red in spite of opposition obloquy, and mi.srepresentatlon. . . But I, firmly establ: •d his system, and his success.,rs. leii d' fenng i training and tempcram.nt fnmi I ill self and from each other, have agn^d in cor- dially suslaining it. His pup.ls and theirs, men in very different walks of life, filling honourable posts at the iimve.>ities and public s.hools, or r Mug the millions of India, or working amonir th. blind and toiling multitudes of our great towns, leel diiily how n ueh of their Usefulness and power they owe to the s<.nse ot high trust 1 powir I hii.'li di and hi,.-li duty ■\ hicli ti' .y lmliilH.d at school Our r>,hl,c.\-h..„h—-ll„ii. J)i,a/,l-iiie „mi In- strnri, ,1 ( hntx r, .\[ai,azii„<. r. 1, jip. 407-409) England: A. D. 1699-1870. -The rite of tlementary Schools.- •The recognition by tlic hnu'lisli Stale of its pi.ramount duty in aiding tlie work of national education is scarcely more than a generation old, Tlie recognition of the further ■md far more extensive work of supplementinir i.y state aid, oj by State agency, all deficiencies m the supply of scIkh.Is, dates only thirteen vean buck [to isfoj; while the equally pitssing duty of iiiforcing, by a universil law, the use of the o|ip(>rtuiiiliea of education tlius supplied is a inatler almost of yestenlay. The State has only slowly stepiH'd into Its pn.pcr place : more slowly In the case of England than in the case of any other of the leadinir European ns'i"u« In ir.B9 the SjKiety lor the Propagation of Chris- tlan Knowledge was founded, and by it Ttrioiu •chools were established throughout the country In 1782 Robert Itaikes eiubllshed bis lltit Bus- 7J5 !»•!■ EDUCATION. Education. KDUCATION. d*7 ichool, and in a few yean the Union, of wUcli be was the founder, had under its contToI schools scattered all over the country. But the most extensive efforts made for popular educa- tion were those of Andrew Bell and Joseph Lan- caster towards the close of the eighteenth cen- tury. . . . They misconceived and misjudged the extent of the work that had to be accom- plished. They became slaves to their system — that which was called the Monitorial system . . . and by elevating it to undue importance they did much to diwredit the very work in which tbev were engaged. . . . Amongst the Noncon- formist followers of Lancaster there arose the British and Foreign School Society; while by those of Bell there was established, on the side representing the Church, the National Society. The former became the recognised agency of the Dissenters, the latu-r of the Church ; and through one or other of these channels Stat" "'d, when it ^rst began to flow, was obliged to take itu course. ... In 1803 the first Sir Robert Peel passed a Bill whi 'a restricted children's labour in factories, and required that reading, writing, and arith- metic should be taught to them during a part of each day. This was the beginning of the factory legislation. . . . In 1807 Mr. Whitcbread intro- duced a Bill for the establishment of parochial schools through the agency of local vestries, who were empowered to draw on the rates for tlie purpose. The House of Commons accepted the Bill, but it was thrown out in the House of Lords. . . . The movement for a State recogni- tion of education was pressed more vigorously when the fears and troubles of European war were clearing away. It was in 1816 that Brougham obtained his Select Committee for Inquiring Into the Education of the Poor in the Metropolis. ... In 1820 Brougham introduced, on the basis of his p;°cvious inquiries, an iMucation Bill. . . . By thfa Bill the issue between tlic contending Sarties in tlie State, which was henceforward esUned to be the chief stumbling-block in the way of a State education, was placed on a clear and well-defiued basis. . . . The Church was alarmed at anything which seemed to trench upon what she naturally thought to be her appointed task. The Dissenters dreaded what might add to the impregnability of the Cliurob's strong- holds. . . . When the beginning was actually made it came ... as an almost unnoticed pro- posal of the Executive. In 1833 the sum of £20,000 for public education was placed In the estimates ; it was passed by the Committee of Sup- ply ; and the first step was taken on that course from which the Stiite has never since drawn back. No Icgislution was necessary, . . . The next great step was taken in 183S, when the annual vote was increased from £20,000 to £30,000, and when a spicial department was creoted to super- vise the work. Hitherto grants had been a<l- ministered by the Treasury to meet a certain amount of local exertion, and in general reliuueo upon vague assurances as to maintenance (if tlie schools by hx^al promoters. . . . The ciuiilitions which were soon found to be necessary as secu- rities, either for continuance or for elliciency, were not yet insisted upon. To do this it was necessary to have a Oepartmeut specially devoted !. . this work ; ami the nieanH adoptiil for creating such a Department was one which bad the ad- vantage of requiring no .\(t of Parliament. By an Order In Oouncila Special Committee of the Privy Council was established, and, in connec- tion with tUs Committee, a special staff of ofli- cers was engaged. The same year saw the ap- pointment of uie first inspectors of schools. It was thus that the Education Department was constituted. The plan which the advisers of the Oovemment in this new attempt had most at heart was that of a Normal Training College fur teachers. . . . But it was surrounded with so much matter for dispute, gathered during a generation of contention, that the proposal all but wrecked the Government of Lord Melbourne. The Church object-id to the scheme. . . . lu tlie year 1844, after five years of the new adminstra- tion, it was possible to form some estimate, not only of the solid work accomplished, but of tlie prospects of the immediate future. . . . Between 1839 and 1844, under the action of the Committee of Council, £170,000 of Imperial fuuds had been distributed to meet £480,000 from local resources. In all, therefore, about one million had lieen spent in little more than ten years. What solid good had this accomplished ? . . . According to a careful and elaborate report in the year 1>H5, only about one in six, even of the children st school, was found able to read the Scriptures with any ease. Even for these "ho power of reading often left them when they tried u secular book. Of reading with intelligence there wus hardly any ; and about one-half of the children who came to school left, it was caleuLited, un- able to read. Only about one ci'ild in four liad mastered, even in the most mechanical way, the art of writing. As regards arithmetic, not two per cent, of the children had advanced as far as the rule of three. . . . The teaching of the sclnmls was In the hands of men who had scarcely any training, and who had often turned to the work because all other work had turned away from them. Under them it was coudu;;ied upmi Hut monitorial system which was the inheritauie from Dr. Bell, the rival of Lancaster The pupils were set to teach ore another. . . . The iu<iuiries of the Committee of Council thus gave the iKath- blow, in public estimation, to the once highly- vaunted monitorial system. But how was it to be replaced? The model of a better state of things was found in the Dutch schools. Tlit't« a selected number of the older pupils, who in- tended to enter upon the profession of teailuiii, were apprenticed, when they had reaclu'd the age of thirteen, to the teacher. . . . After thiir apprenticeship they passed to a Training t'olUue. . . . Accordingly, a new and important start was maile by the Department on the 2.5tli of August 1848. . . . In 1851 twenty-tlve Training Cdlhs'is had been established ; and these hud a suri' sup- ply of qualified recruits in the «,000 pupil liaih- ers who were by that time being trained t.i the work. . . . The U'n years between 1»4J ami 1W3 saw the Parliamentary grant raised frmu £40, tM) to £100,000 a year, with the certainty of a still further increaa<! as the augmentation gniiiis W teachers and the stipends to pupil teacliers gnw In numlier. Nearly 3,800 schools had biH ii liiiilt with Parliamentary aid, providing acconinu"!*- tion for no less than 540,000 children. Thi' State had contributed towards this more than £4(K),iH)0; and a total expenditure had been incurred in pro- viding schoolsof more than Sl.OOO.OOO . But the system wasas yet only tentative; aiiilainassnf thorny religious Questions had to be faced Ixtfore a really national system could be esuiblibhcJ. (30 EDUCATION. Xngliik tklltcatton Act of tS70. EDUCATION. ... All partie* became convinced that the first ftep was to inquire into the merits and defects of the existing system, and on the basis of sound Infonnation to plan some method of advance. Under this impression it was that the Commis- sion on Public Education, of which the Duke of Newcastle was chairman, was appointed in 1858. " The result of the Commission of IS-W was a re- vision of the educational Code which the Com- ■nittee of the Privy Council had formulated. I'he New Code proved unsatisfactory in its worli- tog, and every vear showed more plainly the ne- cessity of a fully organized system of national education. " Out of the discussions there arose two pocieties, which fairly expressed two different views. . . . The first of these was the Education League, started at Birmingham in 1869. . . . lu basis, shortly stated, was that of a compulsory system of school provision, by local authorities through means of local rates ; the schools so pro- vided to be at once free and unsectarian. . . . In this programme the point which raised most opposition was the unsectarian teaching. It was chiefly to counteract this part of the League's objecto that there was formed the Education Union, which urged a universal system based upon the old lines. ... By common consent the time for a settlement was now come. Some guarantee must be taken that the wliolc edifice should not crumble to pieces ; that for local agen- cies there should be substituted local authorities; and that the State should be supplied with some mschinery whereby the gaps in tlie work might ■e supplied. It was in this position of opinion that Mr. Forstcr, as Vice-President, introduced his Education Bill in 1870. . . . The measure passed the House of Lords without any material alteration ; and finally became Law on the 9th of August 1870."— H. Craik, The tHaU in iit HeUi- tion to EdHcatioii.— T\ie schools to whicK the provisions of the Act of 1870 extends, and the regulations under which such schools are to be conducted, are definnl in the Act as follows: "Every elemcntarv school whicli is conducted hi accordance with the following regulations shall be a public elementary school within the m.aning of this Act; and every public element- ary school shall be copducted in accordance with the following regulations (a copy of which regu- lations shall be tonspicuously put up in every such school); namely (1.) It shall not Ik- re- quired, as a condition of any child being admitted Into or continuing In the school, that he shall at- tend or abstain from attending any Sunday school, or any place of religious worship, or that he shall attend any religious observance or any instruction in religious subjecu in tlie school or elsewhere, from which observance or instruction he may be withdrawn by his parent, or that he shall, if withdrawn by his parent, attend the school on any day exclusively set apart for re- ligious observance by the religious body to wluch his parent belongs: (3.) The time or times dur- ing which any religious observance is prac- ti-scd or instruction in religious subjects is given at any meeting of the school shall lie eitlii r at the iK'ginning or at the end or at the begiimiiiin and the end of such meeting, and shall 1* in- i serted in a time-table to be approved by the I Education Department, and to he kppt pi'miii- ! nently and conspicuously affixed in every school- I room; and any scholar may be withdrawn by his j pirent from such observance or instruction with- I 47 out forfeiting any of the other benefits of th« school: (8.) The school shall be open at all times to the inspection of any of Her Majesty's inspectors, so, however, that it shall be no part of the duties of such Inspector to inquire fato any instruction in religious subjects given at such school, or to examine any scholar therein in religious knowledge or in any religious sub ject or book: (4.) 'The school shall be con- ducted in accordance with the conditions required to be fulfilled by an elementary school in order to obtain an annual parliamentary grant."— J. H. Rigg, National Bdumtion, app. A.—" The new Act retained existing inspected schools, . . . it also did away with all denominational classifi- cations of schools and with denominational in- spection, treating all inspected schools as equally belonging to a national system of schools and under national inspection, the distinctions as to inspectors and their provinces being henceforth purely geographical. But the new Act no longer required that public elementary schools estab- lished by volunury agency and under voluntary management should have in tliem any religious character or element whatever, whether as be- longing to a Christian Church or denomination or as connected with a Christian philanthropic society, or as providing for tiie reading of the Scriptures in the school. It was left open to any party or any prson to establish purely volun- tary schools if they tliought fit. But, furtlier- more, the Act made provision for an entirely new class of schools, to be established and (in part) supported out of local rates, to be governed by Iwally-elected School Boards, and to have just such and so much religious instruction given in them as the governing boards might think proper, at times preceding or following the pre- scrilwd secular school hours, and under the pro- tection of a time-table Conscience Clause, as in the case of voluL'ary schools, with this restric- tion only, that in tiiesc schools no catechism or denominational religious formulary of any sort was to be taught. The mode of electing mem- bers to the Scliool Boards was to lie by what is called the cumulative vote — that is, each elector was to have as many votes as there were candi- dates, and these votes he couhl give nil to one, or else liistribute among the candidates as he liked: and all ratopayere were to be electors. . . . The new law . . , made a cliar 8<'paration, in one respect, beiwcen voliintarv and Board f hiiols. Ikitli wore to stand cciually in relation to the National Education Department, under the Privy Council; but the voluntary schools were to have nothing to do with local rates or rate aid, nor Local Uoarcis to have any control over voluntary schools. '—.J. I{. Rig<T, National Kiliifiitioii, rh. 10.— "To sum up ... in few words what may be set down a.% tlie chief char- artcristics of our English systoin of Elementary Kducation, I should say (1) tirst, that whilst about 30 per cent, of our school accommodation is under tlie control of school Ixiards, the cost of maintenance being home in part by local rates as well as by the Parliamentary grant, fully 70 per cent, is still in the hands of voluntary school- managers, whose subscriptions take the place of the raU's levied by school boards. (2) In case a deficiency in school aocommudation is rcponcd in any school district, the Education Department liave the power to require that due provision shall be made for the same within a limited time; 73: EDUCATION. #Vm Sdioolt tn Aviaiid. EDUCATION. m ^i : "trrr- the ' leicw ' to be Bpplled to wtlful defaulten in • TolUDtarT BCbool district being the threat of a board, and in a school board dutrict the auper- cewion of the existing board by a new board, nominated by the Department, and remunerated out of the local rates. (3) Attendance is enforced eirerywhere by bye-laws, worked either by the school board or by the School Attendance Com- mittee: and although these local authorities are often very remiss in discharging their duties, and the magistrates not seldom culpably lenient in dealing with cases brought before them, there are plenty of districts in which regularity of school attendance has been improved fully 10 per cent, in the past two or three years. ... (4) The present provision for teachers, and the means in existence for keeping up the supply, are emi- nently satisfactory. Ksides a large but some- what diminishing body of apprenticed pupil teachers, there is a very considerable and rapidly Increasing number of duly qualified assistants, and at their head a large array of certifi'-nted teachers, whose ranks are being repleni. ned, chiefly from the Training Colleges, at the rate of about 2,000 a year. (5) The whole of the work done is examined and Judged every year by in- spectors and inspectors' assistants organised in districts each superintended by a senior inspector — the total cost of this inspection for the present year being estimated at about fl.W.OOO.'— Rev. H. Roe, The Kng. Syttem of Elementary Edtiea- tion {International Health Exhibition, London, 1884: Conference on Education, tect. A). — "The result of the work of the Education Department is causing a social revolution in KnglancL If the character of the teaching is too mechanical, if the chief aim of the teacher is to earn as much [-•oney as possible for his managers, it must be remembered that this cannot be done without at least giving the pupil the ability to read and write. Of course the schools are not nearly so good as the friends of true education wish. Much remains to be done. . . Free education will shortly be an accomplished fact ; tb" partial ab- sorption of the voluntary schools by the School Boards will necessarily follow, and further facili- tate the abolition of what have been the cause of so much evil — result examinations, and 'grant payments.' 'Write "Grant fiiftory" on three- fourths of our schools,' said .iii educator to mc. . . . The schools are known as (1) Voluntary Schools, which have been built, and are partly supported by voluntary subscriptions. These arc under denominational control. (2) Boanl Schools: viz., schools built and supported by money raisiHl bv local taxation, and controlled by elected School boards. Out of 4,688,000 pupils in the elementary schools. 2,154.000 arc in the schools known as Voluntary, provided by, and under the control of the Church of England; 1,780,000 are In Board Schools; 830,000 attcu.l schools under the British School Society, or other undenominational control; 'i48,000 arc in Roman Catholic schools; and 174.000 belong to Wcsleyan schools. The schools here spoken of correspond more nearly than any other in England to the Public School of the United States and Australia ; but are in many respects very different, chiefly from the fact that they are provided expressly for the poor, and in many cases are attended by no other class." — w. C. Oratby, Teaching in Three Continentt, •A. 2. Bnf land ; A. D. 1891.— Attainment of Pne Edncation.— In 1891, a bill passed Parliament which i'ms at making the elementary schools of the country free from the payment of fees. The bill as explained in the House of Commons, "proposed to give a grant of 10s. per head to each scholar in average attendance between five and fourteen years of age, a >J as regarded such children schools would either become wholly free, or would continue to charge a fee reduced by the amount of the grant, according as the fee at present charged did or did uot erceed IO9. When a school bad become free it would remain free, or when a fee was charged, the fee would remain unaltered unless a change was required for the educational benefit of tie locality; and under this arrangement he believed that two- thirds of the elementary schools in England and Wales would become free. There would be no standard limitations, but the grant would be re- stricteii to schools where the compulsory power came in, and as to the younger children, it was proposed that in no case should the fee charged exceed 2d." In a speech made at Birmingham on the free education bill, Mr. Chamberlain dis- cussed the opposition to it made by those who wished to destroy the denominational schools, and who objected to their participation in the proposed extension of public support. "To de- stroy denominational schools," he said, "was now an impossibility, and nothing was more astonish- ing than the progress they had made since tlie Education Act of 1870. He had thought, he said, they would die out with the establishment of Board schools, but he had been mistaken, for in the lost twenty-three years they had doubled their accommodation, and more than doubled their subscription list. At the present time they supplied accommodation for two-thirds of the children of England and Wales. That belns the case, to destroy voluntary schools — to supply their places witli Board schools, as the Daily News cheerfully suggested — would be to in- volve a cai ;ial expenditure of £50,000,000, and £5,000,000 extra yeariy in rates. But whither voluntary or denominational schools were good or bad, tlicir continued existence had nothing to do with the question of free cduca'ion, and ought to be kept quite distinct from it. To make schools free was not to give one penny extra to any denominational endowment. At the present time the fee was a tax, and if the parents did not pay fees they were brought be- fore the magistrates, and if they still did not pay they might be s-nt to gaol. The only thiu.i; the Government proposed to do was not to altir the tax but to alter the incidence. The same amount would be collected; it would be paid by the same people, but it would be collected from the whole nation out of the general taxation." The bill was passed by the Commons July S, and by the Lonls on the 24th of the same month. The free education proposals of the Oovernnunt are said to have been generally accepted thnuiKh- out the country by both Board and Voluntary schools.— .InnwaJ Jiegitter, 1891, pp. 128<ij/'/97", and pt. 2, p. 51. France: A. D. 1565-1802.— The Jesuits.— Port Royal.— The Revolotion.— Napoleoa.— "The .Jesuits invadeti the province lonsr r'lled by the University alone. By that adroit man- agement of men' for which they have nlways been eminent, and by the more liberal spirit ot 738 EDUCATION. F, thdr metboda, they outdid in popularit; their Buperuinusted rival. Their flnt school at Paris was established in 1S6S, and in 1762, two years before their dissolution, they had eighty-six col- leges in France. They were followed by the Port Royalists, the Benedictines, the Oratorians The Port Royal schools [see Port Royal], from which perhaps a powerful influence upon educa- tion might have been looked for, restricted this influence bv limiting verjr closely the number of their pupils. Meanwhile the main funds and endowments for public education in France were in the University's hands, and its administration of these was as InelTectiT'e as its teaching. . The University had originally, as sources of revenue, the Post Office and the Messageries, or Office of Public Conveyance: it had lone since been obliged to abandon the Post Office to Qovemment, when in 1719 it gave up to tlie same authority the privilege of Uie Messageries receiving io return from the State a yearly revenue of 150,000 livres. For this payment, moreover, it undertoolc the obligation of mailing thcinstruiticn in all its principal colleges gra- tuitous. Paid or gratuitous, however, its in- struction was quite inadequate to the wants of the time, and when the Jesuits were expelled from France in 1764, their establishments cWd, and their services as teachers lost, the void that was left was strikingly apparent, and public attention began to be drawn to it. It is well known how Rousseau among writers, and Tur- got among statesmen, busied themselves with schemes of education: but the interest in the subject must have reached the whole bod? of the community, for the instructions of all three orders of the States General in 1789 are unani- mous in demanding the reform of education, and its establishment on a proper footing. Then came the Revolution, and the work of reform soon went swimmingly enough, so far as the abolition of the old schools was concerned. In 1791 the colleges were all placed under the con- trol of the administratis authorities ; in 1792 the jurisdiction of the University vas abolished : in 1793 the property of the colleges was ordered to be sold, the proceeds to be taken by the State : in September of the same year the suppression of all ihe great public schools and of all the Uni- versity faculties was pronounced. For the work of reconstruction Condorcet's memorable plan had in 1793 been submitted to the Committee of Public Instruction appointed by the Legislative Assembly. This plan proposed a secondary school for everv 4,000 inhabitanU; for each depart- ment, a uepartmenul institute, or higher school ; nine lyce s, schools c.irrying th t studies yet liigher than the departmental int.. ite, for the whole of France; and to crown the edifice, a National Society of Sciences and Arts, corre- sponding in the main with the present institute of France. The whole expense of national in- struction was to be borne by the State, and this expense was estimated at 29,000,000 of francs But 1793 and 1798 were years of furious agita- tion, when it was easier to destroy than to build. Condorcet perished -Arith the Girondists, and the reconstruction of public education did not begin till after the fall of Robespierre. The decrees of the Convention for establishing the Normal ! School, the Polytechnic, the School of Mines, and the icoles centrales, and then Daunou's law in 1795, bore, however, many traces of Condor- "• EDUCATION. cet's design. Daunou's law established primair schools, centr ' schools, special schools, and at the Iliad of u lie Institute of France, this last a memorable mid enduring creation, with which the old French Academy became incorporated. By Daunou's taw, also, freedom was given to private persons to open schools. The new legis- lation had many defects. . . . The country, too, was not yet settled enough for its education to organise itself successfully. The Normal School speedily broke down: the central schools were established slowly and with difficulty; in the course of tlie four years of the Directory there were nominally instituted ninety-one of these schools, but they never really worked. More was accomplished by private schools, to which full freedom was given by the new legislation, at the same time that an ample and open field lay before them. They could not, however, suf- fice for the work, and eilucation was one of the matters for which Napoleon, when he became Consul, had !■ > provide. Fnurcroy's law, in 1803, took as the ba.sis of its school-system secondary schools, whether established by tlie communes or by private individuals; the Government un- dertook to aid these schools by „rants for build- ings, for scholarships, and for gratuitifs to the masters; it prescribed Latin, French, geography, history, and mathematics as the instruction to be given in them. They were placed under the superintendence of the prefects. To continue and complete the secondary schools were insti- tuted the lyeeums; here the instruction was to be On'ek and Latin, rhetoric, logic, literature, moral philosophy, and the elements of the matb- ematicai and physical sciences. The pupils were to be of four kimls : boursiers nationaux, scholars nominated to scholarships by the State; pupils from the secondary schools, admitted as free scholars by competition: paying boarders and paying day-8cho!ars."— M. Arnold, Sehoolt ami Unirertitieii on the Cimtinent. <•/■ 1. France : A. D. 1833-1889.— The present Sy»- tem of Public Instruction.— " The question of the education of youth is one of those in which the struggle between the Catholic Church and the civil power has been, and still is, hottest. It is also one of those in which BVance, wliich for a long time had remained far in the rear, has made most efforts, and achieved most progress in these latter years. . . . Napoleon I. conceived educa- tion aa a means of disciplining minds and wills and moulding them into conformity with the po- litical system which he had put in force: accord- ingly he gave the University the monopoly of public education. Apart from the official system of teaching, no competition wa' allowed except that specially authorised, regulated, and con- trolled by the State itself. Religious instruction found a place in the olflcial programmes, and members of the clergy were even called on to supply it. but this instruction itself, and these priests themselves, were under the authority of the State. Hence two results; on the one hand the speedy impoverishment of University eauca- tion, . . . on the otlier hand, the incessant agita- tion of all those wiio were prevented by the special organisation given to the University from expounding their ideas or the faith that was in them from the profesanri.i! ch.iir This agita- tion was begun and carried on by the Catholic Church itself, as soon as it felt more at liberty to let its ambitions be discerned. On this point the :iii;i' !* '!l 1,1 (39 ;k''>j EDUCATION. IVyWMft adkool Sifitm. EDUCATION. Oburch met with the lupport of a good number of Llbenli, and it ii In a crest measure to its in- itlatire that an due the three important lawa of 1883, 1800, and 1875, which have reapectirely given to Prance freedom of primary education, of secondary education, and Anally tliat of liigher education ; which have given, that ia to say, the right to every one, under certain conditions of capacity and character, to open private schools in competition with the three orders of public schools. But the Church did not stop there. Hardly had it insured liberty to its educational institutior.it — a liberty by which all citizens might r fit alike, but of which its own strong organisi .inn and powerful resources enabled it more easily to take advantage — hardly was this result obtained than the Church tried to lay hands on the University itself, and to make its doctrines pai amount there. . . . Thence arose a movement hostile to the enterprises of the Church, which has found expression since 1880 in a series of laws which ezc Jed her little by little from the positions she had won, and only left to her, as to all other citizens, the liberty to teach apart from, and concurrently with, the State. The right to confer degrees has been given back to the State alone ; the privilege of the ' letter of obedience ' has been abolished ; re- ligious teaching *•••^ been excluded from the primary schools; and after having 'laicized,' as the French phrase is, the curriculum, the effort was persistently made to ' laicize ' the staff. . . . From the University point of view, the territory of France is divided into seventeen academies, the chief towns of which are Paris, Douai, Caen, Rennes, Poitiers, Bordeaux, Toulouse, Mont- pellier, Alx, Grenoble, Chamb£ry, Lyons, Besan- con, Nancy, Dijon, Clermont, and Algiers. Each academy has a rector at its head, who, under the authority of the Minister of Public Tnstruction, is charged with the material admin- '.stration of higher and secondary education, and with the methods of primary instruction in his district. The administration of this last belongs to the prefect of each department, assisted by an academy-inspector. In each of these three suc- cessive stages — department, academy, and central administration — is pit) cd a council, possessing administrative and c' cipliimiT powers. The Departmental Councl. of Public Instruction, which comprises six oiflclala . . . forms a disci- plinary council for primary education, either public or free (i. e. , State or private). This coun- cil sees to the application of programmes, lays down rules, and appoints one or more delegates in each canton to superintend primary schools. llie Academic Council . . . performs similar functions with regard to secondary and higher e<1ucation. The Higher Council of Public In- struction sits at Pans. It comprises forty-four electe<l representatives of the three educational orders, nine University otncials, and four 'free' schoolmasters appointe<l by the Minister, and is the disciplinary court of appeal for the two pre- ceding councils. . . . Such is the framework, ailministrative as well as Judicial, in which edu- cation, whether public or free, lives and moves. . . . Since 1883 Primary Education has been compulsory for all children of both sexes, f-om tlip age of six to the end of the thirteenth year, unless before reaching the latter age they have bci'n able to pass an examination, and to gain the certificate of primary studies. To saosfy the law, the child's name must be entered at a pob- lie or private school ; he may, however, continua to receive Instruction at home, but in this rase, after he has reached the age of eight, he must bs examined every year before a State board. . . . At the age of thirteen the child is set free from further teaching, whatever may be the results of the education he has received. ... In piihllc schools the course of instruction does not include, as we have said, religious teaching ; but one day in the week the school niust take a holiday, to allow parents to provide such teaching for tlicir children, if they wish to do so. 'The schral building cannot be used for that purpose. In private schools religious instruction may lie given, but this is optional. The programme of primary education Includes: moral and civic In- struction; raading, writing, French, geography and history (particularly those of France); gea- eral notions of law and science ; the elements of drawing, modelling, and music ; and gymnastics. No person of either sex can become a teacher, either public or private, unless he possesses the 'certlflcate of capacity for primary instruction' given by a State lx>ara. For the future — put- ting aside certain temporary arrangements — no meml>er of a religious community will be eligible for the post of master in a public school. . . . As a general rule, every commune is compilled to maintain a public school, and, if it has more than 500 inhabitants, a second school for girls only. . . . The sum total of the State's expeiL^es for primary education in 1887 is as high as eiglitj'- flve million francs (£3,400,000), and that without mentioning grants for school buildings, whereas in 1877 the sum total was only twelve millions (£480,000). . . . From 1877 to 1886, the number of public schools rose from 61,000 to 6(i,.'iOO; that of the pupils from 4,300,000 to 4,riW,l)nn, with 96,600 masters and mistresses ; that of train- ing schools for male teachers from 79 to H9, o( training schools for female teachers from IH to '?7, with 5,400 pupils (3,500 of them womrn). and 1,200 masters As to the results a single fact will sufllce. In these ten years, before the gen- erati ns newly called to military service have Ijeeu iible to profit fully by the new state of things, the proportion of llliterato recruits (which is annually made out directly after the lots are drawn) has already fallen from 15 to 1 1 per cent. " — A. Lebon and P. Pelet, Franeeat it in, eh. .I.— " In 1873, after the dreadful disaster of the war, Monsieur Thiers, President of the Oouvemcment de la Defense Nationale, and Monsieur .lules Simon, Minister of Public Instruction, felt that what was most important for the nation was a new system of public instruction, and they set themselves the task of determining the basis on which this new system was to be established. In September, 1883, Monsieur Jules Simon issued a memorable circular calling the attention of all the most distinguished leaders of thought to some proposed plans. He did not long remain in power, but in his retirement he wrote a Ixwik en- titled: ' Refornie ill! rEnseignement S<!CiiTiii:iire.' Monsieur Breal, who was commissioned to visit the schools of Germany, soon after published another book which aroused new enthusiasm in France. . . . From that day a complete i-duoa- tional reform was decided on. In 1873 we had at the Minister^ de I'lnstructlon Publique tlirp.e distinguished men: Monsieur Dumont for the Enaeignement Supirieur, one from whom we 740 EDCCATION. IrUh tfalUmat aduoU. BDCCATION. ^n^j^VSL'^ whoae airly death we had to mourn in 1884 ; Momieur Zevort for the Enseiirne- ment Secondaire. who al«odied ere the good feed rrult (1887); and Monsieui Bulsson to whose wis- dom zeal, and energy we owe most of the wort of the Enseignement Primalre. At their side of ^turer years than they, stood Monsieur Ore- sid, Recteur de I'Acadtoie de Paris. All «ie educationists of the first French Revolution hwiinsisted on the solidarity of the three orders of education; maintaining that it was not pes- slWe to separate one from another, and thatthore ought to be a close correspondence between them P"^'P'e lies at the root of the whole svs- ^„°1 ^rench national Instruction. Having es- tablUhed this principle, the four leaders called upon all chuses of teachers to work with them and professors who had devoted their life tr the promotion of superior hutructlon brough* thpu- experience and their powers of organization lo bear upon schools for all classes, from the richett to the poorest. . . Brt to reform and w recon- struct a system of instruction U not a small task It to not easy to change at once the old methods to give a new spirit to the masters, to teach those who think that what had been sufficient for them need not be altered and is sufficient forever However, we must say that as soon as the French tMChers heard of the great changes which were about to take place, they were alf anxious to rise to the demands made on them, and were eager for advice and help. Lectures on pedagogy and psychology were given to them by the highest professors of philosophy, and these lessons were so much apprecated that the attention of the pni^".r8ity of France was called to the necessity foi .eatmg at the Sorbonne a special course of lectures on pedagogy. Eleven hundred masters and mistresses attended them the first year that thev were inaugurated; from that time till now their number has always been increasing Now we have at the Sorbonne a Chaire Magistrale and Conferences for the training of masters and pro- fessors; and the faculties at Lyons. Bordeaux Nancy, and Montpellier have followed the ex- ?SE'*.u'^',*,° ?' ''"' Sorbonne, Paris. ... In iSS' I, ""JS* Pfdagogique was fo.inde<l; in 1883, began the publication of the Revue Peda- gogique and the Kevue Internationale de I'En- selgnement Four large volumes of the Diction- nalre de Fedagogie, each containing about S 000 ^i JI.*"^?^*** P"?*"' ^^"^ "''«' <=o™« out under the editorship of Monsieur Bulsson, all the work of zealous teachers and educationists. In 1879 normal schools were ocenod. Then in 1880 ari- mary 8oh.«ls. and in 188S we may gay that the tcoles Matcmellcs and the Ecotos Enfaatines were created so different are they from the infant -chools or the Salles d'Asilc; iu 1883 a new ex- amination was established for the Profcssorat and the Direction des Ecoles Normalcs, as well as for Ini. ?Lm"'.'? °f P''™*'? '"'"-"rtion; and In July, 1889, the law about ^ablic and private teaching was promulgated, perhaps one of the most Important that has ever been passed by the Republic. '-Mme. Th. Armagnac. The dtuea- twnal Senawance of France (Bdueation. Sept., wh 1 "•,*• °: '*9»-l«9i.-Statiitici.-The whole number of pupils regtatered in the pri- mary, elementary and superior schools, public and pnvate, of France and Algiers (excluding the 741 «cole« matarnelles") for the school-yeir 18«H n .•r.iT" W'?f^-.°' ^'''='' 4,884,9i55 wereln public schools (3,760,801, "laluue," and 624 804 congrSganiste ■'), and 1,2.)8,«78 in orivata ^"°\ (J',»;«3 ''!a-ques,"'and l,Oi57 866 "co^ greguiUte '2. Of 36,484 communes, 35,508 pSS- sessed a public school, and 875 weri join^i for school purposes with another commune. The «,^rf^."*'''lw ""P'''?"^ '" '•"« elementary and ??i^ 8!?yiS"''°°'» numbered 28,657; female sl^Scfln^ **' hi? = "'^r|.''2-''^-Minlst^re de rin 1890^1891 P"'Mtre pour Vannie uolaire F<'nciTfnnTi"'?"' P'^'^"' ^yfeni of National E'lucation ic Ireland was founded in 1831 In this year grants of public money for the education of wd/rThHrfr""";"!""* '°'''« lord-lieutenant?n tlnn nf^l"**^ might be applle.1 to the educa given to children of every religious belief and to be superintended by commissTone™ ap^'in^ fhP^lf"^"*- 7^" «««' principle on «S the system was founded was that of Mmi ed secular and separate rellgic IS instruction.' No child should be required to attend any religious ^struction which should be contmry t^^ th^ T^.f J" •" S' ■■" P""^"'* Of guardians Times were to be set apart during w-hlch chill dren were to have such religious instruction as their parenta might think proper. It was to be the dutv of the bommissioLrT to s/e that the^ Principles were earned out and not infringed on fn any way. They had also power to giveo? refuse money to those who applied for aid to ^»i i^\°?''- .,^'""'' "« '^«s'«'l' and 'non vested.' Vested schools are those built by the ^^t "^ ^'."'""" E-i^^'ion ; non-vested scWo s are the ordinary schools, and are managed by those who built them If , commltne of pe/. sons build a school it is looked on ..,• the B.!ard if ,f?^"^K " » landowner or private per- son builds a school, he is regarded as the patron if he has no committee. The patron, wluther landlord or committee, has pownr .o appoint or dismiss a manager, wfco corresponds wit., tlie Board. The manager is also responsible for tlip due or thorough observance of the laws s ■ rules Teachers are paid by him after he C(- • lies that the laws have been kept, and gives .ue attendance for each quarto'. \v heu an indi- vidual Is putron he may appoint himself mana- ger, and thus fill both offices. ... The -.achera are paid by salaries and by results fees. The Boards of (Juardians have power to contribute to these results fees. Some unions do so and are called contnl.iitory.' School managers in Ire- and are nearly .'•-ays clerics of some denomina- tion. 1 here are sometimes, but very rarely lav managers, . . , From the census returns of 1881 It appear that but fifty-nine per cent, of the people of Ireland are able to read and write 1 lie greater numlier of national schools through- out Ireland are what are called 'unmixed,' that is, attended by chlhlreu of one denomination only. The rest of the schools are called ' mixed ' that is attended by children of diflfcrent forms of religion The percentage of schools that show a mixed attendance U'nds tn hwome amaller each year. . There ue also twenty-nine model schools in different parta of Ireland I hese schools are managed directly by the Board of National EducaUon. . . . According to the III ttm EDUCATION. Prumia. BDCCATION. r report of the Commiasionen o( Katlonal Educa- tion for 1890, the ' percentage of average attend- ance to the average number of children on the rolls of the schools waa but 59.0,' and the per- centage of school attendance to the estimated population of school age in Ireland would be ess than 50. Different reasons might be given for tills small percentage of attendance. The chief reasons are, first, attendance at school not being compulsory, and next, education not being free. . . . The pence paid for school fees in Ire- laml may seem, to many people, a small matter. But in a country like Ireland, where little money cireulttU'S, and a number of the people are very poor, school pence arc often not easily found every week. In 1890. £104,.'»0 4a. and 8d. was paid in school fees, being an average of 4s. 3Jd. per unit of average attendance. " — The Irith Peasant ; by a (hiiiniiaiiofthe Px'r, eh. 8. Norway. — "In 1739 the schools throughout the country were regulated by a royal ordinance, but this paid so little regard to the economical and physical condition of Norway that it had to l)e alteri'd and modified as early as 1741. Compul- sory instruction, however, had thus been !idopt*Ht, securing to every child in the country instruction in the Christian doctrine and in reading, and this C(MTei(>n was retained in all later laws. . . . Many portions of the country are intersected bv higli mountains and di-ep fiords, so that a small population is scattered over a surface of several miles. In such localities the law has established ' ninliulatory schools,' whose teachers travel fniiii one farm to another, livine with the dilTer- inl piMisants. Although this kind of instruction has often In^eu most incomplete and the teachers very meiliiKre, still eilucatlonal coercion has everywhere iM'en in force, and Christian instruc- tion even-where provided for the children. These ' iinibulatory scIichiIs ' formerly ixistetl in larpe numbers, but witli the Inrtease of wealth ana population, ai.d the growing inU'ri'st taken in eduralion. tlieir number has gradually dimin- ished, and tiiat of fixed circle-schools augmented in the same pn)pi)rtion " — O. Oaite, Ilen't en the Ulunitioiuil Sj/Klemof Xorviiy (('. .S. liureiiu of Riiinitinn, Cireulart of Informatiiin, July, 1871). — •' He'iool attendance is d mpulsory for at least 13 wet .ji each year for all ' lilldren in the coun- try districts from 8 years of age to conflrniafion, anil from 7 years to confirmation in the towns Aeronliiig to the law of 1889, which In a meas- ure only empha»l.:e« pri'cedlng laws, eaili school la to have the necessary furnishinis ami all indispeiisiible phool material. The Norwegians are so intent upon giving Inatrucllon to all cliil- dren Miat in case of poverty of the parents the autliiirllles furnish text liooaa an<! ''le necessary clothing, so tliHt sehiM)! privileges may Ih' ac- conled to all of sehisil age,"—" 8 Comra'r of K.Im.-.i(I..ii, /4;►./•^ 18H9-90, n. 913 Pruttta: A. D. 1809.— Educktion and the liberation moTemcnt.— ' ' The most linmirtant era In the history of p\ibUc Instruction in rnisBla, as well as in nther parts of Germany. o|«'ns with the olTorIa put forth by the king and (K'ople. to rcM'ue thi' kingdom from the yoke of NHi>oleon In 1^109 In that year the army was if modeleil and every citizen converted Into a soldier, lamled properly w^ i{i''.-!!ire'J free of feiiiltti Mervlee n>MtrlrtioriH onfreethiniof trade werealHillslied. and the whole itate was n'orgntilwd Oreni nlliini'r wa« placed on Infusing a Oerinnn spirit liiin the jKople by giving them freer access to Improvcil institutions of e<liicatlon from the common school to the uni- versity. Under the councils of llardenberg. Humboldt, Stein, Altenstein, these reforms and improvements were projectied, carried on, and perfected in less than a single generation. The movement in liehalf of popular schools com- mence<l by inviting C. A. Zeller, of Wirtemberg, to Prussia. Zeller was a young theologian, who had studied under Pestalozzi in Switzerland, and was tlioroughly imbued with the method ■■ i spirit of his master. On his return be had con- vened the school teachers of WIrtemberg in bams, for want of better accommodations being allowed him, and inspired them with a zeal for I'esta- lozzi's methods, and for a better education of the whole people. On removing to Prussia he firet took charge of the seminary at KoenigstxTc, soon after founded the seminary at Karalene, and went about into different provinces meeting with teachers, hoMlng conferences, visiting scliools, and inspiring school oflicers with the right spirit. The next step taken was to send a number of young men, mostly theologians, to Pestalozzi'a institution at Ifferten, to acquire his metlnHl. and on their return to place them in new, or reorgan- ized teachers' seminaries. To these new igents in school Improvement were joined a large liody of zealous teachers, and patriotic ami enlightened citizens, who, in ways and metluHls nf their own, lalKin-d Incessantly to I'onlirm the lYussian state, by forming new organs for its internal life, and new means of protection from foreign foes. 'They proved themselves truly educators of the people. .Although the government thus not only encour- aged, but directly ai'"tKl in the Introduction of the methods of PestaU.zzl into tlie public 8<hoola of Prussia, still the school board In the different provinces sustained and encouraged those who approved and tauglit on different systems . . . Music, which was one of Pestalozzi's gnat In- struments of culture, waa maile the vehicle of patriotic songs, and through them the hear! of all Germany wi« moved to bitu>r hatred n( the concjucror who hail desolated her flilils an<l homes, and humbleil the pride of her monarrhy. All tlies<> efforts for the Improvement of element- ary I'ducation, accompanied by expensive iiiihII- ficatlons In the establUhments of seconilary and suiM'rioreilucatlon, were made when the treasury was impoverished, ami taxes the mo-t ex.irl.itant in amount were levied on every iiMvini' ami eommune of the kingdom. " — 11. Itariiar'l. .Vi- tiiiiml fiiiiie.ition in Kiirime. /i;i W.V*\ — Kortliia iiotHlile educational work iHgun in Prussia In 1S09. and which gave a new cimracUT In llie na- tion, "the Pr.vldentUl man apiM^and In Hum- ixildt. . i gri'at a muster of the science and art i>f educati m as Scharuhorst was a master of the organlsatlnii of war. Not only was he liliii«lf, as a scholar and an InTcstlgator, on a level with the very first of his age, not only had he lived with pneisely those maaters of literatun'. S<hil- ler and tJiwlhe. who wiTC most deliberate in Ihtlr self culluri', ami have therefore left Uhiml mwt lustnictioii on llie hlglier parts of education. Imt he had iM'eii »|ieclally intimate with K A Wdf It is not generally known In England tint \V"lf was not menly the gnatest phllologer Imt also the gr<>ateBt U'aeher and ediicathmlst of Ills linw. . . h'ormeti liy such tea<'liers, and supportiti by a more intenar Ix-lief In culture than almost any man of his time, Humboldt liegan his work la 743 EDUCATION. Uumboldti "ork in Pnutta. EDUCATION. April. 1809. In primur education Fichte had already pointed to PeBtalozzi as tlie best guide Oi.e of that reformer's disciples, C. A. Zeller. was summoned to KOnigsberg to found a normal school, while the reformer himself, in his weekly eduaitional journal, cheered fallen Prussia by his panegyric, and wrote enthusiastically to Nicolo- Tius pronouncing him and hia friends the salt and leaven of the earth that would soon leaven the whole mass. It is related that in the many difficulties which Zeller not unnaturally had to contend with, the King's genuine benevolence, interest in practical improvement, and strong fsmily feeling, were of decisive use. . . . The reform of the Oymnasia was also highly success- ful. 8Qvem here was among the most active of those who worked under Humboldt's direction In deference to h-! authority of Wolf the classics preserved their tra<titlonaI position of honour, and particular importance was attached to Greek! . . . But it was on the highest department of education that Humboldt left his mark most visibly. He founded the University of Berlin; he gave to Europe a new seat of learning, which httH ever since stood on an equality with the very greatest of those of which Europe boastcil before. We are not indeed to suppose that the idea of such a University sprang up for the first time at thi.s moment, or in the brain of Humlmldt. Among all the losses which befell Prussia by the Peace of Tilsit none was felt more bitterly than the loss of the University of Halle, where Wolf himself had made his fame. Immediately after the blow fell, two of the Professors of Halle made their way to Memel and laid before the KInif a proposal to establish a High School at Berlin. This was on August aSud. 1807 On Siptcmber 4th came an Order of Cabinet, iu which it was <leclared to be one of the most im- portjint objects to c ompensate the loss of Halle U «iis iMl.led that neither of the two Universities which remained to PrussU, those of KOnlgsberg and Frankfurt onthe-tWer, could be made to supply the pla<-« of Halle. KOnlgsberg being too remote from the seat of Government anil Frank- furt not aiilliclcnily provided with means At B. rlin a University could best, and at least ex- l« mi; be esUblisb<Hl. Accordingly all funits whl( h had hitherto gone to Halle were to go for the future to Berlin, and assurances were to lie givi'H to the expelled Pnifeiwors which might prevent their talenu bi'ing lost to the country. A tnlversity Is not founded in a day, ;md accord Innly while SU'in held olBce the design did not i):wii lieyond the stage of discussion. . . Hum- lH>lilt H'M In his lii'port on May 18, 1H09 and on August 16th followed the Oriler of Cabinet iis- si^'ning to the new University, along with the Acad, niies of Science and Art, an annual iloia tl-n i)f IM.OOO thalers. and the Palace of Prime III nry as Its residence During the rest of bin l<'rm of ofljce iiumboldt was mcupled in negnliu- li.>ns with eminent men nf science all over tier many, whose services he hoped to prixuri' Hi' was rerUinly not unsuccessful. He s<cure.l FichU' for I'hilosophy , Hchlelermacher, I)e Wille •nd Marheineke for Theology; Savi^'iiy ,,„.\ *li'niil/ for Jurisprudence, FrieillUndi r" K.ilil- r;iii».h Ihifeland, and Hell for Mwlidnc . Wolf, !l!!!!!;,ane. !ti\r!=h. Hriih'mff. nnii Hi.:ihii!,i.- f,;r til. .Study of Antl(|ulty; .Nlebuhr ami lltili« for History ; Tralles for Mathi'malh-s (Gnuwi rcfum'd Uw ioviuUuo). The University was c.|H.ned at Michaelmas of 1810, and as the first tesult of it the first volume of Niebuhr's lioman Histjrr opening so vast a field of historical speculation was published in 1811. . . . Altogetlier in that period of German history the relations of litera- ture, or rather culture in general, to politics are remarkable and exceptional. There had been a mostextraordinary intellectual movement a great outpouring of genius, and yet this had taken place not, as according to some current theories It ought to have done. In the bosom of political liberty, but in a country where liberty was un- known, And as it was not the effect, so the new literature did not seem disposed to become the cause of liberty. Not only was it careless of In- ternal liberty, but it was actually indifferent to national independence. The golden age of Oer- man literature is the very period when Germany was conquered by France. ... So far literature ami culture seemed a doubtful benefit, and might almost be compared to some pernicious drug which should have the power to make men for- get their country and their dutks. Not un- reasonably did Friedrich Perth-s conso himself for the dlsastera of Germany by retitctlng that at least they had brought to an end ' the paper time,' the fool's paradUe of a life made up of nothing more substantial than literature In tlumboldt's reform we have the coraiiensatlon for all this. Here while on the one hand we see the grand spectai le of a nation In the last extremity refusing to part with the treasun's of lu higher life, on the other hand that higher life is no longer unnaturally divorced from political life. It is prizeil as one of the bulwarks of the Stale, as a kind of spiritual weapon by which the enemy may be resisted. And In the new and public-spirited generation of thinkers, of which Fichte and Bchlelermacher were the principal representa- tives, culture returns to politics th<^ honour that has bi-en done to It. . . . In Humboldt and his great aebievements of 1809, 1810, meet and are reconciled the two views of life which found their most extri'iue repn'senhitives in Goethe and Stein. "—,T. H. Sueley, Life and Titntt of Stan. ;.f. «. M. 3 (r. a). J '<•. Pruisia : A. D, 1874.— The Educational Ad- ministration.— "There is no organic BcluKil-law in I'russia, . . . though sketches and projects of such a law have more thau once been prepared. But at present the public cimlri.l of the higher schools Isexereised through administrative orders and in.Ht ructions, like the minutes of our Com- ">''<! f Council on Kducatioii. But theadmin- Istralivi' authority li.is in I'russia a verv different ba.sis for Its openitions from that wlilcli It has in England, and a mueli limicrone. It has for its basis these articles of the Allgemclne Undrecht, or eoinnum law of I'russia, which was drawn up in writing In Frederick the Greats reign and pronuiljtated In 1794, In the reign of his suc- cessor :—' Schools ami universities are State In- stitutions, having for their object the Instruction of youth In useful and siieiillHc knowletlge. Sucli establishments are to Ik' instituted only wlilitlii' State's previous knowh-dgeand consent. .\M public mhisils and public esuihlishments of eilucaiioii are under the Stale's supervision, and iiiusl ut nil limes submit thenuH'lves to Its exam. iri.uioii.. .>ii,| liinpecliuiis. Whriiever liie ap- poliitmeiit of tciulicrs Is not l)y virtue of the fouihlailon or of n specini privlleire vesuti In certain perwuu or corporations. It belongs to tha Wli; H 743 EDUCATION. The PnuHan Moot Suttem. EDUCATION. Hi ir State. Even where the immediate (upervision of Bticli Khools and tlie appnintment of tlieir teachers is committed to certain private persons or corporations, new teacliers cannot be appointed, and important clianges in the constitution and teaching of the school cannot be adopted with- out the previous luowiedge or consent of the provincial school authorities. The teachers in the gymnasiums and other higher schools have the character of State functionaries.'. . . It would be a mistake to suppose that the State in Prussia shows a grasping and centralising spirit in dealing with education; on the contrary, it makes the a<lministration of it as local as it possibly can ; but it takes care that education shall not be left to the chapter of accidents. . . . Prussia is now divided into eight provinces, and these eight provinces are again divided into twenty -six gov- ernmental districts, or Ilcgierungen. There is a Provincial School Board (Provinzial-Schulcol- legium) in the chief town of each of the eight provinces, and a Qovemmentai District Board in that of each of the twenty-six Regierungcn. In general, the State's relations with the higher class of secondary schools are exercised through the Provincial Board ; its relations with the lower class of them, and with tin' primary schools, through the District Board. In Berlin, the re- lations with these also are managed by the Pro- vincial Boiinl. A Provinzial-Schulcolfegium has for its president the High President of the pro- Tince; for Its director the vice-president of that rovernmontal district which happens to have for ns centre the provincial capital. The Board has two or three other members, of whom. In general, one is a Catholic and one is a Protestant: and one Is always a man practically conversant with school matters. The District Board has in the pn ivincial capitals the same president and director as the ProvinciHl Hoard ; in the other centres of Hegieriuigcn it has for its president the Presi- dent of the IV'glcrung, and three or four mem- bers selected im the same principle as the mem- bers of the Provincial Boanl. The provincial State authority, therefore. Is, In general, for gynmnsiunis, the larger protjymnasiums, and Kealschulrn of the flnit rank, the Provincial School Boanli for the smaller progymnaaiums, Kcalschulen of the second r.ink, tlie higher Burgher Schools, and the primary schools of all kin(lii, the (]ovrrnmental Oistrirt Boarii. Both Ninrils are in continual communication with the Eilucationul Minister at lierlin. . . . Besides the central and provincial administration there is a tiH'al or nuinicipal admlnlptratlon for schix)ls that •re not Crown patronage schools. ... In most towns the liwal authority forschoolsof municipal patroniige is the town muglstracy, aasiNtcd by ii BtaiilKi hulrath i sometimes the hJcal authority is k Curalorium or Schulicitnmlsslon."— M. Ariinid, Ui'jhtr Srtiii-J» nml I'nirrrtilirt in OrrnMnfi. eh. 8 -l-"The wi-ondary sclioul differs from the ele- mentary mliools by a counteof iiiatrucllon going beyond the lmni<-illate demands of everyday life, fp>m the sixiial schiH)!, by the more gen- eral character of the courses of instruction: fiom the unlvi-rslty, liv its pri-paratory character. It ha* the •peclal aim l<i give that sound basis of sclent illc and literary iwlucatlon which enables a ms:i ?.•• f-nrtlfifrStp In --'ving >h>= hfgh'T prr.b- Vms nf life in church, state, ami society. In accordance with their historical development, two diractioiia can be cleariy tracnl, via., the gymnasium and the real-school: the former com. prising gymnasia and pro-gymnasia; and the lat- ter real-schoolsof the first class, real-schools of the second class, and higher burgher-schools. "—Ilitt. of Seeondary Irutruetiim in Oermany {If. S. Ilii- nau of Education. Oireulanoflnfor.iation, 1KT4. no. 3), p. 41. — "The name gymnasium came into use as early as the sixteenth century. "The ministerial decree of the 12th of November, 1812, ordered that all learned school institutions, surh as lyceums, pedagogiums, collegiums, I.atin schools, etc., ihould biear the name gymna.sium. A gymnasium is and has long been a classical school." — U. 8. Comm'r of Education, Kejxtrt, 1889-90, p. 818. Also m: V. Cousin, Report on the >>■!',■ nf ptiMie irutruetion in I'muia. Pruuia: A. D. l885-t8to.— The Elemental; School-Syitem.— " "The New Yorker, luiximis for a high degree of perfection in the elenicntury schools of his State, must be struck forcibly liy the following merits of the Elementary Schixil System of Prussir ... 1. Compulsory educHtion laws, necessitatiLg a .ull and n-giilar attcmlunce of the children of school age. 3. Othciuhnurses of study fixing the work to be accoinplNhiil In each of thfl different grades of schiM)ls. I'ni- formlty is '.fas secured in the work doin' in all schools of the same class. 3. Definite (iu»lji1i'.'t- tions and experience in teaching for elijjihility to the office of scliool commissioner. 4. I'riivl- slons elevating teaching to the dignitv of :\ pro- fession and mnking the tenure of olflrc secure. 6. Trained teachers in niral as well ih dty districts and a schix)! year of at least fnrty weeks. 6. 0<'neml supervision of instru<i ion for children of school age In private scIuhiIs .iiid families, including the qualifications of instriKt- ors. . . . Every Prussian chilillK'tween t|]i' iii;!* of 6 and 14 must, except in cases of scvrn' ill- ness or other extraordinary cause, l«! pn sent at every session of the school he atlrnils Tin' lists of the children of school age, in cliHrjri' nf the local police (In rural districts the Burgcnmi.slfrt, are kept so carefully that It is impossitilc toes- cap*! the provisions of the compulsory eilucntiim laws, as much so as it is to evade the Miilii»ry service Dispensations amounting to nn ri> thin four weeks In the school year are never L'iven lo children under 13 years of Hge. ami In lliein "iily when sickness in the family nr nilier iiiiMsn.il cause make it advisable. . . . Inonler iiiindi r stanil the qualifications required of schonl i nm- mlssloners(KreiHschullnspeKtoren)lii I'nissi.i, Id us review briefly the reqidn'miiiis ,.f mule tt'achers. 1. Elci'nentary schiniN It imy lie stated at the outset that almost nil the luile elc- meutarv school teachers are noi nml si li(«il ltuIu- ntcs. To Insun- similarity In triinini; :inil a thoMU(;h knowledge of cluiracter. few fori ii'iun nml few iK'slde nonnal scIumiI (Hihullelin r N »il- tiar) graduates are admitted to the mule ti u liiiiij fonc. From 6 to 14 the wouhllie ten her li is it tendeil, let usstippose. an elementary w hi«>l Me must then absolve the three veiirs' cmipii hiid down for the preparatory schoofs. . . . llrlsnmf ready for the normal bcIumiI At the i lose "f a three yeara' course at the normal school lie Is :\'\- milted to the first teachers' cxamlnatliiti 11 «iie ,-.-.ssf:i! h.' mi:=f ncit pr.M!i!-.- ss i:l!!;!!i!;Lte or assistant teacher not less than two years >in I imt more than five years U-fon' his adnii»>iliin ti lbs flnal teat. . . . U a leMber (ails to |mm> the ex 44 EDUCATION. iVuMten Sdkool AoMiKct. EDUCATION. aminttlon within flre yean, he is dropped. Middle KhooU. For teachers of lower cIl the same lequirements with the addition of ability to teach a foreign tongue, or natural history in its broadest sense, and the attainment of the mark ' good ' in all subjecU at the final examination. . . . For higher classes, a special examination provided for middle school teachers. . . . There is really no gradation between ele- mentary and middle schools. The latter merely go on somewhat further with elementary school work, introducing French, Latin and English. 3. High schools (Rcalscbulen, Realgrmnasien, I^rogymnasien and Oymnaaien). All high school teachers, except those engaged in technical de- partments, must first absolve the nine years' gymnasia! course, which commences at the close of the third school year. Next comes the uni- versity course of three or four years. The can- didate is now ready for the State examination. The subjects for this State examination ... are divided into four classes: 1. The ancient lan- guages and German ; 2. Mathematics and uutuml sciences; 8. History and geography ; 4. lieligion and Hebrew. At the close of one year's practice to test teaching capacity he receives a second certificate and is thercupotj engaged proviition- ally. . . . The school c nmissioners ... are either former regular hi., school teachers, gen- eral doctors of phikwophv or more rarely theo- logians, or former normal school teachers. All must have had practical eX[)erience in teaching, . . . The work to Ite accomplished in each Prus- sian elementarv sch(M>l is definitely laid down by law. Each school is not a law unto itself as to what shall be done and when and how this is to be done. I have learned by practical ex- perience that the work in ungraded schools com- psres most favorably with that of graded wliools."— J. H. Parsons. Jr., Prutinn tirhoala t/iruugh Ameriean eye*, eh. 1, tet. ft-10 — Prus- siiui elementary schools are now free. " lu this ns|Hia Prussia has passed through three stages. I iHler the first elementary schools were entirely Klf supporting; under the second they received Smteald, but wore still largely self-Hup|H)rtlng ; iiniler the IhirtI, Laws of 1888 and 188tf, element- iiry schools were iiiiulv frvc and the State pays a liircer proiHirtion of the cost of maintenance. Districts must pay for repairs, new buildings ami cost of heating. If unwilling to provide lirciper accumniodatlons for the children of school «»ie, they can be forcetl by the govermnent to do *>< Poor districts may n i , B|Kcittl govern- imnt Hill to meet such exlnll.■>l.^ . . The direct aim cif the laws of June 14, IN»». and .March 31, 1M», was to lighten the burden of local Uxatloii fur mIhkiIs for children of scIuhiI Hgc These ia'VH have had a Umptlclal effect lu Increasing slightly the wages of teachers. Teacher..' wila- riis are still quite Hinnll In i'ruiwia, |«rtii ularly in llie i^aae of females. Allowanis'sare giiierallv 11111,1,. for hous<' n^nt and fuel. Teiich<-r« in runil ilislriets arv pMvidtnl with a house and ganli it. I heir salaries arc ofu-n not much more than Imlf tlDse paid city teachers of the same graile, and .vel. as rcganls pMli^ssional training and char niter of work, they an' fully eiiual lo clly t<»rlier». . . . Tlie average annual salary re ■ .•ivuil ij. tsacbers m Pnisiiain !•'<-•*« a-sif'^,; .v> The averave fur the same year in New York was fliW.87. The Prussian ieauher, however, re- •elvod fuel kud dwelling free, in addiUtn to iiii regular laUry. ... In 1885 the population of Prussia was 28,318,470, and the total cost of public education per caput was |1.7717. Drs. Schneider and Pelersilie of Berlin, in ' Preussische Statistik 101, 'published in 1889, reckon the total cost for 1888, excluding army and navy schools at 150.192.857. ... In Prussia, elementa-y in- struction is the first consideration. The resolu- tion adopted by the national assembly (Landtae) December 22. 1870, is a gcxxi Illustration of thfi. It was at the very crisis of the Franco-German war, yet the Landtag called on the government to increase the number of normal schools and the capacity of those already existing, and ' thus to put an end to the practice of filling up u>achen' vacancies bv annnlmimr iin....„11«„l :-.i:..ij vacancies by appointing unquallfil^ "indi'vid- — J- "•. Parsons, Jr., Pnutian Sehoolt uals . . _.. „,„^ through Ameriean eye*, eh. 1, tect 15-17 _ ••Throughout Prussia there is now one school- room and one teacher to 44fi itiliabitants and 78.8 children actually attending' ,s, Ii,k)1. This showi that there arc far too few teachers. But the gov- ernment and the cities have recently devoted con- siderable sums to the establishment of new places for Uachers, so that, in thuvear 1881, there were 10,000 more teachers working in the public schools than In 1878. The salaries of the teachers were also raised. The average payment in the country is 854 marks. In the cities 1,430 marks. . , , The expense of maintaining the Prussian national schools amounU annually to about 102 - 000.000 of marks, 43,000.000 of which are paid by the cities. One hundred and ten colleges for the training of teachers are now engaged in the education of male and female instructors with an attendance of 9,893 pupils ; that is, there U one pupil to every 2,758 inhabilants. In the case of the female teachers only, a considerable degree of assistance is rendered by private Insti- tutions. . . . The intcrmediaty scIiikiIs esUb- lished in 1872, and n-cently eonverteii Into the higher citizen schools, form a transition from the national schools to the higher schools. These tench religion. German, Frencli, Kn»:llsli, history and geography, arithmetic and mathenitttlcs, natural history and physics, writing, lirawing singing, and gymnastics. The course cinliracts sin years without Latin, with the privilege of one year's service in the arm v lusteiul of ■',, .. CoinplenienUry to the natii'mal s<liool , ic finUhing wins,! There are a l.irge ni,mi,w in I»russiii. nuniely. 1,2«1 with fl8,7«« pupiN 617 with lo.au.") lu the country, iiu,l (144 with 5«< 371 in the cities. < »f these 644.34J an' oliliguiory by local statutes, 302 are optioii,! Hlnei- the law of 1(^78 ap,'i liil care h.isl)eeu ,i, voted lo the cora- Jiulsory educatiiiu of orphaned children, . , . file pnpariitory instruellon of femiile teaehera leav.smurli to be dmired"— F. Kirehner, r'ua- temfnifu /.lumliMuU Tlwuyht in I'ruuia («/«• eatiMMl 11,1., .Way, 1891). — ■■ About 25 per cent, of all the teachers In pi. .c middle sthools are women, hence . . . »„ .,n hold positions in llie«' BihiHila III. .re frequently than in the lower, the iMirely elementary, schiMils of the kingdom. The cn'aU'St ratio of women teaehern in I'rissia li found In privaU! uiiildle »<'hools, where 8,422 of 3, 1'.>«(ornearlyHO |)ereent.)ar<' wcmien, .'. . In all the public schools of Prussia (ek-nientory, mld- ,llf. iilh! srCrrBdrtf j i only 10,300 wonitU («Mviieti were employed |18«7). or 14^ per cent, of all the tcacliers In the kingdom . . . Before tlie nubile •diuols u( Dm kiogdum bad the core and doM 745 im I EDUCATION. m m m' [; Scottith Schoolt and Cnivenitiet. EDUCATION. supervision on the part of the state which they have now, many more private schools were in existence than at present. During the last 2S years the private scliools have not Increased In numbers, but perceptibly decreased." — U. 8. Commr of E<iucation, Beport, 1888-90. pp. 887- 289. Ri-Mia. — "After serfdom had been abolished, the Lmperor Alexander TI. saw that the Indis- pnsablc consequence of this great reform must \k a thorough rcorganiz .tion of public instruc- tion. In 18B1 a comr.ittee was appointed to drnv up tlie plan of * 1 iw. In 1882 M. Taneef submitted to the Empcior a 'General plan for the organization of popular education,' which contained some very excellent points. The re- sult wa.1 tlip Oencral Regulations of 1864, which are still in force. . . . The difflculties which a compli'te norgaiii/.ation of popular education meets in Hussia uie enormous. They are prin- cipally eiiused by the manner in which the in- habitants live, seattercd over a large extent of country, and by their extreme poverty. . . . The density of population is so small that there an." only 13.6 inli»l>itunts to one square kilometer (2| sqiiare kilometers to 1 square mile), instead of t!U as in France. Under these circumstances only the children from the center hamlet and tlinse living ncan-st to it could attend school reirularly. especially during the winter-months. Tlie rctnainder of the inhabitants would pay their dues without having any benefit, which would neees.sarily foster discontent. As Prince Uagarin siiys. ' It has, therefore, not been pos- sil)li; to make education in Russia compulsory, as in (Jerniany, nor even to enforce the establish- ment of a s(h(Mil in each community.' It Is doubtless impossible at present to intrmluee into Russia llie eduritional systems of the western countrirs " — i), lU ' aveliye, ProrfriM of Kihicit- tion in ll'imtiiiiC. - Itnrntu of f-jhtrtition, fir- euliirK of /nforrii'r o, 1H7,1, „o'. ii), ;,/). 'M-'.Vi. Scotland. he existiii:; system of e<lucation In Seollan! .;i (mteome iif causes deeply in- Vdlved in till pcilitiealund reliitious history of tlie country. . . . This system was pni eded by a complieateil varlet}' of ecturalional agencies, of which till' cliief wen' Jiarisli .schools, founded upon a statute of ItMfl, which was revived and niaile operative In ItHM). I'arish and burgh schools, BUpporteil by local funds and by tuition fees, made up tliepiiblic provision for education. In addition ilii n? wen' schools partly maintained by parllainehiary u'rants. mission and sessional schools innintained by tlie Established C'hureli and llie Kri e Chun li, and other paniclilal anil private KcliKols I'arish and burgh schools carried In- stnietlon to the level of the universities, wlilc' were easily accessible to all classes. The (i'\te of the passage of the ' Hcolch Education Act (1872) was oppiirtiine for the organization of the.se vari- ous agencies into a system maintained by t'.ie romliineii action of the Oovemment and local aiitliorities In framing the Mcotch act care was taken, as in framing tlie English ai t two years Ihfon'. to guard the rights of tlie (lovemment with r. >|H'et to funds appropriated fnmi the piiblii tressury. At the same time equal caf« was siiiiwn for the preservation of the Scotch Ifls'ii! 'I'his v.-:!^ a !ir:«(! ntiti rniuprehenaivr I'leal. embracing the different gnuics of seho. laslic «iirk . This ideal (liffcrenliales the (W'olch act fMin the Ku{[lisb act iMWtsI two years before. The latter related to elententary schools exclusively; the former has a wider scope, providing the foundations of a system of gradeil schools correlated to the universities whicli lie Iieyond its province. Witli respect to the interestsof the Government, the two acts are substantially the same. . . . For the general direction of the system a Scotch educational de- partment was created, composed, like the Eng- lish department, of lords of the privy council, and having the same president. . . . Tlic act ordcre<i every parent to secure the Instruction of his children bctwecen the ages of 5 and 13, or until a certificate of exemption should be se. cured. Parents failing in this obligation are siiii. jeit to prosecution and penalty by fine or imprisun- meut. The compulsory provision extends to blind children. Parochial or burglial authori- ties were authorized to pay the tuition fees of those children whose parents could not meet the expenditure, a provision rendered unnecessary by the recent remission of all fees. The Scoicli act, by n sweeping clause, made compulsory at- tendance universuT; the Englisli act left the mat- ter of compulsion to Uwal managers. A subse- quent act (1878) fixed the standard of exeniptiim in Scotland at the fifth [grade, or year of study], which pupils should pass at U years of age. In 1883, the 'ipjicr limit of compulsory attend. ance in ''iiitiand was raised to U years . . . The universities of S<'otland have iK-cn more in- timately nlati'd to the life of the common people than those of any other country. In this re- sp»"ct, even mon' if possible than ic. their cnii>tl- tution, they pnsent a marked contrast i.i the Englisli universities. To their (hmocralic spirit may 1k' traeiil many of the cliariieteristies whii h dirfenntlate tlie Scotch people and policies fnun those of England. To their widespnail inllii- encc, to tiic amiiitions whiih they awukinnl, and the opportunities which tliev brought within the riacli of the whole liody of Scottish ynulli is due, in large measuri', the independent and liun- ortilile part that Scotland hasplaycilin thehiMnry of the United Kingdom. Tliis popular eliamitiT of the universiH"S has Ih'cii foslercii by tlu' eiirric- ulum of the cc .itnon scIkmiIs, by the easy imssiije fmmlhesclKxils to Ihebigher institutimis; liy iju! inexpensive misle of sirdent life in the uninri-ily towns, and bv the gn'iit niimlHr of si hulir^liip funds available for the ) isir. These iii'iililimis, however, have not iH'er. witliout their dismlvan- tacis. Of these, tile chief are the Ion- i ntrauie slanilanls and the consi'iiuent forcing nf pri para- liiry Instruiiioii upon tlie university prfe'^scrs. . ,". .^s a risull of liingenntinueil ilTurts n Scotch universities act was passed in l^-"'.! This act jiriivliled for the reorganization of I lie fmir universities; for tlie elevation of their stainlunls; the enriihnient of their curricula, and the in- crease iif their n'sources. . . The Smtrli mil' versities have taken part in the jiopiilar nuive- ments of tlie last ilecaih'. They inaliiliiin l"r:d examinations for seeondary scIumiW ami simlints. St .Vndn'ws bus lieen particularly ai live in pro- moting the higher education of "»..itien. having institulecl the s|H'iial degree of I. I. .\. (lailv literate In arts). Edinburgh also gnuils a . erliti- c«(i In arts to women Alxnleeii has reeeiitly appjiluti'd a lecturer on c.luciti.'n foHowinff thus the pn'ciilent set by Edinburgh ami St. Andrews. The four iinlversltiea are unitati in a ■chenui of university exleusiun."— U. 8. Cum- 746 BDUCATION. AwdM cmd atHu School: EDUCATION. mlMiODer of EducatloD, Beport, 1880-80, t.l.pp. 188—207. Sweden. — "Sweden has two ancient and fa- moui universitieB— Upsala and Lund. That of Lund is In the Bouth part of the kingdom and when founded was on Danish territory. The in- '^l^'^J""" "* esutea is about 178,000 rix-dollarB (•46,815) per annum. It also receives yearly aid from the state. In 1867 it had 75 professors and tutors, and 400 students. Upsala is the larircr university, located at the old town of that name — the ancient capital of Sweden — an hour and a half by rail north of Stockholm. It has 100 pro- fessors ttud tutors, and 1,449 studenta, an increase of 131 over the year 186B. . . . This university had iu begmning as an institution of learning as far back as 1250. In 1488 it had one academic professorship, and was dedicated as an univer- sity in 1477. Its principal endowment ivas by Gustavus Adolphus in 1684, when he donated to it all of the estate in lands that he po-wiv-.d amounting in all to 300 farms."— C. C. Auilr vs, Kept, on ths Bduciitional Syttem of Sweden ( ( .s' Bureau of Bducativn, dreulart of Tnformativn Ju^, 1871). Switxerland.— "The influence of the Refor- mation, and, in the following age, of the Jesuit reaction, gave to Switzerland, as to Germany, its original and fundamental means and agencies of national education, and impressed also upon the population H !il>it of dutiful regani for schools -d learning It was not, however, till forty . rs ago thai the modem education of Swit- '•rland was organized. 'The great develop- r.cnt of public (•ducatlon in Switzeriand ' to quiite Mr. Kay, •dates from 1832, after the over- throw of tin- old oli,{,,rthical forms of cantonal EovcTiiiiieut and thi- cstablislmient of the present deni()<ratic forms.' Zurich. Ijiusanne, and Ge- neva take the lead In t^witzerland as centres of ediKMlional influence. Thi' cuntiin in which the work of ediinitioiial reform began was Zttriih The inKlrument of the nfomi. rather thi' rivolution, was Sclierr, a trained school-teacher fnim WUrtemlxTL'. a teacher, in particular, of deaf mutes to speak articulately. This man in- itiated in Ztirlcli the new scheme and work of education, aii.l founded the flm Tminiiig Col- lege lie s I.H)ked upon l)y the oligarchs, partly feu.i ..i.sts, and partly manufactun'r!). as a dangerous revolutiotiist, and was .-xlled from Zllriili. Hut now a monument to his iiiemory adorns the rity. The work which he began could not be suppressed or arrested. Zurich lias ever since taken the lead in education among the t^nlons of Switzerland. Derived originally from 0<'rmany, \\w system is substanttafiv identical with that r)f Germany. . . . The principles and melhiKis an' substantially alike throughout There are, tlrst, the communal schools— these of cours<' in largest number— one to every village even for every small hamlet, provided and main- tained, wholly or chiefly, by the commune: then' are burgher schools In towns. Including eli'ment- itry. real, and superior schiH)ls, supported by Ihe towns; there an' cantonal schools — gymns- Ma and Indu.strlal or U'chnical schools — sun. Bortid by the btate, that Is, by the canton Then' Is often a t'untonal University, Then' Is of ewursc a Cantonal Trajnini; skhoo! or C!!!!!-:.'!' and there are InstltuU'S of'various'kinds. I'li. ttntonal Universlllet, however, are cjn a small •no eoooomical Male; at yet there ia no Ted. ml University. School life in Switzerland is ■my long, from six to fourteen or fifteen, and for all who are to f jliow a profession, from fifteen to twenty -two. "-J. H. Rigg, National EdwxUvm. en, 4. Hodem: Asiatic Couatrifs. China.— -" Every step in the process of teach- ing is fixed by unalterable usage. So much Is this the case, that in describing one school I de- scnbe all, and in tracing the steps of one student I point out the course of all ; for in China there are no new methods or short roads. In other countnes, a teacher, even in the primary course, finds r.>om for tact and originality. In those who dislike study, a love of it is to be inspired by making -knowledge pleasant to the taste'; and the dull apprehension is to be awakened by striking and apt illustrations. ... In China there is nothing of this. The land of uniformity all processes in crtsond letters are as much fixed by universal custom as is the cut of their gar- ments or the mcxie of wearing their hair. The pupils all tread the path tnnlden by their an- cestors of a thousand years ago, nor bus it grown smoother by the attrition of so many feet 1 he undergraduate course mav be divideil into thne stages, in ea<liof which tliereare t-o lead- ing studies: In the first the occupations of the student are committing to nieiiiorv (not reading) the canonical Ixioks and writing in infinitude of diversely formed characters, as a manual exer- cise. In the sciond, they are the translation of his text books (I, e., nading), and lessons in com- position. In the third, they an' Ullcs lettres and the composition of essays. Nothing could Ih; more <lrear)- than the labors of th,. ilrst stage [ , . . tvinthestiinulusofcompanionsliip In study is usually denied, the adviuitagis n'sulting from the formation of classes Ik ing as little apprecialed i.s lhos«' of other labor K,'iviiig machinery. Each pupil reads and writes alone, the penaltv for fat'- ure iK'ingBomany blows with the ferule'or kneel- ing for so nniny minutes on the mugh brick pave- ment which serves for a ficHir At this pericul fear is the stniiigesi motive addnsscd to the mind of the scholar. . . This arctic winter of mo- notonous toll once passed, a nion aus|iicjiius sea- son dawns on the ynnthful iindcrst.imlinc The key of the cabala w huh he h.'is U'l'ii s<i |o. and so lilimlly acquiring is put into his harid.s He Is Initiated m the translation nnd eximsilioii of thosn sacred b.niks whit h he I I previously storeil away in his meiiinry. . i,,. light however is let in but spariu.L'ly, as through chinks and nils in the loni; sige. A simple chanu Icr hen' u:'(l thci lined, and then It may be afli r tlie lajis. year or two, the teai her pron cds to the e.x, ,tion of entire sen- tence s .Now for the first time the mind of the stiiili lit begins lo tnKe In the thoughts of those hi' has been taught to regani us tile oracles of wisdom. The value of this exenise can hardly Im- overestimated. When Judldously em- ployed It diM'S for the Chinese what translation into and out of the dead languages of the west does for ua It calls into play memory, judg- menl. taste, and gives him a command of his own virnacular which. It Is safe to assert, he would ;:ever se-foin. in ^ny vl!,-f whv. ... The finit step In 1 .iniiMisition Is the yoking together of iliiiible chsraeters The xcoiid Is the reduplica- tion of these binary compounds and ttMOOBStruo '111 EDUCATION. HCkltt. BDDCATION. tioD of parallels — an idea which runs lo com- pletely through the whole of Chineie literature that th° miiKTof the student requires to be im- bued with it at the very outset. This is the way he begins: The teacher writes, ' wind blows,' the pupil adds, ' rR'n falls ' ; the teacher writes, ' rivers are long,' the pupil adds, 'seas are deep,' or ' mountains are high, ' &c. From the simple sub- ject and pnHiicate, which in their rude grammar they describe as ' dead ' and ' living ' characters, the teacher conducts his pupil to more complex forms, in which qualifying wotds and phrases are introduced. lie gives as a model some such phrase as ' The Emperor's grace is vast as heaven anu earth,' and the lad matches it by 'The Sov- ereign's fa vol' is profound as lake and sea. ' These couplets often contain two propositions in each member, accompanied by all the usual modifying terms; and so exact is the symmetry required by the rules of the art tlmt not onlj must noun, verb, adjective, and particle respond to each other with scrupulous exactness, but '.le very tones of tlie characters are adjusted to each other with the precision of mu.sic. Begun with the first strokes of his untaught pencil, the stu- dent, whiitever his proficiency, never gets beyond the construction of parallels When he becomes a member of the institute or a minister of the imperial cabinet, at classic festivals and siKial entertainments, the composition of impromptu couplets, formed on the old model, constitutes a favorite pastime. Iteficcting a poetic image from every syllable, or concealini; the keen point of a cutting epigram, they alTord a tine vehicle for sallies of wit ; and poetical contests suc'i as that of Mi'libceus and Mennlca" are in China matters of il'iily occurrence. If a pre.sent is to be given, on the occasion of a marriage, a birih-day, or any other remarkable occasion, nothing is deemed so •ilegant or acceptable as a pair of scrolls inscribed with a complimentary distich. When the novice is sulflciently exercised In the ' parallels ' for the Idea of symmetry to have become an instinct, he Is permitted to advance to other species of com- position which atTord freer scope for his facul- ties. Huch are the 'shutiah.' in which a single thought is expanded in siniple language, the 'lun, the formal (liseussi in of a subject more or less extended, and epistlt!- luldressed to imaghiary persons and adapted to all conceivable circum- gtaucis. In these liust, the forms of the 'com- plete lettiT writer ' are copied with t(K> much servility ; but in the otii' r two, substance being det'innf of more eoiis4M|iH nee titan form, the new fledu'nl thought is peiniitted to essay its powers and t'j exp.aiate witli but little restraint. In the thiril stage, composition is the leading object, reading being wholly subsidiary. It taki'S fur the iiK .St part the artificial form of verse, and of a kind of prose called ' wenchaiig.' which is, if possible, still mon^ artificial. The reading ri'- quired emliraees iiiainlv rhetorical miHtels and sundry aiitliologies llfstory iHitiidied, but only tha of China, and that only in coui|ieuds; not for iu luiwiiiis of wisdom, but for the sake of the allusions with uliieh it enables a writer to ein- Ik'IIIsIi cla.ssie essays. The same may lie said of other stiidiei, ; knowledge and mental dUcipline are at a disco^int and style at a premium. The eoal uf the lonsr cottrse. the dower and fruit of til" whole system, is the 'wen-cluing': for this iiloue can Insure success in the public examina- tions (or the civil service, in which itudeota be- gin to tdTentttie soon after entering on the thhd stage of their preparatory course. . . We hear it asserted that ' education is universal in Chiii:i: even coolies are taught to read and write. ' In one sense this is true, but not as we imderstaiid the terms 'reading and writing. In the alpha- betical vernaculars of the west, the ability to read and write implies the ability to express one's thoughts by the pen and to grasp the thoughts of others when so expressed. In Chinese, and especially in the classical or book language, it implies nothing of the sort. A shopkeeper may be able to write the numbers and keep tn unts without being able to write anything el p'd a lad who has attended school for severa \ i irs will pronounce the characters of an ordinary book with faultless precision, yet not compre- hend the meaning of a single sentence. Of those who can read understandingly (and nothing else ought to be called reailing), the proportion is greater in towns than in rural districts. But striking an average, it does nut, according to my observation, exceed one in twenty for the niHlV sex and one in ten thousand for the female. " The literary examinations, "coming down from the past, with the accretions of many centuries. . . . have expanded into a system whose mat liinery is as complex as its proportions are enuniKius. Its ramifications extend to every district of tlic empire; and it comnuiuds the services of district magistrates, pref"Ct8, and other civil function- aries up to governors and viceroys. These are all auxiliary to the regular officers' of the literary corporation. In each district there are two resi- dent examiners, with the title of professor, whose duty it is to keep a register of all competing students and ' ^ exercise them from tim<> to time in order to stimulate their efforts and keep iliem in preparation for the higher exanunatiuns in which degrees are conferred. In eacli province there is one chancellor or superintendent of iu. struction, who holds office for three years, and is ri ioired to visit every district and hold tlie cus- Itiiiury examinations within that time, conferring the first degree on a certain percentage of lije camlidates. There are, moreover, two Bpeei:il ex- aminen for each province, generally meinUrs of the Ilanlin, deputed from the capital to eomiuet the great triennial examination and c<iu[> r tlie second degree. The regtdar degri'es are three: 1st. 'hiutsai' or ' Uiidding talent.' Uil. ' Kn- jin' or 'Deserving of promotion.' 8d 'Tsiu shi ' or ■ Fit for office. ' 'To which may be ad.li .i, as a fourth degree, the Uaulin, or memlnrof the ' Forest of Pencils ' . . . The first degne only is conferred by the provincial chancellor, and tlie happy nciplenls. fifteen or twenty in each de partmeni, or 1 t-er cent, of the candidates, are dworated with the insignia of rank and admitted to the ground Ihsir of the nine storiid piig'Hia. The trial for tlie M^cond degree is helil in the capi- tal of each province, by special commissinners, onc<- in tliree years. It consists of thri'e sessions of three days each, making nine days of almost continuous exertion — a strain to the nieutal and physiejil iHiwers, to which the infinii and ai;ed irequently succumb. In addition to (oniposltioa in prose and verse, the candidate is nipiireil to show bis acijuaintance with history, iilie history of China.) philosophy, criticism, wnd various branches of arclueology. Again 1 per cent is decorated; but it Is not until the more foriiumie among them succeed in paaiiug the metropollinn 748 EDUCATION. CoOtoe of Wittiam amniarr. EDUCATIOK. ttiennial that the meed of civil office Is certainly bestowed. They are not, howeTer, auigned to their respective offices until they have eone through two special examinations within the palace and in the presence of the emperor. On this bceasion the highest on the list is honored with theMtleof 'chuang yuen' or 'laureate,' a dis- tinction so great that in the last reign it was not thought unbefitting the daughter of a 'chuang yuen to be raised to the position of consort of the Son of Heaven. A score of the best are ad- mitted to membership in the Academy, two or three score are attached to it as pupils or proba- tioners, and the rest drafted off to official posts in the capital or in the provinces, the humblest of which is supposed to compensate the occupant for a life of penury and toil."— Rev. W. A P Martin, Jkpt on tke Syttem of Pabtie Imtruetion l» Clana ([T. S. Bureau of Edueation, Oireulari of Information, 18T7, no. 1) Also III: W. A. ? Martin, TKe ChiM»e: their Bdueatton, <fe. Jap«n.---From the fourth to the eighth cen- turies of the Christian era, ' ' after tiie conquest of Corea by the Japanese emperor Jlgo Kogo, came laters. writing, books, literature, religion, eUiics politics, medicine, arts, science, agriculture, manu- factures, and the varied appliances of civiliza- tion; and with these entered thousands of imm grants from Corea and China. Under the intelli-ctual Influence of Buddhism — the power- ful and aggressive faith that had already led captive the half of Asia -o the Coiifucian ethics and philosophy, and Chinew literature, Uie hori- zon of the Japanese mind was immensely broad- ened. . In the time of «ie European 'dark ages the Japanese were enjoying what, in com- parison, was a high sute of civilization. . . I mier the old regime of the Sho-guns, all foreign Ideas and Influences were systematically excluded and the Isolation of Japan from the rest of the world was made the supreme policy of the govern- ment. Profound peace Listed from the begin- ning of the seventeei.th century to 1868. During l.!L.„ *«''5'^''."'^ colleges, literature ana earning, flourished. It was the period of scho- tastlc, not of creative. Intellectual activity. The baaU of education « hs Chinese. What we con- ttder the means of education, reading and writing were to them the ends. Of classlfled science there was littie or none. Matiiematics was con sidered as fit only for merehanU and shop-keep. Jf , "° /"reign languages were studied, and tliclr acquisition was forbidden. . There was ni> department of education, though unive.'sltles were established at Kioto and Yedo, large schools in Ibe da mloB capitals, and innumerable private scIkkjI, all over tne rountry. Nine Umths of the reoplc could read and write. Books were verv [mmen.usandcheap. ClrculatlngllbrarlesexisteJi In every citv ancj to»n. Literary clubs and associations for mutual improvement were com mon even In country villages. Nevertheless, iu eymp8ri«)n with the Ideal systems and practice o the progress ve men of 5Jew Japan, the old «ljle was as different from the present as the ir*™ .?^ 1" ^f *"?'' y""" '" >n«llw»«l times Is ; I!^ .^ "' • JiOnJon or Oxford student of the llfTh^^^ A!lhn:,gh sr, attt-i,»>i h, mcctsomo . J w'u^tioiMl necessities aiHsIng from ti.e a lered conditions of the national life were made ui«l,r the 8ho-gun s r«gime, yet Uie first attempt »t "yslematic work in the large cities was made under the Mikado's government, and the idea of i„°f^,°?K™« P''S °' education te Uielnonly. In 187J the Mom Bu 8ho, or department of edjl cat on, was formed, of which tiie high counselor Uki, a man of indomitable vigor and oersever. Mce, was made head. . . . AccoMfaf to Se scheme of national education promulgated in In;,ih i?S"''?J «"f* educational dlvlsiomi. m.f H,°', ""^f *?*" is to be a university, nor- mal school schools of foreign languages high schools, and primary schools. The totafniimlSr Onw < ll^'l'! ""™l*''. 't '9 expected, over 88,000. Only in the higher rehools is a foreign language IT^^.""^ elementary science translated or adopted from European or American text-book. Son J^,^^**"*.;. ^".^ ^^''eral system of instruc- i^h'i, ^""^*' 'l'«<='P"''e. school-aids, furniture, fo^ll^mS',"* ^ ^ '"K^'y "dopted from foreign models, and are now to a great extent in ^gue throughout &e country."-fw E Griflir Bdv.nlwn xn Japan (U. 8. Bureau of Bduoation areular, of Information, 1878, no. 2). "***^' Modern : America. wmi?" '^'fc'*''"-^''^?'"'*-- College of ?y wT^'^S. ~in^— " 1° IfflO- one year fefore the Pilgrim Fathers came to the land named New England by Captain John Smith - Sir Edwin niH fI'iP^'*''''" i"' "•« V'^e'"'" Company in rilff '."'"'.• T""^ "*e ?"«" «f ten tUouMud acres o?land for the establishment of a univer fl^\^T^r\ Jh' P^^P"'*'' 8"«. which was duly made included one thousand acres for an Indian college; Uie remainder was to be 'tiie V„"„°h1 ^''t'^' " seminary of learning for the Fnf l„,i . .T """^ •"?" y^^ *« bishops of i.iigland, at the suggestion of the King, raised the sum of fifteen Tiundred pounds for tiie en- couragement of Indian Education. . TenanU TnTiSli.'"/^'' *°^"Py the university lands, and Mr ^rge Thorpe, a gentleman of HU Majesty's Privy Chamber, came over to be tiie superintendent of the university itself This first beginning of philanthropy toward the Indiana and of educational foundations for the Indians in America was suspended by reason of the Indian massacre. In the spring of l832, when Mr. Thorpe and three hundred and forty settlers. Including tenants of the university, were cut off by an In- surrection of savages. It was only two year, after this terrible catastrophe that the Idea of a university in \ irrinia was revived. Experience with treacherous Indians suggested that the insti- tution should be erected upon a secluded shel- tered site— an Island 111 the Susciuelianna River , , , Tliu plan was broken off by the death of Its chief advocate and promoter, Mr Edward Palmer But the Idea of a UDlverslty for Virginia was not hwt. In 1660, the colonial Assembly of Virginia took Into their own hands the projwtof f.iunilliig educational institutions within their tionlers The motive of the VirglnUns was pre- cisi-ly tiie same as that of the great and general Court of MassachusetU, when It established Harvard College, and grammar schools to fit youth ■ for ye university" The VirirlnUn« vnted ttml r..t the advance of learning, education of youth, supply of the ministry, and promotion a llll'tv. then* h» UnH >.lr._ ..V. _..C.i. . 749 ■' .—— "-ffj "• •."= uiiuiairy, ana promotion ^l puty, there be land taken upon purchases for a t-ollege and free ichoole, ami that there be, wlUl as much speedc as may be convenient, houselng KDCCATION. Btxton LoMn Sokool. EDUCATION. erected thereon for entertainment of student! and •choUen. ' It was also voted tn 1660 that the vari- ous commissioners of county courts talce subscrip- tions on court days for the benefit of the college, and that the commissioners send orders through- out ttielr respective counties to the vestrymen of all the parishes for the purpose of raising money from such inhabitants as ' have not already sub- scribed. ' It appears from the record of this legis- lation In Henlog's Statutes of Virginia that already in 1660, ■ His Maleatic'sQovemour, Council of Bute, and Burgesses of the present grand Assembly have severally subscribed several! con- siderable sumes of money and quantltyes of to- bacco,' to be paid upon demand after a place had been provided and built upon for educational purposes. A petition was also recommended to Sir William Berkeley, then governor of Virginia, that the King oe petitioned for letters patent authorizing collections from ' well disposed peo- ple in England for the erecting of colledges and schooles in this countrye.' This action of the Virginians in 1660 ought to be taken as much better evidence of an early regard for education in that colony than the well-known saying of Governor Berkeley would seem to indicate. In reply to an inquiry by the lords commissioners of trades and plantations respecting the progress of learning in the colony of Virginia, Berkeley said, ' I thank God there are no free schools nor Srtntlng, and I hope we shall not have these hun- red years. ' This answer by a crusty old governor has been quoted perhaps too often as an index of the real sentiments of colonial Virginia toward the cause of education. Not only Is the tone of popular Itgislatlon entirely opposed to the cur- rent view, but Berkeley's own acts should modify our judgment of his words. He actually sub- scribed, with other gentlemen of the colony, for 'aCoUcdge of students of the liberal arU and sciences. ' Undoubtedly Sir William did not be- lieve in popular education as it is now under- stiKxl. If he had done so, he would have been much in advance of Ills time. . . . Some writers would have us believe that the college was actually planted as early as 1661, but this is highly Improbable. Early educational enact- ments In Virginia were like many of those early towns— on paper only. And yet the Virginians really meant to have both towns au<l a college. In 1688-'89, twenty-flve hundred pounds were subscribed by a few wealthy gentlemen in the colony and by their merchant friends In England toward the endowment of the higher education. In 1691 the colonial Assembly sent the Rev, James Blair, the commissary or representative of the Bishop of London, back to r^ngland to secure a charter for the proposed college. Virginia's agent went straight to Queen Mary and explained the cducatiimal ambition of her colony in America. The Queen favored the Idea of a colle^, and William wisely concurred. The royal pair agreed to allow two thousand pounds out of the quit- renu of Virginia toward building the college. . . The English Oovtrnment concluded to give not only £2,000 la money, but also 20,000 acres of land, with a tax of one penny on every pound of toliacco exported from Maryland and Virginia, t.^;-..(|i,.r wfth all ■<•<■« and proflu arising from the olHre of surveyor-general, which were to be controlled bv the president and faculty of the rollege. They were authorized to appoint special surveyors for the cotuili ■. whenever the governor and his council thought It necessary. These privileges, granted by charter in 1698, were of great signiflcance in the cconomlo history of Virginia. They brought the entire laud system of tne colony Into the hands of a collegiate land office. Even after the Revolution, oneslxth of the fees to all public surveyors continued to ha paid into the college treasu^ down to the year 1819, when this custom was abolished."— 11. B. Adams, Tlu Cotttge of WiUiam and Maryifiirat- Ian of Information of (Ke Bureau of Education, 1887, no. 1). A. D. 1635.— Musachusctti.— Boston Latia School.— "The Public I^atln School of Boston enjoys the distinction of being the oldest exist- ing school within the bounds of the United Sutes. It wns founded in the spring of 163S, thus ante- dating Harvard College, and has been in continu- ous existence ever since, with the Interruption of a few months, during the siege of Boston, 1775-1776." The two hundred and fiftieth an- niversary of the founding of the school wa.s cele- brated Xpril 23, 188.5, on which occasion the Rev. Phillips Brooks, D. D., delivered an address from which the following passages are taken: "The colony under Winthrop arrived in the Ara- bella and founded Boston in 1680. On the 4th of September, 1683, the Griffin brought John Cotton from the Lincolnshire Boston, full of pious spirit and wise plans for the new colony with V7hlch he had cast tn his lot. It has been suggested that possibly we owe to John Cotton the first suggestion of the first town-school. . . However this may be, here is the town record of the 18th of the second month, 1685. It is for- ever memorable, for it is the first chapter of our Book of Genesis, the very cradle of all our race: 'At a general meeting upon publique notice . . . it was then generaUy agreed upon that our brother Philemon Pormort shall be entreated to become scholemsater, for the teaching and nour- tering of children among us.' It was two hun- dred and fifty years ago to-day [April '^3, 1885] lust nineteen years after the day when William Shakespeare died, just seventy-one years after the day when he was bom. How simple that short record is, and how unconscious that short view is of the future which Is w-apped up la it! Fifty-nine thousand children who crowd the Bos- ton public schools to-day — and who can count what thousands yet unborn 1 — are to be heard crying out for life in the dry, quaint words of that old voU'. By It the first educational Insti- tution, which was to have continuous existence in America, and in it the public school system ol the land, came into being. Philemon Pormort, the first teacher of the Latin School, la hardly more than a mere shadow of a name. It is not even clear that he ever actually taught the school at all. A few years later, with Mr. Wheel. Wright, after the Ilulchlnson excitement, he dis- appears Into the northern woods, and Is <me ol the founders of ExeU'r, in New Hampshire There are rumors that he e*me back to Boston and died here, but It is all very uncertain. The name ' free school ' In those days seems tc have been used to characterize an Instil utloi which should not be restricted to any ilassol childP'O. and which should not be de|K'niiint or the fluctuating attendance of scholars for iui «up port. It looked forward to ultimaU- endowment like the schools of England. The town 8i!t span the rent of Deer Island, and some of the otbei 750 BDUCATION. Barvcmi CoUege. EDUCATION. UUndi In the harbor, for ite help. All the great citizeni, GoTemor Winthrop, Oovemor Vane, Mr. Bellingham, and the rest, made generous contributions to it. But it caUed, also, for sup- port from those who sent their children to it, and who were able to pay something ; and it was only of the Indian children that it was distinctly pro- yided that they should be 'taught gratis.' It was older than any of the schools which, in a few years, grew up thick around it The same power which made it spring out of the soil was In all the rich ground on which these coloniste, unlike any other colonists which the worid has ever seen, had set their feet. Roxbury had ite school under the Apostle Eliot in 164S. Cam- bridge was alreadv provided before 1648. Charles- town did not wait later than 1636. Salem and Ipswich were, both of them, ready in 1637. Ply- mouth did not begin its system of public instruc- tion till 1663. It was in 1647 that the General Court enacted that resolve which is the great charter of free education In our Commonwealth, in whose preamble and ordinance stand the im- mortal words; ' That learning may not be buried in the grave of our fathers, in church and Com- monwealth, the Lord assisting our endeavors, it is therefore ordered that every township in this jurisdiction, after the Lord hath increased them to the number of afty householders, shall then forthwith appoint one within their town to teach all such children as shall resort to him to write and read.' There can be no doubt, then, of our priority. But mere priority is no great thing. The real interest of the beginning of the school Is the large idea and scale on which it started It Uught the children, little Indians and all. to read and write. But there seems every reason to suppose that it taught also the Latin tongue, and all that then was deemed the higher knowl- edge. It was the town's only school till 1683 " —Tlu OUeit School in America, pp. 5-24. A. D. 1636.— MuiachuMtt*.— Hanrard Col- '•Se.— " The first settlers In New England, recog- nizing the importance of a higher education than could bo given in the common schools, began at once the founding of a university. The avowed object of this university was the training of young men for the ministry. Nothing could show clean-r the spirit of these early colonists Though less than four thousand In number and .icattercd along t^e shores of Mashochusetts Bay in sixteen hamlets, they were, nevertheless, able U) engage in such an enterprise before adequate provision hart Ix'en made for food, raiment, shel- ter, a civil government, or divine worship ; at a time when soil and climate had disappointed them, and their affairs were in a most critical condition; for, not only were they called to face [amine, disease, and death, but the mother coun- try and the surrounding savage tribes were threatening them with war. ... It was near the close of 1836, a little more than six years after the landing of the Puritans, when this first step was taken by the General Court of the Massa- chusetts Colony. At this assembly, presided over by Sir Henry Vane, governor of the colony, the General Court agreed to give £400 (a raunili- cent sum for the time) towards the founding of a school or cnllrgr, hut left the question of its location and building to be determined by the Court that was to sit in September of the follow- tag year This, it is said, was the first assembly In which the people by their represenutlvea 751 ever gave their own money to found a place ol education. ' At the next Court it was decided to locate the college at Newtown, or 'the New Towne, and twelve of the principal maglstntea and ministers were chosen to carry out this de- sign. A few months later, they changed the name of the town to Cambridge, not only to tell their posterity whence they came, but alao ai Quincy aptly says, to indicate ' the high destiny to which they intended the institution should S*" V? ., Another year, however, passed before the College was organized. The impulse given to It then was due to aid which came from so un- expected a quarter that it must have seemed to the devout men of New England as a clear indi- cation of the divine favor The Rev. John Har- .'"■iloS ^"nconformist minister, was graduated. In 16i?.5, from the Puritan college of Emmanuel, at tambndgp, England, and came, two yean later, to America and settled in Charieatown. where he immediately took a prominent part in town affairs. His contemporaries gave him the title of reverend, and he is said to have ofBcisted occasionally in Chariestown as ' minister of God's word. One has recently said of him that he was 'beloved and honored, a well-trained and accomplished scholar of the type then esteemed,' and that in the brief period of his life in America — scarcely more than a year— he cemented more closely friendships that had been begun in earlier years. The project of a college was then en- grossing the thought of these eariy friends and doubtless he also became greatly Interested in it Thus It happened that, when his health failed through his own love of learning and through sympathy with the project of his dally asso- ciates, he determined to bequeath one-half of his estate, probably about £800, besides his excellent library of three hundred and twenty volumes towards the endowment of the college. This be- quest rendered possible the immediate organiza- tion of the college, which went into operation •on the footing of the ancient Institutions of fcurope, and, out of gratitude to Harvard, the General Court voted that the new institution should bear his name."— Q. G. Bush, Hartard in'- 12-15. Also in: J. Quincy, Ilitl. of Harvard Uni- remity.—S. A. Eliot, SUleh of the Uutory of Uarvartt CoUeye. A. D. i«4a-i73a.— New England and New York.— EariT Common Schoola.— "New Eng- land early adopted, and has, with a single ex- ception, constantly maintained the principle that the public should provide for the Instruction of all the youth. That which elsewhere, as will be found, was left to local provision, as in New York; or to charity, as In Pennsylvania; or to parental Interest, as In Virginia, was in most parts of New England early secured by law The act of 1642 in Massachusetts, whose pro- visions were adopted in most of the adjacent rolonies. wasadinirablea.ialirst legislative school law. It was watchful of the neglect of parenU and kmked well after the ignorant and the in- digent. But it neither made schooling free, nor lmpo!*-d a penalty for its neglect. . . . Schoola were largely maintained by rates, were free only t,T th( necessitous, iiiid lu not a few of tiie less populous districts closed altogether or never opened. This led, five years later, U) more strin- gent legiilation. . . . As suggesting the general scope and tenor of the law, the following extract fit! Ill ti BDUCATION. frntufltanUi. EDUCATION. ta made. ... 'It U theietore orderad by thU Court ud authority thereof that every township within tbli Juriidiction, after the Lord hath In- crcaied them to the number of fifty houiebolden, ■hall then forthwith appoint one within their town to teach all (uch children as shall re~ort to him, to write and read ; whose wages shall be paid, either by the parents or masters of such children, or by the inhabitanU in general, by way of supply, as the major part of those who order the prudentials of the town shall appoint; provided that those who send their children be not oppressed by paying much more than they can have them taught for in the adjoining towns. And it is further ordered that where any town shall increase to the number of one hundred families, or house-holders, they shall set up a grammar-school, the master thereof being able to fiistruct youths so far as they may be fitted for the university ; and if any town neglect the per- formance hereof, above one year, then every such town shall pay five pounds per annum to the next such school, till they shall perform this order.' . . . Three years after the law just cited Con- necticut passed a very similar one. ... In Rhode Island there was no attempt at a school system prior to the efforts of John Howland about 179C There were schools in both Providence and Newport; but the colony was small (with a population of less than ten thousand in 1700), brolien into feeble settlements, and offering little opportunity for organization. ... It is claimed that, at the surrender of the Dutch in New York (1664), so general was the educational spirit, almost eery town in the colony had its regular school and more or less permanent teachers. After the occupation of the province by the Eng- lish, little attention was given to education. . . Tliirtttn years after the sum nder, a Latin school was opened in the city ; but the first serious at- tempt to provide regular schooling was in the work of the ' Society for the Propagation of the Gospel ' (1704) in the founding of Trinity School. The society kept "p an efilcient organization, for many years, and at the opening of the Revolu- tion had established and chiefly supported more than twenty schools in llie colony. About 1732, also, there was established in New York city a Khool after the plan of the Boston Latin School, free as that was free, and which became, accord- ing to eminent authority, the germ of the later King's (now Columbia) College."— R. 0. Boone, Bdueation in the United Statti, eh. 8. A. D. 1683-1770.— P«iu«ylT«ol« — Origin of the UniTcruty of PennsTlTania.-" Education had not been overlooked in the policy of Penn. In his Frame of Government we read: 'The governor and provincial council shall erect and order all public schools, and encourage and re- ward the authors of useful sciences and laudable Inventions, in the said province. . . . And . . . a committee of manners, education and arts, that all wicked and scandalous living nuy be pre- vented, and that youth may be successively trained up in virtue and useful knowledge and arts.' The first movement to establish an educa- tional institution of a high grade was in the acUon of t!ie Executive CouncU which proposed, Novem!.tr 17. 168-3. 'That Care be Taken about the Learning and Instruction of Youth, to wit: A School of Arts snd Sciences.' It was not un- til 1689, however, that the 'Public Orammar School ' was set up in Philtdelphia. This insti- tution, founded upon the English idea of a ' free school,' was fornully chartered in 1697 as the ■William Penn Charter School.' It was intended as the head of a system of schools for all, rather than a single school for a select Tew, an idea which the founders of the Chariuble School, fifty years later, had also in mind — an idea which was never carried out in the history of either institution. The failure of Penn's scheme of government, and the turmoil during the early part of the eighteenth century arising from tlis conflicts between different political parties, for a time influenced very decidedly educational zeal in the province. Th > government, which at the outset had taken su<;h high ground on the sub- ject, ceased to exert itself in behalf of educa- tion, and the several leligious denominations and the people themselvj in neighborhood organiza- tions took up the burden and planted schools ss best they could throughout the growing colony. . . . Feeling the importance for some provision to supplement the education then given in the established schools, Benjamin Franklin as early as 1748 drew up a proposal for establishing an academy. ... He secured the assistance of a number of friends, many of them members ut the famous Junto, and then published bis psm- ))hlet entitled ' Proposals Relating to the Educs- Uon of Youth in Pennsylvania.'. . . On all sides the paper met with great favor and generous support. The result was the organization of a board of trustees, consisting of 24 of those who had subscribed to the scheme of the Academr, with Franklin as president. This body immedi- ately set about to realize the object of the pamphlet, and nourished by subscriptions, lot- teries, and gifts the Academy was placed is a fiourishing condition. . . . Trie Academy am- prised three schools, the Latin, the English, and the mathematical, over each of which was placed a master, one of whom was the rector of the iusd- tution. . . . The tr.nglUh School was neglected. The other schools were favored, especially the Latin School. In the eyes of Franklin aud many of the supporters of the Academy, the EoglUh School was the one of chief importance. What we would call a ' starving out ' process was be- gun by which the English School was kept in a weak condition, most of the funds going to the Latin School. . . . The success of the Academy was so gratifying to all interested in it that it was determined to apply for a charter. This was granted to the trustees by Thomas and Richard Penn, the proprietors, on July 13, 1753. I)esirous at the same time of enlarging the course of instruction, the trustees elected Mr. William Smith teacher of logic, rhetoric, natural and moral philosophy. Hr. Smith accepted the posi- tion and entered upon his duties at the Academy in May, 1754. The history of the institution from tills date, whether known as the Academy to 1779 is the history of the life or the College, of William Smith. "-J.L. Stewart, Uitt Sketch of thd Univernty 0/ PennigltiaMii (U. S. Sii.xju of Education, Oinular of Information, ISH'J, iw. i: Beta. FrarJcUn and the Univ., eh. 4). A. D. 1701-1717.— Connecticut.— Yale Col- lege. — "For sixty years the only school for higher education in New England bad bceu Har- vard College, at Cambridge. The people, ami especially the clergy, of Connecticut naturally desired the benefit of a similar esteblisUment nearer home. The three ministers of New Haven, 752 EDUCATION. Yalt, Prineeton, dclmmHa. EDUCATION. UlKord, (ud Branford first moved In tho enter- prise. Ten ministers, nine of them being iPTadu- atcs of Harvard College, met at Branford [17011 and made a contribution from tlieir libraries of about forty volumes in folio ' for the founding of a college.' Other donations presently came In. An Act of Incorporation was granted by the General Court. It created a body of trustees, not to be more than eleven in number nor fewer than seven, all to be clergymen and at least forty years of age. The Court endowed the College with an annual grant, subject to be discontinued at pleasure, of one hundred ' wenty pounds in 'country pay,'— eiiuival, jlxty pounds i terllne. The College migh„ tola property ' not exceeding the value of five hundred pounds per annum ' ; its students were exempted from the payment of taxes and from militai7 service • and the Governor and bis Council gave a formal ap- proval of its application to the citizens for pecu- niary aid. . . The first Pres;dent was Abraham Plerson, minister of Killingworth, at which place he continued to reside, though ihe designated seat of the Col'»ge was at 8aybrook. Kight stu- dents were > littcd, and arranged in classes. At each of 1 j hr»t two annual commcncemen'.s one person, . the iii.rd three persons, received the degree of Bachelor of Arts. President Pier- ■iou was succeeded, at his death, by Mr. Andrew minister at Mllford, to which placi the elder pu- pils were accordingly transferred, wnile the rest went to Saybrook, where two tutora had been provided to assist their studies. . . . For nearly twenty years the College of Connecticut . . eomimied to l)e an unsatisfactory experiment. . . . Notwithstamlingthegeneral agreement that wliuU-ver fcclllties for tlie higher education could be commanded should be brought together and combined, the choice of the place was embar- ni.<s('(l by viirloua considerations. . . . Saybrook WcthcrsfleUi, Hurtfortl, and New Haven com- peted with each other for the preference, offering such contributions as thev were able towards the -rection of a college building. The offer from lew Havci, larger than that of anv other town Wiis seven hiindr«l pounds sterling. The plan of tlxing the College there, promoted by the gn'iit intlucnce of Governor Saltonstall, was adopted by the tru.stees; and with money ob- taiiieil by private gifts, and two hundrecf and tifty pounds aciruliig from a sale of land given by the General A3.sembly, a build!ng was begun [1717), which finally cost a thousand pounds «terl iig . . . The Assembly gave the College a hundred pounds. Jeremiah Dummer sent from Eiit;lttnd a substantial present of books Gov- ernor .Saltonstall contributed fifty pounds ster. ling, and the same sum was presenti^d by .Tahlecl Breutou, of Newport, In Rhode Island. But the chief patronage came from Elihu Yale —a native of New Haven, but long resident in the Kant Indies, where Iw ha I been Governor of Port 8t George. He was nox' a citizen of London, and Governor of the East India Company. His contributions, continued through seven vears, ainminted to some four hundred' pounds sterling '• and he was understood to have made arrange- iiiciiU for a further bounty of five hundred pounds, whirh, however, through tinfi^rtunate accidents, never came to its destination. The province made a grant of forty pounds annually for seven years. '^-J. O. Palfrey, Jlitt. of Avi hnglaad. 4*. 4, M. 11, and bk. 6, ch. 4 (v. 4). 48 1«; Thl* r-T,^"' Jerfey—Princeton Col- mSfiT 11 J^^*" °' New Jersey, more com- monly called Princeton College, •■originated in the plan of Jonathan Dickln^n, JohS Pieraon. l-benezerPembcrton, Aaron Burr, with others to T^^aV^ institution 'in which ample provis on should be made^for the Intellectual knd religious culture of youth desirous to obtain a liberal edu- cation, and more especially for the thorough trainlns; of such as were candidates for the holy ^i ,f ^ii '•? ^."^ "^^^^ *»» granted in 174« STo*^? ?°^- ^°^^ Hamilton, President of His Majesty s Council A second and more ample charter was granted September 14th, 174«. After the war of the Revolution, the charter was cou- firmed and renewed by the Legislature of New n"t?i ^P'" ■•^*"'' ''''^' ""^ Trustees made „ »..uii ■ — »i-«i, uju irusieesmaae a puWIc announcement that they haii ■ appointed X.", .r "','?■'»'•'"' I>'ekinson, President,' and that the college would be opened in the fourth week of May next at Ellzabethtown. President Dickinson having died on the 7th of October fol- . .."^'ri^^".?'-'''- ^"°° Burr assumed the duties of the Presidency and the college was removed from Ellzabethtown to Newark Soon after it was removed from Newark to Princeton, where in l,...l-5o the first college building was erected " —College 0. New Jersey, OitaUtgue, 181)»-4, pp. A. D. I746-I787.-New York.-King's Col- lege, now Columbia College.-" The establish- ment of a college in the city of New York was many years in agitation liefore the design was carried into effret. At length, under an act of Assjmbly passed in December, 1746, and oth.r similar acts whlili followed, moneys were raised by public lottery 'for the encouragement of learning and towards the founding a college' within the colony. These moneys were, in No- vember, 17,il, vested in trustees. . . . The trus- tees, m November, K.-iS, invited Dr. Samuel Johnson of Connecticut, to be president of the intended college. Dr. Johnson consequently re- moved to New York in the month of April fol- lowing, and in July, MM. commenced the in- struction of a class of students in a room of tlie schoo -house belonging to Trinity Church : but he would not absolutely accept the presidency until after the passing of the charter. This took place on the .list of October in the same year. 17,54- from which iK'riod the ixistence of the college IS properly to be dateil. The governors of the college, named in the charter, are the Archbishop of Canterbury and the first Lord Commissioner for Trade and Plantations, both empowered to act by proxies: the Lieutonant-govemorof the prov- ince, and several ntlicr public officers; to>;ether with the ri'ctor of Trinitv Church, the senior min- ister of the Reformed Protestant Dutch Church the mini.st..Ts of the German Lutheran Church of the French Church, of the Presbyterian Congrc- giiticm, and the President of the college all ex oflicio, ami twenty-four of the principal gentle- nien of the city. The college was to be known by the name of King's College. PrevlousI" to the passing of the charter, a parcel of grouiul to the westward of Broadway, bounded by Barcluv Church, and JIurray streets and the Hiul«.".n Mver. had been destined by tilt vestry of Trinity Church as a site for the colleg? edifice; and ac- cordingly, after the charter was granted, a grant of the land was made on ihe 13th of Mav, 17.').5 I . . . The pai t of the land thus granted by^'Trinity 753 Ml '% EDUCATION. Oarimmlk. EDUCATION. w Church, not occupied for coU«g« purpowt, wm leued, and becwne a very valuable endowment to the college. The source! whence the fundi of the Institution were derived, besides the pro- ceeds of the lotteries above mentioned, were the Toluntary contributtona of private individuals tai this country, and sums obtained by agents who were subsequently sent to England and Franco. In May, 1760, the college buTldings be- gan to be occupied. In 1763 a grammar school was established. ... On the breaking out of the Revolutionary War the business of the col- lege was almost entirely broken up, and it was not until after the return of peace that its affairs were again regularly attended to. In May, 1784, the college, upon its own application, was erected into a university ; its corporate title was changed from King's C •ge to Columbia College, and It was placed r the control of a bawd termc' Regents of tte Jversity. . . . The college i ntinued under ta '. government until Apnl, 1787, when the Legislature of the State reatored it to its original position under the present name of Columbia College. ... At the same time a new body was created, called by the same name, 'The Regents of the University,' under which all the seminaries of learning men- tioned in the net creating It were placed by the Li-sislature. This body still exists under ito orii;lnal name."— (WumMn ColUge Handbook, pp. 6-!t. A D. I7S4-I7«9.— New Hampshire.— Dart- mouth College, and the •• Dartmouth College Case."— " Dartmouth College . . . was origi- nally a charity school for the instruction of Indians in the Christian religion, founded by the Rev. Eleazer Wheelock. D. n.. about the year 17.'54, at Lebanon, in Connecticut. Its success led Dr. Wheelock to solicit private subscriptions in England, for the purpose of enlarging It, and of extending its b<'neBts to English colonists. Funds having been obtained for this purpose from various contributors, among whom the Earl of Dartmouth. Secretary for the Colonies, was a large donor. Dr. Wheelock constituted that nobleman and other persons trustees, with a\ithority to fix the site of the College. The place selected was on the Connecticut River, at what is now tht town of Hanover, in New Hampshire, where large donations of land were made by the neighboring proprietors. A char- UT for the college was obtained from the crown. In 1789, creating it a perpetual corporation. The charter recognized Dr. Wheelock as founder, ap- pointed him to be the r -Ment, and empowereii rothe approval Iso imparted own body, ■ for the 't to the ce, and hi m to name his surer of the trustees; t- till' power of filling \. a-id of making laws . g ivernment of the col leg , Irvs of Great Britain or ot —, nut excluding any person on accourn ot his re liirinus belief Under this charter, Dartmouth Ciilli'ge had always existed, un<|UPStioned and nnilisturhed in Its rights as a corporation, down t 1 the Revolution, and subsequently until the \.ar 181.5, Whether from political or personal inotives sprinijine up outside of the board of trustees of that period, or from some collisions arising within the bodv itself, it appears that . legislative interference with the chartered rji'hts of this college wia threatened. ... In Ihi' following year (1816), the dlfflcultiei, which had become mixed with political Interests, cuV minated in a direct interference by the Legisla- ture. In that year an act was passed, changing the corporate name from 'The Trustees of Dart mouth College ' to ' The Trustees of Dartmouth University ; enlarging the number of trustees, vesting the appointment of some of them in the political bodies of the Htate, and otherwise modi- lying the ancient rights of the corporation as they existed under its charter derived from the crown of England. A majority of the exist ing trustees refused to accept or to be bound by this act, and brought an action of trover in the Supreme Court of the State, in the name ot the old corporation, against a gentleman. Mr. W. U. Woodward, who was in possession of the college seal and other effects, and who claimed to hold them as one ot the olHiira of tlie newly-created 'university.' The argument in this case was made in the 8tet<' court, for the college, by Mr. Mason and Mr. .leremiah Smith, assisted by Mr. Webster. The decision was against the claim of the college. It was then de termined to remove the cauue, by writ of error, to the Supreme Court of the United States, under the provisions of the Federal Constitution and laws creating in that trihimal an appelliite jurisdiction in cases which, although original- ing in a State court, involved the construct ion and operation of the Federal Constitution. Tliia was supposed to be such a case, because it was claimed by the college that the act of the Lejiis- lature, modifying its charter, impaired the nMi- gation of a contract ; an exercise of power which the Constitution of the United States prohibits to the Legislature of a State. As soon as it was known in New Hampshire that this very inter- esting cause was to come before the Supreme Court of the United States, the friends of the college, including their other counsel in the Stjite court, unanimously desired to have it committed to the hands of Mr. Webster. He consented tn take charge of it in the autumn of 1817 ; but the cause was not argued at Washington until Feb- ruary, 1818. . . . Before the case of Dartmoi"h College vs. Woodward occurred, then h,»i ■ no judicial decisions respecting the meaning ana scope of the restraint in regard to contracts, ex- cepting that it had more than once been deter- mined by the Supreme Court of the United States that a grant of lands made by a State is a contract within the protection of this provision, and is, therefore, irrevocable. These decisio is. however, could go but little way towanl the solution of the questions involved in the case of the college. . . . Was the State of New Hsmp- ghirc — a sovereign in all respects after the Rev- olution, and remaining one after the Federal Constitution, excepting in those respe<ts in which it had subjected its sovereignty to the restraints of that instrument — iKiund by the contracts of the English crown 1 Is the prant ot a charter of incorpomtion a contract between the sovereign power and those on whom the charter is bestowed 1 If an act of incorporation is a con- tract, is it so In nnv case but that of a private corporation 1 Was "this college, which was an institution of learning, establishcti for the pro- motion of education, a private corporation, or was it one of those instruments of g-.iveniiF-'^t which are at all times under the control and sub- ject to the direction of the Ugislative power? All these quettiona were involved in the imiuiry 764 XDUCATIOM. Dmominalioital Imtilutieiu. EDUCATION. wtnther the legislative power of the State liad been 10 rettraineil by the CoDstitutioQ of the Uuited State* that it could uot alter tiie charter of thii inititutiou, against the will of the trustees, without impairing the obligation of a contract. ... On the conclusion of the argument, the Chief Justice intimated that a decision was not to be expected until the next term. It was made in Februarr, 1819, fully conttrming the grounds on which Mr. Webster bad placed the cause. From this decision, the principle in our constitu- tional jurisprudence, which regards a charter of 11 private corporation as a contract, and places it under the protection of the Constitution of the Uuited States, takes ite date."— 0. T. Curtis, life of Daniel Webiter. «. 1, cA. 8. A. D. 1763-1769.— Rhode Island.— Brown UniTcriity.— "Brown University, the oldest and best endowed institution of learning con- nected with the Baptist denomination, dates back for its origin to a period anterior to the Amcriiiin lievolution, when in all the thirteen colonies there were less than 70 Baptist churches, with ptrhaps 4,000 communicants. It is not surpris- iri>r that, at the memorable meeting of the Phila- ililpUia Association, held ou the 12th of October, I70i, when the members were finally lal to re- L'lird it, in the vonls of Uaokus, as • pra<'ticablc unci expedient to erect a (.'olle;-e in the Colony of Kliode Island, under the thief direction of "the liaplists, in which e<iue«tion might be promoted und superior learning obtaineil, free from any sceUrian tests,' the mover in tlie matter should lit first have been laughed at, the thing being liMjked upon as, under the circumstances, an utter impossibility. But leaders at that time, like Morgan Edwanlsaiid Isaac Eaton, Samuel Jones. Abel Morgan, Benjamin Orifiith, John Suttnn and John Gano, were men of faith. ... At the time of which I speak, there was graduated from Princeton, with the second honors of his class, a man of wonderful mental and physical endow- menU, an early pupil of Isaac Eiiton at Hope- well, James Mannini;, of Elizabethtown, New Jersey. To him the enterprise of the college was by common consiait intrusted. . . . The first commencement of the college which \yi« held in the then new Baptist meeting-house ui the town of Warren, on tlie 7th of September, 178P, has already been regarded as a Red Letter Day in its history. Five years previous, the Oeneral Assembly . . . had gVunted a charter for a ' Col- lege or University in the English Colony of Hliode Island and Providence Plantations, in New England in America.'. . . Without funds, without students, and with no present prospect of support, a beginnir^' must be made where the president could be the pastor of a chunh, and thus obtain an adequate compensation for his services. Warren, then as now a delightful and flourishing inland toiyn, sitiiate<l 1(1 inilcs from Providence, seemed to meet the reiiuisite requirements; and thither, accordingly. Manning reinoveil with his family in the spriiig of 17t)4. i lie at once commenced" a Latin School, as the | tirst step preparatory to the work of colli^ge in- I struction. Before the I'lose of the year a church was organized, over which he was ilnly inslalleii as pastor. The following y»ar, at the second Hnuual meeting of the rorpnratinn, held i- Xpw- ]«>n. Wednesday, September 3d, he was formally elected, in the language of the recortis, ' Presi- dent of the College, Professor of Languages and 755 t)ther branches of learning, with full power t4 act in these capacities at Warren or elsewhere.' On that same day, as appears from a paper now on file in the archives of the Library, the presi- dent matriculated his first student, William Ro- gers, a lad of fourteen, the son of Captain William Rogers, of Newport. Not only was this Ud the first stufi-nt of the college, but he wa» also the first fre.liman class."— R. A. Guild, The ft>»t CmtmeiuttmrUof Khode Itiand College (Ji- 1- lliet Soe Coll\ V. 7), pp. 269-271. — Six years after the founding of the University it was remove<l from Warren to Providence, and its name changed from Rhode Island College to Brown University, in honor of John Brown, of Providence, who was its most liberal benefactor.— O. W. Greene Short UittofRhiMe bland, p. 198.- Although founded by the Baptist Church, the charter of the Uni- versity "expressly forbids the use of religious '*"^' rJ*"* '^ofPorat'on is divided into two Boards —the Tnistecs, ;18 in number, of whom 22 must be Baptists, 5 Quakers, 5 Episcopalians, and 4 Congregationalists. and the Fellows, 12 in num- ber, of whom 8, including the President, must be Baptists, an the remainder of otlier denomina- tions. Tw Truptees and 5 Fellows form a quorum. college estate, the students, and the member!, i^: the faculty, with their families, are exempt from taxation and from serving as jurors."— S. G. Arnold, Uitt.ofthe Stateof H. I., rli. IH (c. 2). -^ •' A. D. I769-I884.-The United States.— Sectarian Institutioni of Learning.— A large pro[)<)rtion of the very great number of educa- tional institutions in the United States which have a collegiate or a university rank, in some high or low degree, were created and are maintained and governed by sectarian religious bodies. They are too numerous to be named ; but the following may be cited as being, perhaps, the most notable in this class: under Baptist auspices, Brown Uni- versity, Providence. B. I. .founded in 1769; Colby Univeraitj-. at Waterville. Me., founded in 1820- Colgate I niversity, at Hamilton, N. Y., founded in 1816 ; Columbian University, at Washington, founded in l82t ; Rochester University, at Itoch- ester, N Y., founded in 18,'il. Under Congre- gationr.list au.spices: Bowdoin College, at Bruns- wick, Me., founded in 1794; Iowa College, at Grinnell, la., founded in 1843. Under Episco palian auspices ; Hobart College, at Geneva, N. Y., founded (»8 a college) in 1822; Kenyon College, at Gambler, O., founded in 1824; Le- 'dgh University, at South Bethleliem. Pa., tounded in 1887 ; Trinity College, at Hartford, Conn., founded in 1823 ; University of the South, at Sewanee, Tenn., founded in" 1857. Under Methixlist auspices: Allegheny College, at Mead- ville. Pa., founded in 181.5; iBoston University, at Boston, Mii,ss., founded in 1869 ; Tie Pauw University, at Greencastle. Ind, . founded in 1837 ; Dickinson Colleee, at Carlisle. Pa., founded in 1783: Northwestern University, at Evanston and Chicago, 111., founded in 1855; Syracu,' Uni- versity, at Syracuse, N. Y., founded 1 "871; Vanderbilt University, at Nftchvi;)- lenn founded in 1873; We"sleyan Uniersity i.t Mid- dletown. Conn., founded in 1831. Tide; Pres- byterian auspices : Belolt College, . ; ioit.Wis ffimded in l«4:j ; Cumberland College, at Leba- non. Tenn., founded in 1827 ; Lafayette College at Easton, Pa., founded in 1832; Lake Forest University, at Lake Forest and Chiiago. r.,\i.:deil ^i l:!it m H-'-i r' if III '!ifi a I EDUCATION. Land Oraals EDUCATION. in 1857. Under Roman Catholic auspices: The Catholic University of America, at Waahington, founded in 1884 ; the Georgetown University, at Waahington, founded In 1815; University of Notre Dame, at Notre Dame, Ind., founded In 1842. Under Univernalist auspices : Tufts Col- lege, at Boston, founded in 18.57. A. D. 1770.— New Jersey.— Rutgers Col- lege.—" Rutgers College, locatc<l at Nt'W Bruns- wick, was chartered by George III. in 1770, and was called tjuefn's College, in honour of his consort. Tlif present name was substituted by the Icglalaturi' of the State, In 1H25, at request of the trustees, iu honour of Col. Ilenrjr Rutgers, of New York, to whom the institution is in. debte<l for liberal pectmiury beuefartions. The charter was origiiuUly grunted to such Protes- tants as bad adopted the constitution of the reformetl churches in the Netlierlands, as revised by the national synod of Dordrecht, in the years IBIN ami 11(19. . . . The Theological College of the Itcfcirined Dutch Church is established here and intimately trended with the literary institu- tion "—T. F. Goriion. Gazetteer nf the State nf y. ./. ['«iu mi iHth '• IliHtoni if Xiu<Ji'rfey"),vM. A. D. i776-l88o.— New Eng;laad and New York.— State School Systems.— " It was not until over thirty years after the close (jf the war of ITTtl thiit II ri'iiular system of schtMils at the public I'xpinsi' wiis c«ta^)lislKMl. New Kngland boasted with pri'i ■ of being the first in cduca tion, as shi' huil closely follow York, In IWI.- a.ssociatcil fc; RihiHil ill New thc'iliildriiiof i„ 1 and who did not bii for liv, any nliui '•1 war. Her example was itlier Suites, In New itleiueii of prominence SI? of establishing a free ity for the education of s in indi),'eiit circum.stiuices. 111; to, or were not provided Ills siH'icty. These publii spiritiii pnlieiiiMi pnsi'iited a memorial to the Legislature, sitting forth thi' iHnetits that would resiil! to s.»iety from eiliicatiiig such children, and that it wmild c liable tliem iiion' elTectiialiy to acconiplisli ilic olijccis of llieir institution If the Rcbiiols Kin i. ' orpMral"! The bill of in- corporatl'in was pas-ii| .\pril !l, lHil,"i This was the nucleus fr-mi wliieli the ph'sint svstem of iiiililii' w'licHils siarleil into ixisleiiee. Later on. in llie year IwiN, we lliid from annual printed reporls'tli.it two free schools wen- opeiieii and were In workiiii.' order. .It was ibe liiten tion of the founders of these si hoots — among whom the names of De Witt Clinton. Kenlinaiid lie I'eyster. .loliii Murray, and I/'onard Hleccker stand prominent as otiiccrs — to avoid the teiich- iniis of any reliu'ioii« society; but thiTc were among thepeople many »ho thoiiirbl that siif fieient care was not belni; In stowed ui>on relt- L'iiitiR Instriiilion to please llice mnfeoiilents the literary studies of tiie pupils wen- siimis'IiiIhI one arierno'in In every week, and an nssm iuiion of Hfty ladies of •dlsllntriiislied 1 oiisidcrallon In siM'lety ' met on this day and exan.inisl the dill drill in their nspeelive lateelilsms . To reail, writ)', and kn<i» ariilimt li<' in Its llrst braui h< s corn'ctly, was the extent of the islucatiimal ad vantagt's wliii h the founders of the free sihisil system deemed necessary for the accomplish- menl (f their purposes ' — .V II Rhine. ThrRirly I'ree Sfh'">l» </ Am il^iimlar Srinet M'/nthln. M.irrh. l'«80i. A. D. i7S5-lMo.-Tht Unittd Stat«t,- Land-grantt for School!.— 'The ipiestlon of 766 the endowment of educational institutions by the Government in aid of the cause of education seem.s to have met no serious opposition In the Congri-sa of the Confederation, and no membiT raised his voice against this vital aiid essential provision relating to it in the ordintnce of May 20, 178S, ■ for ascertaining the mode of disposing of lands in theWestem Territory.' Tais provided ; 'There shall be reserved the lot No, 18 of every town ship for the maintenance of public schools within said township,' This was an endowment of tl40 acres of land (one section of land, one mile square) In a township six miles square, for the support and maintenance of public sidiiHils ' within wiid township. ' The manner of esUiblishment of piili. lie schools thereunder, or by whom, was not mentioned. It was a reservation by the Iniiid States, and advanced and established a principle which finally dedicated one thirty-sixth pan nf all public lands of the United States, with i-i-r- tain exceptions as to minerals, &C., to the cause of education by public schools. ... In the Con- tinental Congress, July 13, 1787, aci-ordini; in onier. the ordinance for the government of tlie 'Territory of the United States northwest of ilu- river Ohio' came on, was ri-ad a third time. vm\ Fassed [sis' Northwest Teiihitobt : A.I). 17.sT|. t containeil the following: 'Art, !). IMii-inii, morality, and knowledge being necessary to gmul government and the happiness of niankimi, schools and the means of cdiicatlim shall fori \it be encouraged.' The provision of the imliiianif of May 20, 1785. relating to the reservation of the sixteenth section in every township of piililie land, was the inception of the pn-sent rule of n'servation of (crlain sections of land for -1 liool purposes. The endowment was the subjeil nf much U'gislatlon In the years following, 'I'lie question was raisiil that there was no reason uliy the I'nited Htati-s should not organize, conlrnl. and manage tlicsi' public schools so cmloueil. i'lie resi-rvuliotiH of land were made by surviy ors and duly relurnisi. This policy at om i- \wi with enthusiastic approval from the publii', unit was tacitly iiiiorpomt<'d Into the American sis. tcni as one ol Its fundamental organic lilms. Whether the public scIhhiIs thiiseiiiiowed liy llii I'liitiHl Htati s were to Im' under national or Siiiie lontrol rrniained a question, and the hiiuismrr held In res< rvatlon merely until after the uilnii sioiiof the State of dliioln INtni. , . . T-iiail, oriranl/.ed Territory, after imiH. «as and iin« i^ ri MTVed the sixteenth section (until after llii Oniroii Tcrritiiry .\cl reserved the thirty sixili as well) for silittol purposi-s. wliii b reservalinii is nirried Into irniiit and loiitlrniaiion by Ibe h mis of the ail of adniixlon of ibe Territory nr Slnli- Into till- I'liion ; the Stale then bei oiiiing a Iriis tee for silesil purposes These grants nf land were made from the publii' donmiii. and to Matis only wlilili wen> kiioHii as public laial relates. Twelve States, from March 8, IWi^l klmnn «* public land States, received the allowanie ,|f thi' slxtoenth section to August 14,184" (nn gress. ,liH„ 111, 181-', and May !!«, '»«'.'), by tli. acts onlering the siirvi'V of certain towns anil villages in .Missmiri. resiTved for the support nf schisils In thi' iHwiiH and villages nsnied pm vldiil that the whole amount rewTvisI should imt exieeil one twentieth part of the whole laiiiN in rludeii in the gi'iiernl survey of such mw n or village Thew lots were nservisl and sol'l fnr the heneflt of the srhools. Saint Louis n 1 1 iml EDUCATION 8tat« Univtrtitiu. KDUCATIOX. a large fund from thu source. ... In the act for the organization of the Territory of Oregon August 14, 1848, Senator Stephen A. Douglas inserted an additional grant for school purposes of the thirtv-aixtb section in each township with indemnity for all public-land States thereafter to be admitted, making the reservation for school purposes the sixteenth and thirtv-sizth sections, or 1,280 acres in each township of six miles Sfiuare reserTe<l In public-land States and Terri- tories, aud contlrraed by grant in terms in ,■ act of admission of such State or Territurj i < the Union. From March 13, 1853, to Jun. :*i, 1880, seven States have been admitted inh li ■ Union having a grant of the sixteenth aud th ty sixth sections, and the same area lias Ijccd ,' served in eight territories."— T. Donaldson, 1 ;. Piihlie Donutin, eh. 13. A. D. I789.-The United Statet.— "The Constitution of the United States makes no pro- vision for the education of the people ; and in the Convention that framed it, I believe the subject was not even mentioned. A motion to insert a clause providing for the eatablishmeut of a na- tional university was voted down. I U'lieve it is also the fact, that the Constitutions of on'y three of the thirteen original States made the obligation to maintain a system of Free Sclioiils a part of their fundamental law."— II, Miimi Iff Kind Aniiiitil tirji'tt Hit Kliioition leel !i A. D. I79i-I893.-State Univenitiei.-A majority of the States In the Union have estab- iishnl universities, each bearing the name of the Suite, and more m less supporteil by endciwrni-nts andappropriatintis provide.i bj leglHJHtive ,i,ts In most ca.>ii's, llie founding of these Instil itions was initiiii^l by the various land grants of the United Stttt<'S (see iilM)ve : A. D 178.'J-1Hh(| and Ih'Idw, 1883) The ,S|„le universities, distiiictly charact< rizeii a.s such, are the f.>llowlng Ala- liuniri, founded at TuscaliHMa, in 1H3I ' ('aij. fiiriiiii, lit Herlteley, foundisl in 1H»W ,comii(ied witli whi h is the Lick Observatory, on \tt Hamilton, founded liy James IJik."ln 1M7,-,|- Colorado, at Moulder, frmndeil in 18TB Oeorgiii" lit Athens, foimded in Imoi ; Iihiho. at Mo«<.iw' found.Kl in I«l«; Illinois, nt Cliampiiign ami Irbana. found.sl in IHflfl; Indiinm, at Hl,i.iniing- Um. founde.| In 18a<); Kansas, at Uwn.nce f»unde<l In Mm-. Michigan, at Ann Arbor' founded (orlirlnallv at Detrolti In Ih'Ji MInne t<il.i It .Mlniii'apofis, in IWIM; Missouri at C.i luniiiia ami Holla, founded in 18;t»: Mis'slssippl \t (Hfonl, founileil in \>HH -. Nebraska at l.ln' colli, founded In \n»» . North Oakotji. at (Jrand fork, foundml in 1MS4 ; Ohio, at Athens, founded in 1802; South Oakota. at Veniiilioii, f.iuiuhsl In lM8a : Tennessee, at Knoxville, founded itlrst «s Blount t'ollegei In 1794: Texas, at Austin •ind Oalveston, foiinilisl In 187fl ; Vermont at Hurllngton. founded In 17111 ; Virginia, at ciiar ^iilesvllle. foundisl In 18I»; Washlnirion, at Sealte founde<l In 18(HI; Wisconsin, iit Mailison founiled In IKY) ; Wyoming, at Uramie, foundrd A, D, I7M- - M«i»«chut«tti. - Williamt Colle|[«, AViillams College, at Willlamstown, llerksliin- founty. .Masa, was chartered In 17»i1. I he town and the college were named in honor ■■f Co! Kphr,!n> Wll!!sm=. w!i„ had n>mir.r.nd of llie forts In the H<xmm< Valley, and was killed n a battle with the French and Indians S. n timber 8, 1753, By bis will bo eMablislied a free school in the township which was to bear his name. The most advanced students of thi» free school became the first college class num- bering 4, and .eceived the regular degree of bachelor of arts in the autumn of 1795 The small amount left by the will of Colonel Wil- liams was carefully managed for 30 years by the executors and they then obtained pcrmUsion from the State legisiatun; to carry out the be- I ^" »nt purposes of the testator. The fund for I . ...iiu^ 7-.S increased by individual subscrio- I tioiis, ;in.. by .. i avails of a lottery, which the eenenil (,ouit .ranted for that purpose. The , imiWfig Ah < J is now known as West Colleire ■ was tl»i. eri- e.1 for the use of the free sch(5>l I md ^ ,« fin. .led in 1790, , , . The free school ..:':. .. ned m 1791, with Rev, Ebenezer Fitch a grwfuatt of Yale College, as pn-ceptor, and Mr Jolm Ix^ster as assistant. . , , The success of the school was so great that the next year the trust.es asked the legislature to incorporate the sch.Hjl ,,,t« a college. This was done, and a grant of H.im was made from the State treasury for the punhiise of books and philosophical ap- paratus. The college was put under thclcarf of 12 ti;ustees, who elected IVoptor Fitch the first presidi.nt of the (ollege, "-E, B, Parsons, Hi,t. of Iliyher ktlmitiim in M,tu (V. H Jiureau „i t^hication, Cireular of Jn/ormalion, imi. no fl) rn. \t. " r^» °'7.93-'8i2.-New York, -Hamilton College.- I his college, at Clinton. In Oneida lounty N, \ Imd Its Ivginning in an acmieniv, founded by the Hev. Samuel Kirkland, who hid laboreil as a mis.sionary among the Oneida Indi ans It was charter.'(l, as the Hamilton Oneida Academy, in 17HI1: Ihecorn, rslon.' of a biiiliilnir fi\r ttti iiuii ti'»i3 Ini.l 1... 11 .-. • ' * ^ r 191 for Its us.' was laid bv Baron SteuUn in thi' lowing^ year; but the scho.,1 was not opened until 1, its The acud.my became Hamilton ful- legi! Ill IH12, A. D. I794-M«ine,— Bowdoin College.— 'An act of tiie Legislature of the province of .Maine, approved in 171»4, incorporal.'d the iilnive named in.stitiition, . . . That thi> institution might not want for proiH'r support, it was further ciiiicti'd. Thiit the clear rents. Issue-., and iinitlts of all the estate, real and personal, of win, li the said corponitioii shall lie seized or possessed shall be appropriateii to llie endowment ,.r the said college, in such maniier as »il| niost etfict- ually promole virtue, jiietv, and llie knowledge of such of the lani.'iiai.'c,s and the us.'ful and 111), eral arts and siiemes as .sIj.iII liireafter !«■ directed fniin lime to linir by said cori«iration.' Five townships of land, eai h six miles si|iiiire were granted to th.- colLce for its endowment and vestisi In the ir.isl,,.., provl,l,nl that fifteen famillesbesellbsi in lach of llie snlil townships within a |H>ri.«t of iwilve vears, and provldid further that thrn- lots < ontjiining 32(1 aires eiuh be resi'rved, one for the first s.'ttled minister one for the use of the niinlstry, and one for the sup- port of schools within ihe township when' it is l.satisl These lownshl|w Were to be laid out and assiened from anv of the unappropriated lands iH'longing to the commonwealth of the ilia- trlct of .Maine. The first money enilimnient wa« instituted by a general law ("if Massachusetts, .■irpn.-,.vi F.br.uiry «, iSI4, „i,j,|, ,Taits as fo|. lows Be It enacted by the Senate and House of Kepresentative* In lleneral Court now assembled That the tfti which the pnsldent, dintlors, ami EDUCATION. BUlU Sekoat Fmdt. EDUCATION. company of the MasaschuaetU Bank are and ■ball be liable to pay to the commonwealth, sball be and hereby is granted to and appropriated as follows, viz : tensixtefnths parts thereof to the president and fellows of Harvard College ; and tliree-sixceenths parts tliereof to the president and trustees of Williams ColleRe ; and three- sixteenths thereof to the president anil trustees of Bowdoln College '"—F. W. Uliickinnr, llitt. of Ftderal and Htnte Aid to Uighfr Ulufulioii in ill* V. S. (Bureau of Edtieation. Cirrutar of rnformation. 181», tw. 1). pp. 123-134. —The college was named in honor of Governor James Bowdoin, of Maasachusetts, whose son made valuable gifts to it A. D. 1795.— New York.— Union College. —Union College, founded at Sehenectady. in 179.5. had a struggle for existence until the Rev. Ur Eliplialet Nott was called to its presidency, 1H<)4 By the energy and intluence of Dr. Nott, .State aid was obtained and funds were raised by other means, until a fairly substantial endow- ment was secured. Among tlit^ methods em- ployed in creating this endowment was a series of lottery drawings, which wen' not entirely closed until IH*!.- C. F. Hichanlson and H. A. Clark. The ColUge Iloolc. I'nioii College. A. U. 1795-1867.— The United State!.— State School Fundi. — '("(mnecticut t(¥ik the lead in the creation of a iiermanent fund for the support of schools. The liistrict known as the Western Iteserve, in Northern Ohio, had bi'en siriired to her in the aillustment of her cliiims 1.1 l«ii(ls conflrmiKl to Ikt uv the charter of King Charles II. The Ugislature of the State, in liB.5, passed an act directing the sale of all the land embraced in the Iteserve, and setting spart the avails as a perpetual funil for the niaiiite ii.'ince of comniim »chix>ls. The amount real izisl was atxiut »l. 120,(1(10. . . . New York was the next State to estiiblish a ciinunon school fund for the aid and maintenance of whoiils In the several school (listriets of the Hlat<- The other Northern Statin ■■ • ept New llainpshire, Ver- mimt. PennsvlvH ,1 and one or two others, have estalilisiied similar funds . . In all the new Slates, the ."KHMKIO acres given by act nf Congress, on their admission into the I'nion. for the support of schools, have been saireillv set apart for that purpose, and generally other iiinds belonging to the States have twen mldeil to the fund. . . . I'rlor to the war the Slave States luul made attempts to establish plans for pupular eilneatlon, but with results of an unsiitisfiu tory character In Virginia a sibisU system was in f.irie for the education of the liiiiiln'n of Imll gent white pi-rsims In North Ciimllna a large srlenil fund, exceistlng twii millions of ilnllars, hiwl been sit apart for the mainU'niinis' of srhouls 111 111! of these States common schools hail bi'en Imnnluiiil. but they dill not tloiirisli as in the N'lrlli ami West . There was not the same |"i|iMl»li<>ii of small and lnile|iendent farmers, » Imihp faniilii'S could be iinlteil Into a schisil ills trill A more serious obstacle was the slave population, loiisiliutlng one tbini of the whole, iiMil In siinie i>f the States mon< than half, whom it \v;is llemiiht dangerous to islucate " — V M Itii e, .'•'/ir.-iVrf /ir;»>rf on iKe I'retenI Stale of tCdu- eatiim. IxHT, pji. 1H-2;I A. D, 5796 — Vlrgiois _W»»!jlS£too asi! Let UalTertity.— This tustitutioo, at Lciing toD, Va., has grown from an aindemjr, ettkb lished at an early day at Greenville, Va., but moved to Lexington in l/S.'). In 171*6 It rcceivi il a large gift of land from George Wa8hingU)ii. and assumed a new character, taking the name of Washington College. In 1H65, at the close of the Civil War, Gen. Robert E. I.«e became its president, and on his death, in 1S70, it was given its present name. A. D. i8oa.— United States.— Military Aca- demy. See West Point. A. D. 1804-1837.— Michigan.— The Univer- aity.- " In IWW, when Michigan was nrLMn Ized as a Territory, Congress granted a township of laud for a seminary of learning, and the nui versity to be establislied in 1817 was to be m accordance with this grant. The territorial government committiil the interests of hitler edu(!ation to the care of the Governor anil the Judges, and it is supp<»eit that through the es ertions of Hon. A. U. WisHlward. then presiiliii!: Judge of the Supreme Court of the Terril.ry of Michigan, the act establishing a univir'^ity was framed. A portion of this most lurions document of the early history of Michigiiii will be given. It is entitleil ' An act to establish tin- Catholepistemiad or Vnlvcrsily MichiganiH,' Be it enacttil bv the Governor and Judges of the Terrilorv of Michigan, That there shall be in ihi) said Territory a catholepistemiad or iinivir-ity denominated "the Catholepistemiad or liiivi rsity Michigania. The Catholepistemiad or Univ. rsity of Michigania shall be composed of tliirtnn didaxtim or professorships; first, a diduxia or professorship catholepistemia, or (uiiversiil i: ence, the dictator or professor of whii li slinll be president of the institution ; seionil, a iliil.ixia or pnifi-saorship of anthropoglassica. nr literature embriiiing all of the epistemiun or sciences n la live In language; lliinl. a ilidaxia or pnifessur ship of mathematiia or nmlliemutiis; fourth, a didaxia or professi irshli) of pliysiognustiiu nr natural bistorv etc.' The act thus cimlinues through the lole range of the ' thirteen ili drtxum'; the remaining nine are as follows Niitural philosophy, astronomy, chemistry, niiil ical sciences, I'conoinieal sciences, etliiial M-i ences, inilitarv sciences, historical sciences. iiikI Intellectual. The university was to lie uniirr the control of the professors and president, who were Ui lie ap|H)lnt(sl bv the Oovernor. while the Institution was to be llie center and eontrollihL' power of the edtu'ational system of the Sliiii It was to !« Bupporled by taxstlon by tin 111 cH'tise of the amount of taxes alnaily levied. Ii> I'l per cent .\lso power was given to nii«.- money for the supiMirt of tlie university \<\ means of bitteries. This nmiirkable ilisiinient was not without Its InHiienee In simpliii! the public sihixil policy of Mlehlgan. but it wss many years iH'fore "the Slate aiiiiroxinrnti il its leariiisl provisions Impmctlciible lis tliw eilu callonal plan apis'iirs for a handful of pe 't>Ii In the wiKsIs of Mieblgan, It aervisl as 11 fonnilntion upim whh h to build. The officers and prr«ii|eMi wen- iltilv apiwilnti'd. and the work of lie m » unlversttv tiegan at once. At drat the uniMr«ii> appeared" as a schmil board, to eslsbll»li uml malnUin primary schools which they held m 'hr their charge Then foUowed a course of »i .'ly for classlml academies, and flnally. In Oitolsr lf.f7. an act VBB paaaed eBi^bltKlifnir a colliL'e in the city of netrolt titWetX The Klfat Collep "i MUblganla.' ... The people contributed lihi 1 768 EDUCATION. Ttekmeal amtaHtm. EDUCATION. »lljr to theie early schooU. the sum of three tboiuand dollars being subscribed at the begin- n'ng- ■ • ■ An act was passed on the 30th of April, H»l, by the Governor and Judges estab- liahing a university in Detroit to tiike the place of the catbolupistemiad and to b called the ■University of Michigan.' In Its i i irter nearly all the powers of tije former institution were iubstantially conlirmed, except the provision for taxes and lotteries. . . . The second corporation, known as the ' University of Michigan,' carried on the work of education already begun from 1821 to the third orkanization, in 1837. The education was very limited, consisting in one classical academv at Detroit, and part of the time a Lancasterian school. The boards of edu- cation kept up and transmitted the university idea to such an extent that it may be said truly ""1 le«r»"y that there was one University of Michigan, which passed through three successive stages of development marked by the dates 1H17, 1821, and 1837." at which time it was removed to Ann Arl)or.-F. W. Blackmar, fiideral and Stale Aid to Higher Education ( U. 8. Bureau of Bdueation, Circular of Information, 18IW.no 1) pp. 239-241. Also in : E. M. Farrand, IKit. of the Unirer- titg of Michigan— K. Ten Brook, American State Uninerritiet. A.D.i8iS-i8ai.-MaaMchuietti.-Amherst Collen.—" Amherst College originated in a strong desire on the part of the people of Massa- chusetts to have a college mar the central part of the Stale, where the stuili'iiU sboultl \m: free from the temptations of a largi- city, where the expenses of an education siiould not be beyond the means of those who had but little money and where the moral e.nd religious influences should be of a decidedly Christian character. . . . The ministers of Franklin County, at a meeting held in 8helburne, May 18, 1815. expresse.! it as their opinion that a literary institution of high onler ought to be esublishe<l in Hampshire County and that the town of Amherst appeared V- " '' to be the must eligible place for it. Tl .florts for a literary Institution in Hs I'ounty resulted In the first place in the er ment of an academy in Amherst, which v, corporated in the year 1816. ... In tin ear 1818 a constitution was adopted bv the trustees of Amherst Arailemy, for the mi^iiit' and man ageiuent of a fund of at least tM.im for the classical education of indigent young men of piety and Ulents for the Christian ministry This eharlty fund may be said to be tin' basis of Amherst College, for though it wiw raised bv the trustees of Amherst Acailemv It was really in- taHinI to b<^ the foundation of a college and has always been a part of the permanent funds of Amheiat tollege, kept sai'nHllv from all other funds for the specific object for which It was given. This was for manv years the only permanent fund of Amherst College, and wiihout ilil» it would liave seemed impoaaVble at one time to preserve the very existence of the colleit.' So Aiiibirst College grew out of Amherst Ara.l.niv. «iil was built permanently on the charity fuiid iiiised by the trustees of tlial academy. Al ili|>ugh the charity fund of t:*ym) had been re 'T'r*^ In ISIH. It waa not till I8«) that tlie re cipimt fait Juitmed !b goinj fnrward tr- ^r- 1 building! for a colleite In Amherat. EiTortswere made for Um mnoval of Williams College from 769 Williamatown to Hampshire County, and to have the charity fund used In connection with that college ; and, if that were done, itwaa not certain tnat Amherst could be regarded as the best loca- tion for the college. But the Legislature of Massa- chusetu decide<rthat WilFIams College could not be removed from Williamstown, and nothinir re- mained but for the friends of the new institution to go on witJh their plans for locating it at Am herst. . . . This first college edifice was ready for occupaUon and dedicated on the 18th of hen- tember, 1821. In the month of May, 1821 Kev Zephaniah Swift Moore, D. D., was unanimously elected by the trustees of Amherst Academy president of the new institution."— T P Field Hut of Higher Education in Mate. (U. S. Bureau of Educatwn, Circular of Information, 1891. no. o), en. 11, A. D i824-i893.-The United State!.- Tecbnical Education.— Schools specialized for different branches of a technically scientific edu- cation (specially in the department of engineer- ing civil, mechanical, and electrical) ai? now embraced in almost every university of consider- able rank ; but many of that class have ris. ii In- dnpendently. mostly within recent yeara The oldest of importance is the Rcnssilaer Institute at Troy, founded in 1824. The Massaehus.lti Institute of Technology, at Boston, was ope.i.d loii*'-..*^'*''*'"' '""''"'<'■'" Hobokun. N J , in 1867; Pratt Institute, at Brooklyn N Y foundeii in 18«4: Drexei Institute, at' Philadei: phia, in 1891, and Armour Instituu-, at ChicacD n \mi. are younger schools for te<hni<al train' ng, munificently equipped and endowed by the liberality of private litizena. A. p. 183a -Ohio -Oberiin C liege— (berlm is a development from the missionsrv and reform movemenU of the carlv (luarter o"f our century. The founders wer'etLem«lves home missionaries in tlie West and among the Indians, and Oberlin has ever since been vital with the missionary spirit. From the first, »l.-.>. holic leverages have been excluiied. Altli.iugh not atlopting the extreme doctrine of wonmns rights, yet tHHTlin was the first ((.liege in the world to admit young women to all its privileges on equal terms with young men ; and as for its snti-slavery leanings, if had r.cejved colored students into its classes 28 years before emami- pation. Such UM disregard of tiie old land- marks was not atl rmtive to the power and wealth of the country, and so for .Ki vears oberlin owed lU life to the sacrifice and devotion of its foiind- m and Instructors. ..In 1831 John .1 Ship- herd, under commliaion from the Americuu Home Missionary Sixietv. entered upon his work as pastor of the church at Klyria Ohio _ . _ In the summer of 1832 he was visited by Philo I' Stewart, an old school friend in the days when they both attended the academy at 1 awlet, Vt. Stewart, on account of the failing health of his wife, had return.Kl from mission work among the Choctaws in Mississippi, but his heart was .fill burning with zeal for extend- Inir Christian work in the Weaf The two men after long eonsiittations and prayer, finally con' eluded that the needs of 'he new rountrv could liest be met by esubllshing a ( ommunlty of Chris- tian families with » Christian school, . . . fh! Stthrt! U' l-c inindurtid on Ihs inituiis! labor sys- tem, ud to be open to both young men and rouog woBMB. It WM not propoted tu csubliah ♦ p ■fi: ■ill Ii EDUCATION. Ontari'i Bckoul Sgltm. EDUCATION. a college, but simplT an academy for iostriiction In Englisih and useful languages, and, if Provi- dence should favtir it, in 'practical theology.' In accordance with this plan the corporate name ' Oberlin Collegiate Institute ' was chosen. Not until 1*51 was a new and broader charter ob- tained, this time under the name of 'Oberlin College." The name 'Oberlin' wa» chosen tj signify the hope that the members of the new enterprise might be moved by the spirit of the si'IfsatTlflcing Swiss colporteur and pastor, John Friederich Oberlin."— J. K. Commons, Oberlin CoUfge (Hurmu of Kdntation, Circular of In- foniuilion, 1S91, no. r>), pp. 5.')-,'i6. A.D. 1837.— Maisachusetti.— Horace Mann and the State Syitem.— " When Massachusctta, in wn, created a Bourd of Eilucatlon, then were first united into a M)mewhat related whole the more or less excellent but varied ami independ- ent organizations, and a l.eginning made for a State system. It was this massing of torcet. and the hearty co-operation he initiated. In which the work n* Horace Mann showed its matchless greatness. ' Rarely,' it has been said, ' have great ability, unselfish devotion, and brilliant success been so united in the cours<! of a single life.' A successful lawyer, a member of the State Legislature, and w'ltli but limttcil experi- ence as a trarhcr, he has left his impress upon the educational sentiments of, not only New Kiiv'liiiKl, but the I'nited States."— K. O. Boone, Ktl'ir.idiiii in th- V. S., )i. loa. A. D 1840-1886.— The United States.- Pro- portion of College Students.— " It isestimated that in 1H40 the proportion of college students to the entire pi>|>iilation in the I'nlt^Hl States was 1 to l..'v«l ; in \^W. 1 to 'l.Wi : In INTO, 1 to ■a,.546 ; in IHHO, 1 to 1.H4II ; and In 1HH0, 1 to about ' "H). K!4tiniating all our mnibined efforts in f. " of higlur eilueation. we fall far short of some of the countries of the Old World. "—K. W. Rlackmar, f'uhriil anil Sliite Aid t» lli'/her Uliiealicn in the I'. .V ((■ .S liiirtiiH ■'!' Kiiiir,itii>n. Virrulnrt of lnf;rm<llinii. IHiKI. 1..1. 'll, ;). JW. A. D. 1844-1876.— Canada.— Ontario School System.— " From the earlii'^t sittleinint of On- tario. si'liiMiU yen! (■Ntublislied as the wants of the inhabitants reciuirnl. The Ueis'vliire HtKm remitnized the nenis of the eounlrj. and made grants of land ami money in aid of elenienta-y. secondary, anil superior inliieatlon. Stjitules ■..ere pa'ise'i from time to lime fur the piiriii*e of open- iiii; schools to meet the demands of the people. The s|mrw ly scltlitl etmilllion of the I'rovliuT delayed for a while thi' orguiii/.KtIon of the sys tem. It was not until 1*44 that the elementary sclUKils wen' put on a comprehensive basis. In that year the lt<'v. K«ertoh Uverson. \A.. I)., was appointed Chief Superintendent of Ediienllon. and the re|«prt which he prrsinted to tlie llinise of .\sMrml>ly nketihiil in an able ninnner the main fealuri'sof the system of which he was the dis- liiinuisliid founder, and of which he ccmtinued f.ir thirty three yiwrs to lie thi' HHcient ailmlnls- trutiir in ISTtl the otflre of chief superintendent was al)olislii'd, and the sihools of the Provln '« pliic-e.1 under the eontn)lof a memlierof thedov- . rmnent with the title of Minister of Education. . . The system of eduiwtlon in Ontario may be said to combine the best features of the systems (^f ^rvrni! rmmtrira. To thr «>M Woftfi ft !« in- dehted for a large measure of Its sli.'iillUy, \\n\- formity and centralisation ; to the older settled parts of the New World for its popular nature, ItsHezlbility, and its democratic principles, which have given, wherever <lesirable, local control and individual responsibility. From the State of New York we have borrowed the machinery of out school : from Hussachusutts the principle of local t»>ation ; from Ireland our first series of text- books ; from Scotland the co-operation of parents with the teacher, In upholding his authority; from Germany the system of Normal Scho<ils and the Kindergarten; and from the Unitol States generally the non-denominational character of elementary, secondary, and ur!"ersity education. Ontario may claim to have sr i features of her system that are largely her own. Among them may be mentioned : a division of state and muni- cipal authority on a judicious basis , clear lines separating the function of the University from that of the High Schools, and the function of the High Schools from that of the I'ublic or elenieii- tarv ■ chools : a uniform course of study ; all Iliuh ami Public Schools in the hands of professioniiily trained teachers : no person eligible to the imsi tion of inspector who does not hold the highest grade of a teacher's certificate, and who has nut bad years of experience as a teacher; inspectors removable If inefllcient, but not subject to re moval by popular vote : the examinations of tcache™ under Provincial Instead ol \oci\\ control; the acceptance of a common matriculation ex- amination for admission to the Universities and to the learned professions; a uniform series of text IxKiks for the whole Province; the almost en- tin' absence of party politics in the inaiiner in which school lioanis. Inspectors, and teachers dis- charge their duties ; the system national iiisteiirt of sectarian, hut alTonling under constitutional guarante<'S and limitations protection tc liunein Catholic and Protestant Separate School', iiuil denominational Universities." — .1. Millar. /.'<//•<(- tionnl Synlfm of thr I'mrinff of (hitnrin. A. D.' 1845.— The United States.— The Na- Tal Academy.— In im-'i. Mr (Jeorge Hioicri>fl. then Secn'tary of the Naw. issued instnictiiins to Commc^lore Franklin t)u<'hanan to upcn a naval school at Fort Severn. Annapolis. I'n vi- ous attempts to organi/.e tlie teaching and train- ing of midshipmen In such a school insteiid of nii sh ) lioanl hail faili'd; this one obtaini'd sucics- In IN49 " the institution was reorganir.eil on the giiieral plan of the Mllilary Academy at West I'oiiit, and its name was changed from the Naval School to the Unitiil States Naval .Xcaili my." A D. 1845-1847.— Louisiana.— Tulane'Uni- rersity. — "This institution had its oriirin in certain land grants [IHOfl and IhU | niiiih I' ihe Unlteil States 'fcr the use of a scniininj "f learning.' The first movement lowanl the uiill /.stion of these i;rants was niaile In IfM.'i, wlnn the followinir clause was adopiid In the amencli il t'onstllulimi: 'A university shall be eslHliliilnd in th" city of New Orleans It shall be euri! posed I'f four farultles, to wit: one of law, one of medicine, one of natural selenees. and 'Hie ■ ' lettc''.'. . The university was chartere.1 in tH47. . . . For many years the university n eelved but meagn' support from the State . . . Hy the Constitution of 1H7» the institution was endowed permanently by authoricing the sum of not more than 110.000 payable annually jfnr 760 vc Tt>sr=! «--> iJic ur.! -^-rsity At the !•»;■ of this period tbfl unirersity was nnlted with tin' Tulans University (in IHM). Hince that (line v< , u.»« EDUCATION. Indiutrial Cotltgu EDUCATIOH appropriations h::<-n been made by the Legisla- ture."— F. W. bluckmar. Hut. of Federal and State Aid to Higher Eriueation in the C S. {Bureau of Education, Circular of Ir\J'ormation, 1890, no. 1). pp. 272-273. A. D. 1848.— PeonsjlTania.— Girard Col- ICEC' — By the will of Stephen Oirard, a large ' laowment of money was given for a college to educate poor white male orphans, in the city o' Philadelphia. Oirard died in 1881, but it wts not until 184U that the college was opened, in t splendid marble building, surrounded by extei ■ sire grounds. A. D. 1850.— Wisconsin, The UniTcrsity of. See WiHtoNsiN Univkrsitt. A. O. 1863.— The United States.— Land- rrs for Industrial Colleges.-" Next to the Ord . .- ^ce of 1787, the Congressional grant of 1862 is the most important educational enact- ment iu America. ... By this gift forty-eight colleges and universities have received aid, at least to the extent of the Congressional grant : thirty-three of these, at least, have been called into existence by means nf this act In thirteen States the proceeds of the land scrip were de- voted to institutions already in existence. The amount received from the sales of land scrip from twenty-four of these States aggregates the sum of >I3,U30,4.'>6. with land remaining unsold estimatei) at nearly two millionsof dollars. Tliesi' same institutions" have re<eived State endow, ments amounting to over eight million dollars. The origin of tlii3 gift must be sought In local comm\iiiities. In this country all ideas of na- tional education have arisen from those States that have felt the jeed of local institutions for the education of youth. In certain sections of the Union, particularly the North and West, where agriculture was one of the chief industries, it was felt that the old cla>>8ical schools were not broad enough to cover all the wants of educa- tion n'presented by growing industries. There wai consequently 11 revulsion from tliesi' sch(x)ls towiirti Iheindustriiil iind practical side of educa- tion. Evidences of this movement are seen in the attempts in difTereut States to foimd agricul- tural, technical, and industrial s<'hools. These Ideas found their way Into Congress, and a bill was intnxiuceil in \KiH, v. hich provided for the endowment of colleges for the teaching of agri culture and the mechauiral arts. The bill was Introduced by Hon. Justin S. Morrill, of Ver- ni( It : it was pa.<<sed by a small maluritv, and wasvetix-d by President Bu<hanan. In IMH2 the bill was again presenti'<l with slight changes, pa.<ised and signed, and b<>came a law July 2, 1MI2. ... It stipidated to grant to each State thirty thousand acres of land for each Senator and Itepreaentative in Congress to which th(^ Stati'S were respectively entitled by the census of 189(1, for the purpose of endowing 'at least one college where the leading object shall be. without excluding other scirntiflc and classical studies, ami including military tactics, to teach sui'h l>rancbes of Innming as are related to agri- cnltiire and the mechanic arts, in such manner as the Legislatures of the States may re''pectlvely prescribe. In order to promote tlie liberal anc't pnu'tlcsl education of the initustrial classes in the ^e'eral nurssdta and p •^ift-asion* t:'. life' . . Fiom this proposition all sorts of scIukiIs sprang up, according to tlie local tod local demaoda nci'ptlon of the law It was tliought by tome that boys were to be taught a^culture by working on a farm, and purely agncultural schools were founded with the mechanical arts attached. In other States classical schools of the stereotyped order were established, with more or less science ; and, again, the endowment in others was devoted to scientific departments. The instruction of the farm and the teaching of pure agriculture have liOt succeeded in general, while the schools that have made prominent thoee studies relating to agriculture and the mechanic arts, upon the whole, have succeeded best. ... In several in- stances the managers of the land scrip have un- derstood that by this provision the State could not locate the land within the borders o another State, but its assignees could thus locate lands, not more than one million acres In any one State. By considering this iiuestion, the New York land scrip was bought by Ezra Cornell, and lo- cated by him for the college In valuable lands in the State of Wisconsin, and thus the fund was augmented. However, the majority of the States sold their land at a sacrifice, frequently for less than half its value. There was a lull in th', land market during the Civil War, and this ca.ise, to- gether with the lack of attention in mp!,y States, sacriflcc-d the gift of the Federal Government. The sales ranged all the way from fifty cents to seven dollars per acre, as the average price for each State. "—F. W. Blackmar, Federal and Stntt Aid tu Higher Education (f. S. Svreau ojf Edu- aitiim, Cireulart of Infvnnatiun, 18!K>, no. 1), w. il-iV. ' "^ A, D. 1863-1886.— New York.— Cornell Uni- veraity.— "On the second of July, im'i, . . . 1 President Lincoln] signed the act of congress, see the preceding article] donating public lands (ir the establishment of colleges of Hjiriculture and mechanic arta This act had b'.i-n intro- duced into congress by tlie Hon. Justin S. Mor- rill. . . . The Morrill act provideil for a donation of public land to the several states, each stave to receive thirty thousand acres for each senator and representative it sent to congress. States not containing wttmn their own bonlers pvblic land subject to tale at private entry receiveil land scrip instead. Hut this land sciip the re- cipient states were not allowed to hxale willijn the limits of any other state or of any territory of the United States. The act laconically directed 'said scrip to be sold by said states. ' The pro- ceeds of the sale, whether of land or scrip, in each state were to form a ]>erpetual fund. . . . In the execution of this trust the State of New York was Immpcreil by (jreat and almost in- superable obstacles. For its distributive share It received land scrip to the amount of nine humlr«l and ninety thounanii acres. The mu- nificence of the endowment awakened the cupid- ity of a mullitiidc of clainomus and strangely unexpected claimants. ... If the princely do- main granted to the State of New York by con- gress WHS not divided and frittered away, wo owe it in great measure to the foreslirht. the energy, and the spli'nilld courage of a few gen- eniusspiritsin the legislature, of whom none com- manditl greater resp<'(t or exercised more Influ- en(T than Senator Andrew Dickson White, tlie gentleman who afterwards liecame first president !!f ("omrl! Unlvrrsitr. K'-st the all-rf>n-,r.p!'.ir.g force which preTented the dispersion and dissH rf m of till Iwunty of congri'sswas the generous art of Ezra Cornell. While rival iuslitiitiuus ill I 1 li i ! 761 EDUCATION. Edueaium ^ Ikt FrttJmtn. EDUCATION. clamored (or s division of tlie ' spoils.' snd po- litical tricksters played their base aad desperate game, this man thuiigbt only of the highest good of the State of New York, which he loved with the ardor of a patriot and was yet to serve with the heroism of a martyr. . . . When the legisla- ture of the State of New Yorli was called upon to make some disposition of the congressional grant. Ezra Cornell sat in the senate. ... Of his minor legislative achievements I shall not speak. One act, however, has matle his name as immortal as th-.' state it glurifled. By a gift of half a million dollars (a vast sum in 1865, the last year of the war !) he rescued for the higher education of New York the undivided grant of congress ; and with the united endowments he induced the legislature to establish, nut merely a college of applied science, but a great modern university — 'an institution,' according ti his own admirable definition, ' where any person can find instruction in any s>tudy.' It was a high and daring aspiration to crown the educational sys- tem of our imperial state with an organ of uni- versal knowledge, a nursery of every science and of all scholarship, an instrument of liberal culture and of practical utility to all classes of our people. This was, however, the end ; and to secure it Ezra Cornell added to his original gift new donations of land, of buildings, and of money. . . . But one danger threatened Ibis lat- est birth of time. The act of congress donating land scrip required the states to sellil. The mar- kets were immediately glutted. Prices fell. New York was seliicg at an average price of fifty cents an acre. Her princely domain would bring at this rate lesis than half a million dollars '. Was the splendid donation to issue in such disaster? If it could be held till the war was over, till im- misration opened up the Northwest, it would be worth five times five hundred thousand dollars ! So at least thought one far-seeing man in the State of New York. And this man of foresight hail the heart to .'onceive. the wlwlom to devise, and tlic courage to execute — he ali>ne in all the states — a plan far saving to his state the future value of the lands donated by congress. E/.n Cornell made that wonderful and dramatic con- tract with the State of New York ! He bound himself to purchase at the rate of sixty cents per acre the entire right of the comnuinweallh to the ■crip, still unsolit , and with tlie scrip, thus pur chased bv him as an individual, be agreetl to •elect and locate the lands it represented! to pay the taxes, to guanl airainst trespasses and difcnd from fins, to the end that within twenty yeani, when values liad appiircciatid, he might sell the land and turn Into tlie tn'osiiry (if the State of New York fur the sup|H>rt of Cornell University, the entire net priHcitlsof theeuterpri!*-. Within a few years K/ra Cornell hail lix'atiil over hplf a million acn's nl' sii|ieriiir pine land in the Northwestern sliilis. primlpally In Wisconsin liidiT Iwnds to the Stutf of New York to do .'.i>- Ktile's work. In- Imd »p<'nt about Ilioo.iKXl of his own cash to carry out the trust committed to him by the state, when, alas. In the crisis of 1H74, fortune and credit m k exhausted, an<i death came to fri'e the martyr patriot from his bonds. T.ie seven years that followed were the dark- rst in ntir historr. . . Ezra Corncil was our founder ; Henry W. Sage followed him ta wise masterbuildcr. The edlncea, chain, and librsriei which ' our the name of ' 8a^ ' witnea to [bis] 762 later gifts; but though these now aggregate the princely sum of $l.'J.'>U,000, [his] management uf the university lands has been [hisf grtatest achievement. From these lands, with which the generosity and foresight of Kzra Cornell endowed the university, there nave been netted under j Mr. Sage's] administration, not far short of $4,ihki 000, with over 100,000 acres still to sell. Ezra Cornell's contract with the state was for twenty years. It expired August 4, 1888, when a ten years' extension was granted by the state. The trust will be closed in 1896."— J. G. Schnrman, Addrett at Jnaugurition to tht Prttideney of ( ur- neU Uniterrity, Nor. 11, 1892. A. D. 1863-1881.— The United States.— Education of the Freedmen. — Since the duse of the Civil War, much has been done (and much more needs to be done) for the education of the colored people of the South. To that end, a number of institutions, having aims beyond those of the common school, have risi'n alreadv in the South, or on the southern bonier. First among them iu time was the Fisk University. founded at Nashville, in 1865. The Hownfd University, at Washington, was created in Ini;;. Hampton Institute, a training school for negroes and Indians, was established by Gen. S. C Arm strong, at Hampton, Va., in 1868. Claflin I'ni veraity, at Orangeburg. S. C, was founile.1 in 1878. Booker T. Washington, born a slave, having obtained an education at Hampton Insii. tute, and n-solved to devote his life to the up- lifting of his race, opened a training Keliool itljp Tuskegce Normal and IiMlustrial Institiiiii :it Tuskegee, Alabama, which is growing with re markable success, and which promises to liuve a notable influence in the development of the riil ored people. A large and important 'work in this field of education is being carried on hy the American Missionary Association, which is also giving careful attention to the educational tieeils of the interesting body of soiitliern whites knonn as "the mountain people," in West Virt-iiiiii. western North Carolina, eastern Tenness<e. s<iiitli eastern Kentucky, and northern Georgia Fisk University is one of the highei institutions of learning which depend more or less on siip|inrt from this Association. Others of the hipher ( liis> are Talladega College, in Alabama; Toiiguhjo University, in Mississippi; Straight University. at New OHeans; Tlllotson Institute, at .\iistin. Texas. It maintains normal and industrial schools at Wilmington. N. C; at Charleiton, S. C. ; at Savannah, Atlanta, Macon, ami .Mrin tosh. Ga ; at Mobile, Athens, anil ^l liim. AIn ; at Memphis, Tenn. ; at Lexington, Ky lis primary and parochial sch(H>ls an' niinierims iiiul widely' distributed. Industrial IrHinini.'. to u gn'ater or less extent, is given in nearly all of its sch(x)ls. On a less extensive scale, similar n .rk Is twing done in the South by various chun hi » and other bodies. A. D. lS6«-i869.— The United States.- Bureau of Education.— " Educators, poli<!i:il economists, and statesmen felt the ne<'d of some central agency by which the general eiiucationsl ■tatlsties of the country coulil be (X)llei teil. pn served, condensed, and properly arranp'l for distribution. This need found expression tlniiliy to the action takrn at a convention of ih- .-;;)., i Intendence department of the National Xiliii.i tlonal Association, held at Washington. Feliruury. 18M, when It wh resolved to petltloti Congress EDUCATION. Johns HopHna Uniwrnty. EDUCATION. in favor of a National Bureau of Education. . . . The memorial was presented in tlie House of Representatives by General Garfield, February 14, 1866, with a bill for the establishment of a National Bureau on essentially the basis the school superintendents had proposed. Both bill and memorial were referred to a committee of seven members. . . . The bill was reported back from the committee, with an amendment in the nature of a substitute, providing for the creation of a department of education instead of the bureau originally proposed. Thus altered, it was passed by a vote of nearly two to one. In the Senate it was referred to the Committee on the Judiciary . . . who the following winter re- porti'd it without amendment and with a recom- mendation that it pass, which it did ju the 1st of March, 1867, receiving on the next day the ap- proval of tl>e President. By the act of July 28, 1868, which took effect June 80, 1869, the De- partment of Education was abolished, and an Office of Education in the Department of the Interior was established, with the same objects am. duties. . . . The act of March 2, 1867, . . . established an agency 'for the purpose of col- lecting such statistics and facts as shall show the condition and progress of education in the several States and TcrriU)ries, and of diffusing such information respecting the organization and management of school systems ami methods of teaching as shall aid the people of the United States iu the establishment and maintenance of efficient school systems and otherwise promote the cause of education.' It will Ix' perceived that the chief duty of the office under the law is to act as an educational exchange. Exercising and seeking to exercise no control whatever over its thousands of correspondents, tlic otliee oieu flies a position as the recipient of voluntary nfiirmation which is unique."— C. Warren, An- tvers to Inquiria about the F. S. Bureau of Kdii- eatuiii, eh. 2-8. A. D. 1867.— New York.— Public Schools made entirely free.— The public .x^hools of l\w State of New York were not entirely free until 1867. In his rc|M)rt to the Ix'gislature made in February of that year, the State SuiH'rinlendent of Public Instruction, Hon. Victor M. Hiee, sai I: "The greatcxt defect in our si-hool system is, us I have urgeil in previous reports, the continuance of the rate bill system. Our common s<'lioiils ciui never reach their hightst degn'e of uwfulness until they shall have been made entirely free. ... To meet this public demand, to eonfiT uivon the children of the State the blessings of fnr etlucatlon. a bill has already been intriHluwd Into your hoiKimlile iKMly. . . . The main features of the bill are the provisions to raise, by Stati' tax. a sum alxiut ecjual to that raised in the ilLstriits by rate bills, and to alxillsh the rate bill Rvstciii ; to facilitate the erection and ri'pair of'siluKil houses." The bill referred to was passed at the same scation of the legislature, and in his next succeeding report, Superintendent Hiee gave the following account of the law and its immediate effects: "While the general stniefure of the i«;hix>l law was not ilisturl)e<l. a material nuKlltl- cation was niade by the Act (chap. 406, Ijiws of 1867), which took effect on the first day of Otlobcr of the same year, ami whiih. iiiii,>iig other thlDgs, proTided for the abolishment of rale- III' a, and for incmued local and HtAte taxation forietioolpurpoMS. Tbiiwu primarily a change 763 in the manner of raising the requisite funds; not an absolute increase of the aggregate amount to be raised. It involved and encouraged such In- crease, so far as the inhabitants in the several school districts should authorize it, by substitut- ing taxation exclusively on property, for a mixed assessment which, in part, was a tax on attend- ance. Thus relieved of an ^M impediment, and supplied with additional power and larger re- sources, the cause of public instruction, during the last fiscal year, has wrought results unequalea in all the past. . . . The effect of this amend ment has not been confined to the financial policy thereby inaugurated. It is distinctly traceable in 'engthened terms of school, in a Urger and m -3 uniform attendance, and in more liberal ex peLjitures for school buildings and appliances.' — Supt. of Pub. Instruction of the State of N Y Annual Report, 1869, pp. 5-6. A. D. 1867.— Maryland.— Johns Hopkina UniTeraity.— "By the will of .Idhns Hopkins, a merchant of Baltimore, the sum . .f |7,000,000 was devoted to the endowment of a university [char- tered in 1867] and a hospital, |3.500,000 being appropriated to each. ... To the bequest no burdensome conditions were attached. . . . Just what this new university was to be proved a very serious question to the trustees. The con- ditions of Mr. Hopkins's bequest left the deter- mination of this matter open. ... A careful in. vestigation led the trustees to believe that there was a growing demand for opportunities to study beyond the ordinary coursi'S of a college or a scientific school, particularly in those branches of learning not included in the scho<ds of law, medicine and theology. Strong evidence of this demand was aitonled by the increasing attend- anie of American students upon the lectures of the German universities, as well as by the num- Iht of students who were enrolling themselves at llarvunl and Yale for the post graduate courses. It was therefore determined that the Johns Hop- kins should be primarily a university, with uil- vaucetl courses of lectures and fully equipped laboratories; that the courses should lie voluii- •ary. and the teaching not limited to class in- struction. The foundation is both old and new. In so far as each feature Is borrowed from .some older university, w! ere it has been fairiv tried and tested, it is old, but at the simie titiic this particular combination of separate features has here U'en made for the first time. ... In the orlinary college cour.*'. if a youug man hap I" ns to be deHtient in mathematics, for example, lie is either forced to lose any advantage he may pos«'ss ill (JrtTk or Latin, or else i» obiigei) to take a position in mathematics for which he is unprepiired. In the college department of the Johns Hopkins, this dlsa<lvantage does not exist; the classifying Is specific for each study. "The student has also the privilege of pushing forward in any one study us rapklly as he can with ad- vantage; or, on the other hand, in case of illncs* or of unavoidable interruptiuu, of prolonging the time devoted to the course, so that no part of it shall be omitted. As the studies arc elective, it is imasible to follow the usual college course if one desires. Seven different courses of study are indicated, any of which leads to the Bacca- lauteale tlegtee, llius eualiiiuK the student to direct and specialize his work. 'The same standard of matriculation am. the same severity of exam- iutloM an matntained Id all these counes. A un EDUCATION. Ckautatiqua, EDUCATION. student hu the privilege of eztendins hi idy beyoud the regular clius work, and he bid cmlited with all such private and outsid y, if bis examiners are satisfied of bis thor ss and accuracy." — 8. B. Herrick, The J :vp- kin* ITniKmity (Henl>ner$ MviUhly, 1) ]. A.D.1867-1891.— The United Sta The Peabody Education Fund. — "Tbe an- nouncing and creatini]; tbe Peabody < ment was datwl February 7, 1S67. In that 1 after referring to the ravages of the lite war, the founder of tbe Trust said : ' I feel most deeply that it is the duty and privilege of tbe more favoured and wealthy portions of our nation to assist those who arc less fortunate.' He then added : ' I give one millit. of dollars for tbe encouragement and promotion of intellectual, moral, and industrial education among the young of the more destitute portions of tbe Southern and Southwestern States of the Union.' On the day following, ten of the Trustees selected by him held a preliminary meeting in Washington. Their flrst business meeting was held in the city of New York, the l»th of March following, at which a geneml plan was adopted and an agent appointed. Mr. PealKxly returned to bis native country aeain in l>*»ii', and on tbe first day of July, lit ft special meeting of tbe Trusi 18 held at Newport. a<i(te<l a second million to the cash capital of the fund. . . . According to the do- nor's {lirections. l\w principal must remain intact for thirty years. The Trustees are not author- ized to expend any part of it, nor yet to add to It any part of the accruing interest. The man- ner of using the interest, as well as the final dis- triliuiion of tbe principal, was left entirely to the iliscrction of a w If perpetuating body of Trustees Those first apjiointed bad, however, tbe rsre advantages of full inuBultation with Ibe founder of tbe Trust while be still lived, and their plans reeeivi'd bis contial and emphatic ap- probation. . . The pressing need of tbe pres- ent seemed to be in the depurtiiu'ut of primary education for the masses, and «) they det4rmined to make appropriations only for the i>si!<tBnee of public free schools." — Am. Ednf'iti'iinl Cyrlo- jxKiia, lH7!i, jip. 224-22.5. — Tbe report made by the treasurer of the Fund, in IHW), showed a principal sum invested to the amount of $2,07."),- 17.'5.22, yielding an income that year of t97,8t8 In the annual report of tbe U. 8. Commissioner of Fyucation made Feb 1, 1H9I, he says: "It wiMild appear to Ibe student of e<lucation in the Houtbern States that the practical wisilom in the ndininistration of the l'ealK»ly Fund and the fruitful H'sults that have followecl it could not !»• Mirpametl in the history of endowments" — /'nffrrtiri'/ii iif thf TriitUe* of thf Pnilmiy Kiiufii- fi-H F'lU'l 1MM7-1W2, A. D. 1874.— New York.-The Chautauqua Aitembly and Circle.— The Chautauqua Assem- bly, holding sessions in July and August of each year, on grounds extensively ami expensively prepared for its use, on Ch<>'>tAur|ua I^ake, In western New York, was in8titiit«rf in 1874, by the Kev Dr. (afterwards K:./uop) John H. Vin cent, of the M K. Church, and Mr. I.,rwi8 MilUr. Its allied Chautaucjua Literary and Scientific Circle was organized in 1H78. Tojtether, they r;tn»titu!(' :l J?ri'at pripulfir •.;r!versltv f:v a::tn- mer lectures and home ntudy, •yKiematically Sursiietl. A n^w educational agency, "f v»»» in- ueno), has thus been lotruduced ; and tbe idea of its organiution is being fruitfully carried out in many less notable assemblies, of like purpose, both in America and abroad. A. O.1884-1891.— California.— Leland Stan- ford Junior UniT«r»ity.— "The founding at Palo Alto of 'a university for both sexes, with the colleges, schools, seminaries of learning, me chanical institutes, museums, galleries of art, and all other things necessary and appropriate lo a university of Uigh degree,' was determined upon by tbe Hon. Leland Stanford and Jam' Latbrop Stanford in 1884. In March of tbe yeiir following the Legislature of California passed an Act providing for the admiuistration of trust funiis in connection with institutions of learning. November 14, 1885, the Orant of Endowment was publicly made in accordance with this Act, and on the same day, tbe Board of Trustees held its first meeting in San Francisco. Tbe work uf construction was at once begun, and the comer- stone laid May 14, 1887 Tbe University was formally opened to students October 1, 1891. Tbe idea of tbe university, in tbe words of its founders, 'came directly and largely from our son and only child, Leland, and in tbe belief that bad he been spared to advise as to the dis- position of our estate, he would have desired tbe devotion of a hirge portion thereof to this pur- pose, we will that for all time to come the insti- tution hereby founded shall bear his name, and shall be known as The Leland Stanford Junior University.' The object of the University, as stated in its Charter, is ' to qualify student's for personal success and direct usefulness in life'; snd its purposes, 'to promote tbe public wel- fare b^ exercising an influence In behalf of humanity and civilization, teaching the blessings of liberty regulate<l by law, and Inculeatiii); love and reverence for the great principles of govern- ment as derived from the inalienable rights of man to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happi- ness.' The University is located on the Palo Alto estate in tbe Santa Clara valley, thirty- three miles southeast of San Francisco, on the Const Division of the Southern Pacific Knilway. The estate consists of over eight tliousand acres, partly lowland and partly rising into the foot liills of tbe Santa Cruz range. On the grounds is the residence of tbe Founders, and an exten- sive and beautiful arboretum containing a very great variety of shrubs and tr s. The property conveyed to the University, in addition to the I'hIo Alto estate, consists of tbe Vina estate, in Tcliama County, of fifty-five tliousand acres, of which about four thousand acres nre planted in vines, and tlie Oridley estate, in Butte County, of twentv-two thousana acres, devoted mainly to the raising of wheat . . . Tbe founders of the Ix'land Stanford Jun'or University say ; ' As a fiirber assurance that t'.e endowment will lie ample to establish and maintain a university <if the highest groiie, we have, by last will and tes- tament, devised to you ana your successors additional property. We have done this as a securi'y against the uncertainty of life and In the hope that during our lives the full endowment may go to you.' The aggregate of the domain thus dedicatee) to the founding of the University, is over eighty-flve thousand acres, or more than ;..nr hundred nn(Hhirt.r-thr««!Wj«»rf: rr.\U^^ ^ni-"j^ the best improved and mo*t valuable lands in the State."— Leland Stanford Junior University, Vtmlan of lt\formaHvn, not. 9 and l-'i. 764 EDUCATION. Uniled Slatet Cemxu StatUtict. EDUCATION. A. D. 1887-1889.— Massachusetts.— Clark University.— " Clark University was foumled [at Worcesterl by ... a native of Worccstur County, MassacbusetU. It was 'not the outcome of a freak of impulse, or of a sudden wave of gen- erosity, or of the natural desire to perpetuate in a worthy way one's ancestral name. To compre- hend the genesis of the enterprise we must go back along the track of Mr. Clark's personal his- tory 20 years at least. For ns long ago as that, t ' Idc.i came home with force to his mind that a Hvilizcl communities are in the hands of ex- perts. . . . Looking around 1. the facilities ob- tainable in this country for the prosecution of original research, he was struck with the meagcr- nCiS and the inadequacy. Colleees anil pmfes- sioi ' .sch(X)l9 we have in abundance, but there iippeared to lie no one grand inclusive instituti.u, unsaddled by a: naidemic department, where students might pursue as far as possible the'r in- vestigation of any and every branch of 'icn'c. . . . Mr. Clark went abroad and soent eight years vi.siting the institutions of learniig in almost every country of Europe. He studied into their history and observed their present working.'. . It is his strong ami expressed de- sire that the highest possible aca<lemic standards bo here forever maintained ; that special oppor timilies and inducements be olTered to researeh; that to this end the instructors be not overbur- dened witli teaching or examinations. ... A eliiiriiT was gmnted eariy in 1HH7. Land and olher [iroperty that had l)eon iK'fore secured by the founder was tnmsferml to the Iwiard. and tlie erec tinn of a central building was beu'Uii In the spring of IS^H <}. Stanley Hall, then a pro- fes.iiir at the .Inlins Hopkins L'niversitv, was in vited to the presidency. . , . The plans of the Miiiversity had so f;ir |irogressed that work was In I'lin in Oetober. l»^i). in mathematics, physics ihimislry, l)iology, ami psveholoL'y."- C. o' Bush. llUt.''f llciliii- /■jlnml'inii in. [fust. {!'. S. /I'irai'i of h'li/i-aliim, (UrcitUtr nf Intonuati'iii IWM. «<-. (>|. '■h. IS. ... A. D. 1889-1892.— Illinois.— Chicafro Univer- sity.— '-.Vt its Annu.il .Meetin^^ in Mr. issy. the Itnard of the .Vnieriean lta|)tKl K.luratii.n So- eiily resolved to t.ike imniediati' sieps toward Ilie 'oiindiiig of a wel|.e(|uippeil college in ilie Illy of Chicago. At the same time .lolm |». HoiliefelliT made a siilweription of ijiiiiMl.oiKI an.i j this sum was iiureasi-ddiirim; the sueiiiiliii' '. 1 ' by about i^iOil.oiH) more in suliscriptiuiis n, writing 111. ire than two thcMismd persons, 'rin. . iiinnlhs alter the eo!ii|iletion of this subseri|iliiiii Mr Hnikeleller iiia.l.' an addiliimal prollVr oi' ' ♦ UHHI.OIHI. The site of the l-|iiversitv eoiisisis ' of three blocks of grouii.j — about twii'th.ius.iiu! feet long and t line buinliid and sixty-two f<.,.| wide, lying between tlie two .South" Parks of <liieag.i, and fronting- 011 the .Midivav I'laisance winch is itself 11 park crineetiiiir the otiier two' One-half of this site is a gift of .Marsiiall Field ■'I Chieago. and ilie other half lias bee-i pur- ehased at a cost of .sr.f.'..->lMl. At the lilst liie.t- li'ir of the Hoard after it had lieeome ..n ineoriio- rated biHly. I'rofessor William U. Harper, of J ale I niversity, was iiiianiiuously cleeted I'n si- ilent of the Cniviirsily. . . . It has been deeided • liat the University will bcein the work of in- . =;rMel;i)n on tiic nr.st dav of Deiolier, ISfii. . Iheuorkof the University shall be arranged j •nider three general dlvjilons, viz.. The Univer- I sity Proper, The I niversitvExtension Work. J'S.^°""^™'y Publication Work. "— rHWrwrt of Chicago. Official JJulktiii no. 1, Jan 1891 A. D. 1890.— United States.— Census Sta- tistics.— The following statistics of education in the Lmted States are from the returns gathered for the Eleventh Census, 1890. In these statU- tics the states and territories are classed in five great geographical divisions, detined as follows- .■Sorth Atlantic Division, embracing tlie New England States, New York, New Jersey, and lennsylTama; South Atlantic Division, embrac- ing the States of the eastern coast, from Dela- ware to Florida, together with the District of Columbia; North Central Division, embracing Ohio, Indiana, Illinois. .Michi-an. Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa, Mis.souri, North and South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kans:is; South Central Division embracing Kentucky. Tennessee, Ala- bama Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas and (Oklahoma; Western Division, embracing all the remaining States and Territories Tlie total taxation for public schools in tlie United States as reported by this census, was iWi IGl ~'M ■ of whicii *y7,019,7»« was rai.sed in the' No'rth At- lantic Division, $.'),678,474 in the South Atlantic Division, $47,03:), 14'i in the North Central Divi- sion. *.), «!(«., W3 in the South Central Division and*0.i:il,H:i-2iu the Western Division. From liiiids and rents there were raised for .seliool pur- poses a total of !if.'.-,,0!»4.449 in the Uniled States at large, of which ijM,',>7;l.l47 was raised in the -North Atlantic Divisi.ai. f.'.;!b7.0.-)l iu the South Atlantic Division, *.'^,4:i2,r,y3 in the North Cen- tml Division. ;^{.720.1.-)S in tlie South Central Division and i^.UOL.'iOO in theWestern Division. Ihe total of all "ordinarv" receipts for school support in the United Sta'tes was *i:!9 ((19 440 of which $4il^'2ilU>l(i were in the North Atlantic Division. #.H.(H-,.'."iJ in the S.iiiih Atlantic Divi- sion, *«l,10M,-,>(l:(iiitlie North CVnlial Division *10.','y4.«2l in th(. South Central Division and lflO.:iao.I17 in the Western Division. The total "ordinary expenditures" were ^i;W.7S(j :«):! ju ; Ihe whole United Stati-s; lieinir fl7,(tt.-),.'il>i in I the North Atlantic Division. A'^.tWuVl 1 in the South Atlantic Division, ifili-'.fjl.',..-):)! in the Xoriii Central Division. ;iill..Mii).o.-)!) in the Soiitli Central l)ivision, and S«.M.-|4..-)4t in the \Ves|,.in Division For teachers' waL'es there was a t.il il e.xiM.ndi- tiire of *.SS.7il.-,,!.!l',>. f.N.iKJT s-J| l,..i„:,- i„ the Aortli .\tlaiilie Division, ifd. loooil:! in ||„. South .>;lantic DivisiiMi. *:«),,M(li.,s:ii i,, n,,. s<,rth Cen- tral DiviHon. ,s,s,-,'0!i,.-,o!) ill th.. S.iuili (Vnlr.il Division, and 80, llil.7tis in llie Wesiein Division. '! i.e b'tal ex|ienditiirr r..r l.il.raiies ami \'iii,ira- tiis was,'<l.(i(l7,7«;. tliive-l.iinilis of h1 . was in Ilie Norih Atlanlie and N.irili f.ii Diyj. sioiis. The ex|ieiidil lire ivpi.r;.-d f.ire. ruction an.l care iif Imildiiii's, was .s,'l.J',i|.7',i | which •';i|iMi'<7,lU wasiii the Noiili Allanti, Division, .^'<'*l,'j;7 was in the Nmili Alhiiiiie Division' ■■sti.si;!), |s;)i„ ,|„. \,,riu Ceiili-al Division. !J77i) - ■^:>7 in tlie Smith Central Division, .iml .s-.'.ill':),(i,-i« in ihe Wesiern Division. Ue|i,.rie.| esiiniatesof the value of buildings ami otlier school p, .i,|.|-iy are ineoiii|ilete, but t;','r..'^l»-,'.M01 are ,iri\.ii fJr Massaehiisells. $ll.ti-.>(i.7:r. for New York !i:ir, . |:;"i. H'.' for Uemisvlvania, ^^t-^.O-U.."!!!! for'tihlo •«ll.til4.4.!iO for Illinois, and iluse i,re the S!;.l<-.i that slaiid highest in til" column. The aiiparcnt cnMllmcut iu Public Schmils for the census vear ri'porled to July, 1801. was as follows: Sprtli If:- 7C5 w EDUCATION. Jokn AmMComtnhu. BDrCATION. Atlantic DlvWon, 8.1M.*"; South Atlantic DlvlsJon, 1.758,285; North Central IMvlslon, 6 032 182- South Central Division, 2,334,894; Western Diviaioa, 62li,286; Total for the Lnited States, 12,769,864, being 20.39 per cent, of fte population, against 19.84 per cent, in 1880. The reported enrollment In Private Schools at the same time was ; Nnrth Atlantic Division. 196, 173 ; South Atlantic ' ision, 165,253; North 'cntral Division, 187. ; South Central D. vision, 200 202; Western Division. 64,749; Total for the United States, 804,204. The reported enroll- ment in Parochial Schools was; North Atlantic Division 811,684; South Atlantic Division, 80 869; North Central Division. 398.585; South Central Division, 41.115; Western Division, 17 849; Total for the United Swus. 799,602. Of this total, 626,496 were enrolled in Catholic and 151 651 in Lutheran Parochial Schools; leaving only 21 Ar>r> in the schools of all other denomina- tions. Total enrollment reported in all schools 14 373 670. The colored public school enroll- ment in the Southern States was 1,288,229 in 1890, against 797,286 in 1880,— an Increase of more than 61 per cent. The enrollment of whites was 3,358,527, against 2,301,804.— an increase of nearly 46 per cent. The approximate number of Public Scliool -houses in the United States, for the census year 1890 is given at 219,992, being 42 949 in the North Atlantic Division, 32,142 in the South Atlantic Division, 97,166 in tt ' Nortli Central Division, 38,962 in the South Central Division, 8,773 in the Western Division. The Urgest number reported is 14,214 in Pei.nsyl vania Of 6,408 school-houses in Virginia 4,.)»W are for white, and 1.840 for colored children; in North Carolina, 8.973 white and 1,820 colored. The above statistics arc taken in pu '-om the Compendium of the Eleventh Census, • ished in 1894, and partly fr< .i tables i- irt( fur- nished from tlic Census Bureau in aavaace of their publication. Modern : Reforms and MoTements. A. D. 1638-1671.— Comenius.— "To know Comenius [born in Moravia, 1592] and the part he played in the seventeenth century, to appre- ciate this grand educational character, it would be ncLcasary to begin by relating his life ; his mis- fortunes; his journeys to England [1638], where Parliament invoked his aid; to Sweden [1642], where th" Chancellor Oxenstiem employed him to write Jiuals of instruction ; egpccially his re- lentless industry, his courage through exile, and the long persecutions he suffered as a member of the sect of dissenters, the Moravian Brethren; and the schools he founded at Fulneck, in Bo- hemia, at Lissa and at PaUk, in Poland."— O. Compayre, The Bi$t. of Pedagogy, ch.6{»eet. 137). — "Comeniuss Inspiring motive, like that of all leading educationallsu, was social regeneration. He believed that this could be accomplished through the school. He lived under the hallucin- ation that by a proper arrangement of the sub- ject-matter of instruction, and by a sound method, a certain community of thought and interests would be established among the young, which would result in social harmony and political settlement. He believed that men could be manu- factured. . . . The educational spirit of the Re- formers, the conviction that all — even the hum- blest—must be Uught to know Ood, and Jesus Christ whom he has sent, was inherited by Come- nius In its completeness. In thb way, and in this way only, could the ills of Europe be reme- died, and the progress of humanity assured. While, therefore, he sums up the educational aim under the threefold heads of Knowledge, Virtue, and Piety or Godliness, he in truth has mainly in view the last two. Knowledge is of value only in so far as it forms the only sound basis, in thu eyes of a Protestant theologian, of virtue and godliness. We have to train for a hereafter. . . . By knowledge Comenius meant knowledge of nature and of man's relation to nature. It is this important characteristic of Couenius's cduai- tional system that reveals the direct influence of Bacop and his school. . . . It is in the department of Method, however, that we recognise the cliiif contribution of Comenius to education. The mere attempt to systematise was a great advance. In seeking, however, for foundations on which to erect a coherent system, he had to content him- self with first principles which were vague and unscientific. ... In the department of knowl- edge, that is to say, knowledge of the outer world, Comenius rested his method on tlie scho- lastic maxim, ' Nihil est in intellectu quod non prius fuerit in scnsu.' This maxim he enriolied with the Baconian int^uction, comprehended by him only in a general way. . . . From the sim- ple to the complex, from the particular to the general, the concrete before the abstract, and all, step by step, and even by insensible degrees, — these were among his leading principles of method. But the most important 01 all his prin- ciples was derived from the scholastic maxin; quoted above. As all is from sense, let the Uiing to be known be itself presented to the si'uses, and let every sense be engaged in the perception of it. When it is impossible, fniin the nature of the case, to present the object itself, place a vivid picture of it before the pupil. The mere enumeration of these few prin- ciples, even if we drop out of view all his other contributions to method and school-management, will satisfy any man familiar with ail the mure recent treatises on Education, that Comenius, even after giving his p. ^cursors their due, is to be regarded as the true founder of mo.1- em Method, and that he anticipates Pestnlnjzi and all of the same school. . . . Finally, Come- nius's views as to the Inner organisation of a school were original, and have proved themselves in all essential respecU correct. The sami' miy be said of his scheme for the organisiUinn iif a State-system— a scheme which is substantiiilly, mutetis mutandis, at this moment embodicil m the highly developed system of Germany. Wlien we consider, then, that Comenius first formally and fully developed educational metlio<l, thiit he introduced important reforms into the teaching of languages, that he introduced into schools the study of Nature, that he advocated with intt 111- gence, and not on purely sentimental groutulH, a milder discipline, we are justified in assigning to him a high, if not the highest, place aiming modem educational writers."- S. 8. Laurie, .Mn Amo» Cameniut, m. 217-226. A. D. 1681-1878.— The Christian Brothers. —"Any description of popular educatiim in Europe would be hicomplete, which should not give promhience to the Institute of the Christian Brothers— or the Brothers of the Christian i)"i;- trine— including in that term the earliest pro- fessional school for the training of UacliemlB 766 EDUCATION. T»« Ckritttan Brotlun. EDUCATION. Europe; one of the most remark»ble body of teachera devoted exclusively and without pay to the HucaUon of the children of the poor that the world has ever seen. ... The Institute was established as a professional school in 1681 and to Abbe John Baptist de la Salle, belonirs the high honor not only of founding it, but of so In- fusing into ite early organization his own pro- found conviction of the Christ-like character of lU mission among the poor, that it has retoined for nearly two centuries the form d spirit of Its origin ThU devoted Uhristiau leacher was Bom at Rhelms on the 30th of April 1651 He was early distinguished for his scholarly at- tainments and maturity of character: and at the age of seventeen, before he had completed his full course of theological study, he was ap- pointed Canon in the Cathedral church of Rhelms From the first, he became interested in the edu- cation of the young, and especially of the poor M the most direct way of leading them to a Christian life;— and with this view before he was twenty-one years old, he assumed the direc- tion of two charities, devoted to female educa- tion. From watching the operation of tliese schools, conducted by teachers without profes- sional training, without plan and without mutual sympathy and aid, he conceived the dcslirn of bringing the teachers of this class of school" from the neighboring parishes Into a community for their moral and professional Improvement tor this purpose, he invited them first to meet and then to lodge at his uouse, and afterwanls' about the year 1681, he purchased a house for their special accommodation. Here, out of school hours and during their holydays, they spent their time In the practice of religious duties, and In mutual conferences on the work in which tliov were engaged. About this peric" a large number 01 free schools for the poor were established hi the neighboring towns; and applications were constantlv made to the Abbe for teachera formed under his training, care, and influence. To meet this demand, and make himself more di- rectly useful In the field of Christian education he resigned his benefice, that he might give his whole attention to thu work. To close the dis- tance between himself, having a high social posi- tion and competence from his father's estate and the poor schoolmasters to whom he was con- stantly preaching an unreserved consecration of themselves to their vocation — he not only re- Blped his canonr-, with iu social and pecuniary advanuges, but distributed his patrimony in a period of scarcity, in relieving the necessities of the poor, and in providing for the education of their children. He thus placed himself on a footing of equality— as to occupation, manner 01 life, and entire dependence on the '■harity of others- with the schoolmasters of the poor ihe annals of education or religion show but few such examples of practical self-denial and entire conLecration to a sense of duty. , Hav- ing completed his act of resignation anil self iniiH)»ed poverty, he assembled his teachers < mimiccd to them what he had done, and sunx with them a Te Deum. After a retreat -a pericjl set apart to prayer and fasting — conUn- ued for seventeen days, they devoted them«.ilv..« 'O ttie a>n»lderatiou of the best course to give unity efficiency , and permanence to their plans of J-Tiristlsn education for the poor. They assumed the name of 'The Brother* of the Christian Doc- trine, as expresssive of their vocation— which by usage came to be abbreviated Into ' Christian Brothers They took on themselves vows of pov- erty, celibacy, and obedience for three years Thev prescribed to themselves the moat frugal fare, to be provided in turns by each other. They adopted at that time some rules of behavior, which have since been Incorporated Into the fundamental rules of the order. ... In 1702 the first step was taken to establish an Institute at Rome, un- der t mission of one of the brothers, Gabriel Uro in, who after years of poverty, was made ^.^n^^^ of one of the charitable school! founded by Pope Clement XI. This school be »i^ I. .K"r''"i' ""= foundation of the house ri^f-fl .* 'T'l'^w ba^'e had in Rome since the poniflcate of Benedict XIII.. who conferml on the institute the constitution of a religious order. In 1703, under the pecuniary aid of %l. Chateau Blanc, and the countenance of the archbishop, M. de Gontery, a school was opened at Avignon. v^„: . \. • '^" ?""'<'°al Assembly prohibited vows to be made in communities; and in 1790 suppre^ed ail religious societies; and in 179l' the lu.stitute was disr3rsed. At that date there were one hundred .nd twenty houses, and over duties of the sc.,ool room, flic continuity of the society was secured by the houses establish-d In Italy to wliich many of the brothers fled. ... in 1801, on the conclusion of a Concordat between the Pope and the government, the so- ciety was revived m France by the opening of a tlieir hab t, and opened a novitiate, the mem- bers of which were exempt from military ser- yS .1 ■""'. ofganii^tion of the university in 1808, the institute was legally reorganized, Ud irom that time has iiicreiised in numl-ers and usefulness . In 1842, there wore 390 houses (of whioli ,"126 were in France), with 3.030 broth- Si "?«Q '-?^ "I'.Vf '■ '^'"^'^ ^"^ 6-»2 schools r'.r i^;A , ,''''^'''> '"•'siiles evening schools nith .,800 adulu in attendance, and three re- formatory schools with 2,000 convicts under in- nstruction. -Henry Barnard, Aatioiuil Educa- tion m Europe, p,,. 43.'>-t41.-"In 1878 their numbers had increasi'd to 11,640; tlu-y had 1 249 establishmcnt.s, and the numlxr of ilidr Ejhnlars was 390.607. '-.Mrs. R F, Wilson, The Chri,- tian Brothers, their Oriijiii and W'lrk, ch. 21. A. p. i76»-— Rouiseau.- " Rdi.'sseau, who had tducated himself, anil very biiilly at that was imprusscl with the dangers of the education of his day A motlier having asked his advice he took up the pen to write it ; and, little by little' hi.s counsels grew into a bixik, a large work a I><|lag.)gic romance [■Erailo']. This romance, wlien it appeared in 1702, created a great noise and a great scandal. The Arehbishop of Paris t liristoplie de Beaumont, saw in it a dangerous iiiisohievous work, and i;ave himself the trouble of writinp a long encyclical letter in order to point out the b<K)k to the reprobation of the faitli- ful. This liwunient of twenty-seven chapters is a Jorm-i .futation of the theories advanced in • Emile.' . In those days, such a condemna- tion was a serious matter; IU Loasequcnccs to an 'Olthor miffht be terrible. R.--:!55€.-.u h::-i barely time to flee. His arrest wa* decreed by the par- liameni of Paris, and his book was burned by the executioner. ... As a fugitive, Rousseau did not find a saf* retreat even in his own coim- If I s 767 EDUCATION. Rouueau ord Patalozu. EDUCATION. try. He wfts oWiRed to leave Geneva, where his book was also (:onilcmiic<l, ami Berne, where ho bad sought refuge, but whence he was driven by Intolerance. Heowcd itto the protectionof Lord Keith governor of NcufchStel, a principality 1..'- longing to the King of Prussia, that he lived for sonic time in pi'ace in the little town of Motiers in tl.. Val de Travera. . . The renown of the book condemned by so ;iigh an iuilhority, was Immensi'. Scandal, liv attracting public atten- tion to it, did it goml servici'. What was most serious and most suirgestlve in it was not. per- haps, scize<l upon ; but the ' craze ' of which it was the object had, notwithsUmding, g.ioii re- sults. >Inthcrs were won over, and resolved to nurse their own infants ; great lords l)egan to learn handicrafts, like Housseau's imaginary pupil; pliysical exercises came into fashion ; the si)irit of innovaiicin was forcing itself a way. . . . Thn e men above all the rest are noted for hav- ing jiopularizid tlie pedagogic method of Rous- seau, and for having l)een inspired in their laoors by 'Emilc' Thei-e were liasedow, Pestalozzi. and Froebel. liasedow, a German theologian, had devoted himself entirely toilogmatic controversy, until the reading of ■ fiinile ' had the effect of en largiug his mental liorizon, and of n-vealing to him his true voci'tion. . . . Pestalozzi of ZQrich, one of the fori'niost educators of mixlern times, al.so found his whole life transformed by the reading of 'femile,' which awoke in him the genius of a reformer. . . . The most distiniijuished among his disciples and continuators is Iroebel, thefounderof thosepriraaryschools . . .known by tlie name of •kindergartens,' and the author of highly estiemed pedagogic w.irks. These various attempts, these new and ingenious pro- cesses which, step by step, have made their way amom; us. and are beginning to make their workings ielt. even in instituti(ms most stoutly oppoMil to proiiress, are all traceable to Hi>us- R;au's 'fimile.'. . . It is true that ■ Knnle ' contains pages that have outlived their ila^-, many wld iirecciit*, many false ideas, many dis- putable and .Ir^lruetive theories; liut at the same time wetinii in it so many sagacious obsi'rvations, such upriuht counsels, suitalile even t(j nnslern times, so lofty an ideal, that, in spite of every- thing, we cannot read and study it williout profit. . . . Then! is absolutely notliing practica- ble in his (Housseau's] system' It consists in i.-io- hxUn: a child from the r<'st of tlie world; in creal- ini; [■xpre>slv for him a tutor, who is a jilHenix an'iniiL' his "kind; in ilepriving liini of father, mother, brothers, and sisters, his compan'ons in studv; in surrounding him witli a perpelu.d clmrlatanisni. under tlii^ prete.\t of following na- ture; ami in sliowinir him only through tlie veil of a factitious ■itmo>phere the society in which he is to live. And, nevertlieless. at each step it is sound reason by wliicli we are met ; by an tis tonishing paradox, this wiiimsic;dily is full of g(H>d si'Usi-; this dream overllows with realilies; this improbable and chimerical romance contains the substance and the marrow of a rational and truly mo<lern treatise on pedagogy. ,S>metimes wi' inuat read iM'tween the lines, add what ex periiuee has tauL'ht us siii<e that day, transposi' iii!'. an ■itn-..-.-i-.liiTi- of open democracy tlioie pages, written under the oldorderof things, but even then quivering with the new world whicli they were bringing to liu'lit, and ftir which thi'y prepared the way. Risding ' Emlle ' in the li(:"it of modem prejudices, we can se in It more than the author wittingly put int.) it; hut not more ihan logic and the Instinct of genius set dowki there. To unfold the powers of cliildnn in due proportion to their sge; not to transcend their ability; to arouse in them the sense of the observer and of the pioneer; to make them dis- coverers rather than imitators; to teach them ac- countability to themselves and not slavish <li - pendencc upon the words of others; to address ourselves more to the will than to custom, tu tlie ri'ason rather than to the memory; to substitute for verbal recitations lessons aliout things; tu lend to theory by way of art; to a.s8ign to physi- cal movements lind cxircisea a pn>mlnent place. from the earliest hours of life up to perfect nii- turitv ; such are the principles scattered hroail- cast in this bcMik, and forming a happy coun- terpoise to the oddities of which Uousseau was perhaps most proud."— .1. Steeg, Inirndiirtio,, Vi A. D. 1798-1827.— Pestalozri.— In Switzir land, up to the end of the eighteenth century, thi stale of primary instruction was very bad ' ' Tlie teachers were gathered up at liazani; their p:iy was wretched ; in general they had no lislgiiigs of their own, and they were obliged to hire tlieni- selves out for domestic service among tlie well oft inlii'.'iitants of the villages, in order to find fcKxl and hslging among tliem. A mean spirit of caste still (hiininated instruction, and tlie |«>er remained sunk in ignorance. It was in tin- vi ry midst of this wretched and unpropitious stuti .i( affairs that there appeared, towanis the eml of the eighteenth century, the most celeliratid nf m(«lern educators. . . . B<ini at Zurich in 1716. Pestalozzi died at Brugg in Argovia in IsJ7. This unfortunate great man always felt tlieilbii-i of the sentimental and unpractical ediieif, :i given him by his mother, who was left a wiil'W with three childnii in IT.M. He early birimil the habit of fieling and of iK'ing toueliid Milh emotion, rather than of reasoning and of ret!. n ini:. The laughing-stock of his cnnip:ini"ns, m li.i miide sport of his awkwardness, tlie little m li. br of Zurich accustomed himself to live :il"iii- ;iiiii to become a dreamer. Ijiter, towards ITii", ilif student of the academy distinguished liiniM-lf I'V bis politiial enthusiasm and his rev.iliiliiMMry darinir. At that early period be had er'nciivej a prolound feeliuL' for the nii-i rii s an.l tlie iiei ils of the people, an<l he iilriMdy pnp]iii>.d a- tlw purpo.si; of his life the lieuling of the ili-e;i-i s nf I society. At the same time there wasdevelo|uil in ' hiin an irresistible taste for a .simple, fru!.'al. "'I'j .■ilniost as.'etie lifiv To restrain his desires had heeonie the e-sential rule "f his londiut. iind, ti put it in prai tice. lie foi. rd hini-i If to sN ip nii :i plank ;ind i.isubsi.-t on brc'iid and veL'el!il'li->. — t! ('ompa\re. 7'/" Ili't. .//'«/. WW. M. I^* -'la spite . . .■ of I'e-ialrzzi's patent disipia!il'ie:i!i-'iH inmanyn'speelsfortlietaskheundertonk; iii-i'ili' "f his iVnorami' of even cmnniou subject.-, if "r li' spoke, reiul. ■« role, and cyphered badly, ::ni! kii'« next to u.'!- ,!ig of che.sics or seienni; in spili (it his want ..f worldly wisihun, of any ceiii.r.- hrnsive and exart knowledge of men .'omI "I tl.iiiL's; in spite of his beinir merely an elenie'itan (...uher.— throuuhlheforce of hisall ■■oM.iiiernia l.ive. the notulity ot liis lieari. liie i.-i~;:;' energy of his enthusiasm, his firm gra^p "I a l''« first jirinciples. his eloiiuent exposition "i '"'" in words, his resolute mauifcstation of tin m u (08 EDUCATION. PMtatozzi. KDtCATION. "f l):ir- wlio .lilt lie • tf'M('lnr. (Ipwls,— he staniia forth arnon^ educatinnni ro- formersiis the man wlicwe inttufnce on education is wider, deeper, more penetrating, than that of all t lie rest — the prophet and the soverei™ of the domain In wliich he lived and laboured It was late in life— he was fifty-two years of aixe — iM-fore Pestalo/.zi liecame a praciicul school- master. He had even l)egun to despair of ever finding the rarci-r iti whieh he mitdit attempt to realize the theories over which his lovin^' heart and teeming lirain had l)een brofnling fniuhis earliest youth. ... At flftv-two years of age then, we find Pestalozzi utterly unaequainteii wiihthe seienceand the art of education and verv scantily furnished even with elementary knowl- edge, undertaking at Slanz, in tin? canton of Interwalden, the charge of eighlv children whom the events of war had rendered homeless and destitute. . . . The house in which the eighty children were as.sembled to lie l)oard(d hKlgeil, and taught, was an old tumlile-dowil I rsuline convent, scarcely habitable, and desii- tute of all the eonv<niences of life The onlv apartii'i'nt suitable for a schoolroom was abou't twenty four feet sijuare, furnished with a fesv desks and forms; ami into this were crow.icfl the wretched children, noisy, dirtv. diseaseil and ignorant, witli tlie manners and 1 hurians. Pcstalozzis onlv helper i mcnt of the institution was an ol cooked the food and swept the roo was. as he tells us himself, not oi but the paymaster, manservant, ami almo>,t tli,. liousiTOaid of the clilldrcn. . . . ' Aly wivlns fh,. \yri!es] were now accomplished. I feltconvinivd 1 hit my heart would change the condition of iiiv dnldrcnas speedily as the springtide sun n-.uii- inates the earth frozen bv the win'rr Xor ' lu- ndils, 'was I mistake!,." Before the sprin-'ti.lc sun melted away the s,i.,w from our mountuins you could no longer recognise the same children ' . . 'I w.as obliged,' 111. says, 'uneeasinirly to be everything to my chihlren. I was mIohc with them from niorninir to night. It « ,< from my hand they received wliatevi r could l„. of MTvice I'olh to their boflics and minds. All .sui'cour all consolation, all instruction came to them ininicli- ately from myself. Their Imnds were in ii. Inui.l; my eyes wc-re li.Ved on t',:-\i-^ niv tear-- imuL'led with theirs, my smil. s eiicounten-,1 theirs, my soup was their soup, inv drink was their drink. 1 had anninil me nci'iher family fninds, nor servants; I had only them I wlis Willi them when thiv were in "health, bv tlnir ;;i'le when they were ill, I slept in tiieir'midst I was the last to go to lH>d, the lirst to rise in the ni..rniiig. Winn we were in bcil I used to pnv 'yilh them ami talk to them till they went to sleep. Tliey wished metochiso. ■ . . . "■ I knew,' he s;iys, 'no system, no methisl, no art but that "Inch resteil on llic simple c.mseiiuences of tie' linn belief of the children in my love towards llieni. Iwisheil toknownoother.'". . . (Jradu.illy ■ ■ I'estalozzi advanced to the main principles o"f UN system of moral . lucation. . . . H,-says — -Nature develops all the human faciiliii'-s bv I'ractice. and their growth depemls im their exer- cise. • The cinle of knowledge commences close around n man, and thence extends concentrically. ' ■rofte lint the f:iriiltics ,.f children into I'iic remote paths of knowle<lge, until thev have L-ained strength by exercise on things that are near them. ' ' riiere is in Nature an order and march of de- 4U I': velopment. If you illsturb or interfere with It, you mar the peace and harmony of the mind And this you do, if, before you have formed the mind by the progressive knowledge of the reali- ties of life, you fling it into the labyrinth of "IT'*' ""'' '""■"-' ""'"' "'e l>«sisof developmect ' • The artiflcial march of the onlinary school an- ticipating the order of Nature, which pr<K'et.ds without anxiety and without haste, inverts this order by placing words first, and thus secures a deceitful appearance of success at the expense of natural and safe development.' In these few sentences we recognis.; all that is most charac- tenstic m the eihuational principles of Pesta- lozzi. ... To set the intenectiial naehinerv in motion — to make it work, and keep it working; that was the sole object at whi< h he aimed; of all the rest he toeik litth' account. ... lie re- lied u|Kai a principle which must be insisted on as cardinal and ess<'ntial in education He secured Ihe thorough interest of ids pupils in the lesson, and mainly through their own direct share in it . . Observati..n, . . according to Pestalozzi (and Bacon had said the .same thing iM'forc him) IS the absolute basis of all knowledge, aii<l is therefore the prinii' ai^c^nt in . lementarv educa- tion. It IS ;:rouiid this theory, as a centre of i.'mvity, that Pestalozzi's system revolves."— J I'mviic, /.,rt\ ,,i, t/„i I/i,t. „f t:.:-ii;ttwu. Let. ft — •■ Uuiiiig the short period, not ..'"re than a year, which Pestalozzi sp. nt among the chil- dren at Slanz. lie S(tilfd th- main features of the Pestalozzian system. .-iickiM -.s broke out ani'Mi; the children, and th( wear and tear was t.M, great even for Pestalozzi. lie would probably have sunk under his. iroits it tlie Kreiich. pres,sed by the Austrians, luxl n.t enti're<l Stanz in .laniiary. 17111), and taken part of the L" rsuline ( onv.'iit for a miliiary hospital. Peslahizzi was Ilierefnn-, ..lili-ud to break up the .school, and he himself Willi to a medicinal spring' on theOurnl- .gcl in the Canton Bern. . . . He came down from the Giiniii:el. and bigan to leach in the primary sclii«i|s li. e., schc.ls f,.r children from f- If to eight viarsoliDof liurgdorf, the second t.iwn in the (anion. Here the director was jeal- ous of him, and he met witli much i.pposiiion. . . . Inlessthana yca.-Pcsialozzi lrf( ll.is.schooi in bad heahli, and joined Kriisi in opi nin.'anew school in Biir-dorf Casilr. for which he after- ward (I so-Ji ohiaincd (Jin.Tiimeiit aid. Here he " isassislrd in carrying out his system by Krllsl, Tolilcr, and Blu-s. He now eiiil,. idled" the re- sults of his experience in a work wiiich has ob- tained great cclelirily — • How (icrtriide Teaches lier t'hil.lrcii ' [als,> published in Kiiirlaml under the tiilc of •l.iuiiard and Gertrudc'J. In 1W)3 Pestalo/zi. tor once in his life a successful and popular man. was elected a member of a deputa- tion sent by tlic .Swiss people to Paris. (In the rest.irali.in of the Cantons in 1S04, the Castle of Burt'dorf was again oecu]iied by one of the chief miiLi^lratcs, and Pestalozzi and'hisestjiblishment were moved to ilu- .'\louasiery of Biichsee. Here Hie teacliers gave the priniipal direction to an- other, the since celebnited Kelleiibunr. ' not with- out my consent,' says Pestalozzi, • but to my profound mortification.' He therefore sixin ac- <epted an invitjition from the inhahitaiita of Yverdun lo open an insiitution tliere, .and within a twelvemonth he was followed by his old assist- ants, who had found government by Felleiiburg less to their taste than uo-govemmenl bv Pesta- l\% roo EDUCATION. nuHtpMr 1 tion if Woman. BDUCATIOK. loui. The Treidun Institute had »oon a world- wide reputation. PestalozizUn teachers went from It to Madrid, to Nap), to St. Petereburg. Elnn and phlloaophets Jolneil In doing It honor. But, ai Pestalozzi hlnuelf has testified, these praises were but as a laun-l-wreatb encircling a skull. The life of the PestaloMlan Institutions had been the love which the old nuin had Infused Into all the members, teachers as well as chil- dren; but this life was wanting at Yverdun. The establishmont was much too Targe to be car- ried on successfully without more method and discipline than Pestalozzi, remarkable, as he himself says, for uis ' uorivaUed Incapacity to govern," was master of. The assistants began each to take his own line, and even the outward show of unity was soon at an end. . . . Thus thf sun went down In clouds, and the old man, when he died at the age of eighty. In 1827, had seen the apparent failure of all his tolls. He had not, however, falleil In reality. It has been said of him that his true fortune was U) educate Ideas, not children, and when twenty years later the centenary of his birth was celebrated by school- masters, not only In bis native country, but throughout Germany, It was found that Pesta- lozzlan Ideas had Iwen sown, and were bearing fruit, over the greater part of central Europe. — R H. Quick, S$mgt on Bdueational Brformen, eh. S. ^ ^ A. D. 1804-1B91.— Co-educatioa and the Hirher Education of Women in the United States.— " When to a few lUring minds the con- viction came that education was a right of per- sonality rather than of sex, and when there was added to this growing sentiment the pressing de- mand for educated women as teachers and as leaders in philanthropy, the simplest means of €'<i'iipplnK women with the needful preparation was found in the existing schools and colleges. ... In nearly every StaU- west of the Alli-gha- nles, ' Universities had Uva founde<l by the voluntary tax of the whole population. Con- nectwl with all the more powerful religious de- nominations were »clii«>U and colleges which called upon their adherent* for glft-s and students. These democratic institutions had the vigor of youth. an<l were amliillou.H and struggling. 'Why.'asktil tlie practical men ol ailuirs who controlled them, 'aliould not our daughters go on with our sons from the public sch(M)l» U) the university which wo are sarrificing to equip and maintain t ' It is not strange that with this and much more practical reasoning of a similar kinil, CO e<tucation was established In some colleges at their Iwglnnlng, in others after dclwte, and by a railical change in p<illey. When once the chiv- alrous desire was aroused to give girls as good an eilucallim as their brothers. Western men car- rieil out the principle unflinchingly. From the kindergarten Ut thv preparation for the doctorate of philosophy, e<liicatioimloii|)ortunitles are now practtrally alike for men and women. The total numlu'r of tuUeges of arts and sciences emp<iw- ered by law to give degn«s, reporting to Wash- ington In IHHri, was three hundred and eighty- nine. Of these, twohundredand thirty -s<'ven. or nearly two-ttdrds, were co etiucationsf. Among them are nearly all the HtatA unlvenitles, and nearly all the colleges under the patronage of the ProU-aiaul aevU. ttillicrU) 1 havo gpi.kea as If co-education were a Western movement ; and In the West It oerUlnly has bait greater cumncy than elsewhere. But it originated, at least so far as concema superior secondary training, hi Maaaachuietts. Bradford Academy, chartered In 1804, is the oldeat incorponted Institution in the country to which boys and girls were from the flnt admitted ; but It closed ita department for boys in 1888. three yean after the foundation of co-educational Oberlln, and in the very year when Mount Holyoke was opened by Mary Lyon, In the Urge hope of doing for young women what Harvard ba<l been fcunded to do for young men Just two hundred yeara before. Ipswich and Abbot Academies in Hassachusetta had already been chartered to educate girls alone. It has been the dominant sentiment in the East thav boys and giris should be educated separaU'ly. The older, more generously endowed, more eon- servative seata of learning, inheriting the rom- plicatlonsof the dormitory system, have remained closed to women. ... In the short period of the twenty years after the war the four women's colleges which are the richest In endowments and studenta of any In the world were founded and set In motion. These colleges — Vassar, o|H'ned In 1885, Wellesley and Smith hi 1875, and Hryn Mawr in 1885 — have received in gifta of every kind about $6,000,000, and are educating nearly two thousand students. For the whole country the Commissioner of Education reporta two hun- dred and seven institutions for the superior in- struction of women, with more than twenty-flve thouaand studenta. But these resources pn)vtil inadequate. There came an Increasing demand, especially from teachera, for e<lucation of all sorU. ... In an attempt to meet a demand of this sort the Harvard Annex began tw-lve years ago [In 1879] to provide a few women with in- struction from members of the HarvanI faculty. . . . Barnard College In New York Is an annex of Columbia only In' a sense, for not all her in struction Is given by Columbia's tj^aching fonf. though Columbia will confer degni'S uimmi her graduates. The new woman's college at Clcvr- land sustains temporarily the same relations to Adelbert College, though to a still greater extent she provides indepenilent Instruction,"— A. R Palmer, Rmea of tht Higher Rtuailion nf Wimun ( Woman and th* Higher BtuAiU.m. pp. 105-137).- "The Cleveland College f- • Women, Cleveland, Ohio, was first oiiened for instruction in 1888 as a department of Western Heserve lint- veralty. At the same time the trustees of the university dechled to receive no more women into Adelbert College. That the success of the new school might lie assured, the faculty of Adelbert College genero\i«ly offered tliiir iiTvires for a U'rm of years as instrurtora. Durinit the flrat year twenty three young women wirr ml mitu-<l, but two of whom were In the n'gulsr courses. During 188»-90 the number of slmlinU imreased to thirty eight. ... In 18H7 Kvilyn College, an Institution for women, was .iixiied at Princeton, N. J. lU location at this place gives the institution very great advantagi'M. iiias^ much as the use of the libraries and museums of the College of New Jersey, popularly known as I»rinceUm College, are granUtl Ui the sluilrnts.' — U. H. Coram r of Education, /fejiwrf, ix^v W), ». a, p. 744— 'The latest report of the IniiH States Commissioner of Education contahis over iwo hundred iastiluliuiia tvf thr 5'!p*=Hi-.r rs.uj-ii^ tion of women. The list Includes colleges and teminariei sntltled lu confer degrees, and a f«« 770 EDUCATION. «ViMM<mdM< KUuUrgarttH. IDCCATIOIT. ■emlnsriM, whote work is of equal merit, which do not rive degreea. Of then more than two bondred inititutions for the education of women eicludveljr. onlv 47 are situated within [western states]. ... Of these 47, but 80 are chartered with autliority to confer degrees. . . . The ex- tent to which the higher education of women is in tite West identified with co-education, can be seen by comparing the two statements above given. Of the total 813 higher institutions re- ceiving women, and of the total 198 such institu- tions which confer the regular degrees in arts, science, and letters, upon their graduates, 165 are oo-educational. . . . Among colleges character- ized from birth by a liberal and progressive spirit may be mentioned 'The Cincinnati Wes- leyan Woman's College.' This institution was chartered in 1842, and claims to be ' the first lib- eral collegiate institution in the world for the exclusive education of women. ' . . . The West is committed to coeducation, excepting only the Roman Catholic, the Lutheran, and the Protest- ant Episcopal sects,— which are not yet, as sects, committed to the collegiate education of women at all, — and the Presbyterian sect, whose support, in the West, of 14 co-educational col- leges against 4 for the separate education of young men, almost commits it to the co-educa- tional idea. ... In 1853, Antioch College was opened at Yellow Springs, O. It was the first endeavor In the West to found a college under Christian but non-sectarian auspices. Its presi- dent, Horace Mann, wrote of it: 'Antiorh Is now the onlv first-class college In all the West that is really an unneruriau institution. ' . . . Antioch was from the first avowedly coeduca- tionaL"— M. W. Sewall, Biiuation of Women in the WetCern Statt§ {Woman'i Work in Am., pp. 61-70)— "Most i)eople would probably be ready to say that eici-nt for the newly fiiumled Woman's College in Baltimore and Tulane Uni- versity [Sute university of Louisiana], the col- legiate txiucation of women does not exist in the South. But ns matter of fact, there are no leas than one hundred and fiftv institutions in the South which are authorizeil by the Legislatures of their respw'tlve 8taU'S to confer the regular college degn-es upon women. Of tliese, forty- one are co-etiueational, eighty -eight are for women alone, and twenty-one are for colored persons of both sexes. The bureau of education malies no attempt to go buliiud the venitct of the Wtale Legislatures. l)ut on looking over the catalogues of all these institutions It is, as might have been expected, easy to sec that the great majority of them are not in any degree colleges, in the or- dinary sense of the wonl Not a single one of the so-called female colleges pn'sents a real col- lege course, and many of the ro v<lui-allonal ecij. Ieg<!s are colleges only in name. "—C. L, franklin. Muialiun nf Wnmin in tlu SmttKern StiXU* {Woman'* Work in Am., ftp. S3-iM). A. D. lli«-il9a.-Fro<b«l and tha Kinder- f«rttn.— "F^^brl (Krii-drich Wllhelm August) was bom April 81, 1788. at OIierweissliaiTi, In the prinrlpalltv of Srhwarsburg-lludolaUiit Ills mother ilird when he was so young 'i»t he never even rememlirrtil her; ami he was left to the care ' an ignorant maid-of all-work, who slinplv ^.ivided forhlslKxIlly wants. , . . Not uotll h? was trn yrarr trf igr: tlhl be fctxirr the •Ughtatt regular instruction. He was then sent to tCBoij, lo ao uncle who llvtd la tb the Ml(hbor- hood. ... He pronounced the boy to be Idle (which, from his point of view, was quite true) and lazy (which certainly was not true) — a boy, in short, that you could do nothing with. . . . It was necessary for him to earn hb bread, aiid we next find him a sort of apprentice to a wooda- man in the great Thuringian forest. Here, as he afterward tells us, he lived some years in cordial intercourse with nature and mathematics, learn- ing even then, though unconsciously, from the teaching he received, how to teach others. . . . In 1801 he went to the University of Jena, where he attended lectures on natural history, physics, and mathematics; but, as he tells us, gahied lit- tle from them. . . . This . . , was put an end to by the failure of means to sUy at the Univer- sity, For the next few years he tried various occupations, . . , While engaged in an arehl- tecfs oBlce at Frankfort, he formed an acquaint- ance witU the Rector of the Model School, a man named Gruner, Uruner saw the capabilities of Frteliel, and detected also his entire want of in- ten-st in the work that he was doing ; and one day suddenly said to him : ' Give up your archi- tect 's business; you will do nothing at it. Be a teacher, W e want one now In the school ; you shall have the place, ' This was the turning point in FrcEhcl's life. He accepted the engagement, began work at once, and tells us that the first time he found himself in the midst of a class of 30 or 40 boys, he felt that he was in the element that he had iniaae<i so long— 'the fish was in the water' He was inexpresisibly happy. ... In a calmer mood he severely questioned himself as to the means by which he was to satisfy the de- mands of his new ptmition. About this time he met Willi some of PeHtalo7.zi's writings, which BO deeply impressed him that ho deU-rmincd to fo to Vvcniun and study Pestalozzl on the spot. Ic accomplished hi.s purpose, and lived and worked for two years with PestalozzI, His ex- p<-rience at Yveniun impresseti him with the conviction that the science of e<lucation had still to draw out fmm Pestalozzi'a system those fun- danunul principles which Pestalozzi himself did not comprehend. 'And therefore, ' savs Schmidt, • this gi'nial disciple of Pestalozzi supplemented lil,H sysu-m by advancing from the point which Pestalozzi hail reached through pressure fnim without, to the Innermost coiiceptidii of man, and arriving at the tliouglit of the true devi l.p- nienl and culture of mankind.', , . Ills cuu.;»- tlonal career commence<l Novenilier 13th, 1816, In Urelsheim. a little village near Stailtllm, in Thuringia; but In 1817, when his PesUlozzlan friend, Mlddemlorf, Joined him . . . the sch(M)l was trannferriKl to the iH'autiful village of Kelt- hail, near Kuilolstadt. which may lie consiilere<t OS hU chief stjiriingplacv, , , , lisngenthal, an- other IVstalozzian, aasoclate<l himself with them, ami they comniemiHl building a house. "The numlrr of pupils ros<' to twelve in 1818, Then the daughter of wsr counselor lIolTman of Ber- lin, from enthusiasm for Fneliel's educational ideas, lieeame his wife. She had a considerable dowry, which, together with the accession of KnrlK'i's I'Ider brother. Increased the funds and welfare of the M-hool, In 18;lt he was Invited by the comiioser, Srhnyder von Wartenare. to erect a similar garden on his estate, near the take nf Scmpach, in the canton Lazcni. U was dons. Frabel changed bis reatdence the next year, from Ketlbau to Switiertand, In 18S4 the govemmenl I 11 771 BDUCATIOK. tfu Xtodtrgarteit. EDUCATION. of Bern invited him to untuige a training courae for teachers in Burgdorf. In 1885 he became Krincipal of the orphan asylum in Burgdorf, but 1 1R36 he and his wife wished to return to Ger- many. There he was active in Berlin, Keilhau, Blanlienburg. Dresden, Liebenstein in Thuringia, Hamburg, (1849.) and Marienthal, near Lieben- stein, where lie livni until his decease in 1892, among the young ladies, whom he trained as nurses for the kindergarten, and the little chil- dren who attc,..dcd liia schcml." — 11. Barnard, «f. PctjtfTton Froebel't KindergarUn: Memoir. — "The child thinks only through symbols. In other wonls, it explains all it sees not by the recorded experience of others, as does an adult, but by marehnline and comparing its own concept or symbol of what It has itsilf seen. Ita sole ac- tivity is play. 'The school begins with teach- ing the conventionalities of intelligence. Froet)cl would have the younger children receive a sym- bolic education in plays, games, and occupations which symlKilize the primitive arts of man.' For this purpose, the child is led through a scries of primitive occupations in plaiting, weaving, and modeling, through games and dancea,whicli bring into play all the social relations, and through songs and the simple use of number, form and language. The 'gifts' all play their manifold purpose, inspiring the child, awakening Its in- terest, leading the Individual along the path the race has trod, and teaching social self-control. The system has its palpable dangers. The bet- ter and more Intricate the to<il, the more skill needed 111 Its safe use. . . . The klmlercartcn renuins triiined hands. With trivial teachers its ni<ilioil» may easily degcnenite Into mere nmustment, and thwart "all tendency to attention, anplicatlon, or Industry. Vnhmblc as It Is In Its hints for the ciiri' nn(l development of children, it.i L'liy round iiiedH to be ballasted with the pur- pose and theory upperniiwt in KhwIk'I's mind when lie opened Ills first selnsil in a Oemian p<iisnnl vllliiL'e. ilowii wliose nmln stri'et a brook tuinlileil, and tliro>i).'h \vIioki> lanes the hnllierclier still \viilk(sl liy nli;lit and sani; the hours. It is Idle to suppose tliut FMelsi foundeil a iMTfeet systi'ni. or to insist on all the di'lnils of the pro feasloiml kiniliTrfartner s creed Here as else- where, and m! Tetline, it has taken only forty years from tlie founder's deatli for f.iith to de generate into relluion and wet. Hut the icnlril purpost' lie had in view must tn' stendllv main tained. lie sou^'lit his ends thniiigh pluy. and not llirouKh work It i^ as dangerous for this metlioil to hanlen Ini" m appMiuh to the pri niary seliisil as It Is fnr it to soften Into a riot of mlsnile. and lax oliservanee iif nriler. . Swil zerlaml. then tlie only npiihlii' In Kimipe. was the tirsi eciiiiilry to' adopt Fnu'liel's liielliod, thoiiilh in sniiie Swiss towns the kindergarten is still »u' ■ r'.il !iy priviiti' as.siH'latlons Kmnee, •nolle lilic, has more ililldren iH/iniilntr srhool an nilaptation of hVis'lol \\\nn all the rest I world put foi;ither It was Knie- N'i's own ..pinion that 'the spirir of American natioii.illty was tlie only one li lie worlil with which his nietlioil was in coinp^ i' harmony, ami to which its legiiininte inatitiilioiis would pnsent no Imrriers. ' The ngun-s given Im'Iow of the growth of the kinileritarta'n In \\\\* country nri' the IrtTTri [n«-!li'ic jTf-.TTif nt lllr tfiiUi of Kr-rr-'n-i'-: premHrnt assertion. . In 1M70 ihi're were in this country only live kindergarten scliuoN, ami In 1873 the National Education Association at its Boston meeting appointed a committee whi'^h reported a year later recommending the system. Between 1870 and 1873, experimental kinder- gartens were established in Boston, Cleveland, and St. Louis, public attention was enlisted by the efforts of Miss Elizabeth Palmer Pealiody, the most important worker in the early history of the kindergarten in this country, and the system iH'gan a rapid growth. Taking private and piili- 11c kindergartens together, the advance of the system hai displayed this most rapid progress, isrs two ifws i«!)i-2 Schools 95 23-i 413 l.iiui Teachers 216 B24 Wfi VHi Pupils 2,809 8,871 18,781 !50,4-2;i Down to 1880, these figures, outside of fit. Louis. R'late almost altogether to private schools Hy 1883 the public kindergartens were ni.i ovira fifth In number of the schools, and held nut over a fourth of the pupils. In the figures last given in this table there are 724 private kinderpiriiiis with 1,517 teachers and 29.3.57 pupils, and T', public kindergartens with 7'25 teachers and 'Jl.mW pupils, so that the latter have now 27 per cent, of the schools. 88 p<'r cent, of the teachers, and 42 IKT cent, of the pupils. . . . Vet great as is tliis advance, the kimiergarti'n as yet plays but an infinitesimal part in our educational systi'in as a whole. ... Of the sixteen Anieriean cities with a populatkmof over '2(N>.(HH) In 1890. only f.air- Philadeliihia, Boston, Milwaukee, and St. Louis — have incorponited the kindergarten on iiny large scale in their pulillc-schisil systems. Fmir more — New York, Clilciig<i, Bnsiklyn, and Hnl falo — have kindergarten associations or;.'aiii7.ni to introduce the new method as a part of free public education."— T. Williams, Tlie h'in'l,r- giirlen Man 1114' iit (The Cfiituri/, J,in., WW)). A. D. 1865-1883.— The Higher Education of Women in England. — The movement in V.m: land to secure a higher isiucalion for wmiien dates from 18H.';. "In that year a Koyal Coin missiim was appointed to inquire Into and n pnrt on the endowed gramnmr scIhmiIs of Kiil'1:oii1 and Wales, and on what Is calli'd 'see"ncl:o\ educati(>n generally. S<'Veral ladles who wen- alreadv alive to the defirleneit>H In the e'liiealioii of their own si'X, inemoriall/.ed this ('oiiiniisNi,<a to extend tlie scope of its imiiiiry lo ;;lih' sclusils. and the t'oininlsslnii laklii),' n hat was then thoiiKlit i|uite a Uild hle|>. eoiwiiie'l to do so. . . One of the (loliits liroii.-lii <iui was tile ahstiiee of any insliliitiuiis doiiu' ' 1 WMiiieii wliat the universities did fur men, tiii.l the eoii«niieiil dillhiilly in whieli «<iin( 11 -Ilbi of ohtaining the highest kind of i<l<i<:iiiun -n dlllleiilty which told on iiirls' »ilii«'li hy iiiakini; it b.'inl for them to prisnre tlii)ri'iiL;lily coni|Htent nilstnsws. This led in tln' euiir-e if the next year or two — the report nf 'he Ccnn mission having iH'cn pulillshed In IWH -In ili'' establishment of a rolleite for women, wliii h « i» first placed 111 llitehhi. a town on tin' tit. a Xorllieni llailway. Is'twien Lonilon ami t'on bridge, and In a little while, wlnii neaiiv hil Issn collected siitllrUnt fur tlie eni tloimf liiiilil Ings. this college was tliially selthd at (lirtoii 1 s|iot about twii miles front CaniliridKe, whiri" It takes the uaiiie of Olrton College. lu pur t-~- Wri- !■• pr-'V',-!- f..r •*•--!;■,<-•! iSk' a^w^- -.^ -l-. IIIK In the same aiilijeets as men reti-ive in I iiii bridge I'ulversity, and tlie teachers wen' marly EDCCATION. Education of Women in fhgbind. EDUCATION. kll of them profeaaon or tuton there, men in some cages of high eminence. Meanwhile, in Cambridge itself, a system of day classes for women, taught by University teachers, had been created, at first as an experiment for one year only. When several years had passed, when" the number attending had increased, and it was found that women came to lodge in Cai. '■ridge in order to profit by these lectures, a hou^c was hired in which to receive them, ami ultimately a company was formed and a building erected a little way out of Cambridge, under the name of Newnham Hall, to which the lectures, now mainly designed for these students coming from a distance, were attached. Tims, at about the same time, though from somewhat different ori- gins, Girton and Newnham came into Ix'ing and began their cnursc of friendly rivalry. Uoth have great ly developed since then. Their build- ings have Immh reiteatedly enUtrged. Their num- bers have ri.wn steadily, ... In Girton the charge for lodging. iKinrdand instruction islllmi per annum, in Newnham a little less. The life in both is very similar, a laily being plaecil at the head as resident principal, while the affairs are managed bv a co littee including l>oth niin ami women. The lectures are delivered partlv by Cambriilge men. professors in the Universitv. or tutors or lectun'rs in 8.>ine of the colleges, partly by lailies. who, having once iM^en studiiiLs them«'lves, have come bark as teachers. These IfK'tures cover all the subjects reijidn'd in the degree cxamiiialions of the University ; and ul though students are not obliged to enter them selves f(.r llitwe examinations, they are crKLiir- ageil to do so. and do mostly set the examiii ui.ms twfore them as their goal. Originally th.- Uni Tcrsity t(M)k no ollleial ui>llee of the wonuii Mu dents, and their being examineil by the n irular decree examiners of the ^ 'versilv was a niallir of pure favor on the part of tliixK' gentlemen. ... At last, liowever, some examiiiirs came Into otllce (for the examiners are cliauited every two ye.irs) who (Ii8appn)vtil of this informal e\ amiualion of the women eamlidales. and arionl Ingly a iin)po»id was made to the I'Miversiiv that it slio\dd formally authorize and imiMise on llii' examiners the fiuietion heretofori' discharL'i d bv them in llii-ir indiviclnal capacity. 'Iliis pni posid. iifier some discussion and op|M)»iriiin, was carried, so that now w.imen may enter li..tii for the honor exaniiiiallons anil the pass i \amiiia lions for the Inivirsliy ihgret- as a malt, r nf right. Tlu ir mimes do not ap|K'sr in the ollli iai lists among timsi' of the nun. but sepamiilv. thiy are. liowever, testeil bv tlie same (piesiiun paiKTS and jiidgnl hy the same stanilanl. . Home Oxfopl graduates ami Heir frienils. stimu mliil by the success of (iirloii and .Newnham. haxe fouiideil two similar inslilulions In Oxfinl one of whidi, Kplsiopallan and iiid I lliL'h I'hureli in its proclivities, is called Ijidy .Xlur imt Hall, while the other, in eompllnienl to the lali' Mrs ,s..mervllle, has txiii given llie title i.f S..inervllU Hal! Tbes.- establislimi nn an' eoudnetisl on much the same lines as Hie t«.i Cambridge ■■.■Ueges .In the Urge t.nvm «l«re new ii.lleges linve lieen latelv founded or courses of hclurm i-slablished. sueli as Mam he» •"•r. I.iver|MNil, and Ussls, steps are iisiialU (.iknii.-i prnviiif i,.iiire. f..i w eu. . . Wiiai Is called among you the (piestlon of co-e<lu(aliun has come up very little in Enirland All the lectures given inside the walls of the four Eng- lish colleges I have mentioned are, of course, given to women only, the colleges being lust as exclusively places for women as Trinity and St. Johns are places for men. ... At this moment the principal of one of the two halls of which Newnham consists is a daughter of the Prime Minister [Miss Helen Glatistone], while her pre- deces.sor was a niece of the Marquis of Salisbury. The principal of Girton is a niece of the late Loni Lawrence, the famous Governor-General of India. Of the students a fair proportion belong to tlie wealthy c1bs8<>s, while a somewhat larger proportion mean to take teaching as their profes- sion."— f'/v-<//v/«inf/'f„„ife EdHoition in Eng {Xa- tiuii, ,1'itnT,. isjs3)._Sh', also, above, 8<'oti,\m> .xT;?: '8*5-1893— Induitrtal Education in the United States.—- In IH6.5 .[ohn B<iyntonof Templeton, .Mass.. gave * 100,000 for the endow- ment and perpetual support of a Free Institute for the yoiitli of Wor. ester Coimty, Mass He thus explained his objwts: 'The aim of this s<h(K)l shall ever l)e the instruction of youth in those branches of education not usuallV taught in the public schisils, which arc essential and iM'st adapted to train tlie voung for practical life'; es|K'eially such as were intending to be mediaiiics, or manufacturers, or farmers. In furtherance of this object, ten months later, in 18tifl. lelialHsl Washburn of Worci'ster gave $i.5.- OIKI. and latcT lllo.OiHI niiire to erect, iM|Uip, and endow a iniwhine shop which shoulil iieconi- niiHlate twenty apprentices and a so'lalilenumUr of skilled workmen to iiistriut tin ami to carrv on the shop as a commercial eslablislimint. Thi- a|>pnnlii( s wen' to be taught the use of tisils in working wikhI anil metals, and to be otherwise iiistrmted. much as was custJimarv tlfty years ago for boys learning a trade. Tile Worcester Krie Institute was o|M'neil for students in No- \emlsr. isiw. as a technical sclii»)l of nls>ut col- liiTe grade, and the usi' of the sliops and shop iii«lriiiti(m was limited to those students in the course of mechanical entrineerinir. Thus diil the Worcester SehiHil uiidi r ilie hadership of I'nsf. »'. O. Thompson incorporate toolinstructi.in ami shop-practice into the traiiiiii!; of meihaiiiial emrlneers, , , . In the Rime \iar, l'<(W, Viitur Dilla-Vosinlrodine.l into the (iii|iirial Teehnieal leii^ineerlng) .Sh.sil at .M.ise.ov the Kiisslan metliisl of class-iiisinictioii in the uw- of tisils. . , . The great value of the work of Deila-Vos lay in Hie diseoverv of the true in, iImkI of tooi- Instruction, lor wiiliuul his ilisioury the later steps wiMild have Iseii iiiii«>ssil>|e. In ih;ii_ under the diniiion of I'rof. hohin.son aiiil I'rest J. .M On-irnry of the iMivirsiiy of llliimls. a wisiil working shop was added id the appliances for the ( ourse in areliltei lure, niel an iron-work- liii.' shop to the eoiirsi' ill mechanical enginwring in ihai institution. In IsTl, the ."Elevens Idstr lute of llolsiken. N. .1.. miinlllcentlv endiiwe<l by 1; Iwiii .\. Stevens, as a siIhhiI of niethanical engiiKi riug. tilted up a series of shops for the use of its (•tiidiiits. The next slen birwanl was taken by Washington I niversiiy In .S| l.oids in ppividing for all its enirineeriiig slmhnls tys- teniMiic liistrui'ilon In Isitli wissi and melnis In \'*Vi. a large shop in the I'olyti'chnic McIhsiI was eiiuii.iM'd with Work liemiies'. two U'-hes. a fiirge, a irear culler and ttiil B«ts ot cariK'nters', ma- cliiiiisis', anil r.iri;lng tiH>ls . . . Tliiis far had »e pMgressi-d when the riilladelpliia Exposition r?.-] EDUCATION. Iiid«t«riii< AliHsaMm. EDUCATION. •f 187A wu opened. None of ug knew anything of the MoKow school, or of the one in Bohemia in which the Runian method bad been adopted in 1874. . . . In hi« report of 1876, Prest. J. D. RunUe, of the Maw. Inititute of Technology, gare a full exposition of the theory and practice of tool-instruction of Delia- Vos as exhibited at the Philadelphia Exposition, and he recommended that wiuiout delay the course in mechanical engineering at the Institute be completed by the addition of a series of Instruction Shops. The suggestion was acted on, and in the spring of 1877 a class of mechanical engineering students was given instruction in chipping and filing. . . . The St. Louis Manual Training School was established June 6, 1879. It embodied hopes long cherished and plans long formed. For the first time in America the age of admission to school-shops was reduced to fourteen years as a minimum, and a very general three-years' course of study was organized. The ordinance by which the school was established specified its objects In very general terms: — 'Its objects shall b« In- struction in mathematics, drawing, and the Eng- lish branches of a high-school course, and In- struction and practice in the use of tools. The tool-instruction, as at present contemplated, shall include carpentry, wood-turning, puttern-mak- ing, iron clipping and filing, forge- work, brazing and soldering, the use of machine-shop tools, and such other instruction of a similar character, as It may be deemed advisable to add to the fore- going from time to time. The students will divide their working hours, as nearly as possible, equally Iwtwecn mental and manual exercises.' . . . the Baltiino'-'' Manual Training School, a public schiKil, oil I.' same footing as the high school, wasopencd .n 1888. The Chicago Manual Training School e: lablished as an incorporated school by the (Commercial Club of that city, was opt'ne<l in January, 1884. . . . Manual training was intnxluced into the high school of Eau Claire, Wisconsin, in 1884. The ' Scott Manual Train- ing School ' was organized as a part of the high school uf Toledo in 18H4. . . . Manual training was introduced Into the College (high school) of the City of New York in 1884. The Philadelphia Manual Training School, a public high school, wa» opened In 8epl»'inlM'r, XHHU. The Omaha high school IntriMliiciHl manual training In 188A. . , . Dr. Ailler's Worklngman's 8<'hiH>l for poor children has for several years taught manual training to the very lowest grailes. . . . The Clevi'la id Manual Training School was Incorpo- rated In IWt.t, and opeiie<i In connection with the city high school. In 1884. New Haven, which bad for some time encouraged the use of tools by the pupils of several of lis grammar schools. In Sep- tember, 1886. opened a regular shop and fur- nished systematic Instruction In tool-work. The school Ixwrd of Chicago added manual training to the course of the ' West Side High ScbooP In Biptemhcr, 1886 "—C. M. WiKxiward, TA* Mnniuil Triiining %*«<<. ch. 1. — "Concerning the manual'tnlnink school there are two widelv different views. The one Insists that It shall teach no trade, but the rudiments of all of them . the other that the particular Industries mav pr<i|)erly be held to maintain schools to recruit their own ranks. The lint would teach the use of the aid, tbfi saw, tfao plane, the iummrr, tho square, the chisel, and the file; claiming that ' the graduate from such a course at the end of three yean is within from one to three months of knowmg quite as thoroughly as an apprentice who h^ served seven yeara anv one of the twenty trades to which he may choose to turn.' Of this class are, besides most of those already named, the Halsh Ifanual Training School of Denver; thatof Tulane University, New Orleiinsj the Felix Adier's Worklngman's School, of New York City ; and the School of Manual Technol- ogy, Vanderbllt University, Nashville. Among schools of the second class are some Interesting institutions. They include the numerous gcnenu and special trade-schools for boys, instruction in the manifold phases of domestic economy for girls, and the yet small but rapidly growing class of industries open alike to both. Sewing Is taught In public or private schools in Baltimore, Boston, Cincinnati, Chicago, New York, Phila- delphia, Providence, St. Louis, and atmut a dozen other cities, besides in a number of special In- stitutions. Cooking-schools are no longer a novelty in half as many of the larger cities, since their mtroductlon Into New Y'ork city in 1876. Printing may be learned In the Kansas Agricul- tural College; Cooper Union, New York; Olrard College, I%lladelphia, and elsewhere. Teleg- raphy, stenognpby, wooii-cngraving, varinm kinds of smithing, and carpentry, have, especinlly the last two, numerous representatives. The New York Kitchen Garden, for the instruction of children in the work of the household, is an in- teresting modification of the Kindergarten along the Industrial line. For young ladies, the Eliza- beth Aull Seminary, Lexington, Missouri. Is a school of home-work. In which 'are practically taught the mysteries of the kitchen and laundry,' and upon whose graduates is conferred the decree of ' Mistress of 1 lome- Work. ' The Lasell Semin- ary at Aubumdale, Massachusetts, also has recently (1885) undertaken a similar but more comprehensive experiment. Including lessons ami lectures in anatomy and physiology, with hygiene and sanitation, the principles of common law by an eminent attorney. Instruct ion and practiie in the arts of domestic life, the principles of dress, artistic house-fumlshing, healthy homes, ami ciNiklng. Of training schools for nurses there are thirty-one. ... Of schools of a different character still, there have been or are the Carris)^ Builder's Apprenticeship School, New York; those of Hoe A Co., printing-press manufsc- turen; and Tiffany Jk Co., jewelers; ami the Tailon' ' Trades School ' recently pst«l)ll»lie(l and flourishing in llaltlmore, besides the PennKvlvania Rallmad novitiate system, at Altoona : in which particular trades or guilds or corporatiims have sought to pn>vide then<M'lves with a dlHtitiet and specially trained cli>,j of artisans. Tim laU'St and In some n-s|)ects the most Interesting eiiM'ri ment of the kind Is that uf the ' ilaltlniciri' ami Ohio Kallroail service ' at Ml Clare, Ualllmnr.- It was Inauguralitl In Ih.m'v, apprvntln-s IkIdi; selected from aiiplUanta liv nimpelitive (•zaniiim tlon." — R O. Ifcxine, Kilufition in the Vnilnl Sloft'S, M. 18. A. D. iS7J-iM9.— Uaivtraitw Eattnsion in BaglMld.— " The Unlvenlty Extension Move ment, which has now been before the nntnlry eighteen yeara, has revMled the existence of a ival need for larger opportunities of higher eilu- CBtinn amongst uic middle and workinr rlx^srj. From the time of Its inauguration in 1878 by ths UnlTsntty of Cambridge, owing mainly tu th« 774 KDUCATION. Univntty E£ttn§ltm. :!DUCATION. enthuaiutic sdTocacv and (kill In practical af- fain of Mr. James Stuart (at that time Fsllow and Lecturer of Trinity College), down to the preaent day, when the principle oaa been accepted by all the Universities in Great BriUin and by some in countries beyond the seas, the movement has shown marvellous vitality and power of ad- justment to changing conditions. 1 1 ^m a small beginning in three towns in the Hidlands, it has grown until the centres in connection with the various branches are to be numbered by hundreds and the students by tens of thousands. The suc- cess attained by Cambridge in the flrat three years led, in 1876, to the formation of the London Society for the Extension of University Teach- ing, for the express purpose of carrying on simi- lar work within the metropolitan area. In 1878 the University of Oxford undertook to make similar arrangements for Lectures, but aftor a year or two, they were for the time abandoned. Subsequently in 1885 the Oxford work was re- vived and has since been carried on with vigour and success. The University of Durham is as- sociated with Cambridge in this work in the north- east of England, while courses of Lectures on the £xtep«ion plan have been given for several years in connection with Victoria University in centres around Manchester. Two or three years ago the four Scottish Universities united in forming a like scheme for Scot" ad, while at the close of 1889 a Society for ;'■»- Extension of University Teaching was formed in the north of Ireland. Finally the movement has spread toOreater Brit- ain and the Unitc<l States, and there are signs that work on similar tinea is about to be esub- lished in various countries on the continent of Europe."— R D. Rolwrts. BigkUen yean of Cni- unity Extenrion, eh. 1. — " One of the chief char- acteristics of the system is the method of teach- ing adopted In connection with it. A working man at one < if the centns in the north of England who had attendpd the lectures for several tfrms, described the metliiHi as follows In a paper ri'aj by him at a meeting :— ' Any town or village which is prepared to provide an audience, and pay the necessary fees, can secure a i-ourae of twelve lectures on any subject taught in the Uni- versity, by a lecturer who has been educated at the Liilverslty, and who is specially fitted for lecturing work, A syllabus of the course is printed and put Into the hands of students. This sylUbus is a great help to persons not accustomed to note-taking. Questions are given on each lecture, and written answers can be soot in by any one. Irrespective of age or sex. All the Icc- turi'S, except the first, are preceded by a class, which lasts about an hour. In this class the stu- dents and the lecturer talk over the previous lec- ture. The written anawers are retumett with such corrections as the lecturer deems necessar}-. At the end of the course an examination is held and crrtiflcatea are awardetl to the successful can- didates. These lectuivsare called Unlversitv Ex tension Lectures.' Another definition whlcli has been given la this:—' Advanced syslcmatlr li«ch> lii( for the people, without distinction of rank, »«. or age, given by means of lectures, classes, and written papers during a connected course, oooduclwl by man " who believa in their work, •nd Intend to do It. " teachers who connect the Cuunlry with tiie Univemty by manner, method, MidinfonnatloD.'"— R D. RoUrts. Tht faissr- mty gtUniian aiKim4, l>p. 9-1. A. D. in7-i893.— UniTcrsitj EztMsion in the United States "The Srat conscious at- tempu to introduce English University Extension mc-.ods into this count-y were made in 1887, by individuals connected with the Johns Hopkins University. The subject was first publicly pre- sented to the American Library Association at their meeting upon one of the tliousand Islands in September, 1887. The idea was heartily ap- proved," and the first result of the suggestion was a course of lectures on economic questions given in one of the lecture-rooms of the Buffalo Library the following winter by Dr. Edward W. Bemis. The next wint<'r "Dr. Bemls repeated his course on ' Economic Questions of the Day ' in Canton, Ohio. . . . The Canton experiment was followed in February, 1889, by another course, conducted by Dr. Bemis, Ui connection with the Public Library at St. Louis. . . . About the time when these various experiments were being tried in St. Louis, Canton, and Buffalo, In- dividual members of Johns Hopkins University were attempting to introduce University Exten- sion methods In connection with local lectures In the city of Baltimore. . . . The idea of Univer- sity Extension in connection with Chautauqua was conceived by Dr. J. H. Vincent during a visit to England, in 1886, when he saw the English lecture system in practical operation and his own methods of encouraging home reading In grow- ing favor with university men. The first defin- ite American plan, showing at once the aims, methous, cost, and history, of University Exten- sion lectures, was drawn up at Chautauqua by the writer of this article in the early summer of 1888. . . . Contemporary wiih the development of Chautauqua College and Unlveralty Extension was the jilanol Mr. SethT. Stewart, of Brooklyn, New York, for • Unlveralty and School Exten- sion.' . . . Several public meetings were held in New York In 1889-90 for the promotion of Uni- versity and School Extension. . . . One of the most gratifying recent expcrimenta in Unlveralty Extension in America has been In the city of Philadelphia under the auspices of the American Society for the Extension of University Tiach- lug. \t various local centres Mr, Hlihanl 0. Moulton, one of the most experienced lecturer* from Cambridge. England, lectured for ten week* in the winter and spring of 1891 to large and en- thusiastic audiences. All the essential features of English Unlveralty Extension were method- ically and p<T»i(iiently carried out. . . . The American Held for Unlveralty Extension is too vast for the missionary labora of any one society or organization. . . . The most slKnificant sign of the times with reganl to Unlverslly Extension In America Is the recent appropriation of the sum of ♦10,(KH) for this very oiiject by the New York legislature. The money Is to be extx'nded under the (llri'itlon of the Itegents of the Uuivenlty of the State of New York. . . . The intention of the New York act is •imply to provide the neces- sary means for organlilng a State system of Vnivcniily Kxt«'n»ii>n , . . and to render such gi'iieral asslsUnce and co-operation aa localitie* may require."— H. B. Adams, L'nirfrnty Bllen- <i'"n in Anurita (fhnim, July. 1891). — On the <i|>enlng. in 1899. of the Chicago Unlveralty, munincently endowed bv Mr Johg T> Rocke- (I'lliT, of Cleveland. Uufverslty Extension wae matte one of the three grand dlvlilau of III orfaniiation. .1 i I ill.! 776 EDWARD. EGYPT. EDWARD, King of PartnEal. A. D. 1433- 1438. . . . Edward, called the Confeiaor, King of England, A. I>. im3-1U«.'> Edward, called the Elder, King of Weiiex, A. I>. (M)l- ffirt Edward, called the MartTr, King of Weisex, A. U. 97r> Edward I., King of England, A. I). r,>74-l:«i: Edward II., King of England, A. I). 1307-1327 Edward III., King of England, A. D. i:B7-1377 Edward IV., King of England (firit king of the House of York), A. D. Uai-14(<y Edward V , titular King of En 'and, A. I>. HM3 (from April 9, when hisfuthcr. Etlwunl IV.. iliiil, until Junt' 22. when he is beliovi'il to h:ivi' bi'iMi munlori'it in the Tower bv eommiinil of his unele. the iiiurper. Hielianl til.) Edward VI., King of England, A. I). l.-)47-l.V.:i. EDWARD, Fort: A. D. 1755.— Built by the New England troopi. See C.4N.\n.v : A. 1). 1730 (Seitembeb). A. D. 1777.— Abandoned to the British. See Cnitkd States of Am.; A. D. 1777 (.It i.v— October). * EDWIG, King of Wessez, A. D. 9.'>r>-9.'i7. EDWIN, Kingof Northumbria, A.D.617-«:«I. EGESTA. See Stuaci-se, B. C. 415-113 ; and Sirii.T : B. C. 409-4(15. EGIBI AND COMPANY. See Monet and BaSKINII : ANflE.NT, EGINA.-EGINETANS. See .«.;ina. EGMONT, Count, and the struggle in the Netherlands. See NEniERLAN'OS : A. I). I.'i<t2~ 1.5«tl. Rn.l 1.5li«-l,568. EGNATIAN WAY, The.— A Roman roa.l eonstriicted from Apollonia on the Aiirintic m the shores of the Hellespont; Hniilly larricd |,> Hvznntiuin. °EGRA: A. D. 1647 —Siege and capture by the Swedes. See Germany : A. I). l«4ti-l«4M. EGYPT. Its Names. — " Eir.rpt is dcsiffnated in the oM inscriptions, us well us in the books of the liitir Christian Ei;ypti;ins. by a wonl which siitnities the blaik lainl.' lui'l w'liidi is renil In the Eiryp tian lanKUage Keni. or Kami.* The ancients had early remarl«Hl that the enltivable • lami of E!.'v"p' "'"* '"*'■'"!?"'"'"''' ''*' i's "lark anil almost blaik colour. . . . The ni'[>:htMmring reffion of the Arabian ilesiMt bore the name of Tesher, or tlie reil land. . . . The E;;yptians dcsiirnated thcmsilves simply as the people of the black land,' and . . . the inscriptions, so far as we krb>w, have hamied down to us no other appcl lutiiin . . . .V re.'d eniiima is proposed to ns in the dirivalion and meaning of the enrious proper name by whii h the foreian peoples of .Vsia, each in its own dialid. wire acciistoimil m desiijnate Eirypt. The llelinws iravc> the land the name of Mi.rr:iini ; llir .V'^syrians .Mu/.nr ; the Persians. .Mudraya. We may fnl assiirr 1 that at the basi» of all Wir-o- il. sicrnti.m^ ilnri' lli-s an oriiiinal form which ron'.i'^ted of the three !ftt<-rs SI-/-r. all explanations of whii li have iMin us yel unsiiceessfnl, .Mthon>:li I intend hereafter to consider more partleiil.irly the derivation of this pn/zlini; name, whiih is still preserved Ht the present day in the .Vrahic appellatioi Slisr. I will heri' premise the n'mark that this name was ori^rinally applied only to a certain (letinite part of Kirypt, in the ea«l of the l>elta. which, according' to the monuments, wascovcn'd and di fendisl by m;niv '/or,' or fortresses, and wa- hence calliil in l^ivplian .Ma/or (that is, forlitiisli "- II. Hrmf«h Ibv, //i«/. i;fh:;illl>l "n ih r Ih, I'li.ininli: rl, ■>. — ■■ (lruj>uh explains \\ir name Etfvpl by ' ha ka ptali,' i e 'the preclint of I'lab ' .\s I'l lb was li«irc r-peiiallv the vikI of ,Miinplil'<, iIiIh nanu' wnuld have come from Memphis"— M Huneker, IH^f "f Snt;,i<iiiii. U. I. rh. 1, nnt,. Tie- l:e.t use of Kt ni dii-<l out In till' form ("heini in Coptic, the di «(i'ndant of the classical lanL.'uai:e. wliicht<'a''<sl to !»■ spoken a leii'iiry au'o. It siirvlvi s ainouL' us in the terms "ihemi.strv ' ami ahhemv,' wiinees !!i.;.ii;ht!^-. !>r.i-.f f■1gyp!!^n origin '—» H |':«i!r, I'ltim "f h^jniit. ill! Its Historical Antiquity.— Tlie lists of Kirv p tian kiuL'swldch have bei'n found »gTvc In pri' • A'imif in th. lilitien i^f IWil. "J senting the name of Mena or Menes as that of the Hrst I'haraob of Eirypt. and as such he i» unhisitatinu'ly acceptisl, although no cohiimi pornrv monumental record of the fact has mi Isen cliscovered. 'As to the era . . . when the rtrst riiaraoh mounted the throne, the (iernian Efryptoloffcrs have attempted to lix it at the fn| towinc: ejwK'hs; IJcH'ckh. H. (.'. 5Tu2 ; I'nL'rr. ."illi;) ; Urupsch. 44.'V> ; Lnntli. 41.'>7 ; l,cp<iu«, Itstej; Hiuisen. HH'.'M, The dilTerencc bitwun the two extreme points of the scries is aina/lri;;Iy trreat. for its nundier of years amounts to 110 I. s, than ".J'C!!. . . . The calculations in iinestioii:iie Isisisl on the extracts already often mi ntium il from a work bv the Evyptian priest Manelhi.Mii the history i>( Efiypt," That learned man li:. I then at hiseonunanil IheaimaNof his i ounin s hiitory. which were prescrvi'd in the tinipl. ■<, and from them, the Isst and most accurate siiuicc. hi' derivisl the materials for his work, mnipi'MHl in the (Jreek lancuap', on tin hi~i"ry of the aiH'lent Eiiyptian Dvuastiev Hi.; tiM.,|<, which is now li>st, containiil a p'ln ral review '<i the kinps of the land, divided into Thirt\ l>y ns'-ties. arranired in the onler of Ihcir ii:une«. Willi the lenirllis of their n'ieiw, and the Inial duration of each dynasty Tliouirh ibis iiiv.ili able work wa« little known and certainly but little rcL'ariled by the historians of llie nlii 1 la—i cal a.'e. lartje extracts were made from it by «ome of the ccclcslastlc.d writers. In pr.ses^ .,f line the copyists, cither bv error or ilesiL'nully. corrupted the names ami tfie numbers, and tliii< weonlv po«se>« at llie present day the ruiii" in stead of thccoinplete bnildiiu.' The truth .'f tic oriu'inal and the authenticity of it» miiirce* Wire tlr^l |irovcil by the di cipbetinir of the Ki;\pt ian writings. ' And lhu< tlie Mancthonlaii li^t served, and still serves, as a iruide for a^wiLoiitii: to the royal iiamci read on the nionnnienW tin ir places ill the |)vna«ti.« "--II HruL—cli lte\ , lli'l -f h'f/l/lil ■lllihr Ihr /Vl.ini../).. i-h I - See, also. M\NK'fiio. I.i^; OF — Hriii.-«<h Hevdate^tlii Hrst twelve dvnasties as follows: The Kirvt !>v:-.r.5!r of thbiis H (' !4«« !!'"!- The St'^md'; of I'hlnis : 41*1 4(Kin — The ThinI ; of Memphis :«tfin-H7fl« — The Poiirtb . of M. -n phis; 37:t:MI»«li>. — The Fifth, of Elephantine 6 EGYPT. The Earif Dynaltia. EGYPT. B566-3333. —The Sixth ; of Memphis : 8300-3066. —The Seventh to the Eleventh (a confused and obscure period) ; 3033-2300. — The Twelfth ■ of Thebes: 2466-2266. —H. Brugsch-Bey. lli$t. of Egypt under the PharaoJu, app. A.—K later reckoning from later discoveries of data, i» given by tho explorer of Egyptian aniictuities, Mr. Petrie. in the following: "We . . . have as a starting-point for our backward reckoning the accession of the XVIIIth dynasty about 1587 B. C. From this we can reckon in the dynastic data given by Mimetho ; following this account rather than the totals of reigns, as he appears to have omitted periods when dynasties were con- temporary, as in the 43 years for tlic Xlth after the close of the Xth. Thus, from the above startiug-point of l.MT B. C, we reach the fol- lowing results, solely by using material which has been discussed and settled in this history on its own merits alone, and without any ulterior reckoning in total periods. B. C. 4777 4.5U 4212 3H98 372! 3.-)03 31)32 32.V2 31116 »MI6 2S2I 2778 ynasty I. ... Ve»rs. .... 26;} 302 • III .... 214 " IV 277 " V .... 218 •• VI .... 181 (T. P ) ■• VII ... 70 ■' VIII " IX .... 146 .... 100 " X " XI XII. . .... 18.1 .... 43 313 (T P ) " XIII. . . . . . 453 " XIV • XVI •• XVII '• XVIII 184 190 1.51 .... 260 •' XIX IfiJS ir:t8 ... In the present rough state of the astronom- ical data, and the doubts as to the MS, authori- tii's. we have ri'a<li((l (|iiite as closi' an .(luivii leiice as we may hop*' li>r: niid at least there is <iiough to show us that we may trust to the nearest century with fair grouiiils of belief Thesi' dates, then, are what I have provisionally uilopted in this history ; and thoucli tlnv itr'i- stati'd to the nearest'vear. for the sikc of in tirrompiirison. it must always be r< .nenilHrcsl lliiit they only profrs^ to tfo within a rinturv l!i II .irlier parls of the siale.' — \V M. Fliii (lers Pi'trie, .1 lli>lnru nf K'/tfjil from the hMiHft Tn„r,t„thi- Willi Ih/mitly. ■■h. 11. Origin of the ancient people. -'The F.irvp lians, ti>i;ethiT with some other nations, form.' as it would seem, a tliiid hraneli of that |llie Can- casianl raie. iiiunely, llif family ealUsI I'lisliilc. which is distinirulsiii'd by special eliararters from the IVlasgiau ami thi' (Semitic families . The Kgyptimi liiiii;uai:i' . . . sliows in no way ativ tmie of a deriv.iiion and di'scmt from the .\meaii faiuilies of ^peceh l>ii i||,' vonlrarv. till' iirimltive riMits and the essential .Irmi iils iif thi' Kiryptian irranimar point to sui h an iniim.itr ciiniuTtion with the Indo (iermanic and s.niiiir •mtruagis that it is almost impossible to mistake the close relations which formerly prevalleil be tw.--h -Jif Ku-ypMa:::^ ."in: :iir mrr^ r.iili ii indn (li'rmanlo anil Semi tla'*—H. BmcschHi v, tli't. »f h^miil iimhr till I'liannilm. M 1 — It has keen mainlainrd by it)me that the immigration 777 was from the south, the Egyptians having been a colony from Ethiopia which gradually de- sc nded the Nile and established itself in the middle and lower portions of the valley. But modern research has shown quite unmistakably that the movement of the Egyptians was in the opposite directiofi. . . . We must look, then, rather to Syria or Arabia than to Ethiopia as the cradle of the Egyptian nation."— O. Rawlinson, Hint, of Ancient Egypt, rh. 3.—" So far as our knowletlge reaches, the northern edge of Africa, like the valley of the Nile as far as the marshes at the foot of the Abyssinian hills, was inhabited by nations who in colour, language, and customs were sharply distinguished from the negro. These nations belonged to the whites : their lan- guages were most closclv allied to the Semitic. From this, and from their physical peculiarities, the conclusion has been drawn that these nations at some time migrated from Asia to the soil of Africa. They formed a vast family, whose dia- lects still continue in the language of tlie Ber- bers. Assisted by the favourable conditions of their land, the tril)e which settled on the Lower Nile quickly left their kinsmen far behind. In deed the latter hardly rose above a pastoral life. The descendants of tliese old inhabitants of the valley of the Nile, in spite of the numerous layers which the course of centuries has subse- iiuently laid upon the soil of the land, .still form the larger part of the populaticm of Egvpt. an<l the ancient language is pn^served in the dialect of the Copts."— M. Duncker, //iV. of Aiitiijuily, Ilk. 1. ch. 1. The Old Empire and the Middle Empire.— "The ilireet descendants of Menes [or .Mriia] form the First Dynasty, wliiih. areording to Manetlio, reigned 2.Vi years. No n«)iuunirit eon- teinponiry with these princes has come down to us. . . . The Sirond Dynasty, to which Manitho assigns nine kings, lasted 302 years. It was also originally from This [or Thinis]. and probably related to the First. . . . When this family had become extinct, a Dynasty, oriijinallv from Memphis, seiiwl the throne', "forming the" Thiid, atid to it a duration of 2H years is attribiitefl. . . . With the Fourth Dynasty. .Miiflpliite like the Third, and which reigned ^^4 yiars, history becomes clearer and monuments more niinuTous. This was the ugi' of the three (iii'al Pyramids, built by the three kinirs, Khiifu (the ciieops of Herodotusi, Sliafra il'liefreiil, and .Mi'tikani (My- ■■eriniis). . . . Tin Kiftli Dyna-ty eanie origi- nally from Klephanliiie. at tlie soutliern exlr.in- ity of I "pper Kcypt. and lliere po"ilily the kings generally reside.'l, Ihouirh at the same time Mem- phis was not diprived of its importaiH'e. . . . On he death of the last kinir of the Fifth Dv- nasty, a lU'w family, of Menipliiticorlgin aicoril- iiiL' to Manetlio, came li- the throne, . . I'riiiu- tivi'art atiainid its hiirhist point under the Sixth Dynasty. . . . Hut, from the time tif the eivil ioinmotii>ns In whiih Neit aker jilie NltixTiB of IIen»|otu' ivrished. E,irypti:ui iivi!i.!ation under- went a suiMen and unaccountable e(l||i,|. Fmm the end of the Sixth Dynasty to the eomnience- mentof the Klevenlh, .>(nmtlIo reckons 436 years, and for this whole perl.xl the monuments are ab- lobitely silent, Eirypt wm* then tolmvedisap pi.irrd from tli. I.ilik of nations; and «Ii(ii ihis long slumlx'r eiidi'd, civilization commineed a new career, entirely iiidepi>ndent of the past . Thus end* ttist peritxl of nineteen centuries. I EGYPT. 1%M Sktplkerd f f il0f . EGYPT. m'- whtch modern acholan know u the Old Empire. . . . Thebes did not exiit In the days of the Slory of the Old Empire. The holy city of .men seems to have twen founded during the period of anarchy and obscurity, succeeding, as we have said, to the Sixth Dynasty. Here was the birthplace of ttiat renewed civiUzation, that new monarchy, we are accustomed to call the Middle Empire, the middle age in fact of ancient Egypt — a middle ugc anttrior to the earliest ages of all other history. From Thebes came the six kings of the Eleventh Dynasty. . . . We again quote the excellent remarks of H. Mariette : 'When, with the Eleventh Dynasty, we see Egypt awake from her long slumber, all old traditions appear to be forgotten; the proper names used in ancient families, the titles of func- tionaries, the style of writing, and even the religion — all sctm new. This, Elephantine, and Memphis, are no longer the favourite capitals. Thebes for the first time becomes the seat of sovereign power. Egypt, moreover, has lost a considerable portion of her territory, and the authority of her legitimate kings liamly extends beyond the limited district of the Thebaid. The ■tiidy of the monuments confirms these general views; they are rude, primitive, sometimes nmrse ; and when we look at them we may well believe that Egypt, under the Eleventh Dynasty, again passed through a perio<i of infancy, as she had already done under the Third Dynasty. ' A dynasty probably relate<l to, and originally from the same place as these first Theban princes suc- ceeded them. . . . This Twelfth Dyna.ity reigned for 213 years, and its epoch was one of pros- perity, of [teacc at home and glorious acbicve- menti abn>ad. . . . Although the history of the Twelfth Dynasty is clear and well known, iUus- trattil by numerous monuments, there is, never- theless, no period in the annals of Egypt more obscure than the one closing with the Thirteenth Dynasty. It is one long series of revolutions, troubles, rnd internal disseneions, closed by a terrible camstrophe, the greatest and most last- ing recordetl in Egyptian history, which a second time interrupted the inarch of rivilization on the banks of ttie Nile, and for a while struck Egypt from the list of nations." — F. Lenormunt and fe. Clievallier, Manual of Anrient Ilint. oftlte Hut, bk. 8, eh. 1-8. .\i.so IN: C. C. J. Bunsen, Egypt'i Phut in I'liiiYrml Hint., t. 2. — See, also, Memphis, and TlIKUES, EOVTT. The Hjrkioi, or Shepherd-Kinn.— Accord- ing to the Mauethonian account whicii the Jewish historian Joaephus bus pn'served to us by tran- scribing it, the Egyptian Netherlands were at a certain time overspread by a wild and rough people, which came from the countries of the east, overcame the native kings who dwelt there, and took possession of the whole country, with- out finding any great opposition on the part of the Egypli.'ins. They were called llyksos, which Joaepli'ii.s Interpreted as meaning Shepherd-kings. "Ilyk," he explained, meant King, 'u the holy language, and "sos," in the dialect of the people, signified Shepherd. But Dr. Brugsch ideutifie.H "sos" with ttie name "Shasu," which the old Egyptians gave to the Bedouins, whose yanie became equivalent to Shepherds. Ilenee Dr. Brugsch inclines to the ancient opinion transmit te<l by Jusephus, that tlie llyksos were Arabs or Be<l- tulns — the Shasu of the Egyptian records, who t I hung on the northeastern frontier of Egypt from the most ancient timet and were always pressing into the country, at every opportunity. But many objections against thu view are raised and the different theories advanced to account for the Hyksos are quite numerous. Canon Rawlinson says: " The Egyptians of the time of Herodotus seem to have considered that they were Philis- tines. Modems have regarded them as Canaan- ites, Syrians, Hittites. It is an avoidance ratlier than a solution of the difficulty to say that they were ' a collection of all tlie nomad hordes of Arabia and Syria ' [Lenormant], since there must have been a directing hand. ... On the whole, therefore, we lean to the belief that the so-called Hyksos or Shepherds were Hittites." — G. Kaw- linson, HM. of Antient K^ypt. eh. 19.—" It is maintained on good authority that the Hyksos, or Shepherd-Kings, had secured possession of the eastern frontier of Lower Egypt immediately after the close of the Twelftli Dvnasty ; that at this time the Thirteenth and the Fourte<mtli Dy- nasties ruleil contemporaneously, the former in Upper, the latter in Lower Egypt ; one was tliu iPTltimate, the other the illegitimate line; but authors are not in accord as to their right of priority. It is supposed that, while Egypt claimed the Thirteenth Dynasty as her own, the Hyksos usurped the mastery over the Four- teenth Dynasty, and governed through the agency of its kings, treating them meanwhile as viw- sal chiefs. These local kings had cities fnmi which they were unable to escape, and were de- prived of an army of defence. Such was the state of the country for 184 years, when the Fourteenth Dynasty died out, and when the Fifteenth Dynasty, constituted of six successive Hyksos kings, took the reins of government 'nto their own hands. Lieblein. whose views we are now endeavouring to express, assigns as the dtite of the invasion of the llyksos 2108 years H. t'. ... It is not improbable that the well-known journey of Abraham to Egypt was made during the early period of the reif ' the Shepliinl- Klngs; whilst the visit of Jot, irred near the close of their power." — E. Wilsou. The Enypt of the Piut, eh. 5. — " ' Tba Shepherds pussensed themselvesof Egypt by violence,' writes Mariette- Bey, 'but the civilization which they Imnudi- atcly adopted on their conquest was rather Egyptian than Asiatic, and the discoveries of Avaris (San) prove that they did not even banish from their temples the go<isof the ancient Egyp- tian Pantheon. In fact the first shepherd-king, Solatis himself, employed an Egyptian artist to inscribe . . . his title on the stJitue of a former legitimate Pharaoh. ' They did not disturb the civilization more than the Persians or the (1 reeks, but simply accepted the higher one they h:ul e<mquere(l' So our revered scholur Dr. Binh h»s summed up the matter; and Prof. Maspini has very hapiiilv descrilxil it thus; 'The popu- lar hatred loaded them with Ignominious epitliets, and treated them as accursed, plague strirken, leprous. Yet they allowed tiiemwlves very quickly to I>e domesticAted. . . . Once admitted to the school of Egypt, the barbarians progressed (julek'y in the eivilizeil life. The Pharaonic court reappeared around these shepherd-kinixs, with all Ita pomp and all its following; of func- tionaries great and small. The royal style »nd title of Cheops and the Amenemhai were fitted to the outlandish names of Jannes and ApapL 8 EGYPT. TUir^BKmpin. EGYPT, B. C. 170O-1400. The EgyptUn religion, without being offlcUlly adopted, was tolerated, and the reli^on of the Canaanltea underwent lome modiacations to avoid hurting beyond measure the Busceptibility of the wonhippers of Osiris.' "— H. G. Tomklns. «wdiM <m M« Tifiut of Abraham, eh. 8. — In a late Italian work ("Gil HyksOs ") b> Dr. C. A. de Cara, ' • he puU together all that la ascertained in regard to them [the Hyksos]. criticises the theories that have been propounded on their behalf, and sug- gesU a theory of his own. Nothing that has been published on the subject seems to have es- raped his notice. ... His own view is that the HyksAs represented a confederacy of various Asiatic tribes, under the leadership of the north- ern Syrians. That their ruling class came from this part of the world seems to me clear from the name of their supreme god Sutekh, who occupied among them the position of the Semitic Baal "— A. tt Sayce, TheHykmi»(Aeademy, * ' ao, 1890). — "Historical research concerning i' history of the Hyksos may he summed up as follows :— I A certahi number of non-Egyptian kings of foreign origin, belonging to the nation of the Mcntl, ruled ;?' ?i,'°''* **'"* '° *''* «astem portion of the Delta. II. These chose as their capitals the cities of Zoan and Avaris, and provided them with strong fortifications. III. They adopted not only the manners and cu.>toma of the Egyptians, but also their official language and writing, and the order nr^^^l ™"" *** arranged on Egyptian models. IV. They were mtrons of art, and Egyptian artists erecte«l, after the a^ '^ient models, monu- ments in honour of these usurpers, in whoso sUtuea they were obliged to reproduce tho Hyk- sos physiognomy, the peculiar arrangement of the beard and bead -dress, as well as other variations of their costume. V. They honored Sutekh, the son of Nut, as the supreme god of their newly acquired country, with the surname Nub 'the goldea' He was the origin of all that is evil and perverse in the visible and invisible world the opponent of good and the enemy of light' In the cities of Zoan and Aviris, splendid temples were constructed in honour of this god, and other monumenu raised, especially Sphinxes, carved out of stone from Syene. VI. In all probability one of them was the founder of a new era, which most likely began with the first year of his reign Down to the time of the second Ramses, four hundred years had elapsed of this reckoning which was acknowledged even by the Egyptians. VII. The Egyptians were indebted to their con- tact with them for much useful knowledge. In particular their artistic views were expanded ami new forms and shapes, notably that of the winged sphinx, were introduced, the Semitic origin of which is obvious at a glance. . . . The inscrip- tiouson the monumenta designate that foreign people who once ruled in Egypt b/ the name of Men or Meuti. On the walls of the temple of tdfQ it is stated that ' the inhabitants of the land of Asher are called Menti.'. . . In the different languages, ... and in the different periods of history the following names are synonymous: oy™. Rutennu of the East, Asher, aiiil Menti. "— "Since, on the basis of the most recent ami bi'st in- vestigations in the province of ancient Egyptian chronology, we reckon the year 1350 B. C. aa u mean computation for the reien of Ramiies the reign of the Hyksos kmg. Nub"; and probably Its beginning, falls in the year 1750 B C. , that is, 400 year* before Ramses 11. Although we are com- pletely In the dark as to the place King Nub oc- cupied in the succession of the kindred princes of nis house, yet the number mentioned is important as an approximate epoch for the stay of the foreign fil^^M J?7P^ According to the statement In the Bible, the Hebrews from the immigration of Jacob into Egypt until the Exodus renwined 480 years in that land. Since the Exodus from Egypt took place in the time of Meneptah II., the son of KamsesII.- he Pharaoh of the oppression — the year B. C. 1800 may be an approximate date. JLT^'^1.'°'^>.*^y*»"-" "pressing the total duration of the sojourn of the Hebrews in Jigypt. ..e arrive at the year 1730 B. C. as the approximate date for the immigration of Jacob into tgypt, and for the time of the otHcial career of J(«eph at the court of Pharaoh. In other words, the time of Joseph (1730 B. C.) must have .y^'i ? the period of the Hyksos domination, ?ri".,'i'.*„ ?'8° °' "»« above-mentioned princi Nub (1750 B. C)."-H. Bnigsch-Bey, Egypt "^ \^t'^'^ («'.«<m<./189!, byM.'Br^ck), pp. 108-109, and 126— See Jkws: W CBiLDRra or Israel in Eoypt. -^^imj" ur fi'Y^ ™- *"■ •-"• ^- Mendel, Hist, of Egypt. t£2"p°k^- »7«»-»40O.-The New Empire. "^T u^?''*'^"*'' OynMtT.-'-The dominion of the Hyksos by necessity gave rise to profound interaal divisions, alike in the different princely families and in the native population itself Fac- tious iH^came rampant in various districts, and reached the highest point in the hostile feeling of the Inhabitante of Patoris or the South country against the people of Patomlt or North country, who were much mixed with foreign blood iTom this condition of divided power and of mutual jealousy the foreign rulers obtained their advantage and their chief strength, until King Aahmes ma»le himself supnmc."— H. Brugsch- ^y.Effypt Hiiiirr the Pliarnnhn [eiUti„n of 1891 by « .%'*''■"■*'•—■■ The duration of the rei^n of this first Ph^oh of the New Empire was twenty-five years He was succeeiknl l>y his son Amenholep I. and the latter by his sou Tliothmes I. "The reign of Thi>thme» I. . . . derives its chief dis- tinction from the fact that, at this period of their history, the Egyptians for the first time carried their arms deep into Asia, overrunning Svria and even invaiiing ilesopotamiu, or the tract between the Tigris and the Euphrates. Hitherto the furthest point reached in this direction had been Shanihen in Southern Palestine. . . . Syria was hitherto almost an undiscovered region to li.e powerful people which nurturing iu strength in the Nile valky. ha<l re'mained content with ita own natural limits and scartsly grasped at any coniiuesls. A time was now come when this comparative iiuietudc and absence of ambition were alniiit to ceasi-. Provoked by the attack inaile upon her from the side of Asia, and smart- ing from the wounds inflicted upon her pride an<i prosperity by the Hyksos during the period of their rule, Egypt now set herself to retaliate, and for three centuries continued at intervals to pour her armies Into the Eastern continent, and to carry fire and swonl over the extensive and ixipulous regions which lay between the Medi- terninean and I he Zagros mountain range. There Is some iiiw ertdinty as to the extent of hnr rnn- questa; but no reasonable doubt can be enter- t»ine<t that for a space of three hundred years Egypt wu the most powerful and the most 779 EGYPT, B. C. 1700-1400. 3V TeU Amamii Tabkt: EQYFT, B. C. 1500-1400. aggrewive state that the wnrld contained, and bem a dominion tliat lias as mucli riglit to be called an ' Empire ' as tiie Assyrian, tlie Babylo- nian 07 tlie Persian. While Babylonia, ruled by Arab conquerors, declined in strength, and As- syria proper was merely struggling into inde- pendence, Egypt put forth her arm and grasped the fairest regions of the earth's surface/' "The immediate successor of Tliothmes I. was his son, ■Thothmcs II., who reigned in association with a sister of masculine cha.acter, queen Hatasu. The strong-minded queen, moreover, prolonged her reign after the death of this elder bnitlier, until ft younger brother, ThothmcsIII. displaced her. "file Third Tliothmes was the greatest of Egyptian conquerors and kings. He carried his arms beyond the Euphrates, winning a memo- rable victory at Ji^jiddo ov.-thc confe<ierated kings of the Syrian and Xlew.potamian coimtries. He left to his son (Amenliotep II.) "n dominion e.ttending about 1,100 miles from north to south, and (in places) 450 miles from west to cist." He was n great builder, likewise, and " has left the imi)rcs3 of liis presence in Egvpt more widely than almost any other of her kings, while at .he same time he has supplied to the great capitals of the mo<lem world their most striking; Egyp- tian monuments. " The larger of the obelisks now standing in Rome and Con.Htanlinople, as well as those at London and Xew York were all of Ihtin produced in the reign of this magnificent I'lia- raoh. The two oiwlisks last named stood origin- ally, and for fourteen centuries at the front of the great temple of the sun, in Heliopolis. They were removo<l by the lioman Emperor, Augus- tus, R. C. 23, to Alexandria, where they took in time the name of Cleopatra's Needles, — although Cleopatra had no part in their long history. After nineteen centuries more of rest, these stningily lovctcd monuments were again dia- turU'd. anil transported into lamls which their builcliT knew not of. The later kings of the Eighteenth Dynasty seem to have, none of them, Finssessed the energy and chameter of Tliothmes .II. The line enderi aliout 14(KI B. C. with llo- remheb. wlui left no heirs. — G. Ifciwlinstm. JJiat. nf Anritnt Kimpt, ch. •,'0. Al.so IX: il. liruiisih 1!< y. Kiiyi<t niiilrr th» I'/,iini<:liii, fh. i;t. — 11. 11. (iorringe, Kgyptian Oik links. About Bi C> I500*I400.— The Tell el-Amarna Tablets.— Correspondence of the E^ptian kings with Babylonia, Assyria, Armenia, Asia Minor, Syria and Palestine.— "Tlii' disc I'viry iiiiuli' in 1^^*» t»y '* ptiisiuii woman of Miilille K:.'y]it Muiy be descrilK'd as the most important (if 'ill roiit'ribulions to the early political history iif \\ 1 stirii .Ksia. We have become pos.sessi'il of a inrrespomli iic e. daliiiL' from the lifteentL .•ciitury H. ("., wiiic li was r.'irricil on (luring thi' rciL'iis if tlirie K/yptian kiiiL's. with the rul'Tsof Haiiylon. .\ssyri:i, .\rminiM. Asia Aliiinr. Syria, and I'alis- tiiu, during u piriod of irnat activity, when revolutions \vlii( li alTnidl iliu wlioii' history of the i-ast >lh.i,. lands uf the .Meilii. rraiuan wen; in progress; juid we lind in tliesi* t;i'''e(s a con- Ie!iip'<rary picture of tli<- eivilisatior the age. . . . TlieTi 11 Aniarna tablets n•pre^ a lilera- liiH' (m|iih1 in liiilli to alMiut half llie IVnialeiiih. Mild concerned almost cxi Insivily with political iill.iirs. They are day lablils, varying from two Inehi's to a f()ot in leiiL'tli, with u few as large as eighteen Inches, covensl with cuneiform writing generally on both sides, and often on the edges as well. The peasantry unearthed nearly the complete collection, incfuding some 830 pieces in all; and ezploren afterwards digging on the site have added only a few additional fragments. The greater numlx-r were bought for the Berlin Museum, while eighty-two were acquired for England, and the rest remain either in the Boulak Museum at Cairo, , in a few instances, in the hands of private collectors. . . . Tell Amama (apparently ' the mound of the tumuli ') is an Im- portant ruined site on the east bank of the Nile, about a hundred and fifty miles in a straiglit line south of Cairo. Its Egyptian name is said to have been Khu-en-aten, 'Glory of the Hun-disk.'" — The TeU Amarnn Tablett (Edinbtirgh Iter., July, 1893).—" The collection of Cuneiform TableU re- cently found [1S87] at Tell elAmama in Upper £gypt< consisted of about three hundred and twenty documents, or portions of documents. The British Museum possesses eighty-two . . . the Berlin Museum has one hundred and sixty, a large number lieing fragments ; the Gizeh Mu- seum bos sixty ; and a few are in the hands of private persons. ... In color the Tablets vary from a light to a dark dust tint, and from a flesh- color to dark brick-red. The nature of the clay of which they are made sometimes indicates the countries from which they come. The size of the Tablets in the British Museum varies from H\ inches x H in. to 2^ in. x \\\ in. ; the longest text contains 9tt lines, the shortest 10. . . . The gri'ater numlier arc rectangular, and a few are oval ; and they dilTer in shape from any other cuneiform documents known to u.s. . . . The writing . . . resembles to a certain extent the Nco- Babylonian, i. e., the simplification of the writing of tlie first Babylonian Empire used com- monly in Babylonia ami Assyria for alKiut seven centuries II. C^. It possesses, however, eliaracter- istles different from those of any other style of cuneiform writing of any perhxl now kni.wn to exist; and nearly every talilet contains forms of characters wlilch have hitherto Iwen thought pe- culiar to the Ninevite or Assyrian style of writing. But, compared with the neat, careful hand ein- ployeil in the offlcial (hwuments drawn up for the kings of Assyria, It is somewhat coarse and >are- less, and suggests the work of unskilled 8. , 'S. t ):ie and the same hand, however, npiK'ar :■ '■ b- Icts wliiili come from the same [lerson and *' .no place. On some of the large tablets the V iig l.i ls)l<l and free; on some of the small ones char- aeters an> cunfusid and cramped, and ai groups of strokes rather tlian wedges. Tlii' spelling ... is oft<n cariless, and in some instances syl tables have Ihcmi omitted. .\t present it is not possible to say whithir the irnifiilar spelling is due to the Ignorance of tlii> scribe or to dialectic pecullurilles. . . . The Semitic illaliit in which tliise lilti rs are written Is Assyrian, and is, in some Important details, closely related to the lleliri'W of \\\v I1M Testament. . . . 'I'lie diKii- incuts wire nio-t probably written lietwcen the years 15. ('. \'M) to 1 l.^iO. . . . They give an in siL'lit into the imturi' of tlie |Militlcal nlallons « liicli existed U'twecn the kings of Western Asi i and the kings of Kgvpt. and prove that an Inipoi \ lant traile existed lietween the two countries ; from very early times. . . A large numjier of ■ liic |ilv»<ill lalilct» ale Hil(lrei.s<<l to ' the ICuijIi.f I Kgvpt,' either Ameiiophis HI. or Amenophis IV j nearly all of them »-oii»i»t of n^ports of disasters 780 EGYPT, B. C. 1500-1400. Tlu Tell Amama TabUtt. EGYPT, B. C. 1500-1400. to the Egyptian power and ofsuccegsf ul intrigues against it, coupled by urgent entreaties for litlp, pointing to a condition of distraction and wciik- ness in Egypt. . . . The most graphic details of the disorganized condition, and of the riv.il fac- tions, of the EKVptiiin dependencies lying on the coastline of Phoenicia and Northern Palestine, are to lie gathered from a perusal of the dis- patches of the governors of the cities of Byblos, Beyrut and Tyre."— The Tell el- Amama Tablttt in the Britiih Muteum, intrml. — " In the present state of cuneiform research I believe it to be im- possible to give a translation of the Tell el- Amama te.rts which would entirely satisfy the expert or genenU reader. No two scholars would agree ns to any interpretation which might be placed upon certain rare grammatical forms and unknown words in the Babylonian text, and any literal translation in a modem language wouli not lie understood by the general re-ader on ac- count of the involve*! style and endless repetition of phrases common to at^mitic idiom and dialect. About the general meaning of the contents of the greater numlier of the letters there can lie no doubt whatever, and it is there-fore possible to make a summary of the contents of each letter, which should, as a rule, satisfy the general reader, and at t he same time form a guide to the l)eginncr in cuneiform. Summaries of the contents of the Tell elAmarna tablets in the British Museum have been publisheil in 'TlicTellelAmama Tab- lets in the British Museum, with autotype fac- similes,' printed by orderof the Trustees, London, ISiKJ, and it is hoped thi-t the transliteration, given in the following pages may form a useful supplement to that work. . . . No. 1. A Letter from Egypt — Amenophis III. to Kallimma {•'.) Bin, King of Karaduniyash, referring to Ids pro- posed marriage with bukharti, the daughter of Kallimma-Sin, and containing the draft of a com- mereial treaty, and an allusion to the disap- Ecarancc of certain chariots and horses. No. 2. ctters from Bjiby Ionia — Burraburiyash, King of Karaduniyash, to Amenophis IV., referring to the friendship whicli had existe<l between their resi)ective fathers, and the help whioh had been rendered to the King of Egypt by Burralmrivash himself; the receipt of two nuiiiahs of gold is acknowledged and a iietiticm is made for more. No. 3. Burraburiyash, King of Karaiiunlvash to Amenophis IV., complaining timt the EL'vp- tian messengers had visited his cuuntrv thrice without bringing gifts, and that thev witldield .sf)mc of the gold which bad been s<nt to lilm from Egypt ; Burraburiyash announces the lies- patch of a gift of lapis-iazuli for tlie Egyp tian princess who was hisson's wife. . . . Nn.'llO. Letter from Al>i-milki, governor of Tyre, to the King of Egy|)l, reporting that he iK'lieves Zini- rida will not Ih; al)je to stir up disalfretion in the city of Sidon. although he has caused niucli hos- tility against Tyre. lie asks for help to protect the city, and for water to drink and wood iMimrn, and he sends with his messenger Ilimiiki t've talents of copper and other gifts (or the Kint' of Egypt. He reports that the King of Danuna Is deail and that his brother reigns in Ids stead ; oi.i' half of the city of Ugarit lia.s iH-en destrov< a by fire; the soldiers of the Khatti have ilijurted"; Itagamipairi. sovemorof Kedesh. aiid A.-riri: ari- Ughting against Namyawiza. If ti.e iving of Egypt will but send a few troops, 'ill will be well with Tyre . . . No. 43. L»-tter from the gov- emor of a town in Syria to the King of Egypt, reporting that the rebels have asserted their in-" deiwndence; that Biridashwi has stirred up re- bellion in the city of Inu-Amma: that its people have captured chariots in the city of Ashtarti: that the kings of the cities of Buzruna and Kha- lunni have made a league with Biridashwi to slay Namyawiza (who, having taken refuge in Pamascus and being attacked by Arzawiya, de- clared himsi'lf to i)e a vassal of Egypt); that Arzawiya went to tlie citv of Gizza and after- wards captured the city of Shaddu ; that Itak- kama nivairerl the country of Gizza; and that Arzawiya and Biridiishwi have wasted the couii- try of Abitu. No. 44. Continuation (?)of a letter to the King of Eirypt, report in e that, owins to the hostilities of Abd-Ashirta, Khava. an official, was unable to send ships U> tlie country of Amurri. as, he had promised. The ships from .Vrvail which the writer has in his charge, lack their full complement of men for war service, nn<i he urges the king to make u.se of the ships ami crews wliieh he lias hml with him in Egypt The writer of the letter also urges the King of Egypt to appoint an Egyptian official over'the naval affairs of Sidon. B»'yrut and Arvad, and to seize AlKl-Asliirta and piit him under restraint to prevent him obstructing the manning of the ships of war . . . \o. .11^. Letter from the gov- ernor of a district in Palestine (V) to the governors of neigldHiiiring states in the land of Canaan, in- forming tluni that he is al)Out to send his mc-s- .senger Akiya on a mission to tlie King of Egypt, and to place hinisi'lf and everv thing that lie has at his disposal. Akiya will go to Egyjit by the way of Canaan, and the writer of this letter" sug- gests that any gifts they niav have to send to Egyi)t should \k carried by hlni, for Akiva is a thon lily trustworthy man."— C. Bezoi'd, Or.' eii'- ii>li,ii,,iry ; Ikiur/ the tr,uu<lilrnit,il tiHof the nirifiirm Iknixili-heii, pnl'iire. — Under the title of "The .story of a 'Tell,'" Mr W. M. Flinders Pilrie, the successful excavator and ex- p!onr of Ejrvptian antiquities, cave a lecture in Loudon, in .liine, ISOa, in wliicli he descrilK-d the -nr.K, and the results of an excavation then in progress under liis direction on the siipivisetl site of LachLsh. at a point w here the maritime plain of Phili.stiu rises to the nioiiiituins of .Fudiva, on tlie route from p;gypt into Asia. The ( hairman who IntrodTieedMr I'llric delined the word "Tell" us follows: ".V Tell is a mound of etirtli showing by tlie presence ol broken pot- tery or worked stone that it is the site of a niineil city orvilhiL'e. In England when a house falls down or i>i pulled down the materiiils arc usually worth the ixiniKe of removing for use in some new luiililin:.'. But in Envpt common houses have for thousands of years been built of Mill dri«l bricks, in I'alesliiii' of rough rubble walliii::, which, on falling. priKlueesriianv chips, with thick Hat p«)fs of plaster. It is thiis often less trouble to get new than to use old material, the sites of towns grow in height, and depre's- sions ari' tilled up," The mound excavated by Mr. I'etrie is known as Tell el IIe>y. After he left the wiirk it was carried on by Mr. Bliss, and Mr I'etrie in his lecture says- 'The last news is iliat .Mr liliss has found "the Ion'.' looked for pri/i-, a euneifcrm talilit . Kr.-.m tiip rh.irar- ter of the writiuif, which is the same as on tlie tablets written iii Palestine in 14(X) B. C. to the Egyptian king at Tel el Amarna, wehaveacloM : i: rsi ~il w^- m: ■OTPT, B. C. 15»0-1400. Fknraohtwko EGYPT, B. C. 1900-«70. iii;': •gTMment regarding the chronology of the toiv n. nirtber, it menttons Zimrida ai a goremor, aii.l thii same man appears aa governor of Lachisti on the Ubleu found at Tel el Amama. We bare thua at lait picked up the other end of th broken chain of correspondence between Vulei- ■ tine and Egypt, of whicli one part was »<) une.v pectedly found in Egjpt a few years ago on thi | tablets at Tel el Amama; and we may hope now | to recover the Palestinian part of this intercourse , and so establish the prelsraelite history of the i land."— W. M. F. Petric, The Story of a" Tell" I (Tht aty and tht Land, Uct. 8).— See, al«. , PALasTimc. 1 Aiao ni: C. R. Conder, The Tell Aitwr-. , i TabUtt, trarutcted. About B. C. 1400-iaoo.— The first of th. Ramesides.— The Pharaohs of the Op.-^r-- sioo )uid the Exodus.— " Under the Xinetetr.'!, Dynasty, which acquired the throne after ho death of Har-em-Hebi lor Hor-em-beb] the 'or tune of Egypt maintained to some extent '••-. ascendancy ; but, though tlic reigns of some ai like kings throw a bi-iglit light on this Pi-och, j shade of approaching trouble already dai'tus the horizon. " Kamses I. and his sun, or S' -i law, 8ctl I., were involved In troublcsomi' ■•..i. - with the rising power of the Hittites, in Syrie and with the Shasu of the Arabian descn. 9«' was alio at war with the Libyans, who thi ; made their first appearanc; in E^-yptian history. His son Ramses II.. tJii; Sesostrit' of the Greeks, who reigned for siity seven years, in the four teenth century B. C . has always been the riosi famous of the Egyptian kings, and, oy niod.'m discovery, ha? been made the most intcrpstini; uf them to the ( liristiau world. He was a busy and boastful warrior, who accomplished no im- portant conquests; Init "among the Pharaohs he Is the builder ' par excellence. ' It is almost impossilile to flud in Egypt a ruin or an ancient mound, without reading'his name.". . . It was to these w rks, probalily, that the Urftilitcs then in Egvpt were fori*-!! to contribute tlieir labor; for the Pharaoh of the oppn-ssion is Identified, by mcrst scholars of the present day, with this building and boasting Sesostris.— F. Lenormant and E. Chevallier, Manual vf the Ancient Hut. of tU Ea»t, bk. 3. eh. 3.— "The extreme length of the reign of Ramses was. as hi other histories, the cause of subsequent weak- nest and disaster. His successor was an aged son, Menptah, who had to meet tlie diflicuUies wliich were easily overcome by the youtli of his energetic father. The Libyans and their maritime allies broke the long tranquillity of Egypt by a formidable invasion and temporary conquest of the north-west. The power of the monarchy was thus shaken, and the old king was not tlie leader to restore it. His obscure reign was followed by others even obscurer, and the Nineteenth Dynasty ended in complete an- archy, which rc^acned iu height when a Syrian chic . in what manner we know not, gained the rule of the whole country It is to the reign of Hcnptali that Egyptian 'tradition assigned the Exoilua, and modem rvsearch has come to a general agreement th;.t this is its true place In Igyptian history, . . . Unfortunately we do not know the duration of the npprM«lnn of the Israel- ites, nor the condition of Lower Egypt during the Eighteenth Dynasty, which, according to the hypothesis here adopted, corresponds to a great part of the Hebrew aojoum It is, how- -ver, dear from the Bible that the oppresdoD did not begin till after the period of Joseph's ccntemporarlss, and had lasted eighty years be- ' -e the Exodua It seems abnost certain that • ills was the actual besinning of the oppression, for it Is very improbable that two separate Pliaraohs are intended by the ' new king which kr.'-w not Joseph ' and the builder of Rameses, or ii other words, Ramses 11., and the time U,'-. 'he accession of Ramses II. to the end of ;>. : ■, ah's reign can have little exceeded the ti^i.- years of Scripture between the birth of Ilbecl md the Exodus. ... If the adjustment "[ let- ew and Egyptian history for the oppres- •. iL as stated above, be accepted, Ramses II. J ( bably the first, ani certainly tlie great pprcv jr. His character suits this theory ; he WF 1 SL xmdouhted autocrat who . . . covered ^.- - 1 1 A Lower Nubia with vast structures that ( 0' . . ■ !y have been produced by slave-labor on ui' iv.rr rt scale "— K. S. Poole, Ancient Egypt ;,; ■.„^; r, - . . r ~»). A.'.,.o V "■ !• ■ •■■^I; ^SyP* tender the l\t.iriu-!t •'i It — tl. 0. Tomkins, Life ami Tin.t I •■ ' /jA.— See, also: Jbws. Thb Chil •.8« ■• JtL IS 'yJIPT. AuJ'i i'. ^. l3ao.--Exodns of the Israelites. SeeJ'-: s ', rs KoirrE or the ExoDCS. Ab >Ji ?. C iaoo-*7o.— The decline of the tTr.i.:.t rl the Phataoha.— Fiom the anarchy in which the Ni-ii .eenth Dynasty came to iU cud, order was presently restored by the seating !n powe' of a new family, which claimed to be of the Rameside eux^k. The second of lu kings, who called himself Ramses III. and who is believed to be the Rhampsinitus of the Greeks, appears to have been one of the ablest of the monarchs of his line. The security and prosper- ity of Egypt were recovered under liis reign and he left it in a state which does not setm to have promised the rapid decay which ensued. " It is difficult to understand and accouijt for the suddenness anil completeness of the collapse. . . . The hieratic chiefs, the high priests of the god Ammon at Thebes, gradually increased in power, usurped one after another tlie preroga- tives of the Pharaohs, by degrees ri-duced their authority to a shadow, and ended with an open assumption not only of the functions, hut of the very insignia of royalty. A space of nearly two centuries elapsed, "however, before this change was complete. Ten princes of the name of Ramses, and one called Merl-Tuiu, all of them connected by bUnid with the great liameside house, bore the royal title and occupied the royal palace, in the space between B. C. 1280 and B, C 1100, Egyptian history during this period is alniost wholly a blank. No military expetlit ions arc conducted — no great buildings arc reared — art almost dhiappears — literatun^ holds her tongue." Then came the dynasty of the priest kings, founded by Her-Hor, which held the throne for more than a century and was contemporary in its latter years with David and Solomon. The Twenty-Second Dynasty which succeeded had its capital at Bubastis and is con- cluded by Dr. Brugsch to have been a line of Assyrian kings, representing an invasion and conquest of Enypt by NlmrcKl, the great king of Assyna. Other Egyptoiogisui disagree wiUi l)r. Brugsch In this, and Prof. Kawlinsun. the his- tOTlan of Assyria, finds objections to the hypotiie- 782 Mam, B. C. ISeO-erO Ormlmat NmwrotU. ri( from W« own Mint of view. The prominent ^iSSf'ii'f'".?' *''" •haltered Jeroboam, In- ^^.S^?""*" ""* plundered Jenualem. Before this dyn«»ty came to an end It had lost theroverelgnty of Egyptat large, and Ita Pha- raohs contended with vafiouarivaUand invadere race of Ethiopiaua who had rlaen to importance at Napata, on the Upper NUe, and who extended ^^J"l **.'"'; '"" the whole of Egypt. ,» .Ki ."P'.*" 'l<"n»n»fon was realntalDed for two-thirds of a century, untU the neat wave of Assyrian conquest broke upon Egypt in 672 S;i ."^•'''P"'!*!"' '^''''''8 the Ethiopians back to Napata and Meroe.-o'RawIinson, W of Anamt Bgtmt, eh. 25. Also m: H. Brugsch-Bev, I^mt under 0, ^r^i<"'^^f-i '^^%ip* of ;L B. C. 070-535.— Assyrian conquest and re- stored independence.— The Twenty-sixth Dt- S^*'•~Jp^*^'f'^r■»N"=~«••-AlthoS7h Hyria and Palestine had then been Buffering for more than a century from the conquering irmi, of the Assyrians, it was not until 670 B C ac cording to Prof. Kawlinson, that Esarhaddon EGYPT, B. C. 670-M6. much has been Inmed of the history of the dty S. fil!f 'y '^'•J'oM between the E/yptlans ud S Nl^^.ta^H*^'*"?""'"' thatth/JetTm^ or Waucratls dates from about 660 B C — P«m,SK. '„***'■ ""^gfo-Jng of the reign'of ~^??K ,)i''-.»°'l "'»* "» Greek founden be- came the allies of that monarch and his suoces- i^iTf N ™'»° of /Mmmitlchus and Sie foimd- •ng of Naucratis, Egypt was a aaileH hnnk b. the Greek, It i. lEf^ IL« "thrpte^^^ Pharaohs, were admr-od, where aliens like the Greeks were excluded. We have indeed positive coinS '?'","'* EKypHansdid notwSLSge countries to learn the r art. for in a treat v li tween them and the Hittltes' it ta L?ipuKe7t£jt" from the other. But however the fact may be accounted for It is an undoubted fa<!'hSYonz before Psammitichus threw Egypt op. nto^f I^rJL^l".';*-"'*' Phoenicians hal^ludiS in SS ,° ,,•"•: ••""■""xiu, vuai £,sarnaddon Pttsed the boundaries of Egypt and made him- self master of that countrv. fais father Senna- Sw .,fh"f'"f"^A."'^ "'"''"' thirty years h!?^<i r ',^'"/ °^ *"* >*" ?« of Jerusalem, and had recoiled before «,mo mysterious calamity which impelled him w a sudden retreat The son avenged his fathers failure. The EU.ioplan masters of Egypt were exp. Ik^ and the A.^yVlan took their place. H. -brok up the country into twenty go- mmentE, app<,i„(ing in each town a mierwho bore the title of king, but placing all the others to a certainextect wler the authority of the pnr: re who Kigt^i Mempnia. This was Neco, the father of Psammetlchus (Psama- ^„ ti^'i.'"^; ?8?J"»° of whom we have some mention both iu Herodotus and In the frae- mcnts of Manetho. The remaining rulets were likewise, for the most part, native Egyptians " These arrangements were soon br,.keu up by the expelled tthio) m king. Tirhakah. who rallied his forces and sw - pt the Assyrian kinglets out of the countrv ; but A.^shurbani pal, son and suc- cessor of hsarhaddon. made his appearance with ?° »"'V, '» 8«8 or 687 B. C an.l 'Tirhakah fled before him. Again and again this occurred, and for twenty years Egypt was U>m between the Assyrians and the Ethiopians, In their strucRJc for the possession of her. At length, out of t! . chaos produce,! by these conflicU there emero a native ruler -the Psammetichus mention.-,! '^TlT ^J'° »ubj "gated his fellow princes and established a new Egyptian monarchy, which defen-le.l itself with success against .Assyria and Ethiopia, alike. The Twenty Sixth Uynasty. of hals, found. ,i by Psammetichus, is suspect«l to have t)een of Libyan descent It rule,! Egvr- unlll the Persiiin conquest, and l"^ ught u • ^ new loliuencc to bear on the countrrand iw.pu ->y the introduction of (}r..ek soldierk and traders it was under this dynasty that the Greek city of Naucratis was fouu.ied, an the Ca bic branch of the Nile.- O. Rawlinaon, Thf /•„* Ortat Mon- nrchut: AMtt/riq, fh. 9 — Tlu- =~c ~.f 'Se,;-.. rssj., near the Canobic branch of the Nile! w.« de! ] termined by excavations which Mr. W M i Hinders Petrie began hi 1884, sad from which ' unrfo „» I. "Ji*^ — r • """ leainea to copy all ^ru of handwork pr,Kured from the valley of rinr.;! fi. ■ i ■ ■^'^'^''"''■'K to Herodotus and blu- fc -i"*./"""' '^°*'' 'o «»>« Greeks by the King was the cause of a great revolt . ,f the imtive EgypTan troops, who left the fromi rfortn -es fh.t'"^?'!!-"'* ""."'^ '^J'""' Elephantine. « re nUtfe^. '^k"'''*"''^,^'' ''^' '••'"reaties of Ps.,m- mitichu.s vho naturally deplored the loss of ■ ■ e Miamstay f his doronuons. and developed n.:» HeJ^lh * '\ t*''"^^^ Wiedemann. hWeve^ fl^L !#'' whole story . unhlstorical. and cer^ 1^ , Jin, 1**' ''',°*t'.?, ^'"^ ■■'■ "■ " fontains great Inherent Improbabilities. . Psammitichus died K I v^'"' """^ "I" succeeded by hU son rt^ou°r' TM. Vf '''' f?""' '° e-X^Kfi* and vigour This King paid great attenti .n to the fleet of Egypt and Greek shipwrights were Mt to work on both the Mediterrinean and Red Seas to build triremes for the State navy. A fleet of his ships, we are told, succeeded In sall- ^g round Africa, a very great feat for tb. age Ibe King even attempted the .«k, of whi 5ie completion was reserved for the Perslar I . lus. the Ptolemies, and Trainn. of making i - itimi from the Mediterranean . the Re,i Sea H. u ?iU* 5?y* *''"'• ■"*' »..<:riflciri the liv.s of 180,^*110 men to the Ubour and I of the task, he gave it up, In consequence of le wamlnTrf M oracie that he was toiling only r the barba- rians Necho. like his fathe must ne«la try tne < .-e of his new weafmn. the " cenaries ,.n Asia. At firet i.e wa^ Josiai Kinp of Judah, came mt bu: » ;. slain, and iiis army Vtti.iur carried Necl as far . . . But Nebuchadui- ;rar, k Babylon, marched agaiKst the feated them in a great hnttle His fiitliers death recall hi- Egy, • ivas for the mon ;t ?; inva.si 1 liy the stubhor Babylonian arms I" a resistance fatir lem was capliir the Inhabitant an mitlcbus n.. bo ^ knc-ff but litti- »cr- record. Heron '\ia Ethiopia, anil ^ ^tvr Rut of the ei^-tidmua thu Ion 78c t mer- easfuL lust him, < cl. Or, k Euphra- g. ' the KlnK of . .,!, rs. and de- ar ( archemlsh. Babylon, and -,t from counter- ace oilered tu the lel, -.1^. 1, Kmg of Judah, he d, wi«li race; for Jeruaa- "r a lor ' siege, and most of dintf. pti'. ity. Of Paam- ' i Nt<ii<). we should .or the Hrchaeotogical ily aays that he attacked reign of six yean. ^Qunarily recorded EGYPT, B. C. «70-8»8. Pmian Ctmvml. KOYPT, B. C. 686-888. we hare a lasting and memorable retult in the well known inscriptions written by lUiodians anil otlier Greek merccuariea on tlie legs of the colossi at Abu Simbel in Nubia, which reconl how certain of them came thither in tlic reign of Psammitlclius, pushing up the river in Ixiatg as fur as It W8» navigable, that is, perhaps, up to the seronii cataract. . . . Aprica, the Hophra of the llihlc, was the next king. The early part of his rei>;n w«h marked by succcnful warfare against the Phoenicians and the peoples of Syria ; but, like his pr<ilecea8i>r, lie was unable to maintain a fiKrtIng in Asia in the face of the powerful and warlike Nebuchadnezzar. The hostility which prevailed between Egvpt and Babylon at this time caused King Aprles to open a refuge for those .lews who fleil from the persecution of Nebuihaiinczzar. He askigneil to their liadi'rs, among whom were the ilaughtcrs of the King of Juduh. a palace of his own at Daphnae, •Pliaraiih's bouse at Tahpanhes.' as it Is calliil by .leremiah. That pniphet was among the fugitives, and uttend In the nahuv a notable prophecy (iliil, 0) that King NebH<liailnezzar should come and sprcail his <on<iueriiig tent over the pavement Inforc it. Formerly It was sup- posiKl that this prophecy renuilned unfulfilli'd, hut this opinion has to lie altandomnl. Recently- discovend Egvptlan and Uali;. Ionian insjriptions prove that NcKuilmdiuiiar coiKpiered Kgypt as far as Syene . . . The fall of Aprles was brought aUiiit by his ingratitude to the tJreeks, and his conteinp't for the lives of his own sub- Jeits He had formnl the pMJect of tirliigiiig unihr his swav the (Jrirk cities of tin' Cyn'imiia. . , . April's ifespatclHii against ( yreiie a large force; liut t he (yreneanslinively defended them- nlves, and as the Kgyptiaiis on this iKcaslon manhiil without tin Ir Gnek allies, they were eiitlnlv defeated, and mcwt of them p«'rislied by the sword, or In tin' diirts which separate Cy- reue from K(:.vpt. Thr defialiil tnHips. and their country niin who remalniil bi'hlnd in gar- rison in Kgypt, iinputiHl thedinasler totnwiiery on the part of Aprles. . . . They nvidted. ami chiBW as Ihilr h ader .\ma»ls, anianof esp^•ri^■ncl^ and daring Hut Apries. though diwrleil by his sulijeets, lioiml still to maintain his llinmi' by Qntk aid. At the heail of au.iNNi lonhins and Carians he inareluil against Aiiiasls At Mo meinphis a Iwttle tisik place lietwi-en the rlvid khik's and iM'twiin the rival naliims; but the nuniliers of the Kgypllans prevalhil over the amis and dlwlpllne of the merc.naries, and Apries was deflated iiim" laptunil by his rival. Willi, himivir. allows! hliii for some years to retain the name of joint king. It is the Is'st piHMlhle prisif of the wilidily of Gn-ek InlliKiKi' in Kgypt at ihU lime that Amasis, though si't on the lliroiie by thr native army after a vlrlory over till' GnVk mi riinaries, yet did not e«|«l thesi' latter fMtn Kfvpt, but, on the contrary, rnlM'd them to highif f.iv.uir than Is'fonv . . In till- ih'llghtful dawn d eniinii tiil KiiM|i<'»u hl<ti>ry we se" Amihi>h a* a wiiu- ami wiallhj prltiie. ruling In Kifvpt at the lime wlini I'oly eraliswas tvrtuit id' Hamo»; and nlun Cnssus if I.vditt. thi- rli best king of his lime, w,i« !,.■■ ginning to 1h' alaminl by the rapid e\pan-.ion of III. }>..r.i|>n ;uiuir iiiidir CvniH In the ihni if I'MmiMiilirhus III , iln- w f Amasts, llie storm which hud overshadowi d Asia broke Spun Kgypt t'ne of Ibelewlenof the Gn'ck mercenaries In Egypt named PhaDe*. a native of Halicamasaus. made his way to the Persian Court, and persuadeil Cambvses, who, according to the story, had received from Amasis one of those affronu which haye so often produced wars lict ween despots, to invai'.. Egvpt in full force."— P Ganlncr, A««- Ouiiitrnin llrtfk llUtory. ch. 7 Kwo III ; W. M. F. Petric, Na»kratu. — See. also, Naikr.\ti». B. C. 535-333.— Persian conqnett and iot- ereipitT.— The kings of the Twenty -Sixth or Salle Dynasty malntaineil the Indenendenee of Egypt fi'ir nearly a century and a half, and even revived lU military glories brieliy, by Nechos ephemeralconiiiiests in Syria and his overthrow of Joaiah king of Juilah. In the meantime. A.h Syria and lialivlonla had fallen and the Persian iiower niised up by t'yrus had taken their place In his own time, Cvnis did not finish a plan of conquest w liieh included Egypt ; his son t'am bvses tisik up the task. "It appears that four veam wen' eonsumeil by the Persian monarrh In lilsprepanitions for his Egyptian expedition It was not until B. C. 52,5 that he entered Egypt at till- iH-ad of his troops and fought the great battle which decliUiI the fate of the country. The struggle was long and blixsly [si'c I'kksia: B C. .'>4»-Sai I Psammenltus, who hail succetMled hit father Amasis, had the se'rvlivs, not only of his Egyptian subjects, but of a large lioily of mer cenaries liesldes, Greeks and Carians. ... In spite of their courage and fanaticism, the E(tyi) lian army was completely defeatwi. . . . The conipiiHt'of Egvpt waa followeil by the sulmiis slon of the neighlHiurIng tribes. . . Even the tireiksof the more remote Bares and Cynne sent gifts to the coniiuenir and consentiHl to lie come his tributaries.'' But Camlivses wasleil no.iMN) men In a ilLsastrims ex|i<'illt[on through the Lllivan ilea«'rt to Ammoii, and he ntreali^ fnmi h!thiopia with hiss and sliunie. An a templed rising of the Egyptians. Ufon- I.e had iiultltil thilr coTmtrv. was erualieil with nieni less severity. The deities, the temples and the priests of kgypt were tri'atitl with insult and contempt Bnil" the spirit of the (s-ople seems to have Isin entlnlv liroken. "Egypt U'caim- now for a full geiierallon Ihi- olwriiulous slave ■.( Pirsltt, and gave no more trouble to her suliju gator than the wi-akest, or the most eonlinli-<l, of the pMvlnci-s.' — tiisi. Uawllns'in. Thr /■'im Cniil duuirfhi.t: I'lrnn, rh 7— 'The Persian kings, from CamiiyM's to Darius II Nothus. are enMlled as the Twenty Seventh D> nasty of Man vthii The ensiiiiiif fivolts t«'e Atiikns II C Wl 44111 are niognlnil In th.' Twenty Eighth (Salti-l Dnia..ty. consisting only of Amyrl.ein. » ho ^■s^o^^sl the Inileiwmlenir of Egypt (II t 414 4ii"i. and the Twiiily Ninth (MiiidisUiiiiind Thirlieth iSelsnnylei llyiiasllis (alniiit II ( 4os a.Vli, of wlew liitricatV history we mid •>iily hi ri' say that thi v nihil with gri-at proi.|Mri(.v and have left Is'aullfui numumenls of art Th. last king of Indi'i" lull tit Egypt was NeitaiMli" II , who s.uciiiml»'d lo tin- lnva.ilon of .\rta\it xes Gihiis. and Ihil to Eildopia (B (' H^li The last thni' kirn;, i.f Persia. (Khus. Ar^- and Itarius Cislomannus. form the Thirty Eli»i Dynasty of Mamtho, ending with the »uliml« sion of Etf.Mii to Ak-xanih-r the Gri'sl (B < .i;t-.'i — i' nmiili. Anntil liM ••fl!>» k-i-ti.r:.. ilrnW). rh " Al«>l!i: H Bbarpe. i/iW '^ Knt*. i-A-« 784 EGYPT, B. C. Kttmlom of tlie Ptotemiet. EGYPT, B. C. 32»-30. B. C. 33a— Alexander'! conquest.—" In the ofTyrj.— B«. PviiE: B. C. 33>. .md Macedosu Ills manli towiinl Ejtypt. accmpmiinl l,v il„. flcrt wliirli lie lind pl,i,-,.,l under tlic or-lors of Ilciiha-stion. • But. iKiiig dctain.d on lli.. wiiv w-v<ral moutlis l,y the sif^-e of G,iz,,. it was not iKfore llfocmUr that he entere<l E^vpt •■ H„ inii-ht mfely n-.>koii not men-lv on at"i easy ton- ■luest but on an anient rewptlon. from a peopl,. who Mirat to sliak.. .,IT the Persian tvnumy . . Ma7.aees[ihe Persian eomman.!er| /liniself' as »<«,n .ui l„ heard of the battle of Usus. herame avian- that all nsistance to Alexander would 1h' useless and met him with a vnhintarv sul.ml» sion At I'elusium he found the fleet. "and hav InK left a irarrison in the fortri'ds, ordert.l it to |.r<K«.d up the Nile as far as Memphis, while he manhed a.-ross ihe desert. Il.re lie e.melllaled f-»-;vi>iians hy the honours wlii, I, he paid o all their p,,. e.,H.dally to A|.is, who had iKi-n so ( riielly insulted l,y the P. rsiaii invaders He thin euiliarkeil, and dropi down the western or Canoliie „nii of the rl%er to Cauo- ms to Mirvev th,. extn-niily „f th. IKIta ,m tla sde and havlni; s.ailed naiud the lak.. Mareotis, landrd on il„. narmw Ult of |,„v .,n,und which parts ,t from the stni, and U shelten.l Iroiu Ilievlolenee of the northern pahs by a iMij; ridce of PKk, then s-paraied fn.m the nmlu lai.,1 by a elmnnel, nearly a mile (s< v.u » a.hsi bn»id and fonninK <he Isle of Phar.« ( m this site st.KKl ll,..vo,„ire of |{«,„i.,. „.i«.r,. „„, a neient khii-sof Kcvpt had station, 1 a|Mnnamnt ^uanl to jirotec t this entrance of ti , .r dominion, (n.m adventur.Pi. Alexan.les s k«n eve was Immediately «iruek by the advanlajfes of this position for a .lly, v»hieh should Is.n.me a jrnnt.niisirnim of •..miuerre, and a link lstw.,.n the Ust and the \V,,I. . . II,. |„,me,llat,.|y pave onhrs f„r the ,h ,;inninir -f the work him wif tra.>-.|llieoutlin,', nhi, li was »uiri;,-st>d by the naumil f.alures of il„. pn,uii,l li«|f „iid mark.Hl ilM.,|i,.of ^,mf „f „„, nrincipaV'bu'lId! iiiifs, s.|uan-», imlwes aii,| t.inr.U- (si^e \irx AM.KIA B «• .W, Al,xa..d.r r,malne,| in Kirypt until th.. .pH,,^. ..f itti, arranplni; the "<_vui»ill,.n >ui,| a,lminMratl..n ,.f ||„. ,„umrv rh.' system wlileli h,. ..»tabllsli.Ml « rv.il in some ||ol.il. as a m..l. 1 f„r ll,e p,ili,v „f U,,„„. ue l.-r I .■• hmiH.ror. " Ifc r.r. ,,ult,|„« ,i„. ,.„„„,ry h.- m...I.. a Icilsom.- manh alonp th.. ckisi. «,■,! wanl. an<l lli,n,,., far itiio the ,],■« ri lo visit the famous ora.l,. of Amnion — C Tlilrlwall H,,/ ff 't tf, »v, r't ."hi o.^; C. 3»3-3a-The kingdom of the Pol.m}..,.-ln llH ,IIM.l„u .Ttl,,. .m,.ir..?.' i,.!i'i,""'l'i"' ,"'■'■'" !"■'"'■'■" '''^ '-"■"••"I" »ii"i h. ,li,_,l, |M,,|, my l.a-.ti, .. n put.d to I.. „ ti.iural son ..f Al. X iii.l.r s faih. r Philip . , |,„„, h.-.vpt iMv M», n.,M» II , :,...:, ;,,„', „„,, m,-l,;siy « 1,1.1, ,,r„v,..l i„ 1^. „),. |„ ,|| „ pr..un.,.s of ||„ Ma. ..Ionian ...n-.u..,. |i «,„ I..- .,.,,Btry m..M Vastly i„ )». |„./,| „, „ |, I'y.l.nt slat.-, bv nas-.u .>f th.' ». n aii.l d.-xrl »l.,.bs.pttra!..| i, fr,mi th,- r. ,t of ib,. w„rl,l ni.»,ille,l f^m, II,,. prmhrneof Pi.-hnu il.al , If fo,in,|,.d a k„,K,lom which lasb.l Urngtr nii.| t itJcVrij iniitfi u.u*i;i>{»>; :5;;;l j-,r.u-; s^'i— .1 -- i "liar amon„ ||„. m,-,„„re|il..s oril,,' i»i:;,'i„'|,Y j V.Mr, r J'"' V' ^i?**'".' '" '*'■'■ '"f->'>i'e,n ream hcfor.., In 80», U. f , fa, twninsl to SO 78A assume the name (see Macebosia: B. C. 310- ^1 *„„■)■;'""","'• ''"''";' "''•''^' tohisilominion t^,.' ittle (Jr,..k state of Cyn-ne, on the African ejMst with Ph,e„ieia, Ju.W, C.ele Syria, and tlelsla„,lof(.j.,r„. These latter bc-canie .lis puted t.rniorT. rmriit over f,.r two centurie. t?mes''."n'l''V';'7"'^'?'"«' ""-■ S'k-eicis, «W: , o, ,"r ""i '■•*■ •'"■ '""■ ""■' »"n,etlmes by "ll-is'',*T!' ■"''■■■''*''"•'■ "• f- -•Sl-224, ami .'.fTh.. 'p, 1 •"" «"■;"'•'*' <"""■»'■ "le ilominion « n of ,'.""■'""■'*: un.l,.r Ptolemv I'liila<l,.lphu9. Asia Minor an,l many of the Or.-.k islands an.c imtl }{,,„w absorlnd them. Notwith- sl.-.n, ,mr |,i. y ,.« whi.h the family of Ptolemy as bMorj can show. Epvpt iiii.h.r their ruin apr«ars to have ls.,.n ..neof il,,. in. st pr ,Vm.mi« '■'-""tries of ,he time. In Ah.xa«: r , ."^ .T,^^' l..n n,ih/e,l the dream of its Ma-vdonhi,,";? J.. tor Th,.v made it not only the wvaltlliest city of heir .lay. b,it the gr,.atjst s.-at .1 era' if'T"-' ■,'"'''r""'"f ^^""■"'' "« t'"^ -apitalof «lr.'.k <ivjhi.all„n In the an.l.nt worl,l -8 ;'■•;"'>• ';'"li«.te.l In favor .,f his'son. P ..[."my I hila. hli.hus. in JRJ B (■ „,„, u^, , ^^ ^;r"ir" 'vl',';'""'r ,^" "">'--"':'' V , f V" r •^'"""'-1' ""■ poMtl.al .onslituthm fell let'. r'^'Vi" «•■'■"".*• "'"■■■'•■I «lien 11... lai.,1 f. II into (.r,.,k laials. v-.f in oil,,., r.s.K.ts preat ehanir,.s t,.,U plae.. th,. m,.re fact that Kpypt nalt.ns i,', r't"",""?' ■" ■'""'">■ "' "-"cniilic nali.ns. tiiM.ad of elaimiup as of ol,l a i.roiul solatl,.ii. must hav,. l,a,l „ pr,.,„ ,.ff,.,., }„\^^ trad.-, the nunuf.-atuns. an.l lb,, cusb.n.s of the ,' -n ^'''"■'■'"'. "'tl' trad... Iiui.r the 1.,.:. • kllL'S U.y|,t |„„| ^nu;]Y «n . xiemal ra.l,.. an,l tnul,- ,„„l,l «.ar,.,.ly si'Tinp up ,lurinJ nt,.n.,urM. s.|«,,.„ r.ay :,„,| hi.iiy, .Syri,, ,^ iTn? "'i"''' """""<> ""'I »>-<-.'ss..ri!v n,'lvamt. r.ipldly Kpypt pn,|u,.,M maniifa, tun.l p,H«|, nh.ehw.r.. ev.rywlar,- In ,lenmn.l. I |i„, „ lyory pon.lain. n.iably that pai.vru. whkli l-.iryi.t al„n.. pr.»lu,..,l, an,l ubi, |', ,1;,, ,„,.,..^,nr ., Ilie nn.wliK tri.le 111 ii,aiiii«ripN Ariill, lal of' r '„.'n,r"'''i''r" """" ".'; '""n'risinp im.l.rs .,f ( omilh and lanLtuin. Kpb. ,„> „„.| m„.|,.,. wouM imturall* «. k ili,^. o«hI. i„ K.-ypt ■riiiirinirm r,i,.ni »l,,t, v,r ot m,,,i atlruifv,. probabl,. II, ,t ,1,.. Mil.j,.,. „, ,|„. Ptohmh.. «M..ni or 11, «.r h.„l ib,. ,oura,., m ,«,il ,||r, n ,"«„ lb,- U..1 N,. ,„ |„,1|„, |„ |i„u„.„,|„„, lliH ^..,^aL^■ ts'i am. n..t unusual, but at an .arll.r iiin,. ||,.. I,„|i,,„ ,r,„|.. „„, prln. Ipally in be batMl. of th,. .\rab, „f V, m.n and of the .'■^ ' "i'lf , N.-.r.h.l. ,.n,n,.r,e .,f t-.-u-r un.hrtl,,. It,.l, uii, , .pr.a,| ,asl«ar,l. a» «,|| as »..!« ml. 1 1,. Imporlam b,wi„ of Ar.iiH^' „t,.l Ifchui,, at,™ ||„. |(„| H,.,, a, en.i-ita ,1 lb. Arabia., Iia,l. .V„," ^^ „|«^v, h.|.|Hn< »li,n Kif>f in i„ vl,..,n,„« baiHU. il„. III,,,,-. ,.f Ktf>l''lau nil.- aii.l .,i.„m.r.-,. w.re |",<b..| furth.r aihl furibtr u|> ih. Nile The oillux Int., AU-v.n,|rla aii,l M, inphi. „f a .n.w.l ,'1 IJr.ek anhli... Is. artists and arilun. .,..j!,J ie.I rai, 1,, |,r..i„,eiiiMV,.m..ni In thai strt^im .if art wbb h ha.l in Kxyi.t lotn; r, iiiain.sl all hut siairimni If «.■ may trust the •.■mcwhat ovrr-culuunsl an.1 rtUhlT iwneitrria wbtek have i EQTTT. B. C. 828-80. Jndmrttulbmaiit. EOYFT. A. D. 1380-15<f. come down to ui, the material pmgnm of Egypt under Ptolemv Philadelphiu wm matt wonder- ful. We read, though we cannot (or a moment trust the figure* of Appian, that In hi* reign Egvpt poMMied an army of 900,000 foot aoldier* and 40,000 horsemen, WW elepbanU and 8,000 chariot* of war. The fleet at the lame period is ■aid to have included 1,900 large Te**els, soma of them with twenty or thirty banks of oars. Allowing for exaggeration, we must suppoie that Egypt wai then more powerful than It had been since the days of Rameses." — P. Gardner, JVew Chapter! in Oreek Ilittory, eh. 7. — See, also, Albxandria: B. C. 883-346; and Edccation, Ancient: Alexandria. B. C. 80-48. — Strife ameaK the Ptolamica. — Roman pretenaiona.— The throne of Egypt being disputed, B. C. 80, between Cleopatn Bere- nice, who had seized it, and her step-son, Pto' .my Alexander, then in Rome, the latter bribca the Romans to xiipport bis claims by making a will in whirh he nttnit-d the Roman lii'publlc ss his heir. The nntv, thin-nt, s<'nt him to Alexandria with onl< i-i that Ben-uice sliould marry him and that they slinuld reign jointly, a* king and queen. The order was obeyed. The foully mated pair were weddc^i, and, nineteen day* afterwaida, the young king procured the death of his queen. The crime provoked an insurrection in which Ptolemr Alexander wa* slain by liiit own guanl. Thiscnditl I he legitimate line of the Fu>lrmiesi but sn illcgitiumte prince, usually called Auletes, or "the pTper." wa* put on the throne, and be aucceedetl ill linlding It for twenty-four years. The claim of the Romans, untter the will of Ptolemy Alexandi-r. Be<-ms to have liecn kept in alievancr bv the brilies which Auletes employed with liberality among Hie senatorial leaden. In 08 B. ('. a riHing at Alexandria drove Auletea from the thrDiic. in ,V( B. t'. he bought the *up- port of (labiniuii. Roman nro-cimsul in 8vria, who reinatnti'd lilm. He die<l in 51 B. ('. Icsv- ing by will bis kingdom to his elder daugh< .T, Cleopatra, and \\U elder son. Ptolemy, who, ac- conling to the nlKiniinable custom of the Ptoleml<>s, were to marry one kiioiIut anil n-Ign logi'lber. The Roman li'ople, by the t4'rmsiif llie will wen- nuule Its exiH'iiUirH When, therefore, Civsar, coining to Alexandria, thn-e year* afterwards, fiiiind the will of Auleti'S set at nought, Ploh-niy iKM'iipyliig the throne, alone, and ('letipatra struggling against hini, he bad some ground for a pn?t«'n»l(in i>f right to Interfere. —8. Hharpe, Hut. 'jf t^/iii'l. fh II. B. C. a8-47.— CiTil war batwMO Ciaopatra and Ptoltmy. - Inttrvention of Casar.— Tha riaing acainst him.— Th* Romaot boaiagad In AlaBandria. — Thtir ruthtata vlctaty. See Ai.KXANimiA: R. (' 4)M7. B, C. 30.— Orgaaitad at 4 Rouwa previaca. —After lue iMitle of Acliiim aixi the death of ('leo|iatra. Egypt was reduce)' 'ly Drtavlus t<> tlie rank i>f a Itonian province ami the dynasty i/f the Piiik-mii-s <'Xtlngiii»he<l But OcuViini "'h»il im intention >if giving to the senate the rich domain which he ton- fMm Its native rulers. Me would not sow In a fonign soil tiie sewi* of independ- ence which he waa Intmt upon cruahing nearer home. ... In due time he ptftuaded the senate and people to raisbiixb it is a pricripl^, that Egypt anoukl never tie placed uncter the admlota- tratlim of any man »( auperior rank to the aques- tftaB, aad tiiat no asnator abouM be allowed even to visit it, Whhout e«pie«a permiaalon ftMB the aupreme aotfcority."— C. Merivale, BM. </ th* Bamatu, th. tt. A. D. loo-SOfc— Romaa and Christiaa. I>f« AlexandkiaTB. C. 48-47 to A. D. 418-418, and CHRnmABiTT! A. D. M-W). and 100-813. A. D. 396.— RevaU cmahad tj Diocletian.' See Albxakdria: A. D. 898. A. D. 6i«-4s8.— CMneat bj Choorect, the Pcraiaa. — The career M conqueat pursued by Choaroea, the laat Peislaa conqueror, extended even to Egypt, and bevoort it. " Egypt Itself, the only province which hail been exempt since the time of Diocletian from fneign and domeatic war, waa again aubiiued by the luccesaors of Cyrua, Pefusium, the key of that Impervious country, waa aurprised by the cavalry of the Persiana: they paned with impunity the innum- erable clianiiels of the Delta, and exploml llie long valley of the Nile from the pyramids of Memphis to the confines of iGthiopia. Alcxatulrin might have been relieve<l by a naval force, but the arcbbiabop and the pnefrct embarknl for Cyprus; and Choaroea entered the second city of the empire, which still jin-si'rved a wealthy rem- nant of industry and commerce. His wiiilcni tmphy was erected, not on the wall* of Cartliai:i', but in the neighlxwrhood of Tripoli: the Onik colonies of ("jrene were finally extirpated. " Hy tlie peace concluded in 888, afier the desth of Chosroes, all of his conquests were restonil to the empire and tlie cities of Syria and Egypt evacuated by their Persiaogarriaons.—E. Oiblion, Dfetine and fhtl of thr Rnman Bmpirt, eh. it.— See Persia: A. D. 2-'" ««7. A. D. 640446.— Moslam cooqacat. tV>' Ma- hometan ('oN<jrE»T: A. D. •4t>-J846. A. D. 967-1171.— Uader the Fatimite Ca- liph*. See Mahometan CoHqcEsr: A. I> «•»- 1(71. A. D. ii6S-iaso.— Ua4*r the Atabeg and Ayoabit* aultaaa. See Saladin, Tbk kmimkk or. A. D. iai>-i*ao.— lawaioa by the Fifth Cmaada. See CnuaADEs: A. I) ISK-lS-Jfl A. O. ia49-itf)a. —The craaadiag invaaion by Saiat Loui* of Franc*, t^v ('Hri>*i>Kii: A. I). 1848-1354. A. b. iaso>i5i7.— Th* Mamalakc Sultan*. - Tlie Mamelukes were a mllltarv body cn-*tiil liy Saladin. "The woni mi-ans ufave (literally ' Ibt- iiosseiMieil ■). and . . . they were brought In youth from nortliirn countries to serve Ui tlw Sniitli. Saladin bimM-lf was a Kurd, and long lafori' liU accession to power, Turkisli ami Kuniinh iinr cenaries were cinploynl b' the t Bllphs of Bagdoii and Cairo, OS the Pope en I'ys Swiss. . . Sub- ■cquintlv, however, Clrci-^iia U'cunin tb<> coun try wlilch nrnat I'lrgely furnlsheil this riots of lnM>p» TiM'lr appn-ntlceship was a king sihI laborious one : tliey were taught, first of all. t<l^'Hll the Koran and to write . then followwi lance e»rr lise. during which time nolMKly was silowcil lo aiM-ak to ihem At first thev either resiiteil In the csiitle, or were exerrinMl living umlrr ItuIk, but after tlie time of SulUn Barkouk tliey wire allowed to live in tlie Uiwn [Calni], and tbi- quar- ter now occupied by the Jews was at that iIiik' ilrvote.1 to (he Circassian Mamelukes. After this pcrirni ihrj- nr^irrinl Ihrif fri:;;rHH^ V-^ warlike exercises, ami Itecame degenerabt awl corrupt. . The dynasty of Sahdio . waa of BO dttiatk», aad rode<l in <M8 A. II., or ISH 788 KOTPT, 1980-1517. n« JCMMMtat. LdYPT, 1808-18U. |uk«of the sultan Nepn-ed-dto haring lod^ IsUnd In the Nile (Bahr-en-Nll). uo luKiwi, tne AdUBuu ut hue xiiie iDuir-en-x^ii) The intriguer of the period wm Sheger-ed-dur the widow of the monarch, who mmrried one of the Mameluke., Moe« eddin-aibekel-TurcomanT who became the flnt of thew Bahritc Sultaii' and was himself murdered in the Castle of Cairtj through thU woman. . . . Their subsequent hU- torr, untU the conquest of Egypt by Sultan Sellm in 1817, pre«into nothlng%St a «rie. of acta of lust murder and rapine. 80 rapidly did they expe! each other from power, that the average rcign of ecch did not exceed fire or six iSfl-hli. ' "« ^l^ I^P'™ '» 'he spectacle whicli these .Mameluke Dynasties constantly ore- iton^ V. 1, eh. t>-5. A. D. i5i6-i5i7._OTeithrow of the Mame- juke Snitans.— OttOfflaa conquest by Suitaa S«J»m. Set- Turks: A. I). 14»?-1520. A. D. i79».i7«9._The French conquMt and occupation by Ktampartc. 8t^. Franc.: A. D 1788 (May— Aloi-BT), and ITOft-lTW (Aoacw— AcarsT). A. D. I798-I790.— Bonaparte's orffanisatloa J!^" *'> P«nce. See Franck: A. D. 1788- A (•);<■'" "—Ai'ousT), and \',Vi (NovajiBmR) V . '••?•— D'»«ont««t and diacouran- T5i »?•",? Pjeoch.-Tha rtpudiatad TrtTty R«»oit crushed at Cairo.-Aaaaaaiiutien of Ktbar. 8f« Jhakck: A. D. 1800 (Jakcaby- JUnK). ^ the En»il.h.-Restora«on of th« prorioco to Turkey. h«t. Khan, k: A. D. IHOI-IWCJ. 'All;,?if'^'""."TT''« "•• •' Mohamaad Aly (or Mchemet All) to power.— Hia traach- •roua destruction of tha Mamelukea--It wasiliirinB 111 },, mil, Pupation that Moham- niad Aly for Mtheniil Ali| came on tho scent- He was born in 1768 at the AlhanUn port of Jiaballa, anci liy the patronage of the go- Tor was sent lo Kgypt in imi with the rontln«, tof tniops f»riil«li,M by Kaballa to the Ottoman army lh.n o|wrating with the EnglUh against the iVnch. lie rapidly n«, to the oomnuSliof the Amaut or Allwnlan section of the Turkish army, and scon found himsilf an important facuir in th,. confusci political po.ition which ti « i*'i* „'''•'"•."'!"' "' ""' British army. The .M.mluk Ifcys ha<t mit been r<>st<>re,l to their former posts as pMrlncial goTcrnors. and were c.«s.|Hiently ri|H> for revolt against the Porte but tiKir party was w.-akenwi by ih.. rivalry of dlvi,l.il iMir followers Into two h.«tlle ramps. On the other band, the Turkish I-aslut appolnt'd by the Horte had not yet gained a flnii grip of the cuntry. and was nerpetually appr..ft,n,lvo 1 at the hiMMl of his Albanians was an in.imnsnt -J'/"'-/' 4"" *''*'' •" •«■•"'• "<' h' '"llv sp Jiwtoted bis pasitt<». II. pUyed off on.- party -!!tS,"lf "•^'- 't' P»^ "plnst the IJeys, I WoOBsafully, that ha not ooW weakennl both ■^ »>■•■.? matir the people or Ci,,,, »i,„ were SKj?7j?.l!l5?^i "' *'••'"''"' •«» Turk vu», kliflmfrtsadt; aad at itatnfbnd him- 787 self, with becoming hesitation, to be persuaded Zi. «P*™"y?' ™ popuhM» to become [1808] their ruler and thus stepped to the supremi power In the curious guise of the peoples fHend. A fearful time followed Mohamiad 'Alys el™: F^;;;'°VK'=^",.7;i';z'° "» govemo>»hipof SS£V IJ'L^K *** f"^' KhSrshid, held the citadel, and Mohammad "Aly, energetically aldad by the people of Cairo, hlj siege to it. FroS from the heighu of Mukattam, the besiegeia poured their ifre into the citadel and KhurSld th? dtv " Th " •■«««^ri'°l"«f cannonade S^n 2»^„!/r r'v'l^' » '""••'■g"- arrived from Con- stantinople bringing the confirmation of the pop..ar vote, in the form of a firman, appoint '"?.*''*ammsd Aly governor of Egyp. '^^ur- amusi-d themselv,, in the approved Turkish anS (even worae) Allmnlan fashiol. bv making Lv^ „..i^i!:illf^'''J'"','' '"'^'"- MohamnSd 'A^ now possessed the title of Governor of Egypt but Uyond the walls of Cairo his authorit/^w everywhere disputed by the Beys. . An a? tempt was made to ensnare certain of the Beva ^n"iI;!;^'?.K'"■?°lP*** "o"'' ■•' «•■« metropolis tanal of Caliw was Ui be cut, and some chiefs of Mohammad Aly s imrty wn.te informing them 1:ImT \ "' ''.'" '""'P" '" *'""■»« «'"-' ceremony: <l.-celv.. them, stipulating for a certain sum of money as a itwanl. TKe dam, however wm ™i.r'''' '".V'" l'«'«''"''*f night, witbou any hT-^v' t!Ju ""■'■' -*•"''"''»• » »ery numerous iKMly, broke open the gate of the suburb El- Hjwey-niy.li and galniil mlmlttance inU) the • ity . Tliey marched along the nrlncinal . tt^t for «,me distance, wlU. ketth-dnnnX: Hind each company, ami were n-ceived with an. paretit ,.y by the dtizm. At the mo*,ue call.,1 I ^.1 ."".r"' ."'.'^ "■P^'W, one i«rty pro- ceeding U) the Axliar ami the houwf of «rtain sfteykhs and the other party conllniiiug along the main stiwt, and through the gate calle3 Bab Zuwevleh where tliey turneii up towards the elladel Hcrj. they were flml on by some soldiers from the houses: and with thU /jnal a terrilile niamaere coinmeuetHl. Falling bark towani* their rompanionn, they found the by- streets cl.*..!: and In tluti part of the main thoroughfar.. called B.yn el K'«„eyn. they wen, suililenly plat-e,! In-twetn two flrm Thus shut up in a narMw street, some sought refuge in the <-"ll.>[Ute ii..»,,.,e of the Barkukiyeh, while the remamler fought their way through their enemies, and es<-a|ird over the rity wall with th. I<»s of their bor«e«, Two Memluks had in the meantime su.e,-e.l„l. by great eiertlons, in giving the alarm to their c.mni.ie« In Uie guar i.r of Uie Ashar, who escaped by tlw rastem gate wllrd Uabel-Ghureyyib, A horrible fate awalte,! ilioK. who ha<l shut themselves up In tl». Barkukiyeh lla.Ing l«.gg,.,i f„r quirier an.l surr.fi.lere.1, they were luimr.llatelv stripiied nearly nuke.1, ami sIhhu fifty were aUughlered on the soot: and aboijt the sa^-M Eamher w=t? .Iragge.laway The wretched oaptlvaa were then ehaiaed ami left In the murt of Um Paaha'a haom; aMioBilM foMowtaf aoimlM tk^l i'i EGYPT, 1808-1811. ir<kelM( AH, ond after. KGVPT, 184a-18«>. of their comrade*, who hwl perUhed the d«y before, were skinned and stuffed with gtraw be fort- their eyes. One Bey and two other men mid their ransom, and werp r-'leiifeed ; the rest, without exception, were topi-reii. and put to death in the course of the >•'. -^wini night. . . . The Beys were dishearU-u -U by tills revolting butchery, and most of th.ni : tin li to the upper country. Vrgetl by Eii)t'.and, o.- more probably bv thJ promise of a t.ribe from fcl-Elfy, the r'ortc began a leisurely intcrftrmee In favour of the Memluks; but tht failure of El-Elfys treasury, and a handsome bribe from Mohammail •Aly, soon changed the Sultan's views, and the Turkish fleet salU-d awav. ... An attempt of the English Oovemment to n-s.lorc the Memluks by the aotitm of a fnrre of .l.tX)!* nun under Ch'neral Fraser ended In disaster and huiniliallon, and the titUena .if ChIm hiul the satisfaction of seeing the lieails of Englishmen exposed on stakes in the Kuliekiyeli. Mohammii.l Aly now adopted a more eoiiciliBlory tMilley tow^irds the Hemluks. gnintwl them land, and encouraged ^ them tj ntum U) Cairo. The tlemency w^as ; only assuniitl in onler to prepari' the way for ; the act of consummate treachery which finally upriM.ted the Menduk power. . Early in the j year l(<tl, lhi> pn^parations for an expedition i igaliwt the \Valdiiibi» in Arabia lielng complete, all the MemlukBe . then In Cairo «en> inviled | to the i-eremonv of lnvc*tini< Mohammad 'Aly » | favourite son. 'Tusun, with a peli.sne and the I tomniiwd of the armv. As on the fomier nm •ion the unfortunate Menduks fell into the snarl'. On the l«t <if Man-h. HImliln Ifcv and tlH- otliirchief«(one only excepU-dt re painil with their nMiniicH to the citadel, and wert' ciiurteously ri'dlviil bv till' I'asha. Having taken colTee they fornird in procession, and, pn^-eded and followeil liy the I'ttsha's lri«)l>s, slowly descended till- steep anil nnrrr)W road leading to Ihi.' gmit gale of the citadel ; but as si»>n as the Memluks arrivetl at the gate it wm suddenly clos»'d lafori' them The last of those who made their exit bi'fore -he gale was shut were All...idans uniler Malih Rush, T.i tliow- tniops their chUf no» madi' known the I'asha's onlern to massacn' all thi' Ml mluks within the citadel; llienfon' li:iv- Ing niuriiiil bv another way. they gained 'lie ■ummlt of the walls and housi's. that hem in the roful in which the .Memluks wen-, and si.nio Btalionid themselves u|M>n tin- inilnemiK of tlie rixk thn.uirh which that rtn'\ i» partly cut Thus M'l iin Iv plmed. they eoiiiniiniiil a heavy tin- MM iliiirilifeiirili««vlitimH, and immediatel; the tMiips who I loMil till' pnsi-ssion, and who bail the ndvanlngr <•! lilghiT gmuiid, followed Ihiir i\:ini|>li- tTu Mi iiduks entenil the elladel. iiiid of llic"' »'ry few. If any, ewnisil O f iliise is said to ImvelsTn a Hey Acioni ing to «ome. Ill- liiipid his horw from tin- ram piirti and iillu'liliil iminjunil. tliough the hor*- was killrd bv llie full (Mlier* Bsy tlinl lie w«« pri'ventid from Joiiiint' his iiiinrailes. and di" covend the Inai l..fv wliile wailing wilhi.ul the gate 111. Il<.il and made hiswny to Svria This iiiii-siirn- was the .-i^nal for iin liiill«<riminate ^Inuiililir of the Memluks tlir.iugliout Egypt, ..niirs to this effect lieing Iraiismilliil to every «<iv.-mor and in Cain lt«lf, Uie housis of the I»e,H wen> given over to the Hiidkr), vtlm ilaiighlenil all their adlM-rents. tmit«l their woDwn in the miml »ham*le»« mauner, and wrked their dwellings. . . . The last of his rivaU btlng now destroyed, Mohammad 'Aly was free to organize the administration of the country, and to engage In expeditions abroad "— S. Lane- Poole. &vpt, eh. 8. Ai*o is; a. a. Paton, Ili't. of tht Egyptutn, BeniMiim. r, 2. .... A D. 1807.— Occupation of Alexandria by the Eneliih.— Ditaatrous failure of their ex- pedition, tki' TiRKs; A. I). IWHUwiT. A. D. i83i-i840.— Rebellion of MehemetAli. — Succeaaea afaioat the Turks. —Intervention of the Weatem Powera.— Egypt made an he- reditary Paahalik. See Turks. A I>. IS:ll- A D. 1840-1869.— Mehemet All and hia auc- ceaaora.— 'The khedivea.— "? he opening of the Suea Canal.— "By the treaty of lS4lt iHtwini the I'oni' and the European Powers. . . . \\H title to Egvpt having la'cn . . . alHrnuil . . . Mehemel .\li devotwl himself during the next seven years to the social and material iniiir .ve- ment lif the coiintr) with an iiirgregate . ' re- sulu which lias fixed his place in history as the ■Peter the Oreaf of Egypt. IiuIwhI, except some aildltions and further reforms made ihirinz the reign of his reputed grandson. Ismail |•a^lul. the whole administrative system, up till !'« than ten years ago. was, in t!ie main, his work; and notw'ithstanding many admitted defects. It was lit Ills death liicimi|ianiblv the most clvilim-il and . 'Hcient of tliin existing .Mussulman (iov, rii nuii: In 1H4H, this great satrap, then ver.L'ing i on his eightieth year, was attacked by a menial I malmly, induceil, as It was said, by a potion ad I ministereil in mistaken kindness by one of hii own daughters, and the goviniment was tuki ii over by his idoptiii son. Ibrahim I'aslm. ihe hem of Koiimli and Nezlb. lie lingered till .\ugust 1«4W. but Ibrahim had already ytv deceased him; and Ablma, a son of tin' luit.r, succtiiled to the vicin-gal throne. Thoiik'li liorn and bnil In EgviU. Abtias was a Turk of tin' worsttyiK' — Ignorant, cowanlly, sensual, faiiutii, and op"pi»teil to refonns of every wirl. Thus his feelile nign of less than six years was. ii; almost cv.rvthing. a|HTiislof retMgnssion On H night in .liilv, K>4. he was strangled in lu^ sin p bv a couple of his own slaves. — arliiiL'. il wiis viirloUKlv said, on a sicnt imler from Coiisiii.ti nople or altlie Ishest of one of his wive> 1" Alilias Kiieeiided ^nld, the thini son of Mi In im I All. an andalile and lilsral niindi d |.rini. wl,.. retrievisl miiih of the mlsihhf done by his prr diiess.ir. bill linked the vigorous inlellii.- nre and force. d rlianii Irr reiiuinsl to ( urry 011 Ilir gn-iit work iHirun bv lil« fiitlier His riii:ii ""1 U- chietiv meuionilili- 'or the eoiieessioii and 1 om mencemi'iil if Hie f'Ui v Canal, the roloss:d work which while iKiiillliiig the tnide of th.' worll. has lost so mm h to Kgyiit .'*iild dii il In •! i"u iirv IWI. and was succeeded by hi» niplii" Isiimil I'lislia, llii' second son of llmihlm S* most of 111! Ic.ulinu' imidruls of Mils I'riin. ^ fi.jgn |„ ,,',«, tin- 1 hii f fealuns of Ins ehaneur, an' still fnsh in Hh' piil'lii memory. I n-d nil H'lv niall a few of thr inon' siili. iit of Is'iM \iiiorigstlhe fonner. history will une tin llr-i plai-e to his creation of the huge pubhi di 1 1 whieli forms the main element of a jinihlem lli.il Impartlsl Judge will at least e.iuallv blame llie flnanclal panaen'rs who ministered to his ex- 788 EGYPT, 1840-1869. Soudai •I of tht EGYPT, 1870-188a 'ZTZuou^^'TtZ^'on^tT'^T- i "«'"«"«' '"to various convention, with Eng. say tlmt Ismail ; Powers of the sincerity of lii« intentions, he con- j sentcil to put the wiuiitorial provinces under I tlie lulMiinistmtion of an Eun-jeun officer who sliould be commissionid to carry on the work of , repression, tomiuest and orjritnisation that liad [ l>eincommen<T(I liy Balier. Ilischnic.. fell upon :i man of <-xc-ptional ability, a brilliant officer riiin.il at ttiM.hvidi, who had already gained liijrli riiiown in China, not only for mililary : taicm. but for hi.4 adroitness and skill in ne- ).'Mliaii.m and diplomacy. This wasColonel Gor- don, luindiiirly known as 'Chinese Gordon ' wlm WMs n.iw to add fnsli lustn> to his name in tjiypt as (.onion I'aslia. Gonlon was appointe<l Oov.niourUenerul of the Siiudau in 1874 With him wtriMissocialcd Cliaille Lim^. un Ameri<an ..iHcr. wlm « as chief of hissLitt; the Gentian, l>r. hiiiiii tllendi. mediral ,,nic,r to tlie exiMdi- tioii; LuutcuiintsChippemlull and Watson Uessi and hemp, enijineers. . , . Thenceforward the temlones. .,f which so little had hitherto laen kmmn, bicaine the continual stvne of military movements and seientiric excursions. . . The Soudan w.is mi far counuend as to lie lieid by alMiut u,|,,/,,.ii military outpiwts stationed alone the Nile fn.m Lake Xo to Ijik, ^ .Vllurt ami Ibni- him. . In IN76 Gordon wi mi Imck to Cairo. .>evenh<iiss. altlioutfii he was uiarieil with the continual sirui,';;le of the past two years worn down by tlie inci-ssant labours of internal organi- sation and L'roL'rapliieal investit,'utioiis, disheart- cmil. t.«.. by the Jialousies. rivalries, and in- trl>:ues..| all around him. and bv the ill fcdini; of the v.ry people wlioiii the Kheilives (ioveni- meiit h.'id sent to «iip|H)rt him. he consented to return airain to his post ; this time with the title of (iovern.iiir (ieiieniinf the Niudaii. Darfur and tlie^Kipiatorial l'r..\ iiics. .\t the lieirinniiJK of ICi 1 he t.Hik iMwsession of the Government palace at Khartoum. . . KKyiitian authorllv. allied with Kiirti|).-aii civilisation, ap-winil" now at leUL'th to U' lakiinr some holi! on the v:irious districts, and tlu' Cairo Govenimeiil mijrlil li.>;iu to liK.k lorwanl tn a time when It ei.uid ivi kon on some rewanl f..r its laU.iirs and s^o rilieis. I he area of the new Kjjypti^.if S.udaii had how Income imm.nse InM^-raphiiallv. its ei nin- In- cluded the entlri' valley of the .Ni'lf pn.|H r. from Ih-risr to the great lakes; i.ii the ea-I were such jiorili.ns .rf the valle.vs ..f ihe llliie Ml.' and At- bara as l.iy oiitsi<le Aliy.s.Mi,ia. ami em ibc west Wire the distrii tt watereil bv tin' Hahrel(;ha/al and till- liiiiir elAnib. riglitaway to tin- e.iiilliies of Wadiii . . ''iifiirfiimlrly 'ill 1n;i» I.Hhiail I'aslia w.is depciinl, .nv]. in tile grievous I...,, (if the Nmdaii. linnhic Viis recalh-d. As tin im- mediate lonsi'iiiirnie. thr eiMiiiirv fell bill k into Ihe hands iif Turkl.li oashas; apiithv. disi.rder. eanles,iii«,. and ill feelini: n apiMan'd at Khar- tiHini. and tlie Arab slave di-alirs. win. had fur a piri.Kl Is. II kept undiT by llaki r. Gessi, and Gnnlon. eaiiie once iiion' In tbe front. . It WIS lia.Mif I'tohii wh.i, in l.«7u, -iieee.sb d ti.iidon as(i,.vini<iiir-Gener.il lie li:i.| three Europeans as his siibiinlinales— Kmin \U\. wlm In fnre (ior- dm h'ft. had lieen jilai id in charge nf the province of Iheeipiatnr. Liipion Ik'y, an Kiigllshman. who III I billuwiil Gessi as (iiiNernour on the Itidinl. «iim«ii. ami .siaiin Ikv. an Austrian. In com- mand iif Darfur. lUouf had barely lain two r , . ■."•"""- >^"»i "> r-gypi. un me otner band, it is but historical justice to say that Ismail did much for the material progress of the countrj- He added more than I.WX) to the 200 miles of railway in existence at the death of Said. He greatly improved the irrigation, and so increaseil the cultivable area of the country; multiplied the primarv schools, and encouragcil native in- dustries. For so much, at least, history will pivr- him credit. As memorable, though less meritorious, were the magnltlo-nt fetes with wl.ah. in 1869, he oiH'ncsl the .Suez Canal, the gnat work which England hiul so long opposeil hut through which — as if bv the inmv of his- tory —the first ship tlml passed llew the English Hag. and to the present tralHc of whiih we con- tribute more than eighty p<T cent. In wrsoiial character. Ismail was of exceptional intelligenee, but cruel, crafty-, and untrustworthy b<itii iii politics and ii Ins private n-lations. ... It niav be miiitioned that Ismail I'aslia was the «rst o'f these Ottoman Viceroys who Isin' the title of 'Klieilive.' which is a"l'erso-Arabic designation Bgnifyiiig nink a shade less than n^gal. This he obtained in 1867 tiy heavv liriNs to the Sultan and his chief ministers, as he had the year iH'fon' by similar means ousted his bmther and uncle from thesuecessiiiii. and secunnl it for his uwn chlest son. — in virtue of which the latter now 1181HIJ nominally n-igus."— .1. C. MX'oan, A,V/y,,< {Aiili.iiml Life <ii,'l ilumjlit. Irct. 18). -The siime. K'jiijil under Iminiil, I'h. 1-4. A. D. 1870-1883.— Conquest of the Soudu. —Measures for the suppression of the slave- trade.— The roTcrnmeat of General Gordon. — Adrent of the Mabdi and beginning of bis ftTOlt.— In 187(1. Ismail 1'a.slia 'iiiadi' an apinal for European assistance tn stnngthen him in com- pleting the enni|iie»t of Centnd Africa [Sir Samuel I IJaker was acconlinglv plaied In com- inand of \:iw men. supiilied with cannon and •team-lsiai^. and riisivnl the title of Governour- Geucral of the pmvinces which he was com- missioned to sulslue. Having ehsted to make (iondnkon) the si at of his i;nveniment. he 1 hanged o- name to lb::iailia. He wiuinot long in ! nnging thr Hari In submissinu. and then. a.|. uuiiig •imihwanls. he came to the districts nf |lii::icanil ratikn. a hialthy ngion eudnwed by iiatiir, with fertile valhvB and irrigat.d by liinpid s>r. auis. but for y -art past innvcrtisl inin a »<irl nf bell upon earth by the slave hum. rs whn had made it their headiiuartirs. Knun these pests llak.T de- livensl the l.salily. and having by his i.i. t and energy ovenoin.- ibe ilislriist nf Ihe iiallv.- rul.rs JM' ( slablishid iiv.r th.ir lerriiorv a .< ri iln n ' liernf small mililary s. It leiiients. . . llik. r n- turn.. I to i:uii.|K' Haltering hiuis. If win, the d.liisinn that hi ha.l put an .ml to the semirge of Slav.' .haling. Ii was true that varimis shivi d.alers .bus on ihe Ipinr Nile ha.l Is.ii Ueslniyisl. a numlier nf .inlaws had Uin simi an.l a few th.iusaii.l ini^mble slaves ha.l Ins 11 S.I at lilH'rtv: but li.^ni,.| t|,;,t nothing had hisiiacnmiplishisl, no «,..ti.r ha.1 th.' lilsrat r turii.sl his Iwik than the .Kliniis tmllli ri.niii miiiiid with inim. vigour than ln'f.ir.' ihniui:h till- ngion Kiulh of Oimdukor... This, h.iw.vi r was only one of the sUvchunliiig .lisiri.ts. and ny !h' iiirntij i.'ir worst. . . i |.d. l i; mail cHnpulshui th.' Khe<lh.. UiiihII uiidertiH.k i ^.niipu..! »i in,. ivu,.<i|ve IsiiiHll uiidertiH.k i mau.l nf Darfur. lUnuf had ban Iv Isen two V> pnimote Buas.m.s to put a stop to the K-anUal. j year. »i Khartoum wla-n the .Mahdi applilU « 789 EOTPT, 1870-1888. n« jraM<. EOTPT, 1878-1888. theKcne. Prompted either by penonal ambition or by reliKioui hatred, the idea of playing the part of ' Mahal ' bad been acted upon by many an Arab fanatic [see Mardi]. Such an idea, at an early age, had taken poeaenion of a certain Soudanese of low Mrth, a native of DongoU, by name Mo- hammed Ahmed. Before openly aipiring to the rOle of the regenerator of Islam be had filled seTcral subordinate engagements, notably one under Dr. Peney, the French surgeon-general in ,the Soudan, who died in 18«1. Shortly after- wards he received admittance into the powerful order of the Ghtlani dervishea, and then com- menced his schi'nics for stirring up a revolution in defence of his creed. His proceedings did not fail to attract the attention of Oeaai Pasha, who had him arrested at Shekka and imprisoned for five months. Under the government of Raouf he took up bis sbiMie U|H)n the small island of Abba, on tlie Nile almve Khartoum, where he gained a cocslderablfl notoriety by the austerity of his life and by the fervour of bis devotions, thus gradually galnmg a high reputation for sanctity. Sot only offerings but followers strvamoil in from every quarter. He iH'came rich as well as power- ful. . . . Waiting till May 1881, he then assumed that a propitious time bad arrived for the realisa- tion of his plans, and accordingly bad himself publicly proclaimoil as • Mahdl,^ inviting every fakir and every ri'ligious leader of Islam to come and join him at Abba. . . . Convinced that it was impolitic ui ti>lernte any longer the revolutionary intrigues of such an adventurer at the very gates of Khartoum, Kaouf Pasha resolved to rid the country of Mohammed and to send him to Cairo for trial, An expedition was accordingly des- palcheii to the i»lan(i of Abbii. but unfortunately the nwans employeii were inadeoiiaU' to the task. Onlv a small body of black solilicrs were sent to iirr(>st the agitator in his quarters, and they, in- spired niidoubt liy » vague and superstitiousdread of a man who repn'seiiled himself as the mes- senger of Allah, wavered and acted with indi-- cision. Before their oflieers could rally them to energy, the Mahdi, with a fleree train of follow- ers, knife in hand, rushed upon them, and killing niauy, put the rest to flight, then, seeing that a rene'weil assault was likely to tie made, he with- dri'W the insurgent Imtid into a retreat of safety amongst the mountains of Southern Konlofan. Henceforth revolt wa» opi'niy declared. Siicli was the conditiim of tilings in August l)Mt. t'hase was given, but every effort to secure the {HTHiin of the pretenileii pMpliet was haffletl. A further ntteiiipt was maile to arrest him by the .Miiillr of KaslKKla with 1..VK) men, only to \w at- tended with a still more melancholy result. After a ileit|M-r»te struggle tlie Mudtr lay stretched upon the ground, his stildieramunlered all around him. ( >ne olngle oHIeer, with a few siraggling cavalry, ew'iilH'd the inassaire, and retiirneil to n'port the fatal news. The reverse caused sn absolute panic ill Khartoum, an int<>nse excitement sprea<Iing throughout the Soudan. . . . Meantime the Maliili's prestige was ever uu the increase, and he RiHin fell sufficiently strong to assume the offen- sive. His troops overran Konlofan and Sennar. ailvaneing on the one liaod to the town of Sennar, which tliey M>t f>n tire, and on the other to El- ( )lieid. which they placed In a state of siege. In tlie following July a fresh and more powerful ex- pedition, this time numliering 4.000 men, under the command of YuMuf Pasha, left Fuhoda and made towards the Hahdi's headquarten. It met with no better fato than the expeditions that had gone before. . . . And then it was that the English Government, discerning duiger for Egypt in this insurrection of Islam, set to work to act for the Khedive. It told off 11,000 men, and pUced them under the command of Hicka Pasba. an officer in the Egyptian service who bad made the Alivasin- ian campaign. At the end of December 1882 this expedition embarked at Suez for Suakin, creased the desert, reached the Nile at Berber, and after much endurance on the way, arrived at Khar- touDL Before this, El-Obeid had fallen into the Mahdi's power, and there he had taken up his headquarters. Some trifling advantages were gain«l by Hicks, but having entered Kordofan with the design of retaking El-Obeld, he was, on the 5lh of November 1883, hemmed In amongst the Kasgil passes, and after three days' heroic fighting, his army of about 10,000 men was overpowered by a force five or six times their superior in numbers, and completely extermin- ated. Hicks Pasha himself, his European staff, and many EgyptUn officers of high rank, were among the deadl and forty-two guns fell Into the hands of the enemy. Again, not a man was left to carry the fatal tidings to KhartnuiiL Kebellion conttoued to spread. After heiii); agitated for months, the population of the Astern Soudan also made a rising. Usman Digna, the foremost of the Mahdi's lieutenants, occupied the niad between Suakin and Berlicr, and surrounded Sinkat and Tokar; then, having destroyed, one after another, two Egyptian columns that had been despatched for the nlief of these towns, he flually cut off the conimiiiii- cation between Khartoum and the Keii 8<>a. The tide of Insurrection by this time had risen so high that it threatened not only to over- throw the Khedive's authority in the Sniuhin, but to become the source of serious peril to Egypt itself."— A. J. Wauters, mnnlfy'i Kmin IhiiJui Krpnlition, fh. 1-3. Kixo in: MaJ. R. F. WIngate, ilahdiimi and tht Egyptian Sudan, bk. 1-4.— Col. Sir W P. Butler, Charlfs Ontrge Gordon, eh. 5-(l,— .V. E. Hake, rkfKtoryofCHntf (ionbin. rh. lO-ll. A. D, 1S75-1MJ.— Bankruptcy of the state. — EncUsh and French control of finances.— Native hostility to the foreifnars. — Rebel- lion, led by Arabi.— English bomb«rdia«nt of Alexandria. — " The facilities given by foreign money-lenders encouraged extravagance and i« tentatlon on the part of the sovereign and the ruling claasi'B, wliile mismanagement and cor- rupt practices were common among officials, so that the public debt rose In 1875 to ninety on-' millions, and In January, 1881, to rinetyeiglit millions. . . . The Euroix-an ispitalisla ofitiiueii for their money noininally six to nine perfjent., but really not less than eight to ten per cent, as the bonds were Issued at low rates. . . . rheiiii.r- eston tliesi- Isirro Ami millions was puncti'tllv (mid up to the end of 1875, when the Khedi<e found that he coulil not satisfy bis creditors, and the Britlsli government interfered in his favour. Mr Cave was sent to examine Into Egyptian Anann-a, and he reported that loans at twelve and tlilrWen |ier cent were beiag agreed to ami rene>ed at Iwenty-flve per cent., mkJ that some measwrs of umaiilidalion was oeveaaary. Tlie 1*0 wstcni Powers now Uwk the matter In hand, bu* they thereby recof nised the whole of these us«.-lvus 790 lOTPT. 18TS-1883. ArabCt BnoU. SOTPT, 187»-188S. denuodi. The debt, although under their con- trol, and therefore aecurad, wa« not reduced by toe amount already paid in piemiunu for rlik. nor waa the rate of Interest dlminiahed to some- thlnjt more nearly approaching the rate payable on Engllah coniols, which wai three per cent A tribunal under the Jurladietion of united European and natlTe Judgei waa alio eetablished in Egypt to decide complaints of foreigLers Against natives, and vice vena. In May, 1876 this Mbunal gave judgment that the income of the Khedive Ismail, from Vii private landed property, could be appropriated to pay the cred- itors of the state, ana an execution was put into the Viceregal palace, Er Ramleh, near Alex- andria. The Khedive pronounced the Judgment invalid, and the tribunal ceased to act. Two commimioners were now again sent to report on Egyptian finances — H. Joubert, the director of tiie Paris Back, for France, and Mr. Ooschen, a former minister, for England. These gentlemen proposed to hand over the control of the finances to two Europeans, depriving the sUte of all independence and governing power. The Khe- dive, in order to resist these demands, convoked a sort of Pariianipiit in order to make an appeal •to the neople. From this Parliament was after- wards developed the Assembly of Ni)tobles, and the National party, now so often spoken of. In 1877 a European commission of control over Egyptian finance was named. . . . Nubar Pasha was made Prime minister in 1878; the control of the finances was entrustt-d to Mr, Wilson, an Englishman; and later, the French controller. M. de Bligniires. entered the Cabinet. Better order was thus restored to the finances. Rothschild's new loan of eight and a half millions was Issued at seventy three, and therefore brought in from six to eight per cent. nitt. ... But to be able to pay lliccrediturs their full interest, economy had to be introduced into the national expendi- ture. To do this, clumsy arrangemenu were made, and the injustice khown in carrying tlicm out embittemi many claitses of tlip plipulalion. and laid tlie fouuilations of a fanatical hatred of race against rare. ... In conwquence of all this, tliL majority of the notables, many ulemas, officers, and hlglipr officials aninnK the Ifgyptian-s. formed tliemwlvrs into a National party, witli the object of resisting the oppreiwive govern- ment of the foni^ncr. They were Joined by the great mass of the dischargrd soldiers and sub- ordinate ofiU-ials, ii"t to mention many others At the end of February, 1879, a revolt liroke out In Cairo. Nubar. hated by the Natinnal party was dismiiiaed by the Khedive Ismail, who In stalled his son Tewflk as Wme minister. In coDsequenre of this, the coupons due in April were not paid till the beginning of May. and the western Powers demanded the reinstatement of Nubar That Tewflk on this occasion retired and sided with the foreigners Is the chief cause of his present [imi] unpopularity In Egypt. Isnuil. however, n.,.v disnilNKnl Wilson and De Bligni^res, and a Cabinet was formed, consisting . chiefly of native Egyptians, with Sherif Pasha at Prime minister. i4herif now raised for the flnt time the cry of which we have since heard JO much, and which wa« ioacribed bv Arabi on nis b4afirfs. 'Egypt for the Egypifjuu.' The weatem Powen retorted by a menacing naval dcmnoatfitioD, and demanded of the SuIud the dapoiltkm of ttaa Khadtv*. la June, 187t, this demand was agreed to. Ismail went into exile, and his place was filled by Mahomed Tewflk. . . . Tlie new Khedive, with apathetic weak- ness, yielded the reconstruction of his ministrr and the organization of his finances to the western Powers. Mr. Baring and M. de Bligniites, a« commlaaionera of the control, aided by official* named by Hothschild to watch over his private intereau, now ruled the land. They devoted forty-five millions (about sixteen shillings per head on the entire population) to the payment of interest. The people were embitterea by the dibtrust shown towards them, and the further reduction of the army from fifty to fifteen thoiuand men threw a targe number out of employment. . . . Many acta of military insub- ordination occurred, and at last, on the 8th of Aovember, 1881, the great military revolt broke out In Cairo. . . . Ahmed Arabi, colonel of the 4th regiment, now first came into public notice, aeveral regimenU, headed by their offlcen, openly rebelled against the orders of the Khedive, who was compelled to recall the nationalist, Sherif Pasha, and to refer the further demands of the rebels for the increase of the army and for a cons'itution, to the Sultan. Sherif Pasha, however, did not long enjoy the confidence of the National Egyptian party, at whose head Arabi now stixxl, winning every day more .-eputatlon and influence. The army in which he permitt«l great laxity ot discipline was entirely devoted to him. , . , A pretended plot of Circassian olflcers against his life he dex- terously u«e<l to increase bis popularity. . Twenty -six offlccTS were rondemned to death by coartmartlal, but the Khedive, at the instance of the western Powers, commuted the sentence and they were Iwnished to Constantinople. Thia leniency was stigmatiinl by the National party as treachery to the country, and the ChambiT of Notables n'torU-d by unmmg Arabi roniniander- inchief of the anny and Prime minister without asking the consent of the Khedive. The Cham- lier soon afterwards came Into conflict with the foreign coniptrollem. . . . Thin ended in De BligniiV-s resigning his post, and In the May of the pn-wnt year (1882) the cimsuls of the Kiirojieiin Powers declared that a fleet of English anil Frenth Ironclads would appear Iwfore Alex- andria, to demand the disbanding of the army and the punishment of its leaders The threat was realized, nnd. In spite of protesU from the Sultan, a fleet of EnglLsh and French ironclads entered the liarliour of Alexandria. The Khe- dive, at the advice of his minlsten and the chiefs of the National party, nnpeale<l to the Sultan. , . . The popular hatmt of foreigners now liecame more and more apparent, and be- gan to assume threateniiii; dimensions. ... On the ."iiHli of May. Aratil announced that a des- patch from the Sultan had reache<i him, prom- ising the deposition of Tewflk in favour of hia uncle Hallm Pasha. . . . On the 3rd of June, Dervish Pasha, a man of energy uotwitbstandinf his years, had sailed from Constantinople. . . . His object was to pacify Egypt and to reconcile Tewflk and Arab! ISsha. . . Since the publi- cation of the despatch purporting to proclaim Hallm Pasha as Khedive. Arabi had done noth- ing lowanis dethroning liie artiial ruler. But on the Snd of June he began to strengthen the fortiflcations of Alexandria witk earthwork!. . . . The Brittah admir»l proleMed. and the 791 EGYPT, 187S-1882. jiombardment of Alnmulria. EGYPT. 1888-1888. Sultan, on the remonstrances of British diplo- macy, forbad the continuation of the works. . . . Sc-riouB disturbanceg took place in Alex- andria on the 1 Itli. The native rabble invaded the Eun)pean quarter, plundered the shops, and slew many forelgnirs. . . . Though the disturb- anies were not renewe<l, a gcneml eraigratiou of foreigners was the result. ... On the 22n(l a commisHion, consisling of nine natives and nine Europeans . . . Ix-gan to try the ringleaders of the riot. . . . But events were burning on towiinls war. The works at Alcxamlria were ncominenciHl, and the fortifications srmetl with lifiivy guns. The English admiral reeeivwl in- formation that tlieentranf-e to the harlH)ur would l>e bl(Kked by simken sioreships, and this, he dcclarod. would be an act of op«'n war. A com- plete scheme for the destruction of the Suez canal was also diseoven^d. . . . The English, on tlicir side, now In-gan to make hostile ilemonstrn- liiiiis: uiiil Arat)i, while repudiating warhke inlditioiis. deeliireil himself ready for resistance. . . . On the 2Tth the English vice-consul a<lvi»ed his fellow-countrjnien to leave Alexandria, anil on tiie 3nl of Jidy, according to the 'Times,' the arningemenls for war were complete, . . . Finally, as a reconnaissance on the 9th showed that the forts were still Iieing stn^ngthenwl, he fllie Enirlish admiral] informed the governor of Alex- andria, Ziilficar Pasha, tliat unless the forts had Ijeen previously evacuated and surrendered to the English, he intended to commence the bom- banlment at four the next morning. ... As the French goveniment were unable to take part in any lu'tive nii-asiires (a grant for that purpose' having In-en refused by the National Assembly), the gri-atir purt of their fleet, under Adndrnl t'onrad. lift Alexandria for Port Said. The ironclads of (■llier nations, mon- than fifty in uundsT. anehcind outside the harlsmr of Alex- andria. . . . (In the evening of the 10th of .luly . . . and at dajlinak on the Ittli. the . , . iniii- clads tiHik up' the |<<>sitioiis assigne<i to them. There was a gitillc bree/.i- from the east, anil the weather was i Ic Mr .\I ti;ti)a. m. all the ships were clean-il for action. At seven the adminil Bii;nalle<l to the Alexanilra to Are a sIk II into Fort Ada . . . TIm' first shot flre<l fnmi the Alix- Biulra was immediately replini to by the Eu'Vp- tians; whereupon the ships of the whole fleet and the Egyptian forts and batteries o[R'ned tin, ami the enirairement Imaine genend. . . . At K :to Fort SliirsacI Kanat was blown up by sliills from the Invimilile and Monarch, and by nim- oi'lcH-kllie Temerairi'. Miaumh.and Penelope hud slhneed most of the guns in Fort .Meks. altiioutrli lour lieiied c viry ilfort fnan tlieir prolecinl »il nation. Hy 1 1 l"i Forts Mjinilsput and .Vdjend hid t'( iwil llriutf. a'ld a landing' party of seanaii and ntariiies was de-^patclie.l, uiitler c over of tln' lliitems guns, to >i>ike and blow np llie gims in till' forts At I .111 a shell fmin the .><ii|Krli burst In the eliii f |i<iH lir niiu'azine of Fort Ada ami l>lv* it up Uv four u . liH'k all the guns of Fort IMiuKH, and half an hour later those of Fort Miks, wire disahltsl. and at H.'M the ailmiral onlered the firing to ceaM'. The ships were njx'ateilly •I ruck anil. sustainisl some damage. . . . The Km.' lish casualties were five killed an<l twenty it w^MivlriV R ."iimp-;tr4tiv;-!y small losx Thr i^"-yp tlan loss is not known . .'. .Vt 1 p. m. on tlir Vith of Jtdy, the white flag was hoisttsi by tlw Egyp Admiral SeyinourdriiMiMled, atapiellini tlaiis nary measure, the surrender of the forts com- manding the entnioce to the hartmur, and the ne- ?;otiBtiong on this point were fruitlessly protracted or some hours. As night approached the city was seen to be on fire in many places, and the (fames were spreading in all directions. The English now became aware that the white flag had merely Iwen used as means to gain time for a hasty evacuation of Alexandria by Arabi and his army. Sailors and marines were now landed, and ships of other nations sent detachments on shore to protect their countrymen. But it was too late ; Be<hiuins, convicts, and ilUlisciplined soldiers had plundered and burnt the Eurojieatt quarter, killed many foreigners, and a Keuter's telegram of the 14th saul. 'Alexandria is completely di- stroveil."— U. Vogt, The Egyptian Miir of \>m, pp. UVi. Also in: J. C. McCosm, ii^*;>« under Imuiil, eh. 8-111.— C. Koyle, The Kyyjdian Cumjuiigm, f. 1, eh. 1-20. — Khediret and I'luhat.—V.. ¥. Goodrich, Rrjit. on BrilM Military aiul yurnl OiHnitiuM in Egm't, l****-. Pt- '■ A. D. 1883-1883.— The masikcre and de- struction in Alezuidria.- Declared rebellion of Arabi.— Its aupDreiaion by the Eacliih.— Banishment of Arabi.— EnEtish occupation, — The city of Alexandria liad become " suili a scene of pillage, massacre, and wanton destruc- tion as to make the world shudder. It was the old talc of horrors. Houses were plundered and bume<l: the Eunip<'an ouarter, including the stately buildings 8urn>unding the Great Square of .Mehemet .VII, was sacked and left a heap of sinolilering ruins: and more than two thousand Euro|ieans, for the most part I,<'viintiues. were massacrjsi with all tlie cruelty of oriental fanati cisni. This was on the afteni<K)n of the 12th. It was the swond nuisHncn^ that hivl (K-cumd undiT the very eyes of the British fleet. Tin- admiral's failure to pn'veiit it has Ik'iii called unfortunate by some and criminal by olliers. It Btrms to have U'cn wholly without excUMv . . The blue jackets were binded on the bitli, and cleansl the way ta'forv them with a Galling gun. The next day. nioO' ships having arrivi-,1, a KUtllcient force was landed to take |Mi8sessinii of the entire city. The kluilive was ese-ortid bacli to Itasel Tin from llainlih. and given a slroim guanl. Suinmarv justice was dealt out to al', hostile Arabs wlio had Is'in captured in the I ity. In short, English intervention was f"l Inwid by English oc<iipalion ThelsanlNirrlmeet of Alexandria Imd dilitud charly the rer|»'<i ive po>itionsof .Vrabi and the kliiilive lownnl Egypt and tlie Egyptian iMiqilc . . . The khedivc was not oiilj weak in Ilie evi» of his iHoiWe, but he »•:!'< rrganhsl as till- ti"'l of En; laiiil . . . From tin' in"iiient tin- fliNt sliul was tin. I upon .\h xandria, .\fiil was then.il ruli r of till' |»i)|iliv . . . 'l;.i- ittiifirinie lit t'on- slantiiii'pli' was slirnd by tin- new.', of the Ismi- banlnieiit of Alexandria! it presttited a not" to till' I'orle. ,luly l.y requesting lue di^|mt• U of 'I'urklMli Iniops 111 nstore ilie -talus ipio in Eirypt ihit tin sultan had no idea of lakiiii: the purt of thr ( liri^tian in what all Ulain r< ganliil as a conte.'.i ts'tween the Moslem and lie' unlsllever. , . . In Egypt, the khiilive had Ixio prevaile-.l u'l-.-u. after «i'«!ie demur, t" tmwhihii .\rabl a rela-l and discharge him from his caliiiiet. Aralil had issued a counter pnalamation. on the same day, declaring Tewfikatrmiturtu his people 792 EGYPT, 1888-1M8. Campaign. EGYPT, 1883-1888. and his religion. Having receired the news of Hie klie<livi.g proclamation. Lord DuJterin tlie Britiali amliaasador at ConsUntinople. announced U> the confennce that England was al»ut to send an expedition to Egypt to suppress the retie Hon and to restore the authority of the khejiii-e. Tlienupon the sultan declareil tliat he liajl dmdi-d to send a Turkish expedition. l.<)nl DuiTerin feigned to accept the sultan's co- operalion, liut demanded that the Porte as a pri'liminary step, should declan- Arali; a rebel Again the sultan was confronted with the dan- gjr of incurring the wrath of the Moslem world He could not decluri! Arabi a reln'l In his desiK'ration he sent a force of 3,0(X) men to Sudtt bay with orrlcrs to hol.l themselves in rcadini-ss to enter Egypt at a moments notice. ... In the meantime, however, the English expedition had arrivwl la Egvpt and was pn>- eeedlng to crush the nbcI!ion,'regar.llcs8 of tlie diplomatic delays and bickerings at Constanti- nople. ... It was not until the l.'Slh of August that Sir Garnet Wolseley arrived with his force in Egypt. The English at that time held only two {wints, Alexandria and Suez, while the en- tire Egyptian interior, as well as Port Said and Ismailia. were hel.l by Arabi, whose force, it was estimated, now amounte<) to aliout TO (KK) men, of whom at least ,V),00<J were regulars The objective point of General Wolselevs ex- p<<iitiou to crush Arahl was, of course, tfie city of ( airi>. Tliere we, .wo ways of approaching that city, one from Alcxanclria, through the IK'lta, and the other from the Suez canal There were many objections to the former route The Suez canal was supposed to lie neutral water. . . But England felt no ol)llgatiun to rc<-ognize any neutrality, . . . acting uix>n the priniiple, which is doubtless sound, timt Mhe neutrality of any canal joining the watera of the Atlantic and Pacirtc <K^-ans will lie niainlaiiu-d If at all. by tlio nation wl-lch ran place and keep the stningest shins at each extremity.' In oilier wonls. General VVols<-ley decided to enter Calm by way of the Sue/ canal and Ismailia. Hut he kept his plan n profound w-eret. AilniimI .Sv- mour iiliiiie knew his purpose. . . . OntlielUtli the transports mnved eastwani fn.iii Alexandria' as f to attack Almklr; but under llie cover of darkness that night, they were escorted on to I ort Sidd, where they leanie<l that til.' entire caii-il owing to the pri'ioncerted action of Admiral Seymour, was in rhc hands of the 111.. I'n ""■-*'»• Ihe trrv ps met Sir Ilenrv Mrl herson's Ind'i.n conllni-er.t at Isnwllia. Two days wer<> now i .msiinied in n-st and prepara- Uoii. The Egyptians cut ..If the water siipi.lv wliirh came fnim tli.' !)<l;., by the Swwt Waii r ranal, by .Uninii.i; t!i, canal. ' A sortie to wvim- |h)s.s.w|on of tliM ilnm wn.-. tlien^fore d.fiii.-.| niceK,san, mim) «•„, successfully made on the •J'l' '•"'■I'"''' advances were miule, and on the •Mh Kassawin. i stntion of some Importance on the canal and mil w.iv. was .Kvupled. Hen' the ISriti.sl, for<v wasobligeil to delay for two weeks while .irganlzln,^ a hospital and a transiiort ser^ vii-e. This gave Arabi opiwrtunltv to .on,-. n trate his fonvs at Zagazig ami Tel el K.hir Hut he knew it was for his interest to strike at I'lice lief, re tlie nritish inm'tv'rt" i-.juUl r::".u- !::-. "itfa th. advance He tlienfor«. iim.lc twii Hii.mpis, one on August !W. and th. oiluron ltept«t.ibcr », to KKaiu tho |xi»ltlou lost ul Kas sasato But he failed in both, though inflictinc «)mc loss upon his opponents. On the 12th of September preparations were made by General Wolsi'ley f.ir a decisive lialtle. He had become convinced from dally rcconnoissBncc and from the view obtainiHl in the engagement of Septem- ber 9, that the fortitications at*Tel-el-Kebir were both extensive and fonnidable. . . It was therefore dwided to make the approach under of the ISth General Wolsel.-y gave the order fo? tlie advance, his force consisting of aiiout 11 000 Infantry. 2.00«) cavalrymen, and sixty Hel.l-gun.s. They lu«l only the stars to guide them, liiit so BcciiMt.-ly was the movement conducted that the leading brigailes of each division n-ached the inemy s out|).ists within two minutes of each "llier. • -The enemy (says Gei.emI Wolsclev) were completely surprised, and it was not until one .ir two of their a.lv,ince.l i-entrics flnsl their •!)3 rJHes Iliat they n-iilized our < l.«e proximity to their works.'. . . The intrincbineiits were n.it carrie.1 without a severe Rtru"gle. The Eirvn- tiaus fought with a .lesp-niie courage and hundtjeils of them were Imyoneteil at their iHWts . . . Hut what could the rank and tile accom- p.ibh when •,a<h .illicer knew that lie would run bft lio|M.<l his neighlior would stay.' At the first shot Arabi and his .s«-onil In coiiimand took horse and gallopwl t.. Hellieis, where they caught a train for I aim. JI„st of the oiIi.t olficers, as t le n-p<irts of killed and wound.-.l show did the same The Egyptians flred th.ir first shot at 4..'5.i A M., ami at (I W the English had IXM- s.-s8l,.n <>f Arabis li.-,i.|,|iiarters an.l th,. .-anal bridge The British loss was .■>: kill.-.l ;t80 woun.l,.d. ami 2a mis.slng. The Egyptian aniiy left al«.ut 2.(KI0.1ead in the f,.rtiHcati<.ns A pOKif of the conipl.t.ii<-«,s of the success n-ai the entire .lissipaiion of Arabis anny. Gmun* of soUliers, it is Ini.'. were scatten-.! "t.i dilT.-n'nt parts of Kgypt ; but the arinv organization was completely Im.ken up with tlie Imitli- of T.l-el- hebir. . . . Maj.ir (iencnil Low.. w», .mlered to push on Willi all jMis.sibIe sp..<-il t,. Cairo ■ , ..*,''"'!'■','' '•"*'■ I"'""'"'''! the gnat liarnoki "f Ahlias.sieh, just oulsiil.. of Cairo, at 4 4."i l> M ■n the. Uth instant. Th.. . avalry man li.-.l sixtyl ive miles in tlii.se two .lavs. ' \ iii,.>aaie was sent t.i Arabi Pasha IlirLuiili the pri-f.-ct iif the cily. .ailing u|...ii hiiM M siirremler forth- with, wlmli h.ili.l uncoii.lilionalli ■ Before having Kni:lan.l. \Vols.l..v h.i.l pr. .Il.ti.i that he woul.l .ni.r C.iiro on Ih.- Irtil, ,,f ,S<-pt,.nilH.r- but with Mill a .lay 1.. spar.' th,. f.at was aci-.im- plish.sl. an.l Anilii's r.ls llion was completely criishe.1 Englaii.l ii..w si.ksI al.m... Victory lia.i Iss'n won wiih.iut ihe aid ..f Prance .>r the inl.Tyenti..ii .if Turk.-i. In C.instanllmipl.. nc- g..tiall.ins n-irar.liiiv' Tiirki..|i ex|>eiliti.ins were still iMii.ling wh.n I...r.| liulT.riii rweiv.sl the n.ws ..f \V.,|sel.ys sii.-nss. an.l ann.iuncisl to I't. I'.irli' that there was m.w no nis'.l .if a TurklOi fonc in Et'vpt, as the war was emi.il iMiii.at once pn.par.sl t.i risiinie her slian- in !!..■ ..iiitml: but Eniriind. having iMirii.. the sole biinhn iif the war, ili.l m.i pniiKis.. now to share til.' liilliU'niT her suc.i'ss had giv.n liir. And it was for the lnt..n.st .if Egyjil that she shouM '■•'-' Eiisiar.i's first lijty. afi. r .i»l. I Mas BssiinHl, was lo senil away al) the British tnsipe .'X.-epI n f.irce of alsiut ll.lNK) men. which It was deemed advisable to ntain in Egypt uutU lOTFT, 1888-1888. Kk att oum. BOTFT. 18M-1888. the kbedire'i authority wm pboed on % mie (ooting throughout the land. . . . What ihould be done with Arab! waa the aueation of para- mount intereit, when once the khedlTe'a author- ity waa re-e«Ubliahed and recognized. Tewflk and his miniaten, if left to thenuelTcs, would unqiieationablr have taken bis life. . . . But England waa determined that Arabi should have a utir trial. ... It was decided that the rebel leaden should appear before a militarv tribunal, and they were given English counsel to plead their cause. . . . The trial was a farce. Every- thing was ' cut and dried ' beforehand. It waa arranged that Arabi was to plead guiltv to re- bellion, that he was forthwith to be condemned to death by the court, sod that the khedive was immediately to commute the sentence to perpetual exile. In fact, the necesaarr papers were drawn up and signed before the court met for Arabi's trial on December 8. ... On the a<th of December Arabi and his six com- panions . . . upon wliom the same sentence lud been passed, left Cairo for the IsUnd of Ceylon, there to spend their life of perpetual exile. . . . Lord Dufferin . . . had been sent from Con- stantinople to Cairo, early In November, with the special mission of bringing order out of governmental chaos. In two months lie had prepared a scheme of legislative reorganization. This was, however, somewhat altered ; so that it waa not until May, 1883, that the plan in its Improved form was accepted by the decree of the khedive. The new constitution provided for three classes of assemblies: the 'Legislative Council,' the ' General Assembly," and the ' Pro- vincial Councils," of which there were to be fourteen, one for each province. . . . Every Egyptian man, over twenty years of age, was to vote (by ballot) for an " elector-delegate " from the village in the neighborhood of which he lived, ancl the "electors-delegate" from all the vlilagm in a province were to form the constitu- ency that should elect the provincial council. . . . "Tlif scheme for reorganization was carrie<i forwani to tlie extent of electing the "electors- delegate" in September; but by that time Egypt was again in a state of such disquietude tliat the British advisers of the khedive considered it un- wise to put the new institiitionH Into <i|>eratlon. In place of legislative council and general assem- bly, the khi-dlve appointed a council of state, consistine of eleven Eiryptians, two Armenians, and ten Europeans. The reforma were set aside for the time being in view of impending troubles and dangem in the Sudan."— J. E. Bowen. Tht Vonjtifl of Kul and West in Egn>t. eh. 5-«. Also i.n : Cul, J. F. Msurice, Military /Bit. of tht Vampiiign of 1883 in EnP*—^- Roy'«. ^*< Sgmtiiin Campnign*. t. 1, fh. 22-44. A. D. 1SB4-188J.— General Gordoa'a Mitsioa to Khartoum.— "fba town balcacnarad by the Mahdiats.— En(Uah rescue ezpoditioB.— 7 be encrcj that was too late. - • Ttie abandonment of the Soudan belnt dcciiini upon, the Uritioh Oovemment confldftl to (ieneral tlordon the taak of extricating the Egyptian garrisons scattemi throughout iTie country. . . 0<)rdon"s original Instnictlonii »i re dated the 18th January, 1884. He waa to prix^ed at once to Ei(ypt. to report on t!:.- military a!tua'.!t;D in the *judsn. BO'l "n »he measures which it might he advisable to take for the security of the Egyptian garrisons and fur the safety of the Euiipcan population in Khar toum. . . . He waa to be accompanied Iqr Colonel Stewart. . . . Gordon's final instructions were fiven him by the Egyptian Government in a rman appointing him Governor-General. . . . Ooidon arrived at Khartoum on the 18th Febru- ary. . . . While Gordon was sending almost daily expreaalons of his view aa to the only way of carrying out the policy of eventual evacuation, it was also becoming dear to him that he would very soon be cut ofTfrom the rest of Egypt His first remark on this subject waa to express ' the conviction that I ahall be caught hi Khartoum "; and he wrote,—' Even if I waa mean enough to escape I have no power to do so." The accuracy of this forecast waa speedily demonstrated. Within a few days communicatlona with Khar- toum- were interrupted, and although subse- quently restored for a time, the rising of the riparian tribes rendered the receipt and despatch of messages exceedingly uncertain. . . . Long before the summer of 1884, it waa evident that the position of Gordon at Khartoum had become so critical, that if he were to be rescued at all, it could only be by the despatch of a British force. . . . Early in May. war preparations were com- menced in EnglsiM, and on the 10th of the month the military authorities In Cairo received instruc- tions to prepare for the despatch in October of an expedition for the relief of the Soudanese capiul. 12.00U camels were ordered to be purchaaeil and held in teadbiess for a forward march in the autumn. On the 16th May a half-battalion of English troops was moved up the Nile to Wady Haifa. A few weeks Uu t some other positions on the Nile were occupied by portions of tl,u Army of Occupation. Naval officers were also , sent up the river to examine and repori upon the cataracts and other impedimenta to n..vigatiun. Still it was not till the 5th August that Mr. <>lad- stone rose in the House of Commons to move a vote of credit of £300,000 to enable the Oovem- ment to tmdertake operations fo.- the r-lief of Gordon. ... It was agreed that there were but two routes by which Kliartoum could be ap- proached by an expedition. One by way of the Nile, and tiic otiier via Souakim and Berber. . . . The Nile route having been decided on, prepara- tions on a large scale were begun. ... It was St first arranged that not more than 5,000 men shotild form the Expedition, but Uler on the number was raised to 7,000. . . . The instruc- tions given to Lord Wolseley sUted tliat the primary object of the Expedition was to bring away Gordon and Stewart from Khartoum ; and when that purpow should be effected, no further offensive operations of any kind were to be under- Uken."— C Hovie, Tht Unptian Campaignt, 1882-188S, ». 2. 'eh. 1"*-18.— "Firet, it was said that our troops would be before the gates "( Khartoum on January 14th; next it wasthemiil- die of February ; and then the time stretche<l out to the middle of March. . . . Lord Wolseley offered a hundred pounds to the regiment over- ing the distance from Surras to Debbch most ex- peditiously sud with least damage to boats. . . .4 Ho also <iispatched Sir Herbert Stcwaa on tlio. immorUl march to Gakdul. Stewart's force,' composcil principally of the Mounted Infant rr and Camel Corps, and led by a troop uf the l»th HuMars. acting as scouts — numbering about 1 lOOtn all — set out from Korti on itecenibtr 80th. lu destination was atmut 100 miles from j headquarters, and about 80 from thi Nile at 794 EGYPT, 1884-1886. On the nth Jsiiuary Sir HerCrt Ste^Wtnau the enemy on the roud to Metemnel^ and mfte??e her Metemoeh. and Omdumun— piuhed for Elte^ .nd thoM of the Mahdi'. men - ofitSck- «t«^ ,h '?'"*"d fitijfueh«lweIl-nlghToS. .^ i""* '°"=e-were at all poinu nlmilir to thoae adopted againat Hlcka. OWl^ wTre flfl non-commiaaloned offlceti and mm UuS wd 8? r^H^r^u *lth » officer. kiuS^Snon/^m Coloael Burnaby-and » wounded. Stew^S teft the Wella on the 18th Jan. to occupy Metem vn- "P<«"''e. but. failing that, to mite for^e NUeanJentrenchhimKrlf. *Af te?a nlghtS iSrJh jonw ave mUe. «uth of Metemneh.lhe ^K S^alSSt ^ SJE"?" °' •" e°e»y »^d to have Deen aoout 18.000 MronK. Stewart h«U<.^ ...a J^sS^iilii"" *? S* Syi". and Mr. CanS^n^ Ptoir t^TYSi^"^ ^r «e'-bert, of the Morning rat. were killed. The zareba comDlet«l thl >ng oy Abu Klea, mored forward In echelon IFSi^fZ ^'^ ^^i? P"'P*-« of^rgi^g Ai JliST ^"^ P' "^ '•'«/ '^ere brought to fiv „ tertJc waa the Are frSm the iquail. uid 10.^^ didly Mrved waa Nortona iSa^ For two houi, the battle raged ; and then the7,ab^°moI2 T.o^N^K;^'' EDUCATION. See Edcc*. i?lS2;iS§sl^h5T''hIae?S.?w^.. the memben of the Swiaa Conf^eratlon - ■!« writ,,^^^ ""* ""»Me°°«» l» believed by K,me 8ee^i°Tl?«?!Tc'"1o!|;&*"* " <"• «=• "W- 21^m,°*'^''"^' '*°°"" Empw.r, A. D. the" Ljir-n^f "►!?.'*"• • ."*•* •«*«'"°« on . ? ' . "•• between the river and th« 7"?^°' -'"• •!«' Elamltea, theolSat »n K:!^"^^.sirysr"?bd?Ef£ Elamite Inva^on - an invaaioq recorded bvfclnff PiS. ^N^"'.^?*^ ""' de-icrated iu tern queat Khulur-NanSS and hb aiS^™ Jjmalned In Southern ChaMeT^ -SSirS; «m time we meet authentic monumenul pmmS ELBA. St ^^'.T '•"" •"= ''•^ come to hU uSt l«„J .S P '° 'gnorance ... and hoDcfiil S Make. Tht Stcry of Chines Chmbm. t. 2 di MmBmrn ^sn ofth. CataZ^-^, m" RmWm ^rX^ Story of the SouUttn War-Q^n Pnrtj^ rear-book, 1893. m i of a country which was destined throueh the next danapulus of tl.e Greeks, who reducKe tlml^ fX^^aL';"^"''''"'*^} It^-^X^^waaSh^t ^ ttT»u".^ra'Ld't3"^'''M^^^^^ rroin thcBible and I .ter monuments i.< a TunT I |d7he^L^;;;ii,v.rr°^sJrh.r,^7"f Oeneais - which call, !.im Chedorli^Z - ,» the waHike''lt."r *' ^''^" '''■''riptive of this kiug-2 5v«ofi^ • vl^f "V^ """'"K picture it givt-sorit. KhudurUgamar . lived «c. S'lf ^••"/'"T r''"'r »"="'•""'» «b"^t tlm^TK .^ ""'"'« '*" discoveriei ofl^t of Pul^' ^'■'■""■'"'.^"■•' "«" oriKirmllv king of hlam, and acquired IVrala by conquest -,SeS 1 M&Vlf»*''J°''' '^'••'' "^ See Cuba : A. D. A«hf/'a^- S- '735.-Ceded to Spain by Auatria. .See Fram x - A O IT!!:! ITirT A. O. 180a.— Annexation to Franca HiM A D. l«M(JlARCH-Ai'aa),and(ApB.L-JcKB" EL DORADO. ELECTRICAL DISCOVERT. EL DORADO, The quett of.— "When the SpanianLH buil coixiiu'ml am) pilUsed the civil- ized cmpln-s iin the table land* of Mexico, Bo- gota, ami Peril, they bi'gnn to l<iok round for new tcencs of conquest, new Hiurces of wealth : the wiidi-st rumour* were r«xivcd as facta, and the foresta and savannas, exterJiny for thou- sands of square miles to the eastwanl of the cor- ilillirus of the Andes, were covered. In imagina- tion, witli populous kinpioms, and cities filled with gold. The story of El Dorado, of a priest or king smcareii with oil ami then coatwi with gold dust, probahlv orisinatcd in a custom which prevailed among tlic livili/iil Indiana of the pla- teau of Bogota; but Kl iMirado was placeii, by the credulous sdventurers. in a golden city amidst the lmpenetral)le foresU of the centre of t<outh America, ami, iis search after warch failed, his position was moved further and further vo the eastwanl, in the direction of Ouiana. El Dorado, the phantom god of gold and silver, tippeanil in manv forms. . . . The sc-ttlers at Quito and In Northern Peru talked of the golden empire of the Omiiguas, while tliosi' in Cuico and Char- cas dnamt of the wealthv cities (>f Paytiti and Enini, on tlie banks of a lake far awav to the eastwanl of the Andes. These lomantf fables. BO linnly N'lievcd in those old days led to the exploration of vast tracts of country, by the fearli-ss aiiventurers of the sixteenth century, portions of which have never U'cn traversed since, ever, to this day. The most f;imous .Ti'arches after El Dorado were undertaken fri)'U the cHmst of Venezuela, and the most daring leaders of these wild adventuves v.e-e German knights."— C. H. JIarkliam, liitrml (•> Siinon't Acorn nt of I he Krjirititioii nf I'nwi and Anuirre (ll<iklii!/l' S,,<: IMiltt.— "Tliere were, along tiie whole ci)ii.-t of tlie Hpiinish Main, rumours of an inland cieuitry which abounded with gold. These rumo\irs undoubtedly related to the king- doms of Uoiiota and Tu'iju, n.n- the Niievo Keyno de Unuiada. Helaleaznr. who was lo quest of this country from Quito, Federman,wiio came from Venezuela, and Donzalo Ximenez de Quesada. who sought it by way of the Hiver Maualeua. and wlio elTectiil its conquest, n.et here. Hut in tl»«' countries also tlien- were rumours of a ricli laiid at a ilistance; sirailiu: accov;nts prevaikil in Peru; in Peru they nlat'-d to the Xuivo lU-yno, tuen- they related to Peru; an<i thus adventurers from Imth sides were ullup'd to eo.'ilinue the pursuit after the game w as taken. An iniagiii .ry kingdom was soon shapeii out as tlie ol)ject of tlieir quest, and stories conci'niiiig it wen' not more easily inventeii than iK-lieved. Ii was said that a younger brother of AUdialipa fled, after thi destruction of th<' Incas, t(M)k with him the main part of their treasures, and founileil a gn-ater empire than that of wliieli his family had bei ii deprived. Sometimes the im- aginary Kmneror was called the Great Pavtite, son-.etlmi-s the Gnat Moxo, sometimes the Enim or Great Paru. An imp.wtjir at Lima affirmed tliat 111' had l«in in his capital, the i ity of Jla- noa, when- iiot fewer timn 3,0(K) workmen wen> employee! in the silversmiths' street; he even pnslueed a map of the country. In whieli he had iii.irked a hill of gold, aiiotiier of silver, uiid a thinlofsalt. . . . This imaginary kinitdoin oh- laineil the name of Kl Dorado from the liisiiiou of its Loni, which has tiie merit of l»-iiig in lavage costume. IHs body wa« aooloted every 7 morning with a certain fragrant gum of great price, and gold dust was then blown upon niin, through a tube, till he was covered with it : the whole was wsabed off at night This the bar- barian thought a more magnineent and costly attire than could be afforded by any other potf n- tatc in the world, ami hence the Spaniards called him El Doraiio, or the Giiied One. A hi.-.tory of all the expeditions which were undertaken for the conquest of his kingdom would form a vol time not less Interesting than extnioniinary." — R. Soutliey, IfM. o/Bnuil r. 1, e/i. 13.— The most tragical ami thrilling of tin' stories of the seekers after El Dorado is thiit whi<h Mr. Marklium intro- duces in the quotation alxivi-. and which h.ruthey has tolil with full details in The ErHrditiowJ Or- iiui; and thx Crinua of A;!'ii ^re. The most fam- ous of the expeditions were those in whieli Sir Walter Italeigh engage!, and two of which he personally 1ml — in i.5«."t. and in 1«17 U< • leased from his long imprisonment in ""owi r to undertake the latter, he retunii i-. i I', broken and shanii-d, to Ik' sent to tl' .-e .' 'da" a victim sacrificed to the maliiru' i • leL. of Spain. How far lialeigh sin: • .elu- sion of his age respecting El Doi now far he made use of it merely to p a great scheme for the "expansion of .ad,' arc questions that will probably leiuam finvcr In dispute. — Sir W. lialeigh. Oitenrrrie of Ihf hirae. Uieh ,ind Beautiful t'liii'ire of Ouiana {Uaktugt Snf. 1848). Awo HI : J. A. Van Heuvel, Kl Horailo — E. E'lwanls, Lifr of liihiul. -. 1, cA. 10 .md i-y — E. Gos«', HiUiigh, rh. iaod9.—X. F. Hamielier, The i/itdrd man. ELECTOR, The Great. See PnissiA : A. D. H1H-17(K». ELECTORAL COLLEGE.The Germanic. See Gkuji.vnt: A. D 1 l-;.">-ia;2, ami l;^4T-l4«:l , also, IMOl -1N(I3, and Isi).-|-1H0«, ELECTORAL COMMISSION, The. See Unitki) ST.*rKs OK .\m.: .v. D. IsTrt-I-<T7. ELECTORAL COUNT ACT. ^ee I .mtei) Statksok Am.: A. D. IMlT. ELECTORS, Preaidential, of the United States of Am.— "Then; was no ipiestion which perplexed the Kiileral Convention (of lTf<7]iiiore tlian tlieqiu-stion as to the In-st metliiKl of elect- ing the pr.sideiit. ... At one time the Couven- ,'tion decidiHl to have the prisidenl elected Ijy i'ongresa but there was a grave objection to this ; it would be likely to de.>lroy his jiideiK'ndeiice, and make him tiie tool of Coiigres:i. Kinally the device of aneleetond aillege was adopted. Each Slide is entitleil to a numUT of electors equal to the nunilsT of its represi'ntatives in «'ougn's.s, plus two. the nunilHT of its senators. . . M lirst the eleetr>r:il votes did not stat.' whether the candidate, naiiiiil in them were candidal esf.ir the presid'iu V or for the vice-presideney. Ka< h elec- tor sinijilV wrote down two iiann's. only one of wiiieh eonld lie the iiaine of a eiti/. f his own state. . . . The iMiididati' who hud the lHri:i'<t niinilwr of V)tes. provided tliev wen- a majority of the whole number, was di'elartil president. . . . Bv the twelfth amendment to the constitution. I deeliirr''i in for.-e in IH114. the pnsi'nt method was I adopted The electors make sep.inite ImlloNfor I pnsiih'nt and for viiv pn'sidenl,"— .lohn Kiske. i Ciiii li'o,i„o„iit ih rh, l':,it,.i Stiltc!'. jip. 'll'i 7 —See, also, PliKsiDKNT; and fossTtTLTloN vf THE L'nITKU StaTK.S. no 7/ great him, . the bar- :08tly mtf n- •iilU-d .".tory ■11 f"r t vol y"— nimt fkers intro- ithev ,JOr- fam- !i Sir :h he It.- 'owi •- I 1- 1(1 a° let.. ..lu- uow grrat are rcr in J/irge, Muyt '-E. IcliiT. A.l) lanic. fnited which ] imirt' cll'Ct- JllVl'll- .a by > tills: Iciicc, ly the ■ Kacli iiitl to !>;"■»». . . At icrtlu' or the h v\vi- mi' «tf t mm iir^fst ijority utlon. m1 whs ots fur KIski'. -."r. T, ON O"